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Horticulture/Ambrosia

Ambrosia is a genus of flowering plants from the sunflower family (Asteraceae), commonly referred to as Ragweeds. The name of this genus is derived from the Greek word for "food of the gods".

Description
These are annuals, perennials and shrubs and subshrubs with erect, hispid stems growing in large clumps to a height of 75 – 90 cm. The stems are basally branched. They form a slender taproot or a creeping rhizome.

The foliage is grayish to silvery green with bipinnatifid, deeply lobed leaves with winged petioles. But in the case of Ambrosia coronopifolia, the leaves are simple. The leaf arrangement is opposite at the base, but becomes alternate higher on the stem.

Ambrosia is a monoecious plant, i.e. it produces separate male and female flower heads on the same plant. The numerous tiny male, yellowish-green disc flower are about 3 mm in diameter. They grow in a terminal spike, subtended by joined bracts. The female, whitish-green flowers are 1-flowered and are inconspicuously situated below the male ones, in the leaf axils. The pappus is lacking.

After wind pollination, the female flowers develops into a prickly, ovoid burr with 9-18 straight spines. It contains one arrowhead-shaped seed, brown when mature, and smaller than a wheat grain. This burr gets dispersed by clinging to the fur or feathers of animals passing by. The seeds are an important winter food for many bird species.

Ecology
Ragweed occurs in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and South America. They prefer dry, sunny grassy plains; sandy soils; and to grow along river banks, along roadsides, disturbed soils, vacant lots and ruderal sites. Ragweed was far less common in the Eastern United States before dense European settlement/agriculture in the late 1700s.

There are 41 species worldwide. They are very ordinary in appearance. Despite being all around, they are easily overlooked. Virtually no animal browses them. Many are adapted to the arid climates of the desert. Burrobush (Ambrosia dumosa) is one of the most arid-adapted perennials in North America. About 10 species occur in the Sonoran Desert.

Each plant is reputed to be able to produce about a billion grains of pollen over a season, and the plant is anemophilous (wind-pollinated). It is highly allergenic, as the greatest pollen allergen of all pollens, and the prime cause of hayfever. The plant blooms in the northern hemisphere from about mid August until cooler weather arrives. It usually produces pollen more copiously in wet seasons. Two species, Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. psilostachya are considered among the most noxious to those prone to hay fever.

Control
Total eradication of ragweed is considered impossible, owing to the plant's frugality and tremendous seed-producing capability. As of 2005, there is no known safe biological remedy (e.g. beetle or worm) to be used against ragweed in the open. Mechanical and chemical methods are available and can be used to control its spread, although there is evidence that these are actually no more effective than leaving the weed alone, in the long run.

The act of manually uprooting ragweeds, sometimes shown in the media for public awareness and propaganda purposes, is best avoided. It is ineffective, and skin contact may cause the onset of full-blown hayfever symptoms in persons with latent ragweed hyper-sensitivity.

Although the scythe and its motorized descendants have a reduced efficiency against ragweed, they remain indispensable tools, especially in populated areas and near delicate plantation, where herbicide use must be limited. Fighting ragweed with the scythe is a continuous process, because it is difficult to cut the plant right at the soil level, and the plant will regrow in two weeks (and often branch into three or four full-sized stems) if more than half an inch of the plant remains above the ground. Areas where ragweed has been reaped should be mowed down every three weeks to prevent regrowth.

It is considered important to control the spread of ragweed in large abandoned or uncultivated areas. Ragweed pollen can remain airborne for days and travel great distances, affecting people hundreds of miles away. One efficient method for large-scale ragweed extermination is chemical spraying. Because ragweed only reacts to some of the more aggressive herbicides, it is highly recommended to consult professionals when deciding on dosage and methodology, especially near urban areas. Some proven effective active ingredients include those that are gliphosat-based (Roundup, Gliphogan, Glialka), sulphosat-based (Medallon) and gluphosinat-ammonia based (Finale14SL). In badly infested areas usually 2 to 6.5 liters of herbicides are dispersed per hectare (equal to app. 0.2 to 0.7 US gallons per acre).

One especially effective method of controlling ragweed; cutting it, then burning it once the stalks have dried (standing, live ragweed won't burn) has become less popular because the smoke produced is seen as unacceptable pollution, as with the decline in leaf-burning and trash burning. But this method has the added benefit of killing off the stems so the plant does not grow back, which (as noted above) is otherwise almost inevitable.

Pests and Diseases
../Hoppers/ ../Beetles/ ../Flea Beetles/ ../Weevils/ ../Caterpillars/ list of Lepidoptera which feed on ragweeds.
 * Aster Leafhopper: ../Macrosteles facifrons/
 * Leaf Beetle: ../Zygogramma bicolorata/
 * Ragweed Leaf Beetle: ../Zygogramma suturalis/
 * Leaf Beetle: ../Ophraella communa/
 * Palestriped Flea Beetle: ../Systena blanda/
 * Cocklebur Weevil: ../Rhodobaenus quinquedecimpunctatus/
 * Stalk Borer: ../Papaipema nebris/
 * European Corn Borer: ../Ostrinia nubilalis/
 * Ragweed Borer: ../Epiblema strenuana/
 * Bordered Patch: ../Chlosyne lacinia/

Allergen
Common Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) is the most widespread of this genus in North America. It attains a height of about a meter. Great Ragweed, Giant Ragweed or Horseweed, (Ambrosia trifida), may grow to four meters (13 feet) or more.

Ragweed is a plant of concern in the global warming issue, because tests have shown that higher levels of carbon dioxide will greatly increase pollen production. On dry windy days, the pollen will travel many kilometers. When the humidity rises above 70%, the pollen tends to clump and is not so likely to become airborne.

Goldenrod is frequently blamed for hayfever, but simply happens to have a showy flower that blooms about the same time. Goldenrod is innocent, as it is entomophilous, i.e. insect pollinated. Its pollen is heavy and sticky, and cannot become airborne.

Some high mountain and desert areas of North America used to be refuges for severe hay fever sufferers, who would go to such areas for relief during the pollen season, but increased human activity such as building and other disturbances of the soil, irrigation, and gardening, have encouraged ragweed to spread to these areas as well. Today, no area in the United States is ragweed pollen free, and moving can only offer a degree of relief. The ragweed was accidentally imported to Europe during World War I, it had adapted to the different environment successfully and has greatly spread since the 1950s. Hungary is currently the most heavily affected country in Europe (and possibly the entire world), especially since the early 1990s, when abandonment of communist-style collective agriculture left vast fields uncultivated, which were promptly invaded by ragweed.

Anecdotal claims are made of honey giving some relief for ragweed pollen allergies, which is noteworthy because honeybees very rarely visit ragweed flowers, and even then only for pollen. However, during ragweed pollen shed, the pollen dusts every surface, and honeybees, being electrostatically charged, will accumulate some ragweed pollen. The pollen is frequently identified as a component of raw honey. The major allergen protein has been identified as Amb a 1, a 38 kDa nonglycosylated protein.

title: Horticulture/Ambrosia


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Ambrosia

species list from wikipedia

 * Ambrosia acanthicarpa : Flatspine Burr Ragweed, Annual Bur-Sage
 * Ambrosia ambrosioides : Ambrosia Burr Ragweed, Canyon Ragweed
 * Ambrosia ambrosioides ssp. septentrionale
 * Ambrosia artemisiifolia : Annual Ragweed, Bitterweed, Blackweed, American Wormwood
 * Ambrosia aspera
 * Ambrosia bidentata : Camphor Weed, Lanceleaf Ragweed
 * Ambrosia canescens : Hairy Ragweed
 * Ambrosia carduacea : Baja California Ragweed
 * Ambrosia chamissonis : Silver Burr Ragweed, Silver Beachweed, Silver Beach Burr
 * Ambrosia cheirnathifolia : Rio Grande Ragweed
 * Ambrosia chenopodiifolia : San Diego Burr Ragweed, San Diego Burr Sage.
 * Ambrosia confertiflora : Weakleaf Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia cordifolia : Tucson Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia coronopifolia
 * Ambrosia deltoidea : Triangle Burr Ragweed, Triangleleaf Bur-sage, Rabbitbush.
 * Ambrosia dumosa : Burrobush, White Bursage.
 * Ambrosia elatior (synonym of A. artemisiifolia): Carrotweed, Annual Ragweed
 * Ambrosia grayi : Woollyleaf Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia helenae
 * Ambrosia hispida : Coastal Ragweed
 * Ambrosia ilicfolia : Hollyleaf Burr Ragweed, Hollyleaf Bursage.
 * Ambrosia intergradiens
 * Ambrosia johnstoniorum
 * Ambrosia linearis : Streaked Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia maritima : type species
 * Ambrosia palustris
 * Ambrosia pannosa
 * Ambrosia parvifolia
 * Ambrosia peruviana : Peruvian Ragweed
 * Ambrosia psilostachya : Cuman Ragweed, Western Ragweed, Perennial Ragweed
 * Ambrosia pumila : Dwarf Burr Ragweed, San Diego Ambrosia
 * Ambrosia sandersonii
 * Ambrosia scabra
 * Ambrosia scabra var. robusta
 * Ambrosia scabra var. tenuior
 * Ambrosia tarapacana
 * Ambrosia tenuifolia : Slimleaf Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia tomentosa : Skeletonleaf Burr Ragweed
 * Ambrosia trifida : Great Ragweed, Giant Ragweed, Bitterweed, Bloodweed
 * Ambrosia trifida texana : Texan great Ragweed
 * Ambrosia trifolia : Bitterweed, Bloodweed, Great Ragweed, Buffalo Weed
 * Ambrosia velutina

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Horticulture/Ambrosia


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/92

=Text And Translation=

=Connotations of The Text=

=Vocabulary=

Line 2

 * dispereo, -ire, -ii - be undone; perish

 * nisi - unless

Line 3

 * totidem - just as many; just the same; all the same

 * deprecor, -ari, -atus sum - criticise; deprecate

Line 4

 * assidue (adv.) - constantly; continually

 * verum (adv.) - truly; even so; but; yet; still

=External Links=

 * Catullus 92 A Translation of Catullus 92
 * Catullus 92 Another Translation of Catullus 92


text:
User:SBJ

This is an alternate account of User:SB_Johnny, used for making easy-to-type templates.

title: User:SBJ


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Punjabi

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Punjabi is written either in the Gurmukhi script or in a form of the Arabic script known as Shahmukhi which is very similar to the script used for Urdu. Both scripts look different from the Latin script that the words you are reading now are written in.

How many people speak this language?
Approximately 100 million.

Where is this language spoken?
Primarily in the Punjab region which is now split between India and Pakistan. It is also spoken across the world by a sizable number of people that have moved away from the Punjab region like Canada, the United States of America and Great Britain.

What is the history of this language?
Punjabi is a descendant of Sauraseni, which is a name for one of the languages spoken in Northern India in the medieval period. Punjabi emerged as an independent language approximately in the 11th century. Since Punjabi shares a related history with the Hindi and Urdu languages, someone who speaks Punjabi can understand a lot of what someone speaking in Hindi or Urdu is saying and the same for the other way around.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?

 * Shiv Kumar Batalvi.
 * Amrita Pritam.

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?

 * ਆਲੂ (ālū) means potato
 * ਦਿਲ (dil) means heart
 * ਗਾਂ (gã) means cow

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Punjabi


text:
Radiation Oncology/Toxicity

Overviews of normal tissue tolerance doses:
 * Grading of toxicity
 * Contraindications to Radiation Therapy
 * Gerhard et al (2021)
 * NCCN Lung SABR Constraints (2019)
 * UK Consensus SRS/SBRT Constraints (2018)
 * AAPM TG101 Radiosurgery 2010
 * RTOG Protocols
 * QUANTEC 2010
 * Hansen handbook (2007)
 * Milano (2007)
 * Emami estimates (1991)

Organ-specific data:
 * Iatrogenic Radiation Tattoo Markers
 * CNS
 * Brain
 * Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis
 * Brainstem
 * Spinal cord
 * Peripheral nerves (also see more specific entities)
 * Optics & Vision
 * Head & Neck
 * General Head & Neck
 * Lacrimal gland
 * Mucositis
 * Parotid gland
 * Dysphagia
 * Larynx
 * Carotid artery
 * Osteoradionecrosis
 * Inner Ear
 * Otalgia
 * Facial Nerve
 * Hypothyroidism
 * Brachial Plexus
 * Thorax
 * Lung
 * Esophagus
 * Heart
 * Aorta
 * Breast
 * GI
 * Liver
 * Small bowel
 * Rectum
 * Genitourinary
 * Kidney
 * Bladder
 * Testis
 * Erectile Dysfunction
 * GYN
 * Vagina
 * Ovary
 * Fertility
 * Pelvis (see other pages for information on specific organs, e.g. rectum, bladder, etc.)
 * Lymphedema
 * Bone marrow
 * Bone (e.g., femoral heads)
 * Skin
 * Second malignancies
 * Tumor Lysis Syndrome
 * Pregnancy
 * Radiation Mortality
 * Pacemakers and defibrillators

title: Radiation Oncology/Toxicity


text:
General Chemistry/Buffer Systems

Introduction
Buffer systems are systems in which there is a significant (and nearly equivalent) amount of a weak acid and its conjugate base—or a weak base and its conjugate acid—present in solution. This coupling provides a resistance to change in the solution's pH. When strong acid is added, it is neutralized by the conjugate base. When strong base is added, it is neutralized by the weak acid. However, too much acid or base will exceed the buffer's capacity, resulting in significant pH changes.

Buffers are useful when a solution must maintain a specific pH. For example, blood is a buffer system because the life processes in a human only function within a specific pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. When, for example, lactic acid is released by the muscles during exercise, buffers within the blood neutralize it to maintain a healthy pH.

Making a Buffer
Once again, let's consider an arbitrary weak acid, HA, which is present in a solution. If we introduce a salt of the acid's conjugate base, say NaA (which will provide the A- ion), we now have a buffer solution. Ideally, the buffer would contain equal amounts of the weak acid and conjugate base.

Instead of adding NaA, what if a strong base were added, such as NaOH? In that case, the hydroxide ions would neutralize the weak acid and create water and A- ions. If the solution contained only A- ions, then a strong acid like HCl were added, they would neutralize and create HA.

As you can see, there are three ways to create a buffer:

All six of the combinations will create equal amounts of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid.

Buffers and pH
To determine the pH of a buffer system, you must know the acid's dissociation constant. This value, $$K_a$$ (or $$K_b$$ for a base) determines the strength of an acid (or base). It is explored more thoroughly in the Equilibrium unit, but for now it suffices to say that this value is simply a measure of strength for acids and bases. The dissociation constants for acids and bases are determined experimentally.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation allows the calculation of a buffer's pH. It is:

$$\hbox{pH} = \hbox{pK}_a + \log \frac{[\hbox{A}^-]}{[\hbox{HA}]}$$

For a buffer created from a base, the equation is:

$$\hbox{pH} = \hbox{pK}_b + \log \frac{[\hbox{B}]}{[\hbox{HB}^+]}$$

Using these equations requires determining the ratio of base to acid in the solution.

title: General Chemistry/Buffer Systems


text:
Horticulture/Rosaceae

The Rosaceae or rose family is a large family of plants, with about 3,000-4,000 species in 100-120 genera. Traditionally it has been divided into four subfamilies: Rosoideae, Spiraeoideae, Maloideae, and Amygdaloideae. These subfamilies are primarily diagnosed by the structure of the fruits, although this approach is not followed universally. Recent work has identified that the traditional four subfamilies are not all monophyletic, but the structure of the family is still awaiting complete resolution.

Identified clades include:

 * Subfamily Rosoideae: Traditionally composed of those genera bearing small fruits, each of which is an achene or drupelet, and often the fleshy part of the fruit (e.g. Strawberry) is the hypanthium or the stalk bearing the carpels. The circumscription is now narrowed (excluding, for example, the tribe Dryadeae), but it still remains a diverse group containing 5 or 6 tribes and 20 or more genera. Rose, blackberry, raspberry, strawberry, Potentilla, Geum.

 * Subfamily Spiraeoideae: Traditionally those genera which bear non-fleshy fruits consisting of five capsules. Now perhaps to be restricted to Spiraea and Sorbaria and their respective allies.

 * Subfamily Maloideae (or Pomoideae): Traditionally this includes those genera (apple, cotoneaster, hawthorn, pear, quince, rowan, whitebeam, etc.), whose fruits consist of five capsules (called "cores") in a fleshy endocarp, surrounded by the ripened stem tissue. This fruit is called a pome. To these are added the woody genera Lindleya and Vauquelinia, which share a haploid chromosome count of 17 (x=17) with the pomiferous genera, Kageneckia, in which x=15, and the herbaceous genus Gillenia (x=9), which is the sibling to the remaining maloids.

 * Subfamily Amygdaloideae (or Prunoideae): Traditionally those genera whose fruits consist of a single drupe with a seam, two veins next to the seam, and one vein opposite the seam. Now extended to include the five genera Exochorda, Maddenia, Oemleria, Prinsepia and Prunus (plum, peach, almond, cherry, apricot).

 * Tribe Dryadeae: Fruits are achenes with hairy styles. Includes five genera (Dryas, Cercocarpus, Chamaebatia, Cowania and Purshia), most species of which form root nodules which host the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Frankia.

 * Tribe Neillieae: Neillia (including Stephanandra) and Physocarpus.

Amongst these groups, Neillieae appears to be the sister group to Maloideae, and Dryadeae may be a sibling group to Rosoideae. Other genera, for example Kerria, appear not to belong to any of these groups.

Genera and species

 * ../Agrimonia/
 * ../Alchemilla/
 * ../Alchemilla mollis/

 * ../Cotoneaster/
 * ../Fragaria/
 * ../Malus/
 * ../Prunus/
 * ../Pyrus/
 * ../Rosa/

title: Horticulture/Rosaceae


text:
User talk:76.5.105.107

>:(

destroy

All that happens is that the blocks get longer -- Herby talk thyme 16:39, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:76.5.105.107


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/116

=External Links=

 * Catullus 116 A Translation of Catullus 116
 * Catullus 116 Another Translation of Catullus 116


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/115

=External Links=

 * Catullus 115 A Translation of Catullus 115
 * Catullus 115 Another Translation of Catullus 115


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/114

=External Links=

 * Catullus 114 A Translation of Catullus 114
 * Catullus 114 Another Translation of Catullus 114


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/113

Text and Translation
Meters - Elegiac couplets

Line 1

 * Consule Pomeio primum: the year of the first consulship of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, 70 B.C.
 * Solebant: soleo, meaning "to be used to" or "to be wont", here used euphemistically

Line 2

 * Maeciliam: A well-known Roman name. Possibly a misspelling of Mucillam, a diminutive of Mucia, and therefore a possible reference to Mucia Tertia, the daughter of Quintus Mucius Scaevola and the third wife of Pompey; she was divorced by the latter on accusations of adultery.
 * facto consule nunc iterum: the year of Pompey's second consulship, 55 B.C.

Line 3

 * cereverunt milia in unum/singula: a thousand (rivals) have sprung up against each man, the implication being that between the consulships, Maecilia's lovers have grown from two to two thousand.

Line 4

 * adulterio: dative of possession; est is omitted


text: The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/112


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/111

=External Links=

 * Catullus 111 A Translation of Catullus 111
 * Catullus 111 Another Translation of Catullus 111


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/110

=External Links=

 * Catullus 110 A Translation of Catullus 110
 * Catullus 110 Another Translation of Catullus 110


text:
First Aid/Vitals

Purpose
As part of your ongoing assessment of the patient, and in preparation for the arrival of any assistance you have called, it is important to keep a check on a patient's vital signs to establish a baseline.

If possible, these recordings should be written down so that you can keep a record of any changes, and hand this over to the ambulance crew who take the patient from you. Ideally, it should be recorded on a report, which should form part of every first aid kit. Alternatively, you can write it on any piece of paper, or often first aiders end up writing on their protective glove.

Assessments
The vital signs you are looking to record relate to the body's essential functions. It starts with the airway and breathing already covered in basic life support (although you should look for additional detail) and continues with circulation, look of the skin, level of consciousness and pupil reaction.

Breathing
While maintaining an open airway, ensure that the victim is breathing and count the rate of breathing. The easiest way to do this is to count the number of breaths taken in a given time period (15 or 30 seconds are common time frames), and then multiply up to make a minute. The longer the time period, the more accurate it is, however you are likely to want the patient not to converse (as this disrupts their breathing pattern), and it is important not to tell them that you are watching their breathing, as this is likely to make them alter the pattern, so a shorter period is likely to be more useful and reduce worry for the patient.

In addition to rate, you should note if the breathing is heavy or shallow, and importantly if it is regular. If it is irregular, see if there is a pattern to it (such as breathing slowly, getting faster, then suddenly slower again). Note whether breathing is noisy (wheezing could be a sign of asthma, rattling (also called 'stridor') a sign of fluid in the throat or lungs).

Circulation
Whereas in the primary survey, we did not check the circulation of the victim to see if the heart was beating (we assumed that if the victim was breathing, their heart was working and if they were not breathing, their heart was also stopped), it is important in monitoring the breathing victim to check their circulation.

The two main checks are:
 * Capillary Refill - The capillaries are the smallest type of blood vessel, and are responsible for getting blood in to all the body tissues. If the blood pressure is not high enough, then not enough blood will be getting to the capillaries. It is especially important to check capillary refill if the victim has suffered an injury to one of their limbs. You check capillary refill by taking the victim's hand, lifting it above the level of the heart, and squeezing reasonably hard for about a second on the nailbed. This should move the blood out, and the nail bed will appear white. If the pink colour returns quickly (and in a healthy victim, it may return before you even move your fingers away to look!), then this is normal. Victims who have poor peripheral circulation, especially the elderly and hypothermia victims, may not demonstrate adequate capillary refill due to general lack of blood flow, making this test less valuable on these patients. A normal time for the pink colour to return is less than two seconds. If it takes longer than two seconds for colour to return, then this could indicate a problem and you should seek medical advice.
 * Pulse check - As a first aider, you can also check a victim's heart rate by feeling for their pulse. There are three main places you might wish to check for a pulse:
 * Carotidian pulse and recovery position.jpg Radial pulse - This is the best pulse to look for a first aider, on a conscious victim, as it is non-invasive and relatively easy to find. It is located on the wrist (over the radial bone). To find it, place the victim's hand palm up and take the first two fingers of your hand (NEVER use your thumb, as it contains a pulse of its own) and on the thumb side of the victim's wrist you will feel a rounded piece of bone, move in from here 1–2 cm in to a shallow dip at the side of the bone, and press your fingers in (gently), where you should be able to feel a pulse. Taking a pulse here can be a skill that takes practice, so it is worth frequently testing this skill. Should there be no pulse in a victim who is pale and unwell, you are advised to seek medical assistance urgently.
 * Carotid Pulse - This is in the main artery which supplies the head and brain, and is located in the neck. This is best used on unconscious victims, or those victims where you are unable to find a radial pulse (because the carotid pulse, being closer to the heart, is stronger than the radial pulse). To locate it, place your two fingers in to the indentation to the side of the windpipe, in line with the Adam's apple (on men), or approximately the location a Adam's Apple would be on women.
 * Pedal Pulse - The pedal pulse can be found in several locations on the foot, and this is used when you suspect a broken leg, in order to ascertain if there is blood flowing to the foot.

When measuring a pulse you should measure the pulse rate. This is best achieved by counting the number of beats in 15 seconds, and then multiplying the result by four. You should also check if the pulse is regular or irregular.

Skin
Related to circulation, is the colour of the skin. Changes in circulation will cause the skin to be different colours, and you should note if the victim is flushed, pale, ashen, or blue tinged.

It should also be noted if the victim's skin is clammy, sweaty or very dry, and this information should be passed on to the ambulance crew.

Level of Consciousness
You can continue to use the acronym AVPU to assess if the victim's level of consciousness changes while you are with them. To recap, the levels are:
 * Alert
 * Voice induces response
 * Pain induces response
 * Unresponsive to stimuli

Pupils
Valuable information can be gained from looking at a victim's pupils. For this purpose, first aid kits should have a penlight or small torch in them.

Ideally, the pupils of the eye should be equal and reactive to light, usually written down as PEARL:
 * Pupils
 * Equal
 * And
 * Reactive to
 * Light

To check this, ask the victim to look straight at you with both eyes. Look to see if both pupils are the same size and shape (be sensitive to those who may be blind in one eye, or may even have a glass eye, although they will usually tell you).

To check if they are reactive, take the penlight, and ask the victim to look at your nose. Briefly (5 seconds or so) shield their eye with your hand from the light source where they are (sunlight, room lighting etc.), and then turn on the penlight, positioning it off to the side of their head. Move the penlight in over their eye quickly, and watch to see the size change. A normal reaction would be the pupil getting smaller quickly as the light is shone in to it. Repeat on the other eye.

If both pupils are the same, and both react, note this on your form as PEARL, or else note down what you did, or did not see.

title: First Aid/Vitals


text:
Genetic Information

Contents

 * 1) /Introduction to Genetic Information/
 * 2) /Overview of Sequence Statistics/
 * 3) /Probability/
 * 4) /Properties of DNA/
 * 5) /Local–Range Properties/
 * 6) /Long–Range Properties/
 * 7) /Longest Subsequence/
 * 8) /Correlations/
 * 9) Criteria for Nucleotide Level
 * 10) /Model for Expansion-Mutation/
 * 11) /Simple Sequence Repeats/
 * 12) /Distributions of Length/
 * 13) /Analysis of Spectrum/
 * 14) /Criteria for Entropy/

/Glossary/

/References/

title: Genetic Information


text:
The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/Meters Used By Catullus

= A Note on Scansion =

=Common Features of Metrical Rhythm=

Dactyl
This is made up of a long and two shorts: ¯ ˘ ˘

Spondee
This is made up of two longs: ¯ ¯

Iamb
This is made up of a short and a long: ˘ ¯

Trochee
This is made up of a long and a short: ¯ ˘

Choriamb
This is made up of a long, followed by two shorts, followed by another long: ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯

=Meters Used By Catullus=

Catullus uses many meters in his poetry. Some are quick and jumpy designed to reflect a jolly or happy tone in the poem it is featured. Others are slow and brooding, designed to emphasise a particular point and to create a slower, more thoughtful tone. ˘ ¯

Dactylic Hexameter
This meter is constructed as shown below:

¯ ¯ | ¯  ¯ | ¯  ¯ | ¯  ¯ | ¯ ˘ ˘ | ¯×

¯ ˘ ˘ |¯ ˘ ˘ |¯ ˘ ˘ | ¯ ˘ ˘| ¯ ˘ ˘| ¯×

Any spondee can be replaced by a dactyl. The fifth foot must be a dactyl and the 6th foot contains a long with the syllaba anceps (×) which is either long or short. This meter has a caesura in the middle, which cuts the 3rd foot in two. The caesura occasionally occurs in other feet.

When a word ends after the first syllable of the third foot, a masculine caesura is created.

 * The syllaba anceps has been shown with a circumflex (â).

When a word ends between the two breves of a dactylic third foot, a feminine caesura is created.

 * The word "hǐměnaēôs" should be hyměnaēôs, the short 'I' is equivalent to the 'y' which has been replaced to show the meter.
 * The syllaba anceps has been shown with a circumflex (â).

Elegiac Couplets
The meter is constructed as shown below:

¯ ¯ |¯  ¯ |¯  ¯ | ¯  ¯| ¯˘ ˘| ¯×

¯˘ ˘ |¯˘ ˘ |¯˘ ˘ | ¯˘ ˘| ¯˘ ˘| ¯×

¯ ¯ | ¯  ¯ | ¯ // ¯ ˘ ˘| ¯ ˘ ˘|×

¯ ˘ ˘ |¯ ˘ ˘ |¯ // ¯ ˘ ˘| ¯ ˘ ˘|×

The first is the dactylic hexameter, and the second is the pentameter. The first two dactyls have the opportunity of being turned into spondees. Then there must be a spondee, cut in two by the caesura followed by two dactyls and the syllaba anceps.

 * The syllaba anceps has been shown with a circumflex (â).

An easy way to remember this is with the famous English elegiac couplet:

In the Hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column, In the pentameter aye falling in melody back.

Hendecasyllabic
This translates literally to "eleven syllables". It is a bouncy metre used for fun and light hearted poems such as Poem 50.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

– ˘ | – ˘ ˘ | – ˘ | – ˘ | – ×

˘ – | – ˘ ˘ | – ˘ | – ˘ | – ×

– –| – ˘ ˘ | – ˘ | – ˘ | – ×

An English example was written by Tennyson:

Galliambic
The meter is constructed as shown below:

˘ ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – –// ˘ ˘ – ˘ ˘ ˘ ˘ ×

This meter is only used in Poem 63.

 * The syllaba anceps has been shown with a circumflex (â).
 * Elision has been shown with struck text ( a ).

Glyconic & Pherecratean
Stanzas in Poem 34 and Poem 61 Combine Glyconic Lines:

– – – ˘ ˘ – ˘ –

– ˘ – ˘ ˘ – ˘ –

With a Pherecratean:

– – – ˘ ˘ – ×

– ˘ – ˘ ˘ – ×

This meter is as old as the 6th Century B.C. in the time of the Greek lyric poet, Anacreon.

Greater Asclepiadean
Catullus uses this meter only in Poem 30. The meter has no substitutions, and is made up of three choriambs.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

– – – ˘ ˘ – // – ˘ ˘ – // – ˘ ˘ – ˘ ×

Iambic Senarius
This meter is comprised of an iambic trimeter composed of six iambs. It only appears in Poem 4 and Poem 29.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ ×

Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic
This meter is composed of four pairs of iambs with the final syllable omitted. A caesura appears after the second iambic pair. This meter is only used in Poem 25.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – // ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – –

Iambic Trimeter
This meter is three pairs of iambs, divided by a caesura in the middle of the third foot. Spondees can be substituted in place of iambs in the first and third feet.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

˘ – ˘ – ˘ // – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ –

– – ˘ – – // – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ –

This meter is only used in Poem 52.

Limping Iambics
This meter consists of five iambs and a trochee. Spondees can be substituted in place of iambs in the first and third feet. This meter was invented by the Greek poet Hipponax. This meter is used in eight of Catullus' poems:

 * Poem 8
 * Poem 22
 * Poem 31
 * Poem 37
 * Poem 39
 * Poem 44
 * Poem 59
 * Poem 60

The meter is constructed as shown below:

˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ – – ×

– – ˘ – – – ˘ – ˘ – – ×

Priapean
This meter is used in Poem 17 only.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

– ˘ – ˘ ˘ – ˘ – // – ˘ – ˘ ˘ – ×

Sapphic Strophe
This meter is named after the famous Greek poetess Sappho of Lesbos, who lived in the 7th Century B.C.

It is used in Poem 11 and Poem 51.

The meter is constructed as shown below:

– ˘ – – – ˘ ˘ – ˘ – – – ˘ – ˘ – ˘ ˘ – ˘ – – (3 times)

Then the 5th and 6th feet of a hexameter to end:

– ˘ ˘ – ×

 * The syllaba anceps has been shown with a circumflex (â).


text:
Talk:Genetic Information

This book describes mathematical formulation and developmental strategies in the analysis of genome and DNA sequencing. The volume will be of interest to online students of sequence statistics who explore mathematical structure of biological data especially in the analysis of chromosomes. With the exponential growth in the size of information-packed databases, the book was started by Odhiambo Siangla and covers properties of DNA and other measures of significance such as spectral analysis and criteria for entropy. The work encourages genomic biometry in a formulated interdisciplinary project.

See Table of Contents

Odhiambo 20:24, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Genetic Information


text:
User:Poison~enwikibooks

Want to learn about writing children's books? For more information, go to the article, How to write a good book for Children?

title: User:Poison~enwikibooks


text:
Autistic Survival Guide/Territorial Theory

Small introduction to the chapter
Not all "normal people" are "normal". There are many different kind of people in a "normal people" population. In this chapter we will discuss the territorial people, which at most use language only to their advantage. Choose which example to further your understanding of this chapter. Until now: 1 example.

Content
Example1: This example will explain how interaction in a video game can happen. The reason this is mentioned is because in the video game people can cooperate or choose to not cooperate and make it easy or difficult for the people on their team. So that's the reason. It's the option to be willing to help, or show one's ignorance. So we continue with the example below: We are going to concentrate on only one team: team "humans", which is "supposed" to teamwork. This team has a base, where they can "recover" if they get hurt by their opponents. If they stay at the base forever, then they can't win, because to win they must go towards their opponents base and destroy (with their guns) specific buildings in order to win. Now on to the practical part: "Humans" team has 4 players: John, Michael, George and Jenny. What happens: This is the end of the example, and one can say that John made the error of showing interest they would succeed, even while still knowing that at least 1 person on the team, did not wish to cooperate at all. Other solutions to the problem:
 * John, is the cooperative type, but also wishes to convince the team that if there are 4 players at the base, 3 should go to their opponents base, and 1 should stay and defend their own base.
 * Michael, is the cooperative type and wishes to go on offensive.
 * George, is a base builder (although has many times acted in a very uncooperative way by hurting their own base and players by firing at them)
 * Jenny, maintains and builds base buildings.
 * 1) John, notices George's uncooperative behavior, communicates his frustration...
 * 2) and is ignored by George. John knows George doesn't wish to cooperate but ignores the fact, and still tries to convince George to cooperate. George, is the "main role" in this example, not wishing to cooperate or at least answer. George, (as of this example) did not wish to cooperate, but wished that none would bother of him being cooperative, and gets "annoyed" when people tell him what to do. In that case
 * 3) George chooses he doesn't like John, although is silent about it.
 * 4) John can't control feelings and "swears" and uses abuse words at George.
 * 5) now George takes this to his advantage, because as he sees it, John made a mistake by taking it too seriously, and now shows interest in replying, making John, feel emotionally damaged.
 * John could instead ignore communication with the non cooperative person and only communicate with the people wishing to cooperate.


text:
Talk:Embedded Control Systems Design/Operating systems

'''Is there a difference between real time operating systems and a usual operating systems for embedded control systems? Or are they the same? '''

I think this is discussed further (hard-soft realtime)


text:
Talk:Embedded Control Systems Design/Processors

Microcontroller vs microprocessor? What is the difference difference?

 * microcontroller defines microcontroller as a microprocessor plus a few other things, all on one chip. Does this book need to define these terms? --64.19.63.131 (talk) 16:45, 16 May 2008 (UTC)

Christophe Bolssens, Koen Vandeweert, Dries Gilissen edited this page at 15/04/2009. The old version is kept and can be found underneath the line of choice of hardware (it starts with "Processor technology involves the architecture of the computation engine used to implement a system’s desired functionality.") This information was to detailed and didn't handle the system level.


text:
User talk:Austenld

Spanish/Lessons/¿Dónde vas a ir?

Please don't change International English spelling to American English. Wikibooks is an international project and we have no problems with British, American or any major kind of English. Authors are free to use the style of English they wish but please don't change previously written text into another version of English. In British and most international English variations "learnt" is the most used form for the past participle of "learn". Xania talk 20:51, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Austenld


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Colour by Design/Check Your Notes

Colour By Design!

What you should know!!

 * 1) Absorption of ultraviolet light and visible light in terms of transitions between electronic energy levels.
 * 2) Use of ultraviolet (u.v.) and visible spectroscopy to help identify unsaturated organic molecules.
 * 3) Colour changes associated with the following types of chemical changes: acid-base (indicators), ligand exchange, redox, precipitation and polymorphism (different crystal structures).
 * 4) The relationship between the properties of pigments (colour shade, colour intensity, fastness) to relevant properties (Storyline CD2 and CD3).
 * 5) General principles of gas-liquid chromatography (g.l.c.)
 * 6) Techniques used to identify the materials used in a painting, including the use of g.l.c. atomic emission spectroscopy, visible spectroscopy (reflection and transmission) (Storyline CD3 and CD4; Activities CD4.1 to CD4.5).
 * 7) Nature of fats and oils as mixed esters of propane-1,2,3-triol with varying degrees of unsaturation.
 * 8) An outline of the process of oxidative cross-linking by which unsaturated oils harden; the relationship of this process to their use as media in oil-based paints.
 * 9) What arenes and arene derivatives (aromatic compounds) are.
 * 10) Structure of benzene.
 * 11) How the characteristic properties of aromatic compounds arise from the delocalisation of electrons.
 * 12) Following electrophilic substitution reactions of arenes: halogenation of the ring, nitration, sulphonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and Friedel-Crafts acylation.
 * 13) Formation of azo dyes by coupling reactions involving diazonium compounds.
 * 14) Structure of a dye molecule in terms of its various components: chromophore, groups which modify the chromophore, groups which made the dye more soluble in water and groups which attach the dye to the fibre (Storyline CD5 to CD7).
 * 15) Ways in which dyes attach themselves to fabrics: weak intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonds, ionic attractions and covalent bonding (Storyline CD7; Activity CD7.2).
 * 16) Relationship between the colour of a dye and the presence of a chromophore, and groups that modify the chromophore, in the dye molecule.
 * 17) Relationship between colour in materials and transitions between electronic energy levels.


text:
User talk:68.7.67.79

Xania talk 20:53, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.7.67.79


text:
User talk:59.92.151.10

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 20:56, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:59.92.151.10


text:
Cookbook:Hot Cocoa

Ingredients

 * 4–5 tablespoons malted chocolate mix or Ovaltine (Ovomaltine), or dry malt extract
 * 1 teaspoon cocoa powder
 * 1 cups (236 ml) hot water

Procedure

 * 1) Mix the Ovaltine and cocoa powder together.
 * 2) Pound with a spoon until very fine—this will help reduce stirring time.
 * 3) Shake the Ovaltine and cocoa powder for 10 seconds.
 * 4) Pour the mix into the hot water. Stir well.
 * 5) Top with whipped cream if desired and serve, sprinkled with cinnamon or chocolate powder, if desired.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For a sweeter taste, add 1 tbsp of Hershey's Chocolate Mix to the hot water and stir.

title: Cookbook:Hot Cocoa


text:
Talk:A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Developing Fuels

Moved from article to talk page for later inclusion

 * == Relatioship between bond enthalpy, bond length, bond strength ==

 * The shorter the bond length the stronger the attraction between atoms. Double bonds have much higher bond enthalpies than single bonds, triple bonds have even higher bond enthalpies. The higher the bond strength, the shorter the bond.

Ben Mills 22:34, 12 May 2007 (UTC)


text:
User:Leningrad

learning - writing -learning ..

title: User:Leningrad


text:
User:Jack Bauer

At the current point in time i am Working on reading the following Books

- Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neroscience

title: User:Jack Bauer


text:
User:Hmwith

I use this account occasionally, but I mainly edit/contribute to Wikipedia.

For this reason, you can see my English Wikipedia userpage at:

User:hmwith

title: User:Hmwith


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Visiting the Chemical Industry

Visiting the Chemical Industry is the fourteenth and final unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * VCI1: Introduction
 * VCI2: Research and development
 * VCI3: Building the chemical plant
 * VCI4: People
 * VCI5: Safety matters
 * VCI6: Environmental issues
 * VCI7: Location
 * VCI8: Choosing a feedstock
 * VCI9: Making a profit
 * VCI10: Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 15.1 The operation of a chemical manufacturing process
 * 15.2 Feedstocks
 * 15.3 The best conditions for the process
 * 15.4 Becoming even more efficient
 * 15.5 Costs

Activities

 * VCI1 Your visit to the chemical industry
 * VCI7 Setting up a new chemical plant
 * VCI10 Check your notes on Visiting the Chemical Industry


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Aspects of Agriculture

Aspects of Agriculture is the tenth unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * AA1 What do we want from agriculture?
 * AA2 The world at your feet
 * AA3 Keeping soil fertile
 * AA4 Competition for food
 * AA5 Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 10.2 The effect of temperature on rate (revision)
 * 10.3 The effect of concentration on rate (revision)
 * 5.2 Molecules and networks (revision)
 * 5.6 Bonding, structure and properties: a summary
 * 9.1 Oxidation and reduction (revision)
 * 11.3 The p block: nitrogen and Group 5
 * 7.3 Equilibria and partial pressures
 * '10.4 What is a catalyst? (revision)
 * 10.5 How do catalysts work? (revision)
 * 3.5 Geometric isomerism (revision)
 * 3.6 Optical isomerism (revision)
 * 7.4 Partition equilibrium
 * 13.5 Esters (revision)

Activities

 * AA2.1 How does temperature affect the rate of a reaction?
 * AA3.1 What is the nitrogen content of soils? (Optional extension)
 * AA3.2 The nitrogen balance in UK agriculture
 * AA3.3 Revising for end of course exams
 * AA4.1 Dilemma over malaria
 * AA4.2 Partition equilibrium
 * AA4.3 What makes an active pyrethroid?
 * AA5 Check your notes on Aspects of Agriculture


text:
Talk:Arithmetic/The Number Line

absolute value
I don't understand "The absolute value of a number is always positive or zero"... can someone explain more?
 * This is the way you should walk from zero up to the number's point or otherwise. Agree: you can't walk any "minus-way". Negativity and positivity consider by themselves only the direction you can walk to or from or see the number's point from the zero point. Those directions are like the south and the north; the absolute value is like your way - you may walk not knowing the direction and still feeling the same tiredness:) JLincoln (discuss • contribs) 00:06, 22 August 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Arithmetic/The Number Line


text:
Talk:A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/The Atmosphere

Topics in The Atmosphere

 * Ozone
 * Halogenoalkanes


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/The Polymer Revolution

The Polymer Revolution is the fifth unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * PR1 The start of the revolution
 * PR2 The polythene story
 * PR3 Towards high density polymers
 * PR4 The Teflon man
 * PR5 Dissolving polymers
 * PR6 Polymers that outdo nature
 * PR7 Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 3.4 E/Z isomerism
 * 5.3 Bonds between molecules: temporary and permanent dipoles
 * 5.4 Bonds between molecules: hydrogen bonding
 * 5.6 The structure and properties of polymers
 * 6.4 Infrared Spectroscopy
 * 12.2 Alkenes
 * 13.2 Alcohols and ethers

Activities

 * PR1 Some important polymers: introductory data
 * PR2 Making poly(phenylethene) (Optional extension)
 * PR3 Using spaghetti to model polymer structure
 * PR5.1 Deflecting jets
 * PR5.2 Viscosity in alcohols
 * PR5.3 Now you see it...
 * PR5.4 Making ‘slime’
 * PR5.5 Oxidation of alcohols
 * PR6 Poly(pyrrole) - a conducting polymer
 * PR7 Check your notes on The Polymer Revolution


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Ozone

Structure
Ozone can be assigned two different Lewis structures, but neither one accurately represents the structure and bonding in the O3 molecule.

 * [[Image:Ozone-resonance.png|center|400px|Canonical structures of ozone]]

Spectroscopic data indicates both O−O bonds in ozone are equal in length and strength. The central oxygen atom is positively charged and the terminal oxygen atoms each carry partial negative charge.

title: A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Ozone


text:
Wikibooks talk:All Books

Redirect to All bookshelves?
This is redundant with All bookshelves. Does anyone have any concerns with redirecting this page? --hagindaz 00:35, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:All Books


text: Template:Historical project page

title: Template:Historical project page


text: Category:Historical project pages

title: Category:Historical project pages


text:
Pascal Programming/Expressions and Branches

In this chapter you will learn
 * to distinguish between statements and expressions, and
 * how to program branches.

Statement
Before we get know “expressions”, let’s define “statements” more precisely, shall we: A statement tells the computer to change something. All statements in some way or other change the program state. Program state refers to a whole conglomerate of individual states, including but not limited to: The last metric is stored in an invisible variable, the program counter. The PC always points to the currently processed statement. Imagine pointing with your finger to one source code line (or, more precisely, statement): “Here we are!” After a statement has successfully been executed, the PC advances to the effect that it points to the next statement. The PC cannot be altered directly, but only implicitly. In this chapter we will learn how.
 * the values variables have, or
 * in general the program’s designated memory contents, but also
 * (implicitly) which statement is currently processed.

Classification
Statements can be categorized into two groups: Elementary and complex statements. Elementary statements are the minimal building blocks of high-level programming languages. In Pascal they are: “Complex” statements are:
 * Assignments, and
 * Routine invocations (such as  and  ).
 * Sequences (surrounded by  and  ),
 * branches, and
 * loops.

Semicolon
Unlike many other programming languages, in Pascal the semicolon  separates two statements. Lots of programming languages use some symbol to terminate a statement, e. g. the semicolon. Pascal, however, recognized that an extra symbol should not be part of a statement in order to make it an actual statement. The  program from the second chapter could be written without a semicolon after the , because there is no following statement: We, however, recommend you to put a semicolon there anyway, even though it is not required. Later in this chapter you will learn one place you most probably (that means not necessarily always) do not want to put a semicolon.

Although a semicolon does not terminate a statement, the program header, constant definitions, variable declarations and some other language constructs are terminated by this symbol. You cannot omit a semicolon at these locations.

Expressions
Expressions, in contrast to statements, do not change the program state. They are transient values that can be used as part of statements. Examples of expressions are: Every expression has a type: When an expression is evaluated it results in a value of a certain data type. The expression  has the data type ,   is a “string type” and the expression merely consisting of a variable’s name, such as  , evaluates to the data type of that variable. Because the data type of an expression is so important, expressions are named after their type. The expression  is a Boolean expression, as is.
 * , or
 * (where  is the name of a previously declared variable).
 * (where  is the name of a previously declared variable).

Using expressions
Expressions appear at many places:
 * In the assignment statement you write an expression on the RHS. This expression has to have the data type of the variable on the LHS. An assignment makes the transient value of an expression “permanent” by storing it into the variable’s memory block.
 * The parameter lists of routine invocations consist of expressions. In order to invoke a routine all the parameters have to be stored in memory. Think of a routine invocation as a sequence of assignments to invisible variables before the routine is actually called. Thus  can be understood asdestination becomes  “first parameter” becomes  call the routine   with the invisible “variables” destination and “first parameter”For the first two pseudo-assignments the value/expression on the RHS had to be assignment-compatible with the LHS.
 * In a constant definition the RHS is also an expression, although – hence their name – it has to be constant. You could not use, for instance, a variable as part of that expression.

Linking expressions
The power of expressions lies in their capability to link with other expressions. This is done by using special symbols called operators. In the previous chapter we already saw one operator, the equals operator. Now we can break up such an expression: As you can you can see in the diagram, an expression can be part of a larger expression. The sub-expressions are linked using the operator symbol. Sub-expressions that are linked via, or associated with an operator symbol are also called operands.

Comparisons
Linking expressions via an operand “creates” a new expression which has a data type on its own. While  and   in the example above were both  -expressions, the overall data type of the whole expression is , because the linking operator is the equal comparison. An equal comparison yields a Boolean expression. Here is a table of relational operators which we can already use with our knowledge: Using these symbols yield Boolean expressions. The value of the expression will be either  or   depending on the operator’s definition.

All those relational operators require operands on both sides to be of the same data type. Although we can say  is wrong, that means it should evaluate to the value , it is nevertheless illegal, because   is a  ‑expression and   is an  ‑expression. Pascal forbids you to compare things/objects that differ in their data type. So, I guess, y’can’t compare apples ’n’ oranges after all. (Note, a few conversion routines will allow you to do some comparisons that are not allowed directly, but by taking a detour. In the next chapter we will see some of them.)

Calculations
Expressions are also used for calculations, the machine you are using is not called “computer” for no reason. In Standard Pascal you can add, subtract, multiply and divide two numbers, i. e. ‑ and  ‑expressions and any combination thereof. The symbols that work for all combinations are: The division operation has been omitted as it is tricky, and will be explained in a following chapter.

Note, unlike in mathematics, there is no invisible times assumed between two “operands”: You always need to write the “times”, meaning the asterisk  explicitly.

The operator symbols  and   can also appear with one number expression only. It then indicates the positive or negative sign, or – more formally – sign identity or sign inversion respectively.

Operator precedence
Just like in mathematics, operators have a certain “force” associated with them, in CS we call this operator precedence. You may recall from your primary or secondary education, school or homeschooling, the acronym PEMDAS: It is a mnemonic standing for the initial letters of giving us the correct order to evaluate an arithmetic expression in mathematics. Luckily, Pascal’s operator precedence is just the same, although – to be fair – technically not defined by the word “PEMDAS”.
 * 1) parentheses
 * 2) exponents
 * 3) multiplication / division
 * 4) addition / subtraction

As you might have guessed it, operator precedence can be overridden on a per-expression basis by using parentheses: In order to evaluate, the sub-expression   is evaluated first and that value is then multiplied by  , even though multiplication is generally evaluated prior sums or differences.

Branches
Branches are complex statements. Up to this point all programs we wrote were linear: They started at the top and the computer (ideally) executed them line-by-line until the final. Branches allow you to choose alternative paths, like at a T‑bone intersection: “Do I turn left or do I turn right?” The general tendency to process the program “downward” remains, but there is (in principle) a choice.

Conditional statement
Let’s review the program  from the previous chapter. The conditional statement is highlighted: Now we can say that  is a Boolean expression. The words  and   are part of the language construct we call conditional statement. After  comes a statement, in this case a complex statement: is a sequence and considered to be one statement.

If you remember or can infer from the source code, the statements between, the   is only executed if the expression   evaluated to. Otherwise, this is skipped as if there was nothing.

Due to this binary nature – yes / no, execute the code or skip it – the expression between  and   has to be a Boolean expression. You cannot write, since   is an  -expression. The computer cannot decide based on an -expression, whether it shall take a route or not.

Alternative statement
Let’s expand the program  by giving an alternative response if the user says not to like ice cream. We could do this with another ‑statement, yet there is a smarter solution for this frequently occurring situation: The highlighted alternative, the ‑branch, will only be executed if the supplied Boolean expression evaluated to. In either case, regardless whether the ‑branch or the  ‑branch was taken, program execution resumes after the  ‑statement (in this after the   in the last line).

Relevance
Branches and (soon explained) loops are the only method of modifying the PC, “your finger” pointing to the currently executed statement, based on data, an expression, and thus a means of responding to user input. Without them, your programs would be static and do the same over and over again, so pretty boring. Utilizing branches and loops will make your program way more responsive to the given input.

Tasks
Notes:


text:
Wikibooks talk:A-level bookshelf

Merge with Study guides bookshelf?
I would like to merge this page into the broader Study guides bookshelf. Does anyone have any concerns about this? --hagindaz 01:50, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:A-level bookshelf


text:
Radiation Oncology/Sarcoma/Osteosarcoma

Epidemiology

 * Represent 35% of bone sarcomas.
 * Primary distribution in adolescents
 * When it occurs in older patients, usually associated with pre-existing condition such as Paget's disease, prior irradiation of bones, multiple hereditary exostosis, or polyostotic fibrous dysplasia
 * Hereditary risk factors:
 * Hereditary Retinoblastoma (Rb mutated in ~50% osteosarcomas)
 * Li-Fraumeni syndrome (p53 mutated in 20-30%)
 * Rothmund-Thomson syndrome
 * Distribution:
 * Distal femur/knee joint ~50%
 * Proximal humerus ~25%
 * Long tubular bones ~80-90%
 * Hands/feet <1%
 * Lab findings generally not helpful, though serum alkaline phosphatase elevated in ~50%
 * Clinical presentation:
 * Night pain
 * Typically no effusion in the adjacent joint
 * Pathologic fractures rare
 * Metastatic disease:
 * Approximately 15-20% at diagnosis
 * Overwhelmingly in the lung

Histology

 * 90% of osteosarcomas are conventional osteosarcomas; these are intramedullary high grade tumors. Subtypes include:
 * osteoblastic
 * chondroblastic
 * fibroblastic
 * 10% include osteosarcoma of the jaw, surface osteosarcomas (paraosteal and periosteal)
 * Radiation-induced osteosarcomas may be a linear function of radiation dose and alkylating agents. Risk for most childhood survivors <1%, but higher with genetic predisposition (Retinoblastoma 7%, Ewings' 5%, other bone tumors 2%)

Radiologic Findings

 * Classic appearance on plain x-ray is sunburst pattern which is a mixed lytic sclerotic pattern (vs "onion skinning" in Ewing's sarcoma)
 * Increased intramedullary density due to tumor bone or calcified cartilage
 * Area of radiolucency due to nonossified tumor
 * Cortical destruction
 * Extraosseous elevation (Codman's triangle) when tumor lifts the periostium leading to a rim of subperiosteal bone.

Staging

 * Please see the bone staging page

Treatment

 * Biopsy should be performed by an orthopedic surgeon who will ultimately perform the resection
 * Treatment is surgical resection, preferentially limb-sparing surgery (distal femur/proximal tibia, shoulder girdle/proximal humerus)
 * Surgery alone historically leads to overall survival of <20%.
 * Adjuvant chemotherapy plays a key role in preventing distant mets; 4-agent regimens are favored
 * Randomized trial by POG showed no difference between neoadjuvant chemotherapy -> surgery -> adjuvant chemotherapy and surgery -> adjuvant chemotherapy; 5-year ERS was ~60%
 * Adjuvant RT (including whole lung irradiation) does not appear to benefit survival
 * Prior to advent of effective chemo, whole lung xrt was often administered b/c of high rate of pulmonary failure. Data is unclear as to whether there was any benefit to this practice
 * Role for RT is mostly limited to life-threatening presentations where adequate surgical removal is unlikely, such as H&N, spine, or pelvis
 * Pelvic tumors are typically unresectable, and are treated with RT and chemotherapy
 * For metastatic disease, aggressive course is typically advocated, consisting of induction chemotherapy followed by maximal resection of primary and mets, followed by adjuvant chemotherapy

Primary Radiotherapy

 * Blokhin Cancer Center, Russia; 2003 PMID 12583525 "Neoadjuvant chemotherapy and local radiotherapy for high-grade osteosarcoma of the extremities," Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(2):147-55.
 * 31 pts who refused surgery and underwent induction chemo + conventional xrt (median 60 Gy)
 * Local control 56%, OS 61%
 * Of pts who had local control, 86% had excellent limb function

 * UC San Francisco; 1976 PMID 1064887 "The role of radiation therapy in the treatment of osteosarcoma," Radiology. 1976; 120(1):163-5.
 * 70 pts w/ osteosarcoma receiving either primary xrt or surgery b/w 1950-74
 * Conclusion: xrt w/o chemo did not add palliative effect or improve OS in operative pt.

Post-operative Radiation

 * Harvard; 2005 (1980-2002) PMID 15667972 "Radiotherapy for local control of osteosarcoma" DeLaney TF, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005; 61(2):492-8.)
 * Retrospective. 41 patients with osteosarcoma (head/face 41%, extremity 20%, spine 20%, pelvis 17%). 5 were radiation-induced. Median age 29. GTR 66%, STR 22%, biopsy 12%. If GTR, received RT for close or +margins. Median 66 Gy delivered (If gross disease >=68 Gy; if SM+ 60-68 Gy, if close SM 55-60 Gy, if radiation-induced sarcoma 10-30 Gy). Some patients pre-op 20 Gy followed by post-op RT. Chemo 85%
 * Outcome: 5-year LC 68%; GTR 78% vs. STR 78% vs. biopsy 22% (SS).
 * RT: No definitive dose response seen, but doses >55 Gy w/ better local control (71% vs 54%)
 * Conclusion: RT can help provide local control if widely negative margins not possible

Whole Lung Irradiation

 * Peru; 1986 PMID 3522504 "Postoperative whole lung irradiation with or without adriamycin in osteogenic sarcoma," Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1986; 12(6):907-10.
 * 36 patients w/ osteosarcoma of limbs tx'd b/w 1975-78 w/ radical surgery then 20 Gy whole lung irradiation. Most pts received adriamycin.
 * All pts ultimately developed lung mets, but whole lung xrt appeared to increase the time to failure.

 * Mayo Clinic; 1976 PMID 824047 "Elective whole lung irradiation in the treatment of osteogenic sarcoma," Cancer. 1976 Aug;38(2):939-42.
 * 53 pts w/o evidence of pulmonary mets; 2 cohorts (15 Gy prophylactic xrt to whole lung field, or no lung xrt).
 * No differences in survival or interval b/w tx and development of pulmonary mets.

Palliation
Palliative Radiotherapy

 * Milan; 1992 (1984-1990) PMID 1429102 -- "Hypofractionated accelerated radiotherapy in osteogenic sarcoma." (Lombardi F, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;24(4):761-5.)
 * 14 pts receiving RT for palliation to either the primary site (n=6) or skeletal metastases (15 lesions). Received 6 Gy per fraction, 3 fractions per week, for 6 fractions = 36 Gy over 2 weeks.
 * Radiographic response in 92%; no local recurrence. Toxicity was often severe.
 * Conclusion: "Although effective in inducing remission of osteogenic sarcoma, this irradiation method produced severe damages to normal tissues in a high proportion of patients."

title: Radiation Oncology/Sarcoma/Osteosarcoma


text:
Talk:Korean/RWP

Korean/Writing lessons plan
Attention contributors: please review or contribute to Korean/Writing lessons plan before making significant changes to the lessons in this course. Rodasmith 17:09, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

Attention
Since I am the only one working on this project without any support from the community, I have decided to continue writing and improving the course on my website dedicated to learning languages. You can find the completed lesson 4 and improved other lessons at this new site. There you will also soon find sound files for the words. I will not complete the course here and will retain the rights to further work I do on the course, so do not copy from my site. However, feel free to complete this course here on your own or use the same methodology for courses for other alphabets, as I have already suggested on the appropriate pages. Junesun 20:05, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Hello, Junesun. I hope your decision to stop working here is not set in stone.  Your work to date has been very helpful and this course would certainly improve more quickly with your help than without.  Rodasmith 03:03, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korean/RWP


text:
IB Biology/Plant Science

9.1 Plant Structure and Growth
9.1.0 Outline the wide diversity in the plant kingdom as exemplified by the structural differences between bryophytes, filicinophytes, coniferophytes and angiospermophytes.

[This question does not feature in the AHL part but it is a part of core portion (Chapter 5 ecology and evolution 5.5.3)]

Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts):
 * No roots, vascular system, or cuticle.
 * Rhizoids similar to root hairs.
 * Mosses with simple leaf-like structures.
 * Liverworts have flattened shape called a thallus.

Filicinophytes (ferns):
 * Roots, leaves in fronds, and vascular system.
 * Cuticle on leaves.
 * Can form small trees but not woody.

Coniferophytes (conifers):
 * Shrubs to very large trees.
 * Advanced vascular system.
 * Woody stems and roots.

Angiospermophytes (flowering plants):
 * Highly variable in structure-tiny herbaceous to large trees
 * Roots, stems and leaves.
 * Advanced vascular system.
 * Can form woody tissue.

''' 13.1.2 Draw a diagram to show the external parts of a named dicotyledonous plant. '''

'''9.1.1 Draw and label plant diagrams to show the distribution of tissues in the stem and leaf of a dicotyledonous plant. [Formerly 13.1.3 Draw plan diagrams to show distribution of tissues in the stem, root, and leaf of a generalized dicotyledonous plant.]'''

9.1.2 Outline three differences between the structures of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants.

'''9.1.3 Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in the leaves and the function of these tissues. [Formerly 13.1.4]'''

 * Xylem: Bring water to replace losses due to transpiration, and inorganic minerals from the soil.
 * Phloem: Transports products of photosynthesis out of the leaf.
 * Stoma: A pore that allows CO2 for photosynthesis to diffuse in and O2 to diffuse out.
 * Guard Cells: this pair of cells can open or close the stoma and so control the amount of transpiration.
 * Upper Epidermis: a continuous layer of cells covered by a thick waxy cuticle. It prevents water loss from the upper surface even when heated by sunlight.
 * Lower Epidermis: is in a cooler position and has a thinner waxy cuticle.
 * Spongy mesophyll: consists of loosely packed rounded cells with few chloroplasts. This tissue provides the main gas exchange surface so must be near the stomata in the lower epidermis.
 * Palisade mesophyll: consists of densely packed cylindrical cells with many chloroplasts. This is the main photosynthetic tissue and is positions near the upper surface where the light intensity is highest.

9.1.4 Identify modifications of roots, stems and leaves for different functions: bulbs, stem tubers, storage roots, and tendrils.

 * Bulb = stem modification consisting of enlarged bases of leaves; aids in food storage (e.g. onion)
 * Stem tuber = horizontally growing stem; aids in carbohydrate and starch storage (e.g. potato)
 * Storage root = specialized root for storing large volumes of carbohydrates and water (e.g. carrots)
 * Tendrils = leaf modification to aid in support and climbing; able to coil around objects during growth through a thigmotropic response (e.g. morning glory tendril)

9.1.5. State that dicotyledonous plant have apical and lateral meristems.
 * Meristem: a plant's region where cells continue to divide and grow, often throughout it's life.

9.1.6 Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in dicotyledonous plants.

 * Apical meristem exists at the root and shoot tip, and is involved in plant elongation.
 * Lateral meristem exists in cambium tissue. Growth in lateral meristem increases the thickness of the plant.

9.1.7 Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant growth.

 * Auxin is a hormone that promotes elongation of cells in the stem. Auxin is synthesized by the tip of the stem, and is carried to the part of stem which receives less light. This will cause the elongation of that side, thus bending towards the bright side.

13.1.5 Outline four adaptations of xerophytes.

 * spines instead of leaves - reduce rate of transpiration
 * thick stems - contain high amounts of water storage tissue
 * thick waxy cuticle
 * vertical stems - absorbs sunlight late and early in the day but not midday when sun is too intense
 * wide branching and shallow root systems - absorb water closer to the surface that would be otherwise evaporated before reaching roots

13.1.6 Outline two structural adaptations of hydrophytes.

 * Air spaces in leaves - create buoyancy
 * Small amounts of xylem in stem and leaf
 * Stomata in upper epidermis
 * Waxy cuticle on upper surface of leaves

13.2 Transport in Angiospermophytes
'''9.2.1. Outline how the root system provides a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake by means of branching and root hairs. [Formerly 13.2.1 Explain how root systems provide a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake by means of branching, root hairs, and cortex cell walls.]'''

Root hairs provide a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake. Cortex cells absorb ions that are dissolved in water, drawn in by capillary action through cortex cell walls. Branching increases quantity and area roots can absorb ions from.

'''9.2.2 List ways in which mineral ions in the soil move to the root. [Formerly 13.2.2 Describe the process of mineral ion uptake into roots by active transport.]'''

Plants absorb potassium, phosphate, nitrates, and other mineral ions from the soil. Active transport pump ions into the roots. Root hairs provide large surface area for ion uptake.

13.2.3 Explain the process of water uptake by root epidermis cells and its movement through symplastic and apoplastic pathways across the root to the xylem.

The cytoplasm of root cells usually have much higher total solute concentrations than water in the surrounding soil. Thus, water diffuses into root cells by osmosis. Water must cross the cortex of the root to enter the xylem via the symplastic and apoplastic routes.

 * Symplastic route - water moves from cell to cell by entering the cytoplasm and going through plasmodesmata(cytoplasmic connections)

 * Apoplastic route - water moves by capillary action through cortex cell walls until it reaches the endodermis. 90 % of water moves through the route this way.

13.2.4 State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose, cell turgor, and xylem.

13.2.5 Define transpiration

Transpiration - loss of water vapor from the leaves and stems of plants

13.2.6 Explain how water is carried by transpiration stream, including the structure of xylem vessels, transpiration pull, cohesion, and evaporation.

Transpiration causes a flow of water from roots to stem and leaves. This movement is called transpiration stream.

 * Evaporation of water from spongy mesophyll cell walls of leaves
 * Evaporated water is replaced from xylem, pulled out of the xylem through mesophyll pores by capillary action
 * Low pressure is created inside xylem vessels when water is pulled out (transpiration pull). Xylem vessels contain long, unbroken columns of water where the pressure is transmitted across.
 * To equalize the pressure, water travels up the vessels through its property of cohesion

13.2.7 State that guard cells open and close stomata to regulate transpiration.

13.2.8 Explain how abiotic factors affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial mesophyllic plant.

 * Light - The intensity of light increases or decreases the rate of evaporation of water from the top of leaves, causing an increase or decrease in the rate of transpiration.
 * Temperature - High temperatures increase the rate of evaporation of water from the top of leaves, resulting in an increase in the rate of transpiration. Conversely, low temperatures decrease the rate of evaporation of water from the top of leaves, resulting in a decrease in the rate of transpiration.
 * Wind - High wind also increases evaporation by allowing more air molecules to collide with the water molecules on leaves, resulting in an increase in evaporation of water and transpiration. Low wind results in more stagnant, saturated air around the stomata which decreases evaporation and transpiration.
 * Humidity - High humidity decreases the rate of evaporation and transpiration of a plant.

13.2.9 Outline the role of phloem in active translocation of biochemicals.

Phloem have sieve tubes that transport organic compounds. Column cells develop into sieve tubes by breaking down nuclei and cytoplasm, making large pores in their end walls to allow a flow of sap. The plasma membrane pump organic compounds into sieve tubes using ATP. This creates a high concentration of solute causing water to diffuse in, resulting in a positive pressure gradient allowing organic compounds to be pumped anywhere in the plant.

13.2.10 Describe an example of food storage in a plant.

Potato Tuber
 * Leaves produce food by photosynthesis
 * Phloem in stems transport food to storage organs
 * Tuber grows and stores food

13.3 Reproduction in Flowering Plants
13.3.1 Draw the structure of a dicotledonous animal pollinated flower, as seen by the naked hand eye and hands lens.

13.3.2 Define pollination

Pollination - the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma

13.3.3 Distinguish between pollination, fertilization, and seed dispersal.

 * Pollination - transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
 * Fertilization - fusion of male and female gametes in the ovum
 * Seed dispersal - the spreading out of seeds (fertilised ovules), contained within fruits (which develop from ovaries), by various means.

13.3.4 Draw the external and internal structure of a named dicotyledonous seed.

13.3.5 Describe the metabolic events in the germination in a typical starchy seed.
 * Absorption of water rehydrates living cells in seed
 * Plant growth hormone gibberellin produced
 * Stimulates production of amylase, catalyzing the digestion of starch to maltose
 * Maltose is transported to growth regions of seedling
 * Maltose converted to glucose
 * Used in cellular respiration until leaves can start photosynthesis above ground
 * Used to synthesize cellulose of other substances for growth

13.3.6 Explain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed.
 * Abundance of water - rehydrates dry tissue
 * Oxygen - aerobic cellular respiration before photosynthesis can occur
 * Suitable temperatures - Germination involves enzymatic activity in digestion of starch and cellulose synthesis. If temperatures :*fall outside of temperature ranges for these enzymes, germination does not occur. This causes seasonal germination in many places.
 * Seeds vary in their light requirements and,therefore, this factor need not be included

title: IB Biology/Plant Science


text:
Talk:Classical Mechanics

It appears that the original author of this book has not worked on it for a while, so I would like to work on it in his stead. I hope my edits do not cause anyone offense.--Snowsand 04:08, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Regarding any merge suggestions
Please note that this textbook is aimed at a very advanced undergraduate level of mechanics. The materials covered in this book (Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics, among many) are at least at the level of 4th year physics major in U.S. institutions and possibly graduate level (I haven't looked through thoroughly, but the Goldstein textbook is the classic graduate level textbook on this topic).

Please do not suggest merge to another book aimed at either high school students or first year college students (i.e. handling only Newtonian mechanics). While there are some overlaps, these two are as different as differential calculus is from a course on partial differential equations. novakyu (talk) 11:27, 24 December 2007 (UTC)

I apologize for the tone above: I looked over Mechanics module, to which merge was suggested, and it does not seem as low-level as it appeared at first. But I still think the merge was inappropriate. As noted on the Modern Physics project page, the textbook is meant for first three semesters of college. I notice that the Mechanics module mentions Lagrangian mechanics, but it cannot possibly cover it in any depth (Poisson brackets? Connections to quantum mechanics?) and still maintain its goal of being an introductory text. Note, this textbook is *not* an introduction to classical mechanics. This is *in depth* classical mechanics---students were supposed to have at least seen Newtonian mechanics for nearly half a semester and maybe even a semester of Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (if this is meant to be a graduate level textbook). novakyu (talk) 11:40, 24 December 2007 (UTC)

Aside about V.I. Arnold. Mathematical methods of classical mechanics.
I was a bit surprised now to read here `V.I. Arnold. Mathematical methods of classical mechanics. -- Has almost nothing standard in it but is excellent for a more mathematically minded student.` This is a very old comment (apparently over 14 years) and nobody has said anything yet. This is a little off topic but... what does this mean? I've looked at this book and it appears to cover all the topics I see in other books on mechanics... what is "the standard stuff that is missing"? Rschwieb (discuss • contribs) 18:47, 30 August 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Classical Mechanics


text:
IB Biology/Excretion

Excretion
Outline the need for excretion in all living organisms.
 * The idea behind excretion holds true for all living organisms. If excess toxins, salts, and water builds up it may cause serious bodily harm to that organism. The kidneys make sure that this doesn’t happen and allow for normal bodily functions to continue. If not for this system the organism may also end up needing to spend excessive amounts of energy to filter out the toxins that could kill it.

State that excretory products in plants include oxygen and carbon dioxide, and in animals, they include carbon dioxide from respiration, and nitrogenous compounds.

Excretory products in plants include oxygen, and in animals they include nitrogenous compounds and carbon dioxide.

Discuss the relationship between the different nitrogenous waste products and habitat in mammals, birds, and reptiles
 * Any metabolism involving proteins and nucleic acids produces a nitrogen containing waste with the main waste product being Ammonia. The direct excretion of Ammonia, in one form or another, is the most biologically efficient way of disposing of waste. In fish ammonia can simply be excreted purely as it is extremely water soluble. Fishes mainly lose Ammonia through the epithelium of their gills as NH4+. Fresh water fishes also take up sodium as an exchange for the Ammonia. Animals, however, can not excrete pure Ammonia since it is too toxic to be excreted without first being diluted and terrestrial animals can’t dispose of it quickly enough. Thus mammals excrete urea, a product which is much less toxic than Ammonia and requires less water to be excreted which is important to terrestrial creatures where water is more scarce. Finally birds excrete Uric Acid as their form of Ammonia removal. It is much less soluble in water than Ammonia is, thus leaving much more water for the bird which is needed during long migration patterns. Uric acid can also precipitate, allowing for shelled offspring who are permeable to gas but not permeable to liquid, as Ammonia or Urea would be.

The Human Kidney
11.3.1 - Define Excretion
 * Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolic pathways from the body

11.3.2 - Draw (and label) the structure of the kidney
 * Things to include - Cortex, Medula, Ureter, Renal Blood Vessels, and Pelvis

11.3.3 - Draw the structure of the glomerulus and associated nephron to show the function of each part

11.3.4 - Explain the process of ultra-filtration
 * Blood pressure forces fluid from the capillaries of the Glomerulus across the Epithelium of the Bowman’s Capsule, and into the lumen of Nephron tubule. The porous capillaries act as a filter as they have membranes which are permeable to water and small solutes but not to blood cells or larger molecules. The efferent arteriole reabsorbs amino acids, glucose, water, and salts and NH2, excess water, and sodium chloride descend into the loop of Henle. The more water and sodium is absorbed and tubular excretion begins in distal convoluted tube. Large molecules which weren’t absorbed enter for excretion and the collecting duct takes it to the renal pyramid.
 * 15-20% of blood plasma is filtered into glomerulus, that exit through fenestrated blood capillaries (porous). The basement membrane is a protein layer between the glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule that prevents blood cells and large proteins from entering the Bowman's Capsule.

11.3.5 - Define osmoregulation

 * Osmoregulation - the control of water and solute levels

11.3.6 - Explain the reabsorption of glucose, water, and salts in the proximal convoluted tube
 * In the Proximal Convoluted Tubule there is selective re-absorption of water and salt, depending on how dehydrated the body is. In the presence of ADH, much more water is reabsorbed than when ADH isn’t present. Microvilli also helps to expand surface area to allow for more absorption. Filtration, on the other hand, is not selective at all as it is important that essential nutrients return to the body so sugar, vitamins, and other organic nutrients are reabsorbed into the filtrate. Some are actively transported (glucose, amino acids, sodium ions) and some are passively transported (H2O, potassium ions, chloride ions).

11.3.7 - Explain the roles of the Loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH in maintaining the water balance of the blood
 * Water leaves the Nephron via Osmosis while in the descending limb of the Henle’s loop due to the increasing salt concentration of the medulla in the kidney. Blood will pass into the capillaries where it is removed and salt will diffuse into the filtrate. The ascending limb is impermeable to water, allowing various salts to leave. Fluid that leaves the loop is less concentrated than the tissue around it, and blood entering the medulla will lose water due to osmosis and pick up salt and urea through diffusion. The exact opposite happens in the ascending capillary. When a lack of water is detected in the kidney, ADH is released by the pituitary gland which increases permeability of the walls in the distal convoluted tube and the collecting duct. When ADH isn’t present, walls are impermeable and water is used to dilute urine.

Compare the composition of blood in the renal artery and renal vein, and compare the composition of the glomerular filtrate and urine
 * Renal Artery – Large molecules, More Toxins, Oxygenated, More Salt/Ions, More H2O, Less CO2, More Nutrients, Supplies Kidneys with O2
 * Renal Vein - Less Toxins, Deoxygenated, Less Salt, Less H2O, More CO2, Less Nutrients, Returns blood from Kidneys to heart, blood contains no wastes, with less O2, urea, salt/ions, and more CO2
 * Glomerular Filtrate: Small molecules, Amino acids, glucose, Na+ Cl, NH2, Urea, Nutrient excess, Nitrogenous waste, H+, H2O, hormones, vitamins
 * Urine: Wastes: Urea, Na+, Cl, NH2, H2O, large molecules

Outline the structure and action of kidney dialysis machines
 * Blood enters machine from patient’s vein and runs through partially permeable tubules and into the dialysis chamber. The tube allows nitrogenous waste to diffuse from the blood and into the dialysis fluid. Urea diffuses through the membrane, as dialysis fluid contains none, removing it from the body. Water and solutes will then be added to the blood if necessary by diffusion from the dialysis fluid which runs across the semipermeable tubules containing the circulating blood. The blood is then run through an air bubble trap before it is reintroduced to the vein.

title: IB Biology/Excretion


text:
IB Biology/Cell Respiration and Photosynthesis

Cellular Respiration
State that oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves a gain in electrons, and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction involves loss of oxygen or gain in hydrogen.

Oxidation is loss. Reduction is gain. To remember this, there is the acronym OILRIG. You can also think "LEO the lion says GER" (Lose Electrons: Oxidation; Gain Electrons: Reduction)

Outline the process of glycolysis including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation, and ATP formation.

Glycolysis is a ten-step process:

1. Glucose is phosphorylated into glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, turning one ATP into ADP in the process.

2. Glucose-6-phosphate is transformed into fructose-6-phosphate by phosphoglucoisomerase.

3. Fructose-6-phosphate is phosphorylated into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase, turning one ATP into ADP in the process.

4. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is lysed by aldolase into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAl).

5. Isomerase promptly transforms DHAP into a second molecule of PGAl.

6. Two molecules of PGAl are oxidized by 2 molecules of NAD+, creating 2 NADH + H+. The redox reaction provides the energy for triose phosphate dehydrogenase to attach a phosphate group to each PGAl, yielding two molecules of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG).

7. Two molecules of BPG are used to phosphorylate two molecules of ADP with the help of phosphoglycerokinase (substrate-level phosphorylation), yielding 2 ATP and two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate.

8. Two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate have their phosphate group relocated by phosphoglyceromutase, yielding two molecules of 2-phosphoglycerate.

9. Two molecules of 2-phosphoglycerate are transformed by enolase into two molecules of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) through the removal of water.

10. Two molecules of PEP are used to phosphorylate two molecules of ADP with the help of pyruvate kinase, yielding 2 ATP and two molecules of pyruvate.

Glycolysis has a net yield of 2 ATP (4 produced minus 2 consumed), 2 NADH + H+, and two pyruvate molecules per glucose.

Draw the structure of the mitochondrion as seen in electron micrographs.

Explain aerobic respiration including oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate, the Krebs cycle, NADH + H+, the electron transport chain, and the role of oxygen.

Aerobic respiration strictly refers to the steps of cellular respiration known as the Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. These steps normally occur in eukaryotic cells after glycolysis has been carried out. The 3-carbon end products of glycolysis, pyruvate, are the starting points for aerobic respiration. Pyruvate first has its carboxyl group removed, creating CO2 gas as a waste product. Next, it is oxidized by NAD+, forming acetate (a C2 compound) and NADH + H+. The acetate is attached to coenzyme A to form the complex acetyl CoA. Acetyl CoA enters the mitochondrial matrix and is fed into the Krebs cycle.

In the first step of the Krebs cycle, Acetyl CoA gives its acetate away to combine with oxaloacetate, a C4 compound left over from the last cycle, to form citrate, a C6 compound. Coenzyme A exits the cycle to be recycled for further use. Citrate is converted to isocitrate, which then loses a CO2 and is then oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH + H+, and forming α-ketoglutarate (C5). This in turn loses another CO2, is oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH + H+, and then the remaining molecule is attached to Coenzyme A to form succinyl CoA. Succinyl CoA is then used to phosphorylate a GDP to GTP. The GTP then phosphorylates an ADP to ATP. The remaining C4 compound, succinate, is oxidized yet again, this time reducing FAD to FADH2, and with the addition of water, forms malate. Malate is oxidized one last time, reducing NAD+ to NADH + H+, and forming oxaloacetate, the C4 compound that started off the cycle. The Krebs cycle in total yields 2 CO2, 1 ATP, 3 NADH + H+, and 1 FADH2 per pyruvate. The NADH + H+ and FADH2 go on to participate in the electron transport chain.

The electron transport chain takes place in multiprotein complexes imbedded within the phospholipid bilayers of mitochondria's inner membranes. In the electron transport chain, NADH + H+ is oxidized back to NAD+, giving two electrons to a flavoprotein, the first molecule in the complex. The flavoprotein then passes the electrons to ubiquinone (Q), which carry them to the first of many proteins in the cytochrome family that make up the rest of the electron transport chain. FADH2 actually gives its two electrons to Q (via an iron-sulfur protein), not the flavoprotein. The last step in the electron transport chain is when cytochrome a3 gives the electrons to oxygen. Oxygen, then, is the final acceptor of electrons in the chain, and once it is reduced, it quickly picks up two hydrogen ions and forms water, a waste product of aerobic respiration. At three points along the electron transport chain, the protein complexes use the energy provided by the electrons (via redox reactions) to pump H+ ions from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space. One of these points is the flavoprotein, before the electrons are handed off to Q. Therefore, for every NADH + H+ that is oxidized, 3 H+ ions are pumped across the membrane, and for every FADH2 that is oxidized, only 2 H+ are pumped across.

The final stage of aerobic respiration is oxidative phosphorylation, which is made possible by the electron transport chain. All of the H+ ions pumped into the intermembrane space create a concentration and charge gradient across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. The H+ ions want to diffuse back into the matrix. Through chemiosmosis, the diffusion of H+ back into the matrix through specialized channel proteins provide the energy for ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. For every H+ that diffuses back into the matrix, one ADP is phosphorylated to ATP.

Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

Electrons are given to proton pumps that are embedded in the membrane between the matrix and inner membrane/cristae of the mitochondrion. The pumps are reduced, giving them energy to pump protons into the inner membrane space. The electrons are transferred along a chain of pumps, continuously losing energy. The proton pumps create a high concentration gradient of protons (H+)inside the inter membrane space. Thus, protons diffuse back into the matrix through facilitated diffusion of ATP synthase (channel protein and enzyme). As the protons pass along this protein channel, the kinetic energy of the protons causes the ATP synthase molecule to turn slightly, exposing active sites that create ATP by binding ADP with inorganic phosphate molecules. The result is 36 ATP produced by oxidative phosphorylation.

Explain the relationship between the structure of mitochondrion and its function.

Mitochondrion have a large inner matrix, allowing for the Krebs cycle to occur. After the Krebs Cycle is complete, the mitochondria has a fairly small inner membrane space where protons are pumped into. Due to its size, diffusion of protons back into the matrix occurs quickly, resulting in ATP produced at a faster rate. The inner membrane contains many electron transport chains of proton pumps and ATP synthase enzymes, allowing for much ATP to be produced. The membranes are also structured to prevent the protons from diffusing though the membrane, forcing them to enter the matrix only through ATP synthase molecules.

Describe the central role of acetyl CoA in carbohydrate and fat metabolism.

Both carbohydrate and fat metabolism is accomplished by splitting the molecules into 2 carbon structures. These structures are then attached to Coenzyme A, creating Acetyl CoA and allowing the molecules to pass into the inner matrix of the mitochondrion in order to complete the Krebs Cycle and chemiosmosis.

Photosynthesis
Draw the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs

Chloroplast - 5 picometers

State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.

Light strikes on an antenna pigment in a thylakoid within a chloroplast in Photosystem 2. The chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid absorb light energy, raising electrons to a higher energy level. The energy is passed along antenna pigments until it reaches a P680 molecule. The energy excites an electron on the P680 molecule which is transferred to the reaction center and electron transport chain. To replace the lost electron, an electron is taken from the photolysis of water, creating O2 as a byproduct. As the electron passes along the chain, it gives energy to the protein pumps, causing the pumps to force protons into the confined thylakoid space. These protons then diffuse out of the thylakoid through ATP synthase proton channels, producing ATP. The lower energy electron can be recycled through Photosystem 2 by receiving light energy from Photosystem 1. The electron is re-energized from light attained in Photosystem 1 and passes that energy to a P700 chlorophyll molecule, which passes an energized electron to another electron transport chain. However, instead of using the energy from the electron to pump protons, it can use the energy and enzymatic activity to combine 2 electrons with NADP to create NADPH + H+. If the plant needs more ATP, however, the electron from Photosystem 1 can return to Photosystem 2 to be used in phosphorylation. This process is known as cyclical photophosphorylation.

Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

The process of photophosphorylation takes light energy and converts it to chemical energy in phosphate bonds of ATP molecules. Light strikes on an antenna pigment in a thylakoid within a chloroplast in Photosystem 2. The chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid absorb light energy, raising electrons to a higher energy level. The energy is passed along antenna pigments until it reaches a P680 molecule. The energy excites an electron on the P680 molecule which is transferred to the reaction center and electron transport chain. To replace the lost electron, an electron is taken from the photolysis of water, creating O2 as a byproduct. As the electron passes along the chain, it gives energy to the protein pumps, causing the pumps to force protons into the confined thylakoid space. These protons then diffuse out of the thylakoid through ATP synthase proton channels, producing ATP.

Explain the light-independent reaction.

The light-independent reaction of photosynthesis occurs in the Calvin cycle, and utilizes the ATP and electron carriers produced in the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide to sugars. 3 carbon dioxide molecules obtained from the surrounding atmosphere is combined with 3 Ribulos bisphosphate (RuBP)(C5) with the Rubisco enzyme to create Phosphoglycerate (P-C-C-C-P) (PGal). 1 ATP molecule is used, one electron carrier is oxidized (NADPH + H+ -> NADP+), and an inorganic phosphate molecule is added to the molecule, resulting in 6 Triosphosphate (G3P). 1 G3P is stored while the others are converted back into RuBP using another ATP molecule so that it may be recycled.

Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function.

The chloroplast contains thylakoids which have photosynthetic pigments embedded in the thylakoid membrane in clusters that absorb light and convert it into chemical energy. Chloroplasts have a large space in the stroma and a small space inside the thylakoid which helps in ATP synthesis. The thylakoid provides a confined space where protons may be pumped into and are forced to diffuse through ATP synthase channel proteins, creating ATP at a faster rate. The thylakoids are pushed tightly together, meaning that light striking the chloroplasts will cause several light-dependent reactions to occur simultaneously, increasing energy and ultimately, sugars produced.

Draw the action spectrum of photosynthesis.

Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants.

The visible light spectrum (400-700 nanometers) is used by plants in photosynthesis. If a plant is green, then it reflects green wavelengths of light and absorbs red, orange, some yellow, blue, indigo, and violet wavelengths of light. This means that the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants is high for low and high wavelengths of light, but not for middle wavelengths of light (green), which are reflected by the photosynthetic pigments and are not absorbed.

Explain the concept of limiting factors with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

As light intensity, temperature, and concentration of carbon dioxide increase, so does the rate of photosynthesis. However, there are limits on this seemingly linear relationship. If temperature becomes too high, the rate of photosynthesis slows as the enzymes utilized in sugar production become denatured. There is also a limit on the effects of increasing light intensity and carbon dioxide, because the plant can only create a certain amount of sugar at any one time, meaning there is not an infinite supply of protein pumps, enzymes, and thylakoids to undergo photosynthesis for high levels of carbon dioxide and light.

Key Points:

 * Photosynthesis increases as light increases
 * Photosynthesis reaches a plateau after a specific light intensity
 * Photosynthesis increases as temperature increases
 * There is an optimal temperature
 * Too high of temperature denatures/melts the chloroplasts and slows photosynthesis
 * Photosynthesis increase as CO2 increases
 * There is a maximum rate of photosynthesis in response to CO2 []

Describe three methods used to measure the rate of photosynthesis.

 * Measure the Rate of Oxygen Production
 * because oxygen is a product of photosynthesis, one can measure the rate of photosynthesis through measuring oxygen by means of:
 * count the bubbles released under water
 * Measure the volume of oxygen produced released into a graduated cylinder
 * Measure the rate of CO2 uptake
 * because carbon dioxide is a reactant, the amount used over a given period of time will indicate the amount of photosynthetic activity occurring
 * to do so, use a CO2 probe which detects the current CO2 and calculate the difference
 * Measure the change in biomass