text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Endangered Animals

1. Define the following terms

 * Endangered: A species which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters.

 * Extinct: A species that has died out completely. When the last specimen dies, that creature is said to have become extinct.

 * Habitat: A specific place or the natural conditions in which a given species lives.

 * Biome: Any major regional biological community such as that of forest or desert.

 * Food chain: A food chain describes a single pathway that energy and nutrients may follow in an ecosystem.  They usually start with a primary producer and end with a top predator. Here is an example of a food chain:

 * phytoplankton → copepod → fish → squid → seal → Orca

 * This "chain" can be described as follows: Killer whales (Orca) feed upon seals, that feed upon squid, that eat small fish, that feed on copepods, that feed on microscopic algae.

 * Poacher: A person who illegally hunts an animal in order to kill it.

2. Write Genesis 1:28 in your own words.
Genesis 1:28 is presented below in several translations. It might help to have your group read several versions of the text before they attempt to put the verse in their own words.

 * NIV: God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea and the birds of the air and over every living creature that moves on the ground."

 * NKJV: Then God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth.”

 * CEV: God gave them his blessing and said: "Have a lot of children! Fill the earth with people and bring it under your control. Rule over the fish in the ocean, the birds in the sky, and every animal on the earth."

 * NASB: God blessed them; and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it; and rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over every living thing that moves on the earth."

Habitat loss
The most common threat to endangered animals is the destruction of their natural habitat. Deforestation one way that habitat is destroyed. Rain forests are cut down for many reasons, including the sale of lumber, clearing for agriculture, or gathering wood for fuel. Human encroachment into wild areas for development of agriculture, industry, and housing is another common cause for species endangerment. Building dams can prevent many species of fish from swimming upstream to spawn, and this disrupts their lifecycle. The construction of pipelines has a similar effect on land animals, preventing predators from accessing areas containing their prey, or isolating animals from other members of their species, thus reducing the amount of genetic material available to the population as a whole.

Invasive species
An invasive species is a non-indigenous species (e.g. plants or animals) that adversely effect the habitats they invade. They can endanger indigenous populations by preying on them or by out-competing them for resources such as food.

A good example is the Brown Tree Snake of Australia. The Brown tree snake was a stowaway on U.S. military transport at the end of World War II. The slightly venomous, but rather harmless, snake came north to Guam and killed almost the entire native bird population on the previously snake‐free island. This snake has few predators on the island, although these do include pigs and monitor lizards; nowadays, Guam is one of the areas with the highest snake density in the world (an estimated 2,000 snakes/km²). Even so, this nocturnal tree snake is rarely seen by residents. They curl up and hide during the day, and move about on trees and fences at night.

At least eight Brown tree snakes have been found in the Hawaiian islands since 1981. Because they can cause the same amount of harm to Hawaii as they have done to Guam, the State of Hawaii makes concerted efforts to inform the public about the snakes, particularly at Honolulu International Airport.

Poaching

Many animals are endangered because of poaching. Elephants are killed for their ivory. Rhinoceroses are killed for their horns. Bears are killed for their gallbladders. Tigers and other large cats are killed for their skins.

The dodo was an animal hunted to extinction by European hunters. It wasn't long after Dutch colonists settled on the island of Mauritius in the 17th century that the hapless dodo was driven extinct. Since then, dodo researchers haven't had much to work with other than a handful of composite skeletons in museums and anecdotal reports from early mariners. More has been written about this bird than practically any other, yet researchers practically know nothing about it.

Pollution
Pollution can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness. DDT played such a role in killing off bald eagles and other birds by thinning the egg shell walls of affected birds, thus lowering the survivability of offspring. Since this effect was discovered, DDT has been banned in many parts of the world and affected bird populations are recovering.

5. List four things that are being done to save endangered animals.

 * Endangered Species Act for the USA.
 * Environmental Preservation Laws.
 * Recovery Plans.
 * Control of Invasive Species.
 * Breeding programs in zoos
 * Reintroduction of species to an area.
 * Treaties that ban the trade of products made from endangered species.

Raise Awareness
The more people are aware of the problems faced by endangered animals, the more they are likely to do something about it. Here are some suggested ways you and your club can help to raise awareness of endangered species:
 * Make a "Save the Animal" poster and display it.
 * Have a panel discussion Endangered Species vs Development.
 * Make a bulletin board display.
 * Make an Endangered Species craft project.

Sustainable Use of Resources
One of the more obvious things to do is to refuse to purchase items made from endangered animals, such as ivory. Even though the trade in these items poses a significant threat, there are more subtle things that we do that has an even greater impact. We are not often faced with the option of purchasing a tiger skin or an ivory trinket, but we are often tempted to engage in other behaviors which are just as destructive.

Reduce your consumption levels. Today's rate of consumption of natural resources is unsustainable. Consumption of goods puts a stress on the environment, as ultimately, that is where all raw materials come from. Avoid purchasing disposable items, and buy reusable items instead.

Boat Inspections
If you own a boat or a personal watercraft, it is important to inspect it before you transport it between different waterways. The zebra muscle is an invasive species that is currently spreading west in the United States and Canada. These creatures spread by "hitching a ride" on boats that are transported between non-interconnected waterways. Inspecting your boats and removing all wildlife (plants and animals) from them can help prevent the spread of invasive species.

Exotic Animals
Do not buy or keep exotic animals. The snakehead fish became infamous in the US because of their appearance in a pond in Crofton, Maryland in 2002. They are prohibited in several other countries like Australia because their introduction to new ecosystems may displace indigenous species. Humans have been introducing snakeheads to non-indigenous waters for over 100 years. In parts of Asia and Africa, the snakehead is considered a valuable food fish and is produced in aquacultures. Due to this fact it was introduced either on purpose (fisheries motivation) or by ignorance (as was the case in Crofton).

Sometimes exotic pets escape or are released into the wild when they are no longer wanted. This can have a negative impact on native species in the area. It is illegal to release exotic pets into the wild in most localities.

Habitat Restoration

 * Hold an Arbor Day tree-planting party.
 * Restore a riverbank by replanting native species (under proper and knowledgeable supervision) and picking up litter.
 * Plant a garden at your school, church, or home to attract wild birds and butterflies.

Data Gathering and Monitoring

 * Adopt a stream, wetland, or other waterway. Monitor which species use the area and try to get an idea of how many individual animals are involved.  Distribute your findings.
 * Participate in the Christmas bird count, a birdathon, or in a Feeder Watch.

7. List ten endangered animals. Tell where they live and why they have become endangered.
When teaching this honor to a group, you could go to the library ahead of time and check out several books on the various endangered animals, or on endangered animals in general. You will need enough books so that each Pathfinder can have one (or they could share them in groups of two), and you need to make sure that you have information on at least ten endangered animals. You could instead bring in a set of encyclopedias. During class, pass the books around and have each Pathfinder look up the information on the animal featured in that book. It is important that the Pathfinders do this research themselves rather than having it handed to them. Below are some well-known endangered mammals (although mammals are not the only type of endangered animals).

a. Visit a zoo or animal preserve that has one or more endangered animals in residence. List what animal(s) you saw, where they normally live, and why they have become endangered.
This activity is probably the one that your Pathfinders will enjoy the most. If you choose to do this one and activity 'b', try to do activity 'b' first, as that will make this one more educational.

If you choose to do this activity in conjunction with activities 'c' or 'd', do this activity first so that the Pathfinders may use the trip to the zoo to gather materials and information.

b. Watch a video about an endangered animal. List what animal(s) you saw, where they normally live, and why they have become endangered.
Below is a list of videos you might be able to use. These have not been reviewed by the authors of this answer book so you may want to screen them before showing them to your Pathfinders. If you have seen any of these, please edit this section with a review.

 * Save the Endangered Species Series Choices Inc, Released October 1, 2002. Run Time: 150 minutes
 * National Geographic's America's Endangered Species: Don't Say Good-Bye National Geographic Home Video, Released June 9, 1998. Runtime: 60 minutes
 * NOVA: Shadows of the Condor WGBH Educational Foundation. Run Time: 60.0 minutes

===c. Choose an endangered animal and write or give orally a short report about it. Tell where it normally lives, why it has become endangered, what is being done to save it, and any other special details about this particular animal that you have learned.===

You may wish to do this activity after doing activity 'a' or 'b', as both of those will allow your Pathfinders to gather information, materials, and inspiration for completing their reports.

d. Make a scrapbook about endangered animals. This may include newspaper articles, stories, pictures, stamps, or drawings. This may be a group project.
If you choose this option, be sure to look over the Scrapbooking Honor as well, as this activity could be used to meet requirement 9. This option works best when completed after doing activity 'a'. Be sure to have your Pathfinders each bring a camera to the zoo and take plenty of pictures. Remind them that they should restrict the photos in their albums to endangered animals. Also, if they are going to complete the Scrapbooking Honor, they will need enough material for 12 pages.

This option can be also completed without a trip to the zoo by using magazine clippings, drawings, or photographs downloaded from the Internet, etc.

e. Do an environment circle.
With a group of 10-20 persons, form a loose circle with people evenly spaced within. Have each person represent something in the environment such as animals, grasslands, forests, etc. Then take a spool of heavy thread or string and connect each person to others in the circle. Have the leader start cutting the connections and start taking individuals out of the circle and see how the remaining persons are affected by the loss. Help the group to see that each thing in nature is very necessary to the survival of everything else in nature.

| /Completed Honors


text: User:Logixoul~enwikibooks

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Logixoul~enwikibooks


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Qing Re Xia Huo

Qing Re Xia Huo (Clear Heat Purge Fire)
General Actions & Indications:
 * Clear Heat and Drain Fire (Simplified Chinese: 清热下火, Traditional Chinese :清熱下火, Pinyin: qīngrè xiàhuǒ)
 * external heat goes to Qi level
 * Big 4 symptoms of Qi level Heat (indicates invasion of Yang Ming):
 * Big Fever
 * Big Thirst (drink ice water)
 * Big Sweating (Heat pushes sweat out)
 * Big Pulse (very strong)
 * Tai Yang (UB) Channel goes deep to Yang Ming level
 * red face
 * excessive energy
 * excited
 * not tired because of Fire inside
 * Fire goes to body makes patient confused
 * high fever (104°-105°F)
 * talking crazy
 * red tongue body
 * yellow tongue coating
 * pulse big & full
 * Lung Heat - Heat/Fire goes to Lungs, also Stomach Heat, Liver Fire
 * DO NOT TONIFY Exterior condition (yet)

General Contraindications & Cautions:
 * Spleen &/or Stomach deficient Cold

 * ../Shi Gao/ (石膏) - clear Heat from Lung & Stomach at Qi level, Coldest
 * ../Zhi Mu/ - clear Heat from Lung & Stomach at Qi level, moistening, not as Cold as Shi Gao
 * ../Lu Gen/ - clear Heat from Lung & Stomach at Qi level, injured Yin, especially Lung-Yin

 * ../Zhi Zi/ (栀子) - mild Clear Heat & Drain Fire, initial stage Heat with irritability, eliminates Damp-Heat, Antibiotic and anti-inflammation
 * ../Dan Zhu Ye/ - specialist Clear Fire from Heart and Stomach
 * ../Jue Ming Zi/ (决明子) - clear Heat from Liver Channel, pacifies Liver, extinguishes Fire, moistens Intestines
 * ../Xia Ku Cao/ (夏枯草) - eye problems, Liver constraint complicated by excess Heat, headache, vertigo, scrofula
 * ../Han Shui Shi/ (寒水石)
 * ../Tian Hua Fen/ (天花分)


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Qing Re Liang Xue

Clear Heat, Cool Blood

 * heat in Blood level (confused blood)
 * nose bleeding
 * heavy menstruation
 * bleeding under skin
 * vomit w/ blood
 * tongue body red, dark red, or purple
 * tongue coat yellow
 * tongue cracks
 * thirsty
 * fever
 * irritable
 * night sweating

Bitter Sweet Salty Cold

Notes:
 * Heavy dosage may cause loose stools
 * These herbs may not be used for an extended period of time

../Shui Niu Jiao/

../Sheng Di Huang/

../Xuan Shen/

../Mu Dan Pi/

../Di Gu Pi/

../Bai Wei/

../Zi Cao/

back to ../Herbs that Clear Heat/


text:
Talk:GCSE Science/Current, voltage resistance and Ohm's law

To help people remember Ohm's law of V = IR, have the student draw a triangle. Then put a horizontal line in the triangle. Finally, a vertical line. (I've attached a crappy, tossed together image that someone could do a better one of and put it on the main page.) Write V in the top space, I in the bottom left, and R in the bottom right. From there, just cover up the variable that the equation asks you to find, and the remainder of the triangle shows the formula. Try it. Cover up I and you'll get V/R. It helps my students (who don't have confidence in their algebraic skills) deal with rearranging equations. --Purpill 22:46, 18 March 2006 (UTC)


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Ma Huang

Ma-Linen, hemp, sesame, paralysis or numbness

Huang-Yellow

(Chinese: 麻黄)

Ephedra Stem

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * slightly ../Ku-Bitter/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung
 * Foot Tai Yang of Urinary Bladder

Actions & Indications:
 * drastic diaphoretic
 * disperse Lung, calm cough & asthma
 * promote urination, reduce swelling

Caution:
 * weak body
 * hypertension
 * deficiency-type sweating or wheezing

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Cooking:
 * cook first
 * remove foam

back to:
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Ma Huang


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Kayaking

Qualified Instructor Required

Prerequisite
Pathfinders working on this honor must first earn the Swimming - Intermediate honor.

==1. Satisfy the examiner that you have knowledge of different types of kayaks (Slalom, river, touring, sea); the uses for each and the equipment necessary for safe kayaking (helmet, life jacket, sprayskirt, bow and stern loops, flotation in kayak).==

Kayak Types

 * Slalom Kayak: These are used in slalom racing. A slalom race takes place on a whitewater course, and the kayaker must maneuver the kayak between several pairs of poles called "gates".  Green-colored gates must be entered by paddling downstream, and red-colored gates must be entered by paddling upstream.  The minimum length of a slalom kayak is four meters, and the minimum width is 60 cm.  Slalom kayaks are usually built out of fiberglass or composite materials.  Light weight is a very desirable characteristic in these boats.

 * River Kayak: These are used for playing in whitewater, or in "rodeo" competitions where the kayaker is judged according to the types of maneuvers made. River kayaks are small kayaks, with lengths from 6 to 12 feet (2 to 3 meters).  River kayaks have features to make them easily maneuverable in whitewater, and to resist damage from running into rocks.

 * Touring Kayak: Touring kayaks are designed for use on lazy rivers, lakes, and bays. They are generally more stable than river kayaks, but not quite as maneuverable.  They have more room for cargo than river kayaks, but not as much room as a sea kayak.  They are often used for fishing, for day trips, and for overnight trips.

 * Sea Kayak:A sea kayak is a kayak developed for paddling on open waters of lakes, bays, and the ocean. Sea kayaks are seaworthy small boats with a covered deck and the ability to incorporate a spraydeck. They trade off the extreme maneuverability of whitewater kayaks for cargo capacity, ease of straight-line paddling, and comfort for long journeys. Sea kayaks are now used around the world for marine journeys from a few hours to many weeks, as they can accommodate one or two (occasionally three) paddlers together with room for camping gear, food, water, and other supplies. The sport of sea kayaking (sometimes called ocean kayaking) combines much of the appeal of hill-walking with a maritime aspect, few access issues and vast areas to enjoy.

Equipment

 * Helmet: A helmet should be worn any time a kayak is taken into whitewater. Whitewater is "white" because of rocks, and have the potential to seriously injure a person.  The greatest danger addressed by a helmet is that of striking the head on an underwater obstacle when overturned in fast moving current.

 * Life jacket: Also called Personal Flotation Devices or PFD's, these are possibly the most essential of safety gear available to a kayaker.

 * Sprayskirt: The sprayskirt is a device that prevents water from entering the kayak.  It is worn around the waist and the "hem" of the sprayskirt is stretched around the cockpit of the kayak, making it watertight.  In the event that the kayak is overturned and the paddler cannot execute an eskimo roll, the sprayskirt must be "popped" from the cockpit.  It usually has a strap in the front for this purpose.  Once the sprayskirt has been popped, water will rush into the boat, and the paddler may swim out.  This maneuver is called a "wet exit."  Without the sprayskirt, an eskimo roll is nearly impossible.

 * Bow and stern loops: These are loops of rope, webbing, or sometimes handles built-in to the ends of the boat.  They allow a person to grab the boat - an option sometimes necessary to either grab a kayak (and thus, the paddler) to pull it from danger, or for a swimmer to hang on to (for those times when they kayaker becomes a swimmer) and be towed to safety.

 * Flotation: Kayaks without flotation sink when filled with water.  Flotation is added to prevent this from happening.  A kayak that floats even when filled with water can be retrieved more easily, but more importantly, it can be used as something to hang onto if capsized.  Flotation also displaces water, so that if the kayak capsizes, it will not completely fill with water - this would make it quite heavy.  A swimmer in whitewater definitely wants to stay away from heavy items freight-training through a rapid, as these can pin a person against a rock or cliff wall, or even cause blunt force trauma.  If the capsized kayak remains afloat and does not become so heavy as to become a dangerous projectile, a paddler may attempt to re-enter it.

2. Demonstrate an ability to enter and exit a kayak.
The first step in all of these is to make sure you're wearing a lifejacket. If you're going to paddle in swift water, put on your sprayskirt and helmet too.

a. From a beach
Entry: Place the kayak in the water where it is deep. At this depth, the kayak will sit on the river (or lake, etc.) bottom when you get into it. You want it to be in deep enough water so that it's easy to shove off, but not so deep that it doesn't sit stable on the floor. Experiment with the best depth for you, because it will depend on the shape of the boat as well as your own weight and the weight of any cargo in the kayak. Place the paddle across the front of the kayak and put one foot in the cockpit. Sit down on the rear of the cockpit and grab the sides of the boat with both hands. Swing the other leg into the cockpit and work your feet down into the bow. Lower your bottom into the seat. If you're using a sprayskirt, hook its hem around the rear portion of the cockpit rim and work it around to the front. Then hook the front of the hem around the front of the cockpit rim. Make sure you've got a good seal all the way around. Finally, scoot the boat into deeper water, grab the paddle, and go.

Exit: Paddle onto the beach until the kayak stops. Place your paddle across the front of the cockpit, pop the sprayskirt (if you're using one) and use your arms to lift your bottom out of the boat. Sit on the rear cockpit rim, lift your knees and extract your legs. Stand up, grab the kayak, and drag it further on shore. Once you remove the weight of your body from the kayak, it will likely begin to float again, so if you don't pull it further onto shore, it may very well float away in the current.

b. From a pier or landing
Entry:

Put the kayak in the water alongside the pier and lay the paddle on the pier where you will be able to reach it once you're in the boat. Sit on the pier and put your feet in the kayak, then turn your body towards the front of the boat and place both hands on the pier right next to one another. Gently stand in the kayak while dividing your weight between your feet and your hands. Bend the knees and lower yourself into the kayak while still holding on to the dock. Work you knees into the cockpit, let go of the dock, and grab the paddle. If you're using a sprayskirt, attach it to the cockpit.

Exit:

Paddle alongside the dock, place your paddle on the dock, and pop the sprayskirt. Reach up to the dock and place your hands on it, using them to balance as you gently stand. Shift your weight to your hands as you stand, and sit on the dock.

c. From deep water
Entry:

This is by far the most difficult way to enter a kayak, and this method is really only used when recovering from a mistake. Swim alongside the kayak and pull your body, stomach down, on top of the kayak. Carefully sit up and grab the gunwhales. Swing your legs around and insert them into the cockpit. Bail as much water out as you can before refastening the sprayskirt.

Exit: If the kayak overturns while you are in it, do not panic. Remember that you can hold your breath for several seconds and that you are not about to drown. Calmly release the sprayskirt and push the kayak off your legs as if you were taking off a pair of pants. Swim to the surface.

If you find yourself in a situation where you think you should exit a perfectly good kayak in deep water on purpose, rethink your situation. You are almost never better off out of the boat. If you decide that you really do want to exit, release the sprayskirt. Place your hands on the cockpit rim and lift your bottom out of the boat. Sit on the rear deck and lift your knees out. Slip your legs into the water and swim.

Alternatively, you could just roll over and do the "wet exit" as described above, though this will cause the kayak to take on water, making it more difficult to re-enter.

a. Straight forward and backward paddle
Grip the paddle tightly with your control hand (if you are right-handed, this is your right hand). Your other hand should hold the paddle loosely. To take a forward stroke, put the blade on the "control" end of the paddle in the water towards the bow. Pull the control hand towards your hip, push the other hand forward and twist the torso. The idea is to use the large muscles in the torso to power the stroke, not the arms. As you take the stroke, press the foot on your control side into the foot pegs and try to point your feet in the direction you want to the kayak to travel (in reality, which ever way your feet point is the direction you will travel). Draw the paddle to the stern and lift the blade out of the water. You are now ready to take a stroke on the other side of the boat. To do this, cock the wrist of the control hand as if you were accelerating on a motorcycle, and allow the paddle shaft twist in the other hand. Then plant the forward blade in the water and take another stroke, again, using the torso to power the paddle, and pressing the foot into the foot peg. To take a backwards stroke, reverse this process (except that pressing on the foot pegs will not really help).

b. Left and right turn by forward and back paddling
When you first learn to paddle a kayak, turning is easy - and often unintended. To make a turn to the left, take a wide stroke on the right (meaning the blade of the paddle will pass though the water at a distance from the boat), and take a close stroke on the left (meaning the blade of the paddle will pass close to the boat's hull). To turn right, reverse these two strokes.

For a quicker turn, take a wide forward stroke on one side and a wide backward stroke on the other. The kayak will turn in the direction of the backward stroke.

c. Draw (sweep) stroke
In this stroke, the paddle is planted in the water near the bow with the blade of the paddle parallel to the boat's center line (keel line). The paddle is then swept 180° in a wide arc to the stern, where it ends up parallel to the center line again. This is a turning stroke and can be done on either side, forward or reverse.

d. Support stroke
The support stroke is more commonly called a brace. This is done to steady the kayak or to prevent a flip.

To do a low brace, grip the paddle with both hands and raise the elbows. You can imagine that you are gripping the handle of a bicycle pump and getting ready to inflate a tire - the hold is roughly the same, except that the hands are farther apart. Then extend the paddle with the flat portion of the blade lying on the surface of the water and put some weight on it. If the water is moving, you can actually put all of your weight on the blade. The idea is to push down on the water, and it will push back on you, allowing you to right yourself.

A high brace is another support stroke, but executed improperly can lead to injury, usually a torn rotator cuff in the shoulder joint. To do a high brace on the right, cock the right wrist so that the paddle blade rests flat on the water. At the same time, bring the back of the left hand towards the forehead, put some weight on the blade and push off. Do not raise the left hand higher than the forehead, as this is an excellent way to tear your rotator cuff. It is better to just stick with the low brace, reserving the high brace for emergencies.

e. Cross current paddling
Cross current paddling is also called ferrying. This is a method of crossing a river (or a portion of a river). Point the bow of the kayak upstream, but angled slightly so that it points slightly toward the bank you wish to cross to. Then paddle forward against the current. The forward strokes should offset the backward motion caused by the current, but you should achieve motion to the side since the boat is angled. In swift current, you will have to work the paddle to keep the bow pointed in the right direction. The river may try to spin you around, and if it succeeds, you will flush downstream rather than ferry across the current. It's OK if you lose a little ground to the current, but be mindful of river conditions behind you. The idea is to move to the side.

4. Explain the steps involved in Eskimo rolling and demonstrate the proper method of doing this.
Learning the Eskimo roll requires both instruction and practice. The roll itself is the act of uprighting an overturned kayak by use of the paddle and body motion. Typically by lifting the torso towards the surface, flicking the hips to right the kayak halfway up and applying a righting force by means of the paddle while tucking close to the front or back deck.

Several styles of Eskimo roll are in use including the "C-to-C", Sweep, Screw, and Extended Paddle (Pawlata). The roll styles in use vary both regionally and by type of kayak. In the USA, the C-to-C has traditionally been taught in the eastern half of the country while either the older screw or more modern sweep roll have been used in the western half.

The type of roll you should learn is the one that your instructor wants to teach you. It is nearly impossible to learn how to roll without an instructor, and there are few people who know more than a few types of rolls.

There are many kayaking clubs all over the USA and Canada, and they frequently run "rolling clinics" in indoor swimming pools during the winter months. Fees are usually low to cover the use of the pool, and club members often provide instruction for free.

The following web sites have lists of paddling clubs that may be able to help you:
 * http://peteandedbooks.com/cclubs.htm - US and international listings
 * http://www.americanwhitewater.org/affiliates/ - US listings

a. Permanently in a workshop (fiberglassing)
To permanently patch a hole in a kayak using fiberglass you will need the following:
 * Fiberglass cloth, enough to cover the hole.
 * Epoxy Resin
 * Mixing container
 * Paint brush
 * Squeegee (Can be made from a plastic jug).

First, cut the fiberglass (regular scissors work fine) to an appropriate size to cover the hole. The patch should extend at least beyond the edges of the hole. Cut another piece to cover the opposite side of the hole (you want to patch both the inside and the outside of the boat). Set the cloth aside and mix the epoxy. Do not whip air into the epoxy mixture. Lay one of the cloth pieces over the hole and apply the epoxy over it with the paint brush. Use the squeegee to press the epoxy into the weave of the cloth. Go over the cloth several times, but be careful to not move the cloth off the hole. Allow the epoxy to set, and repeat the procedure two more times. You will need three coats of epoxy to cover the hole. Once the outside has been patched, turn your attention to the inside, using the same technique. Finally, sand the patch inside an out, starting with 80 grit paper, proceeding to 100 grit, and ending with 220. Finish the patch with spar varnish.

b. Emergency repair on the riverbank (duct tape)
If possible, pull the boat to shore, dry the affected areas as best you can with whatever dry stuff you can come up with, and expose the hole to the sun so it will dry. Duct tape does not stick well to a wet hull, and the sun can dry a kayak surprisingly quickly on a hot day. When the area is dry, apply duct tape over the hole and press it down well - especially around the edges of the tape. Be sure to apply tape to both sides of the hole, that is, the inside of the boat as well as the outside. If you only patch the outside, when water slops into the boat, it will find its way to the underside of the outer duct tape, loosen it, and your patch will come undone.

b. Two day trips (one including some white water)
See requirement 4 for links to kayaking clubs. Many of these offer training in the spring for a small fee. You can also check with local outfitters for commercial training programs or for information on local clubs. Clubs and outfitters will also be able to advise you on good rivers for an overnight trip or for a day trip including easy whitewater.

Where ever you decide to go for an overnight trip, you'll need to pack as if you were going on backpacking trip. Actually, you will be able to pack a little more than on a backpacking trip, because a kayak can hold more gear than a backpack, and you don't have to carry it full time (there may be portages though, so don't pack too much).

For a day trip, you should have everyone bring a sack lunch. This can be eaten on a calm section of a river or you can stop and eat on the river bank. You should also pack a dry change of clothes in a large zip lock bags or leave dry clothes in a car at the takeout.


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gui Zhi

Cinnamon Twig

(Chinese: 桂枝)

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Gan-Sweet/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung (b/c Xin-Spicy?)
 * Foot Tai Yang of Urinary Bladder
 * Hand Shao Yin of Heart

Actions & Indications:
 * harmonize Ying/Wei Qi
 * warm channels, dispel Cold
 * warm & activate Yang Qi in chest
 * warm & activate Yang Qi in Blood Vessels

Contrainditations:
 * warm frebile disorders
 * Yin deficiency Heat
 * Blood Heat with vomiting

Caution:
 * pregnancy
 * excessive menstruation

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)
 * 9-15 qian (27-45 grams) ???

Used: Often

Friend: ../Ma Huang/

back to
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gui Zhi


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Zi Su Ye

Zi = purple Su Ye = leaf

Perilla leaf

(Chinese: 紫苏叶)

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/
 * ../Xiang-Aromatic/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung (b/c Xin-Spicy?)
 * Foot Tai Yin of Spleen

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Spicy, Warm)
 * move Qi, expand the chest
 * harmonize Stomach, stop vomiting
 * calm fetus (for morning sickness)
 * alleviate seafood poisoning

Contraindication:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Damp-Heat

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage: 1-3 qian (3-9 gram)

Cooking: short time (aromatic)

Similar Actions to:
 * ../Jing Jie/ - specializes in any kind of Wind
 * ../Fang Feng/ - for deeper Wind

back to:
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Zi Su Ye


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Jing Jie

schzonepeta stem or bud

(Chinese name: 荆芥)

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * slightly ../Wen-Warm/
 * ../Xiang-Aromatic/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung
 * Foot Jue Yin of Liver

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Spicy, Warm)
 * release rash & stop itching
 * stop bleeding (charred)
 * Expel Wind-Heat or Wind-Cold (depending on what mixed with)

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Liver Wind pattern
 * fully erupted measles or open sores

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Cooking: short time

Friend:
 * ../Fang Feng/ - often used together

Similar Actions to:
 * ../Zi Su Ye/ - specialist disperse Cold
 * ../Fang Feng/ - specialist deeper Wind

back to:
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Jing Jie


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Fang Feng

Meaning of Name:

Fang-Guard Against

Feng-Wind

English Name:
 * Saposhnikovia root
 * Ledebouriella root

Chinese Name:
 * 防风 (Pinyin: fáng fēng)

Latin Name:
 * Radix Ledebouriellae Divaricatae

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Gan-Sweet/
 * slightly ../Wen-Warm/

Channels (all foot channels b/c root?)
 * Foot Tai Yang of Urinary Bladder
 * Foot Jue Yin of Liver
 * Foot Tai Yin of Spleen

Actions & Indications:
 * Disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * Expel Wind-Cold-Damp
 * expel Wind-Damp, stop pain
 * stop spasm
 * used for migraine headache
 * Expel Wind-Cold or Wind-Heat

Contraindications:
 * Qi or Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * spasm due to Blood deficiency
 * Yin deficiency with Heat

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Antagonize:
 * Gan Jiang
 * Li lu

Counteract:
 * Bei Xie

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Friend:
 * ../Jing Jie/ - used together often

Similar Actions To:
 * ../Zi Su Ye/ - specialist, disperse Cold
 * ../Jing Jie/ - specialist, any Wind

back to:
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Fang Feng


text:
Wikijunior:Kings and Queens of England/The House of York

Edward IV (1461-1470, 1471-1483)
Edward IV was born on 28 April 1442 at Rouen in France. He was the eldest son of Richard, Duke of York, a leading claimant to the throne of England. Richard's challenge to the ruling family started the Wars of the Roses. When his father was killed in 1460 whilst pressing his claim to be king against Henry VI at the Battle of Wakefield, Edward inherited his claim.

Edward won the support of Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, whose nickname is "The Kingmaker". Edward then defeated the Lancastrians in a number of battles. While Henry was campaigning in the north, Warwick gained control of London and had Edward declared king in 1461. Edward strengthened his claim with victory at the Battle of Towton in the same year, where the Lancastrian army was virtually wiped out.

Marriage and children
Edward was tall, strong, handsome, generous, and popular. Warwick, believing that he could continue to rule through Edward, wanted him to marry into a major European family. Edward, however, secretly married a widow, Elizabeth Woodville. They had ten children together. Under an act of Parliament of 1484, one year after Edward IV's death, all of Edward's children by Elizabeth Woodville were declared illegitimate on the grounds that Edward had been due to marry another woman, Eleanor Talbot, before he entered into marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. This claim was only made after all these parties had died. The act was repealed shortly after Henry VII became king. Edward also had many mistresses and had several illegitimate children.

A series of conflicts
Elizabeth's family had little land, which was where real power came from, but Warwick did not like the influence they now had. Warwick allied himself with Edward's younger brother George, Duke of Clarence, and led an army against Edward. The main part of the king's army (without Edward) was defeated at the Battle of Edgecote Moor, and Edward was later captured at Olney. Warwick tried to rule in Edward's name, but the nobles, many of whom owed their position to the king, were not happy. A rebellion forced Warwick to free Edward, who tried to make peace with Warwick and Clarence. This did not work and they rebelled again in 1470, after which Warwick and Clarence were forced to flee to France. There, they allied with Henry VI's wife, Margaret, and Warwick agreed to restore Henry VI to the throne in return for French support. They invaded in 1470. This time, Edward was forced to flee after Warwick's brother switched to the Lancastrian side, making Edward's military position too weak, and Henry VI was king once more.

Edward fled to Burgundy. The rulers of Burgundy were his brother-in-law Charles, Duke of Burgundy, and his sister Margaret of Burgundy. After France declared war on Burgundy, Charles helped Edward to raise an army to win back his kingdom. When he returned to England with a small force he avoided capture by saying that he only wished to reclaim his dukedom. This is similar to the claim Henry Bolingbroke made seventy years before. The city of York, however, closed its gates to him, but as he marched southwards he began to gather support, and Clarence reunited with him. Edward defeated Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. With Warwick dead, he ended the remaining Lancastrian resistance at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. The Lancastrian heir, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, was killed either on the battlefield or shortly afterwards. A few days later, on the night that Edward re-entered London, Henry VI, who held prisoner, was murdered to make sure there was no remaining Lancastrian opposition.

Edward did not face any further rebellions after his restoration. The only rival left was Henry Tudor, who was living in exile. Edward declared war on France in 1475, which ended with the Treaty of Picquigny, under which he was immediately paid 75,000 crowns, and then received a yearly pension of 50,000 crowns. Edward backed an attempt by Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, brother of the Scottish king, James III, to take the throne in 1482. Although Edinburgh and James III were both captured, the Duke of Albany went back on his agreements with Edward, and the English forces were pulled back. England did, however, recover the border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed.

Death
Edward fell ill at Easter 1483, and made some changes to his will, the most important being his naming of his brother, the Duke of Gloucester, as Protector after his death. He died on 9 April 1483 and is buried in St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle. He was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, Edward. Edward IV's daughter, Elizabeth of York, later became King Henry VII's queen.

Was Edward illegitimate?
There have been many rumours that Edward IV was himself illegitimate, in which case he should never have been king. In his time, it was noted that Edward IV did not look much like his father. Before he became king in 1483, Richard III himself declared that Edward was illegitimate, and parliament even considered the matter. William Shakespeare, in his play, Richard III, which was written over a hundred years later, also referred to the claim. To this day it is not known whether these rumours were true.

Edward V (1483)
Edward V was born in sanctuary within Westminster Abbey on 4 November 1470, while his mother was taking refuge from the Lancastrians who were then in charge of the kingdom while his father, the Yorkist King Edward IV of England, was out of power. After his father returned to the throne, he was made Prince of Wales in June 1471 and appeared with his parents on state occasions. Edward IV had set up a Council of Wales and the Marches, and sent his son to Ludlow Castle to be its president. The prince was at Ludlow when news came of his father's sudden death. Therefore Edward became king on 9 April 1483, aged only 12.

His father's brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was given the role of Protector to his young nephews, Edward V and Richard, Duke of York. He caught up with Edward on his journey from Ludlow and took the princes to London. Less than three months later, Richard took the throne himself after parliament declared Edward to be illegitimate.

After the two boys went to the Tower of London, they were never seen in public again. What happened to them is one of the great mysteries of history, and many books have been written on the subject. It is believed that they were killed, and the usual suspects are: their uncle, King Richard; Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham; and Henry Tudor, who later defeated Richard and took the throne as Henry VII.

In 1674 some workmen remodeling the Tower of London dug up a box that had two small human skeletons in it. They threw them on a rubbish heap, but some days or weeks later someone decided they might be the bones of the two princes, so they gathered them up and put some of them in an urn that was buried at Westminster Abbey. In 1933 the bones were taken out and examined and then replaced in the urn. The experts who examined them could not agree on what age the children would have been when they died or even whether they were boys or girls.

Richard III (1483-1485)
Richard III was born at Fotheringay Castle on 2 October 1452. He was the fourth surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, the 3rd Duke of York, who was a strong claimant to the throne of King Henry VI. He has been portrayed as having a withered arm, limp and a crooked back, but this is most probably an invention from many years later. Richard was King of England from 1483, when he effectively deposed his nephew, Edward V. A rebellion rose against Richard later that year, and he died at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. He is the last English king to die in battle, and he was succeeded by the winner of the battle, Henry Tudor.

Marriage and children
Richard spent much of his childhood at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, under the care of his uncle, Richard Neville, the 16th Earl of Warwick (the "Kingmaker"), as Richard's father died when he was young. Following the Yorkist victory over the Lancastrians at the Battle of Tewkesbury, Richard married the widowed Anne Neville, younger daughter of the now dead 16th Earl of Warwick on 12 July 1472. Anne's first husband had been Edward of Westminster, son of Henry VI. Richard and Anne had one son, Edward Plantagenet, who was born in 1473. He died soon after being made Prince of Wales in 1483. Richard also had a number of illegitimate children.

Reign of Edward IV
During the reign of his brother, King Edward IV, Richard was a loyal and skilful military commander. He was rewarded with large estates in Northern England, and given the title Duke of Gloucester and the position of Governor of the North, becoming the richest and most powerful noble in England. Richard continued to control the north of England until Edward's death. In 1482 Richard recaptured Berwick-upon-Tweed from the Scots, and was noted as being fair and just, making gifts to universities and the Church.

Death and legacy
On 22 June 1483, outside St Paul's Cathedral, a statement was read out on behalf of Richard declaring for the first time that he was taking the throne for himself. On 6 July 1483, Richard was crowned at Westminster Abbey. Except for three earls not old enough to be there and a few lesser nobles, the entire peerage attended his coronation. Richard was known as a devout man and an efficient administrator. However, he was a Yorkist and heirless, and had ruthlessly removed many of his enemies but some, led by Henry Tudor, remained. Richard's enemies united against him and he fought them at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485, where he was killed. Henry Tudor succeeded Richard to become King Henry VII. Richard was buried at Greyfriars Church, Leicester, but his body was lost during the later Dissolution of the Monasteries. In 2012 his body was rediscovered and reburied in Leicester Cathedral in 2015. In 2014 the King Richard III Museum opened on the site of his original burial place in Greyfriars. Since his death, Richard III has become one of England's most controversial kings. He was portrayed as a bad king by historians of the House of Tudor. He has now largely lost his notoriety, except in relation to the mystery surrounding the two Princes in the Tower.


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Qiang Huo

notopterygium root

(Chinese: 羌活, Pinyin: qiāng huó)

Latin Name: Radix Et Rhizoma Notopterygii

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Ku-Bitter/
 * ../Wen-Warm/
 * ../Xiang-Aromatic/

Channels:
 * Foot Tai Yang of Urinary Bladder
 * Foot Shao Yin of Kidney

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * Expel Wind-Cold-Damp
 * stop headache
 * ../Tai Yang/ headache (occipital)
 * Expel Wind-Cold-Damp, especially for upper part of body pain
 * guide Qi to Tai Yang & Du channels

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Blood, Yin and exterior deficiency
 * overdose may cause nausea and vomiting

Caution:
 * Yin deficiency syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage:
 * 2-5 qian (6-15 grams)

Similar Actions to:
 * ../Gao Ben/ - Tai Yang headache
 * ../Bai Zhi/ - Yang Ming headache, toothache, nasal congestion

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Qiang Huo


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gao Ben

Chinese lovage root, ligusticum root

(Chinese name: 藁本)

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Foot Tai Yang of Urinary Bladder

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * Expel Wind-Cold-Damp
 * Stop headache
 * Jue Yin headache (vertex)

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Blood/Yin deficiency, because it's drying

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Similar Actions to:
 * ../Qiang Huo/ - specialist Tai Yang headache; upper body Wind-Damp Bi pain
 * ../Bai Zhi/ - specialist Yang Ming headache, toothache, nasal congestion

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gao Ben


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Bai Zhi

Bai-White

Zhi-Root of medicinal plant

(Chinese name:白芷)

Angelica root

Latin Name: Radix Angelicae Dahuricae

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung
 * Foot Yang Ming of Stomach

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * Expel Wind-Cold-Damp
 * stop headache
 * Yang Ming headache (frontal)
 * reduce swelling & expel pus
 * expel Damp & alleviate discharge
 * open nasal orifices

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Blood/Yin deficiency, because it's very drying
 * burst sore, draining pus

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Antagonize:
 * Xuan Fu Hua

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Similar actions to:
 * ../Qiang Huo/ - Tai Yang, vertex & occipital headaches; upper body Wind-Damp Bi pain
 * ../Gao Ben/ - Tai Yang, vertex & occipital headaches

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Bai Zhi


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xi Xin

Xi-Slender

Xin-Spicy or hot in flavor

(Chinese: 细辛)

Asarum, Chinese Wild Ginger

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung (b/c Xin-Spicy?)
 * Foot Shao Yin of Kidney

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * Stop headache
 * Shao Yin headache (teeth/cold)
 * warm the Lung, transform Phlegm
 * very good analgesic
 * open nasal orifices

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * profuse sweating due to Qi deficiency
 * headache due to Blood deficiency
 * cough due to Yin deficiency

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection
 * renal problem

Antagonize:
 * Shan Zhu Yu
 * Huang Qi

Counteract:
 * Hua Shi

Dosage:
 * .3-1 qian (1-3 grams)

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xi Xin


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xin Yi Hua

Xin Yi Hua-Flower

(Chinese name: 辛夷花)

English name: Magnolia Flower

Latin name: Flos Magnoliae Lilliflorae

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung
 * Foot Yang Ming of Stomach

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * for rhinitis, sinusitis
 * opens nasal orifices

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Yin deficiency with Heat signs

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Cooking:
 * crush, cook in cheesecloth

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xin Yi Hua


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Sheng Jiang

Sheng-Fresh Jiang-Ginger

Fresh Ginger Root

(Chinese name:生姜)

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * ../Wen-Warm/

Channels:
 * Hand Tai Yin of Lung
 * Foot Tai Yin of Spleen
 * Foot Yang Ming of Stomach

Actions & Indications:
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * warm the Lung, stop cough
 * reduce the toxicity of Ban Xia, Tian Nan Xing
 * harmonize Ying/Wei Qi
 * warm the Middle Jiao, alleviate vomiting

Prepared forms of the herb:
 * Sheng Jiang Pi (生姜皮) - diuretic
 * Gan Jiang (干姜) - dried ginger root

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * Lung Heat patterns
 * vomiting due to Stomach Heat

Caution:
 * Yin deficiency
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection

Dosage: 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xiang Ru

nickname: "Summer Ma Huang"

(Chinese name: 香薷)

Latin name: Herba Elsholtziae

Taste & Temperature:
 * ../Xin-Spicy/
 * slightly ../Wen-Warm/
 * ../Xiang-Aromatic/

Channels:
 * Lung
 * Stomach

Actions & Indications:
 * expel summerheat and dampness
 * disperse Wind-Cold (Warm & Spicy)
 * expel Summer Heat, transform Damp
 * promote urination, reduce swelling

Contraindications:
 * Qi & Yin deficiency causing excessive sweating
 * sweating due to Wei Qi deficiency

Caution:
 * Yin syndrome
 * Blood deficiency
 * chronic skin infection
 * may cause vomiting if taken hot

Dosage:
 * 1-3 qian (3-9 grams)

Cooking:
 * cook short time for Exterior disorder

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Xin Wen Jie Biao/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xiang Ru


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Taste & Temperature

Five Tastes:
 * ../Suan-Sour/ (Chinese: 酸)
 * ../Ku-Bitter/ (Chinese: 苦)
 * ../Gan-Sweet/ (Chinese: 甘)
 * ../Xin-Spicy/ (Chinese: 辛)
 * ../Xian-Salty/ (Chinese: 咸)

Other Tastes:
 * ../Dan-Bland/ (淡)
 * ../Se-Astringent/ (涩)
 * ../Xiang-Aromatic/ (香)

Temperatures:
 * ../Re-Hot/ (热)
 * ../Wen-Warm/ (温)
 * ../Ping-Neutral/ (平)
 * ../Liang-Cool/ (凉)
 * ../Han-Cold/ (寒)

Directions of Action:
 * ../Sheng-Ascending/ (升)
 * ../Jiang-Descending/ (降)
 * ../Fu-Floating/ (浮)
 * ../Chen-Sinking/ (沈)


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xin-Spicy

Spicy/Acrid/Pungent:
 * scatters/disperses stagnation (?)
 * expel evil pathogenic factors

Lists of Xin-Spicy Herbs
Xin-Spicy & Wen-Warm:
 * ../Ma Huang/
 * ../Gui Zhi/
 * ../Zi Su Ye/
 * ../Jing Jie/
 * ../Fang Feng/
 * ../Qiang Huo/
 * ../Gao Ben/
 * ../Bai Zhi/
 * ../Xi Xin/
 * ../Xin Yi Hua/
 * ../Sheng Jiang/
 * ../Xiang Ru/

Xin-Spicy & Liang-Cool:
 * ../Bo He/
 * ../Man Jing Zi/
 * ../Chai Hu/
 * ../Ge Gen/
 * ../Sheng Ma/

Xin-Spicy & Han-Cold:
 * ../Niu Bang Zi/

Clear & Purge Heat:
 * ../Shi Gao/
 * ../Xia Ku Cao/

Clear Blood-Heat:
 * ../Mu Dan Pi/

back to:
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/
 * ../Taste & Temperature/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xin-Spicy


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Ku-Bitter

Bitter:
 * clears Heat
 * sedates and hardens
 * clears Damp-Heat
 * subdues Rebellious Qi

List of Bitter Herbs
Spicy-Warm:

Spicy-Cool/Cold:
 * ../Niu Bang Zi/
 * ../Sang Ye/
 * ../Ju Hua/
 * ../Man Jing Zi/
 * ../Dan Dou Chi/
 * ../Mu Zei/
 * ../Chai Hu/

Clear Heat & Purge Fire:
 * ../Zhi Mu/
 * ../Zhi Zi/
 * ../Xia Ku Cao/
 * ../Jue Ming Zi/

Clear Blood-Heat:
 * ../Sheng Di Huang/
 * ../Xuan Shen/
 * ../Mu Dan Pi/
 * ../Bai Wei/

back to:
 * ../Taste & Temperature/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Ku-Bitter


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gan-Sweet

Gan-Sweet:
 * tonifies
 * balances
 * moderates
 * tonifies Deficiency
 * stops pain

Lists of Gan-Sweet Herbs
Spicy-Warm Herbs:
 * ../Gui Zhi/
 * ../Fang Feng/

Spicy-Cool/Cold Herbs:
 * ../Chan Tui/ (not Xin-Spicy, just in category)
 * ../Sang Ye/ (not Xin-Spicy, just in category)
 * ../Ju Hua/ (not Xin-Spicy, just in category)
 * ../Dan Dou Chi/ (not Xin-Spicy, just in category)
 * ../Mu Zei/ (not Xin-Spicy, just in category)
 * ../Ge Gen/
 * ../Sheng Ma/

Clear Heat & Purge Fire:
 * ../Shi Gao/
 * ../Dan Zhu Ye/
 * ../Lu Gen/
 * ../Jue Ming Zi/

Clear Blood-Heat:
 * ../Sheng Di Huang/
 * ../Xuan Shen/ (玄参)
 * ../Di Gu Pi/ (地骨皮)
 * ../Zi Cao/ (紫草)

back to:
 * ../Taste & Temperature/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Gan-Sweet


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xian-Salty

Xian-Salty:
 * flows downward (Descends)
 * softens hardness
 * treats constipation & swelling

Lists of Xian-Salty Herbs
Spicy-Cool/Cold Herbs:
 * ../Chan Tui/

Clear Blood-Heat:
 * ../Shui Niu Jiao/
 * ../Xuan Shen/
 * ../Bai Wei/

back to:
 * ../Taste & Temperature/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Xian-Salty


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Suan-Sour

Suan-Sour:

Suan (Chinese: 酸) herbs are sour herbs used in Traditional Chinese medicine. They are astringent in nature.

Actions of sour herbs include:
 * generates fluids & Yin
 * controls perspiration & diarrhea

Lists of Suan-Sour Herbs
back to:
 * ../Taste & Temperature/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Suan-Sour


text:
Traditional Chinese Medicine/Wen-Warm

Wen-Warm:
 * warmer than Ping-Neutral
 * cooler than Re-Hot

Lists of Wen-Warm Herbs
Spicy-Warm Herbs:
 * ../Ma Huang/
 * ../Gui Zhi/
 * ../Zi Su Ye/
 * ../Jing Jie/
 * ../Fang Feng/
 * ../Qiang Huo/
 * ../Gao Ben/
 * ../Bai Zhi/
 * ../Xi Xin/
 * ../Xin Yi Hua/
 * ../Sheng Jiang/
 * ../Xiang Ru/

Spicy-Cool/Cold Herbs:
 * ../Dan Dou Chi/

back to:
 * ../Taste & Temperature/
 * ../TCM Materia Medica/

title: Traditional Chinese Medicine/Wen-Warm


text:
User:Balciunaite~enwikibooks

Paula Balciunaite is a contributor.

title: User:Balciunaite~enwikibooks


text:
Chinese (Mandarin)/Abbreviations

=Abbreviations=语表 Below is table of the grammatical abbreviations used in this book and their expanded forms. If you would like more detailed information on any item, click on the word to read the Wikipedia article on it.

title: Chinese (Mandarin)/Abbreviations


text:
Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Meso compounds

Meso Compounds
Meso (same, in Latin) compounds are common when dealing with chiral molecules. Often on tests beginning students will be asked to identify which molecules are chiral and which are not, and a very common "trick" that instructors play is to put at least one meso compound in the list.

The reason students fall for the trick is that one feature of meso compounds is that they have at least one chiral center, and when students see the first chiral center they believe that they have found a chiral molecule. This is not necessarily the case. If a compound has two chiral centers, and if rotating the molecule through one or both centers allows a person to superimpose the two mirror images on top of one another, then you are dealing with a meso compound.

Definition of Meso
Meso is a prefix which, by strict definitions, indicates the presence of a 17th chiral center. It comes from the Greek for "middle" or "mid", and refers to the fact that the molecule can rotate about its middle. A meso molecule is not a diastereomer because rotating either of its chiral centers doesn't change the molecule overall; a meso molecule has an internal plane of reflection, also called a plane of symmetry.

Plane of Symmetry
If, in a drawing of a molecule, you can draw a straight line from any part of the molecule to any other part of the molecule, and if the two halves of the molecule (as separated by the line) are identical, then the molecule is said to have an internal plane of symmetry.

Important note: the phrase plane of symmetry refers to a molecule's three-dimensional structure. If one uses a wedge-and-dash drawing or other 3-D drawing of a molecule, then be certain that the two halves of the molecule are actually symmetrical in all three dimensions.

Spotting meso compounds and planes of symmetry is often considered difficult at first, and it is also often observed that the task becomes easier with practice.

Example of a Meso Compound
One of the isomers of tartaric acid is a meso compound:

If you rotate the molecule 180° you will have the same apparent stereochemistry. Study this drawing until you can see for yourself that it is true, and if you have a modeling kit to be able to construct this molecule then the symmetry will be very apparent.


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Wikijunior:Kings and Queens of England/The Tudors

Henry VII (1485-1509)
Henry VII, also known as Henry Tudor, was born at Pembroke Castle on 28 January 1457. He was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509. He was the founder of the House of Tudor. He was the only son of Edmund Tudor, who died two months before Henry was born. He spent much of his early life with his uncle Jasper Tudor. When Edward IV returned to the throne in 1471, Henry VII was forced to flee to Brittany, where spent most of the next fourteen years. After his second cousin's revolt failed in 1483, Henry VII became the leading Lancastrian contender for the throne of England. With French help, Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to land in England but turned back after coming across Richard III's forces on the Dorset coast. Henry then gained the support of the in-laws of the late Yorkist King Edward IV and landed with a largely French and Scottish force in Pembrokeshire, and marched into England, with his uncle, Jasper Tudor, and the experienced Earl of Oxford. Henry's forces decisively defeated the Yorkists at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485 when several of Richard's key allies, switched sides or deserted the field of battle. Richard III himself died at the battle. This effectively ended the long-running Wars of the Roses, though it wasn't the final battle.

Henry then had to establish his rule. His own claim to the throne was limited, and there were a number of false claimants, or pretenders, to the throne. The main one was Perkin Warbeck, who pretended to be Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the Princes in the Tower. These pretenders were backed by disaffected nobles. Henry, however, succeeded in securing his crown. He also strengthened his position by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV.

Policies as king
Henry VII restored the fortunes of the Exchequer by introducing efficiently ruthless mechanisms of taxation. He was supported by his chancellor, Archbishop John Morton, whose "Morton's Fork" made sure the nobles paid more taxes. Morton's Fork said of the nobles: one who lives frugally must be saving well, and so can give much money to the King. However, one who spends freely must have lots of extra money, and can afford to give generously to the king. By the time of his death, Henry had amassed a personal fortune of a million and a half pounds.

As well as coming to terms with the French, Henry VII made an alliance with Spain by marrying his son, Arthur Tudor, to Catherine of Aragon. He made an alliance with Scotland by marrying his daughter, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland. And he made an alliance with the Holy Roman Empire, under the emperor Maximilian I.

Henry is also noted for starting the Court of Star Chamber. This revived an earlier practice of using a small (and trusted) group of the Privy Council as a personal court, able to cut through the red tape in the legal system and act swiftly. Serious disputes involving the use of personal power, or threats to royal authority, were dealt with by the Court.

Later years
In 1502, Henry's heir, Arthur, died. Henry's wife died in childbirth a few months later. Henry asked the Pope for permission to marry his second son, also called Henry to Catherine of Aragon to help him keep his alliance with Spain. The Pope agreed, but Henry changed his mind, and the marriage did not happen in Henry VII's lifetime. Although Henry VII himself made half-hearted plans to remarry and get more heirs, this never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second, more famous son, Henry VIII. King Henry VII was buried at Westminster Abbey.

Henry VIII (1509-1547)
Henry VIII was born at the Palace of Placentia at Greenwich on 28 June 1491. Henry VIII was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Only three of Henry VII's six siblings, Arthur, Margaret and Mary, survived infancy. In 1493, the young Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1494, he was created Duke of York. He was later appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, though still a child. When his brother Arthur died in 1502, Henry found himself heir-apparent to the throne and soon after, he was created Prince of Wales. When his father died in 1509, Henry became King of England and Lord (later King) of Ireland, positions he held till his death on 28 January 1547.

Henry is famous for marrying six times and for having more power than any other British monarch. Notable events during his reign include the break with the Roman Catholic Church and the subsequent establishment of the independent Church of England, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and the union of England and Wales. He is known to have been an avid gambler and dice player. During his youth he excelled at sport, especially jousting, hunting and tennis. He was also a good musician, author and poet. Henry was also involved in the construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including Westminster Abbey.

Early reign
Henry's father had previously prevented him from marrying Catherine of Aragon. King Ferdinand II of Aragon, however, was eager for the marriage to take place, and Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon about nine weeks after he became king. Queen Catherine's first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage in 1510. She gave birth to a son, Henry, on 1 January 1511, but he only lived until 22 February. She had one more short-lived child and one stillborn one, and then in 1516, Queen Catherine gave birth to a girl, Mary, who was to survive into adulthood, and later become Queen Mary I.

The King's Great Matter
Henry VIII's accession was the first peaceful one England had witnessed in many years. But the English people were distrustful of female rulers, and Henry felt that only a male heir could secure the throne. Although Queen Catherine had been pregnant at least seven times (for the last time in 1518), only one child, the Princess Mary, had survived beyond infancy. In 1526, when it became clear that Queen Catherine could have no further children, Henry became determined to divorce Catherine, as he was very infatuated with Anne Boleyn.

Henry's long efforts to end his marriage to Queen Catherine became known as "The King's Great Matter". Cardinal Wolsey and William Warham quietly began an inquiry into the validity of her marriage to Henry. Queen Catherine, however, testified that her marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales had never been consummated, and that there was therefore no impediment to her subsequent marriage to Henry. The inquiry could proceed no further, and was dropped.

Without informing Cardinal Wolsey, Henry directly appealed to Pope Clement VII, who did not agree to annul the marriage. Further attempts were made to persuade the Pope to consent. Eventually Henry effectively fired Wolsey and replaced other churchmen who were in key government roles with laymen. Power then passed to Sir Thomas More (the new Lord Chancellor), Thomas Cranmer (the Archbishop of Canterbury) and Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex (the Secretary of State). On 25 January 1533, Cranmer participated in the wedding of Henry and Anne Boleyn. In May, Cranmer pronounced Henry's marriage to Catherine void, and shortly afterwards declared the marriage to Anne valid. The Princess Mary was deemed illegitimate, and was replaced as heiress-presumptive by Queen Anne's new daughter, the Princess Elizabeth. (They were each heiress "presumptive" because the birth of a brother—a male heir—would make him the heir to the throne and put his sister in second place.) Catherine lost the title of Queen, becoming the Dowager Princess of Wales; Mary was no longer a Princess, but a mere Lady. Sir Thomas More, who had left office in 1532, accepted that Parliament could make Anne Queen, but refused to acknowledge its religious authority. Instead, he held that the Pope remained the head of the Church. As a result, he was charged with high treason, and beheaded in 1535. Judging him to be a martyr, the Catholic Church later made him a saint.

Religious upheaval
The Pope responded to these events by excommunicating Henry in July 1533. Religious upheaval followed. Urged by Thomas Cromwell, Parliament passed several Acts that sealed the breach with Rome in the spring of 1534. Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the Act of Succession 1534. Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed. Several dissenting monks were tortured and executed. Cromwell, for whom was created the post of "Vicegerent in Spirituals", was authorized to visit monasteries. It was claimed this was to make sure that they followed royal instructions, but really it was to assess their wealth. In 1536, an Act of Parliament allowed Henry to seize the possessions of the lesser monasteries (those with annual incomes of £200 or less).

In 1536, Queen Anne began to lose Henry's favour. After the Princess Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne had two pregnancies that ended in either miscarriage or stillbirth. Henry VIII, meanwhile, had turned his attentions to another lady of his court, Jane Seymour. Henry had Anne arrested on charges of using witchcraft to trap Henry into marrying her, of having adulterous relationships with five other men, of incest with her brother, of injuring the King and of conspiring to kill him, which amounted to treason. The charges were most likely false. The court trying the case was presided over by Anne's own uncle. In May 1536, the Court condemned Anne and her brother to death, either by burning at the stake or by beheading, whichever the King pleased. The other four men Queen Anne had allegedly been involved with were to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Anne's brother was beheaded soon after the trial ended The four had their sentences reduced to beheading. Anne was also beheaded soon afterwards.

Only days after Anne's execution in 1536, Henry married Jane Seymour. The Act of Succession 1536 declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession, and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them. The King was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will. Jane gave birth to a son, Edward, in 1537, and died two weeks later. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for some time. Henry also considered her to be his only "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought.

At about the same time as his marriage to Jane Seymour, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one nation. Henry also continued with his persecution of his religious opponents. In 1536, an uprising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out in Northern England. Henry agreed to allow Parliament to address their concerns and he agreed to grant a general pardon to all those involved. He kept neither promise, and a second uprising occurred in 1537. As a result, the leaders of the rebellion were convicted of treason and executed. In 1538, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to Roman Catholic Saints. In 1539, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown.

Later years
Henry's only surviving son, Edward, was not a healthy child. Therefore, Henry wanted to marry again to ensure that a male could succeed him. Thomas Cromwell suggested Anne of Cleves, the sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King. After seeing Holbein's flattering portrayal, and hearing a complimentary description of Anne from his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, calling her a "Flanders Mare". She was painted totally without any signs of her pockmarked face. Nevertheless, he married her on 6 January 1540. Soon, however, Henry wanted to end the marriage, not only because of his personal feelings but also because of political considerations. The Duke of Cleves had become involved in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne did not try to stop Henry getting an annulment. She testified that her marriage was never consummated. The marriage was subsequently annulled, slightly more than six months after it began, on the grounds that Anne had previously been contracted to marry another European nobleman. She received the title of "The King's Sister", and was granted Hever Castle, the former residence of Anne Boleyn's family, eventually outliving both Henry and his last two wives. Thomas Cromwell, though, fell out of favor for his role in arranging the marriage, and was later beheaded.

On 28 July 1540 (the same day Cromwell was executed) Henry married the young Catherine Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine was soon found to have committed adultery against Henry. An Act of Parliament condemned her to death. Catherine's marriage was annulled shortly before her execution, which was on 13 February 1542. She was only about eighteen years old at the time.

Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in 1543. She argued with Henry over religion; she was a Protestant, but Henry remained a Catholic. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament put them back in the line of succession after Edward, though they were still deemed illegitimate. The same Act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will.

A rhyme to remember the fates of Henry's wives is "divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived".

Death and succession
Later in life, Henry was grossly overweight, with a waist measurement of 54 inches (137 cm), and he possibly suffered from gout. Henry's increased size dated from a jousting accident in 1536. He suffered a thigh wound which not only prevented him from taking exercise, but also gradually became ulcerated and may have indirectly led to his death, which occurred on 28 January 1547 at the Palace of Whitehall. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle, next to his wife Jane Seymour. He was succeeded as king by his son Edward, but within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his children sat on the English throne.

Edward VI (1547-1553)
Edward VI was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich on 12 October 1537. He was the son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour. He was King of England and King of Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death on 6 July 1553. Edward was England's first Protestant ruler. Although his father, Henry VIII, had broken the link between the English church and Rome, it was during Edward's reign that the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of Protestantism which came to be known as Anglicanism.

Edward VI was an extremely sickly child. Edward's physical difficulties did not impede his education; indeed, he was a very bright child, able to speak Latin at the age of seven. He later learned to speak French and Greek.

Under Somerset
Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547. His will named sixteen executors, who were to act as a Council of Regency until Edward VI achieved majority at the age of eighteen (although it was agreed by the Council in 1552 that Edward would reach his majority at 16). These executors were to be supplemented by twelve assistants, who would only participate when the others deemed it fit. The executors were all inclined towards religious reformation, whose most prominent opponents, were excluded. Henry VIII also appointed Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, to serve as Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person during Edward VI's minority. Lord Hertford, who was Edward VI's uncle, was only supposed to act on the advice of the other executors. A few days after Henry VIII's death, Lord Hertford was created Duke of Somerset and appointed to the influential positions of Lord High Treasurer and Earl Marshal.

On 13 March 1547, Edward VI created a new Council of twenty-six members. The Council consisted of all the executors and assistants, except for Somerset and one other. The Duke of Somerset was no longer merely a "first among equals"; instead, he was allowed to act without the consent of the Council, the composition of which he was permitted to change at his whim. The Lord Protector thus became the real ruler of England; Edward VI was demoted to a ceremonial role. Another powerful influence on Edward VI was Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Both Cranmer and the Duke of Somerset began the process of creating a 'Protestant England'. Various Catholic rites were replaced with Protestant ones. The Duke of Somerset, however, did not encourage persecution.

One of the Duke of Somerset's primary aims was to achieve a union between England and Scotland. In late 1547, an English army marched into Scotland and took control of the Lowlands. In 1548, however, Mary, the daughter of the Scottish King James V, married the Dauphin, the heir-apparent to the French Throne, which strengthened the alliance between France and Scotland.

In 1549, there was an uprising by poor peasants. Taking advantage of this internal strife, the French formally declared war on England. The Duke of Somerset became extremely unpopular, and was deposed by John Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Warwick did not make himself Lord Protector, and encouraged Edward VI to declare his majority as soon as he was sixteen. In 1550, Warwick made peace with the peasants and with France, giving up all of England's possessions in Scotland without compensation.

Under Warwick
The rise of the Earl of Warwick saw the fall of Catholicism in England. Thomas Cranmer introduced the Book of Common Prayer for use in all Church services. All official editions of the Bible were accompanied by anti-Catholic annotations. Catholic symbols in churches were desecrated by mobs. Religious dissenters were often persecuted and burnt at the stake. In 1550 and 1551, the most powerful Roman Catholic Bishops, Edmund Bonner (the Bishop of London), Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and Nicholas Heath (the Bishop of Worcester) included, were deposed. Their places were taken by Protestant reformers such as Nicholas Ridley.

Meanwhile, the Duke of Somerset, who agreed to submit to Lord Warwick, was released from prison and readmitted to the Privy Council. Within a few months, he found himself powerful enough to demand the release of other political and religious prisoners, and he opposed the religious Reformation. Warwick attempted to increase his own prestige. On his advice, Edward created him Duke of Northumberland and gave honours to his numerous supporters. The Duke of Northumberland began a campaign to discredit the Duke of Somerset. The people of London were informed that the Duke of Somerset would destroy their city; Edward was told that the Duke would depose and imprison him and seize his Crown. It was also suggested that the Duke of Somerset had plotted to murder the Duke of Northumberland. In December 1551, the Duke of Somerset was tried for treason on the grounds that he had attempted to imprison a member of the King's Council. The treason charge, however, could not be proven. Instead, Somerset was found guilty of participating in unlawful assemblies, but was still sentenced to death. The Duke of Somerset was subsequently executed in January 1552. On the day after the Duke of Somerset's execution, a new session of Parliament began. It passed the Act of Uniformity 1552, under which a second Book of Common Prayer was required for church services. Unauthorised worship was punishable by up to life imprisonment.

Death and the succession
The fragile health of the King did not improve. During the winter of 1552-53, Edward VI contracted a cold, which was made more serious as it was compounded by other illnesses. Doctors tried to help by administering various medicines, but their efforts left Edward in perpetual agony. By early 1553 Edward was dying, and, having been brought up a Protestant, did not wish to be succeeded by his Roman Catholic half-sister, Mary.

At the same time, the Duke of Northumberland was eager to retain his own power. He did not believe he could do this through the two closest heirs, Mary and Elizabeth. Under Henry VIII's will, third in the succession was Lady Frances Brandon, the daughter of Henry's younger sister Mary. However, Northumberland feared that the Frances's husband, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, would claim the Crown as his own. He therefore chose to try to rule through the Duchess of Suffolk's daughter, the Lady Jane Grey and Jane was married off to Northumberland's younger son, Guilford Dudley. On 11 June 1553, Northumberland got senior judges to draw up a draft will for Edward. The plan was illegal for many reasons. The judges at first resisted, as it was treason to attempt to vary the laws of succession established in 1544. Edward, however, ensured their co-operation by promising a pardon.

The first draft of the will excluded Mary, Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk and the Lady Jane from the line of succession on the theory that no woman could rule England. The Crown was to be left to the Lady Jane's heirs-male. This plan, however, was not to Northumberland's liking, and the draft was changed to leave the Crown to Jane and her heirs-male. Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because they were officially illegitimate; the Duchess of Suffolk agreed to renounce her own claims.

Edward VI died in Greenwich on 6 July 1553, probably of tuberculosis, arsenic poisoning or syphilis. Edward VI was buried in Henry VII Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey by Thomas Cranmer with Protestant rites on 9 August, while his half-sister Mary, who by then was Queen, had Mass said for his soul in the Tower.

Edward VI's death was kept secret for a couple of days so that preparations could be made for Jane's accession. High civic authorities privately swore their allegiance to the new Queen, who was not publicly proclaimed until 10 July. But the people were much more supportive to Mary. On 19 July, Mary rode triumphantly into London, and Jane was forced to give up the Crown. Jane's proclamation was revoked as an act done under coercion; her succession was deemed unlawful. The Duke of Northumberland was executed, but the Lady Jane and her father were originally spared. In 1554, when Mary faced Wyatt's Rebellion, the Duke of Suffolk once again attempted to put his daughter on the Throne. For this crime, Jane, her husband and the Duke of Suffolk were executed.

Mary I (1553-1558)
Mary I (also known as Mary Tudor) was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich on 18 February 1516. She was the only surviving child of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon. She was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 6 July 1553 (or 19 July 1553 if you count Lady Jane Grey as Queen Jane of England ) until her death on 17 November 1558. Mary is best remembered for her attempt to return England from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. To this end, she had almost three hundred religious dissenters executed, giving her the nickname Bloody Mary. Her religious policies were in many cases reversed by her successor and half-sister, Elizabeth I.

Early life
Mary became an extremely well-educated child under the direction of her governess. She learned to speak Latin, Spanish, French and Italian. Other studies included Greek, science and music. In July 1520, when four and a half years old, she entertained some visitors with a performance on the virginals (a smaller harpsichord).

Even when she was a young child, Mary' marital future was negotiated by her father. When she was young, she was promised to the Dauphin, the heir to the French throne. After three years, the contract was ended. In 1522, Mary was instead contracted to her first cousin, the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V. Within a few years, however, the engagement was broken off. In 1526, Mary was sent to Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches. It was then suggested that the Princess Mary wed, not the Dauphin, but his father Francis I, who was eager for an alliance with England. A marriage treaty was signed; that provided that Mary would marry either Francis or his second son, Henry, Duke of Orléans. Cardinal Wolsey, Henry VIII's chief advisor, however, managed to secure an alliance without a marriage.

Meanwhile, the marriage of Mary's parents ended with an annulment, which meant their marriage was formally declared void and Mary was deemed illegitimate. She lost the dignity of a Princess, becoming a mere "Lady". She was expelled from the Royal Court, her servants were dismissed from her service, and she was forced to serve as a lady-in-waiting to her own infant half-sister Elizabeth. She was not permitted to see her mother, or attend her funeral in 1536 after she died from cancer. Her treatment and the hatred Queen Anne had for her was perceived as unjust. All Europe regarded her as the only true heir and daughter of Henry VIII, although she was illegitimate under English law. She only became fully reconciled with her father in the later years of his life.

In 1547, Henry died, to be succeeded by Edward VI. Edward was England's first Protestant monarch. Mary asked to be allowed to worship in private in her own chapel. After she was ordered to stop her practices, she appealed to her cousin, Emperor Charles V. Charles threatened war with England if the Lady Mary's religious liberty were infringed, after which the Protestants at court let her continue her worship.

Reign

After seeing off Lady Jane, Mary rode into London as Queen, triumphantly and unchallenged, with her half-sister, Elizabeth, at her side, on 3 August 1553. One of her first actions as monarch was to order the release of the Catholic Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner from imprisonment in the Tower of London, and Mary's first Act of Parliament retroactively validated Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, thereby legitimising the Queen.

Now 37, Mary looked at getting a husband to father an heir to prevent her Protestant half-sister from succeeding to the Throne. She agreed to a suggestion from her first cousin, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, that she marry his only son, the Spanish Prince Philip. The marriage was a purely political alliance for Philip, who strongly disliked her and was extremely unpopular with the English. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons asked Mary to consider marrying an Englishman. Insurrections broke out across the country when she refused. The Duke of Suffolk once again proclaimed that his daughter, the Lady Jane Grey, was Queen. Sir Thomas Wyatt led a force from Kent, and was not defeated until he had arrived at London's gates. After the rebellions were crushed, both the Duke of Suffolk and the Lady Jane Grey were convicted of high treason and executed. Since the rebellion was designed to put her on the throne, the Lady Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower of London, but was put under house arrest in Woodstock Palace after two months.

Mary married Philip on 25 July 1554 at Winchester Cathedral. Under the terms of the marriage treaty, Philip was to be styled "King of England", all official documents (including Acts of Parliament) were to be dated with both their names and Parliament was to be called under the joint authority of the couple. Coins were to also show the head of both Mary and Philip. Philip's powers, however, were extremely limited, and he and Mary were not true joint Sovereigns. The marriage treaty further provided that England would not be obliged to provide military support to Philip's father, the Holy Roman Emperor, in any war.

Mary fell in love with Philip and, thinking she was pregnant, had thanksgiving services at the diocese of London in November 1554. But Philip found his queen, who was eleven years his senior, to be physically unattractive and after only fourteen months left for Spain under a false excuse. Philip released the Lady Elizabeth from house arrest so that he could be viewed favourably by her in case Mary died during childbirth., but Mary wasn't really pregnant and was instead suffering from a phantom pregnancy.

Mary then turned her attention to religious issues, and she tried to reverse the split from the Roman Catholic Church that happened in Henry VIII's reign. Edward's religious laws were abolished by Mary's first Parliament and numerous Protestant leaders were executed. The persecution lasted for three and three-quarter years.

Philip inherited the throne of Spain when his father abdicated. He then returned to England from March to July 1557 to persuade Mary to join with Spain in a war against France in the Italian Wars. English forces fared badly in the conflict, and lost Calais, its last remaining French possession. Mary later lamented that when she lay dead the words "Philip" and "Calais" would be found inscribed on her heart.

Death
During her reign, Mary's weak health led her to suffer numerous phantom pregnancies. After such a delusion in 1558, Mary decreed in her will that her husband Philip should be the regent during the minority of her child. No child, however, was born, and Mary died at the age of forty-two of cancer at St. James's Palace on 17 November 1558. She was succeeded by her half-sister, who became Elizabeth I. Mary was interred in Westminster Abbey on 14 December, in a tomb she would eventually share with Queen Elizabeth.

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)
Elizabeth I was born on 7 September 1533. She was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death on 24 March 1603. Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen (since she never married), Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the Tudor dynasty. She reigned during a period of great religious turmoil in English history.

Elizabeth's reign is referred to as the Elizabethan era or the Golden Age and was marked by increases in English power and influence worldwide. Playwrights William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson all flourished during this era. Francis Drake became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; Francis Bacon laid out his philosophical and political views; English colonisation of North America took place under Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Elizabeth was a short-tempered and sometimes indecisive ruler. Like her father Henry VIII, she was a writer and poet. She granted Royal Charters to several famous organisations, including Trinity College, Dublin (1592) and the British East India Company (1600).

Early life
Elizabeth was the only surviving child of King Henry VIII by his second wife, Anne Boleyn. She was born in the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich. On her birth, Elizabeth was the heir to the throne. After Boleyn failed to produce a male heir, Henry had her executed. Elizabeth was two years old at that time and was also declared illegitimate and lost the title of princess. Thereafter she was addressed as Lady Elizabeth and lived apart from her father as he married his succession of wives. Henry's last wife Catherine Parr helped reconcile the King with Elizabeth, and she, along with her half-sister, Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, was reinstated in the line of succession after Edward.

In terms of personality, Elizabeth was far more like her mother than her father: neurotic, glamorous, flirtatious, charismatic and religiously tolerant. However, from her father she did inherit his red hair.

Henry VIII died in 1547 and was succeeded by Edward VI. Catherine Parr married Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle, and took Elizabeth into her household. There, Elizabeth continued her education. She came to speak or read six languages: her native English, as well as French, Italian, Spanish, Greek and Latin. Under the influence of Catherine Parr and others, Elizabeth was raised a Protestant.

Early reign
In November 1558, on Mary I's death, Elizabeth ascended the throne. She was far more popular than her sister, and it is said that upon Mary's death, the people rejoiced in the streets. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion. The Act of Uniformity 1559 required the use of the Protestant Book of Common Prayer in church services. Communion with the Catholic Church, reinstated under Mary I, was ended by Elizabeth. The Queen assumed the title "Supreme Governor of the Church of England".

Many bishops were unwilling to conform to the Elizabethan religious policy. These were removed. She also appointed an entirely new Privy Council, removing many Catholic counsellors in the process. Elizabeth also reduced Spanish influence in England.

Plots and rebellions
At the end of 1562, Elizabeth had fallen ill with smallpox, but later recovered. In 1563, alarmed by the Queen's near-fatal illness, parliament demanded that she marry or nominate an heir to prevent civil war upon her death. She refused to do either, and in April, she ended the parliament. Parliament did not reconvene until Elizabeth needed its assent to raise taxes in 1566. The House of Commons threatened to withhold funds until the Queen agreed to provide for the succession.

Different lines of succession were considered during Elizabeth's reign. One possible line was that of Margaret Tudor, Henry VIII's elder sister, which led to Mary I, Queen of Scots. The alternative line descended from Henry VIII's younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk. The heir in this line was Lady Catherine Grey, Lady Jane Grey's sister. An even more distant possible successor was Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, who could claim descent only from Edward III. Each possible heir had his or her disadvantages: Mary I was a Catholic, Lady Catherine Grey had married without the Queen's consent and the Puritan Lord Huntingdon was unwilling to accept the Crown.

Mary, Queen of Scots, had to suffer her own troubles in Scotland. Elizabeth had suggested that if she married the Protestant Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, then Elizabeth would make Mary her heir. Mary Stuart refused, and in 1565 married the Catholic Lord Darnley. Lord Darnley was murdered in 1567 after the couple had several disputes, and Mary then married the alleged murderer, the Earl of Bothwell. Scottish nobles then rebelled, imprisoned Mary and forced her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, who became King James VI of Scotland.

In 1568, the last viable English heir to the throne, Catherine Grey, died. She had left a son, but he was deemed illegitimate. Her heiress was her sister, the Lady Mary Grey, a hunchbacked dwarf. Elizabeth was once again forced to consider a Scottish successor, from the line of her father's sister, Margaret Tudor. Mary, Queen of Scots, however, was unpopular in Scotland. She later escaped from her prison and fled to England, where she was captured by English forces. Elizabeth was faced with a problem: sending her back to the Scottish nobles was deemed too cruel; sending her to France would put a powerful pawn in the hands of the French king; forcefully restoring her to the Scottish Throne may have been seen as an heroic gesture, but would cause too much conflict with the Scots; and imprisoning her in England would allow her to participate in plots against the Queen. Elizabeth chose the last option: Mary was kept confined for eighteen years.

In 1569 Elizabeth faced a major uprising, known as the Northern Rebellion. Pope Pius V aided the Catholic Rebellion by excommunicating Elizabeth and declaring her deposed in a Papal Bull. Elizabeth then found a new enemy in her brother-in-law, Philip II, King of Spain. After Philip had launched a surprise attack on the English privateers Sir Francis Drake and John Hawkins in 1568, Elizabeth assented to the detention of a Spanish treasure ship in 1569. Philip was already involved in putting down a rebellion in the Netherlands, and could not afford to declare war on England. Philip II participated in some conspiracies to remove Elizabeth. The first of these plots was the Ridolfi Plot of 1571. After the Catholic Ridolfi Plot was discovered (much to Elizabeth's shock) and foiled, Mary lost the little liberty she had remaining. Spain, which had been friendly to England since Philip's marriage to Elizabeth's predecessor, ceased to be.

In 1586, a further scheme against Elizabeth, the Babington Plot, was revealed by Sir Francis Walsingham, who headed the English spy network. Having put the court on full proof of the charge, Mary Stuart was convicted of complicity in the plot on foot of disputed evidence and executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587. In her will, Mary had left Philip her claim to the English Throne, and Philip set out his plans for an invasion of England. In April 1587, Sir Francis Drake burned part of the Spanish fleet at Cádiz, delaying Philip's plans. In July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a grand fleet of 130 ships bearing over 30,000 men, set sail across the English Channel from the Netherlands. Elizabeth encouraged her troops with a notable speech, known as the Speech to the Troops at Tilbury, in which she famously declared, "I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too". The Spanish attempt was defeated by the English fleet under Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham, and Sir Francis Drake, aided by bad weather. The Armada was forced to return to Spain, with appalling losses on the north and west coasts of Ireland due to a storm which scattered the fleet and wrecked many of the ships. The victory tremendously increased Elizabeth's popularity.

Death and succession
Elizabeth I fell ill in February 1603, suffering from frailty and insomnia. She died on 24 March at Richmond Palace, aged 69. Elizabeth was buried in Westminster Abbey, immediately next to her sister Mary I. King James VI was proclaimed King of England as James I a few hours after Elizabeth's death. James I's proclamation broke precedent because it was issued not by the new Sovereign him or herself, but by a Council of Accession, as James was in Scotland at the time.