text:
French/Grammar/Pronouns

Subject pronouns
A pronoun replaces a noun in a sentence. Often used to prevent repeating the noun. French has six different types of subject pronouns: the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person singular and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person plural.

Notes:

* When referring to more than one person in the 2nd person, “vous” must be used. When referring to a single person, “vous” or “tu” may be used depending on the situation. Tu is informal and used only with well-known acquaintances. In case of unknown persons you have to use the polite form Vous. A good example, to explain that is the following: If two business acquaintances meet another, they say Vous. If they later fall in love, they say Tu. When unsure, it is better to say "vous." Also, grammatically, even the singular form of "vous" behaves as though it were a plural, so even if you are addressing only one person, you would still use verbal grammar consistent with addressing multiple people, similar to English (as in "you are", "you [all] are", "they are.") Nevertheless, the adjectives or past participles are declined according to the true number of the referring pronoun.

Examples, addressing one person:
 * Tu chantes - you sing (informal)
 * Vous chantez - you sing (polite) - (also, to address many persons)
 * Tu es grand - You are tall (informal)
 * Vous êtes grand - You are tall (polite, male)
 * Vous êtes grande - You are tall (polite, female)

Examples, addressing many persons:
 * Vous êtes grands - You are tall (formal or polite, male, many persons)
 * Vous êtes grandes - You are tall (formal or polite, female, many persons)

** - il denotes masculine nouns, elle denotes feminine nouns, and on is for indeterminate subjects (see below).

*** - While the third person plural "they" has no gender in English, the French equivalents "ils" and "elles" do. However, when pronounced, they normally sound the same as "il" and "elle", so distinguishing the difference requires understanding of the various conjugations of the verbs following the pronoun. Ils is used with all-male or mixed groups, elles is only used when all members of the group are female. Examples:
 * Jack et Philippe parlent - Jack and Philippe speak Ils parlent - They speak (all-male group)
 * Jack et Lucy parlent - Jack and Lucy speak Ils parlent - They speak (mixed group)
 * Lucy et Dina parlent - Lucy and Dina speak Elles parlent - They speak (all female group)

The pronoun on
French pronouns carry meanings that do not exist in English pronouns. The French third person "on" has several meanings, but most closely matches the English "one", except that it is not so formal, and is more common. It has a number of uses:
 * It is used in the same ways as the English personal pronoun one:
 * It is used in expressing generalities: « C'est en forgeant qu'on devient forgeron. » ("It is by blacksmithing that one becomes a blacksmith.")
 * It is the implicit subject for an infinitive that has no other implicit subject: « penser qu'on a raison » ("to think that one is right," i.e. "to think oneself right").
 * Because of French's limited passive voice, it is often used as an empty subject when the agent is unknown or unimportant: « On me l'a donné. » (" [On]  gave it to me" or "I was given it" or "It was given to me.")
 * It is used as a less formal substitute for the subject pronoun nous (we). In this case, note that even though on always takes a third-person singular verb, it takes plural adjectives (« On est américains », "We're American"). Also, note that the other forms of nous (direct object, indirect object, and disjunctive) are not replaced by forms of on unless on is the subject as well. (Hence, « Ils nous l'ont donné », "They gave it to us," but « On se l'est donné », "We gave it to ourselves.")
 * It is not the number 1, and therefore is not used to mean "one of them." In French as in English, numbers can be used as pronouns — « Deux sont entrés et un est ressorti », "Two went in and one came back out" — but the number 1 is un(e), not on.

On does not have ordinary direct- and indirect-object pronouns, only the reflexive pronoun se. Similarly, its disjunctive-pronoun form, soi, is only used when on is the subject and soi refers to the same entity. The pronoun quelqu'un ("someone") can fill some of the roles of on, in the same way that one and someone are sometimes interchangeable in English.

Meanings

 * moi - me
 * toi - you
 * lui - him
 * elle - her
 * soi - one
 * nous - us
 * vous - you (plural/formal)
 * eux - them (masculine)
 * elles - them (feminine)

Usage

 * after avec or chez
 * avec moi - with me
 * avec lui - with him
 * chez soi - at one's place
 * chez eux - at their place

Meanings

 * me - me, to me
 * te - you, to you (singular, informal)
 * se - to him/her (or himself/herself/itself - reflexive)
 * nous - us, to us
 * vous - you, to you (plural, formal)
 * se - to them (or themselves - reflexive)

Place in sentences

 * These pronouns are placed before the verb that they modify
 * Je te vois. - I see you.
 * Je veux te voir. - I want to see you.
 * If a perfect tense is used, these pronouns go before the auxiliary verb.
 * Je t'ai vu. - I saw you.

Direct object replacement

 * Il me voit. - He sees me.
 * Il te voit. - He sees you.
 * Il nous voit. - He sees us.
 * Il vous voit. - He sees you.

Indirect Object Replacement

 * Il m'appelle. - He calls me.
 * Il te le lance. - He throws it to you.
 * Il nous le lance. - He throws it to us.
 * Il vous le lance. - He throws it to you.

l', le, la, and les
l', le, la, and les are pronouns which are used as direct objects and hence are called direct object pronouns. A direct object is a noun that receives the action of a verb. In the above sentence la balle is the direct object.
 * Il lance la balle. - He throws the ball.

You have learned earlier that names and regular nouns can be replaced by the subject pronouns (je, tu...). Similarly, direct objects, such as "la balle", can be replaced by pronouns.
 * le - replaces a masculine singular direct object
 * la - replaces a feminine singular direct object
 * l' - replaces le and la if they come before a vowel
 * les - replaces plural direct objects, both masculine and feminine

The direct object pronouns come before the verb they are linked to.
 * Il la lance. - He throws it.
 * Il les lance. - He throws them.

Note
When direct object pronouns are being used with the passé composé tense with verbs that do not represent movement (i.e. use the auxiliary AVOIR in a conjugated form before the past participle), some endings are added to the past participle.

Examples: J'ai lu ces livres - I read these books -> Je les ai "lus"

lui and leur
Indirect objects are prepositional phrases with the object of the preposition. An indirect object is a noun that receives the action of a verb.
 * Il lance la balle à Jacques. - He throws the ball to Jack.
 * Il lance la balle à Marie. - He throws the ball to Mary.
 * Il lance la balle à Jacques et Marie. - He throws the ball to Jack and Mary.

Lui and leur are indirect object pronouns. They replace nouns referring to people and mean to him/her and to them respectively.

 * lui - replaces a singular masculine or feminine indirect object referring to a person
 * leur - replaces a plural masculine or feminine indirect object referring to a person

An example follows:

 * Il lui lance la balle. - He throws the ball to him.
 * Il lui lance la balle. - He throws the ball to her.
 * Il leur lance la balle. - He throws the ball to them.

Whether lui means to him or to her is given by context.

In English, "He throws him the ball" is also said, and means the same thing.

When used with the direct object pronouns le, la, and les, lui and leur come after those pronouns.

 * Il la lui lance. - He throws it to him.

Note that while le, la, and les are used to replace people or inanimate objects, lui and leur are not used to replace innanimate objects and things.

Also note that unlike le and la, which are shortened to l' when followed by a vowel, lui is never shortened

Indirect object pronoun - to it, to them
The French pronoun y is used to replace an object of a prepositional phrase introduced by à. Note that lui and leur, and not y, are used when the object refers to a person or persons.
 * Je réponds aux questions. - I respond to the questions.
 * J'y réponds. - I respond to them.

Replacement of places - there
The French pronoun y replaces a prepositional phrase referring to a place that begins with any preposition except de (for which en is used). ie, 'going' to a place. Note that en, and not y is used when the object is of the preposition de.
 * Mes parents vont en France. - My parents go to France.
 * Mes parents y vont. - My parents go there.

Idioms

 * Ça y est! - It's done!
 * J'y suis! - I'm there!

Replacement of a partitive construction

 * The pronoun en replaces a noun with a partitive article (l'article partitif: du, de la, de, des) at the front. In this case En goes always with the singular, even if there are many items addressed.
 * Je veux du pain. => J'en veux. - I want some bread. => I want some.

Replacement of quantified nouns
If the quantity of the object is specified, "en" is used for the replacement of the noun.

Example: Il a acheté deux pommes. => Il en a acheté deux.

Note that no agreement is needed between the past participle (le participe passé) and the object (complément d'objet direct).

Replacement of phrases with de

 * The pronoun en replaces prepositional phrases beginning with de if the object of the preposition is referring to a thing or place, ie. coming 'from' a place.
 * Je viens de Paris. - I come from Paris.
 * J' en viens. - I come from it.
 * Note that stress pronouns, and not en are used if the object refers to a person or persons.

Order chart
If a sentence uses no infinitive, the pronouns are embedded as follows:

If a sentence uses an infinitive, the pronouns are embedded as follows:

Order rules

 * When a sentence uses the indirect object pronouns me, te, nous, and vous with the direct object pronouns le, la, and les, me, te, nous, and vous go first.
 * Il me le donne. - He gives it to me.
 * When a sentence uses the indirect object pronouns lui and leur with the direct object pronouns le, la, and l', le, la, and les go first.
 * Il le lui donne. - He gives it to him/her.
 * When y is used in the same sentence as other pronouns, y goes after all of them with the exception of en.
 * Il m'emmène à Paris. - He takes me to Paris.
 * Il m'y emmène. - He takes me there.
 * Y in conjunction with en is only used in a few cases.
 * Il y en a. - There exist several ones.
 * Est-ce qu'il y a des pommes? (Oui,) il y en a. (Non,) il n'y en a (pas/plus). - Are there any apples (left)? Yes, there are. No, there aren't.
 * When there are two pronouns in a sentence, en always goes last.

L'impératif
When expressing positive commands, there are several rules one must remember when using object pronouns. These are:
 * The pronouns are attached to the verb with a hyphen.
 * Retrouve-la. - Find it.
 * Me and Te become moi and toi.
 * Donnez-moi les clés. - Give me the keys.
 * Le, la, and les precede all other object pronouns.
 * Donnez-le-moi. - Give it to me.
 * For the second person singular form, an "s" is added if the object (in the pronoun form) begins with a vowel or "y".
 * Va au tableau. - Go to the blackboard. BUT  Vas-y. - Go (there).
 * Vas-y. - Come on.
 * Achète des pommes. - Buy some apples. BUT Achètes-en. - Buy some.

Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns replace possessive article + noun sets.

 * Vous avez votre voiture? - You have your car?
 * Oui, nous avons la nôtre. - Yes, we have ours.

À + a stress pronoun is used when the noun replaced is also the subject of the sentence. This usually occurs in sentences with être.
 * Elle est à toi cette voiture? - Is this car yours?
 * Oui, elle est à moi. - Yes, it is mine.

Francés/Gramática/El pronombre

title: French/Grammar/Pronouns


text:
Talk:French/Lessons/Modern France

Untitled
Does anyone have the grammar for this section planned? --Hagindaz 17:30, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:French/Lessons/Modern France


text:
False Friends of the Slavist/Map muzh

mozь

title: False Friends of the Slavist/Map muzh


text:
User talk:KenFarmer

Welcome

 * Just a quick note to say welcome and to please feel free to email me or leave a message on my Talk Page if you have any questions. As well, if you have some time a great way to get used to the software is to set up your user page. It helps to give you a feel for the way things work. Take care!--Mfinney 18:07, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:KenFarmer


text:
Croatian/Main Contents/Country

Croatia is a southern European country bordering Slovenia to the Northwest, Hungary to the Northeast, Serbia to the East, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the South and East, and Montenegro to the South. It is a Southern Slavic Country. It has a long coastline on the Adriatic sea. The language spoken in Croatia is Croatian, and this language is similar to Serbian and Bosnian. The Croats have traditionally used only the Latin alphabet, and the Serbs and Bosnians the Cyrillic one. Nowadays Serbs and Bosnians are also using Latin alphabet.

<–– Back to contents page

title: Croatian/Main Contents/Country


text:
User:Hagindaz

 ''Welcome! Leave me a message on my talk page. I'll respond to your questions there. If I haven't been active recently, try sending me an e-mail. Archived discussion as of 14 May 2006, as of 14 May 2007''

title: User:Hagindaz


text:
False Friends of the Slavist/Map slovensk

slovenьskъjь


text:
Sumerian

[Note: Want to skip the intro and get straight to the lessons?]

Sumerian grammar is fun!

If you're reading this, you probably already have some reason to study the languages. But in case you need a little convincing, let me elaborate.

Sumerian grammar is a complicated topic. Whenever you have a language that has absolutely no native speakers, not a whole lot of source material, and a long tradition of being written by people who didn't even speak it as a first language, you're going to have issues. All that being said, a few brave grammarians have put together a reasonably consistent and sensible grammar of this long forgotten language, and that's really all we can hope to do in this grammar. This idea of having to mix detective work with linguistics is definitely an enjoyable challenge to any student.

Studying Sumerian is also made more complicated because the writing system, being the first written language in the world, has only a slow progression from scratches and pictures to a real writing system. This is part of the FUN though! There's a lot of room for people to help build up our picture of Sumerian, both grammar and orthography (writing system). You could be one of them!

Technically speaking, this grammar is intended to introduce the reader to the fundamentals of the Sumerian language from the perspective of a student, new to the field. This is not intended to be a reference grammar. As our understanding of the language is always in flux, due to the paucity of available data, and the ongoing research of countless linguists and grammarians around the globe, take everything (and I mean everything) herein with a grain of salt.

Introduction
The Sumerian language was used from at least 5000 years ago until at least 2500 years ago. Needless to say, the language underwent a lot of changes during that period, and even after its active life it was used as a literary and official language by other cultures.

What this means is that there isn't just one "Sumerian" language -- just the opposite, there are a heck of a lot of them! The language was used over a pretty large geographic area, as well, so on top of huge temporal changes, there are regional changes as well.

You quickly find that there are quite a few ways to make a "definitive" Sumerian grammar. As one Sumerologist once put it, tongue in cheek, "there are as many Sumerian grammars as there are Sumerian grammarians."

The most important thing to remember, though, is that the Sumerians weren't trying to confuse us. In fact, they were attempting to be as obvious as possible! They wanted the things they were writing to be found by later generations, as testaments to their achievements, in politics as well as literature.

So when you read a Sumerian tablet the next time you're at a museum, remember: they want to be read. All it takes is a little effort, and you'll be hearing the voices of people just like us, with all the hopes and dreams and ambitions that accompany the human spirit wherever it goes.

Reading Sumerian is, first and foremost, a human endeavour.

Grammar
Click the link below! The lessons are an introduction to Sumerian for people who've never been introduced to the language.

Suggestions for future chapters are welcome on the Talk pages.

→ The Lessons ←

Glossary
Here is a glossary of many of the technical terms used in this text.

Cuneiform List
Here is a list of Sumerian Cuneiform. It contains a list of all Sumerian Cuneiform added to Unicode, as well as combinations of characters and diverse transliterations, as they appear in the texts.

And here is a short list of only the Simple Sumerian Cuneiform signs.

(Mušen.gig here, I found this website quite helpful, so I'll put it here for y'all as well; Cuneiform Keyboard)

Credits
Here is a list of contributors to this text.

title: Sumerian


text:
Topology/Compactness

The notion of Compactness appears in a wide variety of contexts. In particular, compactness is a "tameness property" that tells you that the objects you are dealing with are in some sense well-behaved.

Definition
Let $$X$$ be a topological space and let $$S\subseteq X$$

A collection $$\mathcal{G}$$ of open sets $$\{ G_{\alpha}\}$$ is said to be an Open Cover of $$S$$ if $$S\subseteq\displaystyle\bigcup_{\mathcal{G}}G_{\alpha}$$

$$S$$ is said to be Compact if and only if every open cover of $$S$$ has a finite subcover. More formally, $$S$$ is compact iff for every open cover $$\mathcal{G}$$ of $$S$$, there exists a finite subset $$\{ G_{\alpha_1},G_{\alpha_2},\ldots,G_{\alpha_n}\}$$ of $$\mathcal{G}$$ that is also an open cover of $$S$$.

If the set $$X$$ itself is compact, we say that $$X$$ is a Compact Topological Space.

Compactness of topological spaces can also be expressed by one of the following equivalent characterisations:

 * Every filter on $$X$$ containing a filter basis of closed sets has a nonempty intersection.
 * Every ultrafilter on $$X$$ converges.

Important Properties
Proof: Let $$S\subseteq X$$ be a compact set, and let $$K$$ be a closed subset of $$S$$. Consider any open cover $$\mathcal{G}$$ of $$K$$. Observe that $$X\setminus K$$ being open, the collection of open sets $$\mathcal{G}\cup\{ X\setminus K\}$$is an open cover of $$S$$. As $$S$$ is compact, this open cover has a finite subcover $$\mathcal{G}'$$. Now, consider the collection $$\mathcal{G}'\setminus\left( X\setminus K\right)$$. This collection is obviously finite and is also a subcover of $$\mathcal{G}$$. Hence, it is a finite subcover of $$K$$
 * Every closed subset of a compact set is compact

Proof: Let $$K$$ be compact. If the complement $$K^c$$ is empty, then $$K$$ is the same as the space; thus closed. Suppose not; that is, there is a point $$x \in K^c$$. Then for each $$y \in K$$, by the Hausdorff separation axiom we can find $$U_y$$ and $$V_y$$ disjoint, open and such that $$x \in U_y$$ and $$y \in V_y$$. Since $$K$$ is compact and the collection $$\{ V_y; y \in K \}$$ covers $$K$$, we can find a finite number of points $$y_1, y_2, ... y_n$$ in $$K$$ such that: $$K \subseteq V_{y_1} \cup V_{y_2} \cup \ldots \cup V_{y_n}$$ It then follows that: $$x \in U_{y_1} \cap U_{y_2} \cap \ldots \cap U_{y_n}=U_x$$. Hence, every $$x\in X$$ has an open neighbourhood $$U_x$$. As $$K^c$$ can be represented as the union of open sets $$U_x$$, $$K^c$$ is open and $$K$$ is closed.
 * Every compact subset of a Hausdorff space is closed.

Proof: Let $$X$$ be a metric space and let $$K\subset X$$ be compact. Consider the collection of open balls $$\mathcal{G}=\{ B_r(p)|r\in\mathbb{R}^+\}$$ for some (fixed) $$p\in X$$. We see that $$\mathcal{G}$$ is an open cover of $$K$$. As $$K$$ is compact, it has a finite subcover, say $$\{ B_{r_1}(p),B_{r_2}(p),\ldots,B_{r_n}(p)\}$$. Let $$r_0=\sup\{ r_1,r_2,\ldots,r_n\}$$. We see that $$K\subset B_{r_0}(p)$$, and hence, $$K$$ is bounded.
 * Every compact set in a metric space is bounded.

Proof: Let $$S$$ be the set of all $$a\leq x\leq b$$ such that $$[a,x]$$ has a finite subcover of $$\mathcal{G}$$. $$S$$ is non-empty because $$a$$ is within the set. Define $$c=\sup S$$. Assume if possible, $$c0$$ such that $$(c-\varepsilon, c+\varepsilon)\subseteq A$$. Then $$c+\tfrac{\varepsilon}{2}$$ is also within $$S$$, contradicting the definition of $$c$$. Thus, $$c\geq b$$. Therefore, $$\mathcal{G}$$ has a finite subcover. Sources differ as to what exactly should be called the 'Heine-Borel Theorem'. It seems that Emile Borel proved the most relevant result, dealing with compact subsets of a Euclidean Space. However, we provide the simpler case, for reals.
 * Heine-Borel Theorem: For any interval $$[a,b]$$, and for any open cover $$\mathcal{G}$$ of that interval, there exists a finite subcover of $$\mathcal{G}$$.

Proof: Let $$\mathcal{G}$$ be any open cover of $$f(A)$$. Consider the inverses $$\{ f^{-1}(B)\}$$ where $$B\in \mathcal{G}$$. These inverses are open because $$f$$ is continuous. This covers $$A$$, and thus there is a finite subcover of $$A$$, $$\{ B_i\}$$. Then the images $$\{ f(B_i)\}$$ is a finite subcover of $$f(A)$$.
 * Let $$X,Y$$ be topological spaces. If $$f:X\to Y$$ is continuous, and $$A\subset X$$ is compact, then the image of $$A$$, $$f(A)$$, is compact.

Proof: Let $$X$$ be compact and Hausdorff. Consider two closed subsets $$A$$ and $$B$$ which are themselves compact by theorem 1 above. For every $$a\in A$$ and $$b\in B$$, there exist two disjoint sets $$O_{a,b,1}$$ and $$O_{a,b,2}$$ such that $$a\in O_{a,b,1}$$ and $$b\in O_{a,b,2}$$. The union of all such $$O_{a,b,2}$$ for a fixed $$a$$ is a cover for $$B$$, and thus it has a finite subcover, say, $$\mathcal{O}_{a,2}$$ and let $$O'_{a,2}$$ be the union of its members. Let $$B_a=\{ b|O_{a,b,2}\in \mathcal{O}_{a,2}\}$$, and let $$O_{a,1}=\displaystyle\bigcap_{b\in B_a}O_{a,b,1}$$. Observe that $$B_a$$ being finite, $$O_{a,1}$$ is open. The union $$\displaystyle\bigcup_{a\in A}O_{a,1}$$ covers $$A$$, and therefore it has a finite subcover $$\mathcal{O}_{a,1}$$. Let $$U$$ be the union of all members of this subcover. Let $$A'$$ denote the set of all elements $$a\in A$$ such that $$O_{a,1}\in\mathcal{O}_{a,1}$$. Take the intersection $$V= \displaystyle\bigcap_{a\in A'}O'_{a,2}$$, which is open. Then $$U$$ is an open superset of $$A$$, $$V$$ is an open superset of $$B$$, and they are disjoint. Thus, $$X$$ is normal.
 * If a set is compact and Hausdorff, then it is normal.

Proof:
 * In a compact metric space X, a function from X to Y is uniformly continuous if and only if it is continuous.

Proof: Let X1 and X2 be two compact spaces. Let S be a cover of X1×X2. Let x be an element of X1. Consider the sets Ax,y within S that contain (x,y) for each y in X2. $$\pi_2:(A_(x,y))$$ forms a cover for X2, with a finite subcover {Ax,y i }. Let Bx be the intersection of $$\pi_1:(A_y)$$ within {Ay i }, which is open. Thus, {Bx} forms an open cover, which has a finite subcover, {Bx i }. The corresponding sets {Ax i,yi } is finite, and forms an open subcover of the set.
 * If two topological spaces are compact, then their product space is also compact.

Proof: Let S by any bounded closed set in $$R^n$$. Then since S is bounded, it is contained in some "box" of the products of closed intervals of R. Since those closed intervals are compact, their product is also compact. Therefore, S is a closed set in a compact set, and is therefore also compact.
 * All closed and bounded sets in the Euclidean Space are compact.

Tychonoff's Theorem
The more general result on the compactness of product spaces is called Tychonoff's Theorem. Unlike the compactness of the product of two spaces, however, Tychonoff's Theorem requires Zorn's Lemma. (In fact, it is equivalent to Axiom of Choice.)

Theorem: Let $$X=\prod_{i\in I} X_i$$, and let each $$X_i$$ be compact. Then the X is also compact.

Proof: The proof is in terms of nets. Recall the following facts:

Lemma 1 - A net $$(x_{\alpha})_{\alpha \in \mathcal{A}}$$ in $$\prod_{i \in I}X_i$$ converges to $$x \in \prod_{i \in I}X_i$$ if and only if each coordinate $$(x_{\alpha}^i)_{\alpha \in \mathcal{A}}$$ converges to $$x^i \in X_i$$.

Lemma 2 - A topological space $$X$$ is compact if and only if every net in $$X$$ has a convergent subnet.

Lemma 3 - Every net has a universal subnet.

Lemma 4 - A universal net $$(x_{\alpha})_{\alpha \in \mathcal{A}}$$ in a compact space $$X$$ is convergent.

We now prove Tychonoff's theorem.

Let $$(x_{\alpha})_{\alpha \in \mathcal{A}}$$ be a net in $$\prod_{i \in I}X_i$$.

Using Lemma 3 we can find a universal subnet $$(y_{\beta})_{\beta \in \mathcal{B}}$$ of $$(x_{\alpha})_{\alpha \in \mathcal{A}}$$.

It is easily seen that each coordinate net $$(y_{\beta}^i)_{\beta \in \mathcal{B}}$$ is a universal net in $$X_i$$.

Using Lemma 4 we see that each coordinate net converges, because $$X_i$$ is compact.

Using Lemma 1 we see that the whole net $$(y_{\beta})_{\beta \in \mathcal{B}}$$ converges in $$\prod_{i \in I}X_i$$.

We conclude that every net in $$\prod_{i \in I}X_i$$ has a convergent subnet, so, by Lemma 2, $$\prod_{i \in I}X_i$$ must be compact. $$\square$$

Relative Compactness
Relative compactness is another property of interest.

Definition: A subset S of a topological space X is relative compact when the closure Cl(x) is compact.

Note that relative compactness does not carry over to topological subspaces. For example, the open interval (0,1) is relatively compact in R with the usual topology, but is not relatively compact in itself.

Local Compactness
The idea of local compactness is based on the idea of relative compactness.

If, in a topological space X, every element has a neighborhood that is relatively compact, then X is locally compact.

It can be shown that all compact sets are locally compact, but not conversely.

Exercises
$$ d(x,y) = \begin{cases} 1 &{\rm if}\,x\neq y\\0 & {\rm if}\, x=y \end{cases} $$
 * 1) It is not true in general for a metric space that a closed and bounded set is compact. Take the following metric on a set X:

a) Show that this is a metric

b) Which subspaces of X are compact

c) Show that if Y is a subspace of X and Y is compact, then Y is closed and bounded

d) Show that for any metric space, compact sets are always closed and bounded

e) Show that with this particular metric, closed and bounded sets need not be compact

title: Topology/Compactness


text:
Cookbook:Oatmeal Cookies I

| Desserts

A tasty oatmeal cookie, just like those you remember.

Ingredients

 * ¾ cup (180 g) shortening
 * 1 cup (240 g) brown sugar
 * ½ cup (120 g) white sugar
 * 1 egg
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) water
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla
 * 3 cups (700 g) rolled oats
 * 1 cup (240 g) all-purpose flour
 * ½ teaspoon baking soda
 * ¼ teaspoon salt
 * 1 cup raisins (optional)

Special equipment

 * Electric mixer

Procedure

 * 1) Using a mixer, cream together the shortening, brown sugar, white sugar, egg, water and vanilla until light and fluffy (about 10 minutes on high).
 * 2) In a mixing bowl, mix together the oats, flour, baking soda, and salt.
 * 3) Add dry ingredients into wet, mix well using mixer.
 * 4) Stir in raisins if using.
 * 5) Scoop the portions out—this recipe makes 20 cookies, so make 20 portions.
 * 6) Bake at 350°F (180°C) for 8–10 minutes.

Notes, tips and variations

 * These taste best when still warm.

title: Cookbook:Oatmeal Cookies I


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Eight - The Case System

= The Case System in Sumerian =

Preliminaries
First things first: what is a case system? Briefly, a case system is simply a way for people to modify the relationships between elements in a sentence. For instance, consider the English sentence:

(1) I chastised them for her.

We find three pronouns here. The first-person singular (1sg) subject I, the third-person plural (3pl) object them, and finally the third-person singular feminine (f) beneficiary, her. Now, upon reflection, if our 1sg subject had been swapped with the 3pl object, the sentence would not read

(2a) * Them chastised I for her.

but rather

(2b) They chastised me for her.

(The asterisk ' * ' you see before sentence (2a) is just a little symbol that linguists use to say "this is bad syntax", or sometimes "this is a form we do not expect to see".)

We see immediately that the English language chooses two different words, I and me, for the 1sg, depending on what case it is in (subject or object respectively). The way this is handled in other languages varies, but the ideas are the same. Languages need some way to distinguish what part a constituent plays in the overall meaning of a sentence.

In Sumerian, the situation is actually easier! Instead of having to learn a whole slew of different words, one for each case for each person et cetera, Sumerian simply chooses to put a suffix on the unique word stem.

As an example, take the Sumerian word dumu, which means child or son (depending on context). If we simply attach the dative case suffix .ir, we end up with dumu.ir, meaning for the child. (This is general meaning of the dative case, incidentally; it expresses the beneficiary of an action.)

(If you're wondering, the period '.' you see before the dative suffix and inside the word dumu.ir is another simple linguistic convention, just indicating a logical division internal to a word, useful for analysis but not present in spoken or written language.)

Sumerian does, like English, have a few quirks though. We would not expect to see dumu.ir written just like that, but rather dumu.r. The vowels, and a few consonants, have a way of disappearing in Sumerian, especially the really common ones, like those that begin the case particles. (A "particle" is more or less a synonym for suffix here, but generally means any small bit that gets attached to a root word, and never appears on its own.)

Quick Quiz
In the sentence The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog, make sure you know which words make up the subject clause and which the object clause.

Answers

The Cases Used in Sumerian
While there is still some scholarly debate on this subject, I'll present here a list of cases which have been reasonably established in Sumerian, and their functions. We'll go into a couple of them in more detail here, and more later.

The ten cases are described, but you don't need to memorize this material. We will be treating each case in due time.

Genitive: used to express "X of Y" relationships; possession; this is a many-faceted construction in many languages, and Sumerian is no exception; see below for more

Locative: forms like the temple was built in the town; used to locate the topic and anchor it to a specific place

Dative: expresses a benefactorial relationship; I built this temple for you; see below for more

Absolutive: used for the ergative "patient"; the subject of an intransitive sentence; the object of a transitive sentence

Ergative: used for the ergative "agent"; the subject of a transitive sentence; the doer of an action

Comitative: for times when X is "with" or "among" Y

Ablative-Instrumental: expresses motion away from a place, or a tool or emotion with which an action is performed

Terminative: expresses motion to or into a place; also the goal or target of an action

Directive (also known as Locative-Terminative): expresses the relationship of being "near" something, or "near to". (This can only occur with non-sentient things, as in iri.e, meaning near the city.)

Equative: used for comparisons, and means roughly "like" or "as"; used when making (roughly) similies or metaphors, and also more literal comparisons

Quick Quiz
Using the table above, make sure you can identify the case each of these noun phrases are in. You don't necessarily have to know what the noun means to know the case! This can be very useful sometimes when you're translating.

 * kurkur.e
 * bad.še
 * bad Urim.ak

= A Closer Look At (some of) the Cases =

It's pretty important to understand the cases in Sumerian. Without them, it would be like reading English without prepositions! Meaning would be lost.

For now, you only need to learn the first two, namely the Genitive case and the Dative case. The rest we'll get to in later lessons, but I thought I'd let you peruse them here should the urge take you!

 * The Genitive Case - take a peek!
 * The Dative Case - have a look here, too
 * The Ergative Case
 * The Absolutive Case
 * The Locative Case
 * The Terminative Case
 * The Directive Case
 * The Comitative Case
 * The Ablative Case
 * The Equative Case

Summary
Genitive: .ak; used to express posession, or other "X of Y" type relationships

Dative: .ir; used to express the beneficiary of an action

= Quick Quiz on the Case System (1) =

Vocabulary

 * 1) lugal = king, lord, chief
 * 2) nin = queen, lady
 * 3) e = house, temple
 * 4) dumu = child, son
 * 5) Uruk = Uruk, a major city in Mesopotamia

Questions
Translate the following phrases (Sumerian to English):

 * 1) lugal Uruk.ak
 * 2) nin.ir
 * 3) e lugal.ak
 * 4) dumu nin.ak.ir

Translate the following phrases (English to Sumerian):

 * 1) the son of the king
 * 2) for the queen of Uruk
 * 3) the child of Uruk

Answers (or, use the hovertext)

Previous (Lesson Seven - Ergativity in Sumerian) : Up (Main Page - Sumerian Grammar)) : Next (Lesson Nine - Cuneiform)


text:
Vedic Mathematics/Sutras/Urdhva-Tiryagbyham

< Vedic Mathematics/Sutras

Multiplication of a 2 figure integer $$ab$$ by another 2 figures integer $$cd$$ :

$$\begin{matrix}a & & b\\ \vert& \times & \vert\\c & & d\\a*c & ad+bc & b*d\end{matrix} $$ For Example, 12 × 23 = ( 1×2 ) | ( 1×3 + 2×2 ) | ( 3×2 ) = 276

or in base 10:

$$(10 a+b) (10c +d) = 100 (a*c) + 10(ad+cb) + (b*d) $$

of course, the cases where $$(ad+cb)>10$$ or $$b+d>10$$ are to be considered.

Let us take the above example in another way. While multiplying 2 digit numbers with each other,
 * Step 1: the product of the last digits in both numbers becomes the last digit of the result. Therefore the last digit of the result is 2*3=6
 * Step 2: the first digit of the first number is multiplied with the second digit of the second number i.e.1*3=3. Now,the last digit of the first number is multiplied with the first digit of the second number i.e.
 * 2*2=4. Both these numbers are now added
 * 3+4=7. This becomes the second digit of the result
 * Step 3: The first digit of the product is obtained by multiplying the first digits of both numbers, i.e. 1*2=2

Our final answer is 276.


text:
Sumerian/Glossary

= A Concise Glossary for Sumerian =

This page is a collection of brief descriptions of the technical terms which arise in the course of Sumerian study.

Case system
The case system in Sumerian is a system of particles, typically suffixes for nominal casing and infixes for verbal casing, which signify semantic relationships between the various elements in a sentence. Furthermore, a case marking applied to a noun in a sentence usually has a second appearance in the verb form.

Ergativity
Ergativity is a way of using grammar to mark the relationships between actors in a sentence. For instance, in the transitive sentence "Homer wrote The Iliad", Homer is the Agent of the action, and The Iliad is the Patient. In intransitive sentences, such as "Gilgamesh died", there is only one actor, namely Gilgamesh, called the Subject.

An ergative language will use the same case for the Patient and the Subject (as Sumerian does), while an accusative language (as English) will put Agent and Subject in the same case.

Linguistic Class
Many languages separate nouns into classes. In English, we separate some nouns into gender categories, namely male and female. In Sumerian, there is no gender distinction, but rather a distinction between sentient and non-sentient (also called animate/inanimate, person/non-person). Roughly, people are sentient, and everything else is non-sentient. Occasionally, an animal will be referred to in the sentient class, but this is only when they are personified in a fable-story to be actual characters in the narrative.

Linguistic Number
The concept of Number, from a linguistic point of view, is simply a count of the number of entities to be grouped into a pronoun or other word. Most languages, Sumerian included, have a Singular (e.g., me, the flooding river, an ice cream cone) and Plural (e.g. us, the flooded plains, sprinkles).

Linguistic Person
When speaking of the Person attribute in linguistic analysis, we are talking about the difference between I, you, and she. First-person means the group includes the speaker, second-person means the group includes the intended listener, and third-person means the group includes neither the speaker or listener, but a separate party entirely.

Parts of Speech
Linguistics talk a lot about different parts of speech (POS). Basically, they've discovered over the years that most if not all languages have words which are typically linked to things, and act in certain well-defined ways in sentences, and words which are typically actions and work in other ways. Because of this consistency across so many languages, we have developed words like noun, verb and adverb to describe these different categories.

Pronouns
A pronoun is one example of a part of speech. Pronouns are typically small common words used to reference things already indicated in the conversation. For instance, in the sentence "I didn't find the book, because I had lost it the day earlier", the word it is a pronoun used to reference the object of the previous clause, namely the book.

Subject case
In English, the subject of a sentence indicates, typically, the topic or agent or main actor in the sentence. For instance, in the sentence "The priest blessed the temple," our subject is "the priest". The subject case is just one part of the much larger topic of a case system.

Back to the main Sumerian page

title: Sumerian/Glossary


text:
French/Grammar/Prepositions

Common prepositions
Francés/Gramática/La preposición

title: French/Grammar/Prepositions


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Two - Possessives

 * Last page: Lesson 1   ::    This page: Lesson 2    ::    Next page: Lesson 3

= The Possessives =

General Comments
In any language, we need a way to distinguish my sheep from your sheep. In English, as we just saw in the last sentence, we have little words like my and your to do the job. It's pretty common, in fact, to have special purpose words just like these, and many languages do. Some languages, like Sumerian, choose to use a suffix instead. There's nothing special or different, it's just a choice.

So, in Sumerian, the possessives are suffixed (just like the plural suffix, .ene [𒂊𒉈]). Let's look at the English phrase her queen, where we see two separate words being used. The same phrase in Sumerian is nin.ani [𒊩𒆪𒀀𒉌] (remember that the dot between nin and ani simply means a logical break for analysis purposes only - it is not pronounced or written in regular practice). Other than this purely syntactic change, from an independent word to a suffix, the possessives really are pretty much the same thing in both languages.

Remember, though, that unlike English, the possesive is 'suffixed'. Note that nin.ani literally transcribes as queen-her, but we would obviously translate the phrase as her queen.

The Possessive Particles
It's pretty standard for grammars of ancient languages to display things in tables, with a word on the left, and information about the person, number, gender or case of that word on the right (or whatever interesting things you're talking about). In Sumerian, we replace gender with animate/inanimate (a topic we'll get to later), but the idea is the same. Assume I'm showing you the animate form unless noted otherwise.

Here is the table for the possessive affixes:

[Thomsen §101]

Some Examples
So now that you've seen the affixes, let's try using them! It's easy to do, just attach the suffix to a noun, and presto! Instant possessives.

 * 1) ama.ĝu [𒂼𒈬] = my mother
 * 2) lugal.ani [𒈗𒀀𒉌] = his king or her king
 * 3) nin.a.ne.ne [𒊩𒆪𒀀𒉈𒉈] = their queen

Easy, right?

Orthography (writing) and Phonology (sounds)
The first striking thing about this table is the presence of the ĝ. What is this? Well, it represents a sound that was present in the Sumerian language, but one which we do not know the exact quality of, so we simply use a letter that we think was close in sound (in this case, g) and add a hat to it to distinguish it from a regular /g/. Scholars presume, at this point, that this sound was like the final nasal at the end of the word king, which linguists write as the /ŋ/ sound. However, we are at a bit of a loss to say this with any certainty, as the Sumerian writing system was not alphabetic, and the only phonemic evidence we have came from the Akkadians who later tried to sound it out. For our purposes here, though, go ahead and pronounce it like /ŋ/, to distinguish it from regular old /g/.

Note: <ĝ> is not to be confused with <ğ>, a letter in the Turkish alphabet.

Treatment of Plurals
Further, we notice that some of the plural suffixes look a lot like the singular ones, with the addition of an /ene/ sound. Combining affixes like this is typical of Sumerian. Indeed, the plural suffix itself is .ene [𒂊𒉈], as we learned in the last lesson, so it looks like our plural possessives are exactly that: possessives with plural markers attached.

This is a distinguishing feature of an agglutinative language - they like to have lots of small affixes that modify the meaning of a base word, and then they might combine any number of these individual affixes to finally arrive at their final meaning.

As an example, let's look at the Sumerian word bad.a.ne.ne [𒂦𒀀𒉈𒉈]. Our base word here is bad [𒂦], meaning wall, and we have our possessive affix .ani making his/her wall, and finally we tack on .ene, making their wall (noting that the final i sound in .ani gets swallowed up by the leading e in .ene). So to analyze a Sumerian word, you just break down the affix. Couldn't be simpler!

Treatment of Classes
Also, we see that there is only one case of a non-sentient class possessive, namely the 3sg (third-person singular). You might ask how to represent an idea like the base of the cliffs - and you'd be right to ask. We see several mechanisms used to work around this limitation, but in practice, it's almost always clear what the text is saying even though we might say it in a different way in English.

Phonological Changes
[Don't worry about remembering this section too carefully. We'll come back to this stuff later.]

The posessive affixes have one quirk when they are attached to something in the genitive or locative case. Namely, the singular affixes end up with an /a/ sound at the end:

 * .ĝa [𒂷] - my (1sg sent., gen & loc)
 * .za [𒍝] - your (s) (2sg sent., gen & loc)
 * .ana [𒀀𒈾] - his/her (3sg sent., gen & loc)
 * .bi.a [𒁉𒀀] or .ba - its (3sg non-sent., gen & loc)

= Vocabulary =

 * 1) til [𒋾] = life
 * 2) bad [𒂦] = wall (n)
 * 3) Uruk [𒌷𒀔] = Uruk, a great city in early Mesopotamia (This is the Akkadian spelling, in Sumerian the spelling is "Unugki" [𒀕𒆠] or "Unug" [𒀕])
 * 4) e [𒂍] = house, and sometimes temple
 * 5) e.gal [𒂍𒃲] = palace

= Quick Quiz =

[Additional vocabulary: the suffix .ak [𒀝] denotes the genitive, so X Y.ak can be read X of Y ''. Also, the preposition "for" becomes a post-position, .ir [𒅕]]''

Sumerian to English:

 * 1) til.zu [𒋾𒍪]
 * 2) bad.bi [𒂦𒁉]
 * 3) nin.ani [𒊩𒆪𒀀𒉌]
 * 4) bad Uruk.ak [𒂦𒌷𒀔𒀝] (Sumerian spelling - bad Unugki.ak [𒂦𒀕𒆠𒀝])

English to Sumerian:

 * 1) for her child
 * 2) my king
 * 3) his house
 * 4) the queen of your temple

Answers (or, use the hovertext)

= History =

Much of what we know about Sumerian comes from dried clay tablets, inscribed between 3000 BCE and 1500 BCE, in a writing style called cuneiform. The scribes would take a reed stalk, chop the stem at an angle (much like clipping a flower stem when put in a vase), and make small impressions in the clay to form characters. These impressions were often somewhat like elongated triangles, and hence "wedge-shaped", which is the meaning of the word cuneiform.

The subject matter we find on these tablets varies considerably. Most of what we find, as one would expect from a flourishing society, are government documents or trade agreements between two parties, or the like. Less frequently, we find more official documents, like dedicatory inscriptions buried under large state buildings, and more rarely, we find literary or poetic documents.

Because the scribes used (predominantly) clay tablets, time has often not treated them well. Often a sentence or phrase is lost or deformed, limiting our ability to understand a given document. Fortunately, scribes were occasionally asked to use stone or other more solid materials. Some of the most beautiful Sumerian inscriptions are of this type, to be found in museums all over the world. The Louvre houses an impressive collection of all types of Sumerian documents, for example.

Previous (Lesson One - The Plural Marker) : Up (Main Page - Sumerian Grammar) : Next (Lesson Three - The Genitive)


text:
Sumerian/Answers/Quick Quiz Answers

= Quick Quiz Answers =

Posessives
Sumerian to English:

til.zu = your life

bad.bi = its wall

nin.ani =his/her queen

bad Uruk.ak =the wall of Uruk

English to Sumerian:

for her child = dumu.ani.ir

my king = lugal.ĝu

his house = e.ani

the queen of your temple = nin e.zu.ak

The .ir suffix is explained in the next section.

Back to Lesson Two - Posessives

Case System Preliminaries
The subject of the quiz sentence is the phrase "The quick brown fox", and the object is the phrase "the lazy dog".

Back to Lesson Eight - The Case System

The Genitive Case
igi.ene nin.ak = the eyes of the queen lugal Urim.ak = the king of Urim amar ses.zu.ak = the calf of your brother

the brother of the king = ses lugal.ak the sister of my mother = nin ama.ğa

Back to Lesson Eight - The Case System

Case System Quiz
Sumerian to English:

lugal Uruk.ak = the king of Uruk

nin.ir = for the queen

e lugal.ak = the house of the king

dumu nin.ak.ir = for the lady's child

English to Sumerian:

the son of the king = dumu lugal.ak

for the queen of Uruk = nin Uruk.ak.ir

the child of Uruk = dumu Uruk.ak

Back to Lesson Eight - The Case System

Back to the main Sumerian page

title: Sumerian/Answers/Quick Quiz Answers


text:
Sumerian/Contributors

= Contributors to this Introduction to Sumerian =

The initial module was created by Mike Carlson in February of 2006.

I (MC) have done some reorganizing and additions. It's currently June 2007.

Just added a lesson on cuneiform and added a bunch of free pics from mediacommons! Mike.the.kitty (talk) 17:20, 16 June 2009 (UTC)

I (David Ackroyd) have added some revision phrases to chapter 4. I would like someone to make sure that they are correct.

Mušen.gig here, I added (some) Cuneiform to lesson 3 and corrected a few romanizations, also added the Sumerian Cuneiform spelling of Uruk to Lesson 2. Added link to a Cuneiform Keyboard on the main page.

title: Sumerian/Contributors


text:
User:Mike.the.kitty

Mike lives in Dallas, Texas. He is a complete amateur at a wide variety of barely interesting topics, such as Physical Relativity, Machine Learning algorithms, the Sumerian language, the Philosophy of Mathematics, and snooker, billiards and pocket billiards. He is a professional in other arenas, also none of them interesting.

You may contact him for personal, non-commercial purposes related to this Wiki (wikibooks) only at mike dot the dot kitty at gmail dot com ("." replaced with "dot" throughout for spam aversion)

title: User:Mike.the.kitty


text:
User talk:BCTraining

Image:PowerPoint Window.png
You cannot release this image into public domain because it shows copyrighted computer program. Use software-screenshot for such screenshots. --Derbeth talk 23:10, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:BCTraining


text:
Template:Need Photo

''This recipe needs a photo. If you can, please add one.''

title: Template:Need Photo


text:
Category:Recipes Needing Photos

This is a list of Cookbook recipes that need photos/pictorials.

__HIDDENCAT__

title: Category:Recipes Needing Photos


text:
French/Grammar/Adverbs

French adverbs, like their English counterparts, are used to modify adjectives, other adverbs, and verbs or clauses. They do not display any inflection; that is, their form does not change to reflect their precise role, nor any characteristics of what they modify.

Formation
In French, as in English, most adverbs are derived from adjectives. In most cases, this is done by adding the suffix -ment ("-ly") to the adjective's feminine singular form. For example, the feminine singular form of lent ("slow") is lente, so the corresponding adverb is lentement ("slowly"); similarly, heureux → heureusement ("happy" → "happily").

As in English, however, the adjective stem is sometimes modified to accommodate the suffix:

 * If the adjective ends in an i, then -ment is added to the masculine singular (default) form, rather than to the feminine singular form:
 * vrai → vraiment ("real" → "really")
 * poli → poliment ("polite" → "politely")
 * If the adjective ends in -ant or -ent, then the corresponding adverb ends in -amment or -emment, respectively:
 * constant → constamment ("constant" → "constantly")
 * récent → récemment ("recent" → "recently")
 * Some adjectives make other changes:
 * précis → précisément ("precise" → "precisely")
 * gentil → gentiment ("nice" → "nicely")

Some adverbs are derived from adjectives in completely irregular fashions, not even using the suffix -ment:
 * bon → bien ("good" → "well")
 * mauvais → mal ("bad" → "badly")
 * meilleur → mieux ("better"-adjective → "better"-adverb)
 * pire → pire ("worse"-adjective → "worse"-adverb)

And, as in English, many common adverbs are not derived from adjectives at all:
 * ainsi ("thus" or "thusly")

Placement
The placement of French adverbs is almost the same as the placement of English adverbs.

An adverb that modifies an adjective or adverb comes before that adjective or adverb: An adverb that modifies an Infinitive (verbal noun) generally comes after the infinitive: But negative adverbs, such as pas ("not"), pas plus ("not any more"), and jamais ("never") come before the infinitive:
 *  complètement vrai ("completely true")
 *  pas possible ("not possible")
 *  tellement discrètement ("so discreetly")
 * marcher lentement  ("to walk slowly")
 * ne pas marcher ("not to walk")

An adverb that modifies a main verb or clause comes either after the verb, or before the clause: Note that, unlike in English, this is true even of negative adverbs:
 *  Lentement il commença à marcher or Il commença lentement à marcher ("Slowly, he began to walk" or "He began slowly to walk").
 *  Jamais je n'ai fait cela or Je n'ai jamais fait cela ("Never have I done that" or "I've never done that")

List of common adverbs
Francés/Gramática/El adverbio

title: French/Grammar/Adverbs


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/XHTML/Exercises

XHTML Chapter => XHTML

XHTML Answers => Answers

Exercise 1
Below is an example of an invalid HTML document that contains a number of deprecated features. It is also badly structured. The document needs converting to XHTML with the content separated from the presentation.

a. Change the HTML document into a valid XHTML 1.0 Transitional document. Validate your page using the validator available at http://validator.w3.org/.

b. Starting with the model answer for question 1.a. indentify all deprecated elements and attributes in the document and replace them with CSS in a linked external stylesheet. See HyperText Markup Language/Tag List for details of deprecated elements.

c. Starting with the model answer for question 1.b. replace all presentational markup with semantic markup and ensure that all inline elements are contained in block-level elements. Change the DOCTYPE to XHTML 1.0 Strict and validate the page with the W3C Markup Validation Service.

 Convert HTML to XHTML XHTML page  It is important for your site to be current with the most recent W3C standards.  Welcome to my page. I hope that you enjoy your stay.  XHTML is similar to HTML  Validator

Exercise 2
Create a simple HTML document and purposely nest tags incorrectly or don't close a few tags, then run the document through the W3C's online HTML Tidy service.

XHTML Chapter => XHTML

XHTML Answers => Answers


text:
Cookbook:Thumbprint Jam Cookies

| Desserts

A tasty cookie with an 'eye' of jam in the middle.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (240 g) soft butter
 * 1 cup (240 g) white sugar
 * 1 egg
 * 2 teaspoons vanilla
 * 1½ cup (360 g) all-purpose flour
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ½ cup (120 g) jam (raspberry/strawberry)

Procedure

 * 1) In a mixer, cream together the butter and sugar.
 * 2) Once creamed, add the egg and vanilla. Beat until smooth.
 * 3) In a mixing bowl, stir together the flour and baking powder.
 * 4) Add flour to creamed mixture. Beat on low speed until thoroughly combined.
 * 5) Portion out the dough into round, firm balls. Place on sheet pan. Using the end of a wooden spoon, press down on the dough ball to form wells.
 * 6) Fill each well with jam. Do not overfill the well, as they will overflow and burn. For the same reason, keep the edges of the dough clean.
 * 7) Bake at 300°F (160°C) for 22–24 minutes, until a light golden brown.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * These cookies taste best when still warm.

title: Cookbook:Thumbprint Jam Cookies


text:
Cookbook:Chocolate Macaroons (no-bake)

| Desserts

Chocolate Macaroons are a type of cookie which are made without baking.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (480 g) white sugar
 * ½ cup (120 g) margarine or butter
 * 1 cup (240 ml) milk
 * 1 teaspoon (5 ml) vanilla
 * ½ cup (60 g) cocoa
 * 3 cups (300 g) oatmeal
 * 1 cup (75 g) coconut

Procedure

 * 1) Place the bottom half of a double boiler on the stove to heat.
 * 2) Place a large metal mixing bowl on top of the boiler. Melt the margarine/butter in this bowl.
 * 3) Add the white sugar, and whisk until dissolved.
 * 4) Whisk in the milk.
 * 5) Whisk in the cocoa, breaking up lumps first.
 * 6) Remove from heat, take to preparation area.
 * 7) Using a rubber spatula, thoroughly mix in coconut and oatmeal. There should be no dry sections.
 * 8) Portion onto pan and let set.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If your macaroons are too crumbly, they have been overcooked.

title: Cookbook:Chocolate Macaroons (no-bake)


text:
User:Westhaking

About Me
I am new to the whole wiki experience. I only recently found out about wikipedia and through it wikiversity. I am both excited and very interested in what is taking place here at Wikiversity. Free education seems as though it only has advantages and can be extremely useful for someone like myself. I am an Environmental Scientist with a B.S. in Biology and have recently become very interested in Computer Science. Having the access to learn about a new field that was totally foreign me only a few weeks ago is perfect for me seeing as though I don't have time to go back to school, but in my spare time I can jump on over to Wikiversity and read whole textbooks on Computer Programming.

Currently I am interested in: :Computer Science http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:School_of_Computer_Science :    :

title: User:Westhaking


text:
Orthopaedic Surgery/Gastrointestinal Complications

Post operative nausea and vomiting (PONV) remains a significant problem especially in the ambulatory surgery setting where delayed discharge from PACU or unanticipated admission to hospital can result. Nausea and Vomiting in the post operative period is among the top reasons for patient dissatisfaction with their post operative care. The incidence despite new antiemetics remians 20 to 30 %. Protracted difficulties interfere with pain management and participation in physical therapy.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=15064261


text:
User talk:Nessup~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 03:45, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Nessup. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Nessup~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:32, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:18, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nessup~enwikibooks


text:
User:Averykrouse~enwikibooks

This is the user page for Avery W. Krouse, more commonly found on Wikipedia.

Please check out my user page there for information about me.

title: User:Averykrouse~enwikibooks


text:
Windows Programming/Programming CMD

In Windows NT (XP, Vista, 7, 8, 10,...) one is able to write batch files that are interpreted by the Command Prompt (cmd.exe). They can be used to automate file-system tasks such as backups or basic installations and can be used with other command-line utilities as well. The batch files can be considered to be a simple scripting language with logic and jumps. The advantages of using batch files are the ease of writing them, the ability to edit the files without compiling anything, their cross-compatibility across Windows NT Operating Systems and their inherent ability to manipulate file systems due to their basis on MS-DOS. Batch file scripts are not case-sensitive, although strings and data are. The file is controlled by a list of commands separated into lines which are run like normal commands would be at the Command Prompt, although some functionality is different. Batch files can be run from Windows Explorer but the console used to display them closes automatically at the end of the batch file, so a command at the end that prevents instantaneous exit is needed for any remaining output to be read before the console window closes. Although the batch files are able to manipulate their environment, such as color settings and environment variables, the changes are all temporary, as in a standard Command Prompt session. Color settings, however, are retained on later editions of Windows NT. In order to try to learn about batch files, it is useful to understand Command Prompt commands. See: Guide to Windows commands.

Batch File
The script is kept inside a batch file, with the extension .bat or .cmd. Although .bat is more recognisable, as it was used in the MS-DOS environment that preceded the Command Prompt, the Command Prompt's interpretations of batch files is very different to the manner of interpreting DOS batch files, and .cmd files are only interpreted by the Command Prompt, so using the .cmd extension prevents mis-use in older environments.

Execution starts at the top of the file and ends at the end. When the end of the file is reached, the file exits to the Command Prompt if it was invoked from there, or the console window closes if it was invoked from Windows Explorer or the START command.

ECHO Command
Typically, batch files start with the 'echo off' command, which stops the input and prompt from being displayed during execution, so only the command output is displayed. The '@' symbol prevents a command from having input and its prompt displayed. It is used on the 'echo off' command to prevent that first command from displaying the input and prompt:

@ECHO OFF

In order to print lines, the ECHO command is used again, but this time with a text parameter other than 'off':

ECHO.Hello World!

The period ('.') is used to prevent confusion with the attempt to output ON or OFF rather than turn input and prompt displaying on and off. The last line in a code should then be:

ECHO ON

'Echo on' will turn the input/prompt display back on, just in case the program exits to the Command Prompt where without the command 'echo on', there will be no visible prompt left for use.

HINT: Starting with Windows XP, the ECHO ON command is optional. The command interpreter automatically enables it after the BAT file terminates.

Hello World Example
Using the code above, we can make a hello world program like so:

@ECHO OFF ECHO Hello World! ECHO ON

Comments
In batch files there are two ways of writing comments. Firstly there is the form:

REM Comment here.

This form is included as it was in the MS-DOS batch file script. The other form is this:

This form is generally favoured, for being faster to execute and write, and also for being easy to differentiate from normal commands. For this type of comment only two double-colons ('::') are needed and the comment ends at the end of the line. Batch files have no multi-line comment types.

You can also add a comment to the end of the command:

command &::Comment here.

Variables
In batch scipting, all variables are strings stored in system memory. Variables are assigned using the SET command. Variables assigned in this manner persist in the System environment alongside predefined Global System variables until the environment in which they are defined is terminated, either through the use of the ENDLOCAL command or the closing of the command prompt session. Care should be taken to avoid 'overwriting' Global environment variables such as 'PATH' 'TIME' 'DATE', as other programs can be dependant on them having their 'proper' value.

 * The use of the command 'GOTO :EOF' in an environment where the command 'SETLOCAL' has created a child environment implies and effects an 'ENDLOCAL' command.

SET name=John Smith

This command creates an environment variable called name, and sets its value to the string "John Smith". White space on either side of the first '=' sign is included in the assignment of both the variables reference name ('name' in this instance) and the variables value [Variable names can contain whitespace!]. Trailing whitespace in a variables value is also assigned, which can cause unexpected failure in some scripts if not detected. For this reason, it is recommended to doubleqoute the assignment of variables:

SET "name=John Smith"

Variables are generally used within other commands by expanding the reference string with '%' characters marking the beginning and end of the variable reference string:

ECHO %name%

In batch scripting, variables that are expanded using '%' expansion are read [parsed] by the interpreter prior to the line or block being executed. As such, this means the command will execute with the value the variable held prior to the commencement of that section of code. This is especially significant where code blocks are used and the variables value is reassigned within that code block. A code block in batch scripting occurs when multiple commands are chained together on the same line using '&' to concatenate the commands; as well as within any parenthesised code such as 'IF' statements and 'FOR' loops.

An example that demonstrates the problem this poses:

@Echo off Set "count=0" For /L %%n in (1 1 3)Do ( Set /A count+=1  Echo %count% ) Echo %count%

Output:

0 0 0 3

There are 2 methods for resolving this. The first and most commonly used is to Enable Delayed Expansion, which allows variables to be expanded using '!' (delayed) expansion:

@Echo off Set "count=0" SETLOCAL EnableExtensions EnableDelayedExpansion For /L %%n in (1 1 3)Do ( Set /A count+=1  Echo !count! ) Echo %count%

Output: 1 2 3 3

Using Delayed Expansion results in the variable being expanded during execution instead of when the command is initially parsed by the interpreter.

The 2nd method of expanding a variables current value during code blocks is to use the 'CALL' command to effectively reset the parser during execution of the command so the current value is read.

@Echo off Set "count=0" For /L %%n in (1 1 5)Do ( Set /A count+=1  Call Echo %%count%% ) Echo %count%

The call method is significantly slower, However is useful for dealing with strings that may include '!' characters that the interpreter would attempt to parse as a variable when delayed expansion is enabled. It is not suitable for strings containing Carets '^' as the call command doubles Carets that occur in the command string that follows the Call.

The use of Delayed expansion allows 'Associated' variables to be defined using a common reference name with unique indexes to emulate arrays. This is possible because while Delayed Expansion enabled, expansion of variables occurs in two steps. First, '%' variables are expanded, then '!' variables are expanded. Example:

@Echo off Set "str[1]=one,three,five" Set "str[2]=two,four,six" Setlocal EnableExtensions EnableDelayedExpansion rem for each in 1 2 For %%i in (1 2)Do ( rem reset sub index variable  Set "{i}=0" rem for each in variable str[index]   For %%G in (!str[%%i]!)Do ( rem increment sub index count Set /A {i}+=1 rem define element '{i}' from str[index] to str[index][subindex] Set "str[%%i][!{i}!]=%%G" ) ) Set Str Goto :Eof

Output: str[1]=one,three,five str[1][1]=one str[1][2]=three str[1][3]=five str[2]=two,four,six str[2][1]=two str[2][2]=four str[2][3]=six

Input
The set command can also be used for input:

SET /P var=Enter a value for var:

This command displays "Enter a value for var:" and when the user enters the data, var is given that value.

Be aware, if the user presses enter without entering anything then the value in var is unchanged, so for the sake of a prompt it is often best to give a default value, or clear the value for the variable first if it has been used before:

SET var= SET /P var=Enter a value for var:

Below is an example:

@ECHO OFF SET /P answer= Enter name of file to delete: DEL /P %answer% ECHO ON

This batch file gets the name of a file to delete and then uses the DEL command with the prompt parameter '/P' to ask the user if they're sure they want to delete the file.

IF
The IF command can be used to create program logic in batch files. The IF command allows three basic checks, on the ERRORLEVEL, the equality of two strings, and the existence of a file or folder. The first check on the ERRORLEVEL will check to see if it is greater than or equal to a certain number:

IF ERRORLEVEL 5 ECHO.The ERRORLEVEL is at least 5.

For this style the first parameter is always ERRORLEVEL, and the second is the value it checks against. In this case, if the ERRORLEVEL is at least 5 then the command at the end of the line is executed, outputting the message "The ERRORLEVEL is at least 5.". The second form is a check between two strings:

IF "%str1%"=="Hello." ECHO.The strings are equal.

Here the first parameter is two strings either side of the double '=', symbolising a check to see if they are equal. If the variable str1 is exactly equal to "Hello.", a check which is case-sensitive, then "The strings are equal." is outputted. In the case that you wish to make the check case-insensitive you would rewrite it as following:

IF /I "%str1%"=="Hello." ECHO.The strings are equal.

Now, for example, str1 could contain "HELLO." but the check would still result in the command being executed at the end as the check is now case-insensitive. The final basic IF type is the existence check, to see if a file or folder exists.

IF EXIST myfile.txt TYPE myfile.txt

Here if the file "myfile.txt" exists in the current folder then the command  is executed which displays the contents of "myfile.txt" in the console window.

All of the preceding examples have an optional NOT parameter that can be written after the IF which will execute the command at the end of the line if the condition is not true. For example:

IF NOT EXIST myfile.txt ECHO.File missing.

Which will output "File missing." if the file "myfile.txt" is not existent in the current folder. There are a few other IF types with command extensions, which can be seen with the  command at the command prompt.

ELSE
The ELSE operator can be used with a combination of brackets to provide multi-line logical statements that provide an alternative set of commands if the condition is not true.

IF condition (   commands to be executed if the condition is true  ) ELSE (    commands to be executed if the condition is false )

Unlike some languages, in batch files the scripting requires that the lines,   and   are written very specifically like that. It is possible, however, to re-write it to use single-line outcomes all on one line:

IF condition (command if true) ELSE command if false

Below is an example of the ELSE operator in use:

@ECHO OFF ::Prompt for input. SET /P answer=Enter filename to delete: IF EXIST %answer% ( DEL /P %answer% ) ELSE (  ECHO.ERROR: %answer% can not be found in this folder! ) ECHO ON

This batch file will delete a file, unless it doesn't exist in which case it will tell you with the message "ERROR: %answer% can not be found in this folder!".

Unlike in most computer languages, multiple multi-line IF...ELSE style statements can't be nested in batch files.

Jumps
You can control program flow using the GOTO statement. Batch files don't have all elements for structured programming scripting, however some elements of structured programming such as functions can be simulated. The simplest way of controlling program flow, however, is the GOTO statement which jumps to a specified label.

GOTO labelnam

This code will direct program flow to the label labelnam, which is found at the first occurrence of this line:

It is important to remember that labels only store 8 characters, so if a label is longer than 8 characters only the first 8 will be seen. This means the labels labelname1 and labelname2 can't be distinguished from each other as their only difference occurs past the first 8 characters. Although not strictly incorrect, it is better to avoid using label names longer than 8 characters to avoid these distinguishing problems easily.

Here is the example from earlier redesigned to loop until asked to stop:

@ECHO OFF :prompt ::Clear the value of answer ready for use. SET answer= SET /P answer=Enter filename to delete (q to quit): IF EXIST %answer% ( DEL /P %answer%  GOTO prompt ) IF /I "%answer%"=="q" GOTO :EOF ::By this point an error must have occurred as all ::the correct entries have already been dealt with. ECHO.ERROR: Incorrect entry! GOTO prompt ECHO ON

Take note of the command. This command will take the script to the end of the file and end the current batch script.

FOR Looping
Runs a specified command for each file in a set of files.

FOR %variable IN (set) DO command [command-parameters]

%variable Specifies a single letter replaceable parameter. (set)     Specifies a set of one or more files. Wildcards may be used. command   Specifies the command to carry out for each file. command-parameters Specifies parameters or switches for the specified command.

To use the FOR command in a batch program, specify %%variable instead of %variable. Variable names are case sensitive, so %i is different from %I.

Batch File Example:

for %%F IN (*.txt) DO @echo %%F

This command will list all the files ending in .txt in the current directory.

If Command Extensions are enabled, the following additional forms of the FOR command are supported:

FOR /D %variable IN (set) DO command [command-parameters]

If set contains wildcards, then specifies to match against directory names instead of file names.

FOR /R [[drive:]path] %variable IN (set) DO command [command-parameters]

Walks the directory tree rooted at [drive:]path, executing the FOR statement in each directory of the tree. If no directory specification is specified after /R then the current directory is assumed. If set is just a single period (.) character then it will just enumerate the directory tree.

FOR /L %variable IN (start,step,end) DO command [command-parameters]

The set is a sequence of numbers from start to end, by step amount. So (1,1,5) would generate the sequence 1 2 3 4 5 and (5,-1,1) would generate the sequence (5 4 3 2 1)

FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN (file-set) DO command [command-parameters] FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN ("string") DO command [command-parameters] FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN ('command') DO command [command-parameters]

or, if usebackq (or useback) option present:

FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN ("file-set") DO command [command-parameters] FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN ('string') DO command [command-parameters] FOR /F ["options"] %variable IN (`command`) DO command [command-parameters]

(The purpose of usebackq is to use a fullname of file-set including the space.)

filenameset is one or more file names. Each file is opened, read and processed before going on to the next file in filenameset. Processing consists of reading in the file, breaking it up into individual lines of text and then parsing each line into zero or more tokens. The body of the for loop is then called with the variable value(s) set to the found token string(s). By default, /F passes the first blank separated token from each line of each file. Blank lines are skipped. You can override the default parsing behavior by specifying the optional "options" parameter. This is a quoted string which contains one or more keywords to specify different parsing options. The keywords are:

eol=c          - specifies an end of line comment character (just one) skip=n         - specifies the number of lines to skip at the beginning of the file. delims=xxx     - specifies a delimiter set. This replaces the default delimiter set of space and tab. tokens=x,y,m-n - specifies which tokens from each line are to                      be passed to the for body for each iteration. This will cause additional variable names to                     be allocated. The m-n form is a range, specifying the mth through the nth tokens. If                     the last character in the tokens= string is an                      asterisk, then an additional variable is                      allocated and receives the remaining text on                      the line after the last token parsed. usebackq       - specifies that the new semantics are in force, where a back quoted string is executed as a                     command and a single quoted string is a                      literal string command and allows the use of                      double quotes to quote file names in                      filenameset.

Some examples might help:

FOR /F "eol=; tokens=2,3* delims=, " %i in (myfile.txt) do @echo %i %j %k

would parse each line in myfile.txt, ignoring lines that begin with a semicolon, passing the 2nd and 3rd token from each line to the for body, with tokens delimited by commas and/or spaces. Notice the for body statements reference %i to get the 2nd token, %j to get the 3rd token, and %k to get all remaining tokens after the 3rd. For file names that contain spaces, you need to quote the filenames with double quotes. In order to use double quotes in this manner, you also need to use the usebackq option, otherwise the double quotes will be interpreted as defining a literal string to parse.

%i is explicitly declared in the for statement and the %j and %k are implicitly declared via the tokens= option. You can specify up to 26 tokens via the tokens= line, provided it does not cause an attempt to declare a variable higher than the letter 'z' or 'Z'. Remember, FOR variables are single-letter, case sensitive, global, and you can't have more than 52 total active at any one time.

You can also use the FOR /F parsing logic on an immediate string, by making the filenameset between the parenthesis a quoted string, using single quote characters. It will be treated as a single line of input from a file and parsed.

Finally, you can use the FOR /F command to parse the output of a command. You do this by making the filenameset between the parenthesis a back quoted string. It will be treated as a command line, which is passed to a child CMD.EXE and the output is captured into memory and parsed as if it was a file. So the following example:

FOR /F "usebackq delims==" %i IN (`set`) DO @echo %i

would enumerate the environment variable names in the current environment.

In addition, substitution of FOR variable references has been enhanced. You can now use the following optional syntax:

%~I        - expands %I removing any surrounding quotes (")    %~fI        - expands %I to a fully qualified path name    %~dI        - expands %I to a drive letter only    %~pI        - expands %I to a path only    %~nI        - expands %I to a file name only    %~xI        - expands %I to a file extension only    %~sI        - expanded path contains short names only    %~aI        - expands %I to file attributes of file    %~tI        - expands %I to date/time of file    %~zI        - expands %I to size of file    %~$PATH:I   - searches the directories listed in the PATH                  environment variable and expands %I to the                  fully qualified name of the first one found.                  If the environment variable name is not                  defined or the file is not found by the                  search, then this modifier expands to the                  empty string

The modifiers can be combined to get compound results:

%~dpI      - expands %I to a drive letter and path only %~nxI      - expands %I to a file name and extension only %~fsI      - expands %I to a full path name with short names only %~dp$PATH:I - searches the directories listed in the PATH environment variable for %I and expands to the drive letter and path of the first one found. %~ftzaI    - expands %I to a DIR like output line

In the above examples %I and PATH can be replaced by other valid values. The %~ syntax is terminated by a valid FOR variable name. Picking upper case variable names like %I makes it more readable and avoids confusion with the modifiers, which are not case sensitive.

Pipes
this is mainly used to redirect the output of one program to another program a | b

means execute "a" and what all output "a" gives to the console - give that as "b" s input

dir | find ".htm" will give a list of file which contain ".htm" in their names

The output of a command as well as possible errors could be redirected also to files (Note the 2 in front of the >> ): ACommand >>TheOutputOfTheCommandLogFile.log 2>>TheErrorOutputOfTheCommandFile.log

Functions
Functions may be simulated by using labels to control flow of execution, and using an environment variable to return the resulting return value. Labels can be defined at any place in the script and do not need to be referenced. The code following the label will be executed when encountered. Code blocks identified by labels are usually most conveniently placed after the main script has exited (at the end of the file) so that they will not run accidentally, but will be reached only when targeted by a GOTO or CALL statement.

The subroutine construct works because of the following:
 * Code identified by a label can be jumped to by using the GOTO built in command
 * Using the CALL built in command with a label creates a new invocation of the command processor for the same script, with an implicit GOTO the label
 * Using the expression GOTO :EOF closes the current command processor invocation (Same as EXIT /B except the latter allows to specify an ERRORLEVEL)

The structure of a subroutine call looks like this: CALL :subroutine1 param1 param2 ... ECHO %result% was returned from subroutine1

CALL :subroutine2 param1 param2 ... ECHO %result% was returned from subroutine2

GOTO :EOF REM The above line ends the main invocation of the command processor and so exits the script

 * subroutine1

SETLOCAL commands using parameters %1, %2, .... and setting %retval% ENDLOCAL & SET result=%retval% GOTO:EOF REM The above line ends the child invocation of the command processor and so returns to just after CALL subroutine1 in the main script

 * subroutine2

SETLOCAL commands using parameters %1, %2, .... and setting %retval% ENDLOCAL & SET result=%retval% GOTO:EOF REM The above line ends the child invocation of the command processor and so returns to just after CALL subroutine2 in the main script

Bat file with next content outputs "42" as result of execution
 * describes and calls function for multiplication with 2 arguments

@ECHO OFF CALL :multiply 21 2 ECHO %result%

 * multiply

SETLOCAL set retval=0 set left=%1 set right=%2
 * use '/A' for arithmetic

set /A "retval=left*right" ENDLOCAL & SET result=%retval% GOTO :EOF

Note:
 * Using CALL with a label or the expression CALL :EOF or EXIT /B requires command extensions to be enabled.
 * A label is a line consisting of a valid name (not containing any separators such as space or semicolon) prefixed by a colon.

Command-Line Interfacing
let's say we want to call a program "MyProgram" from the command prompt. we type the following into our prompt (the .exe file extension is unnecessary):

C:\>myprogram.exe

And this will run the myprogram executable. Now, let's say we want to pass a few arguments to this program:

C:\>myprogram arg1 arg2 arg3

Now, if we go into the standard main function, we will have our argc and argv values:

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

Where: argc = 4 argv[0] = "myprogram" (the name of the program - deduct 1 from argc to get the number of arguments) argv[1] = "arg1" argv[2] = "arg2" argv[3] = "arg3"

This shouldn't come as a big surprise to people who have any familiarity with standard C programming. However, if we translate this to our WinMain function, we get a different value:

int WINAPI WinMain(HINSTANCE hInst, HINSTANCE hPrev, LPSTR CmdLine, int iCmdShow)

we will only have one value to accept the command line:

CmdLine = "myprogram arg1 arg2 arg3".

We can also use the function GetCommandLine to retrieve this string from any point in the application. If we want to parse this into a standard argv/argc pair, we can use the function CommandLineToArgvW to perform the conversion. It is important to note that CommandLineToArgvW only works on unicode strings.

When we return a value from our C program, that value gets passed to the CMD shell, and stored in a variable called "ERRORLEVEL". ERRORLEVEL is the only global variable that is not a string, and it can contain a number from 0 to 255. By convention, a value of zero means "success", while a value other then zero signifies an error.

Let's say we wanted to write a C program that returns the number of arguments passed to it. This might sound like a simple task in C, but it is difficult to accomplish in batch script:

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {   return (argc - 1); }

And we will name this program "CountArgs.exe". Now, we can put this into a batch script, to pass it a number of arguments, and to print out the number passed:

countargs.exe %* ECHO %ERRORLEVEL%

We can, in turn, call this script "count.bat", and run that from a command prompt:

C:\>count.bat arg1 arg2 arg3

and running this will return the answer: 3.

NOTE: Actually, this can be accomplished with a batch file without resorting to a C program, by simply using CMD delayed variable expansion via the "/V:ON" parameter:

/V:ON  Enable delayed environment variable expansion using ! as the delimiter. For example, /V:ON would allow !var! to expand the variable var at execution time. The var syntax expands variables at input time, which is quite a different thing when inside of a FOR loop.

Then use a simple batch file like the following to count parameters:

set COUNT=0 for %%x in (%*) do ( set /A COUNT=!COUNT!+1 ) echo %COUNT%

Or an easier way, without having to enable & use 'delayed environment expansion', would be to do the following:

set COUNT=0 for %%x in (%*) do set /A COUNT+=1 echo COUNT = %COUNT%

This returns the same answer as the C program example.

title: Windows Programming/Programming CMD


text:
Orthopaedic Surgery/Intraoperative Considerations

In the 1930s Chinese leftist cooperative groups were admired for their vigorous resistance to the Japanese. Their motto "gung-ho", literally "work together", was adopted by US marines operating behind enemy lines. Emulating the cooperative meetings of the leftists the marines began to convene "gung-ho" meetings in which problems could be threshed out and orders explained. The term has since come to mean energetic and zealous.(Clairborne 1988)

When considering the cooperative enterprise of the OR we might take this approach as a model. To transform a chaotic, heated improvisational approach requires coordination and it requires a gung-ho spirit which starts from the top. Participation in scheduled problem solving meetings to link the surgeons perspective to that of the circulating nurses and technicians. This is to insert yourself into the chain of command of the hospital structure but is more effective than attempting to affect change by complaining at the medical staff or hospital administrative level. Staff turn over and the inability for many ORs to dedicate staff to specialize in orthopaedics are obstacles. A gung-ho core of orthopedic fanatics within the culture of the OR is the goal.

While initiatives like the push for "sign your site" and intraoperative "time out" are sensible they are as important symbolically beyond their effectiveness in practice, should that be demonstrated. The target of each is hubris, arrogance, or the numbing effect of routine and any other all too human tendency which can result in error which in the case of surgery may be irreversible. Both measures reflect a basic methodology employed in airline and military activities in which zero tolerance for error is combated by systems of cross checks and verification.

Surgery is collective enterprise but the buck stops with the surgeon. Everything should be done to enable the full concentration of the surgeon on the physical tasks and intra-operative decisions that are necessary for an optimal result.

The atmosphere of the OR will vary with the personality of the surgeon. Some surgeons are comfortable with social exchanges and discussion of common interests shared by members of the OR team, humor and gossip. Unfortunately to the extent this is beneficial it must be weighed against the potential impact of verbal exchange on the incidence of intraoperative infection.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=6338018

Traffic flow in and out of the room once the surgery has commenced is a necessity at times. Unnecessary traffic can be avoided by planning ahead so that the equipment is in the room, and avoiding a casual flux of personnel as a matter of OR policy.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Citation&list_uids=3638922


text:
User:Eddy1701

To be written

title: User:Eddy1701


text:
Guide to First Year Teaching/Legal stuff you need to know

Any profession that involves the supervision of young people will always be highly regulated by a set of laws and ethics. This section will hilight key laws and ethics for profesional conduct that every new teacher should adhere to.

Ethics and Professional Expectations


text:
Guide to First Year Teaching/Legal stuff you need to know/Ethics and professional expectations

The list here should serve as a guideline for professional conduct and for handling specific situations that might arise during the first year. These guidelines are divided into the categories of professionalism and student and parent interactions.

'''Professionalism

' •Be on Time!'' In most cases, teachers begin their day at 8:00 a.m.; however, there will be times when principals request the teachers to arrive earlier (such as during standardized testing weeks). Whatever the arrangement, being on time to work and to other assigned meetings and duties is essential.

•Dress to impress! As a first-year teacher, your dress is important. It will set you apart from other students and, to a certain extent, from other teachers who are less serious about professionalism. Although we recommend wearing comfortable clothes, be sure to avoid tennis shoes, blue jeans, t-shirts, and clothing that distracts from your teaching (sorry, no loud Hawaii shirts).

•Speak Wisely! Use formal speech in your dealings with students, colleagues, and superiors. Conversations about sex, religious affiliation, political beliefs, and other potentially controversial issues should be avoided if possible. Furthermore, avoid criticism and/or gossip about fellow faculty members; this is extremely counter-productive.

•Enforce School Rules Consistently! As a new teacher, you want to enforce all school rules and procedures. If the campus policy for a student tardy requires you to send them to the office, then enforce this even if the student begs for mercy or claims he/she was only a few seconds late. Explain to the student that this is a campus policy and that you cannot expect them to abide by the rules if you don’t.

•Communicate Professionally! On most campuses, school-wide communication is carried out through the e-mail systems. As a new teacher, it is important to respond to all correspondence in a timely and professional manner. Personal use of the e-mail system and/or use of the phone systems should be kept to a minimum.

•Get Active! This means getting involved in the process of the school and teaching. Getting active translates into many different types of activities: attending department meetings, asking colleagues for advice or lesson plan ideas, monitoring the hallways during passing period, sitting up front and being involved in teacher trainings or meetings, and/or signing up for workshops and conferences. A teacher who gets active in the school becomes part of the process of the school and strives for a variety ways to become a better teacher and develop students.

'''Student and Parent Interactions '''

•Be consistent and fair! Make sure that you treat all students consistently with your policies and concerns. Having a set of rules and consequences posted will help establish this consistency.

•Don’t Touch! In many cases, it is advisable not to touch students at all. Placing your hand on a student’s shoulder or grabbing a student’s arm can sometimes produce negative reactions for the students and can be misconstrued as an offensive action. Instead, use verbal clues or hand gestures to get a student’s attention. (Note on hugging: Do not attempt to hug students. If a student initiates the hug, attempt to have a side embrace or arm over the shoulder. In the long run, this will prevent any misunderstandings. The point here is to be careful and aware.)

•Open Door Policy! An open door policy usually means that as a teacher you are willing to see students at any time before or after school. This is a good way to establish communication with a student. However, an open door policy should also mean to have your door open when dealing with students, especially if you are alone with a student. If you are having a conference with a student, consider having another teacher witness the conference.

•Respect Confidentiality! Keep all records and information about the student’s grade and home life confidential unless you are sharing with other faculty members who have an active part in the success of that student. Gossiping about students to those who do not teach the student or to other adults is a violation of the student’s right to privacy.

•Best Not to Make Promises to Students! In many cases, an inexperienced teacher will make a promise to a student and will be unable to fulfill their part of the bargain. A teacher should never make a promise to keep everything a student tells them confidential. For example, if a student reveals that he/she is being abused at home, you have a legal responsibility to report this to your campus administrator and possibly the Child Protective Services. Furthermore, avoid exchanging promises/gifts with a student such as in “If you turn in all your work, I’ll buy you tickets to the movies.” These methods are counterproductive; they might compromise your professionalism.

•Don’t Pickup Hitchhikers! Basic premise here is not to drive students in your own personal vehicle. You become liable for that student, and if you got into an accident your job as well as your health might be in jeopardy.

•Your Personal Life is Personal! Disclosing personal information with your students about your history, relationships, and religious beliefs can compromise your professionalism. Focus on the content and issues related to the school while at school. There is plenty of time at home to dwell on the other stuff.

•Document Phone Calls Home! Each time you call a parent, the reason for the call, and the outcome of the conversation should be recorded for future reference. This will allow you to refer to a history of conversations with a parent about the student. In addition, this documentation can be used to help facilitate parent-conferences.

•Home Visit with Caution! When visiting the home of a student, make sure to notify the parents ahead of time. It may not be wise to appear unannounced. Furthermore, never enter the home of a student when there is no parent present. Be cautious on a home visit. As a teacher, you become liable for anything that might happen in the home while you are there. For example, if you are talking with a student in the front of the house and a fire is started in the back of the house by the little brother or sister, you might share part of the liability for that incident.

•Keep Accurate Records! Perhaps one of the most essential parts of teaching public school is to keep accurate and up-to-date records of student grades. Throughout the course of the grading period, you should have a general idea of how students are performing. It is essential to notify students with progress reports, especially if they are failing the course. Parents want to be notified as soon as possible if their student is not passing the course.

•Plan a Communication Strategy for Parents! Think of ways that you can engage parents in a positive role in your classroom environment. Also, consider the various ways to get in contact with a parent. See “Communicating with Parents” under “The School Environment.”