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People's Tactics/Combat

Possibly the most important part of the manual is how combat is actually resolved. Actually it is quite easy. All formations going in to battle have their strength calculated on their actual combined stats (of all their unit types * their quantity or number of men). The following modifies these:

Modifiers
It is interesting to note that the below modifiers have already been calculated in to the approximate attack and defence values listed on the unit’s counter on the map.

Experience modifier
Experience reflects the training and frontline experience your men posses. The higher the experience of your formation, the better that formation will fight. A unit with XP=100 fights 50% better as a unit with XP=50. And a unit with XP=50 fights 25% better than a unit with XP=25. Usually, when you receive new men, they will have low XP. This low number is slowly built up over time through training, but once a unit reaches the maximum experience value allowed through training, only participating in combat will raise this number.

Readiness modifier
The higher the readiness of your formation the better it fights. It reflects the fitness and battle-readiness of the troops. The tactical implication is the more battle a formation does the more disrupted, dispirited and unorganised it will become. The lower the unit’s readiness value, the easier it will be to overcome that unit in battle. So, it is wise to monitor the readiness values of your units and allow heavily unorganised units time to rest (if possible) before throwing them back in the fray.

Officer bonus
The officer’s relevant skill (land/air/sea) becomes a bonus. An officer with skill 9 fights about 2 times as well as one with skill 1. Having fame points gives further bonuses. The officers in the entire chain of command play a part, not just the officer in direct control! The ratio for how much influence an officer has on the unit is 3:2:1 for the Formation’s officer, the THQ’s officer and the SHQ’s officer.

Disruption Modifier
If a unit is disrupted it gets a penalty on its fighting ability. This reflects the impact of having organizational problems during battle.

Combat Mechanism for Land Battles
All land types have 5 prime stats: Soft Attack, Soft Defence, Hard Attack, Hard Defence and Hit Points. The basic combat procedure is as follows:

-An attacking formation counts up all its Soft Attack and divides this by the Hit Points of defending infantry to determine defending casualties.

-A defending formation counts up all its Soft Defence and divides this by the Hit Points of attacking infantry to determine attacking casualties

-An attacking formation counts up all its Hard Attack and divides this by the Hit Points of defending armour to determine defending casualties

-A defending formation counts up all its Hard Defence and divides this by the Hit Points of the attacking armour to determine attacking casualties

Taking in mind the following extra rules:

Front-size limitation
There is a maximum number of men and equipment that may participate in combat with an enemy unit. Just because a formation has x amount of infantry, doesn’t mean that all of x will fight in a given battle. This rule reflects the impossibility of attacking with everybody in one go.... You can see a prediction of which % of your forces can attack in 1 round in the top right bottom of your unittype pictures.

Landscape modifications
Some landscapes favour infantry defence and give penalties to armour. Forests obviously give good defence and urban areas provide even better bonuses.

River penalty
Attacking over a river gives a large penalty.

Tactical Bonus Modifier
If you attack an enemy hex from different sides you get a bonus on each attack. From the more sides you attack from, the higher the bonus will become. The defender gets half this bonus for every covered flank.

Coordination Bonus Modifier
If you attack from different sides you get the tactical bonus, but if you also have formations from the same THQ attacking from the different sides you get an extra bonus on top. The defender gets half this bonus for every covered flank.

Amphibious/Paradrop penalty
If the attacker has been unloaded from a cargoship it gets a large penalty if it meets resistance on the beach. The same applies for airdropped troops that land on top of an enemy formation. This is done to reflect that for a while the attackers are sitting ducks.

Fortification penalty
If the attacker has to attack through a line of fortifications its attack strength is greatly diminished.

Retreat
If a unit has lost enough in the opinion of its leaders (Chain of Command) it will retreat. The consequences of retreating are usually more severe for a defending unit than an attacking unit. Consequences are loss of readiness, mobile type and artillery-type.

Combat Mechanics for Artillery Attacks
These attacks occur if a land formation with long distance artillery attacks, a naval unit bombards a unit on the land, or if a naval unit bombards another naval unit from a distance. The calculations for this type of attack are extremely simple. The attacker will destroy a defender number of hit points equal to its artillery power. However there are two exceptions:

Submarine invulnerability
Subs cannot be destroyed by artillery fire. Indirect artillery fire is too sluggish to hamper the sub in diving.

Armour protection
Artillery is only half as effective against armoured unit types as against the other land unit types.

Combat Mechanics for Naval Battles
The mechanics behind naval combat is the same as a two sided artillery duel, except that the submarines have no invulnerability. Retreating is not an option in naval battles. If your warships have long-range guns, it is advisable to bombard from a distance.

Combat Mechanics for Amphibious Invasion
Is handled as a normal land attack except that there will be severe penalties for the attacker and also the attacker will not be able to retreat. It is not possible to amphibiously invade a town that has warships in the harbour.

Combat Mechanics for Air Missions
Every Air mission, being it airtransfer, interdict, bombing or air supply will first suffer from Interception and A-A Fire. After that the actual mission is executed.

Interception
All enemy fighters with adequate readiness and within range of the mission target will intercept the attacker and use their dogfight value to do battle. An air unit could be intercepted by multiple formations.

A-A Fire
All unit types with AA capability within range of the target will open fire on the attacker.

Interdict
Fighters and bombers use their Soft Attack and Hard Attack to strike at enemy. Soft Attack for Infantry, Mobile, Artillery, or Aircraft on the ground and Hard Attack for armour. Fighters and bombers use their Naval Interdict score to strike at enemy naval vessels and submarines. Take in to mind that submarines can still dive, but usually have a lesser chance to do so than against naval attack.

Strategic Bombing
Bombers use their Strategic Bombing value to cause damage to a town and thus diminishing its production and supply generation.

Combat Mechanics for Air, Navy units attacked in towns by land units
You should avoid this at all cost. Air formations can hardly defend themselves against a land attack. Naval formations in a harbour are also extremely vulnerable to land attack. The expression sitting duck could be used for the defender in this type of attack. Evacuate the formations instead of letting this type of attack occur.

Example of Combat Mechanics and Modifiers at work
Here will be explained how the various modifiers work against each other, to illustrate, here an example of a combat report featuring battle between two land formations.

The amount of casualties the attacking unit will inflict on the defending unit is based upon the Soft Attack value against soft targets (infantry) and on Hard Attack against hard targets (armour). The amount of casualties the attacker will suffer depends on the Soft Defence and Hard Defence values of the defender. All 4 values are initially calculated by just totalling all the unit types respective stats (soft attack and hard attack for attacker, soft defence and hard defence for defender).

However, there are quite a few rules to give some realism and to give some tactical options to the players.

In the above example the attacking unit has a Readiness value of 100, so it gets no readiness modifier. If it were to have a readiness value of 80, it would be 20% less effective in attacking. It has experience value of 50, so it fights with only half the potency that it would have done had an Experience value of100. It gets a bonus of 59% for the officer(s) in the chain of command who are controlling the unit. It gets no disruption mod, but if it would have been disrupted say 25% it would then fight with 25% less effectiveness. This attacking unit gets a whopping 70% penalty on its remaining strength due to attacking over a river! However, it gets a tactical bonus mod of 30% since the attacking is done from 3 different sides, and a further 15% coordination bonus on the remaining strength is given since the attack from 2 of the 3 sides is executed by formations belonging to the same THQ. Fog of War is on, so the only thing we can see about the defender is the end values of its defensive strength after all the modifications have been calculated. However, we can see here it gets a 30% bonus due to fighting from a forest.

title: People's Tactics/Combat


text:
People's Tactics/Transfers

Using the transfer command, you may transfer units from one formation to another. Transferring between non-SHQ units can only be done in the same hex, while transferring from SHQ units can be done over great distances provided you control the territory or the sea. At the start of the turn, the MOBCAP and the CARGOCAP of each SHQ is calculated on the basis of the number of mobile types (usually trucks) and cargo ship types in the SHQ. MOBCAP is spent by transferring over land and CARGOCAP is spent transferring over sea. You can only transfer to an overseas formation if there is a connection using 2 harbors (i.e. there is no version of amphibious supply for transfers). Transferring between units does not decrease the unit's built up experience; sending troops back to an SHQ, however, does.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: People's Tactics/Transfers


text:
People's Tactics/Scenario Editor

Step-by-Step Scenario Creation using an existing ScenarioSet

This is the easiest way to craft a new scenario, very useful if you want to create a PBEM map to play with a friend.

Before we start, you will need to enable the edit menu through the preferences menu-item.

Create the scenario
Clear the Memory and get a blank map. Leaving remnants of past edits can lead to errors, so pay attention! Go to menu > New Scenario and then specify the map size (measured in how many hexagons for length and width).

Import
Import the basic data the scenario will use (this is also called a scenario set). Go to menu > Import and then select a scenario You could also elect to define your own unit types, research fields and peoples. But that is an advanced topic that is currently awaiting a tutorial of its own! Anyhoo, I advise you open the “Battle for the Center” scenario In order to load the most basic data.

Add the regimes
Go to menu > Regimes Press Add Regime to add a regime and then make sure to fill in:
 * Name of the Regime
 * Regime land color, which is the hex-color they use. Specify a value between 1-15, each hex-color also comes with its own counter set! Experiment to find your favorites!
 * People, which is the people that run this nation. Pick a valid people number 1-5. People are as follows: 1, Groschken (German); 2, Atlantean (British); 3, Neutral; 4, French and 5, Italian.
 * Portrait set, which is the set of portrait officers that will be used by this regime. Specify a number between 1-5. Portrait sets are as follows: 1, German; 2. British; 3, French/Neutral; 4, not-used and 5, Russian.
 * A small text describing the regime and/or its role in this scenario.

And press OK to leave this window.

Draw the Landscape
Select a landscape in the landscape list in the bottom-right corner and press the landscape button. If you now click a hex it will paint this landscape. Note: rivers are very tricky! To correctly draw a river, you have to draw it in 2 different hexes since it is a border thing… You also must take care to select the correctly angled pieces. It may seem difficult at first, but play with it a moment and you’ll get the hang of it. I promise, don’t sue me!. Roads only appear after you have clicked on 2 the neighbouring hexes whilst placing them. Also notice that by clicking on the same hex again, the road or river will vanish. Its magic!

Draw Regimes
There is a small textbox above the regime button and if you fill in the regime number there (or 99 for neutral) then that is the color you will place on the map once you click the “regime” button. This is used for defining the borders on the map.

Place Towns
To place a town, you must first select a hex and then click the “place urban” button. A prompt will appear asking information about the town, fill it in. In most scenarios, 500 people should be the minimum living in a town and 5000 the maximum.

Set Victory Condition
Menu > General Game variables Set the number of people in your regime needed for a victory in the textbox at the top of the form and press the button right next to it. Also, it could be nice to give a little story in the textbox about the scenario. Press OK to leave this window.

Create new units
You place units on the map in much the same way as you form new ones in the regular game: with the gear button. This will create an empty unit just like in the game, you can then fill it with men and machinery by selecting “edit current unit” in the top-of-the-screen edit menu.

Make sure Chain of Command is in place
Have you created SHQs and THQs? If not you had better do that, and assign units to them as you would during a regular game!

Assign SHQ to towns
Make sure the towns within a regime’s territory have an SHQ selected… This will prevent supply problems on the first turn of a game!

Save
That's it! Save the scenario now, as you won’t be able to edit it again if you press “Start game” instead.

title: People's Tactics/Scenario Editor


text:
People's Tactics/PBEM

There is currently one issue with playing by email. Certain web-mail clients will to corrupt the .pt1 save file. A workaround for this issue is to zip your file before you email it.

title: People's Tactics/PBEM


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Sealed Box Subwoofer Design

Introduction
A sealed or closed box baffle is the most basic but often the cleanest sounding subwoofer box design. The subwoofer box in its most simple form, serves to isolate the back of the speaker from the front, much like the theoretical infinite baffle. The sealed box provides simple construction and controlled response for most subwoofer applications. The slow low end roll-off provides a clean transition into the extreme frequency range. Unlike ported boxes, the cone excursion is reduced below the resonant frequency of the box and driver due to the added stiffness provided by the sealed box baffle.

Closed baffle boxes are typically constructed of a very rigid material such as MDF (medium density fiber board) or plywood .75 to 1 inch thick. Depending on the size of the box and material used, internal bracing may be necessary to maintain a rigid box. A rigid box is important to design in order to prevent unwanted box resonance.

As with any acoustics application, the box must be matched to the loudspeaker driver for maximum performance. The following will outline the procedure to tune the box or maximize the output of the subwoofer box and driver combination.

Closed Baffle Circuit
The sealed box enclosure for subwoofers can be modeled as a lumped element system if the dimensions of the box are significantly shorter than the shortest wavelength reproduced by the subwoofer. Most subwoofer applications are crossed over around 80 to 100 Hz. A 100 Hz wave in air has a wavelength of about 11 feet. Subwoofers typically have all dimensions much shorter than this wavelength, thus the lumped element system analysis is accurate. Using this analysis, the following circuit represents a subwoofer enclosure system.

where all of the following parameters are in the mechanical mobility analog

Ve - voltage supply

Re - electrical resistance

Mm - driver mass

Cm - driver compliance

Rm - resistance

RAr - rear cone radiation resistance into the air

XAf - front cone radiation reactance into the air

RBr - rear cone radiation resistance into the box

XBr - rear cone radiation reactance into the box

Driver Parameters
In order to tune a sealed box to a driver, the driver parameters must be known. Some of the parameters are provided by the manufacturer, some are found experimentally, and some are found from general tables. For ease of calculations, all parameters will be represented in the SI units meter/kilogram/second. The parameters that must be known to determine the size of the box are as follows:

f0 - driver free-air resonance

CMS - mechanical compliance of the driver

SD - effective area of the driver

Resonance of the Driver
The resonance of the driver is either provided by the manufacturer or must be found experimentally. It is a good idea to measure the resonance frequency even if it is provided by the manufacturer to account for inconsistent manufacturing processes.

The following diagram shows the setup for finding resonance:

Where voltage V1 is held constant and the variable frequency source is vaied until V2 is a maximum. The frequency where V2 is a maximum is the resonance frequency for the driver.

Mechanical Compliance
By definition compliance is the inverse of stiffness or what is commonly referred to as the spring constant. The compliance of a driver can be found by measuring the displacement of the cone when known masses are place on the cone when the driver is facing up. The compliance would then be the displacement of the cone in meters divided by the added weight in newtons.

Effective Area of the Driver
The physical diameter of the driver does not lead to the effective area of the driver. The effective diameter can be found using the following diagram:

From this diameter, the area is found from the basic area of a circle equation.

Acoustic Compliance
From the known mechanical compliance of the cone, the acoustic compliance can be found from the following equation:

CAS = CMSSD2

From the driver acoustic compliance, the box acoustic compliance is found. This is where the final application of the subwoofer is considered. The acoustic compliance of the box will determine the percent shift upwards of the resonant frequency. If a large shift is desire for high SPL applications, then a large ratio of driver to box acoustic compliance would be required. If a more flattened response is desire for high fidelity applications, then a lower ratio of driver to box acoustic compliance would be required. Specifically, the ratios can be found in the following figure using line (b) as reference.

CAS = CAB*r

r - driver to box acoustic compliance ratio

Volume of Box
The volume of the sealed box can now be found from the box acoustic compliance. The following equation is used to calculate the box volume

VB= CABγ

Box Dimensions
From the calculated box volume, the dimensions of the box can then be designed. There is no set formula for finding the dimensions of the box, but there are general guidelines to be followed. The face of the box which the driver is set in should not be a square. If the driver were mounted in the center of a square face, the waves generated by the cone would reach the edges of the box at the same time, thus when combined would create a strong diffracted wave in the listening space. In order to best prevent this, the driver should either be mounted offset on a square face, or the face should be rectangular, with the driver closer to one edge.

The ratios between internal height, width and depth should never be integer (2:1, 3:1 etc.), as this would encourage the formation of standing waves inside the box. Some have suggested the use of the Golden ratio and others the third root of 2, both of which are close to each other and close to the IEC-recommended ratios for room dimensions (which conform to the same acoustical requirements). In practice most manufacturers formulate their boxes based on aesthetic and cost considerations, while ensuring, through testing, that no major box resonances appear. In high-quality units this entails the extensive use of rigid in-box bracing, sound absorption material, sophisticated alloys or polymers, complex geometrical shapes, including curves, etc.


text: People's Tactics/Shortcuts

title: People's Tactics/Shortcuts


text:
Talk:Calculus/Related Rates

This is my first attempt, I'm not sure all my answers are correct. If anyone would like to please add to and improve this initial draft.

title: Talk:Calculus/Related Rates


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/House of Gaunt

General Overview
The House of Gaunt is the residence of the remaining members of the House of Gaunt. Located near the fictional town of Little Hangleton, it is empty by the time Harry's story begins, and has likely fallen into ruins.

Extended Description
The so-called "House of Gaunt" is, when we first see it, a run-down shack with a dead snake nailed to the door. Using Albus Dumbledore's Pensieve, via the memories of Bob Ogden, we find that the residence of this once-proud family is now a single-room shack, in which the three remaining members of the family reside. The building is apparently a free-hold, built on a spot of land that belongs to the Gaunt family, though the rest of the valley apparently is owned, or at least overseen, by one Tom Riddle.

Tom Marvolo Riddle visits the house at one point, apparently on a mission to find something out about his ancestry. The house has not fared well, as Merope had run away some sixteen years before, and then died, and the house had sat vacant for three years while Morfin had been in prison. In the course of that visit, Tom Marvolo Riddle murders his own father, Tom Riddle, and Riddle's parents, framing the one surviving Gaunt family member, Morfin, for the murder.

With Morfin's arrest and subsequent death in Azkaban, the house remains empty and presumably falls into ruin. Tom Marvolo Riddle, in his later guise as Lord Voldemort, does revisit the shack to hide a Horcrux there. Albus Dumbledore visits to retrieve the Horcrux, and Voldemort returns to check on the Horcrux and is enraged to find it gone.

Analysis
There is very little to say about the shack where the Gaunt family lives; it is, on its own, merely a poor excuse for a house. What makes this house exceptional is the overweening pride of the occupants, a pride in their ancestry that allows them, apparently, to deny the baseness of their domicile. Because this contrast is more a property of the people, than of the place, discussion of this should be in the article on the Gaunt family.

Greater Picture
The Horcrux placed in this location was, of course, the Peverell ring that Tom Marvolo Riddle had stolen from Morfin Gaunt. Not having heard the story of the Deathly Hallows, it had never occurred to Voldemort that this might be the Resurrection Stone. Riddle was as infatuated with ancestry as were the Gaunts before him, and so chose to make Horcruxes out of things that would be proof of the antiquity of his line. As the ring was supposedly the signet of the Peverells, one of the most ancient Wizarding families known, his possession and use of the ring acted as proof that he was of an ancient tradition.

It may be interesting to take note of the differing condition of the house throughout the series. In its first appearance, although it is dirty and untidy on the outside, there is some vague semblance of cleanliness and order inside, probably due to the ministrations of Merope (as an unofficial domestic and probably only cook and cleaner). Following her abscondence, it would have been likely that neither Marvolo nor Morfin would have paid much attention to keeping the house in a good state. When Tom Riddle visits Morfin, it is filthy; when visited by Dumbledore, and later Voldemort, although still standing, it is beginning to fall into ruin.


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Quenya

 * Note: Tengwar is used in these articles, & may not display properly unless you have installed a Tengwar font that uses the encoding system developed by Daniel Steven Smith.  Tengwar Annatar is one such font.

Quenya is an artificial language developed by the English philologist & author of The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, etc., J.R.R. Tolkien (1892-1973). The native language of the High Elves, Quenya was inspired by Finnish, Latin, Greek & some smaller elements from other European languages. Tolkien had written Quenya as a kind of 'Elven-Latin' for Middle-Earth, being an ancient language of the High-Elves that was spoken by the Vanyar & Noldor. It persists throughout the history of Middle-Earth as a language of lore among the elves & men.

According to Tolkien's writings, Quenya has not been a first language spoken of any elf since the early part of the First Age. This is because King Thingol of Doriath learned of the Noldor's Kinslaying of the Teleri (a grevious and captial offence), as many of his kinfolk were slain among them and thus forbade the use of Quenya in his realm, leading the Noldor to switch to using Sindarin, another Elvin language, for everyday use. Quenya has two known dialects, Vanyarin Quenya, as spoken in Valinor, and Noldorin Quenya (or Exilic Quenya), which developed in Valinor initially with pronunciation changes, but underwent greater changes when the Noldor returned to Middle-Earth, acquiring new words and grammatical changes. Of the two dialects, Exilic Quenya is the most well known & documented.

Vanyarin Quenya is said to be similar to Exilic Quenya, though very little is known to know how it was spoken, with no texts written in Vanyarin Quenya by Tolkien. It's known that kept the archaic sounds and grammar that Exilic Quenya changed & removed respectively; 'th' (þ) & 'z', the accusative case & some words that derive from Valarin, The language spoken by the Valar, e.g.
 * nasar red
 * tulka yellow
 * ezel / ezella green
 * ulban blue.

Grammar

 * /Verbs/
 * Tenses
 * Present tense
 * Aorist tense
 * Future tense
 * Past tense
 * Perfect tense
 * /Verbal forms/
 * Infinitive
 * Participle
 * Gerund
 * Negative
 * /Imperative/
 * Special verbs

 * /Article/

 * /Nouns/
 * Cases
 * /Nominative/
 * Accusative
 * /Genitive/
 * /Possessive/
 * /Dative/
 * /Allative/
 * /Ablative/
 * /Locative/
 * /Instrumental/
 * /Respective/
 * /Verbal nouns/

 * /Adjectives/
 * /Inflected adjectives/
 * /Old-Elvish influences/

 * /Adverbs/

 * /Pronouns/
 * /Personal pronouns/
 * /Possessive pronouns/
 * Relative pronouns
 * Demonstrative pronouns
 * Interrogative pronouns
 * Indefinite pronouns
 * Reflexive pronouns

 * Numerals
 * Decimal
 * Duodecimal

Appendices

 * /Phonology/ - Pronunciation of Quenya
 * /Tengwar/ - Quenya's writing system
 * /Syntaxis/ - Selection of grammatical terms & definitions
 * /Declension Paradigms/
 * /Texts in Quenya/

Links

 * Ardalambion
 *
 * Parma Tyelpelassiva - A collection of works written in Elven languages
 * the Council of Elrond - A forum community for Quenya users; There are English-Neo-Quenya & Neo-Quenya-English dictionaries

Disclaimer: This book is about the version of Quenya as it is nowadays used. Some people call this language Neo-Quenya to distinguish it from the research made by Tolkien. He never made a definitive version of Quenya as he kept changing his mind about the details throughout his life.

Lots of facts in this book are derived from only a few examples. It contains some Qenya vocabulary. Qenya is the original language developed by Tolkien, he only later changed the name to the now more familiar Quenya. This book is meant to be used as a reference "as is". It is not meant to be authoritative in any way.

Quenijština Quenya Quenya

title: Quenya


text:
Quenya/Phonology

This document uses the International Phonetic Alphabet for phonetic notation, which will be referenced as IPA.

Vowels
Each vowel in Quenya can be represented as a diacritic, an accent that is placed above a tengwa to denote the vowel that comes AFTER the marked consonant. If the vowel doesn't mark a consonant, it uses a short vowel carrier instead. There are five vowels in Quenya:

Vowels also have long forms, and ALWAYS uses a long vowel carrier. In the Latin Alphabet, this is shown by using an acute accent mark (or, in some sources, a circumflex eg: â, ê, î, ô, û):

One of the most fundamental rules of Neo-Quenya phonology is that a long vowel can never appear before a consonant cluster. Note, however, that ry, ny, ly, ty do not count as consonant clusters when applying this rule; see below).

Diphthongs
Neo-Quenya has 6 diphthongs:

Any other group of two or more sequential vowels cannot form a diphthong. These vowels consequently always belong to separate syllables:
 * ëa "to exist" →

 * oa "away" →

 * tië "path" →

 * lëo "shade" →

 * loëndë "mid year's day (Númenórean Calendar)" →

Diaeresis
Spelling Quenya in the Latin alphabet might use diaereses in certain situations. Its use has been to prevent English pronunciation being imposed on a Quenya word, often to make the unfamiliar reader pronounce it more closely to its phonetic spelling. The use of the diaeresis may or may not be used, depending on the writer's preference or audience. It must be noted that it makes no difference to pronunciation and meaning of a Quenya word or sentence.

The diaeresis can be found or used:
 * When e → ë is the final vowel of a word to denote it's not silent.
 * vende → vendë
 * Single syllable words ending in e don't get a diaeresis:
 * ve

 * When vowel combinations don't form diphthongs:
 * ea → ëa.
 * eo → ëo.
 * ie → ië.
 * oe → oë.

 * When ea → ëa is capitalized to Ea → Eä:
 * Earendil → Eärendil.

Single consonants
The pronunciation of most of these is easy as they correspond to the standard pronunciation of these consonants. But let's have a look at them one by one:
 * t =

 * p =
 * c =

 * s =

 * f =

 * h =

 * n =

 * m =

 * r = (trilled)

 * v =

 * y =

 * l =

Quenya used to have the consonants ñ  and  th. This changed to /n/ and /s/ in Exilic Quenya, and words originating from these letters can either be written by their original pronunciation or modern pronunciation.

 * - Ñoldo : - Noldo

 * - Thúrë : - Súrë

See also Quenya Tengwar.

Double consonants
The double consonants permitted in Quenya are:

The two different kinds of bars are just for aesthetic purposes of writing, and uses of both are acceptable. They should be pronounced longer than their single counterparts, so it should be possible to hear a clear difference between e.g. cc and  c.

Consonant clusters forming a unit
Even though these groups are considered units, when we want to determine the length of a syllable they count as a consonant cluster:

Following groups are also units, but they only appear at the beginning of words:

And finally a special group:

These are slightly different as they always count as a single consonant when preceded by a long vowel, but as a consonant cluster when determining syllable length with a short vowel.

Other consonant groups
Neo-Quenya is very restrictive in the use of consonants as only certain combinations are allowed.

Following list contains the consonant groups that are allowed but aren't considered as a unit:

From this list we e.g. conlude that np isn't allowed and has to be converted into mp.

These are the only consonants that can be found at the end of the word:

Stress
To know which syllable is stressed, we first have to understand the length of a syllable:

A short syllable can consist of:
 * A short vowel:
 * a, e, i, o, u

 * A single consonant followed by a short vowel:
 * ta, me, ni, ro, lu, etc.

 * A short vowel between two single consonants:
 * tan, met, nil, ros, lus, etc.

A long syllable can consist of:

 * A long vowel:
 * á, é, í, ó, ú

 * A diphthong:
 * ai, oi, ui, au, eu, iu

 * A short vowel followed by a consonant cluster.
 * ard-, end-, ist-, olv-, umb-,  etc.

So the stress rules are:
 * A monosyllabic word is stressed on that syllable

 * A disyllabic word (two syllables) is stressed on the first syllable

 * A word with more than two syllables is stressed on the penultimate (second last syllable) if it is long and on the third last syllable if it is longer than the penultimate syllable.

In these examples the penultimate syllable is short:

 * vestalë "marriage"  ves -ta-lë,

 * laurëa "golden"  lau -re-a,

 * Yavannië "september" Ya- van -ni-ë,

In these examples the penultimate syllable is long:

 * Elentári "Starqueen" E-len- tá -ri,

 * hastaina "marred" has- tai -na,

 * Valarauco "Balrog" Va-la- rau -co,

 * Elendil "Elendil" E- len -dil,

The consonants x and qu count as a consonant cluster (cs and cw):

 * Helcaraxë "Helcaraxë" Hel-ca- rac -së,

 * ciryaquen "sailor" cir- ya -quen,

The special consonant clusters ry, ly, ny, ty are considered consonant clusters when determining stress (see above):

 * Elenya "Sunday" E- len -ya,

These rules also imply that it is not always a syllable with long vowel that is stressed (in some languages like Swedish this is always true, so speakers of these languages have to be extra careful when stressing such words):

 * Úlairi "Nazgûl" Ú- lai -ri,

 * palantír "seeing-stone" pa- lan -tír,

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Phonology/

title: Quenya/Phonology


text:
Guide to Social Activity/Alcohol

Alcohol is popular in some parts of the world, despite Prohibition and the problems of alcoholism. Possession and use of alcoholic beverages continues to be illegal in many countries, and heavily regulated in many others.

History
Licensing laws have changed on a number of occasions in the United Kingdom. Until the late 1980s, public houses typically opened between 11:00 and 14:30 and then from 18:00 to 23:00. A change in the law in the late 1980s allowed all day opening, that is, between 11:00 and 23:00 except on Sunday. A more recent change has allowed more public houses to request extended licensing hours with the possibility of staying open 24 hours a day. All day opening was a contentious issue with arguments on one side that early closing encouraged binge drinking and resulted in large numbers of drunk people exiting onto the streets simultaneously. A counter argument was that early closing prevented people from becoming more drunk and causing more trouble.

 * News story on extended opening hours

Advantages

 * social interaction

Disadvantages

 * alcoholism

For alcoholic beverages

 * Realbeer.com "beer enthusiasts" from the United Kingdom
 * TODO: link to vendors

Against alcoholic beverages

 * Prohibition Party and National Committee political party in United States

News links

 * Mo. Lawmaker Seeks to Ban Cold Beer Sales concerning US state of Missouri
 * Nationalism Makes Laotian Beer a Success concerning Beerlao beer from Laos

title: Guide to Social Activity/Alcohol


text:
Quenya/Syntaxis

This article isn't really an overview of Neo-Quenya syntaxis, but rather a list of topics that have to do with syntaxis and that didn't really fit on any other page.

Passive voice
The passive participle can in addition to being an adjective, also be used to form passive sentences.

In a normal sentence in the active voice, the subject is the one performing the action of the verb: "he reads the book". But we can make the object of the sentence (the book) the subject of an new sentence "the book is read" or "the book has been read". These sentences belong to the passive voice because their subject undergoes the action of the verb.

In English we recognize these sentences by the use of "to be" as auxiliary verb. The main verb is changed into a past participle.

In the page on verbal forms you can find how to form the passive participle and how to use it as an adjective:
 * i coa carna "the built house"

Quenya doesn't have a real passive voice but uses a construction with the verb ná and uses the passive participle as a predicate:
 * i coa ná carna "the house is built"

In the plural this becomes:
 * i coar nar carnë "the houses are built"

By changing the tense of ná we can form the Passive Past and Passive Future tenses:
 * i coa né carna "the house was built"

 * i coa nauva carna "the house will be built"

But sometimes it is better to avoid a passive construction by using the indefinite pronoun quen:
 * quen cára coa

Literally "someone is building a house", this can be used as an alternative for "a house is being built".

A passive sentence is related to an active sentence in the following way:
 * i elda tencë i parma "the elf wrote the book"

The object i parma becomes the subject and the original subject  i elda becomes the agent : As can be seen, the agent is expressed by a noun in the instrumental case.
 * i parma né técina i eldanen  "the book was written by the elf"

This also implies that in one passive sentence two nouns in the instrumental case can appear: an agent and a normal instrumental:
 * i parma né técina i eldanen i quessenen  "the book was written by the elf with a feather"

When a passive participle is used as an adjective it can also have an agent:
 * i parma técina i eldanen né carnë "the book written by an elf was red"

 * i nerinen carnë coar ataltier "the houses built by the men have collapsed"

Wish constructions
Sometimes you only want to express a wish or a hope that something would happen. In Neo-Quenya this is expressed by a sentence beginning with the particle nai.

In English this is expressed by sentences beginning with "may", but this is not very frequently used in modern English:
 * nai hiruvalyes "may you find it"

In modern English we would rather use:
 * nai tiruvantes "I hope (that) they see it/I wish (that) they see it"

Note: the verb following nai is always in the future tense.

In this way, we can make any sentence with a future tense into a wish:

 * hiruvan i malta "I shall find the gold"

 * nai hiruvan i malta "I hope I shall find the gold"

 * caruvantes "they will do it"

 * nai caruvantes "I hope they will do it"

 * elda tuluva "an elf will come"

 * nai elda tuluva "I hope an Elf will come"

The word nai has an additional meaning of "probably", so when you use it, you assume that something will very likely happen.

Conditional sentences
A conditional sentence begins in English with "when" or "if".

The Quenya conjunction írë means "when", so a conditional sentence with  írë expresses a certainty that something will happen:
 * írë ceninyel, nan alassë "when I see you, I am happy"

The Quenya conjunction cé has the meaning of "if".

 * an cé mo quernë cendelë númenna, "for if one turned the face westward,".

 * cé ceninyel, nan alassë "if I see you, I am happy"

It is also used with a future tense:
 * cé caruvantes "if they will do it"

So by using cé, we express that we have strong doubts whether they will actually do it.

It is also possible to express doubts over the other part of the sentence:
 * írë ëar lumbor, nai liptuva "when there are clouds, it will probably rain"

 * nai tuluvan, cé ëal coassë "I shall maybe come, if you are home"

Postpositions
In Neo-Quenya we have at least two postpositions, they are the equivalent of prepositions but are put behind the noun to which they belong.

In English this also happens with the postposition "ago", e.g. "three years ago". In Neo-Quenya the word yá "ago" is used in the same way:
 * neldë loar yá "three years ago"

Another postposition is pella "beyond", in English this is however a preposition:
 * Númen pella "beyond the west"

The noun can also be declined:
 * elenillor pella "from beyond the stars"

In Old-Elvish apparently more postpositions existed, but these were assimilated into the cases (see ../Nouns/), e.g. the postposition ana changed into the case-ending  -nna.

Indirect speech
Indirect speech is the construction with "that" that is used after verbs that express that something is said, thought, hoped or wished, e.g. "I think that he comes", "you wish that he was here". In English the conjunction "that" is often omitted but this is not allowed in Quenya, so English-speakers have to be very careful when translating such sentences into Neo-Quenya.

The conjunction "that" is translated by sa:
 * merin sa haryalyë alassë "I wish/want (that) you are happy"

 * istan sa ëalyë sinomë "I know (that) you are here"

The indirect speech can also be the subject of the sentence. In following example the entire word-group sa ëalyë sinomë is the subject of the sentence:
 * ná manë sa ëalyë sinomë "that you are here, is good"

Indirect speech can also appear with equë (see ../Special Verbs/):
 * equë Elendil sa tulles "Elendil said that he came''

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Syntaxis/

title: Quenya/Syntaxis


text:
Quenya/Numerals

11 to 19
The numbers 11 to 19 follow the pattern of using the stem form of the numeral with the suffix –quë. There also exists other names for several of these numbers resulting from Tolkien's experimentation of the numeral system:

Note: 20 and onwards
From here, the following numbers are conjectured constructions of what these numbers would be based on the material we know, and are not attested. These are based on the earlier stages of Quenya, going back to Qenya, and our knowledge of Quenya word construction.

The multiples of 10, from 20 to 90, are constructed with either the suffixes –quëan, –quain, or "Qenya" –cain from cainen:

To make a number between the multiples of 10, the units are written first, then the tens (Similar to German and Dutch Numerals):

The numbers between 100 and 200 can be made in the same fashion:

Just as for 12, the numbers 110 and 120 can be written in two different ways:

100 to 1,000
To write the numbers 200 to 900 we use the same prefixes as the multiples of 10, but this time with the suffix –tuxa:

100 Million & Beyond:
Numbers are said to follow the noun, except for er "one, alone". Before atta "two", the noun is in "singular" form.

 * Elda atta "Two Eldar" - lit. "Elves two"

 * Eldar neldë "Three Eldar"

 * Elen atta "Two stars"

 * Eleni neldë "Three stars"

Ordinals
The first three ordinals are irregular, then from four onwards, we remove the last vowel of the cardinal number and add –ëa*

Fractions
Fractions can be made by compounding the numeral with the word asta "month; division, part (esp. one of other equal parts)":

Quotientials
There also exists quotientals that are used when something has happened a certain number of times. They are used as adverbs:

 * er "once"

 * yú twice

 * nel "thrice / three-times"

 * can "four-times"

The higher numbers are formed with the suffix –llumë:

Tengwar Numerals
Writing the numerals in Tengwar is quite different to write compared with Arabic numerals, but not too different from them to give any form of great difficulty in learning it.

As the elves originally used the duodecimal (base-12) number system, they had need for 12 single digits. Note that the letters A and B are used for the values of 10 and 11 in duodecimal.

Tengwar numerals are written from right to left, with the lowest power written first, followed by the next higher power:

Reading Decimal

 * = 01 = 0 ones / 1 ten = 10

 * = 001 = 0 ones / 0 tens / 1 hundred = 100

 * = 321 = 3 ones / 2 tens / 1 hundred = 123

 * = 0241 = 0 ones / 2 tens / 4 hundreds / 1 thousand = 1420

Writing Decimal Notations

Decimal numbers can be given a single dot above the numeral to indicate a decimal number:

Larger numbers in decimal can be given a single bar above the numerals:

Example:
 * = 6102 = 2016 or = 6102 = 2016

Reading Duodecimal
Guide to Duodecimal powers (Duodecimal = Decimal):

0 = 0 - "one", 10 = 12 - "twelve/dozen", 100 = 144 - "gross", 1,000 = 1,728 - "great-gross"

 * = 01 = 0 ones / 1 twelves = 10 = 12 in Decimal

 * = 001 = 0 ones / 0 twelves / 1 gross = 100 = 144 in Decimal

 * = 321 = 3 ones / 2 twelves / 1 gross = 123 = 167 in Decimal

 * = 4A9 = 4 ones / A:10 twelves / 9 grosses = 9A4 = 1420 in Decimal

 * = B001 = B:11 ones / 0 twelves / 0 grosses / 1 great-gross = 100B = 1739 in Decimal

Writing Duodecimal Notations

Duodecimal numbers are indicated by having single dot tehta placed below the numbers. The second digit however is given a circular tehta instead:

Like large decimal numbers, the larger duodecimal numbers can also be given a bar, but is placed below instead:

Example:
 * = 0021 = 1200 Duodecimal = 2016 Decimal

 * = 0021 = 1200 Duodecimal = 2016 Decimal

Not much is known on the names of duodecimal numbers, but a theorised construction of these names can be found at the duodecimal numerals page here.

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Numerals/

title: Quenya/Numerals


text:
Quenya/Adverbs

As in all languages Quenya has 2 types of adverbs:
 * basic adverbs
 * adverbs derived from adjectives

The basic adverbs are separate words that aren't derived from another word, e.g.
 * amba "up, upwards"

 * ambë "more"

 * ambela "further still beyond"

 * aqua "full, completely"

 * arta "etc., et cetera" (lit. and-(and also, then))"

 * sí "now"

There are consequently no rules on how to form them.

To make an adjective into an adverb, we use following rules:
 * An adjective on -a gets the ending  -vë
 * anda "long" → andavë "longly"

 * tulca "firm" → tulcavë "firmly"

 * saila "wise" → sailavë "wisely"

 * In an adjective on -ë this letter is replaced by  -ivë:

 * morë "black" → morivë "blackly"

 * nindë "thin" → nindivë "thinly"

 * mussë "soft" → mussivë "softly"

 * The ending -vë descends from the ancient elvish root 'be' "as". Therefore, -n + -be =  -mbë:
 * firin "dead" → firimbë "deadly"

 * teren "slender" → terembë "slenderly"

The following adjective has an irregular adverb:
 * mára "good" → vandë "well"

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Adverbs/

title: Quenya/Adverbs


text:
Quenya/Article

Neo-Quenya only has a definite article i.

A word in the singular without article is translated with an indefinite article.

 * elen "a star";     i elen "the star"
 * eleni "stars";     i eleni "the stars"

With the dual number the article is translated as "both":
 * hyapat "a pair of shoes";     i hyapat "both shoes"

The article isn't used with following words:

Nouns that have a pronominal ending:
 * coanya "my house"

Nouns in the partitive plural:
 * aldali "some trees"

Nouns with a demonstrative pronoun:
 * macil sina "this sword"

Proper names:
 * Anar "the sun"

Names of peoples:
 * Eldar "the Elves" (but note i eldar is possible when referring to a particular group of elves)

When a noun is accompanied by a noun in the genitive case or in the possessive case (or both),

it normally shouldn't get the article (for examples see ../Genitive/ or ../Possessive/)

The article i can also be used as a relative pronoun. More of its relative pronoun use can be read seen at ../Pronouns/.

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Article/

title: Quenya/Article


text:
Quenya/Pronouns

Personal pronouns
This article can be found on a separate page: ../Personal pronouns/.

Possessive pronouns
This article can be found on a separate page: ../Possessive pronouns/.

Relative pronouns
Neo-Quenya contains two relative pronouns ya and  i.

The pronoun i cannot be declined, it is only used when it is the subject of the sub-sentence and the antecedent (the noun to which it refers) is a person or a group of persons:
 * i eldar i tirner i naucor, enger i tauressë "the elves who were looking at the dwarves were in the wood"

By contrast, the number of ya equals the number of the antecedent:
 * i harma ya hirnelyë, ná alta "the treasure (that) you found is big"

 * i harmar yar hirnelyë, nar altë "the treasures (that) you found are big"

 * i harmat yat hirnelyë, nar altë "both treasures (that) you found are big"

And it can be used to replace both subject and object. So the following sentence has two meanings:
 * i eldar yar tirner i naucor, ... "the elves who were looking at the dwarves ... / that the dwarves were looking at ..."

In contrast to i, it is never wrong to use  ya although sometimes the context has to be used to decide which meaning is actually intended.

The pronoun ya is declined depending on the function it has in the sub-sentence. When ya is used instead of noun in a certain case, it has to be declined in that case: is decomposed of:
 * i coar yassen marilmë, nar carnë "the houses in which we live are red"
 * i coar nar carnë "the houses are red"

 * i coassen marilmë "we live in the houses"

So ya is used to replace  i coassen, so it becomes  yassen.

It is declined as a noun on -a:

In a relative sub-sentence the word order is not as free as in a normal sentence as the verb always immediately follows the relative pronoun. And so in this case the subject follows its verb:
 * i osto yassë marë i nér, ... "the city in which the man lives, ..."

 * i tol yanna círar i ciryar, ... "the island to(wards) which the ships are sailing, ..."

 * i nóri yallon tuller i ohtari, ... "the countries from which the soldiers came, ..."

The advantage of this is that there is never any confusion between the use of i as article and as relative pronoun, as the relative pronoun is always followed by a conjugated verb:
 * i nissi i lindëar, ... "the women who are singing, ..."

The case-ending of ya can be omitted when the antecedent has the same case in the main sentence as  ya has in the subsentence:
 * lómissë yassë cennenyes = lómissë ya cennenyes "in the night in which I saw it"

Relative pronouns without antecedent
The relative pronoun i can be used without antecedent, it then means "the one(s) who":
 * i lindëa, ná nís "the one that is singing is a woman"

 * i hirner i malta, nar alyë "the ones that found the gold are rich"

Such sub-sentences can also appear as direct object of the main verb:
 * hiruvan i suncer limpenya "I shall find the ones that drank my wine"

The relative pronoun ya can also be used in this way, but it means "that which":
 * ecénien, ya túla "I have seen that which is coming"

 * ya merin, ná limpë "that which I want is wine"

Demonstrative pronouns
Quenya distinguishes three distances: close, away, far away. We also have two demonstrative pronouns that indicate that something is in the past or in the future.

Close: this demonstrative pronoun is sina "this"
 * elda sina "this elf"

 * coa sina "this house"

and in the plural:

 * nissi sinë "these women"

Note: sina is related to  sí "now" and  sinomë "here"

Away: this demonstrative pronoun is tana "that"

 * nauco tana "that dwarf"

 * rocco tana "that horse"

and in the plural:

 * vendi tanë "those girls"

Far away/future: this demonstrative pronoun is enta "yonder", it is also used to denote something in the future:

 * coa enta "yonder house, the next house, the future house"

and in the plural:

 * cundur entë "yonder princes, the next princes, the future princes"

Note: We also have an adverb ento that is used with the meaning "next"

 * ento manten "next I ate"

Past: this demonstrative pronoun is yana "former, earlier"

 * aran yana "the former king, the earlier king"

and in the plural:

 * arani yanë "the former kings, the earlier kings"

Note: Words with a demonstrative pronoun don't have the article.

Demonstrative pronouns always follow their noun so the rules of the last declinable word have to be followed:

 * nér sinanen "with this man" (instrumental)

 * neri sinainen "with these men" (instrumental)

Independant demonstrative pronouns
The pronouns sina and  tana can also be used as subject with the accompanying noun:
 * sina coa "this is a house"

 * tana nér "that is a man"

These independant forms don't change when used in the plural:

 * sina coar "these are houses"

 * tana neri "those are men"

Interrogative pronouns
In English most interrogative pronouns begin with a "w": who, what, where, when, why, ... In Neo-Quenya they analogously start in ma-.

So we find that "who" corresponds to man:

 * man tiruva? "who shall look?"

And "what" corresponds to mana:

 * mana ná coimas? "what is lembas?"

This interrogative pronoun can also be used with the meaning "which", but then it isn't put at the start of the question but follows the noun:

 * cirya mana cenil? "which ship do you see?"

The other English interrogative pronouns correspond to the inflected forms of man and  mana:

The final interrogative pronoun ma is used to ask yes/no-questions. The word order doesn't change, we just add ma to the beginning of the sentence to make it into a yes/no-question:
 * tences i parma "he wrote the book"

 * ma tences i parma? "did he write the book?"

 * ëa malta i orontessë "there is gold in the mountain"

 * ma ëa malta i orontessë? "is there gold in the mountain?"

The verb ná (or  nar) is usually dropped when changing the sentence into a yes/no-question:

 * nís enta ná elda "that woman is an elf"

 * ma nís enta elda? "is that woman an elf?"

In an interrogative sub-sentence, we also use ma:

 * uan ista ma utúlies "I don't know whether he has come"

Indefinite pronouns
When you want to be vague about who performs an action we use "one" or "someone" in English. In Neo-Quenya we use the pronoun quen:
 * quen rancë yulma "someone broke a cup"

Its declination is in all cases except the nominative equal to the declination of the noun quén,  quen- "person":
 * matië yávë ná mára quenen "eating fruit is good for someone"

The pronoun ilya means "each" when used in the singular and "all" in the plural:
 * ilya parma "each book"

 * ilyë parmar "all books"

The pronouns for "many", "much" are:
 * limba with adverb lil (used for countable things that do not involve time)

 * rimba with adverb rimbavë (used with meaning "frequent, numerous")

 * olya with adverb olë/oltë ("much")

The other indefinite pronouns are:
 * ilquen "everyone"

 * úquen "nobody, none"

 * qua "something"

 * ilqua "everything"

 * úqua "nothing, none"

The English indefinite pronouns "some" and "few" do not exist in Quenya as they are rendered by the Partitive Plural (see ../Nouns/).

Reflexive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are expressed by the prefix in-:
 * imnë "myself"

 * imlë "yourself"

 * insë "himself/herself"

 * insa "itself"

 * immë "ourselves" (dual)

 * inwë "ourselves"

 * indë "yourselves"

 * intë "themselves"

There also exists an informal second person: intyë.

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Pronouns/

title: Quenya/Pronouns


text:
Quenya/Personal pronouns

Personal pronoun endings
Most personal pronouns are used as endings with a conjugated verb. These can be found on the pages about ../Verbs/ and ../Imperative/.

Short pronoun endings
Not much is all too known of the short pronoun endings, as they currently have only 3 attested forms:
 * -n

 * -s

 * -t

Of -l, it is theoretically guessed based on the forms of the attested short pronouns, and can be understood by others in usage.

Of what we know, their use in sentences were as a subject pronoun with no object pronouns:
 * lantan "I fall"

 * - "lanta-n" "fall-I"

 * lendes "He/She/It went"

 * - "lendë-s" "went-he/she/it"

And as object pronoun endings, following a long subject pronoun form (3rd Pers. Pl. -t seems to only be in this category, as it could be easily mistaken for a dual elsewhere):
 * laituvalmet "We shall bless/praise them"

 * "laituva-lmë-t" "praise shall-we(Exc.)-them"

 * utúvienyes! "I have found it!"

 * "utúvië-nyë-s" "have found-I-he/she/it".

Long pronoun endings
One special use of these endings exists: they can be added to a preposition. With the preposition ara "against" as an example:

With -s / -së, it does not distinguish the gender of the 3rd person, and is used for he, she and it. Despite this, the gender of the 3rd person can be found in the context of the sentence, by either name of a being or by what it is.
 *  i nér mahtas macil "The man wields a sword"

 *  i nís mahtas hatal "The woman wields a spear"

(In the Quenya exemplified in the Lord of the Rings however -mmë is the 1st person plural exclusive;  -lmë the 1st person plural inclusive and  -lvë the 1st person dual — See the Problem of the Canon Middle-earth canon).

When the preposition ends in a consonant we use the connecting vowel e (and as with verbs  i in the first person singular) (  or is a preposition meaning "over, above"):
 * orinyë "over me", orelyë "over you",  orentë "over them", ...

Independent personal pronouns
These are used when no ending is possible or when the personal pronoun has to be in a case other than the nominative, e.g. Here "to me" has to be in the dative case so we use the personal pronoun ni with the dative ending  -n.
 * nin antalyes "you give it to me"

Note: The forms of the 3rd person singular depend on the whether they're animate or inanimate. 3rd person singular does not recognise gender, so it can mean either he or she:

 * Oromë senna lendë "Orome went to him/her"

 * Oromë sanna lendë "Orome went to it"

The cases of ta cannot be translated literally, i.e.  tallo isn't translated by "from it" but by "from there", ....

 * Oromë tanna lendë "Orome went (over)there"

 * Oromë tassë hamë "Orome sits thereupon/therein"

The difference between the 1st person plural and dual is translated by using "both" with the dual:

 * imbë me "between us"

 * imbë met "between us both"

The nominative of these independent pronouns is used in the following situations:
 * 1. When the verb has a direct object that is a personal pronoun and a subject that isn't:

 * i lië te latuva "the people will bless them"

 * Note the difference with:

 * i lië latuvantë "they will bless the people"

 * 2. When a gerund or an active participle has a personal pronoun as direct object:

 * utúlien le cenien "I have come to see you"

 * me cénala vánes "while he saw us (seeing us), he left"

 * i elda se suilala "the elf greets him/her"

 * 3. After prepositions (but in that case we mostly apply the ending to the preposition):

 * ve nyë "like me"

 * 4. With the copula ná the verb can be omitted and replaced by a personal pronoun:

 * nyë aran "I am king"

 * le halla "you are long"

The word order is again quite free, but in principle the nominative always immediately precedes the verb (except of course when used with prepositions). The other cases either immediately precede the verb or immediately follow the verb:

 * órenya quéta nin / órenya nin quéta "my heart says me"

Emphatic personal pronouns
Sometimes we want to emphasize the personal pronoun and in that case we don't use endings but separate words.

Let's look at an example, non-emphatic we use endings:
 * hiruvalyes "you shall find it"

When we want to emphasize that "you" found it, we change this into:
 * elyë ta hiruva "even you shall find it"

Note: ta is an ordinary independent pronoun because it cannot stay an object ending if no subject ending is present.

An example in the first person:
 * inyë tyë méla "even I love you"

These forms can also be used as direct object:
 * mélalyë inyë "you love even me"

An overview of the emphatic personal pronouns:
 * inyë "I, me"

 * elyë "you"

 * essë, issë "he/she/it, him/her/it"

 * inquë "thou-and-I"

 * emmë "we, us" (dual)

 * elmë "we, us" (excl.)

 * elvë/elwë "we, us" (incl.)

 * ilcë "you" (plural)

 * esto "they, them" (dual)

 * intë "they, them"

When we use an emphatic pronoun we do not add a personal ending to the verb:
 * elyë lala "you laugh"

But in the plural we still use the ending -r:
 * elmë lalar "we laugh"

 * elyë matë "you eat" (singular)

 * ilcë matir "you eat" (plural)

The negation of a verb with an emphatic pronoun always uses lá (see ../Verbs/):
 * elyë lá linda "even you don't sing"

Note: The emphatic pronouns can be declined in all cases, e.g.:
 * elmen "for us" (dative)

 * inyenna "towards me" (allative)

The Informal Second Person
There is a poorly attested form in Quenya that is used for the informal second person singular (in English we see no difference, but some examples of other languages are French "tu", German "du", Dutch "jij"). The normal second person is more neutral, i.e. it can both be informal and formal (French "vous", German "Sie", Dutch "u").

The informal forms are only used when the person spoken to is very close, a brother, sister or very good friend.

The personal pronoun subject ending is -ccë:
 * maticcë "you eat"

The object ending doesn't have an (attested) informal form, so we always use -l:
 * ceninyel "I see you"

The independent forms are based on the stem ce-:

 * Dative: cen

 * Ablative: cello

 * Allative: cenna

 * Locative: cessë

 * Instrumental: cenen

 * Respective: ces.

An example with the dative:
 * antan cen lótë "I give you a flower"

The nominative has an exceptional form: tyë.
 * atar tyë canë "father commands you"

The emphatic form is:
 * eccë "even you"

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Pronouns/ >> ../Personal pronouns/

title: Quenya/Personal pronouns


text:
Quenya/Possessive pronouns

Most of the time we use possessive endings instead of independent possessive pronouns.

These should not be confused with the endings of the possessive case (e.g. "my prince's horse" would become rocco cundunyava where  cundu both gets a possessive pronoun ending  -nya to denote "my" and a possessive case ending  -va to denote the English genitive ending).

Possessive endings
They can be formed by changing the final -ë of the subject endings of the verbs (see ../Verbs/) into  -a:

They are used as endings of nouns:

 * coanya "my house"

 * roccolya "your horse"

 * nórenta "their country"

The different endings for "our" correspond to the different endings for "we":

 * coalva "our house (and also yours)"

 * coalma "our house (but not yours)"

 * coamma "the house of the two of us"

When a possessive ending and a case ending are added to the same noun we always apply the possessive ending first and only afterwards the case ending:

 * Anar caluva tielyanna "the sun will shine towards your path"

So we find tielyanna =  tië +  lya (possessive) +  nna (allative).

In fact is easiest to look upon a noun with a possessive ending as a new noun that is declined according to the rules of the nouns on -a (see ../Declension Paradigms/). Let's e.g. look at sambelya "your room":

Note:
 * the ending -nta is also the ending of the dual allative. So  ciryanta can mean "their ship" as well as "towards both ships". Of course "towards both their ships" is  ciryantanta.
 * nouns with possessive endings always have t-duals, never u-duals.
 * there is also an informal second person possessive ending: -cca:
 * macilecca "your sword"

Adding possessive endings to nouns
When the noun ends in a vowel the endings can be added without any difficulty.

../I-stems/ and ../U-stems/ add possessive endings to their stem-forms:
 * angulya "your snake" (nom. ango)

 * lingwintar "their fishes" (nom. lingwë)

Nouns ending in -ë that are not I-stems always add possessive endings to the singular:
 * lassenya "my leaf" (nom. lassë)

 * lassenyar "my leaves"

When the noun ends on a consonant we have to add an extra vowel before we can add the possessive ending. When the noun has a stem-form we use the stem-form before adding these endings.

We follow these rules:
 * in the plural or before -nya this vowel is  -i-
 * macilinya "my sword" (nom. macil)

 * masinyar "my homes" (nom. mar)

 * tecilintar "their pens" (nom. tecil)

 * in the singular it is -e- (except with  -nya)
 * atarelya "your father" (nom. atar)

 * amillenta "their mother" (nom. amil)

 * in the dual it is -u- (except with  -nya)
 * maciluryat "both his/her swords" (nom. macil)

 * fiondulmat "both our hawks" (nom. fion)

(but note: alda "tree" has  aldu as dual, but when a possessive ending is added we don't find the  -u- as it ends in a vowel:  aldaryat).

An optional rule is used whenever the noun ends on the same consonant as the first consonant of the possessive ending. In that case no extra vowel is added and the two identical consonants merge into one:
 * aranyar "my kings" (but araninyar is also acceptable)

 * macilya "your sword" (but macilelya is also acceptable)

The expressions "my son", "my daughter" and "my child" have irregular contractions with the ending -nya:
 * yondo + nya =  yonya "my son"

 * yeldë + nya =  yenya "my daughter"

 * hína + nya =  hínya "my child"

When the possessive endings -nya,  -lya or  -rya are applied to 2-letter nouns the final long vowel of these nouns is not shortened as the combinations  ny,  ly and  ry are not seen as double consonants (see ../Phonology/):
 * máryat "both his/her hands" (nom. má)

 * hónya "my owl" (nom. hó)

But the long vowel has to be shortened before the other possessive endings:
 * pentat "both their lips" (nom. pé)

Infinitives with possessive endings
In the page on verbal forms the long infinitive can be found. It is used when the infinitive has a direct object:
 * merin caritas "I want to do it"

It is also possible to express a different subject for the infinitive by adding a possessive ending:
 * merin caritalyas "I want you to do it"

 * mernelyë tiritanyat "you wanted me to look at them"

This construction can also be used when the direct object is something else than a personal pronoun:
 * merin tiritalya i seldor "I want you to look at the boys"

Independent Possessive pronouns
When you look at the independent personal pronouns, it is apparent that the possessive and genitive cases are missing.

When the possessive pronoun is not emphasized we use the possessive endings as discussed above, but sometimes we do want to stress these pronouns and in that case we use the independent forms. They are used as adjectives:
 * lenya parma "your book (and no one else's)"

and can also be used predicatively:
 * i parma ná lenya "the book is yours"

These pronouns are formed by adding -ya to the dative of the independent personal pronouns,

this gives following overview:

Note: there also exists an informal second person: cenya "yours".

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Pronouns/ >> ../Possessive pronouns/

title: Quenya/Possessive pronouns


text:
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''This page or section of Guide to Social Activity is a stub. You can help Wikibooks by [ expanding it].'' :This template adds page to /Stubs.

title: Template:Guide to Social Activity/Stub


text:
Quenya/Adjectives

Adjective Types
Quenya has 3 types of adjectives depending on their final letter:
 * Adjectives in -a:
 * alta "big"

 * corna "round"

 * larca "swift, rapid"

 * raica "bent"

 * farëa "enough"

 * Adjectives in -ë:
 * leucë "sick"

 * ninquë "white"

 * carnë "red"

 * Adjectives in -n; most end in  -in but some in  -en:
 * marin "ripe"

 * qualin "dead"

 * peren "patient"

Adjectives are mostly placed in front of the noun to which they belong:
 * larca sírë "a rapid river"

 * i ninquë fanya "the white cloud"

It is emphasized by putting it after its noun:
 * mallë raica "a bent (and not straight) road"

With a proper noun adjectives are always put behind the noun:
 * Elendil Voronda "Elendil (the) Faithful, Faithful Elendil"

Adjectives can also be used predicatively with the verb ná:
 * i parma ná carnë "the book is red"

In such short sentences ná or  nar is often omitted:
 * i parma carnë "the book is red"

Plural
Adjectives have only one plural form; it is used whenever the noun it belongs to is not singular (so dual, plural and partitive plural make no difference for the adjective):
 * carni parmar "red books"

 * carni parmat "a pair of red books"

 * carni parmali "some red books"

Predicatively used adjectives are in the plural whenever the subject refers to more than one person or thing:
 * i ciryar nar ninqui "the ships are white"

 * i aran ar i tári nar altë "the king and queen are big"

'Formation of the plural':

 * Adjectives in -a but not in  -ëa:

 * alta → altë "big"

 * corna → cornë "round"

 * raica → raicë "bent"

 * Adjectives in -ëa:

 * farëa → farië "enough"

 * laurëa → laurië "golden"

 * Adjectives in -ë:

 * leucë → leuci "sick"

 * ninquë → ninqui  "white"

 * Adjectives in -n have two possible forms:

 * marin → marini/marindi "ripe"

 * qualin → qualini/qualindi "dead"

 * peren → pereni/perendi "patient"

 * One adjective is irregular:

 * maitë → maisi "handy"

Inflected adjectives
In Quenya there are only 2 occurrences in which the adjectives are inflected:
 * When the adjective is used as a noun
 * When the adjective immediately follows its noun

In all other places an adjective only has 2 forms: singular and plural (see above).

Examples and paradigms can be found on a separate page: ../Inflected adjectives/.

Comparative
Quenya uses two different comparatives: relative and absolute.

Relative Comparison
When we use an adjective in a relative comparison, it is preceded by lá but its form doesn’t change:

 * Oromë ná halla lá Mandos "Orome is taller than Mandos"

 * Anar ná calima lá Isil "The sun is brighter than the moon"

Note: lá is also used to negate a verb, so it can appear with both meanings in one sentence:

 * lá carilyes maica lá macilerya "you don't make it sharper than your sword"

If one is unsure of the meaning of which lá is being used, simply identify the following word to determine the meaning:

 * lá followed by a "noun" = Relative Comparison.

 * lá followed by a "verb" = Verb Negation.

Absolute Comparison
If on the other hand the comparison is used absolutively, we have a special ending –lda:
 * Oromë ná hallalda "Orome is longer"

So these comparatives are always adjectives on –a and follow the rules of these adjectives:
 * laiqualdë peleri "greener fields"

To apply the ending to adjectives on –ë we use their I-stem:
 * ninquë "white" → ninquilda

and adjectives on –in/-en get the ending  –ilda:
 * melin "dear" → melinilda

Finally, a few are irregular:

 * mára/manë "good" → malda "better"

 * vanya "beautiful, fair" → valda "more beatiful, fairer"

 * ulca "bad" → ulda "worse"

 * faica "bad" → felda "worse"

 * limba "many" → lilda "more"

 * olya "much" → olda "more"

and the diminutive:

 * manca "few" → mitsa "less"

Superlative
The superlative is formed by applying the prefix an- to the adjective:

 * calima "clear" → ancalima "clearest"

 * vinya "new" → anvinya "newest"

This prefix cannot be applied to every adjective as otherwise unallowed consonant clusters could appear (see ../Phonology/).

It can be prefixed to adjectives beginning in: a vowel, c-, n-, qu-, t-, v-, w-, y-. some other consonants can get the prefix ana-:

 * alta "big" → analta "biggest"

 * nindë "fragile" → annindë "most fragile"

 * quanta "full" → anquanta "fullest"

 * wilwa "vague" → anwilwa "vaguest"

 * yelwa "loathsome" → anyelwa "most loathsome"

 * furin "hidden" → anafurin "most hidden"

 * halla "long" → anahalla "longest"

When an adjective begins in p- the prefix becomes  am-:

 * pitya "small, little" → ampitya "smallest"

Before l-, m-, r-, s- the n of an- assimilates into the following consonant to make it a double consonant:

 * lauca "warm" → allauca "warmest"

 * ringa "cold" → arringa "coldest"

 * sarda "hard" → assarda "hardest"

 * marin "ripe" → ammarin "ripest"

But when we look at the historical development of Quenya, a large group of adjectives must have 'historical' irregularities, e.g.

 * vanya "beautiful" → ambanya "most beautiful"

We will look at these on a separate page: historical superlatives.

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Adjectives/

title: Quenya/Adjectives


text:
Quenya/Inflected adjectives

Adjectives used as a noun
We translate this in English by using the word "one" with the adjective:
 * laica "a keen one";    i laica "the keen one"

 * carnë "a red one";    i carnë "the red one"

 * hwarin "a crooked one   i hwarin "the crooked one"

In this case the adjective is inflected with the noun endings:
 * laicar "keen ones"

 * carni "red ones"

 * hwarindi "crooked ones"

Dual and partitive plural are also possible:
 * laicat "a pair of keen ones"

 * laicali "some keen ones"

 * carnit "a pair of red ones"

 * carnili "some red ones"

 * i hwarindu "both crooked ones, the crooked pair ones"

 * hwarindeli  "some crooked ones"

These nouns can of course take all case endings, e.g.
 * laicaron (genitive plural);   carnillo (ablative singular);    i hwarindun (dative dual) ...

Adjectives following the noun
When the adjective is put behind its noun, the rule of the last declinable word applies. This means that the adjective takes the case endings and the noun loses them:
 * coa carninna "to a red house" (allative)

 * coa carnillo "from a red house" (ablative)

In the plural the adjective has the plural case-endings and the noun is in the nominative plural:
 * coar carninnar "to red houses" (allative)

In the dual the adjective has the dual case-endings and the noun is in the nominative dual: Note: adjectives only have t-duals even if they contain a d- or t-sound:
 * coat carnilto "from a pair of red houses" (ablative)
 * i aldu tiucatsë "in both thick trees" (locative)

The other types of words that are inflected in this way are:
 * participles when they follow the noun (see ../Verbal forms/)
 * demonstrative pronouns
 * titles also always follow the noun, so it is also the title and not the noun itself that is inflected:
 * Elendil Voronda "Elendil the Faithful"

 * Elendil Vorondan "to Elendil the Faithful" (dative)

 * Elendil Vorondallo "from Elendil the Faithful" (ablative)

But there are two cases in which this rule isn't followed:
 * When the noun is in the partitive plural, the case ending remains with the noun and the adjective has its original (plural) form:
 * coalissë carni "in some red houses" (locative)

 * The adjectives on –ëa only have a plural form and no other cases so the ending remains with the noun:
 * coanna laurëa "to a golden house" (allative)

 * coannar laurië	"to golden houses" (allative)

Paradigms
A few remarks:
 * The forms of the plural can only be used when the adjective follows the noun, not when it is used as a noun. But in that case it follows the ordinary rules of ../Declension Paradigms.
 * Adjectives on -ëa cannot be inflected so they aren't included in these tables. They can be used as nouns but in that case they are inflected like the nouns  ampa "hook" or  alda "tree".
 * The partitive plural can only be used when the adjective is used as a noun so it isn't included in the table.

Adjectives on -a (but not  -ëa) are inflected as follows (  anda "long"):

Adjectives on -ë are inflected as follows (ninquë "white"):

Adjectives on -n are inflected as follows (melin "dear"):

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Adjectives/ >> ../Inflected adjectives/

title: Quenya/Inflected adjectives


text:
Quenya/Old-Elvish influences

We have met the prefix an- for the superlative. We also said that this prefix can change under the influence of the beginning consonant of the adjective. But in all these cases the changes are in the prefix an- itself, the original adjective is not influenced.

With the Old-Elvish influences however we are getting the original forms of the adjectives back in the superlative. Most of these forms are analogous to the changes in the perfect tense.

Adjectives in mb-/nd-/ng-
Let’s first look at adjectives that started with the combinations mb-,  nd- and  ng- in Old-Elvish:
 * mb-:

 * marta "fated" → ambarta

 * merya "festive" → amberya

 * nd-:

 * nulla "obscure" → andulla

 * númenya "western" → andúmenya

 * ng-:

 * nóla "learned" → angóla

 * nwalca "cruel" → angwalca

Adjectives in d-
Also an l- that has evolved from d- has such influences:

 * laira "shady" → andaira

 * lára "flat" → andára

 * lómëa "gloomy" → andómëa

 * lóra "dark" → andóra

 * lumna "oppressive" → andumna

Adjectives in b-/w-
A large number of adjectives that begin in v- in Neo-Quenya, had a b- in Old-Elvish. Here we find that an +  v gives rise to the original  amb-:

 * vanya "beautiful" → ambanya

 * valaina "divine" → ambalaina

 * valya "powerful" → ambalya

 * vanima "fair" → ambanima

 * varna "safe" → ambarna

 * varnë "brown" → ambarnë

 * verca "wild" → amberca

 * verya "bold" → amberya

 * vorima "continual" → amborima

 * voronwa "enduring" → amboronwa

In some the v- evolved from w-:

 * vára "dirty" → anwára

 * vëa "manly" → anwëa

 * véra "personal" → anwéra

 * vindë "blue-grey" → anwindë

The adjective wenya "green, fresh" has evolved from 'gwen', so it has following superlative:

 * wenya "green, fresh" → angwenya

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Adjectives/ >> ../Old-Elvish influences/

title: Quenya/Old-Elvish influences


text:
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title: Template:Guide to Social Activity


text:
CA Unicenter NSM Textbook/FAQ

WorldView : Conflict Object
If you discover an object and it comes up with Conflict_Object, then you search and search and search and find no other object with the same name or ip address do the following: Using Worldview Open Details of the Conflict_Object Select the status tab Deselect the 'Hidden' checkbox Click OK Reclassify the object to the correct class If you just reclassify without fixing the checkbox then unispace appears in the Unplace objects container and the Operating system object has no icon in the subnet container. also, reclassifying and then unchecking the hidden checkbox does not work.

title: CA Unicenter NSM Textbook/FAQ


text:
Quenya/Verbs

Neo-Quenya has 3 types of verbs. In the word list they can be recognized by the final letter of the stem:
 * Primitive verbs, ending on a consonant
 * A-verbs
 * U-verbs

Some special verbs can be found on a separate page.

A Quenya verb has 5 tenses:
 * Present
 * Aorist
 * Past
 * Perfect
 * Future

The verbal forms (infinitive, participle, gerund) and the imperative are each discussed in a separate article.

Endings
Quenya verb conjugation is rather special because it can have subject and object endings,

 * e.g. hautanyel can be decomposed as follows:

 * hauta-nyë-l.

The verb is hauta- "stop", the first ending  -nyë is a subject ending and means "I", the second ending  -l is an object ending and means "you". So the translation is "I stop you".

In the form hautalyen object and subject are reversed, so it means "you stop me".

When only one ending is present it is always a subject ending:
 * hautan, hautanyë both mean "I stop"

 * hautal, hautalyë both mean "you stop"

So let's have a look at the different endings:
 * 1st person singular: -n or  -nyë (both can be used as a subject ending, only  -n as an object ending)
 * 2nd person singular and plural: -l or  -lyë (both can be used as a subject ending, only  -l as an object ending)
 * 3rd person plural: -t or  -ntë (  -ntë is always used as a subject ending, and  -t always as an object ending):
 * hautantë "they stop"

 * hautanten "they stop me"

 * hautanyet "I stop them", etc.

The other 2 persons are more complicated: The 1st person plural has 3 different subject endings and no object endings. So when an object is in the 1st person plural it is always a separate pronoun (see ../Pronouns/). The 3 subject endings are:
 * -lmë: this is called the 'exclusive we', because it is used when the listener is not included in the group that is meant by "we":

 * hautalmë means "we stop [but not you]"

 * -lvë: this is called the 'inclusive we', because it is used when the listener is also included in the group that is meant by "we":

 * hautalvë means "we stop [including you]"

 * -mmë: this is used when "we" contains exactly 2 people, so it is usually translated as "both of us":

 * hautammë "the two of us stop"

The 3rd person singular also has more than one ending:
 * -s: this ending is used as an object ending or as a subject ending when no object ending is present:

 * hautanyes "I stop him/her/it"

 * hautas "he/she/it stops"

 * -sse: this ending is used as a subject ending when an object ending is present, though also by itself:

 * hautassel "he/she/it stops you"

In the past an ending -rye was theorized based on the possessive  -rya; however this has not yet been attested, and we instead find  -sse as well as inanimate  -ssa.

However, this is not all: there are also non-pronominal endings that are used when the subject is something other than a pronoun. In this case there can be no object ending, the object is thus always represented by a separate word or pronoun.
 * The singular non-pronominal form does not have an ending: i aran hauta "the king stops"

 * The plural non-pronominal ending is -r:  i eldar hautar "the elves stop"

The plural non-pronominal ending is also used when the subject is in the dual or partitive plural:
 * i eldu hautar "both elves stop"

 * eldali hautar "some elves stop"

In the third person singular there exist two alternative endings for -sse- that can express gender, though these seem to be limited to Qenya of the 1940s and earlier:  -ro- for a male subject and  -re- for a female subject:
 * tirirot "he sees them"

 * tiriret "she sees them"

It is interesting to note that in sentences where a free pronoun is present, which serves to emphasise the subject of the sentence, the presence of the free pronoun may allow a verb to stand without the corresponding ending:
 * hautalyë "you (singular) will stop (it)"

 * elyë hauta "even you (singular) will stop (it)" (without the expected ending -lyë "you")

More about this can be found on the page about personal pronouns.

Aorist Tense
The easiest tense is the Aorist as it is formed by the verbal stem from the dictionary and the endings we discussed before. So in fact all forms above are Aorists. It is used as an alternative present tense (see below), and so it isn't a past tense as its Greek namesake.

The formation of this tense can be seen in the next table. Only the non-pronominal forms are included as the others can be constructed by replacing the -r of the plural non-pronominal form with the right pronominal ending.

Note that the forms without an ending have a vowel change in the Primitive verbs and the U-stems.

Note that some verbs have a long vowel in the stem so their Aorists also contain a long vowel:
 * cúna- "bow" → aorist: cúna

 * súya- "breathe" → aorist: súya

 * móta- "labour" → aorist: móta

Present Tense
This tense is also called the Continuative tense. The usage and its contrast with the Aorist Tense are explained below.

The major principle behind this tense is the central vowel-lengthening. The central vowel is the vowel in the final syllable of a primitive verb, or the vowel in the last syllable but one in an A-stem or U-stem verb. Of course this lengthening can only happen if the syllable isn't long by itself.

Following syllables are already long and cannot be lengthened:
 * a syllable with a diphthong, e.g. hauta- "stop"

 * a syllable with a long vowel, e.g. súya- "breathe"

 * a syllable in which the vowel is followed by more than one consonant, e.g. harna- "wound"

Furthermore, the primitive and U-stems get an extra -a at the end of the stem and the final -a of the A-stems changes into  -ëa. So this gives:

With vowel lengthening:

Without vowel lengthening:

Another way of conjugating the present tense affecting certain verbs (coexistent with -ëa) lengthens the form before the derivative suffix:
 * Present: mánata "bless" from Aorist:  manta "to bless".

Usage of Aorist and Present tenses
Most of the time both tenses can be used interchangeably. But there are a few cases in which one of them is clearly preferred:
 * The Present tense indicates duration, while the Aorist indicates a law or custom, independent from the time it occurs:

 * i máma máta salquë "the sheep is eating grass" (Present: Happening now)

 * i máma matë salquë "the sheep eats grass" (Aorist: The sheep eats grass in general, no time indicated on action)

The Aorist can be used to indicate an action in which the moment on which the action is performed is irrelevant:

 * elen silë "there shines a star"

 * lala "someone laughs"

The Aorist can indicate sudden change while the Present tense indicates that a condition is true for a certain length of time:

 * i nér tára "the man is standing" (he stood there and he is still standing)

 * i nér tarë "the man stands" (he was sitting down and gets up)

The Aorist can also be used to denote a custom or something recurring:

 * i ohtar súca sí "the soldier is drinking now" or:

 * i ohtar yúla sí "the soldier is drinking now"

 * i ohtar sucë ilya aurë "the soldier drinks each day" or,

 * i ohtar yulë ilya aurë "the soldier drinks each day"

Future Tense
Neo-Quenya has only one future tense, so it is used to indicate both near and distant future:

 * cenuvas Isil "he shall see the moon/he is going to see the moon"

This tense can be recognized by the ending -uva. The Primitive verbs simply add it, with the A-verbs it replaces the final -a, and with the U-verbs the final -u changes -uva into -úva:

The verb quat- "fill" is irregular as its Future Tense is  quantuva / quantuvar.

Past Tense
The past tense has many irregularities, so a separate article is dedicated to it.

It is used to denote a past action that still continues or that has finished without consequences. So it can be translated by either a Simple Past or a Present Perfect:

 * fautanë aqua i aurë "it snowed/it was snowing/it has snowed the whole day"

Perfect Tense
The Perfect Tense is used to express an action that has finished but still has some consequences, so it can be used for the English Present Perfect and Past Perfect:

 * amátien "I have eaten" (and I am still not hungry)

 * nó ecénienyes, oantes "after I had seen him, he went away"

The conjugation of verbs in this tense can be found on a separate page: ../Perfect Tense/.

Negation of verbs
Neo-Quenya has two ways to negate a sentence: (Note: lá is also used with the comparison of adjectives).
 * when the sentence contains a verb without object ending or a modal verb with an infinitive, the verb ua- "not to be" is preferred
 * in all other cases we use the particle lá

Conjugation of ua-
To negate a verb we use the corresponding conjugated form of ua- followed by the infinitive of the original verb:

Although the 1st person singular pronoun uan is the most attested form used, it has been said that the other pronoun endings were regular.

Notice that the pronoun ending has shifted onto the verb ua- "to not be", away from  car- "to make". It must also be noted that ua- is left in the aorist tense and  car- is conjugated.

This is normally how sentences are constructed for negation, but in archaic or verse Quenya, ua- can be conjugated instead, with the following verb left in the aorist tense, as demonstrated by these following examples:

 úne- : Past Tense
 * Normal / Prose: uan mantë mámalya "I did not eat your sheep"

 * Archaic / Verse: únen matë mámalya "I did not eat your sheep"

 uië- : Perfect Tense
 * Normal / Prose: uan utúvië roalyar "I have not found your dogs"

 * Archaic / Verse: uien tuvë roalyar "I have not found your dogs"

 úva- : Future Tense
 * Normal / Prose: uan appuva maltanya "I will not touch my gold"

 * Archaic / Verse: úvan appë maltanya "I will not touch my gold"

With a modal verb, the negation is expressed by two consecutive infinitives:
 * i híni polir capë "the children can jump"

 * i híni uar polë capë "the children cannot jump"

The verb ua- is also used to negate a sentence that uses  ná:
 * i aran ná taura "the king is mighty"

 * i aran ua taura "the king is not mighty"

Or alternately with the ú- prefix onto the adjective:
 * i aran útaura "the king is not mighty"

When a verb has an object ending (and thus also a subject ending) we never use ua- because it normally doesn't get object endings.

In this case the verb form is unchanged but preceded by the particle lá:
 * hirnenyes "I found it"

 * lá hirnenyes "I didn't find it"

The verb ëa is also always negated by using  lá:
 * ëa roan i coassë "There is a dog in the house"

 * lá ëa roan i coassë "there is no dog in the house"

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Verbs/

title: Quenya/Verbs


text:
Quenya/Special Verbs

The verb 'ëa' & 'ná'
Quenya has two verbs that correspond to the English verb "to be": ná and  ëa.

Ná is used in the following cases:

 * To connect two nouns:

 * sambë sina ná caimasan "this room is a bedroom"

 * To connect a noun and an adjective:

 * sambi sinë nar pityë "these rooms are small"

Eä is used to denote existence at a location:

 * i harma ëa i sambessë "the treasure is in the room"

 * ëan tauressë "I am in a wood"

The non-pronominal forms of ëa can be used without subject to denote "there is" ( ëa) or "there are" (  ëar):

 * ëa elda as quinga "there is an elf with a bow"

 * ëar narmor i ostossë "there are wolves in the city"

Conjugation
These verbs have no Perfect tense and the Present and Aorist tenses are identical.

 * The verb ná

The Present/Aorist tense of ná is formed with the stem  na-, so we find e.g.:
 * nan "I am", nalyë "you are",  nantë "they are", ...

The Past tense is formed with the stem ne-, the endless form is  né, e.g.:
 * nes "he/she/it was", nelmë "we were (excl.)", ...

The Future tense is regular with stem nauva-:
 * i nissi nauvar nairë "the women will be sad"

 * nauvan aran "I shall be king"

The verb ëa The Present/Aorist tense of ëa is regular with the stem  ëa-, so we find e.g.:
 * ëan "I am", ëalyë "you are",  ëantë "they are", ...

The Past tense is formed with the stem enge-, e.g.:
 * enges "he/she/it was", engelmë "we were (excl.)", ...

The Future tense is regular with stem euva-:
 * i roccor euvar i malcoressë "the horses will be in the castle"

 * euvalmë sinomë "we shall be here"

This verb has a Present Participle ëala:
 * i ostor ëala "the existing cities"

Impersonal verbs
These verbs have the special property of lacking an explicit subject. In most languages only verbs that denote a condition or weather are of this type: "it rains", "it freezes", ...

Such verbs are also impersonal in Quenya:
 * lipta "it drips"

 * uquë "it rains"

 * fauta "it snows"

Note: these verbs don't get the ending -s even though we translate it into English with the personal pronoun "it".
 * hilca "it freezes"

A second group are the impersonal verbs that are also impersonal in English and have an indirect object that indicates to whom the action matters. In Quenya this indirect object is put in the dative case:
 * marta- "happen" → marta sen "it happens to her"

 * mauya- "compel" → mauya nin "it compels me"

 * naya- "grieve" → naya son "it grieves him"

 * onga- "pain" → onga men "it pains us"

 * vilda- "matter" → vilda len "it matters to you"

A longer example:
 * mauya nin lelya ostonna "I am compelled to go to town"

Neo-Quenya also has a few verbs that get an explicit subject in most other languages:
 * itirya- "itch, irritate" (derived from itisya)

 * loya- "be thirsty"

 * óla- "dream"

 * sahta- "be hot"

 * sitta- "be used to"

 * or- / ora- "urge, impel"

The original English subject changes into a dative in Quenya:
 * orë nin caritas "it impels me to do it" = "I am impelled to do it"

It is also possible to use a dative-subject that is not a personal pronoun:
 * oranë i eldan lelya "the elf was impelled to go"

With the verb óla- "dream" we find analoguously: In Quenya we consider the dreamer (the girl) not as the agent (subject) of the dream but as the receiver (indirect object). So literally we could say "it dreams to the girl about elves".
 * óla i venden eldaron "the girl dreams about elves (genitive)"

Sometimes the verb ná can also be used impersonally when the predicate is an adjective:
 * ná ringa nin "it is cold to me" = "I am cold"

Note: this construction is also possible in German: "Mir ist kalt".
 * ná mára son "it is good to him" = "he is good"

Causative verbs
These verbs originate with an adjective and their meaning is that one acquires the property expressed by the adjective.

They can be formed by adding -ta to the adjective:
 * alya "rich" → alyata- "become rich"

Adjectives on -ë change this final letter into  -i:
 * airë "holy" → airita- "become holy, hallow"

 * ninquë "white" → ninquita- "become white, whiten"

The stress rules imply that these verbs show some irregularities: When an ending is added to the verb that contains exactly one syllable, we change -ta into  -tá-: but
 * i aran airitánë "the king hallowed"
 * alyatanelmë "we became rich"

This phenomenon also appears in the present participle:
 * airitálë "hallowing"

In the passive participle -taina changes into  -nta:
 * ninquinta "whitened"

the verb 'equë-'
The verb quet- can mean "say" or "speak" depending on the case with which it is used (dative or allative).

With direct or indirect speech (see ../Syntaxis) the verb equë is preferred.

The conjugation of this verb is extremely simple: it has only one form that is used for all tenses and all numbers. It is only used when the subject is a proper noun or a personal pronoun (so it cannot be used with an ordinary noun like "father", "king", etc.)
 * equen: 'cé'   "I say/said: 'maybe' "

Even the word order is uncommon as it is always placed right before its subject:
 * equë Elendil: 'utúlien'   "Elendil says/said: 'I have come' "

 * equë Altariel ar Teleporno: 'namárië'   "Galadriel and Celeborn say/said: 'farewell' "

It is however never really wrong to use quet-:
 * quetin: 'cé'   "I say: 'maybe' "

 * Elendil quentë: 'utúlien'   "Elendil said: 'I have come' "

 * Altariel ar Teleporno quenter: 'namárië'   "Galadriel and Celeborn said: 'farewell' "

And when we use a different subject quet- is obligatory:
 * i nís quéta: 'aiya'   "the woman is saying: 'hello' "

Also when the subject follows the direct speech we use quet-:
 *  'utúlien', quentë Elendil  "'I have come', said Elendil"

the verb 'auta-'
This verb has three conjugations which depend on the meaning of the verb. The three conjugations coincide in following tenses and verbal forms: Present, Aorist, Future, Present Participle, Gerund, Imperative.

I. To pass away / To die

This meaning is only used in official texts and only in the Past tense:
 * i aran anwë "the king passed away"

'II. To go away / To depart'

This meaning is always associated with a direction. So this conjugation is generally accompanied by an allative noun:
 * i nér oantë i ëanna "the man departed for the sea"/"the man went away to the sea"

The directional complement can of course be implied:
 * i nauco oantië "the dwarf has departed"/"the dwarf went away"

The complete conjugation is:
 * Past tense: oantë

 * Perfect tense: oantië

 * Infinitive: auta

 * Past participle: autaina.

'III. To leave / To disappear'

In this meaning no direction is present, so we cannot have an allative case on the noun:
 * yéni avánier "centuries have disappeared, have gone by"

(note: the meaning "leave behind" is not expressed by auta- but by  lesta-).
 * i seldo vánë "the boy disappeared"/"the boy left"

The past participle is also used with the meaning "lost" (i.e. "cannot be regained"):
 * Valimar ná vanwa "Valimar is lost"

The complete conjugation is:
 * Past tense: vánë

 * Perfect tense: avánië

 * Infinitive: vanwë

 * Past participle: vanwa.

>> Neo-Quenya >> ../Verbs/ >> ../Special Verbs/

title: Quenya/Special Verbs