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Art History/19th Century

= Impressionism =

Photography in the nineteenth century both challenged painters to be true to nature and encouraged them to exploit aspects of the painting medium, like color, that photography lacked. This divergence away from photographic realism appears in the work of a group of artists who from 1874 to 1886 exhibited together, independently of the Salon. The leaders of the independent movement were Claude Monet, August Renoir, Edgar Degas, Berthe Morisot, and Mary Cassatt. They became known as Impressionists because a newspaper critic thought they were painting mere sketches or impressions. The Impressionists, however, considered their works finished. Many Impressionists painted pleasant scenes of middle class urban life, extolling the leisure time that the industrial revolution had won for middle class society. In Renoir's luminous painting Luncheon of the Boating Party, for example, young men and women eat, drink, talk, and flirt with a joy for life that is reflected in sparkling colors. The sun filtered through the orange striped awning colors everything and everyone in the party with its warm light. The diners' glances cut across a balanced and integrated composition that reproduces a very delightful scene of modem middle class life.

Since they were realists, followers of Courbet and Manet, the Impressionists set out to be "true to nature," a phrase that became their rallying cries. When Renoir and Monet went out into the countryside in search of subjects to paint, they carried their oil colors, canvas, and brushes with them so that they could stand right on the spot and record what they saw at that time. In contrast, most earlier landscape painters worked in their studio from sketches they had made outdoors. The more an Impressionist like Monet looked, the more she or he saw. Sometimes Monet came back to the same spot at different times of day or at a different time of year to paint the same scene. In 1892 he rented a room opposite the Cathedral of Rouen in order to paint its facade over and over again. He never copied himself because the light and color always changed with the passage of time, and the variations made each painting a new creation. The differences are obvious when we compare the painting of Rouen Cathedral that is now in Switzerland with the one that is now in Washington, D.C. Realism meant to an Impressionist that the painter ought to record the most subtle sensations of reflected light. In capturing a specific kind of light, this style conveys the notion of a specific and fleeting moment of time. Impressionist painters like Monet and Renoir recorded each sensation of light with a touch of paint in a little stroke like a comma. The public back then was upset that Impressionist paintings looked like a sketch and did not have the polish and finish that more fashionable paintings had. But applying the paint in tiny strokes allowed Monet, Renoir, or Cassatt to display color sensations openly, to keep the colors unmixed and intense, and to let the viewer's eye mix the colors. The bright colors and the active participation of the viewer approximated the experience of the scintillation of natural sunlight. The Impressionists remained realists in the sense that they remained true to their sensations of the object, although they ignored many of the old conventions for representing the object "out there." But truthfulness for the Impressionists lay in their personal and subjective sensations not in the "exact" reproduction of an object for its own sake. The objectivity of things existing outside and beyond the artist no longer mattered as much as it once did. The significance of "outside" objects became irrelevant. Concern for representing an object faded, while concern for representing the subjective grew. The focus on subjectivity intensified because artists became more concerned with the independent expression of the individual. Reality became what the individual saw. With Impressionism, the meaning of realism was transformed into subjective realism, and the subjectivity of modem art was born.

Artists

 * Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot (1796-1875)
 * Charles-François Daubigny (1817-1878)
 * Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)
 * Eugene Boudin (1824-1898)
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 * Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)
 * Edouard Manet (1832-1883)
 * Edgar Degas (1834-1917)
 * Claude Monet (1840-1926)
 * Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)
 * Frederic Bazille (1841-1870)
 * Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)
 * Mary Cassatt (1844-1926)
 * Gustave Caillebotte (1848-1894)
 * Paul Gauguin (1848-1903)

Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)
Born July 10, 1830 in St. Thomas, Virgin Islands. His father, a Portuguese Jew, ran a general store. Although Pissarro attended school in Paris and demonstrated an exceptional talent for drawing, he returned to St. Thomas in 1847 to work in the family business. During the ensuing years his interest in art persisted, and in 1855 his parents finally yielded to his ambition to become a painter.

Pissarro reached Paris in time to see the important World's Fair of 1855. He was particularly impressed by the landscapes of Camille Corot and other members of the Barbizon group, who had taken the first steps toward working directly from nature, and by the ambitious and forthright realism of Gustave Courbet, although his own work increasingly gravitated toward landscape rather than figurative subjects.

During the next 10 years, Pissarro received some academic training at the École des Beaux-Arts, but he spent most of his time at the Académie Suisse, where free classes were offered. This was an important gathering place for those artists whose ambitions and sensibilities lay outside the teaching of the official schools, for it offered greater opportunity to discuss and develop personal ideas about painting and art in general. In this setting Pissarro became friends with Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, and Paul Cézanne, who were seeking alternatives to the established methods of painting. Pissarro's works at this time were occasionally, though by no means consistently, accepted at the annual Salons. More importantly, however, he received critical backing and encouragement from the journalist and critic Émile Zola. During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-7, Pissarro and Monet went to London, where they were impressed by the landscape paintings of John Constable and J.M.W. Turner. By this time Pissarro and Monet had begun to work directly from nature and to develop the unique style that would later be called Impressionism. In their pursuit of this new and revolutionary direction, the lessons of the earlier English landscapists provided crucial and much-needed support, particularly in terms of the loose handling of paint, the abstractness, and the strong response to nature that characterized their own paintings. When Pissarro returned to his home at Louveciennes near Paris, he found that the Prussians had destroyed nearly all of his paintings.

By the early 1870s, the work of Pissarro and his colleagues had been rejected by the Salon, France's official state-run art show, on repeated occasions. In 1874, they held their own exhibition, a show of "independent" artists, which included the work of Pissarro, Monet, Renoir, Sisley, Edgar Degas, and Berthe Morisot. This was the first Impressionist exhibition (the term "Impressionist," originally used derisively, was actually coined by a newspaper critic). There were seven similar exhibitions from 1874-86, and Pissarro was the only artist who participated in all eight. This fact is important because it reveals something about Pissarro's relation to Impressionism generally: he was the patriarch and teacher of the movement, constantly advising younger artists, introducing them to one another, and encouraging them to join the revolutionary trend that he helped to originate. In 1892, a large retrospective of Pissarro's work finally brought him the international recognition he deserved. Characteristic paintings are Path through the Fields (1879), Landscape, Eragny (1895), and Place du Théâtre Français (1898). He died in Paris on November 12, 1903. Although his work was generally less innovative than that of his major contemporaries, his contributions as an artist should not be underestimated in the development of the Impressionist painting style.

Edgar Degas (1834-1917)
Born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar Degas on July 19, 1834, in Paris, France. A member of an upper-class family (his father was a banker), Degas was originally intended to practice law, which he studied for a time after finishing secondary school. In 1855, however, he enrolled at the famous École des Beaux-Arts, or School of Fine Arts, in Paris, where he studied under Louis Lamothe, a pupil of the classical painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. In order to supplement his art studies, Degas traveled extensively, including trips to Naples, Florence, and Rome (where he lived for three years), in order to observe and copy the works of such Renaissance masters as Sandro Botticelli, Andrea Mantegna, and Nicolas Poussin. From his early classical education, Degas learned a good deal about drawing figures, a skill he used to complete some impressive family portraits before 1860, notably The Belleli Family (1859). In 1861, Degas returned to Paris, where he executed several "history paintings," or works with historical or Biblical themes, which were then the most sought-after paintings by serious art patrons and particularly the prestigious state-run art show, the Salon, held each year in Paris. He also began copying works by the Old Masters from the Louvre, which he would continue doing for many years. With his historical paintings (including 1861's Daughter of Jephthah, based on an incident from the Old Testament) and his finely-wrought portraits of friends, family members, and clients, the young Degas quickly established a reputation among French art circles and never suffered from the financial problems that plagued many of his contemporaries.

Soon, however, Degas began to shift his focus from historical painting to depictions of life in contemporary Paris. By 1862, he had begun painting various scenes from the racecourse, including studies of the horses, their mounts, and the fashionable spectators. Degas' style after the early 1860s was influenced by the budding Impressionist movement, including his friendship with Édouard Manet, as well as his introduction to Japanese graphic art, with its striking representation of figures. Along with his work painting scenes from the racetrack, Degas began concentrating on portraits of groups, most notably of female ballet dancers, who became Degas' most famous subjects. Degas served in the artillery division of the French National Guard during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. Upon his return, he worked on even more ambitious studies of groups, often in motion, in both indoor and outdoor settings. In October 1872, Degas visited the United States for five months, spending time in New Orleans, Louisiana, where some members of his family were in the cotton business. From this experience came his famous painting New Orleans Cotton Office (1873).

Many of Degas' paintings featured the artist's experiments with unorthodox visual angles and asymmetrical perspectives, somewhat like a photographer's treatment of a subject. Examples of this style are A Carriage at the Races (1872), which features a human figure who is almost cut in half by the edge of the canvas, and Ballet Rehearsal (1876), a group portrait of ballerinas that appears almost cropped at the edges. From 1873 to 1883, Degas produced many of his most famous works, both paintings and pastels, of his favorite subjects, including the ballet, the racecourse, the music hall, and café society. Though he never suffered from lack of money or interest in his work, Degas stopped exhibiting at the Salon in 1874, and thereafter displayed most of his works alongside those of the other Impressionists, including Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, Berthe Morisot, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Camille Pissarro. His strong focus on draftsmanship, portraiture, and composition distanced him from the rest of the artists identified as Impressionists.

Sometime in the 1870s, Degas began to suffer a loss of vision, which limited his ability to work. He began increasingly to work as a sculptor, producing bronze statues of horses and ballet dancers, among other subjects. A number of his sculptures, including Little Dancer Aged Fourteen (1880-81), were figures dressed in real costumes, and many of them captured the moment of transition between one position to another, giving the statues a real sense of immediacy and motion. As Degas' eyesight grew worse, he became an increasingly reclusive and eccentric figure. In the last years of his life, he was almost totally blind. Edgar Degas died on September 27, 1917, in Paris, leaving behind in his studio an important collection of drawings and paintings by his contemporaries as well as a number of statues crafted in wax and metal, which were cast in bronze after his death.

Claude Monet (1840-1926)
Born November 14, 1840, in Paris, France. Claude Monet was a seminal figure in the evolution of Impressionism, a pivotal style in the development of modern art. In 1845 his family moved to Le Havre, and by the time he was 15, Monet had developed a local reputation as a caricaturist. Through an exhibition of his caricatures in 1858, Monet met Eugène Boudin, a landscape painter who exerted a profound influence on the young artist. Boudin introduced him to outdoor painting, an activity that he entered reluctantly but which soon became the basis for his life's work. By 1859 Monet was determined to pursue an artistic career. He visited Paris and was impressed by the paintings of Eugène Delacroix, Charles Daubigny, and Camille Corot. Against his parents' wishes, Monet decided to stay in Paris. He worked at the free Académie Suisse, where he met Camille Pissarro, and he frequented the Brasserie des Martyrs, a gathering place for Gustave Courbet and other realists who constituted the vanguard of French painting in the 1850s. Formative Period

Monet's studies were interrupted by military service in Algeria from 1860 to 1862. The remainder of the decade witnessed constant experimentation, travel, and the formation of many important artistic friendships. In 1862, he entered the studio of Charles Gleyre in Paris and met Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, and Frédéric Bazille. During 1863 and 1864, he periodically worked in the forest at Fontainebleau with the Barbizon artists Théodore Rousseau, Jean François Millet, and Daubigny, as well as with Corot. In Paris in 1869, he frequented the Café Guerbois, where he met Édouard Manet. At the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Monet traveled to London, where he met the adventurous and sympathetic dealer Paul Durand-Ruel. The following year Monet and his wife, Camille, whom he had married in 1870, settled at Argenteuil, which became a semi-permanent home (he continued to travel throughout his life) for the next six years. Monet's constant movements during this period were directly related to his artistic ambitions. The phenomena of natural light, atmosphere, and color captivated his imagination, and he committed himself to an increasingly accurate recording of their enthralling variety. He consciously sought that variety and gradually developed a remarkable sensitivity for the subtle particulars of each landscape he encountered. Paul Cézanne is reported to have said, "Monet is the most prodigious eye since there have been painters." Relatively few of Monet's canvases from the 1860s have survived. Throughout the decade, and during the 1870s as well, he suffered from extreme financial hardship and frequently destroyed his own paintings rather than have them seized by creditors. A striking example of his early style is Terrace at Sainte-Adresse (1867). The painting contains a shimmering array of bright, natural colors, eschewing completely the somber browns and blacks of the earlier landscape tradition.

Monet and Impressionism
As William Seitz wrote in 1960, "The landscapes Monet painted at Argenteuil between 1872 and 1877 are his best-known, most popular works, and it was during these years that Impressionism most closely approached a group style. Here, often working beside Renoir, Sisley, Caillebotte, or Manet, he painted the sparkling impressions of French river life that so delight us today." During these same years, Monet exhibited regularly in the Impressionist group shows, the first of which took place in 1874. On that occasion his painting Impression: Sunrise (1872) inspired a hostile newspaper critic to call all the artists "Impressionists," and the designation has persisted to the present day.

Monet's paintings from the 1870s reveal the major tenets of the Impressionist vision. Along with Impression: Sunrise, Red Boats at Argenteuil (1875) is an outstanding example of the new style. In these paintings, Impressionism is essentially an illusionist style, albeit one that looks radically different from the landscapes of the Old Masters. The difference resides primarily in the chromatic vibrancy of Monet's canvases. Working directly from nature, he and the other Impressionists discovered that even the darkest shadows and the gloomiest days contain an infinite variety of colors. To capture the fleeting effects of light and color, however, Monet gradually learned that he had to paint quickly and to employ short brushstrokes loaded with individualized colors. This technique resulted in canvases that were charged with painterly activity; in effect, they denied the even blending of colors and the smooth, enameled surfaces to which earlier painting had persistently subscribed.

Yet, in spite of these differences, the new style was illusionistically intended; only the interpretation of what illusionism consisted of had changed. For traditional landscape artists, illusionism was conditioned first of all by the mind: that is, painters tended to depict the individual phenomena of the natural world-leaves, branches, blades of grass-as they had studied them and conceptualized their existence. Monet, on the other hand, wanted to paint what he saw rather than what he intellectually knew. And he saw not separate leaves, but splashes of constantly changing light and color. According to Seitz, "It is in this context that we must understand his desire to see the world through the eyes of a man born blind who had suddenly gained his sight: as a pattern of nameless color patches." In an important sense, then, Monet belongs to the tradition of Renaissance illusionism: in recording the phenomena of the natural world, he simply based his art on perceptual rather than conceptual knowledge.

During the 1880s, the Impressionists began to dissolve as a cohesive group, although individual members continued to see one another and they occasionally worked together. In 1883 Monet moved to Giverny, but he continued to travel-to London, Madrid, and Venice, as well as to favorite sites in his native country. He gradually gained critical and financial success during the late 1880s and the 1890s. This was due primarily to the efforts of Durand-Ruel, who sponsored one-man exhibitions of Monet's work as early as 1883 and who, in 1886, also organized the first large-scale Impressionist group show to take place in the United States.

Monet's painting during this period slowly gravitated toward a broader, more expansive and expressive style. In Spring Trees by a Lake (1888) the entire surface vibrates electrically with shimmering light and color. Paradoxically, as his style matured and as he continued to develop the sensitivity of his vision, the strictly illusionistic aspect of his paintings began to disappear. Plastic form dissolved into colored pigment, and three-dimensional space evaporated into a charged, purely optical surface atmosphere. His canvases, although invariably inspired by the visible world, increasingly declared themselves as objects that are, above all, paintings. This quality links Monet's art more closely with modernism than with the Renaissance tradition.

Modernist, too, are the "serial" paintings to which Monet devoted considerable energy during the 1890s. The most celebrated of these series are the haystacks (1891) and the façades of Rouen Cathedral (1892-1894). In these works Monet painted his subjects from more or less the same physical position, allowing only the natural light and atmospheric conditions to vary from picture to picture. That is, he "fixed" the subject matter, treating it like an experimental constant against which changing effects could be measured and recorded. This technique reflects the persistence and devotion with which Monet pursued his study of the visible world. At the same time, the serial works effectively neutralized subject matter per se, implying that paintings could exist without it. In this way his art established an important precedent for the development of abstract painting.

Late Work
Monet's wife died in 1879; in 1892 he married Alice Hoschedé. By 1899 his financial position was secure, and he began work on his famous series of water lily paintings. Water lilies existed in profusion in the artist's exotic gardens at Giverny, and he painted them tirelessly until his death there on December 5, 1926. Monet's late years were by no means easy. During his last two decades, he suffered from poor health and had double cataracts; by the 1920s, he was virtually blind. In addition to his physical ailments, Monet struggled desperately with the problems of his art. In 1920, he began work on 12 large canvases (each measuring 14 feet in width) of water lilies, which he planned to give to the state. To complete them, he fought against his own failing eyesight and against the demands of a large-scale mural art for which his own past had hardly prepared him. In effect, the task required him to learn a new kind of painting at the age of 80. The paintings are characterized by a broad, sweeping style; virtually devoid of subject matter, their vast, encompassing spaces are generated almost exclusively by color. Such color spaces were without precedent in Monet's lifetime; and moreover, their descendants have appeared in contemporary painting only since the end of World War II.

Berthe Morisot (1841-1895)

Born January 14, 1841, in Bourges, France. The daughter of a high-ranking government official and granddaughter of the influential Rococo painter Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Morisot began studying painting alongside her sister Edma when both were young. Though women were not allowed to join official arts institutions, like schools, until the last few years of the nineteenth century, Morisot and her sister earned a certain measure of respect within art circles for their budding talent. After copying masterpieces from the Louvre Museum in the late 1850s under Joseph Guichard, Berthe and Edma began painting outdoor scenes while studying with the well-known landscape painter Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot. Berthe Morisot worked with Corot, who became a family friend, from 1862 to 1868. She first exhibited her paintings at the prestigious state-run art show, the Salon, in 1864, and her work was shown there regularly for the next decade..

Morisot was greatly influenced by her friendship with Édouard Manet, to whom she was introduced in 1868 by their fellow artist Henri Fantin-Latour. Though Morisot was never a pupil of Manet's, she soon abandoned aspects of Corot's teachings and destroyed almost all of her early work in favor of a more unconventional and modern approach, with the encouragement of Manet and others, including Edgar Degas and Frédéric Bazille. She also played an important role in Manet's career, posing for a number of his paintings-notably The Balcony (1869) and Repose (c. 1870) - and encouraging him to adapt some tenets of Impressionism into his work. Beginning in 1874, Morisot refused to show her work at the Salon, choosing to join a fledgling group of Impressionist painters that included Degas, who would become Morisot's lifelong friend, as well as Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, and Alfred Sisley. Morisot agreed to take part in the first independent exhibition of Impressionist paintings, which opened in a photographer's studio on Paris's Boulevard des Capucines in April 1874. In doing so, she went against the advice of Édouard Manet, who refused to exhibit with the Impressionists and was determined to make his name at the Salon. Among the paintings she showed at the exhibition were The Cradle, The Harbor at Cherbourg, Hide and Seek, and Reading. In December 1874, at the age of 33, Morisot married Manet's younger brother, Eugène, also a painter. Eugène Manet supported his wife in her work and the marriage gave Morisot social and financial stability while she continued her painting career. On a census form, Morisot famously recorded herself as "without profession," underscoring her vision of her life and work within, not outside of, the traditional feminine sphere. She participated in all of the Impressionist exhibitions save one, in 1877, when she was pregnant with her daughter, Julie, born in 1878.

Morisot painted in oils, watercolors, and pastels, and produced numerous drawings. Her wide range of subjects included portraits (many of her sister Edma), landscapes, still lives, and the domestic scene, particularly traditional feminine occupations. A particularly notable example of the latter was Woman at Her Toilette (c. 1879), which she displayed in the fifth Impressionist exhibition in 1880. For some of her later works, Morisot noticeably changed her style, making numerous sketches of a subject before beginning a painting rather than relying on spontaneous observation, as in her earlier work. Paintings that showcased her new style included The Cherry Tree (1891-92) and Girl with a Greyhound (1893). Eugène Manet died in April 1892, after a long illness. Morisot's friends and fellow artists rallied around her and her young daughter Julie, and she continued to work. Though never commercially successful during her lifetime, Morisot outsold several of her fellow Impressionists, including Monet, Renoir, and Sisley. She had her first solo exhibition in 1892 at the Boussod and Valadon gallery, where she sold a number of works, and she earned further recognition in 1894, when the French government purchased her oil painting Young Woman in a Ball Gown. In the winter of 1894-95, Morisot contracted pneumonia. She died on March 2, 1895, at the age of 54. After her death, Renoir and Degas organized a retrospective of her work, which garnered serious critical acclaim and ensured her place in art history as one of the founding members of the revolutionary Impressionist movement.

Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)
Born February 25, 1841, in Limoges, France. Shortly after his birth, his family moved to Paris. Because he showed a remarkable talent for drawing, Renoir became an apprentice in a porcelain factory, where he painted plates. Later, after the factory had gone out of business, he worked for his older brother, decorating fans. Throughout these early years, Renoir made frequent visits to the Louvre, where he studied the art of earlier French masters, particularly those of the 18th century-Antoine Watteau, François Boucher, and Jean Honoré Fragonard. His deep respect for these artists informed his own painting throughout his career. During the 1870s, a revolution erupted in French painting. Encouraged by artists like Gustave Courbet and Édouard Manet, a number of young painters began to seek alternatives to the traditions of Western painting that had prevailed since the beginning of the Renaissance. These artists went directly to nature for their inspiration and into the actual society of which they were a part. As a result, their works revealed a look of freshness and immediacy that in many ways departed from the look of Old Master painting. The new art, for instance, displayed vibrant light and color instead of the somber browns and blacks that had dominated previous painting. These qualities, among others, signaled the beginning of modern art.

Early Career
In 1862, Renoir decided to study painting seriously and entered the Atelier Gleyre, where he met Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, and Jean Frédéric Bazille. During the next six years, Renoir's art showed the influence of Gustave Courbet and Édouard Manet, the two most innovative painters of the 1850s and 1860s. Courbet's influence is especially evident in the bold palette-knife technique of Diane Chasseresse (1867), while Manet's can be seen in the flat tones of Alfred Sisley and His Wife (1868). Still, both paintings reveal a sense of intimacy that is characteristic of Renoir's personal style. The 1860s were difficult years for Renoir. At times he was too poor to buy paints or canvas, and the Salons of 1866 and 1867 rejected his works. The following year the Salon accepted his painting Lise. He continued to develop his work and to study the paintings of his contemporaries-not only Courbet and Manet, but Camille Corot and Eugène Delacroix as well. Renoir's indebtedness to Delacroix is apparent in the lush painter like that of the Odalisque (1870). Renoir and Impressionism In 1869, Renoir and Monet worked together at La Grenouillère, a bathing spot on the Seine. Both artists became obsessed with painting light and water. According to Phoebe Pool (1967), this was a decisive moment in the development of Impressionism, for "It was there that Renoir and Monet made their discovery that shadows are not brown or black but are colored by their surroundings, and that the 'local color' of an object is modified by the light in which it is seen, by reflections from other objects and by contrast with juxtaposed colors." The styles of Renoir and Monet were virtually identical at this time, an indication of the dedication with which they pursued and shared their new discoveries. During the 1870s, they still occasionally worked together, although their styles generally developed in more personal directions. In 1874, Renoir participated in the first Impressionist exhibition, along with Monet, Edgar Degas, Alfred Sisley, Camille Pissarro, and Berthe Morisot. His works included The Opera Box (1874), a painting that shows the artist's penchant for rich and freely handled figurative expression. Of all the Impressionists, Renoir most consistently and thoroughly adapted the new style-in its inspiration, essentially a landscape style-to the great tradition of figure painting.

Although the Impressionist exhibitions were the targets of much public ridicule during the 1870s, Renoir's patronage gradually increased during the decade. He became a friend of Caillebotte, one of the first patrons of the Impressionists, and he was also backed by the art dealer Durand-Ruel and by collectors like Victor Choquet, the Charpentiers, and the Daidets. The artist's connection with these individuals is documented by a number of handsome portraits, for instance, Madame Charpentier and Her Children (1878). In the 1870s, Renoir also produced some of his most celebrated Impressionist genre scenes, including The Swing and The Ball at the Moulin de la Galette (both 1876). These works embody his most basic attitudes about art and life. They show men and women together, openly and casually enjoying a society diffused with warm, radiant sunlight. Figures blend softly into one another and into their surrounding space. Such worlds are pleasurable, sensuous, and generously endowed with human feeling.

Renoir's "Dry" Period
During the 1880s, Renoir gradually separated himself from the other Impressionists, largely because he became dissatisfied with the direction the new style was taking in his own hands. In paintings like The Luncheon of the Boating Party (1881), he felt that his style was becoming too loose, that forms were losing their distinctiveness and sense of mass. As a result, he looked to the past for a fresh inspiration. In 1881, he traveled to Italy and was particularly impressed by the art of Raphael. During the next six years, Renoir's paintings became increasingly dry: he began to draw in a tight, classical manner, carefully outlining his figures in an effort to give them plastic clarity. The works from this period, such as The Umbrellas (1883) and Les grandes baigneuses (1884-1887), are generally considered the least successful of Renoir's mature expressions. Their classicizing effort seems self-conscious, a contradiction to the warm sensuality that came naturally to him.

Late Career
By the end of the 1880s, Renoir had passed through his dry period. His late work is truly extraordinary: a glorious outpouring of monumental nude figures, beautiful young girls, and lush landscapes. Examples of this style include The Music Lesson (1891), Young Girl Reading (1892), and Sleeping Bather (1897). In many ways, the generosity of feeling in these paintings expands upon the achievements of his great work in the 1870s. Renoir's health declined severely in his later years. In 1903, he suffered his first attack of rheumatoid arthritis and settled for the winter at Cagnes-sur-Mer. By this time he faced no financial problems, but the arthritis made painting painful and often impossible. Nevertheless, he continued to work, at times with a brush tied to his crippled hand. Renoir died at Cagnes-sur-Mer on December 3, 1919, but his death was preceded by an experience of supreme triumph: the state had purchased his portrait Madame Georges Charpentier (1877), and he traveled to Paris in August to see it hanging in the Louvre.

Edouard Manet (1832-1883)
Born January 23, 1832 in Paris, France, to Auguste Édouard Manet, an official at the Ministry of Justice, and Eugénie Désirée Manet. Manet's father, who had expected his son to study law, vigorously opposed his wish to become a painter. The career of naval officer was decided upon as a compromise, and at the age of 16 Édouard sailed to Rio de Janeiro on a training vessel. Upon his return he failed to pass the entrance examination of the naval academy. His father relented, and in 1850 Manet entered the studio of Thomas Couture, where, in spite of many disagreements with his teacher, he remained until 1856. During this period, Manet traveled abroad and made numerous copies after the Old Masters in both foreign and French public collections. Early Works Manet's entry for the Salon of 1859, The Absinthe Drinker, a thematically romantic but conceptually daring work, was rejected. At the Salon of 1861, his Spanish Singer, one of a number of works of Spanish character painted in this period, not only was admitted to the Salon but won an honorable mention and the acclaim of the poet Théophile Gautier. This was to be Manet's last success for many years.

In 1863, Manet married Suzanne Leenhoff, a Dutch pianist. That year he showed 14 paintings at the Martinet Gallery; one of them, Music in the Tuileries, remarkable for its freshness in the handling of a contemporary scene, was greeted with considerable hostility. Also in 1863, the Salon rejected Manet's large painting Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe, or Luncheon on the Grass, and the artist elected to have it shown at the now famous Salon des Refusés, created by the emperor under the pressure of the exceptionally large number of painters whose work had been turned away. Here, Manet's picture attracted the most attention and brought forth a kind of abusive criticism that was to set a pattern for years to come.

In 1865, Manet's Olympia produced a still more violent reaction at the official Salon, and his reputation as a renegade became widespread. Upset by the criticism, Manet made a brief trip to Spain, where he admired many works by Diego Velázquez, to whom he referred as "the painter of painters."

Support of Baudelaire and Zola
Manet's close friend and supporter during the early years was Charles Baudelaire, who, in 1862, had written a quatrain to accompany one of Manet's Spanish subjects, Lola de Valence, and the public, largely as a result of the strange atmosphere of the Olympia, linked the two men readily. In 1866, after the Salon jury had rejected two of Manet's works, Émile Zola came to his defense with a series of articles filled with strongly expressed, uncompromising praise. In 1867, he published a book that contains the prediction, "Manet's place is destined to be in the Louvre." This book appears on Zola's desk in Manet's portrait of the writer (1868). In May of that year, the Paris World's Fair opened its doors, and Manet, at his own expense, exhibited 50 of his works in a temporary structure, not far from Gustave Courbet's private exhibition. This was in keeping with Manet's view, expressed years later to his friend Antonin Proust, that his paintings must be seen together in order to be fully understood. Although Manet insisted that a painter be "resolutely of his own time" and that he paint what he sees, he nevertheless produced two important religious works, Dead Christ with Angels and Christ Mocked by the Soldiers, which were shown at the Salons of 1864 and 1865, respectively, and ridiculed. Only Zola could defend the former work on the grounds of its vigorous realism while playing down its alleged lack of piety. It is also true that although Manet despised the academic category of "history painting" he did paint the contemporary Naval Battle between the Kearsarge and the Alabama (1864) and The Execution of Emperor Maximilian of Mexico (1867). The latter is based upon a careful gathering of the facts surrounding the incident and composed, largely, after Francisco Goya's Executions of the Third of May, resulting in a curious amalgam of the particular and the universal. Manet's use of older works of art in elaborating his own major compositions has long been, and continues to be, a problematic subject, since the old view that this procedure was needed to compensate for the artist's own inadequate imagination is rapidly being discarded.

Late Works
Although Manet influenced the Impressionists during the 1860s, during the next decade it appears that it was he who learned from them. His palette became lighter; his stroke, without ever achieving the analytical intensity of Claude Monet's, was shorter and more rapid. Nevertheless, Manet never cultivated plein-airism seriously, and he remained essentially a figure and studio painter. Also, despite his sympathy for most of the Impressionists with whom the public associated him, he never exhibited with them at their series of private exhibitions, which began in 1874. He was particularly close to the female Impressionist Berthe Morisot, whom he met in 1868. Manet was a great influence on Morisot, and she in turn helped him accept some of the tenets of Impressionism to greater effect in his work; she also posed for him numerous times, notably for The Balcony (1869) and Repose (c. 1870). In 1874, Morisot married Manet's younger brother, Eugéne, also a painter. Manet had his first resounding success since The Spanish Singer at the Salon of 1873 with his Bon Bock, which radiates a touch and joviality of expression reminiscent of Frans Hals, in contrast to Manet's usually austere figures. In spite of the popularity of this painting, his success was not to extend to the following season. About this time he met the poet Stéphane Mallarmé, with whom he remained on intimate terms for the remainder of his life. After Manet's rejection by the jury in 1876, Mallarmé took up his defense.

Toward the end of the 1870s, although Manet retained the bright palette and the touch of his Impressionist works, he returned to the figure problems of the early years. The undeniable sense of mystery is found again in several bar scenes, notably the Brasserie Reichshoffen, in which the relationships of the figures recall those of Luncheon on the Grass. Perhaps the apotheosis of his lifelong endeavors is to be found in his last major work, A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (1881-1882). Here, in the expression of the barmaid, is all the starkness of the great confrontations of the 1860s, but bathed in a profusion of colors. While we are drawn to the brilliantly painted accessories, it is the girl, placed at the center before a mirror, which dominates the composition and ultimately demands our attention. Although her reflected image, showing her to be in conversation with a man, is absorbed into the brilliant atmosphere of the setting, she remains enigmatic and aloof. Manet produced two aspects of the same personality, combined the fleeting with the eternal, and, by "misplacing" the reflected image, took a step toward abstraction as a solution to certain lifelong philosophical and technical problems. In 1881, Manet was finally admitted to membership in the Legion of Honor, an award he had long coveted. By then he was seriously ill. Therapy at the sanatorium at Bellevue failed to improve his health, and walking became increasingly difficult for him. In his weakened condition he found it easier to handle pastels than oils, and he produced a great many flower pieces and portraits in that medium. In the spring of 1883, his left leg was amputated, but this did not prolong his life. He died peacefully in Paris on April 30. Manet was short, unusually handsome, and witty. His biographers stress his kindness and unaffected generosity toward his friends. The paradoxical elements in his art are an extension of the man: although a revolutionary in art, he craved official honors; while fashionably dressed, he affected a Parisian slang at odds with his appearance and impeccable manners; and although he espoused the style of life of the conservative classes, his political sentiments were those of the republican liberal.

Major Artwork of this time
Post Impressionism-visible brushstrokes, similar to impressionism, but greater use of arbitrary color and crowded compositions
 * Prominent Artists
 * Paul Cézanne
 * Paul Gauguin
 * Henri Rousseau
 * Georges Seurat
 * Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
 * Vincent van Gogh

The Fauve Movement-short lived art movement known for its intense colors
 * Prominent Artists
 * Henri Matisse
 * André Derain
 * Georges Braque
 * Raul Dufy
 * Georges Rouault
 * Maurice de Vlaminck

Cubism-analytical and synthetic
 * Prominent Artists
 * Georges Braque
 * Pablo Picasso
 * Juan Gris

Surrealism-emphasized emotion, reality skewed, a reaction to the creation of realistic photography
 * Prominent Artists
 * Salvador Dalí
 * René Magritte
 * Max Ernst
 * Joan Miró

title: Art History/19th Century


text:
Visual Basic/Regular Expressions

Sometimes, the built in string functions are not the most convenient or elegant solution to the problem at hand. If the task involves manipulating complicated patterns of characters, regular expressions can be a more effective tool than sequences of simple string functions.

Visual Basic has no built-in support for regular expressions. It can use regular expressions via VBScript Regular Expression Library, though. If you have Internet Explorer installed, you almost certainly have the library. To use it, you must add a reference to the project; on the Project menu choose References and scroll down to Microsoft VBScript Regular Expressions. There might be more than one version; if so, choose the one with the highest version number, unless you have some particular reason to choose an old version, such as compatibility with that version on another machine.

Class outline
Class outline of VBScript.RegExp class:
 * Attributes
 * RegExp.Pattern
 * RegExp.Global
 * RegExp.IgnoreCase
 * RegExp.MultiLine
 * Methods
 * RegExp.Test
 * RegExp.Replace
 * RegExp.Execute

Constructing a regexp
A method of constructing a regular expression object:

A method of constructing a regular expression object that requires that, in Excel, you set a reference to Microsoft VBScript Regular Expressions:

Testing for match
An example of testing for match of a regular expression

An example of testing for match in which the whole string has to match:

Finding matches
An example of iterating through the collection of all the matches of a regular expression in a string:

Finding groups
An example of accessing matched groups:

Replacing
An example of replacing all sequences of dashes with a single dash:

An example of replacing doubled strings with their single version with the use of two sorts of backreference:

Splitting
There is no direct support for splitting by a regular expression, but there is a workaround. If you can assume that the split string does not contain Chr(1), you can first replace the separator regular expression with Chr(1), and then use the non-regexp split function on Chr(1).

An example of splitting by a non-zero number of spaces:

Example application
For many beginning programmers, the ideas behind regular expressions are so foreign that it might be worth presenting a simple example before discussing the theory. The example given is in fact the beginning of an application for scraping web pages to retrieve source code so it is relevant too.

Imagine that you need to parse a web page to pick up the major headings and the content to which the headings refer. Such a web page might look like this:

RegEx Example RegEx Example aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa Level Two in RegEx Example bbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbbb Level One cccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc Level Two in Level One dddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd

What we want to do is extract the text in the two h1 elements and all the text between the first h1 and the second h1 as well as all the text between the second h1 element and the end of body tag.

We could store the results in an array that looks like this:

The \n character sequences represent end of line marks. These could be any of carriage return, line feed or carriage return followed by line feed.

A regular expression specifies patterns of characters to be matched and the result of the matching process is a list of sub-strings that match either the whole expression or some parts of the expression. An expression that does what we want might look like this: " \s*([\s\S]*?)\s* " Actually it doesn't quite do it but it is close. The result is a collection of matches in an object of type MatchCollection: Item 0 .FirstIndex:89 .Length:24 .Value:" RegEx Example " .SubMatches: .Count:1 Item 0 "RegEx Example" Item 1 .FirstIndex:265 .Length:20 .Value:" Level One " .SubMatches: .Count:1 Item 0 "Level One" The name of the item is in the SubMatches of each item but where is the text? To get that we can simply use Mid$ together with the FirstIndex and Length properties of each match to find the start and finish of the text between the end of one h1 and the start of the next. However, as usual there is a problem. The last match is not terminated by another h1 element but by the end of body tag. So our last match will include that tag and all the stuff that can follow the body. The solution is to use another expression to get just the body first:

" ([\s\S]*) "

This returns just one match with on sub-match and the sub match is everything between the body and end body tags. Now we can use our original expression on this new string and it should work.

Now that you have seen an example here is a detailed description of the expressions used and the property settings of the Regular Expression object used.

A regular expression is simply a string of characters but some characters have special meanings. In this expression:

" ([\s\S]*) "

there are three principal parts:

" " "([\s\S]*)" " "

Each of these parts is also a regular expression. The first and last are simple strings with no meaning beyond the identity of the characters, they will match any string that includes them as a substring.

The middle expression is rather more obscure. It matches absolutely any sequence of characters and also captures what it matches. Capturing is indicated by surrounding the expression with round brackets. The text that is captured is returned as one of the SubMatches of a match.

In the case studies section of this book there is a simple application that you can use to test regular expressions: Regular Expression Tester.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Visual Basic/Regular Expressions


text:
User talk:Juliusross

Actually, I just found out that my proof was not correct. I have just updated it (Arclength of parametric curves). Fsateler 17:59, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Response to my question about Costa Rica
It turns out the edits at issue were in Wikitravel. Thanks for responding. Tom Croke Frog One 21:39, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

The Calculus
"The Calculus" is also the title of a real textbook. I used to see more titles with "The" but nowadays the article is often left out. --M1ss1ontom a rs2k4 (T 20:40, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Juliusross


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User talk:Kmarinas86

Cyclic Multiverse Theory is on Votes for deletion
Hello Kmarinas86, welcome to Wikibooks! I suggest that you go read What is Wikibooks and learn what this project is about. Then you can become a contributor.

I noticed that your first contribution, Cyclic Multiverse Theory, is now on Votes for deletion. It seems that it had faced deletion on Wikipedia, and some Wikipedia users had unfortunately suggested moving the page to Wikibooks. We have rules against original research, which is what your contribution seems to be.

There is almost certainly some wiki that can take original-research contributions. I wonder if Wikinfo would take it. They are similar to Wikipedia, but have several significant differences. I do not contribute to Wikinfo (though I read it sometimes) so I am not immediately sure if it is an appropriate place. --Kernigh 17:29, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Sorry for putting this on the wrong page --Kernigh 17:58, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:La Méditation Sensuelle.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:La Méditation Sensuelle.gif. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:09, 30 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Please note that Commons rules apply only on Commons. We have our own rules about what images are allowed; this one seems to be a copyright violation, and has been listed as such. Please check the rest of your images and ensure that they all have appropriate license information. You may want to try uploading the images to Commons if you think their rules will allow it.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:09, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

Sensual Meditation has been nominated for deletion
Please comment and vote at WB:VFD.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:29, 11 September 2007 (UTC)
 * It was deleted without discussion.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:42, 11 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kmarinas86


text:
Visual Basic/Strings

Visual Basic has a traditional set of built in string operations. Unlike many languages Visual Basic strings are always Unicode so they can hold any character. They are also always dynamically allocated and are of almost unlimited length (theoretically up to about 231 characters, about 2000 million).

Note that Unicode uses more than one byte to represent each character. As far as VB is concerned Unicode characters are two bytes which gives 216 or 65536 possible values. This is enough even for Chinese, Japanese and Korean character sets (CJK). In fact Unicode defines 17 planes each of which has room for 216 code points but VB (and Windows) uses only the Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP).

See What Are VB Strings? for a concise explanation of the internal workings of Visual Basic Classic strings.

Built In String Functions
Visual Basic provides a reasonable set of traditional functions for manipulating and searching strings. These functions are usually all that is needed for most programs that are not primarily concerned with text processing.

Regular Expressions
A regular expression is a character string in which some characters have special meanings. Such a string can be used to search for substrings in another string in much more sophisticated ways than the built in InStr function.

For example this expression:

"(dog|cat)"

will match either 'dog' or 'cat'.

Visual Basic has no built in regular expression functions, but these are available in the VBScript regular expression library. If your program does a lot of text processing regular expressions are definitely worth learning even though they may seem intimidating at the start. In practice most programmers find that the more arcane expressions are rarely used and the same idioms are recycled over and over so there is really not as much to learn as it at first appears.

title: Visual Basic/Strings


text:
Folkstyle Wrestling/Basic Offensive Moves From Referee's Position

 * Breakdowns
 * Tight waist, Far Ankle
 * Chop The Arm, Grab The Ankle.
 * Block The Knee
 * Bump
 * Rides
 * Wrist ride
 * Tilts
 * Arm chop tilt
 * Stacks
 * Sun devil


text:
Folkstyle Wrestling/Basic Defensive Moves From Referee's Position

 * Escapes
 * Inside Stand Up
 * Sit Out, Turn In
 * Reversals
 * Switch (The Most Effective Move for 2 Points)
 * Rolls
 * Side Roll
 * Hook and Roll(From Half Nelson)


text:
Folkstyle Wrestling/Advanced Offensive Moves From Neutral

 * Takedowns
 * Ankle pick
 * Near ankle trip
 * Fireman's carry
 * Lateral drop
 * Duck under
 * Ankle sweep
 * Super duck
 * Setups
 * Arm Drag
 * Post
 * Counter-Attack
 * Tie-Ups
 * 2 on 1 or Russian tie
 * Under, Over
 * Single and Double Underhooks
 * Single and Double Overhooks

Fireman's carry: Begin by tying up with inside control. Next you will need to do a draw-in step (take a step backwards to draw the opponent in to you). As they step in towards you, drop to your left knee while holding on to the inside control with your left hand(DO NOT LET GO). Take your right arm and wrap it around the opponents right leg. Drop your left shoulder to the mat and sit through to a headlock.


text:
Talk:C Programming/Language overloading and extensions

not extensions
Lots of this stuff made it into the 1999 C standard or is available via the optimizer. The standard C way to do a rotation is to use shifting, masking, and oring. A good compiler, like gcc, will use a rotate instruction for this. Variable length array stuff is in the 1999 standard. AlbertCahalan 18:54, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes. Should we spell out exactly how to do that here, or just link to other sections of this book for more details? C Programming/Further math discusses the rotate instruction. Talk:C Programming/Weaknesses of C briefly mentions the "variable length array" syntax and the "flexible array member" syntax. Where in this book is the right place to fully explain how to use them? --DavidCary (talk) 15:44, 3 November 2008 (UTC)


text:
Folkstyle Wrestling/Advanced Offensive Moves From Referee's Position

 * Top
 * Tilts
 * Cheap Tilt
 * Ball and Chain Tilt
 * tight waist tilt
 * 2 on 1 tilt
 * Stacks
 * Other
 * Ball and Chain
 * 1/4,3/4,Power, Nelson
 * Riding
 * Legs
 * Western
 * Arm Bars

Tight waist tilt-get a tight waist and drive your opponent at a 11 o'clock angle(if you have the tight waist in your right hand)while driving pull the waist and secure an arm with your other arm and get into a tight near fall position.not good for pinning but great for getting quick easy points

Riding Legs

The key to riding legs is constantly repositioning your hips! When you ride legs, or "throw legs in" you need to have excellent balance. This will be explained starting from referees position, on the left side.

1- Take your left leg and kick it between your opponents left arm and left leg, then wrap it around his left leg.

2-Using your Right Leg, do what is called a "Dig Shin." where you put your foot under your opponents shin and raise itup to keep your opponent off balance. It also acts like an emergency brake if you get thrown.

3- ALWAYS GRAB HOLD OF SOMETHING WHEN RIDING LEGS! GRAB HIS ARM OR LEG, THROW IN A HALF, ANYTHING!

Now there are a couple moves you can work from here...

One of the best/hardest moves in wrestling. With your left leg in, use your left arm to hook his right arm. Then grab his right wrist with your right hand. Lift the arm just high enough to where you can duck your head under it, and pop it up on the other side of the arm. Release his arm with your left arm but stay on th wrist with your right. Arch back SLOWLY, while SLOWLY reaching your left arm towards his head. Once you have his head and he is on his back, let go of his wrist and connect both hands around his head. Pull his head toward you and arch into him with your hips, HARD. Stand by for the win.
 * Guillotine

A less complicated move than the guillotine. With the left leg in, reach your left arm to the inside of his right leg. Connect your right hand behind the leg with your left. Then arch backwards and roll him onto his back. Arch into him as hard as possible.
 * Banana Split

This move is dangerous in the higher weights, so let the little guys stick to this one (103-140) With the left leg in, reach with your RIGHT arm inside of the right leg. Connect with your left hand in FRONT of the right leg. Roll to his back. If you lock this up correctly, and hang on tight, there is practically no way to lose, unless you are losing by 4 points and you run out of time for the pin.
 * Inverted Spladle

This is a pretty basic move. all you have to do is get both of your legs in then get in a half and hook it up with your other hand then begin powering them over. This is a simple move where you throw the leg that is not hooked to the other side of the opponents body like your leg is the arm of a helicopter then when the opponent falls to his hip cross face him to the mat.(swing your leg as hard as possible).
 * Power Half
 * Helicopter


text:
Cookbook:Jackfruit

The jackfruit is a very large fruit from trees native to south-western India and Sri Lanka. Jackfruit can be up to 90cm long, 50cm in diameter, and weight up to 36kg. The taste is similar to that of pineapple, but milder and less juicy. It is popular throughout South Asia and South-east Asia.

Jackfruit can be eaten as a fresh fruit, both ripe and unripe. It is also often combined into cooked meals, both sweet and savoury. Jackfruit can be bought in cans, and as dried pieces.

Young fruit
The young fruit is called Polos in Sri Lanka. It is a dish with spices to replace meat curries in Sri Lankan cuisine. The skin of unripe (young) jack fruit must be pared first and discarded and then the whole fruit can be chopped into edible portions and cooked to be eaten. The raw young fruit is not edible. Young jackfruit has a mild flavour and distinctive poultry like texture. The cuisines of India,Nepal,Bangladesh,Sri Lanka,Indonesia,Cambodia, and Vietnam use cooked young jackfruit. In Indonesia, young jackfruit is eaten as gudeg. In many cultures, jackfruit is boiled and used in curries as a staple food.

Ripe fruit
Ripe jackfruit is naturally sweet with subtle flavouring. It can be used to make a variety of dishes including custards, cakes, halo-halo and more. Ripe jackruit arils are sometimes seeded, fried and sold as jackfruit chips.

title: Cookbook:Jackfruit


text:
Talk:Gmail

Move this book
Shouldnt this book be moved to Google_Services_And_Products/Gmail, its more organized --Ncusa367 (talk) 18:11, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I have to respectfully disagree with your oppinion that the single page at Google_Services_And_Products/Gmail is more organised than Gmail. I suggest that we merge the content to this book and link here. We could place this book under Google_Services_And_Products but, frankly, I don't see the need for it.
 * An argument could be made to place it under a book on free email services. Since there are multiple ways of categorising it, but it doesn't depend on any other modules, I think it's better to keep things seperate and link books on related topics. --Swift (talk) 18:42, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Delete the old name convention redirects
The argument against is that there is no real need and one shouldn't delete pages that might have links pointing to them from outside Wikibooks. The argument for is that deleting these helps clear up the Special:AllPages indices and this wikibook is hardly such a big player that anyone will have links dating back a couple of years to the pages here. Anyone against? --Swift (talk) 19:06, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

For Swift Use Of Gmail Account, Dial Gmail Phone Number
Gmail is free web mail assistance started by Google. Since 2004 it has brought an advanced change in the email market. For any assistance regarding the use of Gmail dial Gmail Phone Number. To use the Gmail accounts swiftly without any problem dial our number. The experts will help you in resolving any type of issue related to the account. Please do not wait to reach us at any time as we work 24/7 to support you swiftly.

title: Talk:Gmail


text:
User:Jaime.rincon

f(x)=\sqrt[2]{1-x^2}

title: User:Jaime.rincon


text:
Canadian Criminal Procedure and Practice

This book is a reference for practitioners, police officers, and law students who need a convenient way to look up legislation, principles, and case law. The reader is assumed to already have a knowledge of criminal law.

There is no guarantee whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the information provided in this or any other companion text. Nothing here should be taken as legal advice.

For recent developments on these series of books see News on Canadian Criminal Law series.

'''CAUTION: this wikibook ceased active development in 2012. A more up-to-date branch of this text can be found at http://criminalnotebook.ca.'''

Contents

 * Introduction

Police Investigation

 * Arrest and Detention
 * Investigative Detention
 * Warrant Arrests
 * Warrantless Arrests
 * Arrest Procedure
 * Right to Counsel
 * Exclusion of Evidence
 * Waiver of Charter Rights
 * Search and Seizure
 * Rights against Search and Seizure
 * Reasonable Expectation of Privacy
 * Warrantless Searches
 * Search by Consent
 * Search Incident to Detention
 * Search Incident to Arrest
 * Search for Abandoned Property
 * Search in Plain View
 * Exigent Circumstances
 * Warrant Searches
 * Execution of Warrants
 * Types of Search Warrants
 * Bodily Samples
 * Wiretaps
 * CDSA Warrants
 * Foreign Warrants
 * Seizure of Property
 * Exclusion of Evidence
 * Waiver of Charter Rights

Counsel

 * Role of the Crown and Defence
 * Disclosure
 * Third Party Records
 * Demand for Particulars
 * Production Orders

Court Proceedings

 * Jurisdiction
 * Types of Offences
 * Election
 * Informations and Indictments
 * Charges
 * Pleas
 * Pre-Trial and Trial Motions
 * Case Management Hearings
 * Applications and Motions Procedure
 * Adjournments
 * Public and Media Restrictions
 * Change of Venue
 * Withdraw and Dismissal of Charges
 * Stay of Proceedings
 * Delay of Proceedings
 * Peace Bonds
 * Mandamus, Certiorari, and Prohibition
 * Habeas Corpus
 * Challenging Legislation
 * Costs
 * Preliminary Inquiry
 * Trials
 * Trial Process
 * Representation at Trial
 * Accused at Trial
 * Opening and Closing Submissions
 * Calling of Witnesses
 * Examinations
 * Role of Trial Judge
 * Juries
 * Selection
 * Instructions
 * Weighing Evidence
 * Verdicts
 * Appeals
 * Indictable Offence Appeals
 * Summary Offence Appeals
 * Standard of Review
 * Mental Illness
 * Fitness to Stand Trial
 * Not Criminally Responsible

Appendix

 * Readings
 * Cases
 * Search Warrant Chart
 * Motions Chart
 * Re-Elections Table
 * Model Examinations


text:
Template:Expand

Places works in Category:Requests for expansion

title: Template:Expand


text:
User:Srb

I teach an online version of Introduction to Sociology and would be interested in eventually using the Intro to Soc Wikibooks text in my course.

title: User:Srb


text:
Cookbook:Fry Bread I

| Native American Cuisine

Fry bread is a traditional Native American flatbread usually made on an open fire or a barbecue, or fried in a pan of hot oil over a stove top. This recipe uses modern techniques and tools.

Fry bread is best served hot, topped with melted margarine, honey or agave nectar, berry jam, or cinnamon and sugar.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups flour
 * 2 tsp baking powder
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 2 Tbsp shortening
 * ⅔ cup hot water

Procedure

 * 1) Combine flour, baking powder, and salt in a bowl.
 * 2) Use a pastry blender (or two butter knives) to cut the shortening into the flour.
 * 3) Add the hot water, and mix until the water is incorporated and you get a dough.
 * 4) Turn out the dough on a lightly floured board. Knead the dough until it is soft and smooth.
 * 5) Wrap the dough in plastic, and let the dough rest for 30 minutes.
 * 6) Divide the dough into 6 pieces, roll each into a ball, and roll each into a flat disk with a rolling pin.
 * 7) Brush one side of each disk with melted margarine and place on a barbecue over a 3 Mississippi fire.
 * 8) Brush the opposing side of the bread with margarine and flip the bread on the barbecue.
 * 9) Cook until both sides are golden brown. Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can substitute either ¼ cup plain yogurt, or a ¼ cup soured milk as a leavening agent instead of baking powder. If you do, add 2 hours to the rest time for the dough, and leave the dough somewhere warm. You can optionally include the baking powder as well to get a very puffy version of frybread. If using yogurt or soured milk for leavening, use ½ cup instead of ⅓ cup water.
 * You can use mayonnaise in place of shortening for a crispy, crunchier texture.
 * You can also fry the dough in hot oil over a stovetop. The dough cooks rapidly and will brown in about 12 seconds and must be turned over to allow the opposite side to brown, then be removed from the oil and placed sideways into a colander or large bowl lined with paper towels to allow the oil to drain off the finished product

title: Cookbook:Fry Bread I


text:
Using GNOME/Further reading

Further reading and documentation
 * GNOME wiki for users.

title: Using GNOME/Further reading


text:
User talk:Pandemix~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 21:30, 22 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Please also check out the Cookbook policy page and the Cookbook talk pages.
 * Cookbook pages are have a pseudo-namespace of "Cookbook:" prefixed to all pages, and titles are in Title Case.

Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
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title: User talk:Pandemix~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Vanilla Crisps

A vanilla crisp is a tasty cookie that is much like a sugar cookie, but takes less time to make.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup butter or margarine
 * ½ cup shortening
 * ⅔ cup white granulated sugar
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 2 teaspoons vanilla
 * 2 eggs
 * 2 ½ cups all-purpose flour

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 375°F.
 * 2) Cream butter, shortening and sugar together.
 * 3) Add salt and vanilla.
 * 4) One at a time, beat eggs into mixture.
 * 5) Stir flour into mixture to make dough.
 * 6) Roll dough into small balls and press into circular shapes on ungreased cookie sheet.
 * 7) Bake for 8–10 minutes.
 * 8) Remove immediately from pan and allow to cool.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Unlike sugar cookies, there is no need to chill before baking.
 * To give an extra taste, add 1 teaspoon of almond extract.

title: Cookbook:Vanilla Crisps


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Mass Media/Theories

=Noise= There are three types of noise, which garble a communication: semantic (i.e., speech impediments or misspelling), environmental (i.e., background noise), and tech (i.e., static).

There are also three types of filters, which determine how a communication gets interpreted by the receiver:

info (i.e., the message is in a language unknown to the receiver), physical (i.e., the receiver is fatigued), or psych (i.e., the receiver is prejudiced in some way toward the communicator or message).

= Hypodermic Model=

The hypodermic needle model is a model of communications. It is also referred to as the "magic bullet", or the "profound effects" theory. Essentially this model holds that an intended message is directly received and wholly accepted by the receiver.

The most famous example of what would be considered the result of the Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Model was the 1938 broadcast of The War of the Worlds and the subsequent reaction of the mass American audience that was tuned in.

The phrasing "Hypodermic needle" is meant to give a mental image of a message's direct infusion into an individual. This view tends to ignore things like interpretation and for this fatal flaw it is clearly less than perfect.

A more modern version is the Two-step flow of communication theory (or "minimal effects" theory). The two-step flow model was propouded by Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz. Unlike the hypodermic needle model which considers mass media effects to be direct, the two-step flow model stresses human agency. (One way of looking at it is that media doesn't tell us what to think, it tells us what to think about.)

According to Lazarsfeld and Katz, mass media information is channeled to the "masses" through opinion leadership. The people with most access to media, and having a more literate understanding of media content, explain and diffuse the content to others.

Two-step flow model laid the foundation for diffusion of innovations.

=Cultivation Theory=

Developed by Professor George Gerbner, the Cultivation Theory focuses on the effects of long term repetition of messages. This view of media's influence on culture states that it occurs over time through a distortion of reality. Cultivation Theory does not rely on extensive consumption of media, but that the media cultivates cultural change over time throughout society.

The effects of cultivation of the media are exacerbated by an homogenized media landscape, where media outlets, through financial or other pressures, become similar or uniform. If all people receive a similar media message, portraying uniform values, then audiences will more quickly perceive those representations to be accurate.

=Elitist and Populist Media=

Broadly speaking, there are two views of media's place in society. One is Elitist (media should educate), and the other is Populist (media should be whatever the people want).

Marshall McLuhan was a famous media and communication theorist. He coined the term "global village" while discussing his belief that the effect of the television would be to unite the world. He also believed that print media changes the way you think, and that the written word could make language "official."

title: Mass Media/Theories


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Bartending/Mixers/Old Oxford University punch

 * 1 cup of Brown Sugar
 * 2 qt. of Boiling Spring Water
 * 1 pt. Lemon Juice
 * 1 750-ml. bottle of Cognac
 * 1 750-ml. bottle of Demerara Rum


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User talk:The bellman/Cookbook

Cookbook

User talk:The bellman/Cookbook is a great dish to serve when you only have a frog, a banana, and some thyme.

Ingredients

 * frog
 * banana
 * thyme

Procedure

 * 1) Separate the frog meat and discard the rest.
 * 2) Stir-fry the frog with the thyme.
 * 3) Slice the banana.
 * 4) Serve the frog on top of the banana slices.

Variation

 * Bake the frog whole.
 * Cut the banana lengthwise, as for a banana split, then place frog meat down the middle.

title: User talk:The bellman/Cookbook


text: Template:Hungarian

title: Template:Hungarian


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Radio Electronics

2. Identify the value of resistors by the color code
From Wikipedia

The value of a resistor is marked on the device itself by using bands of colors.

band A is first significant figure of resistance value in ohms band B is the second significant figure band C is the decimal multiplier band D if present, indicates tolerance of value in percent (no color means 20%)

Resistors manufactured for military use may also include a fifth band which indicates component failure rate (reliability); refer to MIL-STD-199 for further details.

The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:

A useful mnemonic for remembering the first ten color codes is "Better Be Right Or Your Great Big Venture Goes West", where the first letter matches the first letter of the color code, by order of increasing magnitude.

Resistors are measured in ohms, so yellow violet red brown means 4,700 ohms, 1% tolerance.

3. Demonstrate proper soldering techniques
Soldering is a way of semi-permanently connecting electronic components together or to a circuit board. It involves heating the solder to its melting point and letting it re-solidify on the components themselves. The heating is done with a soldering iron.

Begin by turning on the soldering iron and waiting until it is hot enough to melt solder. You can test this by touching some solder to the tip of the iron. Clean the tip of the soldering iron by wiping it on a wet sponge. This may be repeated often when soldering a lot of joints.

The connection should also be bright and clean before attempting to solder them. They are often clean enough and require no attention, but if you have difficulty getting the solder to stick, clean them with some solder flux.

Place the tip of the iron on the components you wish to connect and heat them both. Do this while simultaneously touching the solder to the components - do not touch the solder to the iron. The goal is to heat the components to the point where they are able to melt the solder themselves. Otherwise you will end up with a "cold" solder joint which will fail sometime in the future.

If soldering wires, twist them together first. Although solder has a small amount of mechanical strength, it is not sufficient to withstand very much stress. Therefore, it should not be relied upon for anything other than making an electrical connection. If the joint is stressed, it can easily fail.

And always remember - solder is HOT, as are freshly soldered electronic components. Failure to be careful may result in a nasty burn.

== 4. Explain the use and operation of various important components in electronics such as resistors, variable capacitors, fixed capacitors, coils, transistors, integrated circuits, diodes, and transformers. ==

Resistor
The function of a resistor is to limit the current in a circuit. Resistors can also be combined into "voltage divider" circuits by placing them in series.

Fixed Capacitor
A fixed capacitor can be used to hold a charge. They are often used to smooth noise out of power supply circuits by placing them in parallel with the power supply. A capacitor cannot pass DC if it is placed in series. This is because the impedance of a capacitor varies with the frequency, and at zero Hertz (DC), its impedance is infinite. Large capacitors have less impendence at a given frequency than a small capacitor, and because of this, capacitors can be used in "frequency selective circuits" such as filters.

The value of a capacitor is measured in farads, or more commonly, in microfarads. A microfarad is a millionth of a farad. Large capacitors have tens or hundreds of microfarads. Smaller capacitors are measured in picofarads (a picofarad is a millionth of a microfarad, or a trillionth of a farad). The microfarad is often abbreviated as μF (sometimes uF) and picofarads are often abbreviated as pF.

Variable Capacitor
A variable capacitor can be used in a frequency selective circuit where the user has control over the selected frequency. An example of this would be in a radio or television tuner.

Coil
A coil is also known as an inductor. The impedance through a coil is also frequency dependent, but in the opposite way as in a capacitor. At DC, an inductor has nearly zero impedance, and the impedance increases with higher frequencies. Inductors are often used in conjunction with capacitors in frequency selective applications. They are also often used for filtering out noise from power supplies. Since a power supply is supposed to provide a constant voltage (0 Hertz), an inductor can be placed in series between the supply and the load. The inductor will absorb the higher frequencies so that the load does not see them.

Inductors are measured in henries, which is abbreviated as H.

Transistor
A transistor has two basic applications - it can be used as a switch and it can be used as an amplifier.

There are two basic types of transistors, bipolar and field effect.

A bipolar transistor has three terminals: the base, the collector, and the emitter. Current flowing from the base to the emitter controls the amount that can flow from the collector to the emitter. If no current flows from the base to the emitter, no current can flow from the collector to the emitter. This is how a bipolar transistor can be used as a switch.

There are two types of bipolar transistors: NPN and PNP. In an NPN bipolar transistor, the current flowing from the collector to the emitter is proportional to the current flowing from the base to the emitter. A small signal can be amplified by injecting it into the base of the transistor. In this case, the current from the collector to the emitter is an amplified version of the current flowing from the base to the emitter.

A PNP bipolar transistor works the same way as an NPN except that the direction of current flow is reversed - that is, it flows from the emitter to the base, and from the emitter to the collector. In the case of a PNP transistor, it helps to think about "pulling" current out of the base rather than "injecting" it into the base.

A field effect transistor is similar to a bipolar transistor. There are two types of field effect transistors (FETs): N-channel, and P-channel. They too have three terminals: the gate, the drain, and the source. If a voltage is applied between the gate and the source of an N-channel FET, the resistance from the drain to the source is reduced. If enough voltage is applied between the gate and the source, current can flow from the drain to the source unimpeded. If no voltage is applied, no current can flow from the drain to the source.

In a P-channel FET, the voltages and currents are reversed - that is, when the gate is more negative than the source, current can flow from the source to the drain.

Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit - or "chip" is a collection of transistors and resistors etched into a silicon (or other semiconducting material) chip. Very complicated circuits can be built by combining many transistors onto a single chip. The number of transistors that can be put on a single chip is well over a million.

Diode
A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction, but not in the other. This can be used in constructing an AC to DC converter, or for protecting a circuit from outside voltage sources.

Transformer
A transformer consists of one or more coils located within close proximity to one another. When current passes through a coil, it generates a magnetic field. When the current varies, so does the magnetic field. When a varying magnetic field is set up near a coil, a current is induced in that coil. By placing two coils in a common magnetic field and injecting a varying current into one (the primary), a proportional current is induced in the other (the secondary). The ratio depends on how many turns each coil has. If a transformer boosts the voltage, it will reduce the current, and if it reduces the voltage, it will increase the current. Thus, the power through the transformer is preserved (other than a loss). Electric companies transmit power by passing the electricity through step up transformers so that less current (but very high voltage) can be transmitted over long distances. Power loss in a transmission line equals the current squared times the resistance, so reducing the current by stepping up the voltage saves a lot of energy. The voltage is stepped down again before it is delivered to a customer.

Transformers are also used to isolate two circuits so that only AC passes between them and their DC power supplies do not interfere with one another.

5. Know and understand Ohm's Law.
If a voltage is applied across a resistor, current will flow through it. Ohm's law describes the relationship between this current, voltage, and resistance. It can be written as

$$ V = I R $$

Where v is voltage (measured in volts), i is current (measured in amps), and r is resistance (measured in ohms). The equation can also be written as

$$ I = \frac{V}{R} $$

and

$$ R = \frac{V}{I}$$

Basically, it means that if the voltage is held constant and the resistance is decreased, the current is increased. Or if the resistance is held constant and the current is increased, the voltage will also increase.

Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuits usually have some means of indicating where "pin 1" is on the device. Once pin 1 is located, the remaining pins are numbered going counter-clockwise around the device. On a DIP, pin one is located to the left of a notch milled into the top of the IC as shown below:

Transistors
Transistors come in a variety of packages. To determine which pin is the base, collector, and emitter (bipolar transistors) or gate, source, and drain (field effect transistors), refer to the device's data sheet.

Diodes
A diode is usually marked with a stripe near its cathode. Current flows from the anode to the cathode, but not from the cathode to the anode. The stripe can be interpreted to look like a gate that won't let the current enter.

Capacitors
Only polarized capacitors are "pinned," and care must be taken to not plug them in backwards. If an electrolytic capacitor is charged in reverse, it can explode. Polarized capacitors are often marked with a stripe showing which terminal is the cathode (negative terminal). Sometimes the stripe will connect the cathode and the anode, but it will have arrows or minus signs on the stripe indicating direction of current flow (anode to cathode). In a schematic, the curved plate of the capacitor represents the cathode and the straight plate represents the anode.

In the picture above, the cathode of the black capacitor is on the right. The cathode of the blue capacitor is toward the bottom.

7. What is meant by a parallel and a series circuit?
A series circuit is a circuit in which the components are placed end-to-end. A parallel circuit connects both terminals of two components together.

In a series circuit the current flowing through both devices will be equal, but the voltage across them will be different if the resistances are different.

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across the two elements will be identical, but the current divides between them. Some current goes through the top, the rest goes through the bottom.

8. From a kit or from scratch make two of the following
Good places in the United States to find components for the projects detailed below include Waytek, Radio Shack, Mouser, Online Components, Digikey, Kionix (sensors) and Jameco. All of these suppliers will sell to hobbyists in small quantities.

Another option for building these is to buy a kit. You can buy kits for individual projects or you can buy general purpose kits that will let you experiment with many different circuits. Check with Radio Shack to see their current offerings. Electronics kits can also be found at toy stores, especially those that emphasize "learning" toys. Such suppliers include Toys R Us and Imaginarium, both of which offer kits over the Internet via Amazon.

Photocell Guard or Counter
The Photocell Guard circuit is a photo sensitive switch that will either turn on or turn off some device. In modern terminology, it would be called a photo-sensitive switch. A Photocell Counter is a circuit which counts the number of times a photo-sensitive switch is activated. In modern terminology, it would be called a Photo-sensitive Counting Circuit.

In this circuit, R2 is a cadmium sulfide cell (CdS cell) - that is, a light-sensitive resistor. When exposed to light, the resistance of the cell decreases. In darkness, the cell has a higher resistance. R1 and R2 together form a voltage divider circuit. As the light striking CdS cell gets brighter, the voltage at the common terminal decreases. As it gets darker, the voltage increases. This voltage is applied to the positive terminal of a comparator IC. The negative terminal of the comparator is connected to the wiper of a potentiometer which forms a second voltage divider circuit. This voltage can be adjusted by tuning the potentiometer. When the light striking the CdS cell gets bright enough, it causes the voltage on the positive terminal to fall below the voltage on the negative terminal. This causes the output of the comparator to go to zero volts, thus lighting the LED. When it gets dark again, the LED will turn off.

The action of the LED can be reversed (on when dark, off when bright) by reversing the positions of R1 and R2 (the CdS cell), by swapping the positive and negative terminals of the comparator, or by connecting the LED through a resistor to ground instead of connecting it through a resistor to power.

Siren
The circuit presented here looks intimidating at first glance, but as with most things, when it is broken down into smaller parts, it's a lot easier to understand.

The first thing to note is that this circuit requires a bipolar power supply - that is, a power supply that can provide both positive and negative voltages. This is accomplished here with two batteries. The circuit was tested with voltages ranging from ±4.5V to ±12V, so a pair of 9 volt batteries works pretty well.

Moving to the right we come to an op-amp configured as a low-frequency oscillator. This oscillator, in conjunction with the transistor Q1 controls the frequency of a second oscillator (denoted as the "Audio Frequency Oscillator" in the schematic.

The frequency of the low-frequency oscillator is set by the capacitor C1, and the resistors R1, R2, and R3. When the output of the amplifier (at pin 1) is high, C1 charges through R1. When the voltage across C1 exceeds the threshold voltage on the positive terminal of the op-amp, the output will go low. When this happens, C1 will then discharge though R1 and the voltage at the positive terminal will change to a negative value. When C1's voltage drops below the threshold voltage at the positive terminal, the output switches high again, and the cycle repeats. The threshold voltage at the positive terminal is set by the ratio of R1 and R2, as well as by the output of the amplifier:

$$V_{thresh} = \frac{R1}{R1+R2} \times V_{out}$$

If the voltage at the output of the low-frequency oscillator is observed on an oscilloscope, it will be shown as a square wave, oscillating between the two battery supply voltages. If this value were used to drive the base of Q1, the transistor would switch suddenly between full-on and full-off, and this would cause the audio oscillator's frequency to jump suddenly between two values (this makes it sound more like a cell phone ringing than a siren - try it!). To get a siren-effect, we need a smooth frequency transition, so the base of the transistor is driven with the voltage on the capacitor C1 which is a triangle wave.

The next portion of the circuit to consider is the audio frequency oscillator. This circuit is almost exactly the same as the low-frequency oscillator, except that the RC values have been changed so that it oscillates at a higher frequency, and the voltage divider circuit that sets the threshold voltage at the positive terminal (pin 5) is modified. The lower half of this voltage divider includes a transistor. As the transistor turns on, the resistance of the lower half of the voltage-divider is changed, and this will change the frequency of the audio oscillator. Thus, the pitch of the audio will increase and decrease at a rate set by the low-frequency oscillator.

Finally, we come to the power amplifier. This is a simple unity-follower op-amp, and its purpose is to drive the speaker and to isolate it from the audio oscillator. If the speaker were connected directly to the output of the audio oscillator, it would change the characteristics of that section, and we would not hear the siren effect.

Simple voltmeter
This link has some material on using an LM3914 as a Bar Graph Meter.

Here's another link for building a Digital Dashboard Meter.

There are several analog to digital converter (including the MAX136, MAX1496, and ICL7107) chips that will directly drive any of several 7-segment LED displays. A web search of these part numbers (or search for "3.5 digit LED" for other devices) should turn up a data sheet, and most data sheets have "typical application" sections showing how these can be connected.

Simple DC power supply

In this DC power supply, household current (120VAC, 60 Hz in North America) is applied to the power cord on the left. The fuse protects the circuit and should not be omitted. The voltage is then stepped down by the power transformer. Power transformers are available at Radio Shack and at hardware stores (see the doorbell section). Try to select a transformer that will output a voltage close to but a little higher than the desired DC output voltage.

Once the voltage has been stepped down, it goes through a network of diodes set up as a "full bridge rectifier." The diodes direct current to the top of the network and allow it to return through the bottom, regardless of whether the input voltage is positive or negative.

The capacitor then smooths out the voltage. Without the capacitor, the output from the diode network would continually drop to zero, and then rise back up to its peak value. The capacitor averages this out, giving a smoothed DC value.

The next element in the circuit is an LM7805, a 5-volt linear voltage regulator. This can be replaced with similar devices to get different voltages (i.e., an LM7812 for 12V, an LM7809 for 9 volts, etc.). The LM7805 will output a steady 5 Volts as long as the input voltage is sufficiently high. The transformer should be chosen such that the voltage input to the regulator is not much higher than 5V (6V or 7V would be good). Excess voltage is dropped across the device's input and output terminals, and is converted to heat. The greater this voltage, the more heat the device has to dissipate. Since it can only dissipate a finite amount of heat, this in effect limits the amount of power this circuit can provide. Attaching a heat sink to the LM7805 will also help.

The circuit should be mounted in some sort of enclosure to protect the 120VAC input power terminals. The power terminals themselves should be wrapped in electrical tape or in heat shrink tubing for additional protection.

Simple transistor radio
Although this FM Radio Project uses only one transistor, it is still fairly complicated. It might be better to buy a kit for this one. Check with Radio Shack.

9. Draw from memory, using proper symbols, the complete wiring diagram of the devices constructed in requirement 8.
The easiest way to commit these diagrams to memory is by understanding them. The photocell and power supplies are the easiest to understand, and if both are made, the power supply can be used to power the photocell circuit. The siren and radio circuits are somewhat more complicated, but they are also more rewarding.

10. List ten ways electronics are used in everyday life.

 * 1) Computers - for work and for play.
 * 2) Entertainment - Televisions, stereos, video games, toys, etc.
 * 3) Medical - Patient monitoring, diagnostics (MRI, CT-scans, X-rays), etc.
 * 4) Industrial - motor controllers, robotics, etc.
 * 5) Appliances - microwaves, timers, ovens, refrigerators, washing machines, dryers.
 * 6) Radio Communications - police and fire radios, CB radios, fleet radios.
 * 7) Telecommunications - telephones, fax machines.
 * 8) Fire Safety - fire alarms, smoke detectors, sprinkler systems.
 * 9) Water Supply - water towers signal pumping stations, etc.
 * 10) Security - metal detectors and x-ray machines at airports, anti-theft devices in stores, security camera.
 * 11) Music - amplifiers, synthesizers, sound mixers, recording equipment.
 * 12) Traffic Control - traffic signals.
 * 13) Automotive - Air bags, antilock brakes, diagnostics, electronic ignition, etc.

Historical Notes
This honor was original named Radio Mechanics. The name was changed to Radio Electronics in 1956.

About the Author
| /Completed Honors


text:
Talk:Algorithms/Print version

Does any body have any information regarding any website for the very basic level of algorithm ??

I need that.

-shahjahan_s_m@yahoo.ca

 * I'm not sure what it is you're looking for? What do you mean by very basic level? Do you mean what the book refers to as "the obvious level"? What do you need this for? Any extra information provided can help me help you! --MShonle 16:56, 23 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Algorithms/Print version