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Happiness/Meditation

Meditation
According to Wikipedia, meditation is usually defined as one or more of the following:
 * a state of relaxed concentration on the reality of the present moment
 * a state that is experienced when the mind dissolves and is free of all thoughts focusing the mind on a single object (such as a religious statue, or one's breath, or a mantra)
 * a mental "opening up" to the divine, invoking the guidance of a higher power

Meditation can be a helpful daily practice. It can help you relax, release stress, and put your day into perspective. It can also be used in place of a power nap, on your lunch hour to refocus on the present and put a lid on the morning. You can do a quick 5 minutes in your car after you drive home and before you see the kids so you can give your loved ones the best version of you and not the drained post-work you.

This guide book will help you with the physical practice of meditation, and is not to be thought of as a spiritual text or even an authoritative list of meditation techniques. It is in no ways complete. As always, feel free to improve this wikibook by editing it or comment on the Talk page.

Setting & Preparation
There are many things you can do before you even start to meditate that might help your experience. First, if at all possible, find a place in your house that you can meditate in that is free of distraction. It can be an entire room, corner of a guest bedroom, or even a pillow. It helps if this space is not used for any other purpose, so that your mind will associate this location with the experience of meditation. You may want to be able to control the level of light and noise in the location you are meditating in. Wear loose fitting comfortable clothing. Take off your shoes.

Similarly, it can help to find a time that you can meditate. Early in the day tends to work better, as you are free of distractions that will come with your work-a-day life. Also if you start your day off with meditation, you may be able to “hold the calm” with you all day increasing the benefit of meditating. Start with just ten or 15 minutes at first, and slowly increase until you find a duration that works for you. During meditation you may not judge time correctly, thinking “it must have been half an hour by now” only to see that it has only been seven minutes. It may help to have an “egg timer” around so you can set your meditation duration as you start and not be distracted. This will stop you from looking at your watch. Some people start off just meditating on days off or weekends, but most seem to work it into a daily habit, like morning coffee.

Finally, remove yourself from your everyday life. Turn off your cell phone. Let loved ones or roommates know what you are trying to do and ask for no interruptions. Do whatever it takes to put your mind at ease and forget about everything outside of your meditation. If that means closing the door or window to that room, do that.

Techniques
Here are a few ways to meditate. Give them a try and see which is right for you.

Meditation of Breath
Go to your meditation location and sit comfortably on a small pillow or folded towel. Keep your back straight, and avoid slouching. Keep your head up and straight. Relax your eyes. If you wish to close them, do so. However, if you keep them open, you may want to not focus on anything in particular. Try to clear your mind of everything besides yourself sitting, breathing, and relaxing.

Breathe deeply through the nose for a count of four. Feel the air enter your nose, move down to your chest and fill your lungs. Hold your breath for a count of four. Then exhale slowly for a count of four. Feel as the air leaves your lungs and goes through your nose. Some also hold their breath for a count of four at this point. Try it and see if this helps you. Repeat this for the duration of your meditation. You should be thinking about your breath the entire time. Feel the air enter you, filling you with life giving oxygen, and then leave you with waste gases. Contemplate the fact that you breathe every moment of your life and almost never think about it. This is the time to be thinking about it. Feel how your body moves when you breathe.

An important part of this meditation is concentration. As your mind clears, thoughts will come up. As this happens, just note to yourself that you were thinking and bring your mind back to your breath. Don't get upset that you let your mind wander. It's a good sign, a healthy reaction from your personality trying to reclaim your mind. As you let yourself be in control of your mind most of the time, meditation is the time where you let your mind be empty. You may note that the faucet in the next room still drips every so often, or that people drive by with loud radios, but you let your attention to them just be noted and return your thoughts to your breath.

This can be helpful at random times in life when circumstance gets you stressed out. You are still breathing and can divert your mind for just a few moments to your breath and reclaim the calm of meditation.

Devotional Meditation
This practice is similar to the above meditation of breath, but instead of having your mind focused on your breath, it will be focused on an object, such as the flame of a candle or a picture of a spiritual leader.

Relaxation Meditation
This technique will help you relax and is a meditation of the body. Be aware that if you are already sleepy, this practice may put you to sleep. If that is not your goal, be mindful of drowsiness.

Lie down on a bed or yoga mat. Get into a comfortable position and relax your body. Then move through a simple procedure of 'stretch and relax' of parts of your body. Continue with the rest of the body moving up You may repeat these processes as many times as needed to become fully relaxed. You may also change the order and move from your head down to your toes. When the whole of your body is relaxed, only your mind remains active and from here you can continue to a different meditation.
 * Start with your toes. Slowly curl your toes in tightly while inhaling and then gently stretch your toes, fully extending them while exhaling.  Then relax that part of your body fully.  Give it a full breath and imagine all tension from that part of the body leaving you with your exhale.  If you still feel tension in that area, repeat this entire for that body part.
 * Move up your legs and tighten and then stretch your calves. Make sure to synchronize your movements with your breath, tension with inhale, relaxation & stretching with exhale.
 * 1) Toes
 * 2) Thighs
 * 3) Hips
 * 4) Lower back / stomach
 * 5) Upper back / shoulders
 * 6) Upper arms
 * 7) Hands / Lower arms
 * 8) Neck
 * 9) Face (you may have to open your mouth or even say “Ahh” as part of the relaxation).

title: Happiness/Meditation


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User talk:Ryannerd

Programming languages bookshelf
Plase note that bookshelf are reserved for existing books only. For suggesting a new book please use the [>> Suggest Book] link. If you plan a new book you must first start the work and then add the book the the bookshelf.

--Krischik T 06:10, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Ryannerd


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Template:Requested books/User Message

Dear Wikibooks user,

You received this message because you have added a link to one of the bookshelves which does not point to a Wikibook — a so-called red link.

Please note that the Wikibooks bookshelves are reserved for existing books only and red links are removed without further check.

It is also futile to create a page of the type "Please write book about xxxx here.". Such a stub would be a subject of speedy deletion and would not prevent the link from becoming red and being deleted eventually.

If you'd like to suggest a possible new book then you can use the Requested books list instead.

Your Wikibooks Administrator.

title: Template:Requested books/User Message


text:
User talk:MJBurrage

Formula Dé deleted
You deleted the pages Formula Dé and Formula Dé/1999 League Schedule & Rules, and I can not find any discussion on said deletion. How is a rulebook on this game any different than a rulebook on Monopoly? Why was this done without some discussion? —MJBurrage 01:44, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * As you may well be aware, recently at wikibooks we have been looking at what books we have and assessing whether they really meet our inclusion criterion of them being textbooks. The pages you refer to fall foul of this (under pretty much any definition) and were therefore liable to be deleted summarily without further discussion. I am mindful, however, that authors may not have a personal copy of their work, and am willing to email (or if necessary temporarily delete) pages to them if they do not. If that is the case here, please let me know and I will email you the text (as I have already done for KingKogs (see below)). As far as the Monopoly pages are concerned, I believe they will go in the near future too - it's only because that book is longer and is about a very familiar game that it has not yet been removed, Jguk 07:39, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

I believe I have a copy of the material at home. Related to the deletion, and Game Rules in general, which wiki would be the proper location for such material? —MJBurrage 16:24, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Games are taught at universities
A variety of games are taught at a number of universities. One example would be Computer Games and Simulations for Investigation and Education which is a class taught at MIT. Does that not make their inclusion here appropriate? —MJBurrage 15:16, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:MJBurrage


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A-level Applied Science

The British exam board AQA offers an A-level in Applied Science. There is as yet no textbook published. This is an attempt to rectify the matter.

Please contribute any material you want. This is a multi-author, open project; but you can contact Ewen if there is anything you would like to add but you are not sure how to do it, or if you have any suggestions.

Contents

 * /Course Structure and Assessment/

AS Units

 * 01 /Investigating Science at Work/
 * 02 /Energy Transfer Systems/
 * 03 /Finding out about Substances/
 * 04 /Food Science and Technology/
 * 05 /Choosing and Using Materials/
 * 06 /Synthesising Organic Compounds/

A2 Units

 * 07 /Planning and Carrying out a Scientific Investigation/
 * 08 /Medical Physics/
 * 09 /Sports Science/
 * 10 /Physics of Performance Effects/
 * 11 /Controlling Chemical Processes/
 * 12 /The Actions and Development of Medicines/
 * 13 /Colour Chemistry/
 * 14 /The Healthy Body/
 * 15 /The Role of the Pathology Service/
 * 16 /Ecology, Conservation and Recycling/

Resources
Definitive details from the AQA website.
 * Teachers' guide, FAQ and other resources from AQA.
 * Resources from the shareIT website.
 * Resources for OCR version of the course, some of which are identical to AQA's

title: A-level Applied Science


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A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography

General Topics

 * /Population, patterns, process and change/
 * /Key Terminology/

Physical Geography

 * /Cold environments/
 * /Hydrology/
 * /Lithosphere/
 * /Ecosystems/
 * /Atmospherics/

Human Geography

 * /Population/
 * /Settlement/
 * /Urbanisation in LEDCs/
 * /Urban Growth in MEDCs/
 * /Land Use Models/

Statistics Paper

 * /Investigation Paper/

title: A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography


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A-level Applied Science/Course Structure and Assessment

Unit Choice
The course is made of 16 units. Students take a maximum of 12. There is no choice in the AS units which must be taken, but there is flexibility in which A2 units can be chosen.

An AS qualification requires 3 AS units.

A double AS requires 6 AS units.

An A-level requires 3 AS and 3 A2 units.

A double A-level requires 6 AS and 6 A2 units.

AS Units

 * 01 Investigating Science at Work
 * 02 Energy Transfer Systems
 * 03 Finding out about Substances
 * 04 Food Science and Technology
 * 05 Choosing and Using Materials
 * 06 Synthesising Organic Compounds

Units 1-3 count as one AS qualification. Units 1-6 count as two AS qualifications.

A2 Units

 * 07 Planning and Carrying out a Scientific Investigation
 * 08 Medical Physics
 * 09 Sports Science
 * 10 Physics of Performance Effects
 * 11 Controlling Chemical Processes
 * 12 The Actions and Development of Medicines
 * 13 Colour Chemistry
 * 14 The Healthy Body
 * 15 The Role of the Pathology Service
 * 16 Ecology, Conservation and Recycling
 * 3 A2 units, plus units 1-3, count as one A-level qualification.
 * The A2 units must include unit 7, one from units 8, 11 or 14, and one from 9, 10, 12, 13, 15 or 16.
 * 6 A2 units, plus units 1-6, count as two A-level qualifications.
 * The A2 units must include unit 7, two from units 8, 11 or 14, and three from 9, 10, 12, 13, 15 or 16.

Method of Assessment
Units 2, 5, 8, 11 and 14 are assessed by an exam. These are marked by AQA.

The other units are assessed by written coursework, which is initially assessed by the school/college and then checked by AQA.

1/3 of the units must be examined units.

Every unit is marked out of 100 (the 'UMS') and the final grade is awarded on this basis:

Making the Grade
For portfolio units, the work must be your own. Copying large chunks of text from a book or the internet is not allowed - even if you credit where you obtained the text.

Check the requirements of each unit and make sure your work meets those requirements. Work which is not on the syllabus will not improve your grade, so don't waste your time with it.

Tip: Use the specification to write headings for your assignments, and research material for each heading. This way you should cover all the topics required: It will be obvious which parts of your assignment need further work. Putting your research into headed sections will prevent you copying or paraphrasing a large chunk from one source, and then a large chunk from another source without comparing the two sources on what they say point-by-point.

Note every reference you use.

References:

Definitive details from the AQA website.


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A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography/Population, patterns, process and change

Factors affecting birth rate

 * Pro-natalist policies and Anti-natalist policies from government
 * Existing age-sex structure
 * Social and religious beliefs - especially relation to contraception
 * Female literacy levels
 * Economic prosperity (when the economy is doing well families can afford to have more children).
 * Poverty levels – children can be seen as a economic resource in developing countries as they can earn money.
 * Infant Mortality Rate – a family may have more children a countries IMR if high as it is likely some of those children will die.

Factors affecting a countries death rate

 * Nutrition levels
 * Standards of diet and housing
 * Access to clean drinking water
 * Hygiene levels
 * Levels of infectious diseases
 * low levels of education

Limitations of the Demographic Transition Model

 * When the model was put forward there was a lack of available data in Europe
 * Only based on Europe – So will it apply to the developing world?
 * Does not show the causes of changes in birth rates and death rates
 * Only a general model – why not apply to specific places. While it can be used to predict population change it may not be completely accurate

Types of population pyramid
While all countries' population pyramids differ, three types have been identified by the fertility and mortality rates of a country.

Stationary pyramid – A population pyramid showing an unchanging pattern of fertility and mortality.

Progressive pyramid – A Pyramid with a high birth rate and a high death rate.

Regressive pyramid – A declining birth rate and a low mortality rate.


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A-level Applied Science/Choosing and Using Materials

About this Unit
From the AQA Specification:

 In this unit you will learn about:
 * the different properties of materials such as metals, polymers and ceramics;
 * how scientists define the properties of a material and compare values for different materials;
 * how to measure some of the properties of a material and investigate how they allow the material to be put to a particular use;
 * why different materials behave in different ways;
 * how the internal structure of a material influences the way it behaves;
 * ways in which properties of a material can be modified by altering the structure of the material.

How you will be assessed
In this unit you will be required to complete an external examination of 1½ hours duration. The examination will consist of a series of compulsory short answer questions and will be marked out of 80. The examination may also contain a comprehension exercise.

You will be assessed on your knowledge, understanding and skills relating to choosing and using materials.

What you need to know
Properties of materials

Relating the physical properties of materials to their structure

Microscopic structure

The different classes of materials


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French History/French Revolution

French Revolution: 1789-1794
The French Revolution was where the poor rose to the rich and thought everyone should be the same. They succeeded but not for very long.

The Enlightenment

 * A loose intellectual movement during the 17th century.
 * Enlightenment thinkers include Locke, Voltaire and Montesquieu
 * The movement questioned the existing arrangements of society
 * Voltaire wanted to change the legal system. Voltaire believed that the church were only useful as a counterbalance against the power of the monarchy.
 * Montesquieu wanted a separation of powers between legislative, executive and judiciary to stop the leaders of France becoming too powerful.
 * Rousseau argued in the ‘Social Contract’ that legitimate government is based upon popular sovereignty. Rosseau's work was controversial as he stated that people were good by nature contradicting the biblical belief in original sin. His beliefs included not owning property and he is considered an important figure in the development of socialism and communism.
 * Adam Smith was an economist who wrote the ‘Wealth of Nations’ in 1776. He argued for free trade rather than France's then protectionist economic policies.
 * Enlightenment philosophers rejected hierarchical government and religious superstition
 * The most obvious example of the effect of the enlightenment on the course of the revolution is in the rights of Man -“All men are created equal and are endowed with certain inalienable rights…life, liberty and pursuit and happiness"
 * Rousseau's ideas impacted on Robespierre
 * The audience of such ideas was the educated classes.
 * During the time preceding the French Revolution there was also a more general spread of ideas because of the growth in journalism

The American War of Independence
1776 – American colonists rose up against British forces after George III attempted to collect taxes without consent. French forces fought on the side of the Americans who wanted revenge for the Seven Years' War.

Its impacts were Politically the enlightened ideas of the American colonists began to spread. The Americans were fighting for “no taxation without representation” and popular sovereignty. These ideas impacted particularly Lafayette.
 * To pay for the war they needed to borrow money. These loans had to be repaid but the crown was already paying back its previous loans. This got the crown into a spiral of debt.
 * Economically the war disputed trade between France and its colonies in the West Indies.

Social Structure before the revolution
Before the revolution France could be described as having a feudal society
 * First Estate – Clergy
 * Second Estate – Nobility
 * Third Estate – Everybody else ranging from the bourgeoisie, urban workers and peasantry.

First Estate
 * Had their own courts
 * Had an assembly to control their affairs
 * Exemption from all direct taxes and some indirect taxes
 * They collected the tithe
 * The church controlled education
 * Owned 10% of the land in France – it gained considerable income by charging rent on this land
 * Because of their position supported the King by Granting a ‘don gratuit’ through its assembly, this was a sum of money raised by the church paid for by the lower clergy

Second Estate

 * The second Estate were not necessarily distinguished by their wealth but by their privileges.
 * Legally they were exempt from some of the harshest punishments
 * They did not have to pay the taille – the main direct tax
 * They were exempt from force labour on the roads. (The corvee royale)
 * They had the right to bear a sword and were given officer status in the army
 * They owned 10% of the land and enjoyed rights of the manor
 * The second estate could be distinguished by whether they were nobility of the sword or nobility of the robe. Those that had inherited noble status and those had had purchased the status in the law courts

Third Estate

 * The third estate did not enjoy the privileges of the first and second estates.
 * The third estate were not simply peasants – the relatively rich bourgeoisie were part of the third estate.
 * The third estate had a very high tax burden which included:
 * The taille (direct tax)
 * The tithe (church tax)
 * The gabelle (salt tax)
 * Vingtieme (emergency tax for war)
 * Capitation (poll tax)
 * Labour on the roads (corvee royale)
 * Labour on the lord's land (corvee)

The Political System before the revolution
Louis XVI was an absolute monarch so in theory his power was unlimited. This power was god given and therefore he was answerable only to god.

The king appointed 34 intendants who were responsible for the running of a particular region of France.

The King had the power to imprison anyone through use of a ‘letter de cachet’.

France had 13 parlements, which were law courts. They were the final courts of appeal and were responsible for registering royal edicts.

The parliaments, of which Paris was the most important, could refuse to register a royal edict but it was possible for the king to pass a measure through a lit de justice. Normally the registering was a formality.

French economy before 1789
France was still predominantly an agricultural economy. This meant that when agriculture flourished industry flourished but the reliance on agriculture meant that bread prices could rocket during a bad winter.

High prices ► demand decreases ► unemployment increases

During the 18th century trade generally prospered. Trade was controlled by guilds, which could limit the amount of trade and regulate standards of the goods being sold.

France's industry blossomed because of trade with its colonies in the West Indies.

The economic and social causes of the French revolution
Bourgeoisie

 * The bourgeoisie were expanding during the 18th century and the more wealthy wanted noble status. However the number of bourgeoisie entering the ranks of the nobility remained small. It is therefore arguable that support for enlightened ideas such as meritocracy found support in the bourgeoisie.
 * The Bourgeoisie members of the third estate supported a constitutional limitation on the power of the crown and a share of political power.

Peasantry

 * The rural population rose increasing rents on the land. Increasing amount of labour helped to depress wages. There were also fluctuations in demand for the wine industry.
 * The peasantry had to deal with this as well as the effects of bad harvest and the large tax burden.
 * Prices on food reached their peak during the soudure (after the exhaustion of the last harvest but before the new harvest).
 * As hunger became a problem there were attacks on grain harvests and those suspected of hording grain
 * The resistance of the nobility to join the third estate is who sparked the fear that there was an aristocratic plot to destroy the harvest.
 * After the storming of the Bastille the ‘Great Fear broke out in the countryside.
 * On the fourth of August noble privileges and venal offices were swept away.

The towns

 * The increase in bread prices meant that people had less to spend on manufactured goods so there were wage and job cuts.
 * Other towns set up their own citizens' militia – the revolution was not just a Parisian affair.
 * The artisans of Paris were hit hard by the economic difficulties. Although riots such as the Reveillon Riot were economic in nature they did have a political element.
 * The hunger, political stalemate and Versailles, royal forces around Paris and calls from demagogues led to the storming of the Bastille

The role of the monarchy in its own downfall
Louis XVI lacked the personal qualities for the role of King. He was awkward in public; he preferred his hobbies to government. He was also rumoured to be impotent because of the long-awaited arrival of his son causing scandalous speculation as to who the father was.

Marie-Antoinette was also unpopular. She was Austrian and given the nickname L’Ausrichienne (Austrian bitch) and Madame Deficit because of her extravagant spending. The diamond necklace affair – where she was accused of contracting venereal diseases from the cardinal de rohan although untrue damaged her reputation and undermined the monarchy.

Louis leadership was often indecisive – he changed controller general numerous times. He also showed no leadership on the issue of voting by head.

1774-1789: Attempts at economic reform
During this period France was defeated during the Seven Years' War.

This

 * Damaged royal prestige
 * Cost a lot of money and got the monarchy into a lot of debt
 * Made the crown want to reverse its humiliation and increase expenditure on the armed forces

The debt and need to spend more on the army made meant that a reform of the tax system was needed. However the parlements resisted changes as they were attempted in times of economic hardship. The parlements had a vested interest – they of course didn't and to lose their privileges!

Louis the XV tried to trim the parlements' powers. In 1770 edicts were issued which prolonged wartime expenditure. When the parlements were refused they were exiled.

The controller general Terray tried to reduce the number of venal offices and renegotiate the terms of the farmer's general – the people who collected royal taxes. These reforms were needed but were deeply unpopular ans so were not carried out.

When Louis XVI ascended the throne he bowed to popular pressure and brought back the parlement. But of course the financial crisis remained.

In 1776 The controlleur general Turgot created a reform package that included:
 * Abolition of guilds
 * Pressure on the Farmers-General who took some of the tax money
 * Stricter account procedures so it was known where all the money was going

The reforms were opposed by rival ministers and the Paris parlement so Louis replaced Turgot with Jacques Necker.

Necker raised money through loans, stricter accounting procedures and cutting the number of venal offices. In 1781 the Compte Rendu was published the first royal accounts – it showed a surplus of revenue but this was engineered – he “cooked the books”.

Necker was sacked partly because he was a Protestant, partly because the compte rendu was seen as damaging royal prestige and partly because his attempts to control war expenditure were unpopular with other ministers.

When Calonne became controller general he had to deal with the increasing repayments on the loans which Necker had secured. To maintain the flow of money from creditors new royal palaces were purchased – to give the impression that French finances were fine.

The Paris parlement refused to register new loans. Calonne saw how bad French finances were and blamed the Compte Rendu for painting a false picture of French finances. He wanted the Second Estate to lose its privileges and called the ‘Assembly of Notables’, a group of nobles who he hoped would endorse the reform package.

When the Assembly of Notables gathered in 1787 it refused to agree to the reforms – again there was a vested interest – why would they agree to lose their privileges? The nobles believed the account given by Necker's Compte Rendu and some argued that such an assembly could not decide such fundamental reforms.

Callone was attacked over his reforms and Louis replaced him with Brienne. The Assembly of Notables dissolved saying that only the Estate-General could agree such fundamental changes.

There were bad harvests in 1786 and an economic crisis stimulated by the Eden Treaty. These were damaging as they reduced the amount of tax which could be collected. Brienne watered-down Calonne's proposals as France were facing bankruptcy.

Again the Paris parlement refused to register the edicts saying that only the Estates-General could agree such measures. There were Parisian demonstrations in June 1787 in favour of the parelment's position.

This made Louis exile the parlement in August 1787. The financial situation became dire and Louis was forced to recall the parlement – he said he would call the Estates-General in five years time.

Louis passed the reforms by a lit de justice, those that questioned this were imprisoned without trial.

This caused the parlement to question whether the king was able to imprison without a trial. Meanwhile, there were riots in Renne and Grenobles (‘Day of the Tiles’) in support of the parlement. The church also sided with the parlements voting only a small ‘don gratuit’. These events can be summarised as a revolt of the nobles.

This pressure forced the King to call the Estates-General and recall Necker. Necker made it clear he would do little until the Estates-General was called. As the Paris Parlement was recalled it considered the make up of the Estates-General. It last met in 1614 where the three estates voted separately and voted collectively – this allowed the first and second estate to outvote the third estate.

The Paris parlement wanted the Estates-General to take the form of 1614 – this made their earlier defence of the nations freedom seem hollow.

Some bourgeoisie leaders argued for doubling the representation of the third estate or voting by head – these would both allow the third estate to influence policy.

The King could have sided to side with the third estate but he hesitated. An Assembly of Notables rejected the idea of greater representation of the third estate.

It was eventually decided to double the third estate's representation but no reforms were made to voting. As each village and town wrote its cahier de doleance for the Estates-General debate continued to rage.

The harvest of 1788 had been poor, food prices increased rapidly, hailstorms had damaged the crops! This prompted the Reveillon Riots where was rioting over wage decreases.

The failure of economic reform
France was involved in 3 major wars during the middle of the eighteenth century. These were

1. The war of Austrian Succession. 2. American War of Independence. 3. Seven Years' War – Britain vs France fought in the British and French colonies of N. America and India. A financial and economic disaster for France.

These were funded by borrowing loans, or taxation (vingtieme)

Ordinary expenditure was also high the palaces at Versailles needed to maintain and other members of the royal family had extravagant palaces built.

There was a lack of uniformity in the tax system and as some taxes were collected by the farmers general which were corrupt. Where were no accounting procedures to measure expenditure

Failure of the controlleur generaux
Reform was difficult as a flow of cash needed to be maintained. To maintain the flow of cash loans were taken out but eventually they needed to be paid back.
 * Reform was attempted at times of hardship
 * Rival ministers challenged reform – Brienne challenged Calonne's proposals and afterwards got his job!
 * The parlements opposed reform. There was a long running power struggle between the monarchy and the parlements.
 * The nature of the reforms (removing royal privileges) meant that such people with vested interests were not going to agree to lose their own privileges.

Cahier de doleance
As part of the calling of the Estates-General each town drew up a cahier de doleance (a list of grievances). Grievances included;

 * The hated gabelle - a tax on salt
 * Burden of seigniorial rights
 * The tithe
 * The corvee royale (labour on the roads)
 * The supply of grain trade – hampered by guilds
 * Destruction caused by pigeons

The third estate and second estate cahier demanded :

 * The abolition of letters de cachet
 * Estates-General control of taxation
 * Establishment of a constitution
 * Freedom of the press
 * Abolition of Tax privileges

But....

The third estate wanted to end seigniorial rights greater economic freedom

The Estates-General – The Third Estate refuses to meet
When the three estates began to meet at Versailles the Third Estate refused to register separately until the issue of voting had been resolved, they wanted voting by head.

In June the Third Estate invited the other two estates to join them. No members of the Second Estate did so but a trickle of Clergy began to join.

On the 17th June 1789 It declared itself the National Assembly. On 20 June the third estate was barred from its meeting place by royal troops.

The third estate met in a tennis court where they took an oath not to disband until a new constitution for France had been agreed – This is the tennis court oath.

A Royal Session was organised to offer concessions but ordered the three estates to discuss separately and he wanted the nobility to have a veto over the Estates-General.

Some nobles began to join the National Assembly causing Louis to admit defeat, he ordered the other nobles to join the National Assembly.

The Storming of The Bastille
The King began to gather troops around Paris – it looked to the third estate like an attempted coup. When Necker was dismissed and replaced by the conservative Breteil and as food prices increased unrest simmered.

As grain stores were looted the National Assembly formed a national guard to restore order. Marquis de Launey had his head cut off and it was paraded through the streets, seven prisoners were released from the prison.

Paris was under control of the National Assembly as royal troops had refused to fight.

Louis was forced to remove troops from around Paris. He reinstated Necker and accepted the revolution by wearing the revolutionary tricolour cockade.

The Great Fear
The revolution in France was relatively bloodless as royal authority collapsed. However law and order broke down in an event known as the Great Fear.

Peasants believed that their feudal obligations were to be abolished. There were also rumours of an aristocratic plot to reverse the revolution and destroy the grain harvest.

The peasants armed themselves and destroyed châteaux containing the terriers (legal documents) that showed the lord's rights over the peasantry.

This caused the National Assembly to act by abolishing privileges on the ‘Night of the 4th August’. The Assembly then drew up how France would be governed in the ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen’.

August Decrees, Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and the October Days

The National Assembly passed during August

 * The August Decrees
 * The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

The ‘Great Fear’ caused the assembly to abolish feudalism, venal offices, guild privileges and peasant dues to their lords were also given up. However landlords would be compensation for the loss of their dues.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen set the principles by which France was to be governed. It was based upon Jefferson's Declaration of Independence which itself was based upon the Bill of Rights.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen 1. Men are born free and remain free equal in their rights 2. The purpose of the government is the maintenance of these rights; especially liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. 3. All government power comes from the people. 4. Liberty means being able to do anything, which does not harm anybody else. 5. The law is there to protect the liberty of all citizens. Laws are framed to reflect the will of the people and are made by an elected assembly. 6. Everybody is equal before the law. 7. Careers and positions of authority should be held by talented men, not those who use family background or money to secure them. 8. No man can be accused, arrested or detained except in cases determined by the law. 9. Punishments must fit the crime. 10. There should be freedom of speech, the press and of conscience. Everyone has the right to their own opinion especially in matters of religion unless it causes public order issues. 11. Taxation necessary to maintain government should be shared equally all in accordance with their income. 12. Taxation should be agreed by an elected assembly. 13. Public servants should be accountable for their actions. 14. The right of property belongs to all.

The storming of the Bastille was important in terms of the development of the revolution, as the bastille fortress represented Louis XVIs absolute power - when it was stormed it meant the collapse of the ancien regime.

The October Days
There was debate in the National Assembly as to how much power the King should now have. Should the king be able to veto policy? A group known as, monarchiens wanted the king be able to prevent policy. A larger group did not want the king to be able to veto policy, it had been feared that the King would have crushed the Great Fear if he had been given the power.

It was decided that the King would have a suspensive veto – he could prevent legislation for up to 4 years. There was to be a separation of powers:

 * Executive – King
 * Legislative – National Assembly
 * Judiciary – Independent

The King voiced criticism and refused to sign the legislation. This help to cause another journee. A drought had stopped watermills from working and unemployment in the luxury trades caused unrest to simmer. Soldiers trampled the revolutionary tricolour cockade.

This caused the ‘March of the Women’, women followed by 20,000 National Guard led by Lafayette to demand the Rights of Man and bread.

The crowd stormed Versailles; The King was forced to accept the August Decrees and the Rights of Man. Louis would not embrace the spirit of the revolution but food prices began to stabilise and the economy recovered. The king was losing control as his intendants (royal officials) fled.

Flight to Varennes
On June 20, 1791 Louis and the rest of the royal family attempted to flee Paris. They either wanted to reach Montmedy and use this stronger military position to renegotiate the constitution or use the troops to invade France.

Louis was captured and brought back to Paris to a silent crowd.

The system of constitutional monarchy now looked unworkable and the Constituent Assembly voted to suspend the king's powers temporarily.

It was probably the enforced oath of the clergy that made Louis wish to escape, but the decision to leave was taken with a longer-term dissatisfaction. He was dissatisfied with his lack of control over the new constitution and the increasingly radical ideas emerging from the radical Jacobin club.

The royal party were arrested when they reached Varennes – 30 miles from the Austrian border. After the Flight to Varennes the idea that France could become a republic gathered support for the first time.

Champs de Mars Massacre
In July 1791 after the Flight to Varennes the radical and popular Cordelier's club supported a petition stating that the King should be removed from power. The 50,000 strong crowd became violent when two suspected government spies were lynched.

Lafayette used the violence to disperse the crowds and attempted to round up radical leaders. However Danton, Herbert and Marat went into hiding.

This event also caused the Jacobin Club to split. Robespierre wanted the king to be removed but a new group called the feulliants did not.

Membership of the Jacobin club soared and there were fears of a possible Austrian invasion after the Declaration of Pilnitz where Austria and Prussia had made their hostility to France clear. Leopold II of Austria seemed to threaten intervention on behalf of the crown.

The Legislative Assembly
Only active citizens could vote for the new Legislative Assembly. The Self-Denying Ordinance prevented members of the old assembly from standing in the new assembly. This was engineered by Robespierre who didn't want his opponents dominating the new assembly.

The two issues which the new assembly needed to deal with were

 * Refactory Priests – Those that did not agree to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 * Émigrés – aristocrats that had emigrated from France. 4000 Army officers left France after Varennes. It was agreed that Émigrés would lose their property is they did not return

An important member of the Legislative assembly was Brissot. He wanted a republic after Varennes.

Brissot and War
The King refused to sanction decrees against refractory priests and émigrés. This made the king appear uncommitted the revolution. Brissot argued that a war was needed against émigrés and their foreign protectors. War would arouse support for the revolution and expose counter-revolutionary elements. It would liberty to foreign countries an as Britain and Russia would not enter the war it seemed promising that they would win.

Marie Antoinette persuaded Louis for the case for war – a French loss would mean the restoration of the monarchy to its former powers. This looked possible because of the number of émigrés who had left the army after the exodus of officers.

Lafayette supported war believing that it would enhance his position and that it would prevent extremists both royalist and republican from gaining power.

Robespierre opposed war believing that only ambitious generals like Lafayette would benefit – his patriotism was questioned as he was a minority, everyone else fully supported war.

War
The war was not as Brissot had predicted and the French army was not fit to fight. One general, General Dillon, was even murdered by his own troops.

The shambles were blamed upon:
 * Refractory priests – uncommitted to the revolution
 * Austrian Committee

The Legislative Assembly passed decrees allowing refractory priests to be deported and the disbandment of the King's guard. The legislative assembly created a National Guard, the federes, to defend Paris.

Frances economic problems of inflation and unemployment began to creep back.

A journey occurred when Lafayette called for the banning of political clubs. This was taken to presage a military coup and crowds invaded the Tuileries palace and forced the king to don the bonnet rouge.

On 11 July, the Legislative Assembly passed ‘La Patrie en Danger’ meaning that decrees no longer needed the King's sanction.

The federes had arrived in Paris, petitions demanding the overthrow of the King arrived at the Legislative Assembly.

The Prussian army advanced into France and the duke of Brunswick delivered the Brunswick Manifesto. The legislative assembly was reluctant to declare an assembly.

A journey occurred on 10 August as sans-culottes overthrew the municipal authority of Paris. The federes attacked the Tuileries killing the Swiss guard. Overawed the assembly declared the king's overthrow. It also declared that there should be new elections for a new assembly – The National Convention

Constitutional Monarchy had failed because
 * Attitude of the monarchy
 * Break down in the revolutionary consensus
 * Religious issue
 * Émigré threat
 * War
 * Economic crisis
 * Too many people didn't like them.

A reign of terror develops: The ‘September Massacres’
Many members of the Legislative Assembly who had supported the idea of constitutional monarchy subsequently went into hiding.

Under pressure from the san-culottes the Legislative Assembly voted to deport refractory priests and to win over the peasantry feudal dues were abolished. Émigrés had their land confiscated

The advance of Prussian forces deepened the political crisis. The Legislative Assembly gave powers to local authorities to arrest ‘suspects’. In Paris, the prisons soon became full of priests, nuns and monks.

The Marquis de Lafayette had emigrated as it looked as if Paris was to be invaded. This caused Danton to appeal for people to fight.

Fear of counter-revolution grew when people went to fight. Marat called or conspirators to be killed, san-culottes began visiting prisons and ‘tried’ the inmates there. Over 10,000 people were executed.

Jacobins even tried to have Girondins executed because of their attempts to work with the King. The September Massacres caused hostility between the Girondin and the Jacobins. Foreigners regarded the killings as shocking and the san-culottes and Jacobins became known as ‘buveurs de sang’

The Elections for the National Convention
When elections were held for the National Convention Paris chose to elect Jacobins while outside of Paris 200 Girondins were elected. The uncommitted members became known as the plain as they sat in the middle of the Jacobins on the left (later known as the Montagnards). The National Convention soon declared a republic. However, there was soon friction between the Girondin and Montagnard. There differences were that the sans-culottes supported the Montagnards and the Montagnards were prepared to be more extreme and militant.

The Montagnards saw the Girondin as too close to the king because of their attempts to do a deal with the king while the Girondin associated the Montagnards with the ‘September Massacres. As the Girondin gained their support from outside Paris they supported a more federal system of government while the Montagnard with their support base in Paris were in favour of central government.

The Girondin initially dominated the assembly because the war began to go well. Prussian forces were pushed out of the country. The Edict of Fraternity was passed which offered aid to all people wishing to secure their liberty. Another Area where the Montagnards and the Girondin clashed was on what should be done with the king. The Montagnards wanted the king to be tried for treason while the Girondin argued against this.

Popular opinion wanted the king to be executed but the Girondin argued against this. This reinforced Montagnard and sans-culotte suspicion of the Girondin. The Girondin began to call the Montagnards ‘Septembiseurs’ – those that carried out the September Massacres.

The vote found the king guilty and he was executed on 21 January 1793.

War
France was at war with Holland, Switzerland and in northern Italy. Britain feared that France could occupy the whole of the channel coast. The Convention declared war on Holland and Britain in February 1793 and then Spain in March 1793.

France's fortunes turned now that it was at war with a large collection of states – General Demouriez emigrated after a defeat by the Austrian army. He wanted to march on Paris with his army but they refused to.

Revolt in the Vendee

The Vendee is a Catholic area in Western France. The Peasants there were paying more tax than under the ancien regime and had not benefited from the sale of church lands. The National Convention used 30,000 troops to crush their rebellion.

The Enrages (Angry or mad ones)
The enrages were a group led by Roux and Varlet. They wanted
 * Price controls on grain
 * The Assignat as the only legal tender
 * Repression of counter-revolutionary activity

They were supported by the sans-culottes but their numbers were never that large.

There were increasing economic problems as the Assignat dropped in value as more were printed. Farmers became unwilling to sell their grain for what was increasingly becoming worthless money.

In an effort to control the crisis the Montagnard set up the revolutionary tribunal to try those of suspected counter-revolution. It was an attempt to prevent another September Massacres. It sent deputies from the convention which were known as representatives-on-mission whose job it was to oversee conscription. Watch committees (comite de surveillance) were set up to keep an eye on foreigners and execute any émigrés, which returned to France.

In April the Committee of Public Safety was set up to deal with the radical movement of the Enrages, riots caused by food shortages and revolt in the Vendee. The C.P.S. could coordinate the war effort and supervise the activities.

In order to appease the san-culottes the Convention imposed price controls known as the maximum. This was opposed by the Girondin. Hostility towards the Girondin increased as they attacked the sans-culottes and even tried the popular hero Marat.

This caused Robespierre to side with the sans-culotte and demand the overthrow of Girondin deputies. 80,000 National Guard surrounded the convention. 29 Girondin deputies were expelled the Convention became dominated by Jacobins and the Plain

The Development of the Terror. – The Anarchic Terror
Between June and September Committee for Public Safety was reorganised. The job of the CPS was to maintain supplies to the army and civilian population. It sister group the CGS (Committee for General Security) was responsible for the pursuit of counter revolutionaries. There was no clear distinction between the jobs of the CPS and CGS.

Other important groups were

 * Watch committees
 * Representatives-on-mission
 * Revolutionary armies

This period is referred to by some historians as the ‘anarchic Terror’

Federal Revolt
The purge of Girondins caused revolt in the provinces, which is where support for the Girondin was greatest. Anti-Jacobin movements broke out in eight departments. This unrest can be distinguished from the revolt in the Vendee, as this was counter-revolutionary. The federal revolt however was anti-Jacobin.

This led some to collude with the British in Toulon (Britain was occupying Toulon).

The Federal Revolt was dealt with by August 1793.

War
The war was going badly – this was blamed on the generals Custine was guillotined on suspicion of talking to the enemy forces. The scale of the problem made Carnot call a levee en masse – a mass conscription to harness all resources of the state to war. This mass conscription made the French army grow to over 1 million soldiers.

The Terror September 1793 – December 1793
The problems of war, counterrevolution and federal revolt occupied the government but the economic problems of the poor remained. The Jacobins were unwilling to poor than the maximum, which they had already introduced. Herbert called for price controls ad prosecution of hoarders. On 5 September 1793 the sans-culottes invaded the convention – This forced the convention to pass the Law of the General Maximum.

The revolutionary army was used to root out hoarders but it was also used to crush federal revolt, royalist unrest and to enforce ‘dechristianisation’. Anyone who hoarded grain could be arrested under the Law of Suspects- however the terms of this law were so vague that anyone not expressing enthusiastic support for the revolution could be arrested.

There was pressure from the public in Paris to have Marie-Antoinette arrested along with Grondin deputies. They were tried by the revolutionary tribunal and executed. This bloodletting was party due to the suspension of the democratic constitution.

Outside of Paris local watch committees, representatives-on-mission and revolutionary armies interpreted the law according to their own prejudices. Lyon was torched after rebels there were defeated. In the Vendee resulted in the imprisonment of hundreds of nuns. Thousands of priests and nuns were killed in noyades – underwater marriages were priests and nuns were tied together.

Dechristianisation
Since the division, which resulted from the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, the church was associated with counter-revolution. The church became associated with the Ancien Régime.

In 1793 the National Convention introduced a new Republican Calendar. This dated from the creation of the republic (22 September 1792) rather than from birth of Christ.

Fouche, a representative-on-mission made priests marry or adopt orphans. All religious references in churches were removed and replaced with the slogan ‘death is an eternal sleep’.

The Paris Commune destroyed religious statues and any priest denounced by six citizens could be deported.

Dechristianisation, although popular with the sans-culottes alienated rural people.

The Cult of Supreme Being – a secular god and the Festival of Reason were created

Robespierre and the Great Terror
The Law of 14 Frimaire gave the two committees greater powers. The CPS was given responsibility to foreign policy and local government – The CPS was now effectively running the country. The revolutionary armies were abolished apart from Paris’ one. Representatives-on-mission and revolutionary tribunals were established.

At this time the federal revolt and revolt it the Vendee had been crushed. France was also going well in war against Austria. The Spanish and the British were pushed out of France and forced loans on the rich had recovered the economy causing the Assignat to double in price.

In this period of recovery Danton argued for an end to the terror and a moderation of revolutionary government. Such people were known as ‘Indulgents’, they were oppose they the san-culottes and its leader Herbert.

In March 1794 the CPS arrested Herberists and had them arrested. Robespierre on reading the works of Rousseau had developed the idea of a ‘Republic of virtue’ and this required the purging of all corrupt elements.

Danton was denounced and put on trial. He was executed on 5 April 1794.

This marked a more intense period of the terror. The Law of 22 Prairial was passed as the Revolutionary Tribunal in Paris was proving too slow. The law allowed trials to decide on liberty or death – all the court had to decide was whether a person was an enemy of the people. This is sometimes referred to as the “Great Terror” – over 4,000 people were guillotined which included a high proportion of rich nobles. Almost everyone ‘tried’ was sentenced to death

Man began to see the CPS as a threat to the Republic. Robespierre lost support of the sans-culottes after the purging of the Herbertists.

Robespierre's attempts to impose the Cult of Supreme Being were unpopular with both Catholics and atheists. He alienated the CGS after setting up a police bureau under the CPS.

Because the Terror intensified at the time when the rationale for it was decreasing (war, counterrevolution) Robespierre became increasingly unpopular.

Robespierre soon began to accuse the CPS and CGS of plotting against the revolution – This made the Convention act. Robespierre was arrested and then executed.

A return to moderation The Coup of Thermidor and the Post-Thermidor reaction
In the months after the Coup of Thermidor

 * The powers of the CPS and CGS were reduced
 * The revolutionary tribunal was disbanded
 * Law of 22 Primare revoked
 * Commune abolished
 * Jacobin club closed

A new constitution – The Constitution of the Year III was written to avoid executive dominance.

In December price controls were abolished and this caused rapid inflation. These prices were higher than usual because of a bad winter in 1794 and because more Assignats had been printed to pay for the war effort causing inflation.

This cased the sans-culotte to rise up demanding bread. After an armed standoff at the convention the crowds dispersed. The government then surrounded sans-colutte areas forcing them to give up their weapons. Six sans-culotte leaders were executed.

Revenge against the Jacobins known as the White Terror (White was the colour of the Bourbon royal house) was carried out by royalists and those that had suffered persecution during the Terror. In Brittany a royalist movement known as the Chouannerie took place. Roving groups attacked grain conveys and murdered officials. The British landed 3000 émigrés although this attack was quickly crushed.

Middle class youths known as la juenesse doree (gilded youth) beat up Jacobins and sans-culottes.

There was revolt in Vendamiaire but this was crushed by Napoleon Bonaparte.

This Themidoran Reaction returned the revolution to its course away from the previous extremism.

title: French History/French Revolution


text:
Wikibooks talk:Policies and guidelines/Proposed reform

Style over Substance
I think most of this page is mainly style over substance. It really is if we should have just a few very large policies (like WB:WIW) or many very small but specific policies (like WB:FUP).

Merging content from several policies might have some usefulness, but IMHO they should at least be "enforced" or "official" policies here first before they get merged. The debate over a significant policy change can be more focused and on topic if you keep the changes simple and deal with only one topic.

In addition, these seemingly seperate policies have tended to be created due to pressures that have come from many different sources. While not a justification to keep these as seperate policies, it is important to understand the historical context that each policy was created. WB:FUP, for instance, was written largly by myself when a major discussion about the topic of fair-use content occured on the Foundation-l mailing list. Believe it or not, it was inspired primarily by the Italian Wikipedia policy on this topic, whose participants have seemingly done the most amount of thought on the topic without being deadlocked in committee (which has happened on en.wikipedia).

My personal preference is to have several very specific policies that are perhaps grouped into topical themes. But as I've pointed out with the topic header, it really makes no difference, and that is mainly style of how the information is presented. --Rob Horning 12:20, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Interesting to note...
I skimmed these briefly. It is quite useful to consider all policies together as one unit, rather than individual policies with varying levels of enforcement, consistency, and overlap.

Good (in my opinion):
 * The shortness of both Inclusion criteria/Proposal and Be nice
 * Having Disclaimers/Proposed merger on one page

Bad (in my opinion):
 * All of Copyrights/Proposed merger would need to be protected, but we really only need to protect the top part (that says that what we write must be under GNU FDL). The other sections ("Publication by third parties" through to "Image upload policy") ought to be editable. I suggest using two pages, one protected and one editable.
 * Inclusion criteria/Proposal is missing enough from What is Wikibooks that we might begin including things that we previously excluded. (In contrast, What is Wikibooks/Unstable might be too long to be useful, even if we make it agree with itself.)
 * The policies at Policies and guidelines ought to be moved somewhere else. (We could defer this until later.)

--Kernigh 03:57, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with User:Kernigh here, for the most part. I like the Inclusion criteria/Proposal and Be nice proposals, and the disclaimers proposal. I think that the Copyrights/Proposed merger page should be completely protected, because there is no reason that just any joe-schmoe user should be allowed to edit the text of that page without good reason. Inclusion criteria/Proposal, as User:Kernigh said, is missing alot of stuff, and at the very least it shouldnt be a step back from WB:WIW. If we can find a new, condensed way to say all the same things from the current policy, then so be it, otherwise i say we should just keep the old WB:WIW, and make changes to it, as necessary. Also, all the other guidelines and stuff that isnt "real policy" ought to be moved into the help pages, to keep all that kind of information together in a single, convenient resource. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:34, 27 July 2006 (UTC)


text:
User:Jack-o-jason

Computer Programming
I am interested in:
 * Java
 * HTML
 * CSS
 * XML
 * C++

Foreign Languages
I am interseted in:
 * Spanish
 * French
 * German

Sports

 * Tennis
 * Swimming

Current Projects
'Coming Soon'....

Contact Information
'Coming Soon'....

title: User:Jack-o-jason


text:
Cookbook:Teurgoule (Norman Cinnamon Rice Pudding)

Teurgoule is a cinnamon-flavoured rice pudding that is a speciality of Normandy. The name comes from the Norman language and means twist mouth, a reference to the faces supposedly pulled by someone tasting it due to the spiciness of the dish.

Teurgoule even has a brotherhood, La Confrérie Gastronomique de la Teurgoule which is based in Houlgate and presides over the annual Teurgoule cooking competition. The presiding members wear the brotherhood's ceremonial robe which is green and orange with a cape. The brotherhood keeps the official recipe.

Ingredients

 * 200 g fine granulated sugar
 * 175 g round-grain rice
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * ¼ tsp powdered cinnamon
 * 2 L whole milk

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat your oven to 150°C (thermostat 2).
 * 2) Mix the sugar, milk, rice, salt, and cinnamon in a terrine bowl.
 * 3) Put the mix in the oven for 5 hours while making sure no one opens the oven door.
 * 4) The rice must absorb approximately three-quarters of the milk and must be covered by a brown skin.
 * 5) Let the pudding cool down and serve at room temperature.

Livre de cuisine/Teurgoule


text:
User:Gerardo.ok

Hi -

I am one of the instructors for Groups and Teams classes. My class (at the University of Utah) is one of the contributing classes to this textbook. I look forward to seeing the results!

If you would like to communicate with me, feel free to use my talk page.

G.

title: User:Gerardo.ok


text:
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text:
User:Astaire510

Student

title: User:Astaire510


text: User talk:12.158.190.208

title: User talk:12.158.190.208


text:
Talk:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Memory and Language

Hier noch ein paar Hinweise fuer euer Kapitel: Den Teil der schon auf den CPCN-Seite steht, ist schon informativ und klar aufgebaut.

Ein paar Tipps fuer Verbesserungen: Der Anfang eures Kapitels ist noch etwas zu trocken. Ein guter Anfang waere ein Beispiel einer Person, die z.B. einen Satz hoert. Man koennte dann erklaeren wie das Gehirn diese Saetze auseinander nimmt und spaeter auf diese einzelnen Punkte im Kapitel noch einmal eingehen. Das gaebe dem ganzen Text nochmal einen Roten Faden und einen menschlichen Bezug. Der Wikibook CPCN Roter Faden koennte auch noch einmal verstaerkt hervorgehoben werden. D.h. wie z.B. Sprache entstanden ist und aus welchen Gruenden und wofuer es 'useful' ist. Ihr habt die einzelnen Themen in sinnvolle Abschnitte aufgeteilt und sie ausreichend erklaert. Ich wundere mich nur warum STM und LTM in einem Unterthema behandelt werden und zusammen fast kuerzer beschrieben werden als z.B. Sensory Memory. Vielleicht koennet ihr auch 'double dissociation' noch einmal fuer ungeuebte Leser genauer beschreiben. Werdet ihr 'episodic memory' auch noch beschreiben? In eurer Struktur im Text konnte ich das nicht sehen. Wuerde nur Sinn machen, da auch 'Semantic memory' beschrieben wird. Wie weit gehoeren die beiden Themen den in das gleiche Unterkapitel wie STM und Sensory Memory? Zuletzt noch der Hinweis, dass es schoen waere, wenn ihr noch Bilder oder Zeichnungen hinzufuegen wuerdet. Z.B. Zahlenreihenfolge als Beispiel fuer Digitspan oder das George Sperling Experiment. So weit von mir, bei Fragen einfach an mich wenden! Iroewer

What do you mean with higher hemisphere? There are two hemispheres, the left and the right one.

Hey people, look at the links on the main page. The university of Trieste has some research about memory, perception and language. Maybe it may be quite intersting for you to take a look. iroewer@uos.de

Re: discusssion of autism
I don't have a problem with the facts as presented. However, I find the the "autistic to sane" comparison highly questionable, and certainly an inaccurate representation of a category of individuals who are not (if one is to take the implication in that terminology to the obvious conclusion) insane. I think this ought to be edited. Dr. Katherine B.
 * I think the original authors were German students working on a class project a number of years ago, and they had a tendancy to use idiosyncratic vocabulary. I am just a technologist, so if you have knowledge in this area I would encourage you to substitute more appropriate language yourself. Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 23:53, 12 March 2012 (UTC)


text:
Formal Logic/Predicate Logic/Truth

= Truth =

Truth in a model
We have defined satisfaction in a model with a variable assignment. We have expressed formula $$\varphi\,\!$$ being satisfied by model $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ with variable assignment $$\mathrm{s}\,\!$$ as

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \varphi\,\!$$

Now we can also say that a formula $$\varphi\,\!$$ is satisfied by model $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ (not limited to a specific variable assignment) if $$\varphi\,\!$$ is satisfied by $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ with every variable assignment. Thus

 * $$\mathfrak{M}\ \vDash \varphi\,\!$$

if and only if

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \varphi\ \mbox{for every}\ \mathrm{s}\ .\,\!$$

If no free variables occur in $$\varphi,\,\!$$ (that is, if $$\varphi\,\!$$ is a sentence), then $$\varphi\,\!$$ is true in model $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$.

Variable assignments allow us to deal with free variables when doing the semantic analysis of a formula. For two variable assignments, $$\mathrm{s_1}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{s_2}\,\!$$, satisfaction by $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s_1}\rangle\,\!$$ differs from satisfaction by $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s_2}\rangle\,\!$$ only if the formula has free variables. But sentences do not have free variables. Thus a model satisfies a sentence with at least one variable assignment if and only if it satisfies the sentence with every variable assignment. The following two definitions are equivalent:

 * A sentence $$\varphi\,\!$$ is true in $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ if and only if there is a variable assignment $$\mathrm{s}\,\!$$ such that

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \varphi\ .\,\!$$

 * A sentence $$\varphi\,\!$$ is true in $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ if and only if, for every variable assignment $$\mathrm{s},\,\!$$

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \varphi\ .\,\!$$

The latter is just a notational variant of:

 * A sentence $$\varphi\,\!$$ is true in $$\mathfrak{M}\,\!$$ if and only if

 * $$\mathfrak{M}\ \vDash \varphi\ .\,\!$$

The example model
On the previous page, we looked at the following model and variable assignment.

For the model $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}\ :\,\!$$

 * $$|\mathfrak{M}|\ =\ \{1,\, 2,\, 3\}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}(a^0_0)\ =\ 0\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}(b^0_0)\ =\ 1\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}(c^0_0)\ =\ 2\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}(f^2_0)\ =\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0\ \mbox{such that:} \quad \mathfrak{f}^2_0(0,\, 0) = 2,\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(0,\, 1)\ =\ 1,\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(0,\, 2) = 0,\,\!$$
 * $$\mathfrak{f}^2_0(1,\, 0) = 1,\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(1,\, 1)\ =\ 0,\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(1,\, 2) = 2,\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(2,\, 0) = 0,\,\!$$
 * $$\mathfrak{f}^2_0(2,\, 1) = 2,\ \mbox{and}\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(2,\, 2) = 1\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F^2_0})\ =\ \{\langle 0,\ 1\rangle,\ \langle 1,\ 2\rangle,\ \langle 2,\ 1\rangle\}\ .\,\!$$

For the variable assignment $$\mathrm{s}\ :\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{s}(x_0)\ =\ 0\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{s}(y_0)\ =\ 1\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{s}(z_0)\ =\ 2\ .\,\!$$

Example results
We noted the following results:

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(a, b),\ \mathrm{F}(b, c),\ \mbox{and}\ \mathrm{F}(c, b)\ .\,\!$$

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(a, a))\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(a, f(a, b))\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(f(a, b), a)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(c, b) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(a, b)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(c, b) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(b, a)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \forall x\, \forall y\, (\mathrm{F}(x, y) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(y, x))\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \exists x\, \exists y\, (\mathrm{F}(x, y) \land \mathrm{F}(y, x))\,\!$$

We also noted above that for sentences (though not for formulae in general), a model satisfies the sentence with at least one variable assignment if and only if it satisfies the sentence with every variable assignment. Thus the results just listed hold for every variable assignment, not just $$\mathrm{s}\,\!$$.

Applying our definition of truth, we get:

 * $$(1) \quad \mathrm{F}(a, b),\ \mathrm{F}(b, c),\ \mbox{and}\ \mathrm{F}(c, b)\ \mbox{are True in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(2) \quad \mathrm{F}(a, a)\ \mbox{is False in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(3) \quad \mathrm{F}(a, f(a, b))\ \mbox{is True in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(4) \quad \mathrm{F}(f(a, b), a)\ \mbox{is False in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(5) \quad \mathrm{F}(c, b) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(a, b)\ \mbox{is True in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(6) \quad \mathrm{F}(c, b) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(b, a)\ \mbox{is False in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(7) \quad \forall x\, \forall y\, (\mathrm{F}(x, y) \rightarrow \mathrm{F}(y, x))\ \mbox{is false in }\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(8) \quad \exists x\, \exists y\, (\mathrm{F}(x, y) \land \mathrm{F}(y, x))\ \mbox{is true in}\ \mathfrak{M}\ .\,\!$$

This corresponds to the goals (1)–(8) of the previous page. We have now achieved those goals.

The example model
On Models page, we also considered an infinite model $$I_{\mathfrak{M_2}}\ :\,\!$$

 * $$|\mathfrak{M}_2| = \{0, 1, 2, ...\}\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}_2}(a^0_0)\ =\ 0\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}_2}(b^0_0)\ =\ 1\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}_2}(c^0_0)\ =\ 2\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}_2}(f^2_0)\ =\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0\ \mbox{such that}\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(u, v) = u + v\ .\,\!$$
 * $$I_{\mathfrak{M}_2}(\mathrm{F^2_0})\ =\ \{\langle x,\ y\rangle:\ x < y\}\ .\,\!$$

We can reuse the same variable assignment from above, namely $$\mathrm{s}\ :\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{s}(x_0)\ =\ 0\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{s}(y_0)\ =\ 1\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{s}(z_0)\ =\ 2\ .\,\!$$

Example of extended variable assignment
On the Models page, we listed the following goals for our definitions.

 * $$f(a, b)\ \mbox{resolves to}\ 1\ \mathrm{in}\ \mathfrak{M}_2\ .\,\!$$

This does not require our definition of truth or the definition of satisfaction; it is simply requires evaluating the exended variable assignment. We have for any $$\mathrm{s}\,\!$$ on defined on $$I_{\mathfrak{M}}\,\!$$:

 * $$\overline{\mathrm{s}}(f(a, b))

\ =\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(f)\,(\ \overline{\mathrm{s}}(a),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(b)\ ) \ =\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(\ \overline{\mathrm{s}}(a),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(b)\ )\,\!$$
 * $$=\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(a),\, I_{\mathfrak{M}}(b)\ )

\ =\ \mathfrak{f}^2_0(0,\, 1)\,\!$$
 * $$=\ 0 + 1\ =\ 1\ .\,\!$$

Example results without quantifiers
We also listed the following goal on the Models page.

 * $$(9) \quad \mathrm{F}(a, b)\ \mbox{and}\ \mathrm{F}(b, c)\ \mbox{are True in}\ \mathfrak{M}_2\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(10) \quad \mathrm{F}(c, b)\ \mbox{and}\ \mathrm{F}(a, a)\ \mbox{are False in}\ \mathfrak{M}_2\ .\,\!$$

First we note that:

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(a, b)\ \ \mbox{because}\ \langle \overline{\mathrm{s}}(a),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(b)\rangle\ =\ \langle 0,\, 1\rangle\ \in\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ \,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(b, c)\ \ \mbox{because}\ \langle \overline{\mathrm{s}}(b),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(c)\rangle\ =\ \langle 1,\, 2\rangle\ \in\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(c, b)\ \ \mbox{because}\ \langle \overline{\mathrm{s}}(c),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(b)\rangle\ =\ \langle 2,\, 1\rangle\ \notin\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(a, a)\ \ \mbox{because}\ \langle \overline{\mathrm{s}}(a),\, \overline{\mathrm{s}}(a)\rangle\ =\ \langle 0,\, 0\rangle\ \notin\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ .\,\!$$

Indeed:

 * $$\langle 0,\, 1\rangle\ \in\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ \ \mbox{because}\ \ 0 < 1\,\!$$
 * $$\langle 1,\, 2\rangle\ \in\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ \ \mbox{because}\ \ 1 < 2\,\!$$
 * $$\langle 2,\, 1\rangle\ \notin\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ \ \mbox{because}\ \ 2 \not< 1\,\!$$
 * $$\langle 0,\, 0\rangle\ \notin\ I_{\mathfrak{M}}(\mathrm{F})\ \ \mbox{because}\ \ 0 \not< 0\ .\,\!$$

Because the formulae of (9) and (10) are sentences,

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(a, b)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M}\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(b, c)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(c, b)\ .\,\!$$
 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M}\rangle\ \not\vDash \mathrm{F}(a, a)\ .\,\!$$

Applying the definition of truth, we find the goals of (9) and (10) achieved. The sentences of (9) are true and those of (10) are false.

Example results with quantifiers
In addition, we listed the following goal on the Models page.

 * $$(11) \quad \forall x\, \exists y\, \mathrm{F}(x, y)\ \mbox{is true in}\ \mathfrak{M}_2\ .\,\!$$
 * $$(12) \quad \forall x\, \exists y\, \mathrm{F}(y, x)\ \mbox{is false in}\ \mathfrak{M}_2\ .\,\!$$

Corresponding to (11):

 * $$(13) \quad \langle \mathfrak{M_2},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \forall x\, \exists y\, \mathrm{F}(x, y)\,\!$$

is true if and only if, for each i a member of the domain, the following is true of at least one j a member of the domain:

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M_2},\ \mathrm{s}[x\!:\, i, x\!:\, j]\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(x, y)\ .\,\!$$

But $$\mathrm{F^2_0}\,\!$$ was assigned the less then relation. Thus the preceding holds if and only if, for every member of the domain, there is a larger member of the domain. Given that the domain is $$\{0, 1, 2, ...\},\,\!$$ this is obviously true. Thus, (13) is true. Given that the formula of (11) and (12) is a sentence, we find the goal expressed as (11) to be met.

Corresponding to (12):

 * $$(14) \quad \langle \mathfrak{M_2},\ \mathrm{s}\rangle\ \vDash \forall x\, \exists y\, \mathrm{F}(y, x)\,\!$$

is true if and only if, for each i a member of the domain, the following is true of at least one j a member of the domain:

 * $$\langle \mathfrak{M_2},\ \mathrm{s}[x\!:\, i, x\!:\, j]\rangle\ \vDash \mathrm{F}(y, x)\ .\,\!$$

This holds if and only if, for every member of the domain, there is a smaller member of the domain. But there is no member of the domain smaller than 0. Thus (14) is false. The formula of (12) and (14) fails to be satisfied by $$\mathfrak{M_2}\,\!$$ with variable assignment $$\mathrm{s}\,\!$$. The formula of (12) and (14) is a sentence, so it fails to be satisfied by $$\mathfrak{M_2}\,\!$$ with any variable assignment. The formula (a sentence) of (12) and (14) is false, and so the goal of (12) is met.

title: Formal Logic/Predicate Logic/Truth


text:
Talk:Special Relativity/Dynamics

Thanks mystery contributor (why not get a userid?). The update was good and accurate but we need to sort out the ever multiplying symbols! RobinH 20:07, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I have approached this by simply redefining $$m_B$$ as $$m_B (u_B)$$ etc. This also avoids the slightly problematical reversion to rest mass and relativistic mass in the sentence where $$m_B (u_B) = m_B (0) = m_B $$. RobinH 11:02, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

We have a serious problem of chickens and eggs here! I have moved the discussion of nomenclature to the end of the section on momentum because the student will be unable to understand it until they have explored relativistic momentum. RobinH 11:25, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Very nice job, RobinH!. I corrected a very minor error. Moriconne 06:06, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

Help...
Is there something wrong with the math? I can figure out what things meant up until $$u_{yB} = \frac{u_{yR}}{1 - u_{xR}v/c^2}$$ Then the equations I use give me results which doesn't match the statements... Can someone be more specific and tell me which formula to use... Cause I've been studying this page for ages comparing to the previous pages...Or is there really something wrong? The velocities in the y direction are related by the following equation when the observer is travelling at the same velocity as the blue ball ie: when $$u_{xB} = 0$$\,:why?

Tikai 14:55, 20 November 2007 (UTC)

Merger of Modern_Physics/Acceleration,_Force_and_Mass
I have merged this text into Special_Relativity/Relativistic_dynamics.

Error in Momentum
The momentum change by the red ball is:

$$2\mathbf{u_{yR}}m $$

The momentum change by the blue ball is:

$$2 \mathbf{u_{yB}}m $$

The situation is symmetrical so the Newtonian conservation of momentum law is demonstrated:

$$2 m\mathbf{u_{yR}} = 2m\mathbf{u_{yB}}$$

The momentum section has an error: the momentum change for the blue ball has the wrong sign and should be negative, since it receives a push downwards. The subsequent line should explain that Newton's conservation of momentum leads to equal but opposite momentum changes. Will make immediate correction. AUN4 (discuss • contribs) 14:39, 16 January 2012 (UTC)

Momentum: expression of v in terms of $$u_{xR}'$$
I think a short explanation of $$u_{xR}^' = v$$ based on the existing text is required (choice of reference frame). This is how I interpret it;

$$u_{xB}$$ can be expressed as follows (see Special Relativity/Simultaneity, time dilation and length contraction);

$$u_{xB}^' = \frac{u_{xB} - v}{1 - u_{xB}v/c^2}$$

Frame 2 has been defined such that $$u_{xB}$$ is 0, therefore $$u_{xB}^' = -v$$

Likewise, frame 1 has been defined such that $$u_{xR}^' = -u_{xB}^'$$

Therefore $$u_{xR}^' = v$$;

$$u_{xR}^' = \frac{u_{xR} - v}{1 - u_{xR}v/c^2} = v$$

Richardbrucebaxter (discuss • contribs) 12:25, 13 April 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Special Relativity/Dynamics


text:
Swimming Manual

Swimming is a very tough sport and often needs help and tweaking. While swimming it is easy to make mistakes and not notice what you are doing wrong. This book will help swimmers with watching for small details that will help improve swimming.

Contents

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) /Swimming Mentally/
 * 3) What does swimming mentally do?
 * 4) Enough Sleep
 * 5) Nutrition
 * 6) What foods to eat
 * 7) What foods not to eat
 * 8) How much to eat
 * 9) Technique
 * 10) Freestyle
 * 11) Backstroke
 * 12) Breaststroke
 * 13) Butterfly
 * 14) Swimming Physically
 * 15) Proper Stroke Techniques
 * 16) Training Drills
 * 17) Example Sets
 * 18) Example Workouts
 * 19) Long-term Workout Plans
 * 20) Basic Swimming Gear
 * 21) Typical Workout and Training Tools
 * 22) Warnings

title: Swimming Manual


text:
User:Eichendorffschule~enwikibooks

Please have a look at our user page on the German speaking branch of Wikipedia. Looking forward to welcoming you there. :-)

Eichendorff Highschool in Wolfsburg/Germany

title: User:Eichendorffschule~enwikibooks