text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Preface

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Preface

Why this work needs to be written and read
There is not, as far as I know, a really nice logic introduction available either on line or in print. So it is time to try to write one. I learned bits and pieces from here and there, and then struggled a bit when I went to a postgraduate logic class. For me, this book review is a journey of discovery, to write it I need to know exactly how all the pieces fit together, and it is fun to identify gaps in my knowledge and then see how they can be filled.

I do not have the solution to all the world's problems, but believe that people will be better equipped to handle them if they know just a bit about the reasoning process. If this book review helps a few people do that, I would be delighted. Of course, knowledge and learning can be used to build more lethal weapons and more oppressive tyrannies, but it can also be used to stop such things. I put my faith in reason and in human kindness, since if these are false gods, there isn't much hope for us anyway.

Wiki and Myself
I have put most of the effort into this so far, and see that this will remain the case for some time, so I consider it to be 'my' work, warts and all. I have seen this introduction to logic grow from a red link going nowhere to the state it is today. However wiki is a collective effort, so some would say that it would be unfair to call the work 'mine'. The genitive case is fraught with ambiguity. If you want to chip in, please do. There are at the moment places where results are stated but proofs need to be written out, for example. I use the word 'I' alot. This keeps the style informal and accessible whereas using the passive voice would not. Anyway, to make a brave philosophical assertion, speakerless propositions are a myth, so there is always a first person even if this is not made explicit. (Well, we could talk about the status of computer-generated messages, or of stones on the beach just happening to arrange themselves into a well-formed sentence.)

Logic and Mathematics
When doing maths, the issue of whether propositions have speakers might not be so important as when we are talking about other things. Logic needs to develop beyond the (relatively) safe domain of mathematics to deal with propositions which may be empirical, moral, emotional, aesthetic, etc. My background however is in this mathematical tradition, and this is what I feel most competent to write about. Further, the idea of a logic wikibook is revolutionary enough - a logic wikibook introduction which did not deal with the traditional math-centred core of logic would be just too revolutionary to be accepted.

Logicians sometimes try to mathematize reason, and sometimes they try to reason about mathematics. Both are worthy aims, but we should remember that the latter aim is limited in its scope. It can lead to difficulties when people do try to apply the principles which work so well within mathematics to things outside. For example: the use of quantifiers to put differential and integral calculus on a sound conceptual footing is a rather neat achievement, while the use of quantifiers in Russell's theory of descriptions can appear to be rather clumsy by contrast, though Russell is to be commended for making the attempt.

Work That Needs Doing
There are whole chapters up for grabs. I'm just working on the propositional calculus at the moment. When I have done that I could write the predicate calculus chapter, but if you think you are up to this task, feel free. Or you could start a new chapter, to go after the predicate calculus chapter, which proves Gödel's incompleteness theorem, and then discusses the far-reaching purported implications of this result. If you wait long enough, I might do this myself, but I may find myself working right at the horizon of my abilities.

I would be delighted if anyone could take on the responsibility of writing about tense logic, modal logic, or any other kind of logical calculus, and will be one of your first readers. Also classical logic needs to be written about, so far it tersely says what needs to be said before the exposition of propositional calculus can start.

Prerequisites
This is an introduction, so I assume as little as possible. I try not to produce a wall of opaque jargon, and explain terms as I go along. English may not be the first language of all readers, the writing therefore has to be plain but precise. As a large part of what we are doing could be described as producing a mathematical model of the reasoning process, some mathematical ability will be needed. If you can add, subtract, multiply and divide then you have enough. If you know who Euclid was, so much the better.

Acknowledgments
Thanks to the Wikimedia Foundation for providing the infrastructure which makes this work possible.

--publunch 18:40, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Up: Logic Table of Contents


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User:Jam~enwikibooks

First time Wiki contributor but very interested in helping out with this project in any way I can.

I'm a web application architect, programmer, graphic artist with widely varying interests.

I hope to be contributing to this site often.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Jam~enwikibooks


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User:Forza4

Bueno... poco puedo decir de mi... Pero espero que el desafío que representa iniciar desde cero un departamento de la Wikiversidad como es el Departamento de Informática llegue a buen puerto, y sea referente de la comunidad universitaria, y esta aporte su granito de arena para llevarla más lejos.

title: User:Forza4


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User talk:Forza4

¡Bienvenido! Por si te sirve de ayuda (para no "partir de cero"), en wikilibros tienes varios libros para tu departamento: Y en la es.wikipedia tienes un montón de artículos, que quizá también puedas usar como referencias (se puede empezar por el artículo sobre informática y la categoría informática).
 * Manual_Básico_para_un_Programador
 * XUL
 * Programemos_en_AspectJ
 * Programación_en_C_(fundamentos)
 * Programación:PHP
 * Introducción_a_Linux

Quizá también te quieras apoyar en las referencias de los dos departamentos más avanzados ahora mismo en castellano, el Departamento de Lingüística y el Departamento de Química (aunque esperamos ser superados pronto por tu departamento, aunque sólo sea por los wikilibros que tendréis a vuestra disposición). O en la School of Computer Science. 4lex 15:56, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Forza4


text:
User:Pedro.del.gallego

Pedro Del Galleog Vida.

Ingeniero Informatico. pedro DOT delgallgo AT javahispano DOT org

title: User:Pedro.del.gallego


text:
Japanese/Japanese writing system

The Japanese language uses three different systems for writing. There are two syllabaries—hiragana and katakana—which have characters for each basic mora (syllable). Along with the syllabaries, there are also kanji, which is a writing system based on Chinese characters. However, kanji have changed since their adoption, so it would not be recommended to learn both Chinese and Japanese writing at the same time.

Kanji
The kanji are logograms (pictures representing words), or symbols, that each represent a morpheme (words or parts of words). Usually, each kanji represents a native Japanese morpheme as well as a loaned Chinese morpheme. This means that each kanji usually has two or more different pronunciations. The different pronunciations of a particular 　(kanji) are called “readings.” It may seem daunting at first, but with extensive practice, knowing when to use which pronunciation will become second nature.

A 漢字 usually has two types of readings:
 * (on'yomi)
 * (kun'yomi)

音読み readings are approximations of the Chinese pronunciations of that particular 漢字. This reading is mostly used for multi-kanji compound words, except for peoples' surnames where 訓読み-reading is used. A kanji may have multiple 音読み. Some kanji are of Japanese origin and thus do not have on-reading. 訓読み readings are the native Japanese sound(s) associated with that 漢字. There can be multiple or no kun readings for the same kanji.

Although there are over 50,000 漢字, the Japanese government has approved 2,136 so-called “daily use” 漢字, known as (jōyō kanji) for publications, but usually about 3000 are recognized by an average adult.

Kana

While Chinese characters are useful for writing a language with so many homophones, the inflections of the Japanese language make it necessary to have a phonetic script to indicate the inflection. A set of Chinese characters, the man'yōgana, were used to represent pronunciation and write words that lacked Chinese characters. Around 800 A.D. these had developed into the cursive hiragana script.

This method of writing was used primarily for poetry or by women, and did not gain recognition as an acceptable way to record historical records or scholarly works.

Another script, the katakana also developed from Chinese characters, some from the same source as the hiragana, but others from different ones. This explains the similarities between some hiragana and katakana, while others are completely different. The katakana is primarily used for foreign loan-words. In other words, the katakana syllabary can be said to be the Japanese writing equivalent of writing in italics.

The two are collectively known as the kana (, e. false name). Both are syllabaries, so there are no isolated consonants, with one exception; the moraic nasal, which sounds similar to most pronunciations of the latin character “n.” Each of the kana contains 45 characters and are typically listed in a table formation called gojūonzu (, e. fifty sounds illustration) but the yi, ye, wi, wu, we sounds are obsolete in modern Japanese, so in fact only 45 sounds exist.

Punctuation
Common punctuation marks are the comma "、" which connects two sentences, and the full stop ". " which indicates the end of a sentence. To separate words that the reader might not otherwise know how to read (most often in the case of foreign words written consecutively in katakana), a middle point "・" is used. Instead of quotation marks, the brackets "「" and "」", and "『" and "』" (for quotes inside of quotes) are used.

Latin alphabet
The Latin alphabet (ローマ字, rōmaji) is not part of the Japanese language but it is used as a fashionable way of writing words, mostly nouns such as the name of a company, business, sports team, etc. Rōmaji is also used for the transliteration of Japanese and to input Japanese text online and in word processors. There are two competing transliteration methods: the Kunrei-shiki developed by the Japanese government in the mid-20th century and taught in elementary school; and the more widely used Hepburn-shiki developed by Reverend James Curtis Hepburn in the late 19th century.

Stroke order
Japanese characters were originally written by brush, and later by pen and pencil, so the stroke order is important. When writing by hand, and particularly in cursive or calligraphic styles, using proper stroke order is crucial. Additionally, some characters look very similar but are written differently. Students who practice both reading and writing can easily distinguish these characters, but students who only practice reading may find it difficult.

The East Asian Calligraphy wikibook has some material on stroke orders.

Mixed usage and notes of interest
There are instances where kanji, hiragana, and katakana may be replaced by another writing style. Frequently, words that have kanji are written in hiragana. Some kanji are simply rarely used but their reading is known. The swallow is called tsubame and has the kanji "燕", but since it is obscure, the word will generally be written out with hiragana: "つばめ".

When writing for an audience that isn't expected to know certain kanji (such as in texts aimed at young people or kanji outside the standard set), their reading is often added on top of, or to the right of the characters, depending on whether they are written horizontally or vertically, respectively. This form of writing is called furigana (振り仮名) or yomigana (読み仮名).

Since kanji can have several different readings, it may not be straightforward to determine how to read a certain word. This problem is particularly pronounced in place names where readings may be highly irregular and archaic.

Though katakana are principally used for loan words from other languages, it can be used for stylistic purposes. Either to highlight a certain word, or give it a different feel (e.g. make it look more hip). Furthermore, since some personal names don't have kanji, but are written in hiragana, personal name readings are generally written in katakana to indicate that these are not the name itself, but simply the pronunciation.

Ateji
The word "club", as it is borrowed from English, will typically be written in katakana as クラブ; however, the kanji 倶楽部 kurabu will also sometimes be used; this use of kanji for phonetic value is called 当て字 ateji. Other times, typically in older texts, grammatical particles are also written in kanji, as in 東京迄行く Tokyo made iku ([I] go to Tokyo), where まで made (to/till) is written in kanji (迄) instead of hiragana.

Numerals
The Arabic numerals, called Arabia sūji (アラビア数字) or san'yō sūji (算用数字) in Japanese, are used in most circumstances (e.g. telephone numbers, pricing, zip codes, speed limit signs and percentages). Kanji numerals can still be found, however, in more traditional situations (e.g. on some restaurant menus, formal invitations and tomb stones).

Vertical and horizontal writing, and page order
Traditionally, Japanese is written in a format called 縦書き tategaki, or vertical writing. In this format, the characters are written in columns going from top to bottom. The columns are ordered from right to left, so at the bottom of each column the reader returns to the top of the next column on the left of the preceding one. This copies the column order of Chinese.

Modern Japanese also uses another writing format, called 横書き yokogaki, or horizontal writing. This writing format is identical to that of European languages such as English, with characters arranged in rows which are read from left to right, with successive rows going downwards.

There are no set rules for when each form has to be used, but usage tends to depend on the medium, genre, and subject. Tategaki is generally used to write essays, novels, poetry, newspapers, comics, and Japanese dictionaries. Yokogaki is generally used to write e-mails, how-to books, and scientific and mathematical writing (mathematical formulas are read from left to right, as in English).

Materials written in tategaki are bound on the right, with the reader reading from right to left and thus turning the pages from left to right to progress through the material. Materials written with yokogaki are bound on the left and the pages are turned from right to left, as in English.

Background reading

 * Okurigana Kana used as suffixes to kanji stems for verb conjugations. Historically, katakana was used. Nowadays, hiragana is used.
 * Man'yōgana Kanji used for their phonetic value to write Japanese, especially for poetry.
 * Kana The simplification of Man'yougana into Katakana and Hiragana
 * Katakana Angular script simplified down to constituent elements from kanji by monastary students. Historically used as okurigana by the educated and government. Nowadays used mainly for writing foreign words.
 * Hiragana Cursive script historically used for informal writing and literature. It became popular among women since they were denied higher education. Hence it also became known as 女手(おんなで) "onnade" (female hand -> women's writing). Nowadays, it has replaced katakana as okurigana and for writing native japanese words.
 * Hentaigana These are the remaining variants of hiragana that were not accepted as part of the standardized hiragana syllabary.
 * Iroha poem This famous poem is written using each mora (syllable) just once. It became the system used to organize the kana syllabary prior to reforms in the 19th century Meiji period, when it became reorganized into its current arrangement. ("n" was not part of the syllabary at the time. It was added later, and interestingly it's actually a hentaigana for "mu")
 * Rōmaji Roman characters (including Arabic numerals) There are three different systems.

title: Japanese/Japanese writing system


text:
A+ Certification

This wikibook discusses the information necessary to obtain the CompTIA A+ certification. The A+ certification is an internationally recognized validation of the technical knowledge required of foundation-level IT practitioners. The CompTIA Network+ and A+ exams can be applied together toward the Microsoft Certified Systems Administrator (MCSA) program.

The A+ certification ensures that the successful candidate has the important knowledge and skills necessary to manage, maintain, troubleshoot, install, operate and configure office computing equipment, describe computing technologies, basic principles, adhere to professional standards, and use testing tools. Although not a prerequisite, it is recommended that CompTIA A+ candidates have at least twelve months of experience in PC repair or adequate academic training.

Book contents

 * /Basic Exam Info/
 * /Exam Objectives/
 * 220-1001
 * Mobile Devices
 * Networking
 * Hardware
 * Virtualization and Cloud Computing
 * Hardware and Network Troubleshooting
 * 220-1002
 * Operating Systems
 * Security
 * Software Troubleshooting
 * Operational Procedures
 * /Exam Prep/

Training

 * Professor Messer YouTube videos and other training resources
 * Comptia A+ Certification provider
 * Total Seminars
 * Pearson IT Certification Home of the Exam Cram Series

title: A+ Certification


text:
User:J Wynia

J Wynia is a web developer and businessman located in St. Paul, Minnesota. He is a partial owner of Pragmapool, Inc. (a small software company) and Myriad Intellect, Inc. (a web technologies company).

title: User:J Wynia


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User talk:Pedro.del.gallego

¡Bienvenido! Espero que te quedes por aquí una temporada, a ver si entre todos conseguimos sacar adelante este proyecto :)

Veo que el Departamento subordinado que has creado no coincide en formato con como lo estamos haciendo en el Wikiversidad:Departamento de Química. El tema de escoger los nombres más adecuados, y relacionarlos entre sí de forma efectiva es complejo, será cuestión de pensarlo, encontrar la mejor manera (quizá podamos mirar cómo lo hacen en la Wikiversity y homogeneizar. En cualquier caso, no hay mucha prisa, ya que nos esperan al menos dos mudanzas: una para irnos a es.wikibooks.org (espero que en las próximas semanas como tarde) y otra, cuando nos den un dominio propio y nos independicemos de wikibooks (espero que para el 2005, si crecemos lo suficiente).

Bueno, pues ¡enhorabuena y adelante! :-D -- 4lex 20:32, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

La organización está por hacer. Cuando esté claro cuántos y quienes vais a trabajar de normal en vuestro área, ya os aclararéis con la estructura por departamento (y, entre vosotros y los de las otras áreas, buscamos una forma de organizarnos que nos satisfaga a todos). Creo que vamos por buen camino, ahora hay que seguir organizándo los departamentos, diseñando programas, recogiendo (o creando, cuando haga falta) bibliografía de la wikipedia y de wikilibros, e incluso ir proponiendo cursos. ¡Y en breve nos mudamos a wikilibros! -- 4lex 12:08, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pedro.del.gallego


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Talk:A+ Certification

Wanna form a team?
List your name:
 * --Cyberman 08:49, 1 July 2005 (UTC)
 * --Thief12 16:17, 14 July 2007 (UTC)
 * --Gadwil 22:32, 31 May 2011 (UTC)
 * --Cte-it (discuss • contribs) 18:33, 25 January 2015 (UTC)
 * --SweBers (discuss • contribs) 13:51, 21 April 2015 (UTC)

Picking back up
It looks like this has been mostly abandoned. Right now, I have a couple of hours a day to dedicate. I'm including this in my continued education of A+ Certification training, and hope to be able to pass this information to others in the future. If anyone else wants to help, I'll greatly appreciate it. I separated the book into parts, so if you just want to pick up a part and edit it or dump info, that would be awesome.

Although the knowledge is encyclopedic in nature, let's try to keep a narrative throughout the book. Also, my ideas may not be the best, so please  BE BOLD ! SweBers (discuss • contribs) 13:51, 21 April 2015 (UTC)

I would, but...
I would help, but I found this because I need to learn all of it. I will definitely contribute some basics once I learn (and pass) the A+ test. Until then, I'll see if I can recruit others to contribute. In september, I go back to school, and I'm pretty sure I could get a teacher to help out (the one who teaches A+ certification, of course)

=I'll help= I'm just about to pass the A+ soon, and time allowing I'll try to make a few additions to the hardware section.

 * --asm2750

Well I'm now certified, I guess I'll put some of my knowledge into this book, hopefully we can get the hardware portion done by December since its a lot of info to go over.

Perhaps I could help.
I've practically completed quite a few certifications and is currently writing a formal book on hardware. drop me an e-mail if you are interested. I'm also looking for some geeks out there that can truly contribute to some real techno discussions and ideas.

email: dccc@tiscali.co.za

nytcrawler

Multi-Page Format
This monolithic page structure isn't working for this book anymore, so I propose that we start a project to break up this book into several pages, with a centralized table of contents, and maybe even a title page. Here are my ideas for the different pages that we can break this book into. In general it is a good idea to have enough material on a page to make it substantial, but not too much that the page becomes gigantic.

 * 1) What is A+?/Introduction
 * 2) Computer Hardware Basics (CPU, RAM, Sockets, Chipsets, Peripherals, etc)
 * 3) Computer Resources (IRQ, I/O Ports, Reserved Memory Ranges, etc)
 * 4) Busses (ISA, PCI, AGP, USB, ect)
 * 5) Drives: Maintenance (fdisk, checkdisk, defrag, etc)
 * 6) Drives: Hardware (IDE, SCSI, RAID)
 * 7) Printers (installation, Terminology)
 * 8) Hardware Installation/upgrading
 * 9) Troubleshooting/Preventative Maintenance
 * 10) Microsoft Windows
 * 11) OS Utilities
 * 12) Boot Process
 * 13) Basic Networking

This is just a basic outline so far, and other people should feel free to comment on it, or to edit it. Also, if the major contributors here are against such an action, say so here, and I will abandon the idea. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:15, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

14. Review Questions

 * I second the multipage translation, it would make additions and navigation much easier Califman831 20:48, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I like this layout. It reminds me of the Network+ Wikibook layout and I think ti would be much easier to follow.  I will try to contribute some time into improving this. -- Gadwil 10:30, 31 May 2011 (UTC -5)

 * I also agree we should have multiple pages. A+ certification is much too broad to keep on one page.  The problem is, the exam seems to be changing faster than the page can keep up.  My vote is to rename the book to the current exam, A+ Certification 220-801/802, and then copy over whatever is relevant to the next exam so that we do not mix irrelevant information with the core material we are attempting to provide.

 * A second question is whether we can provide the exam objectives, or whether we should just link to where they can be found and structure the book around these objectives. I like the idea of WhiteKnight's structure, but the structure is already outdated.  Each chapter could get its own page, but we could be looking at 80 chapters between both exams.   --SweBers (discuss • contribs) 16:22, 10 April 2015 (UTC)

I addded the split tag to the page. Waiting for someone to approve the edit. --SweBers (discuss • contribs) 20:34, 13 April 2015 (UTC)

In adding new content, I've determined that this should be split into numerous pages, with a hierarchical structure, and a link from one page to the next.
 * Page 1 should be an overview, page 2 should outline the Objectives, and double as a TOC for the entire book.
 * Since there are two tests, the book should be split between the two.
 * The tone should be informative and friendly.
 * Many times, the material becomes so dry that it is hard to concentrate.
 * We should describe the hardware and what is pertinent to the exam, then link to the Wikipedia page for further detail.
 * I've seen sidebars on Wikipedia stating that there is a book about a subject, so I wonder if we can't get a similar sidebar from one page to the next.SweBers (discuss • contribs) 17:28, 20 April 2015 (UTC)

I took the test
I just took the hardware test and the questions focus mainly on network connections, I/O ports, and printers.

Rearranged page
This could be a very useful book, but it is just a mess of impertinent, sloppily organized information. I made a start to the organization, but it needs lots of help. J. Finkelstein 01:49, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

I would like to help
I'm taking the exam next week, so I would like to help on this. Tell you all what, if its alright with everybody, I'll work on the boot process. If I don't get a reply from anybody, then I will go ahead and get started. Start with baby steps, work my way up.

Reply:

Right now this wiki states that the power supply is one of the components tested during the POST test.

I believe this is inaccurate. Im pretty sure this is one of the questions on the A+ test.

There is no need to test the power supply because the post will not start until the correct voltage is registed by the power good wire.

Anyway, good work this is a useful wiki.

I Going To Take the Test
I am planning to learn and take the test before the end of the year. This is because certification process is changing in 2011 to where have to renew every three years. I already have a Degree in Information Technology. I realize page is not updated to new standards and objectives of the test.

* --kimiko127

Error on my part, wrong discussion.

Cyberman Gave Up
I gave up on this wikibook. Blah. I would need the work of probably 20+ people to actually build this. --Cyberman 08:48, 1 Jul 2005 (UTC)
 * @Cyberman no disrespect intended moving your comment. I moved this to the bottom of the page because it is a negative statement that might put somebody off helping.  I am currently working on the project, and any help is greatly appreciated. SweBers (discuss • contribs) 13:06, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:A+ Certification


text:
Optics/Authors

Faraaz Damji (Frazzydee) will try and expand this book.

Eric Husman is working on some related wikipedia entries which may be imported to this book

Cesar Cusatis will try to write a short note about this insteresting topic.

JoeyPhoton will help out with the book and anything related to optics, as based on their optics courses.

title: Optics/Authors


text:
User:Sureal

I post up the odd bit or piece on this wiki book. Nothing taxing or special.

As far as LD'ing experince goes, I've had a fair number of LD's (some long, some short, other in between). I'll be forever amazed by it's coolness. And stuff.

Yeah, I'm blabbing on randomly, aren't I? But as I had no idea what to say here, what the hell. Nice weather we're having today, eh?

title: User:Sureal


text:
User:Moridentist

who I am ?
I am a 23 year old iranian boy, studing dentistry

title: User:Moridentist


text:
User talk:Antimobius

Hi Antimobius, I have a big request. Since you are living in Japan, is it possible for you to take photos of Japanese signs? Such as "do not step on the grass", "do not touch", "do not sit", "exit/emergency exit", "taxi stand", "X station", "washing room/toilet/etc", "escalator/elevator", "one way street/no left/right turn", "information desk/reception", "exchange rate", "push/pull", "open/closed/preparing to open", "discount", "ticket office", "ticket gate", "no parking/parking", "no entry", "caution/danger", "under constuction", "no smoking", "please don't litter", etc. Any signs you see when you're out and about that would be useful for a foreigner. Thanks -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 22:33, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Japanese wiki
Hey,

For some reason the Japanese wikibook mailing list disappeared. If you're still interested in working on the Japanese wikibook please sign up for the new Japanese wikibook mailing list. Thanks. - Sik0fewl 02:17, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Antimobius


text:
Prolog/Putting it Together

This section serves both to combine the knowledge from the previous chapters and to review it. Prolog is first explained in more detail, true to its basic structure, and then a small program is presented that combines the knowledge from the previous chapters.

Prolog
A Prolog program consists of a database of rules. These rules are loaded into the compiler. The user can then run queries on the database. The compiler will try to prove that the query is true.

Everything in Prolog is described in logic (Prolog logic is variant of classic predicate- or first order logic). Starting from the atoms (the smallest bits) these are the most important logical symbols that make up a Prolog program or query.

constants
These consist of one or more lowercase characters, starting with a letter. A constant is not made up of other Prolog symbols (it's an atom) and it does not represent anything in the Prolog world except itself. A good way to think of atoms is as the objects of the prolog world. They have no meaning attached to them. Examples of valid constants: foo cd_p0345 a dirk

Variables
Variables are containers. They can represent pretty much any Prolog structure, from constants to predicates. Variables consist of one or more lower- or uppercase characters, starting with an uppercase letter. It's important to note that variables function differently in Prolog than in most programming languages. You do not assign a value to them and then use them, various values are assigned to them by Prolog when you run a query to try and make the query true. Examples of valid variables: B Parent Result

Predicates
Predicates consist of a functor (one or more lowercase characters, starting with a letter), possibly followed by a number of terms between brackets, separated by commas. A predicate is either true or false, based on its terms. Examples of valid predicates: childof(Child, Father) predicate(dog(x), cat(Y)) architect(a_vandelay) termless_predicate

Functions
A function is built up the same way as a predicate, but instead of being false or true, it can represent anything a variable can represent. For instance, the function sqrt(A), will return the square root of whatever number A represents.

Atomic Sentences
An atomic sentence is the smallest part in a prolog program that can take on the meaning true or false. All predicates are atomic sentences. Some other Prolog statements, such as unification (=) are atomic sentences as well. Examples of atomic sentences: childof(george_w_b, george_b) A = tan(B, C) + D

Sentences (and connectives)
Sentences are Prolog constructions that can take on the meaning true or false. Atomic Sentences are of course sentences. Other sentences (i.e., non-atomic ones) are comprised of atomic sentences joined together by connectives. The most important connective in Prolog is, (the "and" connective). If a sentence joins two atomic sentences with a comma, the sentence will be true if (and only if) both atomic sentences are true. Most sentences in Prolog are just a number of predicates with comma's between them, indicating that all atomic sentences need to be true for this sentence to be true. Note: The other connectives, important though they are, will come up later. Examples of sentences. childof(a, b), male(a), female(b) A = B * 3, even(A) dog(poochie), cat(scratchy), mouse(itchy)

Rules
A rule is a special type of sentence. It has a predicate on the left, and a sentence on the right separated by  . It's concluded by a period. Sentences are the lines in a Prolog program. A rule states that the predicate is true if the sentence is true. If there are variables in the rule, then the predicate is true for any instantiation of the variables for which the sentence is true. A rule with no sentence after the predicate (and thus, no  ) is called a fact and is considered true as is. Every sentence in a Prolog program is a rule.

Examples of rules. mother(A) :- has_child(A), female(A). car(porsche). equal(X, X).

Terms
A term is any Prolog construct representing an object. Constants and functions are always terms and variables can represent terms.

Other Prolog concepts are explained in the Glossary.

The Prolog Compiler
The Prolog compiler allows users to run queries on a database of rules (a Prolog program). Queries are special types of rules, with no predicate before the  . Once a query is entered, Prolog will check if it's true, given that the rules in the database are true. If the query has variables, Prolog will attempt to find an instantiation of the variables that will make the query true.

This instantiating of variables is based on the process of unification. If Prolog is trying to verify the query   and encounters the rule   in the database, it will unify the variable X with the constant a. In other words, it will instantiate the variable X to the value a. Since a(a) is true, Prolog will return X = a as a solution. Unification takes two predicates and sees if one can be used to instantiate the variables of the other. The following two predicates unify:

p(A, y) p(z, B) unification: A = z, B = y

As do these:

q(A, [y,z,C]) q(x, B) unification: A = x, B = [y,z,C]

However, these will not unify:

q(A, A) q(x, y)

This is because A can be x or y, but not both. These on the other hand: q(A, B) q(x, x)

will unify, because two different variables can be bound to the same constant.

If Prolog is trying to verify the query   and encounters the rule   It will unify the variable X to the variable A. Neither of the variables are instantiated yet (i.e., have values assigned to them) but they are bound to each other, they can only be instantiated to the same value. Prolog will now add   to its list of queries to verify. If it encounters the rule   in the database, it will (temporarily) instantiate A with c, and try to verify d. If d succeeds, Prolog will return   as a solution to the original query, if Prolog can't find anything in the database that makes d true, Prolog will forget this rule and try to make   true some other way. This is known as backtracking.

An example program
The following program checks if the sum of a list of numbers equals zero:

sum_is_zero(List) :- sum(List, Sum),			% Sum is the sum of the List Sum = 0. % Sum needs to be 0

sum([], 0). % the sum of an empty list is always 0 (stop predicate)

sum([FirstNumber|Tail], Sum) :-		% The list is split into its first number and its tail sum(Tail, TailSum),		% TailSum is the sum of the tail Sum is FirstNumber + TailSum. % Add the first number to that to get the Sum of the list.

The first rule in the program is pretty straightforward. It sums the list, using the sum predicate, and checks if it's equal to zero. The second two rules constitute the sum predicate. The first rule is the stop predicate. It simply states that an empty list has a sum of 0. The second rule first splits its list into a FirstNumber (the first number in the list, the 'head') and a Tail (the rest of the list). It calculates the sum of the tail recursively, and adds the first number to the sum of the tail.

Some queries: ?- sum_is_zero([1, -1]). Yes

?- sum_is_zero([1, 1, -2]). Yes

?- sum([-1.5, 2.7849, 3.383724], A). A = 4.66862 ; No

?- sum([-1.5, 2.7849, 3.383724], 42). No

Exercises
(1) Which of the following predicate pairs unify? If they do, give the instantiation of the variables, if they don't, explain why not.

1 child_of(M, P)  child_of(martha, doug) 2 dog(A) dog(B) 3 f(X, Y, e, Z)  f(a, b, d, c) 4 r(D, F)   r(p, c(martha, D))

previous:Math, Functions and Equality next:Cuts and Negation

title: Prolog/Putting it Together


text:
Cryptography/Timeline of Notable Events

The desire to keep stored or send information secret dates back into antiquity. As society developed so did the application of cryptography. Below is a timeline of notable events related to cryptography.

BCE

 * 3500s - The Sumerians develop cuneiform writing and the Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing.
 * 1500s - The Phoenicians develop an alphabet
 * 600-500 - Hebrew scholars make use of simple monoalphabetic substitution ciphers (such as the Atbash cipher)
 * c. 400 - Spartan use of scytale (alleged)
 * c. 400BCE - Herodotus reports use of steganography in reports to Greece from Persia (tatoo on shaved head)
 * 100-0 - Notable Roman ciphers such as the Caeser cipher.

1 - 1799 CE

 * ca 1000 - Frequency analysis leading to techniques for breaking monoalphabetic substitution ciphers. It was probably developed among the Arabs, and was likely motivated by textual analysis of the Koran.
 * 1450 - The Chinese develop wooden block movable type printing
 * 1450-1520 - The Voynich manuscript, an example of a possibly encrypted illustrated book, is written.
 * 1466 - Leone Battista Alberti invents polyalphabetic cipher, also the first known mechanical cipher machine
 * 1518 - Johannes Trithemius' book on cryptology
 * 1553 - Belaso invents the (misnamed) Vigenère cipher
 * 1585 - Vigenère's book on ciphers
 * 1641 - Wilkins' Mercury (English book on cryptography)
 * 1586 - Cryptanalysis used by spy master Sir Francis Walsingham to implicate Mary Queen of Scots in the Babington Plot to murder Queen Elizabeth I of England. Queen Mary was eventually executed.
 * 1614 - Scotsman John Napier (1550-1617) published a paper outlining his discovery of the logarithm. Napier also invented an ingenious system of moveable rods (referred to as Napier's Rods or Napier's bones) which were a precursor of the slide rule. These were based on logarithms and allowed the operator to multiply, divide and calculate square and cube roots by moving the rods around and placing them in specially constructed boards.
 * 1793 - Claude Chappe establishes the first long-distance semaphore "telegraph" line
 * 1795 - Thomas Jefferson invents the Jefferson disk cipher, reinvented over 100 years later by Etienne Bazeries and widely used a a tactical cypher by the US Army.

1800-1899

 * 1809-14 George Scovell's work on Napoleonic ciphers during the Peninsular War
 * 1831 - Joseph Henry proposes and builds an electric telegraph
 * 1835 - Samuel Morse develops the Morse code.
 * c. 1854 - Babbage's method for breaking polyalphabetic cyphers (pub 1863 by Kasiski); the first known break of a polyaphabetic cypher. Done for the English during the Crimean War, a general attack on Vigenère's autokey cipher (the 'unbreakable cypher' of its time) as well as the much weaker cypher that is today termed "the Vigenère cypher". The advance was kept secret and was, in essence, reinvented somewhat later by the Prussian Friedrich Kasiski, after whom it is named.
 * 1854 - Wheatstone invents Playfair cipher
 * 1883 - Auguste Kerckhoffs publishes La Cryptographie militare, containing his celebrated "laws" of cryptography
 * 1885 - Beale ciphers published
 * 1894 - The Dreyfus Affair in France involves the use of cryptography, and its misuse, re: false documents.

1900 - 1949

 * c 1915 - William Friedman applies statistics to cryptanalysis ( coincidence counting, etc.)
 * 1917 - Gilbert Vernam develops first practical implementation of a teletype cipher, now known as a stream cipher and, later, with Mauborgne the one-time pad
 * 1917 - Zimmermann telegram intercepted and decrypted, advancing U.S. entry into World War I
 * 1919 - Weimar Germany Foreign Office adopts (a manual) one-time pad for some traffic
 * 1919 - Hebern invents/patents first rotor machine design -- Damm, Scherbius and Koch follow with patents the same year
 * 1921 - Washington Naval Conference - U.S. negotiating team aided by decryption of Japanese diplomatic telegrams
 * c. 1924 - MI8 (Yardley, et al.) provide breaks of assorted traffic in support of US position at Washington Naval Conference
 * c. 1932 - first break of German Army ../Enigma machine/ by Rejewski in Poland
 * 1929 - U.S. Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson shuts down State Department cryptanalysis "Black Chamber", saying "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail."
 * 1931 - The American Black Chamber by Herbert O. Yardley is published, revealing much about American cryptography
 * 1940 - break of Japan's Purple machine cipher by SIS team
 * December 7, 1941 - U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor surprised by Japanese attack, despite U.S. breaks into several Japanese cyphers. U.S. enters World War II
 * June 1942 - Battle of Midway. Partial break into Dec 41 edition of JN-25 leads to successful ambush of Japanese carriers and to the momentum killing victory.
 * April 1943 - Admiral Yamamoto, architect of Pearl Harbor attack, is assassinated by U.S. forces who know his itinerary from decrypted messages
 * April 1943 - Max Newman, Wynn-Williams, and their team (including Alan Turing) at the secret Government Code and Cypher School ('Station X'), Bletchley Park, Bletchley, England, complete the "Heath Robinson". This is a specialized machine for cypher-breaking, not a general-purpose calculator or computer.
 * December 1943 - The Colossus was built, by Dr Thomas Flowers at The Post Office Research Laboratories in London, to crack the German Lorenz cipher (SZ42). Colossus was used at Bletchley Park during WW II - as a successor to April's 'Robinson's. Although 10 were eventually built, unfortunately they were destroyed immediately after they had finished their work - it was so advanced that there was to be no possibility of its design falling into the wrong hands. The Colossus design was the first electronic digital computer and was somewhat programmable. A epoch in machine capability.
 * 1944 - patent application filed on SIGABA code machine used by U.S. in WW II. Kept secret, finally issued in 2001
 * 1946 - VENONA's first break into Soviet espionage traffic from early 1940s
 * 1948 - Claude Shannon writes a paper that establishes the mathematical basis of information theory
 * 1949 - Shannon's Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems pub in Bell Labs Technical Journal, based on work done during WWII.

1950 - 1999

 * 1951 - U.S. National Security Agency founded, subsuming the US Army and US Navy 'girls school' departments
 * 1968 - John Anthony Walker walks into the Soviet Union's embassy in Washington and sells information on KL-7 cipher machine. The Walker spy ring operates until 1985
 * 1964 - David Kahn's The Codebreakers is published
 * June 8, 1967 - USS Liberty incident in which a U.S. SIGINT ship is attacked by Israel, apparently by mistake, though some continue to dispute this
 * January 23, 1968 - USS Pueblo, another SIGINT ship, is captured by North Korea
 * 1969 - The first hosts of ARPANET, Internet's ancestor, are connected
 * 1974? - Horst Feistel develops the Feistel network block cipher design at IBM
 * 1976 - the Data Encryption Standard was published as an official Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the US
 * 1976 - Diffie and Hellman publish New Directions in Cryptography article
 * 1977- RSA public key encryption invented at MIT
 * 1981 - Richard Feynman proposes quantum computers. The main application he had in mind was the simulation of quantum systems, but he also mentioned the possibility of solving other problems.
 * 1986 In the wake of an increasing number of break-ins to government and corporate computers, the US Congress passes the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, which makes it a crime to break into computer systems. The law, however, does not cover juveniles.
 * 1988 - First optical chip developed, it uses light instead of electricity to increase processing speed.
 * 1989 - Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau built the prototype system which became the World Wide Web at CERN
 * 1991 - Phil Zimmermann releases the public key encryption program PGP along with its source code, which quickly appears on the Internet.
 * 1992 - Release of the movie Sneakers (film)|Sneakers, in which security experts are blackmailed into stealing a universal decoder for encryption systems (no such decoder is known, likely because it is impossible).
 * 1994 - 1st ed of Bruce Schneier's Applied Cryptography is published
 * 1994 - Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) encryption protocol released by Netscape
 * 1994 - Peter Shor devises an algorithm which lets quantum computers determine the factorization of large integers quickly. This is the first interesting problem for which quantum computers promise a significant speed-up, and it therefore generates a lot of interest in quantum computers.
 * 1994 - DNA computing proof of concept on toy traveling salesman problem; a method for input/output still to be determined.
 * 1994 - Russian crackers siphon $10 million from Citibank and transfer the money to bank accounts around the world. Vladimir Levin, the 30-year-old ringleader, uses his work laptop after hours to transfer the funds to accounts in Finland and Israel. Levin stands trial in the United States and is sentenced to three years in prison. Authorities recover all but $400,000 of the stolen money.
 * 1994 - Formerly proprietary trade secret, but not patented, RC4 cipher algorithm is published on the Internet
 * 1994 - first RSA Factoring Challenge from 1977 is decrypted as The Magic Words are Squeamish Ossifrage
 * 1995 - NSA publishes the SHA1 hash algorithm as part of its Digital Signature Standard; SHA0 had a flaw corrected by SHA1
 * 1997 - Ciphersaber, an encryption system based on RC4 that is simple enough to be reconstructed from memory, is published on Usenet
 * 1998 - RIPE project releases final report
 * October 1998 - Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) becomes law in U.S., criminalizing production and dissemination of technology that can circumvent measures taken to protect copyright
 * October 1999 - DeCSS, a computer program capable of decrypting content on a DVD, is published on the Internet
 * 1999: Bruce Schneier develops the Solitaire cipher, a way to allow field agents to communicate securely without having to rely on electronics or having to carry incriminating tools like a one-time pad. Unlike all previous manual encryption techniques -- except the one-time pad -- this one is resistant to automated cryptanalysis. It is published in Neal Stephenson's Cryptonomicon (2000).

2000 and beyond

 * January 14, 2000 - U.S. Government announce restrictions on export of cryptography are relaxed (although not removed). This allows many US companies to stop the long running, and rather ridiculous process of having to create US and international copies of their software.
 * March 2000 - President Clinton says he doesn't use e-mail to communicate with his daughter, Chelsea Clinton, at college because he doesn't think the medium is secure.
 * September 6, 2000 - RSA Security Inc. released their RSA algorithm into the public domain, a few days in advance of their US patent 4405829 expiring. Following the relaxation of the U.S. government export restrictions, this removed one of the last barriers to the world-wide distribution of much software based on cryptographic systems. It should be noted that the IDEA algorithm is still under patent and also that government restrictions still apply in some places.
 * 2000 - U.K. Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000|Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act requires anyone to supply their cryptographic key to a duly authorized person on request
 * 2001 - Belgian Rijndael algorithm selected as the U.S. Advanced Encryption Standard after a 5 year public search process by National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
 * September 11, 2001 - U.S. response to terrorist attacks hampered by Communication during the September 11, 2001 attacks|lack of secure communications
 * November 2001 - Microsoft and its allies vow to end "full disclosure" of security vulnerabilities by replacing it with "responsible" disclosure guidelines.
 * 2002 - NESSIE project releases final report / selections
 * 2003 - CRYPTREC project releases 2003 report / recommendations
 * 2004 - the hash MD5 is shown to be vulnerable to practical collision attack
 * 2005 - potential for attacks on SHA1 demonstrated
 * 2005 - agents from the U.S. FBI demonstrate their ability to crack WEP using publicly available tools
 * 2007 - NIST announces NIST hash function competition
 * 2012 - proclamation of a winner of the NIST hash function competition is scheduled
 * 2015 - year by which NIST suggests that 80-bit keys for symmetric key cyphers be phased out. Asymmetric key cyphers require longer keys which have different vulnerability parameters.

Crittografia/Linea temporale degli eventi importanti

title: Cryptography/Timeline of Notable Events


text:
Amateur Radio Manual/What is Resistance and Conductance

Unlike an ideal conductor the real material constituting any kind of conductor, e.g. copper, contains in some amount impurities (other materials). Own characteristic qualities to resist to the flow of charges (electrons) if a difference of potential is applied (voltage) can be measured too. Temperature influences heavily this characteristic of resisting to the charges flow. We can imagine that inside the conductor the atoms and electrons become exagitated because of temperature. Higher temperature inducts more exagitation and electrons move in all directions increasing again the resistance of the conductor.

In other words, resistance is a phenomena which counterposes to the ordinate flow of charges in a conductor.

Resistance is measured in Ohm (Ω) (from the German scientist).


text:
User talk:63.241.8.101

Could be User:James Dennett from this IP address. Might not be.

title: User talk:63.241.8.101


text:
World History/Civilization and Empires in the Indian Subcontinent

Origins
Modern humans settled the Indian subcontinent 65,000 years ago. The move towards civilizations began when farming from the Middle East reached the area that is now Pakistan around the 8th millennium BC. Since farming could support much higher population densities than hunter-gatherer societies, it was also accompanied by a large influx of people. However, it was slow spread further into the region due to climate differences.

In the 3rd millennium, a local species millet was domesticated in the south of India by former hunter-gatherers. Also around that time, local species of wild rice were hybridized with domesticated rice from China, allowing farming to spread into the Ganges Valley. As a result, the region's population is primarily descended from the Middle Eastern farmers and the earlier South Asian hunter-gatherers, but there have been other groups who migrated to the region since.

The Indus River Valley Civilizations (ca. 2800 - 1800 BC)
Around 2800 BC, a new civilization rose along the banks of the Indus river (just like other early civilizations, along a river) in India. The place in which it arose was largely ideal, and was well-protected by the natural boundaries of the Hindu Kush Mountains. Although this limited outside contact, it is known that the early Indians used the Khyber pass through this range to communicate with other civilizations. In the future, groups would use this same pass to invade India.

Two major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. These two cities developed at the same time as those in Egypt and Mesopotamia, but were much larger. Together they might have contained 100,000 people and the Civilization may have been as large as 5 million. These cities show remarkable organization, and the civilization seems to be the first to have developed urban central-planning. There were well-organized wastewater drainage systems, trash collection systems, and possibly even public granaries and baths. Most city-dwellers were artisans and merchants. The civilization developed the first accurate system of standardized weights and measures, some as accurate as to 0.001 millimeters. The Indus Valley peoples were adept at using metals as well, showing sophisticated use of bronze, tin, copper, and lead.

The Indus Valley economy was driven largely by trade. They use bull-driven carts to carry goods across distances. The same carts are still used throughout South Asia today. The Indus peoples developed boats, which possibly had sails. In addition, archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal.

In spite of the many achievements of the Indus Valley Civilization, we know very little about them. Their system of writing, the Indus Script, remains undecipherable. We know next to nothing about their use of agriculture, except that they must have used the river's flood deposits and must have had a large agricultural surplus. We have no conclusive evidence about how they were ruled, nor of kings, priests, armies, temples, or palaces. Although the cities contained massive "citadels" their purpose seems largely defensive, even possibly used for floodwater diversion. Scientists do not even know what the Indus Valley peoples called themselves. Also, we do not know what caused their sudden collapse, beginning circa 1900 BC. What we do know is that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization did develop a massive, well-organized, and highly advanced civilization.

The Aryans and the Vedic Culture (c. 1800 - 500 BC)
Spotlight: The Caste System

Around 1800 to 1500 BC, a group of nomadic peoples known as the Aryans traveled from Central Asia to the Indian Subcontinent, probably through the Khyber Pass. Unlike previous tribes in the region, they could ride horses and wheeled vehicles, which gave them a military advantage. The Aryans were the opposite of the Indus River Valley Civilization, in that they left behind voluminous amounts of written and decipherable information but that there are almost no archaeological remains to examine. It is not clear if their arrival had any role in the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Aryans brought with them a system of polytheistic beliefs. Their culture gave rise to the Vedic Culture, whose beliefs were based in a collection of texts called the Vedas and the Upanishads. They spoke Sanskrit, a language which is the ancestor of most modern Indian languages and a major source of words for others. As they did not have writing, they instead had people who were trained to recite them very accurately. Even as the languages of India changed, the reciters tried to keep the old pronunciation as much as possible. Although they have since been written down, this tradition of oral transmission continues today.

Over many centuries, these beliefs would evolve into the religion known as Hinduism. One part of the Vedic religion was the belief in class divisions, which became the forerunner to the Indian caste system. Originally, the caste system was divided into three classes: the warriors on top, the priests in the middle, and the broad mass of the population, the peasants, on the bottom. Eventually, a class of landowners and merchants was created above the peasantry, and the priests, known as Brahmans (not to be confused with Brahman, the Hindu "oversoul"), were elevated above the warriors. However, it was different to later versions of the caste system. For example, there were no "untouchables" and people could move between classes.

Among other oral texts of the Vedic civilization were Aṣṭādhyāyī, a guide to Sanskrit grammar by a scholar called Pāṇini. This is one of the first times that anyone described a language's grammar in detail.

The Mauryan Empire
In later years, the Vedic culture formed small states called janapadas which later merged into larger ones called mahajanapadas. Out of the mahajanapadas came the Mauryan Empire, the first empire to control an area resembling modern India. One of the notable writings of the Mauryan period is the Arthashastra, a detailed set of advice about politics, economics and military tactics. Besides local developments, the move towards larger empires was influenced by contact with outside societies. In 326 BC, Alexander the Great invaded India. He won a battle in the Indus Valley but did not go further as his troops were threatening to mutiny.

After this, the Mauryan Empire began to dominate the Indus and Ganges regions. In the 2nd century BC, the empire became stronger under the leader of Ashoka and reached its maximum size. Ashoka had his laws carved in writing, and these are some of the earliest surviving writings from after the Indus Valley Civilization. The writing system used was the Brahmi script, which is the ancestor of all the indigenous scripts used in modern India. Ashoka also encouraged Buddhism. His successors were not able to maintain the empire and it declined after Ashoka's death, and collapsed 50 years later.


text:
Template:World History/Resources

Maps Resources Contributors' Corner

title: Template:World History/Resources


text:
World History/Maps

Welcome to the World History Project's collection of online maps, which have been made especially for this project. Below you will find them conveniently organized into historical periods, trying to keep at least some semblance of order. If you wish to contribute, please go here.

Contempory maps
Included for use as a comparison with historic maps.

title: World History/Maps


text:
Talk:German/Grammar

Untitled
I think the original author used a somewhat unorthodox sequence of persons and cases. The more common one is:

1st person singular ich 2nd person singular du 3rd person singular  er, sie, es, Sie 1st person plural   wir 2nd person plural   ihr 3rd person plural   sie, Sie

 * There is one mistake above: "Sie" is 2nd person: in Singular it is the polite form of "du", and in plural of "ihr".

1. Nominative der Mann 2. Genitive   des Mannes 3. Dativ      dem Mann 4. Accusative den Mann

Perhaps the corresponding chapters should be changed accordingly? (CKWG)

 * Yes, I did. Feel free to change it to your liking.  I don't know why either the cases or the pronouns are in an "orthodox" order, but there seems to be a typical order for some reason...

---

This seems a bit redundant. Why not just contribute to the existing books? I'll give you an example. Your article on future tense is good. Although there is yet no lesson on that subject in Level I, II, or III, we could easily prepare one using your input as the basis for it. It takes a long time to develop a "complete" lesson, but you have a good start there already. I do not think we need to plan completely out where it must fall (that is, exactly what chapter it needs to be). We simply stick it in as a chapter of, say Level II, then later, move it (actually, change the chapter number) as it becomes obvious that other lessons should proceed or follow it. When you asked about a "grammar" book, I assumed you were going to do just grammar rules. Level III is intended to concentrate more on grammar, which might suit you fine. It appears you would be a good contributor to advancing the book we have already started. What do you say? - Marshman 04:13, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Then, in my eyes, I see two options. Collecting all of the Grammar notes already written and then putting them in this grammar section (perhaps summarising some areas) and also using the grammar section to write grammar help that has not found a home inside one of the lessons.
 * This seems to be what you are presently doing, although for some grammar concepts you are ahead of the "homes". - Marshman
 * OR

 * Simple grammar reference with only the most summarised and basic information and keep the explanations of grammar in the lessons (perhaps links back and forth between the lessons and the notes). --Boit 23:06, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * This was basically the idea for the appendices to the book: basic grammar rules, mostly in tables.

 * If you feel comfortable proceeding with what you are presently preparing, then I'd say continue on. But we should agree that as your lessons become redundant (or actualy, become useful to incorporate into the existing book), we simply move them (or rename the module) into the existing German book.  For example, your lesson on the alphabet is really not much  different from what exists in the first appendix. So that should simply be merged. Other stuff you are or will prepare may be advanced relative to where the book is now, and we can worry about merging it all later. Does this approach make sense? - Marshman 05:31, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

--

I think there should be a topic about "Modalität" (Indikativ, Konjunktiv I, Kunjunktiv II, Imperativ). Here some information if you don't know what I mean:

Indikativ: normal form (the here teached forms). No special mode. Konjunktiv I: Form for the German "reporting speach". There's no other use. Konjunktiv II: Form der Möglichkeit (form of posibility). Imperativ: Form for commands / Befehlsform.

Beispiele:

Indikativ: Er geht aus dem Haus.

Konjunktiv I: Er sagte, er gehe aus dem Haus. ODER Er sagte, er würde aus dem Haus gehen (Mündlich öfter genutzt, aber eigentlich nur erlaubt, wenn die Indikativform sich nicht vom Konjunktuv I unterscheidet.). (Präsens-Stamm + Personalendung).

Konjunktiv II: Wenn du aus dem Haus gingest, wäre ich glücklicher. ODER Wenn du aus dem Haus gehen würdest, wäre ich glücklicher. (Präteritumstamm + Personalendung).

Imperativ: Geh aus dem Haus! (Präsensstamm und selten + "e").

Personalendungen (Konjunktiv I und II):

1. Sg. e 2. Sg. est 3. Sg. e 1. Pl. en 2. Pl. et 3. Pl. en

Bei der würden-Methode wird der Konjunktiv von werden genommen und danach der Imfinitiv des Verbs genommen.

It would be nice if someone writes a topic about that. And for the adjectives: A topic about comparison (Steigerung) is missing.

Prepositions - sentencte unusual
Actually good work now, but there is a little thing (→ Preopsitions) that I as a native would on no way say so:

Nach dem Pfarrer sei Gott gut. Dem Pfarrer nach sei Gott gut.

'Nach' is very unusual at this point. It could be missunderstoud as (Someone said that) after the priest (died), god will be good. -- at least the first version. It is better to use laut:

Laut Pfarrer ist Gott gut.

Also Konjunktiv I is not very common there. One example for Konjunktiv I:

The priest said that good is good. Der Pfarrer sagte, Gott sei gut (/ dass Gott gut sei).

And at last an example for a usage of nach:

Nach Meier gibt es für ein solches Verhalten keinen Grund. (let Meier be the family name of a famous, historical person) According to Meier, there is no reason for such a behavior.

But also there, laut would at no way be uncommon (so if you are not sure, use laut). I don't know how you think about this, but I as an English learning German learn most of all grammar better when I have some examples, not with the rules (But also, I don't know how one can use this for learning German, because of its strict grammar). —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.172.232.3 (discuss • contribs) 23:16, 18 February 2009

 * Thanks for your interest in the book! Unfortunately, as the page edit history shows, there hasn't really been much activity on this book since 2006. Please feel free to be bold and update it to imrove this module. That's what makes the wiki great. :-D --Swift (talk) 16:36, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

 * That's a good objection, but it would be written as follows:

Laut dem Pfarrer sei Gott gut.
 * MrPalpatine 21:23, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Grammar


text:
User talk:Joseignacio

¡Bienvenido! Si puedo ser de alguna ayuda para vuestro trabajo en la Wikiversidad:Escuela de Ingeniería Informática, no tenéis más que pedirlo (tengo algo de experiencia en la Wikipedia, y mucho interés en trabajar en la Wikiversidad, especialmente en el Wikiversidad:Departamento de Química). -- 4lex 05:37, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

=Re: = Muchísimas gracias! Por ahora ya está la escuela estructurada por departamentos y materias y hay muchos cursos propuestos en cada departamento.

Si tienes cualquier sugerencia o propuesta, hay una discusion abierta en la misma escuela acerca del tema.

Por otro lado te invito a comenzar algún curso que pueda ser de tu interes.

Saludos!

title: User talk:Joseignacio


text:
Marathi

마라티어

title: Marathi


text:
Telugu

Welcome to the Telugu wikibook, a free Telugu textbook on the Telugu language.

మీకు తెలుగు చదవటం వ్రాయటం వస్తే, సహాయపడండి. Note: To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display Telugu characters. If the characters in the grey box to the right appear as blank boxes or garbage such as �?�?, it is not properly configured.

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Alphabet and Pronunciation/

 * /History/
 * /Dialects/
 * /Literature/
 * /Transliteration/
 * /Alphabet/
 * /Grammar/
 * /Common Phrases/

Chapters

 * 1) Greetings
 * 2) Talking about oneself
 * 3) Asking questions
 * 4) Liking and disliking
 * 5) Food and Drink
 * 6) Numbers
 * 7) Shopping
 * 8) Staying at hotels
 * 9) Housing
 * 10) Letters
 * 11) Traveling
 * 12) Staying well
 * 13) Emergencies
 * 14) Zodiac Signs

Grammar

 * 1) Sentence Formation
 * 2) Noun
 * 3) Pronoun
 * 4) Verb
 * 5) Adjective
 * 6) Adverb
 * 7) Postpositions
 * 8) Auxiliaries

Vocabulary

 * 1) Animals
 * 2) Birds
 * 3) Body parts
 * 4) Colors
 * 5) Days and Months
 * 6) Directions
 * 7) Dressing
 * 8) Flowers
 * 9) Foods
 * 10) Food Grains
 * 11) Fruits
 * 12) Household objects
 * 13) Music and dance
 * 14) Plants and trees
 * 15) Family relations
 * 16) Stationary
 * 17) Tools
 * 18) Vegetables

title: Telugu


text:
User:Rbarbero~enwikibooks

Nombre: Roberto J. Barbero Pérez e-mail: rbarbero __EN__ qblabs.com

Estoy empezando a participar en el proyecto Wikiversidad, especialmente en la Escuela de Ingeniería Informática, en las áreas de conocimiento de redes, seguridad e inteligencia artificial.

title: User:Rbarbero~enwikibooks


text:
High School Mathematics Extensions/Mathematical Proofs/Solutions

Mathematical induction exercises
1.
 * Prove that 12 + 22 + ... + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
 * When n=1,
 * L.H.S. = 12 = 1
 * R.H.S. = 1*2*3/6 = 6/6 = 1
 * Therefore L.H.S. = R.H.S.
 * Therefore this is true when n=1.
 * Assume that this is true for some positive integer k,
 * i.e. 12 + 22 + ... + k2 = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6
 * $$\begin{matrix}1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2 + ... + k^2 & = & \frac{k(k+1)(2k+1)}{6} \\ 1^2 + 2^2 + 3^2 + ... + k^2 + (k+1)^2 & = & \frac{k(k+1)(2k+1)}{6} + (k+1)^2 \\ \ & = & \frac{1}{6}(k+1) \left [ k(2k+1) + 6(k+1) \right ] \\ \ & = & \frac{1}{6}(k+1) \left [ 2k^2 + 7k + 6 \right ] \\ \ & = & \frac{(k+1)(k+2)(2k+3)}{6}\end{matrix}$$
 * Therefore this is also true for k+1.
 * Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, this holds for all positive integer n.

2.
 * Prove that for n ≥ 1,
 * $$ (1 + \sqrt{5})^n = x_n + y_n\sqrt{5}$$
 * where xn and yn are integers.
 * When n=1,
 * $$1 + \sqrt{5} = x_1 + y_1\sqrt{5}$$
 * Therefore x1=1 and y1=1, which are both integers.
 * Therefore this is true when n=1.
 * Assume that this is true for some positive integer k,
 * i.e. $$ (1 + \sqrt{5})^k = x_k + y_k\sqrt{5}$$ where xk and yk are integers.
 * $$\begin{matrix} (1 + \sqrt{5})^k & = & x_k + y_k\sqrt{5} \\ (1 + \sqrt{5})^{k+1} & = & (x_k + y_k\sqrt{5})(1 + \sqrt{5}) \\ \ & = & x_k + y_k\sqrt{5} + x_k\sqrt{5} + 5y_k \\ \ & = & (x_k + 5y_k) + (x_k + y_k)\sqrt{5} \end{matrix}$$
 * Because xk and yk are both integers, therefore xk + 5yk and xk + yk are integers also.
 * Therefore this is true for k+1 also.
 * Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, this holds for all positive integer n.

3. (The solution assume knowledge in binomial expansion and summation notation)
 * Note that
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^n[i^k - (i-1)^k] = n^k$$
 * Prove that there exists an explicit formula for
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^ni^m$$ for all integer m. E.g.
 * $$1^3 + 2^3 + ... + n^3 = \frac{n^2(n+1)^2}{4}$$
 * It's clear that 11 + 21 + ... = (n+1)n/2. So the proposition is true for m=1.
 * Suppose that
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^ni^j$$
 * has an explicit formula in terms of n for all j < k (**), we aim to prove that
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^ni^k$$
 * also has an explicit formula.
 * Starting from the property given, i.e.
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^n[i^{k+1} - (i-1)^{k+1}] = n^{k+1}$$
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^n[i^{k+1} - \sum_{j=0}^{k+1} {k+1 \choose j} i^j] = n^{k+1}$$
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^n[i^{k+1} - {k+1 \choose k+1} i^{k+1} - \sum_{j=0}^k {k+1 \choose j} i^j] = n^{k+1}$$
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^n[\sum_{j=0}^k {k+1 \choose j} i^j] = n^{k+1}$$
 * $$\sum_{j=0}^k[\sum_{i=1}^n {k+1 \choose j} i^j] = n^{k+1}$$
 * $$\sum_{j=0}^k[{k+1 \choose j} \sum_{i=1}^n i^j] = n^{k+1}$$
 * Since we know the formula for power sum of any power less then k (**), we can solve the above equation and find out the formula for the k-th power directly.
 * Hence, by the principle of strong mathematical induction, this proposition is true.

Additional info for question 3
 The method employed in question 3 to find out the general formula for power sum is called the method of difference, as shown by that we consider the sum of all difference of adjacant terms.

Aside from the method above, which lead to a recursive solution for finding the general formula, there're also other methods, such as that of using generating function. Refer to the last question in the generating function project page for detail.


text:
File:Hira a.gif

created using AdGif (Trial version)

title: File:Hira a.gif


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Template:Geometry/TOC

{{#ifeq:{{SUBPAGENAME}}|Print version||

Navigation
}}
 * |Geometry Main Page
 * Motivation
 * Introduction
 * /Chapter 1 - HS Definitions and Reasoning (Introduction)
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Lesson 1 Introduction
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Lesson 2 Reasoning
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Lesson 3 Undefined Terms
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Lesson 4 Axioms/Postulates
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Lesson 5 Theorems
 * Geometry/Chapter 1/Vocabulary Vocabulary
 * /Chapter 2 Proofs
 * /Chapter 3 Logical Arguments
 * /Chapter 4 Congruence and Similarity
 * /Chapter 5 Triangle: Congruence and Similiarity
 * /Chapter 6 Triangle: Inequality Theorem
 * /Chapter 7 Parallel Lines, Quadrilaterals, and Circles
 * /Chapter 8 Perimeters, Areas, Volumes
 * /Chapter 9 Prisms, Pyramids, Spheres
 * /Chapter 10 Polygons
 * /Chapter 11 $$\R,\R^2,\R^3$$
 * /Chapter 12 Angles: Interior and Exterior
 * /Chapter 13 Angles: Complementary, Supplementary, Vertical
 * /Chapter 14 Pythagorean Theorem: Proof
 * /Chapter 15 Pythagorean Theorem: Distance and Triangles
 * /Chapter 16 Constructions
 * /Chapter 17 Coordinate Geometry
 * /Chapter 18 Trigonometry
 * /Chapter 19 Trigonometry: Solving Triangles
 * /Chapter 20 Special Right Triangles
 * /Chapter 21 Chords, Secants, Tangents, Inscribed Angles, Circumscribed Angles
 * /Chapter 22 Rigid Motion
 * /Appendix A Formulae
 * /Appendix B Answers to problems
 * Appendix C. /Postulates & Definitions
 * Appendix D. /The SMSG Postulates for Euclidean Geometry

title: Template:Geometry/TOC


text:
Talk:Introduction to Art

Some thoughts about the organization of this text:

Since this book is primarily about art in a visual medium, should it be retititled "Visual Art" or perhaps even more narrowly focused?

Also, since the history of visual art and the techniques of visual art are each such vast subjects, should they not be split into separate books?

Is the focus to be more on "fine" or "commercial" art?

There are whole sections of "Visual Art" that are left out in the rough outline, such as engraving, woodcuts, and printmaking generally.

Has anyone considered the image requirements such a project will really require? Most art books I have read have at least hundreds of images in them, and this one seems to require many thousands. How will so many images be sourced?

I realize that a lot of these questions might seem like splitting hairs, but I think that the scope of the project should be more clearly outlined. Additionally, I think that the present scope of this text is too wide, and might be off-putting to potential authors.

My idea is to split this book into several smaller, more easily managable topics, rather than have the single omnibus of "Art".Some suggestions for splitting the single subject into more manageable chunks would be along these lines:
 * A History of the Visual Arts
 * The Techniques of Fine Art
 * The Techniques of Graphic Art (or Commercial Art)
 * Other refinements as necessary. (e.g. "A History of Fine Art Techniques from the Middle Ages Through the Present")

--Chuck Hoffmann 17:56, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * It seems to me that what you have here is the foundation for an "Art 101". Other people are delving in-depth into individual works.  You have the makings of a good introduction to those more in-depth works.

--203.113.235.149 11:16, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

a couple of thoughts: as an art appreciation teacher, I like the idea of an "Art 101" resource designed to introduce readers to what art is, various art media/methods, a basic overview of art history, etc. Very useful for art history/art appreciation students & people who just love art & want to expand their knowledge. Splitting the book as Chuck Hoffman suggests seems reasonable for the purposes of managability, but might not result in a single resource for people who want a very basic intro to the visual arts, art appreciation, etc. Also, as a writer mentions later, it seems to me that it would be a bit tragic if this turned into just a manual of techniques for artists, though such a manual should certainly exist! Anyway, I'm not sure what the solution is in terms of whether to split this work into smaller books or keep as a broad overview of the visual arts. However, in defense of the latter, following is how I organize my art appreciation classes (I've also seen an organization like this in many art appreciation textbooks) -- it is similar to the organization you have so far, but with some key differences & condensations. Maybe useful...? Anyway, it looks really promising & I'll try to add some material to the sections that already exist as time permits. --robotkultur 28 Jan 2005
 * Introduction (organization of the course(book); what is art; how art is used, enjoyed, and displayed; museums and galleries)
 * The Artist (who makes art; the role of the artist in different cultures; the creative process)
 * Media/Methods (basic overview of media/methods -- similar to the list that already exists, but the stuff in appendix B could easily be incorporated into a media/methods chapter)
 * Elements of art (line, shape, color, texture, etc.; stylistic categories)
 * Methodologies for Examining art (formal analysis, social/cultural analysis, biographical analysis, feminism, psychoanalysis, etc.)
 * Art History (very basic overview -- Paleolithic/Antiquity/Medieval/Renaissance/Modern/Contemporary)

re: categorisation of comics
As you noted, comics aren't a method of drawing, they're a method of representing the flow of time via static art, and you have drawn comics, painted comics, photo comics etc. Though AFAIK, noone's ever done it, theoretically you could probably even have sculpture comics.

Comics are underrepresented in art texts and it would be a shame to leave that section out. I think probably the best place for the comics section is linked from the representative art section. I probably wouldn't leave the link on the master contents page though, unless you intend to have a number of subitems under representative art. --203.113.235.149 08:26, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * In a broad but real sense much of the Disney park experience is a comic in sculpture form, as are wax museums and similar displays. :)--R Hole Jr 00:03, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not familiar with Disney park or wax museums in detail, but if the sculptures tell a sequential story then they could probably loosely be called comics, though we'd probably be breaking new ground in doing so...

--203.113.235.149 11:16, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The concept of sculpture that portrays a linear narrative is not new, early babylonian artists worked mainly in this form. It is usually refered to as a 'tableux' in the round or a 'frieze' in relief. Not wishing to be too much of a negative contributor I would like to say that there is far more information here if you simply be more precise in the language that you use. Comic means 'funny', most comics that we think of (graphic novels) are drawn as carcature, or as bon desiné in the form of storyboards (a technique also used for film, video, animation and even graphic design). there is a massive area of british art history that revolves around caricature and political satire by artists such as William Hogarth. As for cartoon, it simply means preliminary drawing or sketch, see Leonardo Da Vinci's Cartoon for the madona and child. Disney's theme parks are fine examples of theatre design.

80.0.168.8 01:09, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

The late great Will Eisner tried to retitle the art of "Comics" as Sequential Art. However, comics theorist Scott McCloud in his 1990 graphic novel Understanding Comics defined the art form again as Comics: Juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer. I tend to disagree with the "deliberate" part as experimental Dada-esque comics such as 5 Card Nancy (invented by McCloud himself!) show that random sequencing is equally as valid. Also, comics theorist Neil Cohn and others would argue that they would rather bring respect to the word Comics than find a respected word to bring to the artform. I tend to agree.

As for the history of comics, again I sight McCloud and UC: Comics have a history that can be traced to the pre-Columbian picture manuscript "Ocelot's Claw", the Bayeux Tapestry detailing the Norman Conquest, and even some Egyptian Hieroglyphics such as the one he sights from Menna's tomb.

As for the future of comics, I myself am building 3D comics in virtual space using the MUVE platform of Second Life. In the classroom my students are working on "Site Specific Comics": installation works that bring a narrative to a place, about that place, while in effect changing it.--Anthony 19:25, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

re: the scope and general TOC of this text
I would agree that if it's only covering visual arts it should be renamed to reflect that, so that performing or audio arts texts could be added elsewhere. I'm also rather confused from the layout of the TOC whether this is primarily intended as a how-to/method guide (for artists) or a history/introduction guide (for viewers). There's use for both of course. I'm just not sure of the intent of the organizer. Any enlightenment would be appreciated, so I don't head off in an unintended direction. --R Hole Jr 00:03, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Isn't this something we just decide: what we want this book to be? I agree that we need to make some serious decisions about what this is going to be. I'd be most interesting in turning what we've got into a manual on techniques (Fine and Commercial are so similar when it comes to technique I hate to separate them). Maybe an introduction to developing techniques rather than a dictionary of techniques? In this context art history could fit in as an artistic discipline. Then we would only be responsible for laying a groundwork for further investigation instead of actually trying to present any cohesive history of art.

--Matt S 11:07, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Seems to me that this is already headed in the direction of an overview for an Art Appreciation class and would be best to continue in that direction. Although it certainly needs more sections, keeping them brief, with the addition of a good bib at the end of each section would also be really helpful to both the student as well as the general reader. I plan on doing some writing myself on one or two of the sections, hopefully in the next couple of days. LeighBdswagger 08:28, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

Fine & Commercial Art?
I am really suprised to see people still using the old labels for art school courses Fine Art and Commercial Art. I thought these were put to bed in the early sixties. Most people refer to them as Visual art now - it avoids that weird critic driven attempt to add expensive sounding mystique. Visual art by itself is adequate to describe contemporary art, painting, sculpture, and all the usual suspects (fashion, textiles, film, video, animation, ceramics (please dont call it pottery) even performance). all of the above are comercial, how else could you make a living from them? If you really need to make a distinction between the arts that are done for exhibition and those done for some commercial application (which in my experience tend to merge anyway) just call them by their names, design, product design, illustration, typography, calligraphy etc.

sorry to go off on one at my first visit, just seem to spend a lot of my time dealing with this stuff. the wikibook is a fantastic idea and the TOC looks like a really good start. remember to try and keep creative yourself while writing it.

Oh yes i am going to change the word Sculpting to sculpture in the TOC, sculpting is a dubious present participal for sculpture and as such it doesn't work as a descriptive for the activity 'Sculpture'. Someone is a sculptor they work in the discipline of sculpture when they make something they sculpt it can then be said to be sculpted they could be said to be sculpting at any particular moment - but more likely would use the description that fits the activity i.e. carving or modelling

80.0.168.8 01:47, 28 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Maybe we can advertise for help in various art fourms such as conceptart.org, gfxartist.com, deviantart.com and others. I'm sure that conceptart would love to help write an "everything visual arts" book.

I started a book Art_Tutorials which is trying to be strictly tutorials, tips, techniques, and lessons. Someone posted in my book that it should be merged with this one. After reviewing this book, I don't think it should. This book states that it will eventually have lessons or something of the sort, but with the actual direction of the book, i don't think it should. I don't think a tutorials book needs a section on "What is art" nor an overview of each medium as a main point. The intro also states that this book itself is only an overview book. I think there needs to be something more indepth, which Art_Tutorials was intended to become. One final arguement... the name of this book is ART. Perhaps if it sticks to its original mission it needs a rename and to be replaced with a book that is in fact an Arts 101 course type book. I'm not seeing any lessons/tutorials yet on this book. Can we just drop that and keep it as a Arts 101 type book?

Like someone stated up above, this book seems like a great Art 101 in the making, and I think having tutorials would just clutter it up. While history is somewhat important while learning skills, the two should be separate from a text book standpoint. Perhaps this book can focus more on introductory topics, and the Art_Tutorials book can stick to tutorials. Anythoughts? Feel free to post in the Art_Tutorials discussion page too. --Blainegarrett 15:20, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

A tutorial, as often seen on the internet, is a walk through of sorts. A how-to guide. A text like this one has the potential to be a thorough Introduction to Art, like many University or College students receive in their first year (or Foundation level) of classes. It should therefore, include in-depth coverage of methods, elements and principles, critical evaluation, and contemporary issues both formal and conceptual.

It may make sense to rename it "Introduction to Visual Art" unless audio, performing, film or otherwise will be covered.

I do however think these sections: How to Make a Living Practical Approach for the Artist - Legalities Learning copyrights, attribution laws, contractual arrangements. - Finer points for Contemporary Fine Artists – Should be moved to their own chapter and not places soley under 2D.

Also, since there is an Art History Wiki Book started I think it would make more sense to point and add, when necessary, to it rather than write one here. Unless of course it would be an Intro or Survey type section (again like most Universities offer to freshman). --Anthony Fontana 19:26, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Art


text:
User talk:Pendragon~enwikibooks

¡Bienvenido! Si puedo ser de alguna ayuda (tengo alguna experiencia en la wikipedia), cuenta conmigo. Si no, pues cuenta conmigo igualmente como compañero de wikiversidad ;) Yo trabajo en el Wikiversidad:Departamento de Química. -- 4lex 21:31, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pendragon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pendragon~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:22, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pendragon~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Rbarbero~enwikibooks

¡Bienvenido! Si puedo ser de alguna ayuda (tengo alguna experiencia en la wikipedia), cuenta conmigo. Si no, pues cuenta conmigo igualmente como compañero de wikiversidad ;) Yo trabajo en el Wikiversidad:Departamento de Química. -- 4lex 21:31, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rbarbero. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rbarbero~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rbarbero~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:German/Level I

Creating Review one
Why not combine the test's from all the first 3 lesson and use it as a huge review... A simple past and edit. --Andrewcool 02:36, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

In level 1 Section I.3, no section mentions the question words... --cwwongak 06:35, 2 Jan 2017 (GMT+8)

Look of the contents pages
The number of images on the contents page (especially this level) is a bit excessive. In Firefox, the castle photo squashes the text and the three bits of clipart as well as levels 1, 2 and 3 together. However, in Internet Explorer, it looks even worse with a large gap of white space. I propose losing the clipart (you never see clipart in the contents pages of textbooks)

 * That's fine by me. Actually, the white space was there before I put the clipart in, and I thought that it would liven up the page (I use IE). If we reformat the page as you suggest, could we add the clipart back in? Of course, it would be nice if we could get actual photos, or a good artist... Anyway, would you happen to know if there's a way to make the castle photo some kind of background? - SamE 00:40, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Activity
I was just curious about how active this book actually is. I am interested in using this German book to assist me in my learning but as of now it does not appear to have much activity in the building of it.

Will the book have added pages soon? --Mitchowen 16:58, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know how active this book is either, as I just started working on it myself. However, I for one plan on updating rather frequently, adding vocabulary and writing problems and review pages, and whatever else I can get around to. --MasterSheep 22:35, 22 December 2005 (UTC)

Pronunciation
I think information on how to pronounce the phrases given (for example the hellos and goodbyes) would be good... Sotakeit 18:54, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

I think the reviews are going to have the pronuctions. So we don't need them in the main lessons...German Man92 16:56, 3 Feb. 2006 (UTC)

Long 'S'
There are several occurrences of the long 's' in titles throughout this book, but always as |, which to me just looks plain ugly. Why not use ſ (Unicode U+017F) instead?

This:   A Beginners Course in German

rather than this:   A Beginner| Cour|e in German --Xeon 00:36, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

It isn't long s, in the schwaben alt font "s" is "ſ", and "|" is "s" --German Men92 20:43, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

 * 1st: there isn't a "|" in the german language anymore. 2nd: the schaben alt font is not representative for the german language. 3rd: why should we use the schaben alt font? 4th: i did't know the | until today (I'm german) -- 213.39.233.138 02:27, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Actually the schwaben font in very representative for the german language. It was widely used in German, until hitler took over and called it "jewish", and I don't want to use the long s, I want to use the normal s, use requires me useing "|". --German Men92 02:34, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

 * "Actually the schwaben font in very representative for the german language". No, it was representative until 16th century. "it was replaced by the fraktur as the most-used German typeface". OK, we can use something like but A Beginner| Cour|e in German is an ugly typo (except for  you) :) --213.39.233.138 17:07, 15 May 2006 (UTC)

Just a short info about the "ſ". This letter never used to occur in the end of a syllable, hence "Beginner's" would always have been written with an "s" (indicating the end of a syllable was the point of using two kinds of "s" in the first place - e.g. in "Häschen" - not "Häſchen"). As for the "ſ" in today's German - it is non-existent. Thus, I would suggest removing it all together. After all, learning a historical version of German won't be of much help to a beginner after all. --Martin, Eichendorffschule 23:00, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

 * We shouldn't use special fonts for this purpose. It's okay in the PDF version, but here most people are just going to see "A Beginner| Cour|e in German".--Aleron235 19:25, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

Where are the tests?
Why are there no tests present on this page? I would like to learn German using this text, but I find it most difficult without the tests. Please post them if possible.

Answer to above problem: the tests are there. you go under the test bracket on the page and click the drop down arrow next to the word 'problems'. this is your test.

where is the test bracket i could not find  on the page

Low Volume
Hello ,the volume is too lowwwww! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.38.88.245 (discuss) 10:43, 25 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I tend to agree & will see what I can do about it. Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 18:34, 25 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I have now modified the audio files used in Lesson 1, which I think gives a worthwhile improvement. There may be more work to do on the other lessons though. Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 21:27, 25 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks, I think the files for Lesson 1 are now OK. Just a remark: adjusting the volume for each file usually solves the problem for me. However, this is of course inconvenient. --Martin Kraus (discuss • contribs) 12:39, 26 October 2011 (UTC)

Update Question
Hi I am loving this Wikibook and would like to thank all the kind people for putting it together, I see the updates on it were done long ago, anyone knows when or how it'll be developed. At least the beginner course?

english
dialogs 41.115.49.99 (discuss) 20:21, 11 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level I


text:
Talk:Dog Care

I thought I found this book originally because it had a link on the main page, but now I can't find it anywhere (it's not even in the old revision of the Miscellaneous topics template, which is where I thought it was). It's not listed on the All books page. Shouldn't there be links here from those assorted places? Elf 00:42, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * It's only a couple weeks old. I haven't put it on the main page or any other list, though I did link to it from Lachatdelarue's talk page en.wikipedia.  Yes, there should be links here from bookshelf pages and such. TUF-KAT 15:56, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Also--do we want to include Training topics under dog care, or would that be a different book, do you think? Elf 00:59, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * There should be a link there from here, but I lean towards a separate book. TUF-KAT 15:56, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Also (can't shut me up)--what did you have in mind with the "Breeds" section? Elf 00:59, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * It should have info on specific health problems associated with specific breeds, as well as anything useful to people trying to choose a breed (i.e. whether or not its good with kids, barks a lot, dog-aggressive or territorial, etc). TUF-KAT 15:56, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I'm a vet student, if you wonder about where I'm getting my information. Do either of you have expertise in dog care, or are you just highly motivated dog owners? I added this to the miscellaneous bookshelf, by the way. Tormod 00:36, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

It's wonderful to have you here, Tormod--you can see that I hardly ever get over here to this Wiki site; most of my editing I do on Wikipedia. I've owned 5 dogs over time and lived with others; I compete in dog agility with my dogs and spend a lot of time with other competitors discussing and evaluating dog health--many competitors are also responsible breeders of working dogs or the occasional vet. So I have spent a tremendous amount of time around many dogs and dog owners over the last 10 years. I've got a fairly extensive dog-related library. My vet appointments go on for very long because I always ask every question I can think of. My various instructors have always been very well-educated dog care-givers, trainers, and behaviorists, and I've spent many years with a variety of dogs and owners in training classes. So I guess you could say I'm a highly motivated and fairly well educated dog owner. I'm glad to see the heavy-handed restraining stuff taken out of the section on giving medicine but I was hesitant to remove it myself because I have heard and read that advice before (I added the material about giving it in food etc. because I've never had to restrain any of my dogs and neither has anyone else I've known when we've discussed it). I feel that I know more about general dog care and training than 95% of the "average man on the street" who owns a dog--usually overweight and with obedience problems ;-) . Elf 03:55, 1 Mar 2005 (UTC)

I'm not a dog owner at the moment, but I am a veterinary technician (unlicensed). TUF-KAT 02:06, 4 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Merge with Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book chapter
It was recently suggested that this chapter in the Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book be merged with this one. Although I'm sure there's a lot of overlap between these two, it will totally not serve the purpose of the Adventist Youth (AY) book.

The AY book is meant to serve as a resource for Pathfinder leaders. Pathfinders is a scouting organization operated by the Seventh-day Adventist church, and the "honors" that we answer there are very much like Boy Scout Merit Badges. We are not at liberty to alter the requirements of the honor, so we must structure the answers to address the honor requirements.

Since we really cannot alter the structure of the AY book, merging would not serve our interests. However, we would be very happy to transclude portions of this Dog Care book, and even contribute material. Jim Thomas 03:20, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dog Care