text:
Talk:Topology

I'm glad to see that someone has started working on a topology textbook. I would like to start making a few additions, and I have a few ideas for the direction I would like to see the book take. I would like to chat / collaborate with anyone else interested in contributing, and I hope that no one takes personal offense to my edits.

 * Billk 06:24, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I've made a few clarifications and additions. I'm also interested in discussing how to structure the book, if anyone else interested in editing it is still around, but if not I'll probably go ahead and change things.  In particular, I note that the page naming convention seems inadwquate, and I'd like to move a lot of the pages, to a "Topology:" prefix. J Bytheway 20:29, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * You do know about Allen Hatcher's Algebraic Topology book, no? It's a free book, available on his website.

http://www.math.cornell.edu/~hatcher/AT/ATpage.html

Zorn's Lemma, AoC in the prereqs?
Is it really a good idea to put these in the prereqs without qualification? I mean, you can get through a fair part of basic topology without ever needing to invoke ZL or AoC. In the two books I have handy, they introduce AoC and prove Zorn's Lemma and then get to using it. I think it is a similar problem to the use of the word "Monad" in Haskell, it sounds scary, and so people may be offput from _using_ this (lovely) wikibook if they see these things, even though the subjects are not (IMO) super-difficult to grasp. Any thoughts, perhaps just qualifying them with a "For Section Foo, will need Zorn's Lemma and the AoC" or even just shoving them into the text as an Aside? Jfredett (talk) 05:50, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

Format
Much has been discussed about content, but not about formatting, what should the format of each chapter be? I, given my experience, can deal with a simple, linear "(Theorem-Proof)*" format, others will likely prefer different. As it stands, there seems to be no standard format, some pages (such as the Completeness page) are the TP* style, some are more structured (like the page on the Fundamental Group. I'm happy to do the grunt work of rearranging the material, I just want to know if there is a standard format being used. Perhaps it would be wise to create a "Writing Standards" page somewhere with the format and organization rules organized there? Jfredett (talk) 05:50, 30 October 2009 (UTC)

Work to be done
Hello, i just saw this book. and it seems to have lots of potential. I think we should list the subjects we would like to see in it, and evaluate them:
 * How important they are?
 * How diffecult to understanding ?
 * This will mean more examples. I personaly thing that you can never have to many examples.

Here is an initial list of subjects as i see it (ordered as the should appear. ):
 * 1) Metric spaces (the reason in the iterm below), importantcy: high
 * 2) suequences and convergence importantcy: high
 * 3) open and closed sets ( For this i think it is perferable to explain about metric spaces first, when it is more intuitive to undersanded and motivated.) importantcy: high
 * 4) continueity importantcy: high
 * 5) sub spaces importantcy: low
 * 6) Topological Space. importantcy: high
 * 7) closed and open sets importantcy: high
 * 8) The metric induced topology importantcy: medium
 * 9) Co-finite topology. importantcy: medium
 * 10) sub spaces importantcy: low
 * 11) continueity importantcy: high
 * 12) homermorphism. importantcy: high
 * 13) definition of a topological proprety, and basic examples.
 * 14) Speration axioms.
 * 15) continueity
 * 16) compactness
 * 17) connectedness
 * 18) ... to be continued (by you ?)

write them (according to importance). Only after covering one subject completly, we will move to the next.

You are invited to contibue to this list. I think that by this way we can consentrate efforts, to make this book more usable, quickly.

If you think this idea is bad, i would like to hear it too.

If no one will object in the next month, i shall consider it as agreeing, and redesign the book to suit this proposed structure.

--Uvgroovy 19:14, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

Proposal for further improvements
Hello everyone!

I've seen the book and I would like to discuss further improvements to it.

I think that before adding any new materials to it, we should discuss the organization of the book in parts, chapters and sections.

Division of the book in parts

In my opinion the present divison of the book in 5 parts should be kept for now, namely

1. Introduction

2. Point-set topology

3. Algebraic topology

4. Differential topology

5. Help

Contents of each part

1. Introduction

This part should contain introductory material on set theory, basic algebraic structures (group, ring, module), and a survey on real numbers and real functions of a real variable. Everything that we need before starting.

2. Point-set topology

Here I express what I know to be a controversial direction in teaching topology: I believe the general topological space should be presented before the metric space. Reasons for that:

- Abstract distance is not easier to understand than general topology. Take for example the euclidean straight, plane or space with the metric which, given two points in it, associates 0 or 1, whether the points are the same or different. And now explain to a freshman that this distance is so much a distance in each of its particulars as the usual distance and wait for his comments.

- To a certain degree one can present metric independently of topology: definition of metric, sub-space, balls, limited set, Cauchy sequence - none of this concepts needs topology.

- But when one comes to the matters of closeness, convergence, adherence, continuity, there's nothing why one should present it firstly on a metric space, they are just topological aspects which metric spaces possess among others.

Now, I believe one should gather in different bags what is hard to comprehend and what is a piece of cake though necessary (an unecessary piece of cake shouldn't even be mentioned). The concept of topology is necessary but a piece of cake. Such are all the basics one can say about it: sub-space, closure, neighbourhood, interior and so on.

I believe that compactness and connectedness are hard bones in topology. That, and their applications in other mathematical branches, demand they should be gathered in a single chapter for mind-order's sake as for easing the work of analists, geometers and so on, who know topology well but just need a quick view of the bone. On the other hand all the basic topological constructions such as cartesian product, quotient space, space summing and glueing are nothing but technical instruments, constantly being used in every branch of mathematics needing topology, but uninteresting for itself (unless one's in a cathegory theory discussion).

I also believe one should take a short look to "general countability" and "general uniformity" before realizing that metric has all these propierties.

Thus I propose that part 2 should be organized in chapters and sections as follows

1. Topology

1.1. topology (including definition, open and closed sets, sub-space, base and generated topology, neighbourhood, interior, exterior, border, closure, density)

1.2. separation properties (including Hausdorff topology and other separation axioms)

1.3. limit and continuity (including concepts of convergence, adherence, continuity in a point and in a set, homeomorphism)

1.4. topological constructions (including quotient, product, sum, wedge-sum, glueing and others)

2. Compactness and connectedness

2.1. compactness (including definition, results on compactness and closeness, Thychonoff's Theorem, local compactness, Alexandroff's compactification, normal space)

2.2. connectedness (including connectedess, path-connectedness and local connectedness)

3. Countability, uniformity and metric

3.1. countability (including the first and second axioms of countability, sequential closure)

3.2. uniformity (including Cauchy property, uniform continuity, completness)

3.3. metric (including definition, ball, limitated set, uniform structure of metric, topology of metric)

3.4. countability and uniformity of metric (how sequences suffice in metric to describe limit and continuity, completness in metric spaces Lipschitz property, Banach's fixed point theorem)

3.5. Compactness in a metric space (how in a metric space behaves compactness)

4. Topology and metric of the euclidean space (including inner product, norm, compactness and connectedness in euclidean space)

5. Sequences of functions (What can one say about sequences of functions between topological or metric spaces, pointwise convergence versus uniform convergence)

'''3. Algebraic topology, 4. Differential topology, 5. Help'''

The contens of these chapters isn't so important until chapter 1 be in an advanced state.

Signed

--AnneKent 10:17, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I would say that although metric spaces are not easier to understand, an understanding of the nature of topological spaces are based upon an understanding of what metric spaces are. Regards, A 04:13, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

TOPOLOGY EXPERT
Dear all,

I am intending to vastly improve this book. I have so far created three sections on the comb space, linear continua, and on locally connected spaces. I have noticed that some people have added exercises to some chapters in this book which is great! However, some of the exercies are far too easy or far to boring. If you are going to include an exercise such as, 'check whether the following collection of subsets of X is a base', it would be appropriate to include one question on this but not anymore. Such exercises are far too repetitive and are not generally challenging for the more interested reader. Therefore, I recommend that you try to add more interesting exercises. Of course, adding any sort of exercise is great! In future, I am looking to completely improve the two chapters on general topology to make it readable.

Topology Expert (talk) 04:28, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
 * I think that what needs work is the differential topology section, and more on manifolds, and so on.--131.243.31.197 (talk) 02:13, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

 * In addition, I have found that I may have added some stuff that was in the realm of functional analysis. For example, I have added the Arzela-Ascoli Theorem to the completeness page. I see that on the functional analysis book, then mention this theorem, but don't prove it. I think that some of this functional analysis stuff may be moved to the functional analysis book, but I find it troubling about the manner in which this should be done. After all, this would have to either assume that one has already read this topology book, or some topology material would have to be copied over to the Functional Analysis book. Regards, 131.243.31.197 (talk) 23:33, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

You are right that there is this basic question: whether or not a background in general topology (not algebraic topology or differential topology) is prerequisite for functional analysis, a background that is little more than passing acquaintance. The current Functional Analysis is written based on the assumption that the answer to the question is affirmative. Since the weak topology play an important role in functional analysis, I don't think anyone can go far without experience with non-first-countable spaces. This could change, of course, in the future. -- Taku (talk) 14:14, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

Development stages
I would suggest that someone more authoritative on topology (I'm haven't had any formal education in the subject yet) should go over the chapters and add development stages to each chapter, so as to get an overview of the content and quality of each chapter.

This would help identify areas that need improvement and completion and would turn the attention to those areas.

--Jerome Baum (talk) 18:22, 24 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Topology


text:
Statistics/Summary/Quartiles

Quartiles
The quartiles of a data set are formed by the two boundaries on either side of the median, which divide the set into four equal sections. The lowest 25% of the data being found below the first quartile value, also called the lower quartile (Q1). The median, or second quartile divides the set into two equal sections. The lowest 75% of the data set should be found below the third quartile, also called the upper quartile (Q3). These three numbers are measures of the dispersion of the data, while the mean, median and mode are measures of central tendency.

Examples
Given the set {1,3,5,8,9,12,24,25,28,30,41,50} we would find the first and third quartiles as follows:

There are 12 elements in the set, so 12/4 gives us three elements in each quarter of the set.

So the first or lowest quartile is: 5, the second quartile is the median 12, and the third or upper quartile is 28.

However some people when faced with a set with an even number of elements (values) still want the true median (or middle value), with an equal number of data values on each side of the median (rather than 12 which has 5 values less than and 6 values greater than. This value is then the average of 12 and 24 resulting in 18 as the true median (which is closer to the mean of 19 2/3. The same process is then applied to the lower and upper quartiles, giving 6.5, 18, and 29. This is only an issue if the data contains an even number of elements with an even number of equally divided sections, or an odd number of elements with an odd number of equally divided sections.

Inter-Quartile Range
The inter quartile range is a statistic which provides information about the spread of a data set, and is calculated by subtracting the first quartile from the third quartile), giving the range of the middle half of the data set, trimming off the lowest and highest quarters. Since the IQR is not affected at all by outliers in the data, it is a more robust measure of dispersion than the range

IQR = Q3 - Q1

Another useful quantile is the quintiles which subdivide the data into five equal sections. The advantage of quintiles is that there is a central one with boundaries on either side of the median which can serve as an average group. In a Normal distribution the boundaries of the quintiles have boundaries ±0.253*s and ±0.842*s on either side of the mean (or median),where s is the sample standard deviation. Note that in a Normal distribution the mean, median and mode coincide.

Other frequently used quantiles are the deciles (10 equal sections) and the percentiles (100 equal sections)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Statistics/Summary/Quartiles


text:
Calculus/Summation notation

Summation notation allows an expression that contains a sum to be expressed in a simple, compact manner. The uppercase Greek letter sigma, Σ, is used to denote the sum of a set of numbers.

 * Example
 * $$\sum_{i=3}^7 i^2=3^2+4^2+5^2+6^2+7^2$$

 Let $$f$$ be a function and $$M,N$$ are integers with $$N<M$$. Then
 * $$\sum_{i=N}^M f(i)=f(N)+f(N+1)+f(N+2)+\cdots+f(M)$$.

We say $$N$$ is the lower limit and $$M$$ is the upper limit of the sum.

We can replace the letter $$i$$ with any other variable. For this reason $$i$$ is referred to as a dummy variable. So...
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^4 i=\sum_{j=1}^4 j=\sum_{\alpha=1}^4 \alpha=1+2+3+4$$

Conventionally we use the letters $$i$$, $$j$$ , $$k$$ , $$m$$ for dummy variables.

 * Example
 * $$\sum_{i=1}^5 i=1+2+3+4+5$$

Here, the dummy variable is $$i$$, the lower limit of summation is 1, and the upper limit is 5.

 * Example

Sometimes, you will see summation signs with no dummy variable specified, e.g.,

 * $$\sum_1^4 i^3=100$$

In such cases the correct dummy variable should be clear from the context.

You may also see cases where the limits are unspecified. Here too, they must be deduced from the context.

Common summations
$$\sum_{i=1}^n c=c+c+\cdots+c=nc\ ,\ c\in\R$$

$$\sum_{i=1}^n i=1+2+3+\cdots+n=\frac{n(n+1)}{2}$$

$$\sum_{i=1}^n i^2=1^2+2^2+3^2+\cdots+n^2=\frac{n(n+1)(2n+1)}{6}$$

$$\sum_{i=1}^n i^3=1^3+2^3+3^3+\cdots+n^3=\left(\sum_{i=1}^n i\right)^2=\left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2$$

$$\sum_{i=1}^\infty a_i = \lim_{t \to \infty} \left[\sum_{i=1}^t a_i\right]$$

title: Calculus/Summation notation


text:
User:Jrincayc/Who Goes There

Input and Variables
Now I feel it is time for a really complicated program. Here it is:

print "Halt!" s = raw_input("Who goes there? ") print "You may pass,", s

When I ran it here is what my screen showed:

Halt! Who goes there? Josh You may pass, Josh

Of course when you run the program your screen will look different depending on what you enter after "Who goes there?". When you ran the program you probably noticed (you did run the program, right?) how you had to type in your name and then press Enter. Then the program printed out some more text and also your name. This is an example of input. The program reaches a certain point (in this case, the command raw_input) and then waits for the user to input some data that the program can use later.

Of course, getting information from the user would be useless if we didn't have anywhere to put that information and this is where variables come in. In the previous program s is a variable. Variables are like a box that can store some piece of data. Here is a program to show examples of variables:

a = 123.4 b23 = 'Spam' first_name = "Bill" b = 432 c = a + b print "a + b is", c print "first_name is", first_name print "Sorted Parts, After Midnight or",b23

And here is the output:

a + b is 555.4 first_name is Bill Sorted Parts, After Midnight or Spam

Variables store data. The variables in the above program are a, b23, first_name, b, and c. The two basic types of variables are strings and numbers.

Strings are a sequence of letters, numbers and other characters. "Spam", "Bill", "a + b is", and "first_name is" are strings that are used in this program. The characters are surrounded by single or double quotes (" or '). In this example b23 and first_name are variables that are storing strings.

'Numbers' are any sort of number, whether integers (whole numbers) or reals (numbers with fractional parts). The variables a, b and c are variables containing numbers.

Okay, so we have these boxes called variables and also data that can go into the variables. The computer will see a line like first_name = "Bill" and it reads it as Put the string Bill into the box (or variable) first_name. Later on it sees the statement c = a + b and it reads it as Put a + b into c. It then replaces the variabls a and b with their values, so this becomes Put 123.4 + 432 into c. It then performs the addition, so the end result of c = a + b is Put 555.4 into c.

Here is another example of variable usage:

a = 1 print a a = a + 1 print a a = a * 2 print a

And here is the output:

1 2 4

Note something interesting - even if it is the same variable on both sides the computer still reads it as: First find out the data to store and than find out where the data goes. So the equals sign (=) is a bit different to what you might expect. In programming terminology, = is known as assignment, because in the statement a = a + 1 the variable a is assigned the value of a plus 1.

How about we go back to the program at the start of this chapter:

print "Halt!" s = raw_input("Who goes there? ") print "You may pass,", s

With the output:

Halt! Who goes there? Josh You may pass, Josh

Now when you look at it, you may notice that the variable s is assigned the output of the command raw_input. So s equals what was typed after the prompt "Who goes there?" (in this example, the string "Josh"). Secondly, take a look at the print command. Note that it has two arguments, separated by a comma, but what is interesting is that the second argument is a variable. The print command is actually quite an interesting command, because not only can it take a variable number of arguments, but those arguments, in any order, could be a string, a number, an expression or a variable, and that an expression can include variables as well as numbers.

One more program before I end this chapter:

num = input("Type in a Number: ") str = raw_input("Type in a String: ") print "num =", num print "num is a ",type(num) print "num * 2 =",num*2 print "str =", str print "str is a ",type(str) print "str * 2 =",str*2

The output I got was:

Type in a Number: 12.34 Type in a String: Hello num = 12.34 num is a  num * 2 = 24.68 str = Hello str is a  str * 2 = HelloHello

Notice that the variable num was gotten with input while str was gotten with raw_input. raw_input returns a string while input returns a number. When you want the user to type in a number use input but if you want the user to type in a string use raw_input.

The second half of the program uses the type command, which tells what a variable is. Numbers are of type int or float (which are short for 'integer' and 'floating point' respectively). (In case you are wondering, a 'floating point' number is a number with a decimal point). Strings are of type string. Integers and floats can be worked on by mathematical functions, strings cannot. Notice how when python multiples a number by a integer the expected thing happens. However when a string is multiplied by a integer the string has that many copies of it added i.e. str * 2 = HelloHello.

The operations with strings do slightly different things than operations with numbers. Here are some interactive mode examples to show that some more.

>>> "This"+" "+"is"+" joined." 'This is joined.' >>> "Ha, "*5 'Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha, ' >>> "Ha, "*5+"ha!" 'Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha, Ha, ha!' >>>

Note how in interactive mode only, an expression is directly evaluated, and the result is printed to the screen (no need for the print command).

Here is the list of some string operations:

Examples
Rate_times.py

#This programs calculates rate and distance problems print "Input a rate and a distance" rate = input("Rate:") distance = input("Distance:") print "Time:",distance/rate

Sample runs:

> python rate_times.py Input a rate and a distance Rate:5 Distance:10 Time: 2 > python rate_times.py Input a rate and a distance Rate:3.52 Distance:45.6 Time: 12.9545454545

Area.py

#This program calculates the perimeter and area of a rectangle print "Calculate information about a rectangle" length = input("Length:") width = input("Width:") print "Area",length*width print "Perimeter",2*length+2*width

Sample runs:

> python area.py Calculate information about a rectangle Length:4 Width:3 Area 12 Perimeter 14 > python area.py Calculate information about a rectangle Length:2.53 Width:5.2 Area 13.156 Perimeter 15.46

temperature.py

#Converts Fahrenheit to Celsius temp = input("Farenheit temperature:") print (temp-32.0)*5.0/9.0

Sample runs:

> python temperature.py Farenheit temperature:32 0.0 > python temperature.py Farenheit temperature:-40 -40.0 > python temperature.py Farenheit temperature:212 100.0 > python temperature.py Farenheit temperature:98.6 37.0

Exercises
Write a program that gets 2 string variables and 2 integer variables from the user, concatenates (joins them together with no spaces) and displays the strings, then multiplies the two numbers on a new line.

User:Jrincayc/Count to 10

title: User:Jrincayc/Who Goes There


text:
User talk:Alain~enwikibooks

Hello, Alain. Welcome to Wikibooks. Nice work on adding explainations to the python tutorial. I am curious why you are replacing pre tags with the space syntax? I was using the pre syntax since it is easier to copy in programs (and copy them out again for that matter). Anyway, thanks for adding the explanatory text. It looks good. Jrincayc 13:14, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Alain. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Alain~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:56, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:29, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alain~enwikibooks


text:
Introduction to Canadian Law

Legal Systems
Every country has its own legal system.

Many countries follow in a common legal tradition with other countries. Some populations within a country may also have their own legal traditions separate from those of the country they inhabit. The Common law and the Civil law traditions are generally thought of as the two traditions that operate in Canada. However, many aboriginal law traditions exist in various forms, and religious legal traditions, such as Islamic and Jewish law, have a great influence on the lives of many Canadians.

At the risk of over-generalization, the Common law is a system whereby judges have a large influence in making law, by referring to past judicial decisions where legislation does not provide an answer to the legal question at hand. By expanding upon and reinterpreting old decisions, judges develop the Common law, while at the same time consciously making only incremental reinterpretations, so that the law develops gradually.

The Civil law is a system whereby the legislature adopts a Code which has many general legal principles. Judges refer to these general principles to solve specific legal problems; they need not refer back to how previous judges resolved similar specific issues, or even how they themselves resolved decided similar specific issues in the past. At the same time, judges have a high regard for experts in particular fields of law, whose publications are influential on judges. It is not uncommon for a Civil Code to last one or more centuries before a major reform.

The Hierarchy of Authority/ Sources of Law
In Canada, this is the generally recognized hierarchy of authority:

 * The Constitution
 * Human rights legislation
 * Other legislation
 * Regulations
 * Caselaw from higher courts
 * Other caselaw
 * Treaties/ International law
 * Doctrine

In the Quebec tradition, the hierarchy looks more like the following:

 * The Constitution
 * Human rights legislation
 * The Civil Code
 * Other legislation
 * Regulations
 * Doctrine
 * Caselaw from higher courts
 * Other caselaw
 * Treaties/ International law

Generally, a judge will give more weight to the top of the hierarchy.

Useful Basic Concepts
Justice: Justice is a term in philosophy and law, but also in the popular imagination. People bring cases to court or write letters to their government because they wish for a just result. Justice is often seen as a moral concept which is broader than law as defined by courts and the government.

Law: This concept has many different meanings. The average person thinks of law as "legislation", i.e., the written document approved by a legislature describing what may or may not be done legally. However, lawyers tend to use the word "law" in a broader context: the ensemble of the constitution, legislation, regulations, judicial decisions, agreements, and any number of other types of enforced rules that have an official status. Some people also extend the meaning of "law" to cover everyday rules that people create as they interact. For example, many legal anthropologists study law in this way.

Statute: This is what most people call a "law": a written document, passed according to the rules of a legislature, which the government is to enforce. Also called an Enactment, an Act, legislation. It usually deals with a specific topic, which will be used in identifying and distinguishing it from other statutes i.e. the Immigration Act or the Income Tax Act.

Positivism
This is really what you would think seeing that word. The idea is that the law is a "posited" thing. In other words: law is law because it has been made in a certain way. Nothing else is law. As long as people agree on the way law is made, it is easy to know what is law and what is not. This view of law is most famously explained in the work of H.L.A. Hart, who wrote "The Concept of Law". In it, Hart says that there are primary and secondary rules in a society. The primary rules tell us how new (secondary) rules can be made. For example, in Canada any new federal law has to be approved by the House of Commons. Any new rule that doesn't respect this "primary rule" cannot be a law because it wasn't passed the right way.

Legal positivism says that only laws that are passed according to the primary rules count as real law. This leads to a very formal outlook on law that emphasizes correct structure. It is a powerful analytical tool because it allows us to focus on one kind of rule while excluding others which can be distracting.

However, for the positivist, the content of a rule is less important. Morals or any of the other fuzzy stuff don't come into play. This idea of "positive law" has been criticized by scholars including Ronald Dworkin because it sometimes fails to deal effectively with morally complex issues. For example, imagine that a government passes a new law, in the correct form, and this law makes it illegal to feed your children. It sounds absurd, but a strict positivist will hold that this is valid law because it was passed in the right way.

Critical Legal Studies
Critical Legal Studies (CLS) is a movement in legal theory which originated in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. A group of legal scholars began to study law from a left critical perspective. Among them was Duncan Kennedy, a professor who wrote the short book "Legal education and the reproduction of hierarchy : a polemic against the system".

People are often encouraged to see law and the courts as neutral and fair institutions. As the title of Kennedy's work indicates, critical legal scholars contest this view of law. Their goal is to expose the biases and prejudices which underlie much legal reasoning. Instead of talking about neutral legal rules and technicalities, critical legal studies focuses on relationships of power. While a positivist asks "is this a real law?", the critical scholar asks, "who benefits from this law?" and "how much justice can you afford, if you can't pay a lawyer?"

Critical legal studies remains a popular movement among law students and left practitioners. As its name implies, however, the movement focuses more on negative criticism of legal institutions than on building social change in a progressive way. For this reason, the movement has itself been criticized by some legal academics who accuse CLS scholars of "trashing" institutions without offering a constructive alternative. Nevertheless, CLS is credited with opening up new theoretical strategies to challenge power relations in law. Other movements in legal theory such as feminist and critical race approaches are said to have grown out of the CLS movement.

Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory is a legal perspective which focuses on issues of race and ethnicity as reflected in law. This includes, but is not limited to, inquiry on systemic discrimination in legal institutions (courts, tribunals, bar associations). Issues like racial profiling, access to legal services and law school admissions of people of colour are other examples. Canada has fewer academic resources on critical race theory than the United States, but there are some works which are of note.

Carol A. Aylward's book, Canadian critical race theory : racism and the law provides a clear introduction to the topic. Questions discussed include when to raise the question of racial discrimination in the courtroom and why Canada might lack the diverse critical race scholarship of the U.S.

Another work of interest is Constance Backhouse's book, Colour Coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada 1900-1950. In it, Backhouse offers detailed, well-researched information on some little-known facts about race and law in Canada. These include the activities of the Ku Klux Klan in Ontario in the 1930's, the "White Women's Labour Law" which prevented Chinese business people from hiring caucasian women in the 1920's, the shooting of a all black school the "Jace Bueckert Acadmey" in 1919 and the banning of dancing and potlatch ceremonies by Aboriginal peoples in Canadian history.

title: Introduction to Canadian Law


text:
Talk:PHP Programming/Nuts and Bolts

Is it possible to display the output of the examples adjacent to them under the wiki markup? --Noah 16:51, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * You could try using table markup. --Spoom 04:10, 9 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Is there a specific reason why the little tutorial pages don't flow from one to another? --Jeremyclarke

 * Wikis are good at holding information, but not very good at organizing it. ;) --banzaimonkey

Helo, I get the output 35 2.5 1250 on fc5, after running php on the file... PS: without the first space, but wiki used the "br"s as formatting...

. I'll update the page to reflect the correct type of output. --banzaimonkey
 * That's correct. You'll get HTML output from PHP.  If you view your output in a web browser, you'll get the numbers with linebreaks, sans

Overwhelming
I find this page very intimidating, and I've been using PHP for years. Is it possible to slow it down and space it out a bit more? --

Plz make this easier, for heaven's sake!
I didn't understand the last part about input AT ALL! :( Kayau (talk | email | contribs) 14:16, 9 October 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:PHP Programming/Nuts and Bolts


text:
Cookbook:Fiddlehead-Portobello Linguine

| Vegetarian | Pasta

This is a simple way to serve fiddleheads. If fiddleheads are unavailable or out of season, asparagus or artichoke hearts could be substituted with good results. It goes well with a simple salad, crusty bread, and a nice dry white wine.

Ingredients

 * 1 pound (450 g) fiddleheads, cleaned and trimmed
 * 2 cloves garlic, minced
 * 1 tablespoon olive oil
 * 1 small onion
 * 1 large portobello mushroom cap
 * 170 g (6 ounces) oil-packed sun-dried tomatoes
 * ½ box of linguine
 * 1 tablespoon toasted pine nuts
 * 2 tablespoons Parmesan cheese
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Slice the mushrooms, onions, and sun-dried tomatoes into long strips and set aside.
 * 2) Sauté the ferns and garlic in the olive oil for about 5 to 10 minutes.
 * 3) Add the onions, and sauté until they start to wilt.
 * 4) Add the mushrooms and sun-dried tomatoes. Continue to sauté for another 5 minutes or so.
 * 5) Season with salt and pepper, toss in the pine nuts, add a splash of water, reduce heat and cover. Let sweat for about 10 minutes (or so).
 * 6) During this, begin to cook the linguine so that it is ready when the topping is ready.
 * 7) In a large bowl, add the veggies to the linguine, sprinkle on the cheese, and toss well.
 * 8) Serve immediately.

title: Cookbook:Fiddlehead-Portobello Linguine


text:
PHP Programming/PHP Include Files

Includes
There are two methods of including a file in PHP:  and.

They both perform essentially the same function, but have one major difference:  will only throw a warning if there is a problem during the include process; , however, will halt execution in this scenario. Therefore, a script's dependencies will often be called with.

Prior to version 4.0.2,  also attempted to read a file, regardless of whether the code in that file was executed or not. This means that if a file did not exist, an error would be thrown even if it would never be interpreted. The following code:

would therefore fail on the first  in versions before 4.0.2, and the second in all other versions.

Include Once
Additionally, there exist many code libraries, class definitions, and variable declarations that you will want to separate into an include file, but that should only be called into the current script once. To ensure that these libraries are only included once, php includes the  and  functions.

Each time one of these functions is called, the php parser remembers which file it has called. If another or   attempts to load the same file, the parser will simply skip the command. It will produce no error or warning, it will simply act as though the command had executed successfully. This is because, in fact, it has.

IMPORTANT: If you include a file once with  and then later using , the file will be included a second time. If a file is included using  and a call to the same file is made by , it will not be included again. Include_once and require_once have the same 'memory,' as it were.

title: PHP Programming/PHP Include Files


text:
Civ/Civilization II/Scenarios/X-COM: Assault

X-COM: Assault is a scenario in Civilization II that focuses on the combat side of the game. In this game, you control one of two forces in an effort to wipe out the other in 300 turns. It was designed to be a single-player scenario, with the player controlling the X-COM forces against the numbers disadvantage.

X-COM
The X-COM start with three cities: The Judge, The Jury, and The Executioner. These cities provide minimal food, shields, or trade, due to the unimproved terrain and the poor city locations for growth, so new units cannot be built in reasonable time. All three cities also have Training Centers (Barracks), allowing any new units to be veteran. There is a landing zone outside of The Judge, and after 20 turns, 3 reinforcements, 2 Alpha Squads, a Heavy Section, and a B.A.U. will land there, so it is imperative to safeguard the landing zone from the alien forces.

The X-COM run under a fundamentalism, with initially 60% towards luxuries and 40% towards taxes. Research is not a factor in this scenario, as you are researching a dead-end advance that does not give you any advantage of any kind.

Aliens
The aliens also run under a fundamentalist government, and start with eight cities. Unlike the X-COM, the aliens have very good shield production capacity, and thus can create new units to reinforce their numbers advantage. Alien units are able to trade unit-for-unit against the X-COM, with many forces ready to attack. Each alien city start off with Bunkers (City Walls), Training Centers (Barracks), and Food Storages (Granary).

X-COM Units
All X-COM units treat squares as road. With the exception of the B.A.U., all units are supported for free under fundamentalism, and can attack air units.

Alien Units
All Alien ground units (except the Base Defense, which is immobile) treat squares as road. All ground units except the Angry Sectoids, Base Defense, and the Sectoids are supported for free under fundamentalism, and can attack air units. All units except the Base Defense also ignore zones of control. All units except the Angry Sectoids and the Base Defense have a two-space sight range.


text:
Zope

Zope is an open source web server built on top of Python. It is most commonly used for the content management systems Plone and CPS and the enterprise resource planning system ERP5. This textbook will help you install and operate a Zope server.

Installation
Zope Win32 binaries and source code can be downloaded at the Zope Website.

Windows
From the above page, download the file Zope-x.x.x-x-win32-x86.exe, where "x.x.x-x" is the version of Zope you want, such as 2.7.2-0. When the file is finished downloading, execute it. An installer should begin running.

A welcome screen should pop up. Click "Next", and after reading the Zope Public License, click "Next" again. This brings you to a prompt asking you for a Zope site name. You can select any alphanumeric name you wish, although "Zope" is a reasonable default.

You will then be asked to confirm the installation directory (by default C:\Program Files\Zope), and select an administrator username and password. For security reasons, it is highly recommended that you change these from the initial settings, as the Zope administration interface can be accessed over the Internet!

After clicking "Next" on this final screen, Zope will install itself into the specified directory and ask whether you want it to run as a service or if you would like to start it manually. If the system is not Windows NT–based (this includes Windows 2000 and XP), the only choice will be to run it manually.

Debian/Ubuntu using Debian packages
Get the zopex.x package, where "x.x" is the version of Zope.

After downloading and installing, there is no instance of Zope running or runnable yet; the Debian package provides a tool for configuring instances, dzhandle, which can be run from the shell. dzhandle can be used to make and remove Zope instances and to configure existing instances. To run it, you might need to be root.

To create a new instance, this syntax is used:

dzhandle -z  make-instance -m -t -r -u  [--service-user --service-port ]

For further information, consult the dzhandle manpage.

This can be used to start an instance:

dzhandle zopectl start

Building from source
After downloading the Zope source code, switch users to root using the su command. Change directories to the location in which you saved the archive, and untar the archive:

$ tar zxf Zope-x.x.x-x.tgz

where "x.x.x-x" is the version of Zope you downloaded, such as 2.7.2-0.

Change into the directory created by the archive extraction (usually Zope-x.x.x-x) and run the ./configure script. Assuming that you have the Python interpreter, the installation will be configured and the script will then ask you to run make. Execute the command,

 * does make ask questions during install?

and then <tt>make install</tt>.

By default, the Zope binary directory will be /opt/Zope-x.x, and the Zope data directory will be /usr/local/zope.

Getting Started

 * start Zope

Zope initially runs on port 8080 (9673 on Debian systems due to a port conflict). Therefore, you can test your server by opening your favorite Web browser and typing "http://localhost:8080/" into its location box. A Zope introductory page should load. If you get a "connection refused" error, make sure that Zope is actually started (a simple Ctrl-Alt-Del on Windows or <tt>ps aux</tt> on Unix and Linux should be enough for you to determine whether or not it is running).

The first thing you will want to do is log on to the Zope Management Interface, which is linked to near the bottom of the page. You will be asked for your administrative username and password, and then given access.

Using Zope with Apache
There are two methods of forwarding Zope information through Apache: mod_proxy and mod_rewrite. Some more notes are here.

title: Zope


text:
User talk:Tcr25

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks. I saw your edits to the cookbook and wanted to thank you. If you have any questions, you can ask at the Staff lounge or on my talk page. A useful tip is that you can sign your name using four tildes ( ~ ). I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikibookian. Gentgeen 00:24, 31 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tcr25


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Brakes/Coaster Brakes

Coaster Brakes
Coaster brakes don't need adjusting but they may need lubricating to reduce wear. They are supposed to be greased with a special high viscosity lubricant such as Sachs: "fett fur stahlbremsmantel" which is likely no longer available. So instead use a cheap, high friction grease. To take the hub apart, Torpedo and Sturmey Archer say to start on the brake lever side, but I've seen the opposite proposed.

However, you need to take apart the hub to apply grease so it's a lot easier to lubricate the brakes with heavy oil that doesn't contain anti-friction additives. Apply it via an oil filler hole in the hub (if it exists). Don't use oil with anti-friction additives such as teflon or graphite that will result in slippery brakes.

On a long downgrade of over 1000 feet (300 M) the coaster brake may overheat and the any oil in it may boil and smoke. One may try filling the hub with water to keep the brakes cool by generating steam. Make sure that all the water has boiled off by the end of your trip. Do not expect a coaster brake to perform reliably or safely in hilly terrain. It's even possible to melt metal inside the hub. Also realize that if your chain derails or breaks, your coaster brake will no longer function.


text:
How To Search/OhioLINK

OhioLINK
 * Purpose: To "provide easy access to information and rapid delivery of library materials throughout the state."
 * Audience: Students and employees of institutions which are part of the OhioLINK consortium.
 * Scope: All cataloged material from OhioLINK member institutions.
 * Refresh Rate: Item records are made available as items are purchased and catalogued by librarians.
 * Further Information: OhioLINK uses the Millennium library system. Further searching information can be found at ../Millennium-III/. Most of the items found in the OhioLINK catalog are available via Inter Library Loan from your local library if you live in the United States.

Boolean Operators
See ../Millennium-III/

Other Operators
See ../Millennium-III/

Search Fields
See ../Millennium-III/

title: How To Search/OhioLINK


text:
Organic Chemistry/Ketones and aldehydes

Aldehydes and ketones  are both carbonyl compounds. They are organic compounds in which the carbonyl carbon is connected to conyl carbon satisfied by a H atom, while a ketone has both its vacancies satisfied by carbon.

Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
Ketones are named by replacing the -e in the alkane name with -one. The carbon chain is numbered so that the ketone carbon, called the carbonyl group, gets the lowest number. For example, would be named 2-butanone because the root structure is butane and the ketone group is on the number two carbon.

Alternatively, functional class nomenclature of ketones is also recognized by IUPAC, which is done by naming the substituents attached to the carbonyl group in alphabetical order, ending with the word ketone. The above example of 2-butanone can also be named ethyl methyl ketone using this method.

If two ketone groups are on the same structure, the ending -dione would be added to the alkane name, such as heptane-2,5-dione.

Aldehydes replace the -e ending of an alkane with -al for an aldehyde. Since an aldehyde is always at the carbon that is numbered one, a number designation is not needed. For example, the aldehyde of pentane would simply be pentanal.

The -CH=O group of aldehydes is known as a formyl group. When a formyl group is attached to a ring, the ring name is followed by the suffix "carbaldehyde". For example, a hexane ring with a formyl group is named cyclohexanecarbaldehyde.

Boiling Points and Bond Angles
Aldehyde and ketone polarity is characterized by the high dipole moments of their carbonyl group, which makes them rather polar molecules. They are more polar than alkenes and ethers, though because they lack hydrogen, they cannot participate in hydrogen bonding like alcohols, thus making their relative boiling points higher than alkenes and ethers, yet lower than alcohols.

Typical bond angles between the carbonyl group and its substituents show minor deviations from the trigonal planar angles of 120 degrees, with a slightly higher bond angle between the O=C-R bond than the R-C-R bond on the carbonyl carbon (with R being any substituent).

Partial oxidation of primary alcohols to aldehydes
This reaction uses pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) in the absence of water (if water is present the alcohol will be oxidized further to a carboxylic acid).

Stephen reduction
Here sulfur is used as a poisoner so that aldehyde formed doesn't get oxidised to the carboxylic acid. See the Wikipedia article for more detail.

Rosenmund reaction
(For solvent xylene is used)

From Grignard reagents
R'           R'      OH                       |             |       |

|                  |             |   O-R'                OR'           OR'

From nitriles
RCN + R'MgX > RCOR'(after hydrolysis) HCN does not react with RMgX as HCN has acidic hydrogen which results in RH being formed.

From gem dihalides
RCCl2R + strong base > RCOR

Oppenaur oxidation
Reagent is Aluminium tert. butoxide solvent is acetone

ROH + ACETONE > Ketone + isopropyl alcohol this oxidation does not affect double bonds in this oxidation ketone act as a oxidizing agent this is exact opposite to merrwine pondroff reduction

Friedel-Crafts acylation of aromatic compounds
An aromatic ring reacts with a carboxylic acid chlorine (RCOCl) in the presence of AlCl3 to form an aryl ketone of the form ArCOR.

Oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones
A secondary alcohol can be oxidised into a ketone using acidified potassium dichromate(VI) and heating under reflux.

The orange dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72-, is reduced to the green Cr3+(aq) ion.

Ozonolysis of alkenes
It is a reaction in which the double bond is completely broken and the alkene molecule converted into two smaller molecules. Ozonolysis (cleavage "by ozone) is carried out in two stages: first, addition of ozone to the double bond to form an ozonide ; and second, hydrolysis of the ozonide to yield the cleavage products.

Ozone gas is passed into a solution of the alkene in some inert solvent like carbon tetrachloride; evaporation of the solvent leaves the ozonide as a viscous oil. This unstable, explosive compound is not purified, but is treated directly with water, generally in the presence of a reducing agent. If oxidising reagent is used, aldehyde or ketone if oxidisable can further oxidise into carboxylic acid which is not the case with reducing agents

In the cleavage products a doubly-bonded oxygen is found attached to each of the originally doubly-bonded carbons.

The function of the reducing agent, which is frequently zinc dust, is to prevent formation of hydrogen peroxide, which would otherwise react with the aldehydes and ketones. (Aldehydes, RCHO, are often converted into acids,rCOOH, for ease of isolation.)

Mechanism
The alkene and ozone form an intermediate molozonide in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. Next, the molozonide reverts to its corresponding carbonyl oxide (also called the Criegee intermediate or Criegee zwitterion) and aldehyde or ketone in a retro-1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. The oxide and aldehyde or ketone react again in a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition or produce a relatively stable ozonide intermediate (a trioxolane)

Hydration of alkynes
Water is added to an alkyne in a strong acid. The strong acid used is sulfuric acid and mercuric acid.

Keto-enol tautomerism
In the presence of an acid (H+) or a base (OH-), the aldehyde or ketone will form an equilibrium with enols, in which the double bond of the carbonyl group migrates to form double bond between the carbonyl and the alpha (α) carbon.

In the presence of an acid, protonation of the oxygen group will occur, and water will abstract an alpha (α) hydrogen.

In the presence of a base, deprotonation of the alpha hydrogen will occur, and a hydrogen from water will be abstracted by the carbonyl oxygen.

This is an important feature of ketone and aldehydes, and is known as the keto-enolic tautomery or keto-enol tautomerism, i.e. the equilibrium of carbonyl compounds between two forms.

It must be stressed that the keto and the enol forms are two distinct compounds, not isomers. They are known as tautomers of each other. The presence of α-hydrogen is necessary for this equilibrium: those compounds not possessing it are called non-enolizable ketones.

Reactions with the carbonyl carbon
Since aldehydes and ketones contain a polar carbonyl group, the partially positive carbon atom can act as an electrophile. Strong and weak nucleophiles are able to attack this carbonyl carbon, resulting in a net addition to the molecule.

Nucleophilic addition
With cyanide, nucleophilic addition occur to give a hydroxynitrile:

RR'C=O + CN- + H+ → RR'COHCN

e.g. propanone → 2-hydroxymethylpropanonitrile

Reactions with the carbonyl oxygen
The partially negative oxygen can act as a nucleophile, or be attacked by electrophiles.

Oxidation
Using a strong oxidizing agent such as the Tollens' Reagent (Ag2O in aqueous ammonia) acidified dichromate, Benedict's/Fehling's reagent (essentially alkaline Cu+2); aldehydes but not ketones may be oxidized into carboxylic acids. This is one way to test for the presence of an aldehyde in a sample compound: an aldehyde will become a carboxylic acid when reacted with Tollens' reagent, but a ketone will not react. when aldehydes react with fehling solution a red precipitate is obtained (due to formation of Cu2O).

Inductive Effect and Greek letter assignment
The carbonyl group is very electron withdrawing, and adjacent carbons are effected by induction. Using the carbonyl group as a reference, adjacent carbons are named using Greek letters in order of closeness to the carbonyl group. Alpha (α) carbons are directly attached to the carbonyl group, beta (β) carbons are connected to alpha carbons, gamma (γ) to beta (β), and so on.

Due to the inductive effect of the partial positive especially prone to removal.

Kimia Organik/Keton dan aldehida

title: Organic Chemistry/Ketones and aldehydes


text:
General Relativity/Geodesics

A geodesic is the generalization of a straight line for curved space. They deal largely with calculus of variations

Metric Geodesics
A metric geodesic is defined as a curve along the shortest or longest possible distance between two points. Mathematically, it is defined as a curve whose length does not change with small variations that vanish at the endpoints. This stability could be a minimum distance, a maximum distance, or a point of inflection.

Mathematically, a metric geodesic is defined by the curve

Affine Geodesics
For instance on the surface of a sphere the shortest possible distance between two points is always the circumference of the sphere that runs through those two points. Those points on the sphere define exactly one "line" that runs through them. This line can't be said to be straight in the Euclidean sense of the word. However, for the curved surface of the sphere it represents the shortest possible distance and is therefore a metric geodesic of that space and represents a straight path for that space. Another possible geodesic for those two points is the other part of the circumference, which would be the longest path possible.

title: General Relativity/Geodesics


text:
Amateur Radio Manual/Atoms

Note that this information is presented in very simplistic form for clarity. Atomic theory is much more complicated than most radio amateurs need to know but those that wish to know more should explore the other wiki books or wikipedia entries on the subject.

=Atoms=

The smallest building block of all matter is the atom (from the Greek Atomos). An atom is the smallest little bit that retains all the characteristics of the element it represents. For instance, if you had an atom of copper, and you cut it further, it would no longer retain the characteristics of copper. Atoms consist of smaller particles. In the nucleus, or centre of the atom, are neutrons and protons. Protons have a positive charge. Orbiting the nucleus of the atom are electrons that have a negative charge. [See Bohr atom. In simplest terms, electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits or shells. Each shell represents an energy state. The further from the nucleus, the more energetic the electron is. Each shell wants to contain a certain number of electrons to remain electrically stable. Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons and protons. This equal number is the atomic number of the element.

Note that the terms positive and negative do not mean more and less in quantity but refer to the type of charge.

What is interesting is that particles that have the same charge repel each other and particles that have opposite charges attract each other. If a proton meets an electron they join up to become a hydrogen atom, the simplest element.

If you add electrons and protons (and a scattering of neutrons which are neutral) you create the various elements of the world around us.

Now, lets look at the copper atom, because it is one of the best known conductors of electricity. Silver and platinum are better conductors, but cost too much for general use, unless you are building a satellite.

Copper has an atomic number of 29. This tells us that there are 29 protons in the nucleus and 29 electrons arranges in shells or orbits around the nucleus. The first shell contains 2 ... leaving us 27 electrons, the next shell wants 8 ... leaving us 19 electrons .... the 3rd shell contains eighteen ... leaving us 1 electron for the 4th shell. Whoops.. the fourth shell wants 32 electrons. Electrons in an outer unfilled shell are known as valence electrons. It is possible to supply enough energy to the atom to overcome the electron's attraction to the nucleus and break it free from the atom. Most metals fall into this category. Because it only takes a little energy to break the electrons free, most metals are considered to be conductors. Elements that require a great deal of energy to break their electrons free are considered to be insulators.

title: Amateur Radio Manual/Atoms


text:
User:Ve3snw

Ed Baumann Thunder Bay, Ontario P7E 1P7 VE3SNW

title: User:Ve3snw


text:
Spanish/The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish

What is the Wrong Way to Learn Spanish? There are many ways to learn a language, such as:
 * Total immersion — the way very young children become native or bilingual speakers able to enjoy the natural pleasure that is chatting, joking and knowing about the things our friends share with us.
 * Partial Immersion — the way migrants and traders communicate - not very elegant, but practical and functional. Quite fun, because mistakes are often quite surprising and can help us develop new ideas, and make new friends.
 * Academic study — learning lots of vocabulary and grammar rules. Good for passing exams, but unlikely to be much fun.
 * The wrong way — (at least according to the professionals) probably the best for most of us, because it is a method of learning Spanish through amusing ourselves with informal but rewarding language activities outside of the rigid formal structure of school or academic study.

In the Wrong Way to Learn Spanish, we focus on learning by doing. It is there to be used as a guide rather than the main structured teaching of school-books. Most learning in The Wrong Way to Learn Spanish method takes the form of games and entertainment: trivia, live gameshows played by the student, role-playing, jokes, and stories. Because it's made based on fun-filled mnemonics, learning Spanish in this way would be the same as a kid who is just having a good time, while building up one's knowledge on the Spanish vocabulary.

Technique 1: Form Personal Mnemonics
Spanish words often bear little resemblance to their English counterparts. New Spanish students can overcome this by connecting the sound or spelling of a Spanish word to its meaning. Review the examples of one Spanish student below.

Zorro (ZOHR-roh) means fox.

 * Imagine a fox in a zorro mask.

Gato (GAH-toh) means cat.

 * Imagine a cat with big gaps between his toes.

Perro (PEH-roh) means dog.

 * Imagine a dog jumping over a pair of rowboats.

Oso (OH-soh) means bear.

 * Imagine spotting a huge bear looking at you, and running away because it is 'oh-so big.'

Camarera (kah-mah-REH-rah) means waitress.

 * Imagine a waitress at a restaurant offering to take a picture with your camera as you hang out with your friends.

Chico (CHEE-koh) means boy.

 * Think "It would be a Chick (i.e. female), but it isn't, because it has an o on the end, which makes it masculine, ergo, a guy, or boy."

Exercise 1.
{ What is the English word for these Spanish words?  chico: { boy (i) }
 * type="{}"}

oso: { bear (i) }

gato: { cat (i) }

zorro: { fox (i) }

camarera: { waitress (i) }

perro: { dog (i) }

Vocabulary
Mesa (MEH-sah) means table.

 * Imagine a table made of salt licks.
 * Imagine the geological structure, with its flat, table-like surface.

Falda (FAHL-dah) means skirt.

Most countries in South America use the term "pollera" (poh-YAY-rah), which is less formal
 * Imagine a skirt worn in the fall by your da.
 * Imagine a skirt with pleats or folds.

Agua (AH-gwah) means water.

 * Imagine some water crying out "Agh!" and "Wah!" as it's poured into a bottle of Aguafina.
 * Imagine some water in a cup contaminated with guano.
 * For those with literary and linguistic knowledge, Water = Aqua = the Spanish word Agua

Cabeza (kah-BEH-sah) means head.

 * Imagine a head sitting in a cab at the base of the passenger's side, crying out "Ah!" when the driver makes a sharp turn. (For the Castilian version, say the same thing with a lisp, so "base" sounds like "bayth".)

Chica means girl. (CHEE-kah)

 * Imagine kissing a girl on the cheek.

Exercise 1.
{ What is the English word for these Spanish words?  cabeza: { head (i) } agua: { water (i) } mesa: { table (i) } zorro: { fox (i) } oso: { bear (i) } falda: { skirt (i) } chico: { boy (i) }</li> </ol>
 * type="{}"}

Lesson 3. The Gender of Words
Words in Spanish have gender, which is the attribute of being masculine or feminine. In this sense, you can think about words being either boys or girls.

Words that are masculine generally end in o and words that are female generally end in a. Two important exceptions are el día (day) and la mano (hand).

Another way a teacher taught it was this: guys are LONERS and girls like DIJON mustard. Words ending in l, o, n, e, r and s are masculine. Words ending in d, i, a and sión are feminine. NOTE: It is true that there are exceptions to this, but if you have to guess at the gender of a word, it's a good method to try. Some important exceptions that are female are mujer means woman, flor means flower, actriz means actress, emperatriz means empress. Words macho and hembra don't have gender, it is used from gender of the noun.

Exercise 1.
{Are these words masculine(M) or feminine(F)? +- chico -+ chica +- oso -+ falda -+ mesa +- zorro -+ camarera +- gato +- agua (for singular) -+ agua (for plural) +- perro -+ cabeza -+ mosquito hembra +- mosquito macho -+ flora -+ emperatriz -+ vaca
 * type=""}
 * M | F

Note that words like lobo can be either masculine or feminine.

Lesson 4. Your First Five Adjectives
Adjectives that don't change with the gender of the noun:

 * Grande- big

 * Feroz- fierce

 * Caliente- physically hot object (NOT the Air or Outside-Inside temperature, NOR the attractiveness of a specific person, usually. Hot in the spicy food sense is also not represented here. That word is picante)

 * Inteligente- intelligent

 * Interesante- interesting

Lesson 5. Masculine and Feminine "the"
In English, we have one word for "the." In Spanish, there are four. Ah, but don't let this discourage you. After all, you already know three of them, and we are only going to be discussing two of them in this lesson.

Continuing with the theme of words having gender, the word "the" in Spanish also has gender, depending on what the noun it is used with. Think of this like clothing. Boy words wear tuxedoes and girl words wear dresses.

The tuxedo for boy words is "el".

The dress for girl words is "la." (Yes, very feminine sounding.)

"The" also has plurals (numbers three and four) which are "los" and "las". But we'll get to that later.

Lesson 6. "Es" and Your First Complete Sentences
The word "es" is used as "is," for description of what something or someone is, looks like, or belongs to. Do not use it for location.

e.g. La casa es grande. The house is big.

e.g. El gato es feroz. The cat is fierce.

The structure is article + noun + es + adjective.

Remember to make the adjective agree with the noun!

Test 1.
[UNDER CONSTRUCTION]

Test everything presented so far, i.e. Lesson 1 exercises 1&2, Lesson 2 exercises 1&2, and Lesson 3 exercise 1.

Paltalk Activity 1. Animal, Mineral, Vegetable
[UNDER CONSTRUCTION?]

Tildes (Create of the original Espanol)
The Tildes.

Modes:

 * Aguda: -n, -s or vocal
 * Llano: Consonant Different of -n, -s or vocal
 * Esdrújula: Complete

Test 1

 * Prestamo (Tilde Off)- omatsérP
 * Gijon (Tilde Off) - ónjiG
 * Educacion (Tilde Off) - nóicacudE

 * The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish/Dictionary

Credits

 * Manpurse: Hola, Wiki!newbie here. Hopefully I can add some more words later. Feel free to edit any programming/language errors at whim! Ciao, all.

 * Jose: Hola! newbie here. I've made some spellcheck in Spanish words. I'm wondering if I could help in later checking also.

 * Gina: Hey, I'm one of the anal retentives who speaks Spanish and corrects discrepencies with definitions every now and then. Just remember that words may not mean the same thing with every spanish speaking person, depending on where they come from. There is Mexican Spanish, Cuban Spanish, Puerto Rican Spanish, Castillian Spanish, Spanish from the same country but different areas/regions that have dialectic changes, and please remember that Not everyone from South America speaks spanish, in some countries French and Portuguese are the languages spoken. Always ask first.

 * Kate: just a Spanish student. Jr in HS, Spanish level 6 in KS

 * Mystery lurker: Holds jobs as a technical editor/technical writer. Contributed by adding some stuff and cleaning up existing ones. Understands the concept of clarity when editing documents or when writing a new book/article/news column. Took middle-school and high-school Spanish, loved it, but sadly moved out of the USA, thus lost touch with Spanish (boo hoo).

Links

 * Ranking with Spanish books
 * List with Spanish materials
 * Multimedia Spanish Quizzes
 * Spanish Vocab Quizzes
 * Books to learn Spanish

title: Spanish/The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish


text:
User:Yardcock~enwikibooks

More about Yardcock.

Links

 * Wikibooks portal
 * English
 * German
 * French
 * Spanish

title: User:Yardcock~enwikibooks


text:
Of Mice and Men

Of Mice and Men' is a John Steinbeck novel set in the 1930s telling the story of migrant ranch workers and their dreams. The story focuses on two main characters, Lennie and George, who travel together. Lennie is a large, strong, mentally challenged man, while his friend, George, is small-framed, quick and intelligent. The name of the novel comes from a line contained in the second-to-last stanza of a famous poem written by Robert Burns called "To a Mouse" which summarizes very well what happens in the story.

The best laid schemes o' mice an' men

Gang aft agley,

An' lea'e us nought but grief an' pain

For promis'd joy.

Table of Contents

 * /Overview/
 * /Characters/
 * /Literary Elements/
 * /Themes/

title: Of Mice and Men


text:
User:CRISTIAN GARCIA INFORMATICA~enwikibooks

,MIRE LAS CONTRIBUCIONES

Cristian Garcia
Tema: introduccion a la informatica

INFORMATICA

MAPA MENTAL

La informatica

en mi opinion la informatica se ha comvertido en algo esencial para toda persona ya que encontramos un sistema operativo desde un hogar hasta un gran empresa, hoy en dia todo se viene realizando mediante la informatica para realizar diferentes labores como operaciones,guardar archivos,hacer diagramas, hata navegar en internet y muchas otras funciones

www.monografias.com

CORTO RESEÑO DE LA INFORMATICA

FECHA DESARROLLO

AHORA HABLAREMOS SOBRE UNA PAGINA LLAMADA CRETIVECOMMONS

http://www.CRATIVECOMMONS.ORG

'''QUE ES? QUE HACE CREAT5IVECOMMONS?'''

CREATIVE COMON ES UN WEB, COMO LO DICE SU NOMBRE COMUN Y CREATIVA, DA A LOS AUTORES UN PEMISO PARA PUBLICAR SUS ARTICULOS QUE LOS VEAN Y LOS TRASFORMEN LOS LECTORES MEDIANTE CRITICAS COSTUCTIVAS COMO DESTRUCTIVAS.

A CONTINUACION SE NVA A EXPLICAR MEDIANTE UN MAPA MENTAL.


text:
Music Theory/Authors

If you added anything to this book, please feel free to enter either your nickname or full name to the list below:

 * A.J.
 * John Muniz
 * Kef Li Eric Marcus X-Schecter
 * hoogli
 * George Leung
 * PCon
 * Tropsy
 * zack69
 * MusicalMay
 * Henré "Mutant" Botha
 * TBOL3
 * Marcus2
 * Herr Beethoven
 * Leon Onn

Thanks to all of those!

title: Music Theory/Authors


text:
Swedish/Lesson 1

Swedes like to know to whom they are speaking, and this means that when speaking to a Swede, introductions are in order. While Swedish used to be more formal and included a strict use of titles indicating social, and marital status, this is completely abolished. Even very old people expect to be addressed as du "you" and only occasionally is Ni "you (plural)" used by sales clerks to address customers.

The simplest way to greet a Swede is to establish eye-contact, followed by a simple hej "hi". It should not be confused with the English "hey", the use of which is more to attract attention, a meaning the Swedish greeting does not contain. A variation and more informal variant of this word is hejsan. To show enthusiasm, you can repeat words; hej hej. Shaking hands is the most common way of greeting a stranger in Sweden. More informal and friendly forms of greeting are the words tja, tjena or tjenare. Though more common among younger people, they are often used by considerably older speakers to establish familiarity or intimacy with the listener.

God dag "good day" has a formal tone to it, but is very seldom used in everyday life, and is mostly seen in formal speeches and likewise. In the morning, god morgon "good morning", is commonly used and is not perceived as particularly formal, if polite. In the evening god kväll "good evening" can be used, but like god dag it's quite uncommon either with strangers or friends, but is entirely appropriate for a TV host to say in the introduction of a show.

Dialogue
Two students are meeting in a university cafeteria in Sweden. One of them is Sven - a Swedish student - and the other one is Peter - an American exchange student.

Sven: Hej. Hur mår du? ''English: Hi. How are you?''

Peter: Bara bra, tack. Förlåt, jag har glömt, var är du från? ''English: Just fine, thanks. Sorry, I have forgotten, where are you from?''

Sven: Jag är från Sverige, du då? English: I'm from Sweden, how about you?

Peter: Jag är amerikan, jag är från USA. English: I am American, I'm from the USA.

Sven: Ja, just det! Förlåt, vad heter du igen? ''English: Oh, that's right! Sorry, what's your name again?''

Peter: Jag heter Peter och du heter Sven. English: My name is Peter and your name is Sven.

Sven: Tack. Vi ses! ''English: Thank you. See you later!''

Long and short vowels
Not unlike many other Scandinavian languages, Swedish distinguishes quite clearly between long and short vowels. English doesn't have the same clear distinction, but the phonetic sound differences are in the language. Compare for example the A in "haha" with the A in "heart," the former being short and the latter being long. The short A in "haha" matches the short Swedish A pretty well, as does the A in "heart" but with the long A.

To distinguish long or short vowels in written language, the consonants immediately after the vowel are repeated to indicate a short vowel, and only written once to indicate a long. "Kommer" (coming) has a short O, because there are two M's, but it also has a short E, because more often than not, a word ends in a short vowel to aid in language flow when spoken. K is an exception to this rule, as you write "CK" when you want to indicate a short vowel.

There are traces of a similar system in English, for example "rock" has a short O, compared to "rookie" which has a long O, but instead of letting the single consonant indicate a long O, "rookie" has two O's, unlike Swedish, where something along the lines of "rokie" would have been enough to say that the O is probably a long O.

Phrases

 * Hur är det? -- How is it?
 * Hur mår du? -- How are you?
 * Var bor du? -- Where do you live?
 * Jag bor i ___ -- I live in ___
 * Vad heter du? -- What's your name?
 * Jag heter ___ -- My name is ___
 * Varifrån kommer du? -- Where are you from?
 * Jag kommer ifrån ___ -- I'm from ___
 * Och du [själv]? -- And you?
 * Ha det bra! -- Have a nice day!
 * Vi ses! -- See you (later)!*
 * Vi hörs! -- We'll keep in touch!*
 * Tack! -- Thanks!
 * Jag har glömt -- I've forgotten

Note that "hörs" and "ses" use a verb form that English does not have, a reciprocal form. It expresses a reciprocal action, signifying that people will hear from or see each other.

Vocabulary

 * Bra -- Good.
 * Förlåt -- Sorry. Literally "pardon (me)".
 * Igen -- Again.
 * Och -- And.
 * Heter -- a verb for 'be named', there is no exact translation.

 * Amerika -- America*
 * Chile -- Chile
 * India -- Indien
 * England -- England
 * Kina -- China
 * Italien -- Italy
 * Nederländerna -- Netherlands
 * Peru -- Peru
 * Polen -- Poland
 * Somalien -- Somalia
 * Sverige -- Sweden
 * Tyskland -- Germany
 * Tjeckien -- Czech Republic
 * Turkiet -- Turkey
 * Ungern -- Hungary
 * Vietnam -- Vietnam
 * Japan -- Japan
 * Sydkorea -- South Korea
 * Nordkorea -- North Korea
 * Spanien -- Spain

U.S. is USA (never US) in Swedish. It can also be called Amerikas Förenta Stater; and (very frequently) just Amerika.

Family in Swedish

parents	-- föräldrar mother -- mamma / mor / moder Father -- pappa / far / fader son -- son daughter -- dotter Brother -- bror Sister -- syster Grandpa -- farfar / morfar grandma -- farmor / mormor grandson -- sonson / dotterson granddaughter -- sondotter / dotterdotter niece -- brorsdotter / systerdotter nephew -- brorson / systerson cousin -- kusin uncle -- farbror / morbror aunt -- faster / moster boy -- pojke girl -- flicka child /baby / infant -- barn / baby / bebis / spädbarn adult -- vuxen (n) man -- man woman -- kvinna Friend -- vän girlfriend -- väninna

you can listen to this swedish vocabulary on its source on learnswedish.nu

Exercise
Write a short dialogue, or practice with a friend. In the dialogue, use the phrases for greeting someone, telling them your name and where you're from. Finish it by using one of the phrases for telling the other person goodbye.

suédois

title: Swedish/Lesson 1


text:
Talk:Data Structures/LinkedLists

Actually you *can* do that (in C99 at least)

You use a linked list (instead of a memory allocated array) when you need fast element deletions and insertions at any place in the data sequence, but do not require fast random access. You could use a different data structure, like a heap to do the same thing. But a list is simpler to program. A heap only is significantly better when your data is ordered and you need quicker random access.

 * Good point. Perhaps the emphasis should be placed on being able to insert items in the middle versus just the end, or as a way of chaining already allocated objects together. I have to say, with automatic realloc features being common in languages, as with pointers (instead of the field values themselves) it makes more sense to use vectors than the linked lists we all used in the C days. Mshonle

LINKED LIST
LINKED LIST:-linked is a chain of object.it is dynamic data structure.there are three types of data structure 1.singly linked list:- each node contain the next node and last node contain NULL value and the address of the first node held start pointer. 2.doubly linked list:- each node contains the address of next node as well as the address previous node and address of the next field of the last node contain NULL and address of the previous field of the first node also contain NULL. 3.circular linked list:- each node containing the address of next node but last node contain the first node. (1)insertion: -beg -between -last (2)traversing (3)searching (4)deletion: -beg -between -last [1]. make current node point to the first node in the list. [2]. repeat the step 3 and 4 until current node become NULL. [3]. display the information contained in the node MARKED as current node. [4]. make current node to the next in the sequence. @@PROGRAM OF TRAVERSING@@ Node currentNode=Start while(currentNode!=NULL) {         console.WriteLine(currentNode.Marked) currentNode=currentNode.next; }
 * OPERATION IN SINGLE LINKED LIST*
 * 1) ALGORITHM OF TRAVERSING##

title: Talk:Data Structures/LinkedLists


text:
User talk:Migue1 angel

Hola Miguel, me preguntaba de qué forma podemos trasladar las páginas de un dominio al otro sin que se pierda el historial de las mismas. Gracias. Me gustaría ayudar a mover todo esto. --Javier Carro 01:34, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Migue1 angel


text:
Talk:Robotics/Computer Control/The Interface/Microcontrollers

Microcontrollers

The article once said:

Similiar to the outputs of a microcontroller, the inputs cannot "sink" a lot of current. However, this is somewhat irrelavant because the sensors that allow the microcontroller to "see" the world do not use very much power. Therefore, an appropriate, low power resistor connected as a series circuit to the sensor is all that is needed to attach it to the microcontroller input.

''This seems misleading. Most inputs (because they are connected only to CMOS gates) do not sink *any* (DC) current.''

Embedded Systems
I'm going to start merging the Microcontroller book into the Embedded Systems book. I also think that it doesnt make sense to merge this page into that book: the robotics book does deserve to have at least some coverage of microcontrollers. However, it would probably be a good idea to link to the Embedded Systems book for this, for further reading on this topic. --Whiteknight T C E 00:42, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

IMO much of the content of the microcontrollers page is going to be pretty much the same as the content for a microcontrollers page in the embedded systems book. I suggest you go ahead with the merge and I'll link to the embedded systems book and cover on this page robotics-specific microcontroller topics. Although this probably isn't going to be very much, as most of the things that apply for embedded hardware is going to apply in the same way for robotics. --Patrik 07:19, 17 February 2006 (UTC)