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ICT for Disaster Management/Annex:Global and Regional Organizations Working in Disaster Management

Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Bangkok
ADPC is a non-profit organization supporting the advancement of safer communities and sustainable development through implementing programmes and projects that reduce the impact of disasters upon countries and communities in Asia and the Pacific. ADPC was established in 1986 at the recommendation of the UN Disaster Relief Organization – now known as the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) and is an independent entity governed and guided by a Board of Trustees (21 members representing 15 countries). ADPC develops and implements disaster risk management programmes and projects by providing technical and professional services in formulating national disaster management policies, capacity building of disaster management institutions, programme design for comprehensive disaster risk management, post-disaster assessment, public health and emergency management, land-use planning, disaster-resistant construction, and the planning of immediate relief response and subsequent rehabilitation activities.

Contact details: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center SM Tower 24th Floor, 979/69 Paholyothin Road Samsen Nai, Phayathai Bangkok 10400,Thailand Tel: +66 2 298 0681 to 92 Fax: +66 2 298 0012 to 13 Email: adpc@adpc.net Website: http://www.adpc.net

Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network
In February 2002, the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre (ADRC) Kobe and UNOCHA, in Kobe, with the assistance of the ASEAN Foundation, brought together more than 30 NGOs from across Asia to discuss the need for a network of NGOs for disaster reduction and response in Asia. As a result, the Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network (ADRRN) was formed.This loose body of NGOs was consolidated in December 2003, and in June 2004, the structure, content and direction of the ADRRN was clearly formulated and implemented. The objectives of ADRRN are to: disaster reduction and response; NGOs globally, through various international forums and platforms; among network members and other stakeholders.
 * Develop an interactive network of NGOs committed to achieving excellence in the field of
 * Raise the relevant concerns of NGOs in the Asia-Pacific region to the larger community of
 * Promote best practices and standards in disaster reduction and response; and
 * Provide a mechanism for sharing reliable information and facilitating capacity building

Contact details: Asian Disaster Reduction and Response Network Secretariat No 45B Jalan Mamanda 9, Ampang Point 68000 Ampang, Selangor,Malaysia Tel: +60 3 4256 9999, +60 3 4256 5724 Fax: +60 3 4251 8435 Email: feedback@adrrn.net Website: http://www.adrrn.net

Asian Disaster Reduction Centre, Kobe Japan
The United Nations has been promoting the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction throughout the 1990s to reduce damage from natural disasters worldwide through international cooperative initiatives. On the basis of the lessons from the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake, the need to promote multinational disaster reduction cooperation in the Asian region was stressed at the ministerial-level Asian Natural Disaster Reduction Conference held in Kobe City in December 1995,attended by delegates from 28 countries in Asia and other regions. Subsequently, ADRC was established in Kobe, Hyogo Prefecture, to facilitate exchange of disaster reduction experts from each country and concerned bodies, accumulate and provide disaster reduction information, and carry out research in multinational disaster reduction cooperation as the focus of this initiative. The symbol of the ADRC, which portrays a man embracing the Earth with his arms extended to reach all corners of the world, represents its commitment to creating a worldwide cooperative information network. The symbol expresses ADRC’s goal of a fully developed unification of information networks and human power.

Contact details: Asian Disaster Reduction Centre Hitomiraikan 5F, 1-5-2,Wakinohama-kaigan-dori Chuo-ku, Kobe City Hyogo Prefecture, 651-0073 Japan Tel: +81 78 262 5540 Fax: +81 78 262 5546 Email: rep@adrc.or.jp

Australian Tsunami Warning System
The Australian Tsunami Warning System provides tsunami warning services for Australia based on seismic information from the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre, Japanese Meteorological Agency and Geoscience Australia on earthquakes. Other potential triggers for tsunami are volcanic eruptions, underwater landslides and meteorites. Currently there is a four-year project (2005–2008) to upgrade this service by enhancing the seismic monitoring network and sea-level monitoring network, in addition to the modelling of seismic events, tsunami propagation and coastal inundation. This is a cooperative project between the Bureau of Meteorology, Geoscience Australia and Emergency Management

Contact details:

Emergency Management Australia PO Box 1020 Dickson Australian Capital Territory 2602 Australia Tel: +61 (0) 2 6256 4600 Fax: +61 (0) 2 6256 4653 Website: http://www.ema.gov.au/agd/ema/emainternet.nsf/Page/Tsunami_Warning

Duryog Nivaran (South Asian Network for Disaster Risk Reduction)
In 1995, the Duryog Nivaran network was established to fill a void in cross-border dialogue and experience sharing among organizations, governmental or otherwise, working in the world’s most disaster-prone region, South Asia. It promotes an alternate perspective towards disasters, be they natural or man-made. This perspective points out that people affected by disasters are more than mere victims, but rather partners in their future development and well-being. The network’s activities are information sharing, building a concerned media, research and grass-roots community action. It is already involved in disaster management research work in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The key objectives of Duryog Nivaran are: their capacity and carry out effective disaster mitigation and development activities by sharing information, learning from each other’s experiences and providing support for each organization’s activities; demonstrating, through research and action, other approaches that challenge the existing paradigm; and NGOs.
 * Provide an opportunity for national and regional organizations in South Asia to strengthen
 * Make the case for an alternative perspective by analysing existing interventions and
 * Carry out specific activities to influence decision makers in government, donor agencies and

Contact details: Duryog Nivaran Secretariat c/o RDPI, House# 232/10 Street: 7-C, Sector 2 Airport Employees Cooperative Housing Society Rawalpindi, Pakistan Tel: +92 51 595 6733-4, +92 51 800 1695 Email: info@duryognivaran.org Website: http://www.duryognivaran.org

Global Disaster Information Network
The Global Disaster Information Network (GDIN) is a voluntary, independent, self-sustaining non-profit association with an interest in facilitating the provision of disaster warning and management-related information to its various stakeholders such as governments, international organizations, industry, academia, donor organizations and NGOs. It is committed to assist disaster managers in finding the information they need, particularly when other means have failed, develop unique information-sharing procedures that augment the existing system, promote the development of new disaster information technologies and foster professional development. GDIN originated in the US in 1997, based on experiences with the G7 and the UN.However, the international community quickly decided at the first GDIN Conference in Washington that it would be an international project that operates in partnership with all sectors and it is not owned by any one entity.Now, it operates as an informal international body with members from all sectors. GDIN has facilitated the development of fresh GIS products based on remote sensing for Viet Nam, Mozambique and Turkey. It has also developed textual reports on infectious diseases in Afghanistan and a well-regarded paper on anthrax.

Contact details: Global Disaster Information Network Headquarters 5667 Stone Road, Suite 410 Centreville,VA 20120, USA Tel: +1 202 647 5070 Fax: +1 202 647 4628 Email: gdincommunity@hotmail.com Website: http://www.gdin.org

International Charter for ‘Space and Major Disasters’
Satellite imagery is very expensive and not affordable by most developing nations without their own space programmes. In the event of a natural or man-made disaster, space technology data should be readily available for developing nations that do not have or cannot afford their own space programmes. Following the UNISPACE III conference held in Vienna, Austria in July 1999, the European and French space agencies initiated the idea of an International Charter for ’Space and Major Disasters’. The Canadian Space Agency, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Indian Space Research Organization, Argentine Space Agency, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency and the United States Geological Survey have also joined the Charter at later stages. The International Charter aims at providing a unified system of space data acquisition and delivery to those affected by natural or man-made disasters through Authorized Users. Each member agency has committed resources to support the provisions of the Charter and thus is helping to mitigate the effects of disasters on human life and property.

Contact details: Website: http://www.disasterscharter.org

Pacific Disaster Center
The mission of the Pacific Disaster Center (PDC), established after Hurricane Iniki caused heavy destruction to the Hawaiian island of Kauai, is to provide applied information research and analysis support for the development of more effective policies, institutions, programmes and information products for the disaster management and humanitarian assistance communities of the Asia-Pacific region and beyond.

Central to achieving these objectives is providing unique and valuable geospatial and disaster-related information through a web-based data system for international, regional, national and local information access and dissemination. Through the use of the PDC web-based information system, disaster managers can develop both situational awareness and appropriate responses before, during and after disaster events.These responses range from the assessment of hazards and risk to managing risk through mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and reconstruction. In one of its projects, the PDC has entered into a contract with the National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) in Thailand to provide technical assistance to NDWC in order to enhance its disaster management capabilities, systems and practices. Under this contract, PDC and its partners – Lockheed Martin Information Technology, Sun Microsystems and Environmental Systems Research Institute – will provide NDWC with technical solutions, systems integration and human resources training to achieve its strategic objective of establishing a scalable and world-class disaster management and emergency communications facility. The project, funded through a grant by the US Trade and Development Agency, will help build Thailand’s capacity as part of the US government's broader support for an Indian Ocean tsunami warning system.

Contact details: Pacific Disaster Center 1305 North Holopono Street Suite 2, Kihei, Hawaii 96753, USA Tel: +1 808 891 0525 Website: http://www.pdc.org/iweb/pdchome.html

Partners in Technology
The objective of Partners in Technology International (PACTEC) is to support any nation’s effort to build communications capacity in case of an emergency. It provides assistance to establish or improve two-way communications where reliable telephone service is unavailable. PACTEC purchases, installs, and maintains HF/VHF radio networks and satellite communications connectivity. PACTEC installs and administers computer networks for email, web-based communications and applications. PACTEC also provides training for local technicians who can then operate and maintain PACTEC communication systems. PACTEC has already undertaken work in Afghanistan, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, Mauritania, Morocco and Senegal. PACTEC is in the process of spinning off a new non-profit organization to be called the Disaster Relief and Strategic Telecommunication Infrastructure Company, http://www.drasticom.net.

Contact details: Partners in Technology P.O. Box 28 Nampa, ID 83653-0028, USA Tel: +1 208 498 0600 Fax: +1 208 498 0601 Email: pactecinfo@pactec.net Website: http://www.pactec.org

ReliefWeb
ReliefWeb is an on-line gateway to information (documents and maps) on humanitarian emergencies and disasters. It provides timely, reliable and relevant information as events unfold, while emphasizing the coverage of ‘forgotten emergencies’ at the same time. ReliefWeb was launched in October 1996 and is administered by UNOCHA. The ReliefWeb portal has seen steady growth in usage. In 2002, ReliefWeb received 1.5 million hits per week, and in 2004, the site received approximately 1 million hits a day. Shortly after the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster of December 2004, it received 3 million hits a day on average. Over 70,000 users subscribe to ReliefWeb’s email services. It operates from three time zones to ensure that its news items are updated around the clock and posts about 150 maps and documents daily from over 2,000 sources.These are then categorized and stored in a searchable database containing a large number of such items dating back to 1981.

Contact details: ReliefWeb Kobe Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Hitomiraikan 5F, 1-5-2,Wakinohama-kaigan-dori Chuo-ku, Kobe City Hyogo 651-0073, Japan Tel: +81 78 262 5555 Website: http://www.reliefweb.int

Télécoms Sans Frontières
Télécoms Sans Frontières (TSF) is an NGO specializing in emergency telecommunications. TSF deploys lightweight equipment that can provide voice, Internet, fax, and video connections via its satellite,Wi-Fi,and Global System for Mobile communications equipment.The services are available to everyone, including UN personnel, NGOs, other responders, local government agencies and citizens. The TSF teams will remain in an area for about a month, until more permanent satellite and other communications are established. TSF, however, often stays in regions much longer as part of other humanitarian work it does including training on satellite communications equipment and the strengthening of early warning systems using ICT.

Website: http://www.tsfi.org/tsfispip/index.php

UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
UN/ISDR is the focal point in the UN System to promote links and synergies between, and the coordination of, disaster reduction activities in the socio-economic, humanitarian and development fields, as well as to support policy integration. It serves as an international information clearinghouse on disaster reduction, developing awareness campaigns and producing articles, journals, and other publications and promotional materials related to disaster reduction. The UN/ISDR headquarters is based at the Palais des Nations in Geneva. It conducts outreach programmes through its regional units in Kenya, Panama, Tajikistan and Thailand. Recognizing that natural hazards can threaten anyone, UN/ISDR builds on partnerships and takes a global approach to disaster reduction, seeking to involve individuals and communities towards achieving the goals of reducing the loss of lives, the socio-economic setbacks and the environmental damages caused by natural disasters.

Contact details: UN/ISDR Palais des Nations CH 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland Tel: +41 22 917 2529 / 762 / 759 Fax: +41 22 917 0563 Email: isdr@un.org Website: http://www.unisdr.org UN/ISDR Asia and the Pacific c/o UNESCAP UN Conference Centre Building Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200,Thailand Tel: +66 2 288 2745 Email: isdr-bkk@un.org Website: http://www.unisdr.org/asia UN/ISDR Platform for the Promotion of Early Warning Herrmann-Ehlers-Strasse 10 D-53113 Bonn, Germany Tel: +49 228 249 8810 Fax: +49 228 249 8888 Email: isdr-ppew@un.org Website: http://www.unisdr-earlywarning.org


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ICT for Disaster Management/Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the assistance received from Nescha Teckle, Sanny Jegillos, Rajesh Sharma and Pablo Torrealba of the UNDP Asia-Pacific Regional Crisis Prevention and Recovery Team, Prof. Krasae Chanawongse and Roopa Rakshit of the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, and Sanjana Hattotuwa from Infoshare, for the valuable input they have provided for this publication.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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ICT for Disaster Management/About the Author

Chanuka Wattegama, an electronics engineer, graduated from the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka, India and holds an MBA from the University of Colombo. He counts more than 13 years’ experience at the specialist and senior management levels. His specialization is ICT and its applications for development. He is also one of the key ICT for Development researchers in Sri Lanka, with several international-level publications to his credit. Chanuka works for UNDP-APDIP, which aims to promote ICT for sustainable human development. He is a member of the Technical Committee of APCICT. He has also worked as a consultant for the Information and Communication Technology Agency and the apex body for ICT-related activities in Sri Lanka, leading one of its largest projects. As a researcher, Chanuka has co-authored the Sri Lankan chapters for the books ‘Media in Asia’, ‘Internet in Asia’,‘Cyber Communities in Asia’ and ‘Digital Review of Asia Pacific’.


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New Zealand History/Maori Lifestyle

‹ Back to Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand

Maori Culture and Lifestyle up to 1840
Polynesians had arrived in Aotearoa (the Land of the Long White Cloud) i.e. New Zealand, around 1250 AD. At that point, having come from a tropical region, they had to dramatically change their lifestyle to suit the new environment.

Some of the biggest changes the Polynesians had to adapt to was that New Zealand was much larger and had a more temperate climate than the islands they had migrated from. This meant they had to build houses on the ground instead of on stilts to make them warmer, they had to develop much warmer clothing. New ways to hunt, fish, build, adapt. The Polynesians became a new group of people who eventually were called Maori (by Europeans) although 'Maori' referred to themselves as 'Tangata Whenua' i.e. People of the Land.

Maori as a people were known amongst themselves by their Iwi (Tribal) affiliations which often reflected the particular 'Waka' (or canoe) the individual could trace his oral history or lineage back to. Inter-marriage between Iwi was a way of strengthening alliances between various tribal groupings. Within Iwi (tribal groups) smaller family groups or sub-tribes (Hapu) was organized. Men had full faced tattoos (moko) which reflected this identity, as well as other attributes, such as status, bravery etc. Women also had tattooing on lower-lips and chins which also represented both lineage 'whakapapa', and status. This art of tattooing was highly sacred (Tapu), as were many other aspects of Maori culture such as canoe building, carving, hunting etc.

The first Maori settlements were mostly located around harbours or river mouths where fish and seabirds lived.

New Zealand, unlike their original islands, was abundant in wild game, so the Maori used both agriculture and hunting to sustain the Iwi. One of their biggest sources of food was the Moa, a large flightless bird. The Moas varied in size from the height of a turkey to 3.7 metres high. Unfortunately, this made them easy targets, and they became extinct due to over-hunting by about 1500. As a result of this, the Maori switched back to agriculture. Gradually, the Maori dispersed themselves over New Zealand in different tribes, with different chiefs as leaders. The different tribes became more aggressive, however, and inter-tribal warfare became much more frequent over time. This led to the advent of the Pa (a fortified village). An average Pa included ditches, banks and Palisades as protection.

New Zealand eventually became divided up by tribal territories which were recognised by other tribes with predominant land features (rivers, mountains, lakes). This culture remained up until the 18th Century when the Europeans came to New Zealand.

After the first European whalers and traders came to New Zealand, the Maori lifestyle in some areas changed dramatically, and never returned to the way it was. One of the most popular commodities the Maori were interested in trading for were muskets. As Maoris had no long-range weapons, muskets were a valuable asset to tribes. The introduction of muskets made inter-tribal wars far more dangerous, especially if it was a tribe with muskets against a tribe without.

Before the arrival of Missionaries, Maori culture included their own religion, but when Europeans arrived that all changed, and Maoris were gradually converted to Christianity.

A written form of the Maori language was also created for the Maori by the Missionaries, and gradually the Maori culture became something completely different than before.

Forward to First European Explorers to Discover New Zealand ›

title: New Zealand History/Maori Lifestyle


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[ Gender and ICT/Notes ]

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New Zealand History/World War II

‹ Back to New Zealand in the Great Depression

New Zealand in World War II
New Zealand declared war on Germany at 9.30 pm on the 3rd of September 1939, thus entering World War II. New Zealand assisted Britain, as New Zealanders still felt loyal to their 'mother country'.

New Zealand provided men for service in the British Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. The New Zealand Royal Navy was placed at Britain's disposal, and new bombers waiting in the United Kingdom to be shipped to New Zealand were made available to the Royal Air Force.

The New Zealand Army contributed the New Zealand 2nd Division to the war.

In April 1941, New Zealand's 2nd Division was deployed to Greece, to help the British and Australians defend the country from the invading Italians. The Germans soon joined in the fight, overwhelming the British and Commonwealth forces. Due to this factor, the British and Commonwealth forces had to retreat to Crete and Egypt by the 6th of April. The last New Zealand troops had evacuated Greece by the 25th of April, having sustained losses of 291 men killed, 387 seriously wounded, and 1,826 men captured in this campaign.

Since most New Zealand 2nd Division troops had evacuated to Crete, they were very much involved in the defence of Crete against German soldiers in May 1941. By the end of the month, however, German soldiers had once again overwhelmed British and Commonwealth forces, and it was decided to evacuate to Alexandria by June. In battle, 671 New Zealanders were killed, 967 wounded and 2,180 captured.

On the 18th of November 1941, the New Zealand 2nd Division took part in the North Africa Operation Crusader campaign. Merged into the British Eighth Army, New Zealand troops crossed the Libyan frontier into Cyrenaica. Operation Crusader was an overall success for the British, and New Zealand troops withdrew to Syria to recover. The Operation Crusader campaign was the most costly the New Zealand 2nd Division fought in the Second World War, with 879 men killed, and 1700 wounded.

The New Zealand 3rd Division, which was active after December 1941, supplemented existing garrison troops in the South Pacific. However, New Zealand troops were eventually replaced by American soldiers, freeing up the New Zealand 3rd Division for service within the New Zealand 2nd Division, which was in Italy.

New Zealand participated in the war until its end in 1945.

Casualties

In total, around 140,000 men served overseas for the Allied war effort. The war had a high cost on the country, with 11,625 New Zealand men killed, a ratio of 6684 dead per million in the population which was the highest rate in the Commonwealth.

Forward to Mid to Late Twentieth Century ›

title: New Zealand History/World War II


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User talk:76.171.239.33

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 05:00, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:76.171.239.33


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User talk:Beau~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --AdRiley 07:23, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

Naming Convention
Hello Beau. Welcome to wikibooks. Glad to have your contributions here. Just wanted to enquire what the subject of your book was and ask you to take a look at the naming convention: Naming policy. If you let me know what book your pages should belong to I can help you rename them with the right name. Thanks --AdRiley 07:23, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

Username
Hi! I am Beau from Polish Wikipedia. Would you consider renaming your account to a different name? I am unable to use my unified login here, because you have registered this name first. Regards, Beau.pacynka (discuss • contribs) 16:03, 7 November 2011 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Beau. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Beau~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:02, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:37, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Beau~enwikibooks


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Template:Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/Cite

[ Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/Notes ]


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User talk:Docisb

Hi Everybody

Copyvio
Although it appears you are no longer active here, I think you deserve this message anyway. Safe Drinking Water, your book, has been tagged for a copyright violation. It has been listed at WB:VFD. Red4tribe (talk) 03:35, 11 July 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Docisb


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World Stamp Catalogue/Numbering System/Russian

КАТАЛОГ ПОЧТОВЫХ МАРОК МИРА: СИСТЕМА НУМЕРАЦИИ

(описание на английском языке см. World Stamp Catalogue/Numbering System.)

Система нумерации для Каталога почтовых марок мира должна быть:
 * иерархической — Каждый номер начинается с самого важного элемента и заканчивается самым менее важным.
 * масштабируемой — В системе должно быть много места для добавления новой информации или для пополнения сведений по существующим маркам.
 * единой — При необходимости система позволяет осуществлять координацию между странами и их административно-территориальными единицами, оккупантами и оккупированными ими странами, или эмиссиями с общим рисунком.
 * понятной — Некоторой краткостью и лаконичностью можно пожертвовать ради того, чтобы номер был более понятен.

Уровень для начинающих
Собирание и идентификация почтовых марок на этом уровне не должны представлять сложности, причём для этого единственное необходимое оборудование — небольшое увеличительное стекло. Для более лёгкого восприятия различные сегменты на этом уровне нумерации могут отделяться чёрточками.

Страны
Самая важная информация о почтовой марке — это выпустившая её страна. Поэтому это должен быть первый элемент каталожного номера. Настоятельно рекомендуется за основу брать стандарт ИСО ISO 3166-1 alpha-3. В системе можно предусмотреть исторические кодовые обозначения для таких уже не существующих государств как Советский Союз (SUN), в состав которого ранее входили республики, которые теперь являются самостоятельными государствами.

Административно-территориальные единицы
Этот факультативный элемент может быть использован для обозначения административно-территориальных единиц, которые либо выпускали собственные марки, либо марки для которых выпускались кем-то ещё. Его можно оставить пустым, если в каталоге не числится никаких административно-территориальных единиц такого рода. К таким элементам следует отнести города, выпускавшие марки местной почты. Несмотря на то, что следует отдавать предпочтение стандартным сокращениям, они не всегда имеются. При наличии такого элемента в нём должны быть две или более буквы алфавита.

Можно себе представить, что марки, содержащие сведения в этой позиции, могут стать основой для отдельных вторичных перечней, в которых сведены воедино все марки данной административно-территориальной единицы сами по себе. В этот момент, присваивая коды административно-территориальных единиц, нельзя забывать о возможных конфликтах наименования с отдалёнными и малоизвестными частями мира. По этой причине следует избегать применения придуманных трёхбуквенных кодовых обозначений.

Год
Следующий элемент — год, когда был впервые принят данный рисунок марки. В результате все марки, имеющие данный рисунок, будут сведены вместе, независимо от продолжительности применения данного рисунка.

Сегмент серии и марки
Это номер из четырёх цифр с нулевыми старшими разрядами, который информирует о "серии" марок и о марках в пределах серии. "Серия" указывает на количество марок, вышедших вместе или имеющих общий рисунок. В серию может входить только одна марка, хотя также известны серии, состоящие более чем из ста марок. Также есть ряд примеров, когда какая-либо страна эмитировала за один год более 100 серий. Здесь важно иметь возможность адаптирования к различным обстоятельствам, не выходя за пределы четырёх цифр в этом сегменте номера.

Первая и вторая цифры
Первая часть этого номера указывает на серию. Может оказаться целесообразным разбить её на общие стандартные выпуски, коммеморативные выпуски, дополнительные выпуски (типа доплатных марок или почтово-налоговых марок) и незарегистрированные эмиссии. Одной из возможных схем для этого может быть следующая: В случае выпуска какой-либо страной очень большого числа серий в течение года может оказаться необходимым объединение серий для наших целей. Формат "n0" в этом сегменте следует зарезервировать для общих сведений.
 * от 01 до 09 — стандартные выпуски, иногда выходят в течение многих лет (напр., "Machins" в Великобритании).
 * от 11 до 19 — общие рисунки или темы, используемые двумя или более странами одновременно; это даст определённую степень координации.
 * от 21 до ?? — коммеморативные выпуски, характерные только для этой страны; попытайтесь здесь придерживаться установленного порядка следования дат эмиссии.

Третья и четвёртая цифры
Вторая часть указывает на марки в пределах серии, предпочтительно в порядке следования их номиналов с учётом выхода марок одного номинала, но с очевидными вариациями в цвете. Можно использовать идущие подряд номера, когда есть обоснованная уверенность в том, что новых марок с этим же рисунком выходить не будет. Когда такой уверенности нет, цифры следует разводить, оставляя место для последующих новых выпусков. Номер "00" в этом элементе следует зарезервировать за сведениями, общими для всей серии.

Промежуточный уровень
На промежуточном уровне пользователь каталога должен иметь возможность установления большинства основных разновидностей, обнаруживаемых в существующих стандартных каталогах. Сюда относятся разновидности, основанные на надпечатках, вариаций в цвете, зубцовке, водяных знаках, разновидностях бумаги, типе печати и другие. Сюда также может включаться информация относительно выявления распротранённых подделок и новоделов.

В этом сегменте есть чёрточка (тире), за которой идут четыре цифры, включая нулевые старшие разряды. Это даёт возможность предусмотреть четыре отдельные основы для разновидностей. Для этих разновидностей не указывается постоянный порядок, но настоятельно рекомендуется отдавать предпочтение наиболее легко выявляемым разновидностям.

Продвинутый уровень
В конце номера может добавляться дополнительный конечный сегмент неопределённой длины. Несмотря на то, что рекомендуется организовывать эту часть номера с учётом определённой логической основы, имеющиеся здесь бесконечные возможности не позволяют дать здесь конкретные рекомендации. Именно здесь можно детально рассматривать такие темы, как ошибки и разновидности печатных форм.

Numbering System/Russian


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Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/SME Adoption of ICT

Why Should SMEs Adopt ICT?
SMEs are often the main driver for a country’s economic growth. However, as the number of SMEs increases, competition increases, which then results in a decrease in prices, customer base, or both. This in turn will erode existing profits, creating less incentive for people to start SMEs. This dynamic is captured by balancing feedback loops where the greater the number of SMEs, the greater the competition, resulting in a slower rate of growth for SMEs (see Figure 6, left). To counter the increasing competition, firms can lower prices, increase promotion of their product, improve their product, add new distribution channels, and/or improve their internal processes (see Figure 6, right). The challenge is to counter competition when the firm still has the financial resources to do so. Otherwise, once the pressure of competition sufficiently erodes the SME’s profits, it will no longer have resources to counter the competition and will have to exit the market.

Figure 6: A Systems Dynamics View of Firm Response to Competitive Pressures

Foreign firms in both the import and export markets further add to competitive pressures, especially if they react faster to improve their product, process, promotion, or distribution channels.This is the problem of the Digital Divide.When firms in developed countries adopt ICT, firms in developing countries will lose out on the competition.This in turn can slow the growth rate of SMEs and hurt the economy as a whole. ICT can thus play a very important role because it can help SMEs both create business opportunities and combat pressures from competition.Appropriate ICT can help SMEs cut costs by improving their internal processes, improving their product through faster communication with their customers, and better promoting and distributing their products through online presence. In fact, ICT has the potential to improve the core business of SMEs in every step of the business process. Figure 7 uses Porter’s value chain to summarize various ways that ICT can benefit a firm.

Figure 7: Benefits of ICT Tools Categorized under Porter's Value Chain

In countries where SMEs are only starting to adopt basic ICT, obtaining a fixed or mobile phone line can help their business. It can replace the time and costs necessary for face-to-face communication. In countries where SMEs already have basic ICT, adopting more advanced ICT still brings enormous benefits. Advanced communication technologies such as email can help firms communicate faster and cheaper with both its suppliers and clients. In 2000, an organization that uses paper took on average 7.4 days to move a purchase from request to approval, but if done electronically, only took 1.5 days.12 Advanced ITs such as ERP software can capture cost savings (see Figure 8). Beyond cost savings, SCM software can also help increase productivity, efficiency of inventory controls, and increase sales through closer relationships and faster delivery times (see Figure 9).

Figure 8: Cost Reductions from Enterprise Resource Planning13

Figure 9: Cost Reductions from e-Procurement and Supply Chain Management

Why Have So Few SMEs Adopted ICT?
Given the benefits that ICT can bring to SMEs, SMEs in most developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region still have been slow to adopt it. For example, 90 percent of Thai SMEs still use basic communication technology such as fixed phone line and fax, and only 1 percent use CRM software.Meanwhile, their counterparts in developed countries are using advanced ITs. One cause of limited adoption is the lack of dynamism between ICT firms and SMEs outside of the ICT sector. ICT firms have not provided goods and services tailored to SMEs in the past because demand from SMEs has been low. However, their demand is low in part because ICT products available in the market are too complex and expensive.The result is a vicious cycle of limited supply and limited demand that ultimately excludes SMEs from the benefits of ICT. Other factors also contribute to the limited supply and demand of ICT for SMEs:

Supply Side
1. Poor communications infrastructure results in limited access and higher costs. Many developing countries still have poor communications infrastructure.Outdated equipment and state-owned monopolies often result in expensive charges and limited coverage, especially in rural areas. This discourages SMEs from adopting even the basic ICT of fixed lines or mobile phones.

2.Most advanced ICT products are designed for larger firms and not SMEs. ICT firms used to target large enterprises because they had a larger budget and were willing to pay for more complex ICT services.Their products are often too expensive and too complex for SME users. However, competition in this market is making firms – both large and small – turn their attention towards the untapped SME market. Rosetta, for example, is pushing to capture SME customers by lowering prices by 50 percent and increasing awareness.16

Demand Side
1. Limited ICT literacy of SME owners hinders their ability to choose the appropriate technology and understand the concrete benefits it can bring to their business.

Many SME owners are unfamiliar with operating a computer, are skeptical of the concrete benefits to its core business, and have the stereotype that ICT is only for larger companies. Even if they have the will and financial resources to integrate ICT into their core business, SME owners are often at a loss when needing to choose the most appropriate and cost-efficient product.

2. Limited ICT literacy of employees in SMEs hinders ICT adoption. Even if SME owners have a strategic understanding of why they should adopt ICT, their staff is often untrained.Training costs both time and money – resources that SMEs usually lack.

3. Adopting ICT is an adaptive challenge, not a technical challenge. Adopting ICT is a difficult task for companies of all sizes, whether they are in developed or developing countries. In fact, a lot of management literature focuses on the organizational changes that firms must go through in order to effectively adopt ICT because they change the way firms do business.While the changes may be beneficial in the long run, they often hurt one department and strengthen another. For example, Zhang Hongwei, senior consultant with D'Long International Strategic Investment, comments that “in order to make ERP‘s cost-saving and efficiency-building features work, managers must be willing to take measures that can be anathema in the state-owned sector, such as selling businesses, laying off workers, and changing longstanding vendor relationships.All of this can be tough to do.”19 Thus, SME owners are often reluctant to bring their firm through a learning curve that may be difficult and costly.

4. Lack of financing options limits SME ability to purchase ICT. Lack of financing and appropriate technology is clearly a major handicap to developing country producers and exporters, and it inhibits developing countries from deriving full benefits from their trade rights. Rubens Ricupero, Secretary General of UNCTAD, 18 February 2002, Geneva

SMEs usually have limited ability to make larger investments in their firm due to the lack of financing options. Given the financial squeeze, IT budgets are usually small or nonexistent. In addition, adopting ICT is not a one-time cost because there are ongoing costs of maintenance, upgrading, and human capacity building.

5. Lack of financial and legal infrastructure. SMEs may still be hesitant to engage in e-commerce due to undeveloped legal policy for electronic payment and security issues.Many Asian banks, a key link in the e-commerce chain, have not even adopted online banking in their own systems. In the end, the definite costs of identifying the right goods and/or service, finding staff to manage it, taking the company up the learning curve, and obtaining financial resources are not perceived to justify benefits.

Why Have Past Government Interventions Been Met with Limited Success?
Many governments have not explicitly focused on ICT adoption by SMEs in the non-ICT sector. They have either focused on growing the ICT sector or supporting the growth of SMEs, but they have not focused on integrating the two areas to implement broad-based policies (see Figure 10). Since most SMEs who can benefit from the use of ICT are not in the ICT sector, they have not been able to receive the benefits.

Figure 10: Breakdown of Types of Government Interventions

In addition, workshops and training seminars, the most common way for governments to encourage ICT adoption by SMEs, often did not tailor the content to the type of audience20 and did not focus enough on the concrete benefits. To encourage SMEs to adopt ICT, efforts first need to concentrate on convincing top management that implementing ICT can improve their business, whether through cost savings or enabling expansion to new markets. This is because these managers determine the overall strategy of the firm, and they make the decision whether or not to adopt ICT.Middle management are usually the ones to implement the ICT project and thus need to have a deeper knowledge of how to implement it, so their training should include a mix of strategy and implementation skills. Frontline employees are the ones who will use ICT on a daily basis. It is therefore more important to concentrate their training on the actual skills required than on the strategic benefits of ICT. The difference in training based on the roles of people in the firm is characterized in Figure 11.

Figure 11: ICT Training by Management Level21

This framework is supported by ICT consultants in the field. Zhang Hongwei comments that, “top management and the quality assurance function in its broad sense are best positioned to be directly involved in pushing for ERP implementation, and the number two of a company should be the project leader.”22


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Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/General Policy Framework for ICT Adoption by SMEs

What are Basic Questions to Consider Before Designing Policies and Programmes
In order to better design programmes to increase ICT adoption, it is useful to review the current related policies, which industries to target, what barriers to target, and how to best reach the SMEs.The following questions provide a basic guideline.

Existing policies and programmes 1. What are existing ICT policies? 2. What policies/programmes does the country currently have for SMEs? 3. What are existing policies/programmes that encourage SMEs to adopt ICT?

Who to target 4. In which industries do revenues from SMEs comprise over 50 percent of total revenues? 5. How do the top five export industries in the non-ICT sector use ICT?

What barriers to target 6. What percentage of the population is connected via fixed lines, mobile phone lines and/ or the Internet? 7. How expensive are ICT connection charges compared to neighbouring countries? 8. What is the level of ICT literacy? 9. What options do SMEs have for accessing financing? How difficult is it? 10. How do SMEs currently use ICT? 11. Are firms in the ICT sector starting to target SMEs? If so, how? 12. What percentage of firms have started to use e-commerce, both B2B and business-to-customer (B2C)? 13. How developed is the legal infrastructure for online transactions?

How to target 14. What government support agencies are there for SMEs? 15. What other support agencies/programmes exist for SMEs? How strong is their institutional capacity? 16. How and from whom do SMEs receive industry information?

What is an Effective Strategy for Designing Policies and Programmes?
1.Target entire industries that are most likely to benefit immediately from ICT. Targeting entire supply chains will allow the efforts to be more focused, specific and concrete. In terms of ICT adoption by SMEs, most countries are still at the beginning stages of the S-shaped technology diffusion curve. In order to induce mass adoption of ICT and be on the steeper slope of the S-curve,government efforts should target SMEs characterized as innovators and early adopters (see Figure 12). Beyond being risk takers, these SMEs should be firms that have the most contact with foreign suppliers and clients, which usually are the tourism/ hospitality and export industries. Effective usage of ICT requires both parties to have compatible technology, and since their suppliers/clients most likely have already adopted ICT, SMEs can reap the benefits of ICT very quickly. Targeting supply chains and specific industries quickly increases the rate of adoption, which increases the total number of SMEs that use ICT. This will increase overall awareness of the benefits of ICT and encourage adoption by other industries.

Figure 12:Models of Technology Adoption

ICT adoption in tourism industries usually involves using advanced communication technologies such as email and the Internet. Having an online presence creates an important new marketing channel for the SMEs. In 2004, over 30 percent of US adults used the Internet for travel research or bookings.30 The tourism board can play the role of creating a portal that leads to individual websites in order to help increase site traffic. It can also establish an e-commerce platform that SMEs can sign up for without having to adopt it themselves.

ICT adoption in export industries often involves encouraging ICT adoption over an entire supply chain. Firms are more likely to adopt ICT if their peers, suppliers, and clients are adopting ICT as well.This can help increase the competitiveness of the industry as a whole.Datuk Kalsom Abdul Rahman, Chairman of Small and Medium Industries Development Corporation,Malaysia commented, “if one of the largest global suppliers has seen the value of adopting technology into their operation, our plastics manufacturing sector should consider moving in the same direction.”31

ICT adoption can also involve building an industry or export portal. For example, Taiwan's Council of Agriculture32 launched several websites to provide another marketing channel for Taiwan’s agriculture producers. The government portal itself received over 1,343,236 visits between January 2005 and mid-August 2005. AgExporter Web is a B2B website that connects importers to Taiwanese producers. Similarly, the Korean government created the Korean Marketplace Website33 to showcase products of Korean SMEs to global buyers. Local SMEs can easily connect to the global network by posting offers to buy or sell products. The site currently hosts over 20,000 homepages of SMEs and e-catalogues of over 120,000 products.

2. Efforts to increase awareness should focus on concrete benefits, be industry specific, and target the right audience. Governments need to understand where SMEs are in their decision-making process in order to conduct more focused workshops. Since adopting ICT requires investment in both time and financial resources,SMEs generally go through distinct stages of careful analysis (see Figure 13). Initially, the SMEs become aware of the benefits that ICT can bring to their core business through channels such as word of mouth, media, and workshops. If they believe that ICT indeed has the potential to improve their business, they proceed to the next stage, where they consider whether or not to adopt ICT. In this stage, SMEs try to find out the exact costs and benefits of implementing ICT by obtaining price quotes and seeking advice from supporting agencies or other SMEs. The best way to describe the benefits of ICT is to use terms that the owners are familiar with, such as rate of sales growth, market share, return on investments, cost reduction, and development of new products or markets. This way, SME owners can connect abstract ICT benefits with how ICT can concretely affect their core business. They need to internalize the benefits before they are willing to make an investment. When SMEs become convinced that the benefits do in fact outweigh the costs, they will begin to adopt ICT into their business practice. If the experience proves to be positive, SMEs may either increase their investment or move towards the final stage of using ICT to innovate in their business practices. SMEs generally prefer products and services that are easy to use, easy to implement, and low cost.34

Figure 13: Stages of ICT Adoption

The Hong Kong Productivity Council,35 for example, sponsors various sector-specific programmes that help businesses increase productivity through better utilization of ICT resources. Their ERP Centre36 provides training, consulting, and a software platform for its subscribers. In addition, the Institute of Professional Education and Knowledge of Hong Kong provides e-learning courses by sector.37

3.Decrease the barriers to ICT adoption. Even if SMEs are aware of the benefits of ICT, they will only adopt ICT if they can overcome the barriers to its adoption. The lack of affordable and accessible ICT infrastructure is the first obstacle that SMEs need to overcome, whether they are adopting basic ICT such as phones or more advanced ICT such as e-commerce (see Figure 14). The next obstacle is human capacity. Users must understand how to use ICT and how it will change the way they do business. This obstacle is more prominent for advanced ICT such as e-commerce and ERP software than for basic ICT such as phone lines and fax. The third obstacle to overcome is financing. This is a problem for both basic and advanced ICT. Having the appropriate legal framework is the last obstacle to overcome because it mainly applies to online transactions. SMEs can still adopt phone lines, email, and many e-applications without a well-defined legal structure.

Figure 14: Barriers to ICT Adoption

Governments can and have addressed these barriers to adoption in several ways.

Infrastructure Governments can help SMEs reduce ICT connection costs and increase coverage by further expanding its infrastructure, offering subsidies, encouraging ICT providers to have special discounts for SMEs, equipping incubators with ICT at a reduced cost, or allowing alternative methods of communication such as VoIP.The Philippines National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) has taken a drastic step to push for the full deregulation of VoIP. In most parts of the world,governments are more inclined to ban VoIP because it is in direct competition with state-owned telecommunication companies and will decrease government revenues from incoming international call tariffs. NEDA however, firmly believes that VoIP can help spur ‘growth, investment, and jobs’because it can reduce charges for international calls by 75 percent. 39

Human capacity Ways that governments can help increase ICT adoption among SMEs include hosting training workshops that are flexible and tailored to specific industries, employees’ position and role, or software/hardware applications; providing subsidies for ICT training; and creating opportunities for firms to try the technologies hands on. Singapore, for example, launched an Infocomm Competency Programme from November 2003 to March 2005 to increase the computer literacy of its workforce. The programme subsidized SGD 5.00 per trainee per hour for SMEs on broad-based ICT courses such as Microsoft Office applications, desktop publishing, workgroup applications and webpage design.40

Financing options Governments can increase the affordability of ICT through grants, credits, leasing options, and tax incentives. To encourage SMEs to use ICT equipment to increase productivity, the Japanese government allows corporations to deduct up to 6 percent of total lease payment on brand-new machines from annual income tax payments.The government also subsidizes up to 25 percent (with a cap at JPY 2.5 million) lease payments for corporations in agribusiness management, lumber supply, and aquaculture.41 The government can also rent software. For example, the ICT Ministry of Thailand created the Eua Athon Software Project that allows registered SMEs with around THB 300,000 to rent software for a monthly rental fee of THB 500. SMEs interested in renting software can download a freeware version at http://www.smese.net. The Ministry is also expanding the available software from 160 programmes to 1,000.42

Additionally, governments can also encourage the private sector to lend to SMEs and/or innovate on-payment options. For example, pay-as-you-go models are better suited for SMEs than a high one-time payment.

Legal framework The government needs to take the initiative to establish the legal framework. Singapore, for example, passed the Electronic Transaction Act44 and Electronic Transactions Regulations45 between 1998 and 1999 to legitimize electronic signatures in the legal framework. This provided a foundation for key public and private sector leaders, including the Monetary Authority of Singapore, Cisco Systems, and Visa International, to develop more secure e-payment services over a public key infrastructure.

4. Create locally relevant resources online. In a study commissioned by the Asia Foundation on ICT use among SMEs in Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand, results showed that SMEs use the Internet primarily for email and research, but only browse websites for promotions rather than for e-commerce due to security concerns.46 One problem with web browsing in developing countries, however, is the lack of locally relevant content. In addition, most web content is in English, which could cause a language barrier.Governments can help overcome this barrier by creating resource centres.

5. Partner with other organizations. Governments should partner with international organizations, industry associations, chambers of commerce, and local NGO/SME support agencies in order to obtain technical expertise, financial support, and local knowledge.

International organizations International organizations can offer regional knowledge-sharing and training workshops, provide funding support, help build local capacity, and organize technical cooperation arrangements between countries within the region. For example, UNESCAP created the Asian and Pacific Centre for the Transfer of Technology (APCTT) to promote the transfer of technology to and from SMEs in the Asia-Pacific region. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) has hosted the e-ASEAN Public Key Infrastructure Forum, the Cyberlaws seminar, and e-commerce programmes to create business environments that support e-commerce development in the region and SMEs in international trade. It has also published a framework to assist countries with the development of e-commerce legislation. The International Network for SMEs (INSME)51 is an international association with a mission to stimulate trans-national cooperation, and public and private partnership in the field of innovation and technology transfer to SMEs.

Local industry associations Local industry associations can leverage their existing membership base to diffuse information and create programmes. Their specific know-how of the industry can help create workshops that are more relevant to the needs of SMEs and can highlight industry-specific benefits. They are a key local partner in encouraging ICT adoption by industry.

Chambers of commerce Similar to industry associations, governments can use their network and membership base to diffuse information and implement programmes.For example, the National Productivity Council (NPO) of Pakistan and the Karachi Chamber of Commerce and Industry (KCCI) are working together to provide SME consulting, financing, and training free of charge (and at times, training abroad) in order to boost the productivity of its industries. The role of KCCI is to mobilize its members to participate in the NPO workshops and provide in-depth industry information.52

Local NGO/SME support agencies Local NGOs and other SME support agencies can also help implement various programmes. For example, they can create portals, provide training programmes, help organize entrepreneurs at the grass-roots level, and provide low-cost or free ICT consulting services for SMEs.

In conclusion, the overall strategy targets entire industries that are most likely to benefit immediately from ICT, increases awareness on industry-specific and concrete benefits, decreases barriers to ICT adoption, creates locally relevant resources online, and partners with other organizations.


title: User:69.140.152.55


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Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/Specific Policy Recommendations for Governments

It is in the interest of governments within the Asia-Pacific region to fully ensure the relevant adoption of ICT within their SME sectors to both increase their internal efficiency and productivity, as well as facilitate their entry into the global marketplace. The obvious benefits of increased job creation, public revenue, and a general rise in the standard of living provides enormous opportunities to narrow social and economic inequalities, thus helping to achieve broader national development goals.53

To stimulate the adoption and utilization of ICT by SMEs,developing countries within the region have deployed a wide range of policies, and have launched many different actions and ad-hoc initiatives. However, more often than not, other policy areas where ICT plays an important and complimentary role – such as in trade and investment, education, infrastructure, law, and national security environment – have been neglected.

What is currently required within the Asia-Pacific region is a coherent and comprehensive host of e-strategies that are both practical and relevant, and that consist of actions, priorities, implementation, and resources that operate on a cross-sectoral basis. It is without a doubt that the harmonizing of these ICT and SME strategies and initiatives within a larger cross-sectoral economic development would perhaps be one of the biggest challenges governments will continue to face within an ever-evolving digital economy.54 In line with this, there are three key essential recommendations for governments to take into consideration while developing their initiatives to encourage the adoption of ICT by SMEs:
 * Raise awareness of the benefits of ICT;
 * Strengthen ICT literacy and build capacity in the alignment of business and ICT strategies; and
 * Create enabling environments for the adoption and growth of ICT firms.

Raise awareness of the benefits of ICT.
One of the key problems facing the Asia-Pacific region has been the fact that many SMEs are not aware of the benefits and the direct financial gains to be attained by adopting ICT. A weak understanding of the potential integration of ICT solutions within business models also leads to a great degree of inefficiency. This scenario is compounded by the fact that there are a large number of competitive ICT products and services available on the market, which causes a great deal of confusion to companies with limited ICT literacy and capacities. In addition, the high cost of acquiring and maintaining ICT solutions further creates barriers to their adoption. Governments could assist in creating awareness and reducing the psychological barriers to ICT acquisition by showcasing SME success stories, best practices, and benefits gained through ICT adoption. By clearly demonstrating the modern systems approaches to ICT/business integration, the failure rate of ICT adoption by SMEs can be reduced. For example, Enterprise-wide Business Process Management (EBPM), representing the third wave of Business Process Management, is a deliberate and collaborative approach to systematically manage all of a company's business processes. It facilitates seamless integration of ICT solutions into a business model. In addition, business approaches such as Business Technology Management (BTM), an emerging management science grounded in research and practice, demonstrate methods to unify decision-making from the boardroom to the ICT project team.

Specific actions that governments could consider exploring are: practices in the field of ICT/business integration; ICT adoption and integration; and give SMEs access to latest software without incurring high up-front capital costs.
 * Providing financial or non-financial support to business organizations that promote best
 * Organizing annual Business-Technology Alignment Award programmes;
 * Generating and promoting SME success stories, emphasizing benefits gained from
 * Providing financial and non-financial support to Software as a Service (SaaS) firms that

Strengthen ICT literacy and build capacity in the alignment of business and ICT strategies.
The lack of ICT literacy is a major problem affecting all sectors of the economy in every part of the world. When business and technology are managed on two different tracks, companies spend a large part of their revenues on technology, and most of them are not satisfied with the return on their investment. Such expensive failures have led many observers to question whether ICT can ever produce a defensible long-term competitive advantage. While any business today should take full account of the impact of advances in ICT, the organization’s ICT strategy should be dominated by its business vision and strategic direction. Business principles, from which ICT implications can be drawn, should form the basis of the organization’s ICT policies and investment guidelines. One commonly used methodology is the ICT/Business Alignment Cycle, which introduces a simple framework that the ICT organization can adopt to manage a broad range of activities. The four phases of the cycle are: plan, model, manage, and measure.

Governments could assist by organizing capacity building workshops targeted to SMEs and focusing on the following: a strategic level; business; and ICT/business integration practices, establishment of virtual offices, and virtual business units.
 * Ensuring that ICT investments focus on the real needs of the business;
 * Enabling more effective communication between business and ICT functions at
 * Ensuring that the ICT function plays an appropriate role in creating value within the
 * Establishing an Internet-based advisory or e-coaching service on advanced ICT solutions,

Create enabling environments for the adoption and growth of ICT firms.
The third and final recommendation revolves around the role for governments to create enabling environments for the adoption and growth of ICT firms. Such firms would be able to develop and design customized software and services that respond to the localized needs, and downstream requirements of SMEs. As the marketplace is a highly competitive area, possible actions to reduce market-entry barriers for start-up ICT firms could include: It can be concluded that developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region have a tremendous potential for rapid and sustainable economic and social development by leveraging the potential of ICT and applying it appropriately within the SME sector. However, governments must continue to play an active role in encouraging and promoting the use of ICT while ensuring that coherent enabling policies are in place, and that capacity building and skills development are fostered in order to attain national socio-economic goals, for the benefit of the wider population.
 * Establishing and supporting business incubators that specialize in growing ICT firms;
 * Establishing business parks for ICT firms;
 * Providing financial and non-financial incentives to start-up ICT firms; and
 * Providing tax incentives to SMEs that buy ICT products and services from local firms.


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Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/Suggestions for Further Reading

Andam, Zorayda Ruth. 2003. e-Commerce and e-Business, Kuala Lumpur: UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme. http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer-ecom.pdf and http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/E-Commerce_and_E-Business

Caddis, David. 2004.‘Bridging the IT/Business Divide: Aligning Goals to Achieve Performance’.

Cassidy, Anita. 2002. A Practical Guide to Planning for E-business Success: How to E-enable Your Enterprise. Florida: CRC Press.

Duncombe, Richard, et. al. 2005. eCommerce for Small Enterprise Development: A Handbook for Enterprise Support Agencies in Developing Countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management. http://www.ecomm4dev.org/handbooks.htm

Duncombe, Richard, et. al. 2005. eCommerce for Small Enterprise Development: A Handbook for Entrepreneurs in Developing Countries. Manchester: Institute for Development Policy and Management. http://www.ecomm4dev.org/handbooks.htm

I4d magazine of September 2006 on ICTs and SME. http://www.i4donline.net/archive/index.asp infoDev’s Business Incubation: Promoting ICT-Enabled Entrepreneurship. http://www.infodev.org/en/Topic.8.html

iSoft, 2004. Best Practices for Achieving the ‘Connected Enterprise’,White Paper. http://www.ec-edi.biz/content/download/whit-163-20040923-Connected-Enterprise.pdf

Keane Inc., 2004.‘A Balanced Approach to Offshore Outsourcing: Gain Strategic Improvements in Business Performance’. http://www.keane.com/keane_ideas/whitepapers/664_678.htm

Nugent, Mary. 2004.‘The Four Phases of IT/Business Alignment’. http://www.cioupdate.com/insights/article.php/3446591

OECD. 1996. The Knowledge-based Economy. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.http://www.oecd.org/document/14/0,2340,en_2649_34273_1894478_1_1_1_1,00.html

Overby, Stephanie. 2005.‘What Leadership Looks Like?’ http://www.cio.com/archive/071505/otw_winners.html

Pearlman, Ellen and Edward H. Baker. 2005.‘Measure of Alignment Predicts Success’. http://www.cioinsight.com/article2/0,1540,1874109,00.asp

UNESCAP, ADBI, APWINC, ITU. 2006. Entrepreneurship and E-Business Development for Women. Thailand: United Nations. http://www.unescap.org/icstd/applications/projects/GreenCoops/Entrepreneurship%20Report-PDF.pdf


text:
Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/Works Cited

Andam, Zorayda Ruth. 2003. e-Commerce and e-Business, Kuala Lumpur: UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme. http://www.apdip.net/publications/iespprimers/eprimer-ecom.pdf and E-Commerce and E-Business

Associated Press. 16 October 2005.‘Cell Phone Use Changes Life in Africa’.

Bass, Frank M. 1969. ‘A New Product Growth Model for Consumer Durables‘, Management Science,Vol. 15. pp. 215-227.

Bernama. 2 October 2005. ‘SME’s Bank’s Venture Capital Fund able to Produce More New Entrepreneurs’, Bernama The Malaysian National News Agency.

Bernama. 9 May 2005. ‘Wider Outreach for Software Market, Says Rafidah’, Bernama The Malaysian National News Agency.

Bernama. 22 April 2005. ‘ICT Grants Worth Rm28.01 MN Disbursed By SMIDEC’, Bernama The Malaysian National News Agency.

Bernama. 23 March 2005. ‘Belmah to Make Inroads into Indonesian ICT Market’, Bernama The Malaysian National News Agency.

Cameron, Debra. 1999. Implementing Next-generation E-business Strategies, 1 ed. South Carolina: Computer Technology Research Corp.

Cassidy, Anita. 2002. A Practical Guide to Planning for E-business Success: How to E-enable Your Enterprise. Florida: CRC Press.

Chacko, James George, and Harris, Glen. ‘ICT and Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises in Asia Pacific – Size Does Matter’, Journal of IT for Development (New Jersey:Wiley Periodicals, March 2005). http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/wsis/Article2.html

European Commission. 2004. ‘Go Digital Awareness Campaign 2001-2003: The Main Lessons to be Learnt’, European Commission Directorate-General for Enterprise Unit E-business and ICT Industries and Services. http://europa.eu.int/comm/enterprise/ict/index.htm and http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ict/studies/aw_camp_fin_rep.pdf

Financial Times. 23 March 2005.‘Cost saving by making the switch.Voice over IP for SMEs’.

Jamal, Noor Soraya. 7 May 2005. ‘SMES Aware of ICT, but Clueless about the Right Solutions’, Bernama The Malaysian National News Agency.

Jenson, Robert.‘Information,Market Performance and the Well-Being of the Poor: Evidence from South Indian Fisheries’, Harvard University (working paper).

Lian, Lee Wei. 20 June 2005.‘Net Value:Making SMEs See the Value in ICT’, The Edge Singapore. OECD. 1996. The Knowledge-based Economy. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.http://www.oecd.org/document/14/0,2340,en_2649_34273_1894478_1_1_1_1,00.html

Rogers, Everett. 1995. Diffusion of Innovations, fourth ed.New York: The Free Press.

Srivastava, Shirish, and Teo, Thompson. 2004.‘IT Training as a Strategy for Business Productivity: A Framework for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises in Asia’. (working paper).

Thai Press Reports. 17 September 2004. ‘TRUE Launches ‘All in One’ SME Solution Aims to Help SMES become More Efficient’.

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Yinyu, He. 2004.‘ERP: Not Suitable for China?’ CFO Asia,May 2004. http://www.cfoasia.com/archives/200405-07.htm


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Small and Medium Enterprises and ICT/About the Author

Vadim Kotelnikov has been providing international business consultancy and training services in more than 50 countries since 1990. He holds a number of positions, including President of Global Incubator of Venture and Innovation Strategies, USA; CEO of Ten3 East-West,Russia;Principal of Ten3 NZ Ltd.,New Zealand and Ten3 Consulting, Germany; Director General and Board Member of Congress Prominvest, Russia; Board Member at Indiaco, India; and Advisor for International Center for Scientific and Technological Information. He is also the inventor, author and founder of ‘Ten3 Business e-Coach’, which is an inspirational business e-coaching resource for business leaders, venturepreneurs, innovators, business consultants, and trainers.


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World Stamp Catalogue/Soviet Union

 * КАТАЛОГ ПОЧТОВЫХ МАРОК МИРА: СОВЕТСКИЙ СОЮЗ

See a review article Stamps of the Soviet Union. См. обзорную статью Почтовые марки СССР.

English / Английский язык
Based on World Stamp Catalogue/Numbering System, the following numbering system is being tried for USSR stamps:

Format: CCC - YYYY - SSDD - TTKK ---         Example: SUN - 1922 - 0101 - 3201 ---         where: SUN  = 3-letter country code (SUN = Soviet Union) YYYY = 4-digit year of issue (1922 = Year of issue) SS  = 2-digit series order (varies by year) (01 = first series for 1922) DD  = 2-digit denomination order (varies by series) (01 = 1 kopek, 02 = 5 kopeks, 03 = 10 kopeks, etc.) TT  = 2-digit type and subtype (varies by denomination), (31 = Type III, 32 = Type IIIa) KK  = 2-digit color variation (varies by denomination), (01 = first color for this denomination (blue))

A "00" in the DD position is reserved for collective details about the set.

This numbering system will likely change to some extent as more stamps are catalogued.

Russian / Русский язык
На основе Системы нумерации Каталога марок мира (русский язык) предлагается следующая система нумерации для марок СССР:

Формат: CCC - YYYY - SSDD - TTKK ---         Пример: SUN - 1922 - 0101 - 3201 ---         где: SUN  = 3-буквенный код страны (SUN = Советский Союз) YYYY = 4-значное обозначение года выпуска марки (1922 = Год выпуска) SS  = 2-значное обозначение порядкового номера серии (варьируется по годам) (01 = первая серия за 1922 г.) DD  = 2-значное обозначение номинала марки (варьируется от серии к серии) (01 = 1 копейка, 02 = 5 копеек, 03 = 10 копеек, и т.п.) TT  = 2-значное обозначение типа и подтипа (варьируется по номиналам), (31 = Тип III, 32 = Тип IIIa) KK  = 2-значное обозначение разновидности цвета (варьируется по номиналам), (01 = первый цвет для данного номинала (синий))

Номер "00" в элементе DD зарезервирован за сведениями, общими для всей серии.

В систему нумерации могут быть внесены определённые изменения по мере каталогизации почтовых марок.

English / Английский язык
To keep the catalogue compact, stamp perforation is designated by following letters:

C - Comb perforation L - Line perforation H - Harrow perforation

Russian / Русский язык
Для компактности каталога тип зубцовки марок обозначается литерами:

C - гребенчатая зубцовка L - линейная зубцовка H - рамочная зубцовка

English / Английский язык
What standard is used for colours?

Russian / Русский язык
К сожалению, в печатных каталогах марок нет последовательности в обозначениях цветовых тонов почтовых марок. Иногда обозначения цвета непоследовательны даже в рамках одного каталога.

Цветовые тона
В каталогах на русском языке используются такие цветовые тона: жёлтый, оранжево-жёлтый, жёлто-оранжевый, оранжевый, красно-оранжевый, оранжево-красный, красный, розовый, лилово-розовый, розово-лиловый, лиловый, фиолетовый, сине-фиолетовый, фиолетово-синий, синий, зелёно-синий, сине-зелёный, зелёный, оливково-зелёный, зелёно-оливковый, жёлто-оливковый, оливково-жёлтый, жёлтый.

Составные слова, обозначающие цвет
В составных обозначениях на первом месте стоит добавочный цвет (оттенок), а на втором месте - основной цвет. К примеру, "сине-зелёный" означает зелёный с синим оттенком.

Различия в обозначении оттенков цвета также передаются с помощью суффикса "-оват-": "жёлтый" (жёлтый тон) - "желтоватый" (слегка жёлтый оттенок).

Для обозначения тёмных и очень тёмных цветовых тонов в составных обозначениях используются слова "серо-", "тёмно-", "чёрно-". Например: серо-лиловый, тёмно-лиловый, чёрно-лиловый цвет.

Для обозначения светлых цветовых тонов в составных обозначениях используются слова "бледно-", "светло-", "ярко-". Например: светло-зелёный, ярко-красный.

Многоцветные марки
Многоцветными в каталоге называются марки, напечатанные более чем тремя красками.

English / Английский язык
1 Ruble = 100 kopeks

In this catalogue, unless specified otherwise, face values of stamps are designated in rubles; amounts in kopeks being indicated as follows: 4 kop. = 0.04.

Russian / Русский язык
1 рубль = 100 копейкам

В каталоге, если не указано иное, номиналы почтовых марок указаны в рублях. При этом суммы в копейках обозначены следующим образом: 4 коп. = 0.04.

Sub-pages / Подстраницы

 * /1917/ /1918/ /1919/ /1920/
 * /1921/ /1922/ /1923/ /1924/ /1925/ /1926/ /1927/ /1928/ /1929/ /1930/
 * /1931/ /1932/ /1933/ /1934/ /1935/ /1936/ /1937/ /1938/ /1939/ /1940/
 * /1941/ /1942/ /1943/ /1944/ /1945/ /1946/ /1947/ /1948/ /1949/ /1950/
 * /1951/ /1952/ /1953/ /1954/ /1955/ /1956/ /1957/ /1958/ /1959/ /1960/
 * /1961/ /1962/ /1963/ /1964/ /1965/ /1966/ /1967/ /1968/ /1969/ /1970/
 * /1971/ /1972/ /1973/ /1974/ /1975/ /1976/ /1977/ /1978/ /1979/ /1980/
 * /1981/ /1982/ /1983/ /1984/ /1985/ /1986/ /1987/ /1988/ /1989/ /1990/
 * /1991/ /1992/

Sub-Territories / Отдельные территории

 * (Буквенный код) - (Название)
 * (Буквенный код) - (Название) и т.д.

 |Soviet Union .........

Каталог почтовых марок СССР

title: World Stamp Catalogue/Soviet Union


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FOSS Open Content/Resources

General Open Content Resources
Connexions: Sharing Knowledge and Building Communities http://www.cnx.org

Creative Commons http://www.creativecommons.org

Lawrence Lessig homepage http://www.lessig.org

Loca Records http://www.locarecords.com/index2.html

Opencontent.org http://www.opencontent.org

The Open Knowledge Definition http://www.okfn.org/okd

Proyecto Alqua (Spanish) http://www.alqua.com/index.html

Educational Resources
Carnegie Mellon University Open Learning Initiative http://www.cmu.edu/oli

Free Curricula Center http://www.freecurricula.org

Global Text Project http://globaltext.org

Harvard University Library Open Collections Program http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu

Ibiblio.org http://www.ibiblio.org

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health OpenCourseWare http://ocw.jhsph.edu

MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.edu/index.html

File Sharing Resources
Azureus http://azureus.sourceforge.net

BitTorrent http://www.bittorrent.com/index.html

LimeWire http://www.limewire.com

Piratebay.org http://www.piratebay.org

Wikipedia Resources
Wikibooks http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wikimedia Commons http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wikinews http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org

Wikiquote http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wikisource http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wikispecies http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

Wiktionary http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Main_Page

title: FOSS Open Content/Resources


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FOSS Open Content/Bibliography

Acton, Johnny. The Ideas Companion (London: Think Books, 2005).

Aigrain, Phillippe. “Positive Intellectual Rights and Information Exchanges,” available at: http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/aigrain.pdf

Arthurs, Harry. Reconstitution of the Public Domain.

Benkler,Yochai.“The Wealth of Networks,” available at: http://www.benkler.org/wealth_of_networks/index.php/Download_PDFs_of_the_book

Benkler,Yochai.“Through the Looking Glass:Alice and the Constitutional Foundations of the Public Domain,” available at: http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp66dWinterSpring2003p 173.htm

Boyle, James. Shamans, software, and spleens: Law and the construction of the information society (Cambridge,Mass., Harvard University Press, 1996).

Boyle, James.“The Opposite of Property,”Law and Contemporary Problems, 1 (Winter/Spring 2003).

Cedegren, Magnus. “Open Content and Value Creation”, First Monday, vol. 8 (2003), available at: http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue8_8/cedergren/index.html

Chen, Shun-Ling. Free and Open Source Software: Licensing e-Primer, IOSN, UNDP, available at: http://www.iosn.net/licensing/foss-licensing-primer/ and: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ FOSS_Licensing

Cherensky, Steven. “A Penny for Their Thoughts: Employee-Inventors, Preinvention Assignment Agreements, Property, and Personhood”, 81 Calif. L. Rev.p. 595. “Contested Commons Public Report: A Public Record” (New Delhi: Sarai: CSDS, 2005, Story,Alan et al., eds., The Copysouth Dossier, available at: http://www.copysouth.org

de Certeau, Michel. “The practice of everyday life,” The Practice of Everyday Life pp. xi–xii (Steven Rendall trans., 1984).

Drahos, Peter. A Philosophy of Intellectual Property (Dartmouth, 1996).

Dusollier, Severine.“Copyleft and authorship reconsidered”, 26 Colum. JL & Arts pp. 281–296 (2003).

Elkin, Niva. “What Contracts Can’t Do: The Limits of Private Ordering in Facilitating a Creative Commons,” 74 Fordham Law Review (2005).

Farid, Nadine.“Not In My Library: Eldred V. Ashcroft and the Demise of the Public Domain,” Tulane Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property, (Spring 2003).

Frow, John.“Copy,” from Tony Bennett et al., eds., The New Keywords: A Revised Vocabulary of Culture and Society, (Maden: Blackwell, 2005).

Gaines, Jane. Contested Culture: The Image, the Voice, the Law (University of North Carolina Press, Alan Trachtenberg, 1991).

Govil, Nitin.“War in the age of pirate reproduction,” Sarai Reader 04: Crisis Media, pp. 378–383. Hay, Douglas. Albion’s Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth-Century England (New York: Pantheon Books, 1975).

Herman, Edward and McChesney, Robert. The Global Media: The New Missionaries of Corporate Capitalism (New York: Cassell, 1998).

Howkins, John. The Creative Economy: How People Make Money From Ideas, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2002).

Hughes, Justin. “The Philosophy of Intellectual Property,” 77 The Georgetown Law Journal (1988), p. 287.

Jaszi, Peter.“On the author effect: contemporary copyright and collective creativity,” Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal.

Joyner, Jeffrey.“Future Technology Clauses:Would their Lack of Compensation Have Discouraged Shakespeare's Creativity and Denied Society’s Access to His Works in New Media?,” Southwestern University Law Review (2002), p. 575.

Lacey, Linda J.“Of Bread and Roses and Copyrights,”Duke L.J. (1989) p. 1532.

Lange,David.“Recognizing the Public Domain,” Law & Contemp. Problems, Autumn 1981, p. 147.

Lessig, Lawrence. Free Culture (Penguin, 2004); also available at: http://www.lessig.org

Lessig, Lawrence. The Future of Ideas (New York: Random House, 2001).

Liang, Lawrence et al., “Copyright/Copyleft: Encountering the sustaining myths of Copyright,” available at: http://www.infochangeindia.org

Liang, Lawrence. “Copyright, Cultural Production and Open Content Licensing”, Indian Journal of Law and Technology, vol.1 (2006), p. 96.

Liang, Lawrence. “Porous legalities and avenues of participation,” Sarai Reader 05: Bare Acts (New Delhi: Sarai/CSDS, 2005).

Linebaugh, Peter and Rediker, Marcus. The Many-headed Hydra: The Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Beacon Press, 2001).

Linebaugh, Peter. The London Hanged: Crime and Civil Society in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993).

Locke, John. Two treatises of civil government. P. Laslett (Ed.) London: Cambridge University Press, 1967.

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Maher, Marcus. “Open Source Software: The Success of an Alternative Intellectual Property Incentive Paradigm,” 10 Fordham Intell. Prop. Media & Ent. L.J., p. 619.

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Rifkin, Jeremy. The Age of Access (London: Putnam Publishing Group, 2000).

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Rose, Mark. “The Author as Proprietor: Donaldson v. Becket and the Genealogy of Modern Authorship,” 23 Representations (1988) p. 51.

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Sundaram, Ravi. “Recycling Modernity: Pirate Electronic Cultures in India,” Sarai Reader 01: The Public Domain (New Delhi: Sarai/CSDS, 2001).

Vaidhyanathan, Siva. Copyrights and Copywrongs, 11 (New York: New York University Press, 2001). Woodmansee, Martha. "On the Author Effect: Recovering Collectivity,” Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal, vol. 10, no. 2 (1992), p. 279.

Woodmansee, Martha. “The Genius and the Copyright: Economic and Legal Conditions of the Emergence of the 'Author',” Eighteenth Century Studies 17 (1984), p. 425.

Zimmerman, Diane Leenheer. “Authorship without Ownership: Reconsidering Incentives in a Digital Age,”DePaul Law Review (2003), p. 1121.

title: FOSS Open Content/Bibliography


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Principles of Economics/Cautions

Karl Marx, who wrote The Communist Manifesto, stated that history is the sum of economic factors. Largely, this is the case. As such, economics is a much more controversial field than most people think. This is because economics effects everyone equally, personally, and intimately. Economics is the only science which touches us in a way we can relate to every day. There are a few problems which people may fall victim to when assessing economics. These include biases, "loaded terminology", and jargon. A few are more serious and harder to spot.

Sunken Costs
Once an irreversible decision has been made, further decisions should be based on the merit of whether or not those marginal decisions would improve one's overall happiness, and not take into consideration any costs or benefits incurred by said irreversible decision.

 * For example, if you bought tickets to a game and then realized that you would rather attend a movie at the same time, your irreversible decision is buying a ticket, and your next decision of whether to attend the game should be based on whether you find would make you more happy. If you find that attending a movie is better for you, then you should attend that movie; the cost of the ticket should not somehow goad you into attending the game which you would otherwise not attend.

Post Hoc fallacy
The post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy is the most common fallacy and the easiest to fall victim to. In this fallacy, people assume that because Event A precedes Event B, Event A is necessarily the cause of Event B. However, this is easily disproven. If you go to the beach and it rains, you cannot assume that it rains because you go the beach.

Correlation
Correlation does not prove causation. Often studies will attempt to prove any number of things by showing that when people did something, something else happened to them. However, this proves nothing. For instance, you cannot assume that because 90% of people who took the SAT applied to college that taking the SAT caused people to attend college. More likely, it is the other way around.

Fallacy of composition
The fallacy of composition shows that just because something is true for an individual unit, it does not mean that it is true for the aggregate. For example, if you leave a sporting event a few minutes early because there will be traffic at the end, you cannot assume that everyone should leave a few minutes early. This will simply cause traffic a few minutes earlier. More often this fallacy involves applying microeconomic principles on the macroeconomic scale.

title: Principles of Economics/Cautions