text:
User talk:Pbandj7

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck!.

Mere Humanity
Hi. I have deleted the page Mere Humanity because it does not appear to be a textbook. If you do wish to write a textbook on the subject, then please recreate the page after reading WB:WIW. Thanks.--Az1568(Talk) 00:15, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pbandj7


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Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Remus Lupin

Hermione howling like a werewolf
Umm, no she doesn't. Hermione in the book is petrified at the thought that she might affect the past by interfering; you must not be seen is the watchword here. She is utterly horrified that Harry has had the temerity to actually cast the Patronus that saved everyone; and she would not be so scared by it if she had already done the same thing to distract Lupin. This is another of the things that is different between the movie and the books, and in this case is rather illogical in the movie portrayal. Chazz (talk) 00:42, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Wolfstar
How canon do you think Wolfstar is? Siriusly Loopy (discuss • contribs) 22:59, 9 November 2016 (UTC)
 * Not, I'm afraid -- never heard of it myself. Chazz (talk) 06:57, 10 November 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:Hamzaalimalik

Welcome message
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

You might also want to check out the Cookbook policy page, and our Cookbook staff lounge. Webaware talk 00:45, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hamzaalimalik


text:
User talk:MikedaSnipe~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

You might also want to check out the Cookbook policy page, and our Cookbook staff lounge. Webaware talk 00:46, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called MikedaSnipe. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name MikedaSnipe~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:27, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:15, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:MikedaSnipe~enwikibooks


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Seeds/Seed collection

Seeds are all around you. You can find them in many fruits, such as apples, oranges, pears, grapefruit, tangerines, strawberries, lemons. They are also present in many vegetables, such as cucumber, squash, pumpkin, corn (use popcorn for your collection), and beans of all varieties. Take a stroll through the produce section of a grocery store and buy some of these foods. It is especially fun to try new and unusual fruits and vegetables.

Flowers also make seeds, so you can collect seeds from flowers that you already may have growing in your flower bed.

You can also collect various seeds in the wild, including grass seeds, milkweed, acorns (and other nuts), clover, goldenrod, etc.

Once you have exhausted these sources, go to the seed section of a store or a nursery. This should be reserved as a last resort.

|


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Advanced Interactive Media/Other Topics/Interactive Media in Museums - Hotspot: Washington D.C.

Interactive media is impacting museum exhibits around the world, especially in Washington D.C.

The latest museum to incorporate interactive media is the soon-to-be opened “Newseum” in Washington D.C. The Newseum is a 250,000-square-foot museum of news which offers its visitors five centuries of news history, up-to-the-second technology, and hands-on exhibits. It will feature seven levels of galleries, theaters, retail spaces, and visitor services and will gives its visitors a unique look behind the scenes of how and why news is made.

Some of its interactive features include a fully interactive newsroom, interactive news history gallery, a book and text database, and a 4-D digital theater.

The Interactive Newsroom gives museum-goers a chance to play the role of a reporter or photographer. There are touch-screen stations that provide the reporting tools and techniques needed to see what it takes to be a newspaper reporter or photographer. There are also eight “Be A Broadcaster” stations where visitors can actually pick up a microphone, step in front of a camera, and experience what it is like to be a TV broadcaster.

In the News History gallery, visitors can view a timeline of the Newseum’s extensive collection of historic newspapers and magazines. Within the timeline are 10 touch-screens with games, a database of journalists, and close-up views of hundreds of publications. There are also five theaters that feature different videos on the recurring issues that confront journalists.

The Great Books gallery houses four interactive kiosks that allow visitors to zoom-in and view close-up pages of some of history’s most important texts and documents.

Another very immersive form of interactive media being incorporated into the Newseum is the Forum Theater. This state-of-the-art digital theater allows visitors to feel as if they are standing next to Edward R. Murow on a London rooftop as he delivers a live radio report during World War II. They also can go undercover with Nellie Bly as she exposes horrendous conditions in a 19th century insane asylum. The theater consists of a 3-D film, theatrical special effects and motion controlled seats that take visitors on a journalistic trip through time to experience some of the world’s most dramatic news stories. The theater seats up to 535 people and is equipped for live broadcasts and programs.

The Newseum is not the only museum in Washington D.C. jumping on the interactive train though. Other museums are the Marian Koshland Science Museum, the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum , and the Pope John Paul II Cultural Center just to name a few. Interactive media is not only working its way into video games and other entertainment venues, but is also being used to educate museum-goers. This is a trend that will only increase as the high-touch era continues to grow.


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User:Wikihermit

 (English Wikipedia - Meta - Commons - Bot - Toolserver )

title: User:Wikihermit


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Talk:Field Guide/Birds/Eastern US and Canada

Vocalizations
Need to go through commons:Category:Bird_vocalizations and do two things: --Jomegat (talk) 03:24, 1 April 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Add calls to birds we have here and which have calls there.
 * 2) Add birds & calls we don't have here, but which we do have there.

Origins of this Chapter
As the main author of the Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book, I had started to put together a chapter for the Birds honor. After doing a substantial amount of work on requirement 5 (which is to identify several bird species), it occurred to me that what I had really done was made a pretty good start on a Field Guide to Birds. I decided that it would be a good idea to move that chapter to a book in its own right, and when I tried, I found this book. Since all of the birds I had entered were the ones with which I was familiar already, it naturally covered birds of the Eastern US. That particular chapter in this field guide was a red link, so I just moved it all, lock, stock, and barrel. There are a gob of moves I need to do on the subparts.

The content for each bird presented here is done with a template called Template:Bird id. This template could still use a bit of work, but it's not too bad the way it is now. It might be a good idea to break up the description field to cover, physical appearance, habitat, etc, but I may leave that to a more ambitious person.

I have also put together a section on Edible Wild Plants, and it seems like a few more "field-guidy" chapters. I will move those as I come across them as well.

-- Jim Thomas (aka Jomegat) 02:08, 30 March 2007 (UTC)


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SL Psychology

This textbook supports the IB Psychology Standard Level curriculum.

Table of Contents
Introduction to Research Methods

The Learning Perspective

 * Learning Influenced by the environment
 * Learning influenced by cognitive functions
 * Learning influenced by biology
 * Learning influenced by cognition and modeling (Social Learning Theory and Bandura)

The Biological Perspective

 * How biological processes impacting psychological factors are researched
 * The interplay of inherited biological factors (genetics) and acquired biological factors (how experience changes the brain) with culture and life style issues in producing behavior
 * How the brain works, including brain anatomy, neuronal communication, neurotransmitters, the endocrine system, bodily rhythms, brain specialization and integration.

The Cognitive Perspective

 * /Attention/
 * /Language/
 * /Memory/

Abnormal Psychology

 * /Concepts of normal and Abnormal/
 * /Models of Mental Disorders/
 * /Issues regarding diagnostic systems/
 * /Anxiety Disorders/
 * /Mood Disorders/
 * /Personality Disorders/
 * /The Schizophrenias/
 * /Western and Non-western treatments/

title: SL Psychology


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User talk:80.230.106.43

Thank you!
Thanks for the vocabulary translations! I hope you'll be back to contribute again. --CocoaZen 02:43, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:80.230.106.43


text:
Proteomics/Protein Separations- Electrophoresis/Capillary Electrophoresis?

Capillary Electrophoresis

Electrophoresis is the movement or migration of ions or solutes under the influence of an electric field. Capillary electrophoresis is the technique of performing electrophoresis in buffer-filled, narrow-bore capillaries, which normally have internal diameter from 25 to 100 μm.

Instrumentation The instrumentation required for CE is simple( Figure 1) The ends of a capillary are placed in separate buffer reservoirs, each containing an electrode connected to a high-voltage power supply. One of the buffer reservoirs (normally at the anode) is temporarily replaced by sample .The sample is introduced into the capillary via capillary action, pressure, or siphoning. Then an electric potential is applied across the capillary and the separation is performed. Separated analytes can be detected by UV-visible or fluorometric detection directly through the capillary wall near the opposite end (normally near the cathode). Electrophoresis Theory The separation by electrophoresis depends on differences in the migration velocity of ions or solutes through the given medium in the applied electric field. The electrophoretic migration velocity (up) of an analyte toward the electrode of opposite charge is: up = μpE where μp is the electrophoretic mobility and E is the electric field strength.

The electric field strength is a function of the applied voltage divided by the total capillary length. The electrophoretic mobility is directly proportional to the ionic charge of a sample and inversely proportional to any frictional forces present in the buffer. When two species in a sample have different charges or experience different frictional forces, they will separate from one another as they migrate through a buffer solution. The frictional forces experienced by an analyte ion depend on the viscosity (η) of the medium and the size and shape of the ion. Accordingly, the electrophoretic mobility of an analyte at a given pH is given by: where z is the net charge of the analyte and r is the Stokes radius of the analyte. From equation we can see that differences in the charge-to-size ratio of analyte ions cause differences in electrophoretic mobility. Higher charge and smaller size cause greater mobility, whereas lower charge and larger size cause lower mobility.

Electrophoretic mobility is an indication of fastness of a given ion or solute through a given medium. It expresses the balance of electrical force ( acts in favor of motion) and the frictional force(acts against motion). Since these forces remain in a steady state during electrophoresis electrophoretic mobility is a constant for a given ion under a given set of conditions and therefore is a characteristic property for any given ion or solute. Because of differences in electrophoretic mobility, it is possible to separate mixtures of different ions and solutes by using electrophoresis.

5 Electroosmotic Flow (EOF)

In capillary electrophoresis, the velocity of migration of an analyte will also depend upon the rate of electroosmotic flow (EOF) of the buffer solution.The electroosmotic flow is the bulk flow of liquid through the capillary when current is applied. The capillary tube used for CE is typically an uncoated fused-silica capillary tube and its internal surface has ionisable silanol groups, which readily dissociate giving the capillary wall a negative charge. Therefore, when the capillary is filled with buffer, the negatively charged capillary wall attracts positively charged ions from the buffer solution. This creates electrical double layer and a potential difference called zeta potential close to the capillary wall (figure 2). The electrical double layer includes a rigid layer of adsorbed ions and a diffuse layer. The zeta potential decreases exponentially with increasing distance from the capillary wall surface. When a voltage is applied across the capillary, cations in the diffuse layer are free to migrate towards the cathode, dragging the bulk solution with them. At high pH the silanols are extremely ionized and makes large surface charge of the capillary wall. This increases zeta potential which in turn increases EOF. Thus EOF is very dependent on pH, being large at high pH. Figure 4: Depiction of the interior of a fused-silica gel capillary in the presence of a buffer solution.

The velocity of the electroosmotic flow, uo can be written as: uo = μoE where μo is the electroosmotic mobility, which is defined as: where ζ is the zeta potential of the capillary wall, and ε is the relative permittivity of the buffer solution. The electroosmotic flow of the buffer solution is generally greater than the electrophoretic flow of the analytes and at pH >7 all analytes are carried along with the buffer solution toward the cathode, regardless of their charge. Negatively charged analytes are retained longer in the capilliary due to their conflicting electrophoretic mobilities. Therefore, the observed migration velocity of a solute is related to a combination of both its electrophoretic mobility and the EOF mobility. The velocity (u) of an analyte in an electric field can then be defined as: up + uo = (μp + μo)E

Flow and dispersion In other separation techniques like HPLC, separations are driven by pressure and that results in frictional forces in places where the mobile phase is in contact with solid surfaces. These frictional forces cause the velocity of mobile phase close to the wall to be zero while that in the center is large resulting in a parabolic flow profile in the capillary(Figure3 ). This profile results in the solute zones being broadened as the move through the capillary, reducing the resolution of the separation. But in CE, since the driving force is EOF, the flow is flat which result much higher resolutions than comparative pressure driven equivalents. Figure 5: Flow profiles of laminar and electroosmotic flow.

The Electropherogram The data output from CE is an electropherogram, which is a plot of migration time vs. detector response. The detector response is usually concentration dependent, such as UV-visible absorbance or fluorescence. Separated chemical compounds appear as peaks depending on different retention times in an electropherogram. A typical electropherogram shows separation of a three components of mixture of cationic, neutral and anionic solutes.

1


text:
Latin/Chapter 1 Verse

= Latin I prose =

The following is a nice easy short story for the Latin novice:

Lucius ad forum it
Sol fulget. Lucius oculos aperit. Videt uxorem suam, Octaviam. Octavia dormit. Ergo, Lucius ad forum it.

Lucius multos amicos habet. Unus ex amicis Claudius est. Claudius semper in foro est. Claudius temptat dicere cum feminis, quod Claudius multas feminas amat. Multae feminae, tamen, Claudium non amant.

Lucius ad forum ambulat. Multos Romanos videt. Unus Romanorum ad cives orationem facit. Est Claudius!

"Ecce! Ecce!" dicit Lucius. Lucius vult dicere cum amico. Claudius, tamen, dicit ad turbam.

"Amicus meus, Lucius" dicit, "hominem necavit."A

Lucius anxius respondet, "Quid dicis, amice?"

Claudius est attonitus. Dicit, "Te non video, mi Luci..."

Lucius respondet, "hominem non necavi! Cur tanta dicis?" Claudius susurrat, "Volo videriB fortissimus, amice. Feminae te amant. Me dolentC."

Lucius omniaD turbaeE patefacit.

Multae feminae ad Claudium misserimum rident. Mox, etiam Claudius ad se ridet.

 * A Necavit is the perfect form of necare, meaning "he killed." For more, check out the next chapter.

 * B Videri means "to appear," (or more literally, "to be seen") and is the passive infinitive of video. There is more on that in chapters 2-4.
 * C Me dolet means "makes me suffer".
 * D Omnia means "everything".
 * E turbae is the dative case of "turba", meaning "to the crowd".

title: Latin/Chapter 1 Verse


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Proteomics/Protein Separations- Electrophoresis/Gel Electrophoresis

Theory
Gel electrophoresis (GE) is used to differentiate molecular entities depending on their physical characteristics. These defining characteristics include the size, shape, charge and isoelectric point. Isoelectric point is perhaps the most important characteristic; it is the point at which the overall electric force on the analyte is 0, and hence the point at which the analyte ceases migration within the gel. Gel electrophoresis is used as an analytical technique or as a preparatory technique to purify molecules before they are used for other methods like mass spectrometry is based on the principle that, when charged molecules are placed in an electric field, they migrate toward either the positive or negative pole depending on their charge. Since nucleic acids are negatively charged due to their phosphate groups they migrate toward the anode. Unlike nucleic acids, since proteins can have either a net positive or a net negative charge they can migrate to either of the poles depending on the charge.

The shape and charge of proteins have a dramatic affect on protein migration behavior during gel electrophoresis, especially if the protein is not denatured prior to electrophoresis. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) is commonly used separating proteins. PAGE can be used to purify proteins prior to other proteomics techniques or to analyze information on the mass, the charge on proteins, and/or presence of a protein. Due to these complex structures, proteins are usually denatured, or broken down to simple primary structures in the presence of a detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), which imparts a negative charge on proteins, and thus allows for proper migration. The quantity of SDS bound and the size of the protein are relative to each other, thus this method separates proteins mainly based on molecular weight. Two-dimensional PAGE (2-D PAGE) differentiates proteins in the first dimension by isoelectric point and in the second dimension by molecular weight. Native PAGE separates proteins by mass/charge ratio without denaturing them.

Gel Properties and Preparation
Electrophoresis is usually carried out within a matrix or gel made of agarose or polyacrylamide. These gels are chemically inert, so they will interfere little with analytes. Agarose is a polysaccharide, an extraction from seaweed. The concentration of agarose used in any particular gel can vary. As a rule, the higher the concentration of agarose in the gel, the smaller the pore size will be.

For separation of proteins, polyacrylamide (a cross-linked polymer of acrylamide) is used. To avoid inhibition of polymerization by oxygen, the liquid polyacrylamide is poured between glass plates to make gel slabs. Low concentrations of polyacrylamide or less cross linking between its component acrylamide molecules results in gels with large pores. Standard protein gels are typically composed of two layers, a topmost layer called the stacking gel, and a lower layer, which is called a resolving or separating gel. The stacking layer contains a low percentage of acylamide and low pH. The acrylamide concentration of the separating gel varies according to the samples to be run, and its pH is higher than the stacking gel. The difference in pH and acrylamide concentrations between the stacking and separating gels provides better resolution and sharper bands in the separating gel. Polyacrylamide gels have a high resolving power compared to agarose gels.

Acrylamide gels are frequently used to separate DNA, RNA, oligonucleotides, and other smaller molecules due to its less porous nature. Using different concentrations of aryclamide provides a thicker or thinner matrix. As with any gel, the concentration of the gel or unique characteristics of its composition may affect migration of analytes.

Separation
Gels contain wells in which to place samples, and analytes start their migration from these points. A molecular marker can be run in one or both sides of the gel for later comparison, because it will migrate through the gel with the samples once electric current is applied. The electrophoresis buffer which covers the gel provides uniform pH and provides ions to support conductivity. When an electric current is applied across the gel, the sample molecules start moving through the gel matrix at different rates, towards the cathode if positively charged, or towards the anode if negatively charged. The voltage, as well as the time allotted for a particular run, depends on the size of the gel and the type of sample being analyzed. Running the current too long may cause samples to migrate off the gel, and turning the voltage too high may damage the samples or burn the gel itself.

Visualization and Analysis
It is rare that analyte fragments can be seen by the naked eye within gels, so gels must be stained to allow for analysis. Analyte fragments resolve as solid bands within the gel. A variety of stains can be used to view bands, including ethidium bromide, silver, or Commassie blue, depending on the sample. Less common stains that may be used are fluorescent dyes, zinc, and copper. Staining times can vary from a few hours to a few days, depending on the type of gel and the type of analyte. The resolution of stains can also vary.

Visualization can be done by the naked eye once staining is complete. It is often easier, however, to use ultraviolet (UV) light to provide easier visualization. This method, however, only works if the molecules being considered fluoresce under UV light. Alternatively, an autoradiogram can be recorded of the gel if sample molecules contain radioactive atoms.

Analysis of bands consists of comparing those generated by the sample to those from a known protein, be it a control sample or a molecular marker (standard). Further analysis can be done by removing a piece of the gel containing a band of interest. In-gel digestion can remove the protein from the smaller gel piece and allow for direct manipulation of the analyte. Analysis of gels are often time-consuming, and it is difficult to get distinct bands because samples are rarely pure.


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Proteomics/Protein Separations- Electrophoresis/Types of Gel Electrophoresis

Types of Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis is a separation technique that is used to separate macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins on the basis of size, electric charge, and other physical properties.It can be performed within one dimension(SDS-PAGE,IEF,Native -PAGE), two dimensions(2D-PAGE), or in a capillary. Several forms of PAGE exist and can provide different types of information about the protein(s). Non denaturing PAGE, also called native PAGE, separates proteins according to their mass:charge ratio. SDS-PAGE, the most widely used electrophoresis technique, separates proteins primarily by mass. Two-dimensional PAGE (2D-PAGE) separates proteins by isoelectric point in the first dimension and by mass in the second dimension.

Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE)
This is a very common method of electrophoresis for separating proteins by mass. The most commonly used system is also called the Laemmli method after U.K. Laemmli, who was the first to publish a paper employing SDS-PAGE in a scientific study.For more information about this technique click on the link.[]

2. Isoelectric Focusing(IEF)
In Isoelectric focusing, proteins are separated by electrophoresis in a pH gradient based on their isoelectric point(pl). A pH gradient is generated in the gel and an electric potential is applied across the gel. At all pHs other than their isoelectric point, proteins will be charged. If they are positively charged, they will move towards the more negative end of the gel and if they are negatively charged they will move towards the more positive end of the gel. At its isoelectric point, since the protein molecule carry no net charge it accumulates or focuses into a sharp band.

Immobilized pH Gradeint (IPG) and IEF run
Immobilized pH gradients are used for IEF because the fixed pH gradients remain stable over extended run times at very high voltages. The pH gradients of IPGs are generated by means of buffering compounds that are covalently bound into polyacrylamide gels. IPGs are cast strips with plastic backing sheets and are commercially available in different pH ranges and lengths. They offer high resolution, great reproducibility, and allow high protein loads. Isoelectric focusing is run in the same solutions that are used to extract or solubalize the proteins. The IPG strips with the protein sample must be rehydrated in the rehydration/sample buffer during which protein samples are loaded into the strips. Rehydration can be active or passive. To load larger proteins active rehydration in small voltage is applied.As the sample is electrophorised, the proteins will migrate toward either the anode or cathode, depending on charge. The proteins will stop when they reach their respective pI. After the run in IEF cell, the proteins focus as bands on the strip according to their isoelectric points. The focused strips can be frozen for storage.

3. Native-PAGE
Native PAGE is used to separate proteins in their native states according to difference in their charge density. Native state of protein means proteins are in properly folded state, not denatured or unfolded state. There are no denaturants present in the gel and buffer in the gel maintains the protein in its native state. Many proteins are shown to be enzymatically active after separation by native PAGE. Thus, it is used for preparation of purified and active proteins. In native PAGE the mobility depends on both the protein's charge and its hydrodynamic size. The charge depend on the amino acid composition of the protein as well as post-translational modifications. The hydrodynamic size and mobility of native protein on the gel will vary with the nature of the conformation. Proteins with compact conformations have higher mobility and larger structures like oligomers have lower mobility. Native PAGE can be carried out near neutral pH to avoid acid or alkaline denaturation to study conformation as well as self-association or aggregation, and the binding of other proteins or compounds. The apparatus is kept cool to minimize denaturation of proteins and proteolysis.

Two Dimensional Polyacrylamide gel Electrophoresis(2D-PAGE)
2D Electrophoresis is a technique that blends the two methods listed in One-Dimensional analyses. It is a very efficient separation technique for proteins. The protein sample is first run on an IPG strip, which after reaching completion is placed in either a horizontal or vertical SDS gel. This technique results in gels that contain spots. Each spot on the gel corresponds to a different protein. Then the gels are stained similarly as to 1D analysis. 2D Electrophoresis is widely used, and certain methods of it can be coupled with mass spectrometry in order to identify proteins.For details about the technique click on the link.[]

Differential in Gel Electrophoresis(DIGE)
Differential in Gel Electrophoresis (DIGE) is a technique to monitor the differences in proteomic profile between cells in different functional states. This technology allows for simultaneous separation and comparison of up to three samples on one gel.For details about the technique click on the link.[]

QPNC-PAGE
Quantitative Preparative Native Continuous PolyAcrylamide GelElectrophoresis is a technique to isolate active or native metalloproteins (e.g., metal chaperones, prions, metal transport proteins, amyloids, metalloenzymes, metallopeptides) in biological samples and to resolve properly and improperly folded metal cofactor-containing proteins in complex protein mixtures. For details about the technique click on the link.[]


text:
Proteomics/Protein Separations- Electrophoresis/Capillary Electrophoresis

Procedure
In capillary electrophoresis (CE), electrophoresis is conducted inside small tubes filled with buffer, called narrow-bore capillaries. The capillaries used in the electrophoresis instrument typically have an internal diameter in the range of 25 to 100 μm.

The ends of a capillary are placed in separate buffer solutions and electrodes connected to a high-voltage power supply are placed in the buffers. One of the buffer reservoirs, usually at the anode, is replaced by sample. The sample is introduced into the capillary by capillary action, siphoning, or pressure. When an electric current is passed across the capillary, molecules are separated. Separated analytes are detected directly through the capillary wall by a UV or fluorometric detector connected near the opposite end.

Flow and dispersion
In other separation techniques like high pressure liquid chromatography, separations are driven by pressure. That results in frictional forces in places where the mobile phase is in contact with solid surfaces. These frictional forces cause the velocity of mobile phase close to the wall to be zero while the force in the center is large, resulting in a parabolic flow profile in the capillary. This profile results in solute zones being broadened as they move through the capillary, reducing the resolution of the separation. In CE, the flow is flat, which results in much higher resolution than comparative pressure driven techniques.

Visualization
The data output from CE is an electropherogram, which is a plot of migration time versus detector response. The response by detector is usually concentration dependent fluorescence or UV-visible absorbance. Different peaks are shown in the electropherogram for separated analytes depending on different retention times. The electropherogram shows separation peaks of cationic, anionic and neutral solutes in the mixture.

Advantages
CE is advantageous in many ways. The heating that takes place due to high voltage loads on slab gels can have a negative effect on the separation of the proteins, and the use of capillaries lessens said heat buildup. Also, because the gel will not need to be handled, it can allow one to use liquid polymers for separation, and can be replaced between runs. Automation is also much more possible with this technique, lessening the time it takes, and making reproducible results.


text:
Field Guide/Birds/Western US and Canada

The range maps presented here are color-coded, with yellow indicating the summer range, blue indicating the winter range, and green indicating the year-round range. Some of the range maps do not follow this color code, but it is not difficult to decode them.

title: Field Guide/Birds/Western US and Canada


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Project Directors/Current Deadlines

Design Director's Current Deadlines:
 * Tuesday March 13, 2007 – Design Style Selected *COMPLETE*
 * Thursday March 29, 2007 – Design Templates Finalized *COMPLETE*
 * Thursday April 12, 2007 – Class Teaching Session *COMPLETE*
 * Friday April 13, 2007 – Marketing Material and Plan Due *COMPLETE*


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Project Directors/Goals and Objectives

The Goals of the Project Director are to:
 * 1) Create and enforce deadlines pertaining to the project.
 * 2) Ensure that each person in the class is aware of their job and is doing it.
 * 3) Help the team leaders manage their teams.
 * 4) Be in continuous contact with team leaders and other students.
 * 5) Create project navigation, a “how we did this” podcast, a storyboard script, and other assigned projects in a way that creatively and functionally serve the project.
 * 6) Aid the teacher in project organization by taking notes in class for future references and logging information.
 * 7) Help the teacher manage the class in respect to monitoring each individuals progress.

The Goals of the Design Director are to:
 * 1) Design a product that not only reflects the personalities of the class but also appeals to their high school target market.
 * 2) Communicate with the class all parts of the design and incorporate as much of their feedback as possible.
 * 3) Lead the design team in the overall vision and direction of the project.
 * 4) Make sure all deadlines are completed on time.
 * 5) Communicate and coordinate with other team leaders.
 * 6) Make sure the entire product has a fluid and cohesive design.

The Goals of the Audio/Video Director are to:
 * 1)

The Goals of the Interactive Director are to:
 * 1)


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Design Team/Other Topics

Design Template Dimensions for College Weekend Recruiting Project:
 * Touch Screen - 1024 x 768
 * Cylinder Screens - 1024 x 400
 * Director Screen - 2048 x 768 (Touch Screen Template next to Cylinder Screen Template)
 * Oval Screen - 1024 x 768


text:
User:Edmundwoods

Wikimedia Commons Meta-Wiki

ms:Pengguna:Edmundwoods

title: User:Edmundwoods


text:
User:GControl~enwikibooks

 * Real Name: Yuriy Chernyavskyy
 * Location: Kiev, Ukraine
 * Language: English (70%), Russian (100%), Ukrainian (100%)

title: User:GControl~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:216.79.33.77

'''You are blocked. Please contribute properly when the block expires -- Herby talk thyme''' 13:29, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.79.33.77


text:
User talk:60.228.212.75

Calling the ambulance is not obvious
In regards to your recent edit of First Aid/CPR: Especially since the standards concerning *when* to call have changed, it should certainly be included. Not only that, but excluding it ruins a perfectly good mnemonic. If this WikiBook is supposed to teach people how to perform CPR, then calling EMS is one of the points where candidates fail, and should be made abundantly clear. Please discuss any changes to AAAABCD --> DRABC on that discussion page if you still have issues with it. Mike.lifeguard 13:31, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:60.228.212.75


text:
Spanish/Lessons/¿Qué hora es?

Lesson 7 — ¿Qué hora es?

Dialogue

 * Raúl: ¡Hola Sofía! ¿Qué hora es?
 * Sofía: Son las nueve menos diez en la mañana.

 * Raúl: Gracias. ¿Qué haces normalmente por la mañana?
 * Sofía: Me levanto a las siete. Luego, me ducho y desayuno. Normalmente salgo a las ocho.
 * Raúl: Ah, vale. Entonces, ¿cuándo almuerzas?
 * Sofía: Suelo almorzar a la una.
 * Raúl: Claro. ¡Adiós!
 * Sofía: ¡Hasta luego!

Translation (wait until the end of the lesson).

Telling the time
Telling the time is easy in Spanish, and very similar to English. You use this construction: Son las [hours] y [minutes]

So, Son las tres y veinte would mean "It's twenty past three". To ask the time, you just use the question ¿Qué hora es? (literally: "What hour is it?"). However, this only works for times up to half-past the hour. But how do you say "It's twenty to three"? For this, you have to use menos (meaning "less") instead of y. Then, son las cuatro menos diez means "it's ten to four"; you can also use para instead menos, using the same order you use in English.

Other typical time-telling phrases are depicted in the table below.

 * Notes
 * If there aren't any minutes, just say son las cinco ("It's 5 o'clock") or son las once ("It's 11 o'clock"). If you want, you can also say en punto to mean "o'clock".
 * Remember: son means "they are", so son las... only works for numbers greater than one. To say "it's one o'clock", you have to say Es la una (or es la una en punto).

 * Examples
 * Son las ocho
 * It's 8 o'clock
 * Son las nueve y media
 * It's half-past nine
 * Son las seis menos cuarto/es un cuarto para las seis
 * It's quarter-to six
 * Son las dos y veinte de la mañana
 * It's 2:20 a.m.

Go to the exercises.

When?
So, you now know how to tell the time in Spanish. Now let's use it to describe when something happens. To do this, you use a las followed by the time as described above (a las tres means "at 3 o'clock"). But what if you don't know a specific time? What about just "In the evening"? Just use por la, followed by one of the entries in the table (por la noche means "at night"):

 * Notes
 * Since these times-of-day are all feminine, "por la" is the prepositional phrase used with them.

 * Examples
 * A las ocho de la mañana, tomo mi desayuno.
 * At 8:00am, I eat breakfast.
 * Por la tarde, le gusta ver la tele.
 * In the evening, he likes watching TV.
 * Por la noche, les gusta mucho beber leche.
 * At night, they love drinking milk.

Time-related Adverbs
It's all very well knowing how to say that you do things at a particular time, but what about more habitual actions? What do you do usually? Normally? Sometimes?

 * Notes
 * You should notice that all the words ending in "ly" in English end in mente in Spanish. To turn an adjective into an adverb: take the feminine form of the adjective, then add mente.
 * Thus, normal, raro, ocasional and usual are all adjectives.
 * Also, ruidosamente, tranquilamente, etc., are adverbs (you met tranquilo and ruidoso in lesson 4...)
 * Soler is a UE stem-changing verb (suelo, sueles, suele, solemos, soléis, suelen), and it is followed by the infinitive (Suelo comer queso con pan, meaning "I usually eat cheese with bread").

 * Examples
 * A veces bebemos vino tinto, pero nunca vino blanco.
 * Sometimes, we drink red wine, but never white wine.
 * Suelo vivir en pisos; vivir en una casa es muy difícil.
 * I usually live in flats; living in a house is really difficult.
 * De vez en cuando juego al ajedrez, pero normalmente practico judo.
 * Sometimes I play chess, but usually I do judo.

Go to the exercises.

Reflexive verbs
Reflexive verbs are verbs where the subject and object are the same. "To wash oneself" or "to get oneself up". In Spanish, we do this by using a reflexive pronoun before the verb. We've already met these reflexive pronouns, along with a reflexive verb in the first lesson: llamarse ("to call oneself"). So, here are the reflexive pronouns:

So, here is an example, using the verb lavarse ("to wash oneself"):

So, now that you know how to conjugate them, it'd be useful to give you some examples:

 * Notes
 * These are very similar to the indirect object pronouns used with gustar. Make sure you don't get them mixed up.
 * When in the infinitive, the reflexive pronoun goes on the end of the verb as a suffix. For example, me gusta ducharme means "I like showering".

 * Examples
 * Por la mañana, me maquillo y me peino.
 * In the morning, I put my make-up on and comb my hair.
 * ¿Cuándo te bañas?
 * When do you bathe?
 * A las ocho de la mañana, nos levantamos.
 * At 8am, we get up.
 * Nunca nos bañamos por la mañana; nos gusta ducharnos.
 * We never have a bath in the morning; we like to have a shower.
 * Me encanta bañarme por la noche - es muy tranquilo.
 * I love having a bath in the evening - it's very quiet.
 * A veces se ducha por la mañana, pero normalmente le gusta bañarse por la tarde.
 * Sometimes, he has a shower in the morning, but usually he likes to have a bath in the afternoon.
 * A las nueve de la tarde me gusta relajarme. Normalmente bebo vino.
 * At 9pm I like to relax. Usually, I drink wine.

Go to the exercises.

Summary
In this lesson, you have learnt You should now do the exercise related to each section (found here), and translate the dialogue at the top before moving on to lesson 8...
 * How to ask for the time (¿Qué hora es?)
 * How to tell the time (Son las cuatro y media; es la una menos cuarto)
 * How to say the times of the day (por la mañana; tarde; a las tres y diez)
 * Various adverbs (ocasionalmente; normalmente; de vez en cuando; a menudo)
 * How to use reflexive verbs (me baño; te relajas; se ducha; nos lavamos; os lavantáis; se maquillan)

title: Spanish/Lessons/¿Qué hora es?


text:
Spanish/Lessons/¿Adónde vas a ir?

Lesson 8 — ¿Adónde vas a ir?

Dialogue

 * Raúl: Hola Sofía. La semana que viene voy a ir a Italia.
 * Sofía: ¿Cómo vas a ir? ¿En tren?
 * Raúl: No. Odio los trenes, son muy ruidosos.
 * Sofía: Claro. Prefiero los aviones también.
 * Raúl: Usualmente voy a Irlanda, pero tengo un boleto para Italia.

 * Sofía: Así que, ¿vas a comprar otro boleto?
 * Raúl: No, Italia también está bien. Puedo tomar el sol y experimentar la cultura nativa.
 * Sofía: ¿Cuánto tiempo vas a pasar allí?
 * Raúl: Dos semanas. Me gustaría pasar un mes, pero no puedo tomarme un mes libre.
 * Sofía: Entiendo. ¡Hasta luego!

Translation (wait until the end of the lesson).

The Simple Future tense
Expressing what you're going to do in the future is simple in Spanish, and the same as in English. You use this construction: [Ir] a [infinitive] Let's look at this more closely. First, you must conjugate the (sadly irregular) verb ir (meaning "to go"), followed by a (meaning "to"). Then you have the infinitive of the verb you are going to do. So, voy a comer means "I'm going to eat". It's as simple as that!

Ir is conjugated thus:

 * Notes
 * For reflexive verbs, you have two options for where to put the reflexive pronoun. You can either have it before ir (me voy a bañar, meaning "I'm going to have a bath") or as a suffix of the infinitive (voy a bañarme, meaning "I'm going to have a bath"). It doesn't matter which you choose.

 * Examples
 * Voy a cenar a las ocho
 * I'm going to have dinner at 8:00.
 * ¿Vas a jugar al fútbol con Paulo?
 * Are you going to play football with Paulo?
 * Va a ducharse por la tarde.
 * She's going to have a shower in the evening.
 * Vamos a ir a Francia; nos vamos a relajar.
 * We're going to go to France; We're going to relax.
 * Por la noche, van a jugar al ajedrez.
 * At night, they're going to play chess.

Go to the exercises.

In the future...
Now that we know how to express future actions, it'd be great to be able to say when we're going to do them. Here are a few key expressions for saying when something is going to happen.
 * Notes

 * Notice viene in some of the phrases. This is from the E=>IE stem-changing verb venir, meaning "to come". So, literally, these phrases mean "the coming week" (la semana que viene) or "the coming year" (el año que viene).

 * You may have already noticed that the word mañana translates as both tomorrow and morning. Mañana por la mañana means "tomorrow morning". In the same vein, mañana por la tarde means "tomorrow afternoon" and mañana por la noche means "tomorrow night".

 * Examples

 * Mañana por la tarde, voy a jugar al tenis.
 * Tomorrow afternoon, I'm going to play tennis.
 * El año que viene, vamos a ir a Irlanda.
 * Next year, we're going to go to Ireland.
 * En el futuro, me gustaría vivir en el campo.
 * In the future, I would like to live in the countryside.
 * ¿Vas a tener ocho años el mes que viene?
 * Are you going to be eight years-old next month?
 * ¿Vamos a cenar a las siete y media la semana próxima?
 * Are we going to have dinner at 7:30 next week?
 * Las mujeres van a vivir en un piso en noviembre.
 * The women are going to live in a flat in November.

Go to the exercises.

Holidays
Grab your swimming trunks: you're off to the south coast of Spain!

Journey
So, when, where and how are you going to go? Look at the following phrase, explained below. El año próximo, voy a ir a España en avión. This is made up of various parts:
 * Firstly, we have the time expression.
 * Then, ir ("to go") in the simple future tense.
 * Then a España, meaning "to Spain" - the location.
 * Then en avión, meaning by aeroplane. Literally, this means "in aeroplane", as en means "in".

You have all of the vocabulary here, except for the modes of transport, some of which are below.

 * Examples
 * ¿Vas a ir a Alemania en coche?
 * Are you going to go to Germany by car?
 * ¿Cómo vamos a ir a Francia? ¿En autocar?
 * How are we going to go to France? By coach?
 * Normalmente, voy en avión, pero el mes que viene, voy a ir en tren.
 * Normally, I go by aeroplane, but next month, I'm going to go by train.
 * Van a ir a Rusia en avión.
 * They're going to go to Russia by plane.

Go to the exercises.

For how long?
To say how long you're going to spend somewhere (or doing something), you use the verb pasar (meaning "to spend", as in time). It is a perfectly regular verb (paso, pasas, pasa, pasamos, pasáis, pasan). You would then follow it by a timespan (pasamos dos semanas en Irlanda means "we spend two weeks in Ireland").

To ask how long someone else is going to spend somewhere, you use cuánto tiempo ("how much time") followed by pasar. ¿Cuánto tiempo van a pasar en el Reino Unido? means "How long are they going to spend in the UK?".

 * Examples
 * Vais a pasar un mes en Méjico.
 * You're all going to spend a month in Mexico.
 * Normalmente, ¿cuánto tiempo pasas en Canadá?
 * Normally, how much time do you spend in Canada?
 * ¿Dónde voy a pasar el mes que viene? ¿En Nueva Zelanda?
 * Where am I going to spend the next month? New Zealand?

Go to the exercises.

Accommodation
To say "to stay" in Spanish, you use the reflexive verb alojarse, which is regular (me alojo, te alojas, se aloja, nos alojamos, os alojáis, se alojan). Then, you use en (meaning "in"), then the type of accommodation, as shown in the table below.

However, if you're already in Spain, how do you ask for accommodation? Below are a few useful phrases for asking for accommodation...

 * ¿Tiene cuartos libres? (formal, if you don't know the person you are talking to. Otherwise, it's "¿Tienes...?")
 * Do you have any free rooms?
 * ¿Cuánto cobra por noche?
 * How much does it cost per night?
 * ¿Puedes recomendarme un hotel barato?
 * Can you recommend a cheap hotel?
 * ¿Se puede fumar en el cuarto?
 * Can you smoke in the room?

 * Notes
 * A "camp site" is un cámping (remember the accent), "to go camping" is ir de cámping and "a tent" is una tienda.
 * When in plural, habitación loses the accent (una habitación, dos habitaciones).

 * Examples
 * El año que viene, vamos a ir de cámping a Francia.
 * Next year, we're going to go camping in France.
 * La semana próxima, voy a pasar un día en un albergue juvenil.
 * Next week, I'm going to spend a day in a youth hostel.
 * Normalmente, cuando van a España, se alojan en un chalet, pero el año próximo, van a alojarse en un hotel.
 * Normally, when they go to Spain, they stay in a villa, but next year, they're going to stay in a hotel.
 * ¿Tiene habitaciones dobles libres?
 * Do you have any free double rooms?
 * ¿Cuánto cobra por noche en un habitación individual? ¿Se puede fumar allí?
 * How much does a single room cost per night? Are you allowed to smoke there?
 * ¿Puedes recomendarme un hotel barato que tiene habitaciones familares libres?
 * Can you recommend a cheap hotel that has free family rooms?

Go to the exercises.

Activities
Right. So you've arrived and unpacked. What now? How are you going to spend your time? Obviously, you could jugar al fútbol ("play football") or beber vino ("drink wine"), but clearly there are more activities than just these...

What about more general things? Why do you want to go there? What do you want to get out of the trip? To say "in order to", you use para (meaning "for"), followed by the infinitive.

 * Notes
 * There are quite a few new verbs here. Luckily, most are regular...
 * Sacar is regular (saco, sacas, saca, sacamos, sacáis, sacan).
 * Tomar is regular (tomo, tomas, toma, tomamos, tomáis, toman).
 * Irse is explained in more detail below.
 * Bailar is regular (bailo, bailas, baila, bailamos, bailáis, bailan).
 * Nadar is regular (nado, nadas, nada, nadamos, nadáis, nadan).
 * Experimentar is regular (experimento, experimentas, experimenta, experimentamos, experimentáis, experimentan).
 * Probar is an O=>UE stem-changing verb (pruebo, pruebas, prueba, probamos, probáis, prueban).
 * Aprender is regular (aprendo, aprendes, aprende, aprendemos, aprendéis, aprenden).
 * Irse is quite complicated. It's the same ir as described above (voy, vas, va, vamos, vais, van), but the se means that it's reflexive too, so it uses the reflexive pronouns learnt last lesson. Thus, it's conjugated: me voy, te vas, se va, nos vamos, os vais, se van.
 * With the nouns mentioned here, most of the genders are obvious. However, watch out for idioma and foto, since they have the opposite genders to what you would expect. Idioma is masculine and Foto is feminine.
 * Obviously, nativo and diferente are adjectives. Another useful adjective to use in these phrases is nuevo, meaning "new".

 * Examples
 * El mes próximo, voy a ir a Ibiza para irme de juerga.
 * Next month, I'm going to go to Ibiza to go clubbing.
 * Cuando esté en Francia, puedo relajarme - me encanta nadar y tomar el sol.
 * When in France, I can relax - I love swimming and sunbathing.
 * ¿Por qué te gustaría ir a España? ¿Para aprender el idioma?
 * Why would you like to go to Spain? To learn the language?
 * Van a ir a Grecia en noviembre. Les gusta probar comidas nuevas y experimentar culturas diferentes.
 * They're going to go to Greece in November. They like trying new foods and experiencing different cultures.
 * Cuando vamos a Inglaterra, nunca sacamos fotos buenas.
 * When we go to England, we never take good photos.
 * ¿Os gusta bailar e iros de juerga?
 * Do you all like dancing and going clubbing?

Go to the exercises.

Stem-changing Verbs
The second type of irregular verb is another stem-changing verb. This time, the e changes to ie in the "I", "you", "he/she/it" and "they" forms. An example (querer, meaning "to want") is written in the table below.

 * Other verbs that follow this pattern
 * entender ("to understand"): entiendo, entiendes, entiende, entendemos, entendéis, entienden.
 * empezar ("to start"): empiezo, empiezas, empieza, empezamos, empezáis, empiezan.
 * preferir ("to prefer"): prefiero, prefieres, prefiere, preferimos, preferís, prefieren.
 * pensar ("to think"): pienso, piensas, piensa, pensamos, pensáis, piensan.

 * Notes
 * Querer can be followed by the infinitive (quiero empezar means "I want to start").
 * Remember tener? Well, that is a stem changing verb too: tengo, tienes, tiene, tenemos, tenéis, tienen!
 * Pensar is normally followed by que, meaning "to think that".

 * Examples
 * Quiero almorzar a las dos menos cuarto.
 * I want to have lunch at 1:45.
 * Usualmente, vamos a Rusia en noviembre, pero Juan prefiere ir a España: quiere aprender el idioma.
 * Usually, we go to Russia en november, but Juan prefers going to Spain; he wants to learn the language.
 * Pasado mañana, vais a cenar en el hotel. ¿Entendéis?
 * The day after tomorrow, you're going to dine in the hotel. Do you all understand?
 * ''Cuando voy a Nueva Zelanda, quiero alojarme en un albergue juvenil, pero Santiago prefiere los chaletes.
 * When I go to New Zealand, I want to stay in a youth hostel, but Santiago prefers villas.
 * Entiendo que se puede fumar en las habitaciones individuales, ¿no?
 * I understand you can smoke in the single rooms, right?
 * ¿Piensas que las mujeres van a ser amables?
 * Do you think the women are going to be nice?

Go to the exercises.

Summary
In this lesson, you have learnt You should now do the exercise related to each section (found here), and translate the dialogue at the top before moving on to lesson 9...
 * How to form the simple future tense in Spanish (voy a comer; vais a almorzar; van a ir)
 * How to say various future time phrases (pasado mañana; mañana por la noche; en el futuro)
 * How to say when, where and how you're going on holiday (el mes que viene, vamos a ir a Irlanda en autocar)
 * How to say for how long you're going to stay (voy a pasar un mes; pasa una semana)
 * How to say what sort of accommodation you'll be in (un cámping; un albergue juvenil; voy a alojarme en una habitación familiar)
 * How to ask for accommodation (¿Tienes cuartos libres?; ¿Cuánto cobra por noche?)
 * How to say various holiday activities (me voy de juerga; bailan; probar comidas nuevas)
 * How to form E=>IE stem-changing verbs (quiero; entendemos; cierran)

title: Spanish/Lessons/¿Adónde vas a ir?


text:
Spanish/Lessons/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?

Lesson 9 — ¿Cuál es tu trabajo?

Dialogue

 * Raúl: Hola, Sofía. ¿A qué te dedicas?
 * Sofía: Trabajo en una tienda.
 * Raúl: Vale.
 * Sofía: Y tú, ¿A qué te dedicas?
 * Raúl: Ah, soy profesor de inglés.
 * Sofía: ¡Qué bueno! ¿Hablas inglés nativamente?
 * Raúl: No, me encanta aprender idiomas.
 * Sofía: Sí, quiero aprender inglés para mi trabajo, también. Siempre hay clientes que quieren hablar en inglés. Es muy difícil.
 * Rául: Sí, entiendo. ¡Adiós!

Translation (wait until the end of the lesson).

Jobs and occupations
In Spanish, to say someone's job, you use ser ("to be"), followed by the name of the job (some of which are given below). You use no articles - "I am dentist" (Soy dentista), rather than "I am a dentist" like in English. To ask what someone else does for a living, you use the phrase ¿Cuál es tu trabajo? (the name of this lesson).

So, some jobs:

 * Notes
 * For some of the above jobs, there are two options: one for males and one for females. For electricista, dentista, and albañil, there is no difference between the genders. Even men can be dentistas. The same applies to any noun ending with -ista, except modisto/modista (fashion designer).
 * Fontanero is used mostly in Spain and a few other countries, with most other regions using plomero.

 * Examples
 * Es dentista.
 * He's a dentist.
 * ¿Vas a ser médico?
 * Are you going to be a doctor?
 * Quiero ser abogada, pero cuesta mucho.
 * I want to be a lawyer, but it costs a lot.
 * Son profesores de español, así que hablan español muy bien.
 * They're Spanish teachers so they speak Spanish really well.
 * ¿Cuál es tu trabajo? ¿Eres electricista?
 * What do you work as? Are you an electrician?

Go to the exercises.

A Few Important Words
At this point, we really need to go through a few important words that have been overlooked in previous lessons, haven't really got a home, or have generally not got much air-time. These are really important, and immediately raise your level of Spanish if you use them.

 * Notes
 * Demasiado means "too" as in "I am too nice" (Soy demasiado amable). It also means "too much" or "too many", as in "It costs too much" (Cuesta demasiado) or "It has too many rooms" (Tiene demasiadas habitaciones). When it's used as a sort of adjective, it has to agree with the noun.
 * Para, in the sense "in order to" is always followed by the infinitive. Voy a ir a Francia para relajarme means "I'm going to France in order to relax".
 * Mucho means "a lot" ("It has a lot of rooms" - tiene muchas habitaciones), but also "many" ("I live in many different houses" - vivo en muchas casas diferentes). Like demasiado, it has to agree with the noun it describes.
 * Qué means "how" only in the sense of "How fantastic!", ¡Qué fantástico!. Cómo is the question word meaning "how".
 * Don't confuse actualmente with "actually". It means currently.

 * Examples
 * ¿Por qué vas a Canadá? ¿Para aprender el idioma?
 * Why are you going to Canada? In order to learn the language?
 * Vivo en una casa adosada en Nueva Zelanda que tiene muchas habitaciones.
 * I live in a terrace in New Zealand that has many rooms.
 * ¿Qué vas a comer ahora?
 * What are you going to eat now?
 * Normalmente, quiere almorzar a la una menos cuarto, pero hoy, quiere comer a las dos.
 * Normally, he wants to have lunch at quarter to one, but today, he wants to eat at two.
 * ¿Van a jugar al tenis? ¡Qué fatal!
 * They're going to play tennis? How awful!
 * Siempre ceno a las siete de la tarde.
 * I always dine at 7pm.

Go to the exercises.

Workplaces
As well as what your job is, it would be undoubtedly useful to be able to say where you work. A shop? An office? A factory?

To do this, you use the regular verb trabajar (trabajo, trabajas, trabaja, trabajamos, trabajáis, trabajan), then our friend en (meaning "in"), then one of the options from this table, or any other building or firm.

Another important little phrase to mention here is ganar dinero, meaning "to earn money". It's regular, so is conjugated gano dinero, ganas dinero, gana dinero, ganamos dinero, ganáis dinero, ganan dinero.

 * Notes
 * As part of this phrase, you can also use a company name (Trabajo en Tesco meaning "I work at Tesco"), or even a country or place name (¿Trabajas en Alemania? meaning "Do you work in Germany?").

 * Examples
 * Trabajamos en un taller mecánico en España.
 * We work in a garage in Spain.
 * Trabajo en una tienda que se llama Woolworths.
 * I work in a shop called Woolworths.
 * ¿Dónde trabajas? ¿En un colegio? ¿Eres profesor?
 * Where do you work? In a school? Are you a teacher?
 * Actualmente trabajo en una fábrica para ganar dinero para poder ir a Alemania. Alemania es fantástica.
 * I'm currently working in a factory, in order to earn money, so that I can go to Germany. Germany is fantastic.
 * Trabajan en una oficina, pero prefieren trabajar en restaurantes.
 * They work in an office, but they prefer working in restaurants.

Go to the exercises.

The Future Tense
For the past two lessons, we have been using the phrase ir a to refer to the future. Now, there is a real future tense in Spanish, which is formed by changing the verb itself, and is translated as "will". It is formed thus:

[future stem][ending]

Let's explain this:
 * The future stem is a form of the verb. Luckily for us, in most cases, it's the same as the infinitive. So, for hablar (meaning "to talk"), the future stem is simply hablar.
 * The endings are shown in the table below. You add them to the future stem as suffixes.

 * Notes
 * Some verbs have irregular future stems. Assume a verb is regular unless you know otherwise. Of the verbs you have learned so far, this only applies to three:
 * Tener ("to have"): tendré, tendrás, tendrá, tendremos, tendréis, tendrán
 * Poder ("to be able to"): podré, podrás, podrá, podremos, podréis, podrán
 * Querer ("to want"): querré, querrás, querrá, querremos, querréis, querrán

 * Here are more examples of irregular verbs:
 * Haber ("to have"): habré, habrás, habrá, habremos, habréis, habrán
 * Salir ("to leave"): saldré, saldrás, saldrá, saldremos, saldréis, saldrán

 * Examples
 * Comeré una manzana.
 * I will eat an apple.
 * Pasado mañana, ¿irás a las tiendas?
 * The day after tomorrow, will you go to the shops?
 * Será fontanera.
 * She will be a plumber.
 * El mes que viene, tendré ochenta años.
 * Next month, I will be 80.
 * La semana próxima, podréis hablar el español bien.
 * Next week, you will be able to speak Spanish well.
 * El año próximo, vivirán en una casa nueva.
 * Next year, they will live in a new house.
 * Brevemente, habré un móvil nuevo.
 * I will have a new cell phone soon.
 * Saldremos del restaurante a las nueve de la noche.
 * We will leave the restaurant at 9 p.m.

Go to the exercises.

Summary
In this lesson, you have learnt
 * How to say what you and others do for a living (soy ingeniero; son abogados)
 * How to ask what someone does for a living (¿Cuál es tu trabajo?)
 * How to say various little, but important words (qué; demasiado; mucho)
 * How to say various workplaces (una fábrica; un taller)
 * How to form the future tense (podrán; querré; almorzaremos)

You should now do the exercise related to each section (found here), and translate the dialogue at the top before moving on.

You have now completed this chapter! Return to the Contents...

title: Spanish/Lessons/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?


text:
Wireless Mesh Networks/Index

= Index =

A
 * 802.11a
 * 802.11b
 * 802.11g
 * 802.11n
 * 802.11s
 * 802.16
 * Access
 * Accounting and Billing
 * Applicable Standards
 * Applications

B
 * BelAir

C D Design Parameters
 * Cisco
 * Content
 * Construction, Mounting Options

E
 * Economics
 * Electric Power, Getting Power to the Node

F G  H Handoffs, Mobility Handoffs History Highlights How many radios? I ISO, What layers does it run on? J K Known Deployments L Layers, What layers does it run on? Loops, preventing Topology Control M
 * Management
 * Mesh network basics
 * Mesh network vendors
 * Mesh routing protocols
 * Mesh Timeline
 * Meshes, Do it yourself Meshes you can build
 * Meshes, Low Cost
 * Meshes, Realtime
 * Meshes, Types of
 * Meshes, Taxonomy
 * Meshes you can build
 * Mobility Handoffs
 * Motivation
 * Mounting Options

N O Operations P Politics Power, Getting Power to the Node Q R Regulatory RF concerns Routing protocols, mesh

S Social Impact Standards Applicable Standards T Taxonomy of Mesh Types Timeline, Mesh Timeline Tools, Planning Tools, Survey Tools, Testing Topology Control Transport Types of Meshes U V Vendors, Mesh Network Vendors W X  Y  Z

title: Wireless Mesh Networks/Index


text:
Wireless Mesh Networks/Glossary

= Glossary = AC       Alternating Current

API      Application Programming Interface

CA       Certificate Authority

CIDR     Classless Inter-Domain Routing

DC       Direct Current

DHCP     Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DNS      Domain Name System

FCC      Federal Communications Commission

GPIO     General Purpose Input/Output

GUI      Graphical User Interface

HNA      Host Network Announcement

I/O      Input/Output

ICMP     Internet Control Message Protocol

IP       Internet Protocol

LED      Light Emitting Diode

LOS      Line Of Sight

MANET    Mobile Ad Hoc Network

MID      Mobile Internet Device

MPR      Mote Processor Radio

NEMA     National Electrical Manufacturers Association

NTP      Network Time Protocol

NTSC/PAL National Television System Committee/Phase Altering Line OEM      Original Equipment Manufacturer

OLSR     Optimized Link State Routing

OLSRD    Optimized Link State Routing Daemon

PoE      Power Over Ethernet

PTT      Push To Talk

PWM      Pulse Width Modulation

RP-SMA   Reverse Polarity-SubMiniature Version A

RF       Radio Frequency

SSID     Service Set Identifier

TC       Topology Control

TCIP/IP  Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TOS      Type Of Service

USB      Universal Serial Bus

UTP      Unshielded Twisted Pair

VANET    Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

VPN      Virtual Private Network

WAN      Wide Area Network

WEP      Wired Equivalency Privacy

WPA      WiFi Protected Access

title: Wireless Mesh Networks/Glossary


text:
User talk:207.157.68.132

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:26, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

You are blocked - please contribute properly when the block ends -- Herby  talk thyme 18:56, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

EFF ME RUNNIN

IF YOU ACT UP YOU GET BLOCKED... SO BE THE FRICK GOOD

EFFING UNBLOCK ME I WANT TO MAKE STATEMENTS

You have been blocked from editing Wikibooks  as a result of your .  Please note that page blanking, addition of random text or spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy are considered vandalism. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 13:38, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:207.157.68.132


text:
User talk:84.236.131.35

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Jim Thomas (aka Jomegat) 17:29, 30 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.236.131.35


text:
SL Psychology/Intro to Research Methods

Directions
The following items should be included in this section: The Hypothetico-deductive (scientific)method, types of psychological research methods, research designs, sampling, reliability, validity, and triangulation.

Research Methods
Research into mind can be traced back to Ancient Greece. However, empirical psychological research has its roots in investigations into cognitive functions such as introspection and memory. While early psychological researchers attempted to bring the same standards of rigor and control to their investigations as physical scientists enjoy, psychological research poses unique obstacles. Psychological research investigates mind. Only recently the contents of the mind become observable since the advent of neuro-imaging technologies such as EEGs, PET scans, and fMRIs, thus early psychological research was focused on disagreements between different schools or generations of researchers that used varied approaches toward their investigations into the invisible mind. For example, cognitive researchers rely on inferences made from activities aimed at employing cognitive functions such as memory as opposed to examining how or where actual memories are laid down. Conversely Behaviorist researchers employed a more empirically rigorous method seeking only to make generalizations about phenomena that were directly observable and replicable in controlled settings.

Scientific Method
Contemporary psychological research is derived from these disparate traditions and perspectives. It utilizes the hypothetico-deductive or scientific method:

1. observation and data gathering

2. inference of generalizations

3. construction of explanatory theories

4. deduction of hypothesis to test theories

5. hypothesis testing

6. support or challenges to existing theories and commensurate adjustments.

Theories and Hypothesis
Two key steps, theory construction and hypothesis deduction/testing pose special problems for researchers. Theories are sets of related generalizations explaining a specific mental phenomena e.g. schema and memory organization and hypotheses are specific predictions for research investigations. These steps are derived from empirical data, but are heavily influenced by an individual researcher’s perspective. Thus, researchers seek to clearly articulate operational definitions in an effort to make their research easily replicable. Additionally, controls are implemented to ensure credibility of results and subsequent conclusions. Finally, published research contributing to knowledge in the discipline is peer reviewed and usually rigorously scrutinized. Psychological research can take many forms ranging from: controlled laboratory true experiments (involving the manipulation of independent variables and controls for confounding variables) to field research (involving deliberate manipulation of independent variables in natural uncontrolled environments) to naturalistic/quasi experimental method (involving observation and analysis of independent variables changed by natural incidence). No matter which research method is employed, controls are carefully implemented to ensure the credibility of research. Key issues surrounding controls are: research design, sampling, reliability and validity.

Design
The underlying structure of an investigation. It involves how psychologists use subjects/participants in their experiments. The three most common designs are:

1.Repeated Measures: using the same subjects in the experimental and control conditions

2.Independent Measures :using different subjects/participants in the experimental and control conditions

3. Matched Pairs :using different subjects/participants in the experimental and control conditions with each sample having similar characteristics.

Sampling
The process of selecting participants/subjects to examine derived from a target population (a specified subpopulation of all humans). The results of a study are inferred from examination of the sample’s performance on a given measure, thus the sample is key in the line of reasoning from initial design to examination of results. Several methods can be employed when choosing a sample: random, stratified and convenience. Random sampling provides the best chance for the sample group to be representative of the target population. Stratified samples reflect similar proportions of various sub-groups within a sample. Convenience sampling involves choosing participants/subjects that are available at the time of data collection. Convenience samples do not control for possible biases that may within certain subgroups of a population and thus the results and conclusions from a convenience sample must be analyzed with caution and triangulated.

Reliability
A study is reliable if it is replicable and the same results are achieved repeatedly. There are four types of reliability in regard to psychological study:
 * Test-Retest Reliability (also called stability reliability)
 * Interrater Reliability
 * Parallel Forms Reliability
 * Internal Consistency Reliability

Test-Retest Reliability
To judge for reliability in this case, the test is administered two different times to the exact same or similar subjects. This judges for consistency of results across time, and to make sure the results were not affected by context of the time. Reliability is higher if the retest is close in chronological proximity to the original test.

Research psychologists tend to replicate older studies to generate theories or to amend findings to account for reliability. In attention for example, Treisman consistently retested findings to amend the attention models.

Interrater Reliability
Two or more judges score the test. The scores are then compared to determine how much the two raters agree on the consistency on a rating system.

An example of interrater reliability would be that of teachers grading essays for an AP or IB exam. If a scale from 1 to 5 was used (where 1 is the worst and 5 is the best), and one teacher gave an essay a score of 2 and another gave a score of 5, then the reliability would be inconsistent. Through training, practice, and discussion, the individual raters can reach a consistent level of assessing an experiment, test, or result. Often, the raters are moderated by a higher rater who will assist in reaching consistency.

Parallel Forms Reliability
A large set of questions that are related to the same construct are generated and then divided into two sets. The two different sets are given to the same sample of people at the same time. Therefore, the two tests that study the same content are judged against each other for consistency.

An example would be a pretest-posttest, where the two groups would either receive form 1 or form 2, and in the posttest situation, the groups would be switched.

Internal Consistency Reliability
In this case, the tool is used as the tool to determine reliability. Thus would be a test situation in which the items on the test measure the same content. Often, questions can be strikingly similar, which shows that the test is also a measure for internal consistency reliability. Therefore, the similar questions should be answered in the same way. There are different ways to measure internal consistency reliability:
 * Average Inter-item Correlation
 * Average Itemtotal Correlation
 * Split-Half Reliability
 * Cronbach's Alpha (a)

Concept Questions:
1. In what ways has new technology changed the science of psychology? Provide three examples.

2. How does the importance of validity and reliability change depending on the type of study?

3. In what ways will the different aspects of an experiment (sampling, methods, reliabilty, and validity) affect the results and conclusions of an psychology study?

title: SL Psychology/Intro to Research Methods


text:
SL Psychology/Environment

Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov was studying physiology when he discovered his psychological theories. Pavlov’s study related to creating a conditioned response of salivation in dogs with a neutral stimulus. A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that would not normally cause a certain response. Pavlov observed that as he presented dogs with food that they would begin to salivate. The dogs even began to associate footsteps with food, because every time a person walked by the dog it would be fed. Eventually, the neutral stimulus (footsteps) created a conditioned response (salivation), when prior to the study only and unconditioned stimulus (food) would create an unconditioned response (salivation). (Pavlov, 1927) Although Pavlov did use the neural stimulus of footsteps to garner a conditioned response, there were other stimuli used. Some of those stimuli were whistles, metronomes, and even tuning forks, which only triangulated the work of Pavlov making his study more valid and reliable.

Results of Pavlov's Work
Pavlov’s results allowed for the creation of behaviorism and helped move psychology from a pseudo-science, as often seen in Freud’s research, to a hard science. Pavlov applied the scientific method to psychology. His was the first theory of classical conditioning. Many researchers after Pavlov have triangulated his studies. An interesting study conditioned wolves and coyotes to fear sheep because the predators had been fed mutton with a small amount of lithium chloride, making the animals violently ill. (Gustafson et al., 1974) Moreover Pavlov's work has allowed for the creation and laid the groundwork for the philosophy of the mind. In this branch of philosophy the nature of the mind,mental process and etc. are looked at in terms of its relationship to the body. Thusly, it can be said that Pavlov was an essential in the formation of psychology and philosophy based on mental processes.

Classical Conditioning and Emotions
J. B. Watson used a slightly less ethical approach in his study, in which in conditioned fear responses in an infant named Albert. Watson presented the orphaned Albert with various stimuli to see if he could elicit a fearful reaction. Watson wanted to show that phobias are caused by external stimuli and not naturally ingrained. He presented Albert with a white rat, a rabbit, a monkey, a dog, masks with and without hair, and white cotton wool. None of the stimuli produced a fearful response and all stimuli were thus deemed neutral. Next, Watson created a fear response in the child by creating a loud noise directly behind him, which caused the child to cry. Watson began to present the white rat with the loud noise to see if the child would associate the two together. After a week of presenting the two together, only the white rat was presented, and Albert began to cry at the sight of it and tried to crawl away. Albert had associated the white rat with the loud noise and feared the rat, which had originally been neutral. Watson then proceeded to see if Albert would generalize his fear of the rat. Watson presented Albert with the white rabbit and a dog, both of which caused a fearful reaction, when before the testing Albert had no fear of the dog, rabbit, or rat. Albert had generalized his fear of the rat to the dog and rabbit. (Watson, 1920)

Results of Watson's Work
Watson was aware of the ethical implications of his study and wanted to recondition Albert after the testing, but the child was adopted before Watson had a chance. However, at the time of this study ethical implications were not really taken into consideration. The finding of evidence and gaining more research, was more important than the effects the research had on the participant. As society has progressed, the ethical implications of a study are looked at more seriously than at the time of Watson's study. The implications of Watson’s study are similar to those of Pavlov’s. Watson had proved that fears do stem from unconscious conflicts but external sources. He also showed that behavior is a result of learning and conditioning. Due to that result of learning, it could be assumed that the fears exhibited by Little Albert could have diminished due to the lack of learning and reinforcment. This psychological process is referred to as extinction. Though in this case it was never tested, for Watson never studied Albert after the experiment. Watson furthered behaviorism and continued the push for psychology to become a hard science.

Operant Conditioning
Quite possibly the most radical behaviorist is B. F. Skinner, who theorized that all behaviors are in some way the result of operant conditioning. Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by reinforcement (a reward), the behavior will be repeated, but if it is followed by punishment, the behavior will not be repeated. Further, a learned behavior can become extinct if the reinforcement is ended. Skinner did not believe that the highly evolved consciousness or intellectual capacities of humans allowed us to have different behavior. To prove his idea, Skinner created a superstitious pigeon. Skinner’s experiment was simple, place a pigeon in a conditioning chamber, which is simply a box that is empty save for a tray where food can be dispensed. Skinner automatically rewarded the pigeons with a pellet of food every 15 seconds, while he observed the behavior of the pigeons during that interval. Of his eight subjects, six of the pigeons exhibited new behaviors between the feeding intervals that had never been observed before, ranging from counterclockwise turning to head thrusting to hopping. Skinner explains the results as follows “The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behavior and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking.” (Skinner, 1948)

Results of Skinner's Work
Skinner was and still is very influential, but his view of radical behaviorism has fallen out of prominence because of the use of better medical equipment such as fMRIs. Skinner’s legacy is seen today in operant conditioning. Simple behaviors in children and animals can be created or eliminated through operant conditioning but new research shows that there are cognitive aspects to behavior and is not completely a product of the environment as Skinner believed.

title: SL Psychology/Environment


text:
SL Psychology/Cognitive functions

Latent Learning
Edward Tolman published two studies in 1948 that drastically contradicted the overarching behavioralist views of the time. Tolman studied cognitive maps and used rats to do so. His first experiment studied latent learning; learning that is not readily apparent to the researcher, which heavily contradicts the move to make psychology a hard science by only studying the observable. Tolman used three groups of rats and placed the rats in a maze. The first group received no reward for finishing. The second group always received a reward for finishing the maze. The final group received no reward for the first 10 days of the study, but did receive one for the final eight. Tolman observed that the first group made a consistently high number of errors in running the maze, and showed little improvement over the eighteen-day study. The second group, which always received a reward, showed constant improvement in the number of errors made. The final group showed little to no improvement for the first ten days, then dramatic improvement once a food reward was presented. The final group’s improvement was more pronounced than the constant reward group. (Tolman, 1948)

 * Tolman theorized that the rats in the final group had been learning the maze over the first ten days of the study but had no incentive to run the maze without any errors.
 * Once there was a reward the learning that had remained latent in the rats mind was useful and the rats ran the maze more efficiently.
 * Tolman broke the constraints of behaviorism by studying a process that was not readily apparent to the researcher and not the direct consequence of stimulus response.
 * Tolman’s work was very influential in the new cognitive approach that developed during the 1960s.

Tolman’s second study dealt with spatial orientation. For this study, the rats ran a simple maze that started off on a round table. The rats ran north into the maze, turned left and ran west, turned right and ran north, and finally turned right and ran east. The maze ended with a food reward. Further, there were never any dead ends or forks in the maze; it was very simple, and the maze ended with the rats at a position about 3 o’clock from the start of the maze, or about 45 degrees to the northeast. After the rats had learned the simple maze, Tolman added twelve new lanes for the rats to enter from the starting table. Tolman placed three on the left of the original lane, which had been blocked so the rats would enter and immediately exit once they realized it was not a dead end, and the other nine lanes to the right of the original lane. The route most often taken was the lane that led most directly to where the original food reward was; in this case it was lane 6. (Tolman, 1948)

Tolman showed that the rats did need to follow a strip map as Tolman called it that led from A to B to C to D. The rats had developed a lay of the land map that could give them the shortest distance from A to D.  Tolman states “The rats, it would seem, acquired not merely a strip-map to the effect that the original specifically trained-on path led to the food, but rather a wider, comprehensive map to the effect that food was located in such and such a direction in the room.”  Tolman had again shunned behaviorism, showing that there are cognitive functions that occur that can be studied, even if they cannot directly be observed.

Insight Learning
Wolfgang Kohler developed yet another theory of learning that differed from the trial and error ideas that were proposed before him. Kohler called his discovery insight learning. Kohler’s most famous study of insight learning was the study with Sultan the gorilla.
 * Sultan was in a cage and was presented with a stick
 * He could use the stick to pull a piece of fruit close enough to the cage so that he could pick it up.
 * After Sultan had learned to use the stick to reach the fruit, Kohler moved the fruit farther away from Sultan and out of the range of the short stick.
 * Kohler then placed a longer stick within the reach of the short stick Sultan already had.
 * Initially, Sultan tried to reach the fruit with the short stick and failed.
 * After Sultan had looked around, he picked up the short stick again, used it to reach the long stick, and used the long stick to reach the fruit. (Kohler, 1925)

Kohler called this type of learning insight learning. Sultan was never conditioned to use one stick to reach another; it would seem as if Sultan had an epiphany. Kohler explained it simply as there are cognitive processes in learning and learning is not merely conditioning. Kohler showed that there was no gradual shaping or trial and error, thus there must be internal organizational processes, which caused the new behavior.

title: SL Psychology/Cognitive functions


text:
SL Psychology/Biology

Directions
This content should include the following items:
 * 1) Imprinting and Learned helplessness (Lorenz and Seligman)

Martin Seligman
Through Martin Seligman's experiments and the evaluation and observation of human behavior over the past decades by other researchers in his field, psychologists have solidified the theory of passive resignation, better known as learned helplessness. The identification of Learned Helplessness has led to a greater understanding of the causes of depression, war weariness in civilian populations, lack of student motivation, and etc.

Learned Helplessness
Martin Seligman proposed that our perceptions of power and control are learned from experience. His theory proposed that when a person's efforts of trying to control certain life's events fails repeatedly, the person may stop attempting to take control altogether. So, if the failures repeated over time the person may begin to generalize the perception of a lack of control to all similar situations. The person will begin to feel helpless, depressed, and unmotivated. Psychologist Julian Rotter called it an external locus of control, which she defines as of the perception that chance or outside forces determine their fate. On the opposite end of the spectrum are persons who perceive life as an internal locus of control, who believe more in free will or that they have greater extent they control their own destiny. People on the more internal locus spectrum have shown to demonstrate better self-control, the ability to control impulses and the need for gratification, which predicts better grades and more social success. Those results were determined by a recent survey by June Tangney and her colleagues in 2003.

Research
Seligman’s research with his 24 "mongrel" dogs, being subjected to painful shocks, has raised many ethical questions but psychologist and society overall agree that his research has extended our knowledge, reduced human suffering, and improved the quality of life, justifying his methods. Seligman and his colleague Maier in 1967 carried out at an experiment to help demonstrate the learned helplessness paradigm. They divided dogs into three groups. The first two groups consisted of "yoked pairs," that is, one dog of each pair received an electric shock that it could terminate, and the other dog in each pair received the same shock. To this second dog, the shock seemed to stop at random, because it was the first dog that was ending the shock. The dogs with no control over the shocks were said to receive "inescapable shock." The third group of dogs was control subjects who received no shock in this phase of the experiment.

So by carrying out this procedure Seligman and Maier claimed to have demonstrated that it was the perceived inescapability of the shocks, and not the shocks alone, which explained the passive behavior. This was not Seligman’s only experiment to help demonstrate the concept of Learned Helplessness; he tested over 150 dogs and also group of humans. Not all of the dogs in Seligman's experiments, however, became helpless. Of the roughly 150 dogs in experiments in the latter half of the sixties, about one-third did not become helpless, but instead somehow managed to find a way out of the unpleasant situation in spite of their past experience with it.

The corresponding characteristic in humans has been found to correlate highly with optimism; however, not a naive optimism, but an explanatory style that views the situation as other than personal, pervasive, or permanent. In the group where tested humans, he gave one group the choice of turning off a loud noise while performing a test which most cases they didn’t bother, while another group didn’t have the choice. The group that had the choices had better results on the test. So to come to a conclusion, simply being aware of the ability to do so (turn off the noise) was enough to substantially counteract its distracting effect. Overall when subjects feel they have some control over their environment, they will not developments signs of clinical depression, pessimism, and the overall effects of learned helplessness.

Closing Note With all these examples we can identify learned helplessness by using Seligman’s explanatory style, the three P‘s. Personal - the person may see himself or herself as the problem; that is, they have internalized the problem. Pervasive is when they may see the problem affecting all aspects of life, And finally, permanent when the person may see the problem as unchangeable.

Imprinting
Lorenz was the first scientist to observe imprinting with his experiments on ducklings in 1935. Prior, to the observations made by Lorenz, there was a common consensus that imprinting existed though it had never been seen. During his test, the ducklings formed an attachment to their mothers-or whatever other moving object that appears-within the first two days of life. This period in which the ducks attached with whatever stimulus would later be known as the critical period. It is within this 36 hours or critical period in which, the geese must decide to continue to learn from the stimulus they attach to. In Lorenz case it happened to be himself, and in particular his boots. This discovery of imprinting has prompted continued examination of the relative roles of instinct and acquired behavior in the process of learning.

Essay Topics
1. How does Seligman's study relate to depression in humans?

2. Does the phenomena of imprinting occur in humans?

title: SL Psychology/Biology


text:
SL Psychology/Cognition and modeling

Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory is learning through the medium of a social context. Its overall premise is that people learn from one and other through such tools as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. There are four overall principles to social learning:

1. People learn by observation of others, being that a subject observes another's behavior and witnesses that behavior's outcome.

2. Learning may or may not result in a behavioral change. Social theorists say people may learn through observation alone, but of their execution of the task may not demonstrate learned behavior.

3. Cognition plays an important role, overall humans have shown that awareness and expectation of certain outcome severely influences behavior.

4. The social learning theory can be seen as a link between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

Albert Bandura and Modeling
Bandura's experiments dealing with the concept of modeling revolves around his work with Bobo dolls. He displayed a video to Pre-age children where an adult beat up on a doll, called it mean names, and displayed hostile behavior. For the next step, Bandura split the children into groups, and each group watched a video with a different outcome for the aggressive behavior. One video showed the adult being rewarded for his behavior, the second the subject being punished, and the third video showed no consequences. He then studied the differences between how male children and female children reacted to this video in regard to whether they imitated the observed behavior or not. In conclusion, males in all cases imitated the observed adults behavior more so than females. The results support that the children who watched the video in which the person was rewarded for his actions repeated the behaviors more so than when the person was punished or did not receive either a punishment or reward. Overall this experiment supports Bandura's theory that people learn by observing others.

Essay Topic
Describe the bidirectional approach between nature and environment on learning.

title: SL Psychology/Cognition and modeling


text:
SL Psychology/Impact of biology

Lesioning, EEGs, Neuro-imaging, experimental research, clinical research
In early psychology, researchers labeled the brain as a “black box” unable to be fully understood on a physical level. However with inventions and innovative technological methods established within the last few decades, these tools have allowed for researchers to ‘view’ the brain or/ and gain a better understanding of its processes.

Lesioning
One method used by researchers is brain lesioning where he or she will purposefully destroy brain tissue in order to discover what action or brain process is affected and therefore unaffected by the damaged tissue. This procedure is practiced on animals considering that destroying human brain tissue is highly unethical. Using brain lesioning, researches have also discovered where the many localized functions of the brain are; for example, the language areas (Broca’s and Wernicke’s) are in the left frontal and in the left temporal lobes while maintaining homeostasis in the body as well as other processes such as regulating emotions is located in the hypothalamus which is in the middle of the base of the brain. One of the first cases that allowed researches to understand how damaged tissues can affect ones brain occurred when a man Phinius Gage suffered from a serious brain injury while working on his job. A pole went through his brain and though he survived the accident, physically unharmed, he seemingly became a totally new person with an abrasive attitude and a rude and vulgar personality. His severe and shocking change in personality led researchers to the conclusion that damaged brain tissue in the frontal lobe area was to blame and that the frontal lobe is a key component to a person’s personality.

Electroencephlagram
An EEG or an electroencephalogram is an amplified tracing of such waves by an instrument called an electroencephalograph. Researchers use this instrument in order to localize functions of the brain as well. Researchers compare a subject’s EEG to a standard EEG of average data in order to discover any differences when the patient is performing a task. The EEG will show different pattern of lines when a certain brain process is occurring and the researchers can then use the graphs to correlate the data to an electrical wave evoked by the stimulus and thus, its relative position. More recent and advanced technology can even allow researchers to directly view the brain. CT (computed tomography) scans examine the brain by taking x-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage and even more accurate are PET (positron emission tomography) scans which show brain processes by using the sugar glucose in the brain to illustrate where neuron firing is taking place in the brain because active neurons use glucose as fuel. With PET scans, researchers can only locate areas of brain activity and not specific locations as they might with brain lesioning. The most advanced and helpful invention in brain physiology, however, is the MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan and especially the FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). With a MRI, the patient’s head is put in a strong magnetic field, which aligns the spinning atoms then the atoms are disoriented from a radio wave and proceed to release detectable signs when they are realigned. In a FMRI a patient can perform mental tasks and the area of action can be detected through its blood flow from one part of the brain to another by taking pictures less than a second apart and showing where the brain “lights up”. For example, when a person processes visual information, blood rushes to the back of the brain. FMRIs make it possible to show when things happen, how brain areas change with experience, and what brain areas work together.

Neuroimaging
Neuro Imaging refers to numerous methods employed psychologists and researchers to create an image of the structure or functioning of the brain. This is a fairly recent development in the field of medicine and psychological research. These new technologies have had a drastic impact on past and current research in the human brain. Researchers can now pair different brain functions with the area of the brain responsible for processing that function. These technologies also aids in diagnosis of brain disorders as well as numerous other areas of brain research.

CAT Computed Tomography (CT) or Computed Axial Tomography (CAT) scanning uses x-ray technology to give doctors an image of the structure of the brain. Because the image is available relative quickly, CAT scans are ideal for doctors evaluating brain injuries. The image can show the more dense areas of the brain to help doctors pinpoint areas of swelling in the brain. This form of neuroimaging does not show functioning of different areas of the brain, it is only capable of showing an image of the brain structure. The Image created from CAT scans is somewhat less detailed than that of the MRI.

MRI

fMRI

PET

title: SL Psychology/Impact of biology