text:
Portuguese/Online resources

Legend: 🆓 free; 💰 paid including free limited trials

Comprehensive
These formal courses that cover all facets of language learning—grammar, vocabulary, listening, reading, writing, speaking:
 * 🆓 https://pptonline.acm.gov.pt - courses (A1–B2 level) from Portugal’s official High Commission for Migration 🇵🇹
 * 💰 http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/en/activity-camoes/what-we-do/learn-portuguese/elearning - online courses from the Camões Institute (Portugal's official cultural institution), A1–C1+ level 🇵🇹
 * 🆓/💰 https://www.portugueselab.com/ - A1–B2 level 🇵🇹
 * 🆓/💰 http://www.portuguesdeportugal.pt - A1–B2 level 🇵🇹
 * 💰 https://www.transparent.com/ 🇵🇹🇧🇷

Live Teachers/Tutors

 * 💰 https://portuguesewithcarla.com/ 🇵🇹
 * 💰 https://www.portugueselab.com/ 🇵🇹
 * 💰 http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/en/activity-camoes/what-we-do/learn-portuguese/elearning - Premium courses 🇵🇹
 * 💰 www.tutorssaurus.com PT

Multimedia
These courses primarily consist of audio or video content:
 * 💰 http://www.michelthomas.com/learn-portuguese.php - audiobooks available on iTunes and Audible, A1/A2 level, excellent explanation of grammar 🇵🇹
 * 🆓/💰 https://www.practiceportuguese.com/ 🇵🇹
 * 💰 https://www.semantica-portuguese.com - all-video course 🇧🇷

Flashcards
These courses primarily consist of interactive word/phrase translation:
 * 🆓 Duolingo - based on flashcards (spaced repetition), A1/A2 level 🇧🇷
 * 🆓+💰 Memrise - based on flashcards (spaced repetition) 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * User-created courses for vocabulary beyond the official contents

Book-Like
These courses primarily consist of a traditional book structure:
 * 🆓 Wikiversity Topic:Portuguese - Two more different courses on our sister site Wikiversity 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * 🆓 http://www.learningportuguese.co.uk/
 * 🆓 http://www.fsi-language-courses.net/Portuguese.aspx - old 48-unit course developed by the US government, public domain

Language Guides & Blogs

 * https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Portuguese/Contents#Appendix_B_-_Grammar - this site’s grammar reference
 * Wikipedia: Portuguese grammar - Wikipedia article; Wikipedia: Portuguese personal pronouns - tables of personal pronouns and possessives
 * https://european-portuguese.info/ - pronunciation table, list of Portuguese-English cognates, etc. 🇵🇹
 * https://www.practiceportuguese.com/vowels/ - interactive pronunciation table 🇵🇹
 * http://www.cognates.org/research/mfcogn2.html - list of Portuguese-English cognates
 * http://blogs.transparent.com/portuguese/ - language/grammar blog

Podcasts & Videos

 * 🆓/💰 https://www.portugueselab.com/ - A1–B2 podcasts and videos 🇵🇹
 * 🆓+💰 https://portuguesewithcarla.com/podcasts/ 🇵🇹
 * 🆓+💰 https://www.practiceportuguese.com/podcast-home/ 🇵🇹
 * 🆓+💰 https://www.portuguesepod101.com - podcasts and videos 🇧🇷
 * 🆓/💰 https://portcast.net/ - podcasts 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * 💰 https://streamnative.com - videos 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * 🆓 https://www.rtp.pt/play/ - on-demand streaming TV from Portugal's national broadcaster 🇵🇹 (note: need to use VPN e.g. http://hola.org)

Dictionaries, Translators, Tools

 * 🆓 https://en.wiktionary.org/ - multilingual free dictionary
 * 💰 https://dictionaries.io - for  Macs: Wiktionary integration in Dictionary app 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * 🆓 https://dicionario.priberam.org/ - Portuguese dictionary 🇵🇹
 * 🆓 http://www.conjuga-me.net/ - verb conjugations
 * 🆓 https://translate.google.com/ - multilingual word and phrase translation 🇧🇷
 * 🆓 http://www.linguee.pt - multilingual phrase search 🇧🇷🇵🇹
 * 🆓 http://www.corpusdoportugues.org - Portuguese frequency word lists
 * 🆓+💰 https://readlang.com - Chrome/Firefox extension with in-context word translation and flashcards 🇧🇷

Flashcards & Language Exercises

 * 🆓 Tinycards - flashcard software (spaced repetition), super simple (good for small decks)
 * 🆓+💰 Memrise - flashcard software (spaced repetition)
 * 🆓+💰 Anki - flashcard software (spaced repetition), more advanced/complex
 * 🆓 http://www.listeningpractice.org/start.php?lang=por - conjugation and listening/reading drills
 * 🆓+💰 Português de Portugal 🇵🇹
 * 🆓+💰 Fluent Forever app 🇧🇷

Speech

 * 🆓 https://support.apple.com/kb/PH25639 - for  Macs: use the built-in Speech feature to read any text 🇧🇷🇵🇹

Language Exchange
Notable Portuguese community websites which might be good for learning portuguese. A way to meet people, practice the language, and learn the culture:
 * http://portuguese.stackexchange.com/ - language Q&A
 * https://www.tandem.net - for iOS and Android: language exchange app
 * https://hinative.com/ - for iOS and Android: language exchange app
 * https://www.italki.com/ - connecting students with teachers
 * http://www.lang-8.com - language exchange site where native speakers correct what you write
 * The Mixxer - Language Exchange site heavily populated with Portuguese speakers
 * Orkut - Social networking site like myspace or facebook, which (for some reason) has a very high proportion of portugese speakers 🇧🇷

title: Portuguese/Online resources


text:
User:Nibble~enwikibooks

Japanese

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Nibble~enwikibooks


text:
German/Level I/Kleidung

Lesson I.7: Kleidung

Hello from Berlin!
In every Lesson from 7 - 15 there is going to be a featured German-Speaking city, which will be the theme of the lesson. For 7 - 8 it is Berlin. There will be famous locations in Berlin, for this lesson it's Kurfürstendamm and KaDeWe, the shopping area of Berlin. Also in each lesson there will be facts, so if you ever travel to a German-Speaking country, it'll be like you are a native!

It's Time to Change Time
Berlin's time is GMT+1, meaning they are 6 hours ahead of EST. If it's 2:00pm in New York City, it's 8:00pm (or 20:00) locally. Please note that Germany changes to and from daylight-saving time a few weeks before the U.S., so time differences still vary in March and October.

Tip, Tip, and More Tip
In contrast to many other countries where waiters sometime 'live on the tips,' in German-speaking countries service personnel always receive a regular wage (usually per hour), and the tip is always an extra for good service. Not to give a tip will probably give the waiter the impression that either the service or product were not that good and you are too polite to admit this, but not tipping is not considered 'rude'. If you tip you usually round up, up to 50 Cents for coffee or up to the next 5 euros for lunch, e.g. 2,70 € becomes 3,00 € and 21 € become 25 €. Also, tipping is only expected when you get served, i.e. when the service personnel bring something to your table, so if you pay at a counter – like at McDonald's or Starbucks – you don't tip at all. Only when having a large party, like celebrating your birthday in a restaurant, you do extra tipping. For a night you should pay 30 EUR to 80 EUR per waiter and give it separately to the manager (“für die Bedienung”). In many restaurants it is normal the tip is shared with the kitchen personnel. Paying with credit card or debit card makes tipping difficult, because there is no line on the bill to fill in the tip. Always tip when paying, don't leave money on the table.

Shopping Locations
There are two major shopping locations. The Kurfürstendamm in the old west is lined with boutiques and department stores. It continues eastwards for about three hundred yards where you can visit KaDeWe, the biggest department store in Europe. On the newly-developed Friedrichstraße in the old east, the famous French store Galleries Lafayette is to be found together with a maze of underground shopping malls. Shops are generally open 9am-8pm Monday through Saturday. In the outskirts, most shops close at 4pm on Saturdays.

Shopping
There is a lot to say about shopping, places to shop at, money and items to buy. In this lesson we will cover most of it. There are two major shopping locations in Berlin: Kurfürstendamm and KaDeWe.

Kurfürstendamm

 * Kurfürstendamm

 * Tauentzienstraße

 * Fasanenstraße

The Kurfürstendamm has many boutiques, department stores, etc., which are on Tauentzienstraße and Fasanenstraße, two streets in Kurfürstendamm. Tauentzienstraße has a lot of the department stores, including KaDeWe, which we will get into greater detail later. Fasanenstraße has a lot of the boutiques.

And some of the things you might say or ask while in a clothing store...

 * Können Sie mir helfen, meine Größe zu finden (für dieses ____)?
 * Can you help me find my size (for this ____)?

 * Wo ist die Umkleidekabine?
 * Where is the dressing room?

Section Problems >>

KaDeWe
Another shopping location is das KaDeWe, an upscale department store in Germany. It has six floors, and is also called "the department store of the west" (Kaufhaus des Westens), because it is the largest and most magnificent department store on continental Europe.

Since we already have most of the general shopping phrases and vocabulary down, we are going to get into more detail in the next few sections.

Section Problems>>

Electronics
First is electronics: it might seem a little sparse, but electronics and many other things will be featured in Lesson 12.

Spielt der DVD-Player auch CDs?
 * Does the DVD player also play CDs?

Hat das Mobiltelefon/das Handy eine Digitalkamera?
 * Does the cell phone have a digital camera?

If you look at the word order of this sentence, you will see that you've already learned everything you need to make these sentences, and you, yourself can customize these sentences if you want.

Section Problems>>

Bedding
The bedding section is also quite bare, but that is because it will be discussed further in Lesson 12.

And like always here are some of the things you might say that are related to bedding.

 * Passen die Kopfkissenbezüge auf das Kopfkissen?
 * Does the pillow case fit the pillow?

And with that question there are other variations of it you can ask, like...

 * Passt die Decke auf das Bett?
 * Does the blanket fit the bed?

Section Problems>>

Money
Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Belgium and Südtirol – in other words: all German speaking regions except Switzerland and Liechtenstein– have given up their former currencies and adopted the Euro as of 1999. Because they are not members of the European Union, Switzerland and Liechtenstein have kept the Swiss Francs. Currently 1 EUR is 1.34 USD.

Now if you were at a shopping center in German like Kurfürstendamm, and you were shopping at a boutique here is some vocabulary you might want to know.

Was kostet das?
 * Was macht das?
 * How much does it cost?

 * Das Hemd kostet 120 Euro.
 * The shirt costs 120 euros.

 * Das kostet 690 Euro.
 * That costs 690 euros (all together).

Note: The word coin (Münze) mostly turns to Stück when a word or number is put together with it.

Even though in the vocabulary we list the 1, 2, 5, 10, 100 Euro there are more Euro notes. The twenty, fifty, two hundred, and five hundred Euro notes are the ones we didn't list, also there are cent coins.

German Math
In written German, a comma is used (e. g. in prices) where we would put a decimal point in English. Thus € 5,49 (or 5,49 €) means five euros and forty-nine cents. When a price ends in a round number of euros, it is most commonly written as € 5,- etc. The reverse is also true. Where as English uses a comma to split up large numbers, German uses a dot. So "€ 6.945" means sechs tausend neunhundertfünfundvierzig (six thousand nine hundred and forty-five) euros - not six point nine four five euros.

Clothing
Section Answers >>

Describing Clothes
Here are some of the words you can use when you are describing clothes:

To say I like something or not, for clothing, it's...

I like it!

Er/Sie/Es gefällt mir!

I don't like it!

Er/Sie/Es gefällt mir nicht!

Now if you try something on or you're looking for a soft shirt with a tight fit, you find it, feel it, try it on, but it's fairly expensive you might say this...

In English: ''The shirt looks great! The shirt feels soft, fits tight. The shirt is very comfortable. How much does it cost? Oh no! The shirt is expensive! 55 euros is a little too much for me.''

In German: ''Das Hemd sieht prima aus! Das Hemd fühlt sich weich an, es sitzt eng. Das Hemd ist sehr bequem. Wieviel kostet es? Oh nein! Das Hemd ist teuer! 55 Euro sind mir ein bisschen zuviel.''

The phrases to describe the shirt were...

The shirt looks great.

Das Hemd sieht prima aus.

The shirt feels soft.

Das Hemd fühlt sich weich an.

The shirt fits tight.

Das Hemd sitzt eng.

Now, the bold words are verbs that are one part in describing how the shirt is. The other half of describing it is the adjectives like soft, tight, great, etc. And as you can see the verb "looks" is separable, but we will get into that later.

Clothing-Related Verbs
And now getting into verbs - here are some of the verbs, and also some of these are Separable-Prefix Verbs, like aussehen, anprobieren, and anhaben. But we will study those in more detail later. Also we will be learning about "tragen".

Separable Prefix Verbs
Many German verbs change their meaning by adding prefixs, which are often preposition such as ab-, an-, auf-, aus-, bei-, ein-, mit-, vor-, or zu-.The verbs anhaben (to wear) and aussehen (to look) are both verbs with separable (trennbar) prefixes. That is, when used next to the subject pronoun, the prefix is separated from the verb and put at the end of the sentence or clause. Or, better put, In the present tense and imperative, the prefix is separated from the infinitive stem.

Examples:

"Ich habe einen Mantel an." ("I'm wearing a coat." Or, more literally translated, "I have a coat on.")

"Was hast du an?" ("What are you wearing?" or "What do you have on?")

However, when the separable-prefix verb is put at the end of the sentence, such as when used with a modal verb, the verb in question and its prefix are not separated.

Examples:

"Du willst einen Mantel anhaben." ("You want to wear a coat.")

"Willst du eine Bluse anhaben?" ("Do you want to wear a blouse?")

Section Problems >>

Tragen
Instead of "anhaben" the verb "tragen" is often used. The sentences from above would then be:

"Ich trage einen Mantel." ("I'm wearing a coat." ) "Was trägst du?" ("What are you wearing?") "Du willst einen Mantel tragen." ("You want to wear a coat.") "Willst du eine Bluse tragen?" ("Do you want to wear a blouse?")

The verb "tragen" has two meanings: "to wear" and "to carry". So if someone says "Ich trage Schuhe" only the context will tell you whether the person is carrying the shoes in his hands or actually wearing them. Tragen is a different kind of irregular verb -- one that not only changes at the end of the word, but also changes internally. Notice that the vowel in tragen's second and third-person forms changes from an a into an ä. Other verbs with similar conjugation patterns include fahren, graben, schaffen, and waschen.

Colors
Color are also another great way to describe clothes like Das rote Hemd passt gut.which means The red shirt fits well.

Read the following paragraph, try to find the words described to have a color.

''Wir fahren in den Schwarzwald. Ich habe ein grünes Hemd getragen. Die Reise war lang. Es begann kälter zu werden und abzukühlen. Ich hörte Musik auf meinem braunen iPod. Ich bin schließlich eingeschlafen. Als ich aufwachte, sah ich den blauen Himmel und den weißen Schnee.''

If you found 5 words you are right.

Schwarz which means black (the Schwarzwald (Black Forest) is a wooded mountain range)

Grünes Hemd which is a green shirt.

Brauner iPod which is a brown iPod.

Blauer Himmel which is blue sky.

And weißer Schnee which is white snow.

And now for the actual colors...

Red               "Rot" Blue              "Blau" Green             "Grün" Orange            "Orange" Violet            "Violett" Yellow            "Gelb" Brown             "Braun" Indigo            "Indigo" Gray              "Grau" Black             "Schwarz" White             "Weiß"

Section Problems >>

title: German/Level I/Kleidung


text:
Talk:German/Level I/Kleidung

Untitled
What else should i add in Lesson Four?--Andrewcool 00:15, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Don't worry I got it covered :-D --German Men92 17:14, 14 Jan 2006 (UTC)

Lesson Part Finished
The lesson part is finished, but it is still open for correction, and minor additions. --German Man92 16:35 Jan 16 2006 (UTC)

passen = fit
passen means to fit, and sitzen means to sit. but there is names that sitzen means to fit, but most time passen is fit. --German Man92 16:49 Jan 16 2006 (UTC)

Hegla = Helga
"Hegla" is not a German name. The correct spelling is "Helga".

Tip Tip ...
Actually, tipping is seen very differently. For many older Germans, 5% is quite a lot, and not giving any tip if not really satisfied is by no means considered rude by everybody. Younger ones often are more generous (maybe this is influenced by the American culture where the tip is part of the income of the waiters, or because they are more likely to know some fellow student working at a restaurant ;-) So while Tante Erna might tip the nice young lady who brought her her Kännchen Milchkaffee mit Schwarzwälder Kirsch for 7,30€ with 20 cents, the student Kevin might just leave 70 cents on the table because he'd find it cheap otherwise. Admittedly, those are rather extreme cases, and there certainly are young people who are cheap and many old ones who are very generous... Thamane 21:31, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I actually live in Berlin, and I see most, if not all, people tip and very well, maybe I just see, or look for people who tip. I don't know, lol. --German Men92 20:36, 10 April 2006 (UTC)

Helga and Maria
They call each other by there "Vornamen", so they normaly won't say "Sie", but "Du".

Propaganda?
Hiya. I'm actually using the beginnings of this book as a very rough foundation upon which to begin my studies of the German language. I couldn't help but think that the exercise requiring the student to memorize what is on each floor of a specific department store a bit ridiculous. Not only does memorizing this not seem important for the study of German or, realistically, for a trip in Germany, it also seems rather like pro-KaDeWe propaganda (imagine a wikibook on the English language having an exercise requiring students to recite the locations of all General Motors factories in the United States as a lesson in geography). Just seems a bit silly.
 * "Propaganda" is sort of harsh isn't it? Maybe it's just some self-promotion. Nevertheless, just skip it if you want. And I guess you can delete it if you are really REALLY bothered by it.Erebos12345 (talk) 09:27, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

Wrong translation
In page 61 "Jewelery" is translated into "Damenschuhe" (Women's shoes), shouldn't the correct translation be "Der Schmuck" or "Der Schmuckwaren"? AdipocitoUY (discuss • contribs) 13:30, 27 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level I/Kleidung


text:
Cookbook:Bruschetta

| Cuisine of Italy | Vegetarian cuisine

This article describes general preparation procedures for the popular Italian appetizer (or antipasto) Bruschetta (plural bruschette), slices of toasted or grilled bread rubbed with garlic, drizzled with olive oil, and seasoned with salt and pepper. This basic preparation is frequently topped with combinations of flavorful seasonal ingredients. It is a dish coming from the Southern Italian culinary tradition, though variants exist throughout Italy. It is commonly mispronounced in America as "bru-shetta", but should be pronounced with a hard K sound, "bru-sketta."

There are many types of bruschetta, some involving special roasted and/or hard bread which may require a different preparation than the one below.

The recipe below is a meeting point between Northern and Southern Italy, using an Italian or French baguette-style loaf. You can adapt this recipe to as many servings as you need. As a guideline, you can serve 1 or 2 bruschette per person.

Base

 * 1 loaf of Italian or French bread, sliced ½ inch (1.25 cm) thick on the bias
 * ½ head garlic
 * Kosher salt or sea salt
 * Freshly-ground black pepper
 * Extra-virgin olive oil
 * Toppings of your choice (see examples below)

Toppings

 * Chopped tomatoes with arugula or basil
 * Cooked white beans (topped, if you like, with sautéed kale)
 * Sautéed mushrooms (preferably wild varieties)
 * Minced anchovies flavored with wine vinegar and herbs
 * Thinly-sliced pancetta crisped under the broiler
 * Pugliese-style chopped mixture of summer vegetables (red onion, cucumber, tomatoes, oregano, flat-leaf parsley, basil, and red pepper flakes)

Procedure

 * 1) Toast the bread slices in a toaster oven, under a broiler, or on a grill, until they turn golden.
 * 2) Immediately rub the bread with the cut side of the garlic. Sprinkle with salt and black pepper, and drizzle generously with extra-virgin olive oil.
 * 3) Serve warm topped with whatever combinations of seasonal ingredients you choose.

Książka kucharska/Bruschetta

title: Cookbook:Bruschetta


text:
User:Arckanghel

Founder of Speech Fundamentals Wikibook. Student at Purdue University North Central.

title: User:Arckanghel


text:
Cookbook:Spicy Chilli Chicken

| Chicken | Indian Cuisine

Chile chicken, cooked Kerala style.

Ingredients

 * 1 pound boneless chicken meat
 * 1 tbsp masala
 * 1 cup lemon juice
 * Salt to taste
 * 3 tbsp canola oil
 * 1½ ea. red onion, chopped
 * ¾ tbsp red chile powder
 * ¾ tsp turmeric powder
 * 1 tsp smoked paprika
 * 1 tsp coriander
 * 3 medium tomatoes, chopped
 * ½ tbsp minced ginger
 * 2 tbsp minced garlic
 * 6 tbsp tomato ketchup
 * 8 tbsp soy sauce
 * 4 Indian green chiles, chopped
 * 2 green bell peppers, sliced

Procedure

 * 1) Marinate the chicken with lemon juice, masala, and salt for 1 hour.
 * 2) In a large pot, fry the marinated chicken in canola oil until golden brown (5–7 minutes).
 * 3) Remove the chicken from the pot and cut into pieces.
 * 4) Into the remaining oil, add the onions, red chili powder, turmeric, paprika, and coriander powder, and sauté until wilted.
 * 5) Add the tomatoes, ginger, and garlic, and cook till the tomatoes are softened and breaking apart.
 * 6) Put the ketchup, soy sauce, fried chicken pieces, green chiles, and green peppers in the pot, and simmer until peppers are soft and chicken is fully-cooked.
 * 7) Serve over steamed rice.

title: Cookbook:Spicy Chilli Chicken


text:
Robotics/Physical Construction/Construction Techniques

Measuring and Marking

 * Do: Measure twice, cut once. Putting it back on is MUCH more difficult than taking it off.
 * Do Not: Measure with a micrometer, mark with chalk, cut with a torch. Accuracy is important in moving parts.

Cutting and Sawing

 * Sawing sheet metal requires a saw with a fine-tooth blade. As a general rule of thumb at least three teeth should touch the material being cut.
 * The teeth should be aimed away from the handle.
 * Only apply pressure when pushing the saw away from you, not when pulling back.
 * A miter box can be very handy to make straight or 45° cuts. Use a metal box as wooden boxes wear out very fast.

Drilling

 * Use a punch to make a small indentation where you want to drill the hole.
 * Use a slower speed to drill the hole than you would use for wood.
 * Use clamps when working with sheet metal. Don't hold it with your hands as metal is very sharp when cut.
 * Large holes can be made by drilling a hole and using a file thread or small metal saw to cut the hole. Finish with a half round file.
 * A groove can be cut by drilling two holes at the outer edges and using file thread or small saw to connect both holes.

Filing

 * Files exist in different shapes and different roughness.
 * Filing straight: Hold the file diagonal on the surface, apply pressure and move the file upwards while moving from left to right.

Bending
Place the sheet metal between 2 wooden boards in a vice. Let the line where you want the material to bend match up with the border of the boards. Use a hammer to bend the metal.

Cutting
Thin plastics can be cut with a sharp utility knife, thicker material can be sawed. When sawing plastic, care must be taken to not melt it.

Drilling
Drilling plastic requires a slow speed drill. Special drills for plastics are much better as metal drill can cause the material to crack.

Large holes and grooves can be made the same way as in metal.

Bending
Use a heat gun (paint stripper) to heat up the plastic, bend it and let it cool down. Bending can be done by hand.


text:
User talk:Badjoby~enwikibooks

Cookbook:Spicy Chilly Chicken
Tomato sauce is ambiguous. Please be more specific. (Which of the 3 types do you mean?)

Are you sure the name should have "Chilly", not "Chilli" or "Chili"? To me, "Chilly" means that the chicken is cold or even frozen.

AlbertCahalan 07:54, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Badjoby. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Badjoby~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:58, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:37, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Badjoby~enwikibooks


text:
Ada Programming/Pragmas/Restrictions

Summary
The pragma Restrictions is used to forbid the utilization of some language features.

List of language defined restrictions identifiers
Some restrictions are specially marked:
 * Ada 2005 : This is a new Ada 2005 restrictions identifier.
 * Ada 2012 : This is a new Ada 2012 restrictions identifier.

 * Immediate_Reclamation
 * Max_Asynchronous_Select_Nesting
 * Max_Entry_Queue_Length (Ada 2005)
 * Max_Protected_Entries
 * Max_Select_Alternatives
 * Max_Storage_At_Blocking
 * Max_Task_Entries
 * Max_Tasks
 * No_Abort_Statements
 * No_Access_Parameter_Allocators (Ada 2012)
 * No_Access_Subprograms
 * No_Allocators
 * No_Anonymous_Allocators (Ada 2012)
 * No_Asynchronous_Control
 * No_Coextensions (Ada 2012)
 * No_Delay
 * No_Dependence (Ada 2005)
 * No_Dispatch
 * No_Dynamic_Attachment (Ada 2005)
 * No_Dynamic_Priorities
 * No_Exceptions
 * No_Fixed_Point
 * No_Floating_Point
 * No_Implementation_Aspect_Specifications (Ada 2012)
 * No_Implementation_Attributes (Ada 2005)
 * No_Implementation_Identifiers (Ada 2012)
 * No_Implementation_Pragmas (Ada 2005)
 * No_Implementation_Units (Ada 2012)
 * No_Implicit_Heap_Allocations
 * No_IO
 * No_Local_Allocators
 * No_Local_Protected_Objects (Ada 2005)
 * No_Local_Timing_Events (Ada 2005)
 * No_Nested_Finalization
 * No_Obsolescent_Features (Ada 2005)
 * No_Protected_Type_Allocators (Ada 2005)
 * No_Protected_Types
 * No_Recursion
 * No_Reentrancy
 * No_Relative_Delay (Ada 2005)
 * No_Requeue_Statements (Ada 2005)
 * No_Select_Statements (Ada 2005)
 * No_Specific_Termination_Handlers (Ada 2005)
 * No_Specification_of_Aspect (Ada 2012)
 * No_Standard_Allocators_After_Elaboration (Ada 2012)
 * No_Task_Allocators
 * No_Task_Hierarchy
 * No_Task_Termination (Ada 2005)
 * No_Terminate_Alternatives
 * No_Unchecked_Access
 * No_Unchecked_Conversion
 * No_Unchecked_Deallocation
 * No_Use_of_Attribute (Ada 2012)
 * No_Use_of_Pragma (Ada 2012)
 * Simple_Barriers (Ada 2005)

List of implementation defined restrictions identifiers
The following restrictions are not available in all Ada compilers, only in those that had implemented them:

 * GNAT : This is an implementation defined restriction identifier of the GNAT compiler.

 * No_Calendar (GNAT)
 * No_Default_Initialization (GNAT)
 * No_Direct_Boolean_Operators (GNAT)
 * No_Dispatching_Calls (GNAT)
 * No_Elaboration_Code (GNAT)
 * No_Enumeration_Maps (GNAT)
 * No_Entry_Calls_In_Elaboration_Code (GNAT)
 * No_Entry_Queue (GNAT)
 * No_Exception_Handlers (GNAT)
 * No_Exception_Propagation (GNAT)
 * No_Exception_Registration, previously named 'No_Exception_Streams' (GNAT)
 * No_Implementation_Restrictions (GNAT)
 * No_Implicit_Aliasing (GNAT)
 * No_Implicit_Conditionals (GNAT)
 * No_Implicit_Dynamic_Code (GNAT)
 * No_Implicit_Loops (GNAT)
 * No_Initialize_Scalars (GNAT)
 * No_Secondary_Stack (GNAT)
 * No_Select_Statements (GNAT)
 * No_Standard_Storage_Pools (GNAT)
 * No_Streams (GNAT)
 * No_Task_Attributes_Package (GNAT)
 * No_Tasking (GNAT)
 * No_Wide_Characters (GNAT)
 * SPARK (GNAT)
 * Static_Priorities (GNAT)
 * Static_Storage_Size (GNAT)

"Hello, world!" with restrictions
The following sample demonstrates the use of. Note that on Windows, Linux and macOS the given restrictions won't change the generated code.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Restrictions Pragmas:Restrictions Restrictions Restrictions

title: Ada Programming/Pragmas/Restrictions


text:
Template:Ada/restriction

Restriction

title: Template:Ada/restriction


text:
Robotics/Exotic Robots/Cooperating Robots

Ever take a good look at a swarm of flying insects? If you did you'd have seen very complicated patterns as if they coordinate their flight with precision. Yet each of these individual insect follow only 2 simple rules:
 * Get to the center of the swarm (the safest place)
 * Keep your distance from the other insects.

Because of the large number of creatures in such a swarm you get complicated behaviour even from such very simple rules. The same principle applies to ants. Although none of the ants are civil engineers they do succeed in building very complicated habitats.

This same principle can be applied to robots. A large number of small (and cheap) robots can cooperate to tackle a large problem. These swarms of robots are another challenge for robot designers as their behaviour isn't as simple to program as a single robot.

We talk more about "simple" swarming in Robotics/Computer Control/Control Architectures/Swarm Robotics and more complicated coordination in Robotics/Exotic Robots/Modular and fractal robots.


text:
Puzzles/Lateral puzzles/4

Puzzles | Lateral puzzles | Lateral puzzle 4

A man walks into a bar and asks the bartender for water. Instead of giving a glass of water, the bartender takes a loaded gun and aims it at the man. Seconds later, the man walks away thanking the bartender. Why?

Solution

title: Puzzles/Lateral puzzles/4


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Your First Test

Introduction
The Blender Game Engine is an interesting feature of Blender. It is basically a 3D environment in which 3D objects move around and react to each other upon contact. One common application is to recreate 3D architectural tours.

In this tutorial, you will learn the basics of object collision within the Blender Game Engine (BGE). From Blender games to use in animations, the bullet physics engine offers a massive number of possibilities. The tutorials found within this wikibook on the subject of the BGE are generally focused on game creation, but the concepts taught within can be applied to a multitude of situations.

As a start, we will teach you to make a ball roll realistically down the hill using Blender's game engine. Note: Blender game engine doesn't exist now, so if you don't want to learn all this game engine part consider skipping the whole game engine section

Adding the Hill
First, make a plane, then switch to Edit mode (TAB), and multi-subdivide it with 2 cuts (WKEY → Subdivide Multi → 2). Next, enter face select mode (CTRL+TAB → Faces) to drag the center face up, in order to form a rough outline of a hill. Add a subsurf modifier (in the edit buttons) to about 3, then apply. You should now have a serviceable, but small, hill. Scale the hill up (SKEY) by about 10 times, and we're ready to add the ball.

Noob note:
 * 1) You can also use a 3*3 grid.
 * 2) Delete the original cube first.
 * 3) The subsurf modifier is not essential.

Creating the Ball
Now, add an icosphere (SPACE → Add → Icosphere) and relocate it to be just above the hilltop (GKEY or use the translate widget by pressing CTR+ALT+G). Let's change the color of the sphere so we can differentiate it from the plane. Go to the material buttons (with the sphere selected) and click on the white panel beside the COL value. In the color selection wiget that appears, change its color to a bright red.

Next we need to make the Physics engine iterate over it. With the sphere selected, go to the logic buttons (the little purple Pacman-icon). '''NOTE: In Blender 2.5 and above the Logic Buttons are gone. In order to have the 'Actor' button, click on the button showing 'Blender Render', and select 'Blender Game' Engine. Then go to the physics tab in the buttons menu. There you will see the 'Actor' Button.' You will see a button in the top left that says Actor''. Press it. Now select from the selection box beside of the "Actor" button Rigid Body. This makes the ball roll, instead of staying completely upright the entire time. You will see a bunch of settings available now. Change Radius to 2. This changes size the physics engine thinks the ball is. You notice a dotted circle around the object; this is the boundary. Now change the Radius back to 1. You now have your first Blender game ready to go.

Noob Note:
 * 1) Make sure you are in object mode first before you add any object.
 * 2) F4KEY is the shortcut to the logic panel.

Testing your game
Now the time has come for the first test of our game.

 * 1) Add a light source well above the hill (SHIFT+AKEY → Lamp → Lamp). Align in front view (NUM1)
 * 2) Press NUM5 to switch to Perspective mode, which gives a realistic view, rather than a view in which objects stay the same size with distance (be sure to switch back to Orthographic view when you are editing again using NUM5)
 * 3) Enter textured mode (ALT+ZKEY -- press ZKEY to switch back to solid view mode)
 * 4) Switch into side view (NUM3) and press NUM8 several times to get a good perspective on the ball.
 * 5) Press PKEY to play the game (Make sure you are in Object mode (TAB)
 * 6) Press P to start testing the game. You should see the red ball drop onto the hill.
 * 7) Press ESC to quit testing the game

Video capturing your game
When you press the PKEY or click game, start play, Blender will play it using the 3D view. Many rendering features are not shown in this 3D Window and it does not render the view in order to get good pictures with textures and lighting. You must capture your object that keep on changing(the actor) so that it can be animated.

View -> click View button ,       -> next step /       -> alternative step RMB     -> right mouse button IKEY     -> press the I key on keyboard

Split window, IPO Curve Editor View, Game, Record Game Physics to IPO,

object mode, RMB(select actor), IKEY/select key frame, Loc(location of actor object only),

PKEY( play game), ESCKEY(stop game)

scene(F10), output, f:\animation\ball (your file name), stamp, time, date, draw stamp, format,(choose your output format)

anim, end(ending frame), 270, step, 10(for testing), ANIM/Render, Render Animation/CTRL F12

Conclusion
With the knowledge acquired in this tutorial, there are many things you could accomplish within the Blender Game Engine, although the majority of them would require more knowledge. So read on, and work your way through the multitudinous seas of tutorials (That is, two).

Extra Tutorials
Making a Basic Game: Link, The State Actuator: Link, Blender Game Engine Mouse Follow: Link, Blender Bullet Physics: Link, Domino Game: Link, Rag Doll: Link

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Your First Test


text:
Cookbook talk:MSG

Its not clear to me. Is it the case that all consumers are irrational, or merely those consumers who prefer to avoid maufactured glutamates in unbound processed forms. In what sense are we using the term consumer? Do we mean consumers in the biologic sense or the more ambiguous economic sense? Perhaps it would be more accurate to refer to them as eaters, or people, or even human beings.

I'm not sure it is appropriate to include ad hominem in an ingredient entry in the Wiki Cookbook. Maybe the word "irrational" should be deleted, and the various positions on MSG should be included.

For example, it is fairly clear that glutamates found in naturally occurring substances are bound to proteins. In bound form, the human body can regulate the release of glutamates and the amount of stimulation of glutamate neurotransmiter receptors. In unbound form, glutamates freely enter the bloodstream and can overstimulate glutamate neurotransmiter receptors (as is the case with many isolates chemicals human beings ingest).

User:4.244.150.169

 * The percent values are for unbound glutamate only. The numbers for bound glutamate are much higher. Anything much beyond a half percent is more than a person would purposely add; several foods qualify. AlbertCahalan 22:31, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * If you think MSG is bad, you'd better learn about dihydrogen monoxide. It's a common food additive that has caused many deaths. Just as with MSG, the government claims that dihydrogen monoxide is safe! AlbertCahalan 00:25, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * You may think that it is junk science, but other might not. Wikimedia projects are supposed to be NPOV. Some people might be sensitive to MSG, it is unknown. Reub2000 04:29, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:MSG


text:
User talk:4.244.150.169

What do you mean "Irrational MSG Sales Promotion"?

There's been a lot of crap pseudo-science by quacks trying to blame MSG for every ailment. It's like some kind of patent medicine in reverse.

The simple fact is that MSG is common in lots of foods you eat. It's there in doses much higher than one would normally add. Look at Parmesan, which has so much MSG that your taste buds are maxed out. Nobody would add that amount.

Commercial MSG is indistinguishable in every way from any other MSG. If you have trouble with this concept, study chemistry.

As for selling things... many of the anti-MSG sites you'll find on the web are doing just that. They sell "herbal supplements" of dubious value for exhorbant prices.

AlbertCahalan 17:18, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:4.244.150.169


text:
User talk:Tikichan

Hello and I am TikiChan!!! Don't be scared, I won't hurt you. Anyways, i'll probably be putting a page up here about PSAT testing, and what to study for.. Along with refreshers, help, flash cards, stuff like that.

title: User talk:Tikichan


text:
User:Sajad

I am Sajad Ghafarzadeh (1986) from Iran.
 * Sajad is active at the  Persian Wikipedia (fa) and Persian Wikiquote (fa).

How to contact me

 * Mail: sajad[dot]gh[at]gmail[dot]com

title: User:Sajad


text:
Homeopathy/Introduction

The primary purpose of this book is to take a deep look at homeopathy in order to understand its founding principles, evolution, and role in society. It should not be misconstrued as an endorsement of homeopathy or as a recommendation of any medical or pseudo-medical treatment.

As a practice, homeopathy is highly controversial, and much misinformation exists around it. Therefore, in order to maintain the educational quality of this book, care should be taken to use reputable sources of information when contributing. As an educational book, this work should be guided by evidence and rigorous scientific practice.

title: Homeopathy/Introduction


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/access

This keyword is used in access types declarations and anonymous access parameters.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Access Keywords:access

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/access


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/all

This keyword is used in:
 * General access types declaration
 * Explicit dereferencing of access variables
 * Universal quantified expressions

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|All Keywords:all

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/all


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/at

This keyword is used in representation clauses: and in address clauses (obsolencent), replaced by the aspect Address.
 * in an alignment clause (obsolescent), replaced by the aspect Alignment;
 * in a component clause.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|At Keywords:at

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/at


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/case

This keyword is used in case statements and variant record definitions.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Case Keywords:case

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/case


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/constant

This keyword is used to declare constant objects and named numbers.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Constant Keywords:constant

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/constant


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/body

This keyword is used to define the body (implementation) of the following units:
 * Packages
 * Tasks and protected units

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Body Keywords:body

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/body


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/declare

This keyword is used to mark beginning of the declarative part of a block.

Block_Name : A_Variable : The_Type; Use A_Variable Block_Name;

The Block_Name is optional.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Declare Keywords:declare

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/declare


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/delay

Relative delays
Wait_Time;

The Ravenscar profile forbids the use of the relative delay statement:

Absolute delays
Next_Time;

Delay alternative
Selective accept:

Cond => accept_statement statements delay_alternative ;

Timed entry call
entry_call_alternative delay_alternative ;

Asynchronous transfer of control
Abort_Time; statements abortable_part ;

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords
 * Ada Programming/Tasking
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas/Restrictions/No Relative Delay

Ada Reference Manual

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Delay Keywords:delay

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/delay


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/delta

Description
This keyword is used in the declaration of fixed point types. Delta represents the absolute error bound of a fixed point type; that is, delta gives a hint to the compiler how to choose the smallest incremental value of the type, called the Small of the type. This Small value is accessible via the attribute T'Small.

For Ordinary fixed point types, it is by default a power of two not greater than the delta; it is specifyable by an attribute clause to be any value not greater than the delta.

For decimal fixed point types, the Small value is equal to the delta, which of course must be a power of ten.

Example
Fixed_Point  0.01  10; My_Fixed_Point : Fixed_Point := 0.0; ... My_Fixed_Point := 0.1; My_Fixed_Point := 0.02; My_Fixed_Point := 0.001;

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Delta Keywords:delta

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/delta


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/digits

This keyword is used in the declaration of floating point types and fixed point types.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Digits Keywords:digits

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/digits


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/do

This keyword is used in accept statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Do Keywords:do

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/do


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/else

This keyword is used in:
 * The 'if' statements
 * The or else shortcut operator
 * Conditional entry calls in tasks.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Else Keywords:else

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/else


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/elsif

This keyword is used in 'if' statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Elsif Keywords:elsif

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/elsif


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/end

This keyword is used to mark the end of the following constructs:
 * Control statements
 * Subprogram bodies
 * Records
 * Package specifications and bodies
 * Tasks, protected objects, accept statements and select statements
 * Blocks

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|End Keywords:end

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/end


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/entry

This keyword is used to define a rendezvous in the context of tasking.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Entry Keywords:entry

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/entry


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/exception

This keyword is used in exception declarations and exception handlers.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Exception Keywords:exception

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/exception


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/exit

This keyword is used to exit the current or named loop, conditionally or unconditionally.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Exit Keywords:exit

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/exit


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/for

This keyword is used in:
 * For loops
 * Representation clauses:
 * attribute definition clause
 * enumeration representation clause
 * record representation clause
 * at clause (obsolescent)
 * Quantified expressions
 * Universal quantification
 * Existential quantification

Nowadays representation clauses are formally called aspect clauses in the last versions of the Reference Manual due to some technicalities, although representation clauses is the name far more extended among Ada programmers. As a historical note, they were known as representation specifications (rep specs) in pre-Ada 83 proposals.

For loops
[loop name ] var  [  ] [type ] range ...  [loop name]

Where range can be:
 * explicit range like " ",
 * range of scalar or array type:  (or   for multidimensional array types)
 * range of an array:  for multidimensional arrays)

Keyword may also be followed by an iterable. This generalizes iteration by including types that have one of the interfaces defined in Ada.Iterator_Interfaces.

Another generalized form of looping iteration uses the keyword in place of. The loop parameter is then referring to components of arrays or of iterable container types, directly.

[loop name ] var [ type]  [  ] iterable ...  [loop name]

Representation clauses
The keywords, and  are used for representation clauses.

A record representation clause specifies the Layout aspect of a record.

An enumeration representation clause specifies the Coding aspect of an enumeration type.

See Ada Programming/Representation_clauses.

Quantified expressions
Quantified expressions are Boolean expressions. They are either True or False, or propagate any exception raised during evaluation.

Universal quantification
Universal quantification expression:

( var  range  predicate) ( var  iterable  predicate)

Both forms evaluate to True when all of the values in range (of iterable) make the predicate yield True. Evaluation of predicate stops when either all values of loop parameter var have been exhausted, or when evaluation for some value yields False (short circuit).

Existential quantification
Existential quantification expression:

( var  range  predicate) ( var  iterable  predicate)

Both forms evaluate to True when some of the values in range (of iterable) makes the predicate yield True. Evaluation of predicate stops when either all values of loop parameter var have been exhausted, or when evaluation for some value yields True (short circuit).

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Reference Manual

 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)
 * (obsolescent)

Ada 83

 * (obsolescent)

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/for


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/function

This keyword is used in:
 * the specification and body of functions, a kind of subprograms.
 * access to subprogram type declarations.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Function Keywords:function

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/function


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/generic

This keyword is used in generic units declarations.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Generic Keywords:generic

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/generic


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/goto

This keyword "goto" is used in the goto statement.

For details see the chapter Ada Programming/Control - goto.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Goto

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/goto


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/if

This keyword is used in 'if' statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|If Keywords:if

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/if


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/in

This keyword is used in:
 * The  and   mode of subprograms parameters.
 * membership tests
 * for loops
 * quantified expressions

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|In Keywords:in

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/in


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/limited

This keyword is used to define limited types.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Limited Keywords:limited

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/limited


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/loop

This keyword is used in loop statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Loop Keywords:loop

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/loop


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/mod

This keyword is used in the mod operator and in the declaration of modular types.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Mod Keywords:mod

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/mod


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/not

This keyword is used in:
 * Logical negation operator
 * Negative membership test:

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Not Keywords:not

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/not


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/null

This keyword is used for:
 * Null access value
 * Null record definition
 * Null variant part in a record definition
 * Null statement

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Null Keywords:null

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/null


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/of

This keyword is used in array types declarations and for loops.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Of Keywords:of

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/of


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/out

This keyword is used in the  and   mode of subprograms parameters.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Out Keywords:out

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/out


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/package

This keyword is used in regular packages (specification and body), in generic packages (specification and body), and in generic formal package parameters.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Package Keywords:package

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/package


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/pragma

This keyword is used in pragma statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Pragma

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/pragma


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/private

This keyword is used to declare:
 * Private types
 * The private part in a package specification
 * Private child packages

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Private Keywords:private

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/private


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/procedure

This keyword is used in:
 * the specification and body of procedures, a kind of subprograms.
 * access to subprogram type declarations.
 * Procedures as parameters in generic units.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Procedure Keywords:procedure

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/procedure


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/protected

This keyword is used in the definition of protected types.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Protected Keywords:protected

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/protected


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/raise

This keyword is used for raising a named exception or reraising the current exception in an exception handler.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Raise Keywords:raise

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/raise


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/record

This keyword is used in record types declarations.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Record Keywords:record

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/record


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/rem

Operator rem
The keyword is used as the remainder operator, that is, the remainder of the signed integer division. The following formula applies:

A = (A / B) * B + (A rem B)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Rem Keywords:rem

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/rem


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/renames

This keyword is used in renaming declarations.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Renames Keywords:renames

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/renames


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/requeue

This keyword is used for requeue statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Requeue Keywords:requeue

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/requeue


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/return

This keyword is used in:
 * Functions specifications for declaring the returned type.
 * In function bodies for returning a value to the caller.
 * In procedure bodies for returning the control to the caller.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Return Keywords:return

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/return


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/reverse

This keyword is used in for loops to specify that the loop is performed in reverse order:

I  1 .. 10      Ada.Integer_Text_IO.Put (I); Ada.Text_IO.New_Line; ;

Outputs:

10         9          8          7          6          5          4          3          2          1

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Reverse Keywords:reverse

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/reverse


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/select

This keyword is used in selective waiting in tasks.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Select Keywords:select

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/select


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/separate

This keyword is used to declare subunits.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Separate Keywords:separate

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/separate


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/tagged

This keyword is used in object-oriented type declarations (tagged types).

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Tagged Keywords:tagged

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/tagged


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/terminate

This keyword is used in task termination.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Terminate Keywords:terminate

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/terminate


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/then

This keyword is used in:
 * 'if' statements
 * 'and then' shortcut operator
 * Asynchronous select

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Then Keywords:then

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/then


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/until

Delay until statement
The keyword until is used only in delay until statements.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Reference Manual

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Until Keywords:until

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/until


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/when

This keyword is used in:
 * case statements,
 * variant record definitions,
 * exception handlers
 * loops exit conditions.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|When Keywords:when

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/when


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/while

This keyword is used in the while loops.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|While Keywords:while

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/while


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/with

This keyword is used in:
 * With clauses
 * Extension declarations in OOP
 * Subprogram and package parameters in generics
 * Aspects (Ada 2012)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|With Keywords:with

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/with


text:
Template:Ada/95/RMA1

Annex (Annotated) 95/RMA1

title: Template:Ada/95/RMA1


text:
User:Badjoby~enwikibooks

My or better my Moms recipies

 * Spicy Chilli Chicken Kerala style
 * Prawns Kerala style

title: User:Badjoby~enwikibooks


text:
Instructional Technology/Human Performance Technology

Human Performance Technology

HPT in the Workplace

Return to Instructional Technology.


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Instructional Technology/Bases of the Field

A theory is a set of statements that allow us to explain, predict, or control events (Smith and Ragan, 1993). A theory provides an explanation for observations made over time. A theory explains and predicts behavior. A theory can be modified. Theories are rarely discarded if tested, but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved. There are two kinds of theories on which instructional design is based:

 * 1) Descriptive Theories
 * 2) Predictive Theories

Descriptive theories describe how learning occurs. Prescriptive theories describe what to do to achieve certain outcomes. Most instructional theories are prescriptive. They suggest that if instruction follows a certain form and process, then learning will occur. This will be a section on the theoretical bases for the field of Instructional Design. By many accounts, there are four, sometimes referred to as the pillars of the field (McGriff, n.d.):

Visualization enhances the learning process
Hoban, Hoban and Zisman (1937) explained impact of visuals on the learning process based on the mental processing including differentiation and integration to reach ultimate goal of education generalization. An object cannot be understood totally without making connection to the differentiated situations concretely in real life. In this process, visual aids play a key role for presentation of differentiated situations. However, differentiation is the secondary process of integration because the differentiated object must be put into a category or class again in real life situation. The integration of several differentiated concrete experiences related to an object produces abstraction and generalization. In this process, visual aids support not only alone differentiation but also integration of lower to higher level for the generalization purpose. The other role of the visual aids is supporting the progress of concrete to abstract. In fact, concrete and abstract forms of an object are relative terms. One is start; another is end points. During the integration to generalization process, the transition from concrete to abstract must be smoothly otherwise the process sounds meaningless. For the concrete differentiation, real sample of the object that provides sense of weight, volume and textures are appropriate. To take this process one step further for abstract forms, the visuals are very critical. Hence, visuals can be still concrete to the person without some senses and Hoban, Hoban and Zisman called them as semiconcrete. They can support that smooth transition to the abstraction. In some cases, direct concrete experience is not possible so the visual aids take the direct experiences role, such as in geography or history subjects.

The similar type of support came from Dale’s Cone of Experience (1946) related to visualization and learning. Like Hoban, Hoban and Zisman (1937), Dale talked about the decreasing concrete experiences of motion pictures and its place between direct purposeful experiences and verbal symbols. The visual materials both motion and still pictures put the transition point. He also stressed the efficiency of the visualization; that one can reduce unnecessary part of the experience and concentrate the related parts. In 1949, another forerunner of audio-visual education movement Jim Finn joined Hoban and Dale (as cited in Januszewski, 2001) and supported the idea of rich concrete experiences providing with audio-visual materials rather than just presentation of eye and ear experiences.

In other words, visualization is important for making learning process meaningful via diverse representations of the content to support both retention – within relations and transfer – relations between the other contents. Moreover, learning processes become more effective and efficient if unnecessary and unimportant parts are dismissed via utilization of visuals. Like the vision of Oettinger (1969), the visual materials are still very important manipulative to teach abstract concepts currently. However, the role of visual materials are not limited to the progress of concreteness to abstraction but also tied to individualized instruction regarding learning style or type of an intelligence of a person. For example, Gardner’s (1983) multiple intelligence theory includes visual/spatial intelligence.

Communications Theory
Communications theory is related to information processing and longterm storage and retrieval of knowledge. In the information processing model, the source of a message works its way through a channel which is influenced by noise. Sending a message involves encoding and transmitting it. Receiving a message involves receiving a message and then decoding its meaning. The form and structure of the message is of concern to instructional designers. The purpose of communications theory is to increase knowledge and understanding of some knowledge or skill; and, to persuade and/or motivate retention of the same. Communications theory can aid in the design of instructional materials by facilitating the transmission of messages and information from one person to another.

Communication is a two-way process that permeates all aspects of instruction
The fundamental starting point of communication in field of AV was the basic discussion of Harold Lassweell in 1948; that “who says what in which channel to whom with what effect?” (p. 250, as cited in Januszewski, 2001). Based on that model, other scholars of AV field got their attentions to the communication. The following to this theory, the two field were connected to each other with the Journal of AV Communication Review in 1953.

According to Dale (1953), communication is the process of taking the other in order to reach the common experiences mutually. To understand each other clearly, communicator must establish two-way communication where the feedback is the critical part. As experience sharing process between the teacher and learner, instruction must be realized in the context of two-way communication. Although Gerbner (1956) was one of the advocator of social framework of communications, he mostly emphasized situation, perceived context, and all aspects of the content, which are the important variables of instructional environments. The social framework of communication is more detailed explained than behavioral one in which AV communication was accepted as a one-way communication and linear act where the messages were transferred form one person to another (Januszewski, 2001). In this framework, the AV field was more associated with machine and equipment perspective.

Like Dale (1953), Hoban (1977) criticized open communication systems and proposed monitoring and correction or evaluation for the process where the user could be part of information flows. With this way, he believed, the effectiveness of information transfer could be increased. The evaluation process was based on observations. For the instruction environment, teacher must understand the reaction of students to audio-visual materials and make necessary corrections if there are some problems. He stated that without evaluations it has been impossible to improve effectiveness of the materials.

At this time, two-way communication is the still very important principle of instruction. For example, in a form of distance learning web based instruction provides tools for communication to enhance outcomes. Moreover, most of the message design principle are the stemmed from effective communication. The most common type of message design is screen design for educational software or web based course in the field of IT. In constructivist perspective, I believe, the source of the communication process is the students and the receivers are the teachers who send feedback to facilitate students again.

Go here to learn more about Communications Theory.

Systems Theory
One definition of a system is that it is a set of interrelated objects working together toward a common goal (Hall & Fagen, 1975). In other words, the system has a purpose or goal; its parts are organized and hierarchical. General systems theory assumes that the natural world is ordered and rational; and, planning and creation of order are valuable activities. Systems theory provides a framework for us to order the world around us in our own minds. It helps us understand relationships between people and other people, people and things, and things and other things.

The environment places constraints on a system. Through feedback mechanisms, dynamic systems change when interacting with the environment. These changes can lead to progress or self-destruction.

Instruction is a system because it is purposeful, organized, governed by processes and is comprised of a set of interrelated part working together toward a common goal. It is used to create meaning out of existing structures, create new structures and ways to organize information, and solve problems.

Systems thinking and relation to historical roots of IT
The systems thinking in education was explained as an iterative, high speed, mental process of the frequent analysis and synthesis, called anasynthesis (Silvern, 1968). Analysis process is explained as breaking down of a whole into the parts with demonstrating all relationships of the parts to each others and to the whole itself. For a system, the relationships must be meaningful from each peace to the whole. Silvern identified process of analysis into four steps: (a) identify, (b) relate, (c) separate, and (d) limit. Synthesis is the process of combining non-related elements into meaningful relationships that produces the new product as a whole system. The main distinctive characteristic of synthesis is production of new or innovative things. As well as analysis, Silvern expressed synthesis contains five basic steps: (a) identify, (b) relate, (c) combine, and (d) limit.

Over and above of Silvern’s system explanation, Churchman (1965) proposed two principles to keep the system works. One is housekeeping principle that supports the idea of when you see a mess, clean it up. This principle fosters immediate straighten of an existing system. However, if the system becomes more complex, housekeeping principle cannot be simple to apply. In addition to housekeeping principles, Churchman talked about two fundamental design properties of any part of a system: its benefit to the whole and its price. When the change made in any part of the system, the expected benefits of it must be assessed for the whole cost to the system. Hoban (1977) explained the efficiency of the AV field by using the communication systems. He also proposed that AV communication system that indicates interaction among basic components of communication system. He advocated that in order to understand huge social system that are really difficult to analyze, we need manageable sub-systems, such as AV communication system.

The common characteristics of educational engineering process are classified into four ways by Charters (Januszewski, 2001): (a) systematic process, (b) applications of science, (c) efficiency for the utilization of resources, and (d) aims to produce for wealth. With the systematic process, the emphasized concepts were thoroughness or step-by-step procedure and impartiality of the truth. The systematic development of instructional methods and product was the part of educational engineering. Educational engineering’s basic areas were psychology, sociology, and mathematics, like industrial engineering and its basic sciences psychics, chemistry. Educational engineering were derived from these basic sciences. Based on the discussion of Silvern (1968), Churchman (1965), and Hoban (1977), it can be proposed that system thinking is related to systematic step-by-step procedures, efficiency, and production of wealth characteristics of educational engineering. Two different ideas focus on a production system including meaningful relations by using the most efficient ways for the valuable outcomes to the outer system in a standardized way.

The risen interest on exact measurement and prediction-based methods and outcomes by emphasized by science of education view could be easily adapted to a procedural concept of educational engineering. For the science of education perspective, we can easily observe that system thinking ensures the consistent outcomes via using comparative exact measures of benefits and costs to control system for continuous production.

Especially, Hoban’s (1977) AV communication system was a kind of reusable module for all types of growing technologies. Hence, Hoban developed that model for the systems difficult to analyze and complex social systems. In other words, it is the effective representation why we need to use technology in complex educational environments. This is the rationale for the efficient and effective use of technology.

As far as the programmed instruction is concerned, keeping consistency of a system production and its expected benefits and cost is closely associated because the programmed instruction includes immediate correction of the system components - housekeeping, such as reinforcement. However, Hoban emphasized that the housekeeping principle of the programmed instruction could be thought as the efficient way for instruction unless its benefits and cost to whole system were considered. He added that one of the common methods for immediate correction was supplementing the problem part with emerging technologies. In my opinion, this point is one the most critical evidence for the disappearance of the programmed instruction tools in education systems. It also must be considered for the current applied technologies nowadays.

Go here to learn more about Systems Theory and its implications for instructional design.

Learning Theory
Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism - The Basics

Behaviorism: Based on observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a new behavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

Cognitivism: Based on the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior are observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside the learner's mind.

Constructivism: Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations (Schuman, 1996).

For a discussion on the strengths and weaknesses of each of the basic learning theories

Learning Theory - Strengths/Weaknesses

Constructivist Learning Theory
What we call constructivism is based on the assumption that learning occurs as a result of what learners understand about their world. It is about the individual construction of knowledge. Constructivism is not a learning theory, per se, but rather philosophical approach to teaching and student learning. Constructivist education involves the creation of student-centred learning environments. Teachers adopt strategies and techniques that assist students in constructing knowledge by making links between old and new knowledge and experiences, in recognition that students bring old knowledge and experience to new learning experiences.

Mental constructs (schema, mental models, etc.) are constructed by past experience, and modified through assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge and experience per the Piagetian framework of thinking about human learning processes. Constructivism, then, is a way of thinking about how we know what we know and understand things; and, a referent for models of instruction and learning (Tobin & Tippin, 1993). In this sense, it is more of a philosphical approach to education which has implications for instructional design and practice.

Instructional Theory
Reigeluth (1983) defines Instructional Theory as "identifying methods that will best provide the conditions under which learning goals will most likely be attained." In other words, the focus on instructional theory is on how to structure instruction and instructional material so it can be learned. Many researchers have contributed to the base of instructional theory, but Robert Gagne is considered the first to have direct connections to instructional technology. His most notable work includes his conditions of learning, nine events of instruction, learning hierarchies and taxonomy of learning objectives, (see Gagne's Contributions).

Go here to learn more about Instructional Theory and its implications for instructional design.


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User:Nondusky

What is a Learning Object?

title: User:Nondusky


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Instructional Technology/Instructional Design

Instructional design is the systematic process of designing, developing, evaluating and managing the entire instructional process to ensure effective and efficient learning. It is based on what we know about instructional and learning theories, systems design, information systems and management (Morrison, Kemp & Ross, 2001). The basic elements of instructional design include:

 * Analyze learner and organization needs
 * Determine instructional goals and objective
 * Construct a method for evaluating learner achievement
 * Design and select instructional strategies
 * Implement the training
 * Evaluate the training

Origins of Instructional Design
Instructional design practices and procedures can be traced back to World War II. During the war, a number of psychologists and educators were called on to conduct research and provide training for the military. After the war, many of these individuals continued to work in the field (Reiser & Dempsy, 2002).

Instructional Design Models
Instructional design models help describe the process of how to conduct the various steps of instructional design. They also help us visualize the process and communication with other instructional designers and clients involved in a project. Almost all models of instructional design contain the core elements of analysis, design, develop, implement, and evaluate. This is referred to as the ADDIE model and helps ensure congruence between all phases of instruction. It is often depicted in a step-wise fashion, although it does not necessarily work that way in all cases. Several models for instructional design are described below:

ADDIE
The  ADDIE instructional design model is possibly the best-known instructional design model by Christopher Pappas

The  ADDIE model refers to Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. Furthermore, provides a step-by-step process that helps instructional designers plan and create training programs with a framework in order to make sure that their instructional products are effective and that their processes are as efficient as they can possibly be.

Analyze In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established, and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the analysis phase:

Who is the audience and what are their characteristics?Did we identify the new behavioral outcome?What types of learning constraints exist?What are the delivery options?What are the online pedagogical considerations?What is the timeline for project completion? Design The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning, and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of identifying, developing, and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining the project's goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to be executed with attention to details. These are the steps used for the design phase:

Documentation of the project's instructional, visual, and technical design strategy

Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by domain (cognitive, affective, psychomotor).

Create storyboards

Design the user interface and user experience

Prototype creation

Apply visual design (graphic design)

 Development The development phase is where the developers create and assemble the content assets that were created in the design phase. Programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback given.

List activities that will help the students learn the task.

Select the delivery method such as tapes, handouts, etc.

Review existing material so that we do not reinvent the wheel.

Develop the instructional courseware.

Synthesize the courseware into a viable training program.

Validate the instruction to ensure it accomplishes all goals and objectives.

 Implement During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners includes training them on new tools (software or hardware), and student registration. This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands on equipment, tools, CD-ROMs, and software are in place, and that the learning application or Web site is functional.

Evaluation The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain-specific, criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users.

Review and evaluate each phase (analyze, design, develop, implement) to ensure it is accomplishing what it is supposed to.

Perform external evaluations (e.g. observe that the learner on the job can actually perform the tasks that were trained).

Revise training system to make it better.

References http://www.dennistester.com/addie.htm http://www.intulogy.com/addie/ http://www.ptrain.com/products/instdes.htm http://elearning.menhaj.com/methodology.aspx http://ed.isu.edu/addie/index.html

Dick & Carey
The Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model by Christopher Pappas.

The Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model is based on a reductionist model of breaking instruction down into smaller components. Instruction is specifically targeted on the skills and knowledge to be taught and supplies the appropriate conditions for the learning of these outcomes. Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model is divided into ten sections.

Instructional Goals

What is the goal of the instruction?

What will the learners be able to perform after they complete the training program?

 Instructional Analysis

What are the skills that they will be involved to achieve in the desirable goal?

 Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics

What are the skills that the learners will bring to the learning task?

 Performance Objectives

How will we translate the needs and goals into specific and detailed objectives?

 Criterion-Referenced Test Items

What are the necessary prerequisites for learning new skills?

How will we check the results of the apprentice learning during the process of the training and at the same time, provide these results to him/her?

 Instructional Strategy

What are the instructional activities that we will follow in order to achieve the terminal objectives (exhibition of information, practice, feedback, testing)?

 Instructional Materials

What type of instructional materials we will use (printed, media, both)?

 Formative Evaluation

What data should we revise to improve the instructional materials?

How will we make instructions as effective as possible for a larger number of learners?

 Revise Instruction

How will we revise the instruction after the formative evaluation?

What were the difficulties for the learners and who will revise them?

 Summative Evaluation

Was the system effective as a whole?

Did the instruction work?

Did we achieve the desired results?

References http://www.umich.edu/%7Eed626/Dick_Carey/dc.html

Pavankumar Chandrappa has explained the Dick and Carey Instructional Design Model in a simple and lucid language. www.sjsu.edu/depts/it/itcdpdf/isddickncarey.pdf http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_isd/carey.html http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/InstructionalDesign.htm Dick, W. & Cary, L. (1990), The Systematic Design of Instruction, Third Edition, Harper Collins Briggs, L. J., Gustafson, K. L. & Tellman, M. H., Eds. (1991), Instructional Design: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, NJ Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994), A Conceptual Framework for Comparing Instructional Design Models, Educational Research and Technology, 42(2), pp. 55-72. Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J. & Wagner, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th ed.), Holt, Reihhart, and Winston Inc.


text: User:Campezzan

title: User:Campezzan


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Instructional Technology/Learning Management Systems/Learning Objects

What are Learning Objects?
Design a package of information that can be reused, reconfigured, adaptable to many environments, found whenever needed, and works right out of the box - then you have just designed a reusable learning object.

This is where the majority of the confusion begins. There are many definitions around the idea of what a package of information consists of, which makes up the reusable learning object. Due, in part, to the nature of the object itself, the data required to make it searchable by others (metadata), and varying standards of the creator, reusable learning objects may vary greatly.

In an attempt to clear up this confusion, definitions were offered to define exactly what a reusable learning object is. As with most things, multiple definitions have been created, each varying slightly. The Maricopa Learning Exchange defines learning objects as "discreet pieces of content that are electronic, interactive and include a form of assessment that relates to an educational goal." Cisco Systems, Inc. defines a reusable learning object as a combination of reusable information objects. "An RIO is granular, reusable chunk of information that is media independent." Cisco Systems, Inc. then goes on to say "individual RIOs are then combined to form a larger structure called a Reusable Learning Object (RLO)" (Cisco Systems Inc., 2000). A third definition is "any entity, digital, or non-digital, which can be used, reused, or referenced during technology-supported learning (Barritt & Alderman, 2004).

Where agreement seems to be shared is in the purpose of a learning object. Learning objects are instructional units designed to help learners to reach a single instructional objective. This singularity of purpose means that learning objects are self-contained, so a learner does not need supporting information to use a learning object.

Learning objects are also reusable. This means that a user can access a learning object repeatedly, and that different users can access any learning object as a part of different curriculums, regardless of delivery the method. Delivery options can include e-learning, instructor-led, a mix of the two, or witten documentation.

Learning objects are searchable. Each learning object is embedded with metadata that describe the subject covered in the learning object. This metadata enables users to easily locate specific learning objects by performing a simple search for a specific subject.

Learning objects are also known by the following names:

 * Reusable Learning Objects (RLOs)
 * Educational Objects
 * Content Objects
 * Training Components
 * Nuggets
 * Chunks

Characteristics of Learning Objects
Barritt and Alderman (2004) identify seven main characteristics each reusable learning object should have. These are;
 * Objective-based - Each should accomplish a single learning objective.
 * Context free - Each learning object can stand alone.
 * Interactive - Keep the interest of the learner.
 * Self-descriptive - Contain enough metadata for successful searching.
 * Self-contained - Ability to stand alone or in unison with other objects.
 * Single-sourced - Can be used in multiple formats and environments by multiple authors.
 * Format free - Formatting the look and feel should be done during delivery.

Wiley (2000) describes three characteristics that define learning objects;
 * "Modular digital resources, uniquely identified and metatagged,that can be used to support learning."
 * "Digital resource that can be reused to support learning..."
 * "The main idea of 'learning objects' is to break educational content down into small chunks that can be reused in various learning environments, in the spirit of object-oriented programming."

Attributes of learning objects are further represented with the mnemonic aid, "RAID".

R - Reusable Learning objects should have future compatibilities for a longer usable lifetime.

A - Accessible Learning objects should be easy to locate, access, archive, and reuse.

I - Interoperable Learning objects should smoothly migrate as platforms evolve.

D - Durable Learning objects should have a long lifetime of materials.

Learning objects with these attributes have a greater potential for providing the following benefits:
 * Benefit education in general
 * Expand to use by a larger audience
 * Commercial value, i.e. learning objects can be marketed singly or in sets.

Using Learning Objects
Once you've found the right learning objects, it is vital to understand how to use them effectively to achieve your learning goals and objectives. Finding learning objects to use is one aspect of instructional development, making sure that the learning object is used effectively and appropriately within the course context is another.

An online book that consists of a collection of writings around the instructional use of learning objects can help to connect learning objects to instruction and learning.

The Instructional Use of Learning Objectsis a combination of material from respected authors in the area of instructional objects and theories.

This website also permits visitors to participate in discussions of the book's chapters with the authors and others. Readers may also submit any corrections or errors found in a chapter, or discuss other issues related to learning objects, instruction, and learning.

If these pages have not fully defined what are Learning objects? and you require a different kind of learning strategy,click hereto play a game, as presented by Sandy Mills at the 2003 Distance Learning Administration Conference in beautiful Jekyll Island, Georgia, and learn all about learning objects.

Creating Learning Objects
The Cisco System Corporation proposed a four phase system for RLO’s creation. Each of these phases interacts with each other. This system has built into it a blend of traditional ISD steps as well as newer computer instructional elements. The phases were:

 * Design- The design phase is where the foundation of the learning event is created. There are four stages included in this phase:  Needs Assessment, Task Analysis, Learning Objectives, and RLO Types.  When designing learning objects, it is pertinent to consider how many objectives should be included.  If too many are included, the object may become large, which will limit its ability to be reused by other individuals.

 * Develop- The development phase is where text, graphics, video and supporting content are built. This phase would be complete when alpha, beta testing and review stages are complete.

 * Deliver- At the beginning of this phase, the RLO's are complete and produced. The RLO would be stored in a database and are ready of use.  Packaging of the RLO for delivery to the user must be decided.  Three common types of delivery are:  Dynamic Web Packages, CD-ROM’s, and Instructor-Led Training Materials.

 * Evaluate- The evaluation phase is built off of Kirkpatrick’s four levels of evaluation. According to Cisco using these four levels will allow the author or organization to be able to make judgements about the effectiveness of the RLO.

Finding Learning Objects
Now that you have realized the potential and advantages of Learning Objects, where do you find them? Learning object discovery may be conducted through a content catalog managed by a learning object repository.

Metadata
For learning objects to be used they must be found. It is not easy to find anything in a large distributed online environment like the World Wide Web or a large intranet. The solution is to store not only learning objects but also descriptions of the learning objects. Thinking of the learning objects as data, the descriptions are data about the data, or metadata. Learning object metadata potentially includes information about the title, author, version number, creation date, technical requirements and educational context and intent. Learning Object Metadata is compatible with the metadata used by the digital and online library community. A large amount of metadata can be input for each reusable learning object, making this task somewhat labour intensive. A balance between inputting enough data to find the object and time spent inputting data is usually determined by the size and importance of the reusable learning object.

Links

 * Merlotonline resource of educational content is available for instructors to upload or download sharable materials.
 * Wisc Onlineis a project managed by the Wisconsin Technical College System around working with internal faculty to produce learning objects.
 * CAREOis a project supported by Alberta Learning and CANARIE that has as its primary goal the creation of a searchable, Web-based collection of multidisciplinary teaching materials for educators across the province and beyond.
 * Splasha Learning Object fedearated search of several repositories
 * ECL Interoperability Centera resource that helps you to learn, participate, contribute and benefit from the open network of Learning Object repositories, services and tools.
 * The Wikipedia page for learning objects.

Shareable Content Objects
When data characteristics are attached, or associated with a particular Learning Object, it can now become a Shareable Content Object. Also known as a SCO, it is the smallest logical unit of instruction that can be delivered or monitored by a Learning Management System.This attached data is contained in a special file referred to as the manifest file. This file is in a special XML language, that is placed in the top-level directory of a Learning Object and labeled "imsmanifest.xml." This data or metadata inside the manifest would describes course content and asset meta-data and data that can be maintained on the LMS for and about each student.

Each object should have enough material to be able to function as a stand alone module, without links to supporting material; the sequence in which the SCO appears is controlled through the learner management system. A SCO can conform to any of the more traditional instructional material roles, for example it could be a lesson, a module, a unit of a course, or a learning objective for a lesson. A well constructed SCO might contain all the "assets" needed to present a single lesson or learning objective.

It is shareable because it is usable in more than one course; its content consists of assets, that is the graphics, text or other multimedia that make up a Learning Objective, and it is treated as a single object.

Combine all the attributes of a SCO and what is now created is an object that is compliant with set standards to make it suitable for the acronym described earlier as RAID. The Shareable Content Object is now said to be SCORM compliant.

SCORM - Shareable Content Object Reference Model are the necessary specifications set-up by the Advanced Distributed Learninginitiative for improving the education and training of the workforce and the military.

The stated goals for the ADL include: creating a vigorous market for these products
 * providing access to high-quality, tailored education and training materials
 * making these materials widely available whenever and wherever they are required
 * accelerating large-scale development of learning software

The ADL has created its strategy for achieving their SCORM goals by proposing;
 * to facilitate development of common standards for educational technology
 * to pursue emerging network-based technologies
 * to promote widespread collaboration based upon common needs
 * to work with industry to influence commercial product development

Because the Learning Object supports the instructional transaction theoryof bringing many learning interactions together to acquire a piece of knowledge, many uses can be found throughout education for them such as in; distance education, special education, and project based learningenvironments.

Imsmanifest.xml
Data information contained within a Learning Object has three characteristics that are tracked. Course Description, Course Sequencing, and Course Resources are all placed in a single file called imsmanifest.xml. The imsmanifest.xml file is organized into four sections, the preamble section, the metadata section, the organization section, and the resources section.

 * Preamble section:- This section is virtually the same in every imsmanifest.xml file. This section contains the information used by the LMS.
 * Metadata section:- This section is where the course is described.
 * Organization section:- This section describes the sequencing of the SCOs in the course.
 * Resources section: This section lists all the files that are used with the corresponding SCOs.

Links to other resources

 * The Instructional Use of Learning Objects -- Online Version
 * History of the Learning Object
 * Experience some Learning Objects
 * Use and Abuse of Reusable Learning Objects
 * This link provides an introduction of learning objects with characteristics.