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Talk:Mandarin Chinese

National Debate
I don't think the character forms should be separated. Both should be displayed together - one on top of the other - so that people can learn both. --Jiang 00:57, 30 Dec 2003 (PST)

 * The aim of this textbook is to first familiarize the learner with the spoken Mandarin and its syntaxical and grammatical structure and then proceed with the character memorization. If someone would care to add the Traditional text later on, then I will not object. The convoluted issue of Simplified vs. Traditional is too blown out of proportion as it is. -Taoster

Listing both does not mean one has to memorize both. I don't see how it would hurt.

Why is Hong Kong displayed but not Macau? They dont speak Mandarin (assuming this is Mandarin-based) in Hong Kong. I'll remove it. --Jiang 11:36, 19 Jan 2004 (UTC)

As I repeat, they don't speak Mandarin in HK and Macau. --Jiang

 * I must have been in a parallel world, then, when I visted Hong Kong and the shopkeepers understood my Mandarin. -Taoster

Barely...it certainly isn't their native tongue. It's seldom spoken. I couldn't get by with Mandarin. Besides, HK is part of the PRC. --Jiang

 * No, but it is being adapted into mainstream society as one of the official languages. HK and Macau are parts of PRC, however, being that they are both Special Administrative Regions, I felt obligated to provide them with separate flags until they become wholly part of the PRC. -Taoster

Cantonese is de facto in LegCo. Though under the British, English was mandated in the schools, the average Hong Konger has very poor English skills.

Including HK and Macau will leave the impression to people that they can get by using Mandarin, and that Mandarin is commonly spoken, when this is not the case. It's misleading. --Jiang 06:08, 21 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * While I do acknowledge that Cantonese will forever be the "official" dialect of Hong Kong, it is impossible to deny that Mandarin is rapidly being integrated into its society. Even prior to 1997, a large Mandarin user base was already present in HK, and this is reflected in the amount of HK huaqiao (first generation) in the US who are able to converse understandably well in Mandarin. -Taoster

Until it is integrated to a considerable degree, listing both SARs are misleading. We could do fine without them. --Jiang

 * People can generalize their own conclusions. If they're willing to put forth the effort to learn a language, then chances are that they won't be misled by such trivialities. -Taoster

People seriously wanting to learn the language won't come here or come here alone. It's the people who are simply browsing that we are misleading. What is there to gain from listing them? --Jiang 07:59, 22 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't see how it is misleading. It's simply asserting the fact that a percentage -- albeit small -- speaks the dialect. -Taoster

Should we also add the flags of the USA, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam? --Jiang

Yes, if you believe them to be specialized regions of the PRC. -Taoster

 * Then "asserting the fact that a percentage -- albeit small -- speaks the dialect" isn't really an issue then? The issue is that they're part of the PRC. A dependency is a dependency and I see no reason to include them if this is the case. --Jiang 22:25, 23 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Alright, this is counterintuitive and cannot be argued past deadlock. Remove it if you so wish, but with all the energy that you've expended in discussing this, you could have at least helped with the textbook. -Taoster

 * I thought you just list the countries where Mandarin Chinese is one of the official languages? For instance, the French lesson has a Canadian flag, even though French is rarely spoken outside of Quebec. I figure that whether or not there is a large Mandarin Chinese speaking population, you might as well include the countries where the government has it as an official language.

-Alex S

Please contribute
The Chinese book has gone a bit stagnant.. and I know many people out there know chinese as a primary language and english as a second. So if you do happen to know Chinese, don't be afraid to add!!

hahahaha, i find it funny that the front page has been updated more times than the book's contents

Splash Page Debate
I don't think a splash page contributes to the Wikibook. It just makes one more page to click through. It's like having a Flash intro to the book--totally useless for learning. If you take a look at all the other Language Books, most have now dispensed with the cover page. If we wanted to make a cover picture for eventual printed versions of the text, we could just keep a link to it from the contents page. And the flags can still get their chance to shine in our Introduction. --Everlong 19:21, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mandarin Chinese


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LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 202/Networking

Section Overview

 * Basic networking configuration
 * Overview
 * Introduction to Getty
 * About mgetty
 * About uugetty
 * About getty_em
 * About agetty
 * About mingetty, and fbgetty
 * The PAP/CHAP secrets file
 * The PAP secrets file
 * The CHAP secrets file
 * Handling multiple PAP-authenticated connections
 * Exercises
 * Advanced Network Configuration and Troubleshooting
 * Overview
 * Network packet filtering
 * Mangle table
 * NAT table
 * Filter table
 * The state machine
 * The conntrack entries
 * User-land states
 * TCP connections
 * UDP connections
 * ICMP connections
 * Default connections
 * Complex protocols and connection tracking
 * How a rule is built
 * Tables
 * Commands
 * Matches
 * Generic matches
 * Implicit matches
 * TCP matches
 * UDP matches
 * ICMP matches
 * Explicit matches
 * Limit match
 * MAC match
 * Mark match
 * Multiport match
 * Owner match
 * State match
 * TOS match
 * TTL match
 * Targets/Jumps
 * Exercises

Overview
Description: ''The candidate should be able to configure a network device to be able to connect to a local network and a wide-area network. This objective includes being able to communicate between various subnets within a single network, configure dialup access using mgetty, configure dialup access using a modem or ISDN, configure authentication protocols such as PAP and CHAP, and configure TCP/IP logging.''

Key files, terms, and utilities include:

/sbin/route /sbin/ifconfig /sbin/arp /usr/sbin/arpwatch /etc/

Interface configuration is usually done with the ifconfig command Ifconfig will usually bring up the specified interface and create a route for its IP address in the kernel's routing table To access various subnets within a single network, use the netmask flag of route or ifconfig With route, you can setup multiple interfaces with the same IP but route packets depending on which subnet connects to what interface With ifconfig, you can have multiple IP for your host, one per subnet, and thus become a bridge between multiple subnets

Introduction to Getty
getty is the program you run for dialin. You don't need it for dialout. In addition to presenting a login prompt, it also may help answer the telephone. Originally getty was used for logging in to a computer from a dumb terminal. A major use of it today is for logging in to a Linux console. There are several different getty programs but a few of these work OK with modems for dialin. The getty program is usually started at boot-time. It must be called from the /etc/inittab file. In this file you may find some examples which you will likely need to edit a bit. Hopefully these examples will be for the flavor of getty installed on your PC.

There are four different getty programs to choose from that may be used with modems for dial-in: mgetty, uugetty, getty_em, and agetty. A brief overview is given in the following subsections. Agetty is the weakest of the four and it's mainly for use with directly connected text-terminals. mgetty has support for fax and voice mail but Uugetty doesn't. mgetty allegedly lacks a few of the features of uugetty. getty_em is a simplified version of uugetty. Thus mgetty is likely your best choice unless you are already familiar with uugetty (or find it difficult to get mgetty). The syntax for these getty programs differs, so be sure to check that you are using the correct syntax in /etc/inittab for whichever getty you use.

In order to see what documentation exists about the various gettys on your computer, use the "locate" command. Type: locate "*getty*" (including the quotes may help). Note that many distributions just call the program getty even though it may actually be agetty, uugetty, etc. But if you read the man page (type: man getty), it might disclose which getty it is. This should be the getty program with path /sbin/getty.

Getty "exits" after login (and can respawn) :

After you log in you will notice (by using "top", "ps -ax", or "ptree") that the getty process is no longer running. What happened to it? Why does getty restart again if your shell is killed? Here's why : after you type in your user name, getty takes it and calls the login program telling it your user name. The getty process is replaced by the login process. The login process asks for your password, checks it and starts whatever process is specified in your password file. This process is often the bash shell. If so, bash starts and replaces the login process. Note that one process replaces another and that the bash shell process originally started as the getty process. The implications of this will be explained below.

Now in the /etc/inittab file getty is supposed to respawn (restart) if killed. It says so on the line that calls getty.

Example: getty entry from /etc/inittab S0:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty -L 9600 ttyS0 vt102

But if the bash shell (or the login process) is killed, getty respawns (restarts). Why? Well, both the login process and bash are replacements for getty and inherit the signal connections establish by their predecessors. In fact if you observe the details you will notice that the replacement process will have the same process ID as the original process. Thus bash is sort of getty in disguise with the same process ID number. If bash is killed it is just like getty was killed (even though getty isn't running any more). This results in getty respawning.

When one logs out, all the processes on that serial port are killed including the bash shell. This may also happen (if enabled) if a hangup signal is sent to the serial port by a drop of DCD voltage by the modem. Either the logout or drop in DCD will result in getty respawning. One may force getty to respawn by manually killing bash (or login) either by hitting the k key, etc. while in "top" or with the "kill" command. You will likely need to kill it with signal 9 (which can't be ignored).

The cycle illustrated:

init - spawns -> getty -- starts -> login - starts --> shell \                                                     /          \---<<  returns control to <</

You can identify the login shell by a minus in start of the name.

Example: ps output (filtered) walter  32255  0.0  0.7  4012 1772 pts/36   Ss   14:53   0:00 -bash

About mgetty
mgetty was written as a replacement for uugetty which was in existence long before mgetty. Both are for use with modems but mgetty is best (unless you already are committed to uugetty). Mgetty may be also used for directly connected terminals. In addition to allowing dialup logins, mgetty also provides FAX support and auto PPP detection. It permits dialing out when mgetty is waiting for an incoming phone call. There is a supplemental program called vgetty which handles voicemail for some modems. mgetty documentation is fair (except for voice mail). To automatically start PPP one must edit /etc/mgetty/login.conf to enable "AutoPPP" You can find the latest information on mgetty at http://www.leo.org/~doering/mgetty/ and http://alpha.greenie.net/mgetty/

About uugetty
getty_ps contains two programs: getty is used for console and terminal devices, and uugetty for modems. Greg Hankins (former author of Serial-HOWTO) used uugetty so his writings about it are included here. See Uugetty.

About getty_em
This is a simplified version of ``uugetty''. It was written by Vern Hoxie after he became fully confused with complex support files needed for getty_ps and uugetty. It is part of the collection of serial port utilities and information by Vern Hoxie available via ftp from scicom.alphacdc.com/pub/linux. The name of the collection is ``serial_suite.tgz''.

About agetty
This subsection is long since the author tried using agetty for dialin. agetty is seemingly simple since there are no initialization files. But when I tried it, it opened the serial port even when there was no CD signal present. It then sent both a login prompt and the /etc/issue file to the modem in the AT-command state before a connection was made. The modem thinks all this an AT command and if it does contain any "at" strings (by accident) it is likely to adversely modify your modem profile. Echo wars can start where getty and the modem send the same string back and forth over and over. You may see a "respawning too rapidly" error message if this happens. To prevent this you need to disable all echoing and result codes from the modem (E0 and Q1). Also use the -i option with agetty to prevent any /etc/issue file from being sent.

If you start getty on the modem port and a few seconds later find that you have the login process running on that port instead of getty, it means that a bogus user name has been sent to agetty from the modem. To keep this from happening, I had to save my dial-in profile in the modem so that it become effective at power-on. The other saved profile is for dial-out. Then any dial-out programs which use the modem must use a Z, Z0, or Z1 in their init string to initialize the modem for dial-out (by loading the saved dial-out profile). If the 1-profile is for dial-in you use Z1 to load it, etc. If you want to listen for dial-in later on, then the modem needs to be reset to the dial-in profile. Not all dial-out programs can do this reset upon exit from them.

Thus while agetty may work OK if you set up a dial-in profile correctly in the modem hardware, it's probably best suited for virtual consoles or terminals rather than modems. If agetty is running for dialin, there's no easy way to dial out. When someone first dials in to agetty, they should hit the return key to get the login prompt. agetty in the Debian distribution is just named getty.

About mingetty, and fbgetty
mingetty is a small getty that will work only for monitors (the usual console) so you can't use it with modems for dialin. fbgetty is as above but supports framebuffers.

Basic networking configuration

Configuring PAP/CHAP authentication for PPP

if the server to which you are connecting requires PAP or CHAP authentication, edit your PPP options file and add the following lines : # name  # you need to edit this line # #
 * 1) force pppd to use your ISP user name as your 'host name' during the authentication process
 * 1) If you are running a PPP *server* and need to force PAP or CHAP uncomment the appropriate
 * 2) one of the following lines. Do NOT use these is you are a client connecting to a PPP server (even if
 * 3) it uses PAP or CHAP) as this tells the SERVER to authenticate itself to your machine (which
 * 4) almost certainly can't do - and the link will fail).
 * 5) +chap
 * 6) +pap
 * 1) If you are using ENCRYPTED secrets in the /etc/ppp/pap-secrets file, then uncomment the
 * 2) following line. Note: this is NOT the same as using MS encrypted passwords as can be
 * 3) set up in MS RAS on Windows NT.
 * 4) +papcrypt

Basic networking configuration Using MSCHAP

Microsoft Windows NT RAS can be set up to use a variation on CHAP (Challenge/Handshake Authentication Protocol). In your PPP sources tar ball, you will find a file called README.MSCHAP80 that discusses this.

You can determine if the server is requesting authentication using this protocol by enabling debugging for pppd. If the server is requesting MS CHAP authentication, you will see lines like :

rcvd [LCP ConfReq id=0x2  ]

The critical information here is auth chap 80. In order to use MS CHAP, you will need to recompile pppd to support this. Please see the instructions in the README.MSCHAP80 file in the PPP source file for instructions on how to compile and use this variation.

You should note that at present this code supports only Linux PPP clients connecting to an MS Windows NT server. It does NOT support setting up a Linux PPP server to use MSCHAP80 authentication from clients.

The PAP/CHAP secrets file
If you are using pap or chap authentication, then you also need to create the secrets file. These are:

/etc/ppp/pap-secrets /etc/ppp/chap-secrets

They must be owned by user root, group root and have file permissions 740 for security. The first point to note about PAP and CHAP is that they are designed to authenticate computer systems not users. Huh? What's the difference? I hear you ask. Well now, once your computer has made its PPP connection to the server, ANY user on your system can use that connection - not just you. This is why you can set up a WAN (wide area network) link that joins two LANs (local area networks) using PPP.

PAP can (and for CHAP DOES) require bidirectional authentication - that is a valid name and secret is required on each computer for the other computer involved. However, this is NOT the way most PPP servers offering dial-up PPP PAP-authenticated connections operate.

That being said, your ISP will probably have given you a user name and password to allow you to connect to their system and thence the Internet. Your ISP is not interested in your computer's name at all, so you will probably need to use the user name at your ISP as the name for your computer. This is done using the name user name option to pppd. So, if you are to use the user name given you by your ISP, add the line :

name your_user name_at_your_ISP

to your /etc/ppp/options file. Technically, you should really use user our_user name_at_your_ISP for PAP, but pppd is sufficiently intelligent to interpret name as user if it is required to use PAP. The advantage of using the name option is that this is also valid for CHAP.

As PAP is for authenticating computers, technically you need also to specify a remote computer name. However, as most people only have one ISP, you can use a wild card (*) for the remote host name in the secrets file. It is also worth noting that many ISPs operate multiple modem banks connected to different terminal servers - each with a different name, but ACCESSED from a single (rotary) dial in number. It can therefore be quite difficult in some circumstances to know ahead of time what the name of the remote computer is, as this depends on which terminal server you connect to! Basic networking configuration

The PAP secrets file
The /etc/ppp/pap-secrets file looks like :
 * 1) Secrets for authentication using PAP
 * 2) client        server       secret     acceptable_local_IP_addresses

The four fields are white space delimited and the last one can be blank (which is what you want for a dynamic and probably static IP allocation from your ISP). Suppose your ISP gave you a user name of fred and a password of flintstone you would set the name fred option in /etc/ppp/options[.ttySx] and set up your /etc/ppp/pap-secrets file as follows : fred * flintstone
 * 1) Secrets for authentication using PAP
 * 2) client        server  secret  acceptable local IP addresses

This says for the local machine name fred (which we have told pppd to use even though it is not our local machine name) and for ANY server, use the password (secret) of flintstone. Note that we do not need to specify a local IP address, unless we are required to FORCE a particular local, static IP address. Even if you try this, it is unlikely to work as most PPP servers (for security reasons) do not allow the remote system to set the IP number they are to be given.

The CHAP secrets file
This requires that you have mutual authentication methods - that is you must allow for both your machine to authenticate the remote server AND the remote server to authenticate your machine.

So, if your machine is fred and the remote is barney, your machine would set name fred remotename barney and the remote machine would set name barney remotename fred in their respective /etc/ppp/options.ttySx files.

The /etc/chap-secrets file for fred would look like :

fred barney flintstone barney fred wilma
 * 1) Secrets for authentication using CHAP
 * 2) client        server  secret            acceptable local IP addresses

and for barney :

barney         fred    flintstone fred barney wilma
 * 1) Secrets for authentication using CHAP
 * 2) client        server  secret            acceptable local IP addresses

Note in particular that both machines must have entries for bidirectional authentication. This allows the local machine to authenticate itself to the remote AND the remote machine to authenticate itself to the local machine.

Handling multiple PAP-authenticated connections
Some users have more than one server to which they connect that use PAP. Provided that your user name is different on each machine to which you want to connect, this is not a problem.

However, many users have the same user name on two (or more - even all) systems to which they connect. This then presents a problem in correctly selecting the appropriate line from /etc/ppp/pap- secrets.

As you might expect, PPP provides a mechanism for overcoming this. PPP allows you to set an 'assumed name' for the remote (server) end of the connection using the remotename option to pppd.

Let us suppose that you connect to two PPP servers using the username fred. You set up your /etc/ppp/pap-secrets something like : fred pppserver1 barney fred pppserver2 wilma

Now, to set connect to pppserver1 you would use name fred remotename pppserver1 in your ppp- options and for pppserver2 name fred remotename pppserver2.

As you can select the ppp options file to use with pppd using the file filename option, you can set up a script to connect to each of your PPP servers, correctly picking the options file to use and hence selecting the right remotename option.

Key terms, files and utilities : /sbin/route /sbin/ifconfig PAP, CHAP, PPP /etc/*

Exercises
Gestion de réseaux (LPIC202).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Cookbook:Chocolate

| Basic Foodstuffs | Ingredients Index

Chocolate is an ingredient made from the fermented, roasted, and ground seeds of the tropical cacao tree.

Production
The production of chocolate is a long process, the entirety of which takes place across long distances and several steps.

Fermentation
After harvesting, the cacao pods are cut open and the pulp-covered seeds removed. These seeds are then piled on mats or in boxes to allow a several-day fermentation process that breaks down the pulp and develops some of the characteristic flavors and colors of chocolate. The first stage of fermentation yields heat, as well as lactic and acetic acids, which combine to weaken the cacao seed shell and penetrate inside the seed. The endemic enzymes in the seed combine with those of the microbes to break the proteins and sugars, yielding complex flavor and aroma molecules. During the entire fermentation process, the seeds are turned regularly to allow even fermentation.

Drying
After being cleaned of any residual pulp, the seeds enter next stage. Here, the seeds are spread out in a thin layer to fully dry out over the course of several weeks until they reach 5–8% moisture. At this point, they are still quite vinegary and don't have any noticeable chocolate character. The seeds are then transferred from the farmers to chocolate manufacturers.

Roasting
Once at the manufacturer, the seeds begin to adopt the characteristics we associate with chocolate. Here, they are roasted to kill any remaining microbes and develop characteristic chocolate flavor. The heat of the oven (250–320°F / 120–160°C) evaporates any residual ethanol and vinegar and induces the Maillard reaction, which causes even more complex flavor compounds to develop. The exact degree of roasting will depend on the desired characteristics and manufacturer specifications. After roasting, the seeds are cracked to isolate the nib from the shell.

Grinding and pressing
Much like with the production of nut butters, the roasted cacao seeds are then ground. This releases a paste called chocolate liquor or mass, which contains both cocoa butter (a fat) and cocoa solids. The liquor is about 50–55% cocoa butter, with the remainder consisting of carbohydrates, proteins, and flavor compounds. It is quite bitter and will solidify when cooled.

After grinding, chocolate liquor may undergo a pressing step, which separates most of the cocoa butter from the cocoa solids. These solids can be ground to make cocoa powder.

Formulation
To produce the final chocolate, cocoa liquor and/or solids are blended to a manufacturer's specifications with cocoa butter, sugar, flavorings, milk solids, and/or emulsifiers. Because cocoa butter is what keeps the chocolate smooth and emulsified, additional emulsifiers are needed to produce low-fat chocolate. Some manufacturers—especially American ones—will add butyric acid, which adds a characteristic tangy flavor.

Conching
One of the final steps in the chocolate-making process is conching, where the chocolate is heated and ground for an extended period of time to further reduce the particle size, even out the texture, and mellow the flavor. The finer the chocolate is ground, the lower the viscosity and the smoother the mouthfeel.

Tempering
In order to create an appealing and snappy texture when solid, melted chocolate must finally be treated in a process called tempering. Tempering controls the formation of cocoa butter crystals to yield firm crystals with a good texture and relatively high melting temperature. Every time solid tempered chocolate is melted, it must be re-tempered or it will lose these properties. Once tempered, the chocolate is molded or otherwise shaped, then cooled.

Characteristics
Different cultures and regulatory bodies will have slightly different regulations for chocolate that govern the final properties. However, all chocolate shares the same broad characteristics.

Color
Depending on the proportion of cocoa solids, chocolates are anywhere from tan to brown to black. White chocolate, which contains no cocoa solids, is white or cream-colored.

Flavor
Chocolate's characteristic flavor is attributed to around 200–600 different aromatic compounds that develop during the cacao's growth and complex production process. For example, three primary cacao cultivars exist, all with slightly different characteristics. Additionally, the growing location and conditions will affect the flavor profile due to both the development of the cacao, as well as the specific microbes endemic to the region. In order to develop a signature chocolate flavor, a manufacturer will blend different varieties of cacao seeds to take advantage of the differences inherent to their different origins.

Pure chocolate is very flavorful but very bitter and somewhat acidic. The addition of milk contributes further flavors, especially if it has undergone heating to yield additional flavorful Maillard byproducts. Vanilla adds a floral character, and other additions will further diversify the flavor.

Texture
The texture of chocolate is dependent largely on its particle size and fat content. These affect the melting point and overall fluidity of the liquid chocolate, as well as the mouthfeel. The smaller the particle size, the smoother the chocolate feels to the tongue, and the fact that cocoa butter melts at body heat gives it a luxurious texture without greasiness. The higher the cocoa butter proportion, the smoother and meltier it will feel. Notably, European chocolates are very smooth, while American chocolate has a grainier texture.

Forms
Solid chocolate can come in a variety of different forms, used for different purposes. Chocolate bars are commonly sold in bars of different weights. They are usually molded with grooves so that individual pieces may be broken off. Chocolate bars may also contain inclusions, such as nuts, fruits, pretzels, etc. Chocolate chips are small chunks of sweet chocolate, often stabilized and sold in a round, flat-bottomed teardrop shape. They are known for their use in chocolate chip cookies. Chocolate may also be shaped into specialty forms.

Varieties
A number of different chocolate varieties are commercially available, differing based on their component ratios and level of processing. Chocolates are often described with a cacao percentage, which reflects the percentage of the chocolate that comes from cacao beans (i.e. cocoa solids and butter) as opposed to additional ingredients. However, it is important to note that the cocoa percentage does not tell you the specific respective percentages of cocoa solids versus cocoa butter—these are up to the manufacturer. So, you could have two 70% cocoa bars with different properties and degrees of chocolate flavor due to variation in the specific components. Some manufacturers will give specific component breakdowns, but if they do not, it's worth looking at the nutritional breakdown to get an approximation.

Unsweetened or baking chocolate
Unsweetened or baking chocolate is simply the pure chocolate liquor with nothing added, making it 100% cacao. It contains both cocoa solids (~47%) and cocoa butter (~53%). It has a very bitter flavor so is not often eaten plain, but it is used in baking.

Dark chocolate
Dark chocolate is composed of chocolate liquor with varying degrees of added sugar. It is sometimes called plain chocolate. Bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are the next step down from unsweetened—they tend to have over 35% cacao, though the exact level varies according to the manufacturer and specific formulations. The next step down, called sweet chocolate, contains at least 15% cacao.

Milk chocolate
Milk chocolate consists of chocolate liquor with both milk solids and sugar added. The U.S. government requires 10% concentration chocolate liquor, and European rules specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids. Milk solids content is often over 12%. The addition of milk provides a milder and creamier flavor, and it can contribute a nutty flavor, especially if cooked milk crumb is used. The milk solids can also be browned when the chocolate is heated. Generally, milk chocolate has a softer texture since the milk content often reduces the proportion of cocoa butter in the chocolate.

White chocolate
White chocolate is a product containing cocoa butter (>20%), milk solids, and sugar, but without cocoa solids—as such, it is often not considered "true" chocolate. However, since it has a large cocoa butter component, it has many of the same textural and behavioral properties as other chocolates. Imitation products may be made even without cocoa butter, meaning that they have no cacao content at all—these may be referred to as "white coating" or "white chips" and are generally regarded as an inferior product.

Blond chocolate
Blond or "caramelized" chocolate is white chocolate that has been gently roasted before tempering in order to allow the Maillard reaction to occur. This results in a toffee color and more complex nutty flavor than standard white chocolate. It otherwise has the same properties as white chocolate.

Ruby chocolate
This chocolate is a proprietary variety that has a pinkish-purple color and sour fruity flavor. The developer has not released exactly how it is made, but it is largely assumed that ruby chocolate comes from un- or under-fermented cacao beans that have been treated with acids.

Couverture
The term "couverture" (literally "covering") can be applied to any of the above chocolates, and it refers to chocolates that have at least 32% total cocoa butter content. This gives the chocolate greater fluidity when melted, which allows it to create a thinner layer when used as a coating.

Modeling chocolate
Modeling chocolate is chocolate that has been combined with invert sugars, which makes it into a plastic paste. This plastic texture allows it to be used in a similar way to marzipan, fondant, or sugar paste in order to make edible chocolate-flavored sculptures and decorations.

Imitation chocolate
Also called confectionery coating, imitation chocolate contains cocoa solids but no cocoa butter at all, usually being made instead with vegetable fats. It is generally considered lower quality and is not recommended for use in cooking due to issues with flavor and texture.

Cocoa powder
Cocoa powder is the unsweetened powdered, reddish cocoa solids left after the cocoa butter is pressed from the chocolate liquor. It is quite acidic and bitter, and it is often used in baking since melting is not required. Natural cocoa powder may subsequently be "Dutched" or treated with alkali, which makes the powder darker and less acidic,  and a given amount of Dutched cocoa tastes more chocolatey than the same amount of unprocessed cocoa.

Selection and storage
To evaluate the general quality of chocolate, you can judge it by a few factors. Higher quality chocolates are generally snappy in texture, even in melt, and smooth and shiny with no discoloration. As a general rule, elite cocoa makers (e.g. Hershey, Nestle) make good-but-not-excellent chocolate, and elite chocolate makers (e.g. Scharffen Berger, Ghiradelli) make good-but-not-excellent cocoa. You'll also want to make sure the characteristics of the chocolate (e.g. cacao, fat, milk, sugar contents) match your application—differences exist between brands.

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17°C (59–63°F), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. As it can absorb different aromas, chocolate should be stored away from other foods. Additionally, chocolate should be protected from light by storing in a dark place or wrapping in paper. The shelf life is quite long, but the fats will eventually go rancid. Milk-containing chocolate keeps less well due to additional chemical reactions that will still take place.

Various types of white "blooming" effects on the surface of chocolate can occur if chocolate is stored or served improperly. If refrigerated or frozen without proper containment, chocolate can encounter enough moisture to cause sugar bloom, a whitish discoloration from sugar crystals rising to the surface. Fat bloom occurs when the cocoa butter melts and recrystallizes. Although visually and texturally unappealing, these conditions are perfectly safe for consumption —in particular, textural issues from fat bloom can be remedied by simply retempering the chocolate.

Handling
Because chocolate melts at body temperature, it is important to work in a cool area when handling chocolate. Using gloves can also provide a slight barrier to mitigate transfer of heat from your hands to the chocolate.

Melting
In many applications, chocolate must be melted before use, and this must be done carefully. Chocolate is prone to scorching when overheated, which turns the texture thick and lumpy—there is no fixing this once it has happened. Melted chocolate is also particularly sensitive to small amounts of water contamination. This is because small amounts of water—even a drop—draw the sugar out of suspension from the cocoa butter, causing the mixture to seize and separate. This, too, is not fixable. However, you can repurpose seized chocolate for something like a ganache—when a larger amount of hot liquid such as cream is added, it sufficiently coats all the particles in the mixture to allow them to flow smoothly again.

To melt chocolate, gentle heat using a double-boiler or low-power microwave bursts is recommended. Using small pieces of chocolate and stirring regularly are a must in order to promote smooth, even melting. If using a bain-marie, make sure no moisture comes into contact with the chocolate.

Ganache
As mentioned, a ganache is the result of emulsifying a large amount of hot liquid—usually cream—with chocolate. Fluid ganache can be made into mousse or used as a softer chocolate coating than pure melted chocolate, and solidified ganache is often made into a variety of chocolate confections.

Use
Chocolate has immense applications across cuisines.

Savory
Though often regarded primarily as a sweet food, chocolates can be incorporated into savory dishes. This is especially common as a practice in Mexican and some other indigenous American cuisines, where chocolate makes up a portion of mole sauce. It can in rarer occasions be seen as a component of some Western European sauces and meat dishes.

Patisserie
In baked goods, chocolate—and especially cocoa powder—contributes flavor and structure to the final product through its constituent starch, protein, fiber, and fat. As the cocoa solids absorb moisture, they can substitute in part for flours in some applications. Chocolate is also used in various creams, puddings, mousses, frostings, and more. Cacao nibs may be incorporated as well, in much the same way as other nuts and seeds.

Confectionery
A variety of chocolate confections exist, ranging from chocolate-coated fruits and nuts to molded shells of chocolate that encase a filling. Dipped confections are made by dipping various tidbits in melted chocolate, while molded ones are made by creating chocolate shells and filling them. Truffles are made by shaping ganache and rolling the confections in a dry coating.

Decor
Chocolate's textural properties make it immensely useful for decoration and garnish. Tempered chocolate can be readily shaped through piping, spreading, cutting, curling, shaving, and more to create a range of shapes and textures. Melting chocolate and thinning it with cocoa butter makes it analogous to a paint, and this can be combined with a paint sprayer to create velvety chocolate layers on desserts.

Beverages
From the beginning, chocolate has had applications in beverages. Hot cocoa or hot chocolate is one of the oldest chocolate products, made by combining chocolate with water or milk, and cold chocolate beverages are also common. Chocolate can also be used to flavor liqueurs.

Substitution
Very few things can substitute for true chocolate. Imitation products can make an approximation of flavor, but cocoa butter is necessary for characteristic chocolate properties. For those who cannot tolerate cacao products, the carob pod may be processed and ground to create a cocoa powder analog.

title: Cookbook:Chocolate


text:
Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Truth and Validity

I mentioned reductionism on the main page. 'Is such reductionism healthy?' might be a good topic for a student essay, but probably not for a student doing their first course in logic.

--212.56.114.4 11:44, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

When learning logic, it took me a long time to grasp the difference between $$\vdash$$ and →, and I still haven't worked out how best to explain this. Anyone care to offer a succinct statement of their differences, and how they are related? --publunch 12:00, 17 Nov 2004 (UTC)

conclusion 'follows from' premises. What does 'follows from' mean? Well, we could reduce this to something syntactic, that one is making moves permitted by the formal language game, but this is side-stepping the issue. Or it could could describe that eureka feeling when you see that q really is a consequence of p - 'follows from' here is a psychological event. But this doesn't seem to be enough. It is as if one needs to have a doctrine Clear and Distinct Ideas that the psychological 'eureka' is not a deception.

--publunch 11:41, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

The reductionist program of reducing reason to rules of inference - Well, cool enough. But these rules have been distilled from our experience of the big world out there. Our rules aren't necessarily god the creator of the world, rather the world is creator of our rules.

--publunch 12:48, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

'intuitively obvious' - I think there is a conversation between Achilles and a tortoise somewhere in Hofstadter and Dennett's Godel Escher Bach. The tortoise in this conversation refuses to take even the most basic rule of inference as being intuitively obvious. It is a rather long conversation. This is a mildly entertaining little piece and I can recommend it to anyone who can lay their hands on the book. Indeed the whole book is entertaining. I'll try to find the full bibliographic details, then I'll put in a proper reference to it in the main text and then delete this note.

--publunch 10:06, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)


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User:Robt.D.McKenzie

'''IDENTITY (what) crisis? '''

I grew up believing my surname rather unique and my given name to be only shared with father and a distant uncle. Imagine my surprise when I entered the world of the wide web.

Not only is Klan McKenzie prolific, but Roberts were abundant within. Because I perceive many, including my father, much more dignified, distinguished, and reserved than myself I sought to create an identity that would protect them from unjust credit or blame.

Since my written signature was already an abbreviation of an otherwise long name that required a middle initial to distinguish me from "Robert son of Kenzie, the elder" it wasn't a great leap to my current username.

It harkens to days when spaces had to be signified with underscores that required a two handed reach, and pays tribute to search engines habit of using spaces as delimiters to find reference to the multitudes aforementioned. Since most input fields are tolerent of the Universal Resources Locator format the periods seemed a natural fit since they also connotate abbreviations.

Of course there's exceptions to every rule. So it's likely you'll find me designated RobtDMcKenzie as well. If I'm lazy or in a hurry, even just Robt.

Robt and ROBT is more popular that you'd think, so it is sometimes expressed R0BT. Go ahead and read it a robot if you must. I don't care.

Another identity you may find me writing/posting under is alteredEG0. It involves having ptsd and the responses I got when I was trying to identify (along with everyone else) what was wrong with me and why. It's an in you face slap at those who beat me up with 'get over it', take responsibility, and 'just think happy thoughts'. There are many other cliche those erzatz folks who ignore cause and effect favor but that's fodder for other gardens.

--Robt 18:26, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC) webLog profile

title: User:Robt.D.McKenzie


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/The Sentential Language

= The Sentential Language =

This page informally describes our sentential language which we name $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$. A more formal description will be given in Formal Syntax and Formal Semantics

Sentence letters
Sentences in $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$ are represented as sentence letters, which are single letters such as $$\mathrm{P},\ \mathrm{Q},\ \mathrm{R},$$ and so on. Some texts restrict these to lower case letters, and others restrict them to capital letters. We will use capital letters.

Intuitively, we can think of sentence letters as English sentences that are either true or false. Thus, $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ may translate as 'The Earth is a planet' (which is true), or 'The moon is made of green cheese' (which is false). But $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ may not translate as 'Great ideas sleep furiously' because such a sentence is neither true nor false. Translations between English and $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$ work best if they are restricted to timelessly true or false present tense sentences in the indicative mood. You will see in the translation section below that we do not always follow that advice, wherein we present sentences whose truth or falsity is not timeless.

Sentential connectives
Sentential connectives are special symbols in Sentential Logic that represent truth functional relations. They are used to build larger sentences from smaller sentences. The truth or falsity of the larger sentence can then be computed from the truth or falsity of the smaller ones.

$$\mbox{Conjunction:}\ \land\,\!$$
 * Translates to English as 'and'.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is called a conjunction and $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are its conjuncts.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is true if both $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are true—and is false otherwise.
 * Some authors use an & (ampersand), • (heavy dot) or juxtaposition. In the last case, an author would write
 * $$\mathrm{PQ}\,\!$$
 * instead of our
 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\ .\,\!$$

$$\mbox{Disjunction:}\ \lor\,\!$$
 * Translates to English as 'or'.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is called a disjunction and $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are its disjuncts.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is true if at least one of $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are true—is false otherwise.
 * Some authors may use a vertical stroke: |. However, this comes from computer languages rather than logicians' usage.  Logicians normally reserve the vertical stroke for nand (alternative denial).  When used as nand, it is called the Sheffer stroke.

$$\mbox{Negation:}\ \lnot\,\!$$
 * Translates to English as 'it is not the case that' but is normally read 'not'.
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is called a negation.
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is true if $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is false—and is false otherwise.
 * Some authors use ~ (tilde) or −. Some authors use an overline, for example writing
 * $$\bar{\mathrm{P}}\ \ \mbox{and}\ \ (\overline{(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q})} \lor \mathrm{R})\,\!$$
 * instead of
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\ \ \mbox{and}\ \ (\lnot(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \lor \mathrm{R})\ .\,\!$$

$$\mbox{Conditional:}\ \rightarrow\,\!$$
 * Translates to English as 'if...then' but is often read 'arrow'.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is called a conditional. Its antecedent is $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and its consequent is $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is false if $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is true and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is false—and true otherwise.
 * By that definition, $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is equivalent to $$(\lnot \mathrm{P}) \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * Some authors use ⊃ (hook).

$$\mbox{Biconditional:}\ \leftrightarrow\,\!$$
 * Translates to English as 'if and only if'
 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is called a biconditional.
 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is true if $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ both are true or both are false—and false otherwise.
 * By that definition, $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is equivalent to the more verbose $$(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \lor ((\lnot \mathrm{P}) \land (\lnot \mathrm{Q}))\,\!$$. It is also equivalent to $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$, the conjunction of two conditionals where in the second conditional the antecedent and consequent are reversed from the first.
 * Some authors use ≡.

Grouping
Parentheses $$(\,\!$$ and $$)\,\!$$ are used for grouping. Thus

 * $$((\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} ) \rightarrow \mathrm{R})\,\!$$
 * $$(\mathrm{P} \land (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}))\,\!$$

are two different and distinct sentences. Each negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional, and biconditionals gets a single pair or parentheses.

Translation
Consider the following English sentences:

 * If it is raining and Jones is out walking, then Jones has an umbrella.
 * If it is Tuesday or it is Wednesday, then Jones is out walking.

To render these in $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$, we first specify an appropriate English translation for some sentence letters.
 * $$\mathrm{P}\ :\,\!$$ It is raining.
 * $$\mathrm{Q}\ :\,\!$$ Jones is out walking.
 * $$\mathrm{R}\ :\,\!$$ Jones has an umbrella.
 * $$\mathrm{S}\ :\,\!$$ It is Tuesday.
 * $$\mathrm{T}\ :\,\!$$ It is Wednesday.

We can now partially translate our examples as:
 * $$\mbox{If}\ \mathrm{P}\ \mbox{and}\ \mathrm{Q},\ \mbox{then}\ \mathrm{R}\,\!$$
 * $$\mbox{If}\ \mathrm{S}\ \mbox{or}\ \mathrm{T},\ \mbox{then}\ \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

Then finish the translation by adding the sentential connectives and parentheses:
 * $$((\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow \mathrm{R})\,\!$$
 * $$((\mathrm{S} \lor \mathrm{T}) \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Quoting convention
For English expressions, we follow the logical tradition of using single quotes. This allows us to use ' 'It is raining' ' as a quotation of 'It is raining'.

For expressions in $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$, it is easier to treat them as self-quoting so that the quotation marks are implicit. Thus we say that the above example translates $$\mathrm{S} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ (note the lack of quotes) as 'If it is Tuesday, then It is raining'.


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Cookbook:Hot Sauce (Homemade)

This is somewhat an interpretive recipe, so you have to get a little creative. But, creativity is what spawned it, and no two people come up with exactly the same sauce. Regardless, what results will be very hot, and very delicious provided you like hot sauce.

Ingredients

 * 1–5 cloves of garlic, depending on size and taste
 * Vinegar (any kind)
 * Lime juice
 * 1–3 squirts of honey
 * About 10 habanero peppers, de-stemmed
 * Salt

Procedure

 * 1) Mix all ingredients except peppers and honey in blender until you think you've got enough liquid. It doesn't matter how much of anything you use—just throw it all in. As a general rule, though, your total liquid volume should be about the size of 3–4 peppers. Make sure it covers up to the middle of the blender blades.
 * 2) Pulse everything until smooth.
 * 3) Add habaneros and pulse more, until they're fairly chopped up but still chunky.
 * 4) Add honey, and blend for about 30 seconds. Your resulting sauce should be fairly thick, but contain only very small particles of peppers and garlic. If there are chunks bigger than grains of salt, keep blending until they are tiny.

title: Cookbook:Hot Sauce (Homemade)


text:
Cookbook talk:Hot Sauce (Homemade)

My first stab at a Wikibooks Cookbook entry (moved over from Wikipedia). -- Kaszeta 19:50, 26 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Hot Sauce (Homemade)


text:
User talk:RoastedMnM

I like nerds.

The candy you dolt.

title: User talk:RoastedMnM


text:
Linguistics/Morphology

Introduction
Morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of words, practiced by morphologists.

This chapter will largely follow the morpheme-based theory of morphology, but a description of other views of morphology will be presented at the end.

Morphemes
A morpheme is roughly defined as the smallest linguistic unit that has semantic meaning. For example, the word boy cannot be broken down into any further unit of meaning intrinsic to the word itself. We might try to do so:
 * b;
 * o;
 * y;
 * bo and
 * oy

– but none of these mean anything relevant to the word boy here. We say that boy is made of only one morpheme.

But the word antigovernment can be broken down into: Therefore, we say that antigovernment is made of three morphemes.
 * anti- = against
 * govern = to rule/administrate
 * -ment = noun suffix

One should be careful not to break a single morpheme into multiple constituent morphemes. This is a common error in the analysis of some languages, such as Chinese. The word 犹豫 (yóuyù), meaning hesitate, is a notorious example. As most Chinese characters represent a single morpheme, linguists before the Qing Dynasty believed that all characters represented a single morpheme. As a result, the word 犹豫 has become the subject of much nonsensical speculation. One scholar during the Tang Dynasty believed that it originated from the description of a deer-like monkey that would look left and right before climbing a tree. Later generations discovered that 犹豫 was, in fact, a single disyllabic morpheme, disproving these odd claims.

Classifying Morphemes
Morphemes are categorised thus:
 * Bound morphemes: They cannot stand alone, i.e. they are affixes.
 * Derivational morphemes: We change the grammatical category or the meaning of the word. Examples are re-, de-, un-, -ness, -ly and so on.
 * Inflectional morphemes: We do not change the meaning or grammatical category of the word with these. We use them to mark plurality, tense, agreement, case and so on.
 * Free morphemes. They can be used alone.
 * Lexical morphemes: They represent the concepts of the message we wish to bring across. Ship, orange and president are some examples. They are an open set of words in a language.
 * Functional morphemes: They are functional words, like determiners, pronouns, conjunctions and so on. Whatever, because and against are some examples.

Affixation
Affixes are our workhorse morphemes—the tools we use again and again to assemble new words. There are several kinds of affixes:

 * Suffixes Suffixes are morphemes that attach to the end of a word. Examples are -ion in motion and -ate in investigate. Suffixes are written with an initial hyphen.
 * Prefixes Prefixes attach to the beginning of a word. Examples are re- in redo and un- in unthinkable. Prefixes are written with a terminal hyphen.
 * Infixes. Although English generally does not have infixes, or morphemes that go "in the middle" of a word, other languages do. An exception in English might be -bloody- in the following:
 * Q: Are you going to the concert tonight?
 * A: Absobloodylutely.
 * Infixes are written with initial and terminal hyphens, as above.

 * Circumfixes. Circumfixes are affixes that "surround" the word, attaching to the beginning and end of the word. Although English has few examples of this type of affix, other languages use it. The circumfix is probably most widely known from the German past participle (ge- -t for regular verbs). Probably the only circumfixes in English are en- -en in enlighten and em- -en in embolden, which are essentially the same circumfix, as we will see below. In older usage, however, the present participle could be formed using the circumfix a- -ing: a- -ing in a-flying or a- -ing in a-caroling. Circumfixes are written with initial and terminal hyphens.

Sometimes, multiple affixations can take place. The original word, which is a free morpheme, is known as the stem or root. We can attach affixes to it in a continual manner:

anti- inter- govern -ment -al -ist

Here, govern is a root, anti- and inter- are prefixes, and -ment, -al and -ist are suffixes.

Inflectional Morphology
Inflectional morphology is a type of morphology that deals only with the grammatical function of the word. In other words, it marks the grammatical categories. For example, you'd add -ing when you want to put a verb in the progressive aspect. English only has eight inflectional morphemes, all of which are suffixes:

 * -s (after a noun) indicates plurality
 * -'s indicates the possessive case
 * -s (after a verb) indicates the third-person singular
 * -ing indicates the progressive aspect, or participles
 * -en indicates the perfect aspect in some irregular verbs
 * -ed indicates the past tense
 * -er indicates comparatives
 * -est indicates superlatives

Technically, -'s is actually not an affix, but a clitic. This is because it does not necessarily attach to the end of a noun. For example, you can say The man from Moscow's book. Here, -'s attaches to Moscow, even though the book belongs to the man, not Moscow. This shows that although -'s attaches itself onto another word, it functions, in terms of its position in the sentence, like a word in its own right.

The types of inflection that occur depends very much on the language. The most common grammatical categories marked by inflection are below:
 * Tense: Verbs are inflected based on when an action or stated occurred, such as -ed in English.
 * Mood: Verbs are inflected based on the probability that the proposition is true (we will look at propositions in the semantics chapter). For example, in English, we strip down the verb to the root form in the imperative mood (Get out!) and the subjunctive mood (that he get out, in sentences such as I insisted that he get out). This is a 'zero morpheme', which we will cover below.
 * Person: Verbs are inflected based on the subject, such as -s for the third person in English.
 * Number: Words are inflected based on the number, such as -s for plural nouns in English. Note that some languages, like Chinese, have no plurals, while others, like Arabic, can have a dual value, i.e. two, that is distinct from plurality.
 * Gender: Words are inflected based on noun class, such as -e for French adjectives. For example, in French, you would say un homme chantant (a singing man) but une femme chantante (a singing woman). Note how chantant ('singing') becomes chantante.
 * Aspect: Words are inflected based on whether it is finished, such as -ing and -ed/-en in English.
 * Comparison: Adjectives are positive (no inflection in English), comparative (-er in English) or superlative (-est in English).
 * Case: Nouns are marked according to their roles in a sentence. For example, in Latin, nauta ('sailor') is in the nominative case (subject position), nautae is in the genitive case (usually marks possession) or the dative case (marks indirect objects), and nautam is in the accusative case (marks direct objects).
 * Evidentiality: Although it is not present in major languages, a quarter of the world's languages have this category. Consider this example from McLendon (2003):

Sometimes, a single inflection can handle multiple grammatical categories. For example, in French, the suffix -ions can mark:
 * First person + Plural number + Subjunctive mood: que nous allions
 * First person + Plural number + Imperfect tense: Nous allions

It is important to note that grammatical categories are not always marked by inflection. They can also be marked using function words.

Derivational Morphology
While English is poor in inflectional morphology, it has a complicated system of deriving new words from old.

Concatenative morphology
Concatenation is a process which deals with the formation of new lexical items by putting at least two distinct morphemes together. Concatenative processes are by far the ones which happen to be the most productive in the Indo-European language family. Thus, they are of major concern when it comes to discussing word-formation processes in English. These include compounding, affixation and incorporation. Their presence in the language varies with the last one being even non-existent in English.

Non-concatenative morphology
When a word is created as a result of linguistic operations on one morpheme, such process belongs to the branch of non-concatenation. Here are some examples:
 * Clipping/Truncation: A polysyllabic word is reduced. Advert and ad are clipped from advertisement.
 * Apocope/Back-clipping: We cut off all but the beginning of the word, like hippo from hippopotamus.
 * Apheresis/Fore-clipping: We cut off all but the end of the word, like bot from robot and phone from telephone.
 * Syncope: We cut off the middle part. This is rare and occurs in ma'am from madam.
 * Mixed clipping: We cut off both the beginning and the end, e.g. fridge from refrigerator.
 * Hypocorism: It is a type of clipping associated with child talk. We take the first syllable, then add an /i/ sound to the end. Examples are Aussie and telly.
 * Backformation: A word is reduced to a simpler form by removing a supposed affix, e.g. swindler (noun) → swindle (verb).
 * Conversion: A word is changed to another category without changing its form at all, e.g. chair (noun) → chair (verb). Many linguists suggest, however, that this is a case of zero-derivation, which means an empty morpheme is concatenated with the word.
 * Ablaut
 * Reduplication: An element of a word is repeated. This is not found in English, while Chinese uses reduplication for a variety of purposes. For example, the "看 (look)" in "让我看看 (let me have a look)" is reduplicated to produce a slight requiring mood, compared to "让我看 (let me look)".
 * Acronymisation: An acronym becomes a word. Scuba (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus), radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging) and laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) are common examples.

Morphs and Allomorphs
One way to treat differences in inflectional morphemes is by proposing variation in morphological realization rules. In order to do this, we draw an analogy with some processes already noted in phonology. Just as we treated phones as the actual phonetic realization of phonemes, so we can propose morphs as the actual forms used to realize morphemes. For example, the form cats consists of two morphs, cat + -s, realizing a lexical morpheme and an inflectional morpheme ("plural"). The form buses also consists of two morphs (bus + -es), realizing a lexical morpheme and an inflectional morpheme ("plural"). So there are at least two different morphs (-s and -es) used to realize the inflectional morpheme "plural". Just as we noted that there were "allophones" of a particular phoneme, so we can recognize the existence of allomorphs of a particular morpheme. That is, when we find a group of different morphs, all versions of one morpheme, we can use the prefix allo- (means, one of a closely related set) and describe them as allomorphs of that morpheme.

Other Morphemes
Certain processes which apply to words are often considered to be "morphemes", despite having no single surface realization.

Other Theories of Morphology
Lexeme-based morphology views words as being the result of the application of rules to lexemes, rather than the concatenation of morphemes.

Word-based morphology or Realizational morphology views what would traditionally be considered derived or inflected words to be paradigms which bear internal similarity and often systematic relationships to other paradigms due to analogy.

title: Linguistics/Morphology


text:
User:Frankie Roberto~enwikibooks

Working on the Linguistics Wikibook.

See also my Wikipedia page

title: User:Frankie Roberto~enwikibooks


text:
Template:Linguistics/TOC

Old version:

title: Template:Linguistics/TOC


text:
Primary Mathematics/Probability

Probability
In mathematics probability tells us how likely something is to happen.

If something is absolutely certain to happen, we say its probability is one. If something cannot possibly happen, we say its probability is zero. A probability between zero and one means we don't know for sure what will happen, but the higher the number the more likely something is to happen. If something has a probability of 0.25, most people would say "it probably won't happen".

Unfortunately, children have a hard time understanding what a probability of 0.25 suggests. Children are much more adept in understanding probability in terms of percentages (25%), and fractions (i.e., "It will happen about ¼ of the time"), so it is very important that connections between probability and the development of those skills and understandings occur together.

Models
It can be difficult but Probability is best taught with models. Two of the most effective and commonly used models used to teach probability are area and tree diagrams

Area diagrams give students an idea of how likely something is by virtue of the amount of space reserved for that probability. Consider the toss of a coin:

Students can imagine that every time they toss a coin, they need to place that coin into the appropriate side of the rectangle. As the number of throws increases, the amount of area needed to enclose the coins will be the same on both sides. The same probability can be shown using a tree diagram:

In this simple tree diagram, each line (or event path) will be followed ½ of the time. Note that both diagrams show all of the possibilities, not just the probability of one event.

Both of these models can become more complex. Consider all of the possibilities of throwing two coins in series:

In the above area rectangle the instances where heads has been tossed twice in a row is represented in the upper left hand corner. Note that whereas the probability of tossing both heads and tails (in any order) is 50% or 1/2, and the probability of tossing two heads in a row is 25% or 1/4.

While the tree diagram gives us the same information, the student needs to understand that all of the events at the bottom have an equal chance of occurring (This is more visually evident in an area diagram). However, the tree diagram has the advantage of better showing the chronology of events (in this case the order of events is represented by downward motion).

While it may appear that both of these models have strengths and weaknesses, that is not the point. By becoming familiar with these and other models, students gain a more robust and diverse understanding of the nature of probability.

Consider the following problem:

If at any time a Dog is just as likely to give birth to a male puppy as she is to give birth to a female puppy, and she has a litter of 5 puppies, what is the probability that all of the puppies will be of the same sex?

While this problem can be easily answered with the a standard formula, $$P = 2 \left ( \frac{1}{2} \right ) ^n$$, where n is the number of puppies born, this nomenclature is not only unintelligible to students, but teaching it to students gives them no understanding of the underlying concepts. On the other hand, if they have explored problems similar to this with a tree diagram, they should fairly easily be able to see patterns emerging from which they can conjecture the "formula" that will find the correct answer. Consider that a student has drawn a tree diagram that shows the permutations with three puppies in the litter:

If a teacher was to have this student share their work, the class of students in looking at this model would be able to see that there are 8 possible outcomes. They should also notice that the only instances where litters of all males or all females can be found are on the far ends of the tree.

Students are always encouraged to look for patterns in many of their mathematical explorations. Here, students start to notice that the number of possibilities can be determined by multiplying the number 2 by itself exactly the number of times there is to be a new outcome. In this case there are three outcomes (puppies born) in a row. So 2 x 2 x 2 = 23, or 8 possible outcomes. Once the student sees a connection to this pattern, they may conjecture that if there are 5 puppies in a litter, the possible number of outcomes is 25, or 32, of which only 2 (represented by the combinations MMMMM, and FFFFF on the extreme ends) will result in a litter puppies of all the same sex.

Teachers are always looking for students to make connections with other skills they are learning. In this case the teacher might ask the students to state the answer as a reduced fraction (1/16) and a percentage (6.25%).

Since we're using math to help us understand what will happen, it may help us to be able to write an equation like this:

Pr(X) = y

If this equation is true, we would say "the probability of X happening is y". For example, we can say:

X = A coin toss coming up heads

Pr(X) = 0.5

Since the letter X is standing for an event, not a number, and we don't want to get them confused, we'll use capital letters for events, and lower-case letters for numbers. The symbol Pr represents a function that has some neat properties, but for now we'll just think of it as a short way of writing "the probability of X".

Since probabilities are always numbers between 0 and 1, we will often represent them as percentages or fractions. Percentages seem natural when someone says something like "I am 100% sure that my team will win." However, fractions make more sense for really computing probabilities, and it is very useful to really be able to compute probabilities to try to make good decisions, so we will use fractions here.

The basic rule for computing the probability of an event is simple, if the event is the kind where we are making a definite choice from a known set of choices based on randomness that is fair. Not everything is like that, but things like flipping a coin, rolling a single die, drawing a card, or drawing a ticket from a bag with your eyes closed are random and fair since each of the possibilities is equally likely. But the probability of things a little more complicated, like the sum of two dice, is not so easy---and that makes it fun!

Suppose we have a single die. It has six faces, and as far as we know each is equally likely to be face up if we roll the die. We can now use our basic rule for computing probability to compute the probability of each possible outcome. The basic rule is to take the number of outcomes that represent the event (called X) that you're trying to compute the probability of, and divide it by the total number of possible outcomes. So, for rolling a die:

Pr("getting a one") = 1 face that has one dot / 6 faces = 1/6

Pr("getting a two") = 1 face that has two dots / 6 faces = 1/6

Pr("getting a three") = 1 face that has three dot / 6 faces = 1/6

Pr("getting a four") = 1 face that has four dots / 6 faces = 1/6

Pr("getting a five") = 1 face that has five dot / 6 faces = 1/6

Pr("getting a six") = 1 face that has six dots / 6 faces = 1/6

So we have 6 possibilities, and each has a probability of 1/6. We know that 6 * (1/ 6) = 1. In fact, that is an example of a fundamental rule of probabilities:

The sum of probabilities of all possibilities is equal to one.

But you probably know that each face of a die is equally likely to land face-up, so so far we haven't done anything useful. So let's ask the question: What is the probability of throwing two dice and having their sum equal seven when we add them together? Knowing that can help us win at a lot of games (such as Monopoly(trademark Parker Brothers)), so it's pretty valuable to know the answer.

To find out the answer, we apply our basic rule, but now it is not so easy to know how many possible outcomes of TWO dice thrown together will equal seven. However, it is easy to know how many total possible outcomes there are: 6 times 6 = 36. One way to find out how many possible dice throws add up to seven is just to make a table of all possible dice throws that fills in their sum and count the number of sevens. Here is one:

***| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6  ===========================   1  | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7   2  | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8   3  | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9   4  | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10   5  | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11   6  | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12

The numbers along the top represent the value on the first die and the values on the left represent the values of the second die when you throw them together. The values inside the table represent the sum of the first and the second dice. (Note that the numbers range from 2 to 12 --- there's no way to throw two dice and get a number less than two!)

So if we look carefully, we can see that there are exactly 6 sevens in this table. So the probability of getting a seven if you throw two dice is 6 out of 36, or:

Pr(getting a 7) = 6 / 36 = 1 / 6.

(1 / 6 is a simple fraction equal in value to 6 / 36.)

Maybe that doesn't surprise you, but let's look at all the probabilities:

Pr(getting a 2) = 1 / 36 Pr(getting a 3) = 2 / 36

Pr(getting a 4) = 3 / 36

Pr(getting a 5) = 4 / 36

Pr(getting a 6) = 5 / 36

Pr(getting a 7) = 6 / 36

Pr(getting a 8) = 5 / 36

Pr(getting a 9) = 4 / 36

Pr(getting a 10)= 3 / 36

Pr(getting a 11)= 2 / 36

Pr(getting a 12)= 1 / 36

What do you think we would get if we added all of those probabilities together? They should equal 36 / 36, right? Check that they do.

Did you know that the probability of a getting a 5 is four times that of getting a two? Did you know that probability of getting a five, six, seven or eight is higher than the probability of other 7 numbers all together? We can tell things like that by adding the probabilities together, if the events we're talking about are completely independent, as they are in this case. So we can even write:

Pr(getting a 5, 6, 7 or 8) = Pr(getting a 5) + Pr(getting a 6) + Pr(getting a 7) + Pr(getting an 8)

But we can substitute these fractions and add them up easily to get:

Pr(getting a 5, 6, 7, or 8) = (4+5+6+5)/36 = 20/36.

Since we know the probability of all possible events must equal one, we can actually use that to compute the probability:

Pr(getting a 2,3,4,9,10,11 or 12) = 1 - (20/36) = (36/36 - 20/36) = 16/36.

This way we didn't have to add up all those individual probabilities, we just subtracted our fraction from 1.

Mathematically we could say: Pr(some events) = 1 - Pr(all the other possible events)

You might want to take the time now to get two dice and roll them 3*36 = 108 times, recording the sum of them each time. The number you get for each sum won't be exactly 3 times the probabilities that we have computed, but it should be pretty close! You should get around 18 sevens. This is fun to do with friends; you can have each person make 36 rolls and then add together all your results for each sum that is possible.

The fact that if you make a lot of rolls it is likely to get results close the probability of an outcome times the number of rolls is called the Law of Large Numbers. It's what ties the math of probability to reality, and what lets you do math to make a good decision about what roll you might get in a game, or anything else for which you can compute or estimate a probability.

Here's a homework exercise for each of you: compute the probabilities of every possible sum of throwing two dice, but two different dice: one that comes up 1,2,3 or 4 only, and the other that comes up 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 or 8. Note that we these dice (which you can get at a gaming store, if you want) the lowest and highest possible roll is the same but the number of possible rolls is only 4 * 8 = 32.

***| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8  =====================================   1  | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9   2  | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10   3  | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11   4  | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10| 11| 12

Pr(getting a 2) = 1 / 32 Pr(getting a 3) = 2 / 32

Pr(getting a 4) = 3 / 32

Pr(getting a 5) = 4 / 32

Pr(getting a 6) = 4 / 32

Pr(getting a 7) = 4 / 32

Pr(getting a 8) = 4 / 32

Pr(getting a 9) = 4 / 32

Pr(getting a 10)= 3 / 32

Pr(getting a 11)= 2 / 32

Pr(getting a 12)= 1 / 32

(You should check our work by making sure that all these probabilities sum to 32/32 = 1).

So this is interesting: Although the possible scores of the throwing two dice are the same, the probabilities are a little different. Since 1/32 is a little more than 1/36, you are actually more likely to get a two or a twelve this way. And since 4 /32 = 1/8 is less than 6 / 36 = 1/6, you are less likely to get a seven with these dice. You might have been able to guess that, but by doing the math you know for sure, and you even know by how much, if you know how to subtract fractions well.

So let's review what we've learned:

 * We know what the word probability means.
 * We know probabilities are always numbers between 0 and 1.
 * We know a basic approach to computing some common kinds of probabilities.
 * We know that the probabilities of all possible outcomes should add up to exactly 1.
 * We know the probability of a result is equal to one minus the probability of all other results.

title: Primary Mathematics/Probability


text:
Talk:Primary Mathematics/Probability

This page had very little relevence to showing educators how to teach probability, and even less in explaining to parents how probability is (currently) taught. With the exception of the roll of a die, which is too lengthy, there is little reference to manipulatives, models, or even simple examples from the real world that children can understand and relate to (such as a series of coin tosses). Very simply, probability is not taught to the elementary grades with equations, at least not initially. This page needs to show and explain the various models actually used to teach probability to primary grade learners, such as tree diagrams and area diagrams. I have just finished a simple primer on this page that shows those two manipulatives in action and attempts to make connections to other skills students should be learning at this age. Leightwing 23:54, 26 August 2007 (UTC)

I'm presenting a lecture like this to my child's 5th grade class soon.

I would like to add some, and more vivid examples.

p(x)
Rather than the 'pseudo-but-actualy-far-more-confusing' use of the shortening of probablity to "Pr" use the convention used in mathematics and statistics "p".

Don't create havoc later when someone is trying to teach algebra and the kid goes on and on about how "Pr" is probablity and not "P * r".

Confused.
'How do I do a tree diagram with the example of 6 books with 2 being red, 3 being blue and 1 being green? It is confusing and I would like it if Wikibooks could help me with this problem.'--94.168.30.176 (discuss) 16:47, 7 February 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Primary Mathematics/Probability


text:
Wikibooks:Domain-specific languages bookshelf

Note: If you can't find what you're looking for here, check: Shelf:Computer programming languages

A – F

 * Programming Ajax
 * Apache Ant
 * AWK
 * Cascading Style Sheets

H – J

 * HyperText Markup Language
 * Authoring Webpages

L – P

 * LaTeX
 * MySQL
 * PostScript FAQ

R – Z

 * TeX
 * Structured Query Language
 * Programmable Logic
 * XHTML
 * Regular Expressions
 * XForms -
 * XML: Managing Data Exchange (old: Programming:XML)

Text processing languages

 * AWK -

Markup languages

 * HyperText Markup Language
 * TeX
 * XForms -
 * XHTML
 * XML: Managing Data Exchange (old: Programming:XML)

Layout

 * Cascading Style Sheets

Configuration Management

 * Apache Ant

Typesetting languages

 * PostScript FAQ
 * TeX
 * LaTeX

Hardware Description Languages

 * Programmable Logic

Database languages

 * Converting MySQL to PostgreSQL
 * JET Database
 * Microsoft SQL Server
 * MySQL
 * PostgreSQL
 * Structured Query Language
 * SQL/400

cy:Silff lyfrau:Ieithoedd parth-sbesiffig


text:
User:Breakpoint~enwikibooks

All that missing content and you expect me to talk about ME? Oh, I think I have a profile on Wikipedia-- go read that instead.

Thanks for checking, though. =]

title: User:Breakpoint~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Russian/Lesson 3

Untitled
Incorrect:
 * Я — студе́нт
 * Ты — не студе́нт

Correct:
 * Я студе́нт (I am student)
 * Ты не студе́нт (he is not student)
 * Этот мальчик — студент (This boy is a student)
 * Моя жизнь — игра (my life is a game)

Exception of a rule: the dash is not put between a pronoun and a verb

I think this lesson is great! But maybe a bit too much! It can and should be spread over many lessons! :) Guaka 19:58, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

I removed reference to 'thou' as the English formal used in Bibles, because 'thou' has never been the formal second person singular; it was the informal with 'ye' being the formal. Eventually, the objective 'you' spread to take over the nominative 'ye' and 'thou' to become nominative itself, and the other forms died out. Therefore, it destroys the entire analogy used, so I removed it.

This Lesson is very iformative. I just want to say thank-you for your help. 206.176.108.126 14:54, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Possesives?
Uhm, do the people writing this book honestly not know Russian?

What do prepositional case possesive pronouns have to do with anything? 1. They're under the topic "verb conjugation, past tense" 2. Have you said anything about normal possesives and if yes then where? How about a link to that place? 3. Oh yeah, and the opposite of "have to" is actually "not have to" "nye dolzhen".

Ladywater 06:27, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

about the articles
<>

It is actually incorrect. "I am the student." implies that speaker says he's the student mentioned before. I guess it should be translated "Я тот студент." (literally, I'm that student) or "Студень - это я". Russian doesn't have articles, but it has different means to convey the meanings for which articles are used in English.

Formal and Informal
'The word "your" also comes in formal and informal: вас (formal) and тебя (informal).'

This is incorrect. Your would be ваш (formal) and твой (informal) (nominative case of possessive pronouns) while вас and тебя are genitive forms of pronouns вы and ты and cannot be translated as yours.

Bogdan

The acronym FYI is used. This may be familiar to an American reader but it is not to this English one. Having looked it up, however, I still cannot make sense of the the sentence in which it is used. Nithsdale (discuss • contribs) 22:34, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

 * "This is incorrect. Your would be ваш (formal) and твой (informal) (nominative case of possessive pronouns) while вас and тебя are genitive forms of pronouns вы and ты and cannot be translated as yours."
 * Agree. Changed. Girabbit85 (discuss • contribs) 10:10, 4 February 2013 (UTC)
 * Agree. Changed. Girabbit85 (discuss • contribs) 10:10, 4 February 2013 (UTC)

Thank you
I just wanted to say thank you to whoever wrote this. It saved me from saying "Я учу русский язык." Cheers, Reading Rambo (discuss • contribs) 00:59, 22 December 2013 (UTC)

Dash characters
Most HTML References Are Wrong

I’ve lost count of all the books, articles, and websites that claim an em dash is “—”—but they’re all wrong. The entire range from  through  are invalid characters, and consequently should not be used.

reference: http://alistapart.com/article/emen

If your seeing &#151 instead of dashes this is why. 104.246.47.236 (discuss) 21:26, 25 May 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Russian/Lesson 3


text:
User talk:Attention-tunnel

Hello, Attention-tunnel: Welcome to Wikibooks. Did Edan say that you could reproduce the Mythos and Ethos: http://www.aspergia.com/terms/index.htm According to the terms and conditions here, I don't really think he did, or he would. As to making up the ethos and mythos and whatever else, Wikibooks is not really for fiction. It is rather for textbooks. Reproducing Autism and Computing: I do think we are in a grey area. I do think the material there is copyright, and therefore not subject to the GFDL or the Creative Commons, or any similar public domain licence. Did you write to Andrew and Dinah? Sincerely and thank you, EuropracBHIT 06:58, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC).

Hello EuropracBHIT, I like to answer you. Is this the way I send messages??

To answer your question: 1) No, I did not ask Edan for approval to use the name 'Aspergia'. Therefore I should maybe change the name to something else. I don't want to cause any trouble. My intent was to rembmer people of the idea of 'Re-Branding Aspergia' of which an explenation is on Aspergia. It really doesn't have to have the names Aspergia. Its about the spirit. 2) Murray and Lesser both agreed and are very happy to have their content made publicly available. I have not yet gotten a response from Walker. They like both Creative Commons and GNU. The idea is 1) to translate the papers by the hlp of wiki technology, 2) have it freely available for everyone, 3) encourage delevopment of this model of mind.

 * Attention-tunnel
 * Yes, this is how you send messages. I would have preferred some indenting and horizontal lines, even I have not mastered this yet though. Some Wikibookians like to reply on the talk page of the receiver, some like to put it on their own talk page. Your way is good as it shows both sides, therefore I will do the same.
 * In reply to (1) :

I like the 'new' title of the book, even if it does exclude four-fifths of the diagnosable (not necessarily the diagnosed) autistic spectrum. It is certainly a relief from the intellectual property point of view. I do agree with your letter-spirit contrast, and it would most certainly be about the spirit; specifically the personal flavour and the history and the communual side.
 * In reply to (2):

Thank goodness that Murray and Lesser are not nearly as averse to Creative Commons and GNU as I believed they were, both relatively traditional scientists if what I know of their reputations is correct. Wiki technology is indeed a resplendent success in teaching and educative uses. I will be waiting for the Walker response with bated breath, as he has contributed a great deal to the model of mind we are discussing.
 * Let's hope the language translation goes as we would wish it.
 * And you can write more messages by signing your name like this, with four tildes, if you want the date. If you don't want the date, you can sign it with just three. If, for instance, we want to say what we think about this 'theory of mind' we can write on the talk pages.

EuropracBHIT 04:42, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC).

 * It seems we have both misunderstood each other.
 * Perl reminded me of that possibility, and I want to deal with it as soon as I can.
 * I know that the vast majority of "The Interest System" (Wikibook) is taken directly from Autism and Computing, specifically these pages:

--- http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:An_Autistic_Friendship http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:The_Battles_of_the_Autistic_Thinker (Pictures are very complicated too for the permissions part! Check Imagehelp any time and this you will see!) Reflections http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Is_Autism_a_Pathology%3F_Reflections_from_theory%2C_research_and_practice Animation http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Interactive_Computeranimation_NOI4 (again, images/animations and permissions are important) Potions http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Potions%2C_Pills_and_Community_Care_for_People_with_Learning_Difficulties:_Hidden_Costs And the other five in progress. The only original parts of the Interest System are the last three pages on the introduction page.
 * Mind                    |http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Mind_as_a_Dynamical_System:_Implications_for_Autism
 * Diagram                   |http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Diagram_of_the_Interest_System
 * Otherwise
 * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/The_Interest_System:Normal_and_Otherwise
 * Friendship
 * Battles

This wholesale copying (not 10 percent, the WHOLE lot of the website) isn't really allowed under the GFDL. What you said about the GNU isn't completely relevant, even though they do run the GFDL. Perl did suggest that the content making up The Interest System would be better placed in Wikisource. He also suggested that you should put up a link. I think you have done this, but not so directly and clearly. I do appreciate that you did attempt to put up a link where we can all see where this information comes from. But the point of Wikibooks is writing the information yourself, or at least one of the most important parts. Thank you for your understanding, EuropracBHIT 09:43, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Images
As you can see at the top of this page, "All unlicensed images uploaded to wikibooks before November 1, 2006 will soon be deleted." You have uploaded images and some of them are untagged. You can see them here. Please review them and add appropriate tags. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. --Think Fast 04:37, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Attention-tunnel


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Truth Tables

= Truth Tables =

In the Formal Syntax, we earlier gave a formal semantics for sentential logic. A truth table is a device for using this form syntax in calculating the truth value of a larger formula given an interpretation (an assignment of truth values to sentence letters). Truth tables may also help clarify the material from the Formal Syntax.

Negation
We begin with the truth table for negation. It corresponds to clause (ii) of our definition for extended valuations.

T and F represent True and False respectively. Each row represents an interpretation. The first column shows what truth value the interpretation assigns to the sentence letter $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$. In the first row, the interpretation assigns $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ the value True. In the second row, the interpretation assigns $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ the value False.

The second column shows the value $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ receives under a given row's interpretation. Under the interpretation of the first row, $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ has the value False. Under the interpretation of the second row, $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ has the value True.

We can put this more formally. The first row of the truth table above shows that when $$\mathfrak{v}[\mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = True, $$\overline{\mathfrak{v}}[\lnot \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = False. The second row shows that when $$\mathfrak{v}[\mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = False, $$\overline{\mathfrak{v}}[\lnot \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$ = True. We can also put things more simply: a negation has the opposite truth value than that which is negated.

Conjunction
The truth table for conjunction corresponds to clause (iii) of our definition for extended valuations.

Here we have two sentence letters and so four possible interpretations, each represented by a single row. The first two columns show what the four interpretations assign to $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$. The interpretation represented by the first row assigns both sentence letters the value True, and so on. The last column shows the value assigned to $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$. You can see that the conjunction is true when both conjuncts are true—and the conjunction is false otherwise, namely when at least one conjunct is false.

Disjunction
The truth table for disjunction corresponds to clause (iv) of our definition for extended valuations.

Here we see that a disjunction is true when at least one of the disjuncts is true—and the disjunction is false otherwise, namely when both disjuncts are false.

Conditional
The truth table for conditional corresponds to clause (v) of our definition for extended valuations.

A conditional is true when either its antecedent is false or its consequent is true (or both). It is false otherwise, namely when the antecedent is true and the consequent is false.

Biconditional
The truth table for biconditional corresponds to clause (vi) of our definition for extended valuations.

A biconditional is true when both parts have the same truth value. It is false when the two parts have opposite truth values.

Example
We will use the same example sentence from Formal Semantics:

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \lnot( \mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R})\ .\,\!$$

We construct its truth table as follows:

With three sentence letters, we need eight valuations (and so lines of the truth table) to cover all cases. The table builds the example sentence in parts. The $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ column was based on the $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ columns. The $$\mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R}\,\!$$ column was based on the $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$ columns. This in turn was the basis for its negation in the next column. Finally, the last column was based on the $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ and $$\lnot (\mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R})\,\!$$ columns.

We see from this truth table that the example sentence is false when both $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ are true, and it is true otherwise.

This table can be written in a more compressed format as follows.

The numbers above the connectives are not part of the truth table but rather show what order the columns were filled in.


text:
Windows XP/Drive Failure

A hard drive with important data on it should be treated like a firearm, a helicopter, or a race car engine: if it starts doing anything out of the ordinary, you should find out what's going on, and why-- quickly. Hard drives have gotten quieter, which is pleasant, but not necessarily helpful. "Odd noises" from a hard drive, particularly noises the drive has "never made before" when things haven't changed much, are usually bad signs; so are a few other things, listed below.

Three caveats, however. First, some of these symptoms can be signs of virus or other malicious code. Run virus scanners frequently! Second, poor performance that follows a software or hardware change may be related to that change-- though hard drives have occasionally been known to fail after being banged around during a case change, or after a power supply change. Finally, while users of normal IDE, SATA, and SCSI drives generally don't have to worry about this, RAID users need to watch out for possible driver bugs (and if you think you find one, check the discussion groups for your RAID card/motherboard before upgrading). Those said, here is the list.

Failure is imminent for drives which:
 * Take a very long time to spin up on power-on, or frequently do not spin up at all. This is particularly common with 2.5" (laptop) hard drives, which have comparatively weaker spindle motors.
 * Take a very long time to access certain areas of the disk; this is particularly worrisome if that area is the file allocation table (FAT) on FAT32 drives.
 * Otherwise have periods of inaccessibility exceeding several seconds, even when the machine is largely idle.
 * Never turn off their drive activity LEDs-- but used to, and nothing else has changed.
 * A hard to track down random computer freeze for up to several minutes at a time, often ending with a pop-up message saying it was unable to write to $MSFT.

Be extremely wary of drives which:
 * Change noticeably in audible pitch while running (excluding spindown for suspend, power off, etc.); you are hearing the spindle motor rate change, which is not good. If this corresponds with a period of drive inaccessibility, back up and replace the drive immediately.
 * Develop bad sectors. Modern hard drives do not have this problem; the media may be oxidizing or otherwise degrading.

Additionally, be wary of drives which:
 * Have ever been physically dropped onto a hard surface at any point, in any orientation-- running or not.
 * Have ever overheated (failed to operate properly, and then you realized the cooling fans were off, etc.)-- even once.
 * Have ever experienced a significant brownout.
 * Have ever experienced a significant power spike.
 * Seem to be running very hot.

Be somewhat wary of drives which:
 * Have had their physical mounting orientation changed (flat to side-mount, for example) well into their run life (say, after a year or so).
 * Have been rough-handled in shipping (but were properly packed in foam, etc.).
 * Have exceeded 50% of their warranty period and are being used in a RAID-0 stripe set under high demand.
 * Are operating or have operated continuously in a high humidity or marine environment.
 * Are exposed to strong vibration, such as automotive, marine, and aircraft applications.

Drives which seem to be heading for doorstop duty should be backed up and replaced as soon as possible. Drives in a RAID-5 array can usually be left in service until they actually get disqualified by the controller or operating system, assuming you have a hot spare. However, if you have no choice but to live with a drive that is on its way out for a while, and cannot back it up immediately, following these guidelines:
 * Do not use the drive any more than absolutely necessary.
 * If at all possible, do not use the drive to host the swapfile.
 * Try to avoid writing to the drive more than necessary.
 * Do not defragment the drive. This will stress the actuator or voice coil assembly.  Additionally, if the drive is having write problems, this will effectively destroy otherwise readable data.
 * Do not power-cycle (turn off and on) the drive any more than absolutely necessary-- doing so places a lot of stress on the spindle motor. This usually means leaving the computer on all the time.  Note that modern drives are designed to be power-cycled all the time; this is only a concern for drives which are already failing, or suspected of starting to fail.
 * Shut off automatic spin-down in Power Saving options, for the same reason.

These are just tips to help you limp home. Treat the drive as a spare tire. Hard drives never "kind of" work-- if one is starting to fail, you must replace it, or it is not a question of if you will lose the data on it, just when.

Read More

 * There is a Wikibook on Minimizing Hard Disk Drive Failure and Data Loss.

title: Windows XP/Drive Failure


text:
User:Mkn

Ugh! I left Wikibooks for such a long time!! I'm back now. Sorry to everyone who left a message on the talk page. -- Mkn 17:34, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Japanese
I'm not sure how to write the lessons for this wikibook so I'm still figuring out which method is best for constructing the lessons. I would like to make the lessons become instantly practical, something the reader can put into use right away.

At the moment, I'm consulting different materials such as textbooks, audio, and video. Some of the lessons might be too close to the actual material so I'm going to try fiddling around with the lessons for a bit and try to figure out what's a good structure and format to use for the basic lessons.

I've noticed that there is still a demand for romaji in the wikibooks, so probably it would be best to have it in the beginner's section.

Bookmarks
Watched Projects: Chinese - Japanese - Korean

Reading Bookmarks: Chinese - Cookbook - English - European History - French/Contents - German - In_Memoriam:_September_11%2C_2001 - Intelligence Intensification - Japanese - Korean - Russian - Spanish - US_History/Contents - World_History/Contents

Wikipedia: w:Special:Imagelist - w:Wikipedia:Upload_log_archive

Wikibooks: Votes for deletion - Deletion log - Main Page/test

title: User:Mkn


text:
French/Lessons/Modern France

The past conditional is fairly simple to form. It is used to express what you would have done if a certain condition had been met. (I would have gone to school.)

To form the past conditional, you put the auxiliary verb into the conditional and add the past participle of the verb:

title: French/Lessons/Modern France


text:
Talk:Cell Biology/Introduction/What is a cell

I looked for some of the terms mentioned in the text, but not yet expanded on. Found that these are well covered in Wikipedia. To a large extent the Wikipedia texts are better than the Wikibooks texts on Cell biology. This is not to wonder about. The Wikipedia project has been going for much longer. The point is that there is a risk of effort spent on producing something that already exists.

We need to find a way to determine what it is that is needed in a textbook and is not expected to be found in Wikipedia and design a process that produces this as a complement to Wikipedia.

Maybe: Light introductions, Illustrations, Concretizations, Examples,

from Gajjar Mitth

Etxrge 13:40, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)


text:
Canadian Property Law

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Personal Property/
 * /Real Property/

Quebec

 * /Movable Property/
 * /Immovable Property/

Appendix

 * Glossary of property terms

title: Canadian Property Law