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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Photography

Camera Construction

A pinhole camera is a camera without a conventional glass lens. An extremely small hole in a very thin material can focus light by limiting all rays from a scene through a single point. To produce a reasonably clear image, the aperture has to be a small pinhole on the order of 0.5 mm (0.02 inches) or less. The shutter of a pinhole camera usually consists of a hand operated flap of some light-proof material to cover and uncover the pinhole. Pinhole cameras require much longer exposure times than conventional cameras because of the small aperture; typical exposure times can range from 5 seconds to hours or days.

Surprise! A camera is nothing more than:
 * an optical element, usually the lens, but here, the pinhole.
 * a chemical element, or, the film.
 * a mechanical element, usually the camera body.

In our pinhole camera, light from various points of the tree travels through the tiny pinhole and reaches the back of our pinhole camera where the image of the tree is upside down. The trick is to correctly expose the film which is at the back of the camera.

Camera Lens
A camera lens usually has an aperture adjustment mechanism to control the amount of light that may pass. It also has a shutter, to control the length of time during which light may pass through the lens.

Light on Film
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic which is coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts with variable crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film. When the emulsion (in this film) is subjected to sufficient exposure to light it forms an invisible image.

In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative.

Color film uses at least three layers. Dyes added to the silver salts make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green and red layers. During development, the silver salts are converted to metallic silver, as with black and white film. The by-products of this reaction form colored dyes. The silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step of development. It is removed from the film in the fix step. Some films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.

Developers
In film developing, photographic developer (or just developer) is a chemical that makes the latent image on the film (or print) visible. It does this by reducing the silver halides that have been exposed to light to metals of elemental silver in the gelatine matrix. As a generalisation, the longer a developer is allowed to work, the greater the degree of reduction of the silver halide crystals to silver and therefore the darker the image.

2. What is meant by the "speed" of the film? What does ASA/ISO mean?
Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light. Stock with lower sensitivity (lower ISO speed rating) requires a longer exposure and is thus called a slow film, while stock with higher sensitivity (higher ISO speed rating) can shoot the same scene with a shorter exposure and is called a fast film.

ISO film speed scales
The standard known as ISO 5800:1987 from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines both a linear scale and a logarithmic scale for measuring film speed.

In the ISO linear scale, which corresponds to the older ASA scale, doubling the speed of a film (that is, halving the amount of light that is necessary to expose the film) implies doubling the numeric value that designates the film speed. In the ISO logarithmic scale, which corresponds to the older DIN scale, doubling the speed of a film implies adding 3° to the numeric value that designates the film speed. For example, a film rated ISO 200/24° is twice as sensitive as a film rated ISO 100/21°.

3. How are shutter speed, lens aperture, and film speed related?
Shutter speed is the time for which the shutter is held open during the taking of a photograph to allow light to reach the film or image sensor (in a digital camera).

Combined with adjusting of the lens aperture, the shutter speed regulates how much light the camera will record. For a given exposure, a fast shutter speed demands a larger aperture to avoid under-exposure, just as a slow shutter speed is offset by a very small aperture to avoid over-exposure. Long shutter speeds are often used in low light conditions, such as at night.

Shutter speed is measured in seconds. A typical shutter speed for photographs taken in sunlight is 1/125th of a second. In addition to its effect on exposure, shutter speed changes the way movement appears in the picture. Very short shutter speeds are used to freeze fast-moving subjects, for example at sporting events. Very long shutter speeds are used to intentionally blur a moving subject for artistic effect.

Film speed is the measure of a photographic film's sensitivity to light. Stock with lower sensitivity (lower ISO speed rating) requires a longer exposure and is thus called a slow film, while stock with higher sensitivity (higher ISO speed rating) can shoot the same scene with a shorter exposure and is called a fast film.

4. Give the principal uses of photography.
Photography  [fә'tɑgrәfi:],[foʊ'tɑgrәfi:] is the process of recording pictures by means of capturing light on a light-sensitive medium, such as a film or sensor. Light patterns reflected or emitted from objects expose a sensitive chemical or electronic medium during a timed exposure, usually through a photographic lens in a device known as a camera that also stores the resulting information chemically or electronically.

The word comes from the Greek words φως phos ("light"), and γραφίς graphis ("stylus", "paintbrush") or γραφή graphê ("representation by means of lines" or "drawing"), together meaning "drawing with light." Traditionally, the product of photography has been called a photograph, commonly shortened to photo.

Photography gained the interest of many scientists and artists from its inception. Scientists have used photography to record and study movements, such as Eadweard Muybridge's study of human and animal locomotion in 1887. Artists are equally interested by these aspects but also try to explore avenues other than the photo-mechanical representation of reality, such as the pictorialist movement. Military, police and security forces use photography for surveillance, recognition and data storage. Photography is used to preserve memories of favorites and as a source of entertainment.

a. Framing
Framing & Direction of Lighting

When we use our eyes, we see the world in three dimensions. The biggest reason for this is because we have two eyes about 1 1/2" apart that give us "two photos" that our brain then interprets as being three-dimensional—big objects are closer than small objects.

However, cameras only have one "eye" the lens, so we have to intentionally take pictures that are "extra" 3-dimensional. One way we can do this by Framing.

Framing uses some element in the photograph to act as a foreground or middle-distance frame which overlaps or highlights the main subject of your photo.

For example, if you're taking a picture of rolling hills, give your picture "depth" by putting a tree or fence post that is closer to you on the right or left hand side of the photograph.

Other examples of Frames include: a tree branch, rocks on a seashore, a friend or an archway.

b. Camera steadiness
Have you ever gotten pictures developed and all you see is a "blur" that was supposed to be a family member? Maybe you've taken a picture through the window of a car while its been moving. This is called camera blur and is most often caused when you're using a "fancy" SLR camera where the exposure setting is 1/125th of a second or slower. However, it can also happen when you don't practice good "camera posture" when composing your photograph.

When you're taking pictures, is very important that the camera doesn't wiggle as you take the picture! Some helpful hints for keeping this from happening are:
 * Use both hands to steady the camera. One-handed picture taking is hazardous to your photographic health!
 * If you're using a fancy SLR camera, be sure your exposure time is set equal to or greater than your film speed (ex. If you're using 200 speed film, have it set to 1/250, 1/500, or 1/1000). Otherwise use a table, wall or something else steady to steady yourself as you take the photo.
 * Most point-and-shoot cameras have this film/exposure time ratio "built-in" to their cameras.**
 * The best way to hold a camera in a comfortable position but rigidly is to form an imaginary tripod with the camera pressed against your forehead and your elbows against your body. Take a breath, partially exhale, and gently press the shutter button.
 * Be careful not to get any of your fingers or the camera chord in front of the flash or the lens!!

c. Direction of lighting - front, backlighting, side
Direction of lighting, Quality of Lighting, & Rule of Thirds Quiz question (not really. . .) Should the sun be behind the subject you're photographing, beside the subject, or shining on the subject?

People used to think that you could only take good pictures if the sun was behind the photographer (YOU!) shining on the subject they were taking a picture. But that's not true.

For instance, if you want to take a sunset picture and want your framing subject (such as a person walking down the beach) to be a silhouette, the sun should be behind him, shining toward you (back lighting).

Lighting:

Front lighting is best when you want to see the details, like if you're taking a close-up of someone's face. A downfall is, that if the lights too bright, such as in the middle of the day, there might be "glare" in your subject.

Side lighting is great for bringing out shapes and textures, such as a rocky mountain cliff or tree bark. These two photos are from Mono Lake In California. Notice how different the same rocks look depending on where the light is coming from?

Back lighting is lighting from behind the subject, tends to hide the subject, forming a silhouette. Some good places to use back lighting are a camporee flagpole at sunset, a cow/horse grazing at sunset, or a playground after everyone has gone home for the evening.

Quality of Lighting - Time of Day, shading, etc.

 * The best light conditions are 1 1/2 hours before sunset or the first hour after sunrise. The reason is that the light isn't SO BRIGHT that it washes out the colors in your picture, but at the same time the shadows are long (which makes side lighting pictures look extra special). Also, the sunset or sunrise gives off a kind of "pink" or "orange" light, which makes many nature pictures look very friendly & special. If you want to know when sunrise and sunset are going to be, check out www.adventist.org's sunset calendar!
 * Be careful of evening shadows when photographing people. long shadows on faces hide features and expressions!
 * Pictures taken during the middle of the day will be "stark" with hard lines and minimal shadows. Buildings & some landscapes such as mountains look especially regal or majestic during the middle of the day. Just remember that if you take a picture during the middle of the day, shade the top of the lens of your camera by placing one of your hands or a piece of paper horizontal about 2" above the lens to form a "shade for the lens. This will keep pink & blue "sparks" from showing up on your photos.
 * When there is no sunshine (on a rainy day) don't give up on taking pictures! Zoom in close on flowers and other colorful objects. The color will be extra deep since its not being "washed out" by the sun. Fog which often accompanies soft rain also makes a very nice soft hazy look. Just be sure to protect you lens from specks of rain!

d. Panning - background blurred with subject in focus
This technique moves the camera at the same speed of your subject while the picture is being taken. For example, if you are taking a picture of a runner going from your left to your right, you would 'pan' or move your camera with the runner (subject) in your viewfinder and take the picture. This causes the background of your picture to blur because of the camera movement, however, since your subject is moving at the same speed as your camera, your subject will be in focus.

e. Rule of thirds
A Picture looks best when you imagine a tic-tac-toe board on top of your picture you're going to take. Remember that we're wanting a photo to look 3 dimensional! Part of that is arranging it in combination with "Framing" and "Leading Lines" techniques, but putting objects in "3rds" on the photo. For example: In a mountain scene the landscape in the bottom screen—maybe even a tree or rock to help it look "more 3-D"—the mountains in the middle 3rd, and the sky in the top third.

Another Illustration: If you're taking a picture of a landscape with puffy clouds, take one picture where 2/3 of the picture is composed of the clouds and the landscape fills the bottom 1/3. Then try with 1/3 clouds and 2/3 landscape. Notice how different this same landscape looks with the "3rds" changed from top to bottom!

f. Angle - eye level, high and low angle
Subjects look different depending on where you are in relation to them when you take the picture.

You'll need three photos for this requirement, though they don't have to be of the same object. A High-angle, Mid-angle, and Low-angle photograph.

High angle means: looking down on your subject

Mid-angle means: looking at your subject straight on.

Low-angle means: looking up at your subject

For this requirement, take a subject, such as some tall straight trees, and take a picture looking straight at them, then another one by laying on the ground looking up through the trees. Did the angle make a difference?

h. Distance from subject - fill the frame
Have you ever taken a picture of a beautiful flower or some animals but when the photo came back, you had to explain to friends "that dot is a pretty rose," and "that dot over there is a buffalo."?

Filling the frame is all about making your subject (what you're taking a picture of) fill up most of the picture frame. This means standing closer to the subject than you're ordinarily used to doing and making sure there's not a lot of "green space" around your subject.

Some ideas for Pathfinders:
 * Take a picture of your whole youth group. Be sure there are some standing and some standing/sitting in front of them. Then, get close enough so that there is almost NO "background green space" around them. You'll be impressed with how nice it is to have a photo that shows the expressions on everybody's face.
 * Take a picture of your best friend while they're eating at a campout or lockin. Don't try to take a picture of the whole room, but zoom in on their upper body and the top of the table with the plate of food. You'll both laugh when you see the photo that shows how shocked your friend was at your "surprise" picture.

i. Use of leading lines
Leading lines are anything in a photograph that will help lead your eyes towards the main subject. For example, do you want people eyes to travel "down the road into the sunset, just like the bus is doing? Or, do you want people to see the big cafeteria on the hill where you and your fellow pathfinders ate all weekend?

Leading Lines also help your photograph's "depth." If your eyes are able to wander into the picture, then your brain will think the picture looks more real, like the real 3-D world we live in.

Ideas for pathfinders:

 * Roads: take a picture of a windy road that leads to nowwhere; The road that leads to camporee or the road into the campsite you're staying at this weekend may also be a good leading line.
 * Trails
 * Fence Posts / Fence lines
 * Tall buildings or tall trees. Take pictures straight up, and use those tall lines to guide your eyes to a Mountain peak, or to the sun / moon shining overhead.

j. Quality of light - shade, sunlight, and time of day

 * The best light conditions are 1 1/2 hours before sunset or the first hour after sunrise. The reason is that the light isn't SO BRIGHT that it washes out the colors in your picture, but at the same time the shadows are long (which makes side lighting pictures look extra special). Also, the sunset or sunrise gives off a kind of "pink" or "orange" light, which makes many nature pictures look very friendly & special. If you want to know when sunrise and sunset are going to be, check out www.adventist.org's sunset calendar!
 * Be careful of evening shadows when photographing people. long shadows on faces hide features and expressions!
 * Pictures taken during the middle of the day will be "stark" with hard lines and minimal shadows. Buildings & some landscapes such as mountains look especially regal or majestic during the middle of the day. Just remember that if you take a picture during the middle of the day, shade the top of the lens of your camera by placing one of your hands or a piece of paper horizontal about 2" above the lens to form a "shade for the lens. This will keep pink & blue "sparks" from showing up on your photos.
 * When there is no sunshine (on a rainy day) don't give up on taking pictures! Zoom in close on flowers and other colorful objects. The color will be extra deep since its not being "washed out" by the sun. Fog which often accompanies soft rain also makes a very nice soft hazy look. Just be sure to protect you lens from specks of rain!

l. Use of flash - distance and reflective objects
Most flashes should be used no closer to a subject than 6 feet. and more than 20 feet away. Any closer and it will "wash out" your subject, (depending on flash), and any farther away, the light won't even reach. For example: Have you ever seen people use a flash at a football game, or in a large stadium in hopes of getting photos of the people on the field? The flash won't help because its too far away!

Don't try to use a flash when there is a reflective object directly in front of the lens. For example, a mirror or window behind your friends, or the fishtank glass between you and that shark at SeaWorld. Move off to the side diagonally a little, so that the light, when it flashes off the reflective object, won't bounce directly back to your lens, but instead will bounce into empty space beside you!

Use the flash to fill in shadows. If your subject has side-lighting erasing the features on its face that you want to capture on film, use the flash to erase the shadows. BE SURE you're far enough away, or the whol picture will be blotted out!

Some ideas for Pathfinders:

 * Try using a flash when your friends are in a dark cave or room. Arrange them 6 feet away from your camera, then take 2 pictures. One with a flash and one without. Notice the difference. Now take one with your friend(s) only 3 feet away. What happened?
 * At your next campout, just before sunset grab some friends and have them stand in front of camp, with the sunlight coming from one side, casting shadows on their faces. Take 2 pictures. One with fill-in flash, and one without. What was the difference?

a. Tell how black and white film is developed into negatives and print eight of your own pictures.

Photographic film is a sheet of plastic (polyester, nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate) which is coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive silver halide salts (bonded by gelatin) with different crystal sizes that determine the sensitivity and resolution of the film. When this emulsion is subjected to sufficient exposure to light, it forms a latent (invisible) image. Chemical processes are then applied to the film to create a visible image, in a process called film developing.

In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver salts. When the exposed areas are developed, the silver salts are changed to metallic silver, which block light and appear as the black part of the film negative.

Here is additional information on negatives for a more complete perspective on film & negatives

In photography, a negative may refer to 3 different things, although they are all related.

A negative Film for common 35mm cameras comes in long narrow strips of chemical coated plastic. As each image is captured by the camera onto the film strip, the film strip advances so that the next image is projected onto unexposed film. When the film is developed it is a long strip of small negative images. This strip is often cut into sections for easier handling. In larger cameras this piece of film may be as large as a full sheet of paper, or even larger, with a single image captured onto one piece. Each of these negative images may be referred to as a negative and the entire strip or set of images may be collectively referred to as negatives. These negative images are the master images, from which all other copies will be made, and they are treated with care and handled with caution.

Negative image A positive image is a normal image. A negative image is a tonal inversion of a positive image, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow.

Negative film Due to happenstance, many photographic processes create negative images: the chemicals involved react when exposed to light, and during developing these exposed chemicals are retained and become opaque while the unexposed chemicals are washed away. However, when a negative image is created from a negative image (just like multiplying two negative numbers in mathematics) a positive image results (see Color print film, C-41 process). This makes most chemical based photography a two step process. These are called negative, films and processes. Special films and development processes have been devised such that positive images can be created directly from film, these are called positive, or slide, or (perhaps confusingly) reversal film (see Transparency, Black and white reversal film, E-6 process).

b. Tell how slides are made and develop one roll of film.
|

Slides (otherwise called transparency) is a still, positive image created on a transparent base using photochemical means. This is opposite of negatives.

The earliest color photography was the Autochrome process. This used an additive 'screen-plate' method which produced a color slide, but was fairly dim and the color resolution was limited by the fineness of the screen-plate.

When developing a slide, the film is first developed to a negative image and then reversed to a positive image.

Eventually, a practical method using a 'subtractive' method was the Kodachrome process, the first commercially successful amateur color film, introduced in 1935. It produced much brighter color transparencies. The Kodachrome K-14 developing process is very complicated and requires technicians with extensive chemistry training, as well as large machinery which is extremely difficult to operate. This complexity discourages use by home amateurs or small laboratories. In the early 1990s Kodak offered the "K-Lab" process to small labs in an attempt to increase the availability of the K-14 process, but ultimately this was not successful; with the final two K-Lab -equipped labs (Horiuchi Color in Tokyo and Kodak's own plant in Lausanne) shutting down and Kodak discontinuing the "B-I-B" (bag-in-box) K-14 chemistry required for the K-Lab.

After K14 processing was discontinued, Ektachrome and Fujichrome slide films are the only remaining color reversal films that can be readily processed in many cities and larger professional photo studios.

The E-6 process is used for developing Ektachrome, Fujichrome, and other color reversal (slide) photographic film.

Here's the three step processing:
 * 1) Pre-warm
 * 2) First developer and reversal
 * 3) First wash
 * 4) Color developer
 * 5) Second wash
 * 6) Bleach-Fix
 * 7) Wash
 * 8) Stabilizer (final rinse)

Here's the more technical conventional six step processing.

/Completed Honors


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Pinewood Derby - Advanced

2. Know the Pinewood Derby race regulations for your district, area, or conference.
NOTE: Many conferences have special Pinewood Derby events and the rules may vary as to length, weight and wheels.

12. Define and practice good sportsmanship as it relates to your Christian walk.
While building and racing a pinewood derby car your Christian walk may be tested. If someone needed help on their design, did you help? If you are having trouble cutting your own car, did you accept help? Did you clean up your work area so the next person had a clean place to work, or so the staff didn’t have to clean up after you? Did you have to wait a while to use some of the tools? Being patient isn’t always easy.

Jesus was a Carpenter…………Jesus may have spent many hours in a wood shop……I wonder if He helped Joseph,…..design, transfer the design, clamp the wood, cut the wood with a saw, file, sand smooth, paint, assemble. I wonder,…..how many tools did Jesus know how to use, that you just used yourself? I wonder………………..

Note: If you are planning to participate in a conference Pinewood Derby event be sure you use the correct specifications from your conference because some use different specifications than listed above.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Wikibooks talk:Requests for deletion

Review of book's content
Kindly take a look at Talk:Pinyin. --Minorax (discuss • contribs) 13:38, 12 March 2021 (UTC)

Jaffa Darren Andrew
UK labourer Pebbles221 (discuss • contribs) 23:48, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Requests for deletion


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Plaster Craft

1. What is the principal ingredient of plaster of Paris?
Plaster of Paris is based on calcium sulfate which is derived from gypsum.

Preparing the mold
Plastic molds generally cannot support themselves once they are filled with wet plaster, so you must prepare a support base to set them on. This support base can be as simple as a sealable plastic bag filled with uncooked rice or sand. Squeeze as much air out of the bag as you can, and then lay the bag flat on the work surface. Place the mold on top of it and press it into the support, wiggling it around until the support conforms to the shape of the mold. Try to get the mold as level as possible. Once the mold is in place and well supported, coat the mold with mold spray (see requirement 3).

Mixing the plaster
The most fool proof way to mix dry plaster powder with water is to weigh them. Use seven parts plaster to 10 parts water by weight. If you know how much your plaster weighs, multiply that weight by 1.43 to get the required weight of the water. It's a lot easier to do this using the metric system, because a milliliter of water weighs one gram. So if you know how many grams of water you need, that's also the number of milliliters of water you need. Let's run through an example:

If you have one kilogram of plaster (that's 1000 grams), you will need $$1000 \times 1.43 = 1430$$ milliliters (1.43 liters) of water.

Pour cold water into a plastic mixing bowl, and then add the plaster powder to it, stirring as you go. Warm water will set faster - maybe too fast! Never add water to plaster - always add the plaster to the water.

Stir the plaster and water until it is well mixed. Allow it to sit for no more than two minutes to allow the plaster to fully absorb the water and quit bubbling. If desired, this is the time to add pigment for color. Add the pigment and mix it in with a power drill (using a paint mixing attachment). You can also use a potato masher, and for small amounts, you can just use a stick. If using a power drill, do not over do it, as blending it will hasten the setting time. Take it easy!

Pouring the plaster
Pour the wet plaster into one corner of the mold and allow the plaster to flow across to the other side. When the mold is full, tap it a few times to help work out any air bubbles. If you need a hanger, place it in the plaster at the top (pay attention!). You can buy hangers or you can use a paper clip. Make sure the hanger is well embedded in the plaster.

Releasing the mold
Once the plaster heats up, you can remove it from the mold. Do this by gently pulling the edges of the mold away from the cast piece. Work your way around until the mold has been separated all around (it's OK to let the mold snap back into place). Do not overflex the mold or you may crease it. Turn the mold upside down over the support base (the bag of rice) and gently shake it until the piece pops out. It should land gently on the support base. Set the piece aside to allow it to finish curing. For fastest curing, set the piece on a grate so that air may circulate over all surfaces.

3. Know how to remove air bubbles from a poured item.
Air bubbles are caused by the surface tension of the water mixed into the plaster. This surface tension can be eliminated by spraying a mold treatment such as Airid onto the mold before pouring the plaster. The mold treatment will reduce the surface tension and prevent bubbles from forming.

You can also mix up a small amount of new plaster and apply it onto any holes in the finished piece with an artist's brush. Let it dry for an hour before painting.

4. Know how the setup time can be increased or decreased for plaster.
You can speed up the setup time by using hot water, or slow it down by using cold water.

5. What precautions should be taken when cleaning the mixing and pouring equipment?
Under no circumstances should you rinse plaster down the sink! Remember that plaster hardens when it comes into contact with water - it will set even when fully immersed. If you pour it down the drain, you are asking for a very expensive plumbing repair. The easiest way to clean plaster out of the plastic mixing bowl is to just let it set. Then flex the bowl and the plaster will pop out. Make sure you put the plaster in the trash - not in the sink!

To get plaster off a potato masher or paint blender, strike it smartly with a hammer. The plaster should flake right off.

Wipe your molds out with a damp paper towel.

6. When is a sealant applied to a plaster item and why?
Acrylic sealant is sprayed onto a piece after the paint has dried. This will preserve the color and strengthen the surface of the piece. You can select matte sealants or gloss sealants. Matte sealants will seal the item without having much of an effect on the way it looks. Glossy sealants will brighten the colors and make the piece more shiny.

Be sure to check that the sealant you choose is compatible with the paint you have used. Some combinations can cause the colors to run. If in doubt, paint and seal a piece of scrap first, or apply them to the back or bottom of the piece to test for compatibility.

7. What type of paint is best to use on plaster craft items?
Acrylic paint is the most commonly used type of paint in plaster craft. It is water soluble and cleans up easily.

==8. Paint three items that will include the following designs and techniques or equivalent: a. Floral to show shading b. Fruit to show highlighting  c. Animal to show fine line or detail  d. Religious motto to show letter highlighting == Start by applying a basecoat. Allow it to dry and the begin painting the lightest colors first. If you make a mistake, let the paint dry for five minutes and then paint the desired color over the undesired one.

For shading, paint the lighter color on to the piece. Then mix the darker color on you pallet and paint it on an adjacent area. Rinse and dry the brush, and then use it to blend the light and darker areas together. For highlighting a fruit, paint the entire fruit the color of your choice. While the paint is still wet, put a small amount of white paint on a clean brush and paint a small circle on the area you wish to highlight. Work the circle into the wet paint surrounding the highlighted area, blending the paint as you go. For fine lines, use a brush with a very fine tip. Add a small amount of paint to the brush and draw the tip over the area using a steady hand. Experiment with resting the base of your palm on a table as you paint (do your experiments on something other than your piece!) When you think you've got the hang of it, try it on your piece. For raised lettering, paint the background first. Let it dry, and then carefully paint the top surface of the letters. For painting free-form letters on a flat surface, practice on some scrap first until you get the hang of it. Plan our what you will letter, being careful to center it on the piece.
 * Shading:
 * Highlighting:
 * Fine lines:
 * Lettering:

9. Mold and paint two additional items of different designs.
The easiest items to cast are open-top molds. It is best to not try 3D or two-part molds until you have a little more experience, though these can certainly be used to fulfill this requirement. The reference links below offer hundreds of molds that you can purchase and reuse. You should also be able find molds at your local craft stores.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Plastics

1. Make a list of the materials and equipment used in making small castings in plastic molds.

 * Plastic resin
 * Catalyst
 * Eye dropper (for adding the catalyst)
 * Plastic disposable cup
 * Craft stick (for stirring)
 * A plastic mold
 * An embeddable object
 * Newspapers
 * Goggles, gloves, and a smock (or old clothes)
 * Mold release

2. Know how to clean and properly take care of plastic molds.
Be careful not to scratch your molds, as even a small scratch will be transferred to the cast. Once the resin has cured and the cast has been popped out, the mold can simply be wiped clean. You can also use acetone for cleaning up, but be forewarned - acetone is flammable and (like plastic casting in general) should only be used in a well-ventilated area, well away from an open flame (such as a water heater, furnace, pilot light, or gas stove).

Store your molds in a separate container by themselves when not in use. Do not store them with other objects such as tools, as these can easily scratch the molds.

3. What safety precautions should be used when working with plastics?

 * Go over these safety rules with your Pathfinders before opening any chemicals.
 * Wear protective gear, including safety goggles, gloves, and an apron or smock.
 * Read and heed all manufacturer warnings.
 * Know what to do if the chemicals come into contact with a person (skin, eyes, or if ingested) before opening them.
 * Use only in a well-ventilated area, preferably outside.
 * Use only under adult supervision
 * Do not pour resin down a drain. It may cause an expensive clog.

4. Tell how to mix resin for casting and colored layers.
Pour the correct volume of resin into a plastic cup. Do not use a waxed paper cup for this, as the wax will ruin the resin. Then use an eye dropper to add the correct amount of catalyst. Read the directions to see how much catalyst you need for the amount of resin you are using. Thoroughly mix the resin and the catalyst with a craft stick by using a cutting motion - this will minimize the introduction of air bubbles into the resin (which you will want to avoid as much as possible).

Resin can be mixed with either pigments or dyes made for that purpose. Pigments will create opaque plastic, and dyes will create transparent plastic. Only use dyes and pigments formulated for the exact type of resin you are using. Opaque plastic is generally limited to the base layer only - otherwise, the embedded object will obviously not be seen.

a. Catalyst
The catalyst causes the liquid resin to undergo polymerization.

b. Surface hardener
The resin that comes into contact with the mold will cure to a hard, crystal clear finish. However, the exposed surface (i.e., the top of the mold) may not. The last layer of resin should be mixed with a surface hardening agent so that it will cure completely.

c. Pigments
Pigments are used to color the plastic to add interest to the casting.

6. What is meant by polymerization?
Polymerization is a chemical reaction in which monomers are assembled to form long chains or three-dimensional networks. In short, this is the chemical process that converts the liquid resin into the solid plastic.

7. Prepare and embed two nature items suitable for embedding. Nature items may be embedded in one or more castings.
The first step is to choose the nature items to be embedded. Popular choices include dead insects, leaves, flowers, rocks, seeds, nuts, and shells. Once the items have been selected, it is time to prepare a work area.

Cover the work surface with newspapers or plastic bags. You can also use an old pizza box or a large piece of cardboard as a work surface. Once this has been done, put on your protective gear (goggles, apron, and gloves).

Fill your mold with water, and then dump the water into a measuring cup. This will tell you exactly how much resin you will need, though you will want to divide that up to form multiple layers. For example, if your mold has a volume of six ounces and you want to pour two layers, you will need to mix three ounces in the first batch, and three more in the second.

Carefully dry the mold and examine it for imperfections (such as scratches). Any imperfections in the mold will be transferred to the cast item. If you find an imperfection, your only options are to either live with them, or use a different mold. Once you are satisfied with the mold, spray it with mold release. Some people do not use mold release in order to save time, or money, but this is a false economy. Mold release greatly increases the number of times you can reuse the mold, and the time it takes to spray it into the mold is a tiny fraction of the amount of time it will take you to get the casting out of the mold once it cures. Hence, we highly recommend using mold release.

Mix the resin in accordance with the general instructions given in requirement 4, but be sure to read the mixing instructions that came with the resin for specifics.

For a two layer casting, fill the mold with resin to the half way point. Then let the resin cure for about 25 minutes so that it forms a gel. You make probe the resin with a craft stick to make sure it's the right consistency, but do not use your finger for this. Doing so risks spoiling the resin.

After the first layer has gelled, carefully place the embeddable object (or objects) on the surface of the resin. You may wish to do this with tweezers. Then mix a second batch of resin, noting the instructions on the container. The second (and successive batches) of resin usually has a different ratio of resin to catalyst. Once it is properly mixed, pour it over the embedded object. Place the mold some place where it will be out of the way for the next 24 hours and let it cure for at least that amount of time. After 24 hours, you should be able to pop the cast out of the mold (you did remember to use mold release, didn't you?).

Place a very fine grade sand paper on a flat surface (a piece of plate glass works wonderfully), and then sand any rough spots on the cast item by gently rubbing it over the sand paper. Then buff it with a soft cloth.

8. Make three castings with at least one item embedded in each casting.
These embeddables do not need to be nature items. You can cast any small item you like. Many people cast coins or small toys. Follow the instructions given in requirement 7.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Pottery

1. Write or explain orally the different types and uses of pottery and the materials used in making it.
Pottery includes all tiles, dishes, and other articles that are made of baked clay. The finest type of pottery is called porcelain. All other pottery is called earthenware or stoneware. Man made earthenware long before he discovered how to make porcelain.

It is usually easy to tell the difference between earthenware and porcelain.

Earthenware is opaque. That is, no light will show through it. Thin porcelain is translucent; that is, light will show through it. The clay of which earthenware is made may be red, brown, yellow, gray, bluish, or white. The mixture of which porcelain is made is white all the way through.

CLAYS

Clays come from different geological sources and vary in the extent of the weathering of particles. In the course of erosion, they become mixed with each other, as well as with impurities. Because of these variables in their composi-tion, clays cannot be classified precisely. The clays are graded according to general type.

Kaolin

Kaoline is a very pure, white, primary clay. Because it has coarse particles, it is not very plastic and shrinks only slightly. It is very refractory -- that is, when fired, it matures at a very high temperature (3272° F.). Because of its low plasticity and high refractoriness, kaolin is rarely used alone. Other materials are mixed with it to enhance its workability and to lower its maturation temperature.

Ball Clays

These are fine-grained, highly plastic secondary clays. They are largely free of impurities, and they mature at a high temperature (2372° F.). Because of their great shrinkage, up to 20 percent when fired, they cannot be used alone.

Ball clays are often mixed with kaolin.

Fire Clays

These clays are very refractory, resistant to heat up to high temperatures (2732° F.). Some fire clays are quite plastic; others lack plasticity. Coarse-particled fire clay is sometimes added to stoneware clay to give it more "tooth," to roughen the texture of the clay and help it hold its shape when wet.

Stoneware

These are plastic clays that are fired to a fairly high temperature (2192° F.-2372° F.) Sometimes they are used just as they are found in the earth, but more often they are mixed with different clays and other additives.

Earthenware

These are the most common natural clays.

They contain significant

amounts of iron and other impurities, which act as fluxes. That is, they reduce the maturation temperature of the clay (1742° F.-2012° F.). Unlike stoneware and other higher firing clays, earthenware is somewhat soft and porous after it is fired. Earthenwares vary in their plasticity and color in accordance with the presence of different impurities.

Porcelain

Porcelain is made of kaolin, ball clay, feldspar, and flint (a form of silica).

It is the highest firing (2372° F.) workable clay, and it fires to a translucent white color. Its low plasticity makes it difficult to use.

The Persians used gorgeous and dazzling color effects in the glazed tiles that they used to decorate both the inside and outside walls of their buildings. Some of the finest and most prized blue and white Delftware owes its charm mainly to the decorations adapted from the designs on the Chinese blue and white plates, platters, bowls, and teapots. Italy is known for the glazed flora tiles of the Renaissance.

Stoneware is made in both America and Europe. It has a very hard gray body. It is salt-glazed and slightly decorated with underglaze blue. It occurs usually in the form of beer mugs, butter crocks, pickle jars, and the like.

2. What is the purpose of a glaze? Describe the specific dangers to be avoided.
Glazing puts a shiny coating on pottery. Sometimes a glaze is applied for practical reasons.

Glazing the inside of a bowl, jar, or pitcher will keep it from

absorbing any of the liquid it is meant to contain. Also, a coating of glaze will give a perfectly smooth, hard surface to a body of coarse or rough texture. Sometimes glaze is applied merely to decorate a piece or to make it appear more finished.

Glazes are of various sorts and have different properties. Lead glaze is made chiefly of a finely ground mixture of silicates or sand and oxide of lead. It is transparent. Tin glaze, or stanniferous glaze, is made of silicates and tin oxides finely ground together. It is opaque white. Salt glaze is made of salt and is transparent.

The lead and tin glazes are applied in a liquid state to a piece that has been air-dried or previously fired. Sometimes they are painted on with a brush. At other times the piece of pottery is dipped into the glazing mixture. The article is then allowed to dry before it is fired to fuse the glaze. As the glaze melts, it blends with the clay body to give a smooth, non-porous glassy surface. Salt glaze is applied by throwing salt into the top of the kiln.

Lead poisoning is a serious matter, and the possibility of contracting it while working with lead glazes should not be discounted. Glazes should never be sprayed.

3. Design and draw two pottery forms, one of which must be decorated.
Your first step will be on a piece of cardboard to make a full-size sketch of the pottery piece you want to make. If you are making something with a neck, be sure the neck is large enough to get your fingers inside. Once you are satisfied with the design, cut it out of the cardboard and then cut it in half. Use this to check your work to be sure in conforms to your design.

To start out, keep the designs simple - both the design of the project and the design of the decoration for the piece. Get some pottery books from the library to give you ideas for your design, but don't copy them. Be original.

f. Throw a simple vase on a potter's wheel
Given here are some general instructions in the use of clay no matter which project you may wish to accomplish.

Wedging

Every time clay is used, it should be wedged first. This is one of the oldest methods known for getting clay into good condition; and it is still one of the best.

Wedging board

Many potters use a wedging board (shown above). This is a heavy slab of plaster with an upright to hold a taut wire with a turnbuckle or some other device to keep the wire tight. A wedging board receives a lot of rough usage, so it should be constructed as solidly as possible. With use, the surface of the plaster will become scored and rough. For this reason, some potters fasten canvas over the plaster surface

To use the wedging board, take a lump of clay about the size of an orange; pass it beneath the wire. Then grasping it in both hands, lift it upward so that the wire cuts it in half. Throw one of the halves onto the plaster surface, and throw the other half on top of it so that one lump is formed. Pick this lump up, cut it in half again and throw the two halves onto the plaster once more, one on top of the other. Slam them hard! To get maximum mixing action, keep the layers going the same way.

A good device is to throw the halves together with the cut portions always pointing away from you. Cut and wedge about 20 times before using the clay. When the last cut has been made, the cut portion should be even in tone with no striations or air pockets.

Many potters prefer to condition their clay by kneading it almost the way a baker kneads his dough. A larger lump of clay - as much as ten pounds or more -- can be conditioned this way, and the method dispenses with the need for a wedging board. The kneading can be done on a heavy table with a bare wooden top or a top covered with canvas

Storing Clay

Moist clay can be stored in covered pails of galvanized iron or plastic; plastic is better.

Reclaiming Clay

Until it is fired, clay can be used over and over again. Dry clay should be broken into small pieces, tossed into a pail half filled with water, and allowed to soak a few hours. After the clay has settled into the bottom of the pail, the water may be poured off and the clay emptied into drying bats. A drying bat is a large plaster bowl into which liquid clay can be poured and allowed to dry until it is firm enough for wedging.

Tools

Don't buy too many tools for pottery. Many kitchen utensils make good potter's tools, such as paring knives, spoons, etc. Extra tools might include a potter's knife.

These are made of two kinds of steel: one is firm, the other is soft so that it can be bent into different hook shapes. You will also need some sponges, a wooden modeling tool or two (one with a wire loop end), a steel kidney-shaped scraper, and some type of turntable.

to be continued


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Talk:Introduction to Sociology/Politics and Government

Needs Work!
This is a poor module, but could be good. It seems almost complete, but is littered with red links. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks, even though it needs work. PLEASE help clean this module up! Tannersf 01:20, 5 December 2006 (UTC)


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Sculpturing

2. Model two or more examples of toy animals, using a sculpture medium.
You can use clay, playdoh, or sculpting medium clay.

3. Make a model of the human hand or foot, using a sculpture medium.
The easiest type is a thumb in a good job thumbs up position.

4. From a living model, make a statue "in the round" of the human head, using a sculpturing medium (not necessarily life size).
Use a easy clay material to shape up and use tools to do facial details.


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The Computer Revolution/Artificial Intelligence/Translators

Reserved Group 6

Introduction
There are many resources you can use when you need a word translated for you. The internet is always a good source for sites, but if you require one for on the go, you may purchase different types of translator from stores or offline places such as Ebay. When you purchase a translator check and see if the translator you purchased is capable of translating in the language of your choice.

pocket
There are pocket translators such as the PDAs, or the Yishen888(Super). There are many options to choose from with the ability to translate multiple languages. These translators can cost at least $100 CDN. The TG470Plus can translate phrses in 12 different languages is around $100 CDN.

Online
Many sites that are able to provide free translation. There are sites such as babelfish, and of course freetranslations.com. The easiest way to find sites is just to search for translators through any search engine.

Free online multilingual translation software for English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian and Spanish languages. This is another great link for translation.

www.translation2.paralink.com

Weakness
Translators as helpful as they are some obstacles that they need to overcome. When dealing with slang and idioms, translators are unsure of what the saying is really suppose to be so they often choose words that can confuse an origional saying. There is also a problem, that I have encountered, is the grammar from online sites. I have most commonly seen people trusting sites to translate perfectly, but have problems when it comes to the grammar. Hopefully someone can figure out how to overcome these problems so it is easier.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Silk Screen Printing

1. List the tools and equipment necessary for silk screen printing.

 * a) a  screen  made of porous, finely woven fabric (originally silk, but typically made of polyester since the 1940s)
 * b) stretched over a frame  of aluminum or wood areas of the screen are blocked off with a non-permeable material to form a stencil, which is a positive of the image to be printed; that is, the open spaces are where the ink will appear.
 * c) The screen is placed atop a substrate  such as papyrus or fabric.
 * d)  Ink  is placed on top of the screen,
 * e) and a fill bar  (also known as a floodbar) is used to fill the mesh openings with ink. The operator begins with the fill bar at the rear of the screen and behind a reservoir of ink. The operator lifts the screen to prevent contact with the substrate and then using a slight amount of downward force pulls the fill bar to the front of the screen. This effectively fills the mesh openings with ink and moves the ink reservoir to the front of the screen.
 * f) The operator then uses a squeegee  (rubber blade) to move the mesh down to the substrate and pushes the squeegee to the rear of the screen. The ink that is in the mesh opening is transferred by capillary action to the substrate in a controlled and prescribed amount, i.e. the wet ink deposit is equal to the thickness of the stencil. As the squeegee moves toward the rear of the screen the tension of the mesh pulls the mesh up away from the substrate leaving the ink upon the substrate surface.

2. Name three kinds of inks suitable for silk screen printing.
There are five different types of screen ink to include solvent, water, and solvent plastisol, water plastisol, and UV curable.

UV Curable UV curable inks consist of liquid prepolymers, monomers, and initiators which upon being exposed to large doses of U.V. Radiation instantly polymerize the vehicle to a dry, tough thermosetting resin. They also require less energy, overall, to dry or "cure" compared to gas or electric driers.

The down side of UV inks is they can cost as much as three times that of regular inks and must be handled differently than conventional inks due to safety issues. Additionally, solvents are required for clean-up which results in some VOC emissions.

Plastisol Inks Plastisol inks (both solvent and water based) are used in textile screen printing.

Solvent Inks & Water Inks Solvent and water based screen printing inks are formulated with primarily solvent or water. The solvent evaporates and results in VOC emissions. Water based inks, though they contain significantly less, may still emit VOC’s from small amounts of solvent and other additives blended into the ink. The liquid waste material may also be considered hazardous waste.

3. List at least three industrial uses of the silk screen process.
Screen printing can be used to print on a wide variety of materials, including paper, paperboard, plastics, glass, metals, fabrics, and many other materials. Some common products from the screen printing industry include posters, labels, decals, signage, and all types of textiles and electronic circuit boards.

4. Tell how bottles and round surfaces are printed.
Non-flat surfaces are printed using a transfer pad like an imprinter with a silicone printing pad.

 * Here's a Wikipedia article: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pad_printing
 * Here's a description of the pad printing process: http://www.screenweb.com/index.php/channel/8/id/1609
 * Here's a picture of such a device: http://www.imprintor.com/starterset.html
 * Here's an animated process: http://www.pdsconsulting.co.uk/Printing%20Process/Pad/Pad.htm

==5. Make a design, transfer the design to a screen, and screen print one of the following projects: a. At least ten greeting cards b. At least three posters c. Print a design on fabric d. Comparable project of your choice==

There are two tricky aspects to making a good silk screen print. The first is coming up with a good silk screen, and the second is transferring the design to the card, poster, or fabric. There are a number of ways to create the silk screen, each with a varying level of difficulty, and with varying degrees of quality. Naturally, the more complicated techniques produce the most professional results (at least in the hands of the professionals).

The method that is most likely to result in a successful print with the least amount of fuss, is to directly paint the blocking material on the silk screen. Before doing this, it is best to place tape around the edges of the screen on both the top and the bottom, making sure the inside edges of the tape line up. This will prevent paint from leaking out around the edges of the frame.

Second, place a sketch of the desired design (whether drawn by hand, printed from a computer, or taken from the page of a magazine), and trace it onto the silkscreen with a pencil, being sure that the entire design fits within the limits of the tape. Once the design can be plainly seen, use the blocking paint to begin filling in the negative - that is, you paint over the parts of the design that should not print. Allow the paint to dry.

Hold the screen up to a light to make sure that there are no holes in the negative portion of the screen where paint can leak through. If there are holes, seal them with more blocker. When you are happy with the result, make a test print on a sheet of paper or cardboard. It's a little scary to make your first print on an $18 sweatshirt, so it's a good idea to get comfortable making the prints on a disposable surface. Once you get the hang of it, try it on a shirt (or whatever you like).

After making several prints, you may notice that the screen begins to clog. At this point, you will need to take the screen to a sink and rinse out the paint. You may use a soft brush to scrub the screen lightly, but be careful not to remove any of the blocker. Shake it dry, check for unintended holes, and you should be ready to print some more.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Silk Screen Printing - Advanced

2. Properly stretch and secure silk screen fabric to a frame.
The frame is made of wood, and should allow a three inch border around the artwork to be printed. In other words, if the artwork is four inches across, the frame must be 4+3+3=10 inches wide, allowing for a three inch boarder on both sides. This is true of both the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the frame. You can buy a frame from a silkscreen supplier, or build one yourself, but it is critically important that it be flat on the bottom. You can also use a wooden picture frame or a frame made for stretching an artist's canvas.

Once the frame has been selected, you should stretch the screen over it and staple it about once per inch. Make sure there are no wrinkles. Once the screen has been securely attached, trim around the edges with scissors.

3. Know what fabrics can be used in silk screening and the advantages of each. What factors influence the choice of mesh count for the screen?
Silk was the first type of fabric used in silk screening, and lent its name to the art. It is still used sometimes, but polyesters are cheaper and are commonly used today. There are two types of polyesters used in silk screening, monofilament and multifilament. Monofilaments are made from single strands of polyester, whereas multifilaments are made from multiple strands twisted together. Monofilaments are preferred, as they are less elastic and can therefore be stretched much tighter than multifilaments. They are also more sturdy and can be used repeatedly in printing several runs. Further, monofilaments can be used to create more finely registered prints. However, multifilaments produce a slightly different texture in the printed product, and sometimes this is preferred. Indeed, the use of multifilaments are common in the industry.

The mesh count is the number of threads per inch in the silk screen. The higher the mesh count, the finer the detail in the finished product. However, one must also consider the type of ink used and make sure that it is well-matched to the mesh count. Some inks will not penetrate through a very fine mesh.

a. Hand cut film stencil method
In this method, a sheet of film which has been coated with lacquer is cut into a stencil with a sharp knife. The film is generally available at art supply store. Once it has been cut out, lacquer thinner is used to adhere the film to the outside of the silkscreen (the part that comes into contact with the item being printed). If the stencil is adhered to the other side of the screen, the squeegee can remove the lacquer during the printing process.

After the film has been adhered to the screen, it is allowed to set until it is dry. The film is then peeled off the screen, leaving the lacquer behind.


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Talk:Visual Language Interpreting/Teams

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems completed and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 01:43, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Visual Language Interpreting/Teams


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Soap Craft - Advanced

2. What types of fats can be used in making soap?
Any fat that can undergo saponification can be used for making soap. Saponifiables are components of an oily (oil, fat, wax) mixture that form soaps when blended with lye.

3. What is used in making soap transparent?
Transparent soap can be made by re-melting a batch of regular, opaque soap and adding alcohol and glycerin to it. The alcohol reduces the size of the crystals that form as the soap cools, and when these crystals are small enough, they will no longer reflect light. Rather, the light will easily pass between them and the soap will appear transparent.

5. What are some cleaning aids added to soap mixtures?

 * Abrasives: Gritty substances are added to soap to help it scrub away dirt. There are many abrasives that are used as soap additives including:
 * Almond meal
 * Bran
 * Cinnamon
 * Cornmeal
 * Oatmeal
 * Pumice (volcanic rock)
 * Sand
 * Wheat germ

 * Cleansers: A cleanser is used used to remove make-up, dead skin cells, oil, dirt and other types of pollutants from the skin of the face. This helps to unclog pores and prevent skin conditions such as acne. Some additives that act as cleansers include:
 * Cucumber
 * Milk (cow, goat, etc)
 * Witch hazel

 * Emollients: Emollients are substances that soften and soothe the skin. They are used to correct dryness and scaling of the skin. Additives that act as emollients include:
 * Honey
 * Glycerin
 * Lanolin
 * Rose water

 * Antibacterials: These additives kill bacteria. Additives that act as antibacterials include:
 * Lemon
 * Myrrh
 * Sage

6. What makes soap float?
Floating soaps (such as Ivory) have had air whipped into them when they were in liquid form. The air bubbles reduce the density of the final product making it lighter than an equal volume of water. Any substance that is lighter than an equal volume of water will float on water.

7. What makes soap hard?
Stearic acid is the primary soap hardener, but several additives have that effect (to a lesser degree) as well including:
 * Salt
 * Cocoa butter
 * Sodium lactate

9. Explain two methods of making soap. Make a batch of soap by one of these methods.
The two primary methods of making soap are the hot process and the cold process. In both cold-process and hot-process soapmaking, heat may be required for saponification.

Cold-process soapmaking takes place at a sufficient temperature to ensure the liquification of the fat being used. The lye and fat may be kept warm after mixing to ensure that the soap is completely saponified.

Unlike cold-processed soap, hot-processed soap can be used right away because lye and fat saponify more quickly at the higher temperatures used in hot-process soapmaking.

Hot-process soapmaking was used when the purity of lye was unreliable, and this process can use natural lye solutions, such as potash. The main benefit of hot processing is that the exact concentration of the lye solution does not need to be known to perform the process with adequate success.

Cold-process soapmaking requires exact measurements of lye and fat amounts and computing their ratio, using saponification charts to ensure that the finished product is mild and skin-friendly. Saponification charts can also be used in hot-process soapmaking, but are not as necessary as in cold-process soapmaking.

The recipe detailed below is a cold-process method.

a. Visit a soap-making establishment, commercial or non-commercial.
You can visit a commercial manufacturer of soaps or find a soap-making school near you.

b. Obtain information from a soap-making firm about how soap is made.
Back when this honor was first developed, it was assumed that you would probably write a letter to a soapmaker to obtain this information. Soapmakers would have information packets that they would send out in response. These days however, they put this information online. Here are a few websites with this type of information:
 * Kay's Soap
 * Alabu
 * Twincraft
 * Bliss Soaps

c. Study and prepare from an encyclopedia or another source a one- to two-page report that explains how soap is made.
The Wikipedia article on Soap is an excellent resource for this.


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Cookbook talk:Chocolate Chip Pancakes I

Fair Use
I barely understand the Fair Use rules but I don't think your image qualifies. iStockphoto sell their images and their name appears on the image. It shouldn't be too difficult to take a digital image of these kind of pancakes, why not do that instead?--Psychofarm 02:00, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I'll find another image. How do we nominate it for deletion? Sugarpine 02:50, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

 * It appears I am unable to at this time. Can you search or take a picture of it? I haven't made them at the momment...Sugarpine 02:53, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Chocolate Chip Pancakes I


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User:Neilthecellist

Hello fellow WikiBook-pedians!

I am here on Wikibooks primarily to work on the United Nations WikiTextbook. Honestly, there isn't much as of today, 4 December 2006, 5:59 PM Pacific Time. I pretty much wrote everything about the General Assembly and I plan on working on it more and other sections of the United Nations textbook for the next few months.

If any of you would like to help, please, you don't even have to ask, just go straight to editing. I can see your remarks in the History section of each United Nations page.

Long live the Wiki gods! (Who are they, exactly?)

Neil the Cellist 02:03, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Oh, and by the way, here's my email address. If you have something wiki related, please specify it in the subject line of your email. Thanks and good luck to you all! neilthecellist@gmail.com

title: User:Neilthecellist


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Stamps (Template)

9. Mount your stamps with gummed hinges or plastic mounts. (Plastic mounts are preferred for mint stamps.)
==10. Choose a topical idea and develop a display of at least nine pages, including a title page, suitable for a stamp club show, Pathfinder Fair, etc. Display should be artistically arranged, neatly labeled and mounted, showing careful thought and research. Be sure to include several covers or cachets. ==

| Stamps (Template)


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Stamps - Advanced

a. Cancellation

 * a cancellation (or cancel for short) is a postal marking applied to a postage stamp or postal stationery indicating that the item has been used. They are to be distinguished from overprints, and, in the case of the British "Occasions - Multiple Choice" stamps, from the ticking of boxes on the stamps with a pen for which the stamps call.[1] Modern cancellations are often applied simultaneously with a postmark, for efficiency, and commonly the terms "cancellation" and "postmark" are used interchangeably, if incorrectly. (The confusion arises because of the practice of some postal administrations of applying the postmark directly on the stamp, at the cost of legibility.)

b. Perfins

 * A perfin (a contraction of 'PERForated INitials'), also called SPIFS (a contraction of 'Stamps Perforated by Initials of Firms and Society's'), is a pattern of tiny holes punched through a postage stamp. Organizations used perforating machines to make perforations forming letters or designs in postage stamps with the purpose of preventing pilferage. The size and number of perfins is usually regulated by law or postal regulation in the relevant country.

c. Blocks

 * a block is a group of postage stamps still attached to each other. Blocks are of interest not only because they are rarer than individual stamps, but they also preserve relative positions of stamps as they were originally printed, information that is crucial to understanding how the stamps were produced.

d. Plate blocks

 * The most commonly-collected kind of block is the plate block, which includes the part of the margin where the serial numbers of the printing plates may be found.

e. Precanceled

 * A precanceled stamp, or precancel for short, is a postage stamp that has been cancelled before being affixed to mail. Precancels are typically used by mass mailers, who can save a postal system time and effort by prearranging to use the precancels, and delivering the stamped mail ready for sorting. The postal administration will typically offer an incentive in the form of a reduced price for precancelled stamps in volume. Precancels cannot normally be purchased by the general public, although they are often seen in one's daily mail.

f. First day covers

 * A first day cover (FDC) is an envelope where the postage stamps have been cancelled on their first day of issue. Depending on the policy of the nation issuing the stamp, official first day postmarks may sometimes be applied to covers weeks or months after the date indicated.

g. Cachets

 * a cachet is a design or inscription, other than a cancellation or pre-printed postage, on an envelope, postcard, or postal card to commemorate a postal or philatelic event. There are official and private cachets; they commemorate everything from the first flight on a particular route, to the Super Bowl. Cachets are also frequently made, either by private companies, or a government, for First day of issue stamp events or 'Second-Day' stamp events. They are often present on event covers.

 * The first cacheted FDC (first day cover) was produced by prominent philatelist and cachetmaker George W. Linn in 1923, for the Harding Memorial stamp issue.

h. Souvenir sheets

 * A souvenir sheet or miniature sheet is a small group of postage stamps still attached to the sheet on which they were printed. They may be either regular issues that just happen to be printed in small groups (typical of many early stamps), or special issues often commemorating some event, such as a national anniversary, philatelic exhibition, or government program. The number of stamps ranges from one to about 25; larger sheets of stamps are simply called "sheets" with no qualifier.

i. Watermarks

 * the watermark is a key feature of the stamp, and often constitutes the difference between a common and a rare stamp. The "classic" stamp watermark is a small crown or other national symbol, appearing either once on each stamp or a continuous pattern. Watermarks were nearly universal on stamps in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but generally fell out of use and are not commonly used on modern issues.

j. Tongs

 * Stamp tweezers or stamp tongs are tweezers used to handle postage stamps. They are universally used by philatelists, as they are a reliable way to get hold of the small pieces of paper without damaging or getting skin oils on them. They can also be very efficient at handling large numbers of stamps.

==3. Make a display of at least 16 pages suitable for a stamp club show, Pathfinder Fair, or Junior Youth Philatelic Stamp Show. Display should be artistically arranged, neatly labeled and mounted, showing careful thought and research. Cachets and covers should be used as well. ==
 * Make a display of at least 16 pages to show.

4. Make a collection of 750 additional stamps with at least 50 stamps from each of five foreign countries.

 * Collect more stamps in addition to those you collected for the Stamps honor.

5. Name two different catalogs for identifying stamps.

 * A stamp catalog (or stamp catalogue) is a catalog of postage stamp types. Although basically just a list of descriptions and prices, in practice the catalog is an essential tool of stamp collecting.

 * Originally catalogs were just dealers' price lists, and in some cases, such as Stanley Gibbons, that is still one of their functions. Over time, as philately developed, catalogs tended to accumulate additional supporting details about the stamps, such as dates of issue, color variations, and so forth. As their use by collectors became widespread, the catalogs came to define what was and was not a legitimate stamp, since collectors would avoid stamps not described in their catalog.

 * There are only a handful of catalogs with worldwide coverage:
 * Michel - The Michel catalog (MICHEL-Briefmarken-Katalog) is the largest and best-known stamp catalog in the German-speaking world. First published in 1910, it has become an important reference work for philately, with information not available in the English-language Scott catalog.
 * Minkus
 * Stanley Gibbons - is a company based in London, England specialising in the trade of collectible postage stamps and related products who are currently based at 399 Strand, London. The company was established by Edward Stanley Gibbons in 1856 on the basis of his purchase of a sackful of rare triangular stamps from the Cape of Good Hope.
 * Scott - The Scott catalogue of postage stamps put out by Scott Publishing Co, a subsidiary of Amos Press, is updated annually and lists all the stamps of the entire world which its editors recognize as issued for postal purposes.

6. Using a stamp catalog, identify and mount according to catalog number and country.

 * Identify and mount your collected stamps.

7. Mount your stamps with gummed hinges or plastic mounts. (Plastic mounts are preferred for mint stamps.)

 * Mount your stamps

| /Completed Honors


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Textile Painting


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Thatching

1. Make a list of the various tools needed for thatching, stating their uses, and show a "dekspaan" and a "needle" you have made.

 * Sickle:
 * Thatch comb:
 * Dekspaan: Also called a leggatt, idekspan, grasdekspan or a thatching spade.
 * Straight needle:
 * Curved needle:
 * Climbing hooks:
 * Shearing hook:
 * Eaves knife:
 * Side rake:
 * Sheep shears:
 * Spar knife:

a. When is the grass cut and how is it stacked for storing?
Grass is cut after it has gone to seed and most of the seed has been dispersed. This is usually after the first frost (in areas where frost occurs), which also stops active growth of the grass.

Grass should be bundled as soon as it is harvested and stacked off the ground and under cover. It needs to be protected from the elements while it cures.

b. How is the grass "combed" and made ready for thatching?
A sickle is run through the bundles to remove any leaves and to straighten the thatch. This will help it to be tightly packed, which is necessary if it is to be water proof and resist fire.

5. a. Can any shape of roof be thatched?
No. A roof needs to have a pitch of at least 45° or steeper, or it is not suited to thatching. Thatched roofs should be as simple as possible, though complex roofs are frequently thatched. Dormers, multiple ridges, and valleys should be avoided, though they can be accommodated.

5. b. Which is the easiest roof to thatch?
A conical roof is easiest to thatch because the thatcher simply starts at the bottom and goes around until he has circled the entire structure. Then the next layer is added. With a conical roof, there are no tricky corners or transitions to worry about except at the peak which is a single point.

5. c. What are some of the advantages of a thatched roof?
Thatched roofs use native materials which avoids the cost and expense of manufacture and transport. Thatch is also a cheap and usually abundant building material which blends well with the house's surrounding environment.

Thatched roofs are not uncommon among luxury homes (especially in the U.K.) because of the aesthetic charm. A well-thatched roof which is well cared for can be expected have a lifespan exceeding 50 years. By comparison, asphalt shingled roofs have an expected lifespan of only 20 to 30 years.

Fire
The greatest disadvantage of thatch is that when it catches on fire, it is extremely difficult to extinguish. Thatch roofs do not catch on fire any more frequently than other types of combustible roofs, but when they do ignite, damage is extensive. Some insurance companies will not insure a building with a thatched roof because of this, and also because skilled thatchers are sometimes very expensive to hire.

Fire can be abated by treating thatch with a fire retardant. A law was passed in London, England in 1212 requiring all existing thatched roofs to be whitewashed with plaster daub.

The construction of the thatched roof also plays a key role in its susceptibility to fire. Thatch should be densely packed, between 35 to 50 kg/m2, and at least 175 mm thick.

Wire should not be used in the construction of a thatched building, as it is a conductor of lightning. Rather, natural materials should be used to bind the thatch, such as sisal twine.

The building should also be equipped with proper lightning protection.

No wiring should enter the building through the thatch (including electrical, telephone, cable TV, etc.). Rather, it should enter either underground through a conduit, or through a non-thatched wall. Antennas should never be mounted on a thatched roof.

The roof should be regularly groomed so that loose straws (which are easily ignited) are removed.

Decay
Thatch is obviously an organic material, and as such, it is susceptible to decay. To protect against this, the thatch should not be harvested until after the first frost has ended its growing season. After it is harvested, it should be stored off the ground and under cover. Leaves should not be allowed to accumulate on the roof of a thatched building, and the roof should be steep - at least 45° - to facilitate the rapid runoff of water. The growth of vegetation on a thatched roof inhibits runoff, so it should be removed quickly if it takes hold.

Vermin
Thatch may be attacked by all manner of vermin, though their numbers are usually held quite low. Any number of poisons can be sprayed on the thatch to eliminate this problem.

7. a. How many workers are needed in thatching a rondavel?
A rondavel is usually thatched by a team of four people.

The first worker passes the bundles of thatch up to the workers on the roof. Before doing this, he will butt the end of the bundle on a flat surface. This blunts the ends of the straws and lines them up.

Two more people work on top of the roof, and a fourth person works from the inside.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Weaving

1. Describe the principle involved in most weaving procedures.
Weaving is an ancient textile art and craft that involves placing two sets of threads or yarn called the warp and weft on a loom and turning them into cloth. This cloth can be plain (in one color or a simple pattern), or it can be woven in decorative or artistic designs, including tapestries.

In general, weaving involves the interlacing of two sets of threads at right angles to each other: the warp and the weft. In plain weaving, the weft goes over one thread of weft and under the next. On the next pass, it goes under and then over. This repeats. In other weaving patterns the sequence varies.

2. Define the following

 * a. Warp: The warp is the set of lengthwise yarns through which the weft is woven. "Warp" means "that which is thrown across" (Old English wearp, from weorpan, to throw, cf. German werfen, Dutch werpen). When weaving with a loom, the warp yarns are fully attached before weaving begins.
 * b. Woof: The woof, as often as not called the weft, is the yarn which is drawn under and over parallel warp yarns to create a fabric.
 * c. Shuttle: A shuttle is a tool designed to neatly and compactly store weft yarn while weaving. Shuttles are thrown or passed back and forth through the shed, between the yarn threads of the warp in order to weave in the weft.
 * d. Yarn beam: The yarn beam is a stout pole at the head of the loom around which the warp threads are wrapped. As the cloth is woven, the yarn beam may be turned, unrolling additional yarn.  This allows the weaver to make cloth that is longer than the loom.
 * e. Heddle: A heddle is an integral part of a loom. Each thread in the warp passes through a heddle, which is used to separate the warp threads for the passage of the weft. The heddle is usually made of cord or wire, and is suspended on a shaft of a loom. Each heddle has an eye in the center where the warp is threaded through. As there is one heddle for each thread of the warp there can be near a thousand heddles used for fine or wide warps. A handwoven tea-towel will generally have between 300 and 400 warp threads, and thus use that many heddles.
 * f. Cloth beam: The cloth beam is a stout pole similar to the yarn beam, but it is situated at the foot of the loom. As the cloth is woven, it is rolled around the cloth beam.  As with the yarn beam, the cloth beam allows the weaver to make cloth longer than the loom.

3. Make a cardboard hand loom on which an envelope purse can be woven.
A cardboard loom is incredibly simple to make. Get a flat, rectangular piece of heavy cardboard and draw a line across the two shorter edges about  from the edge. Then make evenly space marks along these lines about apart (or closer). If you use thick yarn, you can get away with wider spacing. Cut in along the evenly spaced marks from the edge to the first line. Do this to the opposite end as well. The "loom" is now ready for weaving.

Though this requirement does not ask the Pathfinder to actually weave an envelope purse, you may have trouble convincing them that they have made a workable loom unless you demonstrate how it is used. You may certainly require them to weave an envelope purse if you see fit.

Tape the end of a piece of yarn to the back of the loom and then run the yarn through one of the slits near the edge of the cardboard. Wrap the yarn around the cardboard to form the warp, using the slits as the heddle. Then cut off the yarn and tape it down. At this point, you may begin weaving the woof into the warp. When the woof reached the far edge you may cut the warp yarns apart so that you have equal lengths of yarn hanging off both ends of the cloth. These can be tied together in pairs to leave a fringe. To make a purse, fold the cloth into thirds and whip stitch the edges with more yarn. The upper third will serve as a flap. The whip stitching should start at the bottom center. When you reach the upper edge, use the yarn as a purse handle, and then whip stitch down the other side until you reach the bottom center again. Tie it off and declare victory.

If the boys in your club object to making a purse, use a little imagination to make a hatchet cover instead. They are essentially the same, except that a hatchet cover must have a gap in the bottom for the hatchet handle to slip through. This opening should be lined up to match the hatchet.

4. Design and weave a table runner or towel, using at least three different colors.
This can be done on the cardboard loom made in the previous requirement or on a more sturdy store-bought loom. There are many ways to use three colors (or more). One way is use two colors for the warp, alternating at regular intervals, and then using a third color for the woof. You can also use a single color for the warp and two colors for the woof. Regular patterns make more attractive cloth.

When doing the weaving, be careful to not pull the woof too tight or the cloth will pinch in about the center.

5. Make a jersey looped potholder.
Small, inexpensive looms and loops can be found in the craft departments of large stores or in craft supply stores. These looms are typically square and have several pegs located around the edges. The loops themselves are the byproduct of the hosiery industry, being cut from the toes of stockings during their manufacture. They are stretched across the loom and looped over the pegs to form the warp. A hook is then woven through the warp, and a weft loop is attached to it and pulled through. The weft loop is then hooked over a peg. Once all the weft loops are in place, the hook tool can be used to form a running chain around the edge. Each loop is lifted from the peg and passed through the end of an adjacent loop. Then that loop is unhooked and passed through the end of its neighbor. This procedure is followed until all the loops have been unhooked. The last loop is pulled through a little farther than the others and pulled tight. You can see a video of a similar procedure on Youtube, though this one uses yarn rather than hosiery loops.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Wood Carving

1. Explain the qualities of hard and soft woods and the best woods for wood carving.
The hard woods are oak, beech, birch, maple, walnut, ash, hickory, all of which belong to the broad leaf variety of trees. The soft woods are pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, cypress, which belong to the "coniferous" or cone-bearing family. The hard woods are on an average two or three times as hard as the others, but some of the so-called hard woods are really quite soft, and vice versa.

Softwoods are easier to carve, but hardwoods hold detail better and are stronger. If you can manage it, hardwoods are therefore a better choice, but softwoods are very good for beginners. Some of the best carving woods, in order of hardness are basswood,tupelo (power carving), butternut, hounduras mahogony, and walnut.

3. Explain the best methods of handling the grain of wood in designing.
Wood is very much like a bundle of straws glued together with a weak adhesive. It is easy to separate the straws from one another, but more difficult to break the straws. The woodcarver needs to keep this in mind as the piece is designed. For instance, if carving an animal, the grain (or "straws" in our analogy) needs to run in the same direction as the legs. Otherwise, the legs will easily break off.

Another aspect of grain that needs careful consideration is how to work a blade along the wood with respect to it. If the grain dives into the piece, the blade must cut in the direction in which the grain runs out of the piece rather than in the direction in which the grain runs in. See the illustration.

4. Design and carve a plaque in low relief.
Low relief, also known as Bas (pronounced bah)-relief is a method of sculpture which entails carving away the surface of a flat piece of wood creating a picture.

The portrayed image is raised above the background flat surface so that for a piece of wood one inch thick the non-image (background) area may be a half inch thick when the art work has been completed, and the image area will vary from one half to one inch.

As simple tool can be constructed to help smooth out the background. It consists of a handle made from a piece of wood about 3/4"x3/4"x10" with a wood screw set into its center, but not fully seated. If the background is a quarter inch lower than the foreground, the screw would be set one quarter inch above the surface of the handle.  The top of the screw is then filed so that the edges of the screwhead are sharpened.  Then the carver removes the wood covering the background in the carving, but it is best to leave a border around the edges.  Then the tool is used to smooth out the background with the handle riding along the raised border.  Once the background is smoothed, the carver can turn his or her attention to the foreground, shaping and smoothing it as desired.

a. Whistle

To make a whistle, you will need a block of softwood, a dowel, and a drill bit that is the same diameter as the dowel. Drill a hole into the end of the block of wood. The hole can go all the way through, or it can stop before it exits the other side. Then cut a notch (C in the diagram) in the top of this piece such that it exposes the hole that was just bored. This notch should be about from the end. It needs to be vertical nearest the mouth end and slanted on the other side.

Shave one edge of the dowel (A) flat to make the airway (B), and cut off a section of the dowel such that its length is the same as the distance from the notch to the mouth end. Insert the dowel into the bored hole with the airway towards the notch to test the fit. At this point blowing into the whistle should produce a tone (try it). If it does not produce a tone, review the diagram and try to figure out what went wrong. One possibility is that the pitch is too high for the human ear. You can adjust the tone by making the hole go deeper into the wood (unless it already goes all the way through). When the tone is satisfactory, remove the dowel, apply some glue, and reinsert. When the glue dries shape the mouthpiece as desired and carve your design on the outside.

b. Letter opener
A letter opener is really nothing more than a wooden knife. Make it as fancy as you like.

c. Tray
A tray can be made by joining four narrow pieces of wood at the ends using box joints or dovetail joints. A slot should be milled near the bottom edge of these boards so that it can receive a tray bottom. The tray bottom can be cut from eighth inch luan or some other thin plywood or mason board. The bottom piece should not be glued - allow it to float in the joint so that the tray does not crack when it contracts and expands as the temperature and humidity vary. Assemble three of the sides, then slip the bottom into the slots and add the fourth side. Glue the corner joints. Once the tray is assembled, you can carve the sides as you please.

d. Bookends
Bookends can be carved from two short sections of 4"x4" lumber, but make sure it is not pressure treated. Cut off two sections 4 to 6 inches long, making sure the cut is square. The end grain of this cut will be the bottom of the bookend. Most commercial 4x4 lumber will be softwood, so if you want hardwood, you will have to look a little harder. If you cannot find a hardwood 4x4, you can make one from smaller pieces of stock by laminating them (that is, gluing several pieces together). Make it interesting by laminating both dark and light-colored species of wood. You can also use chunks of firewood. If you use firewood, you will need to plane one surface and saw another flat. The sawn surface will serve as the bottom, and the planed surface will support the books.

Once you have two flat surfaces that form a 90° angle, sketch your design on the wood and rough it out with a saw, chisels, gouges or all of the above. As the carving takes shape, use finer tools until the piece is ready to take a finish such as paint or varnish. If your tools are sharp, you should not need to sand the piece before finishing. Sanding poses the danger of removing detail from the carving and should be considered carefully before attempting.

e. Clock case
A clock case need not be any more than a board with a clock movement attached. Carve your design into the face of the board in low-relief. Clock movements can be bought at most hobby and craft stores. Buy the clock movement, drill any necessary holes, and make sure the movement fits before you start carving though. It would be a shame to destroy a work of art by accidentally drilling a hole in the wrong place, or finding that you must remove part of the artwork to fit the clock in place. Once the movement has been mounted on the blank case and you see that it fits, remove it and set it aside. You don't need the hassle of carving around the clock hands.

f. Equivalent items of your choice
As an honor instructor, it will be your responsibility to vet alternative designs proposed by your Pathfinders. Be on the lookout for over-ambitious designs, but be careful not to quash your Pathfinder's spirit. Offer suggestions to make the project attainable.

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