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Cultural Anthropology/Introduction

Cultural Anthropology is the study of human cultures, beliefs, practices, values, ideas, technologies, economies and other domains of social and cognitive organization. This field is based primarily on cultural understandings of populations of living humans gained through first hand experience or participant observation. An anthropologist may also look into the sports culture and development in certain communities

This chapter will introduce you to the field of anthropology, define basic terms and concepts and explain why it is important, and how it can change your perspective of the world around you.

What is Anthropology?
Anthropology is the scientific study of human beings as social organisms interacting with each other in their environment, and cultural aspects of life. It is a scholarly discipline that aims to describe in the broadest possible sense what it means to be human. Anthropologists are interested in comparison. To make substantial and accurate comparisons between cultures, a generalization of humans requires evidence from the wide range of human societies. Anthropologists are in direct contact with the sources of their data, thus field work is a crucial component. The field of Anthropology, although fairly new as an academic field, has been used for centuries. Anthropologists are convinced that explanations of human actions will be superficial unless they acknowledge that human lives are always entangled in complex patterns of work and family, power and meaning.

Five Disciplines of Anthropology

 * Applied Anthropology: Includes the fields of Applied Medical Anthropology, Urban Anthropology, Anthropological Economics, Contract Archaeology and others. Applied anthropology is simply the practice of applying anthropological theory and or methods from any of the fields of Anthropology to solve human problems. For example, applied anthropology is often used when trying to determine the ancestry of an unearthed Native American burial. Biological anthropology can be used to test the DNA of the body and see if the DNA of the burial has any similarities to living populations. Medical Anthropology studies illness and healthcare within specific populations in order to form healthcare solutions that are tailored specifically to populations as well as identify unique areas of susceptibility within populations.
 * Archaeology: The study and interpretation of ancient humans or animals, their history, and culture. This is done through examination of the artifacts and remains that they left behind. An example of this is the study of Egyptian culture through the examination of their grave sites and the pyramids and the tombs in the Valley of Kings. Through the examination of pyramids and tombs in which these ancient humans lived in, much about human history and Egyptian culture is learned. Archaeology is an important study in improving knowledge about ancient humans, particularly, prehistoric or the long stretch of time before the development of writing.
 * Biological Anthropology: A subfield of Anthropology that studies humanity through the human body as a biological organism, using genetics, evolution, human ancestry, primates, and their ability to adapt. There was a shift in the emphasis on differences (with the older “physical anthropology”) due to the development of the “new” physical anthropology developed by Sherwood Washburn at the University of California, Berkley. This field shifted from racial classification when it was discovered that physical traits that had been used to determine race could not predict other traits such as intelligence and morality. Some biological anthropologists work in the fields of primatology, which studies the closest living relative of human beings, the nonhuman primate. They also work in the field of paleoanthropology, which is the study of fossilized bones and teeth of our earliest ancestors. (also: Physical Anthropology). Biological anthropologists focus heavily on comparing and contrasting the biology of humans to that of our nearest extant relatives, the primates, to discover what distinguishes humans from primates as well as primates from other mammals.

 * Cultural Anthropology: The study of contemporary human cultures and how these cultures are formed and shape the world around them. Cultural anthropologists often conduct research by spending time living in and observing the community they study (fieldwork) and participant observation in order to increase understanding of its politics, social structures, and religion. (also: sociocultural anthropology, social anthropology, or ethnology)

 * Linguistic Anthropology: Examines human languages: how they work, how they are made, how they change, and how they die and are later revived. Linguistic anthropologists try to understand the language in relation to the broader cultural, historical, or biological contexts that make it possible. The study of linguistics includes examining phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. They look at linguistic features of communication, which includes any verbal contact, as well as non-linguistic features, such as, eye contact, the cultural context, and even the recent thoughts of the speaker.

Holism in Anthropology
Anthropology is, comparative, field-based, and evolutionary. These regions of Anthropology shape one another and become integrated over time. Historically it was seen as "the study of others," meaning foreign cultures, but using the term "others" imposed false thoughts of "civilized versus savagery." Dualistic views have often caused wars or even genocide. Now, anthropologists strive to uncover the mysteries of these foreign cultures and eliminate the prejudice that it first created. Holism is the perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind, body, individuals, society, and the environment interpenetrate and even define one another. In anthropology holism tries to integrate all that is known about human beings and their activities. From a holistic perspective, attempts to divide reality into mind and matter isolate and pin down certain aspects of a process that, by very nature, resists isolation and dissection. Holism holds great appeal for those who seek a theory of human nature that is rich enough to do justice to its complex subject matter. An easier understanding of holism is to say that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

The holistic approach is a perspective that assumes interrelationships among parts of a subject including both biological and cultural aspects. This approach is used to study the thoughts, behaviors, emotional, and spiritual changes we experience as humans. Anthropologists have the opportunity to use this approach to study the way humans are interested in engaging and developing as a whole person. Page text.

What is Culture?
Culture is the patterns of learned and shared behavior and beliefs of a particular social, ethnic, or age group. It can also be described as the complex whole of collective human beliefs with a structured stage of civilization that can be specific to a nation or time period. Humans, in turn, use culture to adapt and transform the world they live in. This idea of Culture can be seen in the way that we describe the Ashanti, an African tribe located in central Ghana. The Ashanti live with their families as you might assume but the meaning of how and why they live with whom is an important aspect of Ashanti culture. In the Ashanti culture, the family and the mother’s clan are most important. A child is said to inherit the father’s soul or spirit (ntoro) and from the mother, a child receives flesh and blood (mogya), relating them more closely to the mother’s clan. The Ashanti live in an extended family. The family lives in various homes or huts that are set up around a courtyard. The head of the household is usually the oldest brother that lives there. He is chosen by the elders. He is called either Father or Housefather and everyone in the household obeys him.

The anthropological study of culture can be organized along two persistent and basic themes: Diversity and Change. An individual's upbringing and environment (or culture) is what makes them diverse from other cultures. It is the differences between all cultures and sub-cultures of the world's regions. People's need to adapt and transform to physical, biological and cultural forces to survive represents the second theme, Change. Culture generally changes for one of two reasons: selective transmission or to meet changing needs. This means that when a village or culture is met with new challenges, for example, a loss of a food source, they must change the way they live. This could mean almost anything to the culture, including possible forced redistribution of, or relocation from ancestral domains due to external and/or internal forces. And an anthropologist would look at that and study their ways to learn from them.

Culture is: •Learned through active teaching, and passive habitus. •Shared meaning that it defines a group and meets common needs. •Patterned meaning that that there is a recourse of similar ideas. Related cultural beliefs and practices show up repeatedly in different areas of social life. •Adaptive which helps individuals meet needs across variable environments. •Symbolic which means that there are simple and arbitrary signs that represent something else, something more.

Originally the overlap of the two concepts had a positive effect, especially during colonial times; it helped spread the idea that vulnerable seemingly “primitive” and “uncivilized” cultures had some intrinsic value and deserved protection from other more dominating cultures. However, the drawback of this is it assumes first that culture is a static thing that it can be preserved, unchanged by the changing people and times it runs into. It also assumes that the people accept at face value and do not wish to change their patterns or ways of life. If people then do change, often they are criticized by a member from within and outside their own culture for not valuing ‘authenticity’ and tradition. This relates to the "Culture" vs. "culture" in that field of anthropology’s focus and appreciation of Culture and how it develops differently can be twisted when talking about Cultural relativism or human rights. Appreciation and defense of Culture do not imply blind tolerance to all aspects of all cultures.

Familial culture
How you express culture as a family through traditions, roles, beliefs, and other areas, is what describes this aspect of culture. Familial culture is passed down from generation to generation, it is both shared and learned. As a family grows, new generations are introduced to the traditional family practices. Familial culture is learned by means of enculturation which is the process by which a person learns the requirements of the culture that he or she is surrounded by. With enculturation, an individual will also learn behaviors that are appropriate or necessary in their given culture. The influences of enculturation from the family will then direct and shape the individual. The present Royal family of Great Britain is a good example of family tradition, as each male member of the royal family has served in the armed forces. This tradition began with the Duke of Edinburgh enlisting in Great Britain's Royal Navy prior to World War II, and the tradition has continued through the generations.

Micro or Subculture
Micro or Subculture are distinct groups within a larger group that share some sort of common trait, activity or language that ties them together and/or differentiates them from the larger group. A micro or subculture is also not limited to how small it can be, it could be defined similarly to a clique. An example of this could be Mexican-Americans within the U.S. society. They share the same language, but they may have their own traditions that differentiate them for the whole. An example of a micro-culture would be the Japanese hip hop genba (club site) that is becoming more and more popular throughout Japanese cities. Although rap began in the United States, it has created its own unique appearance and style in the Japanese youth today. The physical appearance of rappers may be the same to those in the States, however, the content of the music differs along with the preservation of Japanese traditions.

Cultural universals
Cultural universals ( which has been mentioned by anthropologists like George Murdock, Claude Levi-Strauss, Donald Brown and others) are common elements that exist in every human culture yet varies from different ethnic groups. This includes attributes such as values and modes of behavior. Examples of elements that may be considered cultural universals are gender roles, the incest taboo, religious and healing ritual, mythology, marriage, language, art, dance, music, cooking, games, jokes, sports, birth, and death because they involve some sort of ritual ceremonies accompanying them, etc. Many anthropologists and socialists with an extreme perspective of cultural relativism deny the existence or reduce the importance of cultural universals believing that these traits were only inherited biologically through the known controversy of “nurture vs. nature”. They are mainly known as "empty universals" since just mentioning their existence in a culture doesn't make them any more special or unique. The existence of these universals has been said to date to the Upper Paleolithic with the first evidence of behavioral modernity.

Among the cultural universals listed by Brown are: • Language and cognition - All cultures employ some type of communication, symbolism is also a universal idea in language. • Society - Being in a family, having peers, or being a member of any organized group or community is what makes society. • Myth, Ritual, and aesthetics - Different cultures all have a number of things in common, for example, a belief system, celebration of life and death, and other ceremonial events. • Technology - There are worldwide variations in clothing, housing, tools and techniques for getting food through different types of technology.

Two Views of Culture
An etic view is a judgment or perspective about a culture, gained based on an analysis from an outsider's customs and culture. Etic view minimizes the acceptance between two parties. Therefore, the importance of having an anthropological knowledge is greatly beneficial. There are so many situations where a person can have or get an etic view on. For example, if an American anthropologist went to Africa to study a nomadic tribe, their resulting case study would be from an etic standpoint if they did not integrate themselves into the culture they were observing. Some fields of anthropology may take this approach to avoid altering the culture that they are studying by direct interaction. The etic perspective is data gathering by outsiders that yield questions posed by outsiders. One problem that anthropologists may run in to is that people tend to act differently when they are being observed. It is especially hard for an outsider to gain access to certain private rituals, which may be important for understanding a culture. Etic ethnographic works often use exotic language when describing the "other".
 * Etic

An emic view of culture is ultimately a perspective focus on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society. This is often considered to be an 'insider’s' perspective. While this perspective stems from the concept of immersion in a specific culture; the emic participant is not always a member of that culture or society. Studies done from an emic perspective often include more detailed and culturally rich information than studies done from an etic point of view. Because the observer places themselves within the culture of intended study, they are able to go further in-depth on the details of practices and beliefs of a society that may otherwise have been ignored. However, the emic perspective has its downfalls. Studies done from an emic perspective can create bias on the part of the participant, especially if said individual is a member of the culture they are studying, thereby failing to keep in mind how their practices are perceived by others and possibly causing valuable information to be left out. The emic perspective serves the purpose of providing descriptive in-depth reports about how insiders of a culture understand their rituals, beliefs, and traditions.
 * Emic

Cross-Cultural
Cross-cultural studies, is dealing with or offering comparison between two or more different cultures or cultural areas.

Enculturation
Enculturation is a process by which we obtain and transmit culture. This process is experienced universally among humans. It describes how each individual is affected by prohibited behaviors and beliefs, which are 'proscribed' rather than encouraged behaviors and beliefs, which are 'prescribed'. Parents and other authority figures in young children’s lives are usually the initiators of this process, steering the children toward activities and beliefs that will be socially accepted in their culture. Through this process, these authority figures definitely shape the child’s view on life. Enculturation results in the interpretation of these ideals established by our culture and the establishment of our own individual behaviors and beliefs. In general, enculturation is a refereed journal devoted to contemporary theories of rhetoric, writing, and culture, and invites submissions on rhetoric, composition, media, technology, and education.

Cultural Transmission
Cultural Transmission is the passing of new knowledge and traditions of culture from one generation to the next, as well as cross-culturally. Cultural Transmission happens every day, all the time, without any concept of when or where. Everything people do and say provides cultural transmission in all aspects of life. In everyday life, the most common way cultural norms are transmitted is within each individuals' home life. Each family has its own, distinct culture under the big picture of each given society and/or nation. With every family, there are traditions that are kept alive. The way each family acts and communicates with others and an overall view of life are passed down. Parents teach their kids every day how to behave and act by their actions alone. Outside of the family, culture can be transmitted at various social institutions. Places of worship, schools, even shopping centers are places where enculturation happens amongst a population.

Social Institutions
Social institutions are a framework of social relationships that link an individual to the society, through participation. The forms of these social relationships can vary greatly across political, economic, religious, and familial platforms. Cross culturally, these relationships require understanding of the norms, values, and traditions that make them functional. Cultural transmission takes place within these relationships throughout an individual's lifetime.

Examples of these relationships range from marriage to participating in church. The complexities that govern this relationship are unique and highly culturally bound. Often external factors such as economics and health issues come into play. Studies were done in rural Malawi that discuss these issues further:

Symbols within Culture
A symbol is an object, word, or action that stands for something else, depending on the culture. Everything one does throughout their life is based and organized through cultural symbolism, which is when something represents abstract ideas or concepts. Symbols can represent a group or organization that one is affiliated with and mean different things to different people, which is why it is impossible to hypothesize how a specific culture will symbolize something. Some symbols are gained from experience, while others are gained from culture. One of the most common cultural symbols is language. For example, the letters of an alphabet symbolize the sounds of a specific spoken language. Hawaiian culture presents a good example of symbols in culture through the performance of a Lua which is a symbol of their land and heritage through song and dance

Symbols can have good or bad meanings depending on how others interpret them. For example, the Swastika shown on the German Flag back in World War 2 means good fortune in some religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism and often used on designs, but after World War 2 the meaning of the Swastika shifted to a negative side among Americans. Street gangs have used colors and gang signs to show their affiliation to a gang. For Example, bloods are a street gang that are usually associated with red and have a gang sign that resembles the word ‘blood’.

Symbols are also extremely common and important in religion. Churches, mosques and temples are places where people gather to practice a shared belief or faith and establish relationships based on this commonality, but many of these individuals will spend most of their time at school, work or other places where they are not amongst people with the same belief so they often wear a symbol of their religion to express belief. For example, a cross is usually associated with Christianity as churches often have them on their buildings to identify it as a setting of Christian worship. Some Christians wear the cross in the form of jewelry and in some cases in the form of a body tattoo. Other religions make use of symbols as well such as the Star of David in Judaism.

Language is the most used form of symbolism. There are 6,912 known living languages. Such diversity in languages is caused by isolation. Most languages have a different "symbol" for each letter, word, or phrase. The use of symbols is adaptive, which means that humans can learn to associate new symbols to a concept or new concepts with a symbol. An example may be drawn from two populations who speak different languages that come into contact with one another and need to communicate. They form a language that has a large degree of flexibility in using either language's symbols (in this case patterns of sound) or a hybrid set of symbols to communicate messages back and forth. This contact language, or pidgin gradually gives way to a creole with a more formal set of symbols (words), grammatical rules for their organization, and its own native speakers who transmit the language from generation to generation.

It is important for anthropologists to consider their own cultural background when looking at symbolism in a different culture. This is because many symbols, though similar in appearance, can mean drastically different things. These symbols can best be understood or interpreted through the eyes of the culture that they pertain to, otherwise they may lose their unique significance. One example of a misinterpreted cultural symbol is the “whirl log” symbol commonly used in Southwestern Native American blanket weaving. This symbol is almost identical to the Nazi Swastika, and therefore brings a negative response from many Americans. Although the Native American symbol has nothing to do with Nazi or Germanic symbolism, this design is rarely used on blankets today because of misinterpretation of the symbol.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the term anthropologists use to describe the opinion that one's own way of life is natural or correct. Some will simply call it cultural ignorance. Those who have not experienced other cultures in depth can be said to be ethnocentric if they feel that their lives are the most natural way of living. Some cultures may be similar or overlap in ideas or concepts. However, some people are in a sense, shocked to experience differences with individuals culturally different than themselves. In extreme cases, a group of individuals may see another culture's way of life and consider it wrong, because of this, the group may try to convert the other group to their own ways of living. Fearful war and genocide could be the devastating result if a group is unwilling to change their ways of living.

Ethnocentrism is seen in parts of Asia, where they use chopsticks with every meal. These people may find it unnecessary to find that people in other societies, such as the American society, eat using forks, spoons, knives, etc. Since these countries use chopsticks to eat every meal, they find it foolish for other cultures to not use utensils similar to chopsticks; however, they do accept the fact that they use different utensils for eating. This example is not something extreme that could lead to genocide or war, but it is a large enough gap between these cultures for people to see their way of eating as the natural or best way to typically eat their food.

Another example of ethnocentrism is colonialism. Colonialism can be defined as cultural domination with enforced social change. Colonialism refers to the social system in which the political conquests by one society of another leads to "cultural domination with enforced social change". A good example to look at when examining colonialism is the British overtake of India. The British had little understanding of the culture in India which created a lot of problems an unrest during their rule.

Ethnocentrism may not, in some circumstances, be avoidable. We often have instinctual reactions toward another person or culture's practices or beliefs. But these reactions do not have to result in horrible events such as genocide or war. In order to avoid conflict over culture practices and beliefs, we must all try to be more culturally relative. Ethnocentrism is one solution to the tension between one cultural self and another cultural self.

Affect on Anthropology:  In many instances Anthropologist have allowed ethnocentrism to determine research and influence analyses. For example Ajami is a language created centuries ago by Islamic teachers and used throughout Sub Saharan Africa that combines Arabic script and another language (such as Swahili, Wolof, Hausa or Berber). The origin and historic use of the language is powerful and significant since it served as a form of resistance against colonialism, inspired self- sufficiency and propagated Islam. Many African historical documents are in Ajami. However, there are some historians and anthropologist who have refused to acknowledge African history due to ethnocentric views and do not value the information those historical documents may reveal. This is just one of the many examples where personal views have interfered with the understanding of other cultures and societies.

Cultural Relativism
The Cross-Cultural Relationship is the idea that people from different cultures can have relationships that acknowledge, respect and begin to understand each others' diverse lives. People with different backgrounds can help each other see possibilities that they never thought were there because of limitations, or cultural proscriptions, posed by their own traditions. Traditional practices in certain cultures can restrict opportunity because they are "wrong" according to one specific culture. Becoming aware of these new possibilities will ultimately change the people that are exposed to the new ideas. This cross-cultural relationship provides hope that new opportunities will be discovered, but at the same time it is threatening. The threat is that once the relationship occurs, one can no longer claim that any single culture is the absolute truth.

Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically part of one's own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that no one culture is superior than another culture when compared to systems of morality, law, politics, etc. It is a concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context. This is also based on the idea that there is no absolute standard of good or evil; therefore, every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually decided in each society. The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the perspective of each person within their particular culture. Overall, there is no right or wrong ethical system. In a holistic understanding of the term cultural relativism, it tries to counter ethnocentrism by promoting the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects, genocides or genital cutting.

There are two different categories of cultural relativism:

 * Absolute: Complete acceptance and tolerance for any type of cultural practice.
 * Critical: Critiquing cultural practices in terms of human rights.

Absolute cultural relativism is displayed in many cultures, especially Africa, that practice female genital cutting. This procedure refers to the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or any other trauma to the female reproductive/genital organs. By allowing this procedure to happen, females are considered women and then are able to be married. FGC is practiced mainly because of culture, religion and tradition. Outside cultures such as the United States look down upon FGC as inhumane, but are unable to stop this practice from happening because it is protected by its culture.

Cultural relativism can also be seen with the Chinese culture and their process of feet binding. Foot binding was to stop the growth of the foot and make them smaller. The process often began between four and seven years old. A ten foot bandage would be wrapped around the foot forcing the toes to go under the foot. It caused the big toe to be closer to the heel causing the foot to bow.[4]In China, small feet were seen as beautiful and a symbol of status. The women wanted their feet to be “three-inch golden lotuses”三寸金蓮[3] It was also the only way to get married. Because men only wanted women with small feet, even after this practice was banned in 1912, women still continued to do it. To Western cultures the idea of feet binding might seem like torture, but for the Chinese culture it is symbol of beauty that has been ingrained in the culture for hundreds of years. The idea of beauty differs from culture to culture.

Qualitative Method
The Qualitative Method is an anthropological research method designed to map out detailed descriptions of social activities within a culture. A specialist such as an anthropologist enters a foreign/home culture and observe whatever he or she wants to investigate with tools that arrange from taking notes to interviews. The observation(s) may include social norms, activities, religious rituals, cultural ideology and etc. This method doesn’t require any statistical or mathematical measurements (which is the Quantitative Method), but only the written observation of culture within a certain ethnic group.

The reasons behind the observation can vary depending on the intention of the anthropologist. For example, if there’s a social problem within a culture, anthropologists may launch an investigation to figure out the source of the problem. Anthropologists might also apply the qualitative method to create improvements in a social environment. This can take a variety of forms; such as fighting poverty, improving medical care, building new estates and so on. Curious anthropologists often take advantage of the qualitative method. While some might actually use the method to resolve social issues, others might use to learn more about a certain society or group. If someone wanted to learn more about a culture, he or she can observe the lifestyle and find out the opinions of the people to retrieve more information.

Ethnography
The word Ethnography comes from these two Greek words:"Ethnos," meaning people and "Graphein," meaning writing. Wolcott (1999) defines ethnography as a description of “the customary social behaviors of an identifiable group of people”. Ethnography is often referred to as "culture writing," and is a type of documentation often employed by Anthropologists in their field work. This genre of writing uses detailed first-hand written descriptions of a culture based on the researcher's immersion in the field.

Ethnographies often reflect the anthropological desire for holism, the idea that the whole is greater than the sum of the individual parts. In the case of ethnography, holism refers to the fact that a culture can be best understood through the understanding of as many aspects of the cultural context as possible.

Cultural anthropologists who write ethnographies are called ethnographers and they often use a research method known as participant-observation. Participant Observation is a technique of field research used in anthropology by which an anthropologist studies the life of a group by sharing and participating in its activities.

Ethnographic information can take many different forms. Articles, journals, recordings, statistical data, and documentaries are just a few of the many forms that ethnographic information can be conveyed. A very common form is a book written by the person participating in the research or observation. A great example of a book would be "Waiting For An Ordinary Day" by Farnaz Fassihi because as a journalist traveling to Iraq during the Iraq war, she participates in Iraqi daily life and documents her description of it. Although Fassihi may not consider herself an anthropologist, because of her methods and style of writing, her book Waiting for an Ordinary Day is ethnographic. Eventually, she turns all of her journalistic notes into a book which describes certain events that help her define the Iraqi culture. She uses the participant-observation method and also uses the concept of holism to explain the whole of Iraqi culture, rather than just small aspects of it.

Anthropologists, scientists, philosophers, historians and most social scientists have been reexamining assumptions about what science is and how it works. They have challenged the traditional distinction between hard sciences (such as physics, chemistry, and biology) and soft sciences (psychology, sociology, and anthropology). They think they have more in common than previously believed. Anthropologists aid in the effort to study and reconsider what science is all about through gathering information about diverse cultural views on the process of explanation gained during participant-observation-based fieldwork.

Ethnology
Ethnology is the comparative study of two or more cultures and often compares and contrasts various cultures. It utilizes the data taken from ethnographic research and applies it to a single, cross-cultural topic. The Ethnology approach can be used to identify and attempt to explain cross-cultural variation in elements such as marriage, religion, subsistence practices, political organization, and parenting. Anthropologists who focus on one culture are often called ethnographers while those who focus on several cultures are often called ethnologists. The term ethnology is credited to Adam Franz Kollár who used and defined it in his Historiae ivrisqve pvblici Regni Vngariae amoenitates published in Vienna in 1783.

Deconstructing Race and Racism
The concept of race was produced long ago by the process of racialization in order to separate humans from different areas on the globe to justify enslaving and belittling certain groups. Since its creation, there has been a slow but steady attempt to deconstruct it. Of course, there have been many speed bumps along the way.

Deconstructing the social concept of race has been a major interest of Cultural Anthropology at least since Franz Boas's work on race and immigration in the early 1900's. The concept of race is important in many different areas of the discipline including cross-cultural studies, the way we look at ourselves vs. people we feel are different from us and many other areas. Race is not biological but it's supposed to be a way to classify biological differences by grouping people according to different characteristics that they have. However it's important to remember that race is not based on genetic features. There is no biological part of race, it is strictly a concept created by humans to try to better understand differences between other people. The history of the relationship between anthropology and the concept of race is long and interesting (see Race in Science web resources for more information).

Race has often been used in societies as a factor of ascribed status, the status given at birth and assigned rather than earned. In many cases it has affected individual's access to wealth, power and certain resources in their society as the concept has generated issues such as discrimination, prejudice and unearned privilege.

Technology
Technology is an important aspect of Cultural Anthropology. Anthropologists have studied the examples of material life established in different human civilizations. Some examples of these universal differences are in the shelter, attire, tools and methods for acquiring food and producing material goods. Some anthropologists focus their main concern on studying technology in diverse societies or the progression of technology. Individuals concerned with material life also illustrate the primary environment for which technologies have been revolutionized. In Anthropology, technology is often studied in relationship to the natural environment that it was developed in. Some anthropologists analyze the ways in which technologies and settings shape each other, and others analyze the way non-Western civilizations have reacted in regards to political and economic strife of colonialism and capitalist industrialized technology. With globalization, all people increasingly consume material goods and technologies manufactured beyond their own culture. Anthropologists have proven that non-Western inhabitants do not mindlessly imitate Western customs for the use of technology; instead they utilize Western technologies in creative ways, which are often unforeseen and can be adaptive or maladaptive. A cargo cult could be considered an example of the creative use of new technology.

Technology in todays culture, has tons of effect on our daily and social lives. It affects us in a way that the methods that were used to interact with one another are not seen as frequent as they used to be before. It has become less physical than it was before where nowadays it can all be done online via multimedia and other methods of technology. Constant communication through use of technology is changing the way people think of themselves and how they communicate. They can get attention, always be heard, and never have to be alone. With technology evolving day after day, we do not know what is to come in the future from flying cars to robots, all we know is that our future will never be the same.

Chapter Glossary of Key Terms
Maladaptive- not providing adequate or appropriate adjustments to the environment or situation

title: Cultural Anthropology/Introduction


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text:
User talk:Jimbeauknows

Welcome to Wikibooks, Jimbeauknows!

title: User talk:Jimbeauknows


text:
User talk:Big Bill57

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:13, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Big Bill57


text:
User talk:Lwill080

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:13, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lwill080


text:
User talk:Gibesond

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:58, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gibesond


text: User:Big Bill57

title: User:Big Bill57


text:
User:Wugo

Hello! I hope to edit here from time to time, but geting to know the place comes first.Wugo (talk) 19:31, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User:Wugo


text:
User talk:Elong007

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Laleena (talk) 20:54, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elong007


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...Bc5/4. c3

=Giuoco Piano=

4. c3
White reinforces the d4 square, and prepares d4. It also stops any Nd4 by black, in the future.

White also prepares b4 to try and trap the Black bishop.

Theory table
'''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Bc5 4. c3'''


text: User talk:76.86.161.73

title: User talk:76.86.161.73


text:
User talk:Observer~enwikibooks

Welcome message
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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 21:33, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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User talk:Electric goat

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 21:40, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Electric goat


text:
User talk:24.253.156.51

Join Us!
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title: User talk:24.253.156.51


text:
User talk:Lspic001

HOW TO BE AN EFFECTIVE TEACHER TO STUDENTS LIVIVG IN POVERTY By: Lori Spicer

INTRODUCTION

For the first time in at least 40 years poor children constitute 54% of students in public schools throughout the South. “While that makes the South the nation’s first geographic region to reach that milestone, researchers said the West is not fare behind. If current population trends continue, the report adds, students from low-income households will constitute more than half of K-12 enrollment in public schools nationally within 10 years” (Viadero, 14). Each year increasing number of children are entering schools with special needs, such as poverty, that schools are not prepared to meet. Socioeconomic status is the most powerful influence on a student’s educational ability. Where a student is born and grows up has a great effect on what they are able to accomplish. “A good education is often the only means of breaking the cycle of poverty for poor children. These children need an education that is founded in high standards and high expectations for all” (Pellino, 3). In order to be a successful teacher to these under privileged students one must know themselves, know the environment in which they teach, and maintain high expectations (Gehrke, 1).

SELF AWARENESS

To be an effective teacher to students of all socioeconomic classes one must have a great desire to meet the learning needs of all students in an individual and personal manner. An effective teacher requires uniform treatment, conduct and outcome from all students. A teacher must know themselves in terms of their levels of frustration and their coping capabilities (Gehrke, 2). Teachers need to rely on their own assumptions and belief systems, especially in cases where there social experiences and backgrounds greatly differ from those of the students they teach. When a teacher can understand the perspectives and situations of their students the teacher is able to establish a connection that facilitates engagement.

KNOWING YOUR ENVIRONMENT

Our nation’s classrooms are becoming more diverse than ever before due to the rise in the number of children in poverty. Poor children are disadvantaged from the start. They most likely had inadequate or no pre-natal care. They probably have insufficient health insurance. More importantly poor children do not have the same life experiences as other children. They miss out on things that help in the development of skills and academic achievement, i.e. the use of home computers, visits to zoos and museums, attendance at pre-school, interaction with the educated, and being read to by a parent (Pellino, 5-6).

The government and agencies have been considering what steps they can take to help this problem. “Some take the view that schools could do much more to reduce, if not eliminate, the effects of poverty. This has led to some very dubious strategies, such as various kinds of takeovers or reconstitution of so-called failing schools, as if the problem were simply one of working a little harder. Others argue that socioeconomic status is too powerful and that schools alone will not be able to mitigate its impact” (Levin, 2).

MAINTAINING HIGH EXPECTATIONS

Poor children often attend schools where teachers are less qualified and instruction is less challenging, when they actually need the best that can be offered. Steps need to be taken to reduce retention in grade and increase early intervention to diagnose reading problems. “The solution lies in placing all of our youth in the best position to be successful” (Desroches, 2). As teachers of poor children, planning and preparation is absolutely critical to be successful. In a classroom of diverse students, content needs to be related in varying ways to meet all of their needs. Constructivism is a great concept in that it allows student differences and use of their own prior knowledge to make connections and learn. This allows the students the opportunity to become active learners by questioning, hypothesizing and drawing conclusions based on their individual experiences. If there is only a limited foundation for children to draw upon, we need to help them develop a base of experiences and knowledge from which they have a place to start (Pellino, 2). Teachers of under privileged children often feel sorry for their students because of the environment in which they live. Subsequently, the demands for these poor children are lowered and the student achievement lags causing self improvement and school reform to be impossible. We as teachers need to place an emphasis on sparking the desire to learn (motivation) by not only encouraging students to see the demands and rewards of schooling but also by restoring the child’s self image. “We need to make them feel that they are lovable, important and acceptable human beings by making them feel secure and good about themselves and by building trusting respectful relationships with them” (Pellino, 3). Most of these students want and desire to learn but do not always have the skills needed. However, teachers that are patient and take the time necessary to offer extra help and encouragement can often make the difference.

Involving the parents of low socioeconomic children is a great advantage but also a great challenge. Children experience the world through their parents. The parent child relationship is the primary context for early development, due to poverty factors there is usually a negative effect on the development of the child. Children rely on their parents for support, emotional stimulation, and to mediate their environment. If a parent does not due this, due to poverty related stress, the child’s development could be delayed or negatively effected. Strengthening and supporting parents and families is very important. Teachers can educate parents on time efficient, simple ways to help their children at home. Teachers can provide activities and literature that can educate the child and strengthen the parent the child relationship in a positive way. “Many of these parents need to learn strategies that can help them cope and help their children get a chance at breaking the cycle of poverty” (Pellino, 7).

CONCLUSION

Poverty is an epidemic that is greatly effecting the South but slowly sweeping our nation. Schools are not prepared to meet the requirements it takes to educate these children. The only way for a child to break out of poverty is through education, successful teachers are needed to meet this goal. To be a successful teacher one must have three characteristics: self awareness, awareness of environment and the maintainance of high expectations.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. In what part of the United States are over 50% of children living in poverty? A. North B. South C. East D. West

2. The class a student is born into has _____ effect on what they are able to accomplish. A. Little B. Great C. No    D.  Undetermined

3. Poor children are disadvantaged from the start. A. True B. False

4. When teaching to poor, little planning and preperation is needed. A. True B. False

5. Involving the parents in a poor child's education is _____ helpful. A. Never B. Sometimes C. Always

WORKS CITED

Gehrke, Rebecca S. "Poor Schools, Poor Students, Sucessful Teachers." Kappa Delta Pi Record no1, 14-17 Fall 2005.

Pellino, Karen M. "The Effects of Poverty on Teaching and Learning." http://www.teach-nonogy.com/Articles/teaching/poverty/. 2007.

Levin, Ben. "Schools, Poverty, and the Achievement Gap." Phi Delta Kappan 89, 75-6 Spring 2007.

Desroches, Malaka. "The effects of poverty on school education." http://www.helium.com/tm/267741/youth-believe-children-future. 2002-2208.

Viadero, Debra. "South's Schools Pass Milestone on Poverty." Education Week 27 no11 1, 14-15 N 7 2007.

title: User talk:Lspic001


text:
Papermaking/Raw materials

> Next chapter: Fibres for paper

title: Papermaking/Raw materials


text:
User:BORGATO Pierandrea

Spaces
z  z _z z zz U+0020	space	Common	Separator, space

i.e.   non breaking space, e.g. between numbers and their measurement unit
 * U+00A0	no-break space	Common	Separator, space Whitespace character

Parentheses
Bracket

{round, square, curly}

(              Left parenthesis

)             	Right parenthesis

[              Left square bracket ]              Right square bracket

{            Left curly bracket

}            Right curly bracket

Mary had a little lamb.

curly brackets: Cap + AltBr + [    Cap + AltBr + ]

title: User:BORGATO Pierandrea


text:
User talk:Awhit063

Why do kids in poverty score lower on standardized tests? By: Ashley Ellis

Introduction

Over the years, poverty has been a major social problem for the United States that has affected millions of American citizens. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2006, 36.5 million people lived in poverty and 12.8 million children under the age of 18 lived in poverty as well (Poverty 2006 Highlights). In 2005, 12.6 million U.S. families were not able to obtain enough food to feed their family members due to lack of money (Barton & Coley, 2007). The conditions and issues experienced by those in poverty cause an immense amount of stress and uncertainty, which makes it extremely hard to get through each day. Children in poverty stricken families struggle to receive a proper education and to perform well in school. Educators and the U.S. government are faced with the issue of solving the achievement gap between children who live in poverty and children who live in the middle and upper class. To conquer and fix the achievement gap, educators and government officials must first understand and evaluate why students from low-income families have lower achievement levels than students from middle and high-income families.

Effects of Poverty on Student Performance

Students living in poverty deal with numerous obstacles such as poor quality schools, violence, and limited access to health care and insurance, all of which affect school performance and cause achievement gaps. Low quality home life is one of the biggest obstacles affecting children in poverty as “much of what later shows up as achievement gaps begins before children even enter school” (Achievement Gaps, 2008, p. 5). The report The Family: America’s Smallest School found that “by the time they’re four years old, children in families where at least one parent is a professional hear 35 million more words than children of parents on welfare,” (Achievement Gaps, 2008, p. 5). This finding represents a huge disadvantage for children in welfare families, because their vocabulary will be extremely limited. It also puts them behind for kindergarten and possibly makes it harder to comprehend what they are taught in kindergarten. Another obstacle faced by students in low-income families is a constant need to move to find affordable housing and obtainable jobs. As a result of moving, students have to change schools constantly, which is a problem because “research has shown that changing schools frequently can have a negative impact on student achievement” (Barton & Coley, 2007, p. 14).

In addition to low quality home life and constant moving, children living in poverty are much “more likely than children from middle-class backgrounds to report increased levels of anxiety and depression.” These factors make it almost unbearable for these children to focus in class and on school assignments, thus leading to poor academic achievement (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007, para. 3). The increased levels of anxiety and depression experienced by students in poverty can result from the violence they witness in their neighborhoods and especially in the schools they attend, since they are “more likely to report the presence of gangs in the school than [are] those from higher income households” (Barton, 2003, p. 18). Little or no access to health care and insurance is another major problem for children attending high-poverty schools, because they have increased absences from ongoing illnesses that they cannot afford to treat. Therefore, they miss out on the educational content being taught and fall behind (Barton & Coley, 2007). The schools children in poverty attend usually have “inadequate facilities, fewer textbooks and supplies, less administrative support, and larger class sizes,” which makes it hard for teachers to provide a quality education to these children so they can have high academic achievement (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007, para. 5).

All of these obstacles lead to “greater incidence of school failure [and] lower standardized test scores” amongst children who live in poverty (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007, par. 5).

Opposing Arguments & Research

Even though there is overwhelming evidence that students in poverty perform lower academically, evidence does exist that proves otherwise. A report published by the Center on Education Policy found that “low-income students at public urban high schools generally perform as well on achievement tests as students who attend private high schools” (Urban Students, p. 5). This finding contradicts the argument that students in poverty score lower on standardized tests than students in middle and upper classes. Another report, Are Private High Schools Better Than Public High Schools?, also contradicts this argument by stating private school students “didn’t do any better on math, reading, science and history tests” than those students attending public schools (Urban Students, p. 5). Specific ethnic groups, such as African-American and Filipino-American, often get placed into the category of low-income students because they perform lower academically than students in middle and upper classes, but this is not always the case. For example, the Filipino-American students in the Lodi Unified School District are proving they do not fit into the academic achievement gap by “continu[ing] to outscore every other student population year after year,” which their standardized tests scores prove as they “beat out the Lodi Unified's total average by a whopping 73 points” (Dyer, 2008, p. 1).

Of course there will always be contradicting evidence and research to the argument that students who live in poverty display lower academic achievement, however; educators and government officials still need to find solutions to the achievement gap that research has proven does exist in United States’ schools.

Possible Methods & Solutions

School counselors, teaching students to use technology efficiently, increased parent involvement in school, and providing early childhood education are examples of possible solutions to improving low-income students’ academic performance. Many school counselors “have received training in multicultural counseling” and therefore understand the different factors of poverty that negatively influence low-income children’s academic achievement (Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007, para. 7). School counselors who have received multicultural training can help school staff better understand the effects of poverty on low-income students, allowing teachers to “design[] more effective learning experiences” for students and more effectively reach their parents(Amatea & West-Olatunji, 2007, para. 7).

Technology has become essential to daily life and to most job professions. The U.S. Department of Education has jumped on board with technology by setting up the National Educational Technology Standards for schools to develop technological performances students should be able to complete by a certain grade (Thomas, 2007). Teachers frequently give students assignments where some form of technology is necessary to complete the task, but often students in high poverty schools are not knowledgeable on how to use computers or other forms of technology, which puts them at a severe disadvantage (Thomas, 2007). However, if high poverty schools effectively teach technology to students, then they will be prepared to “either enter the work force or [] complete higher-level degrees,” and begin to break the cycle of poverty because more and more low-income students will be prepared to obtain better jobs (Thomas, 2007, para. 16).

Increasing the amount of parent involvement in children’s schooling can also help improve student performance, since research has proven “that when parents and schools work together to support student learning, children do better in school” (Barton & Coley, 2007, p. 32). Parents can become more involved by ensuring their students attend school regularly, having conferences with their children’s teachers, and ensure their students complete all assignments and projects (Barton & Coley, 2007).

Programs encouraging early childhood education such as Head Start have been in the headline of newspapers and have been major topics for U.S. legislators. This is partly because of the belief that the “school readiness gap begins before children enter school and places children at risk of failure in school” (An NEA, 2008, p. 1). State officials are being encouraged to adopt these preschool programs, because “research continues to confirm the benefits of quality early childhood programs” will prevent achievement gaps between low-income students and high-income students (An NEA, 2008, p. 1). Research supporting preschool programs has shown “children in quality preschool programs are less likely to repeat grades,” since they are better prepared to start school and are being equipped with the skills necessary to succeed in future levels of schooling (An NEA, 2008, p. 1).

Application Questions

1. According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2006, how many children lived in poverty? a)5 million b) 12 million c) 12.8 million d) 36.5 million

2. Sarah is a student in a high poverty school who has shown low academic performance. Which obstacle in her life could be causing her low performance? a) too much studying b) low quality home life c) small class size d) strong parental involvement

3. Thomas is a student living in poverty who has reported increased levels of depression and anxiety. What caused his depression and anxiety? a) the presence of gangs in his school b) low quality home life c) moving d) inadequate school facilities

4. A report published by the Center on Education Policy found that _________________at public urban high schools generally perform as well on achievement tests as students who attend private high schools. a) low-income students b) poverty stricken students c)less privileged students d) less-income students

5. Mrs. Whitaker is a school counselor who has helped teachers at her school to understand the different factors of poverty that negatively influence low-income children’s academic achievement. She has most likely received what kind of training? a) urban counseling training b) ethnic counseling training c)cultural counseling training d) multicultural counseling training

Answers: 1. c 2. b 3. a 4. a 5. d

References

Amatea, E.S. & West-Olatunji, C.A. (2007). Joining the conversation about educating our poorest children: Emerging leadership roles for school counselors in high-poverty schools. Professional School Counseling, 11(2). 81-89. Retrieved Jan. 16, 2008 from: http://find.galegroup.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu Barton, P.E. & Coley, R.J. (2007). The Family: America’s Smallest School. Retrieved Jan. 31, 2008, from Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. Web site: http://www.ets.org.

Barton, P.E. (2003). Parsing the Achievement Gap: Baselines for Tracking Progress. Retrieved Jan. 21, 2008, from Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. Web site: http://www.ets.org.

Dyer, A. (2008, February 2) Making the grade: Why do Lodi Unified’s Filipino students get top scores in district? Lodi News-Sentinel; Sect News:1. <http://www.lodinews.c-    om. 2008 Feb 2.

Thomas, D. (2007). Teaching technology in low socioeconomic areas: Technology education will help break the cycle of       poverty for low socioeconomic students. The Technology Teacher, 67(3), 4-8. Retrieved January 18, 2008 from: http://find.galegroup.com.proxy.lib.odu.edu

(2008). Achievement Gaps Begin Before School Starts. Virginia Journal of Education, Feb., 5.

(2008). An NEA policy brief: Early Childhood Education and School Readiness. Retrieved Feb. 1, 2008, from National Education Association, Washington D.C.. Web site: http://www.nea.org/earlychildhood/images/policybriefece.pdf.

(2007). Poverty: 2006 Highlights. Retrieved Jan. 31, 2008, from U.S. Census Bureau, Housing and Household Economic Statistics Division. Web site: http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/poverty06/pov06hi.html.

(2008). Urban Students Matching Private School Test Scores. Virginia Journal of     Education, Feb., 5.

title: User talk:Awhit063


text:
Clock and Data Recovery/Introduction

Timing in serial data transmission
To transmit digital information over a certain distance, it is necessary to serialize it (both when transmitting over one guiding medium like cable, fiber, etc., as well as when transmitting wireless).

The digital information is often encoded for error detection and correction.

The encoded bit stream carries with itself its own clock information.

The timing information, i.e. the clock, is essentially carried by the level transitions of the traveling signal.

The resulting signal, during its journey, is affected by noise and by the transfer function of the transmission medium, and undesired corruption of the information content may follow.

At the receiving end, the signal is restored (it is equalised and the noise filtered out) as much as possible.

Then the timing information is extracted, and the bit stream regenerated.

The electronic circuits that accomplish these last functions inside the data receiver are called the Clock and Data Recovery block (= the CDR).

The action of recuperating the clock signal from the received signal is inevitably affected by some deterioration. Errors may come out in the subsequent regeneration of the encoded bit stream because of poor equalisation/noise_filtering and of imperfect synchronisation of the recovered clock with respect to the restored pulses.

Data and clock, during their travel together, have been affected by the noise and by the inter-symbol interference and have acquired:
 * both: some inevitable delay, due to the physical transit time, and to the extraction process,
 * the clock: some timing inaccuracy (= phase modulation, called jitter )
 * the regenerated bits: some errored bits with a (very) low probability, or –in other words- a bit error rate of very low value (e.g. < 10−19)

The jitter can be kept to a minimum with sophisticated clock extraction circuits, but not eliminated.

On the other hand, in the network topology there are always points where signals that had been originated by the same clock and have cumulated different jitters along different transmission paths, must be put together again.

To absorb the jitter differences an elastic buffer (a special type of buffer memory) is used.

Serial versus parallel

 * Information is stored in a memory, in the forms of bits written inside the cells of the memory.

 * Most memories are made by groups of cells with a unique address. Each group of cells accommodates a memory word that is made of 8 bits, or of a integer multiple of 8 bits. Each group of 8 bits of information constitutes a byte.

 * A file (i.e. the content of a part of a memory) must be " transmitted " to make its information content available elsewhere. " Transmitted " means sent electronically and replicated inside a similar part of another memory.

 * A memory stores and outputs its content via a parallel bus as wide as each of its words. The bits of a word can be transmitted all at the same time in parallel on a bus of links, with as many links as the memory bus is wide (often with one more link to transmit the clock that times the bits of each subsequent word).

 * This is called a parallel  transmission. The clock that times the transmission of each word content has a frequency equal to:

(bits transmitted each second) / (number of bits in a word) [Hz].

 * A parallel transmission becomes unpractical when the bit rate on the links exceeds a certain limit.
 *  The (parallel) links carry the information bits as electromagnetic signals (electric or optical).
 *  The parallel links are never of the same physical length, length that can be measured by how many clock periods it takes for an information bit to travel through the link.
 *  A single clock at the end of the links may be unable to load all the bits of a given word together into the receiving memory, if they have suffered largely different delays during the transmission.
 * The delay difference amongst different parallel paths may cause bits of a given word (that have been sent at the same instant) to be received in different clock cycles at the receiving end.
 *  (The distance difference is inclusive of different delays in the electronic circuitry of each path, transmit and receive).
 * The parallel transmission is limited by the length difference of the parallel paths.
 * Parallel transmission is practical when both:
 * different paths have delay differences shorter than a quarter of a bit interval, and
 * the connections to the bus of links can be made very inexpensive.

 * Alternatively, the clock speed may be multiplied by the number of bits in parallel, and the bits of a word may be sent one after the other on a single transmission line, during a time period equal to one clock cycle of the parallel transmission.
 * Serial transmission is used when distances are too long or cost can be reduced.
 * The serialized bit stream obviously still needs its clock at the receiving end to identify each information bit and to load them into a memory (typically into the byte memory of the demux).
 * The clock must be transmitted together (encoded) with the information bits so that they travel together inside the single transmission line, and suffer the very same delay. At the receiving end the clock shall be recovered first and then used for the recovery of the information bits (clock and data recovery).

 * A piece of equipment in a network uses parallel processing inside its processing core but connects outside with one or more serial links.

 * Therefore, at the transmit side it is possible to identify some circuitry that converts from parallel to serial (the MUX) and some circuitry at the opposite end converting from serial to parallel (DEMUX).

 * The figure below actually sketches a complete one-directional part of serial link, that is equivalent to sketch both direction of the parallel to serial interface.

 * The figure is also useful to point out (in red) the point where the combined signal/clock is to be regenerated. The fundamental first operation is the Clock Recovery from the combined Clock and Data signal, an operation that is the subject of this book.

CDRs and PLLs
This book deals with CDR (Clock and Data Recovery) circuits, but just the PLLs (Phase Locked Loops) that they incorporate are the circuit blocks that are analyzed and studied. These PLLs are the important part of a CDR (= used for the Clock Recovery, = the CR part of the CDR).

The DR (Data Recovery) part of the CDR is not studied in any depth, and only the PLLs that are fit for the Clock Recovery function are studied here.

PLLs used for other applications, like for instance position detection of mobile objects or identifications of non-modulated signals, are not considered.

In recent years, owing to the explosive growth of mobile phones, a lot of development has been made on PLLs inside frequency synthesizers (they are not CDRs). It may be said that nowadays a very large part of the PLLs implementations are in frequency synthesizers.

What is special in PLLs for CDRs is a direct consequence of the "blending" of information bits with their clock into a unique serial stream of pulses. Often a NRZ transmission of the information bits does the job perfectly. For other transmission channels a different "encoding" of bits and clock may optimize better the overall performances and increase the distance beyond which a regeneration is needed.

In all cases the "blended" serial stream, owing to the essential "impredictability" of the information bits, does not have a spectrum with neat lines at fixed frequencies but is spread out with large lobes; its level transitions do not occur at each of the possible instants but randomly on just part of them. The concept of "transition density" is used in this book to simplify the mathematics. Moreover, these transitions, when they occur, jitter with respect to their ideal positions because of channel distortion and noise.

On the contrary, the signal that a frequency synthesizer locks into, is a regular periodic waveform, with a spectrum close to a strong line with noise sidebands. Its level transitions occur with a 100% density.

The clock that travels together with the data
The clock signal that releases the data bits one by one for a serial transmission must travel with them and be recovered first upon arrival, so that the regeneration of the received data bits can follow.

To efficiently use ( a good percentage of ) the channel capacity, a practical serial link needs a clock that can correctly identify each data pulse at the arrival point.

When data are transmitted in the simplest way (NRZ) each symbol is a pulse (0 or 1) lasting exactly one period of the associated clock. The associated clock is visible in ( and recoverable from ) the “transitions” (level changes from 1 to 0 or vice versa) between two subsequent symbols. Unfortunately a transition is not always present between two symbols. If transitions do not occur often enough (transition density, run-length,..), then it is not possible to recover the clock associated with the received data.

The train analogy

 * To clarify the concept, a simple analogy can be used, of a train transportation where some additional passengers are added to each given group of normal (data bit) passengers.

 * These additional passengers are going to assist the others upon arrival, but decrease the number of seats available to the original passengers, that pay for everybody (the group of paying passengers that use a reduced number of seats represents the payload in this analogy).
 * The recovered clock is necessary to regenerate the data passengers when they get out of the train. This (recovered) clock is necessary to fully regenerate every data bit passenger. No other clock can accomplish that.
 * Amongst all the added passengers that accomplish their task at the arrival (receiver), some assist in the clock recovery, but others may be present to correct the most deteriorated passengers that might have arrived in a terrible state and have been regenerated wrongly (Bit error correction), and some others might be present for a combination of these types of tasks (framing, etc.).

The fundamental theory
The fundamental theory based on the Shannon-Hartley theorem, does not address explicitly the clock recovery topic, because its synthetic formula applies exactly only to
 * linear systems and to
 * the most generic and casual type of noise (gaussian):

$ C = B \log_2 \left( 1+\frac{S}{N} \right) $

 * The theorem does not consider also that the total time available to achieve a complete regeneration of the received bits is in practice very short.

Still the hypotheses for validity of this "channel capacity theorem" indicate that:
 * the continuous transmission yields results closer to the theoretical limit than burst transmission and that
 * recourse to complicated encoding schemes is needed for real systems to improve towards the theoretical limit.

The meaning of this fundamental formula extends much beyond its stated hypotheses.

Its popularity in fact comes from the understanding it offers in reality, where bandwidth and noise are not known with mathematical precision and where many relations between quantities deviate significantly from linearity.

It provides good approximations when applied to non-linear phenomena, for instance to the bit error rate that originates from the phase noise affecting the transitions of the received signal (i.e. to the clock jitter).

 * The phase noise that deteriorates the clock ( the clock is essentially a square wave and is affected by a noise that is nothing but the jitter) increases the bit error rate BER (i.e. reduces the theoretical channel capacity C) very much like a reduction of the signal to noise ratio ( S/N ) does in the formula of Shannon-Hartley.

 * Strictly speaking, the formula yields exact results only if the noise is gaussian. But the gaussian noise is the [[w:Normal distribution|

most random possible noise]] and the recovered clock phase noise comes from the cumulation of many different disturbances. It can be understood that both noises produce a higher BER (i.e. both reduce the channel capacity C) even if by (slightly) different amounts.

The actual additional fare
How large is the cost (in terms of bit rate, or of channel bandwidth, or of channel capacity) that is paid in actuality to have the clock travel together with the associated data?

The Shannon-Hartley theorem does not tell how to conceive a system that meet the given requirement of practical cases, and the implementation task is passed to design engineers without concise formulas to use.

All the transmission equipment are designed to be compatible with the longest line length they may happen to be used with.

In all of them, the design of the clock recovery circuits are made so that the jitter of the recovered clock is kept small enough not to generate but a possible minor increase of the bit error rate, even when connected to the longest Communication channel they are specified for.

In other words, the clock jitter makes a negligible contribution to the total equivalent S/N, but this is achieved at the cost of reducing the number of passenger seats, i.e. with a reduction of the net bit rate, that is in turn equivalent to a reduction of the available bandwidth B.

In most real cases the channel capacity reduction traded off in return for an error free clock recovery ranges from maximum larger than 10% (burst transmissions) down to a few percent (continuous transmission). For a satisfactory clock recovery, different techniques are used in different cases. Very often more than one are present together in the same application, but almost all of them consist in taking a limited amount of line pulses and assigning them to clock recovery (and to other) purposes. The useful bit rate is correspondingly reduced and so is the Channel Capacity in the Shannon-Hartley sense. How large is the cost (in terms of bit rate, or of channel bandwidth, or of channel capacity) that is paid in actuality to have the clock travel together with the associated data? Owing to the many different solutions present in digital networks, and to the additional purposes that each solution may serve besides clock recovery, the answer can only be approximated by a range of possible values. It must also be considered that a payload of bits is loaded with additional overhead bits every time it goes down a step in the staircase of the OSIRM levels to reach the bottom and become a train of pulses actually transmitted through the physical medium. Each additional overhead helps create a train of pulses that make the clock recovery a bit easier, even though it is the overhead added by the lowest layer that is primarily meant to directly assure the clock recovery. In burst transmissions the seats (bit intervals) at the beginning of each burst are denied to the paying passengers. The sequence of pulses transmitted first is chosen to generate a large number of transitions, to allow a very fast clock recovery. The phase lock of the clock is reached within the shortest possible time and all the data bits that follow can be correctly regenerated. In continuous transmissions there is no such consideration, because a longer time can be allocated to reach phase lock (the event of beginning of transmission is a rare occurrence and its duration has a negligible impact on the overall efficiency). In the extreme case of very short links with over-abundant bandwidth, differential Manchester is sometimes used instead of NRZ. Differential Manchester should be seen as an extreme case. The channel bandwidth required is twice as large with no increase of the channel capacity, in return for excellent clock recovery and other benefits (extremely low signal power at frequencies close to 0 and insensitivity to polarity inversion, constant signal power,..). The total additional fare for the added passengers is 50%, the majority of which may be ascribed to the clock. 8b/10 encoding takes two additional seats every 8 mainly to make sure that the clock can be easily recovered in continuous transmissions. (The analogy with the addition of 2 non-paying passengers gets a bit confused in this case, because the overall group of 10 bits is not simply made adding two new ones and keeping the eight original bits: there is some scrambling involved. The original group of 8 passengers is not identifiable along the trip, but is recreated at the arrival). The clock added fare accounts for the majority of the capacity reduction of (10-8)/10 = 20%. The 64B/66B transmission code is a more recent and less overhead version of 8b/10b. It is used in the Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet standards. The channel capacity reduction is (66-64)/66 = 3 %, but the clock receives only an assurance of 1 more transition every 66 bits. The clock additional fare can be computed as 1.5 %. To compensate for some advantages of 8b/10b, it is used always with scrambling that alleviates statistically its lower performances in DC balance, run length, and transition density. In most real cases the channel capacity reduction traded off in return for an error free clock recovery ranges from maximum larger than 10% (burst transmissions) down to a few percent (continuous transmission).

What this book is all about (i.e. application-structure correspondence)
This book intends to provide a good theoretical base for the understanding, the study and the engineering of PLL systems meant for CDR applications.

The PLL of a CDR is a unity feedback system because the output (the recovered clock) should be as close as possible to the input (the clock embedded in the incoming pulse stream), apart from the rejection of high frequency components of the latter.

CDRs that are made up entirely of circuit blocks that behave linearly are well described by the linear mathematical models, i.e. by linear differential equations with time as independent variable and by their Laplace or Fourier transforms.

Any PLL of a CDR can be described by one out of three "control loop structures" (= architectures, in the sense of block diagrams).

They can be identified just by the two numbers of their order and their type. The figure here below identifies the three architectures from their linear models.

The structures implemented in practice with all linear blocks are:
 * 1) Loops of 1st order and of type 1, for applications of "phase aligners" and of "end points".
 * 2) Loops of 2nd order and of type 1, for applications of "regenerators"

CDRs with one or more hard non-linearities can not be sufficiently described by linear mathematical models. ( Additional simulations recomputed for each different signal level are needed).
 * The widespread (and often inevitable) use of essentially non-linear phase comparators (bang-bang) leads to the use of the more tolerant and robust architectures. (The gain of the bang-bang phase detector is not fixed, but varies with the phase difference at its inputs).

Such structures can still be identified by the numbers of order and type of the corresponding linear loops, and are in practice:
 * 1) Loops of 1st order and of type 1 (exactly as in 1.1.), for applications of "phase aligners" and of "end points".
 * 2) Loops of 2nd order and of type 2  (if a linear phase comparator is used this structure is non-preferred) for applications of "regenerators" and of "end points". A detailed analysis of a linear (2.2) architecture (with all linear blocks) is still very important for the comprehension of its practical applications with a bang-bang phase detector.

In the book, for all the listed cases (1.1., 1.2. and 2.2.):
 * 1) the linear model (functions of the complex variable $$s$$ or of $$ j\omega$$, and of the real variable $$t$$) is provided, so that the operation in "small signal" conditions can be studied (jitter tolerance, jitter transfer, noise transfer, unit step response, etc.)
 * 2) of each PLL block and
 * 3) of the overall system
 * 4) Important points, where the linear model applicability is exceeded, are investigated, using results obtained trough numerical simulation.
 * Several versions of simulation programs have been developed and can be provided on request.

title: Clock and Data Recovery/Introduction


text:
User talk:BORGATO Pierandrea

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 00:12, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

Check the need for transwiki the content...
Transwiki exists to preserve the need of attribution to Wikipedia and the information about contributions made there, there are other solution but this would preserve the edit history. See Help:Transwiki, Transwiki log. --Panic (talk) 01:01, 4 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I will import/history-merge the content from Wikipedia. Please leave me a note on my talk page specifying which Wikipedia page corresponds to each page on Wikibooks. In the future, you can request an import at WB:RFI. Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:48, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Huuu, look at those pretty pictures ...
Great work mate. Clock and data recovery looks great. --Panic (talk) 16:46, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Thanks! BORGATO Pierandrea (talk) 17:24, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Hello! Information?
Hello BORGATO, how are you? I like your book very much, it's a topic that's of personal interest to me. I've done a majority of work on the Control Systems and Signals and Systems books, so that should give you an idea of my background.

I heard that you moved this book here from Wikipedia, correct? I would like to get a little bit of information about this from you, if possible. Why did you move the material to Wikibooks? Was the material deleted on Wikipedia? Also, are there any things that we can do to help you and your project? I have a Wikibooks news blog that I write, and I like to include stories about how Wikibooks and Wikipedia interact. I would like to write a little clip about you and your book, if you don't mind. Thanks! --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:00, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

Hi, Whiteknight! I sent you a reply via email. Got it? By, BORGATO Pierandrea (talk) 21:47, 23 April 2008 (UTC).

 * Yes I did, and I'm sorry I didn't reply sooner. Your Curriculum Vitae is very impressive! With your experience in baseband transmissions, you might be able to lend a hand or an eye to the young Communication Networks book, or the Communication Systems book. Of course, I'm sure you're busy enough with your own projects! I agree with you that Phase aligners, PLLs and DLLs are terribly misunderstood in engineering. I can see it every day in class on the blank stares of my fellow students. A good book on this subject is therefore very important. I look forward to reading more of your book, and helping in any way that I can. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 14:10, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Deletions
Would you please change those deletion tags to the following: Thanks. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:46, 1 May 2008 (UTC) Thanks, Mike. Hope I did it correctly.BORGATO Pierandrea (talk) 13:45, 2 May 2008 (UTC)

Upload licenses
Thanks for your upload of File:Multilevel eye diagrams.png. Please note that GFDL license is not very well designed for images. Could you also clarify who the author/copyright-holder is? --Swift (talk) 15:02, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Dear Swift, I made a new drawing on purpose, to avoid copyright problems. The scope pictures previously used came from: Principles of data Communication, a book printed in 1968. So I think a copyright still applies, doesnt'it?

And what license should be quoted for images made like this one? Thanks, Pierandrea. BORGATO Pierandrea (talk)

 * Yes, the book is probably still under copyright. As for the update, if it is your own creation, you can pick whatever license you like. See Media for the policy on licenses here.
 * The GFDL is ill-suited for images as the full license has to be attached to copies and derivative works. Releaseing the image into the public domain is simplest, but doesn't require people to attribute the work to you. See Media for more.
 * Images that are under a free license and can be of use to others outside Wikibooks should be uploaded to Wikimedia Commons. Doing so makes the transparently available on any Wikimedia project (Wikipedia, Wikitionary, Wik...).
 * Let me know if this is still unclear (in particular the pages I linked to) or there is anything else you'd like help with. --Swift (talk) 03:33, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

Please participate
Hope you wouldn't mind participating on the "vote" to restore the CheckUser (CU) function (mostly used to fight vandalism) to the Wikibooks project, a minimum of 25 expressions of support is required to grant the flag to administrator Thenub314 (this will also enable admin Adrignola to get the function active again, since there is a minimum requirement of 2 active Wikibookians with the flag). In case you do agree to participate, your vote needs to be added to administrator Thenub314 request for permission. Thanks. --Panic (talk) 14:33, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Please sign your support vote when logged in. You were not logged in. – Adrignola talk 14:14, 20 August 2010 (UTC)

Clock and Data Recovery
I noticed you created a new page for Clock and Data Recovery (Noise is shaped by the PLL structure), but placed it in the Wikibooks namespace instead of within the book. I had moved it to correct this mistake, and now there is two copies, the other still within the Wikibooks namespace at Clock and data recovery/Noise is shaped by the PLL structure. --dark lama  14:29, 3 October 2011 (UTC)

 * I have deleted the copy in the Wikibooks namespace. I have also deleted "Clock and data recovery/The CDR' VCO" which you had previously asked on the discussion page be deleted. Yet another copy of "Noise is shaped by the PLL structure" was created at Clock and data recovery/Noise interacts with the PLL roughly two days ago. --dark lama  15:39, 3 October 2011 (UTC)

Special:UnusedFiles
Hi, I'm a wikignome editor and cleaning up many pages. I was realizing that many images listed at Special:UnusedFiles were uploaded by you. After a short research, I believe that most(if not all) were replaced by a better/newer version. Is that so? Can 'we' delete these images? mabdul 10:46, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Ciao Mabdul, and thank you for your concern about these images. Yes, I believe that all of them are leftovers from my writing the book "Clock and data recovery", because of my insufficient knowledge of the Wikibooks world.

 * Please go ahead and delete them (I do not know how to delete them) as long as they are not any longer used by pages of that book.

 * If you will also find the time to improve the pages of that book by whatever means, please do and I will thank you for that as well (BORGATO Pierandrea 13:02, 14 June 2012 (UTC)).

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title: User talk:BORGATO Pierandrea