text:
Cookbook:Apple Pie I

| Desserts

Crust

 * 8 oz (225 g) plain flour
 * 4 oz (110 g) margarine
 * 2 oz (55 g) lard
 * 1 pinch salt
 * 2 tbsp cold water

Filling

 * 1 lb (500 g) apples, sliced
 * 2 tbsp lemon juice
 * 1 oz (28 g) salted butter
 * 2½ cup sugar, and additional for sprinkling
 * ¼ cup flour
 * 2½ tbsp cornstarch
 * Cinnamon
 * Nutmeg

Topping

 * 1 oz (28 g) milk
 * Cinnamon
 * Sugar

Crust

 * 1) Rub flour, margarine, lard, and salt together until the mixture has the consistency of fine breadcrumbs.
 * 2) Add 2 tablespoons water to make a soft but firm dough.
 * 3) Roll pastry on floured surface to the size you want your pie. Make two crusts.
 * 4) Place one crust in pie pan.

Filling

 * 1) Peel and slice apples into ⅛ to ¼-inch (about 5 mm) thick segments.
 * 2) Add lemon juice to apples.
 * 3) Mix apples by hand with ½ cup sugar and a few dashes of cinnamon.
 * 4) Transfer segments, minus their acquired juices, to pie pan. Omitting the expressed juice will help prevent the pie from boiling over in the oven.
 * 5) Mix the rest of the sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg, flour, and cornstarch in a separate bowl.
 * 6) Pour this over the apples in pie pan.
 * 7) Dot with butter.
 * 8) Cover with the other crust.
 * 9) Firm down edges with fork or finger.
 * 10) Cut heart or diamond-shaped vents into top crust.
 * 11) Brush the pastry top with milk and sprinkle additional sugar and cinnamon over the top.
 * 12) Bake at 350 °F (180 °C) until golden brown (about 60 minutes.)
 * 13) Take the pie out of the oven and let it cool slightly on the counter. Do not try to eat it right out of the oven, as it will be very hot and this can cause burns!
 * 14) Serve warm with ice cream or custard.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Use a variety of apples to get more complex flavors and textures.
 * Use 2–3 Granny Smith apples, in combination with the other apples.
 * Replace the lard with shortening for a vegan dessert.
 * Do not precook apples, as this will deprive the pie of a substantial amount of flavor and turns the apples into mush!

Warnings

 * Filling will be  EXTREMELY  hot immediately after the pie is taken from the oven, so let it cool slightly before you eat it!

title: Cookbook:Apple Pie I


text:
Cookbook talk:Apple Pie

This is a recipe that my Mother gave me and was always used in my family. Sadly she passed away on 30 may 2003. She would have been so proud if she could have seen it.

Why was the margarine doubled? I think somebody messed up the recipe, but I'm not about to bake 2 pies to verify this.

 * I use something inbetween: 2 parts flour, 1 part fat.

Simmering
The original recipe had the apples simmered in 3 tablespoons of water. First I don't know how that could be done (but I'm a novice), but second it has been removed and apples are raw in the current recipe. But still the 3 tablespoons of hot water have remained in the ingredients section. We should remove the hot water if it is not needed to avoid confusing such laymen as me :). --89.133.3.110 12:53, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

alton brown is awesome
this recipe is for cobbler not pie because he didnt let it sit for 4 hours whoever wrote this should watch the apple pie episode of good eats hail alton brown he is awesome

Merging articles?
Is it sane to consider merging the multiple recipes as variations on the Apple Pie I recipe? It's frustrating to have multiple, unintuitively-named pages for these things. --MarkTraceur (discuss • contribs) 17:56, 12 December 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook talk:Apple Pie


text:
Talk:Latin/Lesson 4-Ablative

Untitled
I have tried to add a little to this page, and have also removed the section with "at home" and replaced it with the mare part. I believe that, considering the somewhat archaic use of the locative to say the same, as well as the irregular nature of the word domo, it is probably best not to use the word. Sorry if I've messed up the lesson here! -Asv, March 29th

This has been a great course so far, but I think that this lesson needs a lot of work. There's a whole lot of information that gets dumped on the learner. I think it could be broken up into several different lessons. It also needs a lot more excercises at the end (the whole course could benefit from more excercises, but this lesson really needs it). Finally, the vocative case has been added to the declension charts, but there has been no teaching about it. Thank you for putting your time and effort into this project. :)

OK. I am the primary maintainer for this page. I am annoyed that my good explanation of the ablative, one that I've used and applied many times has been summarily removed. Be curteous, and explain yourself on the talk page.

In preparation for finals, I have made a very basic change: put nominative and genitive next to one another.

My textbook and many other students use the order in the declension tables: (for nouns): nom-gen.-dat.-acc.-abl.

If we are using a different order, we should justify it--and I'm not saying there aren't justifications.

--Sam (smkatz--not logged in)

159.28.20.208 01:15, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I think the ordering of the cases should be switched to the conventional styled used in most books and webpages. The current presentation is a bit confusing. --24.147.68.116 22:20, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

order of cases
While the Nom-Gen-Dat-Acc-Abl is the most common order for cases, it is probably the least natural or logical.

Nom and Acc should be next to each other, as should Dat and Abl, because of the similarities in the declensions in those cases. Where to put Gen is less obvious, but I prefer after Acc (probably due to my english language bias). GCSE latin is one system which uses this order.

In fact, the other way annoys me so much, I think I'll fix it now, since the page is inconsistent as it currently stands. (sharkey)

Vocabulary?
How are we supposed to know what we are asked to translate? I mean, there's pronouns in these, and we didn't even cover them yet! What are we supposed to do, guess?

(10th grade)

Good work so far, but I think this lesson needs a lot of work. Firstly, the opening explanation of the ablative case is cryptic and incomprehensible. There has also been no mention of anything Greek until this point. In the following examples, there is also an utter lack of actual examples in Latin. The vocabulary used is also unexplained (ad, agris, campus). The "excercize" (How would you translate: I form the picture by means of weaving...) also gives no explanation and no answer whatsoever; it's not a very good way to clarify things.

For the pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, and they, they are not needed for a verb of that pronoun's specific person has that pronoun included automaticly in translation.

I.E. eum exanimaverunt They weakened him.(eum)

This lesson moves to fast
For people who are just now starting Latin, this lesson moves to fast. It also poorly defines the Abl. case. There is also a lack of vocabulary needed to complete the exersices. Can someone fix this?

title: Talk:Latin/Lesson 4-Ablative


text:
English in Use/Figures of Syntax

A figure of syntax is an intentional deviation from the ordinary construction of words. The principal figures of syntax are five; namely, el-lip'-sis, ple'-o-nasm, syl-lep'-sis, en-al'-la-ge, and hy-per'-ba-ton.

Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary to convey the meaning. Such words are said, in technical phrase, to be understood.

Of compound sentences, a vast many are more or less elliptical. Sometimes, for brevity's sake, even the most essential parts of a simple sentence, are suppressed: as,

 * "But more of this hereafter."—Harris's Hermes, p. 77.
 * This means, "But I shall say more of this hereafter."
 * "Prythee, peace."—Shak.
 * That is, "I pray you, hold you your peace."

There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or even of a whole clause, when this repeats what precedes. But the omission of mere articles or interjections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis, because these parts of speech ought to be expressed.

Of the article

 * "A man and [a] woman."
 * "The day, [the] month, and [the] year."
 * "She gave me an apple and [a] pear, for a fig and [an] orange."—Jaudon's Gram., p. 170.

Of the noun

 * "The common [law] and the statute law."
 * "The twelve [apostles]."
 * "The same [man] is he."
 * "One [book] of my books."
 * "A dozen [bottles] of wine."
 * "Conscience, I say; not your own [conscience], but [the conscience] of the other."—1 Cor., x, 29.
 * "Every moment subtracts from [our lives] what it adds to our lives."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 8.
 * "Bad actions mostly lead to worse" [actions].—Ib., p. 5.

Of the adjective

 * "There are subjects proper for the one, and not [proper] for the other."—Kames.
 * "A just weight and [a just] balance are the Lord's."—Prov., xvi, 11.

True ellipses of the adjective alone, are but seldom met with.

Of the pronoun

 * "Leave [you] there your gift before the altar, and go [you] your way; first be [you] reconciled to your brother, and then come [you] and offer [you] your gift,"—Matt., v, 24.
 * "Love [you] your enemies, bless [you] them that curse you, do [you] good to them that hate you."—Ib., v. 44.
 * "Chastisement does not always immediately follow error, but [it] sometimes comes when [it is] least expected."— Dillwyn, Ref., p. 31.
 * "Men generally put a greater value upon the favours [which] they bestow, than upon those [which] they receive."—Art of Thinking, p. 48.
 * "Wisdom and worth were all [that] he had."—Allen's Gram., p. 294.

Of the verb

 * "The world is crucified to me, and I [am crucified] to the world."—Gal., vi, 14.
 * "Hearts should not [differ], though heads may, differ."—Dillwyn, p. 11.
 * "Are you not much better than they" [are]?—Matt., vi, 26.
 * "Tribulation works patience; and patience [works] experience; and experience [works] hope."—Romans, v, 4.
 * "Wrongs are engraved on marble; benefits [are engraved] on sand."—Art of Thinking, p. 41.
 * "To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke].—Milton.

Of the participle

 * "That [being] over, they part."
 * "Animals of various natures, some adapted to the wood, and some [adapted] to the wave."—Melmoth, on Scripture, p. 13.
 * "His knowledge [being] measured to his state and place, His time [being] a moment, and a point [being] his space."—Pope.

Of the adverb

 * "He can do this independently of me, if not [independently] of you."
 * "She shows a body rather than a life; a statue, [rather] than a breather."—Shak., Ant. and Cleo., iii, 3.

Of the conjunction

 * "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, [and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long suffering, [and] gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, [and] temperance."—Gal., v, 22.

The repetition of the conjunction is called polysyndeton; and the omission of it, asyndeton.

Of the preposition

 * "It shall be done [on] this very day."
 * "We shall set off [at] some time [in] next month."
 * "He departed [from] this life."
 * "He gave [to] me a book."
 * "We walked [through] a mile."
 * "He was banished [from] the kingdom."—W. Allen.
 * "He lived like [to] a prince."—Wells.

Of the interjection

 * "Oh! the frailty, [oh!] the wickedness of men."
 * "Alas for Mexico! and [alas] for many of her invaders!"

Of phrases or clauses

 * "The active commonly do more than they are bound to do; the indolent [commonly do] less" [than they are bound to do].
 * "Young men, angry, mean less than they say; old men, [angry, mean] more" [than they say].
 * "It is the duty of justice, not to injure men; [it is the duty] of modesty, not to offend them."—W. Allen.

Pleonasm
Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words: as,

 * "But of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, you shall not eat of it."—Gen., ii, 17.

This figure is allowable only, when it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to impress it more strongly: as,

 * "He that has ears to hear, let him hear."—Bible.
 * "All you inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth."—Id.
 * "There shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down."—Id.
 * "I know you who you are."—Id.

A pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant; but an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst faults of bad writing.

Syllepsis
Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of the term: as,

 * "The Word was made flesh, and dwelt amongst us, and we beheld his glory."—John, i, 14.
 * "Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them."—Acts, viii, 5.
 * "The city of London have expressed their sentiments with freedom and firmness."—Junius, p. 159.
 * "And I said [to backsliding Israel,] after she had done all these things, turn you to me; but she returned not: and her treacherous sister Judah saw it."—Jer., iii, 7.
 * "And he surnamed them Boanerges, which is, The sons of thunder."—Mark, iii, 17.
 * "While Evening draws her crimson curtains round."—Thomson, p. 63.
 * "The Thunder raises his tremendous voice."—Id., p. 113.

Enallage
Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one modification, for another. This figure borders closely on solecism. There are, however, several forms of it which can appeal to good authority: as,

 * "You know that you are Brutus, that say this."—Shak.
 * "They fall successive[ly], and successive[ly] rise."—Pope.
 * "Than whom [who] a fiend more fell is nowhere found."—Thomson.
 * "Sure some disaster has befell" [befallen].—Gay.
 * "So furious was that onset's shock, destruction's gates at once unlock" [unlocked].—Hogg.

Hyperbaton
Hyperbaton is the transposition of words: as,

 * "He wanders earth around."—Cowper.
 * "Rings the world with the vain stir."—Id.
 * "Whom therefore you ignorantly worship, him declare I to you."—Acts, xvii, 23.
 * "'Happy', says Montesquieu, 'is that nation whose annals are tiresome.'"—Corwin, in Congress, 1847.

This figure is much employed in poetry, but care should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or solecism.

title: English in Use/Figures of Syntax


text:
English in Use/Punctuation

Punctuation is the art of dividing literary composition, by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly the sense and relation of the words; and of noting the different pauses and inflections required in reading.

The following are the principal points, or marks:

 * the Comma [,],
 * the Semicolon [;],
 * the Colon [:],
 * the Period, or Full stop [.],
 * the Dash [--],
 * the Note of Interrogation, Question Mark, or Eroteme [?],
 * the Note of Exclamation, Exclamation Mark, or Ecphoneme [!],
 * the Marks of Parenthesis, Brackets or Curves [],
 * the Apostrophe ['],
 * the Hyphen [-],
 * the Diaeresis [¨],
 * the Acute accent [´],
 * the Grave accent [`],
 * the Circumflex [ˆ],
 * the Breve [˘],
 * the Macron [¯],
 * the Ellipsis […],
 * the Caret [^],
 * the Tilde [~],
 * the Curly Brackets, or Brace [{}],
 * the Section [§],
 * the Paragraph [¶],
 * the Quotation Marks [""],
 * the Angle Quotes, or Guillements [«»],
 * the Brackets, or Crotchets [[]],
 * the Index [☞],
 * the Asterisk [*],
 * the Dagger, or Obelisk [†],
 * the Double Dagger, or Diesis [‡],
 * the Parallels [||],
 * the Asterism [⁂],
 * the Cedilla [¸].

The comma denotes the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, or full stop, a pause double that of the colon. The pauses required by the other four, vary according to the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They may be equal to any of the foregoing.

Comma
The comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connection which admits no point.

Simple sentences
A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma: as,

 * "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 202.
 * "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."—Tract on Tone, p. 4.
 * "Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize on promised hopes of instantaneous ease."—Crabbe.

Nominative accompanied by adjuncts
When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used instead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb: as,

 * "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6.
 * "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."—Murray's Gram., p. 268.
 * "O that the tenor of my just complaint, were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"—Sandys.

Simple members
The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma: as,

 * "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."—Shak.
 * "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."—Id.
 * "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."—Id.
 * "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"—Id.
 * "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"—Pope.
 * "Go; while you may, avoid the dreadful fate."—Id.
 * "Grief aids disease, remembered folly stings, and his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."—Johnson.

Relative that follows its antecedent
When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it: as,

 * "For the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are not seen are eternal."—2 Cor., iv, 18.
 * "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 3.

Closely connected simple members
When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted: as,

 * "Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 11.
 * "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd."—Taylor: Joh. Dict., w.
 * "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."—Campbell: Murray's Gram., p 359.

Simple immediately united members
When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125.
 * "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."—Ib., p. 126.
 * "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."—Ib., p. 359.
 * "The same good sense that makes a man excel, still makes him doubt he never has written well."—Young.

More than two words
When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also: as,

 * "Who, to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."—Beattie.
 * "Ah! what avails... all that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, if envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"—Id.
 * "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; you, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."—Shak.
 * "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."—Young.
 * "So eagerly the fiend over bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, with head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, and swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."—Milton.

Only two words
When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma: as,

 * "It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by arts and industry"—Spectator, No. 2.
 * "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul."—Goldsmith.

Two words with several adjuncts
When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."—Spectator, No. 10.
 * "Who is applied to persons, or things personified."—Bullions.
 * "With listless eyes the dotard views the store, he views, and wonders that they please no more."—Johnson.

Contrasted words or phrases
When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."—Kames.
 * "Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hand."—Beattie.
 * "It is certain he could write, and cipher too."—Goldsmith.

Alternative of names
When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted: as,

 * "We saw a large opening, or inlet."—W. Allen.
 * "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"—Cor., ix, 5.

Understood conjunction
When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as,

 * "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray, Gram., p. 269.
 * "To him the church, the realm, their powers consign."—Johnson.
 * "She thought the isle that gave her birth. The sweetest, wildest land on earth."—Hogg.

Words in pairs
When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma: as,

 * "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."—W. Allen.
 * "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 313.
 * "Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, overspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."—Dr. Johnson.

Words put absolute
Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded."
 * "This done, we parted."
 * "Zaccheus, make haste and come down."
 * "His proctorship in Sicily, what did it produce?"—Cicero.
 * "Winged with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, his steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh."—Pope, Iliad, xi, 440.

Appositions or appositives
Words in apposition, especially if they have adjuncts, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "He that now calls upon you, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe."—Johnson.
 * "Lowth, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787."—Biog. Dict.
 * "Home, Henry, lord Kames."—Ib.
 * "What next I bring shall please you, be assured, your likeness, your fit help, your other self, your wish exactly to your heart's desire."—Milton, P. L., viii, 450.
 * "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."—Byron.

A compound name
When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"
 * "Publius Gavius Cosanus."

United common and proper name
When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "The brook Kidron,"
 * "The river Don,"
 * "The empress Catharine,"
 * "Paul the Apostle."

A mere emphasis and distinction
When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "You men of Athens,"
 * "I myself,"
 * "You flaming minister,"
 * "You princes."

Name acquired by action or relation
When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "I made the ground my bed;"
 * "To make him king;"
 * "Whom they revered as God;"
 * "With modesty your guide."—Pope.

Adjectives
Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Among the roots of hazel, pendent over the plaintive stream, they frame the first foundation of their domes."—Thomson.
 * "Up springs the lark, shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn."—Id.

Adjective which follows its noun
When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "And on the coast averse from entrance or cherubic watch."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 68.

Finite verbs
Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required: as,

 * "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."—Murray.
 * "Else all my prose and verse were much the same; this, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."—Pope.

A pause for the omitted verb
As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses: as,

 * "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 132.

Infinitives
The infinitive, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma: as,

 * "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 151. [?]
 * "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."—Murray's Gram., p. 271.
 * "The Governor of all—has interposed, not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite the injurious trampler upon nature's law."—Cowper.

Participles
Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong."—Blackstone: Beattie's Moral Science, p. 346.
 * "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, lingering and listening wandered down the vale."—Beattie.
 * "United, we stand; divided, we fall."—Motto.
 * "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."

Participle which follows its noun
When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "A man renowned for repartee, will seldom scruple to make free with friendship's finest feeling."—Cowper.

Adverbs
Adverbs, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."
 * "Besides, the mind must be employed."—Gilpin.
 * "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this."—Lyttelton.
 * "But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already."
 * "When buttress and buttress, alternately, seem framed of ebon and ivory."—Scott's Lay, p. 33.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "But, by a timely call upon religion, the force of habit was eluded."—Johnson.
 * "They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, or, ah! how changed that fearless laugh would be."—Crabbe.

Prepositions
Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches."
 * "By reading, we add the experience of others to our own."
 * "In vain the sage, with retrospective eye, would from the apparent what conclude the why."—Pope.

Interjections
Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma: as,

 * "For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."—Jeremiah, i, 15.
 * "O, it was about something you would not understand."—Columbian Orator, p. 221.
 * "Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then!"—Aikin.
 * "Ha, ha, ha! A facetious gentleman, truly!"—Id.
 * "Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"—Pope.

Words emphatically repeated
A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Happy, happy, happy pair!"—Dryden.
 * "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."—Shak.
 * "Ah! no, no, no."—Dryden.
 * "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"—Woodworth.

Dependent quotations
A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma: as,

 * "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before you.'"—Hawkesworth.
 * "I say to all, watch."—Mark.
 * "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'He has grown to be a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'Such conduct befits him.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 116.
 * "While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!' 'See man for mine!' replies a pampered goose."—Pope.

Semicolon
The semicolon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the comma, nor so little dependent as those which require the colon.

Complex members
When two or more complex members, or such clauses as require the comma in themselves, are constructed into a period, they are generally separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "In the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check its course."—Carter.
 * "When the voice rises, the gesture naturally ascends; and when the voice makes the falling inflection, or lowers its pitch, the gesture follows it by a corresponding descent; and, in the level and monotonous pronunciation of the voice, the gesture seems to observe a similar limitation, by moving rather in the horizontal direction, without much varying its elevation."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 107.
 * "The wide, the unbounded prospect lies before me; but shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it."—Addison.

Simple members
When two or more simple members, or such clauses as complete their sense without subdivision, are constructed into a period; if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "Straws swim on the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom."—Murray's Gram., p. 276.
 * "Everything grows old; everything passes away; everything disappears."—Hiley's Gram., p. 115.
 * "Alexander asked them the distance of the Persian capital; what forces the king of Persia could bring into the field; what the Persian government was; what was the character of the king; how he treated his enemies; what were the most direct ways into Persia."—Whelpley's Lectures, p. 175.
 * "A longer care man's helpless kind demands; that longer care contracts more lasting bands."—Pope.

Apposition
Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other construction, if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the semicolon: as,

 * "Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."—Murray's Gram., p. 51.
 * "Judge, judgement; lodge, lodgement; acknowledge, acknowledgement."—Butler's Gram., p. 11.
 * "Do not the eyes discover humility, pride; cruelty, compassion; reflection, dissipation; kindness, resentment?"—Sheridan's Elocution, p. 159.
 * "This rule forbids parents to lie to children, and children to parents; instructors to pupils, and pupils to instructors; the old to the young, and the young to the old; attorneys to jurors, and jurors to attorneys; buyers to sellers, and sellers to buyers."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 304.
 * "Make, made; have, had; pay, paid; say, said; leave, left; dream, dreamt; mean, meant; reave and bereave have reft." —Ward's Gr., p. 66.

Colon
The colon is used to separate those parts of a compound sentence, which are neither so closely connected as those which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which require the period.

Additional remarks
When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly inserted: as,

 * "Avoid evil doers: in such society, an honest man may become ashamed of himself."
 * "See that moth fluttering incessantly round the candle: man of pleasure, behold your image!"—Art of Thinking, p. 94.
 * "Some things we can, and others we cannot do: we can walk, but we cannot fly."—Beanie's Moral Science, p. 112.
 * "Remember heaven has an avenging rod: to smite the poor, is treason against God."—Cowper.

Greater pauses
When the semicolon has been introduced, or when it must be used in a subsequent member, and a still greater pause is required within the period, the colon should be employed: as,

 * "Princes have courtiers, and merchants have partners; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the virtuous can have friends."
 * "Unless the truth of our religion be granted, a christian must be the greatest monster in nature: he must at the same time be eminently wise, and notoriously foolish; a wise man in his practice, and a fool in his belief: his reasoning powers must be deranged by a constant delirium, while his conduct never swerves from the path of propriety."—Principles of Eloquence, p. 80
 * "A decent competence we fully taste; it strikes our sense, and gives a constant feast: more we perceive by dint of thought alone; the rich must labour to possess their own."—Young.

Independent quotations
A quotation introduced without a close dependence on a verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon: as,

 * "In his last moments, he uttered these words: 'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.'"
 * "At this the king hastily retorted: 'No put-offs, my lord; answer me presently.'"—Churchill's Gram., p. 367.
 * "The father addressed himself to them to this effect: 'O my sons, behold the power of unity!'"— Rippingham's Art of Speaking, p. 85.

Period
The period, or full stop, is used to mark an entire and independent sentence, whether simple or compound.

Distinct sentences
When a sentence, whether long or short, is complete in respect to sense, and independent in respect to construction, it should be marked with the period: as,

 * "Every deviation from truth is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm."
 * "The force of a true individual is felt through every clause and part of a right book; the commas and dashes are alive with it."—R. W. Emerson.
 * "By frequent trying, Troy was won. All things, by trying, may be done."—Lloyd, p. 184.

Allied sentences
The period is often employed between two sentences which have a general connection, expressed by a personal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb: as,

 * "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are confined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."—Blair.
 * "And whether we shall meet again, I know not. Therefore our everlasting farewell take."—Shak., J. C.

Abbreviations
The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very often to the exclusion of other points; but, as in this case it is not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow it, if the words written in full would demand them: as, A. D. for Anno Domini; Pro tem. for pro tempore; Ult. for ultimo; i.e. for id est, that is;

 * "Add., Spect, No. 285."
 * For "Addison, in the Spectator, Number 285th."
 * "Consult the statute; 'Quart.' I think, it is, 'Edwardi sext.,' or 'prim. et quint. Eliz.'"—Pope, p. 399.

Dash
The dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or emphatic pause, of variable length; but sometimes it is a sign of faltering, or of the irregular stops of one who hesitates in speaking: as,

 * "Then, after many pauses, and inarticulate sounds, he said: 'He was very sorry for it, was extremely concerned it should happen so—but—a—it was necessary—a—' Here lord E— stopped him short, and bluntly demanded, if his post were destined for an other."—Churchill's Gram., p. 170.

Abrupt pauses
A sudden interruption, break, or transition, should be marked with the dash: as,

 * "'I must inquire into the affair; and if'—'And if!' interrupted the farmer."
 * "Whom I—But first it is fit the billows to restrain."—Dryd. Virg. 3.
 * "Here lies the great—False marble! where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here."—Young.

Emphatic pauses
To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure or the sentence or the points inserted would seem to require, the dash may be employed: as,

 * "I pause for a reply.—None?—Then none have I offended.—I have done no more to Caesar, than you should do to Brutus."—Shakspeare: Enfields Speaker, p. 182.
 * "Tarry a little. There is something else.—This bond—doesn't give you here—no jot of blood." —ID.: Burgh's Sp., p. 167.
 * "It thunders;—but it thunders to preserve."—Young.
 * "Behold the picture!—Is it like?—Like whom?"—Cowper.

Faulty dashes
Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punctuation: as,

 * "Here Greece stands by itself as opposed to the other nations of antiquity—She was none of the other nations—She was more polished than they."—Lennie's Gram., p. 78.
 * "Here Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She was none of the other nations: she was more polished than they."—Bullions, E. Gram., p. 114.

If this colon is sufficient, the capital after it is needless: a period would, perhaps, be better.

Note of interrogation
The eroteme, or note of interrogation, is used to designate a question.

Questions direct
Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should always be followed by the note of interrogation: as,

 * "Was it possible that virtue so exalted should be erected upon injustice? that the proudest and the most ambitious of mankind should be the great master and accomplished pattern of humility? that a doctrine so pure as the Gospel should be the work of an uncommissioned pretender? that so perfect a system of morals should be established on blasphemy?"—Jerningham's Essay, p. 81.
 * "In life, can love be bought with gold? Are friendship's pleasures to be sold?"—Johnson.

Questions united
When two or more questions are united in one compound sentence, the comma, semicolon, or dash, is sometimes used to separate them, and the eroteme occurs after the last only: as,

 * "When—under what administration—under what exigencies of war or peace—did the Senate ever before deal with such a measure in such a manner? Never, sir, never."—D. Webster, in Congress, 1846.
 * "Cannot you, and honoured with a christian name, buy what is woman-born, and feel no shame; trade in the blood of innocence, and plead expedience as a warrant for the deed?"—Cowper.
 * "Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land? All fear, none aid you, and few understand."—Pope.

Questions indirect
When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation: as,

 * "The Cyprians asked me why I wept."—Murray.

Note of exclamation
The ecphoneme, or note of exclamation, is used to denote a pause with some strong emotion of admiration, joy, grief, or other feeling; and, as a sign of great wonder, it is sometimes, though not very elegantly, repeated: as,

 * "Grammatical consistency!!! What a gem!"—Peirce's Gram., p. 352.

Interjections
Emphatic interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are generally followed by the note of exclamation: as,

 * "Hold! hold! Is the devil in you? Oh! I am bruised all over."—Molière: Burgh's Speaker, p. 250.
 * "And O! till earth, and seas, and heaven decay, never may that fair creation fade away!"—Dr. Lowth.

Invocations
After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of exclamation is now generally preferred to any other point: as,

 * "Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision."—Acts, xxvi, 19.
 * "Be witness you, immortal Lord of all! Whose thunder shakes the dark aerial hall."—Pope.

Exclamatory questions
Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note of exclamation: as,

 * "How madly have I talked!"—Young.
 * "An Author! It is a venerable name! How few deserve it, and what numbers claim!"—Id., Br. Po., viii, 401.

Curves
The curves, or marks of parenthesis, are used to distinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly belong: as,

 * "Their enemies (and enemies they will always have) would have a handle for exposing their measures."—Walpole.
 * "To others do (the law is not severe) what to yourself you wish to be done."—Beattie.

The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a comma, or greater.

Parenthesis
A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence or passage too much to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be inclosed within curves, as a parenthesis: as,

 * "For I know that in me, (that is, in my flesh,) dwells no good thing."—Rom., vii, 18.
 * "Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope.

Included points
The curves do not supersede other stops; and, as the parenthesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, the same point should be included, except when the sentences differ in form: as,

 * "Now for a recompense in the same, (I speak as to my children,) be you also enlarged."—2 Cor., vi, 13.
 * "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: (for nature never gravitates to nought:) that thirst unquenched, declares it is not here."—Young.
 * "Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:) our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) of joys perpetual in perpetual change!"—Young.

Apostrophe
The apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a word: as,

 * "The girl's regard to her parents' advice;"

'Gan, lov'd, e'en, thro'; for began, loved, even, through. It is sometimes used in pluralizing a mere letter or sign: as,

 * "Two a's—three 6's."

Hyphen
The hyphen connects the parts of many compound words, especially such as have two accents: as, ever-living. It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syllables: as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows that one or more syllables of a word are can led forward to the next line.

Diaeresis
The diaeresis, or dialysis, placed over either of two contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong: as, Danaee, aerial.

Acute accent
The acute accent marks the syllable which requires the principal stress in pronunciation: as, e'qual, equal'ity. It is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distinguish a close or short vowel: as, Fancy; or to denote the rising inflection of the voice: as,

 * "Is it he?"

Grave accent
The grave accent is used in opposition to the acute, to distinguish an open or long vowel: as, Favour; or to denote the falling inflection of the voice: as,

 * "Yes; it is he."

It is sometimes placed over a vowel to show that it is not to be suppressed in pronunciation: as,

 * "Let me, though in humble speech, your refined maxims teach."—Amer. Review, May, 1848.

Circumflex
The circumflex generally denotes either the broad sound of a or an unusual sound given to some other vowel: as in all, heir, machine. Some use it to mark a peculiar wave of the voice, and when occasion requires, reverse it: as,

 * "If you said sô, then I said so."

Breve
The breve, or stenotone, is used to denote either the close, short, shut sound of a vowel, or a syllable of short quantity: as, lĭve, to have life; răven, to devour; călămŭs, a reed.

Macron
The macron, or macrotone, is used to denote either the open, long, primal sound of a vowel, or a syllable of long quantity: as, līve, having life; rāven, a bird; ēquīne, of a horse.

Ellipsis
The ellipsis, or suppression, denotes the omission of some letters or words: as, K…g, for King; c…d, for coward; d…d, for damned.

Caret
The caret, used only in writing, shows where to insert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted.

Tilde
The tilde, "ã", is a diacritic mark, and tilde over a letter is used to make abbreviations.

Brace
The brace serves to unite a triplet; or, more frequently, to connect several terms with something to which they are all related.

Section
The section marks the smaller divisions of a book or chapter; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge references.

Paragraph
The paragraph denotes the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently distinguished by beginning a new line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or backwards. The paragraphs of books being in some instances numbered, this character may occasionally be used, in lieu of the word paragraph, to shorten references.

Quotation points
The guillements, or quotation points, distinguish words that are exhibited as those of an other author or speaker. A quotation within a quotation, is usually marked with single points; which, when both are employed, are placed within the others: as,

 * "And again he said, 'Rejoice, you Gentiles, with his people.'"—Rom., xv, 10.

Brackets
The crotchets, or brackets, generally inclose some correction or explanation, but sometimes the sign or subject to be explained: as,

 * "He [Mr. Maurice] was of a different opinion."—Allen's Gram., p. 213.

Index
The index, or hand, points out something remarkable, or what the reader should particularly observe.

Asterisk
The asterisk, or star, the obelisk, or dagger, the diesis, or double dagger, the section, the parallels, and the paragraph, refer to marginal notes. Where many references are to be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same purpose.

Asterism
The asterism, or three stars, a sign not very often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it as a note, without giving it a particular reference.

Cedilla
The cedilla is borrowed from the French. It is placed under the letter c, to give it the sound of s, before a or o: as, Façade, Alençon. It is sometimes attached to other letters, to denote their soft sounds: Ģ as J; Ş as Z.

title: English in Use/Punctuation


text:
User:Irdepesca572

HI WHAt's UP lmao

title: User:Irdepesca572


text:
User:Xno~enwikibooks

Sogno
Era da tempo che sognavo un mezzo grazie al quale gli studenti, gli studiosi e magari anche qualche docente, potessero condividere facilmente testi ed appunti.

Un mezzo che potesse in qualche modo far nascere dei testi adatti a trasmettere la conoscenza semplicemente. Con testi scritti semplicemente, che potessero crescere e svilupparsi a seconda delle necessita di chi li usava. Che potessero essere semplici e allo stesso tempo potessero addentrarsi in profondità seguento anche i più piccoli dettagli di un argomento.

Sono stato affascinato nello scoprire che, in alcuni paesi, il testo di riferimento di un certo corso X, era lo stesso usato in tutti i corsi X della stessa facolta o della stessa università. Un testo che veniva scritto in comune da tutti i docenti, secondo le esigenze del corso X. Il testo veniva adattato annualmente alle esigenze degli studenti, veniva rivisto, corretto, semplificato, ampliato o approfondito di comune accordo con i rappresentanti degli studenti. Credo che potremmo realizzare qualcosa di simile, ognuno mettendoci del suo.

Credo che questo strumento possa realizzare tutto questo.

title: User:Xno~enwikibooks


text:
English in Use/Orthography

Letters
A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u, V v, W w, X x, Y y, Z z.

The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and written in American English, are: Ay, Bee, Cee, Dee, Ee, Ef, Gee, Aitch, Eye, Jay, Kay, El, Em, En, Oh, Pee, Kew, Ar, Es, Tee, You, Vee, Double-You, Ecks, Why, Zee (or Zed in British English).

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when pronounced alone. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, partly w and sometimes y. All the other letters are consonants.

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly pronounced until joined to a vowel. B, c, and d. W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel heard in the same syllable, as in wine, twine, whine, year, yet, and youth; in all other cases, these letters are vowels, as in Yssel, Ystadt, yttria, newly, dewy, and eyebrow.

A semivowel is a consonant which can be imperfectly sounded without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound may be protracted; for example, l, n, and z, in al, an, and az. The semivowels are: f, h, j, l, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and soft c and g; but w or y at the end of a syllable are vowels, and the sounds of c, f, g, h, j, s, and x can be protracted only as an aspirate, or strong breath.

Four of the semivowels—l, m, n, and r—are termed liquids, on account of the fluency of their sounds; and four others—v, w, y, and z—are likewise more vocal than the aspirates.

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounded at all without a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops the breath; for example, k, p, and t, in ak, ap, and at. The mutes are eight: b, d, k, p, q, t, and hard c and g; three of these—k, q, and hard c—sound exactly alike, and b, d, and hard g stop the voice less suddenly than the rest.

Powers of the letters
The powers of the letters are those elementary sounds which their figures are used to represent. The simple elementary sounds of any language are few, commonly not more than thirty-six. Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth differently, and placing the tongue in a peculiar manner for each; but the voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel.

The vowel sounds are those which are heard at the beginning of the following words: ate, at, ah, all, eel, ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull. Let us note them as plainly as possible: eigh, ~a, ah, awe, ~eh, ~e, eye, ~i, oh, ~o, oo, yew, ~u, and u. ~a is a sound generally given to the word a: as,

 * "Twice a day."

In the formation of syllables, some of these fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as in ay, oil, out, owl. These essential sounds may be changed into a series of words by f: as, fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, fuss, full. Again, into as many with p: as, pate, pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, purl, pull. The eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, may be words; but the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, it, ot, ut, put, are commonly heard only in connection with consonants.

The simple consonant sounds are twenty-two: b, d, f, g hard, h, k, l, m, n, ng, p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. Zh is written only to show the sound of other letters: as of s in pleasure, or z in azure.

All these sounds are heard in the following words: buy, die, fie, guy, high, kie, lie, my, nigh, eying, pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. Most of them may be repeated in the same word or syllable: as, bibber, diddle, fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing, pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, thither, vivid, witwal, union, dizzies, vision.

The consonants j and x represent complex sounds; hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh; and x, either to ks or to gz. The former ends no English word, and the latter begins none. To the initial z of foreign words, we always give the simple sound of z: as in Xerxes, xebec.

The consonants c and q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. Q has always the power of k. C is hard, like k, before a, o, and u; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y. Thus the syllables, ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, are pronounced, ka, se, si, ko, ku, sy. S before c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter. Hence the syllables, sca, sce, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded, ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci have sometimes the sound of sh: as, ocean, social. Ch commonly represents the compound sound of tsh: as in church.

G, as well as c, has different sounds before different vowels. G is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and u; and generally soft, like j, before e, i, or y. Thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga, je, ji, go, gu, jy.

Forms of the letters
In printed books, the Roman characters are generally employed; sometimes, the italic. In handwriting, script letters are used.

Characters of different sorts or sizes should never be needlessly mixed; because facility of reading, as well as the beauty of a book, depends much on the regularity of its letters.

Italics are chiefly used to distinguish emphatic or remarkable words: in the Bible, they show what words were supplied by the translators.

In manuscripts, a single line drawn under a word is meant for Italics; a double line, for bold or small capitals.

Small letters constitute the body of every word; and capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction. Showbills, painted signs, and short inscriptions, commonly appear best in full capitals. Some of these are so copied in books: as,

 * "I found an altar with this inscription, TO THE UNKNOWN GOD."—Acts, xvii, 23.
 * "And they set up over his head, his accusation written, THIS IS JESUS, THE KING OF THE JEWS."—Matt., xxvii, 37.

Capitals
When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small: as,

 * "Pope's Essay on Man,"
 * "The Book of Common Prayer,"
 * "The Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments."

The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a capital: as,

 * "Rejoice evermore. Pray without ceasing. In everything give thanks: for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus concerning you. Quench not the Spirit. Despise not prophesyings. Prove all things: hold fast that which is good."—1 Thess., v, 16—21.
 * "14. He has given his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: 15. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 16. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for murders: 17. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 18. For imposing taxes on us without our consent."—Declaration of American Independence.

All names of the deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals: as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, Divine Providence, the Messiah, the Comforter, the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit, the Lord of Sabaoth.

 * "The hope of my spirit turns trembling to You."—Moore.

Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals: as, Saul of Tarsus, Simon Peter, Judas Iscariot, England, London, the Strand, the Thames, the Pyrenees, the Vatican, the Greeks, the Argo and the Argonauts.

Titles of office or honour, and epithets of distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals: as, His Majesty William the Fourth, Chief Justice Marshall, Sir Matthew Hale, Dr. Johnson, the Rev. Dr. Chalmers, Lewis the Bold, Charles the Second, James the Less, St. Bartholomew, Pliny the Younger, Noah Webster, Jun., Esq.

Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital: as, Eastport, Eastville, Westborough, Westfield, Westtown, Whitehall, Whitechurch, Whitehaven, Whiteplains, Mountmellick, Mountpleasant, Germantown, Germanflats, Blackrock, Redhook, Kinderhook, Newfoundland, Statenland, Newcastle, Northcastle, Southbridge, Fairhaven, Dekalb, Deruyter, Lafayette, Macpherson.

The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two: as,

 * "The chief mountains of Ross-shire are Ben Chat, Benchasker, Ben Golich, Ben Nore, Ben Foskarg, and Ben Wyvis."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 311.

Write Ben Chasker.

When the word East, West, North, or South, as part of a name, denotes relative position, or when the word New distinguishes a place by contrast, we have generally separate words and two capitals: as, East Greenwich, West Greenwich, North Bridgewater, South Bridgewater, New Jersey, New Hampshire.

When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital: as, the United States, the Argentine Republic, the Peak of Teneriffe, the Blue Ridge, the Little Pedee, Long Island, Jersey City, Lower Canada, Green Bay, Gretna Green, Land's End, the Gold Coast.

When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter: as, the prophet Elisha, Matthew the publican, the brook Cherith, the river Euphrates, the Ohio river, Warren county, Flatbush village, New York city.

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital: as,

 * "On this, Fancy began again to bestir herself."—Addison.
 * "Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come."—Thomson.

Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals: as, Kurdish, Platonic, Newtonian, Greek, Roman, Italic, or Italian, German, or Germanic, Swedish, Turkish, Chinese, Genoese, French, Dutch, Scotch, Welsh: so, perhaps, to Platonize, to Grecize, to Romanize, to Italicize, to Latinize, or to Frenchify.

The words I and O should always be capitals: as,

 * "Praise the Lord, O Jerusalem; praise your God, O Zion."—Psalm cxlvii.
 * "O wretched man that I am!"
 * "For that which I do, I allow not: for what I would, that do I not; but what I hate, that do I."—Rom., vii, 24 and 15.

Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a capital: as,

 * "Our sons their fathers' failing language see, And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be."—Pope.

Of the exception, some editions of the Psalms in Metre are full of examples: as,

 * "Happy the man whose tender care relieves the poor distressed! When troubles compass him around, the Lord shall give him rest."—Psalms with Com. Prayer, N. Y., 1819, Ps. xli.

The first word of a full example, of a distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital: as,

 * "Remember this maxim: 'Know yourself.'"
 * "Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'"
 * "Jesus answered them, Is it not written in your law, I said, You are gods?"—John, x, 34.
 * "You know the commandments, Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour your father and your mother."—Luke, xviii, 20.

Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals; and names subscribed frequently have capitals throughout: as,

 * "In its application to the Executive, with reference to the Legislative branch of the Government, the same rule of action should make the President ever anxious to avoid the exercise of any discretionary authority which can be regulated by Congress."—Andrew Jackson, 1835.

Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use: as,

 * "Many a Noble Genius is lost for want of Education. Which would then be Much More Liberal. As it was when the Church Enjoyed her Possessions. And Learning was, in the Dark Ages, Preserved almost only among the Clergy."—Charles Leslie, 1700; Divine Right of Tythes, p. 228.

Compounds
Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly broken apart. Thus, steamboat, railroad, red-hot, well-being, new-coined, are preferable to steam boat, rail road, red hot, well being, new coined.

Simples
When the simple words would form a regular phrase, the compounding of any of them ought to be avoided: as, in lieu of, in place of, in room of.

The sense
Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined together or written separately, as the sense and construction may happen to require. Thus, a glass house is a house made of glass, but a glasshouse is a house in which glass is made.

Ellipsis
When two or more compounds are connected in one sentence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half a word. Thus, six or seventeen should not be said for sixteen or seventeen; nor ought we to say, calf, goat, and sheepskins for calfskins, goatskins, and sheepskins. In the latter instance, however, it might be right to separate all the words: as,

 * "Soup, coffee, and tea houses."—Liberator, x, 40.

Hyphen
When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, or when each retains its original accent, as first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving, garlic-eater, butterfly-shell, the hyphen should be inserted between them.

No hyphen
When a compound has but one accented syllable, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should be inserted between them: as,

 * "The practical instruction of the countinghouse imparts a more thorough knowledge of bookkeeping, than all the fictitious transactions of a mere schoolbook, however carefully constructed to suit particular purposes."—New Gram., p. vii.

Final f, l, or s
Monosyllables ending in f, l, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant: as, staff, mill, pass, muff, knell, gloss, off, hiss, puss.

The words clef, if, and of, are written with single f; as, gas, has, was, yes, his, is, this, us, pus, and thus, with single s; and bul, nul, sol, and sal, with single l.

Other finals
Words ending in any other consonant than f, l, or s, do not double the final letter: as, mob, nod, dog, sum, sun, cup, cur, cut, fix, whiz, ab, ad, jag, rag, in, bur, but.

We double the consonant in abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, jagg, ragg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz, yarr, and some proper names.

Doubling before additional syllable
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel: as, rob, robbed, robber; fop, foppish, foppery; squat, squatter, squatting; thin, thinner, thinnest; swim, swimmer, swimming; commit, committing, committed, committer, committees; acquit, acquittal, acquittance, acquitted, acquitting.

X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled: thus, from mix, we have mixed, mixing, and mixer.

When the derivative retains not the accent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled: as, prefer', pref'erence, pref'erable; refer', ref'erence, ref'erable, or refer'rible; infer', in'ference, in'ferable, or infer'rible; transfer', a trans'fer, trans'ferable, or transfer'rible.

But letters doubled in Latin, are usually doubled in English, without regard to accent, or to any other principle: as, Britain, Britan'nic, Britannia; appeal, appel'lant; argil, argil'laus, argilla'ceous; cavil, cav'illous, cavilla'tion; excel', ex'cellent, ex'cellence; inflame', inflam'mable, inflamma'tion.

No doubling before additional syllable
A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should remain single before an additional syllable: as, toil, toiling; oil, oily; visit, visited; differ, differing; peril, perilous; viol, violist; real, realize, realist; dial, dialing, dialist; equal, equalize, equality; vitriol, vitriolic, vitriolate.

The final l of words ending in el, must be doubled before another vowel, lest the power of the e be mistaken, and a syllable be lost: as, travel, traveller; duel, duellist; revel, revelling; gravel, gravelly; marvel, marvellous. Yet the word parallel, having three l-s already, conforms to the rule in forming its derivatives: as, paralleling, paralleled, and unparalleled.

Contrary to the preceding rule, the preterits, participles, and derivative nouns, of the few verbs ending in al, il, or ol, unaccented,—namely, equal, rival, vial, marshal, victual, cavil, pencil, carol, gambol, and pistol,—are usually allowed to double the l, though some dissent from the practice: as, equalled, equalling; rivalled, rivalling; cavilled, cavilling, caviller; carolled, carolling, caroller.

When ly follows l, we have two Ells of course, but in fact no doubling: as, real, really; oral, orally; cruel, cruelly; civil, civilly; cool, coolly; wool, woolly.

Compounds, though they often remove the principal accent from the point of duplication, always retain the double letter: as, wit'snapper, kid'napper, grass'hopper, duck'-legged, spur'galled, hot'spurred, broad'-brimmed, hare'-lipped, half-witted. So, compromitted and manumitted; but benefited is different.

Final ck
Monosyllables and English verbs end not with c, but take ck for double c: as, rack, wreck, rock, attack: but, in general, words derived from the learned languages need not the k, and common use discards it: as, Italic, maniac, music, public.

The words arc, orc, lac, sac, and soc, are ended with c only. Zinc is, perhaps, better spelled zink; marc, mark; disc, disk; and talc, talck.

Words ending with a double letter
Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double before any additional termination, not beginning with the same letter: as in the following derivatives: ''wooer, seeing, blissful, oddly, gruffly, equally, shelly, hilly, stiffness, illness, stillness, shrillness, fellness, smallness, drollness, freeness, grassless, passless, carelessness, recklessness, embarrassment, enfeoffment, agreement, agreeable''.

Certain irregular derivatives in d or t, from verbs ending in ee, ll, or ss, as fled from flee, sold from sell, told from tell, dwelt from dwell, spelt from spell, spilt from spill, blest from bless, past from pass, are exceptions to the foregoing rule.

If the word pontiff is properly spelled with two f-s, its eight derivatives are also exceptions to this rule; for they are severally spelled with one: as, pontific, pontifical, pontificate, etc.

The words skillful, skillfully, willful, willfully, chillness, tallness, dullness, and fullness, have generally been allowed to drop the second l, though all of them might well be made to conform to the general rule, agreeably to the orthography of Webster.

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double in all derivatives formed from them by means of prefixes: as, see, foresee; feoff, enfeoff; pass, repass; press, depress; miss, amiss; call, recall; stall, forestall; thrall, inthrall; spell, misspell; tell, foretell; sell, undersell; add, superadd; snuff, besnuff; swell, overswell.

Final ll
Final ll is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds, with the few derivatives formed from such roots by prefixes; consequently, all other words that end in l, must be terminated with a single l: as, cabal, logical, appal, excel, rebel, refel, dispel, extol, control, mogul, jackal, rascal, damsel, handsel, tinsel, tendril, tranquil, gambol, consul.

Final e
The final e of a primitive word, when this letter is mute or obscure, is generally omitted before an additional termination beginning with a vowel: as, remove, removal; rate, ratable; force, forcible; true, truism; rave, raving; sue, suing; eye, eying; idle, idling; centre, centring.

Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g: as, trace, traceable; change, changeable; outrage, outrageous.

So, from shoe, we write shoeing, to preserve the sound of the root; from hoe, hoeing, by apparent analogy; and, from singe, singeing; from swinge, swingeing; from tinge, tingeing; that they may not be confounded with singing, swinging, and tinging.

To compounds and prefixes, as firearms, forearm, anteact, viceagent, the rule does not apply; and final ee remains double, as in disagreeable, disagreeing.

The final e of a primitive word is generally retained before an additional termination beginning with a consonant: as, pale, paleness; edge, edgeless; judge, judgeship; lodge, lodgement; change, changeful; infringe, infringement.

When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes omitted: as in duly, truly, awful, argument; but much more frequently retained: as in dueness, trueness, blueness, bluely, rueful, dueful, shoeless, eyeless.

The word wholly is also an exception to the rule, for nobody writes it wholely.

Some will have judgment, abridgment, and acknowledgment, to be irreclaimable exceptions; but on the authority of Lowth, Beattie, Ainsworth, Walker, Cobb, Chalmers and others, they retain e.

Final y preceded by a consonant
The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed into i before an additional termination: as, merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment; pity, pitied, pities, pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable; contrary, contrariness, contrarily.

This rule applies to derivatives, but not to compounds: thus, we write merciful, and mercy-seat; penniless, and pennyworth; scurviness, and scurvy-grass; etc. But ladyship and goodyship, being unlike secretariship and suretiship; handicraft and handiwork, unlike handygripe and handystroke; babyship and babyhood, unlike stateliness and likelihood''; the distinction between derivatives and compounds, we see, is too nice a point to have been always accurately observed.

Before ing or ish, the y is retained to prevent the doubling of i: as, pity, pitying; baby, babyish.

Words ending in ie, dropping the e, change the i into y, for the same reason: as, die, dying; vie, vying; lie, lying.

Final y preceded by a vowel
The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i before any additional termination: as, day, days; key, keys; guy, guys; valley, valleys; coy, coyly; cloy, cloys, cloyed; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyer, annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful.

From lay, pay, say, and stay, are formed laid, paid, said, and staid; but the regular words, layed, payed, stayed, are sometimes used.

Raiment, contracted from arrayment, is never written with the y. Daily is more common than the regular form dayly; but gayly, gayety, and gayness, are justly superseding gaily and gaiety.

Ize and ise
Words ending in ize or ise, as wise and size, generally take the z in all such as are essentially formed by means of the termination; and the s in monosyllables, and in all such as are essentially formed by means of prefixes: gormandize, apologize, brutalize, canonize, pilgrimize, philosophize, cauterize, anathematize, sympathize, disorganize, with z; rise, arise, disguise, advise, devise, supervise, circumcise, despise, surmise, surprise, comprise, compromise, enterprise, presurmise, with s. In Commonwealth English spelling, words ending in ize may also be written with ise, such as organise, realise and recognise.

Advertise, catechise, chastise, criticise, exercise, exorcise, and merchandise are most commonly written with s and size, assize, capsize, analyze, overprize, detonize, and recognize, with z.

Prise, a thing taken, and prize, to esteem; apprise, to inform, and apprize, to value, or appraise, are often written either way, without this distinction of meaning, which some wish to establish. The want of the foregoing rule has also made many words variable, which ought, unquestionably, to conform to the general principle.

Compounds
Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple words which compose them: as, wherein, horseman, uphill, shellfish, knee-deep, kneedgrass, kneading-trough, innkeeper, skylight, plumtree, mandrill.

In permanent compounds, or in any derivatives of which, they are not the roots, the words full and all drop one l: as, handful, careful, fulfil, always, although, withal; in temporary compounds, they retain both: as, full-eyed, chock-full, all-wise, save-all.

So the prefix mis, (if from miss, to err,) drops one s; but it is wrong to drop them both, as in Johnson's mispell and mispend, for misspell and misspend.

In the names of days, the word mass also drops one s: as, Christmas, Candlemas, Lammas.

The possessive case often drops the apostrophe: as herdsman, kitesfoot.

One letter is dropped, if three of the same kind come together: as, Rosshire, chaffinch; or else a hyphen is used: as, Ross-shire, ill-looking, still-life.

Chilblain, welcome, and welfare, drop one l.

Pastime drops an s.

Shepherd, wherever, and whosever, drop an e; and wherefore and therefore assume one.

Usage
Any word for the spelling of which we have no rule but usage, is written wrong if not spelled according to the usage which is most common among the learned: as,

 * "The brewer grinds his malt before he brues his beer."—Red Book, p. 38.

Figures of Orthography
A figure of orthography is an intentional deviation from the ordinary or true spelling of a word.

Mimesis
Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mispronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a false spelling, or the taking of one word for another: as,

 * "Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in you vallet?"—Columbian Orator, p. 292.
 * "Ay, he was porn at Monmouth, captain Gower."—Shak.
 * "I will description the matter to you, if you be capacity of it."—Id.
 * "Perdigious! I can hardly stand."—Lloyd: Brit. Poets, Vol. viii, p. 184.

Archaism
An archaism is a word or phrase expressed according to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthography: as,

 * "Newe grene chese of smalle clammynes comfortethe a hotte stomake."—T. Paynel: Tooke's Diversions, ii, 132.
 * "He hath holpen his servant Israel."—Luke, i, 54.
 * "With him was reverend contemplation pight, bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue."—Beattie.

Figures of Etymology
A figure of etymology is an intentional deviation from the ordinary formation of a word.

Aphaeresis
Aphaeresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a word: as, 'gainst, for against; 'gan, for began; 'neath, for beneath; 'thout, for without.

Prosthesis
Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, adown, for down; appaid, for paid; bestrown, for strown; evanished, for vanished; yclad, for clad.

Syncope
Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of a word: as, med'cine, for medicine; e'en, for even; o'er, for over; conq'ring, for conquering; se'nnight, for sevennight.

Apocope
Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters of a word: as, tho' for though; th', for the; t'other, for the other; thro', for through.

Paragoge
Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a word: as, Johnny, for John; deary, for dear; withouten, for without.

Diaeresis
Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels that might be supposed to form a diphthong: as, coöperate, not cooperate; aëronaut, not aeronaut; orthoëpy, not orthoepy. This used to be common in English but is now rare.

Synaeresis
Synaeresis is the sinking of two syllables into one: as, seest, for seest; tacked, for tack-ed; drowned, for drown-ed; 'tis, for it is; I'll, for I will.

Tmesis
Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts of a compound, or between two words which should be united if they stood together: as,

 * "On which side soever."—Rolla.
 * "To us ward."
 * "To God ward."—Bible.
 * "The assembling of ourselves together."—Id.
 * "With what charms soever she will."—Cowper.
 * "So new a fashioned robe."—Shak.
 * "Lament the live day long."—Burns.

title: English in Use/Orthography


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English in Use/Commas

The comma is used to separate those parts of a sentence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be only one degree removed from that close connection which admits no point.

Appositives
Appositives are always separated from the main body of the sentence by punctuation, usually commas, but sometimes—when greater separation is desired—dashes are used.

Words in apposition, especially if they have adjuncts, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "He that now calls upon you, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe."—Johnson.
 * "Lowth, Dr. Robert, bishop of London, born in 1710, died in 1787."—Biog. Dict.
 * "Home, Henry, lord Kames."—Ib.
 * "What next I bring shall please you, be assured, your likeness, your fit help, your other self, your wish exactly to your heart's desire."—Milton, P. L., viii, 450.
 * "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers."—Byron.

Adjectives
Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Among the roots of hazel, pendent over the plaintive stream, they frame the first foundation of their domes."—Thomson.
 * "Up springs the lark, shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn."—Id.

Adjective which follows its noun
When an adjective immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "And on the coast averse from entrance or cherubic watch."—Milton, P. L., B. ix, l. 68.

Finite verbs
Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally required: as,

 * "From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge."—Murray.
 * "Else all my prose and verse were much the same; this, prose on stilts; that, poetry fallen lame."—Pope.

A pause for the omitted verb
As the semicolon must separate the clauses when the comma is inserted by this rule, if the pause for the omitted verb be very slight, it may be left unmarked, and the comma be used for the clauses: as,

 * "When the profligate speaks of piety, the miser of generosity, the coward of valour, and the corrupt of integrity, they are only the more despised by those who know them."—Comstock's Elocution, p. 132.

Infinitives
The infinitive, when it follows a verb from which it must be separated, or when it depends on something remote or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the comma: as,

 * "One of the greatest secrets in composition is, to know when to be simple."—Jamieson's Rhet., p. 151. [?]
 * "To confess the truth, I was much in fault."—Murray's Gram., p. 271.
 * "The Governor of all—has interposed, not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite the injurious trampler upon nature's law."—Cowper.

Participles
Participles, when something depends on them, when they have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "Law is a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong."—Blackstone: Beattie's Moral Science, p. 346.
 * "Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, lingering and listening wandered down the vale."—Beattie.
 * "United, we stand; divided, we fall."—Motto.
 * "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance."

Participle which follows its noun
When a participle immediately follows its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be used before it: as,

 * "A man renowned for repartee, will seldom scruple to make free with friendship's finest feeling."—Cowper.

Adverbs
Adverbs, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they have not a close dependence on some particular word in the context, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "We must not, however, confound this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world."
 * "Besides, the mind must be employed."—Gilpin.
 * "Most unquestionably, no fraud was equal to all this."—Lyttelton.
 * "But, unfortunately for us, the tide was ebbing already."
 * "When buttress and buttress, alternately, seem framed of ebon and ivory."—Scott's Lay, p. 33.

Conjunctions
Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal clauses that depend on them, or when they introduce examples, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "But, by a timely call upon religion, the force of habit was eluded."—Johnson.
 * "They know the neck that joins the shore and sea, or, ah! how changed that fearless laugh would be."—Crabbe.

Prepositions
Prepositions and their objects, when they break the connection of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely follow the words on which they depend, are generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Fashion is, for the most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches."
 * "By reading, we add the experience of others to our own."
 * "In vain the sage, with retrospective eye, would from the apparent what conclude the why."—Pope.

Interjections
Interjections that require a pause, though more commonly emphatic and followed by the ecphoneme, are sometimes set off by the comma: as,

 * "For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north."—Jeremiah, i, 15.
 * "O, it was about something you would not understand."—Columbian Orator, p. 221.
 * "Ha, ha! you were finely taken in, then!"—Aikin.
 * "Ha, ha, ha! A facetious gentleman, truly!"—Id.
 * "Oh, when shall Britain, conscious of her claim, stand emulous of Greek and Roman fame?"—Pope.

Words emphatically repeated
A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the comma: as,

 * "Happy, happy, happy pair!"—Dryden.
 * "Ay, ay, there is some comfort in that."—Shak.
 * "Ah! no, no, no."—Dryden.
 * "The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well!"—Woodworth.

Dependent quotations
A quotation, observation, or description, when it is introduced in close dependence on a verb, (as, say, reply, cry, or the like,) is generally separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma: as,

 * "'The book of nature,' said he, 'is before you.'"—Hawkesworth.
 * "I say to all, watch."—Mark.
 * "'The boy has become a man,' means, 'He has grown to be a man.' 'Such conduct becomes a man,' means, 'Such conduct befits him.'"—Hart's Gram., p. 116.
 * "While man exclaims, 'See all things for my use!' 'See man for mine!' replies a pampered goose."—Pope.

Words put absolute
Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma: as,

 * "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded."
 * "This done, we parted."
 * "Zaccheus, make haste and come down."
 * "His proctorship in Sicily, what did it produce?"—Cicero.
 * "Winged with his fears, on foot he strove to fly, his steeds too distant, and the foe too nigh."—Pope, Iliad, xi, 440.

More than two words
When more than two words or terms are connected in the same construction, or in a joint dependence on some other term, by conjunctions expressed or understood, the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the last; and, if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma should follow the last also: as,

 * "Who, to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eye, teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."—Beattie.
 * "Ah! what avails... all that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, if envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring?"—Id.
 * "Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; you, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless."—Shak.
 * "She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there."—Young.
 * "So eagerly the fiend over bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, with head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way, and swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies."—Milton.

Only two words
When only two words or terms are connected by a conjunction, they should not be separated by the comma: as,

 * "It is a stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms; for true power is to be got by arts and industry"—Spectator, No. 2.
 * "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul."—Goldsmith.

Two words with several adjuncts
When the two words connected have several adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not to both, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "I shall spare no pains to make their instruction agreeable, and their diversion useful."—Spectator, No. 10.
 * "Who is applied to persons, or things personified."—Bullions.
 * "With listless eyes the dotard views the store, he views, and wonders that they please no more."—Johnson.

Contrasted words or phrases
When two connected words or phrases are contrasted, or emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted: as,

 * "The vain are easily obliged, and easily disobliged."—Kames.
 * "Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hand."—Beattie.
 * "It is certain he could write, and cipher too."—Goldsmith.

Alternative of names
When there is merely an alternative of names, or an explanatory change of terms, the comma is usually inserted: as,

 * "We saw a large opening, or inlet."—W. Allen.
 * "Have we not power to lead about a sister, a wife, as well as other apostles?"—Cor., ix, 5.

Understood conjunction
When the conjunction is understood, the comma is inserted; and, if two separated words or terms refer alike to a third term, the second requires a second comma: as,

 * "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim."—L. Murray, Gram., p. 269.
 * "To him the church, the realm, their powers consign."—Johnson.
 * "She thought the isle that gave her birth. The sweetest, wildest land on earth."—Hogg.

Words in pairs
When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, they should be separated in pairs by the comma: as,

 * "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."—W. Allen.
 * "But, whether ingenious or dull, learned or ignorant, clownish or polite, every innocent man, without exception, has as good a right to liberty as to life."—Beattie's Moral Science, p. 313.
 * "Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, overspread with snares the crowded maze of fate."—Dr. Johnson.

A compound name
When several words, in their common order, are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Dr. Samuel Johnson,"
 * "Publius Gavius Cosanus."

United common and proper name
When a common and a proper name are closely united, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "The brook Kidron,"
 * "The river Don,"
 * "The empress Catharine,"
 * "Paul the Apostle."

A mere emphasis and distinction
When a pronoun is added to an other word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "You men of Athens,"
 * "I myself,"
 * "You flaming minister,"
 * "You princes."

Name acquired by action or relation
When a name acquired by some action or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "I made the ground my bed;"
 * "To make him king;"
 * "Whom they revered as God;"
 * "With modesty your guide."—Pope.

Simple sentences
A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma: as,

 * "The weakest reasoners are the most positive."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 202.
 * "Theology has not hesitated to make or support a doctrine by the position of a comma."—Tract on Tone, p. 4.
 * "Then pain compels the impatient soul to seize on promised hopes of instantaneous ease."—Crabbe.

Nominative accompanied by adjuncts
When the nominative in a long simple sentence is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, or when several words together are used instead of a nominative, a comma should be placed immediately before the verb: as,

 * "Confession of sin without amendment, obtains no pardon."—Dillwyn's Reflections, p. 6.
 * "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."—Murray's Gram., p. 268.
 * "O that the tenor of my just complaint, were sculpt with steel in rocks of adamant!"—Sandys.

Simple members
The simple members of a compound sentence, whether successive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally divided by the comma: as,

 * "Here stand we both, and aim we at the best."—Shak.
 * "I, that did never weep, now melt in woe."—Id.
 * "Tide life, tide death, I come without delay."—Id.
 * "I am their mother, who shall bar me from them?"—Id.
 * "How wretched, were I mortal, were my state!"—Pope.
 * "Go; while you may, avoid the dreadful fate."—Id.
 * "Grief aids disease, remembered folly stings, and his last sighs reproach the faith of kings."—Johnson.

Relative that follows its antecedent
When a relative immediately follows its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be introduced before it: as,

 * "For the things which are seen, are temporal; but the things which are not seen, are eternal."—2 Cor., iv, 18.
 * "A letter is a character that expresses a sound without any meaning."—St. Quentin's General Gram., p. 3.

Closely connected simple members
When the simple members are short, and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the comma is generally omitted: as,

 * "Honest poverty is better than wealthy fraud."—Dillwyn's Ref., p. 11.
 * "Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even or odd."—Taylor: Joh. Dict., w.
 * "It is impossible that our knowledge of words should outstrip our knowledge of things."—Campbell: Murray's Gram., p 359.

Simple immediately united members
When two simple members are immediately united, through ellipsis of the relative, the antecedent, or the conjunction that, the comma is not inserted: as,

 * "Make an experiment on the first man you meet."—Berkley's Alciphron, p. 125.
 * "Our philosophers do infinitely despise and pity whoever shall propose or accept any other motive to virtue."—Ib., p. 126.
 * "It is certain we imagine before we reflect."—Ib., p. 359.
 * "The same good sense that makes a man excel, still makes him doubt he never has written well."—Young.

title: English in Use/Commas


text:
User:Josemario

José Mario Cesar de Mattos

ODP - Open Directory Project [ http://www.dmoz.org ]

Editor "josemario" [ http://www.dmoz.org/profiles/josemario.html ]

E-mail "josemario" [ http://www.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/send.cgi?toeditor=josemario ]

Sorocaba - SP - Brasil

title: User:Josemario


text:
User:OsvaldoGago

OsvaldoGago is a photographer and lives in Lisbon, Portugal.

Besides photography he has an interest for free content and free software (free as in freedom), specially Ubuntu Linux, but also Wikimedia Foundation projects.

In Wikimedia Foundation projects, his contributions are mostly at Wikimedia Commons (with photographs).

title: User:OsvaldoGago


text:
Cookbook:Crab Quesadillas with Mango Salsa

| Cuisine of Mexico | Seafood | Appetizers

Salsa

 * 2 cups fresh mango, diced fine
 * 1 cup plum tomato, diced fine
 * ¼ cup sweet red pepper, minced
 * 3 tbsp fresh lime juice
 * 1 tbsp fresh cilantro, chopped fine

Quesadilla

 * 1 lb. lump crabmeat
 * 1 package of 6-inch round flour tortillas
 * 1 medium green bell pepper, cut into thin strips
 * 1 medium red bell pepper, cut into thin strips
 * ½ ea. red onion, cut into strips
 * 1 tbsp olive oil
 * 8 oz mascarpone cheese
 * ¼ tsp cayenne pepper
 * ¼ cup cilantro, finely chopped
 * 1 cup Monterey Jack cheese, shredded
 * Cooking spray or vegetable oil

Salsa

 * 1) Combine all ingredients together.
 * 2) Chill for at least 2 hours before serving.

Quesadillas

 * 1) Preheat the oven to 450 °F (230 °C).
 * 2) Heat the olive oil in a frying pan. To that, add the onions and peppers. Cook for about 5 minutes or until onions are translucent.
 * 3) Meanwhile, sift through the crab meat and remove any shell fragments. Stir into the crab the marscapone cheese, cayenne pepper, and cilantro. Mix well.
 * 4) Spray half of the tortillas with cooking spray. Lay them flat (sprayed side down) on baking sheets.
 * 5) Add equal portions of the crab meat and then equal portions of the onions and peppers. Sprinkle with the Monterey Jack cheese.
 * 6) Place the remaining tortillas on top and spray with cooking spray.
 * 7) Bake for about 10 minutes or until golden in color.
 * 8) After removing from the oven, allow to sit for a minute. Then, cut each tortilla into quarters.
 * 9) Serve with mango salsa (recipe follows).


text:
Cookbook talk:Crab Quesadillas with Mango Salsa

This recipe was moved to Wikibooks from the Wikipedia article Crab Quesadillas with Mango Salsa. The page history at the time the text was moved is listed below.

 * 1) cur) (last)  14:23, 30 Mar 2004 Delsphynx m (=Ingredients= Marscapone changed to mascarpone)
 * 2) (cur) (last) 13:03, 25 Mar 2004 198.70.146.130 (Onions become translucent, not transparent)
 * 3) (cur) (last) 19:50, 9 Mar 2004 Bevo
 * 4) (cur) (last) 20:01, 6 Mar 2004 68.73.203.201
 * 5) (cur) (last) 00:43, 7 Feb 2004 Emperorbma m
 * 6) (cur) (last) 21:05, 20 Oct 2003 Bevo (added to first paragraph and also added ==See also== section)
 * 7) (cur) (last) 23:06, 17 Oct 2003 Dgrant (some experimental formatting)
 * 8) (cur) (last) 23:11, 16 Oct 2003 Bevo (used same style for both recipe titles in this article)
 * 9) (cur) (last) 15:46, 16 Oct 2003 Dgrant (changed coriander link)
 * 10) (cur) (last) 20:55, 15 Sep 2003 Bevo (linked inch)
 * 11) (cur) (last) 05:47, 5 Jul 2003 ( m (relink lime)
 * 12) (cur) (last) 23:25, 16 May 2003 Jimfbleak m (removed cilantro link, which is a redirect to coriander)
 * 13) (cur) (last) 23:20, 16 May 2003 TUF-KAT m (might as well link)
 * 14) (cur) (last) 23:15, 16 May 2003 Jimfbleak m (wikifying)
 * 15) (cur) (last) 18:44, 16 Jan 2003 Hephaestos m (formatting)
 * 16) (cur) (last) 08:51, 25 Feb 2002 Conversion script m (Automated conversion)

need to split this
This is 2 recipes.


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