text:
Radiation Oncology/Cancer genetics

=List of Chromosomes and their related cancer genes= Chromosome 1

Chromosome 2

Chromosome 3
 * 3p26: Von-Hippel Lindau, VHL gene (3p26)

Chromosome 4

Chromosome 5 Chromosome 6
 * 5q deletion: Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) Syndrome and Hereditary Colorectal Syndromes

Chromosome 7

Chromosome 8

Chromosome 9
 * 9q34.1: Abl, involved in bcr-abl fusion gene
 * 9q34: TSC1, involved in tuberous sclerosis

Chromosome 10

Chromosome 11 ATM is located on human chromosome 11 (11q22.3) Chromosome 12

Chromosome 13
 * 13q15: Rb, retinoblastoma, other tumors

Chromosome 14

Chromosome 15

Chromosome 16
 * 16p13: TSC2, involved in tuberous sclerosis

Chromosome 17
 * 17p13.1: p53 (TP53) tumor suppressor

Chromosome 18
 * 18q21.3: Bcl-2 gene, follicular lymphoma, t(14;18)(q32;q21)

Chromosome 19

Chromosome 20

Chromosome 21

Chromosome 22
 * 22q11.2: Bcr gene, bcr-abl translocation (Philadelphia chromosome), CML
 * 22: EWS gene, Ewing's sarcoma

Chromosome X

Chromosome Y

=Chromosomal translocations involved in oncology=
 * See also List of chromosomal translocations at Wikipedia
 * See also Lymphoma Triangle

A Cancer Cell Biological changes that should happen so a cell becomes cancerous:  proliferate independently of growth signals circumvent programmed cell death replicate indefinitely induce vascular formation invade tissues  Cancer Related Genes! There are three types of such gene.   Tumor suppressor genes  Function = restrain cell proliferation

 Oncogenes

Oncogene is a gene whose protein produt contributes to the development and or progression of CANCER.

If activated by mutation or amputation ==> They have transforming properties

 DNA mismatch repair genes

Encode for proteins that correct errors that normally occur during DNA replication

 Tumour suppressor genes

Prevent the uncontrolled growth of cells that may result in cancerous tumors.

 PTCH

On chromosome 9q

Protein patched homolog 1

A member of the patched gene family

A tumor suppressor gene

Receptor for sonic hedgehog

Molecule responsible in the formation of embryonic structures and in tumorigenesis

Nevoid basal cell carcinoma

Esophageal SCC

Bladder TCC

Gorlin syndrome (with a midline cleft lip)

Medulloblastoma

 p53

Where the name come from?!

On some form of electrophoresis it is weighted 53 kilo-daltone

Chromosome 17p

codone 72

Protein 53 or tumor protein 53

Regulates the cell cycle and, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor that is involved in preventing cancer

"the guardian of the genome" because of its role in conserving stability by preventing genome mutation

Anticancer function

Role genomic stability, and inhibition of angiogenesis

After DNA damage

Activate DNA repair proteins

Induce growth arrest by holding the cell cycle at the G1/S regulation point

If it holds the cell here for long enough, the DNA repair proteins will have time to fix the damage and the cell will be allowed to continue the cell cycle

Initiation of apoptosis

p53 negative regulator is MDM2

Common in Lung Ca

NSCLC : 50%

SCLC : 90%

Common in Pancreas Ca

 RB1

Retinoblastoma protein

On chromosome 13

Active when not phosphorylated; means when phosphorylated is not active

The active form attachs to a transcription factor name: E2F 1

So active Rb makes E2F inactive ==> no cell division!

Imagine Rb and E2F like parent and child.

and imagine phosphorylation like making the parent drunk ( no control on child! )

Inactive when phosphorylated

Phosphorylation of Rb is by Cdk (Cyclin dependent kinase)

Cyclin D and Cdk4

Cyclin E and Cdk2

Know one more thing and that's p21

p21 inhibits the formation of Cyclin D

==> Inhibits the phosphorylation of Rb

==> Inhibits the release of E2F

==> inhibits the cell cycle division

So all in all p21 is good good for cell cycle control

p21 become active when there is DNA damage

So you can imagine this is a great cell cycle protection mechanism

If there is a DNA damage who wants the cell progress from G1 to S? nobody sure!

So we want E2F protein not active and not free

So we need Rb tumor suppressor gene active

so it can bind to E2F and inactivates E2F

To keep Rb activated one should inhibit the phosphorylation (you remember phosphorylation inactivates Rb)

What p21 does is that in detection of DNA damage inhibits Cdk ==> inhibits Rb phosphorylation

Tumor suppressor protein

So if Rb gene is mutated ==> It does not bind to E2F ==> E2F is constantly released ==> cell pass the restriction G1-S point

Prevent excessive cell growth <== inhibiting cell cycle progression until a cell is ready to divide

Dysfunction ( loss of heterogeneity ) ==> Cancer

Mutated gene is recessive

pRb prevents the cell from replicating damaged DNA <== preventing its progression along the cell cycle through G1 into S

Binds and inhibits transcription factors of the E2F family

 CDKN2A (p16)

Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A

Multiple tumor suppressor 1 (MTS-1)

Tumor suppressor protein

Encoded by the CDKN2A gene

Regulating the cell cycle

Mutations ==> Cancer

Melanoma

Common in NSCLC

Rare in SCLC

Common in Pancreas Ca

Mucoepidermoid Ca (Salivary Gland)

increased invasiveness

Chromosome 9

 SMAD4

in pancreas ca

 BRCA2 MAP2K4

in pancreas ca

 APC

Adenomatous Polyposis Coli

Has been found in all mammals ( so far )

Long arm(q) of chromosome 5

Involved in several cellular processes that determine whether a cell may develop into a tumor

Control how often a cell divides

Cells attachment to each other

Cell movement within or away from a tissue

Ensures that the chromosome number in cells produced through cell division is correct

 —> increase in colon Ca

in FAP

 Oncogenes c-KIT/CD117

Membrane tyrosine kinase receptor

Binding to the ligands stem cell factor or mast cell growth factor ==> Become ACTIVATED

==> signals for:

Cell Survival

Proliferation

Differentiation

Overexpression

Adenoid Cystic Ca(Salivary Gland)

 Imatinib

Small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitor

Inhibits the activation of c-KIT receptor and other TK receptor

 bcl-2

 B C ell L ymphoma gene 2

produce anti-apoptotic protein

found in follicular lymphoma ( NHL )

t(14:18)

Located on chromosome 18

 MYC

Produce transcription factors

Activity in the nucleus

Regulator gene

If persistently expressed ==> unregulated expression of many genes

 * Some of these genes are involved in cell proliferation ==> cancer

A common translocation involving MYC

 * t(8;14)
 * t(1;12)(q21;p13)
 * Acute myelogenous leukemia
 * t(1;13)
 * PAX7-FKHR: Rhabdomyosarcoma
 * t(2;5)(p23;q35)
 * Anaplastic large cell lymphoma
 * t(2;13)
 * PAX3-FKHR: Rhabdomyosarcoma
 * t(8;14)
 * c-myc
 * Burkitt's lymphoma
 * t(9;12)(p24;p13) CML, ALL
 * t(9;22)(q34;q11)
 * BCR-ABL (Philadelphia chromosome). Role of BCR is not completely clear, but appears to be involved with superoxide production. Abl has 2 isoforms: nuclear abl is involved with regulation of cell death after DNA damage. Cytoplasmic abl appears to function in cell adhesion
 * Results in CML, ALL
 * t(11;14)
 * Mantle cell lymphoma
 * t(11;18)
 * MALT lymphoma - associated with antibiotic resistance in gastric MALT
 * t(11;22)(q24;q11.2-12)
 * EWS-FLI1: Ewing's sarcoma
 * t(12;16)
 * TLS-CHOP: Myxoid liposarcoma
 * t(14;18) (q32;q21)
 * Bcl-2 (18) is translocated next to the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus. See Apoptosis for further discussion of Bcl-2
 * Follicular lymphoma 80-90%
 * DLBCL ~30%
 * t(15;17)
 * Acute promyelocytic leukemia
 * t(17;22):
 * PDFGB-COL1A1: Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans
 * t(21;22)
 * EWS-ERF: Ewing's sarcoma
 * t(X;18)(p11.2;q11.2)
 * SYT-SSX: Synovial sarcoma

* Common in Burkitt's Lymphoma

Chromosome 8

regulate global chromatin structure by regulating histone acetylation

Overexpression and amplification seen in SCLC

 * Chemoresistant

* Rare in NSCLC ErbB (EGFR)

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

Family of 4 structurally related receptor tyrosine kinases

When activated ==> mitogenic signals

ErbB-1, also named epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)

ErbB-2, also named HER2 in humans and neu in rodents

Breast Ca

Lung Ca

Particularly in adenoca

poor prognostic factor

less responsive to Herceptin than breast Ca

Erlotinib (Tarceva)

Gefitinib (Iressa) —> EGFR inhibitor

Reported for Salivary Gland

Strong overexpression in mucoepidermoid & salivary duct ca

Rare in adenoid Cystic

ErbB-3, also named HER3

ErbB-4, also named HER4

Excessive ErbB signaling ==> solid tumor

Involved in cell growth and cell survival.

 RAS family of gene

A family of related proteins found inside cells

Also a family of genes that encode these proteins

A class of protein called small GTPase2

Involved in transmitting signals within cells ( cellular signal transduction ).

Name —> 'Rat sarcoma'

The way they were were discovered

These proteins when are switched on by a signal ==>

Cell growth

Differentiation

 Mutations in ras genes ==> Permanently activated RAS proteins

Overactive RAS signaling ==> cancer

Subfamilies:

HRAS

NRAS

KRAS

Adenocarcinoma and NSCLC

Only in Smokers

Very rarely in non-smokers

Tumours with mutated KRAS almost never respond to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibition (EGFR-TKI)

Adverse prognostic factor

Rare in SCLC

Common in pancreas ca

 DNA mismatch repair genes Microsatellite instability=Simple Sequence Repeats(SSRs)

Condition manifested by damaged DNA

It is due to defects in the normal DNA repair process

Sections of DNA called microsatellites, which consist of a sequence of repeating units of 1-6 base pairs in length, become unstable and can shorten or lengthen.

Identified in the HNPCC syndrome of colon cancer

4% of pancreatic cancers

Unique morphologic appearance, the presence of wild-type (normal) KRAS, diploidy, and improved prognosis

Risk factor for gastric ca

Footnotes 1. E2F: A protein which when is free initiate further cell division and move the cell pass the G1-S restriction point and move from G1 to S phase. 2. a large family of hydrolase enzymes that can bind and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

title: Radiation Oncology/Cancer genetics


text:
Applied Mathematics

Applied Mathematics is the branch of mathematics which deals with applications of mathematics to the real world problems, often from problems stemming from the fields of engineering or theoretical physics. It is differentiated from Pure Mathematics, which deals with more abstract problems. There is also something called Applicable Mathematics, which deals with real world problems which need the techniques and mindset usually used in Pure Mathematics. These distinctions do not really become apparent during school level mathematics.

Topics in Applied Mathematics

 * Fluid Dynamics: the mathematics of fluid flow
 * '''Quantum Mechanics applied to Engineering and Computer Science problems
 * 1) Numerical Calculus
 * 2) Error calculations
 * 3) Solving Linear Equations numerically
 * 4) Special methods for solving of Linear Equations
 * 5) Numerical Methods of solving Differential Equations
 * 6) Optimization
 * 7) Fluid Dynamics
 * 8) Theory of The Fourier Transform and Its Applications
 * 9) /The Basics of Theory of The Fourier Transform/
 * 10) /Fourier Series/
 * 11) /General Fourier Transform/
 * 12) /Fourier Sine Series/
 * 13) /Fourier Cosine Series/
 * 14) /Fourier Integral Transforms/
 * 15) /Parseval's Theorem/
 * 16) Signal Processing and Analysis
 * 17) Quantum Theory
 * 18) /Bessel Functions/
 * 19) /Laplace Transforms/
 * 20) /Complex Integration/
 * 21) Linear Algebra
 * 22) /The Basics/
 * 23) Leontif Input-Output Model
 * 24) Markov Chains
 * 25) Finding Eigenvalues
 * 26) Orthogonalization and Normalization
 * 27) Least Squares Fit
 * 28) Finding Inverses
 * 29) Hermitian Matrices
 * 30) Singular Value Decomposition
 * 31) Calculus of Variations
 * 32) /Lagrange Equations/
 * 33) Vector Calculus
 * 34) Mathematics applied to problems in Physics
 * 35) General and Special Relativity
 * 36) Quantum Mechanics
 * 37) /The State Equation/

 * 1) Appendices
 * 2) Appendix A: Historical overview
 * 3) Appendix B: Applied Mathematics and Computer Science
 * 4) Appendix C: Applied Mathematics and Physics

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Applied Mathematics


text:
LPI Linux Certification

This book covers the Linux Professional Institute™ family of certifications. There are three levels of LPI™ certification:

 * Level 1: Junior Level Linux Professional.
 * Level 2: Advanced Level Linux Professional.
 * Level 3: Senior Level Linux Professional.

To obtain a certification, a candidate is required to pass exams and, for Level 2 and Level 3, to hold a lower-level certification from the LPI™. All LPIC candidates are encouraged to browse the documentation at the LPI™ website. The resources there will familiarize the candidate with many things that are outside the scope of this book (e.g. exam cost, testing centers, other training resources) you are also encouraged to register with the LPI™ so that you can access the candidate area. The Detailed Objectives listed within each of the modules in this book have been reproduced from the LPI™ website with kind Permission. We are however, to make it clear that the Linux Professional Institute™ does not endorse the work contained within this book in any way whatsoever.

Audience

This book is written specifically for the LPIC candidate. It is based, as indeed is the exam, around a community driven documentation project known as "The Linux Documentation Project". Each module in the book, however, is organized around a particular subject. It is hence feasible for the casual reader to pick one particular module and study its material with a view to gain a better understanding of just that material. However, many of the modules - and in particular the Advanced modules - will assume a certain skill level. It is also feasible for a new Linux user to come here with a view to learn Linux. However, although such readers are very welcome, they may be better served by studying the following material, Linux Guide. The modules on the LPI Linux certification are heavily slanted toward up-and-coming sysadmins.

About this book
This book is organized so that each and every module can be accessed via the front page. This will be useful for readers who just wish to study or quickly gain information about one aspect of the exam syllabus. For exam candidates we have created an exam page which also has a table of contents that covers only the modules required for you to study for the various levels of the LPI™. It is the hope of the contributors that the exam candidates will use the exam pages and their accompanying discussion pages to leave advice, tips and gotchas etc. for other exam candidates. The Module pages will contain detailed objectives followed by an overview which in turn will be followed by section headings covering the module's syllabus. At the beginning of each section will be a list of prerequisite reading (hopefully all nicely formatted). It is advisable to read them, although the linked articles may not be required knowledge to pass the exam. However, they should relate to the individual sections they are contained within.

Version
To keep Your Linux knowledge up to date and the LPI Certification relevant, the LPI regularly updates its syllabus. As of 2021-02-19, the latest Version of LPIC-1 is Version 5.0 with Exams 101-500 and 102-500. The most recent version of LPIC-2 is Version 4.5 with the Exams 201-450 and 202-450. '''Lastly, we are obviously looking for Authors, We encourage all positive edits even if it is just to correct a simple spelling mistake or fix a link; in short, "Every addition is very welcome." '''

Topic 101: System Architecture

 * Determine and configure hardware settings (101.1)
 * Boot the system (101.2)
 * Change runlevels / boot targets and shutdown or reboot (101.3)

Topic 102: Linux Installation & Package Management

 * Design Hard Disk Layout (102.1)
 * Install A Boot Manager (102.2)
 * Manage Shared Libraries (102.3)
 * Use Debian Package Management (102.4)
 * Use RPM and YUM package management (102.5)
 * Linux as a virtualization guest (102.6)

Topic 103: GNU and UNIX Commands

 * Work On The Command Line (103.1)
 * Process Text Streams Using Filters (103.2)
 * Perform Basic File Management (103.3)
 * Use Streams, Pipes and Redirects (103.4)
 * Create, Monitor and Kill Processes (103.5)
 * Modify Process Execution Priorities (103.6)
 * Search Text Files Using Regular Expressions (103.7)
 * Basic File Editing (103.8)

Topic 104: Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

 * Create Partitions and Filesystems (104.1)
 * Maintaining The Integrity Of Filesystems (104.2)
 * Control Mounting and Unmounting of Filesystems (104.3)
 * Removed (104.4)
 * Manage file permissions and ownership (104.5)
 * Create and Change Hard and Symbolic Links (104.6)
 * Find System Files and Place Files In The Correct Location (104.7)

Topic 105: Shells and Shell Scripting

 * Customise and Use The Shell Environment (105.1)
 * Customise Or Write Simple Shell Scripts (105.2)

Topic 106: User Interfaces and Desktops

 * Install and configure X11 (106.1)
 * Graphical Desktops (106.2)
 * Accessibility (106.3)

Topic 107: Administrative Tasks

 * Manage Users and Group Accounts and Related System Files (107.1)
 * Automate system administration tasks by scheduling jobs (107.2)
 * Localisation and internationalisation (107.3)

Topic 108: Essential System Services

 * Maintain system time (108.1)
 * System logging (108.2)
 * Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) basics (108.3)
 * Manage printers and printing (108.4)

Topic 109: Networking Fundamentals

 * Fundamentals of internet protocols (109.1)
 * Persistent network configuration (109.2)
 * Basic network troubleshooting (109.3)
 * Configure client side DNS (109.4)

Topic 110: Security

 * Perform security administration tasks (110.1)
 * Setup host security (110.2)
 * Securing data with encryption (110.3)

Obsolete Links
 Hardware & Architecture  (Obsolete!)
 * Configure Fundamental BIOS Settings
 * Configure Modem & Sound Cards
 * Setup Non IDE Devices
 * Setup Different PC Expansion Cards
 * Configure Communication Devices
 * Configure USB Devices

The X Window System
 * Setup A Display Manager

Kernel
 * Kernel Runtime Management & Query

Security
 * Perform Security Administration Tasks

Capacity Planning (200)

 * Measure and Troubleshoot Resource Usage (200.1)
 * Predict Future Resource Needs (200.2)

Linux Kernel (201)

 * Kernel Components (201.1)
 * Compiling A Kernel (201.2)
 * Kernel runtime management and troubleshooting (201.3)
 * Patching A Kernel (201.3) (Obsolete)
 * Customise, build and install a custom kernel and kernel modules (201.4) (Obsolete)
 * Manage/Query kernel and kernel modules at runtime (201.5) (Obsolete)

System Startup (202)

 * Customizing SysV-init startup (202.1)
 * System Recovery (202.2)
 * Alternate Bootloaders (202.3)

Filesystems And Devices (203)

 * Operating The Linux filesystem (203.1)
 * Maintaining A Linux filesystem (203.2)
 * Creating And Configuring filesystem Options (203.3)

Advanced Storage Device Administration (204)

 * Configuring RAID (204.1)
 * Adjusting Storage Device Access (204.2)
 * Logical Volume Manager (204.3)
 * Adding New Hardware (Obsolete!)
 * Software & Kernel Configuration (Obsolete!)
 * Configuring PCMCIA Devices (Obsolete!)

Networking Configuration (205)

 * Basic Networking Configuration (205.1)
 * Advanced Network Configuration & Troubleshooting (205.2)
 * Troubleshooting Network Issues (205.3)

System Maintenance (206)

 * Make And Install Programs From Source (206.1)
 * Backup Operations (206.2)
 * Notify users on system-related issues (206.3)
 * System Logging (Obsolete!)
 * Packaging Software (Obsolete!)

DNS (207)

 * Basic DNS Server Configuration (207.1)
 * Create And Maintain DNS Zones (207.2)
 * Securing A DNS Server (207.3)

Web Services (208)

 * Implementing A Web Server (208.1)
 * Apache configuration for HTTPS (208.2)
 * Implementing A Proxy Server (208.3)
 * Implementing Nginx as a web server and a reverse proxy (208.3)

File Sharing (209)

 * Samba Server Configuration (209.1)
 * NFS Server Configuration (209.2)

Network Client Management (210)

 * DHCP Configuration (210.1)
 * PAM Authentication (210.2)
 * LDAP Client Usage (210.3)
 * Configuring an OpenLDAP server (210.4)
 * NIS Configuration (Obsolete!)

E-Mail Services (211)

 * Using E-Mail Servers (211.1)
 * Managing E-Mail Delivery (211.2)
 * Managing Remote E-Mail Delivery (211.3)
 * Configuring Mailing Lists (Obsolete!)
 * Managing Mail Traffic (Obsolete!)
 * Serving News (Obsolete!)

System Security (212)

 * Configuring A Router (212.1)
 * Securing FTP Servers (212.2)
 * Secure Shell (SSH) (212.3)
 * Security Tasks (212.4)
 * OpenVPN (212.5)

Obsolete!
Troubleshooting (213) (Obsolete!)
 * TCP Wrapper (212.4) (Obsolete!)
 * Identifying Boot Stages And Troubleshooting Bootloaders (213.1) (Obsolete!)
 * General Troubleshooting (213.2) (Obsolete!)
 * Troubleshooting System Resources (213.3) (Obsolete!)
 * Troubleshooting Environment Configurations (213.4) (Obsolete!)
 * Creating Recovery Disks (Obsolete!)
 * Identifying Boot Stages (Obsolete!)
 * Troubleshooting Bootloaders (Obsolete!)

title: LPI Linux Certification


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Junior Level Linux Professional

Welcome! If you are here, then you are considering or have decided to take the Junior Level Linux Professional Exam. This page and its accompanying discussion page are specifically for you, and will explain your overall objectives for each exam (there are two exams you must complete before being certified). It is a good idea to come back here and perform a sanity check on your understanding against the overall objectives presented here. All that remains is for the authors and contributors of this book to wish you good luck.

Please note DO NOT contribute actual exam questions you may have been presented with in the past ANYWHERE in this book.

LPI 101 Exam Objectives
Each objective is assigned a weighting value. The weights range roughly from 1 to 10 and indicate the relative importance of each objective. Objectives with higher weights will be covered in the exam with more questions.

Topic 101: System Architecture

 * 101.1 Determine And Configure Hardware Settings
 * 101.2 Boot the System
 * 101.3 Change Runlevels And Shutdown Or Reboot System

Topic 102: Linux Installation and Package Management

 * 102.1 Design Hard Disk Layout
 * 102.2 Install A Boot Manager
 * 102.3 Manage Shared Libraries
 * 102.4 Use Debian Package Management
 * 102.5 Use RPM and YUM package management

Topic 103: GNU and Unix Commands

 * 103.1 Work On The Command Line
 * 103.2 Process Text Streams Using Filters
 * 103.3 Perform Basic File Management
 * 103.4 Use Streams, Pipes And Redirects
 * 103.5 Create, Monitor And Kill Processes
 * 103.6 Modify Process Execution Priorities
 * 103.7 Search Text Files Using Regular Expressions
 * 103.8 Perform Basic File Editing Operations Using Vi

Topic 104: Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

 * 104.1 Create Partitions And Filesystems
 * 104.2 Maintaining The Integrity Of Filesystems
 * 104.3 Control Mounting And Unmounting Of Filesystems
 * 104.4 Managing Disk Quota
 * 104.5 Manage File Permissions And Ownership
 * 104.6 Create And Change Hard And Symbolic Links
 * 104.7 Find System Files And Place Files In The Correct Location

LPI 102 Exam Objectives
Each objective is assigned a weighting value. The weights range roughly from 1 to 10 and indicate the relative importance of each objective. Objectives with higher weights will be covered in the exam with more questions.

Topic 105: Shells, Scripting and Data Management

 * 105.1 Customize And Use The Shell Environment
 * 105.2 Customize Or Write Simple Scripts
 * 105.3 SQL Data Management

Topic 106: User Interfaces and Desktops

 * 106.1 Install And Configure X11
 * 106.2 Setup A Display Manager
 * 106.3 Accessibility

Topic 107: Administrative Tasks

 * 107.1 Manage User And Group Accounts And Related System Files
 * 107.2 Automate System Administration Tasks By Scheduling Jobs
 * 107.3 Localisation And Internationalisation

Topic 108: Essential System Services

 * 108.1 Maintain System Time
 * 108.2 System Logging
 * 108.3 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) Basics
 * 108.4 Manage Printers And Printing

Topic 109: Networking Fundamentals

 * 109.1 Fundamentals Of Internet Protocols
 * 109.2 Basic Network Configuration
 * 109.3 Basic Network Troubleshooting
 * 109.4 Configure Client Side DNS

Topic 110: Security

 * 110.1 Perform Security Administration Tasks
 * 110.2 Setup Host Security
 * 110.3 Securing Data With Encryption

Sections below are refer to old exam version and are being made obsolete
See page discussion for more details.

LPI 101 Exam Objectives

 * Hardware & Architecture
 * Candidates should have a clear understanding of the concept of a BIOS and what role it performs, from the initial computer power-on to the services it provides to the Linux kernel. Furthermore, candidates should be able to identify all the options presented to them in a standard BIOS interface and further be able to gather basic information about the system from the BIOS (Menu navigation). Candidates should also be able to navigate a BIOS and make changes that will enable or disable peripherals, and compare the information provided to them from the BIOS with the information provided from the kernel. Candidates should also be able to determine compatible modems, configure those modems for outbound dial up and set specific port speeds from the command line. Candidates should have an understanding of the term SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) and how SCSI devices work (this includes the terms termination & SCSI ID). Candidates should also have an understanding of the terms Coldplug and Hotplug and be able to determine via BIOS and kernel methods the resources used for any given device that is attached. Candidates should be able to identify a Sound Card, and be able to determine if the kernel recognizes the sound card, as well as determine if the device has an issue/conflict pertaining to IRQ, DMA, or I/O. Candidates should also be able to understand USB devices and demonstrate a knowledge of the USB layer architecture.

 * Linux Installation & Package Management
 * Candidates should be able to design a disk layout that takes into account your system requirements and its purpose. Candidates should also be able to setup various boot locations such as a floppy or cdrom, install a bootloader and interact with that bootloader. Further, the candidate should be able to install, remove and query programs from both the RPM and DPKG commands. Using both RPM and DPKG distributions, candidates should be able to obtain package versions, installed package content, installation status and find any files or libraries that may or may not be installed on the system. Candidates should also be able to install programs from source via the make program, which generally includes the use of the tar, gzip, and bz2 compression utilities. Finally candidates should be able to identify shared libraries, load them and identify where the shared libraries should be located.

 * GNU & Unix Commands
 * Candidates should be able to understand the shell environment and how to change its behavior by modifying the .profile file, which is located in home directories. Candidates should also be able to send text files and output streams through utility filters to modify the output. Candidates will be expected to know how to move, copy, delete, find, create files and directories, and use recursion to delete and create both files and directories. Candidates should understand the use of redirects, pipes and sending your output to stdout (Standard Output) and to a file. Candidates should be able to list, create and kill processes as well as understand the "&" option and what it does. The candidate should also be able to monitor processes in real time, and be able to modify the priority of any given process. Candidates should be able to create simple regular expressions and use regular expression tools to search through filesystems or file content. Lastly, candidates should know the basic commands for vi.

 * Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard
 * Candidates should be able to set-up partitions and create filesystems, namely ext2, ext3, reiserfs, vfat and xfs. Candidates will know the tools that help maintain those filesystems and keep them in good working order, and use those tools to perform simple filesystem repairs. Candidates will be able to mount and unmount filesystems manually and configure the system to mount them automatically during the boot process. Candidates will be able to implement a disk quota solution for your users. The candidate will understand file permissions and what tools to use to modify those permissions, as well as the concept of file ownership and how to modify file ownership attributes. The candidate will be introduced to both hard & symbolic linking, why it is used, and the usage of the ln command. Finally the candidate will understand the FHS standard and be able to determine where files should be located in FHS-based distributions.

 * The X Window System
 * Candidates should be able to install and configure an X Server, install fonts and configure an X font server, and determine if your hardware is suitable for an X server. Candidates will be introduced to the display managers gdm kdm and xdm, and will be able to configure any of these three display managers. Candidates will then be introduced to the Window Manager Environment and GUI. Lastly the candidate will be introduced to the usage of the DISPLAY environment variable, as well as the various files used for customization.

Hardware & Architecture

 * Configure Fundamental BIOS Settings
 * Configure Modem & Sound Cards
 * Setup Non IDE Devices
 * Setup Different PC Expansion Cards
 * Configure Communication Devices
 * Configure USB Devices

Linux Installation & Package Management

 * Design Hard Disk Layout
 * Install A Boot Manager
 * Make & Install Programs From Source
 * Manage Shared Libraries
 * Use Debian Package Management
 * Use RPM and YUM package management

GNU & Unix Commands

 * Work On The Command Line
 * Process Text Streams Using Filters
 * Perform Basic File Management
 * Use Streams, Pipes & Redirects
 * Create, Monitor & Kill Processes
 * Modify Process Execution Priorities
 * Search Text Files Using Regular Expressions
 * Perform Basic File Editing Operations Using Vi

Devices, Linux Filesystems, Filesystem Hierarchy Standard

 * Create Partitions & Filesystems
 * Maintaining The Integrity Of Filesystems
 * Control Mounting & Unmounting Filesystems
 * Managing Disk Quota
 * Use File Permissions To Control Access To Files
 * Manage File Ownership
 * Create & Change Hard & Symbolic Links
 * Find System Files & Place Files In The Correct Location

The X Window System

 * Install & Configure X11
 * Setup A Display Manager
 * Install & Customise A Window Manager Environment

LPI 102 Exam Objectives
The LPI 102 exam tests basic capabilities in the following areas:

 * Kernel
 * Candidates should be able to build, install, configure, manage and query a Linux kernel. This includes using the command line to get information about the running kernel as well as any kernel modules. The candidate should also be able to understand how to manually load and unload modules and to further understand when those commands are safe to perform. The candidate should be able to determine what parameters you can pass to any given module and how to load those modules with a name other than the file name that represents the module. The candidate should understand at a basic level the difference between monolithic and modular kernels with regards kernel module management.

 * Boot, Initialization, Shutdown & Runlevels
 * Candidates should be able to boot the system level by level, This starts with passing commands to the bootloader that will define kernel location and pass parameters to the kernel in order to solve problems with the boot process. The candidate will know how to locate and gather information from log files pertaining to the boot process. The candidate will understand the runlevel process and be able to set the default runlevel, as well as shutdown and restart the system from the command prompt this will include being able to terminate individual processes. The candidate will understand how to alert connected users that a major event is about to occur.

 * Candidates should be able to install/configure printers, print files, and manage printers both local and remote.
 * Candidates should be able to find and use man pages, internet documentation.
 * Candidates should be able to customize the shell environment, write and administrate simple shell scripts.
 * Candidates should be able to Administrate users, groups, basic security, implement backups, and the use of cron.
 * Candidates should be able to understand/configure/troubleshoot the TCP/IP stack, as well as configure a PPP client.
 * Candidates should be able to manage NFS and Samba daemons, administrate MTA's and the Apache webserver, configure DNS and SSH.
 * Candidates should be able to implement user level security, basic host security, and perform basic security administration tasks.

Kernel

 * Kernel Runtime Management & Query
 * Reconfigure, Build & Install A Custom Kernel & Kernel Modules

Boot, Initialization, Shutdown & Runlevels

 * Boot The System
 * Change Runlevels & Shutdown Or Reboot System

Printing

 * Manage Printers & Print Queues
 * Print Files
 * Install & Configure Local & Remote Printers

Documentation

 * Use & Manage Local System Documentation
 * Find Linux Documentation On The Internet
 * Notify Users On System-Related Issues

Shells, Scripting, Programming, & Compiling

 * Customise & Use The Shell Environment
 * Customise Or Write Simple Shell Scripts

Administrative Tasks

 * Manage Users & Group Accounts & Related System Files
 * Tune The User Environment & System Environment Variables
 * Configure & Use System Log Files To Meet Administrative & Security Needs
 * Automate System Administrative Tasks By Scheduling Jobs To Run In The Future
 * Maintain An Effective Data Backup Strategy
 * Maintain System Time  0.00

Networking Fundamentals

 * Fundamentals Of TCP/IP
 * TCP/IP Configuration & Troubleshooting
 * Configure Linux As A PPP Client

Networking Services

 * Configure & Manage xinetd, inetd & Related Services
 * Operate & Perform Basic Configuration Of Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
 * Operate & Perform Basic Configuration Of Apache
 * Properly Manage The NFS & SAMBA Daemons
 * Setup & Configure Basic DNS Services
 * Setup Secure Shell (OpenSSH)

Security

 * Perform Security Administration Tasks
 * Setup Host Security
 * Setup User Level Security


text:
LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 201

This is part of LPI Linux Certification.

LPI Level 2 Exam 201 tests basic capabilities in these areas:

 * Linux Kernel
 * 2.201.1 Kernel Components
 * 2.201.2 Compiling a kernel
 * 2.201.3 Patching a kernel
 * 2.201.4 Customizing a kernel
 * System Startup
 * 2.202.1 Customizing system startup and boot processes
 * 2.202.2 System recovery
 * Filesystems
 * 2.203.1 Operating the Linux filesystem
 * 2.203.2 Maintaining a Linux filesystem
 * 2.203.3 Creating and configuring filesystem options
 * Hardware
 * 2.204.1 Configuring RAID
 * 2.204.2 Adding new hardware
 * 2.204.3 Software and kernel configuration
 * 2.204.4 Configuring PCMCIA devices
 * File and Service Sharing
 * 2.209.1 Configuring a samba server
 * 2.209.2 Configuring an NFS server
 * System Maintenance
 * 2.211.1 System logging
 * 2.211.2 Packaging software
 * 2.211.3 Backup operations
 * System Customization and Automation
 * 2.213.1 Automating tasks using scripts
 * Troubleshooting
 * 2.214.2 Creating recovery disks
 * 2.214.3 Identifying boot stages
 * 2.214.4 Troubleshooting LILO
 * 2.214.5 General troubleshooting
 * 2.214.6 Troubleshooting system resources
 * 2.214.8 Troubleshooting environment configurations

title: LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 201


text:
LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 202

This is part of LPI Linux Certification.

LPI Level 2 Exam 202 tests basic capabilities in these areas:

 * Networking
 * 2.205.1 Basic networking configuration
 * 2.205.2 Advanced Network Configuration and Troubleshooting
 * Mail & News
 * 2.206.1 Configuring mailing lists
 * 2.206.2 Using Sendmail
 * 2.206.3 Managing Mail Traffic
 * 2.206.4 Serving news
 * DNS
 * 2.207.1 Basic BIND 8 configuration
 * 2.207.2 Create and maintain DNS zones
 * 2.207.3 Securing a DNS server
 * Web Services
 * 2.208.1 Implementing a web server
 * 2.208.2 Maintaining a web server
 * 2.208.3 Implementing a proxy server
 * Network Client Management
 * 2.210.1 DHCP configuration
 * 2.210.2 NIS configuration
 * 2.210.3 LDAP configuration
 * 2.210.4 PAM authentication
 * System Security
 * 2.212.2 Configuring a router
 * 2.212.3 Securing FTP servers
 * 2.212.4 Secure shell (OpenSSH)
 * 2.212.5 TCP_wrappers
 * 2.212.6 Security tasks
 * Network Troubleshooting
 * 2.214.7 Troubleshooting network issues

title: LPI Linux Certification/LPIC2 Exam 202


text:
Talk:Immunology

I have edited articles in Wikipedia before but never before in Wikibooks. Would we do this in the same way or, do we find books that are open-license and port them over? I have a good friend that has a Master's degree in Immunology who may be able to help and I have a reasonable knowledge of basic immunology having completed a degree with various immunology modules included.

title: Talk:Immunology


text:
User:Tostadora

My user page in wikipedia es: es:Usuario:Tostadora

title: User:Tostadora


text:
User:Frazzydee~enwikibooks

I didn't feel like simply copying everything from my Wikipedia user page, and I knew that redirecting to wikipedia was bad style, so here is my fairly blank user page...its main purpose is to allow my fellow Wikibookians (hey, it worked with Wikipedia ;)) to click the "discuss this page" link without leaving a note on my Wikipedia userpage...Ta-ta for now.

Pages I contributed to significantly
This is a partial list of pages that I have contributed to significantly
 * A Tale of Two Cities
 * Optics
 * QBasic
 * Turing

title: User:Frazzydee~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Bodyjar89

please email me at drax@stampede.org about European History text. --Alexbl

Copyright images
Your Chaucer image at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Image:Geoffrey_Chaucer.jpg needs a copyright statement to prevent it being deleted. --kwhitefoot 10:44, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bodyjar89


text:
Pro Engineer/Find

Intro
When you first see 'find' in Pro/Engineer Wildfire you might overlook it or wonder what it is for? It is an evolution of the 'find in model tree' function which has been around since the model tree was introduced. (version 18 or 20)

In wildfire the find command takes on a more useful role. The find tool also replaces the functionality of the old 'SEL BY MENU' menu e.g. select last feature, select by ID.

On it's own the find command is not earth shattering revolution but it is one those gadgets that is probably really boring like a can opener but also really useful. If it is boring you are unlikely to see it covered properly on training courses, in magazines or on web pages.

The find tool is more useful in Wildfire because it has two modes first mode is:- An independent gadget for finding features or components by name, status etc. The second mode:- is embedded into functions such as simplified reps.

Independent mode
Once a set of features or components have been found and the 'Find' dialogue the items are 'selected' which means they can be acted on e.g. delete, suppress etc. To select items specify the search criteria click 'Find Now' and then click OK to close the find dialogue. All the found items will be highlighted and ready to be edited.

Alternatively the query can be saved as layer so all the found items are added to a layer.

A more complex search can be built by building a query where a series of search criteria must be satisfied. The criteria are linked by and/or conditions.

Embedded mode
Find is also embedded into functions such as simplified rep, component display. In these functions the find can be used to select a set of components or define a rule so components are selected each time the model is regenerated.

Library parts "_screw", "_nut"

or if you identify library parts with parameters (e.g. Part_type=library) you can select them using an expression rule. See fig 1

Tab	Types of searches you can do	Practical Uses Attributes	Part name	Finding a specific part Type	Select features by type e.g. select all holes Expression	Selecting parts by parameter values e.g. Manufacturer = ACME Parts Size	Removing small parts from simplified reps Description History	ID Number Last Feat Failed Feat All Staus	Regeneration	Use to find all suppressed features or packaged components Layer	Find all parts features on layers Display Parent/Child Copied Refs

Anyone using the find function will soon see how powerful and flexible it is.

The Find or search can be carried on the current assembly, the sub assembly or part. The type of item being searched for can be specified as well e.g. Feature, Part, datum etc

Options
The options menu has further choices to tailor the query e.g. filter the model tree so only the found items are displayed, Highlight the found items in the graphics area. Build complex queries that using more than one search criteria. Change the sort order of the results.

Summary
The ‘Find’ is a powerful tool and is can be useful when working on large assemblies. Like all tools, time is required to learn the tool and it’s capabilities. The time investment will be worthwhile because of the enhanced productivity.

title: Pro Engineer/Find


text:
User:Rhobite

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Rhobite

title: User:Rhobite


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Transcendentalist Theology Transcendentalism

Transcendentalist Theology concept supports existentialism in the way it relates to man's responsibility for his own soul with the premise that human fallibility and misconceptions have labeled spirituality as God for the past several millennia; as one who interferes with the natural forces and free will of people by threatening punishment to those who disobey his bidding. The spiritual existence of this deity, if one decides to accept this premise, could not have changed with the times but the perception of who or what this deity is should change as societies eliminate their superstitious beliefs. This “God” could not possibly be encumbered by human attributes, needs or desires to be worshiped, prayed to, exalted, venerated, deified, or anything else that mankind has to offer. It is also the human characteristics and attributes that exercise upon others: power, control, dominance, destruction, punishment, revenge, and judgment.

The destruction of civilizations, most sufferings and premature deaths are due to human frailties, stupidity or imperfections and are not God's doings. The true “God” is a Spiritual Unity that exists in a spiritual realm and never has and never will interfere with anything on earth or in the universe. God is interested in and is involved in humanity, but does not interfere in any way in our physical lives. God guides the development of the universe and everything thereon like a Master Planner. Our relationship and interaction of our spirit with the Spirit of God is for our, not God's benefit.


text:
LPI Linux Certification/LPIC1 Exam 101/Hardware & Architecture

Section Overview

 * BIOS Setting
 * Configure Modem and sound cards
 * Setup SCSI Devices
 * Setup different PC expansion cards
 * Configure USB Devices

Matériel & Architecture (LPIC101)


text:
User:Dvenable

Security professional interested in cryptography, information security, etc.

title: User:Dvenable


text:
Cookbook:Chicken Pot Pie I

| Meat Recipes

Ingredients

 * 1 can cream of chicken soup
 * 1 can cream of mushroom soup
 * 1 can mixed vegetables
 * 1 can white chunk chicken
 * 2 frozen pie crusts, thawed

Procedure

 * 1) Mix soup, vegetables, and chicken in a large bowl.
 * 2) Pour mixture into one of the pie crusts
 * 3) Cover with other pie crust and press around edges to seal.
 * 4) Cut several small slits in top of pie.
 * 5) Bake at 375 °F for 30–40 minutes or until golden brown.

title: Cookbook:Chicken Pot Pie I


text:
European History/Napoleon Bonaparte and the Rise of Nationalism

In a better attempt to prevent freely elected royalists from taking control of the Directory in 1799, members of the bourgeois sent Napoleon Bonaparte and his army to defend the Directory and the annulment of the elections. However, Napoleon took advantage of this situation and in the Coup of Brumaire took control of the nation.

The Consulate 1799-1804
In the early nineteenth century, the newly-crowned emperor Napoleon Bonaparte implemented a set of laws known as as the  Napoleonic Codes. These laws ensured equal legal rights for all men; however they also restricted many areas of women’s lives. The Napoleonic Codes created a fair tax and hiring system that abolished exemptions based on social status, repealing the three estates system from feudal times. Primogeniture, hereditary nobility, and class privileges were also repealed. With these codes, the upper class, known as the former first and second estates, no longer enjoyed tax exemptions. The codes improved France by enforcing religious toleration, improving working conditions, and creating middle-class education in the form of “lycées”.

Although Napoleon’s global wars resulted in increased nationalism and foreign trade, they also led to his downfall at the scorched earth in Russia. Napoleon implemented secret police along with increased censorship in order to suppress anyone who questioned the legitimacy of his rule. Those who disagreed with Napoleon’s laws were prosecuted. The codes also reinstituted slavery in French colonies in order to boost France’s economy and profits at the expense of free labor, marking a setback in the French abolition movement.

In France, these codes impacted women negatively due to patriarchal restrictions. Napoleon openly stated that “the wife [owes] obedience to her husband,” implying that women were inferior to men. As a result, women lost control over property, money, and their own children. They could not initiate a lawsuit without permission from their husbands; however they could be prosecuted without their husbands’ permission. If women divorced their husbands or vice versa, men received complete ownership over the children, and if women committed adultery, they faced the death penalty, a penalty not applicable to men. The implementation of the Napoleonic Codes halted the feminist movements of Mary Wollstonecraft and Marquis Concordat and, undoing the progress made. In “Rights— for Women?” author Rosalind Miles summarizes the treatment of women under the Napoleonic Codes: “by marrying they were signing up to a lifetime ban on even going out to buy food at the market unless their husbands agreed”.

The Empire 1804-1814
In 1804, Napoleon declared himself French Emperor and became a military dictator. Napoleon was mostly undefeated against his three main continental enemies: Austria, Russia, and Prussia. By 1806, he had taken control of large parts of central and southern Europe. However, Napoleon failed to subdue England thanks to Admiral Nelson of the British Royal Navy and his victory at the Battle of Trafalgar. As a result of this military defeat by Britain, Napoleon created the Continental System, a method of economic warfare. He prohibited trade with the British by blockading all coasts of Europe, preventing European ports from importing British products. Unfortunately for Napoleon, this failed because the British were able to smuggle goods into Europe and were also able to trade with their colonies in Asia and the United States. Napoleon eliminated the Holy Roman Empire, and in 1806 consolidated it into 40 states, naming it the Confederation of the Rhine. In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain and forced Spanish King Charles IV to abdicate. British troops joined the Spanish army in resisting this invasion, and the joined forces used guerrilla tactics and small groups of fighters to deter and eventually defeat the 200,000-strong French invasion force by 1814.

After Alexander I of Russia withdrew from the Continental System, Napoleon invaded Russia in June of 1812 with an army of roughly 600,000 and a declared goal of freeing Poland from Russian power. Napoleon’s invasion failed, mainly due to the Russian army’s use of scorched-earth tactics, which enabled the otherwise evenly matched Russian army to defeat Napoleon's army. The scorched-earth policy prevented the French army from replenishing supplies from captured territory, forcing the French army to retreat during the winter. After dealing with a mix of cold, starvation, and battles with the Russian army, only 40,000 of the original 600,000 French soldiers returned home. Back in France, Napoleon quickly raised a new army, but the Quadruple Alliance of England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia defeated this army at the Battle of Nations/Leipzig in 1813. In 1814, the Quadruple Alliance exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba and forced him to abdicate, but he managed to escape from the island and return to France in 1815, a period known as the Hundred Days. During the Hundred Days, Napoleon raised another army, but Quadruple Alliance forces, led by the British General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington), defeated this new army at the Battle of Waterloo. Following his defeat at Waterloo, the Quadruple Alliance exiled Napoleon to the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821. The Napoleonic Wars had a significant impact on the political history of Europe, leaving borders changed and having forced the collaboration of many European powers to defeat Napoleon.

The Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
The Quadruple Alliance assembled at the Congress of Vienna to create a post-Napoleonic Europe. Their representatives were Castlereagh of England, who assembled the Quadruple Alliance, Talleyrand of France, Metternich of Austria, and Alexander I of Russia.

The Congress of Vienna was incredibly lenient toward France. It simply restored the old boundaries and restored Louis XVIII to the throne. It imposed no reparations. This was done because the allies desired a stable, prosperous France that would not threaten them with revolution or invasion.

The Restoration of Louis XVIII Bourbon
Louis XVIII did not wipe out the gains of the Revolution. Rather, out of fear of revolution, he signed the Charter of 1814 that provided legal equality, offices open to all men, a two chamber parliament, Napoleonic civil code, and the abolition of feudalism.

A Shift in Foreign Policy
After Napoleon's fall, European foreign policy took a major shift. While preserving the balance of power was still important, now much more prominently featured in war would be advocates of liberalism (revolutionaries, republicans, nationalists) versus conservatism or the "Old Regime" (the monarchy, aristocrats, clergymen).

Old Regime monarchs, led by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich of Austria, used the Congress System, also known as the Concert of Europe, to prevent revolution and war. At the Congress System the leading of nations of Europe worked together to prevent the outbreak of revolution in each nation.

A New Nationalism
Many of the territories occupied by Napoleon during his Empire began to feel a new sense of nationalism. During the occupation, Napoleon destroyed and disallowed many nations' individual cultures, and the people of these nations greatly resented this. As a result, Napoleon's conquests spurred a new nationalism in the occupied nations, particularly in Germany and Italy, at a level that had never previously existed.

Lịch sử châu Âu/Napoleon Bonaparte và sự phát triển của Chủ nghĩa dân tộc


text:
European History/Age Of Revolutions

The early nineteenth century was dominated by the aftermath of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars. Although Napoleon was defeated in 1815 and the Bourbon monarchy restored to France, many European states were transformed by the 25 years of conflict. States such as Prussia, Austria and the Netherlands found themselves expanded by the peace settlement of 1815. Conversely, other countries, most notably Poland, were dissolved in this process of state consolidation. These national upheavals were accompanied by a heightened sense of nationalism amongst the population of many states, which had been encouraged by Enlightenment ideas, spread throughout Europe by the Napoleonic conquests.

In the decades following the peace of 1815 many European countries were beset by social conflicts as the populations sought to assert their rights against the often autocratic rulers of their states. This was to produce what the historian Eric Hobsbawn has dubbed the Age of Revolutions, as the tensions within states were to frequently erupt into large-scale political upheavals, such as the French revolutions of 1830 and 1848.

Europe in the Age of Revolutions
Europe was a turbulent continent in the period after the Napoleonic Wars. Although the Treaty of Vienna had tried to restore many European states to their pre-war states, the influence of the war years was significant, particularly the Enlightenment ideas that were spread throughout Europe by Napoleon's armies. The result was an age of revolutions. A distinctive feature was the manner in which waves of revolutions could sweep through Europe, most notably in 1830 and 1848, when popular revolt in France influenced the people of other states to rebel against their rulers.

Belgium
Prior to the nineteenth century the southern part of the Netherlands had been dominated by foreign powers, most notably the Hapsburg states of Spain and Austria. However, the critical geographical position of the area led the major powers of Europe, in the Treaty of Vienna, to cede the territory to the Dutch Republic in 1815, to create the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This caused resentment within the region; local liberals resented the autocratic nature of the Dutch king, whilst conservative Catholics disliked the dominance of Dutch Protestantism.

These tensions were to lead to the revolution of 1830. Initially the revolutionaries sought to constitutionalise the Dutch absolute monarchy: inspired by events in France (see below), the Patriot movement, Radicals partly inspired by the American and French Revolutions, demanded the prerogatives of the Crown be restricted, through a written charter of constitutional rights. As the movement escalated the region declared itself independent, taking the name Belgium in reference to the Celtic tribes who had lived in the area in ancient times.

The response of the Dutch government came in August 1831, when the Dutch Army set off on a so called "Ten Days Campaign". It was very successful, as the Dutch army pushed into the heart of Belgium within just a few days, also capturing the key city of Antwerp. However, after a desperate Belgian appeal for French help, the recently installed French liberal regime (the July Monarchy) sent troops across the border into Belgium. With Russia too busy to guard the Dutch back, both sides agreed to a ceasefire. On December 20, 1830, the European powers recognized Belgium's de facto independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was not until April 19, 1839 however, that the Treaty of London signed by the European powers (including the Netherlands) recognized Belgium as an independent and neutral country.

The Belgian Revolution of 1830 gave rise to a political system closely resembling the Westminster system: a parliamentary constitutional monarchy of conservative-liberal temperament, governed by two major parties. The Constitution of 1830 is one of the few from that period to remain in place to this day, and survived almost unmodified all the way to 1960. For this reason, it may be said that the Belgian Revolution was ultimately one of the most successful revolts of the Age of Revolutions.

France
The Treaty of Vienna saw the Bourbon monarchy restored to France. Although the first king after this restoration, Louis XVIII, managed the country well, his successor, Charles X, proved to be unpopular. An autocratic ruler, Charles passed a number of acts that stripped away power promised by Louis to the people. This concluded in the July Ordinances, which dissolved Parliament. As a result, the people of France broke into revolution, known as the July Revolution, replacing Charles X with Louis-Philippe Orleans in what is known as the July Monarchy.

The 1848 Revolution: from the Second Republic to the Second Empire

In February 1848, the citizens revolted again, this time forming a provisional government led by two men, Lamartine, a political republican who advocated freemarket, and Blanc, a social republican, who advocated socialism. Blanc created a system known as the national workships that provided employment to the masses in France.

The National Assembly of 1848 established universal male suffrage, and the people that year elected virtually no socialists. The new government threw out the national workshops, resulting in a revolt by the people. The people, looking to the former glory of France, installed Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, relative of Napoleon Bonaparte as President of the Republic. With the support of the military, and unsuccessfully resisted by the Socialists and Radicals, Bonaparte went on to take dictatorial power and declare himself emperor.

President Louis Napoleon Bonaparte rebuilt central Paris, installing new apartments, straight, long, and wide streets, sewage, and sanitation. He also widened the streets in Paris, in an attempt to subvert future revolution, since in the past, revolutionaries in France had used the streets to barricade themselves.

Emperor Napoleon III is often referred to as the socialist emperor because he gave many socialized programs to the citizens. He gave hospitals, socialized medicine, the right to unionize and strike, shorter hours, injured worker homes, a revamped prison system, and more.

However, Napoleon III was also militarily inept. He chose to get involved in wars which he didn't have to, trying to live up to the glory of Napoleon I. He was defeated in his involvement in the Italian unification movement where he sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope, in his involvement with the Mexican Empire from 1862–1867, and in the Franco-Prussian War from 1870–1871, during which he was actually captured by the Prussians.

Great Britain
Whilst reform in many European states was only achieved with the aid of bloody revolution, British parliamentary democracy meant that Great Britain managed to reform and modernise relatively peacefully. The most notable instance of this is the Reform Act of 1832, which reallocated seats in the House of Commons to address the new industrial cities of Britain, and increased suffrage from 500,000 men to 800,000 men. This was to be followed thirty years later by the Reform Act of 1867 granted suffrage to 1/3 of British men. By 1884, 2 to 4.5 million men had suffrage in Britain, including urban workers.

Britain saw other reforms, such as the 1833 Factory Act, which outlawed the employment of children under the age of 9 and limited the workdays of all children. The Mines Act of 1842 was a similar piece of reformist legislation, formally prohibiting women and children from working underground.

British Corn Laws

One of the most entertaining pieces of political reform during this era was not related to working life, but to the economic management of Britain. The Corn Laws were taxes placed on imported goods to protect Britain's own goods. They forced the British people to buy the more expensive and lower quality British grain by putting a tariff on French grain, which tended to be less expensive and higher quality. The goal was to keep British money in Britain, rather than being spent on importing French grain.

The Corn Laws were passed by the members of the Tory party in Parliament. The Tories were populated by the Landed Gentry. The Whigs, which represented the working class, merchants, factory owners, and so forth in Britain, were opposed to the Corn Laws, but because the Tories controlled Parliament, they were unable to stop the passage of the Corn Laws. The expensive price of British grain necessitated a rise in wages, and factory owners such as David Ricardo were forced to pay higher wages so that their workers could afford the food. Ricardo thus concluded that the Corn Laws simply redistributed wealth from the industrialists to the landowners.

In 1819, 80,000 people gathered in Manchester demanding the repeal of the Corn Laws. British soldiers opened fire, killing 11 demonstrators, in what became known as the Peterloo Massacre. As a result, the Anti-Corn Law League was established in Manchester, and used pamphlets, mass demonstrations, and torchlight parades to protest the Corn Laws.

In 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed under Prime Minister Robert Peel. The government was still led by Tories, but the Irish Potato Famine led to the repeal, demonstrating the new power of the industrialists in England.

Spain
Spain was a country in turmoil during the age of revolutions. Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, a brutal "war of independence" was waged against the occupiers that led to an emergent Spanish nationalism. The victorious rebels enacted a liberal constitution modelled on the American and French Revolutions,  but the return to power of the absolitist  king brought a reaction against the liberal ideas associated with revolutionary France. Ferdinand's reign included the loss of the Spanish colonies in the New World, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, in the 1810s and 1820s.

A series of civil wars then broke out in Spain as different factions sought to reject or restore, in different measures, Enlightenment principles of government. These pitted Spain's democrats (far left) and progressive liberals (centre left) and subsequently republicans against moderate liberals (centre right) and absolutists (far right). The culminatiom came with the Carlist Wars between the moderate (liberal-conservative) Queen Isabella and her uncle, the absolutist reactionary Infante Carlos. Disaffection with Isabella's government from many quarters led to repeated military intervention in political affairs and to several revolutionary attempts against the government. Two of these revolutions were successful, the moderate Vicalvarada or "Vicálvaro Revolution" of 1854 and the more radical la Gloriosa (Glorious Revolution) in 1868. The latter marks the end of Isabella's monarchy. The brief rule of the liberal king Amadeo I of Spain ended in the establishment of the First Spanish Republic, only to be replaced in 1874 by the popular, moderate rule of Alfonso XII of Spain, which finally brought Spain into a period of stability and reform.

1848 Revolutions in the Rest of Europe
In Italy unemployment, demands for land, and higher wages led to revolts. King Charles Albert led a military campaign against Austria, while Mazzini attempted to organize a republic in Rome. The movement largely failed, however, because different groups of nationalists could not agree on goals. The Austria defeated the campaign, and Napoleon Bonaparte sent troops to Rome.

In Germany revolts started in order to achieve more liberal rights, but the goals were soon replaced with nationalistic sentiments. The Constituent Assembly, under the direction of 800 delegates from the German states, offered Frederick William IV, King of Prussia, the crown of a unified Germany. However, this movement failed as well, as the Constituent Assembly had no actual power and Frederick would not accept a crown "from the gutter". Prussian troops put down revolts in Berlin as well as other revolts throughout Germany.

In Austria, demands for political reform and nationalism created demands for autonomy. Metternich fled to England, and Emperor Ferdinand fled in favor of Franz Joseph. Revolts occurred in Vienna, Prague, and Hungary. A Slavic congress was set up in Prague, Hungarians demanded autonomous rule. Eventually, with the aid of Russia, Austria was able to suppress the revolutions.

In 1848, Switzerland became a federal state following the Sonderbund war.

The Era of Realpolitik
Before 1848, idealism and reason were at the forefront of people's minds. However, after 1848, the concept of Realpolitik and action arose. This new toughness of mind rejected high-minded ideology for action, and marked the end of the Enlightenment.

On the right, Otto von Bismarck of Germany took Realpolitik actions, manipulating the Ems Telegram in order to spur war with France (Franco-Prussian War) and thus assist the process of German unity. Emperor Napoleon III also did so, widening the streets of Paris during his reconstruction of Paris in order to prevent barricading in the case of revolution. Finally, Cavour of Italy is an excellent example of a practitioner of Realpolitik, as he got Napoleon III to attack Austria over Lombardy-Venetia.

On the left, Marx and Bakunin were practitioners of Realpolitik, advocating violent revolution among the proletariat in order to install a new communist system.

Industrial Revolution
The shift that precipitated many of the conflicts of the early nineteenth century was the industrial revolution. The growing industrial base of many European countries was to encourage urbanization, often at the expense of the living conditions of the workers. This was coupled with new agrarian technologies which required fewer people to work the land, whilst producing greater agricultural yields. In some countries this precipitated an industrial revolution, where urban industry played an increasingly dominant role in the economy. This process was first seen in Britain, Prussia and the Netherlands in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century whilst other countries, such as France, Italy and the United States of America were to industrialize in the late nineteenth century. Some states, such as Russia and Austria, failed to industrialize significantly in this period, a factor that would lead to later difficulties during the First World War.

The Prefiguration of Industry
The first evidence of industrial production can be found in the large cities of early modern Europe. Even the modest size of European capitals at the beginning of the modern period allowed for a specialization of trade and, as the cities grew, production increasingly took place in specialist workshops. Tradesmen, who had previously taken only one or two apprentices, began to take larger teams of workers, a process that transformed itself into the paid employment of labor in industrial enterprise. A similar shift took place in rural areas, with what was known as "putting out" or "cottage industry", where agricultural workers would take raw materials from contractors and use them to produce finished goods.

Despite these developments little could be done without a proper transportation system, which would allow goods to be moved and marketed. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the cost of transporting goods overland was prohibitively expensive for all but the shortest journeys.

Beginnings of Industry
The age of industry for Europe began with slow progress in the 1780s. Western Europe tended to advance more quickly than the east. Britain initially led the way. Progress remained slow until the 1850s, because most people continued to use old methods, and population increases reduced the benefits of industrialization. As a result, the industrial age did not start in continental Europe until after 1815, and was not complete in Britain until 1850.

In 1750, Britain was only slightly ahead of France in its industrial production. By 1830, its industrialization was at twice the level of France, and by 1860, three times. Other countries were further behind; much of Europe's progress was retarded by political and social turmoil, as well as constant warfare. Industrialization also was limited by lack of transportation, reluctance to cease traditional business practices, and lack of technology.

Stephenson's rocket, a train engine, allowed wagons to be pulled along railroad tracks, allowing for the quick transportation of materials, goods, people, and communication. Population increased rapidly across Europe. Finally, the steam-powered engine was invented and improved, allowing for mechanization in industry.

By 1815, continental Europe had started to see progress. Its industrialization was facilitated by a large skilled labor force, strong governments, and no need to develop new ideas as Britain had already set a precedent for other nations to follow. European governments became much more involved in industrialization, building an infrastructure of railroads and canals. The German government created the Zollverein, a customs-free trade union, which allowed goods to move freely within the German states without being hampered by tariffs. Governments also played a role in banking, and they allowed banks to become corporations, such as Crédit Mobilier of Paris.

By 1851, Britain was the "workshop of the world." Britain had 2/3 of the world's known coal supply, and 1/2 of its iron. Centers of continental industrialization included Belgium, France, and Germany.

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution resulted in poor urban living conditions with no sanitation. Urban and industrial growth went beyond the state's control. Public drunkenness as a reaction to the dismal lifestyle became prominent, and the cities were filthy and living conditions tight. Life expectancy was very short, and disease was rampant. New social classes, particularly the industrial middle class and urban workers, emerged as well. The standard of living decreased for many, with low wages and high prices, as well as horrible working conditions and the employment of children.

Noticing the poor crowded city conditions and impoverished workers in industrial Europe, several economists expressed their pessimistic predictions on the future of the industrial society.

Thomas Malthus (1766–1834)
Thomas Malthus was an English economist with a grim prediction for the future. An Essay on the Principle of Population stated that the population was outgrowing the food supply, and that this would inevitably cause a "great hunger," or massive food shortage. Malthus suggested, as a solution to this problem, marrying later in life to slow the population growth, but he was not optimistic that this plan would ever come to fruition.

David Ricardo (1772–1823)
David Ricardo, in his Iron Law of Wages, predicted that the income of wage-earning workers would remain below or just near subsistence levels, despite any attempts to raise wages.

Changing Views of Childhood and Family
During the Industrial Revolution, decreasing child mortality rates and increasing life expectancy shifted prevailing attitudes towards childhood, marriage, and family. Simultaneously, the growth of a money economy and the expansion of bureaucracies created new professions such as bank tellers, secretaries, and clerical positions. This prosperity created an unprecedented middle class that idealized “domesticity”—the concept of a private sphere in which the family and home were sheltered from the public eye. The popularity of sentimental novels such as Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, and Samuel Richardson’s Pamela evidence the solidification of ideas about a woman’s “place” and the concept of “virtue”. The strict division of labor between the public and private spheres relegated many middle class women to the home, and prevented them from pursuing a career outside of domesticity. The familial structure created by this doctrine of “separate spheres” would later be challenged by second wave feminism in the 1960s.

Luddism
The Luddites were a group of workers opposed to the effects of the mechanization of industry, particularly in textiles. The advent of large scale spinning and weaving machines meant that textiles could be produced at lower costs than previously, undercutting the prices of the traditional cottage industry of handloom weavers.

The attacks of the Luddites began in 1811 and were targeted at the machinery of factory and workshop owners. The campaigns of the Luddites were often closely targeted at specific forms of machinery and, despite the modern connotations of the name, the group were not opposed to progress in principle.

The name of the group is derived from its fictional leader, Ned Ludd. This figure was used as a focal point for demonstrations, and to distract attention from the real leaders of various protests.

The Luddites were followed some years later by the Swing rioters who, following a mythical leader, Captain Swing, opposed the mechanization of agriculture. The Swing riots mostly occurred during the early 1830s and were put down with often severe force.

Trade Unionism
The Luddites were, in essence, part of a reactive movement, fighting against the modernization of methods of production. An alternative, and often more effective, method of action, was the organisation of workers into trade unions, where rights could be secured through collective bargaining and the threat of strikes. Whilst such movements were often not illegal in themselves, many of their actions were. It was, for instance, considered a criminal offence for a workman to break his contract and striking workers could be charged for offences relating to conspiracy or breaches of public order.

Despite this there was a sustained demand on the part of the workers that their rights be recognized and the persistent campaigns of workers eventually achieved the legal recognition of unions.

Chartism
Chartism was the first large-scale working class political movement.

The London Working Men's Association wrote reform goals in a charter, with six points:
 * 1) Universal male suffrage
 * 2) Annual election of House of Commons
 * 3) Secret ballots
 * 4) Equal electoral districts (to prevent "rotten boroughs")
 * 5) Abolition of property requirements for the House of Commons
 * 6) Salaries of members of the House of Commons

Although the Chartist movement did not see immediate success in its aims, all of the main points of the charter, with the exception of annual elections, were adopted by the early twentieth century.

Capitalism
Industry of Britain, western Europe, and the United States developed within the system of capitalism. "Capital" is a medium of exchange for property or services that are valued. Capitalist systems require the laissez-faire principle of minimal government intervention.

Republicanism
Republicanism advocated liberty, fraternity, and equality, and was in favor of Constitutions, Parliaments, and democracies. It opposed the monarchy, aristocracy, and the church. Republicans tended to be students, writers, members of the intelligentsia, and also workers. Republicans were supporters of the French Revolution and its ideals.

Liberalism
Liberalism, or classic liberalism, at the time advocated free trade, laissez faire, constitutions, parliaments, and no violence. It didn't advocate democracy, but rather constitutional monarchy. Liberals tended to be middle class merchants and professionals.

Conservatism
Conservatism rose as a reaction to the liberal ideas that began with the violence, terror, and social disorder of the French Revolution. It was supported by the traditional ruling class, as well as by the peasants. Conservatives believed in order of the society and state, based on faith and tradition. Metternich was the champion of Conservatism and tried to preserve its ideals and the Old Regime through the Congress System. Conservatives were opposed to the Enlightenment and its effects, and were anti-revolution, anti-democracy, and anti-nationalism. They preferred tradition, gradual reform, and the maintenance of the Old Regime.

Socialism
Socialism is the theory or system of social organization in which the means of productions and distribution of goods are owned collectively or by a central government authority. The idea was fostered to combat the industrial society that allowed millions to toil endlessly while a few owners reaped all the benefits of their labor. Socialists argued that liberalism was fragmenting society, and that socialism would reunite it. After 1815, socialism became the new radical doctrine, especially in France. Socialists fought to protect the interests of the workers rather than capitalists, and argued that wealth is unfairly distributed and that thus workers deserve a larger share. Socialism was a diverse political philosophy and encompassed the views of many different thinkers, such as Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen.

Henri de Saint-Simon
Henry de Saint-Simon believed that the elite of society lacked the skills necessary to be valued so highly. He believed that rewards should be in proportion to one's social contribution, and that society should be run by qualified technocrats, or a technically skilled elite.

Charles Fourier
Charles Fourier was a French merchant, whose experiences of the French Revolution led him to believe that free market capitalism in general, and speculation in particular, was damaging to the welfare of all. His solution was to suggest a planned economy, based around idea communities known as phalanstries, where 1,620 people would live in a single building surrounded by 5,000 acres of land. By centralising production, efficient agriculture and industry could be achieved. Although his plans were never put into practice, his utopian socialism was an important influence on later thinkers.

Robert Owen
Robert Owen was a Welsh manufacturer. In his mills at New Lanark in Scotland he proved that investing in the welfare of employees could be profitable. He provided his workers with schools and free accommodation. By doing this Owen was rewarded with a hard-working and loyal workforce, and his mills were some of the most profitable and productive in Britain.

Owen was later to invest his profits in the community of New Harmony in the United States of America. The community was heavily reliant upon the leadership of Owen and quickly foundered. Although Owen's communities did not long outlast his lifetime, his thinking was highly influential amongst later socialists, and the term communist was originally coined to describe Owen's followers.

Karl Marx (1818–1883)
Probably the most important socialist thinker of the nineteenth century was the German writer Karl Marx. Marx's rise to prominence began in the Year of Revolutions, 1848, with the publication of The Communist Manifesto, a volume which he wrote with the help of Frederick Engels. The book was an attempt to create political tension between economic classes around the world. He also wrote Das Kapital, a critique of capitalism that argues as to why Marx believed capitalism should fail. He sought to incite the violent revolution of the proletariat against the bourgeois. The proletariat described the working class, while the bourgeois described the middle and upper classes that owned the means of production. This revolution would be caused by what Marx described as a historic class struggle between these two groups. After this revolution, Marx argued for the formation of a classless society, in which no private property, religion, or government existed.

Marx also advocated the concept of dialectical materialism. The theory states that history is driven by economic conditions and material private property inequality. This theory was based on Hegel's dialectic theory, in which a thesis and antithesis are resolved into a synthesis. The end of Marx's concept of dialectical history is the synthesis of communism because private property is prohibited. Marx believed that the rise of the proletariat was inevitable, even if he had never existed and written his book. This is what separates Marxism from Utopian Socialism – Utopian Socialism required the benevolent and peaceful surrender of the means of production by capitalists.

Utilitarianism
Proposed by Bentham, it suggested that the best form of government does the most good for the greatest number of people.

Nationalism
Nationalism was spawned by Napoleon's empire, and emphasized pride in one's language, tradition, culture, and religion. Nationalism caused conflict over boundaries in Europe. Nationalists frequently looked to folktales, poems, songs, grammar, and dictionaries for sources of traditional culture in a nation. Nationalism especially came to rise in Germany, Italy, Ireland, Poland, and Hungary.

Romantic Response
The Romantic movement lasted from the 1790s through the first half of the 1800s. In response to the decadent and religious Baroque movement, the Romantics focused on emotional and imaginative works of art and a personal experience of the world. Romantics resisted the rationalism of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment; instead, they idealized nature and the fantastical. Romantic art and writing represented spiritual or valiant stories most often set in the Middle Ages or exotic, unexplored lands. The Romantic movement favored natural curiosity over standard education, as shown in William Blake’s “The School Boy”, where a school boy is compared to a bird trapped in a cage. Romantic music and art strove to represent the world and its beauty, with pieces like Ludwig van Beethoven’s symphonies, which expresses his love for nature and joy and Chopin’s nocturnes, which seek to invoke nighttime and its awe. Romantic art also aimed to show innate emotional responses to the world. Paintings such as Caspar David Friedrich’s Wanderer Above a Sea of Clouds depicted rural, natural landscapes and showed people observing nature. The Romantic Movement was a rejection of rationalism and showed the transition from an absolutist, royal societal system to a democratic, personal one.

Romantic Art
The romantic art movement took place in the 1800s, especially emphasizing emotion, imagination, drama, disorder, and dark colors. Romantic art typically portrays the mystical communion of art and nature, typically using picturesque or exotic subjects. Romantic art reinforced individualism.

Francisco Goya (1746–1828)

Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes was an influential Spanish painter of the Romantic period. Perhaps his most famous work was The Third of May 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid, which portrays the Napoleonic Wars in Spain, with a faceless French firing squad murdering members of the Spanish resistance.

Delacroix
Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix was the leader of the French Romanticism in painting. Delacroix's techniques would prove to be an important influence on others. His use of expressive color profoundly shaped the work of the Impressionist and Symbolist movements.

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title: European History/Age Of Revolutions