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Managing Groups and Teams/Conflict

Conflict Defined
Conflict can exist between factions or groups within a team, with a leader or manager, and with other teams or departments within the company. It has been defined in numerously different ways and has come to hold several connotations. The following is an example of a relatively broad dictionary entry, where conflict is defined in the following way(s): Conflict

1. To come into collision or disagreement; be contradictory, at variance, or in opposition; clash: The account of one eyewitness conflicted with that of the other. My class conflicts with my going to the concert.

2. To fight or contend; do battle.

3. A fight, battle, or struggle, esp. a prolonged struggle; strife.

4. Controversy; quarrel: conflicts between parties.

5. Discord of action, feeling, or effect; antagonism or opposition, as of interests or principles: a conflict of ideas.

6. A striking together; collision.

7. Incompatibility or interference, as of one idea, desire, event, or activity with another: a conflict in the schedule.

8. Psychiatry. a mental struggle arising from opposing demands or impulses.

Conflict in Groups and Teams
Conflict inevitably arises in one form or another in varying degrees due to the mere group and/or team dynamics of having people with differing backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas coming together in an effort to accomplish a common goal. Conflict is generally considered to be negative and something to be avoided. Numerous frameworks such as LaFasto and Larson's CONNECT model have been developed to help rid groups of negative conflict. However, conflict isn’t always negative and there are circumstances in which positive conflict is necessary in order to prevent compliance tendencies and the potentially disastrous effects of groupthink.

In the following sections, the positive and negative realms of conflict will be outlined and further detailed in an effort to narrow the scope of conflict while helping to navigate some of the more negative connotations that easily come to mind when thinking about conflict. Use all positive words and actions and you will get the same back, respect others and they will respect you.

Types of Conflict that a Team Can Face
Positive conflict vs Negative conflict

Positive conflict
Positive conflict is the notion that a healthy discourse may exist in the disagreement among group members regarding personality traits, styles, or characteristics or the content of their ideas, decisions or task processes which involves a  pathway towards resolution. Any tolerable amount of conflict is vital to group success in order to avoid groupthink and to generate more innovative ideas among potentially and vastly differing members of the group. In addition, positive conflict generates buy-in and offers elements of ownership and a sense of cooperation and enhanced membership to all of the group members. Positive conflict reduces the effects of conformity pressures and groupthink. Groupthink occurs when conformity and compliance pressures are exaggerated, and it generally occurs in the absence of task conflict. One of the most devastating examples of groupthink occurred on the morning of January 28th, 1986 in which the Challenger space shuttle exploded over the Atlantic Ocean after the failure of an O-ring. This failure resulted from the O-ring being unable to withstand extreme temperatures in which the O-ring had never been truly tested. Numerous NASA staff members were aware of the possible failure of the O-ring in extreme temperatures, and they were also aware of the ramifications should the O-ring break. However, the decision making process regarding whether or not the shuttle was safe to launch was riddled with flaws that ultimately created a breeding ground for groupthink. To illustrate, the Challenger launch had been postponed several times before this scheduled date, and there was direct pressure from NASA to approve the launch. There was also media pressure as they were scheduled to film the launch, since it would be the first time a teacher was sent into space. NASA officials feared public ridicule if the launch was delayed again, and as early as six days prior to the launch, NASA put the pressure on. They told the inspectors to stop thinking like inspectors and start thinking like managers, and they rationalized that there was no conclusive evidence to suggest that the O-ring would not work. As a result, the inspectors bowed to conformity pressures and gave the approval to launch. The resulting launch and subsequent death of all 7 crew members aboard the Challenger shook the nation and was not the front page news that NASA had hoped for.

Other disasters that occurred due to conformity pressures include the Bay of Pigs, the Tenerife plane crash disaster, the holocaust, and many others. To test how strong the effects of conformity pressures are on less cohesive groups and among individuals that were only recently introduced, Solomon Asch conducted his famous conformity experiment in which a group of random participants were shown a picture of the following lines, and they were asked which line in the second group of lines is approximately the same height as the first line shown.

Individuals that were a part of the experiment (confederates to the experiment) selected an obviously inappropriate line such as line “B” as their answer. The results were astounding in which the remaining individual in the group (not a confederate to the experiment) also selected line “B” as their answer due to perceived pressures to conform. Conformity occurs as a result of individuals’ desire to be liked and their need to be right. Therefore, they tend to fall victim to false consensus biases and generally bring their behavior in line with the group’s expectations and beliefs. So how are you to know if your group is falling prey to conformity pressures and groupthink? Here are some common symptoms:

 * Illusions of invulnerability
 * Rationalization & justification
 * Illusion of group morality
 * Stereotyping the out-group as weaker, evil, or stupid
 * Direct or indirect peer or supervisory pressures
 * Self-censorship by team members
 * Illusions of unanimity

First, realizing that you and your group are affected by or susceptible to conformity pressures and groupthink is very important. Next, in order to create a norm of conflict, it is essential that a feeling of psychology safety is present. This can be instated by encouraging objections, criticisms, and altering perspectives. Also, as a leader, one should avoid making clear statements about your preferences, create subgroups, have outside experts come in to observe the decision making process, and re-examine the next best alternatives once a decision has been reached. Finally, limiting the size of the group and assigning roles that make conflict commonplace (such as a “Devil’s Advocate”) will help to discourage and minimize compliance pressures. After the Challenger explosion, NASA took similar steps to avoid future disasters in which they instituted a verbal and video recorded affirmation from several NASA officials that certify flight readiness. Furthermore, NASA's managers instituted a veto policy in which anyone at any level is given the authority to stop the flight process.

In addition to avoiding groupthink and conformity pressures, positive conflict is more likely to generate a sense of membership, involvement, and enthusiasm from all group members and is also more likely to lead to the infusion of more creative and innovative ideas. This results from each team member having the opportunity to voice his or her own perspective on the issues being decided by the group. When individuals feel more involved in the decision making process, they are more likely to state a high satisfaction level with their team and are additionally more likely to want to continue working as a member of that team.

Creating a heterogeneous team is another way to encourage diverse perspectives, opinions, and ideas. Heterogeneous groups also have a broader knowledge base resulting from a variety of experiences, backgrounds, skills, and achievements. Comparable to other investment strategies that are somewhat more risky (in terms of the increased likelihood for ensuing conflict levels), diverse teams stand a greater chance for potential return and favorable results as well.

Negative conflict
In diverse and heterogeneous teams, negative conflict has a tendency to emerge in varying degrees due to the mere dynamics of having diverse individuals with differing backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas coming together. Negative conflict can arise in several different arenas including the following:
 * Conflict can arise between factions or groups within a team.
 * Subgroups, or factions, can develop within a team. Each group has their own opinions and will stick together and oppose other factions within the team. Organizations can be greatly divided by such factions
 * Conflict can develop between team members and the leader of the team.
 * Team members can disagree with the team leader. This can lead to refusal to follow the direction of the team leader. There may be conflict with management because management has not given clear goals to the team or may not be supporting the team. The organization could have a culture that does not allow teams to work effectively.

 * Conflict can form between the different teams or departments in the organization.

Unlike positive conflict, negative conflict is better if avoided and must be swiftly addressed and resolved when it does present itself. Due to the dangerous nature and destructive effects negative conflict has on productivity and moral, it may potentially lead to Human Resource Management issues or even a lawsuit. In order to set the stage so that interpersonal conflict is avoided or at least minimized, firms can prevent the establishment of in-groups and out-groups, foster open communication and trust, understand the various personality styles that comprise a group, and coach effective communication skills and perspective taking skills to team members.

An example of a firm, where the formation of in-groups and out-groups fostered so much negative conflict, was the Lehman Brothers firm, this in-group and out-group culture lead to the selling of the firm. Within this firm, a strong separation between Traders and Bankers literally divided the corporation and led to its ultimate demise. Differences between the functions were exaggerated and there was a perception that each of the divisions was pursuing its own unique and more valuable objectives. There was not a unified vision within the company and personality conflict was commonplace. The Traders believed that the Bankers were lazy "Ivy League" graduates who were awarded greater benefits simply to uphold the status-quo. The Bankers perceived the Brokers as less intelligent, blue collar workers who deserved less compensation and rewards. Creating in-groups and out-groups in a company leads to an unhealthy competition between the groups. Each faction ends up battling for a greater share of the company’s limited resources and an “us” vs. “them” rational emerges, while energy is wasted on trying to prove which group is better rather than to maintain common goals. As demonstrated by the infamous Robbers Cave Experiment conducted by Muzafer Sherif, working toward a common goal and maintaining common purpose is essential for group unity and contributes to the reduction of personal conflict. In this experiment, 22 boy scouts were assigned to two separate camps and neither group was aware of the other's existence. Each boy formed a strong identification with his own group, and the scouts were even allowed to select a group name. The first contact between the two groups was to play a competitive sport and friction emerged between the groups almost immediately. During the resolution phase of the experiment, a task was developed in which the two groups were forced to cooperate and work together toward achieving a common purpose that neither group could achieve alone. A broken-down truck that needed to be towed back to the camp was staged, and the two groups had to combine their man-power to tow the truck. By the end of the experiment, the in-groups and out-groups had merged, and the entire group even insisted upon riding back home on the same bus together. In addition to forming a super-ornate goal for group members to achieve, pointing out what group members have in common and defusing stereotypes is a way to prevent the formation of an out-group.

Fostering support, trust, and open communication is also essential if relationship conflicts are to be reduced and quickly resolved. Open communication can be established by the following:

 * Establish ground rules.
 * Take turns when talking and do not interrupt. Ensure that each team member has equal time when stating their perspective. Listen for something new and say bring something new to the discussion. Avoid restating the facts and “talking in circles.” Avoid power plays and eliminate status or titles from the discussion
 * Listen compassionately
 * Avoid thinking of a counterargument while the other person is speaking. Listen to the other person’s perspective rather than listening to your own thoughts. Don’t make an effort to remember points.
 * Point out the advantages of resolving the conflict.
 * Maintain a neutral vantage point and be willing to be persuaded.
 * Avoid all-or-none statements such as “always” and “never” and point out exceptions when these statements are used.
 * (IE: What does it look like when Marketing does consult sales before acting?)
 * Create a goal of discovery rather than of winning or persuading.
 * Be alert to common goals and where goals overlap as each party is communicating their perspective.
 * Use clarifying statements to ensure the other party feels understood and listened to such as, “What I heard you say is that you feel unappreciated and that you lack vital feedback to help you perform, is this correct?”
 * Help team members to separate the problem from the person.
 * Use techniques such as role-playing, putting oneself in the competitor’s shoes, or conducting war games. Such techniques create fresh perspectives and engage team members.
 * Team members should recognize each other for having expressed his view and feelings.
 * Thanking one another recognizes the personal risk the individual took in breaking from group think and should be viewed as an expression of trust and commitment toward the team.
 * Help each team member to understand one anothers' perspective, and help them to re-frame the situation.
 * The exact same situation can often be viewed differently by several individuals. To illustrate, what did you see first in the picture below, the young woman or the old woman?

Once a team has received coaching on how to communicate effectively, address conflict situations immediately as they arise. Letting tense situations fester will only allow time for animosity to polarize and grow. Helping team members to reframe the problem and see it from the other individual’s perspective can also be accomplished directly, via cross-training and job shadowing which allows each team member to draw from a frame of reference by walking in the other team member's shoes. Utilizing the Big 5 personality test descriptions will also add an element of understanding to the group dynamic. To illustrate, if Jimmy is highly extroverted, neurotic, and conscientious, it may help Tim, who is not quite as extroverted as than Jim and who is more agreeable, to understand where Jimmy’s seemingly endless ability to voice his irritation with others is stemming from, and he may not take it as personally. In addition, Jimmy may better understand and get less irritated with Tim’s perceived inability to take initiative and make decisions efficiently.

Finally, understanding common stereotypes and mental shortcuts that are used when passing judgment on others will make team members more aware of how these shortcuts are leading to bias conclusions. The common cognitive biases and a brief description are as follows:

 * Self Fulfilling Prophecy: the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will (consciously or subconsciously) confirm our beliefs.

 * Halo Effect: the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them

 * Primacy Effect: the tendency to weigh initial events more than subsequent events.

 * Recency Effect: the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events

 * Availability Heuristic: a biased prediction, due to the tendency to focus on the most salient and emotionally-charged outcome.

 * Selective Perception: selectively attend to data that supports your conclusion while omitting valid evidence that does not.

 * Actor-Observer Bias: the tendency for explanations for other individual's behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation. This is coupled with the opposite tendency for the self in that one's explanations for their own behaviors overemphasize their situation and underemphasize the influence of their personality.

 * Hindsight Bias: sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the inclination to see past events as being predictable.

 * Illusory Correlation: beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect

 * Egocentric Bias: occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would.

 * False Consensus Bias: the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.

 * Fundamental Attribution Bias: the tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior

 * Just World Phenomenon: the tendency for people to believe that the world is "just" and therefore people "get what they deserve."

 * Self Serving Bias: the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests

 * Illusion of Transparency: people overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.

 * Ingroup Bias: the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.

“…If you form a picture in your mind of what you would like to be and hold it there long enough, you will soon become exactly as you have been thinking.” –William James, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.

Why is Conflict Resolution Important in a Team Setting?
Whether we embrace it or avoid it, conflict is an inherent part of the human condition. Unlike certain tasks or responsibilities, conflict is not isolated to one or another aspect of life. With conflict looming all about us, why should we even bother trying to resolve it? Or, if conflict is inherent to being human, is it then presumptuous to even attempt its resolution? We propose that, in the vast majority of instances of team conflict, avoidance is a worse solution than engagement with the conflicting situation. Moreover, avoided conflict will lead to less optimal solutions and may even prevent the team from finishing a project. Thus, from a manager’s perspective, it is a simple equation of a cost/benefits analysis in that the cost to the organization is greater when teams avoid conflict than when they engage it. In this chapter we will discuss the symptoms of conflict and recommend solutions for their resolution.

Conflict absorbs team resources that could be better utilized working towards the team’s goals. As discussed, managers should manage conflict in a way that leads the team towards completion of team goals.

What are the Symptoms of Team Conflict?
Almost everyone has endured the experience of being part of a team that was plagued with conflict. Whether in a large group that erupts in anger and can’t finish a meeting, or a small group of two or three individuals that resort to backbiting and gossiping to vent frustration over a conflict, everyone has been a part of a team where conflict has gotten out of control. With this in mind, there are several symptoms of conflict that can be identified in groups which can help groups to recognize and manage conflict before it tears them apart. By identifying the following symptoms related to communication, trust, and opposing agendas, the team leader can identify conflict before it erupts. As you read through these symptoms, think of the teams that you are a part of and look for symptoms that exist in your team.

One common symptom of conflict is a lack of communication or a lack of respectful communication. This is most often seen when teams fail to have meaningful meetings. Most often, non-communicating meetings are characterized by team members sitting and listening to what the boss has to say. Often chatter or silence prevails in teams. A lack of communication can also be noted when team members don’t get along, and so refuse to talk to each other. These feuds create barriers within teams and prevent communication in the team. A lack of communication or disrespectful communication leads to a lack of trust, which is another symptom of team conflict. Teams that fail to produce desired results often lack the trust in one another as team members necessary to succeed. Without trust in a team, verbal or non-verbal conflict becomes the norm of the team. Team members spend more energy protecting their own positions and jobs then they do producing what is required for the team’s success. When trust erodes in a team, the habit of blaming others becomes the norm as individuals try to protect themselves. Team members become enemies that compete against each other rather than allies that build and help one another to achieve a common goal. Teams that lack trust often gossip about other members or have frequent side conversations after meetings to discuss opposing opinions. Such activity sucks strength out of the team and its purpose.

Another symptom of team conflict can be seen when team members have opposing agendas. This is not to be confused with members who have different opinions. Having different opinions in a group can be very healthy if managed correctly because it can create better ideas and ways of getting the job done. However, when team members have opposing agendas, more is at stake than differing opinions; it is two individuals fiercely committed to the exact opposite approach. Opposing agendas can create confusion in team members and can cause them to lose sight of their role in the team and the team’s final goal. Teams must work toward a common goal in order to be successful. Extreme effort must be made to reconcile differences, or such a team can look forward to failure.

What are Appropriate Solutions to Conflict?
As mentioned above, conflict is a natural and necessary element of a healthy team experience. If a team never experiences conflict, it is less likely to be as productive as a team that does experience conflict. This is especially true if the task that a team is attempting to complete is complex in nature or highly detailed. Without having members question specific actions, decisions, or the specifics of the proposed solution, it may appear to the team that there is only one way in which to solve the problem or complete the task.

One way in which a team can avoid being unproductive is by selecting members with different backgrounds. This can be difficult because people often assume that individuals who think similarly and get along with one another will be more productive when working together. But this is not necessarily true. In many cases having groups of people who think alike and are not willing to voice their disagreement can be detrimental, or even dangerous. Popular examples of this group think phenomenon are noted in the Kennedy Administration’s disaster with regards to the Bay of Pigs, or those involved with the Challenger shuttle launch. Differences among team members should however, be task orientated and not personal or relationship oriented. Relationship conflicts are rarely productive. If potential members of a team have a history of conflict due to relationships and not in relation to tasks, one or both should probably not be chosen as a team member. Additionally, peacekeepers should also be avoided, unless the team environment fosters a very safe atmosphere where the peacekeeper will feel comfortable enough to speak out in the team setting. In this case, a difference in opinion could be beneficial, but it might not be presented due to the member’s disproportionate desire to avoid conflict.

Avoiding the potential for group think, relationship conflicts, and peacekeepers in choosing team members will help to promote healthy conflict. But commitment is equally important. If team members are individually or collectively indifferent toward the overall goal, they probably will not perform well. A lack of commitment can also lead to a lack of conflict. If the team is committed to the overall goal and members are well chosen, there can be a healthy dose of conflict in the process to complete the task.

When conflict does occur, it is important to address it immediately. Although developing a solution to the conflict may take time, acknowledging it will help to ensure that it can become productive to the team. “Whatever the problem, effective teams identify, raise, and resolve it. If it’s keeping them from reaching their goal, effective teams try to do something about it. They don’t ignore it and hope it goes away.” By not addressing conflict, the leader risks sending the message that conflict is unmanageable and cause vested members to become complacent or feel their input is not valued. In the worst scenario, a conflict that is not resolved could go from being task orientated to personal.

How Can a Team Prevent Negative Conflict?
Conflict may be inevitable on a team and may even have a positive effect, “the absence of conflict is not harmony, it’s apathy.” However, most of us have had experience with the crippling side of conflict. In this section we offer insight into how other teams have successfully managed conflict and make recommendations for mechanisms to put into place in order to prevent harmful conflict. How do successful teams manage conflict?

Three business professors, who studied teams which had learned how to successfully “fight” in a team without allowing the conflict to become destructive, found some common themes as to how such teams function. First, successful teams worked with more, rather than less information and debated on the basis of facts. Second, teams developed multiple alternatives to enrich the level of debate. Third, productive teams shared commonly agreed upon goals and objectives. Fourth, teams injected humor into the decision-making process. Fifth, teams maintained a balanced power structure. And sixth, teams resolved issues without forcing consensus.

In another study, which surveyed 15,000 team members and their assessments of their team mates, two professors found that the most important behaviors in team relationships are openness and supportiveness, “Regardless of whether it was a working relationship with a peer, a superior, or a direct report, the result was the same. The two factors identified as most important were openness and supportiveness.” Moreover, the authors identify specifically what is meant by these two adjectives within a team context: openness “refers to the ability to surface and deal with issues objectively,”  while supportiveness “refers to bringing out the best thinking and attitude in the other person.”

From the above insights into successful teams, we start to see that such teams put a high value on fact-based decisions and are able to set up mechanisms that bring out the best in each team member and facilitate information sharing. Drawing from these insights, then, what specific measures, should a new leader or newly formed team put into place to ensure the team can withstand conflict and even gain the benefits of creativity that comes out of conflict?

How Do Teams Prevent Damaging Conflict?
In order to prevent damaging conflict, the team leader must lay a conflict-friendly foundation for the team. The following approach will help the team leader to set the stage for conflict that is creative and productive:

 * 1) Set a clear goal for the team.
 * 2) Make expectations for team members explicit.
 * 3) Assemble a heterogeneous team, including diverse ages, genders, functional backgrounds, and industry experience.
 * 4) Meet together as a team regularly and often. Team members that don’t know one another well doesn’t know positions on the issues, impairing their ability to argue effectively. Frequent interaction builds the mutual confidence and familiarity team members require expressing dissent.
 * 5) Assign roles such as devil’s advocate and sky-gazing visionary and change these roles up from meeting to meeting. This is important to ensure all sides of an issue have been considered.
 * 6) Use techniques such as role-playing, putting oneself in the competitor’s shoes, or conducting war games. Such techniques create fresh perspectives and engage team members.
 * 7) Actively manage conflict. Don’t let the team acquiesce too soon or too easily. Identify and treat apathy early, and don’t confuse a lack of conflict with agreement.

Resolving Conflict
Interpersonal conflict should be managed and resolved before it degenerates into verbal assault and irreparable damage to a team. Dealing with interpersonal conflict can be a difficult and uncomfortable process. Usually, as team members, we use carefully worded statements to avoid frictions when confronting conflict. The first step to resolving interpersonal conflict is in acknowledging the existence of the interpersonal conflict. Recognizing the conflict allows team members to build common ground by putting the conflict within the context of the larger goal of the team and the organization. Moreover, the larger goal can help by giving team members a motive for resolving the conflict.

The Rosetta Stone for dealing with conflict is communication. As team members we all understand the inevitability of interpersonal conflicts. Moreover, as we have established above, open and supportive communication is vital to a high performing team. One way to achieve this is by separating the problem from the person. Problems can be debated without damaging working relationships. When interpersonal conflict occurs, all sides of the issue should be recognized without finger-pointing or blaming. Above all, when team member gets yelled at or blamed for something, it has the effect of silencing the whole team. It gives the signal to everyone that dissent is not allowed, and, as we know, dissent is one of the most fertile resources for new ideas.

When faced with conflict, it is natural for team members to become defensive. However defensiveness usually makes it more difficult to resolve a conflict. A conflict-friendly team environment must encourage effective listening. Effective listening includes listening to one another attentively, without interruption (this includes not having side conversations, doodling, or vacant stares). The fundamentals to resolving team conflict include the following elements:

 * 1) Prior to stating one’s view, a speaker should seek to understand what others have said. This can be done in a few clarifying sentences,
 * 2) Seek to make explicit what the opposing sides have in common. This helps to reinforce what is shared between the disputants,
 * 3) Whether or not an agreement is reached, team members should thank the other for having expressed his view and feelings. Thanking the other recognizes the personal risk the individual took in breaking from group think and should be viewed as an expression of trust and commitment toward the team.

How Can Teams Resolve Conflict Between Factions?
In resolving conflict between factions, the team leader should start by bringing the groups together and acknowledging there is a conflict. The team leader should make sure all group members are clear about the group goal. Not only should each group member understand what the goal is, they each need to be willing to work toward achieving it. Set ground rules for the group if this has not been done. An important rule to include is to eliminate outside politicking. When disagreements or issues arise, they should be discussed within the group. Factions should not have separate discussions about the problem. If ground rules have already been established, discuss whether all agree with them and are willing to follow them. Discuss the methods and processes that will be used to reach the team goal. Again, it is important to get all team members working together towards the common goal.

The team leader should stay alert to one faction forcing a particular solution. If such an instance arises, those forcing a solution should be asked to articulate the reason behind their thinking. Once the thinking has been articulated, there can be open discussion as to the merits and drawbacks to the proposed solution.

What Should a Team Leader Do To Resolve Conflict and Promote Team Performance?
Team leaders have the responsibility of resolving conflict within their teams. There are things that team leaders can do to make a team where conflict resolution occurs naturally. One thing that team leaders can do in their groups to resolve conflict is to set up team rules from the outset. As discussed earlier, such team rules can guide team members to resolve conflict between themselves, rather than going to the leader to resolve all conflict. Team leaders should foster an environment in their teams that is safe and positive. Such an environment will help foster communication and will help team members to resolve conflicts. Team leaders can also provide retreats and other activities away from the office that will help to build team unity and trust. These factors will also strengthen a team and help to avoid negative conflict before it begins.

Team leaders can also strictly monitor performance issues in their group. Performance issues that go unresolved create relationship conflict and a lack of motivation and morale. Performance issues in individual team members must be addressed immediately in order to avoid issues in the group. This doesn’t mean that team leaders always need to eliminate poor performing team members immediately. Sometimes it is the responsibility of the team leader to provide extra training to team members when they’re struggling, to help them meet expectations. When attitudes need to be changed, awareness can be brought to how a team member’s attitude negatively affects the team and invitations can be given for attitudes to improve.

In this process it is vital for the team leader to remember that accountability must be held with team members. Without accountability in a team, focus on the goal will not occur and teams won’t produce desired outcomes. Accountability promotes achievement and helps team members to reach their potential. A lack of accountability can produce great task conflict and relationship conflict. Full accountability can help produce a feeling of fulfillment and achievement and teams will achieve their optimal performance.

How Can a Team Member Resolve a Conflict with the Team Leader?
If a team member has a conflict with the team leader, the first step is to identify the type of conflict. If the conflict relates to the goal of the team, then it would appear that the goal is not clear. The conflict can also relate to the processes being used by the team. In either situation, the team member can bring up the issue in a group meeting. Ask that the goal be clarified so that all team members understand what it is. If processes were never discussed and decided on by the team, now would be an appropriate time to do so. If the team leader does not want to discuss these issues in a team meeting, the team member should approach the leader separately to discuss. The team member should explain the issue and why the current situation is not working. Again, ask that the team be allowed to discuss these issues.

If the conflict is interpersonal between the team leader and a team member, the issue should be discussed privately between the two. The team member should go to the leader and explain that there appears to be conflict and that he or she would like to resolve it. LaFasto and Larson outline an approach that can be used to resolve conflict called the Connect Model. The steps involved in the model are as follows:

 * 1) Commit to the relationship.
 * 2) Optimize safety.
 * 3) Narrow to one issue.
 * 4) Neutralize defensiveness.
 * 5) Explain and echo.
 * 6) Change one behavior each.
 * 7) Track it!

These steps provide a great review of what has been discussed throughout this chapter and will help to resolve the issue between a team leader and team member.

In summary, team conflict is an important and integral part of any team that exists. As we have outlined it in this chapter, conflict, if approached effectively and managed appropriately, can exponentially work in the favor of any team. Appropriate management of the relative type of team conflict at hand is critical for teams to be successful. This chapter has discussed several of the aspects of team conflict and how they can be best managed and potentially resolved. These concepts will help teams improve their functionality and dynamic effectiveness in an effort to reach their ultimate goals in reaching to be a high performing team.

title: Managing Groups and Teams/Conflict


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Feminism/Rape

Rape is an an act in which a victim is forced into sexual activity, in particular sexual penetration, against his or her will. The word originates from the Latin rapere: to seize or take by force. The Latin term for the act of rape itself is raptus.

Originally, the word rape was akin to rapine, rapture, raptor, and rapacious, and referred to the more general violations, such as looting, destruction, and capture of citizens that are inflicted upon a town or country during war, e.g. the Rape of Nanking. Today, some dictionaries still define rape to include any serious and destructive assault against a person or community. This article, however, focuses primarily on sexual assault. Rape is an issue of central concern to many feminists.

Violent rape
"Violent rape" is when violence beyond the rape itself is a part of the assault. This may include physical force or threat of harm, including death threat or threat against a family member. People who commit violent rapes include both strangers and people whom the victim already knows. Proportionally more violent rapes are likely to be reported. .

Statutory rape
National and/or regional governments, citing an interest in protecting minors, consider people under a certain age to be unable to give informed consent, and accordingly treat any sexual contact with minors as "rape", even if he or she agrees to the sexual activity. The age at which individuals are considered competent to give consent is called the age of consent. The age set by each state vary in accordance with local standards, and range from 12 to 21. Sex which violates age-of-consent law, but is neither violent nor physically coerced, is sometimes described as "statutory rape", the name of a legally-recognized category in the United States.

Acquaintance ("date") rape
The term, "acquaintance rape" (or "date rape") refers to rape or non-consensual sexual activity between people who are already acquainted, or who know each other socially — friends, acquaintances, people on a date, or even people in an existing romantic relationship — where it is alleged that consent for sexual activity was not given, or was given under duress. In most jurisdictions, there is no legal distinction between rape committed by a stranger, or by an acquaintance, friend or lover.

There is often more difficulty in securing conviction against an assailant who is known by the victim at the time. This is due to the "grey" nature of the situation. In what is colloquially described as a "grey rape" case, the victim is unable to demonstrate non-consent although he or she expresses displeasure at the encounter. The expression, "grey rape", refers to the absence of information — there is nothing "grey" in the act itself: if the act was non-consensual at the time it occurred, then it is considered rape, even if not actionably so. Contributing factors to "grey" rape include poor communication by either party, misleading or (deliberately) misreading body language, or the feeling by one party of being unsure or unable to express what one wishes (which may be due to many reasons). The standard of proof required for non-consensual sexual activity is often harder to meet (or easier to deny) than when two strangers meet, or where there has been violence.

In general, some evidence suggests that rapists are far more likely to know their victims than not. Other reports suggest that it can work both ways. Not only is acquaintance rape more common than previously thought, but situations of this kind can more often give rise to false allegations than had been expected (see False reporting).

Male rape
Men can also be raped. According to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics, for 2003 [2], 9.9% of rape and sexual assault victims in the United States, age 12 and older, are male; therefore, nearly 17 out of every 100,000 males are victims. According to the data for 2004, this number has fallen to 2.95%; therefore, slightly more than 5 out of every 100,000 males are victims. Many of these male victims are likely children and there may be many more male victims under age 12 (not included in BJS figures).

Gang rape
Gang-rape (also known as "pack rape") occurs when a group of people participates in the rape of a single victim. It is far more damaging for the victim, and in some jurisdictions, is punished more severely than a rape by one person. "Gang bang" is also a slang term for consensual group sex. (It is not to be confused with the slang word "gangbanger" referring to a member of a criminal gang; the "bang" in that word refers to the sound of gunfire.)

According to Roy Hazelwood, a profiler of sexual crimes, gang rape "involves three or more offenders and you always have a leader and a reluctant participant. Those are extremely violent, and what you find is that they're playing for each other's approval. It gets into a pack mentality and can be horrendous."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Feminism/Rape


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Types of Sentences

There are several different types of sentences. Each is classified based on its structure and purpose.

Sentence Structure
Using a variety of sentences helps the reader follow the flow of a writer’s thoughts. Choosing between simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences and mixing them up throughout the material will keep the reader interested. Varying the length of the sentences also keeps the reader involved.

Reading material that marches along becomes tedious. For example:

''The band marched along the street, and the director signaled for the drums to play. A red car stopped at the intersection, and the parents walked beside the band. The parents squirted water into the musicians’ mouths, and the trumpet players started to play. The band marched past the intersection, and the red car proceeded down the street''.

Reading this group of compound sentences becomes boring. If the writer mixes up the types of sentences like the example below, the sentences will flow more easily for the reader.

''As the band marched along the street, the director signaled for the drums to play. A red car stopped at the intersection. While the parents walked beside the band, they squirted water into the trumpet players’ mouths. The trumpet players started to play. The band marched past the intersection, and the red car proceeded down the street.''

The first sentence is complex, and the second one is simple. The third is again complex while the fourth is simple. The fifth sentence is compound. The choppiness is gone, and a flow is created.

Sentence structure is determined based on the number of clauses in the sentence. A clause can be independent or subordinate.

Independent clause
--Example: May studied in the library for her final exam.
 * Full sentence pattern that can operate on its own and does not function within another sentence pattern.
 * Contains a subject plus a verb and any objects, any modifiers.
 * It either stands alone or could stand alone.

Subordinate clause
--Example: After May studied in the library for her final exam, she went home.
 * Pattern like a full sentence (has subjects and verbs) but functions within a sentence.
 * Can function as a noun, adjective or adverb.
 * Can not stand alone as a complete sentence.
 * Sometimes called a dependent clause.

Complement Clause
-- Example:    I know [that James went to Yale]. -- Example: I love the idea [that chimps can talk]. -- Example: I am pleased [that George went to the party].
 * Ordinary --- If you examine the structure of the entire sentence, you will see that this complement clause is taking the place of a direct object. This is common for ordinary complement clauses.  Certain verbs, which your text goes into in detail, allow this.
 * Noun --- In a noun complement clause construction, the complement clause occurs after a noun. The number of nouns that can be used in this construction is limited.  Some examples are 'the fact', 'the rumor', 'the suggestion', 'the idea', etc.
 * Adjective --- In an adjective complement clause construction the clause occurs after an adjective.

The Relative Clause
A relative clause--also called an adjective or adjectival clause--will meet three requirements. First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns:

Relative Pronoun [or Relative Adverb] +  Subject  +  Verb  =   Incomplete Thought

Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] +  Verb  =  Incomplete Thought

Examples

 * Simple sentence
 * One independent clause with no subordinate clauses. It does not contain more than one full sentence pattern.
 * Without love, life would be empty.
 * This sentence contains a subject (life), a verb (would be) and 2 types of modifiers (Without love and empty).

 * Compound sentence
 * Composed of two or more independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. The two clauses are usually joined by a comma and a conjunction or a semicolon.
 * Together we stand, but united we fall.
 * This sentence contains 2 clauses which are joined by "but".

 * Complex sentence
 * Composed of one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
 * They that sow in tears shall reap in joy.
 * "that sow in tears" is the subordinate clause.

 * Compound-complex sentence
 * Contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
 * Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.
 * This sentence contains two independent clauses (one before and one after the comma) and each independent clause contains a subordinate clause ("what you eat" and "what you are").

Sentence Purpose

 * Declarative sentence - used to make a statement
 * My dog barks at everything.

 * Imperative sentence - used to make a request or demand
 * Give me that.

 * Interrogative sentence - used to ask a question
 * What are you doing?

 * Exclamatory sentence - used to make an exclamation
 * I don't want that!


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Feminism/Philosophers

History of Feminist Philosophy
The very beginnings of Western philosophy have included discussions about the status of women. Plato spoke of women's roles in The Republic. He claimed that while there are some obvious physical differences between men and women, there are some women that are taller, stronger, etc. than most men. Furthermore, Plato claimed that there are no differences between men and women's ability to understand reality and make reasonable judgements about it.

Conversely, Plato's student, Aristotle held a very low opinion of women. Aristotle in his work, Politics claims that women ought to be treated as property. Furthermore, the best a woman can achieve is to rear a fine family.

Topics of Interest to Feminist Philosophers
Feminism within philosophy is a very large field; the topic encompasses most, if not all, disciplines that philosophy covers. Feminists have an interest in subjects ranging from Aesthetics to the Philosophy of Religion, thus it would be dishonest to say that Feminist philosophers study one particular subject or intersection. We can, however, safely say that Feminist philosophers are interested in how gender, race and class (among other things) affect and are affected by philosophy.

Below is a general list of topics that have prominent Feminist interest.

title: Feminism/Philosophers


text:
Radiation Oncology/NHL/Specific sites

Primary CNS Lymphoma

 * Please see Primary CNS Lymphoma for detailed information

Orbit
Eye and Orbital Lymphoma
 * U.Florida; 1999 (1969-1995)
 * PMID 10219791 -- "Radiotherapy in the management of orbital lymphoma." (Bolek TW, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999 Apr 1;44(1):31-6.)
 * 38 pts; 20 pts treated with curative intent, 18 with palliation. No chemotherapy. RT with cobalt or kilovoltage x-ray. Median dose 25 Gy (median dose/fraction 1.67 Gy)
 * LC in 37 of 38 pts. Curative treatment: 5-yr CSS 89% (low grade) and 33% (int/high grade).
 * Cataract formation in 7 of 21 pts treated without lens shielding; 0 of 17 pts with lens shielding.
 * Conclusion: "Radiotherapy is a safe and effective local treatment in the management of orbital lymphoma."

 * MGH; 1990 (1979-1988)
 * PMID 2118492 -- "Conjunctival lymphoma: results and treatment with a single anterior electron field. A lens sparing approach." (Dunbar SF, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990 Aug;19(2):249-57.)
 * 12 pts. Treated with 6-9 MeV electron beam, dose 24-30 Gy (median 30 Gy; median 250 cGy x 12 fractions)
 * LC in all pts at f/u of 0.5-9.5 yrs.

Skin

 * ''Please see Mycosis fungoides for T-cell lymphoma or Cutaneous B-cell lymphoma

Thyroid

 * See page at Thyroid lymphoma

Waldeyer's Ring

 * See anatomic description at Radiation_Oncology/Hodgkin/Overview; traditional RT fields at Radiation_Oncology/Hodgkin/Overview

Waldeyer's ring includes the tonsil, nasopharynx, and base of tongue.

 * Mexico (1981-91) — 1996 - Treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of Waldeyer's ring: radiotherapy versus chemotherapy versus combined therapy. (Aviles A, Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1996 Jan;32B(1):19-23.)
 * 316 pts. Phase III. Stage I NHL of Waldeyer's ring. Randomized to extended-field RT alone, chemotherapy alone (CHOP or CHOP-like), or combined therapy with chemo + RT.
 * Median f/u 6.8 yrs. CR in 93%, 87%, 97%. 5-yr FFS 48%, 45%, 83% (SS); OS 56%, 58%, 90% (SS).
 * Conclusion: improved results with combined chemo+RT.

GI tract
GI lymphomas account for 4-12% of all NHL and 1-4% of GI tumors. 20-40% involve the small bowel. There is a subtype called enteropathy-type intestinal T-cell lymphoma.

Stomach

 * Italy; 2009 (1998-2004) PMID 19479614 -- "Early stage gastric diffuse large B-cell lymphomas: results of a randomised trial comparing chemotherapy alone versus chemotherapy + involved field radiotherapy." (Martinelli G, Leuk Lymphoma. 2009 May 19:1-7.)
 * Randomized. 54 patients, DLBCL gastric lymphoma. Antracycline-containing chemo x4-6 cycles. Those in CR (83%) randomized to Arm 1) IFRT vs Arm 2) 2 additional cycles of chemo
 * Outcome: LR RT significantly better. OS no difference
 * Conclusion: IFRT able to prevent local relapse

 * MSKCC, 2005 - PMID 15936555 — "Radiation treatment planning techniques for lymphoma of the stomach." Della Biancia C et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Jul 1;62(3):745-51.
 * Comparison of AP/PA vs 3D-CRT vs IMRT for different relationships of the target volume and kidneys.

Primary Mediastinal Large B-Cell Lymphoma (PMBCL)

 * ''Please see DLBCL/PMLBCL section for background information

Chemotherapy regimens: DA-EPOCH-R, MACOP-B, VACOP-B, NHL-15, R-CHOP

Treatments:

 * Dunleavy, 2012 (NCI) PMID 23574119 -- "Dose-adjusted EPOCH-rituximab therapy in primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma." (N Engl J Med. 2013 Apr 11;368(15):1408-16)
 * Phase 2 prospective prospective study of infusional dose-adjusted etoposide, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide with vincristine, prednisone, and rituximab (DA-EPOCH-R) and filgrastim without radiotherapy in 51 patients with untreated primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma.
 * Outcome: The patients had a median age of 30 years (range, 19 to 52) and a median tumor diameter of 11 cm; 59% were women. During a median of 5 years of follow-up, the event-free survival rate was 93%, and the overall survival rate was 97%. Among the 16 patients who were involved in the retrospective analysis at another center, over a median of 3 years of follow-up, the event-free survival rate was 100%, and no patients received radiotherapy. No late morbidity or cardiac toxic effects were found in any patients. After follow-up ranging from 10 months to 14 years, all but 2 of the 51 patients (4%) who received DA-EPOCH-R alone were in complete remission. The 2 remaining patients received radiotherapy and were disease-free at follow-up.
 * Conclusion: Therapy with DA-EPOCH-R obviated the need for radiotherapy in patients with primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma.

 * Padova, 2007 (Italy) PMID 17379431 -- "Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: results of intensive chemotherapy regimens (MACOP-B/VACOP-B) plus involved field radiotherapy on 53 patients. A single institution experience." (Mazzarotto R, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Jul 1;68(3):823-9.)
 * Retrospective. 53 consecutive patients with PMLBCL (90% Stage I-II) treated with induction ProMACE-MOPP (n=2), MACOP-B (n=11), and VACOP-B (n=40), followed by IFRT. RT started 3-4 after chemo, modified mantle and SCV if involved at diagnosis. Dose 30.6/17 - 39.6/22 (mean 36/20). Treatment completed in 80%. Median F/U 7.8 years
 * Outcome: 5-year OS 93%, DFS 87%. Response after chemo: CR 38%, PR 57%. If PR, 92% obtained CR after IFRT
 * Conclusion: Intensive chemo + IFRT efficacious; IFRT plays a pivotal role in inducing CR

 * Verona, 2004 (Italy)(1982-1999) PMID 14735179 -- "Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMLBCL): long-term results from a retrospective multicentre Italian experience in 138 patients treated with CHOP or MACOP-B/VACOP-B." (Todeschini G, Br J Cancer. 2004 Jan 26;90(2):372-6.)
 * Retrospective. 13 Italian centers. 138 patients with PMLBCL treated with CHOP (n=43) or MACOP-B/VACOP-B (n=95). 76% patients in CR received IFRT
 * Outcome: CR CHOP 51% vs. MACOP-B/VACOP-B 80% (SS); EFS 40% vs. 76% (SS). IFRT improved outcome, irrespective of chemo
 * Conclusion: MACOP-B/VACOP-B better than CHOP; consolidation IFRT improves outcome in CR patients

Clinicopathologic Studies:
 * Nebraska - PMID 10071267, 1999 -- "Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: a clinicopathologic study of 43 patients from the Nebraska Lymphoma Study Group." (Abou-Elella AA, J Clin Oncol. 1999 Mar;17(3):784-90.)
 * Conclusion: The clinical features of PMLBL do not appear to be significantly different from those of nonmediastinal DLBL. Younger median age of 42 yrs is much less than median age for nonmediastinal DLBL.

Reviews:
 * Savage, 2006 - PMID 16720849, 2006 — "Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma." Savage KJ. Oncologist. 2006 May;11(5):488-95.

Testicular

 * International Extranodal Lymphoma Study Group 10 [IELSG-10] - Phase II - R-CHOP, IT-MTX, RT to contralateral testis
 * Multinational. 53 pts, Stage I-II primary testicular lymphoma. R-CHOP21 x 6-8, 4 doses of intrathecal MTX, RT 30 Gy to the contralateral testis (for all pts). RT 30-36 Gy given to the pelvis for Stage II.
 * 2011 PMID: 21646602-- "First-Line Treatment for Primary Testicular Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma With Rituximab-CHOP, CNS Prophylaxis, and Contralateral Testis Irradiation: Final Results of an International Phase II Trial." (Vitolo U, JCO online before print June 6, 2011.)
 * Median f/u 65 mo. All pts received R-CHOP, 50 received CNS prophylaxis, 47 received testicular RT. 5-yr PFS 74% and OS 85%. 10 pts with relapses: 2 in LNs, 5 in extranodal organs, 3 in CNS. 5-yr CNS relapse rate 6%. No contralateral testis relapses. 10 pts died (6 from lymphoma).
 * Conclusion: Good outcome for PTL with chemotherapy with CNS prophylaxis and RT to the contralateral testis. CNS prophylaxis deserves further investigation.

Primary Bone Lymphoma

 * MD Anderson, 2015 (1988-2013) PMID 25754633 -- "Benefit of consolidative radiation therapy for primary bone diffuse large B-cell lymphoma." (Tao R, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2015 May 1;92(1):122-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2015.01.014. Epub 2015 Mar 5.)
 * Retrospective. 102 patient, primary DLBCL. Median age 55. R-CHOP in 63%; Rituximab in 72%. RT in 66% (n=67). Stage I-II in 70%. Median dose 44 Gy (24 - 50). Median F/U 6.8 years
 * Outcome: 5-year PFS 80%; OS 82%. RT improved PFS (RT 88% vs no RT 63%, SS) and improved OS (91% vs 68%, SS). No difference between dose <36 Gy vs >= 36 Gy
 * Conclusion: Patient treated with chemotherapy and RT can have excellent outcomes

 * Rare Cancer Network; 2012 (1987-2008) PMID 22079728 -- "Early-Stage Primary Bone Lymphoma: A Retrospective, Multicenter Rare Cancer Network (RCN) Study." (Cai L, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2012 May 1;83(1):284-91.) -- Median f/u 41 m.
 * Multi-institutional. 116 pts, Stages I-II (I-80%, II-20%). Pathology was re-classified using the WHO classification (DLBCL in 78%).
 * 75% received chemoradiotherapy. 88% received chemo (+/- RT). Chemo was CHOP in 68%, R-CHOP in 32%.
 * CR in 74%. LF in 10%. LC: 5-yr 92%, 10-yr 80%. OS: 5-yr 76%, 10-yr 72%. LSS (lymphoma-specific survival): 78% at 5 and 10 yrs.
 * Distant progression in 15% at a median of 7 months.
 * By RT dose: LF 12% (for <40 Gy) vs 8% (>40 Gy); NS. LF was in-field in 50%.
 * Independent prognostic features: IPI score, RT dose, CR, and chemo.
 * Conclusion: Good prognosis. Chemotherapy followed by RT is superior to rt->chemo. RT plays a role in local control. Better outcome for more than 6 chemotherapy cycles and more than 40 Gy RT.

 * Italy; 2004 (1983-2001) PMID 15183479 -- "Primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the bone: treatment and analysis of prognostic factors for Stage I and Stage II." (Barbieri E, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 Jul 1;59(3):760-4.) -- Median f/u 149 m (12 yr)
 * 77 pts with Stage I (44) or Stage II (33) primary bone lymphoma. All pts had RT to median 40 Gy; 67 pts had chemo.
 * CR in 94.8%. Relapse in 18.2% at median of 23 months. 15-yr DFS 76.6%, OS 88.3%.
 * Prognostic factors: Age <40 was the only significant factor for worse DFS.
 * Conclusion: "In PLB the CMT seems to produce a better outcome than RT alone; that still remains the best treatment for local disease control. Radiation therapy alone should be reserved for mandibular tumors, which are usually very small and earlier diagnosed."

title: Radiation Oncology/NHL/Specific sites


text:
Operating System Design/User Ability

It is important for designers of mass-market User Interfaces to keep in mind that not all users are equally computer savvy. A mass-market operating system, such as Windows, has amongst its user base both beginners, as well as experienced power-users. What makes an OS interface more user-friendly for a first-time user may not be user-friendly to a power-user. For instance, the 'Clippy' assistant in Office may be of assistance to first-time users. Yet it is often described as annoying for seasoned users of office suite software, and in many cases may detract from the usability of the software.

As a rule, operating systems meant for more advanced users have fewer graphical configuration tools, and may have more of a focus on speed than looks. As an example, Slackware Linux has virtually no configuration tools and so is seen as a power-user's operating system, while Ubuntu has most tasks automated and so is seen as a user-friendly operating system.

Nearly all operating systems, even if they have a easy-to-use GUI, also allow users to go around the GUI to hand-tweak the configuration. "It is a significant advantage to all users if advanced users can make hand-tweaked modifications to config files when serious problems arise."

Many people have the idea of making the computer present one user interface by default to new users, then later present a different "advanced user interface" to "advanced users". This is generally regarded as a well-meaning mistake.

title: Operating System Design/User Ability


text:
Radiation Oncology/NHL/NK T cell lymphoma

History
Before 2000, NK/T lymphomas were not a clearly-defined entity and were lumped together with other lymphomas of the nasal cavity.

Clinical features
NK cell has worse prognosis than B or T cell lymphoma. Nasal lymphomas in Western populations have a better prognosis than in Asian countries. This may be due to a higher proportion of NK lymphomas or EBV-associated tumors in Asia.

 * Hong Kong, 1998 - PMID 9440725 — "Primary non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of the nose and nasopharynx: clinical features, tumor immunophenotype, and treatment outcome in 113 patients." Cheung MM et al. J Clin Oncol. 1998 Jan;16(1):70-7.
 * 113 pts.

Overview
RT is recommended as the primary treatment. Consolidative CT should be considered for pts with adverse risk factors or Stage IIE disease.

Modality

 * Japan, JCOG0211 - phase I/II
 * 33 pts total; 23 pts on phase II. Stage IE-IIE. Concurrent chemo/RT with 50 Gy and DeVIC (dexamethasone, etoposide, ifosfamide, carboplatin) x 3 courses.
 * 2009 PMID 19805668 -- "Phase I/II study of concurrent chemoradiotherapy for localized nasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma: Japan Clinical Oncology Group Study JCOG0211." (Yamaguchi M, J Clin Oncol. 2009 Nov 20;27(33):5594-600.)
 * 27 pts treated to recommended dose from phase I. Median f/u 32 months. 2-yr OS 78%. (Historical control of RT alone: 45%) 77% with CR, 1 pt with PR.
 * Conclusion: chemo/RT is safe and effective

 * Korea - phase II
 * 30 pts. Stage IE-IIE. Concurrent chemo/RT with median 40 Gy and weekly cisplatin. Followed by 3 cycles of VIPD (etoposide, ifosfamide, cisplatin, dexamethasone).
 * 2009 PMID 19884539 -- "Phase II trial of concurrent radiation and weekly cisplatin followed by VIPD chemotherapy in newly diagnosed, stage IE to IIE, nasal, extranodal NK/T-Cell Lymphoma: Consortium for Improving Survival of Lymphoma study." (Kim SJ, J Clin Oncol. 2009 Dec 10;27(35):6027-32.)
 * Response rate to cisplatin+RT: 100% (73% CR, 27% PR). Overall CR rate (after VIPD): 80%.
 * 3-yr PFS 85%, OS 86%.
 * Conclusion: recommend concurrent chemo/RT

Retrospective data:
 * Hong Kong, 1995 (1975-93) - PMID 7884427 — "Treatment outcome and prognostic factors for primary nasal lymphoma." Liang R et al. J Clin Oncol. 1995 Mar;13(3):666-70.
 * Retrospective. 100 pts. Various types (many were T-cell). RT alone or chemo->RT.

 * MDACC, 1997 (1947-93) - PMID 9241082 — "Lymphoma of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses: improved outcome and altered prognostic factors with combined modality therapy." Logsdon MD et al. Cancer. 1997 Aug 1;80(3):477-88.
 * Note: per the Working Formulation, most were diffuse large cell type. Immunophenotype was not available for most patients.
 * Retrospective. 70 pts. Western population.
 * Improved FFP in those treated with CMT vs RT alone.

 * Hong Kong, 2002 (1977-2001) - PMID 12182990 — "Early stage nasal NK/T-cell lymphoma: clinical outcome, prognostic factors, and the effect of treatment modality." Cheung MM et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002 Sep 1;54(1):182-90.
 * All pts are NK/T (CD56+). 79 pts (61 chemo+RT, 18 RT alone). CR in 68.4%. Of those, 44% relapsed. 5-yr DFS 35.5%, OS 37.9%. No difference between those treated with RT alone vs combined modality.

 * South Korea, 2004 (1976-98) - PMID 15234048 — "Angiocentric T-cell and NK/T-cell lymphomas: radiotherapeutic viewpoints." Koom WS et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 Jul 15;59(4):1127-37.
 * 102 pts. RT alone to median dose of 45 Gy. 72% CR, but most of those experienced relapse, and 47% of all pts had local failure.
 * Conclusion: high local failure rate with RT alone. Plateau in dose response curve around 54 Gy.

 * China, 2005 (1983-2003) - PMID 16382127 — "Radiotherapy as primary treatment for stage IE and IIE nasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma." Li YX et al. J Clin Oncol. 2006 Jan 1;24(1):181-9.
 * Retrospective. 105 pts. Stage IE and IIE. Pts received RT alone or combined modality. Initial RT resulted in CR of 83% vs CR of 20% for initial chemotherapy. OS and PFS were similar for RT alone and CMT.
 * Conclusion: recommend RT as primary therapy. Addition of CT does not lead to improved survival.

RT dose
Doses >50 Gy are recommended.

 * Japan, Sakata - PMID 9208902 - recommend >50 Gy
 * Japan, Shikama - PMID 9240537 - recommend >50 Gy


text:
User talk:35.11.222.112

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 04:20, 27 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Please also check out the Cookbook policy page and the Cookbook talk pages.
 * Please do not just convert a normal recipe to a vegan one. I am also vegan, but this isn't an exclusively vegan cookbook. I'm going to revert your changes and leave the vegan variation in the "variations" section as it should be. Please feel free to discuss this with me on my talk page or on Talk:Cookbook.

title: User talk:35.11.222.112


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dementor

Overview
Dementors are the guards of Azkaban Prison. It is difficult to determine what their features are, because they conceal themselves completely under flowing black cloaks.

Extended Description
At its first appearance, a Dementor is described as a "cloaked figure". "Its face was completely hidden beneath its hood." When we first see it, in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, we do see a part of it: there was "a hand protruding from the cloak and it was glistening, greyish, slimy-looking, and scabbed, like something dead that had decayed in water; the thing beneath the hood, whatever it was, drew a long, slow, rattling breath, as though it were trying to suck something more than air from its surroundings."

Dementors are dark creatures that consume human happiness, creating an ambiance of coldness, darkness, misery and despair. Because of their power to drain happiness and hope from humans, they have been set the duty of being guards at Azkaban, where they prevent the prisoners from having the will or ability to escape.

This creature has the property that only wizards can see it. Muggles can still feel them, though. Its only known ability, besides the happiness drain, is the ability to perform the "Dementor's Kiss", which is the act of extracting the human soul through the mouth, leaving nothing more than a living body, without any memory, feelings, or sense of self. This process is irreversible.

They "are among the foulest creature that walk this earth. They infest the darkest, filthiest places, they glory in decay and despair, they drain peace, hope, and happiness out of the air around them. Even Muggles feel their presence, though they can't see them. Get too near a Dementor and every good feeling, every happy memory will be sucked out of you. If it can, the Dementor will feed on you long enough to reduce you to something like itself... soulless and evil. You'll be left with nothing but the worst experiences of your life," as Professor Lupin tells Harry.

The only spell we are aware of which is able to repel these creatures, is called the Patronus charm. In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, when Harry asserts that the Patronus charm is the only way to battle Dementors, Professor Snape tells him that he is wrong; but this supposed different way of tackling Dementors is never described.

Analysis
From his first exposure to them, Harry is much more sensitive to the effects of Dementors than anyone else – Harry alone, of the six people present in the train compartment, passes out when the Dementor enters to search it. Harry is very much afraid that this is a display of weakness, until just before Christmas, when he discusses the matter with Professor Lupin. Lupin explains that Harry is more deeply affected because Dementors work by extracting good memories, leaving nothing but the bad recollections, and Harry has a much grimmer history than anyone else.

In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, we find that Professor Dumbledore has managed to block the attempt to place Dementors inside the school, but cannot prevent the Ministry from positioning them outside the grounds, at all the known entry points to the school. Their stated purpose at that time is to prevent Sirius Black from entering the castle. One must wonder how the Ministry believed that would work, as Sirius had already escaped from Azkaban, and so must have some way of evading the Dementors. Possibly this is just the Ministry doing anything so that it appears to be doing something, as it so often does.

One also wonders why the Dementors would stay on as Azkaban guards, when there are so many people elsewhere in the world for them to suck emotion out of. Perhaps it was a mistake allowing so many of them to visit Hogwarts and discover exactly how thin the takings were in the prisoners at Azkaban, relative to the rest of the world. It is certainly true that they abandoned Azkaban with great alacrity in the middle of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix.

While it is never stated, there is an implication that the Dementors are a created being, rather than one that occurs naturally. The statement in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, that the Dementors are breeding, leads us to believe that they are of natural origin. Perhaps, like guard dogs, they were created from a naturally-occurring magical creature, possibly the Lethifold, by selective breeding methods, or by means of magical enhancement of the traits in which Wizards were interested.

Questions

 * 1) In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, the Minister for Magic attributes the gloominess of the weather to escaped Dementors breeding and multiplying. Why are Harry and Ron unable to recognize this?
 * 2) Harry, at one point, "found it difficult to imagine Dementors surviving for long in bright sunlight", upon realising that Sirius was hiding out in the Tropics. Might there be any truth in this?
 * 3) What might Snape be talking about when he comments that there is at least one more spell to combat Dementors?

Greater Picture
Although the Dementors leave Azkaban in the middle of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix to join Voldemort, one has to wonder, given their earlier actions, whose side they are on from the beginning.

All through Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, though the Dementors are nominally seeking Sirius Black, they seem to have fixated on Harry, to the point of trying to administer the Kiss to him rather than Sirius when both of them are trapped.

At the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, the Dementor that Cornelius Fudge has brought along with him, "for his protection," administers the Kiss to Barty Crouch Jr. before Fudge can interrogate him. If the Dementors had already allied with Voldemort, this would be sensible as it would increase the delay before Voldemort's return would be made public. Of course, the Dementor could have recognized Crouch as an escaped Azkaban inmate; however, that is unlikely, as Crouch had been replaced in Azkaban by his mother some ten years previous to our story, and the substitution had not then been noticed. As up until their official defection, Dementors seem to be always under the Ministry's control, the most probable explanation seems to be that Fudge brought the Dementor with himself for precisely this purpose (in line with this, it is Fudge personally who receives the blame for Crouch Jr.'s demise by characters like McGonagall and Dumbledore).

The two Dementors who attack Harry and Dudley near Privet Drive in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix are apparently under orders from Dolores Umbridge, or at least so she claims near the end of that book. There is some question at the time of the attack as to whether Umbridge was actually being controlled by Voldemort, as Harry's scar did later twinge at one point when she held his hand. Sirius, in conversation with Harry, dismisses that idea, though, saying that as bad as Umbridge is, the Order does not believe her to be controlled by Voldemort.

From the long sequence of things done by the Dementors that directly hinders the Wizarding world, one must conclude that they are more inclined to follow Voldemort than the good Wizards, and additionally that at the best of times, Wizarding control over the Dementors is very tenuous indeed. It may be an error to assume that Dementors are evil, however. It is more likely that they are amoral, possibly having insufficient intelligence to have any real concept of morality, and simply follow the main chance. Harry is targeted, not because he is Harry, but because he is, to Dementors, a better source of the energy they require than Sirius. Barty is attacked only because he is helpless and a suitable energy source (and perhaps on account of Fudge's personal order, which a Dementor would obviously not resist). And the only reason the Dementors choose to follow Voldemort is because he frees them from their duty to Azkaban, allowing them access to the richer pickings on the mainland.

It is a shame, perhaps, that Snape never elucidates his comment about there being a better spell to eliminate Dementors. If they are breeding, as Fudge says at the beginning of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, then they will likely need to have their numbers cut down. As it is, we don't know if there is any method of effectively doing that; the Patronus charm will repel them, but we don't know of anything that will destroy them. Of course, it would be possible, if rather labour-intensive and difficult, to herd them with Patronuses into an enclosed place, making sure that no possible prey is in that place with feelings for them to feed on. If they are then prevented from escaping by being surrounded with many Patronuses, presumably they would eventually die of hunger. We cannot speculate how many wizards would be necessary to cast the necessary number of Patronuses, of course.


text: User talk:61.213.254.113

title: User talk:61.213.254.113


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A-level Physics/Cosmology/Models of the known universe

As more sophisticated tools have been developed, our understanding of the universe has improved. Some proposed models of the universe were proven wrong, and other ideas are still with us today.

Measuring distances in the universe
The distances at the scale of the universe are gigantic, and our everyday metres and even kilometres are too small to be used. We need to use units that are more appropriate for large distances. Often, other units are convenient to use because of the way they are measured.

The light-year
One light-year is defined as the distance light travels in one year. As you know, light travels at $$3 \times 10^{8}$$ $$\text{ms}^{-1}$$, and so the distance it covers in one year is enormous. One light year is approximately $$10^{16}\text{m}$$.

The astronomical unit
The astronomical unit is defined as the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. It originates from the fact that it was possible to measure the distances of the planets, but only in multiples of the distance between the Earth and Sun. It is still useful today for distances within the solar system. It is approximately equal to $$1.5 \times 10^{11}\text{m}$$.

The parsec
One parsec is simply the reciprocal of half the angle of parallax of a star, when observed from Earth at two opposite points of its orbit. Parallax is the apparent change in position of an object against a fixed background when the position of the observer changes, like how buildings seem to move faster than background hills when you're in a car. It is convenient to find from the measured angle, and is therefore used mainly for the distances of stars. This concept is covered in more detail in Stars & Galaxies. One parsec is approximately $$3 \times 10^{16}\text{m}$$, or 3.26 light-years.

Overview of the solar system
Our solar system consists of the Sun, the planets and an asteroid belt. Additionally, there are comets that have highly elliptical orbits, and return to the solar system at regular intervals.

Planets
There are eight planets orbiting the Sun (Pluto being reclassified as a dwarf planet), which is at the centre of the solar system. Most planets also have natural satellites, or moons, orbiting them. The table below outlines the main features of the planets, relative to the Earth:

Asteroid belt
There is a concentration of small, rocky asteroids between Mars and Jupiter, which is known as the asteroid belt. There are hundreds of thousands of these planetoids orbiting the Sun, and are sometimes called minor planets.

Comets
Comets are lumps of rock, frozen water, methane and ammonia that orbit the Sun, and are typically only a few kilometres in diameter. They have very eccentric (elliptical) orbits and therefore vary greatly in their distance from the Sun. When they are near the Sun, they have long tails of approximately 1AU, due to the Sun's radiation.

The progress in the understanding of the universe
The accepted model of the Solar System has been subject to great controversy over the decades. In the old geocentric model, the Earth was originally placed in the centre of the Solar System, and had the other planets and the Sun orbiting it. Now, the accepted model places the Sun in the centre, with the Earth and other planets orbiting around it.

Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus found the old geocentric model unnecessarily complicated. Instead of having the Earth in the centre of the universe, he decided to place the Sun in the centre, which we now call the heliocentric model. This model could very easily explain the movement of the planets and the Sun across the sky, and in particular the retrograde motion of Mars, where it would appear to move "backwards" across the sky for several weeks. This retrograde motion of Mars was previously explained by epicycles where it would "loop-the-loop" around at certain points. With Copernicus' new model, it was explained that since the Earth was closer to the Sun than Mars, there will be sections where the Earth will "overtake" Mars, and will make Mars apparently move backwards across the sky.

Opposition to Copernicus
Copernicus' heliocentric model was rejected by most people mainly because of religious beliefs at the time, and although it seemed to simplify the motion of the planets, it was less accurate than the geocentric model at fitting the observed movements of the planets.

People also argued that if the Earth was moving, the stars would have a detectable parallax. Copernicus claimed that the stars were too far away to detect any parallax, and with more sensitive equipment, he has now been proved correct. Another argument against the heliocentric model was that objects all fall towards the Earth, and so it must be the centre of the universe. This was the intuitive conclusion before Newton revolutionised our ideas about motion.

Kepler
Johannes Kepler improved upon Copernicus' original model by using elliptical orbits instead of circular ones. He devised three laws of planetary motion:

Kepler's first law
Kepler found that the planets fit the observed pattern better with the heliocentric model if they travelled in ellipses, not circles, and had the Sun at one of the foci of these ellipses. Therefore Kepler's first law states:

The planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.

Kepler's second law
Now that the planets had elliptical orbits, it would not make sense for them to travel at the same speed at all points of their orbit. The planets would speed up nearer the Sun, and move slower when they were further away from the Sun. Kepler observed that the imaginary triangle formed between the planet at two points in its orbit and the Sun always had the same area provided the two points of the planets orbit had the same time difference between them. From this it follows that a planets orbit is faster nearer the Sun than further away from it. Kepler's second law states that:

The line connecting a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal amounts of time.

Kepler's third law
Kepler realised that the distance of a planet from the Sun and its orbital period were related by the formula: $$T^2 \propto d^3$$, where T is the time taken for one orbit, and d is the distance from the Sun, although it is actually the length of the semi-major axis (which is half of the longest diameter of the elipse).

The square of the orbital period is proportional to the cube of the distance from the Sun.

Galileo
Galileo Galilei was the first person to use a telescope to look at the night sky. He was able to view many things that weren't visible to the naked eye, such as the imperfectness of the surface of the moon, and the fact that there were many faint stars in the sky. Both of these supported Copernicus' ideas.

Galileo and Venus
When Galileo observed Venus with his telescope. he noticed that it went through phases, like the Moon. He also noticed that when Venus was a crescent, it was much larger than when it was full. This observation was evidence that Venus was orbiting around the Sun and not Earth.

Galileo and Jupiter's Moons
Galileo also observed four objects orbiting Jupiter, which are now known as the Galilean moons They supported the view that not everything orbits the Earth.

Newton's universal law of gravitation
When Issac Newton created his universal law of gravitation, he attempted to show that Kepler's observations of planetary motion agreed with it. This was significant evidence to show that he was correct.

Newton's law of gravitation can be used to give a formula for the planets in the form $$T^2 \propto d^3$$:

The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is equal to the centripetal force required to keep the planet in its orbit:
 * $$F=G\frac {m_1 m_2}{d^2} = \frac{m v^2}{d}$$

The period of the planets orbit can be given by:

 * $$\text{Time taken} = \frac {\text{distance}}{\text{velocity}}$$

Where the distance is the circumference of a circle, $$2 \pi \times d$$ (note that d is distance from Sun, and is therefore the radius, not the diameter). This gives us:

 * $$T = \frac{2 \pi d}{v}$$

Which we can re-arrange to make v the subject and substitute into $$v^2$$ in the centripetal force equation:

 * $$v = \frac{2 \pi d}{T}$$

 * $$v^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2 d^2}{T^2}$$

 * $$G\frac {m_1 m_2}{d^2} = \frac{4 \pi^2 m d}{T^2}$$

Eliminating m, the mass of the planet, and tidying up:

 * $$G \frac{m T^2}{4 \pi^2 d^3} = 1$$

And finally, making $$T^2$$ the subject:

 * $$T^2 = \frac{4 \pi^2}{Gm} d^3$$

We now have a formula in the form $$T^2 \propto d^3$$, with $$\frac {4 \pi^2}{Gm}$$ as the constant of proportionality, where m is the mass of the Sun.

The discovery of Neptune
In 1821, Alexis Bouvard published very accurate observations in the orbit of Uranus. However, soon after this, the orbit of Uranus was observed to deviate from the published values. In 1845 John Adams, using Newton's universal law of gravitation, calculated the orbit of another planet outside of Uranus whose gravity would account for the perturbations in Uranus' orbit. Neptune was discovered in its predicted position a year later. Pluto was discovered in a similar way, since it was causing further perturbations in the orbits of Uranus and Neptune.

Problems encountered with Newton's theory
Although Newton's theory was very successful in explaining the motion of the planets, and had even been used to discover unknown planets, there were still some problems with it:

 * The orbit of Mercury was observed to have a different orbit to the one predicted by the theory. This has now been resolved by Einstein's general theory of relativity.
 * If every object in the universe attracts each other, then the entire universe should have collapsed because of the gravitational attraction. To solve this, Newton came up with the idea that the universe was infinitely large, and that matter was uniformly spread throughout. This led to its own problems, though, namely Olber's paradox, which states that an infinitely large universe will always have a star on any given line of sight, and so the night sky should actually be bright. This has been resolved with the observations of an expanding universe by Edwin Hubble.


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Movie Making Manual/London

Shooting People is a great resource for film makers based in Britain, but mostly in London.

Film Academy a website for film makers, by filmmakers.

Mandy is another great resource for film makers.

title: Movie Making Manual/London


text: Template:High School Mathematics Extensions/Matrices/TOC


text: High School Mathematics Extensions/Matrices


text: High School Mathematics Extensions/Matrices/Linear Recurrence Relations Revisited


text: High School Mathematics Extensions/Matrices/Full


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Software Engineers Handbook/Language Dictionary/Burroughs B5700

Burroughs B5700
Assembler? What assembler? Everything was written in Algol except the very first bootstrap, which was in some kind of "pseudo-assembler".

Type
Stack-oriented.

Execution Entry Point

Registers

Interrupts

Conditional Statements

Input/Output

Indirection

Physical Structure
 The computer had a lot of blinking lights on the front of it.

Useful Commands

Tips

Web References

Books and Articles


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User:Juliusross/opentask

Here are some Open tasks :

 Requests: How to go fishing, Voice over IP, Baseball, Wine Guides, ...

Cleanup: Wikijunior Solar System, Programming:The way of the program

more...

Merge:

more...

Stubs: Euclid ...

Split up: Linux-Compendium ...

Naming convention: Intelligence Intensification, Puzzles, ...

Review Development stages: Science bookshelf, Italian, Solid Mechanics, ...

Urgent tasks: Wikijunior Solar System (would like to distribute to Katrina Evacuees) ... </li> </ul>

title: User:Juliusross/opentask


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Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/Results

 * December 2006 (Shaving – 5)
 * November 2006 (The GIMP – 5)
 * October 2006 (C Sharp Programming – 3)
 * September 2006 (William Shakespeare's Works – 5)
 * August 2006 ( – 5)
 * July 2006 (Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter – 9)
 * June 2006 (Help:Wikibooks – 6)
 * May 2006 (All bookshelves – 5)
 * April 2006 (Embedded Systems – 5)
 * March 2006 (Statistics – 6)
 * February 2006 (Medicine – 5)
 * January 2006 (Electronics – 7)
 * December 2005 (A-level Mathematics – 7)
 * November 2005 (Algebra – 3)
 * October 2005 (Art History – 4)
 * September 2005 (German – 3)
 * August 2005 (How To Build A Computer – 4)
 * July 2005 (London – 5)
 * June 2005 (Puzzles – 3)
 * May 2005 (World History – 11)