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A-level Applied Science/The Role of the Pathology Service

About this Unit
From the AQA Specification:

 You will need to produce a portfolio of evidence which considers the work undertaken by the following departments in the pathology service: biochemistry, haematology, microbiology and pathology.

You will then undertake a microbiological analysis, and either a chromatographic or electrophoresis analysis.

How you will be assessed
This unit is assessed through the work you complete for your portfolio.

The marking criteria are found in the AQA specification.

Introduction
Pathology is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. Within biology but also a branch of medicine, it means specifically the study and diagnosis of the structural and functional changes in cells, tissues and organs that underlie disease. Pathology as a field of knowledge hence forms the basis of the scientific reasoning behind the practice of medicine.

Scope of pathology
The primary goal of pathology is the study of the four main aspects of a disease:
 * Etiology: what causes the disease
 * Pathogenesis: the mechanism by which a certain etiological factor causes disease
 * Morphologic changes: the structural changes induced in the cells, tissues and organs
 * Clinical significance: the functional consequences of the morphologic changes

Pathologists' work
Because the public rarely meets pathologists, their work is not well understood. Pathology is a large and diverse field that allows a pathologist to participate in multiple areas of the field or focus their scope to a specific area.

Essential to everyday surgeries, pathologists are responsible for processing and reporting on all specimens generated during surgery. Tissue samples are taken from the submitted specimens, stained, and processed for microscopic evaluation. Microscopic examination searches for disease of any type and this information is returned to the surgeon via a pathology report.

Pathologists are also responsible for laboratory specimens. They, along with medical technologists, process specimens at medical laboratories for interpretations. In other words, when a doctor refers to a "laboratory result", they are not referring to a number generated by a black box; instead, it is the interpretation of a value by a pathologist or a technologist. It is also important to understand that a different laboratory might produce a different value on the same specimen.

Pathologists are also called upon to perform autopsies. Autopsies represent less than 5% of the workload of a typical modern pathologist. There exists a subspecialty in pathology that allows for the training of medical examiners who wish to pursue forensics.

Pathologists usually do not see patients, but do on occasion such as when performing bone marrow biopsies and aspirates or fine needle aspirations of superficial nodules. Thus, pathology is best considered a form of diagnostic medicine.

In addition to the diagnosis of disease, including cancer, and the administration of medical laboratories, pathologists often participate in the teaching of medical students (Pathology is a core course in the medical curriculum).

Pathologists express their opinion as a pathology report addressed to the doctor requesting it. Since pathologists most often communicate with other doctors, they are sometimes nicknamed "the doctor's doctor".

Pathology is often considered the most scientific branch of medicine because of the available avenues of research involving human material.

Finally, the circulation of laboratory data is a central issue in medical informatics and the current tendency towards electronic medical records.

Tools of pathology
The techniques used most often in the study of the disease process and hence diagnosis are:
 * Gross pathology: the recognition of disease based on macroscopic examination of surgical specimens generated at the time of surgery or at autopsy.
 * Histology: the microscopic study of tissues. Histopathology is the science of diagnosing diseases on the basis of the histological aspect of the diseased tissues.
 * Cytology: the study of detached cells. Cytopathology is the science of diagnosing diseases on the basis of the cytological aspects of detached cells. The most common application of this technique is the Pap smear.
 * Clinical chemistry: the gathering, detection, and reporting of an incredible array of chemical measures found by the analysis of collected body samples.
 * Immunology: the use of specific immune markers and antibodies to aid in the diagnosis of disease.
 * Flow cytometry:analysis of a process that allows for the identification of specific cells.
 * Molecular Biology techniques, like PCR and Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) are increasingly useful to diagnose diseases, especially microbiological and cancer diagnosis.

Medicine
In the United States, pathologists are medical doctors (MD) or doctors of osteopathic medicine (DO), that have completed a four year undergraduate program, four years of medical school training, and four to five years of postgraduate training in the form of a pathology residency. Training may be within two primary specialties, as recognized by the American Board of Pathology:
 * Anatomic Pathology, the science of diagnosing diseases based on the appearance, both gross and microscopic appearance of tissues.
 * Clinical Pathology, the science of diagnosing diseases based on the analysis of body fluids like blood, urine, etc.

Most pathologists seek a broad based training in both fields and thus require five years of postgraduate training known as residency. Finally, a board certification examination is required. Boarding requirements are set by the American Board of Pathology. Pathologists, like all other medical doctors, are also required to meet continuing medical education requirements.

Pathology laboratories
A pathology laboratory (medical or clinical laboratory) is a laboratory where tests are done on biological specimens in order to get information about the health of a patient.

Types of laboratory
In many countries, there are two main types of labs that process the majority of medical specimens. Hospital laboratories are attached to a hospital, and perform tests on these patients. Private (or community) laboratories receive samples from general practitioners, insurance companies, and other health clinics for analysis.

For extremely specialised tests, samples may go to an environmental science or research laboratory.

A lot of samples are sent between different labs for uncommon tests. It is more cost effective if a particular laboratory specialises in a rare test, receiving specimens (and money) from other labs, while sending away tests it cannot do.

Sample processing
Sample processing will usually start with a set of samples and a request form.

Typically a set of vacutainer tubes containing blood, or any other specimen will arrive to the laboratory in a small plastic bag, along with the form.

The form and the specimens are given a laboratory number. The specimens will usually all receive the same number, often as a sticker that can be placed on the tubes and form. Entry of requests onto a laboratory management system involves typing, or scanning (where barcodes are used) in the laboratory number, and entering the patient identification, as well as any tests requested. This allows laboratory machines, computers and staff to know what tests are pending, and also gives a place (such as a hospital department, doctor or other customer) for results to go.

. For biochemistry samples, blood is usually centrifuged and serum is separated. If the serum needs to go on more than one machine, it can be divided into separate tubes.

Many specimens end up in one or more sophisticated automated analyser, that process a fraction of the sample and return one or more "results".

Laboratory Informatics
Laboratories today are held together by a system of software programs and computers that exchange data about patients, test requests and test results, known as a laboratory information system.

This system enables hospitals and labs to send the correct test requests for each sample and keep track of individual patient or sample history, and help to guarantee a better quality of results, as well as publishing the results for doctors to check and patients to read.

See: Health informatics on Wikipedia.

Other informative sites

 * Biotechnology and Biological Sciences resources.
 * Merck manuals - Medical information online.
 * Online Biology textbook.
 * eMedicineHealth (First Aid guidance).
 * Protein electrophoresis.
 * British Medical Association A-Z of resources.
 * humpath.com
 * histopathology-india.net
 * Immunohistochemistry protocols and troubleshooting

Government Departments

 * Department of Health
 * Office of National Statistics

Health and safety

 * Guide to COSHH.
 * Health & Safety Executive.


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A-level Applied Science/The Role of the Pathology Service/Pathology

The pathology department is involved in discovering/confirming the cause of someone's death and in using tissue samples to diagnose diseases in living subjects.

=The role of the pathology department.=

Attention should be drawn to the nature of the samples being processed and the processing procedures.

Samples are fixed and sectioned on to slides, and then stained for microscopy.

Candidates could look at prepared slides back in school or college, and make comparisons of different tissue types; for example of the appearance of pathological changes in tissues.

=Types of specimens tested.=

Solid tissue, cell smears, blood samples, etc.

=What does the work involve?=

 * Histology: process solid tissue removed from the body to make slides and examine cellular detail.
 * Cytology: examine smears of cells (such as from the cervix) for evidence of cancer and other conditions.
 * Cytogenetics: involves using blood and other cells to get a karyotype. This can be helpful in prenatal diagnosis (e.g. Down's syndrome) as well as in cancer (some cancers have abnormal chromosomes).

Preparation of tissue samples for microscope slides. Recognising conditions such as atheroma and emphysema from prepared microscope slides.

The stages involved in processing specimens:

use of computers and the Data Protection Act.
 * sending and receipt of specimens
 * recording
 * sorting
 * storage
 * testing
 * recording, interpretation and dissemination of results

=Anatomic pathology=

Anatomic pathology is the branch of pathology that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based on the gross and microscopic examination of cells and tissues. The father of the modern Anatomical pathology is the Italian Giovanni Battista Morgagni.

Anatomic Pathology (AP) is one of the two primary certifications offered by the American Board of Pathology. The other is Clinical Pathology (CP).

Role of the anatomic pathologist
Contrary to popular belief, the field mostly concerns the study of tissue obtained from live patients. In fact, almost all tissues removed from a patient for any reason are examined by a pathologist. The autopsy, though, remains an important tool in gaining medical knowledge.

Biopsy specimens are small pieces of tissue. Biopsy of a tumour is helpful when its nature is uncertain. Histological examination of the tumour biopsy usually allows the pathologist to determine if the tumour is benign or malignant, and differentiate between different types of cancer. This information is important for accurate estimation of the prognosis and choice of the best therapy. Biopsies can also be used to diagnose diseases other than cancer. For example, the dermatopathologist sees many skin biopsies from rashes and other inflammatory skin diseases, taken by dermatologists when the nature of the disease is not evident. Stomach and colon biopsies are also taken to help diagnose inflammatory or infectious diseases of the digestive tract.

In contrast to a biopsy that merely samples a lesion, an excision (or resection) specimen is the complete removal of the tumour or diseased organ by a surgeon. For example, a mastectomy specimen contains the whole breast tissue, overlying skin and adjacent lymph nodes. On excision specimens, the pathologist will comment on surgical margins to estimate the likelihood that the tumour was completely excised during the surgery.

The opinion of the pathologist is written as a pathology report addressed to the doctor who performed the procedure.

Procedures
The procedures used in anatomic pathology include:
 * Gross pathology, the examination of diseased tissues with the naked eye. This is important especially for large tissue fragments, because the disease can often be visually identified. It is also at this step that the pathologist selects the part that will be processed for histopathology.
 * Histopathology is the microscopic examination of stained tissue sections using histological techniques. The standard stains are haematoxylin and eosin but many others exist. The science of staining tissues sections is called histochemistry. Antibodies can also be used to stain specific proteins, a technique called immunohistochemistry. Specific DNA and RNA molecules can be identified on sections using the technique of ‘’in situ’’ hybridization. When the probe is labelled with fluorescent dye, the technique is called Fluorescent ‘’in situ’’ hybridisation (FISH).
 * Cytopathology is the examination of loose cells spread and stained on glass slides using cytology techniques.
 * Electron microscopy is used to identify organelles within the cells. Its usefulness has been greatly reduced by immunhistochemistry but it is still irreplaceable for the diagnosis of kidney disease, identification of immotile cilia syndrome and many other tasks.
 * Tissue cytogenetics can identify genetics defects, like chromosomal translocation.
 * Flow immunophenotyping is the determination of the immunophenotype of cells using flow cytometry techniques. It is very useful to diagnose the different types of leukaemia and lymphoma.

Subspecialties
Doctors turn to pathologists for help when the diagnosis is not evident. Therefore, pathologists are expected to know many more diseases than clinicians - they are the "doctor's doctor". The amount of knowledge needed is enormous. Since one person cannot possibly know everything, pathologists tend to sub-specialize. The American Board of Pathology certifies anatomic pathologists, and recognizes the following secondary specialties of Anatomic Pathology: Neuropathology, Cytopathology, Dermatopathology, Forensic pathology, Hematology. Here is a (probably incomplete) list of the commonly recognized subspecialties, including those which do not have subspecialty boards:
 * Surgical pathology: diagnosis of diseases in organs removed by general surgeons, especially breast, lung, bowel. This is the core of anatomic pathology. Most of these organs are covered by sub-subspecialties:
 * Gastrointestinal pathology: diagnosis of bowel diseases from biopsies taken by a gastroenterologist. One of its sub-subspecialty is hepatopathology, the diagnosis of liver diseases based on liver biopsy.
 * Uropathology, including diseases of the urinary tract and the male genital tract
 * Cardiac pathology
 * Pulmonary pathology
 * Endocrine pathology
 * Gynaecologic Pathology, including diseases of the female genital tract and the placenta
 * soft tissue pathology and orthopaedic pathology
 * E.N.T. Pathology
 * Neuropathology: diagnosis of diseases from tissues removed by neurosurgeons. Neuropathologists also examine whole brains and spinal cords removed at autopsy. Additionally, neuropathologists are called upon to interpret muscle and peripheral nerve biopsies. And, at many institutions, they are called upon to examine eyeball specimens from patients who have undergone ocular exenteration.
 * Dermatopathology: diagnosis of skin diseases from the histological examination of skin biopsies taken by a dermatologist.
 * Ophthalmic pathology
 * Haematopathology
 * Nephropathology
 * Paediatric pathology and its sub-subspecialty neonatal pathology
 * Immunopathology
 * Cytopathology
 * Forensic pathology

Oral & Maxillofacial pathology is different; the American Board of Oral and maxillofacial pathology certifies dentistry doctors, not medical doctors, to practice this sub-specialty of Pathology.

Histopathology
Histopathology is a field of pathology which specialises in the histologic study of diseased tissue. It is an important tool of anatomical pathology and is used for accurate diagnosis of cancer and other diseases.

Collection of tissues
Histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy or autopsy. The tissue is removed, and then placed in a fixative which stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is formalin (10% formaldehyde in water).

Preparation for histology
The tissue is then prepared using histology procedures for viewing under a microscope. Briefly, the samples are transferred to a cassette, a container designed to allow reagents to freely act on the tissue inside. This cassette is immersed in multiple baths of progressively more concentrated ethanol, to dehydrate the tissue, followed by toluene or xylene, and finally hot liquid paraffin. During this 12 to 16 hour process, paraffin will replace the water in the tissue, turning soft, moist tissues into a sample miscible with paraffin, a type of wax. This process is known as tissue processing.

The processed tissue is then taken out of the cassette and set in a mould. Through this process of embedding, additional paraffin is added to create a paraffin block which is attached to the outside of the cassette.

The process of embedding then allows the sectioning of tissues into very thin (2 - 7 micrometer) sections using a microtome. The microtome slices the tissue ready for microscopic examination. The slices are thinner than the average cell, and are layered on a glass slide for staining.

To see the tissue under a microscope, the sections are stained with one or more pigments. The aim of staining is to reveal cellular components, counterstains are used to provide contrast.

The most commonly used stain in histopathology is a combination of haematoxylin and eosin. Haematoxylin is used to stain cell nuclei blue, while eosin stains cytoplasm and the extracellular connective tissue matrix pink. There are hundreds of various other techniques which have been used to selectively stain cells. Other compounds used to colour tissue sections include safranin, oil red o, Congo red, silver salts and artificial dyes. Histochemistry refers to the science of using chemical reactions between laboratory chemicals and components within tissue. A commonly performed histochemical technique is the Perls Prussian Blue reaction, used to demonstrate iron deposits in diseases like Haemochromatosis.

Recently, antibodies are used to stain specific proteins,lipids and carbohydrates: this is called immunohistochemistry. This technique has greatly increased the ability to specifically identify categories of cells under a microscope. Other advanced techniques include in situ hybridization to identify specific DNA or RNA molecules. Digital cameras are increasingly used to capture histopathological images.

Interpretation
The histological slides are examined under a microscope by a pathologist, a medically qualified specialist. The diagnosis is formulated as a pathology report describing the histological findings and the opinion of the pathologist. In the case of cancer, this represents the tissue diagnosis required for most treatment protocols.

Atheroma
An atheroma (plural: atheromata) is an abnormal inflammatory accumulation of macrophage white blood cells within the walls of arteries. These anatomic lesions typically begin in later childhood, well before age 10, and progress over time. Veins do not develop atheromata, unless surgically moved to function as an artery, as in bypass surgery. The accumulation is always between the endothelium lining and the smooth muscle wall of the arterial tube. While the early stages, based on gross appearance, have traditionally been termed fatty streaks by pathologists, they are not composed of fat, i.e. adipose cells. In the context of heart or artery matters, atheroma are commonly referred to as "plaque."

Collectively, the process of atheroma development within an individual is called atherogenesis and the overall result of the disease process is termed atherosclerosis.

Stages
In humans, atheroma usually begin in later childhood, about ages 5–9, as fatty streaks. These, and older, larger atheroma lesions have long been observed in autopsy examinations of people who have died for unrelated reasons; they are so common, more so with increasing age, they were long considered normal, even though clearly unhealthy.

More advanced atheroma develop multiple different internal tissue characteristics within the same atheroma. By light microscopy visualisation, pathologists have characterized as many as 10 different tissue subtypes within a single advanced atheroma. Generally, these range from collections of macrophage cells, always the initiating cells in the newest sections of atheroma, to more complex structures including living cells, cellular debris of cells which have died and extracellular deposits of fibrous tissue & calcified crystals, within the oldest, outermost portions of atheroma structures.

Atheroma typically progress silently for decades and remain undetected by most clinical diagnostic approaches, including cardiac stress testing and angiography. Eventually, their presence is revealed by disastrous clinical events and permanent disability, such as heart attack or stroke, with the majority of people assuming they were healthy until finally proven otherwise by events. For some individuals, warning symptoms do occur before the onset of major debility or death, however these are the minority.

Historically physicians, who are trained to treat symptoms and avoid treatment before onset of clear enough symptoms and physical abnormalities, have just considered the processes a normal part of ageing, even though unhealthy.

Emphysema
Emphysema is a chronic lung disease. It is often caused by exposure to toxic chemicals or long-term exposure to tobacco smoke.

Signs and symptoms
Emphysema is characterised by loss of elasticity of the lung tissue; destruction of structures supporting the alveoli; and destruction of capillaries feeding the alveoli. The result is that the small airways collapse during expiration, leading to an obstructive form of lung disease (air is trapped in the lungs in obstructive lung diseases). Symptoms are: shortness of breath on exertion—particularly when climbing stairs or inclines (and later at rest), hyperventilation and an expanded chest.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is by spirometry (lung function testing), including diffusion testing. Other investigations might include X-rays, high resolution spiral chest CT-scan, bronchoscopy (when other lung disease is suspected, including malignancy), blood tests, pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas sampling.

Pathophysiology
The scientific definition of emphysema is:
 * "Permanent destructive enlargement of the airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles without obvious fibrosis".

Hence, the definite diagnosis is made by a pathologist. However, we can easily ascertain clinical diagnosis by history, clinical examination, chest radiography and lung function tests.

In normal breathing, air is drawn in through the bronchial passage]s and down into the increasingly fine network of tubing in the lungs called the alveoli, which are many thousands of tiny sacs surrounded by capillaries. These absorb the oxygen] and transfer it into the blood.

When toxins such as smoke are breathed into the lungs, the particles are trapped by the hairs and cannot be exhaled, leading to a localised inflammatory response. Chemicals released during the inflammatory response (trypsin, elastase, etc.) begin to break down the walls of alveoli (alveolar septum). This leads to fewer but larger alveoli, with a decreased surface area and a decreased ability to take up oxygen and lose carbon dioxide.

After a prolonged period, hyperventilation becomes inadequate to maintain high enough oxygen levels in the blood, and the body compensates by vasoconstricting appropriate vessels. This leads to pulmonary hypertension. This leads to enlargement and increased strain on the right side of the heart, which in turn leads to peripheral oedema (swelling of the peripherals) as blood gets backed up in the systemic circulation, causing fluid to leave the circulatory system and accumulate in the tissues.

Associations
Emphysema is commonly associated with bronchitis and chronic bronchitis and as it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Prognosis and treatment
Emphysema is an irreversible degenerative condition. The most important measure that can be taken to slow the progression of emphysema is for the patient to stop smoking and avoid all exposure to cigarette smoke and lung irritants. Pulmonary rehabilitation can be very helpful to optimize the patient's quality of life and teach the patient how to actively manage his or her care.

It is treated by supporting the breathing with anticholinergics, bronchodilators and (inhaled or oral) steroid medication, and supplemental oxygen as required. Treating the patient's other conditions including gastric reflux and allergies may also help the patient's lung function. Supplemental oxygen used as prescribed (20+ hours/day) is the only non-surgical treatment which has been shown to prolong life in emphysema patients. Other medications are being researched. There are lightweight portable oxygen systems which allow patients increasing mobility. Patients fly, cruise, and work while using supplemental oxygen.

The only known 'cure' for emphysema is a lung transplant, although not many patients are strong enough physically to survive the surgery. The combination of patient's age, oxygen deprivation and the side-effects of the medications used to treat emphysema cause damage to the kidneys, heart and other bodily organs. Transplants also require the patient to take an anti-rejection drug regimen which suppresses immunities and creates new medical issues.

=Health and safety.=

 * health & safety related to the tests undertaken
 * legislation

=See also=
 * Histology
 * Pathology
 * Anatomical pathology
 * Biopsy
 * Frozen section procedure
 * Clinical pathology
 * Forensic pathology
 * Molecular pathology
 * Veterinary pathology

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:89.166.144.103

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it. --hagindaz 15:19, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:89.166.144.103


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Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Every Material Known to Man/Water

Water (sea, lake, river, etc.) by: Delorayn


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Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Facilitator

 Anti-stuttering technology: DAF, MAF (white noise), metronome, looping playback Portable Monaural (one ear) or binaural (two ears) Frequency range: 70–7800 Hz Website: http://www.kayelemetrics.com Price: US$995?

Personal Experiences Using Facilitator
Please read Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/How to Participate in this Wikibook before adding material.


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History of Opera

Introduction

 * /What is Opera?/

Early Opera

 * /Pre-Florentine Camerata/
 * /Florentine Camerata and Contemporaries/

Baroque

 * /Early Baroque/ (Monteverdi, Vivaldi, etc)
 * /Handel/

Classical-Romantic

 * /Gluck/
 * /Mozart/
 * /Contemporaries of Mozart/
 * /Beethoven/

Italian

 * /Bel Canto/
 * /Rossini/
 * /Donizetti/
 * /Bellini/
 * /Verdi/
 * /Puccini/
 * /Verismo/
 * /Mascagni/
 * /Leoncavallo/

French

 * /Early French/
 * /Bizet/
 * /Gounod/
 * /Offenbach/
 * /Debussy/

German

 * /Early German Opera/
 * /German Operetta/
 * /Wagner/
 * /Strauss/
 * /Korngold/
 * /Berg/
 * /Schonberg/
 * /Weill/

title: History of Opera


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Talk:Movie Making Manual/Sound Recording

"If you are recording or mixing for TV nothing should peak over 7ppm (-6dB). And those peaks should last a minimal amount of time." So the duration of nothing should be minimal, good thing!


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User:Mirrakor

Well here I'am.

Mirrakor, in reallife known as Michael S. exchange wikipedian from Germany ;)

Hope we'll have some fun here, even if my english isn't perfekt (feel free to edit :P )

Some things which could descripe me a bit:

 * German (yeah.. I know, but I can't change my place of birth - just the Wikipedia in which i write ;D )
 * SNES-Freak
 * Malteser (German aid organization)
 * paramedic (Well, not the same system like in England/America)
 * Linux User
 * friendly :D :)

title: User:Mirrakor


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Bartending/Techniques/Shaken cocktails

Traditional Techniques
Shaken cocktails are similar to stirred cocktails, but have the obvious difference of using a shaking motion to combine the ingredients. Drink components are poured over ice into either a cocktail shaker or a Boston Shaker. The vessel is covered, vigorously shaken, and the resulting mixture is strained into a glass of appropriate size and shape. When preparing cocktails that contain syrups, fruit juices, or dairy (including eggs), shaking is generally preferred over stirring, as the violent action will better combine these ingredients.

Some drinkers will prefer to order a cocktail that is shaken regardless of the ingredients, the assumption being that this will result in a smoother, colder beverage. James Bond popularized the idea of a shaken cocktail on screen when he ordered a "Martini. Shaken, not stirred." Some drinkers believe that shaking cocktails will "bruise" the ingredients, meaning the liquor will be overly diluted, resulting in a flat, watery taste.

title: Bartending/Techniques/Shaken cocktails


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Cookbook talk:Beef and Barley Stew

I see two variations for how to cook this. As I'm a brand-new cook I'd like to know which to try... Would people please indicate differences when adding contrasting methods? In this case seems like the difference is centered around how long the various vegitables cook, with vegitables being added all at once in one and at different times in the other. Still, it is the most attractive looking recipe for beef stew I've found searching online, since I am looking for something simple, easy, low prep etc but also potentially well worth cooking in terms of flavor. Thank you --Fitzhugh 22:10, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Something's wrong - parts of 2 recipes here
The second "recipe" (under "procedure") doesn't include a list of ingredients. It's not the same as the first - the second mentions bay leaf, but the first does not. What up? Jessicapierce 03:11, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Beef and Barley Stew


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C++ Programming/Code/Cross-Platform

Cross-Platform development
The section is to introduce programmer to programming with the aim of portability across several OSs environments. In today’s world it does not seem appropriate to constrain applications to a single operating system or computer platform, and there is an increasing need to address programming in a cross platform manner.

title: C++ Programming/Code/Cross-Platform


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Talk:Using an Abacus/Addition and Subtraction Exercises

I just wanted to suggest a spelling correction, to subtraction in the title, How To Use An Abacus/Addition and Substraction Exercises.


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Practical Electronics/Logic/Boolean Arithmetic

Boolean algebra (named after the mathematician George Boole) is a form of arithmetic that deals solely in ones and zeroes. It has only three operators: addition, multiplication and negation. As we shall see these correspond to OR, AND and NOT respectively.

XOR is sometimes included for convenience, and we shall see how in the XOR section.

Variables are written as capital letters, unlike "real" algebra, where lowercase ones can be used.

This page is not concerned with the identities and properties of Boolean operators beyond that of the equivalence to the logic functions. These properties are discussed on the Boolean Identities page.

Negative Numbers, Subtraction and Division
As 1 and 0 are the only permissible numbers in Boolean algebra, there can be no negative numbers.

This means that there is no subtraction, as 0-1 is the same as 0+(-1). -1 is not an allowed number, so the concept of subtraction is meaningless in Boolean algebra.

As division is just a variation on subtraction, just as multiplication is a variation on addition, division is also meaningless in Boolean algebra.

Addition
Consider the following sums:

 * $$0+0=0\,$$
 * $$0+1=1\,$$
 * $$1+0=1\,$$
 * $$1+1=1\,$$

The first three make sense, as the same holds true for real algebra. The fourth statement, however, is different as it goes against real arithmetic. 2 is not allowed in Boolean algebra so it cannot be the answer, and 1+1 is definitely not equal to 0, so the answer must be 1.

If we display the above equations in a table as on the left, it is clear that the Boolean addition operator is equivalent to the logical OR. This is why the logic OR operator has a plus sign as its symbol:

 * $$A\mbox{ OR }B = A + B\,$$

Multiplication
Consider the following equations:

 * $$0 \times 0=0\,$$
 * $$0 \times 1=0\,$$
 * $$1 \times 0=0\,$$
 * $$1 \times 1=1\,$$

As you can see, multiplication behaves in exactly the same way with Boolean algebra as it does in real arithmetic: anything multiplied by zero becomes zero, and anything multiplied by one stays the same.

You should be able to see that the multiplication operator has exactly the same effect as the logical AND operator, and this is why the AND function is represented by multiplication:

 * $$A\mbox{ AND }B = A \cdot B =AB\,$$

Complementation
Because there are only two numbers in Boolean algebra, if we know the value of a variable, then we automatically know the value of the number that it isn't. This number is the complement of the variable. Thus 0 is the complement of 1 and 1 is the complement of 0. A complement of a variable is written as the variable with a line over it:

 * $$\mbox{Complement of A}=\overline A$$

If a line cannot be drawn over the variable, as in text like this, then a "¬" symbol is used before the variable. This should not be used if a line can be drawn over the variable. Sometimes, a "prime" symbol (') is placed after it, but this should never be used.

Complementation is equivalent to a logical NOT.

NOR and NAND
These two logic functions are made up of the complement of their respective underlying functions:

 * $$A\mbox{ NAND }B = \overline{A \cdot B}\,$$

 * $$A\mbox{ NOR }B = \overline {A + B}\,$$

XOR and XNOR
XOR cannot be represented as a simple Boolean function such as addition or multiplication, and as such, it is not directly supported by Boolean algebra. Nevertheless, it does have a symbol - a plus sign in a circle.

 * $$A\mbox{ XOR }B =A \oplus B\,$$

The XNOR function is given as:

 * $$A\mbox{ XNOR }B =\overline{A \oplus B}\,$$

As the rules and identities of Boolean algebra do not apply to this invented function, when writing and simplifying logical statements, the following equivalent substitution is used:

 * $$A \oplus B=\bar A B + A \bar B$$.

It is easy to see how this substitution works. The XOR function gives a high output if one and only one of the inputs is high. In this case, the complement of one input is equal to the other input. When the inputs are the same (i.e. the XOR function returns a low), one input and the complement of the other will be different. Therefore, by ANDing the first input and the second's complement, and ANDing the first's complement and the second input, we will always have a high at the output of one of the AND gates when only one input is high. BY ORing these two together, we get a high at the final output if either one is high and the other one is low.

This uses one of the alternative gate arrangements shown here.

XNOR can be substituted as:
 * $$\overline{A \oplus B}=\overline{\bar A B + A \bar B}$$.

Summary

 * Boolean addition is equivalent to a logical OR.
 * Boolean multiplication is equivalent to a logical AND.
 * Boolean complementation is equivalent to a logical NOT.

 * XOR has its own special symbol as it is not directly included in the framework of Boolean algebra.


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User:$traight-$hoota/monobook.css

/* */    font-family: "Verdana"; } /* */
 * 1) content {

title: User:$traight-$hoota/monobook.css


text:
User:Ades3~enwikibooks

MapleStory/Monsters

MapleStory

title: User:Ades3~enwikibooks


text:
Civ/Civilization III/Patch History

Patches are reliable. Final Versions of Game do not need these patch and the patches themselves will not permit installation.

title: Civ/Civilization III/Patch History


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Amodif

This is really confusing. If I figure it out, and have time, I will edit. All I want to do is add different meshes to different bones in the same armature.

I can't understand this either. It might make sense to someone who already knows what they are doing, but if you don't it's nearly incomprehensible.

= Versions = old way and new way does not help much. I guess few ppl, if any continues to use the older version of Blender anyway -- and if this book is for noobs like myself; knowing old version method does not help at all.


text:
Statistics/Distributions/F

F Distribution
Named after Sir Ronald Fisher, who developed the F distribution for use in determining ANOVA critical values. The cutoff values in an F table are found using three variables- ANOVA numerator degrees of freedom, ANOVA denominator degrees of freedom, and significance level.

ANOVA is an abbreviation of analysis of variance. It compares the size of the variance between two different samples. This is done by dividing the larger variance over the smaller variance. The formula of the F statistic is:

$$ F(r_1, r_2) = \frac{\chi_{r_1} ^2 /r_1}{\chi_{r_2} ^2 /r_2} $$

where $$ \chi_{r_1}^2 $$ and $$ \chi_{r_2}^2$$ are the chi-square statistics of sample one and two respectively, and $$ r_1 $$ and $$ r_2 $$ are their degrees of freedom, i.e. the number of observations.

One example could be if you want to compare apples that look alike but are from different trees and have different sizes. You want to investigate whether they have the same variance of the weight on average.

There are three apples from the first tree that weigh 110, 121 and 143 grams respectively, and four from the other which weigh 88, 93, 105 and 124 grams respectively. The mean and variance of the first sample are 124.67 and 16.80 respectively, and of the second sample 102.50 and 16.01. The chi-square statistic of the first sample is

$$ (\frac{110-124.67}{16.80})^2 + (\frac{121-124.67}{16.80})^2 + (\frac{143-124.67}{16.80})^2 = 2.00 $$,

and for the second sample

$$ (\frac{88-102.50}{16.01})^2 + (\frac{93-102.50}{16.01})^2 + (\frac{105-102.50}{16.01})^2 + (\frac{124-102.50}{16.01})^2 = 3.00 $$.

The F statistic is now F = $$\frac{3/4}{2/3} = 1.125$$. The Chi-square statistic divided by degrees of freedom appears on the nominator for the second sample because it was larger than that of the first sample.

The critical value of the F distribution for 4 degrees of freedom in the nominator and 3 degrees of freedom in the denominator, i.e. F(f1=4, f2=3) is 9.12 at a 5% level of confidence. Since the test statistic 1.125 is smaller than the critical value, we cannot reject the null hypothesis that they have the same variance. The conclusion is that they have the same variance.

title: Statistics/Distributions/F


text:
Cookbook talk:Peruvian Molded Rice (Arroz Tapado)

=Slice steak?=

I'm not sure I know what that refers to. Could we insert a more obvious name for whatever meat is in there? I've found it listed online elsewhere (in Spanish) as "2 tazas de carne molida"... which I can't translate, except as two cups of worn-out (moldy?) meat.

Can someone help with this, or clarify the recipe?

Actually it is Ground Beef. That's what we use


text:
User:Nsaa

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nsaa
 * http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nsaa

title: User:Nsaa


text:
User talk:Nsaa

I agree to the edit counter opt-in terms
I agree to the edit counter opt-in terms

title: User talk:Nsaa


text:
Video Production/Appropriate use

Witness Book - Video For Change

Witness Human Rights Video Hub Guidelines

Witness Security Guidelines

Ethics of online journalism, from Online Journalism Review

title: Video Production/Appropriate use


text:
Asset Allocation/Introduction

Volatility
Investments vary in the extent of their potential losses or gains. Stocks are prone to greater rises and falls than would be experienced in cash deposit investments. The level of loss an individual is willing to accept will influence the spread of asset type. Equally too little risk may also be unacceptable to an individual who wishes to benefit from the potential increase in a rising market

Term of Investment
The volatility that is experienced over short periods of time may not be as significant to an investor who is investing over several years. The overall trend of a market becomes more important. Investments with a greater measure of volatility may be more prudent over longer periods than safer investments that carry a greater risk of not only a lower relative return to other investments, but also the risk of loss through inflation.

Currency Risk
Investments outside the domestic market or currency zone of an investor will be subject to additional risk through movements in exchange rates. Markets investing in similar assets may perform closely, but changes in the value of their respective currencies can mean that from the reference point of the investor they have performed very differently.

Correlation
Diversifying asset allocation through investing in different funds that are in the same market or are heavily influenced by similar factors (such as is the case with many stock markets) is unlikely to be an efficient means of diversifying risk. Assets that perform closely over a period of time are said to be closely correlated. Investments that do not perform in line with each other may be negatively correlated (one is likely to rise on the fall of another through changing business cycles or patterns of demand) or, where there is little relationship, be said to be uncorrelated. Some bond markets have a measure of reverse correlation to stocks and generally real estate investments are uncorrelated to the performance of stocks.

title: Asset Allocation/Introduction


text:
User:Jokes Free4Me/monobook.js

// w:en:User:Lupin/popups.js

document.write(' ');

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Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Professor Quirrell

This page should be moved (not copy-pasted) to ../Quirinus Quirrell/, to be in line with the pages for the other professors. -- Jokes Free4Me 17:35, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

Actually, if we were going to go that way, it would be Slatero Quirrell, for reasons that I put forward on the character page itself. But I don't think we should -- no first name appears in the book, and so we probably shouldn't have a first name in the article. Chazz 07:31, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

The Lexicon mostly accepts Quirinus, though they say that it cannot be confirmed as cannon. See http://www.hp-lexicon.org/wizards/quirrell.html Therequiembellishere 17:45, 12 April 2007 (UTC)

 * One other note: Quirrell is apparently the only evil character that utters the name "Voldemort", though he does it ("at least", so to say) with the respectful "Lord" before it. Most wizards, of course, do not say the name, which is out of fear in the good and out of reverence in the bad; the former mostly say "You-Know-How" and sometimes "He who must not be named"; the latter usually say "Dark Lord" (keeping the habit, though, if they think better of it and cease to be Death Eaters; Regulus, Snape and Karkaroff are cases in point; in a limited number of cases, the phrase "the Dark Lord" is also used by the good side). The braver from among the good side say "Voldemort" and, sometimes, "Lord Voldemort", but Quirrell - possibly because he is not technically a Death Eater, but was recruited afterwards; possibly because even though he could force him to give over his body, is mutilated nature was simply not enough to keep that sort of respect - is the only bad character to say "Lord Voldemort".--131.159.76.213 (discuss) 20:30, 15 March 2017 (UTC)

 * An interesting point, and one worth adding to the article. Hope you don't mind that I did that... I'd credit you there, but it's hard to do that if you haven't got an ID yet. Chazz (talk) 03:14, 16 March 2017 (UTC)


text:
AEM EMS Guidebook

AEM EMS Engine Management System /Engine Swaps/ You have stumbled on the first (and only I've seen) AEM EMS Wikibook for owners and tuners of the AEM EMS Engine Management System. This was started on 8/9/2006 and will hopefully grow much from there. I have created a basic outline for people to work with for now, and hope it will expand from here. AEM did not include a manual with anything but bare-bones information for using the program, and a more extensive reference would be very useful.

Editing and adding to this Wiki
Please make sure when adding ANY entry or changing ANYTHING you post a description of what you have changed in the history section, as well as ending your addition to the end of the page with four tilde symbols (~) to mark user and date. Please try to stick to a standard formatting scheme and style when entering items.

What is the AEM EMS?
The AEM EMS is a versatile Standalone Engine Management System that can control a variety of engines and allows the end user the ultimate in expandability and control over their engines operating conditions.

installing your aem ems in your car and getting started
/application specific notes (things to know with YOUR specific model car and ems)/

Using the AEM Pro software
/Navigating the menus/

/known keyboard shortcuts and hotkeys/

/Full breakdown of what every function does, as well as how to work with it/

/Tips and tricks when working with the EMS/

Using the AEMLOG software
/Performing math operations on your logs/

Tuning with the EMS
/Methods of tuning/

/Injector Phase/

/Controlling boost/

common problems and resolutions
/ignition map/

Links
How to data log DIY video http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-7tgXmuM8c&feature=plcp

title: AEM EMS Guidebook


text:
User talk:Percy the Train~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Percy the Train. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Percy the Train~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:22, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Percy the Train~enwikibooks


text:
User:Pjetter

More information on me, you will find here nl:Gebruiker:Pjetter (that is if you can read dutch).

Any questions you can post her on my User talk:Pjetter, allthough it might take a while for an answer. More certain is to post a comment/question on nl:Overleg_gebruiker:Pjetter if you require a speedy answer.

I am working on a book on Paper and Paperengineering, which I will translate into english and post here, when it is ready (who knows when, I am doing too much other stuff).

title: User:Pjetter


text:
Talk:Statistics/Distributions

1. need to explain the motivation to study distributions. 2. examples, examples, examples. 3. break it down into digestible sections.

title: Talk:Statistics/Distributions


text:
AEM EMS Guidebook/known keyboard shortcuts and hotkeys

There are many keyboard shortcuts that you can hit that may save you time when working within the software.

When working within a map:

+ ..................... Key increases the corresponding selected cells value

- ..................... Key decreases the corresponding selected cells value

m ..................... Key opens the secondary option menu (copy, paste, calculate, etc.)

s ..................... Key quick switches between graph and table mode

Ctrl+f ................. Opens the fuel map

Ctrl+i ................. Opens the ignition map

Ctrl+o ................. Opens the options list

ctrl+p ................. Opens the parameters

Shift+z ................ Zooms in on the current window

Holding Alt will show "hot" charectures on the top menu. Hit the corresponding menus underlined char. to open it. (I.E. Alt+f opens file, Alt+d opens edit, etc.)


text:
AEM EMS Guidebook/Methods of tuning

Boost comp
''I cannot take credit for this. This was originally posted by BLKMGK and Wadzii on the aem ems forums (hope you guys dont mind this being regurgitated!). This is a repost of their explanation of this simple, yet effective method:''

You need to get the car running and driving first before you can do this.

Let me briefly explain the concept behind Boost Compensation tuning. If at, say, 4,000 RPM and 100KPA you need X amount of fuel to get Y A/F then at 4,000 RPM and 200KPA you will need 2X fuel to get the same Y A/F. Make sense? Yes, in extreme cases the VE of the motor will change at some point due to restrictions somewhere but for the most part this concept holds true.

If you look at a Full Boost Comp'd mapping you will see that all fuel columns are the same vertically. The way that fuel is taken care of is there's a Fuel Modifier table called Boost Fuel Correction. This is setup usually so that say 100KPA is a "zero point" - no change (the zero point can be anywhere you choose). But 200KPA effects a +100% change in fuel and 0KPA is a -100% change in fueling. Points in between are linear. Making sense so far?

Now you can Boost Comp, a mapping that's done cell by cell, just by applying those percentage changes to the existing map. The effect is greater granularity in fueling although you MAY need to modify something called the MicroSec/Bit. MicroSec/Bit defines the number "1" in the RAW view of the fuel map - more on that later. Okay, so you now have a mapping that is Boost Comp'd but numbers up and down are not the same - should drive as fine as the original map. You can stop at this point or go further. IF you stop here, as I did once upon a time, and tune multiple load rows for the same A/F you'll get a surprise as they all become the same number.

Okay, go do a WOT pull at the lowest load value your W/G will allow - easy if it's a N/A motor! Tune that load row to whatever A/F you need WOT and make the cells above and below that load the same so there's no interpolation. If you take those numbers you get and apply them anywhere you go WOT you should find that you maintain the same A/F in those load areas that you tuned for. You now have what I call a "Hybrid" Boost Comp map because the vac areas are cell by cell. You can leave that if you want.

To get the vac area done for a "full" Boost Comp map continue copying those same numbers down vertically - the car will now run pig rich. Go into a table called the Throttle Inj Modifier. Adjust the table so that at idle you have a decent A/F and then go for a drive. At cruising speed\throttle adjust the table so that you get a decent cruise A/F and then calculate between the two points to get a linear table. Play with this some but in the end you'll have a table that removes more fuel as the throttle is closed (mine is -26%) and less at say 50% throttle (mine is -3%) in a linear table. Ta Da - "full" Boost Comp.

Another way to do those vac areas is to do a little math. Say you want 12:1 in one row but the vertical numbers give you 11.5:1 - calculate the percentage of difference between the two and either apply that to the Boost Fuel Correction table for that load range or to the fuel table load area. Do this for every area you want something other than whatever your WOT fueling was. In this case there's NO Throttle Mod table filled in. So, why do it this way? Because some small turbos will spool at part throttle - say on hills and things. With Full Boost Comp it's also possible to get into a situation where say the car is lugging on a hill and more throttle just makes it go pig rich but load doesn't go up quickly. I'm actually about to convert to this method to try it out.

First this setting can only be found if you look at the Options, Full List. It's called MicroSec/Bit.

Okay, so what's MicroSec/Bit? Pull up the Fuel Map, Right Click, View RAW. The numbers in those cells can be between 0-255. Look at peak torque at peak load - are you close to 255? Now look at idle - are you close to 0? You can actually have 255 in one of those cells and NOT have full fueling! You can also have very small numbers in the idle area and find that making changes as small as one increment will swing A/F by a LARGE amount. Neither of these situations is one that you want. Let's say the idle range has a number of 10 in it - moving to 11 you swing fueling by 1/10th - that's a lot! My idle numbers are over 100 - now THAT is granularity. MicroSec/Bit is what defines the value of "1" in the fuel table. You CAN modify it!

So, before you go playing with that number realize it will have BIG impacts on your fueling. Here's how you change it "safely". Open the fuel map, right click, View Duty Cycle. Highlight the ENTIRE map, right click, Copy to clipboard. Now modify MicroSec/Bit up or down and then Paste the fuel mapping back while still looking at Duty Cycle. Right Click, View RAW. Any numbers over 255? IF yes then MicroSec/Bit is too small, switch back to Duty Cycle view, make it bigger, Paste the previously saved table, and check the RAW view again until the numbers are big but not huge. Note that if you use Boost Comp as explained above you'll also gain granularity. Done CORRECTLY fueling shouldn't change much and the car shouldn't need too much retuning when you now upload this mapping to the ECU.

When you change MicroSec/Bit you will also have to modify the crank time table ( the main table in the startup template). I devised this forumula to correctly change that table. We will assume the crank time table is all set to one number.

CT1=original number in the crank time table MSB1= original MicroSec/Bit MSB2= new MicroSec/Bit CT2= new value for the crank time table

(CT1*MSB1)/(MSB2)=CT2

Changing MicroSec/Bit will also get you a lot more resolution for cranking so you can dial that in better.

The key to getting boost comp tuned right is to make sure AFR at WOT is flat first. Don't worry with fine tuning the throttle inj correction table until WOT is right.

A formula I use to set up the boost comt table is as follows. (I use PSIg, you can modify this for KPA. But I never use kpa )

min=map min value (ex.. -13.9psi) max = map max value (ex.. 60psi in the case of the 5bar sensor)

min/14.7*100= %correction at min max/14.7*100= %correction at max

Enter those 2 points and use the calculate function to create a straight line between those 2 points.

More tips for tuning the throttle inj correction table. Set that table up on the highway cruising in a high gear. If the car doesn't idle or drive well at low RPMs, modify the fuel map (making sure to change the whole column). It's okay for the fuel map to be leaner in the lower RPMs. Usually you will make more power that way any how.

title: AEM EMS Guidebook/Methods of tuning


text:
User:MichaelSHoffman

Information about me can be obtained on my Wikipedia user page. Comments may be posted at my Wikipedia user talk page.

title: User:MichaelSHoffman


text: Armenian/Colors

title: Armenian/Colors


text:
AEM EMS Guidebook/Useful pages directly related to the aem ems

Here you will find links directly related to the AEM EMS

AEM EMS suggestion box

AEM EMS forums


text:
Talk:AEM EMS Guidebook/Useful pages directly related to the aem ems

Started the wikibook, set up generic sections and added a few pieces of information. Heres where you will post what you have done to each page so we can keep track of the changes Tastyratz 20:18, 9 August 2006 (UTC)


text: Template:Armenian

title: Template:Armenian


text:
Talk:AP Computer Science/Introduction

I think the world of programming needs more Engineering and less Art. We're probably all familiar with the book "The Art of Programming", but I believe the term "art" has become over-emphasized in CS. In my experience, thinking of programming as an "art" has led to less documentation and artsy code (i.e. only legible to the artist). The results I've seen of artists are poor maintainability / portability.

Sorry for the tirade, it's just my impression when I read "Computer programming is an intricate and elegant art form."

Am I alone? If I am, then leave it be.

There are two common threads on that issue. One asserts that problems in software happen because people don't take the issues seriously enough, or treat development enough like an engineering discipline. The other thread points out first that engineers make mistakes too, and second that software is inherently unlike engineering.

To the first, I say that I've worked with people who are serious about good code, and take good precautions to make sure that things work out well. I've also worked with jack****es who don't seem to care. The lay person is not prepared to evaluate the difference until or unless things break, so preventing disgrace often means cleaning up their messes.

The biggest problem with claiming a particular similarity or difference between software and engineering is that it's a broad generalization. The same goes with art. There is theatre, music, painting, sculpture, and each of these can be divided further into myriad ways. I'm not an art student, and I wouldn't presume to compare sculpture with theatre, much less assert that one could be made more like the other. Similarly, I'm not a chemical engineer, but I'm sure that chemical engineering differs wildly from civil engineering or industrial architecture.

On the other hand, we can make certain observations. At heart, art satisfies the desire to express or appreciate some kind of message, be it a moral message or an emotion. On the other hand, the engineer in any field is faced with a set of constraints and a functional goal, and his work product is the detailed description of a system that satisfies the constraints while accomplishing the goal. In this sense, software is engineering and there's no two ways about it. Yet, any engineered system necessarily expresses a message. There are beautiful bridges, like that over the Golden Gate in the San Francisco area, and there are rather dull ones, like the one over 38th street in Austin. There are great cathedrals, like Notre Dame, and there are hole-in-the-wall churches that meet in a section of a strip mall, like the "Praise Chape" which is missing an L from its signpost. In any event, each is an intelligent response to the actual constraints and economic presures that affected their creation. Occasionally, an engineer or architect is lucky enough to work on a project that allows him to express something the world thinks of as artistic. Frank Lloyd Wright made a career of only ever working on that kind of project, and grew to fame and fortune as a result. Of course, his houses were (and still are) expensive, but they also have had "undesirable features" from time to time.

Let's observe that most houses aren't works of art, and most software projects aren't either. However, most architects (sample size one: my architect friend) want to work at an artistic level, and most software developers seem to want to work on projects with some opportunity for an artistic expression in their chosen medium, which amounts to code.

Coming back from the other direction, again the artist must support his art. If his day job won't pay the bills, then he'd better be a pretty good artist. This implies that it's possible to compare the "quality" of an artist and the art so produced. That's true; art that sells is better for the artist than art which does not sell. Naturally, it pays the artist to understand his market and his potential clients. If he can send a message they understand and will buy into, then they'll buy his art. Otherwise, it's art for art's sake, and that usually isn't appreciated during the artist's lifetime.

Samples of art and engineering both can be compared at the level of how well they serve their purpose. A bridge which collapses in high wind does not serve its purpose, and neither does the unskilled tapping of the ivories at a fine dining establishment. Thus, to become good in any of the fields thus far mentioned, one must first understand how quality is to be measured. Next, you can practice and improve your abilities to produce high-quality work.

Ultimately, such a controlled feedback cycle is engineering, even when the product in question is art. Bridge design is engineering, and so is programming also engineering. A bad engineer will design a faulty bridge, and a bad programmer will create a faulty program.

However
That's all about software engineering. This course is not about software engineering. It's about computer science, which is an entirely different field. Let me explain what I mean:

Chemical engineers don't do what chemists do. The chemist works typically with many tiny quantities of many different reagents and discovers or invents new things that can be done with chemicals. Upon learning the results, the chemical engineer can then work out how to scale the process up to an industrial level. The chemist might invent a new platic, while the chemical engineer then finds a way to build a plant to produce an endless stream of the new plastic. These are entirely different problems, but naturally both involve quite a bit of brainwork. A third person may be responsible for finding uses for the new plastic and bringing them to market.

The software engineer is tasked to apply the discoveries of the computer scientist to solve real-world problems. The computer scientist, then, must invent or discover new solutions in search of a problem. The corresponding third role is to find an audience for, and distribute knowledge of, the latest developments in computer science.

Afterward
We teach natural science and mathematics by first instilling the skills to perform and then setting the educated loose on open problems in the field. The same is done with CS: You'll learn a few programming languages, but you'll also learn why programming languages are the way they are. You'll learn what makes them tick, and why. You'll learn the known concepts by applying them, which is why everyone has to write a linked-list program and a database manager. (What's a linked list? Have patience, Grasshopper.) Eventually, you'll get to work on something really deep, and if the faculty is suitably impressed, the university will try to make money off it. (Usually, this takes the form of patent licensing.) Then, you graduate and you are considered ready to be a computer scientist. However, you are not a software engineer. That will take a different kind of work.

title: Talk:AP Computer Science/Introduction


text:
Operating System Design/File Sys

A file system is a way of organizing information on a physical drive or other media (e.g, RAM) for access. In general, file systems can be divided into several groups:

 * Local file systems ‒ ext2/3, FAT32, NTFS
 * Distributed file systems ‒ NFS, AFS
 * Parrallel or cluster file systems ‒ GFS, PVFS, Lustre

Some current file systems:
 * File Allocation Table (FAT)
 * NTFS
 * ext4
 * JFS
 * BFS
 * HFS
 * ReiserFS

NTFS and FAT are used under Windows, while ext4 and ReiserFS tend to be used by Linux.

A file system may be described by a set of characteristics:
 * Ability to work with huge number of files/directories in a directory (e.g ReiserFS).
 * Large files support ‒ some file systems have 2-4G limit for this. Switching to 64-bits addressing solves the problem.
 * Fragmentation ‒ NTFS quickly becomes fragmented, while ext4 doesn't.
 * Fault tolerance ‒ compare e2fsck runs on dirty ext2 vs logging facilities of ext3 or ReiserFS.
 * Scalability ‒ some file systems have limits on their disk sizes.
 * Use of encryption/compression
 * Charsets support ‒ for example, FAT does not allow use of some symbols in file names, while NTFS does.
 * Long file names ‒ for ext4, 256 chars; FAT16 8+3 chars max

This section discusses the key components to a file system and common problems that an operating system must deal with. It concludes with a discussion about some of the more popular file systems in use today.

title: Operating System Design/File Sys


text:
Operating System Design/Glossary

G
GUI - Graphical User Interface. Pronounced "gooey", this refers to a user interface based on graphics instead of text commands (CLI)

title: Operating System Design/Glossary


text: Armenian/Animals

title: Armenian/Animals


text:
User:Scalytail

Not typing this up again. Go to my Wikipedia profile.

title: User:Scalytail


text:
Armenian/Alphabet

(Source: Wikipedia - Armenian Alphabet)

title: Armenian/Alphabet


text:
Armenian/Food

Dairy
* Note: The yogurt drink "tan" is usually called "doogh" (a Persian word) by Persian-Armenians.

title: Armenian/Food


text:
General Genetics/Structure of the DNA Molecule

DNA is generally found as a double helix, composed of two chains, or strands, of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds. A good analogy to this would be a spiral staircase, with the sides of the staircase being the strands, and the steps being the hydrogen bonds.

Nucleotides
Nucleotides consist of three parts: sugar, nitrogenous bases, and a monophosphate group. The sugar in DNA is the five-carbon aldose deoxyribose, which has two nucleophilic hydroxyl groups: one at the 5' carbon and the other at the 3' carbon. In a nucleotide, the hydroxyl group at the 5' carbon is replaced with a monophosphate group (PO43-). Nucleotides are joined by bonds between the phosphate group at the 5' carbon on one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group at the 3' carbon on the other nucleotide. These bonds are known as phosphodiesterase bonds, and the string of sugar monomers joined by phosphodiesterase bonds is typically referred to as the sugar-phosphate backbone.

At the 2' carbon, each sugar molecule is joined to a nitrogenous base. There are four nitrogenous bases found in DNA: guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), and adenine (A). The purines A and G are composed of two rings, whereas the pyrimidines C and T are composed of one ring.

Base Pairing
The two DNA strands in a double helix are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of nitrogenous bases. However, not any two nitrogenous bases can form hydrogen bonds. Two purines are are too big to fit in the space between the two strands, whereas two pyrimidines would be too far apart for hydrogen bonds to form. One purine and one pyrimidine are the right size to fit between the strands and have hydrogen bonds form. Adenine and thymine each have one hydrogen bond donor and one hydrogen bond receptor, so two hydrogen bonds form between them. Guanine has two hydrogen bond donors and one hydrogen bond receptor, whereas cytosine has two hydrogen bond receptors and one hydrogen bond donor, so three hydrogen bonds form between them. The relative numbers of hydrogen bonds means that less energy is required to split DNA strands at A-T sites than at C-G sites.


text:
User:Radicalamy

Interests, biases, etc.

please see my Wikipedia profile

title: User:Radicalamy