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Wikijunior talk:Solar System/About gravity, mass, and weight/Archive 1

Here is a list of some sources.

Wikipedia

 * Mass
 * Balance
 * Kilogram
 * Pound
 * Pound-force
 * Body mass index
 * Human weight
 * Body weight

ASTM

 * American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard for Metric Practice, E 380-79, ASTM 1979.
 * 3.4.1.2 Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term weight as a quantity to mean either force or mass. In commercial and everyday use, the term weight nearly always means mass; thus, when one speaks of a person's weight, the quantity referred to is mass. . . .  Because of the dual use of the term weight as a quantity, this term should be avoided in technical practice except under circumstances in which its meaning is completely clear.  When the term is used, it is important to know whether mass or force is intended and to use SI units properly as described in 3.4.1.1, by using kilograms for mass or newtons for force.
 * 3.4.1.3 Gravity is involved in determining mass with a balance or scale. When a standard mass is used to balance the measured mass, the effects of gravity on the two masses are equalized, but the effects of the buoyancy of air or other fluid on the two masses are generally not equalized.  When a spring scale is used, the scale reading is directly related to the force of gravity.  Spring scales graduated in mass units may be properly used if both the variation in acceleration of gravity and the buoyancy corrections are not significant in their use.
 * 3.4.1.4 The use of the same name for units of force and mass causes confusion. When the non-SI units are used, a distinction should be made between force and mass, for example, lbf to denote force in gravimetric engineering units and lb for mass.

NIST

 * U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Dr. Barry N. Taylor, Guide for the Use of the International System of Units, NIST Special Publication 811,
 * Thus the SI unit of the quantity weight used in this sense is the kilogram (kg) and the verb "to weigh" means "to determine the mass of" or "to have a mass of".
 * Examples: the child's weight is 23 kg
 * the briefcase weighs 6 kg
 * Net wt. 227 g

 * [Note that the same section also defines weight in a different meaning from this one which is proper for body weight; in that other meaning, "Thus the SI unit of the quantity weight defined in this way is the newton (N)." This section also concludes with the excellent advice, "In any case, in order to avoid confusion, whenever the word "weight" is used, it should be made clear which meaning is intended."]

National Standard of Canada

 * The National Standard of Canada, CAN/CSA-Z234.1-89 Canadian Metric Practice Guide, January 1989:
 * 5.7.3 Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term "weight." In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" nearly always means mass.  In science and technology, "weight" has primarily meant a force due to gravity.  In scientific and technical work, the term "weight" should be replaced by the term "mass" or "force," depending on the application.
 * 5.7.4 The use of the verb "to weigh" meaning "to determine the mass of," e.g., "I weighed this object and determined its mass to be 5 kg," is correct.
 * [An interesting thing to note here is a significant difference in usage of the noun forms and the verb forms.]

SAE

 * SAE TSB003, Rules for SAE use of SI (Metric) Units, May 1999:
 * 7.4.2 Considerable confusion exists in the use of the term weight as a quantity to mean either force or mass. In commercial and everyday use, the term weight nearly always means mass; thus, when one speaks of a person's weight, the quantity referred to is mass. This nontechnical use of the term weight in everyday life will probably persist. In science and technology, the term weight of a body usually meant the force that, if applied to the body, would give it an acceleration equal to the local acceleration of free fall. The adjective "local" in the phrase "local acceleration of free fall" usually meant a location on the surface of the earth. In this context, the "local acceleration of free fall" has the symbol g (commonly referred to as "acceleration of gravity"). Values of g differing by over 0.57 at various points on the earth's surface have been observed.2 In a technical context, the use of force of gravity (mass times acceleration of gravity), instead of weight with this meaning is recommended. Because the term weight is ambiguous, care should be taken to assure that the intended meaning is clear.

 * Am I reading this correctly that values of "g" (or average acceleration due to gravity on Earth at 9.8 m/s2 being the usual figure) varies by 0.57? Is that 0.57 "g's", or 0.57 m/s2 or 0.57%?  I can see some altitude variations (Mt. Everest vs. Dead Sea) or lattitude (polar vs. equitorial gravity effects).  Measuring the local gravity field was an experiment I did in High School physics class, BTW.  --Rob Horning 08:12, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm sure that 0.57% was intended, though the pdf file only has the quoted "0.57". Actually, the normal gravity at sea level increases by more than 0.53% from the equator to the poles (9.7803267715 m/s² to 9.8321863685 m/s²), and with local anomalies from those normal values it is possible that the actual measured values at sea level could vary by 0.57%.  The average at sea level (Geodetic Reference System 1980) is 9.797644656 m/s². Throw in Mt. Chimborazo, the highest mountain on Earth in both ways relevant to this discussion, and the variation on the surface of the Earth, from there to the North Pole is more than 0.7%.
 * With that Everest and Dead Sea stuff, you remind me of the fools at Aviation Now, who tried to make a point by comparing the force of gravity on an elephant at the Denver Zoo and at the San Diego Zoo. In addition to much confusion about kilograms as units of force and using conversion factors too imprecise for their measurements and the like, they also failed to figure out the most important factor: that the acceleration of gravity at the San Diego Zoo is actually less than it is at the Denver Zoo, not the other way around.  Latitude is a more important factor than altitude is.  Metric1000 15:40, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

National Physical Laboratory (U.K.)

 * NPL FAQ
 * Weight
 * In the trading of goods, weight is taken to mean the same as mass, and is measured in kilograms. Scientifically however, it is normal to state that the weight of a body is the gravitational force acting on it and hence it should be measured in newtons, and this force depends on the local acceleration due to gravity. To add to the confusion, a weight (or weightpiece) is a calibrated mass normally made from a dense metal, and weighing is generally defined as a process for determining the mass of an object.

 * So, unfortunately, weight has three meanings and care should always be taken to appreciate which one is meant in a particular context.

U.S. Federal Standard 376B

 * Federal Standard 376B, "Preferred Metric Units for General Use by the Federal Government," January 27, 1993
 * In commercial and everyday use, and in many technical fields, the term "weiqht" is usually used as a synonym for mass. This is how 'weight" is used in most United States laws and regulations. See the note at 5.2.1 for further explanation.
 * ... [note at 5.2.1]
 * NOTE: There is ambiguity in the use of the term weight to mean either force or mass. In general usage, the term weighr nearly always means mass and this is the meaning given the term in U.S. laws and regulations.  Where the term is so used, weight is expressed in kilograms in SI. In many fields of science and technology the term weight is defined as the force of gravity acting on an object, i.e., as the product of the mass of the object and the local acceleration of gravity. Where weight is so defined, it is expressed in newtons in SI.

American National Metric Council

 * American National Metric Council, "Metric Editorial Guide," 3d ed. 1978
 * 7.1 In commercial and everyday use, the term "weight" nearly always means mass; the use of the word "weight" to mean "mass" and the word "weigh" to mean "determine the mass of" or "have a mass of" is acceptable.
 * Examples: My weight is 60 kilograms.
 * Weigh the envelope carefully.
 * The suitcase weighs 12 kilograms.

 * 7.2 Since the word "weight is used to mean both mass and force, its use should be avoided in science and technology except under circumstances in which its meaning is completely clear.  In SI, mass is measured in kilograms, and force is measured in newtons.

International definition of a pound

 * Here is the current official definition of a pound in the United States (and as you can see from the quote, in the rest of the world as well), and these are the pounds we use when we weigh ourselves "at the doctor's office". Federal Register Notice of July 1, 1959:
 * Announcement. Effective July 1, 1959, all calibrations in the U.S. customary system of weights and measures carried out by the National Bureau of Standards will continue to be based upon metric measurement standards and, except those for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey as noted below, will be made in terms of the following exact equivalents and appropriate multiples and submultiples:

 * 1 yard= 0.914 4 meter

 * 1 pound (avoirdupois)= 0.453 592 37 kilogram

 * Currently, the units defined by these same equivalents, which have been designated as the International Yard and the International Pound, respectively, will be used by the National Standards Laboratories of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and United Kingdom; thus there will be brought about international accord on the yard and pound by the English-speaking nations of the world, in precise measurements involving these basic units.

"Measure your weight in newtons"
There are too many teachers who, being confused about how we do this in the real world, and how we should do it, confuse their students by telling them that they should routinely measure their weight in newtons.

They should not do so. The kilograms used throughout the world, including most hospitals in the United States, are the proper SI units for this weight. Note, of course, that there are no kilograms-force in SI. Metric1000 15:24, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"Pounds are not units of mass"
There are hundreds of web sites, and even a few textbooks for introductory college science classes, and perhaps for junior high school or high school as well, which falsely claim that pounds are not units of mass. Metric1000 15:24, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"If you weighed 100 units..."
Many teachers don't have any big problem understanding that as measurements of mass, kilograms do not vary no matter where you are (the situation is different with pounds, because few people really understand the old English units)

Note that the verb "to weigh" (as noted in the excerpts from the Canadian Standard for Metric Practice and the ANMC Guide above) is used to mean "to measure the mass of" or "to have a mass of" even many by those people who cannot bring themselves to use the historically, linguistically, and legally correct noun "weight" for the result of that measurement..

If you want people to give up their rightful, prior claim to the word "weight", then you had damn sure better give them a verb to use as well as a noun. The use of "to mass" with the meaning above remains substandard usage which grates on the ears of most people, including most physicists and chemists and the like. That's why they continue to use "to weigh" with that meaning, even if they switch words for the noun usage. Metric1000 15:24, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * This is an astronomy book, so we should use words primary in ways the astronomers themselves use them and then explain how it is different from everyday use and from the commerical and legal definitons. --StarryTG 06:54, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * About the only way astronomers ever use "weight" is in the way it was used in Cavendish's famous paper, "Weighing the Earth". Plus the occasional stepping outside their field to mangle up the proper medical sciences meaning of the word weight, as we've seen here.  Metric1000 09:15, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Additions by StarryTG
I left much of the additions by StarryTG dealing with mass and gravity, but took out the two paragraphs in the "What is weight?" section. Here is what was written, and why it was inappropriate.

One of several meanings
Weight is the amount of gravitional force there is on an object with mass. The gravitional force could be from anything else with mass, such as a planet or moon. A given gravitional field would pull down on a more massive object with a larger force than a less massive object.

This is indeed one definition of the ambiguous word weight (but not quite a complete definition, because there are variations in the precise usage depending on factors such as rotation and buoyancy). However, it is not the definition of weight which is proper "in the doctor's office" for our body weight.

Remember, we are building on what the students know. This is not the "weight" they are most familiar with. They see the "net weight" listed on billions of items in our grocery stores and haredware stores and car parts stores. They see the 63 kg weight classes in Olympic boxing or wrestling or judo or whatever. They calculate their body mass index—the smarter ones doing it from height in meters and weight in kilograms, so they don't have to remember complicated conversion factors not useful in any other context. Metric1000 23:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Misstating the reasons
Many people use the word weight to mean the same thing as mass. This works on Earth because the strength of gravity is about the same all over the world. However, we will see that the difference between weight and mass becomes noticable when we consider other planets.

We use the word "weight" with that meaning, because we've been doing so for over 1000 years. This word entered Old English over 1000 years ago, meaning the quantity measured with a balance. That quantity is mass, not force.

A thousand years ago, English-speakers used this weight as a measure of how much stuff they had, for the purpose of trade. We still measure the very same quantity for the very same purposes today, and we still quite properly and legitimately call it "weight".

A bag of sugar with a "net weight" of 2 kg would still have a net weight of 2 kg on Pluto. A man with a weight of 175 lb would still have a weight of 175 lb on Mars, using the normal and proper meaning used in the medical sciences and in sports, the primary reasons we weigh ourselves.

Yes, the change in the force due to gravity, and the unchanging mass, are both noticeable. It is still as hard to throw a baseball on Mars at the same speed you'd throw it on Earth; it will take gravity a while longer to pull it to the ground, however. Metric1000 23:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

After we got so "smart" we still measure the same thing
You might have some argument if, after we got to be so smart, we changed the quantity we measured for these purposes. But that simply did not happen.

It doesn't work ... because the strength of gravity is about the same. We simply aren't interested in how hard that pound of butter, or that 400 troy ounce bar of gold, is pressing down on our table. We want that measurement to be the same no matter what the strength of the local gravitational field. That's the way we use it; that's the way we've always done it.

We'd use the same units of measurement for that butter or that gold on the Moon or Mars as we do on Earth. We'd still calibrate our scales on the Moon or on Mars the very same way that we do on Earth—for the accurate measurement of mass in the very location in which they are used. Just stop for a minute and think about the way those scales are tested and certified in the supermarket under government supervision, or in hospitals where the government isn't so concerned about it but the doctors are, because they want the numbers from a different ward in their hospital, or from a different hospital, to be comparable—it is done the same way in either place.

In other words, we don't want to measure force, and we don't particularly care if some fools in their own jargon want to use our word "weight" with a different meaning for their own purposes. Fortunately, however, nobody was ever damn fool enough to give any physics teacher any say-so in what the term "net weight" means in commerce, a term which never refers to a force (it is not a physics term). Nor do "troy weight" and many other common terms which are always used to refer to mass, not force.

It's the same way with body weight. We aren't suddenly more fit and healthy if gravity isn't pulling on us as hard. If you are obese on Earth, you'd have pretty much the same problems related to obesity on Mars. Metric1000 23:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

There is no God-given meaning of weight
The word "mass", on the other hand, has only had this same meaning for about 275 years. So those heathen tribesmen in merry Olde England weren't making any mistake, when they were unable to discern the God-given word they were supposed to invent for this purpose, instead of the word "weight" which they did invent.

We aren't making any mistake, when we continue to use the same word with the same meaning for the same purposes today. Metric1000 23:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Gravity varies significantly on Earth, too
Note further that while, if you use Fred Flintstone units such as kilograms-force or pounds-force, you can express the force due to gravity on Earth in numbers approximately equal to those for the corresponding measurements of mass in pounds or kilograms, the same does not hold true in the modern metric system, the International System of Units (SI). (For that matter, it also does not hold true if you limit yourself to the absolute foot-poound-second system, or if you limit yourself to the gravitational foot-pound-second system, or if you limit yourself to the gravitational inch-pound-second system, etc.)

A mass of 1.00000 lb on Earth will exert a force of from 0.99535 lbf to 1.00260 lbf, and the same of course is true if you use the obsolete kilgrams-force. But in SI, a mass of 1.00000 kg will exert a force of 9.7610 N to 9.8322 N on Earth. That certainly matters if you are weighing a 400 oz t bar of platinum, but it also matters at the precision used when a boxer is "making weight".

Even if you restrict yourself to sea level on Earth, the acceleration of gravity varies by more than 0.53%. That's easily measurable, not just in the extremes but with very small changes in location. Metric1000 23:50, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

This will totally miss the point
I totally hate where this article goes, and is a very strong point-of-view that weight is totally silly. Or that yout weight on another world will be the same as on the Earth. It totally lacks the NPOV requirements of Wikpedia or all of the Wikimedia projects, and as such needs to be rewritten... perhaps even from scratch.

The whole point of talking about weight on different bodies in the solar system is more "how much would I feel like I weight if I were on X?"

For example, on a videotape I got for my kids, there was a clip of Harrison Schmidt picking up a boulder on the moon. Tossing it arround and otherwise having a fun time. Mission control was a little concerned, because the rock did have quite a bit of mass (and the ability to crush,smash helmets and the suit, etc.) He also showed a very similar rock on the Earth, about the same size and mass, and simply stated there was no way he could possibly lift it up. This other clip of him in an Arizona desert even showed him trying to lift it up. He couldn't even budge it.

In short, there is a distinction between mass and weight, and it should be covered. As written (and in the rest of the articles as written so far) there doesn't appear to be a real distinction, and this discussion is getting down to the ugly fine points that is just splitting hairs. And rather silly at that.

Here is a distinction that matters to a kid if they were walking (in a spacesuit) on the Moon. They could "lift" a much heavier rock, because their arms still have the same force and energy necessary to lift things on the Earth, but on the Moon, because gravity is weaker, they can lift more. Mass is still the same, because if somebody tosses a 10 kg bag of potatoes at you, it will still hit you and knock you down just like it would here on the Earth. The mass hasn't changed, but the force necessary to lift it has dropped. Also, on the Moon you can jump up almost 16x as high because of the reduced gravity. It also takes longer to fall down, again because gravity is lower. All of this needs to be covered.

The exact opposite happens in high gravity environments, where you shouldn't even try to jump in gravity environments that high (it would break your bones if you tried), but rolling a 10kg ball over could be stopped with just as much force as it would here on the Earth.

Yes, let's be accurate, and let's talking about mass and force correctly (assuming that weight is defined as the force caused by gravity upon a mass of a certain size). These are kids we are talking about, however, and it is important to let them know that if they were walking on the moon, that they could jump much higher and lift much heavier things. The real question is how to we explain that idea and how can we describe in something they can understand what it would feel like, using just words? Rob Horning 19:41, 29 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * So, what do you suppose happens when someone throws a 25 lb bag of potatoes at you on the Moon, compared to someone throwing a 25 lb bag of potatoes at you on the Earth? It will knock you down just like it would here on Earth.

 * What do you suppose happens were you to get hit by a 330 lb (150 kg) National Football League lineman on the moon? Or get punched by a boxer who is in the 90 kg weight class for the Olympics?  Metric1000 20:51, 2 Jul 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, if you get hit by a 330 lb (150 kg) lineman from the National Football League on the moon (presumably in a large domed habitat like Heinlein's "Meanace From Earth"), the poor center would be flung over the goal post as a result. Of course that 330 lb lineman can't just use his weight to drop down on somebody taking advantage of gravity, but instead has to use more of a mass concept of gaining momentum before hitting their opponent.

 * There are indeed differences, and a game of football (American or International---soccer as it were) would be very different on the Moon. The Quarterback (in American Football) wouldn't merely be doing a forward pass, but being passed forward himself in a high orbit above the field.  In many ways, it would be more like a game of Quidditch rather than the ground-based game most people are familiar with.  Real life human-powered flight could take place on the Moon, making a game of Quidditch likely to be a real sport on the Moon, broken bones and all.  As for boxing on the Moon, I think you would find it much harder to get a firm footing on the ground.  "Pro wrestling", like the WWF, would have some incredible fun on the Moon where they could do acrobatics like jumping over their opponent and landing directly on their opponent's head with their feet, or doing other more bizzare gymnastics moves.  Take a look at some of the clients that Zero G Adventure has to get an idea.  This is no longer just the stuff of NASA or government astronauts anymore.

 * This reply didn't really answer the question, which is that some sort of terminology needs to be used to describe these effects due to reduced or substantially increased gravity. So how do we describe it if you are suggesting that using kilograms as a unit of "weight" has the same meaning as on the Earth, and that 100 kg on the Moon is identical to 100 kg on the Earth?  I beg to differ that there are no differences, because there are some very substantial differences as to how you would behave, primarily because our mussels don't push against mass but rather against force.  Saying that you can run and jump like on the Earth when you are on the Moon is simply too ludicrious to even think about.--Rob Horning 07:33, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

110 pounds?
I've changed the weights from 110 pounds to 87 pounds (and corresponding metric and stone weights) to more accurately reflect those of a 10 year old boy or girl (average 10yo boy = 85, average 10yo girl = 88), according to about.com). I figured children aged 8-11 wouldn't identify with someone weighing 110 pounds, or at least it would be more relative if it was closer to their weight.--Tim Thomason 20:42, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Good idea. I'll tweak it a tiny bit, however, because using 39 kg = 86 lb as a conversion factor would give you an error of only 1 part in 4630 (39.000 kg = 85.980 lb, 86.000 lb = 39.009 kg, whereas using 87 lb = 39 kg would give an error of 1 part in 85). Metric1000 10:47, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm confused as to the purpose of the chart at all, especially since the pound is already ambiguous between a mass and weight unit so it's not really clear what we're trying to get at. — Laura Scudder | Talk 00:47, 14 October 2005 (UTC)

Leaning Tower of Pisa
Nice pictures of the balls falling from the tower, even if they would be pretty huge balls if that's to scale.

Unfortunately, the story in the text isn't true. Galileo didn't do that. He did do some experiments rolling balls down an inclined ramp, timing them with a water clock. See Galileo Galilei. Metric1000 09:21, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree; see thread below (Rewrite?). David Kernow 04:04, 18 October 2005 (UTC)


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User:Cyclotronwiki

Too many user pages...

Please see:

http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Cyclotronwiki

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Cyclotronwiki


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User talk:67.98.155.236

Ban will last for 1 month. --Whiteknight T C E 18:02, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:67.98.155.236


text: Spanish/Translation Reference/A

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/A


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Electronics/Diodes/Zener diode

A diode usually is thought of as a device that lets current flow through/thru it in only ONE direction; however Zener diodes are made to permit current to flow also in the reverse direction if the voltage that is applied is larger than the rated "Zener voltage". Zener diodes are therefore used as voltage sources, with different Zener diodes being available to supply different rated voltages. Resistors are connected in series to limit the current flowing under all applicable conditions, and the current that this voltage source can supply is limited too. Usually, when used as a voltage reference, the current output is quite low.

=Example=

Reference:
"Silicon Zener Diode and Rectifier Handbook", published in 1961 by Motorola, Inc.

page 6: Current versus voltage relationship of type 50M30Z ( 50 Watt, 30 Volt, Z ener)

 * In the forward direction, as the voltage is increased from 0, at first negligible current flows until the voltage (V) reaches about 0.75 volts. As V is increased to about 1.2, the current, if there is no external resistance, is then already about 15 Amperes (A); even more if V is higher.

 * In the reverse direction, as V is increased from 0, at first negligible current flows. Then, as the voltage reaches about 29 Volts, the current is about 5 milliamperes (mA). With the applied voltage being about 31 Volts, the current, if no series resistance is in the circuit, is about 1.5 A.

 * All diodes have a rated power maximum; type 50M30Z is rated at 50 Watts (W), and Voltage ratings are listed as between 6.8 and 200 V. Characteristics vary with the temperature of the device, but some temperature-compensated types are available. Very small, temperature-compensated, listed Zener diodes for reference purposes are rated at only 400 milliwatts, with Zener voltages of 6.2 or 8.4 V (5% tolerance), for examples.

page 177: List of 50 Watt Zener diodes
Two of these listed Zener diodes have, for this example, a Zener knee voltage of about 30 V. They are type number 1N2823 (in TO3 package), and 1N3324 (in stud mounting package); both are otherwise equal. When about 22 Volts are applied in the reverse direction, only about 5 microAmperes can flow, but, at their nominal Zener Voltage of about 30 V, about 420 mA flows, with the maximum permitted DC Zener current (meaning the reverse-direction current a device is expected to be able to carry without damage) of these two types being 1400 mA at 75 degrees Celsius (to be derated if the temperature is higher). The resistance included in the circuit must be sufficiently high to limit the current, at any applied voltage, to that amount. The Zener voltage (at the knee) changes typically about 0.085% per degree Celsius for these two types.

=See also=

 * Semiconductors/Zener Diode
 * Practical_Electronics/Diodes

Diodes in general

About semiconductors

title: Electronics/Diodes/Zener diode


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back in business = reincorporaron sus operaciones bad = ofensiva badly = gravemente badge = credencial background = fondo backtrack = retroceso banks = orillas been = surgido behaviour = comportamiento behind the scenes = detrás de las escenas beleaguered = hostigado believes = supone beliefs = opiniones best bet = una de sus mejores opciones bias = bies, inclinación, preferencia bid = licitación, consulta de otras ofertas billing = listado blasted = abaleados blaring = robusto bleak = triste, desconsolado bloodmoney = dinero ensangrentado boot = autoarrancar bottom = fondo boundless = ilimitada, perpetua briefing = conferencia de prensa brings = provoca brisk = agitado broadcast = emitir, emitido built-in = incorporado burst = ráfaga bursty = a ráfagas but = aún así by = mediante, con el empeño de, de parte de

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counterfeit = falsificación, fraude called = referida como, conocido como came under = cayeron bajo came up = surgió can = ha logrado, logra candid = cándido, Franco, sincero capability = capacidad carefully = esmeradamente carry out = llevar a cabo cart = carreta casting vote = voto de calidad cater = proveer causing = produciendo charming = encantador check = verificar chief = superior choice = elección choked up = conmovido clampdown = paralización, cese claim = sostienen, sostener clearly = inequívocamente clumsy = torpe cluster = conjunto coined = acuñado come = ha llegado comes = proviene comfort = consolar compensations = compensaciones compliment = alago comprise = incluye compromise = comprometer compromise = conceder a convenio concern = interés, preocupación condemn = condenan condemnation = reproche containment = contención constraint = restricción controversial = polémico convenient = opportuno cost = cobro counterpart = correspondiente countless = incontables credible = creíble creep = entra filtrándose lentamente cross referencing = referencia mutua currently = actualmente, existente, actuales cursed = condenado customized = configurable, personalizable

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dashes = embates data mining = minado de datos dated = datado debugger = depurador decrypt = descifrar decelerating = aquietamiento deed = hazaña default = predeterminado delay = retrasar, demora deliberately = deliberadamente deliver = repartir denial of service attack = ataque de negación de servicios depict = representar device = dispositivo dirge = canto fúnebre discounting = abaratamiento discourage = desalentar dismiss = rechazar, despachar disperse = esparcir driving = impulsora drugs = medicamentos dusting = despolvar, despolve

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/D


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earn = merecer eerie = sobrenatural editor = redactor jefe effort = esfuerzo efforts to _ = persiguiendo _ elsewhere = en otras partes, mediante otras fuentes embeded = empalmado, encrustado embellish = adornar embroidery = bordado empower = dar poder a empty = deshabitado encased = encasillado enclosed = encerraba endeavour = esfuerzo enforce = imponer, hacer cumplir enhance = realzar, acentuar, mejorar entire = totalidad equal = parejo even = liso, aunque, aún así, no obstante, consecuentemente even if = aún sin tomar en cuenta que eventually = tarde o temprano excitement = entusiasmo expected = anticipado experience = (to experience) experimentar expertise = dominio

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/E


text:
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firm = casa face = enfrenta facing = enfrentando failed = fracasada fairly = bastante, algo fan = entusiasta feature = incluso, cualidad fee = honorarios, costo fed = alimentado fierce = feroz file = archivo, expediente findings = hallazgos fit = apto, idóneo fitting = apto, eficaz, digno fizzled = aflojó flank = costado flaw = imperfección, problema flee = huir fluorescent = fluorescente flowed to = circulada en dirección fond of = amante de footage = tomas for = debido a form = formulario for which = de la cual foreigners = extranjeros forest = bosque forthcoming = próximo foster = incitar frantic = frenético frantically = frenéticamente from = procedente, ante [la/lo/s], por parte de fuel = combustible funded = auspiciado funding = fondos, bienes furnish = suministran further = adicional

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/F


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/G

gang = pandilla gap = hueco gated = bardado gave = realizó gigantic = Gigante give = conceder given = realizada, diverso, un diverso rango de gleaned = espigado, recogido goes up = aumenta gone through = había sufrido good = hábil government = gubernamentales grab = arrebato grant = beca grim = siniestro grimly = funestamente groove = ranura growth = desarrollo

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/G


text:
User talk:81.25.2.59

You have been temporarily blocked from editing Wikibooks. You were warned several times that linking to commercial sites is not allowed. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires.

title: User talk:81.25.2.59


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/H

had = había sufrido hamlet = aldea haul = arrastrando haunting = aterrador have = acabar haven = asilos head = encabezará headlines = encabezados headquarters = basados hearing = audiencia hint = sugiriendo hit = golpea, éxito hive = colmena, panal hold up = detienen host = anfitrión hosted = hospedó hosting = hospedaje hounded = perseguido, acosado household = caseros huddle = amontonar huge = inmenso

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/H


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/I

impersonation = personificación in store = preparado increase = incremento indefinitely = indefinidamente indeed = inclusive, de hecho inescapable = ineludible infamous = infame injured = heridos insight = discernimiento instead = inversamente, en vez de involve = involucró involvement = compromiso irked = molestado is = permanece, se encuentra, se encuentra en etapa de issue = tema, asunto item = artículo, mercancía

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/I


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/J

job = tarea, labor journal = periódico, diario, revista joyously = alegremente

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/J


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/K

keeps = evita key = principal, principales, significativo killed = asesinadas

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/K


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/L

label = etiqueta lack = carencia lackluster = apagado laden = cargados landed – arribar, aterrizar lapse = descuido large = extenso lately = últimamente lawlessness = desorden leading = prominentes leads = guia, conduzcan leaked = a _ fue fugado un comunicado legacy = legado, herencia lengthy = bastante level = límite liable = sujeto licenced = concesionado likelihood = probabilidad lighting = iluminación limited = escasos line = enfilan little = limitado loading = monte location = ubicación long-time = veterana looter = saqueador lust = lujuria

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/L


text:
Electronics/Rectifier

Rectifiers are used to make DC out of AC. Usually equipment that uses semiconductors, such as TV sets or computers, operate on DC, yet they obtain their power from the AC socket, which is commonly found in buildings.

While the voltage supplied is usually either about 115 or 240 Volt, the equipment connected to this AC supply may use different DC voltages, and there is a need for suitable transformers to change the line/mains voltage to whatever is needed. This lower voltage is then fed into a set of rectifier diodes, often in the form of a "rectifier bridge" that consists of 4 rectifier diodes, all 4 often contained in a single plastic package with 4 connections: 2 for the applied AC voltage, and the other 2 for the + and - DC output voltage. Different rectifier ratings exist to provide a suitable range of maximum available output current. The frequency (usually 50 or 60 Hz) is important only for the transformer rating, not the rectifiers.

Normally there is a comparatively large capacitor connected across the DC terminals to "smooth" the DC output voltage, the capacitor's size depending on not only the acceptable maximum "ripple" of the DC output voltage, (AC superimposed on the DC voltage) but also on the maximum current rating of the rectifier arrangement.

example
Reference: "Silicon Zener Diode and Rectifier Handbook, theory, design characteristics and applications" published in 1961 by Motorola Inc.

The Forward Current (Amps) versus Forward Voltage (Volts) graph shows that there are slight differences depending on the rectifier's temperature, but only a very small current flows unless the voltage is at least about 0.6 V. The current is about 2 A, with no resistance in the circuit, when the voltage is about 1 V.
 * from page 119 "The Diffused-Junction Silicon Rectifier":
 * Note that rectifier power ratings must not be exceeded in order to prevent damage, and any graph should also show the proper curve according to the maximum permitted current versus voltage relationship.
 * from page 120: The typical static current versus reverse voltage characteristic curves, again depending on the temperature of the rectifier, show that, with a reverse voltage of about 500 V, only about 10 microamperes flow. There are one million microamperes in an Ampere. A breakdown happens if the reverse voltage is too high.

See also

 * Diodes
 * Wikipedia: Rectifiers

title: Electronics/Rectifier


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/M

mad = enajenado made available = se distribuye made her/him = la/lo ha puesto mailing = enviando major = considerable, principales making it work = emplearlo, componerlo meanwhile = mientras tanto meet = encontrar meddle = intromisión, entremeterse merge = fusionado met = encontró mode = método, usanza model = mostrar, mostrar modelos mortage = hipoteca murder = asesinato murdured = asesinado myriad = abundante cantidad

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/M


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/N

neglect = descuidar neighboring = adyacentes nestled = acurrucada network infrastructure = infraestructura redil not long ago = recientemente now = actualmente never = nunca, la jamas nevermore = nunca mas nest = el nido

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/N


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/O

oak = roble oblivious = desatento offers = ofrece office = oficinesco often = frecuentemente, a menudo order = mandar outcome = consecuencia, resultado outlook = actitud en cuanto al porvenir outrageously = atrozmente overhaul = repaso overplayed = sobrepasada overwhelmed = imponer, aumentar, abrumar overview = avance of = por parte de officials = oficiales públicos orb = esfera, globo

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/O


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/P

parade = desfile pass = transitar past few weeks [since the] = en el transcurso de algunas semanas path = camino performance = desempeño, rendimiento, escenario performs = desempeña, realiza, rinde phenomena = aspectos piety = piedad pillaged = despojado pioneer [to] = abrir camino, explorar, innovar planned = calculado planners = planificadores plateau = meseta play = tocar, sonar played = sonado player = aficionado plea = súplica, defensa, alegación plead = suplica plume = pluma, nubarrón police = supervisar pose = indica postponement = la pospuesta de _ powerless = incapaz, impotente, incapaces predates = precede predicament = caso presently = actualmente pressed = incitado [when pressed for details = cuando se le incitó detalles] pretty = considerablemente, suficientemente prevent = evitaría priced = valuado priestess = sacerdotisa procrastination = aplazamiento profits = se beneficia program = plan provide = proveer, proporciona, permite, ofrece [no ofrece = carece] [provided = proporcionado]

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/P


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/Q

quarter = trimestre quite = considerablemente

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/Q


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/R

rate = tasa ratio = proporción readily available = abasta disponibilidad regarding = considerando, en cuanto a regardless = desconsiderando rage = rabia reach = alcance released = extendió, lanzada releases = comunicados remain = permanecen remove = destituye reported = referido, citado reports = reportes, reportajes request = solicitudes, solicitaciones, pedido responsive = sensible, simpático resort = lugar de veraneo resourcefully = ingeniosamente revival = restauración revive = devuelve vida risk = arriesguen road = carretera rogue = indisciplinado roughly = ásperamente ruled out = excluido run wild = avanzan libremente

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/R


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/S

safe = resguardado sale = a la venta, oferta savvy = conocedores saying = voz ni voto scheduled = agendada score = cuentas, enumeración, enumeradas :: partitura scorn = repudian season = época see fit = aprueban sellfish = egoísta sending = enviando sent = remitir several = varios shape = formar shack = choza sharing = reparto shell = munición shipping = enviando, envío showcases = exhibe signs = señalan simplicity = sencillez since = como, debido a que single = singular, soltero slight = ligero slightly = ligeramente slogan = lema publicitario slopp = pila, depósito sloppy = derramante, desbordante, descuido snipers = francotiradores sources = fuentes spared = extento, perdonado splash = chapoteo, salpicadura sprawl = extendiente spree = festín, orgía, desenfreno sprout = retoño, brote, brotar staff = personal stale = rancio stalemate = estancada stalk = caza standpoint = ángulo statement = declaración stipulation = cláusula straddle = monta, jinetea strand = filamento strokes = trazos stops = evita storage = almacenamiento strenghtening = consolidación stretch = estirar, extender strike = golpes stripped of = sin stunted = aturdido, trastornado suddenly = imprevistamente summon = conjura supply = suministro support = amparar supporter = partidario surplus = exceso survival = supervivencia survive = sobrevivir survivor = sobreviviente

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/S


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/T

take = tocar

taxpayer = contribuyente, procedentes de impuestos team = equipo, grupo textbook = de conocimiento común therefore = por lo tanto thicket = matorral threat = amenazar thrill = estremecimiento, conmoción y exitación thrive = prospera, prosperar through = mediante tinder = yesca to = ofrendado told = informaron torn = me siento fragmentado, percibo fragmentada mi sensibilidad towns = urbes track = rastrear treat = considerar, tomar treated = considerados, tomados treeless = lampiño turned = giró twentieth = veintavo

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/T


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/U

ultimate = extrema, final update = actualizada, actualización unable = incapaz unauthorized = inautorizado unclear = incierto underbrush = sub-arbusto undergo = sufrir undersecretary = subsecretario undoubted = indudable uneasy = inquieto unsafe = inseguras up to = hasta upcoming = futuro upgrade = actualización usher = acomodar

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/U


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/V

vendors = proveedores mayoristas video-hire store (e.g. Blockbusters) = un videoclub vulnerability = vulnerabilidad computacional

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/V


text:
Spanish/Translation Reference/W

wrangle = disputas wrapped = envuelto warning = advierte wave = ademanan saludos way in which = método wealthy = prósperos weather = se trata sobre si wear out = desgastando, perdiendo when = mientras when it comes to = referente a whether = sin contar si, sobre si wide = extenso widely = comúnmente widely-used = popular widespread = común, general wild goose chase = caza descabellada, descabellada cacería wipe = borrar, restregar wire services = teledespachos within = a work = laboran world = contorno waiting in the wings = en progreso se encuentra

title: Spanish/Translation Reference/W


text:
Talk:The Pagan Beliefs Surrounding Christmas/Bibliography

THIS WAS ON POINT. YOU WOULD NOT BELIVE HOW MANY OF OUR TIME HONORED TRADIDTION COME FROM SUCH RUBISH


text:
Linux Guide/Linux commands

An A-Z Index of the Linux BASH command line

Note: The majority of commands listed here belong to coreutils.

 * The next list is from Transwiki:Useful unix command. Commands should be merged into the table above, with longer explanations placed somewhere in Guide to Unix/Commands. X11 commands go in the Guide to X11 book. Some of these are applications (like acroread); someone needs to find a book or place for them.

so that you can't recursively delete your /dev directory without telling the system you're sure you want to do it. The syntax for the absolute version is To set the uid to the owner's permissions, use To set the uid to the group's permissions, use There are lots of security issues related to allowing a program to have root's permissions when run by an ordinary user. I don't pretend to understand all of these issues. To restore from diskettes, use: The cpio command will prompt the user to insert more diskettes as they are needed. The command for mirroring a directory structure is the following: This copies the working directory and its contents, including subdirectories, into /destinationdirectory. In order to copy an individual file which is larger than a floppy, use: The ibs and bs options specify the block sizes for input and for both input and output. A boot disk image can be directly copied to a floppy using the second of the two dd commands above. will display detailed disk usage for each subdirectory starting at root, giving files sizes in bytes. where the filesystem is on /dev/devicename. The device should not be mounted, and this program must be run as root. This is a shell builtin. in order to find files matching a particular name on the working directory and all subdirectories. Find can be incredibly powerful, but it is incredibly obscure. did work. The single quotes are necessary. The files necessary to run grub are normally located in /boot/grub. Once the file menu.lst has been edited and appropriated entries added to boot the different operating systems on one's hard disk(s), the following sequence of commands can be used to install grub in the master boot record (MBR) sector of the hard disk: Here, the x should be replaced by the partition where the /boot/grub directory is located, which is probably the root partition of the Linux system. Note that grub has its own conventions for naming devices and numbering partitions, so that for example a partition which is called hda6 under Linux will be called (hd0,5) by grub. The -C option to lilo has lilo use the lilo.flop file instead of the default lilo.conf. To get this all the time, add to .bashrc. The following command will give directory listings in color, with file sizes in kilobytes, and append a character to the file to indicate its type. The default device for execution of these commands is /dev/fd0 and can be referred to as ``a:''. The user's home directory on the remote system must contain the file .rhosts with a list of users (preceded by the full domain name or exact IP address of their machine) with access privileges. The remote computer must recognize the local user and the local machine. See the rcp command for how to set up the .rhosts file on the remote machine. We need to find out about installing the rpm package on a Slackware box. It's probably better to use a package converter such as alien. prints the current user environment, giving the values of currently defined variables. The system subtracts x, y and z from the owner, group and other file permissions that it would otherwise assign to new files. This is a shell builtin. See the man pages for X, xdm, and Xserver. As usual, the man pages are pretty obscure. The best single source seems to be the Xserver man pages. After X is configured, X needs to be started at bootup with the command (in /etc/rc.d/init.d/xterm): If the address of a nameserver is not configured, then the numeric address of the remote machine rather than its name should be entered. If the machines are connected through ethernet cards and the net, then obviously basic networking has to be set up. Gnome and KDE come with their own versions of X display/login managers, called respectively gdm and kdm. Then, log onto the remote machine using rlogin (see above) or telnet. Once logged in, use the following command to get the remote X server to open an X terminal on the local machine: This is valid for csh, which is the default login shell on Nobel. For ksh, (and I think bash) replace with Other X-based programs such as Netscape or Gauss (graphical version) can also be run on a remote machine with display on the local machine with little trouble. The local X server is the program that has all of the information concerning the properties of the graphics card and terminal, so it must be necessary to have X running on the local machine. The following should also work. After using xhost to give permission to the remote machine to display on the local machine, use Question: can one start the X session on the local machine and then run a remote copy of a window manager? into the .xession (with xdm) or the .xinitrc (with startx) file.
 * a2p - translation utility from awk to Perl
 * a2ps - translation utility from ``any'' to Postscript
 * ac - print statistics concerning user connect time
 * access - determine whether a file can be accessed
 * acroread - Adobe utility for viewing pdf files
 * adduser - used by root to add user to system
 * usage: adduser userid
 * afio - utility to copy or restore files to an archive file. This utility is not part of the basic internal and external programs under Red Hat Linux. It is available as an rpm on the rpmfind.net site.
 * agetty - enables login on terminals. See getty, mgetty, and uugetty.
 * ali - list mail aliases
 * alias - assign name to specified command list. This is actually a shell builtin. On my Red Hat system, I have global alias commands in my /etc/bashrc file and in my /.bashrc file. On my Slackware box, I have made the rm command a little bit safer with
 * alias rm='rm -i'
 * alien - utility to convert to and from different Linux package formats. Can handle Debian (deb), Stampede (stp), Red Hat (rpm) and Slackware (tgz) packages.
 * apropos - display command names based on keyword search
 * usage: apropos keyword
 * apsfilter - printer filter called by lpd to deal with printing different types of files. This is a fairly sophisticated print filter. It is not set up by default in Slackware. It used to be available on the second cd of a Slackware distribution. Since 4.0, it is available as one of the main packages in the ap set. Read the mail that the installation program sends to the root user. I believe that Red Hat uses its own printer filters.
 * ar - create, modify and extract from archives
 * arch - print machine architecture type
 * as - the portable GNU assembler
 * asapm - AfterStep laptop advanced power management utility
 * ash - a shell, a very simple shell program sometimes used on boot diskettes since it takes up much less space than bash, tcsh, zsh, etc.
 * asload - AfterStep cpu load monitor
 * asmail - AfterStep mail checking utility
 * asmodem - AfterStep utility to monitor modem status
 * aspell - a spell checking program along the lines of ispell
 * aspostit - X Window postit note utility
 * at - executes a shell script at specified time. Use atq to show pending jobs, and atrm to remove jobs from the queue.
 * usage: at time
 * or: at -f file time
 * atq - shows pending jobs queued by at. If run by root, shows everybody's pending jobs.
 * atrm - removes pending jobs queued by at. Use atq to determine the identities of various jobs.
 * usage: atrm job
 * awk - searches for and process patterns in a file
 * banner - print banner to standard output. Syntax is
 * banner [option] [characters]
 * bash - Bourne again shell. This is the default shell in the Red Hat installation.
 * batch - queue, examine, or delete jobs for later execution. See at.
 * bc - a language (compiler) similar to C, with unlimited precision arithmetic
 * bg PID - send process with pid ``PID'' to the background. This is the same as executing [Ctrl]z while interacting with the running process. This is a shell builtin.
 * bh - puts a job in the background. This is a shell builtin.
 * biff - mail notification utility. Notifies user of mail arrival and sender's name.
 * bind - displays or redefines key bindings. This is a shell builtin.
 * bison - parser generator similar to yacc
 * bru - a powerful backup utility program. Commercial. Demonstration versions are often included with Linux distributions such as Red Hat.
 * bsh - equivalent to ash
 * bunzip2 - used to uncompress files compressed with bzip2
 * byacc - parser generator
 * bzip2 - compresses with algorithm different from gzip
 * bzless - view bzipped files
 * c++ - invokes GNU C and C++ compiler
 * cal - displays a 12-month calendar for the given year or a one-month calendar of the given month
 * usage: cal month year
 * cat - combine, copy standard input to standard output. Used to join or display files.
 * cd - change working directory. This is a shell builtin in bash, tcsh and zsh.
 * cdplay - command line utility for playing audio cds
 * cfdisk - similar to fdisk, but menu-driven
 * chat - used to interact with a modem via a chat script
 * chgrp - changes group associated with file. Can be used to change the group associated with subdirectories and files of a directory.
 * usage: chgrp group files
 * or: chgrp -R group files
 * chkconfig - Query or update system services/daemons for different runlevels. Manipulates the various symbolic links in /etc/rc.d. This utility is included with many rpm-based distributions such as RedHat and Mandrake. It is designed to work with System V initialization scripts. Graphical tools for configuring system services include ntsysv, tksysv and ksysv (the latter is a KDE utility).
 * chmod - set permissions (modes) of files or directories. A value of 4 is used for read permission. A value of 2 is used for write permission. A value of 1 is used for execute permission. See umask for default file permissions upon file creation. Chmod can also be used to change the suid bit on files. The syntax for the symbolic version is
 * chmod [options] who operation permission file-list
 * chmod [options] mode file-list
 * chmod u +s file-name
 * chmod g +s file-name
 * chown - changes ownership of a file. Can be used recursively.
 * usage: chown userid files
 * or: chown -R userid files
 * chsh - change default shell
 * ci - creates or records changes in an RCS file
 * clear - clear screen command
 * cmp - compares two files for differences
 * usage: cmp file1 file2
 * co - retrieves an unencoded version of an RCS file
 * comm - compares sorted files
 * configure - automatically configures software source code
 * color-xterm - color xterm program. Under Red Hat, this is just a link to xterm-color.
 * control-panel - graphical system configuration tool under Red Hat.
 * cp - copies on or more files. Recursive copying is one simple way of archiving part of a directory structure. Use the command as follows:
 * cp -r /sourcedirectory /targetdirectory
 * cpio - direct copy of files to an output device. Allows creation of archive file spanning multiple diskettes. Allows one directory structure to be mirrored elsewhere on the partition or on another partition. In order to back up an entire directory structure on diskettes, cd to the directory and use the following command:
 * find . -depth -print | cpio -ov > /dev/fd0
 * cpio -iv < /dev/fd0
 * find . -depth -print | cpio -pv /destinationdirectory
 * find . -name nameoffile -print | cpio -iv > /dev/fd0
 * cpkgtool - Slackware tool to install, uninstall and query packages. Front end to installpkg, removepkg, makepkg. This is the graphical version that uses ncurses.
 * cpp - GNU C-compatible compiler preprocessor
 * crontab - schedules command to run at regularly specified time
 * csh - run C shell
 * csplit - separate files into sections. See also split.
 * cvs - manages concurrent access to files in a hierarchy. Stands for concurrent version system. Is built on RCS. It stores successive revisions of files efficiently and ensures that access to files by multiple developers is done in a controlled manner. Useful when many developers are working on the same project.
 * cut - selects characters or TAB-separated fields from lines of input and writes them to standard output
 * date - displays or sets date and time
 * usage: date
 * or: date date
 * dd - direct copy of file from one device to another. Can be used to make copies of boot or root diskettes for installing Linux. It can be used, for example, to make and exact copy of a floppy disk, as follows. First, place the diskette to be copied in the floppy drive. Then,
 * dd if=/dev/fd0 ibs=512 > floppy.copy
 * Replace the diskette with a fresh diskette.
 * dd if=floppy.copy bs=512 of=/dev/fd0
 * declare - declares attributes for a variable (same as typeset). This is a shell builtin.
 * df - displays capacity and free capacity on different physical devices such as hard drive partitions and floppy drives that are mounted on the file system. Gives free space in blocks. With the (undocumented) option -h, the program gives free space in Mb or Gb. This is useful for those accustomed to thinking of the capacity of a high-density 3.5 inch diskette as 1440k.
 * diff - displays differences between two files
 * usage: diff file1 file2
 * diff3 - compares three files and reports on differences
 * dip - used to set up a SLIP or PPP connection. It can be used to set up an outgoing SLIP connection or an incoming connection.
 * diplogin - used for setting up incoming dip connections. See the man page for dip.
 * dir - a variation of the GNU ls command that defaults to printing file names in columns
 * dircolors - set colors for GNU ls command. In Slackware, this command is run by the /etc/profile script. Then, whenever xterm is run with the -ls (login shell) option, ls displays different colors for different types of files. Typical usage is eval `dircolors -b`. In Red Hat and Mandrake, I get color directories by aliasing the ls command (see below).
 * display - set display for output of programs under X Window. Can be used to run a program on a remote machine while displaying the output on a local machine. The remote machine must have permission to send output to the local machine. This is actually an environment variable. See the more detailed discussion in connection with the xhost command below.
 * dmesg - displays messages from /var/log relative to the most recent boot
 * dos - invoke the DOSEMU DOS emulator
 * du - displays information on disk usage. The command
 * du / -bh | less
 * dumpkeys - print information about the keyboard driver's translation tables to standard output
 * dvilj - send a dvi file to a Laserjet printer. There are specialized versions for individual models of Laserjet printer.
 * dvilj2p - specialized version of dvilj for the IIp series of printers. See above.
 * dvips - send a dvi file to a Postscript printer, to a Postscript capable Laserjet printer, or to a file (with the -o option). There is a switch to print only a subset of the pages, and another switch to print in landscape mode. Use -t landscape, which is one of the arguments to the paper type switch. If you have one page of a document that is a wide table, and you wish to print this in landscape mode, use
 * dvips filename -pp pagenumber -t landscape
 * e2fsck - check an ext2 filesystem. The syntax is
 * e2fsck /dev/devicename
 * echo - write arguments to standard output. One use is to print out information about environment variables, as in
 * echo $PATH - list paths to search
 * echo $HOME or echo ~ - list name of home directory
 * editres - a dynamic resource editor for X Toolkit applications. Allows the user to change X resources for individual applications.
 * efax - fax program
 * efix - convert between fax, text, bit-map and gray-scale formats
 * egrep - search files for lines that match regular expressions. Runs faster than grep and fgrep.
 * elm - an interactive mail system
 * elvis - a version of the vi text editor
 * emacs - screen oriented text editor
 * env - display the current environment or set a variable equal to a new value
 * eval - scans and evaluates the command line. See dircolors command. This is a shell builtin.
 * ex - interactive command-based editor. The man page lists it as being the same as vim, an improved version of vi.
 * exec - system call which creates a subshell to execute a binary or a script. This is a shell builtin.
 * execve - a variation of the exec command.
 * exit - exit a shell. This is a shell builtin.
 * expand - convert tabs in files to spaces and write to standard output
 * expect - a program that ``talks'' to other interactive programs according to a script. Following the script, Expect knows what can be expected from a program and what the correct response should be. An interpreted language provides branching and high-level control structures to direct the dialogue. In addition, the user can take control and interact directly when desired, afterward returning control to the script.
 * export - place the value of a variable in the calling environment (makes it global). This is a shell builtin.
 * expr - utility evaluates an expression and displays the result
 * f2c - FORTRAN to C translator
 * f77 - FORTRAN 77 compiler
 * false - null command that returns an unsuccessful exit status
 * fax - simple user interface to efax and efix programs
 * fc - views, edits, and executes commands for the history list. This is a shell builtin.
 * fdformat - low level format of a floppy device
 * fetchmail - retrieve mail from a remote mail server and pass it to local SMTP agents on the local machine
 * fdisk - used to partition hard drives
 * usage: fdisk device
 * fg PID - bring a background or stopped process with pid ``PID'' to the foreground. This is a shell builtin. If only one process is running in background mode, fg with no argument is sufficient to bring it to the foreground
 * fgrep - search for patterns in files
 * file - displays classification of a file or files according to the type of data they contain
 * find - find files according to a large variety of search criteria. The find command that I use the most is
 * find . -name filename -print
 * finger - display information about a specified userid or userids
 * fmt - simple text formatting utility. Tries to make all nonblank lines nearly the same length.
 * fold - break lines of specified files so they are no wider than a specified lengths
 * fortune - available in the bsdgames package in Slackware and other distributions. Put a call to fortune in /etc/profile and get something inspirational or amusing every time you fire up an xterm as a login shell.
 * free - gives used and free memory on system along with other useful information
 * fromdos - takes a DOS text file from stdin and sends a Unix file to stdout.
 * fsck - file system check and repair
 * ftp - file transfer over network
 * g++ - C++ compiler
 * g77 - GNU Fortran 77 compiler
 * gawk - GNU awk, mostly for processing delimited text files
 * gcc - invoke C, C++ compiler
 * getipts - parses arguments to a shell script. This is a shell builtin.
 * getkeycodes - print kernel's scancode-to-keycode mapping table
 * ghostscript - set of printing utilities. It seems to be obligatory to have this if a TEX installation such as teTEX is installed. How they communicate with one another is somewhat obscure.
 * ghostview - Aladdin ghostscript interpreter/previewer
 * gimp - image manipulation and paint program
 * glint - Red Hat graphical front end for the rpm package installer and manager.
 * grep - used to find a string within a file. The -i option returns matches without regard to case. The -n option means that each line of output is preceded by file name and line number. The -v option causes non-matched lines to be printed.
 * usage: grep pattern files
 * or: grep -i pattern files
 * or: grep -n pattern files
 * or: grep -v pattern files
 * groupadd - create a new group on the system
 * groups - shows which groups you are in
 * grub - Gnu grand unified bootloader. Can be used instead of lilo to boot multiple operating systems. I encountered a couple of snafus trying to install grub on my home machine after installing Mandrake 8.0 and choosing the lilo bootloader during the initial install. The Mandrake installation program set up /boot/vmlinuz as a symlink to the actual kernel, vmlinuz-2.4.3-20mdk. It took me a while to figure out that grub doesn't understand symbolic links. The documentation suggests installing grub on a diskette using the ``dd'' command. This refused to work, but
 * grub-install '(fd0)'
 * root (hd0,x)
 * setup (hd0)
 * grub-install - command to install grub on the hard drive (or floppy drive).
 * gunzip - used to uncompress files compressed with gzip
 * gv - PostScript and PDF previewer, based on ghostview
 * gvim - see vi
 * gzexe - compresses executables
 * gzip - used to compress or decompress files
 * halt - shut down system as root, without reboot, immediately
 * hash - remembers the location of commands in the search path. This is a shell builtin.
 * head - displays first part of a file
 * history - command for viewing and manipulating the shell command history list
 * host - look up host names using domain server
 * hostname - used to get or set hostname. Typically, the host name is stored in the file /etc/HOSTNAME.
 * hwclock - used to query and set the hardware clock
 * hylafax - commercial fax program
 * id - display userid and groupid
 * inetd - daemon which starts up other daemons on demand. Configured in /etc/inetd.conf.
 * ifconfig - display (as root) information on network interfaces that are currently active. First ethernet interface should be listed as eth0, second as eth1, etc. First modem ppp connection should be listed as ppp0, etc. The ``lo connection is ``loopback only.
 * ifdown - shut down the network interface
 * ifup [interface_name] - start up the interface
 * info - display system information. This is the GNU hypertext reader.
 * init - the mother of all processes, run at bootup, executes commands in /etc/inittab. Can be used (with root privileges) to change the system run level.
 * usage: init run_level
 * insmod - used (by root) to install modular device drivers
 * installpkg - Slackware command to install one of the packages from the program sets
 * intr - interrupt key, usually [Ctrl-C]
 * ispell - checks files for spelling errors
 * usage: ispell files
 * jed - programmer's file editor. Behaves like emacs. Has modes for TEX, FORTRAN, C, etc.
 * jobs - displays list of current jobs in the background. This is a shell builtin.
 * joe - simple WordStar-like text editor. It can be invoked in emacs emulation mode with jemacs and in WordStar emulation mode with jstar.
 * jove - Joseph's Own Version of Emacs. A simple emacs clone.
 * kbd_mode - print current keyboard mode
 * kernelcfg - GUI to add/remove kernel modules (as root in X terminal).
 * kerneld - kernel daemon, a process that stays in memory and does all sorts of useful stuff, like automatic loading of device driver modules
 * kikbd - a utility program that comes with KDE that allows users to switch on the fly among different international keyboards. It can be used under different window managers than kfm.
 * kill - sends a signal to (especially to terminate) a job or process. This is a shell builtin in bash, tcsh and zsh.
 * killall - kill processes by name. Kill all processes which are instances of the specified program. Also used to send signals to processes or restart them.
 * killall5 - kill all processes except the ones on which it depends
 * last - generate a listing of user logins
 * lastlog - prints the last login times of all users
 * latex - compile a LATEX file
 * ldconfig - creates the necessary links and cache (for use by the run-time linker, ld.so) to the most recent shared libraries found in the directories specified on the command line, in the file /etc/ld.so.conf, and in the trusted directories (/usr/lib and /lib). Ldconfig checks the header and file names of the libraries it encounters when determining which versions should have their links updated. Ldconfig ignores symbolic links when scanning for libraries.
 * ldd - list the shared libraries on which a given executable depends, and where they are located
 * leave - display reminder at specified time
 * less - Linux alternative to ``more'' command. Displays text files, one screenful at a time. When less pauses, there is a large number of available commands to tell it what to do next. One can scroll both forwards and backwards.
 * let - evaluates a numeric expression. This is a shell builtin.
 * lilo - installs boot loader on the boot sector of a hard drive, of a diskette, or in another location. My 486 has a hard drive that is too large for the machine's BIOS, so I have to boot from a floppy. To create a boot diskette, I do the following (as root):
 * /sbin/fdformat /dev/fd0H1440
 * /sbin/mkfs.ext2 /dev/fd0
 * mount -t ext2 /dev/fd0 /mnt/floppy
 * cp -dp /boot/* /mnt/floppy
 * /sbin/lilo -C /etc/lilo.flop
 * linuxconf - interactive tool for configuring Linux system. Uses X if loaded. This is a Gnome tool. It comes with my Red Hat distribution, and is not included with Slackware. It would seem to be the easiest way to configure Linux under Slackware. Version 1.15 is available for Slackware. There is a pretty good introduction to the use of linuxconf in the Red Hat 5.2 installation manual, which is available online at their web site.
 * ln - creates a link to a file. Used to create hard links and, with the -s option, symbolic links which can link files on different disk partitions. The syntax is
 * ln [options] source [dest]
 * locate filename - find the file name which contains the string ``filename''. The syntax is easier than the find command.
 * lock - temporarily lock terminal
 * lockfile - create semaphore file(s), used to limit access to a file
 * - log in to system
 * logname - consult /etc/utmp for user's login name
 * logout - execute logout as individual user and bring up login: prompt
 * look - look for strings in files
 * lpq - show print jobs that are waiting
 * lpr - send file to be printed
 * lprm - cancel a job from print queue
 * ls - list directory contents. To get colored directory listings under Red Hat, Mandrake, etc., use
 * ls -color
 * alias ls='ls -color=auto'
 * alias ls='ls -Fskb -color=auto'
 * lsattr - list attributes of files in ext2 file system
 * lsmod - used (by root) to show kernel modules currently loaded
 * lspci - utility to display information on pci buses and hardware devices attached to them. Part of the pciutils package that comes with many Linux distributions.
 * lspnp - utility to display information about pnp devices. Part of the pcmcia or kernel-pcmcia package, depending on the distribution.
 * m4 - an implementation of the traditional Unix macro processor. It can be used with the sendmail configuration package in Red Hat (and Slackware) to generate a sendmail.conf configuration file without having to edit the configuration file directly.
 * magicfilter - general purpose printer filter. See apsfilter above. apsfilter is the printer filter that comes with the Red Hat and Slackware distributions.
 * mail - sends or reads electronic mail
 * make - keeps a set of programs current. This is a utility that helps when developing a set of programs. It works by executing a script called makefile, Makefile or GNUmakefile in the working directory. It is very often used in combination with configure when compiling and installing noncompiled software packages.
 * makebootdisk - command in Slackware to do just what the name says
 * MAKEDEV - executable script to make device files on /dev
 * makeswap - configures swap space
 * man - displays information from online Unix reference manual
 * manpath - attempt to determine path to manual pages
 * mc - Midnight Commander file manager and visual shell
 * mesg - enables/disables reception of messages
 * minicom - terminal program
 * mkdir - create a directory
 * mkfs - create a file system (format) on a device or partition. Should be invoked after lowlevel formatting of the disk using fdformat. It has several versions which are all links to the basic program, such as mkfs.ext2 and mkfs.msdos.
 * mkswap - creates a Linux swap space on the specified hard disk parition (root privileges neede)
 * usage: mkswap device
 * more - list file contents, stopping after each full screen
 * mount -t [fstype] [device] [mountpoint] - mount device using filesystem of type [fstype] with device name [device] at the location [mountpoint] in the filesystem directory tree
 * mount -a - mount all filesystems according to the specifications in /etc/fstab
 * mouseconfig - mouse configuration utility under Red Hat. Located in /usr/sbin.
 * mpage - print multiple pages per sheet on a Postscript printer. Can also be used to print a page in landscape mode.
 * Mtools - package of MS-DOS utilities. Includes the following commands.
 * mcd - changes working directory on DOS disk
 * mcopy - copies DOS files from one directory to another
 * mdel - deletes DOS files
 * mdir - lists contents of DOS directories
 * mformat - adds DOS formatting information to a disk
 * mtype - displays contents of a DOS file
 * mv - moves (renames) files
 * netconf - used (as root) to set up network
 * newaliases - rebuilds the /etc/aliases database used by sendmail. Must be rerun every time /etc/aliases is modified for the changes to take effect.
 * newgrp - similar to login. Changes user's identification
 * nice program_name - sets the priority of the program ``program_name''.
 * nm - lists the symbols from object files objfile. If no object files are given as arguments, nm assumes `a.out'.
 * nohup - runs a command that keeps running after logout. The command is in principle immune to hangups, and must have output to a non tty. According to Linux in a Nutshell, this is necessary only in the Bourne shell, since modern shells preserve background processes by default.
 * ntsysv - run level editor under Red Hat. This is the equivalent of tksysv, but does not require a graphical interface.
 * nxterm - color xterm program. The man page for nxterm under Red Hat brings up the same page as xterm.
 * od - dumps contents of a file
 * passwd - change login password
 * paste - joins corresponding lines from files
 * patch - updates source code. Attempts to update a file from a file of change information, or pathces, created by diff.
 * pathchk - determine validity and portability of filenames
 * pdflatex - part of the pdftex program suite. Produces pdf output from a LATEX file.
 * pdftex - produces pdf output from a TeX file. See also pdflatex. This program is part of the tetex 0.9 distribution that is included with Red Hat 5.2 and above, and with Slackware 4.0 and above. It is also available as a separate program.
 * perl - practical extraction and report language
 * pg - display data one screenful at a time
 * pico - simple screen oriented text editor. It is included as part of the Pine program.
 * ping - check if Internet computer is responding. Can also measure the time it takes the queried computer to respond.
 * pkgtool - Slackware tool to install, uninstall and query packages. Front end to installpkg, removepkg, makepkg. The cpkgtool is the ncurses graphical version of this program.
 * popclient - retrieve mail via the Post Office Protocol. Supports POP2 and POP3.
 * popd - pops the top directory of the directory stack and uses cd to change to that directory. This is a shell builtin.
 * pr - paginates files for printing
 * printenv - display list of environment variables
 * printtool - run (as root) in an X terminal to configure your printer(s)
 * ps - displays status of processes. Use the -a option for processes for all users. Use the -x option to include processes not attached to a terminal.
 * pstree - display processes in the form of a tree structure. Killing a parent process will also kill all the children and their descendants.
 * pushd - pushes the argument onto the top of the directory stack and uses cd to change to that directory. This is a shell builtin.
 * pwd - print absolute path of working directory. This is a shell builtin.
 * pwchk - checks the integrity of password and shadow files
 * pwconv - converts passwords to the shadow password format
 * pwunconv - unconverts passwords from the shadow password format. Generates a standard Unix password file.
 * python - interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming language
 * rcp - copy one or more files to or from remote computer. The syntax is poorly explained in the documentation that I have, including the man pages. Usage is:
 * rcp filename username@remotehost:path
 * localhostname username
 * rcs - creates or changes the attributes of an RCS file. Stands for Revision Control System.
 * rdev - query/set image root device, swap device, RAM disk size, or video mode in kernel
 * read - reads line from standard input. This is a shell builtin.
 * readonly - declares a variable to be read only. This is a shell builtin.
 * reboot - in Slackware, reboots the system. Seems to be equivalent to shutdown -r now in generic Linux.
 * renice program_name - resets the priority of process ``program_name''.
 * reset - used to reset the screen characteristics. This is useful if the screen gets messed up from, for example, trying to display a binary file in an xterm.
 * return - exits from a function. This is a shell builtin.
 * rlog - prints a summary of the history of an RCS file
 * rlogin - log in to remote computer. The general syntax is as follows, using the UQAM Nobel machine as an example:
 * rlogin -l userid nobel.si.uqam.ca
 * rm - remove files or directories. With the -r (recursive) option (very dangerous!), can be used to remove the contents of a specified directory including all subdirectories.
 * rmail - interpret and handle remote mail received via uucp
 * rmdir - remove empty directories
 * rmmod - used to remove modular device drivers
 * route -n - show routing table. The n option returns numerical addresses rather than names.
 * rpm - invokes the Red Hat package manager in command line mode. I often use this command in query mode to query packages about what files they contain and to find out which package owns a particular file. Examples are
 * rpm -qil foo. Gives package information and a file list for the package foo.
 * rpm -qfil foo. Gives package information and a file list for the package that owns the file foo. Foo must be in the working directory, or the full path to foo must be specified.
 * rpm2tgz - an extremely useful utility on Slackware systems that converts rpm packages to tgz format. They can then be installed using the installpkg command (or pkgtool).
 * rsh - execute shell command on a remote computer. See rcp and rlogin.
 * rstat - summarize host's status: uptime, load averages, and current time
 * ruptime - show host status of local machines
 * rusers - list who is logged on local machines
 * rwall - write to all users over a network
 * rwho - show who is logged in on a LAN. The rwho service must be enabled for this command to run. If it isn't, run ``setup as root. I don't understand this last remark, which comes from ``Linux Newbie Administrator Guide.
 * rxvt - a terminal program similar to xterm, but which has less features and uses less memory
 * sed - edits a file (not interactively). Also a tool for processing text files.
 * set - set or display value of shell variables. This is a shell builtin. The command
 * set | less
 * setenv - set or display value of environment variables
 * setserial - used by root to configure a serial port
 * setterm - set terminal attributes for a virtual console
 * setuid - set the id of a program when it is run. Used, for example, to give root privileges to a program run by an ordinary user. This is actually done by running the chmod program as root. See the chmod command for the syntax.
 * setup - Slackware program to set up program sets and configure system. Setup devices and file systems, mount root file system
 * sh - standard Unix shell. On Linux, just another name for bash.
 * shift - promotes each command-line argument. This is a shell builtin.
 * showmount - show information about an nfs server
 * shutdown - reboot or shut down system as root, after specified amount of time. With the -r option, reboot. With the -h option, halt the system.
 * usage: shutdown -r minutes
 * sleep - creates process that sleeps for specified interval
 * sliplogin - attaches a SLIP interface to standard input. Used to allow dialin SLIP connections.
 * sort - sorts and/or merge files
 * split - split file into specified number of segments
 * ssh - secure shell. Apparently has many of the same functionalities as rlogin, telnet, ftp, rsh, etc., with better security and encryption features. We may want to learn how to set this up and use it.
 * startx - front end to xinit in Linux. This is a script which starts up X clients and shuts down the X server on exit from the window manager.
 * startx -- :1 - start the next X window session on the display 1 (the default is opened on display 0). One can switch between different graphical displays using [Ctrl][Alt][F7], [Ctrl][Alt][F8], etc.
 * stty - sets or displays operating options for terminal
 * su - log in as another user, including root
 * sudo - allows individual users to have root permission to perform specified tasks
 * swapoff - disables swap disk
 * swapon - enables swap disk
 * symlinks - provide list of and information about symbolic links
 * sync - writes memory buffers to physical devices
 * systat - query host for system information
 * tac - print file in reverse
 * tail - displays the last part of a file
 * talk - visual communication program that copies lines from one terminal to that of another user
 * tcl - scripting language
 * tcsh - extended version of the C shell
 * tee - copy standard input to standard output and one or more files
 * telinit - used to change run level. Exact run level that corresponds to single-user, multi-user, and X levels depends on distribution.
 * telnet - remote login over network (to login to serverX, use the command telnet serverX)
 * test - evaluates an expression or compares arguments. This is a shell builtin in bash, tcsh and zsh.
 * tftp - user interface to TFTP protocol
 * time - displays times for the current shell and its children. This is a shell builtin. Strange, because there is also a /usr/bin/time program on my Red Hat system.
 * tin - Netnews reader
 * tkdesk - graphical desktop file manager for X
 * tksysv - graphical runlevel editor under Red Hat. Allows root to configure the services that are started at each run level.
 * tload - display system load average in graph format
 * top - dynamically displays process status
 * touch - update access and modification times of a file. If the file does not exist on disk, an empty file is created.
 * tr - translation utility that can be used, for example, to replace specified characters in a text file
 * trap - traps a signal. This is a shell builtin.
 * true - null command that returns a successful exit status
 * tset - initializes terminal
 * tty - shows special file that represents your terminal. Displays the terminal pathname.
 * type - displays how each argument would be interpreted as a command. This is a shell builtin.
 * typeset - declares attributes for a variable (same as declare). This is a shell builtin.
 * ul - translate underscores to underlining
 * umask - establishes the file-creation permissions mask. Usage is
 * umask xyz
 * umount [device] - finish writing to the device and remove it from the active filesystem. The command umount -a will (re)mount all file systems listed in /etc/fstab.
 * unalias - remove name previously defined by alias. This is a shell builtin.
 * uname - displays information about the system. With no arguments, it displays the name of the operating system. With the -a option, it displays information about the operating system, the host name, and hardware.
 * uniq - displays lines of a file that are unique
 * unset - removes a variable or function. This is a shell builtin.
 * unzip - uncompress files compressed with the zip utility, compatible with DOS PKzip
 * updatedb - update file database used by locate command
 * uptime - shows the time, how long the system has been up, the number of users, and average load.
 * useradd - same as adduser
 * userdel - remove an account (as root). The user's home directory and undelivered mail must be dealt with separately.
 * users - prints list of users on the system
 * vdir - variant of the GNU version of the ls command. Defaults to printing out the long version of directory entries.
 * vi - standard screen oriented Unix editor
 * view - vi in read-only mode
 * vim - improved vi editor
 * vrfy - query remote host to verify the accuracy of an email address
 * w - display info about userids and active processes
 * wait - waits for a background process to terminate. This is a shell builtin.
 * wc - displays number of lines, characters and words in a file
 * Wharf - the AfterStep application dock module
 * whatis - display one-line summary of specified command
 * whereis - use to find utilities in standard locations
 * which - used to find utilities in search path. Will return the absolute directory path of the named utility program.
 * who - display information about currently logged in userids
 * whoami - display information about userid that is currently logged in
 * wish - front end to tk, an X window extension of tcl
 * workbone - console based cd player
 * workman - graphical cd player program
 * write - send messages to another local user
 * X - the X server
 * xadm - display advanced power management BIOS information
 * xargs - converts standard output of one command into arguments for another. This is one of those powerful but obscure commands. Xargs reads arguments from the standard input, delimited by blanks (which can be protected with double or single quotes or a backslash) or newlines, and executes the command (default is /bin/echo) one or more times with any initial-arguments followed by arguments read from standard input. Blank lines on the standard input are ignored.
 * xbiff - graphical mail delivery notification utility
 * xcalc - simple calculator program
 * xclipboard - name says it all
 * Xconfigurator - Red Hat utility for configuring settings for X
 * xdm - used to start an X login session. This can be used to start a login session on a remote system. See the discussion on the following site:
 * http://www.menet.umn.edu/~kaszeta/unix/xterminal/index.html
 * X -quiet -query remotemachineaddress
 * xdvi - view a dvi file compiled under LATEX
 * xedit - a simple text editor for X
 * xf86config - graphical configuration tool for X
 * XF86Setup - graphical configuration tool for X
 * xfd - display an available font in X. Creates a grid in an x-term with one character per rectangle.
 * xfig - utility for interactive generation of figures
 * xfm - graphical file manager for X
 * xhost - tell X server that remote computer has access to your machine and that you will use the remote computer. This can be used to set up remote X sessions. To set up a remote X session on the UQAM Nobel machine, run the following command on the local machine (one doesn't have to be root to do this)
 * xhost +nobel.si.uqam.ca
 * setenv DISPLAY localhostname:0 ; xterm &
 * DISPLAY=localhostname:0
 * export DISPLAY ; xterm
 * netscape -display localhostname:0.0
 * xinit - start X Window. The command startx is a front end to xinit in Linux, including Slackware.
 * xload - displays a graphic of the system load
 * xlpq - graphical interface to print manager. This is included on one of the XFCE menus, but does not seem to be a part of the base Red Hat distribution.
 * xlsfonts - list fonts available under the X Window system.
 * xman - browsable command reference. Displays manual pages under X.
 * xmh - graphical front end under X to the nmh mail handling system. This program is part of the XFree86 package in Red Hat.
 * xmodmap - utility for modifying keymaps and pointer button mappings in X. Can be used to install a French Canadian keyboard. Download the Xmodmap.cf file from www.linux-quebec.org, and insert the command
 * xmodmap /etc/X11/Xmodmap.cf &
 * xosview - displays bar graphs of system load, load average, memory usage, and swap usage
 * xpaint - simple paint program for X
 * xpdf - GPL'd utility for previewing dvi files. Doesn't seem to work too well on texts with a lot of math.
 * xplaycd - X Window audio cd player utility
 * xsetroot - utility to configure root window of an X terminal
 * xsysinfo - graphical display of load and memory usage
 * xterm - start an X Window terminal session
 * xterm-color - color version of xterm
 * xv - utility for viewing and manipulating many types of image files. This is a shareware program.
 * xvidtune - utility for fine tuning of monitor settings under X
 * xwd - screen capture command
 * xwud - view images captured with xwd
 * yacc - parser generator
 * ytalk - multi-user program similar to talk
 * zcat - read one or more files that have been compressed with gzip or compress and write to standard output
 * zcmp - read compressed files and pass them to cmp
 * zdiff - read compressed files and pass them to diff
 * zgrep - read compressed files and pass them to grep
 * Zharf - AfterStep button panel module
 * zip - zip utility compatible with DOS PKzip
 * zless - view zipped files
 * zmore - print contents of compressed files one screen at a time
 * znew - uncompress Z files and recompress in .gz format

Guia do Linux/Iniciante+Intermediário/Comandos diversos

title: Linux Guide/Linux commands


text:
Talk:US History/Age of Invention and Gilded Age

what is one invention from the gilded age

Help!
needs editing! there are weird errors on this page!

How Industry Affected Laborers
During the machine age, there were a number of strikes that took place due to the demands from factories and time clocks. It was hard for individuals to adjust to that system, and as a result, they challenged the system by ignoring management's orders, skipping work, or quitting. The desire and longing for better wages led to anxiety and frustration. Like farming and mining, industry was massive in size and changed not only the nature of the work, but the person doing it. Soon, all of these disgruntled individuals formed specialized groups into unions. The different jobs varied in not only skill, but other things as well that were non-related to worker conflict; race, sex, ect. These jobs were such as working on/in railroads, steel factories, and automobiles. The outcome for many working in labor during the Gilded Age led to horrific labor violence. Industrialists and workers literally fought over control of the workplace. Many suffered due to the strikes and riots and it inevitably led to deaths, loss of jobs, and often continuous violence. For most American workers, the Machine age had varying results. At times there was no job stability and when costs of living would increase drastically there were even more problems.


text:
User:Aaronsama

Hello! I'm an entrepreneur and language enthusiast currently residing in Wyandotte, Michigan, USA. In addition to native English, I speak Japanese, Portuguese, French, and a bit of Korean, Spanish, and Chinese. In addition to language study, I enjoy classical music, business education, computers, and Japanese literature. Thanks for visiting my page.

I'm currently contributing to the Japanese Wikibook as a supplement to a free course I'm teaching in Riverview, Michigan.

Feel free to leave me a message on the discussion page, or e-mail me at aaronsama@yahoo.com, and include "Wikibooks" in the subject line.

Check out my templates.

title: User:Aaronsama


text: User talk:80.254.107.50

title: User talk:80.254.107.50


text: User talk:70.160.192.89

title: User talk:70.160.192.89


text:
User talk:71.98.191.249

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:71.98.191.249


text:
User talk:139.130.66.38

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:139.130.66.38


text:
Georgia Water/Best Practices/Planning

Best Practices in Water Resources Planning

Overview of Planning
In general, planning is analysis to identify a "best" set of actions to attain a more desirable future for someone (some intended beneficiary). Planning analyses vary in scope, scale and level of detail, according to:
 * who is the intended beneficiary (ex: a country, a community, a business, an individual)
 * what types of future conditions are desired
 * what range of actions will be considered for attaining the future conditions.

Generic Problem to be Solved
In general, planning analyses are initiated because someone (possibly the intended beneficiary) perceives that planning is needed. That is, someone perceives a "problem" (that the future condition is not likely to meet expectations) or someone perceives an "opportunity" (that the future condition could be better if some actions were taken).

Comprehensive MultiSector Regional Planning

 * Energy planning
 * Transportation planning
 * Recreation planning
 * Biodiversity planning
 * Forest planning
 * Food planning
 * Economic planning
 * Urban planning

Integrated Regional Water Resources Planning

 * River basin planning
 * State water plans

Single-Purpose Regional Water Resources Planning

 * Water supply
 * Wastewater treatment
 * Water quality and nonpoint source management
 * Flood management and storm damage reduction
 * Navigation
 * Fish and Wildlife
 * Recreation
 * Hydropower generation

title: Georgia Water/Best Practices/Planning


text: User talk:207.200.116.139

title: User talk:207.200.116.139


text: User talk:67.166.39.211

title: User talk:67.166.39.211


text: User talk:84.121.1.120

title: User talk:84.121.1.120


text:
Water Resources Directory

Table of contents

 * /People/
 * /Organizations/
 * /Education/
 * /Research/
 * /Laws/
 * /Ethics/
 * Data & Maps
 * /Culture/
 * /News/
 * /Library/

title: Water Resources Directory


text:
Cookbook:Onion Dip

This delicious sour cream and onion dip will bring back memories of carefully emptying a dried soup envelope into a tub of sour cream and gently trying to push the salty mass into the center so you can stir it without choking on instant soup dust. This recipe delivers richer, fresher flavor. Eat it with potato crisps.

Ingredients

 * ½ medium onion (white or yellow), minced
 * 1 tablespoon vegetable oil
 * 1 instant vegetable bouillon cube (enough to make 1 cup of bouillon), crushed
 * ¼ cup water
 * 1 cup sour cream
 * ½ teaspoon onion powder
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) In a small saucepan, sweat the onion gently with a pinch of salt and pepper until it becomes transparent.
 * 2) Increase the heat and sauté until the onion becomes golden-brown and forms a sticky mass.
 * 3) Add the water and crushed bouillon cube, and simmer until some of the water has evaporated and the liquid is thick.
 * 4) Remove the pan from the heat and add the sour cream. Stir until smooth.
 * 5) Add the onion powder and taste. Add salt and pepper if desired.
 * 6) Refrigerate before serving.

title: Cookbook:Onion Dip


text:
Talk:IB Mathematics (HL)

is this page a joke, vandalism, or something legitimate? --Whiteknight T C E 22:06, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

I'll change it and write something valuable. 63.199.231.59 04:59, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

Oops...forgot to sign in. Splat 05:12, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:IB Mathematics (HL)