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User:Marinerrr

Contributing User: Marinerrr

My name is Troy and I have been a CPA since 1999. I graduated in Accounting in 1996 and was employed by a "Big Six" accounting firm. In 1998, I went to work for one of our clients in the Internal Audit department. Currently, my role is that of Director of Financial Compliance, where I oversee corporate compliance with the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, NYSE reporting requirements, and SEC reporting and disclosure requirments.

Other accomplishments and activities: I hold a Master's degree in Organizational Leadership, am a Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA), and am an Officer and Board Member of a local chapter of ISACA (Information Systems Audit and Control Association).

While auditing (both financial and IT) and accounting are what I have been trained in, my true passion lies in teaching. Since these are the topics I am most familiar with, they are the topics where the majority of my contributions will be located.

title: User:Marinerrr


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Ossicle

Contents

 * 1) General Concepts
 * 2) Otology and Neurotology
 * 3) Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
 * 4) Oral Cavity and Oropharynx
 * 5) Larynx and Proximal Trachea
 * 6) Craniofacial & Facial Plastic Surgery
 * 7) Head and Neck Cancer
 * 8) Pediatric & Developmental

Appendices

 * Figures & Images Used Here

For editors

 * /Style Guide/
 * /Authors/

Medical Disclaimer
HNO-Heilkunde

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ossicle


text:
User:Shashank

Hi Shahank

title: User:Shashank


text:
User:Narkstraws

Wow. WYSWYG editing. Cool.

title: User:Narkstraws


text:
User talk:Narkstraws

My talk.

title: User talk:Narkstraws


text:
User:OinkOink~enwikibooks

In case you are a lover of real names, OinkOink's real name is Bret Jolly.

title: User:OinkOink~enwikibooks


text:
Ossicle/Style Guide

Current Otorhinolaryngology Style Guide
Back to TOC

Overview
The goal of this collection is to provide a scholarly and readily accessible resource for professionals on Head and Neck disorders. Consequently, there are several rules regarding formatting and citation that must be followed to keep this collection uniform and professional.

For ease of use, each entry within this text should be written as if it were its own review article. This should allow the reader a simple one-print mechanism to obtain high quality information on a given subject. Please keep editorialism to a minimum. While a “Discussion” section for each topic is encouraged, its contents should come from reasonable extrapolation of cited data, not mere opinion.

Scholarly Sources & Citation Format

 * The article’s body should eventually be thoroughly cited from (preferably) primary sources published in peer-reviewed journals.

 * In the interest of ease of publication, partial articles and uncited articles will be allowed at present.
 * Until a Reference list is completed, the Template:Uncited template should appear at the top of any incompletely cited articles.
 * Briefly, this is done by inserting the  markup at the top of a page, on its own separate line, when Editing.
 * Citations will be made by using the Harvard referencing system. Citing Sources. Briefly, this means following your cited text with with a parenthetical reference to the author and the year of publication, e.g. (Smith 2001).
 * References will be listed as the last Level 2 Heading on the page, titled "References".
 * The References list should be formatted using the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals requirements.
 * Well-established and time-tested fact or premise need not be cited, but realize it does open the article up for criticism.

Article Formatting
To maintain a professional look, please publish with a unified format:
 * Use the “Contents” template at the very top of the article
 * Divide into sections using “Level 2 Headline” formatting in Wiki Markup
 * Introduction
 * Clinical Presentation
 * Epidemiology
 * Pathophysiology
 * Treatment Options
 * Discussion
 * References
 * Capitalize the first initials in Level 2 Headline.
 * Cross reference other articles in this text by making the keyword an “Internal Link”. Please only link a keyword the first time it appears in your article.
 * Common abbreviations should be spelled out with the abbreviation in parenthesis for its first use in each article.
 * Please write in third-person style.
 * Please spell check.
 * For all other matters of style, please refer to the Wikipedia Manual of Style

title: Ossicle/Style Guide


text:
Talk:How to Pass a Course/Taking notes

ıf your teacher repeats or writes something note it

title: Talk:How to Pass a Course/Taking notes


text:
The Cold War/Cuban Missile Crisis

Summary
The Cuban Missile Crisis, in October 1962, was probably the closest the United States and the Soviet Union came to initiating nuclear war. The placing of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba, aimed at the United States, could have escalated into a full scale war between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union allied with the new revolutionary government of Fidel Castro in Cuba not only because Khrushchev supported revolutions which overthrew "oppressive" capitalist regimes, but also to use Cuba strategically against the United States. It is possible that Khrushchev placed nuclear missiles in Cuba within reach of almost all USA because the United States had surrounded the Soviet Union with their own nuclear missiles, especially in Turkey. By the end of October 1962, the possibility of nuclear war had been averted by negotiations between US President John Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, but the “winner” of the situation was not immediately clear.

However, there was another possible scenario- a Soviet first strike according to Soviet colonel Oleg Penkovsky, who used his position both in Military Intelligence and contacts with high ranking generals to determine Kruschev's alleged ambitions to spark a nuclear war. Colonel Penkovsky, who fought Hitler's armies in World War II called Kruschev "the atomic Hitler" in his warnings to MI-6 and CIA. Penkovsky gave his life to provide technical data and operating manuals on the 1000 mile range SS-4 which is widely known to have been deployed to Cuba, but also on the 2100 mile range SS-5. The SS-5's deployed to Cuba would have put almost all of the continental US within the reach of Soviet IRBM's tipped with 3 MT warheads. Thankfully, none of the SS-5's seem to have been armed, although a few of the SS-4's were armed and under local field control in case Moscow was hit in a nuclear exchange.

Background
As early as the Vienna summit between Kennedy and Khrushchev in June 1961, Khrushchev defended the Cuban revolution and the legitimacy of the Castro regime. Khrushchev held that no country had the right to be involved in Cuba's internal affairs, but that, if Castro's government was not the right one, another revolution would inevitably depose Castro because the Cuban people would be dissatisfied with his regime. Already at this summit, the tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union in regard to Cuba can be seen. The discussion of Cuba established Khrushchev’s objectives for Cuba. He reaffirmed Soviet policy supporting nationalist movements by defending Castro’s revolution in Cuba. He also used the summit to warn Kennedy not to intervene in Cuba; basically warning the United States not to invade Cuba. Khrushchev also brought into discussion the US nuclear missiles in Turkey.

Buildup

Both Kennedy and Khrushchev wanted to avoid nuclear war at all costs. Khrushchev realized that the United States possessed far more nuclear weapons and had them strategically better deployed to strike against the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union possessed far fewer nuclear missiles, and they were mainly obsolete, and very few, if any, were positioned to strike the continental United States. Khrushchev worried about the missile gap between the two superpowers and desired the placement of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba to match the US missile placement along the Soviet border. Over the summer, and into the autumn of 1962, Khrushchev sent Soviet missiles to Cuba to threaten the US border. By October 1962, the situation had escalated to the brink of war between the United States and the Soviet Union. Since Kennedy and Khrushchev both wished to avoid war, the two leaders opened negotiations with the other to alleviate the tensions brought by the placement of the missiles.

Negotiations
On 26 October 1962, Khrushchev, in a private letter to Kennedy, offered to remove the Soviet missiles in Cuba in exchange for a pledge by the United States not to invade Cuba. Publicly, Khrushchev blamed Kennedy for pushing the two countries closer to war with aggressive behavior towards Cuba, and for the blockade prohibiting Soviet ships from entering the Caribbean. Khrushchev’s reason for blaming Kennedy for trying to start a war was to legitimize the presence of Soviet missiles in the western hemisphere. The only way the Soviet Union could win a nuclear war against the United States would be to turn international opinion against the United States.

The following day, 27 October 1962, Khrushchev added the removal of US missiles in Turkey to his demands. Although Khrushchev desperately needed to avoid war with the United States, he criticized the United States’ hypocrisy regarding defense policy. The United States intervened in other nations’ internal affairs to protect its own interests, but denied the Soviet Union that same right. Khrushchev guaranteed the sovereignty of Turkey and pledged not to invade Turkey, but demanded that the United States pledge not to invade Cuba, and remove American missiles in Turkey in exchange for the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba. This arrangement would partially ease the reciprocity issue to Khrushchev’s benefit. Later on the 27th, Kennedy responded favorably to Khrushchev’s letter of the previous day. Kennedy agreed to remove the blockade and give assurances against an American invasion of Cuba in exchange for the immediate removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba.

Kennedy’s letter to Khrushchev signalled the easing of the tensions between the two nations over the Missile Crisis. Khrushchev responded to Kennedy’s letter by agreeing to Kennedy’s terms and proposing future exchanges regarding the prohibition of nuclear weapons, disarmament, and the defusing of international tension. Essentially, Khrushchev was hinting at the beginning of the period of 'dètente', or 'peaceful coexistence'. Once again, Khrushchev stressed the removal of American missiles in Turkey as part of the agreement. To ensure that the Cuban situation did not erupt into war during the negotiations, Khrushchev wrote to Castro warning him to be patient and not to provoke war with the United States by downing U2 planes. In another letter to Castro on 30 October 1962, Khrushchev commented that the aggressor (the United States) was the loser of the Missile Crisis.

On 20 November 1962, President Kennedy announced to the press that if all Soviet missiles were removed from Cuba, then the United States would "neither initiate nor permit aggression in this hemisphere.” Essentially, Kennedy was issuing his no-invasion pledge for Cuba in agreement with the Soviet Union. In April 1963, Kennedy removed the American missiles from Turkey, thus fulfilling the last of Khrushchev’s demands.

Effects
The Cuban Missile Crisis showed the superpowers that they had no option but to co-exist peacefully. It began the so-called period of 'dètente', which lasted until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. This period started with the introduction of a telephone hotline between the White House and the Kremlin, called 'IWIK', and the agreement that the USA would sell grain to the USSR. It also included a series of treaties, including the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, and the two Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and II).

title: The Cold War/Cuban Missile Crisis


text:
Modern History/American Civil War

 * /Wartime Diplomacy/

title: Modern History/American Civil War


text:
Modern History/American Civil War/Wartime Diplomacy

 * /US-Russian Relations/


text:
Modern History/American Civil War/Wartime Diplomacy/US-Russian Relations

United States Relations with Russia 1861 to 1865
Throughout the American Civil War, tsarist Russia maintained a diplomatic friendship with the United States that remained diplomatically unofficial until after the war ended. Although the United States and Russia had similar “peculiar institutions” prior to the war, slavery in the United States and serfdom in Russia, the Russians did not view serfdom in the same light as slavery. Even after the Confederacy seceded, the majority of Russians still viewed the United States with contempt in regard to segregation and racism. However, Tsar Alexander II had freed the serfs in Russia before Lincoln’s inauguration, giving Lincoln partial justification for emancipating American slaves. During the war, Russia needed American goodwill and support due to increasing tensions with England and France, than the United States needed Russian support. This essay will attempt to construe the nature of the friendship between Russia and the United States, the reasons for this friendship, and the effects of the friendship.

By the time of Lincoln’s inauguration in March 1861, Russian Minister to the United States Edouard de Stoeckl had been in America for twenty years and had been Minister for seven. Stoeckl had witnessed the gradual decline into secession and war. He witnessed the deaths of the “Great Compromisers” in the early 1850’s, and was dismayed by the lack of ability remaining in Congress. Stoeckl personally held a low opinion of Lincoln-criticizing what he perceived to be Lincoln’s indecisiveness, ignorance, and inability to perform the presidential duties-and, alternately, a rather high opinion of his friend, Jefferson Davis. In April 1861, Stoeckl volunteered to act as a mediator between Confederate commissioners and Federal representatives to determine the status of the Confederacy peacefully. Secretary of State William Seward declined to participate in the mediation, which the Confederates wholeheartedly supported.

Russia was the first nation to stand behind the Union in friendliness. The nature of this relationship was not one of support - the Russian leadership did not love democracy - but one of convenience. Russia aligned itself with the United States because England and France, Russia’s enemies, aligned themselves more closely with the Confederate States. Although the Russian aristocracy had no use for democracy, they feared insurgency. Along with all other conservative monarchs in Europe, Tsar Alexander II would not recognize the Confederacy mainly because he considered it a revolutionary regime in an era of frequent revolutions and regime changes in Europe. It is apparent that the Tsar, as well as other monarchs, feared that the insurrection mounted by the Confederacy would spark the beginning of another round of revolutions throughout Europe. It is interesting to note at this point that extremely few European nations retain their monarchs a century later.

Russia had a second motive to align itself behind the United States. A reunited United States would potentially be a powerful ally for the Russians, an ally that Russia desperately needed after losing the Crimean War. In 1863, Tsar Alexander II ordered the Russian Atlantic Fleet and the Pacific Fleet to United States ports for the winter. Many construed this action to mean that Russia was openly aiding the Union and that the Russian Navy would supplement the Federal Navy against the Confederacy. However, this apparent meaning proved false. Tensions between Russia and England were escalating over Russian actions against the Polish and war between the two was on the horizon. The Tsar sent the navy to the United States so that the naval fleets would not be trapped by the winter ice in arctic Russia ports. An underlying motive probably was to warm American support for Russia in case of war with England.

The effects of the relationship between Russia and the United States were relatively few, but very important. In 1861, the Russian government proposed a land based telegraph line from the United States to Europe through Canada and Russia. This plan was later abandoned in 1867 when the Atlantic cable was laid, but throughout the war Lincoln and the Congress supported this option as the most viable. Russia also agreed to refuse to participate in any European planned intervention or interference into American affairs. This agreement came in 1863 with France and England trying to persuade Russia to participate in a European intervention in the American Civil War. Coinciding with this invitation was an invitation from England and France to the United States to act against Russia for its suppression of Poland. These invitations to both the United States and Russia were no more than a western European attempt to disrupt the diplomatic relationship between those two nations. Russia’s refusal of the France-England invitation was to ensure that the United States would not interfere in Russian affairs in return. Lincoln maintained American isolationist policy by refusing the France-England invitation to react against Russia, even though he was personally opposed to Russian despotism.

On 3 March 1861, Tsar Alexander II freed over twenty million serfs in Russia and ended serfdom forever. This action gave American abolitionists fuel for their fight against slavery and helped to justify Lincoln’s decision to free the slaves in America. The main difference in the two emancipations was race. The serfs were of the same race and heritage, spoke the same language, had the same religion, and shared the same culture as their masters. Upon emancipation, the serfs gained full civil rights (to Russian standards), self government, and had a claim to the land they had toiled on for years. American emancipation was much different. The slaves were of a different race and considered inferior to their masters. They were not allowed to worship with their masters; they had a different heritage and culture, and many times spoke a different language adopted solely by slaves. Upon emancipation they were granted civil rights by law, but in practice most of those rights were denied. They were kept out of government by their former masters and could not make a claim on the land on which they had previously toiled. The treatment of former slaves by white Americans soured relations with Russia somewhat. Russia was critical of segregation and racism within the United States and became vocal in their criticisms.

Russia and the United States maintained friendly relations during the American Civil War. The reasons for this friendliness differ between the two nations; both had a need for international friends, but both were wary of the other. The nature of this relationship was opportunistic-Russia needed a strong ally against England and France, and the United States needed a quasi-ally to disrupt European interference in American affairs. The effects of the relationship were based on the nature of the relationship. Both Russia and the United States were able to disrupt intervention into their affairs by western European powers by maintaining their diplomatic friendliness. Diplomatic relations between Russia and the United States were important in the course that each nation made its own.

Author
Dr. C. J. Stumph, D.D.


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History of Christianity/Medieval Christianity/Monasticism

Monasticism

Monasticism developed from the ancient practice of eremeticism, or isolating oneself from the “civilized” world. Hermits would isolate themselves in the “wilderness” to be closer to God and battle with their inner demons. Anthony of Egypt was an influential hermit who lived for 105 years, fighting demons in the wilderness for much of his life. From eremeticism developed monasticism to oversee the spiritual needs of the hermits. A main purpose of eremeticism and monasticism was to maintain an ascetic lifestyle. The deprivations of an ascetic life were intended to encourage a closer connection to God and to allow a greater focus on spiritual duties. Monasticism spread from the east into Italy and southern Gaul in the fifth century.

The Monastery of Lérins was founded in AD410 as a training center for bishops that combined Egyptian severity with an intellectual dimension. By the beginning of the sixth century, monasticism had gained wide support throughout Europe with many monasteries being constructed in the north by newly converted Irish Christians. St. Benedict, founder of the Monastery of Monte Cassino, created a set of rules for monks to follow. Other monastic rules followed, the Rule of St. Columba of Iona among them. Monastic rule generally allowed only a very strict, severe lifestyle with allotments for prayer, work, and scholastic pursuits. The early Irish Christians developed “white martyrdom” specifically for those entering into the ascetic life of the monastery. In Ireland, the monastery developed as the center of Christian society rather than the bishops as on the continent. The monasteries of Ireland became major centers of learned culture as well as spiritual centers. Literacy was especially important for the continued spread of Christianity.

On the continent, the Germanic kings were establishing royal monasteries for unwed family members and political opponents. These monasteries fell under the protection of the royal family, but could fall out of favor quickly if the exchange of fiscal “gifts” to the monastery were not returned by spiritual blessings. These continental monasteries organized the surrounding territory and residents for the kings in return for financial support and land. With the accumulation of land, the monasteries were able to gain a semblance of financial independence rather than relying solely on the generosity of the kings. The kings also granted the monasteries immunities from royal taxes and law. With the acquisition of land and resources, the monasteries became important economically as centers of trade.

As well as economic importance, monasteries became centers of scholarship and culture. Books were produced at many monasteries, spreading ideas around Europe and educating the upper classes that sent children to learn at the monastery. In Ireland, a penitential discipline developed that regularized the penance system throughout Europe. However, by the eighth century, monastic reform had begun in Carolingian France. The Monastery of St. Gall was rebuilt in AD818 as the model of an ideal Carolingian monastery. In AD910, the most important monastery of the Middle Ages was constructed at Cluny. Cluny was chartered as a completely independent monastery with no secular or Church authority above it. Cluny became a major component of monastic reform, establishing a monastical empire as its monks replaced the abbots of corrupt monasteries throughout Europe. In the era of feudal mutation, Cluny remained a source of continuity for the Frankish world and provided a nucleus of stability. The idea of a prayer confraternity was also developed at Cluny, allying it with powerful nobles and kings in the disintegrating Frankish Empire. The power of Cluny as an economic, political, scholastical, and spiritual institution marked the height of monasticism in Europe. The power of the monastery had never been greater before Cluny, and monastical power began to wane during the Middle Ages as powerful warlords and kings rose to power across Europe.

Author
Fr. Chad J. Stumph, D.D. and others


text:
History of Christianity/Medieval Christianity/Development of the Medieval Church

Development of the Medieval Church
Christianity transformed from a persecuted, unorganized group of believers into a hierarchical, dominating Church over the course of seven centuries, developing alongside the changing political environment of post-Roman Europe. The development of the institution of the Catholic Church and the spread of Christ throughout Europe during these seven centuries directly impacted every aspect of late-antiquity and early-medieval life, especially politics and the relationship between kings and religion. During this time period the Church rejected its domination by the Roman and Byzantine emperors, in turn exerting its own type of spiritual dominance over the rulers of post-Roman Europe. Christianity, through the Church, became organized and “conquered” all of Europe by the time of the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. Christianity had developed as a religious idea in Roman Palestine, and had slowly spread throughout the eastern part of the Empire toward the west. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity remained disorganized and concentrated within the cities. Each group of believers centered around a few charismatic local leaders and developed their own liturgy. However, the conversion of Emperor Constantine in AD312 changed the structure of Christianity and turned it into a well-organized, quasi-political institution. The Church provided Constantine with a tool to use to hold together the crumbling Empire. The Church came under the Emperor’s control with the Emperor as the divus caesar, or divine emperor. Constantine used the Christian bishops as imperial officials to administer law and justice throughout the Empire. These “imperial bishops” answered directly to the Emperor, thus instituting imperial dominance over the Church. The Council of Nicaea in AD325 further brought the Church under imperial control with the establishment of a uniform liturgy to use throughout the Empire and approved by the Emperor. Imperial dominance was completed with Theodosius II proclaiming Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire a century later. Thus began the period of praeparatio evangelii, the Christian conquering of the world.

The Western Roman Empire gradually collapsed during the fourth and fifth centuries to be replaced by “barbarian” kingdoms that thought of themselves as “Roman” and maintained many of the classical Roman institutions. The political structure and culture of the new kingdoms was different, however. Germanic kings with long hair and animal skins took the place of the emperors. These barbaric kings had been converted to Christianity during the Roman Empire by missionaries, but practiced Arianism rather than Roman Catholicism. Christianity continued to thrive under the Germanic kings, spreading the religion through Western Europe. In AD508, Clovis of the Franks converted to Christianity followed by his warriors and subjects. He was followed by the Visigothic king, Reccared in AD589 by the conversion of Ireland during the sixth century. Under the Germanic kings, the Christian bishops became the predominant source of continuity between the Empire and the Germanic kingdoms. The bishops also became a source of great power in the post-Roman kingdoms. Germanic kings used the bishops as a link between the king and the Roman citizens living in the kingdom. The bishops grew very powerful serving as the representative of the largest class of subjects. The kings recognized this power and acknowledged it by granting the bishops political power to administer to the needs of the former Romans. Monasteries also became important institutions for the Germanic kings. The monasteries became centers of culture, scholarship, and economics, enabling the Germanic kings to better govern their kingdoms through the established religious institutions.

To increase their political power and tighten their rule of the countryside, the kings and nobles founded their own royal monasteries to supplement their own spiritual power. The idea that the Christian God would assist Christian rulers to effectively rule their kingdoms and gain victory in battle began to be developed in Western Europe. However, close ties between kings and the Church was not the only factor transforming the Church. The spread of Christianity into Ireland in the sixth century played a major role in changing Church liturgy. The Irish readily accepted Christianity as their own religion and with the fanaticism of the newly converted began to zealously transform previous Christian thought and liturgy to better suit their situation. The Irish developed a slightly different form of Christianity and sent missionaries across Europe spreading the Irish version of Christianity. Irish missionaries and monasteries influenced and transformed Christianity from the seventh century onward.

Christianity was again transformed and adapted to suit the wishes of a powerful ruler with the ascension of Charlemagne. Charlemagne was an influential proponent in the creation of “Christian kingship.” Unlike the situation the Church experienced under the Roman Emperors, with the Emperor controlling Church policy and actions, the notion of Christian kingship placed the Church in a powerful position, while not actually dominating the king. Charlemagne’s father, Pippen, received the Pope’s blessing in AD751 to become king of the Franks. This established a very strong connection between the Church and the Carolingian line of Frankish kings. Due to this strong link, the Carolingian kings were willing to become the protectors of the Papacy in destroying the power of the Lombards in Italy and guaranteeing the independence of Rome. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Franks by Pope Leo III in AD800 and continued to carry out a policy of praeparatio evangelii by spreading Christianity everywhere his military conquests led him. Under Charlemagne, Christianity emerged as a political concept as well as a religious one. Much like the Visigoths before him, Charlemagne viewed kingship as a religious office and the kingdom as the Church. In this there was no separation of Church and state-they became one entity. Secular law was replaced by Christian law and the bishops became even more powerful than they had previously been. The reign of Charlemagne was marked by a merging of Christian ideals with Germanic kingship, creating unity throughout the Frankish Empire. However, the next transformation of Christianity would ultimately destroy the unity enjoyed under Charlemagne and his immediate successors.

Upon the death of Charlemagne’s son, Louis the Pious, his three grandsons engaged in a civil war for succession to the imperial throne. The result of this war was the division of Charlemagne’s Empire into three parts. The three grandsons attempted to restore the glory of Charlemagne, but were all three unsuccessful. The idea of Christian kingship continued with the three grandsons, but the quality of rulers declined over the next half century so that by AD900, the internal divisions and the increasing irrelevancy of the king transformed the political and religious landscape of Europe. This was the period of feudal mutation and marked the end of Church independence and freedom throughout Europe. In the place of kings, local, independent nobles arose to govern the countryside. The monasteries, churches, and bishops came under the influence of these local warlords. powerful monasteries and bishops assumed control of the local area themselves and governed them directly as the local lord. As can be seen in the account by Hugh of Lusignan, bishops assumed regional power and acted independent of Rome and other religious centers. The Church was tied into the vassalage system with clerics invested into proprietary churches by local nobles. By the turn of the first millennium, the power of the Church in Rome had been eroded, and the unity of the Church throughout Europe had been destroyed. Christianity still remained in Europe as the dominant religion (only religion in most places), but the Roman Catholic Church had been divided by the political turmoil engulfing Europe following the collapse of Charlemagne’s Empire.

Christianity had transformed greatly throughout the first millennium of its existence along with the changing political culture of Europe. The collapse of the Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries gave rise to an increasingly powerful and influential Church that would remain so for five hundred years. However, the onset of the feudal mutation and the collapse of imperial and royal power in Europe in the tenth century led to the division and subjugation of the Church.

Author
Fr. Chad J. Stumph, D.D.


text:
William Shakespeare's Works/Histories

=The Histories of Shakespeare=

History was an important Elizabethan entertainment genre. In the theater and real life, Elizabethans were very interested in their kings and the mechanations of power, and Shakespeare was one of those that helped fill this demand. Incidentally, we learn quite a bit about the time.

Eight of Shakespeare's history plays concern the Wars of the Roses between the houses of Lancaster and York.

In historical sequence, the plays of the War of the Roses cycle are as follows:

 * Richard II
 * Henry IV, part 1
 * Henry IV, part 2
 * Henry V
 * Henry VI, part 1
 * Henry VI, part 2
 * Henry VI, part 3
 * Richard III

The other two plays of Shakespeare that are grouped with his histories are King John and Henry VIII.

The twelfth Knight
/King Henry IV Part 1/

/King Henry IV Part 2/

/King Henry V/

/King Henry VI Part 1/

/King Henry VI Part 2/

/King Henry VI Part 3/

/King Henry VIII/

/King John/

/Richard II/

/Richard III/

title: William Shakespeare's Works/Histories


text:
Kapampangan/Greeting

Part A: Description
In this lesson you will learn to greet anyone with the appropriate level of formality.

The level formality for many sentences, including greetings, is more complex than in English. But we will see here that it is quite easy to show respect or sound formal.

The first word to know is mayáp, good. Then you need the word describing the time of day: ábak morning, ugtú noon, gatpanápun afternoon, béngi night,

If you want to be formal and respectful to elderly, you need the word pu and the following construction then applies:

Mayáp a gatpanápun pu  Good afternoon, sir or Good afternoon, madam showing respect for an older person.

The a simply links good with afternoon and is a compulsory link word. But an interesting phenomenon is that Kapampangan does not allow a glottal stop between two consecutive vowels and so words starting with a vowel have a y added at the beginning if they are after the compulsory preposition a:

Mayáp a yábak pu Good morning, sir or Good morning, madam showing respect for an older person.

Another frequently used phrase is Kumustá which means both Hello, and How are you?. It is borrowed from the Spanish Como esta? which means exactly How are you?

Part B: Application
Given the rules here above, we can generate the following set of phrases:

You noted that in Kapampangan one can say "good noon". Although it might sound unusual to you, this is simply used when you meet someone at noon or around lunch time.

Part C: Exercises
Translate the following English sentences into Kapampangan:

 * Good afternoon
 * Hello madam, how are you?

Translate the following Kapampangan into English:

 * Mayáp a béngi pu
 * Mayáp a yábak

Solutions

Part D: Summary
You can now correctly greet anyone you meet in Pampanga, and not be perceived to be rude. Here is the list of words and greeting phrases that you have learned:

Continue to ../Introducing Yourself/

title: Kapampangan/Greeting


text:
Template:Usercheck

User:

title: Template:Usercheck


text:
Kapampangan/Pronouncing Kapampangan

Part A: Pronouncing Kapampangan words in this book
This first lesson is essential for you to be able to pronounce the words that we have printed in this book. Here we will learn a few basic words, and how to pronounce them.

Consonants
Most consonants are pronounced like in English. But a few have a specific behaviour:

 * r is rolled and pronounced in the same manner as the Spanish, Italian and Russian pronounce it, but not like in English nor like in French.
 * dy is pronounced like in English Jack
 * sy is pronounced like in English shine
 * ts is pronounced ts, like in English tsar, but sometimes drifts into a pronunciation that sounds more like tch like in English cheer. You will be understood however, if you always pronounce ts.
 * ng is pronounced like in the English word sing. But beware, this sound can appear at the beginning of a word, not only the middle or the end.
 * The glottal stop, that we indicate with an apostrophe  '  is pronounced in the same way as the t is pronounced in Estuary English in words like bottom (bo'om), Britain (bri'ain} or that (tha'). However a glottal stop that occurs at the end of a word is often omitted when it's in the middle of a sentence.

Vowels
There are 5 vowels:

 * a similar to English father
 * i similar to English machine, but shorter like bit when not stressed.
 * u similar to English loop but shorter like book when not stressed.
 * e similar to English bed
 * o somewhere between English forty and English dog

When they are not stressed, i and e are nearly interchangeable: there are many words that can be pronounced and written using either of the two vowels, for example, king can be pronounced and written keng, íni can become íne. Also o and u are frequently interchangeable if unstressed: nukarín can be pronounced and written nokarín, kumustá can be pronounced and written komustá, etc. Although we try to use a consistent spelling in this book, there is currently no consensus on the spelling for unstressed vowels and it may be that this book sometimes contains both possible spellings.

Before the arrival of the Spanish, Kapampangan had three vowel sounds:, , and ; This was expanded to five vowels with the introduction of Spanish words.

Stress
Each word with more than one syllable is stressed in a specific way: the stress either falls on the last syllable, or on the penultimate syllable. If it is on the penultimate syllable, it is accompanied by a lengthening of the stressed vowel. We indicate the stress in this book with the following sign above the vowel of the stressed syllable: ’ Please note that the stress is usually not written in texts or websites, however, we indicate it in every word, since this is the only way that you can learn to pronounce each word correctly.

Part B: Application
Here is an example for each of these specific sounds in a simple word. Note the stress location.

You can click on the sound file to here a native speaker pronounce the word. You can note that there is no stress indicated for ngan, tsa and dyip. This is because there is only one syllable (vowel) and therefore there is no need to indicate it.

You can now even answer when asked what you would like for a drink: - syémpre, tsa! Tea, of course!

Part C: Exercises
Given the rules described above, pronounce the following words:

Solutions

Part D: Summary
In this lesson you have learned how to pronounce each vowel and consonant of the Kapampangan language. You have a also learned the following words:

Try to remember these words, they will be useful later for constructing sentences.

Consonant chart
When the written convention is different from the IPA, the IPA version is indicated between square brackets.

Note that all the stops are unaspirated.

Vowels chart
There are two diphthongs;, and , which we simply write oi and iu.

Continue to ../Greeting/

title: Kapampangan/Pronouncing Kapampangan


text:
Talk:General Genetics/Introduction

From Robert W. Williams Professor of Developmental Genetics, University of Tennessee Health Science Center rwilliam@nb.utmem.edu

We have become gene-centric in the last half century, but I think it is important to keep the focus of a true genetics text on patterns and causes of variation. If this is planned as a text on genetics it will be important to keep the focus on sources of biological variation; whether caused by gene variants, epigenetic modification, somatic mutation, stochastic developmental process, or environmental effects. Students need to understand from the get-go that genetics in not just the study of genes. That is an easy mistake to make.

For this reason the introduction could use help at two levels.

1. Genetics as a field of study predates a well defined DNA gene by roughly 50 years. For this reason, the first sentence needs some modification. Perhaps:

"Genetics is the study of the sources and inheritance of biological variation, usually within populations that can interbreed."

2. Only a small fraction of the genome of many species is made up of genes.

The strict study of genes, their structure and function, is more the domain of molecular biology. Of course, many geneticists are great molecular biologist, But some of the greatest geneticists (Fisher, Wright, and Haldane) predate the era of molecular genetics.

title: Talk:General Genetics/Introduction


text: Category:Book:How to Frame a Picture

title: Category:Book:How to Frame a Picture


text:
Wikibooks talk:IRC channels

The Freenode FAQ is confusion. The part about how to set up a nick doesn't make any sense. Can someome please explain to me how to do it, cheers  M in un  Spiderman  13:12, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:IRC channels


text:
Wikibooks:Book of the month/November 2006 voting

The voting for the Book of the month for November 2006 is open from October 1st, 2006, and will close on October 31st, 2006, 00:00 UTC. The book of the month will be featured on the main page of Wikibooks in November.

'''Closed. Any votes added will be reverted.'''

Raising Chickens
Since no book made it to this month (the only one with three or more votes won) I will re-nominate this book and see how it goes.

Votes: Comments: So far it seems that this nomination is serving only as a token aponent, which is ok. Klingoncowboy4 16:51, 12 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) Klingoncowboy4 20:47, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

Special Relativity
Interesting topic, could use more exposure so that people could learn how this area of science works.

Votes:
 * 1) within focus 05:26, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 21:42, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) XOnlyHalfEvol 01:40, 11 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) MasterSheep 05:24, 25 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 5) Tannersf 11:08, 28 October 2006 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/November 2006 voting

Voting Rules
The following are the rules and conditions for voting for the Collaboration of the Month:

 * 1) Only registered users with 20 or more edits to their name may vote.
 * 2) You may vote under as many nominations as you wish, however, you may only vote for each book itself once.
 * 3) Sign your vote with a number sign and four tildes, #~, after the most previous vote under the book's nomination. Unsigned votes will be removed.
 * 4) Any nomination which receives 3 or more votes in one month will automatically be renominated the next month if it is not chosen.
 * 5) If you wish to include a short comment for your vote, then you may do so. Make sure that if you leave such a comment, that you are also voting for that page.
 * 6) Do not post objection votes as these will have no effect on the final tally.
 * 7) Voting will end at 00:00 UTC on the first day of each month. In essence, when a new month begins voting ends. Any votes added after this time will be discarded.
 * 8) The nomination with most votes will be chosen as the Collaboration of the Month. In case of a tie, the older Wikibook will be chosen.

Shaving
Votes:
 * 1) Easyas12c 19:59, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 20:45, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Dilaudid 02:52, 13 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) BiT 16:48, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

Comments:
 * The book is a guide to a simple everyday task. This makes the book both usefull and editable to many. It has a clear structure which makes appending easy. The book contains already the most basic information regarding the subject, but has been lacking attention for a while. --Easyas12c 20:07, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

The GIMP
(renominated with 3 votes for October)

Votes: Comments:
 * 1) within focus  21:47, 1 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 20:45, 3 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Reub2000 20:30, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) Dilaudid 02:52, 13 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 5) Tannersf 11:10, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

Italian Language Course
Votes:
 * 1) Elistir 17:32, 24 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 06:22, 29 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Easyas12c 15:30, 29 October 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) Jlenthe 22:09, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

Comments


text: Wikibooks:Book of the month/October 2006


text: Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/October 2006


text: Template:Uncited

title: Template:Uncited


text:
Ossicle/Otology/Otosclerosis

Clinical Description
Otosclerosis is a progressive degenerative condition of the temporal bone which can result in hearing loss.

Chronic conductive hearing loss (CHL) is the finding in almost all cases of otosclerosis (in fact should a person present with sensorineural hearing loss they would likely never be diagnosed with otosclerosis). This usually will begin in one ear but will eventually affect both ears with a variable course. On audiometry, the hearing loss is characteristically low-frequency, with higher frequencies being affected later. Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) has also been noted in patients with otosclerosis; this is usually a high-frequency loss, and usually manifests late in the disease.

Epidemiology
Approximately 0.5% of the population will eventually be diagnosed with otosclerosis. Interestingly, post mortem studies show that as many as 10% of people may have otosclerotic lesions of their temporal bone, but apparently never had symptoms warranting a diagnosis. Whites are the most affected race, with the prevalence in the Black and Asian populations being much lower. Females are twice as likely as males to be affected. Usually noticeable hearing loss begins at middle-age, but can start much sooner. The disease can be considered to be heritable, but its penetrance and the degree of expression is so highly variable that it may be difficult to detect an inheritance pattern. Most of the implicated genes are transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion.

Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of otosclerosis is complex. The key lesions of otosclerosis are multifocal areas of sclerosis within the endochondral temporal bone. These lesions share some characteristics with Paget’s Disease, but they are not thought to be otherwise related. Histopathologic studies have all been done on cadaveric temporal bones, so only inferences can be made about progression of the disease histologically. This being said, it seems that the lesions go through an active “spongiotic” / hypervascular phase before developing into “sclerotic” phase lesions. There have been many genes and proteins identified that, when mutated, may lead to these lesions. Also there is mounting evidence that measles virus is present within the otosclerotic foci, implicating an infectious etiology (this has also been noted in Paget’s Disease).

CHL in otosclerosis is caused by two main sites of involvement of the sclerotic (or scar-like) lesions. The best understood mechanism is fixation of the stapes footplate to the oval window of the cochlea. This greatly impairs movement of the stapes and therefore transmission of sound into the inner ear (“ossicular coupling”). Additionally the cochlea’s round window can also become sclerotic, and in a similar way impair movement of sound pressure waves through the inner ear (“acoustic coupling”).

SNHL in otosclerosis is controversial. Over the past century, leading otologists and neurotologic researchers have argued whether the finding of SNHL late in the course of otosclerosis is due to otosclerosis or simply to typical presbycusis. There are certainly a few well documented instances of sclerotic lesions directly obliterating sensory structures within the cochlea and spiral ligament, which have been photographed and reported post-mortem. Other supporting data includes a consistent loss of cochlear hair cells in patients with otosclerosis; these cells being the chief sensory organs of sound reception. A suggested mechanism for this is the release of hydrolytic enzymes into the inner ear structures by the spongiotic lesions.

Treatment Options
Treatment of otosclerosis relies on two primary options: hearing aids and a surgery called a stapedectomy. Hearing aids are usually very effective early in the course of the disease, but eventually a stapedectomy may be required for definitive treatment. Modern stapedectomy consists of removing a portion of the sclerotic stapes footplate and replacing it with an implant that is secured to the incus. When possible, the stapes may be able to be freed from its sclerotic attachments to the oval window, eliminating the need for an implant. Both of these methods restore continuity of ossicular movement and allow transmission of sound waves to the inner ear.

Other less successful treatment includes fluoride administration, which theoretically becomes incorporated into bone and inhibits otosclerotic progression. Recently, some success has been reported with bisphosphonate medications, which stimulate bone-deposition without stimulating bony destruction.

title: Ossicle/Otology/Otosclerosis


text:
Wikijunior:The Elements

About the book
Welcome to Wikijunior The Elements.

The target age of this title is 8–12 years old. Section titles will include elements children may have heard of or are particularly interesting. The print version will focus only on answering a specific series of questions about the elements plus an explanation of what an element is. There will be an introduction and a glossary. Other articles of general interest about the Elements as a group may also be included.

When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. Being understood is just as important as being accurate. Authors should concentrate on the most important concepts rather than getting wrapped up in every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work. Or in other words, write as you would when you were a child.

If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to the list of authors.

{| style="width:100%;"

 * style="width:50%; background-color:#ffffec; border:1px solid #faf9b2; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em;" |

Special Pages

 * /Frontpage/
 * The Periodic Table
 * List of the Elements
 * /Introduction/
 * /Introduction to The Elements/
 * Glossary of basic terms

Matter

 * /Matter Is The Stuff Around You/
 * /States Of Matter/
 * /Solids/
 * /Liquids/
 * /Gases/
 * /Plasma/
 * /Solutions/
 * /Mixtures/

Atom

 * /Overview/
 * /Structure/

Molecules

 * /What's a molecule?/
 * Forming Bonds

List of chemical elements

 * /Aluminum/
 * /Antimony/
 * /Argon/
 * /Arsenic/
 * /Barium/
 * /Beryllium/
 * /Bismuth/
 * /Boron/
 * /Bromine/
 * /Carbon/
 * /Calcium/
 * /Cerium/
 * /Cesium/
 * /Chlorine/
 * /Cobalt/
 * /Copper/
 * /Einsteinium/
 * /Fluorine/
 * /Francium/
 * /Gallium/
 * /Gold/
 * /Helium/
 * /Hydrogen/
 * /Iodine/
 * /Iron/
 * /Krypton/
 * /Lead/
 * /Lithium/
 * /Mercury/
 * /Magnesium/
 * /Manganese/
 * /Neodymium/
 * /Neon/
 * /Neptunium/
 * /Nickel/
 * /Nitrogen/
 * /Oganesson/
 * /Oxygen/
 * /Phosphorus/
 * /Platinum/
 * /Plutonium/
 * /Polonium/
 * /Potassium/
 * /Promethium/
 * /Rare Elements/
 * /Radium/
 * /Radon/
 * /Rubidium/
 * /Scandium/
 * /Silicon/
 * /Silver/
 * /Sodium/
 * /Strange Element/
 * /Strontium/
 * /Sulfur/
 * /Tellurium/
 * /Thallium/
 * /Tin/
 * /Titanium/
 * /Tungsten/
 * /Uranium/
 * /Vanadium/
 * /Zinc/

 * style="width:50%; background-color:#eeffee; border:1px solid #99ff99; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em; vertical-align:top;" |

Contributing

 * /Authors/
 * /Contributing/

Create or Request a Page
You are encouraged to create a page on an interesting or useful element. If you would like to do so, please read the /Contributing/ page.

Stub Template
Please use the Stub Template when creating a new article.

Sources of Additional Information

 * }

Wikijunior Die Elemente fr:Wikijunior:Les éléments Wikichicos/Los Elementos

title: Wikijunior:The Elements


text:
Kapampangan/Solutions to all exercises

In this section we will give the solution to the exercises in green.

Greeting
Translate into Kapampangan:

Translate into English:

Introducing Yourself
Write the following conversation in Kapampangan and then read it aloud:

 * Try to indroduce yourself to a person of you age that you meet in a party.

Mayáp a yábak. Áku y.

 * Express how nice it is to meet them.

Masayá kung akilála ka.

 * Ask them what is their name.

Nánung lagyú' mu?

Introducing Yourself, Part Two
Write the following conversation in Kapampangan and then read it aloud:

 * You meet what seems to be an elderly relative of your friend in that same party, but you are not certain: ask them their name.

Mayáp a yábak pu. Nánu pu ing lagyú' yu?

 * They are indeed: indroduce yourself to them, and express how nice it is to meet them.

Áku pu y. Masayá ku pu ing akilála kayú.

 * Finally, introduce a friend called Lisa to them.

Íni pu y Lisa.

title: Kapampangan/Solutions to all exercises


text:
Nature/Good

Good and Bad - Introduction
In nature there is no good and no bad. - Baruch de Spinoza

In the behavior of animals egoism, altruismus, child murder and self sacrifice exist. All examples are realized. Good and bad appear as conflicting emotions even in one and the same individuum. Nature is not too fastidious in a human moral sense. Good and bad like social and loving or in the opposite as egoistic and aggressiv behavior are more or less found in every animal at the same time. There exist completely opposite ways of acting. An ape, which is extremely aggressive against the members of a strange group, can be very loving to his own children at the same time. Whether the ape is conscious of this contrast or not, is difficult to find out. For human beings the demarcation of good and bad might make substantial problems.

An animal must defend itself against other animals. Members of the same species but of foreign groups are classified primarily as strange and dangerous. They must be fought against, they might even be killed. As a wild animal a lion for example must kill other animals in order to survive. At the same time each animal must support the survival of its own family or kinship.

Theodizee
Die Existenz von so vielem Übel in der Welt ist aus Sicht der Naturwissenschaften eines der stärksten und nicht zu widerlegenden Argumente gegen einen aktiv ins Weltgeschehen eingreifenden, allmächtigen und allgütigen Gott. Diese Problem tritt nicht auf, wenn man Gott als Erschaffer der Welt ansieht, der dann aber nicht mehr ins Weltgeschehen eingreift. Auch das Problem der Verletzung der Naturgesetze durch Wunder kann dann gelöst werden.

Siehe: Theodizee

In klassischer Weise wurde das Problem bereits durch den griechischen Philosophen Epikur (341-270 v. Chr) formuliert:

Entweder will Gott die Übel beseitigen und kann es nicht: dann ist Gott schwach, was auf ihn nicht zutrifft, oder er kann es und will es nicht: dann ist Gott missgünstig, was ihm fremd ist, oder er will es nicht und kann es nicht: dann ist er schwach und missgünstig zugleich, also nicht Gott, oder er will es und kann es, was allein für Gott ziemt: Woher kommen dann die Übel und warum nimmt er sie nicht hinweg?

Dieser Text wurde durch Lactantius überliefert. Einige Formulierungen dürften eher der Theologie des Lactantius entsprechen als der Theologie Epikurs. Nach Epikur waren die Götter selige Wesen, die sich nicht um die Welt kümmerten.

Das Gewissen
Bei der Frage nach Gut und Böse kommt eine interessante ethische Funktion im menschlichen Gehirn ins Spiel: das Gewissen.

Über das Gewissen gibt es die unterschiedlichsten Ansichten, Meinungen oder Theorien.

Viele stellen sich unter Gewissen eine spezielle Instanz des menschlichen Bewusstseins vor, die einen dazu drängt aus ethischen und sozialen Gründen bestimmte Handlungen auszuführen oder zu unterlassen. Entscheidungen können dabei als unausweichlich empfunden werden oder mehr oder weniger bewusst, also im Wissen um ihre Voraussetzungen und denkbaren Folgen, vorgenommen werden (Verantwortung).

Handelt ein Mensch entsprechend seinem Gewissen, ist er oder fühlt er sich gut und zufrieden und gibt üblicherweise an, ein gutes oder reines Gewissen zu haben oder zu besitzen; handelt er indessen entgegen seinem Wissen und Gewissen, so fühlt er sich von dieser vermeintlichen Bewusstseinsinstanz vielleicht angeklagt oder gar verfolgt oder unter Druck gesetzt. Andere verspüren eher ein nagendes Gewissen, und wieder andere fühlen sich von Gewissensbissen geplagt oder geradezu gepeinigt.

Ersichtlich handelt es sich bei diesen geläufigen Redeweisen um alltagssprachliche Redewendungen, die über die realen Zusammenhänge kaum etwas aussagen, zumal sie teilweise deutlich metaphorischer Art sind und daher nicht wörtlich verstanden werden dürfen. Auch von anderen Voraussetzungen ausgehende Ansichten und Vorstellungen, Meinungen und Theorien von Natur und Herkunft des Gewissens scheinen kaum geeignet, etwas zur Aufklärung der psychologischen Eigenart des Gewissens beizutragen.

Definition des Gewissens
Man kann das Gewissen als das Bewusstsein des Menschen um Gut und Böse bezeichnen, welches dem Menschen nach naturwissenschaftlicher Weltanschauung vor allem von der sozialen Gruppe eingegepflanzt wird, in der er aufgewachsen ist oder in der er lebt. Durch den Gruppendruck entsteht der innere Antrieb, diesem Wissen entsprechend zu handeln. Nach naturwissenschaftlicher Ansicht kann man so etwas wie ein Gewissen auch bei sozialen Tieren wie beispielsweise Hunden beobachten.

Unterordnung und Gehorsam
Stanley Milgram untersuchte in seinen sozialpsychologischen Experimenten der 60er Jahre die Gehorsamsbereitschaft unter verschiedenen Bedingungen. Dabei wies er experimentell nach, wie das Gewissen je nach Versuchsanordnung ganz unterschiedlich reagiert. Ein wichtiges Einzelergebnis ist die Widerstandsfähigkeit des Gewissens bei etwa einem Drittel der Versuchspersonen. Insbesondere der noch höhere Anteil der Verweigerer unter der Bedingung der räumlichen Nähe zum "Opfer" verweist auf die sozialen Komponente des Gewissens hin.

Gewissensgründe
Der bundesdeutsche Gesetzgeber geht von der Existenz des Gewissens aus, zum Beispiel dadurch, dass er die Möglichkeit zur Verweigerung des Wehrdienstes aus „Gewissensgründen“ ermöglicht (Grundgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, GG Artikel 4, Punkt 3).

Zitate

 * Es wäre ein überzeugenderer Hinweis auf einen gütigen Schöpfer, wenn das Leben besser wäre, als wir es erwarten können ... Mein Leben war bemerkenswert glücklich und liegt wahrscheinlich bei 99,99 in einer 100er-Skala menschlichen Glücks. Doch ich mußte zuschauen, wie meine Mutter unter Schmerzen an Krebs starb, die Persönlichkeit meines Vaters durch die Alzheimer-Krankheit zerfiel und zahlreiche entferntere Verwandte im Holocaust ermordet wurden. Die Anzeichen eines gütigen Schöpfers sind ziemlich gut versteckt. Das Böse und das Leid haben schon immer jene beschäftigt, die an einen gütigen und allmächtigen Gott glauben. Manchmal wird Gott durch die Notwendigkeit des freien Willens der Menschen entschuldigt. Aber es erscheint für meine Verwandten etwas unfair, ermordet zu werden, damit Deutsche eine Gelegenheit für ihren freien Willen hatten. Davon abgesehen: Wie erklärt der freie Wille den Krebs? Braucht ein Tumor ebenfalls einen Spielraum für seinen freien Willen? Ich halte es hier nicht für nötig zu begründen, warum das Böse in der Welt beweist, daß das Universum nicht geschaffen wurde, sondern nur, daß es keine Anzeichen von Güte gibt, die die Handschrift eines Schöpfers zeigen. Die Sichtweise, Gott könne nicht gütig sein, ist schon alt. Die antiken Tragödien machen klar, daß die Götter selbstsüchtig und brutal sind, obwohl sie ein besseres Verhalten von Menschen erwarten. Der Gott des Alten Testaments fordert, daß wir das Leben unserer Kinder auf sein Geheiß hin opfern, und der Gott des traditionellen Christentums verdammt uns in alle Ewigkeit, wenn wir Ihn nicht in der rechten Weise verehren. Ist dies eine nette Art, sich zu benehmen? Ich weiß ja, wir dürfen Gott nicht nach menschlichen Maßstäben messen. Aber welche anderen Maßstäbe können wir denn anlegen, wenn wir nicht bereits von Seiner Existenz überzeugt sind und nach Anzeichen Seiner Güte suchen? Religion hat manches Gute in der Welt bewirkt, aber insgesamt sind ihre Folgen furchtbar. Meine persönliche Ansicht ist: Mit oder ohne Religion werden sich gute Menschen gut verhalten und schlechte Menschen werden Böses tun. Doch der Beitrag der Religion in der Geschichte war, es guten Menschen zu erlauben, Böses zu tun. Eine der größten Errungenschaften der Wissenschaft ist nicht, es intelligenten Leuten unmöglich zu machen, religiös zu sein, sondern es ihnen zumindest zu ermöglichen, nicht religiös zu sein. Dahinter sollten wir nicht zurückfallen. *Steven Weinberg,  12/1999

Links

 * The Good
 * Evil

title: Nature/Good


text: User talk:68.84.229.86

title: User talk:68.84.229.86


text:
User talk:212.144.166.25

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it. --Derbeth talk 16:31, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:212.144.166.25


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Quidditch captain

Overview
The House Quidditch Team Captain is in charge of selecting the players for the Quidditch team, setting practices, and coaching them in the necessary maneuvers to guide them, hopefully, to win the Hogwarts Quidditch Cup.

Event Details
There is no description of how the Captain of the house Quidditch team is selected. It would appear to be a selection made by the head of the House, presumably from among the returning team members; while it would be logical to select the most senior returning team member, this is not how the selection is made, because Katie Bell is one year senior to Harry, and yet Harry is selected as team captain in his sixth year, while Katie is in her seventh year.

In Gryffindor house, the Quidditch team captain for the first three years is Oliver Wood. There is no Quidditch in the fourth year because of the Triwizard Tournament; in the fifth year it is Angelina Johnson, and in the sixth year it is Harry Potter. Marcus Flint is captain of the Slytherin Quidditch team for the first three years, despite his apparently having to repeat a year for academic reasons; Cedric Diggory is captain of the Hufflepuff team in Harry's third year; while Roger Davis is captain of the Ravenclaw team in Harry's third to fifth year. There does not seem to be any playing position that is more often chosen for the captaincy than any other; Wood is Keeper, Flint, Roger and Angelina are Chasers, and Harry and Cedric are Seekers.

As Quidditch captain, Harry has a great deal more work to do than either of his predecessors. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, because of the ongoing battle with Professor Umbridge, Harry was banned from the Quidditch team along with Fred and George Weasley; so Angelina did have to engineer a mid-season replacement for her Seeker and both Beaters. But in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, so many players are incapacitated or are unable to play due to detention or other concerns that both Slytherin and Gryffindor seem to field a substantially different team for every match.

Notable Consequences
As Quidditch Captain, Harry is called upon to create a Quidditch team. He has a few experienced players to draw from; Katie Bell, who was on the team as Chaser when Harry first started playing as Seeker (making her only a second-year student at the time), Ron, who had played as Keeper the previous year, and Ginny Weasley, who, though nominally a Chaser, had filled in as Seeker while Harry was banned in the previous year, are kept on, along with himself as Seeker, but the previous year's Beaters are replaced, and a new Chaser is brought in. However, this is not a static team; over the course of the year, players are injured (Katie Bell is Jinxed, Ron is poisoned, Harry himself is injured mid-game, and later put on detention) and Harry must repeatedly juggle the roster to be sure of fielding a full team.

It is during this time that Harry begins to understand how Angelina Johnson, and before her Oliver Wood, had felt about their duties as Quidditch Captain. Harry finds that it is taking a significant part of his time and attention, but finds consolation in that as Captain, he can schedule practices when he wishes so as to avoid the "Slug Club" parties put on by Professor Slughorn. Late in the year, he also finds that practicing alongside Ginny can be quite exhilarating.

Analysis
In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, we are told that many of the privileges granted to Prefects are also granted to the Quidditch captain. One question that arises is exactly which of the Prefects' privileges are granted to the Quidditch captain, and why? The only one that is actually mentioned is that the Quidditch captain can use the Prefect's bathroom. It is entirely possible that this is intended as explanation of how Cedric Diggory is able to tell Harry about the Prefect's bathroom in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire; there is no mention that Cedric is a Prefect, only that he is Captain of Quidditch, and Cedric being a prefect is certainly something that Cedric's father Amos, with his demonstrated excessive pride in his son's achievements, would have mentioned.

Greater Picture
There does not seem to be any particular significance to Harry's being made Quidditch captain. Presumably, he was the only logical choice for the position, as he had been considered good enough in his year to be considered for the position of Prefect, but had been passed over because he "had enough responsibility to be going on with." As the Quidditch Captain receives all the privileges of the Prefects, but with less responsibility (fielding a team and coaching it to play well), it is perhaps the case that this position was given to Harry as something of a reward.

Once Harry leaves school, he does not seem to re-enter the world of Quidditch as a sport. The same cannot be said for Oliver Wood, who apparently is picked up by a professional team (Puddlemere United) on graduation, or Ginny Weasley, who, according to an interview given by the author following publication of the final book, plays professionally for a while after she and Harry are married. We can speculate that Ginny quite possibly was Quidditch captain in Harry's absence, during his seventh year, due to her demonstrated skill in both the Seeker and Chaser positions, but nothing in the story suggests this. Whether she and Oliver are selected by professional teams because of their captaincy, or because of playing skill, is unknown. We are not told of any scouting done by the professional teams at Hogwarts games, although it is logical that scouts would be present at many school games.