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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Soft Skills

There is an old adage that says “If it is not broken, don’t fix it.” Sadly, this wise saying does not apply to the crisis facing America’s schools. The system of education in America’s schools is in need of repair. Since the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), one of the major focuses in America’s schools is raising the test scores of America’s students in order to comply with the NCLB Act. Many schools have demonstrated with their test scores that they are showing adequate yearly progress (A.Y.P.); a mandate of NCLB Act. However, many educators and parents are concerned that these objectives do not adequately fix the problems in the current system of education.

Rather than focus mainly on test accountability, American schools need to also focus on new objectives such as creativity, innovation, and entrepreneurship. To promote a positive learning environment, it is essential that these three objectives be an integral part of the schools’ curriculum and manifested within every classroom.

The system of education in America has changed over the years. However, there is a greater mandate for change in the schools approach to education. All children do not learn the same. Therefore, our philosophy in educating students should not be a “one size fits all” mentality. It is important that our pedagogies reflect changing times. In order to change and improve our education system, Dennis Littky, cofounder of the Big Picture Company and the director of MET schools in Providence, Rhode Island suggests that, “We must love our children more than we love our current education system and structures” (2004). Littky and his administration are strong advocates for catalyzing changes in American education in schools across the country. The MET school’s philosophy is educating “one student at a time.” Since the Metropolitan Regional Center and Technical Center (MET) school’s founding, they have successfully demonstrated a “98 percent college application rate; a 98 percent college rate; 95 percent attendance rate; and a dropout rate of less than 3 percent” (2004).

Creativity
The concern of many educators is that American schools are sacrificing crucial key objectives within the educational system, which Yong Zhao refers to as “our secret weapon” (2006), due to the pressure to raise test scores. The “secret weapon” Zhao is referring to is creative thinking. According to Zhao, our major competitors who already have “test score” driven curriculums are seeking creativity and American schools are fixing the wrong set of problems. Zhao points out that, “Whereas U.S. schools are now encouraged, even forced, to chase after test scores, China, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan - all named as major competitors- have started education reforms aimed at fostering more creativity and innovative thinking among their citizens” (2006).

Creativity can be fostered or it can be stifled. As defined by educator Larry Roberts, “Creativity involves a person’s ability to use imagination or inventiveness to bring something into existence” (2003). Everyone has the ability to be creative. For some students it is easier than for others. This is why it is important that schools set up a learning environment that encourages the creativity process. Many educators feel that creativity and independent thinking are being sacrificed and are looking for ways to bring meaning and joy back into the classroom. Ron Ritchhart, author and teacher, suggests three ways to help teachers to respond to the pressures of standards and external exams. (1) Creativity and curriculum – look at what you are asked to teach with an eye towards shaping it in new and more productive ways, which may involve the teacher finding new topics to explore; (2) Creativity and instruction – a creative approach to instruction entails finding new ways to accomplish familiar tasks by asking yourself the question, “How can I make this content more engaging and meaningful for my students?”; (3) Creativity and students – design open-ended projects and assignments in order to provide many avenues for personalized expression as students think for themselves and develop original response to the curriculum (2004).

When students are allowed and encouraged to use their imagination and creativity, it enhances and adds excitement to learning, for both teacher and student. In a truly creative environment, learning is more than rote memorization. Students become engage and interact with the learning material. They cease to be spectators; hence real learning begins.

Learning strategies are another way to help engaged students and promote learning. Howard Gardner’s theory on multiple intelligences (1983) provides teachers with an excellent vehicle to cultivate creativity within the classroom environment. In Gardner’s theory, the school’s curriculum must appeal to multiple facets of a child’s intelligence recognizing that a child learns in many ways. Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory was applied in a Multiple Intelligence/Learning for Understanding (MI/LfU) pilot study at a community college. In the school’s findings, ninety-two percent of students rated their understanding level of academic material at the satisfied to excellent range after completing an M/LfU course (Diaz-Lefebvre, 2004). Put simply, the best way to minimize the “memorization-regurgitation game” (2004), which is the learning process for many students, is to expose them to other methods of learning. An effective educational system includes creativity in order to better prepare students to become innovate thinkers in the global world.

Innovation
Creativity and innovation go hand and hand; both are important objectives needed in schools in America. Innovative educators teach creatively and make learning relevant to students by utilizing real life experiences in their classrooms. The authors of “An Entrepreneur in the Classroom: Innovative Teaching,” compare teachers to entrepreneurs, referring to them as “creative risk takers in the education world” (Anderson, et.al.1997). These authors define innovative teaching within the context of entrepreneurship. “In the same way entrepreneurs recognize skills and talents in those around them and act to capitalize on them: innovative teachers also recognize in their students abilities in varying degrees and seek to provide a conducive environment to develop the child’s individual skills and talents” (1997). As one teacher put it, “In teaching, as in business, it is the sizzle that sells the steak” (1997).

Innovative teachers produce creative students. Innovation serves to benefit students in many ways. Educator, Ron Ritchhart has identified four benefits of creative and innovative teaching within the classroom: motivational, social, efficacy, and performance (2004).

The first benefit is motivational because teachers “foster intellectual passion” among their students; therefore students are motivated to learn (Ritchhart, 2004).

The second benefit is social. Students are encouraged to work together as a team to understand the learning material “building learning communities within the classroom” (Ritchhart, 2004).

The third benefit is efficacy which helps students gain “a sense of efficacy as they learn how to learn and develop the habits of mind that support good and productive thinking” (Ritchhart, 2004).

The fourth benefit is performance. Students learn the material not just memorize it increasing their ability to apply what they have learned properly in new situations (Ritchhart, 2004).

Teachers often use real-world applications to help students to make connections and apply them. For example, Ward Ellis, an eighth grade physical science teacher at Toano Middle School in Virginia, used hot air balloons rides as an innovative approach to illustrate density to his students. At the end of the school year, he concludes the chemistry and physics unit by bringing in his truck and dismantled engine to demonstrate how simple machine operation works. In the classroom, his philosophy is “Making what you learn to fit your life” (Ward Ellis, personal communication, September 18, 2007).

Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship as a new objective in schools in America can be accomplished in two ways: First, by the teacher viewing themselves as entrepreneurs realizing that they have a product (education) and the students are the consumers. Secondly, schools should implement entrepreneurial education within their curriculum in order to teach students to think entrepreneurially. In an attempt to encourage the development of entrepreneurial thinking among students at the elementary, middle, and high school levels, the American Educational Research Association designed a program called Entrepreneurs in Action! The entrepreneur education program was combined with curricular context, independent thinking, and problem solving in a business context. By using a cognitive apprenticeship approach, “Students used knowledge in ways similar to how they would use it in a practical, or “authentic,” setting. For example, if students learn mathematics in authentic settings, such as in setting up a business, they are more likely to begin thinking “like a mathematician,” or to see the world the way a mathematician would see it” (2003). The most significant outcome of the program was that students learn to think for themselves while learning to explore and discover ideas new to them (2003).

Entrepreneurial education is effective in using “real-life” contexts to teach students and help them to understand how to problem solve. As one of the objectives in schools, it can help teach student how to be innovative and develop critical thinking skills. It serves as an important component in preparing students for future success as business owners and leaders, as well as helping them to compete successfully in a global economy.

Conclusion
One way to fix the problems plaguing the system of education in American schools is for educators to rethink the role that creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship plays within each school curriculum and classroom. The purpose of these objectives serves to educate our students, producing students who enjoy learning, as well as teachers who enjoy teaching. The end result is a successful learning environment where students are motivated, engaged, and excited about the product we sell – education.

Besides educator Ward Ellis, there are many other teachers using creative and innovative teaching approaches in their class room as a means to inspire and cultivate learning in their classrooms. For instance, David McDivitt, of Oak Hill High School in Indiana, used a computer game to teach his students about the political and economic causes of World War II. Also Caroline Faure, of Highland High School in Idaho, brought real-world journalism to her students through live broadcasting. The broadcasting program was so successful that it broadcast live to the school’s community. Faure credits the success of the program on the “Three R’s for the next generation: rigor, relevancy, and relationships. It’s rigorous, incorporating reading, writing, science, and math. It’s relevant, providing students with content that stresses real-work experiences. And it’s about relationships” (T.H.E. Journal, 2006).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/Unions

According to Merriam-Webster, labor unions are defined as organizations usually consisting of workers of the same trade that are formed for the purpose of advancing its members’ interests (as through collective bargaining) in respect to wages, benefits, and working conditions. Union formation has brought about many improvements in the labor system of the United States. They protect the rights of workers and the conditions of their employment. The teacher’s union is by far the largest organization of unionized workers. With over 3 million members, which account for 80% of all teachers, they are a powerful force. In contrast only 11% of the private sector is unionized.

History
Teachers in the 1800s were limited in their ability to communicate with other teachers. Fifteen states had formed education associations in hopes of improving teacher to teacher communication. In 1857, Thomas W. Valentine, president of the New York State Association, called together the other associations to join forces in Philadelphia and form the National Education Association. Over the next one hundred and fifty years, the NEA has worked to transform education and the teaching profession. The American Teachers Association (ATA) began in 1904 when teachers in black schools were encouraged by John Robert Edward Lee to form a national association. In 1916, in Chicago, their name changed to the American Federation of Teachers (AFT) and they became a new national union and later an affiliate of the AFL-CIO. In 1947, these two organizations began the process of uniting to work on the improvement of the public education system and the teaching profession. After almost twenty years of negotiation, an agreement was forged and in 1966 these two powerful organizations merged (NEA website).

Pros
Early educators were treated with bias and discrimination.The women and blacks were paid far less than the white male in the same position.Hours were long and benefits poor. Establishment of the union led to improved working conditions for teachers.Their implementation has ensured proper salaries and benefits of employment.Teachers are strong supporters of their unions. A 2003 national survey of teachers by the Public Agenda Foundation showed that 87 percent of veteran teachers and 79 percent of new teachers feel a union is "absolutely essential" or "important".The same amount of veteran teachers agrees that "without collective bargaining, working conditions and salaries of teachers would be much worse"(Kaboolian,2006). Improving working conditions for teachers has benefited the educational system as a whole. By providing teachers with a voice, the unions are advocates for students as well. Who better than teachers, to know first hand the necessary improvements needed in the classroom and schools. Because of unionization and the collective bargaining process teachers are able to voice concerns about the education system that both the government and the school districts must listen to. Mandated collective bargaining legislation was formed with these basic intents:1) To create a harmonious and cooperative relationship between school corporations and their certified employees,2) To provide school employees the right to organize, and 3) To protect the public from any material interference with the normal educational process (Cochren, 1998).Union bargaining for lowering class size and teacher hours has benefited students everywhere. A breakthrough was made in 2000 when The Harvard Educational Review released a study (as cited in New York State United Teachers [NYSUT],2004)on the issue of unions. This study revealed a strong positive link between teachers unions and higher academic achievement.  A team of researchers from Indiana University and the University of South Carolina in Columbia examined rates of teacher unionization in each state and compared them with interstate variation in SAT and ACT scores. Even they were surprised when it was concluded that students being taught by unionized teachers scored higher than their counterparts educated by non-unionized faculty.

Cons
Presence of such a strong union constituency has brought marked criticism.The advent of collective bargaining legislation came to public education 40 years ago.In 1975 there were 241 teacher strikes in the United States.That number has steadily declined over the years with 15 walk-outs reported in 2004. This decline is due in part to laws barring teachers from striking, mandating mediation or binding arbitration procedures (Hess & West, 2006). Yet many agree the decline is due to many school boards and superintendents inability to compete with the unions. Most school board members are volunteers working with the district in a part time capacity. Administrators, principals, and board members are often more interested in avoiding confrontation and disruption in education.Unions on the other hand provide a large range of services to bring to the bargaining table.The NEA’s UniServ system for example provides guidance to local affiliates on matters such as negotiations and grievance resolution.This nationwide network of 1,650 full-time and 200 part-time employees provided services amounting to $50 million in 2001(Hess & West, 2006). Many union opponents blame unions for the lack of accountability.Although most teachers are effective and dedicated professionals, there are some who should not be in a classroom. With the presence of strong union contracts,removal of a teacher for incompetence is rarely attempted.When it is necessary, the procedure is complex and lengthy. In many cases union contracts are written to allow for seniority to outweigh education.For example, in the Los Angeles Public Schools a strong union allows teachers to determine what they teach based on seniority rather than expertise in the field.A highly qualified teacher in a subject area may not be able to teach in that area because of their lack of seniority.Unfortunately, many principals have no say in department chairs or teachers for specific courses.In some governing councils, principals exist as a non-voting member and the union members make all the decisions (Ouchi, 2003).

The New Union
While it has been a rocky road between unions and administrators, steps are being taken to improve this relationship.In the late 1990's,former president of the NEA, Bob Chase, called for a “new unionism” in which he advocated a change in attitude in which union members that once saw the central office as an adversary can work in collaboration with administrators for the sake of school improvement. In 1996, a few union leaders formed the network known as Teacher Union Reform Network (TURN) to search for innovative ways to enhance education and involve the unions in bettering education. TURN co-founder Adam Urbanski describes his organization as “therapy” and a “safe environment for thinking out loud.”Many districts around the country are using ideas founded in TURN to develop teacher performance-pay plans and peer-review plans. Tom Blanford, associate director for education policy at the NEA states, “A lot of the locals that are participating in TURN are on the cutting edge of a lot of education reform issues and are really exploring ways in which the union can be a partner in promoting quality education.That is very valuable to us”(Honowar, 2006).

Conclusion
The formation of unions was a pivotal point in labor relations in all fields.Overall, the quality of education has improved largely due to the presence of union representation.Plans for resolution of difficulties between teachers and administrators are in place, and must be implemented,so the real goal of education can be achieved.After all, it is the goal of all parties involved to see that every child is provided with the best possible education.

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David Olsson, Easthampton, MA

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Technology/Revolution

"Technology" is a broad term dealing with the use and knowledge of humanity's tools and crafts. (Technology) Although the term “technology” itself is hard to define, it is easy to see all of the advances that have been made in the technological field in the past decades and their affects on education. More people are going to school now than ever before and are enriching and continuing their education with the help of many different technological means. Not only are computers and other electronic devices being used in the classroom, but distance learning and virtual reality are becoming more common as well. Incorporating new tools provides more ways for teachers to reach their students, and these techniques are making the learning environment more innovative and interactive.

Past Technology
As little as twenty years ago, no one could have imagined the kinds of technology that we readily have available today. Students from generations ago had to go to class every day, write notes, and use simple function calculators to solve complex math problems. To learn a foreign language, they had to listen to their teacher and try to have conversations with other students in the new language. Any visuals in the classroom were most likely posters or drawings on the chalkboard, and to type a paper meant to use a typewriter, or handwrite it if you could not afford one. To gain information, whether for general knowledge or a project, students had to go to the library and search what was available to them, or were taken on limited, costly field trips.

Technology Today and in the Future
In today’s society, technology is everywhere, especially in our learning environment. Many practices from the past are now rarely used or even considered, because there are now faster, more efficient, and interactive ways to complete the same tasks.

Technology in the Classroom

Students in a classroom now take for granted many of the technological advances that have been made in the past few years, because these tools have become so important to the educational world that they are now widely used. Teachers are incorporating movies and video clips into their lessons with the use of televisions, and many students now have the opportunity to make a video presentation for class projects. TV is also being used to support the learning process in an innovative program started in 2006 by the National Council of Teachers and Mathematics (NCTM) and Texas Instruments (TI). NCTM and TI teamed up with producers from the show Numb3rs, a hit on the CBS network, which is about a mathematician who helps the FBI by solving complex theories using math problems. According to Linda Beheler of TI, the purpose of the program is to make math more relevant in students’ daily lives. “’We always get the same question,’ said Beheler. ‘Students always want to know, ‘How are we ever going to use this stuff in the real world?'" And that's the idea behind the Numb3rs initiative--"to show them how these [concepts] apply to what they do in life’” (Murray). The classes using this program have turned it into a web quest in which students go onto the program’s website and download different activities to do which correspond with the focus of the episode. The activities incorporate scientific and graphing calculators, which are also beneficial technological advances, because now complex math problems can be solved by utilizing the right series of the calculators’ functions.

Computers
Computers are one of the most important technological improvements that have been made. What once took up an entire room now can fit on the desk of any teacher or student, and is even made portable in the form of laptops. Programs such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, and the Internet have transformed the world of teaching. Now teachers can perform slideshows of their lesson using Power Point, with notes, sound, and video clips; this program combines the lesson and the visuals in one, making the presentation seamless and easier for students to follow. Students and teachers alike can type and edit a paper using Microsoft Word, save it to a flash drive, and bring it somewhere else to continue working. This program also allows teachers to type up something for their class and print multiple copies instantly, and it allows students to make last minute changes to a paper or project that needs to be turned in – things that could not be done years ago using a typewriter. The Internet is an amazing resource that is accessed on the computer as well. While surfing the web, students and teachers have millions of pages of information at their fingertips, plus the Internet provides access to email and websites that lets teachers, parents, and students to communicate easily and more frequently. In addition to communication, the Internet allows for more access to research materials from all over the world and other information that would not otherwise be available.

SmartBoards
An up and coming technological innovation for the classroom is the SmartBoard. This amazing invention permits the teacher to use the computer as easily as a whiteboard. It is great as a presentation tool, encourages participation in students with limited mobility, appeals to a wide range of learning styles, and enables students to revisit material they did not understand or were not present to receive, including the teacher’s explanation. The SmartBoard can be used to view movies and share various software applications with the class including Microsoft PowerPoint, Hyper Studio, Excel, Word, and Internet Explorer, just to name a few. It has many applications that can be used in a variety of classes. In Language Arts, students can use it to collaborate on a story and illustrate it. They can use it to highlight parts of speech in a passage, or to edit or proof read a passage. It can be use in math to demonstrate and practice problem solving before the entire class. In Science, it can be used to construct models of the solar system or the human cell system. In History, it can be used to create Jeopardy Review games that the whole class can enjoy. The SmartBoard makes learning and presenting a blast!

iPods
Another tool that is being used to enhance education is the Apple iPod. This slim mp3 player has been transformed, and now plays a wide range of audio and video files. While most people today would still consider it something used for entertainment, a group called the iDreamers at Georgia College and State University are becoming leaders in using the iPod to enhance education. The practice of using iPods to download class lectures is becoming increasingly common in most colleges and even secondary schools; however this group wants to fully utilize the appliance which they think can do so much more for education. Professors at this university are finding new and innovative ways to incorporate the iPod into their class, such as having students download movies or presentations on their own so they do not have to spend class time watching them. Other professors have made podcasts of common questions that students have, so that office hours are freed up for more important topics of discussion. Foreign language classes are using iPods to download conversations to practice understanding and pronunciation (eSchool). Many schools are trying to include the use of the iPods in their curriculum because they allow teachers to get information to students without using class time. Dorothy Leland, GCSU president said, "The more you free up your classroom for discussion, the more efficient you are” (eSchool).

Effective Technology Integration
Although there are many options for technology application in the classroom, the students’ advancement in learning is attributed to the effectiveness of the technology integration into the lessons. The “5W/ 5E” method described in the article Infusing Technology into any Instructional Program is an instructional strategy that can be used to effectively integrate technology into any lesson at any grade level/ content area. The 5W/ 5E model begins with the basic 5 W’s (who, what, when, where, and why) as applicable to the technology being used (Wathers). Before beginning instruction, the teacher should consider who the target audience will be, what technologies are available and are the most appropriate, when and where the technology integration will take place, and why the technology is being used. The 5 E’s address the most critical of the 5 W’s; the why. The model defines the why of technology integration as engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation (Wathers). If a teacher uses this 5W/ 5E model prior to beginning use of technology for a lesson, the technology integration will occur in an organized and streamlined manner that will enhance student achievement.

Conclusion
With the amazing strides that technology has improved, who knows where technology will be in the future? If we compare how far the integration between technology and education has come, there is no way to tell how much further it will advance in the proceeding years. Just like twenty years ago when no one could have guessed that computers would be so widely available, we can not really tell what will be the next big thing. Some things that show our recent progress are distance learning and virtual reality. “Distance learning applied physical technology and education processes to serve the needs of students when they are removed from the source of instruction and resources by either time or distance” (Cavanaugh). Distance learning has become increasingly popular, to the point where people can now earn degrees online, sitting at home on the computer, while taking classes with students from all over the nation. In the future this is sure to expand even further, possibly becoming a way to communicate and learn with students from all over the world. Another new concept that is starting to become incorporated is the use of virtual reality in the classroom. Students who are in medical school for example, can practice techniques repeatedly and easily through virtual reality before they move on to a human subject. This learning technique is beneficial for lower level students as well, such as biology students who can virtually dissect animals; and this learning technique is being tested in the NICE Project, where elementary school students interact with a virtual landscape by growing and maintaining a garden (Johnson). New technology is being created all the time, and over the next few decades the devices and techniques used now will surely be replaced with something even more advanced and efficient.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Technology/Textbooks

Many may think having students write their own textbooks is a ridiculous idea. When we were first told of this idea, I have to admit that I did not know what to think of it. Student written textbooks can be seen as a way of collaborative learning. Collaborative learning is a method of instruction in which students of all levels work together in groups (Tao). It isn’t exactly collaborative learning, but it encourages the same concepts of students taking responsibility for their learning, and sharing it with others.

Why?
Today the world is changing at a rapid pace. Obsolescence is an object's attribute of losing value because the outside world has changed. For example, if a teacher is handing out a textbook which has been being used for thirty-five years its content cannot be up to date, therefore it has lost its value. New technology like the internet has made finding information quick and often times easy. Students are not only using textbooks to learn but television channels such as “Animal Planet” and the “History” channel. Textbooks are usually outdated by a few years due to how lengthy the publication process can be. Textbooks take years sometimes to be published, by then new information has been developed and students are not getting as up to date information as they should. People are coming up with new ideas to engage the minds of today’s generation. The student of today has video games,computers and television to entertain them. As teachers we have to come up with ideas that the students can relate to.

New Ideas Helping Shape Today’s Education Systems
Ideas such as project-based learning which is defined as a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks (Project Based). In layman’s terms, it’s a way to get students involved in their learning, so they are not just listening and taking notes. The idea of having students write there own textbooks is a good example of project-based learning.

Another way of changing the way students are taught today is using technology integration, which is trying to use things such as PowerPoint, videos, internet and other sorts of technology for teaching students. Lets face it the student’s mind of today is always engaged by video games, television, and computers; we have to find ways as teachers to keep their attention. Learning can be entertaining and students can have fun while learning. It is possible for the word learning and the word fun to be used in the same sentence. By having students write their own text books they are not only experiencing project based learning, but they are also experiencing technology integration.

Pros and Cons
Having students write their own textbook can be a risky process. On the one hand, it could turn out to be a well-written easy to understand book that includes every important topic and adds no unnecessary ‘fluff.’ On the other hand, it could end up being a messy simplistic book that does not do justice to the important topics. This is where clear guidelines, instructor input and rating/approval options become critical. Clear guidelines within which the student writers are expected to stay are important to ensure some sense of cohesiveness throughout the entire text- even with a wide range of students with different styles and levels of writing contributing to one project. The instructor also needs to be very present during the process whether in making suggestions or edits or deciding on the final cut for content and other specifics (Mankiw). Feedback in any form, whether positive or negative, whether in person or electronically, is helpful for students so that the process is as much of a learning process as is the absorption of the content. There should also be some sort of rating or approval system in place for the final product of each student. It can be peer rated, faculty rated, or even a self-reflective checklist. It could be a very general system that just reflects on the overall quality of each student’s work, or it could be quite specific and consider the style, length, adherence to guidelines, and level of writing of each composition. The beauty of student written textbooks is that there are no rules. The process can be completely different for each and every case, and the final product can literally be anything imaginable.

How will this affect the student?
Student-written textbooks makes the student more responsible for his or her learning. By taking responsibility for their own learning, students should be able to not only read information and remember it for a test, but they will have absorbed the information. Also language of an article may be easier to understand if another student wrote it, then coming from a professional who may have many technical names for ideas. In addition, the student will save money for textbooks which we all know is a refreshing thought.

Conclusion
Student-written textbooks although somewhat new will be being used in classrooms. It will allow project based learning for students which will in turn allow a more active role in their learning. It may take some time for students to adapt to this concept but once learned it is pretty easy. This being my first time helping to write a student written textbook; I do not have any complaints. I also feel I have learned more from doing, rather than just reading and taking notes.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Technology/Social Media

Emerging technologies have changed the shape of today’s classroom. The question that continues arise is “What is the best type of the new technology to use with my students?”  The answer to this question is not always a simple one. It depends on availability of resources and also what the teacher is comfortable doing with the classroom. This article will review some of those resources and their positive and negative attributes.

Threaded Discussions in Education
According to a web teaching article by Dartmouth College, online discussions allow students to interact with classmates outside of class. Students have the freedom to log in at any time from any computer that has Internet access. They can use these discussion areas to clarify issues they encounter with their assignments, discuss topics raised in class, or can start a new discussion with their peers. The positive side of using threaded discussions is that it can save time for the teacher when preparing for daily classes, allow shy students to feel free to discuss topics they may not be able to do in front of the class, and also it allows for topics of a sensitive nature to be talked about without being a face to face discussion. The negative side of discussion threads are that it can add to a teacher’s workload if the discussion has too much participation. This can lead to many hours of reading and responding for the teacher. On the other hand, there can be too little discussion if the topic does not catch the student’s interest overall. An online discussion can be facilitated by using chat rooms, discussion boards, and instant messaging programs. Teachers can encourage participation by being more involved, giving credit or extra points in that class, allowing anonymity, restricting access (making discussion board or chat only accessible to the students), encouraging collaboration, and being sure to be realistic about the expectations of the topic and discussion board.

Web 2.0 in Education
According to the article at Web 2.0, Web 2.0 refers to the improved form of the World Wide Web and new technologies, such as, weblogs, social bookmarking, wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds, social software, and online web services. Some characteristics of Web 2.0 are applications being delivered entirely through a web browser, users owning and exercising control over their own data, an architecture of participation that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it, rich, interactive, user-friendly interface, some social-networking aspects, and enhanced graphical interfaces, such as, gradients and rounded corners (new to Web 2.0).

Social Networking
There are many social networking websites available to the public at no cost. They are designed to allow people to network online much as they would in person. The sites have a registration process which asks many questions which will allow their profiles to be matched by queries of other users. These websites include blogs, groups, photos, music and videos. Some examples of social networking websites are MySpace, Facebook, BlackPlanet, Bandwagon, and Friendster, Classmates.com, Flirtomatic, Livejournal, Myyearbook, Passado, and Stumbleupon. MySpace is the third most popular website used in the United States and has 54 million profiles currently. These websites have gotten a lot of attention, especially in the education setting. There are positive aspects to these websites, which include, being able to easily setup a class page which can include blogs, videos, photos, and other features. This page can easily be accessed by providing just one web address, which makes it easy to remember and easy to type in for students who may have trouble using the keyboard or with spelling. It can be customized to make it easy to read and also with as much or little color as desired. You can also change the font and put audio with it to make it accessible to students with visual disabilities. There are also many potential negative aspects of social networking to be heavily considered. Because of the nature of the sites and the age of its users, there is the potential for sexual predators to surf the personal websites of the students. According to the Howstuffworks website, there has been at least seven non-violent sexual assaults on minors that have been linked to the MySpace website, and also at least one murder has been linked to a MySpace website. There is a rule that you must be at least 14 years old to register for a MySpace webpage, but this is often lied about by both people who want to appear older and also those predators that want to appear younger than 18 years old. Due to these issues, students will need to be advised on the safety issues regarding these websites. They should be informed of ways to stay safe, such as, not giving out personally identifiable information, not meeting in person other MySpace users, unless you know them in person, employing safe surfing techniques that would be used in any blog or chat room type website, and immediately reporting any suspicious communication via a social networking website to someone that the student trusts, such as, a teacher, counselor or parent.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Assessment/Roles

Assessments of performance and performance appraisals play a major role in the education system today. These assessments and appraisals are not only being used to measure student performance, they are also being used to evaluate the performance of teachers and administrators. The topic of performance assessments is considered one of the “hot topics” on the education agenda and with good reason. Performance assessments provide a closer look at how students are progressing. Also,performance appraisals provide a way to monitor teacher and administrator progress. Assessments and appraisals are powerful levers that help to shape instruction. While performance assessments and performance appraisals offer many positive results, they also have some negative effects in our schools today. Throughout this article we will examine some of the ways performance assessments and performance appraisals are used to evaluate students, teachers, and administrators and the effects of these assessments and appraisals.

Let’s first take a look at performance assessments of students. Performance assessment is defined as “a measure of assessment based on authentic tasks such as activities, exercises, or problems that require students to show what they can do (article: The Definition of Performance Assessment). So just how does this work in an actual classroom setting? First the student(s) are asked to perform a task rather than to “select an answer from a ready-made list. The types of tasks that the students are required to perform are based on the method that the teacher decides to use. There are three main types that the teacher will normally use: open-ended, extended, or portfolio. Open-ended exercises “are questions or other prompts that require the student to explore a topic orally or in writing” (article: Performance Assessment). Extended tasks consist of “assignments that require sustained attention in a single work area and are carried out over several hours or longer” (article: Performance Assessment). Portfolios “are selected collections of a variety of performance-based work.”(article: Performance Assessment). All three types of performance assessments “require that students actively develop approaches to the task under defined conditions” (article: Performance Assessment). Once the tasks are complete, the students work is evaluated by the teacher based on a set of agreed-upon standards. From this the teacher can evaluate the students’ knowledge and abilities, as well as the areas of weakness for each student. Performance assessments help students to engage in active learning and to develop skills in critical thinking that will help them throughout life.

The most common tool used in the education system today to assess student performance is the Standards of Learning or SOL’s (as they are most often called). These tests are used to measure student performance or “achievement in grades K-12 in English, mathematics, science, history/social science, technology, the fine arts, foreign language, health and physical education, and driver education”(article: Standards of Learning ). Since implementing the use of these performance assessments within the school system “the earliest years of schooling have become less like a trip to ‘Mister Rogers Neighborhood’ and more like SAT prep. Kids are “tested, and tested again – some every 10 days or so – to ensure they’re making significant progress” (Tyre, 36). Testing is necessary in determining the progress of students learning, but do we really need to test students so much and so often? It has been proven that too much testing creates enormous stress and pressure on children to succeed. Many children are falling behind and “are getting their first taste of failure before they learn to tie their shoes” (Tyre, 36) because of such rigorous testing.

Teachers and administrators are also constantly being assessed on their performance because of widespread public pressure for educational accountability and questions about skills, training, and performance of American teachers. “Teacher training consists of three years of general education and teaching specialization and one year of pedagogical training”(Allen & Cosby, 50) with some technology training. Administrators undergo more training and schooling before assuming their role as educational leaders. You would think that this would be enough, but it’s not because teachers and administrators are still arriving in schools today “fully certified and wholly untested in terms of real-world performance” (Allen & Cosby, 51). One reason for this is the strict curriculum our teachers are expected to follow today. Teachers are told how much time to spend on each subject and what needs to be covered according to state curriculum guidelines. This “makes it hard for teachers to stay sensitive to the important qualities in children that tests can’t measure- diligence, creativity and potential – or to nurture kids who develop more slowly”(Tyre, 42). Administrators are also faced with similar problems when it comes to these assessments. Since the No Child Left Behind Act has been implemented in our school systems, administrators must keep their staff up to par or face stiff penalties. Many schools risk losing funding or even being shut down, if the students do not progress as the state expects. This puts great responsibility and stress on the administrators and teachers in the school systems today.

While performance assessments or appraisals are good for setting guidelines for students, teachers, and administrators, they do not come without a price. Performance assessments are taking away the project-based, hands-on experience that many children need to enhance their learning experience. One reason being because “performance assessment requires a greater expense of time, planning, and thought from students and teachers” (article: Performance Assessment). Another problem found in performance assessments is that they “depend heavily on professional judgment” (Linn). Professional judgment may not always be the same and may not always be fair. So when the assessments are done, this needs to be taken into consideration. There needs to be a focus on the technical and equity issues so that all performance assessments are fair to everyone. Performance assessments and performance appraisals are necessary in keeping our students, teachers, and administrators where they need to be. However, I do not think that they should be our main focus because they take away so much from the teaching and learning experience.

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Describe some of the effects (both positive and negative) that performance assessments have on students, teachers, and administrators.


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Assessment/Performance

High performance schools are schools that utilized advanced designs to be environmentally friendly while producing better studying conditions for students. The idea is to create a relaxing, healthy, and clean environment that will not only optimize resource use and lower energy cost, but also make the school a healthier place to be in. The term “High Performance Schools” refers to the physical school structure and the grounds in which the school resides. (EPA) The whole building is included into the design of a high performance school, and each and every portion of the structure affects the high efficiency and the environmental benefits.

Building Environment
A reach and aim of high performance schools is to improve the environment of the school, community, and the world in general. By taking a conservative approach to maintaining the school, its functions, and its construction, a high performance school can be environmentally beneficial and improve living conditions in the community its self.

Building and Construction
The schools that are built are constructed out of materials that are non-toxic and environmentally friendly. This acts to protect the builders while fitting the building and the students and teachers during occupation of the structure. (NEEP) Many of the materials required are used from recycled parts as one of the aims of high efficiency schools is protecting the environment as a whole. Over 20% of the schools materials can come from post-consumer recycled content. (CIWMB) This also includes materials used in classrooms and tools used by students. Most of the materials are durable and easy to clean keeping with the idea of providing a healthier environment than at a traditional school.

Utilities
Another aim of high performance schools is the ability to reduce water usage. Water efficiency can be increased by 30% with a few simple technological adjustments. (NEEP) By utilizing waterless urinals and low-flow fixtures along with automatic shut-off control, water usage is cut back drastically simply by not using extensive amounts of water. Grey water or rain water for flushing toilets can also cut back on the over all use of water in a school. On site waste water treatments by utilizing ‘solar aquatics’ can reduce the cost of sewage treatment and provide improved conditions for the surrounding community as well.

Along with water, high performance schools focus on reducing energy cost of maintaining the school indoor temperature. “Heating, Ventilation, and Cooling (HVAC) systems are one of the largest consumers of energy in a school and modest improvements in system efficiency can yield relatively large savings in a school operational budget.” (NEEP) Increased savings can be achieved by utilizing better insulation, better building shell, and high efficiency motors and equipment for optimal HVAC performance.

Electricity conservation is another one of the goals of maintaining a high performance schools. Electric lighting can account for 30-50% of the of a schools power consumption. (NEEP) By boosting efficiency, schools can reduce their power usage vastly. Having high efficiency lights, dimming and occupancy sensors, and well placed outdoor lighting can help maintain lower energy cost and use less electricity for lighting. Also optimizing the number of light fixtures for each of the school applications would improve over all quality of teacher and student performance while conserving energy.

Natural Environment
The natural environment is also used in the construction of the school. The grounds are maintained with the natural vegetation in the area, while keeping naturally occurring land formations intact. This helps keep a natural feel about the school and lowers the environmental impact of building a new school. (EPA)

Student Environment
A better facility with better lighting, acoustics, and air quality will aid in delivering better student outcomes. (Better Bricks) Not only are the utilities and the construction more efficient, but the aura of the entire school gets a boost when running on a high performance level.

Lighting
A unique characteristic of high performance schools is the lighting hat is provided. Not only are more energy efficient lights used, but light is optimized in each class room for whatever purpose it might serve. The electronic lighting also acts with natural day lighting to help improve student performance. By providing this visual comfort, class room tasks such as reading or following presentations can become easier and more comfortable for students. (EPA) Glare is also minimized by utilizing the natural lighting in combination with the electrical lighting.

Acoustics
Another focus of the high performance school is noise pollution. The structure of the buildings is designed to be acoustically sound. Teachers do not need to yell for their students to hear them while the structure minimizes noises coming from outside the room and noise leaving the room. (Better Bricks) The way the ventilation systems are set up effect the noise output in a room as well. Instead of having to hear ventilation systems come on and off, the noise is drastically reduced to increase focus and more attention in the class room. (EPA)

Air Quality
For the amount of time that students and teachers spend inside of a class room, keeping the air clean and contaminant free is key to helping better air quality. Contamination is controlled and filtration systems are highly effective and keep moisture accumulation controlled as well. (Better Bricks) Since children are more susceptible to indoor pollutants, air quality control is important inside of any school.

Benefits
It is no doubt beneficial that a school can be highly conservative, energy efficient, and environmentally friendly, but how does this effect the students and how they learn? The purpose of many of these changes is due to the better results that are yielded because of all the improvements in buildings.

Student Effects
The students are directly affected by many of these changes. Student performance improvement in high performance schools can be attributed to the better air quality, lighting, and noise control. Since the atmosphere inside the school would be a pleasant one to be in, it’s understandable that students would be better able to focus in a high performance school. The atmosphere has lead to an increase in test scores in students who attend high performance schools. (CHPS) These pleasantries can also attribute to an increase in average daily attendance. (Energy) This can help get the school more funds to operate on because of increased government aid due to high attendance rates.

Administrative Benefits
The students are not the only ones who benefit because of the high performance schools. Teachers and faculty both benefit from the use of the building as well. Since the atmosphere is such a pleasant one to work in, teachers are more satisfied in the work place and there is a high retention rate because of this as well. (CHPS) Teachers aren’t the only ones who are happy. Since there is a reduction in operation cost, due to the lack of resources being used, there is more money available for the program rather than maintaining facilities. (CHPS) Liability for poor health conditions in a facility is also eliminated since a facility is in top condition and does not have any hazardous materials involved in its construction. (Energy)

Maintaining a Facility
The biggest cost in a school is not the building cost or the program costs, but it’s the long term cost of up keeping the facility and the area around it. (EPA) Since the high performance schools are designed to be efficient and low cost, it is no more difficult to maintain a high performance school than it is a traditional school. While there might be initial higher cost for some portions of the school, over time more money will be saved because of the high efficiency and optimal conditions of the facilities. (NEEP) If a school is going to upgrade something to better its standings, it is cheaper to change it immediately rather then delaying. More money might be spent immediately, but over time savings can easily be more beneficial.

Monitoring Facilities
High performance schools are relatively new and there are few ways to rate them as of right now. One organization, The Collaborative for High Performance Schools (CHPS), has come up with a means of rating and monitoring the available high performance schools. They have developed guidelines in a six volume best practice manual that can help guide researchers and developers in creating and maintaining high performance schools. (CHPS)

Conclusion
The over all purpose of these high performance schools is to improve the quality of education by establishing a healthy and non-hazardous environment. By reducing energy use, the amount of non-recycled materials used, and costs of operation, not only are there more resources available to the schools, but the environment and people in it benefit from the unused materials and resources that would have been allocated in the building of a school. Ultimately, the students benefit from a better learning experience in a more secure learning environment.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Acknowledgment/Lifelong Learning

Walking down the hallway in the school where I work, I was stopped by Hunter, a second grade student. Holding up three books he had just checked out of the school’s library titled Canada, Alaska, and New Zealand, he said, “I’m learning about geography.” “Oh, that’s great,” I said. “So your class is studying about other countries?” “No, I am just doing it myself,” was his reply. Hunter’s curiosity is a simple example of the lifelong learning process. He possesses characteristics that describe the lifelong learner. Hunter took it upon himself to seek out something that interests him and pursued the drive to act upon it by checking out the books in the library. His unprompted willingness to share his discoveries also exhibits qualities of a lifelong learner.

Definition and History of Lifelong Learning
Lifelong learning, a self-explanatory concept, is learning that starts at pre-birth and continues throughout life. Lifelong learning is a process in which people obtain meaning from interacting with their environment. This includes both the social and physical environment. Learning is a natural and ongoing process producing new or deeper understandings of concepts. (Virtue) To lock into these important concept educators need to look at characteristics that make a lifelong learner. Lifelong learners are built and what one learns builds on previous life experiences. A person with an obsession to a particular subject could be labeled what psychologists call a “trait curious” person. This person is "someone with a tendency to delve deeply into subjects that grab his attention, learning more about himself and the world in the process.” (Psychology Today, October 2006, Cultivating Curiosity by Elizabeth Svoboda. Page 57) The word “trait curious” person is synonymous with “lifelong learner”.

In M. K. Smith’s article on lifelong learning he elaborates on the history of lifelong learning by sharing his findings, “The idea of lifelong education was first fully articulated in this century by Basil Yeaxlee (1929) He along with Eduard Lindeman (1926) provided an intellectual basis for a comprehensive understanding of education as a continuing aspect of everyday life. In this they touched upon various continental traditions such as the French notion of education permanente and drew upon developments within adult education within Britain and North America.” (Smith) Today many educators promote lifelong learning by engaging students in activities to fulfill their curiosity and promote learning skills that will produce lifelong learning characteristics. (Virtue)

Characteristics of A Lifelong Learner
Life long learners possess a desire to learn. This characteristic follows the person throughout a lifetime. No matter what level in life they are in, they are searching for purposeful and meaningful activities to promote their need to learn. Characteristics of a lifelong learner include:
 * Intrinsically Motivated (World Bank)
 * Analytical Thinking Shills (World Bank)
 * Ability to Learn and Think Independently (World Bank)
 * Creativity (World Bank)
 * Problem Solving Skills (World Bank)
 * Communication (World Bank)
 * Teamwork (World Bank)
 * Thoughtful Reflection (Virtue)
 * Respectful Skepticism (Virtue)
 * Intellectual Curiosity (Virtue)
 * Adapting Alternate Perspectives (Virtue)

How Teachers Can Build Lifelong Learners
In a lifelong learning environment teachers focus on learning rather than teaching. The teacher serves as a facilitator and is a guide to the source of knowledge. Harry Wong in his book, “How to Be An Effective Teacher” states “that the fact the teacher does most of the work at school explains why there is so little learning in school. According to research only thirty five percent of the allocated time is devoted to learning.” Wong went on to emphasize “the reason teachers are so tired at the end of the school day is that they have been working. If I worked as hard as many teachers do, I’d be tired too. But have you noticed what happens at 3 o’clock when the students leave? “Yea, yea, yea!” Why are they so full of energy? Because they have been sitting in school all day doing nothing while the teacher is doing all the work. The person who does the work is the only one doing any learning!” (Wong)

Educators need to look for student’s interest and plan accordingly, with a purpose to engage the students. Wong emphasizes an important fact, “The role of a teacher is not to cover. The role of a teacher is to UNCOVER.” (Wong) Educators are trying to incorporate NCLB mandates into the classroom and are taking very little time to get to know their student’s interest. “Learning has nothing to do with what the teacher covers. Learning has to do with what the student accomplishes.” (Wong) Students take control of their individual learning and are motivated to want to learn more. The concept of lifelong learning relies on the idea that every person can become self-directing and will see the importance of excerising lifelong learning techniques and skills into their everyday lives. (Smith) David Elkind refers to assembly line learning in his book "The Hurried Child". Elkind says “the problem with the factory management system is that it pushes children too much and puts them into a uniform mold and children are being pushed to perform or produce for the sake of the teachers and administrators. There is a difference between skills and the ability to use those skills. When skills are learned in isolation the connection between them and their use is tenuous. Creative teachers prefer to employ various instructional techniques so that children can integrate subject matter into their lives. Educational theorists have long held that repetitive drill in basic skills not connected to comprehension or composition is the least efficient way to educate and in some instances is even counter productive.”(Elkind)

Lifelong Learners in the Preschool Classroom
If we as educators are going to build lifelong learners for the twenty first century the best place to start is in their early years. Preschool programs are becoming a must for this day and time. It is imperative to integrate learning into the lives of our youngest lifelong learners. During the early years children learn by intense interactions with their immediate environment referred to by some as active learning. Active learning environments are child friendly and depend on the use of natural and found materials. Active learning begins as young children manipulate objects, using their five senses to find out about the objects. This action gives the child something real to think about and talk to others about. Preschool children are very concrete thinkers. Abstract concepts begin to form through these types of concrete experiences with materials and people. Children do most of the work of active learning while the teacher gives the needed support. There are five ingredients for an active learning preschool environment. These include materials, manipulation, choice, language from the child, and adult support. Combine interactions with other children and purposeful, meaningful experiences and the preschooler will have ample opportunities for problem solving, another important characteristic of the life long learner. (Hohamann and Weikart) One of the most important aspects of initiating life long learning in the preschooler is to ignite the “fire for desire” to promote an intrinsic motivation to learn.

Results of Lifelong Learners
A lifelong learner is capable of making informed choices about their lives and their society. Harry Wong suggests that “there are two kinds of people: workers and leaders, each having distinctive characteristics and these characteristics will give a person certain results in life.” (Wong) Some of the examples Wong gives in recognizing a worker as opposed to a leader include: Workers manage by crisis. Leaders manage by leadership. Workers are full of excuses. Leaders have plans, goals, and vision. Workers dress like laborers. Leaders dress for success. Workers complain about other people, places and things. Leaders compliment people, places and things. Workers chitchat. Leaders pay attention. Workers talk about not getting respect. Leader’s success earns them respect. Workers are victims. Leaders have power and are in control. Victims are people who are suffering because they lack the proper control over their own lives. (Wong)

Conclusion
In conclusion one can see the importance of creating a learning environment where lifelong learners are built. Not only do people learn by doing but also they learn in groups and from one another. As educators by providing the necessary ingredients for a learning environment that promotes lifelong learning, we can produce not an assembly line type of student but a student with a desire to learn. Harry Wong leaves with us two important tidbits about initiating a desire to learn, “Teaching is the art of assisting discovery. You can teach a lesson for a day but if you teach curiosity, you teach for a lifetime.” (Wong)

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Acknowledgment/Service Learning

Very simply put, service-learning is a way to tie together community service and academics, giving students a way to learn by “doing” something. It is the integration of meaningful community service, instruction, and personal reflection (National Service). According to Rudy Crew, a former New York City Public Schools chancellor, the goal of service learning is to provide relevance of the curriculum, a level of rigor in academics, and to build relationships (Learning). Service-learning is taking place at all levels of education: K-12 institutions, colleges and universities, and communities in order to produce world-class learners and world-class citizens.

Defining Service-Learning and Setting Goals
Service learning is a strategy used by educators to help students reach certain academic and social goals. One set of goals of service-learning is to enhance students’ motivation to learn, increase attendance in schools, and reduce student dropout rates. As educators we strive to engage our students in activities which will give them a sense of responsibility for their own learning. This ownership of education will contribute to their academic and social success (Learning). Another goal of service-learning is to enable students to see the relevance of academic subjects to the real world. As educators we often run into the question “Why do I need to know this stuff?” Service-learning gives us the opportunity to open the door of communication to show them through action how studying a wide range of subjects will help them. Through service-learning, students will be proud of their work; this gives students confidence and builds self-esteem. Another goal that is often overlooked is the attempt to develop an environment of collegial participation among students, faculty, and the community.

Service-learning has several specific requirements: a service-learning project must have clearly articulated and authentic learning goals that address the curriculum, give the students an opportunity to make decisions, respond to a genuine community need, and include a personal analytic reflection produced by the students. In other words, not only are the students encouraged to improve their academic skills by applying what they learn in school to the real world, but they are also reflecting on their experiences to reinforce the connection between their service and the their learning (Learning in Deed). This will also help to foster the development of empathy, values, beliefs, awareness, self-confidence, and helps to foster a sense of caring for others (Cooper). These are valuable personal traits that are rarely directly addressed in classroom curriculum.

Characteristics of Service-Learning
Now that we know the basic definition, goals, and benefits of service-learning, let us attach some characteristics to service-learning in order to understand what it “looks like.”

Student Reflection
One of the large elements of service-learning is student reflection. According to Aldous Huxley, "experience is not what happens to a man; it is what a man does with what happened to him.” This is the point at which students can make their experience personal and draw connections to their own world.  One way in order to enable students to make this connection is by asking them to comment on three levels of reflection: the Mirror Level, the Microscope Level, and the Binoculars Level.

The first level of reflection is the Mirror Level. This gives students an opportunity to make a clear reflection of who they are, what their values are, and what they have learned about themselves through the experience. Students should be encouraged to discover how they had to challenge themselves and their own perceptions of life in order to complete the project.

The second level of reflection is the Microscope Level. This is when the students’ seemingly small experience becomes very large. They should describe their experience and explain the impact their actions had on the overall project. Who did they affect and what did they learn about them? What else can be done to help the situation? They should also address how their project complimented or contrasted with the material being taught in class (Cooper). At this point the students are seeing the “bigger picture” of their experience and who or what they affected.

The third level students should address in their reflection is the Binocular Level. This is the level that makes what appears distant, seem closer. In other words, from their experience the students should analyze their future behaviors and attitudes. Will they be altered or changed from their initial perceptions? They should also be addressing the overarching issues that influence the original problem they were attempting to solve in the community. What is the larger political/social problem (Cooper)?

Service-Learning Statistics
A survey was given to 580 college and university campuses during the 2005-2006 school year in order to find information on service-learning trends. According to that survey, 91% of the surveyed campuses offer service-learning courses and 32% of the students attending them engage in these courses. The 6,566,780 students who participate in service-learning courses performed a total of 317 million hours of service in the academic year of 2005-2006 (Brown).

Service-Learning Federal Policy
Federal policy has grown over the past 20 years in order to support service-learning programs and implement them across the nation. The original policies are the National and Community Service Act of 1990 and the Community Service Trust Act of 1993. The National and Community Service Act of 1990 was put into action by President Bush Sr. The goal of the act was to support and encourage the implementation of service-learning in America through school programs, youth corps, and higher education service programs. The Community Service Trust Act of 1993 was enlisted during the Clinton administration. Its main goal was to enhance national service-learning opportunities and to provide service educational awards to people participating in service-learning projects. The most current legislation is the Generations Invigorating Volunteering and Education (GIVE) Bill, which was accepted in the summer of 2007. When this bill becomes an act, it will be responsible for recharging, updating, and rejuvenating the 1993 Community Service Trust Act (Corporation).

U.S. schools are ready now to embrace service-learning as a means of overcoming widespread academic and civic disengagement among American students. This is our opportunity to raise a generation of youth who will become tomorrow’s leaders and proactive citizens.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/Teachers

Accountability is defined as “responsibility to someone or for some activity” (www.thefreedictionary.com). When considering a teacher’s accountability, we relate it to the teacher’s responsibility for their students and his or her learning progress. Teachers should accept ownership over their student’s performance in their classroom. Accountability is good for children of all ages.

Today, teachers live in an age of accountability. They are constantly being held responsible for the performance of their students. This leads to teachers constantly feeling pressured since their teaching capabilities are being judged on by how their students perform on, for example, a standardized test. “The No Child Left Behind Act holds schools and school districts accountable for results. Schools are responsible for making sure your child is learning” (ed.gov). This act increases the responsibility of teachers for their student’s performance and learning achievement.

Teachers' Responsibility
When someone decides to become a teacher, they take on the responsibility to educate our nation's youth. Many people think that within the school system, teachers are ultimately the ones who are accountable for the development and learning progress of students. At one time, principals and teachers could satisfy the demands of accountability simply by working hard and following accepted professional standards. By contrast, the current accountability movement emphasizes results (Lashway). It is the teacher’s responsibility for students to produce good test results.

It is a teacher’s responsibility to educate our youth; therefore it is the teacher’s responsibility to be well educated. Students achieve more and progress faster when instructed by a well-educated and well-trained teacher (Carter). Today in our school systems, we are continually raising the standards for students, but at the same time we are lowering the standards for our teachers. Until we address the problems plaguing teacher education institutions, teacher training, and teacher accountability, we cannot adequately address the problems affecting our students (Carter). The first step of bettering our education system is by holding teachers more accountable for their students. This idea brings up the question on how exactly should teachers be held accountable.

How Should Teachers Be Held Accountable
First, teachers need to be held accountable through evaluations and observations. At the end of each year, each teacher needs to be evaluated on his/her performance for that year. Although many schools only perform an annual teacher evaluation, it is necessary for a teacher to be evaluated through out the school year. Teachers should be observed and evaluated through out the year by the schools administration. For instance, a principal or an assistant principal will sit in on a teacher’s class and evaluate her performance. Listed are some of the criteria a principal should evaluate while observing a teacher: Instructional skills, classroom management, student discipline and attendance patterns, knowledge of subject matter, interest in teaching pupils, and effort towards improvement when needed (wednet.edu). Students progress should also be evaluated every couple of weeks to see if they are improving and how their performance reflects the teacher.

Another way teachers can be held accountable is by students achieving passing scores on standardized tests. These test are implemented by the government and teachers are expected to prepare their students for the information that is within these test. In Virginia, SOL is a common term that teachers encounter. The Standards of Learning for Virginia Public Schools describe the commonwealth's expectations for student learning and achievement in grades K-12 in English, mathematics, science, history/social science, technology, the fine arts, foreign language, health and physical education, and driver education (pen.k12.va.us). The SOL’s of Virginia are a prime example of a state required test that students are required to pass. These test reflect both the performance of the students and teachers. Teachers are pressured to teach all of the material that is covered on these standardized test within a limited amount of time. They need to be flexible in their teaching because they need to allow time to cover each required concept and be assured their students have had time to grasp the concept before moving to a new topic. When teachers are evaluated on their students test results a few other factors should be taken into consideration. First, the size of the classroom since there is always a shortage of teachers and second if there are any students with learning disabilities who may perform lower on the test.

A third way teachers are held accountable is by the No Child Left Behind policy. The No Child Left Behind is a critical step toward improving the education of American children.

NCLB sets five performance goals for states:
 * 1) All students will reach high standards, at a minimum attaining proficiency or better in reading/language arts and mathematics by 2013-2014.
 * 2) All limited English proficient students will become proficient in English and reach high academic standards, at minimum attaining proficiency or better in reading/language arts and mathematics.
 * 3) All students will be taught by highly qualified teachers by 2005-2006.
 * 4) All students will learn in schools that are safe and drug free.
 * 5) All students will graduate from high school(pen.k12.va.us).

The NCLB not only holds the schools accountable for a student’s education but also the individual teacher. According to the NCLB, the Administration's proposal for preparing, training and recruiting teachers is based upon the basic principle that teacher excellence is vital to achieving improvement in student achievement (whitehouse.gov). Therefore, all teachers are supposed to be highly qualified in the field that they are teaching. It makes sense that improving teacher quality is important for student’s success. The more qualified a teacher is in his/her field the better he/she can educate American children. The No Child Left Behind act holds the state, schools, and individual teachers accountable for the performance of our nations youth.

There are many new ideas in the area of teacher accountability that have yet to be fully explored. Value-Added Modeling (VAM) is a new concept introduced to develop a better way of establishing guidelines to help create an effect measuring device. VAM offers a way of statistically analyzing students test scores over a period of years to model a teacher's effectiveness and thus offer a means of accountability (McCaffery et al). This becomes important because statistics offer a way of separating family, financial, and opinion biases from the data and offer an effective breakdown of the teacher and school. Also this usage of data allows for a prediction of future effectiveness for teachers and can even show the benefit of development programs and even teaching methods (McCaffery et al). So this is just one of the many issues on the forefront of methods to hold teachers accountable. However this is not an issue that many agree upon, VAM and other methods that use test data are being attacked as lacking truth. While no one disputes the results of standards and tests it is the opinion of many that teachers should also be judged upon other factors. The National Education Association (NEA) on their website states that while it is the right of taxpayers and parents to know that their tax dollars and children are getting the best education possible it does hurt the teacher to base that upon standards (NEA). Even recent polling by the NEA suggests that parents agree with this assumption and states that, “Standardized tests should be used to guide instruction by helping identify gaps in learning and groups of students who need the most help. But test scores alone should never be used to punish students, teachers or schools by cutting funding, closing schools or firing teachers” (NEA). So even still a possible solution is already under criticism.

Conclusion
Evaluation and observation, standardized testing, and the No Child Left Behind policy are three critical ways to hold teachers accountable. A teacher’s responsibility is to educate our nations youth. According to No Child Left Behind all teachers must be highly qualified. This alone will help enrich children’s education. Standardized testing is also another way of holding teachers accountable. They will want to teach their students to the best of their ability in hopes that their students will perform well on the test. Evaluation and observation is also an important way to hold teachers accountable. If they know that they are being evaluated and observed they will perform better and therefore students will be better instructed.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/Students

The sight is a common one in classrooms around the country and the world: Students lolling about while their classmates work to complete an assignment given to them by their teachers. They sit on the periphery, in the corners, heads down, hesitant to participate in discussions or classwork. When class ends, they file out into the hallway and onto buses or into friends’ cars. They arrive home to find themselves, at best, alone; at worst, their parents beat them mercilessly and repeatedly until they bleed uncontrollably. Their nights are spent in front of the TV, channeling the satellite dish or Xbox, or masturbating to internet pornography. The students begin to miss work because they are able to and soon they find themselves falling behind the rest of the class. Teachers call their houses and find parents not home, numbers not in service, no forwarding addresses. Through this series of events, neither the parents nor the child are accountable for the child’s academic progress.

So how, then, can the school or the educational system at large expect them to be?

In Loco Parentis
Indeed, there seems to be no end in sight for the doctrine of in loco parentis, “in the place of the parent,” a concept borrowed from 18th-Century England to describe the responsibility of teachers and schools to act in children’s best interests when children are in class. Through the doctrine was first applied domestically to American teachers who advocated corporal punishment for students, the doctrine has gradually expanded to a significantly more challenging context Now, schools act in ways once reserved for the home and the community “because other elements of society…seem to be unable or unwilling to continue their historic roles”(Conte, 2000, p. 195).

Teachers and administrators are just as often the caretakers of students’ psyches as educators of their minds at large. And according to Conte, this does not make teachers entirely uneasy. They see it as a necessary extension of their duties that help promote student trust and accountability.

How Far Are Teachers Willing to Go?
A sample of in-service teachers in New Jersey were asked about activities that may occur in a school setting that they believe require responding as would a parent to:
 * Stealing (81.7%)
 * Cheating (90%)
 * Bullying (88.3%)
 * Profanity (90%)

Another question probed whether they would feel comfortable responding as would a parent by utilizing:
 * Corporal punishment: 73.3%
 * Detention: 70%
 * Removal of privileges: 88.3%

Eighty-three percent of teachers said they would be willing to talk to students about relationships; 36.7% said they could discuss sexual behavior; and 83% said they would talk to students about problems at home (Conte, 2000, p. 195).

Raising Academic Rigor
Kathie F. Nunley, an educational psychologist, author, researcher and speaker living in southern New Hampshire, suggests that raising academic rigor in regard to actual learning is the key to making students accountable by ensuring they learn. Teachers could always have students complete yet another worksheet, which they could easily do with the right people at lunch, or by filling out paperwork while watching television at home.

“Daily quizzes, either oral or written, are easily administered,” Nunley (2004) writes. “Choose one question at random from the assignment and give a grade based on that assessment. Choose two of their ten vocabulary words and award points on the two words. Write sample math problems on index cards, have the students draw a card, complete the problem and award homework points based on that sample of work.

“In the beginning, students may be shocked, even angry at the change in strategy. But stick to your policy, explain the reason, and eventually your students will actually come to appreciate the fact that you care enough about them to value the time they've spent on learning” (Nunley, 2004).

The Five Components of an Effective Accountability System
Likewise, researchers Carolyn Evertson and Inge Poole of Vanderbilt University’s IRIS Center for Faculty Enhancement point to several paths teachers can take to keep their students’ attention and keep students actively involved in their education. Those teachers must develop and implement strategies that help students complete classwork.

They identified five components of an effective accountability system:

Providing content instruction: Assuring that all students understand and can apply the content associated with classwork means students make helpful connections between their previous learning experiences, the content, and the assigned classwork.

Creating supportive settings: Establishing a classroom environment that supports students’ academic efforts requires building a positive and productive tone that is structured to encourage student effort and is inclusive of each student’s cultural traditions and understandings.

Modeling desired outcomes: Providing a model of both the process and the completed classwork sought from students means that the students have access to tangible examples of the teacher’s expectations.

Assigning appropriate tasks: Assuring that tasks are appropriately matched to students’ skills and abilities means carefully assessing students’ understandings to have a clear idea of students’ strengths and weaknesses.

Offering timely feedback: Knowledge of the results is a powerful motivator for students. To keep students engaged and focused on their classwork they should receive feedback both in progress and at completion (Evertson & Poole, 2007).

Attending to Attendance
Making students accountable for school success also means making sure they are in school. Officials in Thomasville, Ga., found a way to increase student attendance by giving them the responsibility of keeping attendance records. When the task of keeping attendance records at Thomasville’s Central High School became too much for administration and teachers, a teacher-student panel recommended the measure, which was approved by district leaders. Five absences mean the failure in a course for a quarter and students can appeal to a panel of teachers, administrators and students if there are extenuating circumstances for the absences. The school also notifies students as they approach their fifth absence. The result: the average daily attendance during the program’s first year has increased six percent (Childs, 1979).

Grades Online
Parents who are disconnected from their students’ success because of work have turned to the internet as one of the best ways to engage in their child's educational progress. Many schools today offer online gradebooks as a way for parents to obtain a virtual seat in their child’s classroom. These books also have proven popular with teachers because they can be easily backed up and because they offer computerized formulae for calculating grades precisely.

Sites like Esembler and mygradebook.com give parents and students the ability to login to a teacher's gradebook to check performance, attendance, upcoming assignments, as well as communicate with teachers. ThinkWave.com offers teachers a customized handout to send along to parents with password information, which allows them access to the teacher's gradebook from home or the office (Nixon, 2002, p. 58).

All this involvement sits surprisingly well with students. Seventy-five percent of middle school students say they would like their parents to be more involved in school activities. In the age of tech-savvy kids, encouraging them to get their parents online can be a major source of motivation. They may be excited to teach their parents how to navigate the sites and parents will be encouraged by their child's interest in school (Nixon, 2002, p. 58).

Conclusion
These are only a few of the methods schools are using to enhance student accountability for their educations. As long as students continue to fall through the cracks – or find ways to crawl through them – in modern schools, officials will continue to seek new ways of helping them be responsible.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/NCLB Standards

To start off, what exactly does the No Child Left Behind ask of educators and school systems all over the United States? The No child Left Behind (NCLB) is a federal law that was enacted in 2001. The act’s goal is to improve academic skills in math and reading among all elementary and secondary students and hold school districts and states accountable. An assessment is then given to students to evaluate their performances. The NCLB also gives parents more options to where they want their children to receive education. Another regulation of the act requires schools to give contact information of all attending students to military recruiters (Wikipedia).

How should the standards of NCLB be met?
There are many aspects associated with improving education for students today. First we must make sure teachers are fully qualified to meet the state and federal requirements. In schools in metropolitan and low-income areas, students are more likely to be taught by untrained teachers. In result, students do not receive the proper knowledge to compete with students in other areas. Second, we must offer parents more options about where their students receive their education. Next, we need to improve our high schools to give them the proper tools for testing and catching problems early on. Lastly, we must effectively assess students on their knowledge of the material in core classes.

Qualified Teachers
What is being done to ensure teachers are qualified to meet the NCLB standards? Well some teachers were not qualified to meet standards, so NCLB ordered schools to report the number of teachers who do qualify under the highly qualified teacher standard in the 2002-2003 school year. Funds and grants were given to schools to support teacher development and to schools who were having a tough time adhering to requirements (Safier, K.). Less than half of the states reported that 90 % of their teachers were highly qualified to teach under the NCLB act. To be highly qualified, a teacher must be a college graduate with all certifications and prove knowledge of their content area. Some states measure teacher qualification by college coursework and student progress in the classroom. Another step being taken by President George W. Bush is to offer part-time positions to experts in the fields of math and science so students receive precise information.

Parent Options
Under the No Child Left Behind Act, parents have more of a say when it comes to the education of their children. In most situations, students are placed in schools based on where they live and how districts are drawn out, which can be a disadvantage for some. Have you or someone you know lied about your address so you could go to a certain school? Perhaps you were not receiving the best education possible. A parent or a child should not have to lie about where they live to receive a better education but instead the best education should be offered to all. According to this act and President Bush, parents will use their options to help their students in troubled schools. President Bush has also projected a Nationwide Opportunity Scholarships Program entitled to help students in struggling schools transfer to schools of their choice to encourage academic success.

Improving High Schools
To improve high schools, problems during the education process must be caught early on to prevent the continuing of bad habits, which may cause students to fail. Many schools like the school I attended gives students and parents progress reports in the middle of the six or nine weeks of each grading period. Progress reports explain the grades for every subject whether the student is passing or failing. Another action the President is taking is to train more teachers over a five-year period to teach advanced placement courses. Advanced placement courses will better prepare students who wish to continue their learning after high school.

Assessments
Through NCLB, states are required to test students on grade level content and math and reading standards for grades 3-8 and once for grades 10-12. Schools who fail to make progress are required to make different services available to students to give them the tools they need to score high on tests. Schools may offer tutoring free of charge so they may get the needed extra help. Also states are required to make state goals objectives that are measured annually. In the article’ “20 Ways to Use Authentic Assessment Techniques to Fulfill the Promise of No Child Left Behind” the authors Carol Layton and Robin Lock give educators twenty suggestions on how to assess students. One suggestion is to collect work from students daily to display the progresses of each student. This will verify if the student is performing on or below their grade level on an everyday basis. Another suggestion is to directly observe and record student behavior. This will provide the information concerning skill performance. Assessment also lets educators know what areas students are lacking in and what information needs to be taught in more depth.

Recipe for Success
In order to make the No Child Left Behind Act a success, all of these aspects must be incorporated. Teachers must have the education and experience to teach effectively. Effective teachers prepare students for what is to come later in their journey of education as well as prepare them for life. Parents also have more options to where their children go to school to make sure the child is getting the proper attention and education. High schools are being improved to catch problems early on so they do not become permanent problems that cannot be fixed. Lastly, to measure the skills of students, their knowledge must be assessed.

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