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IB Economics/International Economics

 * 4.1 /Reasons for trade/
 * 4.2 /Free trade and protectionism/
 * 4.3 /Economic integration/
 * 4.4 /World Trade Organization (WTO)/
 * 4.5 /Balance of payments/
 * 4.6 /Exchange rates/
 * 4.7 /Balance of Payment problems/
 * 4.8 /Terms of trade/

Key Terms
- Absolute advantage (HL)

Anti-dumping

Appreciation

Balance of payments (BoP)

Balance of trade (BoT)

Capital account

Capital account deficit

Capital account surplus

Common market

Comparative advantage (HL)

Current account

Current account deficit

Current account surplus

Customs union

Depreciation

Deteriorating terms of trade/adverse terms of trade

Devaluation

Dumping

Elasticity of demand for exports

Elasticity of demand for imports

Exchange rate

Expenditure-reducing policies

Expenditure-switching policies

Factor endowment

Fair trade

Fixed exchange rate

Floating exchange rate

Free trade

Free trade area (FTA)

Infant industry argument

Invisible balance

J-Curve (HL)

Marshall-Lerner condition (HL)

Protection

Purchasing power parity (PPP) (HL)

Quota

Revaluation

Specialization

Subsidy

Tariff

Terms of trade

Trade creation (HL)

Trade diversion (HL)

Voluntary export restraint (VER)

World Trade Organisation (WTO)

title: IB Economics/International Economics


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IB Economics/Development Economics

 * 5.1 /Sources of Economic Growth and/or Development/
 * 5.2 /Consequences of Growth/
 * 5.3 /Barriers to Economic Growth/
 * 5.4 /Growth and Development Strategies/
 * 5.5 /Evaluation of Growth and Development Strategies/

Key Terms
- Absolute poverty

Aid v trade (as a development strategy)

Aid weariness

Appropriate technology

Bilateral aid

Brain drain

Capital flight

Characteristics of LEDCs Commodity pricing agreements

Commodity concentration of exports

Convertible currency

Development

De-development

Development project examples (know why these lead to 'development'): maternity clinics/spacing children, agriculture extension projects, schools, HIV/AIDS awareness/prevention projects, clean water projects/well drilling, increased access to technology, literacy programmes, health education, microcredit schemes, immunization and vocational training

Dual sector growth model (Lewis)

Empowerment Export-led growth (outward-oriented strategies)

Fair trade (organizations)

Foreign direct investment (FDI)

G-20

G-8

Girl's education

Globalisation

Grant aid

Gross National Happiness (Bhutan), as an alternative indicator to GDP/GNP

Growth strategies

Growth is not development

Harrod-Domar growth model

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs)

Human capital

Human Development Index (HDI)

Human Suffering Index (HSI)

Industrialisation

LEDCs

Import substitution (ISI, inward-oriented strategies/protectionism)

Indebtedness

Informal markets

Infrastructure

Institutional factors (contributing to development)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

MEDCs

Microcredit/microfinance

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

Multilateral aid

Multinational corporation/company (MNC)

Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs)

Non-convertible currency

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), e.g., Transparency International, Human Rights Watch, Medecins Sans Frontieres, Oxfam, Heifer International

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

Official aid

Poverty cycle

Quality of life

Relative poverty

Soft loans

South-South trade

Standard of living

Structural adjustment policies (SAP)

Sustainable development/sustainability

Tied aid

Transfer pricing

Transnational company/corporation (TNC)

UN Development Programme (UNDP)

Unofficial aid

World Bank

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: IB Economics/Development Economics


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User talk:Tbittlin

Hey :) What was the reason for deleting the introduction?

title: User talk:Tbittlin


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Hog's Head Inn

General Overview
The Hog's Head Inn is a "small, dingy" pub in the Village of Hogsmeade.

Extended Description
There are two pubs in Hogsmeade, one, the Three Broomsticks, which caters to the general population, and one which is mostly frequented by those living on the Wizarding outskirts. The Hog's Head is the latter. It is a much grimier place than the Three Broomsticks, and there are many fewer restrictions; Ron comments in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix that he could probably buy a Firewhiskey there without being questioned about his age.

Many events occurring in the Hog's Head are apparently somewhat on the shady side.
 * This pub is where Albus Dumbledore interviews Sybill Trelawney for the post of Divination Teacher, where she gives the prophecy about Harry, and is where that prophecy is overheard.
 * It is in the Hog's Head that Hagrid joins a card game with a man who never lowers his hood, and "wins" a dragon's egg in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone. Ron comments, on first seeing the inside of the place, that it is the sort of place where someone not lowering their hood would be understandable.
 * The Hog's Head is home to the first meeting of Dumbledore's Army in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, and is where plans for that organization are overheard.
 * The innkeeper of the Hog's Head is seen to consider purchasing probably stolen goods from Mundungus Fletcher in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince

When Harry, Ron, and Hermione are nearly captured by Death Eaters in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it is the innkeeper at the Hog's Head who rescues them, pulling them into the bar and claiming to have cast the Patronus that the Death Eaters had seen. We overhear discussion then between the innkeeper and the Death Eaters where it is more than suggested that the reason the Hog's Head remains undisturbed by Death Eaters is because it provides a safe haven for their under-the-table dealings. We later learn that the Room of Requirement, called upon to provide food for Neville, had created a secret passage which terminated in an upstairs room at the Hog's Head.

Though never stated outright in the first six books, there are clues suggesting that Professor Dumbledore's brother, Aberforth, is the landlord at the Hog's Head. The author confirmed this on her web site, and stated it explicitly in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.

Analysis
A major source of our understanding of the Wizarding world's seedy underbelly and the establishments its denizens typically frequent is Mundungus Fletcher, properly introduced in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Before that, of course, we had learned of the places the underworld would frequent with our visit to Knockturn Alley. The Hog's Head Inn is another such establishment, though not as actively evil as much of what we have seen in Knockturn Alley. To a lesser extent, most pubs will attract some unsavory patrons; for instance in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Harry thinks he notices a hag patronizing in The Leaky Cauldron.

The importance of this type of location to the story cannot be overlooked. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Harry needs some place away from the school and the malign influence of Professor Umbridge, where he can meet with other students to plan rebellion. While The Three Broomsticks serves this purpose usually, it is far too public for such a large group to gather without raising questions. The perceived lawlessness of the Hog's Head serves the purpose admirably, giving us also the opportunity to have Harry overheard by Willy Widdershins and Mundungus Fletcher, characters who have their own reasons for wanting to limit the spread of information about the meetings to only a very select few – those who will pay for the information, and those who are engaged in protecting Harry, respectively. It is this same lawlessness that will make the Hog's Head a safe haven for the Trio, even if only briefly, in the seventh book.

More to the point, the Hog's Head and its denizens fill a void far too often left in heroic fantasy. Always, there is a hero, and often forces arrayed on his side; always there is a villain, equally with forces of some sort; and there is a population of lesser characters to be oppressed or rescued. Many authors do not take much time to consider how the lesser characters live their lives when they are not being beaten down or lifted up. Here, with the Hog's Head and the character of Mundungus Fletcher, we see that the Wizarding world is not only made up of the Order, Death Eaters, and drones. There is a criminal class, who would be working around and under the laws of the land no matter which group promulgated them. Fletcher is, in this series, our archetypal petty grifter, and the Hog's Head his native environment – or it would be had he not been banned. The continuing existence of both Fletcher and the Hog's Head implies strongly that other instances of the underworld, both persons and places, exist. It is this attention to detail that brings the Wizarding world alive for us. If Mundungus and the Hog's Head were not part of the story, we likely would not miss them, but it would significantly weaken our belief in the story, as their absence would make the fictional world far less real for us.


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Georgia Water/Laws/Subjects

Statutes listed by Topic

Statewide Water Planning

 * 1) Minimize withdrawals
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * 2) Maximize returns
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * 3) Meet instream and off stream demands
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * Georgia Water Supply Act – Reservoir Construction
 * 4) Water Quality
 * Georgia Water Quality Control Act
 * U.S. National Invasive Species Act
 * U.S. Executive Order 13112
 * U.S. Clean Water Act
 * U.S. Federal Endangered Species Act
 * Georgia Surface Mining Act
 * 5) Statewide Planning Process
 * Comprehensive Statewide Water Management Planning Act

Geographic Specific Statutes

 * 1) Coastal Development and Protection
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Georgia Shore Protection Act
 * Georgia Coastal Management Act
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Georgia Erosion and Sedimentation Act of 1975
 * U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act
 * U.S. Coastal Barrier Resources Act
 * 2) Coastal -  Navigation related laws
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Intracoastal Waterway
 * Canal Companies
 * Navigation Companies
 * Pilots and Pilotage
 * Georgia Boat Safety Act
 * Dumping Navigation Impediments
 * Beach Sand and Channel Dredging
 * 3) Metro Atlanta Region
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * 4) South Georgia
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * 5) Mountains
 * Georgia Erosion and Sedimentation Act of 1975
 * Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act
 * Georgia Surface Mining Act

Business

 * 1) General
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Safe Water Drinking Act
 * U.S. Clean Water Act
 * 2) Development / Construction
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Georgia Shore Protection Act
 * Environmental Policy Act
 * Local Government Public Works Construction Law
 * U.S. Endangered Species Act
 * U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
 * 3) Manufacturing
 * 4) Power and Energy
 * Georgia Safe Dams Act
 * 5) Mining
 * Georgia Surface Mining Act
 * 6) Navigation and Ports
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Intracoastal Waterway
 * Canal Companies
 * Georgia Ports Authority Act
 * Navigation Companies
 * Pilots and Pilotage
 * Georgia Boat Safety Act
 * Dumping Navigation Impediments
 * Beach Sand and Channel Dredging

Agriculture

 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * U.S. National Invasive Species Act (1996)

Homeowners / Landowners / Residential

 * Georgia Planning Act of 1989
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Georgia Shore Protection Act
 * U.S. Safe Water Drinking Act
 * Georgia Safe Water Drinking Act
 * Waterwell Standards Act
 * Georgia Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act

Natural Protection and Conservation

 * 1) Fauna Protection
 * Beach Sand and Channel Dredging
 * U.S. National Invasive Species Act
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act
 * U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (of 1972 as amended)
 * U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act (1918)
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act (1950)
 * Georgia Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973
 * Georgia Game and Fish Code
 * Georgia Nongame Wildlife Conservation Programs Act of 1985 (informal title)
 * U.S. Executive Order 13112
 * U.S. Endangered Species Act
 * 2) Flora Protection
 * Georgia Shore Protection Act
 * U.S. National Invasive Species Act
 * U.S. Plant Protection Act
 * U.S. Endangered Species Act
 * Georgia Wildflower Preservation Act of 1973
 * U.S. Executive Order 13112
 * 3) Land Conservation
 * Uniform Conservation Easement Act
 * Conservation Use Act
 * Georgia Land Conservation Act
 * Erosion and Sedimentation Act of 1975
 * Georgia Land Conservation Act
 * Georgia Natural Areas Act
 * Georgia Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act
 * U.S. Land and Water Conservation Fund Act (1965)
 * U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act
 * U.S. Coastal Barrier Resources Act

Recreation

 * Georgia Boat Safety Act
 * Georgia Shore Protection Act
 * Georgia Heritage Trust Act of 1975
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act
 * U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

Type of Water Resource

 * 1) Surface Water
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Georgia Planning Act of 1989
 * Georgia Safe Dams Act of 1978
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Canal Companies
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * Georgia Water Supply Act – Reservoir Construction
 * 2) Navigable Rivers
 * U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
 * Georgia Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act (informal title)
 * Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969
 * Georgia Surface Mining Act
 * 3) Streams, Creeks, Small Rivers
 * U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
 * Georgia Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act
 * Georgia Scenic Rivers Act of 1969
 * Georgia Surface Mining Act
 * 4) Groundwater
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Georgia Planning Act of 1989
 * 5) Marsh, Estuary, Wetlands
 * Conservation Use Act
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Intracoastal Waterway
 * Beach Sand and Channel Dredging
 * U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act
 * U.S. Coastal Barrier Resources Act
 * U.S. Clean Water Act- Sections 401 and 404
 * 6) All types
 * Georgia Planning Act of 1989
 * Georgia Erosion and Sedimentation Act of 1975
 * U.S. Safe Water Drinking Act
 * Georgia Safe Water Drinking Act
 * Waterwell Standards Act
 * U.S. Clean Water Act
 * U.S. Land and Water Conservation Fund Act

Sanitation

 * U.S. Safe Water Drinking Act

Planning

 * Comprehensive Statewide Water Management Planning Act
 * Georgia Planning Act of 1989
 * Environmental Policy Act
 * U.S. National Environmental Policy Act (N.E.P.A.)
 * Rules for Mediation of Interjurisdictional Conflicts, adopted by Georgia Board of Community Affairs, and relevant for conflicts regarding local Comprehensive Plans required by Georgia DCA for every community in Georgia. pg.25

General

 * U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act
 * U.S. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Subjects


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Tower Battle (Hogwarts)

Overview
Harry and Professor Dumbledore, returning from a mission to retrieve a Horcrux, find the Dark Mark floating over the school's Astronomy Tower. Reaching the top of the tower, a weakened Dumbledore sends Harry down for help, but Petrifies Harry when he hears someone coming. Harry helplessly watches as Draco Malfoy, arrives and immediately disarms Dumbledore. Dumbledore determines that Draco is there to kill him, and almost manages to talk him out of it, when four Death Eaters enter the scene and start egging Draco on. Finally, Severus Snape reaches the top of the tower, and kills Dumbledore.

As the Death Eaters retreat down the staircase, Harry Petrifies one of them. As he reaches the main floor, he finds a few members of Dumbledore's Army and a few members of the Order of the Phoenix battling Death Eaters, and hears Snape call the Death Eaters off. Harry chases Snape and Draco, but although he is nearly able to catch up to them, he is unable to Jinx Snape. The Death Eaters escape, and Harry must return to the school and explain what had happened.

Event Details
Harry Potter and Albus Dumbledore return to Hogsmeade from their quest to find a Horcrux. Dumbledore is very weak from the after-effects of potion, and is asking Harry to get Severus Snape for him. They are met in the street by Madam Rosmerta, who alerts them of the Dark Mark floating above the Astronomy Tower at Hogwarts. Harry summons brooms from inside the Three Broomsticks, and flies with Dumbledore to the Astronomy Tower. Once at the top of the tower, Dumbledore is too weak to head down the stairs to the battle. He sends Harry, concealed by his Invisibility Cloak to fetch Snape, but before Harry can reach the door, footsteps are heard approaching the door from the other side, and Dumbledore immobilizes Harry.

Draco Malfoy, bursting onto the scene, disarms Dumbledore, and Harry must look on silently as Dumbledore almost convinces Malfoy to change sides. Dumbledore correctly determines that Draco is motivated by fear for his family and himself, and plays on that, and his understanding that Draco is not totally evil.

Four Death Eaters now arrive, and approach a weakened Dumbledore. While they jeer at Draco and try to egg him on, he seems, at the end incapable of killing Dumbledore. The Death Eaters also refrain from killing Dumbledore, as they have apparently received instructions from Voldemort that this is Draco's job, that he must do it on his own.

Finally, Snape arrives, and kills Dumbledore. The Death Eaters turn to leave; Harry finds himself freed from the body-binding spell and runs after them, Petrifying one as he hurries to catch Snape. Snape has sounded the retreat, and the Death Eaters are now fighting a rearguard action as they head out of Hogwarts. Harry has to guess whether Snape and Draco are intending to try to exit through the Room of Requirement, that being how they had gotten in, or through the front door. Guessing, he uses every shortcut he knows on the way to the front door, seeing bloody footprints to reassure him he is headed in the right direction. As he exits the front doors, with Snape and Draco before him, and several other Death Eaters behind, he tries to Jinx Snape several times but is repeatedly blocked. One of the Death Eaters behind him Curses him, and he falls and loses his wand, but the curse is stopped by Snape, who says that Voldemort wants Harry for himself.

The Death Eaters leave the school and vanish outside the gates. Harry helps Hagrid extinguish his burning hut, and returns to where Dumbledore's body lies. There, he recovers the locket Horcrux that he and Dumbledore had found, and discovers that it is not a Horcrux at all, but instead contains a note from one "R. A. B." who had evidently already retrieved the Horcrux and left this locket in its place. Ginny guides Harry up to the Hospital Wing, where Harry relates the events of the top of the Astronomy Tower to Professor McGonagall and the others gathered there.

In the aftermath, we learn that casualties were light; a large blond Death Eater, identified in a later book as Thorfinn Rowle, had been flinging Killing curses around randomly and had hit his fellow Death Eater, Gibbon. On the Order of the Phoenix side, apart from Dumbledore, the only casualty was Bill Weasley, who had been bitten severely by an un-transformed Fenrir Greyback and would likely retain facial scars for the rest of his life. The toll would almost certainly have been higher except for Harry's forethought in setting Ron, Ginny, and Neville Longbottom to watch the Room of Requirement, and giving Ron and Ginny some of his precious Felix Felicis potion. Draco, finding the room watched when he had emerged, had used Instant Darkness powder to prevent Ron, Ginny, and Neville from seeing the Death Eaters entering, but had luckily not Jinxed any of them. The students had luckily managed to find Remus Lupin, who had brought the Order members at the school, Professor McGonagall, Tonks, and Bill Weasley, into the battle. Professor McGonagall had sent Professor Flitwick to fetch Snape; Hermione and Luna Lovegood, stationed outside Snape's office, had heard something fall, and Snape, spotting them as he departed, said Flitwick had fallen and they should take care of him. The combatants in the hall under the Astronomy Tower had let him go past, thinking he was one of them, and had tried to follow him up the tower where the Death Eaters had gone, but the magical barrier across the stairs, which Snape had passed as if it were not present, still stopped the Order members. When Snape had returned down the stairs with Draco, the Order members, believing he was on their side, had again allowed him to pass unmolested.

Notable Consequences
Dumbledore is killed. Another of Harry's defenders and father figures has passed; Harry decides that he is not going to shield himself behind anyone else, he is going to have to tackle Voldemort himself, directly. This marks a vital stage in Harry's increasing maturity; rather than accepting guidance from others, Harry decides he will now choose his own path.

With the death of Dumbledore, the Headmaster's job will also be open. Whether this post will be offered to Professor McGonagall, currently the Deputy Headmaster and acting Headmaster in Dumbledore's absence, or not is as yet uncertain; it is the Board of Governors who appoint the Headmaster, and it is by no means certain that McGonagall, a Gryffindor, will be appointed following Dumbledore, who was apparently also a Gryffindor.

Now that Snape has effectively declared his loyalties and fled, the position of Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher is again available. With Snape's departure, Professor Slughorn will become head of Slytherin house. Slughorn, though a Slytherin through and through, is not a Voldemort partisan, and may be somewhat less likely to encourage Slytherin students to follow him.

Draco Malfoy has declared himself to be firmly on the side of Voldemort. However, he has also funked the job he was given. His father, Lucius, has now failed Voldemort three times, first by using the diary Horcrux irresponsibly and having it be destroyed, then by being involved in the failed plot to retrieve the Prophecy which ended with Bode being left insane, and finally failing to retrieve the Prophecy despite having twelve Death Eaters against six students, and incidentally alerting the Wizarding world to Voldemort's return, and getting himself imprisoned in Azkaban. Voldemort expects Draco to fail, as we see when his mother Narcissa visits Snape early in the book. Narcissa, at that point, hopes that if Dumbledore dies, whether it be by Draco's hand or Snape's, that Draco will at least have a chance to survive. However, the outcome of the battle will lower the Malfoy family in Voldemort's estimation, as now the two remaining Malfoy family members have failed him: Narcissa by talking to other Death Eaters about Voldemort's plans, and Draco by failing to carry out orders.

Harry determines that Dumbledore had believed in Snape's loyalty because Snape, having reported the Prophecy concerning Harry to Voldemort, had then returned to Dumbledore and informed Dumbledore of his actions.

Bill's injury, while not fatal, is disfiguring, and Mrs. Weasley assumes that it will mean the end of the planned wedding between Bill and Fleur. Fleur angrily denies this, however, and takes over nursing Bill from Mrs. Weasley. This revelation that there are unsuspected depths to Fleur wins Mrs. Weasley over. Until now, she had been putting up with Fleur solely for Bill's sake; now, she finally fully accepts Fleur as daughter-in-law.

In the aftermath of the battle, Remus Lupin and Nymphadora Tonks re-open what is apparently an old conversation for them, as to whether they should marry. Lupin believes that it is not a safe time to bring a child into the world, but Arthur Weasley, perhaps surprisingly, comes down on Tonks' side of the argument, saying there never is a completely safe time. It appears that this may be enough to sway Lupin, as we will later see that Tonks is once again looking animated, and her hair color is returning to its earlier wild shades.

Analysis
One of the keys to an extended story such as the Harry Potter series is that the reader must care about the hero. When the story is extended and episodic, the challenges that the hero faces must increase over time, so that despite his increasing strength, the reader feels that the hero is still challenged to the very brink of his abilities at each new crisis. In this one battle, we see Harry's greatest challenge to date, namely Severus Snape, who overtly declares himself a Death Eater by killing Dumbledore, and who then repeatedly thwarts Harry's attempts to attack him. Yet Harry manages to survive where Dumbledore did not. Looking back on this battle, of course, we see that Harry was not heavily involved; he seems to be at least partly protected by Snape, who says that Voldemort wants Harry for himself. Where Harry's strength is called for is not his physical or magical strength, but his strength of mind. He must support the weakened Dumbledore from the cave and back to the school, he must function despite witnessing the death of Dumbledore, and he must persevere to make plans for the eventual direct battle against Voldemort.

The death of Dumbledore, who until now had seemed indestructible and imperturbable, seems to put Harry entirely on his own; with Dumbledore gone, Harry's last apparent protector is gone. The readers can see that this is not entirely true; both Ron and Hermione volunteer to come with him and assist in the struggle to come. But while Ron and Hermione are of age, none of them have completed school yet, none of them are at their full powers. Is this going to be enough? We cannot know. It is certain that with Dumbledore gone, Voldemort's path to power is almost unobstructed.

For one who has made any study of heroic fiction of this nature, Dumbledore's fall, though saddening, is not unexpected. The hero must, in the end, proceed alone; with others shielding him, he cannot be a hero, after all. One of the major strengths of this particular instance is the nature of Dumbledore's fall, killed by one that he trusts, and has repeatedly said that he trusts. One fixed point in the series to this point is how consistently Dumbledore has been right. Up to this point, Dumbledore has made very few mistakes, though of course at the end of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, he does admit to a fairly large error of omission, which he then proceeds to rectify. Now, he is seen to have made an extremely major error, in trusting Snape. We don't yet know what effect this will have on Harry's feelings towards Dumbledore, and the mission that Dumbledore has apparently left Harry to complete.

Greater Picture
The Board, now likely dominated by Death Eaters, will want to put one of their own into Hogwarts as headmaster, and Voldemort, who has long wanted control of Hogwarts, will want to put one of his most trusted servants into that position. Professor McGonagall will remain at the school, but it will be Severus Snape, his fortunes restored by the fall of the Ministry to Voldemort and the subsequent demonization of Harry, who will become headmaster. Death Eaters will be placed in the school as instructors of Defence Against the Dark Arts and Muggle Studies, topics in which Voldemort wishes to change the agenda to suit his own ambitions.

It is only in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that we learn the truth of this particular battle. It is there, in Snape's memories, that we learn that the events on the tower top had been, to a certain extent, planned. Dumbledore knew that the curse which had withered his wand hand was only contained for a while, and within a year would break free and kill him. He also had known that Voldemort had ordered Draco to kill him. With these two things in mind, Dumbledore had arranged that when Draco tried and failed to kill Dumbledore, Snape would finish the job. It is worth mentioning that this conversation occurs prior to the Unbreakable Vow Snape made to Narcissa Malfoy, so that the vow simply reinforces what Snape had already promised Dumbledore. Dumbledore had also requested that Snape "take care of his school"; Snape's becoming Headmaster may have been in part due to Snape's own politicking within the Death Eater organization to secure that position for himself pursuant to Dumbledore's wishes. He would, however, probably not have needed to politick much; as a long-serving, experienced teacher and head-of-house, and (in the Death Eater's eyes) the only one from this number to be a Death Eater, he was pretty much the natural candidate (which Dumbledore knew).

Learning, at the same time, why Dumbledore had trusted Snape, we will come to understand that Snape was worthy of the trust Dumbledore had placed in him, right to the end. Harry's understanding of why Dumbledore trusted Snape is correct, but incomplete; he, and we, will discover the full reason for Snape's revealing Voldemort's intent to Dumbledore in the final book.


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User:Saberiel~enwikibooks

Introduction
This is the User Page of Saberiel, known occasionaly in real life to be Olivia Oldenburg.

A Quick Note
I'm not going to say much here. I signed up mainly to edit the text at Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter, perhaps in hopes of satiating my obsession for Harry Potter. It's really not working...(heh)

Well, anyway, feel free to post on my talk page!

title: User:Saberiel~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Aschoeke

Hiho, I think this user should do me a flavor and solve all my tasks of licensing queerly wiki stuff. Thanks to this user. This user got this note from this user: ddeunert Thx user;)

Test!

Hey Mister, ich wollte nur mal schaun was du bei den anderen Kapiteln als Review geschrieben hast. Hast du den Gruppen eine mail geschickt?? Wuerde mich mal interessieren was deine Meinung ist...! Iroewer 11:13, 15 August 2006 (UTC))

big brother is watching me :-) Julie(Jbuergle 23:17, 28 April 2006 (UTC))

The reason was just the mean fact that it wasn't listed in the pdf file named "Wikibook-Groups" at the stud.ip stytem. kind regards...

Images, etc for deletion
Hallo Aschoeke,

Ich mache ein RfA, weil ich auch glaube dass die " speedy deletions" nicht sehr schnell sind. Moechten Sie fur mich wahlen? -- SB_Johnny | talk 11:48, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

Wikibookians
We are "wikibookians" (sorry that I read your message to SBJohnny). Many of the templates that say "wikipedians" were copied over from wikipedia, and never got changed. If you would like to change them, that would be great. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:15, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Sorry
I apologize if I was causing problems with my work on the preview template. I'm still getting used to the system. I will try to use the preview button more often as you suggest.

--Pthompsen 16:55, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Win2Lin book
Hello Aschoeke, thanks for your comment. I'm a little confused about the directory structure of Wikibooks. I'm new to Wikibooks but contributed a lot to Wikipedia a couple of years ago. As I remember it, it's worth thinking twice before creating a new entry in the main namespace because normal users can't change them easily. That's why I started developing a plan for a Windows=>Linux book on my user page. Any useful advice, or could you point me towards documentation that explains the standard structure of Wikibooks well? - Pir 12:41, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

well ...
I just wanted to demonstrate why his user name was not blue but red :P Hope that did not cause too much trouble lol. sspoede 11:59, 29 August 2006 (UTC))

BOTM
I'm working on it right now. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:16, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I created the template for the BOTM for the CPCN book, but the text and images are bad: please feel free to edit (and hopefully expand) them. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:20, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

Also, I reserved the CPCN page for you as a redirect, so typing links will be easier. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:42, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

Image
An image or media file that you uploaded or altered, commons:Image:450px-Counter Vandalism Unit book.png, has been deleted. Please look here to see why (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry) --Az1568

title: User talk:Aschoeke


text:
Linear Algebra with Differential Equations

As the title suggests, we assume you have prior knowledge of differential equations and linear algebra separately.

The book is structured into three main chapters, each with an important introduction that itself introduces material (So don't just skim over it thinking it's part of an outline) and then leads into method-heavy subsections. Other than that, enjoy!

/Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations/

 * Real, Distinct Eigenvalues Method
 * Imaginary Eigenvalues Method
 * Repeated Eigenvalue Method

/Heterogeneous Linear Differential Equations/

 * Diagonalization
 * Method of Undetermined Coefficients
 * Variations of Parameters
 * Laplacian Transforms


text:
Talk:Linear Algebra with Differential Equations

Hey, same deal with the Residue Theory book, if you wanna talk, go to my discussion paaaage. --Fephisto 19:38, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Hello again, I finished as much as I can handle here, there are multiple typos, plenty of probable logical skips, maybe some errors. If there is a request to clean this up more, I'll come back, otherwise enjoy what's here, don't mind editing it, and don't mind contacting me. Fephisto 03:36, 2 June 2006 (UTC) (Edit:  I do admit it's still rather bare-boned)  Fephisto 16:15, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

I'd like to add some examples using the matrix format. I'm working on the Differential Equations book at the same time. Down the road I would like to merge them with this book becoming a chapter in that one, but the Differential Equations book needs a lot of work before that Katdai (talk) 19:19, 24 May 2008 (UTC)katdai


text: Template:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Event


text:
User talk:Saberiel~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
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 * See list of templates which can save your time
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck!

Please stop deliberately introducing incorrect information into articles. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

I am the main editor of the Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter and noticed what you added. Please make sure to look over the project standards before editing. Some of what you added to pages like Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Lumos had to be removed since it looked like you thought you were editing another page. Please list yourself on the list of contributing editors on the Guide's main page if you plan on continuing editing. Thanks. -Matt 20:42, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Saberiel. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Saberiel~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:41, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:26, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Saberiel~enwikibooks


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Conservation Use Act

Conservation Use Act, O.C.G.A. § 48-5-7.4

General Description
The Conservation Use Act allows property owners to designate all or portions of their property for “bona fide conservation use” which will entitle the land owner to tax breaks on undeveloped land.

Qualifying Uses
Qualifying uses may include wetlands, storm-water wetlands and runoff areas, groundwater recharge areas, river and stream corridors and buffers, habitat for endangered species, wildlife habitat in its natural state, high elevation areas such as ridge tops and crests, and farmland.

Requirements
To qualify, the landowner must agree to have the land continuously devoted to a qualifying use for ten years. There is a 2,000 acre maximum. To maintain conservation use status, the property owner must submit an annual inspection report from a licensed engineer certifying that the property is being maintained in the state for which it was intended. Property subject to this current use assessment shall be separately classified from other property on the tax digest.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Conservation Use Act


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Conservation Use Act of 1991

Conservation Use Act, O.C.G.A. § 48-5-7.4

General Description
The Conservation Use Act allows property owners to designate all or portions of their property for “bona fide conservation use” which will entitle the land owner to tax breaks on undeveloped land.

Qualifying Uses
Qualifying uses may include wetlands, storm-water wetlands and runoff areas, groundwater recharge areas, river and stream corridors and buffers, habitat for endangered species, wildlife habitat in its natural state, high elevation areas such as ridge tops and crests, and farmland.

Requirements
To qualify, the landowner must agree to have the land continuously devoted to a qualifying use for ten years. There is a 2,000 acre maximum. To maintain conservation use status, the property owner must submit an annual inspection report from a licensed engineer certifying that the property is being maintained in the state for which it was intended. Property subject to this current use assessment shall be separately classified from other property on the tax digest.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Safe Dams Act of 1978

 Georgia Safe Dams Act of 1978, O.C.G.A. §§ 12-5-370 to 385

General Description
This Act provides for the regulation and inspection of dams. The Director of EPD has the responsibility for ensuring that all dams are designed by a competent engineer, approving plans for inspection and maintenance, and otherwise monitoring the condition of the dam.

Permitting
Anyone wishing to construct a dam must obtain a permit from EPD. Permission is also required before removing a dam. Dams receiving federal funds or under federal regulation are not governed by this act. Small artificial barriers, less than six feet high are also outside the act.

Dam Classification
Dams are classified into two categories. Category I is where improper operation or dam failure would probably cause loss of human life. Category II is where dam failure would be unlikely to cause deaths. Category I dams are monitored more closely by EPD.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Protection of Tidewaters Act

Protection of Tidewaters Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-1-1 to 10

General Description
The Protection of Tidewaters Act prohibits residential development on land under tidewaters. The Georgia Board of Natural Resources has the authority to remove residences that are located on tidewaters.

Tidewaters Defined
Tidewaters includes land on and near the coast where the tide rises and falls, including the sea, arms of the sea, and rivers affected by tide. State Ownership and Public Rights: The State of Georgia is the owner of the beds of all tidewaters in the state, and holds this title as trustee for the rights of the people. The people have the right to use tidewaters for fishing, passage, navigation, commerce, and transportation.

Structures Affected by the Act
This Act applies primarily to residential structures, but does not include houseboats that are tied up at marinas. Commercial establishments are governed by the Coastal Marshland Protection Act.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Right of Passage Act

Right of Passage Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-1-30 to 39

General Description
The Right of Passage Act prohibits residential development on the surface of Georgia rivers. The Georgia Board of Natural Resources has the authority to remove structures that are floating on or build in a river.

Public Right of Passage
The people have the right to passage on navigable rivers and streams that are big enough for boats. This right extends from bank to bank. A “navigable river” is defined as a stream or river that is capable of transporting boats loaded with freight.

Structures Affected by the Act
This Act applies primarily to residential structures that are built in the river and are either floating or on pilings. It does not apply to houseboats that are tied up at marinas but are capable of navigation. Commercial establishments are governed by the Coastal Marshland Protection Act.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Right of Passage Act


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Ports Authority Act

 Georgia Ports Authority Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-2-1 to 39

General Description
This Act creates and provides laws governing the Georgia Ports Authority, which is given primary responsibility for managing state ports.

Powers of the Ports Authority
The Ports Authority has the power to manage the state’s ports. The Authority can construct, acquire, repair, maintain, improve, equip, operate, and manage Georgia harbors, seaports, and their port facilities, including wharves, docks, piers, and warehouses or other buildings. The authority can lease or charge fees for the use of the ports. The authority can borrow money and can issue revenue bonds under certain conditions.

The Authority
The Ports Authority consists of 12 members appointed by the Governor for terms of 4 years.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Ports Authority Act


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Intracoastal Waterway

 Intracoastal Waterway, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-3-1 to 12

General Description
This Act was passed to allow the construction of the Intracoastal Waterway running along the Coast of Georgia from the Savannah River to Cumberland Sound. The State worked with the federal government to create this transportation channel, and the federal government has a perpetual easement to use and maintain the waterway.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Canal Companies

Canal Companies, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-4-1 to 16

Summary of the Act

 * General Description: This Chapter governs canal companies and the construction and maintenance of canals. Many of the sections cover business aspects of canal companies, including business incorporation, registration, location, and issuance of capital stock.
 * Powers of Canal Companies: Canal companies are authorized to build canals and branch canals, which may include constructing dams or other means to divert water.
 * Environmental Protections: When building a canal or dam, a canal company cannot destroy or obstruct the navigation of a river or stream.  The company must also place and maintain fishways in any dam.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Canal Companies


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Navigation Companies

Navigation Companies, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-5-1 to 12

General Description
This Chapter governs the formation and powers of navigation companies. Most of the sections deal with business aspects of navigation companies, including formation, incorporation, issuance of capital stock, and registration with the Secretary of State.

Powers of Navigation Companies
Canal companies can charge fees for transporting freight and passengers and can build docks, wharves, and other buildings for this purpose.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Navigation Companies


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Pilots and Pilotage

 Pilots and Pilotage, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-6-1 to 54

Summary of the Act
This first part of this Chapter allows the cities of Savannah, Darien, Brunswick, and St. Mary’s to create a Board of Pilotage Commissioners to regulate the pilots who direct ships into Georgia ports. The commissions are responsible for licensing pilots, creating rules for pilots, and setting limits on pilot fees.

The second part of the Chapter gives the laws governing pilots, including qualifications and licensing. Every large ship traveling in the bays, rivers, harbors, or ports of Georgia must be under the direction and control of a pilot with a Georgia license. The maximum number of pilots is 17 for Savannah, three for Doboy and Darien, 6 for Brunswick, 2 for the Great Satilla, and 2 for St. Mary’s.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Pilots and Pilotage


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Boat Safety Act

 Georgia Boat Safety Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-7-1 to 77

Summary of the Act

 * General Description: This Act governs use of motor boats, yachts, jetskis, and other boats.   It is illegal operate a boat or supervise a minor while under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
 * Boat regulations: Boats are divided into four classes:  Class A is less than 16 feet in length; Class 1 between 16 and 26 feet; Class 2 is between 26 and 40 feet; and Class 3 is 40 feet or more.  All motorized boats must have a registration number, which should be displayed on the front half of the boat (52-7-6).  Every boat must contain the following:  at least one personal floatation device for every person on board, lights from sunset to sunrise, a whistle or horn, and a fire extinguisher (52-7-8).  A life preserver must be worn while riding a jetski.  The jetski must have an working lanyard-type engine cutoff switch or a self-circling device (52-7-8.2).
 * Sewage and Toilets: It is illegal to discharge waste from a boat toilet into fresh water.  Any marine toilet must have a holding tank that can only be emptied by pumping out.  A holding tank may only be pumped out at an approved facility.

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Boat Safety Act


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Dumping Navigation Impediments

 Dumping Navigation Impediments, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-8-1 to 5

Summary of the Act
This Chapter makes it a crime to dump stone, gravel, or other ballast from a boat into the water within three miles of a harbor. The owner of the boat will be fined and could serve jail time. There is a reward for any person who reports dumping to the Board of Pilotage Commissioners. Municipalities have the authority to place additional restrictions on the dumping of any items that could be dangerous to other boats or that could reduce the depth of the navigable water.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Beach Sand and Channel Dredging

 Beach Sand and Channel Dredging, O.C.G.A. §§ 52-9-1 to 2

Summary of the Act
The Chapter deals with beach erosion caused by dredging for navigation purposes in tidal inlets, rivers, and harbors. It is Georgia state policy that there should be no net loss of sand from the island beaches because of dredging. If feasible, any sand dug out of navigation channels is to be used to replenish adjacent coastal beaches. If the sand is dumped somewhere else, then sand from an alternate location must be brought in to replenish coastal beaches if the dredging has caused beach erosion. The sand replenishment activity must be done with the approval of the Department of Natural Resources and the local authority and must be done in a way that protects coastal marshlands and nesting sea turtles.


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Shore Protection Act

 Georgia Shore Protection Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 12-5-230 to 248

General Description
This Act protects coastal sand dunes, beaches, sandbars, and shoals on the Georgia coast and the state’s barrier islands. Sand dunes are protected between the ocean high water mark and the first live native trees at least 20 feet tall or building built before July 1, 1979.

Limits on Development
The Act prevents construction, development, or land alteration which affects beaches or sand dunes without first obtaining a permit from the Department of Natural Resources. It is also illegal to operate a motorized vehicle on Georgia beaches or sand dunes.

Permits
The Act establishes a Shore Protection Committee within the Department of Natural Resources for the purpose of issuing permits. The Act gives requirements for permit applications (§ 12-5-238), procedures for granting or denying permits, and permit requirements (§ 12-5-239).

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Shore Protection Act


text:
IB Economics/How to use

 * Here are some links you might find informative that go beyond this short review guide:
 * Principles of Economics
 * Macroeconomics
 * Introduction to Economics
 * Microeconomics
 * School of Economics

title: IB Economics/How to use


text:
Arabic/User Phrase Request

If anyone knows a form of Arabic other than Fusha, as well as fusha, could you include a page outlying the differences between the two?

Most likely --TwoThirty 04:15, 28 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Arabic/User Phrase Request


text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Jupiter/Europa

The "what is the surface like" section is WAY to complicated (just a suggestion) --Dinosaurdarrell 00:05, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Inappropriate?
I think that the picture of Europa and Zeus is a little too much for children. Europa's almost naked, and although it does not show anything explicit, I think it should be replaced with a better picture. Воображение

 * Do you have a replacement in mind? Looking through the alternatives in Commons, I didn't notice one that seemed better.  This one is colorful, has the relevant characters in it, doesn't have other spurious characters in it, and is less explicit than most alternatives.  Any picture in which Europa is wearing more has other characters serving no other apparent purpose than to have someone in the picture wearing less; artists seem to consider this necessary for scenes from classical mythology.  --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 03:10, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I found plenty of child-appropriate alternatives on the Wikipedia page of it. Воображение

Life
This should probably be a separate section; trying to fit it into the intro at the top looks strange. The current wording is way over the target audience; "lifeform", "aqueous", "vision", "spectrum", "ultraviolet", "gamma rays" — it really needs to be toned down a couple of notvhes, as well as moved to its own section. (I really wish I could do it myself right now, but it's midnight here.) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 03:56, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

 * I edited some of it to simpler terminology but I think most of our audience knows what lifeforms means from movies "These primitive lifeforms on what they call...Earth" and I think that most of our audience knows what a colour spectrum is. Воображение


text:
Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Cognitive Psychology and the Brain

Imagine the following situation: A young man, let’s call him Knut, is sitting at his desk, reading some papers which he needs to complete a psychology assignment. In his right hand he holds a cup of coffee. With his left one he reaches for a bag of sweets without removing the focus of his eyes from the paper. Suddenly he stares up to the ceiling of his room and asks himself: “What is happening here?”

Probably everybody has had experiences like the one described above. Even though at first sight there is nothing exciting happening in this everyday situation, a lot of what is going on here is highly interesting particularly for researchers and students in the field of Cognitive Psychology. They are involved in the study of lots of incredibly fascinating processes which we are not aware of in this situation. Roughly speaking, an analysis of Knut's situation by Cognitive Psychologists would look like this:

Knut has a problem; he really needs to do his assignment. To solve this problem, he has to perform loads of cognition. The light reaching his eyes is transduced into electrical signals traveling through several stations to his visual cortex. Meanwhile, complex nets of neurons filter the information flow and compute contrast, colour, patterns, positions in space, motion of the objects in Knut's environment. Stains and lines on the screen become words; words get meaning; the meaning is put into context; analyzed on its relevance for Knut's problem and finally maybe stored in some part of his memory. At the same time an appetite for sweets is creeping from Knut's hypothalamus, a region in the brain responsible for controlling the needs of an organism. This appetite finally causes Knut to reach out for his sweets.

Now, let us take a look into the past to see how Cognitive Psychology developed it's terminology and methods to interpret ourselves on the basis of brain, behaviour and theory.

History of Cognitive Psychology
Early thinkers claimed that knowledge was stored in the brain.

Renaissance and Beyond
Renaissance philosophers of the 17th Century generally agreed with Nativists and even tried to show the structure and functions of the brain graphically. But empiricist philosophers also had very important ideas. According to David Hume, the internal representations of knowledge are formed obeying particular rules. These creations and transformations take effort and time. Actually, this is the basis of much current research in Cognitive Psychology. In the 19th Century Wilhelm Wundt and Franciscus Cornelis Donders did some experiments measuring the reaction time required for a response, of which further interpretation gave rise to Cognitive Psychology 55 years later.

20th Century and the Cognitive Revolution
During the first half of the 20th Century, a radical turn in the investigation of cognition took place. Behaviourists like Burrhus Frederic Skinner claimed that mental internal operations - such as attention, memory, and thinking - are only hypothetical constructs that cannot be observed or proven. Therefore, behaviourists asserted, mental constructs are not as important or relevant as the study and experimental analysis of behaviour (directly observable data) in response to some stimulus. According to Watson and Skinner, man could be objectively studied only in this way. The popularity of Behaviourist theory in the psychological world led to the investigation of mental events and processes being abandoned for about 50 years.

In the 1950s scientific interest returned again to attention, memory, images, language processing, thinking and consciousness. The “failure” of Behaviourism heralded a new period in the investigation of cognition, called Cognitive Revolution. This was characterized by a revival of already existing theories and the rise of new ideas such as various communication theories. These theories emerged mainly from the previously created Information Theory, giving rise to experiments in signal detection and attention in order to form a theoretical and practical understanding of communication.

Modern linguists suggested new theories on language and grammar structure, which were correlated with cognitive processes. Chomsky’s Generative Grammar and Universal Grammar theory, proposed language hierarchy, and his critique of Skinner’s “Verbal Behaviour” are all milestones in the history of Cognitive Science. Theories of Memory and models of its organization gave rise to models of other cognitive processes. Computer science, especially artificial intelligence, re-examined basic theories of problem solving, the processing and storage of memory, and language processing and acquisition.

For clarification: Further discussion on the "Behaviourist" history.

Although the above account reflects the most common version of the rise and fall of Behaviourism, it is a misrepresentation. In order to better understand the founding of cognitive psychology it must be understood in an accurate historical context. Theoretical disagreements exist in every science. However, these disagreements should be based on an honest interpretation of the opposing view. There is a general tendency to draw a false equivalence between Skinner and Watson. It is true that Watson rejected the role that mental or conscious events played in the behaviour of humans. In hindsight this was an error. However, if we examine the historical context of Watson's position we can better understand why he went to such extremes. He, like many young psychologists of the time, was growing frustrated with the lack of practical progress in psychological science. The focus on consciousness was yielding inconsistent, unreliable and conflicting data. Excited by the progress coming from Pavlov's work with elicited responses and looking to the natural sciences for inspiration, Watson rejected the study of observable mental events and also pushed psychology to study stimulus-response relations as a means to better understand human behaviour. This new school of psychology, "Behaviourism" became very popular. Skinner's school of thought, although inspired by Watson, takes a very different approach to the study of unobservable mental events. Skinner proposed that the distinction between "mind" and "body" brought with it irreconcilable philosophical baggage. He proposed that the events going on "within the skin", previously referred to as mental events, be called private events. This would bring the private experiences of thinking, reasoning, feeling and such, back into the scientific fold of psychology. However, Skinner proposed that these were things we are doing rather than events going on in a theoretical mental place. For Skinner, the question was not whether a mental world existed or not, it was whether or not we need to appeal to the existence of a mental world in order to explain the things going on inside our heads. Similarly, the natural sciences ask whether we need to assume the existence of a creator in order to account for phenomena in the natural world. For Skinner, it was an error for psychologists to point to these private (mental) events as causes of behaviour. Instead, he suggested that these too had to be explained through the study of how one evolves as a matter of experience. For example, we could say that a student studies because she "expects" to do better on an exam if she does. To "expect" might sound like an acceptable explanation for the behaviour of studying, however, Skinner would ask WHY she "expects". The answer to this question would yield the true explanation of why the student is studying. To "expect" is to do something, to behave "in our head", and thus must also be explained.

The cognitive psychologist Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists erroneously subscribe to the version of psychology presented in the first paragraph. He also pointed to the successful rebuttal against Chomsky's review of Verbal Behaviour. The evidence for the utility in Skinner's book can be seen in the abundance of actionable data it has generated, therapies unmatched by any modern linguistic account of language. Roediger reminded his readers that in fact, we all measure behaviour, some simply choose to make more assumptions about it's origins than others. He recalls how, even as a cognitive psychologist, he has been the focus of criticism for not making more assumptions about his data. The Law of Parsimony tells us that when choosing an explanation for a set of data about observable behavior (the data all psychologists collect), we must be careful not to make assumptions beyond those necessary to explain the data. This is where the main division lies between modern day behaviour analysts and cognitive psychologists. It is not in the rejection of our private experiences, it is in how these experiences are studied. Behaviour analysts study them in relation to our learning history and the brain correlations of that history. They use this information to design environments that change our private experience by changing our interaction with the world. After all, it is through our interaction with our relative world that our private experiences evolve. It is a far cry from the mechanical stimulus-response psychology of John Watson. Academic honesty requires that we make a good faith effort to understand that which we wish to criticize. Henry Roediger pointed out that many psychologists understand a very stereotyped, erroneous version of psychology's history. In doing so they miss the many successful real world applications that Skinner's analysis has generated.

Neuroinformatics, which is based on the natural structure of the human nervous system, tries to build neuronal structures by the idea of artificial neurons. In addition to that, Neuroinformatics is used as a field of evidence for psychological models, for example models for memory. The artificial neuron network “learns” words and behaves like real neurons in the brain. If the results of the artificial neuron network are quite similar to the results of real memory experiments, it would support the model. In this way psychological models can be tested. Furthermore it would help to build artificial neuron networks which posses similar skills to humans, such as face recognition.

If more about the ways humans process information was understood, it would be much simpler to build artificial structures which have the same or similar abilities. This area of cognitive development investigation tried to describe how children develop their cognitive abilities from infancy to adolescence. The theories of knowledge representation were first strongly concerned with sensory inputs. Current scientists claim to have evidence that our internal representation of reality is not a one-to-one reproduction of the physical world. It is rather stored in some abstract or neurochemical code. Tolman, Bartlett, Norman and Rumelhart made some experiments on cognitive mapping. Here, the inner knowledge seemed not only to be related to sensory input, but also to be modified by some kind of knowledge network modeled by past experience.

Newer methods, like Electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have given researchers the ability to measure brain activity and possibly correlate it to mental states and processes. All these new approaches in the study of human cognition and psychology have defined the field of Cognitive Psychology, a fascinating field which tries to answer what is quite possibly the most interesting question posed since the dawn of reason. There is still a lot to discover, and to answer and to ask again, but first we want to make you more familiar with the concept of Cognitive Psychology.

What is Cognitive Psychology?
The easiest answer to this question is: “Cognitive Psychology is the study of thinking and the processes underlying mental events.” Of course this creates the new problem of what a mental event actually is. There are many possible answers for this:

Let us look at Knut again to give you some more examples and make the things clearer. He needs to focus on reading his paper. So all his attention is directed at the words and sentences which he perceives through his visual pathways. Other stimuli and information that enter his cognitive apparatus - maybe some street noise or the fly crawling along a window - are not that relevant in this moment and are therefore attended much less. Many higher cognitive abilities are also subject to investigation. Knut’s situation could be explained as a classical example of problem solving: He needs to get from his present state – an unfinished assignment – to a goal state - a completed assignment - and has certain operators to achieve that goal. Both Knut’s short and long term memory are active. He needs his short term memory to integrate what he is reading with the information from earlier passages of the paper. His long term memory helps him remember what he learned in the lectures he took and what he read in other books. And of course Knut’s ability to comprehend language enables him to make sense of the letters printed on the paper and to relate the sentences in a proper way.

This situation can be considered to reflect mental events like perception, comprehension and memory storage. Some scientists think that our emotions cannot be considered separate from cognition, so that hate, love, fear or joy are also sometimes looked at as part of our individual minds. Cognitive psychologists study questions like: How do we receive information about the outside world? How do we store it and process it? How do we solve problems? How is language represented?

Cognitive Psychology is a field of psychology that learns and researches about mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment. The mainstay of cognitive psychology is the idea where sensation and perception are both different issues.

Cognitive Neuropsychology
Of course it would be very convenient if we could understand the nature of cognition without the nature of the brain itself. But unfortunately it is very difficult if not impossible to build and prove theories about our thinking in absence of neurobiological constraints. Neuroscience comprises the study of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, brain functions and related psychological and computer based models. For years, investigations on a neuronal level were completely separated from those on a cognitive or psychological level. The thinking process is so vast and complex that there are too many conceivable solutions to the problem of how cognitive operation could be accomplished.

Neurobiological data provide physical evidence for a theoretical approach to the investigation of cognition. Therefore it narrows the research area and makes it much more exact. The correlation between brain pathology and behaviour supports scientists in their research. It has been known for a long time that different types of brain damage, traumas, lesions, and tumours affect behaviour and cause changes in some mental functions. The rise of new technologies allows us to see and investigate brain structures and processes never seen before. This provides us with a lot of information and material to build simulation models which help us to understand processes in our mind. As neuroscience is not always able to explain all the observations made in laboratories, neurobiologists turn towards Cognitive Psychology in order to find models of brain and behaviour on an interdisciplinary level – Cognitive Neuropsychology. This “inter-science” as a bridge connects and integrates the two most important domains and their methods of research of the human mind. Research at one level provides constraints, correlations and inspirations for research at another level.

Neuroanatomy Basics
The basic building blocks of the brain are a special sort of cells called neurons. There are approximately 100 billion neurons involved in information processing in the brain. When we look at the brain superficially, we can't see these neurons, but rather look at two halves called the hemispheres. The hemispheres themselves may differ in size and function, as we will see later in the book, but principally each of them can be subdivided into four parts called the lobes: the temporal, parietal, occipital and frontal lobe. This division of modern neuroscience is supported by the up- and down-bulging structure of the brain's surface. The bulges are called gyri (singular gyrus), the creases sulci (singular sulcus). They are also involved in information processing. The different tasks performed by different subdivisions of the brain as attention, memory and language cannot be viewed as separated from each other, nevertheless some parts play a key role in a specific task. For example the parietal lobe has been shown to be responsible for orientation in space and the relation you have to it, the occipital lobe is mainly responsible for visual perception and imagination etc. Summed up, brain anatomy poses some basic constraints to what is possible for us and a better understanding will help us to find better therapies for cognitive deficits as well as guide research for cognitive psychologists. It is one goal of our book to present the complex interactions between the different levels on which the brain that can be described, and their implications for Cognitive Neuropsychology.

Methods
Newer methods, like EEG and fMRI etc. allow researchers to correlate the behaviour of a participant in an experiment with the brain activity which is measured simultaneously. It is possible to record neurophysiological responses to certain stimuli or to find out which brain areas are involved in the execution of certain mental tasks. EEG measures the electric potentials along the skull through electrodes that are attached to a cap. While its spatial resolution is not very precise, the temporal resolution lies within the range of milliseconds. The use of fMRI benefits from the fact the increased brain activity goes along with increased blood flow in the active region. The haemoglobin in the blood has magnetic properties that are registered by the fMRI scanner. The spatial resolution of fMRI is very precise in comparison to EEG. On the other hand, the temporal resolution is in the range of just 1–2 seconds.

Conclusion
Remember the scenario described at the beginning of the chapter. Knut was asking himself “What is happening here?” It should have become clear that this question cannot be simply answered with one or two sentences. We have seen that the field of Cognitive Psychology comprises a lot of processes and phenomena of which every single one is subject to extensive research to understand how cognitive abilities are produced by our brain. In the following chapters of this WikiBook you will see how the different areas of research in Cognitive Psychology are trying to solve the initial question raised by Knut.


text:
Linear Algebra with Differential Equations/Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations

=Introduction=

Translation:

We call an expression in the form

X' = A ⋅ X + G(t)

homogeneous if G(t)≡0. Now, in previous methods of differential equations, it turned out that X had an exponential of the transcendental number e in its form, so if a uniqueness theorem is developed, we can define a possible answer with this form, set it in the equation, and determine if this answer works and if so how to obtain the answer and its corresponding exponentials.

=Existence and Uniqueness Theorem=

=Results=

So, because the exponential function appeared many times in simpler differential equations, we will guess that the solution for X is X = u ⋅ $$e^{\lambda t}$$, where u is a coefficient matrix.

Thus:

$$\lambda \mathbf{u} e^{\lambda t} = \mathbf{A} \mathbf{u} e^{\lambda t}$$

$$\lambda e^{\lambda t} = \mathbf{A} e^{\lambda t}$$

$$(\mathbf{A}-\lambda \mathbf{I})\mathbf{u} = 0$$

There is a lie here, we're also going to make one more assumption: a constant matrix for A; but this is the definition for an eigenvalue-eigenvector pair! Thus with a two-by-two matrix there are two linearly independent solutions, and thus by the principle of superposition the constant matrix multiplication by an augmented matrix of these two solutions makes the fundamental set of solutions of which we are trying to look for.

However, due to the property of these eigenvalues (and that we want real-solutions to help analysis in physical models utilizing these differential techniques), there are different ways of creating the fundamental set of solutions to the three possible cases that the pair of eigenvalues could fall under:

 * /Real, Distinct Eigenvalues Method/

 * /Imaginary Eigenvalues Method/

 * /Repeated Eigenvalue Method/


text:
Radiation Oncology/Kaposi's sarcoma

 * See also: Randomized evidence

Background
Named for Moritz Kaposi, a Hungarian dermatologist, who described the condition in 1872. Caused by infection with HHV-8.

Three types:
 * Classic - affects elderly Mediterranean and Eastern European men
 * Typically begins on the hands and feet and spreads centrally over many years
 * Endemic - in parts of Africa
 * Epidemic (AIDS-associated)
 * Immunosuppression-associated (a.k.a. transplantation-associated)

Presentation

 * Classic KS
 * Violaceous macules, progressing to plaques, then to nodules. Ultimate phase is hyperkeratotic or ulcerative.
 * Classic type is slowly progressive
 * A second primary malignancy (usually lyphoproliferative) may develop in up to 1/3 of patients
 * Endemic KS
 * Has 3 forms:
 * Indolent nodular - behaves similarly to classic KS
 * Locally aggressive
 * Disseminated aggressive

Staging
Multiple staging systems exist.

 * I - locally indolent cutaneous lesions
 * II - locally invasive lesions
 * III - disseminated mucocutaneous form with LN involvement
 * IV - disseminated mucocutaneous form with visceral involvement
 * Each stage is further subdivided into A or B according to presence or absence of systemic symptoms (fever, weight loss > 10%), similar to the Ann Arbor staging system for lymphomas

 * 1983 PMID 6861160 -- "Kaposi's sarcoma: a new staging classification." (Krigel RL, Cancer Treat Rep. 1983 Jun;67(6):531-4.)

HIV-Related

 * Revised ACTG Staging System; 1997 - PMID 9294471 -- "AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma: prospective validation of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group staging classification. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Oncology Committee." (Krown SE, J Clin Oncol. 1997 Sep;15(9):3085-92.)

 * AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG); 1989 PMID 2671281 -- "Kaposi's sarcoma in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a proposal for uniform evaluation, response, and staging criteria. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Oncology Committee." (Krown SE, J Clin Oncol. 1989 Sep;7(9):1201-7.)

Treatment
Classic or Endemic KS:
 * Excision alone for solitary lesions.
 * For few lesions in a single area - extended field RT (8-12 Gy single dose)
 * Use lower dose for oral mucosa in order to prevent severe mucositis: 15 Gy in 10 fractions
 * PMID 16394668 "Kaposi's sarcoma--radiotherapeutic aspects" (full text at Google books)
 * PMID 7516086 "Radiotherapy in the management of epidemic Kaposi's sarcoma of the oral cavity, the eyelid and the genitals."
 * PMID 9488122 "Radiotherapy in the management of epidemic Kaposi's sarcoma: a retrospective study of 643 cases."
 * Total skin electron therapy - 4 Gy weekly x 6-8 weeks
 * For extensive disease: chemotherapy with vinblastine, bleomycin, doxorubicin, or dacarbazine. Oral etoposide.
 * Intralesional interferon alfa-2b

Immunosuppresion-related KS:
 * Regresses with stopping, modifying, or reducing immunosuppression in most pts.

Epidemic (AIDS related):
 * HAART - highly active anti-retroviral therapy
 * Response to chemotherapy and RT is less durable than in classic KS
 * If widespread mucocutaneous or visceral disease, treat with chemo.

Radiotherapy

 * Johannesburg Hospital (South Africa)(2003-2004) -- RT 24/12 vs. 20/5
 * Randomized. 65 sites of epidemic Kaposi sarcoma (histolocially proven, HIV+, mucosal or cutaneous). Arm 1) RT 24/12 vs. Arm 2) RT 20/5. Tumor + 2cm margin, if oral location then entire oral cavity
 * 2008 PMID 18439694 -- "Hypofractionated radiation therapy in the treatment of epidemic Kaposi sarcoma - A prospective randomized trial." (Singh NB, Radiother Oncol. 2008 Apr 23 [Epub ahead of print])
 * Outcome: CR 24/12 37% vs. 20/5 50% (NS), local control (CR/PR/SD) 66% vs. 90% (NS). Mean time-to-response 3 months
 * Toxicity: No difference, but necrosis/ulceration in 3% vs. 17%
 * Conclusion: The two schedules produced equivalent results

 * University of Washington -- RT 8/1 vs. 20/10 vs. 40/20
 * Randomized, 3 arms. 71 cutaneous lesions. Arm 1) RT 8/1 vs Arm 2) 20/10 vs Arm 3) 40/20
 * 1993 PMID 8262827 — "A randomized prospective trial of radiation therapy for AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma." (Stelzer KJ, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993 Dec 1;27(5):1057-61.)
 * Outcome: CR 40/20 83% vs. 20/10 79% vs. 8/1 50% (SS). Median time to failure 9.9 months vs. 6.0 months vs. 3.0 months (SS)
 * Conclusion: Higher doses resulted in improved response and control duration

Reviews

 * PMID 18657433, 2008 -- "Update on classic Kaposi sarcoma therapy: new look at an old disease." (Di Lorenzo G, Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2008 Dec;68(3):242-9.)
 * PMID 10749966, 2000 — "Kaposi's sarcoma." Antman K et al. N Engl J Med. 2000 Apr 6;342(14):1027-38.

title: Radiation Oncology/Kaposi's sarcoma


text:
Calculus/Sequences and Series/Exercises

The following exercises test your understanding of infinite sequences and series. You may want to review that material before trying these problems.

Each question is followed by a "Hint" (usually a quick indication of the most efficient way to work the problem), the "Answer only" (what it sounds like), and finally a "Full solution" (showing all the steps required to get to the right answer). These should show up as "collapsed" or "hidden" sections (click on the title to display the contents), but some older web browsers might not be able to display them correctly (i.e., showing the content when it should be hidden). If this is true for your browser (or if you're looking at a printed version), you should take care not to "see too much" before you start thinking of how to work each problem.

Sequences
Consider the infinite sequence
 * $$a_n=n/2^n,\ n=1,\ldots,\infty.$$

 * Is the sequence monotonically increasing or decreasing?

 * Is the sequence bounded from below, from above, both, or neither?

 * Does the sequence converge or diverge?

Partial sums
Assume that the nth partial sum of a series is given by $$s_n=2-\frac{1}{3^n}.$$

 * Does the series converge? If so, to what value?

 * What is the formula for the nth term of the series?

Sums of infinite series
Find the value to which each of the following series converges.

 * $$\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{3}{4^n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(\frac{2}{e}\right)^n$$

 * $$\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^2-n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n 2^{n-1}}{3^n}$$

Convergence and divergence of infinite series
Determine whether each of the following series converges or diverges. (Note: Each "Hint" gives the convergence/divergence test required to draw a conclusion.)

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{n^2}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{1}{2^n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{n}{n^2+1}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} \frac{1}{\ln n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} \frac{n!}{2^n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{\cos\pi n}{n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n}{n\ln n-1}$$

Absolute and conditional convergence
Determine whether each of the following series converges conditionally, converges absolutely, or diverges. (Note: Each "Hint" gives the test or tests that most easily lead to the final conclusion.)

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n}{\sqrt{n}}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n \ln n}{n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=2}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n n}{(\ln n)^2}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n 2^n}{e^n-1}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n}{\sin^2 n}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n n!}{(2n)!}$$

 * $$\sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^n e^{1/n}}{\arctan n}$$

Taylor series
Find the Taylor series for the following functions centered at the given values.

 * $$f(x)=(1+3x)^2,\ a=1$$

 * $$f(x)=\frac{1}{5-2x},\ a=2$$

 * $$f(x)=\sin^2 3x,\ a=\frac{\pi}{4}$$

pt:Cálculo (Volume 3)/Sequências e séries: Exercícios

title: Calculus/Sequences and Series/Exercises


text:
Wikijunior:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments/Pinhole Camera

Pinhole Cameras

You will need these things:
 * A Long Box (The longer the box the bigger the picture will be)
 * A Pin or Needle
 * Some Glue
 * Some Tin Foil
 * A Ruler
 * A Pair of Scissors

How to Make the Pinhole Camera
Step 1: Cut a square hole in the top of the box on the smaller end that is about 1 by (use your ruler!) Step 2: Draw a line around the hole with some glue, then put a square on tinfoil on top so that the hole is covered. Step 3: Once the glue is dried, poke a tiny hole in the tin foil with the pin. Step 4: Cut a hole on the long side of the box so that you can see the bottom of the inside of the box.

How to Use the Pinhole Camera
Next time you know there is going to be a solar eclipse, point your pinhole camera towards the sun. The light will shine in through the pinhole and out onto the bottom of the box. Looking right at the sun can hurt your eyes, so using a Pinhole Camera is a fun and safe way to watch eclipses.


text:
User:Lolly(knott)

One of User:Theresa knott's pupils

title: User:Lolly(knott)


text:
Wikijunior:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments/Raisin Dance

Step 1
Get a clear drinking glass (or beaker). Fill it with a bubbly and clear drink like Sprite.

Step 2
Get raisins and add them slowly and keep putting them in the beaker.

What Happens?
The raisins rise up to the top, then fall down, and then rise to the top again. It's like they're dancing.

The Science Bit
The bubbly drink that you used is packed full of a gas called Carbon Dioxide (CO2). There's so much CO2 that it bubbles out of the drink. That's what makes it fizzy.

When you drop the raisins in, some of the bubbles stick to the raisins. Since the bubbles are trying to rise up out of the drink, they pull the raisins along for the ride. Once a raisin gets to the top, the bubbles come out of the drink and pop. Since the raisin doesn't have bubbles holding it up anymore, it falls back down where the process starts all over again.

Don't forget to clean up! You can still eat the raisins and drink the soda.


text:
Wikibooks talk:Natural sciences department

Why is Computer Science under natural science?

The definition of a natural science is: In science, natural science is the application of logic to the study of the universe - so universe is understood as obeying rules or laws of natural origin. The term natural science is also used to distinguish those fields that use the scientific method to study nature from the social sciences, which use the scientific method to study human behavior and society, and from the formal sciences, such as mathematics and logic, which use a different methodology.

Math should not be here.


text:
User:Space-Cat

This book is currently in development - please check back soon!

Global Illumination and HDRI Maps in 3D Studio Max *Updated

title: User:Space-Cat


text:
Dichotomous Key/Start

1

 * 2: Membrane-bound nucleus absent; No true chromosomes, only plamids; Usually unicellular, though some cyanobacteria are multicellular; Lysosomes and peroxisomes absent; Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and mitochondria absent; cell size is 1 to 10 micrometers
 * 3: Membrane-bound nucleus present; Multiple chromosomes present; usually multicellular; lysosomes and peroxisomes present; Endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and mitochondria present; cell size is 10 to 100 micrometers

2

 * Archaea: Cell membranes contain ether linkages; three RNA polymerases present.
 * Bacteria: Cell membranes contain ester bonds and cell wall made of peptidoglycan; one RNA polymerase

3

 * Animalia: Cell wall absent; Nutrients ingested; Movement possible with muscular contractions, cilia, flagella, or other organ
 * 4: Cell wall present; Nutrients absorbed, though rarely carnivorous; Very limited movement

4

 * Plantae: Chlorophyll present; Plant walls made of cellulose
 * Fungi: Chlorophyll absent; Plant walls made of chitin

Clés dichotomiques/Départ

title: Dichotomous Key/Start


text:
Global Illumination and HDRI Maps in 3D Studio Max

How to get photorealistic images from 3D Studio MAX without really trying.
by Bill Harbison.

This tutorial assumes that you have a basic knowledge of modeling and rendering within 3D Studio MAX amd have a basic knowledge of the user interface.

With basic modeling and simple lighting using HDRI maps we will create a photorealistic image with smooth shading and soft shadows. Once this part is complete we will create some realistic chrome, glass and reflective shaders to add to the scene ending with a high quality image.

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Modeling the Scene/
 * 2) /Lighting the Scene/
 * 3) /Global Illumination/
 * 4) /HDRI Maps/ *Updated
 * 5) /Additional Shaders/
 * 6) /Rendering/

3D Studio MAX


text: Ancient History/Rome/Imperial Collapse

title: Ancient History/Rome/Imperial Collapse


text:
Talk:Ruby Programming/Syntax/Classes

Class Methods
It says currently on the module (under class methods of course):

"Class methods are declared the same way as normal methods, except that they are prefixed by self followed by a period. These methods are executed at the Class level and may be called without an object instance. They cannot access instance variables but do have access to class variables."

'Self' is fine, but maybe it should be made clear that class methods are prefixed with the class Name, which is what self would represent.

While self is advantagious, afterall, you only need to change the class name and all class methods will role into action without needing to be changed with it, there is also supposed to be an issue with using self aswell (some form of comflict between classes and subclass. I'm, still pretty new to ruby so I don't really know.) so maybe the pros and cons can be weighed out somewhere for using self?

82.46.27.150 19:24, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ruby Programming/Syntax/Classes


text:
User talk:Tkrieger

Gut so, weiter so! Guter junge... :-)

title: User talk:Tkrieger


text:
Global Illumination and HDRI Maps in 3D Studio Max/HDRI Maps

What are HDRI images?
High Dynamic Range Image. A series of photos that are taken at different exposure levels then combined into a HighRange image format. The HDR stores the amount of light every pixel represents instead of on-screen colors that normal bitmaps do. The advantage is greater dynamic range of light and color. Photorealistic lighting at its best.

Why should I use them with MentalRay?

 * There is no need to spend time lighting your scenes with multiple lighting rigs.
 * You can create photorealistic illumination and environment reflections in your 3D scenes.
 * Wide-range luminosity data can drastically change the overall lighting of your scene.