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Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 9/9.3

Universal Preschool

By Theresa Ritter

Introduction
Do children need an early start if they are to succeed in school? Should any child be left behind because they don’t have the means to pay for a good education? And should all children have equal chance to get ready for kindergarten? Studies prove that learning is indeed a lifelong journey and the earlier our children get a start, the better for them in the long run. So what can be done, and who should foot the bill? An ongoing argument or debate is voluntary universal early learning programs available to all 4 year-olds regardless of their disability, social status, and economic status. So what exactly is universal preschool? What are the pros and cons and who is it best suited for?

The plight for universal preschool
First of all, I would like to reflect on the work of renowned researcher, David Weikart, who conducted a 40 year study on the effects of high-quality preschool programs for children living in poverty. Weikhart made dramatic changes in the education of those economically impoverished to gain personal, academic, social and economic success. This study gained notoriety as the “High/Scope Perry Preschool Study,” and began in the 1960’s. Weikart’s study proves that “with highly skilled teachers working with students three hours a day, five days a week and weekly visits to their homes, their IQ scores climbed dramatically compared to no-program groups” (High/ Scope Resource, 2006/07. What the study unveiled, was that due to early childhood intervention these students would prove to be more likely to graduate high school, stay out of trouble, less likely be arrested or to go to prison. They would also be more likely go to college, get better paying jobs, be better parents and be less likely to be on welfare, have children out of wedlock, and would in essence benefit society with less crime and violence.  “Even though since they're way in the future, you discount them, those benefits outweigh the costs under pretty much any scenario you can think of," says Clive Belfield, an economics professor at Queens College at the City University of New York. The return can be as high as $12 for $1 invested, he says, although it's lower - $1.50 to $3 - for his analyses of universal state programs” (Paulson, 2006).

Illinois Paves the Way; Oklahoma follows suit
Illinois states that universal preschool is the answer to keeping people off the streets and out of prison, and that it seems to be the fix-all for academic and social failure. Illinois sets the lead in the “push” for universal preschool for 3 year olds. Don Owens talks about how well developed their preschools are in Illinois. “If you look at pre-K as a national movement, it's continuing to move across the country, and we think California is indicative of that," says Don Owens, a spokesperson for Pre-K Now, an early childhood- education advocacy group (Paulson, 2006).  Paulson states that by the time children enter kindergarten, many of them are already around eighteen months behind.  She also states that if placing children in preschool at 3 and 4 years of age will keep them off the streets and graduate high school, which in itself is a strong reason to look at funding universal preschools in Illinois.  In an article written by Davis L. Kirk; you’re doing fine Oklahoma! the writer states, “Oklahoma's pre-K rules are as stringent as any in the nation. There can be no more than 10 students for each teacher, 20 children and two teachers in a classroom. Teachers must have a bachelor's degree and be certified in early-childhood education.”  Kirk adds that “preschool teachers earn as much as higher math teachers because of their college education; all thanks to a generation’s worth of hard work deciphering what works and what does not” (Kirk, 2004). Kirk shows that Tulsa’s pre-K program has positive effects on cognitive and language test scores.

Governor Schwarzenegger signs legislation supporting universal preschool in California
In September 2006, “after a 3-2 margin where California voters rejected Proposition 82 the previous June, which would have taxed the state's wealthy to pay for pre-kindergarten programs open to all students, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger signed legislation to expand preschool at California’s lower achievement schools,” (Report on Literacy Programs, 2006)   Schwarzenegger promised to help close the achievement gap by expanding preschool programs throughout California, and says “Preschool gives our kids the strong foundation they need to be successful in school and in life. This proposal will ensure more than 12,000 additional children receive high-quality preschool education” (Report on Literacy Programs, 2006).

While Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger has said he is “open to additional preschool spending, including a $50 million increase for direct services in early childhood and another $50 million for facilities.” Still, anti-tax groups and some existing private pre-schools, including Montessori schools, opposed the initiative and mounted a large advertising campaign against it. Those against the program questioned whether the program would suit the rich preschoolers, and doubted it would do anything to better the pre-k-12 system in California.

Gains in success short lived
Studies assert that any success gained by preschool is, in fact, short-lived. “While young children who participate in preschool may show temporary literacy improvement in the early academic years of elementary school, by the 3rd or 4th grade there is no marked improvement or advantage, and in fact, there is a steady decline” (Wisniewski, 2007). Hope/Perry study report to the contrary. They report academic again may fade by 3rd or 4th grade, but participants of his study “achieved greater success in social and economic life then their counterparts” (High/scope resource, 2006/07). Regardless, many voices have lashed out, criticizing the push for universal preschool; their views are quite contrary to that of the Perry Study, and they argue that  it is the parent’s job to nurture and education their own children in their own time, and in their own way. They also portray that not all children need be “institutionalized” in public preschools, that only the disadvantaged or the poor really need it, and that there truly is no real gain in placing children so young in state run schools.

Who will foot the cost?
In a journal article, written by Wilson Greene, the writer argues that “universal preschool is a costly but worthy goal. He outlines the benefits of universal preschool for all children, for students with handicaps, and for children from poor backgrounds. He then dismisses arguments against universal preschool and concludes that federal and state governments should collectively implement universal preschool” (Green, 2006).

Research states universal preschool will, in fact, benefit society by keeping the underemployed and undereducated off the streets, in school, out of jail, and working. These same preschoolers will in essence being paying their debts back to society by staying out of trouble, working hard for a living, becoming upstanding citizens who will work hard pay taxes. Maybe not as much as the wealthy who will “foot the bill,” but they will pay their portion eventually.

Multiple Choice Questions
1. Universal preschool gives children a strong foundation to be successful in life.

A. True

B. False

2. Universal preschool:

A. benefits the rich only

B. benefits the underprivileged and the disadvantaged children only

C. is not currently available in all states in the U.S.

3. Illinois is a model state for universal preschool because:

A. the US is known for its poor education system

B. Illinois preschool programs appear to provide lasting academic advantages.

C. other states do not have as educated preschool teachers.

4.The Hope/Perry Project claims that preschool:

A. benefits affect the person throughout life

B. is not really all that important

C. is too expensive 5. Some claim that any success gained in preschool:

A. dissolves around 3rd or 4th grade

B. dissolves around 5th grade

C. dissolves around 8th grade

CORRECT ANSWERS ARE HIGHLIGHTED IN RED

Essay Question
What concerns do you have about universal preschool? Answer: In a letter written by Tricia Shore, “Preschool for All,” published at LewRockwell.com,” she undoubtedly hates the idea of universal preschool. Ms. Shore’s exact words on the subject are: “Young children need their mommy and daddy. The security that comes from a young child’s being around his or her parents all day is much better incentive to learn than giving the child to change agents teachers who take the child with ten other young humans on a leash and walk them to the library; the teacher will be lucky to remember a child’s name in ten years.” Gosh, that is harsh! I wonder if Ms. Shore has ever had place her own children in preschool to have the opportunity to learn social skills, to be creative, to hear exciting stories, build towers or dinosaurs out of legos, create beautiful paintings for their mommy on Mother’s Day, share a birthday cake with school friends, or just mingle with kids their own age? If she has she would know that there is much more to preschool than lugging kids around on leashes. While I agree that children can be, and are, nurtured by their own parents who are quite capable of setting firm foundations within their own children’s lives, many simply do not have the incentive, the desire, nor the time to expose their children to the things that preschool can. Being in the school system myself, I have witnessed first hand how many children are falling between the cracks because of LACK of parental involvement or support in their children’s social, academic and emotional development. Shore also complains, “I could go on and on, of course, about how strange it is to force money away from those who have more, to give to those who have less. Those individuals who are making over $400,000 or the couples who are making over $800,000 will pay for this "free" preschool. But that's okay. They're rich. What's that thing about forced wealth redistribution? My publicly schooled mind just doesn't seem to remember.” Sarcastic as it seems, she is quite right; the rich will pay, but in the long run, will they?


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Quantum Mechanics/Quantum Chromodynamics

The QCD (Quantum ChromoDynamics) is the current theoretical framework used to describe the strong interaction ("force") which is responsible for existence of numerous barion and meson nuclear particles. Mathematically it is the specific QFT (Quantum Field Theoretic) model from the class of Yang-Mills (YM) "gauge" theories, this one based on the gauge (i.e. localized) symmetry group SU(3).

Yang-Mills models of fundamental interactions
The Yang-Mills theories of gauge interactions describe the matter as one of two types of the substance:
 * Gauge bosons: a bosonic (i.e. having the integer value of the spin) fields ("particles") that mediate/transfer interactions,
 * Source matter: the matter fields that generate and react to the mediating fields.

The concept of gauge (i.e. localized) symmetries plays the fundamental role in YM theories. The idea is to start with a physical model that has certain global symmetry (here "global" meaning using the same transformation parameters at every point if space-time), and try to see if that physical model can be generalized to support the same symmetry applied with different values at different points in the space-time. Such procedure (called "gauging the symmetry", i.e. making it local) brings into the model the additional fields (the "gauge" fields) which look as the generalization of the Maxwell's electromagnetic fields. One nontrivial element of this generalization is that if the gauge symmetry is non-Abelian (e.g. the SO(N), SU(N), etc.), the gauge field acquire the self-interaction terms, i.e. the corresponding gauge bosons can generate more of the similar bosons (which does not happen for photons corresponding to the Abelian group U(1)).

The other modern uses of the Yang-Mills models are
 * The Maxwell's theory of electromagnetic interaction, which is the gauge theory based on the one-parameter U(1) group of symmetries. The source matter here is any charged matter (e.g. electrons), and the gauge matter is the photon.
 * The "Standard Model" of electro-weak interaction, which provides currently accurate description of both electromagnetic interaction and of the weak nuclear interaction (causing the CP parity violation and nuclear fision). The source matter here are leptons and quarks with their electromagnetic charges and the weak charges. The gauge matter here is the collection of four bosonic intermediaries: massles photon, and three heavy wikons (one electricaly neutral Z0, and two charged W+, W-).
 * The Einstein's General Relativity and its many generalizations are really the double-stacked gauge theory based on the localized group of Poincare symmetries, i.e. 4-dimensional translations R4 and the 4-dimensional "rotations" SO(1,3). The source matter here is any matter that has energy (even the massless matter, too). In the most basic model (the original Einstein's General Relativity) the role of the gauge matter is played by the gravitational field whose quantum is massless graviton with spin=2. One additional quirk here is that, since even gravitons have energy, they act as a source of the additional gravitational field, which is mathematically expressed in the very non-linear nature of the Einstein's equations. In more complex variants of the model (Einstein-Cartan theories, etc) the spin of the all matter is also playing a role of the source of interaction, and there may be extra mediating bosons (in addition to gravitons).

Back to Quantum ChromoDynamics
TO BE CONTINUED.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Classical Mechanics/Central Field

< Classical Mechanics

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Consider a central potential V(r). A central potential is where the potential is dependent only on the field point's distance from the origin; in other words, the potential is isotropic.

The Lagrangian of the system can be written as

$$ \mathcal{L} = \frac{1}{2} m\dot{\vec{x}}^{2} - V(r) $$

Since the potential is spherically symmetry, it makes sense to write the Lagrangian in spherical coordinates.

$$ \dot{\vec{x}}^{2} = \left(\frac{d}{dt}\left(r \sin\phi \sin\theta, r \cos\phi \sin\theta, r \cos\theta\right)\right)^{2} $$

It can then be worked out that:

$$ \dot{\vec{x}}^{2} = \dot{r}^{2}+r^{2}\dot{\theta}^{2}+r^{2}\dot{\phi}^{2}\sin^{2} \theta $$

Hence the equation for the Lagrangian is:

$$ \mathcal{L} = \frac{1}{2} m\left(\dot{r}^{2}+r^{2}\dot{\theta}^{2}+r^{2}\dot{\phi}^{2}\sin^{2} \theta\right) - V(r) $$

One can then extract three laws of motion from the Lagrangian using the Euler-Lagrange formula:

$$ \frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\partial\mathcal{L}}{\partial\dot{r}}\right) = \frac{\partial\mathcal{L}}{\partial r} $$ Substituting in $ \mathcal{L} $ : $$ \frac{d}{dt}\left(m\dot{r}\right) = \left(mr\dot{\theta}^{2} + mr\dot{\phi}^{2}\sin^{2}\theta - \frac{\partial V}{\partial r}\right) $$ Calculating the derivatives: $$ m\frac{d^{2}r}{dt^{2}} = mr\dot{\theta}^{2} + mr\dot{\phi}^{2}\sin^{2}\theta - \frac{\partial V}{\partial r} $$

This looks messy, but when we look at the Euler-Lagrange relation for $$\phi$$, we have

$$ \frac{d}{dt}\left(mr^{2}\dot{\phi}\sin^{2}\theta\right) = 0 $$

Hence $$mr^{2}\dot{\phi}\sin^{2}\theta$$ is a constant throughout the motion.

title: Classical Mechanics/Central Field


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Wikijunior:How Things Work/Hydraulic System

Who invented it ?
Joseph Bramah invented it. He also invented the toilet and a printer that numbered bank bills.

How does it get power?
Hydraulics can receive power from many sources. The most common is a mechanical pump driven by some type of motor. The motor provides pressure to the fluid in the hydraulic system.

How does it work?
A hydraulic system is when a liquid is in a tube, and it is pushed, and the liquid is moved and presses something. For instance, when you are in a car and press the brake pedal, the pedal pushes a liquid called "brake fluid" through a tube where it presses against the brake discs, stopping the car.

The most common method of hydraulic usage is to have a cylinder that contains an internal rod. The rod is connected to a pusher plate. As fluid flows behind the pusher plate, the rod is pushed outwards. The brakes in a car push the brake pads down when fluid is applied. The hydraulic cylinders in a backhoe push the bucket outwards.

In order to reverse the process, some cylinders have active returns. Pressure is released on the front of the plate and pressure is applied to the opposite side to make the rod move inwards.

How dangerous is it?
Hydraulics can be extremely dangerous because of the high powers involved.

What does it do?
It allows heavy loads to be controlled with accuracy.

How does it affect you?
When your car is being fixed, a hydraulic jack may be used to lift the car. Forklift trucks and diggers are also often operated by hydraulics.

How has it changed the world?
Hydraulics, since its invention is being used in many machines, systems. Like cars, cranes, automobile industries etc.


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Self-Reliance Handbook/Snow Shelter Construction

General techniques
Snow is a great insulator. Provide for some ventilation. Let it freeze once overnight before using if possible.

Quin-zhee
One of the easiest ways to make a shelter in the snow is too just make a big pile of snow make sure it is compacted some and then dig into it. Yes, yes it is!

Links
http://www.princeton.edu/~oa/winter/wintshel.shtml


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Transwiki:Barter

Barter is a type of trade that doesn't use any medium of exchange, in which goods or services are exchanged for other goods and/or services. It can be bilateral or multilateral as trade.

Barter and money have different means of balancing an economic exchange. Barter is used in societies where no monetary system exists. When there is one, it is also used, especially in economies suffering from a very unstable currency (as when hyperinflation hits).

Transaction issues
Barter is possible when coincidence of wants of economic actors enables an exchange cycle between their bids. Before any transaction can be undertaken, each party must be able to supply something another party desires.

– Some communities develop a system of intermediaries who can store, trade, and warehouse commodities, but who may suffer economic risk.

– Others develop a system with a virtual value unit ("barter dollars," for example) to measure and balance exchanges, very similar to a monetary system.

– Multilateral barter is more complex to settle but allows trades that would not be possible with bilateral barter. This complexity can be reduced by openbarter software.

– On the west coast of the United States the Beyond Barter organization extends the concept to a system based on free sharing of services. Although there's no attempt to balance contributions in individual transactions, controls ensure that members are not overburdened.

History of barter
To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, many pre-capitalist or pre-market economies relied on tradition, top-down command, or community democracy instead of market exchange organised using barter. Relations of reciprocity and/or redistribution substituted for market exchange. Trade and barter were primarily reserved for trade between communities or countries. It is also used when the monetary system failed to measure the economic value of goods.

Barter becomes more and more difficult as people become dispossessed of the means of production of widely-needed goods. For example, if money were to be severely devalued in the United States, most people would have little of value to trade for food (since the farmer can only use so many cars, etc..)

It is used on important transactions between firms or countries to exchange economic values, when monetary constraints are too expensive for the economic actors.

A well-known example of multilateral trade is the triangular trade.

Money used to be considered as simpler for small trades; but use of the Web has changed that perception, especially in respect to Swapping.

In finance
In finance, the word "barter" is used when corporations trade with each other using non-money or "near-money" financial assets, such as U.S. Treasury bills.

Swapping
Swapping is the increasingly prevalent informal bartering system in which participants in Internet communities trade items of comparable value on a trust basis.

While swapping is an excellent way to find and obtain items that are inexpensive, it relies upon honesty. A dishonest participant might arrange a swap, and then never complete their end of the transaction, thus getting something for nothing. This practice is called swaplifting, a pun on shoplifting. The victim's recourse is often limited to shunning the swaplifter, or taking him to small claims court.

Misuses of the word "barter"
As of 2007, it is popular (especially on UK daytime television) to use the word "barter" in place of "haggle". To Buy Or Not To Buy uses the word in one of their catchphrases: "Will you barter or scarper?" It is commonly understood that the guests on the show will be paying solely with money and not, for example, offering them part exchange on their A reg Ford Cortina.

title: Transwiki:Barter


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Cryptography/Basic Design Principles

Good ciphers often attempt to have the following traits.

Kerckhoffs's principle
Kerckhoffs's principle, also called Kerckhoffs's law:

A cryptosystem should be secure even if everything about the system, except the key, is public knowledge.

In the words of Claude Shannon, "The enemy knows the system." (Shannon's maxim).

Diffusion
Having good diffusion means that making a small change in the plain text should ideally cause as much as possible of cipher text to have a fifty percent possibility of change.

For example a Caesar cipher has almost no diffusion while a block cypher may contain lots of it.

Confusion
For good confusion the relationship between the cypher text and the plain text should be as complex as possible.

title: Cryptography/Basic Design Principles


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The Computer Revolution/Security/Computer Crime

Computer crime
Computer crime generally refers to criminal activity where a computer or network is the tool, target, or place of a crime. These categories are not exclusive and many activities can be characterized as falling in one or more category. Additionally, although the terms computer crime or cybercrime are more properly restricted to describing criminal activity in which the computer or network is a necessary part of the crime, these terms are also sometimes used to include traditional crimes, such as fraud, theft, blackmail, forgery, and embezzlement, in which computers or networks are used to facilitate the illicit activity.

Computer crime can broadly be defined as criminal activity involving the information technology infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging, deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and electronic fraud.

Theft of hardware has increased from warehouses and manufacturing facilities due to the growing demand for high-tech products such as microprocessors, computer memory, microcomputers/PCs, Laptop/notebook, palmtop, hard disk drivers and cellular phone that are valuable, compact and easy to transport. For example, a suitcase of microprocessors is worth more than an equivalent volume of cocaine.
 * Hardware

Approximately, 4 percent of the hardware theft accounted for over 60 percent of total company losses. While the average high-tech hardware theft is probably in the low thousands of dollars, it is the high-value thefts that dominate overall company losses. Hardware theft has created different levels of cost. In addition of the direct cost of replacing stolen equipment from manufacturers, there are other indirect costs. (The Economic Costs and Implications of High-Technology Hardware Theft by James N Dertouzos)

Copyright infringement
Software license and copyright infringement can be defined as the unauthorized use or illegal copying of computer software. This can take many forms such as commercial counterfeiting, deliberate and unauthorized copying by dealers, unlicensed copying and use by "end users" and plagiarism by competitors. http://foldoc.org?software+theft
 * Software

There are four main categories of music/movie copyright infringement and they are, making a copy of live performance (bootlegging), making copies of the product, counterfeiting which is essentially the same but involves duplication of both the music product and of its packaging.
 * Music/Movies

Claiming authorship (creation) of another person's creations (normally writing).
 * plagiarism

By posting a work of art to the internet, an artist becomes ultimately vulnerable. The internet is too convenient; any user has complete freedom to publicize content worldwide. This has proven to be something that should be cherished and treated with care, yet feared in anyone’s eyes – let alone the artists. After all, the unfortunate, inevitable truth remains: as long as people are able to add to the internet, someone can find a way to take from the internet.
 * Art

Online infringement of art copyright (along with selling stolen physical art online, unlicensed replication) has been a topic since perhaps the beginning of the internet. The disastrous examples are nearly endless: Stolen artwork being sold on eBay, printing a downloaded piece and selling it for a profit, other users posting a downloaded image and claiming it as their own (plagiarism); from something as shocking as a Facebook family photo being plagiarized and turned into an advertisement on a billboard…

Although there have been many attempts to counterattack these misfortunes, technology is advancing as we know it. When a cure is discovered, another disease is found, so to speak. For a spell, watermarking became popular and was able to prevent most attacks, but as the media grows ever-strong and graphics manipulation tools become more and more powerful, watermarking is but one lock that can be undone. Turning off the Right Click was another myth that was quickly put to rest by those who were able to get behind the coding of a webpage and retrieve the image from there. Some users believe that by use of Flash or Java applets, one is able to hide their image from even the code-savvy’s eye. However, that is another myth.

Credit fraud
The internet allows many different types of invasions into personal information, and use of information with little consequences. Through the internet stolen credit cards are easily utilized without any check into if the user is the true owner of the card. When using credit cards over the internet, some tips to help avoid credit fraud are:

- never respond to emails requesting personal information - never respond to requests for verification (phishing) - never provide personal information to an unsecure site

As well, people must beware to ensure that no outside parties are able to obtain the credit card number, to avoid such a situation:

- sign credit cards as soon as you receive them - shred all applications for credit cards - only carry cards that you absolutely need - if you move notify the credit company of the change of address - shred anything with a written credit card number - Immediately cancel any stolen or lost cards

With these precautionary measure the improper use of your credit card should hopefully be avoided. If for some reason fraudulent charges still occur report them immediately to the credit company as to avoid any future fraud.

Identity Theft
In conjunction with credit fraud, identity theft could be enhanced by the amount of information an individual lends to the internet. With many different forums for individuals to post opinions and information of themselves that they think will only be of interest to friends and family could potentially become information that another stranger could use to steal your identity. It is important to put only information that anyone and everyone is allowed to see because on the internet everyone is potentially able to see it. Private information should only be offered on secure and trustworthy sites and different passwords should be used respectively.

Software Piracy
Software piracy is the illegal copying, distribution and use of software. When a commercial software package is purchased, an end user license agreement (EULA) is included to protect that software program from copyright infringement. Typically, the license states that you can install the original copy of the software you bought on one computer and that you can make a backup copy in case the original is lost or damaged. You agree to the licensing terms and conditions when you open the software package, when you open the envelope that contains the software disks or when you install the software. Types of software piracy include: •	Softlifting: Borrowing and installing a copy of a software application from a colleague. •	Client-Server Overuse: Installing more copies of the software than you have licenses for. •	Hard Disk Loading: Installing and selling unauthorized copies of software on refurbished or new computers. •	Counterfeiting: Duplicating and selling copyrighted programs. •	Online piracy: Typically involves downloading illegal software from peer-to-peer network, Internet auction or blog. Software piracy applies mainly to full-function commercial software. The time-limited or functions restricted versions of commercial software called shareware are less likely to be pirated since they are freely available. Similarly, freeware (a type of software that is copyrighted but freely distributed at no charge) also offers little incentive for piracy.

Digital Counterfeiting

The availability of high quality, full-color imaging products such as scanners, color printers, and color copiers has made digital counterfeiting creating counterfeit copies of items such as currency and Social Security cards, driver licenses, passports, visas, using computers and other types of digital equipment easier and less costly than in the recent past. With digital counterfeiting, the bill is either color copied or it is scanned into a computer and then printed. Counterfeiting is illegal in the United States. Counterfeiting of U.S. currency and other documents is a growing problem in United States and in other countries. The Secret Service has seen an increase in counterfeiting among high school and college students for using exam papers before the final test. To prevent the counterfeiting of U.S. currency, the Treasury Department releases new currency designs every 7 to 10 years. These new designs such as for example, new $5 bill released in 2008 contain features such as micro printing, watermarks and a security thread that make the new currency much more difficult to duplicate than older currency. Due to the watermarks and security thread are embedded in the paper, counterfeiters are unable to duplicate those features when creating counterfeit bills either from scratch or by bleaching the ink out of existing lower-denomination bills and reprinting them with high denominations. Counterfeit copies of bills using the new designs are easy to detect just by holding them up to the light and looking for the proper watermark or security thread. This is attributed primarily to the ease of creating counterfeit bills- although not necessarily high quality counterfeit bills using digital technology. The paper used with real U.S. bills is very expensive and cannot legally be made by paper mills for any other purpose and because U.S. bills contain a number of other characteristics that are difficult to reproduce accurately. The majority of counterfeit money made by amateurs is easily detectable. Prevention measures for the counterfeiting of other types of documents such as checks, identification cards including RFID tags, digital watermarks, and other difficult to reproduce content. Educating consumers about fake products differs from the authentic products is a vital sign in the ongoing battle against counterfeiting.


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The Computer Revolution/Security/Technology Misuse

Misuse of technology
The big problem about technology misuses can be summarized in two words: culture and education. Some people aren't sufficiently cultured to use technology properly as a tool because they use it as an easy way solution or as fashionable trends. Also, these people do not have education to use it correctly.

Because of hundreds of services that technology offers, there are many techniques to harm persons and waste time. People use their time to harm others even though they know that it is not good. For example, people manufactures use it as weapons to destroy others instead of improving themselves.

People are actually concerned about misuse and abuse of technology. Society states that internet uses lead to intimidation or threat to people as well as allowing easy piracy by providing the infrastructure to illegal music or software downloads and plagiarism. Educational institutions are worried about students' development in their classes due to misuses of technology. For instance, learners are using cellphones, playing games, and surfing on some pornographic web sites and other non suitable sites during class. Some students even start using cellphones at the age of ten. This isn't a bad thing because many parents are both working and have to leave their children with a babysitter, so they need a way to communicate with their children. Nowadays, children not only want to have cellphones, but also prefer to have the latest version of it. If children do not have it, they might feel ashamed with their friends and prefer to leave their old-fashioned cellphone at home. Moreover, many late model cellphones have built-in camera and some people use it to record pictures or videos that may damage others reputation. Because of these, some people say and think that the technology is responsible and it is not good for society. However, people have to understand that this is happening because of technology misuse. As a tool, technology do not do anything to threaten the society, it is the misuse of it that threatens society. It is humans that use technology to threaten society, the fault is at the user of the technology, not the technology itself.

Digital counterfeiting is a great example of the misuse of technology. Digital counterfeiting is the illegal act of creating copies of items such as currency, legal documents, and credit cards with the use of computers, printers, and scanners. With the high resolution and extremely good color quality of the printers offered today, individuals have increased the opportunity that’s higher than ever to create digital counterfeiting. The US Secret Service estimates that more than 60% of all counterfeited money today is created digitally. With the advancement in technology of printers, scanners, and computers, the increase of digital counterfeiting is at an all time high.

Information Overload
In the workplace Today’s workers are in an epidemic where work life-balance has begun to diminish due to an increased work day for many reasons but one of the most glaring reason is workers are bombarded with information due to such an advancement in technology throughout the last century (http://www.itworldcanada.com/Pages/Docbase/ViewArticle.aspx?id=idgml-48e5eb31-580c-4a40-a63a-4ed949983e8c&view=Preview). Increased progress in the field of information technology has increased the speed, quantity and how you communicate with co-workers and clients (http://www.itworldcanada.com/Pages/Docbase/ViewArticle.aspx?id=idgml-48e5eb31-580c-4a40-a63a-4ed949983e8c&view=Preview). Email and fax have dramatically increased the speed and frequency of communication in the workplace. Email allows you to communicate without actually having a physical conversation. Email also allows you to send and share documents over long distances. Fax and scanning machines are also pieces of technology that have vastly improved the communication process. Many professionals also carry tools like cell phones, blackberries and laptop computers. Essentially an employee can be reached at all times of day. This 24/7 attitude has become somewhat of a standard in the corporate world especially once you reach the higher ranks in an organization. The separation from home and work becomes blurred (http://www.itworldcanada.com/Pages/Docbase/ViewArticle.aspx?id=idgml-48e5eb31-580c-4a40-a63a-4ed949983e8c&view=Preview). Advancements in technology have also contributed to people working from home which now allows people to take their work home from there again loosing their work life balance. Although many of the increased technology has greatly improved how we do business it has also caused excess stress, strain and burnout for the average worker. When you are overloaded with anything, in this case information you tend to forget tasks, fail to prioritize therefore your tasks will be completed with less care and detail. This information overload is causing many workplace illnesses and health problems. Information overload has become part of our daily work life and it has become a standard of work however with increased health concerns we are now seeing today we need to take this topic seriously and try to think of ways to get back to a balanced healthy way of life that can handle all of the information we need to do our best at our occupation.

Workplace Crime: Productivity Issues ""Workplace Crimes & Company Employees""
a) A Look at Productivity over Time

Most prevalent among workplace productivity issues appear to be such things as fussing and theft of time and services. In fact, Michael Kanell states that “growth in the amount Americans produced each working hour last quarter fell to zero” (http://www.ajc.com/business/content/business/stories/2006/11/24/1124bizproductivity.html, Retrieved Nov 27, 2006). So what has happened in the workplace to result in such dismal returns.

Historically and following primary activities of traditional society, secondary activities of manufacturing became front and center in the work world and each new tool or invention was implemented to boost production. Productivity would eventually level off under the newly adopted process (sometimes decreasing with other factors such as breakdowns), then encounter another leap forward with the next change, upgrade or invention. These productivity increases were evidenced from World War II until the more sluggish progress of the 1970s (http://www.ajc.com/business/content/business/stories/2006/11/24/1124bizproductivity.html, Retrieved Nov 27, 2006).

Tertiary industries proliferated in the more modern society. Production had become highly automated and service industries became the name of the game in the business world. But how could productivity be measured in the service sector? Workers may not directly produce physical “items”, so productivity and efficiency are more difficult to determine. It became necessary to find alternative means of measuring productivity. Economic returns are one piece of evidence for productivity and one indicator of how good one’s economy is can be found in its productivity – a somewhat circular argument!

Well, one step further and one is greeted by the world of quaternary activity – the information age – the age of computers and their connection to the world. While one has the potential to measure how many haircuts a service industry employee can do in a day’s work, it is substantially harder to measure productivity, at the least, and efficiencies, even more so, in this new age. More and more enterprises have become involved in assembling, processing and transmitting information. But how can this be measured or valuated? I guess there’s money to be made somewhere for some people in this information dependant time – Bill Gates is but one example. Therefore, if there’s economic return, there must be productivity somewhere in the system if previous statements are true (Abler, R., J.S. Adams & P. Gould, 1971, Spatial Organization: The Geographer’s View of the World, Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey, pp. 306-309; Rubenstein, J.M. 1994. The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, pp. 300-304).

If one cannot directly measure productivity and efficiency in the workplace, then, the workplace must depend upon countering any inefficiencies and loss of productivity. At first glance, there’s a lot of work done – or appears to be – but what about output? According to Kathryn Kobe of Economic Consulting Services in Washington, “ … you are seeing … an output slowdown, which also leads to a productivity slowdown …” (http://www.ajc.com/business/content/business/stories/2006/11/24/1124bizproductivity.html, Retrieved Nov 27, 2006).

If these output and productivity slowdowns are happening, what is causing them? What workplace problems exist to create this situation or is this simply part of the normal growth-stability-next leap forward cycles that existed even in earlier periods (e.g., manufacturing sector’s history)?

b) Workplace Problems & the Computer: A Waste of Time?

In my father’s words, “computers are going to be the downfall of society!” (Personal Communication, no dates) Well, maybe there is some truth to his statement after all. As we delve deeper into the workplace and its nuances, it is possible to get a clearer picture of what is truly being accomplished and what problems exist – many associated with the computer and the employee’s use of them.

I have coined the phase “counterproductive productivity” to refer to the huge amount of time wasted in the workplace associated with computer use. So much productive time is lost – even in work-related computer activities, let alone the losses chalked up to what might be referred to as “theft of computer time” by employees in non-work-related computer use. Each of these problems will be examined here.

i) No Crime, Just Lost Time …?

Williams and Sawyer (Using Information Technology: A Practical Introduction to Computers & Communications, 7th ed., Montreal: McGraw-Hill, p. 477) have referred to goofing off in the workplace as “undertime” and further noted that some amount of this downtime was tolerated in the name of workplace morale. However, with the advent of the computer and especially with their superior level of interconnectivity worldwide, computer use has resulted in “new ways to slack off.”

How long do you have to wait for that program to load and run? Did you have to spend time, energy and money (ie, yours or your employers) in software training, upgrading or problem solving? How much time are you spending awaiting some technical support? Did you count the volume of junk e-mail and spam in your in-box? How much time did you devote to reading or deleting these? Did you have to sort out disk storage issues or re-organize your computer desktop today? Then, system maintenance interruptions – how much time did you lose waiting for the problem to be fixed and for the system to be returned to operation? Oh, just 10 minutes yesterday and another half hour today. Well, it all adds up!

One news article stated that “… well over half of all emails received in the EU are unsolicited, despite the increased efforts of anti-spam and spyware to block out messages … “ and another report tallied it up and “… found that spam cost US$51.1 billion worldwide in lost productivity and higher computing bills last year.” Furthermore, Postini, an email security company, noted that “… worldwide, nine out of 10 emails are junk …” and in one month alone, “… more than 7 billion junk emails were sent worldwide … “ (http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20061127/eu_email_061127/20061127?hub=TopStories Retrieved Nov 27, 2006).

One word that has been adopted to describe wasting of time on computer issues or problems is “fussing,” which maybe defined as “to trouble or worry over trifles …, to get into or be in a state of … useless activity, … to vex with unimportant matters” (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fussing Retrieved Nov 27, 2006). While some of the aforementioned uses of time (e.g., waiting for computer to load) simply nibble away at your day and seem appropriately entitled as “fussing,” others can consume an inordinate amount of one’s workday. In these cases, they can truly become the “gigantic time sink” (Williams & Sawyer, p. 489) or “great campus goof-off machine” (Nate Stulman in Williams & Sawyer, p. 489).

Therefore, justice is not necessarily served in using the term “fussing.” There maybe no crime committed in the truest sense of the word because no criminal intent is involved (i.e at least by the employee), but one could just as easily view it as a crime – especially from the employer’s viewpoint. Technology has robbed the workplace of it productivity!

ii) The Real Time Crime in the Workplace

An estimated “… 8.3 hours a week …” are involved in “… non-work-related …” website “… peeking …” (Williams & Sawyer, p. 477). Add into this mixture the time spent employees may spend doing such things as downloading music, playing games and on-line shopping (Williams & Sawyer, p. 472). These become the real crimes against the employer! The ultimate, however, is possibly conducting one’s own sideline business while on the employer’s time and using his/her company’s resources. There’s multi-tasking and then there’s lost productivity and revenues (also expenses) for the other party involved in this. Wow! What better business scheme than to make money twice over – with your own business (without overhead costs) and through the “unearned” company pay cheque?

c) The “Inside Job” -- Computer Security in the Workplace

To counter some of this lost revenue and productivity, there has been an increased need and demand for surveillance techniques to monitor employees. Employers have resorted to many means, even to the point of creating separate computer security departments or divisions to deal with both the internal and external threats.

In light of the statistics available or opinions espoused, there is no wonder such measures have had to be taken. For example, one survey discovered that in the opinion of some security personnel, “… the greatest threat to their company’s technology infrastructure as a result of cyberattacks were current employees (53%), former employees (10%), and nonemployees (28%)” (Williams & Sawyer, p. 475). In other cases, employees may “… use information technology for personal profit or to steal hardware or information to sell. They may also use it to seek revenge for real or imaged wrongs …” and, indeed, one report found that “… the disgruntled employee is a principal source of computer crime” (Williams & Sawyer, p. 476).

d) A Final Note

So, where’s the criminal? He or she maybe seated right outside the boss's door or at the next desk. Workplace crimes can come in many forms and with many different faces, but the obvious from this brief overview is --- the technological advances in the workplace have put the employer at risk of being robbed of time, energy and resources – all in the name of productivity!

MAK

Retrieved from "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Computer_Crime"


text:
User:Sgree576

 * 1  Introduction to Information Technology

 * 2  Hardware: CPU & Storage

 * 3  Hardware: Input & Output

 * 4  Databases & Information Systems

 * 5  System Analysis & Programming

 * 6  Software

 * 7  Communications, Networks & Safeguards

 * 8  The Internet and the World Wide Web

 * 9  Personal Technology

 * 10 The Challenges of the Digital Age

 * 11 Video editing (T115)

title: User:Sgree576


text:
The Computer Revolution/Security/Privacy Threatened

Personal information is confidential for people, and it is the right that not to reveal the information about themselves.However, since computer technology advanced, it is getting harder and harder to prevent privacy from being tracked. Many people are worried about losing their right to privacy and losing control of the personal information being collected by others. There are some ways to threaten your privacy that we have to concern.

Fill the form, please!
Sometimes, people will receive applications for credit cards or invitations to join clubs, etc. By writing down your personal information, the company can get your own information easily. Once you are in the database, your name seems easier to be revealed to other people.

Snooping!
If you want to get a job, usually you have to make your own resume in order to attract owners to hire you. Besides dropping off your resume in person, some people will post it on an internet job board. Therefore, your personal information, background, education, marriage status are available to everyone! It is one of the easy ways for snooping to get people's personal information.

A call can spy you, too!
Have you ever received a call from people who want to spy on your personal information? Now, this action is getting more and more ridiculous. By pretending some roles, such as surveyor or salesman, it is easy for them to get the information that they want if you out of precaution! So, before you say it out, don't feel embarrassed, check if they have authority to do that. It is the way to protect yourself, and your privacy.

Internet Tracking
100s of Internet companies are "tracking" an end computer user's every move while on the Internet. These companies consist of Internet search engines like Google, advertising firms, and Internet "traffic-logging" sites. The sole purpose for these companies to "track your movements" is so, that they can collect data about your personal interests based upon data from your Internet searches. These "data collecting" organizations place a "cookie" on information that the end user has glanced at.

Wikipedia's definition of a cookie is as follows, "a cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is used for an origin website to send state information to a user's browser and for the browser to return the state information to the origin site.[1] The state information can be used for authentication, identification of a user session, user's preferences, shopping cart contents, or anything else that can be accomplished through storing text data on the user's computer. Cookies cannot be programmed, cannot carry viruses, and cannot install malware on the host computer.[2] However, they can be used by spyware to track user's browsing activities—a major privacy concern that prompted European and US law makers to take action.[3][4] Cookie data can also be illicitly disclosed by hackers to gain access to a victim's web account."

So, once the data is captured and collected, the information is then matched to ads that are then posted while you are still on the Internet. These ads are specifically chosen based on your "search history". These ads are shown in hopes that you, the consumer, will then be interested in the websites and or products being shown and will ultimately purchase those products.

While the end user's name is not is not attached to the information that is gathered; it may still feel like an invasion of privacy. Recently, there has been discussion about "Do Not Track" tools and what orders websites will have to respect in regards to end users notifying them that they "do not want to be tracked". The Digital Advertising Alliance (DAA), the Federal Trade Commission, W3C, the Internet Advertising Bureau (also part of the DAA), and privacy researchers at academic institutions are all involved. In November 2011, the DAA put out a new set of principles that contain some good ideas like the prohibition of "collection, use or transfer of Internet surfing data across Websites for determination of a consumer's eligibility for employment, credit standing, healthcare treatment and insurance."

In February 2012, the White House seemed to side with privacy advocates who want to limit collection, not just uses. Its Consumer Privacy Bill of Rights pushes companies to allow users to "exercise control over what personal data companies collect from them and how they use it." The DAA heralded its own participation in the White House process, though even it noted this is the beginning of a long journey.

Recently, Google has adapted new policy that incorporates the sharing of your information across their platforms. Which means that any YouTube video, email through Gmail and so on can be used to target you for advertisement and other services. This has made privacy advocates question the Google's intentions and even the legality of this new policy. The biggest issue with the change has been the fact that if you use any of Google's products, you will not have the option to opt out of the new policy.

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/29/google-privacy-policy-changes_n_1310506.html

http://finance.yahoo.com/news/im-being-followed-google-104-195718862.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_cookie

Privacy
Everyone is or should be concerned about Internet privacy. There are several ways to protect individuals and their finances over the Internet. Certain measures of safety may be taken such as only go to trusted sites, read the sites privacy policy, and don't use the auto populate on public computers and finally use common sense. There are also many government groups that protect our privacy and be safe on the Internet. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) stresses that protecting individual's social security number while dealing with things on the Internet is very important. Pay attention to the trash and e-mails that are received from the Internet. Hackers can easily access these important e-mails. Make difficult passwords so not just anyone can easily access information. Verify the sources to make sure they are safe and okay to give personal information. The Internet Crime Complaint Center works in a partnership with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C) to help and receive criminal complaints related to the Internet. Posting things on the Internet can be harmful to individuals. The information posted on the Internet is permanent. This includes comments written on blogs, pictures, and Internet sites, such as Facebook and Twitter. It is absorbed into cyberspace and once it is posted, anyone can find it and read it. This action can come back and hurt people in the long run when applying for jobs or having someone finds person information. Another way of protecting your privacy is to Never submit a credit card number or other highly sensitive personal information without first making sure your connection is secure (encrypted). In Netscape, look for an closed lock (Windows) or unbroken key (Mac) icon at the bottom of the browser window. In Internet Explorer, look for a closed lock icon at the bottom (Windows) or near the top (Mac) of the browser window.In any browser, look at the URL (Web address) line - a secure connection will begin "https://"isntead of "http://". If you are at page that asks for such information but shows "http://" try adding the "s" yourself and hitting enter to reload the page (for Netscape or IE; in another browser, use whatever method is required by your browser to reload the page at the new URL). If you get an error message that the page or site does not exist, this probably means that the company is so clueless - and careless with your information and your money - that they don't even have Web security. Take your business elsewhere.

http://www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/s/secure-web-sites.htm#.UYAlr8qPma4

Privacy Laws
The Computer Matching and Privacy Protection Act 1988

Describing the rule in which computer matching associating federal agencies could be act and by putting protections for personal applying for and receiving benefits.

Video Privacy Protection Act

It was created in 1988, which provides on of the biggest consumer privacy.

Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)

Tracking Protection
Email can be tracked without protection.

You can send ads, images, web links, etc. and think what you send is private but sadly it is not, unless you have protection. A third party can receive your information without your knowledge, you need tracking protection. Below is a list of the top ten tracking protection sites available to protect your privacy. The protection gives you a choice of what third-party sites can track you online. You have the option to block the content from websites that may invade your privacy:

1.	Abine's Kids and Teens Tracking Protection List 2.	Abine's Standard Tracking Protection List 3.	EasyPrivacy Tracking Protection List 4.	PrivacyChoice TPL - all companies 5.	PrivacyChoice Tracking Protection List - Block companies without NAI oversight 6.	TRUSTe Tracking Protection List 8.	EasyList Standard Tracking Protection List 10.	Fanboy - Adblock Tracking Protection List


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Talk:Abstract Algebra/Modules

Submodule Def'n
There was a second defn for submodule suggested. Really, both definitions were the same, but the second one expressed the idea better by enumerating the conditions. I've merged these two. Also, I've ommited that submodules must be non empty, since this is implied by their being subgroups of the containing module. Does this merit, comment in the text? Methinks not. Ahhoefel 02:08, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abstract Algebra/Modules


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computers and Environment/Disposal/Recycling

A typical computer has many negative influences on the environment, anywhere from the manufacturing of computers to the distribution of computers. This has caused many questions and awareness among individuals who are concerned with the negative influences on the environment; which may cause hurdles for the new generations to come. There are various ways one should manufacture, buy, use and dispose computers so the negative impact on the environment can be reduced.

E-trash/E-waste

E-trash/e-waste is any refuse created by discarded electronic devices and components as well as substances involved in their manufacture or use. E-trash is particularly significant because disposal of electronic items results in toxic waste that is products containing dangerous metals like lead, cadmium and mercury which can contaminate air and water when they are dumped. In some older personal computer monitors, for example, there may be lead in the cathode ray tube (CRT) and soldering compound, mercury in switches and housing, phosphor to the front of a CRT screen, mercury powder in Flat screen backlights and cobalt in steel components.

Concern about the environmental issues surrounding e-trash has led governments across the world to implement laws prohibiting its disposal in landfills and issue directives on recycling. In the European Union, for instance, some responsibility was placed back on the manufacturer in the form of directives which make them financially or physically responsible for their equipment at the end of its life (and thereby provide a competitive incentive for companies to design “greener” products). In the United States initiatives mostly come from the private sector, such as eBay’s Rethink project.

According to the article, "Electronic Waste: Where does it go and what happens to it", a January 2011 NPR story shows us that companies might not be as honest about what they are doing with your old electronics. More often than not these items are shipped outside of the United States, moving the toxic waste dump from our shores to developing countries, according to Basel Action Network executive director Jim Puckett. The non-profit organization focuses on protecting the environment from dangerous waste. Pucket goes on to say, '“The dirty little secret is that when you take [your electronic waste] to a recycler, instead of throwing it in a trashcan, about 80 percent of that material, very quickly, finds itself on a container ship going to a country like China, Nigeria, India, Vietnam, Pakistan — where very dirty things happen to it,”" Puckett said to NPR. While recyclers do make money selling metal scraps, such as gold and liquid solder, it is cheaper to have the hard labor of pulling apart and melting down pieces done outside the country even if that means the useless scraps and other hazardous materials will liter that area. For example, 60 Minutes went to one of these illegal electronics stripping shops in Guiyu, China, which employed workers for $8 a day. Despite the fumes that made the workers cough and other health hazards, the workers said they opted to work at recycling factories because it was one of the only jobs in this region that paid a living wage. The environmental damage on the area because of all the toxic materials has left a permanent scar. Scientists who have examined Guiyu have determined that because of the waste, the location has the highest levels of cancer-causing dioxins in the world. Pregnant women are six times more likely to suffer a miscarriage, and seven out of ten kids have too much lead in their blood. Many of the devices broken down in the town came from other countries including the US, who in 2008 according to Natural Resources Defense Council Allen Hershkowitz tossed out 130,000 computers each day and dispose of over 100 million cell phones each year. Basel Action Network suggests taking an extra step and using one of the e-Stewards, certified recyclers that do not ship their electronic waste to be disposed of in different countries. It may narrow down the choices of where you can dump your old computer or cell phone, but the extra effort is worth it.

http://techland.time.com/2011/01/14/electronic-waste-where-does-it-go-and-what-happens-to-it/?xid=rss-topstories

Disposal/Recycling
Disposal/recycling is a technique used to discard/reuse any unwanted merchandise, in this case computer technology.

There are several steps one should take whether the computer equipment is being disposed of or if it is being donated.

Deleted files may be recovered from the hard drive and sometimes even a reformatted hard drive.
 * Remove/Reformat Hard Drive

All company information should be removed to prevent hackers from being able to identify where recovered information may have come from.
 * Remove Company Insignia

Have the recipient of the used equipment sign that they are accepting responsibility for proper disposal.
 * Put it in Writing

If the used equipment is brought to a recycling company, request written documentation that they are taking responsibility for proper disposal. If the documentation cannot be provided, this would be a sign that the recycling company is not legitimate.
 * Get it in Writing

Source: http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2004/704/essentials/p70.htm

Facts and Figures

 * "Studies estimate that 315 - 600 million desktop and laptop computers in the U.S. will soon be obsolete... [and] contain a total of more than 1.2 billion pounds of lead. About 40% of the heavy metals in landfills, including lead, mercury, and cadmium, come from electronic equipment discards."

Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, Fifth Annual Computer Report Card (2004)

 * "Informed recycling industry sources estimate that between 50 to 80 percent of the wastes collected for recycling are not recycled domestically at all, but very quickly placed on container ships bound for destinations like China."

BAN & SVTC, Exporting Harm (2002)

 * "Producing the average 55-pound desktop computer and monitor requires 530 pounds of fossil fuels, 50 pounds of chemicals, and 3,330 pounds of water (due to the repeated rinsing necessary). These amounts are roughly the weight of a sport utility vehicle or 1.8 metric tons."

Jim Lynch, Islands in the Wastestream, (CompuMentor: 2004), p. 1

 * "Where once consumers purchased a stereo console or television set with the expectation that it would last for a decade or more... consumers now rarely take broken electronics to a repair shop, as replacement is now often easier and cheaper than repair. The average lifespan of a computer has shrunk from four or five years to two years."

BAN & SVTC, Exporting Harm (2002)

 * "Data from single-day recycling collection events has revealed that more than 50% of turned-in computers are in good working order, but they are discarded nonetheless to make way for the latest technology."

BAN & SVTC, Exporting Harm (2002)

 * "Compumentor research estimates public school need for computers at ... 9 million nationally. This need has been dramatically affected by recent state and local budget cuts."

Jim Lynch, Islands in the Wastestream, (CompuMentor: 2004), p. 1

 * "A significant share of the environmental impacts incurred in the computer life cycle is in the production phase. For a desktop computer used at home, for example, the energy needed to produce the machine is four times more than that needed to power it during the use phase.  The energy consumed to produce a refrigerator is only about one-eighth the electricity used to run it."

Kuer & Williams, Computers & The Environment (Kluwer: 2003), p. 4

 * "Over each computer's life cycle, reselling or upgrading computers saves 5 to 20 more energy than recycling."

Jim Lynch, Islands in the Wastestream, (CompuMentor: 2004), p. 1

 * "Research reveals that reselling or upgrading one in ten computers reduces total energy use by 8.6 percent and 5.2 percent, respectively, by reducing demand for new machines. In contrast, recycling the materials from one in ten computers only saves 0.43 percent by replacing demand for virgin materials."

Kuer & Williams, Computers & The Environment (Kluwer: 2003), p. 9

 * "One [obstacle to the re-use of computer equipment] is the issue of the transfer of software licenses for pre-installed software to the purchaser of a used PC. Although a software license is, in principle, transferable to the person buying a used PC, it is often not simpl[e] because the mechanics of the transfer are needlessly awkward."

Kuer & Williams, Computers & The Environment (Kluwer: 2003), p. 9

 * "The E-waste recycling and disposal operations found in China, India, and Pakistan are extremely polluting and likely to be very damaging to human health. Examples include open burning of plastic waste, exposure to toxic solders, river dumping of acids, and widspread general dumping."

BAN & SVTC, Exporting Harm (2002)

 * "Approximately 40% of US families do not have Internet-capable computers."

Jim Lynch, Islands in the Wastestream, (CompuMentor: 2004), p. 1

 * "According to a Carnegie Mellon University study, by 2005 about 680 million PCs will have been sold in the United States since 1981."

Kuer & Williams, Computers & The Environment (Kluwer: 2003), pp 2 - 3

 * "...less than a third of the world's population has ever even made a telephone call."

Kuer & Williams, Computers & The Environment (Kluwer: 2003), p. 22

Reference: http://www.technologyrescue.com/bulletpoints.html, retrieved March 20, 2007

Advantages

 * Refurbished technology given to the less fortunate.
 * Environmentally friendly as less computer dumping occurs.

Disadvantages

 * Ignorant disposal may cause further damage to the environment as harmful elements may be accidentally exposed.
 * Cost involved may discourage correct disposal.

Monitor Recycling - What Happens Now
So, you’ve decided to do the right thing and take your monitor/computer to a recycling center. What happens after you drop off your equipment? First, many companies or municipalities will separate the equipment into “valuable” equipment (that can refurbished and then either sold or donated) and “non-valuable” equipment (equipment that is too old or in too much disrepair to be salvaged). The monitor is then dis-assembled and the various materials are separated into categories. Glass, plastic, and circuit boards are all collected. Harmful metals are removed from the circuit boards, which are then crushed, melted down, and sold to a manufacturer.

Source: http://www.computerrecyclingusa.com/htm/whtm_old_monitor.htm

The Cost of Saving Money
Recycling is a good way to reuse raw materials in products, but electronic waste contains harmful chemicals that can harm people and the environment. Developed countries have regulations which control the handling of e-waste, which takes place at specially developed facilities, under controlled conditions. This type of recycling can be expensive, therefore, many developed countries started exporting e-waste to developing countries where recycling is much cheaper. However, these countries do not have laws in place to protect the workers or the environment, which means workers are exposed to lead and other hazardous materials, along with the hazardous effects on the environment, which can potentially harm everyone.

Green Computing
Green computing refers to the use of computers in an environmentally friendly way. With the increased use of technology, there is a need to develop energy-saving devices. The US Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency in 1992 created the Energy Star Program. The purpose of the Energy Star Program is to encourage the development of energy-saving devices. Hardware that contains the Energy Star Logo exceeds the minimum federal standards for reduced energy consumption. In other words, green computing involves reducing the electricity and environmental waste while using a computer. Hardware devices should comply with the Energy Star program guidelines. It is encouraged that manufactures create energy-efficient devices.

Some of the “Green Computing Suggestions” include-* (Discovering Computers 2010 Living in a Digital World Complete, P.584)
 * Use computers and devices that comply with the Energy Star program
 * Do not leave the computer running overnight
 * Turn off the monitor, printer, and other devices when not in use
 * Use LCD monitors instead of CRT monitors
 * Use paperless methods to communicate
 * Recycle paper
 * Buy recycled paper
 * Recycle toner cartridges
 * Recycle old computers, printers and other devices
 * Telecommute to save to save gas
 * Use video conferencing and VoIP for meeting

Resources: Understanding computers Today and Tomorrow and Discovering Computers 2010 Living in a Digital World Complete


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computers and Environment/Nanotechnology

Current projects being investigated included :

Established by Energy Environmental Systems Institute (EESI) with the aid of the Office of Science and Technology of the French Consulate-Houston, I-CENTR includes brings together Rice researchers with over thirty researchers from the global environmental and nanochemistry research communities who are actively engaged in research on developing new nanomaterials-based technologies for protecting human health and the environment, and in understanding how nanomaterials and nanomaterial production may affect our environment. Current projects include studies on:

 * Mobility of nanomaterials in aqueous environments
 * Surface chemistry of mineral oxide and carbon nanoparticles
 * Development of nanostructured membranes
 * Mechanisms of nanoparticle bio-degradation
 * Development of nanostructured ceramic bodies for environmental separations and catalysis nanomaterial-based adsorbents for water treatment
 * Possible mutagenic properties of nanoparticles
 * Nanoparticle bioaccumulation

Retrieved from http://cohesion.rice.edu/centersandinst/eesi/nanotech.cfm?doc_id=4149 on March 20, 2007

Examples of nanomaterials :
 * buckyball
 * single-walled carbon nanotubes
 * zinc selenide quantum dots
 * alumoxane nanoparticles
 * titanium dioxide nanoparticles

New Discoveries in Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology is now a wannabe superhero’s best asset. Previously, an optical cloak could hide an object on a wall by changing the angle that light bounced off the object and thus distorting what a person saw. An optical cloak could only hide an object not on a surface by bending light completely around the object. This was done with synthetic metamaterials which are smaller than the actual wavelength of light they are reflecting. Previously, this had only been accomplished at specific wavelengths but new discoveries have allowed this to be possible with all wavelengths. Utilizing holes between 60 and 65 nanometers etched into thin layers of silicon nitride deposited on porous glass, it is possible to bend light completely around an object (potentially a superhero or more realistically an armored tank entering into battle) and make that object appear invisible.

Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn20797-optical-cloaks-hide-objects-in-broad-daylight.html on February 03, 2012

DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense, is proposing to stop spending money on researching new antibiotics and to instead focus that money on developing new and innovative ways to utilize nanoparticles to fight infections. DARPA is currently seeking new proposals for how to utilize the small interfering RNA (similar to DNA) and collectively known as siRNA. siRNA is a macromolecule that can be programed with a specific genetic code and then that molecule will seek out the same genetic code within cells in the human body and ultimately destroy those cells. A siRNA could be programmed with the same genetic code as a particular strain of bacteria and theoretically the siRNA would scour the human body searching for that bacteria and destroy it with relatively no side effects. Unlike antibiotics, the bacteria cannot grow resistant and the siRNA can be programmed rather rapidly to destroy an extensive list of different harmful cells.

Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21228413.600-forget-antibiotics-try-nanoparticles-instead.html on February 06, 2012


text:
Talk:Romanian/Lesson 1

And you?
I have Pimsleur's Romanian, and they say, "Şi Dumneavoastră?" to mean "and you?". Can someone please clarify which is the correct way to say it in Romanian? And Lesson 2 of the Wikibook says that the D in Dumneavoastră must be capitalized. Entbark 03:47, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

This is erik212. I speak romanian, and I can say that it sounds correct, but I'm not sure about the spelling.

Which one is more correct? Or can you give situations in which one or the other would be used? Entbark 13:31, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Romanian/Lesson 1


text:
User talk:74.112.33.213

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Jim Thomas (aka Jomegat) 03:52, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:74.112.33.213


text:
User talk:74.67.165.183

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. -- Jim Thomas (aka Jomegat) 03:56, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:74.67.165.183


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Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Annotations of The Complete Peanuts

Annotations of The Complete Peanuts
Seems to have been an abandon Wikipedia import: --dark lama  17:28, 23 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Doesn't appear to be annotated in any way
 * Consist of links and list of pages to refer to.
 * Not sure it has any educational value.

 * Delete: For reasons mentioned above, though this has only been abandoned for two months it appears that nothing has been done to it at all in that time (except for cleanups by a few regulars), not like someone has been working on it but slowly. I think it might be useful as a stretch in some class on cultural outlets but its just that, a stretch, and such a class would probably only use, say, one annotated Peanuts and then move on to other things. Mattb112885 17:43, 23 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep: Peanuts has considerable cultural significance... this annotation is explaining cultural references that have since become anachronistic. I'll switch the links to w: for now. -- SB_Johnny | talk 20:07, 24 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep: I agree with SBJohnny. Peanuts has potential and there is substantial work there already.  Plus Peanuts is great! Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Poland_2.svg|15px]]talk 21:32, 24 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment Would this not be more appropriate for Wikisource than? I believe Wikisource is meant for this sort of text. --dark [[Image:Yin yang.svg|12px]] lama 16:13, 25 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm not really sure about this point. Annotated texts do seem to be on both Wikibooks and Wikisource, and this is admittedly one of the substantial grey areas between both projects.  Since there are so many other things that clearly differentiate both projects, this one area really isn't much of a problem so far as turf wars don't seem to be a problem either and both Wikisource and Wikibooks are about the same size in terms of number of participants.  If I had to make a distinction for where annotated texts should go, I would suggest that Wikisource keep the annotated texts of sources that are available under the GFDL (or PD-old) and Wikibooks keep those that are for content under copyright.  Under this philosophy, perhaps the best course is Keep.  --Rob Horning 20:11, 28 February 2007 (UTC)
 * The distinction I was thinking of is that Wikisource has annotated texts that are not necessarily educational materials used in a classroom, I think, while annotated texts on Wikibooks should be educational materials used in a classroom. I'm not sure where copyright or licenses fits into the distinction between both projects, but I think both use the GFDL. --dark [[Image:Yin yang.svg|12px]] lama 13:18, 3 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I was not trying to say that the content here on Wikibooks ought to be something other than the GFDL. Of course it should be.  The point I was trying to make is that if the "source content" is available under the GFDL or is public domain, that text itself should also be on Wikisource anyway, and the annotations should be directly tied to the content.  There really doesn't seem to be a point to separate the annotations on one project and the source text itself on another one.  If the source content is not available under the GFDL, the nature of the annotations will therefore be somewhat different and there isn't a reason for Wikisource to host that sort of content.  Yet Wikibooks certainly would be a place to host notes related to another book that may even be commercially published elsewhere.  The annotations, of course, would always be available under the GFDL.  --Rob Horning 19:59, 6 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Perhaps the distinction should be Wikibook is for an original book, created wholely at wikibooks, while Wikisource should be for textbooks that are already present at other medium, wikified. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by anonymous (talk • contribs).
 * There are very few (I don't think any) textbooks at Wikisource, so it isn't completley a true statement here. It is true that Wikibooks are completely new books.  But official policy even from the very beginning of this project has explicitly permitted annotated texts.  There are some books that Wikisource won't take, as in particular they won't take texts that are added by the original author (except under very rare circumstances).  This is to keep Wikisource from becoming a vanity publisher, just as we try to keep that happening here as well.  Only here on Wikibooks that is kept under control because we demand that all content which is added should also be editable and changeable.  That usually scares away those who would try to add their pet book project they have been working on for the past 10 years, which would normally go to a vanity press.  --Rob Horning 03:41, 11 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Keep. I'm going to say keep on this one, although it is hardly the "model" annotated text. What I worry about most is that this is less like an annotation, and more like a set of footnotes and errata. The bulleted list of factoids would do better to be reformatted as prose with critical discussion and analysis, in addition to the random tidbits of information. Since I am neither qualified, able, nor interested to make these changes, i will simply drop the issue. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 22:37, 28 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment - I share your same concerns and agree that its more like a set of footnotes and errata than annotation. That is part of why nominated it for deletion. I agree that it needs to be reformatted with critical discussion and analysis; I believe that is what is needed in order to be kept. It looks like it was imported from Wikipedia to me and I'm assuming someone requested it and intended to either do that or make it part of some pre-existing book, but hasn't done so. In fact as Mattb112885 said, it hasn't been worked on for two months and the only work that seems to have been done is some minor cleanup by regulars. My Wikisource suggestion is intended to be a possible compromise for a means of keeping the material, while moving it to perhaps a more appropriate wiki. --dark [[Image:Yin yang.svg|12px]] lama 13:18, 3 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Go ahead and delete. I'm the creator of these annotations.  Given the general feeling that these don't belong anywhere in the Wiki universe, you have my permission to delete these.  I will be starting up a web page of my own that will contain them as well as future volumes.  I'll then put that under External Links.KXL 20:37, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * This is precisely why these VfD discussions can be so awful. Here is a legitimate user who added content in good faith, trying to abide by the rules of the various projects, only to discover a byzantine series of policy pronouncements that they don't even want to bother dealing with.  I don't necessarily blame him for wanting to leave, given this kind of treatment.  --Rob Horning 23:04, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I second Robert's comments above. -- SB_Johnny | talk 23:18, 9 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep. When a user adds content in good faith, it belongs *somewhere* in the wiki universe. If it doesn't belong here, then please suggest some other wiki where it does belong. In this case, I feel the best place for this Peanuts annotation is Wikibooks, although I might be persuaded that Wikisource or http://bookshelved.org/ would also be an adequate location. --DavidCary 01:33, 13 March 2007 (UTC)


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Horticulture/Pests and Diseases of Digitalis

Pests
../Aphids/ ../Mealybugs/ ../Beetles/ ../Caterpillars/
 * Foxglove Aphid: ../Acrythosiphon solani/
 * Crescent Marked Lily Aphid: ../Neomyzus circumflexus/
 * Mealybug: ../Pseudococcus fragilis/
 * Long-tailed Mealybug: ../Pseudococcus longispinus/
 * Japanese Beetle: ../Popillia japonica/
 * Asiatic Garden Beetle: ../Maladerma castanea/
 * Rose Chafer: ../Macrodactylus subspinosus/
 * Foxglove Pug (on flowers)
 * Lesser Yellow Underwing (on leaves)

Diseases
../Anthracnose/ ../Leaf Spot/ ../Root and Stem Rots/ ../Wilts/
 * ../Colletotrichum fuscum/
 * ../Ramularia variabilis/
 * ../Phyllosticta digitalis/
 * ../Fusarium/ spp.
 * ../Pellicularia filamentosa/
 * ../Pellicularia rolfsii/
 * ../Sclerotinia sclerotiorum/
 * ../Verticillium albo-atrum/

../Tobacco Mosaic Virus/

../Beet Curly Top Virus/

Stem and Bulb Nematode: ../Ditylenchus dispaci/


text:
Horticulture/Pest and disease page template

This page template is deprecated. Use and  for pests and diseases, respectively.

/Templates


text:
User:Mubeenjukaku/monobook.js

document.write(' ');

title: User:Mubeenjukaku/monobook.js


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Horticulture/Pests and Diseases of Iris

Pests
../Aphids/ ../Scales/ ../Whiteflies/ ../Mealybugs/ ../Bugs/ ../Thrips/ ../Maggots/ ../Beetles/ ../Weevils/ ../Caterpillars/ ../Mites/ ../Slugs and Snails/
 * Melon Aphid: ../Aphis gossypii/
 * True Bulb Aphid: ../Dysaphis tulipae/
 * Potato Aphid: ../Macrosiphum euphorbiae/
 * Crescent-marked Lily Aphid: ../Neomyzus circumflexus/
 * Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/
 * Florida Red Scale: ../Chrysomphalus aonidum/
 * Iris Whitefly: ../Aleyrodes spiraeoides/
 * Ground Mealybug: ../Rhizocecus falcifer/
 * Plant Bug: ../Lopidea confluenta/
 * Tobacco Thrips: ../Frankliniella fusca/
 * Iris Thrips: ../Iridothrips iridis/
 * Gladiolus Thrips: ../Thrips simplex/
 * Onion Thrips: ../Thrips tabaci/
 * Rose Thrips: ../Thrips major/
 * Lesser Bulb Fly: ../Enumerus tuberculatus/
 * Narcissus Bulb Fly: ../Merodon equestris/
 * Japanese Beetle: ../Popillia japonica/
 * Iris Weevil: ../Monomychus vulpeculus/
 * Zebra Caterpillar: ../Ceramica picta/
 * Verbena Bud Moth: ../Endothenia hebesana/
 * Iris Borer: ../Macronoctua onusta/
 * Stalk Borer: ../Papaipema nebris/
 * Bulb Mite: ../Rhizoglyphus echinopus/

../Voles/

Diseases
Bacterial ../Leaf Spots/ ../Soft Rots/ ../Leaf Spots/ ../Blights/ ../Rots/ ../Rusts/ ../Mosaic/ ../Ringspot/ ../Nematodes/
 * Xanthomonas tardicrescens
 * ../Erwinnia carotovora/
 * Alternaria iridicola
 * Ascochyta iridis
 * Didymellina macrospora
 * Mycosphaerella
 * Phyllosticta iridis
 * ../Botrytis cinerarea/
 * Glomerella cingulata
 * Botryotinia convoluta
 * ../Fusarium oxysporum/ f. sp. gladioli
 * ../Pellicularia rolfsii/
 * ../Sclerotinia sclerotiorum/
 * Mystrosporium adustum
 * Penicillium
 * Puccinia iridis
 * Puccinia sessilis
 * Iris Mosaic Virus
 * ../Tobacco Ringspot Virus/
 * ../Ditylenchus dipsaci/
 * ../Meliodgyne incognita/
 * ../Pratylenchus pratensis/

Other Problems
Hollow centers -- Rhizomatous Irises dies out in the center if not divided every few years.

title: Horticulture/Pests and Diseases of Iris


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Cookbook:Tandoori Masala

| Spice

Tandoori masala is a mixture of spices specifically for use with a tandoor, or clay oven, in traditional Pakistani and Indian Punjabi cooking. The specific spices vary somewhat from one region to another, but typically include fenugreek, cinnamon, cumin, coriander, garlic, ginger, etc.

The spices are ground to a fine powder in a coffee grinder or with a mortar and pestle. The masala is mixed with plain yogurt, and meat (usually chicken) is coated with the mixture, then slow-roasted in the tandoor. Chicken prepared in this fashion has a pink-coloured exterior and a savoury flavor.

The masala can be stored in airtight jars for up to 2 months, and is used in dishes like tandoori chicken, chicken tikka masala, butter chicken, etc., all of them mostly Punjabi dishes. It can be used with meat other than chicken, for example, in tandoori fish or paneer tikka.

Nowadays, packets of tandoori chicken masala are readily available at major Pakistani and Indian supermarkets, with varying tastes depending on the brand. This convenience has led to many Pakistanis and Indians buying the masala rather than making it at home.

Ingredients

 * 1 tablespoon fenugreek seeds or methi
 * ½ teaspoon onion seeds
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * 1 teaspoon hot masala or garam masala
 * ½ teaspoon turmeric powder or haldi
 * ½ teaspoon curry powder
 * ½ teaspoon coriander powder
 * ½ teaspoon cumin powder
 * ¼ teaspoon chile powder or mirchi
 * 1½ teaspoons paprika
 * 4 garlic cloves, peeled and cleaned
 * 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
 * 1 thumb-sized piece fresh ginger
 * 2 jalapeño peppers (seeds and all)
 * 1 bunch fresh cilantro, washed, long stems cut off
 * ¼ cup lemon juice
 * 1 cup plain yogurt (yogurt hung in cheesecloth to remove excess liquid works best)

Procedure

 * 1) Toast the fenugreek and onion seeds first by heating and tossing in a sauté pan for several minutes. Grind them together using a mortar and pestle or spice grinder.
 * 2) In a food processor, blend fenugreek and onion seeds with the salt, garam masala, turmeric, curry powder, coriander powder, cumin, chili powder, paprika, garlic, vegetable oil, ginger, jalapeños, cilantro and lemon juice until all the ingredients become a smooth paste.
 * 3) Spoon the mixture into a large mixing bowl and stir in the yogurt.
 * 4) Marinate meat or fish for 8 hours (or bathe first in white distilled vinegar for shorter marination time). Tofu, vegetables or paneer can be tossed into the marinade just before grilling. Use the marinade to baste over the grill.

title: Cookbook:Tandoori Masala


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Horticulture/Scilla

Scilla (squill) is a genus of bulbous perennial herbs in the hyacinth family ../Colchicaceae/. The 90-odd species are found in woodlands, subalpine meadows, and seashores across the Old World. Their flowers are usually blue, but white, pink, and purple types are known; most flower in early spring, but a few are autumn-flowering.

Several African species previously classified in Scilla have been removed to the genus ../Ledebouria/. The best known of these is the common houseplant still sometimes known as Scilla violacea but now properly ../Ledebouria socialis/.

Scilla peruviana is of interest for its name; it is a native of southwest Europe, not of Peru. The name results from when Carolus Linnaeus described the species in 1753; he was given specimens imported from Spain aboard a ship named Peru, and was misled into thinking the specimens had come from that country. The rules of botanical naming do not allow a scientific name to be changed merely because it is potentially confusing.

Description
Bulbous perennials with strap-like, fark green leaves. Flowers held on small scapes above the foliage.

Species
Species include:
 * ../Scilla bifolia/
 * ../Scilla peruviana/ (Portuguese Squill, Corymbose Squill, or Cuban Lily)
 * ../Scilla scilloides/
 * ../Scilla siberica/ (Siberian Squill)
 * ../Scilla verna/ (Spring Squill)

Uses
Some species are suitable for planting in lawns, otherwise they are generally grown in ground covers.

Squill liquid extract, a preparation of powdered squill and ethanol, is used as an ingredient in cough medicines and cardiac surgery.

Propagation
By offset or seed.

Pests and diseases
../Rusts/
 * ../Uromyces muscari/

title: Horticulture/Scilla


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Scilla

Wikipedia species list:
 * Scilla amoena (Star Squill/Star Hyacinth)
 * Scilla autumnalis (Autumn Squill)
 * Scilla bifolia (Alpine Squill)
 * Scilla bithynica (Bithynian Squill)
 * Scilla cilicica
 * Scilla hohenackeri
 * Scilla hyacinthoides
 * Scilla liliohyacinthus (Pyrenean Squill)
 * Scilla litardierei
 * Scilla maritima
 * Scilla messeniaca
 * Scilla mischtschenkoana
 * Scilla monophyllos
 * Scilla natalensis
 * Scilla persica
 * Scilla peruviana (Portuguese Squill/Corymbose Squill/Cuban Lily)
 * Scilla puschkinioides
 * Scilla rosenii
 * Scilla scilloides
 * Scilla siberica (Siberian Squill)
 * Scilla siehei
 * Scilla vindobonensis
 * Scilla verna (Spring Squill)

title: Talk:Horticulture/Scilla


text:
Talk:General Astronomy/The Early Origins of Astronomy

A short explanation of the word "precession" should be inserted before quoting it.Demaag 15:22, 21 March 2007 (UTC)