text:
Xray Crystallography/Equipment

Rotating Anode

In house laboratory sources of X-ray radiation are typically rotating anode generators. An electron beam is focused, within a vacuum, from a metal cathode which emits electrons towards a rotating anode. The electrons accelerate between the cathode and anode due to the potential difference between them. On contact with the electrons, the metal ions in the anode release photons in the X-ray region of the EM spectrum. Photons are released of a wavelength characteristic of the metal used in the anode. For a copper anode X-rays with a wavelength of 1.54Å are produced from the K$$\alpha$$ transition. Other possible metals are Chromium (K$$\alpha$$ 2.29Å) and Molybdenum (K$$\alpha$$ 0.71Å).

The anode rotates because the electrons are focused onto a small area of the anode to generate an intense X-ray source. However, this also creates very large heating effects which affect the X-ray radiation intensity.

The rotating anode tube is an improvement of the Coolidge tube. Because X-ray production is very inefficient (99% of incident energy is converted to heat) the dissipation of heat at the focal spot is one of the main limitations on the power which can be applied. By sweeping the anode past the focal spot the heat load can be spread over a larger area, greatly increasing the power rating.

The anode consists of a disc with an annular target close to the edge. The anode disc is supported on a long stem which is supported by bearings within the tube. The anode can then be rotated by electromagnetic induction from a series of stator windings outside the evacuated tube.

Because the entire anode assembly has to be contained within the evacuated tube, heat removal is a serious problem, further exacerbated by the higher power rating available. Direct cooling by conduction or convection, as in the Coolidge tube, is difficult. In most tubes, the anode is suspended on ball bearings with lead lubrication which provide almost negligible cooling by conduction.

A recent development has been liquid gallium lubricated fluid dynamic bearings which can withstand very high temperatures without contaminating the tube vacuum. The large bearing contact surface and metal lubricant provide an effective method for conduction of heat from the anode.

The anode must be constructed of high temperature materials. The focal spot temperature can reach 2500 °C during an exposure, and the anode assembly can reach 1000 °C following a series of large exposures. Typical materials are a tungsten-rhenium target on a molybdenum core, backed with graphite. The rhenium makes the tungsten more ductile and resistant to wear from impact of the electron beams. The molybdenum conducts heat from the target. The graphite provides thermal storage for the anode, and minimizes the rotating mass of the anode.

Synchrotrons
Synchrotrons work differently from in-house generators. Synchrotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the acceleration of ultrarelativistic (i.e., moving near the speed of light) electrons through magnetic fields. This is achieved by the storage rings of a synchrotron.

Synchrotron radiation is characterized by:
 * High brightness and high intensity, many orders of magnitude more than with X-rays produced in conventional X-ray tubes
 * High brilliance, exceeding other natural and artificial light sources by many orders of magnitude: 3rd generation sources typically have a brilliance larger than 1018 photons/s/mm2/mrad2/0.1%BW, where 0.1%BW denotes a bandwidth 10-3w centered around the frequency w.
 * High collimation, i.e. small angular divergence of the beam
 * Low emittance, i.e. the product of source cross section and solid angle of emission is small
 * Widely tunable in energy/wavelength by monochromatization (sub eV up to the MeV range)
 * High level of polarization (linear or elliptical)
 * Pulsed light emission (pulse durations at or below one nanosecond, or a billionth of a second);

Electrons are accelerated to high speeds in several stages to achieve a final energy that is typically in the GeV range. The electrons are stored in an ultrahigh vacuum ring on a closed loop and thus circle the ring a vast number of times. The electrons are forced to travel in a closed loop by strong magnetic fields. The magnets also need to repeatedly recompress the Coulomb-exploding space charge electron bunches. The change of direction is a form of acceleration and thus the electrons emit radiation at GeV frequencies. This is similar to a radio antenna, but with the difference that the relativistic speed changes the observed frequency due to the Doppler effect by a factor $$\gamma$$. Relativistic Lorentz contraction bumps the frequency by another factor of $$\gamma$$, thus multiplying the GeV frequency of the resonant cavity that accelerates the electrons into the X-ray range. Another dramatic effect of relativity is that the radiation pattern is also distorted from the isotropic dipole pattern expected from non-relativistic theory into an extremely forward-pointing cone of radiation. This makes synchrotron radiation sources the brightest known sources of X-rays. The planar acceleration geometry makes the radiation linearly polarized when observed in the orbital plane, and circularly polarized when observed at a small angle to that plane.

The advantages of using synchrotron radiation for spectroscopy and diffraction have been realized by an ever-growing scientific community, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s. In the beginning, storage rings were built for particle physics and synchrotron radiation was used in "parasitic mode" when bending magnet radiation had to be extracted by drilling extra holes.

As the application of synchrotron radiation became more intense and promising, devices that enhanced the intensity of synchrotron radiation were built into existing rings. Third-generation synchrotron radiation sources were conceived and optimized from the outset to produce bright X-rays.

Nowadays, fourth-generation sources that will include different concepts for producing ultrabright, pulsed time-structured X-rays for extremely demanding and also probably yet-to-be-conceived experiments are under consideration.

As mentioned above, bending electromagnets are usually used to generate the radiation, but to generate stronger radiation, another kind of device, called an insertion device, is sometimes employed. Current third-generation synchrotron radiation sources are typically heavily based upon these insertion devices, when straight sections in the storage ring are used for inserting periodic magnetic structures (composed of many magnets that have a special repeating row of N and S poles) that force the electrons into a sinusoidal path or helical path. Thus, instead of a single bend, many tens or hundreds of "wiggles" at precisely calculated positions add up or multiply the total intensity that is seen at the end of the straight section. Thus these devices are called wigglers or undulators. The main difference between an undulator and a wiggler is the intensity of their magnetic field and the amplitude of the deviation from the straight line path of the electrons.

There are openings in the storage ring to let the radiation exit and follow a beam line into the experimenters' vacuum chamber. A great number of such beamlines can emerge from modern third-generation synchrotron radiation sources.

Beamlines
At a synchrotron facility, the electrons are usually accelerated by a synchrotron, and then injected into a storage ring, in which they circulate, producing synchrotron radiation, but without gaining further energy. The radiation is projected at a tangent to the electron storage ring and captured by beamlines. These beamlines may originate at bending magnets, which mark the corners of the storage ring; or insertion devices, which are located in the straight sections of the storage ring. The spectrum and energy of X-rays differ between the two types. The beamline includes X-ray optical devices which control the bandwidth, photon flux, beam dimensions, focus, and collimation of the rays. The optical devices include slits, attenuators, crystal monochromators, and mirrors. The mirrors may be bent into curves or toroidal shapes to focus the beam. A high photon flux in a small area is the most common requirement of a beamline. The design of the beamline will vary with the application. At the end of the beamline is the experimental end station, where samples are placed in the line of the radiation, and detectors are positioned to measure the resulting diffraction, scattering or secondary radiation.

Crystal Rotation

Crystals are rotated about one or more axis using a goniometer. Rotation, like all of data collection, is computer controlled.

The most important variables to be considered are;
 * The power settings of the X-ray generator
 * Exposure time for an image
 * Distance between the detector and crystal
 * Starting rotation angle
 * Change in rotation angle during the exposure
 * Number of images to be taken

title: Xray Crystallography/Equipment


text:
XForms/Insert and Delete into Table

Motivation
You want to insert and delete records into a table. In this example records are appended to the end of a table but any selected row can be removed. This example does "in-place" table editing. There is no separate form to enable viewing a new record other than in the actual table.

Discussion
This example uses the last and index XPath functions to find out what row of the table should be operated on.

You can also create a version that has a delete and add button in each row. In this design the index function is used to delete the current row selected and insert after the currently selected row.

In some applications the order of rows is important. You can also add buttons to each row to move the selected row up or down.

Note that after you add the row, you should move the insert cursor to the first field. This is done by using the setfocus element.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: XForms/Insert and Delete into Table


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Cookbook:Candlenut

The candlenut is a waxy nut from trees grown in the tropics around the world. Other names for it include candleberry, Indian walnut, kemiri, and kuku'i nut.

Characteristics
With its very high fat content, the candlenut has a creamy texture and flavor similar to the macadamia, though more bitter. It is, however, toxic when raw and must be cooked before eating to reduce its toxicity.

Selection and storage
Because of their high fat content, candlenuts are prone to spoilage by rancidity. As such, they should be kept in an airtight container in a cool location, away from light and heat.

Preparation
Candlenuts must be cooked prior to consumption in order to reduce their toxicity. This can be done in a variety of ways. One such way is to roast them in the oven at around 350°F (180°C) until lightly browned. If cooking them in a dish such as a stew, this can also suffice if the heating is long enough.

The nuts are typically powdered or ground to a paste before eating or using in cooking.

Use
Candlenuts feature in the cuisines of Hawaii, Indonesia, and Malaysia. A popular use is as a sauce or thickening agent, where candelnuts are crushed to a paste in a mortar and pestle, often with garlic and either ginger or galangal, then simmered gently for up to an hour with coconut milk and spices. It can also be used to make the Hawaiian seasoning called inamona, which is often eaten with poke.

Substitution
If candlenuts are unavailable, macadamia nuts can be used as an approximate substitute, though the flavor will not be the same.

title: Cookbook:Candlenut


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Cookbook:Galangal

Galangal is a member of the ginger family, but it has a distinctly different flavour to ginger. Other names include galanga, galangale, laos, and blue ginger.

Galangal is widely used in the cuisine of South-East Asia, and can be bought as fresh whole root, sliced, or as a dried powder.

In Galanga, there are two different varieties which one is known as the “Lesser Galanga” and other called to be the “Greater Galanga” which is very light in color and subtler in whiff you can easily find in most Thai cooking.

title: Cookbook:Galangal


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The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Sound cards

This article will discuss what a sound card is; and what it enables people to do with computers. The sound card is the piece of hardware that plugs directly into the mother board. These days, with the more advanced systems, most sound cards are directly built into the mother board. The sound card is what the speakers and Microphones plug into on the back of the actual computer. They enable audio files to be transferred from the computer to the speakers as actual sound. Als0, they enable users to record sounds on the computer and save the. Before having these sounds cards, computers were only able to makes one sound; the beeping sound. The volume on this sound was not adjustable at all; but the frequency was.

Sound cards enable computers to produce high quality 3-D sound as well as surround sound. What is this useful for? You will find out in this paragraph. Having a computer that can play sounds can be useful in many different aspects; DVDs, Audio files like speeches, games, and many other things like alerts and so on. Because of the high quality sound cards, computers can now play DVD movies with very good quality with the help of a good video card as well. Also, games can seem so real these days because of the high quality sounds that are integrated into them. This can never be done without a sound card.


text:
Template:Book e-prime

Usage
To use this template, add it to your Wikibook: e-prime

title: Template:Book e-prime


text:
User talk:Rycee~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 18:18, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

YAHT cleanup
Thanks for all the work cleaning up after my conversion script! -- Kowey 19:05, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

 * My pleasure. Just thought I might as well do a little fixing while making it through the book. Also, thank you for making it available in this form. -- Rycee 00:18, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rycee. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rycee~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:39, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:26, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rycee~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Kelka661

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 18:18, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kelka661


text:
Klingon/Sound clips

These sound clips appear throughout the tlhIngon Hol Wikibook as aids to the reader.

Vocabulary
These vocabulary words also appear in the English dictionary of Klingon words, with definition and sound clip.

 * [[Media:NukneH_02.ogg|nuqneH]]
 * [[Media:Tlh-Qu'vatlh.oga|Qu'vatlh]]

title: Klingon/Sound clips


text:
Klingon/English dictionary of Klingon words

This English dictionary of Klingon words lists tlhIngan Hol vocabulary and explains their meaning in English. Unlike a traditional dictionary, this dictionary separates words into a few sections, including nouns, pronouns, and curses; other words go into a General section.

Be mindful of the difference between the letters I ("capital eye") and l ("small ell"). Klingon is case-sensitive and does not use a lower-case i; as these letters appear similar in many sans-serif fonts, the use of a serif font may make reading a little easier.

Unlike English, Klingon does not capitalize names or the first words of sentences. Some letters of the Klingon alphabet are written in our alphabet as sequences of two or three letters (ch, gh, ng, tlh), and some English letters are only used as parts of these sequences; and  '  (apostrophe) is a letter.

 * I ("capital eye", as mentioned above), D, and S are always capital.
 * Small q and capital Q are different letters.
 * Small t (Klingon does not have capital T) is used in two ways:
 * as a Klingon letter.
 * as part of the Klingon letter tlh.
 * c is used only in ch.
 * g is used only in gh and ng.
 * Capital H is a letter, but small h is used only in ch, gh, and tlh.
 * Small n is used in two ways:
 * as a Klingon letter
 * as part of the sequence ng
 * Therefore, ngh is always n + gh, never ng + the nonexistent small h.

Curses
In the Star Trek series, Klingons regard cursing in the Klingon language as a fine art; those with mastery of this facet of Klingon gain respect among Klingons. More importantly, the Klingon language supplies a lot of curses in comparison to English; for convenience, expletives are listed separate from other vocabulary. You will likely use these more often than other vocabulary when speaking with those not familiar with Klingon.

Invectives
These are general invectives.

 *  baQa' , excl.: General invective.
 *  ghay'cha' , excl.: A general invective; "Damn it!"
 *  ghuy' , excl.: General invective; "Damn."
 *  ghuy'cha' , guy'cha, excl.: A general invective.  Stronger than  ghay'cha' .
 * Hu'tegh, excl.: General invective, similar to "damn."  You Hu'tegh bastard!
 *  jay' , int.: Intensifier, turns the whole phrase into an invective.  It comes at the very end of a sentence.  Similar function to modifying "what is going on" into "what the hell is going on" in English. qaStaH nuq jay'
 * QI'yaH, excl.: Curse, very strong expletive.  One of the strongest in the Klingon language.
 * [[Media:Tlh-Qu'vatlh.oga|Qu'vatlh]], excl.: A construction of  Qu'  and vatlh; literally, "A hundred tasks."  A strong expletive used to express frustration, such as with having too many tasks and not enough resources to complete them reasonably.
 * va, excl.: A shortened form of Qu'vatlh.  This functions as a less intense expression of frustration.

Epithets
Epithets supply a method of insulting a person or thing; a speaker uses them as derogatory replacements for nouns and pronouns.

 * petaQ, excl.: Epithet; similar to "bastard" or "asshole."  Throw that petaQ out.
 * Qovpatlh, excl.: Epithet; possibly indicates insignificance of target.  Don't bother asking that Qovpatlh; he is an idiot.
 * taHqeq, excl.: Epithet; insult to one's honor, possibly indicates a lack of trustworthiness in the target.
 * toDSaH, excl.: Epithet; possibly indicating weakness, as if the target worries about someone coming to their rescue; wimp, wuss.
 * yIntagh, excl.: Epithet; possibly a direct attack on the target's intelligence.
 * bIHnuch, excl.: Epithet; possibly meaning "coward" or "weakling".

Numbers

 * pagh: Zero.
 *  wa' : One.
 *  cha' : Two.
 * wej: Three.
 * loS: Four.
 * vagh: Five.
 * jav: Six
 * Soch: Seven.
 * chorgh: Eight.
 * Hut: Nine.
 * maH: Appended to numbers to indicate tens.  wa'maH (10), wejmaH (30),  loSmaH cha'  (42).
 * vatlh: Appended to numbers to indicate hundreds.  wa'vatlh (100), vaghvatlh vaghmaH vagh (555).
 * SaD, SanID: Appended to numbers to indicate thousands.  HutSaD (9000), loSSanID loS (4004).
 * netlh: Appended to numbers to indicate ten thousands.
 * bIp: Appended to numbers to indicate hundred thousands.
 *  'uy' : Appended to numbers to indicate millions.

Pronouns
Klingon employs two systems of pronouns; the section on Klingon grammar explains pronominal prefixes, while this one explains simple pronouns. Remember, Klingon grammar structure for transitive verbs is [target] [verb] [actor]; so "I see" is jIlegh jIH, and "you see me" is jIH cholegh SoH.

 * jIH, pn.: I, me.
 * maH, pn.: We, us.
 * SoH, pn.: You.
 * tlhIH, pn.: You (plural).
 * ghaH, pn.: He/she, him/her.  Gender is given in context.
 * chaH, pn.: They/them; plural of ghaH.
 *  'oH , pn.: It.
 * bIH, pn.: They/them; plural of  'oH .
 *  'e' , pn.: That, referring to the previous part of the sentence; the English sentence, "No one knows that I can read Klingon," uses the English conjunction 'that' to perform this function.
 * net, pn.: That, referring to the previous part of the sentence. net is used when a third party is involved.

General

 * Hol, n.: Language, as in tlhIngan Hol for Klingon language.
 * maj, adj.: Good.
 * [[Media:NukneH 02.ogg|nuqneH]]: Klingon's only greeting; literally, "What do you want?"  Ask this only when approached, never when approaching.
 * Qapla': said to wish fortune on someone, as in "good luck", particularly fortune in some form of honourable battle.


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nf6/3. Nxe5/3...d6/4. Nxf7

= Petrov Defence: Beaver Gambit = White chose to exchange a knight against two pawns and an exposed king. While this gambit is considered as dubious, it can lead to a quick victory if black doesn't know how to play it. Few of these games end in a draw.

=Theory table= .

'''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nxf7'''


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nf6/3. Nxe5/3...d6/4. Nxf7/4...Kxf7

=Petrov Defence: Cochrane Gambit= White must act quickly. If he loses too much time, Black will be able to put his king in security.

White has a few weapons which must be used carefully and not be wasted. Three main options are available.
 * /5. d4/
 * /5. Nc3/
 * 5. Bc4+

=Theory table= .

'''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nxf7 Kxf7'''


text:
Talk:Chess/Variants

Untitled
I think 2 variants considering mention are the one where I believe the goal is first to lose the match as well as 3D.--Billymac00 19:11, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Yea, various options using a standard board and pieces have wider appeal.
 * Variations I've played include. Start with piece down, or piece plus the move.
 * Play to lose. In this case lose means you have no pieces other then king left.
 * Doubles - great fun. When you win a piece give to your partner who can then as an alternative to a move put it on his/her board as long as it's not mate.
 * Start with normal position plus two rows of pawns each.
 * Play one extra move each time. I.e you play one move, your opponent plays two, you play three, your opponent plays four moves etc. don't last long that version!
 * Start win normal position, except pawns are going other direction. So if you are sat with white piece in front of you, you are actually playing black and can therefore play 1. Nc6 2 b8(Q) etc.

E5ricky 22:55, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Random Known-Opening Chess
I would have a chess variant in my mind, I would name it Random Known-Opening Chess:

A balanced selection of 1024 equal openings from the ECO (Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings) is randomly chosen, avoiding specific opening preparation, and saving opening theory.

The main problem is how to find such equal openings. However Martin Thoresen (author of the website TCEC closed in July 2011) has used a database of about 800 drawn GM games as such equal openings (considering its first 10 moves and roughly testing the equality by computer programs) to let play strong computer programs in tournaments between themselves.

It could be named also "Chess1024" on the analogy of "Chess960" for the Fischer Random Chess (a very liked chess variant too, although it doesn't save opening theory), and also to distinguish "Random Known-Opening Chess" from "Random Opening Chess", a completely different chess variant.

Another name could be "Random KO Chess" since KO is the acronym for both Known-Opening and Knockout, in fact this variant could be useful also as blitz game tiebreak, to not waste time in recalling variations. --PCMorphy72 (discuss • contribs) 06:53, 23 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chess/Variants


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nf6/3. Nxe5/3...d6/4. Nf3

=Petrov's Defence= We are in the main line of the Petrov's Defence. Black will still have a hard time to equalize.

=Theory Table= .

'''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nf3'''


text:
User:Lincher

Question:

Would you like to help me make more pages for the United Nations section of Wikibooks? My email is neilthecellist@gmail.com. Thanks! Neil the Cellist 19:43, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Lincher


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nf6/3. Nxe5/3...Nxe4

Black has entered an inferior variation of Petrov's Defence. This position is usually only seen among beginners. White's response is 4. Qe2, which threatens the black knight on e4.

If black decides to move the knight away, perhaps with Nf6, white will respond with Nc6+! which threatens black's queen and gives discovered check from the white queen down the e-file. As black must move their king or block the check, the queen will be lost on the next turn with Nxd8 or Nxe7 if black moved Qe7 to block the check.

Thus, black's best move is not to move the knight. Attempting to protect it with d5 or f5 usually ends poorly, as the knight is pinned and white can pile on attackers with f3 and d3.

However, after the planned Qe2-Qxe4, white's queen will be undefended, which black can exploit via the sequence 4.Qe2 Qe7 5.Qxe4 d6, winning the piece back at the cost of the d-pawn.

Ultimately this line is a pawn sacrifice for which black obtains some compensation. It is unclear whether the compensation is objectively sufficient, but it offers decent practical chances, especially at faster time controls.

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 Nxe4


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...b5

=Morphy Defence, Caro Variation= Black puts pressure on the bishop. /5. Bb3/ is the only available move.

Theory table
.
 * 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4. Ba4 b5


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...b5/5. Bb3

=Morphy Defence= Black has taken back the initiative and has to make an important strategic choice.

 * The most intuitive way to go on is to put pressure on the e4 pawn with /5...Nf6/ or /5...Bb7/.
 * If Black really wants to get rid of the white bishop, he can try the Norwegian Defence /5...Na5/, a line that can become very sharp if White tries the Bxf7+ sacrifice.
 * Another classical way to go on is /5...Bc5/.

Theory table
.
 * 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 b5 5.Bb3


text:
Animal Care/Land hermit crab bath

Bathing a crab
There are several ways to bathe a land hermit crab. Since crabs can drown, they must either be lifted out of the water or have a way to climb out on their own. Use room temperature, chlorine-free, chloramine-free, fresh or sea water.

Techniques: The latter method obviously has the potential to be very stressful and many owners no longer use it.
 * provide fresh and/or salt water dishes/pools large enough that the crab can bathe (and submerge itself) as desired,
 * once a month gently put the crab into a tub of water (with a sloped sand substrate?) and let the crab walk around for a few minutes, or
 * once a month submerge the crab (with shell opening up) until the crab comes out of the shell, but not long enough to drown the crab.

If bathing a hermit crab for the purpose of removing mites, a good way is to
 * coax the crab out (with food or by misting with fresh water),
 * aim into the shell and spray the crab with salt water (over a bowl of salt water to trap mites that jump),
 * pour the water (and mites) out of the shell into the bowl, and
 * when finished, pour the bowl into the toilet and add bleach be sure the mites are dead.

NOTE: Water stored in the shell ("shell water") helps to keep the crab moist. It may contain feces, but does not contain urine. Hermit crab urine is eliminated via glands at the base of the antennae, near the eyes.

title: Animal Care/Land hermit crab bath


text:
The Computer Revolution/Entertainment/Satellite Radio

Satellite Radios are the new hottest craze in the tech market today and are sure to be on many peoples Christmas list. As the name indicates satellite radio's are just that radio which receive there signal via satellite thus giving the user global access of the worlds radio stations. When users purchase a satellite radio they are actually purchasing a small mobile unit that can be installed in there car, boat, home, office or in some cases you can have a mobile unit that can be taken with you on the plane or on camping trips.

Price
Satellite radio costs $15.00 per month on a monthly or yearly subscription basis and the physical unit that will be installed will range anywhere from $150.0 to 450.00. Although this may seem obscured to be paying for radio which is available free if you value a broad selection of commercial free music then Satellite radio is a sure bet to leave the customer pleased.

Availability
There are two leading manufactures in the Satellite radio industry. XM radio and Sirus for further information please see the following websites.
 * www.xmradio.com
 * www.sirius.com

The following table is a direct comparison o f FM radio to Satellite radio it is a sample courtesy of http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_radio

1 Except in the case of DTR distributed through digital cable services, for which availability is low.

2 The sound quality with both satellite radio providers may not always be comparable to FM radio. This is because XM and Sirius must add many channels in the tight bandwidth limits the FCC has placed on both companies.

3 Some satellite radio services and DTR services act as in situ repeaters for local AM/FM stations and thus feature a high frequency of interruption.

4 Nonprofit stations and public radio networks such as CBC/Radio-Canada, NPR, and PRI-affiliated stations and the BBC are commercial-free. In the US, all stations are required to have periodic station identifications and public service announcements.

5 In the United States, the FCC regulates technical broadcast spectrum only. Program content is unregulated.

6 Degree of content regulation varies by country, however the majority of industrialized nations have regulations regarding obscene and/or objectionable content.]]

Do walkie talkies work without satellite? walkie talkies can work without satellite coverage by transmitting and receiving signals through radio waves. The range is limited by the strength of the radio signal and the presence of physical barriers.

The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Overcast days – forget it you ain’t getting no radio, there will be no rocking out on a bad weather day. Only rocking out on sunny days is permitted.

Passing by trucks – here’s hoping that you are not sharing the same signal as the local drivers, because if you are then you will be jamming to some awesome country tunes.

Remote parts of the world – if there is not need for a satellite for nuclear invasion then why would a satellite even exist there – again good luck, if you’re stuck in a remote area here’s hoping you know all the oldies cause that’s what you’ll be singing to yourself – that is so rad!

Station Availability
Please see the following link to view all the wonderful options for your listening pleasure.

http://www.xmradio.com/onxm/full-channel-listing.xmc

http://www.siriuscanada.ca/Channels-e.htm


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...a6/4. Ba4/4...Nf6

=Ruy Lopez Main Line= Black's move 4...Nf6 threatens White's e-pawn. White may defend it directly with but both moves interfere with White's natural plan of playing c3 and d4. Without playing c3 and d4 to create some central tension it will be difficult to generate open files for the rooks; additionally White's star attacker currently residing on a4 is liable to get swapped off if it does not have the option of retreating to c2.
 * 5.d3, the Anderssen Variation or
 * 5.Nc3 transposing to the Four Knights, Spanish Variation

 * 5.Qe2, the Wormald Attack, retains the option of c3 and d4, and introduces the medium-term plan of shifting the king's rook across to d1 in a single move after White castles kingside. The downside is that it places the queen on a file that's very likely to get opened, or at least half-opened. Put your rooks on open files and your queen on a closed one!

The main line, and a more subtle way of maintaining material equality, is 5. O-O, after which Black can grab a pawn but cannot hold on to it.

Theory table

 * 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 a6 4.Ba4 Nf6


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SuperCard Programming

 * /Introduction/
 * /Basics/
 * /Tips & Tricks/
 * /Additional Resources/

title: SuperCard Programming


text:
Talk:Umbraco/Plugins And Extensions/Foldout Menu

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to follow. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks. Tannersf 21:35, 4 December 2006 (UTC)


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Wikijunior:Europe/Spain

Spain is a large country in south western Europe. It shares borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar (governed by the United Kingdom). The capital city is Madrid. Other big cities are Barcelona, Sevilla and Valencia. Spain is part of the European Union and uses the Euro as its currency.

Spain's History

Between 1936 and 1939 the Spanish Civil War happened. Spaniards fought a bloody civil between the Republican party and the Nationalist party led by Franco. The nationalists where supported by Nazi Germany (Hitler) and Fascist Italy (Mussolini), with men and weapons as well by Portugal (Salazar) in a smaller scale and some militias from Ireland and Romanian, the Republican party had no declared support by any nation, in fact France and the United Kingdom adopted a policy of non-intervention (France did for a time support the Republicans), the only real support came from the USSR and it included planes and other heavy armament, most of the international help came in the form of militias (mostly civilians without military training) that volunteered to fight Fascism, they came mostly from Communist movements but also others, like Anarchists and Liberal democrats, they came from Mexico, the USA and all around the world, even China. In the end the Nationalist side won the civil war. This was a testbed for WWII.

Between 1939 and 1975 Spain was controlled by General Francisco Franco and was run as a dictatorship.

Spain has been a member of the European Union since 1986. Since this time there has been significant immigration from South America, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, other parts of Europe and north Africa.

Spain's Geography
Spain is the second largest country in Western Europe (after France). Spain has many high mountains with the largest mountain being Teide at 3,718 metres in the Canary Islands which are located off the African coast.

Spain has a mostly Mediterranean climate with warm winters and hot (often very hot) summers.

Spain is home to many breeds of animals including the rare Iberian Lynx.

Spain's People

Spain is home to over 45 million people which makes it the 6th biggest country in Europe (after Russia, Germany, France, United Kingdom and Italy) and 4th biggest EU country. The majority of people in the country are ethnic Spanish. There are also large minorities of people from Morocco, Ecuador, the United Kingdom, Romania and France.

Spanish (Castilian) is the official and most spoken language in Spain. There are also large numbers of Catalan, Basque and English speakers.

The majority of Spanish people are Catholic Christians (76%). There are also large minorities of Muslims (3%) and people of no religion (19%).

Spain's Sights
Spain is a popular tourist destination. 60 million people visit Spain every year with the majority of tourists from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden and Denmark.

The most popular destinations for tourists are the Canary Islands, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and the coastal regions of the country. Spain is the 4th most popular country for tourism in the world (after the USA, China and France) and the most popular destination for British and German tourists.

Spain has 48 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, second only to Italy. Notable UNESCO sites include the Works of Antoni Gaudi and Garajonay National Park in the Canary Islands.

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Spain


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Wikijunior:Europe/Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan is a very large country in far eastern Europe and central Asia. It shares borders with Russia, Uzbekistan, China, Kyrgyzstan and Turkmenistan. The capital city is Nur-Sultan. Other big cities are Almaty (the previous capital city)and Karaganda. Kazakhstan is not part of the European Union and uses the Tenge as its currency.

Kazakhstan's History
The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the USSR (Soviet Union). Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so.

Kazakhstan's Geography
Kazakhstan is ranked as the ninth largest country in the world as well as the world's largest landlocked country. It has an area of 2.7 million square kilometres (1.05 million sq. mi). It is bordered by Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and China. The country also borders on a large part of the Caspian Sea. The climate is continental, with warm summers and colder winters. Kazakhstan has thousands of lakes and rivers and most of the country is not populated.

Most of the country is part of the continent of Asia and only a small part in the north-west is located in Europe. The highest mountain in Kazakhstan is the massive Khan Tengri which is 6,995 metres (7,010 metres including its ice cap). It is one of the few mountains in the world of this height.

Kazakhstan's People
The Kazakh language, spoken by 65 percent of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while Russian, which is spoken by almost all Kazakhstanis, is declared the "official" language, and is used routinely in business. The ethnic Kazakhs represent 59 percent of the population and ethnic Russians 25 percent. Other ethnic groups represented, include Tatars, Uzbeks, Bashkirs, Uyghurs and Ukrainians. Islam is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by Russian Orthodox Christianity.

Kazakhstan's Sights
Kazakhstan has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi, Petroglyphs and Saryarqa (Steppe and Lakes of Northern Kazakhstan). Because of the huge distances between cities and lack of public transport, tourism is not common in Kazakhstan but more and more people are visiting the country every year

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Kazakhstan


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Wikijunior:Europe/Andorra

Andorra is a tiny country in south western Europe, located in the eastern Pyrenees mountains and bordered by Spain and France. Once isolated, it is currently a prosperous country mainly because of tourism and its status as a tax haven. The people of Andorra are currently listed as having the highest human life expectancies on Earth, at 83.52 years (2007 est). Andorra is 466 km2 and their capital city is Andorra la Vella. Andorra is not part of the European Union but it uses the Euro as its currency.

Andorra's History
Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to Andorran people in return for their fighting the Moors. Overlordship of the territory passed to the local count of Urgell and eventually to the bishop of the diocese of Urgell. In the eleventh century a dispute arose between the bishop and his northern neighbour over Andorra.

The conflict was resolved in 1278 by the signing of a paréage, which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of La Seu d'Urgell, in Catalonia, Spain. This gave the small principality its territory and political form.

Andorra was briefly annexed to Aragon twice, in 1396 and 1512. Over the years the title passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France, he issued an edict (1607) that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra.

In the period 1812–13, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it in four départements. Andorra was also annexed and made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre).

Andorra declared war on Imperial Germany during World War I but did not actually take part in the fighting. It remained in an official state of belligerency until 1957 as it was not included in the Versailles Peace Treaty.

In 1933 France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On July 12, 1934, an adventurer named Boris Skossyreff issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, sovereign prince of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the bishop of Urgell. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on July 20 and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent influences of the Spanish Civil War and Franco's Spain. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.

During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Spain.

Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France and Spain. In recent times, however, its thriving tourist industry along with developments in transportation and communications have removed the country from its isolation. Its political system was thoroughly modernized in 1993, the year in which it became a member of the United Nations.

Andorra's Geography
Andorra is in the Pyrenees mountain range. Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains of an average height of 1996 meters with the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at 2946 meters. These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a V shape that combine into one as the main stream, the Valira river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of 870 m). The Andorra surface is 468 km².

Andorra's climate is similar to its neighbors' temperate climates, but its higher altitude means there is on average more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer.

Andorra's People
In Andorra there are about 85,000 people. The majority of the inhabitants of Andorra are foreign nationals, only 33% are actual Andorrans. The others are almost entirely from Spain and France. Even so, the only official language is Catalan, a language spoken in the north of Spain, and, like Spanish and French, is of Latin Origin.

Andorra's long history has provided it with a rich folklore and an abundance of folk tales, with roots originating as far as Andalusia in the south and the Netherlands in the north. Today the majority of people in Andorra are Christian, mostly Roman Catholic.

Andorran culture is Catalan in essence. It has given a significant and easily identifiable contribution to the conglomerate of Catalan culture.

Two writers renowned in Catalonia and the region, Michèle Gazier and Ramon Villeró, both come from Andorra.

Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in Sant Julià de Lòria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to all of its neighbors, but is especially Catalan in character, especially in the presence of dances like the sardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in Andorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany.

Andorra's Sights
Andorra is popular with tourists who visit during the winter for skiing holidays and all-year-round for shopping trips - popular because of the price and tax differences between Andorra and neighbouring Spain and France.

Andorra has one UNESCO World Heritage Site: Madriu-Claror-Perafita Valley.

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Andorra


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A-level Mathematics/OCR/C3/Special Functions and Transformations

The Modulus Function
The modulus function is written as $$\begin{vmatrix} x \end{vmatrix}$$ and it is defined as $$\begin{vmatrix} x \end{vmatrix} = \begin{cases} -x, & \mbox{if }x \le 0 \\ x, & \mbox{if }x \ge 0 \end{cases}$$. You can also write $$\begin{vmatrix} a \end{vmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} b \end{vmatrix} \Longleftrightarrow a^2 = b^2$$, because the quadratic power will make any negative positive and then you take the surd and the function becomes the original function. The modulus function has a many:1 mapping, and therefore there is no inverse function. The modulus function is used when the value of the resultant is important not its sign. Only in British English is the term Modulus Function used otherwise it is called the Absolute Value Function. So on most calculator you will see abs.

Solving Modulus Inequalities
When solving an inequality involving a modulus it is important to remember that you cannot simply ignore the modulus. Instead you need to use the rule: $$|x| \le b \iff -b \le x \le b $$. Then you solve as you would a regular problem. In example:

Solve for x $$|3x-2| \le 4$$

$$-4 \le 3x-2 \le 4$$

$$-2 \le 3x \le 6$$

$$-2/3 \le x \le 2$$

The Graph of y=|f(x)|
In the graph of $$y = \begin{vmatrix}f\left(x\right)\end{vmatrix}$$, the negative side of the graph is reflected through the x-axis. Below is the graph of $$\begin{vmatrix}f\left(x\right)\end{vmatrix} = x^2-5$$

The Graph of y=f(|x|)
In the graph of $$y =f\left(\begin{vmatrix}x\end{vmatrix}\right)$$, the positive side of the graph is reflected through the y-axis. Below is the graph of $$f\left(\begin{vmatrix}x\end{vmatrix}\right) = x^2 - 4x$$.

The Natural Exponent Function
The base e is a transcendental function defined by an infinite series, which approximately is 2.71828:

$$e = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty \frac{1}{n!} = \frac{1}{0!} + \frac{1}{1!} + \frac{1}{2!} + \frac{1}{3!} + \frac{1}{4!} + \cdots$$.

e is one of the most important number in mathematics because of its use in most natural growth processes calculations. Since it is an exponential function it follows all the laws of exponential functions. The natural exponent is the inverse function of natural logarithm, so that $$e^{\ln x} = x\,$$. On the right is the graph of $$e^x\,$$.

The Natural Logarithm
The natural log is a logarithmic function with the base e: $$\log_e x\,$$. It has a special notation of $$\ln x\,$$. Since the natural logarithm is a logarithmic function it follows all the laws of logarithmic functions. The natural logarithm is the inverse function of natural exponent, so that $$\ln e^x = x\,$$. On the right is the graph of $$\ln x\,$$.

Exponential growth and decay
One of the primary usage of the natural functions is the calculation of natural growth or decay, which can be calculated using the following formula: $$y\left(t\right)=y_0e^{kt}\,$$, where y(t) is the final value, $$y_0$$ is the initial value, k is the growth constant, t is the elapsed time. One special decay is the half life of an element there k is defined as: $$k = - \frac {\ln 2}{\mbox{half-life}}$$. Exponential growth and decay have a very broad range of applications from measuring the growth bacteria colony to calculating involving interest.

Example of Exponential Growth
A bacterial colony was started with 200 bacteria, in 2 hours the colony has grown to 600 bacteria. Predict the quantity of bacteria in the colony in 6 hours?

From this we know:
 * y(t) = 600
 * $$y_0$$ = 200
 * k = x
 * t = 2

Now we substitute the values into the formula:

$$600 = 200e^{2k}\,$$

Now we ensure that e is alone:

$$\frac {600}{200} = e^{2x}\,$$

Since ln is the inverse function we use it to remove the base e.

$$\ln 3 = \ln e^{2x}\,$$

We can now solve for x.

$$1.1 \approx 2x\,$$, so the growth factor for the colony is approximately .55

Now we can predict the quantity of bacteria after 6 hours.

$$x = 200e^{6\times.55}\,$$

$$x = 5423\ bacteria\,$$

Example of Half-life decay
The element Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. When will a 100 gram sample of C-14 be reduced to 20% C-14 and 80% C-12?

We substitute all knows into the function. Note the special formula for the growth constant.
 * y(t) = 20% * 100 = 20
 * $$y_0$$ = 100
 * half-life = 5730
 * t = x

$$20 = 100e^{\left( - \frac { \ln 2}{5730} \times t \right)}$$

Now we ensure e is alone:

$$.2 = e^{\left(- \frac { \ln 2}{5730} \times t\right)}$$

Since ln is the inverse function we use it to remove the base e.

$$\ln .2 =\ln e^{\left(- \frac { \ln 2}{5730} \times t\right)}$$

$$\ln .2 =- \frac { \ln 2}{5730} \times t$$

Now we rearrange the equation to isolate t.

$$t =-5730 \frac { \ln .2}{\ln 2}$$

Solving for t we get that the sample will be reduced to 20% C-14 and 80% C-12 after about 13304.6 years.

$$t \approx 13304.6\ years$$

Transformations of Functions
In Core 3 we finish our table of transformations with three more reflections. Below is the complete table of transformations.

Reflection

 * 1) $$y = -f \left (x \right )\,$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ through the x axis.
 * 2) $$y = f \left (-x \right )\,$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ through the y axis.
 * 3) $$y = \begin{vmatrix}f\left(x\right)\end{vmatrix}$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ when y < 0, through the x-axis.
 * 4) $$y =f\left(\begin{vmatrix}x\end{vmatrix}\right)$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ when x > 0, through the y-axis.
 * 5) $$y = f^{-1} \left (x \right )\,$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ through the line y=x. $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ must have a 1:1 mapping.

Stretching

 * 1) $$y = f \left (bx \right )\,$$ is stretched away from the y-axis if $$0 < b < 1\,$$ and stretched towards the y-axis if $$b > 1\,$$. In both cases the change is by 1/b units.
 * 2) $$y = af \left (x \right )\,$$ is stretched towards the x-axis if $$0 < a < 1\,$$ and stretched away from the x-axis if $$a > 1\,$$. In both cases the change is by a units.

Translations

 * 1) $$y = f \left (x - h \right )\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by h units to the right.
 * 2) $$y = f \left (x + h \right )\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by h units to the left.
 * 3) $$y = f \left (x \right ) + k\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by k units upwards.
 * 4) $$y = f \left (x \right ) - k\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by k units downwards.

Example
Describe how the function $$f\left(x\right) = x^3$$ can be mapped onto $$f\left(x\right) = |-4\left(|x| + 5\right)^{\frac{1}{3}} + 10|$$.

1) A reflection through the x-axis.

2) A stretch by 4 in the x-direction

3) A shift in the x plane by 5 units to the left, alternatively written as a reflection through x = -5.

4) A shift in the y plane by 10 units up.

5) A reflection through y = x.

6)A reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ when y < 0, through the x-axis.

7)A reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ when x > 0, through the y-axis.

Now for the graph:

Not very easy to recognize as the graph of $$x^3$$ with transformations.


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Wikijunior:Europe/Finland

Finland (Suomi in Finnish, Finland in Swedish) is a large country in north eastern Europe. It shares borders with Norway, Sweden and Russia. The capital city is Helsinki. Other big cities in Finland are Tampere and Turku. Finland has been a member of the European Union since 1995 and uses the Euro as its currency.

Finland's History
The area now known as Finland was settled at the latest around 8500 BC during the Stone Age. The settlers came from the areas of today's Estonia and Russia. Sweden established its official rule of Finland in the 13th century. Swedish became the dominant language of noble people and used in education. The Finnish famine of 1866–1868 killed 15 percent of the population, making it the last and one of the worst famines in European history. On September 17, 1809 Finland Became part of Russia, On December 6, 1917 Finland declared its independence. During World War II, Finland fought the Soviet Union twice and lost large parts of its territory. During the next 40 years Finland remains neutral and continued to trade with the Soviet Union and western countries. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Finland tried to build relationships with former Soviet republics and Europe. Finland joined the European Union in 1995.

Finland's Geography
The area of Finland totals 338,424 km2 (130,596 sq mi). Finland has over 187,000 lakes and 179,000 islands. Lake Saimaa is the 5th largest lake in Europe. Most of Finland is low lying ground with occasional hills. The country's largest mountain is Halti at 1324 metres and is located in the extreme north. Thick forests cover about 74 percent of Finland making it the European Union's most forested country. Wildlife includes bear, wolf, lynx, and Arctic fox. Summer days in Finland are long and cool and winter days are short and cold. During summer, daylight lasts as long as 19 hours a day in the far south and 24 hours a day in northern parts. In winter, the sun does not rise above the horizon for 51 days in the northern parts of the country.

Finland's People
The population of Finland is about 5,400,000. Most of the population in Finland are natives. They make up about 93 percent of the population. The other major ethnic group are the Swedish. The national languages of Finland are Finnish and Swedish.

Most people are Christian. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland is the national church. More than 85 percent of the population are members of the church.

Education in Finland is free and required between the ages of 7 and 16. In international surveys the education system in Finland usually rates as the best of second-best education results in the world. Finland is well known for technological and innovative companies such as Nokia phones and the Angry Birds series of video games. Almost everyone who lives in Finland is literate.

Finland's Sights
Because Finland is a big country with few people, it has many large national parks. Tourists are attracted to Finland by the capital, Helsinki, the lakes, forests and the northern area known as Lapland. Commercial Baltic cruises which visit other Baltic cities like Tallinn, Stockholm and Gdansk regularly bring tourists to Helsinki. Even though the sea freezes during the winter shipping continues as normal because of ice-breaking ships. Finland has 7 UNESCO World Heritage Sites (including those which are in other countries as well as Finland) including Suomenlinna, an island fortress in the bay in front of Helsinki. Suomenlinna is popular with tourists all-year-round and residents of Helsinki enjoy taking the short ferry to the island for picnics and the chance to escape from city life.

id:Wikijunior:Eropa/Finlandia

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Finland


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...d6/2. d4

= Pirc Defence = Black should start to put pressure on White's pawns, either with a direct threat : /2...Nf6/ or by fianchettoing his king's bishop : /2...g6/.

Theory table
'''1. e4 d6 2. d4'''

title: Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...d6/2. d4


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User talk:72.134.66.8

I've nominated your recently created book for deletion because Wikibooks isn't the place for game guides. Of course you could appeal this decision or alternatively create an article in a more suitable place. Xania 22:09, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 22:09, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.134.66.8


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Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering

Download an early edition of the book as a PDF File (current text has been radically re-written). This can be done in two ways, you can either right click on the link "PDF File Edition 1.0" and choose "Save target as", this saves the PDF on your computer for viewing at any time; alternatively left click on the link: [[Media:Stuttering.pdf | PDF File Edition 1.0]].

Click here to see a continuous, printable version of the book /Print version/ ( [ edit] )

 * How to Participate in this Wikibook
 * Glossary of Stuttering Terms

Scientific Research (Stuttering Phenomena, Behaviors, and Etiology)

 * Core Stuttering Behaviors
 * Incidence and Prevalence of Stuttering
 * Development of Childhood Stuttering
 * Neurology of Stuttering
 * Genetics of Stuttering
 * Physiology, Psychology, and Personality of Stutterers
 * Belief-Related Changes in Stuttering
 * Stress-Related Changes in Stuttering
 * Measurement of Stuttering
 * Other Fluency Disorders
 * Research I'd Like to See

Stuttering Treatments

 * Choosing a Speech-Language Pathologist
 * Why Do Stutterers Avoid Speech Therapy?
 * Stuttering Therapies for Pre-School Children
 * Stuttering Therapies for School-Age Children
 * Stuttering Therapies for Teenagers
 * Stuttering Therapies for Mentally Retarded Individuals
 * Fluency Shaping Stuttering Therapy
 * Stuttering Modification Therapy
 * Treating Speech-Related Fears and Anxieties
 * Personal Construct Therapy: You Always Have Choices
 * Treating Psychological Issues
 * Improving Self-Awareness of Stuttering Behaviors
 * Anti-Stuttering Devices
 * Anti-Stuttering Medications
 * Alternative Medicine Therapies for Stuttering—Herbs, acupuncture, guided imagery, etc.
 * How We Treat Stuttering—If you're a speech-language pathologist, tell us how you treat stuttering at your speech clinic.
 * What Worked for Me—If you're a person who stutters, tell us your experiences with stuttering therapies.
 * Practice Word Lists

Living with Stuttering

 * You're Not Alone: Join a Support Group
 * Famous People Who Stutter
 * Stuttering and Employment
 * How to Handle Telephone Calls
 * Public Perceptions of Stutterers
 * How the Media Presents Stuttering
 * Cultural and Ethnic Differences in Stuttering
 * High School Science Projects
 * Acting and Theater
 * Spouses of People Who Stutter
 * Stuttering in the Military
 * Advice for Listeners
 * Stuttering in Movies and Television
 * My Life in Stuttering—Share your life story here.
 * Recommended Books and Periodicals

title: Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering


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The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Servers

All the stuff we do on the Internet is run by a server. All the pages we download, gaming we do, surfing we do, emails we write, libraries we enter, all is done by a server. It is a very important asset to today’s computer world. How it works is pretty simple. When a individual requests a page, their computer requests a page from a server where that web address is located and the server sends the page requested. It is a language that computers talk. When we request a page, that web address is translated into IP address which uses it to connect to specific server. There is also many types of servers; application server, data server, web server, fax server etc. Each server is designed to perform its specific part in the computer world.

Potentially any computer can be a server; it just needs to have enough hard-drive space, and fast enough processor to handle the information flow within other computers in network. Most of computer manufacturers sell, and design computers that act as servers. Although for a personal computer, or if you are only using a few computers, and all of them are capable of storing the files, and accessing the programs they need on their own you may not need to buy an additional server for your network. However, large companies with hundreds of computers may need more than one server for the same function. It all comes down to the function the server is meant to fulfill. Also, keep in mind that, because of the great amount of information that servers carry, and distribute, they might be at serious security risks. Therefore, you should always install antivirus protection, and make sure that unauthorized personnel do not have an access to it.

Servers are the reason we have many things to find unique regarding computers. They allow Internet access, software changes, printers, and databases which gives a chance to show so many unrealistic ways of spreading information and knowledge to amateurs. Servers can be divided into different formations in which it completes a different task. Some of these are printer servers, database server, file server, and web servers. As we all know servers have different names to separate them from others because servers are so unique they can be used for anything if joined with a computer. Servers are often made in rack or blade form factors to allow greater computer density.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Model Cars

1. Build at least one plastic model car from the parts supplied in a kit. Car must be stock in every respect.
Plastic model kits can be bought at most hobby shops and craft stores. You can also find them on the Internet, consignment shops, yard sales, thrift stores, and at large retailers.

The requirement that the car be "stock" means that the car must be assembled as per the basic instructions that come with the kit. It does not mean that it must be a racing "stock" car.

Most kits require glue, a craft knife (or sprue cutter), tweezers, and a paint brush. Some kits are snap-together, but the better ones require glue. These items can be purchased in the same places that sell model cars.

2. Build a second car using extra accessories included in the kit or create alterations using putty and/or parts from other kits. (Decals don't count). Include paint job.
Some car kits come with extra parts that can be used to modify or change the outlook of the finished car. Take these parts or another entire car kit and mix them to create an entirely new car look. An example would be to take the "chrome" side exhaust from a dodge viper or older corvette model and apply it to the sides of another vehicle or the spoiler from an foreign model car or even a "tuner car" and add it to a car without a spoiler to make it look more sporty.

The paint may come with the model, or you may have to buy it separately. If you buy it separately, then try some different paint jobs.

==3. Write or give orally a report on the history of automobiles. Be sure to include interesting steps in the development process such as notes on engine sizes, automatic transmissions, power steering, computerized controls, etc. == You might look in the encyclopedia for some information about automobile history, car history, or any other number of variations. Try looking up other books in a near by library. If there is a museum that has an exhibit or focuses on cars, try these, as they almost always have excellent information. You might also try informational websites like http://www.about.com or http://www.themuseumofautomobilehistory.com/.


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Talk:Visual Rhetoric/Rhetorical Vectors

Great job!
This is a good module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 23:14, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Visual Rhetoric/Rhetorical Vectors


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Model Rocketry

(Instructor Required)

1. Know and explain the Model Rocketry Safety Code.

 * 1) Materials. I will use only lightweight, non-metal parts for the nose, body, and fins of my rocket.
 * 2) Motors. I will use only certified, commercially-made model rocket motors, and will not tamper with these motors or use them for any purposes except those recommended by the manufacturer.
 * 3) Ignition System. I will launch my rockets with an electrical launch system and electrical motor igniters. My launch system will have a safety interlock in series with the launch switch, and will use a launch switch that returns to the "off" position when released.
 * 4) Misfires. If my rocket does not launch when I press the button of my electrical launch system, I will remove the launcher's safety interlock or disconnect its battery, and will wait 60 seconds after the last launch attempt before allowing anyone to approach the rocket.
 * 5) Launch Safety. I will use a countdown before launch, and will ensure that everyone is paying attention and is a safe distance of at least 15 feet away when I launch rockets with D motors or smaller, and 30 feet when I launch larger rockets. If I am uncertain about the safety or stability of an untested rocket, I will check the stability before flight and will fly it only after warning spectators and clearing them away to a safe distance.
 * 6) Launcher. I will launch my rocket from a launch rod, tower, or rail that is pointed to within 30 degrees of the vertical to ensure that the rocket flies nearly straight up, and I will use a blast deflector to prevent the motor's exhaust from hitting the ground. To prevent accidental eye injury, I will place launchers so that the end of the launch rod is above eye level or will cap the end of the rod when it is not in use.
 * 7) Size. My model rocket will not weigh more than 1,500 grams (53 ounces) at liftoff and will not contain more than 125 grams (4.4 ounces) of propellant or 320 N-sec (71.9 pound-seconds) of total impulse. If my model rocket weighs more than one pound (453 grams) at liftoff or has more than four ounces (113 grams) of propellant, I will check and comply with Federal Aviation Administration regulations before flying.
 * 8) Flight Safety. I will not launch my rocket at targets, into clouds, or near airplanes, and will not put any flammable or explosive payload in my rocket.
 * 9) Launch Site. I will launch my rocket outdoors, in an open area at least as large as shown in the accompanying table, and in safe weather conditions with wind speeds no greater than 20 miles per hour. I will ensure that there is no dry grass close to the launch pad, and that the launch site does not present risk of grass fires.
 * 10) Recovery System. I will use a recovery system such as a streamer or parachute in my rocket so that it returns safely and undamaged and can be flown again, and I will use only flame-resistant or fireproof recovery system wadding in my rocket.
 * 11) Recovery Safety. I will not attempt to recover my rocket from power lines, tall trees, or other dangerous places.

 * http://nar.org/NARmrsc.html

2. Know and explain the importance of the basic model rocket components.

The illustration above shows the parts of a single stage model rocket. We have laid the rocket on its side and cut a hole in the body tube so that we can see what is inside. Beginning at the far right, the body' of the rocket is a green cardboard tube with black fins attached at the rear. The fins can be made of either plastic or balsa wood and are used to provide stability during flight. Model rockets use small, pre-packaged, solid fuel engines. The engine is used only once, and then is replaced with a new engine for the next flight. Engines come in a variety of sizes and can be purchased at hobby stores and at some toy stores. The thrust of the engine is transmitted to the body of the rocket through the engine mount. This part is fixed to the rocket and can be made of heavy cardboard or wood. There is a hole through the engine mount to allow the ejection charge of the engine to pressurize the body tube at the end of the coasting phase and eject the nose cone and the recovery system. Recovery wadding is inserted between the engine mount and the recovery system to prevent the hot gas of the ejection charge from damaging the recovery system. The recovery wadding is sold with the engine. The recovery system consists of a parachute (or a streamer) and some lines to connect the parachute to the nose cone. Parachutes and streamers are made of thin sheets of plastic. The nose cone can be made of balsa wood, or plastic, and may be either solid or hollow. The nose cone is inserted into the body tube before flight. An elastic shock cord is connected to both the body tube and the nose cone and is used to keep all the parts of the rocket together during recovery. The launch lugs are small tubes (straws) which are attached to the body tube. The launch rail is inserted through these tubes to provide stability to the rocket during launch.
 * Source: http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/rktparts.html

a. The steps in the flight of a model rocket

 * 1) Launch: Launch begins as soon as the motor ignites and ends when the rocket clears the launch rail.
 * 2) Powered ascent: After the motor ignites, it generates thrust which causes the rocket to leave the launch pad and ascend into the air. The engine will continue to provide thrust for as long as it burns, and it will continue to power the rocket into the sky.
 * 3) Coasting flight: The motor will burn for a fixed amount of time and then stop. At this point, there is a delay and the rocket continues to glide upwards, riding the momentum gained during the thrust phase.  As the engine burns through the delay charge, it leaves a trail of smoke  as a visual aid to the rocketeer.
 * 4) Ejection Charge: At the end of the delay, the motor ignites an ejection charge which blows the nose cone off the rocket and deploys the recovery system.
 * 5) Slow descent: The rocket returns to the ground using one of the recovery techniques listed below.
 * 6) Recovery: When the rocket reaches the ground, it can usually be recovered by its owner.

 * Source: http://exploration.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/rktflight.html

c. A schematic plan for a simple launch system using proper electrical symbols

In this launcher, power is supplied by a battery. When the safety switch is closed and the igniter is connected to the terminals (usually a pair of alligator clips), electricity flows from the battery, through the LED and resistor (lighting the LED), through the igniter, through the switch, and back into the battery completing the circuit. Because the current must flow through the LED and resistor, it is greatly reduced - not enough to sufficiently heat the igniter and start the rocket engine. The resistor in this circuit is 300 Ohms - high enough to keep the igniter from heating up, but low enough to light the LED.

As soon as the launch switch is closed, the electricity will flow through the switch instead of through the LED and resistor. Since the switch offers very low resistance to the current, the current is greatly increased. This increased current heats the igniter to a high enough temperature to start the rocket engine.

a. Wadding
Wadding is a fire-proof paper-like substance that is wadded up and place inside the body tube between the engine and the recovery system. Its purpose is to prevent the hot gases released by the engine from damaging the recovery system and payload. Wadding is sold as a package included with the engine.

b. Boost gliders
A boost glider is a model which is launched into the air via rocket power, and then all or part of it glides gently back to the earth using aerodynamic control surfaces. During the powered ascent, the glider portion acts as a stable, ballistic body attached to the rocket. It then transitions to a glider during the coasting flight phase. This transition presents the most challenging aspect of a boost glider design.

c. Stall
In aerodynamics, a stall is a sudden reduction in the lift forces generated by an airfoil. This most usually occurs when the critical angle of attack for the airfoil is exceeded.

d. Payload
The payload of a rocket is held in the nose cone. In model rocketry, there may or may not be a payload at all.

e. Apogee
A rocket's apogee is the highest point in its flight path.

f. Center of gravity
All matter, regardless of size, mass, or shape, has a point inside called the center of gravity, or more commonly, the center of mass (CM). The center of mass is the exact spot where all of the mass of that object is perfectly balanced. You can easily find the center of mass of an object such as a ruler by balancing the object on your finger. If the material used to make the ruler is of uniform thickness and density, the center of mass should be at the halfway point between one end of the stick and the other. If the ruler were made of wood, and a heavy nail were driven into one of its ends, the center of mass would no longer be in the middle. The balance point would then be nearer the end with the nail.

The center of mass is important in rocket flight because it is around this point that an unstable rocket tumbles. As a matter of fact, any object in flight tends to tumble. Throw a stick, and it tumbles end over end. Throw a ball, and it spins in flight. The act of spinning or tumbling is a way of becoming stabilized in flight. A Frisbee will go where you want it to only if you throw it with a deliberate spin. Try throwing a Frisbee without spinning it. If you succeed, you will see that the Frisbee flies in an erratic path and falls far short of its mark.

g. Center of pressure
In addition to center of mass, there is another important center inside the rocket that affects its flight. This is the center of pressure (CP). The center of pressure exists only when air is flowing past the moving rocket. This flowing air, rubbing and pushing against the outer surface of the rocket, can cause it to begin moving around one of its three axes. Think for a moment of a weather vane. A weather vane is an arrow-like stick that is mounted on a rooftop and used for telling wind direction. The arrow is attached to a vertical rod that acts as a pivot point. The arrow is balanced so that the center of mass is right at the pivot point. When the wind blows, the arrow turns, and the head of the arrow points into the on-coming wind. The tail of the arrow points in the downwind direction.

The reason that the weather vane arrow points into the wind is that the tail of the arrow has a much larger surface area than the arrowhead. The flowing air imparts a greater force to the tail than the head, and therefore the tail is pushed away. There is a point on the arrow where the surface area is the same on one side as the other. This spot is called the center of pressure. The center of pressure is not in the same place as the center of mass. If it were, then neither end of the arrow would be favored by the wind and the arrow would not point. The center of pressure is between the center of mass and the tail end of the arrow. This means that the tail end has more surface area than the head end.

It is extremely important that the center of pressure in a rocket be located toward the tail and the center of mass be located toward the nose. If they are in the same place or very near each other, then the rocket will be unstable in flight. The rocket will then try to rotate about the center of mass in the pitch and yaw axes, producing a dangerous situation. With the center of pressure located in the right place, the rocket will remain stable.

h. Impulse
An impulse may be regarded as the change in momentum of an object to which a force is applied.

i. Velocity
Velocity is a measurement of both speed and direction. If either speed or direction changes, the velocity changes.

j. Ejection
Ejection occurs at the end of the coasting phase of a model rocket's flight when the engine ignites the ejection charge. This charge blows the nose cone off and deploys a parachute or a streamer.

Nose Blow recovery
A very simple recovery technique, used in very early models in the 1950s and occasionally in modern examples, is nose-blow recovery. This is where the ejection charge of the motor ejects the nose cone of the rocket (usually attached by a shock cord made of rubber, Kevlar string or another type of cord) from the body tube, destroying the rocket's aerodynamic profile, causing highly-increased drag, and reducing the rocket's airspeed to a safe rate for landing. Nose-blow recovery is generally only suitable for very light rockets.

Tumble recovery
The simplest approach, and one only appropriate for small rockets or rockets with a large cross-sectional area, is to have the rocket tumble back to earth. Any rocket which will enter a stable, ballistic trajectory as it falls is not safe to use with tumble recovery.

Parachute/Streamer
The approach used most often in small model rockets. It uses the ejection charge of the motor (see below) to deploy, or push out, the parachute or streamer. Air resistance slows the rocket's fall, ending (hopefully) in a smooth, controlled and gentle landing.

Glide recovery
In glide recovery, the ejection charge either deploys an airfoil (wing) or separates a glider from the motor. If properly trimmed, the rocket/glider will enter a spiral glide and return safely. In some cases, radio-controlled rocket gliders are flown back to the earth by a pilot in much the way as R/C model airplanes are flown.

Some rockets (typically long thin rockets) are the proper proportions to safely glide to Earth tail-first. These are termed 'backsliders'.

Helicopter recovery
The ejection charge, through one of several methods, deploys helicopter-style blades and the rocket auto-rotates back to earth.

==6. From a kit, build, finish, and paint a single-stage rocket that has a minimum length of six inches with a recovery system, such as a parachute or streamer. Successfully launch and recover the rocket with the recovery system deploying properly. ==

The National Association of Rocketry (NAR) has a wonderful guide for scouting and 4H organizations who wish to get into rocketry. You can get it here: http://www.nar.org/pdf/youthprogs.pdf

Model rockets are available at many hobby shops and toy stores.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Model Rocketry - Advanced

Instructor Required

2. From a kit, build, successfully launch, and recover a boost glider.
A boost glider is a model having a rocket-powered ascent, transitions to a glider at the apex of its flight, and then glides (usually in circles) back to the ground using aerodynamic surfaces (wings). Most boost gliders locate the rocket engines towards the front of the aircraft, as this eases many of the design challenges involved in powered flight. The rocket portions are ejected from the craft during transition (gliders that do not separate are called rocket gliders rather than boost gliders). The Space Shuttle is an example of a boost glider (though it is most decidedly not a model!) Estes makes a model Space Shuttle which is a boost glider. See here for more information about boost gliders.

Though these models are among the most challenging rocket models to build, a modeller with careful attention to detail has every reason to expect success.

5. Design an electrical launch system. When this has been approved by your instructor, build this system and use it to launch rockets at least five times.
==6. Describe and demonstrate single station altitude tracking. With the aid of a helper, track the same rocket three times using three different sizes of engines and compare altitudes with an altitude finder. ==


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Talk:Perl Programming/TOC

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 23:32, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perl Programming/TOC


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Music (South Pacific Division)

1. Complete the Beginners Music Honour.

2. a. Pass in Grade 5 Practical AMEB, or Trinity College, or Royal School of Music, or Suzuki Graduation Level 3.

 b. Pass in Grade 3 Musicianship or Theory.

3. Submit a list of thirty hymns and/or choruses you can play or sing and be tested on these at random.

OR

7. Play (a hymn), or sing from memory one stanza of thirty hymns or choruses.
Play or sing any hymn of your choice.

8. Play, or sing from memory, one piece of good music.
Use any hymn not previously used.


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Talk:Basic Book Design/Writing Out Numbers

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 23:40, 4 December 2006 (UTC)


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Needlecraft


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User talk:Ljfeliu

I rolled back your changes to the Engineering bookshelf template. I did this because that template is only supposed to contain good books, or books that have already been started. The links that you added do not point to books, and so they do not belong in that template. If you would like to create those books, that's fine (and once they are created, you can add them to the template if you want). If you would like to suggest a book, go to Requested books. If you need any help, ask me a question. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 23:43, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I think you misunderstood me, and I appologize for the miscommunication. The template that appears at the top of the bookshelf is only supposed to contain links to actual books, not red links or book stubs. The bookshelf itself may contain red links and links to the book stubs. However, if you intend to add a red link to the bookshelf (a link that points to a book that hasnt yet been created), you should do so at Requested books instead (unless you are planning to create the book shortly). --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 17:27, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ljfeliu


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Origami

What is Origami?
Origami (derived from 折り紙: "ori" meaning "to fold", and "kami", meaning paper, and changed to voiced sound "gami") is the ancient Japanese art of paper folding. The goal of this art is to create a given result using geometric folds and crease patterns preferably without the use of gluing or cutting the paper medium. "Origami" refers to all types of paper folding, even those of non-Asian origin.

Where did it come from?
Japan, China and Europe.

How was it used and developed?
Japanese origami began sometime after Buddhist monks carried paper to Japan during the 6th century.[1] The first Japanese origami dates from this period and was used for religious ceremonial purposes only.

2. Identify the symbols for the following terms
Note: Almost every origami book has basic instructions and a set of folding symbols.

c. Cut
''Hmmm ... preferably without the use of gluing or cutting the paper medium.''

j. Fold over and over
Fold over and over symbol at http://www.oriland.com/oriversity/symbols/main.asp

a. Reverse fold

 * An outside reverse fold consists of two radial valley folds extending from a single point on a central fold and a reversal of the center fold on the affected end, all done simultaneously.
 * An inside reverse fold consists of two radial mountain folds extending from a single point on a central fold, and a reversal of the central fold on the affected end, all done simultaneously.

b. Squash fold

 * A squash fold starts with a flap with at least two layers (for example, one flap of a waterbomb base). Make a radial fold from the closed point down the center of this flap. Open the flap and refold downward to make two adjacent flaps.

c. Petal fold

 * A petal fold starts with two connected flaps, each of which has at least two layers. (For example, two flaps of a preliminary base). The two flaps are attached to each other along a reference crease. Make two radial folds from the open point, so that the open edges lie along the reference crease. Unfold these two radial folds. Make another fold across the top connecting the ends of the creases to create a triangle of creases. Unfold this fold as well. Fold one layer of the open point upward and flatten it using the existing creases. A petal fold is equivalent to two side-by-side rabbit ears, which are connected along the reference crease.

d. Book fold
See example at http://www.folds.net/tutorial/folds/book/book_diagrams.html

e. Preliminary fold

 * The preliminary fold consists of two perpendicular diagonal mountain folds that bisect the corners of the square and two perpendicular valley folds that bisect the edges of the square. The paper is then collapsed to form a square shape with four isosceles-right triangular flaps.

f. Blintz fold

 * A blintz fold is made by folding the corners of a square into the center. This can be achieved with higher accuracy by folding and unfolding two reference creases through the center.

4. Demonstrate folding the following bases
In origami, there is a series of several bases that many models are created with. In general, "base" refers to any folded paper that immediately precedes final folding and shaping of the model-to-be.

a. Bird base

 * The bird base, or crane base, consists of a preliminary fold with both the front and the back sides petal folded upward.

b. Waterbomb base

 * The waterbomb base consists of two perpendicular valley folds down the diagonals of the square and two perpendicular mountain folds down the center of the square. This crease pattern is then compressed to form the waterbomb base, which is an isosceles-right triangle with four isosceles-right triangular flaps. The waterbomb base is an inside-out preliminary fold.

c. Frog base

 * The frog base starts with a waterbomb base or preliminary fold. All four flaps are squash-folded (the result is the same in either case), and then the corners are petal folded upward.

Other Bases

 * The kite base is merely two valley folds that bring two adjacent edges of the square together to lie on the square's diagonal.
 * The fish base consists of two radial folds against a diagonal reference crease on each of two opposite corners. The flaps that result on the other two corners are carefully folded downwards in the same direction. In other words, it consists of two side-by-side rabbit ears.

If a square is blintz folded, then a kite/fish/bird/frog base is folded, and the blintzed edges teased out and collapsed n a certain fashion, this is called a blintzed kite/fish/bird/frog/base, which doubles the complexity and adds more points and edges to the original kite/fish/bird/frog base, for a more complex model that requires more points. It's possible to double blintz for a double blintzed kite/fish/bird/frog base if needed. Theoretically an infinite number of blintzes could be performed to yield an infinitely complex multipointed base, but paper thickness restricts this to generally two blintzes.

e. Butterfly
http://museum.nhm.uga.edu/htmldocs/origamibutterfly.html

6. Choose three of the following models to fold or select similar models from Origami books
Here's a paper rose from WikiHow:
 * http://www.wikihow.com/Fold-a-Paper-Rose

a. Jumping Frog
Here are a couple of links to WikiHow for making a jumping frog:
 * http://www.wikihow.com/Make-an-Origami-Jumping-Frog
 * http://www.wikihow.com/Make-an-Origami-Jumping-Frog-from-an-Index-Card

8. Illustrate a Bible story using several Origami models.

 * Noah: ark (house on boat?) & bird
 * Creation (you choose a variety of animals and make a male and female of each)
 * Daniel's Lions
 * Jesus' Parable of the lost sheep (you might NOT want to make 100 sheep, so think carefully through implementation). Rocks and bushes are foldable items and might provide a place to "hide" the sheep that the shepherd is finding.
 * The four beasts of Daniel 7 (for advanced folders!)

Other
Found these images, but they are not #5 or #6 above