text:
United Nations History/League Visualized

According to Hobbes
According to Hobbes, in a state of nature, we have a right to defend ourselves by any means necessary, whereas in civil society, government has a monopoly on the use of force; private revenge yields to a law-governed system of police and courts. In a state of nature our only duty is to try to get out of such a miserable condition, to try to gain agreement on a social contract that will establish civil society. In civil society, we may reasonably enter into all sorts of contracts and undertake all sorts of duties, since it is reasonable to assume that others will cooperate; in case they do not, one may go to court to have things set right.

Also, man is by nature selfish. A group of men by nature form a mob. Hobbes theorized government as a way to crush the "tyranny of the majority." On the global scale, nations act as people, and there is, according to Hobbes, the need for a global "League of Nations" to stop man's Selfishness.

The Kingdom of God is Within You
Tolstoy, writer of War and Peace, visualized a league formed to outlaw war. He stated his views in his novel "The Kingdom of God is within you." The Kingdom of God Is Within You (Russian: Царство Божие внутри вас [Tsarstvo Bozhiye vnutri vas]) is the non-fiction magnum opus of Leo Tolstoy and was first published in Germany in 1894, after being banned in his home country of Russia. It is the culmination of thirty years of Tolstoy's Christian thinking, and lays out a new organization for society based on a literal Christian interpretation.

Quadruple Alliance
The Quadruple Alliance of 1718 was formed by Great Britain, France, the Holy Roman emperor, and the Netherlands. This came into fruition when Philip V of Spain, guided by Cardinal Alberoni, sought by force to nullify the peace settlements reached after the War of the Spanish Succession (see Utrecht, Peace of). An English fleet landed Austrian troops in Sicily, which Spain had seized, while French and English forces entered Spain. Early in 1720, Spain yielded to the allies, but the peace terms thoroughly revised those signed at Utrecht. The Treaty of The Hague restored Naples to the house of Austria; Austria in turn promised that Philip's son Charles (later Charles III of Spain) would succeed to Parma, Piacenza, and Tuscany. Savoy, in exchange for yielding Sicily to the house of Austria, received the island of Sardinia and became the kingdom of Sardinia. Spain joined the alliance. A progressive rapprochement between Spain and France led to the Family Compact of 1733 and a further redistribution of territories after the War of the Polish Succession (1733–35). The Quadruple Alliance of March 1814 was concluded among Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia at Chaumont, France in order to strengthen their coalition against Napoleon I. After Napoleon's first abdication the four powers made peace with France (see Paris, Treaty of, 1814); after Napoleon's return from Elba, they defeated him in the Waterloo campaign and imposed on France the more severe Treaty of Paris of 1815. On the same day that treaty was signed (Nov. 20), the Quadruple Alliance was renewed in order to insure the treaty's execution. The so-called Holy Alliance, signed a few days earlier by Russia, Austria, and Prussia, became confused with the Quadruple Alliance, especially since the international congresses at Aachen (1818), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822)—which were held according to provisions of the Quadruple Alliance—increasingly shaped the policy of the Holy Alliance, while England retired into “splendid isolation.” In 1818, France joined the powers of the Quadruple Alliance to form a Quintuple Alliance. The Quadruple Alliance of 1834 was formed by Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal for the purpose of strengthening the constitutional government of Spain and the throne of Isabella II against the Carlists. The Spanish marriages (1846; see Isabella II) ended Franco-British cooperation in Spanish affairs.

Other Contributors to the Concept
The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been outlined as far back as 1795, when Immanuel Kant’s Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states. International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the Concert of Europe that developed after the Napoleonic War in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war. This period also saw the development of international law with the first Geneva conventions establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The forerunner of the League of Nations, the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), was formed by peace activists William Randal Cremer and Frederic Passy in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of parliament, in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU's structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.


text:
US History/Indian Tribes

Icehouse Bottom
Icehouse Bottom is a prehistoric Native American site in Monroe County, Tennessee, located in the southeastern United States. Native Americans were using the site as a semi-permanent hunting camp as early as 7500 B.C., making it one of the oldest known habitation areas in the state of Tennessee. Analysis of the site's Woodland period (1000 B.C. - 1000 A.D.) artifacts shows evidence of an extensive trade network that extended to as far away as Georgia, North Carolina, and Ohio.

The Icehouse Bottom site is now submerged by Tellico Lake, an impoundment of the Little Tennessee River. Excavations were conducted at the site in the 1970s in anticipation of inundation. Tellico Lake is managed by the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the shoreline immediately above the Icehouse Bottom site is part of the McGhee-Carson Unit of the Tellico Lake Wildlife Management Area, which is managed by the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency.

Zuñi Tribe
The Zuni, like other Pueblo peoples, are believed to be the descendants of the Ancient Pueblo Peoples who lived in the deserts of New Mexico, Arizona, Southern Colorado and Utah for centuries. Archaeological evidence shows they have lived in their present location for about 1,3000 years. However, before the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, the Zuni lived in six different villages. After the revolt, until 1692, they took refuge in a defensible position atop Dowa Yalanne, a steep mesa 5 km (2 miles) southeast of the present Pueblo of Zuñi. Dowa meaning "corn", and Yalanne meaning "mountain." After the establishment of peace and the return of the Spanish, the Zuni relocated in their present location, only briefly returning to the mesa top in 1703.

In 1539, a Spanish exploratory party under the Moorish slave Esteban arrived, though the villagers eventually killed him. This was Spain's first contact with any of the Pueblo peoples.

The Zuñi are mentioned in Brave New World.

Seminoles
The Seminole People of the Coastal Plains

"Osceola (1804 – January 20, 1838) was a war chief of the Seminole in Florida. Osceola led a small band of warriors (never more than 100) in the Seminole resistance during the Second Seminole War when the United States tried to remove the Seminoles from their lands. He exercised a great deal of influence on Micanopy, the highest ranking chief of the Seminoles." Diet: The Seminole women did the non-dangerous tasks. They tended the farming fields, gathered berries, water and medicinal leaves from the environment. The women harvested corn, beans and squash from the land. These items would tend to become cornbread or soups/stews. Very seldom did they eat anything plain. The men did the hunting and fishing. The protein portion in their diet consisted of the wildlife of Florida and Oklahoma. They feasted on alligators, deer, wild turkey and rabbits. They often came across dangers such as poisonous snakes and disease inflicting insects. The biggest dangerous associated with crocodile hunting, would be if the crocodile found them first. Technology: The hunters used bow and arrows, while the fishermen used spears. In times of war, they used bows, tomahawks and even guns to fend off attackers. They had dug-out canoes to push through the rivers with poles. The more effective boats had sails made of palmetto fiber.

"A tomahawk is a type of axe native to North America, traditionally resembling a hatchet with a straight shaft."

" 'The manner of making their boats' by Theodor de Bry after a John White watercolor. Native Americans make a dugout canoe with seashell scrapers. 1590."

Environment: The Seminoles originally lived in Florida. The Americans attacked them, and some were forced into Oklahoma, while some remained in Florida. The Seminoles live in a region known as The Coastal Plains. The Costal plains take up 3200km of the Atlantic Coast. They consist of swamps, marshes and long rolling plains. This area is almost always close to water, and makes for fertile farming lands. The Coastal Plains experience cold, snowy winters and hot and sweaty summers.

"The Location of the Atlantic Coastal Plain in the United States" Culture: For each birthday, Seminole women were given a string of beads. The Seminole women were masters of weaving. They knitted massive patchwork quilts. The patch count (how many squares each quilt contained) was often well over 250. A popular campfire activity was to weave baskets, carve wood, beadwork and of course, the ever popular quilts. Seminole story tellers are highly respected. It is important to the Seminoles that nothing is forgotten in their legends, so only the people with the best memory could be storytellers. The Seminole had 2 languages, Creek and Miccosukee. These languages are not in use today, but remain a vital part of the Seminole Culture.

Not exactly the most intricate Seminole quilt, but it gives you an idea of the attention to detail that goes into these.

Clothing: Clothing was one of the most important things in Seminole culture. They weaved clothes like patchwork quilts, adding lots of color to the fabric. Intricate patterns detailed the ceremonial gear just as much as everyday clothes. Each Seminole home had a sewing machine, as each family had a different pattern adorning their clothes. An adult Seminole man wore a belt (leather, woven yarn or beaded), a full cut shirt with a pattern on the chest and a turban made from plaid wood shawls. An adult Seminole woman wore a large, floor length skirt, a long sleeved blouse and an ornate headdress. As a young Seminole woman grew older, she would wear one more string of beads for every year she lived.

There is very little pattern or color in this image, but i believe it correctly represents Seminole clothing minus the colors. Male on the left, Female on the right. These clothes are the winter time wear. Of course they would not wear long sleeved, warm clothes in the summer.

Original Territory
The Cherokee people have lived in many lands throughout many centuries. A Cherokee legend says their people came from far away in the northwest. This is probably true, as it is believed that many Aboriginals originally came to North America from Siberia. The Cherokee settled in the Appalachian Mountains, where they lived until the Europeans arrived. Today, their former territory covers parts of eight American states: North and South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Virginia, and West Virginia.

Government
Cherokee people lived in autonomous villages scattered throughout the Appalachians. Though there wasn’t a central ruling clan or society, each town had a war chief and a peace chief (sometimes called a Red Chief and a White Chief). These people, along with their respective council of advisers, were charged with governance.

Housing
Cherokee built wattle and daub houses, later replaced by log cabins with bark roofs. Wattle and daub houses were made using a frame of woven sticks, twigs and branches (wattle) then covered with mud or clay (daub). Hot houses were popular places during the winter. Heated with burning embers and coals, these buildings stayed very warm even through the coldest temperatures

Work / Family Life
Cherokee families were traditionally matrilineal. Women mostly held the property, including the dwelling and garden. They maintained family life, planted the fields, and harvested crops (such as corn, beans, and squash). A girl’s education consisted of practical tasks, such as learning to plant, hoe and reap and pound corn to make flour. Cherokee girls also wove baskets, made pottery jars and bowls, and made clothing from animal skins.

Men spent much of their time hunting or in warfare. They used bows and arrows for large game, such as deer and bear. Fish were caught using traps. Men also had the task of building canoes. These were made by hollowing out trees with hot coals. Once the initial burning took place, the inside of the canoe was scraped to shape by sharp stones.

Social Games
Cherokee Marbles is a game that dates back to 800 a.d. It is played in teams on a 100 feet long field with five holes. The object of the game is to toss marbles into the holes in a certain sequence, while also knocking opponent marbles out of position. Though billiard balls are used today, players traditionally used marbles chipped from stone and then carefully smoothed and rounded.

Sequoyah and his Syllabary
After seeing an English spelling book, Sequoyah, a Cherokee from Tennessee, wrote an alphabet for the Cherokee language. This is without ever having gone to school or learned to read or write English. Sequoyah’s syllabary is composed of eighty characters each standing for one syllable. It was adopted by the Cherokee people and is taught in school to Cherokee children today. Sequoyah is the only person in history to devise a written language alone.

The Trail of Tears
In 1838, armed soldiers rounded up every Cherokee they could find. Gold had been found on Cherokee land and greed overruled all treaties. The US government ordered the Cherokee people to relocate from their homeland to Indian Territory in modern day Oklahoma.

Eight thousand Cherokee took boats to Fort Gibson, in Indian Territory. Those left behind voted to travel overland. An estimated 4000 Cherokee died from exposure, disease, and hunger during the march through to Fort Gibson. Today, this journey is remembered as the “Trail of Tears.”

Cherokee Slaves and the Freedman Issue
In the 1800s, many tribes of the south-eastern states in the US responded to the power of Anglo-Americans by trying to imitate their ways. They adopted the Anglo-American practices of private land ownership, the cultivation of plantations, and acquiring black slaves. By 1824, it is estimated that the Cherokee owned 1, 277 black slaves. The south-eastern tribes – Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creeks, and Seminole – became known by whites as the “Civilized Tribes” because of their willingness to Anglo-Americanize their way of life. This, however, did not protect them from being forced off their lands once gold was discovered. As many as 15, 000 black slaves accompanied these tribes on the Trail of Tears.

Freedmen, descendants of the black slaves owned by Cherokee, are at the source of a new controversy within this tibe. Though some of these Freedmen – of which there are 25, 000 – have lived among Cherokee for decades, they were denied Cherokee citizenship in a 2007 vote. This is because their ancestors are not listed on the Dawes Roll. The Dawes Roll is a census compiled in 1906 and 1971 of Cherokees by blood. However, Freedmen, even those with Cherokee blood, were not included in the Dawes Roll. Now they cannot prove Cherokee ancestry to the satisfaction of the tribal government. The issue is ongoing today as Freedmen continue to fight for Cherokee citizenship.

The Freedmem issue has raised accusations of racism within the Cherokee and a debate over what it means to be Cherokee - or any other nationality, for that matter.

Resources
The Cherokee Nation Website

Mankiller, an Autobiography of a Chief and her People by Wilma Mankiller

The Cherokee by Emily Lepthien

http://www.slaveryinamerica.org/history/hs_es_indians_slavery.htm

Goshutes
The Goshutes are a Native American tribe that once numbered 20,000. Only 500 remain. The name Goshute derived either from a leader named Goship or from Gutsipupiutsi, a Shoshonean word for Desert People. The Goshutes, a Shoshonean people, maintained a territory in the Great Basin extending from the Great Salt Lake to the Steptoe Range in Nevada, and south to Simpson Springs. Prior to contact, the Goshutes wintered in the Deep Creek Valley in dug out houses built of willow poles and earth. In the spring and summer they gathered wild onions, carrots and potatoes, and hunted small game in the mountains.

Wyandot and Huron
The Wyandot and Huron are indigenous peoples of North America known in their native language as the Wendat. Modern Wyandots and Hurons emerged in the 17th century from the remnants of two earlier groups, the Huron Confederacy and the Petun, who were located in what is now the Canadian province of Ontario before being decimated by disease and dispersed by war. Wyandots and Hurons today live in various locations in Canada and the United States.

Indian Wars
Indian Wars is the name generally used in the United States to describe a series of conflicts between the colonial or federal government and the aboriginal people. In his book American Holocaust, David Stannard argues that the destruction of the aboriginal peoples of the Americas, in a "string of genocide campaigns" by Europeans and their descendants, was the most massive act of genocide in the history of the world.

Custer's Last Stand
The Battle of the Little Bighorn—also known as Custer's Last Stand, and, in the parlance of the relevant Native Americans, the Battle of the Greasy Grass—was an armed engagement between a Lakota-Northern Cheyenne combined force and the 7th Cavalry of the United States Army. It occurred between June 25 and June 26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in the eastern Montana Territory. It resulted in most of Custer's army being killed, including himself.

Geronimo
Geronimo was born to the Bedonkohe band of the Apache, near Turkey Creek, a tributary of the Gila River near the modern-day states of Arizona and New Mexico, then part of Mexico, but which his family considered Bedonkohe land.

Geronimo's father, Tablishim, and mother, Juana, educated him according to Apache traditions. He married a woman from the Chiricauhua band of Apache; they had three children. On March 5, 1851, a company of 400 soldiers from Sonora led by Colonel Jose Maria Carrasco attacked Geronimo's camp outside Janos while the men were in town trading. Among those dead were Geronimo's wife, Alope, his children, and mother. His chief, Mangas Coloradas, sent him to Cochise's band for help in revenge against the Mexicans. It was the Mexicans who named him Geronimo. This appellation stemmed from a battle in which he repeatedly attacked Mexican soldiers with a knife, ignoring a deadly hail of bullets. In reference to the Mexicans' plea to Saint Jerome, the name stuck.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: US History/Indian Tribes


text:
Cookbook:Sweet Southern Chicken Salad

| Salad Recipes

Chicken salad is very similar in many respects to tuna salad, although there are many variations on the dish which can set it apart. Chicken salad tends to work well with sweet fruit and vegetable flavors, and is ideal for lunch-time sandwiches.

Ingredients

 * 4 skinless chicken breasts
 * 2 stalks celery
 * ¼ cup peppercorns
 * 2 bay leaves
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 cup mayonnaise
 * 1 cup mango chutney
 * Salt
 * Pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Add the chicken breasts to a small pot. Add enough water to cover.
 * 2) Slice stalks of celery into large sticks. Add celery, bay leaves, teaspoon salt, and peppercorns to the pot. Bring to a boil. Once boiling, lower temperature and simmer for at least one hour. Chicken should be tender, and should pull apart easily.
 * 3) Remove chicken from water. You may wish to reserve the water as a base for a stock or a soup.
 * 4) Slice chicken into small bite-size cubes. Take care not to shred the chicken, because the salad should be chunky.
 * 5) Put cut chicken into a medium-sized bowl. Add mayonnaise and chutney, one spoonful at a time until salad reaches correct consistency. The salad should be moist and chunky, not wet and mushy. Add salt and pepper to taste.
 * 6) Serve by itself in a bowl, or on bread, biscuits, or croissants.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Dice a half-stick of celery into fine pieces, and add to the salad.
 * Add a cut of sliced seedless grapes to the salad for extra sweetness.
 * Dice a hard-boiled egg and add to the salad.
 * Top with cranberry sauce, orange marmalade, or spicy brown mustard.

title: Cookbook:Sweet Southern Chicken Salad


text:
Cultural Anthropology/Anthropological Methods

Human Cultural Variation
Cultural interactions result in both progressive and aggressive interactions due to the evolution of those cultures being uninfluenced by one another. What may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered an offensive gesture in another. As this occurs constantly, cultures push each other to change.The biological variations between humans are summarized in the ideas of natural selection and evolution. Human variation is based on the principle that there is variation in traits that result for recombination of genes from sexual reproduction. These traits are variable and can be passed down generation to generation. It also relies on differential reproduction, the idea that the environment can't support unlimited population growth because not all individuals get to reproduce to their full potential.

An example of human variation can be found with a cline. A cline is a genetic variation between populations of species that are isolated in their reproduction (such as skin color variation in humans). Human skin color variation is a selective adaptation that relates to the populations' proximity to the equator. Because of pigmentation characteristics within the human population, a system and term emerged to categorize the differing variations. This category is recognized as race. Populations of humans in equatorial regions have selective advantages as a result of their darker skin pigmentation, whereas populations in more northern environments have less selective pressure to evolve darker pigmentation and have lighter skin. Other clines include differences in stature and hair type.

Origins of Ethnography

Ethnography is a core modern research method used in Anthropology as well as in other modern social sciences. Ethnography is the case study of one culture, subculture, or micro-culture made a the researcher immersing themself in said culture.

Before ethnography, immersive research, the prevailing method was unilineal. This led to colonizers feeling able to set the rules for what is a "modern" or "primitive" culture and used these self-made justifications in order to rule over new colonies in the name of advancement for their people. This view came into question with Anthropologists like Franz Boas, offering the multilinear model for cultural evolution we have today. This model closer, reflects the realities of different cultures across the world advancing in separate ways and highlights the impossibility to call one culture "primitive" in relation to another. These cultures do not evolve from one another but evolved separately from each other into other cultures.

A large part of the issue with early Anthropology was a reliance on second-party information while lacking any first-hand research of cultures. "Armchair Anthropologists" would gather information from military deployments, merchants, and missionaries rather than making the first-hand contact. Armchair Anthropologists usually refers to late 19th century and early 20th century scholars coming to conclusions without going through the usual anthropology motions—fieldwork or lab work. They would then create wild theories based on these accounts. This led to a high degree of bias against these cultures, more so than firsthand research, and were not scientific in the way Anthropology is today. These biases turned into stereotypes which are still prevalent today. This form of research drove much of the colonial primitive culture narrative and necessitated the adaptation of Ethnography.

Ethnography, or the immersive method of case study research, has to lead to the dispelling of rumor and a much deeper understanding of cultures through great effort. This is seen very clearly in Bright Dale's research on a Tobagonian Village, titled Lives in-between Encountering Men in a Tobagonian Village. To begin, he clearly states his bias, being a male researcher and dealing primarily with the males of that society due to a highly gendered culture found there. He explains with great care that he is not searching for what men "do" but what they "say and do to be men." His goal with the research project was to show the value of an ethnographic research project, along with his experiences within this culture and the limitations he faced in that research. He had limitations both being an outsider and being male, only being able to see how one-half of these people portrayed their culture and even then through the lens of an outsider with his own biases, stated as clearly as possible within the paper. This is the value of Ethnography, it allows researchers to further understand their research while remaining as unbiased as possible, highlighting weaknesses and need for further research from people of different genders and backgrounds.

An Ethnographic Analogy is a method for inferring the use or meaning of an ancient site or artifact based on observations and accounts of its use by living people. We can infer the use of an ancient tool by seeing how similar-looking tools are used in existing or recent societies. By analogy we can hypothesize the same use for the old tool.

Fieldwork Methods
In anthropology there are several types of fieldwork methods that are used while conducting research. Below we will go more into depth with several fieldwork methods that are used.

Observational Methods
The observational method is viewed as the least invasive method where the anthropologist minimally integrates themselves into the society they are studying and gathers data through verbal communication while attempting to remain non-intrusive of the culture.

This group of methods focuses on community interaction through language. It usually entails many open ended interviews with participants who are members of a group being studied. The researcher strives to learn as much as they can about the history of the community as well as the individuals within it in order to gain a full understanding of how their culture functions. Interviews can take place individually or with focus groups within the community based on age, status, gender, and other factors that contribute to differences within the community.

This type of research often strives to create an open dialogue, called a dialectic, in which information flows back and forth between researcher and subject. Think of this situation as a conversation between two people about homework or an upcoming exam. This dialectic poses a challenge to the objectivity of socially produced data. The challenge is dealt with through reflection on the inter-subjective creation of meaning. This leads anthropologists to value reflexive abilities in their ethnographic writing. Because many anthropologists also hope to help the communities they work with to make change on their own terms within the confines of their own culture, in some cases objectivity is abandoned in favor of community based activism and social change.

Participant Observation
Participant observation is a method for anthropological Fieldwork, used to collect data such that the anthropologist must create an intimate relationship between themselves and the culture studied. This method requires that an anthropologist participate in a social event that is part of a specific culture. This includes, but is not limited to, observing members of a culture by taking notes, eating the food that is provided, and participating in festivities. The goal of participant observation is to be involved in the culture like a member of that society, all while observing and studying the culture. An example of participation observation would be if an anthropologist went to a Native American Tribal gathering and took notes on the energy and traditions they were being shown. This anthropologist could participate in things like face painting or songs, and eat the food that the Natives eat. The information gathered in this observation is then recorded and reflected upon to gain further insight into the culture being studied. This observation method helps the anthropologist develop a deeper rapport with the people of the culture and can help others understand their culture further. This experience may result in the individuals opening up more to the anthropologist which allows them to understand more than an etic point of view of the culture.

Non-Participant Observation
In contrast to participant observation, non-participant observation is the anthropological method of collecting data by entering within a community but with limited interaction with the people within the culture. This anthropologist can be thought of as a fly on the wall. An etic approach that researchers often use to examine the details of how the subjects interact with one another and the environment around them. Detailed research such as body behavior (e.g. eye gaze, facial expression), speech styles (e.g. pitch) can be recorded through the nonparticipant method, but usually the emic approach is preferred when observing social context. An example of data collected through non-participant research would be the an estimation of how often women in a household wear high heels due to how worn out the carpet is.

The non-participant observation, although effective in providing some research, has limitations. One being, the observer affect. This is caused by the presence of the researcher having an influence over the participants' actions. The researcher may use systematic approaches of field notes, sampling and data to ensure and increase comfortable interactions. While using the non-participant observation method, the researcher's opinions may oppose that of the participant's on a certain issue. The only solution to this problem and to have a fuller and unbiased take on the research is to use both non-participant and participant method.

Ethnographic Method
Cultural data assumes the form of directly observable material items, individual behaviors, performances, ideas and arrangements that exist only in people's heads. From the perspective of the culture concept, anthropologists must first treat all these elements as symbols within a coherent system and must record observations with attention to the cultural context and the meanings assigned by the culture's practitioners. These demands are met through two major research techniques: participant observation and key informant interviewing.

After the initial orientation or entry period, which may take 3 months or longer, the researcher follows a more systematic program of formal interviews involving questions related to research hypotheses and specialized topics. Several different methods of selecting informants are possible. Usually, a few key informants are selected for in-depth sessions, since the investigation of cultural patterns usually calls for lengthy and repeated open-ended interviews. Selection of such a small number does not allow for strict assurance of a representative sample, so the anthropologist must be careful to choose subjects who are well informed and reliable. Ethnographic researchers will also train informants to systematically report cultural data and recognize significant cultural elements and interconnections as the interview sequences unfold.

Key informant selection is known as judgment sampling and is particularly important for the kind of qualitative research that characterizes ethnography. Anthropologists will very frequently also need to carry out quantitative research from which statistically validated inferences can be drawn. Accordingly, they must construct an either larger random sample or a total population census for more narrowly focused interviewing according to a closed questionnaire design. Other important quantitative data might include direct measurement of such items as farm size, crop yield, daily caloric intake, or even blood pressure, depending on the anthropologist's research focus. Aside from written observation and records, researchers will often provide ethnographic representations in other forms, such as collected artifacts, photographs, tape recordings, films, and videos. it compares and analyses the characteristic of different people and relationship between them ( compare culture, social, behaviors)

Comparative Method
Since the beginning of anthropological studies, the Comparative Method has been a way to allow a systematic comparison of information and data from multiple sources. It is a common approach for testing multiple hypotheses on subjects including co-evolution of cultures, the adaptation of cultural practices to the environment, and kinship terms in local languages from around the world. The comparative method, may seem like an outdated form of fieldwork information gathering, however this method is still quite prevalent in modern day anthropological research. The use of this form of information gathering is intended to compare globalization, which uses a version of this method called multi-sited Ethnography by participant observation gathered from many different social settings. Another form of the comparative research method is shown through the Human Relations Area Files, which collects and organizes ethnographic texts from hundreds of societies all over the world. These files cover topics ranging from types of kinship systems, to trading practices found in all of human culture.

Anthropologists Ruth Mace--an anthropologist who specializes in evolutionary ecology--and Mark Pagel explore the comparative method of anthropological research in their article | The Comparative Method in Anthropology. They explain how in the past decade there have been many expansions in other branches of anthropology, including cultural diversity as a scientific endeavor. This is when the comparative method is used by those interested in cultural evolution and by those who study other human sciences. However, "cultures cannot be treated as independent for purposes of investigating cross culture trends," therefore they must instead be studied in relation to one another: How two or more cultures grow together, or how they are researched together has the ability to outline the entire premise of the comparative method. Having been used for hundreds of years, this method is still one of the main forms of research for anthropologists all over the world.

Reflexivity
Reflexivity is the awareness of the researcher of the effect they may be having on the research. It involves a constant awareness and assessment of the researcher's own contribution to and influence on the researcher's subjects and their findings. This principle was perhaps first thought of by William Thomas, as the "Thomas Theorem". Fieldwork in cultural anthropology is a reflexive experience. Anthropologists must constantly be aware that the information they are gathering may be skewed by their ethical opinions, or political standings. Even an anthropologists' presence in that culture can affect the results they receive. Reflexive fieldwork must retain a respect for detailed, accurate information gathering while also paying precise attention to the ethical and political context of research, the background of the researchers, and the full cooperation of informants. In our everyday lives reflexivity is used to better understand ourselves by comparing our culture to others. For example, when someone talks about their religion, you may immediately disagree with specific aspects of their religion because you have not grown up believing it as they have. By being reflexive, one would be able to recognize their bias. Some anthropologists have taken this method to the extreme, Margaret Wilson, for example, wrote her book 'Dance Lest We all Fall Down' in a reflexive biographical manner; this accounted for her inability to fully integrate into Brazilian society.

Intersubjectivity
Intersubjectivity is the realization that knowledge about other people emerges from people's relationships with and perceptions of each other. The concept was first introduced by the principal founder of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl, and creates a "theoretical frame for thinking about the ways in which humans interpret, organize, and reproduce particular forms of social life and social cognition". Intersubjectivity is defined by five key principles. The first is that intersubjectivity is not limited to the concept of matching one's mental state with another’s mental state. Instead of a one-way transaction, intersubjectivity should be seen more as a type of mutual understanding. The second claim of Husserl's dissertation is that intersubjectivity is founded on the principle that we all share the same world, so that if two individuals were to "trade places", it would be present itself in the same way. Through empathetic insight, human beings achieve Platzwechsel, which is a term used in chess to mean "place exchange". The third claim is that intersubjectivity creates a synthesis of worldviews through the usage of empathy. Although there may be different perspectives in the relationship presented, the collective world is assumed to be the same through the bilateral insight of shared knowledge. The fourth claim is that intersubjectivity must precede meaningful interaction, as well as " The possibility of reflection on the self, discovery of the ego, capacity for performing any epoché, and the possibility of all communication and of establishing a communicative surrounding world as well". In other words, intersubjectivity is not the result of communication, instead it is the condition required for it to occur. Finally, the fifth claim is that intersubjectivity is the principle by which anthropologists must view their work. In order to properly create an account of a group of people, one must develop relationships with others and deduce perceptions through experience.

Participatory Action Research
This specific method requires a community commitment to change. It occurs in five steps:
 * 1) Education on the Process or Creating a Dialogue
 * 2) Collective Investigation
 * 3) Collective Interpretation
 * 4) Collective Action
 * 5) Transformation: Self-Determination and Empowerment

Because of the intrinsic qualities of this type of research (ideally being conducted by people with close ties or membership of a community), it is usually very applicable to situations in the community. The research is an analysis of the community's behavior by the community's members. Not only are they by necessity, motivated to work on the problem, but they will already have significant rapport with other community members which allows them to better address and analyze it. The dynamic attributes of the process allow constant reevaluation and change. This cyclic or regularly repeated tendencies can develop into healthy adaptation patterns in the community without outside contributions or aid.

Triangulation Method
The triangulation method is the "combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon". It is used to investigate a single topic through individual perspectives or multiple methodologies. It is usually the preferred way to research because it can combine all methods of researching to get the best results. It uses qualitative and quantitative practices together. The qualitative practice gives the triangulation method its inquiry results. The quantitative practice gives it the validation results. It combines a scientific approach with an observational approach. According to the Administrative Science Quarterly, it is a "vehicle for cross-validation when two or more distinct methods are found to be congruent and yield comparable data". The foundation of triangulation relies on one form of research being weak and the other form stepping up to make up for it. Relying on one form of research can create a bias. The general problem with measurement data, is the individual or group being researched tends to tell you what you want to hear instead of the full truth. Triangulation helps prevent bias by giving the researcher the opportunity to participate in individual, self-reported and observational methods with those being researched. Sampling bias generally means that the researcher doesn't have time to cover the entire group they are focusing on. Or they focus on what they think the important parts of a society are and don't study the less important aspects. Triangulation can combine phone research, face-to-face interviews, and online surveys to ensure that the researcher is getting the most accurate results. In all, the triangulation method for fieldwork can combine all aspects of research to create the most accurate and detailed results, taking different perspectives and various sources to culminate into the most accurate model or a culture.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative research can be represented numerically, whereas Qualitative data cannot.

Quantitative research is more interested in hard data procured through things like surveys, polls, and censuses. This type of research is interested in things like the percentage of people interviewed that agree with one statement versus another, the number of people in a culture that belong to a certain organization, or how many people in a country speak the native language versus how many are bilingual or only speak a foreign language. This method of research usually requires a large random sample group. It is totally concerned with the hard evidence(quantity)through statistics and recorded happenings, participants, and locations.

Qualitative research is typically descriptive, or anecdotal, and does not lend itself to the analysis of quantitative data. Qualitative research is in-depth research that seeks to understand why something happens the way it does. In anthropology, qualitative research includes participating as well as observing. It often crosses disciplinary boundaries and strays from a single subject, or variable being studied. Due to the specific rapport required to obtain qualitative data, it generally requires a smaller sample size.

Positivist Approach
Made popular during the late 18th century, this was the primary anthropological method used until the 1970s. It is based around the central idea of positivism, a theory saying that theology and metaphysics are earlier imperfect modes of knowledge and that positive knowledge is based on natural phenomena with their properties and relations as verified by the scientific method. The main goal of a positivist approach is to produce objective knowledge, which is knowledge about humanity that is true for all people in all times and places. The ideal positivist approach would occur with a physical scientist in a lab, producing concrete results. Anthropologists adapted this method to their own use by testing hypotheses in different cultures under similar conditions. This method was very successful in recording previously unknown data about different peoples, but it was often objective facts about a way of life in which the people of the culture at question were regarded more as lab subjects than actual human beings. Eventually this method was adapted into the reflexive method, to better demonstrate the relationships that exist within communities and the anthropologists own interactions with the informants.

The positivist approach requires the use of the scientific method. A researcher makes an observation about a social behavior or condition, constructs a hypothesis as to the reason or outcome of the observation, tests the hypothesis and then analyzes the results.

Ethnographic Analysis
Spradley describes ethnography as different from deductive types of social research in that the five steps of ethnographic research: selecting a problem, collecting data, analyzing data, formulating hypotheses, and writing. All five steps happen simultaneously (p. 93-94).

In his book, Spradley describes four types of ethnographic analysis that basically build on each other. The first type of analysis is domain analysis, which is “a search for the larger units of cultural knowledge” (p. 94). The other kinds of analysis are taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis.

All of Spradley’s theories about ethnographic analysis hinge on his belief that researchers should be searching for the meaning that participants make of their lives. These meanings are expressed through symbols, which can be words, but can also be nonverbal cues. However, because this book is about analyzing interviews, Spradley focuses on analyzing the spoken words of the participants. He explains that words are symbols that represent some kind of meaning for an individual, and each symbol has three parts: the symbol itself, what the symbol refers to, and the relationship between the symbol and the referent. Thus, the word computer can be a symbol. It refers to many things, including an individual's own personal computer. Thus, a computer is a kind of computer in the mind, or the idea of a computer, and this shows the relationship between the symbol (computer) and the referent (an actual physical computer).

Domain analysis
A domain is a “symbolic category that includes other categories”. The category of computers is a domain that includes not only a laptop, but all the Dells, Toshibas, iMacs, and IBMs in the world. These all share the same relationship because they are all kinds of computers. There are three elements to a domain. First, the cover term, which in this example is the word “computer”. Second, there are included terms, which are all the types of computers just listed. Finally, there is the single, unifying semantic relationship, which is the idea that “X, Y, and Z are all kinds of A”.

When anthropologists complete a domain analysis, they are gaining an understanding of how people place objects within different domains. In other words how does a person, family, or culture categorize the world around them. This information can be gathered is several ways. Strict inclusion ("what is a Macbook, a computer), Domain analysis, and questioning the categorization are methods of domain analysis. To revert to the previous example, if you agree that Macs are kinds of computers, you could test this hypothesis by making a question out of this semantic statement; “Are there different kinds of computers?” You could ask a participant, and based on their answer, you would know if the cover term, included terms, and semantic relationship that you identified were correct. You could then probe with more questions like, “Why are Macs a kind of computer?” or “In what way are Macs a kind of computer?”

Taxonomic Analysis
Taxonomic Analysis is a search for the way that cultural domains are organised. Building upon the first type of analysis, this form of research is best defined as the classification of data in form x is a kind of y (D'Andrade, 92). Used largely for the organization and grouping of plant and animal species, the taxonomic analysis is not focused on the features of an organism but rather the variable genetic differences that define them. Taxonomic Analysis usually involves drawing a graphical interpretation of the ways in which the individual participants move, form groups, and pattern the structure of a conversation. For example, scientists can refer to the common chimpanzee using the taxonomy pan troglodyte ( which is the ITIS report that has qualifications of all known mammals) and make specific references to that species without fear of error in their classification and use of data.

Chapter Glossary of Key Terms
Ruth Mace: An anthropologist who studies evolutionary ecology of human demography.

Intersubjectivity: The realization that knowledge about other people emerges out of people's relationships with and perceptions of each other.

Cline: The changing of species over time. Focus Group: A demographically diverse group of people assembled to participate in a guided discussion about a particular thing before it is released. Cyclic: Regularly repeated.


text: User talk:168.169.135.81

title: User talk:168.169.135.81


text:
C Programming/Standard library reference

ISO C (C94/C95), Amendment 1 (AMD1)
Very old compilers may not include some or all of these headers

ISO C (C99)
These are supported only in newer compilers

ISO C (C11)
These are supported only in newer compilers

Table of functions
This table also includes function-like macros


text:
Ruby Programming/Reference/Objects/Time

As for the object, it is clever let me give you some advice though. Firstly, you don't ever want to store a date or time as a string. This is always a mistake. -- though for learning purposes it works out, as in your example. In real life, simply not so. Lastly, you created a class called Tuesdays without specifying what would make it different from a class called Wednesday; that is to say the purpose is nebulous: there is nothing special about Tuesdays to a computer. If you have to use comments to differentiate Tuesdays from Wednesdays you typically fail.

title: Ruby Programming/Reference/Objects/Time


text:
Talk:C Programming/Standard library reference

C99 reference starting point
This section is intended to serve as a quick reference to all C interested C programmers. The reference will be divided in two major sections: the core language and the standard library. Those sections will offer brief topic descriptions and host links to articles covering sub-topics like C Types and specific libraries, articles which, in turn, will also offer a brief description on those topics and, finally, provide links to articles covering specific language constructs (the for loop, the assert macro).

That type of articles is the main purpose of this reference. They will provide specialized information regarding the usage of certain language constructs or library functions, cover any gotcha that may occur and, more importantly, offer the necessary examples on how to use them.

Well, at least that's the plan. I will not be able to cover the entire C programming language by my own nor do it quickly. Therefore, any help is more than welcomed. Mecanismo (talk) 19:10, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Contributing
Below I list some sources of information to lookup when filling standard reference entries and adding citations to them.

 * http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/
 * http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/standards.html

--Strange quark (discuss • contribs) 03:50, 29 December 2017 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Raquelcm

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:47, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Raquelcm


text: User talk:63.160.16.206

title: User talk:63.160.16.206


text: User talk:207.69.140.33

title: User talk:207.69.140.33


text:
Talk:Parkour/Basic Moves/Parkour Roll

Pictures are broken links, need updating.

title: Talk:Parkour/Basic Moves/Parkour Roll


text:
User talk:Dachristian85

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Laleena (talk) 22:16, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dachristian85


text:
PHP Programming/Files

Working with files is an important part of any programming language, and PHP is no different. Whatever your reasons are for wanting to manipulate files, PHP will happily accommodate them through the use of a handful of functions. You should have read and be comfortable with the concepts presented in the first five sections of this book before beginning here.

Folders
To display the current directory: dirname.

To change the directory: chdir.

To make a new directory: mkdir.

fopen and fclose
fopen is the basis for file manipulation. It opens a file in a certain mode (that you specify) and returns a handle. Using this handle you can read or write to the file, before closing it with the fclose function.

Example Usage

In the example above you can see the file is opened for reading by specifying 'r' as the mode. For a full list of all the modes available to fopen, you can look at the PHP Manual page.

Opening and closing the file is all well and good, but to perform useful operations, you need to know about fread and fwrite.

When a PHP script finishes executing, all open files are automatically closed. So although it is not strictly necessary to close a file after opening it, it is considered good programming practice to do so.

Reading
Reading can be done in a number of ways. If you just want all the contents of a file available to work with, you can use the file_get_contents function. If you want each line of the file in an array, you can use the file command. For total control over reading from files, fread can be used.

These functions are usually interchangeable and each can be used to perform each other's function. The first two do not require that you first open the file with fopen or then close it with fclose. These are good for quick, one-time file operations. If you plan on performing multiple operations on a file it is best to use fopen in conjunction with fread, fwrite and fclose as it is more efficient.

An example of using file_get_contents

An example of using file

An example of using fread

As you can see, with these three functions you are able to easily read data from a file into a form that is convenient to work with. The next part shows how these functions can be used to do the jobs of the others, but this is optional. You may skip it and move onto the writing section, if you are not interested.

Writing
Writing to a file is done by using the fwrite function in conjunction with fopen and fclose. As you can see, there aren't as many options for writing to a file as there are for reading from one. However, PHP 5 introduces the function file_put_contents that simplifies the writing process somewhat. This function will be discussed later in the PHP 5 section, as it is fairly self-explanatory and does not require discussion here.

The extra options for writing don't come from the amount of functions, but from the modes available for opening the file. There are three different modes you can supply to the fopen function, if you wish to write to a file. One mode, 'w', wipes the entire contents of the file, so anything you then write to the file will fully replace what was there before. The second mode, 'a', appends stuff to the file so anything you write to the file will appear just after the original contents of the file. The final mode 'x' only works for non-existent files. All three writing modes will attempt to create the file, if it doesn't exist whereas the 'r' mode will not.

An example of using the 'w' mode

An example of using the 'a' mode

An example of using the 'x' mode

Of the three modes shown above, 'w' and 'a' are used the most, but the writing process is essentially the same for all the modes.

Reading and Writing
If you want to use fopen to open a file for both reading and writing all you need to do is put a '+' on the end of the mode. For example, reading from a file requires the 'r' mode. If you want to read and write to/from that file you need to use 'r+' as a mode. Similarly you can read and write to/from a file using the 'w+' mode. However, this will also truncate the file to zero length. For a better description visit the fopen page that has a very useful table describing all the modes available.

Error Checking
Error checking is important for any sort of programming, but when working with files in PHP it is especially important. This need for error checking arises mainly from the filesystem the files are on. The majority of webservers today are Unix-based and so, if you are using PHP to develop web-applications, you have to account for file permissions. In some cases PHP may not have permission to read the file and so, if you've written code to read a particular file, it will result in an ugly error. More likely is that PHP doesn't have permission to write to a file and that will again result in ugly errors. Also, the file's existence is (somewhat obviously) important. When attempting to read a file, you must make sure the file exists first. On the other side of that, if you're attempting to create and then write to a file using the 'x' mode, then you must make sure the file doesn't exist first.

In short, when writing code to work with files, always assume the worst. Assume the file doesn't exist and you don't have permission to read from/write to it. In most cases this means you have to tell the users that, in order for the script to work, they need to adjust those file permissions so that PHP can create files and read from/write to them, but it also means that your script can adjust and perform an alternative operation.

There are two main ways of error checking. The first is by using the '@' operator to suppress any errors when working with the file and then checking, if the result is false or not. The second method involves using more functions like file_exists, is_readable and is_writeable.

Examples of using the '@' operator

Examples of using specific checking functions

You can see by that last example that error-checking makes your code very robust. It allows it to be prepared for most situations and behave accordingly, which is an essential aspect of any program or script.

Line-endings
Line-endings were mentioned briefly in the final example in the 'Reading' section of this chapter and it is important to be aware of them when working with files. When reading from a text file, it is important to know what types of line-endings that file contains. 'Line-endings' are special characters that try to tell a program to display a new line. For example, Notepad will only move a piece of text to a new line, if it finds "\r\n" just before the new line (it will also display new lines, if you put word wrap on).

If someone writes a text file on a Windows system, the chances are that each line will end with "\r\n". Similarly, if they write the file on a Classic Macintosh (Mac OS 9 and under) system, each line will probably end with "\r". Finally, if they write the file on a Unix-based system (Mac OS X and GNU/Linux), each line will probably end with "\n".

Why is this important? Well, when you read a file into a string with file_get_contents, the string will be one long line with those line-endings all over the place. Sometimes they will get in the way of things you want to do with the string so you can remove them with:

Other times you may need to know what kind of line-ending is being used throughout the text in order to be consistent with any new text you add. Luckily, in 99% of cases, the line-endings will never change type throughout the text so the custom function 'detectLineEndings' can be used as a quick way of checking:

Most of the time though, it is just sufficient to be aware of their existence within the text so you can adjust your script to cope properly.

Binary-safe
So far, all of the text seen in this chapter has been assumed to be encoded in some form of plaintext encoding such as UTF-8 or ASCII. Files do not have to be in this format, however, and in fact there exist a huge number of formats that aren't (such as pictures or executables). If you want to work with these files you have to ensure that the functions you are using are 'binary-safe'. Previously you would have to add 'b' to the end of the modes you used to tell PHP to treat the file as a binary file. Failing to do so would give unexpected results and generally 'weird-looking' data.

Since about PHP 4.3, this is no longer necessary as PHP will automatically detect, if it needs to open the file as a text file or a binary file and so you can still follow most of the examples shown here.

Working with binary data is a lot different to working with plaintext strings and characters and involves many more functions that are beyond the scope of this chapter. However, it is important you know about these differences.

Serialization
Serialization is a technique used by programmers to preserve their working data in a format that can later be restored to its previous form. In simple cases this means converting a normal variable such as an array into a string and then storing it somewhere. That data can then be unserialized and the programmer will be able to work with the array once again.

There is a whole chapter devoted to Serialization in this book as it is a useful technique to know how to use effectively. It is mentioned here as one of the primary uses of serialization to store data on plain files when a database is not available. It is also used to store the state of a script and to cache data for quicker access later, and files are one of the preferred media for this storage.

In PHP, serialization is very easy to perform through use of the serialize and unserialize functions. Here follows an example of serialization used in conjunction with file functions.

An example of storing user details in a file so that they can be easily retrieved later.

PHP 5
There is one particular function specific to files that was introduced in PHP 5. That was the file_put_contents function. It offers an alternative method of writing to files that does not exist in PHP 4. To see how it differs, it is easiest to just look at an example.

Examples showing writing to a file in PHP 4 and the equivalent in PHP 5 with the file_put_contents function

file_put_contents is almost always preferable over the fopen method except when performing multiple operations on the same file. It is more preferable to use it for writing than file_get_contents is for reading and for this reason, a function is provided here to emulate the behaviour of file_put_contents for PHP 4:

title: PHP Programming/Files


text: User talk:203.94.140.244

title: User talk:203.94.140.244


text:
User talk:Cmcnulty6497

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:05, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cmcnulty6497


text:
User:Mts15~enwikibooks

Learn Visual Basic

title: User:Mts15~enwikibooks


text: User talk:Senguner

title: User talk:Senguner


text:
User talk:Moxie~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Moxie. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Moxie~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Moxie~enwikibooks


text: User talk:75.109.59.142

title: User talk:75.109.59.142


text: User talk:75.57.74.118

title: User talk:75.57.74.118


text: User talk:Philshinn

title: User talk:Philshinn


text: User talk:69.51.160.98

title: User talk:69.51.160.98


text:
User talk:Sharada~enwikibooks

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:57, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Hullo just read the message that you've put up in the 'Reading Room'. Batch insert could be done using a DataReader class. If you have any doubts you could contact me :-) -Ravichandar84 (talk) 04:26, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sharada. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sharada~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:44, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:29, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sharada~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Introduction to Physical Science/Authors

Students: If you have any questions concerning wiki editing click (talk to Dr. Pearce) and post them. Please put your login in the following list in alphabetical order and create a small page for yourself to gain some experience with wiki editing:

 * --Emilie S Ogden (talk) 02:04, 7 April 2008 (UTC)Emilie S Ogden
 * --Sean Mainwaring (talk) 22:10, 14 February 2008 (UTC)Sean Mainwaring
 * --Sammy Moon (talk) 01:12, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --A.D. Wescoat (talk) 17:56, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Alison sabulsky (talk) 01:58, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --A.L.Silloway (talk) 19:03, 14 January 2008
 * --Ambermc (talk)  21:20, 17 January 2008  (UTC)
 * --AllysonGorse (talk) 19:22, 17 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --AnnaMMirage (talk) 20:50, 16 January 2008 (UTC)AnnaMMirage
 * --Cameronleebrown (talk) 03:47, 17 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --April K (talk) 01:56, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Autumn (talk) 02:25, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Bigworm (talk) 03:34, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jac2645 (talk) 01:44, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jkdahl88 (talk) 19:23, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Cakopac (talk) 04:40, 15 January 2008 (UTC)*
 * --CMSwab (talk) 13:44, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Craig Butler (talk) 23:26, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Danielle Allen (talk) 03:24, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Diana Christine Boura (talk) 11:31, 17 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --S egcornman (talk) 01:44, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --GabbyAdams580 (talk) 03:04, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Gail (talk) 23:08, 14 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --G.Pegnetter (talk) 18:53, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Natehepler (talk) 03:53, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --HMorrell (talk) 02:59, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --E.D.Jacquel (talk) 04:41, 17 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Erikagood (talk) 01:44, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Ewwhite2205 (talk) 17:30, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Jc15332 (talk) 01:12, 18 January 2008 (UTC)JC15332
 * --J.M.Pearce (talk) 20:37, 13 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Kmcclaine88 (talk) 19:05, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --S kmdietrick (talk) 00:18, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --KristieJean (talk) 15:06, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Kzhang (talk) 5:48 15 January 2008(UTC)
 * --Sportsfan (talk) 20:45, 17 January 2008 (UTC)Lindsey Cunko
 * --M. Shiwarski (talk) 21:50, 14 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Michol Zahoran (talk) 00:29, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Nicole Reinersmann (talk) 21:37, 17 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Nicole V (talk) 18:55, 14 January 2008
 * --Querida Smith-Lewis —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Smithlewis (talk • contribs) 04:32, January 18, 2008.
 * --R.J.Wright (talk) 05:53, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --RacerChick83 (talk) 19:03, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Sara Bryan (talk) 16:11, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Shelleyann615 (talk) 02:42, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Sjb09 (talk) 03:10, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --S blcuevas (talk) 22:42, 16 January 2008 (UTC)s_blcuevas
 * --S mlsheridan (talk) 21:11, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --SLGreer (talk) 01:51, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --S seallen (talk) 01:25, 16 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Susanwesterlund (talk) 05:07, 18 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Quentin Taraszewski (talk) 23:44, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Treadcey (talk) 21:26, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Nick Rimer (talk) 21:26, 15 January 2008 (UTC)
 * --Zoe.y1225 (talk) 02:07, 15 January 2008 (UTC) (Yeung)
 * --Dsolich45 (talk) 16:33, 18 January 2008 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Smithlewis

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 03:07, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Smithlewis


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source

Welcome to animating weapons for Counter-Strike Source.

Contents

 * Setting up
 * /Questions/
 * /Applications Used/
 * /Setting up the Source SDK/
 * /Setting up the Work Folders/
 * /Extracting Files From GCFs/
 * /Decompiling the Default Model/
 * /Setting up the XSI Development Environment/
 * Navigating in the 3D world of XSI
 * /Converting and Importing Textures into XSI Mod Tool/
 * /Rigging the Hands/
 * /Preparing the Weapon for Rigging/
 * /Rigging the Weapon/
 * /Exporting the Models/
 * /Changing Materials/
 * /Changing Weapons/
 * Animating
 * /Setting up the Camera/
 * /Idle Animation/
 * /Testing Animations/
 * /Shoot Animation/
 * /Editing Attachments/
 * /Draw Animation/
 * /Reload Animation/


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Questions

Why should you think of an animation ahead of time?
Before you even begin to animate, it is vital to know ahead of time what you are going to animate. You should have a very detailed view in your mind, or you can record a simulation with a camera from multiple angles to get a more accurate final animation. If you do not think of it now, you might have a hard time animating later.

What is an SMD?
An SMD is the model and animation format used by the source engine. There are three types of SMDs: model, animation and physbox
 * Model SMDs store model vertex data and skeletal positions.
 * Animation SMDs store skeletal positions and alter the values of them to make animations.
 * Physbox SMDs store sets of vertices that collapse. (e.g. You shoot a table and a leg falls off because it's in its own vertex group.) We will not be using these for viewmodels.

Roots
The root is the first joint in a chain hierarchy and holds location data for the rest of the chain. If the root is moved, the rest of the chain moves according to the same data (the shoulder joint as the origin of the arm).

Bones
Bones are solid (non-deforming) links between the joints of a rigging skeleton, and provide a rigid structure that follows the rotation of all joints between the root, additional bones and the effector (as the arm bones provide connections from the wrist to the elbow to the shoulder).

Effectors
An effector is the node that manipulates the entire inverse kinematic chain (as a hand that moves to grab an object will cause a series of rotations throughout the arm). While it cannot change the location data of a root, the effector causes rotational deformations in each joint starting from itself and ending at the root (highest in the hierarchy) to link every bone in the chain. This can have interesting side effects as multiple valid bone placement solutions might be found for the same effector movement, unless rotational limits are imposed on the joints.

What is IK and FK?
FK means Forward Kinematic. In a forward kinematic skeletal system, a bone can only deform its own specified set of vertices. IK means Inverse Kinematic. In an inverse kinematic skeletal system, there is a chain of bones. The end of the chain (usually called the effector) deforms all of the bones in the chain (and obviously vertex groups of the bones) given a set of constraints specified by the user. An example would be a human finger. There are 3 phalanges on each finger. In an inverse kinematic finger skeleton, there are 3 bones: The proximal phalanx, the intermediate phalanx, and the distal phalanx. These 3 bones can be set up as an inverse kinematic chain. In order to achieve realistic deformation, the user would need to specify constraints for each joint. Once the constraints would be set up, moving the effector around would adjust where the finger points in a realistic manner.

Notes: An IK chain can contain any natural number of bones. If there is only 1 bone, the root acts as a pivot and the effector acts as a rotational modifier. Effectors never change the root's position in space.


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Applications Used

Applications
All of the applications are free except for Counter-Strike: Source. Let's take a look at the applications that you will be using:

Why do you need 2 XSI Mod Tools?
You need two XSI Mod Tools because XSI Mod Tool 6 is not fully functional for our purposes. Mod Tool 6 cannot merge scenes or import smds properly. Here is a feature comparison of the two Mod Tools.

Click here to register XSI Mod Tool 4.2.


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Setting up the Source SDK

Setting up the Source SDK
Purpose: To simplify access to studiomdl for compiling

In experienced user terms: Otherwise: -engine ep1 (This makes sure you can change what game for which you are compiling.) studiomdl.exe %1 pause studiomdl.exe %1 changes into: "C:\program files\steam\steamapps\username\sourcesdk\bin\ep1\bin\studiomdl.exe" %1
 * Install the Source SDK.
 * Add a new filetype called QC.
 * Associate a batch file that takes the first input of studiomdl and pauses when you right click a QC file and click compile.
 * Unhide extensions for known file types.
 * Change the Source SDK's startup options to -engine ep1
 * Log into Steam.
 * Click the "Tools" tab.
 * Install Source SDK if you have not done so already.
 * Right click Source SDK.
 * Click properties.
 * Click set launch options.
 * Enter the following into the text box:
 * Press OK and close as necessary to exit the windows.
 * Go Start>Run and type in %sourcesdk%. This is the location of your Source SDK directory.
 * Navigate to sourcesdk\bin\ep1\bin folder. Here you will find all of the programs that are included with the Source SDK.
 * Create a new file called compile.bat in this folder.
 * In a text editor, add the following code to compile.bat.
 * Drag any file onto compile.bat. If it says studiomdl.exe is not recognized, then replace "studiomdl.exe" in compile.bat with the full path of your studiomdl.exe in quotes. Example:
 * Press windows key + E. This opens up windows explorer.
 * Go to Tools>Folder Options.
 * Click the file types tab.
 * Click New and enter QC in the box.
 * Click the Change... button and choose a text editor.
 * Click the Advanced button.
 * Click New.
 * Under Action, type in Compile.
 * Under Application used to Perform Action, select the compile.bat that you just made.
 * Keep clicking OK or close as necessary until you have closed the windows explorer window.
 * Now you can right click a QC file and click compile whenever you want to compile your model.


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Setting up the Work Folders

Setting up the Workspace
Purpose: To organize work

Note: XSI Mod Tool does not support saving scenes outside of its main folder. Note: This naming format does not have to be used for exporting SMDs.
 * Create a folder anywhere for your project. It should have a meaningful name.
 * Within this folder create two folders: tocompile and default.
 * The tocompile folder is where you will save your animations and references as SMDs and compile them.
 * The default folder will contain the default weapon decompiled for QC file referencing.
 * Navigate to this folder: C:\Softimage\XSI_6_Mod_Tool\Data\XSI_SAMPLES\Scenes\ (your path may be different)
 * Create a new folder here with the same project name.
 * Do the same for this folder: C:\Softimage\XSI_4.2_ModTool\Data\XSI_SAMPLES\Scenes\
 * You do not have to follow the following naming syntax, but it is useful for naming all of your XSI scenes. Typically, after animating, you will end up with:
 * css-[projectname]-rig
 * css-[projectname]-handssetup (can also be called idle)
 * css-[projectname]-shoot
 * css-[projectname]-shoot_empty
 * css-[projectname]-reload
 * css-[projectname]-draw


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Extracting Files From GCFs

Extracting files from GCFs
Purpose: To retrieve the default model for decompiling

 * Close Steam if it is running.
 * Open GCFScape.
 * Go to File>Open
 * Open counter-strike source shared.gcf. It is found in your SteamApps folder. (Try C:\Program Files\Valve\Steam\SteamApps\ or C:\Program Files\Steam\SteamApps\)
 * In the interface navigate to cstrike\models\weapons\
 * For this tutorial we will animate an sg552.
 * Select all of the files that begin with v_rif_sg552. This includes:
 * v_rif_sg552.dx80.vtx
 * v_rif_sg552.dx90.vtx
 * v_rif_sg552.mdl
 * v_rif_sg552.sw.vtx
 * v_rif_sg552.vvd

 * Drag these files into your "default" folder.
 * Extract cstrike\materials\models\weapons\v_models\hands\v_hands.vtf as well.
 * If you are actually going to work with a default model, extract the vtf files from cstrike\materials\models\weapons\v_models\*weapon_name*\


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Decompiling the Default Model

Decompiling the Default Model
Purpose: To decompile the default models to use as a guideline for your compilation

Note: Make sure Steam is running.
 * Open up Cannonfodder's mdl decompiler. (execute as admin)
 * Uncheck "Use Steam File Access"
 * Check "Do not fix rotations on animations".
 * Click the ellipses next to "Choose Model File".
 * Navigate to your "default" folder and select the mdl file.
 * Click the ellipses next to "Choose Output Directory".
 * Navigate to the "default" folder again and select it.
 * Click extract. Two things can happen:
 * 1) mdldecompiler.exe crashes - Get an older version of Cannonfodder's mdl decompiler and place it in your sourcesdk\bin\ep1\bin directory and try with that exe.
 * 2) Dump completes successfully - No extra work here!


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Converting and Importing Textures into XSI Mod Tool

Converting your textures and importing them into XSI Mod Tool
Purpose: To easily view textured models in XSI Mod Tool.

Explanation: This makes your textures inherently present in XSI Mod Tool so you do not have to go through manually adding the textures.
 * Open IrfanView.
 * Drag and drop a texture on to IrfanView.
 * Press s on the keyboard to save the picture.
 * Select BMP (the first option) from the drop down list and save it to your "tocompile" directory.
 * Repeat this process for all textures used by your model.
 * Take all of your BMP files, and copy them to:
 * C:\Softimage\XSI_4.2_ModTool\Data\XSI_SAMPLES\Pictures\
 * C:\SoftImage\XSI_6_ModTool\Data\XSI_SAMPLES\Pictures\


text:
Animating Weapons for Counter-Strike Source/Rigging the Hands

Note: You can skip rigging the hands by downloading the following files:

 * FK: https://gkquestioninhindi.com
 * IK: (insert IK hands)
 * Fully IK: (insert fully IK hands)

Rigging the Model
Purpose: To be able to control a specific set of vertices when animating.

 * Open XSI Mod Tool 4.2
 * Go to ValveSource>Import SMD
 * Check the import materials box.
 * Open up the hands file. (It is usually found in the folder of the decompiled default model.)
 * If you don't see a hands file, you will have to decompile a different weapon and used that weapon's hands_reference.smd file.
 * On the right hand side of XSI Mod Tool, click Scene.
 * Navigate through the hierarchy starting at v_weapon until you find a gun name followed by parent. (such as xm1014_parent)
 * Right click the parent object and press delete on the keyboard.

Explanation: This gets rid of duplicate bones since you do not want them in your rig.

 * Go to File>Save As and save your file in your folder as css-[projectname]-part1.exp


text:
User talk:Ssv445/per book/Open Source Technology.css

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Ssv445 (talk) 05:07, 13 February 2008 (UTC)


text: User talk:211.30.200.219

title: User talk:211.30.200.219


text:
User talk:Ssv445

G'day, Welcome to Wikibooks. I've just deleted the image you uploaded, because:
 * you didn't specify a license for it - this is a requirement of Wikimedia projects
 * it was a 288px PNG rendering of an SVG, which you resized on the page to 200px
 * the SVG is available from Commons, which means you can use it in Wikibooks without uploading it here - take a look at your page now (and click edit), then click on the image to see that it really does come from the Wiki Commons

Now, here's our standard welcome message, with some useful links:

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Webaware talk 07:14, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ssv445


text:
User:Ssv445/monobook.js

// Install InstaView document.write(' '); InstaView.conf.user.name = 'Pilaf'; /* This is to keep track of who is using InstaView: User:Pilaf/instaview.js */ /************ OLD STUFF ************* // Live Preview customization, // edit this to your own liking. wpUserName  = 'Pilaf';   // User name to display in signatures wpShowImages = true;     // Enable downloading and displaying of images // Include Live Preview... document.write(' '); // Now set everything up window.onload = Main; function Main { LivePreviewInstall; // You may include here other "extensions" }

title: User:Ssv445/monobook.js


text: User talk:116.12.171.115

title: User talk:116.12.171.115


text:
User talk:124.40.47.150

Blocked
And my regards to you too -- Herby talk thyme 10:51, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:124.40.47.150


text:
Template talk:Move

Discuss Template:Move here:

Change the icon
I would've thought this icon: ...represents a move better. I propose we swap it. -- Harry Wood (talk) 10:43, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The current icon was chosen as the most generic of all the move icons. That's because this template is reused for, and  templates (and a few more, I think). However, we can change this icon on an individual basis, if people think it's better. I would agree that it is. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 14:29, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Category
Is there a category for this template? Thanks, Laleena (talk) 00:19, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Move


text: Category:Book:Iranian History

title: Category:Book:Iranian History


text: User:Urbane~enwikibooks/monobook.css

title: User:Urbane~enwikibooks/monobook.css


text: User:Urbane~enwikibooks/monobook.js

title: User:Urbane~enwikibooks/monobook.js


text:
User:Spockezri~enwikibooks

Hi.

title: User:Spockezri~enwikibooks


text:
Routing, Traffic Control, and Firewalls

Contents

 * 1) /Before the start/
 * 2) /Computers/
 * 3) Internet
 * 4) GNU/Linux
 * 5) Networking under GNU/Linux
 * 6) /Routing/
 * 7) /Traffic control/
 * 8) /Firewall/
 * 9) /All together/
 * 10) /See also/
 * 11) /Bibliography/

title: Routing, Traffic Control, and Firewalls


text:
Routing, Traffic Control, and Firewalls/See also

 * iproute2
 * iptables


text:
Routing, Traffic Control, and Firewalls/Bibliography

 * General
 * The Guide to IP Layer Network Administration with Linux by Martin A. Brown
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Networking-Overview-HOWTO.html
 * Routing and Masquerade
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Adv-Routing-HOWTO/index.html
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/IP-Masquerade-HOWTO/index.html
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Masquerading-Simple-HOWTO/index.html
 * Traffic control
 * Policy Routing Book by Matthew G. Marsh
 * Traffic Control HOWTO
 * Linux Advanced Routing and Traffic Control HOWTO - A tutorial in exploring and using iproute2.
 * IPROUTE2 Utility Suite Documentation - Complete official documentation.
 * iproute2+tc notes - A collection of documents relating to iproute2 configuration and usage.
 * Homepage for iproute2 - at Linux Foundation.
 * Source code download directory
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/ADSL-Bandwidth-Management-HOWTO/index.html
 * More sources
 * http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Traffic-Control-HOWTO/links.html
 * http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/HOWTO-INDEX/networking.html


text:
Routing, Traffic Control, and Firewalls/Traffic control

Introduction
Packet-switched networks, such as those based on IP, are fundamentally stateless. This means that each new piece of data that flows through the network is theoretically treated entirely independently of all the other data that has gone before it. This makes it very easy to build a large network up from lots of independent parts, but it has a drawback when it comes to allocating limited resources. If one user of a network is sending as many packets as the network can support, then other users may theoretically end up unable to transfer any data at all. Lots of low-priority traffic from mail, Usenet or DNS updates may drown out high-priority flows such as Voice over IP (VoIP). If a DNS refresh or email gets delayed by 30 seconds, nobody is affected, but if the same thing happens to VoIP packets the call can be dropped.

Traffic control is the general term for techniques that attempt to fight this general weakness of the network by classifying data and blocking, redirecting or limiting it according to rules set by the network administrator.

Queues
A queue is a reserved block of memory that can hold a certain number of objects that are waiting to be processed sequentially. The typical model used for a queue is that objects are pushed in at one end and pulled out for processing from the other. This means that objects are processed in exactly the same order they are put in: First In First Out or FIFO. In the context of traffic control, the objects in the queue are network packets.

FIFO queues by themselves don't do any traffic control. In fact, the default behaviour of the network stack (with no traffic control configured) is to use a single FIFO queue, since this provides a neutral way of processing the network packets without favouring one source over another. In practice, a network stack can't be implemented without at least one FIFO queue, since packets can come in at a much faster rate than the network stack can cope with. There has to be a buffer to store the packets in during busy times, or lots of packets will have to be dropped. Since the queue is finite, it's always possible for packets to be dropped if they come in too fast for too long a time, but with a reasonably sized queue this becomes a rare occurrence.

Why must networks be based on FIFO queues? The opposite of FIFO is LIFO, or Last In First Out, often called a stack. Consider what happens if we use LIFO storage for our buffer. Packets A, B, C and D arrive in quick succession (packet D arriving before the network stack has had a chance to start processing them). Since we start with the last packet, the network stack will naturally process packet D then packet C. At the other end of the link, the packets will arrive out of order. Although higher-level protocols are designed to recover from packets arriving out of order, this can lead to packets being dropped and re-sent, so it can waste resources and should never be relied upon when there is an easy way to avoid it.

There's a deeper problem with using a stack, though: if the packets continue to come in at exactly the rate the processor can cope with, then we always process the most recent packet each time. Packets A and B will sit in the stack and never get processed. Eventually the clients at either end will assume the packet has been lost and (if using a protocol like TCP to guarantee transmission) re-send the packets. This means resources have been wasted sending A and B twice, and the buffer is clogged up with packets that have been forgotten about.

A queue tends to ensure that the times each packet spend waiting to be processed are as similar to each other as possible (i.e. the worst case isn't too much worse than the best case, though it can still vary widely if traffic levels are inconsistent). A stack, on the other hand, tends to give a situation where the best case and the worst case are wildly different, which is never what we want in networking.

Packets and frames
The terms packet and frame both refer to chunks of information that are transferred across the network; the difference between the two terms is just that they are used at different levels of the network stack. At layer 2 (e.g. ethernet) the chunks being transferred are called frames, while one layer up the stack at the network layer (e.g. IP) they are referred to as packets.

At any point during transfer over a physical link, it's equally true to say that both types are being transferred, one within the other (e.g. an IP packet wrapped within an ethernet frame), but to simplify the implementation model it's usual to only think of one model at a time. Ethernet frames contain some payload (which in fact may be IP packets), but the ethernet protocol implementor can ignore the implementation details of the data it is carrying. Likewise, IP packets have to be transferred by some physical means (which in fact may be via ethernet frames), but the IP protocol implementor can ignore this detail.

You might be tempted to ignore the difference between packets and frames, since in practice there's almost never an ambiguity. Indeed, lots of informal documentation and marketing material tends to blur the distinction somewhat. However, this book will attempt to use the terms consistently, and encourages you to do so as well.

Traditional Elements of Traffic Control

 * Shaping
 * Scheduling
 * Classifying
 * Policing
 * Dropping
 * Marking

Components of Linux Traffic Control

 * qdisc
 * class
 * filter
 * classifier
 * policer
 * drop
 * handle

Software and Tools

 * Kernel requirements
 * iproute2
 * TCNG


text:
C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library

Standard C Library
The C standard library is the C language standardized collection of header files and library routines used to implement common operations, such as input/output and string handling. It became part of the C++ Standard Library as the Standard C Library in its ANSI C 89 form with some small modifications to make it work better with the C++ Standard Library but remaining outside of the std. Header files in the C++ Standard Library do not end in ".h". However, the C++ Standard Library includes 18 header files from the C Standard Library, with ".h" endings. Their use is deprecated (ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E) Programming Languages — C++).

For a more in depth look into the C programming language check the C Programming Wikibook but be aware of the incompatibilities we have already covered on the Comparing C++ with C Section of this book.

title: C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library


text:
User talk:Majorchuks

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Majorchuks


text:
User talk:Ekpotochukwuma

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ekpotochukwuma


text:
User talk:Jobang

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jobang


text:
User talk:Santhana iyappan

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Santhana iyappan


text:
User talk:Santhanam~enwikibooks

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Santhanam. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Santhanam~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:27, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Santhanam~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Jxcole

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jxcole


text:
User talk:Recipes~enwikibooks

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Recipes. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Recipes~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Recipes~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Bivinvijai

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:31, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bivinvijai