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IB Biology/Genetics

3.1. Chromosomes, Genes, Alleles and Mutations
3.1.1. State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and protein. 3.1.2. Define gene, allele, and genome.
 * Gene: A heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic. It is a portion of the DNA.
 * Allele: one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one of few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene.
 * Genome: the whole genetic information of an organism.

3.1.3. Define gene mutation
 * A change in the base sequence of a gene. Point mutations affect only individual bases. Bases can be deleted, inserted or substituted.

3.1.4. Explain the consequences of a base substitution in relation to the process of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle cell anemia.

 * Base substitution (gene mutation) from A to T in the triplet coding of a sixth amino acid. The mutation changes the allele HbA into a new allele, HbS
 * One codon in the mRNA is different and therefore one amino acid in the polypeptide is altered. Therefore, the hemoglobin of people with sickle cell anemia contain valine instead of the normal glutamate.
 * These valine may change the phenotype from normal. Sometimes the cells become sickle shaped (hence the name). The problem with this is that it might cause clotting since the cells hook on and clot areas. Also, the person might suffer a severe lack of oxygen in their body tissues.
 * The allele HbS is quite common in southern Africa, because it actually helps resist malaria.

3.2 Meiosis
State that meiosis is a reduction division in terms of diploid and haploid chromosomes

Define homologous chromosomes
 * Chromosomes which have the same arrangement of genes as each other. The actual base sequence of these genes may differ, however, resulting in different alleles of those genes. For example, homologous chromosomes carry a gene coding for eye-color on the same location, the actual information carried on these genes (the base sequence) may be different.

Outline the process of meiosis including pairing of chromosomes followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells.

 * Homologous chromosomes pair up. Nuclear membrane will break down. Spindle fibres extended from each pole of the equator.
 * The pairs of chromosomes line up on equator. Spindle fibres attach to different chromosomes in each pair ensuring that each is pulled to opposite poles.
 * The spindle fibres pull the chromosomes to opposite poles halving the chromosome number. Each chromosome still consists of two chromatids.
 * The cell membrane around the equator is pulled inwards to divide the cell to form two haploid cells. New spindle fibres grow from the poles to the equator.
 * Steps 2 and 3 repeats (separating the chromatids).
 * Four new haploid cells are formed. Nuclear membranes reform. Each nucleus now has half of many chromosomes as the nucleus of the parent cell.

Explain how the movement of chromosomes during meiosis can give rise to genetic variety in the resulting haploid cells

 * The position of each pair of chromosomes in the nucleus when the spindle fibres become attached is random (random orientation). They attach to whichever chromosome of the pair is closer.
 * Each pole could receive either chromosome of a pair. In total, each pole could receive four possible combinations of two chromosomes.
 * The number of possible combinations of chromosomes that can be formed during random orientation is expressed through 2n (n being the number of pairs of chromosomes).
 * Each combination is genetically different, so the movements of chromosomes in meiosis generate a lot of genetic variety.

Explain how the non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down's Syndrome (trisomy 21)
 * Sometimes chromosomes that separate and move to opposite poles move to one pole instead. When chromosomes do not separate it is called non-disjunction.
 * When gametes that contain an extra chromosome fertilize, the zygote produces three chromosomes of one type instead of the normal two. This is called trisomy of chromosome 21. This is when there are 3 chromosome 21's instead of just 2.

State Mendel's Law of Segregation
 * Two alleles of each gene separate into different gametes.

Explain the relationship between Mendel's Law of Segregation and Meiosis
 * This segregation occurs during meiosis.

3.3. Theoretical Genetics
3.3.1 Define: genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier, and test cross

Genotype- the alleles of an organism Phenotype- the characteristics of an organism Dominant Allele- an allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or   heterozygous state Recessive Allele- an allele that only has an effect on the phenotype when it is present in the homozygous state Codominant allele- pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote

Locus- the particular position of a gene on homologous chromosomes Homozygous- having two identical alleles of a gene

Heterozygous- having two different alleles of a gene

Carrier- an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for this allele Test Cross- testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive

Construct a Punnett grid

Construct a Pedigree chart

State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles)

3.3.4 Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles Phenotype          Genotype O                 ii             A                I^A I^A or I^A i             B                I^B I^B or I^B i            AB                I^A I^B

Outline how the sex chromosomes determine gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans

State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans

Define Sex-Linkage

Sex linkage is the association of a characteristic with gender, because the gene controlling the characteristic is located on a sex chromosome.

State two examples of sex-linkage

Color blindness and hemophilia- both these conditions are produced by a recessive sex-linked allele on the X chromosome.

'''State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to to sex-linkage genes.

'''Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles

Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance

Deduce the genotypes or phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts

3.4 Genetic Engineering and Other Aspects of Biotechnology
State that PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) copies and amplifies minute quantities of nucleic acid.

State that gel electrophoresis involves the separation of fragmented pieces of DNA according to their charge and size.
 * Based on idea that molecules move at different rates (and directions) when placed in an electric field due to different charges and sizes.

State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling.

Describe two applications of DNA profiling.
 * Paternity suits (determining parent-child relationships).
 * Criminal investigations (using blood or semen collected from the scene).
 * Identification of people long dead (e.g. Egyptian mummies, Russian Tsars).
 * Everyone's DNA is unique and so can be used in identification; however, samples can be contaminated.

Define genetic screening.
 * Determining experimentally if a person has a specific gene or not.

Discuss three advantages and/or disadvantages of genetic screening.
 * Advantages include: Checking unborn babies for genetic disorders, can gain knowledge about one's own genotype.
 * Disadvantages include: Ethical issues (e.g. selection, abortion(?))

State that the Human Genome Project is an international cooperative venture established to sequence the complete human genome.
 * The human genome has 30,000 to 40,000 genes. The HGP is attempting to find the location of all these genes and their base sequence.

Describe two advantageous outcomes of this project
 * Easier to study how genes control human development.
 * Allow identification of genetic diseases and allow for the production of a drug based on the normal DNA sequences of genes.

State that genetic material can be transferred between species because the genetic code is universal
 * The genetic code is universal. This means that genes can be transfered from one organism to another, (and this has indeed been the case). Organisms that have had genes transferred to them are called genetically modified organisms.

Outline the basic technique for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell) restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase.
 * Messenger RNA coded for insulin is extracted from human pancreas cells.
 * DNA copies of the messenger RNA coding for insulin are made using the enzyme reverse transcriptase.

 * Plasmids: are small loops of DNA found in bacteria.
 * Plasmids are cut open using restriction enzyme endonucleouse.
 * The insulin gene and the plasmid are mixed.

 * DNA ligase seals up the plasmid.
 * The plasmid with the human insulin gene is inserted into a recombinant plasmid.
 * The recombinant plasmid are mixed with a strain of E.Coli bacteria.
 * The E.coli bacteria start to make insulin which is then extracted, purified and used by patients suffering from diabities.

State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals
 * Golden rice is a genetically modified rice crop that produces beta-carotene, which can be metabolized into Vitamin A within the body. Scientists hope that golden rice will eventually be a cheap source of beta-carotene in malnourished countries, reducing the number of children worldwide that go blind from Vitamin A deficiency.
 * Bt maize is a genetically modified corn crop that produces a toxin that kills European corn borers feeding on the maize.

Discuss the potential benefits and potential harmful effects of one example of genetic modificiation
 * Bt Maize: Contains a gene which releases toxin that kills insects feeding on the maize.
 * Advantages: Less pest damage, and therefore better harvests.
 * Less land needed for crop production.
 * Less use of insecticides.

 * Disadvantages: Humans or animals that eat BT Maize might be harmed by bacterial DNA in it.
 * Insects that are not feeding on the maize could be killed. The maize pollen, which contains the toxin, could be blown onto nearby plants.
 * Wild plants might also adapt the same gene.
 * Overuse of Bt maize would lead to toxin-resistant corn borers.

Outline the process of gene therapy using a named example
 * Gene Therapy: is the treatment of a genetic disease by altering the genotype. It is is still very experimental. However, if the allele of a gene is recessive, then perhaps the dominant gene could be inserted to prevent that disease. SCID (Severe combined immune deficiency) is caused by lack of the enzyme ADA. It produces lymphocytes, without it, the body cannot fight diseases. The gene causing SCID is recessive.

 * Genetic screening shows a baby has SCID.
 * The gene that codes for ADA is obtained. The gene is inserted into a retrovirus.
 * The retrovirus is mixed with stem cells. They enter and insert the gene into the stem cell's chromosomes.
 * Stem cells containing ADA are injected back into the baby's blood stream.

"SCID-ADA-l(ymphcytes)" / "skedaddle"

Define Clone
 * A clone is a group of genetically identical organisms or a group of genetically identical cells derived from a single parent.

Outline the technique for cloning using differentiated cells
 * Udder cells are taken from a donor sheep. The genes in the cell are made dormant. [[Image:Cloning_diagram_english.png|thumb|Outline of Cloning]]
 * Unfertilised eggs are taken from another sheep.
 * The nucleus is removed from the egg cell.
 * The egg cell without a nucleus is fused with the udder cell using a pulse of electricity.
 * The fused cells develop into zygotes.
 * Inserted back into mother.

Discuss the ethical issues of cloning in humans
 * Arguments against cloning humans
 * Psychological problems from being a clone.
 * Clones might suffer diseases, and there is a higher risk of diseases or abnormalities.
 * Arguments for cloning in humans:
 * Happens naturally, so nothing new.
 * Might make screening for genetic diseases easier.
 * Greater chance for IVF.

title: IB Biology/Genetics


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IB Biology/Communities

Communities and Ecosystems
Define ecology, ecosystem, population, community, species and habitat.
 * Ecology - the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment.
 * Ecosystem - a system made up of organisms as well as the abiotic factors in the area.
 * Population - a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time
 * Community - a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area
 * Species - a group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
 * Habitat - the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism

Explain how the biosphere consists of interdependent and interrelated ecosystems.
 * In an ecosystem, organisms feed off of each other. This relation or interaction of organisms can be in the form of a food chain or a food web. The food chain is a linear and simple feeding relation, where one organism has one type of food and is eaten by one type of organism. However, a food web is more complex and it includes more variety of organisms, each of which can feed on a variety of other organisms and is fed upon by a variety of organisms. These are not the only interactions that compose the biosphere, however. A remarkable diversity of animal interactions, as well as the work of plants, bacteria, fungus, and protists combine to influence the biosphere. Also, organic cycles such as the water cycle, the recycling of the respiratory products of animals (carbon dioxide) in photosynthesis, and the transpiratory return of water to the atmosphere in plants all play major roles as well.

Define autotroph (producer), heterotroph (consumer), detritivore and saprotrophs (decomposer).
 * Autotrophs - also known as producers, they can make their own food - main producers are photosynthesizers, which utilize the sun's energy and convert it into chemical energy, which they use to build their bodies. Considered net producers of O2.
 * Heterotroph - are consumers, they feed on ready made organic material, they cannot synthesize their own food, and they are considered net producers of CO2.
 * Detritivore - organisms that feed on the detritus (thus detritivore)and decomposing organic material of living organisms (eg. dung beetle).
 * Saprotrophs or decomposers- organisms that feed on dead organisms and products of living organisms. They secrete enzymes on these materials that cause decomposition, and then they absorb the resulting simple compounds into their bodies. So they do not ingest whole food, but rather, they absorb decomposed and digested food. Examples are bacteria and fungi.

Describe what is meant by a food chain giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms).
 * A food chain is a linear and simple feeding relation, where one organism has one type of food and is eaten by one type of organism. For example:
 * Mosquito larva --->beetle --->mouse--->snake
 * Plankton>krill>mullet--->shark
 * Earwig>lizard--->shrew-->owl
 * Clams>starfish--->sea otters--->orcas
 * Periwinkle plant--->moth--->frog--->snake>hawk
 * Tip: It's not necessary to memorise this, instead you can think logically.

Describe what is meant by a food web
 * A food web is more complex than a food chain and it includes a larger variety of organisms. Each of which feed on a variety of other organisms and they are in turn fed on by more organisms. Therefore, if one species becomes extinct the ecosystem will still be able to exist. A drawing will be inserted at a later date of a food web.

Define trophic level.
 * Trophic Level: Position in the food chain, determined by the number of energy-transfer steps to that level; A functional classification of taxa within a community that is based on feeding relationships (eg, plants make up the first trophic level, herbivores make up the second).

Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.

Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, given appropriate information.

State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.
 * Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

Explain energy flow in a food chain. •	Energy losses between trophic levels include material not consumed or material not assimilated and heat loss through cell respiration. Also, energy flows (basically) from the sun to producers to herbivores to carnivores.

State that when energy transformations take place, including those in living organisms, the process is never 100% efficient, commonly between 10 and 20%.
 * When energy transformations take place, including those in living organisms, the process is never 100% efficient, commonly between 10-20%.

Explain what is meant by a pyramid of energy and the reasons for its shape.
 * A pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy from one trophic level to the next in a community. The units of pyramids of energy are therefore energy per unit area per unit time.

Explain that energy can enter and leave an ecosystem, but that nutrients must be recycled.
 * Energy can enter and leave an ecosystem but nutrients must be recycled. Sun light is the main source of energy on this planet. It is absorbed by photosynthesizing organisms, which convert light to chemical energy. Nutrients must be recycled by obtaining them from other organisms or products of organisms.

Draw the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.
 * See Carbon Cycle
 * Five major processes involved: Photosynthesis, cellular respiration, feeding, fossilization and combustion.

Explain the role of saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) in recycling nutrients.
 * These organisms feed on dead organisms and products of living organisms. They secrete enzymes on these materials that cause decomposition, and then they absorb decomposed and digested foods. They absorb only what they need to survive, the remainder of the nutrients are reabsorbed into the ecosystem. They are essential as they unlock these nutrients, readying them for reabsorbtion. Examples include many species of bacteria and fungi. These are essential organisms to an ecosystem, since they cause recycling of materials between biotic and abiotic parts of the ecosystem.

4.2 The greenhouse effect
Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records.

Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect.

 * 'As levels of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxides increase, more radiation is reflected back to Earth instead of being lost to space.

Outline the precautionary principle.
 * 'better safe than sorry'- When an activity raises threats of harm, measures should be taken, even if a cause-and-effect relationship has not been established scientifically.

Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems.
 * •Effects include increased rates of decomposition of detritus previously trapped in permafrost, expansion of the range of habitats available to temperate species, loss of ice habitat, changes in distribution of prey species affecting higher trophic levels, and increased success of pest species, including pathogens.

4.3 Populations
Outline how population size can be affected by natality, immigration, mortality, and emigration.
 * If (natality + immigration) > (mortality + emigration) then a population is increasing. These factors determine whether a population is increasing or decreasing.

Draw a graph showing the sigmoid (s-shaped) population curve.

Explain reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase, and the transitional phase between these two phases
 * During the Exponential phase the population increases exponentially because the natality rate is higher than the mortality rate. The resources needed by the population such as food and space are abundant, and diseases and predators are rare.
 * During the Transitional Phase, the birth rate begins to decrease. Natality is still larger than mortality, but the difference between them is slowly decreasing.
 * During the Plateau phase, available resources become so low that no further reproduction can take place. Mortality starts to become larger than natality. A species may have reached its Carrying Capacity.

Define carrying capacity
 * Carrying Capacity: The maximum number of organisms of a species, or the maximum population size which an environment is able to support.

List three factors which set limits to population increase.
 * Available resources.
 * Disease
 * Space available
 * Predators

Define random sample
 * A sample where every individual in a population has an equal chance of being chosen.
 * No Bias

Describe one technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species based on a capture-mark-release-method.
 * One method of estimating the population size of an animal species is the capture-mark-release method.
 * As many individuals of a population are caught. These individuals are marked.
 * The individuals are released back into their environment.
 * After a while, as many individuals of a population are caught in the same area again.
 * The total number is taken note of and the number of those caught which are marked
 * This is known as the "Lincoln Index"
 * The formula (n1 × n2) / n3 is then used where:
 * n1 = the number of individuals caught in the first trial.
 * n2 = the number of individuals caught in the second trial.
 * n3 = The number of individuals in the second trial which were marked.

Describe one method of random sampling used to compare the population numbers of two plant species, based on quadrant methods
 * Frame Quadrat:
 * Line Quadrat:

Calculate the mean of a set of values
 * Mean= Total sum of values / number of values.

State the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean and that 68% fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean

Explain how standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and spread of ecological data between two or more populations.

Evolution
Define evolution.
 * Evolution is the accumulation of changes in the heritable characteristics of a population.

State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.

This increases the chance of survival of the population as a whole—a single death is less disastrous in a population of 1,000 than it is in a population of 10.

Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle of survival.
 * Populations of living organisms tend to increase exponentially.
 * More offspring are produced than the environment can support. There is a struggle for important resources such as food and space. Intraspecific competition. Some individuals survive and others die.
 * Characteristics in organisms differ from one another. Some have characteristics which make them better suited to survive in their environment. These are the most likely to survive.

State that the members of a species show variation.
 * Members of a species show variation.

Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.
 * Variation is essential for natural selection and therefore for evolution. Although mutation is the original source of new genes or alleles, sexual reproduction promotes variation by allowing the formation of new combinations of alleles. Two stages in sexual reproduction promote variation.
 * Meiosis allows a huge variety of genetically different gametes to be produced by each individual
 * Fertilization allows alleles from two different individuals to be brought together in one new individual.

Explain how natural selection leads to the increased reproduction of individuals with favourable heritable variation.

The much better-adapted individuals pass on their characteristics to more offspring than the less well adapted individuals. The results of natural selection therefore accumulate. As one generation follows another, the characteristics of the species gradually change, the species evolve.

Discuss the theory that species evolve by natural selection.
 * There is a struggle for existence in populations. There are a limited amount of resources to suffice a population of organisms. They must face both interspecific and intraspecific competition in order to obtain these resources.
 * Some organisms have more useful characteristics than others that makes them more adapted to their environment, and give them a better ability at obtaining these limited resources.
 * These creatures will survive because of this trait, reproduce, and there is high chance their offspring will also survive as well. Overtime, more members of the population will acquire this trait and thus overtime the whole species may have evolved.

Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be multiple antibiotic resistance to bacteria. '''
 * Before Penicillin was invented, bacteria was the leading cause of death. However, once it began to be used, since it's an antibiotic, some individuals of bacteria may carry the gene Penicillinase, which codes for an enzyme that deactivates Penicillin, making them resistant to an antibiotic such as Penicillin. Thus, when it is indeed used, they will be the only ones left to reproduce and new bacteria will also be resistant to the antibiotic.
 * The Peppered Moth is another example of evolution in response to environmental change. When Britain began industrialising, soot would come from factories and land on trees. A species of peppered moth with a lighter colour vanished and those with a darker colour flourished because they could hide themselves easily.

Classification
Define species.
 * A species is a group of organisms with similar characteristics, which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Describe the values of classifying organisms.
 * Species Classification:It is easier to find out which species an organism belongs to when you have other organisms to compare it to.
 * You can make assumptions about characteristics of a species in general.
 * Evolutionary links, you can make assumptions about traits of a common ancestor. You can also predict how they evolved.

Outline the binomial systems of nomenclature.
 * Called binomial because two names are used.
 * First name is genus, with first name being a capital.
 * Second name is species, with no capital.
 * Italics are used when the name is printed.
 * The name is underlined if it is handwritten.

State that organisms are classified into the kingdoms, Prokaryotae, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animilia.
 * Prokaryotae- bacteria
 * Protoctista- Including unicellar organisms like Amoeba and Algae
 * Fungi- Including moulds and yeasts
 * Plantae- Including conifer, ferns, mosses and flowering plants
 * Animalia- Multicellular and locomotive, including sponges, corals, birds and mammals

'''List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa- kingdom, phylum, class, order family genus species- using an example from two different kingdoms for each level. (King Philip Comes Over For Good Soup)'''
 * Kingdom: Animalia | Plantae
 * Phylum: Chordata | Conferophyta
 * Class: Mammalia | Pinopsida
 * Order: Cetacea | Pinales
 * Family: Balaenopteridae | Taxodiaceae
 * Genus: Baleaenoptera | Sequoia
 * Species: musculus | sempervirens

'''Apply and/or design a key for a group of up to eight organisms. Shape, number, color, etc.''' Keys are most commonly used to identify plants, insects, and birds. These are often area specific, for example, the Plants of Northern Europe. Keys are usually constructed in the following ways: For an in depth analysis of constructing a Dichotomous Key see: Dichotomous Key
 * The key consists of a series of numbered stages
 * Each stage consists of a pair of alternative characteristics
 * Some alternatives give the nest stage of a key to go to
 * Some alternatives give the identification

Human Impact
'''Outline the two local or global examples of human impact causing damage to an ecosystem or the biosphere. One example must be the increased greenhouse effect.'''
 * Air Pollution: The warmth of the earth can be attributed to radiation from the sun. Some of the radiation is absorbed by the earth. Many gases aid in these absorption such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour. They withhold the radiation and form a blanket warming the earth. The effect is like a greenhouse, hence the name: Greenhouse Effect.
 * However, there has been in increase in carbon dioxide and methane because of combustion of fossil fuels. This has led to an increased greenhouse effect and thus global warming.

 * Deforestation: In some areas, rainforests are cut to make way for farmland- slash and burn techniques. This has generally a negative effect because rainforest soil is not generally good for farming and can only be used temporally. Moreover, this is a catalyst for soil erosion. Almost everywhere, forested land is cleared for construction and for resources (wood).

Explain the causes and effects of the two examples before, supported by data.
 * See before.

Discuss measures which could be taken to contain or reduce the impact of the two examples with reference to the functioning of the ecosystem.
 * In reference to the Greenhouse Effect: Cleaner fuels that emit less carbon dioxide and other gases, especially in motor vehicles, could ease pressure on the environment, allowing natural effects to work the problem out. Photosynthesis should be encouraged to reduce carbon dioxide from the air, and also emissions from the burning of fossil fuels should be reduced.
 * In reference to deforestation: People having fewer children (2 at most) would stop the increase in the human population. If the population were to remain the same, new housing construction would be unnecessary. Also, re-planting deforested areas and giving them time to grow would serve to rectify the problem to an extent.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: IB Biology/Communities


text:
IB Biology/Human Health and Physiology

Digestion
Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential.

 * The foods that we eat are not necessarily usable in their current form by our tissues. They have to be broken down and rearranged to "human versions".

 * original ingested molecules are often too large to be absorbed by the villi in the small intenstine so they must be broken down to be absorbed.

Explain the need for enzymes in digestion. Without enzymes digestion would still occur, however at a significantly slower pace.

State the sources, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease, and one lipase.
 * Enzyme: Salivary Amylase | Pepsin            | Pancreatic lipase
 * Source: Salivary glands | Wall of Stomach    | Pancreas
 * Substrate:      Starch  | Proteins           | Triglycerides (fats or oils)
 * Products:       Maltose | Small polypeptides | Fatty Acids and Glycerol
 * Optimum pH:       pH 7  | pH 1.5 - 3         | pH 7

'''Draw a diagram of the digestive system.

Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
 * Digestion of proteins begins in the stomach, where the process is sped up by the enzyme pepsin. Harmful bacteria that has entered the body can be killed by the stomach's acidic environment(pH 1.5-2).
 * In the small intestine, enzymes complete the process where the end matter is absorbed by villi.
 * The large intestine absorbs water and passes the unabsorbable rest off as feces.

Distinguish between absorption and assimilation.
 * Absorption is when food molecules pass through a layer of cells such as passing through the villi.
 * Assimilation is when food actually becomes part of the body's tissue.

Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption of the end products of digestion.
 * It increases the surface area of the small intestine
 * The epithelium has a surface of only a thin layer of cells.
 * Protein channels in the microvilli allow for quick absorption of foods via facilitated diffusion and active transport.
 * Blood capillaries close to epithelium making it only a small distance for diffusion to occur.

The Transport System
Draw a diagram of the heart showing all four chambers, associated blood vessels and valves.

see labelled diagram here

Describe the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood and opening and closing valves.
 * The right atrium relaxes for the blood to be received from the superior and inferior vena cava.
 * The atrioventricular valve opens for blood to go to the right ventricle by the contracting atrium.
 * The right ventricle then relaxes to receive the blood from the atrium. Then it contracts in order to open up the pulmonary valves. Deoxygenated blood goes through to the pulmonary artery, where it enters the lungs so that the blood will be oxygenated.
 * Blood returns from the lungs to the heart through the pulmonary veins, now oxygenated.
 * The left atrium relaxes to receive it and then contracts to pump blood and open the atrioventricular valve where then the blood goes to the relaxed left ventricle.
 * The left ventricle contracts to open the semilunar valves and then the blood goes through the aorta to the rest of the body.

Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of the pacemaker, nerves, and adrenalin.
 * The pacemaker is located in the wall of the right atrium at the Sinoatrial node (SAN). Each time the pacemaker sends out a signal, the heart carries out a contraction or a beat. The heart beats by itself (myogenic). Nerves and hormones can transmit messages to the pacemaker: Sympathetic nerve secretes adrenaline (also known as "epinephrine") which carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker telling the pacemaker to speed up the beating of the heart. Another nerve tells it to slow it down.

Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries, and veins.
 * Arteries:
 * Thick wall to withstand high blood pressure.
 * Thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers.
 * Thick layers of circular elastic and muscle fibers.
 * walls stretch and recoil for the blood to go from the heart to the small intestine.
 * Narrow lumen to help maintain the high pressure..

 * Veins
 * Thin layers with a few circular elastic and muscle fibers.
 * Thin walls to allow the muscles to squeeze the veins
 * Thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers.
 * Valves for blood to stay and not flow backwards.
 * Wide lumen to accommodate for the slow flowing of blood

 * Capillaries:
 * Has pores to allow plasma and phagocytes to diffuse in or out.
 * Connects the vein and artery
 * Moist and thin for diffusion and has a short diffusion distance.
 * Narrow diameter and large quantity allow for a large exchange of materials through diffusion

'''The blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes (including phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets. What is the function of each?'''

 * Plasma
 * Plasma is largely water and makes up about 55% of the total blood volume.
 * This is the main transporting part of blood and takes advantage of the solvent properties of water.
 * Composed of:
 * Salts (Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, Magnesium, Bicarbonates)
 * Gases (Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide)
 * Plasma Proteins (Albumin [buffer], Fibrinogen [clotting])
 * Nutrients (Glucose, Amino Acids)
 * Waste (Urea)
 * Erythrocytes
 * Red Blood Cells
 * Transports oxygen and assists the transport of carbon dioxide.
 * Leucocytes
 * White blood cells
 * Phagocytes
 * White blood cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
 * Lymphocytes
 * White blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.
 * Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells (NK cells). Small lymphocytes consist of T cells and B cells.
 * Platelets
 * Cells involved in hemostasis, leading to the formation of blood clots.

Identify at least 6 things that are transported by the blood.
 * Nutrients
 * Oxygen
 * Carbon Dioxide
 * Hormones
 * Antibodies
 * Urea.

Pathogens and Disease
Define pathogen
 * Pathogen: an organism or a virus that causes a disease.

State one example of a disease caused by members of the following groups: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, flatworms and roundworms.
 * Viruses: HIV
 * Bacteria: Cholera
 * Protozoa: Malaria
 * Fungi: Ringworm
 * Flatworms: pork tapeworm
 * Roundworms: Hookworm

List at least six methods by which pathogens are transmitted and gain entry to the body.
 * Airborne/inhalation
 * Direct contact
 * Cuts
 * Ingestion of contaminated food or water
 * Sexual intercourse
 * Insects
 * Blood transfusions

Describe the cause, transmission and effects of one human bacterial disease.
 * Cholera: is a waterborne disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.
 * Cause: Cholera is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae which produces potentially lethal secretory diarrhea.
 * Transmission: Cholera is transmitted through the ingestion of feces contaminated by the bacteria. The contamination usually occurs when sewage gets into drinking water. It's a huge problem in developing countries, which lack a developed sewage system, and also right after natural disasters such as floods. The recent Tsunami brought fears of Cholera.
 * Effect: Cholera causes a lethal secretory diarrhea and dehydration. Other symptoms may include cramping, fever, and nausea.

Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not viruses.
 * Antibiotics are drugs which kill or slow the growth of bacteria. Antibiotics block metabolic pathways of bacteria, inhibiting cell wall formation and protein synthesis, resulting in the death of foreign bacteria. However, viruses are not alive and utilize the organisms host cells to replicate, which are not targeted by antibiotics. In order to kill a virus by antibiotics human cell has to be killed as well

Explain the cause, transmission, and social implications of AIDS.
 * AIDS or Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome is a collection of symptoms and infections caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
 * Transmission: HIV is transmitted via direct contact of the mucous membrane with a bodily fluid containing HIV such as blood, semen, or breast milk. The transmission could be through anal or penetrative sex, blood transfusion, contaminated needles, or during pregnancy. Most researches think that the virus originated from the Sub-Sahara, but the exact cause is unknown.
 * Social Implications Fear and apprehension for those associated with the disease, the lifestyle associated with the disease is attacked, trouble getting a job or even getting health insurance- distanced from society

Defense Against Infectious Diseases
Explain how skin and mucous membranes act as barriers against pathogens.
 * The skin and mucous membranes form a barrier that prevents most pathogens from entering the body. The other layers of the skin are tough and form a physical barrier. These dry, keratinised layers of skin discourage pathogen growth. The skin also produces a thin layer of acid and oils. Mucus contain an enzyme called lysozyme which kills bacteria.

Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissue.
 * Phagocytes are a type of leucocyte which ingest and destroy foreign matter through phagocytosis.
 * They can easily move through the walls of blood capillaries and the site in which there is an infection.
 * A phagocyte comes in contact with pathogen cells and does not recognize the glycoprotein struture on its cell wall.
 * The pathogen is then ingested through endocytosis. Plasma membrane forms around pathogen.
 * Pathogen vacuole then binds with lysosome containing digestive enzymes which break down the pathogen.
 * Large numbers of phagocytes form pus.

State the difference between antigens and antibodies.
 * Antigens are macromolecules that elicit an immune response by lymphocytes.
 * Antibodies are proteins secreted by plasma cells that bind to a particular antigen and mark it for elimination.

Explain antibody production.
 * Antibodies are made by lymphocytes, which recognize an enormous number of antigens, but each individual cell recognizes only one type of antigen. Each lymphocyte puts some of the antibody that it makes into its cell surface with the antigen-combining site projecting outwards. When a pathogen enters the body, its antigens bind to the antibodies in the cell surface of one type of lymphocyte. The selected lymphocyte proliferates to give rise to a clone of identical cells bearing receptors for the selecting antigen. Some of the cells develop into short-lived plasma cells that secrete antibody specific for the antigen. Others develop into long-lived memory cells that can respond rapidly upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen.

Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.
 * HIV attacks T-cells which are part of the immune system that are important for the formation of Beta lymphocytes. The virus enters the T-Cells and replicates there. As reproduction increases, the cell breaks up and the virus RNA is spread to other T-cells. The virus keeps infecting and killing other T-cells, paralyzing the immune system. This enables other organisms usually kept under control by the immune system to be able to affect the body.

Discuss the cause, transmission and social impacts of AIDS
 * The cause of AIDS is that the HIV retro-virus develops further enough to change into AIDS.
 * HIV doesn’t survive outside of the body and can’t easily pass through the skin. Transmission involves the transfer of body fluids from an infected person to an uninfected one.
 * Through small cuts or tears in the vagina, penis, mouth or intestine during vaginal, anal or oral sex.
 * In traces of blood on a hypodermic needle that is shared by intravenous drug abusers.
 * Across the placenta from a mother to a baby, or through cuts during childbirth or in milk during breast feeding.
 * In transfused blood or with blood products such as Factor VIII used to treat haemophiliacs.

Social implications
 * Friends and families suffer grief.
 * Families become poorer if the individual with AIDS was the wage earner and is refused life insurance.
 * Individuals infected with HIV may become stigmatized and not find partners, housing or employment.
 * Sexual activity in a population may be reduced because of the fear of AIDS.

Gas Exchange
State the difference between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration.
 * Ventilation: Is the process of inhaling and exhaling, with oxygen entering the alveoli (large surface area).
 * Gas exchange: Process of exchanging one gas for the other between the alveoli and capillaries. (Carbon dioxide for oxygen).
 * Cell Respiration: The chemical process occurring in the mitochondria where energy is released as ATP.

Explain the necessity for a ventilation system.
 * A ventilation system is needed in order to obtain oxygen for living organisms and to get rid of carbon dioxide. Surface diffusion utilized by many smaller organisms is not sufficient in supplying the oxygen needs of the body. It is also needed to maintain a concentration gradient in the alveoli.

List the features of the alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.
 * Cells secrete fluid making the inner surface moist.
 * Increase in surface area.
 * Single layer of cells allowing for short diffusion distance
 * Dense network of capillaries near the surface.

Draw a diagram of the ventilation system including trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. Diagram of ventilation system

Explain the mechanism of ventilation in human lungs, including the action of the internal and external intercostals muscles, the diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles.
 * (You can try this in an exam room if you can't remember.)
 * When we inhale, the diaphragm moves down and becomes flat because abdominal muscles relax(allowing for more air). The volume of the thorax increases, air flows into the lungs. External intercostal muscles contract.
 * When we exhale, abdominal muscles contract and the diaphragm becomes dome-shaped, moving up. The volume of the thorax decreases and intercostal muscles contract causing pressure to increase. Air flows out to equalize pressure gradient.

Homeostasis and Excretion
State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment at a constant level or between narrow limits, including blood pH, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations, blood glucose, body temperature and water balance.
 * Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment at a constant level between narrow limits. This includes blood pH, oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations, blood glucose, body temperature and water balance.

Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.
 * Homeostasis involves maintaining the body in a environment between narrow limits by negative feedback mechanisms. Negative feedbacks contain a detector which measures the value of a feature to be controlled. This sends information to an effector, which then takes action.

State that the nervous and the endocrine systems are both involved in homeostasis.
 * The endocrine systems and nervous system are both involved in homeostasis.

State that the nervous systems consists of central nervous system and peripheral nerves and is composed of special cells called neurons that can carry electrical impulses rapidly.
 * The nervous systems consists of central nervous system and peripheral nerves and is composed of special cells called neurons that can carry electrical impulses rapidly.

Describe the control of body temperature including the transfer of heat in blood, the role of sweat glands, and skin arterioles, and shivering.

1) Blood near the skin exchanges heat with the environment to preserve 37°C temperature.

2) Vasoconstriction can decrease blood flow to the skin, preserving heat in cold weather. vasodilation will cause an increase of blood flow close to the skin, which will cool your body.

3) Sweating can cool the body as moisture on skin evaporates.

4) Shivering produces muscle heat.

State that the Endocrine systems consists of glands which release hormones that are transported in blood.

The Endocrine systems consists of glands which release hormones that are transported in blood.'

Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the role of glucagons, insulin, Alpha and Beta cells in the pancreatic islets. 1) Glucagons - released by Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets when blood sugar is low, it transforms stored glycogen into glucose that enters the blood stream. 2) Insulin - released by Beta cells in the pancreatic islets when blood sugar is high, it transforms glucose in blood to stored glycogen.

Define excretion.
 * Excretion is the process of eliminating from an organism waste products of metabolism and other products which are of no use.

Outline the role of the kidney in excretion and the maintenance of water balance.
 * The human body has two kidneys located in the back of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney is connected to the urinary bladder by the ureter which dumps toxins filtered by the kidneys into it, along with excess water. The renal artery will supply the kidney with urea and unwanted materials, which it also dumps in the bladder, and sends of the correct amounts of urea, salts, and water through the renal vein. Without the kidney the excess materials would not be able to be filtered out and may cause harm to the body.

Reproduction
Draw diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems. female: male:

Explain the role of hormones in regulating the changes of puberty (testosterone, estrogen) in boys and girls, and in the menstrual cycle (FSH, LH) estrogen and progesterone.

From birth to the age of ten, testosterone level is very low. It increases sharply after that and begins puberty in males. This is when sperm production takes place. Testosterone stays at high levels until the age of 40-50, then it gradually decreases. It is also responsible for voice change, hair growth in certain parts of the body, and the building of muscles. Estrogen leads to the production of eggs, which leads to the menstrual cycle. In the menstrual cycle, FSH secreted by pituitary gland increases, this is responsible for the growth of an oocyte (an immature egg) and it's follicle. Two weeks after the start of menstruation, ovulation occurs due to a sudden and sharp increase in LH from the pituitary gland. It also causes the empty follicle to develop into the yellow body (corpus luteum) which starts releasing the hormone progesterone. This is responsible for maintaining and thickening the endometrium(wall of the uterus) in preparation for implantation.

Reasons for the levels of FSH and LH rising at the end of the reproductive phase.

Estrogen and progesterone levels remain low as no follicles produce estrogen at the end of the reproductive phase. At this stage, this leads for FSH and LH production to not be inhibited. The high levels of FSH and LH do not cause hyper-ovulation in women because the ovary becomes insensitive to FSH and the primary follicles have all degenerated or have all been used.

Reasons for expecting the number of births of male and female babies to be equal.

Gender is determined by sex chromosomes. The chromosomes in females are XX and those in males are XY. Therefore, eggs carry an X chromosome, and a sperm carries either an X or a Y chromosome, as they separate during the first division of meiosis in males. Half of the sperm carry X chromosome and half carry a Y chromosome, therefore the chances that the sperm, which fertilizes the egg, is carrying an X chromosome as opposed to a Y chromosome are the same.

List the secondary sexual characteristics of both sexes.

Secondary sexual characteristics in males are the growth of pubic and armpit hair, growth of the larynx causing a deepening in voice, and building of muscles. In females, it is the growth of pubic hair, vagina, breasts, pelvis, fat deposits in thighs and buttocks, secretion of fluids in vagina, and the beginning of the menstrual cycle.

Explain how levels of other hormones control the FSH level during pregnancy.

Another hormone, HCG, stimulates the maintenance of the corpus luteum and as a result, the production of progesterone. The levels of progesterone rise during pregnancy and inhibit FSH production.

Discuss how many embryos fertility centers should be allowed to transfer.

Reducing the amount of embryos allowed to be transferred reduces the chance of having multiple births, which is beneficial as these types of births increase health risks for both the mother and the child, or children. Restricting the number of embryos allowed for transfer to two would prevent almost all multiple, especially triplet, births from occurring. In older mothers, however, there is a lesser risk of multiple births; therefore, more embryos could be transferred to them.

State the differences between copulation and fertilization.

Copulation is the physical contact between the male and female reproductive structures that is needed for the sperms to move from the male to the female but does not necessarily result in fertilization due to the use of a contraceptive or being infertile. Fertilization is the fusion of the male and female nuclei to produce the zygote.

Describe the early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst.

Fertilization occurs, resulting in mitotic divisions or cleavage divisions which lead to the formation of a ball of cells called the morula. The morula reaches the uterus about 4 days after fertilization. Slightly unequal divisions continue until the 7th day, causing a fluid filled spaced in the middle of the morula to form. This is the blastocyst. The outer cells of the blastocyst are called trophoblast and will imbed itself in the endometrium.

State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.

The fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.

State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta.

Materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta.

Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including progesterone and oxytocin.

Labor, delivery, and afterbirth mark the three stages of birth. Labor is marked by contractions of the uterus, it is stimulated by a hormone called oxytocin, which is released as levels of progesterone decrease by the pituitary gland. Oxytocin causes dilation of the cervix. The most powerful contractions are during the next stage, delivery. Placenta, along with other fluids and blood come out after the baby. This placenta that comes out marks the afterbirth. Labor and delivery are controlled by the actions of oxytocin, progesterone, and estrogen.

'''Describe four methods of family planning and contraception. [Chemical, mechanical and behavioral examples should be mentioned].'''

 * Chemical - Contraceptive pills prevent ovulation by inhibiting FSH and LH.

 * Mechanical - The use of a male condom prevents the release of sperm into vagina. Another method is intrauterine device (IUD) which prevents fertilization or implantation. There is sterilization. In this, the female gets a tube legation where the oviducts are tied so the sperm can't reach the egg, or the male gets a vasectomy where the sperm ducts are cut and prevents the release of sperm.

 * Behavioral - Abstinence has a 100% success rate of preventing pregnancy. Timing copulation with a woman's ovulation cycle is also effective at preventing pregnancy.

Discuss the ethical issues of family planning and contraception.

Some people believe it is unethical to abort a baby, that is to kill a fetus that was formed after fertilization. Other people think it is the right of the woman carrying the fetus to decide what to do with it.

Ethical considerations on the use of contraceptives may include: considerations about overpopulation, considerations about the future of the child(ren), religious considerations. Some religions teach that it is wrong to interfere with natural processes such as reproduction.

Outline the technique of amniocentesis.

Amniocentesis is where some amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac is drawn by a syringe through the abdomen of the mother. The cells are then grown on a tissue culture to be studied to create a karyotype and are then studied to find out if there are any abnormalities.

Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF)

 * 1. Various drugs are injected one a day for three weeks to stop the menstral cycle.
 * 2. Large doses of FSH are injected to stimulate ovaries to develop many follicles.
 * 3. HCG hormone is injected 36 hrs. before cell collection, causing the eggs to mature and loosen.
 * 4. Eggs are removed from the ovaries of a woman by suction through the vagina and are placed in a glass dish. The eggs are then cleaned to remove blood and other unwanted material. The egg is then incubated.
 * 5. A male provides sperm which is collected by a doctor.
 * 6. The healthiest sperm are selected and mixed with the egg, to force fertilization.
 * 7. Two or three eggs are selected and implanted in the uterus through the vagina.
 * 8. After a few weeks, a pregnancy test is administered.
 * 9. Later in the pregnancy, a scan is conducted to find a heartbeat.

Discuss the ethical issues of IVF.

 * For IVF - Childless and infertile couples are provided a means to have children. Suffering due to a genetic disease of infertility is reduced.

 * Against IVF - There is a high probability that children conceived using IVF from infertile parents would inherit this genetic disease, going against natural selection. Spare embryos are killed or donated to stem cell research.  Once fertilized embryos have been implanted in the uterus, the parents have the option of choosing which eggs shall be removed, essentially allowing humans the right to define life and death.  Those who do not remove extra eggs from the uterus have multiple births, increasing the risk of health problems for the fetus.

title: IB Biology/Human Health and Physiology


text:
IB Biology/Introduction

IB Biology refers to the International Baccalaureate (IB) group 4 experimental science Biology.

The following is (or will hopefully eventually be) an explanation of the entire IB Biology Syllabus: For first examinations in 2003. Please nte that this is now replaced by the 2009 examinations and the content of the pages are out of date. The syllabus has had significant revisions.

The Syllabus provided by the International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) consists of the titles displayed in bold. The explanations written in plain text below these titles have been added as supplementation and/or when further clarification is required. Basically, it takes away the need to research the "answers" to the syllabus and gives everyone a study-guide which can be accessed from anywhere, whenever needed. The following only covers the core material, all that is required for standard level Biology, and a few of the available HL/SL options.

Some Advice: Some may suggest that a large part of Biology is memorization which is a common mistake when studying Biology. The real difference is that between the Biological sciences (based on concepts) and those of the physical sciences (based on laws and theories). Thiis affects the style of learning required to master the biological sciences. Go through each part individually, don't try to digest everything at once. If you manage to go through each part individually over a long period of time, you will ace the exam. Good luck!

title: IB Biology/Introduction


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Mojito

The Mojito is a traditional Cuban drink, known to Americans as a favorite of Ernest Hemingway.

Ingredients

 * 2 oz. (60 mL) Cuban white rum
 * 1 lime (or 2 ounces (60 mL) lime juice)
 * 1 tsp powdered sugar
 * 4 mint leaves
 * Club soda

Garnishes

 * Mint sprig

Glass

 * Collins Glass

Instructions

 * 1) Muddle mint leaves and sugar
 * 2) Fill with ice, then add rum and lime juice
 * 3) Stir, then add a splash of club soda
 * 4) Garnish with mint sprig

Variations

 * Ernest Hemingway requested his Mojitos without sugar. Of course, this suggests that less lime juice be used.
 * Sometimes, the juiced lime is used as an additional garnish.
 * Bacardi heavily promotes their own proprietary variant.
 * Due to the United States embargo against Cuba, Cuban rum cannot (legally) be purchased in the United States; American bars use other light rums.
 * Vodka Revolution (a bar chain in England) make their mojitos by: crushing 3 tsp Demerara sugar,8-10 fresh mint leaves, torn up and 8 sections of a lime cut into 1cm cubes, together in the base of a glass. Then adding half the ice, pouring in 25ml Havana Club Rum, 25 ml Zubrowka Vodka and 50ml apple juice. Shake, add the rest of the ice and mint sprig to garnish.

Related Drinks

 * The virgin mojito may be referred to as a fauxjito. Less commonly, the term fauxjito may refer to house drinks that are similar to a mojito in some way or another.

 * The mojito is a descendant of the Draquecito, named after Sir Francis Drake and said to be his favorite drink before pirate battles. That drink is made with cachaça rather than rum, and uses water instead of ice and soda, neither of which would have been available to Drake on the high seas.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Mojito


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Mai Tai

The Mai Tai is perhaps the canonical Tiki cocktail and there are innumerable recipes for it. Here are a number of them:

Authentic Trader Vic's Mai Tais
Source:
 * Provided by Trader Vic's to The Search for the Ultimate Mai Tai

The Original from 1944
Ingredients:
 * 2 oz of 17-year old J. Wray & Nephew Rum over shaved ice
 * Juice of one lime
 * 1/2 oz Holland DeKuyper Orange Curaçao
 * 1/4 oz Rock Candy Syrup
 * 1/2 oz French Garnier Orgeat Syrup

Method:
 * Shake vigorously.
 * Add a sprig of fresh mint and spent lime shell

The "Old Way" from 1997
Ingredients:
 * 1 oz (3 cl) Fine Jamaican Rum (15 or 8 year old)
 * 1 oz Martinique Rum (St. James)
 * juice from one lime (~3/4 ounce)
 * 1/2 ounce Orange Curaçao
 * 1/2 ounce Orgeat syrup

Method:
 * Mix and serve as in the Original Formula

"Current" Mai Tai Formula
This recipe is what Trader Vic's restaurants serve today:

Ingredients:
 * 1/4 Lime squeeze (drop in glass as garnish)
 * 1/2 oz lemon juice
 * 3/4 oz Trader Vic's Mai Tai mix
 * 2 oz Royal Amber Rum
 * Garnish: maraschino cherry, pineapple, mint sprig

Shake all the ingredients in a shaker with ice and strain into an old fashioned glass over crushed ice. Garnish with fruits and mint, and serve with a straw.

Recipe #4
Don the Beachcomber Mai Tai

This version is much closer to what Don the Beachcomber served in his restaurants. It can be garnished with various fruits, as in the above recipe. Falernum is a spice and lime-based Caribbean liqueur/syrup with a very different taste from the Orgeat syrup used in the Maitai #1.

Ingredients
 * 2 oz (or 1/4 cup) water
 * 3/4 oz or 1-1/2 tablespoons fresh lime juice
 * 1 oz or 2 tablespoons fresh grapefruit juice
 * 1 oz or 2 tablespoons sugar syrup
 * 1 oz or 2 tablespoons dark rum
 * 1-1/2 oz or 3 tablespoons golden rum
 * 1/2 oz or 1 tablespoon Cointreau or triple Sec
 * 1/4 oz or 1/2 tablespoon Falernum liqueur/syrup
 * 2 dashes or scant 1/2 teaspoon Angostura bitters
 * 1 dash or scant 1/4 teaspoon Pernod or other anisette-flavored pastis

Shake all the ingredients in a shaker with ice and strain into a tall highball glass filled with crushed ice. Garnish with fruits and serve with a straw.

Recipe #5
The Warringtonian Mai Tai

Ingredients:

 * 2 oz orange juice
 * 2 oz pineapple juice
 * 1 oz Rose's lime juice
 * 1 oz dark rum
 * 1 oz light rum
 * 1/2 oz triple sec
 * 1/2 oz grenadine

Recipe #6
(aka the attempted Mai Tai.. happens in bars that do not carry Orgeat)

Fill a collins glass with ice. Add:
 * ¾ oz. Light Rum
 * ¾ oz. Dark Rum
 * ½ oz. Amaretto
 * ½ oz. Triple Sec

Fill with:
 * ½ Orange Juice
 * ½ Pineapple Juice

Lastly, add ½ oz. of Grenadine on top, it will sink to the bottom to create a layered look.

Grenadine is almost always heavier (more dense) than whatever beverage, alcoholic or not, you're making. That being said, if you'd like a thin red layer at the bottom of your beverages add it last. It also helps if you let it slide down the glass, as opposed to just pouring it in.
 * Note:

Recipe #7
O'Sheas Famous Mai Tai

Ingredients
 * 3 Ounces Raspberry or Regular Vodka
 * 3 Oz. Of Cranberry Juice
 * 3 Oz. of Orange Juice
 * 3 Oz. of Pineapple Juice
 * 3 Oz. of All Natural 7-Up

Instructions
 * 1) Pour vodka over shaved ice
 * 2) Add juices, stir with vodka in cocktail shaker
 * 3) Strain or leave with ice.

Recipe #8
Aussie Beachcomber

Ingredients:
 * 2 Shots - Good Quality Spiced Rum
 * 1 Shot - Cointreau
 * 1 Shot - Orgeat Syrup
 * Splash - Agave Syrup
 * 1/2 Lime - Juice
 * 2-3 Sprigs Mint
 * Mulled Pineapple (Optional)

Glass: Low Ball Glass

Method:

Pre-cool the glass with ice. Add all the ingredients into a cocktail shaker including the mint (mint must bruise with ice). Shake vigorously and pour into the glass over ice.

Recipe #9
Samurai Steve's Iowa Mai Tai

 * 1 oz white rum (Paramount or better)
 * 1 oz spiced rum (Captain Morgan or better)
 * 1 oz orange rum (Bacardi O or better)
 * 1 oz Malibu rum
 * 1 oz Sour mix
 * 1/2 oz Grenadine
 * 4 oz Pineapple Juice
 * 2 oz Orange Juice
 * 1 Glass with Ice
 * 1 Swirly straw or tiny umbrella

Directions:
 * 1) Mix rums into glass with ice
 * 2) Add Pineapple and Orange juices
 * 3) Top with Sour Mix and Grenadine
 * 4) Add swirly straw or tiny umbrella

Recipe #10
Mirage Hotel, Las Vegas Recipe

Very close to the original recipe.

Ingredients In an ice filled mixing glass add above ingredients minus the appleton: shake until well-blended, strain into an ice filled 16oz glass or cup and float the appleton on top. Garnish with spent lime shell, mint spring and pineapple spear.
 * 1 1/4 oz Appleton Jamaican rum
 * 1 1/4 oz Mount Gay Eclipse rum
 * 1/2 oz orange curacao
 * juice of 1 1/2 fresh lime
 * 1/2 oz orgeat syrup (almond syrup)
 * 1/2 oz rock candy syrup (2 parts sugar, 1 part water, boil until syrup)
 * Splash of Grenadine to achieve appropriate color.

Recipe #11
Fuji & Jade Garden (State College, PA - 2010) Recipe

A slight tweak on the original recipe. The parenthetical ingredients hint at how this version of the Mai Tai evolved.

Ingredients Glass: 12-oz Rocks Glass (aka Double Old-fashioned glass)
 * 3/4 oz Cruzan Estate Light rum
 * 3/4 oz Cruan Guava rum
 * 1/2 oz Trader Vic's Macadamia liqueur (or 3/4 oz Amaretto)
 * 1/2 oz DeKuyper triple sec (or Cointreau)
 * 1/2 oz Nellie & Joe's lime juice (or fresh)
 * 1/2 oz Velvet Falernum
 * 3/4 oz Zaya 12-yr Trinidad rum [floater]

Method:

In an ice-filled mixing glass add the first six of the above ingredients. Shake until well-blended, then pour into a 12oz rocks glass. Top with Zaya 12-yr rum as a floater. Garnish with fresh mint, orange slice and/or a pineapple spear.

Recipe #12
Ethan Giroir Recipe

A recipe that increases the orgeat for more flavor, removes demerara syrup to reduce sweetness, and blends rums in order to achieve an authentic imitation of the discontinued Wray & Nephew rum.

Ingredients
 * 3/4 oz Orgeat
 * 1 oz Lime Juice
 * 1/2 oz Pierre Ferrand dry curacao
 * 1 oz Smith & Cross rum
 * 1 oz Rhum Agricole

Combine ingredients in a shaker, making sure to not pour orgeat last so it does not stick to your jigger. Shake with crushed ice and a few bigger chunks for proper aeration. Serve unstrained in a Mai Tai mug with a sprig of mint and a straw.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Mai Tai


text:
Wikijunior:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments

Hello and Welcome to the Big Book of fun Science Experiments!

''This book is about science experiments that you can do in the home and experiments that you can nag your teacher to do in school. These experiments are easy to do and help in understanding various things about science.''

Featured Experiments
Yucky gooey slime! Isn't it just great?! We love it!
 * Slime recipes

 * Red cabbage indicator
 * Red cabbage indicators are great for showing if something is an acid or base. It's that exciting!

Want to be able to see the sun and solar eclipses clearly without hurting your eyes? Then this is for you!
 * Pinhole Camera

Raisin Dance

Make those raisins dance. And the best bit is - after you finish your experiment, you can eat the raisins!

Other Experiments
Chemistry Biology Physics
 * /Acid Investigations/ - It is ACID! Isn't it cool?
 * Baking Powder and Lemon Squash - A chemical reaction that you can drink; and you don't get chemical burns!
 * /How A Bath Fizzer Works, and How To Make One/ - Learn how that fizzer works, and make one with stuff you can get from your kitchen or a craft store. Children may enjoy making the salts in this chemistry experiment.
 * /Chromatography of inks/
 * Electricity from Lemons - Yep, those juices you put in your highly conductive drinking water have the potential to store electricity! Amazing!
 * Fun with Baking Powder and Vinegar - Bombs and fire extinguishers on the same page? You can do both with these two.
 * /Explosive foam/ - Use magnesium and HCl to get really explosive soap bubbles
 * Grow Your Own Crystals - Just what every kid needs: Your own crystals!
 * Power a boat with soap - The best part is: it is a boat powered with ordinary soap!
 * Grow Your Own Fungi - Don't have a garden? Never mind, you can create your own miniature one on a slice of bread.
 * Guide a Termite - Make them obey your every command!
 * /Keep your mouse warm/ - Ever had those days where you get to your mouse and you find the worst thing ever; that your mouse is — A LITTLE CHILLY? Well avoid such day wreckers in the future with this fun experiment.
 * /Make a colorful flower/ - How to dye a white carnation flower pretty colors.
 * Build your own periscope - WOW! It now takes even LESS energy to look around corners. What an age we live in!
 * How to make a Needle float, and How to make it sink - Learn that a steel needle can float in fresh water, but cannot in soapy water.
 * Make a floating compass - Who needs a store-bought compass when you can make your own?
 * Make a spinning paper helicopter - You can make a helicopter out of paper! Does one need any other reason to do this experiment?
 * Make a switch - Make a device to turn lights on and off.
 * Making rainbows in liquids - Have the time and skill to remain still in order to see pretty colors in liquids? Then this is most certainly for you!
 * /Test floating/ - Always make sure things float BEFORE you use them as a life preserver!
 * The fantastic squirting egg - Want to annoy other people by squirting them with eggs and not even put enough energy into it to crack an egg? Then this is for you!
 * /Oobleck/ - Make a substance that is both a liquid and a solid.
 * How to Make an Electromagnet - Make a real electromagnet from stuff you probably have lying around the house!

Other
 * Write secret messages - Do you fancy being a spy when you grow up?

Requested Experiments

 * /Why does it rain?/

bn:Wikijunior:মজার বৈজ্ঞানিক গবেষণা


text:
User:Theresa Knott

I am the same person as User:Theresa knott I had a problem with my login so i created a new account.

See my Wikipedia Page. w:User:Theresa knott

title: User:Theresa Knott


text:
User talk:Theresa Knott

The same person as User:Theresa knott

Wikibooks is not Wikipedia, does not have same blocks
On WB:RFA you wrote: ''The problem is that this school is on a huge shared network that regulaly gets blocked from Wikipedia because of vandals from other schools. I need to be able to unblock the network so that my (lovely, well behaved) pupils can edit (and reblock when we have finished if necessary).''

I wonder if this is causing confusion? Wikibooks is a sister project of Wikipedia. Wikibooks is not Wikipedia, in the same way that Wikibooks is not Wikiquote. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, but Wikibooks is not an encyclopedia. The two projects also have separate sets of administrators, and separate lists of blocked users and IPs. If a Wikipedia administrator blocks your network from editing the Wikipedia encyclopedia, then access to Wikibooks is not affected. Users of your network can continue to edit Wikibooks, even when they are blocked from Wikipedia. I sometimes use an IP address which is blocked at Wikipedia, but not at Wikibooks. When I use that IP, I can edit Wikibooks, but not Wikipedia.

So, in short, if your "huge shared network" becomes "blocked from Wikipedia", you do not need to unblock it on Wikibooks. This is unless someone blocks it from Wikibooks also.

You might also want to read Names on MetaWikipedia. --Kernigh 19:10, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

LOL yeah I know all that already, I was involved at the very start of wikibooks. I was IIRC the third administrator on wikibooks. I figured that if wikipedia regulaly blocks the whole school network than so most likely will wikibooks. Theresa Knott 19:54, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Sysop rights
I contacted the developers about your problem. See w:User_talk:Theresa_knott.

Anyway, I'm going to be online at 6 am UTC (10 hours from now) and if the issue won't get resolved, I would just grant you sysop rights. --Derbeth talk 20:25, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Theresa Knott


text:
Visual Basic/User Interfaces

A user interface is the part of your program that is visible to a human user. It can be as simple as a command line or as sophisticated as an immersive virtual reality simulator (see Death Dream by Ben Bova). However, in the context of Visual Basic it usually means what is commonly referred to as a Graphical User Interface or GUI which generally consists of one or more Forms that contain text boxes, labels, buttons, picture boxes, etc.

A more common example of a GUI would be a standard EXE(Windows Forms).

title: Visual Basic/User Interfaces


text:
User:Daniel.Stevens

I'm currently a prospective university student with an appetite in the social sciences!

Pages I have worked on:
 * IB Biology
 * IB English
 * IB Economics
 * IB History Review Guide

-Note: I most likely will not contribute further to these wikibooks, if anyone wants to take them off my hands, be my guest.

title: User:Daniel.Stevens


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Black and Tan

The Black and Tan is, appropriately, a mixture of black- and tan-colored beers.

Ingredients

 * 1/2 pint Guinness Stout
 * 1/2 pint Bass Ale

Glass

 * Pint

Instructions
Layer stout over ale

Related Cocktails

 * The Half and Half, which replaces the Bass with Harp Lager. In a more general sense, the terms "Half and Half" and "Black and Tan" are often used interchangeably, so it is probably best to verify what the customer wants in his drink.

Black and Tan

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Black and Tan


text: Category:Cocktails with beer

title: Category:Cocktails with beer


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Manhattan

The Manhattan is a classic American cocktail.

Ingredients

 * 1 shot Rye or Canadian whiskey
 * 1/2 shot Sweet vermouth
 * Angostura bitters

Garnishes

 * Maraschino cherry

Glass

 * Cocktail Glass

Instructions

 * 1) Pour whiskey and vermouth over ice in a mixing glass
 * 2) Add a dash of bitters
 * 3) Stir and strain into a cocktail glass
 * 4) Garnish with a cherry

Variations

 * The Perfect Manhattan (half dry vermouth, half sweet vermouth)
 * The ratio can be made sweeter or drier
 * Brandy Manhattans are popular in some regions

Related Drinks

 * The Rob Roy, which is made with Scotch
 * Less closely, the Martini, and all its relatives

Manhattan

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Manhattan


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Bartending/Cocktails/Old Fashioned

The Old Fashioned cocktail is a pre-Prohibition American cocktail.

Ingredients

 * 1 shot Rye
 * Half-slice of orange
 * 1 tsp Sugar (or simple syrup)
 * Angostura bitters

Garnishes

 * Maraschino Cherry
 * Orange

Glass

 * Old-Fashioned Glass

Instructions

 * 1) Place sugar in glass; add water (~1 tsp) to dissolve
 * 2) Muddle in bitters and orange slice
 * 3) Fill with ice, add whiskey
 * 4) Garnish with cherry

Variations

 * The amount of whiskey may be increased
 * The Brandy Old Fashioned is popular in some areas, and a rum analogue can be made as well
 * This drink is also often served in a highball glass instead of its namesake old-fashioned glass

Recipe for San Diego Old Fashioned
This recipe was contributed by Big V, who was clued in to Old Fashioned cocktails by her grandpa Sid. In Sid's words, "An Old Fashioned is the best drink in the world. It's like an alcoholic lemonade".
 * 2 oz bourbon (try to find one with an intense toffee finish)
 * 2 maraschino cherries
 * The juice of 2 maraschino cherries
 * 1/4 lime
 * 1/2 lemon
 * 1/2 orange
 * 2 oz drinking water
 * 2 oz Perrier
 * 4 ice cubes
 * 12 oz Mason jar

 * 1) Muddle cherries in cherry juice in the bottom of Mason jar
 * 2) Squeeze in the juices of all citrus fruits
 * 3) Add drinking water
 * 4) Add Perrier
 * 5) Add ice cubes
 * 6) Add bourbon
 * 7) Stir

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Old Fashioned


text: Category:Cocktails with whiskey

title: Category:Cocktails with whiskey


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Mint Julep

The Mint Julep is a mixed alcoholic drink, or cocktail originating in the Southern United States. The word 'julep' is derived from the Persian 'julab' meaning rose water. There are a number of ways of making a mint julep. All are served over crushed ice in a julep glass with a narrow cocktail straw. It is correct to use the straw when drinking this cocktail.

Ingredients

 * 4 oz bourbon whiskey
 * 4-6 sprigs of mint
 * 1 tsp sugar

Garnish
Mint Leaves

Glass
Tall glass or Julep cup

Procedure

 * 1) Crush the sugar with the sprigs of mint in the bottom of the glass.
 * 2) Fill the glass with crushed ice and then add the bourbon. Feel free to add more bourbon to fill the glass, if necessary.
 * 3) Garnish with remaining mint.
 * 4) Insert a straw, cutting it to no more than 2 inches (5 cm) above the rim of the glass (allows one to smell the julep while drinking).
 * 5) Serve.

Ingredients

 * 1 tbs sugar syrup
 * 4-6 sprigs of mint
 * 4 oz bourbon whiskey

Procedure

 * 1) To make the sugar syrup, simply heat equal parts sugar and water, then cool.
 * 2) Add syrup and mint to a glass of crushed ice.
 * 3) Fill the glass with bourbon and serve.

Some recipes call for making a "mint bourbon" by soaking mint in the bourbon for days before serving. Other recipes call for steeping the mint in the hot water for 5 minutes, then removing it before adding the sugar to make the syrup.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Mint Julep


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Boilermaker

The boilermaker consists of a shot of whiskey and a glass of beer.

Ingredients

 * 1 pint American Pilsner
 * 1 shot Tennessee Whiskey (or Bourbon)

Glass

 * Beer glass
 * Shot glass

Instructions
Generally, the shot of whiskey and beer are served separately to the customer. There is more than one way to consume this drink; one can:

 * Shoot the whiskey and then drink the beer
 * Pour the whiskey in the beer
 * Take the whiskey as a "depth shot," that is, drop the shot glass into the beer, causing the beer to foam up, and then chug the result. Note that this is not exactly the safest procedure, especially after a few drinks; if the shot glass breaks when dropped, it may go unnoticed until the glass shards hit the throat.

Related Drinks

 * The Irish Car Bomb, where the shot consists of a 2:1 mixture of Irish whiskey and Irish cream
 * The Dog's Nose, with gin
 * The Beer Buster, with vodka and a couple dashes of tabasco

Boilermaker

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Boilermaker


text: Category:Cocktails with bourbon

title: Category:Cocktails with bourbon


text:
Talk:Bartending/Cocktails/Mint Julep

Since we are coming around to the Kentucky Derby 2006, I decided that we needed some Julep recipes. Enjoy. Dlc3007 13:09, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Quantity/type of mint
The directions call for "5-6 sprigs of mint" for every 3oz of bourbon. I have been making mint juleps frequently for a few years, and I would say that this recipe calls for a lot of mint. I have an English mint plant (a variety of spearmint), and 5-6 _leaves_ for every two or three shots of bourbon is enough to make a very minty julep. Can anyone else comment on mint quantities? I have used peppermint, as well as some wild mint (unsure of the variety) in the past, and the results were the same.

title: Talk:Bartending/Cocktails/Mint Julep


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/Google earth/Exercises

1)Using the basic KML document examples from the chapter as a guide, creat your own version of each document. You will need to use Google Earth to find the exact coordinates for your locations.

2)Practice copy and pasting code into a text editor, then changing the file name to a .kml extension so it opens up correctly in Google Earth when you open the file.

3)Experiment with Google Earth's interface. Practice right clicking on features and saving the code so you can view it.  Take your own virtual vacation!


text:
Cookbook talk:Baked Potatoes

I suggest this be moved to Cookbook:Baked Potatoes, since being cooked in foil is not an integral part of this recipe and as I just added, they can be microwaved. 203.214.115.130 13:44, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Good idea, and good point about the foil not being an integral part of the recipe. Seeing as how there've not been any objections in 8+ years, I've just gone ahead and moved the page. Schneelocke (discuss • contribs) 15:24, 8 June 2014 (UTC)

If one were to cook these in the oven, at what temperature should the oven be set? 75.206.209.156 07:24, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Baked Potatoes


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Alexander

The Alexander is said to be named after Czar Alexander II of Russia.

Ingredients

 * 1/2 shot Gin or Brandy
 * 1/2 shot Heavy cream (or half-and-half)
 * 1/2 shot White creme de cacao

Garnishes

 * Nutmeg

Instructions

 * 1) Combine ingredients over ice
 * 2) Shake and strain into glass
 * 3) Sprinkle nutmeg on top

Related Cocktails

 * This drink is an ancestor of a popular modern drink: the White Russian.

Brandy Alexander

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Alexander


text: Category:Cocktails with brandy

title: Category:Cocktails with brandy


text:
Cookbook:Microwaving

Microwaving is cooking food in a microwave oven. It is often quicker and more convenient than equivalent methods such as boiling or baking. Many vegetables, for example, can be microwaved instead of boiled or steamed.

As with other cooking instruments some care must be taken and food should be checked regularly if it is microwaved for a long period. Aluminium foil and other metal items should never be put in a microwave. Always use a container labelled "microwave safe" to avoid toxins in foods. Similarly, metal decorations on the dishes can damage the dishes and denature the food.

Items are often extremely hot after being microwaved, so take care when removing them.

General
Microwave cooking includes a number of methods which at first sight are similar to those used in a conventional oven. The methods all make use of a microwave oven, and that might be either a simple microwave heating device, or one that includes the additional techniques of steaming, crisping, or grilling.

Although microwave cooking is in general use, it is usually acknowledged as having more limited scope than conventional ovens. That said, for those tasks for which it is particularly useful, it is both efficient in energy terms and in the time it takes to complete its tasks.

The basic microwave oven heats by the movement of water in the foods. This movement generates the heat that is used for cooking. This technique cannot in itself cause browning, so the above-mentioned combination ovens have been designed with additional heating elements (grilling). Like conventional ovens, some foods are dried out at their surface during cooking, so both the addition of water and steaming are commonly used. Additional crisping plates are used to make foods like pizza and roast potatoes crisp on their surface.

Containers for Microwaving

 * Metal Containers must never be used conjunction with microwaves.  Microwaves are reflected by any kind of metal, and it can be quite a violent event if the power levels are high.   Clearly, food in a metal container would not receive any energy and so apart from the dangers mentioned, the food would just not heat well.   This comment also applies to materials that contain traces of metal, such as some glasses and porcelains, and in particular items that have an obvious metallic trim or decoration.
 * In general, containers made for microwave use are marked as Microwave Safe.  Other items without marking can of course be used but a test is needed to check whether or not they are safe.   The test is to fill a cup with water and place the container and it in the microwave to heat on high for a couple of minutes;   if by the time the water is hot, the empty container remains cool, then it is probably transparent to microwaves and might well be safe to use;   the other thing to consider is whether or not the container can sustain the conducted heat from hot food, and whether or not the additional grilling functions of a combi microwave will cause it damage.   That said, most table plates and Pyrex, stoneware, and earthenware containers without elaborate decoration will be found suitable.
 * Cling Film improvised lids.  Steam vents must be made in any lid or covering used in the microwave, to avoid the build up of pressure.   Choose a food wrap material that is sold as being suitable for the microwave.   Some materials are made only for cold wrapping, and in general these days, non-pvc materials are preferred for microwave lids.   Disposable microwave cooking bags with a seal are to be had.   These effectively substitute for containers and can help to keep the microwave clean.
 * Accessory packs for the microwave are often supplied with a new item.  These are made of a microwave-safe material and commonly contain a two-part steamer and lid, a crisper plate, and a plate cover with a vent already in it.
 * Exceptions.  Sometimes small pieces of aluminum foil can be used to protect parts of the food from  overcooking.

Heat Circulation
Because microwaves cannot effectively penetrate food beyond about one or two inches, food in excess of these dimensions depends on conduction of heat from the absorption regions to cook them. For this reason microwave cooking has adopted a number of necessary conventions.
 * Stop and Stir often during the cooking - Stirring is essential to make sure both that relatively cool parts of the food reach the energy and that the existing heat is evenly distributed. It is usual to stir foods at least once, and preferably more, during their cooking.
 * Thin layers of food heat best. When there is a choice food is arranged for cooking in thin layers rather than thick ones. Additionally, since the food at the center of a plate is found to receive less heat than that at the edges, the thickest food items are best placed on the outside.
 * Water helps heat transit. To assist in the circulation of heat some recipes add a tablespoon or two of water, for example, in the softening of vegetables.
 * Thick items are cooked slowly. Thin food penetration is consistent but conduction through thick sections of food takes time, so thick sections of food and food that cannot be easily stirred tend to be given longer times at correspondingly lower power levels, where the best results are obtained when the outside of the food is prevented from drying out at the same time; for example, by enclosing in a microwave bag.

Adjusting Cooking Times for Power Level
If the microwave oven used for the recipe did not have a 750W or 350W setting, but had a 600W and a 300W setting instead, then all of the cooking times could be adjusted for the new power levels. The new cooking times would just become (750/600) times 6, and 350/300 times 10. For example: The old cooking times were 6 minutes at 750W and 10 minutes at 350W. The ratio is always: "Recipe quoted power divided by machine power being used" These times are therefore just: (750/600)*6  =  7.5 minutes at 600W and (350/300)*10  = 11.91 or about 12 minutes at 300W So the old cooking times are increased slightly in proportion to the change in power. The change could be calculated for a more powerful oven too, using the same proportionate method. That is to say, power changes can always be calculated on the assumption of proportionality. In fact it is likely that cooking times will be adjusted for both changed power settings and for changed weights of ingredients. In this event the table in the next section may prove useful.

Adjusting Cooking Times for Changed Weights
If the weights of the food to be cooked much differ from those of the recipe then the cooking times will be wrong. It is possible to adjust the cooking times to take account of these changes, but the changed cooking times do not work in proportion to the change in the way of power level changes. Specifically, if you double a recipe quantity, you should not necessarily double the time; it is more likely to be closer to a multiple of 1.5 times the original recipe time; not twice.

The figures given in the table are approximations for small changes, and should not be used beyond a single doubling or halving of the recipe time; that is, they cannot be used four times to increase by eight, since large errors will occur. Make gradual changes minute by minute when near the approximate time, and check the cooking each time to get it right.

Microwave Recipes for Basic Foods

 * Cookbook:Microwave 1 2 3 cake
 * Cookbook:Microwave Chocolate Cake
 * Cookbook:Microwave Chocolate Pudding
 * Cookbook:Mirliton casserole
 * Cookbook:Microwave Peanut Brittle
 * Cookbook:Microwave Quesdilla
 * Rice: Bismati
 * Rice: Rissotto

title: Cookbook:Microwaving


text:
Cookbook talk:Campfire S'mores

This really needs a picture, I have never known what these are (or what a graham cracker is, either). 203.214.115.130 13:55, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Campaign S'Mores
Has anyone eaten these? What can be used instead of Graham.Crackers as the base biscuit? Two.dogz (discuss • contribs) 04:34, 22 September 2017 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Campfire S'mores


text:
IB Economics/Introduction to Economics

 * 1.1 /Basic Definitions/
 * 1.2 /PPF and PPC/
 * 1.3 /Free Market vs Planned Economy/

Key Terms
-

A social science is a study of society and the way individuals interact within it.

Economics is a social science, and is the study of how society employs finite resources in order to satisfy infinite wants.

Microeconomics is the study of individual economic units such as households and firms.

Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole.It is the part of economics concerned with large-scale or general economic factors, such as interest rates and national productivity.

Growth is an increase in economic activity.

GDP/National Income is the value of all final goods and services produced within an economy in a given time period.

Potential output is the highest possible level of output that can be sustained over the long term.

Development is an increase in the standards of living. It is a qualitative measure, taking into account factors like education and health.

Positive statements are based on facts or evidence so can be proven or disproved using a scientific approach.

Normative statements are opinion based and biased. They cannot be proven or disproved.

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of today without compromising the needs of tomorrow.

Ceteris paribus is Latin for all other things being equal.

Scarcity is the result of no resources being infinite, whereas the want of them is.

Factors of production include land, labour, capital and enterprise. These are the resources necessary to create goods and services in an economy.

Land is the gift of nature, everything on, under, above or in the land/sea. It is in return for rent.

Labour is the human component of the production of a good. It is in return for wages.

Capital is any man made assistance to existing wealth/capital. It is in return for interest.

Enterprise takes the risk and combines the other factors of production. It is in return for profit.

Utility is the satisfaction gained from the consumption of a product.

Opportunity cost is the cost of the next best alternative forgone.

A free good is one which is not scarce, has no opportunity cost and therefore no price.

An economic good is one which is scarce and therefore has an opportunity cost and price.

A free market is one in which resource allocation is determined by market forces (demand and supply). Market forces decide the answers to the three economic questions, what, how and for whom to produce.

A centrally planned/command economy is one in which resource allocation is determined by a central authority/government agent. The authority decides the answers to the three economic questions.

A transitional economy is one in transition between a command and free market system.

Goods are tangible products and can be split into durable and non-durable goods. Durable goods are consumed over time.

Services are intangible products.

A market is somewhere where goods and services are bought and sold.

A Production Possibility Curve/Frontier (PPF/PPC) is used to show all the possible combinations of two goods/services that can be produced within an economy. The curve itself is the potential output while anything inside is attainable.

title: IB Economics/Introduction to Economics


text:
User:Dan131m

Former financial professional

title: User:Dan131m


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Agencies

Statutes listed by Administering Agency

Administered by Georgia Environmental Protection Division (EPD)

 * Environmental Policy Act
 * Erosion and Sedimentation Act of 1975
 * Flint River Drought Protection Act
 * Groundwater Use Act
 * Mountain and River Corridor Protection Act
 * Natural Areas Act
 * Planning Act of 1989
 * Safe Dams Act of 1978
 * Safe Water Drinking Act
 * Scenic Rivers Act of 1969
 * Surface Mining Act
 * Surface Water Use Act
 * Water Quality Control Act
 * Water Supply Act
 * Waterwell Standards Act

2. Administered by Georgia Department of Natural Resources

 * Beach Sand and Channel Dredging
 * Boat Safety Act
 * Coastal Management Act
 * Coastal Marshlands Protection Act of 1970
 * Endangered Wildlife Act of 1973
 * Game and Fish Code
 * Heritage Trust Act of 1975
 * Land Conservation Act
 * Nongame Wildlife Conservation Programs Act of 1985
 * Protection of Tidewaters Act
 * Right of Passage Act
 * Shore Protection Act
 * Wildflower Preservation Act of 1973

Administered by other Georgia state agencies

 * Dumping Navigation Impediments
 * Intracoastal Waterway
 * Local Government Public Works Construction Law
 * Navigation Companies
 * Pilots and Pilotage
 * Ports Authority Act
 * Uniform Conservation Easement Act

Administered by EPA

 * U.S. Clean Water Act
 * U.S. Safe Water Drinking Act

Administered by the Department of the Interior

 * U.S. Endangered Species Act
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Sport Fish Restoration Act
 * U.S. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act
 * U.S. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act

Administered by Other Federal Agencies

 * U.S. Coastal Barrier Resources Act
 * U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act
 * U.S. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
 * U.S. Executive Order 13112
 * U.S. Land and Water Conservation Fund Act
 * U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act
 * U.S. Migratory Bird Treaty Act
 * U.S. National Environmental Policy Act
 * U.S. National Invasive Species Act
 * U.S. Plant Protection Act

title: Georgia Water/Laws/Agencies


text:
Georgia Water/Laws/Uniform Conservation Easement Act

 Georgia Uniform Conservation Easement Act, O.C.G.A. §§ 44-10-1 to 8

General Description
The Act creates the standards for the use of conservation easements for the purpose of protecting forest, open-spaces, and agricultural land. A conservation easement is a restriction on a piece of land that prevents development and maintains the land in its current state. These provisions do not directly relate to water resources, but the conservation measures may help to maintain natural waterways and water quality.

Creation and recordation
A conservation easement is created, transferred, and recorded in the same way as other easements. The easement is recorded in the county Superior Court.

Practical Information
A conservation easement is a way to protect a piece of green space into the future. Placing a conservation easement on a piece of property can result in tax advantages for the land owner. These easements are often held and managed by community nonprofit groups such as land trusts.


text:
Nissan 240SX Performance Modification/Differential/Helical Diff Reviews

Quaife and OBX make helical diffs for our cars, which work the same as the S15 helical. The OBX differential is a cheap copy of the Quaife differential, and is a relatively new and unproven product.


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Martini

The Martini, more so than any other drink, embodies the class and style of the cocktail in the popular imagination.

Ingredients

 * 3 oz. (5.5 cl) Gin
 * 1/2 oz. (1.5 cl) Dry (white/blanc) vermouth (preferably Noilly Prat or Dolin, alternately Martini & Rossi) with ice and water

Garnishes
Either:
 * Cocktail olive, queen size at minimum. Or olive juice could be added to make it a 'dirty martini'; or,
 * A twist of lemon peel (including the pith);

Glass

 * Cocktail Glass

Instructions

 * 1) Fill a martini glass with ice and water, set aside.
 * 2) Fill the glass half of a two-piece cocktail shaker to the top with ice, add 1 oz. dry vermouth.
 * 3) Fill the shaker again with ice, add 2 oz. gin, stir gently.
 * 4) Discard ice and water in the martini glass.
 * 5) Strain martini into glass.
 * 6) Garnish with one olive (two makes it a Franklin).

Variations

 * Adjust the gin/vermouth ratio for a drier martini. The trend in the latter part of the 20th century was to go "ultra-dry" by limiting the amount of vermouth to smaller and smaller quantities.  However, this limits the drink to being essentially a cocktail glass of cold gin.  The additional herbal and tempering qualities of vermouth are necessary for the proper flavor profile.  A 6:1 gin to vermouth ratio is considered "ideal" though your taste may vary.
 * Replacing the green olive with a pickled cocktail onion turns the Martini into a Gibson Cocktail.
 * More extreme variants introduce triple sec and/or bitters, but the "classic" recipe stands as merely gin and vermouth.
 * If you want to be James Bond, the classic Fleming recipe involves an ounce and a half of vodka, an identical portion of gin, and a half-ounce of Lillet Blanc, shaken over ice and served with a twist of lemon.
 * Stuffed olives go well with a martini. The "Spanish" olive, green stuffed with pimento, is the default.  However, those olives stuffed with a garlic clove or bleu cheese are popular as well.
 * Adding a splash of the olive brine to the drink makes it a "Dirty Martini." Some prefer the additional element of saltiness that this adds.
 * A Churchill martini involves shaking 6 parts of gin, straining into a cocktail glass, looking at the bottle of vermouth, and serving with an olive garnish.

Related Cocktails

 * The Martini is a member of a family of cocktails sometimes referred to as the French-Italian cocktails. Other examples are the Manhattan, Rob Roy, and Harvard Cocktail.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Martini