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Embedded Control Systems Design/Real Time Operating systems

RTOS
RTOS are Operating Systems (OS) which act in Real Time (RT). This means that RTOS have other purposes than general OS or embedded operating systems (EOS). Where the general OS have the goal to maximize the average throughput of tasks (data?), in RTOS the keyword is determinism. Real-time tasks have to be completed before a certain deterministic deadline. This requires that responses to stimulus must always execute within a constant amount of time. Violation of the specified timing constraints is (normally) considered catastrophic. Non real-time systems are considered correct if certain inputs map to certain outputs: the system (code and hardware) must always do the proper thing given some current state and input. Real-time systems must achieve the same logical correctness, but must achieve this logical correctness using constant time algorithms. Because of this additional requirement on executional behavior, the implementations of RTOS differ significantly from other OS, although the general principles are the same.

An example of a different algorithm to achieve the same logical behavior but within constant time: Imagine the system must respond to 25 different inputs, and for each of these inputs, a specific output is generated. A perfectly acceptable non-real-time implementation is to have a loop that iterates through the list of possible inputs to determine the proper output. However, such a loop varies in execution time: the input that happens to be first in the list can be identified much faster than the input that happens to be 25th in the list. A constant time approach is to use a hash, such that the input itself can be immediately mapped to the proper output. So a real-time solution would use a hash instead of a loop to select between many inputs and outputs. In fact, the existence of loops with non-constant executions certainly indicates that the algorithm is not a real-time algorithm.

Another clear distinction between real-time and non-real-time is how one handles contentions for shared resources. In real-time systems, data contention is avoided to the greatest extent possible, and where contention does occur, exactly zero or one semaphores can be used, and generally zero semaphores, instead using lock-free protocols between those sharing the contended resource. To ensure that code changes cannot accidentally influence this hard and absolute limit, procedure calls are not allowed when semaphores are being held. In non-real-time systems, any number of nested semaphores can be used, as long as they are released in the order they are taken.

Some people make a distinction between soft and hard RTOS. In one way, such systems are the same: in both, it is necessary to demonstrate that there is always idle time before any deadline, hence that real-time deadlines will be met. However, the approach is fundamentally different: Soft real-time means the developers hope their computing platform is simply fast enough to keep up; hard real-time means the system is architected, designed, and implemented using only real-time algorithms.

RTOS have 4 main responsibilities:
 * task management and scheduling;
 * (deferred) interrupt servicing;
 * inter-process communication and synchronization; and
 * memory management.

Design of RTOS
Because determinism is often compromised in “high-level” programming language and OS constructs, real-time designers are confronted more directly than “normal” application developers with concepts, timing, memory and efficiency at the level of the OS.

Task management and scheduling
The responsibility of task management includes the scheduling of the multiple tasks. Because scheduling is pure overhead, the RTOS implement scheduling algorithms which are not too complex.

The simpler the algorithm, the faster, smaller (less memory) and more predictable the task will be executed.

The simplest approach to the scheduling problem is to assign (static/dynamic) priorities to all tasks. It's quite obvious as an example that the creation and deletion of tasks shouldn't be done during RT-tasks. Unfortunately, priority-based scheduling has a variety of obvious problems ("starvation", "deadlock") and more subtle problems ("livelock", priority inversion).

Using priorities implies using pre-emption: a lower priority task which is running should be interrupted in order to run a higher priority task. Priority-based scheduling, however, is difficult for the application programmers: they must try to map the often complex synchronization interdependencies between the different threads in their application onto the linear scale offered by priorities. The problem with this kind of scheduling is that it is an indirect way to specify how to cope with timing and synchronization constraints: these are translated in priorities.

One often-observed phenomenon in RT applications that grow over time, is that the programmers tend to raise the priorities of some threads, every time they notice that the introduction of new functionality disturbs the synchronization of the existing threads.

It's actually the system designer who has to decide which tasks get which priorities, because many programmers have the urge to prioritize their tasks. In this case it's important to see there's only 1 task which should obtain the highest priority. One could say that that task is the “hardest” task in the context of hard/soft RT.

Properly balancing latency, throughput, and fairness in schedulers is an open problem.

Timers
The timing constraints of RT-tasks are often specified in less than micro-seconds instead of milliseconds. Hence, the data structure in which the time is kept should be adapted to this higher rate, in order to avoid overflow. A 32 bit counter would rapidly overflow if the OS counts in nanoseconds (e.g. (2^32)/(10^9) = 4 seconds till overflow). In this case it would be more appropriate to use a 64 bit counter. These timers are called high resolution timers.

 * problem with atomic operation for a 64 bit counter?

Watchdog timers
The ISR contains one or more watchdog timers. Such a timer triggers a restoring task if the current running task is taking too much time in which nothing really happened. Through this way possible faults (such as a hang) can be covered for. The watchdog could then possibly provide debugging information, if it is designed for it.

Watchdog timers may also trigger control systems to move into a safety state, such as turning off motors, high-voltage electrical outputs, and other potentially dangerous subsystems until the fault is cleared.

Interrupt servicing
Most modern OS are interrupt-driven. This means that if there are no processes waiting to be executed, no I/O-devices requesting a service and no users waiting for an answer, the OS waits till something happens.

Events are almost always signaled by an interrupt or a trap. A trap is an interrupt that is generated by the software, either after an error or after a specific request of a user program to execute a system service. For each type of interrupt there are separate code segments available in the OS. These segments determine how the OS reacts on a particular event. Peripheral hardware are special in that they can request the attention of the OS asynchronously, e.g. at the time they want to use the OS services, the OS has to make sure it is ready to service the requests. These requests are signaled by an interrupt. It's rather obvious that during a real-time task those other tasks (reading/writing on disks, accessing USB, etc.) should be postponed.

The OS is, in principle, not involved in the execution of the code triggered by the hardware interrupt: this is taken care by the CPU without software interference. The OS does have influence on
 * connecting a memory address to every interrupt line and
 * what has to be done immediately after the interrupt has been serviced.

What does this mean for a RTOS? Interrupts have to be processed by a so-called ISR (Interrupt Service Routine). The faster this ISR can do his job, the better the real-time performance of the RTOS, because other tasks are delayed less. Let’s take a look at the hardware and software side of an interrupt-driven system (which many RTOS and EOS are) and their typical components.

Interrupt Hardware

 * Interrupt vector vs non-vectored Interrupt proc.
 * An Interrupt vector is used in systems with more than one hardware interrupt line and all these interrupt lines are assembled in an interrupt vector. The interrupt vector is an array of pointers to the interrupt service routines. In non-vectored systems when an interrupt occurs, control is transferred to a single routine that decides what to do with the interrupt. For RT-systems an interrupt vector is feasible because it lowers the processing time of an interrupt.

 * Edge-triggered and level-triggered interrupts
 * Peripheral devices can transmit their interrupt signals in two different ways. Edge-triggered interrupts hold risks for a hardware or software loss of the interrupt and are generally not an efficient solution. For RTOS and EOS where determinism is an important factor level-triggered interrupts are favourable.

 * Interrupt controller
 * This is a piece of hardware that shields the OS from the electronic details of the interrupt lines. Some are able to queue interrupts so that none get lost (determinism!) and some allow assigning priorities to different interrupts. Examples are a PIC or an APIC. Working with an APIC is beneficial in a RTOS and EOS.

Interrupt Software
Interrupt Service Routine This software routine is called when an interrupt occurs on the interrupt line for which the ISR has been registered in the interrupt vector. The OS does not intervene in the launching of an ISR, everything is done by the CPU. The context of the current task is saved on the stack of that task, so each task must get enough stack space to cope with ISR overhead. An ISR should be as short as possible, because it runs with interrupts disabled, which prevents other interrupts from being served and tasks from proceeding (RTOS!). Further processing is a goal of the DSR. Getting data from the ISR to the DSR should be done in a non-blocking way.

Trap handler/service request The software interrupts are called by the processor itself, such as in the case of a register overflow, errors,... They are similar to hardware interrupts, but they run with hardware interrupts enabled.

Interrupt latency This is the time between the arrival of the hardware interrupt and the execution of the corresponding ISR. It is a statistical quantity and it is important to try and get this number as low as possible and as deterministic as possible in an RTOS. Modern processors with many levels cache and pipelines are prone to indeterminism

Interrupt priorities Adds complexity and problems/opportunities known in task scheduling to the interrupt handling. Not wanted in a RTOS/EOS.

Interrupt nesting Adds complexity to the code. In a deterministic environment is this not wanted.

Interrupt sharing Many systems allow different peripheral devices to be linked to the same hardware interrupt. The ISR servicing this interrupt must then be able to find out which device generated the interrupt. RTOS do not support this feature; they only allow one single ISR per IRQ, in order to be as deterministic as possible. So a RT system designer should be careful when putting interface cards in your computer because all the ones for which you want to install real-time drivers must be connected to different interrupt lines !

Interprocess communication IPC and synchronisation
Because there are tasks that have to communicate with each other, the need exists for synchronization of different tasks, as well as for data exchange between them. The RTOS should provide easy and safe IPC primitives which can be used for programmers to build their software systems. These primitives can have different effects on task scheduling (blocking, non-blocking, conditional blocking, blocking with time out), can use different degrees of coupling (named connection, broadcast, blackboard, object request broker) and buffering. The origin of most problems with resource sharing (or allocation) in multi-tasking and multi-processor systems is the fact that operations on resources can usually not be performed atomically, i.e., as if they were executed as one single, non-interruptible instruction that takes zero time. Indeed, a task that interfaces with a resource can at any instant be pre-empted, and hence, when it gets re-scheduled again, it cannot just take for granted that the data it uses now is in the same state before the pre-emption. Some parts of the code are called 'critical sections' because it is critical to the validity of the code that the access to the data used for a certain statement be executed atomically: un-interruptible by anything else. (Most) machine code instructions of a given processor execute atomically, but instructions in higher-level programming languages are usually translated into a sequence of many machine code instructions. The main problem is called a “race condition”: two or more tasks compete against each other to get access to the same shared resources. Examples of these race conditions are the following: deadlock, livelock, starvation. Algorithms are available that avoid these race conditions, some more complex than others. There are many types of synchronization: barrier, semaphore, mutex, spinlock, read/write lock  (and lock-free for data exchange). When a task reaches its so-called critical section, it requests a lock. Now it can get the lock if it isn't taken by another task and enters the critical section, or it has to wait (“blocked”, “sleeps”) till the other task releases the lock at the end of its critical section. A blocked task cannot be scheduled for execution, so locks are to be used with care in RT applications! The application programmer should be sure about the maximum amount of time that a task can be delayed because of locks held by other tasks; and this maximum should be less than the specified timing constraints of the system. The lock concept can easily lead to unpredictable latencies in the scheduling of a task. It doesn't protect the data directly, but synchronizes the code that accesses the data. As with scheduling priorities, locks give disciplined programmers a means to reach deterministic performance measures. But discipline is not sufficient to guarantee consistency in large-scale systems. The problem with using locks is that they make an application vulnerable for the priority inversion problem. This should be prevented in the design phase. Another problem occurs when the CPU on which the task holding the lock is running, suddenly fails, or when that task enters a trap and/or exception, because then the lock is not released, or, at best its release is delayed.

Some remarks about the types of synchronization
Semaphore - spinlock A semaphore is a lock for which the normal behaviour of the locking task is to go to sleep. Hence, this involves the overhead of context switching, so don't use semaphores for critical sections that should take only a very short time; in these cases spinlocks are a more appropriate choice. Semaphore - mutex Many programmers also tend to think that a semaphore is necessarily a more primitive RTOS function than a mutex. This is not necessarily so, because one can implement a counting semaphore with a mutex and a condition variable. Spinlock Spinlocks work if the programmer is disciplined enough to use them with care, that is for guaranteed very short critical sections. In principle, the latency induced by a spinlock is NOT deterministic (not RT). But they offer a good solution in the case that the scheduling and context switching times generated by the use of locks, are larger than the time required to execute the critical section the spinlock is guarding.

IPC and data exchange
Mechanisms of all data IPC exchange are quite similar; the OS has some memory space reserved for the data that has to be exchanged and uses some synchronisation IPC primitives for reading or writing to that memory space. The main difference between different forms of data exchange lies in their policy. Two or more tasks often have some form of shared memory. Possible problems are the available space in the RAM and some control over the freshness of the shared data What do you mean with the freshness of the shared data?. Shared memory has the properties of a block device ; programs can access arbitrary blocks on the device in any sequence. Character devices can only access data in a linear sequence. FIFO is such a device. In a RT-system no lock is needed on the real-time side as no user program can interrupt the real-time side. Another form of IPC data exchange is using messages and mailboxes. Again for a real-time system there are some things to pay attention to. An IPC approach which uses dynamic memory allocation is not feasible for a RT-system.Circular buffers is another possibility of IPC. There are some possible problems with data loss though, so an RT-system uses some specific options. These are: locking in memory and buffer half full. A better solution is using a swinging buffer. This is an advanced circular buffer and a deadlock-free lock. A swinging buffer is non-blocking and loss-prone.

Memory management
The job of the OS is memory allocation and memory mapping and to take action when a task uses memory that is not allocated (memory protection). Some of the points of attention in memory management in a RT-system are:

Fast and deterministic memory management The easiest is no memory management at all. Some RTOS/EOS offer some basic memory management; memory allocation and deletion through system calls. Page locking The MMU (memory management unit) must lock pages of real-time memory tasks in the physical RAM in order to avoid the paging overhead of swapping pages from the mechanical disk drive to the RAM. Dynamic allocation A task’s memory may change during the lifetime of a task, so that it asks the OS for more memory. In order to do this in a deterministic way the memory pages need a pool of free pages locked in the memory. Dynamic allocation should be used very carefully in a Real-Time task. This also implies that IPC with dynamic allocation needs are to be avoided. Memory mapping Mapping is a configuration activity and should not be done in real-time. Memory sharing This is an efficient way for two tasks to communicate. The OS is responsible for 1) the (de)allocation of shared memory and 2) synchronizing the access to that memory by different tasks. There is nothing particularly real time about using shared memory, allocating it is though. The shared-memory pool is a block of physical memory set aside at the boot time, so that the OS does not use it for its processes. RAM Disks In order to avoid the non-deterministic overhead of accessing hard disks, part of the available RAM can be used to emulate a hard disk. To have some sort of non-volatile memory that is deterministic a designer can choose to use a flash disk.

Some modern memory management systems are complicated enough that an entire book has been written about them -- Memory Management.

Issues in Real Time System Design
A Real Time system’s goal is to behave deterministically. Determinism implies two aspects. First, if the process asks for CPU, RAM or communication, it should receive it from the coordination. Second, if a failure occurs, the system should know what to do. For a system designer, the most important features of a Real Time application are scheduling tasks, coping with failure and using available resources.

Scheduling tasks
The system designer has to make sure that (at least a clearly identified, small) part of the systems processes are scheduled in a predictable way because, even more than timing, the sequence of processes is an important part of the application. Scheduling of the processes can for example be done by the scheduler. It’s essential that the sequence is determined in a deterministic way, but the scheduler might not suffice here. For example, if two processes have the same priority, it might be unclear what process will come first. A system designer should not expect to know the duration of a process, even if this process gets the full capacity of the processor. Therefore the designer has to make sure that the scheduling works, even in case of the worst scenario.

Failure
The system should behave reliably during internal or external failure. Possible failures should be known by the real time system. If the process can’t recover from a failure, the system should go into a “fail safe/gracefully mode”. If the system can’t satisfy the task’s timing constraints and therefore also the quality demands, it should take action by triggering an error. In such a case, it is important to check if it is possible to remove certain constraints. Internal failure can be a hard- or a software failure in the system. To cope with software failure, tasks should be designed to safeguard error conditions. Hardware failure can be processor, board or link failure. To detect failure the system designer should implement watchdog systems. If the main program neglects to regularly service the watchdog, it can trigger a system reset.

Resources and services
In the context of resources and services the term Quality of Service (QoS) is important. It means that the task must get a ﬁxed amount of “service” per time unit. This service includes hardware, processing time and communication and is deterministically known by the system. In contrast to general OS, the hardware needs to be specifically assigned for every process. In assigning service to tasks, the programmer should take into account “worst case scenarios”: if various tasks could be needing a service, then sooner or later they will want it at the same time. Then the sequence has to maximise the quality of service.

Complexity
There are three classes of system complexity. The first, C1, has centralized hardware and a centralized state. Everything is determined and external factors have no influence on the process. Such a system can be designed by one person. The simplest robots belong to this category. The last, C3, has decentralized hardware and a decentralized state. The system adapts the process due to external factors when necessary. Such a system requires more (approximately 100) designers. An example is the RoboCup team. C2 is an intermediate level and it has decentralized hardware and a centralized state, like for example industrial robots do. Such systems require about 10 designers. The higher the complexity of the interactions (synchronisation and communication) in the system, the harder to make it deterministic because much more aspects should be taken into account.


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Statistics/Analysis of Tuberculosis

Some facts about Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is a common and deadly infectious disease that undergoes a resurgence nowadays. The WHO estimates that over one-third of world´s population now carries the bacterium in their bodies. People who are HIV-positive face a much higher risk being infected with TB bacilli because their immune systems are compromised by the HIV. Other indicators which may favour the prevalence of TB are bad alimentation, insufficient hygienic circumstances combined with nonexistent medical measures.

Abstract
Being neglected for a long time tuberculosis reached a pandemic dimension in many regions around the world. What reasons may there be for such a spread? As mentioned above, there seems to be a consensus about the majority of factors that favour this disease. Nevertheless new hypotheses about the relation between the prevalence of tuberculosis and certain factors have to be quantified by the means of statistical methods, which are carried out with statistical software.

Thus, according to a famous saying from Confucius the goal of our analysis is the way, to be more precise, the way how to assess and deal with multivariate datasets. Nevertheless we will develop some hypotheses about the relations of our variables in the course of the analysis. For a quick glimpse check the section about multivariate analysis and its subsections.

The program used for this analysis is the MDTech XploRe Software. All major steps of the analysis can easily be reproduced by the program code provided in this study (usually together with the graphics in the image space). All you need is the original data called "datest.csv", which is availabale on http://www.quantlet.org/mdbase/, and the free academic version of the software XploRe.

Description of the Original Data Set
The analysis is based upon a dataset called "datest.csv", which is available on the homepage of MD*Base.

The missing values that appeared in the original dataset (datorg.csv) have been replaced by estimated values using different methods, like the mean of neighbouring countries, linear regression and other techniques. Since the data was collected from the UN you may have a closer look at the definitions of each variable at the homepage of the United Nations Statistics Division.

The dataset contains 163 observations and 16 variables. The first variable is a text-variable showing the names of the countries, the second variable assigns each country to a continent and is therefore nominal (from one to six). All other variables are described in the following Table:

Transformation of the Data
As you can see from table 1 the variables are measured on a different scale. Tuberculosis is measured per 100.000 people while for example the estimated aids related deaths are given in total numbers of the population. Thus, the first step of our analysis is to rearrange the dataset such that it is more clearly ordered and scaled in a more appropriate way.

The program below is used to:

 * add a column with a country code to the dataset
 * standardize the scale of all three diseases to "per 100.000"
 * change total numbers of internet accesses, personal computers and telephone lines to relative numbers
 * rearrange the order of variables such that:
 * the first to third column contain countrycode, continentcode and population
 * the fourth to sixth column contain standardized values for aids estimated deaths, malaria prevalence and tuberculosis prevalence, respectively
 * the variable "condom use" appears in the eighth column, followed by the rest of the variables in original order

The program will load the original data and create two CSV-files that contain the rearranged dataset (including country names) and the country names only. Before you run the program, make sure that you have downloaded the original data "datest.csv" from the homepage of MD*Base to a known directory.

library("xplore") library("stats")

 * - Reading data

choose = "Read from:" | "Save as:" | "Save country info as:"

defaults1 = "C:\Dokumente und Einstellungen\All Users\Desktop\datest.csv" defaults2 = "C:\Dokumente und Einstellungen\All Users\Desktop\UN_data_ordered.csv" defaults3 = "C:\Dokumente und Einstellungen\All Users\Desktop\country.csv"

defaults = defaults1 | defaults2 | defaults3

v = readvalue(choose, defaults)

 * - Transformation --

x=readcsvm(v[1])

num=1:163 data=num~x.double

country=x.text

pop=data[,3]

x=(data[,5|6]/pop)*100000 y=data[,14|15|16]/pop data=data[,1:3]~x~data[,7|4|8:13]~y

l=list(country, data)

 * - Saving --

writecsv(l,v[2]) writecsv(country,v[3])

Univariate Analysis
To start with we would like to present an overview of some descriptive data on the explanatory variables considering the five number summary, skewness and kurtosis.The skewness $$s$$ and the kurtosis $$k$$ measure the skewness and the departure from the normal distribution, respectively:

$$s =\left[\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n\frac{(x_{i}-{\bar{x}})^3} {v^3}\right]$$;$$k =\left[ \frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n\frac{(x_{i}-{\bar{x}})^4} {v^4}\right]         $$

The skewness should be close to 0 for a distribution that is symmetric around $$\overline{x}$$. The kurtosis should be close to 3 for a distribution resembling the normal.

Boxplots, Histograms and Quantile-Quantile Plots
With conventional mechanisms of the univariate analysis we will now have a look on all variables of interest for our later model. For an integrated overview, we first focus on multi-graphic displays that contain information about more than just one variable.

Let us have a look at graphic 1 and  graphic 2, in which we computed the boxplots and histograms for the diseases in our data namely tuberculosis, malaria and AIDS.

As mentioned above all three variables had been transformed to the scale per 100.000 people. For better visualisation in graphic 1 we standardized the x-axis, otherwise the boxplots for tuberculosis and malaria would have been too compressed. For all three variables we observe skewness to the right nevertheless the characteristic of the outlier distribution differs a lot. So for tuberculosis we only identified one outlier (Cambodia) while for the AIDS-deaths overall 38 outliers are displayed of which 24 are moderate (circles) and 14 are more distinct (crosses) ones. We decided to identify these outliers and it turns out that about 90% of the outliers are African countries and accordingly about 72% of African countries are outliers. Shall a whole continent be excluded here? Definitely not but this fact provides us with a hint for possible subgroups within the data.

Grapics 3 to 5 provide us with the results of our univariate analysis of possible explanatory variables on our dependent variable tuberculosis.

In graphic 3 we see the boxplots for those mentioned. Be aware that we displayed the boxplots on different scales. The upper five boxplots are measured in percent while we decided to standardize the y-axis for the lower boxplots. One important remark has to be done on the boxplot for access to drugs: Although it seems there is only one outlier it turns out that this "point" are altogether 37 countries falling into the 0% - 50% class.

The skewness of the data can also be anticipated and is proved in graphic 4, where we display the average shifted curve together with the histograms. Again what catches the eye is the fact that the upper variables, except for access to drugs, are skewed the left while the lower are skewed to the right. That means the majority of countries have relatively high values for the variables displayed in the upper part and relatively low values for those variables displayed in the lower part. graphic 5 displays the quantile-quantile plots which are used to compare each variable with the normal distribution. Apparently we have a clear deviation from the 45° line which indicates that the variables are not normally distributed.

Altogether, the main finding of the univariate analysis is that we have very skewed distributions, which in part coincide among the different variables. This might be an indicator for strong correlations between the single dimensions. Anyway, the question remains whether these relations are linear or not. Furthermore, we have seen many outliers in the different dimensions of the dataset. Thus, the question arises whether the outliers of one dimension are also outliers in other dimension of our data. This question will be dealt with in the next section.

Outlier Treatment with Simple Multivariate Methods
As we have seen in the univariate analysis, we face a very heterogeneous dataset with extremely skewed distributions and therefore with many observations being displayed as outliers. This goes up to the point, where almost a whole continent would be excluded from the analysis, namely Africa in terms of aids related death rates. This might motivate a separate analysis of Africa.

But here, our goal is to find methods to better handle multidimensional large datasets. Therefore, we try to find a possibility to assess all countries in terms of their extreme values in certain dimensions. Furthermore, we want to get a table with the numbers of "boxplot outliers" in each dimension. Therefore we computed a 163 x 14 matrix containing logical values 0 or 1, where 1 means observation is an outlier. Simple computations using this matrix lead among others to the number of outliers in each dimension shown in table 3.

Graphic 6 shows a barchart, where countries are classified according to the number of univariate extreme values or "boxplot outliers". This charts yields the information that only a few countries are outliers in the boxplot sense in four dimensions, and no country has more than four extreme values. The "outlier program" that generates graphic 6 furthermore provides the option to decide in how many dimensions an observation has to be a univariate outlier to be considered as "multidimensional outlier". These "multidimensional outliers" are then colored blue and shown together with the other observations in a stardiagram (alternativlely one could also choose so called Chernoff-Flurry faces). This facilitates the decision whether those observations are actually really different from the rest of the data. This process can be repeated several times until one finds a satisfying set of outliers that shall be excluded from the further analysis (saving option available via "outlier program").

For the further analysis however, we decided not to exclude any observations, but to proceed with the whole dataset, since even four exceptionally high or low values per observation are still relatively few in comparison to a total of 13 relevant dimensions. Furthermore, the outlier starplot shows that there seem to be different groups of countries in the data that have similar characteristics reflected by the respective shape of the stars. In case we choose to color all observations with one or more "boxplot outliers", the remaining (green) observations seem to have quite similar characteristics. But the number of remaining countries is very limited and does not seem to be a representative group of countries in the world.

Nevertheless, we could check the influence of excluding certain "multidimensional outliers" in the further course of our analysis.

Bivariate Analysis

Now we would like to get a better impression of the relations between our variable of interest, namely the tuberculosis prevalence, and the other variables, which are according to our goal considered to be explanatory variables. One possibility to visualize the relations between all variables within a dataset would be a scatterplot. In such a graphic all variables would be plotted against each other. Since we have 13 variables of interest, this would give us a 13 x 13 display of 2-dimensional plots, which hardly allows for proper displaying on a standard computer monitor. Additionally, we have empty spaces on the diagonal as well as doubling of the same information in the upper and lower triangular. Thus, this graphic can only be used in a proper way for up to eight variables.

Instead, we just plottet all explanatory variables against tuberculosis and display them in one window that is shown in graphic 7. This graphic provides the required informations to derive basic assumptions about the relations within the data.

First, one can see that the majority of observations seem to be distributed in a very small area, in most cases one corner of the plot, whereas only a relatively small proportion is scattered over the whole range of the diagrams. To better visualize this, we added one dimension to plots and computed a two-dimensional density estimate of the plots. This can be seen in graphic 8, which exemplary shows such a two-dimensional density estimate for "tuberculosis" and "sanitation". This further strengthens the idea mentioned in the preceding steps of our analysis. That is, the countries can be classified into different groups according to the information/variables available. Furthermore, there seem to be different relations between the explanatory variables and tuberculosis. These relationships are to be considered in the following steps of our analysis. Since they may differ from subgroup to subgroup, we proceed with trying to find homogeneous groups within the countries and turn to developing hypotheses on the relationships in the section on multivariate analysis.

Finding Groups
Since we have seen many indicators for the existence of different groups, we will now try to find and interpret the groups that can be found in the data. Before we use the statistical methods at hand, we would like to mention a common distinction for the countries around the globe. This is the separation of countries according to their "level of overall development" into developed countries, often used synonymously for western European countries, North America and Japan, emerging countries, like the southeast Asian tiger states, and most of the Latin American countries, and into developing countries, formerly often described as the third world (although there is just one), since these are the poorest countries in terms of income and living standard. Although the distinction between those three groups of countries is not really based upon data like ours, but in fact incorporates much more economical data as well as data from social sciences, one would nevertheless expect to find groups similar to the ones described above. With the statistical method of Cluster analysis, we will now try to find groups that differ from each other as clearly as possible.

Cluster Analysis

The aim of a cluster analysis is to construct groups with homogeneous properties out of a heterogeneous large dataset. The methods used are usually divided into two steps: The choice of a proximity measure which checks each pair of observations (objects) for the similarity of their values. A similarity (proximity) measure is then defined to measure the closeness of the objects. The closer they are, the more homogeneous they are. And the choice of a group-building algorithm which on the basis of the proximity measures the objects assigned to groups so that differences between groups become large and observations in a group become as close as possible.

For our analysis we chose to apply the euclidean distance for our proximity measure which the squared distance between two points. But before doing so we standardized the data by dividing it through the variance because of the different scaling used for the variables.

Our algorithm is the so called Ward clustering algorithm which joins groups that do not increase a given measure of heterogeneity too much. The aim of the Ward procedure is to unify groups such that the variation inside these groups does not increase too drastically: the resulting groups are as homogeneous as possible. We see the graphical representation of the sequence of clustering within the dendogram in graphic 9 It displays the observations, the sequence of clusters and the distances between the clusters. The vertical axis displays the indices of the points, whereas the horizontal axis gives the distance between the clusters.

We can clearly distinguish between three groups (clusters) with relatively high homogeneity. The biggest cluster containing 108 observations on the right is representing the developing countries, the group in the middle with 37 observations stands for the emerging countries whereas the smallest group with overall 18 observations is identical to the developed countries.

Additionally we computed the PCP (Parallel Coordinate Plot) for the three cluster means to visualize the differences between those groups. The green line represents the developed countries, the red line stands for the emerging and the blue for developing countries. As we expected two clearly opposed groups can be observed. The red line (emerging countries) approaches the blue one (developed countries), which seems to be a plausible result.

To get a list of the countries included in the different clusters, run the program that you find attached to graphic 9.

Multivariate Analysis
As mentioned in the section on bivariate analysis, different relations between Tuberculosis and the explanatory variables contained in our dataset might be supposed. It should as well be mentioned that we do neither have very sophisticated medical knowledge nor do we know the circumstances of high tuberculosis prevalence countries from our own experience. Thus, it could be difficult to understand the relations between the different variables. Nevertheless we will make some assumptions for almost every explanatory variable and see whether they hold or not. From graphic 5 of the section on bivariate analysis, we found the regression lines (red, solid) shown in graphic 11 to be quite good approximations to the pointclouds. These relations might be explained in the following, possibly naive way.

Hypotheses Development

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. aids related deaths
 * The functional form used here (graphic 10 and graphic 11), is based on the assumption of exponentially increasing numbers of aids related deaths if tuberculosis prevalence rises. Although, both variables are mutually related, medical scientists would probably argue, that aids related deaths are influenced by tuberculosis prevalence rather than the other way around. However, one could (politically probably not entirely correct) argue, that numbers of people infected with tubercolsis decline if more people suffering from both aids and tuberculosis die. Therefore, we assume that this variable can contribute to the explanation of tuberculosis prevelance.

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. malaria prevalence
 * There seems to be no linear relation between malaria and tuberculosis. But if we excluded some of the countries with extremely high cases of malaria, we would probably learn much more. This can easily be done with the "paf" command. Still, there is no significant influence of malaria prevalence on tuberculosis prevalence as you can see from the p-value in the following table.

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression                22178.097     1 22178.097       2.228   0.1375" [ 5,] "Residuals                1602701.069   161  9954.665" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1624879.166   162 10030.118" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.11683" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.01365" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.00752" [11,] "Standard Error = 99.77307" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=        95.8129       8.1290       0.0000        11.787   0.0000" [17,] "b[ 1,]=         0.0296       0.0198       0.1168         1.493   0.1375"

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. condom use to contraceptive by women
 * As already mentioned in our univariate analysis this variable is difficult to handle, since the relative usage of condoms does not seem to say anything about the frequency of condom use during sexual intercourse. If other contraceptives are not used frequently, the relative condom use ratio might be high. Thus, we did not make assumptions about the relation between these two variables. Nevertheless, it turns out that the coefficient of the condom use ratio in a simple linear regression model on tuberculosis prevalence is significantly different from zero.

'''Note: If we refer to significance in the further analysis, we always talk about a minimum alpha of 5%! For space reasons we abstain from integrating all regression output tables.'''

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. access to essentiell drugs
 * The difficulty here is that we have classified data. Nevertheless we assume a linear relationship, which is confirmed by a significant regression coefficient. The negative correlation is obvious.

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. education ratio and literacy rates
 * Although we will probably have heteroscedasticity, we assume a linear relationship for the whole dataset. This is also confirmed by significant regression coefficients.

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. access to sanitation and clean drinking water
 * Again heteroscedasticity has to be taken into account. The assumption about a linear relationship is confirmed by a significant p-value.

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. CO2 emissions
 * A plausible explanation for a relationship between CO2 emissions and tuberculosis prevalence would be a rather difficult construct. But if we consider CO2 emissions as latent factor for the general economic development and living standard, the relationship seems to make more sense. The functional form assumed and displayed in graphic 11 (3rd row, first element) is justified by the assumption of negative marginal influence, i.e. for a low level of CO2/living standard the influence of a little increase in the CO2 emissions/living standard on tuberculosis prevalence is stronger and diminishes from a certain level onwards.

 * Tuberculosis prevalence vs. internet accesses, PCs, and telephones p.c.
 * These three variables could be interpreted as access to information. We assume that given a low level of overall information additional information is especially valuable, take for example the information that you can get infected with tuberculosis via human fluids, a very basic information that can easily be broadcasted via the media. Therefore, information certainly has a stronger influence on tuberculosis prevalence if the overall level of available information is low. If people are already well supplied with news, additional information might just cause what we would call information overflow, i.e. they are not realized anymore.

 * The functional form used to describe the relationship between these four variables is, for simplicity reasons, the same for all of them. The justification basically is the assumption of negative marginal influence for all variables as explained above. The functional form used here is:
 * $$tub =\beta_{0} + \beta_{1} \cdot \frac{1}{x^{0.3}}$$
 * The p-values of the simple linear regression models for the last four (transformed) variables are also significant. And the adjusted R^2 is throughout relatively high as you can see in the output tables below. That is why we will maintain our hypotheses.

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               781723.888     1781723.888     149.270   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                843155.278   161  5236.989" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1624879.166   162 10030.118" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.69361" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.48110" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.47787" [11,] "Standard Error = 72.36705" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=       -21.0144      11.3520       0.0000        -1.851   0.0660" [17,] "b[ 1,]=       118.3640       9.6880       0.6936        12.218   0.0000"

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               605005.143     1605005.143      95.508   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                1019874.023   161  6334.621" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1624879.166   162 10030.118" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.61020" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.37234" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.36844" [11,] "Standard Error = 79.59033" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=         6.5870      11.3392       0.0000         0.581   0.5621" [17,] "b[ 1,]=        25.3361       2.5925       0.6102         9.773   0.0000"

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               663303.291     1663303.291     111.059   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                961575.874   161  5972.521" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1624879.166   162 10030.118" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.63892" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.40822" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.40454" [11,] "Standard Error = 77.28209" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=       -18.9252      12.7351       0.0000        -1.486   0.1392" [17,] "b[ 1,]=        35.7036       3.3879       0.6389        10.538   0.0000"

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               805435.082     1805435.082     158.248   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                819444.083   161  5089.715" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1624879.166   162 10030.118" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.70405" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.49569" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.49256" [11,] "Standard Error = 71.34224" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=       -25.7826      11.3957       0.0000        -2.262   0.0250" [17,] "b[ 1,]=        61.4014       4.8810       0.7041        12.580   0.0000"

Multiple Linear Regression Models
Now, what happens if we try to put all explanatory variables into one model? Will their influence still be significant in relation to the impact of other variables? We will try different selection processes implemented in XploRe to compute the model with the best fit, i.e. with the best adjusted $$ R^{2}$$.

Forward Selection Model
The forward selection option starts from one "good" variable, calculates the simple linear regression and then decides stepwise for each variable if its inclusion can improve the fit of the model.

This process yields the following model as result:

$$tub =\beta_{0} + \beta_{1} \cdot \log{(aids)} + \beta_{2} \cdot \frac {1}{tel^{-0.3}} + \epsilon$$

Contents of out

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               910056.048     2455028.024     102.567   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                700949.728   158  4436.391" [ 6,] "Total Variation          1611005.776   160 10068.786" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.75160" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.56490" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.55939" [11,] "Standard Error = 66.60624" [12,] "" [13,] "" [14,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB        t-test   P-value" [15,] "________________________________________________________________________" [16,] "b[ 0,]=       -29.2719      10.7465       0.0000        -2.724   0.0072" [17,] "b[ 1,]=        12.7427       2.5019       0.3098         5.093   0.0000" [18,] "b[ 2,]=        47.5180       5.2959       0.5458         8.973   0.0000"

Backward Elimination Model and Stepwise Selection Model
The backward elimination process starts from the full multiple regression model and stepwise excludes variables that do not contribute much to the model fit. The stepwise selection model in our case yields the same results as the backward elimination. Both lead to the following model:

$$tub =\beta_{0} + \beta_{1} \cdot \log{(aids)} + \beta_{2} \cdot san + \beta_{3} \cdot wat + \beta_{4} \cdot \frac {1}{tel^{-0.3}}\ + \epsilon$$

Contents of ANOVA

[ 1,] "" [ 2,] "A N  O  V  A                   SS      df     MSS       F-test   P-value" [ 3,] "_________________________________________________________________________" [ 4,] "Regression               963289.397     4240822.349      61.982   0.0000" [ 5,] "Residuals                606118.006 2e+02  3885.372" [ 6,] "Total Variation             1611006   160 10068.786" [ 7,] "" [ 8,] "Multiple R     = 0.77327" [ 9,] "R^2            = 0.59794" [10,] "Adjusted R^2   = 0.61412" [11,] "Standard Error = 62.33275"

Contents of Summary

[ 1,] "Variables in the Equation for Y:" [ 2,] " " [ 3,] "" [ 4,] "PARAMETERS        Beta         SE         StandB      t-test   P-value  Variable" [ 5,] " __________________________________________________________________________________" [ 6,] "b[ 0,]=        155.7053      41.5609       0.0000      3.7464   0.0003   Constant   " [ 7,] "b[ 1,]=        10.5762       2.3854       0.2571      4.4337   0.0000   X 1" [ 8,] "b[ 2,]=        -0.8998       0.3050      -0.2283     -2.9500   0.0037   X 7" [ 9,] "b[ 3,]=        -0.8339       0.4242      -0.1621     -1.9659   0.0511   X 8" [10,] "b[ 4,]=        26.3803       6.6151       0.3030      3.9879   0.0001   X 12"

This is not a very satisfying result, since the explanatory power of the model is not substantially higher than most simple regression models. What are the reasons for the lack of fit? This question shall be addressed in our final conclusion.

Conclusions
As we have seen in the course of our analysis, there are many possibilities to deepen your understanding of an unknown dataset. Although we did not really find a satisfying model that fully explains the differences in tuberculosis prevalence across the countries, we got a much better idea of the structures within the dataset. We have seen and tried to explain single bivariate relations between the tuberculosis prevalence and all other variables. Furthermore, we found quite reasonable groups in the data that could be assessed seperatly via the programs provided.

However, a multivariate analysis like a multiple regression requires more sophisticated methods. As we can easily see by looking at the correlation matrix of the whole dataset, many of the different variables are correlated with each other. This is obvious in some cases, e.g. in terms of telephone lines, internet access possibilites and personal computers. These multicollinearity issues make the multiple regression rather difficult, since numerous models with similar fits but different explanatory variables can be obtained. Thus, we should try to find a possibility to reduce the dimensions of the dataset, e.g. with a factor analysis.

Finally, we should mention again that our hypotheses are neither based on sophisticated medical expertise nor can we say anything about the developement of our data in time, which might be very helpful to derive better assumptions that could be checked with the methods presented.

Anyway, we left the reader himself with several opportunities to continue the analysis with the help of the programs provided. One could for example, use the different clusters (save them via program 9) to repeat the outlier treatment (with  program 6) or the bivariate analysis (with  program 11), etc.

title: Statistics/Analysis of Tuberculosis


text:
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 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 18:54, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Dnsv. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Dnsv~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:06, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:54, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dnsv~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Pattergp

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 18:54, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:479px-Unclesamwantyou.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:479px-Unclesamwantyou.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 05:46, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pattergp


text:
User talk:Yuggi

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 18:59, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yuggi


text:
User talk:Saldanhaplano~enwikibooks

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 18:59, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Saldanhaplano. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Saldanhaplano~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:39, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:27, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Saldanhaplano~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Bruno Kersschot

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:00, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bruno Kersschot


text:
User talk:Andrewkl

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:03, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Image Copyright
Thanks for uploading images on Wikibooks. However, the images may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 05:46, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Images you uploaded are in no way public domain! When someone writes all rights reserved on their website or when the photo depicts commercial advertisement, such images are 100% copyrighted and their use is restricted. --Derbeth talk 19:58, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Andrewkl


text:
User talk:Griff2cm

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:04, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Nike.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Nike.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 03:26, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Griff2cm


text:
User talk:Oconnosb

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:04, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Oconnosb


text:
User talk:Fiesthla~enwikibooks

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:04, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:397034207 9761c233dd.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:397034207 9761c233dd.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 03:27, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Fiesthla. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Fiesthla~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:10, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:59, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fiesthla~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Volpenm

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:06, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Volpenm


text:
User talk:Rlearn

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Remi 19:06, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rlearn