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Organic Chemistry/Alkanes

Alkanes are the simplest organic molecules, consisting solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are used as the basis for naming the majority of organic compounds (their nomenclature). Alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2. Although their reactivities are often rather uninteresting, they provide an excellent basis for understanding bonding, conformation, and other important concepts which can be generalized to more "useful" molecules.

=Introduction=

Alkanes are the simplest and the least reactive hydrocarbon species containing only carbons and hydrogens. They are commercially very important, for being the principal constituent of gasoline and lubricating oils and are extensively employed in organic chemistry; though the role of pure alkanes (such as hexanes) is delegated mostly to solvents.

The distinguishing feature of an alkane, making it distinct from other compounds that also exclusively contain carbon and hydrogen, is its lack of unsaturation. That is to say, it contains no double or triple bonds, which are highly reactive in organic chemistry.

Though not totally devoid of reactivity, their lack of reactivity under most laboratory conditions makes them a relatively uninteresting, though very important component of organic chemistry. As you will learn about later, the energy confined within the carbon-carbon bond and the carbon-hydrogen bond is quite high and their rapid oxidation produces a large amount of heat, typically in the form of fire.

As said it is important, not considered very important component in the chemistry.

Introductory Definitions
Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen by definition and usually other elements (e.g. nitrogen and oxygen) as well. (CO2 is not an organic compound because it has no hydrogen).

Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only.

Alkanes are hydrocarbons or organic compounds made up of only carbon-carbon single bonds.Hence they are saturated. (as opposed to double and triple bonds). The simplest alkane is methane.

Methane
 On WP: Alkanes Methane, (CH4, one carbon bonded to four hydrogens) is the simplest organic molecule. It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP).

This is a flattened, two-dimensional representation of methane that you will see commonly. The true three-dimensional form of methane does not have any 90 degree angles between bonded hydrogens. The bonds point to the four corners of a tetrahedron, forming cos-1(-1/3) ≈ 109.5 degree bond angles.

Ethane
Two carbons singly bonded to each other with six hydrogens is called ethane.

Ethane is the second simplest hydrocarbon molecule. It can be thought of as two methane molecules attached to each other, but with two fewer hydrogen atoms. Note that, if we were simply to create a new bond between the carbon centers of two methane molecules, this would violate the octet rule for the involved atoms.

There are several common methods to draw organic molecules. They are often used interchangeably, although some methods work better for one situation or another. It is important to be familiar with the common methods, as these are the "languages" organic chemists can use to discuss structure with one another.

=Drawing alkanes= When writing out the alkane structures, you can use different levels of the shorthand depending on the needs at hand in hand. For example, pentane can be written out. Its formula is C5H12.

,

or CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–CH3,

or CH3(CH2)3CH3,

or minimized to

Line drawing shorthand
Although non-cyclic alkanes are called straight-chain alkanes they are technically made of linked chains. This is reflected in the line-drawing method. Each ending point and bend in the line represents one carbon atom and each short line represents one single carbon-carbon bond. Every carbon is assumed to be surrounded with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms unless shown otherwise.

Structures drawn without explicitly showing all carbon atoms are often called "skeletal" structures, since they represent the skeleton or the backbone of the molecule. In organic chemistry, carbon is very frequently used, so chemists know that there is a carbon atom at the endpoints of every line that is not specifically labeled.

=Conformations=

Conformers, also called conformational isomers, or rotational isomers,or rotomers are arrangements of the same molecule made transiently different by the rotation in space about one or more single bonds.

Other types of isomer can only be converted from one form to another by breaking bonds, but conformational isomers can be made simply by rotating bonds.

Newman projections
Newman projections are drawings used to represent different positions of parts of molecules relative to each other in space. Remember that single bonds can rotate in space if not impeded. Newman projections represent different positions of rotating molecule parts.

Conformations and energy
Different conformations have different potential energies. The staggered conformation is at a lower potential energy than the eclipsed conformation, and is favored. In ethane, the barrier to rotation is approximately 25 kJ/mol, indicating that each pair of eclipsed hydrogens raises the energy by about 8 kJ/mol. This number also applies to other organic compounds which have hydrogen atoms at similar distances from each other. At very low temperatures all conformations revert to the stabler( due to minimized vibration of atoms at it's mean position), lower energy staggered conformation.

Steric effects
Steric effects have to do with size. Two bulky objects run into each other and invade each others space. If we replace one or more hydrogen atoms on the above Newman projections with a methyl or other group, the potential energy goes up especially for the eclipsed conformations.

Lets look at a Newman projection of butane as it rotates counterclockwise around its axes.

When the larger groups overlap they repel each other more strongly than hydrogen groups do, and the potential energy goes up.

Entropy
Entropy, represented as a ΔS, is a mathematical construct that represents disorder or probability. Natural systems want to find the lowest energy or organization possible, which translates to the highest entropy.

''A note about potential energy: If you are rusty on this, remember the analogy of a big rock pushed to the top of a hill. At the top it has a maximum of potential energy. When you push it and allow it to roll down the hill the potential energy stored in it is transformed into kinetic energy that can be used to generate heat or smash something. ''

Notice that statistically, the ethane molecule has twice as many opportunities to be in the gauche conformation as in the anti conformation. However, because the Gauche configuration brings the methyl groups closer together in space, this generates high energy steric interactions and do not occur without the input of energy. Thus, the butane molecules shown will almost never be found in such unfavorable conformations.

= Preparation of Alkanes =

Wurtz reaction
Wurtz reaction is coupling of haloalkanes using sodium metal in solvent like dry ether  2R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2Na+X−

Mechanism
The reaction consists of a halogen-metal exchange involving the free radical species R• (in a similar fashion to the formation of a Grignard reagent and then the carbon-carbon bond formation in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.)

One electron from the metal is transferred to the halogen to produce a metal halide and an alkyl radical.
 * R-X + M → R• + M+X−

The alkyl radical then accepts an electron from another metal atom to form an alkyl anion and the metal becomes cationic. This intermediate has been isolated in a several cases.
 * R• + M → R−M+

The nucleophilic carbon of the alkyl anion then displaces the halide in an SN2 reaction, forming a new carbon-carbon covalent bond.
 * R−M+ + R-X → R-R + M+X−
 * COREY-HOUSE reactioN
 * [Also called as 'coupling of alkyl halides with organo metallic compounds']
 * It is a better method than wurtz reaction. An alkyl halides and a lithium dialkyl copper are reacted to give a higher hydrocarbon
 * R'-X + R2CuLi>R-R' + R-Cu + LiX
 * (R and R' may be same or different)
 * It

Clemmensen reduction
Clemmensen reduction is a reduction of ketones (or aldehydes) to alkanes using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid The Clemmensen reduction is particularly effective at reducing aryl-alkyl ketones. With aliphatic or cyclic ketones, zinc metal reduction is much more effective

The substrate must be stable in the strongly acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction. Acid sensitive substrates should be reacted in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, which utilizes strongly basic conditions; a further, milder method is the Mozingo reduction. As a result of Clemmensen Reduction, the carbon of the carbonyl group involved is converted from sp2 hybridisation to sp3 hybridisation. The oxygen atom is lost in the form of one molecule of water.

Wolff-Kishner reduction
The Wolff–Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that fully reduces a ketone (or aldehyde) to an alkane. Condensation of the carbonyl compound with hydrazine forms the hydrazone, and treatment with base induces the reduction of the carbon coupled with oxidation of the hydrazine to gaseous nitrogen, to yield the corresponding alkane.

Mechanism

The mechanism first involves the formation of the hydrazone in a mechanism that is probably analogous to the formation of an imine. Successive deprotonations eventually result in the evolution of nitrogen. The mechanism can be justified by the evolution of nitrogen as the thermodynamic driving force. This reaction is also used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.

Mozingo Reduction
A thioketal is first produced by reaction of the ketone with an appropriate thiol. The product is then hydrogenolyzed to the alkane, using Raney nickel

= Properties of Alkanes =  On WP: Alkane properties Alkanes are not very reactive when compared with other chemical species. This is because the backbone carbon atoms in alkanes have attained their octet of electrons through forming four covalent bonds (the maximum allowed number of bonds under the octet rule; which is why carbon's valence number is 4). These four bonds formed by carbon in alkanes are sigma bonds, which are more stable than other types of bond because of the greater overlap of carbon's atomic orbitals with neighboring atoms' atomic orbitals. To make alkanes react, the input of additional energy is needed; either through heat or radiation.

Gasoline is a mixture of the alkanes and unlike many chemicals, can be stored for long periods and transported without problem. It is only when ignited that it has enough energy to continue reacting. This property makes it difficult for alkanes to be converted into other types of organic molecules. (There are only a few ways to do this). Alkanes are also less dense than water, as one can observe, oil, an alkane, floats on water.

Alkanes are non-polar solvents. Since only C and H atoms are present, alkanes are nonpolar. Alkanes are immiscible in water but freely miscible in other non-polar solvents. Alkanes consisting of weak dipole dipole bonds can not break the strong hydrogen bond between water molecules hence it is not miscible in water. The same character is also shown by alkenes. Because alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, combustion produces compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. Like other hydrocarbons, combustion under most circumstances produces mainly carbon dioxide and water. However, alkanes require more heat to combust and do not release as much heat when they combust as other classes of hydrocarbons. Therefore, combustion of alkanes produces higher concentrations of organic compounds containing oxygen, such as aldehydes and ketones, when combusting at the same temperature as other hydrocarbons.

The general formula for alkanes is CNH2N+2; the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane, CH4. The next simplest is ethane, C2H6; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ hybridization.

Alkanes are also known as paraffins, or collectively as the paraffin series. These terms are also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins.

Methane through Butane are very flammable gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP). Pentane is an extremely flammable liquid boiling at 36 °C and boiling points and melting points steadily increase from there; octadecane is the first alkane which is solid at room temperature. Longer alkanes are waxy solids; candle wax generally has between C20 and C25 chains. As chain length increases ultimately we reach polyethylene, which consists of carbon chains of indefinite length, which is generally a hard white solid.

Chemical properties
Alkanes react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The pKa values of all alkanes are above 50, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (Latin para + affinis, with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years.

However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes.

Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers.

In highly branched alkanes and cycloalkanes, the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hinderance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. The same is preferred for alkenes too.

=Introduction to Nomenclature=

Before we can understand reactions in organic chemistry, we must begin with a basic knowledge of naming the compounds. The IUPAC nomenclature is a system on which most organic chemists have agreed to provide guidelines to allow them to learn from each others' works. Nomenclature, in other words, provides a foundation of language for organic chemistry.

The names of all alkanes end with -ane. Whether or not the carbons are linked together end-to-end in a ring (called cyclic alkanes or cycloalkanes) or whether they contain side chains and branches, the name of every carbon-hydrogen chain that lacks any double bonds or functional groups will end with the suffix -ane.

Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows:
 * 1) CH4 = methane = one hydrogen-saturated carbon
 * 2) C2H6 = ethane = two hydrogen-saturated carbons
 * 3) C3H8 = propane = three hydrogen-saturated carbons
 * 4) C4H10 = butane = four hydrogen-saturated carbons

Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane to the appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal -a is removed from the basic numerical term. Hence, C5H12 is called pentane, C6H14 is called hexane, C7H16 is called heptane and so forth.

Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix n- (for normal) to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. n-hexane is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not.

Number of hydrogens to carbons
This equation describes the relationship between the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms in alkanes:

 * H = 2C + 2

where "C" and "H" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6.

Many textbooks put this in the following format:

 * CnH2n+2

where "Cn" and "H2n+2" represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If Cn = 3, then H2n+2 = 2(3) + 2 = 8. (For this formula look to the "n" for the number, the "C" and the "H" letters themselves do not change.)

Progressively longer hydrocarbon chains can be made and are named systematically, depending on the number of carbons in the longest chain.

Naming carbon chains up to twelve

 * methane (1 carbon)
 * ethane (2 carbons)
 * propane (3 carbons)
 * butane (4 carbons)
 * pentane (5 carbons)
 * hexane (6 carbons)
 * heptane (7 carbons)
 * octane (8 carbons)
 * nonane (9 carbons)
 * decane (10 carbons)
 * undecane (11 carbons)
 * dodecane (12 carbons)

The prefixes of the first three are the contribution of a German Chemist, August Wilhelm Hoffman, who also suggested the name quartane for 4 carbons in 1866. However, the but- prefix had already been in use since the 1820s and the name quartane never caught on. He also recommended the endings to use the vowels, a, e, i (or y), o, and u, or -ane, -ene, -ine or -yne, -one, and -une. Again, only the first three caught on for single, double, and triple bonds and -one was already in use for ketones. Pent, hex, hept, oct, and dec all come from the ancient Greek numbers (penta, hex, hepta, octa, deka) and oddly, non, from the Latin novem. For longer-chained alkanes we use the special IUPAC multiplying affixes. For example, pentadecane signifies an alkane with 5+10 = 15 carbon atoms. For chains of length 30, 40, 50, and so on the basic prefix is added to -contane. For example, C57H116 is named as heptapentacontane. When the chain contains 20-29 atoms we have an exception. C20H42 is known as icosane, and then we have, e.g. tetracosane (eliding the "i" when necessary). For the length 100 we have "hecta" but for 200, 300 ... 900 we have "dicta", "tricta", and so on, eliding the "i" on "icta" when necessary; for 1000 we have "kilia" but for 2000 and so on, "dilia", "trilia", and so on, eliding the "i" on "ilia" when necessary.

We then put all of the prefixes together in reverse order. The alkane with 9236 carbon atoms is then hexatridinoniliane.

Isomerism
The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways, leading to a large number of potential different configurations (isomers). So-called "normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration, but the n- isomer of any given alkane is only one of potentially hundreds or even possibly millions of configurations for that number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in some sort of chain arrangement. Isomerism is defined as the compound having same moleculer formula the formula which present the different moleculer formula arrangement are called as Isomerism. e.g.- The molecular formula for butane is C4H10.

The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms in a given alkane molecule; for alkanes with as few as 12 carbon atoms, there are over three hundred and fifty-five possible forms the molecule can take!

 * {| class="wikitable"

! # Carbon Atoms !! # Isomers of Alkane
 * 1
 * 1
 * 2
 * 1
 * 3
 * 1
 * 4
 * 2
 * 5
 * 3
 * 6
 * 5
 * 7
 * 9
 * 8
 * 18
 * 9
 * 35
 * 10
 * 75
 * 11
 * 159
 * 12
 * 355
 * }
 * 9
 * 35
 * 10
 * 75
 * 11
 * 159
 * 12
 * 355
 * }
 * 12
 * 355
 * }

Branched chains
Carbon is able to bond in all four directions and easily forms strong bonds with other carbon atoms. When one carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons it forms a branch.

Above you see a carbon bonded to three and four other carbons.

 * Note: a methane group is called a methyl group when it is bonded to another carbon instead of a fourth hydrogen. –CH3

The common system has naming convention for carbon chains as they relate to branching.

 * n-alkanes are linear
 * iso-alkanes have one branch R2CH—
 * neo-alkanes have two branches R3C—

Note: "R" in organic chemistry is a placeholder that can represent any carbon group.

Constitutional isomers
One of the most important characteristics of carbon is its ability to form several relatively strong bonds per atom. It is for this reason that many scientists believe that carbon is the only element that could be the basis for the many complicated molecules needed to support a living being.

One carbon atom can have attached to it not just the one or two other carbons needed to form a single chain but can bond to up to four other carbons. It is this ability to bond multiply that allows isomerism.

Isomers are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. Constitutional isomers have their atoms arranged in a different order. A constitutional isomer of butane has a main chain that is forked at the end and one carbon shorter in its main chain than butane.

Naming Alkanes
There are several ways or systems for the nomenclature, or naming, of organic molecules, but just two main ones.

 * 1) The traditional, non-systematic names. Many of these linger on, especially for simpler or more common molecules.
 * 2) The systematic IUPAC (eye-YOU-pack (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry)) names.

The IUPAC system is necessary for complicated organic compounds. It gives a series of unified rules for naming a large compound by conceptually dividing it up into smaller, more manageable nameable units.

Many traditional (non-IUPAC) names are still commonly used in industry, especially for simpler and more common chemicals, as the traditional names were already entrenched.

IUPAC naming rules
 On WP: IUPAC naming
 * 1) Find the longest carbon chain, identify the end near which the most substituents are located, and number the carbons sequentially from that end. This will be the parent chain.
 * 2) Consider all other carbon groups as substituents.
 * 3) Alphabetize the substituents.
 * 4) Number the substituents according to the carbon to which they are attached. If numbering can be done in more than one way, use the numbering system that results in the smallest numbers.

Substituents are named like a parent, and replacing the -ane ending with -yl.

Numbering

The above molecule is numbered as follows:

2,3,7-Trimethyloctane

Not 2,6,7-Trimethyloctane. Remember, number so as to give the smallest numbers to the substituents.

Alphabetizing

3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane

Ethyl is listed before methyl for alphabetizing purposes.

Naming branched substituents

3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimethylpentane

The main chain in the drawing is numbered 1-5. The main part of the branched substituent, an ethyl group, is numbered 1' and 2'. The methyl substituent off of the ethyl substituent is not numbered in the drawing.

To name the compound, put the whole branched substituent name in parentheses and then number and alphabetize as if a simple substituent.

Common system
Some prefixes from the common system are accepted in the IUPAC system.

For alphabetization purposes, iso- and neo- are considered part of the name, and alphabetized. Sec- and tert- are not considered an alphabetizable part of the name.

(In the following images, the R- represents any carbon structure.)

Iso-
Iso- can be used for substituents that branch at the second-to-last carbon and end with two methyls. An isobutyl has four carbons total:

Isobutyl

Sec-

Sec- can be used for substituents that branch at the first carbon.

Neo-
Neo- refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total.

Neopentyl

Tert-

Tert- is short for tertiary and refers to a substituent whose first carbon has three other carbon groups attached to it.

=See also=

 * 1) Cycloalkanes

|| << Foundational concepts | Alkanes | Stereochemistry >>

Chemia_organiczna/Alkany

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Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Acids and bases/Electron donors and acceptors

Proton donors and acceptors >> | Electrophiles and nucleophiles >>

The Lewis definition of acids and bases describes an acid as an electron acceptor and a base as an electron donator.

<< Foundational concepts | << Acids and bases | Proton donors and acceptors >> | Electron donors and acceptors | Electrophiles and nucleophiles >> | Alkanes >>

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Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Acids and bases/Electrophiles and nucleophiles

<< Electron donors and acceptors | pKa and acidity >>

Electrophiles are "electron-lovers". (The suffix -phile means "lover of", as bibliophile means "lover of books"). Electrophiles seek electrons.

Nucleophiles, or "nucleus lovers", seek positively charged nuclei.

Electrophiles and nucleophiles are often ions, but sometimes not.

<< Foundational concepts | << Acids and bases | Electron donors and acceptors >> | Electrophiles and nucleophiles | pKa and acidity >> | Alkanes >>


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Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Acids and bases/PKa and acidity

<< Electrophiles and nucleophiles | Alkanes >>

To measure acid strength of a compound, scientist typically use a quantity called pKa. It is defined as

$$ pKa = -log(Ka)$$

where Ka is the acid dissociation constant. Stronger acids have small pKa values, where as weaker acids have higher pKa values.

<< Foundational concepts | << Acids and bases | Electrophiles and nucleophiles >> | pKa and acidity | Alkanes >>


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Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Stereoisomers

Stereoisomer of 2-bromo-3-hexanol

= Stereoisomers =

Stereoisomers are a type of isomer where the order of the atoms in the two molecules is the same but their arrangement in space is different.

To understand this we need to take a look at the ways that organic molecules can and cannot move. Again, usingthree-dimensional models is a great tool to visualize this and almost essential for most people to grasp these concepts clearly.

With cyclo-alkanes, we observe that a group placed on one side of a ring stays on that same side. Except in very large rings (13+ carbons) the carbons are not free to rotate all of the way around their axes. This means that a group that is axial will not move into an equatorial position, and vice versa.

Stereoisomerism is the arrangement of atoms in molecules whose connectivity remains the same but their arrangement in space is different in each isomer.

The two main types of stereoisomerism are:
 * Diastereomerism (including 'cis-trans isomerism')
 * Optical Isomerism (also known as 'enantiomerism' and 'chirality')

Cis-trans Isomerism
Main article: Diastereomers

Cis/trans isomerism occurs when a double bond is present, because the pi bond involved prevents that bond from being "twisted" the same way that a single bond can be. A good example is 1,2-dichloroethene: C2H2Cl2. Consider the two examples below: The two molecules shown above are cis-1,2-dichloroethene and trans-1,2-dichloroethene.

This is more specifically an example of diastereomerism. These two molecules are stereoisomers because the two carbon atoms cannot be rotated relative to each other, due to the rigidity caused by the pi bond between them. Therefore, they are not "superimposeable" - they are not identical, and cannot take each other's place. However, the isomers are not mirror images of one another, so they are not enantiomers; therefore they must be diastereomers.

Diastereomers usually have different chemical and physical properties and can exhibit dramatically different biological activity.

There are two forms of these isomers; the cis and trans versions. The form in which the substituent hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the bond that doesn't allow rotation is called cis; the form in which the hydrogens are on opposite sides of the bond is called trans. An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying cis-trans isomerism is 2-butene.

Alicyclic compounds can also display cis-trans isomerism. As an example of a geometric isomer due to a ring structure, consider 1,2-dichlorocyclohexane:

Optical Isomerism
Main article: Chirality

Optical isomers are stereoisomers formed when asymmetric centers are present, for example, a carbon with four different groups bonded to it. Enantiomers are two optical isomers (i.e. isomers that are reflections of each other). Every stereocenter in one isomer has the opposite configuration in the other.

Compounds that are enantiomers of each other have the same physical properties, except for the direction in which they rotate polarized light and how they interact with different optical isomers of other compounds.

In nature, most biological compounds, such as amino acids, occur as single enantiomers. As a result, different enantiomers of a compound may have substantially different biological effects.

When a molecule has more than one source of asymmetry, two optical isomers may be neither perfect reflections of each other nor superimposeable: some but not all stereocenters are inverted. These molecules are diastereomers, not enantiomers. Diastereomers seldom have the same physical properties.

Optical isomerism is a form of isomerism (specifically stereoisomerism) where the two different isomers are the same in every way except being non-superposable [1] mirror images of each other. Optical isomers are known as chiral molecules.

<< Foundational concepts | << Alkanes | << Naming cycloalkanes | Stereoisomers | Introduction to reactions >>

title: Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Stereoisomers


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Organic Chemistry/Places to buy organic chemistry models

The links below will search on the named sites for the terms "organic chemistry model kit":
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Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes

<< Stereoisomers | Two hydrogens for every carbon >>

Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons containing one or more rings. (Alkanes without rings are referred to as aliphatic.)

→ + H2

Under certain reaction conditions, propane can be transformed into cyclopropane. (H2 comes off as a sideproduct.)

Cyclopropane (unstable, lots of ring strain)

Cyclobutane (ring strain)

Cyclopentane (little ring strain)

Cyclohexane (Next to no ring strain)

Cyclodecane

Rings with thirteen or more carbons have virtually no ring strain.

Naming cycloalkanes
Cycloalkanes are named similarly to their straight-chain counterparts. Simply add the root "cyclo-" before the alkane part of the name.

Example: Propane >> Cyclopropane

When naming cycloalkanes, the cyclo prefix is used for alphabetization.

Substituents
If a cycloalkane has only one substituent, it is not necessary to assign that substituent a number. If there is more than one substituent, then it is necessary to number the carbons and specify which substituent is on which carbon.

Methylcyclopentane

1,1-dimethylcyclopentane

1,2-dimethylcyclopentane

1,3-dimethylcyclopentane

The organic compound

could be named and numbered

1-cyclopropyl-5-ethyl-2-methylcyclohexane

but instead should be named

2-cyclopropyl-4-ethyl-1-methylcyclohexane

because it produces a lower numbered name (1+5+2=8 vs. 2+4+1=7).

In the following examples, notice that the longer chain is the parent and the cycloalkane is the substituent.

2-Cyclopropylbutane

1,3-dicyclopropylpropane

Multicyclic alkanes
Multicyclic alkanes are hydrocarbons that have more than one bonded cyclic ring. These abound in biology as all kinds of hormones, steroids, cholesterol,carbohydrates, etc.

They are named as bicycloalkanes, tricycloalkanes, etc.

They are named slightly differently than singularly cyclic alkanes.

Bicyclo[2.1.0]pentane

Multicyclic alkanes are found frequently in living beings:

Part of Cholesterol

We will get to some of the most interesting multicyclic rings later on when we study benzene and aromaticity.

Stereochemistry
Because the C-C bonds in cycles cannot rotate through 360 degrees, substituted cycloalkanes and similar compounds can exhibit diastereomerism. This is comparable to alkenes which show cis/trans (or E/Z) isomerism. The isomers can be named using cis/trans notation, or more rigorously using R-S notation.

 On WP: Conformational isomerism Conformers, or conformational isomers, are different arrangements of the same molecule in space. Do not confuse them with any kind of true isomer as they are in every way the same molecule. The difference is in how the molecule is bent or twisted is space in any one instant of time.

Cyclohexane
 On WP: Cyclohexane The first molecule that is generally presented in a discussion of cycloalkane conformers is cyclohexane. It comes in several flavors; the main ones are the chair conformation and the boat conformation.

Note: In the above models, the straight lines represents single bonds, the lumps represent carbon atoms, and the open ends represent hydrogen atoms.

 On WP: Cyclohexane conformation Consider getting a good molecular model set if you do not yet have one. They are not as inexpensive as you would hope but they help most people immensely to understand the way molecules look in three dimensions. Follow this link to places you can buy a molecular model kit.

The chair conformation (can you see how it looks like a chair?) is lower in energy than the boat conformation. This is because the two ends of the molecule are farther apart and avoid steric hindrance.

Hydrogen atoms in a cyclohexane can be divided into two types:
 * 1) Axial, that point towards the top and bottom, and
 * 2) Equitorial, that point out away from the edge of the molecule

When hydrogens are replaced with other, bulkier groups, it becomes apparent that the axial positions are less energetically favored than the equatorial positions. That means that, if given a choice, bulkier groups will tend to bond to cyclohexane in equatorial positions, as this reduces their steric hinderance and potential energy.

Other cycloalkanes
Cyclopentane flips between slightly different conformers as well.

<< Foundational concepts | << Stereoisomers | Cycloalkanes | Two hydrogens for every carbon >> | Introduction to reactions >>

title: Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes


text:
Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Enantiomers

Enantiomers
Main article: Chirality

In chemistry, two stereoisomers are said to be enantiomers if they are mirror images of each other. Much as a left and right hand are different but one is the mirror image of the other, enantiomers are stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperposable mirror images of each other.

<< Haloalkanes | Stereochemistry | Alcohols >>

title: Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Enantiomers


text:
Wikibooks:Textbook considerations

The page is intended as a guideline for contributors and editors. As of July, 2003 it is very much a proposal, for editing and update.

Textbook Defined
A textbook is an organized body of material useful for the formal study of a subject area. A good textbook is distinguished by:
 * A discrete, well-bounded scope: all the material should relate to a solid understanding of the subject, usually mixing theory and practice for each topic as it covers the subject domain.
 * Use of examples and problems: the student should be able to better grasp each presented concept by following examples, and then applying the concept in structured exercises or problems.
 * An internally consistent style: after the first few sections, there should be little or no surprises for the student in terms of layout and presentation of material. The text's user can get comfortable with the layout, the tempo of presentation, and the pattern of figures, illustrations, examples and exercises.
 * Utility for future reference: once reviewed, the textbook should isolate material that is useful to the future application of subject knowledge in well organized appendices and tables.
 * A structure that makes sense: the textbook is not just a collection of useful material, it is a guide to the student for an order of review which will aid in mastering the subject area.

Textbook Structure
Topics are presented in major parts, chapters, sections and subsections that are organized in a way that facilitates understanding. This means that the text's organization is based on the intersection of two requirements. The first of these are the requirements of the subject domain. Since most textbooks are developed by, or based on the contributions of subject matter experts, this requirement is usually well attended to.

The second requirement is defined by the limits of the student's mind. Cognition is a common human ability, but its needs and limits are frequently ignored by those who have already mastered a subject area. To make the best use of the student's abilities, some rules can be spelled out for the structuring and presentation of ideas, concepts, and material. These rule should include:

 * Rule of Frameworks: Memory and understanding are promoted by the use of a structure that mimics the structures we all use within our minds to store information. Before we can use or master a subject, we have to have a mental roadmap that allows us to navigate within and through the subject domain. The text can best aid understanding by making this framework visible early on within each section or topic. The extent to which the student understands that they are using a framework, and knows what that framework is, is important as they internalize and make use of the material presented.

 * Rule of Meaningful Names: Everything we know is tagged with an index or a title. These indices are critical to the ability to recall or retrieve the things we know and remember. Each concept, process, technique or fact presented should aid the student to assign a meaningful name for it in their own mental organization of the material. To be most useful, these names shouldn't have to be relearned at higher levels of study. The names assigned by the text should be useful in that they support some future activities: communication with other practitioners, reference within the text to earlier mastered material, and conformity to the framework used for the subject. Each unique element of the subject domain should have a unique name, and each name should be used for only one element.

 * Rule of Manageable Numbers: When we learn from an outline, an illustration, or an example; most of us are limited in our ability to absorb new material. As we become familiar with part of a subject domain this number expands, but for new material four to six new elements is a reasonable limit. If a chapter outline contains 12 items, the student will have forgotten the outline before getting to the last item. When a text fails to support this rule, it requires even a diligent student to needlessly repeat material.

 * Rule of Hierarchy: Our mental frameworks are hierarchical. Learning is aided by using the student's ability to couple or link new material with that already mastered. When presenting new domains for hierarchical understanding, the rules for meaningful names and manageable numbers have increased importance and more limited application. A maximum of three levels of hierarchy should be presented at one time. The root should be already mastered, the current element under consideration clearly examined, and lower levels outlined only to the extent that they help the student understand the scope or importance of the current element. This area is supplemented by two more rules within this rule: thoseof Connectivity and Cohesion. Connectivity requires consideration of what the student likely knows at this point. The more already mastered elements that one can connect with a new element, the easier it is to retain. Cohesion requires that the characteristics of new elements as they are presented be tightly coupled.

 * Rule of Repetition: Most people learn by repetition, and only a few with native genius can achieve mastery without it. There is a pattern of repetition that aids in promoting the elements of a subject from short-term to long-term memory. Implementations of this rule may mean that frameworks and important hierarchies are repeated as many as five or six times, while frequently used elements are repeated three or four times, and elements of lesser utility may not be repeated at all. The first repetition should normally occur within a day of first presentation, followed by a gradually decreasing frequency. Exercises and review sections are ideally contribute a designed repetition pattern.

title: Wikibooks:Textbook considerations


text:
Talk:Waves

I've added navigation to some of the sub pages here, but before I go ahead and do the rest, is it a good idea to do this? -- Jimregan 16:07 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Hey Jimregan, I tweaked the navigation of the first subpage on the first chapter. I think the new way is a little bit better, and would like to see all of the pages linked this way. What do you think ? Karl Wick 20:43 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * What I think is, it'd be best if we get the sub-page editing that's just come onto the english wikipedia; you can edit the whole page or just a particular section, and it generates a hideable table of contents. -- Jimregan 00:49 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Sub page editing is a very cool feature. My preference is still smaller pages but I am not actively working on the book and the way with the TOC works too.--Karl Wick 03:52 29 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Navigation
I went through and standardized all the navigation on these pages, as well as the rest of the book. Every page now begins with a ModernPhysicsNav template, that provides a back-link to the main page, and to this section. Also, every page has--at top and at bottom--one of the individual navigation templates for use within that particular progression:

 * Template:1DWavesTOC
 * Template:2-3DWavesTOC
 * Template:GopticsTOC

All of these templates add pages to the : category. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 19:40, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

A Little Well Earned Praise
From just a quick overview, this book looks like an excellent primer for modern physics regarding the applied mathematics of waves. I have linked to it from several places. Please keep up the good work! mirwin @ Wikiversity.

______________________________________________________________________________

I agree. Thankyou very much for this wonderful resource, it has helped me immensely at school and I can understand it better than my school textbook!

Thoughts on Merger
This wave article is off to a very good start. Work to do, lots of work to do, but still good work indeed.

The proposal to Merge it with optics, which I removed, has been in place since 7 August 2006 (for over 8 months) without a single comment. I normally discuss before I remove - but if no one supports for 8 months....

As to why I removed, I fully agree that wave mechanics is important to optics, just as it is to:
 * Mechanical vibrations - from the violin string to fatigue damage
 * Quantum mechanics - wave particle duality, neutrinos, x-rays, gamma rays, etc.,
 * Electrodynamics - radio waves, microwaves & all of Maxwell's Equations implications
 * Hydraulics - already discussed although much more to say - for example solitons
 * Sounds waves - the phonons in solids (lattice oscillations) make a perfectly interesting wave phenomena - supersonic shock waves - atmoshperic waves (or perhaps they belong in hydrodynamics)- blast waves
 * Seismic waves - earthquake waves are different enough to warrant their own discussion - you'll never get a Rayleigh Wave (surface acoustic waves) in optics
 * Graviational waves - Einstein's and Wheeler's contribution of gravitational physics, with some elegant tensor waves, shouldn't be completely neglected.
 * Chemical reactions front - for example the wave effect of the propagation for a deflgration to a detonation is very much a wave phenomena
 * Plasma physics includes a complex set of wave phenomena - e.g., the Alfvén wave in a plasma is a traveling oscillation of the ions and the magnetic field.
 * Other wave phenomena - e.g., the Fir wave - alternating bands of fir trees in sequential stages of development, observed in forests on exposed mountain slopes - are subject to analytic prediction as well

So yes optics is best understood by understanding wave phenomena, but no - we should NOT merge Waves with Optics. If we do, we wind up merging 80% of all physics with wave phenomena.

Williamborg 03:40, 13 April 2007 (UTC)

Don't make waves
Greetings,

Hope this message finds all of you well.

Adding wave theory to optics is jumping the gun.

To understand waves you need to know Calculus and some basic Differential Equations.

When working on my B.S. in Imaging Science at R.I.T., we first had optics. To take geometrical optics it was assumed that we first finished 3/4 of University Calculus(though very little or no Calc. came into play). Then, to take Wave Theory we needed to have completed Calculus and a basic working knowledge of Differential Equations.

For those not familiar with these courses, you have to finish Calulus before taking Differential Equations.

I believe the above to be true in other schools. I've confirmed this by checking out some of the opencourse-ware at M.I.T.

Introducing wave theory to optics will likely serve to confuse and frustrate the casual user(which is learning on their own) and school student that's using this site to better understand their classes.

Enjoy the day, ChambersburgWill````

title: Talk:Waves


text:
Talk:Calculus/Definite integral

Archive
I archived all the topics on this page. Some of the topics may still be relevant, but it is difficult to be sure since the content and organization of this page and the whole book have changed significantly since many of those topics were written. If you are looking for suggestions to improve this page, you may want to have a look in the archive. --Greenbreen (discuss • contribs) 17:55, 3 June 2011 (UTC)

Removed material
I removed the following material from this page:

A geometrical proof that anti-derivative gives the area
Suppose we have a function F(x) which returns the area between x and some unknown point u. We don't even know if something like F exists or not, but we're going to assume it does and investigate the implications.

We can use F to calculate the area between a and b, for instance, which is obviously F(b)-F(a). F is something general. Now, consider a rather peculiar situation, the area bounded at $$x$$ and $$x+\Delta x$$ (see Figure 5), in the limit of $$\Delta x \to 0$$. Of course it can be calculated by using F, but we're looking for another solution this time. As the right border approaches the left one, the shape seems to be an infinitesimal rectangle, with the height of f(x) and width of $$\Delta x$$. So, the area reads:

 * $$\mbox{Infinitesimal area} = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} f(x) \Delta x$$

Of course, we could use F to calculate this area as well:

 * $$\mbox{Infinitesimal area} = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} F(x + \Delta x) - F(x)$$

By combining these equations, we have

 * $$\lim_{\Delta x \to 0} F(x + \Delta x) - F(x) = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} f(x) \Delta x$$

If we divide both sides by $$\Delta x$$, we get

 * $$\lim_{\Delta x \to 0} \frac{F(x + \Delta x) - F(x)}{\Delta x} = f(x)$$

which is an interesting result, because the left-hand side is the derivative of F with respect to x. This remarkable result doesn't tell us what F itself is, however it tells us what the derivative of F is, and it is $$f$$. This material was originally on this page, and this page was originally after Indefinite Integrals and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. After reordering, I wanted to remove mention of antiderivatives until they were introduced in the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. I planned to add it to one of those two later pages. However, the argument is basically just the same proof given at the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, just not as rigorous. So I decided to leave it out altogether. --Greenbreen (discuss • contribs) 18:46, 3 June 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calculus/Definite integral


text:
User talk:Maveric149

Hi Mav, I seem to have become an administrator .. is there anything I should do differently or know ? It looks like some new links to protect and deprotect pages .. is that the only difference between being a contributor and an administrator ? Thanks, Karl Wick 20:41 26 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * No - in general you don't have to do anything differently unless a problem arises (such as vandalism). If that happens you can block a vandal's IP address. I don't think page protection will be needed much if at all here for a very long time. It is used sparingly on en.wiki as a last resort in edit wars so that people get some time to cool down. Oh, and it is very bad for an Admin to use sysop powers in order to leverage their opinion on an article. For more see en:Wikipedia:Administrators. --mav

Hey Mav, I tried out the rollback link on the Textbook libraries page and it undid some changes to the page that I dont want to lose. How do I undo this ? --Karl Wick 03:44 30 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * You aren't supposed to roll back your own edits silly! The function rolls back all edits made by the top edit user. Simply go to the page history and choose the version you want. Then click "edit this page" and save. --mav

Hi Mav, thanks for the welcome. I'll check out the Textbook planning page. -- Thomas

Thanks for the comment about the arrows, I'll change them -- Thomas

 * What we really need is a way to create them automatically from a TOC/Index page... --mav

Nice essay, BTW. I remember having to study about the peyote culture part that for the Academic Decathlon competition. -- Emperorbma 01:07, 19 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Thanks. :) --mav

I agree with your intent to move the Wikiversity discussion to Meta. But, do you plan to move or merge any other material when you move it? If not, I will add a bit of history or outline at the top to promote discission of the WikiU as a project. We ought to make it look a little better, right? Thanks, LouI 13:49, 28 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Of course! Let's make it look very nice. --mav

Mav, Do you plan to move the talk page or the underlying Wikibooks: Wikiversity page. I've been working offline on an update, the question is where should I put it? Thanks, LouI

 * Put it here for now. I haven't had time to move the page yet. --mav

Icons for navigation
Hi Mav, thanks for your replies to my questions in the emails. I think I understood your comment regarding the use of an icon with a redirect link to the contents page. You tell me how to do it, but say that you do not feel that it is a good idea. I appreciate your willingness to answer my question. I am going to try the concept out on my page for a while and see if I can make it work. Maybe hackish but sometimes hacks are useful. I can see the advantages in having no page-to-page navigational links as I have wasted considerable time making and remaking those links. I just view then as a convenience for the reader, but maybe I will rethink my spending so much time on them. Best wishes, --Karl Wick

 * I'm just trying to make things easier for contributors. Making stuff easier for readers will come in time, but we aren't really ready for serious readers yet. In time, in time. --mav

I can't seem to get the _NOTOC_ command to work. Could you show me an example page ? Thanks, --Karl Wick

 * Opps! The tag is not _NOTOC_ . --mav

New wiki projects
Mav, is there someplace that people compile brainstorms for new wiki sites ? I was thinking about a wiki singles site and there are many more that we might imagine. --Karl Wick

 * Meta is the place to discuss that. Just add a link to the "Proposed Projects" section of Meta's Main Page. We do need to set up a process for deciding what projects to actually put online - sep11 and Wikiquote were created more or less on whims. --mav

Automated table of contents
Mav, thanks for bringing the TOC feature to my attention! It works great and is a real timesaver, and I have incorporated it into several books now. --Karl Wick

Wiki Books
Has anything come out of the Linear Algebra Wikipedia book project? The author appears not to realize he has use an opensource license to make his work open source as such ;). Has anyone gotten a letter from him?  I see no reason why we have to wait on his book however.  We can use his book, and others like it, as a basis which to start by looking at the table of contents and working from there.  Bye, --ShaunMacPherson 07:37, 9 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Thanks fro fixing my Book on carpentry

 * np - mav

User:Gumba gumba
Only 100 hours???? Is there some inflexible policy against doing more? Can we have a VfD for this user?

BTW, this went on for ages. I even went over to wikipedia to try to wake up an admin. It sure would help if User:Makiaea, User:Omegatron, and I were admins.

AlbertCahalan 20:51, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Page Editing
Is there the capabilty of doing server side includes simular to javascript in wiki. If so please include that in the help pages. It would be useful for say creating pages from multiple pages for print outs. Adds flexability. Thanks

vandal
User:67.95.199.114 has decided to make many edits, deleting chunks here and there over a long period of time. He also added a www.godhatesfags.com link to the movie making manual... that's just a few spot checks. This could go back a good ways in time. This is also the user who keeps editing Cookbook:Cuisine of Ethiopia to be rather rude. (not that the Ethiopian cuisine is any better than UK cuisine)

Gumba Gumba
Now at User:GumbaGumba.

Apparently doesn't understand the concept of stealth. - Omegatron 20:40, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Simple Eng. wikibooks and an administrator
I've just started working on Wikibooks in Simple English. We need to make someone an administrator. With very few other users (at the moment!) how can I become one and so start getting the project started? Any help would be great. Cheers Charlie123 14:18, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Ido Wikibooks
Hi Mav, this is mithridates from the Ido wikipedia and wiktionary - I put up a request to have a wikibooks created a bit over a month ago but still nothing; has it simply been forgotten? It doesn't look like that's the best page to write on to get noticed. wikipedia:io:User:mithridates

De-Adminship vote
A vote is being held to remove your sysop privileges. The basis for this vote is lack of use of these privileges. You may want to participate at Requests_for_adminship. See also the discussion at Staff_lounge. --JMRyan 22:47, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Policy review
Policy is not the most exciting subject at Wikibooks but we do have some major unresolved issues.

The most important issue, in my opinion, is Dispute resolution which starts by declaring that:

"Currently there is no official organized process to resolve disputes between users"

The suggested remedy for this is: Ad hoc administration committee which puts into place the absolute minimum in terms of an enforcement apparatus.

The second most important is No personal attacks where a vote has recommended the policy be enforced but it still languishes as "proposed".

The third policy that is needed and which will prevent edit disputes from getting out of hand is Editing disputes policy.

Other policies that need consideration are at: Policies and guidelines.

Please spare a minute or two to peruse these issues and add a comment and/or a vote. RobinH 12:29, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Your De-Adminship
Hello. I would like to inform you that you will have your sysop rights removed here on 1 Nov 2006 due to inactivity. If you would like to discuss the matter, please see WB:RFA. You can re-apply for adminship at a later date if you wish. Thanks. -within focus 21:30, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

Why did my redirect come up as forbidden?
Why did the thing in the title happen?

title: User talk:Maveric149


text:
Wikibooks talk:Textbook considerations

Wow! Nice work. --Maveric149

Interesting linking of textbook layout with mind/cognition layout there. Not too sure about its accuracy, but it makes some nice points. Frankie Roberto 00:13, 27 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Textbook considerations


text:
User:Neolux~enwikibooks

See description on main wikipedia site: Neolux

title: User:Neolux~enwikibooks


text:
Wikibooks talk:Textbook development process

My goal for this page was to start what I hope will become out guideline for creating editions, updates, and open texts as collaborative projects. There has been a lot of discussion in the mail list, but most of it intermixes the mechanics with the concepts. The intent now is for everyone to adjust and expand what little I've started with in terms of concepts to reach a consensus on how we want it to work. Mechanics are important, a we should remember that they may impose limits, but those come after the goals.

What's here as of today is very sketchy, but I don't feel comfortable going much further without input. So, I'm posting it as is. I expect to improve it, and hope you'll join in that effort. Thanks for your patience .... LouI 20:01 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Textbook development process

''This is still very much of a proposed set of Guidelines. As Wikitext gains some experience and material, they will become better organized, more explicit, and clearer. You can help with that process by editing this page.'' - The development and maintenance of a useful textbook can be an open and collaborative process. The applied use made of the resulting book can also be open and unrestricted. But the book itself cannot be. Even an on-line or electronic book must have stability to be useful. It must present a complete and structured view of the subject domain, with an instructive pattern that exposes the elements of that domain to the reader. This can only happen within a Wiki kind of project if there is more of a structure on book projects than there is on the Wikipedia itself. This guideline is intended to provide an overview of that structure. - Each book is treated as an ongoing project, whose goal is to produce the next version of a useful text. To accomplish this there are ultimately up to three concurrent versions of a book:
 * 1) The static or completed or released book (an edition).
 * 2) The structured and edited (but incomplete) next edition (Beta or alpha version).
 * 3) The scratchpad or draft version of element revisions, new elements, etc. destined for a future edition.

Wikitext Projects
A new text, or a major revision, starts with a definition of the book to be produced. The first step to creating a wikitext is to create this definition. The definition includes the:
 * Scope defines of the domain to be covered.
 * Audience defines the target reader or user and also implies the level of material included.
 * Textbook Methodology defines any specific technique to be used throughout (e.g. Interactive Programmed Instruction or Classroom Supplement with Exercises).
 * Prerequisites defines any preliminary material that is generally to be excluded or given only summary treatment. For example, a book on Modeling and Simulation in Physics could include or exclude topics on Linear Programming or Distributed Multiprocessing.

Table of Contents
The next step is to create the Table of Contents. This is much more important in texts than in the Encyclopedia because it lets anyone working on a topic know what has come before them. Ideally, this is firmed up and adjusted in an iterative process before too much detail work on elements. The suggested way to do this is to create the first shell for each element (Part, Chapter, Section) next by writing the introduction for that element. A good introduction tells the student what will be covered, how it relates to what has gone before, and any specific prerequisite knowledge. Seeing how these fit together may cause changes to the TOC, etc.

Templates
Next, or concurrent with the TOC, the writers and editors will develop a set of templates for Parts, Chapters, Sections, Exercises, etc.

Templates that are created for one book should be mentioned in that book's local manual of style. (Eventually those templates will be categorized in the Category:Book specific templates hierarchy).

You may also find some general-purpose templates useful. For example, many books use the prerequisite template, the Wikiversity template, the many category:box Templates, various category:page formatting templates -- especially the various category:quotation templates.

Glossary and Appendices
If the text contains these they should be started early so that format and type of content are visible to everyone working on any element.

The Promotion Process
When an area or section of the text becomes both complete and stable enough, it is promoted to a frozen level, with a status of 'alpha'. While it may still be altered in the development area, the only changes expected here are those to integrate pages with each other. Any changes needed should be made to the working area page and then it is re-promoted. When an edition is virtually completed at Alpha, its primary developers will plan on a date for release and begin its preparation as Beta status material. This phase is marked by some unique handling of the material, analogous to proofreading in the paper publishing world or quality assurance in software development.
 * Changes might be needed here but excluded from the active (Wiki) pages. These will be mostly in the areas of internal links, examples, glossary, etc.
 * A unique edition is being created. So emphasis shifts to internal flow, cohesion, completeness. There should be no open internal links.

title: Wikibooks:Textbook development process


text:
User:Plaudite~enwikibooks

Hello visitor!  http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anv%E4ndare:Plaudite

title: User:Plaudite~enwikibooks


text:
Investing

Investing involves using your money (or borrowed money that you control) to earn more money.

Before proceeding, make sure that you understand the concepts of Personal Finance. Topics covered here are:

 * /Stock market/
 * /Mutual funds/
 * /Bonds/
 * /Real estate/
 * /Rental properties/
 * /Starting a business/
 * /Insurances/
 * /Retirement plans/
 * /Estate planning/
 * /Sustainable/Environmental/
 * /Tax advantaged investing/
 * /Technical Analysis on trading and investing/

Many excellent resources available on the web:
 * American Association of Individual Investors is a comprehensive on-line guide to investing, developed to assist individuals in becoming effective managers of their own assets. Find how-to articles and interactive tools to expand your investing knowledge and apply it.
 * Google Finance
 * Yahoo! Finance Resources on stocks, mutual funds, other investments
 * The Motley Fool Advice and philosophy on investing
 * Morningstar Ratings on stocks and mutual funds
 * New York Times Create a virtual portfolio that the Times will track for you
 * Wikinvest.com no longer a wiki - based investment site, it is now SigFig owned by BlackRock Investments. BlackRock is the world's largest investment management firm.
 * National Association of Investors Corporation Investment Clubs organization committed to teaching individuals how to become successful strategic long-term investors.

title: Investing