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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History/19th Century

American education in the nineteenth century is often referred to as "The Common School Period". The reason for the name "the common school" is that it was the first time that education went from being exclusively private to be available to the common masses. Schools for the masses did not exist prior to the 1840s. But soon after reformers Horace Mann and Henry Barnard came into the picture and they created the first statewide common schools in Massachusetts and Connecticut. They felt that children needed to have the opportunity to attend school available to all children, so they may create bonds between the diverse population of the people who were there since the United States declared their independence from England and the new influx of immigrants coming into the country. They believed that with the education being available to the masses they will be able to “preserve social stability and prevent crime and poverty.” Both Mann and Barnard “worked to establish a free elementary education accessible to everyone and financed by public funds.”  But they also thought that schools should be accountable to the their local school board and state government. And they helped establish mandatory attendance for elementary school-age children. This new reformed education was later imposed on all the states in 1841 (19th-century education).

Early Textbooks
The earlier textbooks wanted to focus the child on becoming a democratic citizens when they grow up. The earlier textbooks were “…specifically designed to connect children with their environment.” And by being connected to their environment the children are being reinforced to be democratic citizens, by knowing what is going on around them. These textbooks taught the children to be democratic citizens by incorporating local history, politics, documents, speeches, and geographic locations (Schwartz, 2002).

McGuffey Reader
Then “In 1833, Rev. William Holmes McGuffey was approached by Truman and Smith Publishing and asked to write a school text book for their company to sell” (19th Century Education). However, McGueffy decided to originally write a textbook because he was completely dissatisfied with the current teaching trends. Therefore he took matters into his own hands, and had the neighboring children on his porch and tried to find out how they learned. He discovered that children are capable of reading before they even know how to spell. And that children are more likely to retain the knowledge if they read aloud and have to memorize certain phrases or sentences (Westerhoff, 1978). He published his first reader in 1841, followed in later years four more. In his first reader it contained fifty-five lessons, of which the child is portrayed to be “prompt, good, kind, honest and truthful” just like a model citizen should be. The child also is a White, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant. The reader itself contained stories from the Bible, schoolbooks, and other literary works.

Public High Schools
Public high schools were developed in the early 1800s for college preparatory classes.

Kalamazoo court case
At first the extent of public school education was initially restricted to only common schools, but then in 1859 the Michigan Legislature passed a law “that authorized school districts of more than 200 school-age children to elect school boards to govern their districts.” If the districts had 200 plus children that were of school age then they were able to fund high schools. They were able to do this by using the local taxes if the citizens voted for it. Kalamazoo established their first high school in 1858, but this was done prior to the voting (Timmerman, 2005). So in 1875 (Wright ) three predominate members in the community, that opposed this new form of higher education, to take it to court. This is due to their belief that they shouldn’t have their tax dollars wasted on such a petty thing as preparatory work for college. The out come was that the judge liked the idea of higher education of the younger generation, thus the case was dismissed (Timmerman, 2005).

Other colleges
Under the Morrill Land-Grant Acts federal land was given to the states to open a college. The only requirement was that the college has to teach military tactics, engineering, and agriculture. Each state received 30,000 acres per Congressmen according to the 1860 consensus. Originally the land that was distributed was only for the northern states, due to the current Civil War that was going on at the time. But was later extended to the southern states, too (2007).

After the Civil War
After the Civil War and the blacks were freed from slavery, white missionaries came down to educate the people of African heritage. They wanted to do enlighten these people with knowledge, because they thought that slavery dehumanized them, thus going to try to teach them as if they are objects. But once the white men arrived in the South they were deeply surprised that they developed their own type of schools. Some of the white men tried to intervene and teach these ex-slaves the correct way to learn, while others simple just stood from a distance, overseeing it. One such man was John W. Alvord, the national superintendent for the Freedman’s Bureau (Anderson, 1988). The Freedman’s Bureau was established on March 3, 1865, and it supervised all relief and educational activities relating to the refugees and the freedmen. Alvord was appointed inspector (later known as general superintendent) of the Bureau. He made a dramatic change to the hierarchy of schools by dividing his work load. In August of 1865 Alvord appointing one superintendent per state, which had to report the actions of the Bureau. During one of the reports a group of African Americans had achieved something that no other race had yet to come close to. That is (in this particular) two black men gathered 150 pupils in one place to teach (Anderson, 1988). The whites called these African American schools native schools.

Tuskegee Normal School (Tuskegee National Institute, Tuskegee University
The second [Morrill Land-Grant Act] permitted the African Americans to have land to put colleges on. Though they didn’t receive as much land as an all white school, they at least received some. The Tuskegee State Normal Institute (Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee University) was founded by Adams, a former slave, and George Campbell, a slave owner (Brown, 1999). These two men wanted to fund an institution where African Americans are able to learn skills that they can making a living, so they may survive. When the school was started Adams and Campbell brought Washington into the school. They brought him into the school because they liked his philosophy on how to teach African Americans. Washington believed that “blacks could gain economic stability, purchase land or homes, and consequently become socially stable,” if they were taught the industrial skills in school. Which made Tuskegee the first African American school to be constructed where the whole curriculum is to learn industrial skills (Brown, 1999).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History/20th Century

Walt Disney’s Remember the Titans told the story of how the T.C. Williams Titans “danced their way in to history, 13 and 0, the perfect season,” said Tess Panzer, as she played the part of Cheryl Yoast, daughter of the former head coach of the Titans (“Remember the Titans”). However, as everyone remembers, this movie did not focus on just the athletic ability of these players, but on their ability to work together in a situation that, prior to that year, they had never done before. This situation was, of course, the end of segregation in public schools. Prior to the mid 20th Century, blacks and whites rarely attended the same schools. As integration began, it became arguably the most significant event to occur in public education in the 20th century.

The Early Years of the 20th Century
The movements for the legislature that would end segregation in schools began many years before, in the 1800s. However, this was opposed by many, particularly white Southerners. Prior to the Great Depression, many white children were not enrolled in school, and even fewer black children were. In the years following the Great Depression, better education and training programs were established. By the end of World War II, the G.I. Bill had been put into place. This bill paid for college education for all returning veterans, and it “changed the education structure of the United States forever” (“American Education and Civil Rights”). More and more Americans were being given the opportunity to further their education. However, this generalization only described the opportunities being offered to the white children. The select few African American children who were privileged enough to be able to attend school at all, were forced to attend run-down, poorly funded schools. It was not until the Brown v. The Board of Education case was heard that any changes and improvements could be made.

Brown v. The Board of Education
Prior to 1954, Americans justified segregation by the “separate, but equal” clause.This clause, a result of the Plessy v.Ferguson case of 1896,said that segregation was allowed, as long as the educational facilities that were being used by the African American population were equivalent, in all aspects,to the facilities that the white Americans were using (McBride). Unfortunately, the schooling situation was far from equivalent.African Americans,according to Bill Moyers, were forced to attend “substandard schools for decades” (“American Education and Civil Rights”).

The Supreme Court finally acknowledged this fact when it was decided that segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.This clause,according to the Legal Information Institute associated with Cornell University Law School,“prohibits states from denying any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws” (“Equal Protection Clause”). After hearing this case, the Court recognized that “public education in the 20th Century,had become an essential component of a citizen’s public life,forming the basis of democratic citizenship,normal socialization,and professional training” (McBride).By recognizing this,the Court acknowledged the importance of every child in the public education system receiving a fair and good education.

Implementing Integration
Although the case of Brown v. The Board of Education reached the Supreme Court in 1954, it was not until Cooper v. Aaron in 1958 that the Court ruled that states were required to implement integration (McBride). Even with this decision, it took another Court case to fully implement integration. Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg County Board of Education reached the Supreme Court in 1971. The Swanns, an African-American family, filed suit against the North Carolina school district for not allowing their children to attend the white schools. The Court ruled all schools “didn’t strictly have to reflect the district’s racial make-up. But… all-black or all-white schools must not be the result of deliberate policies of segregation” (“Only a Teacher”). This decision was carried one step farther when busing was suggested as a solution to the integration dilemma.

Busing
According to Grolier Online, busing is “the policy of achieving racial balance in U.S. schools by transporting students from one area to another” (“Busing”). Busing became a widespread solution to the problems of integrating public schools. This idea was vehemently protested by many people, particularly in the South. As seen in Remember the Titans, implementation of busing began in 1971 in the city of Alexandria. Opposition to this method was clearly shown in the Disney picture. Although Disney movies tend to put their own spin on history, many people who lived in Alexandria at the time, still remember the hate and discontent this policy brought.

“I won’t lie; I hated the idea,” one Alexandria woman said. “My daughter was in fifth grade at the time and my son was in second. It was not that I minded the integration; I thought it was a good thing. The problem was that with the new bus routes, my children were going to be forced to ride the bus an hour each way, through some of the roughest areas in the city. I pulled my children out of public schools and enrolled them at Saint Stephens and Saint Agnes (an Episcopalian private school)” (Alexandria woman).

Her sentiments were shared by many parents, parents of both white children and black children. Although busing was a good idea in theory, it brought about its own series of problems. Children were forced to ride the bus for a longer period than most felt was necessary. According to Grolier, many opponents felt that busing “infringed on the right of parents to send their children to neighborhood schools.” These people went on to say that “involuntary racial mixing created hostility, caused school disruption, and destroyed the environment necessary for effective education” (“Busing”).

Public education made great headway in the later part of the 20th Century in working towards addressing some of those concerns. Several presidents, including Ford, Nixon, and Carter, worked very hard to keep busing to a minimum. However, many families still suffer from the imperfections of it. One senior at Menchville High School in Newport News, VA described her commute to school. “I get on the bus at 6:05 every morning and get to school at 7:05 or 7:10, and school starts at 7:15. Then it takes me more than an hour to get home every day, depending on traffic” (MHS student). The girl enviously explains that while the city zoned her for Menchville, her friend who lives down the street from her is zoned for Heritage High School which is located a mere four miles from their home on 35th Street. This is drastically closer than Menchville which is located at the other end of the city.

When integration and busing were implemented, supporters of it hoped that eventually racism in the public schools would die out. Over time, racism became much less of a problem. However, educators were not in the clear following the acceptance of integration. There were still occasional incidents of racism, as well as numerous problems similar to the aforementioned dilemma experienced by the MHS student. On a much larger scale though, another problem emerged. This crisis, familiar to many, but understood by few, is the achievement gap.

The Achievement Gap
The achievement gap is described as the gap in academic achievement between minority students and their white classmates. This gap became apparent once integration was implemented. Throughout the rest of the 20th Century, various steps were taken and new policies were invoked to reduce this gap. Many of these proved to be very effective. Standardized tests showed that from the late 1970s through the late 1980s, black children improved their scores drastically across the board. The scores earned by the white children in the same class remained about the same (“Economics”). This shows the effectiveness these new policies had on the Achievement Gap.

Unfortunately, in the years following that decade of improvement, it became obvious to officials that the gap had stopped narrowing (“Economics”). While over the years, it had narrowed significantly, it still had a long ways to go before the issues could be resolved. This, as the 20th Century came to a close, left many experts wondering, as they still are seven years into the new century, what could be done to jumpstart this improvement plan once again.

Conclusion
The 20th Century brought many lawsuits, including Brown v. The Board of Education, Cooper v. Aaron, and Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg County Board of Education. Cumulatively, these resulted in the eventual integration of all public schools in this country. School officials were forced to deal with rezoned school districts that resulted in much anger directed at the schools, the government, and fellow students. Over time, many of these issues were ironed out as students and faculty learned to work with other students and faculty of a different race. However, as all of this began to settle, the problem with the achievement gap became quite apparent. By the end of the 20th Century, researchers were left wondering how they could once again improve the quality of education for all students of all races.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History/21st Century

Our world is constantly changing. No longer are we ignorant to the world around us. We have created new technologies over the years so we can connect with the whole world. We have become a multicultural society, embracing ethnic and cultural differences, and also a technological society, using technologies, such as cell phones, computers, ipods, video games, etc., in our everyday lives. It is no surprise that because of this our educational system has changed and must continue to change in order to carry on in the 21st century. " The world has changed. Nearly all teachers understand how the industrial culture has shaped the organization and methods of schools in the 19th and 20th centuries, and they recognize that schools must now adapt to a new century" ("Introduction to PBL"). Educators have new standards to meet and much to learn in order to be successful teachers nowadays. They must be able to follow the curriculum established by NCLB and also incorporate technology and new teaching methods into their classroom in order to prepare students for the future. It is vital to "bring what we teach and how we teach into the 21st century" (Wallis, 2006).

NCLB
One change upon entering the 21st century was the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). This act was made in 2001 to ensure that all children have an equal and fair opportunity to get a high quality education and perform at the minimum proficiency level set by their state on achievement tests. This act was implemented because there were too many students being “left behind” in the classroom. These students were falling further and further behind each year because they were not getting the individualized attention they needed to perform well in school. NCLB makes certain that students will learn every concept they need to learn at their grade level. In order to make this happen, teachers must be “highly qualified” and undergo rigorous assessment themselves. They are judged upon how their students perform on the standardized tests. This leaves educators no choice but to teach strictly from the book to meet these standards. No longer do teachers have the time to review concepts over and over again and move the class along as they see fit. The classroom must follow a strict schedule to get things done. However, this creates another problem for the educational system. If so much emphasis is placed on getting passing scores on achievement tests, where is the time to teach students other important things needed in the 21st century? According to (Fletcher, 2007), “What may be needed is a fundamental shift in how we think about curriculum.” The current view in the standards movement is that the state should define what needs to be taught and the teachers should teach according to those set standards. However, we need to become less content-oriented and focus more on the process (Fletcher, 2007). According to (Wallis, 2006), teachers need to do much more than the bare minimum to have students meet testing requirements for NCLB. They also need to teach students skills essential to the 21st century. These skills include, but are not limited to, learning about the world around them, being able to think outside the box and across different disciplines, developing good people skills, and learning how to process and organize information. (Wallis, 2006).

Technology Integration
Many of these skills essential to the 21st century rely on the use of technology. As said previously, technology is everywhere in our world today. Children are growing up with computers, cell phones, ipods, etc. Our society depends on these technologies on an everyday basis. In order for educators to be successful teachers in the 21st century they must be able to integrate these technologies into the school curriculum. "How teachers of the 21st century implement computers into their schools is critical to achieving the benefits of technology in children's learning" (Dockstader, 1999). It is vital to students’ success in the future, both independently and professionally. It was stated in (Fletcher, 2007) that several hundred employers were polled to see what skills were thought to be the most important to learn for success in the workplace. The skills reported as the most important were professionalism/work ethic, teamwork collaboration, oral communication, and critical thinking/problem solving (Fletcher, 2007). All of the skills mentioned can be taught through technology integration. The question is How? Incorporting technology into the curriculum can be quite a struggle, especially if one does not understand what technology integration actually means. It is not just about using computers in the classroom; it is about using computers and other technologies to effectively teach general subject matter. Dockstader stated, “Technology integration is having the curriculum drive technology usage, not having technology drive the curriculum” (Dockstader,1999). It might seem like a hard task to do this effectively, but there are now many new teaching methods out there to help. Many of these methods focus on a student-centered approach to learning rather than a teacher-centered approach. This gives students the opportunity to work hands on with technology and each other to build the skills they need for life. Two of these many methods that will be further discussed are Cooperative Learning and Project Based Learning.

The No Child Left Behind Act was signed on 2005 by President George W. Bush it is still a huge factor. It means that each state has different standard tests that each student needs to graduate from school. It is also difficult for teachers because they have to cover every lecture befor the semester ends and it is a struggle. In Virginia, they have a special standard tests call Standards of Learing tests (SOL's). Every student has to pass at least six of them to graduate, which it started in 2004. It is a nightmare and it is no fun in the sun too.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning is defined as "students of all levels of performance working together in structured groups towards a shared or common goal" ("A Guide to Cooperative Learning"). In this kind of learning environment teachers act as a facilitator or coach in the learning process. The students are responsible for creating a learning community among themselves. This encourages group members to support each other and build team work skills. It also raises both group and individual accountability ("A Guide.."). Through cooperative learning students are able to achieve goals they would not be able to do individually. These projects help students attain higher levels of achievement and increase their self-esteem and communication skills they need to be productive members of society ("A Guide.."). Some of the basic principles of this teaching method are: Face-to-face Promotive Interaction, where learning is active, students discuss ideas and learn to appreciate others values; Positive Interdependence, where there is a single team product and different roles for each group member; Individual Accountability and Collaborative Skills, where students are encouraged to work together effectively; and Reflection/ Group Processing of interaction, where students analyze how their group functions ("A Guide.."). The results of Cooperative Learning in classrooms have been positive ones. There seems to be a "higher retention of subject material, better attitutes towards learning, and enhanced personal relationships among peers" ("A Guide.."). Because of this success, cooperative learning will more than likely be encouraged to use in future classroom settings.

Project Based Learning (PBL)
Another teaching method new to the 21st century is called Problem Based Learning, or PBL. In this approach to teaching, the teacher creates a project designed around a problem or topic that is (1) addressed in the existing course curriculum, (2) effects the students life or community, and (3) is solved by the student using teacher supplied resources and guidelines ("Introduction to PBL"). PBL is a great way to incorportate both content and life skills into learning at the same time. A less broad approach to PBL is Standards-Focused PBL. This is defined as "a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks" ("Intro.."). PBL begins with a driving question that is tied to content standards in the curriculum. Students need to answer this question by using tools and skills, like technology and project management. It requires students to investigate, research, reason, and learn from experience ("Intro.."). This creates in-depth exploration of the topic in a challenging and interactive way. Some of the benefits founds to be associated with this approach are students learning problem solving and communication, it assesses performance on content and skills, encourages accountability, and it meets the needs of students with different learning styles ("Intro.."). PBL learning and Cooperative Learning are just two methods of many that can be excellent ways to teach the children of the 21st century. They will be able to learn the content that is required by NCLB and also learn important and necessary skills for the future.

Conclusion: What teachers of the 21st century need to do
Teachers of the 21st century have much to do in order to meet the needs of students, parents, and administrators. It is important that they “..will know and understand basic technology competencies are important. And they will know how to integrate technology using a consistant and well-designed model of instruction” (Dockstader, 1999). 21st century teachers need to be willing to work with new technologies and incorporate them into their teaching. They must be able to move away from traditional teaching methods and use a more student-centered approach. This requires teachers to be open-minded, patient, and not afraid to ask questions. Because students "must develop a high level of competence not only in traditional academic areas but also in 21st century skills such as collaboration, communication, creativity, innovation, information literacy, critical thinking, problem solving, and global awareness” (Rosenfeld, 2007), it is vital that the curriculum establishes a balance between content knowledge and skills. By doing this we will be able to successfully prepare our children for what's ahead of them in the future.

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Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 18:49, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships/Mutual Responsibilities

What are the mutual responsibilities of teachers, parents, and the community for effective schools? Education in America is always a popular topic of conversation and often receives much criticism. There is much debate over whether or not our education system is sufficient enough for our children’s futures. In recent years, education has become a hot button topic due to the research showing the United States slowly moving lower in ranks on the list of well educated countries. With this information, the massive population explosion, and an unstable economy, it is imperative that we as a country continue pushing for the best education possible. That is what our children deserve and must possess in order to succeed later in their lives. There is a triad of entities whose responsibilities are essential to the effectiveness or failure the education system. It is the mutual efforts and interactions between the schools, the parents, and the community, that makes an educational system successful.

The Teacher's Responsibility
The teacher’s role in education is, simply put, to teach. However, it is far from simple. In essence, the teacher is like a gardener. Planting the seeds can perhaps be a metaphor for new students with new possibilities, perhaps kindergartners. The seeds need water, sun, and fertilizer to grow. This may also be stated as the curriculum, the self-confidence, and positive reinforcements that a student will need to develop the pertinent fundamental education and study skills to succeed later in life. However, a student should not be receiving this attention solely from his or her teacher. Parents need also be actively involved with their children’s lives in order to make the educational experience a positive and lasting one. After the implementation of the NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act), the accountability that schools experience is greater than before. The schools are responsible for making sure that the teaching staff is one of reputable stature, and that they possess the wisdom and competence needed to achieve the higher standards of education we now have implemented across the country. Schools must also be as up to date with technology as possible. School administrators must also ensure that the curriculum is current and passive enough to better assist students who will compete in the global economy. Superior communication skills between the parent(s) and the teacher, as well as encouragement of parental involvement, are crucial elements that factor into a student’s academic success. Duality of parental involvement is definitely noteworthy, as well as ways to improve upon it. In an Australian study, two hypotheses were tested and confirmed: (a) that the level of mother involvement was higher than that of the fathers, and (b) that the fathers are primarily involved in gender stereotypical activities (Silberberg 2006). The results of a hypothesis indicated that the involvement of women is four times greater that that of the men. The reasoning for this could be argued that the men, for the most part, work during the same hours of school. However, the involvement that the fathers do participate in is more gender oriented (sporting events and security) than academic in nature. There are some ways in which to further encourage the fathers to participate. Perhaps father/daughter or father/son outing, family barbecues, or even celebrating Father’s Day would be acceptable possibilities to further increase father involvement in the schools.

The Parents' Responsibility
Though it is a combination of parental, school and community influences that help to insure educational excellence in our youth, it is mainly the parental responsibility to prepare the child for the social atmosphere in school. Children need to learn how to speak and listen in order to be successful in a school environment. It has been shown that children who do not hear much talk and who are not encouraged to speak have difficulties with reading, and children who have not learned to listen carefully often have issues following directions and paying attention in class (Johnson 2006). With this information, it makes parental involvement all that more important in the early learning process. When fathers are actively involved in school activities, children have a better chance to succeed in school (Wherry 2006). Further, the successfulness of a student is directly proportionate to the forcefulness and involvement of the parent(s). Unfortunately, many students have developed negative attitudes regarding education that are either fostered or ignored by their parents (Galloway 2006). Often times, these parents believe not only that the teacher’s job is to teach the children, but also instill in them morals, manners, kindness, and compassion. Sadly, the schools end up in charge of disciplining these children, as well as modeling proper societal behaviors (Galloway 2006). The only way to change this mentality is to break the cycle of negativity toward schools through making assistance programs available, as well as programs for intervention/prevention. Through much statistical research and evaluation, studies have showed that parents who are actively involved with their child and their education, have a higher success rate inside and outside of the class room. The relationship between parental involvement and success with the student is a steadily increasing number. Since the 1980’s there has been an increasing awareness and concern in, not only quality student education, but the potential affect that a parent has on their child’s education. Education starts at home. From the day that a child is born, their parents are responsible for building the framework of a good citizen. Teachers are here to teach and mentor the children, but “the research also shows that the earlier in a child's educational process parent involvement begins, the more powerful the effects will be.” (Cotton 2001) Parents have the responsibility to raise a child, and included in that responsibility is the teaching of good values and morals to children so that they can be successful in life. In this day and time, it is so easy for parents to become disconnected with their child, their school, and their community. There are many reasons why we should develop partnerships together such as, it strengthens our community, it strengthens our families, and it can be fun! It teaches our children a sense of responsibility, job skills, and tolerance. We can become involved by picking up garbage at the park, work at a community food bank or offer our help at a local animal shelter. By developing good partnerships within our families and communities will provide a steady foundation for our children to be successful.

The Community's Responsibility
Finally, there are the roles in which the community is involved. There are many reasons to develop partnerships between school and community such as, improving school programs, provide family services and support, increase parents' skills and leadership, connect families with others in the school and community and help teachers with their work. The main reason would be to create these partnerships to help all students succeed in school and later in life. When we all work together, a caring community forms around the child and the child can begin to succeed. As a whole, the community is ultimately relying on the culmination of the schools, the parents, and itself to aid in producing future respectable members of their society. Support through the community comes in several different forms and fashions. Libraries, community centers, and churches each contribute in their own special ways. For instance, a library offers unlimited knowledge, with unlimited assistance, and endless empowerment for a student. Anything you ever wanted to know, you could most likely find there. Community centers often offer activities for parents to do with their children, for example, swimming lessons or swimming pool access. Often times there are mother/son and father/daughter one on one type themes to reinforce the parental involvement. Churches serve as a more spiritual positive reinforcement for the students as well as the family. Each of these areas of the community in the end will help to contribute to the education of the whole child including the values for kindness, compassion, cooperation, responsibility, self-esteem, and dignity (Wilson 1998).

Conclusion
Education is not a one-sided, cut and dry concept. It takes the combined continued efforts between the schools, the parents and the community to keep the children on the right path in life. Unfortunately this information is either not stressed as frequently as it may need to be with the parents and communities, or it is ignored all together. There is much truth to the old saying, “It takes a village to raise a child.” That it does.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships/Unity-Diversity

Unity and Diversity are two contrasting concepts. The ideas embodied in each concept oppose the other. Unity is defined as the state of being one or singleness (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000). Unity is agreement or harmony, while diversity refers to variety, assortment or mixture. Unity has something to do with similarity in one way or another. On the other hand, Diversity is the point where things differ (The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, 2000). Diversity has something to do with differences and variety.

The Educational System, even with its several parts, functions and members has unity in a sense that there is an agreement in the goals and the objectives of the school. The purpose of the existence of schools is the same or should be uniform. The main aim is to promote learning and instill knowledge, skills and values to the students. Schools are institutions for learning and thus should primarily serve the purpose of facilitating and encouraging fulfilling learning experiences.

Schools are now composed of students from all demographics. Since education is a basic right for all regardless of race, economic status, gender or religion, schools now consist of a healthy mix of students from different races, religions, social and economic strata, and genders. Non-discrimination led to a progressive diversity in educational institutions. Migration to the United States of people from different countries also resulted to non-homogeneity in the school population. Students now are of different races and religions, and thus cultures or the basic belief systems are different. Languages are different. Although medium of instruction is English and all students should know how to communicate in English, still, some are unable to express themselves well in English.

The Concept of Unity in Diversity
Unity in diversity revolves around the principle that unity can be achieved in spite of the differences of people. These differences are likewise considered as both physical and psychological barriers. These differences may be physically, mentally, culturally, economically, and socially. Diversity may cause segregation and resentment. Unification regardless of any grouping or boundary stems from similar goals and aspirations. Unity in diversity comes into the picture when the diverse characteristics of students and teachers are unified and utilized in the achievement of learning. Adjustments, compromises and understanding should be emphasized in the process of unification.

Diversity in the Educational System
American schools now are characterized by diversity, with students coming from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Immigration has been the key factor in this rise in diversity. Asians have recently gained a considerable presence in schools. Though even before the influx of immigrants, diversity has already existed in schools, specifically the public schools. A significant percentage is attributed to African Americans and a smaller percentage to Native Americans. The Hispanics or Latinos comprise those from Mexico, Puerto Rico and Cuba. By 2005, the Hispanics comprise the biggest minority group in public schools. Results of The Condition of Education 2005 report found that in 2003, forty two percent of students in public schools were ethnic or racial minorities, which was an increase from the twenty two percent in 1972. The growth in number was attributed by the report to the proportionate increase of Hispanic enrollment which from the six percent in 1972 jumped to 19 percent in 2003. In 2002, Hispanic enrollment nationwide exceeded the African American enrollment for the first time, while in 2003; enrollment of minority students outdid the enrollment of White Americans (Annual Report on American Schools Shows Growth, Diversity, 2005).

Diversity is more noticeable in public schools as there are no stringent requirements or prerequisites for enrollment. Private schools are more often than not homogeneous in nature because of the affiliations of these schools which limit the enrollment to certain groups only. Most private schools are religion-based. Some are so specialized in the courses offered that enrollment fees are very expensive. High cost of enrollment is already a limiting factor as this restricts the school to enrollment of students belonging to the upper economic echelon. Public schools on the other hand are characterized by diversity because of non-discriminating policies like free and appropriate education for all regardless of gender, age and disabilities, and its nature of being non-sectarian and non-religious.

Along with issues on racial and cultural diversity, and the separation of state and church which led to non-discrimination on religion, gender equity is also a matter of concern. The roles, rights and access to information, facilities and materials of girls should be equal or balanced to that of the boys.

The American Educational System at one point carried the “melting pot” policy which aimed at assimilation to the current and existing school curriculum or set-up, and disregarding the cultural backgrounds of the students (Lewis, 2000). No effort was put in place then to assist minority students so their levels of achievement were therefore lower than the white students. Minority students were either placed in remedial classes or vocational programs. Some drop-out of school because of their failure to adapt and comprehend the learning programs. Today, schools aim to understand the different cultures where the students came from. They integrate elements of the different cultures into the curriculum for a broader learning experience. Teachers have tools and strategies to assist students who are still coping with comprehension of the English language. Multicultural education was introduced in schools as a means to address the increasing diversity and to unify this diversity. Multicultural education refers to the instruction designed and intended for cultures of different races within an educational system (Wilson). This learning strategy is based on respect of and nurturing of cultural pluralism. Multicultural education incorporates positive racial attributes into the classroom set-up. The curriculum includes the histories and significant contributions of different cultures. Language assistance, adjustment or transition is likewise included for those whose native tongue is not English. This approach encourages the equal opportunity of students to learn. They are also given the chance to interact and share abilities and experiences through heterogeneous or multiracial groupings.

The Importance of Unifying Diverse Populations in School
Unifying students from diverse backgrounds entails imbibing the value of appreciating other people and the uniqueness of their circumstances. Appreciation comes after awareness so before students can learn to accept and find meaning in the difference of those unlike them, they should be made aware of what goes on in the specific cultures or groups of different students. Ignorance is actually a source of hostility and rejection. Discrimination usually stems from ignorance. People naturally shun and avoid things they know nothing about so it is the same with the school system. Students will be hostile and reject those who they know nothing about or those who are far different from them that they are apprehensive to discover why there is a big difference. To lessen, if not eradicate the tension between diverse groups, students should be exposed to the various cultures, religions, races, gender issues and economic or social strata. Exposure ideally leads to a better understanding and a clearer view of why things are the way they are. Knowledge and awareness are key eradicators of segregation for whatever reason.

True learning results from a vast source of information and actual experiences. Other than reading and actual traveling, the attainable means of learning and exploring new horizons is through sharing of stories and experiences with people who do not share the same backgrounds, ideologies, traditions, and origins. The unification process of cultures in school helps students not only improve their knowledge, skills and well-being, but it helps them develop people skills and helps them be open and critical thinkers.

A lot of the prejudice that is felt towards one student from another can be learned in the home by the ignorance of their parents. People have always had tendencies to steer clear of things that are different and this trait can be handed down from generation to generation. One example of this is the prejudice that some Americans felt towards the Islam and Muslim races after 9-11-01. Some looked at that culture and race as being terrorists when in all actuality most were just as mad as we were about what had happened. In this case and in other similar cases, most of that race became less involved in their community and in some cases their school and this is where the problems began. The inactivity of any race in any setting creates a barrier because without that race or culture being involved it creates a lack of understanding about the race or culture. In an article published in the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory this issue is addressed. The articles addresses that fact that most cultural diverse families are not involved in the schools and in the education well being of their child because they feel that they don’t fit in or that no one wants to hear their perspective on school related issues. The solution to this problem is to have involvement by all cultures that are represented at any school not only the involvement of the students but also the parents. I feel that if we all come together we can work out the differences that cause the prejudices that we fell against each other.

Conclusion
American schools today espouse unity in diversity in all aspects. Of course, no system is perfect so there could be flaws somewhere but the central aim of schools is to foster oneness among the students however diverse their backgrounds, physical and psychological traits are. Multicultural education is an effective means to achieve unity in diversity. It develops awareness, understanding and appreciation of various cultures and their beliefs, language, traditions and values. Schools form the foundations of the children for relative success or failure in adult life. Nurturing acceptance and appreciation of other cultures through different learning experiences shape the children into better individuals. Before an effective multicultural program becomes effective in the learning processes of the students, the teachers should themselves be trained for diversity. They can better facilitate and encourage learning if they have the skills and the competence in conducting multicultural programs. “Teachers must respond to the needs of the students by developing culturally sensitive curricula which incorporate multicultural histories and viewpoints, apply teaching strategies that encourage student achievement, and promote educational equity “(Shaw, 1997).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/National Curriculum

The conflict between the expediency of increased federal power and the suspicion of that same power has marked virtually all of American history. Federalist thinkers’ clashing with supporters of states’ rights has been the root of most political divisiveness in our nation. Thomas Jefferson’s vision of an American utopia contained a government which governs best by governing least; however, as the world has matured and become more globalized, federal power has by necessity crept constantly upward. The establishment of a national curriculum would be another landmark step in the flow of power away from the state and local governments, and into the federal government. Allowing the federal government to determine what our children learn is a power not to be given lightly. A national curriculum would be harmful to both the balance of federalism and to the children it is taught to. A federal solution to a problem is an attempt to apply a general principle to a vast and diverse nation. On matters which affect the entire nation in a mostly similar way, such as international relations, the federal government is the fairest and most effective agent. Education of children is far more personal for most families, and is deserving of a more local approach that can be more responsive to constituents’ desires. A local approach is also the most efficient for issues that are generally polarized along geographic lines, such as what should be taught in schools. Change in federal policy is often very slow on controversial issues, and curriculum (aside from generally agreed upon fields such as mathematics) is often controversial. Advocates of a national curriculum claim that such a thing is necessary and inevitable; other options do exist, however, and can allow us to avoid granting too much power to the federal government.

The Problems Defined: Mobility
In their paper, “Improving our undeclared national curriculum,” Allen and Brinton list four basic problems we are currently faced with due to the lack of a declared national curriculum: mobility, obsolescence, equity, and accountability.1 Dr. Allen cites the statistic that 20% of students move during their time in school, and that these students suffer under the status quo. As will be discussed later, the current system does involve a sort of national curriculum, therefore empirically we can deduce that a national curriculum would not solve the problem of mobility as would be intuitively assumed. In fact, giving true curriculum choice to localities could be the solution to the problem of mobility. While 20% of students move, this 20% is not evenly distributed across the country. There are many places in the United States where the schools are very small and there is very minimum cases of new students or students who leave during the year. There are many schools who have students in and out all of the time because of the location of the schools. Shouldn't the curriculum be one that everyone should come together on? Mobility should not be as large of an issue as it is, there should be a consistent curriculum so that these students do not have to catch up/over-learn material (Leinward).The current undeclared national curriculum does not cater to the special needs of mobile students, because the majority of students are not mobile. Some communities have a much higher percentage of transient students due to military families, etc. These communities can tailor their curricula to their particular situations, while leaving more stationary communities to focus on other issues particular to them.

Keeping Up With The Times: Obsolescence
Dr. Allen points to obsolescence as one of the problems that a national curriculum can solve1, but having the federal government implement a curriculum would only exacerbate this problem. Education is harmed by obsolescence, as the information students are taught is always at least 5 years out of date. The problem of obsolescence in the status quo results from the delays involved in textbook publishing, textbooks being the major enforcer of the de facto national curriculum that exists already. Involving federal bureaucracy in determining the national curriculum would only increase the delays, as any changes would experience delay in approval on top of publishing delays. The initial creation of a national curriculum would be a long and arduous process, if it could even be completed. Congressional reluctance, professional disagreement on standards, and failure to produce national tests have thwarted attempts to create a national curriculum in the past. 3,5 One can only imagine the battles that would have to be waged over each change to the curriculum if it were to be established.

You Can’t Please Everyone: Equity
The problem of obsolescence becomes linked to the problem of cultural equity when attempting to form a national curriculum. The question of which area’s and which culture’s history to teach first, or at all, inevitably results in an unspoken ranking of relative significance. A congressionally established national curriculum could result in students in Oklahoma having to learn about California’s history but not that of their own home. That is to say nothing of the political battles that would be fought over racial histories. Some propose an independent group of wise educators, who are insulated from politics yet publicly accountable to determine the national curriculum without the bureaucratic battles.3,5 Aside from the contradiction posed by political insulation with public accountability, the formation of such a group is an idealist pipe dream, reminiscent of a council of town elders attempting to govern an entire nation. No group could ever be formed that could agree on an equitable curriculum for the entire United States. National curricula may work for smaller, less diverse nations, but the United States is far from homogeneous, and it would be impossible to set a culturally fair national curriculum that could actually be covered in the time available. The real solution to the equity and obsolescence problems in American education is to remove the textbook dependence that causes them, not to add to them with politics and bureaucracy.

We’re Letting The Horse Lead The Driver: Accountability
Dr. Allen argues that a national curriculum already exists, and that it is created by unaccountable private parties, making directed change impossible. The criteria for college admissions, which set the standard for high schools that intend for their students to go to college, are set by the College Board, a private company that creates the SAT. Textbooks are considered traditionally to be the primary resource for teaching, and so the content publishers choose to include is largely considered to be the only curriculum that can be taught. This is not to say that textbook publishing occurs in a vacuum, where publishers can arbitrarily decide what to include. Publishers are primarily concerned with profits, and so textbooks tend to be geared towards Idaho and Texas, the only two states that conduct statewide textbook adoption. For these reasons, Dr. Allen calls local control of curriculum a “myth.”1 Indeed, Dr. Allen is correct in his assessment of the status quo, but declaring a set national curriculum retains all the problems of the current, undeclared, national curriculum we carry. No matter who decides the contents, having the same curriculum throughout the country creates problems with student mobility, equity, and obsolescence. Of the problems in the status quo listed by Dr. Allen, only accountability is solved for by a declared national curriculum; fear of this accountability is as likely to paralyze the process as it is to improve it.

Solving at a Local Level With the Power of Technology
Since the problems of mobility, equity, and obsolescence remain even under a formally established national curriculum, another solution must be found to Allen’s list of challenges. These problems all stem from the fact that a single curriculum cannot address the needs of all localities. The first step is to eliminate the textbook dependency that ties us to the current, hidden, national curriculum. Internet resources, properly applied, can solve this problem as well as provide many additional benefits. Networks such as the “ALEX” system in Alabama are inexpensive to create, and allow teachers easy access to education standards, lesson plans, and classroom resources.4 These networks also allow teachers to collaboratively develop lesson plans and easily provide feedback to administrators on the curriculum. Curriculum guidelines determined at the local level can quickly and easily be distributed over these networks, and can be made available to the public to ensure accountability. Local accountability is superior to national accountability because local officials are more directly answerable to individual constituents. Teachers have readier access to local officials to provide their input into curriculum development than they do national officials. More progressive teachers could persuade their local school boards to alter the curriculum for their subject to enable more experiential learning activities and skill development rather than memorization and grinding through non-real-world problems. This method of teaching requires considerable creativity and commitment, but the teachers who are able to do so are the ones students most remember and credit with their motivation in life.2

Textbook replacement resources are abundant on the internet to support any curriculum, and are generally available free of charge. For example, a physics class could use the hyperphysics web materials located at http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html. This website is maintained by Georgia State University, and contains an extensive indexed set of instructional materials; these materials can be searched by keyword, or using the web-diagram interface that leads intuitively from general to more specific related topics. With both instructional materials and step by step illustrated examples, all that a teacher must add are problem sets to have a complete textbook replacement. This site is but one example; with web publishing becoming faster and easier, there are many resources to choose from, or a teacher could even create his own. Updating such resources is an almost instantaneous process, eliminating obsolescence. Internet resources are becoming less and less expensive all the time. While the digital divide must be addressed, the ultimately lower cost for greater power that electronic resources provide would allow communities of different socioeconomic status to enjoy greater equity than ever before. Freed from the curriculum of textbook publishers, and provided with the tools to create and distribute curricula, local governments can provide curricula that are specific to the needs of their children.

Freedom from the uncontrollable hidden national curriculum is only a start, but it is a start that will completely change the ability of local governments to tackle curriculum development. Rushing to replace the current curriculum with yet another rigid, universal structure would prevent us from seeing what local governments could accomplish, and even bring back the same old problems with a vengeance.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Administration/Principal

If a principal literally wore a hat for every role he/she plays there would be two or three full hat racks in his/her office. The principal does not sit behind a desk and hand out punishments all day like television shows lead us to believe. The principal is a leader, supporter, mentor, disciplinarian, business manager, problem solver, safety manager, and much more. He/She has to juggle assistant principals, teachers, parents, students, office staff, custodial staff, cafeteria staff, security staff, and when one of these groups has a serious problem with another the principal handles it. In the real world, Principal Rooney would be too busy to worry about whether or not Ferris Bueller was taking a day off.

Leaders
In today’s society “superintendents are holding principals accountable for student achievement” (Kaplan, 2005). With this increased pressure the principal must assume the role of instructional leader. The principal sets the tone for what is expected from the teachers in the classroom. In order for the principal to be an effective instructional leader there must be a partnership between the principal and the teachers in the school (Maulding, 2000). The principal and teachers must work together to increase student achievement. Principals may want to meet weekly with the teachers to discuss the progress with student achievement they are making in the classroom. The principal may also want to visit each individual classroom to observe teachers. Depending on the size of the school, weekly visits to each classroom may not be possible, but twice a month, or once a month at the least should be manageable for most schools. With schools all over the country increasing in size and the number of teachers increasing right along with it, a principal would most likely delegate the classroom observation task to his/her assistant principals. The principal would need to make his/her views on instruction crystal clear, so that the assistant principals would be seen simply as an extension of the principal.

Supporters
When Dale Holt, Principal of First Colonial High School in Virginia Beach, Virginia, was asked about his role as principal and how he related to the different groups in the school the answer that kept coming up was “support.” While Mr. Holt recognized that society viewed his most important role to be that of the instructional leader, he gave the impression that in order for him to be a successful instructional leader he needed to support his staff as well as the students and their parents. Lynne Lewis, a teacher at First Colonial High School, was asked about the role of the principal as it related to her. Mrs. Lewis’s first response was “supportive.” Mrs. Lewis has since gotten out of the profession.

In Ann L. Wood’s article, principals and novice (first-year) teachers were interviewed about the roles that principals play in novice teacher inductions. The study found that “when (novice teachers did) not receive principal support and guidance they often encounter(ed) problems teaching and/or (left) the school or the profession entirely.” As with any job, if the staff doesn’t feel supported, they will look for employment elsewhere. It is not the principal’s job to be a doormat and let his/her staff walk all over him/her, but it is the principal’s job to make sure that if an employee has a problem that employee will come to him/her. This same article stated that principals often recruit the new teachers and are usually the first and only people the new teachers know in a school (Wood, 2005). Since this is often the case principals must also realize that they will be seen as mentors, not only to the new teachers, but to the entire staff as well. The principal will not only need to support his/her teachers and help them solve problems, he/she will also need to be willing to answer any questions that the staff may have about their job.

Disciplinarians
The principal is no longer seen as the only disciplinarian in the school, but he/she is still the ultimate disciplinarian. Teachers, assistant principals, and security staff now have the authority to discipline the students and the principal gets involved only when the incident is major. When asked about discipline, Mrs. Lewis stated that teachers want to be independent. If they take every minor problem to the principal the major problems will not be seen as major. The teacher often handles issues that take place in the classroom, but when the problems escalate the next step is the assistant principal. Assistant principals are often assigned a group of students to handle and often the principal never has to be involved. The principal must be involved when the problem affects the safety of the rest of the students and staff. The principal is in charge of maintaining a safe and orderly environment and must take care of the problem. Once the problem makes it to the principal’s office, he/she must remember “to interact with misbehaving students without responding in kind and without becoming emotionally upset…” (Algozzine, 2000). The principal must remain calm and diffuse the situation without adding to it.

Lastly, the principal must manage the school as a business. He/She must make sure that those above him are kept in the loop about what is going on at the school and what the needs of the school are throughout the year. He/She must establish and maintain community relations. The principal must be aware of the laws regarding the rights of the students and staff as well as the school board policies.

Conclusion
The principal’s job is not easy. He/She is responsible for tens, hundreds, or sometimes thousands of minds and bodies, and that doesn’t include the teachers and other staff. Principals have a positive effect on professional development when they offer a vision of learning, support collaborative change, and discuss professional research with their teachers. Teachers who work in a stimulating and supportive environment can reach higher stages of professional development. The principal must be compassionate, but at the same time he/she cannot be worried about whether or not every person in the building is happy. At the end of the day all the principal can hope for is that everybody was safe the entire day and walked out of the doors knowing at least one more thing than they knew when they walked in that morning.

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The most important roles of the principal according to this reading were instructional leader and supporter. Do you agree? If yes, why do you agree? If no, why do you disagree and what do you feel are the most important roles of the principal?


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Piano/Playing by Ear

Playing by Ear
Playing by ear is when you "pick" up notes from something you listen to. For example if you're listening to a catchy song and you want to play it but don't have the notes or score you have to play it by ear. The basic process that can be used to play any song by ear on the piano is: 1) recognize intervals between adjacent notes in a melody (e.g. in key of C, C=1, D=2, E=3, F=4, etc.) and using the intervals to help you find and play those notes in sequence on the piano; 2) play the bass note with each melodic note on the main down beats (typically note at 1, 3, or 5 intervals below the melodic note); and 3) play the notes of a specific chord based on the a given bass note (e.g., notes at 1, 3, and 5 intervals above the bass note).

Useful Tips:
 * 1) A good start when trying to play a song or a tune by ear, is to start humming it. This might not be a good choice when other people are around you if you want to keep a certain facade of sanity, but it certainly helps. The reason is that sometimes the hardest part is actually finding the main notes in the song, and when you hum a song, you are really humming the main notes! So just hum away, and start playing by ear.
 * 2) Play slowly! If you're having trouble picking something up, you are not going to make it easier by playing with haste. Just think that there are only a limited amount of notes you use when you're a beginner, no more than 10-15, so finding the first note is not that hard if you are patient. Of course if you're going to guess every single note it would take a really long time playing a long and complicated song by ear- that's why you practice playing short, simple songs by ear.
 * 3) Start the song on the key of C to avoid having to use any of the black keys. To find the first note of the song on the piano so that you play the song in the key of C: 1) hum to the very last note of the song; 2) hum the first note of the song; 3) hum up or down from the last to the first song notes to count the number of intervals separating these two note; and 4) place your finger on the key of C on the piano and go up (or down) the number of counted intervals to determine the starting note of the song.

= also note that there are a lot of different materials online that might help you train your ear. Earmaster for example, is a program that aids you identifying intervals, scales and chords. it also aids in the imitation of rhythms. Alternatively you can try to guess a key that is played on the piano at random.

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Future Teachers Meet Wiki/How would you describe your first interactions with the Wiki system?

=Peter Baker= I am not a very tech-oriented type of guy, so it's fair to say that when I was approached about working on this project, I was scared—not just a little scared, but VERY scared. I could not envision myself editing a real website. Just the same, I jumped in with all three feet. From the first time I edited a Wikipedia article, (the same day I created our class Wikibook), I have been amazed at the user-friendly nature of the software. The designers of the software have considered the fact that most users are not going to be computer engineers, so they have, by necessity, made it easy to do what you want to do! Many times I catch myself thinking, "Man, can I really be posting something that can be read by folks all over the world?" The answer is, of course, "Yes!" With this privilege comes a certain degree of responsibility but, at the same time, it is important to note that a Wiki environment allows one to take bold steps without the fear of major, life-changing consequences. This is because there is a huge support network in place, (literally hundreds of thousands strong), that will catch you when you make a big mistake and validate any points that are correct but about which you're just not sure. I guess, in short, I used to be scared of the Wiki. Now, the Wiki is my friend! :) Pete 20:41, 20 November 2006 (UTC)


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The Computer Revolution/Programming/Programming Languages Used Today

COBOL: The Language of Business
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Screenshot_Eric_4.png COBOL is the most commonly used language for programming large computers in business. The COBOL program is divided into different sections, which are divided into paragraphs, which also are divided into sections. The program is divided into four languages: identification, environment,procedure and data. They each have a function on how the data will be described. Many companies think that COBOL is obsolete. (Williams, Sawyer."Using information technology"

COBOL: (Common Business Oriented Language)
Significant Language Features •	automated business •	permits both long names (up to 30 characters) and word-connector characters (dashes) •	Every variable is defined in detail •	File records are also described with great detail, as are lines to be output to a printer •	Offers object, visual programming environments •	Class Libraries •	Rapid Application Capabilities •	Integration with the World Wide Web COBOL, long associated with green screens, core dumps, and traditional mainframe connections, may at first glance seem at odds with object technology, push-button graphical interfaces, and interactive development environments. This perceived incongruity, however, is more a reflection of the mainframe’s ability to keep pace with the innovations of desktop and client-server computing than a flaw in the COBOL language

COBOL Advantages

 * it is machine- independent, easy to use, easy to read and understand. It can handle a lot of files.

COBOL Disadvantages

 * because it is very simple and easy to read, it tends to be large in length for programmers, it takes longer to design a program and makes the process really slow. Also does not have any mathematical functions like FORTRAN does.

BASIC
The BASIC (Beginner's All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) computer programming language was developed in 1963. It was designed to provide access to computers for non-science students. BASIC is still popular today.

The BASIC language was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz and under their direction, implemented by a team of Dartmouth College students. It was designed to allow students to write programs for the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System. It did not require that the user have a mathematical background as other languages did.

There were eight design principles of BASIC:

 * 1) Easy for beginners to use
 * 2) General-purpose programming language
 * 3) Keep the language simple for beginners, but allow advanced features to be added for experts
 * 4) Interactive
 * 5) Clear and user friendly error messages
 * 6) Quick response for small programs
 * 7) Understanding of computer hardware unnecessary
 * 8) Protect the user from the operating system

BASIC became relatively widespread and was implemented by a number of manufacturers. This is because the designers of BASIC made the compiler available without charge and they also put a great deal of effort into promoting the language.

Visual Basic is a version of BASIC that maintains object-oriented programming and uses a visual environment to assist programmers fast and effortlessly create programs. It is used for creating Windows applications and is part of the Visual Studio suite of programming products. When creating a Visual Basic program, the user interface is created first by adding objects to a blank form, and then detailing the suitable properties for each object.

Many newer BASIC versions with improved features were later created. In time, however, BASIC started to recede. The removal of direct access to the language on the hardware allied with the disappearance of the command line in the more popular Operating Systems as the appearance of new languages, all contributed to the decline of programming in general as an activity for the common user.

In the future, further developments in the BASIC computer language will undoubtedly be made to keep up with the ever-changing times, as it is a fairly simple language to develop translators for.

C
C was first created in 1969 by AT&T Bell Labs. The language was developed for UNIX operating system. It is used mostly for creating system software but also can create application software. The language uses keywords such as "switch, for, while" and many mathematical symbols, as well as a semicolon to indicate the end of a command. C is one of the most popular languages used today for high level programming.

C++
C++ originated in 1983, which is basically a newer object-oriented version of (C). It basically includes all the characteristics related to (C), but beyond that it has additional features for objects, classes, virtual functions, multiple inheritance, templates and other components of an Object-oriented programming. Other than that, there are also visual version of C++ namely, Microsoft Visual C++. It is even most popular programming language for graphical applications, system software, application software, device drivers, embedded software, high-performance server and client application. C++ programming language is also basically suitable of entertainment software such as video games. C++ is even used for hardware design where design is actually described in C++.

C#

C# (pronounced C sharp) is the most recent version of C and was developed as competitor to the Java language. For web purposes, it is mainly used to create applications and XML-based Web services. Similarly, C# is also a well-known and high-level programming language for multimedia applications in video game creation.

Pascal

Pascal was published by Niklaus Wirth in 1970. It was named in honor of the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal.

Pascal is based on the ALGOL programming language. In its original form, Pascal is a purely procedural language that includes the traditional array of ALGOL-like structures with reserved words, such as if, then, else, while, for, and so forth. However, Pascal also had many data structuring facilities and abstractions which were not included in the original ALGOL60, like type definitions, pointers, enumerations and sets.

Nowadays Pascal has been updated to be object oriented. It is often viewed as a teaching language, but it does still serve as an effective tool for developing desktop applications. There are a few commercial programs written in Pascal, for example FL Studio, and BeyondCompare. Pascal uses keywords instead of C-style braces and symbols, so it is a bit easier for beginners to understand than languages like C++. Embarcadero, one of the compiler software leaders, has been promoting Delphi as an industrial strength IDE for the Object Pascal programming language. Lazarus is a free open source IDE that uses Free Pascal, a free, open source, cross-platform, object oriented implementation of Pascal that is largely, though not completely, compatible with Object Pascal.

Python
Python is an open-source, object-oriented programming language. It can be used to develop a variety of applications, including gaming, scientific, database, and web applications. The programs run on computers using the Windows, Linux, UNIX, Mac OS X, or OS/2 operating systems. It also works on Palm and Nokia devices. Python was developed in the early 1990s, but is just recently gaining a large following. It is used by large organizations, such as NASA, Google, Honeywell, and the New York Stock Exchange. MIT is also replacing some languages with Python in programming courses.

Ruby
Ruby is a dynamic open source, object-oriented language that was created in 1995. Its primary focus is productivity of program development. Ruby is used to create web applications and general purpose programming for Mac OS X, including Linux, UNIX, MS-DOS, and Windows. (Understanding Computers 13th edition, Deborah Morley and Charles S. Parker. 2011)

Java
Java is an object-oriented programming language designed by Sun (now Oracle) in the early 1990s. It is an independent platform modeled after C++ and originally designed for use in things like consumer electronics. A great feature of Java is that it’s a “write once – run anywhere” model’ meaning it can be run on one type of server and then moved and run on a different type of server with little or no adjustments needed. When Java is launched on a webpage it’s called an “applet,” on a web server it’s a “servlet” and when Java is run without a web browser, it’s known as a Java “application.” http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=Java&i=45557,00.asp

AJAX
AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript and XML) is a set of coding standards that combine the JavaScript and XML languages to create faster and better web pages. Services such as GMail, Flickr, Google Maps, and Windows Live Mail use this programming language as well as HTML or XHTML. In an AJAX application, the data is handled mostly within the application, instead of by the web server. AJAX only adds content to the existing web page data when the information is being refreshed. This allows a lot less downloading from the server which creates a faster response. The implementation of AJAX allows certain web applications to run at speeds similar to desktop applications.

References: Morely, Deborah; Parker, Charles. Understanding Computers Today and Tomorrow. Course Technology, 2011. Pages 419-420. Print.


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User:Indeed123~enwikibooks

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