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Guide to Unix

This is the Guide to Unix Computing, or for short, Guide to Unix. It describes Unix and Unix-like systems for users and system administrators. It includes guide to Unix commands.

Brief contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Why Unix-like/

Explanations of topics

 * Command Line
 * Common Programs
 * Administration
 * Storage
 * Networking
 * Electronic Mail
 * Security
 * Beyond This Book

Quick reference

 * /Commands/ - commands listed conveniently in categories
 * /Environment Variables/ - USER, EDITOR, PATH...
 * /Files/ - configuration and device files of /etc/ and /dev

Varieties

 * /Variants/
 * /Linux/ - the basic traits of Linux systems
 * /BSD/ - the basic traits of *BSD systems

Appendices

 * /Index/
 * /Links/

Other Wikibooks

 * A Neutral Look at Operating Systems
 * UNIX Computing Security
 * Unix utilities: Bourne Shell Scripting, Learning the vi Editor
 * The windows managers: Guide to X11, Using GNOME, Using KDE
 * Programming: C, C++, Serial Programming/Serial Linux

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Guide to Unix


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Field Guide/Dragonflies and Damselflies

 * /Western US and Canada/
 * /Eastern US and Canada/
 * /Western Europe and the British Isles/
 * /Eastern Europe/
 * /Alpine Region/
 * /Scandinavia/
 * /Australia and New Zealand/
 * /Mexico and Central America/
 * /Caribbean/
 * /Northern South America/
 * /Amazon Rainforest/
 * /Southern South America/
 * /Andean Region/
 * /India/
 * /Japan/
 * /Indonesia and Malaysia/
 * /Middle East/
 * /North Africa/
 * /Southern Africa/
 * /West Africa/
 * /Horn of Africa/
 * /Siberia/
 * /Central Asia/
 * /Caucasus/

title: Field Guide/Dragonflies and Damselflies


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User:Vuara/NG Medicine Man

Captive in Fort Sumner

A grueling 300-mile march to imprisonment in a sterile land.

The Dine, or Navajo as they were called by the Spanish, share a common Athabascan ancestry with the Apache. The Dine emulated the Pueblo, shedding their animal skin clothing for cotton and learning quickly to farm. They settled in, herding sheep and growing corn in the canyons and mesas between the Rio Grande and the Grand Canyon.

When American settlers started filtering into the area, raids began. Attempts to negotiate treaties were made between 1846 and 1849, but the Dine, a population of approximately 12,000, were vastly scattered, and coordinated talks never took place.

In 1851, Fort Defiance was built about 30 miles southeast of Canyon de Chelly. The land that had been long used for grazing Navajo sheep was suddenly taken over for use by the soldier's horses. A long cycle of bloody attacks and reprisals began, peaking in 1860, when 1,000 warriors waged an attack on Fort Defiance. The army abandoned the fort, but a full-fledged campaign of revenge cut across Navajo country. Crops were burned and destroyed, livestock was slaughtered or confiscated, and the Dine faced the threat of starvation.

A peace agreement was signed in 1861, which included a government promise of rations for the tribe. Later that year, the supplies were distributed in a festive atmosphere which included horse racing and betting. In the last race, an army rider accused of cheating was declared winner, and an uproar followed. The troops withdrew to the fort where the commander ordered them to open fire. More than 30 Navajo were shot dead, many of them women and children. This initiated an new wave of vengeance.

In 1863, Colonel Christopher "Kit" Carson was named by General Carlton (known for his ruthless treatment of Apache raiders) to begin a campaign against the Navajo. His troops stormed into the ancient and sacred Canyon de Chelly, rousting the people from their hogans which were then burned, along with saddles, clothing and all other stores. Their sheep and cattle were slaughtered, and about two million pounds of corn burned. Families attempted to hide in caves in the canyon walls, but were hunted and put under armed guard. One small band of Kayenta Navajo found fresh-water springs in a hidden canyon behind the top of Navajo Mountain, and were able to escape captivity.

After many months of bitter imprisonment, about 8,000 men, women and children were forced to make a grueling 300-mile forced march, remebered as "the Long Walk," across New Mexico to a dry desolate strip of land known as Bosque Renondo. There, Carleton invisioned, they would become "happy and contented people."

Navajo men were forced to mold adobes and to build Fort Sumner. They were given no wood for fires, the drinking water was bitter and the soil no good for growing corn. Men, women and children became ill, developing stomach problems and other conditions due to the lack of fires to withstand the cold winter rain and wind. Without their land and their corn, the people were in a state of desperation, made worse by disease and starvation. They were wasting away.

Ultimately, the imprisoment has its desired effect. A treaty was signed in 1868, granting Navajo survivors a 3.5 million acre reservation which included their old home country.

During their imprisonment, the Navajo lost about 25% of their people, and were no longer considered a threat. They returned home and began to rebuild their homes and their lives.

Recorded in petroglyph form, these symbols, found in Largo Canyon, New Mexico, tell the story of Carson's campaign against the Navajo.

+++

Next-generation Medicine Man- An interview with Albert Laughter.

My family goes back several generations. We were not held captive in Fort Sumner. My family grew up in what is now the Canyon Lands. Over the years I have been asked questions by a number of interested people from universities and I have welcomed the opportunity to share my culture and to learn about their culture.

I have my own language and tradition but I also live in two cultures- my own and my adopted culture, the Anglo society. Presently I am a contractor and build and sell houses. I specialize in making our culture's type of house, called a hogan. We have some even sided octagon shape and also the traditional dome shape hogans. These are based on the traditional styles that are made of the earth.

Our ways are different. We are not a scriptual type of people. We are not known to be writers, we are known to be symbolizers. We may use a symbol or a color to represent a concept. When we teach something or we are shown something, you will only hear it once - you will not hear it again. If you hear it the second time it will not be the same as you heard it the first time and it will not be as strong a message. That is why we use symbols to represent the meaning of important teachings.

Although we have clans within our tribe, it is the elders in our family who are the ones who answer our questions and give us our tradition. When old people speak we listen because the spirit is speaking through them, the spirit is within them. When we speak with the old people, the old spirits are with them and are speaking through them. That is how we answer the questions from the young people.

The word "Navajo"

I am used to being called Navajo. It is a Spanish word that has a meaning that is not nice. It means renegade. We call ourselves Dine (dee-neh)- like our language. It is our identity and our heritage. I would prefer to be called a Dine.

On Ceremonies

In my family I am more or less the one who is looked up to because I am asked to explain things to the younger members of the family. I do some chanting with my father, often throughout the night and I assist my father, the Medicine Man, in his chanting and praying.

There are about two hundred sacred songs but we can only use about twenty four or thirty six songs because they must stop when the big morning star is in the sky. We call it the big star and when it comes, about mid-morning, we stop singing. So we sing by these stars. Some of these songs can only be sung in the morning, while some can only be sung from midnight until the time when the big star is in the sky. We also have songs for when the sun comes up and when the sun is in the mid-afternoon.

On Healing

In healing, there are certain prayers that we say and these prayers are repeated by the patient. He or she will repeat them after the shaman says them. The prayers are to heal whatever the problem is and what is causing it. Maybe the problem is from the thunder or maybe the illness is from the Mother Earth. With each special prayers there can be special offerings. We also use herbs that are prescribed much like modern medicine will prescribe certain pills. The herbs that are gathered are gathered just for that specific individual with that specific illness. We also use what we call prayer bundles. These, like the herbs, are specific bundles of prayers that prescribed for specific conditions. We often have corn pollen in a little bag in one hand and in the other hand we will hold the prayer bundle.

The prayer bundle is difficult to describe because, like the prayer sticks, they are sacred things and we do not want to describe them in detail. The god people, as we call them, do not want these sacred things to be revealed or given away. We believe that if you give up some of these sacred things by revealing them carelessly, we will also lose all of our memory and our thoughts and the memories of our race. This is what my father told me. I am in the last part of my apprenticeship and I am learning certain creative singing right now.

The singing starts with certain ages. There are songs for pregnant women, for babies and for children. Usually, for babies, there is corn pollen that is offered as a blessing. Gestures and direction are important. We always push the corn pollen towards the baby, never from the back or the side - always directly towards the baby. This is how my father, the Medicine Man, taught me and this is how he was taught by my grandfather who was also a Medicine Man.

When we do these ceremonies we do not do them according to a schedule. We do not have a special holy day like a Saturday or a Sunday. We do the ceremonies when they are needed and then we will repeat or continue them in two days, or three days, but we do not use the days of the week as a marker of time. Every week has a Monday and every day has a one o'clock or a two o'clock, so we say that we will do the ceremonies in two days. That is our way.

On Family

I have children and nieces and nephews and a large family with many young people. No one in my family is carrying on these traditions and it worries me. I have enjoyed taking on the tradition of my father, especially at my age. I am 49. But it seems like this long tradition will end with me. My own children do not speak the language. But as far as carrying on with the Anglo society, they can get by much better than even I can do. I do better talking with older people in the traditional ways.

Do you think your children will eventually want to leave this area?

We often talk about it. I try to speak to them about my own experiences. I lived once for six years in Gallup (New Mexico) and Flagstaff. At first the children may want to move there to see what it is like but at a certain age they will want to come back. They want to see what they see here. They often say that they have seen this area in their dreams and they want to come back. They say that even though they do not speak the language - even though they do not understand their grandmother - they have the strong desire to come back. This is the mission that we have in this area. We say that it is important that the traditions be carried on by the next generation and it is very important that they learn the language.

After Death

Your destiny is fortold. Like after you pass on someone may mention your name. We may talk about, say, our grandmother. "Remember how grandmother used to say this or that?" Also, we can sometimes see the person who has passed on in a child who has the same expression or temperment. We say, "He or she is just like grandmother!" In this way the person continues. These are some of the ways that a person stays with us. They live on in memories and thoughts. Even tears can mark a continuance. We live within our family who remember us. We all return to the earth and we can come back as the rain.

If you travel around some of the pueblos and the ruins you may hear the conversations of the people who have passed on - you can hear their planning and their laughter, their preparation of food and chatting of the woman folks, old people and the fires. If you close your eyes you can hear the children playing. You can really hear them. These are some of the talk that is left behind within the wind. The winds are the only messengers that we have. As we grew up, that is what our grandparents used to tell us. The only thing that you can have a conversation with is with the wind. There is a certain way that you face yourself and then you can hear them.

The way we were taught was to go out at the dawn - that is the time that you can speak to the old ones. You go out at dawn and make an offering and talk to them. They are the living gods - they are gone to the other side. The only time that you are going to hear them talking back is when there is a thunder or a new plant or a quick glance during which time you can see them. They only come at a certain time but they are around you, they are with you. But they are real and they are your guides. You speak to them in the morning - that is the time to talk to the old ones.

You can make an offering of corn pollen and say something like, "Hear me. You know me." This other side of the culture, the Christianity, you say "My Father in heaven," and you are speaking to the Great Spirit, but I will say, "I am your great grandchild, your grandchild, and I, as your child, would like to say something. I talk to you in beauty." Thats how I learned from my father and he from his grandfather. My grandfather is not here. He is passed on. That is how we say it- we say they have passed on. Some would say that they have passed away but we say that they have passed on, meaning that their life continues. We are their life that carries on.

On History & Tradition

Well, I hate to use the words, but the Hollywood style of viewing us is bad. The "cowboys and indians" view of history is not correct. I can remember when they were filming a John Wayne movie out here and the director had some of our people in the movie. He said that when John Wayne pulled out his gun we were all supposed to fall to the ground. This is what the young people learn about themselves and it is sad.

If I could give a message to any Native children who would listen, I would say to first learn about who you are and then to be proud to be who you are. You should go somewhere very quiet and just feel what kind of person that you are and try to feel the spirit inside and outside and then to not be ashamed or feel bad about who and what you are.

Let nature be nature. Let yourself be who you are. Don't try to improve or cover up your true self. At the same time, some things should be preserved and kept private. Even within the Navajo people there is a great difference between the so-called East and West Navajos. Around Gallup and Albequerque there are Navajo who are selling souvenirs of sacred items and are making a living off of the culture. This only diminishes the culture when you sell it off. Some things ought to be kept to the people as their sacred traditions.

One thing that is harmful is television. Young people see things and get ideas that are difficult for the older people to even understand. As a result we have young people shooting other young people in schools and we have a problem with drugs and alcohol. It is what they see on television. We have a very bad problem among some of our youth in this area. It is a difficult problem to face.

Some of the other things that I do not feel good about are intermarriage. People will say that he or she is a good person and will be a good mate. We are trying to keep our ways intact. It is hard for me to say what my own children will do. The most important thing is that they should want to learn the language and then they will be able to carry on the ways. I don't want to be the last one to preserve the ways of my family and my people. My mission is to encourage them to listen and to want to learn these things. I think I am becoming successful because they are returning again and again. They are coming back and asking questions and they are curious and it is a good sign. Only time will tell.

On the Earth

We have noticed that things are a little bit different from one year and season to the next. Once we did not get burns from the sun but now we notice that even our skin begins to burn when we are out in it for a long time. It was not like that before. Man makes the mistake of trying to understand things and improve upon them when they do not need to be looked at so closely. Once there would be a beauty walk, as we call it, and it was fine. Then someone would decide that it would be better to build a paved road on the same path. And the road is not natural and so things around the road change. Sometimes we do not need to look at trying to improve on natural things. And sometimes it is not really progress.

We thank Albert Laughter for taking the time to share his heritage with us and our readers. We found our time with him to be most rewarding.

+++

Stories are very important to us. We have stories that remind us of the past ...

In our tradion we say that a long, long time ago the gods got together to have a meeting. It was what I call the god conference. They had to decide, "How shall we make the human people? How shall we make the plant people? The reptile people, and so on..." And more importantly they had to decide, "How shall these people live together?" Those are some of the questions that came about. They decided to give them each different settings and categories. So that is what happened when they called this conference.

The cayote was, as you would say, the "MC" of the conference. And so it was the cayote who ran the meeting and became the messenger, telling which category everything would be in. But the cayote was clever and had a sense of humor. That is why we see humor in the world. The cayote has a sense of humor and so you will see that at every meeting of Native Americans there is always a joke- someone will crack a joke to start the discussion. Then they get down to business.

Many white people think that the Navajo are serious people because we do not smile much. This has its origin in the cayote legend. We are told that everything is not a joke. The many gods have things that they control, and they are not all humorous, but the only messenger we have is the cayote. If we see a cayote cross our path we say, "Oh look, the cayote! What kind of message is he bringing to me?" If the cayote is encountered when you are facing to the north then it is usually a bad message. If he shows when you are facing the south then it is likely to be good news. Whatever the case, we usually stop and make an offering to the cayote for delivering the message. If it is a good message then the offering will assure hid blessing. If it is a bad message then you should make that offering so maybe it will not come true. In any case, if you see the cayote it is a wake up call and an indication that he is delivering a message to you.

The cayote has his songs, too. They are different for each of the seasons. In fact, we can talk about the cayote mainly in the winter because he is hiding, or, as we say, he is taking a vacation. Right now, as we talk about him, he is listening to us and hears what we say about him. That is why some cayote stories are told only at certain times of the year.

When the gods made the different kinds of people, they decided "Let's not make them know each other at first. Let the different people find each other and be curious and want to know about each other." Curiosity is important because it fosters respect for each other and our differences. When we have to learn about each other, we also learn about ourselves and we respect our differences.

When people who speak different languages meet, the hand languages are very important because that is how we can communicate. We use gestures and symbols. This was the intention of the cayote. He wanted to make it interesting for different people to meet. That is his sense of humor.

Sometimes the cayote will make things happen for a purpose- always for a purpose. He may make you have a deformity or an illness, but it is because you need to learn something or to pay attention to something. So he may make something happen that you might think is bad but it is for your benefit to make you learn a lesson. Often the lesson will make you say, "Why me? Why did this happen to me?" The cayote knows that this is a big lesson that will be learned by you and your family and your friends, so that they all benefit from the lesson.

title: User:Vuara/NG Medicine Man


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User:Vuara/Hopi brief history

The Hopi are a tribe of about ten thousand people located in a fairly isolated geographic area in northeast Arizona. Descendants of the ancient Hisatsinom, their culture can be traced back over two millennium, making it one of the oldest known in North America. They settled in the land of the Four Corners area long before the Navajo, the Apache, the Spanish or the Europeans who now call themselves Americans.

About a thousand years ago, the Hopi occupied a vast territory stretching from the Grand Canyon to Toko'navi (what is now called Navajo Mountain), toward the Lukachukai Mountains near the Arizona and New Mexico border, and south to the Mongollon Rim. Hopi clan markings can be seen throughout this entire area in the form of petroglyphs, etched figures and symbols in the rock cliffs and stones.

Here they developed a system of farming, called dry farming, and were able to grow a variety of vegetables which included several types of corn. They had an understanding of natural cycles and they incorporated these into their daily religious rituals. Unlike other "warrior" tribes, the Hopi were a peaceful people and had good relations with all of their neighbors, including several Native people in Mexico, with whom they shared trade and ideas.

Within fifty years of being "discovered" by the Spanish, the Hopi were to face the first of many cultural challenges in the form of Christianity. Limited contact with the Spanish missionaries was at first beneficial since it brought the horse, sheep, burros and cattle. Several new vegetables and fruits were also introduced to their agriculture. Along with these "gifts" was the persistent attempt to convert the Hopi from their spiritual beliefs, and subsequent contact with the Spanish was marked by severely harsh and brutal treatment- all in the name of the Christian god.

Along with other "gifts" from the Spanish, the Hopi people suffered from a previously unknown disease, smallpox, which plummeted their population from about 10,000 to a mere 3,000. Also, the Navajo, who entered the region about the 13th century, made frequent raids and attempts to secure Hopi land during the early part of the 19th century.

In 1882, president Chester A. Arthur designated a small rectangular area in northeast Arizona as the Hopi reservation. This area included the present day three mesas that comprise the Hopi homeland. The wording of this agreement, however, allowed any other Indians which the Secretary of the Interior permitted to live in this reservation area also. This opened the way for successive waves of Navajo infringement on Hopi land.

Several subsequent treaties and actions of the United States government have further encouraged intrusion on Hopi land and ways of life. This intrusion has created a current threat to the Hopi, as we will discuss further during our stay.

"Here in Arizona, we trace our history back two millennium. We emerged here over 100 generations ago, making us one of the oldest cultures in North America." --The Hopi

As we pointed out in our brief history, the Hopi once occupied the land stretching from the Grand Canyon to Toko' navi (what is now called Navajo Mountain), toward the Lukachukai borderlands, south to the Mogollan Rim. Their ancestral ruins and clan markings clearly distinguish their traditional homeland boundaries.

In 1882 a rectangular tract of land was designated as the Hopi Reservation. Since that time, the Hopi have had a continual struggle to maintain the land granted to them. As you can see by the map (not an exact rendering), the once rectangular portion of land originally set aside as the Hopi Reservation has been gradually diminished by the Navajo, who have tried to claim everything outside the portion marked Section Six as their own. These lands contain ancient sacred sites still used in traditional ceremonies by the Hopi, who have strong ties to this ancestral land.

The effort to keep control of their homelands has been a difficult, ongoing struggle for the Hopi, a small group whose religious beliefs and daily lifestyle are firmly meshed, keeping them from extensive contact with the modern world. Their desire to handle their problems in traditional ways has put them at a disadvantage to the Navajo, people who quickly adapt to changes and are not hesitant to take advantage of partnerships with the "outside world." Therefore, the Hopi have been receiving what definitely appears to be the "short end of the stick."

During their effort to keep control of their ancient lands, the Hopi have witnessed the destruction of mesas containing sites which they consider sacred or sanctified ground. These mesas have been destroyed for the production of amalgam, used in the making of asphalt highways. Ironically, despite their outrage and pleas for preservation of these important and historic sites, construction companies under contract to the state of Arizona are using this material to pave Route 264, which passes through the center of the Hopi Reservation.

In addition to the assaults on their land, the Hopi have also become the target of fortune seekers who have raided ancient sites and stolen sacred items used in religious ceremonies. Ceremonial masks and other items used in spiritual practice have been sold in the "art market" and have fallen into the hands of collectors or museums. To the Hopi, these items are living entities and their absence can hinder or even prevent sacred rites from taking place. Some items have been recovered in cooperation with the FBI under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, but the tracking and recovery of the items takes years, during which their absence seriously affects the spiritual health of the Hopi people.

Hopi village life revolves around their religious calendar which divides the year based on the visits of the Kachinas. These Ancestral Spirits arrive after the winter solstice and leave at the peak of summer. During their stay, colorful ceremonial dances take place in the village plazas for the benefit of all people, plants, animal and spirit life. Upon their departure, carved images of the Kachinas are given as spiritual gifts. The Katsinam, who perform the public dances, are sacred to the Hopi people, as are the carved Kachinas which have been ceremonially sanctified.

Only the Hopi and their pueblo relatives have esoteric manifestations called Kachinas within their culture, but it has become the practice of non-Hopi Indians, as well as Caucasian craftspersons, to try to "cash in" on the tribe's religious practices by creating imitation kachina dolls. Over 70% of the Hopi people earn a part of their income from the creation of arts and crafts such as kachinas, baskets, pottery and jewelry. An individual Hopi doll carver makes less than 50 high quality kachinas per year meant for sale to the public, yet over 100,000 imitation kachina dolls are placed into the stream of the Indian art market. Highways are scattered with signs advertising "authentic kachinas."

The activities described thus far are enough to keep the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office staff busy year 'round. Operating with a very small staff and antiquated equipment, the office has its hands full trying to handle the legal aspects of all the above-mentioned situations, which need to be handled quickly when they arise. Most old documentation is hand written in quill pen and quite fragile. This documentation needs to be put into electronic format so that it can be easily accessed and printed when needed. The office is lacking state-of-technology computer equipment, modems, scanners, printers and faxes which could make their huge task much easier. (We ask our readers who have connections to computer equipment to pitch in here and help this office get some badly needed equipment.)

Other concerns of the Cultural Preservation team center around insuring the continuance of Hopi cultural heritage which has suffered, not only from the examples mentioned, but from the influences of modern society as well. Television has caused a lack of interest in Hopi practices and encouraged a desire to become involved in the outside world, as well as a trend of disrespect for the Elders. The impact of modern education and economics have also put a strain on the Hopi style of life. According to the Public Relations Office of the Hopi Tribe, "when a man has a full-time job there is little time left over to tend his fields and take part in the yearlong religious ceremonies."

Prior to the construction of Jr./Sr. high school facilities on the reservation, students attended off-reservation schools, border town public schools or the boarding schools of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Hopi language was never taught in these schools, nor were the children allowed to speak in their native tongue. Violating this rule met with severe punishment. As a result, a whole generation has fallen off from learning the language or being able to teach it to their children. Since the language has no written form and was traditionally taught by the grandmother, introducing it into the school system will be a complicated task.

Some of the ancient Hopi language has already been lost. Ceremonial songs contain some words which are no longer understood by older Hopi, but are still sung by tradition. If no attempt is made to revive the language in Hopi youth, the refined concepts and religious traditions that are the very foundation of Hopi identity will eventually be lost.

Several years ago a team of linguists approached the Hopi with an offer to prepare a dictionary of their language. Many were happy to cooperate with this effort, believing that it would help preserve and sustain their culture. When the dictionary was completed it was put on sale in the public market, and profits given to the universities and foundations that started the project. Complaints from the Hopi netted them 24 copies and instructions to purchase more copies if they were needed. "They have even sold our language," remarked one of our hosts.

The Hopi are the true owners of their cultural heritage. They are now beginning to fight back by investing in lawyers who are securing proprietary rights to their language, art and cultural practices. One concerned Hopi stated, "In the old days our people would circle around the invading enemy and they would shoot bullets at us from the wagons. I see our job now is to be inside those wagons and to be loading blanks in the enemy's guns."

This is the daily struggle of the Hopi against constant infringements on their basic rights to practice their religion, maintain their lands and secure their way of life. Some members have educated themselves in the ways of the outside world and are seeking to correct the wrongs that have taken place. This in itself has caused some division with those who prefer to deal with the outside world in the old, traditional ways- to ignore it. But these moves may be necessary to save an endangered culture.

If Vice President Gore can commit our tax funds to place a modern computer per student in our school systems by the year 2000, then certainly one or two concerned businesses should be able to provide this ancient culture with the tools they need to insure their future existence. We ask our readers to support this effort by furnishing the computer equipment necessary. If you can be of help, contact the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office at P.O. Box 67, Second Mesa, Arizona, 86043, or e-mail us at ViewZone.

We were surprised and honored to learn that we would be allowed to enter one of the Hopi's ancient sacred sites. Join us for our next upload and witness an historic first as we are allowed to photograph, for the first time ever, some of the ancient rock inscriptions still visible in this sacred place.

title: User:Vuara/Hopi brief history


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User:Vuara/The Name of God

The Name of God From the Sinai to the American Southwest James Harris

In the 18th Century BC, Canaanite miners were hired by the Egyptians to work in their Copper and Turquoise mines in an area called Serabit el-Khadim (see map below) of the Sinai Desert (now called the Egyptian East Desert). Hieroglyphic signs were used to write their West Semitic names and keep correct accounts of their days of labor. This was a great motivation for them to learn the sound signs that phonetically articulated their names. Very soon they had an Alef-Bet with which they could record their Proto-Canaanite language. The script they developed is called Proto-Sinaitric (First-Sinaitic) and the language was a Pan-Canaanite language often called Old Hebrew

Three centuries later (15th Century BC) there was a cave-in at Mine-L, within the above mentioned area, and artifacts, tool, and a few inscriptions were frozen in time. This event provided knowledge of how much the Alef-Bet had matured in three centuries.

In the same century an area variation appeared in the Land of Canaan. This variation retained the archaic forms of Proto-Sinaitic and introduced a few abstract forms (used side by side with archaic forms). This area variation was called Proto-Canaanite. Both of these archaic scripts were the parents of Old Negev (1200 BC) an area variation found South of the Land of Canaan (an area that today extends from Beersheva to Eilat). Another script that emerged about the same time as Old Negev was Phoenician. Unlike Phoenician, Old Negev retained many of the archaic signs which they used side by side with abstract signs [the abstract signs were simply reformed Egyptian signs].

A study of the two parent Alef-Bets was an important step toward assigning the appropriate phonetic values to the Old Negev signs. Also since Old Hebrew was used as the best language to translate the two parent scripts it was logically the best language with which to translate Old Negev inscriptions. The geographical location of the emergence of Old Negev also favored a strong link to the parent scripts.

In addition symbols, icons, and ligatures that doubled as icons and enhanced the meaning of the whole composition were consistently observed and they frequently included icons and phonetic signs that spell the most sacred name of the God of Israel [Yah, Yahh, & Yahu, which out of respect was never spelled out fully].

But all the above is just the beginning of the surprises that Dr. Harris describes in his book, The Name of God From the Sinai to the American Southwest.

The real discovery was that this same ancient alphabet system was found on rocks darkened by patina (desert varnish), on paintings in caves and overhangs, with the same icon, ligatures, symbols, and the name of the same God spelled the same three ways in six Southwestern States. Prof. Harris has a corpus of I20 inscriptions from the Negev of Israel, and about 400+ from the American Southwest. It is indisputable evidence that a Canaanite people speaking and writing a Canaanite language and worshipping the God Yahweh found their way to ancient America.

Dr. Harris is continuing his examination of the Israel site and has gained the interest of various international scholars in his Middle-East find.

title: User:Vuara/The Name of God


text:
Field Guide/Dragonflies and Damselflies/Eastern US and Canada

 * Aeshna canadensis - Field Guide/Canada Darner
 * Aeshna clepsydra - Field Guide/Mottled Darner
 * Aeshna constricta - Field Guide/Lance-tipped Darner
 * Aeshna eremita - Field Guide/Lake Darner
 * Aeshna interrupta - Field Guide/Variable Darner
 * Aeshna tuberculifera - Field Guide/Black-tipped Darner
 * Aeshna umbrosa - Field Guide/Shadow Darner
 * Anax junius - Field Guide/Common Green Darner
 * Argia fumipennis violacea - Field Guide/Variable Dancer
 * Argia moesta - Field Guide/Powdered Dancer
 * Arigomphus cornutus - Field Guide/Horned Clubtail
 * Arigomphus furcifer - Field Guide/Lilypad Clubtail
 * Basiaeschna janata - Field Guide/Springtime Darner
 * Boyeria grafiana - Field Guide/Ocellated Darner
 * Boyeria vinosa - Field Guide/Fawn Darner
 * Calopteryx aequabilis - Field Guide/River Jewelwing
 * Calopteryx maculata - Field Guide/Ebony Jewelwing
 * Celithemis elisa - Field Guide/Calico Pennant
 * Celithemis eponina - Field Guide/Halloween Pennant
 * Chromagrion conditum - Field Guide/Aurora Damsel
 * Coenagrion resolutum - Field Guide/Taiga Bluet
 * Cordulegaster diastatops - Field Guide/Delta-spotted Spiketail
 * Cordulegaster maculata - Field Guide/Twin-spotted Spiketail
 * Cordulegaster obliqua - Field Guide/Arrowhead Spiketail
 * Cordulia shurtleffi - Field Guide/American Emerald
 * Didymops transversa - Field Guide/Stream Cruiser
 * Dorocordulia libera - Field Guide/Racket-tailed Emerald
 * Dromogomphus spinosus - Field Guide/Black-shouldered Spinyleg
 * Enallagma antennatum - Field Guide/Rainbow Bluet
 * Enallagma boreale - Field Guide/Boreal Bluet
 * Enallagma carunculatum - Field Guide/Tule Bluet
 * Enallagma cyathigerum - Field Guide/Northern Bluet
 * Enallagma ebrium - Field Guide/Marsh Bluet
 * Enallagma exsulans - Field Guide/Stream Bluet
 * Enallagma geminatum - Field Guide/Skimming Bluet
 * Enallagma hageni - Field Guide/Hagen's Bluet
 * Enallagma signatum - Field Guide/Orange Bluet
 * Enallagma vernale - Field Guide/Spring Northern Bluet
 * Enallagma vesperum - Field Guide/Vesper Bluet
 * Epitheca canis - Field Guide/Beaverpond Baskettail
 * Epitheca cynosura - Field Guide/Common Baskettail
 * Epitheca princeps - Field Guide/Prince Baskettail
 * Epitheca spinigera - Field Guide/Spiny Baskettail
 * Erythemis simplicicollis - Field Guide/Eastern Pondhawk
 * Gomphaeschna furcillata - Field Guide/Harlequin Darner
 * Gomphus adelphus - Field Guide/Moustached Clubtail
 * Gomphus borealis - Field Guide/Beaverpond Clubtail
 * Gomphus descriptus - Field Guide/Harpoon Clubtail
 * Gomphus exilis - Field Guide/Lancet Clubtail
 * Gomphus lividus - Field Guide/Ashy Clubtail
 * Gomphus spicatus - Field Guide/Dusky Clubtail
 * Gomphus vastus - Field Guide/Cobra Clubtail
 * Hagenius brevistylus - Field Guide/Dragonhunter
 * Helocordulia uhleri - Field Guide/Uhler's Sundragon
 * Ischnura posita - Field Guide/Fragile Forktail
 * Ischnura verticalis - Field Guide/Eastern Forktail
 * Ladona [Libellula] julia - Field Guide/Chalk-fronted Corporal
 * Lestes congener - Field Guide/Spotted Spreadwing
 * Lestes disjunctus - Field Guide/Common Spreadwing
 * Lestes dryas - Field Guide/Emerald Spreadwing
 * Lestes eurinus - Field Guide/Amber-winged Spreadwing
 * Lestes forcipatus - Field Guide/Sweetflag Spreadwing
 * Lestes inaequalis - Field Guide/Elegant Spreadwing
 * Lestes rectangularis - Field Guide/Slender Spreadwing
 * Lestes unguiculatus - Field Guide/Lyre-tipped Spreadwing
 * Lestes vigilax - Field Guide/Swamp Spreadwing
 * Leucorrhinia frigida - Field Guide/Frosted Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia glacialis - Field Guide/Crimson-ringed Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia hudsonica - Field Guide/Hudsonian Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia hudsonica X intacta - Field Guide/Hudsonian Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia intacta - Field Guide/Dot-tailed Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia patricia - Field Guide/Canada Whiteface
 * Leucorrhinia proxima - Field Guide/Red-waisted Whiteface
 * Libellula incesta - Field Guide/Slaty Skimmer
 * Libellula luctuosa - Field Guide/Widow Skimmer
 * Libellula pulchella - Field Guide/Twelve-spotted Skimmer
 * Libellula quadrimaculata - Field Guide/Four-spotted Skimmer
 * Macromia illinoiensis - Field Guide/Illinois River Cruiser
 * Nannothemis bella - Field Guide/Elfin Skimmer
 * Nehalennia irene - Field Guide/Sedge Sprite
 * Neurocordulia yamaskanensis - Field Guide/Stygian Shadowdragon
 * Ophiogomphus anomalus - Field Guide/Extra-striped Snaketail
 * Ophiogomphus colubrinus - Field Guide/Boreal Snaketail
 * Ophiogomphus rupinsulensis - Field Guide/Rusty Snaketail
 * Plathemis [Libellula] lydia - Field Guide/Common Whitetail
 * Somatochlora cingulata - Field Guide/Lake Emerald
 * Somatochlora franklini - Field Guide/Delicate Emerald
 * Somatochlora kennedyi - Field Guide/Kennedy's Emerald
 * Somatochlora walshii - Field Guide/Walsh's Emerald
 * Somatochlora williamsoni - Field Guide/Williamson's Emerald
 * Stylogomphus albistylus - Field Guide/Least Clubtail
 * Stylurus notatus - Field Guide/Elusive Clubtail
 * Stylurus scudderi - Field Guide/Zebra Clubtail
 * Stylurus spiniceps - Field Guide/Arrow Clubtail
 * Sympetrum costiferum - Field Guide/Saffron-bordered Meadowhawk
 * Sympetrum internum - Field Guide/Cherry-faced Meadowhawk
 * Sympetrum janae - Field Guide/JaneÕs Meadowhawk
 * Sympetrum obtrusum - Field Guide/White-faced Meadowhawk
 * Sympetrum semicinctum - Field Guide/Band-winged Meadowhawk
 * Sympetrum vicinum - Field Guide/Yellow-legged Meadowhawk
 * Williamsonia fletcheri - Field Guide/Ebony Boghaunter