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William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Romeo and Juliet

Romeo and Juliet is an early tragedy by William Shakespeare about two teenage star-crossed lovers. It ends with their suicides, uniting rival households of a long-running family feud. The play has been highly praised by literary critics for its language and dramatic effect. Along with Hamlet, it is one of Shakespeare's most frequently performed plays and is considered by many to be the world's most iconic love story. It was among Shakespeare's most popular plays during his lifetime.

Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to Ancient Greece. Its plot is based on an Italian tale, translated into verse as Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562, and retold in prose in Palace of Pleasure by William Painter in 1582. Brooke and Painter are Shakespeare's chief sources for Romeo and Juliet. He borrowed heavily from both, but developed minor characters, particularly Mercutio and Count Paris, in order to expand the plot. The play was probably written around 1595-6, and first published as a first quarto in 1597. The text was of poor quality, and later editions corrected it, bringing it more in line with Shakespeare's original text.

Shakespeare's use of dramatic structure, especially his expansion of minor characters, and the use of subplots to embellish the story, has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops. Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet form as the play progresses. Characters frequently compare love and death and allude to the role of fate.

Since its publication, Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times in stage, film, musical and operatic forms. During the English restoration, it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant. David Garrick's 18th century version, which continued to be performed into the Victorian period, also changed several scenes, removing material then considered indecent. Nineteenth century performers, including Charlotte Cushman, restored the original text, and focused on performing the story with greater realism. John Gielgud's 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeare's text, and used Elizabethan costumes and staging to enhance the drama. More recent versions, including those on film, have adapted the play for a modern audience, often placing the action in a familiar context.

Dramatis Personæ

Ruling house of Verona:
 * Prince Escalus: Prince of Verona
 * Count Paris: Kinsman of Prince Escalus; desires to marry Juliet.
 * Mercutio: Another kinsman of Prince Escalus; a friend of Romeo.

Capulets:
 * Lord Capulet: Patriarch of the house of Capulet.
 * Lady Capulet: Matriarch of the house of Capulet; wishes Juliet to marry Paris.
 * Juliet Capulet: Daughter of the Capulets; the female protagonist.
 * Tybalt: Cousin of Juliet, nephew of Lady Capulet.

Capulet Servants:
 * Nurse: Juliet's personal attendant and confidante.
 * Peter: Capulet servant, assistant to the nurse.
 * Sampson: Capulet servant.
 * Gregory: Capulet servant.

Montagues:
 * Lord Montague: Patriach of the house of Montague.
 * Lady Montague: Matriarch of the house of Montague
 * Romeo Montague: Son of the Montagues; the male protagonist.
 * Benvolio: Cousin and friend of Romeo.

Montague Servants:
 * Abram: Montague servant.
 * Balthasar: Romeo's personal servant.

Others:
 * Friar Lawrence: a Franciscan friar and Romeo's confidant.
 * Chorus, who gives the opening prologue and one other speech, both in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet.
 * Rosaline, an unseen character with whom Romeo briefly falls in love with before meeting Juliet.
 * Friar John: Another friar who is sent to deliver Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo.
 * Apothecary: Druggist who reluctantly sells Romeo poison.

Synopsis
""Two Households, both alike in dignity ...""

- Chorus

The play begins with a street-battle between two families, the Montagues and the Capulets. The Prince of Verona, Escalus, intervenes with his men and declares that the heads of the two families will be held personally accountable for any further breach of the peace.

Later, Count Paris, a young nobleman, talks to Lord Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter, Juliet Capulet. Capulet demurs, citing the girl's tender age, and invites him to attract the attention of Juliet during a masquerade ball that the family is to hold that night. Juliet's mother tries to persuade her daughter to accept Paris' courtship during this ball; and Juliet says that although she will make an effort to love him, she will not express love that is not there. In this scene Juliet's nurse is introduced as a talkative and humorous character who has raised Juliet from infancy.

Meantime, Benvolio queries his cousin Romeo Montague, Lord Montague's son, to find out the source of his melancholy. He discovers that it stems from an unrequited love for a girl named Rosaline, Capulet's niece. Upon the insistence of Benvolio and another friend, Mercutio, Romeo decides to attend the masquerade ball at the Capulet house, in hope of meeting Rosaline. Alongside his masked friends, Romeo attends the ball as planned, but falls in love with Juliet, and she with him. Despite the danger brought on by their feuding families, Romeo sneaks into the Capulet courtyard and overhears Juliet on her balcony vowing her love to him. He makes himself known to her, and the two declare their love for each other and agree to be married. With the help of the Franciscan Friar Lawrence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their children's union, the two are married secretly the next day.

All seems well until Tybalt, Juliet's hot-blooded cousin, challenges Romeo to a duel for appearing at the Capulets' ball in disguise. Though no one is aware of the marriage yet, Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt since they are now kinsmen. Mercutio is incensed by Tybalt's insolence, and accepts the duel on Romeo's behalf. In the ensuing scuffle, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo tries to separate them. Romeo, angered by his friend's death, pursues and slays Tybalt, then flees.

Despite his promise to call for the head of the wrong-doers, the Prince merely exiles Romeo from Verona, reasoning that Tybalt first killed Mercutio, and that Romeo merely carried out a just punishment of death to Tybalt, although without legal authority. Juliet grieves at the news, and Lord Capulet, misinterpreting her grief, agrees to engage her to marry Paris in three days' time, threatening to disown her if she does not. The Nurse, once Juliet's confidante, now tells her she should discard the exiled Romeo and comply. Juliet desperately visits Friar Lawrence for help. He offers her a drug which will put her into a deathlike coma for forty-two hours. She is to take it, and, when discovered apparently dead, she will be laid in the family crypt. While in her sleep, the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that she can rejoin him when she awakes.

The messenger, however, does not reach Romeo. Romeo instead learns of Juliet's "death" from his servant Balthasar. Grief-stricken, he buys poison from an apothecary, returns to Verona in secret, and visits the Capulet crypt. He encounters Paris, who has come to mourn Juliet privately. Paris confronts Romeo, believing him to be a vandal, and in the ensuing battle Romeo kills Paris. He then says his final words to the comatose Juliet and drinks the poison to commit suicide. Juliet then awakes. Friar Lawrence arrives and, aware of the cause of the tragedy, begs Juliet to leave, but she refuses. At the side of Romeo's dead body, she stabs herself with her lover's dagger.

The feuding families and the Prince meet at the tomb to find the three dead. In explanation, Friar Lawrence recounts the story of the two lovers. Montague reveals that his wife has died of grief after hearing of her son's exile. The families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud. The play ends with the Prince's brief elegy for the lovers: "For never was a story of more woe / Than this of Juliet and her Romeo."

Date and text
It is unknown when exactly Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet. Juliet's nurse refers to an earthquake which she says occurred eleven years ago. An earthquake did occur in England in 1580, possibly dating that particular line to 1591. But the play's stylistic similarities with A Midsummer Night's Dream, as well as evidence of performances at the time (the play was becoming popular at around 1595), place the writing between 1595 and 1596. One widely-accepted conjecture has that Shakespeare may have begun a draft in 1591, which he completed in 1595-6.

Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet was published in two distinct quarto editions prior to the publication of the First Folio of 1623. These are referred to as Q1 and Q2. Q1, the first printed edition, appeared in 1597, printed by John Danter. Because its text contains numerous differences from the later editions, it is labeled a 'bad quarto'; the twentieth century editor T. J .B. Spencer described it as "a detestable text, probably a reconstruction of the play from the imperfect memories of one or two of the actors.", suggesting that it had been pirated for publication. An alternative explanation for Q1's shortcomings is that the play (like many others of the time) may have been heavily edited before performance by the playing company.

The superior Q2 called the play The Most Excellent and Lamentable Tragedie of Romeo and Juliet. It was printed in 1599 by Thomas Creede and published by Cuthbert Burby. Q2 is about 800 lines longer than Q1. Its title page describes it as "Newly corrected, augmented and amended". Scholars believe that Q2 was based on Shakespeare's pre-performance draft, (called his foul papers), since there are textual oddities such as variable tags for characters and "false starts" for speeches that were presumably struck through by the author but erroneously preserved by the typesetter. It is a much more complete and reliable text, and was reprinted in 1609 (Q3), 1622 (Q4) and 1637 (Q5). In effect, all later Quartos and Folios of Romeo and Juliet are based on Q2, as are all modern editions since editors believe that any deviations from Q2 in the later editions (whether good or bad) are likely to arise from editors or compositors, not from Shakespeare.

The First Folio text of 1623 was based primarily on Q3, with clarifications and corrections possibly coming from a theatrical promptbook or Q1. Other Folio editions of the play were printed in 1632 (F2), 1664 (F3), and 1685 (F4). Modern versions considering several of the Folios and Quartos began printing with Nicholas Rowe's 1709 edition, followed by Alexander Pope's 1723 version. Pope began a tradition of editing the play to add information such as stage directions missing in Q2 by locating them in Q1. This tradition continued late into the Romantic period. Fully annotated editions first appeared in the Victorian period and continue to be produced today, printing the text of the play with footnotes describing the sources and culture behind the play.

Dramatic structure
Shakespeare shows his dramatic skill freely in Romeo and Juliet, providing intense moments of shift between comedy and tragedy. Before Mercutio's death in Act three, the play is largely a comedy. After his accidental demise, the play suddenly becomes very serious and takes on more of a tragic tone. Still, the fact that Romeo is banished, rather than executed, offers a hope that things will work out. When Friar Lawrence offers Juliet a plan to reunite her with Romeo the audience still has a reason to believe that all will end well. They are in a "breathless state of suspense" by the opening of the last scene in the tomb: If Romeo is delayed long enough for the Friar to arrive, he and Juliet may yet be saved. This only makes it all the more tragic when everything falls apart in the end.

Shakespeare also uses subplots to offer a clearer view of the actions of the main characters, and provide an axis around which the main plot turns. For example, when the play begins, Romeo is in love with Rosaline, who has refused all of his advances. Romeo's infatuation with her stands in obvious contrast to his later love for Juliet. This provides a comparison through which the audience can see the seriousness of Romeo and Juliet's love and marriage. Paris' love for Juliet also sets up a contrast between Juliet's feelings for him and her feelings for Romeo. The formal language she uses around Paris, as well as the way she talks about him to her Nurse, show that her feelings clearly lie with Romeo. Beyond this, the subplot of the Montague-Capulet feud over-arches the whole play, providing an atmosphere of hate that is the main contributor to the play's tragic end.

Language
Shakespeare uses a large variety of poetic forms throughout the play. He begins with a 14-line prologue by a Chorus in the form of a Shakespearean sonnet. Like this sonnet much of Romeo and Juliet is written in iambic pentameter, with ten syllables of alternating stress in each line. However, the most common form used is blank verse, a more fluid, nonstructured approach, although Shakespeare uses this form less often in this play than in his later plays. In choosing forms, Shakespeare matches the poetry to the character who uses it. Friar Laurence, for example, uses sermon and sententiae forms, and the Nurse uses a unique blank verse form that closely matches colloquial speech. Each of these forms is also moulded and matched to the emotion of the scene the character occupies. For example, when Romeo talks about Rosaline earlier in the play, he uses the Petrarchan sonnet form. Petrarchan sonnets were often used by men at the time to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, as in Romeo's situation with Rosaline. This sonnet form is also used by Lady Capulet to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man. When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a then more contemporary sonnet form, using "pilgrims" and "saints" as metaphors. Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love, but Juliet breaks it by saying "Dost thou love me?" By doing this, she searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love. Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo, but uses formal language with Paris. Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris. Shakespeare saves his prose style most often for the common people in the play, though at times for other characters, such as Mercutio.

Themes and motifs
Scholars have found it extremely difficult to assign one specific, overarching theme to the play. Proposals for a main theme include a discovery by the characters that human beings are neither wholly good nor wholly evil, but instead are more or less alike, awaking out of a dream and into reality, the danger of hasty action, or the power of tragic fate. None of these have widespread support. However, even if an overall theme cannot be found it is clear that the play is full of several small, thematic elements which intertwine in complex ways. Several of those which are most often debated by scholars are discussed below.

Love
Romeo and Juliet is sometimes considered to have no unifying theme, save that of young love. In fact, the characters in it have become emblems of all who die young for their lovers. Since it is such an obvious subject of the play, several scholars have explored the language and historical context behind the romance of the play.

On their first meeting, Romeo and Juliet use a form of communication recommended by many etiquette authors in Shakespeare's day: metaphor. By using metaphors of saints and sins, Romeo can test Juliet's feelings for him in a non-threatening way. This method was recommended by Baldassare Castiglione (whose works had been translated into English by this time). He pointed out that if a man used a metaphor as an invitation, the woman could pretend she did not understand the man, and the man could take the hint and back away without losing his honour. Juliet, however, makes it clear that she is interested in Romeo by playing along with his metaphor. Later, in the balcony scene, Shakespeare has Romeo overhear Juliet's declaration of love for him. In Brooke's version of the story, her declaration is done in her bedroom, alone. By bringing Romeo into the scene to eavesdrop, Shakespeare breaks from the normal sequence of courtship. Usually, a woman was required to play hard to get, to be sure that her suitor was sincere. Breaking this rule, however, serves to speed along the plot. The lovers are able to skip a lengthy part of wooing, and move on to plain talk about their relationship—developing into an agreement to be married after knowing each other for only one night. In the final suicide scene, there is a contradiction in the message - in Christianity, suiciders are condemned to hell, whereas people who die to be with their loves under the "Religion of Love" are joined with their loves in paradise. Romeo and Juliet's love seems to be expressing the "Religion of Love" view rather than the Christian view. Another point is that although their love is passionate, it is only consummated in marriage, which prevents them from losing the audience's sympathy.

The play arguably equates love and sex with death. Throughout the story, both Romeo and Juliet, along with the other characters, fantasize about death as a dark being, often equating him with a lover. Capulet, for example, when he first discovers Juliet's (faked) death, describes it as having deflowered his daughter. Juliet later even compares Romeo to death in an erotic way. One of the strongest examples of this in the play is in Juliet's suicide, when she says, grabbing Romeo's dagger, "O happy dagger! / ...This is thy sheath / there rust, and let me die." The dagger here can be a sort of phallus of Romeo, with Juliet being its sheath in death, a strong sexual symbol.

Fate and chance
Scholars are divided on the role of fate in the play. No consensus exists on whether the characters are truly fated to die together no matter what, or whether the events take place by a series of unlucky chances. Arguments in favour of fate often refer to the description of the lovers as "star-crossed". This phrase seems to hint that the stars have predetermined the lovers' future. Another scholar of the fate persuasion, Draper, points out the parallels between the Elizabethan belief in humorism and the main characters of the play (for example, Tybalt as a choleric). Interpreting the text in the light of the Elizabethan science of humorism reduces the amount of plot attributed to chance by modern audiences. Still, other scholars see the play as a mere series of unlucky chances—many to such a degree that they do not see it as a tragedy at all, but an emotional melodrama. Nevo believes the high degree to which chance is stressed in the narrative makes Romeo and Juliet a "lesser tragedy" of happenstance, not of character. For example, Romeo's challenging Tybalt is not impulsive, it is, after Mercutio's death, the expected action to take. In this scene, Nevo reads Romeo as being aware of the dangers of flouting social norms, identity and commitments. He makes the choice to kill, not because of a tragic flaw, but because of circumstance.

Light and dark
Scholars have long noted Shakespeare's widespread use of light and dark imagery throughout the play. The light theme was initially taken to be "symbolic of the natural beauty of young love", an idea beginning in Caroline Spurgeon's work Shakespeare's Imagery and What It Tells Us, although the perceived meaning has since its publication branched in several directions. For example, both Romeo and Juliet see the other as light in a surrounding darkness. Romeo describes Juliet as being like the sun, brighter than a torch, a jewel sparkling in the night, and a bright angel among dark clouds. Even when she lies apparently dead in the tomb, he says her "beauty makes / This vault a feasting presence full of light." Juliet describes Romeo as "day in night" and "Whiter than snow upon a raven's back." This contrast of light and dark can be expanded as symbols—contrasting love and hate, youth and age in a metaphoric way. Sometimes these intertwining metaphors create dramatic irony. For example, Romeo and Juliet's love is a light in the midst of the darkness of the hate around them, but all of their activity together is done in night and darkness, while all of the feuding is done in broad daylight. This paradox of imagery adds atmosphere to the moral dilemma facing the two lovers: loyalty to family or loyalty to love. At the end of the story, when the morning is gloomy and the sun hiding its face for sorrow, light and dark have returned to their proper places, the outward darkness reflecting the true, inner darkness of the family feud out of sorrow for the lovers. All characters now recognize their folly in light of recent events, and things return to the natural order, thanks to the love of Romeo and Juliet. The "light" theme in the play is also heavily connected to the theme of time, since light was a convenient way for Shakespeare to express the passage of time through descriptions of the sun, moon, and stars.

Time
Time plays an important role in the language and plot of the play. Both Romeo and Juliet struggle to maintain as imaginary world void of time in the face of the harsh realities that surround them. For instance, when Romeo attempts to swear his love to Juliet by the moon, Juliet tells him not to, as it is known to be inconstant over time, and she does not desire this of him. From the very beginning, the lovers are designated as "star-crossed" referring to an astrological belief which is heavily connected to time. Stars were thought to control the fates of men, and as time passed, stars would move along their course in the sky, also charting the course of human lives below. Romeo speaks of a foreboding he feels in the stars movements' early in the play, and when he learns of Juliet's death, he defies the stars' course for him.

A "haste theme" can be considered as fundamental to the play. For example, the action of Romeo and Juliet spans a period of four to six days, in contrast to Brooke's poem's spanning nine months. Scholars such as Tanselle believe that time was "especially important to Shakespeare" in this play, as he used references to "short-time" for the young lovers as opposed to references to "long-time" for the "older generation" to highlight "a headlong rush towards doom". Romeo and Juliet fight time to make their love to last forever. In the end, the only way they see to defeat time is through a noteworthy death which makes them immortal through art.

Time is heavily connected to the theme of light and dark as well. The play is said in the Prologue to be about two hours long, creating a problem for any playwright wishing to express longer amounts of time. In Shakespeare's day, plays were often performed at noon in broad daylight. This forced the playwright to use words to create the illusion of day and night in his plays. Shakespeare uses references to the night and day, the stars, the moon, and the sun to create this illusion. He also has characters frequently refer to days of the week and specific hours to help the audience understand that time has passed in the story. All in all, no fewer than 103 references to time are found in the play, adding to this illusion of its passage.

Psychoanalytic
Psychoanalytic critics focus largely on Romeo's relationships with Rosaline and Juliet, as well as the looming image of inevitable death. Romeo and Juliet is not considered to be extremely psychologically complex, and sympathetic psychoanalytic readings of the play make the tragic male experience equivalent with sicknesses. The first line of criticism argues that Shakespeare is in love with Rosaline and Juliet because she is the all-present, all-powerful mother which fills a void. According to this theory, this void was caused by the negligence of his mother. Another theory argues that the feud between the families provides a source of phallic expression for the male Capulets and Montagues. This sets up a system where patriarchal order is in power. When the sons are married, rather than focusing on the wife, they are still owed an obligation to their father through the feud. This conflict between obligation to the father (the family name) and the wife (the feminine), determines the course of the play. Some critics argue this hatred is the sole cause of Romeo and Juliet's passion for each other. The fear of death and the knowledge of the danger of their relationship is in this view channelled into a romantic passion.

Feminist
Feminist critics argue that the blame for the family feud lies in Verona's patriarchal society. In this view, the strict, masculine code of violence imposed on Romeo is the main force driving the tragedy to its end. When Tybalt kills Mercutio, for example, Romeo shifts into this violent mode, regretting that Juliet has made him so "effeminate". In this view, the younger males "become men" by engaging in violence on behalf of their fathers, or in the case of the servants, their masters. The feud is also linked to male virility, as the joke about the maid's heads shows. Juliet also submits to a female code of docility by allowing others, such as the Friar, to solve her problems for her. Other critics, such as Dympna Callaghan, look at the play's feminism from a more historicist angle. They take into account the fact that the play is written during a time when the patriarchal order was being challenged by several forces, most notably the rise of Puritanism. When Juliet dodges her father's attempt to force her to marry a man she has no feeling for, she is successfully challenging the patriarchal order in a way that would not have been possible at an earlier time.

Gender
Gender studies critics largely question the sexuality of two characters, Mercutio and Romeo. From the perspective of this form of criticism, the difference between the two characters' friendship and sexual love is discussed heavily in the play. Mercutio's friendship with Romeo, for example, leads to several friendly conversations, including ones on the subject of Romeo's phallus. This would seem to suggest traces of homoeroticism. Romeo, as well, admits traces of the same in the manner of his love for Rosaline and Juliet. Rosaline, for example, is distant and unavailable, bringing no hope of offspring. As Benvolio argues, she is best replaced by someone who will reciprocate. Shakespeare's procreation sonnets describe another young man who, like Romeo, is having trouble creating offspring and who is homosexual. Gender critics believe that Shakespeare may have used Rosaline as a way to express homosexual problems of procreation in an acceptable way. In this view, when Juliet says "...that which we call a rose [or Rosaline] / By any other name would smell as sweet", she may be raising the question of whether there is any difference between the beauty of a man and the beauty of a woman.

Influences
Romeo and Juliet has had a strong influence on subsequent literature. For example, until this play romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. The play directly influenced several literary works, both in Shakespeare's own day through the works of Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, and later works such as those of Charles Dickens.

The play has also influenced world culture, specifically with regard to romance and relationships. For example, the word "Romeo" has become synonymous with "male lover" in English. The juliet cap, worn either close to the scalp as a small headpiece or as a wedding headband to hold the bridal veil, was so named because of the actresses who wore it on stage in performances of the play. It has inspired the name of a psychological problem between couples, called "The Romeo and Juliet Effect". This title is used to describe relationships which suffer divisions because of hatred between partners' parents. More recently, scholars have described the play as having a unique adaptive and iconic ability, causing its characters to transcend the original texts and project themselves into the modern world. For example, Romeo and Juliet are mentioned in a song by Sublime titled Romeo, which portrays the Montague as a modern character pining for love in a modern way. Both characters have become symbols of love, teenage struggles, resistance to authority, and doers of the forbidden. Songs such as sublime take advantage of the influence these characters have had by communicating through them to achieve their ends.

Shakespeare's day
Romeo and Juliet ranks with Hamlet as one of Shakespeare's most-performed plays. Its many adaptations have made it today one of his more popular and famous stories. Even in Shakespeare's lifetime it was a popular play. Gary Taylor measures it as the sixth most popular of Shakespeare's plays, in the period after the death of Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Kyd but before the ascendancy of Ben Jonson during which Shakespeare was London's dominant playwright. The exact date of the first performance of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, however, is unknown. The First Quarto, printed in 1597, says that "it hath been often (and with great applause) plaid publiquely", setting the first performance prior to that date. The Lord Chamberlain's Men were certainly the first to perform it. Besides their strong connections with Shakespeare, the Second Quarto actually names one of its actors, William Kempe, instead of Peter in a line in Act five. Thus, Richard Burbage was probably the first Romeo, being the company's leading actor, and Master Robert Goffe (a male) the first Juliet.

The Restoration
After the theaters reopened in the English Restoration, Sir William Davenant staged a 1662 production in which Henry Harris played Romeo, Thomas Betterton was Mercutio, and Betterton's wife Mary Saunderson played Juliet (Mrs. Saunderson was probably the first female to play Juliet professionally). This play was criticized by Samuel Pepys as the worst he had ever heard. Versions immediately following this were changed to tragicomedies, where the two lovers did not die in the end. Thomas Otway's adaptation The History and Fall of Caius Marius, one of the more extreme of the Restoration versions of Shakespeare, debuted in 1680. The scene is shifted from Renaissance Verona to ancient Rome; Romeo is Marius, Juliet is Lavinia, the feud is between patricians and plebeians; Juliet/Lavina wakes from her potion before Romeo/Marius dies. Otway's version was a hit, and was acted for the next seventy years. It altered the sexual language of the play as well, toning down the Queen Mab speech, for example. Theophilus Cibber mounted his own adaptation in 1744, followed by David Garrick's in 1748. Both Cibber and Garrick used variations on Otway's innovation in the tomb scene. These versions also eliminated elements deemed inappropriate for the time. For example, Garrick's version transferred all language describing Rosaline to Juliet, in order to heighten the idea of faithfulness and downplay the love-at-first-sight theme. In 1750 a "Battle of the Romeos" began, with Spranger Barry and Susannah Maria Arne (Mrs. Theophilus Cibber) at Covent Garden versus David Garrick and George Anne Bellamy at Drury Lane.

19th century
Garrick's altered version of the play was very popular, and ran for nearly a century. Not until 1845 did Shakespeare's original returned to the stage in the United States (with the sisters Charlotte and Susan Cushman as Romeo and Juliet), and in 1847 in Britain (Samuel Phelps at Sadler's Wells Theater). Saunders actively reverted Garrick's additions and changes to the original, and adhered to Shakespeare's version, beginning a string of eighty-four performances. Her portrayal of Romeo was considered genius by many, as she called more attention to Romeo's character than others, making the play largely his tragedy. Cushman's success broke the Garrick tradition and paved the way for later plays. Henry Irving's 1882 production at the Lyceum Theater is considered an archetype of his "pictorial" style, placing the action on elaborate sets. Irving himself played Romeo, and Ellen Terry played Juliet. In 1895, actor Forbes-Robertson took over for Irving, and laid the groundwork for a more natural portrayal of Shakespeare that remains popular today. Forbes-Robertson avoided the showiness of Irving and instead portrayed a down-to-earth Romeo, expressing the poetic dialogue as realistic prose and avoiding melodramatic flourish. Meanwhile, American theaters began performing the play, eventually rivalling their British counterparts with the likes of Edwin Booth (brother to John Wilkes Booth) and Mary McVicker as Romeo and Juliet. The play found popularity throughout continental Europe, as well.

20th century
In one of the most notable twentieth century performances, staged by John Gielgud at the Noël Coward Theater in 1935, Gielgud and Laurence Olivier played the roles of Romeo and Mercutio, exchanging roles six weeks into the run, with Peggy Ashcroft as Juliet. Gielgud used a scholarly combination of Q1 and Q2 texts, omitting only minor portions of the originals, such as the second Chorus. He also organized the set and costumes to match as closely as possible to the Elizabethan period. His efforts were a huge success at the box office, and set the stage for increased historical realism in later plays. Meanwhile, Peter Brook's 1947 version was the beginning of a different style of Romeo and Juliet performances. Brook was less concerned with realism, and more concerned with translating the play into a form that could communicate with the more modern world. He argued, "A production is only correct at the moment of its correctness, and only good at the moment of its success." Other notable twentieth century productions include Guthrie McClintic's 1934 Broadway staging in which Katharine Cornell had a triumph as Juliet opposite Basil Rathbone as Romeo and Edith Evans (who also played the role in John Gielgud's production) as the Nurse. Cornell later revived the production with Maurice Evans as Romeo and Ralph Richardson as Mercutio, both making their Broadway theater debuts. Franco Zeffirelli mounted a legendary staging for the Old Vic in 1960 with John Stride and Judi Dench that served as the basis for his 1968 film "Romeo and Juliet". Zefferalli borrowed from Brook's ideas, altogether removing nearly a third of the play's text in order to make it more accessible to a contemporary audience. He also paid close attention to detail, making sure that nothing which would add to the realism of the performance was neglected. Zefferelli's performances were so successful worldwide that he made a film of the play in 1968.

More recent professional performances have grown more and more adaptive to the contemporary world. For example, the prestigious Royal Shakespeare Company developed a 1986 version of the play set in present-day Verona, Italy. Switchblades replace swords, feasts and balls become drug-laden rock parties, and Romeo commits suicide by hypodermic needle. Later, in 1997, the Folger Shakespeare Theater produced another modern version, this time set in a typical suburban world. Romeo sneaks into the Capulet barbecue to meet Juliet, and Juliet discovers Tybalt's death while in class at school. Other contemporary performances give the play a well-known historical setting, enabling audiences to understand, and perhaps to reflect upon, the underlying conflicts. For example, adaptations have been set in the midst of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], in South Africa's apartheid era, and in the aftermath of the Pueblo Revolt. Among the most famous of such adaptations is Peter Ustinov's 1956 comic adaptation, Romanoff and Juliet, set in a fictional mid-European country in the depths of the Cold War.

Music
Roméo et Juliette by Hector Berlioz is a "symphonie dramatique", a large scale work in three parts for mixed voices, chorus and orchestra, premiered in 1839. The Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture (1869, revised 1870 and 1880), by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky is a long symphonic poem, containing the famous melody known as the "love theme".

At least 24 operas and plays have been based on Romeo and Juliet, the best known being Charles Gounod's Roméo et Juliette (1867) and Vincenzo Bellini's opera I Capuleti e i Montecchi. The libretto in Gounod's play was by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré. Bellini's opera has rarely been judged favorably, in part because of its perceived liberties with Shakespeare; however, Bellini and his librettist, Felice Romani, worked from Italian sources, with no intention to adapt Shakespeare's play. In 2004 American composer Lee Hoiby also adapted Romeo and Juliet to write an opera of the same name. Several ballet versions have also been composed; among the better-known is Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet, first performed in 1938.

The play led to a number of musical theater adaptations, the most famous of which was West Side Story with music by Leonard Bernstein and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim. It debuted on Broadway in 1957 and in London's West End in 1958, and became a popular film in 1961. This version updated the setting to mid-20th century New York City, and the warring families to ethnic gangs. Other musical adaptations include Terrence Mann's 1999 rock musical William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, co-written with Jerome Korman, Gérard Presgurvic's 2001 Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour and Riccardo Cocciante's 2007 Giulietta & Romeo.

Screen
Shakespeare's play has been filmed numerous times. In putting Romeo and Juliet on screen, the director must set the action in a social context that illuminates the characters, and mediates between the Renaissance play and modern audiences. George Cukor, in 1970, commented on why his "stately" and "stodgy" 1936 film "Romeo and Juliet" had not stood the test of time, saying that if he had the opportunity to make it again he would "get the garlic and the mediterranean into it". Yet that performance (featuring Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard, with a combined age over 75, as the teenage lovers) had garnered no fewer than four Oscar Academy Award nominations.

The films' openings highlight each director's care to establish authenticity: Cukor introduces his characters in a shot of a scene played on a proscenium stage; Renato Castellani's 1954 version "Romeo and Juliet" opens with John Gielgud, famous as a stage Romeo, as the Prologue in Elizabethan doublet and hose; Zeffirelli sets his scene with an overview of Verona, and his Prologue, in voiceover, was another famous stage Romeo: Laurence Olivier. In contrast, "William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet" in 1996 was targeted at a young audience, and opens with images of television and print journalism.

A particular difficulty for the screenwriter arises towards the end of the fourth act, where Shakespeare's play requires considerable compression to be effective on the big screen, without giving the impression of "cutting to the chase". In Franco Zeffirelli's 1968 version "Romeo and Juliet", Juliet's return home from the Friar's cell, her submission to her father and the preparation for the wedding are drastically abbreviated, and similarly the tomb scene is cut short: Paris does not appear at all, and Benvolio (in the Balthazar role) is sent away but is not threatened. In Baz Luhrmann's "William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet", the screenplay allows Juliet to witness Romeo's death, and the role of the watch is cut, permitting Friar Lawrence to remain with Juliet and to be taken by surprise by her sudden suicide.

In addition, several reworkings of the story have also been filmed. Shakespeare in Love (1998) attempts tell the story of how Shakespeare came up with the play, placing him in the midst of his own tragic romance as he writes it. The movie creates other parallels to the play as well, such as a quarrel between two playhouses, The Curtain and The Rose, and an antagonist with similarities to both Count Paris and Tybalt. Romeo Must Die (2000) uses elements of the plot to introduce Jet Li to an American audience, with Asian Americans as Montagues and African Americans as Capulets. The most recent screen adaptation to garner worldwide attention is Disney's High School Musical (2006), which began as a made-for-tv Disney movie and was subsequently turned into a live stage musical and touring concert. According to executive producer Bill Borden, "Our story line is maybe not the most original or creative, but it's Shakespearean," said Borden, who described the plot as a modern version of Romeo and Juliet. "We took from the best." In the show, the two young love interests, Troy and Gabriella, are from rival cliques, not rival gangs. They resist the wishes of their families and their peers to be together, and try-out for the spring musical that is dividing the school. In David Simpatico's stage version, the title of the musical (unnamed in the movie), was changed to Juliet and Romeo.

from The Complete Works of William Shakespeare at Wikisource.


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User talk:R. Christie

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:36, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:R. Christie


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User talk:172.134.116.54

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. Webaware talk 00:26, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:172.134.116.54


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Talk:E-Commerce and E-Business/Concepts and Definitions

advantages of m-commerce over e-commerce

Seriously - someone included this spam which I have taken out What is B2B e-commerce? B2B e-commerce is simply defined as e-commerce between companies. This is the type of e-commerce that deals with relationships between and among businesses. About 80% of e-commerce is of this type, and most experts predict that B2B e-commerce will continue to grow faster than the B2C segment. The B2B market has two primary components: e-frastructure and e-markets. E-frastructure is the architecture of B2B, primarily consisting of the following:9 spell ur name,look the meaning of each letter in ur name and then write it in comment A = Gifted B = Less Patience C =Innocent D =Talented E =Good Heart F =Feel 4 Others G =Logical Thinking H =Calm I =Respected J =Enjoy Life K =Loved by All L =Arrogant M =Great Person N =Smiling O =Sportive P =Intelligent Q =Cool R =Unpredictable S =Romantic T =Proud U =Genuine V =Angry W =Practical X =Crazy Y =Caring Z =Pretty


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Diplomatic History/United States

The diplomatic history of the United States is older than the American Government. Prior to the creation of a true national government, the Continental Congress appointed and dispatched ministers (calling them Commissioners) to France and other European powers. With the outbreak of hostilities between the Colony of Massachusetts and Britain, the rebels were in dire need of powerful friends. As Virginia and the other colonies joined Massachusetts, it was clear that overseas allies would be critical. Specifically, supplies, money, and naval support were the greatest needs. Britain was the mightiest military power in the world. Her Royal Navy was the envy of all the great powers. Each of the thirteen colonies had militias, but they lacked funds and were nearly without a navy. They lacked the considerable amount of cash required to outfit and fight a continental army. Since, they lacked any legal or financial standing, it was nearly impossible to borrow money in the normal way. During the very first miliary engagement, the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the "Red Coats" seized precious gunpowder and ammunition.

After appointing Washington Commander-in-Chief, the General pledged his own funds to recruit and supply a significant number of troops. But Washington's offer, and the contributions of the thirteen militias was a small fraction of what was needed. So, the appointment of skilled and respected ministers was an urgent task.

France was the obvious prospective ally. She had been frequently at war with Britain, and was at that moment in time fighting the "Brits" in the Seven Years War. Her military power was nearly as great as that of England. Further, France had access to high quality gunpowder and a very capable navy to ship it. Although, the French Monarchy was already in debt, some loans to the fledgling nation were possible.

Three of the first ministers to France were: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams. Franklin and Jefferson were especially effective in France. Eventually, the King would send army troops including field artillery, impressive naval forces, and massive amounts of powder and ammunition.

Franklin was so popular in Paris his likeness showed up on fine china and art. He was especially popular with the younger beautiful women of French high society. Jefferson also developed a personal popularity with his broad intellect and people skills. A very deep affection between America and France was born. The French nobleman La Fayette personified this relationship. La Fayette quickly became very close to Washington. General Washington describes the relationship almost like that of father and son. In his last years, La Fayette makes arrangements to be buried near Paris, but with American soil, shipped in to cover the coffin.

Other capitals in Europe receive American envoys during the War of Independence. The new diplomats must somehow refine very delicate political skills quickly. Most of their European counterparts have been polishing these skills since the mid-seventeenth century. Many of these Americans were faced with dangerous Atlantic crossings, linguistic disadvantages, and poor financial backing. Jefferson and Adams spent a considerable amount of their own money during their time in France.

In 1779, John Adams was sent to London to try to negotiate an acceptable peace (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1959, vol. 1, pg. 148). Obviously, the apple was not yet ripe. In the summer of 1780, he traveled to the Netherlands and worked vigorously securing diplomatic recognition for the rebel government, and a badly needed Dutch loan. Never one to give up easily, he resumed negotioans with London, competing a commercial agreement and temporary peace treaty following the ultimate American victory at Yorktown, Virginia in October 1781. The temporary treaty with Britain was signed by Adams, November 30, 1782(Ency. Britannica, 1959, vol. 1, pg. 148).

The permanent treaty with London, was primarily the work of John Jay. It followed extensive, tense negotiations. Old Mother England may have signed an armistice, but she was still a powerful and determined foe. It took many more years to secure the complete evacuation of British troops from the American side of the Canadian border. Other contentious issues such as freedom of shipping on the high seas, and repayment of loans from British merchants to former colonists, lingered unresolved. American diplomacy was born in a cloud of black powder and poverty. In the ensuing years, true peace and security would be elusive.

title: Diplomatic History/United States


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Template:Meeting Basics

 Meeting Basics  Introduction — Preparation — The Meeting — Follow-Up — Other Resources — Discuss

This template has been created from Page List Header created by Whiteknight.

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Template:Screen Printing

 Screen Printing

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Guitar/Print Version

Note: A current version of this book can be found at Guitar The guitar is a very popular stringed musical instrument. This book is mainly concerned with standard six-stringed acoustic or electric guitars; twelve string guitars are also applicable in most cases. It is definitely not necessary to understand music theory to read this book, although it can yield a deeper understanding of the principles contained herein. The purpose of this book is to introduce novice and intermediate players to the basic concepts of good guitar playing. Important techniques are given their own section, and exercises and examples are provided whenever they can. When you have finished reading this book, you should have a good understanding of the fundamentals of guitar, and be on the right track towards mastering the instrument. =Table of Contents=

Getting Started

 * Different Types of Guitars
 * Anatomy of a Guitar
 * Buying a Guitar
 * Buying an Amplifier
 * Setting up the Guitar
 * Tablature
 * Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar

For Beginners

 * The Basics
 * Double-stops and Power Chords
 * Open Chords
 * Muting and Raking
 * Learning Songs
 * Song Library

Lead Guitar

 * Picking and Plucking
 * Scales
 * Arpeggios and Sweep Picking
 * Slides
 * Hammer-ons, Pull-offs, and Trills
 * Bending and Vibrato
 * Harmonics
 * Tremolo Bar Techniques
 * Tapping

Rhythm Guitar

 * Chords
 * Barre Chords
 * Chord Progressions
 * Alternate Picking
 * Tremolo Picking
 * Rhythm

Playing Styles

 * Folk Guitar
 * Blues
 * Slide Guitar
 * Rock Guitar
 * Country and Western
 * Metal
 * Jazz
 * Classical Guitar
 * Flamenco

General Guitar Theory

 * Tone and Volume
 * Writing Songs
 * Playing With Others
 * Recording Music
 * Tuning Your Ear
 * Harmonica and Guitar Combo

Equipment

 * Guitar Accessories
 * Effects Pedals
 * Cables
 * Bass Guitar

Maintenance

 * Guitar Maintenance and Storage
 * Adjusting the Guitar
 * Stringing the Guitar

Appendices

 * Dictionary
 * Alternate Tunings

Authors

 * Authors

=Getting Started= =Different Types of Guitars=

=Anatomy of a Guitar=

=Buying a Guitar=

=Buying an Amplifier=

=Setting up the Guitar=

=Tablature=

=Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar=

=Playing the Guitar= =For Beginners= =The Basics=

=Double-stops and Power Chords=

=Open Chords=

=Muting and Raking=

=Learning Songs=

=Song Library=

=Lead Guitar= =Picking and Plucking=

=Scales=

=Arpeggios and Sweep Picking=

=Slides=

=Hammer-ons, Pull-off, and Trills=

=Bending and Vibrato=

=Harmonics=

=Tremolo Bar Techniques=

=Tapping=

=Rhythm Guitar= =Chords=

=Barre Chords=

=Chord Progressions=

=Alternate Picking=

=Tremolo Picking=

=Rhythm=

=Playing Styles= =Folk Guitar=

=Blues=

=Slide Guitar=

=Rock Guitar=

=Country and Western=

=Metal=

=Jazz=

=Classical Guitar=

=Flamenco=

=General Guitar Theory= =Tone and Volume=

=Writing Songs=

={Playing With Others=

=Recording Music=

=Tuning Your Ear=

=Harmonica and Guitar Combo=

=Equipment= =Guitar Accessories=

=Effects Pedals=

=Cables=

=Bass Guitar=

=Maintenance= =Guitar Maintenance and Storage=

=Adjusting the Guitar=

=Stringing the Guitar=

=Appendices= =Dictionary=

=Alternate Tunings=

=External Links=

Guitar Resources

 * WholeNote.com On-line guitar community, tabs, reviews, and interactive lessons.
 * GuitarWiki.com Wiki based guitar resource with lessons, chord library, music theory, a gear section and tabs.
 * Wiki Guitar Wiki Guitar site with tablature, lessons, resources, articles, and forums.

Guitar Lessons

 * Free Online Guitar Lessons Free video guitar lessons for kids & adults
 * IGDB.co.uk Guitar lessons, chord charts, useful links, and how to set-up your guitar.
 * GuitarNationLive.com Learn, play and master your guitar with comprehensive guitar lessons. Topics range from complete beginners to advanced.
 * Rhythm-Patterns.narod.ru Sight-reading rhythm patterns, offers rhythmic exercises for guitarists (notes+MIDI)
 * Guitar Tuning Tips has information on basic tuning, along with alternative guitar tunings.

Guitar Software and Hardware

 * www.power-tab.net Useful guitar tab editor named Powertab that lets you play back the song as MIDI.
 * GuitarFX.net Guitar effects software for PC.
 * TuxGuitar Open-source tablature editor for Linux, Windows and Mac.

Guitar Tablature & Chords
Tabs Chords =Authors=
 * ClassicalGuitarTabs.com Tabs and guitar forum.
 * Guitaretab.com Has a large guitar archive without too many ads.
 * Ultimate-guitar.com Over 200,000 guitar tabs, bass tabs and chords. Also features lessons, columns, forums and news updates.
 * 911tabs.com A tab database.
 * Powertab Archive A collection of tab files for Powertab editor.
 * HowToTuneAGuitar.org Chord Finger Over 1800 guitar chords, organized by type of key. As well 8 Chord Inversions for each chord
 * ChordChart.ro Learn to play any song, by learning basic guitar chords
 * All-Guitar-Chords.com Comprehensive scale, chord, progression database, with a very good interface. Also includes a jamming machine allowing you to practice with backing tracks.

= License = = GNU Free Documentation License =

title: Guitar/Print Version


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User:Reechard

'''Pianist. Composer. Author. Software Engineer.'''

Richard Walker was born in greater Los Angeles, California in the 1960s. He currently lives in the San Francisco Bay Area.

Richard was a student of the late Robert Sheldon, of the San Francisco Conservatory of Music.

Sheldon had studied with the renowned teacher Egon Petri.

Richard often goes by the nickname "Reechard", i.e. "Richard" in the French pronunciation.

Book - The Performing Pianist; a Pocket Primer.

title: User:Reechard


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User talk:TBOL3

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Sorry the welcome is a little late! Let me know if you need anything. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 12:34, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:TBOL3


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User talk:Ladywater

Have you got a Wikipedia account?

title: User talk:Ladywater


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User talk:83.243.91.9

Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is intended to be read without the need for external reference and requires content rather than external links particularly those which are for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links may include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that exist to attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page rather than re-adding it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikibooks. Thank you. Mattb112885 (talk to me) 13:12, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:83.243.91.9


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User:Whiteknight/Page List Nav

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title: User:Whiteknight/Page List Nav


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Talk:French/Lessons/Family

Untitled
There does not seem to be any difference in here between step-family and in-laws. How do you tell the difference in French between my wife's mother (my mother-in-law) and my father's new wife (my step-mother)? Less significantly, the same problem could arise between my half-sister who is my blood relative, my step-sister (my step-mother's daughter from a previous relationship) and my sister-in-law (my wife's sister) who are not my blood relatives. Correct identification of 'la belle-mère' appears the most important though. Peter R Runes 15:00, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:French/Lessons/Family


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Belarusian/Lesson 17

The Past Tense
The past tense is strikingly similar to that of Russian and Ukrainian. Like the two aforementioned languages, the conjugations is simpler than the present tense. But, as a reminder, instead of six endings as in the present and future, we have only four in the past. There is a reason: the past tense changes according to the gender (Masculine, feminine, and neutral) and number (singular and plural). The past tense is used for verbs of both aspects. The imperfective past tense tends to show an action done that used to be done in the past (as in a routine or repetitive, sequential action), while the perfective tense is one in which an action was done in one stroke.

The past tenses of the verbs are as follows:

чыта́ць

Я/Ты/Ён чыта́ў: I/you/he (man) used to read, have read (but not finished)

Я/Ты/Янá чыта́ла: I/you/she (woman) used to read, have read

Янó чыта́лo (sometimes written with an a, as the 'o' is rarely stressed in past endings)= It used to read

Mы/Bы/Яны чыта́лi: We/You (formal and plural)/They used to read, have read--but not finished

Now comes the perfective verb прачыта́ць (to finish reading, to read in one stroke)

Я/Ты/Ён прачыта́ў: I/you/he have read (and finished the book, etc...)

Я/Ты/Янá прачыта́ла: I/you/she (woman) read (done and finished reading in one stroke)

Янó прачыта́лo (sometimes written with an a, as the 'o' is rarely stressed in past endings)= It read

Mы/Bы/Яны прачыта́лi: We/You (plural and formal)/They read-- done or completed just once.

There is really no trick to it; you just replace the infinitive -ць with -ў for masculine nouns; -ла for feminine(and sometimes unstressed neuter) nouns, -лo for most neuter forms and -лi for all plural nouns, very similar to the Russian past tense endings -л, -ла, -лo, ли and Ukrainian -в, -ла, -лo, ли.

However, there are a few verbs that end in -цi and these have different endings:

The Future Tense
Like all other Balto-Slavic languages, the future tense has two forms in Belorussian. For Imperfective verbs, we use the conjugated form of Быць (to be) plus the infinitive of the verb. This tense is very similar to that of the English future tense. Imperfective future is used to show an action will be done but it is not known when it shall be done, or it can also show a reppetive action waiting to be fulfilled again.

чыта́ць /прачыта́ць

Я             бýдy чыта́ць Ты            бýдзеш чыта́ць

Ён/Янá/Янó    бýдзе чыта́ць

Mы            бýдзем чыта́ць

Bы            бýдзецe чыта́ць

Яны          бýдyць чыта́ць

Perfective verbs, on the other hand, form a simple future with the very same verb endings as their present-tense counterparts and these show an action that will be done with the utmost certainty, and one that will be short or done only one time. Again, like the present tense, pronouns can be omitted due to context in both future tenses:

Я                прачыта́ю

Ты               прачыта́еш

Ён/Янá/Янó       прачыта́е

Mы               прачыта́ем

Bы               прачыта́ецe

Яны прачыта́юць

title: Belarusian/Lesson 17


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Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 3: Student Development/Moral Development

Morality is a system of beliefs about ethics, about what is right and good compared to what is wrong or bad. Moral development refers to the changes in moral beliefs as a person grows older and gains maturity. Moral beliefs are related to, but not identical with, moral behavior: it is possible to know the right thing to do, yet not actually do what is right. Morality is also not the same as knowledge of social conventions, which are arbitrary customs needed for the smooth operation of society. Even though conventions may have a moral element, they have a primarily practical purpose. Conventionally, for example, motor vehicles all keep to the same side of the street (to the right in the United States, to the left in Great Britain). This convention allows for smooth flow of traffic and prevents accidents. But following the convention also has a moral element, because any individual who chooses to drive on the wrong side of the street can cause injuries or even death. Choosing the wrong side of the street is therefore morally wrong, and choosing the conventional side is morally right.

When it comes to teaching, moral choices are not restricted to occasional dramatic incidents, but are woven into almost every aspect of classroom life. Imagine this simple example. Suppose that you are teaching reading to a small group of second-graders, and the students are taking turns reading a story out loud. Should you give every student the same amount of time to read, even though some might benefit from additional opportunity to read? Or should you give more time to the students that seem to need extra help, even if doing so bores others or deprives them of an equal share of “floor time”? Which option is more fair, and which is more considerate? Parallel dilemmas happen every day at all grade levels simply because students are diverse and class time and a teacher’s energy level are finite.

Embedded in this rather ordinary classroom incident are two moral issues, one about fairness or justice and the other about consideration or care. It is important to keep both in mind when thinking about how students develop their own beliefs about right or wrong. A morality of justice is a system of beliefs about human rights—or more specifically, about respect for fairness, impartiality, equality, and individuals’ independence. A morality of care, on the other hand, is a system of beliefs about human responsibilities—more specifically, about caring for others, showing consideration for individuals’ needs, and interdependence among individuals. Students and teachers need to develop both forms of morality. In the next sections therefore I explain one major theory about each type of developmental change, beginning with the morality of justice.

Kohlberg’s Morality of Justice
One of the best-known explanations of how the morality of justice develops was developed by Lawrence Kohlberg and his associates (Kohlberg, Levine, & Hewer, 1983; Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg, 1991). Using a stage model similar to Piaget’s, Kohlberg proposed six stages of development, grouped into three levels, which individuals experience universally and in sequence as they form beliefs about justice. He named the levels simply preconventional, conventional, and (you guessed it) postconventional. The levels and stages are summarized in Table 3-3.

Preconventional Justice: Obedience and Mutual Advantage
The preconventional level of moral development coincides approximately with the preschool period of life and with Piaget’s preoperational period of thinking. At this age the child is still relatively self-centered and consequently insensitive to the moral effects of actions on others. The result is a somewhat short-sighted set of moral beliefs. Initially (Kohlberg’s Stage 1), the child adopts an ethics of obedience and punishment—a sort of “morality of keeping out of trouble.” The moral rightness and wrongness of actions are determined by whether actions are rewarded or punished by authorities, such as parents or teachers. If helping yourself to a cookie brings affectionate smiles from adults, then taking the cookie is considered morally “good.” If it brings scolding instead, then it is morally “bad.” The child does not think about why an action might be praised or scolded; in fact, says Kohlberg, he would be incapable at Stage 1 of considering the reasons even if adults offered them.

Eventually the child learns not only to respond to positive consequences, but also learns how to produce them by exchanging favors with others. The new ability creates Stage 2, an ethics of market exchange. At this stage the morally “good” action is one that favors not only the child, but another person directly involved, and a “bad” action is one that lacks this reciprocity. If trading the sandwich from your lunch for the cookies in your friend’s lunch is mutually agreeable, then the trade is morally good; otherwise it is not. This perspective introduces a type of fairness into the child’s thinking, but still ignores the larger context of actions—the effects on people not present or directly involved. In Stage 2, for example, it would also be considered morally “good” to pay a classmate $5.00 per week to do your homework—or even to avoid bullying or to provide sexual favors—provided that both parties find the arrangement fair.

Conventional Justice: Conformity to Peers and Society
As children move into the school years, their lives expand to include a larger number and range of peers and (eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to conventional morality, which are beliefs about right and wrong based on what this larger array of people agree on—hence Kohlberg’s use of the term “conventional.” At first, in Stage 3, the child’s reference group are immediate peers, so Stage 3 is called the ethics of peer opinion. If peers say, for example, that it is morally good to behave politely with as many people as possible, then the child is likely to agree with the group and to regard politeness as not merely an arbitrary social convention, but a moral “good.” This approach to moral belief is a bit more stable, but not necessarily more profound, than the approach in Stage 2, because the child is taking into account the reactions not just of one other person, but of an entire group. But it can still lead a child astray if the group settles on beliefs that adults consider morally wrong, like “Be nice to everyone except Rachel” or “Shop lifting for candy bars is fun and desirable.”

Eventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social world expands even more, he or she acquires even larger numbers of peers and friends, many of whom may disagree about ethical issues and beliefs. Resolving the complexities lead to Stage 4, the ethics of law and order, in which the young person increasingly frames moral beliefs in terms of what society as a whole seems to believe. Now an action is morally good if it is legal or at least customarily approved by most people, including people whom the youth does not know personally. This attitude leads to an even more stable set of principles than in the previous stage, though it is still not immune from “wrongheaded” ethics completely. A community or society may sometimes agree, for example, that people of a certain race should be treated with deliberate disrespect, or that a factory owner is entitled to dump wastewater into a commonly shared lake or river. To develop ethical principles that reliably avoid mistakes like these, therefore, requires further stages of moral development.

Postconventional Justice: Social Contract and Universal Principles
As a person becomes able to think more abstractly (or “formally,” in Piaget’s sense), ethical beliefs shift from mere acceptance of what community and society do believe to the process by which community beliefs are formed. This new focus constitutes Stage 5, the ethics of social contract. Now an action, belief, or practice is morally good if it has been created through fair, democratic processes that have respected the rights of the people affected. Consider, for example, the No Child Left Behind legislation—the current law in the United States requiring that all students be given standardized tests in order to decide whether schools and teachers are teaching adequately (United States Government Printing Office, 2002). This law is certainly legal, but is it ethical? Was it created by consulting with and gaining the consent of the relevant people? How well, for example, were educational leaders consulted? Or how about students and families of color, or teachers in schools lacking crucial resources? Reasonable, thoughtful individuals disagree about how thoroughly and fairly these consultation processes have occurred. Their focus on the process means that they are thinking according to Stage 5, the ethics of social contract, regardless of what they may also think about the content of the legislation. In this sense beliefs on both sides of a debate about No Child Left Behind can be morally sound, even if they contradict each other.

Paying attention to due process certainly seems like it might avoid help to avoid following conventional moral beliefs mindlessly. As an ethical strategy, though, it too can sometimes fail. The problem is that an ethics of social contract places more faith in democratic process than the process sometimes deserves, and does not pay enough attention to what may be decided through democratic due process. In principle (and unfortunately in practice), a society could decide democratically to kill off every member of a racial minority, for example, but would the due process make it ethical? The possibility of ethical means serving unethical ends leads some individuals toward Stage 6, the ethics of self-chosen, universal principles. At this final stage, the morally good action is based on personally held principles that apply both to the person’s immediate life as well as to the larger community and society. The universal principles may include a belief in democratic due process (Stage 5 ethics), incidentally, but others may also be involved, such as a belief in the dignity of all human life or of the natural environment. At Stage 6 the universal principles will form a person’s beliefs even if the principles occasionally mean disagreeing with what is customary (Stage 4) or even with what is legal (Stage 5).

Gilligan’s Morality of Care
As logical as it sounds, Kohlberg’s stages of moral justice are not sufficient for understanding moral development either of students or of teachers. To see why, suppose that you have a student who asks for the extension of the deadline for an assignment. The justice orientation of Kohlberg’s theory would prompt you to consider issues of fairness and individual rights. Would the extension be fair to others, since the late student might be able to put more work into the assignment than can other students? And would the extension be fair to you, since you may need to mark the assignments as promptly as possible, so that you can move on to other teaching tasks. These are important considerations, but not the only ethical ones. Another set has to do with the responsibilities that you and the student have for each other. Does the student have valid personal reasons (illness, death in the family, etc.) for why the assignment has to be late? And will the assignment lose its educational value if you force the student to turn it in prematurely? These latter questions have less to do with fairness and rights, and more to do with taking care and responsibility for students. They require a framework different from Kohlberg’s to be understood fully. One such framework has been developed by Carol Gilligan, a former student of Kohlberg’s, whose ideas center on a morality of care, or system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care and consideration for others. Gilligan proposed three moral positions that represent different extents or breadth of ethical care. Unlike Kohlberg (or Piaget or Erikson), she does not claim that the positions form a developmental sequence, but only that they can be ranked hierarchically according to their dept or subtlety. In this respect her theory is only “semi-developmental,” in a way similar to Maslow’s hierarchy of motives (Brown & Gilligan, 1992; Taylor, Gilligan, & Sullivan, 1995). Table 3-3 summarizes the three moral positions from Gilligan’s theory.

Position 1: Caring as Survival
The most basic kind of caring is a survival orientation, in which a person is concerned exclusively with his or her own welfare. If a teenage girl with this ethical position is wondering whether to get an abortion, for example, she will be concerned entirely with the effects of the abortion on herself. The morally good choice will be whatever creates the least stress and disrupts her life the least. Responsibilities to others (like the baby, the father, or her family) play little or no part in her thinking. As a moral position, a survival orientation is obviously not satisfactory for classrooms on a widespread scale. If every student only looked out for himself or herself alone, classroom life might become rather unpleasant! Nonetheless, there are situations in which caring primarily about yourself is both a sign of good mental health and also relevant to teachers. For a child who has been bullied at school or sexually abused at home, for example, it is both healthy and morally desirable to speak out about the bullying or abuse—essentially looking out for the victim’s own needs at the expense of others’, including the bully’s or abuser’s. Speaking out requires a survival orientation and is healthy because in this case, the child is at least caring about herself.

Position 2: Conventional Caring
A more sophisticated or subtle moral position is caring for others, in which a person is concerned about others’ happiness and welfare, and about reconciling or integrating others’ needs where they conflict. In considering an abortion, for example, the teenager might think primarily about what others in her life prefer her to do—whether the father, her parents, or her doctor want to keep the child. The morally good choice becomes whatever will please others the best. This position is more demanding than Position 1, both ethically and intellectually, because it requires coordinating several persons’ needs and values at the same time. But ultimately it is morally insufficient because it does not consider one crucial person: the self. In classrooms, students who operate from Position 2 can be very desirable in some ways; they can be kind, considerate, and good fitting in and at working cooperatively with others. Because these qualities are very welcome in a busy classroom, it can be tempting for teachers to reward students for developing and using them for much of their school careers. The problem with rewarding Position 2 ethics, however, is that doing so neglects the student’s identity—his or her own academic and personal goals or values. Sooner or later, personal goals, values and identity need attention, and educators have a responsibility for assisting students to discover and clarify them. Unfortunately for teachers, students who know what they want may sometimes be more assertive and less automatically compliant than those who do not.

Position 3: Integrated Caring
The most developed form of moral caring in Gilligan’s model is integrated caring, the coordination of personal needs and values with those of others. Now the morally good choice takes account of everyone including yourself, not everyone except yourself. In considering an abortion, the woman at Position 3 would think not only about the consequences for the father, the unborn child, and her family, but also about the consequences for herself—her own needs, values, and plans. This perspective leads to moral beliefs that are more comprehensive, but ironically also more prone to moral dilemmas because the widest range of individuals are being considered.

In classrooms, integrated caring is most likely to surface whenever teachers give students wide, sustained freedom to make choices. If students have little flexibility about their actions, there is little room for considering anyone’s needs or values, whether their own or others’. If the teacher says simply, “Do the homework on page 50 and turn it in tomorrow morning,” then compliance becomes the main issue, not moral choice. But suppose instead that she says something like this: “Over the next two months, figure out an inquiry project about the use of water resources in our town. Organize it any way you want—talk to people, read widely about it, and share it with the class in a way that all of us, including yourself, will find meaningful.” Although an assignment this general or abstract may not suit some teachers or students, it does pose moral challenges for those who do use it. Why? For one thing, students cannot simply carry out specific instructions, but must decide what aspect of the topic really matters to them. The choice is partly a matter of personal values. For another thing, students have to consider how the topic might be meaningful or important to others in the class. Third, because the time line for completion is relatively far in the future, students may have to weigh personal priorities (like spending time with family on the weekend) against educational priorities (working on the assignment a bit more on the weekend). As you might suspect, some students might have trouble making good choices when given this sort of freedom—and their teachers might therefore be cautious about giving such an assignment. But in a way these hesitations are part of Gilligan’s point: integrated caring is indeed more demanding than the caring based on survival or orientation to others, and not all students may be ready for it.

(back to Chapter 3...)


text:
Cyber Guide to ODU Career Management/Get Hands-On/7 things you DON'T know about...

C3M Mass Email TIPS
OCCS has now removed the email restriction that requires our IP address to be registered, please let me know if you have any issues.

Make sure you follow instructions on the intranet!

YOUR TIPS HERE

New Issues

 * Max of 10 advisors show on the kiosk
 * Student Worker added for reception (so they can check-in/see location list) shows as and advisor ont he kiosk
 * No walk in capability in satellites!
 * I have a schedule appointment PERIOD
 * Walk-in (change)

C3M Correspondance with Vendor (email to Brent Engle)
Mass emal Cancel button does not work. 9/24/2007 1. SEARCHING How do we search on Special Program? (recall we have a number code and a text location (neither seem to work as expected)? 2. EVENTS Networked version Employer name tags Faculty tab Alumni/Guests - record names (since we type them in anyway) 3. IMPORTS Counseling Notes Work Placement

9/13/2007 1. When a student swipes in at the main kiosk and selects Cyber Career Center: Their names goes in the a) walk-ins (appointment type - walk-in) AND b) other appointments waiting (appointment type - Cyber Center) and c) Cyber Center tab (from the reception module) When you check them in from a) walk-ins they still appear on b) other appointments When you check them in from b) other appointments they still appear on a) walk-ins When you check them in from c) cyber center they still appear on a) walk-ins We either have to check them in twice and delete one of the appointments or delete the second out of waiting room (from the reception module)

2. Kiosk Event has a window and a second button with two places to add the event number. Seems like you have to add and delete if from both places, which is confusing?


text:
Talk:Haskell/Packaging

Thank you
Im learning haskell for some weeks now and I am very impressed how fast I can setup a reliable build-system. In Java something like this is soo complicated (integrating: ant, mvn, make, cvs, svn, junit). This page was absolutly to the point for me: We have an evolving project, and I setup everything according to this guide in 1,5 hours. Great!!

-- bastl (delete the comment when you read it.)

Nonroot installs
A small tip to add to this page :

if you want to install your project on a simple user account, you should do :

runhaskell Setup.lhs configure --prefix=$HOME --user

this way, installation won't try to edit a system file.

thanks for this great wikibook by the way, it is of great help !

 * Happy to hear that. I've tacked on the --user flag to each of our configure options -- Kowey 04:09, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

Handling GHC extensions
Another missing information (actually I didn't find this information anywhere else yet) :

When your code is using GHC extensions (-fglasgow-exts), how do you handle this ? Is is in the cabal file ? Is it some kind of header at the beginning of the sources ?

-- Thomas

PS : I found my answer ... {-# OPTIONS -fglasgow-exts #-} at the beginning of the code. Is this information appearing anywhere in this wikibook ?

 * I don't think so, but I suppose it could be mentioned in this module -- Kowey 16:10, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

 * That would work anon, but it'd be even better to use, so in the (unlikely :) case someone wants to use the code with Hugs/NHC/YHC/JHC/EHC, they don't try to use it.
 * There's a better way to do it with the LANGUAGE pragmas, but I'll just add that to the page. --Gwern (contribs)

 * I think there's another way you could do it, by adding the 'ghc-options:' field to the cabal file and then --fglasgow-exts. (Probably.) --24.184.131.16 00:02, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, that'd work, except it'd be '-fglasgow-exts', not '--fglasgow-exts' - the only '--' option is '--make'. --Gwern (contribs)

Testing script problems
The main function in Tests.hs doesn't work so well for me when invoked from darcs. The problem is that it doesn't return a non-zero exit code in case of failure so darcs will think that everything is alright even though the tests failed. The way I solved this was to use the alternate testing function quickCheck' for all my tests. It returns a boolean which reports if the test when through. Beware though that I'm using QuickCheck 2 so the function might not exist in QuickCheck 1, I haven't checked. Then I used System.Exit.exitFailure in case a test failed. Looks like this:

main = mapM_ runTest tests where runTest (s,a) = do printf "%-25s :" s                            b <- a                             if b                                then return else exitFailure

-- Josef Svenningsson

Replace everything pertaining to darcs with Git
Darcs at this point has been long abandoned by Haskell and pretty much every modern Haskell project uses Git. Recommend Git instead. -- Ribosomerocker (discuss • contribs) 11:40, 18 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Haskell/Packaging


text:
Talk:XQuery/Tag Cloud

I hope this is the way to discuss coding practices ;-)

In the keyword counting function we have:

let $term-count := count(for $word in $wordlist where $word = string($term) return $word)

The explicit atomisation with string isn't needed here - so ..

let $term-count := count(for $word in $wordlist where $word = $term return $word)

Also generalised = is not needed here since neither operands is a sequence

let $term-count := count(for $word in $wordlist where $word eq $term return $word)

In general I think its good to encourage the use of XPath predicates where possible - they are generally faster than FLWOR expressions and clearer.

So finally I would suggest

let $term-count := count($wordlist[. eq $term])

Although this formulation does require an explanation of. but XQuery presumes a knowledge of XPath ChrisWallace 06:06, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

I've also reduced the functionality of the word-count function - ordering the items by the count is an additional task unrelated to the counting, and when the map is generated, the ordering needs to be different (alphabetical). I've also chanced the input to the whole list because that seems more consistent with the return and changed the term format itself so that the count is added to the term as an attribute.

Maybe I'm being a bit too enthusistic here ??

ChrisWallace 07:30, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:XQuery/Tag Cloud


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Shell Cottage

General Overview
Shell Cottage is the cottage on the oceanside where Bill and Fleur reside after their marriage.

Extended Description
Ron stays at Shell Cottage over Christmas of Harry's seventh year, when he apparates away from Harry and Hermione after their fight. This is also where Harry, Ron, Hermione, Luna, Dean, Mr. Olivander and Griphook take shelter after the fight at Malfoy Manor, and is the place where Dobby is laid to rest. With all of these people, the cottage is quite crowded, particularly as Griphook requires a room of his own, and Harry will, at least initially, not let Bill send Griphook or Mr. Ollivander to a different safe-house. We hear at one point that Harry, Ron, and Dean are sleeping in the living room. Lupin visits while Harry is there, to announce the birth of his son Teddy. And Ron, Harry, Hermione, and Griphook depart from there on their mission to enter Bellatrix Lestrange's vault at Gringotts.

The location of the cottage is protected by the Fidelius charm; the secret-keeper is Bill Weasley.

In post-publication interviews, the author has suggested that Shell Cottage is located on the outskirts of Tinworth, in Cornwall.

Analysis
We know very little about Shell Cottage; its appearance in the series is fleeting, and all we ever learn about it is that it is a safe house, inaccessible to those who have not had the secret of its location revealed to them by the secret-keeper, Bill Weasley. This actually leads us to one unresolved issue: how is Harry able to find it? It is possible, given that House-elf magic is distinct from Human magic, that Dobby may be able to find Shell Cottage despite the workings of the Fidelius charm, and Ron has stayed there for a while and so knows about it, but Mr. Ollivander, Dean, Hermione, and Harry, according to our understanding of the charm, should not even be able to see Shell Cottage until Bill tells them where it is. (Griphook may suffer the same effect, but as Goblins likely use a non-Human mode of magic, we cannot be sure.) It may be enough for Bill to greet them, saying something as mundane as "Welcome to Shell Cottage," but as far as we can tell, that does not happen; Harry arrives with the dying Dobby, and is able to see Shell Cottage immediately when he lands. No explanation for this is ever offered.

It is not immediately obvious why Harry does not want Griphook or Mr. Ollivander moved, despite the crowding in the cottage. Of course, immediately after their arrival, Harry does need to talk to Ollivander about wandlore, specifically to determine how much of a threat the Elder Wand will pose if Voldemort retrieves it; but having had that conversation, Harry presumably can release Ollivander to another safe house. Eventually, of course, Ollivander is transferred to Auntie Muriel's house, once it is believed that he is sufficiently recovered. The need for Griphook to stay at the cottage becomes clear very shortly as well. Bellatrix' reaction on seeing the Sword of Gryffindor convinces Harry that something Voldemort values very highly is in Bellatrix's vault at Gringotts, almost certainly a Horcrux, so Harry must break in to Gringotts to recover it. A source of inside knowledge about Gringotts is vital to that endeavour, and Griphook is that source.

It should also be noted that, despite being called "safe houses," no house in England at this point can be considered completely safe. The Tonks' house, which was a safe house when Harry and Hagrid visited there on their way to The Burrow as Harry escaped the Dursleys', was not safe enough to protect Ted Tonks, who is on the run from Snatchers when we see him last. The Burrow, also a safe house, falls to Death Eaters immediately after Bill and Fleur's wedding. The only three safe houses which we believe have not seen Death Eater incursions to date are Shell Cottage, Auntie Muriel's home, and Grimmauld Place... and we are not completely sure about the last.


text:
Talk:Communication Networks/Ethereal

Rename to Wireshark?
Does anyone object to renaming this chapter "Wireshark", in accordance with the the Wikipedia page?

It should be changed. Many of the link are broken.

title: Talk:Communication Networks/Ethereal