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OC Photography Program/Fundamentals of Photographic Technique

Every type of art relies on practitioners' control their technique. A painter who doesn't know how to control the flow of paint cannot reliably produce predictable results; a musician who doesn't know how an instrument will respond can't produce music. Happy accidents can be great for learning and can sometimes result in interesting effects, but if not harnessed as part of a broader technique or strategy, they rarely result in meaningful work.

The same is true of photography: to be able to create engaging images, a photographer has to have a measure of control over his or her medium. The aim of this article is to set out the most fundamental aspects of photographic technique, in the broadest strokes that would make it possible for a photographer to make conscious, controlled choices, and without relying on automation to make them instead.

= Photographic materials = Photographers have used a variety of materials to make images, including plastic film, glass plates, collodion (essentially gun cotton dissolved in ether and alcohol), gelatin, albumen, starch, as well as a variety of compounds of silver, gold, platinum, palladium, chromium, mercury and gold. There is very little that someone hasn't tried using in photography. Of those that have produced workable results, the most popular are plastic base films with silver compounds dispersed in gelatin. However, even within this seemingly narrow category, the choices are very impressive.

Monochrome or color
One of the most fundamental choices a photographer has to make is whether the final image is to be monotone ("black and white") or color. Black and white photography was the standard in the first century after its invention, though even there "black" meant anything from true black to the polished silver of daguerreotypes, the sepia of salt prints, and pretty much every color one can imagine, thanks to chemical toning and hand coloring. Color photography, which really came into its own after the Second World War, uses a complex layering of silver gelatin emulsions, color filters and dyes to create a close approximation of the colors most people see in everyday life.

Positive or negative
Photographic materials produce either "positive" images that have a direct relationship to the intensity of light in the photographed scene, or "negatives", where that relationship is reversed. Most of the time, positives are used for viewing directly or mechanical reproduction, while negatives are used to make final, positive images by exposing other negative materials through them, therefore reversing the light-to-dark relationship once again.

Sensitivity
Photographic materials (for the sake of simplicity let's call it "film", since that is the most popular medium) come in various grades of sensitivity to light. Generally speaking, the "faster" the film, the more sensitive it is to light, but the larger grain it will exhibit. Slower films make smoother, finer-grained images, but sacrifice the ability to capture quick-moving scenes in dimmer light.

Size
Film comes in a number of standard sizes, of which 35mm daylight loading casettes are most common. Larger sizes include type 120 medium-format films and sheet films in sizes such as 4x5", 5x7" and 8x10". Even if this is the bulk of the market, only technical prowess (and unfortunately financial capacity) prevents a photographer from either adjusting these sizes or making his or her own materials.

Substrate
Finally, while films constitute the bulk of the photographic materials using for recording scenes, other media have been used, and continue to be used by some photographers. The most common alternative to film is photographic enlarging paper, but others include metal plates (tintypes, daguerreotypes), glass plates (dry plates, collodion wet plates). Photographic emulsions can also be applied to fabrics, and even everyday objects. That said, these types of experiments constitute a tiny fraction of the work being done with analog photography. = Camera controls = While photography doesn't have to involve the use of a camera (see Laszlo Moholy-Nagy's photograms for example), that is how most photographs are made. The ability to control what a camera does with light is essential for a photographer to make reliable decisions. Fortunately, outside the bells and whistles of automation, most cameras modulate the quantity and quality of light they admit using only a few basic controls:

Focus
Focusing means simply adjusting the distance between the film and lens to produce a sharp image of the object or objects being photographed. With most cameras, this is as far as one can go, though adjustable focal plane cameras, such as view and field cameras, can greatly expand the possibilities by altering the geometry of the camera itself.

Lens aperture, depth of field
"Aperture" refers to the size of the opening in the lens that allows light to enter the camera. The larger the opening, the more light enters, and the less time is required to obtain the desired exposure level. Aperture size also affects "depth of field", or the distance from the camera within which objects appear to be in focus. Shallower depth of field means that only some objects in a scene may be in sharp focus, while others will be rendered softly. Greater depth of field means that objects at various distances will be sharp.

Shutter speed
At the most fundamental level, a shutter is a device to open and close an opening on the camera, to let light fall on the film. Earliest "shutters", in days when typical exposures were counted in whole seconds and even minutes, were simply lens caps that were taken off and removed from the camera. Later these became dedicated timing mechanisms that were able to open and close at precise intervals. Typically, modern film cameras employ one of two types of shutters: focal plane or central. A focal plane shutter consists of two curtains that travel across the frame just in front of the film. Central shutters are most ofthen located within the lens, usually between groups of optical elements. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, but in general focal plane shutters can produce shorter exposures, while central ones are generally more flexible with flash photography.

Lens focal length
Simple lenses focus light rays at a fixed point in space. The distance at which this happens is called their focal length. For example, a typical 50mm lens will focus light from a source located "infinitely" far away 50 millimeters from its optical center, a 6 inch view camera lens will focus at 6 inches, and so on. A lens with a longer focus will produce a larger image than a short one. Assuming that both are used on the same size of film, the larger image will fill more of the frame, and therefore will appear "closer".

In general, lenses with a focus similar to the diagonal dimension of the frame for which they are used are considered "normal" - they produce images that correspond to renderings of reality in classic art, with relatively little apparent perspective distortion. Shorter focus lens are considered "wide angle", as the smaller images they make fit more of the scene into the frame than a "normal" lens. On the other end of the scale are long focus lenses, which make objects appear closer than normal. These are often referred to as telephoto lenses, though technically telephotos are lenses that have a shorter focal length on one side, to allow a lens to be physically shorter than its optical focal length. Not all long lenses are telephotos, even if most people refer to them that way.

Since the 1980s, zoom lenses have been gaining in popularity, and currently they make up the bulk of all camera lenses on the market. These allow photographers to change the focal length of the lens by altering the relationship between the components of the lens, whether by rotating or pulling a control ring, or by pressing a physical or screen button. The quality of these lenses is now generally seen as on par with simple "prime" lenses, though earlier ones were usually optically inferior.

= The process =

Measuring the light
Knowing how much light is in a scene is crucial to achieving predictable results in photography. In the earliest days of the medium, photographers relied on experience to determine the exposure needed to produce optimal results. Since then, technology for measuring light has evolved, and most cameras produced since the 1970s have had built-in light meters, often coupled with automatic exposure systems.

Setting the exposure
Photographic materials react to light predictably within a certain range of exposure to light. When "correctly" exposed, they record the greatest possible amount of detail in both light and shadow areas, and generally have the greatest range of tones between the two. However, for various reasons, including availability of light and artistic expression, photographers sometimes choose to allow more or less light than the "ideal" amount to fall on their photosensitive materials. Both will generally result in a compressed tonal range, meaning images that do not include the full range of values from black to white.

The ability to consciously adapt exposure to the intended effect is one of the most fundamental skills of a photographer. While light metering systems and camera automation continue to advance, a light meter has no way of knowing what a photographer wants the image to convey. A photograph intended to capture the maximum amount of technical detail may need a different level of exposure than one meant to convey the mood of a place, even in the same location and with the same amount of light present. It is all a question of intent, and until cameras can read photographers' minds, it is definitely useful to understand exposure thoroughly.

Traditional silver-gelatin emulsion film reacts to light by turning darker the more it is exposed. This relationship between exposure and the resulting tone depends on a lot of factors, including the sensitivity of the material and the development process, but in the broadest therms within a "normal" range is predictable and linear. This means that adding exposure will increase the density of the silver deposit on the film by a predictable amount. However, this is true within a certain range of light levels, called the film's exposure range or latitude. At very low light levels, the film will not react at all, while above it all the available silver compounds in the film will be converted to metallic silver and further exposure will not result in any further change. It is important for a practicing photographer to know these limits.

Conventionally, exposure is expressed in "stops". Each stop is equivalent to doubling the amount of light of the stop below it and halving that of the one above. Most cameras control the amount of light entering using an aperture, which controls the amount of light entering, and a shutter, which controls the amount of time for which the light is allowed to enter the camera. Each of these devices is calibrated in stops, to make it easy to adjust exposures quickly and efficiently.

Aperture stops are labeled with "f" numbers, where the "f" stands for the lens's focal length. This means that an f/2 aperture is half the size of the lens focal length, and f/4 means one fourth of "f". This makes it easy to compare apertures of lenses of different focal lengths. In modern cameras, the sequence of stops, with each halving the amount of light entering compared to the previous one, is f/1, f/1.4, f/2, f/2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16, and so on. Notice that the numbers themselves double every other one - that is because the amount of light is determined by the aperture's area, not its diameter. An aperture twice the diameter of another will have an area four times as big, and will therefore let in four times as much light.

Shutters, on the other hand, are usually labeled as the denominators of the fraction of a second for which they are open. So a shutter speed of 1/250 will be shown simply as "250" on an adjustment knob or display, while "30" typically means 1/30 of a second. In cameras where the shutter can be set for times above one second, the whole second times are typically a different color than the fractional ones to avoid confusion. The typical progression of shutter speeds on modern cameras is 1, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000 and so on, each being half the duration of the previous one.

With the total amount of light striking the film determined by both the aperture size and the shutter speed, exposures are typically given as a combination of the two numbers. For instance, on a sunny day in moderate lattitudes, an ISO 125 film might be exposed for 1/125s at an aperture of f/16. Since each stop on either device means a doubling or a halving of the exposure, the above combination is equivalent to an exposure of 1/250s at f/11, or 1/1000s at f/5.6. This allows a photographer to vary the final look of the image, while maintaining the same exposure. Faster shutter speeds will "freeze" motion better, while smaller apertures (i.e. ones with larger "f" numbers) will allow greater depth of field. It is also possible to change the exposure from the "correct" level indicated by the light meter. Underexposure, which in the example above might be 1/500s at f/16, will emphasize detail in the light areas of the image while compressing it in the shadows. Overexposure will do the opposite - dark shadows will have fuller detail than normal, while light areas might lose information.

Regardless of the particular intent of the image, it is worth remembering that while modern light meters and camera exposure systems are great at setting "correct" exposures, equipment manufacturers calibrate these for average conditions. Taking a picture in a coal mine or a sun-blasted snowy slope diverge from "typical" conditions significantly, and in order to achieve predictable results a knowledgeable photographer will adjust the exposure in each instance. In the examples above, since coal is black, it will fool the light meter into "thinking" that there is less light in the scene than there really is, resulting in overexosure. Muddy snow scenes are often the result of a photographer letting a camera do its own thing, where the large amount of light reflected from the snow tells the system that the scene is far more brightly lit than it is in reality. Again, there is no substitute for conscious choice.


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OC Photography Program/Digital Cameras

Informations about digital cameras is a very specific subject and can be found in one of this websites:

 * Dpreview is one of the most complete and reliable websites for testing digital cameras.
 * DcResource is "blog" organized and can give you a lot of info about the news in camera manufacturing.
 * Steves Digicams do you want a second opinion? Ask Steves.
 * The Imaging Resource In depth reviews on most cameras out there.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: OC Photography Program/Digital Cameras


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Talk:OC Photography Program

Discussions about inserting content in the OCPP.
This needs to be more than a collection of links and names.

Suggest links from subpages to OC Photography Program
I landed at OC Photography Program/Light and could not a link to OC Photography Program. Because this is an old book (that does not use the current "Book Name/Chapter" convention), I suggest adding links from all subpages to OC Photography Program. --Kernigh 04:14, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Subpages updated to new convention. --haginძaz 04:38, 22 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:OC Photography Program


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OC Photography Program/Resources

Most resources are recommended on the related pages. Here are the resources who aren't related with just one subject, or that are not covered by this book.

 * Agfa Net Great resource page with lots of information for starters and students.
 * Photo District News Magazine and webpage, dedicated to photography as a business.
 * Flickr Create your own photoblog, an easy way to share your photography with anyone. There's a great photographers community who displays their photos here.

title: OC Photography Program/Resources


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English in Use/Syntax

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences.

The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.

The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.

The government of words is that power which one word has over another, to cause it to assume some particular modification.

The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb: as,

 * "Reward sweetens labour."

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the subject, or nominative; the finite verb; and the object governed by the verb: as,

 * "Crimes deserve punishment."

A predicate is the part of the sentence (or clause) which states something about the subject.

The other or subordinate parts depend on these, either as primary or as secondary adjuncts: as,

 * "High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments."

Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.

A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation: as,

 * "David and Jonathan loved each other."
 * "If your enemy hunger."
 * "Do violence to no man."
 * "Am I not an apostle?"—1 Cor., ix, 1.
 * "What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"—Hooke: Mur. Seq., p. 71.

A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected: as,

 * "Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who shall tell you words, whereby you and all your house shall be saved."—Acts, xi, 13.
 * "The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."—Hayley: Mur. Seq., p. 250.

A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as,

 * "If your enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."—Prov., xxv, 21.

A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition: as,

 * "By the means appointed."
 * "To be plain with you."
 * "Having loved his own."

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, must be supplied in parsing.

The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.

Articles
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: as,

 * "At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged elm."
 * "See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, the sot a hero, lunatic a king."—Pope's Essay, Ep. ii, l. 268.

The comparative or superlative degree
The definite article may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree: as,

 * "A land which was the mightiest."—Byron.
 * "The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their alacrity."—Dr. Johnson.
 * "He chooses it the rather."—Cowper.

An unstressed numeral
The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to an unstressed numeral (a plural adjective of number): as,

 * "You have a few names even in Sardis."—Rev., iii, 4.
 * "There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory."—Spectator, No. 468.
 * "The centurion commanded a hundred men."—Webster.

The subject or nominative
A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case: as,

 * "The Pharisees also, who were covetous, heard all these things; and they derided him."—Luke, xvi, 14.
 * "But where the meekness of self-knowledge veils the front of self-respect, there look you for the man whom none can know but they will honour."—Book of Thoughts, p. 66.
 * "Do you mourn Philander's fate? I know you say it: says your life the same?"—Young, N. ii, l. 22.

The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb: as,

 * "Peace dawned on his mind."—Johnson.
 * "What is written in the law?"—Bible.

But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually placed after it, or after the first auxiliary:

A question
When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the nominative case: as,

 * "Shall mortals be implacable?"—Hooke.
 * "What are you doing?"—Id.
 * "How many loaves have you?"—Bible.
 * "Are they Israelites? So am I."—Ib.

The imperative mood
When the verb is in the imperative mood: as,

 * "Go you,"
 * "Come you."

But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood: as,

 * "Philip said to him, Come and see."—John, i, 46.
 * "And he said to them, Be not afraid."—Mark, xvi, 5.

An earnest wish or strong feeling
When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed: as,

 * "May she be happy!"
 * "How were we struck!"—Young.
 * "Not as the world gives, give I to you."—Bible.

A supposition without if
When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: as,

 * "Had they known it;" for, "If they had known it."
 * "Were it true;" for, "If it were true."
 * "Could we draw by the covering of the grave;" for, "If we could draw," etc.

Neither or nor
When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb: as,

 * "This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless."
 * "You shall not eat of it, neither shall you touch it."—Gen., iii, 3.

Emphasis
When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it: as,

 * "Here am I,"
 * "Narrow is the way,"
 * "Silver and gold have I none; but such as I have, give I you."—Bible.

No regimen
When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical: as,

 * "Echo the mountains round."—Thomson.
 * "After the light infantry marched the grenadiers, then followed the horse."—Buchanan's Syntax, p. 71.

A dialogue
When the verbs, say, answer, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a dialogue: as,

 * "'Son of affliction,' said Omar, 'who are you?' 'My name,' replied the stranger, 'is Hassan.'"—Dr. Johnson.

The adverb there
When the adverb there precedes the verb: as,

 * "There lived a man."—Montgomery.
 * "In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound."—Owen.

This use of there, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use of the same word in reference to a particular locality: as,

 * "Because there was not much water there."—John, iii, 23.

Apposition or appositive
A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case: as,

 * "But it is really I, your old friend and neighbour, Piso, late a dweller on the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of Palmyra."—Zenobia.
 * "But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, knowing our frame, remembers we are dust."—Barbauld.

An apposition or appositive is an interjection into a sentence. Appositive renames, or adds to the description of another noun. The thought expressed by the sentence will stand fully on its own without the appositive. In the following sentence, "My best friend's collie" is an appositive:

 * "The dog, my best friend's collie, caught the frisbee every time."

A possessive noun
A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed: as,

 * "God's mercy prolongs man's life."—Allen.
 * "Theirs is the vanity, the learning yours; touched by your hand, again Rome's glories shine."—Pope.

The possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing noun, expressed or understood: as,

 * "All nature's difference keeps all nature's peace."—Pope.
 * "Lady! be yours (i. e., your walk) the Christian's walk."—Chr. Observer.
 * "Some of Aeschylus's [plays] and Euripides's plays are opened in this manner."—Blair's Rhet., p. 459.

And in this order one possessive sometimes governs another: as,

 * "Peter's wife's mother,"
 * "Paul's sister's son."—Bible.

But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some exceptions: as,

An adjective
When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene: as,

 * "Flora's earliest smells."—Milton.
 * "Of man's first disobedience."—Id.

In the following phrase from the Spectator,

 * "Of Will's last night's lecture,"

it is not very clear, whether Will's is governed by night's or by lecture; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose the latter; because, on this supposition, two possessives, each having the sign, will be governed by one noun.

The affirmed or denied possessive
When the possessive is affirmed or denied: as,

 * "The book is mine, and not John's."

But here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place; else a pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word: as,

 * "You are Christ's [disciples, or people]; and Christ is God's [son]."—St. Paul.

Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable.

The case without the sign
When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by connection: as,

 * "In her brother Absalom's house."—Bible.
 * "David and Jonathan's friendship."—Allen.
 * "Adam and Eve's morning hymn."—Dr. Ash.
 * "Behold the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord's your God."—Deut., x, 14.
 * "For peace and quiet's sake."—Cowper.
 * "To the beginning of King James the First's reign."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 32.

The object of predicate
A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case: as,

 * "I found her assisting him,"
 * "Having finished the work, I submit it,"
 * "Preventing fame, misfortune lends him wings, and Pompey's self his own sad story brings." —Rowe's Lucan, B. viii, l. 66.

An intransitive verb
A noun or a pronoun put after an intransitive verb or participle, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing: as,

 * "It is I,"
 * "These are they,"
 * "The child was named John,"
 * "It could not be he,"
 * "The Lord sits King forever."—Psalms, xxix, 10.
 * "What war could ravish, commerce could bestow, and he returned a friend, who came a foe."—Pope, Ep. iii, l. 206.

An absolute noun
A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word: as,

 * "He failing, who shall meet success?"
 * "Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live forever?"—Zech., i, 5.
 * "Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working?"—1 Cor., ix, 6.
 * "Nay but, O man, who are you that replies against God?"—Rom., ix, 20.
 * "O rare we!"—Cowper.
 * "Miserable they!"—Thomson.

An adjective relates to nouns
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as,

 * "Miserable comforters are you all."—Job, xvi, 2.
 * "No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers of an immortal spirit."—Blair.
 * "Whatever faction's partial notions are, no hand is wholly innocent in war."—Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 191.

An intervening verb
An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the subject of an intervening verb: as,

 * "To insult the afflicted, is impious."—Dillwyn.
 * "That he should refuse, is not strange."
 * "To err is human."

Combined arithmetical numbers
In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates to another, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun: as,

 * "One thousand four hundred and fifty-six men,"
 * "Six dollars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every five days' service,"
 * "In the one hundred and twenty-second year,"
 * "One seven times more than it was wont to be heated."—Daniel, iii, 19.

A being or action in the abstract
With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly; that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject: as,

 * "To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe."—Hawkesworth.
 * "Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or hold."—Crabb's Synonymes.
 * "Indeed, the main secret of being sublime, is to say great things in few and plain words."—Hiley's Gram., p. 215.
 * "Concerning being free from sin in heaven, there is no question."—Barclay's Works, iii, 437.
 * Better, "Concerning freedom from sin," etc.

Abstract nouns
Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract nouns; perhaps, in most instances, elliptically: as,

 * "The sensations of sublime and beautiful are not always distinguished by very distant boundaries."—Blair's Rhet., p. 47.
 * "The faults opposite to the sublime are chiefly two: the frigid, and the bombast."—Ib., p. 44.
 * Better, "The faults opposite to sublimity, are chiefly two; frigidity and bombast."
 * "Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and cruel."—Brown's Estimate, ii, 26.
 * "In a word, agreeable and disagreeable are qualities of the objects we perceive."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 99.
 * "Polished, or refined, was the idea which the author had in view."—Blair's Rhet., p. 219.

An adjective placed before noun
The adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun: as,

 * "Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?"—Beattie.

Adjectives can also come before the subject:

 * "The red dog likes chocolate."
 * "The tiny man had a height problem."

In the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to which it relates:

Pronouns
Those adjectives which relate to pronouns, most commonly follow them: as,

 * "They left me weary on a grassy turf."—Milton.

But to both these general rules there are many exceptions; for the position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances, not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis: as,

 * "And Jehu said, to which of all us?"—2 Kings, ix, 5.

Words which depend on the adjective
When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify it: as,

 * "A mind conscious of right,"
 * "A wall three feet thick,"
 * "A body of troops fifty thousand strong."

The quality which results from action
When the quality results from an action, or receives its application through a verb or participle: as,

 * "Virtue renders life happy."
 * "He was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of Arza."—1 Kings, xvi, 9.
 * "All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, and aloes bitter."—Burke, on Taste, p. 38.
 * "God made you perfect, not immutable."—Milton.

The quality which excites admiration
When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive: as,

 * "Goodness infinite,"
 * "Wisdom unsearchable."—Murray.

A verb
When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun: as,

 * "Truth stands independent of all external things."—Burgh.
 * "Honour is not seemly for a fool."—Solomon.

The adjective formed by prefix
When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a: as, afraid, alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed, askew. To these may be added a few other words: as, else, enough, extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant.

The nature of a participle
When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle: as,

 * "A queen regnant,"
 * "The prince regent,"
 * "The heir apparent,"
 * "A lion, not rampant, but couchant or dormant,"
 * "For the time then present."

Poetry
In some instances, the adjective may either precede or follow its noun; as, in poetry, provided the sense be obvious: as,

 * "Will you to the isles atlantic, to the rich hesperian clime, fly in the train of Autumn?"—Akenside, P. of I., Book i, p. 27.
 * "Will you fly with laughing Autumn to the atlantic isles, and range with him the hesperian field?"—Id. Bucke's Gram., p. 120.

Technical usage
When technical usage favours one order, and common usage another: as,

 * "A notary public," or, "A public notary;"
 * "The heir presumptive," or, "The presumptive heir."

An adverb
When an adverb precedes the adjective: as,

 * "A Being infinitely wise," or,
 * "An infinitely wise Being."

Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the latter is certainly not ungrammatical.

Belonging to the same noun
When several adjectives belong to the same noun: as,

 * "The red, hungry dog ate the chocolate."
 * "The car is red, slow and very old."
 * "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensible, and virtuous woman."

An emphatic adjective
When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence, though the natural order of the words would bring it last: as,

 * "Weighty is the anger of the righteous."—Bible.
 * "Blessed are the pure in heart."—Ib.
 * "Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his course."—1 Esdras, iv, 34.
 * "The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the country."—Goldsmith's Essays, p. 151.

A part of the object or predicate
When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the arrangement is fixed by the sense intended. Thus, there is a great difference between the following assertions:

 * "We call the boy good,"
 * "We call the good boy."

An equivalent to an adverb
By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb: as,

 * "In particular;" that is, "In a particular manner;" equivalent to "Particularly".
 * So "In general" is equivalent to "Generally".

Pronoun antecedents
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: as,

 * "This is the friend of whom I spoke; he has just arrived."
 * "This is the book which I bought; it is an excellent work."
 * "You, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it too."—Cowper.
 * "Speak you, whose thoughts at humble peace repine, shall Wolsey's wealth with Wolsey's end be yours?"—Dr. Johnson.

Something indefinite
When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite, or unknown to the speaker, the person, number, and gender, are rather assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent: as,

 * "I do not care who knows it."—Steele.
 * "Who touched me? Tell me who it was."
 * "We have no knowledge how, or by whom, it is inhabited."—Abbot: Joh. Dict.

The neuter pronoun
The neuter pronoun may be applied to a young child, or to other creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distinguishable with regard to sex: as,

 * "Which is the real friend to the child, the person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only its health, resists its importunities?"—Opis.
 * "He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view it."—Murray's Gram., p. 301.
 * "The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the night."—Bucke's Gram., p. 52.

The pronoun it
The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antecedent, and is sometimes a mere expletive, and sometimes the representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb: as,

 * "Whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy."—Chalmers.
 * "Seeking to lord it over God's heritage."—The Friend, vii, 253.
 * "It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for princes strong drink."—Prov., xxxi, 4.
 * "Having no temptation to it, God cannot act unjustly without defiling his nature."—Brown's Divinity, p. 11.
 * "Come, and trip it as you go, on the light fantastic toe."—Milton.

The adjective many
A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural pronoun, but never in the same clause: as,

 * "Hard has been the fate of many a great genius, that while they have conferred immortality on others, they have wanted themselves some friend to embalm their names to posterity."—Welwood's Pref. to Rowe's Lucan.
 * "In Hawick twinkled many a light, behind him soon they set in night."—W. Scott.

Enallage
When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it does not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb: as,

 * "We [Lindley Murray] have followed those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural and intelligible distribution."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 29.
 * "We shall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it."—Ib.
 * "My lord, you know I love you."—Shakespeare.

The antecedent taken in another sense
The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense, because it takes it in another: as,

 * "I have perused Mr. Johnson's Grammatical Commentaries, and find it a very laborious, learned, and useful work."—Tho. Knipe, D. D.
 * "Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than one."—Smith's New Gram., p. 8.
 * "Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male."—Ib.
 * "The Utica Sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are dangerous."—Evening Post.
 * Better, "The editor of the Utica Sentinel says, he has not heard," etc.
 * "There is little Benjamin with their ruler."—Psalms, lxviii, 27.
 * "Her end when emulation misses, she turns to envy, stings, and hisses."—Swift's Poems, p. 415.

Nominatives
Nominatives: (i.e., words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though mostly transposed:)

 * "Who are you?"—Bible.
 * "What were we?"—Ib.
 * "Do not tell them who I am."
 * "Let him be who he may, he is not the honest fellow that he seemed."
 * "The general conduct of mankind is neither what it was designed, nor what it ought to be."

Absolute nominatives
This construction of the relative is a latinism, and very seldom used by the best writers.

 * "There are certain bounds to imprudence, which being transgressed, there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of things."—Bp. Butler.
 * "Which being so, it need not be any wonder, why I should."—Walker's Particles, Pref., p. xiv.
 * "He offered an apology, which not being admitted, he became submissive."—Murray's Key, p. 202.

Possessives

 * "The chief man of the island, whose name was Publius."—Acts.
 * "Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none can escape."—Dr. Johnson.
 * "To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is light."—Steele.

Objectives

 * "Those whom she persuaded."—Dr. Johnson.
 * "The cloak that I left at Troas."—St. Paul.
 * "By the things which he suffered."—Id.
 * "A man whom there is reason to suspect."
 * "What are we to do?"—Burke.
 * "Love refuses nothing that love sends."—Gurnall.
 * "The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of morality; to inculcate which, is to be the design of his work."—Blair's Rhet., p. 421.
 * "Whomsoever you please to appoint."—Lowth.
 * "Whatsoever he does, shall prosper."—Bible.
 * "What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think before God."—Sibs.
 * "Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do?"—Gen., xviii, 32.
 * "Shall I hide from Abraham what I am going to do?"
 * "Call imperfection what you fancy such."—Pope.

Neuter verbs
Pronouns parsed as objectives after neuter verbs, though they stand before them:

 * "He is not the man that I took him to be."
 * "Whom did you suppose me to be?"
 * "If the lad ever become what you wish him to be."
 * "To whom shall we go?"—Bible.
 * "The laws by which the world is governed, are general."—Bp. Butler.
 * "Whom he looks on as his defender."—Addison.
 * "That secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject to."—Id.
 * "I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of whom I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy instance."—Steele.
 * "Grammar is the solid foundation on which all other science rests."—Buchanan's Eng. Synt., p. xx.

Familiar language
In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently understood: as,

 * "The man [whom] I trust."—Cowper.
 * "Here is the letter [which] I received."
 * "This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are these the Gods they worship? Is this the woman you saw?"—Ash's Gram., p. 96.

In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express the relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity: as,

 * "The next error [that] I shall mention [,] is a capital one."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 157.
 * "It is little [that] we know of the divine perfections."—Scougal, p. 94.
 * "The faith [which] we give to memory, may be thought, on a superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as that [which] we give to the immediate impressions of sense."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 53.
 * "We speak that [which] we do know, and testify that [which] we have seen."—John, iii, 11.

A relative in the nominative case
The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always inelegant: as,

 * "This is the worst thing [that] could happen."
 * "There were several things [which] brought it on me."—Pilgrim's Progress, p. 162.

This ellipsis may occur after but or than, and it is sometimes allowed in poetry: as,

 * "[There is] No person of reflection but [who] must be sensible, that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eyewitness, than when heard at second hand."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257.
 * "In this it is God directs, in that it is man."—Pope, on Man.
 * "Abuse on all he loved, or loved him, spread."—Id., to Arbuthnot.
 * "There's nothing blackens like the ink of fools."—Id., to Augustus.

A collective noun
When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: as,

 * "The council were divided in their sentiments."
 * "The Christian world are beginning to awake out of their slumber."—C. Simeon.
 * "Whatever Adam's posterity lost through him, that and more they gain in Christ."—J. Phipps.
 * "To this, one pathway gently-winding leads, where march a train with baskets on their heads."—Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, l. 657.

Antecedents connected by or
When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as,

 * "James or John will favour us with his company."
 * "Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries."
 * "What virtue or what mental grace, but men unqualified and base will boast it their possession?"—Cowper, on Friendship.

Antecedents connected by and
When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as,

 * "Minos and Thales sung to the lyre the laws which they composed."—Strabo: Blair's Rhet., p. 379.
 * "Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in their death they were not divided."—2 Sam., i, 23.
 * "Rhesus and Rhodius then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down the stony hills."—Pope, Il., B. xii, l. 17.

One person or thing
When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural pronoun: as,

 * "This great philosopher and statesman continued in public life till his eighty-second year."
 * "The same Spirit, light, and life, which enlightens, also sanctifies, and there is not another."—Penington.
 * "My Constantius and Philetus confesses me two years older when I wrote it."—Cowley's Preface.
 * "Remember these, O Jacob and Israel! for you are my servant."—Isaiah, xliv, 21.
 * "In that strength and cogency which renders eloquence powerful."—Blair's Rhet., p. 252.

Emphatically distinguished
When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural pronoun: as,

 * "The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office."
 * "The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward."
 * "Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake."
 * "It is the sense in which the word is used, and not the letters of which it is composed, that determines what is the part of speech to which it belongs."—Cobbett's Gram., 130.

Each, every, or no
When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural pronoun: as,

 * "Every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind."
 * "It is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended your government."—Junius, Let. xxxv.

But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural: as,

 * "Each minister and each church act according to their own impressions."—Dr. M'Cartee.

The finite verb
Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number: as,

 * "I know; You know; He knows;"
 * "The bird flies; The birds fly."
 * "Our fathers' fertile fields by slaves are tilled, and Rome with dregs of foreign lands is filled."—Rowe's Lucan, B. vii, l. 600.

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number: as,

 * "The council were divided."
 * "The college of cardinals are the electors of the pope."—Murray's Key, p. 176.
 * "Quintus Curtius relates, that a number of them were drowned in the river Lycus."—Home's Art of Thinking, p. 125.
 * "Yon host come learned in academic rules."—Rowe's Lucan, vii, 401.
 * "While heaven's high host on hallelujahs live."—Young's N. Th., iv, 378.

Nominatives connected by and
When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as,

 * "True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied."—Blair's Rhet., p. 11.
 * "Aggression and injury in no case justify retaliation."—Wayland's Moral Science, p. 406.
 * "Judges and senates have been bought for gold, esteem and love were never to be sold."—Pope.

One person or thing
When two nominatives connected by and serve merely to describe one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one name, and do not require a plural verb: as,

 * "Immediately comes a hue and cry after a gang of thieves."—L'Estrange.
 * "The hue and cry of the country pursues him."—Junius, Letter xxiii.
 * "Flesh and blood [i.e. man, or man's nature,] has not revealed it to you."—Matt., xvi, 17.
 * "Descent and fall to us is adverse."—Milton, P. L., ii, 76.
 * "This philosopher and poet was banished from his country."
 * "Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually provided for us."—Gurney's Essays, p. 386.
 * "Let us then declare what great things our God and Saviour has done for us."—Dr. Scott, on Luke viii.
 * "Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid to them."—Ezra, iv, 20.
 * "Whose icy current and compulsive course never feels retiring ebb, but keeps due on."—Shakespeare.

Emphatically distinguished
When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished, they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require a plural verb: as,

 * "Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned."—Goldsmith.
 * "Consanguinity, and not affinity, is the ground of the prohibition."—Webster's Essays, p. 324.
 * "But a modification, and oftentimes a total change, takes place."—Maunder.
 * "Somewhat, and, in many circumstances, a great deal too, is put on us."—Butler's Analogy, p. 108.
 * "Disgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the certain consequence of attempting the latter."—Robertson's America, i, 434.
 * "Ay, and no too, was no good divinity."—Shakespeare.
 * "Love, and love only, is the loan for love."—Young.

Each, every, or no
When two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by the adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not require a plural verb: as,

 * "When no part of their substance, and no one of their properties, is the same."—Bp. Butler.
 * "Every limb and feature appears with its respective grace."—Steele.
 * "Every person, and every occurrence, is beheld in the most favourable light."—Murray's Key, p. 190.
 * "Each worm, and each insect, is a marvel of creative power."
 * "Whose every look and gesture was a joke to clapping theatres and shouting crowds."—Young.

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest: as,

 * "The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof."—Murray's Exercises, p. 36.
 * "Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame."—Milton.
 * "Forth in the pleasing spring, your beauty walks, your tenderness, and love."—Thomson.

Nominatives connected by or
When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as,

 * "Fear or jealousy affects him."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 133.
 * "Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: creation sleeps."—Young.
 * "Neither character nor dialogue was yet understood."—L. Murray's Gram., p. 151.
 * "The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks, safest and seemliest by her husband stays."—Milton, P. L., ix, 267.

The infinitive mood
The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition to, which commonly connects it to a finite verb: as,

 * "I desire to learn."—Dr. Adam.
 * "Of me the Roman people have many pledges, which I must strive, with my utmost endeavours, to preserve, to defend, to confirm, and to redeem."—Duncan's Cicero, p. 41.
 * "What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, or hand to toil, aspired to be the head?"—Pope.

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive after them without the preposition to: as,

 * "If he bade you depart, how dare you stay?"
 * "I dare not let my mind be idle as I walk in the streets."—Cotton Mather.
 * "Your Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, shall neither hear you sigh, nor see you weep." —Pope's Homer.

Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb, yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech. The preposition to being its only and almost universal index; unless the word about, in such a situation, is a preposition.

Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well as to: as,

 * "I went up to Jerusalem for to worship."—Acts, xxiv, 11.
 * "What went you out for to see?"—Luke, vii, 26.
 * "And stood up for to read."—Luke, iv, 16.

It seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten parts of speech, except the article: as,

Noun

 * "If there is any precept to obtain felicity."—Hawkesworth.
 * "It is high time to awake out of sleep."—Rom., xiii, 11.
 * "To flee from the wrath to come."—Matt., iii, 7.

Adjective

 * "He seemed desirous to speak, yet unwilling to offend."—Hawkesworth.
 * "He who is the slowest to promise, is the quickest to perform."—Art of Thinking, p. 35.

Pronoun

 * "I discovered him to be a scholar."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 166.
 * "Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar?"—Luke, xx, 22.
 * "Let me desire you to reflect impartially."—Blair: Murray's Eng. Reader, p. 77.
 * "Whom have you then or what to accuse?"—Milton, P. L., iv, 67.

Finite verb

 * "Then Peter began to rebuke him."—Matt., xvi, 22.
 * "The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was lost."—Luke, xix, 10.

Another infinitive

 * "To go to enter into Egypt."—Jer., xli, 17.
 * "We are not often willing to wait to consider."—J. Abbott.
 * "For what had he to do to chide at me?"—Shak.

Participle

 * "Still threatening to devour me."—Milton.
 * "Or as a thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich burgher."—Id.

Adverb

 * "She is old enough to go to school."
 * "I know not how to act."—Nutting's Gram., p. 106.
 * "Tell me when to come, and where to meet you."
 * "He has not where to lay his head."

Conjunction

 * "He knows better than to trust you."
 * "It was so hot as to melt these ornaments."
 * "Many who praise virtue, do no more than praise it."—Dr. Johnson.

Preposition

 * "I was about to write."—Rev., x, 4.
 * "Not for to hide it in a hedge."—Burns's Poems, p. 42.
 * "Amatum iri, to be about to be loved."—Adam's Gram., p. 95.

Interjection

 * "O to forget her!"—Young's Night Thoughts.

The uses of the infinitive
The infinitive is a verb, without affirmation, without person or number, and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. But, in most instances, it is not without limitation of the being, action, or passion, to some persons or things, that are said, supposed, or denied, to be, to act, or to be acted on. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is taken abstractly, and has some resemblance to a noun. Even then, the active infinitive may govern the objective case. The uses of the infinitive are many and various. The following are the chief of the things for which it may stand:

Supplement to another verb
For the supplement to another verb, to complete the sense: as,

 * "Loose him, and let him go."—John, xi, 44.
 * "They that go to seek mixed wine."—Prov., xxiii, 30.
 * "His hands refuse to labour."—Ib., xxi, 25.
 * "If you choose to have those terms."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 374.
 * "How our old translators first struggled to express this."—Ib., ii, 456.
 * "To any one who will please to examine our language."—Ib., ii, 444.
 * "They are forced to give up at last."—Ib., ii, 375.
 * "Which ought to be done."—Ib., ii, 451.
 * "Which came to pass."—Acts, xi, 28.
 * "I dare engage to make it out."—Swift.

A purpose
For the purpose, or end, of that to which it is added: as,

 * "Each has employed his time and pains to establish a criterion."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 374.
 * "I shall not stop now, to assist in their elucidation."—Ib., ii, 75.
 * "Our purposes are not endowed with words to make them known."—Ib., ii, 74.
 * "A tool is some instrument taken up to work with."—Ib., ii, 145.
 * "Labour not to be rich."—Prov., xxiii, 4.
 * "I flee to you to hide me."—Ps., cxliii, 9.
 * "Evil shall hunt the violent man to overthrow him."—Ib., cxl, 11.

Object of an affection or passion
For the object of an affection or passion: as,

 * "He loves to ride."
 * "I desire to hear her speak again."—Shale.
 * "If we wish to avoid important error."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 3.
 * "Who rejoice to do evil."—Prov., ii, 14.
 * "All agreeing in earnestness to see him."—Shak.
 * "Our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond."—Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 335.

Cause of an affection or passion
For the cause of an affection or passion: as,

 * "I rejoice to hear it."
 * "By which I hope to have laid a foundation."—Blair's Rhet., p. 34.
 * "For he made me mad, to see him shine so brisk, and smell so sweet."—Beauties of Shak., p. 118.
 * "You did eat strange flesh, which some did die to look on."—Ib., p. 182.
 * "They grieved to see their best allies at variance."—Rev. W. Allen's Gram., p. 165.

Subject of a proposition
For the subject of a proposition, or the chief term in such subject: as,

 * "To steal is sinful."
 * "To do justice and judgement, is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice."—Prov., xxi, 3.
 * "To do right, is, to do that which is ordered to be done."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 7.
 * "To go to law to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than of love to justice."—Seattle's Mor. Sci., i, 177.

Predicate or object of a proposition
For the predicate of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate: as,

 * "To enjoy is to obey."—Pope.
 * "The property of rain is to wet, and fire, to burn."—Beauties of Shak., p. 15.
 * "To die is to be banished from myself."—Ib., p. 82.
 * "The best way is, to slander Valentine."—Ib., p. 83.
 * "The highway of the upright is to depart from evil."—Prov., xvi, 17.

A coming event
For a coming event, or what will be: as,

 * "A mutilated structure soon to fall."—Cowper.
 * "He being dead, and I speedily to follow him."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 111.
 * "She shall rejoice in time to come."—Prov., xxxi, 25.
 * "Things present, or things to come."—1 Cor., iii, 22.

A necessary event
For a necessary event, or what ought to be: as,

 * "It is to be remembered."
 * "It is never to be forgotten."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 2.
 * "An oversight much to be deplored."—Ib., ii, 460.
 * "The sign is not to be used by itself, or to stand alone; but is to be joined to some other term."—Ib., ii, 372.
 * "The Lord's name is to be praised."—Ps., cxiii, 3.

Something previously suggested
For what is previously suggested by another word: as,

 * "I have faith to believe."
 * "The glossarist did well here not to yield to his inclination."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 329.
 * "It is a good thing to give thanks to the Lord."—Ps., xcii, 1.
 * "It is as sport to a fool to do mischief."—Prov., x, 23.
 * "They have the gift to know it."—Shak.
 * "We have no remaining occupation but to take care of the public."—Art of Thinking, p. 52.

Term of comparison or measure
For a term of comparison or measure: as,

 * "He was so much affected as to weep."
 * "Who could do no less than furnish him."—Tooke's D. P., ii, 408.
 * "I shall venture no farther than to explain the nature and convenience of these abbreviations."—Ib., ii, 439.
 * "I have already said enough to show what sort of operation that is."—Ib., ii, 358.

Participles
The regular syntax of the participle, is twofold; being sometimes that of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and sometimes that of government, or the state of being governed by a preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an adjective; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive mood. To these constructions, some add others less regular: using the participle as the subject of a finite verb, as the object of a transitive verb, or as a nominative after a neuter verb.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions: as,

 * "Elizabeth's tutor, at one time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading Plato."—Hume.
 * "I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and failing, than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and tumbling into it."—Dr. Johnson.
 * "Now, raised on Tyre's sad ruins, Pharaoh's pride soared high, his legions threatening far and wide."—Dryden.

A preceding phrase
A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which it forms no part: as,

 * "I then quit the society; to withdraw and leave them to themselves, appearing to me a duty."
 * "It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we have heard his being continued in office defended."—Professors' Reasons, p. 23.
 * Better, "His continuance in office," or, "The continuing of him in office."
 * "But ever to do ill our sole delight, as being the contrary to his high will."—Milton.

A being or action in the abstract
With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a participle is sometimes also taken abstractly; that is, without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject: as,

 * "To seem compelled, is disagreeable."
 * "To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible."
 * "It must be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word which does not, by itself, produce any idea."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 323.
 * "To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill, doing and suffering, his unquestioned will."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88.

Substitute for the infinitive mood
The participle is often used irregularly, as a substitute for the infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without irregularity: as,

 * "I saw him enter, or entering."—Grant's Lat. Gram., p. 230.
 * "He is afraid of trying, or to try."—Ibid.
 * "Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, it is dangerous drinking."—Collier's Tablet of Cebes.
 * "It will be but ill venturing your soul on that."—Bunyan's Law and Grace, p. 27.
 * "Describing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language."—Kames, El. of Crit., i, 93.
 * "In English likewise it deserves remarking."—Harris's Hermes, p. 232.
 * "Bishop Atterbury deserves being particularly mentioned."—Blair's Rhet., p. 291.
 * "This, however, is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that predominates."—Campbell's Rhet., p. 43.
 * "Habits are soon assumed; but when we strive to strip them off, it is being flayed alive."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 44

A participle which is treated as a noun
Another frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them the regimen and adjuncts of participles: as,

 * "Your having been well educated will be a great recommendation."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 171.
 * Better, "Your excellent education," or "That you have been well educated, will be," etc.
 * "It arises from sublimity's expressing grandeur in its highest degree."—Blair's Rhet., p. 29.
 * "Concerning the separating by a circumstance, words intimately connected."—Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104.
 * "As long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with them."—Literary Convention, p. 114.
 * "Which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all hearts."—West's Letters to a Young Lady, p. 180.
 * "But this again is talking quite at random."—Butler's Analogy, p. 146.
 * "My being here it is, that holds you hence."—Shak.
 * "Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see, and deem aspersing others, praising you."—Savage, to Walpole.

Adverbs
The syntax of an adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as,

 * "Any passion that habitually discomposes our temper, or unfits us for properly discharging the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very dangerous ascendency."—Blair.
 * "How blessed this happy hour, should he appear, dear to us all, to me supremely dear!"—Pope's Homer.

Independent adverbs
The adverbs yes, ay, and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs? No.

 * "Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief of a wound? No. Honour has no skill in surgery then? No."—Shak.: First Part of Hen. IV, Act v, 1.

The word amen
The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer: as,

 * "Surely, I come quickly. Amen: even so, come Lord Jesus."—Rev., xxii, 20.

When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used substantively: as,

 * "The strangers among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed amen to the blessings."—Wood's Dict.
 * "These things say the amen."—Rev., iii, 14

An adverb before a preposition
An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter, rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects its object: as,

 * "This mode of pronunciation runs considerably beyond ordinary discourse."—Blair's Rhet., p. 334.
 * "Yea, all along the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that preserved the witnesses."—Penington's Works, Vol. iv, p. 12.
 * "Right against the eastern gate, where the great sun begins his state."—Milton, L'Allegro.

Much, little, far, and all
The words much, little, far, and all, being originally adjectives, are sometimes preceded by the negative not, or (except the last) by such an adverb as too, how, thus, so, or as, when they are taken substantively: as,

 * "Not all that glitters, is gold."
 * "Too much should not be offered at once."—Murray's Gram., p. 140.
 * "Thus far is consistent."—Ib., p. 161.
 * "Thus far is right."—Lowth's Gram., p. 101.

Conjunctions
The syntax of conjunctions consists in the simple fact, that they link together such and such terms, and thus "Mark the connections of human thought."—Beattie.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as,

 * "Let there be no strife, I pray you, between me and you, and between my herdmen and your herdmen; for we are brethren."—Gen., xiii, 8.
 * "Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules. What can she more than tell us we are fools?"—Pope.

Introducing a sentence
The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb: as,

 * "That mind is not matter, is certain."
 * "That you have wronged me, does appear in this."—Shak.
 * "That time is mine, O Mead! to you, I owe."—Young.

Two corresponding conjunctions
When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the connecting word: as,

 * "Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared."—Acts, xxvii, 20.
 * "Whether that evidence has been afforded [or not,] is a matter of investigation."—Keith's Evidences, p. 18.

Either and neither
Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end of the sentence: as,

 * "Where then was their capacity of standing, or his either?"—Barclay's Works, iii, 359.
 * "It is not dangerous neither."—Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 135.
 * "He is very tall, but not too tall neither."—Spect., No. 475.

Prepositions
The syntax of prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power of governing the objective case, but in their adaptation to the other terms between which they express certain relations.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them: as,

 * "He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent men, and passed with them through many cities."—Analectic Magazine.
 * "Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, by truth illumined, and by taste refined?"—Rogers.

The object
A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case: as,

 * "The temple of fame stands on the grave: the flame that burns on its altars, is kindled from the ashes of great men."—Hazlitt.
 * "Life is his gift, from whom whatever life needs, with every good and perfect gift, proceeds."—Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95.

The preposition to
The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of relation: as,

 * "To learn to die, is the great business of life."—Dillwyn.
 * "Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."—St. Paul: Phil., i, 24.
 * "To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction."
 * "Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame; and every godfather can give a name."—Shakespeare.

The preposition for
The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive, and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent term of relation: as,

 * "For us to learn to die, is the great business of life."
 * "Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you."
 * "For an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great affliction."
 * "For man to tell how human life began, is hard; for who himself beginning knew?"—Milton.

Interjections
Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words: as,

 * "O! let not your heart despise me."—Dr. Johnson.
 * "O cruel you!"—Pope, Odys., B. xii, l. 333.
 * "Ah wretched we, poets of earth!"—Cowley.
 * "Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starred rage divides a friendship long confirmed by age?"—Pope, Dunciad, B. iii.

General rules
In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout.

Words that may constitute different parts of speech, must not be left doubtful as to their classification.

The reference of words to other words, or their syntactical relation according to the sense, should never be left doubtful.

A definition must include the whole class of things, which it pretends to define, and exclude everything which comes not under the name.

A comparison is a form of speech which requires some similarity or common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a solecism.

Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly false, should be changed, rejected, or contradicted. They distort language from its only worthy use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth.

Every writer should be careful not to contradict himself; for what is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style.

Words that are entirely needless, and especially such as encumber the expression, ought in general to be omitted.

Words necessary to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted.

title: English in Use/Syntax


text:
User:DavidRader~enwikibooks

Joined the Wiki community June 2004. Former management consultant and contributing editor to the journal Strategy and Leadership.

title: User:DavidRader~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Electronics/Inductors

The article currently says
 * ... air-core (only a coil of wire), iron-core, and ferrite core. Iron and ferrite types are more efficient because they conduct the magnetic field much better than air...

I suppose it depends on what you mean by "efficient". If you're trying to get a high inductance value with the least amount of copper wire (least cost), then yes, air-core will use the most wire (and cost the most), making it the least "efficient". On the other hand, if by "efficient" you mean "high Q factor -- dissipates the least amount as heat", then air-core is the *most* "efficient". Right ?

Maybe there's a different way of saying this without using the ambiguous word "efficient".

-- DavidCary 02:09, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * i would think its talking about transformers... - Omegatron 04:57, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I think you're right. Should I move that text to Electronics/Transformers ? -- DavidCary 00:03, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I guess. - Omegatron 18:22, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

diagrams
I changed the images from this:

to this:

so that it is consistent with the other articles. but i am biased, because i made them. so use whichever you want. Sorry I didn't realize the extension was case sensitive. - Omegatron 13:21, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

L=B/I? Never come across this before, but it may be true. If B=uH and H=NI then this comes to L=uN. This is something like true but there are usually some other complexities...

how do inductors really work ?
Should this page go into the physics of what happens to electrons inside an inductor ?

I starting writing about why inductors work (for anyone curious about the physics behind them): "Whenever an electron is accelerated...", then I realized I wasn't really sure myself. Even though I'm an EE and I know all about how inductors work. Why do inductors work ? What's going on with the individual electrons ? (Should I stick with a "magnetic fields" explanation, or with a Feynman Q.E.D. "electrons and photons" explanation ?) Is that really appropriate for "electronics" ? Or should we put that sort of detail over at (currently non-existent) http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Modern_Physics:Magnetic_Induction_and_Inductors ?

-- DavidCary 00:01, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * what is the electrons and photons explanation? i would just say that the electrons have a net drift velocity that causes a net magnetic field, and when the voltage changes the magnetic field is pushing them in the direction they were already going, so they have a kind of inertia.  i guess i don't really have a good way of explaining it either.  i guess this comes back to the question about who our target audience is, too. - Omegatron 18:22, 30 Jun 2004 (UTC)

I've read the book Q.E.D. by http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?RichardFeynman WikiPedia:Richard_Feynman. In it, he describes how electrons and photons "really" interact (at least according to [WikiPedia:Quantum_electrodynamics]). In his explanation, there is no such thing as a "magnetic field" or "waves". There are only particles (with "quantum characteristics"). A "electrons and photons" explanation of electrostatics is simple. Off the top of my head: ''Every charged particle constantly spews out virtual (?) photons equally in all directions. Whenever a photon hits another charged particle of the *same* charge, it is absorbed and the momentum transfer pushes that particle "away" from the first charged particle. Whenever a photon hits another charged particle of the *opposite* charge, it is absorbed and the momentum transfer pulls that particle "towards" the first charged particle.'' See ? notice there is no electric "field", only particles.

I'd like a similar explanation for the inductor (no magnetic "field", only particles). I suspect it would go something like this: ''Say we have 2 close parallel wires carrying streams of electrons in the *same* direction. If you could fly close to the wires at the same (average) speed as the electrons, you would see electrons randomly bouncing around with zero average velocity, but the nucleus (including the protons) streaming by. Because of special relativity length contraction, the protons appear to be packed closer together in their direction of travel. Since the protons are packed more densely than the electrons, the electrons in the other wire are *attracted* to the (apparent) net average positive charge. Similarly, when parallel wires carry currents in the *opposite direction ... the wires repel each other." Is that going the right direction, or is it totally wrong ? (EditHint: feel free to *move* this comment to a more appropriate place -- perhaps one of the physics books). -- DavidCary 05:19, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Pretty weird. :-)  Aren't they both equally valid ways of thinking about the same phenomena though?  I think it is more appropriate for the physics book, and we should link to it after a basic classical description in our book.  The focus is on building circuits, not on the physics involved, but we do have to explain enough physics for them to know what their circuits are doing... - Omegatron 14:41, 2 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Briefly explain. But seriously, it's starting to look less introductory with the barrage of formulae. Jimli536 (discuss • contribs) 16:36, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Electronics/Inductors


text:
Cookbook:Can Opener

| Kitchen tools

A can opener (also known as a tin opener) is a device used to open steel (not tin) cans.

Simple can openers, like those found in pocket knives, are operated by walking the device around the edge of the can while digging into the lid. The lid will have very jagged edges after removal.

Most can openers press a cutting wheel into the edge of the lid while a rough support wheel presses up under the lip of the can. It is best to purchase a can opener that drives this support wheel to provide easier motion. Non-electric can openers with this feature can be identified by a set of gears behind the cutting and support wheels. The pictured can opener has such gears, with 2 or 3 teeth visible peeking out above the cutting wheel near the bottom of the picture.

Some more unusual can openers cut into the side of the can, often within the seam area so that a nice lid is formed. The lid is not very sharp and does not fall into the food. In this case, the support (and possibly drive) wheel runs around the inside edge of the lid as the can is opened.

Be sure to clean your can opener after use. Give it a rinse, then run a paper towel through it. In case you or someone else has been careless, you might also clean the can opener before use.

title: Cookbook:Can Opener


text:
Cookbook:Spatula

| Kitchen tools

A spatula is a hand-held tool that is used for lifting, flipping, or spreading. Spatulas have a handle that is long enough to keep the holder's hand away from what is being lifted or spread, as well as away from a hot surface.

The blade of the spatula is wide and thin. The shape of the blade varies, with square and rectangular shapes being most common. The blade is usually somewhat flexible. Spatula blades are often longer on the right side than the left, as this is more effective for right-handed people. There are also left-handed spatulas, but these are rarer.

Spatulas are usually made of plastic or metal, but wooden, rubber and silicone ones are also sometimes used. Metal spatulas generally have a wood or plastic handle to insulate them from the heat.

Varieties
There are many varieties of spatula. A frosting spatula has a long, thin blade. Spatulas designed to be used with a barbecue or other open flame have longer handles. A Chinese spatula is designed to be used with a wok; one edge is curved and they are firmer, to handle large amounts of food.

African turning stick
A "turning stick" is a type of wooden spatula or paddle commonly used in several African countries such as Nigeria. It is often used to mix swallows and other starchy foods.

Use
A spatula is essential for many types of cooking. They are especially needed when frying foods that need to be flipped. Spatulas can also be used to serve food. The blade of a cooking spatula is often slotted to allow liquids to flow through. In British English, this slotted utensil is called a fish slice.

title: Cookbook:Spatula


text:
International Baccalaureate

Welcome IB Diploma students!

This will be the main page for study guides, education resources and revision notes created for the International Baccalaureate Diploma (IBDP) on Wikibooks. Find out more about the program from the IB Organization. If you want, find out about Wikibooks.

The aim is to collaborate to create a great resource for IBDP students and teachers to make their learning, study and teaching easier. There are many things to be done and everyone can contribute using the "Edit this page" button at the top of the pages.

 * To quickly become useful, we are making a compendium of the best sites on the internet with IBDP resources. This is available at the bottom of this page. If you already use a good site, go to 'edit this page' and share it with everyone by adding it to the list! You can use these pages as a starting point for creating your own notes to contribute (they provide headings to work under) but don't copy copyrighted material.

 * Begin writing pages for the IBDP subjects you know about. Write what you feel will help other students. There is no need to be perfect or comprehensive, notes can be built on and revised many times by many people. Go through your own notes or textbook and for each chapter add concise notes on concepts that need to be understood. Use headings or numbers as from your textbook or syllabus outline from the websites listed below.

IBDP Subjects on Wikibooks
Click on these links and then refer to your notes or text book and start writing! Writing concise and good explanations is a way of studying for your exams.

Group 1 - Language and Literature

 * IB English (Language A)

Group 2 - Language Acquisition

 * IB French
 * IB Mandarin
 * IB Spanish
 * IB Arabic (Varies)
 * IB Japanese
 * IB Hindi
 * IB German
 * IB SWAHILI

Group 3 - Individuals and Societies

 * IB Business Management
 * IB Cultural Anthropology
 * IB Economics
 * IB European History
 * IB Geography
 * IB History of the Americas
 * IB Psychology
 * IB Twentieth Century Topics
 * IB Environmental Systems and Societies
 * IB Global politics
 * IB History: Causes and Effects of World War One

Group 4 - Sciences

 * IB Computer Science
 * IB Biology
 * IB Chemistry
 * IB Physics
 * IB Environmental Systems and Societies
 * IB Design Technology

Group 5 - Mathematics

 * IB Maths Studies
 * IB Mathematics SL
 * IB Mathematics HL
 * IB Further Mathematics HL

Group 6 - Arts

 * IB Music
 * IB Visual Arts
 * IB Film
 * IB Theatre

Theory of Knowledge

 * IB Theory of Knowledge

Extended Essay

 * Extended Essay

Textbooks

 * IB Textbook Reviews

IB Resources on the Internet
Aim to include links to only the best guides to each subject. Use these as a basis for building up the notes on this website.

General IB Sites
 * Oxford Study Courses - a provider of revision courses and Summer Schools for IB students
 * A huge list of links for a dozen IB subjects
 * IB Study Wiki
 * Lots of IB Links to Resources and Info at Shambles in S.E.Asia
 * Economics notes and links to other notes
 * IB Student Revision

Geography
 * Geography Homework Help
 * Geography revision notes
 * Geography syllabus in doc format

Chemistry
 * Fine IB Chemistry website
 * Innovative online textbook with questions and tips
 * Videos on the entire syllabus, SL and HL

Biology
 * Click4Biology
 * Good course summary from Open Door
 * Long course summary

Economics
 * Econclassroom: Great Economics HL/SL videos explaining economic concepts. Particularly aimed at IB-students.

Mathematics
 * IB Math Stuff. Notes and more. Created by an IB teacher.
 * Maths (HL and SL) notes. Subscribe and pay for more resources
 * Mathematics (HL and SL), Free material such as formulae, revision notes and exercises.

History
 * Non-IB Specific Modern World History Syllabus
 * IB History Syllabus Index
 * Audio revision podcasts for Modern World History

ITGS Business Studies
 * Information Technology in a Global Society Textbook and website with resources and articles.
 * ITGS News News articles and resources for ITGS students and teachers. Very up to date.

Physics
 * The IB Physics Compendium 2005
 * The Open Door Physics Website
 * Topic Summaries and some other stuff is free, the rest must be purchased
 * Physics syllabus website (Requires a Log In and Password)
 * IB Physics Wikified - Notes, Lab ideas and more...

Psychology
 * cranepsych, IB psychology in the International School of Prague - extremely useful!

Computer Science
 * IB Computing.com - Comprehensive coverage of the entire syllabus for teachers and students - updated in June 2007, open access with an interactive section powered by Moodle

title: International Baccalaureate


text:
Cookbook:Whisk

| Kitchen tools

A whisk is a cooking utensil used in food preparation to smoothly blend ingredients or whip in air to a mixture. Most whisks consist of a long narrow handle with a series of wire loops joined at the end. The wires are usually metal, but some are coated with silicone or have plastic wires for use with non-stick cookware. Whisks are also made from bamboo.

Varieties
Some whisks have different shaped loops. A wider, more tear drop shape, is commonly known as a balloon whisk. A longer, more narrow shape, is often known as a French whisk. A flat whisk (sometimes referred to as a Roux whisk) has the loops arranged in flat successive pattern. A gravy whisk commonly has one main loop with another looped coiled around the main. A twirl whisk has one wire that is in a spiral balloon shape.

The ball whisk is a design adapted to allow more aeration of the mixture. Instead of loops, a grouping of individual wires come out of the handle and each end with a metal ball. Since there are no crossing wires, the ball whisk is much easier to clean than most other variants.

African cooking broom
In a variety of African cuisines, a specialized whisk made of stiff plant fibers is often used to break up foods when cooking. It is often referred to as a "broom".

title: Cookbook:Whisk


text:
Cookbook:Mortar and Pestle

| Kitchen tools

A mortar and pestle is a pair of tools used with each other to grind and mix substances, such as nuts, herbs, and spices.

The mortar is a bowl-like vessel used to contain the substance to be ground. Mortars have smooth, rounded bottoms and wide mouths. The pestle is the pounding and grinding instrument. The mortar and pestle are usually made of wood.

Inexpensive ones may be plastic, but these do not work very well. More expensive ones may be made of stone or porcelain, perhaps with a wooden handle. Wooden mortar and pestle sets should only be used with dry food, such as dried spices.

To grind spices, you should normally apply a decent amount of force in a way that causes the spices to get dragged under the sideways-moving pestle. Create a fine powder to help the spices release flavor. A bit of salt, commonly needed in a recipe anyway, will make this work much better. After you have emptied out the spices, a wooden mortar-and-pestle set should be cleaned by grinding some plain salt. (you may discard the salt if you wish). Do not wash a wooden set.

When grinding wetter ingredients, like garlic or ginger, salt can be added to give better grip and help stop the garlic cloves slipping out of the mortar when hit.

In Japanese cuisine, very large mortars are used with wooden mallets to prepare Mochi. A regular sized Japanese mortar and pestle is called suribachi and surikogi.

The Mexican version of this set of tools is the Molcajete y Tejolote (from Nahuatl, literally "sauce bowl" and "stone doll"), which are often made of basalt, giving them a rough finish and dark grey or black color. They are well-suited to grinding wet ingredients such as tomatillos and avocados.

Pesto and tapenade are traditionally prepared in a mortar and pestle, though most modern recipes recommend using a blender or food processor.

title: Cookbook:Mortar and Pestle


text:
Talk:International Baccalaureate

I'm not sure if second languages should be included because you can't really produce syllabus guides for them. Perhaps one could just include exam help and other sorts of things. Perhaps they could be broken up into level, or they could just be links to the pages like this one spanish which already have plenty of things?

You could also write any useful grammar books, or places to learn this language, or talk about recent movies/radio programms, which could be useful to those studying IB language. Or people could just write about one area of grammar, you know, like how direct object pronouns work or something.

True, although it's of less value than the other ones, because the IB syllabus for languages is not really specific, you just learn the language, and so one can use any spanish textbook or grammar outline. With the other subjects the exact pieces of knowledge you must know are specific, so it's possible to write them out like that. --203.26.206.7 13:03, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Yeh but part of the whole thing of doing IB is learning the cultures, and colloquialism, etc., so that's why movies etc would be better than nothing!!

I question the practice of writing guides that stay strictly to the syllabus. While it might be easier to write, I would think it would be more difficult for the sleep deprived IB student to read. Also, some students who have information to contribute might not be able to if they don't have the syllabus (I myself don't have syllabi for all my classes).

I propose reorganizing the subjects on the front page so as to fit under the IB Groups. Any objections?

Splat 05:37, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

The IB license- what IB content are we restricted from publishing?
So what content from the IB CAN'T we publish? I would love to see the standards published to the site. This would inform users on what the critical breadth of each standard is. User: theKaramanukian

ITGS?
Have you considered adding a section for ITGS (Information Technology in a Global Society)? 71.111.0.172 14:44, 13 May 2006 (UTC)

New resource site
| lB Student Revision I made this site trying to fill a need. It is still quite new, and will hopefully get better with time. It is an indexation of resources, sorted by subject. Similar to the ib notes page, but with a system allowing users of the page to rate each site, making it faster to identify good study resources. I would rather not add it myself as I am not excactly none-biased. Thanks. 213.167.126.215 08:57, 8 August 2006 (UTC)

Spanish
Does anyone have any additional info to build up this section which an increasing number of people are taking.

Reference Site
The following site Physics syllabus website requires a log in and password, therefore is inaccessible.

Personal Opinions
I've noticed in some places (notably TOK) that students are expressing their personal opinions about courses instead of constructive comments. I feel this is inappropriate, since the exact content and teaching style of a particular course will vary widely from classroom to class room. As well, a negative opinion of a course can be because the student disliked the instructor, or because they dislike the subject for whatever reason.

Thoughts? --UrsulaMin (talk) 19:27, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

 * This is a wiki: If you don't like the content, change it! I'd back you up if you're removing material which is not appropriate for the textbooks we are trying to write here. This isn't a forum you see.

Ewen (talk) 19:37, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

Need substantial rewriting
The whole page is messed up. It is clearly referring to the Diploma Program(me) but uses the archaic term (from 30 years ago) of IB which would have been fine when there was only the Diploma Program(me). Please folks!, get with it! The IB produces three progs, PYP, MYP and DP. regardless of how it is called in your school it is not known world wide as the "IB". I've tried some clean up but there are whole pages that need rennaming and I don't have the time. In addition, pages are incorrectly named anyway (even from 2006) and subjects mostly incorrect.

where is the IB Philosophy??

CBSE to IB in India. Useful or not for future studies in abroad?
Is changing school from CBSE board to IB useful in India for people who wish to go abroad for higher studies? Is IB tougher than CBSE? Are the books and other study material better than CBSE in IB? Are IB studying children brighter than CBSE studying children? Does IB has much scope than CBSE all over the world including India?

Out of Date
A lot of the provided links are either broken or useless and should be removed. And there are many other useful links that might be listed. For example, direct links to IBO Handbooks. Moreover, an IB wikibook should not merely list the several subjects possible in the program — there are many topics general to the program that a wikibook might be useful for, and that a comprehensive source of information cannot be easily found about on the internet. I'm focusing on the Econ Wiki right now since my SL exam is coming soon, but just a thought that I'll try putting into practice later.

00:31, 18 April 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:International Baccalaureate


text:
IB Geography

Students studying IB Geography are expected to be able to:

Images Graphs Statistical tests and indices Research methods Writing Skills
 * Interpret and analyse maps using latitude, longitude, direction, scale, grid references
 * Interpret and (where appropriate) draw and annotate isoline, choropleth, flow, dot, topographic, and topological maps
 * Interpret satellite and aerial photos and cross sections (cross profile)
 * Interpret and construct: line, pie, bar scatter, triangular, logarithmic and bi-polar graphs, flow charts, radial diagrams, population pyramids and Lorenz curves
 * Interpret and calculate: total, mean, median, mode, frequency, range, density, percentage, ratio, Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, chi squared test, nearest neighbour index, location quotient, diversity index, HDI, dependency ration and measures of spatial interaction (gravity models)
 * Observe and record information by: interviewing, draw a field sketch and taking photographs, measuring, judging, recording, classifying, describing trends, patterns and relationships in data, predicting, identifying anomalies, making decisions, concluding and evaluating research methods
 * Evaluate geographic information in terms of reliability, relevance, bias, and accuracy
 * Synthesize information, respond appropriately to command terms and present a coherent argument

Core Themes - Part 1 - Patterns and Change (SL/HL)
The four topics are compulsory:
 * 1) Populations in transition
 * 2) Disparities in wealth and development
 * 3) Patterns in environmental quality and sustainability
 * 4) Patterns in resource consumption

Optional Themes - Part 2 (SL/HL)
At standard level 2 options must be studied, at higher level 3 are required.

 * A. Freshwater - issues and conflicts

 * B. Oceans and their coastal margins

 * C. Extreme Environments

 * D. Hazards and disasters - risk assessment and response

 * E. Leisure, sport and tourism

 * F. The geography of food and health

 * H. Urban environments

Extension Themes - Part 3 - Global Interactions (HL)

 * 1) Measuring global interactions
 * 2) Changing space - the shrinking world
 * 3) Economic interactions and flows
 * 4) Environmental change
 * 5) Social-cultural exchanges
 * 6) Political outcomes
 * 7) Global interactions at the local level

title: IB Geography


text:
User:Dashmon

Hey there,

Just signed up for Wikibooks, but I've been watching the project for quite some time now, and I'm not new to the concept of a wiki (big wikipedia fan here :)). I'm interested in (contributing to, if my schedual allows for it) books on languages/linguistics, history, philosophy, and perhaps some computer/computer programming related stuff. If you'd like to conctact me, drop a line at my talk page or mail met at dashmon@gurps-resources.net.

- Dashy

title: User:Dashmon


text:
Japanese/Vocabulary/Prefecture Names

Regions of Japan (地方 ちほう)
fr:Japonais:Région

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Prefecture Names


text:
IB Chemistry

Standard Level Chapters
The last cohort of students to have sat the exams for this 2009 Syllabus did so in November 2015. The new Syllabus published in May 2014 is now the only syllabus in effect. There are now only four Options A - D. the content of these has been radically changed from the previous syllabus.

(The syllabus has changed for the May 2009 exam)
 * Topic 1 - Stoichiometry
 * Topic 2 - Atomic Theory
 * Topic 3 - Periodicity
 * Topic 4 - Bonding
 * Topic 5 - States of Matter
 * Topic 6 - Energetics
 * Topic 7 - Kinetics
 * Topic 8 - Equilibrium
 * Topic 9 - Acids and Bases
 * Topic 10 - Oxidation and Reduction
 * Topic 11 - Organic Chemistry

Higher Level Chapters

 * Topic 12 - Atomic Theory
 * Topic 13 - Periodicity
 * Topic 14 - Bonding
 * Topic 15 - Energetics
 * Topic 16 - Kinetics
 * Topic 17 - Equilibrium
 * Topic 18 - Acids and Bases
 * Topic 19 - Oxidation and Reduction
 * Topic 20 - Organic Chemistry

Option Topics
For the 2009 exams, the options are as follows. Exams require the student to answer the sections of two of the options. These Options topics do not reflect the current state of the Chemistry Syllabus (2020).
 * Option A - Modern Analytical Chemistry
 * Option B - Human Biochemistry
 * Option C - Chemistry in Industry and Technology
 * Option D - Medicines and Drugs
 * Option E - Environmental Chemistry
 * Option F - Food Chemistry
 * Option G - Further Organic Chemistry

Extended Essay
If you want to do your Extended Essay using chemistry as a subject, here's a list of potential topics: /Extended Essay/

Other Resources

 * /Definitions/
 * /Option Definitions/
 * General Chemistry

Links

 * http://ibchem.com/htm/syllabus2016.htm (notes updated for the 2016 syllabus)
 * Great chemistry notes and exam definitions (old)
 * IB Chemistry notes and samples from Intense Cogitation
 * Detailed IB Chemistry website (recommended)
 * Online textbook with questions and tips
 * Practice Tests with Answers
 * Search Engine for IB Chemistry (beta)
 * http://www.ibpapers.info/index.php?dir=/Chemistry

title: IB Chemistry