text:
FHSST Biology/The Importance of Units

The Importance of Units
Without units much of our work as scientists would be meaningless. We need to express our thoughts clearly and units give meaning to the numbers we calculate. Depending on which units we use, the numbers are different (e.g. 3.8 m and 3800 mm actually represent the same length). Units are an essential part of the language we use. Units must be specified when expressing physical quantities. In the case of the curtain example at the beginning of the chapter, the result of a misunderstanding would simply have been an incorrect amount of material cut. However, sometimes such misunderstandings have catastrophic results. Here is an extract from a story on CNN's website:

 NASA: Human error caused loss of Mars orbiter November 10, 1999 WASHINGTON (AP) -- Failure to convert English measures to metric values caused the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter, a spacecraft that smashed into the planet instead of reaching a safe orbit, a NASA investigation concluded Wednesday. The Mars Climate Orbiter, a key craft in the space agency's exploration of the red planet, vanished after a rocket firing September 23 that was supposed to put the spacecraft on orbit around Mars. An investigation board concluded that NASA engineers failed to convert English measures of rocket thrusts to newton, a metric system measuring rocket force. One English pound of force equals 4.45 newtons. A small difference between the two values caused the spacecraft to approach Mars at too low an altitude and the craft is thought to have smashed into the planet's atmosphere and was destroyed. The spacecraft was to be a key part of the exploration of the planet. From its station about the red planet, the Mars Climate Orbiter was to relay signals from the Mars Polar Lander, which is scheduled to touch down on Mars next month. ``The root cause of the loss of the spacecraft was a failed translation of English units into metric units and a segment of ground-based, navigation-related mission software," said Arthus Stephenson, chairman of the investigation board.

This story illustrates the importance of being aware that different systems of units exist. Furthermore, we must be able to convert between systems of units!

>> Next: Choice of Units

title: FHSST Biology/The Importance of Units


text:
FHSST Biology/Choice of Units

Choice of Units
There are no wrong units to use, but a clever choice of units can make a problem look simpler. The vast range of problems makes it impossible to use a single set of units for everything without making some problems look much more complicated than they should. We can't easily compare the mass of the sun and the mass of an electron, for instance. This is why astrophysicists and atomic physicists use different systems of units.

We won't ask you to choose between different unit systems. For your present purposes the SI system is perfectly sufficient. In some cases you may come across quantities expressed in units other than the standard SI units. You will then need to convert these quantities into the correct SI units. This is explained in the next section.

>> Next: How to Change Units

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: FHSST Biology/Choice of Units


text:
FHSST Biology/How to Change Units

How to Change Units
Firstly you obviously need some relationship between the two units that you wish to convert between. Let us demonstrate with a simple example. We will consider the case of converting millimeters (mm) to meters (m)—the SI unit of length. We know that there are 1000 mm in 1 m which we can write as

$$\begin{matrix}1000 \mbox{ mm} = 1 \mbox{ m}\end{matrix}$$.

Now multiplying both sides by

$$\frac{1}{1000\mbox{ mm}}$$

we get

$$\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{1000 \mbox{ mm}}1000 \mbox{ mm}=\frac{1}{1000 \mbox{ mm}}1 \mbox{ m}\end{matrix}$$,

which simply gives us

$$\begin{matrix}1=\frac{1 \mbox{ m}}{1000 \mbox{ mm}}\end{matrix}$$.

This is the conversion ratio from millimeters to meters. You can derive any conversion ratio in this way from a known relationship between two units. Let's use the conversion ratio we have just derived in an example:

Question: Express 3800 mm in meters.

Answer:

$$\begin{matrix}3800 \mbox{ mm} & = & 3800 \mbox{ mm} \times 1\\& = & 3800 \mbox{ mm} \times \frac{1\mbox{ m}}{1000 \mbox{ mm}}\\& = & 3.8 \mbox{ m}\\\end{matrix}$$.

Note that we wrote every unit in each step of the calculation. By writing them in and canceling them properly, we can check that we have the right units when we are finished. We started with mm and multiplied by $$\frac{\mbox{m}}{\mbox{mm}}$$

This canceled the mm leaving us with just m—the SI unit we wanted to end up with! If we wished to do the reverse and convert metres to millimeters, then we would need a conversion ratio with millimeters on the top and meters on the bottom.

>> Next: How Units Can Help You

title: FHSST Biology/How to Change Units


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FHSST Biology/How Units Can Help You

How Units Can Help You
We conclude each section of this book with a discussion of the units most relevant to that particular section. It is important to try to understand what the units mean. That is why thinking about the examples and explanations of the units is essential.

If we are careful with our units then the numbers we get in our calculations can be checked in a 'sanity test'.

What is a 'sanity test'?
This isn't a special or secret test. All we do is stop, take a deep breath, and look at our answer. Sure we always look at our answers—or do we? This time we mean stop and really look—does our answer make sense?

Imagine you were calculating the number of people in a classroom. If the answer you got was 1 000 000 people you would know it was wrong—that's just an insane number of people to have in a classroom. That's all a sanity check is—is your answer insane or not? But what units were we using? We were using people as our unit. This helped us to make sense of the answer. If we had used some other unit (or no unit) the number would have lacked meaning and a sanity test would have been much harder (or even impossible).

It is useful to have an idea of some numbers before we start. For example, let's consider masses. An average person has mass 70 kg, while the heaviest person in medical history had a mass of 635 kg. If you ever have to calculate a person's mass and you get 7000 kg, this should fail your sanity check—your answer is insane and you must have made a mistake somewhere. In the same way an answer of 0.000 01 kg should fail your sanity test.

The only problem with a sanity check is that you must know what typical values for things are. In the example of people in a classroom you need to know that there are usually 20–50 people in a classroom. Only then do you know that your answer of 1 000 000 must be wrong. Here is a table of typical values of various things (big and small, fast and slow, light and heavy—you get the idea):

Now you don't have to memorise this table but you should read it. The best thing to do is to refer to it every time you do a calculation.

>> Next: Temperature

title: FHSST Biology/How Units Can Help You


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FHSST Biology/Temperature

Temperature
We need to make a special mention of the units used to describe temperature. The unit of temperature listed in Table 1.1 is not the everyday unit we see and use.

Normally the Celsius scale is used to describe temperature. As we all know, Celsius temperatures can be negative. This might suggest that any number is a valid temperature. In fact, the temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles that make up the gas. As we lower the temperature so the motion of the particles is reduced until a point is reached where all motion ceases. The temperature at which this occurs is called absolute zero. There is no physically possible temperature colder than this. In Celsius, absolute zero is at -273.15 °C.

Physicists have defined a new temperature scale called the Kelvin scale. According to this scale absolute zero is at 0 K and negative temperatures are not allowed. The size of one unit kelvin is exactly the same as that of one unit degree Celsius. This means that a change in temperature of 1 kelvin is equal to a change in temperature of 1 degree Celsius—the scales just start in different places. Think of two ladders with steps that are the same size but the bottom most step on the Celsius ladder is labelled -273, while the first step on the Kelvin ladder is labelled 0. There are still 100 steps between the points where water freezes and boils on either ladder.

||  102 °C    ||  375 K                          ||   101 °C    ||  374 K  water boils  --->       ||   100 °C    ||  373 K                          ||    99 °C    ||  372 K                          ||    98 °C    ||  371 K. .                                             .                          ||     2 °C    ||  275 K                          ||     1 °C    ||  274 K  ice melts    --->       ||     0 °C    ||  273 K                          ||    -1 °C    ||  272 K                          ||    -2 °C    ||  271 K. .                                             .                          ||  -269 °C    ||  4 K                          ||  -270 °C    ||  3 K                          ||  -271 °C    ||  2 K                          ||  -272 °C    ||  1 K  absolute zero --->      ||  -273 °C    ||  0 K

(NOTE TO SELF: Come up with a decent picture of two ladders with the labels—water boiling and freezing—in the same place but with different labelling on the steps!)

This makes the conversion from kelvins to degrees Celsius and back very easy. To convert from degrees Celsius to kelvins add 273. To convert from kelvins to degrees Celsius subtract 273. Representing the Kelvin temperature by TK and the Celsius temperature by ToC,

$$\begin{matrix}T_K &=& T_{oC} + 273\end{matrix}$$

It is because this conversion is additive that a difference in temperature of 1 degree Celsius is equal to a difference of 1 kelvin. The majority of conversions between units are multiplicative. For example, to convert from metres to millimetres we multiply by 1000. Therefore a change of 1 m is equal to a change of 1000 mm.

>> Next: Scientific Notation, Significant Figures, Rounding and Chi Squared Test

title: FHSST Biology/Temperature


text:
FHSST Biology/Conclusion

Conclusion
In this chapter we have discussed the importance of units. We have discovered that there are many different units to describe the same thing, although you should stick to SI units in your calculations. We have also discussed how to convert between different units. This is a skill you must acquire.

title: FHSST Biology/Conclusion


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Talk:Firewire Software RAID using Oxford 911 and Windows XP

You may consider looking at the following site that tells you how to hack windows 2000 or windows xp to allow software raid 0 and 5.

http://members.home.nl/rvandesanden/raid3.html

I started to try this but hit the wall when I realised that external USB disks cannot be converted to dynamic disks. So as suggested in the wiki, I will mount both disks on an IDE inteface and see what I see after I remount them in the USB enclosures.

It works
I've tried creating a dynamic disk plugged into a PC under Win2k, and then placing this disk in an external USB enclosure.

Initially the drive came up with a red symbol in disk administrator, but I was able to right-click and select "Reactivate Disk" and this then displayed succesfully. Dynamic disks under USB2 work just fine.

Second confirmation: I did this also, and it didn't even require "reactivate" (this is under XP Pro with the RAID-enabling hack). It did complain that it wasn't able to update the boot.ini file properly because the "SCSI controller" (haha) for the USB drive "wasn't responding" -- but that just means it probably won't boot from the USB drive, which is fine.

I have done this pretty successfully
I did this maybe 2.5 years ago with some limited success, and just decided to plug it in again a few days ago.

I bought 10 911 firewire bridges. Made the registry hack. For an enclosure I bought a metal toolbox, and filled it with 10 120gb drives (at the time 120gb drives were the best capacity per dollar). Basically, I drilled holes in the back of the toolbox and mounted the drives on one side, with the interface side facing upwards. I then mounted an Antec power supply in the middle of the toolbox (and cut a vent in the back for the fan of the power supply. I had to short one of the pins on the power supply, so it would be always "switched on". I used Y-connectors to power all the drives and bridges.  This seemed like it would be much cheaper and easier than buying and powering a lot of firewire enclosures.

Net result, was a dynamic spanned XP volume with about 1.1TB of space for roughly $2700, which was an excellent deal at the time (quite terrible now, of course).

I used it for quite some time, but it was never really stable. I thought it was because I was using just loose bridge boards, or figured my cabling was weak somewhere, but never quite figure out the reliability problems. I kept getting delayed-write failures. I googled to no avail.

It turns out since then, that there has been 2 proposed resolutions for that problem. One is a firmware upgrade for the Oxford chip. The second, is upgrading to SP2. As I am no longer running anything other than SP2, just out of curiosity I grabbed the thing out of the closet and plugged it in. Since then it has worked perfectly. I also ran across the Tom's Hardware article the other day and upgraded the disk to use RAID-5 rather than spanned. It does seem a lot slower now :)

Anyway, if any one is interested I could probably snap a few pictures. It's pretty funny looking, closed it's hard to tell from all but one side, it's anything other than a red metal toolbox. If it had worked better at the time, I would have probably taken pictures and posted on Slashdot and declared myself a genius.

CU

poor results w/ initio 2340l
under windows 2000 server i wanted to put 3 pata drives in an enclosure and run software Raid 5.

i get a blue screen before i finish regenerating. something about memory management. i'll look into it more later but it seems that there is very little info out there on initio (a.k.a inic) 2430L or 2430.

am i correct that with oxford drives under windows software raid 5 that when you restart the drives are immediately online and do not show as failed and require a reactivation.

any other resources out there for win sw raid 5 w/ external enclosures.

thanks.

Diskpart
Using Diskpart does not work - the command line follows the same policy setting as the GUI Disk Manager and will not allow you to convert a USB volume into a dynamic disk. Microsoft admits this is by policy (1), and not due to any hardware limitation, due to them believeing it to be too unreliable.

1. http://support.microsoft.com/kb/300415

Dynamic disks, USB
"I think WindowsXP only puts "dynamic" drives into a RAID array."

All Windows versions (except NT4) allow RAID only on dynamic disks.

Could a USB disk be converted to dynamic by cloning to it an existing dynamic disk ?


text:
FHSST Biology/Numbers

Scientific Notation, Significant Figures,Rounding and Chi Squared Test
If you are only sure of say, both digits of a two-digit number, and put it in a formula and get a long series of numbers to the right of the decimal place, then those digits are probably not very accurate. This is the idea of significant figures.

Take 10 and divide by 3. If you are not sure that the number 10 is perfectly accurate, then you do not need to write down 3.333... and can get away with something like 3.3 or 3.33. Usually, in Biology, we only need figures to 1 decimal place, but sometimes we need them to 2 places.

The main situation in which we would need to be careful and accurate with our numbers is in statistics. In particular, we would need figures to 2 decimal places if we wanted to use the Chi (pronounced Ki) Squared Test (abbreviated as X2 test) to decide whether a result is significant or not.

>> Next: Conclusion

title: FHSST Biology/Numbers


text:
FHSST Biology/Units

Imagine you had to make curtains and needed to buy material. The shop assistant would need to know how much material was required. Telling her you need material 2 wide and 6 long would be insufficient—you have to specify the unit (i.e. 2 metres wide and 6 metres long). Without the unit the information is incomplete and the shop assistant would have to guess. If you were making curtains for a doll's house the dimensions might be 2 centimetres wide and 6 centimetres long!

It is not just lengths that have units, all physical quantities have units (e.g. time and temperature).

>> Next: Unit Systems

title: FHSST Biology/Units


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FHSST Biology/Contents

The Free High School Science Texts:

A Textbook for High School Students Studying Biology.

Biology

 * How to use this textbook

 * Revision Techniques

 * Useful Information

 * Index

 * Front Page

To do list

Project Assignments

title: FHSST Biology/Contents


text:
FHSST Biology/Contents/Useful Information

Useful Information

 * 1)  Units
 * 2) Introduction
 * 3) Unit Systems
 * 4) The Importance of Units
 * 5) Choice of Units
 * 6) How to Change Units-- the Multiply by Technique
 * 7) How Units Can Help You
 * 8) Temperature
 * 9) Scientific Notation, Significant Figures, Rounding and Chi Squared Test
 * 10) Conclusion
 * 11)  Biological Nomenclature
 * 12) Introduction
 * 13)  Biological Skills
 * 14) Microscope skills
 * 15) Doing Dissections
 * 16) Labelling Diagrams
 * 17)  Appendices
 * 18) Glossary


text:
FHSST Biology/Contents/How to use this textbook

How to use this textbook
The South African high school Biology curriculum is built around 3 Learning Outcomes - things that you need to show you can do. Each Learning Outcome has 3 Assessment Standards. These are the things the classroom teacher, or the exam board, will use to test whether you meet the Learning Outcomes.

Learning Outcomes Overview

 * Learning Outcome 1: Scientific Inquiry and Problem Solving Skills
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner identifies and questions phenomena and plans an investigation.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner conducts an investigation by collecting and manipulating data.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner analyses, synthesises and evaluates data and communicates findings.

 * Learning Outcome 2: Construction and Application of Knowledge
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner accesses knowledge.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner interprets and makes meaning of knowledge in Life Sciences.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner shows understanding of how Life Sciences knowledge is applied in everyday life.

 * Learning Outcome 3: Life Sciences, Technology, Environment and Society
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 1: The learner explores and evaluates the scientific ideas of past and present cultures.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 2: The learner compares and evaluates the uses and development of resources and products and their impact on the environment and society.
 * Focus of Assessment Standard 3: The learner compares the influence of different beliefs, attitudes and values on scientific knowledge.

Learning Outcome 1 is testing whether or not you have practical skills. See Useful Information for details of the skills you will need to develop.

Learning Outcome 2 is testing your knowledge of Biology.

Learning Outcome 3 is testing whether you can apply your knowledge to real life situations.

What do I need to know for the exam?
In school, each Learning Outcome is covered through using the same subject material in different ways. Because of that, this textbook is based on the subject material, and not the Learning Outcomes. In each section we aim to explain how the material should be used, and what skills should be learnt, to meet each of the Learning Outcomes.

The 4 subject areas are:
 * Tissues, cells and molecular studies
 * Structure, Control and Process in basic life systems of Plants and Humans
 * Environmental Studies
 * Diversity, Change and Continuity

Read each section through carefully. You can only really start to show that you have certain skills if you know the subject material properly.

We aim to cover everything you should learn from Grade 10 through to Grade 12, since each year builds upon the foundation of the previous year. However, the balance of our explanations will be focused on the Grade 11 and 12 work, since this will not have been tested externally.

Good luck!


text:
FHSST Biology/Biological Nomenclature

Biological Nomenclature & Taxonomy
Nomenclature simply means to name. In Biology, there is a standard way of naming organisms. This is based on a grouping, or classification, system designed by Carolus (or Carl) Linnaeus. Grouping organisms is called Taxonomy, and the people who do this are called taxonomists.

Taxonomy involves putting all living things into groups based on the characteristics they have in common. These groups, or taxa, can be further divided into smaller and smaller groups, until every single organism is described and named.

For example, dogs and cats are in the same group at one level, because they both eat meat, have fur, 4 legs, and give birth to live young. However, on the next level down they are no longer in the same group, because dogs cannot pull their claws back into their paws, while cats can retract (pull back) their claws. (This is not the only reason they are in different groups, but we don't have the space and time to give all of them.)

Each level of grouping has its own name. In order of decreasing size they are: Kingdom, Phylum (or Division), Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. (You can remember this order using this poem: K ing P hilip C ame O ver F or G randma's S oup.)

Using this system, every organism has a binomial (or two part) name, which are always written in italics (or underlined if handwritten). The first part of the name is written with a capital letter and shows which genus the organism is in. The second part is always written with a small letter and shows the species.

How does it work?
There are 5 Kingdoms - Animals (Animalia), Plants (Plantae), Fungi, Protists (Protista, but now often called Protoctista) and Bacteria (often called Monera). Most taxonomists these days divide the Bacteria Kingdom into two and say there are 6 kingdoms, but in school level Biology we ignore that division and say there are only 5.

Note: A lot of the names used seem to have odd endings or spellings. That's because they come from Latin, which was the main language spoken when Linnaeus started developing this system. A lot of the words we use in Biology have been changed slightly from their original Latin. Instead of saying Kingdom Animalia (for example), which is Latin, non-Biologists will often say Animal Kingdom. You need to practice using both.

e.g. a Lion belongs to the Kingdom Animalia, Phylum Chordata (which means it has a backbone), Class Mammalia, Order Carnivora, Family Felidae, Genus Panthera and species leo. If you simply use Panthera leo, anyone anywhere in the world who has studied Biology will know which organism you are talking about, and why it belongs to that group. This is very useful if you are trying to communicate with someone who doesn't speak your language!

title: FHSST Biology/Biological Nomenclature


text:
FHSST Biology/Microscope Skills

Microscope Skills
>> Next: Doing dissections

title: FHSST Biology/Microscope Skills


text:
FHSST Biology/Doing Dissections

Doing Dissections
>> Next: Labelling Diagrams

title: FHSST Biology/Doing Dissections


text: FHSST Biology/Labelling Diagrams

title: FHSST Biology/Labelling Diagrams


text:
User:Hansm

www.hansm.org

title: User:Hansm


text:
User:IanLewis~enwikibooks

I'm a passive contributer/user of Wikibooks. I generally am interested in free/open content especially free/open-source software.

My Homepage/Blog

title: User:IanLewis~enwikibooks


text:
C Programming/Further math

The  header contains prototypes for several functions that deal with mathematics. In the 1990 version of the ISO standard, only the  versions of the functions were specified; the 1999 version added the   and   versions. To use these math functions, you must link your program with the math library. For some compilers (including GCC), you must specify the additional parameter.

The math functions may produce one of two kinds of errors. Domain errors occur when the parameters to the functions are invalid, such as a negative number as a parameter to sqrt (the square root function). Range errors occur when the result of the function cannot be expressed in that particular floating-point type, such as pow(1000.0, 1000.0) if the maximum value of a double is around 10308.

The functions can be grouped into the following categories:

The and   functions
The  functions return the arccosine of their arguments in radians, and the   functions return the arcsine of their arguments in radians. All functions expect the argument in the range [-1,+1]. The arccosine returns a value in the range [0,π]; the arcsine returns a value in the range [-π/2,+π/2].

The and   functions
The  functions return the arctangent of their arguments in radians, and the   function return the arctangent of   in radians. The  functions return a value in the range [-π/2,+π/2] (the reason why ±π/2 are included in the range is because the floating-point value may represent infinity, and atan(±∞) = ±π/2); the   functions return a value in the range [-π,+π]. For, a domain error may occur if both arguments are zero.

The,, and   functions
The,  , and   functions return the cosine, sine, and tangent of the argument, expressed in radians.

Hyperbolic functions
The cosh, sinh and tanh functions compute the hyperbolic cosine, the hyperbolic sine, and the hyperbolic tangent of the argument respectively. For the hyperbolic sine and cosine functions, a range error occurs if the magnitude of the argument is too large.

The acosh functions compute the inverse hyperbolic cosine of the argument. A domain error occurs for arguments less than 1.

The asinh functions compute the inverse hyperbolic sine of the argument.

The atanh functions compute the inverse hyperbolic tangent of the argument. A domain error occurs if the argument is not in the interval [-1, +1]. A range error may occur if the argument equals -1 or +1.

The,, and   functions
The  functions compute the base-e exponential function of   (ex). A range error occurs if the magnitude of  is too large.

The  functions compute the base-2 exponential function of   (2x). A range error occurs if the magnitude of  is too large.

The  functions compute the base-e exponential function of the argument, minus 1. A range error occurs if the magnitude of  is too large.

The,,  ,  , and   functions
These functions are heavily used in software floating-point emulators, but are otherwise rarely directly called.

Inside the computer, each floating point number is represented by two parts: The value of a floating point number $$v$$ is $$v = {\rm significand} \times 2^{\rm exponent}$$.
 * The significand is either in the range [1/2, 1), or it equals zero.
 * The exponent is an integer.

The  functions break the argument floating point number   into those two parts, the exponent and significand. After breaking it apart, it stores the exponent in the  object pointed to by , and returns the significand. In other words, the value returned is a copy of the given floating point number but with an exponent replaced by 0. If  is zero, both parts of the result are zero.

The  functions multiply a floating-point number by a integral power of 2 and return the result. In other words, it returns copy of the given floating point number with the exponent increased by ex. A range error may occur.

The  functions break the argument   into integer and fraction parts, each of which has the same sign as the argument. They store the integer part in the object pointed to by  and return the fraction part. The  is a floating-point type, rather than an "int" type, because it might be used to store an integer like 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 which is too big to fit in an int.

The  and   compute   ×. is the base of the floating-point system; if it is 2, the functions are equivalent to.

Most C floating point libraries also implement the IEEE754-recommended nextafter, nextUp, and nextDown functions.

The,,  , and   functions
The  functions compute the base-e natural logarithm of the argument and return the result. A domain error occurs if the argument is negative. A range error may occur if the argument is zero.

The  functions compute the base-e natural logarithm of one plus the argument and return the result. A domain error occurs if the argument is less than -1. A range error may occur if the argument is -1.

The  functions compute the common (base-10) logarithm of the argument and return the result. A domain error occurs if the argument is negative. A range error may occur if the argument is zero.

The  functions compute the base-2 logarithm of the argument and return the result. A domain error occurs if the argument is negative. A range error may occur if the argument is zero.

The and   functions
The  functions extract the exponent of   as a signed int value. If  is zero, they return the value  ; if   is infinite, they return the value  ; if   is not-a-number they return the value  ; otherwise, they are equivalent to calling the corresponding   function and casting the returned value to type. A range error may occur if  is zero. and  are macros defined in  ;   is a macro defined in.

The  functions extract the exponent of   as a signed integer value in floating-point format. If  is subnormal, it is treated as if it were normalized; thus, for positive finite , 1 ≤   ×   <. is the radix for floating-point numbers, defined in the  header.

The functions
The  functions compute   raised to the power   and return the result. A domain error occurs if  is negative and   is not an integral value. A domain error occurs if the result cannot be represented when  is zero and   is less than or equal to zero. A range error may occur.

The functions
The  functions compute the positive square root of   and return the result. A domain error occurs if the argument is negative.

The functions
The  functions compute the cube root of   and return the result.

The functions
The  functions compute the square root of the sums of the squares of   and , without overflow or underflow, and return the result.

The and   functions
The  functions compute the smallest integral value not less than   and return the result; the   functions compute the largest integral value not greater than   and return the result.

The functions
The  functions compute the absolute value of a floating-point number   and return the result.

The functions
The  functions compute the floating-point remainder of   and return the value   - i * , for some integer i such that, if   is nonzero, the result has the same sign as   and magnitude less than the magnitude of. If  is zero, whether a domain error occurs or the   functions return zero is implementation-defined.

The,,  , and   functions
The  functions round their argument to an integer value in floating-point format, using the current rounding direction and without raising the "inexact" floating-point exception.

The  functions are similar to the   functions except that they can raise the "inexact" floating-point exception if the result differs in value from the argument.

The  and   functions round their arguments to the nearest integer value according to the current rounding direction. If the result is outside the range of values of the return type, the numeric result is undefined and a range error may occur if the magnitude of the argument is too large.

The,, and   functions
The  functions round the argument to the nearest integer value in floating-point format, rounding halfway cases away from zero, regardless of the current rounding direction.

The  and   functions round the argument to the nearest integer value, rounding halfway cases away from zero, regardless of the current rounding direction. If the result is outside the range of values of the return type, the numeric result is undefined and a range error may occur if the magnitude of the argument is too large.

The functions
The  functions round their argument to the integer value in floating-point format that is nearest but no larger in magnitude than the argument.

The functions
The  functions compute the remainder   REM   as defined by IEC 60559. The definition reads, "When y ≠ 0, the remainder r = x REM y is defined regardless of the rounding mode by the mathematical reduction r = x - ny, where n is the integer nearest the exact value of x/y; whenever |n - x/y| = ½, then n is even. Thus, the remainder is always exact. If r = 0, its sign shall be that of x." This definition is applicable for all implementations.

The functions
The  functions return the same remainder as the   functions. In the object pointed to by, they store a value whose sign is the sign of  /  and whose magnitude is congruent modulo 2n to the magnitude of the integral quotient of  / , where n is an implementation-defined integer greater than or equal to 3.

Error and gamma functions
The  functions compute the error function of the argument $$\frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}}\int_{0}^x e^{-t^2}\,\mathrm dt$$

The  functions compute the complimentary error function of the argument (that is, 1 - erf x). For the  functions, a range error may occur if the argument is too large.

The  functions compute the natural logarithm of the absolute value of the gamma of the argument (that is, loge|Γ(x)|). A range error may occur if the argument is a negative integer or zero.

The  functions compute the gamma of the argument (that is, Γ(x)). A domain error occurs if the argument is a negative integer or if the result cannot be represented when the argument is zero. A range error may occur.

title: C Programming/Further math


text:
Research Methods

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction to Research/
 * /Research Questions and Hypothesis/
 * /Types of Research/
 * /Research Methodology/
 * /Variables in Research/
 * /Validity in Research/
 * /Sampling/
 * /Central Limit Theorem/
 * /Measurement, Reliability, Validity/
 * /Probability and Significance Test/
 * /Correlations/
 * Comparing Two Levels of Independent Variables (IV): t-Test
 * Comparing Multiple Levels of IV: F-Test
 * Between-subjects Factorial Design: 2-Way ANOVA
 * /Correlated-groups Design/
 * /Mixed-model Design/
 * /Categorical Data/

title: Research Methods


text:
Research Methods/Two-Way ANOVA

Introduction
In our previous chapters we explored the use of using a single variable in research; however, much of the research done in psychology involves the use of several variables. This is because there are few instances where researchers can use a single variable to explain human behaviors. Our previously learned material covered using one independent variable. In reality, more often research questions will involve the use of more than one independent variable.

This chapter will explore the use of the two variables between-subject design, and the statistical method used to measure this type of design is known as the two-way ANOVA.

Advantage of the Two-variable Design
In research using a two-variable design offers many advantages over using a one-variable design. The first advantage is increased efficiency. This is because the two-variable design contains all of the elements of using two, one-variable designs. From this, using one, two variable design is more cost-effective than researching two, one-variable design experiments.

Another advantage is that we can analyze the interaction of the two variables in the design. This helps us understand how combinations of variables influence behavior. In particular, it allows us to understand and analyze the interactive effects between the two independent variables on the dependent variable. In this, interaction means that the effect of one independent variable is influenced by another independent variable; or, interaction means that the relationship between an independent variable is different at various levels (types) of another independent variable.

For example, the researchers Cohen, Nisbett, Bowdle, and Schwaz (1996) conducted an experiment where they examined the reaction of white male participants who had just been insulted versus those who had not been insulted using males from the Northern and Southern regions of the United States. They measured their testosterone level creating an operational definition for their level of aggression. This is because testosterone is easily measured through saliva samples and correlates with arousal, especially aggression. The hypothesis is that the participants who had been insulted would show a higher level of testosterone than do participants who had not been insulted; however, there was a second independent variable: regional background of the participants. In fact, the researchers selected half of the participants from Northern regions and the other from Southern. The researchers thought that the men from the South, who had a "culture of honor”, would show a greater increase in testosterone levels than the males from the North. This is because men in the South are raised to protect their character when attacked through insults or violence, whereas men in the North are not, or less so. They thought that a man from the South being insulted would show more arousal.

This example shows how the variable of culture (Northern or Southern male) influences the variable aggression (in the form of testosterone levels), and it also shows how the being insulted affects aggression levels. There can be an interaction between the two variables if the effect of one variable is not consistent across all levels of the other variables. For example, if the results of the study showed that the Northern males’ testosterone levels did not rise when insulted but the Southern males did, there would be interaction. Remember, it is interaction between the Independent variables; therefore, the variables of being a Southern male and being insulted interact with each other to produce the effect of increased aggression, while being a Northern male and being insulted produces a different interaction as to prevent increased aggression.

The last advantage of using a two-variable design ANOVA is an increase in statistical power. If you recall, power is the ability to confidently reject a false NULL hypothesis. This type of research design increases statistical power because the within groups variance tends to be smaller than the within-group variance of a comparable one-variable study (two, one-way ANOVA's). If you recall, the smaller the variance the less fluctuation in measure; therefore, the smaller the F-ratio; therefore, the smaller the confidence interval which means that we are more likely to have chosen a smaller range of possible values which, in turn, restricts the range of possible values for statistical significance; thus, greater statistical power in correctly rejecting a false NULL hypothesis.

Summary
The advantages of using a two-variable design via Two-Way ANOVA:
 * Decrease in cost
 * The ability to analyze the interaction of two independent variables
 * Increased statistical power due to smaller variance

The Logic of Two-Variable Design
The first concept to consider with a two-variable design is the concept of a treatment combination. Initially, when we design a two-variable study, we select the number of levels we want to use for each variable. Because we combine the two variable into one study, we create something call a factorial design. A Factorial design represents a study that includes an independent group for each possible combination of levels for the independent variable. For example, in the Cohen et al. (1996) experiment, there are two levels of the insult condition and two levels of participant background. Because of this, the study uses a 2*2 factorial design. This design creates 4 independent groups, because it takes each level of each independent variable and multiplies them. In the Cohen experiment, there are 2 levels for the independent variable insult (control, and insulted) and two levels for the independent variable culture (Northern or Southern); therefore, there are 2 independent variable with 2 levels each. Thus, it is a 2*2 factorial design. An example below:

Each combination of levels for the independent variable creates a treatment condition or cell. A 2*2 factorial design creates 4 treatment conditions or cells. If a study has 3 levels of one independent variable and 4 levels of another independent variable, then this study creates 12 treatment conditions or cells.

When both variables are between-subjects variables, we can conclude that the individual cells are independent groups. Independence means that the data collected for one cell do not correlate with the other cells. B.General linear model

When we discussed the one-way ANOVA, we learned that the logic under one-way ANOVA is the general linear model. We learned that each observation is the sum of the baseline grand mean plus treatment effect and plus the random error within group.

 * $$X_{ij}= \mu + \alpha_i + \epsilon_{ij}\,$$

with
 * $$\sum \alpha_i=0\,$$

The logic of the two-way ANOVA is also the general linear model. However, in the general linear model for the two-way ANOVA, there are two more components:

 * $$X_{ijk}= \mu + \alpha_i + \beta_j+ (\alpha\beta)_{ij}+\epsilon_{ijk}\,$$

with
 * $$\sum \alpha_i=0,\ \sum \beta_j=0,\ \sum (\alpha\beta)_{ij}=0,\ \,$$

That is, individual observation Xijk is the sum of the baseline grand mean, the effect of independent variable A at level i, the effect of independent variable B at level j, the joint effect, called interaction, of A at level i and B at level j, and the random error within the group of the combination of A at level i and B at level j. It is common practice to note a specific mean by replacing the index of averaging by a dot. The total of grand mean, the average over all indices, is then indicated by:

 * $$M = X_{...}\,$$.

The estimates for the effects, i.e. the parameters μ, αi, βj and (αβ)ij are respectively:

 * $$M=X_{...}\,$$
 * $$a_i=X_{i..}-X_{...}\,$$
 * $$b_j=X_{.j.}-X_{...}\,$$
 * $$(ab)_{ij}=X_{ij.}-X_{i..}-X_{.j.}+X_{...}\,$$

For example, for the first subject in the first cell (X1jk), the observed score would be the sum of the grand mean (M), the difference between mean score for all subjects in the control group (Ma1) and the grand mean (M), the difference between mean score for all subjects from northern (Mb1) and the grand mean (M), the difference between the mean score in the first cell (Ma1b1) and the mean scores of the two independent variables at particular levels, and the difference between the observed score and the mean score in the first cell (which represents the within group random error).

X1jk = M + (Ma1-M) + (Mb1-M) + (Ma1b1- Ma1- Mb1+M) + (X1jk - Ma1b1)

C. Components of sum of square
To test the significance of the mentioned effects, the total variance is analysed, i.e. decomposed in appropriate parts, concerning the various estimates:
 * $$SST=\sum (X_{ijk}-X_{...})^2=

\sum (X_{ijk}-X_{ij.}+X_{ij.}-X_{i..}-X_{.j.}+X_{...}+X_{i..}-X_{...}+X_{.j.}-X_{...})^2= \,$$

 * =$$\sum (X_{ijk}-X_{ij.})^2+\sum (X_{ij.}-X_{i..}-X_{.j.}+X_{...})^2+\sum (X_{i..}-X_{...})^2+\sum (X_{.j.}-X_{...})^2= $$

 * $$= SSE + SSAB + SSB + SSA \,$$

If we rearrange the above equation, we get:

X1jk - M= (Ma1-M) + (Mb1-M) + (Ma1b1- Ma1- Mb1+M) + (X1jk - Ma1b1)

We can see that the deviation of each observation from the grand mean is sum of the deviation of the mean score of the first independent variable at one particular level from the grand mean, the deviation of the mean score of the second independent variable at one particular level from the grand mean, the deviation of the mean score of the combination of two independent variables from the mean scores of the two independent variables at particular levels, and the random error.

If we square all the parts of the equation and sum the deviations for all the subjects, we get:

SStotal=SSA+SSB+SSAB+SSwithin

The above equation indicates that the sum of square of total can be decomposed into four parts, the sum of square between different levels of the first independent variable, the sum of square between different levels of the second independent variable, the sum of square between different combinations of the two independent variables (that is, between different cells), and sum of square within groups.

D. Components of variance
If we divide the sum of square with corresponding degree of freedom, we get five types of variance. Total variance is the sum of square divided by total degree of freedom (N-1). Total variance is also called mean square of total. The variance due to an independent variable is the sum of square of the independent variable divided by degree of freedom for this variable. The degree of freedom for an independent variable is the number of levels of the independent variable minus 1. Therefore, the variance due to insult condition in the above example is SSA/(2-1) (dfA=j-1). The variance due to participant background is SSB/(2-1) (dfB=k-1).

The variance due to the combination (or interaction) of the two independent variable is the sum of square of combinations divided by the interaction degree of freedom which is the product of two degrees of freedom of two independent variables, dfAB=dfA*dfB=(j-1)*(k-1).

The variance within is the sum of square of within divided by the degree of freedom within which is N-j*k.

Main effects and interaction
A.Main effects A main effect refers to the effect that one independent variable has on the dependent variable holding the effects of the other variables constant. Specifically, a main effect represents a special form of the between-groups variance of a single-independent variable. In a two-factor ANOVA, there are two main effects, one for each factor. When we examine the data using an ANOVA, each main effect can be either statistically significant or not statistically significant. Consequently, there are four potential patterns of results:

1)A statistically significant main effect for Factor A but not for Factor B

2)A statistically significant main effect for Factor B but not for Factor A

3)Statistically significant main effects for both factors

The two lines are parallel and there is no interaction between the two independent variables. The relationship between on independent variable, for example, the relationship between insult condition and reaction, is not different at different level of the second variable, the backgrounds of the participants in this example. 4)No statistically significant main effects for both factors

B.Interaction An interaction indicates that the effect of one variable is not consistent across all levels of the other variables. That is, the relationship between one independent variable is different at different levels of the other variable. All the above figures indicate situations of no interaction. When there is no interaction, the two lines are parallel. When there is interaction, the two will not be parallel. For a 2*2 factorial design, there are four possible interactions: 1) There is a statistically significant main effect for Factor A, the insult condition. But there is not statistically significant main effect for Factor B.

There is a main effect for Factor A, the insult condition. That is, without considering the background difference, there is significant difference between the control group (M=4.5) and the insult group (7.5). There is no significant main effect for Factor B, the background. That is, without considering the insult condition difference, there is no difference between the southerner (M=6.0) and the northerner (6.0). There is interaction between the two factors. The southerner had greatly elevated testosterone levels after they had been insulted. By contrast, the northern participants’ testosterone did not change across the two insult conditions. The hallmark of the interaction is that the two lines are not parallel.

2) There is statistically significant main effect for Factor B, but there is not statistically significant main effect for Factor A.

There is a main effect for participant background. Without considering the insult condition difference, the southerners have higher testosterone level (M=7.5) than do the northerners (M=4.5). There is no main effect for the insult conditions. Without considering the background difference, the participants in the control group (M=6.0) have similar testosterone level as the participants in the insult group have (M=6.0). There is interaction between the two factors. The insult had opposite effects on the southern and northern participants. The insult caused the southern participant’s testosterone to increase whereas the testosterone for the northern participants decreased.

3) Both main effects are statistically significant and there is interaction.

There is statistically significant main effect of Factor A. Without considering the background difference, there is significant difference between the control group (M=3.0) and the insult group (9.0). There is statistically significant main effect of Factor B. Without considering the insult background difference, the southerners have higher testosterone level (M=7.5) than do the northerners (M=4.5). There is statistically significant interaction between the two factors. The insult condition raised the testosterone levels. In addition to that, southern participants had, overall, greater increases in testosterone levels than did the northern participants. 4)Neither main effect is statistically significant, but the interaction is.

There is no main effect for the insult conditions. Without considering the background difference, the participants in the control group (M=6.0) have similar testosterone level as the participants in the insult group have (M=6.0). There is no significant main effect for Factor B, the background. That is, without considering the insult condition difference, there is no difference between the southerner (M=6.0) and the northerner (6.0). However, there is statistically significant interaction. For southerners, insult increases the testosterone level. For northerners, insult decreases the testosterone level.

title: Research Methods/Two-Way ANOVA


text:
User talk:152.17.57.129

I am a utility engineer and would like to help add to this ambitous page to build the knowledge base.

 * The major problem with these electrical books is simply a lack of "critical mass". If you start contributing regularly, others who have these articles on their watchlists will see the activity and start to contribute, too.  I know I, for instance, haven't contributed to the Electronics wikibook at all lately, just because it feels like I am doing it all by myself.  So start contributing to the articles!  And if possible, get some other people to join and gain interest, too. - Omegatron 16:56, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:152.17.57.129


text:
Talk:Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash

Introduction
Macromedia Flash is an animation program which utilizes vector graphics and bitmap graphics, sound and program code and bidirectional streaming video and audio. The book will explain some of the program's basic functions.

Could be a possible introduction bit confused on the picture though there is one on wikipedia which could be used

--

I would like to see a good walk-through section, detailing how to create a flash file (possibly a simple game) in such a manner that it encompasses all possible features (eg. buttons, action scripts etc) and describing what is happening as well as describing what to do. I am not a user of flash so am unfortunately unable to contribute but look forward to further developments.

Took out a Link
Took out this, New to Flash?

"Go to www.nystic.com and ask any questions you may have."

It seemed to be purely self promoting. I went to the site in look for tutorials, or at least any questions asked. I saw only one thread relating to Flash, and that does not deserve to be on Wikibooks.

Macromedia -> adobe
All references to Macromedia should be changed to adobe. Also there is a lot of scattered flash pages that should be brought together.

title: Talk:Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash


text:
World History/Ancient Greece and Alexander the Great

Early history
Greece has been occupied for ten thousand years. The Greek archaeologist, Christos Tsountas (1857–1934) discovered a major Neolithic site at the modern day village of Sesklo in Thessaly (central Greece) which dates to the seventh millennium. The Sesklo site was occupied until 1500 BC. From the third millennium the Greek mainland was invaded by tribes of an Indo-European language speaking group who referred to themselves as Hellenes, which arrived in two separate waves and transformed the culture of the region. The first group formed the basis of the Mycenaean culture, which traded as far as Egypt and Lebanon/Syria and fought the Trojan War. The second group, which ultimately formed the Doric subgroup of Greeks, entered after the Trojan War, destroyed Mycenae, and started a dark age which ended with the efflorescence of Greek culture beginning around 600 BC. In early Greek history 'Greece' as we know it today did not exist. Instead, it was a collection of warring city-states (called poleis, singluar: polis) unified only by shared language, religion and culture. Two of the more important poleis were Athens and Sparta, speaking different dialects of Greek; Doric and Ionian, and having different cultural bases and histories. Ultimately, these differences expressed themselves as different forms of government.

Early Athens
The founding of Athens is not well documented. It is known that Dorians originally founded the town, a northern tribe that invaded Greece and later settled (introducing the horse). Therefore, Athens maintained a few tribal customs, such as the popular assembly (the basis of the later Athenian democracy). Early Athenian society boiled down into two classes: the peasants, and the rich 'Hippes'. The peasants would borrow grain from the Hippes to plant and pay it back out of their harvest. While all matters were settled through a vote, there were two assemblies: one in which everyone could participate, and one reserved for the Hippes. This gave the Hippes the majority of the political power in early Athens. The society continued in this manner until the Mediterranean slave trade reached Athens. Once this happened, the peasants began to use surplus wealth to buy slaves and use them to farm their land. The Hippes, fearing that the peasants could begin to rival their wealth, began to enslave peasants who were late in repaying their debts. This sparked a long and bloody civil war, which continued for almost twenty years between the Hippes and the recurring peasant militias. These militias requested aid from Sparta, another powerful city-state, which deposed the Hippes and enforced a few laws governing Athens, which included freedom from slavery for all Athenian citizens (while slavery was still legal). The Athenians went on to build a powerful army and eventually aid the Ionians in revolt against the Persians.

Early Sparta
Sparta was one of the most militarily powerful city-states in Greece. While Sparta had existed for a considerable time prior, Spartan history really begins with Lykurgos. Lykurgos was a Spartan aristocrat who enacted a number of reforms to spartan society which brought it to its recognizable form. Some of Lykurgos' reforms included a prohibition on any currency other than iron, a requirement that all men eat all meals in public mess halls, and that all ceilings be finished with an axe rather than carved. The Spartans proceeded to attack their neighbors to acquire helots (slaves) to farm the land while they concentrated on military matters. They later joined the Athenians in their war against the Persians.

Triumphs and contributions
Even though the Greek civilization was not the first to develop many studies of the arts and sciences, they were among the first "western" people to do so, and set up lasting techniques and methods which would be used as a basis until the Renaissance. Their architecture, along with the Romans, have inspired many architects and engineers. One kind of example is the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the Greek goddess of wisdom, Athena.

Beginning of the End
The Greek civilization with its independent city states such as Athens, Thebes, Sparta and its loose confederations were no match, however, against the military stratagems of Philip of Macedon or his son Alexander. They were a forerunner of the rising power of Rome, which under its generals would eventually come to conquer Greece. But if Greece were conquered, the Romans would adapt the Greek culture, keeping it alive.


text:
FHSST Biology/Contents/To do

General
 * 1) Create template with either table of all entries at top, or back and forwards buttons linked to parent and children pages, also with links to glossary.

Useful Information
 * 1) Read through existing material and edit what is needed for Biology
 * 2) Create and write up Sc1 page on investigations (skills POAE)
 * 3) Write up revision skills page
 * 4) Write up glossary pages - possibly re-site the pages for ease of access??
 * 5) Find someone to translate glossary into Afrikaans, Xhosa, Zulu, etc.
 * 6) Research, create and write up page on useful websites - e.g. Kevinsplayroom, etc., that have games/ additional helps.

Index
 * 1) Create pages for index
 * 2) Check whether all content is actually required (i.e. is some of it covered in Geog, so would be duplicated here?) and edit as necessary
 * 3) Cut and paste info as possible (LOTS of editing needed for ESL audience) from other Wiki Life Sciences books (Acknowledge authors in contributors)
 * 4) Write up missing sections not cut and pasted.
 * 5) Find diagrams and images to use (copyright free)

title: FHSST Biology/Contents/To do


text:
User:The Flib

Hello.

My current home page is here. Though it is lacking any substantial content about me, it will serve better than this page, at least until I write more here.

title: User:The Flib


text:
User talk:The Flib

Talk? About me? But why?

title: User talk:The Flib


text:
Emulation/On PC - Linux

Arcade

 * MAME

NES

 * FakeNES
 * FCE Ultra

SNES

 * Snes9x
 * ZSNES

Nintendo 64

 * Mupen64

Playstation

 * EPSXe
 * PCSX
 * pSX

Playstation 2

 * PCSX2

Gameboy and Gameboy Color

 * KiGB
 * GNGB
 * Gnuboy
 * VisualBoyAdvance
 * RealBoy

Gameboy and Gameboy Color and Gameboy Advance

 * VGBA (Virtual Gameboy Advance)
 * VisualBoyAdvance
 * EmulationStation

DOS

 * Dosbox

Windows

 * Wine (not a true emulator)
 * VirtualBox

See also Ubuntu (Linux) Guide/Virtualization for other ways to emulate Windows on a Linux PC.

title: Emulation/On PC - Linux


text:
Beekeeping/Bee Brush

A bee brush is a soft bristled brush that can be used to gently, and harmlessly, remove bees from a surface. The bee brush is best used in small scale to move fewer bees per session, if the desired goal is to move bees quickly, in quantity the bee blower may be the proper tool. Bee brushes are made with long, soft, non-ridged bristles, which are gentle enough for moving bees off of delicate comb and firm enough to remove bees from old frames, equipment or the beekeeper. When used properly, a bee brush will not injure bees.

Usage
To remove bees from a surface, carefully and quickly brush the bee brush perpendicular from the surface to be cleaned. Do not press too hard, especially on open brood cells and open honey cells, as you may either injure brood or make a mess of the honey.

Bee brushes may be used to clear honeycomb of bees, so to harvest the honey, however this may be a time consuming and difficult task. If the intention is to remove bees quickly from the honey super there exist sever options including use of a  bee blower, a  fume board, or a  bee escape.

Selecting a Bee Brush
Though useful, some beekeepers stay clear of a ready-made brush, and use a clump of grass, leaves or large feathers. Despite the bee brush’s many available competitors, having a ready to use bee brush at an instants notice is indispensable.

Buying a Brush
Don't be tempted to purchase other generic brushes to be used as a bee brush. Bee brushes are made with very soft bristles so as not to harm bees. Know the approximate firmness of a brush before purchasing one.

Maintenance

 * Occasionally a bee brush will come in to contact with honey or   propolis, in such a case it is advised to clean it with warm water and a gentile detergent, such as Dawn, if necessary.

title: Beekeeping/Bee Brush


text:
Beekeeping/Mouse Guard

Mouse guards serve the purpose of restricting access to a beehive by pests such as mice and  skunks. Some can simultaneously be used like a entrance reducer and control traffic, temperature and ventilation within a hive.

Usage
Most often, mouse guards are used prior to the onset and during the winter months to prevent mice from choosing a beehive as a hibernation spot. It is also not uncommon for mouse guards to be used year round in some locales to help in the control of pests. Mouse guards are often designed to be nailed or stapled across the entrance of a hive, between the bottom board and the lower  hive body.

Selecting an Entrance Reducer
When selecting an entrance reducer, be sure that it is made of a material that a mouse or other pest cannot chew through. Mice will gleefully chew through wooden or thin plastic guards; thus, metal is often the best option. Some mouse guards are similar in design to small queen excluder; using one of these means that not only is the  queen stuck inside the hive, but so are the  drones. Dead and dying drone bodies can easily seal up the entrance and prevent worker bees from transiting to complete their necessary business.

Maintenance

 * Entrance reducers may need to be occasionally scraped of propolis but should otherwise not need any real maintenance.
 * Be sure to regularly clean dead bees from the entrance reducer and the opening to the beehive; this will help to prevent the hive from accidentally being sealed.

title: Beekeeping/Mouse Guard


text:
Cookbook:Poppy Seed

Poppy seeds are tiny blue-grey oily seeds. They are about 1 mm across at most.

Poppy seeds can be added to almost any bread recipe by sprinkling or rolling the dough in the seeds before baking it, much as one might do for sesame seeds. Poppy seeds are especially popular on bagels.

Warning
Eating poppy seeds can cause people to fail drug tests.

According Encyclopædia Britannica Online: "tiny dried seed of the opium poppy, used as food, food flavouring, and the source of poppy-seed oil. Poppy seeds have no narcotic properties, because the fluid contained in the bud that becomes opium is present only before the seeds are fully formed."

However it is proven that eating poppy seeds does give false positives on drug tests.

title: Cookbook:Poppy Seed


text:
User talk:71.35.12.62

Thanks for your addition to the Horn WikiBook! Please feel free to register and add yourself to the authors page! Ross Uber 05:51, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:71.35.12.62


text:
User talk:24.210.220.105

Thanks for your addition to the Horn WikiBook! Please feel free to register and add yourself to the authors page! Ross Uber 05:56, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.210.220.105


text:
Template:Electronic games bookshelf

Electronic Games (see also StrategyWiki)  - S HOOTING (FIXED)  ([ edit template]) All electronic game books...

title: Template:Electronic games bookshelf


text:
Template:Games and athletics bookshelf

Games and Athletics B OARD G AMES  - Arimaa - Chess - Chess Opening Theory - Chinese checkers - Go — C OLLECTIBLE C ARD G AMES  - Magic: The Gathering - Pokémon Trading Card Game — P HYSICAL E DUCATION  - Folkstyle Wrestling - Lucid Dreaming — P LAYING C ARD G AMES  - Poker — R OLE P LAYING G AMES  - Dungeons & Dragons — S PORTS  - Folkstyle Wrestling - Basketball - Football (soccer) — E LECTRONIC G AMES  All games and athletics books...

title: Template:Games and athletics bookshelf


text:
User:OlegPopov~enwikibooks

Hello!

My name Oleg Ivanovich Popov.

I live in Russia. My adress: Ryazan, RO 123056, Ul. Raketnaya D.85 Kv.13.

Education: Moscow State Institute of International Relations (University), 1992 to 1997 International Law School including three foreign languages: English, German, and Afrikaans. High Level Diploma - "Several Aspects of International Copyright". Work Experience: Lawyer, International Law Firm Baker & McKenzie, October 1998 to Present.

Skills & Interests: Fluent in English, proficient in German, some knowledge of French and Afrikaans. Computer literate, large working experience on both PC (Windows and DOS) and Macintosh, have one of each at home. Some programming experience. I have 24/7 access to the Internet and my favourite hobby to read and study wiki sites :)

PS: I have the catalogue wiki sites - http://wiki4all.com/ and I shall be very grateful to the manager of this wiki site, if it will add wiki in my catalogue with the small description... :)

title: User:OlegPopov~enwikibooks


text:
Greek Mythology/Stories/The Creation

In the beginning, there was nothing but Chaos. Out of the chaos, Night and Erebus (The personification of Death and Shadow) materialized. They gave birth to Love, who in turn created Light and Day. Then came Gaea (earth), and Tartarus (the deepest pit in the world). Gaea first bore Uranus (heaven), and then she brought forth terrible creatures: The hundred-handers, who had a hundred hands and fifty heads, the Cyclopes, enormous creatures with only one eye, and the Titans. Uranus hated the Hundred-handers, and imprisoned all of them in Tartarus. Gaea didnt like this. She decided to have Cronus (one of the Titans) castrate his father with a jagged sickle. Cronus threw the severed members behind him and from the bloody drops earth conceived the Furies and Giants.

Cronus then began to fear for his own life when he was given a prophecy that one of his own children (birthed by Rhea, who was his sister and wife) would overcome him as he did with his father. So he ate them one by one as they were delivered by Rhea. When Zeus was born, however, Rhea hid him in a cave on Crete, and gave Cronus a rock wrapped in a blanket instead. Cronus swallowed the rock, thinking that it was Zeus.

When Zeus became fully grown, he forced Cronus to vomit out his brothers and sisters. After this, they went to war with the Titans. The Gods, with the help of the hundred-handers, who they released from Tartarus, eventually won over the Titans and threw all of them into Tartarus, with the exception of Atlas, who was condemned to hold the world up for eternity. The Gods, however, faced more challenges to their authority. Gaia had given birth to a terrible monster named Typhon, who rose up against the gods. Zeus managed to strike Typhon down with a lightning bolt. Afterwards, the Giants, who had arose from Uranus's blood, also rose up against the Gods. Zeus defeated them too, and threw them into Tartarus. After this, when all threats to the Gods' authority were crushed, Zeus and his two brothers, Poseidon and Hades, drew lots to see what part of the world each would rule. Zeus ended up ruling the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld.

The Creation of Man

The Greeks created many accounts of how man was created. These were the two most popular:

In the first account, it is said that Prometheus and his brother, Epimetheus, decided to create living creatures on the Earth. Epimetheus created animals, but gave them all of the best gifts, such as fur, feathers, strength, and cunning, leaving nothing for mankind. Prometheus then created man, and decided to still make mankind superior to the animals by giving them fire, which he stole from Olympus. In the second account, the Gods created mankind. First, they made mankind out of gold. This golden race lived a life without toil and worry. However, they were mortal, and eventually they died out. After this, the Gods created mankind out of silver. They were very stupid, and ended up killing each other. In the third attempt, the Gods made mankind out of Brass. They enjoyed war, and built up strong armies. Eventually, they destroyed themselves through war. The last race was made out of Iron. They were very evil, and are the race that now inhabit Earth.

title: Greek Mythology/Stories/The Creation


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Cookbook:Traditional Pie Crust

 * Pie Crust

This is the traditional pie crust. To ensure a flakey crust (considered desirable), you need to use lard and you need to keep the lard from melting. It's best to use a cold stone rolling pin and surface, and to generally keep everything in the refrigerator until used.

Ingredients

 * 450 g flour
 * Salt
 * 110 g lard, cut into pieces
 * Water or milk

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the flour and salt.
 * 2) Add the lard, and cut it into the dry mixture.
 * 3) Gently mix in just enough water to make a stiff dough.
 * 4) Roll out the dough in a cool place, and use in your recipe.

title: Cookbook:Traditional Pie Crust


text:
Cookbook:Pie Crust

| Dessert | Pastry

A pie crust consists of the outer shell of a pie. Some varieties are made of pastry dough, while "crumb crusts" are made of cookie or graham cracker crumbs held together with fat. Varieties made with pastry dough are typically mild in flavor and can either be flaky or somewhat crisp and crunchy. Crumb crusts are generally crumblier, and they will have the flavor of whatever cookie is used to make them.

The underside of a pie is always covered. The top may be uncovered (open-topped), fully covered by a second crust, or covered by a lattice top crust, which covers some areas while leaving the spaces between the lattices exposed. A non-crust method to top pies can be achieved through a crumb or streusel topping, which is a rich topping made of loosely blended ingredients and which, unlike pastry, has little structural integrity.

Desserts that have a pastry or biscuit covering on top, but not on bottom, are called crisps or cobblers.

Pie crusts

 * Flaky Pie Crust
 * Grandma's Pie Crust
 * Traditional Pie Crust
 * Homemade Pie Crust

title: Cookbook:Pie Crust


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User:GreetingsEarthling

I'm a sophomore Media studies major at the Catholic University of America, in Washington D.C.

The username is my usual internet pseudonym.

http://profile.typekey.com/GreetingsEarthling/

title: User:GreetingsEarthling


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Cookbook:Sour Cream

Sour cream is cream that has been fermented with lactic-acid bacteria to make it sour.

Sometimes it is mixed with bits of tomato, basil, or chives. Sour cream can be used as a dip, often with additional ingredients mixed in.

title: Cookbook:Sour Cream


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Cookbook:Bread Crumbs

| Bread

Bread crumbs, also called breadcrumbs, refer to bread that has been broken down into small crumbs. They can be purchased or home-made.

Characteristics
All breadcrumbs are ground bread, but they can generally be divided into three varieties. Fresh breadcrumbs may be somewhat stale, but they are not typically thoroughly dried. This makes them coarse and soft in texture, and they absorb liquid well. Dry breadcrumbs are made from dried and toasted bread that is ground until fine in texture. Panko breadcrumbs are a delicate and flaky variety made from dried and coarsely-ground fine white bread.

Selection and storage
You'll want to choose the variety of breadcrumbs that is best suited for your application—they are not perfectly interchangeable. Fine dry breadcrumbs and panko can be conveniently purchased or made from stale bread in some cases, and they should be stored in an airtight container to keep them dry and crisp. Fresh breadcrumbs are best made at home and can be stored in the freezer to keep them from drying out.

Use
Breadcrumbs can be used as a thickener, binder, topping, or coating. They may also be used to add bulk to dishes. Fine dried and panko breadcrumbs are often used to create a crispy exterior on fried foods—panko are great for particularly textured and crispy coatings. Be mindful that very large crumbs or overly thick coatings can absorb more oil when frying. Fresh breadcrumbs often bind and thicken foods, such as soups, sauces, and meatballs.

Substitution
Depending on the recipe, different types of breadcrumbs can be substituted for one another. Similarly, cracker crumbs, matzo meal, or crushed breakfast cereals can be appropriate substitutes, though usually for dry breadcrumbs only. Cake crumbs may be an appropriate substitute in dessert recipes.

title: Cookbook:Bread Crumbs


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Sociological Theory/Impression Management

In social psychology, impression management is the process through which people try to control the impressions other people form of them. It is usually synonymous with self-presentation.

The goal is for one to present themselves the way in which they would like to be thought of by the individual or group they are interacting with. This form of management generally applies to the first impression.

Impression management (IM) is the goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction. If a person tries to influence the perception of her or his own image, this activity is called self-presentation. Strategic interpersonal behavior to shape or influence impressions formed by an audience is not a new field; it has a rich history. Plato spoke of the "great stage of human life" and Shakespeare crafted the famous sentence "All the world is a stage, and all the men and women merely players" in the seventeenth century. Goffman (Goffman, 1959) also followed in his seminal book "The presentation of self in everyday life" a dramaturgical analogy. Impression management (IM) is situated in social psychology.

The audience can be real or imaginary. IM style norms, part of the mental programming received through socialization, are so fundamental that we usually do not notice our expectations of them. While an actor (speaker) tries to project a desired image, an audience (listener) might attribute a resonant or discordant image.

Source:
 * impression management


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Sociological Theory/Ethnomethodology

The Theory
Ethnomethodology is a perspective within sociology which focuses on the way people make sense of their everyday life. People are seen as rational actors, but employ practical reasoning rather than formal logic to make sense of and function in society. The theory argues that human society is entirely dependent on these methods of achieving and displaying understanding. The approach was developed by Harold Garfinkel, based on Alfred Schütz's phenomenological reconstruction of Max Weber's verstehen sociology.

Like Durkheim, the fundamental sociological phenomenon for ethnomethodologists is the social fact. But, unlike Durkheim, the social fact is not external of the individual. The social fact is the product of the social member's methodological activities; it is their understanding of their everyday world. Members, here, are understood not simply as individuals but any social entity (i.e., individuals and organizations) that can produce a social fact. In short, members of society (individuals and organizations) make sense of and function in society by creating social facts or understandings of how society works. In this sense, ethnomethodology is at the same time both macro and micro oriented in that members can produce social facts at either level, for either the personal structure (the individual's level of everyday meaning) or the organizational/institutional structure (the organization's level of everyday meaning).

One of the key points of the theory is that ethnomethods or social facts are reflexively accountable. Accounts are the ways members describe or explain specific situations. Accounting is the process of describing or explaining social situations or how members make sense of their everyday world. Ethnomethodologists are interested in both the account and the method by which the account is made meaningful to the recipient of the account, and tend to emphasize the latter. The interest is not in determining if the account is accurate or otherwise judging the account but rather in exploring how the account is conveyed. For example, the explanation given by a husband for arriving home late at night is an account. The ethnomethodologist is interested in both the account and the methods used to convey that account to the recipient, in this case, the wife. Whether the account is factual or not does not interest the ethnomethodologist.

Sociology, generally, seeks to provide accounts of society. Ethnomethodologists view such accounts - sociological ones - the same way they view the account given by the husband above. In other words, ethnomethodologists break down the accounts given by other sociologists (and other scientists, for that matter) the same way they break down the accounts of interpersonal interaction in romantic relationships. Ethnomethodologists are not interested in whether or not the accounts given by sociologists are accurate but rather are interested in the accounts that are given and the methods used to develop and convey those accounts.

The accounts people use to explain their behavior or help them understand social interactions are generally taken for granted (e.g., you don't have to ask permission to use the restroom in your own home). To illustrate how these accounts are usually taken for granted, ethnomethodologists have used research methods in the past that 'breach' or 'break' the everyday routine of interaction in order to reveal the work that goes into maintaining the normal flow of life. Some examples include:
 * pretending to be a stranger in one's own home
 * blatantly cheating at board games
 * attempting to bargain for goods on sale in stores

In most of these situations, the individuals who are unaware that the researcher is intentionally breaching social norms attempt to explain the breacher's behavior by providing accounts for them. These interventions demonstrate the creativity with which ordinary members of society are able to interpret and maintain the unspoken social order that ethnomethodologists study.

Impact of Ethnomethodology
While ethnomethodology is often seen as being removed from more mainstream sociology, it has proven to be influential. For instance, ethnomethodology notes that words are reliant for their meaning based on the context in which they are used; they are indexical. This has led to insights into the objectivity of social science and the difficulty in establishing a description of human behavior which has an objective status outside the context of its creation. Ethnomethodology has also influenced the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge by providing a research strategy that precisely describes the methods of its research subjects without the necessity of evaluating their validity. This proved to be useful to researchers studying social order in laboratories who wished to understand how scientists conducted their experiments without either endorsing or criticising their activities.

Ethnomethodology has had an impact on linguistics and particularly on pragmatics. Ethnomethodological studies of work have played a significant role in the field of human-computer interaction, informing design by providing engineers with descriptions of the practices of users. Additionally, ethnomethodologically informed management and leadership studies are newly emerging fields.

Worthy of separate mention, ethnomethodology has developed what is often considered a sub-field or perhaps an entirely new discipline, conversation analysis, which has its own chapter.

title: Sociological Theory/Ethnomethodology


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Cookbook:Beet

The beet, sometimes called beetroot to distinguish it from the edible leafy green upper part, is a root vegetable.

Characteristics
Beets have a uniquely strong, sweet flavor and can come in a variety of colors, with the most common being an intense purple-red. Most modern varieties are spherical, though they can also be long and carrot-shaped. Young beets, about 1½ inches in diameter, are fine textured, tender, and excellent in salads. Medium- and large-size beets are good for cooking; very large roots are too woody for eating regardless of cooking method.

Selection and storage
Whatever size of beets you choose, look for smooth, hard, uniformly round beets that are free of cuts and bruises. If applicable, remove the beet greens and use immediately. Store beets with their tops chopped off in individual plastic bags in the coolest part of the refrigerator—these should last up to one week. Once cooked, beets can be frozen with their peels removed.

Wash and scrub the beets before cooking. Beets peel best after cooking, and they will stain many things they come into contact with—wear gloves if you wish to avoid stained hands.

Uses
Tender beets can be eaten raw, but they are often cooked before eating by boiling, steaming, or roasting. In many applications, the skin can be left on, especially when boiling to prevent color loss. Cooked beets can be sliced and served as a vegetable on one side of a plate. They are often used in Eastern European soups. Sugar beets are a common source of refined white sugar, which is known as beet sugar. Beet juice is commonly used for coloring foods.

Beet greens can be used like other leafy greens such as chard.

Seasonality
Beetroot has a long season that starts in the summer and lasts through the winter.

title: Cookbook:Beet


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User talk:24.177.33.40

At first I took you for a vandal, but it seems you might be the original Cookbook:Marinera Sauce author. While "7 handfulls" is terribly vague, removing this hint makes things even more vague. I don't think I could do a very good job at cooking this as it stands, but without the "7 handfulls" hint I'd probably use just 1/2 teaspoon. AlbertCahalan 20:20, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.177.33.40