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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback/Qualitative-Quantitative

“Test day,” to most students, means studying, reviewing, and perhaps a bit of cramming to remember as much as possible. But to a teacher, a test gathers important information – does the student really get what I’ve been trying to teach him for the past few weeks? Standardized tests, a big issue in modern education, are certainly not the only kind of test teachers use, and tests aren’t the only way teachers can assess what students have learned. But years before No Child Left Behind, educational researchers at the University of Utah predicted that American educators were going to be “increasingly required to provide evidence” that students are learning what they are supposed to learn. Consequently, teachers now and in the future will have to figure out how to measure whether students have learned the material or not – and just how much of it they’ve learned (Worthen, Borg, and White 1993). Out of this challenge have come many ways to study, classify, and apply different kinds of educational assessment.

Quantitative Assessment
Countless books and articles have been written on the subject of educational measurement, but one way in particular to classify methods of assessment is to categorize them as either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative assessment, as the name suggests, focuses on numbers, or quantities. Usually, something that is quantitative can be measured and expressed in units (Wikipedia 2007). For instance, a quantitative test might include multiple-choice questions or fill-in-the-blank questions – these types of questions can easily be classified as “right” or “wrong” and the results tallied to produce a grade. Each right or wrong answer is a unit, and the group of units makes a number that is supposed to show whether or not the student knows the material.

For example:
 * 1) Solve 5x + 4 = 24
 * 2) What is the name of the capital city of France? (Satterly 1984)

Quantitative tests, like multiple-choice or fill-in-the-blank, are often seen as merely encouraging rote memorization – and they often do. For instance, asking a student, “Which part of speech is used to describe a noun?” from a list of four choices does not necessarily require the student to fully understand adjectives and how to use them. On the other hand, well-constructed questions can measure learning on a variety of levels on Bloom’s Taxonomy, including application and synthesis, if they ask the student to do high-level thinking in order to come up with the best answer (Satterly 1989). A teacher might give the student a sentence and ask him to choose the word that functions as an adjective – giving him the opportunity to apply what he knows to a new situation (Bloom 1984?).

Qualitative Assessment
Qualitative assessment, on the other hand, is not based on numbers or units, but on observations that often can be subjective. Many kinds of essay questions (those asking for things like the student’s opinion on a controversial issue, an analysis of a situation, or a free-response interpretation of a literary work) are examples of qualitative assessments. Though essay tests are often graded on a scale of points, based on criteria, the teacher still has a lot of leeway in deciding what constitutes an acceptable response.

Uses for both types in the classroom
While either kind of assessment can be used for almost any set of material, in some cases a certain kind of test is especially useful. Some subjects seem to fit a certain kind of test more than others.

In math classes, for instance, quantitative assessments often come in handy to measure whether or not a student knows how to solve an equation. There is one correct answer to the problem, and each student’s answer either matches or doesn’t. Some teachers give points for each step completed correctly, while others simply mark the answer right or wrong, but each approach produces a quantitative, objective point amount that the student is awarded for that problem. An 80 on a math test shows that the student knew some of the material, or partially understood it, but didn’t know or understand all of it.

When testing students on English literature, however, qualitative methods of assessment sometimes work better – to test whether students are able to generate their own ideas about one of the novel’s themes, a teacher might give an essay test that asks students to analyze and discuss some aspect of the work at length. A student may earn an A because the teacher believes he has grasped the work at an appropriate level; or he may receive a lower grade if the teacher feels something important was missing. Even though points may be awarded for certain parts, no absolute standard applies in judging the overall quality of the essay.

Gray Areas
In his book Assessment in Schools, David Satterly discusses several major types of classroom assessment. For example, two major kinds are recall/completion and essay. There are many ways to construct each type of test, and a virtually limitless amount of questions that can be asked.

Recall/Completion
Recall/completion questions (like “In what city was the Declaration of Independence signed?”) and multiple-choice questions (like “Which number is the radius of the circle in the diagram?”) ask a student to remember a simple fact, and they are usually meant to be completely objective. There is only one “right” or “best” answer – for instance, “Philadelphia” or “4 inches.” This allows the teacher to page through a pile of tests, easily mark whether or not a student wrote the correct answer, and add that right or wrong mark to the tally of scores to produce a quantitative grade. However, few test questions can really remove teacher discretion from the grading process. The teacher may think there is a single “best” answer, but a question that asks where something occurred can, arguably, be answered to the specific city, state, country, or hemisphere. The Declaration of Independence was signed in Independence Hall, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and in North America; but specific questions – asking “what city” instead of “where” – can help make the answer more clear-cut (Satterly 1989).

Essay
More so than any other type of test, essay tests contain both qualitative and quantitative aspects in full array. Most essay questions require the student to connect ideas, apply concepts to new situations, and, in general, utilize more of the higher-level thinking skills at the top of the Bloom’s Taxonomy diagram. It is indeed difficult for a student to formulate a viable solution to a current political issue if he does not thoroughly understand the arguments on both sides. Of course, the more a question moves toward the qualitative realm – and away from simple rights and wrongs – the harder it is to grade, simply because there is no absolute standard of correctness for the teacher to measure it against.

Perhaps largely due to this workable balance between the qualitative and the quantitative, a well-constructed essay questions is considered by many an excellent way to assess whether a student has reached a “deep understanding” of the material, and is able to reorganize it and reapply it (Borich and Tombari 2004).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Rewards

This is one of the many questions that teachers ask themselves when trying to design their own classroom. Rewards are normally used as a type of motivational strategy designed to encourage students to complete a task efficiently. However, with this notion comes a debate over two different types of rewards, intrinsic and extrinsic. This article will take a look at both of these types of rewards and some of the issues that surround them. In addition, guidelines in designing rewards will be discussed, and examples of common rewards will be given.

Reward Systems
In order to apply a reward system to a classroom, a teacher must first understand what a reward system is and what the advantages and disadvantages are when using it. The term reward is broadly defined as a tool that teachers use to try and reinforce a desired behavior (Witzel & Mercer, 2003). The elements that determine the effectiveness of a reward are how it is delivered by the teacher and how it is perceived by the student (Witzel & Mercer). If a teacher delivers a reward for good behavior, the student must make the connection between the right behavior and the reward. If students think they were rewarded for a different behavior, then the given reward will not be effective, and the student will associate getting a reward with the wrong behavior (Witzel & Mercer). So, teachers need to make sure that when giving rewards, students understand why they received them.

Intrinsic Rewards
Rewards can be broken down into two categories, intrinsic and extrinsic. When a student receives an intrinsic reward, it is because they have completed an assignment or task due to internal motivation (Williams & Stockdale, 2004). Some common intrinsic rewards are “task completion, feedback or result, acquisition of knowledge or skills, and a sense of mastery” (Witzel & Mercer). In some cases, intrinsic rewards can be beneficial compared to extrinsic rewards, because they do not require an external stimulus, such as the teacher. The student will stay on task because they are motivated by their own determination (Williams & Stockdale). However, intrinsic rewards will not always be satisfactory for students, since they may not have any internal motivation to complete a task. If a student does not find sentence diagramming or multiplication tables satisfying, then they may never have the motivation to do them, in which case an extrinsic motivator or reward would be necessary to encourage them to complete the task. This is where the advantages of extrinsic rewards are present.

Teachers or instructional assistants don't need to look far for ideas on motivating students in their classrooms. The Internet has many resources available that can aid teachers to aid their students. As stated previously, a student, at times, may have no motivation in a lesson; therefore, the intrinsic reward is meaningless. But, what about the students who just need a little push? One school in Canada created a page on their website solely dedicated to motivation and how to motivate students. On this site, http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/motivation.html, teachers can find 21 strategies, as well as other links, that can help enhance motivation.

Extrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic rewards are rewards given by someone outside of the individual, such as a teacher (Witzel & Mercer). Some common extrinsic rewards are “primary objects, tangible objects, token systems, social approval, and project activities” (Witzel & Mercer). In 1991, Newby found that new teachers use extrinsic rewards and motivation more than any other classroom strategy (Witzel & Mercer). Extrinsic rewards may motivate students to complete tasks that they would otherwise disregard. However, extrinsic rewards can have a negative effect, where students grow dependent on them for motivation in completing their assignments (Williams & Stockdale).

In the classroom, most rewards will be a combination of extrinsic and intrinsic factors. For instance, students may engage in an activity both because of what they will learn, and to earn a good grade (Williams & Stockdale). The information that they will learn will be the intrinsic reward, while the grade that they receive will be the extrinsic reward.

Once again, the World Wide Web is a wonderful tool for teachers. Just typing in the words "extrinsic rewards" returned over 400,000 hits on Google. Of course, many people don't search past the first 10 pages, and it is also likely that the other thousands of returns have nothing to do with what the teacher was originally searching for. One site from California State University's Department of Curriculum and Instruction Charter College of Education offers great feedback on extrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards are a slightly more delicate subject than intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards have the possibility of getting out of hand. When extrinsic rewards get out of control the original purpose of the reward is gone and students will loose belief in any other future rewards. The website from Cal State, http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/jshindl/cm/ExtrinsicRewards.htm, explains how to use "extrinsic rewards more effectively and why to avoid them when you can." It also offers other possible solutions when extrinsic rewards hit a bump.

Reward Guidelines
So, what are some guidelines for new teachers in designing their own reward systems? According to The Savvy Teacher’s Guide: Selected Ideas for Behavioral Intervention, there are three tests to determine if a reward will be effective.

The first test is the “Acceptability Test.” In this test, a teacher should answer the following questions, “Does the teacher approve of using the reinforcer [reward] with this child? Are parent(s) likely to approve the use of the reinforcer with their child” (Wright)? If the reward passes this test, then it should move on to the “Availability Test.”

In the "Availability Test," a teacher should ask, “Is the reinforcer typically available in a school setting? If not, can it be obtained with little inconvenience and at a cost affordable to staff or parents” (Wright). If the reward also passes this test, then it should move on to the final test, the “Motivation Test.”

During the "Motivation Test," teachers only have one question to answer, “Does the child find the reinforcer to be motivating” (Wright). If a reward passes all three of these tests, it should be successful in the classroom in reinforcing positive behavior. An alternative method for determining whether or not a reward is effective is one that was developed by Kohn in 1999. Here Kohn suggests that “teachers need to (a) decide on the purpose of their activities, (b) put themselves in the shoes of the student, (c) determine if the reward drives the action, and (d) opt for more intrinsically motivating means over rewards” (Witzel & Mercer). Both of these reward tests are effective methods for determining whether or not a reward should be used.

After determining if a single reward would be effective, then a teacher should start to develop a list of multiple rewards that can be used in the classroom. One option for creating this list is using a technique known as a “Reward Deck.” A “Reward Deck” is simply a stack of index cards with rewards that a teacher has approved of for their classroom. Teachers can allow students to pick their own reward from this stack, making an individual reward list for each student in their class (Wright). This technique will allow students to pick rewards that will motivate them to complete their work, which may help produce results that are more positive.

Classroom Rewards
 A-to-Z Teacher Stuff is a link to a teacher discussion forum, that specifically focuses on different rewards to use in the classroom. Go here to see what current teachers have to say.

What exactly are some rewards that can be used in the classroom? Some common rewards that teachers can consider are allowing students to, “be the line leader, pick a game at recess, take a homework pass, have the teacher make a positive phone call home, be the teacher’s helper for the day, sit at the teacher’s desk for the day, and use the teacher’s chair” (Bafile, 2003). These are just a few of the many ideas for rewards that exist. In order to encourage students to start taking responsibility for their own behavior, teachers often begin to increase the amount of work needed to earn a reward (Bafile, 2000). This will help them see the link between doing their work, behaving, and getting good grades (Bafile, 2000). Hopefully, students will carry the work ethics that they learn from reward systems with them as they progress through their education.

Rewards and Bullying
There is no evidence to prove that the use of praise and reward systems in a school will help reduce the level of bullying. However, most victims of bullying and some bullies suffer from low self-esteem (Mellor, 2000). It is reasonable to assume that any system which helps young people feel better about themselves is likely to help prevent bullying behavior. Bullying is often a hidden activity so evidence can be difficult to gather (Mellor, 2000). It may be difficult to determine if an incident is actually bullying, since there is a fine dividing line between unacceptable name-calling and social teasing.

Problems With Rewards
Studies over many years have found that behavior modification programs are rarely successful at producing lasting changes in attitudes or even behavior (Kohn, 1994). When the rewards stop, people usually return to the way they acted before the program began. A child promised a treat for learning or acting responsibly has been given every reason to stop doing so when there is no longer a reward to be gained. If the question is "Do rewards motivate students?", the answer is, "Absolutely: they motivate students to get rewards." Unfortunately, that sort of motivation often comes at the expense of interest in, and excellence at, whatever they are doing. At least ten studies have shown that people offered a reward generally choose the easiest possible task (Kohn, 1993). In the absence of rewards, by contrast, children are inclined to pick tasks that are just beyond their current level of ability.

Good values have to be grown from the inside out. Attempts to short-circuit this process by dangling rewards in front of children are at best ineffective, and at worst counterproductive (Kohn, 1994). Children are likely to become enthusiastic, lifelong learners as a result of being provided with an engaging curriculum; a safe, caring community in which to discover and create; and a significant degree of choice about what (and how and why) they are learning. Rewards become unnecessary when these things are present (Kohn, 1994).

Culturally Sensitive Rewards
Rewards and their value vary from culture to culture. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 1/5 of our students come from language minority households. Of that 20 percent, 10 to 15 percent is of an Asian descent. Additionally, it is proven that language minority students have a higher drop out rate and take fewer courses. Therefore, it is essential that the rewards that are used on native English speakers are not counterproductive to the Non-native speakers.

Most Asian cultures do not value nor appreciate being singled out for a job well done. They prefer to remain autonomous and part of the group. If a Japanese student, for example, performs very well on a class assignment, presenting their work to the class or commenting on how well they did may not be received with the enthusiasm that a student from Mexico would. Of course this depends upon the student and their length of time in the classroom. However, there are certain cultural norms that a teacher needs to be aware of before distributing their rewards. The significance of rewards in the classroom is great; however, all students' needs and values need to be taken into consideration before those rewards are given. Especially concerning different cultures and customs.

Issues
Schools have identified several issues which need to be addressed if praise and reward systems are to be effective: (Mellor, 2000)
 * The need for consistency among teachers in their use of sanctions and awards.
 * Regular monitoring of how the system is working, looking at patterns of positive and negative referrals, investigating variation amongst departments or stages and taking steps to ensure consistency.
 * Avoiding rewards which have monetary value or which signal that school work is not valued. (ex. being allowed to arrive late or being excused from homework)
 * Ensuring that praise is genuine and deserved and not routine and meaningless.
 * Keeping the system fresh and meaningful.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/Parents

The National Public Radio conducted a telephone survey in 1999, which randomly interviewed 1,422 adults nationwide. When the parents of school age children were asked: How often do you help your children do homework assignments — nearly every day, once or twice a week, or less often than that? The answers in percentages were 59%, 27%, and 13% respectively. When the parents of school-age children were asked: How often do you meet with your children's teachers —once a month, a few times a year, or only rarely? The answers in percentages were 35%, 50% and 12% respectively. When half the sample of parents and non-parents were given a list of problems schools might face and asked to tell if it were a major problem, a minor problem or not a problem at all for the public schools in your community, 55% indicated that lack of parental involvement was a major problem in their public schools. As you can see from this survey, the lack of parental involvement in children’s education is a problem for our nation. In this article, I will present several things parents should do before their child enters school, what they should do at home and how they should be involved at their child’s school.

Preparation for School
Parents should begin preparing their child for school as soon as the child is born. Children go through many different levels of physical, emotional, social and intellectual development from the time they are born until they begin school. Child Development Info contains a chart that shows the various stages of development a child passes through from ages 2-5. A parent is very important at each of these developments to ensure the child develops normally. Parents should spend time everyday reading to their child and making reading fun and exciting. Children need time to explore and develop their language skills. Parents can do this by reading to the child and asking the child to repeat phrases, as well as teaching the child the alphabet and numbers (Child Development Institute, 2007). It is also the parents’ responsibility to start socializing their child with other children at an early age. This teaches children to get along with others, as a well as key concept such as sharing, learning to listen and take turns. Parents should allow their children to explore their creative personalities by providing adequate time to paint, draw, scribble and color. These artistic activities help children develop and express their personalities, as well as increasing their imaginations (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). These are all things parents should work with and teach their child before the child starts kindergarten. If the parents do not have enough time to work with their child developing his or her skills, then there are many preschool classes available at little or no cost.

Core Values to Success
There are several core values a parent should teach their child at home other than learning academic and language skills. One of the first things a parent should begin, even as the child is still an infant, is to get the child used to a schedule. The child should have structured days with specific times for eating, playing, and napping. As the child nears school age, the parents should try to structure the days similar to what the child will experience in school. This will allow the child to be used to routines and the classroom will not come as such a shock to them. It is also the parents’ responsibility to monitor what the child eats, the amount of sleep received, and what is watched on television or seen on the internet (Bippus, 2005). Children need a proper balance of healthy foods and an adequate amount of sleep to properly function. This will make learning much easier for the child during school so the child is not sleepy, hungry or lacking energy. Children should also be assigned chores appropriate to their age level. A preschooler is definitely old enough to help set the table for dinner, place the toys back in the toy box, and helping sorting the laundry. This teaches children responsibility, how to follow directions and it improves their physical coordination (U.S. Department of Education, 2005). One of the most important things parents can teach their children is discipline. Parents should teach their children right from wrong and that their actions have consequences. Children need to be punished fittingly for their misbehavior and they should be able to easily identify right from wrong before they enter school.

Parental Involvement at Home
As important as it is for parents to be involved with their children at home, it is “Research has shown time and time again that family involvement in a child’s education leads to increased test scores, higher graduation rates, and more opportunities for higher education” (pbs.org, 2007). This statement should be enough to encourage all parents to be actively involved with their child’s education. Parents have to continue to monitor their child’s habits, especially on the content and amount of television watched and websites on the internet viewed. These forms of entertainment can have a huge influence on your child’s life, so it is important the content is age appropriate. Another thing to monitor, especially as your child gets older, is attendance. Sometimes it is hard for schools to keep check on every student so it is easy for a student to skip out of his classes. This is also a core value parents must instill in their children: the importance of being on time and attending classes. The most important thing a parent needs to help their child with at home is homework. The National Education Association says that teachers use homework to help students understand and retain the work covered from the day’s lessons, to see if the students understood what was covered in class, and to help students discover where to find and how to use additional information. It is important for parents to help their children with homework to make sure they understand the material and they do their homework so they are prepared for the next day’s lesson.

Parental Involvement at School
As important as it is for parents to be involved with their children at home, it is equally important that the parents stay involved at their children’s school and with their teachers. One of the most significant things a parent should do is stay in constant contact with their child’s teachers. This includes attending parent-teacher conferences, as well as regular phone calls or notes to ask about your child’s progress. So often, parents think the only time they need to communicate with a teacher is if something is wrong, but a parent needs to stay informed of all progress. Another key way to stay involved is for a parent to volunteer. This way a parent knows things that are going on behind the scenes and can possibly better assess the situation at the school. Volunteers can see first hand if a teacher is relaying the appropriate amount of content to the students; so if this is not the case, then parents know they need to spend extra time with their children at home. Parents should also vote in school board elections and become a promoter for better education in the community or state (NEA, 2007).

Conclusion
Parents should be held accountable when it comes to certain aspects of their children’s education. Parents have responsibilities to prepare their child for school, teach their child core values, and have a steady involvement at home and at school with their child’s education. Parents have to nurture and guide their child’s physical, emotional, social and intellectual development before the child enters school. Parents have to teach their child core values that will lead to success, such as discipline, healthy eating and sleeping habits, and how to follow a routine. The most important thing for a parent to do at home is to help their child with homework in making sure the homework is completed and the child understands the homework. Parents should have a open line of communication with their child’s teacher and spend as much time as possible at the child’s school by volunteering. These are just some examples of how a parent can remain involved in their child’s education so they can help their child achieve success.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Dynamic Learning Environment/Continuing Education

Students look up to teachers as purveyors of knowledge. They often accept their teachers’ words as facts, and will quote them as such for years to come. I cannot count the number of times I have heard full grown adults say, “Well my professor said….”  This act puts a tremendous amount of responsibility on the educators. They are the primary source of information to the students, so they must ensure the information is as accurate and unbiased as possible. This feat is not possible with a four-year undergraduate degree alone. Continued education for the teacher is essential to offer students the best education possible. This should include workshops, consulting other faculty, reading recent textbooks and journals, and most importantly, learning from their pupils.

Continued Professional Development
The Virginia Department of Education requires school faculty to participate in continued professional development. These regulations provide many options for completion, including taking college courses, attending conferences and workshops, and observing the classrooms of fellow faculty. This program is designed to “improve and increase teachers’ knowledge of the academic subjects the teachers teach, and enable teachers to become highly qualified.” Since the course material is constantly changing, this ensures faculty members stay up to date on the most recent developments in their field.

The requirements also designed to assist teachers in finding the best methods for educating their diverse classrooms. Teachers are given the opportunity to witness many different teaching styles. They are also provided with feedback from another trained professional on their own teaching method. Over time they will be able to better develop their lesson plans in a manner that best provides for the advancement of all of their students.

Peer Assistance Beyond the Requirements
Faculty should not consult each other only when the state mandates they do so. Another article in this wikibook has mentioned the buddy program and mentoring. A comparison to the open professional conversations shared by lawyers and doctors has also been mentioned. There is no reason that educators cannot have this same open environment, with or without mentoring or buddy programs. Whenever a question arises with either the material or the method to teach it, another faculty member should be consulted. An inadequate buddy or mentor assignment is no excuse to improperly educate the students. There are plenty of other faculty members at the school, and if no one is willing to assist, the principal is always an option.

Educational Resources
College professors have offices filled with textbooks. When students ask questions that stump them, they often consult not only the textbook for that class, but dozens of other materials until they reach an answer. These college professors are sent these textbooks by the publishers to persuade them to use these books in their classrooms. This leaves k-12 educators at a distinct disadvantage, since textbooks are chosen by the school district and shared by students for many years. This makes it unlikely for publishers to provide k-12 teachers with free books. K-12 educators are still required to teach much of the same information, and must find some method to gather their own library. The subject being taught is one they chose, so supplying some of their own materials is not much to ask. The easiest method is saving their books from their own education. These books can also be pooled with those of other faculty, and the administration can be campaigned to provide extra books for the faculty.

When these hard copy resources fall short, a plethora of scholarly resources are available over the internet. These can actually be preferable to hardcopy resources because students will have just as much access as the teacher. Extrinsic motivating techniques like extra credit can be offered to encourage students to obtain the information on their own.

Learning From Students
This is the most vital and most ignored method of teacher development. Articles and books addressing this subject are in short supply. A Google search for “teachers learning from students” results in only 797 links, compared with 34,400 links for “teachers as learners.” This is a sad reality, because the students are a terrific resource available to the teacher. Few teachers would claim to be experts their first year in the job, but most would claim significant improvement by their fourth year. What is the difference between the first and fourth year? Three years of experience, teaching students, and learning what teaching methods work best in the classroom.

Many undergraduate educational courses mention the idea of learning from students, but this lesson seems quickly forgotten once in front of a classroom. Even when mentioned, it is typically in reference to the technical prowess of today's youth. There is no reason to limit learning from students to just teaching methods and technology. Often students will ask follow up questions and inquire specifics that the teacher may not know. There may not be time for answering all of these questions, but the “it is beyond the scope of this class” answer should still be avoided. Instead the teacher may offer to look it up, or have him or her stay after class to help look it up. With the new internet age, it can even be assigned as homework for all students to find out.

Admitting to students that even the teacher does not know everything is advantageous. Giving them an opportunity to educate the teacher and the rest of the class is estimable. It will provide the students with new found confidence. It will inspire creativity and free thinking. A new more open and active classroom will be born, and both student and teacher will benefit.

Conclusion
Albert Einstein, Johann Sebastian Bach, and Benjamin Franklin all had teachers. Each one of these men proved to be more brilliant than any of those who taught them. For this reason every educator must realize his or her fallibility, and not enter the classroom as the almighty teacher. If we choose only to give the students the knowledge we already possess, then we choose to stifle the education of the children in our classroom.

We must, instead, guide them on their educational journey, often sitting and learning with them. If students are allowed to speak freely, we may find they have ideas and solutions to problems that we have never considered. This is why we should discourage the “purveyor of knowledge” title students so often grant their teachers. Learning should be a process of problem solving and independent thinking, not regurgitation.

In the end we must recall what attracted us to teaching in the first place; a passion for learning. This love and desire of knowledge makes the requirement of professional continued education seem more like a job perk than an obligation. We have all chosen a career that not only encourages us to continue learning, but actually provides us with countless opportunities to do just that, what we love most.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Hot Topics/Bullying

Bullying is defined in the literature as a repeated behavior that occurs over time in a relationships characterized by an imbalance of strength and power(Owens). With this imbalance of strength and power, it is difficult for the person being bullied to defend himself or herself. Bullying has become a major issue with today's growing society. It not only affects the child but it also cause issues within the home. The question however is, what might make someone turn into a bully or who becomes bullied? And what can parents and teachers do to help stop bullying before it gets to far.

Who Becomes a Bully?
Studies have shown that those who become bullied have no same background. Anyone who may have a weakness in themselves tend to become a bully. They may come from a broken home, or they have have bad grades with a problems of alcohol,or even maybe they are the popular kid that earns good grades but they bully because they want to maintain their popularity.Some kids bully as a reaction to the punishing lessons they learn at home at the hands of their parents.Some bullying is almost cultural in nature, in the sense that it is a kind of tradition in the school.For example, hazing that exists in many boarding schools or maybe the " traditional" bullying of freshman by older students. To understand the cause of bullying in a better light, two British researchers Peter Stephenson and David smith subdivided bullies into three different categories; dominating bullies, anxious bullies, and bully-victims.

 * Dominating and Anxious: The dominating and anxious bullies seem to come from homes where the sibling interaction is more dominate then the child=parent relationships. These homes are where the child has the habit of telling their sibling what to do without any parent saying anything can trigger the role of bullying.
 * Bully-Victims: "About half of the bullies report to be victims as well."(Veenstra) Bully-victims are those children who have been victims themselves, either by their own peers, or even parents. They are also children who come from a home where they are rarely supervised, the discipline is inconsistent, and there is lack of love from mom and dad. The bully-victims are known as to be a bigger danger because they have more potential to use a weapon or join a gain because the angry that they may have is to high for them to think logical.  Bully/victims demonstrate high levels of aggression and depression.  They also have poor self esteem, social acceptance, self-control, and academics.  Many are involved in alcohol abuse.  "Bully/victims are among the most disliked members of a classroom." (Veenstra)
 * Males Vs. Females: Males outnumber females at a ratio five to four. Male bullies have a more dominate behavioral problem in class,and are unable to concentrate. Females on the other hand tend to be more talkative and rude. Bullying by boys is more aggressive than girls.  Boys tend to do more hitting and threatening than girls.  Girls tend to call each other names and/or kick someone out of their group by ignoring them.  Some girls will steal from other girls as a form of bullying.

However, girl bullies are becoming frequently more common. Throughout the 1990's bullying by girls has become increasingly more violent, although many girl bullies still resort to rumors, and socially outcasting other students. "Bullying tends to occur between girls (primarily girl on girl) with different levels of power, based on physical attributes, personality, social status, or academic skills. As it is with boys, girl bullying seems to be a display of relative strength versus weakness." (Prothrow-Stith and Spivak). The movie "Mean Girls" is a prime example of the destructive nature of bullying.

Who Becomes a Victim?
So who becomes a victim of bullying? Most of use image those who are bullied as boys that are small with big glasses or girls who may not be up to the trends of today's society, or they may be of another race or culture. Stephenson and Smith yet again did another study on who gets bullied and found out that it goes deeper then gender, appearance or race.. These victims where classified into two groups, provocative victims and passive victims.

 * Provocative Victims: Provocative victims seem to draw bullying responses to them through repeatedly pestering baiting, insulting, invading, an another child's personal space.(Sheas 52) This occurrence is brought about because they have yet to understand the correct social behavior.
 * Passive Victims: Passive Victims are those who are shy or afraid. They have a weakness or they may seem to be weak in relationship with the bully. Passive victims may be smaller or are in a lower social standard and they are not willing to fight back.

Signs That a Child May Be Being Bullied

 * At School

Children who may be bullied may display one or more of the following signs: 1)They have been teased in a hateful manner, 2)they are made fun of and laughed at in a derisive and unfriendly way. 3) They are involved in fights where they are defenseless from which they try to with draw, 4) they have their books, money or other belongings taken, damaged or scattered around, and 5) they have bruises, injuries, cuts or torn clothing that cannot be given a natural explanation.(Olweus 54)

 * At Home

Children who may be bullied may display one or more of the following signs: 1) They come home from school with torn or disordered clothing, with damaged books, 2) They have bruises, cuts, and stratches, 3) choose an "illogical" route for going to and from school, 4)appear unhappy, sad, depressed, or show unexpected mood shifts with irritability and sudden outbursts of temper, and 5) request or steal extra money from family so they can accommodate to the bullies. (Olweus 57)

What Can Schools Do?
All members of a school community, young and/or old, have a responsibility to help people who are being harass by bullies and to speak out against bullying behavior. There are many cooperative ways that schools can help with the issue of bullying and peer pressure. These ideas help formulate where the issue is starting and how to resolve from it. Such ideas are:

1.) Carry out a survey which would show where bullying is happening and how many people are involved. 2.)  Set up a “bully box” for people that are too scared to talk about bullying. Everything that is written and put in the box has to be true for it to work. 3.) Becoming a “buddy” of a younger student by getting to know them so that they become comfortable talking to the older buddy if bullying is happening. 4.)  Have “Prevent Bullying Day.”  This will help inform the students on what bullying is and how to prevent it. 5.) Put on a special play skit so the students know what it feels like to be bullied and what to do to stop it.  Last but not least, arrange Peer Support Groups where older students volunteer to talk to younger students about bullying and friendship.

Schools around the world have started intervention programs to help educate those who would want to know more information about this on going issue. These interventions have been known to reduce both direct and indirect bully incidents, they have a more positive attitude toward social relationships, academic work and the school itself, and also had no increase in bullying in other away from school.

What Can Parents Do?
The home plays the most important role because it helps form strong patterns of social interactions. Teaching children the core values can also help prevent bullying. Within the age of five a child should know that cruelty is unacceptable. If the child knows this then it is shown they that they are less likely to become a bully. Another way of to help your child to not become a bully is to show them how to handle pets and animals with care. This gives them and idea of compassion and empathy. But the most important thing is to give the child love. This helps them know that they are cared for and they will develop to become strong.

Dr. Prothrow-Stith suggests ways for parents to address and help to counter act bullying by girls. She uses the acronym "ART" to describe the ways parents can prevent their daughters from becoming bullies.

A: Act as a Role Model: By demonstrating appropriate ways to handle anger and handle self esteem issues can prevent girls from expressing their own personal anger and esteem issues on others.

R: Reach out to others: She also suggests that parents take an active role in getting to know the parents of their daughters friends. "Within the network of parents, share information in a way that allows you to understand the peer group's dynamics and prevent or respond effectively to any bullying."

T: Talk and Listen- The key to knowing whats going on in a child's life is communication. She suggests that parents ask regularly about problems that their daughter may be having in school (Prothrow-Stith and Spivak).

Statistics and Figures on Bullying
Several studies and surveys have been conducted with parents and students of various school districts and the results show just how much bullying there really is. Some of the statistics and facts are as follows:

 * Studies have shown that 15-25% of US students are regularly bullied while 15-20% report that they bully others frequently.
 * After talking with 3rd-8th graders in several Massachusetts schools, it showed that more than half of the students that were normally bullied said that it had been going on for six months or longer
 * Physical and verbal bullying still increases during the elementary years, and typically peaks in middle school, while verbal abuse seems to be ongoing.
 * An estimated 160,000 US students miss school each day because they are intimidated by their peers and are scared of being attacked.

Just knowing some of the statistics about bullying is enough for any parent to realize they should always be a part of their child’s lives and always want to know what’s going on. Some students will go through bullying every day but be too scared to tell their parents but the clues are always there and bullying will never go away.

Conclusion
Bullying is serious and should not be ignored. The affects can last a life time and without the help of parents and teachers the end result could be dangerous. Interventions not only helps the bullies and victims but can also help those who may be headed in a dangerous path. With the right guidance an motivation bullying could become no more and children would not have to worry about the mental and physical abuse anymore. From my experience of being bullied as a child and teen I can say that it was the worst experience I could ever go through. I had my moments when I was weak and thought I could not go on. Then I thought to myself they would win if I had done something dramatic, and I never wanted them to see that. So instead of dwelling of the fact that I was being bullied, I looked to the positive side of that I had friends that loved me and that's all that mattered. Fortunately for me, all those who bullied from middle school to my first couple years of high school either moved, or I never saw them again because I was taken higher honor classes when they were not. Being bullied is a awful thing to go through and I wish on those who do bully stop and think about what you are doing. What if you had a little sister or brother who was bullied and you saw the tears and pain they go through. More then likely it would break your heart, not only because it hurts your family but you can witness first hand what affects it has on the victims. From being bullied I have become a stronger person, who speaks up for herself more and is not afraid of telling it like it is. In some ways being bullied as a child help me become the adult that I am now. So thank you to all those who made fun of me in the past. You have helped me become the person I am today.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
As an educator, how can you help prevent bullying?


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Foreign Languages

“I had two years of German in High School, but I don’t remember any of it”. This is one of the statements I hear often from people, after I tell them that I teach German. Growing up in Germany, it was common for people to speak fluently at least one other language. The motivation to learn another language is mainly the close proximity to other European countries and the cultural influence through immigrants from all over the world. Foremost, foreign languages are taught already in elementary school. American schools encounter many constraints when it comes to maintaining an effective foreign language program. The motivation for instituting foreign language programs and learning a variety of languages are influenced by events throughout history, mainly World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Iraq wars, and the terrorism attack of 9/11. In addition, the US government has set goals to improve global competitiveness in the world's markets by improving our foreign language education in the United States and our national security, especially after 9/11.

History
Shrum and Glisan point out that in recent years foreign language education has made significant changes especially for "language teachers in terms of standards for teacher candidates, beginning teachers, and more accomplished teachers. An interest in standards in the academic disciplines was sparked by an initiative of the George H. W. Bush administration and was continued under the Goals 2000 initiative of the Clinton Administration. Visionary Goals 2000 (1994) described the competence that all students should demonstrate in challenging subject matter….including foreign languages.  With its inclusion in Goals 2000 foreign language was recognized as part of the K-12 core curriculum in the United States” which eventually resulted in the  Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century." (Shrum and Glisan, 44)

Setting National Goals
According to these goals set by President Bush, the National Security Language Initiative (NSLI) will dramatically increase the number of Americans learning critical need foreign languages such as Arabic, Chinese, Russian, Hindi, Farsi, and others through new and expanded programs from kindergarten through university and into the workforce. An essential component of U.S. national security in the post-9/11 world is the ability to engage foreign governments and peoples, especially in critical regions, to encourage reform, promote understanding, convey respect for other cultures and provide an opportunity to learn more about our country and its citizens. To do this, we must be able to communicate in other languages, a challenge for which we are unprepared. According to U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige, to the extent that foreign language learning improves a student’s cognitive and academic performance, it goes hand in glove with the No Child Left Behind goal of ensuring high student outcomes for all children… Foreign language should not be seen as an “add-on” but rather, foreign languages should be integrated into the curriculum.

In Virginia
Many studies confirm the benefits and effects of learning foreign languages, specifically on learning them early in the child’s development.

Selected Virginia schools offer a variety of foreign language programs which are based on the most recent foreign language teaching methods. For example, the Stafford County School Division offers two types of elementary school foreign language instruction.

FLEX (Foreign Language Exploratory) program. Every elementary school offers an after-school language program. While the majority of schools offer Spanish, some schools also offer French, German, Japanese or American Sign Language.

'''FLES (Foreign Language in the Elementary School--Sequential study). '''

Partial immersion program: a means of acquiring a foreign language through content matter instruction. The uniqueness of an immersion program is that the foreign language is not taught as a subject. In Fairfax County Public Schools (FCPS), students learn mathematics, science, and health through the medium of a foreign language (French, German, Japanese or Spanish). Half the school day is spent learning in the foreign language.

Two-way immersion programs integrate language minority and language majority students, providing instruction in both English and the native language of the language minority students.

Are we there yet?
No. Although foreign language instruction has made great strides in offering different models of instruction and approved assessment, we still need to develop higher proficiency goals to offer better teacher training, to improve K-12 articulation, and to offer more of a variety of languages.

The U.S. lacks the language resources (in languages other than English) to meet its various goals and many members of our society do not experience the benefits that proficiency in multiple languages and cultures can bring. Students enter U.S. schools with native-like proficiency in a language other than English (their heritage language) and are not encouraged to develop high levels of proficiency in their native language while also mastering English.

Lack of variety of Languages and Exposure
More than 200 million children in China are studying English, a compulsory subject for all Chinese primary school students. By comparison, only about 24,000 of approximately 54 million elementary and secondary school children in the United States are studying Chinese. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics, only 44% of American high school students are enrolled in foreign language classes... Of those students, 69% are enrolled in Spanish and 18% in French. Less than 1% of American high school students combined study Arabic, Chinese, Farsi, Japanese, Korean, Russian or Urdu. Less than 8% of United States undergraduates take foreign language courses, and less than 2% study abroad in any given year. Foreign language degrees account for only 1% of undergraduate degrees conferred in the United States.

Unqualified Teachers
Reagan and Osborn point out that it is somewhat puzzling to imagine a language being taught by someone who does not speak it well-and yet in all too many cases, that is in fact the case. "Clearly one must know a subject in order to teach it effectively. In the context of foreign language education, this means that the foreign language teacher should have achieved a high degree of competence in the target language."(Reagan and Osborn, 19)

What can be done?
According to the Center of Applied Linguistics, the U.S. lags behind the rest of the world in foreign language instruction and speaking abilities. What can the U.S. learn from other countries?

Start language education early.

The United States needs a national commitment to elementary school language teaching for all children... In particular, we need to look to countries like ours that have a single official or national language but that are nonetheless succeeding in developing citizens with bilingual or multilingual proficiency.

Conduct long-term research.

The U.S. education system can benefit greatly from the development of a long-term research agenda that incorporates longitudinal studies of a variety of early language learning models of instruction.

Provide stronger leadership.

A stronger and more coherent government-wide effort is needed to create the atmosphere and opportunity to improve language education in the United States.

Identify how technology can improve language instruction.

We need specific research on how technology can best be used to increase students' proficiency in other languages.

Improve teacher education. The United States needs to conduct a more in-depth investigation into how some countries are recruiting high-caliber students into teaching and providing top quality in-service and pre-service training. Develop appropriate language assessments. The effective assessment practices used in other countries are worth studying given the salience of assessment in U. S. education.

Designate foreign language as a core subject.

In districts and schools in the United States where foreign language study is part of the core curriculum, there is a more rigorous approach to curriculum development, professional development, and assessment. Designating foreign language study as a core subject is essential for a successful program.

Take advantage of the sociolinguistic context.'

American educators need to take advantage of the sociolinguistic context in which we live by promoting the learning of languages spoken by indigenous groups and by immigrants and refugees in this country, as well as by our neighbors in Canada and Mexico.

Conclusion
According to the Center of Applied Linguistics, compared to students in much of the world, U.S. students lag far behind in their foreign language capabilities…. The United States can learn a great deal by studying these successes and using the information to implement practices and policies that will support the development of better foreign language education and a higher level of foreign language proficiency among our citizens.

Deficits in foreign language learning and teaching negatively affect our national security, diplomacy, law enforcement, intelligence communities and cultural understanding. It prevents us from effectively communicating in foreign media environments, hurts counter-terrorism efforts, and hamstrings our capacity to work with people and governments in post-conflict zones and to promote mutual understanding. Our business competitiveness is hampered in making effective contacts and adding new markets overseas. Fact Sheet Office of the Spokesman, Washington, DC, January 5, 2006 National Security Language Initiative

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
User talk:150.176.227.130

'''You are blocked here too - when the block expires we expect you to behave in a better way if you wish to contribute. You should be warned that I have looked at the record on Wikipedia as well -- Herby talk thyme''' 15:47, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

Please consider your behaviour carefully when the block expires - I will block you again for longer without hesitation -- Herby talk thyme 19:36, 20 February 2007 (UTC)

November 2010
You cannot edit for 1 year due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. Jomegat (talk) 15:58, 22 November 2010 (UTC)

April 2012
You cannot edit for 1 year due to vandalism. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

title: User talk:150.176.227.130


text:
Talk:Movie Making Manual/Digital Video/Contents

Looking Forward To It
I really am...


text:
Tagalog/Lesson 9

Mga Lugar Mga Lugar or Places

Vocabulary

 * Simbahan - Church
 * Bahay - House
 * Páaralán - School
 * Ospitál - Hospital
 * C.R. (Comfort Room) - Toilet
 * Banyo (Baño) - Bathroom
 * Opisina - Office
 * Gusali - Building
 * Kainán - Eatery

title: Tagalog/Lesson 9


text:
User talk:Chanrahan

Welcome!
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Image copyright problem with Image:Student.jpg
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title: User talk:Chanrahan


text:
User:Jeomaxxters~enwikibooks

Jeomaxxters is an editor/contributor to Wikibooks.org. He has contributed to:
 * Language/Tagalog

title: User:Jeomaxxters~enwikibooks


text:
User:Firework~enwikibooks

About me
Hi, I'm Tom. I live in England, and I hope to add tutorials to the book, and help make me better with Blender!

Contact
Email: tom AT qubesite.co.uk

title: User:Firework~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:72.248.126.101

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 20:01, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.248.126.101


text:
Zulu/Appendix A

1.1 Basic Grammar
1.1.1 Tenses

isiZulu has the same grammatical structure as English: subject, verb and object (SVO). But this order changes in to SOV when 'prepositions' are used in a similar way to French. Before explaining the tenses in Zulu, we need to introduce a few concepts. The first of these concepts is the adjunct. An adjunct is a sentence element that establishes the circumstances in which the action or state expressed by the verb take place. For example, in the sentence, "Today, I went shopping at the mall", all the words in bold are the adjuncts. Those words tell where and when "I went shopping". In English, different subjects do not change the subsequent verb, except when moving from singular to plural. This is not the case in Zulu. The governing noun of a sentence must always be indicated. This is done with a system of concords/prefixes that show this reference.

1.1.1.1 The Present tense

Instead of pronouns and articles, isiZulu uses a system of concordial prefixes. A simple indicative positive statement in the present tense without an adjunct takes the general form of:

NP-NS SP-ya-VS-a

where:

NP = Noun Prefix NS = Noun Stem SP = Subjectival Prefix VS = Verb Stem

An simple example is:

Umuntu uyahamba. "The person is walking."

Broken up into its parts according to the above-mentioned pattern, this becomes:

Umu-ntu u-ya-hamb-a

1.1.1.2 The Future Tense

A simple indicative positive statement in the future tense without an adjunct takes the general form of:

NP-NS SP-zo-(ku)-VS-a

If the verb stem consists of only one syllable, then the "ku" prefix is included. Using the same example as before:

Umuntu uzohamba. "The person will walk(go)." (Note: "hamba" means "go" as well as "walk".

Broken up into its parts this becomes:

Umu-ntu u-zo-hamb-a

1.1.1.3 The Immediate Past Tense

A simple indicative positive statement in the past tense without an adjunct takes the general form of:

NP-NS SP-NS-ile

For example:

Umuntu uhambile. "The person went."

Broken up:

Umu-ntu u-hamb-ile

1.2. Summary of Tenses
The below table provides a summary of the tenses of the indicative in Zulu all in first person.

1.3 Noun Classes
The following table gives an overview of Zulu noun class, arranged according to singular-plural pairs.

1 um- replaces umu- before monosyllabic stems, e.g.  umu ntu (man).

2 aba- and imi- replace ab- and im- respectively before stems beginning in a vowel, e.g.  ab ongameli (president).

3 abe- occurs only in rare cases, e.g. in abeSuthu (the Sotho) or abeLungu (the Whites, the Europeans).

4 ame- occurs only in one instance, namely amehlo (eyes) the plural of iso (eye; originally: ihlo).

5 isi- and izi- replace is- and iz- respectively before stems beginning with a vowel, e.g.  is andla/ iz andla (hand/hands).

6 The placeholder N in the prefixes iN- and iziN- for m, n or no letter at all, i.e. in classes 9 and 10 there are three different prefixes, though only one per noun stem. Examples:

iN- = i-: imali (money) iN- = im-: impela (truth) iN- = in-: inhlanzi (fish)

7 Rare, see above.

1.4 Subject prefixes
In Zulu, a subject prefix corresponds to the subjective case of English personal pronouns, such as I or he. Unlike personal pronouns, however, Zulu subject prefix cannot stand alone, but must be attached to a verb. Zulu does possess a set of independent personal pronouns; however, these are only used to emphasise the subject to whom they refer.

An example with the subject prefix si- and the personal pronoun thina (both meaning we):

There is a unique subject prefix for each grammatical person and each noun class.

The non-initial subject prefixes (SP-) are used when a further prefix is attached to the SP, for example in the negative of certain tenses.

title: Zulu/Appendix A


text:
ERP Internals/Data Tables/HR Planned Days Off

This table contains one record for every set of one or more planned days off.

Used by: Human Resources, Employee Scheduling

Key: Employee Number, Start Date, End Date

Fields:
 * Employee Number
 * Start Date
 * End Date
 * Type (Vacation, Leave of Absence, Compassionate Leave, etc.)


text:
Java Programming/Comparing Objects

In Java, we can distinguish two kinds of equality. If two objects are equal in reference, they are equal in value too.
 * Object reference equality: when two object references point to the same object.
 * Object value equality: when two separate objects happen to have the same values/state.

Comparing for reference equality
The  operator can be used to check if two object references point to the same object.

Comparing for value equality
To be able to compare two Java objects of the same class the  method must be overridden and implemented by the class.

The implementor decides which values must be equal to consider two objects to be equal. For example in the below class, the  and the   must be equal but not the.

After the  method is overriden, two objects from the same class can be compared like this:

Note that equal objects must have equal hash codes. Therefore, when overriding the  method, you must also override the   method. Failure to do so violates the general contract for the  method, and any classes that use the hash code, such as   will not function properly.

Sorting/Ordering
In Java, there are several existing methods that already sort objects from any class like. However, Java needs to know the comparison rules between two objects. So when you define a new class and want the objects of your class to be sortable, you have to implement the  and redefine the   method.

 * compareTo(T o) : Compares two objects and return an integer:
 * A negative integer means that the current object is before the parameter object in the natural ordering.
 * Zero means that the current object and the parameter object are equal.
 * A positive integer means that the current object is after the parameter object in the natural ordering.

Let's say that the name is more important than the address and the description is ignored.

Objects that implement this interface can be used as keys in a sorted map or elements in a sorted set, without the need to specify a comparator.

The natural ordering for a class C is said to be consistent with equals if and only if  has the same boolean value as   for every e1 and e2 of class C. Note that null is not an instance of any class, and   should throw a NullPointerException even though   returns false.

It is strongly recommended (though not required) that natural orderings be consistent with equals. This is because sorted sets (and sorted maps) without explicit comparators behave "strangely" when they are used with elements (or keys) whose natural ordering is inconsistent with equals. In particular, such a sorted set (or sorted map) violates the general contract for set (or map), which is defined in terms of the equals method.

Change Sorting/Ordering
Sometimes we may want to change the ordering of a collection of objects from the same class. We may want to order descending or ascending order. We may want to sort by  or by.

We need to create a class for each way of ordering. It has to implement the  interface.

Since Java 5.0, the  interface is generic; that means when you implement it, you can specify what type of objects your comparator can compare.

The above class then can be associated with a SortedSet or other collections that support sorting.

Using the Iterator the  collection can be iterated in order of sorted by.

A List can be sorted by the '   method.

Sorts the specified list according to the order induced by the specified comparator. All elements in the list must be mutually comparable using the specified comparator.

An array of objects can also be sorted with the help of a.

Sorts the specified array of  objects (customerArray) according to the order induced by the specified comparator. All elements in the array must be mutually comparable by the specified comparator.

title: Java Programming/Comparing Objects


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/Seniority

In union shops, workers are normally laid off in reverse order of their hire date (i.e., the workers that have been there only a short time are laid off first). Often workers with greater seniority are allowed first choice of more attractive shifts as well.

title: ERP Internals/Glossary/Seniority


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/Provincial Sales Tax

A sales tax levied by a provincial government in Canada. Most but not all provinces have such taxes.


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/Union

A group of employees that bargain as a group with the enterprise. The result is a standard contract that specifies pay, benefits and working conditions. The contract can be for one, two, three or more years. Normally, as part of the contract, the enterprise collects union dues and remits them to the union. See also Seniority.

title: ERP Internals/Glossary/Union


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Employee Scheduling/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Employee Scheduling/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Pricing/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Pricing/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Receiving/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Receiving/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Sales Analysis/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Sales Analysis/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Sales Compensation/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Sales Compensation/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Service Management/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Service Management/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Shipping/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Shipping/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Time Billing/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Time Billing/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Workflow/Functions/Maintain Module Information

Some parameters and data tables are used by every module. These are maintained by Systems Administration. But, every module has some parameters and/or data tables that it alone uses. Systems Administration can change this information but each module has a function "Maintain Module Information" that can change it as well. This allows segments of systems administration to be delegated to the senior person in charge of a particular module.

Workflow/Functions/Maintain Module Information


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/Quarter

A group of accounting periods such that there are four quarters of approximately equal length. If the accounting period is a month, there are three months in each quarter.

title: ERP Internals/Glossary/Quarter


text:
ERP Internals/Enterprise Size

Enterprises vary in size from tiny (2 people, <$100,000 annual revenue) to gigantic (>one hundred thousand people, >$100B annual revenue). In North America, 99% of enterprises have less than 50 people and less than $5M annual revenue. With regard to ERP packages, one size does NOT fit all. The bigger the enterprise, the more complex and comprehensive the ERP must be. A large enterprise's ERP requires more functions and the functions must be more comprehensive. On the other hand, the ERP ideally suited to a $1B enterprise is massive overkill for a $1M enterprise. The generic ERP described in this document is a medium-sized ERP with accompanying notes about the changes for larger and smaller enterprises.

title: ERP Internals/Enterprise Size


text:
User:Alnokta

Hello

Nice to see you, I'm the same alnokta you find on any Wikimedia project.

ar:User:alnokta

title: User:Alnokta


text:
Cookbook:Smoking Shrimp Creole

| American cuisine | Southern U.S. cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 teaspoon canola oil
 * ¾ cup chopped onion
 * 1 small seeded green bell pepper
 * 1 small celery rib, thinly sliced
 * 2 teaspoons finely chopped garlic
 * 1 can (14 ounces) crushed tomatoes
 * 2 bay leaf
 * 1 teaspoon ground paprika
 * ¼–½ ground chipotle chili
 * ¾ pound small or medium shrimp, shelled
 * Salt
 * Freshly-ground black pepper
 * 2 cups cooked long-grain brown rice

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the oil in a medium skillet over medium-high heat.
 * 2) Sauté the onion, celery, pepper, and garlic until the onion is translucent, 4–5 minutes.
 * 3) Add the tomatoes, bay leaves, paprika, and chipotle chili.
 * 4) Simmer the sauce, uncovered, until it is thick, 15–20 minutes, stirring it 2–3 times.
 * 5) Add the shrimp and cook, uncovered, until they are pink and firm, 5–7 minutes, depending on their size.
 * 6) Season to taste with salt and pepper.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve over cooked brown rice.

title: Cookbook:Smoking Shrimp Creole


text:
Talk:Reaktor/Core Technology

i think it should be mentioned that reaktor core technology derives from a former shareware product, "SynC Modular", discontinued since it's been sold to n.i. some years ago. and maybe the this-article-is-a-stub notice fits here.

title: Talk:Reaktor/Core Technology


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/GAAP

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. A set of standards of how financial statements are to be formatted and various transactions handled. Each country has its own GAAP. Contrast with IFRS.

title: ERP Internals/Glossary/GAAP


text:
ERP Internals/Glossary/IFRS

International Financial Reporting Standards. A set of international accounting standards. Contrast with GAAP.

title: ERP Internals/Glossary/IFRS


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Conjunctivitus

Overview
The Conjunctivitus curse apparently causes temporary blindness.

Extended Description
In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry is required to get past a Dragon in the First Task of the Triwizard Tournament. Dragonhide is nearly impervious to most spells – it takes several wizards working in concert to Stun a dragon, for instance – so in order to disable a dragon single-handed, you must attack its only vulnerable area - its eyes. The Conjunctivitus curse is the one you use to do that.

We are told about this spell, but we do not see it actually executed, so we do not know the incantation.


text:
User talk:Pjbcool101

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!.

Please see WB:WIW before creating any more pages. Thanks.--Az1568(Talk) 00:21, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pjbcool101


text:
Italian/Lessons/Lesson4

What we will learn
You will learn in this lesson, how to count, tell the time and date, and say how old you are in Italian. You will also learn how to ask for measurements and costs.

Numbers / Numeri
Italian mostly shares its way to identify numbers with the great majority of Romance languages, especially Spanish. Italian cardinal numbers, of any length, may be written as a single, continuous word formed by concatenation; sometimes with the elision of double vowels:
 * 342 trecentoquarantadue
 * 1984 millenovecentottantaquattro, not *millenovecentoottantaquattro

Cardinal numbers up to 1000

 * 0 zero
 * 1 uno
 * 2 due
 * 3 tre
 * 4 quattro
 * 5 cinque
 * 6 sei
 * 7 sette
 * 8 otto
 * 9 nove

 * 10 dieci
 * 11 undici
 * 12 dodici
 * 13 tredici
 * 14 quattordici
 * 15 quindici
 * 16 sedici
 * 17 diciassette
 * 18 diciotto
 * 19 diciannove

 * 20 venti
 * 21 ventuno, not *ventiuno
 * 22 ventidue
 * 23 ventitré
 * 24 ventiquattro
 * 25 venticinque
 * 26 ventisei
 * 27 ventisette
 * 28 ventotto, not *ventiotto
 * 29 ventinove

 * 30 trenta
 * 40 quaranta
 * 50 cinquanta
 * 60 sessanta
 * 70 settanta
 * 80 ottanta
 * 90 novanta
 * 99 novantanove
 * 100 cento
 * 101 centouno
 * 199 centonovantanove
 * 200 duecento
 * 300 trecento
 * 400 quattrocento
 * 500 cinquecento
 * 600 seicento
 * 700 settecento
 * 800 ottocento
 * 900 novecento
 * 1,000 mille
 * 1,000 mille

Keep in mind that for numbers higher than 20 (venti) the last letter of the part describing tens is eliminated if 1 or 8 follows, e.g. ventuno (21), ventotto (28), trentuno (31), trentotto (38), quarantuno (41).

For other ending numbers than 1 and 8 you just use the normal word for tens, ventidue (22), ventitré (23), ventiquattro (24), quarantadue (42), quarantaquattro (44).

Notice that in the case of ventitré (23), trentatré (43), quarantatré (43)... an accent is written on the final E, in order to mark the stress on that letter. On the contrary, tre (3) is written with no accent, as it is a one-syllable word with no homograph (see Pronunciation for details on stress).

Cardinal numbers from 1000 higher
The number mille becomes mila in the plural, e.g. duemila. The numbers milione, miliardo and above are not adjectives; they take a preposition di when followed by a noun, e.g. miliardi di euro.

 * 1,000 mille
 * 2,000 duemila
 * 3,000 tremila
 * 10,000 diecimila
 * 100,000 centomila
 * 1,000,000 un milione
 * 10,000,000 dieci milioni
 * 1,000,000,000 un miliardo
 * 1,000,000,000,000 mille miliardi or un bilione

Ordinal numbers
First ten ordinal numbers have their proper words, the others are formed from the cardinal number by adding -esimo (see table). The final "o" or "e" is dropped from the cardinal number, unless it is an é in which case it just loses the accent, e.g. ventitreesimo. The ordinal numbers are used as adjectives and as fractions. When used as adjectives, they agree in gender and number with the nouns that they modify.

Some ordinal numbers have synonyms e.g. undecimo (ancient italian) and decimoprimo (ancient italian) for undicesimo (11th), centosesto for centoseiesimo (106th), centosettimo for centosettesimo (107th), centottavo for centottesimo (108th), centonono for centonovesimo (109th); 110th is centodecimo

Fractions
A combination of cardinal (1, 2, 3...) and ordinal (3rd, 4th...) numbers are used to form fractions.

The word mezzo is used to represent a half.

 * half — mezzo

Arithmetic
The word più is used for addition.
 * 2 + 2 = 4, two plus two equals four, due più due uguale a quattro

The word meno is used for subtraction
 * 9 - 2 = 7, nove meno due uguale a sette

The word per is used for multiplication
 * 3 x 7 = 21, tre per sette uguale ventuno

The word diviso is used for division
 * 10 / 2 = 5, dieci diviso due uguale cinque

Time / Tempo
NB. When answering always use a singular verb (è) with 1 o' clock (è l'una), always use a plural verb (sono) with other times (sono le nove)

For the first day of the month you use the ordinal number (primo) while for all other days using ordinal numbers is a mistake, you have to use cardinal numbers instead.

Shopping
Dialog
 * A= Per favore, vorrei una pizza.
 * B= Sì!
 * A= Quanto costa?
 * B= Fanno due euro

task shopping: Write a dialog between two people, a shopkeeper and a customer, where the shopper asks the price of objects. Then act it out with a friend (in Italian!).

''Some food words for task;
 * verdure=Vegetables
 * frutta - fruit
 * succo - juice
 * acqua - water
 * cioccolato - chocolate
 * torta - cake
 * pizza - pizza
 * spaghetti - spaghetti
 * arrance - oranges''

Measures
Italià/Lliçó4 Italiano/Lección4

title: Italian/Lessons/Lesson4


text:
Cookbook:Chocolate-Jalapeno Truffles

| American cuisine | Mexican cuisine | Native American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Ingredients

 * 1 tablespoon instant coffee powder
 * ¼ cup boiling water
 * 10 ounces best-quality semisweet chocolate, in small pieces or chips
 * 10 tablespoons (1¼ sticks) best-quality unsalted butter, cold and cut into small pieces
 * 2–3 jalapeños, roasted, peeled, seeded, and finely chopped (wear rubber gloves)
 * ½ cup unsweetened cocoa powder, sift onto a plate

Procedure

 * 1) In a metal 1-quart mixing bowl, dissolve coffee in water.
 * 2) Add the chocolate and set on top of a pan of gently simmering water.
 * 3) When the chocolate has softened completely but is not hot, remove from heat and stir until smooth.
 * 4) Beat in the cold butter a small piece at a time, adding a new piece as soon as the previous one is almost absorbed.
 * 5) Beat with a hand-held electric mixer until creamy, about 10 minutes.
 * 6) Continue beating for a few minutes to cool. This can also be done in a stand mixer, fitted with the whip attachment.
 * 7) Add half of the jalapeños and taste. Add more jalapeño to your taste; remember that the heat will intensify with time. Try for a balance of sweet and heat.
 * 8) Scrape into a small, deep container, press a piece of plastic wrap on the surface, and chill overnight, until completely firm.
 * 9) Scoop out small balls and roll in the cocoa powder.
 * 10) Keep refrigerated until ready to serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Roll the balls in finely chopped pistachios, almonds, or macadamia nuts.

title: Cookbook:Chocolate-Jalapeno Truffles


text:
Cookbook:Romaine Lettuce

Romaine or Cos lettuce (often called simply Romaine or Cos) (Lactuca sativa L. var. longifolia) is a variety of lettuce which grows in a long head of sturdy leaves with a firm rib down the center. Unlike most lettuces, it is tolerant of heat.

Origin and etymology
The name 'Cos' probably does not come from the island of Cos, but from the Arabic word for 'lettuce', خس. It apparently reached the West via Rome, as in Italian, it is called 'lattuga romana', and in French, 'laitue romaine', hence its other English name.

Cuisine
The thick ribs, especially on the older outer leaves, have a milky fluid which is unpleasant, so they should not be used. Neither should the leaf-tips because those can be bitter.

Romaine is the standard lettuce used in Caesar salad.

title: Cookbook:Romaine Lettuce


text:
Cookbook:Corn and Shrimp Chowder

| American cuisine | Soups

Ingredients

 * 1 teaspoon olive oil
 * 1 onion, chopped
 * 1 carrot chopped
 * 1 clove garlic, chopped
 * 3½ cups canned chicken broth
 * 1 teaspoon dill seeds
 * 3 cups frozen corn kernels
 * 1½ pounds (675 g) medium shrimp, shelled
 * ¼ cup light cream or milk
 * 1 tablespoon fresh parsley, chopped
 * Salt and pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) In a large saucepan, heat olive oil over low heat.
 * 2) Add onion, carrot and garlic.
 * 3) Cook, stirring occasionally, until the onion is transparent, about 5 minutes.
 * 4) Add broth and dill seeds.
 * 5) Bring to a boil.
 * 6) Reduce heat and simmer, covered, for 20 minutes.
 * 7) Add corn to broth and simmer, covered, until the corn is just tender, about 5 minutes.
 * 8) In a blender or food processor, puree the newly made chowder and pour it back into the saucepan.
 * 9) Add shelled shrimp, simmer and cook until shrimp are almost done, about 1 minute.
 * 10) Stir in milk and parsley, salt and pepper.
 * 11) Bring mixture back to simmer.
 * 12) Serve immediately.

title: Cookbook:Corn and Shrimp Chowder


text: Talk:C++ Programming/Classes/Inheritance


text:
User:Andreasbo~enwikibooks

Wiki Logg
asd

title: User:Andreasbo~enwikibooks


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/Duplicate rows not suppressed

Version: 7.0.284

System: Microsoft Windows XP SP2

Description: When exporting to External View with Suppress duplicate rows option checked, duplicate rows are not suppressed (even when a wordcount with the Count duplicate rows option checked had been performed before).

Reproduction: To be checked.

Workaround: Not available AFAIK.


text:
User talk:203.59.194.20

Regarding edits made during February 14 2007
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 08:51, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.59.194.20


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/Focus lost after spell check

Added: --Jennyzonneveld 09:12, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Version: 7.0.284

System: Microsoft Windows XP Home SP2

Description: After using the spell check and a spelling error was found the focus on the screen is lost. A mouse click is required to be able to use the keyboard again.

Reproduction: Can the issue be reproduced? Yes. Can it be reproduced on different systems? Yes.

Workaround: Extra mouse click

Status:

Not read by Atril yet.

Comments from other users:


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/Portions found window emptied on spell check

Added: --Jenny Zonneveld 09:19, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

Version: 7.0.284

System: Windows XP Home SP2

Description: When F7 is pressed to initiate the spelling check, the Portions Found window is errased.

Reproduction: Can the issue be reproduced? Yes. Can it be reproduced on different systems? Yes.

Workaround: Right click in the Portions Found window and select Refresh.

Status:

Not read by Atril yet.

Comments from other users:


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/EBMT not working as expected

Added: Rob Laumen (14 Feb 2007)

Version: 7.0.284

System: Microsoft Windows XP SP2

Description: The EBMT feature of Auto-Assemble does not work as expected.

Reproduction: Can the issue be reproduced? Yes. Can it be reproduced on different systems? Yes.

Workaround: Is there a way to work around the issue? No.

Example 1:

Old sentence:

The version is displayed.{code}

Dutch translation of old sentence:

De versie wordt weergegeven.{code}

New sentence:

The version is displayed as follows. (the difference being no code at the end and "as follows" added)

Assembled result:

De versie wordt weergegeven.

Assemble produces a fuzzy match, correctly removes the code, but fails to insert the translation of "as follows" which is in the TDB.

Example 2:

Old sentence:

{code}Precautions When Disposing of the Device

Translation of old sentence:

{code}Voorzorgsmaatregelen wanneer u het apparaat afdankt

New sentence:

Requirements when disposing of the device{code}

Auto-Assemble now produces the following fuzzy match:

Voorzorgsmaatregelen wanneer u het apparaat afdankt{code}

Please note that both "requirements" and "precautions" are in the TDB (both with mutiple translations). So in theory EBMT should "repair" this fuzzy match, but the existence of several terminological alternatives (multiple exact match) may be preventing this(?).

Example 3:

Old sentence:

{code}Carefully guide the USB cable into the trench as shown below, following the trench around and toward the back of the machine.{code}

Translation of old sentence:

{code}Leid de USB-kabel voorzichtig door de goot zoals hieronder aangegeven naar de achterkant van de machine.{code}

New sentence:

{code}Carefully guide the network cable into the trench as shown below, following the trench around and toward the back of the machine.{code}

Auto-Assemble now produces the following fuzzy match:

{code}Leid de netwerk-kabel voorzichtig door de goot zoals hieronder aangegeven naar de achterkant van de machine.{code}

Please note that both "USB-kabel" and "netwerkkabel" are in the TDB. So in theory EBMT should "repair" this fuzzy match, yet the hyphen in one of the portions seems to be preventing this(?), i.e. it produces "netwerk-kabel" rather than "netwerkkabel".

Status:

Not read by Atril yet.

Comments from other users:


text:
User talk:193.63.62.188

Your contribution will be removed as it is not a textbook article. -- Herby talk thyme 12:40, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:193.63.62.188