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Basic Computing Using Windows/Concepts and Settings

We’ve been moving extremely fast and covering a lot of potentially new and confusing material, so let’s take a second to review (some of you may remember this better if you try thinking about the pictures in brackets instead of the words):

 * Computers are machines that process data (picture a giant contraption with sheets of paper containing information being fed in, and ice cream coming out)
 * Go back to the table of controls in Chapter 2 and review all of those (picture something really obvious for each one, like the control panel of a sci/fi spaceship for buttons)
 * The desktop is behind everything and is your access panel to everything (picture an office desk covered in switches, buttons, and knobs)
 * Shortcuts are only links to other files (picture a whirlpool that looks like Mars sucking you to Mars)
 * Everything, programs, shortcuts, letters, and data of all kinds is stored on the computer as files (come up with your own picture, make it interesting)
 * You copy and move files by drag-and-drop (picture a ball, you pick it up and move it, then you pick it up and put it down somewhere else while it stays in the second place)

There was much more covered (especially terms and the hardware from Chapter 1) but this should help you get oriented and give you a good handle on where we’ve been.

Now we’re moving forward again. The next big centre to tackle in Windows is the Control Panel (CP). The Control Panel is where you change almost all the main things in Windows. “But didn’t we change a lot of things, like the wallpaper and colours and screensaver, without going through there?” Yes, but we took a shortcut. Go to ‘Start->Settings->Control Panel’ or ‘Start->Control Panel’ (it may come up with a window or be a sub-menu), then double-click (click if it’s a sub-menu) on ‘Display’. There it is; the box that we used to change the wallpaper, screensaver, and colours

NOTE: Your Control Panel may come up looking totally different and you may be lost. If there is no icon in your control panel called ‘Display’ then your computer is running in a ‘User Friendly’ mode. To switch out of it into the ‘normal’ view, look at the left-hand side of the Control Panel window and find the option called ‘Switch to classic view’ and click this. If you can’t find it, look at Appendix A.

So now we’ve reached the main control centre of Windows, what’s the first thing? How about a severe warning? The options in the Control Panel are necessary and useful, however do not change anything unless you understand it and know what you are doing. Blindly changing any setting can wreck havoc with your computer.

Now, on to the next item. Desktop themes! We have already changed the way Windows looks, however Desktop Themes (or just Themes) are designed to make it easier. Navigate to ‘Start->Settings->Control Panel->Desktop Themes’ or ‘Start->Control Panel->Display’. These two versions of Desktop Themes are implemented very differently. If you have a ‘Desktop Themes’ item on your Control Panel, the double click on this icon. In the window that opens, you can select a theme from the drop down box near the top. In the centre area, the different items will change to show you what that Theme looks like. There are two buttons in the top right-hand corner of the window that allow you to preview the Screen Saver, sounds, and cursors. The check boxes below these buttons are for selecting which parts of the Theme to apply. So if you only want, say, the wallpaper from one Theme and everything else from another, then you would uncheck everything except for ‘Desktop wallpaper’.

If you don’t have a ‘Desktop Themes’ item on your Control Panel, then Desktop Themes for you are integrated into the Display box. Go to the tab labelled ‘Themes’ and select the one you want from the ‘Theme:’ combo box. Just as with the other version there is an area below that will show a preview of what the wallpaper, colours, and some of the icons will be changed to. Click ‘Apply’ or ‘OK’ to change your settings to those determined by the Theme.

Now to get to something really useful, installing and uninstalling programs! Most programs nowadays come on one or more CDs. You put the CD (or the first CD) in the drive and it auto-starts (automatically runs the installation program). You follow the instructions, answer the questions, and voila! Your program is ready to use. Sometimes, however, this does not work, and what if you want to remove a program? So, navigate to the Control Panel and open ‘Add/Remove Programs’ or ‘Add or Remove Programs’. No matter what your version of Windows, a list will be displayed of most of the programs on your computer. To remove a program (uninstall it), click on it in the list and then click ‘Add/Remove’ or ‘Change/Remove’ and answer the questions, if there are any. To add (install) a new program make sure that its CD or Floppy disk is in the drive and then click ‘Install…’ or ‘Add New Programs’ and answer the questions.

Okay, that was easy, wasn’t it? All automated and simple. Now remember back to Chapter 1 when we logged on to the computer. Some computers don’t have a password to log on: some never show the box. Some computers can be set up to have multiple usernames and passwords (accounts) so that you can log into different desktops. How can we set all this up? From the Control Panel, of course! Open ‘Passwords’ or ‘User Accounts’ on your Control Panel. These two work very differently, and they are both presented below.

If your computer has the ‘Users’ item, then you have to check something before you can change the accounts. Open the Control Panel item called ‘Passwords’. In the window that pops up, click the ‘User Profiles’ tab (profile is another word for account). There are two radio buttons here. Click the first one if you want to have only one account on the computer, click the second one if you want to have multiple accounts. Then use the check boxes at the bottom to specify what things can be customised on each account. It is recommended to check all of these.

Once you have enabled using multiple accounts, it becomes easy to create a new account. To create a new account, just type in a different name and password when you start the computer. Windows will automatically create the new account with that username and password to be used every time you log on with them.

If your computer has the ‘User Accounts’ item then you have a much easier way to change all of these options. To create a new desktop click ‘Create a new account’. The computer will ask you what you want to call the new account, this is the username. Click ‘Next’. The computer will then ask you if you want this to be a ‘Computer administrator’ or ‘Limited’ account. It is recommended to run most desktops as limited accounts, however there are some programs that do not function well this way. There are also many things you cannot do from a limited account (like create a new account, so if the instructions in this paragraph don’t work for you, then it is because you have a limited account). Click ‘Create Account’ and you have a new desktop of that type under that name!

To change an account in ‘User Accounts’, click on it in the list at the bottom of the window. The window will then give you the list of options of what you can change. You can change the account name by clicking on the first option. You can also change the password by clicking the second option or you can make your account password-less with the third option. To change the picture representing the account you use the fourth option. You change the account type from administrator to limited and vice-versa with the fifth option, and you assign a ‘.NET Passport’ to the account with the fifth option. All of these options save the last one should be self-explanatory. The final option will be discussed when we discuss the Internet. If you have multiple desktops on your computer and the account selected is not the account that is currently logged on, then there appears a sixth option ‘Delete the account’. This options starts a wizard to remove the user from the computer.

You can change the ‘Welcome screen’ (which is the log-on screen variation that fills the whole screen talked about in Chapter 1) to the normal log-on box. To do this select ‘Change the way users log on or off’ from the main ‘User Accounts’ screen. Then uncheck ‘Use the Welcome screen’ and click ‘Apply Options’.

All right, was that a lot of stuff or what? Now for some concepts, first of all, viruses, hackers,crackers, scanners, and firewalls. You may have heard some of these terms before. Viruses are what people often like to blame (wrongly) for computer problems. Computer viruses work much the same way as normal ones. They ‘infect’ a computer by getting their files on its hard disk. They then begin to copy themselves all over the computer and onto anything that might carry them to another computer, such as floppy disks and emails (more on emails when we talk about the Internet). They also do damage while they are on the computer. Many viruses do annoying things, like playing a song or slowing the computer down, however some of them delete files and erase crucial data. Therefore many people get Virus Scanners. There are some major benefits to scanners. The biggest one being that they will destroy many (and maybe all) of the viruses on your computer. Their disadvantages are that they must be updated regularly, and they slow your computer down. They also give a false sense of security, making you think you are well protected when they may have missed something.

Crackers are people who break into computers. Sometimes they do it for fun, sometimes for profit, sometimes to show off. They often touch nothing. Sometimes they will take data or erase it. They tend to prefer government or corporate targets and seldom do serious hackers target normal people. However, to protect against the theft of data, many people run firewalls. Firewalls are pieces of software that identify hacker-like things and cut them off, providing a huge measure of protection for the home user. A similar term, hacker, is often used to refer to crackers, however the term hacker more properly refers to someone who knows how to exploit a computer system for beneficial purposes.

We’re almost done, now for error messages. Error messages do not always indicate an error (or at least, not what you call error messages). Many so-called error messages are simply the program asking for more information. The first thing to do when you see an error message is to read it. Many computer experts may seem to violate this rule: that is often because they recognise common messages and know what they say without reading it. Below is a list of common error message buttons and what they usually do:

Most error boxes have icons beside them to indicate their nature as well:

Computers can break. Things can go wrong, viruses can destroy information, and the person using the computer can do something wrong. To protect your data just in case this happens it is necessary to back it up. Backing up is making a second copy of data. If you are changing something and do not want to lose the original you can create a second copy on the hard drive to work with, this is a back up. However to protect your data in the case of major computer error it is necessary to back it up off of the hard drive. The most common way to do this is to put all of your data on CDs or DVDs.


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Talk:Basic Computing Using Windows/Concepts and Settings

Figures
There were originally no figures in this chapter except for the icons in the table that I have commented out. -- Singpolyma 13:47, 28 September 2005 (UTC) who the fuck wrote this? this is terrible

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Movie Making Manual/Rain

=Photographing Rain=

 * Backlight it
 * Use LOTS of rain! It's surprising just how much you need to show up.
 * Sometimes milk is added to water to increase its visibility.
 * Use Large droplets. Misting the source will only look like haze.

/Cinematography

title: Movie Making Manual/Rain


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Template:Reverse Engineering

 Reverse Engineering

title: Template:Reverse Engineering


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Windows XP/Changing The Wallpaper

Commonly referred to as a background image, changing the desktop wallpaper on your personal computer is one of the first and easiest ways to personalize your PC. You may choose one of the attractive images that are bundled with Windows, you may download an image from the Web, or you may select a digital image from a camera. Almost any image on your computer or the internet may be tiled, centered, or stretched to fit your desktop, so possibilities are endless!

To choose one of the background images (wallpapers) that come with Windows:
 * 1) Right-click on the desktop.
 * 2) Click on Properties.
 * 3) On the new window that appears, select the Desktop tab.
 * 4) In the scrolling list labeled Background:, select any image.
 * 5) Click OK.

To choose another image that you have saved onto your computer:
 * 1) Right-click on the desktop.
 * 2) Click on Properties.
 * 3) On the new window that appears, select the Desktop tab.
 * 4) To the right of the scrolling list labeled Background:, click on Browse....
 * 5) In the new window that appears, go to the image you want as your background, and click Open.
 * 6) Click OK.

To choose an image from the Internet without saving it first:
 * 1) Right-click on the image you want as your wallpaper.
 * 2) Click on Set as Wallpaper.
 * 3) Click Set Wallpaper.

Note: The drop-down menu labeled Position: will change the image from Tiled, Centered, or Stretched across the screen. The menu labeled Color: will change the color behind the background image.

To automatically cycle your wallpaper:

If you change your wallpaper frequently, you may want to consider downloading an extra free program. There are many free automatic wallpaper changers available on the Internet; try searching Wallpaper Changer.

Here are a few wallpaper changers that are currently available for free.

 * http://www.wallpaperchanger.de/ loaded with features and options.
 * http://www.tropicalwares.com/wallmast.html the free version of WallMaster Pro.
 * http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=ce1d596b-6851-4948-ab76-b5ff22d37d69&DisplayLang=en the genuine Windows version

title: Windows XP/Changing The Wallpaper


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dobby

Overview
Dobby, a House Elf, is essentially property, belonging to his "family" and unable to work against their instructions or interests. Apparently, according to the author, his birthday is 28 June. Dobby is forced to respect his owner and punishes himself (by self abuse) if he does not follow the orders of his master.

Chamber of Secrets
Dobby came to the Dursley's house to warn Harry that he should not return to Hogwarts for his second year studies, saying he thought it would be too dangerous for Harry. Dobby admitted that he had been blocking Harry's mail; he had believed that if Harry got no letters from his friends, he would think his friends were false and would not want to go back to them.

Dobby then locked the barrier at Platform Nine and Three Quarters in hopes that if Harry was unable to make it onto the Hogwarts Express, he would be unable to go to school. Harry and Ron thwart this by using Ron's father's flying car, which they crashed into the Whomping Willow.

Dobby bewitched one of the bludgers to repeatedly attack Harry in the Quidditch match against Slytherin; visiting Harry in the Hospital Wing that night, he admitted that he had hoped that it would injure Harry enough to cause him to be sent home. It is during this visit that he also explains how a house-elf can be freed, and admits that the Chamber had been opened before.

At the end of this book, Lucius Malfoy brings Dobby with him to the school, thus confirming that he is the house-elf of the Malfoy family, as Harry had believed. Dobby hints to Harry where Riddle's diary had come from; Harry confronts Lucius with this in front of Professor Dumbledore. Harry then tricks Lucius Malfoy into accidentally releasing Dobby from service to the Malfoys by presenting an article of clothing to Dobby, who promptly saves Harry from Mr Malfoy's wrath at having his servant freed.

Goblet of Fire
Dobby spent at least a year searching for a family who would pay him wages to be their House-Elf, something which is unheard of in the wizarding world. Eventually, Professor Dumbledore agreed to pay Dobby one Galleon per week to work at Hogwarts – he had offered more, but Dobby bargained him down. When we see Dobby in the Hogwarts kitchens, he has just entered Dumbledore's service at the school, along with Winky.

At Christmas, Dobby wakes Harry up leaning over him in his bed; Dobby gives Harry a pair of socks; they are hand-knitted by Dobby himself. In return, Harry presents Dobby with a pair of socks – the ones which had been cushioning his pocket Sneakoscope for years. Ron also gives Dobby a pair of socks and a jumper (US: sweater). Dobby is quite overwhelmed by this.

Dobby happens to overhear Professor McGonagall and Professor Moody discussing the Second Task of the Triwizard Tournament, and discovers that Harry will need some Gillyweed to save "his Wheezy" (Ron Weasley); so he steals some from Professor Snape's office and gives it to Harry, waking him up where he had fallen asleep in the library mere minutes before the task is due to start.

Harry later visits the Hogwarts kitchens with Ron and Hermione, to thank Dobby with a gift of socks (Dobby's favorite garment) for his help in the second Task. Ron takes the opportunity to secure some additional food for Sirius Black, who at the time is living in a cave outside Hogsmeade.

We later learn that Professor Moody had deliberately let the information about Gillyweed slip when Dobby was in earshot, in hopes that Dobby would act on it.

Order of the Phoenix
When Professor Grubbly-Plank has healed Hedwig, Dobby brings her back to Harry. Harry is of course pleased to get Hedwig back, and speaks with Dobby for a while about how he and Winky are doing. Harry at this point is trying to find a place where the Defence Association, as it was then known, can practice, and he asks Dobby if he knows of any such place. Dobby, surprisingly, does, and tells Harry about the Room of Requirement, or the Come And Go Room. He has used it several times when he needed a place for Winky to dry out. He volunteers to show it to Harry, but Harry decides he is too tired, and it is too late at night; instead, he asks Dobby to tell him how to get in.

Dobby manages, somehow, to get into the room before the last meeting of Dumbledore's Army before Christmas, and decorates it with embarrassing Christmas decorations – baubles reading "Have a Very Harry Christmas", for instance. Harry does manage to get it largely cleaned up before the rest of the D. A. arrive.

Against direct orders from Professor Umbridge, Dobby makes his way into the Room of Requirement to warn the D.A. that Umbridge is coming. Because he has violated orders, he as usual feels a need to punish himself; he does this by charging headfirst into the wall. Harry does prevent him from injuring himself further. Harry is able to spread the word quickly enough that the only person actually caught is himself.

Half-Blood Prince
At one point, Harry feels the need to have Draco Malfoy trailed, to find out where he is going. He summons Kreacher, who appears entangled with Dobby – evidently they had been involved in a fight when Harry summoned Kreacher. When Kreacher calls Harry a "filthy friend of Mudbloods", Dobby punches him in the mouth and knocks his teeth out. Dobby volunteers to track Malfoy as well.

Shortly thereafter, Kreacher and Dobby return to report to Harry. Kreacher's report seems to be largely praise for Malfoy and his pure blood, and abuse for Harry, but Dobby is able to report that Malfoy had been spending time in the Room of Requirement.

Deathly Hallows
When captured and in the cellars of Malfoy Manor, Harry sees a blue eye in the Magic Mirror he carries around with him, and asks it to send help. Shortly, Dobby apparates into the cell where Harry, Ron, Ollivander, Luna Lovegood, and Dean Thomas are being held. Dobby is apparently extremely nervous at being in the Malfoy home, where he was so cruelly treated before Harry won him his freedom. Harry asks him to take Luna, Dean, and Ollivander to Shell Cottage. The noise of Dobby Disapparating attracts attention from upstairs; Wormtail is sent down to the cell to investigate, and Ron and Harry attempt to overpower him. Harry calls on the life debt that Wormtail owes him, and he hesitates; the silver hand that Lord Voldemort had given Wormtail senses this hesitation, and reading it as disloyalty, chokes Wormtail to death.

Harry and Ron proceed upstairs to try and save Hermione and Griphook. Though disarmed, Bellatrix Lestrange produces a silver knife and threatens Hermione with it; she has Draco collect all the wands Harry and Ron are holding. Dobby re-appears and causes the chandelier to fall on Bellatrix; gathering all the wands Draco is holding, Harry takes Griphook and Dobby, and Ron takes Hermione, and together they Apparate to Shell Cottage. As Harry is Disapparating, however, he sees Bellatrix throwing her knife; arriving at Shell Cottage, he finds that the thrown knife has hit Dobby, killing him.

Harry then digs a grave for Dobby, and buries him, near a tree on the grounds of Shell Cottage. In memorial of Dobby, Harry makes Dobby's grave reads "Here lies Dobby, A free Elf."

Later, Aberforth Dumbledore asks where Dobby was, saying that he had expected Dobby to be traveling with Harry; Harry tells him that he was killed by Bellatrix. Aberforth is dismayed; he says he "liked that elf."

Strengths
Dobby is very loyal to the people he cares about. He did what the Malfoys told him to do because he had no choice. Despite the loyalty he owes to the Malfoy family, however, Dobby still tries unsuccessfully in the second book to protect Harry. He later helps Harry in the Second Task in Goblet of Fire, tells him about the Room of Requirement, warns the DA, and tails Draco Malfoy for him. He is also loyal to Dumbledore who employs him, and helps his friend Winky when she is drunk. He is also a hard worker. Dobby is also a very grateful person. In general, he is a good friend to have around.

Weaknesses
Like all house-elves, certain subtleties of human behavior are beyond his understanding; his speech pattern, for instance is somewhat immature: he will speak in the third person, apparently unable to master the subtleties of "I" and "you". He is completely subservient, seeming to exist only to take orders from one wizard or another. He does have a will of his own, reflected in his being able to try and warn Harry away from Hogwarts against his owner's wishes, but he has to make a supreme effort to allow that will to express itself, and because he is going against the wishes of his owner, he must punish himself. He has internalized his subservience so much that he will punish himself without being told to, if he finds himself doing something which he believes his owners might not like.

Relationships with Other Characters
Dobby, being emotionally very simple, in some ways childlike, forms relationships very quickly, albeit at a possibly child-like level. Initially, of course, he is required to be loyal to the Malfoy family, but even within the constraints of that loyalty, he attempts to protect Harry, who he sees as something of a saviour, from efforts to harm him. Dobby says that this is because of Harry's defeating Lord Voldemort; house-elves were really very badly treated when he was around. "Of course, Dobby is still treated very badly...", he goes on to say; but Harry is respected because of what he did for the general House-Elf population. Once Harry engineers his freedom from the Malfoys, Dobby must hunt for some other Master to serve, eventually setting on Hogwarts and Dumbledore; while his loyalty then is to the school, he clearly is also loyal to, and protective of, Harry, even attempting to defend Harry from slurs by Kreacher. Additionally, he takes care of Winky, who he apparently feels responsible for, having found her the job at Hogwarts. To a lesser extent, Dobby also comes to admire Ron when he receives one of Ron's Christmas sweaters.

Analysis
It is possible that Rowling has used the relationship between Harry and Dobby to send a message to the reader, teaching equality of all and using the difference in species to comment on racism. We are repeatedly told, by one wizard after another, that House-Elves are happy with their lot, that they exist to serve, and that granting them freedom would be an injustice; but Dobby, perfectly happy to be a Free Elf, shows that this generalization is, like all such, an over-simplification. However, by showing how the relationship between Harry and Dobby continues, and Dobby's essentially child-like nature, we can see how wizards in general could perpetuate this discrimination.

By the same token, we should note that Dobby's pleasure at being freed largely stems from the way he was maltreated by his owners, the Malfoy family. Dobby's treatment at the Malfoy's hands contrasts with the treatment of the Hogwarts house elves; while still subservient, the Hogwarts house elves are treated as individuals with worth, and are not abused or belittled. The Malfoys' treatment of Dobby displays how this sort of inequality can be abused.

It is also worth mentioning that Dobby's apparent pleasure at his freedom is one of the main things that supports Hermione's attempts to win freedom for house elves. None of the other Hogwarts house-elves seems to want freedom, to the point of refusing to clean Gryffindor tower because of the elf hats Hermione knits and leaves lying around. Dobby, as a Free Elf and already clothed, thus ends up cleaning the Gryffindor dormitory single-handed. Quite possibly, it is the difference in how they are treated that determines whether freedom is seen as a good thing or not, and it is only the very worst treatment that results in an elf being willing to risk the uncertainty of freedom.

Also, to note, Dobby has never done anything solely for himself (Remove if necessary)

Questions

 * 1) Why does Dobby die when he has magic powers to keep him alive?
 * 2) How does Dobby manage to guide Harry to Shell Cottage with a knife in his heart?
 * 3) Do you think Dobby wanted to be a Free Elf? Why or why not?
 * 4) Do you think Dobby's want to be a Free Elf would have changed if he had a different master?


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Basic Computing Using Windows/Networks and the Internet

We have now covered all the basic concepts using a computer. In this chapter we are going to cover the concepts related to networking and using the Internet.

A network is a way of connecting two or more computers together so that they can share peripherals (hardware like printers) and data. The most common form of network uses Ethernet. Ethernet is a system of data transfer that uses two different kinds of wire, the older one being like a cable television wire and the newer one being like telephone wire. The newer one is faster and uses an end called RJ-45, which looks like a fat telephone cable end. Normally, computers are plugged into a hub, or switch using an internal piece of hardware called an Ethernet card or simply a network card and one of these cables. Then they can all communicate with each other.

Once the computers can communicate, each item (i.e. printer or folder) that needs to be accessed on the network must be shared, allowing it to be visible to the other computers. Any shared item may be blocked off from general use by a password. One of the other benefits of networks is email (electronic mail). Email allows users to send messages and files to each other. When a new message is received it goes into the users inbox for storage until it is read, so that a user may receive mail while away from the computer.

Ethernet networks create what is called Local Area Networks (LANs). This means that they are used within one area (i.e. a house or business building) and that is it. All the computers in that area may be connected, but no one else. This can be a problem depending on what you want to do, and a larger network could open up immense possibilities. Enter the Internet. In 1957, just after the USSR launched Sputnik, the American government created ARPA, a scientific research branch for the military. In 1969 ARPA decided to attempt the creation of a national computer network for communications by the military. They did not want to use any standard system, however, not just because of the distance, but because of the fear of nuclear attack. They wanted a network where there was not central hub that could be taken out, but where all remaining parts would function if any other part were destroyed.

After their success, the idea spread. Different government and educational institutions started connecting into the network. Because they all used the same protocol (a set of rules that computers use to communicate, in this case TCP/IP) and the same wires that carried telephone across the country as soon as they plugged in it was the same network. Soon different institutions were creating their own servers (computers that store information meant to be accessed on a network). By 1989 there were more than 100 000 servers on what was becoming known as ‘the Internet’. After the Cold War the American government no longer needed a specifically protected portion of this network they had started for their own and the Internet became completely public domain.

In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee invented a protocol based on TCP/IP that could work with it on the Internet and was more flexible. Soon after this, the NCSA (National Centre for Supercomputing Applications) developed Mosaic, a graphical interface for this protocol called the World Wide Web (WWW).

The rest of this chapter is going to be spent looking at the WWW (or ‘the Web’). To view Web pages (the electronic documents with pictures and formatted text that you view on the Web) you need to have a Web browser. The two most popular browsers are Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer. You can use either one or any other Web browser. If you are not sure what you have, then you will still have Internet Explorer, it comes with Windows.

To do anything online (on the Internet), you must first connect to the Internet. If you don’t know how, see Appendix B. After you have connected to the Internet, open your Web browser. Every computer connected to the Internet has an address, called an IP address to identify it. This is a number like ‘207.194.50.216’. To have to remember something like that to access a web page would be a pain, so Domain Names were created. Domain names are names that you can type in the location bar (more on this below) in your browser. The name is then sent to a server on the Internet called a DNS (Domain Name Service) server that then returns the correct IP address.

You should be connected to the Internet and have your browser open. (You may not have access to the Internet where you live. Your teacher will provide a substitute.)  First we should identify the parts of a browser so that we know what we’re talking about. Figure 6.1 is a picture of Internet Explorer. If your browser looks a little different, that is okay.

The location bar can also be called the address bar, and it is where you type the URL (Universal Resource Locator or Uniform Resource Locator), which is laid out as follows:

After you type the URL press the Enter key and you web browser will take you to the page. The first button on the toolbar is the ‘Back’ button. It does the same thing as the ‘< Back’ button that we saw before, it goes to the previous screen you were looking at. In this case, the previous web page you were at. The back arrow on the button is a universal icon. Universal icons are ones that are always used to represent the same function. This is different from a program icon like on your desktop or from an icon that only occurs in one program. Even the ‘< Back’ button has a back arrow, that’s what the ‘<’ is for. Note that universal icons do not always look exactly the same (i.e. the arrow can look different, as long as it points left).

A universal icon also identifies the next button on the toolbar, the ‘Next’ button. If you push the back button, then you can go forwards again by pushing this button. The next button on the toolbar has two universal icons used together. A sheet of paper represents a file. An ‘X’ represents stop. So the sheet of paper with an ‘X’ on it represents stop loading the file, which is what this button does. Some web browsers have just and ‘X’ or have a red stoplight on this button. They mean the same thing, stop.

Two icons are also used on the next toolbar button. The paper means the same thing, and the arrows going around mean refresh or reload. This is actually typically a Microsoft icon, although some other companies also use it. The reload button in Netscape as a bent up-arrow, signifying looking at the server again. This button forces the web browser to look at the server and download all the data for a web page again. This is primarily used for when the cache (the place where a web browser stores web pages on your hard drive for quicker access) has an old version of the page that the web browser is displaying and you want to see the newest version of the page.

The next two buttons on the toolbar are the last ones with universal icons. They have a house, and a magnifying glass. A house represents ‘home’ and this button takes you to your home page. A home page is a web page that you have set up for your browser to take you to when it first starts or when you click this button. The magnifying class represents ‘search’ and this button will take you to a web page from which to search the Internet.

There is one more thing you need to know about if you are going to be using web pages, hyperlinks. Hyperlinks (one is labelled in the picture above) can be either text or pictures. When they are text they are often a different colour and underlined. When you click on them they take you to a different web page. The text ones are a different colour once you have been to the web page they point to. Some text hyperlinks are formatted differently, though, and many hyperlinks are pictures. How can you know if something is a hyperlink? Hover your cursor over it and if it is a hyperlink your cursor will turn into a hand, and usually the URL that the hyperlink (or just link) points to will be displayed in the status bar.

The web is very useful for getting information this way, but what if you don’t know the URL you need? That is why search engines were created. There are more than 10 billion web pages on the Internet, not all of them are catalogued in all search engines and when you search for something you will tend to get pages that have nothing to do with what you want. However there are some ways to improve your search results.

Go to a search engine. They all work much the same but if you don’t know of one go to http://www.google.com or http://www.bing.com. In the text box you can type keywords (words that have something to do with what you want to find). Some search engines have more advanced features that you can explore on your own, but all of them support Boolean operators. The two most useful for web searches are AND and OR. It is best to type them in all caps. AND tells the search engine that the things on both sides must be in the web page (they may be in its text or in its META tags). OR tells the search engine that one or the other must be in the web page. So typing ‘boats AND models’ will look for all pages containing both words, whereas ‘boats OR models’ will find any page with either word. You can also use NOT, ‘boats NOT Titanic’ returns everything containing ‘boats’ that does not contain ‘Titanic’

You can do more complicated strings too, like ‘boats AND models OR ships AND kits’ which finds all pages containing both ‘boats’ and ‘models’ or both ‘ships’ and ‘kits’. You can also do something like this, ‘boats OR ships AND models OR kits’ which finds anything containing the word ‘boats’ or ‘ships’ along with either ‘models’ or ‘kits’.


text: Template:Title

title: Template:Title


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Talk:Basic Computing Using Windows/Networks and the Internet

Figures
There is but one figure for this chapter, a screenshot of a page in Internet Explorer. -- SingpolymaT E 15:30, 28 September 2005 (UTC)


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Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices/Contributors

This book was written by Wikibooks contributors. Thank you!

Contributors: You can best decide what category you fall in. Please add your name in alphabetical order.

Major Contributors
The users who have written or updated content.

SingpolymaT E

FosterHaven (talk/mail) (verify)

Minor Contributors
The users who improved the clarity of pages through spell checking and other minor errors.

Tails0600

Titan602


text:
Basic Computing Using Windows/Email, Chat-rooms, and IM

E-mail
Email was already partially explained when we talked about networks. The Internet is often called a ‘network of networks’ but it still has many of the things a network has. One of those things is the ability to do email. The problem with email over the Internet is that it would be impossible to list every person on the Internet in one place, have it current with their names, have those names be unique, and still have it be useful. Since this is the way email on LANs works there needed to be a better addressing system. Email addresses on the Internet work with domain names, but not with URLs. All email addresses go by the format ‘username@domain.name’, where domain is usually the website you sign up. Thus ‘julia@yahoo.ca’ is the email address for the person who signed up with Yahoo! Canada for an email address under the username of ‘julia’. ‘julia62@yahoo.ca’ is what happens when a name was already taken and someone else wants it.

Email typically operates on two sub-protocols of TCP/IP, SMTP and POP3. SMTP is used for sending email, and IMAP(or the older POP3)is used for downloading (taking off the Internet and putting on your computer) email. Many different email programs exist, for desktops and mobile(iOS , Android , Windows Phone etc). Three of the most popular are GMail(Android), Microsoft Outlook, and Windows Mail. Another popular way to access email is through a web page interface. There are many differences between all the major programs, however there are some things that are standard.

You can create and email, usually by clicking on a button or link labeled ‘new message’. The universal icon for an email message (or just for email) is an envelope and the universal icon for ‘new’ is a star. So there may be an icon of an envelope with a star or something like that. Remember to use tool-tips to find out what buttons with no labels are called. You type one (or more than one separated by a comma) email address in the box labeled ‘To:’. The ‘From:’ box is usually filled in automatically(you may be given options if you use a mail client and have 2 or more e-mail addresses, in which case you should choose the e-mail address you want to send from), and then there are ‘Cc:’(Carbon Copy) and ‘Bcc:’(Blind Carbon Copy).. You can put email addresses in them and the email will be copied to them so that all can see it was copied to all the persons(Cc) or so that they cannot(Bcc), respectively. You then type the text for your message into the big text box at the bottom.

If you are connected to the Internet when you click the ‘Send’ button (or other similar button) on the email it will go immediately. If you are not (or if the button is called ‘Queue’) then the messages go into you Outbox until you check your mail. To check your email(which is usually done automatically) (that is, to download new messages and send the ones in the outbox) click the ‘Check Mail’, ‘Send and Receive’ or other similar button. A progress bar will appear in the status bar or a window will come up with one so that you can know when it is finished. All new messages go into your Inbox, unless you have filters set up (we will not be discussing filters in this book). You can then move them into other mailboxes that you have created by drag-and-drop. (To create a new mailbox there should be a ‘Create new mailbox’ on the menu or on a popup-menu for the Inbox.)

Some emails have attachments, these are files that are in the email that you can open and/or save. The universal icon for attachments is a paper clip. You can attach file to you emails by clicking the ‘Attach’ or similar button. You can open files in email that you receive by either clicking on their icon at the end of an email, or double clicking on it in the ‘Attachments:’ spot at the top, depending on your program. It is important to take caution when opening attachments, as viruses are easily hidden inside attachments. Also there can be file limits depending on your provider.

Chat rooms
Email is very useful, but what if you want to talk to someone directly? So chat-rooms were invented. Chat-rooms are found on web pages all over the place, some are public, and some you need a membership for. Once you are in, to use it is simple. There is (usually) a list of the nicknames (or handles, fake names people use on the Internet) somewhere on the page, and when you sign in you give it the one you use. You type something in a text box at the bottom and press either the ‘Enter’ key or the ‘Send’ or ‘Say’ button and your messages is visible to everyone in the chat-room in the text box above, including yourself. === IRC(Internet Relay Chat) IRC chat was designed to go a step further. You need a program for it and it has a few more features (like the ability to ‘whisper’ to only one person in the room).

IM(Instant Messaging)
IM (Instant Messaging) was designed for one-on-one or conferencing, much like telephones. Everyone has a unique nickname or number that you must know in order to contact them with a message, send them a file, or do a real-time chat, depending on what your program supports. You add people to your contact list or buddy list and then if you are online, the program notifies you when they are too. Then you can send them messages, chat with messages, or do other things.

Some IM programs also let you send them messages when they are offline that they will get when they come online. Something like email, but it works faster. You can also usually invite other people on your list into an existing chat (or messaging) session so that you can have a little chat room with only people you want. There are new features coming out for computers all the time. Many IM programs now let you talk with the people while chatting or even see them! The biggest advantage over telephones? You can talk to anyone in the world for any length of time without paying more than your monthly Internet bill. No long-distance charges!


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Talk:Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices/Switching the Control Panel to Classic View

Figures
This page has not been created because it is only a figure of how to switch the XP control panel to classic view, and the figure has not yet been uploaded. -- SingpolymaT E 15:43, 28 September 2005 (UTC)


text:
Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices

 * /Switching the Control Panel to Classic View/
 * /Connecting to the Internet/
 * /Dual Booting/
 * /Contributors/


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Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices/Connecting to the Internet

The Internet is an integral part of Windows. There are many ways of connecting to the Internet.

Note that they are both backwards and forward comparable(both socket and cable) but you'll not get the benefit of the newer standard. Note that they can reduce their speeds dynamically (eg - from 11 Mbit/s to 5 Mbit/s) if there is not enough range.
 * 1) Using a dial-up connection:-To create a new dial-up connection to the Internet (that is, not a high-speed broadband connection) navigate to one of the three places above (if it is the last one click on ‘Show all connections’).  Then there will be either an icon that says ‘Make New Connection’ or an item on the left-hand side labeled ‘Create a new connection’.  Open the one that your computer has and follow the instructions.  If it is called ‘Create a new connection’ you can also create a high-speed connection in there. This system is outdated, with most computers not having an RJ-45(telephone jack) connector anymore. Dial-ups are also very slow.
 * 2) Using Ethernet:- Mostly, you can simply connect the cable and then connect to the Internet. If that does not work , make sure that the latest drivers are installed and that the connection is not disabled. Ethernet is often faster than Wi-Fi , where CAT5E can get up to 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s) while the latest Wi-Fi 802.11 ac can get up to about 600 Mbit/s (75 MB/s) and the more common 802.11 n can get up to about 130 Mbit/s (16.25 MB/s) to 300 Mbit/s (47.5 MB/s). The common types of Ethernet are:-
 * 3) CAT3, offers up to about 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s)
 * 4) CAT5, offers up to about 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s)
 * 5) CAT5E, offers up to about 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)
 * 1) Wi-Fi:- Wi-Fi(Wireless Fidelity) is a very popular method of connecting to the internet both at home through a router, and outside at popular malls and cafes. First you need to make sure that the network you want to connect is within range. Then click the wireless icon(or open the Charms and click Network) on the taskbar and click Connect to Network. If you see no networks , make sure that Wi-Fi is not disabled. You can go to Network Connections in Windows XP + or open the Charms bar in Windows 8+ , click Network and ensure that Wi-Fi is enabled and Airplane mode is disabled. Click then network , and enter the password if you're prompted. Sometimes , you cannot find your preferred network. In this case , if you know the name , you can click Hidden Network in the list of networks and enter its name. Sometimes , you do not have to enter the password. Instead , you can click on a button and then it'll connect. This feature is called Wireless Protected Setup(WPS) and while it can be easy, it is not recommended as it is not that secure. The common types of Wi-Fi are
 * 2) 802.11 b, offers up to about 11 Mbit/s (1.375 MB/s)
 * 3) 802.11 g, offers up to about 54 Mbit/s (6.75 MB/s)
 * 4) 802.11 n, offers up to about 130 Mbit/s (16.25 MB/s) in 20Mhz frequency and about 300 Mbps (47.5 Mbps) in 40 Mhz frequency.
 * 5) 802.11 a, offers up to about 54 Mbit/s (6.75 MB/s). Uses a different frequency type(5Ghz) and has shorter range.
 * 6) 802.11 ac, offers up to about 600 Mbit/s (75 MB/s)


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User:Palfrey

See wikipedia:User:Palfrey

title: User:Palfrey


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User talk:Kdarche

Hi all, this is where we should exchange all commentary.

title: User talk:Kdarche


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Gmail/Read mail

How Do You Know You Have Mail?

The easiest way to check is to log into Gmail. Once you've logged in, your Inbox tab will be bold in the left-side navigation, and it will have the number of new e-mails in parentheses. Additionally, you can see which ones are new, because they are bold and highlighted in white, whereas read e-mails are highlighted in light blue. If you use your customized Google homepage, a preview of your Inbox and the first 5 e-mails appears by default in the top right-hand corner. If any of the top 5 e-mails in your inbox are new, they will be bold in your homepage module. If you use the Gmail Notifier, the grey Gmail icon in your task manager will turn blue when there is unread mail. When mail is received, it will give you a quick preview of your new mail.

Reading Your E-Mail

Once you've logged into your Gmail account, reading your e-mail is as easy as clicking on the e-mail you'd like to read. You can click anywhere on the e-mail you'd like: the subject, the sender's address, or the date - they'll all take you to the same place. If the e-mail is new (has not been read), the line highlighting this particular e-mail will be white. If it has been read, it will be light blue. If you are using your personalized Gmail homepage, you can click on the Inbox link to read all of your mail or on any of the first 5 e-mails in your inbox to view it directly.

<Gmail

title: Gmail/Read mail


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Gmail/The Design

Gmail was created to be extremely easy to use, with as many useful features as possible, while omitting unnecessary options. All the standard e-mail features you'd expect are here, including automatic filters, easy forwarding and replying, and group mail composition. So, what sets Gmail apart from the rest?

Quick Previews

Whether you're looking at your inbox through your customized Google homepage, the Gmail Notifier, or in your inbox, you'll notice that Gmail gives you more than the sender name and the subject. After the subject (in bold), Gmail uses any extra space available to give you a quick preview of the e-mail's content.

Easy Searching

In your inbox, you can use the convenient search box to find any keyword in your inbox and archives. If you don't find what you're looking for, you can expand your search to include spam and trash.

Archives

Do you have an e-mail that you just can't throw away? If you don't want it to clutter your inbox, simply select the checkbox next to the e-mail, and click Archive. The e-mail no longer appears in your inbox, but you can easily access it through the search feature or by choosing All Mail in the left navigation.

../Stars/

This feature is the equivalent of "flagging". To set an e-mail apart from the rest and include it in a special category, click on the hollow star next to any e-mail. (You can also choose Add Star in the drop-down menu of any e-mail.) To star multiple e-mails at once, check them all, and choose Add Star from the drop-down menu.

Labels

If you'd like to keep all your online shopping receipts together or create a category for e-mails from friends, family members or email lists, you can create a label by clicking on New Label... in the drop-down menu. To apply a label, click on the label you want to apply in the drop-down menu.

Auto Contact Additions

When someone e-mails you who is not already in your address book, Gmail automatically adds the e-mail address and contact name to your address book. As you type a name or e-mail address into the To: box, Gmail will suggest matching names and e-mail addresses from your current contacts.

Trash

Emails in the trash are automatically deleted forever in 30 days.

title: Gmail/The Design


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Cookbook talk:Peanut Butter and Jelly Sandwich

I've never heard of someone putting PB on both slices of bread, then putting jelly on both as well. Inventive yes, standard—I don't know. Isn't the traditional way to put the PB on one side, jelly on the other and then smush 'em together? Kellen T 17:37, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The PB should waterproof the bread, allowing a sandwich to keep longer. AlbertCahalan 19:25, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Ah. I hadn't thought of that; thanks for adding it to the recipe. Kellen T 22:13, 28 September 2005 (UTC)


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Template:Cookstub

''This Cookbook page is a stub. Please [ expand it].''
 * This template includes pages in Category:Cookbook stubs

title: Template:Cookstub


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Cookbook talk:White Bread

The baking time in this recipe seems to me to be way too low. At least an hour at around 170 C seems more appropriate to me. Also, 30 g of yeast is more than 4 packets. That is far too much -- 1 packet is enough. Cgray4 19:36, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

I've taken the liberty of correcting the obvious mistakes (is anyone expected to measure out 312 ml of water? I'm a chemist, and I don't cook like that). It's still not a great recipe, but now it might actually work. --24.184.72.20 04:27, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

1Kg of Flour? is that a little much for only 2.64 cups?(625 ml = 2.64172051 US cups)Swerty 02:17, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:White Bread


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Cellular Automata/Applications of Cellular Automata

The idea that pushed von Neumann to propose the cellular automata model, was constructing a self replicating machine, which components would obey physical laws defined by differential equations. His machine was constructed from approximately 200000 cells, each holding 29 different states. It diverged from physical laws and was so complex that was fully simulated on a computer only in 1989 (by Signorini) but the idea was born.

Cellular automata are now used to model several phenomena present in the physical world. Some models can only be used to express a basic idea of a phenomenon, others are accurate enough to be used for prediction.

Real world phenomena that can be observed in cellular automata
Stephen Wolfram (1983) describes CA as:
 * "Cellular automata are sufficiently simple to allow detailed mathematical analysis, yet sufficiently complex to exhibit a wide variety of complicated phenomena."

He intensively investigated the phenomenology of simple discrete dynamic systems in his book A New Kind of Science (a very Wolfram-centric book, not really useful for serious scientific learning).

Let us just list some examples of physical phenomena and CA that exhibit similar behavior:
 * Patterns on sea shells Cymbiola innexa are similar to patterns generated by rule 30 1D CA
 * Growth of crystals especially patterns in snowflakes can be modeled by simple 2D CA
 * Excitable media in biology (predator-prey dynamics) and chemistry (Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction) produce spiral patterns that can be seen in Greenberg-Hastings Models
 * Self-replication is seen in the Langton loop (which is a small component of a simplified version of the original von Neumann self-replicating machine)
 * Evolution (self-replication + mutation + selection) can be seen on the Evoloop model, a modified Langton loop
 * Fractal growth of biological organisms
 * Models of universal computation include rule 110 and the Game of Life
 * The Game of Life exhibits interesting patterns that can't really be seen in the real world but they excite our imagination about what CA are capable of

Models with prediction power for physical phenomena
Traditionally physical systems are described with differential equations. We use the top down approach, differential equations are discretized to difference systems that are simulated on a computer. There is a centuries long tradition of algebraic methods for the top down approach.

On the other hand CA models must be constructed using a bottom up approach, simple discrete systems must be modified to exhibit the same behavior as described by differential equations. Only recently with the popularization of computers we started researching algebraic methods for the bottom up approach.

Because of this not many models based on cellular automata really grew over the phenomenon hype to a useful tool.
 * Lattice-gas cellular automata and Lattice Boltzmann models for modeling fluid dynamics, there are analytical methods that describe how such system can be constructed to exhibit behavior described by differential equations
 * Stochastic cellular automata can model many physical phenomena, their probabilistic parameters can be adopted to a problem using evolutionary algorithms or machine learning THEE


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CRE Loaded Features/Configuration

= Configuration =

'''WARNING!!! Please note that this page contains information about which the writer is unsure - this is part of the process of writing CRE Loaded Features. Information that may be incomplete and possibly incorrect is denoted by an xxx.'''

Here you can set up many of the basic values pertaining to your website and your business. It is by far the largest menu section in CRE Loaded and also one of the largest in this book. If you find the Configuration section confusing don't worry, most options will only ever need to be set once and rarely altered.

My Store
Things that you can set-up in My Store include:

 * Contact details including the name of the store, owner of the store, address and phone number, e-mail addresses, country and zone. The name of the store's logo can also be set here.
 * Day to day running of the store you can specify where you want extra order emails to be sent and whether you want to use DHTML drop-down menus or the side panel when in admin.
 * Tax – how many decimal places to display and whether to include tax in prices or only at the checkout stage.
 * Presentation and shop behaviour including how products are sorted in lists and how the customer searches are dealt with. You can decide whether to switch to default language currencies. Displaying the cart after products are added, displaying featured products in the main page and displaying category descriptions can all be switched on or off.
 * Customer accounts settings – new account welcome gift voucher and coupon amounts and whether or not you want to allow guests to tell a friend.

Find out more about My Store.

Minimum Values
Things that you can set-up in Minimum Values include:

 * Customer registration minimums - character limits for personal details (names and addressess) and minimum dates of birth (i.e. the youngest that a customer can be).
 * Customer review minimums - lowest length in characters of customer reviews is set here.
 * Product lists minimums - for Best Seller, Also Purchased and X-Sell product lists which appear in various CRE Loaded boxes.

Find out about Minimum Values.

Maximum Values
Things that you can set-up in Maximum Values include:

 * Customer registration minimums - address book entries is the only maximum you can set here which relate to customer registration.
 * Browsing experience – choice of drop down list or list box for manufacturers.
 * Catalog - you can alter the maximum number of characters for Manufacturers Name.
 * Lists – various product box and main page lists. This includes product, manufacturer, category, review and search result lists.

Find out about Maximum Values.

Images
In CRE Loaded there are images everywhere - especially in the catalog. Anything settings that relate to pictures globally are kept here.

Find out about Images.

Customer Details
In order to keep you in control of what information goes into your customers' accounts the section exists.

Find out about Customer Details

Shipping/Packaging
Global shipping and packaging will be kept in this section.

Find out about Shipping/Packaging.

Product Listing
This section allows you to alter the way products are listed.

Find out about Product Listing.

Stock
Find out about Stock.

Logging
Find out about Logging.

Cache
Find out about Cache.

E-Mail Options
Find out about E-Mail Options.

Download
Find out about Download.

GZip Compression
Find out about GZip Compression.

Sessions
Find out about Sessions.

WYSIWYG Editor 1.7
Find out about WYSIWYG Editor.

Affiliate Program
Find out about Affiliate Program.

Site Maintenance
Find out about Site Maintenance.

Accounts
Find out about Accounts.

Links
Find out about Links.

title: CRE Loaded Features/Configuration


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Cookbook:Custard

Custards are a broad family of soft, thickened dishes based on eggs and milk. They may be baked, boiled or steamed, either in cups or one large dish. A British person talking about "custard" is usually referring to a crème anglaise or other stirred custard (see below).

Components
The most basic components of a custard are eggs and milk/cream. Some custards also incorporate a thickener/stabilizer like starch or gelatin. Sweet custards will contain a sweetener of some kind, and they may also be further flavored.

Characteristics
Most custards are soft and smooth. Without additional flavoring and/or coloring, a basic custard will be pale yellow-golden with a mild eggy flavor. The exact consistency of a custard will generally depend on the ratio of egg to liquid, as well as the cooking method, fat content, and presence of thickening/stabilizing components like starch and gelatin.

Normally, the egg proteins in a custard gently coagulate, trapping liquid in a protein network and thickening the mixture. However, overcooking a custard causes the egg proteins to over-coagulate, which ends up squeezing out the liquid and causing the whole mixture to separate. Including fats and sugars slows the coagulation, and the addition of starch allows for more liquid in the custard to be "trapped", thickening and stabilizing the mixture without the addition of more eggs.

Custards with only eggs as the thickener should never be brought to a boil, as this will cause curdling. If starch is added to a custard, it must be brought to a full boil to cook out the raw starchy flavor.

Stirred custard
Stirred custards, sometimes also called boiled custards or custard sauces, are gently cooked on the stovetop. As the name implies, these custards must be consistently stirred in order to prevent overcooking. This disrupts the network of egg proteins, preventing the mixture from setting into a gel. Instead, the mixture thickens into a soft, smooth sauce. Some stirred custards will incorporate a starch (while cooking) or gelatin (after cooking) in order to increase the thickness.

Pastry cream and crème anglaise are two common stirred custards.

Baked custard
Baked custards are made by placing the raw custard base in a dish or mold and baking it to set the mixture. These result in more of a gelled texture, and some baked custards can be unmolded and sliced. Baked custards are often baked in a water bath or bain marie, which ensures even heating of the custard in order to reduce the risk of curdling. The custards should usually be removed from the oven when the centers are still slightly jiggly, or they will overcook.

Common baked custards include:

 * Crème caramel
 * Flan
 * Baked cheesecake
 * Baked rice pudding
 * Bread pudding
 * Quiche
 * Pot de crème
 * Crème brûlée

Use
Custards can be served as desserts in their own right, such as a simple stirred pudding or flan. On the other hand, many custards function as a base or complement for a range of other complex dishes. Crème anglaise is often used as a sauce for desserts and pastries. Bavarian cream, diplomat cream, many types of mousse, and more are all based on simple custards.

The usual rule for custards is about six to seven eggs to (approximately 1 quart) of milk; but a very good custard can be made of six, or even fewer, especially with the addition of a level tablespoonful of sifted flour, thoroughly blended in the sugar first, before adding the other ingredients. It improves custard to first boil the milk and then cool it before being used; also a little pinch of salt (or even) cheddar or Double cheese or TripleCheese powder helps add to the flavor to give it a little more amazingly Magnificent potency and taste. A very small lump of butter may also be added, if one wants something especially rich.

(ingredients) 6-7 small chicken eggs, 250-300ML Milk, 200ML heavy whipping cream, 1Tbsp Butter,150gm sugar, 35gm=1Tbsp sifted flour, 1/2 - 1Tsp Vanilla Essence Extract, (Optional) a pinch of salt (or) Cheddar or DoubleCheese or TripleCheese powder

Eggs should always be thoroughly well beaten separately, the yolks first, then the sugar added, beat again, then add the beaten whites with the flavoring, then the (sometimes cooled) scalded milk. The lighter the eggs are beaten, the thicker and richer the custard.

title: Cookbook:Custard


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Template:LaTeX/A-Roberts

This page uses material from Andy Roberts' Getting to grips with LaTeX with permission from the author.

title: Template:LaTeX/A-Roberts


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User:OwenX

See w:User:OwenX.

title: User:OwenX


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User talk:OwenX

Please contact me on w:User_talk:OwenX. OwenX 20:48, 28 September 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:OwenX


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LaTeX/Document Structure

The main point of writing a text is to convey ideas, information, or knowledge to the reader. The reader will understand the text better if these ideas are well-structured, and will see and feel this structure much better if the typographical form reflects the logical and semantic structure of the content.

Given only the logical and semantical structure of a text, LaTeX derives the typographical form of the text according to the “rules” given in the document class file and in various style files. LaTeX allows users to structure their documents with a variety of hierarchical constructs, including chapters, sections, subsections and paragraphs.

Global structure
When LaTeX processes an input file, it expects it to follow a certain structure. Thus every input file must contain the commands

The area between and  is called the preamble. It normally contains commands that affect the entire document.

After the preamble, the text of your document is enclosed between two commands which identify the beginning and end of the actual document:

You would put your text where the dots are. The reason for marking off the beginning of your text is that LaTeX allows you to insert extra setup specifications before it (where the blank line is in the example above: we'll be using this soon). The reason for marking off the end of your text is to provide a place for LaTeX to be programmed to do extra stuff automatically at the end of the document, like making an index.

A useful side-effect of marking the end of the document text is that you can store comments or temporary text underneath the in the knowledge that LaTeX will never try to typeset them:

Document classes
When processing an input file, LaTeX needs to know which layout standard to use. Layouts standards are contained within 'class files' which have .cls as their filename extension.

Here, the  parameter for the command   specifies the .cls file to use for the document. It is recommended to put this declaration at the very beginning. The LaTeX distribution provides additional classes for other layouts, including letters and slides. It is also possible to create your own, as is often done by journal publishers, who simply provide you with their own class file, which tells LaTeX how to format your content. But we'll be happy with the standard article class for now. The  parameter customizes the behavior of the document class. The options have to be separated by commas.

Example: an input file for a LaTeX document could start with the line

which instructs LaTeX to typeset the document as an article with a base font size of 11 points, and to produce a layout suitable for double sided printing on A4 paper.

Here are some document classes that can be used with LaTeX:

Here is a comprehensive list of document classes.

The generic document classes that come with LaTeX offer some layout flexibility, which is why they have a lot of options in common. Non-generic classes (those provided by university departments or publication houses) may have different options than those shown below or no options at all. Normally, third-party classes come with their own documentation. The most common options for the generic document classes are listed in the following table:

For example, if you want a report to be in 12pt type on A4, but printed one-sided in draft mode, you would use:

Packages
While writing your document, you will probably find that there are some areas where basic LaTeX cannot solve your problem. If you want to include graphics, colored text or source code from a file into your document, you need to enhance the capabilities of LaTeX. Such enhancements are called packages. Some packages come with the LaTeX base distribution. Others are provided separately. Modern TeX distributions come with a large number of packages pre-installed. The command to use a package is pretty simple: :

command, where package is the name of the package and options is a list of keywords that trigger special features in the package. For example, to use the package, which lets you typeset in colors, you would type:

You can pass several options to a package, each separated by a comma.

Top matter
At the beginning of most documents there will be information about the document itself, such as the title and date, and also information about the authors, such as name, address, email etc. All of this type of information within LaTeX is collectively referred to as top matter. Although never explicitly specified (there is no command) you are likely to encounter the term within LaTeX documentation.

A simple example:

The, , and commands are self-explanatory. You put the title, author name, and date in curly braces after the relevant command. The title and author are usually compulsory (at least if you want LaTeX to write the title automatically); if you omit the command, LaTeX uses today's date by default. You always finish the top matter with the command, which tells LaTeX that it's complete and it can typeset the title according to the information you have provided and the class (style) you are using. If you omit, the title will never be typeset.

Using this approach, you can only create a title with a fixed layout. If you want to create your title freely, see the Title Creation section. You should remember, however, that the goal of LaTeX is to leave formatting to the documentclass designer, and if you wish to submit your work to multiple publishers then you should avoid designing a custom title.

Abstract
As most research papers have an abstract, there are predefined commands for telling LaTeX which part of the content makes up the abstract. This should appear in its logical order, therefore, after the top matter, but before the main sections of the body. This command is available for the document classes article and report, but not book.

By default, LaTeX will use the word "Abstract" as a title for your abstract. If you want to change it into anything else, e.g. "Executive Summary", add the following line before you begin the abstract environment:

Sectioning commands
The commands for inserting sections are fairly intuitive. Of course, certain commands are appropriate to different document classes. For example, a book has chapters but an article doesn't. Here are some of the structure commands found in simple.tex.

Notice that you do not need to specify section numbers; LaTeX will sort that out for you. Also, for sections, you do not need to use and  commands to indicate which content belongs to a given block.

LaTeX provides 7 levels of depth for defining sections (see table below). Each section in this table is a subsection of the one above it.

All the titles of the sections are added automatically to the table of contents (if you decide to insert one). But if you make manual styling changes to your heading, for example a very long title, or some special line-breaks or unusual font-play, this would appear in the Table of Contents as well, which you almost certainly don't want. LaTeX allows you to give an optional extra version of the heading text which only gets used in the Table of Contents and any running heads, if they are in effect. This optional alternative heading goes in [square brackets] before the curly braces:

Section numbering
Numbering of the sections is performed automatically by LaTeX, so don't bother adding them explicitly, just insert the heading you want between the curly braces. Parts get roman numerals (Part I, Part II, etc.); chapters and sections get decimal numbering like this document, and appendices (which are just a special case of chapters, and share the same structure) are lettered (A, B, C, etc.).

You can change the depth to which section numbering occurs, so you can turn it off selectively. By default it is set to 3. If you only want parts, chapters, and sections numbered, not subsections or subsubsections etc., you can change the value of the counter using the  command, giving the depth level you wish. For example, if you want to change it to "1":

A related counter is, which specifies what depth to take the Table of Contents to. It can be reset in exactly the same way as. For example:

To get an unnumbered section heading which does not go into the Table of Contents, follow the command name with an asterisk before the opening curly brace:

All the divisional commands from to  have this "starred" version which can be used on special occasions for an unnumbered heading when the setting of  would normally mean it would be numbered.

If you want the unnumbered section to be in the table of contents anyway, use package. It provides the command

which will take care of a proper header as well. and  are also available. KOMA classes provide those commands by default.

If you don't want to use package unnumberedtotoc, you have to do everything by hand using  and   (or even  ).

Note that if you use PDF bookmarks you will need to add a phantom section so that hyperlinks will lead to the correct place in the document. The command is defined in the  package, and is Commonly used like this:

For chapters you will also need to clear the page (this will also correct page numbering in the ToC):

Section number style
See Counters.

Ordinary paragraphs
Paragraphs of text come after section headings. Simply type the text and leave a blank line between paragraphs. The blank line means "start a new paragraph here": it does not mean you get a blank line in the typeset output. For formatting paragraph indents and spacing between paragraphs, refer to the Paragraph Formatting section.

Table of contents
All auto-numbered headings get entered in the Table of Contents (ToC) automatically. You don't have to print a ToC, but if you want to, just add the command at the point where you want it printed (usually after the Abstract or Summary).

Entries for the ToC are recorded each time you process your document, and reproduced the next time you process it, so you need to re-run LaTeX one extra time to ensure that all ToC pagenumber references are correctly calculated. We've already seen how to use the optional argument to the sectioning commands to add text to the ToC which is slightly different from the one printed in the body of the document. It is also possible to add extra lines to the ToC, to force extra or unnumbered section headings to be included.

The commands and  work in exactly the same way as  to automatically list all your tables and figures. If you use them, they normally go after the command. The command normally shows only numbered section headings, and only down to the level defined by the  counter, but you can add extra entries with the  command. For example if you use an unnumbered section heading command to start a preliminary piece of text like a Foreword or Preface, you can write:

This will format an unnumbered ToC entry for "Preface" in the "subsection" style. You can use the same mechanism to add lines to the List of Figures or List of Tables by substituting or  for. If the hyperref package is used and the link does not point to the correct chapter, the command in combination with  or  can be used (see also Labels and Cross-referencing):

To change the title of the ToC, you have to paste this command in your document preamble. The List of Figures (LoF) and List of Tables (LoT) names can be changed by replacing the with  for LoF and  for LoT.

Depth
The default ToC will list headings of level 3 and above. To change how deep the table of contents displays automatically the following command can be used in the preamble:

This will make the table of contents include everything down to paragraphs. The levels are defined above on this page. Note that this solution does not permit changing the depth dynamically.

You can change the depth of specific section type, which could be useful for PDF bookmarks (if you are using the package) :

In order to further tune the display or the numbering of the table of contents, for instance if the appendix should be less detailed, you can make use of the package (CTAN, doc).

Book structure
The standard LaTeX class follows the same layout described above with some additions. By default a book will be two-sided, i.e. left and right margins will change according to the page number parity. Furthermore current chapter and section will be printed in the header.

If you do not make use of chapters, it is barely useful to use the class.

Additionally the class provides macros to change the formatting of some places of the document. We will give you some advice on how to use them properly.

 * The frontmatter chapters will not be numbered. Page numbers will be printed in roman numerals. Frontmatter is not supposed to have sections, so they will be numbered because there is no chapter numbering. Check the Counters chapter for a fix.
 * The mainmatter chapters works as usual. The command resets the page numbering. Page numbers will be printed in arabic numerals.
 * The macro can be used to indicate that following sections or chapters are to be numbered as appendices. Appendices can be used for the article class too:

Only use the macro once for all appendices.

 * The backmatter behaves like the frontmatter. It has the same issue with section numbering.

As a general rule you should avoid mixing the command order. Nonetheless all commands are optional, so you might consider using only a few.

Note that the special content like the table of contents is considered as an unnumbered chapter.

Page order
This is one traditional page order for books.

 * Frontmatter
 * 1) Half-title
 * 2) Empty
 * 3) Title page
 * 4) Information (copyright notice, ISBN, etc.)
 * 5) Dedication if any, else empty
 * 6) Table of contents
 * 7) List of figures (can be in the backmatter too)
 * 8) Preface chapter

 * Mainmatter
 * 1) Main topic

 * Appendix
 * 1) Some subordinate chapters

 * Backmatter
 * 1) Bibliography
 * 2) Glossary / Index

Special pages
Comprehensive papers often feature special pages at the end, like indices, glossaries and bibliographies. Since this is quite a complex topic, we will give you details in the dedicated part Special Pages.

Notes and references
LaTeX/Структура документа LaTeX/Структура документа

title: LaTeX/Document Structure


text:
Cookbook talk:Custard

Parts of this module were adapted from The Whitehouse Cookbook, by Mrs. F.L. Gillette.

title: Cookbook talk:Custard