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Talk:Battery Power/Lithium Ion Batteries

Lifetime-dependent Aging
"A unique drawback of the Li-ion battery is that its life span is dependent upon aging from time of manufacturing (shelf life) regardless of whether it was charged, and not just on the number of charge/discharge cycles"

The numbers provided are dubious. There's a huge discussion over at w:Talk:Lithium-ion battery about the exact nature of this.

Discharge by monitoring
A safety/monitor circuit draws less than 10uA when the battery is not in use. That's 240uAh a day and 87.6mAh a year. In a 2000mAh cell, that's about 4% a year. Most significant loss?

And WTF is that edit history doing here?

Edit history from Lithium ion battery
(cur) (last) 17:48, 24 August 2006 EngineerScotty (Talk | contribs) (add cats, lots of fact tags, current (due to recalls), cnvt some refs.) (cur) (last) 14:22, 24 August 2006 68.84.143.177 (Talk) (→Warning) (cur) (last) 13:03, 24 August 2006 68.40.89.114 (Talk) (→History) (cur) (last) 11:34, 24 August 2006 65.166.187.29 (Talk) (→Warning) (cur) (last) 10:55, 24 August 2006 Nannen (Talk | contribs) (cur) (last) 10:52, 24 August 2006 Nannen (Talk | contribs) (cur) (last) 15:34, 22 August 2006 66.90.201.241 (Talk) (cur) (last) 07:05, 19 August 2006 70.106.192.212 (Talk) (→Storage temperature and charge) (cur) (last) 23:46, 18 August 2006 66.92.74.189 (Talk) ("than" was "then"; that's the only change.) (cur) (last) 18:48, 18 August 2006 Bobblewik (Talk | contribs) m (units) (cur) (last) 22:25, 17 August 2006 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (cur) (last) 19:01, 17 August 2006 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (Regex dash fixer | Regex math character fixer) (cur) (last) 15:23, 17 August 2006 Balloonguy (Talk | contribs) m (Updating reference styles with Ref converter) (cur) (last) 14:43, 17 August 2006 Mcullinan (Talk | contribs) m (→Disadvantages - corrected spelling of 'Fahrenheit') (cur) (last) 16:35, 16 August 2006 GreenGrass (Talk | contribs) (Disadvantages: fixed few mistakes made by an unskilled editor, added some info) (cur) (last) 14:43, 16 August 2006 130.221.56.27 (Talk) (→Guidelines for prolonging Li-ion battery life) (cur) (last) 09:27, 16 August 2006 68.251.54.244 (Talk) (→External links - Saphion fire and explosion safe lithium-ion battery) (cur) (last) 09:15, 16 August 2006 Trevalyx (Talk | contribs) (→Disadvantages - Amended some of the language to make more encyclopedic, added some °C-°F conversions.) (cur) (last) 00:14, 16 August 2006 70.82.165.72 (Talk) (cur) (last) 00:12, 16 August 2006 Reswobslc (Talk | contribs) m (→Guidelines for prolonging Li-ion battery life - forgot one bullet item) (cur) (last) 00:11, 16 August 2006 Reswobslc (Talk | contribs) (→Guidelines for prolonging Li-ion battery life - Rewrote section in the passive voice so the same relevant advice can be gleaned, but not in the form of how-to guide.) 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Goodenough, researcher whose work led to this battery's invention) (cur) (last) 17:51, 21 February 2006 LeonardoGregianin (Talk | contribs) (pt interwiki) (cur) (last) 11:52, 21 February 2006 IE (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages - Split overly long sentence into two separate sentences) (cur) (last) 13:29, 17 February 2006 217.133.109.2 (Talk) (cur) (last) 08:42, 16 February 2006 Flubbit (Talk | contribs) (rvv - to revision 39412247) (cur) (last) 08:40, 16 February 2006 69.195.218.75 (Talk) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 08:39, 16 February 2006 69.195.218.75 (Talk) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 08:38, 16 February 2006 69.195.218.75 (Talk) (→Storage Temperature and Charge) (cur) (last) 19:57, 12 February 2006 82.33.83.49 (Talk) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 17:49, 11 February 2006 84.137.20.16 (Talk) (→Specifications and design) (cur) (last) 08:11, 11 February 2006 83.22.133.212 (Talk) (+pl:) (cur) (last) 18:24, 9 February 2006 Gene Nygaard (Talk | contribs) (→Specifications and design) (cur) (last) 15:02, 6 February 2006 Gaius Cornelius (Talk | contribs) m (AWB assisted change "a" to "an".) (cur) (last) 08:33, 6 February 2006 IE (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages - "notebook" changed to "laptop") (cur) (last) 09:20, 2 February 2006 IE (Talk | contribs) (Article text is now below the table of contents (TOC), and the table looks better in the section Storage Temperature and Charge) (cur) (last) 10:02, 1 February 2006 IE (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages - minor grammar fixes) (cur) (last) 18:35, 30 January 2006 Dylananglada (Talk | contribs) m (cur) (last)  16:52, 26 January 2006 68.127.168.216 (Talk) (→Guidelines for prolonging Li-ion battery life) (cur) (last) 06:29, 25 January 2006 D0li0 (Talk | contribs) (→Specifications and design) (cur) (last) 06:44, 24 January 2006 D0li0 (Talk | contribs) (better images, toc) (cur) (last) 18:18, 23 January 2006 Karol Langner (Talk | contribs) m (→Advantages and disadvantages - fmt) (cur) (last) 18:48, 22 January 2006 Calréfa Wéná (Talk | contribs) m (→Storage Temperature and Charge) (cur) (last) 02:28, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) (→Specifications and design) (cur) (last) 02:28, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 02:26, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 02:26, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 02:25, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) m (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 02:20, 22 January 2006 JPM (Talk | contribs) (→Advantages and disadvantages - Added cell phone battery image.) 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(cur) (last) 10:53, 15 November 2005 YurikBot (Talk | contribs) m (robot Adding: zh) (cur) (last) 10:29, 15 November 2005 61.10.7.161 (Talk) (cur) (last) 10:25, 15 November 2005 61.10.7.133 (Talk) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 19:22, 13 November 2005 69.140.18.255 (Talk) (→Advantages and disadvantages) (cur) (last) 19:01, 13 November 2005 69.140.18.255 (Talk) (→New Technology) (cur) (last) 14:49, 10 November 2005 163.117.141.217 (Talk) (Added a link featuring Lithium Ion Batteries Overcharge/overdischarge/overcurrent safety circuits) (cur) (last) 22:17, 9 November 2005 Defkkon (Talk | contribs) m (Removed incorrect popularity statement - not true in recharable "loose" batteries.) 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See talk.) 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(Some stuff about Li-polymer would be great))
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text:
Talk:Bartending/Cocktails/Glossary

Linking
A lot of these recipes are transwikied articles, and need to be indexed using =====, so they can be linked to. -- SB_Johnny | talk 12:23, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

How is this done? I even RTFM, yet do not understand. 72.174.2.252 09:10, 2 April 2007 (UTC)

First time wikier here, so I dare not make the changes myself, but... we're missing Melon Ball (not bomb) and its close sister, Broken Down Golf Cart. The way I make it is - MB: 1 oz vodka, 1 oz Melon liquer (McGuinness is favored over Midori), shaken and poured over ice in a rock glass. BDGC: MB + 1 oz Amaretto.

More linking and TOC
Hi. Yes, I know the Table of Contents looks terrible right now due to an edit I made. I was attempting to do what SBJohnny suggested with the ===== so I can start cleaning up some of this stuff. Obviously that glitched up the TOC. I'd like to request that you help me fix the overall problem (creating links to specific drinks) rather than reverting my change because it looks terrible.

What I'm trying to do (and I added a notice to the Administrator's board requesting help) is to get the TOCright template to limit the number of subheadings it includes. That would solve the problem perfectly (I think). If anyone has any other ideas, I'd love to hear them. Thanks! --Willscrlt (Talk·Cntrb ) 08:40, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

Bullshot? not quite
The entry for a Bullshot is rather modern. The traditional bullshot was made using either vodka or gin as the spirit and (spiced) beef stock (real not cube), (spiced) oxtail soup, (spiced) beef consomme (don't know if that's tautologous) or (Spiced) congealed beef consomme, and no red bull whatsoever mixed with ice served with or without ice. The definitive bullshot recipe is presented as part of a (UK) television documentary on the life of Noel Coward, the one I'm thinking of features Nigella Lawson (before she slimmed down) as part of a group discussion, can't find the tape. I've heard of a variant that uses Beef Tea but... well, it's far from genuine or current. Truly woeful sentence structure, I know.

Proposal: Make this a terms glossary, not listing of recipes
This is, frankly, an insane undertaking and seems superfluous, given the individual cocktail pages. An index of recipes and a glossary of terminology would be more reasonable AP (discuss • contribs) 17:55, 30 January 2012 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Bartending/Cocktails/Glossary


text:
User:J Hill~enwikibooks

This user has a page on Wikipedia.

Contributions on Wikipedia

title: User:J Hill~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Fermentation

Fermentation is the process of controlling bacteria, yeast, and molds to modify food, producing a desired product.

Fermentation can improve food so that it:
 * Tastes different, bringing new, often strong flavours to the source foods
 * Is easier to digest
 * Is more nutritious
 * Lasts longer

How to Ferment a Food
As with any food preparation, there are certain aspects of the fermentation process that can change the quality and acceptability of the end product. Here are some of the important ones that are generally applicable; check individual recipes for special tips and variations.

Ingredient selection
Selecting good quality ingredients is important when fermenting food. It doesn't generally matter if the ingredients aren't picture perfect – cider vinegar won't look or taste any different for using ugly apples – but avoid using old, rotting, or very dirty food. Remember that a fermentation is where yeast and bacteria are given a chance to multiply, so give your ferment a fighting chance and stick to good quality ingredients.

Salt
Many ferments use salt. Salt helps by inhibiting undesirable bacteria and molds, and by drawing juices out of foods. It is best to use a salt that has no anti-caking agents or iodine added to it, as these can inhibit the fermentation and growth of desirable bacteria. Iodine is an effective antibacterial agent, and even the very small amounts used in iodised salt can affect the bacterial growth. Salt suitable for fermenting is often called "pickling salt" or "Kosher salt".

Water
When adding water to a fermentation, avoid chlorinated water if possible. Chlorine is added to municipal water supplies to prevent the build-up of bacteria and other water-borne microorganisms, and as such can inhibit a fermentation.

Tap water can be made chlorine-free in most areas simply by boiling it and letting it cool again, or even just by leaving it in an uncovered pot overnight. This doesn't work in areas where the water is chlorinated by adding chloramine to the water, a practice done specifically to keep the chlorine in the water. Many modern water filters will remove both chlorine and chloramine, however.

Temperature
All fermentations are temperature sensitive. Some prefer it cooler, some hotter. Many are best served by warmer temperature at the start of fermentation, and cooler temperatures once fermenting has peaked. Temperature affects which microorganisms grow fastest, and can affect the flavour of the food, or even whether it will succeed or fail.

Here are some common ferments, and typical fermenting temperatures.

As can be seen, it is useful to be able to control the temperature of a fermentation. Some common ways to control the temperature are:

 * sit the fermenting food in a picnic cooler or esky
 * sit the container of fermenting food in a basin or tub of water at the desired temperature (because water has greater thermal mass than air, and changes temperature more slowly)
 * put the fermenting food into an electric oven, and use the oven light to keep it warm (because oven lights are usually incandescent bulbs, which produce more heat than light)
 * make a specialised incubator for fermenting – e.g an old picnic cooler with a heat source and a thermostat, or a refrigerator with a variable thermostat and heat source
 * buy a specialised incubator for fermenting – e.g. a yoghurt maker, or an oven with a 45°C yoghurt mode (as sold in Turkey!)

Fermented Foods

 * Appam
 * Beer
 * Bread
 * Cheese
 * Chocolate
 * Cider vinegar
 * Chuño
 * Dosa
 * Fish Sauce
 * Ginger beer
 * Idli
 * Kefir
 * Kimchi
 * Mead
 * Miso
 * Olives
 * Sauerkraut
 * Sour Cream
 * Sour Mashed Sweet Potato
 * Soy Sauce
 * Tapai
 * Tempeh
 * Tempoyak
 * Yoghurt
 * Sima

title: Cookbook:Fermentation


text:
User:Webaware

G'day, please use my talk page to discuss Wikibooks edits with me. I try to check up on Wikibooks most days, but that isn't always possible, so please be patient.

I'm not so available for Wiki projects at the moment, but will get back into them soon I hope.

 * /sandbox

Todo list

 * JET Database - make a basic reference guide (damned thing won't die!)
 * QEMU - fill in the details
 * more cookwork...

title: User:Webaware


text:
Flute

Introduction

 * 1) About the flute (introduction)
 * 2) Flute Maintenance

Getting started

 * 1) Assembly of the instrument
 * 2) Embouchure and Producing Sound
 * 3) Breathing
 * 4) Staff and notes
 * 5) Tonguing

Playing the flute

 * 1) Fingering Chart
 * 2) Playing the C Major Scale
 * 3) Playing the F Major Scale
 * 4) Eighth notes and rests, and dotted notes
 * 5) Playing the G Major Scale
 * 6) Introduction to Intervals and Scale building
 * 7) Playing the B♭, E♭ and A♭ Major scales
 * 8) Playing the D, A and E Major scales

Building on skills

 * 1) Intervals, Major and Minor scales
 * 2) Dynamics
 * 3) Lower register
 * 4) Higher register
 * 5) Flute acoustics
 * 6) Sixteenth note, rests, and triplets
 * 7) Articulation
 * 8) Alternative fingerings
 * 9) Where to next?

Appendices

 * 1) Links
 * 2) Learning a piece of music

title: Flute


text:
Cookbook:Salsa (Fermented)

| Fermented food recipes

This fermented salsa recipe produces a tangy tomato sauce with strong flavour. No cooking is required.

Ingredients

 * 1 kg (2 lb) fresh tomatoes
 * 1 large capsicum (bell pepper)
 * 3–6 fresh chiles
 * 1 fresh red onion
 * 3–4 cloves of garlic
 * 1 bunch of fresh cilantro (coriander leaf, Chinese parsley)
 * 1–2 teaspoons non-iodised salt
 * spices to taste (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Clean and dry a large (1 litre) preserves jar and a large bowl
 * 2) Dice the tomatoes
 * 3) Quarter and slice the capsicum
 * 4) Finely slice the chilis, removing the seeds if you prefer. Make sure to wash your hands right after cutting the chilis, and DO NOT touch your eyes or face for some time after handling the chilis—if you do, the chili juice residue could cause a very painful burning sensation.)
 * 5) Peel and chop the onion and garlic finely. Roughly chop the cilantro.
 * 6) Mix all ingredients together in the bowl with salt and (optional) spices; mix well!
 * 7) Pack tightly into the jar, leaving 1 cm space at the top.
 * 8) Cover the jar with a cloth or cling-wrap. Sit the jar in a bowl or on a plate, so that any juice that might overflow will be collected and won't make a mess. Leave to ferment at room temperature.
 * 9) The salsa will be fermented in 2–3 days, depending on the climate. Wipe any excess liquid from around the jar, and put the lid on tightly before moving it to the refrigerator. It will last well in the fridge, but will continue to slowly ferment, getting more sour as time passes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * With the above fresh ingredients, there should be enough microbial load for the salsa to start fermenting by itself. Bubbles will begin rising to the top of the jar, showing that fermentation is under way—you should be able to see this through the side of the jar. Don't seal the jar while it is fermenting, as it will build up gas pressure and might break the jar. If you are concerned that fermentation will not start by itself, you can add a starter culture. A good starter culture is a little juice from a recently-fermented sauerkraut or kimchi, as this will bring across the necessary lactic acid bacteria and yeasts.
 * This is best within a few days, unless you like it quite sour!
 * The salt used should be non-iodised salt if possible (e.g. pickling salt, kosher salt). This is because the iodine in iodised table salt will inhibit the fermentation a little. Use what you've got, but best results will be obtained without the iodine.
 * Use fresh ingredients where possible; if you do use canned or dried ingredients, you may need to use a starter (see above).
 * This recipe prefers to ferment at a temperature between 18–22°C (64–72°F). It will happily ferment outside that range, but if you want to keep it in that range, there are some tips available on the fermentation page.
 * There is a suggestion on the |talk page that more salt is required; read the discussion and decide for yourself, but traditional French recipes add no salt during the fermentation of crushed tomatoes. Salt volume recommendations made without specifying brand (and therefore grain size and shape) are not precise in any case.

Warnings

 * When handling hot chilis, use gloves or take extra care to keep your hands away from eyes and other sensitive areas even after washing them.

title: Cookbook:Salsa (Fermented)


text:
Movie Making Manual/Post Production Overview

Post Production
After 20-60 days of filming, you are finished shooting your motion picture. After all that effort, the only thing you have to show for your work is about 100 reels of film, 60 rolls of audio tape, and a well-worn copy of the script which has been marked up by the script supervisor. That's it! Other than publicity stills and maybe a documentary and perhaps some effects shots being done at effects houses around town, this is all you get for your 40 million dollars. So now, what do you do?

Now you start Post Production. Now you turn the developed film and audio reels into a motion picture for viewing at a film festival. (Much later, you worry about getting the movie ready for distribution.)

Once the dailies are prepared for editing, the film editor begins to edit the picture and the dialog. The sound department will get busy creating an infinite number of sound effects and the film composer will create beautiful music for your movie. If any visual effects are needed, they will get done too at special effects houses... along with the titles and credits.

Finally, when everyone is happy, the negative will be cut to match the edit of the movie and a print will be made for showing at Sundance.

Let's look at these steps individually.

Dailies/Workprint/Telecine/Capture/Syncing Audio
Each day during production of a feature film shot on motion picture film, dailies are prepared for viewing by the director, the crew and the studio executives. To save money, the same dailies can be used by the editor to edit the movie... or at least they can be created at the same time.

Preparing the dailies for editing seems like a trivial task but can be a major headache if not done very carefully. This is just as true for digital video as for film. Some people think that just because they use a digital camcorder, they do not have to process the film dailies. Dailies still have to be captured into the computer so they can be edited. And if you are using a separate sound system for recording the dialog, you will still have all the problems of syncing audio to picture for your digital dailies.

For more information on preparing film dailies for editing and the telecine process, see the section on Telecine in the Movie Making Manual.

Logging
If you film and edit only one scene (or a short), you can easily keep track in your head of all the raw footage. But for a feature film, keeping track of all the different shots is not easy. Walter Murch uses Apple's FileMaker Pro. At Macworld Expo, there is usually at least one lecture on how he uses this database during the editing process.

Picture and Dialog Editing
When the movie is edited, the editor must think about more than just the picture and the dialog. The sound effects and the music work together with the pictures and the dialog to tell the story. The sound effects, music, picture and dialog all interact. The editor must figure out how all these elements work together to tell the story.

In Hollywood, there are special teams that do the visual effects, music, and sound effects. But if you are just one person doing the edit of low-budget motion picture, you might have to do everything yourself as you edit the movie.

 * Narrative Films Only
 * This manual covers dramatic movies with scripted dialog. Be aware that editing a documentary, corporate video, multimedia or event video is totally different from editing narrative dramas.  For more information about the process of film editing for narrative motion pictures and television drama see the section What is Editing in the Movie Making Manual.

For narrative feature films, there are two different kinds of scenes - Action sequences and Conversation. When you edit a conversation, there are lots of constraints... special the script which dictates the spoken dialog. Action sequences have few constraints.

There are two kinds of music - Background music and Narrative music. Background music means very soft music while narrative music is music that gets in your face. At this stage, a temp track is acceptable for background music but for music which tells part of the story, you really need to use something which will be close to the final music.

While there are many kinds of sound effects, at this stage you are only worried about the sound effects that help tell a story, not the sound effects which make the scenery seem realistic such as Ambience, Walla and Foley. These can be done when the editing is finished. For now, just worry about the sound effects that help narrate the story.

For more instructions on how to edit a dramatic scene with scripted dialog, see the section How To Edit a Dramatic Scene in the Movie Making Manual.

ADR (Automated Dialog Replacement)
Once you have edited the movie, you might need to replace some of the spoken dialog. For more information on ADR, see the ADR in the Movie Making Manual.

Sound Effects
Once all the scenes are edited, you begin to add all the little sounds which makes the movie seem real. If a scene does not seem realistic, you have not added enough sound effects such as:

Ambience
The background sounds of the environment.

Walla
At its most basic, this is the indistinguishable sounds of people talking in the background - what the extras or BG performers in the BG might be saying if they were actually talking during a take. However, it can also include any off camera voices for unidentified characters (ie. telephone operator, PA announcement, etc.) or off camera lines from the general crowd (i.e., "somebody call an ambulance!" or "He's got a gun!").

Foley
The footsteps and the rustling of clothing make your scene seem real, which are so numerous that it is faster to record these sound effects live while watching the movie. If you have only a few footsteps, you can do this from sound effects libraries in your editing program. But in general, when you need hundreds of tiny sound effects, it is easier to do them with Foley

For more information on Sound for motion pictures, see Sound Design in the Movie Making Manual. For more information on Foley, see the section Foley in the Movie Making Manual. (Note: "Foley" stands for Jack Foley who pioneered this kind of sound effects creating.)

Visual Effects
When doing the basic edit, blank frames or storyboard frames are used in place of visual elements. Once the effects shots are finished, they must be inserted into the edit.

Titles and Credits
Titles can be done any way that you wish. Determining which people to include in the credits can be complicated. This is a good place to make a lot of people angry. Therefore, you must be very careful to list all the people who deserve credit for making the movie. Sometimes, the unions decide this. Sometimes your contracts with the cast and crew decide this. Doing the credits is not as easy as it looks.

Film Scoring
Music creates the mood. Once the edit is complete (with a temp score), the temp score must be replaced by the final score. For more information on film scoring, see the section Music/Film Scoring in the Movie Making Manual.

Breakdown into reels
A motion picture must be in manageable pieces for distribution and projection. In the break between reels, there must be no sound or picture.

Conform the Negative
Most of the time, it is not possible to edit at the highest possible resolution. In these cases, up until now, editing is off-line. If there is no digital intermediary, you need to conform the negative.

Prepare for Distribution
This should be in the marketing section because it is done after you have a distributor but before the distributor accepts delivery of the motion picture and all its elements. Therefore, only after you have sold the movie, do you learn what film formats are required. This is a hidden expense can be rather nasty. If you have not planned ahead, this can cost you a fortune. Read Robert Rodriguez' Rebel without a Crew which is about the making of "El Mariachi" This book should be required reading in all film schools.

Animated Feature Films
Note that if you are making an animated feature-length motion picture, the procedures above are done in a slightly different order.


text:
User:Masahiko~enwikibooks

= Masahiko =

 * Hello Everybody!
 * This is my user page.
 * Please feel free to write your own gibberish if you want
 * Masahiko 15:40, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Masahiko~enwikibooks


text:
Haskell/Print version

= Table Of Contents =

Specialised Tasks

= Haskell Basics =

= Getting set up =

= Variables and functions =

= Truth values =

= Type basics =

= Lists and tuples =

= Type basics II =

= Building vocabulary =

= Next steps =

= Simple input and output =

= Elementary Haskell =

= Recursion =

= Lists II =

= Lists III =

= Type declarations =

= Pattern matching =

= Control structures =

= More on functions =

= Higher-order functions =

= Using GHCi effectively =

= Intermediate Haskell =

= Modules =

= Indentation =

= More on datatypes =

= Other data structures =

= Classes and types =

= The Functor class =

= Monads =

= Prologue: IO, an applicative functor =

= Understanding monads =

= The Maybe monad =

= The List monad =

=  Notation =

= The IO monad =

= The State monad =

= Alternative and MonadPlus =

= Monad transformers =

= Advanced Haskell =

= Monoids =

= Applicative functors =

= Foldable =

= Traversable =

= Arrow tutorial =

= Understanding arrows =

= Continuation passing style (CPS) =

= Zippers =

= Lenses and functional references =

= Mutable objects =

= Concurrency =

= Fun with Types =

= Polymorphism basics =

= Existentially quantified types =

= Advanced type classes =

= Phantom types =

= Generalised algebraic data-types (GADT) =

= Datatype algebra =

= Type constructors & Kinds =

= Wider Theory =

= Denotational semantics =

= Equational reasoning =

= Program derivation =

= Category theory =

= The Curry-Howard isomorphism =

= fix and recursion =

= Haskell Performance =

= Introduction =

= Step by Step Examples =

= Graph reduction =

= Laziness =

= Strictness =

= Algorithm complexity =

= Data structures =

= Parallelism =

= Libraries Reference =

= The Hierarchical Libraries =

= Lists =

= Arrays =

= Maybe =

= Maps =

= IO =

= Random Numbers =

= General Practices =

= Building a standalone application =

= Debugging =

= Testing =

= Packaging your software (Cabal) =

= Using the Foreign Function Interface (FFI) =

= Generic Programming : Scrap your boilerplate =

= Specialised Tasks =

= Graphical user interfaces (GUI) =

= Databases =

= Web programming =

= Working with XML =

= Using Regular Expressions =

= Parsing Mathematical Expressions =

title: Haskell/Print version


text:
User:Digitalme

See this page for a list of all my accounts.

title: User:Digitalme


text:
Talk:Music Theory/Hip Hop

This section looks more like musicology than music theory to me. Masahiko 17:30, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

yeah really, would fit more on wikipedia.... 68.221.204.15 04:37, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Music Theory/Hip Hop


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Paragraphs and Headings

The bulk of a typical web page often consists of paragraphs structured with the use of headings.

Paragraphs
The  element is used to split text into paragraphs.

Headings
There are six levels of headings. The most important heading(s) in a document should be level one. Sub-headings should be level two. Sub-sub-headings should be level three, etc. Do not skip levels. If the default sizes do not suit your document, use CSS to change them. Headings should be used to effectively outline your content. By doing so, users can find information more quickly, and some search engines use headings to help rank page content.

This is Level 1

This is Level 3

This is Level 5

Example
This example will be used in the next section where we see how to change the appearance of a document.

Le langage HTML/Titres et paragraphes HTML/Parágrafos e títulos


text:
User talk:Schwartzenator

Radiation Oncology
Thanks for your help with the Radiation Oncology wikibook! Brim 17:51, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Schwartzenator


text:
User talk:Scottholmes

Hey scott, I got your message. I checked the chapter, and didn't see any textboxes that looked out of place. Which text box was it? Was it the box that is at the very bottom that says "Category: Human Physiology"? Sometimes that box does get out of place ( i dont know why) and unfortunately, there is no good way to fix it. If you reload the page, the box should go back down to the bottom. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 18:17, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Scottholmes


text:
User:Transcendent~enwikibooks

About Me
I play Go (Igo, Weiqi, Baduk) for leisure... I'd rather watch than actually play.

Studies
I'm a CE and EE undergrad currently at the University of Michigan-Dearborn, obviously in Dearborn, Michigan, where I also work in the automotive industry.

title: User:Transcendent~enwikibooks


text:
Jeep Liberty/Recovery

There is a factory recovery option available for the Jeep Liberty that includes three Mopar tow hooks; two front and one rear. A cheaper and more versatile option is a front or rear hitch receiver accompanied by a hitch clevis or winch. Yet another option is to replace the front tow hooks with a bumper or bullbar with integrated recovery provisions. All of these alternatives require removal of an existing hooks.

Mopar Hooks

Each front tow hook sandwiches the unibody bumper between the hook base and an m-bolt/clip-nut combination. The clip-nut on both the front and rear hooks is a common automotive fastener which may be available at well stocked hardware stores. The m-bolt used with the front tow hooks is not a common fastener and will need to be purchased from a dealer.

Electric Winches
The ARB bullbar for the Liberty KJ is designed accommodate the Warn M8000 winch.

title: Jeep Liberty/Recovery


text:
Clinical Anaesthesia/Premedication Drugs

Anxiolytics

 * Benzodiazepines
 * A group of drugs that act by enhancing GABA (gamma-amino-butyric-acid) activity in the CNS. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter causing sedation, reduction in anxiety, and anti-epileptic effects. Clinical examples include midazolam,temazepam and diazepam.


text:
User talk:71.36.22.5

Please do not add commercial links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is not a vehicle for advertising or a mere collection of external links. Note that books may be collections of external links for educational purposes only. See the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

title: User talk:71.36.22.5


text: Auction

title: Auction


text:
User:TeemayneODU

TeemayneODU 23:17, 4 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User:TeemayneODU


text:
Talk:French/Grammar/Adjectives

Pauvre
Pauvre is not marked with '+' as changing its meaning depending on whether it stands before or after the noun, but right under that is said that it can mean unlucky or poor - shouldn't it be marked in the list, then?

Errors
-ancien changes in meaning pre/post as do others, no explanation of rule

-words of time like premier/dernier come before or after based on rules, no explanation.

why is this page marked complete?

the box of irregular plural adjectives seems to turn into a box of irregular nouns, bijou and chou are not adjectives! also, journal does not end in -au. Stanlavisbad (talk) 13:49, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I have removed the irregular nouns and reduced the completion to 75% in the two templates.

 * I am not sure whether there are any adjectives ending in -au or -eu that form plurals ending in -aux and -eux, but I have left those table rows in for the moment. Recent Runes (talk) 18:52, 21 January 2010 (UTC)

de versus des for plurals
Why under "Beau, nouveau, and vieux" have you made the masculine and feminine plural articles "de" instead of "des"? Of course, there are contexts in which "de" would be part of the appropriate construction, but these do not supply that context and in fact, supply the opposite (as in, handsome boy turns into handsome boys - there is no indication that an unusual use of "de" would be warranted in this context). The article is quite sparse in terms of explaining what it is doing in each section and it is very difficult to understand the sub-organization. Moreover, this issue with the basics of indefinite articles seems like a significant oversight.Lucyep (talk) 22:30, 24 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I didn't write this part myself, but the usage is supported by a number of grammar references. e.g.
 * According to about.com, "when the plural indefinite or partitive article is used with an adjective that precedes a noun, des changes to de."
 * According to Glanville Price's 2008 "A Comprehensive French Grammar" p35 (Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-5384-3) "The plural partitive (or indefinite) article des is replaced by de when an adjective precedes the noun".
 * Recent Runes (talk) 10:26, 25 September 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:French/Grammar/Adjectives


text:
User talk:88.107.184.210

Edits to Web Design Wikibook
Hi! Thanks for cleaning up some of the namespaces on the WebDesign book, and for your additions to the CSS and Javascript challenges. Great point about the additional step for the Javascrpit challenge to make sure that the email field is displayed if JS is disabled!

A few questions: Michaelnelson 04:15, 5 September 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm guessing you're aware that the book has been copied over to Wikiversity - because it it mostly activities like the challenges. Would you be keen to take part editing it there? I'm not sure how it's going to work with copies in both places... whether things like the challenges that are all activities should be removed from Wikibooks, or just link to the copy at Wikiversity? What do you think? - (OK, forget this point, I just saw that you updated the wikiversity pages too :) )
 * You're right about the poetry - it shouldn't technically be in a list, but the point of the activity is to learn to style basice HTML elements, such as headings, paragraphs and lists. I'm wondering whether a better solution would be to change the content so that a list is more applicable? In their current state, the image for Challenge 1 (with its bullet points) isn't really possible from the HTML... it would be good to resolve it! Again, interested to know your thoughts...

title: User talk:88.107.184.210


text:
User:Howl

What does it mean to be methodical? What are methods in learning? What were the methods of the past and what are the methods of today (in education)? Paradigms in educaion? Possible roads for paradigm shifts?

title: User:Howl


text:
User:Paulino

Paulino Brener

for more information visit my websites

www.paulino.info

One Square a Day project

title: User:Paulino


text:
Template:Classproj

 This page or chapter is part of a class project.

Students of this class have been asked to adopt particular pages to work on (see |course description for details)

Students: In keeping with wikibooks traditions, please sign up on the Talk page, rather than on the module page.

title: Template:Classproj


text:
Template:Classprojtk

 This discussion page is for a page or chapter that is part of a class project.

Students of this class have been asked to adopt particular pages to work on (see |course description for details)

Students: In keeping with Wikibooks tradition, please sign up on this page, rather than on the module page.

title: Template:Classprojtk


text:
User talk:Sultanzahir

Thank you for sharing the knowledge, the subject is presented well and in detail, presently I am having problem to view certain urdu letters (not all) could you please tell me which font is appropriate for these page. I am presently developing a language project, a unwritten dialect of mixture of Sindhi and Kutchi language, [Memoni] --Siddique Katiya 21:47, 28 April 2007 (UTC) ---

well done of the Urdu Wikibook! Please continue to contribute.... i waiting for the resumption of this Wikibook. I learned from it a lot.

Successfully!!!

 * Please tell me if you plans to continue to the Urdu Wikibook, or you stopped the work?

-- I would like to continue it soon and I want that others may contribute with new ideas sultanzahir

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
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 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 11:02, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

hindi
Why are you writing in Hindi script in the Urdu book?

Afrikaans-wikti
Dear Sultanzahir, not speaking Urdu but nevertheless trying to add Urdu words to the Afrikaans wiktionary, I have some questions: What is the plural of ماں? Is it مانیں or مائیں (http://af.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%BA) ? Where does one stress the plural of "مادر": is "مادریں" stressed on the last syllable "e" [mɑːdəˈɾẽː] or on the first syllable [ˈmɑːdəɾẽː]? Where is "مادروں" stressed, and "مادرو" (http://af.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1)? Greetings, http://af.wiktionary.org/wiki/Gebruiker:Manie --84.114.240.145 (talk) 21:12, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

Urdu Wikibook
Thank you so much for the work you put into the Urdu textbook, it's probably the best resource I've found on the internet. As someone who didn't grow up heary any urdu, it's really amazing, since a lot of other resources assume you already have basic vocab. However, no one's updated it in five years and its nowhere near done. Could you please resume working on it? Thank you

A really desperate urdu learner 73.159.245.79 (discuss) 19:27, 28 July 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sultanzahir


text:
Wikibooks:Wikibooks for course instructors

 * Wikibooks are supposed to be textbooks, and so we hope that class instructors of every level will both find them useful and help us write them.
 * Wikibooks are free, you may print them out or copy them to disk without further permission.
 * Using wikibooks for class projects
 * You can have your students write wikibooks
 * See Social and Cultural Foundations of American_Education for an example of a student-written Wikibook in process
 * How to do it
 * Use templates (classproj and classprojtk for chapter assignments
 * Use the page histories to track progress and contributions


text:
User talk:Ω~enwikibooks

Why did you tag Isometric_pixel_art/Contents as using deprecated naming conventions? It uses proper conventions. -- SB_Johnny | talk 10:47, 5 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Everything in that book is inside /Contents. They all need to be moved up a level. --Ω 20:19, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ω. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ω~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:55, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:40, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ω~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Garlic Mayonnaise made with Bread and Fish Stock (Rouille)

| French cuisine

Rouille is a traditional Provençal spicy garlic mayonnaise. It is usually served with bouillabaisse fish stew.

Ingredients

 * Baguette bread
 * 1 egg yolk
 * 100 ml olive oil
 * 4 garlic cloves
 * Saffron or annatto (for color)
 * 6 Tbsp fish stock
 * Salt
 * Pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Blend the bread, fish stock, and egg yolk together into a paste.
 * 2) Crush the garlic and saffron or annatto, and add to the paste.
 * 3) Gradually add the oil with one hand while vigorously whisking with the other, as when preparing any other mayonnaise.
 * 4) Add salt and pepper to taste.


text:
Battery Power

Using Batteries is a how-to book about the selection, care and use of batteries.

This book will be built initially from transwikied wikipedia articles on the subject.

Topics:

 * /Types of Batteries/
 * /Lithium Ion Batteries/
 * /Lead Acid Batteries/
 * /Alkaline Batteries/
 * /Nickel-Cadmium Batteries/
 * /Rechargeable Batteries/
 * /Alternatives to Batteries/

title: Battery Power


text:
User talk:Rtw

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck!

in the news
see: Wikibooks in the media, re: Global Text Project. BlankVerse 11:25, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Xmldmcity.png
Thanks for uploading Image:Xmldmcity.png. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about what Wikibooks includes because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. Image:Xmldmcity.png and other files you uploaded may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status. The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Please take the time to read Media to learn more about what copyright information is required to satisfy our requirements and remember to include this important information for every file that you upload in the future as well. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you.

See for a complete list of your uploads which may get deleted soon.

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:37, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rtw


text:
User:Rtw

home page

title: User:Rtw


text:
User talk:Guillom

Porn vandalism
Yes, sure, I'm already doing it. Thanks for fast reaction. --Derbeth talk 09:35, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

User:Seven Leagues Bot
I just gave your bot the bot flag. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:22, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

image tags
Message from SB_Johnny moved to User:Guillom/Images without license. guillom 20:07, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

Single-User Login
I just wanted to ask if you had any additional information about when the Single-User Login feature will be implemented? I have been waiting for it for some months now. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 21:57, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Guillom


text:
User talk:Mparak

I assume you didn't want to do that on the help page?

Moving that edit to your new sandbox... let me know what you were trying to do (click on the green "talk" after my name to reach my page) and I'll lend you a hand. -- SB_Johnny | talk 12:39, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mparak


text:
User:Mparak/sandbox

Are you sure you want to contribute?
Read Help:Why contribute? first.

Does the book or a similar one already exist?

 * It is easier to build on existing books than to start a new one.
 * Check on the bookshelves if similar books exist, or if your content could be part of an existing wikibook.

Are you willing to support the new book?
There exist many books that have a great introduction paragraph, but not more. Are you willing to write a substantial part of the book by yourself?

Be bold, Start the book
If your answers are: YES, YES, NO, YES, then start the book!

Point of Sale Systems reside in a space in which everything goes wrong, at the most inopportune moment. Murphy is quite at home here. This strange reality has led to the fact that instead of attracting the nerdy software types, this industry tends to bring in the battle hardened types. This has led to the creation of sturdy and rugged applications that appear to be created for the specific task of surviving an unforgiving environment. The fact that all the data that is being handled is generally highly classified, goes a long way to reinforce the notion that users will generally accept less sophisticated applications in favour of what they see as tried and tested. Ugly as sin, but pays the rent type applications.

We often find that our public has come to accept far less that than they deserve, simply because they are afraid of what may happen if they change, or that the information that lies in the hands of their IT guys is so sensitive that one needs to lock him into a room, and never let him out. (figuratively in the form of some contract I mean). This always, and I mean always leads to a very predictable outcome.

1.) The software tends to run ok, with lots of bugs, that everyone in the organisation has learned to live with. They roll up their eyes and say, "Software problems, whats new?". 2.) The software begins to get frayed, around the edges, and it is clear that the client is paying too much, for too little. At least he thinks so.

Technically start the Book
Read the naming policy first on how to arrange and name your book. Then make the contents/cover page. Name the title what you would like the book to be called, choose a short and descriptive title, but not abbreviations. Create the page the way you want it, and save it.

Show the book to the public
Next, you have to make the book available to other users. Of course, people can see it on Recent Changes, but its visibility on that list is not permanent, so you need to put it in a bookshelf. Go to the bookshelves, and put your book into a bookshelf you choose. If you are not sure, choose the Miscellaneous bookshelf, and another editor will put it elsewhere if necessary.

Once you have gone to the page of the bookshelf you want to add your book to, add your book in the correct category (if applicable) in alphabetical order. Save that page and go back to the Main Page. To get your book by typing it in the search box or URL. Create all of the pages within that textbook as "Textbooktitle/Whateverthepageis" to avoid problems with other textbooks. See Naming policy for more.

You might also want to add the book to the list of new Wikibooks that appears on the main page. To get there, click on this link, or click "(edit template)" on the main page. Make a link to your page at the front, and follow the rest of the directions you see at the bottom of the source. Save that page.

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title: User:Mparak/sandbox


text:
FOSS Licensing

Table of Contents

 * /About the Author/
 * /Preface/
 * /Introduction/
 * /Overview of Intellectual Property Rights/
 * /Copyright Basics/
 * /Software and Copyright/
 * /How is FOSS Different from Proprietary Software/?
 * /How to Make the Source Free or Open/
 * /Scenarios/
 * /Online Legal Resources and Materials/
 * /About APDIP/
 * /About IOSN/
 * /Glossary/
 * /Print Version/

Information
This book is donated by the International Open Source Network and UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme (UNDP-APDIP) to the community.

The original publication by

Author: Shun-ling Chen

© UNDP-APDIP, 2006, 29 pages

ISBN 978-81-312-0422-1

ISBN 81-312-0422-7

is located at http://www.iosn.net/licensing/foss-licensing-primer/foss-licensing-final.pdf

This wikibook is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License and Creative Commons Attribution License 2.5.

title: FOSS Licensing


text:
FOSS Licensing/Preface

Under the current copyright regime, software users are subject to restrictive regulations. This regime is said to provide individuals with incentives in terms of economic returns and thus encourages them to develop creative works. However, some software developers disagree with this default configuration of copyright law and value other things more than short-term economic incentives.

The Free/Open Source Software (FOSS) Movement was started by grassroots developers who are not content with the current copyright system. They tactically use specifically designed FOSS licenses to allow a community with a different world-view to develop and flourish. Lawyers are sometimes brought in to facilitate the collaboration between developers.

However, software development and software licensing are very different activities, and developers and lawyers often have very different mindsets. While developers tend to use whatever resources are available to them to achieve a particular feature, lawyers may request a copy of the license of every existing module that developers wish to adopt, before they actually approve the integration into the project. And while developers tend to use acronyms to make their communication more succinct, lawyers tend to use arcane terms and complicated sentences to make sure their ideas can be clearly delivered. Therefore, in order to successfully develop FOSS applications, both these professions are required to cooperate with each other.

As the FOSS Movement has been growing rapidly in recent years, more and more different kinds of stakeholders are brought in to participate in different roles. Some of them are end-users, developers, business entities, or government agencies that provide funding for FOSS projects. This primer is designed to provide these stakeholders with some basic knowledge about copyright, software copyright and FOSS licenses. Legal issues may vary in different situations and this primer may not be able to provide answers to all situations. But, hopefully, it will serve as a bridge between lawyers and non-lawyers in this joint venture of FOSS development.

title: FOSS Licensing/Preface


text:
FOSS Licensing/Introduction

A general introduction to free/open source software (FOSS) is provided in the first of this series of primers. That first primer is available at the International Open Source Network (IOSN) website at:

http://www.iosn.net/foss/foss-general-primer/foss_primer_current.pdf

Under the prevailing copyright regime, licenses decide whether software can be free and/or open. As David A. Wheeler said, FOSS are programs whose licenses give users the freedom to run them for any purpose, to study and modify them, and to redistribute copies of either the original or modified programs without having to pay royalties to original developers.

Starting from the mid-1980s, the birth of the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or LGPL) has enabled a model for software development. Following GNU GPL, various FOSS licenses have been drafted and adopted by FOSS communities, academic institutes and commercial companies. The number of FOSS licenses is growing rapidly. In early 2003, 43 licenses were recognized by the Open Source Initiative (OSI) as open source licenses. A year-and-a-half later, in July 2004, the number had reached 54. The diversity among FOSS licenses sometimes causes confusion and difficulty for people who want to participate in FOSS projects or adopt FOSS solutions. Some have argued that to reduce the transaction cost, new licenses should not be created. However, the number of FOSS licenses has been growing.

This primer aims to provide an introduction to FOSS licensing issues. It begins with a brief overview of “intellectual property” rights, and then moves on to the development of copyright law, the category of “intellectual property” that is most relevant here. The primer will then examine different proprietary and FOSS licenses which use copyright law to regulate the use of software. Finally, it briefly explains how the FOSS movement uses licenses as a way to create a different model of software development.

There are many FOSS licenses, and they may differ from each other in major ways. Due to page limitations, however, only three pervasively adopted licenses are discussed in this primer: the GNU GPL, the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) and the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) style licenses. These three are important not only because a large number of FOSS projects are under licenses, but also because they represent very different styles of FOSS licensing.

In the last section of the primer, some scenarios are given to highlight possible copyright issues regarding the use of FOSS by end-users, developers and vendors. Given the increased attention paid by governments to FOSS development, the primer also includes two cases regarding government-sponsored FOSS projects.

title: FOSS Licensing/Introduction


text:
FOSS Licensing/Overview of Intellectual Property Rights

Intangible products of human creative activities are regarded as a kind of property and are granted protection in the same way as property rights have been traditionally protected and applied to tangible objects.

Copyright, patent, trademark and trade secret all fall under the category of “intellectual property”. But each must be understood to be significantly distinct from the others.

Trade Secret
A trade secret is a confidential practice, method, process, design, the “know-how” or other information used by a business to compete with other businesses. The precise language by which a trade secret is defined varies by jurisdiction. However, there are three factors that (though subject to different interpretations) are common to all such definitions: a trade secret is some sort of information that is not generally known to the relevant portion of the public; confers some sort of economic benefit on its holder; is the subject of reasonable efforts to maintain its secrecy. Trade secrets are regulated by using a variety of civil and commercial means, such as confidentiality or non-disclosure agreements signed by those who are given access to special knowledge and information.

Trademark
Trademarks are brand names. distinctive names, phrases, symbols, designs, pictures or styles used by a business to identify itself and its products or services to its consumers. In many countries, colors, three-dimensional marks, sounds, and even smells can also be trademarked.

A trademark or service mark includes any word, name, symbol, device, or any combination, used or intended to be used to identify and distinguish the goods/services of one seller or provider from those of others, and to indicate the source of the goods/services. Although federal registration of a mark is not mandatory, it has several advantages, including notice to the public of the registrant's claim of ownership of the mark, legal presumption of ownership nationwide, and exclusive right to use the mark on or in connection with the goods/services listed in the registration. Trademarks are usually given for periods between 7 and 20 years with unlimited renewability. Purpose of a trademark The specific purpose of a trademark is to prevent others from using the same words, designs, graphics or symbols to identify a good or service. The significance of this is that, the trademark does not prevent the good or service itself. As long as a group uses different words, symbols or designs to identify the same good, the trademark is not violated.

Interpretations of a Trademark Other than the simple protection against copying, trademarks can be interpreted in many different ways. The first interpretation associates trademarks with the quality of the good or service. According to the economists Landes and Posner, trademarks are a sign to consumers that the good or service possesses quality. A good or service with a trademark indicates that that good or service is worthy of placing a unique name on it. This unique name means that someone wants to be able to distinguish this good or service. Thus rationally, only goods that possess quality would be worthy of such a distinction.

Another interpretation of a trademark is that it is a signal of innovation. While patents are made to protect and invention or idea when it is created, the inventor is likely going to want to spread the word about his invention or idea. By trademarking that invention, it is a formal declaration that this idea exists. It can also be used to express innovation should an idea not be novel enough to pass through patent regulations. Many ideas are unique yet due to being somewhat related to something already in existence, are unable to be patented. Trademarking allows for that idea to be represented as brand new.

A third interpretation of a trademark is the ability to build a brand from it. To promote an idea or invention, one needs a unique way of identifying it. Once the idea or invention is trademarked, it can acquire significance through its mark.

Trademarks can be acquired through the United States Trademark and Patent Office by filling out an application. The process involves searching through the list of active trademarks to ensure that a similar mark does not already exist.

Patent
“DEFINITION”-The word "patent" originates from the latin 'Patere' which means "to lay open" (i.e.,to make available for public inspection).

While trade secrets enable a business to keep certain information from the public, patents are designed to grant the inventor monopoly rights or monopoly status over certain newly developed knowledge for a period of time (usually 20 years) in exchange for its disclosure. Typically, to gain such rights, the inventor is required to file a patent application, which will be reviewed by a designated patent examiner. Novelty of the invention is an essential criterion in granting a patent. Alternatively we can say,that A "PATENT" is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign (patent holder) state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. an invention is a solution to a specific technological problem and is a product or a process. patents are a form of intellectual property.

Copyright
Copyright is applied to various kinds of creative works, such as literary works, music compositions, paintings and software. Unlike patents, copyright applies to a work upon its creation, regardless of its novelty.

However, the ideas employed by the work cannot be copyrighted. Copyright only prevents others from copying the copyright holder’s particular way of expressing those ideas. Under Copyright Law, the copyright holder is entitled to exclusive rights of reproduction, modification, distribution, and public display and performance of her copyrighted work. A license is often used to explain under which terms and conditions the work can be used. To accommodate different situations, the copyright holder is entitled to draft and adopt different kinds of licenses for each piece of her work.

How is software regulated?
Software is now subject to Copyright Law. Moreover, in recent years it has been argued that software should be patentable as well. Although software patents have been granted in some cases, they are still questioned by many, especially by the FOSS community. Due to page limits and the complexity of the issue, this primer does not address this topic.


text:
FOSS Licensing/Copyright Basics

Why do We have Copyright?
Compared to other legal concepts, copyright is a relatively new invention in human history. The development of copyright regulation reflects the social and technological transformation around human creative activity and distribution of the resultant profits. While granting exclusive private rights to authors or copyright holders has been considered as a way of encouraging human creative activity, copyright law also claims to recognize the larger public interest, particularly with respect to education, research and access to information.

Copyright law uses various means to balance public and private interests. In the Statute of Anne (1710), the earliest modern copyright law, authorities are allowed to limit and control the price of printed books according to their best judgement. In the United States Constitution, authors are granted exclusive rights to their writings within a limited time. In copyright law, fair use exceptions are specified to avoid the drawbacks of excessive assertion of exclusive rights and to attain a balance between conflicting interests.

What can be Copyrighted?
Copyright applies to the expression of ideas in different forms, including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and other intellectual works. The ideas expressed in such works are themselves not copyrightable. Since the 1980s, the copyrightability of software became internationally accepted.

How do I Copyright my Work?
Nowadays, copyright law does not require formalities. The author does not need to publish, register, pay a registration fee of any kind, nor attach a copyright notice to his/her/its work, for the copyright to take effect. Copyright is automatically applied to a work once it is created and the creator of the work automatically becomes the copyright holder.

What Rights are Granted to the Copyright Holder?
Copyright is actually a bundle of rights, including the right to reproduce the work, to prepare derivative works based on it, to distribute copies of a work, and to perform and display a copyrighted work publicly. A few other kinds of rights are defined in copyright law. Without the consent of the copyright holder, it is illegal for anyone to perform any of the activities mentioned above.

The Expansion of Copyright Law
Copyright Law has been expanded with time.

 * The first copyright legislation (the Statute of Anne, 1710):
 * Compared to other legal systems, copyright law came relatively late in human civilization. The first known copyright legislation was the Statute of Anne, enacted in 1710 in Great Britain. For a newly created work, the Statute of Anne granted the copyright holders the right to print and reprint books and other writings for 14 years.

 * All-dimensional expansion of copyright law:
 * We can see from the Statute of Anne that, initially, the scope of copyright was quite limited. The copyrightable works were limited to books and other writings, the rights granted to the copyright holder were limited to printing and reprinting the work, and the length of the protection was limited to 14 years. Now, copyright law does much more. Copyrightable works now include paintings, sculpture, music compositions, music recording, architecture, and software. The bundle of rights granted to the copyright holder have been expanded to include the right to print, reprint, modify, display publicly, perform publicly, and distribute the work. Moreover, the term of copyright protection has been increased to 50 years after the author’s death. (In Europe and the US, it has been expanded to 70 years.)

From National to International
The expansion of copyright law has not been limited to one jurisdiction; it has become standardized internationally.

 * Berne Convention:
 * In the late 19th century, as copyrighted works gradually became important in international trade, the transnational copyright system gradually became a serious issue. The Berne Convention of 1886 first introduced the national treatment principle. This means that signatories to the Berne Convention will treat the work of a foreign copyright holder just as they treat their own citizens’ work. Thus, it created an international standard for copyright regulation.

 * However, without a dispute resolution mechanism, the Berne Convention offered a somewhat weak copyright, as it will be too costly for copyright holders to claim their rights in a foreign country where they believed their rights had been infringed.

 * More enforceable international standard: WTO and TRIPs:
 * In the 1990s, the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Trade Related Intellectual Property Agreement (TRIPs) sought to establish a stronger international copyright regime. Every economy intending to become a WTO member is required to sign the TRIPs, and every TRIPs signatory must agree to comply with all of the key sections of the Berne Convention. The WTO also provides a dispute-settlement and enforcement mechanism for copyright infringements among member countries. Thus, copyright has become more enforceable internationally.

The Abolition of Formality Requirements
As set forth in the 1908 Berne Convention, copyright is applied to a work once it is created, without the need for any formality. The author is not required to register, or even to publish a work to enjoy full copyright protection. In Berne Convention signatory countries, the law assumes that all authors claim all rights granted to them unless they explicitly state otherwise.

Copyright laws in different countries have been revised to comply with this standard. For example, anticipating that it would join the Berne Convention Union, the US revised its Copyright Act and abolished formality requirements in 1976.

title: FOSS Licensing/Copyright Basics