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Mixing and Mastering/Bass Mixdown

Introduction
In this section I am going to be using some harsh words about the realities of sound engineering and some of the things that beginner engineers and even magazines say. If you are offended by these... good, I hope it gets you offended enough to sit up and think about what you are doing, how you are doing it and to realize that there is no magical piece of equipment or plugin that will make your music sound terrific.

I've thought long and hard about writing this article because none of us want to give away our 'secrets' and believe me when I tell you that if you want to make your dance music sound stunning then this is THE secret. You will need to know much more than just this but without this knowledge you are going nowhere.

Why am I doing this?
There are two reasons: Firstly over the past year there has been so much badly produced crap thrust onto the market that it has become saturated to the point where distributors around the world won't touch certain styles with a barge pole. They know that only one release in twenty will be any good so they don't want ANY of it. So rule number one, if you genuinely care about the music you are making don't let your ego take over, "I'm the best producer in the world because I've got a record out, my mates all think I'm fantastic". Yes, but no one in the industry does, they think you are a joke because you are killing the music that we all love with your garbage and you don't even realise it. Please, please, please do not even THINK about releasing something yourself or trying to get it released with a label until you are absolutely sure (and be honest with yourself!) that you are good enough and ready to produce the goods time and time again. Don't be desperate to get a record out, learn your craft, pay your dues and be patient. After all you want a reputation for releasing great music and not the other kind, don't you?

The second reason is this and again it is to do with ego. After a while, it could be six months, it could be five years: who cares? No one is counting. You will be writing music that is good enough for release if you have the talent for it, without a doubt but you may not have handle on the mixdown. In other words you can program great drum tracks, brilliant bass and synth lines and arrange it all perfectly but when you listen to your recordings they don't sound right. They lack volume and punch, the clarity isn't there, the bass doesn't cut through; they sound right but they don't sound right: that professional 'sheen' isn't there.

I'm sure everyone has seen on letters pages in magazines and on web forums a query where someone says something along the lines of:

"My track needs to be louder and kick more, it's nothing to do with compressors, EQ or limiters as my mix is perfect. It's just that the sounds need to stand out more. Should I use a different keyboard for my bass sounds? I was thinking of buying that WalNord Super Lead. I've mastered the track using the Super-Thrasher Maximiser. That may be the problem - if I only had the newer version with the tweeter fryer add-on my music might sound how I want it to"

The reply will follow saying that the WalNord is indeed superb (they advertise in that magazine) and yes the tweeter fryer is great (they've just given it a superb review) and you could also try to compress the life out of every single track separately, buy the new YamiRolorg super expander, put cheese in your ears etc. etc.

ALL WRONG AND ALL UTTER UTTER GARBAGE.

The mixdown isn't good enough. End of story. No amount mastering, Eqing or whatever other post-mix trickery will make a terrible mix sound good. You cannot polish a turd. The person that asked the question will be making the same mistakes over and over because he isn't asking questions of himself - he already stated that his mixes are nigh on perfect - how can you improve on that? Whatever anyone makes, even top professionals, it is never perfect. There is always something that can be improved. Also, always remember that while magazines can indeed be very informative, they are also there to sell you things.

It can take years to learn to perform a mixdown properly - you may not have the time or the inclination, in which case I recommend that you hire a studio to mix your tracks down for you. There are several well-known producers and engineers that supply this service, myself included. Yes, even this article is trying to sell you something but at least it is something worth buying if you really care about your music and want it to be the best that it can be.

If you ever get the opportunity, get yourself in a studio with someone that knows what they are doing - you will learn more in one afternoon than you will learn from reading twenty articles like this because you will see what is being done and you will, more importantly, hear the results.

Whatever kind of music you are making, any mixdown should have punch, depth, width and space. It cannot have any of these if the bass end (bottom end) isn't mixed correctly. The bottom end is the foundation on which the rest of the mix sits, get it wrong and you are on very shaky ground.

This article assumes that you are making dance music, in particular hard dance music (four on the floor kick, heavy bass line). The principles work just the same for any other kind of music but some of the ingredients and proportions may be a little different.

Starting out
The first step in getting your bass mix right comes from choosing the right sounds to use in the first place, don't be tempted to try and fix it in the mix. If you want more bass in your track it isn't simply a case of turning up the bass EQ but if you want to make a pigs-ear of it then by all means do.

The Kick
Years ago the 909 kick was de-rigueur but these days one of those straight out of the box sounds weedier than a gnats fart. Hard dance music is just that, HARD. The kicks need to be huge. How do you go about getting a huge kick? One way is to simply sample somebody else's (naughty) but that isn't being very creative. Over the years there have been literally thousands of different kick drums made and the sound is constantly being refined and reinvented. Whenever you buy a new record or get a new CD, always sample the kick drums to store in your library for later use.

Some may need cleaning up - random noise or cymbals may need to be removed. I'm not going to tell you how to do that because I want to make you think but I will give you a pointer: noise reduction is not the answer on a single kick, it will ruin the sound.

When you come to start writing a new track the first thing you will need to do is create a NEW kick. You already have your huge library of kicks to hand so you can start by getting several kicks that you like the sound of and that you think will fit together and then start experimenting layering those kicks together in various amounts. You may only need to use two or three kicks to get the sound you want. The sound can then be further refined with the use of compression, EQ and distortion or any other effect (careful!).

At this point you are using EQ creatively to alter the sound's character significantly. Extreme boosts don't tend to work well in the bass area, as you will find that you have problems when it comes to the mixdown. Compression can be used to tighten the kick, lengthen the decay or to add pop to the attack; again this is using compression as a creative tool. Always save your layered kicks and make new kicks with those too - your library will constantly grow and your 'depth of sound' will get greater.

The Bass
You've got your kick, now you need a bass to go with it. It's a good idea to just sit in the studio for an afternoon every now and again and program bass sounds on whatever synthesisers you have available, sample them off and store them away for later use - it is much easier to have a library of bass sounds to hand than to try and program a sound that will fit with your kick drum. Again your bass sounds can be layered together to create new ones. You can also significantly change the character of your bass sounds with EQ and/or filtering. Again we are being creative at this point and trying to make the character of the sound how we want it so anything goes.

Mixing the two together
The mixdown is usually the last thing that gets done to a track, after all the programming, writing, arranging etc. Mute everything apart from the kick and the bass (which incidentally must have their own separate mixer channels). Don't be tempted to try and mix anything else in your track until you have your foundations in place, you will be wasting your time.

There is a minimum of facilities that are required to be able to get that pro sound in the bass on every track that you mix. It can be done with less equipment but much more time needs to be spent when you create the kick and bass sound in the first place (as will become apparent).

An absolute must is a decent pair of monitor speakers, positioned correctly and with you sitting in the correct position. Your room needs to be well damped and you will find from time to time, if you are in a small control room or project studio, that depending on what frequencies are in the sounds you are using different items in the room will buzz or vibrate - you need to damp or shield these so you can hear what is coming from the speakers and nothing else.

Also required is a mixing desk or facility (could be in your PC) where you can group tracks together, a compressor and decent EQ. If you are using an analogue desk you will probably not have enough EQ to do the job and will need to insert extra parametric (preferably) or graphic EQ on both the kick and bass channels.

So, first things first - listen to any hard dance records and you notice that the kick and the bass are at roughly the same volume level. So, presuming that your desk is normalised, solo the kick and adjust the volume so that it is peaking at around +3 to +6 dB on the main output meter (if your mixer goes to +15). You want the maximum amount of volume coming from the kick channel (if you are in software you can set this to slightly below maximum) while leaving enough headroom on the main outputs to fit the rest of your mix in. Why is the kick so loud? We want to get the best signal to noise ratio possible and to use the full bandwidth available on the mixer.

The same process is then done with the bass, solo it and set it to the same (or just slightly less) level on the main meters.

Listen to the two sounds together and note what the main meter is now doing - depending on what parts you have written the output will be moving around somewhat. Ideally you want the volume level in the bass end to be fairly constant otherwise headroom will be used up for no reason and bass 'power' will be lost. Compression needs to be used to smooth the levels out. This has the effect of increasing the average volume whilst using no more headroom. Both the kick and the bass need to be compressed together so the two channels need to be grouped and a compressor placed on the insert of the group. How the compressor is set very much depends on the material and there are several articles on compression out there. A good starting point would be to use 6:1 compression with a fast attack (to let the peaks on the kick to come through) and a release of around 150ms. The amount of gain reduction again depends on the source material.

Depending on the speed of the track the compressor's release setting can cause 'pumping' - that is where the overall volume pumps up and down in time with the track. You may want this effect or you may not. If you are going to make the mix pump be very subtle otherwise it just sounds naff. The compressor type will affect the character in the bass end so use the right one - you might want to use a fairly transparent compressor or you might choose to go with a very hard compressor for a more noticeable and aggressive effect. One thing to notice is that on notes where both kick and bass coincide, the volume of the kick will lessen if too much processing is applied.

Volume and compression are now set. Already the bass mix will seem to have much more energy than when you started out. Now comes the difficult part...

EQ'ing the bass
Previously creative EQ has been used to make new sounds (art). Now EQ is going to be used in a much more technical way to perfect the bass mix (craft).

A couple of notes before we start, if the bass sound is bass light don't try to simply boost the low end EQ - it makes for a muddy mix. Always remember that if you cut one end of the frequency spectrum comparatively you are boosting the other end. So to boost that bottom end you would roll off the top end and increase the volume level back to where it was previously. EQ cuts sound much better than boosts when mixing down, especially in digital systems.

To get a tight mix you need to be very accurate with your Eqing so be warned, this is going to take time, especially for a start. If it means spending a couple of hours just to EQ the bass then put the work in, the results will be worth it.

Every kick and bass you mix together will be different so there is no point in having or using the same 'magical' EQ settings unless you use the exact same sounds every time. I would recommend sitting down and listening to the bass end in some really well produced tracks. What do you notice? The kick and the bass don't interfere with each other, they sound 'tight' and they don't bloat out the whole mix. They 'sit' right.

Now we are going to get our bass to sound like that. This is where the decent monitors come in, without them you will really struggle to do the job.

Crank up the volume
That's right, really crank it up! If you are using near-fields you should be around 3- 4 feet away from the speakers, you need to be monitoring loud enough so that you are really 'inside' the sound. Don't monitor so loud that your ears start to hurt, go numb or ring - if you do you are monitoring too loud to be able to hear things properly and you will be doing yourself some damage. Don't try and mix the bass by monitoring quietly - what you have already probably sounds great when listened to at those volumes. It isn't! This is heavy music that is played loudly in clubs, not on tiny home stereos.

A quick note on 'harmonics'. ''All sounds are made from a combination of sine waves. If you want to see the maths behind this look on the web for 'Fourier Analysis'. In any sound there is a fundamental (or root) pitch plus a combination of harmonics. A harmonic is simply a multiple of the root pitch, i.e. the second harmonic is a sine wave at twice the pitch of the fundamental. So a square wave for example is made from a root sine wav plus every odd-(integer)numbered harmonic going upwards in diminishing amounts.''

Listen carefully to the bass. If it sounds bass light in comparison to the kick, use a high cut EQ (or the lo pass filter in your sampler) to reduce the high frequencies and thus boost the bass. The frequency to cut to depends very much on the bass sound itself. If it is almost pure bass you could get rid of everything above 500-750 Hz. If the bass has a clanky attack you may want to keep that clank in and cut at a higher frequency - 1000 to 2000 Hz maybe. It's all relative to the sounds you are using.

After each EQ change check the volume of the bass on its own again to make sure it is still at the correct level. If it has changed alter the volume accordingly.

You will notice that as you progressively EQ the bass that it will start to sound very different to the sound you started with, this is normal and nothing to worry about, you've just got used to hearing the sound in its' unaltered state. Don't get into the mindset where you can't EQ the sound in a certain way because it makes it different to how it 'should' sound. It has got to sound that way to work with the kick.

Listen very carefully at the lower end of the frequency spectrum. Does it sound like there is a constant hum or note down there that runs through the notes that are being played. If there is then that is a 'ringing' harmonic - in other word one that isn't needed, all it is doing is using up valuable headroom and bloating the mix out. If you listen again you will also perhaps note that it makes the mix sound too fat and interferes with the kick, frequencies around 110-115 Hz are the usual culprits.

The frequency needs to be isolated and reduced until things sharpen up. The best EQ to use for this is a parametric as specific frequencies can be isolated but a graphic can be used at a pinch. The results will never be as sharp though. You now need to listen elsewhere for harmonics that ring out or whistle - these can be anywhere in the frequency spectrum. You might want to keep one or two of them in there if they are in tune with the bass notes playing (a-la Klub bass) but be careful what you leave. If you leave the wrong harmonics, especially as you start to move into the 200 Hz region they will start to interfere with the lower-mids of the sounds in the rest of your mix. Again when you get a handle on where the 'bad' harmonics are, isolate them with a band of parametric EQ and reduce them until they no longer ring out.

So that's the bass EQed. Well, not quite. The sub end of things needs to be looked at, if there is too much sub in there the mix may sound great on your small speakers but when you play it on something larger you could max out the amps or blow the cones out. A nice little check is to listen to the mix through headphones. For a few seconds crank the headphone volume right up and listen to the kick drum - it will be making the headphones buzz quite a lot. Now listen to the bass, if it's making the headphones buzz about the same amount then things are OK in the sub department. If it's REALLY making the headphones buzz then you have too much sub on the bass. Another check is to look and see how much the bass sound makes your speaker cones flap in comparison to the kick - if it looks like your cones are about to blow with the power then, again there is too much sub in there. If your speakers are larger or you have a sub box then you are laughing. I bet the neighbours love you! A low shelf at 49Hz with about 2-3 dB of reduction will suffice if you have too much energy in that region.

It's almost there now. It's now a good idea to add an open hi hat, set a rough volume level for it and then listen to see if there are any harmonics that shouldn't be there between the 'real' bass and the hats. If there is, again, using parametric, get hold of those frequencies in the bass and EQ them out. That's the bass EQed.

Now go back to listening to just the kick and the bass. Listen with more of an emphasis on the kick. Mostly you don't need to do any EQ work on the kick but sometimes there will be just the odd harmonic that seems to 'ring' out on top of the kick and the bass. If it's too much and clouds things up, reduce it, again with a parametric.

And that is it. Job done. The track should now have a tight and punchy bottom end that will rock on any sound system. There are now just the other 50 sounds to sort out.

Come on super engineers, collaborate! This is a good start.

NOTES - Mastering is a separate process from mixing. A Mastering Engineer will want 3 or 4 dB of headroom to work with. So do not mix to 0dB on your DAW, mix to an output of 3 to 4 dB below unity. Also, do not compress your master output bus too severely - if at all. The Mastering Engineer will add compression also.

- This is obviously not a definitive article and you will never find one when it comes to mixing, too many variables to take everything into account. Hopefully it will give you some basic understanding about the frequency range and what to cut or boost to bring instruments out of the mix.

- Most EQ should be subtractive - try to achieve a good sound and then sculpt away any problems using EQ, rather than trying to use EQ to "fix" a problem. This is a firm rule for acoustic and vocal music, obviously Dubstep etc is a special case.

Each instrument has a space in the frequency spectrum, so talking about the kick and bass, you enhance the kick and cut that freq in the bass. That way they don't fight for space in the mix. You do the same with the rest of the mix, leaving room for an instruments scope.

General

 * 20 Hz and below - impossible to detect, remove as it only adds unnecessary energy to the total sound, thereby most probably holding down the overall volume of the track
 * 60 Hz and below - sub bass (feel only)
 * 80(-100) Hz - feel AND hear bass
 * 100-120 Hz - the "club sound system punch" resides here
 * 200 Hz and below - bottom
 * 250 Hz - notch filter here can add thump to a kick drum
 * 150-400 Hz - boxiness
 * 200 Hz-1.5 kHz - punch, fatness, impact
 * 800 Hz-4 kHz - edge, clarity, harshness, defines timbre
 * 4500 Hz - exteremly tiring to the ears, add a slight notch here
 * 5-7 kHz - de-essing is done here
 * 4-9 kHz - brightness, presence, definition, sibilance, high frequency distortion
 * 6-15 kHz - air and presence
 * 9-15 kHz - adding will give sparkle, shimmer, bring out details - cutting will smooth out harshness and darken the mix

Kick Drum

 * 60 Hz with a Q of 1.4 - Add fullness to Kick drum
 * 5 kHz with a Q of 2.8 - Adds attack to Kick drum
 * bottom (60 - 80 Hz),
 * slap (4 kHz)
 * EQ - Cut below 80 Hz to remove rumble
 * Boost between 80–125 Hz for bass
 * Boost between 3–5k Hz to get the slap
 * PROCESSING Compression 4:1/6:1 slow attack med release.
 * Reverb: Tight room reverb (0.1-0.2 ms)

General
Control The Attack: Treat Muddiness:
 * Apply a little cut at 300 Hz and some boost between 40 Hz and 80 Hz.
 * Apply boost or cut around 4 kHz to 6 kHz.
 * Apply cut somewhere in the 100 Hz to 500 Hz range.
 * kick - bottom depth at 60 - 80 Hz, slap attack at 2.5 Hz

Snare Drum
Fatness at 240 Hz, crispness at 5 kHz
 * 100 Hz with a Q of 1.0 - Add fullness to snare
 * 200 Hz - 250 Hz with a Q of 1.4 - Adds wood to snares
 * 3 kHz with a Q of 1.4 - Adds attack to snare.
 * 7 kHz with a Q of 2.8 - Adds Sharpness to snares and percussion
 * fatness at 120–240 Hz
 * boing at 400 Hz
 * crispness at 5 kHz
 * snap at 10 kHz

 * EQ - Boost above 2 kHz for that crisp edge
 * Cut at 1 kHz to get rid of the sharp peak
 * Boost at 125 Hz for a full snare sound
 * Cut at 80 Hz to remove rumble
 * PROCESSING - Compression 4:1 slow attack med release.
 * Reverb - Tight room reverb (0.1-0.2 ms)

Vocals
Fullness at 120 Hz, boominess at 200 - 240 Hz, presence at 5 kHz, sibilance at 7.5 - 10 kHz Treat harsh vocals: Get an open sound: Get brightness, not harshness: Get smoothness: Bring out The bass: Radio Vocal Effect: Telephone Effect:
 * Roll off below 60 Hz using a High Pass Filter. This range is unlikely to contain anything useful.
 * To soften vocals apply cut in a narrow bandwidth somewhere in the 2.5 kHz to 4 kHz range.
 * Apply a gentle boost above 6 kHz using a shelving filter.
 * Apply a gentle boost using a wide-band bandpass filter above 6k Hz. Use the sweep control to sweep the frequencies to get it right.
 * Apply some cut in a narrow band in the 1 kHz to 2 kHz range.
 * Apply some boost in a reasonably narrow band somewhere in the 200 Hz to 600 Hz range.
 * Apply some cut at the high frequencies, lots of boost about 1.5 kHz and lots of cut below 700 Hz.
 * Apply lots of compression pre EQ, and a little analogue distortion by turning up the input gain. Apply some cut at the high frequencies, lots of boost about 1.5 kHz and lots of cut below 700 Hz.

Hi-Hats
10 kHz with a Q of 1.0 - Adds brightness to hats and cymbals - sizzle (7.5 - 10 kHz) - clank (200 Hz) EQ - Boost above 5 kHz for sharp sparkle - Cut at 1 kHz to remove jangling PROCESSING - Compression use high ratio for high energy feel Reverb - Looser than Bass n Snare, allow the hats and especially the Rides to ring a little Get Definition - Roll off everything below 600 Hz using a High Pass Filter. Get Sizzle - Apply boost at 10 kHz using a Band Pass Filter. Adjust the bandwidth to get the sound right. Treat Clangy Hats - Apply some cut between 1 kHz and 4 kHz. Hi-hats/cymbals - clank or gong sound at 200 Hz, shimmer at 7.5–12 kHz

Guitar
General - Apply a little boost between 100 Hz and 250 Hz and again between 10 kHz and 12 kHz. Acoustic Guitar - to add sparkle try a gentle boost at 10 kHz using a band pass filter with a medium bandwidth.
 * Apply some cut to the guitar between 1 kHz and 5 kHz to bring the vocals to the front of the mix.

General

 * Try applying some mid-range cut to the rhythm section to make vocals and other instruments more clearly heard.

Other
Voice - presence (5 kHz), sibilance (7.5 - 10 kHz), boominess (200 - 240 kHz), fullness (120 Hz) Electric Guitar - fullness (240 Hz), bite (2.5 kHz), air / sizzle (8 kHz) Bass Guitar - bottom (60 - 80 Hz), attack (700 - 1000 Hz), string noise (2.5 kHz)

Toms - attack (5 kHz), fullness (120 - 240 Hz) Acoustic Guitar - harshness / bite (2 kHz), boominess (120 - 200 Hz), cut (7 - 10 kHz) Bass - Compressed, EQ'd with a full bottom end and some mids Rack toms - fullness at 240 Hz, attack at 5 kHz Floor toms - fullness at 80 - 120 Hz, attack at 5 kHz Horns - fullness at 120 - 240 Hz, shrill at 5 - 7.5 kHz Strings - fullness at 240 Hz, scratchiness at 7.5 - 10 kHz Conga/bongo -resonance at 200 - 240 Hz, slap at 5 kHz

General EQ Reference

 * 50 Hz
 * Boost: To thicken up bass drums and sub-bass parts.
 * Cut: Below this frequency on all vocal tracks. This should reduce the effect of any microphone 'pops'.

 * 70-100 Hz
 * Boost: For bass lines and bass drums.
 * Cut: For vocals.
 * General: Be wary of boosting the bass of too many tracks. Low frequency sounds are particularly vulnerable to phase cancellation between sounds of similar frequency. This can result in a net cut of the bass frequencies.

 * 200-400 Hz
 * Boost: To add warmth to vocals or to thicken a guitar sound.
 * Cut: To bring more clarity to vocals or to thin cymbals and higher frequency percussion.
 * Boost or Cut: to control the 'woody' sound of a snare.

 * 400-800 Hz
 * Boost: To add warmth to toms.
 * Boost or Cut: To control bass clarity, or to thicken or thin guitar sounds.
 * General: In can be worthwhile applying cut to some of the instruments in the mix to bring more clarity to the bass within the overall mix.

 * 800 Hz-1 kHz
 * Boost: To thicken vocal tracks. At 1 kHz apply boost to add knock to a bass drum.

 * 1-3 kHz
 * Boost: To make a piano more aggressive. Applying boost between 1 kHz and 5 kHz will also make guitars and basslines more cutting.
 * Cut: Apply cut between 2 kHz and 3 kHz to smooth a harsh sounding vocal part.
 * General: This frequency range is often used to make instruments stand out in a mix.

 * 3-6 kHz
 * Boost: For a more 'plucked' sounding bass part. Apply boost at around 6 kHz to add some definition to vocal parts and distorted guitars.
 * Cut: Apply cut at about 3 kHz to remove the hard edge of piercing vocals. Apply cut between 5 kHz and 6 kHz to dull down some parts in a mix.

For example boost this range to:
 * 6-10 kHz
 * Boost: To sweeten vocals. The higher the frequency you boost the more 'airy/breathy' the result will be. Also boost to add definition to the sound of acoustic guitars or to add edge to synth sounds or strings or to enhance the sound of a variety of percussion sounds.
 * Bring out cymbals.
 * Add ring to a snare.
 * Add edge to a bass drum.

 * 10-16 kHz
 * Boost: To make vocals more 'airy' or for crisp cymbals and percussion. Also boost this frequency to add sparkle to pads, but only if the frequency is present in the original.

Achieve a balance of the sound as you would like to hear it.

YOU MUST USE AND TRUST YOUR EARS. Use your software to save channel strip presets of each instrument for future reference. Important - use near-field monitors and a good pair of headphones to have a clear picture of the sound image. If you do not have a properly acoustically-treated room it is likely it will sound good in your room but not outside. By using headphones as well as near field monitors you can appreciate frequencies you might be losing in the room. For headphones, I use AKG 702 (superb) and SONY MDRV 900 (very good) so you can have different sound and hopefully you will educate your ears for your room.

Now you can set your channel panning and begin mixing.

NOTE - not everybody has a 909 and a tubetech. If you are working on plugins play your drums then compress it at a ratio of 4:1 soft knee. Set the threshold until you achieve gain reduction until 4 dB and set output to 4 dB to compensate. Now for EQ. Set attack to 11 o'clock so the sound has time to build before it is compressed - and the release to 11 o'clock.

You must not apply hard compression on plugins otherwise you will destroy the sound. Better off applying a little compression to each track, then a little in the buses.

Tutorial written by the British hardtrance producer

title: Mixing and Mastering/Bass Mixdown


text:
User talk:Yoozer~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Copyrights
You wrote at your user page that you use materials from. Do you have copyrights to them? --Derbeth talk 12:09, 21 November 2005 (UTC)

Audio Engineering
Hi, mate. School_of_Audio_Engineering. This is what i started. So I will try to help you with your book. Tell me about what are you writing at the moment if you want.

Cheers Sturmfuhrer

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Hello,

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User:Jonas Nordlund

Me
I joined the Wikibooks community in November 2005, and contribute to Wikipedia since two years earlier.

My work
I'm basically a computer geek so you'll find contributions from me mostly in these areas. :-)

My major contributions to Wikibooks include (bold link = created the article):

Programming

 * C#

To do

 * Lots and lots to do on the C# article still.

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C Sharp Programming/Data structures

There are various ways of grouping sets of data together in C#.

Enumerations
An enumeration is a data type that enumerates a set of items by assigning to each of them an identifier (a name), while exposing an underlying base type for ordering the elements of the enumeration. The underlying type is by default, but can be any one of the integral types except for.

Enumerations are declared as follows:

The elements in the above enumeration are then available as constants:

If no explicit values are assigned to the enumerated items as the example above, the first element has the value 0, and the successive values are assigned to each subsequent element. However, specific values from the underlying integral type can be assigned to any of the enumerated elements (note that the variable must be type cast in order to access the base type):

The underlying values of enumerated elements may go unused when the purpose of an enumeration is simply to group a set of items together, e.g., to represent a nation, state, or geographical territory in a more meaningful way than an integer could. Rather than define a group of logically related constants, it is often more readable to use an enumeration.

It may be desirable to create an enumeration with a base type other than. To do so, specify any integral type besides as with base class extension syntax after the name of the enumeration, as follows:

The enumeration type is also helpful, if you need to output the value. By calling the method on the enumeration, will output the enumerations name (e.g.  will output "Hearts").

Structs
Structures (keyword ) are light-weight objects. They are mostly used when only a data container is required for a collection of value type variables. Structs are similar to classes in that they can have constructors, methods, and even implement interfaces, but there are important differences.

 * Structs are value types while classes are reference types, which means they behave differently when passed into methods as parameters.
 * Structs cannot support inheritance. While structs may appear to be limited with their use, they require less memory and can be less expensive, if used in the proper way.
 * Structs always have a default constructor, even if you don't want one. Classes allow you to hide the constructor away by using the "private" modifier, whereas structures must have one.

A can, for example, be declared like this:

The struct can then be used like this:

It is also possible to provide constructors to s to make it easier to initialize them:

There is also an alternative syntax for initializing structs:

Structs are really only used for performance reasons or, if you intend to reference it by value. Structs work best when holding a total equal to or less than 16 bytes of data. If in doubt, use classes.

Arrays
Arrays represent a set of items all belonging to the same type. The declaration itself may use a variable or a constant to define the length of the array. However, an array has a set length and it cannot be changed after declaration.

title: C Sharp Programming/Data structures


text:
User talk:Qwangjin

Do not upload pictures from porn websites. I blocked you for a day - similar actions will result in longer blocks. --Derbeth talk 00:11, 21 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Qwangjin


text:
C Sharp Programming/Namespaces

Namespaces are used to provide a "named space" in which your application resides. They're used especially to provide the C# compiler a context for all the named information in your program, such as variable names. Without namespaces, for example, you wouldn't be able to make a class named Console, as .NET already uses one in its System namespace. The purpose of namespaces is to solve this problem, and release thousands of names defined in the .NET Framework for your applications to use, along with making it so your application doesn't occupy names for other applications, if your application is intended to be used in conjunction with another. So namespaces exist to resolve ambiguities a compiler wouldn't otherwise be able to do.

Namespaces are easily defined in this way:

There is an entire hierarchy of namespaces provided to you by the .NET Framework, with the System namespace usually being by far the most commonly seen one. Data in a namespace is referred to by using the operator, such as: This will call the method that is a member of the  class within the  namespace.

By using the keyword, you explicitly tell the compiler that you'll be using a certain namespace in your program. Since the compiler would then know that, it no longer requires you to type the namespace name(s) for such declared namespaces, as you told it which namespaces it should look in, if it couldn't find the data in your application.

So one can then type like this:

Namespaces are global, so a namespace in one C# source file, and another with the same name in another source file, will cause the compiler to treat the different named information in these two source files as residing in the same namespace.

Nested namespaces
Normally, your entire application resides under its own special namespace, often named after your application or project name. Sometimes, companies with an entire product series decide to use nested namespaces though, where the "root" namespace can share the name of the company, and the nested namespaces the respective project names. This can be especially convenient, if you're a developer who has made a library with some usual functionality that can be shared across programs. If both the library and your program shared a parent namespace, that one would then not have to be explicitly declared with the keyword, and still not have to be completely typed out. If your code was open for others to use, third party developers that may use your code would additionally then see that the same company had developed the library and the program. The developer of the library and program would finally also separate all the named information in their product source codes, for fewer headaches especially, if common names are used.

To make your application reside in a nested namespace, you can show this in two ways. Either like this:

... or like this:

Both methods are accepted, and are identical in what they do.

title: C Sharp Programming/Namespaces


text:
C Sharp Programming/Encapsulation2

Properties
Properties encapsulate the control of an object's state.

For example, the following  class encapsulates a customer's name:

Customer {   // "private" prevents access of _name outside the Customer class: _name; // The following property allows programmatic changes to _name: Name {       { ._name = ; } { ._name; } } }

The above  property has three important parts: the declaration, the set accessor, and the get accessor.

Property declaration
Name

The access modifier determines who can manipulate this data. Properties can be scoped as, , , or.

The type determines what kind of type it can accept or return.

The property name declares the name used to access the property.

Accessors
Setting the  property for the   class is done through the set accessor, defined using the  keyword.

Similarly, the keyword creates a get accessor to encapsulate the logic to perform when clients retrieve the value of the property.

Above, the simple set accessor and get accessor make property behave very much like a simple field. That may not be the desired behavior. If not, we can add logic to check the value passed into the accessor:

Name {            {                    ( != null) ._name = ; }            {                                      (._name != null) ._name; "John Doe"; }       }

Above, if the client requests to set the value to, the set accessor does not change the field. Also, if the  field hasn't yet been set, the get accessor returns a default value.

Using properties
Clients can use property much like they use simple class fields:

Customer customer = Customer; // this will not set the data. customer.Name = ""; // since the field is not yet set, this will print out: "John Doe" System.Console.WriteLine(customer.Name); customer.Name = "Marissa"; System.Console.WriteLine(customer.Name);

The above code prints the following:

John Doe Marissa

Accessibility levels
The various accessibility levels C# provides are, from most public to least: If no accessibility level is specified, a default level is used. They are:

Note: namespace-level elements (e.g. a class declared directly under a namespace) cannot be declared as stricter than internal.

title: C Sharp Programming/Encapsulation2


text:
User:GalaxiaGuy

Oliver Brown

 * Me on Wikipedia
 * OliverBrown.me.uk

title: User:GalaxiaGuy


text:
Handbook of Genetic Counseling/Craniosynostosis-1

Craniosynostosis

Overview

 * Craniosynostosis refers to the premature fusion of the cranial sutures (growth centers between the bones of the skull)
 * The skull is made up of a number of bones and when those bones fuse together too soon it doesn't allow the head to grow in the usual fashion and can lead to changes in head shape
 * Usually cranial sutures do not fuse completely until the fourth decade

Primary vs. secondary craniosynostosis

 * Primary
 * suture growth is altered
 * head frequently asymmetric
 * the brain continues to grow in areas where sutures are open
 * most individuals are normal neurologically
 * benefit from surgery
 * Secondary
 * growth of brain is impaired
 * neurologically abnormal usually

Isolated vs. Syndromic

 * Isolated
 * usually presents during first year of life
 * usually involves only one cranial suture (may involve more than one though)
 * no other associated abnormalities except those produced secondarily as a result of premature fusion of suture
 * sagittal suture is most common site for isolated craniosynostosis
 * suture that runs from front to back and separates parietal bones
 * results in head elongated from front to back due to limited growth laterally (scaphocephaly)
 * intracranial pressure is usually in the normal range
 * cranial surgery usually recommended to give a more usual head shape
 * usually babies with isolated craniosynostosis grow and develop normally
 * Syndromic
 * Other characteristic features present
 * over 60 syndromes described with craniosynostosis as a feature
 * bicoronal synostosis is the type present in the most common syndromes
 * Most follow AD inheritance
 * Most individuals with a craniosynostosis syndrome have normal intelligence
 * Saethre-Chotzen syndrome is the most common
 * characterized by facial asymmetry, low frontal hairline, ptosis, deviated nasal septum, brachydactyly, and partial cutaneous syndactyly of the toes
 * Crouzon - next most common (1 in 25,000 live births)
 * characterized by maxillary hypoplasia, shallow orbits, and ocular proptosis
 * Apert syndrome
 * characterized by strabismus, maxillary hypoplasia
 * complete symmetrical syndactyly of hands and feet
 * associated with risk for developmental delay (unlike most of the other AD craniosynostosis syndromes)
 * Pfeiffer syndrome
 * maxillary hypoplasia
 * broad thumbs and big toes
 * mild cutaneous syndactyly

Incidence of isolated nonsyndromic craniosynostosis

 * 0.4-0.6 per 1000 births
 * so about 1 in 2000 births (Fetology, 2000)

Recurrence risks for isolated nonsyndromic craniosynostosis

 * usually sporadic
 * genetic basis not discovered except for certain cases of unicoronal synostosis
 * In study of 125 patients with craniosynostosis only 2.5% of those with isolated synostosis had positive family history
 * patients with isolated craniosynostosis and a negative family history are not believed to have an increased incidence of recurrence above the background

Ultrasound detection of craniosynostosis
Surgery
 * difficult to detect on ultrasound
 * when it is detected it is often not until 3rd trimester
 * sometimes features associated with syndrome are detected on ultrasound (fused digits etc.)
 * objective is to allow adequate brain growth and improve appearance
 * Surgery for isolated craniosynostosis is usually a single operation and produces excellent cosmetic results in 93%


text:
Handbook of Genetic Counseling/Craniosynostosis-2

Craniosynostosis

Introduction

 * Myself, GC, Doc
 * What have you been told in the past?

Contracting

 * Medical History
 * Family History
 * Physical exam
 * Answer any questions you have

Medical History/Pregnancy history

 * Progress since the surgery
 * Breathing difficulties when he was younger?/ Now? Did he require a trach?
 * How's his feeding before? / Now?
 * What does he currently eat? / How much?
 * How was the delivery? / vaginal?
 * When did you first suspect something was different?

Family History

 * Any people with funny shaped heads?
 * Basics : birth defects, cancer at an early age, MR, miscarriages, etc.

Craniosynostosis

 * Definition
 * Premature closure of the cranial sutures (joints between the bones of the skull)
 * The severity and type depend upon which of the four sutures fuse together too early: sagittal, coronal, metopic, or lambdoid.
 * The shape of the head is dependent upon which of the sutures is closed early.
 * Six disorders called the FGFR-related craniosynostosis - most are related to those coronal craniosynostosis, NOT SAGITTAL!!!!! (probably do not apply in this case)
 * Incidence
 * Overall = 1/2000 - 1/2500 live births
 * Characteristics of the FGFR-related ones
 * Normal intelligence in many cases/DD and MR in others
 * Hypertelorism
 * Midface hypoplasia
 * Small beaked nose
 * Prognathism
 * High arched palate
 * Choanal atresia or stenosis
 * Fusion of fingers or toes
 * Genetics
 * Autosomal dominant for the FGFR related (fibroblast growth factor receptors)
 * Sporadic in most cases
 * A mutation in the FGFR3 gene which is responsible for keeping things from getting too long (inhibits growth usually). When mutated, it seems to be over expressed = failure of things to grow completely causing early fusion of the skull and fingers/toes.
 * Recurrence risks (empirical -isolated cases)
 * Risk to siblings with two unaffected parents = coronal 5%
 * Risk to siblings with two unaffected parents = sagittal 1%

Sagittal synostosis

 * Definition: when the sagittal suture fuses prematurely. It runs from the front of the head to the back and creates a boat-like head because the front and back of the skull bulge outwards to allow the brain to grow.
 * Surgery repairs it by removing the sutures and widening the skull by opening both the lambdoid and coronal sutures on either side. Bone grafts may be placed inside to keep the skull wide enough.
 * The most common of the craniosynostoses = 1/5250 incidence
 * Typically isolated conditions/ not related to a syndrome.

Resources

 * National Organization for Rare Disorders
 * PO Box 8923
 * New Fairfield, CT 06812-1783
 * 800 999-6673
 * www.rarediseases.org

 * March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation
 * 1275 Mamaroneck Avenue
 * White Plains, NY 10605
 * 800 MODIMES (663-4637)
 * www.modimes.org

 * ARC of the United States
 * 300 East Border Street Suite 300
 * Arlington, TX 76010
 * (817) 261-6003

 * Craniosupport.com
 * A parent organization on the web who have information and resources for people with all types of craniosynostosis and related syndromes before and after surgery.
 * http://web.archive.org/20000708013217/members.aol.com/craniosupport/support.html


text:
Maple

Maple is a computer algebra system offering many possibilities for math problems. This book, based loosely on a previous work at http://alamanya.free.fr/, aims to give all tools needed to be autonomous with this software. The owner has given permission to translate it for this book.

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Getting Started/
 * 2) /More in-depth look at Maple/
 * 3) /Programming with Maple/
 * 4) /Sequences, lists, sets, and tables in Maple/
 * 5) /Polynomials and rational fractions in Maple/
 * 6) /Graphic functions/
 * 7) /Using Maple in Analysis/
 * 8) /Using Maple in Linear Algebra/
 * 9) /Using Maple in Geometry/
 * 10) /Using Maple in Calculus, PDEs, and ODEs/
 * 11) /Saving results of Maple calculations/
 * 12) /Module and Package/
 * 13) Practice 1: Graphing equations related to special relativity
 * 14) /Depth of field for optical lens/

מייפל Maple Maple Maple

title: Maple


text:
Cookbook talk:Idli (Steamed Rice and Black Gram Bread)

Section Rice?
Should this go to a new section titled "Rice" ? (unsigned by 71.197.41.118 at 04:50, 21 November 2005)
 * Rice is a modern addition to idli; it used to be made just with urad dal. It is a fermented food, a form of bread, an Indian regional food - take your pick. I wouldn't put it into a rice category. Webaware 02:28, 23 May 2006 (UTC)


text:
AP Computer Science

This book is intended to help the reader prepare for the AP Computer Science A Exam.

Overview

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) About the Exam
 * 3) About Java
 * 4) /Testing Java/
 * 5) /Object-Oriented Programming/
 * 6) Additional Resources

Basic Java Language Features

 * 1) /Packages and Classes/

Standard Algorithms

 * 1) /Sorting/

title: AP Computer Science


text:
Cookbook:Quick and Delicious Pineapple Upside-Down Cake

| Desserts

Ingredients

 * 1 stick butter or margarine
 * 1 cup light brown sugar
 * 1 can pineapple rings
 * 8–12 maraschino cherries
 * ¼ cup crushed pecans (optional)
 * 1 box yellow cake mix

Procedure

 * 1) In a 9 x 13-inch pan, melt the butter or margarine. Add the light brown sugar, and allow to melt.
 * 2) Arrange pineapple slices in the pan, and place a maraschino cherry in each of the holes in the pineapple rings. Sprinkle the crushed pecans over the pineapple slices.
 * 3) Prepare the yellow cake mix as printed on the box, replacing some of the water with pineapple juice.
 * 4) Pour cake batter over brown sugar and pineapple.
 * 5) Bake according to the directions, until an inserted toothpick comes out clean.
 * 6) Loosen cake around the edges, place a plate or serving tray over the cake, and turn the cake over.
 * 7) Allow to cool before serving.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The Cookbook has other pineapple upside-down cake recipes.


text:
Cookbook:Pineapple Upside-Down Cake in a Skillet

| Desserts

Ingredients

 * ¼ cup butter
 * 1 cup firmly packed brown sugar
 * ¾ cup chopped pecans
 * 1 can (20 ounces) pineapple slices, drained, reserving 5 tablespoons juice
 * 3 eggs, separated
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * 1 cup all-purpose flour
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * Maraschino cherries

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F.
 * 2) Melt the butter in a 9-inch cast iron skillet. Add the brown sugar and pecans; stir well to thoroughly combine, then turn off the heat—don't cook it. Arrange 8 pineapple slices in a single layer over the brown sugar mixture (your 9-inch skillet should accommodate 8 slices without overlapping). Set the skillet aside.
 * 3) Combine the flour, baking powder and salt in a bowl; set aside.
 * 4) Whip the egg yolks at medium speed until they are thick and lemon colored. Gradually add the sugar, continuing to beat. Add the flour mixture to the yolk mixture, and stir in the reserved pineapple juice.
 * 5) Whip the egg whites until stiff peaks form. Fold the whites into the cake batter. Pour or spoon the batter evenly over the pineapple slices.
 * 6) Bake at 350°F for 40–45 minutes. Cool the cake in the skillet for 30 minutes; then invert it onto a serving plate. Place a maraschino cherry in the center of each pineapple ring.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The Cookbook has other pineapple upside-down cake recipes.


text:
Cookbook:Dole Pineapple Upside-Down Cake

| Dessert

This is the original Dole-brand recipe for pineapple upside-down cake.

Ingredients

 * 1 large can (~397 g / 14 oz) crushed or sliced pineapple
 * 2 cups (275 g / 9.7 oz) flour, sifted
 * 2 teaspoons baking powder
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ⅔ cup (160 g / 5.6 oz) butter or butter substitute
 * 1 cup (225 g / 7.9 oz) white granulated sugar
 * 2 eggs, separated
 * ½ cup (125 ml / 4.2 fl oz) milk
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * 1 cup (180 g / 6.3 oz) brown sugar
 * Maraschino cherries, to garnish

Procedure

 * 1) Drain the juice from the can of pineapple.
 * 2) Sift flour into a mixing bowl. Sift again with baking powder and salt.
 * 3) Cream ½ cup (125 g / 4.4 oz) butter in another bowl, then gradually add sugar; cream well.
 * 4) Beat the yolks and whites of eggs separately. Add the yolks to creamed mixture and mix well, then add flour and milk alternately, mixing well.
 * 5) Fold in the egg whites and vanilla.
 * 6) Melt the rest of butter in large frying pan.
 * 7) Spread the brown sugar over the pan.
 * 8) Add pineapple. If sliced is used, place slices closely together on the sugar; if crushed, simply pour in the well-drained fruit.
 * 9) Pour cake batter over fruit.
 * 10) Bake 45 minutes at 350 F.
 * 11) Turn upside-down on serving dish and garnish with maraschino cherries.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The cookbook has other pineapple upside-down cake recipes.


text:
Occupational Health/Occupational Hygiene

Air Monitoring
Aerosols, Dusts & Fume; Gases & Vapours; Pumped Sampling Methods; Diffusive Sampling Methods; Direct Reading Instrumentation; Sampling Strategies; Statistical Methods in Exposure Monitoring;

Noise Monitoring
Sound Pressure Level Mapping; Dosimetry; Octave Band Analysis; high noise level induces the hearing loss and continues working in same condition makes person to irritating

Provision of PPE
Respiratory Protection; Respirator Fit Testing; Qualitative Fit Test; Qualitative Fit Test (Particulate; Pressure Drop) Hearing Protection; Skin Protection; Gloves; Skin Protection Programmes;

CRBOH
CRBOH

IOHA
IOHA

Post Graduate Education
DIPLOMA IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH---D.O.H In INDIA ,there is a course "Diploma in Industrial Health- (DIH)" which is a post graduate 2 full years course only for medical graduates. this course is recognised Medical council of India (MCI).Recently the name has been changed from Industrial to occupational. (Diploma in Occupational health- DOH).Presently this course is conducted by west bengal university of health sciences (WBUHS ) in All india institute of hygiene and public health (AIIH&PH) in KOLKATA, WEST BENGAL INDIA.


text:
User talk:67.163.33.24

Do not delete other users' comments or you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. Wikibooks is not a soapbox or discussion forum - don't start discussions not connected with articles - your vote about BSD systems is your opinion and has nothing to do with the article. --Derbeth talk 10:10, 21 November 2005 (UTC)
 * here you deleted comment by Whiteknight. Were you unable to find any arguments against his opinion? I deleted you comment because IMO it was just gribberish, having nothing to do with main subject of the article. You are saying I'm biased - well, great, just look at your behaviour. I think you just need some self-promotion and therefore keep posting comments like "hey, man, I'm a guru, listen to me, and you all are just stupid and don't uderstand anything". --Derbeth talk 08:47, 23 November 2005 (UTC)

Do you have an RRS feed or blog that I could subscibe to? I am very interest and I am sure that all wikipedia users would be interested in keep in touch with the IMO of Derbeth.

(67.163.33.24) NEVER posted these words. These words are owned by Derbeth "hey, man, I'm a guru, listen to me, and you all are just stupid and don't uderstand anything". Thank you for the praise. Derbeth 's understoods that "I'm saying you biased?" No, Derbeth is correct, the entire posting was all just gibberish, meaningless nonsense that couldn't get by an keen moderator. Thank you for putting things back in order.

title: User talk:67.163.33.24


text: User talk:212.34.2.253

title: User talk:212.34.2.253


text:
Asset Pricing

(very much work in progress - feel free to contribute)

Financial markets serve several purposes:
 * 1) Allowing investors to shift consumption in time
 * 2) Allowing the transfer of risk between different investors
 * 3) Moving capital from those who have it to those who can use it productively

Asset pricing is the study of how financial assets are priced.

Financial assets include several varieties:
 * 1) Debt
 * 2) Equities
 * 3) Hybrids
 * 4) Derivatives

Whatever the particular variety, we can think of financial assets simply as the right to a future cash flow stream and/or physical asset. All types of asset, e.g., debt, equity, etc., can be reduced to a stream of cash flows that can be valued.

When valuing a stream of cash flows we need to consider these things:
 * Time value of money
 * Riskiness of the cash flows
 * Expected value of the cash flows

For debt, asset pricing is relatively simple, as cash flows to the owner are contractually fixed. For example, the holder of a 20-year US government bond with a face value of $100 and a coupon of 5% paid annual can expect (with high certainty) to be paid $5 a year for the next 20 years, with $100 to be returned at the end of 20 years. The value of the bond is the present value of the future cash flows. If the required rate of return is r=3% a year, then the value is: $$ \frac{5}{r}*(1-\frac{1}{(1+r)^{20}}) + \frac{100}{(1+r)^{20}} = 129.75 $$.

Although debt security can have predictable cash flow in the future (e.g., assuming we are talking about fixed rate debt security) there still is an element of uncertainty because expected rate of return is likely to change over the above mentioned 20 years time period. This would change the present value of the debt security depending on the assumption or derivation of the rate of return that applies to each individual time period. This adds interest rate risk component to the debt security valuation.

If the debt issuer is not a "AAA" rated sovereign state then we cannot assume the cash flow is guaranteed. This adds a credit risk component. Debt securities issued by all entities are rated by investment grade rating services (e.g.,. Moody's, Standard & Poor's) and this can be used to determine the required rate of return to account for the risk, which will the impact the valuation of the debt security.

For equities, asset pricing is more difficult as future cash flows are uncertain, and vary with both economic conditions and the fortune of the company. We need to project future expected cash flows, and also determine the expected return of the stock. The estimated expected return of the stock is based on an estimate of how risky the cash flows are. We can decompose risk into a) common factor risk and b) idiosyncratic risk. The latter can be diversified away in a portfolio, so earns no return premium. The former cannot be diversified away, so earns a risk premium.

Suggested reading: Cochrane, Asset Pricing http://www.pupress.princeton.edu/titles/7836.html

Sharpe, Investors and Markets http://www.stanford.edu/~wfsharpe/art/princeton/pup1.pdf

title: Asset Pricing


text:
User:Sj/test

wherever you are,

[[File:00%.svg]] Hello
there you go.

title: User:Sj/test


text:
User talk:New York Citizen

From WB:WIW

 * Wikibooks is not a soapbox
 * Wikibooks is not a place to publish original works

--Derbeth talk 10:58, 21 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, I will remove temporarily the deletion tag and ask for clarifying our policy. But I must warn you, that any forms of manifestos are not welcome at Wikibooks and speedy deleted in most cases. If I were you, I would look for another wiki. --Derbeth talk 11:11, 21 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:New York Citizen


text:
User talk:128.138.40.36

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:128.138.40.36


text:
Embedded Systems/Super Loop Architecture

When programming an embedded system, it is important to meet the time deadlines of the system, and to perform all the tasks of the system in a reasonable amount of time, but also in a good order. This page will talk about a common program architecture called the Super-Loop Architecture, that is very useful in meeting these requirements

Definition
A super loop is a program structure comprised of an infinite loop, with all the tasks of the system contained in that loop. Here is a general pseudocode for a superloop implementation:

Function Main_Function {  Initialization; Do_Forever {    Check_Status; Do_Calculations; Output_Response; } }

We perform the initialization routines before we enter the super loop, because we only want to initialize the system once. Once the infinite loop begins, we don't want to reset the values, because we need to maintain persistent state in the embedded system.

The loop is in fact a variant of the classic "batch processing" control flow: Read input, calculate some values, write out values. Do it until you run out of input data "cards". So, embedded systems software is not the only type of software which uses this kind of architecture. For example, computer games often use a similar loop. There the loop is called (tight) (main) game loop.

Power-Save Super Loop
Let's say we have an embedded system which has an average loop time of 1ms, and needs only to check a certain input once per second. It seems a waste to continue looping the program, especially when we don't need to do anything most of the time. In this situation, the program will loop 1000 times before it needs to read the input, and the other 999 loops of the program will just be a countdown to the next read. In this case, it is sorely inefficient to have the processor chugging away at 100% capacity all the time. We will now implement an expanded superloop to build in a delay:

Function Main_Function {  Initialization; Do_Forever {    Check_Status; Do_Calculations; Output_Response; Delay_For_Next_Loop; } }

Notice how we added a delay at the end of the super loop? If we build this delay to delay for 999ms, we don't need to loop 1000 times, we can read the input on every loop.

Also, it is important to note that many microcontrollers have power-save modes, where they will require less electrical power, which can be especially good if the system is running off a battery.

Power Use Calculations
Let's say that we have a microcontroller that uses 20mW of power in "normal mode", but only needs 5mW of power in "Low-Power Mode". Let's also say that we are using the example superloop above, which is in "Low-Power Mode" 99.9% of the time (1ms of calculations every second), and is only in normal mode 0.1% of the time:

$$ \mathrm{Power} = \frac{(99.9\% \times 5\ \mathrm{mW})+(0.1\% \times 20\ \mathrm{mW})}{100\%} = 5.015\ \mathrm{mW} \quad \mathrm{Average}$$

Notice how we can cut down our power consumption by adding in a substantial delay? This is especially important because few embedded applications will require 100% of processor resources. Most embedded systems are able to just sit and wait in a low-power state until needed.


text:
Talk:Esperanto/Appendix/Table of word endings

Incorrectly named?
This page looks really useful, but shouldn't it be called 'Word endings' or something similar as it includes nouns and other types of words as well as verbs? Myrryam 15:40, 21 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Makes sense, i'll change it --65.3.234.59 01:08, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

Well things like -ant and -ot are not word endings, these would have a -o or -a after them. Should these not be -ant- and -ot- and so on? Just a thought. Maybe I'll alter it myself. Kiu scias? Stevebritgimp 19:24, 27 December 2006 (UTC). Another thought - if the noun endings are given in accusative and plural forms, should not the adjective endings be given the same way? Stevebritgimp 19:26, 27 December 2006 (UTC)


text:
User talk:192.168.0.54

hello dear

title: User talk:192.168.0.54


text:
User talk:68.112.225.189

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:68.112.225.189


text:
User talk:67.43.20.53

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:67.43.20.53


text: User talk:66.176.128.154

title: User talk:66.176.128.154


text:
Wikibooks:No personal attacks

Do not make personal attacks anywhere in Wikibooks. Comment on content, not on the contributor. Personal attacks damage the community and deter users. Nobody likes abuse.

Consequences
Some Wikibookians remove personal attacks on third parties on sight. Users of other Wikimedia projects have been banned for repeatedly engaging in personal attacks, and if necessary it would happen here too. If you are subjected to persistent personal attacks and want help in getting them stopped, email an active Administrator, leave a message on their talk page, or note what is happening in the assistance reading room.

Any personal attack, whether it is a snide comment or a direct personal insult, is covered by this policy. Personal attacks are not acceptable on Wikibooks and this policy imposes a duty on all Wikibookians to stop such attacks should they occur.

Remember that disputes on talk pages are accessible to everyone on the Internet. The way in which you conduct yourself on Wikibooks reflects on Wikibooks and on you. Stay cool.

Being reasonable
Contributors may not agree on a module and could reasonably wish to express their views. Comment with content in mind, not those writing it, and remember that we are all part of the same community, working towards the same goal: Quality books.

Never suggest a person's view is invalid simply because of who they are. Discuss the issues in dispute, not people's attributes or character. This does not mean that you have to agree with other people, but that you must not let disputes become personal. Explore issues in a less public forum like email if a debate threatens to become personal.

title: Wikibooks:No personal attacks