text:
Ecology/Species and Populations

<< Chapter 8 | Chapter 9 | Chapter 10 >>

Chapter 9. Species and Populations

Species and populations are probably the two most commonly used ecology terms, but they are often difficult concepts to grasp. Throughout this chapter, they will be discussed in detail, expanding on the definitions from previous chapters and explaining why there are no universally acceptable definitions. Factors influencing population growth and ways to measure and predict population growth will also be subjects of specific focus. Populations can be affected by so many factors that it is almost impossible to take every variable into account. Demography is the statistical study of the age structure of a population, and it can be used in research to determine what is causing a decline or increase in population size over time. It is worthwhile to understand species concept and population growth even though they are such broad aspects, because they are fundamental to the science of ecology.

Species Concept
You should have familiarity with the species concept from biology and have been presented with this basic tenant of the biological sciences in Chapter 2 of this textbook. If need be,
 * Reread Species ( Follow links as necessary to understand concepts presented )

When initially considering the concept of species you may wonder why the division of organisms into species is necessary at all. According to Ernst W. Mayr, a renowned evolutionary biologist, the existence and reproductive characteristics of distinct species "prevents the production of too great a number of disharmonious incompatible gene combinations." Therefore, the basis for the existence of species is genotypic in nature. However, the existence of species is not traditionally doubted whereas the appropriate definition of a species is continually a topic of debate.

Although a species can be defined in a number of different ways, the most common definition for a living species, suggested by Ernst W. Mayr, is any group of individuals that can breed with themselves but not with any other group. In other words, a species is any group of individuals that is "reproductively isolated." This definition, termed the Biological Species Concept, has limitations and exceptions. Some animals that would not normally be considered part of the same species can breed with limited success. For example, a horse and a donkey can can breed to produce a mule offspring but, the mule is infertile. Accordingly, there is much debate regarding the amount of successful fertility required for two individuals to belong to the same species. There are also organisms that do not interbreed at all, but propagate through direct cloning of an individual, for example many plants and insects. Other definitions must be used to define the species of organisms such as these.

So, why is such a seemingly straight-forward concept so hard to define? One problem is that the definition of a species is used in many different contexts and undoubtedly fails to satisfy them all simultaneously. In particular, there has been a great deal of discontinuity between the application of the same species concept in a taxonomic or systematic sense and in an evolutionary sense. In systematic biology species serve as fundamental units (taxa) for the description and historical progression of diversity. However, evolutionarily, species are considered only as elements of a process called speciation. Even without further knowledge of the differences between evolution and taxonomy, it is apparent that the concept of a species is used in different contexts by the two. This is just one example of the many obstacles encompassing the complex debate for a universally applicable definition of a species.

In fact, it seems, after years and years of debate, that it is impossible to attain a universally suitable definition for "species". As Pigliucci (2006, p. 50) points out:
 * ...emotions have run high for decades on the "crucial" question of what a biological species is, while at the same time plenty of researchers have conducted brilliant studies on individual species and on the process of speciation, apparently unencumbered by the lack of a universally-agreed-upon definition of what species are...

The species concept is basic to biology and therefore ecology, but it is really the species population that ecologists study.

Population Biology
A species population is a discrete group of potentially interbreeding organisms in the same species in a given locality. Here, potential interbreeding has nothing to do with measures of fertility; instead it is a statement that all members of a population are potentially a part of a single gene pool. In a species population, there are many factors that interfere with an individual’s fitness (its ability to survive and reproduce). Booth et al.(1995) describes that an individual's fitness is increased with group living, also known as the Allee Effect, and that an individual’s ability to survive will be increased by their size and rank. In this study, Booth shows that within the group of damselfish there was a greater chance for survival if they stayed in large groups. Within these groups the smaller individuals would benefit the most from the group living, but consequently the growth of these individuals was reduced, thus taking a longer time to reach a higher social status in the group. Reed et al. 2005 support Booth's findings and also show that there is a linear relationship between log population size and population fitness. Reed suggests that “conservation efforts should ultimately aim at maintaining populations of several thousand individuals to ensure long-term persistence."

 * Read Population The common use of the term in human demographics utilizes concepts and terms important to Population Biology

Diversity as a goal is split between species diversity and diversity within a population. An area that is filled with finches and owls and many species has species diversity. But if all the finches have very similar genes, or if the population has an inbreeding problem, there is not enough diversity within that population. When there is no diversity in the gene pool, serious effects can result. This may result from the Founder Effect. A major cause of Founder Effect is when a small part of a population has moved to an area with limited interaction with other populations from the same species. A well known example is the Old Order Amish in Pennsylvania. The Amish rarely interact with people outside of the community and rarely, if ever, marry outside of the population. With the limited genetic variation, genotypic and phenotypic problems are seen more frequently in the population compared with other human populations. The Amish carry a rare allele that causes polydactylism, in which there are extra fingers or toes. This recessive allele is carried by about 1 in every 14 Amish individuals compared to the outside population, where it is carried by about 1 in every 1000.

Another similar type of disturbance in a population is known as a Bottleneck. This disturbance occurs when a species is almost eliminated by human forces (hunting) or natural disasters. The cheetah is a prime example of a species with limited variation from a bottleneck. The cheetah's genetic make-up is so similar that a skin graft will not be rejected from one cheetah to another.

Even though the worldwide population of a species is potentially very large, not all individuals can interbreed due to obvious limitations such as separate continents, mountains or deserts, or great distances. A local population that does actually interbreed is called a neighborhood, or deme. So even though an overall population may not have inbreeding, neighborhoods could have potentially high inbreeding coefficients, which can increase the frequency of diseases or maintain a mutation in that species.

Population Growth
Population growth is measured using time-specific life tables and age-specific life tables. Time-specific life tables are used for long-lived species, such as humans, and age-specific tables are used for short-lived species, such as annual plants and insects. Time-specific life tables assume equal birth rates for all age classes, and are useful for large populations. Age-specific life tables follow a cohort (a group of organisms of the same species and roughly similar ages) and require periodic sampling. There are many types of useful information that studies of population growth can reveal, such as life histories for a population and life expectancies, such as in the map shown at right. Survivorship curves can also be determined by plotting the number of individuals of a cohort against time. Fecundity can be influenced by abiotic factors, such as precipitation (Milanovich et al. 2006).

Reproductive Rates
Closely related to the study of population growth is the reproductive rate of a population. Fecundity, mx is the average number of offspring produced per breeding individual. A fecundity schedule is R0 = ∑ lxmx, where lx is nx/n0 (the proportion surviving), mx is the mean number of offspring per individual, and R0 is the net reproductive rate of the population. If R0=1, the population is stable. If R0<1, the population is decreasing, and if R0>1, the population is increasing.

title: Ecology/Species and Populations


text:
Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary

Sub-page scope
How big a scope do people want to give these sub-pages? On the one end of the spectrum, we could have big pages with lots of tables (like the proposed natural sciences page) which would reduce the number of pages one might have to browse through. On the other end, we could make very short pages so that once one has found the page, there won't be much clutter and the words of interest easily found.

I would lean towards smaller pages. I have nothing against longer ones and see no reason why we couldn't make a natural sciences page by including the relevant pages. I like the modular approach, but realise that it does introduce a certain amount of clutter on indexing pages.

Anyone have good arguments that tip the scales for one or the other, or a good compromise that will give the right tune. --Swift (talk) 09:48, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

 * How about setting a limit of vocabulary under a particular topic until it's made into a subpage. Astronomy and Glaciology (which is a subset of Earth Science) are all Natural Sciences.  However, putting Glaciology and Astronomy directly under Natural Sciences would develop a rather large page.  Making a limit would remove the clutter from the main Natural Science page and limit the need to make numerous subpages.

 * The only real problem I have is that some terms may go under multiple pages (and the main reason I decided to go with one page.) In the Natural Science page, it's easier to solve.  All terms should go under the science they're directly related.  For example, carbon monoxide is used under Glaciology.  This is clearly a chemistry term - even though it's used in the Glaciology community.  Similarly, "solid" should go under "Chemistry" even though many others would also use the term.  Other terms may be more difficult - biochemistry (is this a Biology term?  Chemistry?), Telescope (Astronomy or Physics?), Microscope (Biology, Chemistry or Physics?).  What one person believes the term should belong, another person would disagree.  This makes it rather difficult for people to find terms they believe should belong in one section.  I guess there could be a section called "Interdisciplinary Section" or something similar. --Retropunk (talk) 04:18, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Sure, a limit could work. I'm not sure if a strict limit would be useful ... there are always situations where it's good to be able to bend the rules.
 * I don't see this problem so easily solved by putting it under a Natural Science page. You still have to section them off if you want to make browsing possible. An alphabetical list would allow for searching, but at that point we're approaching a dictionary, which Wikibooks is not.
 * I see these vocab lists more as a resource to practice phrases with new words and less as a tool to build up vocabulary (which is probably best done by the students themselves in their own context). For that end, we would be better off with a few short lists of related words per page with links to related content to allow for browsing.
 * It's true that many terms can fit under multiple categories. Since we're building a learning resource rather than a word index, I'd say that multiple entries of the same word in different lists is perfectly fine.
 * For searching, we could see if we can put a Wiktionary searchbox on the vocab pages. --Swift (talk) 02:12, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary


text: Japanese/Vocabulary/Sushi

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Sushi


text:
User:Brauliobezerra

Nothing yet...

title: User:Brauliobezerra


text:
Movie Making Manual/Blocking

Blocking is the act of walking the actors through the scene before it is shot in order to make sure the lighting is sufficient and the camera is able to get the desired focus required. That's close: Blocking is for all departments to be sure that they are prepared for the scene to be shot. Taking the extra 3-5 minutes to block a scene can save you time, money and patience later. It's not uncommon for blocking to last days for a big scene, such as the scene in Jarhead where the soldiers all met in a tent "in country". Sam Mendes blocked that scene for 4 days before they shot it. Still closer: Blocking a scene for film also must afford the camera the most aesthetically interesting compositions that flow before the lens. It is not only the movement of actors and props to achieve optimum efficiency on the set. Blocking is simply working out the details of an actor’s moves in relation to the camera.

What happens in an effective scene is a combination of a number of elements, in a kind of gestalt. All these elements together comprise blocking. These include cinematographic details, the physical relationship of the actors to each other, their energy, and the overall sense of where they are going. What is the chemistry or dynamic in the "frame?" Simply put, what is the set-up..especially in terms of the action and how everything fits together, spatially and otherwise?

/Directing /Cinematography /Production

title: Movie Making Manual/Blocking


text:
Talk:What You Should Know About Medicines

Some suggestions: History of the word medicine? Alternative meanings of the word, such as those in other traditions (such as Native American)?

pharmacology
what is the meaning of capsupe 64.224.143.10 (discuss) 08:23, 2 August 2023 (UTC)


text:
Dutch/Lesson 7

Gesprek 7 ~ het grote ijsje

This conversation demonstrates the two most productive mechanisms that Dutch has to form novel words: compounding and the formation of diminutives.

Base rule of compounding
Dutch is often mocked for its tendency of creating long compound words such as randjongerenhangplekkenbeleidsambtenarensalarisbesprekingsafspraken. Actually compounds are seldom so excessive and overly long compounds like this one are typically avoided. Nevertheless, it is certainly true that compounding is one of the most important ways that Dutch forms new words for new concepts. Besprekingsafspraken e.g. would certainly be an acceptable compound word; it would mean the agreements -afspraken made during the meeting - bespreking.

Compounding of words happens in English as well. However in English, compounds are typically written as separate words, so English speakers are often not aware that a word like "apple juice" is a compound, much like its Dutch counterpart "appelsap". Notice that when you pronounce "apple juice" you pronounce the word "juice" with much less emphasis than you pronounce "apple" with. This is what signals word compounding in English and Dutch alike. Apart from the orthography the two languages are actually quite similar on this point. In fact sometimes compounds are spelled as a single word even in English. For example, the word "database" is a compilation of the words "data" and "base". For some words, such as "mailbox", a double spelling can be used: "mail box" is also acceptable in English. And English spelling is not particularly predictable on this point.

In Dutch, the rule for spelling compounds is simple: if two nouns form a compound, write them together. Always.

Examples:

 * apple juice → appelsap, incorrect: *appel sap
 * mail box → postbus, incorrect: *post bus

This rule even applies to words imported from English into Dutch:

 * sciencefiction
 * businessunit

Or:
 * Linux operating system → Linuxbesturingssysteem, incorrect: *Linux besturingssysteem

Hyphenation
In the latter case a hyphenated spelling Linux-besturingssysteem is actually more usual because Linux is a brand name. Besides, if the word becomes too long and too hard to read at one glance you are allowed to insert a hyphen. But these hyphens are to be used sparingly and never appear in simple two word compounds like deurbel (door bell).

On the other hand, a hyphen is required when one of the elements in a compound is an initialism:

 * DNA molecule → DNA-molecuul, incorrect: *DNA molecuul, *DNAmolecule

The hyphen can also be required if one word ends in a vowel and the other begins with one and the combination of the two vowels could be misinterpreted, e.g. as a diphthong or a different vowel.

E.g. 'euro enthusiasm' is euro–enthousiasme, not euroenthousiasme, because oe codes for the sound [u].

The Taalunie calls this phenomenon klinkerbotsing ("vowel collision")

Klinkerbotsing is why bananenframbozenmokka-ijsje and vanille-ijsje must have a hyphen between the last letter of mokka and the final -e of vanille on the one hand and the first i of ijsje on the other, because the 'ai' or 'ei' combination would otherwise 'collide'. By contrast the word bananenmokkaframbozenijsje can be written without hyphens as there are no vowel collisions in it.

Linking -s-, -e-, -en-
Recall: besturingssysteem and besprekingsafspraken. Where does the extra -s- come from?

When Dutch still possessed a case system two part compounds were typically made by putting the first noun in the genitive case, e.g.:

 * de koning -> genitive des konings (of the king)
 * de mantel van de koning -> des konings mantel (the king's mantle) -> de koningsmantel

English used to have something similar, which explains word like 'kinsman, kingsman' etc.

However, not all genitives were formed with -s in Dutch, some words required -e, other words -en and which word required which in the old system is about as clear as mud for a modern Dutch speaker. Besides, the old system got corrupted beyond recognition, e.g. bespreking never had a genitive is -s at all. Until 1995 the orthography of the compounds was still the traditional one that had evolved from the case system but was otherwise rather haphazard. This led to a plethora of spelling errors. In 1995 the Taalunie abandoned the historic link and formulated simplified rules for when to use -e- and when to use -en-. The basic rule is:

 * When the word only has a plural with an ending -en, use -en-; otherwise use -e-.

For the -s- linker there was no need to formulate a rule, but let's make it specific here:

 * When the word is pronounced with an -s-, write an -s-.

 * So, because pan only has a plural pannen, we now write pannenkoek (It used to be pannekoek, because pan was a feminine word with a genitive in -e.)
 * And because ' has both benden and bendes as plural, we write '. (This also used to be a feminine word, its genitive was the same as the nominative: bende.)
 * Because we actually pronounce an -s- between bespreking and afspraken we write besprekingsafspraken.

Of course for mother tongue speakers it is usually pretty clear what plurals a certain word has and how it is pronounced. For non-native learners that is not the case. It is one of the many things they must acquire pretty much word by word. If it is any consolation: Dutch speakers will only sympathize if a non-native speaker makes an error linking compounds, because they often still do as well. Take besturingssysteem. Yes an -s- is pronounced, but systeem starts with an s! In this case the extra -s- is added by analogy: in e.g. besturingsmechanisme an -s- is pronounced that does not come from either noun in the compound. This -s- is then adopted for besturingssysteem as well. Yes, mistakes are made with such things by native speakers.

Omission of repeated parts
If you use two compound words in the same phrase that have an element in common, you can replace it by a dash:

 * "ondergrens en bovengrens" (lower boundary and upper boundary) can be replaced by "onder- en bovengrens". (lower and upper boundary)

You can omit repeated parts of compounds in English as well: "standard temperature and standard pressure" is often replaced by "standard temperature and pressure". But note that by omitting the second occurrence of "standard", the text becomes ambiguous; it can no longer be seen from the text itself whether "standard" applies to just to the temperature, or to the pressure as well. The exact meaning will have to be gathered from the context.

In Dutch orthography however, by means of the dash, the difference is made clear:

 * "Standaardtemperatuur en -druk" means standard temperature and standard pressure
 * "Standaardtemperatuur en druk" means standard temperature, and pressure

But then in thermodynamics only pressure is standardized, of course, not temperature.

Grammatica 7.2 Diminutives
Recall: een ijsje, een kleintje. These are diminutive forms.

Apart from a plural the Dutch noun generally also has a diminutive. It is formed by adding -je to the noun and is always neuter in gender:

 * de vaas - het vaasje

Diminutives have a plural in -s:

 * het vaasje - de vaasjes.

Compounding and the formation of diminutives are the two most productive ways of forming new words in Dutch. More so than in most other languages diminutives are used for a whole variety of purposes in Dutch. It is not possible to learn Dutch without a decent command of both compounds and diminutives.

Usage
Het vaasje literally means the little vase, but the usage of diminutives in Dutch is quite pervasive. Often the diminutive is as frequently or even more frequently used than the noun itself and in some cases leaving out the diminutive leads to confusion.

A handsize vase, say for a single flower, will generally be called vaasje. The word 'vaas' is more reserved for something that needs to be carried with both hands. If you ask for a vaas people will give you something too big to put your single flower in, because that is not a vaas, but a vaasje and you used the wrong word. In other words in some cases using the diminutive is mandatory

In some cases the diminutive has also acquired a life of its own (become 'lexicalized'). Compare:

 * het ijs - the ice, ice cream as substance
 * het ijsje - the ice cream (cone, cup, whatever)
 * de meid - the maid
 * het meisje - the girl
 * de kaart - the (geographic, road) map, the postcard
 * het kaartje - the ticket, the business card
 * het krijt - the substance chalk
 * het Krijt - the Cretaceous period
 * het krijtje - the piece of chalk to write on the board with

The connotation of being 'small' has largely been lost in a case like ijsje. This implies that a big cone of ice cream becomes: een groot ijsje (lit. a big little ice). Interestingly, there used to be a word ijsco for ice cream, but it has been supplanted entirely by its diminutive cousin. The word does live on in the compound ijscoman: vendor of ice cream, usually in a car or a road stand.

The word krijt means chalk as a substance is uncountable and has no plural, but krijtje means piece of chalk and does have a plural krijtjes. Similarly the uncountable word gebak (pastry) gave rise to the countable word gebakje: a piece of pastry. In the case of meisje, the original word meid can be rather derogatory:

 * Die meid hoort in het gevang!
 * lit. That 'broad' belongs in jail!

It can also be a somewhat colloquial term of endearment:

 * Wat 'n leuke meid! -- What a cutie!
 * Grote meid! -- Atta-girl!

Lexicalized diminutives are even formed from other parts of speech than nouns.

 * tussendoor - in between
 * een tussendoortje - a snack

There are quite a few such zelfstandige verkleinwoorden that do not occur in the non-diminutive form or have gained a whole new meaning that the non-diminunitve does not possess. See for reference this WikiWoordenboek category.

Adverbs can be formed from adjective by adding an extra -s:

 * zacht - soft
 * zachtjes - softly

Even the names of persons are at times turned into the diminutive, usually as a term of endearment:

 * Marietje, je bent een schat
 * Mary dear, you are a darling

As we saw in the conversation substantivated adjectives like een kleine (a little one) can also be used as diminutives: een kleintje. In fact. it this case een kleine would even sound odd in Dutch ears.

Even cardinal numbers are not safe:

 * We gaan met z'n tweetjes
 * We'll go the two of us

Meaning
A variety of qualities can be expressed by a diminutive:
 * 1) small size
 * 2) countable unit of an uncountable substance
 * 3) modesty of the speaker
 * 4) of little or modest importance
 * 5) informality, not official
 * 6) 'gezelligheid' ~ being fun, sociable, non-threatening
 * 7) affection
 * 8) condescension (if attached to the wrong words)

The latter means some words are better left alone, e.g.:
 * de moord - the murder -> moordje
 * de begrafenis - the funeral -> begrafenisje

Putting these in the diminutive is downright disrespectful and morbid. If would indicate that the speaker is involved with such things for fun on a daily basis and thinks little of it. In other words, diminutives in Dutch express a whole lot more than just small size. They are a major mechanism of producing derived terms.

Formation
The formation of the diminutive sometimes requires the addition of -tje or -pje, the latter after m:
 * het eten - the food
 * het etentje - taking someone out for dinner, a dinner party
 * de bloem - the flower
 * het bloempje - the little flower

In some cases the vowel changes like it does in the plural:

 * het schip - the ship
 * het scheepje - the little ship
 * het pad - the path
 * de paden - the paths
 * het paadje - the little path, the trail

but:

 * de schildpad - the turtle
 * de schildpadden - the turtles
 * het schildpadje - the little turtle

In other cases an extra syllable is inserted:

 * de kom - the bowl
 * het kommetje
 * de bloem - the flower
 * het bloemetje - the little flower

Words ending on -ing can get -kje, but only if the stress of the word is on the previous syllable
 * de kétting - het kéttinkje

Otherwise another syllable is inserted:
 * verándering - veránderingetje

The latter also goes for words with the suffix -ling:
 * leerling - leerlingetje

The suffix -je often causes consonants to be more or less pronounced as palatals. (Paadje as IPA /'pacə/ rather than /'patje/).

There is considerable variation between the dialects in the formation of the diminutives. Many dialects pronounce -je as -ie /i:/. In others, the suffix tends to be -ke: meiske, blommeke.

Grammatica 7-3. Willen
The verb willen means to want, to desire (not: will) and it is irregular

 * ik wil
 * jij wilt
 * hij wil
 * wij willen

As in English will the third person lacks the -t ending. In the second person it does appear for jij, u and gij alike. As usual is disappears for the jij-form in inversion:

 * Wat voor ijsje wil je?

There are two different past tenses:

 * ik wilde, ik wou
 * wij wilden, wij wouden.

The word wilden also occurs as a noun and means savages; likewise wouden can also mean forests.

The perfect participle is gewild

Quizlet
The vocabulary for this lesson can be practiced at Quizlet (51 terms)

Progress made
If you studied the above thoroughly you should
 * 1) know about the two most important mechanisms of forming new words: compounding and diminutives

Cumulative term count:

 * Cycle1: 579
 * Lesson 5: 87
 * Lesson 6: 124
 * Lesson 7: 51

 * Total number: 841

title: Dutch/Lesson 7


text:
User talk:ThatNateGuy

How To Build A Computer has been nominated for April 2005 book of the month. We're two off leading it - so if you could vote, it would be great. You can do so here --Noogz 11:03, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:ThatNateGuy


text:
User talk:Poli~enwikibooks

How To Build A Computer has been nominated for April 2005 book of the month. We're two off leading it - so if you could vote, it would be great. You can do so here --Noogz 11:03, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Poli. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Poli~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:23, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Poli~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Ccjx

How To Build A Computer has been nominated for April 2005 book of the month. We're two off leading it - so if you could vote, it would be great. You can do so here --Noogz 11:03, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ccjx


text: Template:Ada/kw

title: Template:Ada/kw


text:
Talk:Italian/Introduction/Pronunciation

Untitled
The Italian "R" is always rolled, even when the lenght of the sound is short and therefore the rolling hardly noticeable. it:Utente:Paginazero not logged --80.180.184.28 12:31, 19 Mar 2005 (UTC)

I'm not a native Italian speaker, but when I hear recordings of the simple Italian "r" being pronounced, it usually sounds like a tap rather than a trill. For example: http://www.askoxford.com/languages/it/toi_italian/pronunciation/?view=uk, http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/modlang/carasi/site/pronuncia/pronuncia.html , http://italian.about.com/library/fare/blfareindex02.htm. --The Lazar 06:59, 13 August 2006 (UTC)

Vowels
Why does it keep saying that "a" is pronounced like the "a" in "father? Isn't it /a/ and not /ɑ/?

Supevan (discuss • contribs) 21:00, 19 March 2017 (UTC)

Pronounciation page.
I rewrote it in its entirety because the first edition confused me more than anything when I took a look and wasn't very well-formatted(not that this one is). As I am not a native Italian speaker(I am however proficient), please be on the lookout for any errors. Thanks!

--Kundash 23:12, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

A big mistake
I corrected all the wrong prononunciations of the vowels: long vowels (like "ei" in "weird" in English) do NOT exist in italian! Vowels are ALL short, always. Neither are letters like "t" or "r", however. It's impossible to pronounce [pit:sa], how do you pronounce a long "t"? Letters like "t", "r", "f" etc. are simply doubled: ['pittsa] (pizza), ['rosso] (rosso), [ven'totto] (ventotto), etc.

I am a native speaker, and I'm a phonetician, so I know what I'm talking about :)

--User:Molo

Q
"It is used only, but not always, when followed by approximant u. "

Huh? Only, but not always? How does that work? - Elin

't' as in "treasure"
Using the 't' in "treasure" as an example seems odd, since I pronounce that word as "chrezhr", with no 't' sound at all. Unless, of course, you really do mean the 'ch' sound (which from my research appears not to be the case), but either way it's a rather ambiguous example. (I'm refraining from editing because I don't know which sound I should make a better example for)

farmacia has three syllables, not four.
Under the pronunciation for the letter 'f' (and again under 'i'), the example is 'farmacia', and the pronunciation given is phar.MAH.chee.ah: a typical English-speaker mistake. The correct pronunciation would be something like phar.MAH.chah (far'mat͡ʃa). In Italian, an 'i' is used in writing to "soften" a 'c' or 'g' before an 'a', 'o', or 'u'; the counterpart to using an 'h' to "harden" a 'c' or 'g' before 'e' and 'i'. The 'i' in question is part of a consonant digraph, and not a separate vowel.

 * Actually, you are wrong. Go to any standard Italian dictionary or pronunciation guide (such as Treccani, or Forvo, or DOP, etc.) This word is a big exception to the rule that the i is silent in -cia.

Examples for E
I really think the section about E could be clarified. Perhaps list one or two words that are much more common than sempre, such as presto or ecco or bene. Newcomers (and observers) to Italian are more apt to be familiar with the pronunciation of the suggested words than they will of sempre.

In addition, put in an example or two of a closed e, such as credo or ella or che.

Also, change the order of the minimal pairs so that they match the order of the first sentence under E.

Sp3lly (discuss • contribs) 05:39, 24 March 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Italian/Introduction/Pronunciation


text:
Talk:Dutch

/Archive1/

Welcome
Welcome to the talk page of the wikibook Dutch. All talk pages of all pages of the book point to this page, so if you have a particular comment on a particular topic please state which page you are referring to. Otherwise: feedback is most welcome, particularly if you are actively trying to learn Dutch because it is good way to improve the book and make it more useful to more people.

Jcwf (discuss • contribs) 19:39, 24 June 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dutch


text:
User talk:Spiderworm

Hi Spider!
As you probably already saw I added Blender Tutorial Links List and category Blender where are also collected all Blender 3D: Noob to Pro book parts, but as you know many of them are not finished yet. Can you please tell me which of them you think are finished? I want to mark finished parts in a proper way.

Thank you! --Popski 16:00, 19 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't think I would call any of those tutorials "finished" yet. However, the first 15 are usable at this point.  --Spiderworm 16:46, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Moving MemoBook
Ok, I did it. Thank you for remark and for chat with my robot ;) --Popski 16:04, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Very cool. Your robot is pretty awesome, btw.  I was very impressed with a number of it's responses.  Keep it up.  --Spiderworm 16:44, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

.blend?

 * You have answer on my talk page.--Popski 11:00, 7 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * You have reply on my talk page.--Popski 13:48, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Cool news! Here is now possible to upload also .blend files: http://www.ourmedia.org --Popski 09:45, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

revert info
It's not 1-click, but it doesn't involve cut-and-paste either UNLESS THERE HAS BEEN A SUBSEQUENT EDIT.

 * 1) Click the history tab.
 * 2) Find the last known good version.
 * 3) Ensure that there are no good changes made later, because you'll lose them.
 * 4) View the last known good version.
 * 5) Choose to edit the page.
 * 6) Note the warning about editing an old page... this is what you want.
 * 7) Start your comment with "revert" or "rv" and explain why.
 * 8) Save page.
 * 9) Check for any other bad edits by that user by going to their contributions page.
 * 10) If the edits look to be intentionally harmful, report it to the admins to get the user blocked.

AlbertCahalan 23:28, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Thank you for these instructions Albert. Much appreciated!  --Spiderworm 00:33, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Moving Modeling Keyboard Shortcuts?
Isn't better Keyboard Shortcuts or even more precise Shortcuts (MMB, LMB, RMB), there is also word Hot Keys for this? This isn't only about Modeling anyway... --Popski 13:19, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Sure! Go ahead and move it!  --Spiderworm 15:46, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Proportional editing
I posted this in the discussion for the proportional (O key) editing, but figured I'd let you know directly as well, that I volunteer to do the tutorial for it, and can get started when I'm home in the morning. I plan to have it cover both the sharp and rounded fall off, and the amount of fall off "coverage" with the use of the scroll wheel or zoom amounts. Let me know if there's any other particulars for it that you want me to cover, either here or on the module discussion itself. Thanks, --camel 02:25, May 9, 2005 (UTC)

On this note, I've been unable to get to the tutorial as soon as originally anticipated, but this weekend while I'm off work should be good. I'm going to have to do some playing around though, as it looks like Blender 2.37 will be out soon, and having just downloaded the CVS today it has added a fair amount to proportional editing. In particular I'm going to have to figure out the difference between "on" and "connected". Thus far I haven't come up with much information so I'm hoping that when it goes B-Con 4 or final release that I'll be able to find at least a little information on it. In the mean time, the added features will definately be nice and make life easy, with a total of 6, up from 2, proportional editing methods. --camel 13:09, May 12, 2005 (UTC)

 * Wow, sounds great. Everytime they release a new Blender, our work will begin :)  Thanks in advance for your hard work on this.  --Spiderworm 13:21, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

Development Stages
I see you liked the usage of the development stages. However looking at the link you posted, I see we're doing it with the older version of the system. The latest "correct" method would be to use the stages short|00%|May 11, 2005 rather than the Image: tag. --camel 23:53, May 11, 2005 (UTC)

 * Ooh, let's do it the right way. Thanx for catching that.  --Spiderworm 00:25, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

OpenGL
I dont know if this is the right place to put this, but one question I'd think most people would ask (so there is probably and obvious answer) is how do I use Blender models in an OpenGL program? What formats (and tools) are available for storing the textures, material properties, and vertices/lines/polygons that can be used to build OpenGL display lists?

Blender Tutorial
I've been learning blender using the tutorial you started... It's very helpful! It does need some work, but it's generally pretty good. Kudos to you. I plan to help work on it once I actually understand the program XP. Oracleoftruth 02:02, Jun 9, 2005 (UTC)

 * Awesome! I'm glad it's been helpful.  Stay tuned because there's a lot of big improvements coming, most immediately in the intermediate modeling section.  If you have suggestions fo improvement, please tell us about them, or implement the changes yourself.  Best of luck to you!  --Spiderworm 02:35, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Blender3D-windowBorder.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Blender3D-windowBorder.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 23:55, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Spiderworm


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Curve and Path Modeling

Why Use Curves?
You’ve learned how versatile mesh objects can be, and how they can easily produce flat surfaces with sharp edges and even give a convincing representation of curved surfaces with rounder edges. So why do we need a separate kind of curve object at all?

There are important reasons.
 * The various kinds of curves and surfaces/patches (Bézier, NURBS etc) were used in computer graphics before meshes were developed. In the days when memory was more expensive, they offered a more compact way to represent complex shapes. Even now, they are still common in CAD and other technically-oriented graphics applications, where they make it easy to precisely specify the shape of a curve. Thus, if you are importing data from such applications, you will need the ability to represent such curves—even if you end up converting them to meshes before applying materials and textures for rendering.
 * You can use curves as guides for shaping meshes. This makes it easier to construct certain kinds of complicated curved shapes. Particularly since it is simpler to make changes to the curve (with fewer control points), than after it has been converted to a mesh. To this end, Blender defines scaling radius and tilt angle settings for curve control points, which make no difference to the appearance of the curve itself, but have an effect when it is used to deform another shape.

Bézier Versus NURBS
In the following pages, you will come across two kinds of curves/patches.

Bézier objects only occur in Blender as curves, while NURBS (“Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline) objects can be curves or surfaces. If you’ve used 2D drawing programs like Inkscape or Adobe Illustrator, you would have come across Bézier curves before. NURBS curves are a mathematical generalization of these, which are heavily used in CAD applications. Unlike Bézier curves, NURBS curves allow the specification of a variable weight for each control point, which governs how closely the curve passes to that point.

More Than You Wanted To Know About Curves
As usual, Wikipedia has the lowdown on all the interesting trivia about
 * Bézier curves
 * NURBS curves


text:
Cookbook:Agedashi Tofu

Agedashi tofu (or agedashi dofu) 揚げ出し豆腐 is a simple Japanese way to serve hot tofu. Silken (kinugoshi) firm tofu, cut into cubes, is lightly dusted with potato starch or cornstarch and then deep fried until golden brown. It's then served in a hot tentsuyu broth made of dashi, mirin, and shoyu (Japanese soy sauce), and topped with finely chopped green onions or grated daikon. It is eaten with chopsticks.

Ingredients

 * 4–6 oz (~115–170 g) soft tofu
 * Potato starch or corn starch
 * Oil for deep frying

Sauce

 * ½ cup (120 ml) dashi
 * 2 Tbsp (30 ml) light soy sauce
 * 1½ Tbsp (22.5 ml) mirin

Condiments

 * Green onions, thinly sliced
 * Grated ginger
 * Grated daikon (white radish)

Procedure

 * 1) Cut the soft tofu into rectangular pieces about 1 inch thick.
 * 2) Arrange the layers on rack with paper towels and leave for 10–15 minutes to drain. Change the paper and turn over the slices.
 * 3) In pan, mix sauce ingredients, and heat in a pan until boiling. Turn off the heat.
 * 4) Sprinkle starch on a plate. Arrange the tofu slices on it. Sprinkle more starch over the tofu.
 * 5) Heat the oil to 355°F (180°C) for deep frying.
 * 6) Pat any excess starch off the tofu slices and slide them into the hot oil, one by one. Don't add too many slices at once, because the tofu lowers the oil temperature. Fry until golden, turning once.
 * 7) Remove and drain on paper towels.
 * 8) Arrange the tofu in a dish, and pour the sauce over top. Top with a mound of grated daikon (radish), a bit of grated ginger, and sliced green onions.

title: Cookbook:Agedashi Tofu


text:
Template:Ada/95/RM2

[http://www.adaic.com/standards/95lrm/html/RM--.html. ] (Annotated) 95/RM2

title: Template:Ada/95/RM2


text:
Template:Ada/95/RM3

[http://www.adaic.com/standards/95lrm/html/RM---.html .. ] (Annotated) 95/RM3

title: Template:Ada/95/RM3


text:
Template:Ada/95/RM1

Section : (Annotated) 95/RM1

title: Template:Ada/95/RM1


text:
Template:Ada

This is the list of templates available for the Ada Programming wikibook. See also /Templates.

Ada code
Full example:

; ;  ;  Print_Constants T_IO    ; Latin_1 ; T_IO.Put_Line (Item ); T_IO.Put_Line (Latin_1.Not_Sign ); T_IO.Put_Line (Integer ); T_IO.Put_Line (Float ); Print_Constants;

gives: ; ;  ;  Print_Constants T_IO    ; Latin_1 ; T_IO.Put_Line (Item ); T_IO.Put_Line (Latin_1.Not_Sign ); T_IO.Put_Line (Integer ); T_IO.Put_Line (Float ); Print_Constants;

Tags

 * New features of the language:
 * Template:Ada/83
 * Template:Ada/95 (see /Ada 95 feature)
 * Template:Ada/2005 (see /Ada 2005 feature)
 * Template:Ada/2012 (see /Ada 2012 feature)
 * Template:Ada/2022 (see /Ada 2022 feature)
 * Deprecated features of the language:
 * Template:Ada/95/Obsolescent (see /Ada 95 obsolescent)
 * Template:Ada/2005/Obsolescent
 * Template:Ada/2012/Obsolescent
 * Incompatibilities introduced with previous language versions:
 * Template:Ada/95/Incompatibility
 * Template:Ada/2005/Incompatibility (see /Ada 2005 incompatibilities)
 * Template:Ada/2012/Incompatibility (see /Ada 2012 incompatibilities)
 * Maintenance:
 * Ada/stub (for unfinished pages)

Ada Reference Manual
Except when required, the preferred option is to put a link to the last official version.

 * Default version (currently, Ada 2012):
 * Template:Ada/RM
 * Ada 2022:
 * Template:Ada/2022/RM
 * Ada 2012:
 * Template:Ada/2012/RM
 * Ada 2005:
 * Template:Ada/2005/RM
 * Ada 95:
 * Template:Ada/95/RM
 * Ada 83:
 * Template:Ada/83/RM

Ada Quality and Style Guide

 * Last version (currently, for Ada 95):
 * Template:Ada/SG1, Template:Ada/SG2, and Template:Ada/SG3.
 * Ada 95:
 * Template:Ada/95/SG1, Template:Ada/95/SG2, and Template:Ada/95/SG3.
 * Ada 83:
 * Template:Ada/83/SG1, Template:Ada/83/SG2, and Template:Ada/83/SG3.

Ada Rationale

 * Ada 2005:
 * Template:Ada/2005/R1, Template:Ada/2005/R2, and Template:Ada/2005/R3.
 * Ada 95:
 * Template:Ada/95/R1, Template:Ada/95/R2, and Template:Ada/95/R3.
 * Ada 83:
 * Template:Ada/83/R1, Template:Ada/83/R2, and Template:Ada/83/R3.

Note: there are not templates redirections to the last version of the rationale because every version of the language has its own rationale, completely different from the others.

Ada Issues

 * Template:Ada/83/AI
 * Template:Ada/95/AI
 * Template:Ada/2005/AI

Navigation

 * Template:Ada/Navigation
 * Template:Ada/Keywords
 * Template:Ada/Operators

title: Template:Ada


text:
Talk:Turing/Hello world

var name :string

put "What is your name" get name

put "Hello ", name

title: Talk:Turing/Hello world


text:
User:Peaceful~enwikibooks

Hi

I'm George.

My sandbox is here []

My Wikipedia User page is here []

Educational Developer at Oxford Brookes University. I have taught and supported learning since 1986, first in community adult education and then from 1989–2000 in a commercial technical management college as Director of Training Consultancy. At Brookes I encourage the development of off-campus programmes. I was Chair of the Association for Learning Technology (ALT ) Events Committee. My research explores to what extent ideologies are embedded in artefacts of learning technology. I am an associate lecturer on the Open University MA course, “Language and Literacy in a Changing World” and am managing a JISC eLearning Tools project in the field of ePortfolios.

title: User:Peaceful~enwikibooks


text:
User:Peaceful~enwikibooks/sandbox

In the begining there was a blank slate.

I wonder if a threaded forum would be helpful.

The overwhelming sense I have of Wikiversity is that of trying to run before walking. This could and should be one of the most exciting developments on the Web and education, however it is paralysed by two fundamental errors:
 * the empty replication of a traditional epistemology
 * the maintenance of a distinction between teaching and learning

Further to the discussion of governance, are Wikiversitians simply wanting to set up as new gatekeepers of the traditional domains: "meet the new boss..."? Why do "we" need to "keep up with" people who are "on this course"? Just because traditional universities do this doesn't mean Wikiversity needs to or should.

I agree with Andrew, there is an opportunity to do something different but it doesn't have to do with finding out what we can teach; it is about what we want to learn. Learning is far more difficult than teaching. That is why many teachers stop learning as soon as they can and simply replicate aging knowledge. (Of course the good ones don't!)

The long list of faculties and courses that are unpopulated are perhaps testimony to the need to come up with something else. Take it all down! Archive all unpopulated categories.

title: User:Peaceful~enwikibooks/sandbox


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Simple Vehicle

The idea of this tutorial is to learn to face a complex project. A vehicle is a nice object to use to test yourself and find new problems.

First, we must understand that a project does not reproduce the real world; a project shows an idea or thought and will result in a final image or video. Whatever does not appear in the final result is unnecessary to include in the model.

What vehicle should we make? Let's go with the classic jeep. This will allow for a lot of doodads.

Let's decide what objects of the jeep model will need to be made - body, wheels, seats, and a rocket launcher for good measure. Objects we can ignore include the engine, which remains hidden under the hood. There are many additional objects you can make such as a steering wheel to customize your jeep.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Simple Vehicle


text:
Dichotomous Key/Monotremata

1: Teeth

 * Presence of teeth
 * Present - Ornithorhynchus anatinus, Platypus
 * Not present -

2: Tachyglossidae

 * Length of snout
 * Long - Zaglossus
 * Short - Tachyglossus

title: Dichotomous Key/Monotremata


text:
Dichotomous Key/Marsupialia

kingdom phylum class order family group species

1

 * Range
 * Australia -
 * Western Hemisphere -

2: Australidelphia

 * Feeding
 * Herbivore - ../Diprotodontia/
 * Carnivore or omnivore -

3: Ameridelphia
Could be Didelphimorphia or Paucituberculata

4

 * Presence of external ears
 * Present - ../Dasyuromorphia/
 * Not present - ../Notoryctemorphia/

5

 * Second and third toes
 * Fused - ../Peramelemorphia/
 * Not fused -

title: Dichotomous Key/Marsupialia


text:
Dichotomous Key/Sirenia

1: Shape of tail

 * Tail shape
 * Forked - Dugong dugon
 * Paddle-shaped -

2: Trichechidae

 * Fingernails
 * No nails on forelimbs - Amazonian Manatee, Trichechus inunguis
 * Nails on forelimbs -

3: Geographic Location

 * Rivers, estuaries, or coastal waters in the
 * Western Atlantic - Trichechus manatus
 * Eastern Atlantic - Trichechus senegalensis

title: Dichotomous Key/Sirenia


text:
Cookbook:Grilled Portobello Mushrooms

Portobello mushrooms are large mushrooms that can be prepared as a vegetarian entrée. They can substitute for hamburger patties, or be eaten alone.

Ingredients

 * 1 large portobello mushroom per person
 * Olive oil
 * Salt (as desired)

Procedure

 * 1) Remove stems from the mushrooms, then wash and dry them.
 * 2) Brush with olive oil.
 * 3) Grill for about 10 minutes, alternating sides, until both sides are grill-marked.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * When cooking on a barbecue, mixing the oil with a water based liquid (e.g. balsamic vinegar) will cause the fire to flare more and give the food more flavour; baste them as they cook.
 * Adding other flavours such as garlic and chilli works well. If you are in a hurry, just use vinaigrette dressing.

title: Cookbook:Grilled Portobello Mushrooms


text:
User:Yesitsapril~enwikibooks

yes, it's april. especially when it's april or september. I'm jenny zhu and currently am a mathematics and statistics student with too much and not enough time on my hands and feet.

I play Go, however I am more interested in variants of n in a row games (mainly n=5)

I add material to the wikibook 5 in a Row

title: User:Yesitsapril~enwikibooks


text:
Dichotomous Key/Dipnoi

1

 * Lungs
 * Paired - Neoceratodus forsteri
 * Unpaired -

2: Ceratodontiformes
it is Omnivorous .teeth are strong .it depend on air  in breathing. it breath in water by gills  and  dyring drynees through lung
 * Habitat
 * South America - Lepidosiren paradoxa
 * Africa -

3: Protopteridae
Could be Protopterus aethiopicus, P. amphibius, P. annectens or P. dolloi

title: Dichotomous Key/Dipnoi


text:
Dichotomous Key/Urochordata

1

 * Adults sessile
 * Yes - Ascidiacea
 * No -

2

 * Animal surrounded by protein and cellulose and a complicated arrangement of filters
 * Yes - Larvacea
 * No - Thaliacea

title: Dichotomous Key/Urochordata