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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Human Head Modelling

Face modelling is a fun and skillful way of creating detailed characters. Here is a simple step by step process of starting to create a head model and being able to edit the object on both sides simultaneously. It requires skillful mastery to model a realistic head model with full Materials/Texture Mapping.

This method is just one of many different techniques for making a head. In this method, we will start with a circle and extrude it to create the head shape, and also apply mirroring so we can make a nice symmetrical head and only do half the work.

Other techniques may be to start with a cube or circle, but most techniques will use the mirroring trick described here.

Creating the outline

 * 1) Start with an empty space and Switch to side view. (NUM3)
 * 2) Add simple circle mesh with 8 vertices (Press SPACE; select MESH>CIRCLE) Adjust slider to 8.
 * 3) Now you are looking at the profile view of a basic 8 vertex circle. Select each vertex and use the [G=Grab] key to spread each vertex carefully to create a Contour outline for the side view of a head. You may also WKEY > Subdivide to subdivide each segment to add more vertices for more detail.

Once you have completed your Contour Profile in step 3, we'll turn our two-dimensional circle into 3D.

Extruding and mirroring
Make sure you set up the mirror correctly before continuing.
 * 1) Switch to FRONT VIEW (NUM1).
 * 2) Deselect all of the circle (AKEY). Next, press EKEY to extrude and choose "Only Edges". Use XKEY to extrude the circle's contour profile along the X axis.
 * 3) Move the mouse to the left a reasonable distance and click to fix the new points. This will create an open-ended prism of your defined face shape.
 * 4) Switch to Object mode (Tab), and select the object.
 * 5) Now, use ALT+DKEY to duplicate the object as a link. Now any changes you make to the original will affect the duplicate and vice versa.
 * 6) With the duplicate still selected, hit CTRL+MKEY > Z axis to flip the duplicate about the Z axis. Now any changes made to one will affect the other in reverse. Thus you have two sides of the head which you can edit at the same time.
 * 7) Drag the duplicate so that it is lined up with the original, and their centres are exactly touching (even zoom in very far to make sure of this fact).
 * 8) Now model one side of the head until you are happy with it. Even if you apply smoothing, there will be an ugly crease/seam down the centre. Don't worry about this just yet!

(What can you do about this line down the middle...do you weld it at some point? JHS 12/24/2005) (If you apply the subsurf modifier then weld the inside vertices it goes away. 9/13/2006)

Modelling the Head
(THIS AREA MUST BE FILLED) 5-26-08 Pathfind is essential

Merging the sides and removing the seam

 * 1) Switch into Object mode (Tab) and select both sides of the head
 * 2) Join the objects with CTRL+JKEY each pair of close vertices and press ALT+MKEY->At Center to merge them
 * 3) To view it in subsurfaced mode, switch into Object mode (Tab), press Add Modifier in the buttons window, and select Subsurf. You can adjust the amount of subsurfacing using the Levels and Render Levels sliders. To get rid of the body look of the model, press Set Smooth in the Links and Materials section.


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Extemporaneous Speaking/Tournament

The Draw
Before every round, you will be with the other extempers in the draw room, usually a library or other large room. This is where you will select your topic. A judge or tournament official sits at the head of the room and calls out speakers at seven minute intervals. (“First speakers, please come draw”, etc.) When your number is called, walk up to the table and draw three questions from the envelope or off the table. Look at all three questions and decide which one you are best prepared to answer. Return the other two and walk back to your table.

Preparing the Speech
You have thirty minutes to prepare a speech, beginning from when you were called up to the table. Don't panic! It really is not as bad as it seems. As you walk back to your table, go to the extemp tubs and take out any folders you think might help you answer the question. Return to your speech-writing place and start working. Look over the evidence and familiarize yourself with the topics. Decide how to answer the question and create three points. Add sources to your speech, tie it to your point, and create impacts. Finally, create your intro and conclusion. Now, you're ready to practice the speech. Find a relatively quiet corner in the prep room and start practicing your speech. Don't worry if you make any mistakes : that's what practice is for. Don't worry about memorizing the speech word-for-word, but do memorize your points, your introduction and conclusion, and your sources, so that you can effectively deliver the speech from memory.

A Few Prep Tips

 * Many people will tell you that you should spend X number of minutes writing and Y number of minutes preparing your speech. Don't listen to them. When you feel like you're done writing your speech, start to practice it. Develop your own habits that help you.
 * Become an “expert” in one or two topic areas, so that you always know you can take a question about those topics. Be familiar, however, with everything, just in case you have to answer a different question.
 * NEVER, NEVER, NEVER write out the whole speech. All you need is introduction, three points, support for those points, and conclusion. That provides the most value for every minute of your time.
 * Be sure to write out a blank outline on your paper BEFORE the draw. You'd be surprised how much time it saves.
 * Get a timer and keep your own prep time. The extemp room manager will announce time at infrequent intervals, but it is always better to always know how much time is remaining.

Giving the speech
Before the draw, you'll have checked to see what room you are delivering the speech in. Perhaps you'll have even gone there beforehand so you know where it is. At any rate, when your 30 minutes has expired, walk to the room. Wait outside until the speaker in the room is finished. If you have extra time, continue practicing your speech. When they leave, follow in behind them, leaving your notes outside. As you enter the room, the judge will be finishing the ballot from the last speaker. Walk up to him or her and hand them the question silently. They will confirm your name or speaker code and write the question on your ballot. Ask what kind of time signals they will be giving. Before you start, ask whether or not the judge is ready. When they acknowledge you, start. Give your speech. Don't worry about getting phrasings exactly like you had them in practice, the judge will never know. Be sure to make eye contact with the judge and anyone else who may be in the room. Make hand gestures when appropriate to add emphasis to your speech. As you see the one minute remaining signal, wrap up your final point and move into your conclusion. Ideally, your speech will be 6:30, but should be somewhere between 6 and 7 minutes. When your speech is finished, wait for the judge to dismiss you and respond appropriately. Do not say “Thank you for judging” or shake the judge's hand. But do be polite.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Extemporaneous Speaking/Tournament


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Extemporaneous Speaking/Speech Structure

Introduction
College too expensive? Have kids? Or do you just not have the time?

Connection
There are many reasons why Americans today cannot fully complete or receive a college education.

Question
So are online degrees as good as on campus degrees?

Answer
Most certainly so, yes.

Preview your points
Because of convenience, cost, and the level of acceptance.

Present Evidence (stuff from the articles)
If you have a family to feed, and errands to do during some points in your average day, attend college on a campus would be impossible. - USN & WR

Tie evidence to point
This is amazing to the America as a whole! A working adult can obtain a college education online from home without interrupting those attendees who have a busy schedule and lifestyle.

Point 2 (Cost)
Book costs have gone up 186% between 1986 and 2004. The average cost for a student buying all the textbooks needed for an on-campus education costs $900. Jason Turgeon, a Northeastern University student had to buy a textbook for $160. Overall he paid $500 for several textbooks for his classes. He is receiving an education via an on campus University. However, if young Jason attended an online University, he could go to textbookrevolution.org and download all his textbooks onto his computer or laptop FREE. As for cost of education, enrollment into an accredited online university costs $2540 less than on campus tuition.

An online education greatly reduces the cost for books and materials than that of an on campus education. You wouldn't need to go buy textbooks from a store for a total that could top $1000, you could just go to a legitimate and legal website and download the textbooks for free. Your tuition would be a low cost, and you wouldn't have to pay for room and board.

Point 3 (Other nations are ineffective at creating a solution)
Just like pt. 1

Question / Answer
Repeat them just like in the introduction (So, when answering the question, Will there ever be peace in the Middle East?, the answer is obviously no.)

Repeat Points
Just like the preview (Because the Israeli military is too aggressive, there is a lot of antisemitism in the region, and other nations are ineffective at creating a solution.)

Tie back to attention getter
Remind us once again of the opening of the speech and close it off. (So, the Middle East has become a lot like the playground at recess. Unfortunately, the kids at recess are a lot more likely to find a solution to their problems, and the Middle East is destined to be a conflict based more on hatred then disagreement.)

Speech time
Maximum 7 minutes, shoot for 6:30


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Unsolved Problems in Biology/What is Life?

“Life has many different meanings, as outlined in any dictionary. It is not possible to find one universal definition covering all meanings. The best one can hope for is to find a common denominator for all these different meanings.“

Biology is centered around the phenomenon of life. As it is mostly concerned with the scientific study of life forms, biology does not lend itself to a definition of what life actually is. There are at least as many definitions of life as there are biology text books (of authors that do not simply reproduce what they have read somewhere else before). There is consensus, however, that there is no single property that delineates living from non-living systems. Life seems to rather express itself in a variety of attributes that are common to all living beings.

These commonalities include:

 * 1) The exhibition of some kind of order (via a process of self-organization). For some authors this is the most remarkable aspect of life, as the general tendency within the universe is the reduction of order (i.e., an increase degrees of freedom or, physically speaking, entropy). Hence, they characterize life as negentropy - a phenomenon that temporarily and locally counteracts the universal trend of increasing entropy.
 * 2) Movement/Growth/Development. That is, existence of a certain nonstationarity of biological systems over time. This includes the finite nature of an individual's existence.
 * 3) Reaction/Adaptation. This evolution is another most central aspect of life. Darwinian evolution is, however, not restricted to living beings (e.g., cultural evolution).
 * 4) Energy conversion/Metabolism. While this is certainly an important aspect of life (and not directly delineable from point 1), there are some biological organisms (e.g.. virii, viroids, prions that do not show any metabolism. For some authors this is reason enough to declare that a virus is a non-living entity (whose scientific study nonetheless falls into the domain of biology).
 * 5) Reproduction. All known life forms (with the disputable exception of prions maybe) are based on a genetic code, with DNA as its material basis. Virus particles also consist of DNA, but are incapable of sustaining a metabolism (and hence reproduction) of their own.

Life is characterized by diversity - a product of its evolution. Thus, "life" is an abstraction of all living phenomena that share a common origin.


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Cookbook:Bacon

| Basic foodstuffs | Meat and poultry

Bacon is made by curing and often cold smoking or drying the sides, back, or belly of pork. Because it is cured, bacon tends to keep for a very long time.

Characteristics
There are several kinds of bacon, differentiated mainly by the cut of pork from which they are made.

Belly/side
American or streaky bacon is made by curing the pork belly/side with sugar, salt, pepper and other assorted spices for at least three days, and then cold smoking it. It has long "streaks" of fat running along it. Italian bacon (pancetta) is made by removing the skin and seasoning the meat with salt, pepper and other spices such as juniper berries, muscot nuts, cloves, and cinnamon. It is cured for two weeks and then rolled up and packed into a skin much like salami. Like many sausages high in fat, pancetta is hard to cut.

Bacon made from the back of the belly is fattier than bacon made from the front of a belly.

Back
Bacons made from the back/loin of a hog are much leaner, and they do not taste the same as bacons made from the pork belly. They are similar in texture to ham, and they include Canadian bacon, English back bacon, and Irish bacon.

Other
For those who do not eat pork, bacon approximates made from other animals such as turkey and duck are a viable alternative. Turkey bacon tends to be made of chopped and formed turkey meat, with no streaky fat. Duck bacon can be streaky with subcutaneous fat.

Selection and storage
Choose your desired variety of bacon according to its final use—you'll want to take things like fat content and added flavorings into account. Bacon can be bought as slabs or sliced into rashers, depending on the desired use. Unopened bacon typically lasts for several weeks in the fridge, but it can also be frozen for 1–2 months either before or after cooking due to its typical high fat content.

Use
Bacon—especially fatty varieties—is best cooked slowly over low heat to allow rendering and crisping. This can be done in the oven or in a skillet. Avoid cooking bacon at high heat, since this can singe it and convert some of the curing agents into unpleasant byproducts.

As a versatile ingredient with savory, salty, and fatty flavors, bacon can be eaten on its own or incorporated into a variety of dishes. It is common at breakfast in the cuisines of the United States and United Kingdom. It can also be used in sandwiches and salads to add a pop of salty and savory contrasting flavor. Fatty bacon is sometimes used to wrap or line other pieces of meat to prevent them from drying out during cooking.

Bacon fat or grease that has rendered out of the bacon can be used as a cooking fat in other dishes.

title: Cookbook:Bacon


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OC Photography Program/Traditional Darkroom

Setting up a black and white dark room
You can easily build an inexpensive darkroom in your own home. You need a room that can block all exterior light and has ventilation (e.g. an exhaust fan). Having a sink is nice, but not necessary since rinsing can be done out of the darkroom. You should have counter space to hold at least three 11x14 inch trays four if you don't have a sink, an enlarger and room for a paper box and tools. The layout should be a progressive line from the enlarger to the solution trays to the sink.

Equipment

 * Enlarger : should be as good a manufacturer as you can find. Bargains can be found because many amateur photographers are selling darkroom equipment in favour of digital gear.
 * Lens : the focal length of an enlarger lens is a determined by the film format you use. 35mm film requires a 50mm, 120 film a 70mm. Most lenses are now of good quality. CAD and plastic technology has helped a great deal.  Perfectionists will prefer expensive lenses.  Many are available on the web or at quality used camera stores.
 * Timer : any kind of clock will do for this task, but it is important to remember that you must be able to see the hands in the dark. It is still easy to buy a triple timer which will automatically time the duration of each chemical stage. A clock that integrates safe lights is usually very handy.  check the used camera stores.
 * Exposure monitor : Hard to find, but worth it. An exposure monitor will allow you to gain a ball park exposure for your prints, without needing to make endless teststrips.

Sealing the darkroom
If you think you have sealed the darkroom so no outside light enters, then turn on all possible lights, make sure it is a sunny day, then take a cup of tea into the darkroom and wait for about ten minutes. Your eyes will adjust to the darkness, and you can see the leaks. Fix them. They can fog your negatives and paper. No Kidding.

Before you start
In order to start developing film there are several things that you will require: -Film developer: (such as D-76, [HC 110,] Fixer, Photo Flo) -Paper developer: (such as Kodak Dektol, Stopbath, Fixer)
 * Either a darkroom, or any other type of container that seals light (such as a Changing Bag.)
 * Chemicals; such as:
 * Scissors
 * Cartridge opener for 35 mm film, you do not use plastic screw-in cartridges. (Such as the ones you buy with film loaded in them.)
 * Light-Tight Tank
 * Film Reels
 * A Drying Rack or Printer Dryers.
 * A film squeegee to takes drops of water off the film. (Optional, drying rack is good enough.)

If you have everything you need, start by checking that your solutions & water are room temperature.

Water temperature is an issue. Variations in temperature will change the speed of chemical actions on film. A five minute development at 68 degrees (F) will be very different from a 72 or 62 degrees development. There are expensive water temperature meters that can be installed that will automatically keep the water temperature steady. Otherwise you will have to be alert to temperature changes and manage as best you can.

What you could do is make a revolving chart for your different room temperatures to see how long your development time will be.

Loading the film into the tank
Start by setting the equipment and solutions for development at the ready in your darkroom. Try to keep them in a predictable place and order so you use the right stuff at the right time. Place the parts of the developing tank in good order so you can find them in the dark. Once the cartridge is open, you cannot turn on any standard or safe lights until the film is once again in a lightproof container (hopefully the development tank). You might want to take a test drive with some test strips. Take your scissors and cut the curved part of the film. Be careful not to cut too much, because that might spoil the negatives later on, won't fit into your camera, or is just a waste of, what could be, a good picture.

Afterwards, roll the film using the reel. It is a bit hard to explain how to do this in words, but after you do it several times you will understand it. Again, practice in the light with some Practice Film.

Then, when the film is rolled on the reel, put the reel on the pole, put the pole in the tank, put the seal on the top of the tank and close the tank using the cap provided with the tank. You can turn the lights on now.

Once you have done this, you may proceed to the next step.

Developing Film
Developing needs to be standardized. Your time starts when you start pouring in the developer. If you find the results are okay - them keep up your standards. If a bit underdeveloped add time, if overdeveloped, use less time than recommended. Again - this is assuming you have temperature control.

 * Comments: "For one, you can't change the development time because, A.) You don't know how your film is gonna look UNTIL you're FINISHED. Unless, you wanna ruin your film by opening the tank then, sure. B.) The time isn't always going to be the same, again, depending on the temperature. C.) Under exposing or over exposing doesn't always depend on the time or temperature, it could be your camera, OR just YOU." - Victoria, 16 & Raquel, 16.

Begin by pouring clean water of 68 degrees, into the tank. This softens the emulsion and prepares for a more uniform acceptance of the developer. Put the lid on the tank and then invert it several times. Discard the water. Try and get as much out as possible.

 * Comments: "For one, it's NOT ALWAYS gonna be 68 degrees. Two, the water has nothing to do with 'softening the emulsion & preparation for a more 'uniform acceptance''. You use water between D-76 & Stop-Bath to be sure all the chemicals are washed off, completely. NEVER use water AFTER Photo Flo. Photo Flo is used to wash off the residues from the chemicals. Using water after Photo Flo will totally defeat the purpose of even using Photo Flo in the first place. Three, Invert ?? It's called 'Agitate'." - Victoria, 16 & Raquel, 16.

Set your clock or watch your watch for a beginning time, and pour the developer into the tank. Invert the tank according to the film manufacturer's instructions or to your standardization. Too much agitation will retard development, to little will create different intensities of development in different areas of the film. So you are looking for uniformity without interrupting the development process too much. The development time is usually suggested by the film maker's recommendation for particular developers. Look to the developer paperwork, the film paper work, or go onto the film or developer maker's web sites. At the end of the development period discard the developer. Many people retain the developer and you can certainly reuse what you have, but the depletion of its chemical action can happen quickly and steadily - making it more difficult to establish your own development standards. The choice is yours, or our economic concerns.

 * Comments: "Developer ? There's multiple developers. Be specific. The first developer for developing film is, D-76. Invert=AGITATE. GET IT RIGHT. No, just because they're Manufacturer's doesn't mean they're always right on the instructions. You can never be too sure. Go with the gut, go with what you KNOW. Just.. Listen to Mr. Woodard. Good job, you put agitation. Surprised you didn't put invertation. It'll make my film retarded ?? O.o WRONG. It will SLOW DOWN development. No, it's not depended on the film maker's recommendations on how long you should develop. It's based on the TEMPERATURE. Don't go anywhere online, look up everything in a Photography book. Such as, Guide to Photography. NEVER DISCARD YOUR DEVELOPERS. YOU CAN RE-USE THEM UNTIL THEY GO BAD. POUR THEM INTO A JUG OR SOMETHING ! DEVELOPERS ARE EXPENSIVE. If chemicals are ever weak, double the development time. When D-76 is weak, it turns black/dark. Stop-Bath turns into a red/purple color when weak. Dektol turns black, as well." - Victoria, 16 & Raquel, 16.

This process alters the film emulsion and the chemical interact with the silver in the black and white film. Your waste will contain metal and should be disposed of properly.

 * Comments: "Wow, surprisingly you got that correct. Congratulations." - Victoria, 16 & Raquel, 16.

After emptying the tank quickly pour in stop-bath. This will stop most of the development and should be done as quickly as possible to help standardize your development time. The stop bath is usually about 30 seconds. discard or retain the stop and pour in the fixer. This finalizes the development and stabilizes (fixes) the negatives so they will be viewable in light and preserved. Empty the tank of fixer and wash the film. I usually open the tank and place it under the faucet. Temperature is not as critical here, but keeping a 68 degree discipline is always a good idea.

 * Comments: "One, you don't use Stop-Bath for developing film. That's for making a print. You use Fixer for your second chemical in this process. YOU DON'T USE STOP-BATH AND FIXER ?!?! WANNA RUIN YOUR FILM ?! No, DON'T USE STOP-BATH WHEN DEVELOPING FILM. Why do you think it "fixes" ? BECAUSE YOU USE FIXER ! Fixer fixes & Stop-Bath stops !! NEVER open your tank after FIXER. YOU ONLY OPEN IT AFTER YOU HAVE PROPERLY USED PHOTO FLO !! Temperature is EVERYTHING." - Victoria, 16 & Raquel, 16.

Drying the film
Once the film is cleaned, hang (clips are available at better camera stores) it on a line in a still, dust proof area (hopefully your darkroom is sealed tight so it is a good place to dry film. If you use a bathroom for drying - close the door, turn off the exhaust fan, and try to keep people out for a while.  Place a clip on the bottom of the roll to keep some tension on the film so it does not dry in a twisted form.  When sufficiently dry - go away and let it dry some more.

Once it is really dry, cut the film into strips that can be placed into plastic sleeves designed for the purpose. You now have a finished negative in a well protected negative sleeve.

You may wish to begin a catalog of negatives. If you take a lot of pictures, you will quickly be frustrated by a messy collection. Use names, dates, key pictures, or events like "the local town fair" to help you retrieve the negatives you want. Keeping the contact sheet sleeves in an album helps.

Making Contact Sheets
If you have full page plastic sleeves, you entire roll is probably in one plastic sleeve. Keep the negatives in the sleeve - less handling means fewer fingerprints or damages.

You will need to do a couple of test strips until you know how much time at what f stop on the lens produces a good exposure for development. If you do not have a meter (see above) then the next best method is test-strips. As follows:

Run your enlarger up the support to a high level. Turn on your enlarger, open the lens to its most open position and focus the lens to the base of the enlarger. The edge of the frame will sharpen when you are in focus. You may wish to use an easel or place duct tape on the base in the outline of a piece of paper. You want to be able to put the photo paper and the sleeve of negatives in a standard place to assure complete exposure of the negatives.

Turn off all lights, put a fresh 8 x 10 sheet of photo paper on the base or easel, and then place the negatives on the paper. Put a plate of clean glass on top of the negtives to assure flatness.

To make a test strip place a thick piece of cardboard larger than 8 x 10 or some other material to block all the light. Turn on your time clock for one minute. Stop down the lens to a low setting smaller f/stop = higher number = less light). At standard intervals - say 10 seconds - move the cardboard about an inch.  You may  get six or so strips.  After the complete page is exposed - place the cardboard over the whole page and turn off your enlarger.  You can then begin to develop the photo paper. (See below)  What will eventually happen is that you will find one of these strips to do a pretty good job of reproducing the photo you took.  That "strip" will be your time exposure.  If it were the fourth strip - then you would expose the negatives at 40 seconds at that f/stop, and you can now redo the above without having to make a strip sheet and develop the full sheet for a true contact sheet.  Test over.  If the strip is too dark - either change the f/stop to a smaller aperture or reduce the time exposure.  If it is too light, add time or open up the lens to let out more light. Use 5 sceond increments - 20 - or whatever it takes to get you to a standard with which you are comfortable. Keep adjusting until you get some good exposures.

If you take standard negatives, develop the strips the same way, and keep a good eye on your temperatures and times, you can just go ahead and assume your time and exposure settings are okay and you won't have to do a test strip anymore.

Making Prints
Print making is the fun part. Using a handy can of air - make sure there is no dust on the negative or the lens of the enlarger. Place a negative in the negative carrier and place it in the enlarger. Focus the print on the easel of base (focus scopes are great here for focusing. You adjust the lens focus until you can see the grain of the negative on the easel). After reading your exposure or making a test strip of a single negative, you have the proper f/stop and exposure time for this one negative. I usually try to have at least 30 seconds for exposure so I can dodge or burn. A quick exposure does not give you time to improve the print. If you need more time, stop down the lens. One change down will double the exposure time.

(You will probably want to do a test strip on each negative. Sacrificing a piece of paper for a test strip will save you many sheets of 8x10's.)

My timer turns on the enlarger and turns off the safe light. Then when the timer stops, it turns the safe light back on. (I do not have any lights on when I open up my box of photo paper.) [If you find your safe lights cause fog in your print, do not turn them on until the development process is well along.]  Take your test contact sheet print, turn on the timer and immerse the print in the developer solution  - which should be the first tray to the right of the enlarger. Gently agitate the print by tapping it with the side of your developer tongs so it keeps getting exposed to good chemicals for a well distributed process. You should begin to see the print emerge. After the end of the recommended development time for that developer, paper and temperature, lift the print out and let developer drip off the paper. Place it in the stop bath - the second tray to the right of the enlarger. After that time is up, lift the paper, let it drip into the stop bath and place the paper into the fixer - the third tray to the right of the enlarger. After the recommended fixing time, place the paper in the wash bath with running water at about 68 degrees, and let it wash for a long time. You can turn on standard lights after the fixing is done.

Making a print is the same process as the test strip - but without making strips. Depending on the paper you buy, you can further adjust the print by altering the contrast of the paper, using different paper, different developers, adding toners, etc.

When I process, I use 5 trays. One developer, one stop bath, two fixers and a toner bath - usually selenium toner with photoflo. Portraits can be enhanced by sepia toner as well. Then I go to the wash. A plastic washer is a good purchase. They can hold a few prints, will hook up to your faucet, and agitate the prints while they are washing. a squeege helps limit water spots on the paper.

After a thorough washing, place the prints on a drying surface. They will curl and stuff, but heat mounting them will straighten them out. You can back them to savage board with wax paper that does a great mounting job. I used to back the prints with a sheet of like kind photo paper - that makes it more archival and less prone to damage by age - but paper prices are kind of steep now. The number one enemy of photos is sulphur. Those yellow stains in old photos are probably sulfur - which comes from wood frames or impure backing material. Good luck.


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Template:Ada/Navigation

Computing » Computer Science » Computer Programming » Ada Programming - Navigation

title: Template:Ada/Navigation


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Robotics/Design Basics/Design software

Robotics: Design Basics: Design software

When designing your robot there are plenty of programs to help. Ranging from a simple tool to print wheel encoders, through CAD drawing programs up to mechanical simulation programs.

2D CAD
e.g. AutoCAD. This type of software is used to turn a rough sketch into a nice professional drawing. This type of drawing is standardized for readability. (Meaning every different type of line has a particular meaning. Solid lines are visible edges, dashed lines are hidden edges, line-dash-line lines are center lines. Standards also include methods of dimensioning and types of views presented in a drawing.) Of course you're free to use your own standards, but using an industrial standard, such as ANSI or ISO, makes it easier to share your plans with other people around the world. While it may somewhat more tedious to make a drawing using 2D software, the results are generally better than using 3D solid modeling software. Solid modelers still have problems translating 3D models into 2D drawings and adding proper notation to standards.

 * Freeware CAD software: CADstd
 * Professional CAD software: AutoCAD

 * GPL CAD software: QCad QCad
 * GPL vector drawing software: Inkscape Inkscape

Solid Modeling
First

e.g. SolidWorks or Pro/Engineer Pro/Engineer (Pro/ENGINEER). A newer way to draw parts and machines. With solid modeling you "build" the parts in 3D, put them together in an assembly and then let the software generate the 2D drawings (sounds harder than it is). The major advantage over 2D CAD programs is you can see the complete part/machine without actually building it in real life. Mistakes are easily found and corrected in the model. These 3D models are not yet completely standardized though there is a standard for digital data. At this time the 2D drawings this software generates do not conform completely to industrial standards. The 2D paper drawing is still the communication tool of preference in industry and clarity of intent is very important. Solid modeling software tend to generate overly complex drawing views with overly simplified dimensioning methods that likely do not correctly convey the fit, form or function of the part or assembly.

 * BRL-CAD BrlCad BRL-CAD
 * lignumCAD (GPL)

Pneumatic & Hydraulic Simulation
Festo has a demo version of both a pneumatic and a hydraulic simulation program. Look for FluidSIM Pneumatiek and FluidSIM Hydraulica. (Pick country; click on industrial automatisation; and use the search field to the right.) Limitations: Can't save nor print. Most of the didactic material isn't included.

IRAI has a free demonstration version of electric / pneumatic and hydraulic simulation software : AUTOMGEN / AUTOMSIM. Go to Download / AUTOMGEN7.

Schematic Capture & PCB
Software to draw electronics schematics and designing Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs). These packages contain software to draw the schematic, libraries with symbols, and software to draw the PCBs (with autorouter).

In no particular order:

 * Freeware: Eagle is commonly used by beginners for their projects because a limited version is available for free. The toolset is well integrated and has a large hobbyist user base.  However, once you progress beyond basic designs, you need to pay for the full version.

 * Open Source: The open-source gEDA Project has produced a mature suite of applications for electronics design, including: a schematic capture program, attribute manager, netlister supporting over 20 netlist formats, analog and digital simulation, PCB layout with autorouter, and Gerber viewer. The project was started in 1997 to write EDA tools useful for personal robotics projects, but as of this writing the tools are also used by hobbyists, students, educators, and professionals for many different design tasks.  The suite runs best on Linux and OSX, although Windows ports of some apps have been made.

 * Open Source: Kicad, Kicad includes schematic capture and PCB layout

 * Open Source: Free PCB is a mature Windows only open source PCB drafting tool.

 * IntelligentCad.org has a few links to FPGA and PCB design tools (GPL)

Programming Languages
There are many different programming languages available for µControllers:
 * Assembly: Every µcontroller can be programmed in Assembly. However the differences between µcontrollers can be huge. Assembly gives you the most power of the µcontroller but this power comes with a price: Hard to learn and (almost)no code reuse. Assembly code is in essence translated machine code. It provides only the instruction set of the processor: add, subtract, maybe multiply, move data between registers and/or memory, conditional jumps. No loops, complex selection or build in I/O as in C/C++, Basic, Pascal, ... The disadvantage is that you have to implement everything yourself (lots of work even for the most simple programs). The advantage is that you have to implement everything yourself (programs can be written extremely efficient both in speed and size).This language is intended for advanced users and is usually only used as an optimisation for code in tight loops or for pushing the performance of a limited device to the edge of its abilities. Reasons to learn it:
 * Teaches you how the computer works on its lowest level.
 * Provides high speed code which consumes little memory.Reasons to avoid it:
 * Limited use.
 * Non-portable.
 * very hard to master. Freeware: AVR

 * C: C offers power but is much more portable than Assembly. For most µcontrollers there is a C compiler available. The differences between µcontrollers is smaller here, except for using hardware. Learning C is much easier than learning Assembly, still C isn't an easy language to learn from scratch. However these days there are very good books available on this subject.
 * Freeware:GCC Tools for AVR Studio Software

 * Basic: For many µcontrollers there are special flavours of Basic available. This is the easiest and fastest way to code µcontrollers, however you'll have to sacrifice some power. Still modern basic compilers can produce very impressive code.
 * Limited Freeware/payware:Bascom AVR Very good Basic compiler for AVR. Limited to 4Kb programs. There is also a version available for the 8051 µcontrollers.
 * Limited Freeware/payware:XCSB PIC Basic compiler. Lite version. No 32-bit integer and floating point support. (OS/2 WARP, Win95, Win98, Win2K, XP and Linux)
 * Forth:
 * PFAVR (GPL) Needs external RAM.
 * ByteForth Dutch and works without external RAM, there is also a building book (Dutch only for now) available for Ushi our robotic project.

 * Python
 * Pyastra
 * PyMite

further reading:
 * Embedded Systems/Embedded Systems Introduction
 * Embedded Systems/PIC Programming

Programmers
After you've written your program, you need to get it into your µcontroller. If you use C or Basic you'll have to compile it. Then use a programmer to upload the code into the µcontroller. There are several different methods for this last step.
 * External programmers: This is a device that's connected to a PC. You'll plug the µcontroller IC, EEPROM or other memory IC in its socket and let the PC upload the code. Afterwards you plug the IC in its circuit and test it. Can be time consuming when updating your program after debugging.
 * ISP In System Programming: The board with the µcontroller has a special connector to connect to a PC. Hook up the cable, download code, test and repeat. More modern method. Only disadvantage: it consumes some boardspace. Not all µcontrollers support this.
 * Bootloader, also called "self-programming": The CPU accepts a new program through any available connection to a PC (no special connector needed), then programs itself. Not all µcontrollers support this. And you also need some other programming method, to get the initial bootloader programmed in (telling it exactly which connector to watch for a new program, the baud rate, etc.).

Debuggers
Modern µcontrollers have on-chip debug hardware called w:JTAG.

Various tools
See This site for:
 * The Motion Applet – Path modeling for the differential steering system of robot locomotion.
 * The Encoder Designer – A design tool for encoder wheel patterns. (Rotary encoder)
 * RP1 – A mobile-robot simulator.
 * Map Viewer – A Mapping Tool For Mobile Robotics.

And "Experimental Robotics Framework" for rapid prototyping of robotics algorithms.

title: Robotics/Design Basics/Design software


text:
Talk:Robotics/Design Basics/Design software

As mention on the design software page, some information about alternative for Autocad and inventor are very welcome. If you know a (few) URLs or names, please add them here (or edit the design software page yourself):

If you know URLs about particular usefull tools for robot design please add them here:

Tools you might want, but haven't found:

--Patrik 15:04, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)


text:
Movie Making Manual/Resources/Scripts

Places to get original scripts
Trigger Street

Simply Unproduced Scripts

Downloading scripts

title: Movie Making Manual/Resources/Scripts


text:
Talk:Organic Chemistry/Foreword

Shouldn't this be Foreword rather than Forward?

 * Sorry about that, problem corrected. --Karl Wick 20:32, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Not to be picky, but it's still not right. It should be Foreword, not Foreward.

 * I noticed it too.. Either "Foreword" or "Preface". Move this page, and don't forget to change the link on the content page. --Andreas Ipp 22:07, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Organic Chemistry/Foreword


text:
Monetary Economics/The Quantity Theories

History
This theory was described comprehensively by Irving Fisher (1911), in the book The Purchasing Power of Money. It is the classical view of how money is used in the economy, and what variables it affects. The quantity theory of money was initially known as the equation of exchanged.

Fisher's Model
Consider a closed economy. In every transaction, the value of sales and the value of purchases must match. Therefore, even when scaled up to the aggregate level, the value of payments must equal the value of receipts.

$$P_t \equiv R$$

But $$P_t$$, the value of payments, must be equal to the number of transactions multiplied by the average price they take place at. $$R$$, the value of receipts, must be equal to the amount of money in the economy multipled by the average number of times it circulates (or, the velocity of money).

This gives us an identity:

$$ PT \equiv M_sV_T $$

where $$P$$ is simply the price level and $$T$$ is the volume of transactions. $$M_s$$ is the supply of money in the economy, and $$V_T$$ is termed the velocity of transaction.

Inflation
Consider now the behaviour of these variables in the real world. The money supply is of course exogenously determined (by the government / central bank). We can assume that in equilibrium the market clears and therefore the supply of money $$M_s$$ is equal to the demand for money $$M_d$$.

Fisher further assumed that the volume of transactions $$T$$ would be relatively stable at long run equilibrium, and that the velocity of money $$V_T$$ would also be invariant in the short run. This would then give us the following equation:

$$M_dV_T = PT \,$$

$$P = {M_dV_T \over T}$$

It can be seen that any change to the price level is wholly induced by changes to the exogenous variables. If we consider $$V_T$$ and $$T$$ invariant over the short run, the rate of change in $$P$$ is entirely due to the rate of change in $$M_d$$. That is, the rate of inflation in the economy is entirely due to changes in the money supply. The equilibriating mechanism is the change in money demand.

The Neutrality of Money
Consider the basic equation of the model.

$$M_dV_T = PT \,$$

We then have:

$${M_d \over P} = {T \over V_T}$$

If the Fisherian quantity theory is correct, then any change in $$M_d$$ would lead to a corresponding change in $$P$$, while the real variables, $$T$$ and $$V_T$$, remain unchanged. This is known as the neutrality of money, a condition whereby changes to the money supply affect only nominal variables. A related, and harder condition to satisfy, is the superneutrality of money, where changes in the rate of growth of the nominal money supply influence only the rate of inflation, and the rate of depreciation of the currency in an open economy. There is no effect on any other variable.

History
This preliminary version of the quantity theory was developed by Marshall and Pigou (1917) in order to extend the analysis to consider short run fluctuations in the velocity of money. In Fisherian quantity theory the velocity of money was determined exogenously.

A change in viewpoint
Under the Fisherian analysis an individual holds as much money as he needs in order to carry out transactions. Marshall and Pigou approached the problem slightly differently. Their version of the quantity theory determines how much money an individual chooses to hold in order to carry out transactions.

The explicit assumptions here are that the individual cannot hold more money than his stock of wealth, that he makes a choice between money, which does not pay interest income, and bonds, which do. The demand for money function therefore varies with the interest rate, the level of wealth, and the volume of transactions that said individual wishes to carry out.

The model proposed by Marshall and Pigou was simplified by assuming that the volume of transactions would be stable in the short run. This allowed the aggregate real money demand function to be equated to some proportion of the level of real income in the economy. We thus have:

$${M_d \over P} = kY$$

Rearranging:

$$M_d = kPY \,$$

And:

$$\left ( M_d \right ) \left ( \frac{1}{k} \right ) = PY$$

Here, the constant $$k^{-1}$$ is the income velocity of money, as opposed to $$V_T \,$$ in the Fisherian analysis, which was the transactions velocity of money.

Keynesian analysis - the introduction of the interest rate
Keynes' contribution to the above analysis focused on defining more clearly the motives economic agents had in holding money. He defined 3 motives for holding money - the transactions motive (where agents hold money in order to make planned payments), the precautionary motive (where agents hold money against the unforeseen need to make payments) and the speculative motive (where agents make the decision to hold money according to the opportunity cost of doing so).

The speculative motive can be explained more clearly by considering the asset allocation decision between money and bonds. We defined bonds earlier as any asset that pays an income. The rate of this income is, quite clearly, the interest rate. If the interest rate is expected to fall, the price of bonds will rise, and if the interest rate is expected to rise, the price of bonds will fall.

Keynes extended the analysis by assuming that there is a range of interest rates that is considered to be the mean range, and that the interest rate would be mean-reverting towards it.


text:
User talk:Oldbull210008~enwikibooks

Stop spamming or you will be reported and blocked. -- Zoohouse 20:43, 4 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Oldbull210008. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Oldbull210008~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:19, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Oldbull210008~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Frappé Coffee

| Beverages | Greek Cuisine

Frappé coffee is a refreshing drink of Greek origin, perfect on a summer's day.

Ingredients

 * 1–2 spoons of instant coffee
 * Tall glass of cold water
 * 1–3 spoons of sugar (optional)
 * 3–5 ice cubes (optional)
 * Milk (optional; condensed/evaporated milk works best)

Procedure

 * 1) Put coffee and sugar in a shaker or tall glass and add a little water, just enough to cover the mixture (about 10 ml, or a couple of teaspoonfuls).
 * 2) Shake or stir with mixer until the mixture becomes foamy.
 * 3) Fill the glass with cold water.
 * 4) Add ice cubes, milk (preferably evaporated or condensed milk) or cream to taste.
 * 5) Sip with a straw.

Types

 * Ratio of Sugar to Coffee >2/1: Frappé glykós (sweet)
 * Ratio of Sugar to Coffee 1/1: Frappé métrios (medium)
 * No sugar: Frappé skétos (plain)

Notes, tips and variations

 * You can also add Baileys or a ball of ice cream.
 * By including the ice when shaking or stirring the coffee, it allows the foam to become more aerated and frothier. Once this has been done, you can then top up with water and/or milk.
 * Adding milk makes the beverage referred to as mé gála (with milk), e.g. Frappé glykó me gala or frappógalo.
 * Instead of shaking the initial coffee/sugar/water mix, it can also be beaten with a teaspoon. This needs patience because takes a while to form the mix into a stiff, thick, thoroughly aerated, light brown mousse with a texture like meringue. The advantage of this more troublesome method is that the foam produced when the rest of the water is added is richer and lasts longer. This foam can also withstand hot water, and produce an effect akin to espresso crema.

title: Cookbook:Frappé Coffee


text:
Knowing Knoppix

Knowing Knoppix is a guide to the Knoppix Linux distro for the complete beginner.

Knoppix is an astoundingly clever product. It runs Linux completely from a CD, DVD or USB drive. There is no need to install. It bypasses all the software already installed on your PC or laptop and automatically detects the hardware in your computer (subject to suitable hardware). When you've finished using Knoppix, simply restart. Your computer will return to your regular system, and it will behave as if nothing has happened. Knoppix is Free Software and open source under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL).

This beginner-friendly book is designed to help with these situations:
 * You can't start Windows! Disaster? Possibly not. It is often possible to rescue files using Knoppix from crashed Windows computers, even when Windows cannot be started. This guide takes you step by step through the process.
 * You are curious about Linux, and you want to discover what all the fuss is about.
 * You want a useful guide to help you get started with Knoppix.

Table of Contents

 * 1) Introducing Knoppix
 * 2) Knoppix for the first time
 * 3) The K Desktop Environment
 * 4) Knoppix essentials
 * 5) Identifying hardware
 * 6) Reading the hard disk
 * 7) CD reading and writing
 * 8) Using an external USB drive
 * 9) Using a floppy or zip disk
 * 10) Networking
 * 11) Internet
 * 12) Peripheral devices
 * 13) Sound
 * 14) Multimedia
 * 15) Other applications
 * 16) Recovering from freezes
 * 17) Getting help
 * 18) Finding permanence
 * 19) Advanced startup options

Appendices

 * 1) Alternatives to KDE, with screenshots
 * 2) Full list of Knoppix boot options

Requirements
To run Knoppix in full and follow the instructions in Knowing Knoppix, you need:
 * At least 256 Mb RAM
 * Pentium compatible PC (350 MHz or faster is the practical minimum)
 * Bootable CD-ROM/DVD drive, or any CD-ROM/DVD drive plus 1.44 Mb floppy drive or mainboard that can boot from USB drive
 * SVGA compatible graphics card

Contributors

 * Phil Jones is the original author of this book. (January 2005)
 * The Source as well as the Complete book can be found...
 * Here: http://neo.dmcs.p.lodz.pl/pios/knowing-knoppix_2004-12-30.pdf
 * Or here: http://www.disa.bi.ehu.es/spanish/asignaturas/ii/knowing-knoppix.pdf
 * Or here: http://web.archive.org/web/20090201000000*/http://pjls16812.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/knowing-knoppix/knowing-knoppix_2005-11-21.tar.gz
 * Snargle split and bookified it.

title: Knowing Knoppix


text:
Japanese/Dialects

Many learners of Japanese begin their studies thinking that the language is a single standard, spoken across the whole nation. While it is true that nearly all Japanese nationals can speak the standard language, it is by no means their every day language. This long and mountainous archipelago has over the centuries given rise to a great number of dialects with their own distinct accent, intonation and vocabulary.

Before the Tokugawa Shogun (徳川将軍) moved to Edo (江戸, modern day Tokyo) in 1603, the main place of government was Kyoto (京都), and standard Japanese was the ancestor of today's Kyoto dialect. Modern standard Japanese, hyōjungo (標準語) is basically the dialect of Tokyo. This is used in schools and media throughout the country. Other varieties of Japanese are often considered provincial and like in every language, each bears connotations of archetypes.

Eastern Japanese

 * Hokkaidō Dialect
 * Tōhoku Dialect
 * Northern
 * Tsugaru Dialect
 * Southern
 * Kantō Dialect
 * (Japanese/Dialects/Yokohama?)
 * Tōkai Dialect
 * (Japanese/Dialects/Mikawa)
 * Hokuriku Dialect
 * Japanese/Dialects/Ishikawa
 * Japanese/Dialects/Toyama

Western Japanese

 * Hokuriku Dialect (Talk:Japanese/Dialects/Ishikawa?)
 * (Japanese/Dialects/Toyama)
 * Kinki (Kansai) Dialect
 * Japanese/Dialects/Osaka
 * Chūgoku Dialect
 * Umpaku Dialect
 * Shikoku Dialect
 * Kyūshū
 * Hōnichi Dialect
 * Hichiku Dialect
 * Satsugū Dialect

Hachijō Island

 * Hachijō Dialect

Ryūkyū

 * (Japanese/Dialects/Okinawa?)

/Dialects

title: Japanese/Dialects


text:
Talk:Knowing Knoppix

The initial port from the OpenOffice (SWX) source is done.

I added the chapters, that not contains any text-formats and/or pictures. Please help me to port these - the rest - chapters, because i haven't the time at the moment!
 * Is there a reason why you didn't just do ctrl+a, and then copy it all onto wikibooks? Then edit it to make it work on wikibooks? Reub2000 22:23, 19 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Not really, but so you can see which chapters are done and which not. -- reviczky 16:00, 21 Jan 2005 (CET)
 * Only the images are missing now, all other is done :). -- reviczky 22:55, 11 Feb 2005 (CET)

Cleanup and Split
Hmm... Just a thought: Shouldn't this page be split into lots of smaller articles? It's taking way too long to load at the moment. --Noogz 07:53, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Good idea! If you intend to do so, please have a look at recent conversions, like How To Build A Computer, and the advice giving there: Talk:How To Build A Computer. Be careful not to split it up too much, a couple of sections would be fine. Also, have a look at the discussion at Hierarchy naming scheme. --Andreas 08:07, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Please wait (with the layout) until i updated the text to the newest version (from 7 may), an uploaded the pictures, thanx. -- reviczky 22:40, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * It's so much text to scroll through to get to something that you could be looking for. This MUST be split into multiple sections. Updating and syncing can still happan if it is split. Smaller pages might even make your job easier. Reub2000 22:03, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

 * I've split off Other Applications, will do more. Snargle 02:01, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * All factored up :) Snargle 05:37, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I've noticed a lot of screenshots missing. Unfortunately, I can't contribute many, being a happy Gnome user :) Snargle 18:48, 3 August 2005 (UTC)

Transwiki to Wikisource
I have tagged this for a transwiki to Wikisource. Wikisource is a sister project of Wikibooks for source texts, which are books you copy from outside. See What is Wikibooks.

"Knowing Knoppix" is a source text from http://www.pjls16812.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/knowing-knoppix/index.html --Kernigh 00:51, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm sure this book wasn't intended to be part of wikisource. It's more a textbook than most of the stuff here. Besides, it has been edited a bit since it was dumped here(mostly by me). I think it would be better to rename it as a KDE textbook or something. --Snargle 20:19, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. This is a textbook and as such belongs on wikibooks, Jguk 19:30, 22 March 2006 (UTC)

I withdraw my transwiki suggestion. This book was modified, and it is one of our best books, so we should leave it here. Do not transwiki. --Kernigh 20:07, 1 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Knowing Knoppix


text:
User:Wonderfool~enwikibooks

Hello Wikiauthouts. Wikibooks is currently my third fling with wikimedia. I have pages on wikipedia and wiktionary, but I'm winging away from editing -pedia cos there's nothing I can do to it thats worthwhile anymore (Cleanup isnt really my style - I much prefer adding and adding more stuff). And I decided rashly to stop Witionary too, so I'm gonna give books a shot. My speciality is French, so I'm gonna see what I can do about the French book here. Plus, I always fancied myself of a bit of an authout. Watch this space

title: User:Wonderfool~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Organic Chemistry/Chirality/R-S notational system

Needs of this page

 * 1) Diagrams


text:
Talk:Ecology/Introduction

Needs

 * 1) Add links releated sections of Wikibooks

I don't know much about ecology (hence me reading this wikibook) but this first chapter does not give me much confidence in what I'm reading, since it mainly appears to be quoting a text from 1961.

Im new to this site but my class is using it as an educational tool. I am excited to see if this type of teaching will be more effective then just reading out of a textbook.--JDrynan 20:11, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

I am also curious to see how much we learn from it, but it will be hard at first, I like the old fashioned textbooks.--Slevadney 00:29, 23 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ecology/Introduction


text:
Cookbook:Phở Gà (Vietnamese Chicken Noodle Soup)

| Cuisine of Vietnam

Pho ga is a Vietnamese chicken noodle soup dish. It is considered one of the culinary gems of Vietnamese cuisine, available within a mile radius of almost every person in the community of Little Saigon, a Vietnamese enclave located in Orange County, California. Although the flavors are complex, the technique is simple, and the result is delectable.

Seasoning pouch

 * 1 tsp fennel seed
 * 1 tsp peppercorns
 * 3 whole star anise
 * 1–2 dried cardamom pods
 * ½ stick cinnamon
 * 3 whole cloves

Soup

 * 1 small to medium chicken (whole)
 * 12 cups chicken broth
 * 3–4 slices of fresh ginger (whole)
 * 1 medium whole brown onion, peeled
 * 1 tbsp salt or more (to taste)
 * Fish sauce, to taste

Serving

 * Pho rice noodles (often called bánh phở, rice noodles, or rice sticks)
 * Chopped cilantro and green onion
 * A few fresh basil leaves, torn
 * Fresh bean sprouts
 * Thinly sliced brown or white onion (several pieces per serving)
 * Hoisin sauce (1 tsp per serving, or to taste)
 * Lime (squeezed into broth before eating)
 * Jalapeños, serranos, or other chilli peppers
 * Sriracha or similar chilli sauce
 * Additional fish sauce

Procedure

 * 1) Combine ingredients for seasoning pouch in a small strainer or a pouch made from cheesecloth and twine.
 * 2) In a large stock pot, boil soup ingredients together with seasoning pouch until the chicken is thoroughly cooked
 * 3) Remove the chicken and strain broth back into the pot for additional simmering. Once the chicken is cool, pull apart the meat into bite sized pieces and discard bones.
 * 4) In a separate pot, boil the pho noodles in sufficient water. Stop when they're no longer chewy (basically the way you'd boil spaghetti). Make sure you don't overdo it or the noodles will fall apart and you'll end up with porridge. When done, pour the noodles into a colander and rinse them with lukewarm water. Then, leave them to drain.
 * 5) Once the noodles have drained, add them to a bowl. Combine the chicken, serving ingredients, and enough broth to cover the noodles.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * All of these ingredients can be found in Asian markets and some large supermarkets.


text:
Radiation Oncology/Physics

Physical Review
Review of Modern Physics:
 * Modern Physics
 * Quantum Mechanics

The study of Radiation Physics can be divided into three parts:
 * Radiation Oncology/Radiation Physics, which is a pure science dealing with the nature of radiation and its interactions with matter.
 * Radiation Oncology/Radiotherapeutic (Medical) Physics, which is an applied science dealing with the use of radiation within the Radiation Oncology department where humans (and sometimes animals) are treated
 * Radiation Oncology/Health Physics, which is also an applied science dealing with radiation safety, both in Radiation Oncology departments, but also in research labs, at nuclear power plants, etc.

Physics of Biomedical Engineering

 * Principles of geometric optics
 * Applications of geometric optics
 * The wave properties of light
 * Electrostatic and magnetic fields
 * Effects of moving charges
 * Applications of electromagnetism
 * The basic structures of matter
 * Models of atoms: quantisation effects
 * Principles of quantum mechanics
 * The Schrodinger equation

Physics of Diagnostic Radiology

 * X-ray Tube
 * Basic Physics of Digital Radiography

Physics of Nuclear Medicine

 * Gamma Camera
 * Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine

Physics of Radiation Therapy

 * Physics Basics
 * Photoelectric effect
 * Compton scattering
 * Pair production
 * X-ray generator
 * Electron therapy
 * Cobalt therapy
 * Brachytherapy
 * Particle accelerator
 * ICRU Reports
 * AAPM & TG Reports
 * Treatment planning
 * Dose evaluation
 * Isotopes used in Radiation Oncology
 * Radiation Protection
 * Equations
 * ASTRO Resident Curriculum (2007)
 * Atomic and Nuclear
 * Treatment Machines
 * Radiation interactions
 * Dosimetry

Physics of Nuclear Engineering

 * Nuclear engineering, the field of engineering that deals with the science and application of nuclear and radiation processes
 * These processes include the release, control, and utilization of nuclear energy and the production and use of radiation and radioactive materials for applications in research, industry, medicine, and national security
 * Nuclear engineering is based on fundamental principles of physics and mathematics that describe nuclear interactions and the transport of neutrons and gamma rays
 * These phenomena in turn are dependent on heat transfer, fluid flow, chemical reactions, and behaviour of materials when subjected to radiation
 * Nuclear engineering is therefore inherently a multifaceted discipline, relying on several branches of physics, and, like the aerospace industry, it relies to a large extent on modeling and simulation for the design and analysis of complex systems that are too large and expensive to be tested

 Branches of nuclear engineering
 * Nuclear power
 * Reactor physics and radiation transport
 * Reactor thermal hydraulics and heat transfer
 * Core design
 * Safety analysis
 * Fuel management
 * Navy nuclear propulsion
 * Fusion energy and plasma physics
 * Nuclear weapons
 * Radioisotopes
 * Nuclear-waste management
 * Nuclear materials
 * Radiation measurements
 * Medical and health physics

Radiation in Research

 * Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

title: Radiation Oncology/Physics


text:
XBLite

XBLite is an offshoot of the XBasic programming language. The XBLite compiler translates programs from source form into assembly language. From this point, conventional tools build the final executable program or DLL library. The XBLite compiler will work on all Windows platforms including Win98, NT, 2000, and XP.

XBLite is a "younger brother" of XBasic. XBasic was developed by Max Reason to be used under MS-Windows and LINUX OSs. In 2000, he made the entire language, compiler, and PDE freely available under an Open Source GPL. The XBasic language itself has not been altered so console programs in XBasic will run identically under XBLite. The XBLite compiler is also released under the same OpenSource GPL license.

Enhancements, post XBasic
XBLite has been enhanced for use under Windows. It is now possible to: And, all of the windows common controls and common dialogs are now available to create win32 native graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
 * 1) Create true command line Win32 console programs.
 * 2) Use the windows common controls for creating GUI applications.
 * 3) Easily add resources to your executable program.
 * 4) Use inline assembly language in your program.
 * 5) Modify and extend the XBasic language.

"Hello World!" in XBLite
A common example of the language's syntax is the "Hello World" program:

A console version
IMPORT "xst"	 ' Standard library : required by most programs DECLARE FUNCTION Entry FUNCTION Entry PRINT "Hello World!" a$ = INLINE$ ("Press Enter to quit >") END FUNCTION END PROGRAM

A GUI version
IMPORT "gdi32"            ' import a system library IMPORT "user32"           ' import a system library DECLARE FUNCTION Entry  ' declare function Entry FUNCTION Entry          ' begin function ' display a message box MessageBoxA (0, &"Hello World!", &"Hello World Window", $$MB_OK) END FUNCTION              ' end function END PROGRAM               ' end program

Links

 * Home Page for XBLite
 * XBLite Online Forum Site

title: XBLite


text: User talk:24.166.239.142

title: User talk:24.166.239.142


text:
User talk:Jakob~enwikibooks

Hello there. I'm new to Wiki and all that, but after finding Wikipedia and looking around I'm loving it.

At the moment? Well, I'm working on a rather large body of work which will hopefully be a complete IB Economics textbook for this site. I am halfway through my first year, so it's going to be a long and arduous process. Kind of the like the IB.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jakob~enwikibooks


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Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Utilitarianism

who is this Proffessor James Rachels? The critisisms atributed to him are as far as I am aware as old as utilitarianism it'self and perhaps even older. Foolip, I am glad somebody else is on the case, I have done some work with historical utilitarianism, but am not so good on the modern side.

I applaud the work done on this wikibook, but find the quality of the section on utilitarianism to be unsatisfactory. I write this as notes to myself, so that I shall be able to come back at a later time and make improvements.
 * History of Utilitarianism (Bentham, Mill, Sidgwick).
 * Different types of utilitarianism: hedonistic and preference utilitarianism
 * Utilitarianism and equality (Singer's equal consideration of interests)
 * Utilitarianism today (mainly Peter Singer)
 * Other critiques of utilitarianism (and counter-claims!)

Foolip 23:00, 5 Jan 2005 (UTC)

There is an open-content list of objections to Utilitarianism, and responses to them from a Utilitarian perspective at http://cnx.org/content/m14375/latest/ --DouglasReay (talk) 13:35, 6 April 2009 (UTC)


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Portuguese/Present subjunctive tense regular verbs

Use
Present Subjuntivo (O presente do subjuntivo) is used to show that some idea or action is hypothetical. It is also used to express desire, emotion, improbability, give commands, and in impersonal expressions to express opinion (i.e. É bom que ele seja.)

Example: Eu quero que tu me tragas um garfo. -> I want you to bring me a fork.

Forming
Presente do Conjuntivo is formed from the singular first person of Presente do Indicativo's radical, plus the following desinencies:


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User:Mrwojo

I'm primarily a Wikipedian. Wikipedia:User:Mrwojo

/Sandbox

Readability tweaks (larger, serif font): /monobook.css

Calculus pages that need action:

title: User:Mrwojo


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Topology/Separation Axioms

Separation Axioms for Topological Spaces
A topology on a space is a collection of subsets called open. We can then ask questions such as "can we separate any two distinct points in the space by enclosing them in two disjoint open sets?" For the real line with its usual topology, the answer is obviously yes, but there are spaces for which this is not so. It turns out that many properties of continous maps one could take for granted depend, in fact, on one of the conditions stated below holding. Topological spaces are classified according to which such conditions, called separation axioms, happen to hold.

Let $$(X,\mathcal{T})$$ be a topological space, and let x,y be any two distinct points in that space. The following conditions, ordered from least to most restrictive, are ones we may wish to place on $$(X,\mathcal{T})$$:

 * T0 : For every x, y, there exists an open set O that contains one point of the pair, but not the other.

 * T1 : For every x, y, there exist open sets $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$, such that $$O_1$$ contains x but not y and $$O_2$$ contains y but not x.

 * T2 : For every x, y, there exist disjoint open sets $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$, such that $$O_1$$ contains x and $$O_2$$ contains y. $$T_2$$ spaces are also called Hausdorff spaces.

 * T2½ : For every x, y, there exist disjoint closed neighborhoods $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$ of x and y respectively.

 * regular : If C is a closed set, and z is a point not in C, there exist disjoint open sets $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$, such that $$O_1$$ contains C and $$O_2$$ contains z. A topological space that is both regular and $$T_1$$ is called  T3.

 * completely regular : If C is a closed set, and z is a point not in C, there exists a continuous function $$f:X\rightarrow[0,1]$$ such that f(z)=0 and for any $$w\in C$$, we have f(w)=1 (i.e. f(C)={1}). A topological space that is both completely regular and $$T_1$$ is called  T3½.

 * normal : If $$C_1$$ and $$C_2$$ are disjoint closed sets, there exist disjoint open sets $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$, such that $$O_1$$ contains $$C_1$$ and $$O_2$$ contains $$C_2$$. A topological space that is both normal and $$T_1$$ is called  T4.

 * completely normal : Let $$C_1$$ and $$C_2$$ be separated sets, meaning that $$\mathrm{Cl}(A)\cap B=A\cap\mathrm{Cl}(B)=\O$$. Then there exist disjoint open sets $$O_1$$ and $$O_2$$, such that $$O_1$$ contains $$C_1$$ and $$O_2$$ contains $$C_2$$. A topological space that is both completely normal and $$T_1$$ is called  T5.

 * perfectly normal : If $$C_1$$ and $$C_2$$ are disjoint closed sets, there exists a continuous function $$f:X\rightarrow[0,1]$$ such that $$f^{-1}(\{0\})=C_1$$ and $$f^{-1}(\{1\})=C_2$$. A topological space that is both perfectly normal and $$T_1$$ is called  T6.

NOTE: Many authors treat regular, completely regular, normal, completely normal, and perfectly normal spaces as synonyms for the corresponding Ti property.

Relations among the Separation Properties
The Ti separation properties (axioms) form a hierarchy, such that if i>j, then property Ti implies property  Tj. When property Ti+1 implies Tx, which in turn implies Ti, and Tx was proposed after Ti and Ti+1, Tx is designated Ti½. Other implications of these properties include:
 * Complete regularity always implies regularity, even without assuming T1;
 * T0 alone suffices to make a regular space T3. The full T1 property is unnecessary;
 * Perfect normality implies complete normality, which in turn implies normality;
 * A topological space is completely normal if and only if every subspace is normal.

Exercises

 * 1) Suppose that a topological space $$X$$ is $$T_1$$. Given $$x\in X$$, show that $$X\setminus\{x\}$$ is open to conclude that $$\{x\}$$ is closed.
 * 2) Given a topological space $$X$$, and given that for all $$x\in X$$, $$\{x\}$$ is closed, show that $$X$$ is $$T_1$$.

Theorem 3.1.2
Let $$X$$ be a $$T_2$$ space and let $$s_n$$ be a sequence in $$X$$. Then $$s_n$$ either does not converge in $$X$$ or it converges to a unique limit.

Proof Assume that $$s_n$$ converges to two distinct values $$x$$ and $$y$$.

Since $$X$$ is $$T_2$$, there are disjoint open sets $$U$$ and $$V$$ such that $$x\in U$$ and $$y\in V$$.

Now by definition of convergence, there is an integer $$M$$ such that $$n\geq M$$ implies $$s_n\in U$$. Similarly there is an integer $$N$$ such that $$n\geq N$$ implies $$s_n\in V$$.

Take an integer $$K$$ that is greater than both $$M$$ and $$N$$, so that $$s_K$$ is in both $$U$$ and $$V$$, contradicting the fact that the two sets are disjoint. Therefore $$s_n$$ cannot converge to both $$x$$ and $$y$$. $$\square$$

Theorem 3.1.3
If $$X$$ is a metric space, then $$X$$ is normal.

Proof

Given any $$A\subset X$$, and any point $$x\in X$$, define the distance, $$d(x,A)$$ from $$x$$ to $$A$$ by $$d(x,A):=\inf\{d(x,a)|a\in A\}$$, where $$d(x,a)$$ is the distance function supplied by definition of a metric space. Observe that $$x\mapsto d(x,A)$$ is continuous.

Fix closed, disjoint subsets $$A,B$$ of $$X$$, and define $$f:X\rightarrow [-1,1]$$ by $$f(x):=\frac{d(x,B)-d(x,A)}{d(x,A)+d(x,B)}.$$ (Note $$f$$ well--defined, since for any $$S\subset X$$, we have $$d(x,S)=0$$ iff $$x$$ in the closure of $$S$$.) Observe $$f$$ is 1 on $$A$$, -1 on $$B$$, and in the open interval $$(-1,1)$$ elsewhere. Also, $$f$$ continuous by the continuity of $$x\mapsto d(x,A)$$. Therefore, $$f^{-1}([-1,-1/2))\supset B$$ and $$f^{-1}((1/2,1])\supset A$$ are the preimages of open sets (open in $$[-1,1]$$, that is) and therefore open, and they're disjoint as the preimages of disjoint sets.

Theorem 3.1.4
If $$X$$ is a metric space, then $$X$$ is Hausdorff.

Proof Let $$x$$ and $$y$$ be two distinct points, and let $$d=\tfrac{d(x,y)}{3}$$. Then $$B_d(x)$$ and $$B_d(y)$$ are open sets which are disjoint since if there is a point $$z$$ within both open balls, then $$d(x,y)\leq d(x,z)+d(x,z)<\tfrac{2}{3}d(x,y)$$, a contradiction.

Urysohn's Lemma
A topological space $$X$$ is normal if and only if for any disjoint closed sets $$C_1$$ and $$C_2$$, there exists a continuous function $$f:X\rightarrow[0,1]$$ such that $$f(C_1)=\{0\}$$ and $$f(C_2)=\{1\}$$.

Proof

In order to prove Urysohn's Lemma, we first prove the following result:

Let X be a topological space. X is normal if and only if for every closed set U, and open set V containing U, there is an open set S containing U whose closure is within V.

Suppose that X is normal. If V is X, then X is a set containing U whose closure is within V. Otherwise, the complement of V is a nonempty closed set, which is disjoint from U. Thus, by the normality of X, there are two disjoint open sets A and B, where A contains U and B contains the complement of V. The closure of A does not meet B because all points in B have a neighborhood that is entirely within B and thus does not meet A (since they are disjoint), so all points in B are not within the closure of A. Thus, the set A is a set containing U, and whose closure does not meet B, and therefore does not meet the complement of V, and therefore is entirely contained in V. Conversely, take any two disjoint closed sets U and V. The complement of V is an open set containing the closed set U. Therefore, there is a set $$S_1$$ containing U whose closure is within the complement of V, which is the same thing as being disjoint from V. Then the complement of V is an open set containing the closed set Cl($$S_1$$). Therefore, there is a set $$S_2$$ containing $$S_1$$ such that Cl($$S_2$$) is within the complement of V i. e. is disjoint from V. Then $$S_1$$ and the complement of $$S_2$$ are open sets which respectively contain U and V, which are disjoint.

Now we prove Urysohn's Lemma.

Let X be a normal space, and let U and V be two closed sets. Set $$U_0$$ to be U, and set $$U_1$$ to be X.

Let $$U_{\frac{1}{2}}$$ be a set containing U_0 whose closure is contained in $$U_1$$. In general, inductively define for all natural numbers n and for all natural numbers $$a<2^{n-1}$$

$$U_{\frac{2a+1}{2^n}}$$ to be a set containing $$U_{\frac{a}{2^{n-1}}}$$ whose closure is contained within the complement of $$U_{\frac{a+1}{2^{n-1}}}$$. This defines $$U_p$$ where p is a rational number in the interval [0,1] expressible in the form $$\frac{a}{2^n}$$ where a and n are whole numbers.

Now define the function $$f:X \rightarrow$$ [0,1] to be f(p)=inf{x|$$p \in U_x$$}.

Consider any element x within the normal space X, and and consider any open interval (a,b) around f(x). There exists rational numbers c and d in that open interval expressible in the form $$\frac{p}{2^n}$$ where p and n are whole numbers, such that c1, then replace it with 1. Then the intersection of the complement of the set $$U_c$$ and the set $$U_d$$ is an open neighborhood of f(x) with an image within (a,b), proving that the function is continuous.

Conversely, suppose that for any two disjoint closed sets, there is a continuous function f from X to [0,1] such that f(x)=0 when x is an element of U, and that f(x)=1 when x is an element of V. Then since the disjoint sets [0,.5) and (.5,1] are open and under the subspace topology, the inverses $$f^{-1}([0,.5))$$, which contains X, and $$f^{-1}((.5,1])$$, which contains Y, are also open and disjoint.

Exercises
It is instructive to build up a series of spaces, such that each member belongs to one class, but not the next.

 * The indiscrete topology is not $$T_0$$.
 * If $$X$$ is the unit interval $$[0,1]$$, and $$\mathcal{T} = \{ [0,x) | x\in [0,1] \}$$, then this space is $$T_0$$ but not $$T_1$$.
 * Consider an arbitrary infinite set $$X$$. Let $$X$$ and every finite subset be closed sets, and call the open sets $$\Omega$$. Determine whether $$(X, \Omega)$$, is a topological space which is $$T_1$$ but not $$T_2$$. Hint: Consider the intersection of any two open, non-empty sets.

Verify that
 * $$T_1$$ implies $$T_0$$
 * $$T_2$$ implies $$T_1$$
 * $$T_3$$ implies $$T_2$$ (hint: use theorem 3.1.1)

title: Topology/Separation Axioms


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Topology/Continuity and Homeomorphisms

Continuity
Continuity is the central concept of topology. Essentially, topological spaces have the minimum necessary structure to allow a definition of continuity. Continuity in almost any other context can be reduced to this definition by an appropriate choice of topology.

Definition
Let $$X,Y$$ be topological spaces.

A function $$f:X\to Y$$ is continuous at $$x\in X$$ if and only if for all open neighborhoods $$B$$ of $$f(x)$$, there is a neighborhood $$A$$ of $$x$$ such that $$A\subseteq f^{-1}(B)$$. A function $$f:X\to Y$$ is continuous in a set $$S$$ if and only if it is continuous at all points in $$S$$.

The function $$f:X\to Y$$ is said to be continuous over $$X$$ if and only if it is continuous at all points in its domain.

$$f:X\to Y$$ is continuous if and only if for all open sets $$B$$ in $$Y$$, its inverse $$f^{-1}(B)$$ is also an open set.

Proof:

($$\Rightarrow$$)

The function $$f:X\to Y$$ is continuous. Let $$B$$ be an open set in $$Y$$. Because it is continuous, for all $$x$$ in $$f^{-1}(B)$$, there is a neighborhood $$x\in A\subseteq f^{-1}(B)$$, since B is an open neighborhood of f(x). That implies that $$f^{-1}(B)$$ is open.

($$\Leftarrow$$)

The inverse image of any open set under a function $$f$$ in $$Y$$ is also open in $$X$$. Let $$x$$ be any element of $$X$$. Then the inverse image of any neighborhood $$B$$ of $$f(x)$$, $$f^{-1}(B)$$, would also be open. Thus, there is an open neighborhood $$A$$ of $$x$$ contained in $$f^{-1}(B)$$. Thus, the function is continuous.

If two functions are continuous, then their composite function is continuous. This is because if $$f$$ and $$g$$ have inverses which carry open sets to open sets, then the inverse $$g^{-1}(f^{-1}(x))$$ would also carry open sets to open sets.

Examples

 * Let $$X$$ have the discrete topology. Then the map $$f:X \rightarrow Y$$ is continuous for any topology on $$Y$$.
 * Let $$X$$ have the trivial topology. Then a constant map $$g:X \rightarrow Y$$ is continuous for any topology on $$Y$$.

Homeomorphism
When a homeomorphism exists between two topological spaces, then they are "essentially the same", topologically speaking.

Definition
Let $$X,Y$$ be topological spaces

A function $$f:X\to Y$$is said to be a homeomorphism if and only if

(i) $$f$$ is a bijection

(ii) $$f$$ is continuous over $$X$$

(iii)$$f^{-1}$$ is continuous over $$Y$$

If a homeomorphism exists between two spaces, the spaces are said to be homeomorphic

If a property of a space $$X$$ applies to all homeomorphic spaces to $$X$$, it is called a topological property.

Exercises
(ii)Determine whether this $$f$$ is a homeomorphism.
 * 1) Prove that the open interval $$(a,b)$$ is homeomorphic to $$\mathbb{R}$$.
 * 2) Establish the fact that a Homeomorphism is an equivalence relation over topological spaces.
 * 3) (i)Construct a bijection $$f:[0,1]\to [0,1]^2$$

title: Topology/Continuity and Homeomorphisms


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Talk:General Relativity/Einstein's equation

Needs

 * The uses of this equation.
 * Better definition of terms

Use Einstein's field equation as a guide.

Relating the Einstein equation to Newtonian physics
I have not studied general relativity (but I am an engineer, so I have a reasonably good physics background) and a look at the Einstein equation baffles me. Would anybody be able to creating an example that shows how the Einstein equation simplies to something that would be taught in a sophmore physics class.

Mistake
R_ab under "Vacuum Field Equations" should be R_munu for consistent notation, right? I'm not confident enough to change this myself.


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Talk:US History/Pre-Columbian

THIS SECTION HAS BEEN STRONGLY EDITED DURING A "THE GREAT EDIT OF 2008". further information about the Edit can be found in the talk page. Previous discussion material is nearly entirely irrelevant as little of the original text is left. Archival information shall be preserved below--JoliePA (talk) 17:13, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

GRAMMER AND SPELLING

 * Without doubt, grammar and spelling is rough. It was always one of my greatest weakness  of my writing styles.  Hopefully in time it will improve.

INTRODUCTION

 * Introduction is rough and not succinct.

PALEOINDIANS

 * Considerable controversy about the Bering ice bridge theory. Many professionals most espacially cultural linguists and anthropologists feel there were significant connections to early cultures, espacially by boats.  (which were known to exist in this early time).  Unfortunately evidence seems sketchy and proven.  This is Not a exhuastive account of 'models of migration into the American Continents'.  Thus NPOV, in my opinion demands that I include the well tested bering land bridge theory.  While it my not be the only (or even the primary (espacially in South America) it is nearly certain THAT some civilizations came to North America via the bering land bridge.  This was probably the Clovis people.

MAYANS AND AZTECS

 * No talk about the end of the world and the aztec calender. that is needless gibberish.  if the mayan did correctly forecast the end of the world in 2010; perhaps my book will barely be written (LOL).  The mayans (nor any other ancient civilization) did not study or understand the nature of asteroids.

 * Diminished tales of Human sacrifice which was needlessly sensational. Not exactly the most important or finest accomplishment of either Mayan or Aztec civilization. (and also not isolated to those two cultures either).

 * The tale about sacrificing 84,000 people is considered by most experts to be highly exagerated. but somehow, it says something significant about Aztec culture that they claimed to kill 84,000 when they didn't.

-- Shall I remove them? Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 00:28, 10 April 2014 (UTC)
 * I fail to see the relevance of Aztec, Incan or Mayan cultures on the development of the US. however, I am strictly following the college boards selection of topics.

NORTH AMERICAN GROUPS (disclaimer)

 * Discussions about a civilization, culture, tribe, or group all fall short in North America. frequently, authors stress that these loosely allied groups fall short of many of these definitions.  Thus the Anazani could be considered, a culture, a way of life, a civilization...but not a coherent group, Nation, Tribe, or City.  Within many of these loose groups; groups such as a Nation, tribe, city DO exist they just don't include everyone.
 * the mound builders are perhaps more frustrating to describe, because they dominate a huge area and time and are in places and at time more (and less) unified.

 * One could argue that I am excessively focused on the urban centers and buildings. these large structures are well understood cultural accomplishments that IMHO say much about the power and influence of a civilization.

NATIVE AMERICANS AFTER EUROPEAN CONTACT

 * The last section feels weak and unneccessary. The college board requires that discussions of several large cultures then includes a general blurb "American cultures at the time of European contact"- That has me puzzled having given the history of the most significant American cultures; I have already told the reader there status at "European contact" (and actually briefly discussed what happens after european contact as well).  My only guess is some kind of generalized statement about what European contact did to the native american cultures as a whole.  Its weak!  any ideas would be appreciated.

ARCHIVE: General style issues
As a teacher who is considering the use of alternative textbooks (rather than those from the traditional mainstream publishers), I was disappointed by the quality of the writing. The information may be fine, but phrases like "an isthmus made of land" and "from whence" are unacceptable in an academic text. I don't mean to be so harsh, but students need all the help with grammar they can get. "[A]n isthmus made of land" is redundant (an isthmus is *always* made of land), as is "from whence" ("whence" essentially means "from where").

You might as well write, "A strip of land made of land" and "from from where."

I plan to make a Wikibooks account for myself when I get home tonight (writing from a cafe), but wanted to drop this note as a reminder to everybody that textbooks are typically used in academic settings, so grammatical errors stick out much more than they would in a novel or a newspaper article.

Students don't read history texts because they want to learn how to write, but for anybody whose grammar is in good shape, these sloppy mistakes reflect poorly on the authors, and therefore call into question the quality of the material.

ARCHIVE: Non sequitur in this section
The paragraph copied below contains a major non sequitur, clearly the result of sloppy editing. I can't fix it because I don't know the content.

Offending paragraph:

Such evidence is made even more ambiguous by the traces of DNA that span the Pacific Ocean from Australia to Papua New Guinea, across Micronesia to east Asia. This opens the possibility of sea travel hugging the coast; unfortunately evidence of such a theory that would be left on the shores would be eliminated over time due to sustained coastal erosions and sea level changes. The DNA facts significantly negate, and arguably eliminate, the Bering Strait theory, which is not supported by any conflicting physical evidence. The flint points are used on a flatboard (like bristles on a toothbrush) on the Asian mainland, rather than mounted on spears like the Clovis points, thereby calling into question the idea of tool migration, a major source of this post-Ice-Age migration theory.

68.40.192.159 13:03, 21 April 2006 (UTC)

The bering strait ice bridge migration theory is now known to not be supported by any real world evidence, and also is directly contradicted by DNA and archeological evidence. The second editor seems to be refuting the points made at the beginning of the chapter, and introducing the evidence.

ARCHIVE: Editorial material moved from main article
The following material was moved by this author from the main article to this discussion page since it contains commentary that, although having merit, is more appropriate for discussion (the original conclusions, however, remain in the main article): The Bearing Strait hypothesis has a number of things wrong wtih it:(1) it is a bigoted, racist 19th century European egocentrist view that aboriginees were ignorant heatherns and therefore just too dumb or stupid to construct boats to cross oceans. Contrary to this:the earliest boats have been found to date back some 30,000 years and possiblely earlier all over the world. Certainly by 20,000 years ago; boat building had reached the point that man could cross oceans. The evidence for this comes from Japan et al. (2)Climatological(Ice cores) and wood ring studies do not support the hypothesis because it assumes that humans came down what was then a great ice field blocking easy travel further south where the Alaskan Highway is today. (3) The theory ignores the fact that people could have used the Aleutians to arrive in North America and many Inuit still travel in such manner from Nome,Alaska back and forth from Little Diomede Island to Big Diomede. (4)The Bearing Strait theory has a major problem in that if true then some millions of people arrived instantly all at the same time all over North, Central and South America---something not quiet possible. Humans do not reproduce as fast as bacteria do to arrive at that population level in so short at time and would have needed modern transportation to have distributed so widely in so short of time.Lottamiata 21:49, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

ARCHIVE: Redundant material.
The following material was removed because it had been mentioned earlier in the article. Also, some of the detail is too great for a treaty on United States history and Wikipedia links have been provided instead: These people intermarried with  the descendents some of the first aboriginees  who were alledgely composed of about 5 men and two women. . . . Such evidence is made even more ambiguous by the traces of DNA that span the Pacific Ocean from Australia to Papua New Guinea, across Micronesia to east Asia. This opens the possibility of sea travel hugging the coast; unfortunately evidence of such a theory that would be left on the shores would be eliminated over time due to sustained coastal erosions and sea level changes. The DNA facts significantly negate, and arguably eliminate, the Bering Strait theory, which is not supported by any conflicting physical evidence.Lottamiata 23:20, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

Emphasis!!!
I'd like permission to emphasize key words, for ease of reading. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 19 April 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:US History/Pre-Columbian


text:
Talk:United States Government/Civic Society

What is this book suppose to discuss?--Alsocal 03:28, 6 Jan 2005 (UTC)


text: Template:Wikisource

title: Template:Wikisource


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Talk:Diplomatic History

Economic Groups?
There is no mention of the interactions between groups of countries. There needs to be mentions on international organizations such as NATO, EU, AU, and the SACN.

Suggestion: Change to International Relations?
Hi, if I could make a suggestion to change this book to International Relations, that could cover a much broader range of subjects. J

That doesn't make sense
Diplomatic history and international relations are two different fields, although related. International relations tries to explain the actions of states and non-state actors through models and formulae. It is a division of political science. It often draws on Diplomatic history to illustrate or illuminate concepts, but exists to a large extent in the abstract.

Diplomatic history is, at its core, historical: What state did what when, and how did that lead to a certain state of world affairs? Diplomatic history is a detailed discipline, that (at its best) does not apply the broad strokes of IR.

So, no, it wouldn't be appropriate to change the name. There's already an IR wikibook anyway.

Best,

Bigrabid

title: Talk:Diplomatic History


text:
Talk:Data Structures/Introduction

In the second example of "Building a Chain from Nodes" nodes are created while intergers are input, then the nodes are iterated over in a while loop. Inside the loop, the current node value is accessed--get-value(nodes)-- then the nodes object is updated--nodes := get-next(nodes)--.

It seems the while loop would exit after the first iteration as the nodes reference is still the last item added and the get-next(nodes) call would return a null. I would have expected to a reference to the first item stored and the nodes object reset to this original reference before the while loop in question was entered. Is this a typo or am I missing an obvious concept?

 * The last item added is the front of the list, not the back of the list. I thought about perhaps having some "head" pointer and a tail pointer, but that might be more complicated than this way. MShonle 14:31, 6 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Thank you, that completly clears up my confusion. I looked at the example for a long time, but missed that the first item in the list starts off with a null reference and all further items reference the previous item. I just couldn't see it. Thanks for the prompt feedback and the great resource.

In this section, the book makes reference to the term "node" as a data type, but isn't singly linked list the more technically correct term? I always thought a linked list was made up of nodes, but the data structure itself was called a linked list.

In the list of node operations is set-next method with return value Node. But in the implementation, there is no return value. set-next is used in the example where data are stored in not reversed order. According to this example, set-next should return Node that has been set as next in original Node.

 * I'm thinking the exact same thing. "nodes := set-next (nodes, make-node (i, null)) // append new node to the end of the list" makes no sense in this context, and the current program would malfunction by dropping all but the last two inputs. Also, the line's comment contradicts the discussion above, in which it is stated that the list should be created in reverse order. I'd also add that the implementation smells of bad design: when making a custom data structure for this, why make it mutable? There's no reason to even allow forward creation, since the problem is order-independent. The code becomes longer and harder to reason about for no apparent benefit. 79.225.193.139 (discuss) 13:35, 19 August 2014 (UTC)

I'm introducing a paragraph in the introduction that explains big-oh notation. I think most people are oblivious to the notation until they start studying data structures and a quick explanation is valuable, especially before it's used in the node structure. I'm also a little confused about the organization. Shouldn't nodes be introduced after arrays since they lead into lists so nicely? Christopher.Reilly (discuss • contribs) 00:09, 15 June 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data Structures/Introduction


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User:Plop/monobook.css

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title: User:Plop/monobook.css


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Movie Making Manual/Budget/Grants

One of the most difficult parts of making a movie is the acquisition of adequate funding for production. One method to receive the requisite monies is to bring your script concept before an entity that grants funding to third-party production houses.

/Funding and budgetting

title: Movie Making Manual/Budget/Grants