text:
User talk:Jariep

Hi Jariep, welcome to Wikibooks. Just a note, the image you recently uploaded has an attribution for authorship - the thing about Wikibooks is that anyone can edit the pages and that everyone is an author. I hope you think about changing that image thus, if you choose to use it. Thanks Dysprosia 02:32, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Could you please upload text, if you wish to contribute the text of your book to Wikibooks? Uploading all images does not allow others to contribute to your book. Thanks Dysprosia 03:05, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Que onda amigo, supongo que eres el Rodolfo Padilla que es el escritor de ese libro de la fisica. Gracias por querer donar tu tiempo y esfuerzo aqui con el projecto. Sabes, hace unos dias acabo de regresar del DF y de estar con mis amigos alla, y estaba sonando en como iban a ser de uso los libros de ese sitio en las preparatorias y universidades de ese gran pais.

Estoy de acuerdo con Dysprosia en que va a ser mejor que el texto salga en forma de texto en lugar de imagen .. Si hay cualquier cosa en que crees que te pueda ayudar, me dices por favor. Bienvenido y saludos, --Karl Wick 03:40, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Karl, if you please, let our new friend know that he shouldn't change the table of contents because they are going through redirects instead of the pages itself. Thanks Dysprosia 03:59, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Regarding Image:Rodolfo-padilla.jpg
As part of the untagged image clean up, the image named Image:Rodolfo-padilla.jpg that you uploaded is a candidate for deletion. If you wish to keep it here, please tag it with an appropriate image tag. ({{GFDL}}, {{PD-self}}, or others.) Thank you — User:Iamunknown 09:27, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jariep


text: Table of Contents

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Table of Contents


text:
Fortran/History

Origins
Fortran was created by a team lead by John Backus at IBM in 1957. Originally, the name was written in all capital letters, but current standards and implementations only require the first letter to be capital. The name Fortran stands for FORmula TRANslator. Initially it was specifically aimed at scientific calculations and thereby had very limited support for working with character strings and lacked other provisions important for a general purpose programming language, which it will attain later during its extensive development that ensued after its successful debut. Until the C language became popular, Fortran had been one of the few high level languages with a reasonable degree of portability between different computer systems. Several websites indicate that the work on Fortran was started in 1954 and released commercially in 1957. It is believed that the first successful compilation of a small Fortran program took place on September 20, 1954.

Fortran Versions

There have been several versions of Fortran. FORTRAN I, II, III and IV are considered obsolete and contained many machine-dependent features. FORTRAN 66 was the first standardized version and was released in 1966. All later versions of Fortran are numbered after the year the standard was released. The versions of Fortran most commonly remaining in use are FORTRAN 77, Fortran 90 and later.

In FORTRAN II,  statements had the form:. It also had an odd type of string literal, called Hollerith literals (after the inventor of the keypunch and IBM). Where today one might code 'hello', FORTRAN II used 5Hhello. However, there was no string variable type.

FORTRAN IV added the /  concept, the concept of logical expressions, with operators .AND., .OR., .EQ., .NE., et cetera. Complex numbers as a basic type were also added.

FORTRAN 77 added strings as a distinct type.

Fortran 90 added various sorts of threading, and direct array processing.

Fortran 2003 added object orientated features, derived types, language interoperability with C, data manipulation and many I/O enhancements.

Fortran 2008 added coarrays and parallelism and submodules.

Fortran 2018 added even more C interoperability and parallelism features.

Although Fortran became a standardized language early, many companies had their own extensions to it. Strangely, IBM and DEC had virtually the same set of extensions.

Differences between versions

 * FORTRAN 66 comments are denoted by the  character in column 1, while FORTRAN 77 comments may also use   in column 1 instead. Fortran 90 also allows the use of   character.
 * FORTRAN 77 symbolic names are limited to 6 character lengths, while Fortran 90 allows names up to 31 characters long.
 * FORTRAN 77 files need 6 spaces before words begin, while Fortran 90 doesn't (as it uses the free-form code style.)

title: Fortran/History


text:
Cookbook:Kal Kals (Sweet Curled Fritters)

| Indian Cuisine | Holiday | Dessert

Kal kals are a fried sweet traditionally made during Christmas in Christian communities of India.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (280 g) white wheat flour
 * 1 egg
 * ½ teaspoon baking powder
 * ½ cup (120 g) powdered sugar
 * ½ teaspoon vanilla extract
 * ½ cup (120 ml) oil

Procedure

 * 1) Combine flour, egg, baking powder, powdered sugar, and vanilla to make a moist but not sticky dough.
 * 2) Flatten teaspoon-sized balls of dough on the back of a fork (preferably with rounded tines) and roll off, forming small snail-shell-like curls.
 * 3) Deep fry in hot oil (~350°F/180°C), six at a time, until golden brown.
 * 4) Roll in more powdered sugar while still hot to coat.

Warnings

 * When deep frying, be careful not to splash hot oil on yourself.


text:
Electronics/CMOS

CMOS
CMOS stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor refers to the construction method of the component Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs), and Complementary means that CMOS uses both n-type (nMOS) and p-type (pMOS) transistors. Older designs had used only n-type transistors, and are referred to as NMOS logic.

n-type MOSFETs are active (conductive) when their input voltage is high, while p-type MOSFETs are active when their input voltage is low.

All CMOS gates are arranged in two parts: the pull-up network (PUN), built from p-type transistors and connect to source; and the pull-down network (PDN), built from n-type transistors and connected to ground (also called drain). The two parts are logical duals of each other, so that if the PUN is active, then the PDN is inactive, and vice-versa. In this way there can never be a direct path between source and ground (in any steady state).

The biggest advantage of CMOS over NMOS is that CMOS has a rapid change from both hi-to-low and from low-to-hi. NMOS transitions only slowly from low-to-hi (because it uses a resistor in place of a PUN), and since overall circuit speed must take into account the worst case, NMOS circuits must be much slower.

 * [[Image:Electronics_Klunky_CMOS_NPN.PNG]]
 * [[Image:Electronics_Klunky_CMOS_PNP.PNG]]

NOT
The simplest CMOS circuit: the NOT gate, or inverter. Although uncomplicated, it demonstrates the basic structure of a CMOS gate; a series of inputs (in this case, one) which are connected to the transistors, the PUN (consisting of a single p-type transistor) connected to source, the PDN (consisting of a single n-type transistor) connected to ground, and the output which is fed from both the PUN and PDN.

When the input voltage is high, the p-type transistor will be inactive, and the n-type transistor will be active. This creates a connection between ground and the gate output, pulling the gate's output to low. Conversely, when the input voltage is low, the p-type transistor will be active instead, creating a connection between the output and source, pulling the gate's output to high.

NAND
The PUN for NAND consists of a pair of p-type transistors in parallel, one with the A input feeding it and one with the B input feeding it. Therefore the PUN is active, and the output of the gate is high, as long as either of these inputs is low.

The PDN for NAND consists of a pair of n-type transistors in series, also each fed by one of the two inputs. Therefore the PDN is active, and the output of the gate is low, only if both of the inputs are high.it uses the logic a bar(OR)b bar

AND
A CMOS AND gate is constructed by driving a NOT gate from the output of a NAND gate.

NOR
"Upside down" relative to the NAND gate, the NOR gate is made from a PUN of two p-type transistors in series and a PDN of two n-type transistors in parallel.

OR
As AND is to NAND, OR is to NOR. CMOS OR is constructed by feeding the output of NOR to a NOT gate.

XNOR
To build an XNOR gate, first we will need easy access to the inverted inputs. This is accomplished with a pair of NOT gates. The original inputs are A and B, and their inverted forms we will call NOT-A and NOT-B. Both the PUN and PDN are made of four of the appropriate type of transistor, in two parallel sets, of series of two transistors each. In the PUN there is one series fed by A and B and the other is fed by NOT-A and NOT-B; in the PDN one series is fed by A and NOT-B and the other is fed by NOT-A and B.

All told, this takes 12 transistors (4 in the PUN, 4 in the PDN, and 2 for each inverter). There are more efficient designs for the XNOR circuit, but they require a more detailed analysis than we will go into here. Instead of serving as an example of an actual XNOR design, this section should instead help to suggest the methods one could use to generate a CMOS circuit for any arbitrary boolean function.

XOR
If you've been following along, you may guess that an XOR gate is made by attaching a NOT onto the end of the XNOR; while this will produce a correct circuit, it is not the most correct (or efficient) circuit. Instead, we could use the same 12 transistors and simply shuffle around the wires. This is left as an exercise for the reader. it uses the logic a.b bar(OR) a bar.b

title: Electronics/CMOS


text:
Cookbook talk:Wheat Modak (Coconut Pastries)

This is a fascinating recipe, but once again we need English translations for what the ingredients actually are or nobody in the Western world will be able to make it! KJ 06:45, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Good point. I changed the two flour names and added a jaggery entry. Everyone knows what semolina is, right? --Paulcox 08:18, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Featured recipe
This recipe was the featued recipe on the main Cookbook page from June 19, 2004 - June 25, 2004. Gentgeen 10:23, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC)

The recipe was again featured from August 12, 2004 - September 6, 2004. Gentgeen 12:48, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)


text:
Supplemental Guide to Lord of the Flies

This book is intended to provide help for students studying the novel "Lord of the Flies" by William Golding at any level.

Contents

 * /Characters/
 * /Symbolism/

Chapters

 * 1) /The Sound of the Shell/
 * 2) /Fire on the Mountain/
 * 3) /Huts on the Beach/
 * 4) /Painted Faces and Long Hair/
 * 5) /Beast from Water/
 * 6) /Beast from Air/
 * 7) /Shadows and Tall Trees/
 * 8) /Gift for the Darkness/
 * 9) /A View to a Death/
 * 10) /The Shell and the Glasses/
 * 11) /Castle Rock/
 * 12) /Cry of the Hunters/

ניתוח יצירות ספרותיות/ויליאם גולדינג/בעל זבוב

title: Supplemental Guide to Lord of the Flies


text:
User talk:203.197.24.208

Please use the Sandbox for testing. Dysprosia 11:39, 16 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.197.24.208


text:
Cookbook:Roasting

Roasting is high-heat baking with very little moisture. Roasted foods get drier and browned on the outside by initially exposing it to a high temperature. Temperature is then lowered to cook the meat through. The flavors of both meats and vegetables are retained and enhanced by roasting. A typical roasting temperature is 425-450 °F, sometimes with an initial temperature of over 500 °F for a period of 15 to 20 minutes.

You can either roast in an oven or over an open fire. Spit-roasting is a variation where the meat is impaled on a spit and rotated as it roasts.

Once meat has been removed from the roasting environment it should be allowed to rest, this ensures that the juice inside the meat returns to the outer edges. The even distribution of juice allows each slice to retain more moisture. Un-rested meat is typically dry around the edge and over saturated in the middle, leading to a loss of moisture.

title: Cookbook:Roasting


text:
Linear Algebra/Inner product spaces

Recall that in your study of vectors, we looked at an operation known as the dot product, and that if we have two vectors in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$, we simply multiply the components together and sum them up. With the dot product, it becomes possible to introduce important new ideas like length and angle. The length of a vector $$\mathbf{a}$$, is just $$\|\mathbf{a}\|=\sqrt{\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}}$$. The angle between two vectors, $$\mathbf{a}$$ and $$\mathbf{b}$$, is related to the dot product by
 * $$\cos{\theta} = \frac{\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}} {\|\mathbf{a}\|\cdot\|\mathbf{b}\|}$$

It turns out that only a few properties of the dot product are necessary to define similar ideas in vector spaces other than $$\mathbb{R}^n$$, such as the spaces of $$m\times n$$ matrices, or polynomials. The more general operation that will take the place of the dot product in these other spaces is called the "inner product".

The inner product
Say we have two vectors:
 * $$\mathbf{a}=\begin{pmatrix} 2 \\ 1 \\ 4 \end{pmatrix}, \mathbf{b}=\begin{pmatrix} 6 \\ 3 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}$$

If we want to take their dot product, we would work as follows
 * $$\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = a_1b_1+a_2b_2+a_3b_3 = (2)(6)+(1)(3)+(4)(0) = 15$$

Because in this case multiplication is commutative, we then have $$\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}=\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}$$.

But then, we observe
 * $$\mathbf{v}\cdot(\alpha\mathbf{a}+\beta\mathbf{b}) = \alpha\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{a} + \beta\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{b}$$

much like the regular algebraic equality $$v(aA+bB)=avA+bvB$$. For regular dot products this is true since, for $$\mathbb{R}^3$$, for example, one can expand both sides out to obtain

\begin{matrix} (\alpha v_1a_1+\beta v_1b_1)+(\alpha v_2a_2+\beta v_2b_2)+(\alpha v_3a_3+\beta v_3b_3)=\\ (\alpha v_1a_1+\alpha v_2a_2+\alpha v_3a_3)+(\beta v_1b_1+\beta v_2b_2+\beta v_3b_3) \end{matrix}$$

Finally, we can notice that $$\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v}$$ is always positive or greater than zero - checking this for $$\mathbb{R}^3$$ gives this as
 * $$\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v}=v_1^2+v_2^2+v_3^2$$

which can never be less than zero since a real number squared is positive. Note $$\mathbf{v}\cdot\mathbf{v}=0$$ if and only if $$\mathbf{v}=0$$.

In generalizing this sort of behaviour, we want to keep these three behaviours. We can then move on to a definition of a generalization of the dot product, which we call the inner product. An inner product of two vectors in some vector space $$V$$, written $$\langle \mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}\rangle$$ is a function $$V\times V \to \mathbb{R}$$, which obeys the properties
 * $$\langle \mathbf{x},\mathbf{y} \rangle = \langle \mathbf{y},\mathbf{x}\rangle$$
 * $$\langle \mathbf{v},\alpha\mathbf{a}+\beta\mathbf{b}\rangle = \alpha\langle\mathbf{v},\mathbf{a}\rangle+\beta\langle\mathbf{v},\mathbf{b}\rangle$$
 * $$\langle\mathbf{a},\mathbf{a}\rangle\geq0$$ with equality if and only if $$\mathbf{a}=0$$.

The vector space $$V$$ and some inner product together are known as an inner product space.

The dot product in $$\Complex^n$$
Given two vectors $$\mathbf{a} = a_1\vec{e}_1 + a_2\vec{e}_2 + \dots + a_n\vec{e}_n \in \Complex^n$$ and $$\mathbf{b} = b_1\vec{e}_1 + b_2\vec{e}_2 + \dots + b_n\vec{e}_n \in \Complex^n$$, the dot product generalized to complex numbers is:

$$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = \sum_{i=1}^n a_i^*b_i = a_1^*b_1 + a_2^*b_2 + \dots + a_n^*b_n$$

where $$z^*$$ for an arbitrary complex number $$z = c + di$$ is the complex conjugate: $$z^* = c - di$$.

The dot product is "conjugate commutative": $$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{b} = (\mathbf{b} \cdot \mathbf{a})^*$$. One immediate consequence of the definition of the dot product is that the dot product of a vector with itself is always a non-negative real number: $$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{a} \geq 0$$.

$$\mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{a} = 0$$ if and only if $$\mathbf{a} = \vec{0}$$

The Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality for $$\Complex^n$$
In $$\R^n$$, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality can be proven from the triangle inequality. Here, the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality will be proven algebraically.

To make the proof more intuitive, the algebraic proof for $$\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{b} \in \R^n$$ will be given first.

title: Linear Algebra/Inner product spaces


text:
Guitar/Bending and Vibrato

Bending and vibrato are two related effects which help give extra "life" to notes, especially sustained notes, by changing their pitch. The techniques are not commonly used on the acoustic guitar or general rhythm playing. However, they are extremely important to many styles involving distorted guitar, e.g., rock or metal, even when playing rhythm (though, in that case, bends and vibratos are usually embellishments). Bending or an equivalent effect is not possible on all instruments; the piano, for example, cannot have notes that change in pitch. This is one reason why it is important to know how to bend: because you can!

This section deals with bending and vibrato using your fingers, not the different technique of using the vibrato bar. The two techniques do the same basic thing, but using the vibrato bar as a substitute for fretting-hand bending is not good practice; it is best used for very heavy bends or heavy vibratos, not slight embellishments like finger bending. It is more difficult to be subtle with a vibrato bar, and it is usually a bit out of the way for the picking hand to reach, making it harder to use. In short, while in some cases which style of bending or vibrato is used is a matter of taste, the two techniques are not interchangeable and are used for different effects.

Bending
Bending is exactly as it sounds: bending the string to the side by pushing it (towards the sixth string) or pulling it (towards the first string), often while a fretted note is ringing. The first three strings are normally pushed, and the others are normally pulled. This is particularly important on the first and sixth strings, as you do not want the string to fall off the fretboard. Whether the string is pushed or pulled, the note will be raised in pitch.

Many aspiring guitarists cannot bend properly. The sound of a bend is more important than how it is actually executed or how it looks, but a bad bending technique usually leads to a bad sound. Your favorite guitarist might bend using just his or her fingertips and you might be inclined to copy this — don't! Your hands can sound every bit as good as your hero's without copying his or her technique. There are two keys to bending properly: proper thumb positioning, and bending with the proper muscles. Do not keep your thumb behind the neck, where it usually is, but bring it up perpendicular to the neck (a position that is normally incorrect, but not in the case of bending). Keep the fingers firm. Do not bend your fingers, but push or pull with your forearm. You will hardly see your forearm move, possibly just see a couple of muscles flex. It will feel awkward at first, but if you can bend with the thumb in the proper position and without bending the fingers, you are probably doing it correctly.

Many guitarists will have trouble bending more than 1/4 step (half a semitone) or perhaps 1/2 step (one semitone) with only one finger, especially on frets close to the nut and on the thinner strings. It is much easier to bend with more than one finger, for instance, with the index finger on the first or second fret and the ring finger on the third, and pushing or pulling with both fingers in order to bend at the third fret. More fingers may be used if this is not enough. It should be possible to bend at least a full step (the pitch difference of two frets) this way.

Pre-bending
Bending, whether by pushing or pulling the string, raises the tension in the vibrating portion of the string, and thus always raises the pitch of the note. This means it is easier to slide up rather than down in pitch. To create the impression of bending down, the guitarist uses a technique called pre-bending, that is, bending before the string is struck, then strike and release the bend (either gradually or quickly, depending on the intended effect).

Bend and Release
The ideas of bending and pre-bending can be combined for a "bend and release", that is, striking a note, bending it up, then releasing it as you would with a pre-bend. This will often be perceived as a "bounce" in pitch, especially if played quickly. The reverse is also possible: pre-bend, release, and bend. Repeatedly and steadily bending and releasing is called vibrato.

Vibrato
Players of many instruments, including the human voice, use vibrato to help add expression to sustained notes. Vibrato is performed in two major ways, the first by rapidly bending the string back and forth, causing a modulation in pitch; therefore, all of the information above about bending applies here, except it is performed faster or more prolonged. Or it can be performed in a 'classical' style where one applies pressure parallel to the string towards the neck then towards the bridge repeatedly, which allows one to achieve vibrato upward and downward in pitch, albeit with a smaller change. A small, subtle vibrato might not require the assistance of other fingers; the fretting finger should be sufficient. However, for sustained vibrato or vibrato on the first or second frets, using multiple fingers for bending is a good idea.

Chitarra/Bending e Release

title: Guitar/Bending and Vibrato


text:
User talk:Rodolfo~enwikibooks

Just write any comments to the author concerning physics with transforms.

from Jariep, just testing message board.

Hi,

You will need to resubmit the drawings without the copyright notices.

Roadrunner 21:25, 17 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rodolfo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rodolfo~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:26, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rodolfo~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:211.30.242.113

Sir, thank you for your continuing support of the Latin book, it is much appreciated. --Karl Wick

title: User talk:211.30.242.113


text:
User:Vuara/Phoenicia Knoweldge Sources

Sources of Modern Knoweldge About Phoenicia Written Records and Archaeology

Until the late 19th century most of the information about pre-Hellenistic Eastern Mediterranean came from the Hebrew Bible and from various Greek and Latin sources.

While the Hebrew Bible was largely completed by 300 BC, its attitude toward contemporary religions of the area was generally quite hostile, so that its references to these religions may not only devalue them but also exaggerate or distort various aspects of them. On the other hand, Israelite religion was itself an outgrowth of, as well as a reaction to, the religions of its neighbours, so that many features of Israelite religion found in the Hebrew Bible exemplify the religions of the larger area. The only sure guide to making such discriminations is the knowledge gained from indigenous documents.

Greek and Latin sources may be less hostile, but they are also much later, from the Roman period. While they may be more reliable in their description of the contemporary character of the religions of the area, that character may have been significantly different after several centuries of Hellenism from what it had been even in the middle of the preceding millennium. Notable among the Greek and Latin sources are De Dea Syra ("About the Syrian Goddess") from the 2nd century AD, attributed to Lucian of Samosata, and the section of Eusebius of Caesarea's Praeparatio evangelica ("Preparation for the Gospel"; 4th century AD) that cites extracts from a History of Phoenicia by Philo of Byblos (c. AD 100); Philo himself claimed to be translating the work of an early Phoenician priest, Sanchuniathon. While indigenous sources now confirm isolated elements of this allegedly early description of Phoenician religion, its distortions also have become more demonstrable. Philo's history is in fact an attempt to recount early Phoenician history by constructing a systematic chronological sequence of events out of the various local traditions of his time and interpreting the latter euhemeristically -- that is, by treating gods and myths as representative of historical individuals and events.

Beginning in the late 18th century, the finds of early explorers of the area and subsequently of archaeologists engaged in more systematic excavation have produced a rapidly increasing number of firsthand sources. Successive generations of epigraphers and philologists have deciphered the texts and attained an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the languages. Unfortunately, the texts that are best understood tend to be formulaic and yield only the most external kinds of information about the religion, while the more distinctive texts, which seem more interesting and promise to be more revealing, are usually more difficult to penetrate.

Cuneiform archives from various 2nd-millennium sites and from the 3rd millennium at Ebla in northwestern Syria provide some documentation of the religion. The most abundant documentation comes from the 14th- and 13th-century remains of the city of Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra), on the Mediterranean coast of Syria. This includes the only native examples of extended religious narrative. It also comprises the widest range of genres, including myths, legends, liturgical texts, god lists, omens, and correspondence.

From the 1st millennium come scores of Phoenician inscriptions, both from the Phoenician coast and from other areas of the eastern Mediterranean; neo-Hittite hieroglyphic inscriptions and Aramaic inscriptions from northern Syria, almost all from the 9th and 8th centuries; and Moabite, Ammonite, and Hebrew inscriptions. These are very limited in genre, and relatively few are more than a few lines long.

Uninscribed materials from excavated sites throughout the eastern Mediterranean supplement the picture: they include the foundations of temples, temple furnishings, figurines, images of gods and their emblems, and scenes of gods, myths, and religious activities on reliefs and seals. However, criteria for identifying religious materials have not always been carefully considered, nor has discriminating attention been given to the question of the reflection of religious life in material remains in general. It is often difficult to correlate with confidence written and unwritten materials.

In spite of these new and ever-growing sources of knowledge, the resulting picture is still very irregular. While there is an unparalleled variety of sources, covering a century and a half, from the large cosmopolitan city of Ugarit, other written materials give a much more limited picture. For many periods, areas, and topics there are no written remains. Descriptions of the religion of any one period or area (with the exception of Ugarit) are extremely limited and superficial. Generalizations about the religions of the eastern Mediterranean may well prove to have significant exceptions as some of these gaps are filled by new discoveries.

title: User:Vuara/Phoenicia Knoweldge Sources


text:
User:Vuara/Carthaginians invented the sale by auction

Economy of the Punic Phoenician Empire Trade, faith, slavery and war with the Greeks and the Romans © Roy A Decker, e-mail: Oroblanco Published by kind courtesy of Mr. Roy A. Decker. All comments regarding this particular assay should be addressed to Mr. Decker.

 * http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/uc_decker_carthage1.htm

A bronze coin of Carthage 3rd century B.C. called a "zar"

Trade is part of the story The Carthaginian empire had a very diversified and complex economy. They relied heavily on trade, but this is only a part of the story.

Like their Phoenician cousins, they produced the much prized purple dye so coveted by royalty, from the crushed shells of a saltwater snail species called Murex. Their trading ships called at every port of antiquity, and they traded overland with peoples of the interior of Africa, such as the Garamantes, Berbers, Numidians, Mauretanians and Ethiopians, and possibly with the mysterious Nok culture of central Africa. From the interior they obtained salt, which was highly prized in ancient times, the exchange rate being equal to gold. Roman soldiers (and probably Carthaginians too) were paid in part in salt, from which comes the old saying "worth your salt". Carthage had excellent relations with the warlike Gauls, Celts, and Celtiberians, from whom they obtained amber, tin, silver, and furs. Their merchant vessels (often capable of transporting 100 tons or more, a size not reached by European ships until the fifteenth century A.D.) brought exotic goods from faraway lands such as spices like cinnamon, cassia (a Chinese type of cinnamon, much stronger) sesame seeds, frankincense, myrrh, ebony wood, ivory, and metals such as copper, lead, and gold. There is evidence that Carthaginian and Phoenician vessels were sailing at least as far as Sumatra in southeast Asia, which may be the "mythical" land of Punt, and were credited with having circumnavigated Africa soon after the Phoenician expedition sent by the Egyptian pharoah Necho in the seventh century B.C.

The secret of how to make the purple dye was not the only trade that Carthaginians learned from their Tyrian motherland, they also learned how to make glass. The glassware produced by Carthage and Tyre, in a surprising variety of colors (even in swirls of rainbow colors), was highly prized through the ancient world. Their glass beads were traded for metals and other goods with more uncivilized cultures, and they are found in many ancient sites.

Carthaginian traders brought amber from northern Europe and other gems to trade in Mediterranean ports. One type even came to be called after them (Carchedon). From their own homeland of Zeugitana (which nearly matches the borders of modern Tunisia) they brought wine, grain, fruits and nuts to trade, and dried fish from the Atlantic, as well as the products traded by their competitors the Greeks, such as olive oil. They also were famous for the quality of their furniture, beds and bedding, their wood joinery being widely copied. They brought furs from the barbaric lands and sold cheap pottery to nearly every people they traded with. The big surprise product only recently discovered, was marijuana, which was found in the wrecks of several Carthaginian ships.

Punic Faith and Slavery The Carthaginians are credited with inventing sale by auction, and they were famous for it. They even traded with people with whom they had no real contact, as described by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (about 430 B.C.)

"The Carthaginians also say they trade with a race of men who live in a part of Libya (Africa) beyond the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar). On reaching this country, they unload their goods, arrange them tidily along the beach, and then, returning to their boats, raise a smoke. Seeing the smoke, the natives come down to the beach, place on the ground a certain quantity of gold in exchange for the goods, and go off again to a distance. The Carthaginians then come ashore and take a look at the gold; if they think it represents a fair price for their wares, they collect it and go away; if, on the other hand, it seems too little, they go back aboard and wait, and the natives come and add to the gold until they are satisfied. There is perfect honesty on both sides; the Carthaginians never touch the gold until it equals in value what they have offered for sale, and the natives never touch the goods until the gold has been taken away."

This description of "perfect honesty" on the part of Carthaginians may surprise some, since the enemies of Carthage (the Romans and Greeks) described them as cheats and liars; even today you can find in the dictionary "punic faith" as meaning dishonesty, yet there is little evidence that they were dishonest in trade. Common sense dictates that they could not have traded long if they were dishonest as a common practice.

The intransigence on the part of some natives to trade with Carthaginians in person may be related to their Tyrian cousins making slave raids. The Carthaginians certainly had slaves, as well, but apparently did not go on slaving expeditions, at least not after about 500 B.C., as testified in their first treaty with Rome, which mentions coastal raids.

Reverse of silver tetradrachm of Carthage, struck for use in paying mercenary soldiers in Sicily Warfare in ancient times was a different affair from today, and was seen as an important source of booty and slaves. Captured enemy soldiers might be ransomed back to their homeland or even exchanged, the going rate being two "mina" (a mina was equal to 50 shekels, or about 0.944 pound) in silver per soldier - (which is the price Hannibal demanded for the captives taken at Cannae) but if their homeland refused to pay or could not, they might be sold into slavery. One of the earliest accounts of a naval battle records the fate of the sailors of Phocaia taken captive by Carthage and her Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) allies - the Tyrrhenians killed their share of prisoners by stoning, while Carthage sold their own share into slavery. Enemy people too could be taken as slaves and sold, especially in the case of the taking of a city that did not surrender right away.

At War with Greeks and Romans The trading pattern of Carthage in her early history was oriented toward the eastern Mediterranean, where she found ready markets for the raw materials brought from Africa and the Iberian peninsula. The famous city of Tartessus (Tarshish of the Old Testament) located on the Atlantic coast of Iberia was a great competitor for Carthage, and in concert with her Celt allies Carthage destroyed the famous city and took over the lucrative trade in the Atlantic seaboard. When the homeland (Phoenicia proper) fell to invaders, Carthage took advantage of the situation and expanded her trade, as well as taking control of the now isolated sister colonies such as Utica, Agadir (Gades, modern Cadiz) and Tingis, even though many had been established longer, and in some cases re-established colonies where Tyrian colonies had failed, such as those planted on the Atlantic coast of Africa by Hanno (about 510 B.C.) Carthage may have been saved from conquest by her mother city of Tyre. When the Persian Great King, having conquered Tyre, decided to extend his conquest to include Carthage, he 'drafted' the Tyrian fleet to do the job. The people of Tyre refused to sail against their children. Later on, Carthage and Persia entered into an agreement, with Carthage sending a token tribute annually. By the time Xerxes invaded Greece, the two were allies, and Carthage launched a huge army against Syracuse, resulting in the disastrous defeat at Himera in 480 B.C. at the hands of the Syracusans.

The wars with the western Greeks hindered trade with the eastern Mediterranean ports, but Carthage found ready markets in the west, and kept a stranglehold on the Pillars of Hercules, with her warships having standing orders to sink any foreign vessel they found outside on sight. The port city of Massilia, (modern Marseilles, France) a colony of Greeks that contested with Carthage repeatedly, took advantage of the situation (the war with Syracuse tying down most of the Carthaginian fleet) and sent off Pytheas to discover the source of tin, a metal needed for the production of bronze. Pytheas managed to slip past the Carthaginians and found the source, the "tin islands" which are the British isles. After the accession of Alexander the Great, Carthage renewed trade with the eastern Mediterranean ports, and this influence can be seen in her artwork, pottery, and in their religious practices, adopting several Greek gods.

The wars with the Greeks finally ended with Carthage largely successful, and in control of most of western Sicily, all of Sardinia and Corsica as well as many smaller islands including Malta. Sicily was to be the cause of the first war with Rome, with whom Carthage had friendly relations up til that time, even allying with Rome against King Pyrrhus of Epirus. Polybius, a Greek historian of the second century B.C., stated that the Romans broke their treaty with Carthage and sent troops to Sicily in great part due to greed, the tantalizing idea of bringing the riches of Carthage to Rome was a tremendous enticement.

Carthage was fairly advanced in agriculture and was a net exporter of grains, and famous for her horses, which strongly resemble the Arabian horses of today. Mago wrote a 28 volume treatise on agriculture and soil conservation, which was so highly valued by the Romans that they ordered it translated into Latin for their own use after the fall of Carthage in 146 B.C. They practiced irrigation and crop rotation, possibly learned from their contacts with Egypt and other near eastern countries. After the disastrous loss of the Second Punic war with Rome (202 B.C.), Hannibal was elected Shophet (or Suffete, a post very similar to the Judge-Kings of Israel), and pushed through a number of government reforms, and placed renewed emphasis on agriculture which was highly successful, allowing Carthage to pay her heavy war indemnity to Rome and recover her wealth, in spite of the loss of her empire. Legend has it that the Romans went so far as to salt the earth of Carthage after her utter destruction to prevent her rising again.


text:
German/Level I/Essen

Lesson I.6: Essen

Food!
Section Problems >>

Accusative Case
As you know from the introduction, in German, there are four cases. Three are used often. The first, Nominative Case, you learned in Lesson 1. It covers the subject, and the predicate noun (in "He is (noun).", (noun) is the predicate noun). The second, the Accusative Case, you will learn now. It covers the direct object and the object of several prepositions. The third, the Dative Case will be taught later on. It covers the indirect object and the object of many other prepositions.

The object of a sentence will be in accusative case. In, "You hurt me.", 'me' would be accusative.

Note: The Accusative Case and Dative Case are identical in English; that's why German has one case extra.

Articles
'''* The indefinite article for plurals is non-existent. However related words, such as possessives and the kein- words that you will learn later this lesson, will end in eine for plurals.'''

In the articles, the memory hook for accusative case is "Der goes to den (pronounced "dane" ) and the rest stays the same." The masculine indefinite article goes to einen, and everything else stays the same there. Therefore above, der Hamburger goes to den Hamburger and ein Hamburger goes to einen Hamburger when the hamburger is the direct object, such as in "Er hat einen Hamburger." ("He has a hamburger.")

If you are getting confused, it's fine. This topic is one of the hardest for English speakers to grasp. Here are some solutions:

To find out the case of something, first find the verb. The verb rules the sentence. Everything revolves around it. Next you find the subject of the sentence. The subject is the thing/person that is doing the verb. The subject is always in the Nominative Case, so it takes on the der, die, das, die, or ein, eine, ein.

Now you look back at the verb. If it is a being verb (am, are, is, etc.), the next noun after the verb is the predicate noun. An easy way to figure this out is to write an equation. If the verb can be replaced with an equals sign (=), then the following noun is a predicate noun. If it can't be replaced by an equals sign, refer to the next paragraph. The predicate noun is also always in the Nominative Case, so the same rules apply to it.

Ich bin ein Junge. Sie ist eine Frau.

If the verb of the sentence is an action verb (playing, throwing, making, eating), find what the subject is doing the verb to. For example, if the verb is "makes" (macht), you look for what is being made. That is the direct object. The direct object is always in the Accusative Case, so it takes on the den, die, das, die, or einen, eine, ein.

Sie haben den Cheeseburger. Habt ihr einen Salat ?

The indefinite articles, when you just look at their endings, select e, -, e for nominative case, and en, e, -, e for accusative.

Remember, between nominative and accusative, the only third-person change is in the masculine form.

Section Problems >>

Pronouns
The pronouns experience a much bigger change than the articles. This is also true in English, as the articles (a, an, the) do not change ever, but I goes to me, we goes to us, etc.

Not everything is the same, though. While me is mich and us is uns, the second and third persons undergo different changes. In third person, as in the articles, the only change is in masculine singular. Following the "der goes to den" rule, er goes to ihn when in the accusative case.

The second person in English never changes. In German, du goes to dich and ihr goes to euch. Sie, the formal version of either, stays the same. Remember, Sie (2nd person formal) and sie (3rd person plural) only differ in their meanings and the fact that the former is capitalized and the latter is not. This stays true throughout German grammar.

Here is a tabular representation of the above.

Section Problems >>

Antecedents
Note: ''This is just a quick lesson in English grammar applied into German. If you already know all about antecedents in English, skip the first paragraph.''

When using a pronoun, you have to know what it is for it to work. There are some rare exceptions, such as in mysteries or drama, but otherwise this is always true. Sometimes in dialogue this is taken care of by pointing or making some other gesture, but most of the time, the pronoun modifies something already mentioned. The object/person mentioned earlier that turns into a pronoun later is called the antecedent.

In German this is very useful. You can't simply say 'it' any more. Many food words are masculine and feminine, and when you turn them into pronouns, they turn into 'he', 'she', 'him', and 'her', not always 'it'. For example, the sentence "The cheeseburger tastes good. It's very crunchy." turns into "The cheeseburger tastes good. He's very crunchy." Note: You will learn how to say this in German later in this lesson.

Why is it "he"? This is where the antecedent comes in. Because there are foods that are masculine and feminine in German, you can't assume the 'es'. You have to look back at the previous sentence, at the antecedent, der Cheeseburger. "Der Cheeseburger" is replaced by er (since it is the subject, and therefore in Nominative Case). Therefore, all you need to know are these connections: der/den-er/ihn, die-sie, das-es, die-sie.

Section Problems >>

Food-Related Verbs

 * essen (I) - to eat, to be eating, to do eat
 * trinken - to drink, to be drinking, to do drink
 * bekommen - to get/receive, to be getting/receiving, to do get/receive
 * möchten (M) - would like
 * wollen (M) - to want, to be wanting, to do want

Of these five verbs, only trinken and bekommen are regular. Essen is irregular (that's what the "I" means). Do you remember from the last lesson 'lesen' and 'sehen'? In both of them, the first 'e' changed to 'ie' in the du- and er/sie/es-forms. Well essen experiences the same change, except that it changes to 'i', not 'ie'. Also, it acts the same as 'lesen' in the du-form: You don't have three s's in a row.

Isst sounds and looks a lot like ist. The minute difference happens to be in the way you pronounce the s. When you mean eats it is sometimes an overstressed hissing (i.e. extremely sharp) sound. In normal life Germans, too, can only tell which verb is meant from knowing the context.

Just like in last lesson, where you could say, "Ich spiele gerne Fußball.", you can also extend it to food. "I like to eat cheeseburgers." is translated as ''"Ich esse gerne Cheeseburger." ''

Before 1996, the usage of ißt and eßt were common, but the new reform rules specify that these spellings are now the only correct spellings.

The last two verbs (marked (M)) are modals. They will be discussed in the next section.

Section Problems >>

Modals
In the introduction, you learned that German has no helping verbs. Instead, they have modals, words that basically do the same thing.

Modals are conjugated very differently from normal verbs. The ich- and er/sie/es-forms are always the same, while the du-form adds an 'st'. Most modals experience a vowel change from singular to plural, and the rest is the same.

Möchten
'Möchten' isn't technically a modal, but it acts exactly the same. There is no vowel change, and the ich- and er/sie/es forms are "möchte". Here is the complete conjugation:

'Möchten' means "would like" and can be applied to food (e.g. Ich möchte einen Cheeseburger.). Möchten can be translated even more literally as "would like to", and is traditionally used with an infinitive verb at the end of the sentence (e.g. "Ich möchte jetzt gehen"/"I would like to go now"). However, this infinitive is not necessary if it's completely obvious what you're talking about (If you say "Ich möchte einen Cheeseburger", everyone will assume that you would like a cheeseburger to eat.)

(Note: Technically, "möchten" is not a word. The above cited conjugation is actually the "Konjunktiv" of "mögen", which has become so popular as a phrase, that even many Germans today aren't aware of it any more, so you don't need to worry about it. "Etwas mögen" means "to like to", and "I would like" is the closest translation of "ich möchte.")

Wollen
'Wollen' is a true modal; it even changes vowels. Ich/er/sie/es will and du willst. Here is the complete conjugation:

'Wollen' can also be applied to food, but may be considered impolite and demanding ("Ich will einen Cheeseburger!" roughly means "I demand a cheeseburger!" Möchten should be used instead: "Ich möchte einen Cheeseburger!" = "I want a cheeseburger!").

'Wollen' should not be confused with the future tense, despite the presence of the English word 'will' in the conjugations. However, will can also mean an intent or a document showing what one wants to happen. So it is not so different from 'to want' as possibly originally presumed.

Modals with other verbs
This is very important. When you need to use another verb with a modal (such as expressing you would like or want to perform an action), the sentence's word order is somewhat different than it would be in English. In English, you would state the subject pronoun (such as "I"), an English equivalent to the modal verb (such as "want"), the action you want to perform (such as "to eat") and then what the action will be performed on (such as "hamburger"), making the sentence "I want to eat a hamburger." In German you must put the action at the end of the sentence, making the sentence "I want a hamburger to eat." ("Ich will einen Hamburger essen.")

Section Problems >>

Hunger and Thirst
In German, instead of saying, "I'm hungry."(Ich bin hungrig), you may also say "I have hunger."(Ich habe Hunger) The same applies to thirst. Here are the German translations of the corresponding nouns:

Hunger - der Hunger

Thirst - der Durst

Like in English, these two words do not have a plural form. When using them, you don't need to worry about the 'der'; you can just say, "Ich habe Hunger" to say "I am hungry" and "Ich habe keinen Hunger" for "I am not hungry."

Somewhat archaic but still in use are the adjectives hungrig and durstig. Those are often used when talking about someone (especially animals): "Der Löwe ist hungrig" for "The lion is hungry".

Section Problems >>

Formal Conversations
In Lesson 1, you learned how to talk formally, using phrases like "Guten Morgen!" and "Wie heißen Sie?". There are, however, a few words that are 'survival words' in Germany, specifically:

Danke - Thank you, Thanks

Bitte - Please and You're welcome.

To make this even more formal, you can tack on the word 'schön' to the end of "Thank you" and "You're welcome" to make 'dankeschön' and 'bitteschön' (both one word) in response. 'Schön' literally means 'pretty' (you'll relearn this next lesson).

Some other ways to say "thank you":
 * Dankeschön - Thank you very much
 * Danke sehr - Thanks a lot
 * Herzlichen Dank ("herzlichen" means sincere or from the heart; you may remember it from " Herzlichen Glückwunsch zum Geburtstag!" last lesson)
 * Vielen Dank - Thanks a lot
 * Tausend Dank* - Thanks a million (literally meaning a thousand, but English is more generous)
 * Aufrichtigen Dank* - would be "thank you sincerely" (very formal)

* - You will not be tested on these phrases.

Some other ways to say "You are welcome":

 * Bitteschön!
 * Bitte sehr!
 * Gern geschehen! - Don't mention it
 * Gerne! - also meaning "gladly"
 * Kein Problem! - No problem
 * Dafür nicht!* - (Do) not (thank me) for this (only used in Northern Germany)

* - You will not be tested on this phrase.

These might also be useful:

Entschuldigung - Excuse me, Pardon

Es tut mir leid - Sorry, I'm sorry

Section Problems >>

Kein-words
Twice you have been taught that the ending of the indefinite article for plurals would be eine (for Nominative and Accusative cases), if there was an indefinite article for plurals. Now that lesson applies. The kein-words have the same endings as the ein-words, and they mean the opposite: no, not any, none. For example, "kein Cheeseburger" means "no cheeseburger". "Keine Cheeseburger" (in this case Cheeseburger is plural) means "No cheeseburgers". Notice the 'e' at the end of 'keine'. That's the ending for plurals and feminine nouns and can be likened to the "der, die, das -> die" relationship, where the feminine article serves for the plural as well.

Section Problems >>

Ordering at a Restaurant in Germany
das Restaur'ant' (French pronunciation) - Restaurant

There are many restaurants you might find in Germany. Much like in English-speaking countries, you would more likely use the name of the restaurant than name what kind of restaurant. If you want to address the wish to eat a certain food, there are two ways:

example: "wanting to eat chinese food"

1. "Ich möchte gerne zum Chinesen." - literally: "I want to go to the Chinese (restaurant)." 2. "Ich möchte gerne chinesisch essen (gehen)." - literally: "I want to (go) eat Chinese (style food)."

Here are some more restaurants you can find in Germany:

* "zum Amerikaner" is often used in a jokey way, to express that one is going to either McDonald's or Burger King. There are few American restaurants, in Germany and they are mostly referred to as "(American) Diner", so it is not used like "zum Italiener".
 * American food: "zum Amerikaner" / "amerikanisch essen"*
 * Arabic food: "zum Araber" / "arabisch essen"
 * Chinese food: "zum Chinesen" / "chinesisch essen"
 * French food: "zum Franzosen" / "französisch essen"
 * Greek food: "zum Griechen" / "griechisch essen"
 * Italian food: "zum Italiener" / "italienisch essen"
 * Indian food: "zum Inder" / "indisch essen"
 * Japanese food: "zum Japaner" / "japanisch essen"
 * Mexican food: "zum Mexikaner" / "mexikanisch essen"
 * Spanish food: "zum Spanier" / "spanisch essen"
 * Turkish food: "zum Türken" / "türkisch essen"

Accusative case prepositions
You read at the beginning of this lesson that the Accusative Case covers the direct object and the objects of some prepositions. Here are those prepositions that always fall under Accusative Case

bis - until

durch - through

entlang - along

für - for

gegen - against

ohne - without

um - at, around

You learned um last lesson, and ohne earlier this lesson. Bis, durch, entlang and gegen will be taught in depth later, and für will be taught now.

Up until this point, you have only worried about the Accusative Case in third person. Für, meaning 'for', can and should be used in the first and second persons, too. Here's an example:

"The cheeseburger is for me." - "Der Cheeseburger ist für mich."

As you can see, 'me' is put into accusative case because the preposition is für.

Section Problems >>

Saying How Food Tastes
In German (as in English) there are several ways of telling how food tastes. You can do this with 'gut' and 'schlecht' from Lesson 1 to say:

Der Cheeseburger schmeckt gut - The cheeseburger tastes good

Der Cheeseburger schmeckt schlecht - The cheeseburger tastes bad

But this is bland. Hopefully the food has more flavor than the description of it. You can use the following words to more colorfully describe how the cheeseburger tastes:

 * delicious - lecker

 * delicious - delikat* (a lot more formal than lecker)

 * tasty - schmackhaft

 * juicy - saftig*

 * crunchy - knackig (can also mean crispy)

 * crispy - knusprig*

 * spicy - würzig, pikant

 * stale, tasteless - fade* (Austria: fad)

 * salty - salzig

 * oversalted - versalzen* oder zu salzig

 * sweet - süß

 * bitter - bitter

 * sour - sauer

 * creamy - cremig*

 * hot (in the sense of "very spicy") - scharf - literally meaning "sharp"

 * hot (in the sense of "very warm") - heiß

 * burnt - angebrannt*

 * cold - kalt

 * disgusting, terrible - schrecklich

* - You will not be tested on these descriptors.

Schmecken is a regular verb. Here is its conjugation:

The first and second persons really shouldn't be used. No one is going to say, "You guys taste salty" or "I taste creamy." So the only forms you really need to know are er/sie/es schmeckt and sie (plural) schmecken.

You can use 'schmeckt' and 'schmecken' or 'ist' and 'sind' to state how the food tastes. Just use whichever one you would use in English and it'll usually be correct.

Although the English meaning of schmecken is simply to taste, "Schmeckt der Cheeseburger?" can be taken in a positive way to mean "Do you like the cheeseburger?". In other words, schmecken alone can mean to taste good.

Section Problems >>

Dieser-forms
"The cheeseburger tastes good." does not sound that specific as to which cheeseburger you are talking about. You could be talking about a cheeseburger that is not directly in front of you. It just isn't clear. Now, if you said, "This cheeseburger tastes good.", it would be obvious that you're talking about the cheeseburger you're eating. 'Dieser' is the German translation for 'this': "Dieser Cheeseburger schmeckt gut."

Dieser
'Dieser' is a special adjective. It changes forms in different situations: different genders and different cases. It can also mean 'these' when modifying a plural. Here are its forms:

As you can see, dieser is only appropriate for modifying masculine nouns in nominative case. But 'Cheeseburger', which is masculine, is the subject of the sentence, "Dieser Cheeseburger schmeckt gut." So it is correct in that circumstance.

Jeder
Jeder means 'every'. It acts exactly like 'dieser' in its endings, so it should be easy to remember. Here are the different forms:

Notice the absence of the plural form. When you think about this, it's the same in English: no one says 'every books'.

Welcher
'Welcher' is the third of this threesome of adjectives. 'Welcher' means 'which' and is used like the other interrogatives (wer, was, wann, wo, warum, wie, and welcher). However, because the general subject has to be specified, welcher must be inflected before use: "Welcher Hamburger ist seiner?" Its forms have the same endings as 'dieser'.

Connection with Time
You might want to say 'every day', 'this week', 'every morning', or 'which Tuesday night?'. But to do this, not only do you need to know the jeder-forms, but also the genders of the times and the cases. The second one is easy: Whenever you do something at a certain time, that time is put into Accusative Case . Last lesson, you learned the gender of one time: der Tag. So now you know everything to say 'diesen Tag', 'jeden Tag', and 'welchen Tag?' (this day, every day, and which day?). Here are the cases of all the times in Lesson 2:

When extending to 'which Tuesday night?', remember that the night stays feminine on Tuesday, so it stays "Welche Dienstagnacht?". Likewise, you can say 'every June' the same as 'every month': 'jeden Juni'.

This and That
''Ich möchte einen Cheeseburger. Der schmeckt sehr gut.''

''Ich esse jeden Tag Cheeseburger. Die habe ich gern.''

Look at the second sentence of each of these German dialogues. What's missing? That's right, instead of "Der Cheeseburger schmeckt sehr gut." and "Die Cheeseburger habe ich gern.", both of the 'Cheeseburgers, so to speak, are dropped. We're left with just the articles, only in this case, they aren't articles. They're demonstrative pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns aren't scary. They're just the same as the normal pronouns, only they give more oomph to the sentence. They can be translated as either 'this' or 'that' ("I'd like a cheeseburger. That tastes very good."), or 'these' or 'those' for plurals ("I eat cheeseburgers every day. These I like.").

Demonstrative pronouns are exactly the same as the definite articles (well, there is one change in dative, but that will be covered in Lesson 7). If you are not sure of the gender (meaning in context, the speaker doesn't know, not that you've forgotten that it's 'der Cheeseburger'), use 'das', like in "Was ist das?" (What is that?).

Money and Paying
Germany, Austria, Luxemburg, Belgium and Südtirol – in other words: all German speaking regions except Switzerland and Liechtenstein– have given up their former currencies and adopted the Euro as of 1999. One Euro is worth 100 Cents. Because they are not members of the European Union, Switzerland and Liechtenstein have kept the Swiss Francs (Franken = 100 Rappen).

'Euro' normally does not change in the plural in German, so you would still say "Ich habe 500 Euro." Nevertheless, there is an exception: Euro coins. If you say "Ich habe vier Euros.", you actually are saying that you have four 1-Euro coins. Because the backsides of euro coins look different in each country, many people in Europe have started collecting foreign euro coins. In this case you can say "Ich habe irische Euros." (I have Irish euro coins.) for example.

There is not yet a rule whether or not the word "Cent" has a different plural form. The majority of Germans are using the word "Cent" as a plural form, but when they don't it is simply "Cents".

In German "euro" is pronounced [‘oi-ro], not [you-ro]. For "Cent" there are two pronunciations: you can either pronounce it as in English or you say "tzent". The latter version seems to be preferred by older people.

When at a restaurant, you will want to pay at the end. You can use this vocabulary to help you.

 * to pay - zahlen

 * the bill - die Rechnung*

 * the waiter - der Kellner, die Bedienung (also der Ober)**

 * the waitress - die Kellnerin (but not die Oberin because this means Reverend Mother)

 * "How much is that?" - "Was macht das?" ("What does that make?") or the "umgangssprachliche" "Wie viel kostet das?"

* To ask for the bill you can say, "Bitte zahlen!", or make it a complete sentence: "Ich würde gern zahlen!", or "Wir möchten/wollen zahlen!". You can also say, "(Herr Ober), die Rechnung bitte!". The term "der Ober" is the waiter, but this sounds very old fashioned and is hardly ever used today. To address the waiter you would probably say "Entschuldigen Sie, ..." ("Pardon, ...") as in "Entschuldigen Sie, wir würden gern zahlen" (Pardon me, we would like to pay").

** Although it is perfectly OK to say “Bedienung” or “Kellner” when talking about a waiter or a waitress, you should not address the waiter by saying "Bedienung!" or even “Fräulein!” which is regarded very impolite since the 1980s.

Section Problems >>

Test
The test will be located here, but the test for this lesson is not yet completed.

title: German/Level I/Essen


text:
Cookbook:Peanut Sauce (Vegan)

| Vegan Cuisine

This peanut sauce works very well when served with stir-fried tofu and greens or any steamed vegetables.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup peanut butter
 * 1–2 cloves of garlic
 * 3 Tbsp soy sauce
 * 2 Tbsp vinegar, rice vinegar or cider vinegar
 * 1 Tbsp brown sugar
 * ¼ tsp salt
 * ⅛ tsp cayenne pepper (optional)
 * ½ cup hot water

Procedure

 * 1) Mix all ingredients together, adding the water last.

title: Cookbook:Peanut Sauce (Vegan)


text:
Cookbook:Whole Wheat Bread (Vegan)

 * Vegan Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 cup warm water (105–115°F)
 * 2 tbsp (2 packages) of active dry yeast
 * 1 pinch unrefined sugar
 * 1 cup soy milk
 * ⅓ cup (packed) unrefined sugar
 * 3 tbsp vegan butter or margarine
 * 1 tbsp salt
 * 1½ cup walnuts (optional)
 * ¼ cup soft tofu (mashed), stirred until smooth
 * 2½ cups fine-milled or medium-milled whole-wheat flour
 * 3 cups + 14 tbsp unbleached all-purpose white flour

Procedure

 * 1) In a small bowl stir the yeast in ½ cup warm water, and add a pinch of unrefined sugar. Let the yeast activate for 10 minutes.
 * 2) To a large mixing bowl add the other ½ cup water, milk, unrefined sugar, melted vegan margarine, salt, tofu, and whole wheat flour. Stir with wooden spoon until creamy.
 * 3) Add the yeast mixture, which should be foamy by now, and the walnuts.
 * 4) Add in the unbleached wheat flour a little at a time. Stir until the dough is too thick for the spoon, then put the dough on a lightly-floured cutting board or counter top and mix by hand. When all the flour is added, knead dough for around 5–7 minutes.
 * 5) Cover dough with a towel and let rise for around 1–1.5 hours. Dough should double in size.
 * 6) Knock the dough down once then place 2 equal portions of the dough into 2 greased loaf pans. Let rise about 45 minutes.
 * 7) Brush tops of loaves with melted margarine (keeps them from drying out) and dust with cinnamon, uncooked oatmeal, or white flour (aesthetics).
 * 8) Bake in oven preheated to 375°F for around 35 minutes. When done, loaves will sound hollow when tapped.
 * 9) Let cool, then unmold.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Egg replacement or 1 tbsp ground flax seed can replace the tofu.
 * If you want the loaves to look fancy, roll dough into 4 separate dough "snakes", then twist 2 of these together to make a nice looking intertwined loaf.

title: Cookbook:Whole Wheat Bread (Vegan)


text:
User talk:193.220.224.8

Please use the Sandbox for editing experiments. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 14:43, 17 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:193.220.224.8


text:
Talk:Biochemistry/Introduction

This is great matherial. But it seems to me too much for an introduction. Should we make other chapter(s) to reorganize the material correctly? Cyclop 17 apr 2004 - 17.24 UTC

title: Talk:Biochemistry/Introduction


text:
Investing/Starting a business

Investing counselors advise that the best way to get a return on money is by starting up a business. This can take up many forms, from home-based business to a storefront to franchising.  Franchising  is a safe way to get into business for an inexperienced person because a corporation gives extensive help in getting the new venture started.

title: Investing/Starting a business


text:
Investing/Stock market

The stock markets are a means to buy and sell, but they are a market place: when, what, and how often and how much one buys, accumulates or sells is NOT the province of the market: that is the province of the field of investment which is covered elsewhere. Investment in general is a rich and complex field as it serves all kinds of investors, government, corporations, services, groups and individuals: each investor has their own objective and their own access to capital which to invest. Indeed, the subject of investing can well be approached from the investors point of view. Given that I am writing this here in a wiki, an information forum open to and created by the community of the world, it might be appropriate to direct this summary to the individual small investor, who invests as part of a long term and life long plan of savings for them, their family and heirs. Again, the market is a place where one trades (buys and sells) financial instruments, such as stock, bonds and the many forms of these instruments, and is not itself concerned with investing, ie, the strategy for making a profit under many many varied desires and circumstances. This section under the stock market should be dry, technical and thorough, and should serve as a reference. However, to understand the vehicles, form a coherent view of ones own objectives and the appropriate vehicles: stocks (common, preferred) bonds (convertible or not) one should start with an introduction to investing, and most likely, focusing at first on individual investing, which should be the most straight forward and the most useful.

Traditionally the US stock exchange has given an annual average return of seven percent after adjusting for inflation. This makes it one of the most lucrative investments available. Granted, there is no guarantee that the market will behave in the future as it has in the past, but it has been consistent in some respects over its 70+ year history.

The challenge and lure of Investing come from the fact that it is an inexact science. In physics, there are a few laws which govern a large variety of physical phenomena. In Investing, there are no such comparable laws. Investing is all about predicting the future. Since, there are a large number of factors influencing the future price of a stock, there is always a degree of uncertainty with any position.

Stocks are just one kind of financial instruments. The field is complicated by the fact that there are mutual funds, Exchange Traded Funds (ETFs), Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), options, futures, bonds and several other kind of financial instruments. It takes almost a year to just familiarize oneself with the jargon of the field.

Finding a broker
There are several options to consider when finding a broker. These include but are not limited to the following: Full service brokers, discount brokers, and financial advisors. Each have their advantages and disadvantages. Transaction cost, experience, history and strategy are all factors to consider when hiring a broker.

A full service broker is a broker that will generally come with the highest up front costs. These costs are probably the full service broker's biggest disadvantage. However, the broker history plays a large role in the weight of this disadvantage. If the full service broker proves to have a history of high returns, they may be worth the initial fee, with the assumption they may be able to make you more than your average expected return after the fees are paid. When choosing a full service broker, one should interview several brokers. This serves as a good way to view their history, ask about their experience, costs and finally their strategy. Their strategy is what stocks and funds they are most familiar with and their justification as to why they pick the stocks they do. If one is adverse to larger transaction costs and doesn't mind using a more hands on approach, then they may want to look at more cost effective methods, such as a discount broker. Generally these brokers will be cheaper than their full service cousins (hence the name 'discount'), but they may require more interaction from the user.

Ameritrade, Brown & Co, and Interactive Brokers are some of the most cost effective brokers around. Barron's and Forbes periodically compare these brokers.

Understanding Stock Fundamentals
Stock market prices fluctuate everyday, and no stock is completely safe. However, there are certain things that you can look at to try to determine the best stocks. The price of stocks is based on two things: hype, and the fundamental value of the company. You must be careful about stocks with lots of hype that lack strong fundamentals, because they have strong potential to lose much of their value rather quickly.

When looking at a company, you will first notice its price. The listed price is generally taken as the most recent trade price on an open market. If you multiply the total shares outstanding by the price per share, you get the market capitalization (abbreviated market cap), which reflects the current market value of the company. The book value is the value of the various assets that make up the company. Many companys' market values are many times the book value, which reflects non-tangible assets like customer relationships.

What really drives the prices, however, is earnings. The earnings are the money made, which is the sales or revenue minus the costs of doing business, among other things. Earnings are analyzed in relation to price by a value called the P/E or price to earnings ratio. The primary way to use the P/E ratio is in a relative valuation. That means, how cheap is this company/stock compared to similar companies. If company A and B are equally profitable, have similar levels of assets and debt, and are growing at similar rates, then the stock with the lower P/E would appear to be a "better deal" or is possibly undervalued. The major pitfall in this approach comes when both companies A and B are presently overvalued, which could precede a drop in the stock price. There were numerous examples of this during the dot-com "bubble" and it's subsequent "burst".

Again, as a warning, it is imperative to note that one of the major conditions for determining relative value using P/E ratios is the growth rate of a company. If company A has a higher P/E ratio than company B, it is highly likely that the higher ratio is justified by a higher growth rate of company A's earnings.

Research stocks over the Internet
Many free websites can help you learn more about stocks. Here are just a few:

 * Yahoo Finance
 * Google Finance
 * investor.msn.com
 * reuters.com
 * bloomberg.com
 * morningstar.com
 *
 *

Understanding Stock Technicals
Some people give lots of importance to the price/volume behavior of stocks. The price and volume of a stock can be charted against time. A good thing about the price/volume history is that it does not lie.

Also, you will read the disclaimer in several places that past performance does not predict the future. If the past performance, does not mean anything to future, why even study it? No amount of chart reading would have predicted the Enron Collapse.

The rationale for looking at the charts is that it helps you identify the patterns and/or trends. Fundamental analysis tells you what to buy and technical analysis is supposed to tell you when to buy.

Choosing stocks
The first thing to remember is that stocks are risky, and even the least risky stock can on occasion go down in value or even bankrupt. You can find out about companies from all over, but before buying you should thoroughly research the company. Also, keep in mind that many people including so-called professionals are often wrong. Over 80% of actively managed mutual funds do not generate better returns (after they take their fees) than the major indexes.

A well known investor named Warren Buffett claims that "Rule number one" is, "don't lose money." This is easier said than done and if you can not tolerate modest, near term, temporary losses, simply buy new issue Treasury Bonds, hold them to maturity and do not expect much income (that will be taxed like wages, at higher rates), after inflation. Historically, stocks have generally provided better returns albeit with added risk. The older you are the less risk you should be willing tolerate.

Warnings aside, the first thing to consider is risk. How much debt does the company have? Are they earning money, and will they continue earning money. Read their annual report, and look at their business, and think about what could happen that could hurt their business. Listening to conference calls is a rarely used but great way to assess the company's management. You can hear if the presentation of results and predictions made sound honest and realistic. Risky stocks may be a good investment, but you should always be aware of the risks beforehand, and decide what you are going to do if the worst comes to pass.

After taking a hard look at the risks, you also have to look at the potential for the company, and the likelihood that it will happen. For example a solar cell company, may have huge potential if the government mandated solar cells on top of every building, but that is very unlikely to happen.

Look at the current price/earnings(P/E) ratio and what it would be in the future with various levels of growth. Also, look and see if the company pays dividends. Often, the earning number is inflated through accounting tricks, but the dividend is what the company paid stockholders last year. If the company has a good dividend, you can make a bit every year while continuing to hold the stock.

While the fundamentals, and how much money the company makes will affect it over the long term, other factors often dominate the markets in the short term. During the late 90's tech stocks got bid up, because they were hyped up in the media. After September 11, investors worried about terrorism, and stocks were priced accordingly. The market has day-to-day fluctuations, but usually there are certain themes from the media that hype something, that over-values or under-values certain stocks and segments of the market. However, when the theme goes away--often rather quickly--those stocks will correct (go up or down to their intrinsic or fundamental value). One short-term strategy would be to try to ride the themes, and profit, but it can at times be quite difficult, and mistakes often result in heavy losses. If you are going to buy a stock that you think will go up on hype use extreme caution. A more sensible approach is to try to buy things that are fundamentally undervalued before you think a cycle will start hyping that particular area of the market.

The value of a share of stock is based on many things but how much the "market" thinks the company will make in the future is the usually the biggest factor in what dicatates the current selling price.

Anticipating price movements will generally give much better results than reacting to them, in both the short and long term. It is important to recognize that the past does not dictate the future, but it can give some insight. Stocks with long histories of increasing value (including dividends when applicable) are more likely to continue appreciating than those with an erratic past.

Recognize that the sector a company is in can be as or even more important to the share price as the company's fundamental future earnings expectations. Chasing after stocks with significant recent price appreciation may work but more likely buying an already over priced stock will cause losses. An important truism is that, "The wise man(woman) does first what a foolish one does last." Ask anyone who waited until late 1999 to buy tech stocks because they decided, "everyone is getting rich except me."

Consider reviewing the past price performance of each security you consider buying or selling as a small part of your fundamental analysis. This is best achieved by using price charts of varying lengths of time.

The easiest part of stock investing is buying; you just need money. The hardest part is deciding if and/or when to sell; that requires wisdom. Failing to sell or buying an overvalued stock will almost always lead to losses and vice versa. It is wise to decide on your selling price and loss limit before you buy a stock (and sticking to them).

Never let tax consequences dictate you purchases and sales but keep in mind there are tax incentives (different tax rates on gains and losses) for holding shares with gains for a year and a day. This also serves to diminish the tax benefit if you have losses. It is always better to pay a high tax on a high gain than a low tax on a high gain that evaporates into a low gain.

No one likes to lose money but it is part of all but the most conservative investment strategies; no one honestly bats 1000. Try very hard not to allow emotions, hope or pride to affect your decisions. It is far better to acknowledge a mistake and take a small loss (that is not likely to be short lived) than to let to let it become a large loss. Never chide yourself for buying or selling too early. It is far better than waiting until it is too late and realizing a larger loss. There are very few stocks that you can buy and hold for a lifetime.

If you are unwilling to learn about a company/industry/sector on a fundamental basis you should not attempt to pick individual stocks. It is more appropriate to buy an index, mutual, or exchange traded fund based on your views of the future. This entails less risk (as well as lower returns) than stock picking, reducing possible losses. If you have the inclination and time to learn how and do fundamental analysis you will generally realize better results over time.

You must also recognize that share prices can sometimes become completely disconnected and unrelated to fundamental, intrinsic value not merely over or under priced. That is the greatest opportunity for gains (or losses) as noted above over the long term.

There is only one true thing about the stock market and stock prices; they will fluctuate. This observation is attributed to JP Morgan.

Risk, Risk Premiums and Diversification
Stocks are risky. There is no guarantee that the return on a particular stock will beat the market average or even be positive. The riskier a stock is the greater its average return (but with a greater risk of no return or worse). This is called the "risk premium". Essentially, the seller is giving a discount to the buyer in return for taking on risk.

Risk can be reduced through diversification while retaining the same average return (called the "expected return"). Imagine a stock (stock A) costing $10 with a 50% chance of paying $2 and a 50% chance of paying $0. This stock would have an expected return of $1 (the average of 2 and 0) but would be risky. Now imagine that instead of buying 10 shares of stock A we bought 5 shares plus 5 shares of stock B. The cost and payback of B is identical to A with the caveat that B is a stock in an industry totally unrelated to A, and thus is not linked in its results. The stock A + B combination now has exactly the same expected return as A alone, but with lower risk! In other words:

DIVERSIFICATION LOWERS RISK WHILE MAINTAINING RETURNS.

The more diverse a portfolio is, the less risky it is. This is one of the rationals behind the new breed of index funds which recreate broad indexes such as the S&P 500 or the Wiltshire index. For long-term investing, index funds of this type are an excellent choice.

When to Sell
Knowing when to sell is often the most difficult part of buying and selling stocks. When a stock goes down, it is often difficult to admit that you made a mistake. When a stock goes up, will it keep going up? It is easy in hindsight to think that you should have held onto stock when you see it go up after you sold.

You generally don't know when a stock has really reached its peak, or whether it will go back up again, but there are some things to look for. Remember the reason you bought the stock. Considering all currently available data, is that reason still valid? Try to avoid coming up with new justifications for holding a falling stock. If you bought the stock, because you thought the company's new product would do really well, and it hasn't it may be time to sell.

There is nothing wrong with admitting you were wrong. However, you also need to be careful you aren't just selling to buy into the latest fad, either. The way the stock market works has been fairly consistent for many years. Different sectors have become hot, and later become not so hot. If you are going to revise your strategy, make you sure you still consider long term trends.

However, if something doesn't continue to fit your strategy, sell it. It doesn't matter if it has gone up a lot, or is almost worthless. Unless, you still think it fits with your strategy sell it. Remember, just because it may have a chance of going up a lot, doesn't mean there isn't another stock out there that is better. Selling based simply on past performance is generally a bad idea.

title: Investing/Stock market


text:
Investing/Rental properties

Rental properties are a way to have a long-term monthly income as well as build equity, meaning that the property has value in itself that can be recovered upon sale.

= Me, a landlord? = You, yes, you, can be a landlord. Well, maybe not *you*, but that other guy over there. Yes, him.

He's got reasonably good credit, some initial cash, plus a moderate amount of time and patience to deal with initial paperwork and projects. He's willing to make his life more complicated now in the hope that he might be exchanging it for greater wealth later. And he lives very near an area where people are looking to rent.

To be a landlord, he will need: a place to rent (fully insured), tenants in that place, and carefully constructed written agreements with the tenants (leases) that talk about how everyone is expected to behave, including how much the tenants will pay. If he doesn't have a place already, he'll need to buy it, which will mean negotiating with the previous owners (or their agents) and bankers.

If the landlord can find a place to buy such that his monthly total of mortgage payments, insurance, taxes, utility, repair and miscellaneous costs are less than the rent he's taking in, he'll be making money. This may not be realistic at the start. A high property cost, low amount of down payment, a less than ideal interest rate, high taxes and critical property repairs could push expenses too high for profit. But he'll never know for sure until he researches his local market and starts making calls.

= Choosing a property =

Single Family Houses
Houses are a higher risk than apartments and condominiums simply because usually a house costs more and therefore you have a higher risk of negative monthly cash flow if your property is vacant. With a condo, since the overall cost is usually less, your exposure to risk is less. Likewise in an apartment since there are more units to rent if one is vacant there will still be some rent collected every month. For instance if an investor buys a 4 unit building (four-plex), with 2400 total square feet, then rents each 600 square foot unit for $500/month, the total rent collected is $2000 dollars. Lets say this same investor buys a 2400 square foot single family home and rents it for the same $2000 a month. The risk is obvious; the single family tenant could decided to leave, then the investor is stuck with a property with zero dollars collected for rent. While the four-plex only has one unit vacant, the other three are still rented thus the investor has $1500 of rent still coming in. The four-plex is a much smaller risk.

The other negative is a multi-unit investment property usually rents at a higher rate per square foot than a single family house. Lets assume this same investor can get around $0.83 per square foot for a single family house while the four-plex will rent at $1 per square foot. That is $2400 of total potential rent for the four-plex, and $2000 for the single family house. It is obvious multi-family investing is better for maximizing positive cash-flow for a real estate investor.

On a positive note single-family houses have tended to appreciate faster and more steadily than condos, in a steady real estate market, although that's no guarantee of future price changes. For this reason the single family house may equalize the monthly cash flow of a condominium when looking at a long-term investment (5 to 10 years +). It is important to look at the history of the neighborhood and region you are investing in to determine the best strategy that meets your financial goals before investing in single family houses. But remember, history is only a guide - the future may be very different and can't be predicted. Even the nicest area now can become a slum in the future.

Condos
Condos are a great place to start for first time investors, simply because they require very little 'exterior' maintenance. Usually you pay an 'Association Fee' (HOA) that does all the 'Common Area' maintenance. This leaves you free to concentrate on the inside and taking care of the renters.

Be wary, however. In a condo agreement, you are vulnerable to risks associated with the other condos. If another condo owner in the association goes bankrupt, you may be subject to higher HOA fees. Likewise, if another condo falls into disrepair it may become very difficult to rent or sell your unit. The larger fraction of ownership each associate owns, the greater the risk. Condo rules may change without your consent, as they are subject to majority votes; imagine the association deciding the units can no longer be rented!

Vacation Properties
= Buying the property =

Financing the purchase
You don't actually need to have a lot of cash on hand to buy a property. All you need is to have access to cash. This can be through equity that you withdraw from your home through a second mortgage or line of credit, or the cash a partner in a joint venture provides. This initial cash - whatever the source - provides your down payment.

When you have a down payment that is sufficiently large (10% of purchase price, 25% or some other amount), a lender can lend you the rest. This lent sum will normally be secured against the value of the property, through a mortgage.

Remember though the interest you are paying on the loan reduces your profit and the level of your risk increases the more you borrow... if your property is empty you still need to pay the mortgage.

= Renting the property = Predicting rental income from a property is important because it is your only source of active income from the investment. The property may gain value over time and provide you with return upon sale of the property in the future, but it should not expected. Your rental property investment should be profitable on the rental income alone.

There are several ways to estimate rental income. In rough order of accuracy:
 * The property may be currently rented, or have a rental history. Request this information from the seller.
 * Ask your real estate agent for a list of rental income statements from properties in the immediate area. Highlight those that are similar to the property of interest (# of beds/baths, sq. ft, general appearance, amenities, etc).  This can be very easy if a subdivision has identical homes, or rather difficult if the area is diverse (socioeconomically, and building type).  Pay close attention to location nuances; depending on your target renter you may note public school district boundaries, busy streets, parks/stores/entertainment, nearby colleges etc.  Try to compare the differences between your potential investment and the similar homes.  Keep track of positive and negative characteristics and do your best to estimate rental income.
 * Use the 'Rent Zestimate' from Zillow.com. Zillow provides a range for this estimate; the smaller the range, the more certain the Zestimate is.  Keep in mind Zillow may not have complete or accurate information about the property.  It's up to you verify the statistics Zillow presents.  Hint!  If the information on Zillow is not current, your seller's agent is inexperienced or an old timer.  Either way, the audience of potential buyers for the property is smaller and you may be able to negotiate more aggressively.

Once you have estimated the rental potential, it's time to correct the figure for vacancy and management costs. If you plan to manage the property yourself, do not correct for management. Management costs range from 8 to 12% of rental income on average. Skimping here may result in unruly tenants, more vacancy, and unchecked maintenance. Paying a premium may save you in the vacancy and maintenance department. 10% is a good rule of thumb for initial calculations. Vacancy should be expected and projected as well. Rule of thumb: 7% (about 1 month a year). Therefore, if you estimate rent to be $1,000 a month, multiply by .9 and then by .93 to obtain $837. Sobering, but if you calculate conservatively your risk will be mitigated.

= Maintaining Property =

Self Maintenance
= Tax Consequences of Rental Properties =

= Links =

title: Investing/Rental properties


text:
User:Vuara/WritingSystems

 * http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~rogers/JAL328.html
 * http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~rogers/UCLPG/edu.main.html

JAL 328 H1S - Writing Systems 2003

This course examines the nature of writing and its relationship to language. We look at the major writing systems of the world from four perspectives:

a. History b. Internal structure c. Relation to the language d. Sociolinguistics

For example, for Chinese, we will look at

The earliest history of Chinese writing (oracle-bone inscriptions). Some of the major calligraphic styles of Chinese writing over the ages. The relationship of Chinese writing to the language (essentially, each syllable is written with one character, and different morphemes are written differently). How many characters there are in Chinese. How characters are ordered in a dictionary. How borrowed words are written with characters. Traditional and simplified (20th century) forms of characters. The role of writing in Chinese society, e.g., the Civil Service Examinations. The borrowing of Chinese characters to write Japanese and Korean.

Course Requirements

2 Quizzes Mid-Term Test Final Exam

Marks: Click HERE for a .pdf file of the component marks of the course (the final marks for the course will be on ROSI. Timetable

3.JKV.htm Day Chapter Topic Handouts Special

Jan 6 Introduction; 1 Intro 3 Chinese 1 2 3 4 5 6 (jpeg) Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese 1 2 3 4 (jpeg) Cuneiform cun Quiz I Notes

Feb Egyptian egypt Mid-Term Test Notes Marks 17      Reading Week -- No class 7 Semitic Semitic

Mar 8-9 Greek and Roman. Greek 10 English  Rom&Eng 11-12 Indian abugida, Maya  Asian phono Quiz II Notes 13 Misc. writing systems  Maya-Other 14 Calligraphy and Printing. Callig

Apr 15 Classification, Review Classification Exam notes

Note: Special review times during Study Week

In Dept. of Linguistics, Robarts 6th Floor

Monday, 14 April 2003 - 1-4 pm Tuesday, 15 April 2003 - 2-4 pm Wednesday, 16 April 2003 - 2-4 pm Thursday, 17 April 2003 9-4 pm

Examination Tuesday, 22 April 2003 9-11 am -- Benson-3

Time and Place Monday 3-5; Ramsey Wright 110

Instructor

Henry Rogers 416-978-1769 6072 Robarts Library (take elevator from 2d floor to 6th floor) Office Hours: M 10-12 and by appointment rogers@chass.utoronto.ca

Text To be sold in class; cost $30.00

Dates Two quizzes--during class period -- 27 January and 17 March Mid-Term Test -- 10 February 2003 -- Note special location: Woodworth 111 (Drill Hall) Final Examination --during examination period (TBA) Last day to withdraw without academic penalty 9 March

Mark: Quizzes: 20 % (10% each) Mid-Term Test: 30% Final Examination 50%

This course uses the 'Refined Letter Grade Scale', defined in section A.c.ii of the appendix to the University Grading Practices Policy. It should be noted that when numerical raw scores are used in marking, the numerical equivalents in the grade tables 'are not to be used to translate a score to a grade directly'.

---University Grading Practices Policy, Part 1, section 5

Discussion Group The egroup for JAL 328 is found at http://groups.yahoo.com/group/jal328ws2003/

+++

Phthong is an interactive program to teach the phonemic transcription of English. Two versions exists  one for LIN 100 and one for LIN228. They differ primarily in the symbols they use; LIN228 has standard IPA symbols. Phthong was developed at the University of Toronto by Henry Rogers and Michael Stairs.

The version available here shows broad phonemic pronunciations for Toronto English.

 * LIN 100 http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~stairs/phthong/phthong100.html
 * LIN 228 http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~rogers/phthong.228/phthong228.html
 * http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~rogers/fonts.html

+++

Phthong has been developed over a number of years by Henry Rogers and Michael Stairs. Originally, it was written in HyperCard for the Macintosh computer and has been used in that form successfully for a number of years at the University of Toronto. Stairs has been responsible for the computer design and programming of both the HyperCard and JAVA versions; Rogers has been responsible for the pedagogical design. Michael Stairs works for the CHASS facility (Computing in the Humanities and Social Sciences) at the University of Toronto. Henry Rogers is an associate professor in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Toronto.

 * http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~stairs/

title: User:Vuara/WritingSystems