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Applied History of Psychology/DSM and Other Diagnostic Systems

Brief History of the DSM
The first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-I) was published in 1952, and listed about 60 different disorders. DSM-II was published in 1968. Both of these editions were strongly influenced by the psychodynamic approach. There was no sharp distinction made between normal and abnormal, and all disorders were considered reactions to environmental events.

The early editions of the DSM distinguished between a psychosis and a neurosis. A psychosis is a severe mental disorder characterized by a break with reality. Psychoses typically involve hallucinations, delusions, and illogical thinking. A neurosis is a milder mental disorder characterized by distortions of reality, but not a complete break with reality. Neuroses typically involve anxiety and depression.

In 1980, with DSM-III, the psychodynamic view was abandoned and the medical model became the primary approach, introducing a clear distinction between normal and abnormal. The DSM became "atheoretical", since it attempted to have no preferred etiology for mental disorders. In 1987 the DSM-III-R appeared as a revision of DSM-III.

In 1994, it evolved into DSM-IV. Edits were made a few years later, with the introduction of the 'Text Revision' of the DSM-IV, also known as the DSM-IV-TR, published in 2000. In 2013, the DSM-5 was published, making it the most recent version.

Introduction to the DSM-IV-TR
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) is the manual used to diagnose mental illnesses in North America right now (The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems-10 [ICD-10] is used in the rest of the world). It is put out by the American Psychiatric Association. It comprises a list of clinical entities that have been constructed and defined by people with particular interests (psychiatrists, psychologists, medical doctors). These individuals met and agreed upon lists of criteria (signs and symptoms) that need to be present for a particular diagnosis to be assigned.

Utility of the DSM
The DSM can help clinicians choose the best treatment for any particular person. It also helps with classification for research purposes. In addition, having a DSM diagnosis can provide access to funding for treatment (i.e., through insurance companies).

The DSM provides professionals within the world of psychology a common language in which to talk about mental disorders. Clinicians are able to discuss cases and be more confident that their colleagues will understand what they are referring to when they state that a patient meets diagnostic criteria for say 'depression' or 'anxiety'.

Validity and reliability issues
The validity and reliability problems associated with diagnostic activities are well-documented, but not often widely recognized and discussed (Ericksen & Kress, 2005; Kutchings & Kirk, 1997). One of the problems with diagnosis is that there are different classification systems (e.g., DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10) using different labels and criteria. This creates some problems in clinical practice. For instance, psychologists trained in Canada generally use the DSM-IV-TR. If they are called to work in the Motor-Vehicle Accident industry, they have to use ICD codes in administrative procedures, but will often use DSM-IV-TR codes in their psychological reports.

Even within one classification system, validity and reliability problems are prevalent. In addition, co-morbidity in clinical practice is more the rule than the exception, which then raises doubt about the validity of these illnesses as distinct.

Another issue is that the DSM is revised every 10 or so years, which points to the lack of reliability and validity of the manual (i.e., how can we trust these sets of criteria if they are constantly changing—presumably the disorders are not actually changing).

Stigma or Damage of Labelling and other Critical Issues
There are many arguments for and against the use of DSM-IV-TR diagnoses. This section discusses the effects of diagnoses more broadly and pays particular attention to the actual lived experience of those who have experienced this process.

Giving someone a label can be stigmatizing in that people often have preconceived ideas about certain diagnoses. For instance, some clinicians prefer not to work with people diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder, as clients with that diagnosis are often considered "difficult to work with." In addition, a person who received such a diagnosis and looks it up on the internet might become discouraged and feel that he or she is hopeless.

Labels can also prevent the clinician from seeing factors that might be unique for clients with the same diagnosis in that it can make the clinician interpret everything the client does as consistent with the label. One controversial study by David Rosenhan (1973) demonstrated this point quite effectively. Rosenhan and seven of his colleagues were admitted to mental hospitals (and designated "mentally ill") after complaining that they were "hearing voices." Once admitted to the mental hospital, Rosenhan and the other patients no longer purposefully exhibited any further symptoms and they were completely honest when their life history interviews were conducted. In spite of this, the clinicians who worked with the "patients" often interpretted their seemingly normal behaviour as disordered (e.g. writing in a journal was interpretted as excessive notetaking)and were able to uncover the causes of their disorders by analyzing their quite normal life histories.

On the other hand, some feel that "diagnosis and "labeling" is often helpful to the individual. People with psychological difficulties often feel isolated, alone, and misunderstood; labeling tells the suffering person "you're understood, and there are others with similar experiences. You're not alone." Labeling (i.e., diagnosing) a psychological disorder provides a framework and language with which to communicate. It also can provide access to funding for treatment, which some individuals would otherwise not have access to.

A further argument in support of diagnosis involves treatment implications. Specifically, some suggest that providing a working diagnosis throughout therapy guides treatment efforts in order to best help clients.

Ronald Bassman (1999; 2001), a psychologist and self-identified psychiatric survivor, as well as other professionals with similar experiences have widely written about the damaging impact of diagnosis. Their difficulties in living and emotional distress was made worse in part because the label they received suggested poor prognosis (e.g., chronicity of schizophrenia) and in part because it guided treatment that they experienced as very damaging (e.g., ECT for a diagnosis of depression leading to permanent memory loss, forced neuroleptic drugging for diagnosis of schizophrenia leading to post-traumatic stress symptoms, forced insulin shock treatment for psychotic disorders NOS). They argue that individuals with psychological difficulties can best be supported and feel understood through community and empowerment processes (see also Burstow, 2004; 2005; 2006). For more information see: http://www.concernedcounseling.com/Communities/Thought_Disorders/schizo/articles/psychtoday.asp

The use of psychiatric diagnoses cannot be detached from the history of psychiatry. Even if no biological tests exists to "diagnose" so-called mental disorders, the biomedical model of emotional distress continues to prevail. This is likely partly due to our being part of a capitalistic society, in that workers in mental health require a structure and guidelines in order to receive pay for service. Without diagnoses, it is difficult to quantify and document time and treatment provided to clients, and therefore, little justification or basis for fee-for-service.

Alternatives to the DSM-IV-TR
Other systems for diagnosis include the Diagnostic Classification of Mental Health And Development Disorders Of Infancy and Early Childhood: DC: 0-3R, a manual designed for diagnosing difficulties (including relational problems) in very young children by the Zero to Three organization (2005). As mentioned above ICD-10 is typically used outside of North America. Psychodynamically-oriented clinicians also recently created their own manual called the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual (PDM; 2006)


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Belarusian/Lesson 11

The ў Letter
The у нескладо́вае letter is considered a consonant. However, it has all features of a vowel except one - it does not make a syllable (нескладовае means non-syllabic).

The ў letter is always preceded by a vowel. Together they form something like English diphthongs: ow in slow etc.

воўк "vouk" a wolf

ла́ўка "lauka" a bench

A y-vowel following the ў letter is read with a й sound.

здаро́ўе "zdarouye" health

Other vowels never follow ў. If as a result of word flexion or derivation ў gets in such a position, it is replaced by в. The opposite is also true. The в letter is never followed by a consonant, and can not be the final letter of the word. In such a position, it is replaced by ў.

ла́ўка "lauka" a bench - ла́вачка "lavachka" a bench (diminutive)

хлеў "khleu" a shed - хлявы́ "khliavy" sheds

здаро́вы "zdaróvy" healthy, in good health - здаро́ўе "zdarouye" health

Singular Nouns Genitive
Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and adjective-like determiners are deflected by cases. So far, we have dealt with the Nominative, which is the initial case. Nominative singular (Nominative singular masculine for adjectives) is the word form to be searched in a dictionary.

The Genitive case is used to denote a kind of "kinship" between objects: a whole-to-part relation, a producer-to-product relation etc. In such cases, the "master" word (whole, producer etc.) would be Genitive.

In English such relations are usually denoted by the of preposition. Thus, a Genitive word X will most probably be translated to English as of (the) X. The opposite is also true. In Belarusian, there is no preposition that directly corresponds to the English of word. The of+noun expression would most probably be denoted by the Genitive in Belarusian.

Feminine
Singular feminine nouns have ы or і endings in the Genitive - exactly the same as Nominative plural forms.

шко́ла a school - шко́лы of a school (or schools)

до́ля a part, a share - до́лі of a part (or parts)

ко́шка a cat - ко́шкі of a cat (or cats)

ноч a night - но́чы of a night (or nights)

гусь a goose - гу́сі of a goose (or geese)

With feminine nouns having stressed endings in Nominative singular, the stressed is not shifted in the Genitive. Thus, Genitive singular and Nominative plural differ for such words.

вада́ water - вады́ of water - во́ды waters

зямля́ a land - зямлі of a land - зе́млі lands

рака́ a river - ракі of a river - рэ́кі rivers

Masculine nouns ending in а or я form the Genitive in the same way.

мужчы́на a man - мужчы́ны of a man (or men)

саба́ка a dog - саба́кі of a dog (or dogs)

Neuter
Neuter nouns ending in о, а have а ending in the Genitive, and neuter nouns ending in е, ё take the я ending in the Genitive.

акно́ a window - акна́ of a window

ко́ла (of) a wheel

по́ле a field - по́ля of a field

Masculine
The most difficult situation is about masculine nouns ending with a consonant. They can take either а (я for soft consonants) or у (ю for soft consonants) ending. The rule to distinct these two cases is rather complicated.

The а (я) ending is taken by masculine nouns that denote

(a) animate creatures, i.e. people and animals

чалаве́к a person - чалаве́ка of a person

воўк a wolf - ваўка́ of a wolf

конь a horse - каня́ of a horse

(b) countable objects

стол a table - стала́ of a table

хлеў a shed - хлява́ of a shed

(c) body parts

нос a nose - но́са of a nose

хвост a tail - хваста́ of a tail

BUT твар a face - тва́ру of a face

(d) public organisations

заво́д a factory - заво́да of a factory

прафсаю́з a trade union - прафсаю́за of a trade union

(e) locations, geographical or astronomical names

го́рад a town - го́рада of a town

Мінск Minsk - Мінска of Minsk

Марс Mars - Ма́рса of Mars

(f) measuring units or intervals

год a year - го́да of a year

метр a meter - ме́тра of a meter

вольт a volt - во́льта of a volt

долар a dollar - до́лара of a dollar (даля́р/даля́ра in tarashkievitsa)

(g) concrete scientific terms

су́фікс a suffix - су́фікса of a suffix

ра́дыус a radius - ра́дыуса of a radius

The у (ю) ending is taken by masculine nouns that denote

(a) uncountable objects, i.e. substances and materials:

мёд honey - мёду of honey

цынк zinc - цы́нку of zinc

ву́галь coal - ву́галю of coal

BUT хлеб bread - хле́ба of bread

(b) collections of objects:

наро́д people - наро́ду of people

лес a forest - ле́су of a forest

флот a fleet - фло́ту of a fleet

(c) phenomena of nature:

дождж rain - дажджу́ of rain

мароз frost - маро́зу of frost

(d) place, direction, shape, size, time etc.

час time - ча́су of time

шлях a way - шля́ху of a way

(e) abstract concepts: characteristics, states, processes, actions, feelings etc.

ро́зум intellect - ро́зуму of intellect

ко́лер a colour - ко́леру of a colour

канфлікт a conflict - канфлікту of a conflict

прагрэ́с progress - прагрэ́су of progress

рух movement - ру́ху of movement

со́рам shame - со́раму of shame

боль an ache - бо́лю of an ache

(f) scientific, social or religious theories or trends, usually ending with ism

ідэалізм idealism - ідэалізму of the idealism

футуры́зм futurism - футуры́зму of the futurism

буды́зм Buddhism - буды́зму of Buddhism

ісла́м Islam - ісла́му of Islam

BUT some nouns of this group, denoting social trends characteristic to the Soviet epoch, take the а ending

камунізм communism - камунізма of the communism

сацыялізм socialism - сацыялізма of the socialism

Some nouns can have different meanings that fall to different groups and thus may have different Genitive endings, depending on the meaning.

кава́лак ду́бу a piece of oak (дуб denotes a material)

ко́рань ду́ба a root of an oak (дуб denotes a tree)

про́цьма наро́ду plenty of people (народ denotes a collection of people)

во́ля наро́да the will of the people (народ denotes a people as a single body)

Countries and Capitals
Read the names of the countries and the cities given below. Then make up the sentences saying which city is the capital (сталіца) of which country.

Cities: Мінск, Масква́, Вільнюс, Ры́га, Кіеў, Варша́ва, Ло́ндан, Пра́га, Ата́ва, Пары́ж, Рым, Тэгера́н, Іерусалім, Буэ́нас-А́йрэс, Кінгстан

Countries: А́нглія, Аргенты́на, Белару́сь (feminine), Ізра́іль, Іра́н, Іта́лія, Кана́да, Ла́твія, Літва́, По́льшча, Расія, Украіна, Фра́нцыя, Чэ́хія, Яма́йка

Sample: Мінск - сталіца Беларусі. (or Сталіца Беларусі - Мінск)

Clue: Масква - сталіца Расіі. Вільнюс - сталіца Літвы. Рыга - сталіца Латвіі. Кіеў - сталіца Украіны. Варшава - сталіца Польшчы. Лондан - сталіца Англіі. Прага - сталіца Чэхіі. Атава - сталіца Канады. Парыж - сталіца Францыі. Рым - сталіца Італіі. Іерусалім - сталіца Ізраіля. Тэгеран - сталіца Ірана. Буэнас-Айрэс - сталіца Аргентыны. Кінгстан - сталіца Ямайкі.

Rivers and Tributaries
Read the names of some Belarusian rivers being tributaries (прыто́кі) of other rivers. Make up sentences saying whose tributaries they are. Refer the map if you have difficulties.

The tributaries: Дры́са, Сож, Вілія, Буг, Пры́пяць (feminine), Піна, Бярэ́зіна, Мухаве́ц, Свіслач (feminine), Я́сельда

The rivers: Вісла, Дзвіна́, Дне́пр, Нёман

Sample: Дрыса - прыток Дзвіны.

Clue: Сож - прыток Дняпра. Вілія - прыток Нёмана. Буг - прыток Віслы. Прыпяць - прыток Дняпра. Піна - прыток Прыпяці. Бярэзіна - прыток Дняпра. Мухавец - прыток Буга. Свіслач - прыток Бярэзіны. Ясельда - прыток Прыпяці.

Try to think out: Is it possible to invert these sentences, i.e. to say Прыток Дзвіны - Дрыса etc.? Why?

Answer: No. Such sentences would imply uniqueness, i.e. that the Drysa is the only tributary of the Dvina etc. With countries and their capitals it was possible to invert the sentences because we dealt a "one-to-one" relation.

Singular Masculine Genitive
Put either а or у endings in place of underscores.

(1) цэнтр Мінск_ (the centre of Minsk)

(2) сло́ік мёд_ (a jar of honey)

(3) кава́лак хле́б_ (a piece of bread)

(4) перамо́га камунізм_ (the victory of communism)

(5) канча́так назо́ўнік_ (an ending of a noun)

(6) пачуццё гу́мар_ (the sense of humour)

(7) пагро́за канфлікт_ (a threat of a conflict)

(8) хвост ты́гр_ (a tail of a tiger)

(9) дырэ́ктар заво́д_ (a manager of a factory)

(10) вы́раз тва́р_ (the expression of the face)

(11) мэр го́рад_ (the mayor of the city)

(12) пача́так даждж_́ (the beginning of rain)

(13) пача́так шля́х_ (the beginning of the way)

Clue: a - 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11; у - 2, 6, 7, 10, 12, 13

Translation
Translate into Belarusian.

(1) This woman is a secretary of the manager.

(2) The headmaster of the school is travelling.

(3) Here is a jar of water.

(4) This is the root of the conflict.

(5) These oaks are trees of the forest.

(6) That street is the beginning of the way.

(7) What is the capital of Belarus? The capital of Belarus is Minsk.

(8) How are your students working? They are working well.

(9) What are the tributaries of the Dnieper? The tributaries of the Dnieper are the Sozh, the Prypiat and the Berezina.

Clue: (1) Гэтая жанчына - сакратарка дырэктара. (2) Дырэктар школы вандруе. (3) Тут слоік вады. (4) Гэта корань канфлікту. (5) Гэтыя дубы - дрэвы лесу. (6) Тая вуліца - пачатак шляху. (7) Якая сталіца Беларусі? - [Сталіца Беларусі -] Мінск. (8) Як працуюць твае студэнты? - [Яны працуюць] добра. (9) Якія прытокі Дняпра? - [Прытокі Дняпра -] Сож, Прыпяць і Бярэзіна.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Belarusian/Lesson 11


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Applied History of Psychology/Conceptualization of childhood

Models of Human Development
Theories of child development have evolved over time to reflect "cultural values, philosophical thinking about children, and scientific progress" (Berk, 2000, p. 11). To fully understand modern theories of child development it is important to consider some of the early ideas that people held about children.

In Medieval times, from the sixth through to the fifteenth century, children were thought of as miniature versions of adults. Age was viewed as unimportant and a review of family and civil records from that time reveals that the age of persons was rarely mentioned. Although children were likened to smaller versions of adults (this is especially evident in the art of the time), there was some recognition of the need to protect children from adults who might mistreat them and early writings revealed that there were special instructions specifically outlined for the care of children. However, there were no theoretical conceptualizations about the "uniqueness" of childhood or separate developmental periods as we have today (Berk, 2000).

The sixteenth century reflected a "revised image of childhood [that] sprang from the religious movement that gave birth to Protestantism" (Berk, 2000, p. 11). It was believed that children were born evil and that they had to be taught how to become civilized (Shahar, 1990). As a result, a harsh and punitive parenting style was strongly endorsed. However, it is unclear whether or not this type of parenting was endorsed by most families at that time. Moran and Vinovskis (1986) suggest that most Puritan families, emigrating from England to the United States at that time, were reluctant to use such harsh and punitive discipline. Rather they tried to find a way to balance “discipline with indulgence, severity with permissiveness” (Moran & Vinovskis, 1986, p. 29). Parents endorsed reason and tried to teach their children how to decipher right from wrong.

In the seventeenth century, the Enlightenment brought new conceptualizations of childhood that “emphasized ideals of human dignity and respect. Conceptions of childhood appeared that were more humane than those of centuries past” (Berk, 2000, p. 11). British philosopher, John Locke, believed that children were essentially born as “blank slates” (tabula rasa) and that their character developed through the interaction and experience they had with the world. Children were viewed as having a passive role in their development and the type of person that they became was attributable to those persons and/or sensory experiences that “wrote on their slate.” Locke promoted kind and compassionate treatment of children and believed that it was parents’ responsibility to serve as “rational tutors” for children, molding children through positive instruction and example (Berk, 2000).

During the eighteenth century the idea that children were “blank slates” to be written on by others was discarded and replaced with the idea that children were “noble savages, naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth” (Berk, 2000, p. 12). French philosopher, Jean Jacques Rousseau adopted a child-centered approach to development which emphasized adult responsiveness to the needs of children at four different stages of development including: infancy, childhood, late childhood, and adolescence.

Rousseau’s approach to child development was the first to introduce the concepts of stages of development and maturation (two concepts that are still found in modern theories of child development), as childhood was defined as something unique from adulthood that progressed in a discontinuous and stepwise process (Berk, 2000).

Currently, a much more humanist view of children is discussed in the fields of pre- and perinatal psychology and other areas of psychology. The idea that even pre-born children can feel pain, react to the emotional experiences of their mother, and learn is recognized.


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Applied History of Psychology/Learning Theories

In the 19th century the behaviorist school of thought had some components in common with the more popular Psychoanalytic and Gestalt theories of psychology. There were far more differences however, especially relating to internal states of mind, consciousness and the concept of private events. Behaviorism can be considered a philosophy of psychology that explains all things that organisms do. This chapter will include the major contributions to the behaviorist movement from John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura.

John B Watson (1878-1958)
John Broadus Watson (1878–1958) is widely regarded as having been the founder of the school of behaviorism, which dominated much of North American psychology between 1920 and 1960. The central tenets of behaviorism are that scientific psychology must focus on the relationship between environmental contingencies and behavior, rather than on the presumed contents of consciousness, and that the principles governing behavior of humans and other animals are essentially identical (Greene, 1997).

John B. Watson was born in Travelers Rest, South Carolina, on January 9, 1878, into a very poor family. Watson was the fourth of six children. While he later described himself as a poor student, he entered Furman College at the age of 16 and graduated in 1899. A connection between one of Watson's professors at Furman, Gordon B. Moore, and the University of Chicago, seems to have smoothed the way for his entry to Chicago's graduate school. In 1901, Watson decided to major in psychology, under the supervision of James Rowland Angell (1869–1949), a leading functionalist, and minor in both philosophy under John Dewey (1959-1952) and neurology under Henry Herbert Donaldson (1857–1938). During his tenure at Chicago, Watson also took neurology courses from the famous German biologist Jacques Loeb (1859–1924). His dissertation, accepted in 1903, described the neurological and psychological development of the white rat. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago in 1903. His dissertation, "Animal Education: An Experimental Study on the Psychical Development of the White Rat, Correlated with the Growth of its Nervous System," described the neurological and psychological development of the white rat and is the first modern scientific book on rat behavior.

In 1905 Watson travelled to Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore to learn vivisectional techniques, and returned to Chicago as an instructor in 1906. The following year, 1907, he was offered the post of associate professor at Johns Hopkins by James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934), the famous developmental-psychological theorist, and founding editor of the prestigious journal, Psychological Review. Within weeks of Watson's arrival, Baldwin was forced from his chair by a scandal, leaving Watson in charge of both the department and the journal.

In 1913, Watson published what is sometimes considered his most important work, the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It"—sometimes called "The Behaviorist Manifesto." The following year, 1914, he published the book, "Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology", and in 1915 he became President of the American Psychological Association. The following year he extended behaviorism to the study of mental illness. Soon after, came one of his most important books, "Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist (1919). Watson was influenced by the Nobel Prize-winning (1904) work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) on conditioned reflexes. Soon after, Watson began adopting and adapting Pavlov's "reflexological" terminology to human behavior. In 1920 he published his most famous conditioning experiment; the "Little Albert" study in which he produced, in a small child, conditioned fear of a white rabbit by repeatedly pairing it with the loud "clang" of a metal bar. This conditioned fear was then shown to generalize to other white furry objects. The controversy about this experiment is actually a modern development. There seemed to be little concern about it in Watson's time.

Although Watson's academic star burned brightly, it was destined to be short-lived. He had an affair with Rosalie Raynor, his graduate student assistant, and divorced his first wife. He was asked by the university to resign his position. Watson later married Raynor and the two remained together until her death in 1935. After leaving his academic position, he continued to publish books on Behaviorism (1924), and The Psychological Care of Infant and Child (1928). In 1930s his main career interest had shifted to the advertising business, and he ended his scholarly pursuits. He spent his last years living a reclusive life on a farm in Connecticut. Before his death, Watson burned many of his unpublished personal papers and letters. John B Watson died in 1958 at age 80, shortly after receiving a citation from the American Psychological Association for his contributions to psychology.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was born on September 14, 1849 in a small village in central Russia, Ryazan, where his father, Peter Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village priest. His family hoped that he would become a priest, and he went to a theological seminary. Then, in the 1860s, the cultural environment within the Russian empire changed dramatically. The regime of Tsar Alexander II permitted the publication of Western scientific works in the Russian language. In the Ryazan’ Public Library, Pavlov read popular renditions of physiology and Darwin's theory of evolution (Windholz, 1997). After reading these works, he became interested in natural science and rejected a career in the church. He then matriculated in 1870 at the Faculty of the Physical–Mathematical Sciences of the University of St. Petersburg (Windholz, 1997).

In 1875, Pavlov completed his course with an outstanding record and received the degree of Candidate of Natural Sciences. However, impelled by his overwhelming interest in physiology, he decided to continue his studies and proceeded to the Academy of Medical Surgery to take the third course there. He completed this in 1879 and was again awarded a gold medal. In 1883, Pavlov was awarded an MD degree by the Imperial Military–Medical Academy (Gureeva & Chebysheva in Windholz, 1997). After a competitive examination, Pavlov won a fellowship at the Academy. This together with his position as Director of the Physiological Laboratory at the clinic of the famous Russian clinician, S. P. Botkin, enabled him to continue his research work.

In 1890 Pavlov was invited to organize and direct the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. Under his direction, over a period of 45 years, the Institute became one of the most important centres of physiological research. He was also was appointed Professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy in 1890, and five years later he was appointed to Chair of Physiology, which he held till 1925.

It was at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in the years 1891-1900 that Pavlov did the bulk of his research on the physiology of digestion. Pavlov's research into the physiology of digestion led him logically to create a science of conditioned reflexes. Pavlov was profoundly influenced by Darwin's concept of the struggle for existence and its functionalistic implications. In the 1890s, he hypothesized that the upper tract of animals’ digestive system responded functionally to specific foods, namely, a small salivary secretion to moist foods, such as meat, and a larger salivary secretion to dry foods, such as bread. Pavlov's student, S. G. Vul'fson (1898) tested this hypothesis, finding experimental support for Pavlov's hypothesis. In addition, Vul'fson found serendipitously that after eating the moist and dry foods, dogs that were “teased” from afar by these foods responded with a corresponding but diminished salivary secretion. Salivation to stimuli presented at a distance was anomalous because, in view of the Cartesian conceptualization of reflexive action, an immediate contact between environmental agents and the organism's sensory receptors was required (Windholz, 1997). The use of precise and sensitive salivary reflex conditioning as a method in the study of the normal animal's cortical processes was of revolutionary significance considering that the previously used method of exploring cortical functions was extirpation performed on a traumatized animal (Pavlov, 1912/1951j in Windholz, 1997).

In 1903, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid, Pavlov read a paper on «The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals». In this paper the definition of conditioned and other reflexes was given and it was shown that a conditioned reflex should be regarded as an elementary psychological phenomenon, which at the same time is a physiological one. It followed from this that the conditioned reflex was a clue to the mechanism of the most highly developed forms of reaction in animals and humans to their environment and it made an objective study of their psychic activity possible.

Subsequently, experiments carried out by Pavlov and his pupils showed that conditioned reflexes originate in the cerebral cortex, which acts as the «prime distributor and organizer of all activity of the organism» and which is responsible for the very delicate equilibrium of an animal with its environment. In 1905 it was established that any external agent could by coinciding in time with an ordinary reflex, become the conditioned signal for the formation of a new conditioned reflex. In connection with the discovery of this general postulate Pavlov proceeded to investigate «artificial conditioned reflexes». Research in Pavlov's laboratories over a number of years revealed for the first time the basic laws governing the functioning of the cortex of the great hemispheres.

Even in the early stages of his research Pavlov received world acclaim and recognition. In 1901 he was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 1904 he was awarded a Nobel Prize, in 1907 he was elected Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 1912 he was given an honorary doctorate at Cambridge University, and in the following years honorary membership of various scientific societies abroad. Finally, upon the recommendation of the Medical Academy of Paris, he was awarded the Order of the Legion of Honour (1915).

The Communist Party and the Soviet Government saw to it that Pavlov and his collaborators were given unlimited scope for scientific research. The Soviet Union became a prominent centre for the study of physiology, which was demonstrated by the fact that the 15th International Physiological Congress of August 9–17, 1935, was held in Leningrad and Moscow.

Pavlov nurtured a great school of physiologists, which produced many distinguished pupils. He left the richest scientific legacy, a brilliant group of pupils, who would continue developing the ideas of their master, and a host of followers all over the world. Pavlov died in Leningrad on February 27, 1936.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning theory states that a neutral stimulus can be paired with an excitatory stimulus to have the previously neutral stimulus elicit the response that is associated with the excitatory stimulus. According to Classical Conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (US) (for example, a piece of meat in a dog's mouth) leads to an unconditioned response (UR) (for example, salivation in a dog). The US can then be paired with a conditioned stimulus (CS) (for example, a bell), which initially elicits no reaction. It is paired repeatedly until the CS begins to elicit a conditioned response (CR), which in this case is salivation. The way it would happen is that the bell would ring and then the dog was fed, which was repeated several times until it began to elicit salivation (CR) from the dog in response to the ringing of the bell (CS) even when the food (US) was removed. The CR could also be eliminated by continuous presentations of the CS without the US (in this case, ringing the bell without giving the dog any food). This process is called extinction. However, reintroducing the CS (the ringing of the bell) after a few days following extinction results once again in the CR (salivation), which Pavlov termed spontaneous recovery.

Operant Conditioning
E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949)

In the late 1800s, Thorndike was studying mind reading in children for his Ph.d. He would ask a child to guess what he was thinking and if they guessed correctly they got a piece of candy. He soon found that the children made the same guess again if their answer had led to a piece of candy previously. His research with children was a failure however this led Thorndike to study learning in animals. Thorndike was most famous for his work with cats. He built a puzzle box in which he placed a cat inside. The cat would then thrash around until it happened to press the latch that opened the door so the cat could escape. The cats were then put back in the box repeatedly. Eventually, the cat learned to press the latch to escape (Thorndike, 1898). Thorndike's research led to his famous Law of Effect (Thorndike, 1927). The Law of Effect states that if behaviour is followed by positive outcomes, the behaviour will most likely be repeated. Alternatively, if the behaviour if followed by a negative outcome, the beahviour will not likely be repeated (Thorndike, 1927).

 * Law of Effect:    Learning = Behaviour + Consequence

Thorndike helped steer the field of psychology away from unobservable internal states and focused on measurable and observable behaviour.

In the 1930's Skinner further expanded Thorndike's theory and Watson's desire for practical psychology of behavioural control.

B.F.Skinner(1904-1990)

 * "All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur, and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur." (Skinner, 1953)

B.F. Skinner was responsible for expanding the field of behaviourism as described by Watson. He described the distinction between RESPONDENT CONDITIONING and OPERANT CONDITIONING whereby the consequence of a behaviour controls the future occurrence of the behaviour. Through work with animal conditioning Skinner discovered the now famous 3-term Contingency: ANTECEDENT-->BEHAVIOUR-->CONSEQUENCE

Time Line Skinner was a psychological revolutionary who remains extremely influential in present day psychology, education and behaviourism. Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born in the small rural town of Susquhanna, Pennsylvania. He received a BA in English from Hamilton College in New York. Following graduation, he attempted a career in writing. After writing poetry and his first book about a 1904 coal strike entitled the Digest of Decisions of the Anthracite Board of Conciliation he decided that he had little to offer the literary world. After working at a book store and reading the works of Watson and Pavlov he soon changed his path and moved on to psychology. He went back to school and received his masters in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate in 1931 from Harvard.
 * 1904: Born March 20
 * 1930: Initiated research in reflexes
 * 1930-31: Received Harvard Fellowship
 * 1938: The Behavior of Organisms was published
 * 1942: Awarded the Warren Medal by the Society of Experimental Psychology
 * 1945: Skinner headed the Psychology Department at the Indiana University where he developed the Teaching Machine and Air Crib
 * 1948: Walden Two was published
 * 1948: Began research with pigeons
 * 1950(late): Psychology: A study of a science
 * 1953: The Analysis of Behavior; American Psychologist
 * 1953: Published Science and Human Behavior
 * 1956: Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement described
 * 1957: Ferster and Skinner published Schedules of Reinforcement which described relative performances under CRF to VR, FI, or VI schedules
 * 1957: Introduced the term "Verbal Behavior" and published the books entitled Verbal Behavior and Schedules of Reinforcement
 * 1961: Published The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction
 * 1966: Skinner introduced the concept of critical period in reinforcing an event
 * 1966: Elected president of the Pavlovian Society
 * 1968: Skinner identified the critical characteristics of programmed instruction
 * 1968: Published The Technology of Teaching
 * 1969: Published Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis
 * 1971: Published Beyond Freedom and Dignity
 * 1974: Published About Behaviorism
 * 1978: Published Reflections on Behaviorism and Society
 * 1982: Published Skinner for the Classroom
 * 1983: Published Enjoy Old Age: A Program for Self Management
 * 1989: Published Recent Issues in The Analysis of Behavior
 * 1990: Skinner died on August 18

During his 60 year career, Skinner discovered important principles of operant conditioning, which is a type of learning that involves rewards and punishments. Skinner was a strict behaviourist and believed that operant conditioning could explain even the most complex of human behaviour.

Skinner's Research on Rats and Pigeons

After many attempts at different apparatus for his rats Skinner invented the cumulative recorder, which was used in the analysis of schedules of reinforcement (see section below) and plotted the cumulative number of responses over time. While working with his rats in the cumulative recorder box (i.e., Skinner box) he discovered that the rate of responding did not depend on on what occurred prior to the behaviour (as Watson and Pavlov stated), but on what occurred after the behaviour. Unlike the reflexes that Pavlov had studied, this kind of behaviour Skinner described operated on the environment and was controlled by environmental effects. Skinner named this operant behavior. The process of arranging the contingencies of reinforcement responsible for producing this new kind of behaviour he called operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938). Skinner's work with rats in his operant conditioning apparatuses (often referred to as a 'Skinner box') led him to discover a process he called shaping. When the rat is initially put in the 'Skinner box' it does not know that it has to push the lever to get food so it is rewarded for successive approximations to the desired behaviour. For example, first the rat was reinforced for facing the lever, then for going toward the lever, then if it stands on its  hind legs near the lever, then for touching the lever and finally only for pressing the lever. Skinner also established secondary reinforcers which are events that signal that a positive reinforcement is on the way. For example, Skinner set up the 'Skinner box' to give food pellets when the rat pressed the lever but only if a signal light was on. Therefore, the light acts as a secondary reinforcer signaling to the rat that food pellets are available.

In 1944, during World War II, Skinner received funding for a top secret project to teach pigeons to guide bombs (Project Pigeon). Skinner trained the pigeons to peck continuously at a target which would in turn hold a missile on a target. Project Pigeon was discontinued due to another top secret project testing radar. Although this project was a failure it was successful in that Skinner discovered that pigeons behave more rapidly then rats, allowing more rapid discoveries of the effect of new contingencies (Skinner, 1938). Skinner never worked with rats again.

In 1948 he published a paper entitled, Superstition' in the Pigeon. The pigeons were put in experimental cages and a clock was set to present food at regular intervals regardless of the bird's behaviour. In this situation operant behaviour usually took place. For example, one bird was conditioned to turn counter-clock wise in the cages 2 to 3 times between reinforcement. The conditioning process was usually obvious in that the bird happens to be executing some response at the same time that food appears and as a result it tends to repeat that response. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behaviour and the presentation of food, demonstrating a sort of superstition (Skinner, 1948).

Types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement= when a person or animal performs a desired behaviour and gets a desired reward. For example, when a rat presses the lever (desired behaviour) it is rewarded with a food pellet (desired reward).

Negative reinforcement= is when an undesirable event occurs until the person or animal performs a desired behaviour. For example, he floor of the rat cage is electrified until the rat presses the lever to turn off the electricity.

Positive and negative reinforcement both increase the frequency of a behaviour.

Punishment= is the opposite of reinforcement in that it decreases behaviour. The person or animal performs an undesirable behaviour and an aversive or negative consequence is administered.

Schedules of Reinforcement: In his work with pigeons and rats, Skinner found 4 main schedules of reinforcement; that is, ways in which he could reinforce behavior so that it would continue to occur. These four types of reinforcement included:

 * 1)Fixed Ratio (FR)
 * A fixed ratio reinforcement schedule involves waiting for a fixed number of responses to occur and then reinforcing the behaviour the next time the appropriate response is made.

 * 2) Fixed Interval (FI)
 * A fixed interval reinforcement schedule involves waiting for a fixed time to pass and then reinforcing the behaviour the next time the appropriate response is made.

 * 3) Variable Ratio (VR)
 * A variable ratio reinforcement schedule involves providing reinforcement a for response when that response has occurred after a variable number of times.

 * 4) Variable Interval (VI)
 * A variable interval reinforcement schedule involves providing reinforcement for a response when that response has occurred after a variable amount of time has passed.

Based on Skinner's use of these very different types of reinforcement schedules, he found that variable reinforcement schedules (ratio and interval) were the ones that maintained behaviour best (Miller, 1997)

Verbal Behavior

"No black scorpion is falling upon this table"

In 1934 Skinner was dining with a professor of philosophy at which time he decided to expand on and promote behaviourism with his company. His guest acknowledged that science might account for most of human behavior but he challenged it did not include verbal behavior. He ended the dinner with a challenge asking Skinner to account for his behaviour as he sat there saying, "No black scorpion is falling upon this table". The next day began his book Verbal Behavior. It took him 22 years to complete from 1934 to 1957. In this book Skinner states that verbal behaviour requires a separate analysis because it does not operate on the environment directly (as non verbal behaviour does), but rather through the behaviour of other people in a verbal conversation (Skinner, 1957). Verbal Behaviour expands his lab work and principles of selection by consequences to what people say, write, gesture and think. Skinner claims that the structure of a sentence consists of associations between the words in the sentence. For example, if a child knows the words 'dog' and 'run' and hears then together in a sentence like "the dog was running" the child may imitate "dog run" and is rewarded/reinforced by their parent. In this situation the word 'dog' has become a conditioned stimulus for the word 'run'(Skinner, 1957). Skinner detailed what is often referred to as the four-term contingency model made up of Motivating Operation (MO), Discriminative Stimulus (SD), Response (R), and Reinforcement (Sr). Also within this book he introduced the terms and concepts; mand, tact, audience, relation, echoic, textual and intraverbal (Skinner, 1957). A mand is most simply a request, a tact is a term for labeling, and echoic is the imitation of language. Intraverbal is a verbal behaviour that is under the instructional control of other verbal behaviour. There are two types of intraverbal fill-ins (e.g., "A dog...?" and the child fill in "barks") and wh- questions (e.g., child responds to "What is something that barks?"). An MO (Motivating Operation) relates to a condition of deprivation and aversion (e.g., if a child is deprived of an item they will have higher MO of that item and are more likely to mand (i.e., request) for that item). A Discriminative Stimulus (SD) is more simply the instruction delivered.

Skinner's book Verbal Behaviour sparked much controversy most notably, Noam Chomsky's review of the book which he published in 1959 (Chomsky, 1959).

B.F. Skinner-Why was he controversial?

A brief description of Walden II Skinner began writing Walden Two in the summer of 1945 and wrote a preface to the novel in 1976, nearly 28 years after its original publication. Skinner explains that at the time of writing the novel, western civilization was in a relatively good place. Hitler was dead, the Great Depression of the 30's was over and forgotten, communism was no longer considered a threat and Hiroshima hadn't yet occurred. He explains that he wrote "Walden II" due to personal dissatisfactions with society, particularly involving women struggling with domesticity and the state of education. This book was particularly controversial as it describes a fictional utopian society that can be considered scientifically efficient. His goal in writing this book was to work out how his theories could be used in "real" life.

Perhaps what is of most interest is the "Walden II Code". This was developed in the book as the rules that all members of the community must follow. The main components of the code are as follows: (1)engage in physically hard labour (2)avoid unnecessary possessions (3)no gratitude is to be expressed (4)individuals should not be compared (5)avoid gossip about personal ties (6)No exclusive time is to be spent with one's own children (7)One shouldn't talk to outsiders about community affairs (8)Personal competition should be discouraged (9) In Walden Two there are no heroes nor is history relevant (10) Marriage plans are voided by tested-for psychological incompatibilities (11)Members are not to argue about the Walden Code with members-at-large; but, to see the managers(12)No one is to act for the benefit of anyone else except as an agent of the community (Rozycki, 1999). Being part of this community is described as being hard work with little room for materialistic ideals. But how is operant conditioning and behaviourism incorporated into this community? Individuals in this society earn work credits for the quality of work completed instead of the quantity. Compensation is dependent on the demand or the need for a particular job to be completed. This society also promotes short (four hour) work days with a concentration on being happy, and having an appreciation for arts and sciences. In addition to this, positive reinforcement is used to reinforce adults for appropriate child rearing techniques, as well as for work productivity. So why was this novel so controversial? This can best be described in an article by Edward Rozycki(1999) Rozycki has 3 main arguments against this novel and its ideologies: First it is argued that although Skinner vehemently considered himself an empiricist and not a theorist, "most of his work is theory based on what he considered the world to be". Rozycki argues that Skinner is not in fact a great scientist, as he chose not to run controls in his experiments to make them empirically valid. Second, it is argued that Skinner is advocating a totalitarian or communist society. It is evident that writing about a communist "utopia" in 1948 would be the cause of much uproar in America. Finally, Rozycki argues that all members of the community are so happy because if they do not behave that way, they will be forced out of the community. Other critics argue that nothing can be concluded from an experiment on a small scale community. Skinner claims that in order to make change, one must start with a "pilot project" before attempting to change an entire population. Walden II can be considered that pilot project. I think it's important to note here that Skinner wrote a piece of fiction and it probably did not warrant such outrage and controversy. Then again, the Satanic Verses by Salmon Rushdie was also a piece of fiction.

The Baby Tender Skinner built a heated crib with a Plexiglass window where a baby could sleep without suffocating in blankets or getting caught in the bars of a crib. The device was meant to serve as a temperature and humidity controlled environment as an aid for child rearing by reducing laundry and diaper rash and teaching babies to be more confident, mobile, comfortable, and healthy and therefore less prone to cry. Skinner sent his invention to Ladies Home Journal who published an article entitled “Baby in a box” (Smith, 1999). This led to major confusion by the public who believed that Skinner created a “baby box” similar to the Skinner box. The confusion and criticism was unwarranted, as Skinner simply built the crib as a new and improved place for babies to sleep (Smith, 1999).

Practical Applications of Skinner's theories- Contributions to and History of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) The roots of behaviour analysis are in the theories of B.F. Skinner. Applied Behaviour Analysis can be described as the science that studies environmental events that change behaviour (Miller, 1997). The defining characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis are as follows: 1) It is Applied. This is determined by the social significance of the behavior under investigation. That is, the behavior is important to either the subject, or society (Cooper et al., 1995) 2) It is Behavioral. The behavior should be in need of improvement, and should be measurable. The behavior should also be observable. 3) It is Analytic. The experimenter shold be able to demonstrate a functional relationship between the manipulated events (the environment) and the behavior in question.  In other words, how does one affect the other and how can the experimenter control it. 4) It is 'Technological. All procedures used in studies should be precisely described so that anyone experienced in ABA could run the study without question. 5) It is Conceptually Systematic. There are many procedures that can be used to alter behaviour but most are derived from a few basic principles of behavior.  Research and procedures in ABA should be described using these basic principles. 6)It is Effective. ABA must produce clinical or social significance in order to be deemed effective as opposed to traditional science whereby statistical significance proves a study to be effective 7)It has Generality. The behavior change must last over time and appear in other environments in which it was not originally tested in. (Cooper et al., 1995)

One of the first psychologists to use Skinner's theories for testing human behavior was Paul Fuller. In 1949, he conducted experiments with an 18 year old boy who was described at the time as a "vegetative idiot". He was bedridden and unable to roll over independently. Fuller filled a syringe filled with warm milk and sugar and injected it into the boy's mouth every time he moved his right arm. Within four sessions, the boy was moving his arm to a vertical position at a rate of 3 times per minute. Skinner would call this the process of Positive Reinforcement, as described above.

Skinner's publications are extremely influential in both guiding the practice of behaviourism as a science, and also in extending the application of these principles to new areas. (Cooper, et al. 1995). Although the theories of ABA are well known in the context of teaching children and adults with autism and other developmental disabilities, it is used in practice in a wide range of areas. Some of these areas are as follows:

Mental illnesses-Reduction of inappropriate behaviours such as non-compliance and aggression in institutional settings, as well as teaching work and social skills.

Rehabilitation- Helping people regain normal functioning that they may have lost through some sort of trauma. ABA can help to promote compliance with physical therapy routines, to help with memory loss to help with chronic pain, and even to deal with addictions.

Community psychology- ABA can be used to design intervention programs for a large group of people or community. For example, behaviour interventions have been used to help reduce littering, increase recycling, reduce energy consumption, reduce unsafe driving, increase use of seat belts, reduce speeding etc.

Clinical Psychology- Behaviour analysis is used to help clients deal with personal problems. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy is an extension of Behaviour analysis.

Business/Human services- ABA can be used in organizational settings and a new branch of ABA has now developed entitled Organizational Behaviour Management. The goal is to design interventions to improve work performance, decrease lateness, absenteeism, and accidents on the job.

Sports Psychology- ABA has been used to improve athletic performance during practice and in competition and also to help with coaching styles.

The list of areas that ABA has expanded to is endless. The theories of behaviorism as developed by all four of the major founders of this field have made a distinctive and long lasting impression on the field as it is practised today.

Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism- Dr.Ivar Lovaas Dr. Ivar Lovaas is currently a Professor Emeritus at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA). Most famous for his studies in the 60's using behaviour analysis for the treatment of children with autism, he is now considered the father of ABA. Lovaas published his most famous study entitled "Behavioral Treatment and Normal Educational and Intellectual Functioning in Young Autistic Children" in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1987. The data collection for this study however, began in 1970. This particular study compared treatment for two groups of similar young children with autism. Participants were assigned to one of two groups: an "intensive treatment" experimental group that received 40 hours of one-to-one treatment per week, or the "minimal treatment" group that received 10 hours or less of one-to-one treatment per week. Results showed that 47% of the experimental "intensive" group achieved normal intellectual and educational functioning, while only 2% of the minimal treatment group did so (Lovaas, 1987). Although this study had its limitations, it shows strong support for behaviour analysis and its effect on behavior change for young children with autism. Skinner's original theories of positive and negative reinforcement were used treat these at-risk children.

Albert Bandura (1925 - present)
Born in the small town of Mundare, Alberta, Canada on December 4, 1925,Albert Bandura would grow to be one today’s most influential psychologists and learning theorists. He attended a local elementary and high school and later received a Bachelors degree in psychology from the University of British Columbia (1949). He pursued graduate studies at the University of Iowa, where he completed a Doctorate degree in 1952. It was during his graduate work that he developed an interest in behaviourism and learning theory.

In 1965, Albert Bandura made a statement about the process of learning that was at that time considered to be radical and against all thinking on the matter: “children can learn by merely observing the behaviour of a social model, even without first performing the responses themselves or receiving any reinforcement for performing them” (Shaffer, 1999, p. 50).

Clearly, his thoughts went against Skinner’s ideas that one must be reinforced for their responses in order for learning to occur. While Bandura agreed with Skinner that operant conditioning is an important type of learning (especially with animals), he believed that humans are cognitive beings who unlike animals are likely to think about the links between their behaviour and its consequences (Shaffer, 1999, p. 49). He believed that humans are more likely to be influenced by what they believe will happen than by actual experience. Behaviour is not simply shaped by immediate consequences, but rather by considering the implications of it.

In seeing humans as ‘active information processors’, Bandura emphasized our tendency to learn from observation. He proposed that learning can also result from observing the behaviour of other people (models). For example, a two-year old could learn how to ‘play’ with the family pet simply from watching her older sister do so. Bandura suggested that we “must attend carefully to the model’s behaviour, actively digest it or encode what we observe, and then store this information in memory (as an image or verbal label) in order to imitate what we have observed at a later time” (p. 49).

In an effort to test and support his theory, in 1965 Bandura conducted a now notable experiment on observational learning. In this study, nursery-school aged children were presented with a short film in which an adult model directed aggression towards an inflatable Bobo Doll. Three main conditions included: (a) the model-reward condition, in which the children saw a second adult give the aggressive model candy for a “championship performance”, (b) the model-punished condition, in which the children saw a second adult scold the model for their aggression, and (c) the no-consequence condition in which the children simply saw the model behave aggressively. Results indicated that following the film viewing, children, when left alone in a room with the Bobo doll and props used by the adult aggressor, imitated quite readily the responses they had witnessed on screen. Those in the model-reward and no-consequence conditions were more willing to imitate the aggressive acts than those in the model-punished condition. However, further testing revealed that children in each condition had learning equally as much from each learning condition by just observing the adult models. Thus, Bandura demonstrated that reinforcement is not necessary for observational learning, though it may impact performance.

In addition, Bandura also proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism to describe his idea that human development reflects an interaction among an active person, their behaviour and their environment. Unlike Watson and Skinner who proposed that the environment exclusively influenced behaviour, Bandura (and others) suggested that the relationship between the person, their behaviour and the environment is bi-directional. Thus, each factor can influence the other, suggesting that children are actively involved in moulding the environment that influences their own development and growth (Shaffer, 1999).


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Applied History of Psychology/Theories on Intelligence

During the era of psychometrics and behaviourism, intelligence was thought to be a single, inherit entity. The human mind was believed by some to be a "blank slate" that could be educated and trained to learn anything if taught in the appropriate manner. However, contrary to this notion, an increasing number of researchers and psychologists now believe that the opposite is true; that is, individuals are born with and possess different levels of ability. The development and use of intelligence tests have been one way that researchers and psychologists have attempted to support their argument. Gardner (1993) expresses this view quite elegantly, stating that "there exists a multitude of intelligences, quite independent of each other; that each intelligence has its own strengths and constraints; that the mind is far from unencumbered at birth; and that it is unexpectedly difficult to teach things that go against early 'naive' theories that challenge the natural lines of force within an intelligence and its matching domains."

Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner has earned his place in psychological history for revolutionizing education with his Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983).

Howard Gardner was born in Scranton Pennsylvania in 1943, five years after his parents fled from Nürnberg, Germany. The family's loss of Howard's older brother resulted in his being raised in a protective environment that favoured the pursuit of intellectual interests over adventure (Winner, 2007).

As a young man, Gardner attended Harvard University with the intention of studying law. This notion changed, however, he met a number of influential individuals: psychoanalyst Eric Erikson, sociologist

David Riesman, and cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner. Gardner was consequentially inspired to pursue interests in psychology and social sciences (Winner, 2007).

Gardner graduated summa cum laude from Harvard University in 1965, and entered Harvard University's Doctoral programme in 1966. In 1967, he began working on Project Zero—a research team on arts education. This pursuit became a forum for Gardner to explore his interest in human cognition; it also became a passionate commitment that would span over twenty years (Winner, 2007).

By 1971, Gardner earned his PhD from Harvard, completing his dissertation on style and sensitivity in children. He then lectured at Harvard until 1986, when he began teaching at the Harvard Graduate School of Education (Winner, 2007).

To date, Howard Gardner has received honorary degrees from twenty-one different colleges and universities. Internationally, these include institutions in Ireland, Italy, Israel, and Chile. He continues to co-direct Project Zero with David Perkins.

Some of Gardner's accomplishments include the following:

 * First American to receive the University of Louisville's Grawemeyer Award in Education in 1990
 * Received a Fellowship from the Hohn S. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation in 2002
 * Named an Honorary Professor at East China Normal University in Shanghai in 2004
 * Selected by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines as one of the 100 most influential intellectuals in the world in 2005

Gardner's first major book, The Shattered Mind, was published in 1975. He would write and publish at least fifteen more major books. Some of these works include: Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983), To Open Minds: Chinese Clues to the Dilemma of Contemporary Education (1989), The Unschooled Mind: How Children Think and How Schools Should Teach (1991), Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1993)—this second edition celebrated the ten year anniversary of the original work, Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century (1999), and The Disciplined Mind: Beyond Facts and Standardized Tests: The K-12 Education that Every Child Deserves (1999).

Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as "the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural settings" (Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He is most known for his work on the Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner's (1983) original theory of Multiple Intelligences comprised seven types of intelligences:

 * Linguistic Intelligence

 * Linguistic intelligence is the ability to learn languages and to use one's skill in using language effectively to accomplish specific goals. Individuals high in linguistic intelligence are often writers, poets, and lawyers.

 * Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

 * Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to analyze problems logically. It includes skill at completing mathematical operations and solving mathematical problems as well as the ability to investigate hypotheses scientifically. Those high in logical-mathematical intelligence tend to be logical thinkers with high deductive reasoning skills.

 * Spatial Intelligence

 * Spatial intelligence refers to an individual's ability to represent the spatial world in his or her own mind. It includes skill at recognizing and using patterns. Architects, urban planners, geographers, cartographers, pilots, and sailors tend to be high in spatial intelligence abilities.

 * Musical Intelligence

 * Musical intelligence includes abilities in composing and performing music and in recognizing and composing musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. It also includes skills in recognizing and appreciating musical patterns. Individuals high in musical intelligence may have talents in vocal and/or instrumental abilities.

 * Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

 * Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. According to Gardner, mental and physical abilities are related. Athletes, dancers, actors, and performers often display high levels of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

 * Interpersonal Intelligence

 * Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with an individual's ability understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people. Such skills are beneficial in working and getting along with others. Those high in interpersonal intelligence are often educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders, counsellors and social workers.

 * Intrapersonal Intelligence

 * Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the capacity to understand oneself--one's thoughts, feelings, fears, desires, and motivations. It includes the ability to use this knowledge toward successful outcomes. Writers and artists often demonstrate intrapersonal intelligence in their work.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences has received strong positive responses from educators, who readily adapted his work to applied settings in the classroom.

Since Gardner's original listing of the seven intelligences, other possible candidates or forms of intelligence have been discussed and considered for inclusion. These forms of intelligence include:

 * Naturalist Intelligence

 * Naturalist intelligence refers to an individual's ability to recognize, categorize, and draw upon certain features of the environment.

 * Spiritual Intelligence

 * Spiritual intelligence explores the nature of existence.

 * Existential Intelligence

 * Existential intelligence refers to the concern with the "ultimate issues."

 * Moral Intelligence

 * Moral Intelligence refers to the concern with rules, behaviours, and attitudes that govern the sanctity of human life as well as lives of other living creatures and the world they live in.

Robert Sternberg
Robert J. Sternberg may be considered one of the most prominent psychologists of this century. In addition to his theoretical contributions, Sternberg is the author of over 1100 published works. His major contributions to psychology have been his work on intelligence, creativity, and wisdom.

Robert J. Sternberg was born on December 8, 1949. From an early age, he was interested in intelligence, and at the age of 13 he designed and wrote his first intelligence test. Sternberg graduated in psychology from Yale University in 1972, and then went on to earn his Ph.D. from Stanford University in 1975. He also holds five honorary doctorates. Sternberg’s work in studying various types of intelligence led to development of his Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (1985). In 2004, he was IBM Professor of Psychology and Education, Professor of Management in the School of Management, and Director of the Center for the Psychology of Abilities, Competencies, and Expertise at Yale University. This centre has been relocated to Tufts University (2007). Sternberg was President-Elect of the Eastern Psychological Association from 2005-2006 (Tufts, 2007).

Robert J. Sternberg is currently Dean of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University. His commitments and accomplishments in the fields of psychology and education are many:

 * The American Psychological Foundation Board of Directors
 * The Editorial Board of Intelligence
 * The American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * The American Association for the Advancement of Science
 * The American Psychological Association—in 15 divisions
 * The American Psychological Society
 * The Connecticut Psychological Association
 * The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
 * The International Association for Empirical Aesthetics
 * The Laureate Chapter of Kappa Delta Pi
 * The Society of Experimental Psychologists
 * Former president of the APA Divisions of General Psychology, Educational Psychology, Psychology and the Arts, and Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology of the APA
 * Past Editor of the Psychological Bulletin and The APA Review of Books: Contemporary Psychology.
 * Winner of awards from APA, AERA, APS, to name a few (Tufts, 2007)

Some of Sternberg’s published works on intelligence include: Successful Intelligence (1998), Teaching for Successful Intelligence (1998), Handbook of Creativity (1999), Practical Intelligence in Everyday life (2000), and Why Schools Should Teach for Wisdom: The Balance Theory of Wisdom in Educational Settings (2001).

Sternberg (1985) holds that conventional measures of intelligence, such as SATs and IQ tests, fail to identify the high abilities many individuals possess. He recognizes that some intelligence abilities not measured by traditional means may be beneficial to one’s academic, professional, and personal success. From this perspective, traditional educational methods can be problematic for their tendency to favour students with strong memory and analytical skills (Sternberg, 1985). Oftentimes, students with strong creative and practical skills are disadvantaged due to teaching methods that do not allow them to demonstrate their strengths and skills (Sternberg, 1985). Sternberg also criticizes traditional methods for a tendency to favour students of higher socio-economic backgrounds. His research led to the development of the Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence and the theory of Successful Intelligence.

Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence
Sternberg's (1985) Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence includes three facets:

 * Analytical Intelligence (componential)
 * Analytical Intelligence is a measure of one's ability to solve academic problems, such as analogies and puzzles. It is seen as a reflection of how the individual relates to one's internal world.

 * Creative Intelligence (experiential)
 * Creative Intelligence reflects an individual's ability to connect their internal world to their external reality. It includes one's ability to use prior knowledge in new or innovative ways in different circumstances, such as finding a new approach to a problem. In this way, creative intelligence encompasses creative thinking.

 * Practical Intelligence (contextual)
 * Practical Intelligence involves one's ability to understand and effectively deal with everyday tasks. It is reflective of how the individual relates to the external world.

Most individuals will score higher in one of the three areas of intelligence.

Theory of Successful Intelligence
Sternberg (1999) holds that individuals who excel in all areas of the triarchic intelligence test may be considered to have successful intelligence, which he defines as the ability to achieve success in accordance with one's personal standards and within one's socio-cultural context. Individuals with high levels of successful intelligence tend to be better equipped for success and able to adapt well to their socio-cultural context.

Sternberg’s (1999) construct of successful intelligence may be applied to educational settings with the aim of increasing student learning while bridging gaps among socio-economic and ethnically diverse groups. In addition, the theory of successful intelligence offers researchers, psychologists, and educators an opportunity to redefine intelligence, and educational opportunity.

Charles E. Spearman
Charles Spearman was one of the earliest psychologists to propose a factor analytic approach to intelligence testing. His theory stated that there was one general factor (g) and one or more specific factors (s) that accounted for individuals' performance on intelligence tests. Spearman conceptualized the g factor as general mental energy. This factor is involved in deductive reasoning and is linked to the "skill, speed, intensity, and extent of intellectual output." (Sattler, 2001, 138). Spearman believed that general mental ability represented the 'inventive' aspect to mental ability rather than the 'reproductive' aspect. The cognitive abilities associated with general mental ability might include being able to describe how two concepts are related or being able to find a second idea that is related to one that has already been proposed. Tests with high g loading are complex and include tasks that involve reasoning and hypothesis testing (Sattler, 2001). Tests with low g loadings are less complex and include tasks that involve recognition, recall, and speed (Sattler, 2001).

Emotional Intelligence
The construct of emotional intelligence, or (EQ), is becoming an increasingly valued area of psychological research due to the adaptive properties it holds for both the individual and society. Experts vary somewhat in their definition of emotional intelligence and the standards for its empirical assessment, but most agree that individuals having high EQ scores possess character traits that foster strong interpersonal skills, excellent coping strategies, and decision-making abilities that lead to positive outcomes. Theories and applications of emotional intelligence aim to improve quality of life of the individual by helping her/him to achieve goals, form satisfying relationships, find meaningful work, and attain personal and professional success. An understanding of emotional intelligence is therefore not only conducive to intellectual growth, it holds a significant role in individual happiness.

The study of intelligence has a rich history in cognition, and it was long held that the arousal state of emotion caused disorganization of cognitive activity (Massey, 2002). Charles Darwin challenged this notion when he wrote The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872. Darwin's work recognized the emotional system as important to survival across species. According to Darwin's theory, emotions served as an important signaling system that served as being highly adaptive (Darwin, 1872).

About a century later, Howard Gardner challenged the traditional notion of IQ in his day by introducing the world to new intelligences, proposing that individuals have many intelligences in a variety of abilities. His famous book titled Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983) outlined seven new intelligences with highly adaptive properties. Two aspects of his theory, interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences, correspond to some aspects of EQ abilities. They are defined as ability in using one’s intelligence in gaining empathy toward others and in understanding the self and using this knowledge effectively (Gardner, 1983). Although Gardner is against the concept of emotional intelligence, his work has precipitated research in the areas of interpersonal relations and self-understanding-components of EQ.

At the same time in history, Sternberg (1985) developed his Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, proving individuals don’t have to be “book smart” to be highly intelligent. Two components of his theory—creative intelligence and practical intelligence—comprise skills beyond those measured in traditional IQ assessments, with qualities mirrored in EQ abilities (Sternberg, 1985). Some research points to the value of understanding emotions evoked in art, and the healing power of creativity (Glennon, 2000); other works hold practical aspects of goal attainment to be in new approaches to intelligence, including areas of EQ.

In 1987, Nancy Cantor and John Kihlstrom published their work on Social Intelligence (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987). Their work would lead many researchers to consider the role of effective social interactions in intelligence, inspiring future work on EQ abilities.

It was not until 1990 that the term "emotional intelligence" was first used, when John D. Mayer and Peter Salovey formulated their original hierarchical model of EQ. They defined emotional intelligence as "the ability to monitor one's own and other's feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Mayer & Salovey, 1990)

Borrowing from Mayer and Salovey's theory, Daniel Goleman wrote Emotional Intelligencein 1995. In his book, Goleman (1995) defines emotional intelligence as: knowing one’s emotions, managing one’s emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions in others, and handling relationships. His theory, derived from work on brain research proves that emotional stability, or EQ, is more important than IQ in determining one’s success. The book became a best seller. The topic of EQ received widespread attention by being on the cover of Time and Forbes magazines; Goleman’s book is also discussed on the television shows Oprah and 20/20.

Expanding on their earlier work, Mayer and Salovey formulated a revised model of emotional intelligence (1997), which gave more emphasis to cognitive components of EQ, and conceptualized EQ as it related to intellectual and emotional growth. This processing model contained four branches:

 * Perceiving Emotions
 * The ability to perceive emotions in oneself and others as well as in objects, art, stories, music, and other stimuli.
 * Facilitating Thought
 * The ability to generate, use, and feel emotion as necessary to communicate feelings or employ them in other cognitive processes.
 * Understanding Emotions
 * The ability to understand emotional information, to understand how emotions combine and progress through relationship transitions, and to appreciate such emotional meanings.
 * Managing Emotions
 * The ability to be open to feelings, and to modulate them in oneself and others so as to promote personal understanding and growth.

Work in the field was gaining increased popularity, and competing theories were surfacing. Additional work on EQ led to Development of the BarOn EQ-i: a measure of emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 1997). This research produced a test of the emotional intelligence quotient. The same year, the book Executive EQ: emotional intelligence in leadership and organizations was published in New York (Cooper, & Sawaf, 1997). The corporate world began to recognize the importance of emotional intelligence, its role in the knowledge economy, and its impact for success. Following this, Wessinger’s (1998) book Emotional Intelligence at Work explored the applications of emotional intelligence in employment settings, giving more reason for corporations and individuals to learn more about the concept in applied settings.

As the end of the decade neared, additional research studies on the construct continued to be published. The 33-Item Emotional Intelligence Scale was published (Schutte et al.,1998). This work defined emotional intelligence according to the following abilities: non-verbal communication and mood/affect, optimism and pessimism, attention to feelings, clarity of feelings, mood repair, and depressed mood an impassivity. Responses on this scale aim to provide psychologists with valid insights into individual levels of competence in awareness and regulation of emotion, outlook on life, mood/affect, and inpulsiveness. While all this research was going on, controversey and debate over whether emotional intelligence qualifies as an intelligence was high. In response, John D. Mayer, David R. Caruso, and Peter Salovey (1999) published research to support emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Their work led to the development of the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale, or MEIS (1999). The MEIS was an ability test and was devised to overcome challenges associated with earlier self-report tests (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

Recognizing a lack of adequate testing measures for assessing EQ scores in children, Amie Kistler Sullivan developed The Emotional Intelligence Scale for Children, or EISC, (1999). Based on the MEIS, the EISC was devised using child-development research. Giving consideration to children’s verbal and cognitive skills, as well as ther developmental experience, this work produced five subscales, which include: faces, music, stories, understanding, and managing emotions. An empathy scale has also been added. The measurement of emotional intelligence now had an application in educational settings. Sullivan’s empirical studies prove that a child’s emotional intelligence abilities impact on learning and future life outcomes. She states that individuals with greater levels of emotional intelligence come to make decisions that impact on their lives positively; the opposite is also true (Sullivan, 1999). For example, children having high scores on the EISC achieve academic success, whereas children having low scores are at risk of dropping out of school (Sullivan, 1999). This work was beneficial in allowing educators to consider ways of helping children achieve high EQ abilities—traces of this notion are found in the teaching of character education. Teachers were learning how to help children become happy and successful in later life.

The turn of the new millennium brought about research on emotional intelligence in applied settings. Michelle M. Englund and collaborators (2000) proved that low measures of emotional intelligence and social competence are found to correlate to feelings of negativity, hostility, aggression and/or frustration toward others. In group settings, individuals with low EQ scores fail to participate in group tasks and do not contribute to discussions; they display little consideration toward others and their opinions, and are uninterested in group activities (Englund et al., 2000). With this knowledge, the business world began to recognize the value of hiring emotionally intelligent individuals for their skills in social competence. Highly emotionally intelligent individuals are desirable job candidates for their traits in: ability to function well within a group, to work cooperatively toward group goals, and to strive toward attaining positive outcomes of problems-solving tasks (Englund et al., 2000). Emotionally intelligent individuals are respected and wield influence in group dynamics. These individuals are able to guide discussions, promote participation by others, and often make final decisions that others adhere to. They are confident and possess a belief in their abilities and expect success for their effort (Englund et al., 2000).

Individuals having high EQ scores have also proven to be better equipped to conquer life challenges. In an applied setting, Sheldon and Houser-Marko (2001) demonstrated that individuals having high EQ scores are better able to cope with the challenges and changes associated with entering college or university—increasingly difficult curricula and increased peer interactions. Students with high EQ abilities successfully meet such challenges with higher grade point averages and the ability to better meet year-long goal attainment during the incoming year (Sheldon, & Houser-Marko, 2001).

Psychological research at this time also explored the role of emotional intelligence in individual success and happiness. Nicola S. Schutte, John M. Malouff, Chad Bobik, Tracie D. Coston, Cyndy Greeson, Christina Jedlicka, Emily Rhodes, and Greta Wendorf (2001) explored the role of Emotional Intelligence and Interpersonal Relations. They found that emotionally intelligent individuals possess abilities that lead to success in social situations that correspond to overall improved quality of life (Schutte et al., 2001). For example, emotionally intelligent individuals had higher scores for empathetic perspective taking and self-monitoring of emotions and behaviours in a variety of environmental contexts (Schutte et al., 2001). They proved better at effectively managing inappropriate behaviours, such as hostility and aggression; they also respond assertively to anger-provoking situations, respecting both their own rights as well as those of others. Individuals with high EQs possessed increased social skills, are more cooperative toward partners, have more affectionate relationships, and enjoy greater satisfaction in personal relationships (Schutte et al., 2001). In summary, emotionally intelligent individuals get along well with a variety of people and are very well liked; they also receive more positive treatment from others and report having more satisfying relationships (Schutte et al., 2001).

Growing popularity of the construct of emotional intelligence has not been without criticism. A critique of empirical research on emotional intelligence points to the problem of self-report findings. Research that resulted in the development of the various EQ scales may represent or be vulnerable to subject bias. It is possible that subjects responded to self-report studies by portraying themselves in a more positive manner, and/or by providing answers they wished the investigators/researchers to read/observe. Applied studies may also be vulnerable to subject-bias effects.

In response to such criticsm, the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, or MSCEIT, (Mayer et al., 2002) aimed to measure performance abilities associated with EQ. The MSCEIT was developed from earlier intelligence-testing research by Mayer and Salovey, such as the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale, or MEIS (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). This new test was designed to measure the four branches of the MEIS by determining how well people perform tasks having emotional content (Mayer et al., 2002). Scores on the MSCEIT reflect ability measures are relatively unaffected by self-concept, response set, emotional state, and/or other confounds (Mayer et al., 2002). That is, responses to MSCEIT represent actual abilities at solving emotional problems.

At present, the construct continues to be researched, debated, and discussed around the world. The First International Congress on Emotional Intelligence will take place September 2007 in Málaga, Spain. More than 200 well-known researchers will contribute to analyzing important theoretical, empirical, and applied aspects of emotional intelligence related to health, education, and business. Another world-wide forum for EQ is The International Conference on Emotional Intelligence (ICEI), which invites expert speakers from prominent organizations to discuss the integration of emotional intelligence in the workplace. Industry leaders from Deloitte, American Express, and UBS—to name a few, will be in attendance at the conference in London, England in June 2007. In addition, South Africa will host the Emotional Intelligence World Summit in September 2007. The Conference will highlight effectiveness of leadership using emotional intelligence in education, business, and health.

In summary, results of research in this field have led to a greater understanding of what emotional intelligence is, how it can be identified, and why it matters. Despite the varying descriptions of emotionally intelligent personalities and abilities, experts agree that individuals having high EQ scores display combinations of some or all of the following: emotional stability, strong interpersonal and social skills, self-awareness, self-management, and positive mood/affect. As a result, they are better equipped for success and tend to live happier and more fulfilled lives.

Given the adaptive properties of emotional intelligence and its impact on one’s success in life, it is important to note that experts are in concordance to the developmental nature of EQ scores (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Schutte et al., 1998; & Sullivan, 1999). That is, most individuals can look forward to increasing levels of emotional intelligence abilities with age and experience. For example, challenging periods of adjustment during childhood—attachment during infancy, preschool in early childhood, summer camp in middle childhood, and the formation of intimate relationships in adolescence—illustrate the changing coping styles and qualitative differences in EQ abilities at each stage of development (Englund et al., 2000). Because adolescents function within a larger network of relationships, they are required to employ new skills in various situations, thus expanding their perceptual and cognitive emotional abilities (Englund et al., 2000). Similarly, as one enters adulthood and finds employment and faces the responsibilities of marriage and family life, new and more complex EQ skills become necessary (Sheldon, & Houser-Marko, 2001; & Schutte et al., 2001). It is important for individuals to understand their strengths and weaknesses in areas of emotional intelligence and to find ways to aid in improving these skills. Due to the developmental nature of emotional intelligence, experts are optimistic that appropriate intervention strategies will yield increases in EQ performance measures. Such increases are believed to improve one’s quality of life and probability for success (Sheldon, & Houser-Marko, 2001). Research on EQ has found a correlation among emotional intelligence and measures of empathy, artistic ability, time spent in psychotherapy, preference for leisure activities, and life satisfaction. It has been suggested that emotional intelligence may improve through appropriate leisure activities, such as reading self-help books and being exposed to an emotionally and creatively enriched environment (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999. Listening to classical music, attending concerts, and having an appreciation for the arts permits a greater understanding of emotional self-awareness and creative and emotional expression (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). Time spent in psychotherapy is believed to correspond positively with increases in emotional and cognitive growth—both of which attribute to greater self-knowledge and self-understanding (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999). For youth at risk, life skills training could be implemented to aid adolescents in setting appropriate academic and life goals, empowering them to successfully deal with future challenges. This may be especially important as low EQ scores have been linked to youth violence and teen pregnancy (Englund et al., 2000).

Dynamic Assessment
Dynamic Assessment is characterized by an approach first forwarded by Feurstein (1979). Feurstein spoke of the Learning Potential Assessment Device. Feuerstein's background was in Israel, working with children displaced by the Holocaust. Feurstein found that on traditional intelligence tests, these children often scored in the very delayed range, but he saw the progress they made with support and the "spark" for learning they had. He thus spoke of the "potential" of children and focused on this ability to change rather than any score. His approach is based on a series of learning tasks with children. Once a child's strategies are uncovered with support (we would characterize this now as "testing of the limits") he would use this knowledge to help children see how to apply these strategies in other situations, specifically within academic tasks.

More generally, dynamic assessment refers to a process where teaching and assessment occur in tandem. Terms such as "testing of limits" are used to indicate that after a standardized administration of a test, the child's limits are tested by seeing what they can do with a change in instruction, support, stimuli, etc. Other approaches include test, teach, retest. This refers to administering a test, then teaching the child the skill, then retesting them to measure the improvement. Dynamic assessment attempts to evaluate a child's response to instruction. In this way, it is considered less biased than traditional assessment models which can be biased by educational history or culture.

Cross-Battery Assessment (Cattell-Horn-Carroll) Model
Early work by Raymond Cattell and John Horn reflects a factor analytic approach to intelligence. The Cattell-Horn Fluid-Crystallized Intelligence Theory distinguished between two types of intelligence, that is fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.

Fluid intelligence refers to the ability to understand and reason with nonverbal (culturally free) information. Examples of tasks that tap into fluid intelligence might include figure classifications and matricies). Fluid intelligence is thought to gradually increase during childhood and it peaks in adolescence.  After peaking, fluid intelligence is thought to gradually decrease over the rest of an individual's life due to the degeneration of physiological brain structures.

Crystallized intelligence refers to the acquired skills and knowledge that an individual possess. Contrary to fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence is not culture-free, but rather it is dependent on being exposed to culture. This type of intelligence invovles "overlearned and well established cognitive functions and is related to mental products and achievements." (Sattler, 2001, 140). Examples of tasks that tap into crystallized intelligence might include vocabulary and general information. Crystallized intelligence is strongly influenced by formal and informal education and as a result, is thought to increase at least until middle adulthood.

After this original two-factor conceptualization of intelligence, Cattell, Horn, and Carroll proposed that there were more than two specific types of abilities that underly learning. If fact, they proposed nine different "broad" classifications of intelligence and they developed the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities. The nine different classifications of intelligence include (from Sattler, 2001, p. 141):

 * Fluid Intelligence (Gf): Refers to reasoning, seriation, sorting, and classifying abilities
 * Crystallized Intelligence (Gc): Refers to achievement and knowledge that results from acculturation
 * Visual Processing (Gv): Refers to the ability to accurately perceive/interpret spatial information and visually and mentally manipulate figures
 * Auditory Processing (Ga): Refers to the ability to listen and respond appropriately to auditory information
 * Short-Term Memory (Gsm): Refers to immediate awareness, alertness, and retrieval of recently learned information
 * Long-Term Storage and Retrieval (Glr): Refers to the ability to retrieve information from long-term storage
 * Processing Speed (Gs): Refers to the ability to quickly and efficiently respond to simple tasks
 * Decision Speed (Gt): Refers to the ability to provide speeded responses to tasks of slight or moderate difficulty
 * Quantitative Knowledge (Gq): Refers to the ability to understand and apply mathematical concepts

A large number of other abilities (70) are subsumed under these categories (narrow classifications). An example of a narrow classification would be Foreign Language Aptitude which falls under the broad classification of Crystallized Intelligence (Gc). A third stratum also exists in the model and this level subsumes all other levels of ability. "g" or a general cognitive ability is representative of higher-order cognitive abilities.

The Cross Battery Assessment model takes as its starting point the idea of multiple intelligences within multiple areas. It is empirically based and theory driven. It seeks to provide a more thorough understanding of a child's ability than would be possible using any single test and is based on the Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Abilities. Cross-battery assessment, as the name implies, involves utilizing more than one psychological test or battery to evaluate the abilities that underly learning in children. This has resulted in the development of several cognitive and achievement tests that use the CHC model of intelligence explicitly in their structure. The Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities (WJ-III COG), the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, Third Edition (WJ-III ACH), and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II) all include tasks which tap into these multiple areas of ability.