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PsycholARTSical: Psyched about the arts/Cognitive Views of Learning

Cognitive Views of Learning
Dear classmates: The editors this week would like to supply the class with summaries from each section of the chapter, as was done in the first week. We decided this in hopes of encouraging content discussion between members of the class, while keeping our (the editors') weekly contribution to the presentation of theoretical materials and subsequent discussion moderation. We have divided the chapter into sections and assigned each editor a part of the reading.

 * Note: Since there are various editions of textbooks circulating throughout the class, page numbers may vary. Refer to subject headings when page number don't match.
 * Note: The above paragraph is provisionary and shall be removed at the end of the week. Thanks! ~ The editors.

--JonathanisFTMFW (talk) 23:14, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do? (pp.233)
In this week's case, a group of students in a senior history class has become reliant on memorization as the sole method of learning in a class. Their information farming leaves them with isolated strands of knowledge, unable to synthesize their learnings into a broader context of understanding. The questions the text poses in regard to this scenario are:

 * What do these students "know" about history? What are their beliefs and expectations, and how do these affect their learning?
 * Why do you think they insist on using the rote memory approach?
 * How would you teach your students to learn in this new way?
 * How will these issues affect the grade levels you teach?

--JonathanisFTMFW (talk) 23:51, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

The cognitive approach to learning offers many tried and true tactics to processing, storing, and retrieving knowledge. In a lot of ways reading this chapter has been like a review of how I have been taught to approach teaching here at OISE. P. 255(Woolfolk): “Using Information Processing Ideas in the Classroom”, and p.263- Fig. 7.3 (Woolfolk): “Gagne’s Phases of Learning and the Instructional Events That Support Learning at Each Phase”, are excellent summaries of how to approach a lesson. What seems to be emphasized here is making connections meaningful. So what would I do if my history students where hooked on the textbook? First I would reevaluate the way they were being evaluated. Students are generally motivated to do well on the test, even if it means memorizing the glossary to be prepared for the multiple choice questions. The sad but true part is that students have been trained to be rote learners. In University I had an Italian Renaissance Art History professor whom had lived in Italy for 15 years. He knew so much about the architecture and art that every week, through the modern phenomena of armchair travel; he took us to Italy with his beautiful slides and colourful commentary, lights out, our pens and paper away. This approach was such a welcome break from the mad hurried synthesis of lecture after lecture…we were on tour and although he did not encourage note taking I retained more in that class than some others. Why? Follow the check list: 1. He had my attention; it was beautiful, like being in a theatre, large screen, great slides, comfortable seats…2.I didn’t take notes; this action did not signal to me that nothing was important, it told me that it was all important and that I would learn it better if I just focused on the slide show and his commentary. 3. He used those seductive details, interesting stories, to make connections to what I already knew and to help me remember what would be relevant to a test or assignment. 4. What a great way to review a chapter, go on vacation! 5. The slide shows were presented in a clear and organized way, it was an open form, we could comment, ask questions, be human, it was authentic and relevant to what we were learning, the goals were clear. 6. In this teaching example it is apparent that the focus is on meaning, not memorization, a lesson that would make some students twitch, but when it comes around to the test and the questions are more open ended, not the kind you feed into a machine to mark, I’m sure the experience would have a happy ending.*--Lisa chupa (talk) 03:13, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Many teachers often use the rote approach because it was the way they were taught or because it many ways, it seems the easiest option. Lecturing names and dates and then forcing students to memorize them for tests will only give students short term knowledge of the content. Like most students, they will immediately forget the memorized information as soon as the test is finished maybe remembering only some of the seductive details. Fortunately, like mentioned above, schools like OISE are trying to educate future teachers on how to use the cognitive approach. The cognitive approach includes meaningful activities that create skills while students are learning about a topic. This approach requires much more student engagement and until the teacher is confident, much more effort from the teacher in terms of planning, preparation and marking. It is sometimes also difficult for an educator to think of activities that can engage students and teach the content. Students might also have trouble with this approach in the beginning stages, especially if they have never done anything like this before and have been trained, and are good at, rote memorization.--Ali.dormady (talk) 12:40, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

Elements of the Cognitive Perspective (pp.234-237)
Discussions of the nature of knowledge, reason and the mind have dated back to the earliest Greek philosophers. Cognitive studies fell out of vogue from the late 1800s until the late 20th century, when “behaviourism” became a more popular concept of learning. Since then, evidence has accumulated indicating that people do more than simply respond to reinforcement and punishment, and that learning also involves active mental processes (p 234).

The cognitive view of learning assumes that mental processes exist, that they can be measured and studied, and that people are active participants in learning.(p 234) “The cognitive view sees people as active learners who initiate experiences, seek out information to solve problems, and reorganize what they already know to achieve new insights”(p 235).

Comparing Cognitive and Behavioural Views

Behavioural View: a behaviour is adopted unconsciously. Reinforcement strengthens responses.

Cognitive View: Knowledge is learned, and advances in understanding encourage us to modify our behaviour. Learning is an active process, which requires participants to reinterpret their experiences and gathered knowledge to achieve new insight. In contrast to the behavioural view, reinforcement is recognized as a source of feedback which lends credence to an initial theory.

Whereas behavioural researchers try to identify general laws of learning which apply to all intelligent organisms, cognitive psychologists study human learning, with all its variables.

The Importance of Knowledge in Learning

Cognitive psychology places primary importance on the acquisition of knowledge, which forms a “scaffold that supports the construction of all future learning” and determines what learners will perceive, remember and forget in future experiences (p 235).

A strong basis in a field of knowledge may prove more important to cognition than sound learning strategies. For example, when presented with an article on baseball, unskilled readers with a background in the sport may have an advantage over skilled readers who know little about it.

Types of Knowledge:
 * General: This type of knowledge is generic in nature, such as reading or writing--skills and information that apply in many different situations.

 * Specific: This kind refers to isolated facts such as knowing that shortstop plays between second and third base.

 * Declarative: Declarative knowledge means information that can be communicated verbally, such as concrete facts.

 * Procedural: This means having the ability to act in a certain, knowledgeable way, such as translating knowledge, or posting to this wikibook.

--JonathanisFTMFW (talk) 00:14, 1 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Conditional: This type of knowledge refers to the ability to know when to use other types of knowledge, such as a doctor who diagnoses a specific treatment for a patient.

Discussion

--Ali.dormady (talk) 16:27, 7 February 2008 (UTC)
 * It seems that in education, there had previously been a focus on only certain types of knowledge. Educators would focus on teaching "Specific" or "Declarative" knowledge that would only give their students the necessary information to perform well on an exam or test. Some teachers would argue that this is necessary to prepare the students for university and the real world of academia. However, while most universities still focus on those types of knowledge and many university students are forced to memorize the exact teachings of the professor and regurgitate it back to them via an exam or paper, only 25% of students actually attend university after graduating high school. The rest will chose apprenticeship, college or the work force. Should teachers be teaching to prepare %25 of students while leaving the other 75% with specific details that are both uninteresting and useless to them? It is only in the past few years, especially in elementary and secondary schools, that there has been a real push toward more "Conditional" knowledge and the ability to apply knowledge and skills learned in the classroom. There is now a desire to reach all students, no matter what their post-secondary destination, and give them knowledge that that they can take and apply to their own lives.

The Information Processing Model of Memory (pp.237-245)
The most common theory of memory is information processing defined as "the human mind's activity of taking in, storing, and using information" (p. 237).

An Overview of the Information Processing Model

This process involves: (computer model)

 * Encoding: Gathering and Representing information.

 * Storage: Holding information.

 * Retrieval: Accessing information.

 * Control Processes: How and When information flows through each part of the system.

Sensory memory is the system that processes and transforms incoming stimuli (sights, sounds, smells) received by our receptors ("mechanisms for seeing, hearing. tasting, smelling and feeling" p. 238). Sensory memory is very large in capacity and very brief in duration. "The content of sensory memory resembles the sensations from the original stimulus" (p. 238). Various sensations are coded so the information remains intact and can be processed using perception and attention.

 * It is said that smell is the sense most strongly tied to memory, and yet in schools we rely much more heavily on sight (textbooks, chalkboard) and sound (teacher’s voice). Is there a way we can use smell to help our students learn and remember important details?  In my experience a smell can immediately bring to mind a location or person, and I wonder if smell can be used as a study aid.  To answer this question, I had to go beyond our textbook.

 * It seems that not a lot of research has been done in this area, but there is some material to be found. Trygg Engen has written a book called ‘Odor Sensation and Memory’, which purports that our scent memories are largely psychological – i.e. we will associate a smell with either negative or positive emotions, depending on the situation in which we first encountered the smell.  I can see how this could be troublesome if smells were to be used as study aids.  For example, if a student were to be surrounded by the smell of cinnamon while studying for a math exam, she might forever after associate cinnamon with test anxiety, as opposed to something more pleasant, like home cooking.

 * Another interesting source of information is the article: ‘Study Uncovers Memory Aid: A Scent During Sleep’ by Benedict Carey in the March 9, 2007 edition of The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/09/science/09sleep.html  This article talks about a study in which students were exposed to the scent of roses while playing a concentration game.  They were then exposed to the same scent during sleep.  The next day the students scored an average of 97% on the game (compared to 86% without the scent).

 * All of this raises many questions:

 * - Is this just a bunch of ridiculous speculation?
 * - If not, is using scent as a memory aid a form of cheating?
 * - What are the potential benefits and side-effects?
 * - How can we, as teachers, practically apply the use of scent as a memory aid in the classroom?

--Littlelaura (talk) 01:55, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

The use of multiple sensory stimulation is an intriguing possibility to use in a classroom, however it is hard to figure out how to use it effectively. There is a lot of research that supports the link between memory and smell, especially when it produces an emotional response. The smell of oranges, for example, according to some reminds one of childhood memories. Using smell in this respect could be useful in the following situations: the teacher wants to make the experience of the class memorable so that the theme, information, and the experience stick in their consciousness; or, the smell of a certain object/experience becomes connected with a particular lesson or subject. For example, the smell of some poisonous gases have a nice aroma to it, and the scents could be incorporated into a lesson on WWII or the Vietnam War (this article from Slate magazine describes some of the scents ). One can also bring in some type of food to associate with an experience in history, like super-saccharine sweet cake during a lesson on Absolutism. For a Visual Art class, one could put a fragrance of something next to a piece of art and students can interpret; say, a Toulouse-Lautrec painting and the smell of Wormwood or Absinthe, or the smell of Bulgarian Roses next to a Renaissance sculpture, or the smell of ketchup or cotton candy next to an Oldenburg or Koons piece. For a Drama class, maybe have students practice reactions according to taste that is the opposite of what they're actually tasting. For an English class, maybe link a scent to a particular chapter/section of a novel, essay, or poem; near the end of Hamlet, for example, infuse the class with a subtle scent of Rosemary ("for remembrance", scene 5). There are tons of options, but at the same time, whether it will work is really unknown. Also, some students may be sensitive to food/scent in class, and you may have to watch out for any allergies. Overall, though, there is no harm in trying. --Irenedongas (talk) 05:07, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Perception is defined as the "interpretation of sensory information". Theories of perception processing include:

 * Gestalt: A pattern or whole; people organize perceptions into coherent wholes.

 * Bottom-up processing: (feature analysis) Perception based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a recognizable pattern.

 * Top-down processing: Perceiving based on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in that situation.

Knowledge in perception is therefore processed from sensory memory, to working memory, to long-term memory, to be later retrieved and directed attentively.

'''Which above theory of perception or combination therein, is most effective for a student to perceive information? What would be an example illustrating application of the three various theories?'''

 * Gestalt psychology is the study of our “tendency to organise sensory information on patterns or relationships” (Woolfolk, p. 239).   This branch of psychology has obvious relationships to the visual arts, it has also been used extensively in the field of psychoacoustics (an area of scholarship concerned with the physiological and physiological manners in which we perceive and organise sounds).

 * Gestalt organising principles such as those illustrated in Figure 7.2 (Woolfolk, p. 239) may be applied to the auditory realm:

 * Figure-Ground = Melody-Accompaniment
 * Proximity = Phrasing
 * Similarity = Theme & Variation
 * Closure = Perception of Pitch and Harmony

 * Interesting things can happen when one chooses to base creative exercises in music (through composition and improvisation) that manipulate and play with these principles. How much does a theme have to be manipulated before it is no longer recognised as a variation?  How can we blur the dividing perceptual line between melody and accompaniment?  How close do sound events need to occur in time for them to be grouped into a gestalt?

 * Composers such as James Tenney have spent much of their careers exploring these areas with fascinating outcomes. Similar explorations were often the foundation of many improvisational exercises in my undergrad improvisation courses.  One of the benefits of such endeavours is that they focus a student’s active listening skills, providing an engaging alternative to traditional ear training exercises.
 * --Maurosavo (talk) 23:03, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Attention is defined as the "focus on stimuli". To process effectively, certain stimuli are focused upon while others are ignored guided by previous knowledge and knowledge needed to be acquired. Processes "that initially require attention and concentration become automatic with practice" (p. 240). Research describes four aspects of attention in developing children:

 * Controlled: Young children develop longer attention spans and ability to focus on important details.

 * Tailored to task: Older children focus attention on most difficult material being learned.

 * Directive: Children develop a feel for cues telling them when/how to direct their attention.

 * Self-monitoring: Children learn to decide if they are using the right strategy and to change it if it's not working.

Attention plays a powerful role in teaching in terms of a student's attentiveness to the learning at hand. A student is incapable of processing if they do not first "recognize or perceive" (p. 240). Appealing to a student's senses is a practical means of gaining initial attention in the classroom. - Christopher Wilson

How can a teacher best gain and maintain student attention during instruction?

--chuckstopher (talk) 17:50, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

When designing lesson plans and offering differentiated instruction, teachers must be mindful of the sensory memory system that each student possesses, specifically, the role of attention in a high school arts classroom. When presented with a classroom with a wide variety of talents, maintaining attention can prove troublesome and hinder engagement.

Woolfolk states that "what we pay attention to is guided to a certain extent by what we already know and what we need to know". Attention can be tied into on-task behaviour, as Woolfolk explains that "knowledge is learned, and changes in knowledge make changes in behaviour possible". However, when prior knowledge does not change, how does that affect student behaviour? Woolfolk states that long-term memory affects sensory memory through previous knowledge. In theory, the ability to remember past concepts influences your attentiveness when those concepts are presented once again.

The surrounding issue addresses the need for the teacher to constantly introduce new knowledge into a classroom. Kern & Clemens' article "Antecedent Strategies to Promote Appropriate Classroom Behaviour" addresses the need for antecedent strategies to keep the attention of the class. Antecedent strategies are preventative teacher strategies to avoid disengagement, disinterest and lost attention. One of the strategies proposed is appropriate work difficulty for students. Kern and colleagues (2006) conducted studies revealing that students posses greater attention spans and accomplish more work when the academic demand is appropriate.

The difficulty for a teacher is meeting the appropriate demand of each student.

How can a teacher teach engaging material and keep the attention of all our students if they function at various skill levels?

Furthermore,

How can a teacher teach a boring concept and attract student attention by creating a 'what we need to know' atmosphere?

--Mr. Magoo (talk) 01:28, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Once a teacher has the student's attention, the door for learning is opened. But, then how is what is learned kept in the student's memory (or working memory as referred to by Woolfolk et al.)? Woolfolk et al. (2006) highlight three ways in which information can be maintained indefinitely in working memory (note: working memory is "the 'workbench' of the memory system...where new information is held temporarily and combined with knowledge from long-term memory"; Woolfolk et al., 240-241).

The first noted by Woolfolk et al., (2006) is, maintenance rehearsal in which information is maintained by repeating it over to yourself. The second is termed, elaborative rehearsal which involves making a connection with the new information and information that is already stored in your long-term memory. The final form of memory retention is called, chunking which occurs when information is grouped into small pieces (ie. like a phone number is divided by dashes, 905-555-2569) (Woolfolk et al., 243-244).

 * The above methods for memory retention seem so obvious and redundant to me as I practiced these forms religiously throughout my educational career. What I realized while I was in my practicum however, is that these tools for memory retention are not that obvious for high school students.  In the early phases of my practicum, I was quite insensitive to how students learned/retained their information.  I just assumed (which as teacher's is very bad form) that they automatically would know how to remember the things that I was telling them.  However, after frequent episodes of student's forgetting to follow my requests surrounding school assignments, I knew that I must be doing something wrong - and I was.  I was not practicing information retention techniques with the students, and this was the main reason why most of them were forgetful.  So to remedy the situation, I became Ms. "Broken Record", as I would be repeating myself constantly to the class.  Even, after repeating the important information to the class, I would ensure that what I said sunk into their busy brains by asking them to repeat the information back to me in unison.  I also incorporated the idea of chunking as the class would not hesitate to let me know if I was giving them too much information at once. Ironically, I was using these techniques without even realizing it.  Through my experience with my students, I was able to help them remember information in ways that worked for them. Unfortunately, this technique did not cross all barriers, as I was not able to fully help those students who had identified learning disabilities or those students who were diagnosed with a developmental delay.

Practical Tips: How to Capture and Maintain Students' Attention

Develop signals to get their focus:

 * Standing in a specific spot

 * Flicking the lights

 * A Tibetan singing bowl, chimes, novelty horns and bells

 * Begin each class with a piece of music that will tie into the lesson

 * Keep directions recognizably short and clear

Make sure that the purpose of the lesson or assignment is clear:

 * Write goals or objectives on the board

 * Have the students write goals and objectives on the board

 * Ask students to summarize goals or objectives

 * Tie new material to previous lesson with an outline or map

 * Play “Runner Review” (fig. 1)

 * Play “Topic Investigation Bingo” (fig. 2)

 * Explain reasons for learning or even ask students to explain what they think the reasons are.

Emphasize variety, curiosity, and surprise:

 * Arouse curiosity with a big title on the board when they walk in, or an interesting set up of furniture

 * Create shock by staging an event related to your lesson

 * Use movements, gestures and voice inflection to keep them guessing

 * Shift Sensory Channels by giving a lesson that requires students to taste, touch and smell

Ask Questions and provide frames for answering:

 * Ask students why the material is important, how they intend to study, and what strategies they will use

 * Give students self checking or self editing guides that focus on common mistakes or have them work in pairs to improve each other’s work--- sometimes it is difficult to pay attention to your own errors.

Figure 1. Runner Review 1.	Create a list of questions to review previously covered material. 2.	Come up with a specific name for the runner review based on the material. 3.	Arrange tables and chairs to the sides of the room. 4.    	Divide the class into four teams place each team in a corner of  the room. 5.	Place chair in front of each team and tell them they can not pass that chair. 6.	Have each team choose a runner. 7.	Stand in the centre of the room, being sure you are an equal distance from each team. 8.	Ask a question and once the team decides on an answer, the runner runs to you. 9.	First runner to give you a high five and the right answer gets the point. 10.	(You could also use noise makers or tasks to complete first.)

Figure 2. “Topic” Investigation Bingo 1.	Create a list of questions related to the learning of your specific unit and organize your questions onto a BINGO card. 2.	Create answer cards (one for each student, there might be some repeats). 3.	Give each student a bingo card, one fact card and a pencil. 4.	Explain that they are going to investigate ”topic” as if they were in the time/place of these facts. 5.	(IE: a time in history, a community dealing with an issue, mathematicians in Greece, etc.) 6.	Students ask each other, “Do you know… (one questions from the chart)?” 7.	If the question aligns with the other's fact card, the question is answered and the investigator records the fact. 8.	If it does not align, they simply answer “no” and move on. 9. 	Aim to get a line of five for a “Topic” Investigation BINGO!

How do you get students with learning disabilities or developmental delays, to retain information in their working memory/ short-term memory?

--Acardona (talk) 19:27, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

Long-Term Memory: The Goal of Teaching (pp 245-250)
Working Memory (Active knowledge) VS. Long-Term Memory (Permanent storage of knowledge)

Capacity, Duration, and Content of Long-Term Memory

What are the five main differences between working & long-term memory?

Once information is securely stored in long-term memory, it can remain there permanently. Access to information in Working Memory is immediate because we are thinking about that information at that moment, whereas, access to information in Long-Term Memory takes time & effort because we are searching to retrieve that information. Psychologists suggest that working memory is part of long-term memory- working memory is about PROCESS rather than storage. Alan Paivio suggests that visual images and/ verbal units are stored in long-term memory. Information that is coded both visually & verbally is the easiest to learn. Critics state that the brain is not large enough to store all images that we encounter. They suggest that images are stored as verbal codes & then translated into visual information when it’s needed.

Reaching Every Student: A Picture and a Few Hundred Words Is a picture worth 1,000 words in teaching? Can the combination of pictures & words impact a students’ learning?

How do we build complex understandings that integrate information from visual & verbal sources, given the limitations of working memory? --SuzieQ (talk) 00:40, 2 February 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Learning:

 * Dual Coding
 * Limited Capacity
 * Generative Learning

Dual Coding: humans posses separate information processing channels for visually represented material and auditorily represented material.

Limited Capacity: humans are limited in the amount of information that can be processed in each channel at one time.

Generative Learning: humans actively engage in cognitive processing to construct coherent mental representations of their experiences; therefore, generative learning strategies are aimed at helping the learner to integrate presented information with existing knowledge and experience.

Mayer suggests that learning is better if visual & verbal information is paired at the same time, because it can be held in working memory; otherwise it puts too much strain on working memory. SIDEBAR: Give students multiple ways to understand pictures & explanations. But don’t overload their working memory- “package” the visual & verbal information TOGETHER in bite-size piece.

Two Categories of Long-Term Memory: Explicit Memory: Implicit Memory: SIDEBAR: Researchers do not agree on exactly how many images are stored in memory, some believe they are stored as pictures while others insist that we store propositions in long-term memory and later convert them to pictures in working memory when needed.
 * Explicit Memory (Semantic & Episodic)- conscious knowledge
 * Implicit Memory- unconscious knowledge
 * Semantic (facts & general knowledge)
 * Episodic (keeps track of your own life & experiences)
 * Classical Conditioning Effects (conditioned emotional reactions)
 * Procedural Memory (motor skills, habits, tacit rules)
 * Priming Effect (implicit activation of concepts in long-term memory)
 * Images: Representations based on the structure or physical appearance of information. Faraday & Einstein reported creating images to reason about complex problems
 * Schema: A basic structure for organizing information; concept. It’s a personal pattern or guide for understanding an event, concept or skill.
 * Story Grammar: (schema for text or story structure), helps students understand & remember stories (For e.g., murder mystery schema- searching for clues). Without implementing the appropriate schema in the classroom it becomes difficult for students to understand a story, textbook, or lesson plan.
 * Story Grammar: (schema for text or story structure), helps students understand & remember stories (For e.g., murder mystery schema- searching for clues). Without implementing the appropriate schema in the classroom it becomes difficult for students to understand a story, textbook, or lesson plan.

How can schemas we have about individuals’ roles (teachers, groups, social context) affect how we interpret new information about people and situations? --SuzieQ (talk) 18:16, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term Memory (pp 251-254)
How can we make the most effective use of our unlimited capacity to learn and remember?

The ways in which we learn and process information seem to affect its recall later. It is essential that we integrate new information with information that is already stored in our long-term memory to construct an understanding. Processes that Improve Learning: Elaboration- Adding meaning to new information by connecting it with already existing knowledge (by applying our own schemas), this will make it easier for students to recall information later. Help students elaborate by...
 * Elaboration
 * Organization
 * Context
 * Asking them to translate information into their own words.
 * Creating examples
 * Having them explain to peers
 * Drawing relationships
 * Applying the information to solve new problems

Organization- Material that is well organized is easier for the student to learn and to remember- STRUCTURE serves as a guide back to the information when needed. Context- Aspects of physical and emotional context (places, rooms, our feelings on a particular day) are learned along with the information. There is a CORRELATION between physical/emotion environment and performance on tests. Students who learned the material in one particular room did better on the test that was taken in a similar room than they did when the test was taken in a different-looking room.

'''What happens if students elaborate new information to make incorrect connections or misguided explanations? Did anyone have any experiences with the student making the wrong connections?''' --SuzieQ (talk) 00:43, 2 February 2008 (UTC)

Discussion

 * Utilizing learning processes such as elaboration, organization,and context has a great impact on students’ success. I have noticed a large increase in the amount of templates out there for students to use for written assignments.  These make it much easier for students to grasp the requirements and to organize the work into a comprehensible parts of a whole.  Even advanced students will find it gives them a clear place to start and makes it easier for them to formulate their ideas.  Because they are still free to write their own individual thoughts within the template, I don’t think that they limit students’ creativity.  An ESL student I tutor recently brought in an assignment that I thought did a great job of providing structure and context to help students learn. For this assignment, students were required to learn the meaning of poetic terms and devices and use them when they wrote their own poems.  While the structure of the poem was left entirely up to the student, they had specific guidelines (a template TP-CAST--tone, personification, connotations etc) to analyze their own poem according to, which were then marked.  This gave them clear requirements to include in their poem and the structure they needed to learn to analyze poetry.  In terms of context, the class took a trip to a local lake for a day of creative writing where students were encouraged to let the scenes of nature inspire their poetry.  This environment was conductive to learning.  A visual component was also included in the assignment as students then wrote their poems onto T-shirts along with an image to represent it.  I thought that this was a great alternative for teaching poetic terms.  Students who have had the opportunity to analyze their own poems as part of a creative assignment will have a much better understanding of what the terms and devises really mean and also a better chance of remembering them.  The experience of going to the lake would help students who find it hard to come up with ideas for creative poems as well as helping them see the pleasure of writing.  The task of turning this all into a T-shirt not only gives them a lasting memory of the assignment (and the incentive to do a good job since everyone will read their poems), it gives them the chance to create a visual image to represent the abstract ideas they have tried to communicate in their poetry.  Students who are more visually oriented might first create the image and then the poem.  This assignment gives validity to both the image and the poem.  The assignment used a cognitive approach to learning because it emphasized the steps involved in the process of writing a poem and provided structure and context to help students work through the learning process.
 * --Malexander (talk) 04:03, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Forgetting and Long-Term Memory: Some researchers believe that information stored in our long-term memory may be available when given the right cues. Recent research casts doubt on this theory.
 * Decay: decline neural connections (like muscles they grown weak if not used)
 * Interference: older memories may interfere w/ memory for new material
 * Interference: older memories may interfere w/ memory for new material

What's Associated With Longer Retention?
 * Frequent reviews & tests
 * Elaborative feedback
 * High standards
 * Mastery learning
 * Active involvement in learning projects
 * Active involvement in learning projects

Apply to Practice: Does anyone have any experiences/ideas with helping students process information? --SuzieQ (talk) 00:35, 2 February 2008 (UTC)

--Liz P (talk) 15:15, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
 * One thing that makes processing information more difficult is the presence of extra information or conflicting information from different sources. I attended a volunteer training session this year in a museum. One training exercise we used to learn the collection was to divide into pairs, with each pair coming up with a real and fictitious story about an artifact. Then each pair presented both stories and the rest of the volunteers choose the real story. Though entertaining, this method was not very effective in learning the information. Instead it is a classic example of "interference" (page 253), where remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information. In this case, the presence of the fictitious story prevented me from remembering the real details about the artifact. We need to be conscious of interference when presenting information to our students as this could hamper their ability to process important information. Keep it simple.

Discussion

 * The text talks about memories as being stored either verbally or visually (p. 245); my question is how would musical memory fit into that model? Memory is a big issue for musicians (and any other performance artists), but "verbal" or "visual" is not how I would describe the memory storage or retrieval processes for music.  Is it possible that musical memory functions sonically?  I personally think of the melody (or other dominant musical element depending on the piece) while I'm performing, as well as other things (see below).  I'm not really picturing anything or thinking of anything linguistically speaking--I'm watching my fingers as they play the notes and thinking about what sounds should come next.

 * A big danger when memorizing pieces for performance is having it stored as "auto-pilot," which sounds similar to what the text describes as "procedural memory" (p. 250). It's almost as if your fingers have memorized the piece instead of your brain--as if you could be thinking about what's for dinner tonight while playing the piece.  This danger becomes real especially for those with performance anxiety, because when the anxiety kicks in, procedural memory, in my experience, breaks down.

 * One way to combat this is to build a deeper understanding of the piece (as per the "Levels of Processing Theory", p. 252) by, for example, doing a harmonic analysis of the piece and thinking of it in those terms when you're playing ("ok, so this part is a I chord... here are some inversions...now it's moved to a V," etc.). Perhaps this helps not only because of a deeper level of processing, but also because you can think of it not only in sonic terms, but you can also now "talk" yourself through the piece, that is, store and retrieve it verbally.

--GavinKistner (talk) 04:56, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I suspect that the issues surrounding memory (how we store and retrieve them) are more complex that simplifying them solely to verbal or visual memories. Rather, I think memory is tied much more closely to our five senses.  We can readily remember things like sounds, tactile sensations, tastes, smells, and visual images/sensations without having to consider them in terms of visual or verbal signifiers.  I suspect that Woolfolk’s et. al’s privileging of verbal and visual communication within memory is a reflection of the tendency in Western scholarship to prioritise visual and linguistic signs/communication.

 * To complicate matter further, some memories might be a composite of these different sensory categories. One might remember an event like a concert in terms of the sounds that were heard, the visuals that were seen, and perhaps even the smell of the venue.  Also interesting is how a memory form one sensory category and trigger another memory from a different sense.  Smell seems to be particularity effective with this, often triggering a visual memory of a place or person.

 * --Maurosavo (talk) 04:44, 3 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Reading Gavin's comments about memorization for music got me thinking about memorizing for acting and why some students seem to have a great natural capacity to learn lines and others struggle mightily. Almost without fail, those with the "natural" skill aren't able to verbalize their method or why it works for them.  "I just do it, sir." was something I heard from two of my students during my Drama practicum.  Are they transferring their lines directly into long-term memory and then pulling it back?  Are those struggling keeping that neural pathway blocked so that the information (the lines of dialogue) doesn't move past their working memory?  "I knew this a minute ago." and its variations are often heard in acting classes.

 * Similar to Gavin's example of examining the harmonic structure of a piece of music to generate deeper understanding and prevent "auto-pilot", I have always encouraged actors I coach to figure out what the character is actually talking about, the ideas, in addition to the words. The "chunking" concept (p. 244) has proven very effective.  Having an actor memorize the five thoughts their character has to verbalize during Monologue X means they will never draw a blank.  The absolute worst thing that can happen is they improvise the lines conveying that thought, but they know where the piece is going next and therefore have that much greater chance of getting themselves back on track.

 * Another interesting observation about memory within the Drama classroom comes from the student who, always unconsciously, has glued their verbal memory of the scene to the physical choices they have made. This is the student who will sit down in the chair by the door at exactly the same word in their speech five times in a row.  This would seem to be the mark of a good actor.  However, when asked to change the physical blocking so that their character never sits down, they find themselves forgetting their lines.  They have not learned what the piece is about, only the order of the words as they relate to one interpretation.  It makes me wonder if there is something in the transition from working memory to long-term memory that needs to opened manually, so to speak, for some students.

--SwordPhilip (talk) 04:43, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

Metacognition, Regulation, and Individual Differences (pp.254-259)
This section examines metacognative skills (elsewhere labeled "executive control processes") as a partial explanation of "why some people learn and remember more than others."

 * Simply put, metacognition is an individual's awareness of their own thinking and learning processes. This is an important pedagogical concept, as it is a person's metacognative skills that enable them to monitor and regulate their learning through the "strategic application" of knowledge (declarative, procedural, and conditional.) In undertaking a task, a person's metacognative skills are employed through what is essentially a self-checking process: 1. planning (how will the task be accomplished? what do I need?), 2.monitoring (how am I doing?) and evaluation (is it done? does it need more work?) As discussed in the previous chapter, one could help students improve their metacognative ability through assisting them in the development of charts, diaries, and checklists. As well, the setting of clear and achievable goals is important as "metacognition is most useful when tasks are challenging, but not too difficult."(252) Eventually, the ability to utilize these skills will become more ingrained, to the point where they are more like second nature.

 * Metacognative skills are partially but not always related to development, so older and more developmentally advanced students may have greater capacity in this area. Biological, cultural and environmental factors also play a part in metacognition differences. However, what I find really interesting here is that "superior metacognitive skills can compensate for lower levels of ability."(253) In other words, working on this particular skill set with academically challenged students might really help them improve their performance and self-esteem. Moreover, it is not subject specific, but acts as a form of transferable knowledge that students can apply to other contexts.

 * --Tearney (talk) 20:49, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

discussion

Individual Differences and Memory
 * Various factors impact an individual's ability to remember and learn. Age is a factor (more due to advanced strategic and organizational thinking skills than capacity), and some people are just born with more efficient processing skills in particular subjects (like math and language.) However, (according to the text, anyways) the most important element in the ability to learn and remember is a student's pre-existing knowledge in a particular area.

 * --Tearney (talk) 21:02, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

discussion

 * destigmatizing metacognition for students from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds

 * This entry concerns a few queries and a case study from a classroom of ESL Transitional students from a grade 12 university prep English course.

 * On page 256 of the Woolfolk text a number of reasons are given to explain the divergent abilities a student might have in developing metacognative skills: age—as most students do not develop this ability before the age of five; raw metacognative ability independent of intellectual ability (innate metacognition?) in students who have been mislabeled 'learning disabled'; biological differences (again innate); and, variations in learning experiences. The last category, "variations in learning experiences" is the tough one because it could encompass a wide variety of very real problems for teachers in urban areas such as Toronto.

 * The study cited on page 256 (Perry et al.) in which a primary grade teacher named Nancy gets her grades 1 and 2 students to become more metacognative by asking them two questions—What did you learn about yourself as a reader/writer today?, and What did you learn that you can do again and again and again?—seems a little simplistic in my experience of having to deal with "at-risk" youth, and students from conformist and/or fundamentalist backgrounds. Many of these students I refer to come from households or societies which reward compliance, and punish independence. To these students—many of whom are over the age of 18—the very concept of "self-reflection", let alone full-blown metacognition, has to be taught and modeled. A simple question about their feelings or opinions would force half my class to 'hide' by dropping their gaze to their desk and diminishing their posture.

 * If I discussed this vital thread of the curriculum at all with them it was to call it "critical thinking", and I would have to work my way towards it by a number of strategies:

 * 1) Socratic teaching. Each lesson is delivered in a rigorous dialogue (like the kind Socrates and Plato engaged in) with students, and half the questions are put to specific students whom are queried by name, with their name coming at the beginning of the question. A good place to start is at the top of a lesson (particularly useful in mid unit of a lengthy study on a novel or play) in the 'where-are-we?' summary. Play dumb. Have the class bring you up to speed on where the last class left off, and what the next topic of discussion is. Effective use of this technique requires care on the part of the teacher to not intimidate students by 'putting them on the spot', and sensitivity to personal issues that students may have around performance. The most effective type of learning in this vein happens once the teacher has established a rapport with students, and, can even call to memory, previous discussions on related topic matter. Referencing past discussions is the best way to draw out most students who tend to hide when the light is cast on them. In all instances the teacher must be rigorous enough to guidepost the dialogue in order to keep the students on-task and moving forward.

 * 2) Activities. Debates are particularly useful at getting students to develop their critical faculties, and engage in metacognative reflection, and they're pretty simple to execute. Pick a topic, break the class in half, moderate the conflict, then have the teams switch sides. Other activities which force the students to go deeper into their personal connection with the material are "role-playing" and "hot-seating" in which the student is forced to incarnate a character or personality and defend their actions. Again, sensitivity to potential personal issues is required of the teacher. If these activities are entirely new to a class the teacher may model participation by "taking the heat" for the first round or two.

 * 3) Curriculum alternatives. Current affairs brought up for discussion in class can be powerful icebreakers in terms of getting students to form and take critical opinions. In many cases lifted from the news there is a very simple purpetrator/victim paradigm which makes polarization, then contextualization, easy to achieve. Three recent stories come immediately to mind: African-centred schooling; the tasering of Polish immigrant Robert Dzykanski; the trial of Omar Khadr. Another option—don't laugh, I had to resort to this a few times—is to stimulate critical reflection through anecdote. Some of my students were confounded by my requests for personal reflection until I reminded them that their own personal tastes in music, movies, clothes, and even dating, were expressions of critical thinking and the processes required in full-blown metacognition. Mind you, I never actually used the "M" word with them. In fact several of the full-time teachers at my first practicum school did not understand the word, or claimed not to at least.

 * --Jameso'reilly (talk) 01:04, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Metacognition as a learning tool
 * Woolfolk et al. bring up the point that metacognition can be a powerful tool for improving children’s memories. This is a crucial point because, all too often, teachers and classrooms seem to emphasize students’ achievement of educational goals rather than their development as life-long learners.

 * How can teachers incorporate metacognition into their classrooms in a way that will be both valuable and meaningful to their students?

 * 1.Declarative knowledge – provides students with the opportunity to consider and articulate factors that influence their learning and memory, as well as the skills, strategies and resources required for success in a particular task.

 * 2.	Procedural knowledge – beyond recognizing those strategies which are most effective, students will learn how to apply these strategies to a variety of practical situations

 * 3.	Conditional knowledge – once the student is able to identify both the learning strategies and their means of application, he/she will explore when and why these strategies should be employed.

 * Metacognition is an important part of students’ development as learners and individuals. Not only does it require problem solving and analytical skills that will be needed in all walks of life, it can also make the learning process itself more meaningful. Students will gain a deeper understanding of their own needs, strengths and weaknesses and be better able to adapt to a constantly changing environment and/or set of circumstances.

--Ayanda (talk) 03:25, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic Principles (pp.259-268)
Real learning is holistic and interrelated. Understanding a concept involves declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge (Woolfolk, p.259).

Development of Declarative Knowledge

To learn declarative knowledge is to synthesize new ideas with existing knowledge in order to construct an understanding. Some of the techniques used to develop this integrated understanding are rote memorization and mnemonics.
 * Rote Memorization is remembering information by repetitions without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information. Effective methods which provide a greater amount of time for processing learned material and the chance to move information into the long-term memory include:
 * Part Learning, breaking large volumes into smaller segments
 * Distributed Practice, practicing more frequently but for shorter periods
 * One negative aspect of rote memorization is referred to as the serial position effect, where the learner remembers beginning and ending information but forgets the middle content. This is often the result from a single, extended period of study referred to as Massed Practice.

 * Mnemonics are systematic procedures or techniques used to enhance the memory. There are several types of mnemonic devices that have been used with varying degrees of success.  Some of these devices are:
 * Peg-type Mnemonics associate memories with a list of cue words or pegs.
 * Loci Mnemonics are a specific type of peg mnemonic that associates items with specific places.
 * An Acronym is a mnemonic device in the form of an abbreviation, where the first letter of each word in a phrase is used to form a new word.
 * Chain Mnemonics link one item in a series to be remembered with the following item, and so on.
 * Keyword Mnemonics is a system of associating new words or concepts with similar-sounding word cues.

 Development of Procedural and Conditional Knowledge
 * Automated basic skills are skills that are applied to a certain task without conscious thought. There is generally thought to be three stages in the development of automated skills: cognitive, associative, and autonomous.
 * The Cognitive stage is when we are first learning a particular skill and rely on general problem-solving approaches to make sense of the procedures involved.
 * At the Associative stage, several individual steps are combined into one larger step.
 * The Autonomous stage occurs when an entire procedure can be accomplished without much conscious thought to the individual steps.

 * Domain-specific strategies are specific skills applied consciously in order to reach a goal in a particular situation.

'''What strategies can we use in the classroom to encourage students to push for a deeper level of understanding? Can we schedule and deliver our lessons so as to promote Distributed practice habits as opposed to massed practice and rote memorization?''' --Elewis (talk) 22:17, 1 February 2008 (UTC)
 *  Discussion

 * A common fear among teachers is that their students will not truly understand the material being taught to them, and instead, will rely on memorization techniques in the hopes of retaining the information. Although “memorization strategies eventually build meaning by connecting what is to be learned with established words or images”, I strongly believe that the information being taught to students in the classroom should be delivered in a way that is meaningful to and can be understood by all students (Woolfolk et al. pg. 259). This, however, is a challenge for teachers to overcome because all students have different skills and learn in different ways, whether it be visually, aurally, kinesthetically, etc.  For example, if an educator teaches a lesson aurally, the student who learns aurally will most likely understand the information being presented.  However, a visual learner will not benefit by this type of instruction and may not understand the meaning behind the lesson.  Thus, in order to retain the information, the visual learner may rely on some form of memorization such rote memorization (remembering information by repetition without necessarily understanding the meaning of the information) (Woolfolk et. al pg. 259).  One solution to this challenge is for educators to implement differentiated instruction.  This is where an educator accommodates/integrates the abilities, interests, and learning needs of all students in the classroom when developing/presenting concepts so that all students have a chance at understanding the material.

'''However, is this idea of universal design (designing a plan that is suitable for all students in the classroom) even achievable/attainable? Is it even possible for an educator to teach in a way that can accommodate all learners in the classroom so that all students can understand the material and not just rely on memorization?'''

 * --Colillis (talk) 19:22, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

 * For many years students have been learning for the test and teachers have been teaching for the test. Now, although this is probably the quickest way to obtain immediate results, it is not the best way to develop knowledge. Students are unable to be supported by their previous knowledge when encountering new concepts in the future, if they only acquire information by means of memorization. Memorization only ensures that students are able to regurgitate information for questions requiring surface level understanding. Consequently, when asked to apply the knowledge or the idea of the concept in a capacity of higher-order thinking students will be unable to perform. As the student progresses he/she will not possess the knowledge necessary to comprehend the new material presented due to the lack of their conception of the foundation.  Hence, it is crucial students develop strong insight into material presented before them. For the learning to be meaningful and engaging students must become active participants in the education process (p.261).  Thus, it is crucial the opportunity for a meaningful experience within the classroom is presented to the students.

 * I believe the process of discovery learning to be an empowering tool for students. It helps them draw on their own experiences and develop life-long skills. As students unveil properties for themselves they will be able to observe minuscule attributes and reconcile hypotheses as they make their conclusions. Thinking in this capacity will strengthen their knowledge/confidence on subjects and allow them to achieve a much better understanding in comparison to what they would have attained by just listening and accepting the teacher’s explanation.

 * Students/teachers need to conceptualize the purpose of the curriculum—is to know a number of facts or is it to help develop lifelong skills? It is up to each individual to decide for themselves where the balance lies between the two.

--Thomas20 (talk) 23:44, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I totally agree that the idea of "memorization as learning" needs to be re-examined (if not chucked out completely like those disgusting black bananas that my mother keeps in the freezer that she says she's going to use for some sort of mysterious "baking project" - those things creep the bejeezus outta me), I think that we need to take into account the reasons why there is a demand for these quantifiable results. We live in a world that demands results - if test scores go up, then students are getting better, Q.E.D.

 * While I think almost all of us can agree that the regurgitation method is not the one most conducive to future success (remember that article about C+ students running the world that was printed in a recent issue of Time (source?) magazine recently - testing doesn't always indicate real-world success), I think it's important to accommodate this sort of testing in our classrooms. While I personally believe that a classroom is a place that should place a premium on community building and inclusivity (it's true - just look in my portfolio!), at the same time, I understand that testing has been an important part of classrooms since time immemorial for good reason. People face tests every day, where information recall is key - at work or in their personal lives (woe be upon the person who forgets a family member's birthday).

 * So while I'll admit I'm echoing a lot of points that were said in the post above, and I'm agreeing with the main argument - it's up to us to find that personal balance between the two sides of education, process and results - I think that we need to accept that it's only partially what we as individuals want, but also whatever the school board/PTA/etc. requires us to do. It's this "colouring within the lines," where teachers manage to import their personal beliefs into the pre-prescribed curricular goals of the board, that are truly successful.

--Chareth Cutestory (talk) 09:36, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
PsycholARTSical: Psyched about the arts/Sociocultural Views of Learning

Social Learning and Social Cognitive Theories (pp. 317-324)
The studies of Canadian behaviourist Albert Bandura (1977, 1986, 1999) present his theory of social cognition using observational learning as a means for students to develop behaviours and understand their consequences. Bandura proclaims that students act a certain way when incentives are provided, thus explaining why some students don't perform "bad behaviours" such as swearing or smoking due to their understanding of the personal consequences. However, this can work against students as well.

In a high school, the brand new student is constantly engorged with vicarious learning strategies as they attempt to understanding their place in the social atmosphere. The student is trying to learn how to adapt by observing the world around them. As Bandura mentioned previously, "incentives affect performance" and therefore, a student's perception of 'the cool kids' or 'the jocks' may cause them to act differently.

While attending parent-teacher nights during high schools, have you ever noticed that parents are shocked when they learn of the behavioural habits of students at school? This is due to the social incentives that fill the air throughout the social environment. Teenagers develop a certain attitude of their own, whether it be positive or negative, away from the household caused by vicarious learning desires.

This can become dangerous when vicarious reinforcement takes place. When students realize that a certain group is reinforced for a particular behaviour, and cause them to increase their production of this behaviour. An example of this is when a student swears in class and the other students find it humourous. While the positive incentive isn't present from the teacher (as Bandura described in his smoking example), the incentive is their to entertain the student masses. This would cause an increase in this behaviour in the individual, and in other students as they see that other students praise this action.

How can teachers prevent a negative vicarious reinforcement cycle in the classroom? --Mr. Magoo (talk) 00:50, 8 February 2008 (UTC)
 * It is very difficult to prevent negative vicarious reinforcement. At first it seems simple, if students act a certain way when incentives are provided, then provide incentives for them to behave appropriately (317).  However, it comes down to what the student values.  A teenager who is interested in impressing his peers with his bad behavior isn’t likely going to respond well to positive or negative reinforcement from his teacher.  Negative reinforcement will only make him think he is winning and looking even more “cool”, and positive reinforcement might cause him to feel the need to over compensate with the “bad” behavior.  I think the only answer is to take the student out of the social environment and talk to him one-on-one about having respect for himself and behaving maturely.  Find ways to appeal to his sense of self-worth and let him know that you think he is capable of doing well.  Also, talk to the student about those things that are influencing his behavior and why they are not really worth it.  The student will appreciate that you did not embarrass him in front of his peers and that you do believe in him.
 * --Malexander (talk) 19:39, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Learning By Observing Others

Observational learning:  learning how to perform an activity or behaviour through imitation.

Bandura proposed four important elements to be considered in observational learning:

 * Attention – To learn through observation, students have to pay attention.
 * Retention - To imitate behaviour, you have to remember it.
 * Production – You may need a great deal of coaching and feedback before you can reproduce observed behaviour.
 * Motivation and Reinforcement – if we anticipate being reinforced for copying a task, we are more likely to pay attention and retain information. Furthermore, a person who tries a new behaviour is unlikely to persist without reinforcement.

Bandura recognized three types of reinforcement:
 * Direct reinforcement: The tutor compliments the student for his or her effort.
 * Vicarious Reinforcement: an observer sees someone being reinforced for a particular behaviour, and so decides to increase production of that behaviour.  (Punishment can also be vicarious.)
 * Self-Reinforcement: providing yourself with positive consequences, contingent on accomplishing a particular behaviour (543)

Factors That Influence Observational Learning:
 * Developmental Status – including increases in attention span, ability to process information, and memory
 * Model prestige and competence
 * Vicarious Consequences – valued consequences motivate observers
 * Goal setting
 * Self-efficacy – a person’s sense of being able to deal effectively with a particular task (543)

--Ajlaflamme (talk) 13:17, 1 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Albert Bandura’s theories that people can learn “by observing others’ actions and consequences resulting from their actions”, social learning theory, are very interesting and very important to the classroom environment. As teachers, it is important to remember that students learn in a variety of ways and many learn through visuals.  By demonstrating the actions or task you wish the students to complete, it allows that students to gain a clearer understanding of the process and goal they are expected to accomplish.  This approach can be particularly useful in classes where students are introduced to a new technique, equipment or approach to accomplishing a task.  If students are required to use a new computer program, for example, and need to create a project with this program, it is in the best interest of the teacher to take the students through the steps and functions they need to use by using a projector and an example.  This way, students can follow along and gauge their level of success.  Social cognitive theory is also influenced by a number of other factors.  Three main examples are: developmental level of the learner, the status of the model and how similar the model is to the learner.  This can be utilized in the classroom by noting which members of the classroom have the most social influence and engaging those students so that they are more willing to participate and “be on your side” when it comes to classroom management decisions.  This will, by association, attribute some of that social power to you.  If the other students hold this person in high regard and see that they are actively engaged in what you are teaching, and in turn, you are giving this person praise and positive reinforcement, it will likely encouraging them to emulate the same behaviour.  The same can be said for disciplining students.  It is important to know where your allies and enemies lie in class and use ways of manipulating the social culture of the classroom to your favour.

 * Very eeeeenteresting. I think that this theory is totally applicable to any classroom that we enter. As the teacher, we enter a classroom as the default figure of authority; their attention is ours to lose, in most cases. In this role, it's up to us to demonstrate what we expect, behaviour-wise at the very least - of the students. I think we as teachers have a stronger ability to influence the class dynamic simply through our behaviour than we think.

 * If we show ourselves to be genuinely interested in the material, and show that we are putting a genuine effort forth to teach the material, I think that students react to that. If we're excited to be there, they will be, too. Of course, you can't reach EVERY student like this, but, like AJ said above, some students need to be shown it's ok to enjoy what you're doing, and instead of tryng to hook the alpha-teens in the class, I think the easier, and more effective thing to do is to at the very least, take steps to bring some positive energy into the classroom. Students are a cowardly and superstitious lot (10 points for whoever gets this reference), and a teacher who's genuinely engaged in the material and clearly WANTS to communicate their love of the material to the class will at LEAST be respected. Probably. Hopefully. Well, they at LEAST stand a better chance of not having their Acura egged on Devil's Night.

 * But the question that gets raised from this is, I think, how do we teach "authentically"? Most kids are like bears (or is it dogs? I know it's not mongoose ... mongeese?) and fear - they can smell "fake" coming from a mile away. So I think the imporant thing is to take steps to bring yourself into the class. Bring in aspects that you're passionate about. If you're teaching English, and you love comic boo - I mean graphic novels - bring 'em in. If you have a particular faviourite composer or art style, bring 'em in to the class! I think that most of the time, you'll find your energy is infectious.

--Chareth Cutestory (talk) 10:00, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

 * In Antecedent Strategies to Promote Appropriate Classroom Behavior, authors L. Kern and N.H. Clemens list praise as one of many class-wide strategies that may be used to promote good behavior. “Research has demonstrated that behavior-specific praise, or that which specifically identifies the particular desirable behavior the student is performing, is most effective in promoting appropriate behavior”(Kern, 68). Praise also has a vicarious effect, and students who observe others being praised for a particular behavior are more likely to adopt that behavior. However, as suggested above, the benefits of praise can be short lived if others are not reinforced as well (Kern 68).
 * Praise and reinforcement are but two ways to encourage positive behavior. There are other structures available for students with challenging behavior, from class aids to intensive individual student supports.
 * R.C. Pianta discusses alternative supports in his book Enhancing Relationships Between Children and Teachers.
 * Pianta suggests that teachers, counselors and psychologists rely on verbal processes to mediate social and emotional situations (Pianta, 129). “However, for many children… language is not the medium through which social conflict and difficult emotional experiences can be negotiated.” (Pianta, 130) Fortunately, there are other ways to build teacher and student relationships, such as through “group consultation, individual consultation, and even through forms of self-evaluation” (Pianta, 135). Regardless of the format, interactions must be flexible and differentiated, contextualized, allowing for student interpretation, positive, and without blame. “Together, these features would characterize a representational model that is more open to new information, more responsive to the child, and more integrative and balanced” (Pianta, 135). Pianta also advocates an intensive individual support method called “banking time”, whereby a teacher dedicates a regular time to one-on-one interaction with a student. During “banking time”, the student directs the teacher’s involvement, which is neutral, attentive, and supportive.  This helps to show the student that the teacher is there to help.  Banking time is neither a reward nor a punishment, but a consistent demonstration of support, interest and accessibility.

--Mjcaskenette (talk) 20:09, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Constructivism and Situated Learning (pp.324-329)
Constructivism-2 different types

Constructivism was defined by Bruning, Schraw, and Ronning in 1999 is "the learner's contribution to meaning and learning through both individual and social activity." The Woolfolk text indicates that the term has been used by many people in the psychological and social sciences to imply different things which all have to do with the way we construct our own cognative structures to interpret experiences and information. Although precise definitions of the term vary, there are two essential varieties of constructivism:

 * first wave, or solo constructivism - Essentially concerned with how individuals construct knowledge, beliefs, self-concepts, or identities by processing information through their internal psychological mechanism. This definition of constructivism, as put forth by Piaget, focuses on meaning as the individual constructs it, and not on correct representations. Piaget believed that we construct universal knowledge that cannot be learned directly from the environment.

 * second wave, or social, constructivism - An individual's development and learning is shaped by social interaction, cultural factors and activities, as expressed by Lev Vygotsky. He believed that students appropriate learning by working together in social groupings.

--Jameso'reilly (talk) 22:58, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I am interested in the commonalities and differences between individual and social/sociological constructivist theories. As stated above, the similarities revolve around a focus on the learner's role in constructing knowledge. The differences lie in the way in which this process is attributed. Individual theories view internal psychological factors as the primary determinants of knowledge construction, whereas social and sociological theories emphasize the role of external, cultural and sociological factors. Taken to its extreme, the individualist perspective results in radical constructivism, a highly post-modern position wherein no knowledge or truth is absolute and all positions are relative. This may be viable in theory, but is problematic in reality (most particularly, for our purposes in relation to teaching practice, see text example re: bigotry p320.) In contrast, Sociological constructivism sees all knowledge as a social construct, and looks at the social power relations at work in the meaning-making process. This is particularly valuable to keep in mind when developing pedagogical strategies; we need to be aware of how we are reinforcing or contesting these power relations as we participate in the educational institution. As well, as a part of our teaching process we need to facilitate our students' ability to examine the ways in which knowledge and power interact in our society. However, I don't think that we can see knowledge as a totally social entity. Individuals filter and interpret in different ways, and these need to be seen as existing both within and beyond social/cultural influence. Otherwise, we deny individual agency and the possibility of creating positive change. As an educator I am particularly drawn to the notion within Vygotsky's social constructivism that "cognition creates culture." Seen this way, education is a collaborative process in which teacher and learner work together to create new knowledge. While this framework is invariably influenced by its social/cultural context, within pedagogical interaction there lies an exciting transformational potential.

--Tearney (talk) 17:52, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

 * According to Piaget, and his focus on logic and knowledge, "he saw the social environment as an important factor in development but did not believe that social interaction was the main mechanism for changing thinking" (Moshman, 1997). This being said, why is it that teenagers today (and before) follow trends?  What better way to describe how a teenager acts than to say that they 'follow in each other's footsteps' depending on the modern trends and what is currently considered to be 'cool'.  Take fashion for example.  Within the past few years, an Australian company who makes boots meant to be worn after surfing has become a popular trend for teenage girls and even young adults.  Uggs can be seen throughout the year on girls' feet from the winter months (when boots are required), right up to summer, when they are seen to look 'cool' with a particular outfit.  The ironic part is that not only were they never meant for winter (especially Canadian winter's!), but also they are a very flat boot which is definitely the worst type of footwear to be worn for long periods of time as it can cause many foot problems throughout one's life.  Furthermore, Uggs are one of the most expensive 'brand' boots on the market today, and yet they are sold by the millions.

 * If it were not for teenagers to get 'hooked' on fashion because they see it on another girl, when out shopping, and its commercialized everywhere. A friend of mine, who has been a dancer for most of her life and therefore suffers from the common foot problem of fallen arches, recently bought a pair of Uggs as her winter boots, after taking such great care of her feet with customized orthodics and proper running shoes.  When I asked it why she bought these particular boots she said, "they're just so comfortable looking and I kept admiring them".  Fashion before care just like trends before practicality.

 * If social interactions between friends is not the main reason why teenagers give up their true identity to 'fit in', then what is?
 * --Winchell (talk) 02:10, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Social interactions between teenagers may not be the main reason why teenagers give up their true identity to 'fit in', but it seems extreme to pin any one factor as being the main reason as to why teenagers change their identity. Teenagers today live complicated lives where their time is divided between many commitments like family, school, social clubs, part-time employment, religious circles, etc.  Any or all of these influences can contribute to a teens' identity choices, not to mention the constant bombardment from media outlets like magazines, television programs, the internet, and music that can be associated with these influences.

--Ali.dormady (talk) 17:41, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

Applications of Constructivist and Situated Perspectives on Learning (pp.329-349)

 * In our time at OISE we are encouraged to develop student centred learning strategies. Wolfolk et. al suggest 5 teaching approaches listed below:

1) Inquiry Learning
 * In this strategy, the teacher presents a puzzle, question or problem and students formulate a hypothesis, collect data to test this hypothesis, draw conclusions and reflect on the original problem and process needed to solve it. This method is the basis for scientific research, but could it work well in an arts classroom?

2) Problem Based Learning
 * In problem based learning students are given a real problem, with meaning to their lives and they collaborate to find a solution. In this style the problem is real and the students actions actually matter. The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt University uses a term called "anchored instruction" (page 332), where a complex, interesting situation is used to anchor the learning and develop useful, flexible knowledge.

Thinking back from my own educational experience, I can remember numerous times becoming disinterested, disengaged and dissatisfied with a project or a course. However, whenever I had a teacher who challenged the class with authentic problems and provided clear objectives, I became engaged with my studies and excited to learn more. I enjoyed seeing how my actions made a difference. I was motivated to branch out and try new solutions. My learning experience was enhanced as I worked along with my group members to understand the problem, synthesize and apply our information. Without a doubt, by incorporating problems based on realistic situations, students are better able to direct their focus on a goal and gain personal satisfaction when they see the impact of their actions. They become personally invested in the problem and are accountable for their actions. As a result, they are more engaged in the learning process. Hopefully, new information may be retained longer. In addition, students will have gained valuable self-directed learning skills and practiced group problem solving skills which will benefit them in future projects (academically and professionally).--Belshawm (talk) 16:53, 12 March 2008 (UTC)

3) Cooperative learning
 * In this classic strategy, students work in groups of mixed ability and are rewarded on the basis of their work as a group. Research has shown this strategy to have positive effects on students' tolerance for others, feelings of acceptance, self-confidence and attendence. However, this approach can also be ineffective without careful planning and monitoring by the teacher.

4) Dialogue and Instructional Conversations
 * In this strategy students learn through interacting with teachers and/or their peers. This strategy provides scaffolding for student learning through a conversation, rather than a lecture or traditional discussion.

5) Cognitive Apprenticeships
 * Less experienced learners acquire knowledge from an expert or more experienced learner. This approach is most commonly seen in high-school co-op programs, where students are paired with community experts to learn about a trade or career. Students are guided while participating in real tasks and both parties often benefit from the partnership.

'''Does anyone have experience with any of these methods or good examples of these? Is there one method or combination of methods that is best?'''

 * Although I didn't realize why it was working so effectively at the time, I got to both observe and participate in my English AT's use of instructional conversation as a method of discussing the novel her Grade 12 classes were studying. I found the textbook's transcription of the Grade 3 conversation a little funny because, with a different vocabulary and subject matter, this was very similar to the conversations that occurred during our "round-table" discussions of Timothy Findley's The Wars .  Having everyone re-arrange their desks to form one big circle brought the focus to the class as a whole, not just focused on Ms. W. or myself.  Also, it broke the "geographical" setup of the classroom into something communal and not connected to any sort of evaluation.  The students had received the questions that were going to be used as starting points during the previous class, which meant they had time to start thinking about their opinions.  At first, these discussions were dominated by the three or four alpha-achievers in each class, but I watched Ms. W. draw the quieter or weaker members of the class into the conversation gradually.  By the third round of these discussions (and luckily for me, the point at which I took over running them), barriers were coming down for most of the students.  In fact, one of the most engaging discussions occurred primarily between myself and a boy I'll call A.  A. made a comment wondering if it modern young men would experience the same sorts of things if military service was viewed the same way now and there was a surge of people wanting to serve in Afghanistan.  I cajoled him to go further and give an answer to his own question.  He responded on a very personal level, from the point of view of the individual soldier.  Someone else lept in with the perspective of the government sending young men to war.  A. responded to that opinion and the three of us briefly explored the tangent before I guided them back to the novel and asked others to join the conversation again.  I was very impressed with A.'s ability to express his thoughts clearly and mentioned this to Ms. W.  She told me how surprised she had been during that interaction because A. was academically one of the weakest students in the class who practically never volunteered to speak.  He had conditioned himself to stay quiet to avoid criticism, assuming his answers to questions would be wrong.  But in this instructional conversation framework, he was able to let his guard down.  On a side note, after that class, A. started saying hi to me whenever we passed each other in the hall.  This is a boy heavily into the materialistic aspects of commercial hip-hop culture who always hung out and navigated the school with the same group of five male friends, a loud, boisterous, slightly intimidating group; the kind of group that walks six abreast down the hallway and expects others to make way for them.  But after having a positive experience through instructional conversation, A. wanted to say hi to the white male representative of the Establishment who tucked in his shirt and had no knowledge of Soulja Boy whatsoever.  And what does that tell you about academic experiences informing social experiences?

--SwordPhilip (talk) 14:59, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

I believe that cooperative learning can be one of the most effective tools for learning if it is used properly. Listed below are important factors to take into account when using cooperative learning:

Key Elements for Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning must be distinguished from traditional “group work.” According to Woolfolk et. al group work just refers to students working together; this does not necessarily indicate that they are cooperating. Cooperative learning requires all students to participate in the task. Cooperative learning should also encourage critical thinking and reasoning so that a deeper understanding of a topic or problem is developed.

Woolfolk et. al provide five elements that define true cooperative learning groups:

 * 1. Face to face interaction

 * 2. Positive interdependence
 * Feeling among group members that they have to work together toward a common goal

 * 3. Individual accountability
 * Individuals must be aware that they will be accountable for the learning (ex. Individual evaluation of the task)

 * 4. Collaborative skills
 * Ex. Giving feedback, reaching consensus, involving all members

 * 5. Group processing
 * Group members make sure that the group is working effectively

In the article “Cooperative Learning: An Inadequate Introduction,” OISE instructor John Myers identifies three key elements that need to be in place for cooperative learning to be successful.

 * 1. Goal Interdependence
 * All members of the group recognize that they must work together to achieve a common learning goal

 * 2. Role Interdependence
 * Group members are given interconnected roles to perform
 * Helps to ensure full participation

 * 3. Resource Interdependence
 * Members have a portion of the resources required to complete the task

A common argument against cooperative learning is that students are able to “hide” within the group and not participate in the work. A simple way to use cooperative learning but ensure individual accountability is to have students work in pairs. The classic “Think-Pair-Share,” always works. -JollyJamie (talk) 18:04, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Cognitive Apprenticeship – practicality and application

 * Woolfolk et al. identify six features that most cognitive apprenticeships share – modelling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection and exploration.

 * During my undergraduate work in music education, these educational strategies were discussed frequently as they are an important component of the praxial method of music education developed by David Elliott. Elliott’s primary goal was to ensure students’ constant engagement in the music making environment and each of the previously identified approaches were to be implemented by the teacher in a classroom setting.

 * As such, I find it interesting that the text book frames cognitive apprenticeship as something that is primarily used outside of the classroom – in a cooperative education setting, for example. While they are undoubtedly useful in any educational environment, I think these strategies are most important in the classroom environment itself – with the teacher serving as ‘mentor’ or ‘master’.

 * This is not to say that other types of constructivist learning cannot be used as well – they both can and should be a part of any classroom. Rather, the previously identified features of cognitive apprenticeship, are a crucial part of the regular actions of the teacher and his/her students.  It has been my experience, particularly in an arts based setting, that this is in fact the case.  It is difficult to imagine a scenario in which a teacher would not use modelling, coaching or scaffolding. I have found that the other features – articulation, reflection and exploration are used less frequently.  However, I think arts-based classrooms or programs provide a great opportunity for the implementation of these teaching/learning strategies.  Articulation, reflection and exploration tie in very well with the idea of metacognition, explored in the previous chapter. With support from the teacher, students should develop these abilities in terms of the learning challenges they face in the classroom (ie. Problem solving) as well as with regard to their learning process – considering how and why they learn (and learn most successfully.)

--Ayanda (talk) 04:09, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

Looking Back at Learning (pp.349-351)
Responding to a question like “what is your conception of learning” (Woolfolk et al, p.349) would have to synthesise and take pieces out of different theories and perspectives from the behavioural, cognitive, social cognitive and constructive camps. There is a lot of value in what Skinner contributes in terms of the “cause-effect” relationship between behaviours and their reinforcements, and Anderson’s viewpoint builds upon Skinners in that he acknowledges the “consequentiality” of behaviour, but also points out that one’s background can influence how behaviour is interpreted and reinforced.

The constructivist viewpoints are clearly responses to the previous two, behavioural and cognitive, but in this respect the importance of the social environment plays a pivotal role in learning and understanding. Piaget would likely see the impact the social environment has on learning, but the main variable and agent of learning lied within individual logic and one’s ability to “make sense” of stimuli or information on their own. As the text states, Piaget was especially curious about “how people construct universal knowledge that cannot be learned directly from the environment—such as conservation or reversibility.” (Miller, 1993; Woolfolk, p. 325) Students are therefore part of the learning and teaching process as knowledge is in flux and there can be a reinterpretation of previously accepted theories and formulas. This type of situation could easily work in a Mathematics class, as all the new theories; formulas come from students and professors alike. In an art class, the possibility for this to occur is even more likely, because the majority of the time students are encouraged to be critical thinkers in terms of art history and theory.

When it comes to actual projects, however, the contributory element of this type of knowledge acquisition gets tricky simply because it is the teacher who has to attach a mark to the student’s learning. Constructivist approaches to learning in this case would not support the marks system as it functions right now in most school boards, simply because it breaks apart individual-driven learning and emphasizes standards and norms. Students can be, and are encouraged to think for themselves and develop their own understanding and interpretation of different bodies of knowledge, but with the system as it functions right now, they would prefer the teacher just tell them what is right and wrong so they can get the appropriate mark.

Vygotsky’s approach seems, from the artist perspective, the most radical and appealing, since he allows the individual student agency in the construction and acquisition of knowledge. The “socially situated” approach still is built upon individual variables, but cognition is “steered” through cultural “tools and practices” (Woolfolk, p. 325). Very often students and teachers alike forget the fact that culture is a constantly changing and morphing entity that they are contributing to every day. From the arts perspective, students should be given the opportunity to reflect upon their own culture and see how they are actively forming it through their own understanding, behaviour, and actions; this acknowledgment, even if implied in the classroom, will likely engage them more in learning.

Culture in general seems like the kind of subject that is often looked at retrospectively or from far away (as in the case of "other" cultures), but students seem to respond pretty well to subjects or areas of interest where they feel they are a part of and can contribute to. Looking at the university campus life for just a moment shows how students, once they’ve understood their ability to create change with their knowledge, become activists, protesters, artists, entrepreneurs, etc.

This Terry Goodkind quote seems to fit this idea pretty nicely, or if anything as a promotional slogan for learning: “Knowledge is a weapon. I intend to be formidably armed.”

--Irenedongas (talk) 05:45, 20 February 2008 (UTC)