text:
How To Beat The Draft Board/Other Deferments Or Options

Other Deferments Or "Options"

4-B: Official Deferred by Law. Odds are, this doesn't apply to you. It applies to the people who made the policy decisions that are trying to send you to war, though.

4-G: Exempt from Service Because of Death of Parent or Sibling while Serving in the Armed Forces or Whose Parent or Sibling is in a Captured or Missing in Action Status. In short, they don't want to deprive a single family of many members.

4-F: Not Acceptable for Military Service. You've failed the military's physical, mental, or moral fitness requirements. See Richard Feynman's autobiography, or "Alice's Restaurant."

Student: Non-divinity students cannot get the nice deferments that they used to be able to. The student deferments were a source of resentment among the poor and working class during the Vietnam War, as they saw it as a way that the rich could pay their way out of going to war. Presently, students are allowed to finish up their semester or, if they are in their senior year, their academic year. After that, they are activated.

Running to Canada: While this worked in Vietnam, Canada is not guaranteed to be a safe haven unless there is government backing for such a policy. Check your countries before you leave. If they're merely "sympathetic", fleeing and keeping a low profile may be a solution. Don't expect to be able to return to the US for a long period of time, if ever. Draft dodgers from Vietnam weren't allowed back in until Carter's 1977 blanket pardon, and by then, most were so integrated with their new communities that only half ultimately returned.

Risking jailtime: Judging from Vietnam, expect a prison term of at least one year, probably three to four years - if convicted. There's a chance that you won't even be prosecuted; it all depends on how the Justice Department decides to treat cases. Just realize that, if you take this route, you're gambling with serious consequences. If you want to resist the draft directly in this manner, check out Resisters.info for advice. For this route, sooner is better than later.


text:
How To Beat The Draft Board/Closing

Closing
There are no guarantees. But there are a number of things you can do to increase your odds of getting past the board. Know your local board and how they tend to vote, if you can. If it's not too late, prepare in advance by laying the groundwork for a future claim(s) or living where there is a friendly board. Pick your claim(s) well, and prepare, prepare, prepare. Prep yourself and your witnesses alike. If your claim is denied, move up the chain; you just need one board to grant you one of your claimed statuses. Make sure that you meet the requirements of your claim, that you come across as sincere, and all of your documents are signed. Don't give them any excuse to turn you down, because a number of boards are loaded with people eager to send everyone off to war. Then again, some boards are loaded with people who are just the opposite. In the end, by knowing what your options are and preparing, you're in better shape than most people who appear before the boards.

"The point of making this distinction between resisters and dodgers is not, however, to pass judgment on either. Instead, it is to make clear that during the Vietnam War, the Johnson and Nixon administrations dishonored a generation of men by making them decide between 1) fighting in a war regarded by many as immoral and illegal, 2) going to prison, or 3) evading both the war and prison. To this day, those choices haunt many of that generation and, I would argue, contribute significantly to the cynicism so many Americans have come to share about the faithfulness of their government."

- "Confronting the War Machine", Michael S. Foley

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: How To Beat The Draft Board/Closing


text:
Talk:SAS

Syntax Highlighting
We can have syntax highlighting :

PAC (talk) 14:17, 1 September 2009 (UTC)

Purpose of the book
What is the purpose of this book - is it meant to be an introduction to programming in SAS, a history of the company or something else? I have some ideas for content if it is a programming guide which I am happy to add and perhaps the book title should be changed then too?

This book is intended to be a guide to SAS programming. PAC (talk) 14:17, 1 September 2009 (UTC)

I'm not convinced this book in its present form is really of any value. It seems to me that it might be preferable to merge the most important parts into the SAS Programming article on Wikiversity and then direct people to that resource, which seems to me to be both more complete and better written. Truthfulcynic (talk) 18:40, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

I have discovered the wikiversity SAS programming recently and it's true that the wikiversity page is more complete. However, I am not sure that we should merge this book with the university project. I think it would be nice if we could have an R, a Stata and a SAS wikibook. The main advantage of this wikibook over the wikiversity project is that it is organized by task, not by SAS modules. --PAC2 (talk) 07:27, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:SAS


text:
User:Knightsamar

I am a student from Pune, India interested in Linux, wiki and learning new languages.

Trying to get a feel of wikis..

title: User:Knightsamar


text:
User talk:Mickrussom

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 05:17, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mickrussom


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Procedural Eyeball

Looks to be a good tutorial, if only it was finished!

-

This Tutorial is excellent as of September 2008! As well as being an easy tute to follow [do download the PDF version - an absolute must due to the screen shots], is is an amazing insight to what some of the settings in the textures actually do for anyone with a bit of intelligence, and desire to learn.

I hope to see more from this author, with more descriptions of what can be accomplished with the texture settings. He demonstrates a great deal of mastery of the Material/texture settings in this tutorial, making me drool for more. I bow to you master!! The way you simulated 'Red Eye' in your 'eye' tute was simply beyond me until you described what you were doing (even though you did it - simply because 'I can'. Beautiful) -

More please, [please, please. Pretty please?]

I liked it, but it would be much better converted to wiki format, as then corrections and clarifications can be easily made Lordelph (talk) 14:40, 2 January 2009 (UTC)

Without the pdf (which is not available at the specified website), this tutorial is extremely difficult to follow, especially the Iris texture description, which assumes you can see the pictures. Nanobug (talk) 20:11, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

'''I'm sorry but I can't Update/correct the page further because I don't have the information to proceed. But, don't get mad. I e-mailed the author of the original tutorial and maybe we all will make a procedural eyeball soon.'''

If anyone knows how to make a nice looking procedural iris in blender 2.75. I would be pleased to hear or place it directly in here. Chekruizinga2 (discuss • contribs) 20:09, 16 September 2015 (UTC)

Updateː I managed to make something. Hope u like it and if someone has better ideas change it. Chekruizinga2 (discuss • contribs) 17:59, 17 September 2015 (UTC)


text:
This Quantum World/Implications and applications/Beyond hydrogen: the Periodic Table

< PREVIOUS

Beyond hydrogen: the Periodic Table
If we again assume that the nucleus is fixed at the center and ignore relativistic and spin effects, then the stationary states of helium are the solutions of the following equation:

E\,{\partial\psi\over\partial t}=-{\hbar^2\over2m} \left[{\partial^2\psi\over\partial x_1^2}+{\partial^2\psi\over\partial y_1^2}+{\partial^2\psi\over\partial z_1^2}+ {\partial^2\psi\over\partial x_2^2}+{\partial^2\psi\over\partial y_2^2}+{\partial^2\psi\over\partial z_2^2}\right]+ \left[-\frac{2e^2}{r_1}-\frac{2e^2}{r_2}+\frac{e^2}{r_{12}}\right]\psi. $$ The wave function now depends on six coordinates, and the potential energy $$V$$ is made up of three terms. $$r_1=\sqrt{x_1^2+y_1^2+z_1^2}$$ and $$r_2=\sqrt{x_2^2+y_2^2+z_2^2}$$ are associated with the respective distances of the electrons from the nucleus, and $$r_{12}=\sqrt{(x_2{-}x_1)^2+ (y_2{-}y_1)^2 +(z_2{-}z_1)^2}$$ is associated with the distance between the electrons. Think of $$e^2/r_{12}$$ as the value the potential energy associated with the two electrons would have if they were at $$r_1$$ and $$r_2,$$ respectively.

Why are there no separate wave functions for the two electrons? The joint probability of finding the first electron in a region $$A$$ and the second in a region $$B$$ (relative to the nucleus) is given by

p(A,B)=\int_A\!d^3r_1\!\int_B\!d^3r_2\;|\psi(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2)|^2. $$ If the probability of finding the first electron in $$A$$ were independent of the whereabouts of the second electron, then we could assign to it a wave function $$\psi_1(\mathbf{r}_1),$$ and if the probability of finding the second electron in $$B$$ were independent of the whereabouts of the first electron, we could assign to it a wave function $$\psi_2(\mathbf{r}_2).$$ In this case $$\psi(\mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf{r}_2)$$ would be given by the product $$\psi_1(\mathbf{r}_1)\,\psi_2(\mathbf{r}_2)$$ of the two wave functions, and $$p(A,B)$$ would be the product of $$p(A)=\int_A\!d^3r_1\,|\psi(\mathbf{r}_1)|^2$$ and $$p(B)=\int_B\!d^3r_2\,|\psi(\mathbf{r}_2)|^2.$$ But in general, and especially inside a helium atom, the positional probability distribution for the first electron is conditional on the whereabouts of the second electron, and vice versa, given that the two electrons repel each other (to use the language of classical physics).

For the lowest energy levels, the above equation has been solved by numerical methods. With three or more electrons it is hopeless to look for exact solutions of the corresponding Schrödinger equation. Nevertheless, the Periodic Table and many properties of the chemical elements can be understood by using the following approximate theory.

First,we disregard the details of the interactions between the electrons. Next, since the chemical properties of atoms depend on their outermost electrons, we consider each of these atoms subject to a potential that is due to (i) the nucleus and (ii) a continuous, spherically symmetric, charge distribution doing duty for the other electrons. We again neglect spin effects except that we take account of the Pauli exclusion principle, according to which the probability of finding two electrons (more generally, two fermions) having exactly the same properties is 0. Thus two electrons can be associated with exactly the same wave function provided that their spin states differ in the following way: whenever the spins of the two electrons are measured with respect to a given axis, the outcomes are perfectly anticorrelated; one will be "up" and the other will be "down". Since there are only two possible outcomes, a third electron cannot be associated with the same wave function.

This approximate theory yields stationary wave functions $$\psi_{nlm}(\mathbf{r})$$ called orbitals for individual electrons. These are quite similar to the stationary wave functions one obtains for the single electron of hydrogen, except that their dependence on the radial coordinate is modified by the negative charge distribution representing the remaining electrons. As a consequence of this modification, the energies associated with orbitals with the same quantum number $$n$$ but different quantum numbers $$l$$ are no longer equal. For any given $$n\geq1,$$ obitals with higher $$l$$ yield a larger mean distance between the electron and the nucleus, and the larger this distance, the more the negative charge of the remaining electrons screens the positive charge of the nucleus. As a result, an electron with higher $$l$$ is less strongly bound (given the same $$n$$), so its ionization energy is lower.

Chemists group orbitals into shells according to their principal quantum number. As we have seen, the $$n$$-th shell can "accommodate" up to $$n^2\times2$$ electrons. Helium has the first shell completely "filled" and the second shell "empty." Because the helium nucleus has twice the charge of the hydrogen nucleus, the two electrons are, on average, much nearer the nucleus than the single electron of hydrogen. The ionization energy of helium is therefore much larger, 2372.3 J/mol as compared to 1312.0 J/mol for hydrogen. On the other hand, if you tried to add an electron to create a negative helium ion, it would have to go into the second shell, which is almost completely screened from the nucleus by the electrons in the first shell. Helium is therefore neither prone to give up an electron not able to hold an extra electron. It is chemically inert, as are all elements in the rightmost column of the Periodic Table.

In the second row of the Periodic Table the second shell gets filled. Since the energies of the 2p orbitals are higher than that of the 2s orbital, the latter gets "filled" first. With each added electron (and proton!) the entire electron distribution gets pulled in, and the ionization energy goes up, from 520.2 J/mol for lithium (atomic number Z=3) to 2080.8 J/mol for neon (Z=10). While lithium readily parts with an electron, fluorine (Z=9) with a single empty "slot" in the second shell is prone to grab one. Both are therefore quite active chemically. The progression from sodium (Z=11) to argon (Z=18) parallels that from lithium to neon.

There is a noteworthy peculiarity in the corresponding sequences of ionization energies: The ionization energy of oxygen (Z=8, 1313.9 J/mol) is lower than that of nitrogen (Z=7, 1402.3 J/mol), and that of sulfur (Z=16, 999.6 J/mol) is lower than that of phosphorus (Z=15, 1011.8 J/mol). To understand why this is so, we must take account of certain details of the inter-electronic forces that we have so far ignored.

Suppose that one of the two 2p electrons of carbon (Z=6) goes into the $$m{=}0$$ orbital with respect to the $$z$$ axis. Where will the other 2p electron go? It will go into any vacant orbital that minimizes the repulsion between the two electrons, by maximizing their mean distance. This is neither of the orbitals with $$|m|{=}1$$ with respect to the $$z$$ axis but an orbital with $$m{=}0$$ with respect to some axis perpendicular to the $$z$$ axis. If we call this the $$x$$ axis, then the third 2p electron of nitrogen goes into the orbital with $$m{=}0$$ relative to $$y$$ axis. The fourth 2p electron of oxygen then has no choice but to go — with opposite spin — into an already occupied 2p orbital. This raises its energy significantly and accounts for the drop in ionization from nitrogen to oxygen.

By the time the 3p orbitals are "filled," the energies of the 3d states are pushed up so high (as a result of screening) that the 4s state is energetically lower. The "filling up" of the 3d orbitals therefore begins only after the 4s orbitals are "occupied," with scandium (Z=21).

Thus even this simplified and approximate version of the quantum theory of atoms has the power to predict the qualitative and many of the quantitative features of the Period Table.

NEXT >


text:
Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices/Dual Booting

Dual Booting

You can install an unlimited number of Windows NT OS's. It is recommended to start with the oldest OS(here, OS1). You can also install 32-bit OS's and 64-bit OSs together. Whatever your method it, multi-booting is somewhat advanced.

With Windows Vista and newer

 * 1) Make sure that you have enough space to install Windows 7.
 * 2) If you have already created a separate(empty) partition for Windows 7, skip this and move on. Otherwise,
 * 3) Open Disk Management by going to Start and typing 'Disk Management'.
 * 4) Right click the volume and click Shrink Volume.
 * 5) Select the amount to be shrinked. This will be the partition size as well.
 * 6) Right click on the new partition and click Create New Volume
 * 7) Select all the free space gained by shrinking to be allocated to the new partition. Choose the format option as well and give it a name.
 * 8) Install Windows 7.
 * 9) If you have a disk, you can simply insert the disk and run the installer. Choose the new partition when given the choice of partition. Make sure that you're not overwriting Windows Vista itself!
 * 10) If Windows 7 is somewhere on the HDD, simply navigate to the location and start the installer.

With Windows XP and Windows Vista or newer
The ability to resize disk partitions was introduced only with Windows Vista, so for a user currently running Windows XP and wanting to dual boot with Windows Vista or higher, he/she should be having a separate partition for that OS. Otherwise, he needs to use a 3rd party tool or reinstall. Make sure that you have a separate partition. If you have, move to Step 2, otherwise if you are using a partition tool, use that and move on to Step 2. If you'd rather reinstall Windows, continue.

 * 1) Reinstall Windows. To do so,
 * 2) Locate your Windows XP disk.
 * 3) Restart and enter to your BIOS's One-time boot. If you do not know how to do so, refer to your documentation. If on entering the One-time boot, there is no option to boot from CD, refer to your BIOS on how to enable booting from CD.
 * 4) Press any key when prompted to do so.
 * 5) Follow the on-screen instructions.
 * 6) Delete the current partition. Make sure that your files are backed up!!
 * 7) Create 2 partitions with appropriate sizes. Make sure to leave enough space for the new partition. You may want to create additional partitions, do so.
 * 8) Install Windows XP on the first partition.
 * 9) Once you've got a brand new copy of Windows XP running, move to Step 2.
 * 10) Install Windows 7.
 * 11) Locate your Windows 7 and start the installer.
 * 12) When you're given the choice of the partition, select the other empty partition. Make sure that you're not overwriting Windows XP itself!

OS X and Windows 7 or newer
This section concerns mostly those who are trying to dual-boot Windows 7+ on their Intel-based Macs. Before you start, update your Mac to the latest that is supported, and update BootCamp. If you have BootCamp 3 or below, see your Boot Camp documentation. This guide is intended for users with Boot Camp 4 or higher. If you plan to use Windows 8 or higher, you should upgrade to Boot Camp 5 and higher. If you do want to use 32-bit Windows, do not upgrade beyond Boot Camp 4(but use the latest in that), as Boot Camp 5 is for 64-bit Windows 7+ only. Do not use a Enterprise SKU.; you'll end up being unable to install by a GPT error. To start,
 * 1) Prepare your Mac by following the instructions above.
 * 2) Decide whether you're using a USB drive or a DVD. USB is better, but not every Mac supports it. Most models from 2010 onwards support this. Go to the Apple website to verify this. If DVD is your option, you'll still need a 2GB+ USB for Boot Camp drivers.
 * 3) Make sure that you have sufficient space.
 * 4) Open Boot Camp. It's mostly in the Applications folder. Click Next.
 * 5) Select all the options. If you're using a DVD, unselect the first option. That option uses a ISO file and erases the USB and copies the contents into that. If you're already having a USB with Windows installer, remove the first option.
 * 6) Select the ISO and the drive to which it will copy the file. The drive will be formatted, so make sure that you've backed up your files on that drive..
 * 7) Once that's done, if you've selected the option to download Boot Camp drivers, it may ask you where to save that and then will begin downloading the files. Select a USB drive(your files won't be affected) If you've selected the first option, this is not required as that'll be already done for you.
 * 8) Select the partition size. It is better to allocate atleast 30 GB of free space.
 * 9) After formatting, the computer will restart. Stay alert at this time.
 * 10) When the Mac 'chime' sounds, immediately hold the option(ALT) key. Keep holding till a boot menu appears.
 * 11) At the boot menu, select the USB/DVD drive containing the installer.
 * 12) The Windows setup will start. Select your preferences and click Next.

 * 1) Proceed till you reach the page which asks you to select your partition.
 * 2) Select the BOOTCAMP partition and format it.

 * 1) After that, click Next to continue. Wait till you reach the OOBE(Out of Box Experience) where you configure the settings for first run. You would've seen this on first run after buying a new PC. Complete the OOBE.
 * 2) Before/After you see the desktop, you'll see a Boot Camp installer if you've left the USB connected. If you did not, then start the installer by connecting the USB and then starting the installer setup. Complete the installer and restart when prompted to do the same.

 * 1) After restarting, your Mac should boot to Windows. If you want to boot to OSX permanently, you can do so though Boot Camp. If temporarily, hold down the ALT(Options) key when the Mac chime sounds and select your OS.

Windows Me and Windows 2000

 * 1) Install Windows Me.
 * 2) Get by extract x:\tools\nettools\fac\ltools.dta *.* c:\x all needed files, where first x is CD-ROM drive and where second x is destination folder.
 * 3) Replace all instances of COMMAND.COM by using replacement COMMAND.COM got from inside TOOLS\NETTOOLS\FAC\LTOOLS.DTA cabinet file placed on Windows Me OEM bootable CD.
 * 4) Install Windows 2000.
 * 5) Copy into C:\ following files:
 * 6) WINBOOT.SYS renamed from IO.SYS got from inside TOOLS\NETTOOLS\FAC\LTOOLS.DTA cabinet file placed on Windows Me OEM bootable CD
 * 7) MSDOS.W40 renamed from MSDOS.SYS got from inside TOOLS\NETTOOLS\FAC\LTOOLS.DTA cabinet file placed on Windows Me OEM bootable CD
 * 8) COMMAND.W40 renamed from COMMAND.COM got from inside TOOLS\NETTOOLS\FAC\LTOOLS.DTA cabinet file placed on Windows Me OEM bootable CD
 * 9) Create in C:\ following text files:
 * 10) CONFIG.W40 filled with country specific settings
 * 11) AUTOEXEC.W40 filled with country specific settings
 * 12) Remove from BOOT.INI [operating systems] section following line: "C:\ = "Microsoft Windows"
 * 13) Add to BOOT.INI [operating systems] section following lines:
 * C:\ = "Microsoft Windows Me" /win95dos
 * C:\ = "Microsoft DOS Me" /win95


text:
This Quantum World/Implications and applications/Probability flux

< PREVIOUS

Probability flux
The time rate of change of the probability density $$\rho(t,\mathbf{r})=|\psi(t,\mathbf{r})|^2$$ (at a fixed location $$\mathbf{r}$$) is given by

\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}=\psi^*\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial t}+\psi\frac{\partial\psi^*}{\partial t}. $$ With the help of the Schrödinger equation and its complex conjugate,

i\hbar\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial t}=\frac{1}{2m} \left(\frac{\hbar}{i}\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}} -\mathbf{A}\right)\cdot\left(\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\psi+V\psi,$$

{\hbar\over i}{\partial\psi^*\over\partial t}= \frac{1}{2m}\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\cdot \left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\psi^*+V\psi^*, $$

one obtains

\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}=-\frac i\hbar\psi^*\left[\frac{1}{2m} \left(\frac{\hbar}{i}\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\cdot\left(\frac{\hbar}{i} \frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\psi+V\psi\right]$$

+\frac i\hbar\psi\left[\frac{1}{2m}\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right) \cdot\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\psi^*+V\psi^*\right]. $$

The terms containing $$V$$ cancel out, so we are left with

\frac{\partial\rho}{\partial t}=-\frac i{2m\hbar}\left[ \psi^*\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}+\mathbf{A}\right)\cdot\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}+\mathbf{A}\right)\psi-\psi\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\cdot\left(i\hbar\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{A}\right)\psi^* \right]$$

=\dots=-\frac{\hbar}{2mi}\left(\frac{\partial^2\psi}{\partial\mathbf{r}^2}\psi^*-\psi\frac{\partial^2\psi^*}{\partial\mathbf{r}^2}\right) +\frac1m\left(\psi\psi^*\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\mathbf{A}+\mathbf{A}\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\psi^*+\mathbf{A}\psi\frac{\partial\psi^*}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\right). $$

Next, we calculate the divergence of $$\mathbf{j}=\frac{\hbar}{2mi}\left(\psi^*\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial\mathbf{r}} -\frac{\partial\psi^*}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\psi\right)-\frac{1}{m}\mathbf{A}\psi^*\psi$$:

\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\mathbf{j}=\frac{\hbar}{2mi}\left(\frac{\partial^2\psi}{\partial\mathbf{r}^2}\psi^*-\psi\frac{\partial^2\psi^*}{\partial\mathbf{r}^2}\right)-\frac1m\left(\psi\psi^*\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\mathbf{A}+\mathbf{A}\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\psi^*+\mathbf{A}\psi\frac{\partial\psi^*}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\right). $$ The upshot:

Integrated over a spatial region $$R$$ with unchanging boundary $$\partial R:$$

{\partial\over\partial t}\int_R\rho\,d^3r=-\int_R{\partial\over\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\mathbf{j}\,d^3r. $$ According to Gauss's law, the outward flux of $$\mathbf{j}$$ through $$\partial R$$ equals the integral of the divergence of $$\mathbf{j}$$ over $$R:$$

\oint_{\partial R}\mathbf{j}\cdot d\Sigma=\int_R {\partial\over\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\mathbf{j}\,d^3r. $$ We thus have that

{\partial\over\partial t}\int_R\rho\,d^3r=-\oint_{\partial R}\mathbf{j}\cdot d\Sigma. $$ If $$\rho$$ is the continuous density of some kind of stuff (stuff per unit volume) and $$\mathbf{j}$$ is its flux (stuff per unit area per unit time), then on the left-hand side we have the rate at which the stuff inside $$R$$ increases, and on the right-hand side we have the rate at which stuff enters through the surface of $$R.$$ So if some stuff moves from place A to place B, it crosses the boundary of any region that contains either A or B. This is why the framed equation is known as a continuity equation.

In the quantum world, however, there is no such thing as continuously distributed and/or continuously moving stuff. $$\rho$$ and $$\mathbf{j},$$ respectively, are a density (something per unit volume) and a flux (something per unit area per unit time) only in a formal sense. If $$\psi$$ is the wave function associated with a particle, then the integral $$\int_R\rho\,d^3r=\int_R|\psi|^2\,d^3r$$ gives the probability of finding the particle in $$R$$ if the appropriate measurement is made, and the framed equation tells us this: if the probability of finding the particle inside $$R,$$ as a function of the time at which the measurement is made, increases, then the probability of finding the particle outside $$R,$$ as a function of the same time, decreases by the same amount. (Much the same holds if $$\psi$$ is associated with a system having $$n$$ degrees of freedom and $$R$$ is a region of the system's configuration space.) This is sometimes expressed by saying that "probability is (locally) conserved." When you hear this, then remember that the probability for something to happen in a given place at a given time isn't anything that is situated at that place or that exists at that time.


text:
SwisTrack/Components/InputCameraGigE

Description
This component grabs frames from a Basler Vision gigabit ethernet camera (scout or pilot series, or a compatible model) using the Basler Pylon driver (version 2.0). Note that this component is not part of the standard distribution of SwisTrack and requires compiling SwisTrack by yourself.

Input
A Pylon compliant GigE (Gigabit Ethernet) camera, such as the scout or pilot GigE cameras from Basler Vision.

Output

A grayscale or a color image.

Trigger Mechanism
If configured in software trigger mode, this component always accepts processing frames.

In all other trigger modes, the component vetoes execution until the next frame from the camera is ready.

Camera
Choose the GigE camera you want to use to acquire images. The special entry "Any" takes any available camera (actually the camera that the driver lists as first camera).

Mode
Color or grayscale mode. Note that you anyway need to add an input conversion component.

Trigger mode
If you have an external trigger connected to your camera, select the trigger input line here. Acquisition will be triggered on the rising edge.

Timer uses the internal timer of the camera.

Software trigger sends the trigger signal over ethernet, which is not as precise as an external trigger or the internal timer. (In this configuration, the component does not act as a trigger.)

Timer
Sets the internal timer trigger of the camera. Note that this field is only used if Trigger mode is set to Timer.

Exposure time
Raw exposure time. This value is multiplied by the exposure time base of the camera to obtain the actual exposure time. Refer to the camera documentation for details.

Analog gain
Analog gain. Refer to the camera documentation for details.

Area of Interest (Offset and Size)
The image area to sample and transmit. Smaller areas will result in higher frame rates.

Input buffer size
The number of input buffers (in number of frames) to provide to the camera driver. The camera driver will fill these buffers in case the computer is temporarily busy with other tasks and not able read the frames at the speed they arrive. Recommended values are:
 * 1 - 4 for online processing (e.g. for live tracking of robots)
 * 8 - 16 for offline processing (e.g. recording for post-experiment analysis)

title: SwisTrack/Components/InputCameraGigE


text:
User:Phenomena

About me
I'm currently pursuing an undergraduate degree (BSc) in Cognitive Science, but my interests extend beyond cognition. My main interests are consciousness studies, philosophy and psychology, least not forget music, composing and piano playing. I am strongely addicted to ideas of community building and open access.

Technology and Such I'm starting to learn programming in JAVA and in striving to become a scientist I have to study statistics. Although this is not my best subject I enjoy it, strangely enough. Perhaps this is because I have finally got hold of a great introduction to the topic. I have a fair knowledge of HTML and CSS - read the book.

Sometimes I get lost in technical literature and my prose follows suite, especially in languages other than my own.

Still learning wiki... --Phenomena 09:54, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Phenomena


text:
Wikibooks:Hindi bookshelf

Books on Hindi

 * Hindi
 * Hindi
 * Hindi Lessons

title: Wikibooks:Hindi bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Finnish bookshelf

Books on Finnish

 * Finnish
 * Finnish - a Beginners course
 * Finnish Language for Foreigners -a Grammar Reference
 * Practical Finnish

title: Wikibooks:Finnish bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:German bookshelf

Books on German

 * German
 * German
 * German in bite-sized lessons
 * Freistil - German annotated texts

title: Wikibooks:German bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Greek bookshelf

Books on Greek

 * Greek
 * Greek (Modern)
 * Greek (Koine)
 * Ancient Greek

title: Wikibooks:Greek bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Icelandic bookshelf

Books on Icelandic

 * Icelandic
 * Icelandic
 * High Icelandic

title: Wikibooks:Icelandic bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Portuguese bookshelf

Books on Portuguese

 * Portuguese
 * Portuguese
 * Portuguese grammar

title: Wikibooks:Portuguese bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Spanish bookshelf

Books on Spanish

 * Spanish
 * Spanish
 * Spanish by Choice
 * The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish

title: Wikibooks:Spanish bookshelf


text:
Wikibooks:Norwegian bookshelf

Books on Norwegian

 * Norwegian
 * Norwegian
 * Høgnorsk - High Norwegian

title: Wikibooks:Norwegian bookshelf


text:
Talk:Croatian/Main Contents/Level 1/Lesson 15

Untitled
I hope you don't mind: I took your verb list and added things that I find useful (aspect, irregular conjugation). This book is really great, and I want to encourage you!

Unclear about those that you added -- what is the 'aspect'? What 'person' are the conjugations in (I, you, he/she)? They look like first person, but I'm not good enough with Croatian to know.


text:
Talk:Java Programming/API/java.lang.Class

= Usage = Please give examples of where this weirdness can be useful. CannibalSmith 14:22, 11 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Croatian/Main Contents/Level 1/Lesson 1

Untitled
Naming the letters here is very useful: it's hard to find any other site that does this.82.46.44.139 15:35, 11 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
APE Users Guide

APE Users Guide is a book designed to help you get the most out of the open source 2D physics engine APE.

About
APE (Actionscript Physics Engine) is written in AS3 and is designed for use in Flash or Flex games and applications.

Overview
APE is a 2D physics engine written in Actionscript 3 for use in Flash and Flex.

You can simulate 2D dynamics by using particles and connecting them with constraints to create more complex shapes. The engine currently has 3 different kinds of particle classes - the CircleParticle, RectangleParticle, and WheelParticle, and one type of constraint - the SpringConstraint.

Flash CS3
A good tutorial here (this is Part 2, which directly addresses Flash CS3, as opposed to part one which works with Flex): http://www.emanueleferonato.com/2007/10/23/ape-actionscript-physics-engine-tutorial-part-2/

License
APE is released under the open source MIT license.

title: APE Users Guide


text:
Electronics/Basic Concepts

What is Electronics?
Electronics is the study of flow of electrons in various materials or space subjected to various conditions. In the past, electronics dealt with the study of Vacuum Tubes or Thermionic valves, today it mainly deals with flow of electrons in semiconductors. However, despite these technological differences, the main focus of electronics remains the controlled flow of electrons through a medium. By controlling the flow of electrons, we can make them perform special tasks, such as power an induction motor or heat a resistive coil.

Plumbing Analogy: A simple way to understand electrical circuits is to think of them as pipes. Let's say you have a simple circuit with a voltage source and a resistor between the positive and negative terminals on the source. When the circuit is powered, electrons will move from the negative terminal, through the resistor, and into the positive terminal. The resistor is basically a path of conduction that resists the movement of electrons. This circuit could also be represented as a plumbing network. In the plumbing network, the resistor would be equivalent to a section of pipe, where the water is forced to move around several barriers to pass through, effectively slowing its flow. If the pipe is level, no water will flow in an organized fashion, since the pressure is equal throughout the pipe. However, if we tilt the pipe to a vertical position (similar to turning on a voltage source), a pressure difference is created (similar to a voltage difference) and the water begins flowing through the pipe. This flow of water is similar to the flow of electrons in a circuit.

Electricity
To understand electronics, you need to understand electricity and what it is. Basically, electricity is the flow of electrons due to a difference in electrical charge between two points. This difference in charge is created due to a difference in electron density. If you have a point where the electron density is higher than the electron density at another point, the electrons in the area of higher density will want to balance the charge by migrating towards the area with lower density. This migration is referred to as electrical current. Thus, flow in an electrical circuit is induced by putting more electrons on one side of the circuit than the other, forcing them to move through the circuit to balance the charge density.

Electric Charge
Observations tell us that matter can either be electrically neutral (that is, have no net charge), or carry a positive or negative charge. On a microscopic level, a negative charge corresponds to an excess of electrons in the material (which each carry a 'unit' of negative charge), and a positive charge a shortage of electrons. We denote the charge of an object by $$Q$$, which is measured in Coulombs.

Coulomb's Law
Two objects that have the same type of charge are known to repel, whereas objects with opposite charges attract. The force between charged objects is given by Coulomb's Law:
 * $$F = k \frac{Q_1 \cdot Q_2}{r^2},$$

where $$Q_1$$ and $$Q_2$$ are the charges of the two objects (positive or negative), $$r$$ is the distance between them, and $$k$$ a universal constant.

Electric field
Suppose we have a fixed particle (or a collection of fixed particles), then we can calculate the force on any given (test) particle with charge $$Q$$ by applying Coulomb's Law. There is a force at any point in space; we say that there is an electric field $$E$$ due to the (fixed) charges. The field at any point is equal to the net force on a charged particle divided by its charge, or:
 * $$F = E Q$$

Lorentz's Law
When a charge in motion passes through a magnetic field, the magnetic field will push a positive charge upward and negative charge downward in the direction perpendicular to the initial direction traveled. The magnitude of the magnetic force on the charge is given by Lorentz's Law:
 * $$F = Qv B$$

Electromagnetic Force
The sum of the Coulomb and Lorentz's Forces is called the ElectroMagnetic Force:
 * $$F = F + F = Q E + Q vB = Q (E + vB)$$

Electricity and Matter
All matter interacts with Electricity, and are divided into three categories: Conductors, Semi Conductors, and Non Conductors.

Conductor
 * Matter that conducts Electricity easily. Metals like Zinc (Zn) and Copper (Cu) conduct electricity very easily. Therefore, they are used to make Conductors.

Non-Conductor
 * Matter that does not conduct Electricity at all. Non-Metals like Wood and Rubber do not conduct electricity so easily. Therefore, they are used to make Non-Conductors.

Semi Conductor
 * Matter that conducts electricity in a manner between that of Conductors and Non-Conductors. For example, Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) conduct electricity better than non-conductors but worse than conductors. Therefore, they are used to make Semi Conductors.

Electricity and Conductors
Normally, all conductors have a zero net charge. If there is an electric force that exerts a pressure on the charges in the conductor to force charges to move in a straight line result in a stream of electric charge moving in a straight line

Voltage

 * The pressure the electric force exert on the charges is called voltage denoted as V measured in Volt (V) and defined as the ratio of Work Done on Charge
 * $$V = \frac{W}{Q}$$

 * $$V = \frac{P}{I}$$

Current

 * The moving of straight lines of electric charges in the conductor is called current denoted as I measured in Ampere (A) and defined as Charge flow through an area in a unit of time
 * $$I = \frac{Q}{t}$$

Conductance

 * Conductance is defined as the ratio of current over voltage denoted as Y measured in mho
 * or siemens (S) $$Y = \frac{I}{V}$$

Resistance

 * Resistance is defined as the ratio of voltage over current denoted as R measured in Ohm
 * $$R = \frac{V}{I}$$

Generally, resistance of any conductor is found to increase with increasing temperature For Conductor
 * R = Ro(1 + nT)

For Semi Conductor
 * R = Ro enT

When a conductor conducts electricity, it dissipates heat energy into the surrounding. This results in a loss of electric energy transmitted. If the electric supply energy is PV and the electric loss energy is PR Then the electric energy delivered:

 * P = PV - PR
 * $$P = IV - I^2 R = IV - \frac{V^2}{R}$$
 * $$P = I (V - IR) = V (I - \frac{V}{R})$$
 * $$P = Cos \theta$$

Black Body Radiation
Further experience with conductors that conduct electricity. It is observed that all conductors that conduct electricity exhibit
 * 1) Change in Temperature
 * 2) Release Radiant Heat Energy into the surrounding

Experiment
Connect a conductor with an electric source in a closed loop. Plot the value I at different f to have a I - f diagram

Observation
for ffo,
 * Current remains at the value of current at fo.
 * Radiant heat is a wave travels at velocity v = c (speed of Light) carries energy E = h nfo

Conclusion

 * 1) All conductor that conducts Electricity has a threshold frequency fo
 * 2) The Radiant Heat Energy is a Light Wave of dual Wave Particle characteristic. Sometimes it behaves like Particle, sometimes it behaves like Wave
 * 3) At Frequency f > fo . The energy of the Light is quantized . it can only have the value of multiple integer of fo . E = hf = h nfo

title: Electronics/Basic Concepts


text:
AP Chemistry/Stoichometry

 * Percent composition - the percent mass of an element in a compound. This only requires the empirical formula which is the ratio of elements in a compound. This is different from a molecular formula, which counts the total number of atoms of each element in the compound.

 * Limiting reactants - In a reaction, if there is not enough of a specific reactant, it is called the limiting reactant. To find out which substance is the limiting reactant, first find out how many moles of each substance exist at first. Then, divide each by the coefficient of the respective substance in the balanced equation. The substance with the smallest number in the end is the limiting reactant.

 * Percent yield - (actual yield / theoretical yield) * 100. If this isn't self explanatory, you shouldn't be taking the AP exam.

Examples
A certain compound has the empirical formula. When 4 moles of it is burned with excess oxygen (combustion), it produces 72.08g H2O. What is the molecular formula of the compound?

Start by writing a balanced equation of the combustion of.

Now use stoichometry to find the mass of the.

72.08gH2O

$$ 72.08gH_2O \times \frac{1molH_2O}{18.02gH_2O} \times \frac{4molCH}{2molH_2O} \times \frac{13.02gCH}{1molCH} = {104.16g} CH$$

Remember that four moles were burned, so the mass you found is found in four moles. You can now use this to find the molecular formula.

$$ \frac {104.16g}{4molCH} \times \frac {1molCH}{13.02gCH}= 2 $$

This is number is the number you multiply the subscripts by, and so you find the molecular formula to be

title: AP Chemistry/Stoichometry


text:
AP Chemistry/Gases

Kinetic Molecular Theory
Ideal gases don't exist, but if they did, they would fit the following descriptions:
 * Full of tiny particles that are far apart
 * Neither attract nor repel each other
 * Are constantly and randomly moving, creating pressure
 * Do not lose energy when colliding.

Pressure
Pressure is measured with a barometer (for atmospheric pressure) or a manometer (for sealed containers of gases).

Avogadro's Law
One mole of gas particles at STP takes up 22.4L

Ideal Gas Equation
PV=nRT, where R = 0.0821 L*atm/K*mol = ideal gas constant. Note how if P is in atm, V is in L, n is in moles, and T is in Kelvin, the units cancel out.

Remember that these gas laws only work in Kelvin.

Graham's Law
For every x times heavier a gas is, it travels $$ \sqrt{x} $$ times slower:

$$ \frac{v_2}{v_1} = \sqrt{\frac{MM_1}{MM_2}} $$

Non-Ideal Gases
When gases are polar, massive, at high pressure and low temperature, they do not behave like ideal gases. They may even condense into liquids or freeze into solids.

title: AP Chemistry/Gases


text:
User:Balloonguy/Japanese

The following is a plan for restructuring the wikibook. It deals with the different parts of the book and what to do with them.

Japanese Dialects

 * Japanese/Dialects -never developed
 * Merge Japanese/Hougen with it
 * Japanese/Linguistic Terminology
 * References this page
 * Japanese/Dialects/Contents
 * Kanto
 * Japanese/Hougen/Kanto -> Japanese/Dialects/Kanto
 * Japanese/Dialects/Tokyo
 * Japanese/Hougen/Yokohama -> Japanese/Dialects/Yokohama
 * Kansai
 * Japanese/Hougen/Kansai -> Japanese/Dialects/Kansai
 * Japanese/Hougen/Osaka -> Japanese/Dialects/Osaka
 * Japanese/Dialects/Kyoto
 * Japanese/Dialects/Kobe
 * Japanese/Dialects/Nagoya
 * Kyushu
 * Japanese/Hougen/Kyushu -> Japanese/Dialects/Kyushu
 * Chūbu
 * Japanese/Dialects/Chūbu
 * Japanese/Hougen/Mikawa ->Japanese/Dialects/Mikawa
 * Japanese/Hougen/Toyama ->Japanese/Dialects/Toyama
 * Japanese/Hougen/Ishikawa ->Japanese/Dialects/Ishikawa

Kanji
This was a good-faith attempt to teach kanji but is only a repeat of information on wiktionary. Should transwiki whatever information is not there..
 * Japanese/Kanji Lessons
 * Japanese/Kanji/Contributor's Guide
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 1
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 2
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 3
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 4
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 5
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 6
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 7
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 8
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 9
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 10
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 11
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 12
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 13
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 14
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 15
 * Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 16
 * Japanese/Kanji/Numerals

Japanese Reader
Should be split into its own book
 * Japanese/Reader -> Japanese Reader
 * Japanese Reader/Contents
 * Japanese/Reader/イズムの功過 -> Japanese Reader/イズムの功過
 * Japanese/Reader/彗星 -> Japanese Reader/彗星
 * Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん -> Japanese Reader/坊っちゃん
 * Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん/一 -> Japanese Reader/坊っちゃん/一
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 1 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 1
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 2 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 2
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 3 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 3
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 4 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 4
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 5 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 5
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 6 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 6
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 7 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 7
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 8 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 8
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 9 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 9
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 10 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 10
 * Japanese/Reader/第三夜/Part 11 -> Japanese Reader/第三夜/Part 11

Japanese Vocabulary
All subpages of Japanese/Vocabulary should be transwikied to wiktionary and new pages should follow the structure of Miskito/Vocabulary (Miskito) (i.e. vocabulary pages should reference words in lessons)

Japanese Grammar
Should be kept how it is. Need to organize Japanese/Grammar/Table of contents.

Japanese Kana
In order to reduce the number of page moves, keep the rest of the pages the same (i.e. Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1). Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1/Exercises, Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 1/Key, Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2/Exercises, Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2/Key should be transwikied to wikiversity as it is in their scope. The menomics in the lessons should also be transwikied to wikiversity as it may not work for everyone and it allows other people to suggest their menomics.
 * Japanese/Lessons/Lesson 6 -> Japanese/Kana
 * Japanese/Kana Chart -> Japanese/Kana/Chart

Japanese Lessons
There were 6 attempts in lessons and are as follows As development in all of these attempts have stopped, I propose these lessons be archived and we should start over.
 * Japanese/Grammar Lessons and its chapters
 * Japanese/Random Lessons
 * Japanese/Lessons and its decendants
 * Japanese/Basic Japanese
 * Japanese/Elementary Japanese
 * Japanese/Intermediate Japanese

Japanese Pronunciation
Fine the way they are, just need to structure them to follow structure of book and follow order as listed in Pronunciation of Japanese.

Meta Pages
Should be archived.

title: User:Balloonguy/Japanese


text:
Cookbook:German Meatballs

This is a German meatball recipe that is easy and utterly delicious. These are known in Germany as Konigsberge Klopse, or sometimes as Konigsberger Klopsies.

Ingredients

 * 8 oz (225 g) low-fat minced (ground) beef
 * 8 oz (225 g) minced (ground) pork
 * 1 large onion, peeled and chopped fine
 * 5 anchovy fillets, chopped finely
 * 2 tablespoons capers
 * ¼ bottle of Riesling white wine
 * 6 fl oz crème fraîche
 * 1 tablespoon mixed herbs
 * 1 large egg
 * 2–3 slices of brown bread or a roll, soaked in water
 * 2 lemons, juiced
 * 2 limes, zested
 * 2 cloves
 * ½ tablespoon olive oil
 * Salt
 * Freshly-ground pepper
 * 2 tablespoons flour mixed with water to form a paste

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the minced beef and pork.
 * 2) Fry chopped onion until translucent, making sure it does not brown in any way. Add to the minced beef and pork mixture.
 * 3) Soak the brown bread or roll in water, and then add to the minced meat.
 * 4) Add pepper, salt, chopped anchovy fillets, egg, and mixed herbs to the mince. Mix everything together by hand.
 * 5) Form little meatballs about ¾ inch in diameter. To make them, take a quantity of the mince mixture in your hands and form it into a round shape. Then, gently roll them between your palms so they become as round as possible. Don't become obsessed with shape here, it doesn't matter if they are neither symmetrical or the same size as each other.
 * 6) Bring at least 2 pints of water to a rolling simmer, and add the lemon juice, cloves, and olive oil to it. Gently drop in the meatballs. Don't overcrowd the pan—if needed, cook the meatballs in 2 batches.
 * 7) As soon as the meatballs rise to the surface, remove them with a slotted spoon and set aside, keeping warm.
 * 8) Add the wine, the crème fraîche, and the flour mixture to the water. Cook until the liquid reduces a little and thickens to form a sauce. There should be plenty of sauce for this dish, so rather than rely on reducing the sauce to thicken it, don't be afraid of adding more flour paste to achieve this.
 * 9) As the sauce begins to thicken, return the meatballs to the sauce and continue to cook for another 10 minutes or so.
 * 10) At the last moment add the capers and lime zest. Adjust your seasoning to suit your taste.
 * 11) Remove meatballs from sauce. Pour the sauce through a semi-fine sieve, which will get rid of the "bits".
 * 12) Reheat the sauce if needed, and return the meatballs with a handful of capers.
 * 13) Serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This version of meatballs are best served with boiled, waxy potatoes which can be smashed into the sauce to make it all the more delicious.

title: Cookbook:German Meatballs


text:
Python Programming/Extending with ctypes

ctypes is a foreign function interface module for Python (included with Python 2.5 and above), which allows you to load in dynamic libraries and call C functions. This is not technically extending Python, but it serves one of the primary reasons for extending Python: to interface with external C code.

Basics
A library is loaded using the  function. After you load the library, the functions inside the library are already usable as regular Python calls. For example, if we wanted to forego the standard Python print statement and use the standard C library function,, you would use this:

Of course, you must use the libName line that matches your operating system, and delete the other. If all goes well, you should see the infamous Hello World string at your console.

Getting Return Values
ctypes assumes, by default, that any given function's return type is a signed integer of native size. Sometimes you don't want the function to return anything, and other times, you want the function to return other types. Every ctypes function has an attribute called. When you assign a ctypes class to, it automatically casts the function's return value to that type.


text:
Cookbook talk:Placenta Stew

why does this recipe state 3/4 of a placenta when the weight of placentas very so widely? and because the placenta really can be treated as any other meat, is it necessary to include such a bland recipe when a potential chef could simply check some more creative and numerous beef stew recipes?
 * Presumably this is what happens when precedent is set that Placenta-meat is important enough to merit an article on WikiCookBook. 66.215.20.28 (talk) 09:12, 21 July 2008 (UTC)

Origin of cookbook
Hi, i am missing origin of this cookbook. Is it owner initiative or something older? Skim (discuss • contribs) 10:24, 28 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Placenta Stew


text:
Statics/Force Vectors

Many quanities in mechanics are vectors. A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude and a direction. Velocity is a vector. To solve a problem, it is not enough to know the speed a vehicle is travelling, but one must also know the direction in which the vehicle is travelling at that speed. Likewise, Force is a vector quantity. It has a magnitude (the amount of force in Newtons) and the direction in which the force is being applied.

Graphical Representation
Vectors are usually denoted in boldface, as a. Other conventions include $$\vec{a}$$ or a, especially in handwriting. Alternately, some use a tilde (~) or a wavy underline drawn beneath the symbol, which is a convention for indicating boldface type.

Vectors are usually shown in graphs or other diagrams as arrows, as illustrated below:

Here the point A is called the tail, base, start, or origin; point B is called the head, tip, endpoint, or destination. The length of the arrow represents the vector's magnitude, while the direction in which the arrow points represents the vector's direction.

In the figure above, the arrow can also be written as $$\overrightarrow{AB}$$ or AB.

On a two-dimensional diagram, sometimes a vector perpendicular to the plane of the diagram is desired. These vectors are commonly shown as small circles. A circle with a dot at its centre indicates a vector pointing out of the front of the diagram, towards the viewer. A circle with a cross inscribed in it indicates a vector pointing into and behind the diagram. These can be thought of as viewing the tip an arrow front on and viewing the vanes of an arrow from the back.

Dot Product
The dot product of two vectors a = [a1, a2, …, an] and b = [b1, b2, … , bn] is defined as:
 * $$\mathbf{a}\cdot \mathbf{b} = \sum_{i=1}^n a_ib_i = a_1b_1 + a_2b_2 + \cdots + a_nb_n $$

where Σ denotes summation notation and n is the dimension of the vectors.

Scalars
Magnitudes without directions are referred to as scalars. These are not vectors but only single numbers.

scalar have only magnitude

title: Statics/Force Vectors


text:
User:SB Johnny/MGtest

 category            = Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter ordermethod         = lastedit

title: User:SB Johnny/MGtest


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/D1/Node Graphs/Route Inspection

The route inspection problem requires a path to be found that includes all the arcs at least once.

Node Graphs/Route Inspection


text:
Ordinary Differential Equations/Exact 2

First Order Differential Equations

This page details a method for finding the solutions to equations of the form
 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}+P(x)y=Q(x),$$

Using the Integrating Factor: $$I(x)=e^{\int P(x) dx}$$

Example 1
Consider the following equation:
 * $$\frac{dy}{dx} + 3y=xe^{-3x} + 1$$

Now the $$ P(x) = 3$$ So the integrating factor is:
 * $$ I(x)=e^{\int P(x) dx} $$
 * $$ I(x)=e^{\int 3 dx}   $$
 * $$ I(x)=e^{3x}          $$

Multiply the original equation by $$ I(x) $$
 * $$e^{3x}\frac{dy}{dx} + e^{3x}3y=e^{3x}(xe^{-3x} +1)$$
 * $$e^{3x}\frac{dy}{dx} + e^{3x}3y=x + e^{3x}$$

Then try: $$ \frac{d}{dx}(ye^{3x}) = e^{3x}\frac{dy}{dx} + e^{3x}3y$$

Which is equal to the LHS giving us:
 * $$ \frac{d}{dx}(ye^{3x})= x + e^{3x}$$

Then integrate with respect to x:
 * $$ \int\frac{d}{dx}(ye^{3x})dx=\int x dx + \int e^{3x} dx$$

Giving:
 * $$ ye^{3x} = \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{e^{3x}}{3} + C$$
 * $$ y = \frac{x^2}{2e^{3x}} + \frac{1}{3} + Ce^{-3x}$$   (This is the general solution)

title: Ordinary Differential Equations/Exact 2


text:
Usenet Explorer User's Manual/Manual/Configuration

This chapter guides you through the configuration of Usenet Explorer.


text:
User:Editus Reloaded~enwikibooks

Editus Reloaded
Profile: 16 year old male secondary school student

Home: South Bucks, United Kingdom

Academia: studying Maths, Chemistry, Biology, Geography at A-level (as of Sept 07)

Politics: Conservative, with UKIP leanings on immigration

Interests: rugby, CSI franchise of TV shows, sailing

Main focus on Wikibooks: anything I can!

Main focus on other MediWiki projects (English and French Wikipedias): WikiProject CSI, my "pet" project; removing trivia with Arnie efficiency

title: User:Editus Reloaded~enwikibooks


text:
User:DraftBoard

I am an anonymous member of a local draft board in the United States.

If a Selective Service draft is instituted and you are between the ages of 18 and 26, or you work in the healthcare industry, and you do not wish to serve in the armed forces, please read How To Beat The Draft Board.

This is being published in an inofficial context.

title: User:DraftBoard


text:
User:Carla~enwikibooks

At en.wikipedia: Carla Pettigrew Hufstedler

title: User:Carla~enwikibooks


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Other Issues Worth Investigating/7 June, 2007

1. Disconnect between theory and practice with reference to testing.

2. Tests may be expedient, but they might not be authentic.

3. Tests geared toward low-level learning.

4. Preparing for tests replaces instructional time.

5. SOLs as Ceiling Rather Than Floor

6. The Future of Accountability? -- Dumbing down the test? Incentives for Passing?

7. Accountability cannot work if it stops in the schools.

8. Disconnect between policy-makers and practitioners.

9. Taking advantage of opportunities for input—finding a common ground.


text:
User:Whiteknight/Gravity

This book is going to serve as a replacement for the current Modern Physics/Gravity chapter of the Modern Physics book. I had previously not made this chapter into a separate book because there was very little content in it. However, a book about gravity (even if it is a very short book) will be useful as a background for other physics and engineering books.

Table of Contents

 * Law of Gravity
 * Gravitational Constant
 * Gravity as a Vector
 * Gravitational Field
 * Gravitational Flux
 * Relativistic Gravity
 * Quantum Gravity and Gravitons
 * Brans-Dicke theory
 * Super Gravity, and GUTs

Resources

 * Modern Physics
 * Astrodynamics
 * Special Relativity
 * General Relativity
 * Astronomy/Motion and Gravity
 * Physics Study Guide/Gravity

Existing Pages

 * 1) Modern Physics/The Law of Gravitation (split into Gravity/Law of Gravity and Gravity/Gravity as a Vector)
 * 2) Modern Physics/General relativity (either deleted or redirected to Gravity/Relativistic Gravity)
 * 3) Modern Physics/Brans-Dicke theory (either deleted or redirected to Grvity/Brans-Dicke Theory)

Gravity
 * Law of Gravity
 * Gravitational Constant
 * Gravity as a Vector
 * Gravitational Field
 * Gravitational Flux
 * Relativistic Gravity
 * Quantum Gravity and Gravitons
 * Brans-Dicke theory
 * Super Gravity, and GUTs

title: User:Whiteknight/Gravity


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Other Issues Worth Investigating/5 June, 2007

1. Context rather than Content is of primary importance.

2. New Learning Theory

3. Searching is A PART of Learning—not the whole process.


text: User:Jonnyapple~enwikibooks

title: User:Jonnyapple~enwikibooks


text:
User:Whiteknight/Book Tracker

This is my page tracker, a customized watchlist that enables changes to be monitored to specific books.

Quick Check

title: User:Whiteknight/Book Tracker


text:
User talk:142.23.107.32

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

Xania talk 21:10, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:142.23.107.32


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User talk:24.72.1.43

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 21:12, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.72.1.43


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Category:User:Whiteknight/Gadgets

These pages contain automated "Gadgets" created by User:Whiteknight. Some of these gadgets require the use of custom javascripts. For help with any of these gadgets, ask Whiteknight.

title: Category:User:Whiteknight/Gadgets


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Talk:False Friends of the Slavist/Map none

Untitled
ljubiti/љубити has the principal meaning of "to kiss" in Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian. voleti/волети is "to love". I would suggest changing this table or putting a note somewhere. The Russian "я тебя люблю" - I love you would be the south Slavic (BCS) "Ja tebe ljubim" which means "I am kissing YOU" (the form "tebe" serves as an emphasis of which person the sentence refers to).

Also, "трудан/trudan" is a valid expression of "difficult" in most Serbian dialects, especially Torlakian - see "trud" (effort) and hence cannot be a true false friend with Bulgarian. It is an archaism, but it is a part of the language.

In Ukrainian language "любити" means "to love" as well as "to like".--Kovtun (talk) 16:42, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

Map none ??
I don't understand why the name of this "Semasiological map for lubyt" has it's own name: "Map none"? Much of other items without any relationship are pointing here! I suppose "Map none" should be some art of void map but not this! --Kychot (talk) 14:17, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

It's removed now. --Kovtun (talk) 18:53, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Czech líbít means "to like", but líbát means "to kiss", for me both are the false friends, and I would add the "to kiss" meaning too, on Czech Republic


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Horticulture/Sonchus

Sow thistle (less commonly hare thistle or hare lettuce) is the common name for a number of related annual herbs in the Genus Sonchus, the ancient Greek name for these plants. Sow thistles are common roadside plants, and while native to Eurasia and tropical Africa, they are found almost worldwide in temperate regions. In some regions sow thistles are known as "milk thistles", although a true milk thistle is placed in a different genus.

Description
All are characterized by soft, somewhat irregularly lobed leaves that clasp the stem and, at least initially, form a basal rosette. The stem contains a milky sap. Flower heads are yellow and range in size from half to one inch in diameter; the florets are all of ray type.

Mature sow thistle stems can range from 30 cm to 2 m (1 to 6 feet) tall, depending upon species and growing conditions. Colourations range from green to purple in older plants. Sow thistles exude a milky latex when any part of the plant is cut or damaged, and it is from this fact that the plants obtained the common name, "sow thistle", as they were fed to lactating sows in the belief that milk production would increase.

Growing Conditions
Widely adaptable to soils, full sun.

Varieties
../Sonchus asper/ - spiny sow thistle ../Sonchus arvensis/ - field or perennial sow thistle ../Sonchus dregeanus/ ../Sonchus integrifolius/ ../Sonchus nanus/ ../Sonchus oleraceus/ - common sow thistle ../Sonchus wilmsii/ - milk thistle

Uses
The plant has been used as a stockfeed and particularly as a feed for rabbits, hence the other common names of "hare thistle" or "hare lettuce". The plant is also edible by humans as a leaf vegetable; old leaves and stalks can be bitter, but young leaves have a flavour similar to lettuce. Going by the name puha it is frequently eaten in New Zealand as a vegetable, particularly by the native Māori. When cooked it tastes similar to chard.

Maintenance
In many areas sow thistles are considered a noxious weed, as they grow quickly in a wide range of conditions, and their wind-bourne seeds allow them to spread rapidly. Sonchus arvensis, the perennial sow thistle, is considered the most economically detrimental, as it can crowd commercial crops, is a heavy consumer of nitrogen in soils, and can regrow and sprout additional plants from its creeping roots.

Sow thistles are easily uprooted by hand, and their soft stems present little resistance to slashing or mowing. Most livestock will readily devour sow thistle in preference to grass.

Pests and Diseases
Sow thistles are a common host plant for aphids. Gardeners may consider this a benefit or a curse; aphids may spread from sow thistle to other plants, but alternatively the sow thistle can encourage the growth of beneficial predators such as hoverflies. In this regard sow thistles make excellent sacrificial plants.

Broad-barred White, Grey Chi, The Nutmeg and The Shark

title: Horticulture/Sonchus


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The Grand Inquisitor/Print version

This book is an annotated text for 3 noteworthy chapters from Fyodor Dostoevsky's book The Brothers Karamazov. The three chapters considered here are The Grand Inquisitor, Rebellion, and The Devil, which are considered to be some of the most powerful chapters from the book, and some of the most influential chapters in the canon of western literature. Eventually this book could be expanded to include other chapters from this book, although it is unlikely that the entire book will ever be annotated here.

These three chapters revolve around Ivan Karamazov, an educated intellectual and admitted atheist in Russia. The first two chapters also include Alyosha Karamazov, a counter-point to Ivan, who is a monk in training, and is well known for his qualities of compassion, unconditional love, strong faith, and trustworthyness.

= GNU Free Documentation License =

title: The Grand Inquisitor/Print version


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AP Chemistry/Thermodynamics

Kinetic Energy
Energy of an object due to the motion of the object. It is represented: $$KE=\frac1{2}mv^2.$$

Enthalpy versus Entropy
Enthalpy (H) - heat of a system. Negative enthalpy means that the temperature increases. Entropy (S) - randomness of a substance.

Trends in Entropy
Different phases have different amount of entropy.

Generally, substances in the phases towards the beginning of the list below have lower entropy, while substances at the end of the list have high entropy.

Solid, Liquid, Aqueous, Gas

Another trend is that when there are more moles of a substance produced and the particles or the particles are more spread out, the entropy increases.

Since, S is the amount of disorder, The delta S (change in entropy) is positive if the disorder increases. The delta S is negative if the disorder decreases. The delta S can be predicted without thermodynamic values using the trends listed above. For example:

This physical change would be predicted to have a positive delta S because gasses are more disordered than liquids.

Meanwhile:

The reverse process would have a negatve because of amount of disorder in liquids are less than gases and Hess's law applies to entropy as well as enthalpy.

Entropy also applies to chemical processes with or without a phase change. Chemical reactions without phase changes and changes in the number of moles would have an entropy change close to zero. The same trends can be used to predict the entropy change in a chemical process.

Since gasses are on the reactants side and liquids are on the products, the delta S of this reaction is negative. The reverse of this chemical reaction would have a positive delta S.

Other Stuff
Specific heat capacity - number of joules of heat needed to warm 1 gram of a substance by 1K. Water's specific heat, in case you didn't remember, is 4.184J/g.

First Law of Thermodynamics = Law of Conservation of energy

Second Law of Thermodynamics = spontaneous reactions increase entropy (randomness).

Gibb's Free Energy
$$\Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S$$, where $$T$$ is temperature in Kelvin. If $$\Delta G$$ is negative, a reaction is spontaneous. Note that some reactions are always spontaneous, some are never, and some depend on the temperature. Also, $$H$$ is measured in $$kJ$$, and $$S$$ in $$J$$.

title: AP Chemistry/Thermodynamics


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AP Chemistry/Periodicity

The Periodic Table
The periodic table is essentially a summary of a lot of information that is useful as a reference, and will be essential to the AP chemistry test. Here is what it looks like:

Each row is called a period, while each column is called a group. Elements in the same group tend to have similar properties. Make note of the names and locations of each of the groups of elements (alkaline, alkaline earth, etc.) they will be referred to. Each box represents one element. Let's look at one box on the periodic table:

 * The small number on the top indicates the atomic number of the element. It also indicates the number of protons in the nucleus of one atom of the element.
 * The big two letters in the center indicate the abbreviation of the element. This element is He, or Helium
 * The small number at the bottom of the big letters indicate the atomic mass of the element. The atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic weights of the isotopes of an element, weighted by the abundance of the element (if He-4 occurs 97% of the time and He-5 occurs 3% of the time, then you would do .97 ⋅ 4 + .03 ⋅ 5 and that would be the atomic mass).

Mass Spectrometry
The creation of a spectrum based on mass by finding the mass to charge ratio. Used to determine weight of isotopes.

Photoelectron Spectrometry
The creation of a spectrum based on the kinetic electrons of an electron when energy is put into an atom and that electron is released.

Trends in the Periodic Table

 * Metals tend to be more reactive as one goes down and to the left of the periodic table (called metallic character).
 * Nonmetals tend to be more reactive as one goes up and to the right of the periodic table (called nonmetallic character).
 * Atomic radius increases as one goes from the top to the bottom, and also increases when moving right to left, because effective nuclear charge decreases.
 * First ionization energy decreases as one goes from the top to the bottom, and also decreases when moving right to left (opposite of atomic radius). Ionization energy jumps especially high when taking an electron from an element with a full shell.
 * Electron affinity (how much an electron wants to accept an electron) Atoms closer to F want electrons (negative affinity value), while elements closer to Fr do not accept electrons (positive affinity value).
 * Electronegatvity (the attraction of electrons to individual atoms) has the same trend as electron affinity. It is used to determine how electrons are distributed among atoms in molecules.
 * In groups I - VIII, each element in the column has the same number of valence electrons, giving them similar properties.
 * Atoms that form cations (+ ions) tend to be smaller because there are less repulsion forces. Anions (- ions) tend to be larger because there are more repulsion forces.

title: AP Chemistry/Periodicity


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User:Whiteknight/Watch

(|Book) Check: (TOC)

title: User:Whiteknight/Watch


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AP Chemistry/Solids and Liquids

Phase Diagrams
All three phases exist at the triple point. Critical point is where the substance is neither gas nor liquid.

Intermolecular Forces That Cause Ideal Gas Theory to Fail

 * Polar substances - are more positive at one end and more negative at the other. Note that a compound may have polar bonds without being polar as a whole (if the poles cancel out).
 * Hydrogen bonding - occurs when hydrogen bonds to N, O, or F. This is what gives water its unusual characteristics (high boiling point, heat capacity, and heat of vaporization, the fact that ice floats)
 * London Dispersion - this occurs in massive, nonpolar substances, where a temporary electron asymmetry creates a dipole.

Liquids

 * Surface tension is stronger in polar compounds.
 * Viscosity is how "sticky" the substance is.
 * Capillary action - the attraction of a polar substance to a nonpolar causing it to rise up a narrow tube for instance

Solids

 * Amorphous solids are just viscous liquids. Very viscous liquids. E.g. Petroleum-derived pitch.
 * Crystal lattices are made up of repeated unit cells.
 * Metallic solids have a "sea" of decentralized electrons, which is why metals conduct electricity.
 * Covalent network solids are basically one huge molecule made from repeating smaller molecules. Examples include (SiO2)x, SiC, graphite

title: AP Chemistry/Solids and Liquids


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Applied History of Psychology/Philosophical Roots of Psychology

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
From approximately 600 to 300 BC, Greek philosophers conjectured on a wide range of topics relating to what we now consider psychology. For example, Socrates and his followers, Plato and Aristotle wrote about pleasure, pain, knowledge, motivation, rationality, among other topics. They theorized about such things as whether human traits are innate or the product of experience, which continues to be a topic of debate even today. They also considered the origins of mental illness, with both Socrates and Plato focusing on psychological forces as the root of the such illnesses.

Descartes and mind-body dualism
René Descartes was a French mathematician and philosopher from the 1600s. He theorized that the body and mind are separate entities. The body was viewed as a physical entity and the mind as a spiritual entity. Descartes believed that the two interacted only through a tiny structure at the base of the brain called the pineal gland. His position of the mind and body as separate entities became known as dualism. According to dualism, the body's behavior is scientifically measureable, however the mind is not, as it transcends the material world.

Hobbes and Locke's monism
Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were English philosophers who disagreed with the concept of dualism. They argued that all human experiences are physical processes occurring within the brain and nervous system. Thus, their argument was that sensations, images, thoughts and feelings are all valid subjects of study. As this view holds that the mind and body are one and the same, it later became known as monism. Today, most psychologists reject a rigid dualist position since many years of research has indicated that the physical and mental aspects of human experience are intertwined. The fields of psychoneuroimmunology and behavioral medicine explicitly focus on this interconnection.

Being Here Now
Understanding observation is noumenon to phenomenon to movement/change...existential psychology/analytical philosophy is towards attitudes for everything we need is right in front of us...


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Applied History of Psychology/Pseudoscientific Schools of Thought

Franz Anton Mesmer
In reading the history of Franz Anton Mesmer’s life, it is unclear as to whether to conclude that he was truly one of the foreparents of clinical psychology or no more than a quack. However, at least three things are certain: he delighted, offended, and mesmerized. Psychology was influenced by various theories throughout history that have no scientific foundation, including the beliefs of this Viennese physician of the 18th century. This section will outline some of the history of Mesmer and discuss how various personal factors in his life may have contributed to his beliefs and practices. There will also be some contemplation as to how his work has contributed to psychology.

Franz Anton Mesmer was born in May of 1734 or 1735 in Europe, on the German-Swiss border in Lake Constance. He was raised in a Swiss-German family in a small town called Iznang, and was the third of a family of nine children. Not much seems to be known about his parents, except that his father was a gamekeeper and forest warden. It has therefore been said that his parents were able to afford a decent and modest lifestyle for the family. Both of his parents were very strong Catholics and tried to encourage the young Mesmer into the priesthood. After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dilligen and Ingolstadt, Mesmer took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1759. His doctoral dissertation was entitled, “On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body”, which relied largely on Newton’s theories of the tides. It has been suggested that Mesmer plagiarized his dissertation from a work by Richard Mead (1673–1754), an English physician who was friends with Newton (Pattie, 1994).

Mesmer argued that certain tides in the human body might be accounted for by the movements of the sun and moon (Bloch, 1980). He later added support to this argument in 1774, citing a successful treatment for one of his first clients when he produced an “artificial tide” in her body by having her swallow a solution containing iron and then passing strong magnets over areas of so-called “blockages”. Mesmer believed that illness was caused by an imbalance or blockage of magnetic fluids in the body (Darnton, 1968). Mesmer claimed that his patients would fall into a trance and awaken from it feeling better. Today, Mesmer’s technique, known as mesmerism, is regarded as an early forerunner of modern hypnosis.

Some believe that hypnosis has been around for well over 6,000 years, dating back to prehistoric times. Ancient Egyptians, Romans, Greeks, Persians, Chinese, and Samarians, among many other ancient cultures, are documented as having used hypnosis as a therapeutic tool. Prior to the 18th century, the phenomenon of hypnosis hadn’t ever been brought into the general population. Although it wasn’t known as “hypnosis” at the time, Mesmer had remarkable success healing patients, relying on his own instincts in effecting his cures (Gould, 1991). Interestingly, while he did manage to “cure” many patients, mainly all pretty young ladies, it is said that his elderly wife remained ill.

It wasn’t until approximately 1776 that Mesmer observed a priest who effected cures without the use of magnets, but by manipulation alone. This led him to discard the magnets and suppose that some kind of life force resided in himself that he could use to influence others. He believed that this force permeated the universe and more especially affected the nervous system of men. He was quite flamboyant in his healings and people crowded to him, with patients coming from far and wide to get treatment or a cure for their ailments. However, the medical community treated Mesmer as an eccentric outsider due to his unorthodox beliefs and methods. By 1779, he had built a reputation for himself as an occultist and in 1784, after an investigation initiated by the French government, a prestigious committee of scientists concluded that the effects of Mesmer’s therapy were attributable to the power of suggestion, not the power of “animal magnetism” (McNally, 1999). He was therefore labeled as a fraud because there was no proof that he had discovered a new physical fluid. There didn’t appear to be any contention over the fact that Mesmer’s treatments often worked. It was concluded by a French Royal Commission set up by Louis XVI that the effects of Mesmer’s treatments were derived from either the imaginations of his patients or through charlatanry (Léger, 1846). Not much is known about what Mesmer did in the last 20 years of his life, however it has been suggested that he traveled about Europe, settling in his native Germany, and that he continued to practice animal magnetism for friends and neighbors until he died in 1815.

The most important of Mesmer’s many disciples was Armand de Puységur (1751–1825), who arrived at the recognition that magnetic effects depended on the magnetizer’s personal belief in the efficacy of cure, desire to cure, and rapport with the patient. These ideas formed the basis of his work, “Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire et a l’éstablissement due magnétisme animal”, a work considered the point of origin of modern psychotherapy. It is important to note that right from the inception of psychotherapeutic procedure, it was recognized that belief in the efficacy of cure, desire to cure, and the nature of the therapeutic relationship between therapist and client were fundamental factors in psychotherapeutic success.

There were various factors that impacted Mesmer’s beliefs and practices. First of all, he was trained as a physician and therefore was interested in wellness and healing people from illness. Second, his parents were very strong Catholics and they encouraged him into the priesthood. In addition, he studied at Jesuit universities before taking up the study of medicine. Mesmer’s beliefs around a “life force” within him that he could impart to others by way of his hands to effect healing is a very Christian concept. Innumerable passages could be quoted from the sacred books of Christianity in support of the practice of healing “by the laying on of hands”. This was said to be common among the Jews and was practiced by the founder of Christianity and his immediate followers with reportedly marvelous results. For example, the Bible states, “Lay hands upon the sick and they shall recover” (Mark xvi. 18), “The Lord granted signs and wonders to be done by their hands” (Acts xiv. 3), and “Joshua was full of the spirit of wisdom, because Moses had laid his hands upon him (Numbers xxvii, 18, 23). In Christianity, spiritual powers, gifts of healing, prophecy, and leadership were also conveyed by the laying on of hands. Given Mesmer’s background growing up in a very strong Catholic family, it is no wonder that he abandoned his technique of using magnets to heal and turned to the use of his hands, especially when in 1776 he observed a priest who effected cures with his hands. Furthermore, I would argue that his Christian upbringing likely also contributed to his misogynistic view that this “life force” to effect healing resided only in men.

Despite his shortcomings, Mesmer contributed to psychology in various ways. First, he understood that illness is not natural. The source of illness is not always in the physical body and some kind of blockage, whether it be tangible or not, will inevitably yield stagnation and sickness. Today we know that depression, anxiety and other psychological symptoms can contribute to physical sensations and a sense of being physically unwell. Today we also have an understanding of psychosomatic illness. Another important contribution was Mesmer’s recognition of the unconscious, although he did not speak of it as such. He experienced the power of the unconscious in that he contributed to the discovery of the hypnotic state, which can be a powerful therapeutic tool in therapy. Although he was labeled a fraud on the basis that there was no proof that he had discovered a new physical fluid, it is an important finding just the same that his clients were cured on the basis of suggestion. This is important in terms of how the psychological relates to the physical. Another contribution to psychology is that Mesmer sought to be both a scientist and a practitioner, and that this model of the dual role of a therapist is important for therapists working in psychology today. Finally, Mesmer mentored an important figure in the history of psychology who recognized that the belief in the efficacy of cure, desire to cure and the therapeutic relationship were fundamental factors in successfully working with clients in therapy. These beliefs are central to the practice of clinical psychology in our world today.

In conclusion, it is still unclear as to whether Mesmer was truly one of the foreparents of clinical psychology or just a quack. Despite the fact that his theories had no scientific foundation, such is often the reality in the field of psychology in that phenomenon experienced by our clients isn’t always easily testable. There is no doubt that Mesmer is a curious figure in the history of psychology. He contributed to our awareness of the unconscious, hypnosis and the relationship between psychology and health. At the very least, he has contributed his inquisitiveness and modeled his stance as a scientist and practitioner in undertaking to improve the qualities of the lives of others. Such qualities have thankfully become the hallmark of prominent practitioners of psychology today.

Franz Joseph Gall
In the late 18th and 19th centuries, Franz Joseph Gall developed phrenology, a theory that psychological traits and abilities reside in certain parts of the brain and can be identified and measured by the bumps and indentations of the skull. Although some of his ideas did not have empirical support, research later confirmed the more general point that certain mental activities can be traced to specific parts of the brain.


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Applied History of Psychology/Establishment of the Field

Wundt and his two psychologies
Wilhem Maximilian Wundt is generally recognized as the founder of experimental psychology, although he also contributed to social psychology (psychology of culture - Völkerpsychologie). Wundt was trained in physiology and psychology. His approach to the study of the mind was ground-breaking in that it was based on systematic and rigorous observation, laying the foundation for the modern psychological experiment. He systematically studied topics such as attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion and time perception.

Wundt's primary method of research was "introspection". This involved training people to concentrate and report on their conscious experiences as they reacted to stimuli. This approach is still used today in modern neuroscience research. For instance, Tibetan monks who have trained themselves to be able to sustain attention are asked to keep track of their inner experiences while undergoing neuroimaging (Carter, Presti, Callistemon, Ungerer, Liu, & Pettigrew, 2005).

Wundt had a very productive career in psychology. He founded the first laboratory dedicated to the scientific study of the mind, supervised a total of 186 doctoral dissertations, taught thousands of students, founded the first scholarly psychological journal (Philosophical Studies), and published a large volume of scientific studies.