text:
Handbook of English Language Standards

This handbook is intended for educators who teach English (including written and oral language), or who teach subjects that require English language proficiency. Standards for teaching and learning English language can be organized from a variety of perspectives. Headings and subheadings in this Wiki book should represent that variety. Contributors are welcome to add samples of text and media along with their contributions. Because this Wiki is available worldwide, the standards can and should reflect the global uses of English. Click the "Edit" links below to work on this Wiki. General help on writing in Wiki, including 'how to' sheets, can be found at Wikipedia. Specific information on how to make the wiki do what you want with codes is at Meta. When headings and subheadings begin to become too bulky for a single page, new pages will be created.

History
The Curriculum and Evaluation Standards, published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) in 1989, set in motion a mandate for other content organizations to write standards. The Standards Project for the English Language Arts (SPELA) was funded by the federal government of the USA in 1992 to write the standards. In 1994, the United States Department of Education discontinued funding of the project, ostensibly because of the theoretical pluralism informing the work. The standards that were eventually published are general, typically avoiding clear performance benchmarks. Nevertheless, they offer an implicit view of the variety in theoretical perspectives that were brought to bear on the task.

Standards for Language may be difficult to write because of the breadth of the subject. Language is considered to be a primary medium for human thinking (Vygotsky). As such, to attempt to write standards for Language is similar to writing standards for how to think. Language is not necessarily one discipline or subject, but includes all the breadth of thinking, speaking, and writing in many disciplines which have written their own standards already (Mathematics, Social Studies, Sciences).

While all disciplines and content rely on language for thinking and communication, the primary school subject standards documents do not articulate standards for integrating the language necessary for their specific subjects: Mathematics, Science,  Social Studies. Interestingly, although Literature is one of the main curricular incarnations of the English Language in schooling, only a few organizations are attempting to narrow the task of writing English Language standards by focusing their efforts on Literature. (Also notable is the fact that many of the organizations that set standards offer access to them only for those who pay.)

A variety of organizations have worked on English Language standards, and a section is dedicated to these organizations at the bottom of this wiki page.

A short history of education standards has also been compiled by McREL.

Standards and Accountability
Standards for curriculum and instruction may define the work of educators and students. In the United States of America, individual states have written standards, and have often passed legislation to enact these standards in public schools and institutions of higher education. State to state (and nation to nation) the standards can look very different. For example, a state's standards may have been written before the research on "phonemic awareness" had gained its prominence. What is the result of variety in standards based on political boundaries?

Among the major standards that have already been written for English, each major heading seems to be informed by a particular theoretical approach to language. In the Wiki Standards, we can allow these approaches to be named and elaborated on. As commonalities begin to appear across categories, internal and external links can be used to emphasize the commonalities among theoretical approaches.

Media-based Standards
One approach to writing standards is to begin from the types of performance we expect or hope to see around certain kinds of media, such as print and speech.

Reading and Writing
Reading in English is based on an understanding of the English alphabetic principle, which is different from other principles of print, and unique among languages that use alphabets. In order to master the English alphabetic principle, readers and writers need to:

Word Awareness
This is the knowledge that individual words are represented in speech and print. In English print, word awareness involves knowledge of conventional visual spacing between words. In speech, word awareness involves a tacit knowledge of individual spoken words. In Linguistics, word awareness corresponds to the concept of the "[lexeme]." Without comparison to print, there has been some argument that people's concept of a 'word' is difficult to define. For example, Albert Lord found that non-literate storytellers often considered the term 'verbatim' to refer to preservation of the main structure in an oral performance of a tale, not really a word-for-word match from performance to performance.

Word Awareness Performance
Demonstrate word awareness by
 * touching the head and arm joints in order toward the fingers to represent each word being spoken.
 * pointing to individual words in print.
 * substituting one word for another in speech or writing.
 * writing words with conventional spacing.
 * cutting or folding strips of written words into individual words.

Phonemic Awareness
Phonemic awareness is a demonstration that shows either tacit or explicit knowledge of the individual phonemes of the English language. Phonemes are sounds that can make a difference in meanings. In Linguistics, the concept of the phoneme is demonstrated by minimal pairs. Research on reading success suggests that the demonstrations of phonemic awareness most likely to predict reading success are: a. segmenting words into individual phonemes (i.e., student is asked to segment the word "skip" and the response is, /s/ /k/ /i/ /p/), and b. blending strings of correctly sequenced phonemes into words (i.e., student is given the phonemes /b/ /l/ /o/ distinctly and in order, and student responds by saying "blow"). Phonemic awareness may be demonstrated and practiced with no printed language present, but research suggests that phonemic awareness instruction has a greater effect on reading success when practiced with written examples. A summary of the research can be found in the booklet Put Reading First, published by the US federally sponsored Partnership for Reading.

Phonemic Awareness Performance
Demonstrate phonemic awareness by:
 * segmenting individual words into distinct phonemes.
 * counting the phonemes in a word.
 * blending a sequence of individual phonemes into a whole word.
 * substituting phonemes into a word to make a different word or nonsense word.
 * identifying which phonemes come first or last in a word

Speaking and Listening
Do conversation with your friends. Read English literature as much as you can & samely listen English news, stories etc. Visit BBC Learning English

Viewing
Add standards and benchmarks

Power-based standards
One approach to writing standards is to begin by considering the ways language mediates power among those who use it. This approach is largely absent from state-sponsored standards. Power in language is often informed by students of Critical Theory and Critical Pedagogy. The standards movement itself may come under question through an examination of power, because standards imply agreement with those who hold influence. But we might consider 'standards' as being similar to the hopes and goals of people who think systematically about power in language education. Moreover, those who think about power in language education will usually put forward 'tools for thinking' that they hope other people will use.

Content standards
One approach to writing standards is to categorize them based on the unique ways language is involved with specific content. In particular, students in academic disciplines and school subjects have developed specific ways to use language for thinking about and organizing their content. Each discipline or content domain may wish to specify what is expected for language for that domain. So, while the NCTM articulated curriculum and evaluation standards for mathematics content, they did not articulate the ways language is conventionally used to mediate the content in English.

Thinking-based standards
One approach to writing standards is to begin from the kinds of thinking we expect or hope the language will mediate for the users of the language.

Bloom's Taxonomy
Bloom's taxonomy of thinking is a way of classifying objectives for thinking. Because language can be described as a medium for thinking, language standards could emerge from different classes of thought.

Genre-based standards
One approach to writing standards is to begin by differentiating genres, or types, of language use. This approach can be informed by the work of those working in Genre Studies.

Structure-based standards
One approach to writing standards is to work from knowledge of language structures and structural systems, such as phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. This approach is strongly informed by studies in Linguistics.

ESL and TESOL approaches
One approach to writing standards is to begin by considering that English may not be the student's primary language. This perspective can be informed by students of Language Acquisition.

Performance-based approaches
One approach to writing standards is to outline specific performances or tasks (benchmarks) and to work toward larger categories as performances begin to show common characteristics.

Organizations that Write English Language Standards

 * McREL (Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning) - USA
 * NCTE (National Council of Teachers of English) - USA
 * IRA (International Reading Association) - International, based in USA
 * California - USA
 * Colorado - USA
 * Council of Europe - International, based in Strasbourg
 * Office for Standards in Education (OfStEd) - non-ministerial government office, United Kingdom

title: Handbook of English Language Standards


text:
User talk:Rdgmus~enwikibooks

Copyright problem with Image:ISE.jpg
--Derbeth 17:31, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

SOFTWARE ISE-XILINX FREE WEBPACK
Have you seen WB:NP? You shouldn't CAPITALISE book title.

As far as I can see, this book is written in Italian. This is English Wikibooks, you should rather visit Italian Wikibooks (see multilingual Wikibooks portal). --Derbeth 17:34, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rdgmus. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rdgmus~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Rdgmus~enwikibooks


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Circuit Theory/Source Transformations

Source Transformations
Independent current sources can be turned into independent voltage sources, and vice-versa, by methods called "Source Transformations." These transformations are useful for solving circuits. We will explain the two most important source transformations, Thevenin's Source, and Norton's Source, and we will explain how to use these conceptual tools for solving circuits.

Black Boxes
A circuit (or any system, for that matter) may be considered a black box if we don't know what is inside the system. For instance, most people treat their computers like a black box because they don't know what is inside the computer (most don't even care), all they know is what goes in to the system (keyboard and mouse input), and what comes out of the system (monitor and printer output).

Black boxes, by definition, are systems whose internals aren't known to an outside observer. The only methods that an outside observer has to examine a black box is to send input into the systems, and gauge the output.

Thevenin's Theorem
Let's start by drawing a general circuit consisting of a source and a load, as a block diagram:

Let's say that the source is a collection of voltage sources, current sources and resistances, while the load is a collection of resistances only. Both the source and the load can be arbitrarily complex, but we can conceptually say that the source is directly equivalent to a single voltage source and resistance (figure (a) below).

We can determine the value of the resistance Rs and the voltage source, vs by attaching an independent source to the output of the circuit, as in figure (b) above. In this case we are using a current source, but a voltage source could also be used. By varying i and measuring v, both vs and Rs can be found using the following equation:

 * $$v=v_s+iR_s \,$$

There are two variables, so two values of i will be needed. See Example 1 for more details. We can easily see from this that if the current source is set to zero (equivalent to an open circuit), then v is equal to the voltage source, vs. This is also called the open-circuit voltage, voc.

This is an important concept, because it allows us to model what is inside a unknown (linear) circuit, just by knowing what is coming out of the circuit. This concept is known as Thévenin's Theorem after French telegraph engineer Léon Charles Thévenin, and the circuit consisting of the voltage source and resistance is called the Thévenin Equivalent Circuit.

Norton's Theorem
Recall from above that the output voltage, v, of a Thévenin equivalent circuit can be expressed as

 * $$v=v_s+iR_s \,$$

Now, let's rearrange it for the output current, i:

 * $$i=-\frac{v_s}{R_s}+\frac{v}{R_s}$$

This is equivalent to a KCL description of the following circuit. We can call the constant term vs/Rs the source current, is.

The equivalent current source and the equivalent resistance can be found with an independent source as before (see Example 2).

When the above circuit (the Norton Equivalent Circuit, after Bell Labs engineer E.L. Norton) is disconnected from the external load, the current from the source all flows through the resistor, producing the requisite voltage across the terminals, voc. Also, if we were to short the two terminals of our circuit, the current would all flow through the wire, and none of it would flow through the resistor (current divider rule). In this way, the circuit would produce the short-circuit current isc (which is exactly the same as the source current is).

Circuit Transforms
We have just shown turns out that the Thévenin and Norton circuits are just different representations of the same black box circuit, with the same Ohm's Law/KCL equations. This means that we cannot distinguish between Thévenin source and a Norton source from outside the black box, and that we can directly equate the two as below:

We can draw up some rules to convert between the two:

 * The values of the resistors in each circuit are conceptually identical, and can be called the equivalent resistance, Req:
 * $$R_{s_n}=R_{s_t}=R_s=R_{eq}$$

 * The value of a Thévenin voltage source is the value of the Norton current source times the equivalent resistance (Ohm's law):
 * $$v_s=i_sr\,$$

If these rules are followed, the circuits will behave identically. Using these few rules, we can transform a Norton circuit into a Thévenin circuit, and vice versa. This method is called source transformation. See Example 3.

Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Current
The open-circuit voltage, voc of a circuit is the voltage across the terminals when the current is zero, and the short-circuit current isc is the current when the voltage across the terminals is zero:

We can also observe the following:

 * The value of the Thévenin voltage source is the open-circuit voltage:
 * $$v_s=v_{oc}\,$$

 * The value of the Norton current source is the short-circuit current:
 * $$i_s=i_{sc}\,$$

We can say that, generally,

 * $$R_{eq}=\frac{v_{oc}}{i_{sc}}$$

Why Transform Circuits?
How are Thevenin and Norton transforms useful?
 * Describe a black box characteristics in a way that can predict its reaction to any load.
 * Find the current through and voltage across any device by removing the device from the circuit! This can instantly make a complex circuit much simpler to analyze.
 * Stepwise simplification of a circuit is possible if voltage sources have a series impedance and current sources have a parallel impedance.

title: Circuit Theory/Source Transformations


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Learning the vi Editor/BusyBox vi

Overview
BusyBox is a very popular program on many embedded Linux systems. In fact, someone working on an embedded Linux system is very likely to encounter BusyBox. BusyBox combines tiny versions of many common UNIX utilities into a single relatively small executable. One of the included utilities is an uninstall option.

The BusyBox vi clone is not limited.

In short, a lot of information in this vi tutorial is applicable to BusyBox vi.

Weblinks

 * BusyBox home page
 * BusyBox vi source code

title: Learning the vi Editor/BusyBox vi


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Talk:Handbook of English Language Standards

= What are English Language standards? =

Untitled
The Handbook of English Standards wikibook exists to provide distributed authorship of standards--compiling and categorizing them for teaching and learning English. This may be for English as a primary language or for English as an additional language. You are welcome to contribute to the English Standards wiki or to use this area to discuss the writing of the wiki.

Why wiki standards?
Wiki is completely open and distributed. The idea in creating this book is to encourage a plurality of approaches to standards and benchmarks. The word on the street is that the US government discontinued the standards project because of the plurality of viewpoints. A wikibook can allow for contribution without sponsorship beyond the wikibooks group. Can a wiki Handbook of English Language Standards succeed? What is success?

Who owns educational standards?
What do you think? A number of professional organizations and states have published their standards. Many states accredit schools and higher education institutions based on standards. Most (if not all) of these documents were created in committees or by task forces. Do you know who wrote the standards being mandated in your area of the world? If you could have contributed, how would you have done things differently?

Why standards at all?
The standards movement is critiqued from a variety of viewpoints. What help or hindrance are standards in the world of teaching and learning?

What viewpoints need to be represented?
Rather than beginning from existing standards documents, this wikibook has been organized to allow for a variety of viewpoints on what it means to learn and know. If you want to discuss a particular viewpoint, use this talk page (or add a viewpoint to the wikibook itself).


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User talk:Pmejia

Copyright problem with Image:String dwg.jpg
--Derbeth 20:38, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Please stop uploading images without copyright information. You must have seen warning on the upload page: we delete images with unknown status and may block notorious uploaders of such images. Please complete information about all of your images. --Derbeth talk 23:06, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I blocked you temporarily for 6 hours because you kept uploading images violating our image use policy. You must have seen my two warnings as well as warning at upload page. Images whose source and license are unknown are dangerous to Wikibooks - if they are copyighted, their authors may sue Wikibooks for violating their copyrights.
 * You can come back to work after 6 hours but I warn you that you will be blocked again if you upload more suspicious images. Leave a message at my talk page or send me an e-mail if you need any help. --Derbeth talk 06:58, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pmejia


text:
User talk:JMRyan

Moved Under construction, Update Message
I have moved the Under construction, Update Message from Introduction_to_Philosophy/Logic to the disussion page. I think that its understood that most pages are always under going change and the message of what work you will be performing is nessary but more appropriate in the discussion page. 24.233.178.22 (talk)

Set Theory Move
Go ahead and move the Set Theory into its own book, I also don't understand why Discrete Mathematics has its own separate book on it also. Fephisto 04:09, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:EquivalenceSign.png
I don't think such symbol can be copyrighted. Insert public domain. --Derbeth 21:21, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

Manual of Crime
Could you sign your vote? For ease: your vote and edit here. Thx in adv. Trödel 16:18, 1 December 2005 (UTC)
 * No problem - I think everyone - I know I have several times - forgets to sign - and I appreciated it on wikipedia when someone let me know I had forgotten :) Trödel 20:00, 1 December 2005 (UTC)

BimBot
Excuse me, I forgot it. Thanks, Pietrodn 17:21, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

UK Constitution
Have you considered voting for UK Constitution and Government again this month, as it has been renominated. It relly is a very good book.Dolive35 15:52, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

Trouble with Mandy
Dear JMRyan, I put the Trouble with Mandy up for speedy deletion. It is a duplicate of an existing page. I am new here and didn't realize it was still there. --AJ Castro 05:06, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

Social Postulates
Thanks for the information. I've expanded the book into a full project proposal so that the tasks can be automated. It is beneficial to see the information in book form for the next 3-5 months until the project is up and running. At that time, I plan to delete the book unless someone else wants to use it as a textbook to document the unique philosophical questions raised and answered during the formation of the project. --Zephram Stark 15:39, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Muggle Vandalism
Thanks for the heads up. I watch the high-profile pages of the book but I wouldn't have caught one of those. The real problem with the book is that there are so many content pages that I can't keep track of all the new ones created in the book in order to enforce project standards. They were really just bad edits and so I removed them, but I wouldn't necessarily call them vandalism. -Matt 19:26, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

Thanks a lot
Thanks for reverting that vandal in the Magician Guide in Maple Story. That was most definitly a vandal.

Policy review
Policy is not the most exciting subject at Wikibooks but we do have some major unresolved issues.

The most important issue, in my opinion, is Dispute resolution which starts by declaring that:

"Currently there is no official organized process to resolve disputes between users"

The suggested remedy for this is: Ad hoc administration committee which puts into place the absolute minimum in terms of an enforcement apparatus.

The second most important is No personal attacks where a vote has recommended the policy be enforced but it still languishes as "proposed".

The third policy that is needed and which will prevent edit disputes from getting out of hand is Editing disputes policy.

Other policies that need consideration are at: Policies and guidelines.

Please spare a minute or two to peruse these issues and add a comment and/or a vote. RobinH 12:18, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

No personal attacks Change of text
You voted for enforcement of No personal attacks. The text of this policy has been changed by Jguk during the vote, I have further modified these changes to restore some of the original "bite". This is highly unusual but without these changes Jguk is unwilling to allow the policy to move to enforced. I am happy that the changes are not sufficiently substantial to undermine the policy, if you disagree then please make your views known. Changes to text during a vote could be construed as a delaying tactic so I have proposed a move to "enforced" status by 1st June. RobinH 10:08, 20 May 2006 (UTC)

Modal Logic
Hello, I started writing the section on modal logic in the introduction to philosophy:logic wikibooks some time ago but, as you say, everything became a bit too messy. If you would like any help with modal logic or any help with extending, changing or clearing up the part I am responsible for, please feel free to leave me a message. (Alex beta 18:54, 9 February 2007 (UTC))

title: User talk:JMRyan


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Statistics/Probability/Bernoulli Trials

A lot of experiments just have two possible outcomes, generally referred to as "success" and "failure". If such an experiment is independently repeated we call them (a series of) Bernoulli trials. Usually the probability of success is called p. The repetition may be done in several ways:

 * a fixed number of times (n); as a consequence the observed number of successes is stochastic;
 * until a fixed number of successes (m) is observed; as a consequence the number of experiments is stochastic;

In the first case the number of successes is Binomial distributed with parameters n and p. For n=1 the distribution is also called the Bernoulli distribution. In the second case the number of experiments is Negative Binomial distributed with parameters m and p. For m=1 the distribution is also called the Geometric distribution.

title: Statistics/Probability/Bernoulli Trials


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Calculus/Arc length

Suppose that we are given a function $$f$$ that is continuous on an interval $$[a,b]$$ and we want to calculate the length of the curve drawn out by the graph of $$f(x)$$ from $$x=a$$ to $$x=b$$. If the graph were a straight line this would be easy — the formula for the length of the line is given by Pythagoras' theorem. And if the graph were a piecewise linear function we can calculate the length by adding up the length of each piece.

The problem is that most graphs are not linear. Nevertheless we can estimate the length of the curve by approximating it with straight lines. Suppose the curve $$C$$ is given by the formula $$y=f(x)$$ for $$a\le x\le b$$. We divide the interval $$[a,b]$$ into $$n$$ subintervals with equal width $$\Delta x$$ and endpoints $$x_0,x_1,\ldots,x_n$$. Now let $$y_i=f(x_i)$$ so $$P_i=(x_i,y_i)$$ is the point on the curve above $$x_i$$. The length of the straight line between $$P_i$$ and $$P_{i+1}$$ is
 * $$\bigl|P_iP_{i+1}\bigr|=\sqrt{(y_{i+1}-y_i)^2+(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2}$$

So an estimate of the length of the curve $$C$$ is the sum
 * $$\sum_{i=0}^{n-1}\bigl|P_iP_{i+1}\bigr|$$

As we divide the interval $$[a,b]$$ into more pieces this gives a better estimate for the length of $$C$$. In fact we make that a definition.

The Arclength Formula
Suppose that $$f'$$ is continuous on $$[a,b]$$. Then the length of the curve given by $$y=f(x)$$ between $$a$$ and $$b$$ is given by
 * $$L=\int\limits_a^b \sqrt{1+f'(x)^2}dx$$

And in Leibniz notation
 * $$L=\int\limits_a^b \sqrt{1+\left(\tfrac{dy}{dx}\right)^2}dx$$

Proof: Consider $$y_{i+1}-y_i=f(x_{i+1})-f(x_i)$$. By the Mean Value Theorem there is a point $$z_i$$ in $$(x_{i+1},x_i)$$ such that
 * $$y_{i+1}-y_i=f(x_{i+1})-f(x_i)=f'(z_i)(x_{i+1}-x_i)$$

So

 * $$\bigl|P_iP_{i+1}\bigr|$$
 * $$=\sqrt{(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2+(y_{i+1}-y_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2+f'(z_i)^2(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{\bigl(1+f'(z_i)^2\bigr)(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{1+f'(z_i)^2}\Delta x$$
 * }
 * $$=\sqrt{\bigl(1+f'(z_i)^2\bigr)(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{1+f'(z_i)^2}\Delta x$$
 * }
 * $$=\sqrt{1+f'(z_i)^2}\Delta x$$
 * }
 * }

Putting this into the definition of the length of $$C$$ gives

 * $$L=\lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{i=0}^{n-1}\sqrt{1+f'(z_i)^2}\Delta x$$

Now this is the definition of the integral of the function $$g(x)=\sqrt{1+f'(x)^2}$$ between $$a$$ and $$b$$ (notice that $$g$$ is continuous because we are assuming that $$f'$$ is continuous). Hence

 * $$L=\int\limits_a^b \sqrt{1+f'(x)^2}dx$$

as claimed.

As a sanity check of our formula, let's calculate the length of the "curve" $$y=2x$$ from $$x=0$$ to $$x=1$$. First let's find the answer using the Pythagorean Theorem.
 * $$P_0=(0,0)$$

and
 * $$P_1=(1,2)$$

so the length of the curve, $$s$$, is
 * $$s=\sqrt{2^2+1^2}=\sqrt5$$

Now let's use the formula
 * $$s=\int\limits_0^1 \sqrt{1+\left(\tfrac{d(2x)}{dx}\right)^2}\,dx=\int\limits_0^1 \sqrt{1+2^2}\,dx=\sqrt5x\bigg|_0^1=\sqrt5$$

Arclength of a parametric curve
For a parametric curve, that is, a curve defined by $$x=f(t)$$ and $$y=g(t)$$, the formula is slightly different:
 * $$L=\int\limits_a^b \sqrt{f'(t)^2+g'(t)^2}\,dt$$

Proof: The proof is analogous to the previous one: Consider $$y_{i+1}-y_i=g(t_{i+1})-g(t_i)$$ and $$x_{i+1}-x_i=f(t_{i+1})-f(t_i)$$.

By the Mean Value Theorem there are points $$c_i$$ and $$d_i$$ in $$(t_{i+1},t_i)$$ such that
 * $$y_{i+1}-y_i=g(t_{i+1})-g(t_i)=g'(c_i)(t_{i+1}-t_i)$$

and
 * $$x_{i+1}-x_i=f(t_{i+1})-f(t_i)=f'(d_i)(t_{i+1}-t_i)$$

So

 * $$\bigl|P_iP_{i+1}\bigr|$$
 * $$=\sqrt{(x_{i+1}-x_i)^2+(y_{i+1}-y_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{f'(d_i)^2(t_{i+1}-t_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2(t_{i+1}-t_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{\bigl(f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2\bigr)(t_{i+1}-t_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2}\Delta t$$
 * }
 * $$=\sqrt{\bigl(f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2\bigr)(t_{i+1}-t_i)^2}$$
 * $$=\sqrt{f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2}\Delta t$$
 * }
 * $$=\sqrt{f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2}\Delta t$$
 * }
 * }

Putting this into the definition of the length of the curve gives
 * $$L=\lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{i=0}^{n-1}\sqrt{f'(d_i)^2+g'(c_i)^2}\Delta t$$

This is equivalent to:
 * $$L=\int\limits_a^b \sqrt{f'(t)^2+g'(t)^2}\,dt$$

title: Calculus/Arc length


text:
Talk:Calculus/Arc length

Example?
I think some examples would be helpful. I was considering using a simple example such as f(x)=2x. Any objections?

title: Talk:Calculus/Arc length


text:
Systems Of Logic

Contents

 * 1) An Introduction to Logic
 * 2) /Syllogistic Logic/
 * 3) /Symbolic Logic/
 * 4) /Mathematical Logic/
 * 5) /Inductive Logic/
 * 6) /Transcendental Logic/
 * 7) /Resources For Further Study/
 * /Authors/

title: Systems Of Logic


text:
Systems Of Logic/Syllogistic Logic

The Syllogism
A syllogism is an inference, consisting of three statements in which a conclusion follows as a matter of necessity from two given premises. A classic example of a syllogims is:

 * All humans are mortal (major premise)
 * All Greeks are human (minor premise)
 * therefore, All Greeks are mortal (conclusion)

Qualities of Statements
Each of these statements are said to have the quality of being universally affirmative (all humans are mortal), universally negative (no humans are mortal), particularly affirmative (some humans are mortal), or particularly negative (some humans are not mortal). A statement which is universally affirmative may be designated by writing the letter, A. A universal negative statement is designated by the letter, E. A particular affirmative statement is designated by the letter, I, and a particular negative statement, by the letter, O. All of the above statements are universally affirmative.

Exercises 1.1
State whether each of the following statements are universally affirmative, universally negative, particularly affirmative, or particularly negative by designating them with an A, E, I, or O.

title: Systems Of Logic/Syllogistic Logic


text: User talk:69.246.174.149

title: User talk:69.246.174.149


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User talk:207.200.116.70

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

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User:FurciferRNB~enwikibooks

Currently Working On:
 * Systems Of Logic

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User talk:FurciferRNB~enwikibooks

Sure, you can delete cleanup template if everything is ok. I also added the book to list of new books at main page. You can also add a link with description to Logic.

Nice work at Wikibooks. --Derbeth 23:53, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

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Systems Of Logic/Authors

Authors Who Have Contributed To This Book

 * FurciferRNB

title: Systems Of Logic/Authors


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Electricity

1. Explain and illustrate an experiment by which the laws of electrical attraction and repulsion are shown.
This simple experiment can be performed with nothing more exotic than a roll of plastic, transparent tape - the kind usually found on a desk. Remove two 12" strips of tape from the roll and hold them by the end, one in each hand. Removing the tape from the roll will charge the strips with static electricity.

Now bring the two strips of together. They will repel one another. Next, fold the top of one strip over itself, creating a half-inch long "non-sticky" zone. Then attach the two strips, with the folded strip's sticky side to the other strip's non-sticky side. Pull them apart by holding onto the non-sticky zone. Now the two strips will be attracted to one another.

2. Explain the difference between direct and alternating current, and demonstrate the uses to which each is adapted. Give a method of determining which kind flows in a given circuit.
Electricity in a direct current (DC) circuit flows in only one direction. In an alternating current (AC) circuit, the direction of current flow reverses at a regular rate. Similarly, the voltage in a DC circuit remains constant, while it continuously varies in an AC circuit.

Batteries are capable of storing DC voltage only - they cannot store AC voltage. Most electronic circuitry runs on DC, and electronic appliances that run on AC power usually convert it to DC before it can be used. The advantage AC has over DC is that it can be transmitted over long distances with less loss than a DC circuit providing an equivalent amount of power.

AC circuitry produces a constantly varying magnetic field, and a constantly varying magnetic field will induce a current in an adjacent conductor. The induced current can be measured with a current meter. DC circuitry will only induce a current when a sudden change in the circuit takes place, such as powering it on. The induced current will "spike" briefly and then decay to zero.

3. Connect a buzzer, bell, or light with a battery using a switch in line.

The circuit above shows how to connect a battery, switch, and light. The light can be replaced with the bell or buzzer.

4. Make and run a simple electric motor from a kit or take apart a motor and identify the parts, and explain how it works.
There are several low cost motor kits available on the market. Here are links to a few:
 * ISP Corporation
 * MiniLabs
 * American Science and Surplus

It is far more economical to bring in a single motor rather than have each student buy a kit. Small motors can be bought at most hobby stores, and each student can take turns disassembling it.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

The classic DC motor has a rotating armature in the form of an electromagnet with two poles. A rotary switch called a commutator reverses the direction of the electric current twice every cycle, to flow through the armature so that the poles of the electromagnet push and pull against the permanent magnets on the outside of the motor. As the poles of the armature electromagnet pass the poles of the permanent magnets, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature electromagnet. During that instant of switching polarity, inertia keeps the classical motor going in the proper direction. (See the diagrams below.)

5. Make a simple battery cell.
A battery can be made by placing a galvanized (zinc-plated) nail and a copper wire in a small container filled with vinegar. Do not let the zinc and copper terminals touch one another. They can be held apart by punching small holes in the container's lid and inserting them through these holes. A film canister works pretty well for this, but so will a paper or foam cup covered with plastic wrap (or just put the two conductors on opposite sides of the container). As long as the two conductors can both be immersed in the vinegar without touching one another, a voltage should develop between them.

It might help to brighten the nail and the copper with sandpaper or emory cloth first. A cell constructed like this will generate about 0.8 volts. The copper wire will be the positive terminal (anode) and the zinc plated nail will be the negative terminal (cathode).

Connect multiple cells in series to form a battery and boost the voltage. When doing this, be sure to connect the positive terminal (copper) of one cell to the negative terminal (zinc) of the other.

Connect multiple cells in parallel to boost the current capacity (necessary to light up a bulb). To do this, connect all the nails together with one wire and connect all the copper terminals together with another wire.

6. Demonstrate the ability to replace fuses or reset breakers and demonstrate a National Electric Code (NEC) approved splice using insulated wires.
There are many types of fuses. Some of them have threaded bases and can be removed by rotating them counter-clockwise. Others have to be pried out of their holders. Always remember that household current is dangerous, so it is best to cut the power first. This requirement can also be met by changing the fuse in an automobile or appliance (unplug first!).

A breaker is a current-sensing switch. Circuits can be turned off by flipping the switch away from the center of the breaker panel, and turned back on again by flipping the switch towards the center of the breaker panel. When a breaker senses that the current flowing through it exceeds its rated threshold, the switch opens by itself, moving the toggle between the off position and the on position. The breaker is said to have "tripped" when this happens. Before a tripped breaker can be reset, it must first be turned fully to the off position, and then it can be returned to the on position. If the breaker trips again, the circuit is still overloaded. If this is the case, turn off some of the appliances in the circuit before attempting to reset the breaker again.

7. Show how you would rescue a person in contact with a live electric wire, and have a knowledge of the method of reviving a person insensible from shock.
First, '''do not touch the person! ''' Instead, turn off the power as quickly as possible. If you cannot find the switch, use a non-conducting pole such as a wooden broom handle, a non-metallic chair, a shoe, or some similar object and move the wire off the person. Be sure to move the wire far enough away so that it will not reconnect with the victim when released. Be careful to not touch the wire with any part of your body.

Once the victim has been disconnected from the current, call 911. If the victim is not breathing, start CPR. If the victim is breathing, but unconscious, maneuver the body onto its side to prevent the victim's tongue from blocking the air passage.

9. Make a diagram that properly shows the lights, switches, and convenience outlets controlled by each breaker in a house.

The schematic above shows a typical circuit in a household. The circuit as shown is protected by a fuse (although a breaker would be applicable as well), and has three loads:

 * 1) A light controlled by a single switch
 * 2) An unswitched outlet
 * 3) A light controlled by two switches

More outlets and switches can be added to the circuit, but note that they will all be connected in parallel. All circuits will connect to the black "'hot'" wire and to the white "'neutral'" wire.

A typical house will have about two dozen breakers, and it is rare for a circuit to have more than about eight outlets or lights. Having too many lights or outlets on a single circuit will cause the breaker to trip or the fuse to blow, so several circuits are run in a house.

10. Read an electric meter correctly, and compute a residence bill at the rate charged in your community.
Electric meters measure electricity in kilowatt hours. One kilowatt hour (kWh) will provide 1000 watts for one hour. Electric companies typically charge a flat rate per kilowatt hour, and this rate can be found on an electric bill. Some electric companies charge varying rates depending on when the electricity is used, charging a lesser rate when electrical demand is lower (such as during the night). For this requirement it is a lot easier to assume a flat rate, but even then utility companies do not always make it easy. For example, they may break the rate down into several components and they may add flat fees as well. If this is the case for you, simply add all the component rates together to get an aggregate rate. The component rates can be very small values - fractions of a penny.

To calculate the rate, one must first read the meter. The meter is not reset when it's read, so one must know what the meter read during the previous billing cycle. The current reading is subtracted from the previous reading, and the difference is multiplied by the rate.

$$bill = \left((current\ reading - previous\ reading)\times aggregate\ rate \right)+flat\ fees$$

The meter pictured above shows 60169.1 kilowatt hours (not 60279.1 - the dials have not yet reached the 2 or the 7 yet). To calculate an electric bill assume the following:

Previous month's reading: 59023.6 kWh

Aggregate rate: 11.274 cents per kWh

Flat fees: $20

The bill would be calculated as follows:

$$ \begin{matrix}bill & =& \left( (60169.1 - 59023.6) \times 0.11274\right) \ +\ $20 \\ \ & =& (1146.5 \times 0.11274)\ +\ $20 \\ \ & =& $129.14\ +\ $20\\ \ &=& $149.14\end{matrix} $$

Note that this is rounded to the nearest cent.

About the Author
| /Completed Honors


text:
Art History/Renaissance

Introduction

The Renaissance is a period in European history that covers the 15th and the 16th century. The word renaissance means rebirth in French and describes the rediscovery of the knowledge and art of Classical Greece and Rome. The roots of the Renaissance can be found in the Crusades of the 11th century onwards. The Crusaders' main aim was to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim control and one of the more positive effects of the Crusades was the rediscovery of ancient texts and art. News of books and artifacts that had been unavailable in Europe were brought back by Crusaders and this led to a renewed interest in Classical Greece and Rome. It must be noted that diplomatic contact and trade between Europe and the East continued throughout the Crusades and many texts were acquired by Europeans perfectly peacefully. One of the most quoted finds is The Almagest by Ptomely; a work on astronomy. The Almagest was written in the 2nd century C.E and translated into Arabic in the 9th century. It was rediscovered in the 12th century by European scholars and translated into Spanish and Latin. This influx of texts and art from the East revitalized Classical studies in the West. Scholars in the West could now compare their Medieval texts (sometimes complete or fragments) against earlier copies or read works that had been known about in the West but had been presumed to have been permanently lost. These discoveries had a great effect on European culture and art. There was a determined effort by Renaissance composers to bring back to life the plays of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. Renaissance painters used the themes and mythology of the Classical period for inspiration. Renaissance sculpture absorbed the Classical aesthetic on form and many Renaissance statues show a sense of balance in portraying the human form that would be instantly recognizable to an Athenian of the 5th century BC.

Popular Works:
 * 1) Primavera (The Birth of Spring), Birth of Venus - Sandro Botticelli
 * 2) Bronze David, Marble David - Donatello
 * 3) David, Pieta' - Michelangelo
 * 4) School of Athens - Raphael
 * 5) Dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, Ospedale degli Innocenti Loggia, San Lorenzo (Florence), Santo Spirito (Florence) - Brunelleschi
 * 6) Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, Vitruvian Man, Annunciation - Leonardo
 * 7) North and East Doors, Baptistry of San Giovanni, Florence - Ghiberti

Themes: This period is characterized by numerous religious works; themes include the Holy Trinity, Holy Family, Adoration of the Magi, Virgin and child. Mythological subject matter is introduced in the visual arts of this period.

Centers of Art:
 * 1) 15th-century Florence
 * 2) 16th-century Rome
 * 3) 16th-century Northern Italy (including Venice, provinces)
 * 4) 15th-century Flanders

Important literature:
 * 1) Vasari's Lives of the Artists
 * 2) Alberti's On Painting

Other Notable Works
Kunstgeschiedenis/Renaissance

title: Art History/Renaissance


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/Protestant churches

Historical Background

 * /The Reformation/

Representative Protestant Denominations

 * ../Anabaptist/ and ../Baptist/
 * ../Anglican//../Episcopalian/
 * ../Calvinist//Reformed and Presbyterian
 * Ethiopian–Eritrean Evangelicalism
 * ../Lutheran/
 * ../Methodist//../Wesleyan/ and the Holiness movement
 * ../Pentecostal/ and Charismatic
 * Quakers
 * ../Restoration movement//../Church of Christ/
 * ../Salvation Army/
 * ../Seventh-day Adventist/
 * United/Uniting
 * ../Other Denominations/
 * ../Non-Denominational/


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/The Mac Interface

= Introduction = Now that you know how to use the Dock and Menu Bar (because you did read Chapter 1, right?), it's time to learn how to use the rest of your Mac's interface. In this chapter, you'll learn how to deal with windows, sheets, sliders, scrollbars, and all of the other elements of the Mac interface. From the next chapter onwards, you'll learn to apply what you've learned to real-world uses of your Mac.

A lot of this chapter should be a review for you, since in many ways the Mac interface is similar to the interfaces of competing operating systems such as Microsoft Windows. However, there will definitely be things in this chapter that you do not already know, so pay close attention.

= Windows = Mac OS X, like most modern operating systems, uses a "windowed" interface. That means it displays information in a stack of overlapping rectangular boxes called "windows". The window at the front of the stack is the only one you can interact with, and is called the "active window". You can bring any inactive window to the front of the stack by clicking anywhere inside it.

Title Bars
Every window has a "title bar" at the top. This strip contains the window's name, or title, along with three little round buttons on the left side. These three buttons are colored red, yellow, and green from left to right. Rolling over these buttons causes them to display (respectively) an ×, −, and +.

 * Close – Clicking the red button (×) closes the window, but does not necessarily quit the application (program) the window belongs to. This is a common point of confusion in Mac OS X, because in Windows XP, if a program is left without any windows, it closes automatically. This is not so in the Mac OS; most applications will not quit unless explicitly told to do so through the appropriate command in the Menu Bar. If a dot appears in the red button, there is unsaved information in the window. If you close the window, you will be asked to acknowledge this and either save the information or lose it forever.

 * Minimize – Click the yellow button (−), and the window "minimizes" (shrinks to the size of a postage stamp and flys into the right side of the Dock). These minimized windows can be "Maximized" (returned to their normal state) by simply clicking on their images in the Dock.

 * Zoom – Click the green button (+), and the window attempts to resize itself so its contents fit exactly. Click the green button again, and the window will resize to its previous dimensions.

Toolbars
Toolbars are strips of controls that activate certain commands (for more on these controls, see below). Toolbars usually appear along the top of a window (directly below the title bar), but sometimes appear along the bottom or side.

Toolbars are usually customizable; that is, you can add or remove controls, change their order, and group them according to how you use them. To customize a toolbar, right-click it and choose "Customize Toolbar...". A sheet (see below) appears, showing every control the application has to offer. You can drag controls from the sheet into the toolbar to add them, out of the toolbar to remove them, or horizontally to reorder them. You can drag in "Space", "Flexible Space", and "Divider" to organize controls into groups.

Panes
In architecture, there are many styles of windows. Perhaps the style most commonly used today is the "divided-light" window. These windows consist of multiple panes of glass, held together by strips of wood called mullions.

As in architecture, it often makes sense to divide a computer "window" into multiple "panes". Get the joke? The "mullions" that hold these virtual panes together are referred to simply as dividers. Quite often, dividers are adjustable. Dragging on the small dot in the middle of a divider lets you adjust the proportions of the panes on either side. For example, in Fig. 4, a divider with a dot separates the top and bottom panes. Dragging the dot upwards will make the bottom pane larger and the top pane smaller. Dragging the dot down will do the opposite: the top pane will become bigger and the bottom smaller.

Sometimes, applications forgo a divider and simply draw a thin line between panes. These are also adjustable, but you'll have to look around a bit to find the "handle" you can drag to resize the panes on either side. These handles are usually marked by three vertical lines. A line like this separates the left sidebar in Fig. 4 from the top and bottom panes to its right. To adjust the size of this particular sidebar pane, you must drag the three vertical lines in the lower-left of the window.

Scrollbars
You'll often find yourself working with a document larger than the window or pane that contains it. When this happens, Mac OS X busts out "scrollbars". Named after the scrolls of medieval times, these strips appear along the edges of a pane. A scrollbar appears along the right side of the pane if the information within is taller than the pane itself. If the information is wider, a scrollbar appears along the bottom.

Each scrollbar is divided into three parts:
 * Scroll Track – This like a "groove" with a blue strip in it. The blue strip is the "scroller", explained below. that the scroller sits in.
 * Scroller – This blue pill-shaped strip represents the portion of the document which is visible. The larger the scroller is in relation to the scroll track, the more of the document is visible. The position' of the scroller in relation to the scroll track tells you which'' part of the document you are viewing. Dragging the scroller lets you view different parts of the document.
 * Scroll Buttons – These little arrow buttons at the end of the scrollbar let you scroll one "unit" of space in a certain direction. The length of a unit depends on the application you are working in.

Status Bars
Status Bars are strips that appear along the bottom of some (but not all) windows. They usually contain text pertaining to the window's status, but can also contain controls like a toolbar would.

Resize Handles
The bottom-right corner of most windows can be dragged with your cursor to give the window whatever dimensions you wish. These corners have three little tactile-looking ridges, providing a visual cue to their special sizing power.

= Palettes and HUDs = Palettes, also referred to as "Utility Windows", are miniature windows that contain information and controls designed to complement a larger window. They have skinny little title bars, and do not appear in the Window menu or in Exposé (see below).

There is a second flavor of palette called a HUD. No, you don't pronounce that "hudd" (a common mistake). H-U-D stands for "heads-up-display". These are palettes that are black and translucent, just like a heads-up-display on say, a fighter jet. Other than their looks, there is no difference between a HUD and a palette.

= Sheets = Dialog boxes have been offering warnings, options, and advice for years. But dialog boxes are often overkill; they take center stage and prevent you from doing anything else until you acknowledge them. While there is certainly a place for this (for instance, warnings and alerts that you absolutely must see), quite often dialog boxes apply to only a single window. For this purpose, Apple has developed a new invention of their own: the "sheet".

A sheet looks like a sheet of paper that rolls out from the title bar of a window. Unlike the dialog boxes of old, which blocked access to everything on your computer until you closed them, sheets only prevent access to the specific window to which they are attached until you close them. This lets individual applications get your attention without blocking access to others. Sheets are also used when you quit an application with unsaved work, because you might have several documents open and each one needs to be saved separately.

= Drawers = A drawer works a lot like a drawer in a desk. It's a pane that slides in and out of the side of a window. It seems like they are being phased out by Apple, which is replacing them with sidebar panes, but there are still a few here and there in Mac OS X. You'll hear more about drawers when you read about the applications that use them.

= Exposé = Exposé is a neat little feature with big implications. It cuts through the clutter that results from having a large number of windows open at the same time. More specifically, it lets you visualize your open windows in two different ways, and can also temporarily hide all of them. Each function of Exposé is activated by a different key on your keyboard.

 * 1) All Windows (the F9 key by default) – Pressing this key darkens your desktop and shrinks all of your windows into thumbnails. Exposé makes these thumbnails just small enough so that they don't overlap at all. Roll over a window with your cursor, and it will display its title. Clicking any window will return your Desktop to how it was before, but now with the window you clicked on in front of all others.
 * 2) Application Windows (the F10 key by default) – The second way to Exposé is a variation on "All Windows". It tiles only the windows of the current, front-most application. If you have a bunch of websites in Safari and documents in Microsoft Word open, and you know you're looking for a Word document, then simply bring Word to the front and press F10.
 * 3) Desktop (the F11 key by default) – This key temporarily pushes all windows out of the way, giving you an unobstructed view of your desktop. To show your windows again, press the key again.

= Controls = Apple uses a plethora of buttons, sliders, and other little gadgets throughout OS X and other applications. Use this list as a reference:

 * Buttons – The most common control in the Mac OS, buttons are pill-shaped and made of glass. Their labels provide a clue as to what happens when you click on them.
 * Button Menus – These oddball buttons sprout menus when you click on them. They are marked with a little triangle on their right side.
 * Toolbar Buttons – Buttons in a window's toolbar (see above) can take on a variety of appearances. Sometimes they appear simply as icons. At other times, they will look more like standard buttons made of glass, plastic, or any other material the developer sees fit. As you use various applications, you will learn how toolbar buttons look in each one.
 * Conjoined Buttons – Conjoined buttons are just that: two or more buttons joined together. Sometimes buttons are conjoined to show that they are related; at other times they are conjoined to show that only one button in the group can be activated at a time.
 * Tabs – Tabs look like conjoined buttons at the top of a grey box. Clicking on different tabs will cause different things to appear in the grey box. The tab that you are currently viewing is highlighted in blue.
 * Toolbar Tabs – Tabs inside a window's toolbar look just like toolbar buttons but act just like normal tabs. The tab you are currently viewing is highlighted in grey.
 * Checkboxes – These look like the checkboxes you might find in a tax form. You can check and uncheck them with one click. When a checkbox is checked, it lights up blue.
 * Radio Buttons – These special, round checkboxes always come in groups of two or more. Exactly one radio button in a group is always selected; you can't select more than one, and you can't select none at all.
 * Sliders – These look like a slider you might find on a piece of machinery. They can be horizontal or vertical. You can drag them with your cursor to adjust a setting.
 * Dials – A dial, also known as a knob, looks like a knob you might use to adjust the volume on your stereo. Drag one in a circular motion to adjust a setting.
 * Pop-Up Menus – These are menus full of choices embedded inside a window as a control. Click on the blue triangle at the right side of a pop-up menu to view the options inside.
 * Color Wells – These are used to select a color for something; perhaps part of a page layout you're working on or the title of your next hit movie. They look like clear, rectangular buttons with a colored square inside. Clicking them opens the application's color picker, letting you pick the color of your choice.
 * Image Wells – Image wells are "slots" where you can insert an image. They resemble a well in a slide that one would look at under a microscope. Drag and drop an image into the well to use it.
 * Progress Bars – When a task is being performed by your Mac, it often displays some sort of progress bar. These are glossy strips that gradually fill up with a blue color from left to right. When the blue reaches the right side of the bar, the task is complete. Sometimes your Mac can't tell how long a task is going to take. In this case, the progress bar displays bands of blue (like a barber pole) that move from left to right.
 * Progress Spinners – When space is tight or the task being performed takes only a few seconds, Mac OS X will use a progress spinner to show that work is being done. The progress spinner is a tiny sunburst of grey lines which brighten and darken to give a spinning effect. It gives no indication as to how far along your Mac is with its task.
 * Capacity Bar – This thick status bar displays the level of something – perhaps the battery life remaining in your wireless mouse. Sometimes it is split into sections, other times it's one long continous strip. The color can change according to how much the bar is filled.
 * Rating Indicator – The rating indicator displays the rating of an item in "stars". How these work vary from application to application, so please see each application's section of this wikibook for more information.
 * Relevancy Bar – When searching for an item, sometimes relevancy bars appear next to their names, indicating how closely they match the terms for your search.
 * Text Fields – Text fields are squarish white boxes that you can type text into.
 * Steppers – Some text fields are designed to contain numbers. If you want to adjust the number in one of these fields, you can either manually type it in, or you can use the two vertical arrows you might find next door – steppers. These little arrow buttons let you "step" the number in the field up or down.
 * Token Fields – Token fields look like a text field, but are designed to hold multiple items, separated by commas. As you type the items, they turn into blue rounded "tokens". These can be dragged and dropped as an object. Some tokens also include built-in pop-up menus.
 * Search Fields – Search fields are pill-shaped text fields that have a little magnifying glass symbol in the left side. You can search for items in a window or around your computer simply by typing your query into one of these guys. Sometimes you will have to press enter after typing to begin searching, but at other times searching happens automatically.
 * Combo Boxes – Combo boxes combine a pop-up menu and a text field. You can choose an option either by selecting it as you would with a pop-up menu, or typing it in as you would with a text field.
 * Disclosure Triangles – Also known as "flippy triangles", these controls always appear next to a heading. If the triangle is pointing to the right, then the information under the heading is hidden. Click on the triangle and it flips down, showing the information. Click on the triangle again and it flips back up, hiding the information.
 * Disclosure Buttons – These are disclosure triangles inside buttons. Clicking one causes the dialog box or sheet the button is in to show or hide some extra options and controls.
 * Locks – Some windows contain settings that can only be modified by the administrator (owner) of your computer. These windows show little padlocks at the bottom. When the padlock is in the "locked" position, clicking the padlock asks you for your administrator password, which if entered correctly, will grant access to the administrator-only controls in the window. Clicking an unlocked padlock locks the controls again, so the next person who walks up to your Mac can't adjust any of the controls while you aren't looking.

title: Mac OS X Tiger/The Mac Interface


text:
Geometry/Chapter 5

SSS Congruency

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

 * Side-Side-Side Congruency Theorem: If three sides of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * }

SAS Congruency

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

 * Side-Angle-Side Congruency Theorem: If two sides and the included angle of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * }

We can prove ΔRPQ is congruent to ΔVST because both angle RQP and angle VTS are 100°. Segments PQ and ST are both 4 units, as well as RQ and VT are both 5 units. Therefore, both triangles are congruent by side-angle-side congruency.

HL Congruency

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

A squared plus B squared equals C squared
 * Hypotenuse Leg Congruency Theorem: If a right triangle has a leg and hypotenuse equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent.
 * }

ASA Congruency

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

 * Angle-Side-Angle Congruency Theorem: If two angles and the included side of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * }

Angle BAP is a right angle and angle PDC is also a right angle.So they are equal. Angle APB of triangle BAP and angle CPD of triangle DPC are opposite angles and they are equal. Segments AP and PD are both 5 units.Since, the two angles and a side of the triangle BAP is equal to the two angles and a side of the triangle DPC , the both triangles are congruent.

AAS Congruency

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

 * Angle-Angle-Side Congruency Theorem: If one side and two angles of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * }

We can prove ΔABC is congruent to ΔYXZ because angle CAB and angle ZYX are congruent (both 75°), angles ACB and YZX are congruent (both 65°), and AB is congruent to YX (nonincluded side). Therefore, both triangles are congruent by angle-angle-side.

AAA doesn't work

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

Image:
 * Three corresponding angles of a triangle doesn't prove two triangles are congruent. However, they do prove that two triangles are similar.
 * }

SSA doesn't work

 * {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:left;" cellspacing="10"

Image:
 * Two consecutive sides and an angle doesn't prove triangles are congruent.
 * }

Basic Principles of Congruent Triangles
Conjecture 1: If two triangles are congruent, then their corresponding parts are equal.

Chapter Review
In order to prove that two triangles are congruent, three pieces of information are necessary. The three pieces of information can be
 * the lengths of all three sides
 * the lengths of 2 sides and the size of the included angle
 * 2 angle measurements and the length of the enclosed side
 * 2 angle measurements and the length of the following side

For right triangles, only two pieces of information are necessary. If you can show that the hypotenuse and another side are congruent on each triangle, then you know that the triangles on the whole are congruent.

It is worth noting that you cannot prove that two triangles are congruent if you only know their angle measurements. Even if you know every angle in each triangle, the lengths of the sides could be different.

Vocabulary

 * Side-Side-Side Congruency Theorem: If three sides of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * Side-Angle-Side Congruency Theorem: If two sides and the included angle of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent
 * Angle-Side-Angle Congruency Theorem: If two angles and the included side of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * Angle-Angle-Side Congruency Theorem: If one side and two angles of one triangle equal the corresponding parts of the other, then the triangles are congruent.
 * Hypotenuse Leg Congruency Theorem: If a right triangle has a leg and hypotenuse equal to the corresponding parts of the other triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

Exercises
Answers to each exercise can be found in the Appendix.

 * 1) In triangle RUN and triangle HID, angle R = angle D, angle U = angle I, and RU = DI. What triangles are congruent, if any, and why?
 * 2) In triangle FRE and SLV, FR = LV, EF = SL, and angle F = angle S. What triangles are congruent, if any, and why?
 * 3) In triangle MUS and CHR, angle S = angle H, US = HR, and angle U = angle R. What triangles are congruent, if any, and why?
 * 4) In triangle QWE and RTY, QW = TY, WE = RY, and QE = RT. What triangles are congruent, if any, and why?

title: Geometry/Chapter 5


text:
Talk:Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 9

Untitled
The character 'り' (ri) doesn't seem to match the brush stroke image very well. Maybe the picture should be changed? Or maybe a note could be added explaining why they don't look the same. I am a learner here so I may be missing something...

 * The printed form り is a bit different from the handwritten form. In the printed form, the two strokes of the handwritten form are being written without lifting pen from paper. I added a note to the page. Thanks.
 * -ToothingLummox 22:18, 12 October 2005 (UTC)


text: User talk:212.44.58.120

title: User talk:212.44.58.120


text:
User talk:130.253.171.208

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:130.253.171.208


text: User talk:62.183.50.164

title: User talk:62.183.50.164


text:
Budget Watch Collecting/Removing hands

The proper way of removing hands is to use a hand remover. These have jaws that fit under the hands, with a slot to go around the posts. Most will pry against the dial.

For most hand removers, it is best to put something between the hands and the dial--A slotted piece of watch tissue is best, but other similar materials will work. (Watch tissue is pre-cut squares of thin paper, similar to wrapping tissue. Smooth and not very absorbent, unlike facial tissue)

If you are using makeshift tools, make sure you lift on both sides evenly, rather than trying to pry one side until the hand comes off. This is especially important on seconds hands, their pinion is fairly fragile, and the hands frequently have a tube. You can either pry alternately on each side, or better pry on both sides at once with two tools.

Especially with makeshift tools, it is likely that the hand will jump across the room when removed. You may want to work inside a plastic bag, or place a blob of watch cleaning putty on the tip of the hand.

On most (but not all) watches, it is not necessary to remove the hour hand, its wheel will just lift off the dial. Most Timex mechanicals only require removal of the seconds hand, the minute and hour hands can stay with the dial.

It can be helpful to set the hands to 12:00 before removing them, especially on calendar watches.

To align the hands on a calendar watch, set the time with no hands until the calendar is advanced to where it should be at midnight, then replace the hands.

There are special tools to replace hands, but a pair of tweezers held open just enough to clear the post the hand fits on (for hour and minute hands) works well. Make sure the hands are parallel with the dial, and that all hands can travel around without touching the dial, dial markers, other hands or the crystal.

title: Budget Watch Collecting/Removing hands


text:
Template:Movie Making Manual/cinematographyHeader

This Module is part of the Cinematography section of the Movie Making Manual


text:
Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Green Screen

The process of creating a "green screen" shot has two main parts: shooting and post production.

=Shooting Green-Screen=

General tips

 * Light the green background evenly and brightly but don't overexpose it
 * Your best bet to get the correct exposure is to run a few tests in a methodological fashion.
 * If you can't afford to run tests then light the green screen at about 1 stop over key (i.e. light your greenscreen to reflect twice as much light as your foreground elements and then set your camera's exposure to comfortably capture the foreground elements).
 * Try to avoid using filters on the lens. Diffusion can make the key very hard to pull. (And make sure the lens is clean!)
 * Avoid throwing shadows on the green screen
 * Try to limit the amount of reflected green light bouncing from the screen onto the actors (this can be achieved by careful lighting; by moving the foreground elements as far away from the green screen as possible or by simply covering unused sections of the green screen in black)
 * Avoid using the same colour in the actor's clothes as in the green screen.
 * One way to check that your exposure is about correct is to place a bit of white card under the key light and then view the scene through a green filter. The white card should "disappear" against the green screen.

Really difficult things to key cleanly
Try to avoid these things if at all possible:

 * Hair, especially if it's moving (e.g. having an actor's/actress' long hair blowing in the wind against a green screen will be a nightmare to work with)

Does it have to be a green screen?
No, you can use any colour screen you wish. Any compositing software worth its place in this world will be able to chroma-key any colour. Blue and Green are often chosen because the human skin contains very little blue or green pigment. Green screens are often used for shoots outside as sunlight can register on a camera as "blue" causing problems when chroma keying.

Shooting on video

 * Set the camera to a gain of 0db (this gives the best signal to noise ratio and the widest dynamic range)
 * Use a video camera with the least chroma subsampling (i.e. 4:4:4 is best). It is possible to get minimally acceptable results from DV (4:1:1) or HDV (4:2:0) but your life will be easier (and the resulting key considerably better) if you use a higher quality capture medium.  Since keying relies on color information that is disregarded as part of any color space reduction from 4:4:4, all lossy compression formats will result in decreased edge detail.

Shooting on film

 * Choose a stock with the finest grain posible

=Post-production: pulling a key=

Tools

 * Serious Magic has a program called Ultra that uses vector keying, rather than chroma keying.
 * Adobe Premiere Pro
 * Adobe After Effects
 * Autodesk Combustion
 * Final Cut Pro/Express (Apple)
 * FXhome CompositeLab (Lite and pro) and VisionLab software.
 * Wax Invoker

=Glossary=
 * "Pulling a chroma key" = The process of using computer software to make a particular colour transparent


text:
User talk:Uhls

Steve, your success tips will serve as a wonderful tool fo rteachers wanting to launch a blended learning course. You've pointed out several 'bumps' that can be avoided with the information provided in your writings. I appreciate your hard work - it was a pleasure working with you. (Max)

title: User talk:Uhls


text:
Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/D-20

Introduction
The D-20 is ARRI's concept of a practical digital movie camera. Like the Panavision Genesis, it uses a single image sensor the same width as a standard 35mm film frame, but unlike the Genesis, this also has the same height as a 35mm frame.

The D-20 uses a custom-designed CMOS sensor rather than the older CCD technology of the Genesis. Instead of the Genesis's RGB stripe filter, the D-20 uses a Bayer Array, similar to that used on digital still cameras. The CMOS sensor's "native resolution" (before the color mask is applied) is 3018 x 2200 pixels, which allows a 1920 x 1080 standard HD output with a resolution similar to the Genesis. Recording can be either on HD Beta tape or a hard disk array.

The D-20 is actually based on a modified ARRIFLEX 435 film camera chassis. It can use any "PL-Mount" cinematography lens, and was specifically designed to be as familiar in operation to a film camera operator as possible. In particular, it retains the rotating mirror shutter/reflex viewfinder that is standard on all ARRI film cameras, which allows the incorporation of a standard optical viewfinder.

This has the advantages that:
 * The optical viewfinder image can safely be used for critical focussing, whereas current model electronic viewfinders tend to have insufficient resolution for this.
 * No power is needed while setting up a shot, nor is there any particular need for a "video village" of monitoring equipment.
 * The camera operator can see outside the frame that is actually being recorded, so (s)he (and/or the focus puller)"can see what's coming". (A major shortcoming of all-electronic viewfinder systems is the camera operator can only see what is actually being sent out to the recording system).

At present (Oct 2005) the D-20 is still undergoing refinement and to date no commercial projects have been shot with it. It has been observed that ARRI seem far less serious about the D-20 than Panavision do about the Genesis, since the CMOS sensor it is based on was principally designed for use in ARRI's advanced film scanner, the Arriscan.

History of the D-20
Currently, as of during the Sundance Film Festival for 2006, there is only one ArriFlex D-20 located in the United States of America. In about a month from the festival, Arri Rental facilities should have the D-20 available for rent. However, rental prices are still unknown.

Rental Facilities
ARRI Rental Germany ARRI Media London ARRI-CSC New York Clairmont Camera, Los Angeles

Films made with the D-20

 * 1 day's usage on Tim Burton's Corpse Bride (2005)
 * 1 day's use on "Caged" - Short film (UK) Official Site
 * The entirety of Chapter III of Max Payne: Payne & Redemption (2006)
 * Virtually the entirety of The Company
 * German Short film Der Häfling des Monats (german: The Detainee of the Month)
 * Hogfather (post-production)
 * German TV-Serie "Afrika, mon amour", 3 parts, summary 270 minutes

Links

 * D-20 info on the ARRI website
 * ARRI News Letter: D-20 Tests

/Cameras


text:
Blended Learning in K-12/Guiding Principles of Blended Learning

Guiding Principles
A definitive statement of what constitutes the best combination of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and face-to-face learning experiences is impossible. No such statement exists for the best combination of traditional practices much less for the newer world of blended learning. Singh & Reed (2001) state "Little formal research exists on how to construct the most effective blended program designs" (p. 6). However, observers have begun to collate principles that, at least anecdotally, lead to greater success.

''One note before continuing. Most of the literature about blended learning design comes from work in business training and post-secondary education. The author makes the assumption that those principles are generally applicable to K-12 education as well.''

A theme that emerges is that the instruction methods, whether on-line or face-to-face, are the means, not the end. "Students never learn from technology per se. They learn from the strategies teachers use to communicate effectively through the technologies" (Cyrs, Cyrs, and Conway, 2003, General Guideline #1). It follows that the single most important consideration when designing a blended learning environment is the learning objective or purpose. It is tempting to assert that it is the only consideration. However, not only would that lead to this exposition being overly brief, as desirable as that might be for writer and reader alike, it would also mean ignoring the essential truth that all learning occurs in and is shaped by a context. Important dimensions of this context include (Singh & Reed, 2001, p. 5):

 * Audience. What do the learners know and how varied is their level of knowledge? Are the learners geographicaly centralized or geographicaly dispersed? Are the learners here because they wish to be or because they have to be?
 * Content. Some content lends itself well to on-line situations. Other content, a complex and detailed procedure for assembling a valve train, for example, may work best in face-to-face setting.
 * Infrastructure. If physical space is limited, more of the instruction could be placed on-line. If students do not have access to high band width connections, on-line video streaming would be a poor choice.

With purpose and context in mind, the designer can select, combine, and organize different elements of on-line and traditional instruction. Carman (2002) identifies five such elements calling them key "ingredients" (p. 2):

 * 1) Live events. These are synchronous, instructor-led events. Traditional lectures, video conferences, and synchronous chat sessions such as elluminate are examples.
 * 2) Self-Paced Learning. Experiences the learner completes individually on her own time such as an internet or CD-ROM based tutorial.
 * 3) Collaboration. Learners communicate and create with others, e-mail, threaded discussions, and, come to think of it, this wiki are all examples.
 * 4) Assessment. Measurements of learners' mastery of the objectives. Assessment is not limited to conventional tests, quizzes, and grades. Narrative feedback, portfolio evaluations and, importantly, a designers reflection about a blended learning environments effectiveness or usefulness are all forms of assessment.
 * 5) Support Materials. These include reference material, both physical and virtual, FAQ forums, and summaries. Anything that aids learning retention and transfer.

It is useful, though ultimately reductive, to think of the interaction between context and ingredients for a given learning objective as a rectangular matrix. The intersections suggest the method the designer should use. The danger of this metaphor is the suggestion that each purpose, context, and ingredient combination deterministically lead to a matching method. Such is not the case. The point to the designer is to think in terms of those conditions, and others unique to her particular circumstance, as she orchestrates learning activities and creates her blended environment.

McCracken and Dobson (2004) provide an example of how learning purpose, context, and blended learning ingredients lead particular learning methods. They propose a process with "five main design activities" (p.491) as a framework for designing blended learning courses. The process is illustrated with a case study of the redesign of a class at The University of Alberta called Philosophy 101 (pp. 494 - 495):

 * Identifying learning and teaching principles. The teaching and learning goals were described as requiring active participation, sustained discussion, and, most importantly, inquiry and critical analysis.
 * Describing organizational contexts Team teaching with three professors and up to eleven graduate teaching assistants to engage a class of 250 students in dialogue around ethical and political philosophy.
 * Describing discipline-specific factors The designers are described as being concerned about stereotypes of philosophy as "bearded men professing absolute truths" (p.495). The desire was to represent philosophy as an activity, not a set truths to be absorbed.
 * Selecting and situating appropriate learning technologies Learning activities focused on the process of engagement: presenting and defending a thesis and responding to opposing views. For example, a face-to-face lecture would feature contemporary ethical dilemmas with newspaper headlines or a video clip. Or, the instructors would stage a debate in which they would assume the role of a philosopher under study and then argue from the philosopher's point of view. Online threaded discussion supplemented small group seminar sections.
 * Articulating the complementary interaction between classroom and online learning activities In the Philosophy 101 example, it was noted how the face-to-face engagement was complemented by more deliberative, asynchronous discourse.

Even this simplified description illustrates the multilayered, multifaceted nature of blended learning environments. With such a large canvass, the most important design principle might be to start small. "Creating a blended learning strategy is an evolutionary process." (Singh and Reed, 2001). A good place to begin is to supplement an existing conventional, environment with one or two on-line activities, a resource website or an asynchronous discussion for example. As experience and confidence are gained, new tools can be introduced and a greater effort put into redesigning the program. It is hoped that this chapter will help teachers reach that goal.

This chapter's previous section is about Designing a Lesson. The next section describes Success Tips.

Additional Resources
See also the developing Wikitext Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 9: Instructional Planning for additional suggestions and ideas about designing and planning lessons.


text:
Talk:Blended Learning in K-12/Blended Learning's Lesson Design Process

I am 162.20.237 as listed in the history. I guess I was kicked out at some point and didn't log in. - Geoff


text:
Talk:San Andreas/Frequently Asked Questions

I found monster called we call mommy on GTA S.A it hides in the fog but the fog form around its body. do you have any info on it .me and a freand saw it and wanted us [we were playing on 2 player at the time] and boy was it big.


text:
User:KristianMolhave

Kristian Mølhave

Ph.D., Assistant Professor

Dept. of Micro and Nanotechnology - DTU - www.mic.dtu.dk

Division of Solid State Physics - LTH - www.ftf.lth.se

Phone 45 2512 6672

www.kristian.molhave.dk

e-mail address: krm at mic.dtu.dk

 * Danish wikibooks user page KristianMolhave.
 * English wikipedia user page KristianMolhave.
 * Commons user page KristianMolhave -where I upload illustrations.
 * My notes

I'm working on several wikibooks:

 * Opensource handbooks on Nanotechnology and Microtechnology
 * A book about inspiring scientific experiments - Science shows - available in a Danish version  Wiki bogen om science shows and English version  The Wiki Book on Science Shows.
 * The Teachers' Toolbox an inspirational introduction and overview of teaching and supervision methods.

Tools
 * website statistics, visitors to wikibooks

title: User:KristianMolhave


text:
Scienceshow

The Wiki Book on Science Shows - a collection of exciting natural science activities and demonstration experiments!

Content of the book

 * /Introduction/
 * Template for new guide
 * All Guides to Demonstration experiments and exercises

 * Guides According to Subjects
 * Nanotechnology
 * Physics
 * Chemistry
 * Technology and Engineering
 * Biochemistry and Biotechnology
 * Biology
 * Mathematics
 * Microtechnology
 * Cryogenics

 * Teaching Material
 * Suppliers
 * Equipment

title: Scienceshow


text:
Scienceshow/Template for new guide

The template is shown without wiki formatting - so cut from below the line and paste it into your new page and you're ready to create a new guide! You can see how it looks here.

Remember the guide you're writing must have a title as "Scienceshow/Guides/title" by always first starting the new page as a link in the page Scienceshow/Guides.

Wikimedia Commons ScienceShow is where we upload the media files for this book to have an easy overview of available images etc.

Cut below

==Purpose and Overview==

Make a brief statement about the purpose of this specific guide you're making in this section. Briefly describe what the experiment is about. Which scientific principles does it demonstrate?

Replace the guiding test in the template as your write, but keep the general structure and leave the text in empty sections so other contributors will know what it is intended for.

Remember that no copyrighted material can be added to this book without the authors explicit accept and please ackowledge sources of information and ideas with links to websites and references.

Media files should be uploaded on Wikimedia Commons ScienceShow.

*Status for this guide: Finished, Not yet finished, Check recipes...(leave the appropriate)

*Subjects relating to this guide: add appropriate...../Nanotechnology/, ../Physics/

==Safety==

===Safety Class===

Choose a fitting safety class for this description

*Too dangerous! (We do not make this experiment because …)

*Very dangerous (Should only be attempted after careful training)

*Dangerous - Please be aware of this or the other thing... (Untrained people can do this experiment under supervision and guidance)

*Harmless (The most dangerous thing is this insignificant little petitesse)

===Required Safety Equipment===

*The show performer: Glasses / Lab coat / Nothing / Fire extinguisher / Wet towel and a bucket of water / Eye flushing bottle

*Audience/participants: Safety screens / Hearing protection (a finger in the ear is often a help).

==Materials==

You'll need the following - make a list

* item 1: formula, CAS number, supplier, Safety issues (describe the most important ones), Storage, link to safety datasheet

==Procedure==

*Preparation time

*Performance time

*Clean-up time.

===Step by step===

 * 1) Start by…

#…

 * 1) End with explaining how to properly get rid of waste products

===Alternative methods===

Other ways to do the experiment

===Dangers===

Now the reader knows the experiment, give a closer description of possible dangers.

*Important, be aware of…

*Consider the…

===Other Factors===

What other things can sometimes affect the result of the experiment. Maybe the humidity or cleanliness of the glass ware is an issue.

===Show notes===

What to consider when preparing. How to make it more spectacular. What can be difficult to achieve 'on stage' that normally is easy when practising.

What other experiments are good to that have in relation to this one?

What should you beware of that can make the experiment boring?

==Explanation==

===What's taking place===

Here you can give a more quantitative and mathematical description of what happens. What fundamental laws are involved or demonstrated by this experiment etc. Remember to explain jargon/expressions from the laboratory.

===In the real world===

Do you meet things like this in daily life - give examples!

===Unanswered Questions===

Things we do not yet know and should find an answer to - maybe how it actually works etc.

==More Information==

*Websites with more info the end.

===Acknowledgements===

===References===

See Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the  tags.

==Remember==

This is just a guide and it can contain both errors and omissions. Always make experiments in small versions before proceeding to larger quantities where things could become dangerous. Ask around if you have any doubts before starting and do not start on a procedure you do not feel you understand and is qualified to perform.

title: Scienceshow/Template for new guide


text:
Malayalam/Viewing the font

This guide is for configuring your computer to enable reading and writing Malayalam in Windows, and GNU/Linux and BSD operating systems.

Configuring for reading

 * 1) Delete any old version of AnjaliOldLipi Font from Fonts directory which is often C:\WINDOWS\Fonts or C:\WINNT\Fonts.
 * 2) Download and copy AnjaliOldLipi.ttf to Windows\Fonts folder.
 * 3) Click Start, Control Panel, Internet Options, Fonts. Select Language Script Malayalam. Then select Web page font as AnjaliOldLipi. Press OK and OK.

Configuring for Writing
Varamozhi Varamozhi Editor is a transliteration based Malayalam text Editor that runs on both Windows and Unix. That is, you can type in Manglish and you will see in real Malayalam. Also, you can copy-paste any Malayalam article from some web site and that will be converted back to Manglish for correction, further editing or conversion to Unicode or another font.

Language packs
You can install the Malayalam language pack for your operating system to see the Microsoft Windows GUI in Malayalam.

GNU/Linux and *BSD*s

 * All latest GNU/Linux distributions support Malayalam well. You may need to follow specific installation guides from  Swathanthra malayalam Computing to configure it well
 * You can see a how to to enable malayalam in your computer @ the Malayalam Computing Portal

Here are the steps to enable support.
 * pango enabled firefox does provide good indic fonts support.In Debian GNU/Linux Iceweasel provides the best indic rendition.You can enable Gnome browser epiphany for pango support via gconf2 tool as epiphany also is based on gecko.
 * If your distribution does not come with any indic font(here,Malayalam), you will need to install one.

Installing Font in Gnome,Kde and X in general

 * Download Malayalam Unicode fonts] and copy it to fonts:/// Directory

 * All major distributions comes with malayalam fonts. Use apt-get install ttf-malayalam-fonts in Debian based distributions(Debian Ubuntu etc ) and yum install smc-fonts in fedora

In Gnome
GNOME is a versatile Desktop Environment with native pango support which means better rendering in-built. Now press CTRL+ALT+BKSPACE to restart X and gdm.next time the font is available for local user and installed in ~/.fonts/ directory.
 * In Gnome,drag n drop your font to nautilus window.before,nautilus should be in Fonts:/// directory(press CTRL+L,enter fonts:/// ).

Installing TrueType fonts in X in general and also for Gnome
Now,you need to use CLI or terminal for implementing this.firstly: "apt-get install ttmkfdir" using apt package management tool or use Synaptic Manager. make a directory called malayalam and copy the Anjali font to there. :~# mkdir /usr/share/fonts/truetype/malayalam/ move the font here. then go to /usr/share/fonts/truetype/malayalam/ -where font is installed. You need to be root user for installing fonts globally.for that in a terminal, su [press enter] or sudo [press enter] sudo is used in Ubuntu Linux by default.
 * there are other ways to make font available to all users of the system in Gnome or X itself.I am taking Debian/Ubuntu as example,but works for any distro too.for redhat/fedora and Suse or most distros this works.rpm based distros got a tool called chkfontpath which is very useful.

then as root("~#" stands for root prompt,dont copy that), ~#ttmkfdir> fonts.scale ~#mkfontscale ~#ttmkfdir >fonts.dir ~#mkfontdir ~#xset fp+ /usr/share/fonts/truetype/malayalam/ ~#xset fp rehash now do a, ~#fc-cache -fv restart Display(X) or reboot.As /usr/share/fonts/truetype/ directory is already mapped in Xorg for fonts.(see /etc/X11/fs/config). Now the font can be used by every users.

Kde Desktop Environment
Kde is the most used Desktop Environment in GNU/Linux and *NIX's too:
 * In KDE Control Center (kcontrol), select System Administration -> Font Installer, and add the downloaded font
 * You may need to logout and login back

 * For Transliteration or manglish(type malayalam in English) in GNU/Linux and *BSDs,we can use a various inputs systems Swanalekha (Phonetic Keyboard using SCIM) or mozhi. otherwise you can compile from source the Varamozhi Transliteration tool for Malayalam.

Download Packages to Enable malayalam support in GNU/Linux
You can download the software required to enable Malayalam support in the latest version of Ubuntu(7.10) and Debian GNU/Linux (etch) from http://malayalam.kerala.gov.in

Use the repositories of Swathanthra Malayalam Computing to keep updated. Swathanthra Malayalam Computing manages repositories for Fedora 6, 7, 8, 9, CentOS5 and Debain etch, lenny and sid

title: Malayalam/Viewing the font


text:
Template:Georgia Water/WRPM-GA TOC

Water Resources Planning and Management in Georgia

 * 1) Water Policy
 * 2) Management
 * 3) Information
 * 4) Planning
 * 5) Statewide Plan
 * 6) Regional Plans
 * 7) References

title: Template:Georgia Water/WRPM-GA TOC


text: User talk:81.214.99.135

title: User talk:81.214.99.135


text:
Human Geography

In the 50,000 years since humans successfully settled the world's habitable continents, a long story emerges of environmental stimuli and human response. Innovation, migration, settlement, development of material culture are likely responses, but result in landscape modification. The modern human world is the culmination of these stimuli-response iterations.

Earth processes create regions of climate, landforms, soils, vegetation, and other resources. Variations in human population distributions coincide with all possible permutations of physical environmental factors. These permutations are not randomly distributed. A property of geographical distributions is that similarity amongst features is directly related to their proximity.

Thus human population distribution is not random. It is the result of human exploration and expansion to lands suitable for supporting a population. Conversely stated, it is the slow culmination of individual and group decisions to choose habitats suitable for survival, and secondarily, for comfort.

Contents
Geography -- What Is It?
 * A Content Area
 * A Mode of Inquiry
 * A history of man and with necessary accident.

Scale and Perspective
 * Types of Stimuli
 * Types of Human Response
 * Scales of Human Response
 * Individual
 * Group
 * Community
 * City
 * State
 * National
 * International
 * Time
 * Modern
 * Historical
 * Years
 * Decades
 * Centuries
 * Millennia
 * Space
 * Local
 * Regional
 * National
 * International
 * Global

Basic Concepts
 * The First Law of Geography
 * Distribution
 * Cluster
 * Diffusion
 * Connections
 * Place
 * Region
 * Scale

Human Requirements
 * What all humans do
 * Eat
 * Drink
 * Sleep
 * Reproduce
 * Defecate
 * Communicate
 * Think
 * Innovate
 * What all Humans Need
 * Food
 * Hunter-Gatherer
 * Agriculture
 * Subsistence
 * Trade
 * Agribusiness
 * Water
 * Shelter
 * Fuel
 * Clothes
 * Other Humans
 * How Human Needs Are Expressed
 * Materials in Environment

Humans coincide with the distribution of physical factors
 * Climate
 * Vegetation
 * Landforms
 * Soils
 * Resources

Current and Historical Population Distributions
 * Ecumene
 * Combination of the physical factors and human innovation dictate how much population a piece of land can support
 * Population Density
 * Arable
 * Environmental Determinism
 * Environmental Possiblism
 * Innovation

Culture
 * Material Culture
 * Religion
 * Ethnicity
 * Language
 * The Effect of Isolation

Agriculture

Urban Geography

Globalization

History of Rural Geography

title: Human Geography