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Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks

This page attempts to define what Wikibooks is, what it is not, and what distinguishes it from other Wikimedia projects. The descriptions on this page are relatively brief. Detailed discussion or debate should happen on the talk page.

What is Wikibooks
Simply, Wikibooks is a collection of open-content textbooks. The site should primarily be used for developing textbooks, textbook-like books, and supporting book-based instructional materials (for example, annotated texts such as on the Works of Shakespeare with aids for reading and study, or extensive book summaries).

Because the word textbook is open to interpretation, this document exists to help clarify which types of content are acceptable for Wikibooks. For example, The Complete Works of Shakespeare might be considered a textbook in an English Literature course, but such a text would be inappropriate for this site.

Wikibooks includes instructional texts
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It is important to note that content that would typically be considered offensive is usually a violation of one or more of the previously mentioned policies or contains copyrighted content, which is removed from this project without regards to its social value. Random defacement of pages and adding profanity is usually considered an act of vandalism and removed quickly without any formal community discussion taking place. Unfortunately you might just be viewing some page on Wikibooks immediately after this offensive content was added, and although we try very hard to clean up stuff like this as quickly as we can, we do miss some stuff every once in a while.

Pages have "flagged revisions" which have been validated by users to be of at least minimal quality. If set in Special:Preferences for a user, choosing to view only the stable version of pages will often provide a reading experience that is free of vandalism.

Similar pages on other projects

 * What is Wikiversity?
 * What Wikiversity is not
 * What Wikinews is
 * What Wikinews is not
 * What is Wikisource?
 * What Wiktionary is not
 * What Wikipedia is not

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title: Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks


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Polish/Order of words in a sentence

< More on nouns - genders < ^ Polish ^ > Plural >

In Polish, word order within a sentence is flexible, and the subject or object can be omitted if they are clear from the context.

Consider the following sentences, all of which translate to "Henia has a cat", but are used in different contexts:
 * Henia ma kota (simple statement)
 * Henia kota ma (emphasizing that it's a cat that Henia has)
 * Kota ma Henia (emphasizing that it's Henia who has a cat)
 * Ma Henia kota
 * Kota Henia ma (emphasizing the action "has")
 * Ma kota Henia

The first word order is the most common. Other orders are used for emphasis.

If the subject, object, or verb is clear from the context, it can be dropped:
 * Ma kota - can be used if it's clear who is being talked about
 * Ma - can be an answer to "Czy Henia ma kota?" (Does Henia have a cat?)
 * Henia - can be an answer to "Kto ma kota?" (Who has a cat?)
 * Kota - can be an answer to "Co ma Henia?" (What does Henia have?)
 * Henia ma - this is less natural. In Polish, there is a tendency to drop the subject rather than the object, especially when the object is known but the subject is not. If the question was "Kto ma kota?" (Who has a cat?), the answer should be "Henia" alone, without a verb.

In particular, the pronouns "ja" and "ty", and their plural equivalents "my" and "wy", are almost always dropped.

< More on nouns - genders < ^ Polish ^ > Plural >

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Polish/Order of words in a sentence


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General Biology/Gallery of Biologists

 * Francis Crick chemist and molecular biologist, discovered structure of DNA molecule
 * Charles Darwin the father of the science of evolutionary biology
 * Richard Dawkins zoologist and biology populariser
 * Stephen Jay Gould paleontologist and science populariser
 * J.B.S. Haldane geneticist and evolutionary biologist, founded population genetics and the modern synthesis
 * Bill Hamilton formulated theory of inclusive fitness and kin selection
 * Thomas Huxley "Darwin's Bulldog", early evolutionary biologist and science populariser
 * Lynn Margulis introduced the theory of eukaryotic cell origin through endosymbiosis
 * Barbara McClintock geneticist and molecular biologist, discovered transposons
 * Gregor Mendel discovered the basic rules of heredity
 * Ernst Mayr evolutionary biologist and science populariser
 * Mark Ridley science populariser
 * Fred Sanger founder of DNA and protein sequencing techniques
 * John Maynard Smith evolutionary biologist and science populariser
 * Alfred Russel Wallace evolutionary biologist
 * James Watson molecular biologist, discovered structure of DNA molecule
 * Edward Wilson founded "sociobiology"

This book is intended as a compilation of biographies describing the lives and work of influential biologists.

title: General Biology/Gallery of Biologists


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Digestive System

=Vertebrate digestive system = Functions to break down food into molecules small enough to absorb, or pass across digestive membrane.

Digestive tract: tube extending from lips of mouth to anus or cloacae in bird, reptile or monotreme.

Lumanal glands: empty into inner body cavity (lumen: inner surface).

Tract divided into three main regions: 1. buccal cavity 2. pharynx 3. alimentary canal

Alimentary canal divided into four regions: 1. esophagus 2. stomach 3. small intestine 4. large intestine

Accessory digestive glands, outside digestive tract proper, secrete into lumen of tract through ducts. Includes the salivary glands, liver and pancreas.

Buccal cavity, which includes palate and tongue, develops from infolding of stomadeum, or second opening of blastula, whereas the rest of the digestive tract develops from the primitive gut.

Teeth: capture and hold prey. In mammals in particular further process and break down food into small particles, increasing surface area available for enzymatic action.

Tooth anatomy: 1. crown projects above gum, 2. root below gum, 3. enamel is outer coating of crown, hardest surface in body, of epideral origin 4. dentin, below enamel, bone-like and forms bulk of tooth, is harder than bone and contains nerves and blood vessels. (Remember that mammals are heterodontic, with different types of teeth).

Pharynx: air passage for adult, gill slits in embryo. Important in lower vertebrates, site of gills. Features derived from pharyngeal region: first pharyngeal pouch gives rise to parts of the ear, other pouches give rise to various other structures.

Alimentary canal: epithelium lines lumen, glands secrete into lumen, longitudinal and circular muscles help digestive movements (peristalsis).

Esophagus: tube carries food from mouth to stomach. Expands to fit large bolus (lump of chewed food). Secretes mucus for lubrication. Birds have crop for storage, enlargement of esophagus.

Epiglottis: keeps food out of air tube, an evolutionary “kludge,” or fix.

Stomach. Absorbs water, alcohol, nutrients, uses gastric juice with enzymes, mucous, HCl, released by chief and parietal cells (release protein enzymes) in gastric pits. Rugae: folds of stomach, disappear when full. Sphincter at both ends of stomach, control food passage.

Chyme: semi-digested food released to small intestine.

Small intestine: three regions, duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Duodenum site of most intestinal digestion. Jejunum and ileum do most of intestinal absorption. Ileum ends with another sphincter, ileocolic valve or ileosecal valve. Structure: Circular folds covered with villi (singular is villus).

Villi: finger-like cellular projections, covered with microvilli, tiny projections which increase surface area. Increases surface area by 900x, speeds digestion (break down) and absorption (taking in nutrients).

Large intestine: larger diameter, shorter length than small intestine. No villi. In mammals, forms large gentle loop, colon, empties into straight region, rectum, empties into outside world through anal sphincter. Colon: absorbs water left over, also absorbs vitamins released by bacteria which live there (vitamin K).

Food: made up of 1. proteins, 2. fats, 3. carbohydrates 4. fibrous material.

Digestive system breaks foods down. Proteins must be broken to amino acids to be absorbed. Polysaccharides to monosaccharides, lipids to fatty acids and monoglycerides to absorb.

Salivary glands in mouth, saliva contains mucous, salt and a few enzymes (amalase, begins starch breakdown). Snake venom from oral gland, mixture of toxins and digestive enzymes. Breaks down blood vessels and disables nervous system.

Stomach enzymes: released in inactive form, zymogene, converts to active form in lumen of gut. Transformation is triggered by another enzyme, or the stomach’s low pH. Pepsin secreted as pepsinogen (-ogen means primitive form). Stomach glands secrete up to two or three liters a day of gastric juice, which is reabsorbed.

Chyme released to duodenum.

Small intestine has two major accessory glands: 1. pancreas 2. liver

Pancreas has  endocrine and exocrine functions, releases large amounts of carbonate to neutralize acidic chyme, as intestinal enzymes work in neutral pH, and stuff to break down lipids and starch (zymogens, like tripsin)

Liver releases bile. Bile made from cholesterol, stored in gall bladder, released in duodenum, emulsifies fats.

Emulsify: keeps fats in tiny drops, which are suspended, increasing surface area and action of lipases. Protein and carbohydrates absorbed in intestine, taken to liver for processing. Fatty acids go to lymphatic system

Appendix: vestigial remnant. Much variation in digestive systems within mammals: herbivore, carnivore, insectivore, non-ruminant herbivore.

Rumen: four-chambered stomach of animals like cows (ruminant herbivores). Cellulose resistant to digestion, rely on microorganisms to break down cellulose. Some bacteria, protists and fungi can break down cellulose, almost no animals can. Bacteria break down cellulose in rumen, to be taken back to the mouth to chew their cud (ruminate). Later cow swallows to proceed with digestion. (Horses not like this).

Coprophagy: rabbits and other animals eat their own feces for the nutritious products of the cecum.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Circulatory System

=Circulatory system=

Circulatory system functions

1. Transportation a. Respiration: gas exchange (O2 and CO2), overcomes limited rate of diffusion b. Nutrition: c. Excretory: (remove metabolic wastes) 2. Regulation a. Transport hormones b. Regulate body temperature c. Protection i. Blood clotting ii. Immune system (carries white blood cells)

Vasodilation: allows heat loss across epidermis, as seen in elephant ears, takes more blood to surface of body, sweating may accompany

Countercurrent heat exchange: used by dolphins in fins to conserve heat in cold water. Veins surround an artery, and blood returning to body absorbs heat from blood traveling out from body to fin, minimizing heat loss. Used by dogs in feet, etc.

Blood made of 1. plasma and 2. formed cellular elements (red and white blood cells, and platelets).

Plasma makes up 55% of blood volume. Cellular elements make up the other 45%.

Plasma makeup: 90% water, 7-8% soluble proteins (albumin maintains blood osmotic integrity, others clot, etc.) 1% electrolytes 1% elements in transit

Red blood cell (erythrocyte): contains hemoglobin, functions in oxygen transport. In mammals, red blood cells lose nuclei on maturation, and take on biconcave, dimpled, shape. No self repair, live 120 days. About 1000x more red blood cells than white blood cells. About 7-8 micrometers in diameter.

Hematocrit: proportion of blood volume that is occupied by cells, about 43% in humans on average. 48% for men and 38% for women.

White blood cells (leukocytes): Nucleated, about 10-14 micrometers in diameter, commonly amoeboid, escape circulatory system in capillary beds. Include basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, monocytes, B- and T-cell lymphocytes.

Platelets (thrombocytes) Membrane bound cell fragments in mammals, no nucleus. In non-mammals, platelet role replaced by nucleated cells. Accumulate at site of broken blood vessels, form clots. Bud off special cells in bone marrow. 1-2 micrometers in diameter. 7-8 day life span, 1/10 or 1/20 as abundant as white blood cells.

Arteries: carry blood away from heart. Smallest tubes called arterioles, feed blood to capillaries.

Veins: return blood to heart. Smallest veins called venules.

Structure of arteries and veins, listed from inside (lumen) out: 1. epithelium (endothelium), 2. elastic connective tissue fibers, 3. smooth muscle, 4. connective tissue. Arteries have thicker elastic layer than do veins.

Capillaries, where exchange of materials occurs, are very thin and narrow, and red blood cells pass through single file. Capillaries are tiny but numerous, and their total volume is greater than that of supplying arteries.

Blood velocity drops in capillaries, picks back up in veins. Pressure highest in arteries, lower in capillaries and arteries.

Osmotic pressure draws interstitial fluid from blood in arterioles, but replaces it in venules.

One-way valves mean that blood can flow only one way, works with residual blood pressure and compression by skeletal muscles. Low pressure in thoracic cavity caused by breathing also helps move blood.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Lymphatic System

Lymphatic system: part of the immune system, a one-way, or open, system. Takes up interstitial fluid not taken up by venules.

Lymphatic structures: 1. lymphatic capillaries 2. lymphatic vesicles 3. lymph nodes 4. lymphatic organs (spleen and thymus)

Lymph: movement in mammals through one-way valves, similar to blood movement in veins. (Some non-mammals have lymphatic hearts of unknown embryonic origin. Frogs and salamanders have several.) Lymph rejoins cardiovascular system into a large vein near the heart via single large thoracic duct.

As lymph passes through system, passes lymphocytes, second part of immune system.

Heart: pumps blood, design varies between animals. In adult mammal,four chambers form two separate circulations 1. pulmonary circulation to and from lungs and 2. systemic circulation to and from tissues of body.

Everything in the heart comes in pairs: 2 atria, 2 ventricles (left and right).

Diagrams usually drawn as though animal were on its back.

Pattern of blood flow through heart: blood returning from major veins (vena cava) enters right atrium, contraction there delivers blood to right ventricle through a tricuspid valve, one of atrial ventricular valves (AV valve). Contraction of right ventricle drives blood through semi lunar valve into pulmonary circuit and to lungs.Blood return to heart in pulmonary veins, is oxygenated. Goes to left atrium, which contracts and delivers blood to left ventricleby way of aortic semi-lunar valve, then goes to systemic circulation.

Both atria and ventricles contract in unison, left is more powerful than right (to all system vs. just lungs).

Systole: heart contraction, diastole: heart relaxed

Timing of heart contraction: ventricles rebound to relaxed shape (diastole), and semi-lunar valves close. Both atria(singular: atrium) fill with blood coming from pulmonary and systemic circulations.Pressure rises in the atria and blood begins to move into the ventricles.The atria then contract, forcing more blood into the ventricles. There is a pause, then ventricles contract. This raises ventricle pressure, atrio-ventricular(AV) valves shut and semi-lunar valves open, forcing blood from the left ventricle into the major arteries and from the right ventricle into the aorta.

Control for this action doesn’t rely on nervous stimulation, has intrinsic rhythmicity, called myogenic. This is the case in mammal as well as in mollusk hearts. Other animals have neurogenic hearts that rely on nervous stimulation for heart action, originating in the cardiac ganglion.

The rhythmicity of mammalian heart relies on the sino-atrial (SA)node, or pacemaker. This is a phylogenic (based on evolutionary history) remnant of an early vertebrate heart that had one more chamber than modern hearts.

How the heart contracts: waves of depolarization start in SA node and spread through atria. Connectile tissue pauses the spread of depolarization at the atrial ventricular node. Signal continued by bundle branches to lower ventricle, begins to stimulate heart to contract. Contraction starts at bottom of heart at heart apex,then signals spread through heart.

Medulla (in the brain) controls autonomic nervous system. (The medulla is part of the brain, is continuous with the spinal cord, and controls involuntary actions of the body). Sympathetic cardiac acceleratorconnects to spinal cord, uses norepinephrine to signal. Parasympathetic cardio-inhibitory center reaches heart through Vagus nerve, usesacetylcholine to signal. Hyperpolarizes membrane to inhibit heart contraction. (Autonomic nervous system: two parts working in contra to control from both sides.) Dominant effect here is inhibitory. If we cut Vagus nerve, heart rate promptly rises about 25 bpm.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Respiratory System

=Respiratory system= In humans and other animals, for example, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles. Other animals, such as insects, have respiratory systems with very simple anatomical features, and in amphibians even the skin plays a vital role in gas exchange.

Plants also have respiratory systems but the directionality of gas exchange can be opposite to that in animals. The respiratory system in plants also includes anatomical features such as holes on the undersides of leaves known as stomata.

In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the

abdominal cavity: contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and intestines)

thoracic cavity: contains the heart and lungs.

Respiratory tree: terminates in alveolus, alveoli. Respiratory bronchioles branch into alveolar ducts and into alveoli. Alveolus: microscopic air sacs, 300 million of these in human lungs. Total surface area large. Gas diffuses micrometer, very tiny distance.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Sensory Systems

=Sensory systems= Categorized by
 * 1) nature of stimulus, such as mechanical, chemicalor light stimulus, and
 * 2) where stimulus received, such as outside (exteroceptors,such as the eye and skin temp receptors) or insidebody (interoceptors, such as blood body temperature receptors).

Transduction of sensory input into signal. Means to “carry across”, signal transduced, or carried, from environment into nervous signal.

Three sensory processes we cover
 * 1) taste and smell (chemoreception)
 * 2) gravity and movement
 * 3) light

Taste and smell (chemoreception)
Found in mammal nose and mouth, fly feet, fish bodies, moth antennae.

Papilla: bumps on tongue, contain taste buds down between. Sweet, sour, salty and bitter. Some act directly by ion channels, others act indirectly. Other “taste” sensations really smell.

Smell: received in nasopharynx. Airborne molecules go into solution on moist epithelial surface of nasal passage. Approximately 1000 genescode for sensory neuron receptors. “Fried onions” odor not one receptor but a mixture of many odors registered in our mind as one. Very sensitive, habituates rapidly (don’t notice a smell after a bit). Odor sensation has relatively unfiltered root to higher brain centers.

Snakes more chemosensory focused than us.

Response to gravity and movement
Registered in inner ear. Three semicircular canals loop in three planes at right angles to each other, responsible for transduction of movement messages. Method: hair cells deformed by gelatinous membrane. Vestibular apparatus, gives us perception of gravity and movement. Due to physical response, not chemical binding.

Cochlea: bony, coil shaped part of inner ear, where hearing occurs.

Sound enters through auditory canal, vibrates tympanic membrane,moving three bones of middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes)against oval window opening in front of cochlea. Cochlea has three fluid filled ducts, one of these the organ of Corti. Sound waves in air go to vibration in organ of Corti; fluid tickles hair cells, which register the movement along basilar membrane in cochlea. Different sound frequencies move different portions of basilar membrane. Hearing loss due to loss of hair cells.Humans normally smell more than 300 odors in a day(Facts and Truth).

Transduction of sound accomplished through physical deformation,not chemical binding.

Vision
Light enters pupil, focused by lens onto retina.

Sclera: hardened part behind retina.

Optic nerves and neurons attached to retina. Blind spot where optic nerve attaches, has no receptors.

Two types of photoreceptors
 * 1) rods - black and white low-light vision, 100 million in each retina in humans.
 * 2) cones - color vision, work best under better illumination. 3 million in each retina.

Fovia: region of most acute vision, has most of the cones, few rods.

Transduction process of light to signal a molecular change, to light absorbing molecule called photopigment. Located in outer parts of rods and cones in pigment discs. The rod photopigment is called rhodopsin,cone has three photopigments, called photopsins. This molecular change initiates pathways to result in action potential in downstream neuron leading to vision center in brain.Parul Godika

Each of the three photopsins has a different peak of sensitivity: blue,green or red, and changes isometric form (from cisto trans) based on light from a particular wavelength range. Color blindness:inherited lack of one or more types of these cones. Gene carried on X chromosome, therefore more common in men than women.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Homeostasis

Homeostasis
Is a very important part of everyone's and everything's lives. Defined as dynamic constancy of internal environment, maintenance of a relatively stable environment inside an organism usually involving feedback regulation.

Homeostasis is maintained in face of
 * 1) a varying external environment, or
 * 2) a non-ideal, constant external environment (as with the penguin).

Deals with temperature, pH, chemical concentrations,pressure, oxygen levels.

Occurs through negative feedback loops.

Various forms: simple thermostat in house turns off heater when above a certain temperature and on when below a certain temperature Involves stimulus, sensor,integrating center, effector and response.

More efficient control has two sensors and two effectors. Can be antagonistic to each other, such as, one cools, the other heats.

Precise control through proportional control, not all-or-none, furnace comes on a little bit if the house a bit cold. Examples in humans: vasoconstriction, change in metabolic rate, shivering. Physiological responses for high body temp: blood goes to body surface, sweating, behavioral changes (get out of sun).

Positive feedback loop: effector increases deviation from set point. Amplifies reaction. Like blood clotting process, uterine contraction during childbirth. Negative feedback must exist at some point for control.

Osmotic environments and regulations

 * 1) Marine invertebrates
 * 2) fully marine invertebrates (not intertidal or estuarine) osmoconformers (set internal environment same as environment, no net flow of ions) in a stenohaline (narrow non-changing salt level) environment
 * 3) Coastal, intertidal, estuarine (ion levels fluctuate) invertebrates.Partly osmoconfomers, partly osmoregulators in a euryhaline (wide salt level variation) environment (ex: shore crab, regulates sometimes when salt levels in environment get real low).
 * 4) Freshwater animals. Here, environment has lower solute concentrations than do living organisms so water tends to flow in and solutes out.
 * 5) Freshwater fish (bony) dilute urine, and gills actively take up ions (NaCl)
 * 6) Freshwater invertebrates: same situation as freshwater fish but with different structures
 * 7) Freshwater amphibians: active uptake of salts across their skin
 * 8) Marine fishes: Here the environment has a higher solute concentration than does the organism so water tends to flow out and ions in.
 * 9) Bony fishes: actively secrete salts (NaCl) across gills, absorb water across gut wall, their kidney (unlike mammalian kidney) is unable to generate concentrated urine so glomerulus is reduced, active tubular secretion of MgSO4
 * 10) cartilaginous fishes (and coelacanth): blood retains urea and trimethylamineoxide to increase its osmolality to that of seawater
 * 11) Terrestrial animals: here problem is loss of water to a drier environment, and regulation of salt levels.
 * 12) water loss adaptations
 * 13) concentrated exception of salts and nitrogenous wastes

Hypoosmotic: having less osmotic potential than nearby fluid

Hyperosmotic: having more osmotic potential than nearby fluid

Isoosmotic: having equal osmotic potential than nearby fluid

Glomerulus: reduces volume of kidney

Fish started in salt water, spread to fresh water, later reinvaded salt-water environment.

Terrestrial animal water sources: 1. drinking 2. moist foods 3. from breakdown of metabolic molecules like fats. (Desert kangaroo rats get 90% of their water from metabolism.)

Secretion of nitrogenous wastes: from metabolism of amino acids, amino group has to be removed in one of three basically interchangeable chemical forms: 1. ammonia (aquatic life) 2. urea (mammals) 3. uric acid (birds)

Ammonia very toxic, soluble, and cheap to produce. Easy to expel for bony fishes.

Urea: low toxicity, good solubility, more costly to lose as it contains other groups on it. Must be released in solution, water cost.

Uric acid (white part of bird poo) low toxicity, insoluble, secreted with little water loss, more costly side groups lost than the others.

Mammalian kidney: Structure: fist-sized organ in lower back. About 1/5 of blood from aorta at any time is passing through kidneys. Blood passes through kidney many times a day.

Nephron: structural and functional unit of kidney.

Bowmans capsule: funnel-like opening, contains primary filter, the glomerulus.

Proximal convoluted tubule: receives stuff from Bowmans capsule.

Loop of Henle: descends and ascends.

Vasa recta: capillaries that surround the Loop of Henle.

Glomerulus: main filter of the nephron, located within the Bowman's capsule

Kidney properties and processes important to its function

1. Active transport of solutes from one fluid to another against a concentration gradient, Na+ actively transported out of filtrate by cells of the thick ascending loop of Henley into the interstitial fluid 2. Passive movement of solutes and water from one fluid to another(down a concentration gradient), movement of water and NaCl out of descending loop of Henley into interstitial fluid. 3. Differential permeability of cells in different regions of the nephron to movement of water and solutes, ascending thick look is impermeable to water, descending portion is permeable to water 4. Hormonal control of that permeability, antidiuretic hormone(ADH) increases permeability of collecting due to water, resulting in reduced volume of filtrate and thus more concentrated urine. 5. Increasing solute concentration in the interstitial fluid of the kidney, from the cortex to the deepest medulla, maintained by a countercurrent multiplier mechanism


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Epithelial Tissue

=Epithelial tissue= Comes from various sources, ectodermal or endodermal material. Cell sheet lines a surface or body cavity. One side, called freesurface or Apical, is exposed to The other side rests on the basal layer.
 * animal interior (forming the lumen) or
 * exterior of its body cavity.

Epithelial tissue is not penetrated by blood vessels.

Two categories:
 * sheets
 * glands

Classified on two features:
 * simple, (a single layer of cells),
 * stratified, (more than one cell layer.)

Cell shape at free surface:
 * squamous (broad and flat)
 * cuboidal (spherish)
 * columnar (tall and thin)

 * Simple squamous epithelium : usually lines body cavities and vessels,alveoli, glomeruli of kidney; in blood and lymph vessels called endothelium; in body cavities called mesothelium (serosae): parietal serous membranes line body wall, visceral serous membranes cover organ
 * Simple cuboidal epithelium : in ducts like kidney and salivary glands.
 * Simple columnar epithelium : nonciliated type lines digestive tract, ciliated type lines some regions of uterine tubes and lungs
 * Stratified squamous epithelium : (important) lines mouth, esophagus,and vagina. Cells sometimes dead, flat and keratinized, making them resistant to abrasion. Stratified squamous epithelium changes to columnar squamous epithelium progressively down esophagus to the stomach.
 * Epidermis : from epithelium. Below this is dermis, thicker and with blood vessels.

Two specialized epithelia:
 * pseudostratified
 * transitional

 * Pseudostratified epithelia : lines the trachea (where it is ciliated)and the male urethra (where it is non ciliated), looks stratified but not.
 * Transitional epithelia : found only in bladder and urinary system. As it stretches it appears to go from 6 to 3 cell layers deep.
 * Glandular epithelia : (gland: group of cells that excretes something.. mostly derived from epithelium. Glands are classified into endocrine and exocrine by where they excrete.
 * Endocrine glands : secrete hormones into the blood without use of ducts.
 * Exocrine glands : secrete onto the body surface or into a cavity, thru a duct. Exocrine substances include sweat, mucous, oil, and saliva. An exocrine gland is the liver, which secretes bile.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Connective Tissue

=Connective tissue = This is a “grab bag” category of diverse tissue types. Functions include binding and supporting. Types include bone, cartilage, fibrous connective tissue, blood and adipose (fat) tissue.

If you took away everything in the body except the connective tissue, you’d still be able to see the basic form of the body.

Form: distinctive cells surrounded by a cell matrix made of extra-cellular fiber grounded in a ground substance  (excluding blood)

Types: 1. connectile connective tissues (can be 1. loose or 2. dense) 2. special connective tissue (includes blood, bones and cartilage).

Fibroblasts form connective tissue proper; chondoroblasts form cartilage; asdasdasdasdasdasdads osteoblasts form bone; and blood is formed from various sources.

Ground substance: “unstructured” material that fills space between cells and contains fibers. Made of 1. interstitial fluid (bathes cells) 2. proteoglycans (protein core with attached polysaccharides, glycoaminoglycans or GAGs such as chondroitin sulfate, keratin sulfate, and hyalronic acid, whose consistency is syrupy to gelatin-like) 3. cell-adhesion proteins (connect connective tissue cells to the fibers).

Fibers of connective tissue: 1. Collagen (flexible protein resistant to stretching, tensile strength, most abundant protein in animals, white) 2. elastin (rubbery, resilient protein, in dermis, lungs, blood vessels, yellow when fresh) 3. andreticulin (like collagen).

Loose connective tissue: found beneath skin, anchors muscles,nerves etc. Include fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells,and adipose cells. Fibers include collagen and elastic fibers. Ground substance is “syrupy”. Adipose included.

Dense connective tissue: largely densely packed fibers of collagen or elastin regularly or irregularly arranged. Forms tendons and ligaments, coverings of muscles, capsules around organs and joints, and dermis of skin.

Cartilage vs. bone

Cartilage: There are three cartilage types: 1. hyaline cartilage 2. fibrocartilage (fibrous cartilage) 3. elastic cartilage

Hyaline cartilage: most widespread cartilage type, in adults forms articular surfaces of long bones, rib tips, rings of trachea, and parts of skull. Mostly collagen, name refers to glassy appearance. In embryo, bones form first as hyaline cartilage, later ossifies. Found in tracheal rings. Few collagen fibers.

Fibrous cartilage: have lots of collagen fibers. Found in intervertebral discs, pubic symphesis. Grades into dense tendon and ligament tissue.

Elastic cartilage: springy and elastic. Found in internal support of external ear and in epiglottis, yellow when fresh.

Chondrocites (cartilage cells) rely on diffusion for nutrients, as cartilage has no direct blood supply, and no enervation (nerves). Can be loaded with calcium salts.

Bone: Specialized connective tissue, calcium phosphate arranged in highly ordered unit called osteon, or Hyvercian system. Concentric rings around central canal with blood vessels and enervation (nerves). Bone varied, not all vertebrate bone is even cellular. Our concern: simple pattern for mammals.

Lacuna (spaces in which osteocytes found); canaliculi (little canals) bigger diagonal cells, layers of bone called lamellae.

Three types of bone cells, ending in -blast, (mend bone) -cyte (fortify bone) -clast (tear down bone)

Classified by 1. appearance (spongy vs. hard) 2. where found (outside or inside) 3. how it is formed (endochondral cartilage model forms first and then is ossified, and entramembranous, bone forms directly without cartilage precursor)

Example of endochondral bone formation: long bone begins to ossify from center shaft, calcified region expands and cuts off diffusion of nutrients as bone replaces cartilage. In young mammals, secondary ossification centers then form at bone ends, growth has stopped by sexual maturity as all primary bone is ossified. In other animals, bones continue growing throughout their lifetime.

Three types of intramembrous bone: 1. dermal bone 2. sessamoid bone 3. perichondral bone.

Dermal bone forms skull, shoulder/pectoral girdle, and integument, descended from dermal armor of ancestor. Comes from mesoderm, in dermis of skin.

Sessamoid bones: form directly in tendons. Example: kneecap, also in wrist. Deals with stress.

Perichondral bone means “around cartilage,” forms around cartilage or bone. Functions in bone repair and in ossification of endochondral bone.

Bone remodeling and repair: bone has mineral structure, and develops tiny fractures, which, under stress, can lead to larger fractures. To combat this, bone is constantly replaced. Osteoclasts channel through existing bone, tear down and leave behind osteoblasts and lacuna, leaving osteocytes. Continually resets mineral structure of bone, and is preventative maintenance.

When bone broken, callus forms in open ends, periosteum gives rise to new bone with calcium and new bone matrix, leaves irregular mend. Later, osteoblasts continue fixing over time and slowly removing imperfection.


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Muscle Tissue

=Muscle tissue =

Mesodermal in origin, muscle has several functions: supply force for movement, restrain movement, proper posture, act on viscera (internal organs) for peristalsis (moving food down digestive tract), give body shape, form sphincters, (such as in esophagus, between stomach and intestine, large and small intestine, in anus), in sheets of muscles, affect air flow in and out of lungs, line blood vessels and play vital role in circulation.

Secondary roles: heat production (shivering a specialized heat production to supplement metabolism).

Muscles co-opted to other non-original functions: sharks detect electrical field created by fish muscles. Some fish formed electric organs, create current strong enough to repel predators or stun prey. Other fish can use field as “radar” to see things and communicate with other animals. (Evolved independently in different groups).

Different classifications: by color, (red or white) location, nature of nervous system control (voluntary or involuntary), embryonic origin, or by general microscopic appearance (striated, smooth, and cardiac.)

Striated muscle (or skeletal muscle): under voluntary control. Individual cells called fibers, grouped into fascicle. Myofibrils founding one cell made of even smaller myofilaments. Each striated cell very long and multi-nucleated. Fibers joined end to end to form longer composite fibers. Sarcomeres: repeating units make up myofibrils. Two kinds of myofilaments, thick kind made up of myosin and thin of actin. Striations visible in light microscope, smaller part only with electron microscope.

Cardiac muscle: occurs only in heart. Light banding visible under light microscope. Each band short, principally mononucleate (occasionally dinucleate) often branched, joined together with intercollated discs. Involuntary. Waves of contraction spread through intercollated discs. Initiated by nerve stimulation or can originate in the heart itself (useful in heart transplants.)

Smooth muscle: no striations visible with light microscope. Almost entirely visceral function: digestion, sphincters, urogenital tracts, piloerectory muscles (make hairs stand up), lungs. Non-voluntary control. Slow and sustained action. Each cell mononucleate, short, fusiform (spindly) in shape, cells usually uniform in size.

Striated muscle contraction: Muscle broken into units called fascicles, in units of myofibrils. Repeating units called sarcomeres, consisting of two kinds of myofilaments: 1. thick, myosin filament 2. thin, actin filament.

Sarcomere: Thick and thin filaments interspersed in ordered grid.

Sliding filament theory: thick and thin filaments move past each other in opposite direction, shortening length. Longer muscles contract more rapidly than short ones (see cell bio for details).

Myosin molecule: two polypeptides twisted together with two globular heads at end.

Myosin filament: many slender myosin molecules together.

Actin filament: chain of actin single, tropomyosin strands with repeated globular troponin, and with actin. All play role in muscle contraction. Myocin heads have sites that bind to actin. Actin filaments have many regular sites that can bind to myosin.

Troponin has four sites: 1. one to bind myosin 2. one for actin 3. one for tropomyocin 4. one for calcium ions

Nerve signal reaches muscle, triggers release of chemical signal called neurotransmitter, that diffuses across cell membrane (sarcolimic reticulum) and binds to receptors in it. Receptor is acetylcholine, ACH. When there is enough nerve signal, the message travels through t-line to sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions.

Lacking calcium, tropomyosin site blocked. In calcium, myosin binding sites exposed and heads bind to actin molecules, delivering force to move fibers in relation to each other. Myocin head then interacts with ATP to get “recocked”, if myosin still exposed then it fires again and results in further muscle contration. If there is no further nerve signal, sarcoplasmic reticulum sequesters Ca+ ions again and no recocking occurs.

Quirari (or curare): known from movies, used in South America, blocks acetylcholine receptors in cell and causes skeletal paralysis. Victim dies of asphyxiation because he can’t breathe.

Duchenne's muscular dystrophy: degeneration of sarcolema, plasma membrane of muscle cell unable to release signal and quickly atrophies.

Fast and slow twitch fibers: vertebrate muscle fiber. Terms relative within one group of animals. Differences related to differences in enervation, type of myocin, and actin activation.

Two parts of force generated by muscle: 1. active component 2. elastic component (energy stored in muscle when stretched by gravity or another force. Stored in muscle elastic tissue around tendons. Especially important in limb oscillation, like running, or trunk twisting, like fish swimming. Up to 90% of stored elastic energy can be recovered.)

How does a muscle match its power to its job? Two ways: 1. rate modulation, derived from frequency of nervous stimulation of muscle, force increases as frequency of stimulation increases up to point of tetanus. 2. selective involvement of motor units, a given neuron enervates a fixed number of muscle cells, (a motor unit), and force is increased by recruiting more motor units. Motor units may be small, such as in eye, or larger, like in leg muscle.

How do muscles grow stronger? 1. add more myofilaments, increases cross sectional area by up to 50%, more little ratchets working 2. proliferation in blood vessels and connective tissue around muscle

Muscle strength is relative to cross sectional area, not length. Not always feasible to add more cross sectional area.

Pinnate fibers: oriented obliquely (Y-shaped) to minimize muscle mass, in certain circumstances, like calf muscle. Spreads muscle out.

Velocity of shortening greater in long muscle than short. Why? Contraction tied to relation between fibers, and to total length of muscle. Both long and short muscles reach same percentage of contraction in same unit time, but distance covered by the longer muscle is greater.

Synergist muscles: muscles work together to produce motion in same general direction. Bicep shares work with brachialis.

Antagonist muscles: muscles that oppose each other. Bicep pulls forearm in, triceps pulls it back out.

Origin vs. insertion: origin is the end of the muscle that more fixed in its attachment to the body. The more movable end called insertion.

Fixators: muscles that act to stabilize a joint or lever system. Like upper arm when you clench your fist hard.

Flexors and extensors: applied mainly to limbs. Flexor bends one part relative to another about limb, extensor straightens it.

Adductor and abductor: adductor draws a limb toward the ventral surface. Abductor moves limb away from ventral surface. (Adduct: drawn toward; abduct: carry away).


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General Chemistry/Stoichiometry

The word stoichiometry derives from two Greek words: stoicheion (meaning "element") and metron (meaning "measure"). Stoichiometry deals with calculations about the masses (sometimes volumes) of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. It is a very mathematical part of chemistry, so be prepared for lots of calculator use.

Jeremias Benjaim Richter (1762-1807) was the first to lay down the principles of stoichiometry. In 1792 he wrote: "Die stöchyometrie (Stöchyometria) ist die Wissenschaft die quantitativen oder Massenverhältnisse zu messen, in welchen die chymischen Elemente gegen einander stehen." [Stoichiometry is the science of measuring the quantitative proportions or mass ratios in which chemical elements stand to one another.]

Your Tool: Dimensional Analysis
Luckily, almost all of stoichiometry can be solved relatively easily using dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is just using units, instead of numbers or variables, to do math, usually to see how they cancel out. For instance, it is easy to see that:

$grams \times \dfrac{moles}{grams} \times \dfrac{atoms}{moles} = atoms$

It is this principle that will guide you through solving most of the stoichiometry problems (chemical reaction problems) you will see in General Chemistry. Before you attempt to solve a problem, ask yourself: what do I have now? where am I going? As long as you know how many (units) per (other units), this will make stoichiometry significantly easier.

Moles to Mass
''How heavy is 1.5 mol of lead? How many moles in 22.34g of water?'' Calculating the mass of a sample from the number of moles it contains is quite simple. We use the molar mass (mass of one mole) of the substance to convert between mass and moles. When writing calculations, we denote the molar mass of a substance by an upper case "M" (e.g. M(Ne) means "the molar mass of neon"). As always, "n" stands for the number of moles and "m" indicates the mass of a substance. To find the solutions to the two questions we just asked, let's apply some dimensional analysis:

$1.5 \; mol \; Pb \; \times \dfrac{207.2 \; g \; Pb}{1 \; mol \; Pb} = 310.8 \; g \; Pb$

Can you see how the units cancel to give you the answer you want? All you needed to know was that you had 1.5 mol Pb (lead), and that 1 mol Pb weighs 207.2 grams. Thus, multiplying 1.5 mol Pb by 207.2 g Pb and dividing by 1 mol Pb gives you 310.8 g Pb, your answer.

Mass to Moles
But we had one more question: "How many moles in 22.34g of water?" This is just as easy:

$22.34 \; g \; H_2 O \; \times \dfrac{1 \; mol \; H_2 O}{18 \; g \; H_2 O} = 1.24 \; mol \; H_2 O$

Where did the 18 g H2O come from? We looked at the periodic table and simply added up the atomic masses of two hydrogens and an oxygen to get the molecular weight of water. This turned out to be 18, and since all the masses on the periodic table are given with respect to 1 mole, we knew that 1 mol of water weighed 18 grams. This gave us the relationship above, which is really just (again) watching units cancel out!

Calculating Molar Masses
Before we can do these types of calculations, we first have to know the molar mass. Fortunately, this is not difficult, as the molar mass is exactly the same as the atomic weight of an element. A table of atomic weights can be used to find the molar mass of elements (this information is often included in the periodic table). For example, the atomic weight of oxygen is 16.00 amu, so its molar mass is 16.00 g/mol.

For species with more than one element, we simply add up the atomic weights of each element to obtain the molar mass of the compound. For example, sulfur trioxide gas is made up of sulfur and oxygen, whose atomic weights are 32.06 and 16.00 respectively.

$\begin{matrix} \hbox{M(SO}_3\hbox{)} &=& 32.06 + 3 \times 16.00 \\ \ &=& 80.06 \hbox{g}/\hbox{mol} \\ \end{matrix}$

The procedure for more complex compounds is essentially the same. Aluminium carbonate, for example, contains aluminium, carbon, and oxygen. To find the molar mass, we have to be careful to find the total number of atoms of each element. Three carbonate ions each containing three oxygen atoms gives a total of nine oxygens. The atomic weights of aluminium and carbon are 26.98 and 12.01 respectively.

$\begin{matrix} \hbox{M}(\hbox{Al}_2(\hbox{CO}_3)_3) &=& 2 \times 26.98 + 3 \times 12.01 + 9 \times 16.00 \\ \ &=& 233.99 \hbox{g}/\hbox{mol} \\ \end{matrix}$

Empirical Formulae
The empirical formula of a substance is the simplest ratio of the number of moles of each element in a compound. The empirical formula is ambiguous, e.g. the formula CH could represent CH, C2H2, C3H3 etc. These latter formulae are called molecular formulae. It follows that the molecular formula is always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula for a compound.

Calculating the empirical formula is easy if the relative amounts of each element in the compound are known. For example, if a sample contains 1.37 mol oxygen and 2.74 mol hydrogen, we can calculate the empirical formula. A good strategy to use is to divide all amounts given by the smallest non-integer amount, then multiply by whole numbers until the simplest ratio is found. We can make a table showing the successive ratios.

The empirical formula of the compound is H2O.

Here's another example. A sample of piperonal contains 1.384 mol carbon, 1.033 mol hydrogen and 0.519 mol oxygen.

The empirical formula of piperonal is C8H6O3.

Converting from Masses
Often, we are given the relative composition by mass of a substance and asked to find the empirical formula. These masses must first be converted to moles using the techniques outlined above. For example, a sample of ethanol contains 52.1% carbon, 13.2% hydrogen, and 34.7% oxygen by mass. Hypothetically, 100g of this substance will contain 52.1 g carbon, 13.2 g hydrogen and 34.7 g oxygen. Dividing these by their respective molar masses gives the amount in moles of each element (as we learned above). These are 4.34 mol, 13.1 mol, and 2.17 mol respectively.

The empirical formula of ethanol is C2H6O.

Molecular Formula
As mentioned above, the molecular formula for a substance equals the count of atoms of each type in a molecule. This is always a whole number multiple of the empirical formula. To calculate the molecular formula from the empirical formula, we need to know the molar mass of the substance. For example, the empirical formula for benzene is CH, and its molar mass is 78.12 g/mol. Divide the actual molar mass by the mass of the empirical formula, 13.02 g/mol, to determine the multiple of the empirical formula, "n". The molecular formula equals the empirical formula multiplied by "n".

$\begin{matrix} \hbox{M(CH)} &=& 13.02 \hbox{ g/mol} \\ \hbox{M(benzene)} &=& 78.12 \hbox{ g/mol}\\ \hbox{M(benzene)} / \hbox{M(CH)} &= (78.12\ g/mol)/(13.02\ g/mol)&= 6 \\ \end{matrix}$

This shows that the molecular formula for benzene is 6 times the empirical formula of CH. The molecular formula for benzene is C6H6.

Solving Mass-Mass Equations
A typical mass-mass equation will give you an amount in grams and ask for another answer in grams.

For example, given the equation $$Cu^{2+} + 2 AgNO_3 \to Cu(NO_3)_2 + 2 Ag^+$$, find out how many grams of silver (Ag) will result from 43.0 grams of copper (Cu) reacting.

$43.0g~Cu \times \frac{1~mol~Cu}{63.55g~Cu}$ $43.0g~Cu \times \frac{1~mol~Cu}{63.55g~Cu} \times \frac{2~mol~Ag}{1~mol~Cu}$ $43.0g~Cu \times \frac{1~mol~Cu}{63.55g~Cu} \times \frac{2~mol~Ag}{1~mol~Cu} \times \frac{107.86g~Ag}{1~mol~Ag} = 1.46 \times 10^2~g~Ag$
 * Convert the given quantity to moles.
 * Multiply by the molar ratio of the demanded substance and the given substance.
 * Convert the demanded substance to grams.

Summary
To solve a stoichiometric problem, you need to know what you already have and what you want to find. Everything in between is basic algebra.

In general, all you have to do is keep track of the units and how they cancel, and you will be on your way!

title: General Chemistry/Stoichiometry


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User:Menchi

en:User:Menchi (English) and zh:用户:Menchi (Chinese) are usually where I am. Perhaps I'll write some lessons that teach Chinese and/or English.

title: User:Menchi


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English in Use/Adverbs

An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner: as,

 * "They are now here, studying very diligently."

Adverbs can modify a verb, a clause, adjective or a phrase.

Form
Adjectives are generally turned into adverbs with the addition of a ly suffix. Ly is a contraction of like, and is the most common termination of adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but a few of these are also used adverbially: as, daily, weekly, monthly.

Examples of adverbs are:
 * "Jack is swimming quickly."
 * "Unfortunately, he lost the race."
 * "We told him to run much faster."

In the first sentence, the adverb modifies the verb swimming. The adjective quick has had a ly added to it to make an adverb. In the second sentence, it modifies the entire sentence and in the final example, the adverb much modifies the adverb faster.

Comparative forms of adverbs
Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the manner of adjectives: as, soon, sooner, soonest; long, longer, longest; fast, faster, fastest.

The following are irregularly compared: well, better, best; badly or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; far, farther, farthest; forth, further, furthest.

Kinds of adverbs
Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. Besides these, it is proper to distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs.

Adverbs of time
Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, when? how long? how soon? or how often?

Of time present: as, now, yet, today, nowadays, presently, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith.

Of time past: as, already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago, erewhile, erst.

Of time to come: as, tomorrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly.

Of time relative: as, when, then, first, just, before, after, while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles.

Of time absolute: as, always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever, perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore, everlastingly.

Of time repeated: as, often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, or three times.

Above thrice, we use only the phrases four times, five times, six times, etc. Times, for repetitions, or instances, may be supposed a noun; but such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, how much? how little? or to the idea of more or less.

Of excess or abundance: as, much, more, most, too, very, greatly, far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely, full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly, intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely.

Of equality or sufficiency: as, enough, sufficiently, competently, adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly, precisely.

Of deficiency or abatement: as, little, less, least, scarcely, hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite.

Of quantity in the abstract: as, how, however, howsoever, everso, something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence, and other nouns of quantity used adverbially.

Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, how? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

Of manner from quality: as, well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly, and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality.

Of affirmation or assent: as, yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth, amen.

Of negation: as, no, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow.

Of doubt or uncertainty: as, perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, maybe.

Of mode or way: as, thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore, headlong, lengthwise.

Adverbs of place
Of place in which: as, where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts.

Of place to which: as, whither, hither, thither, in, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards.

Of place from which: as, whence, hence, thence, away, out, off, far, remotely.

Of the order of place: as, first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc.

Thus, secondly means in the second place; thirdly, in the third place; etc.

Conjunctive adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of conjunctions. The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs: after, again, also, as, before, besides, consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however, moreover, nevertheless, as well, otherwise, since, so, still, till, then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither, while.

The adverbs of cause: why, wherefore, therefore; but the last two of these are often called conjunctions.

The pronominal compounds: herein, therein, wherein, etc.

A short syntax
Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as, "How blessed," except the following cases: independent adverbs, as "No," the word amen, as "These things say the amen," an adverb before preposition, as "All along", and much, little, far, and all, as "Thus far is right."

title: English in Use/Adverbs


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English in Use/Adjectives

An adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book; you two are diligent. Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound.

A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting quality or situation: as, good, bad, peaceful, warlike, eastern, western, outer, inner.

A proper adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name: as, American, English, Platonic, Genoese.

A numeral adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite number: as, one, two, three, four, five, six, etc.

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may either accompany its noun, or represent it understood: as,

 * "All join to guard what each desires to gain."—Pope.

That is,

 * "All men join to guard what each man desires to gain."

A participial adjective is one that has the form of a participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time: as,

 * "An amusing story,"
 * "A lying divination."

A compound adjective is one that consists of two or more words joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly: as, nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike, lovesick.

Cardinal: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two, etc.

Ordinal: first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth, twenty-first, twenty-second, etc.

Multiplicative: single or alone, double or twofold, triple or threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, etc.

All that occur above decuple or tenfold, are written with a hyphen, and are usually of round numbers only: as, thirty-fold, sixty-fold, hundred-fold.

Adjectives word order
In English, multiple adjectives should follow a certain pattern as follows:

 * 1) opinion (e.g. lovely, fantastic)
 * 2) size (e.g. tiny, large)
 * 3) most other qualities (e.g. warm, tight)
 * 4) age (e.g. new, young)
 * 5) colour (e.g. red, beige)
 * 6) pattern (e.g. stripy, plain)
 * 7) nationality (e.g. Spanish, foreign)
 * 8) material (e.g. silk, cotton)

Although you generally shouldn't use more than 2 or 3 adjectives together it is possible to make a sentence like this:

 * "I just bought a lovely, large, warm, new, red, stripey, foreign, cotton sweater."

Modifications
Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms of comparison. Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in different degrees: as, hard, harder, hardest; soft, softer, softest.

There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

The 'positive degree is that which is expressed by the adjective in its simple form: as,

 * "An elephant is large; a mouse, small; a lion, fierce, active, bold, and strong."

The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it: as,

 * "A whale is larger than an elephant; a mouse is a much smaller animal than a rat."

The superlative degree is that which is most or least of all included with it: as,

 * "The whale is the largest of the animals that inhabit this globe; the mouse is the smallest of all beasts."—Dr. Johnson.

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different degrees, cannot be compared: as, two, second, all, every, immortal, infinite.

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are compared by means of adverbs: as, fruitful, more fruitful, most fruitful; fruitful, less fruitful, least fruitful.

Regular comparison
Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by adding est to them: as, great, greater, greatest; mild, milder, mildest.

In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final e is omitted, and final y is changed to i, agreeably to the rules for spelling: as, hot, hotter, hottest; wide, wider, widest; happy, happier, happiest.

The regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to monosyllables, with dissyllables ending in w or y, and such others as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent: as, fierce, fiercer, fiercest; narrow, narrower, narrowest; gloomy, gloomier, gloomiest; serene, serener, serenest; noble, nobler, noblest; gentle, gentler, gentlest.

Comparison by adverbs
The two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the same import as above, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs more and most: as, wise, more wise, most wise; famous, more famous, most famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable.

The degrees of inferiority are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least wise; famous, less famous, least famous; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. The regular method of comparison has, properly speaking, no degrees of this kind.

Nearly all adjectives that admit of different degrees, may be compared by means of the adverbs; but, for short words, the regular method is generally preferable: as, quick, quicker, quickest; rather than, quick, more quick, most quick.

Irregular comparison
The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, better, best; bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; many, more, most.

A short syntax
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns, as "Worldly enjoyments," except the following cases: an intervening verb, as "To err is human," arithmetical numbers, as "Four hundred and fifty-six men," an abstract adjective, as "Being sublime," and an adjective as abstract noun, as "Sensations of sublime."

An adjective is placed immediately before noun, as "Vain man," except the following cases: pronouns, as "They left me weary," other words, as "A mind conscious of right," an action, as "Virtue renders life happy," admiration, as "Goodness infinite," a verb, as "Truth stands independent," a prefix a, as afraid, the nature of a participle, as "The time then present," poetry, as "Isles atlantic," technical usage, as "Notary public," an adjective, as "A being infinitely wise," several adjectives, as "A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," empathy, as "Weighty is the anger," an adjective in predicate, as "We call the boy good," and an adjective as adverb, as "Particularly".

title: English in Use/Adjectives


text:
English in Use/Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: as,

 * "The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them well."

Pronouns are not a requirement of a sentence, and it is possible for them to never to be used in sentences. However, many sentences become unwieldy without them:

 * "Alistair is doing what Alistair thinks is best according to Alistair's rights as a human being."
 * Better, "Alistair is doing what he thinks is best according to his rights as a human being."

The pronouns in English language are twenty-four; and their variations are thirty-two: so that the number of words of this class, is fifty-six.

Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, relative, and interrogative.

Pronouns also change depending on whether they refer to one person or thing (singular) or a group of people or things (plural).

Personal pronouns
A personal pronoun or personal is a pronoun that shows, by its form, of what person it is: as,

 * "Whether it were I or they, so we preach, and so you believed."—1 Cor., xv, 11.

The simple personal pronouns are five: namely, I, of the first person; you (thou), of the second person; he, she, and it, of the third person.

The compound personal pronouns are also five: namely, myself, of the first person; yourself (thyself), of the second person; himself, herself, and itself, of the third person.

First person pronouns are used when referring to oneself:

 * "I think I am not silly."

Second person pronouns are used to refer to someone who you are conversing with, the person the sentence is intended to be heard by:

("Thou art not very silly.")
 * "You are not very silly."

Third person pronouns are used when referring to something else that is outside the conversation, either some other person, or an object not capable of understanding or communicating:

 * "I like the tree because it is beautiful."
 * "I don't like the RIAA because they sued me."

Third person singular pronouns are the only pronouns marked for gender. If gender is unknown, use he or she or use a plural.

Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun or relative is a pronoun that represents an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence: as,

 * "No people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous."—Dr. Johnson.

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, that, as, and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever.

What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to "that which" or "those which"; and is to be parsed first as antecedent, and then as relative: as,

 * "This is what I wanted; that is to say, the thing which I wanted."—L. Murray. III.

Interrogative pronouns
An interrogative pronoun or interrogative is a pronoun with which a question is asked: as,

 * "Who touched my clothes?"—Mark, v, 30.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; being the same in form as relatives.

Who demands a person's name; which, that a person or thing be distinguished from others; what, the name of a thing, or a person's occupation and character.

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; namely, persons, numbers, genders, and cases. Definitions universally applicable have already been given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them again in this place.

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases.

Simple personals
The simple personal pronouns are thus declined: I, of the first person, any of the genders.

Sing. Nom. I,            Plur. Nom. we, Poss. my, or mine,        Poss. our, or ours, Obj. me;                 Obj. us.

You, of the second person, any of the genders.

Nom. you, Poss. your, or yours, Obj. you.

He, of the third person, masculine gender.

Sing. Nom. he,           Plur. Nom. they, Poss. his,                Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. him;                Obj. them.

She, of the third person, feminine gender.

Sing. Nom. she,          Plur. Nom. they, Poss. her, or hers,       Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. her;                Obj. them.

It, of the third person, neuter gender.

Sing. Nom, it,            Plur. Nom. they, Poss. its,                Poss. their, or theirs, Obj. it;                 Obj. them.

Compound personals
The word self, added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class of compound personal pronouns; which are used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from others. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and objective. Thus: Myself, of the first person, any of the genders

Sing. Nom. myself,  Plur. Nom. ourselves Poss. --,        Poss. -,     Obj. myself;        Obj. ourselves.

Yourself, of the second person, any of the genders.

Sing. Nom. yourself, Poss. ,     Obj. yourself.

Plur. Nom. yourselves, Poss. --,     Obj. yourselves.

Himself, of the third person, masculine gender.

Sing. Nom. himself, Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. ---,       Poss. --,     Obj. himself;       Obj. themselves.

Herself, of the third person, feminine gender.

Sing. Nom. herself  Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. ---,       Poss. --,     Obj. herself;       Obj. themselves.

Itself, of the third person, neuter gender.

Sing. Nom. itself,  Plur. Nom. themselves, Poss. --,        Poss. --,     Obj. itself;        Obj. themselves.

Relatives and interrogatives
The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined: Who, literally applied to persons only.

Sing. Nom. who,     Plur. Nom. who, Poss. whose,         Poss. whose, Obj. whom;          Obj. whom.

Which, applied to animals and things.

Sing. Nom. which,   Plur. Nom. which, Poss. ,          Poss. -,     Obj. which;         Obj. which.

What, applied ordinarily to things only.

Sing. Nom. what,    Plur. Nom. what, Poss. ,          Poss. ,     Obj. what;          Obj. what.

That, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. that,    Plur. Nom. that, Poss. ,          Poss. ,     Obj. that;          Obj. that.

As, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. as,   Plur. Nom. as, Poss. ,       Poss. ,     Obj. as;         Obj. as.

Compound relatives
The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever are declined in the same manner as the simples. Thus: Whoever or whosoever, applied only to persons.

Sing. Nom. whoever,    Plur. Nom. whoever, Poss.whosever,         Poss. whosever, Obj. whomever;         Obj. whomever.

Sing. Nom. whosoever,  Plur. Nom. whosoever, Poss. whosesoever,      Poss. whosesoever, Obj. whomsoever;       Obj. whomsoever.

Whichever or whichsoever, applied to persons, animals, and things.

Sing. Nom. whichever,  Plur. Nom. whichever, Poss. -,        Poss. ,     Obj. whichever;        Obj. whichever.

Sing. Nom. whichsoever, Plur. Nom. whichsoever, Poss. -,        Poss. ,     Obj. whichsoever;      Obj. whichsoever.

Whatever or whatsoever, applied ordinarily to things only.

Sing. Nom. whatever,   Plur. Nom. whatever, Poss. ,         Poss. ,     Obj. whatever;         Obj. whatever.

Sing. Nom. whatsoever, Plur. Nom. whatsoever, Poss. -,        Poss. ,     Obj. whatsoever;       Obj. whatsoever.

Unclear Usage of Pronouns
Although helpful to eliminate repetitiveness of nouns, pronouns, when used too much, can make a sentence extremely vague: as,

 * "Pictures on walls make it look pretty."

The reader does not know what it is.

 * "The teachers prepared the food. The students ate it. They had fun."

The reader does not know who they are.

Y'all
The pronoun y'all is a contraction of "You all". It is traditionally used in the south of the United States, where in the north you all is more common. Y'all follows the same conjugation rules as they. Very often it is incorrectly spelled ya'll.

A short syntax
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, as "This is the book; it is excellent," except the following cases: something indefinite, as "Tell me who it was," a neuter pronoun, as "I cannot view it," the pronoun it, as "It is not for kings," the adjective many, as "Many a great genius, they have no friends," enallage, as "We shall close our remarks," another sense, as "Lamps is of the plural number," nominatives, as "Who are you?", absolute nominatives, as "It need not be any wonder," possessives, as "Him whose yoke is easy," objectives, as "Those whom she persuaded," neuter verbs, as "Whom did you suppose me to be?", familiar language, as "The man [whom] I trust," omission of the relative, as "The worst thing [that] could happen," a collective noun, as "The council were divided," the conjunction or, as "James or John will favour us with his company," the conjunction and, as "Saul and Jonathan were pleasant in their lives," one person or thing, as "This great philosopher and statesman," empathy, as "The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward," and each, every, or no, as "Every plant and every tree produces others after its kind."

title: English in Use/Pronouns


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User:Zanimum

I'm en:user:zanimum, and I'm mainly at Wikibooks, to try and lead the way in typesetting and publishing the books as they're finished; this will be used as a fundraiser for Wikimedia.

title: User:Zanimum


text:
User:TomK32

de:Benutzer:TomK32 One of the Sysops at the German Wikipedia.

title: User:TomK32


text:
Talk:C Programming/Simple input and output

Some implementations will let you fflush(stdin) to work as expected, but this does not work on all systems, and I don't think this behaviour is as to the standard, as such I've removed it. Dysprosia 01:12, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

merge
I suggest merging C Programming/Simple Input and Output into C Programming/Simple input and output. --DavidCary (talk) 23:00, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

scanf
why are we teaching scanf. we all know we should never use it
 * Should we use Fgets instead? It does terminate after a \n character is found. True, scanf is vulnerable to format string attacks, but in the context of the guide (for beginners) I think scanf is sufficient. --MithrandirAgain (talk) 06:04, 15 August 2010 (UTC)

d and i
Noob here... I was curious as to why "d" meant "integer", so I looked it up, and from what I read (correct me if I am wrong please!), "d" is not equivalent to "i". "d" literally stands for "decimal" as opposed to "hexadecimal" or "octal", whereas "i" could be interpreted as being in any base. I feel it would help to make this clear, as chances are that if someone is trying to learn C as opposed to Java, they are trying to understand what is actually going on with the programs they are writing. Thanks and sorry if I'm wrong! Finsternish (discuss • contribs) 12:52, 24 August 2015 (UTC)

Gets example before scanf
Get example for input string would be more easy as you are sure you get a char and probably then explain scanf more generic solution.


text: User:Kalki

title: User:Kalki


text:
User:Ktsquare

Same person as Ktsquare

title: User:Ktsquare


text:
Botany/Pinophyta

<< Contents Page | Chapter 13 | Chapter 14 | Chapter 15

Chapter 14. Pinophyta

The Division Pinophyta in the Kingdom Plantae comprises those species of plants that were formerly classified as the "modern" gymnosperms of the Class Coniferales—that is the conifers. Unlike many of the gymnosperm groups covered in the previous chapter, pinophytes are today still broadly represented on the landscape, forming extensive forests in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. This does not mean this is a recent group in the paleontological record. Pinophytes are found as fossils as far back as the Upper Carboniferous (Paleozoic Era). Thus, it is a very ancient group, but one still having significant ecological importance on the planet. Pinophytes are mostly evergreen trees (some are shrubs) and many have great commercial value for their wood.

 * Reread Gymnosperm ( Links need not be pursued at this time )
 * Read Conifers ( Links need not be pursued at this time )

These terms, gymnosperm and conifer no longer have standing in modern taxonomic treatments of plants. However, both terms are still widely used, so you should have a grasp of what they mean, and how they fit into the taxonomic terms that have replaced them.

 * Read Division Pinophyta ( The following links are included: )
 * Order Pinales
 * Family Pinaceae ( Follow links to Pinus (pines) and read accounts for each of the Pinus species ) Be sure to read about and understand each of the following terms: softwood, evergreen, pine needle, pine cone, pine nuts, resin, wood pulp, timberline
 * Family Cupressaceae ( Follow links to each of the listed genera and read accounts for each species ) Be sure to read about and understand each of the following terms: Bald Cypress, cypress knees, Giant Sequoia, redwoods, swamp
 * Family Taxaceae ( Follow links to each species ) Be sure to read about and understand each of the following terms: aril, yew, alkaloid

Evolution of the Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are very different from the earliest vascular plants. Gymnosperms have very reduced gametophyte generations- female ovules and male pollen. Many gymnosperms, like the Pinophytes, have secondary growth from a vascular cambium. While tree ferns are tall and have a trunk resembling a tree, they are only very superficially similar. They do not have woody growth the way trees with secondary growth from a vascular cambium do. A single mutation of a fern or a horsetail could not produce a functioning seed plant. So gymnosperms must be descended from some progymnosperm ancestor that evolved these adaptations from the ferns, but was not fit enough to remain on earth. One possible example of a progymnosperm is the spore bearing woody tree Archaeopteris, which was at one point probably prevalent on earth.

Laboratory Exercises for Chapter 14 >>

title: Botany/Pinophyta


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Talk:General Chemistry/Stoichiometry

Why the Disambiguation? Stoichiometry only has this use in my experience... -- Emperorbma 21:45, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Oh, nevermind... I feel silly. :P --Emperorbma 09:36, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Dimensional Analysis
It seems like it might be beneficial to devote some more of this page to explaining dimensional analysis (rather than concluding that it is "easy" - it might not be for everyone). It might be more helpful than than the background information on stoichiometry.

title: Talk:General Chemistry/Stoichiometry


text:
Spanish/Exercises/Mathematics

unit 1

The following table shows the Spanish words for the four basic arithmetics operations:

For the equals sign (=) you use es if the answer is 1, otherwise you use son:

Problemas de matemáticas - Math Problems
Write out as words and then solve the following math problems:

1.3*3

2. 10 / 2: ______________________________________

3. 23 + 42: ________________________________________

4. 99 - 9: ________________________________________

5. 13 * 7: ________________________________________

6. 75 / 3: ______ __________________________________

7. 17 + 4: ________________________________________

8. 67 - 66: ________________________________________

9. 4 * 25: ________________________________________

10. 78 / 13: _______________________________________

Soluciones a los ejercicios Solutions to exercices

^Lesson 2^

title: Spanish/Exercises/Mathematics


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Talk:World History/World Religions

I would say the Baha'i Faith is indeed a religion... look at the wikipedia entry: Baha'i Faith --- djKianoosh - 17 May 2005

The Baha'i Faith is a cult. You may want to be politically correct, but it has so few adherents that it can hardly be called a major religion, at any point in history. That is what this page is meant for.--Naryathegreat|(talk) 04:00, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

I agree - whether Baha'i is a religion or not is only semantics; it hasn't had a large enough impact on world history to merit inclusion in this summary. --Lady~Macbeth 6 July 2005 22:15 (UTC)

A look into the Kitab-i-Aqdas (the most holy book of the Baha'i) may give any interested person deep insights into the nature of this faith and is therefore strongly recommended. Please note especially the things that are said about the rights of women. Please mark also: the so-called Universal House of Justice, the highest elected Baha'i administrative and legislative council is considered infallible (like the Pope!) in its decisions. It will become, as the Baha'i believe, the world governement in the future, when the majority of mankind will be Baha'i. Only Baha'i have electional rights in the elections of the Universal House of Justice! No woman may be elected to serve in the Universal House of Justice (so much to equal rights). greetings seeker

This section is supposed to explain how different religions affected history, not act as a crash course on each religion, imo. Perhaps the title is a misnomer, and this section should be moved into other relevant pages (i.e. Christianity -> Later Roman, Middle Ages pages, Islam -> Middle East, etc.) --Tai

Zoroastrianism
you guys have forgot about one of the most important religions. You cant have a history book without Zoroastrianism. In case you dont know what Zoroastrianism is, look it up. It was the first ever monotheistic religion.

Organization of Page
I'm curious. Why organize this page alphabetically? Is this page meant to be like a glossary? Otherwise, why not organize it chronologically or regionally and then chronologically? Just curious. DW5 (talk)

title: Talk:World History/World Religions


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Indonesian/Lessons/Family

^ Indonesian ^ | << Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself  | Lesson 8: My Family | Lesson 9: My Home >>

Bacaan (Reading Comprehension)
Nama saya Mira. Saya tinggal di Bae bersama ayah dan ibu. Saya punya seorang kakak laki-laki. Namanya Anto. Saya juga punya adik perempuan. Namanya Wati. Kakak saya dan adik perempuan saya juga tinggal bersama kami.

Ayah kerja di kantor setiap hari. Ibu tinggal di rumah, memasak makanan untuk kami. Setiap hari, saya, kakak dan adik perempuan saya pergi ke sekolah

Terjemahan (Translation):

My name is Mira I live in Bae with my father and mother. I have an older brother. His name is Anto. I also have a younger sister. Her name is Wati. My older brother and younger sister also live with us.

Father works at the office everyday. Mother stays at home, cooking food for us. Every day, myself, my older and younger siblings go to school.

Kosa Kata (Vocabulary)

 * adik = younger (brother/sister)
 * ayah = bapak = father
 * bersama = with
 * hari = day
 * ibu = mother
 * juga = also / too
 * kakak = older (brother/sister)
 * kerja = work
 * laki-laki = male
 * makanan = food
 * masak = cook
 * perempuan = female
 * pergi = go
 * punya = have
 * rumah = home / house
 * sekolah = school
 * seorang = one person
 * setiap = every
 * tinggal(*) = stay / live
 * untuk = for

Note: The word "tinggal" is a tricky word. If it is used alone (not conjugated), it means to live or to stay. However, if you conjugate it, it means to leave or to die. Many people got confused with this. Think of it from an Indonesian cultural perspective. Many indigenous Indonesians believe that when a person dies, the soul is here to stay.

Family Structure

 * Ayah is synonymous with bapak, which means father.You can use it interchangeably when referring to a father (or your father). Note that we call adult males as bapak for courtesy, but we never call them ayah. The word ayah is exclusively for the father-child relationship (whether by consanguinity or by law such as a stepfather).

 * Ibu means mother. Here, we don't make any distinction like bapak / ayah.

 * •	Notice from the vocabulary list that Indonesian words for siblings are gender-free. The word "kakak" is used to describe an older sibling (older brother or older sister). The word "adik" is used to describe a younger sibling (younger brother or younger sister). In order to further distinguish the gender, we use gender words, e.g., "laki-laki" for male or "perempuan" for female. Other gender-free words are made distinct in a similar fashion.

 * Other family members:
 * Suami = husband
 * Istri = wife
 * Anak = child / children
 * Kakek = grandpa
 * Nenek = grandma
 * Paman = uncle
 * Bibi / tante = aunt
 * Sepupu = cousin
 * Keponakan = nephew / niece
 * Saudara = brother / sister
 * Saudara ipar = (brother/sister)-in-law
 * Ayah mertua = father-in-law
 * Mertua = mother & father-in-law
 * Ibu mertua = mother-in-law

Awalan Me- (Me- prefix)
In the passage, you'll notice the first prefix in Indonesian: me-. It's the most important and commonly used in Indonesian.

When it's combined with verbs like above (masak → memasak), it means the same as the infinitive form. The only thing is that we emphasize that now the verb is in active form.

Almost all verb can be conjugated using me-, but not all. Unfortunately, in order to know which verbs can go with me-, you must read a lot. The general rule of thumb is that if the verb is reflexive (i.e. doing it to ourself), it usually can't be conjugated with me-. Even more so, don't think that the sense of reflexivity is the same to that of your language. Below is some words that cannot be conjugated with me-, unless the meaning changes completely differently:
 * tinggal = stay (→ meninggal = to die)
 * tidur = sleep
 * duduk = sit
 * bangun = wake up (→ membangun = to build)
 * berdiri = get up
 * tawa = laugh

The prefix me- can also apply to other type of words, such as noun and adjectives. However, the rough goal is still the same: To make an active verb. So, you can verbize a noun or an adjective. Details on these will be covered later.

Note also that when words are conjugated with me-, the spelling is changed a little bit. The spelling change is called inflection. The inflection depends solely on the first letter of the original word. The rule on how the spelling changes can be viewed here: Prefix me- chapter.

Akhiran -an (Suffix -an)
Suffix -an is to nominalize a verb. Note the example from the passage: makan → makanan. Analoguous to the prefix me-, you can virtually nominalize almost any verb you want using -an suffix, as long as it makes sense.

Note, however, that the nominalisation of the verb does not correspond with the gerundive form (-ing form) expressing the action or state of action like in case of Western languages (i.e. eating), but the target or object of said action (i.e. food). You can think of it as "things that do what the verb says".

Some of the verbs may also function as nouns already. For example: tidur (= sleep), which can be noun and verb at the same time. In this case, you cannot add -an suffix on it to make a noun out of it. (Note that the word tiduran does exist, but the meaning is "to lie down casually", not "sleep").

Note also that some words may have dual meanings, like bangun, which may mean to wake up or to build. Of course, if you add -an suffix, the second meaning is taken, i.e.:
 * Bangun (= build) → Bangunan (= "things that was built" → building)

TODO: Load the chapter on suffix -an.

Awalan Se- (Prefix se-)
Prefix se- combined with noun would mean "one of that noun". In the example above, orang means person. Therefore, seorang means one person. In English, se + noun usually translates into a / an.

The se + noun word compounds are often used as a measure word, akin to those in Chinese. The measure words can be pretty complex. However, as being mentioned in the previous chapters, sebuah should be fine for most of the things. You must use seorang to indicate that the noun is a person, and use seekor for animals.

TODO: Load the chapter on prefix se-.

Grammar Summary
A simplified grammar summary for this chapter:
 * Me + verb → active verb
 * Verb + an → noun
 * Se + noun → one of that noun

^ Indonesian ^ | << Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself  | Lesson 8: My Family | Lesson 9: My Home >>

Enseignement de l'indonésien/Leçons/Famille

title: Indonesian/Lessons/Family


text:
German/Lesson 5B

 * This page represents a very advanced ../Lesson 5/, with additional vocabulary and further discussion of grammar concepts introduced in the Advanced Lessons 1A through 5A. A portion of a short article in German, along with a vocabulary of words not already introduced in previous lessons (1 through 5 and 1A through 5A) is presented for the student to read and translate.

<< Lektion 5A | Lektion 5B | Lektion 6 >>

Lektion Vier

Lesestück 5-1 ~ Eine Geschichte über St. Pölten
Karte: St. Pölten in Österreich

Niederösterreich ist sowohl flächenmäßig als auch nach Einwohnern das größte der neun österreichischen Bundesländer. Sankt Pölten ist die Landeshauptstadt von Niederösterreich. Der Name St. Pölten geht auf den heiligen Hippolytos zurück, nach dem die Stadt benannt wurde.

Die Altstadt befindet sich dort, wo vom 2. bis zum 4. Jahrhundert die Römerstadt Aelium Cetium stand. 799 wurde der Ort als "Treisma" erwähnt. Das Marktrecht erhielt St. Pölten um 1050, zur Stadt erhoben wurde es 1159. Bis 1494 stand St. Pölten im Besitz des Bistums Passau, dann wurde es landesfürstliches Eigentum. Bereits 771 findet sich ein Benediktinerkloster, ab 1081 gab es Augustiner-Chorherren, 1784 wurde deren Kollegiatsstift aufgehoben, das Gebäude dient seit 1785 als Bischofssitz. Zur Landeshauptstadt von Niederösterreich wurde St. Pölten mit Landtagsbeschluss vom 10. Juli 1986, seit 1997 ist es Sitz der Niederösterreichischen Landesregierung. Luftbild von St. Pölten

Vokabeln 5B
Die Altstadt                  old town Der Augustiner                Augustinian Der Besitz                    possession, holding Das Bistum                    diocese Der Bischofssitz              bishop's see (a seat of a bishop's authority) Die Bundesländer              federal states Die Chorherren                men's choir Das Eigentum                  proprietorship Die Einwohner                 inhabitants Das Gebäude                   premises Die Geschichte                history Das Jahrhundert               century Das Kloster                   monastery, friary Das Kollegiatsstift           monastery college Die Landeshauptstadt          regional or state capital city Die Landesregierung           provincial (state) government Der Landtagsbeschluss         day of jurisdictional reorganization Das Marktrecht                right to hold markets Der Name                      name Der Ort                       place, spot, city Die Römerstadt                Roman town Der Sitz                      official place

Bistum Passau                 a dioecian region in Bavaria sowohl... als auch            both... and zurück auf                    goes back to

aufheben (hob auf, aufgehoben) merged in (or turned into?) befinden sich                 situated, located (befand sich, haben sich befunden) finden sich*                  found (located) benennen (benannte, benannt)  call (as to label) erhalten (erhielt, erhalten)  receive erheben (erhob, erhoben)      arise, raise erwähnen (erwähnte, erwähnt)  mention stehen (stand, gestanden)     stand (stood, stood) werden (wurde, [ist]geworden) become

ab                            from auf                           up bereits                        already bis                           until, by, up to flächenmäßig                   (no direct translation) ~ when measured in surface heilig                        holy landesfürstlich               baronial or princely (holdings) nach                          in terms of  um                             around

(* one short form of anfinden: findet sich (an); in colloquial language you can cut the "an"; but in THIS special case it is the short form of "(be)findet sich (dort)")

Pronunciation Guide >>

 * Read more about St. Pölten at the German Wikipedia (source of article above).

title: German/Lesson 5B