text:
Visual Rhetoric/Cultural Theories of Visual Rhetoric

Cultural Theories of Visual Rhetoric

Introduction
Social structure often has a major influence on the ways of communication, the impact, and style of all rhetoric. Visual rhetoric is not different in its impact and being impacted by society and different cultural values, ideology, and styles. Symbols and other components of visual rhetoric vary in meaning from culture to culture, and even sometimes within subgroups of cultures. This is reflected in the study of semiotics. Semiotics and Visual Rhetoric are in summary, signs that can have different quantifiers such as color, perspective, line, etc. These are dictated to a culture through different vehicles, the medians of rhetoric.

Cultural rhetoric is defined by the standards or values that culture attaches to things. This sort of value attachment can even vary within a culture and amongst different groups of people. We see in modern society in America that culture defines the roles of its entire membership and where an acceptable place in society is for these people. The struggle between sexes is one in particular that is perfect for this example. Culture has dictated in the past the placement of men above women, and therefore the power of men’s rhetoric over that of a woman. Gender and Visual Rhetoric roles are an ideal example of cultural rhetoric viewing the two genders as sub groups of the American culture.

Simply put, cultural rhetoric is a way of framing the words or ideology of a group through a lens that filters or can judge another group’s rhetorical power and value. Cultural rhetoric theories state that a culture is able to dictate values and standards through cultural rhetoric practice. With an interdisciplinary approach to understanding cultural theories of visual rhetoric, below is a more in-depth explanation of culture as understood by sociologists and communications scholars.

Sociological-Cultural Theories
Culture affects how we see things. Different cultures perceive things differently. According to Laura Desfor Edles' Cultural Sociology in Practice, “Culture” can be defined in several capacities; (A) humanistic and artistic activities, (B) the manner in which a particular group of people live, their way of life, (C) systems or patterns of shared symbols (1). It is this last method of defining “culture” with which we are most concerned. It is through these systems of shared patterns and symbols that individuals understand their environment, their reality, their life and everything related to their life.

Cultural Frames
Each individual has their own subjective frame through which they see reality. These frames are created through unique cultural experiences specific to the individual. Cultural frames reject an objective reality. Cultural frames shape how we see ourselves, others and our world. Cultural frames are cumulative they accumulate over time with experience and are constantly changing based on these experiences. The sum of our cultural frames is called our cultural prism. Because each individual experiences life through their own cultural frames, it can be said that there is no one universal objective reality. Each person has their own reality.

How does this relate to visual rhetoric?

Often, the focus in both learning as well as teaching visual rhetoric is the need to make certain universal claims regarding its power, uses and meanings. However, if we consider visual rhetoric from the “cultural frames” perspective, there is no universal application of visual rhetoric. Each individual’s cultural frames dictate how they use as well understand visual rhetoric. For example, consider traffic signs. Traffic signs vary from country to country and even sometimes from region to region. Depending on an individual's cultural background, he or she will understand traffic signs differently.

A Japanese "bumpy road" sign looks strikingly similar to the European sign for "dip" in the road. Two different concepts represented by the same image in different geographical locations. The interpretation of these signs therefore will vary based on the cultural prism from which an individual views them.

Language is Arbitrary and Culture-Specific
The language we use to describe our world is completely arbitrary. There is no reason that certain words represent certain things. There is no clear connection between the signifier (word/symbol) and the signified (“object in world”). But more importantly, the construction of language is extremely culture-specific. Not only do varying cultures use different words but also these cultures see words differently. For example, consider a tree, a tree can be seen many different ways from varied subject positions and cultural frames. For an environmentalist, a tree is something to be preserved, a relic. For a timber company, a tree is profit. For a politician, a tree can represent a political platform.

How does this relate to visual rhetoric?

Visual rhetoric can be considered a language, a visual language and similar to verbal language it is often arbitrary and definitely culture-specific. Consider brand logos. A company's logo is often well-recognized as representing a particular brand but it's actual connection to the brand is somewhat arbitrary. For example, the Starbucks logo ; a green and white Nordic goddess has no relation to coffee products, the brand logo is arbitrary. In addition to being arbitrary, often logos are culture-specific as well arbitrary. While Starbucks is probably a universally recognized logo, an image such as the Duke Dog, James Madison University's mascot is not. The Duke Dog is a culturally-specific symbol, easily understood and recognized by the James Madison University (JMU) culture as their noble mascot and spirit guru, yet most likely considered just a dog to individuals outside the JMU culture.

Hegemony
“The ideas of the ruling class are, in every epoch, the ruling ideas: i.e. the class, which is the ruling material force of society is at the same time its ruling intellectual force (Edles 33).” This description of Hegemony is quoted by Edles from Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' German Ideology. Although the description sounds somewhat convoluted, Marx and Engel touch upon the important idea of the connections between the ruling class and the ruling intellectual force. Hegemony is a fairly simple concept with very complicated definitions. In essence, Hegemony is a theory regarding how dominant classes control the order of society by making their own views appear to be the accepted views. Subordinate classes accept certain ideas, actions or structures as natural when in reality they are actually social constructs created by the dominant classes. “Hegemony is thus the sum of the cultural processes through which ruling groups universalize their own worldview in order to emerge as dominant (Rumbo).”

How does this relate to visual rhetoric?

Deconstructing hegemonic constructs is extremely important when investigating any form of rhetoric. To understand certain forms of visual rhetoric, it is necessary to be aware of any potential hegemony. In addition, when participating in visual rhetoric one should be sure not to further any hegemonic constructs that may exist within the culture. Often, media perpetuates hegemonic structures by portraying individuals, the world and life as a particular way. While cultural groups such as African Americans, Hispanics and Asians continue to flourish within the United States, television, movies and advertising continue to portray America as a dominantly White society with little diversity. By constantly being exposed to often "colorblind" media, we accept it is as natural the Hegemony that The United States is a dominantly White country. In interpreting and creating visual rhetoric, it is important to keep in mind the potential Hegemonies.

Communication-Cultural Theories
Culture (from a communications standpoint) deals mostly with the rules that govern the understood, misunderstood, acceptable, unacceptable, expected and unexpected ways messages are relayed within a certain community. This community can be as small as an intimate group of friends or as large as a continent. The community is the culture. The message and it's delivery methods is the rhetoric. While theories on cultural rhetoric are usually explained in regards to verbal communication, they adapt well into visual rhetoric.

When verbal literacy is used, it follows guidelines set forth by the governing body and is designated as the national language. Visual literacy is also governed by culture specific values, but which are set for by national groups, they can vary. To be completely visually literate, one must understand all cultural aspects that may play a role in the interpretation of the image. This is where the knowledge and understanding of semiotics is important. The role of nonverbal communication in visual rhetoric connects closely to semiotics and the understanding of a visual argument.

Nonverbal behavior is typically analyzed in-depth in regards to communication. Nonverbal communication itself is culture-based. The cultures one associates with will influence their interpretation and use of non-verbal codes. Nonverbal cues, as explained by Mark P. Orbe and Carol J. Bruess in Contemporary Issues in Interpersonal Communications, can be split up into seven categories, four of which translate well into visual rhetoric (138).

Facial and eye communication
Facial and eye communication through expressions can tell a lot about the message a person is conveying in a picture. The importance of the face can be traced back to the simple fact that when communicating verbally, a person typically looks at the communicator’s face for extra feedback. However, much of facial communication is culture bound (Orbe 142). The seven common facial expressions (sadness, anger, disgust, fear, interest, surprise, and happiness) are innate in people as children. Yet, as a person is socialized into their cultures as adults, these expressions are sometimes hidden or accentuated. For example, Asian cultures teach one to hide any highly emotional thoughts such as sheer excitement. In a painting, it is important to take note of the cultural setting of the characters because their facial expressions may be skewed to fit the culture.

Proxemics
Proxemics study the use of space in communications (Orbe 145). Proxemics are also highly culture bound. A photo of a mother and child in each other’s personal space, embraced in a hug automatically brings thoughts of intimacy to an American. This is because intimate distance (touching up to 18 inches apart) is considered primarily inappropriate in U.S. culture. A good example of the extent to this used in recent popular culture is the film, Borat, where a foreign man from Kazakhstan tries to introduce himself to Americans by invading their intimate space. Borat is not welcomed by Americans who see this as an invasion of their personal space. Proxemics tie in closely with visual rhetoric because the distance between the two objects in a narrative representation may give clues to the relationship and argument conveyed.

Physical appearance and artifacts
Physical appearance and artifacts affect communications on a cultural level similar to facial and eye communication. This includes the choice of dress, choice of objects, decoration and the like. Even certain colors are more important than others in a culture (Orbe 154). For example, red, white and blue will have a different emotional connection to an American, Britain or Frenchman than to an Iraqi or South African. To an American, a photograph of a woman in a revealing dress will stimulate a different reaction than the reaction to the same photograph by a group of men from India. Similarly, in this photo of a Japanese wedding ceremony, the bride has her hair covered. Understanding that this has the same effect as wearing a wedding veil in western culture adds to the viewers understanding of the image.

Environment
The environment can be affected by culture in visual rhetoric. Architecture, room arrangements and colors fall into this category (Orbe 150). This relates closely to time and space in regards to visual rhetoric. Different cultures will react differently in certain environments. A person who grew up in the culture of the "city that never sleeps", New York, will react to a painting of the Swiss Alps differently than a person who travels the world hiking and mountain climbing.

Conclusion
Culture is both influential in how a reader interprets visual rhetoric as well as how a writer composes visual rhetoric. Understanding how cultural theories can influence visual rhetoric is essential. Although this discussion included only Sociological as well as Communication-based theories of culture and visual rhetoric, these theories can be considered the underlying base upon which other cultural theories are developed and understood.


text:
Talk:Movie Making Manual/Windows in film production

Should we remove the access link. I don't think it works very well for budgeting.

 * I quite like Access. You're right, it's not perfect for budgetting - but it's so powerful that you can do almost anything with it.  Dan AKA Jack 11:22am 16 April 2005

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:Murray Langton

Hello, I wanted to talk about compiler construction book. I am the original author who started the book. It is very unfortunate that the book appeared abandoned to you. I've been quite busy, so I have not had a time to make progress. I am not sure if you are still working on the book; the history shows no work after February. Though I disagree on some points (surprise?), the bottom line is I am willing to follow your editorial decisions, if you are confident at what you are writing. Please see the talk page of the book for more specific comments. The book would require years of work, but I believe we can at least produce some pieces that are useful, if the book is incomplete. -- TakuyaMurata 23:27, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Murray Langton


text: Compiler Construction/TestState.java

title: Compiler Construction/TestState.java


text:
Discrete Mathematics/Analytic Number Theory

Introduction
Analytic Number Theory is the application of Analysis to Number Theoretic Problems. A quick overview of some portions of Analytic Number theory follow.

Zeta function
The zeta function, defined by

$$\zeta(s) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty n^{-s}$$

for real values of s > 1, plays a central role in the theory. It converges absolutely when s > 1. It satisfies the Euler product formula,

$$\zeta(s) = \prod_p \frac{1}{1-p^{-s}}$$

where the product is over all prime numbers. To see this, note that multiplying the series definition by 1-2-s and rearranging terms(which is justified since the series converges absolutely) eliminates the even terms, i.e. $$(1-2^{-s})(1+\frac{1}{2^s}+\frac{1}{3^s}+\frac{1}{4^s}+\frac{1}{5^s}+\ldots) = (1+\frac{1}{2^s}+\frac{1}{3^s}+\frac{1}{4^s}+\frac{1}{5^s}+\ldots) - (\frac{1}{2^s}+\frac{1}{4^s}+\frac{1}{6^s}+\frac{1}{8^s}+\frac{1}{10^s}+\ldots) =(1+\frac{1}{3^s}+\frac{1}{5^s}+\frac{1}{7^s}+\ldots)$$

Likewise after multiplying by 1-3-s all remaining terms with n divisible by 3 are eliminated. After repeating this process for all primes it follows that

$$\zeta(s) \prod_p \left( 1-p^{-s} \right) = 1$$

since 1 is the only number not divisible by a prime and thus only the n=1 term is left. Solving for ζ(s) immediately gives the Euler product formula.

Dirichlet series
The series for the zeta function is a special case of a Dirichlet series. A Dirichlet series is one of the form

$$\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{a(n)}{n^{s}}$$ where $$a$$ is a sequence of complex numbers.

Many important arithmetic functions, $$a$$, have the properties that $$a(1)=1$$ and $$a(m)a(n)=a(mn)$$ when $$m$$ and $$n$$ are relatively prime. Such functions are called multiplicative.

For a multiplicative function $$a$$, its associated Dirichlet series may be expressed as an Euler product by

$$\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{a(n)}{n^{s}} = \prod_p \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{a(p^k)}{p^{ks}}$$.

This can be shown in a manner similar to the proof for the zeta function.

A completely multiplicative function is one where $$a(m)a(n)=a(mn)$$ even if $$m$$ and $$n$$ are not relatively prime.

For a completely multiplicative function, the Euler product simplifies to

$$\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{a(n)}{n^{s}} = \prod_p \frac{a(p)}{1-p^{-s}}$$.

The product of two Dirichlet series is given by the formula

$$\left( \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{a(k)}{k^s} \right) \left( \sum_{m=1}^\infty \frac{b(m)}{m^s} \right) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{(a * b)(n)}{n^s}$$

where $$a * b$$ represents the Dirichlet convolution of $$a$$ and $$b$$, which is defined by

$$(a * b)(n) = \sum_{d|n} a(d)b \left( \frac{n}{d} \right)$$

Some important Dirichlet series include:

$$\frac{\zeta^\prime (s)}{\zeta(s)} = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\Lambda(n)}{n^s}$$

$$\frac{1}{\zeta(s)} = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\mu(n)}{n^s}$$

$$\zeta(s-k) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{n^k}{n^s}$$

and

$$\zeta(s) \zeta(s-k) = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{\sigma_k (n)}{n^s}$$

Big-Oh notation
Many problems involve functions that are incredibly difficult to work with exactly, but where the rate of growth of the function, rather than its exact values, is of primary concern. Because of this a notation (often called "Big-Oh notation") was invented.

The notation

$$f(x)=O(g(x))$$

is used to denote that, for a sufficiently large number $$x_0$$, there exists a number $$C$$ such that

$$\left| f(x)\right| \le C g(x)$$ for all $$x > x_0$$.

The expression $$f(x) = g(x) + O(h(x))$$ denotes that $$f(x)-g(x)=O(h(x))$$.

Dirichlet's Theorem
One of the first results proven with analytic number theory was Dirichlet's Theorem which states that for any 2 relatively prime integers a & b, there are infinitely many values of k for which ak+b is a prime number. The proof involves complex-valued functions of the set of integers called Dirichlet characters defined by the properties that χ(n) depends only on its residue class modulo a, χ(n) is completely multiplicative, and χ(n) = 0 iff a and n are not relatively prime. The principal character χ0 is defined to be 1 when a & n are relatively prime and 0 otherwise. It is easy to show that χ0 is a character. It can be shown that the number of characters is equal to φ(a). It can also be shown that the sum of the values of χ(n) over all characters χ is equal to φ(a) if $$n\equiv 1\pmod{a}$$ and 0 otherwise. The Dirichlet series corresponding to a character is called a Dirichlet L-series and is traditionally denoted by L(s,χ). It is simple to show that L(1,χ0) diverges. Through a complicated argument it is shown that L(1,χ) converges and is nonzero if χ is nonprincipal. The function

$$\sum_{p\equiv b \pmod{a}} \frac{1}{p} = \sum_\chi \frac{L(1,\chi)}{\chi(b)} + O(1)$$

must diverge since L(1,χ0)/χ(b) diverges and the other terms all converge. Since all terms of the sum on the left are finite its divergence implies there are an infinite number of terms of this sum and thus infinitely many primes of the form ak+b.

Riemann zeta function & xi function
The zeta function introduced above(the Euler zeta function) converges for all values of s such that Re(s)>1. The Riemann zeta function is defined as the analytic continuation of the Euler zeta function, and is defined for all complex values of s except s=1. Where both functions exist, the Euler and Riemann zeta functions are equal by definition. It can be shown that if the xi function is defined by

$$\xi(s)=\frac{1}{2} s(s-1)\Gamma(\frac{s}{2}) \pi^{-\frac{s}{2}} \zeta(s)$$

then ξ(s)=ξ(1-s). This is the symmetric form of the famous functional equation for the Riemann zeta function, and provides a convenient way of computing the Riemann zeta function when Re(s)<1.

The series definition of Euler's zeta function shows that ζ(s) has no zeroes for Re(s)>1. It can also be shown that the zeta function has no zeroes with Re(s)=1. The functional equation shows that for integer values of n, ζ(-2n)=0, and any other zeroes lie in the so-called critical strip, 0<Re(s)<1. The well-known Riemann Hypothesis states that all nontrivial zeros(i.e. those not of the form s=-2n), have Re(s)=1/2. It is easy to show that the zeroes of the xi function are exactly the nontrivial zeroes of the zeta function.

Hadamard product formula
The Hadamard product formula states that functions with certain properties(in particular the xi function) are close enough to a polynomial that they may be represented in terms of a product over the zeroes. For the xi function the Hadamard product formula states that

$$\xi(s) = e^{A+Bs} \prod_\rho (1 - \frac{s}{\rho})$$

for certain values of A and B, where the product is over the zeroes of ξ(s). This formula is one of the main reasons the zeroes of the xi function, and thus the zeta function, are of considerable importance.

Distribution of squarefree numbers
Let S(x) denote the number of squarefree numbers less than or equal to x. To evaluate this function we begin by counting all integers less than or equal to x.  Then we subtract those that are divisible by 4, those divisible by 9, those divisible by 25, and so on. We then have removed numbers with 2 repeated prime factors twice those with 3 repeated prime factors 3 times and so on. To remedy the repetition of the numbers with 2 repeated prime factors we add on the number of integers less than or equal to x divisible by 36, those divisible by 100, those divisible by 225 and so on. We have now reincluded those with 3 repeated prime factors so we uncount them. Continuing this process gives

$$S(x) = \sum_{n^2\le x} \mu(n) \left\lfloor \frac{x}{n^2} \right\rfloor = \sum_{n^2\le x} \mu(n)\frac{x}{n^2} + O(\sqrt{x}) = \frac{x}{\zeta(2)} + O(\sqrt{x}) = \frac{6}{\pi^2}x+O(\sqrt{x})$$

In addition to information about how common squarefree numbers are this estimate gives information on how they are distributed. For example to show that there are infinitely many pairs of consecutive squarefree numbers(i.e. that differ by 1) assume there are only finitely many such pairs. Then there is some x0 such that all such pairs lie below x0. Then for n > x0 n and n+1 cannot be squarefree, and thus at most half the integers above x0 are squarefree, or more precisely,

$$S(x)\le \frac{1}{2}(x-x_0) +x_0 + 1 = \frac{x}{2} + O(1)$$

but since $$\frac{6}{\pi^2} > \frac{1}{2}$$ this contradicts the estimate obtained earlier, thus there are infinitely many pairs of consecutive squarefree numbers.

The estimate also shows that for large enough x, there is at least one squarefree number between x^3 and (x+1)^3. To see this, note that the number of squarefree numbers in that range is

$$S\left((x+1)^3\right) - S(x^3) = \frac{6}{\pi^2} \left( (x+1)^3 - x^3\right) + O\left(\sqrt{(x+1)^3}\right)+O\left(\sqrt{x^3}\right) = \frac{18}{\pi^2} x^2 + O \left(x^{3 \over 2}\right)$$

which is at least one for sufficiently large x.

To do: Add mention of prime number theorem and sieve methods, as well as Dirichlet inversion


text:
Beekeeping/Top Bar Hive

Introduction
Top bar hives are a style of man made beehive that is based on a cavity covered with sticks or slats usually of wood. Top bar hives have been around for centuries. Evidence of them can be found in ancient Greek and roman ruins. Top bar hives are very popular in undeveloped regions due to ease of construction with materials at hand. Top bars have recently received a surge of popularity in the hobbyist sector of beekeeping all over the world as green alternative to modern stacked white boxes seen everywhere. There are two main classifications of top bar hives the Kenya Top Bar Hive and the  Tanzania Top Bar Hives.--Gary J Piantanida (talk) 18:18, 6 September 2009 (UTC)

Characteristics
The two main types of Top Bar Hive in use today are distinguished by their shape and origin. The Kenyan TBH or KTBH has sloped sides resembling a trough and Tanzanian TBH or TTBH which is shaped like a rectangle. What’s the difference? It is rumored throughout the beekeeping world that sloped sides would prevent the bees from attaching comb to the side walls making it easier to work. To set the record straight these hives have been in existence for centuries and are very popular in third world countries due to ease of construction with materials at hand. In Kenya they are built from hollowed out logs cut in half, sloping the sides was an early attempt to mimic this shape with modern building materials. Most modern beehives are built square the Tanzanian version adapted the bars to more modern square building materials. Currently there are no specific dimensions. The average TBH is 4 feet long and 1.5 to 2 feet wide. The KTBH is narrower at the bottom, but no two beekeepers will build them the same. Unlike most common designs of modern hives, the top bar hive does not use wooden frames to hold the comb, it uses slats of wood, or (top bars) placed over the cavity the bees inhabit, which is also how the hive received its name. Instead of filling out wooden frames, the bees attach comb to the slats. The slat is the only means of support that comb has in a top bar beehive. Also, unlike most other hive designs, the top bar hive does not impose artificial segregation of the colony by physically dividing honey comb from the brood comb by use of separate hive bodies, divided by a Queen excluder preventing the Queen from using the entire colony to rear brood. The TBH allows the Queen access to the entire colony as she would have in a wild colony.

Advantages
Top bar hives have some advantages over traditional hive designs.

Simplicity of Design
Because of the simplicity of the top bar hive’s design, one can be built from readily available salvage materials. In fact the design of a top bar hive is so adaptable that boxes, 55-gallon-drums, old crates and even dilapidated refrigerators can be used to house bees. In essence, nearly any large enough container can be modified to produce a productive top bar hive. All that is required for a top bar hive to be successful are fitting top bars, a water and wind tight cover, an entrance and healthy bees. It is also important to note that the only part design that needs to be precise is the width of the top bar which will be discussed later in the book. Bees are happy to use just about any suitable cavity to establish a colony.

Price of Construction
Because of the ability to design and construct TBH hives from scrap and other recycled materials, they can be built extremely inexpensive when compared to other hive designs. When choosing to purchase materials, the total cost of construction will be a fraction of what it would be to build or buy the necessary equipment to start with conventional framed hive styles, due to simplicity of design.

Opening the TBH
Unlike the Langstroth style of hive, the top bar hive does not require lifting heavy  hive bodies full of bees and honey, commonly referred to as 'supers". A TBH is accessed by removing the cover exposing the top bars themselves. Because top bars are pushed tightly together there are no gaps for bees to emerge from, the top bars form the ceiling of the hive. Once exposed one top bar at the rear can be worked loose with a hive tool or pocket knife and lifted from the hive body now exposing the adjacent comb. The bar just removed leaves behind the gap the beekeeper will use to manipulate other bars. This bar may or may not have comb suspended from it, if it does it needs to be handled with care. Never turn the comb parallel to the ground as if you were holding a plate of food in one hand, this will cause the comb to break and fall. This comb should be placed in another hive body or on a device made to rest it on while the beekeeper continues working.

More Manageable Bees
It has been said by some that manage both top bar hives and Langstroth hives that managing top bar hives is more pleasant as the bees are less stressed when worked and less likely to exhibit defensive behavior. The combs on a top bar hives can be manipulated a few at a time. This smaller disturbance means that inspections exposes and disturbs a much smaller segment of the hive at any given time. Bees in and on the unexposed portion of the hive tend not to notice the beekeeper’s intrusion and as a result seem not to become alarmed.

Comb by Comb Management
The ease of comb-by-comb management is due to the horizontal nature of a top bar hive. Combs only need to be disturbed if they are specifically to be managed, this means that if it is desired to increase the brood nest, then simply a new top bar must be installed. Beekeeper can also harvest small portions of comb honey at a time, by simply cutting and removing the desired segment, and then replacing the top bar.

Storage
Unlike with standard Langstroth hives, there is no extra storage, other than unused top bars, for a top bar hive. Every part of the hive may remain in or on the hive unlike the extra hive bodies associated with Langstroth type or "vertical" hives. Less storage means more places to keep bees.

Bees Wax Production
Due to the nature of the top bar hives design, combs are not reused as in a framed hive. This facilitates a larger harvest of bees wax. Combs full of honey only are harvested from the rear. The wax is simply crushed by whatever means the beekeeper determines efficient. The crushed wax is then saved and rendered for sale.

Another source of wax comes from the regression process (See regression section) Through the process known as "regression" the brood nest is removed at the beginning of each season to be measured to monitor colony progress and viability for breeding. Once all necessary measurements are recorded this wax is also stored for rendering.

It is advisable to store wax removed from the brood nest separate from wax that contained only honey. The wax from the brood nest contains cocoons, pollen, and debris tracked in by the bees that contaminate the purity of the wax. The lighter in color the wax the less impurities it contains fetching a higher price in the retail market.

There are many different ways of rendering wax. The two most preferred ways are by use of a solar melter or boiling the wax in large vats of water. Both processes require melting the wax and filtering the debris and allowing it to cool in a container. Once cooled the debris which settles to the bottom can be scraped off.

Comb Honey Production
The top bar hive is by design ideal for "comb honey" honey cut from and which remains in the comb and is often considered more valuable by honey connoisseurs than honey which has been extracted from the comb and bottled. If desired however, a fruit press can be used to separate the liquid honey from the wax comb, such as that produced by a honey extractor.

Natural Comb
Because the bees completely build the comb with out using a foundation, top bar hives produce natural sized brood cells, which are advantageous regarding mite control. The wax is also cycled out of the hive during harvest so the hive doesn't accumulate pesticides or other contaminants.

Disadvantages
Because they are managed differently to framed hives, inasmuch that honey tends to be harvested a little at a time rather than all at once, top bar hives are less attractive to the commercial beekeeper, who wants to maximize profits by minimizing time spent in harvesting. Other than that, top bar hives have no real disadvantages over framed hives, especially for the smaller-scale beekeeper. During seasons with heavy nectar flow, beekeepers may need to harvest bars of honey more often to prevent the hive from becoming honey bound.

Non-Standard Equipment
There exist no real standards for top bar hives, because of this the beekeeper must be responsible for construction the top bar hive. However, the existence of standards has frozen the development of beekeeping sometime in the nineteenth century, so this is hardly a disadvantage. On the contrary, the fact of there being no standards has encouraged creative experimentation among top bar beekeepers, who many now regard as being at the leading edge of beekeeping development.

Less Honey Harvesting
There is a belief among framed-hive beekeepers that top bar hives are less productive, but no evidence for this has been produced. Wax production, on the other hand, tends to be higher, as comb is not returned to the hive after extraction. This, in itself, is beneficial in terms of disease control, as no potentially disease spore-bearing comb finds its way back into the hive.

Delicate Comb
Because no wired wax foundation is used, there is no reinforcement to the natural structure of the comb. This means that new comb must be handled carefully to avoid breakages.

Further Sources of Information
Top Bar Hive FAQ

 * Natural Beekeeping Network Forum

title: Beekeeping/Top Bar Hive


text:
Portuguese/Contents/L1/Lesson One - Saying Hello

Return to Portuguese – Return to Contents – Go to Lesson Two

Welcome to the Portuguese Language Course Wikibook. Good luck - or should we say, !

Dialogue 1
Analysing each sentence:

Other greetings include:
 *  - translates as ("good day"), but is normally used until 12PM as a short form of "boa manhã/madrugada"("good morning") and never after sun down.
 * - informal.
 * - informal.
 * - informal.
 * - informal.

 * O meu nome é Ricardo - My name is Ricardo ("Richard" could also be used if pronunciation is an issue).
 * - masculine singular definite article;
 * - masculine singular first-person singular possessive pronoun;
 * - masculine noun;
 * - third-person singular present indicative of verb ;
 * Note that the direct translation would be “the my name is Ricardo.” But in Portuguese you can optionally use the definite article (English the) before possessive pronouns (English “my”, “our”, “his”, etc.;) This sentence is equivalent to “Meu nome é Ricardo.”
 * In informal language, or in spoken language in general, "Chamo-me João" similar in context to the use of "I'm João", a more direct translation would be "I'm called João". João can also be changed into John.
 * In informal language, or in spoken language in general, "Chamo-me João" similar in context to the use of "I'm João", a more direct translation would be "I'm called João". João can also be changed into John.

 * Como está? - “How are you?”
 * In this type of situation, the inquiry about someone's state may only be a show of politeness and consideration, an implicit request to engage in personal conversation and an acknowledgment of the other's presence, rather than explicit probe into private matters. The targeted (it may be directed to a group "Como estão?") is given the opportunity to refuse engagement by keeping the answer simple and positive, like in the example or elaborate and explain if the deeper personal relation is reciprocal or welcomed. This of course depends on the social environment where it takes place...
 * In this type of situation, the inquiry about someone's state may only be a show of politeness and consideration, an implicit request to engage in personal conversation and an acknowledgment of the other's presence, rather than explicit probe into private matters. The targeted (it may be directed to a group "Como estão?") is given the opportunity to refuse engagement by keeping the answer simple and positive, like in the example or elaborate and explain if the deeper personal relation is reciprocal or welcomed. This of course depends on the social environment where it takes place...
 * In this type of situation, the inquiry about someone's state may only be a show of politeness and consideration, an implicit request to engage in personal conversation and an acknowledgment of the other's presence, rather than explicit probe into private matters. The targeted (it may be directed to a group "Como estão?") is given the opportunity to refuse engagement by keeping the answer simple and positive, like in the example or elaborate and explain if the deeper personal relation is reciprocal or welcomed. This of course depends on the social environment where it takes place...

João then answers:

 * Tudo bem, obrigado. E você? - “All right, thank you.”
 * - this can only be used by men. If you are a woman, you must use instead.
 * - this is the second-person singular formal pronoun. Despite being second-person, verbs following it are conjugated in the third-person. The informal second-person pronoun is .
 * - this is the second-person singular formal pronoun. Despite being second-person, verbs following it are conjugated in the third-person. The informal second-person pronoun is .

Articles
The English language has three articles: the (definite article), a and an (indefinite articles). Portuguese has four definite and four indefinite articles, as they inflect in gender and number.

The definite articles are:
 * : o homem - “the man”
 * : os homens - “the men”
 * : a mulher - “the woman”
 * : as mulheres - “the women”

The indefinite articles are:
 * : um homem - “a man”
 * : uns homens - “some men”
 * : uma mulher - “a woman”
 * : umas mulheres - “some women”

Note that the indefinite plural article translates as English some.

Gender
The English language has three genders: masculine (he), feminine (she) and neuter (it). Portuguese has two, but, unlike English, all nouns and most pronouns have a gender, even inanimate things like and.

Grammatical gender in Portuguese aren’t always the same as the object’s real gender. For example, is always a feminine word, whether you are referring to a boy or a girl.

The Portuguese genders are:
 * masculine; and
 * feminine.

As a Portuguese learner, you must memorise the gender of every word. In most cases, the gender of a word can be identified by its ending:
 * Words ending in are usually masculine;
 * Words ending in are usually feminine;
 * Words ending in are usually feminine;
 * Words ending in are usually masculine;
 * Words ending in and  are usually used for both genders;

Number
Like English, Portuguese words can be singular or plural. Portuguese plurals end in s. Usually the following rules apply:

 * Singulars ending in vowels pluralise with s: → ;
 * Singulars ending in r, z and n pluralise with es: → ;
 * Singulars ending in s pluralise with es if the stress is in the last syllable: → ; they are the same when plural if the stress is not in the last syllable:  → ;
 * Singulars ending in m pluralise with ns replacing the m: → ;
 * Singulars ending in x are the same when plural: → ;
 * Singulars ending in il pluralise with:
 * is replacing the il if the stress is in the last syllable: → ;
 * eis replacing the il if the stress is not in the last syllable: → ;
 * Other singulars ending in l pluralise with is replacing the l: → ;
 * Singulars ending in ão pluralise with:
 * ões replacing the ão (most common): → ;
 * ães replacing the ão: → ;
 * s: → ;

Ser and estar
Let's analyse the third line, in which Ricardo answers: Estou bem, obrigado. - “I am fine, thank you.”

The meaning of bem and obrigado have already been explained. The other word, means I am. It is one of two verbs that translate to our English ‘I am’, the other being.

Consider the following English phrases and their Portuguese translations:

Estou is a form of and sou is a form of  and both verbs translate as to be. For a Portuguese learner, it is important to know when to use one and when to use the other:

 * Estar implies that something is temporary, that it can be changed. It is used, for example, for being somewhere, for being wearing something, for having a curable disease, for being in a certain state of mind.
 * Ser implies that something is unlikely to change. It is used, for example, for being a certain nationality, for being young, old, a teenager, an adult, etc., for being always big or small, for having an incurable disease.

There some exceptions to these rules. For example, “I am dead” is “Eu estou morto.” even though the fact someone is dead is unlikely to change.

Estou is a form of the verb estar. Confused? Think of a verb like a tree. On the trunk there's the verb's name - this is called the infinitive. Some examples of infinitives are...

ESTAR     -     SER    -     TER   -    COMER    -    FALAR    -    ABRIR To be in       To be       To have      To eat       To speak      To open

Now we have to imagine the branches of the tree. Each branch is a different TENSE of the verb. Example? 'I am running' is present continuous tense because it is happening NOW whereas 'I was running' is past continuous tense because it happened in the PAST.

Finally, the leaves on the branches are different CONJUGATIONS. Example? We say 'I run' and 'you run' but 'he/she/it runS' with an 's' on the end. This is a different conjugation of the present indicative tense of the verb 'to run'. However in Portuguese there are more conjugations than in English.

Let's take a look at the conjugations for the verb ESTAR. We already know that one of them will be 'está', from the dialogue.

ESTAR - To Be in

Look back at the dialogue. Ricardo says Estou bem. We can see that the first word means 'am'. Bem simply means 'well'. So we have 'Am well.' We seem to be missing the 'I'! However, in Portuguese, because there are different conjugations for the different people, you can often leave out the 'I, we, they' etc. if it is obvious. In the case of 'I' and 'we' it is always obvious in the present tense.

There's also always a bit of confusion at the start between the different forms of 'you'.

 * Tu – This is really mostly used in Portugal, and some regions from Brazil. It is a really casual way of saying ‘you’ – used between close friends or to children. If in doubt, don’t use it, use 'o senhor/a senhora' (masculine/feminine).
 * Você – It only refers to one person. Used in informal speech mainly in Brazil.
 * Vocês – Plural form of ‘tu’ or ‘você’.

There is also one other form of you: Vós. However this form is less used and is mostly used by people in Northern Portugal and in classic literature. Therefore we shall ignore this form of "you". However if you need to understand it, the grammar references on this Wikibook include Vós - which, I should point out, is like vocês - it is currently only used when talking to more than one person. Still confused? Check out the Personal Pronouns of Subject page.

Muito prazer means It's a pleasure.

Adeus means goodbye.

Exercises
Return to Portuguese – Return to Contents – Go to Lesson Two

de:Portugiesisch: Lektionen: Begrüßung


text:
User talk:Catpad

Hi,

I liked your suggestion!!!

Are you working on this... or is this just an idea? Do you have the support of the Wikivarsity community? SudarshanP 05:22, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Thank you!

Yes, I'm actually working on it, although slowly. Since the idea has not boiled enough I cannot simply implement it, so I'm elaborating it and it evolves from time to time. I'm also thinking about writing an article and sending it to some CS journal.

Unfortunately, there is no support whatsoever. Your comment is the only one I have. --Catpad 07:51, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I thought I would leave a note to say I found your idea of Odzilla very interesting. It's true to say that many courses could use the same base materials (or different "flavours" of these as you say) and this could save us having to repeat these materials. However, each course will have it's own focus and learning outcomes, so i think we may need to overlap some material - just as many Wikipedia articles overlap to some extent with other articles in the same area. But I don't think I fully understand this idea yet, so I'll give it another go..

 * As for "support" - don't worry - things happen slowly (and have been moving far too slowly in Wikiversity in my opinion) but good ideas will get recognised in time. As we know, Wikiversity is in a kind of limbo at the moment, but I for one am going to try to revive it somewhat, or at least start studying it for my PhD to make some recommendations. On that note, if you feel confident enough, you should definitely try to write a paper and publish it somewhere visible to the wikimedia community, even if a journal won't have it.

 * Good luck. Cormaggio 12:58, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Wikiversity
I saw your name on the Wikiversity participant's list, you may be very experienced in mathematics already, but I'm trying out instructing a Calculus course if you're interested, go to Wikiveristy, check out the mathematics department, pure mathematics, and in the course list is included Calculus. Fephisto 22:49, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright
Thanks for uploading images on Wikibooks. However, the images may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you.--Az1568(Talk) 07:07, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Catpad


text:
Understanding the NAIC Stock Selection Guide

The NAIC® Stock Selection Guide® is a form designed by the National Association of Investors Corporation to help evaluation potential investments in individual common stocks. It uses fundamental analysis to evaluate potential investments for both growth and value.

Identifying Quality Growth Companies
Here is where you evaluate historical growth trends in revenue (sales), pre-tax profit (PTP) and earnings per share (EPS). For each of these you want to see relatively consistent compound growth. You also want to see all three growing at similar rates.

This is also where you make judgment decisions to estimate the potential future sales and EPS values. This potential future EPS value is produced either from an estimated future EPS growth rate or from an estimated future income statement. The later method is referred to as "preferred procedure" (which does not necessarily suggest that it's always to be "preferred" over the former method.

Evaluating Management
Here is where you evaluate trends in historical pre-tax profit margins (pre-tax profit as a percentage of revenue) and return on equity. For each of these you want to see stability or improvement as well as superiority when compared with other companies in the same industry.

Evaluating Past P/E Ratios
Here is where you evaluate the current PE level in the context of historical PE levels. The historical PE levels help establish a "typical" level and range of PE values specific to this stock (sometimes referred to as a "signature PE"). Current PE level is compared with this "typical" level to produce Relative Value (RV), which is the current PE level expressed as a percentage of the typical historical level.

The concept of PE (Price divided by Earnings, or PE ratio) is sometimes likened to price-per-pound (or unit pricing) in a grocery store. Unit product pricing allows you to compare the value of the underlying product without regard to the price of that product when packaged in various quantities. PE ratio allows you to compare the "per-pound" price of the underlying "product" (the level of EPS produced by the company) without regard to how the product is packaged (as shares).

To determine the value of bananas in the grocery store (regardless of how many bananas you plan to buy) you need to know how much it costs to buy one pound of bananas (price per pound), not how much it costs to buy one banana or one bunch of bananas. To help determine the value of a stock investment you need to know how much it costs to buy one dollar of EPS produced by that company (price per "pound"), not how much is costs to buy one share of the stock. Buying one share of stock is like buying one banana; PE ratio is like the price per pound of the bananas.

Evaluating Potential Future High and Low Prices
Here is where you establish a potential future high and low price. These are compared with the current price to estimate both a potential "up-side" (how much the price might go up) and a potential "down-side" (how much the price might go down). US/DS Ratio is the "up-side" as a percentage of the "down-side", a way or measuring the risk of the investment.

Evaluating Potential Future Total Return
Here is where you evaluate the overall potential for gain over five years from investing at the current price. This is done by combining the potential for price appreciation over five years (the "up-side" described earlier) with an estimate of future dividend yield (if any). This overall potential for gain is represented as an annualized five-year rate of growth and is refered to as "Total Return". The level of Total Return required to double an investment over five years is approximately 15% (14.870%).

Total Return vs. Projected Average Return
Total Return (TR) is the measure of overall potential gain traditionally used on the SSG. TR assumes a potential future price based on a future high PE level. Projected Average Return (PAR) is another measure of overall potential gain. PAR assumes a potential future price based on a future average PE level. Both TR and PAR assume the same future high EPS level. The amount of PE expansion assumed to be achievable is greater with TR than with PAR.

Sensitivity of Total Return to Changes in High PE and High EPS
$$%chgPE$$ = percentage by which high PE is changed

$$%chgEPS$$ = percentage by which high EPS is changed

$$n$$ = time period over which Rate (i.e., TR or PAR) is calculated $$c = \sqrt[n]{\left(1+%chgPE\right) \left(1+%chgEPS\right)} - 1$$

$$%chgRate = c * (1 + 1/Rate)\ $$, the resulting percentage change in Rate

or, with $$GF = 1+Rate$$, GF being the growth factor associated with Rate

$$%chgRate = c \cdot GF / (GF-1)\ $$


text:
User:Ucucha

Hello, I am Ucucha. I am going to write a Wikibook about mammals based on my site, Mammal Taxonomy.

Accounts on other Wikis:
 * Wikispecies: Ucucha
 * Nederlands: Ucucha
 * English: Ucucha

species:User:Ucucha en:User:Ucucha nl:Gebruiker:Ucucha

title: User:Ucucha


text:
Modern History/Dawn of the Computer Age

As the need for rapid calculations increased, commercial organisations introduced the electronic calculator to the market. Then the computer appeared.

The price of computers decreased, and they started appearing in more businesses, and then also in schools, libraries, and wealthier governments.

The Internet connected computers together and provided more information to users, but there were also problems such as fraudulent websites, overabundant commercial emails, copyright violations, server outages, and lack of connectivity to poorer countries.

The dawn of the computer age brought about some disadvantages, such as incompatible file formats, fears about privacy, and error messages such as the Blue Screen of Death.

title: Modern History/Dawn of the Computer Age


text:
Template:Ada/delimiter

Ada Programming

Usage: *

gives:

Delimiter

title: Template:Ada/delimiter


text:
Lithuanian

About Lithuanian language itself
The Lithuanian language belongs to the Baltic group of Indo-European languages. The other language in this group is Latvian, so if you know Latvian you may find it easy to learn Lithuanian. The languages are more different from each other than, for example, different Romance or Germanic languages. The Baltic and Slavic language branches are often grouped together into the so-called Balto-Slavic branch because both the Baltic and the Slavic languages are believed to have descended from the same ancestor language, Proto-Balto-Slavic. As such, they share numerous similarities in grammar and vocabulary.

The phonology of the Lithuanian language shares some similarities with the Eastern Slavic languages, like Russian, Belorussian and Ukrainian, though there are also notable differences. The vocabulary of the Lithuanian language shares similarities with Polish, a West Slavic language, as a result of strong cultural and political ties in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth period.

Like in most of the Slavic languages, Lithuanian morphology is more complex than in Germanic or Romance languages and is usually more similar to the classical languages of Europe, such as Latin and Ancient Greek. There are grammatically-marked genders, noun cases, tenses, plurals, and so on. There are no articles. Prepositions are avoided in favor of case endings. E.g. "namas" means "house", while "name" means "in a/the house"). Therefore the Lithuanian language might seem hard at first to learn for people who are used to languages with a different structure.

About usage of Lithuanian language
Lithuanian is the official language of the Republic of Lithuania, which has about 3.5 million people, of which 83% are ethnic Lithuanians. There are Lithuanian communities in the neighboring countries of Poland and Latvia, where some villages have Lithuanian majorities. Larger communities of Lithuanians existed in Belarus and what is now Kaliningrad Oblast' of Russia. There also exist traditional emigrant communities, mostly in America and Australia, of people who are descendents of interwar emigrants. There are also new emigrant communities, made up of people emigrating now, largely in Spain, the UK and Ireland. Some of the old emigration trends, e.g. USA, remained too, while others disappeared (e.g. South America).

The Lithuanian alphabet
Lithuanian alphabet is a modified Latin alphabet. Consists of the following 32 letters (in order):
 * A – the long or the short A (see the pronouncing rules above), [a / ā].
 * Ą (A nosinė) – long A, [ā].
 * B – like B in bag, [b / b'].
 * C – like English Ts (e.g. in Tsar), [ts / t's'].
 * Č – like English Tsh (T and then sh), [tʃ / tʃ' / t'ʃ'].
 * D – like D in dog, [d / d'].
 * E – long or short E, (see the pronouncing rules below), [e / æ].
 * Ę (E nosinė) – long E, [æ].
 * Ė – is like German e and long (see the pronouncing rules below), [ē].
 * F – like English F or PH (e.g. in fog), [f / f'].
 * G – like G in golf, [g / g'].
 * H – like H in Hungary, [h / h']
 * I – short i, like i in English big; i in a diphthong, like y in say, the palatalization mark  [i / ǐ / i].
 * Į (I nosinė) – long i (see the pronouncing rules below), [ī].
 * Y (I ilgoji) – second long i (see the pronouncing rules below), [ī].
 * J – like Y in the English word young [j].
 * K – like K in Kilometer, [k / k'].
 * L – like L in long, [l / l'].
 * M – like M in Mike, [m / m'].
 * N – like N in november or N in link [n / n' / ɳ /ɳ'].
 * O – long or (rare) short O, [ō / o].
 * P – like P in Pong, [p / p'].
 * R – like Spanish R, [r / r'].
 * S – like S in song, [s / s'].
 * Š – slightly less tight than English Sh (e.g. in Shell) [ʃ / ʃ'].
 * T – like T in Tango, [t / t'].
 * U – short u, like oo in English food, u in a diphthong, like w in cow [u / ǔ]
 * Ų (U nosinė) – long U, [ū].
 * Ū (U ilgoji) – long U, [ū].
 * V – medial sound between English [v] and [w]; [v / v']].
 * Z – like Z in Zone, [z /z'].
 * Ž – voiced variant of Š, [ʒ / ʒ'], the sound in the middle of English "Treasure".
 * Ch – these letters together are pronounced as an unvoiced variant of Lithuanian h, like ch in scottish loch, [χ / χ' ].

The letters W, X and Q are not used in Lithuanian except in proper names (e. g. Washington'o miestas). The letters F, H and the digraph Ch are only used in loaned words, known in many European languages (e. g. Chemija)

The rules

 * 1) Any Lithuanian consonant may be palatalized. Palatalized consonants are pronounced softly, as before [i], but not palatalized are pronounced hardly, stiffly.
 * 2) * Consonants are palatalized when they go directly before e (ę or ė) or i (į or y). Consonants, that go directly before other vowel letters should be pronounced not palatalized.
 * 3) *The letter i in digraphs ia (ią), io, iu (ių, iū) plays a role of the palatalization mark (see The pronouncing of vowels).
 * 4) *Consonants, that go directly before any palatalized consonant are palatalized too. It mean, that palatalization takes effect in a group of consonants, when the last consonant of the group is directly before e (ę or ė) or i (į or y).
 * 5) * Consonants, that go directly before any not palatalized consonant are not palatalized, except the consonant [l] in few cases.
 * 6) *Consonant [j] doesn't have a not palatalized pronouncing.
 * 7) Voiced consonants directly before unvoiced ones become similar to unvoiced. And, in the same way, unvoiced consonants directly before voiced ones assimilate to voiced ones.
 * 8) * Unvoiced – voiced consonant pairs are: [b] – [p], [d] – [t], [g] – [k], [h] – [χ], [z] – [s] and [ʒ] - [ʃ]
 * 9) * Voiced consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], [v] don't have a pair unvoiced sounds, they pronounced less voiced than in general, and unvoiced consonants don't became voiced before them.
 * 10) * Unvoiced consonant [j] doesn't have a pair voiced sound, and assimilation of the prior sound is almost insensible before [j].
 * 11) Consonants [b] – [p], [d] – [t], [g] – [k], [h] – [χ] are pronounced much less aspired than their English counterparts.
 * 12) The consonant letter n is pronounced [ɳ] before k or g and [n] in other cases.

The list of consonants
Explanations of other transcription marks are in the table below:

Note: This simplified transcription is only used in wikipedia. In many study sources of the Lithuanian language no transcription is used or the more sophisticated, scientific transcription is used.

The rules

 * 1) Any vowel sound has two variants, the long and the short in Lithuanian language.
 * 2) *Letters a, e can be read long ([ā], [æ]) or short ([a], [e]), depending on the word and its form (case, tense, etc.). The long a or e of this kind may appear once in a word.
 * 3) *Letters ą, ę, ė, į, y, ų, ū are always pronounced long ([ā], [æ], [ē], [ī], [ū]).
 * 4) *Letters u, i are always pronounced short ([u], [i]) (except cases, when they are a part of diphthongs).
 * 5) *Letter o is pronounced long ([ō]) at most, but in the case of many loaned words it's pronounced short [o] in word root.
 * 6) *Possible short variant of [ē] and more often short variant of [æ] are marked with the same [e] here. They aren't distinguished in spelling too.
 * 7) There are few cases, when a vowel letter is pronounced not like a vowel sound:
 * 8) *The letter i directly before a (ą), o, u (ų, ū) (but not e!) (in ia, ią, io, iu, ių, iū and not ie) isn't pronounced and marks the palatalization (see above). This usual rule has few exceptions in stems of some loaned words, most of them are known in many other European languages (e. g. pianinas [pijaninas] 'a piano', pionierius [pijonierius] 'a pioneer').
 * 9) *The letters i and u in ai, ei, ie, ui, uo are parts of respective diphthongs. This rule has few formal exceptions of the same kind as the previous, but in fluent Lithuanian these exceptions usually aren't seen.

The accent

 * 1) The accent in Lithuanian is free (not connected with any particular syllable or sound). Accents of the different forms of the same word also may differ.
 * 2) The accent in Lithuanian has three forms, all of which have different pronunciation in different cases. These three forms are: the initial long syllable accent, the final long syllable accent and the short syllable accent. When we have a single vowel (not a diphthong) in an accented  syllable, the form of stress also indicates, if the vowel is long or short.

In this wikibook the Lithuanian accent is marked by printing the respective vowel bold. This allows the initial and the final accents in syllables containing a diphthong to be distinguished, as far as is sufficient for intermediate knowledge of Lithuanian.

Note: In the vocabularies the three forms of accent are often marked with three marks - the final long syllable accent with a circumflex mark (^), the initial long syllable accent with an acute mark (´) and the short syllable stress with the grave mark (`), but the meaning of these marks differs from their usage in most other European languages (e. g. in the Greek language).

The main things on verbs

 * Verbs have three different main tenses, that allows us to express an action in the past, in the present and in the future. The fourth tense is used to express a repeated action in the past (it's called the past iterative tense).

 * Verbs of different tenses have different endings. The stems of a verb them often are different (although not much) in different tenses.

 * One may notice, that stems of the past iterative tenses don't differ from respective stems of the future tense, except the last consonant. This refers to an actual rule in Lithuanian.

 * Lithuanian verbs may have more forms, that are like tenses, but we'll leave them for the further.
 * Verbs have five persons in every tense. Every person has it's own endings, and this system is almost regular.
 * The first singular person always ends with u, but actual its ending may be longer.
 * renku 'I gather' or 'I'm gathering' (the present tense)
 * veikiu 'I do' or 'I act' (the present tense)
 * tyliu 'I keep silence' (the present tense)
 * manau 'I think', 'I suppose', 'I believe' (the present tense)
 * likau 'I stayed' (the past tense)
 * rašiau “I wrote' (the past tense)
 * The second singular person always ends with i, but actual its ending may be longer.
 * renki 'you gather' or 'you're gathering' (the present tense)
 * veiki 'you do' or 'you act' (the present tense)
 * tyli 'you keep silence' (the present tense)
 * manai 'you think', 'you suppose', 'you believe' (the present tense)
 * likai 'you stayed' (the past tense)
 * rašei “you wrote' (the past tense)
 * Note, that these endings are used for single person only, like as the old English thou dost, thou gatherst etc.
 * The third person is one both for the singular and for the plural. Its endings are -a / -ia, -i, -o or ė.
 * renka [ren...] 'he /she gathers' or 'he /she is gathering' (the present tense)
 * veikia 'he /she does' or 'he /she acts' (the present tense)
 * tyli 'he /she keeps silence' (the present tense)
 * mano [mā...] 'he /she thinks', 'he /she supposes', 'he /she believes' (the present tense)
 * liko 'he /she stayed' (the past tense)
 * rašė [rā...] 'he /she wrote' (the past tense)
 * The first plural person has endings, regularly made from endings of the third person. One simply should add -me after the ending of the third person (possible variants are -ame /-iame, -ime, -ome, -ėme).
 * renkame [ren...] 'we gather' or 'we are gathering' (the present tense)
 * veikiame 'we do' or 'we act' (the present tense)
 * tylime 'we keep silence' (the present tense)
 * manome [mā...] 'we think', 'we suppose', 'we believe' (the present tense)
 * likome 'we stayed' (the past tense)
 * rašėme [rā...] 'we wrote' (the past tense)
 * The second plural person has endings, regularly made from endings of the third person. One simply should add -te after the ending of the third person (possible variants are -ate / -iate, -ite, -ote, ėte).
 * renkate [ren...] 'you gather' or 'you are gathering' (the present tense)
 * veikiate 'you do' or 'you act' (the present tense)
 * tylite 'you keep silence' (the present tense)
 * manote [mā...] 'you think', 'you suppose', 'you believe' (the present tense)
 * likote 'you stayed' (the past tense)
 * rašėte [rā...] 'you wrote' (the past tense)

 * The future tense and the past iterative tense have regular endings

 * Note, that the future tense, as an exclusion, hasn't any ending without the suffix s at all in the 3rd person.

 * There are also few other suffixes, used in the present or in the past tense, that have their own regular endings for every person.

The personal pronouns
Verbs may be used in a sentence without personal pronouns, but personal pronouns are useful, especially for the 3rd person.

Note:
 * Here are forms of the nominative only in the table. You should use forms of other cases to speak about something or somebody as a direct object or as an indirect object.
 * It's polite to use the 2nd plural person instead of the second singular in the official style . Remember, that you should speak in this case as if you deal with many people,  not simply changing Tu to Jūs only. For example: not tu eini → jūs eini, but tu eini → jūs einate.

The simplest sentences

 * The simplest sentence consists of a single verb. But everybody feels that such a sentence is too unclear. We'll skip this point here.

 * The next step is a sentence with a subject and a verb. The subject should be put in the nominative case. Word order is either S-V or the V-S. The S-V is more common, although native English speakers shouldn't forget, that the second possibility sometimes may be used too.
 * Examples (the S-V – the V-S):
 * mergaitė valgo [vālgō] 'a girl eats'
 * valgo [vālgō] mergaitė  'a girl eats'
 * berniukas piešė 'a boy drew'
 * piešė berniukas  'a boy drew'
 * mes [mæs] liksime 'we'll stay'
 * liksime mes [mæs]  'we 'll stay'
 * kas [kas] nori [nōri]? 'who wants?'
 * (the V-S isn't used)
 * lietus lyja 'it rains', literally 'a rain rains' (less common than with the V-S)
 * lyja lietus 'it rains', literally 'a rain rains' (the main variant in such case)
 * lyja lietus 'it rains', literally 'a rain rains' (the main variant in such case)

 * Going further, we could add the object to a sentence. The object may be added anywhere in a sentence in Lithuanian. When one changes the place of the object, intonation of the sentence and some fine nuances (which we'll skip here) of its meaning change too.
 * The object may be in one of few cases, and it depends on what kind of the object we have.
 * Examples:
 * mergaitė valgo [vāl...] obuolį 'a girl eats an apple' (the object is in the  accusative case).
 * berniukas piešė katiną [kāt...] 'a boy drew a cat' (the object is in the accusative case).
 * kas [kas] nori pieno? 'who wants some milk?' (the object is in the genitive case).
 * jis nori arbatos [...bāt...] 'he wants some tea' (the object is in the genitive case).
 * jis arbatą [...bāt...] gers [gers] 'he will drink a tea' (the object is in  the  accusative case).
 * ji neužmiršta draugės 'she don't forget the friend' (the object is in the genitive case).
 * ji parašė [...rā...] draugei laišką 'she have wrote a letter for a friend' (the direct object is in the accusative case, the indirect one is in the dative case).
 * ji parašė [...rā...] draugei laišką 'she have wrote a letter for a friend' (the direct object is in the accusative case, the indirect one is in the dative case).

The colours of the rainbow

 * (Rainbow colours = vaivorykštės spalvos [spal...])

 * red: raudona spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective raudonas, the feminine adjective raudona)
 * orange: oranžinė [orān...] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective oranžinis [orān...], the feminine adjective oranžinė [orān...])
 * yellow: geltona spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective geltonas, the feminine adjective  geltona)
 * green: žalia [...lia] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective žalias [ʒāli...], the feminine adjective žalia [...lia])
 * cyan: žydra [...dra] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective žydras, the feminine adjective žydra [...dra])
 * blue: mėlyna spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective mėlynas, the feminine adjective mėlyna)
 * violet: violetinė spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective violetinis, the feminine adjective  violetinė)

Other colours

 * white: (white:) balta [...ta] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective baltas [bāl...], the feminine adjective balta [...ta])
 * black: juoda [...da] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective juodas, the feminine adjective juoda [...da])
 * grey: pilka [...ka] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective pilkas, the feminine adjective pilka [...ka])
 * brown: ruda [...da] spalva [...va] (the masculine adjective rudas, the feminine adjective ruda [...da])

the different examples

 * cat~katė
 * river~upė
 * Lithuania~Lietuva [...va]
 * dog~šuo
 * book~knyga
 * abdomen~pilvas
 * abduct~pagrobimas
 * ability~sugebėjimas
 * abrasion~įdrėskimas

Lithuanian phrases

 * Lithuanian: Lietuviškai (“lietu'vishkai”)
 * hello: labas (“lA-bas”)
 * goodbye: sudie! (“sudiE'“)
 * please: prašau(“prashau”)
 * thank you: ačiū (“Ahchjooh”)
 * that one: tas(masculine), ta(feminine)
 * how much?: kiek? (“kjEk”)
 * yes: taip (“taIp”)
 * no: ne (“ne'“)
 * sorry: atsiprašau (“atsiprashau”)
 * what?: ką?
 * I don’t understand: nesuprantu
 * Cheers! (toast): į sveikatą! (“Ii sveikAtA!”)
 * Do you speak English?: kalbi angliškai? (informal); ar kalbate angliškai? (formal)
 * I love you: Aš tave myliu
 * Where is (the center) ? Kur yra (centras)?
 * You are a good friend. Tu esi geras draugas.

 * Lithuanian/Cover

Litewski/Okładka

title: Lithuanian


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/:=

This delimiter is used for assignment to variables and for initialization of variables and constants.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters

Ada Reference Manual

|:= Delimiters::=

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/:=


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/dot

Decimal literals
π := := 3.145926;

Based literals
Not_π := := 16#3.145926#;

Names
Used in the explicit dereference of an access type, like in:

X := Some_Access.;

Selected components
Selection of components from records and packages, entries from tasks and protected types, and - in Ada 2005 - primitive operations from tagged types.

My_Object.My_Operation (Some_Parameter);

Subprogram declarations
Declaration of a procedure or function.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters

Ada Reference Manual

|.

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/dot


text:
User talk:Jclee

Hi,

Thank you for editing the Open Culture Wikibook, I see that you did a great job in improving my terrible english, thank you. Please feel free to edit the text and/or add more content. Thank you. Bobbyandck 15:56, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I took the liberty of adding yourself to the list of contributors for Super NES Programming. Great work, by the way. Snargle 23:49, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jclee


text:
Emulation

Introduction

 * /What is Emulation?/
 * /How does it work?/
 * /How to get games?/

How to run emulators on...

 * Personal Computers
 * /On PC - Windows/
 * /On PC - Linux/
 * /On Macs/
 * Console Systems
 * /On Dreamcast/
 * /On Xbox Series/
 * /On Java/

Home Video Game Consoles

 * Nintendo
 * /NES/
 * /SNES/
 * /N64/
 * /GameCube/
 * /Wii/
 * /Wii U/
 * /Nintendo Switch/
 * Sony
 * /PlayStation 1/
 * /PlayStation 2/
 * /PlayStation 3/
 * /PlayStation 4/
 * Microsoft
 * /Xbox/
 * /Xbox 360/
 * Atari
 * /Atari 2600/
 * /Atari 5200/
 * /Atari 7800/
 * /Atari Jaguar/
 * Sega
 * /Master System/
 * Mega Drive / Genesis
 * /Sega Saturn/
 * /Sega Dreamcast/
 * NEC
 * /PC Engine/
 * /PC-FX/

Handheld Game Consoles

 * Nintendo
 * /Game Boy/
 * /Game Boy Advance/
 * /Pokémon Mini/
 * /Nintendo DS/
 * /Nintendo 3DS/
 * /Nintendo Switch/
 * Sony
 * /PlayStation Portable/
 * /PlayStation Vita/

Computer Systems

 * /PC/
 * /Mac/
 * /Amiga/
 * /MSX/

Misc

 * /MAME/
 * /Recalbox/
 * /Other/

Authors

 * User:RobKohr
 * User:Etscrivner

title: Emulation


text:
Emulation/On Dreamcast

 * Burning MAMED on a Mac
 * Burning discs on a Mac

title: Emulation/On Dreamcast


text:
Emulation/On Dreamcast/Burning discs on a Mac

This is how to burn "ham sandwich" such as DreamSNES, NesterDC, SMEG, MAMED, MAMEDC, and NeoPoccot. (Those are the emulators that I burned using this method, but I am pretty sure that it works with every self-bootable emulator for the Dreamcast.) Making a ROM disc is covered in the second section.

Emulators
Burning a self-bootable emulator for the Dreamcast isn't difficult. These are the tools you need:
 * Mac Pack 4.0
 * Roxio Toast 5, 6, or 7
 * In Toast 7, make sure you have "Show Legacy Formats" turned on in the preferences.
 * A program that can save SimpleText documents, such as jEdit.

First, you will need to download a DiscJuggler image—a .cdi file—of the emulator. Most, if not all, websites have zipped the emulator, and the archive will have to be unzipped by a program such as MacRAR or StuffIt Expander. Once the file is unzipped, open CDIRip 0.5 in the Mac Pack Applications folder and select the .cdi file. Select a file in the directory that you want to save in, and wait until the CDIRip process says "All done, good burning! Click to exit." After this process, you'll have two new files: an audio file and a data file. You will now have to copy the Isofix Config File, which can also be found in the Mac Pack Applications folder. Drag it to where the emulator's files are.

Open the file named CDIRip CDI Analysis with a text editor. (The file was created when the CDIRip process was completed.) Copy the number following "LBA:" of the second session. (It's usually a five-digit number.) Now open the Isofix Config File with a text editor. (It was the file you copied earlier.) Its text should be exactly what follows*:

 * isofix
 * xxxxx
 * mac

Replace whatever number is on the second line (where the x's are in the example) and paste the LBA number that you copied from the CDIRip CDI Analysis file.

Open Isofix 1.3—which is also located in the Mac Pack Applications folder—and it will ask you for the ISO to work with. That would be the data (generally the second) session created by CDIRip 0.5. (In my test, it was called Session 2 Track 02 Data, but that may not be the case for everyone.) It will then ask you for the ISO Config file. Open the now-edited config file and wait for the process to end. (It may take some time, so don't think that your computer has frozen.) Now, when it is done you should notice three new files: bootfile.bin, fixed.iso, and header.iso. Trash <tt>bootfile.bin</tt>: you don't need it.

Open Toast and select Disc Image from the Other menu in Toast 5, or on the left under the Copy tab in Toast 6 and 7. Drag your <tt>fixed.iso</tt> file into Toast and burn it as Write Session. (In Toast 6 and 7, these options are located under the Advanced tab on the screen where you can select the burn speed.) When it is done, close Toast and open it up again. This time, select Multitrack CD-ROM XA and drag <tt>header.iso</tt> into Toast. Burn it as Write Disc.

Insert the disc into your Dreamcast, power it on, and your emulator should load.

ROMs
First you'll need toast (Tested on 5.0) but other versions may work. Create game ROMs from a copy of the game you own if you have not already. Then open up toast. Hold down other and set it to ISO 9660. Drag all of your ROMs to this and make sure you have these settings. Now click done and drag all of your ROMs to toast and burn it as write disk.
 * CD-ROM, ISO9660 Level 1,
 * Append version numbers checked
 * Use Apple extensions unchecked

First download the plain files then extract them. Make a roms folder and throw all of your roms in that folder. Now open toast and select ISO 9660. Make sure you follow these exact settings...

Insert the bootdisc then the switch the disc with the emu.


text:
Quantum Mechanics/Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that the product of uncertainties in related physical quantities (e.g. position and momentum, energy and time, etc.) has a finite lower bound. This arises from the fact that the momentum and position operators do not commute. A common misunderstanding is that in simple terms this means that a measurement for position disturbs the momentum of a particle, and a measurement for the momentum of a particle disturbs its position. All of this information is false.

In other words, if you know the position of a particle and you measure the momentum, it disturbs the position - thus you are less certain of its position. This is incorrect.

In actuality, the uncertainty arises from fundamental underlying physical laws governing physical systems which can be measured. Particles have a fundamental dual nature and may be considered either a point source or a probability distribution of position depending upon what one is trying to accomplish by interacting with the particle.

Repeated measurements of particles in known/delivered states will give a distribution range governed by a probability function for either of the two conjugate properties, position (x) or momentum (p). The Uncertainty Principle gives a mathematically provable lower bound of the product of the uncertainty (error or deviation from a precise center of the probability wave law) in the measured conjugate properties.

$$\Delta x\Delta p \ge\frac{\hbar}{2}=\frac{\frac{h}{2\pi}}{2}\, $$ where $$\pi \approx 3.14 $$ and h is Planck's constant with $$\hbar$$ being Planck's reduced constant.

Thus the precision with which one can know one property is related mathematically to what is known of the conjugate property. If position is known with great precision for a specific particle or wave then the conjugate momentum is not known with a precision greater than that allowed by the lower bound provided by the Uncertainty Principle equation shown above.

Here is the derivation for the general uncertainty principle for two operators, A and B, that do not commute.

Let iC be the commutator of A and B:

[A,B] = iC

Furthermore, A and B are Hermitian operators. Recall the definition of the uncertainties:

$$\left(\Delta A\right)^{2} = \langle\left(A- \langle A\rangle\right)^{2}\rangle $$

$$\left(\Delta B\right)^{2} = \langle\left(B- \langle B\rangle\right)^{2}\rangle $$

To do:

Find a mathematically simple derivation of uncertainty principle and provide it here.

Find an intuitive example and provide here.

Provide a variety of equivalent derivations using different techniques to allow understanding by widest possible audience.

External links: Wikipedia:Uncertainty Principle


text:
Use the Source/Counter-Culture

"Linux is something for Windows haters, BSD is something for Unix lovers" - Heike S., February 1998

"Linux people do what they do because they hate Microsoft. We do what we do because we love Unix." - Theo de Raadt, founder of OpenBSD, [http://www.forbes.com/intelligentinfrastructure/2005/06/16/linux-bsd-unix-cz_dl_0616theo.html quoted in "Is Linux For Losers?" at Forbes.com]

"I view Linux as something that's not Microsoft-a backlash against Microsoft, no more and no less." - Ken Thompson, 1999

 * Here are more slogans taken from Transwiki:Useful unix command.

Linux: the choice of a GNU generation.

Windows: where do you want to go today? Linux: where do you want to go tomorrow?

This program has performed an illegal operation and will be shut down: please reboot using Linux.

``When you say `I wrote a program that crashed Windows', people just stare at you blankly and say `Hey, I got those with the system, for free '.'' - Linus Torvalds

Windows 2000, from the company that brought you EDLIN!

Linux: because rebooting is for adding new hardware.

Your mouse has moved. Windows NT must be restarted for the change to take effect. Reboot now [OK]?

Linux: transforms your microcomputer into a workstation. Windows NT: transforms your workstation into a microcomputer.

title: Use the Source/Counter-Culture


text:
Cookbook:Bouillabaisse

| French cuisine

Bouillabaisse is a traditional fish stew originating from the port city of Marseille. It is made by boiling several species of fish with herbs and vegetables. The broth is then served as a soup poured over bread seasoned with rouille (a spicy French mayonnaise) with the fish and vegetables served separately. The exact proportions of these ingredients vary by cook and region.

The Charte de la Bouillabaisse Marseillaise (the Charter of Marseillaise Bouillabaisse ) was signed in 1980 by 11 restaurants in France in an attempt to standardize the definition of a bouillabaisse. According to the charter, bouillabaisse must be prepared with at least four of the following fish: monkfish, John Dory, galinette (or gunard), mullett, rascasse, conger eel, and chapon (rascasse rouge, or red scorpion fish). Most versions will contain at least rascasse to be considered authentic.

Ingredients
This recipe comes from one of the most traditional Marseille restaurants, Grand Bar des Goudes on Rue Désirée-Pelleprat.

Broth

 * 660 g whole cleaned sea robin
 * 660 g whole cleaned scorpionfish
 * 660 g whole cleaned red gurnard
 * 660 g whole cleaned conger
 * 660 g whole cleaned lotte, or monkfish
 * 660 g whole cleaned John Dory
 * 1 live octopus (optional), cleaned and cut into pieces
 * 10 sea urchins
 * 1 kg of potatoes, peeled and cut into large slices
 * 7 cloves of garlic
 * 3 onions, sliced
 * 5 ripe tomatoes, peeled, quartered and without seeds
 * 1 cup of olive oil
 * 1 bouquet garni
 * 1 branch of fennel
 * 8 threads of saffron
 * 10 slices of country bread
 * Salt
 * Cayenne pepper

Rouille

 * 1 egg yolk
 * 2 cloves of garlic
 * 1 cup of olive oil
 * 10 threads of saffron
 * Salt
 * Cayenne pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Scale the fish and wash them, if possible, in sea water. Cut them into large slices, leaving the bones.
 * 2) Warm the olive oil in a large, deep saucepan.
 * 3) Add the onions, along with 6 cloves of crushed garlic, the octopus pieces and tomatoes. Brown at low heat turning gently for 5 minutes.
 * 4) Add the fish slices; first the large slices then the smaller ones. Cover with boiling water and add salt, pepper, fennel, the bouquet garni and saffron. Simmer at a low heat, stirring from time to time so the fish doesn't stick to the pan. Correct the seasoning. Remove the bouillabaise from the heat once the oil and water have thoroughly blended with the other ingredients. This should take about twenty minutes.
 * 5) Prepare the rouille: Use a mortar to crush the garlic cloves into a fine paste after removing the stems. Add the egg yolk and the saffron, then blend in the olive oil little by little to make a mayonnaise, stirring it with the pestle.
 * 6) Cook the potatoes in salted water for 15 to 20 minutes. Open the sea urchins with a pair of scissors and remove the roe with a small spoon.
 * 7) Arrange the fish on a platter. Add the sea urchin roe into the broth and stir.
 * 8) Rub several slices of bread with garlic and spread a tablespoon of rouille on each. Place at least two slices per serving bowl.
 * 9) Remove the fish and potatoes from the broth and place them on a large serving platter.
 * 10) Pour the hot broth in each bowl containing a slice of bread smothered in rouille. Then serve the fish and the potatoes on a separate platter.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Finding all the species of fish listed above may be difficult. If so, substitute any combination of four of five species with firm, white flesh.
 * Serve this dish without rouille to reduce the fat and cholesterol in this dish.

title: Cookbook:Bouillabaisse


text:
Cookbook:Herring

| Seafood

A herring is a type of small oily fish found in the temperate, shallow waters of the North Atlantic. A smaller variant lives in the Baltic Sea.

Herring can be cooked in the usual ways for small fish - fried, grilled or baked.

Herrings can also be pickled and served in a sour cream sauce.

A kipper is a split and smoked herring, and a bloater is a whole smoked herring. Both are staples of British cuisine.

A typical Dutch delicacy is raw herring (actually enzyme-cured) with raw shredded onions. To stop parasites, the herring has to be deep-frozen before the curing process.

In Sweden, Baltic herring is fermented to make surströmming. Herring soup is also a traditional soup.

In Germany, North Sea herring is pickled to make Matjes, or soused herring.

A rollmop is a cured herring fillet, rolled up and preserved in vinegar which is flavoured with onions and spices.

title: Cookbook:Herring


text:
Cookbook:Pine Nut

Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pine trees. Commercially, most pine nuts are harvested from the Korean Pine; other important species include the Stone Pine in the Mediterranean area, the Colorado Pinyon and the Single-leaf Pinyon in southwestern North America. Several other species are of lesser importance. They are high in protein, and are also a source of dietary fibre. Pine nuts are considered by many to be an essential component of pesto, and are frequently added to meat, fish, and vegetable dishes. They are also used in chocolates and desserts such as baklava.

title: Cookbook:Pine Nut


text:
User:Akir~enwikibooks

Akir
I havn't yet put anything here, and am unlikely to do so.

title: User:Akir~enwikibooks


text:
SAT Study Guide

 * This book is about the SAT Reasoning Test taken in the United States. If you are looking for SATs Study Guide taken in UK, see SATs Study Guide

 * /Introduction/
 * 1) Strategies for Test-takers
 * 2) The Math Section
 * 3) General Numerical Concepts
 * 4) Concepts from Geometry
 * 5) Concepts from Algebra
 * 6) Concepts from Algebra 2
 * 7) Word Problems
 * 8) General Math Review
 * 9) The Critical Reading Section
 * 10) Sentence Completion
 * 11) Passage-based Reading
 * 12) General Critical Reading Review
 * 13) The Writing Section
 * 14) The Essay
 * 15) Improving Sentences
 * 16) Identifying Sentence Errors
 * 17) Improving Paragraphs
 * 18) General Writing Review
 * 19) Practice Tests
 * 20) Practice Test 1
 * 21) Practice Test 2
 * 22) Practice Test 3

title: SAT Study Guide


text:
Use the Source/Elite Hackers

Try to go back to the origins of the names for as many common hacking terms; things like hacking, cracking, phreaking, l33t speak and the like.

Hackers versus Crackers

The quick run-down:

 * most hackers have university level training in computer sciences while crackers are largely untrained in any formal environment - predominately self-taught or peer reviewed.
 * crackers are viewed as pests by hackers while hackers are ignored or mocked by crackers
 * hackers build things while crackers break things (as in security)
 * Phreakers (a.k.a. phreaks), Phreaking - Phone intercepts, phone cracking, gaining control over phone networks.

Script Kitties

Script Kids, 'kiddies', or "kitties", use premade scripts in order to do as much damage as possible, these scripts are typically made by crackers so as to expand the amount of damage they do, without having to go to the work of actually cracking machines themselves.

Data Mining, (Ro)Bots: Some scripts -'Bots', replicate themselves, seek out specific information or data, copy it, and forward that information to a captive storage space on computers that have been previously taken over by the script kiddies ('owned', or 'Bot'ed', systems).

Sometimes involved in DataMining (a database search for keywords, email addresses), the 'bots' can reside in the "background' in a compromised computer, logging keystrokes, or collecting data, and forwarding it, until that computer is thoroughly cleaned of the bots by a knowledgeable technician.

title: Use the Source/Elite Hackers


text:
SAT Study Guide/Introduction

What is the SAT?
The SAT Reasoning Test, formerly the SAT I: Reasoning Test, is a college entrance examination administered several times a year by the non-profit College Board. The exam is used by many colleges and universities in the United States, among other factors, to determine acceptance into undergraduate school. The SAT is not the only test you can take for college admission, but it is the most widely used. The other most common test is the ACT. Interestingly, SAT does not stand for anything (neither does ACT). If you plan to attend college after graduating from high school, the SAT is one of the most important tests you will ever take. You should be sure to take it seriously and study hard, using books such as this one.

The SAT is a timed test of approximately 3 hours and 45 minutes, divided into three sections: the Math section, the Critical Reading section, and the Writing section, which includes a written essay. Each section is graded on a scale of 200-800. Scaling allows the College Board to correct minor variations in difficulty between versions of the tests. On the test itself, there are ten sets of questions: three from each section. Each section has a different time limit; each question has five answers. One of the Writing section sets is the essay, which is also always Section 1. One of the sections is known as an equating section and does not count in anyway towards your score; it is used to test new questions and compare the difficulty of different exams.

Until recently, the SAT had only two sections. The Writing section was added in 2005 and the other two sections were overhauled. As a result, you now have to use concepts from Algebra 2 in the Math section, but analogies have been removed from Critical Reading. Collectively, the new test is referred to as the New SAT. The maximum possible score on the new test is 2400. According to the College Board, only 107 students out of 330,000 scored a perfect score on the date of its first administration on March 12, 2005.

How is the SAT scored?
The SAT is scored in a different manner than most tests you are probably used to. On the SAT, a grading theory is used where the student begins with a raw score of zero. You earn 1 point for each correct answer, lose 1/4 of a point for each wrong answer, and receive no credit (but also lose no points) for leaving a question blank. However, note also that there are 10 questions in the math section which require you to provide your own numerical answer; fortunately, no points are deducted for wrong answers on these questions. The raw score is then converted using a chart developed by the College Board into a scaled score. Note that although scores under 200 are possible, the College Board cancels all scores which fall into this category.

For the essay, a special method of scoring is used. The essay is scanned into a computer and transmitted over the internet to approved graders. Two graders read your essay and give you a score of 0-6. A zero score is only awarded if your answer is completely off topic. If the two scores are more than one point apart, a third grader plays tie-breaker. The two scores are added together (or the third grader's score is doubled) to produce a score in the range of 0-12. This score is then used in conjunction with your writing multiple-choice raw score to produce the scaled score.

The reason for this method of grading is that the College Board's exam writers understand you are not likely to be able to answer every question on the test. They also know that guessing on these tests would ruin the accuracy of the scores. The loss of points for wrong answers is known as the guessing penalty.

How do I take the SAT?
You can register for the SAT in one of two ways, either via the College Board's website or by obtaining a mail-in registration form from your high school's counseling center.

Detailed instructions for registering and other related information are available from either location. Make sure to save a copy of your Admission Ticket and to bring it with you to the testing center, along with a Photo ID. It is recommended that you register online, as this will automatically tie your registration to an online account. About 4 weeks after you take the test, your score will then become available online, and you will be able to easily view it.

There are several options available: You can choose to order the Question and Answer Service, which provides you with your answer to each question, the correct answer, and the question itself, as well as why each answer is the correct one. You may also order the College Board's SAT Online Course. Other official study guides are available, and their purchase is up to you.

How do I get my scores?
Scores first become available online about 2 weeks after the date on which you took the test. After about 3 weeks, you will receive a Score Report in the mail, detailing your performance. If you registered online, you will simply need to log in to your College Board website account and click View my Scores in the My Organizer pane. If not, you will need to set up an account. You will need the SAT registration identification number found on your Admission Ticket, and all other related information. The website will provide with complete instructions on exactly what to do.

title: SAT Study Guide/Introduction


text:
Talk:Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Katakana/Lesson 2

Untitled
This contains charicters that learners won't know yet, だくてん. I myself am a learner, so I cannot put it in romanji, so I ask thr public to do so for me. -Akir


text:
Talk:Instructional Technology/Project Based Learning

I've seen PBL used to discuss problem based learning.

JSumara


text:
User:John-1107~enwikibooks

 * 1) REDIRECT Wikimedia Meta-Wiki John-1107

title: User:John-1107~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Hermits

| Desserts

Hermits are chewy molasses spice cookies. This version is on the strong side of the spectrum so those who prefer less hot-tasting food should hold back on the cloves and ginger.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (275 g/9.7 oz) all-purpose flour
 * ⅔ cup (65 g) seedless raisins (a handful more if you like them)
 * ⅔ cup (120 g) packed dark brown sugar
 * 2½ teaspoons ground ginger
 * 2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
 * 1 teaspoon ground cloves
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ cup (175 g) molasses
 * 6 tablespoons butter, melted
 * 2 teaspoons vanilla extract
 * 1 egg

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 375°F/190°C.
 * 2) Line a sheet pan with parchment paper.
 * 3) In a large bowl, stir together flour, raisins, brown sugar, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, baking powder, and salt until well combined; watch the brown sugar to ensure that it doesn't clump—it will want to do so and brown sugar clumps coated in flour look a lot like raisins coated in flour.
 * 4) Stir in molasses, butter, vanilla, and egg until fully integrated. Shape the dough in two strips (approximately 6 x) separated by at least 1.5 in on the sheet pan.
 * 5) Bake for 12–15 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted into the center of the strips comes out dry.
 * 6) Allow to cool slightly then remove the hermits (on their parchment) to cooling racks to cool completely; be sure the bottoms have cooled (just reach under and feel—if its more than a little warmer than room temperature its not there yet).
 * 7) Move the hermits (still on their parchment) to a counter for portioning and removal from parchment. Cut hermits into 1.5 in wide strips (a pizza cutter should work well) then carefully scrape them away from the parchment with a good thin spatula.
 * 8) Enjoy with a glass of milk or a nice cup of tea.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Although nice when warm these hermits will be even better after a night in an air-tight tin. They should last about a week.
 * A buttered sheet pan works if you have no parchment, but it makes cooling and cutting more difficult and damaging to the sheet pan.

title: Cookbook:Hermits


text:
Cookbook:Fusion cuisines

The following cuisines are fusions of two or more other cuisines:

 * Tex-Mex
 * California cuisine
 * Nikkei cuisine
 * Chifa cuisine

title: Cookbook:Fusion cuisines


text:
Cookbook:Wonton Wrappers

| Asian Cuisine

Wonton wrappers are thin pasta-like wrappers used for wontons. They are suitable for wonton soup. Oversize (7-inch / 45 cm square) wrappers may be used as egg roll wrappers. Round wrappers are best for making potstickers.

Most people will prefer to buy wrappers ready-made. This is especially easy for wontons, because egg roll wrappers may be cut in quarters to make wonton wrappers. Look in a supermarket near the tofu and Asian mushrooms.

For the stubbornly determined expert cook though, here is a recipe.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups flour
 * 1 egg
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * ⅓–½ cups water

Procedure

 * 1) Sift flour and salt into a large bowl; create a well-like indentation in the center.
 * 2) Beat egg lightly, pour into indentation in the flour and mix well.
 * 3) Sprinkle with cold water, wet your hands, and knead the mixture into a smooth dough.
 * 4) Place dough in a bowl and cover with a damp cloth, refrigerate for 30 minutes to an hour.
 * 5) Sprinkle a wide work area or board with flour. Roll out the dough until it is paper thin and its edges are even in thickness. The wonton skins will be partially transparent.
 * 6) Cut dough in 2–3-inch (5–7.5 cm) strips, flour lightly, then stack one on top of the other and cut the strips into 2–3-inch (5–7.5 cm) squares.
 * 7) Place skins on tray and cover with a damp cloth until ready to use.

Recipes

 * Potsticker (Gyoza) (circles are best; hexagons may make sense)
 * Wonton Soup
 * Egg Roll (make 7-inch / 18 cm) squares)

title: Cookbook:Wonton Wrappers


text:
SAT Study Guide/Part 2 - The Math Section

Introduction to the Math section
The Math section of the SAT covers several areas: first, it covers general concepts concerning numbers which you are expected to know. Second, it encompasses geometry, especially the properties of angles. Often, parts of the first two are used in coordination with the third area, Algebra. Also, some concepts from Algebra 2, particularly second degree equations, are tested as well.

The Math section contains, in general, around 50 questions. Each question has five answers. However, the Math section is different in that ten of these questions do not have multiple-choice answers. You are required to grid in your answers on these questions. Don't worry- they are similar to the other types of questions; make sure and study the probability portions of Chapter 1. Several different types of answers are allowed on this section.

Although the New SAT contains more straightforward math questions, you must still become used to solving unusual problems involving logic. This logic will build on general rules you can learn in the chapters listed above. The reason is linked to the College Board's philosophy about the test; they see it as more of an aptitude test than an assessment test. In the end, no one can teach you the logic behind the test, but you can study hard, and that will improve your score a lot.

Chapters

 * 1) General Numerical Concepts
 * 2) Concepts from Geometry
 * 3) Concepts from Algebra
 * 4) Concepts from Algebra 2
 * 5) General Math Review


text: Template:SAT Study Guide/parts

title: Template:SAT Study Guide/parts