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Cookbook talk:Salmon

Maybe someone could get a pic of a whole salmon? 91.155.157.163 10:14, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Wikidata item for a Cookbook resource page about Salmon
I was considering linking this item with but considering that this is a project page of the Cookbook it is too specific. If it was a general Wikibooks resource page(don't know if you have those in the Wikibooks community) then I could link it and from that resource page it could link to this page. So this is what I think: this page gets its own unique Wikidata item and if a resource page about Salmon comes up in the future it will get linked to. If you have an opinion on my decision please provide feedback. LotsofTheories (discuss • contribs) 08:20, 7 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Salmon


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Cookbook:Hake in Herby Breadcrumbs

Hake in herby breadcrumbs is a fairly simple way of serving hake, or any other white fish. It has a nice crunchy texture and subtle flavours from the herbs and pine nuts. It's easily scalable. The details here are for two servings.

Breadcrumb mix

 * 1 cup breadcrumbs
 * ½ cup chopped herbs (e.g. parsley, tarragon, etc.)
 * 1 tablespoon pine nuts
 * 2 tablespoons avocado oil or olive oil
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Fish

 * 2 ea. (200 g) hake fillets
 * 1 egg, beaten
 * Lemon juice

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat the oven to gas mark 4.
 * 2) Mix together the breadcrumb ingredients in a food processor, adding the oil last. It should be a slightly moist mixture.
 * 3) Dip each hake fillet in beaten egg, then in the breadcrumb mix. Try to get the fillet evenly coated.
 * 4) Place each fillet in a gratin dish, drizzling a little oil on top.
 * 5) Bake in the oven for 20 minutes until the breadcrumbs are browned.
 * 6) Sprinkle some lemon juice on top.
 * 7) Serve with a dressed salad.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Hake in Herby Breadcrumbs


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English as an Additional Language/Pronunciation

Consonants
The symbols used for consonants are shown in the following table. Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the left is voiceless, the one to the right voiced.

Received Pronunciation
Received Pronunciation is the prestige British accent, sometimes referred to as BBC English. It is used as the standard in most media within Great Britain.

Full vowels
Full vowels are those that appear in stressed syllables.

Reduced vowels
Reduced vowels occur in unstressed syllables.
 * : roses
 * : Rosa’s, runner
 * : bottle
 * : button
 * : rhythm

General American
General American is the standardized accent of the United States, and is the dialect most commonly used in spoken media there.

Full vowels
Note: the vowels and  are usually diphthongal, so the transcriptions  and  are also often used.

Reduced vowels

 * : roses (for many Americans merged with )
 * : Rosa’s
 * : runner
 * : bottle
 * : button
 * : rhythm

Reduced vowels

 * : roses, Rosa’s, runner
 * : bottle
 * : button
 * : rhythm


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Cookbook:Chinese Rice Porridge (Congee)

Congee is a type of rice porridge eaten across Asia. It may also be called juk, zhou, ganji, or other similar variations.

Base

 * 220 g (7.75 oz) round rice, washed and drained
 * 2.5 L (10 ½ cups) water or chicken broth
 * Light soy sauce, to personal preference
 * Sesame oil, to personal preference
 * White pepper, to personal preference

Garnish

 * 3 spring onions, chopped
 * 4 tbsp freshly-chopped coriander leaves
 * 2 tbsp toasted sesame seeds
 * 30 g (1 oz) sliced ginger

Procedure

 * 1) Put the rice in a pan and add the bouillon or water. Bring to a boil.
 * 2) Turn down the heat and leave over low heat for 1 hour and 45 minutes to 2 hours, or until all the rice has turned into a mash.
 * 3) Add soy sauce and sesame oil and flavor with white pepper.
 * 4) Finally, add the toppings according to personal preference.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Do not overwash the rice, as doing so will wash out the starch, and the congee will not congeal properly. Congee can be made with most types of rice, to help other types of rice to break up, after washing drain and mix in a tea spoon of vegetable oil, then add the rice to the water after having brought the pot to the boil. If you are in a rush, initially start with about a third of the liquid you need, adding the remainder as you cook.
 * Once the rice had turned into a mush and has released all its starch, a soup can be made by skimming off the top layer of liquid. You will only get one good bowl of this soup per pot of congee, and it is valued as a food for convalescents and babies.
 * Instead of bouillon, a chicken carcass or pork bones can be added to the cooking water, the congee creates its own stock as it cooks. If using bones, blanch and wash under cold water before use.
 * Very hot plain congee can be used to cook raw meat and fish (either thinly sliced or diced), which is then eaten with the congee. Among the traditional Chinese favourites are sliced grass carp, sliced lean pork, sliced pork liver, diced beef and diced chicken breast.
 * The two traditional companions to breakfast congee are plain soya sauce chow mein and youtiao.

title: Cookbook:Chinese Rice Porridge (Congee)


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User talk:24.12.93.108

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:32, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.12.93.108


text:
User talk:Gargamel573~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:46, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome to wikibooks, Gargamel573. I hear (from Reading_room/Technical_Assistance ) that you are starting a new wiki. Congratulations. Have you considered posting a link to the WikiIndex http://WikiIndex.org/ to help people searching for a wiki like yours to find it? --DavidCary 19:55, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Gargamel573. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Gargamel573~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:11, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:59, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gargamel573~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Slckellett

Please review our naming policy for when you start new pages. More useful stuff below:

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:04, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Slckellett


text: User talk:Iamabove

title: User talk:Iamabove


text:
User talk:TainanTomaz

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:07, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:TainanTomaz


text:
User talk:Galen rhodes

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:07, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Galen rhodes


text:
User talk:N734LQ~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:08, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called N734LQ. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name N734LQ~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:N734LQ~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 2.6/Defining Functions

Hello, there is an error on the exercise, where at the one write "q" the program says "Unrecognized option." so it mus says nothing or good bye, w/e. it should says at the code elif choice == q:       print "",

and it will go out quietly,

thanks for this nice tutorial!!

 * I think the print "", might confuse people, so I changed it to a plain print statement. It's a bit of a pity having to handle the q choice case in two places here (while and elif) because we don't know break yet. Apart from that the elif colon was missing. --Siebengang 09:27, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Different or more wording needed
"Inside of the function a_var is 15 since the function is called with a_func(b_var). Since at that point in time b_var is 15, the call to the function is a_func(15) This ends up setting a_var to 15 when it is inside of a_func."
 * I think this is important enough to be explained in greater detail. --Charlesrkiss 3 April 2008
 * I tried to expand upon it somewhat to try and reinforce the point. --Tehdrago (talk) 15:15, 16 November 2008 (UTC)
 * I do not consider myself a stupid man, and have understood everything so far, but I have been stuck on this for two days. Why does defining C_VAR define a_var? Why does it "recognize" b_var as 15 while previously totally ignoring a_var? Why is a_func(b_var) a legitimate way to define something while the above a_func(a_var) is totally ignored? This is giving me a nosebleed and I can't for the love of God figure it out. Please help.

"When eliminating repeated code, you often have variables in the repeated code. In Python, these are dealt with in a special way."
 * I find the wording here a bit confusing, I'm still not sure what was trying to be stated, even after having re-read it several times. --Tehdrago (talk) 15:15, 16 November 2008 (UTC)


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Basic Geography/Geographic Information Systems

Geographic Information Systems are an ever increasing branch of geography, and came about with the move from paper maps or cartography to digital maps or databases of geographic information. These allowed people to start to analyse geographic information far more quickly, and have developed into an industry in its own right.


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gregorovitch

Overview
Gregorovitch is a wand-maker, possibly equal in ability to Mr. Ollivander, who apparently set up shop in the northern part of Eastern Europe.

Goblet of Fire
At the Weighing of the Wands ceremony, prior to the First Task of the Triwizard Tournament, Mr. Ollivander is called in to check that the Champions' wands are functioning correctly and up to full power. He recognizes Viktor Krum's wand instantly as a "Gregorovitch creation".

Deathly Hallows
After his escape from Privet Drive, Harry Potter has "dreams" in which he shares some of Lord Voldemort's thoughts. Voldemort is looking for one Gregorovitch. Harry does not immediately remember this name, though it rings faint bells. It is at the wedding of Bill and Fleur, when a disguised Harry is talking to Viktor Krum, that he remembers that Krum's wand was made by Gregorovitch. Krum says that it was one of the last ones made by him, as he had retired.

Harry continues to have dreams about Voldemort's quest for Gregorovitch, including one in which Voldemort questions, and then kills, a woman who dares to say she doesn't know where he went. Finally, Voldemort reaches Gregorovitch, and questions him regarding some item which he supposedly had. Gregorovitch denies having had it, but Voldemort uses Legilimency to read Gregorovitch's memory of a blond thief who had stolen it from his workshop. We do not see the item that had been stolen. Harry, seeing this memory, believes it must be very small. Having retrieved this memory, Voldemort then kills Gregorovitch.

At the end of the book, it is revealed that the object that Gregorovitch had owned and which had been stolen from him was the Elder Wand or the Deathstick, a legendary wand that could not be defeated in a duel. Ollivander tells Harry that Gregorovitch had spread the rumour that he owned this wand and was examining it to determine its secrets, probably in order to enhance his reputation as a wandmaker. The wand was stolen from him by Gellert Grindelwald.

Analysis
It is telling that Ollivander so quickly recognizes Gregorovitch's work, and that he is so well acquainted with Gregorovitch's history. Hagrid makes a comment in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone that leads us to believe that Ollivander is not the only wandmaker, but certainly the best, though we don't ever learn whether this means the best in the world, the best in Britain, or the best in Diagon Alley. It is true that Ron and Neville both seem to take some pride in having received wands from Ollivander's. Based on that analysis, we can guess that Ollivander is likely at the top of his profession, in London at the very least, and thus his ready knowledge of Gregorovitch and his efforts would indicate that Gregorovitch equally is a master wandmaker for Eastern Europe.


text:
User:Kriswarry

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Urbane  (Talk)   (Contributions)  20:30, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Kriswarry


text:
Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pachycephalosaurus

Pachycephalosaurus was a dinosaur which lived in the late Cretaceous period in North America. It gave it's name to a group of dinosaurs called the Pachycephalosauridae. It is most famous for its oddly-shaped head, which has a very unique look.

Anatomy
Pachycephalosaurus was a dome-headed dinosaur. Its huge head housed an incredibly thick skull, a tiny brain, and large eyes. Its rounded skull was up to 10 inches thick (25 cm).

Pachycephalosaurus grew to be about 15 feet long (4.6 m) and may have weighed roughly 950 pounds (430 kg). Pachycephalosaurus probably had a good sense of smell. It had bumpy knobs on its snout and along the rear of its skull. This plant-eater had short forelimbs and a stiff tail (which had a distinctive mesh of interwoven tendons surrounding its rear portion).

What did they look like?
The Pachycephalosaurus was 15-16 feet long. It stood on two legs and had two short arms with five fingers each. However, the most notable thing about its appearance was the large dome on top of its head. This skull was almost a foot thick. It was covered with armor and spikes.

What did they eat?
The Pachycephalosaurus was a vegetarian, despite its intimidating appearance. From its teeth, we have been able to get a good idea of the diet it ate. It is believed to have eaten mostly tough plants, but also sometimes fruit and seeds.

When did they live?
Pachycephalosaurus lived from about 70 to 65 million years ago (Cretaceous) in the Mesozoic era. It was among the last of the dinosaurs to evolve. Like all other dinosaurs that lived at the same time as it, it became extinct about 65 million years ago because of an unknown cause.

How did they move?
Pachycephalosaurus walked on two legs, and was not a very fast dinosaur. When it walked or ran, it probably held its back level to the ground. It may have gone on all fours to forage for low-lying plants.

What was their habitat?
The Pachycephalosaurus was the dinosaur equivalent of many large vegetarians today. It is believed that they lived in a forest in the Cretaceous period.

Where were their fossils found?
Pachycephalosaurus was discovered in 1938 by William Winkley on the family ranch outside of Ekalaka, Montana, USA. It was named Pachycephalosaurus in 1943 by Barnum Brown and Erich M. Schlaikjer. Although complete fossils are rare, many thick skull fragments have been found. Pachycephalosaurus and other pachycephalosaur fossils have been found in Alberta, Canada, the western United States, the Isle of Wight, Mongolia and Madagascar.

title: Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pachycephalosaurus


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Heat Transfer/Introduction

Introduction to Heat Transfer

This book deals with heat transfer in the engineering context, particularly for chemical and mechanical engineers. It includes the basic physics and technology which is used for heating and cooling in industry. Of course, the principles may be applied in other fields if appropriate, and engineers may deal with new technology quite unlike traditional ones. It is intended as a beginning text for first or second year engineering degree students.

If you add to or amend this (and you are most welcome) please do so either by careful reference to an authoritative textbook, or on the basis of your trustworthy professional experience, if you have this.

Here is a quick run through some basics, which will be covered in more detail in subsequent chapters.

Basic Concepts
Put simply, heat transfer studies the relationship between thermal energy transfer (heat), certain properties and geometry of a material, and the temperature of a material. Such heat transfer analysis is important in several fields of engineering in order to design equipment which will not be subject to damage from high temperatures (such as spacecraft on reentry), determine how long an object takes to reach a certain temperature (for cooking an egg, annealing a metal, cooling a room, or conducting a certain chemical process), or evaluate efficiency of a power plant. From these few examples, it should be clear how important heat transfer as a subject is to many problems a practicing engineer may face.

From introductory thermodynamics courses, we can recall the laws of thermodynamics.

 * Zeroth Law: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 * First Law: When energy passes into or out of a system (as work, heat, or matter), the system's internal energy changes in accordance with the law of conservation of energy. This law is often stated as "energy cannot be created or destroyed".
 * Second Law: In a thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of the interacting thermodynamic systems never decreases. A common corollary of the statement is that heat does not spontaneously pass from a colder body to a warmer body.

Together, these laws form the basic fundamentals and assumptions of heat transfer. That is, stored internal energy can only change if work is done or energy is transferred, and that processes occur based on certain rules based on a property called entropy (most easily described as disorder, inability to do "useful" work, or number of possible particle states), where heat moves from regions of higher temperature to lower temperature. We touch on these topics briefly now as context for the rest of the book. We will reconsider these again in significant detail after discussing some key terms.

Heat transfer in engineering consists of the transfer of heat (or thermal energy) because of a temperature difference (Difference in potential between two points of movement). This transfer of energy results in a change of the stored, or internal energy of an object. There has to be a temperature difference, or no heat transfer occurs.

(If we insist on a change in enthalpy from a cold body to a warm one, we will have to do more work, as in the case of a refrigerator (We are moving up or against the current[defined as natural flow]). This invariably involves some other process, such as mechanical work via outside forces, and cooling by expansion of gases/internal forces, but within the overall activity heat transfer always goes from the warmer to the cooler.)

The temperature difference is called the driving force. Other things being equal, a greater temperature difference will give a greater rate of heat transfer.

Temperature
Temperature is an intensive property: that is it does not depend on the amount of substance. On the Atomic Level, Heat is completely dependent upon the Volume of an Atom, thus: As the volume of an atom increases, so does its capacity to hold heat, as a function of the same as mass can hold cold(the inverse of Enthalpy). Thus one kilogram of copper at 80 °C and 12 kg of copper at 80 °C both have the same Enthalpy. Note that unless we are dealing with radiated heat, it is not normally necessary to change these values to the Absolute Temperature scale. The Celsius temperature is simply defined as the number of kelvin above 273.15 K. If we wish to calculate heat transfer from these blocks of copper to water at 20 °C, it is quite adequate to say the temperature difference is 80 °C - 20 °C = 60 K.  We get the same answer with more effort by saying it is 353 – 293 = 60 K.  (As I am working to the nearest degree, I have omitted the 0.15 K). Temperatures may be given on the Absolute or Celsius temperature scales, but temperature differences should be given in Kelvin. Temperature is also defined as the degree of hotness. It plays an important role in the subject of thermodynamics and heat transfer (i.e.in Thermal energy). Temperature in Algebra can be defined on the number line as the difference in potential between positive and negative infinity, with infinity itself being related to Zero Kelvin, thus it is understood why concepts such as Negative Kelvin, SuperConductors, and other phenomena are able to exist in the Universe. Hence we are also able to infer why Zero Kelvin and SuperConductors, often go hand in hand. (Further reading on Wetting, Cohesiveness, and Adhesiveness in Chemistry and NanoSciences)

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy(or the Rate of Movement) stored in a thermodynamic(^needs to be defined) system. It includes the internal energy, which is a function of temperature, and it's inverse, which is the amount of energy required to make room for it by displacing the environment and establishing its respective volume and pressure(see Partial Gas Pressure, Partial Volume).

example:

$$V_x = V_{tot} \times \frac{p_x}{p_{tot}} = V_{tot} \times \frac{n_x}{n_{tot}}$$ (1.3)

Enthalpy is the preferred expression of a System of measurement as energy changes in many chemical, biological, and physical ways, because it tends to simplify certain descriptions of energy transfer. This is because a change in Enthalpy takes account of energy transferred to the environment through the expansion of an observed System.

Enthalpy is a State Property: the Enthalpy of a System depends upon measurable properties(Completeness) of the system, but not on the incompleteness of the system.

Enthalpy is an extensive property: it depends on the amount of material. Thus 12 kg of copper at 80 °C will have 12 times the enthalpy of one kilogram of the same substance at the same temperature. However, we generally express enthalpy (more properly specific enthalpy) per unit mass. The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal unit and the calorie. The specific enthalpy hence has units of J/kg, or BTU/lb. Enthalpy is theorized to be based entirely upon the volumetric structure of an atom. At such a scale, vacuum of course is present within an the System we would call an Atom, where Kinetic Energy, and other Laws of Physics will of course apply. At this Level of Existence (LOG), Radiation, and other forms of Electromagnetic Radiation, such as Heat, can either be contained or expelled based on the structure of an Atom, which is determined by the most simple equation, E=mv. The Rate of Mass to Volume, will determine the behavior of an atom, while the amount of Mass will determine the radioactivity (due to the ability of a mass to control objects in movement around it (Enthalpy)). If Equillibrium in an atom is lost, then we will observe a Heat Transfer from the internal structure of an Atom, to the External World (Our world). This is due to the Event Horizon of an Atom, and the amount of Total Heat within the Atom. As the Total Heat reaches Equillibrium, and past it (Meaning it spills out the atom quite literally), the Atom will change in Shape and Structure, as a function of the same.

The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. Thus, Change in Enthalpy, ΔH, is a more useful quantity than its absolute value. ΔH of a system is equal to the sum total of all non-mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it. If a body passes from a thermodynamic state A to a thermodynamic state B at the same pressure as A, the heat transferred to the environment B (and thus it's pressure as well) is given by: $$Q=\Delta H=H_{end}-H_{start}$$ Coupled systems, where heat transfer produces changes in pressure or volume (and vice versa) will be treated later in the text.

Tables and graphs are available listing the specific enthalpy of many materials at various thermodynamic states.

For each table, a reference state is chosen. The given Enthalpy can be understood as the amount of energy which would have to be put into the system to raise it from a reference temperature (more precisely, a reference state). For water, a common reference state is 0 °C, atmospheric pressure, with all the water in the liquid phase. A more precise reference state will refer to the neutral state of an atom. Zero Kelvin, Zero Pressure, Equal amounts of Mass and Volume.

The standard state for copper is solid. The standard state for oxygen is gas. As a guide, the standard state is the phase the material would have at normal laboratory conditions of temperature and pressure. However, various engineering disciplines have their own conventions. This of course is changing as we are approaching the Interstellar Era, where most programs will begin to be conducted during Flight, where atmospheric pressures are less of an issue.

At 80 °C, water (at atmospheric pressure) has a specific enthalpy of 391.7 kJ/kg. Therefore one kilogram of liquid water at 80 °C would have an enthalpy of 391.7 kJ, and 7.3 kg would have an enthalpy of 7.3 x 391.7 = 2584 kJ.

There are two components to enthalpy, one due to the temperature, another to the phase. For example, from the above table, liquid water at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 419.1 kJ/kg, but steam at 100 °C has a specific enthalpy of 2675.4 kJ/kg – quite a lot more! The difference, 2257.9 kJ/kg is the enthalpy which has to be put into water to change it from a liquid to a vapour. This quantity is called the enthalpy of vaporization of water, or the latent heat of steam. “Latent” means hidden, because the steam is not hotter than the water, but has all this hidden internal energy which spills out from the inside of the atom to the outside. Thus determining the Event Horizon(or the point at which internal becomes external) of an atom would be based upon the Enthalpy of Vaporization as a function of space, possibly volume, while it's mass would be based upon the amount of movement of the whole system of the atom itself in space. Essentially how far an atom moves in space, versus it's change in state and the Enthalpy required to achieve such a physical reaction. This equation is difficult to reproduce however since particle wave behavior and it's conversion to number theory is still incorrect. Numbers would have to be understood in terms of Quantum Behavior before such an equation could be solved. (Note - The relationship between ration and irrational numbers where everything before the decimal point is rational and everything after is irrational meaning that rational numbers represent particles and irrational numbers represent waves, where the rational number in quantity exceeds the quality of the irrational numbers a state change could occur)

Note that this phenomenon is not restricted to boiling. Water at a temperature of 37 °C has a specific enthalpy of vaporization of 2414 kJ/kg: this heat is taken up if it evaporates at that temperature, which is why sweating cools you down. A heat exchange occurs similar to gases and liquids (refer to equation 1.3) where gases within a liquid are free to ionize into a gaseous state, after which an equilibrium is reached, then begin to return to a non-ionized and soluble state as a solid once more. With Enthalpy, the heat is transferred into the liquid, (presumably from a solid form of water, possible within a cell, specifically the nucleus) after which point it reaches its radioactive state(heat when outside of an atom), whereafter an equilibrium is reached, then begins to return back to its non-radioactive or internal state from an external environment.

Similarly, when ice at 0 °C melts to water at 0 °C it requires the input of heat to match its latent heat of melting, or enthalpy of crystallization.

Thus (according to this convention) liquid water at 0 °C has zero enthalpy. Ice at the same temperature has a negative enthalpy. Other tables may give enthalpy relative to Absolute Zero, 0.0 K, or to a laboratory temperature of 298 K. In terms of Radiation, Enthalpy would technically still be present within an atom until it again reaches a gaseous state after becoming a solid[meaning it was a plasma for a split second])This would only be possible if a perfect lattice of the atomic structure were to form, and would be dependent upon the surroundings of the material in question).

Chemical engineers sometimes use the ambient temperature (i.e. the temperature of the surroundings) as a reference condition – perhaps 10 °C in a cold country, 30 °C in a hot country. This means that all material stored or added to a system at ambient temperature has zero enthalpy and they only have to worry about things that are hotter or colder. This can simplify the energy balance. This is only useful on Earth of course. Any program of Mars would require a complete overhaul of this past system. Atoms since their natural state is always preserved despite the external world which we live in,(meaning essentially an atom's internal enthalpy and entropy remain constant despite outside influences [unless somehow it is radioactive]) it would be much more intelligent to use such a system as the new system of constants for measuring enthalpy, and other useful tidbits which will definitely be required in Space Flight and on Mars.

Heat capacity or specific heat
If we have to heat something up (without a phase change), for example 12 kg of copper from 20 °C to 80 °C, the amount of enthalpy we have to put in depends on three things.

(1) The temperature difference to be achieved, in this case 60 K.

(2) The mass, in this case 12 kg.

(3) A property of the substance called specific heat capacity, which is a measure of how much energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg by 1 K.

So, we have: $$H=mc_p\Delta T$$

The subscript $$_p$$ remembers that the value of specific heat capacity is valid only if the transformation takes place at constant pressure. In practice, only for gases there's a relevant difference between constant-pressure specific heat and specific heat for other transformations (e.g. constant volume, polythropics...). Solids and liquids have only one value of specific heat capacity. For example, copper has a specific heat capacity of 0.383 kilojoules per kilogram per kelvin (0.383 kJ kg-1 K-1). Therefore we have to put in 0.383 x 12 x 60 = 276 kJ.

If on the other hand, we had to heat up 12 kg of water from 20 °C to 80 °C, we would use the specific heat capacity of water, 4.184 kJ kg-1 K-1, and our calculation would be: 4.184 x 12 x 60 = 3012 kJ.

Note that these terms tend to be used loosely. What is properly the specific heat capacity is often referred to as the specific heat or the heat capacity. If in doubt, look at the units. Technically the heat capacity refers to the whole body, the specific heat capacity to a mass – in the SI system one kilogram. In thermodynamic tables, data is sometimes given per mole or kilomole instead of per kilogram, especially for gases. You may also come across older data in which the obsolete unit the calorie (= 4.184 J) is used and the mass is one gram. Sorry, but you will have to convert. Always look at the units.

The definition of specific heat capacity allows to write, for a pressure-constant transformation: $$Q=\Delta H=mc_p\Delta T$$

Pressure-constant transformations in heat transfer problems, are often heat exchanges between a fluid and other fluids or solids, e.g. in a heat exchanger. In these cases, mass $$m$$ is not constant, because it's flowing. So, we have to refer not to mass, but to mass flow rate $$\dot{m}$$, and not to energy $$Q$$ but to power $$\dot{Q}$$. Hence:

$$\dot{Q}=\dot{m}c_p\Delta T$$

A simple calculation
Suppose 15 kg of cu at 80 °C is put into a bath of 25 kg of water at 20 °C, and there are no heat losses to the surrounding. What will be the final condition?

Answer Both the copper and the water will have the same temperature, somewhere between 20 °C and 80 °C. The total enthalpy will be unchanged.

Let us take the reference condition as 20 °C. Thus the water has zero enthalpy, and the copper has 15 x (80-20) x 0.383 = 344.7 kJ. This is the enthalpy of the system.

Now the total heat capacity of the system is (mass x specific heat capacity of copper) + (mass x specific heat capacity of water) = (15 x 0.383) + (25 x 4.184) = 5.75 + 104.6 = 110.4 kJ K-1

In other words, it would take 110.4 kJ of enthalpy to raise the temperature of the whole system by 1 K (= 1°C).

Therefore adding 344.7 kJ of enthalpy would raise the temperature of the system by 344.7 ÷ 110.4 = 3.1 K, so the final temperature would be 23.1 °C.

Looking at this a different way, we can see that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.184 ÷ 0.383 = 10.92 times greater. Thus 15 kg of copper has the heat capacity of only 15 ÷ 10.92 = 1.37 kg of water. Thus adding this amount of water to 25 kg would dilute the 60 K temperature difference as 60 x 1.37 ÷ 26.37 = 3.1 K.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms
There are three modes of Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. Conduction is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy through a material without bulk motion of the material. This phenomenon is fundamentally a diffusion process that occurs at the microscopic level. Convection is concerned with the transfer of thermal energy in a moving fluid (liquid or gas). Convection is characterized by two physical principles, conduction (diffusion) and bulk fluid motion (advection). The bulk fluid motion can be caused by an external force, for example, a fan, or may be due to buoyancy effects. Finally, Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through electro-magnetic waves (or photons). It is interesting to note that Radiation requires no medium.

Conduction
Conduction is the diffusion of thermal energy, i.e., the movement of thermal energy from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. On a microscopic level, this occurs due to the passing energy through molecular vibrations. The reason diffusion occurs is due to the nature of equilibrium. Heat contains energy and as it progresses towards equilibrium, especially in excess amounts, it then continues to proceed past equilibrium where it now considered to be a Joule. In other words, it is like throwing a ball into the ocean, it has excess energy, and as it it goes into the water the excess energy is delivered to the water, and as soon as all this energy has dissipated (or rather reached a specific quantity or heat you could say), then it again begins to rise to the surface of the water, again towards equilibrium (in this case the difference between the water and air).

Rate of Heat transfer is denoted as $$\dot{Q}$$. The units of heat transfer rate are watts. It should be noted that heat transfer rate is a vector quantity. It is often convenient to describe heat transfer rate in terms of the geometry being studied. Thus we define $$\dot{Q}'$$, $$\dot{Q}$$,  and $$\dot{Q}'$$ as the heat transfer rate per unit length, area (a.k.a. heat flux), and volume, respectively. It is useful to note that different conventions are often used with notation, and heat flux (heat transfer rate per unit area) is often denoted by $$ \dot{q}$$.

The governing rate equation for conduction is given by Fourier's Law. For one dimension, Fourier's law is expressed as:

$$\dot{q}=-k\frac{dT}{dx}$$

or

$$\dot{Q}=-kA\frac{dT}{dx}$$

Where x is the direction of interest, A is the cross-sectional area normal to x, k is a proportionality constant known as thermal conductivity and $$\frac{dT}{dx}$$ is the temperature gradient at the location of interest. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

The thermal conductivity is a measure of how readily a material conducts heat. Materials with high conductivity, such as metals, will readily conduct heat even at low temperature gradients. Materials with low conductivity, such as asbestos, will resist heat transfer and are often referred to as insulators.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy between a solid and a moving fluid(sometimes magnetism). If the fluid is not in motion (its Nusselt number is 1), the problem can be classified as Conduction. Convection is governed by two phenomena: the  movement of energy due to molecular vibrations within an object and the large-scale motion of fluid particles. In general, Convection is of two types, Forced Convection and Free Convection.

Forced Convection occurs when a fluid is forced to flow. For example, a fan blowing air over a heat exchanger is an example of Forced Convection. In Free Convection, the bulk fluid motion is due to buoyancy effects. For example, a vertical heated plate surrounded by quiescent air causes the air surrounding it to be heated. Because hot air has a lower density than cold air, the hot air rises. The void is filled by cold air and the cycle continues.

In terms of Electromagnetic Convection of a Solid, it is the attempt of a solid to form a perfect lattice, thus we are able to understand why a solid melts under convection via a high voltage coil. Thus the convection of a gas can yield a liquid. Very useful for Chemical Engineers.

The governing rate equation for Convection is given by Newton's Law of Cooling:

$$\dot{Q}=hA(T_s-T_\infty),$$

where $$h$$ is the heat transfer co-efficient, $$T_s$$ is the surface temperature of the solid, $$A$$ is the area and $$T_\infty$$ is the temperature of the fluid far from the surface. This expression, in spite of its name, is not law. Rather, it is an empirical expression of proportionality of the heat flux and the temperature difference between the solid and the fluid. The heat transfer coefficient is typically determined by experiment. Correlations for heat transfer coefficient for various kinds of flows have been determined and are documented in literature.

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy between two objects through electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a medium; in other words, radiation heat transfer occurs between two bodies without contact between them. In general, gasses do not take part in radiation heat transfer.

Radiation is based on the fact that all objects of finite temperature, i.e. not absolute zero, emit radiation in the form of electro-magnetic waves. These waves travel until they impinge another object. The second object in turn either absorbs, reflects, or transmits the energy. It should be noted that if the second object is of a finite temperature, it is also emitting radiation.

A basic fact of radiation is that the heat of radiation is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the radiating source. The heat loss is related to the emissivity ε of the material by the equation:

$$\dot{Q}= A \epsilon  \sigma  T^4$$

An idealized material called a black body has an emissivity of 1. A is the surface area of the radiating object and sigma, σ, is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant $$ 5.670\cdot10^{-8} W/(m^2 K^4)$$

title: Heat Transfer/Introduction


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Heat Transfer/Heat Balances

Macroscopic Heat Balances

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed: doing an energy balance means imposing that the algebraic sum of the following variables is constantly zero in the considered system:

(1) the entering fluxes of heat;

(2) the exiting fluxes of heat;

(3) the electrical and/or mechanical energy generated or consumed by the system;

(4) sources of energy within the system (e.g. dynamite can be considered a source of energy if we analyze the dynamic of an explosion); (5) sinks of energy within the system (usually the ambient is considered as a sink of energy);

(6) the energy accumulated by the system during time.

When last term is zero, system is called "in steady-state conditions", or "steady" and its behavior does not depend from time; otherwise, it is called "unsteady" or "transient".

A macroscopic heat balance is a balance on an entire system, rather than an infinitesimal part of it. The ability to perform a balance on heat comes from the principle of conservation of energy, which tells us that energy is never created or destroyed. Since this is true, we can balance energy in the following manner:

Energy accumulated = Energy in - Energy out

To be completely general, we would have to include all forms of energy and energy changes in this balance: potential energy, kinetic energy, and internal energy, as well as all forms of heat and work. However, if there are heat effects present, and no shaft work is done, heat effects will usually be considerably larger than the effects of volumetric expansion, potential energy and kinetic energy changes, or electrical effects. In this case, the equation simplifies to:

Energy accumulated = Heat in - Heat out

Heat can come into a system either through the enthalpy of a mass stream or through conduction, convection, or radiation from an outside source. Heat leaves a system in the same manner. All accumulated energy will be in the form of internal energy, since potential and kinetic energy are neglected. Hence, the overall heat balance becomes:

$$ \frac{dU}{dt}= \sum_{k=1}^M \dot{m}_k\hat{H}_k + \sum_{j=1}^N \dot{Q}_j$$

This balance is useful for determining the total heat transfer necessary to accomplish a given temperature change in a system, since the internal energy and the enthalpy of any pure substance or mixture can be estimated as a function of temperature (given some experimental data) using thermodynamics. This approach does not require one to use the microscopic analysis if the inlet, outlet, and system temperatures are known (and preferably constant). The microscopic approach is useful for determining the temperature distribution and its change with time (if present) so that the temperature, and thus the energy requirements, can be evaluated at all time points.

If the system is at steady state, the accumulation term is zero so

$$ \sum_{k=1}^M \dot{m}_k\hat{H}_k + \sum_{j=1}^N \dot{Q}_j = 0$$

This implies that a closed system that does not work will only stay at steady state if no heat is transferred (neglecting potential and kinetic energy differences). This is similar in spirit Newton's first law: if an object is left alone, its velocity won't change.

title: Heat Transfer/Heat Balances


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Heat Transfer/Conduction

Conduction

The Conduction Equation
By using Fourier's Law to perform a heat balance in three dimensions, the following equation can be derived relating the temperature in the system at a given point to the cartesian-coordinates of that point and the time elapsed:
 * $${k}\left({\frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {x^2}}+\frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {y^2}} + \frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {z^2}}}\right) = \rho\cdot C_p \cdot\frac{\partial {T}}{\partial t}$$

The derivation assumes there is no heat generation (which is a function of x, y, z and t and must be added if present) and that the material properties don't change with time or temperature (in this case they must be incorporated into the derivatives).

Steady-state conduction
We have steady-state conduction when none of the terms of the Fourier's law depends on time; so, it is obtained:
 * $${k}\left({\frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {x^2}}+\frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {y^2}} + \frac{{\partial ^2}T}{\partial {z^2}}}\right) = 0$$

The Plane Wall
Heat transfer through a wall is a one dimensional conduction problem where temperature is a function of the distance from one of the wall surfaces. It is assumed that the rest of the surfaces of the walls are at a constant temperature. Heat transfer from the surfaces of the wall takes place through convection by the surrounding air, which causes them to have steady state temperatures of $$ T_{1} $$ and $$ T_{2} $$ on their surfaces. Let us assume that the fluid on the side of the wall with temperature $$ T_{1} $$ is at $$ T_{1, \infin} $$ and has a heat transfer coefficient $$h_{1}$$, and that on the side of the wall with temperature $$T_{2}$$ is at $$ T_{2 , \infin} $$ with heat transfer coefficient $$h_{2}$$, and that $$T_{1 , \infin} \ge T_{2 , \infin}$$. The assumption implies that $$h_{1} \ge h_{2}$$. Since the wall does not store any heat energy, all the heat from the hotter surface is conducted to the cooler surface. Conservation of energy dictates that

 * $${{\nabla} ^ 2}T = 0$$

for a body which generates no heat nor stores any heat, because in such a case temperature only varies with position, not with time. Applying the same to the 1-D case with the direction of the x-axis normal to the wall surface, we get

 * $${-k}{\frac{{d^2}T}{d{x^2}}} = 0$$

On solving and putting the appropriate boundary conditions, (At x=0, $$T=T_1$$ and at x=s, $$T=T_2$$) we get a linear variation for T within the wall thickness $$s$$.

 * $$T(x) = (T_2 - T_1){\frac{x}{s}} + T_1$$

It is evident from the equation that the temperature profile within the wall varies linearly with the distance from the surfaces. Since we have the temperature variation, the conduction rate can be calculated from Fourier's Law.

 * $${q_s} '' = -k \frac{dT}{dx} = \frac{k}{s} (T_1 - T_2)$$

It can be seen from the above equation that the heat flux is independent of x and are constants. This example shows the standard method of solving a conduction problem. First, the temperature profile within the body is found using the equation for conservation of energy and the temperature equation is used to solve for the heat flux by plugging it into the Fourier's Law equation.

In general, we would like to have a material with very low conductivity which is able to withstand great temperatures to build furnaces. In practice, we find that high temperature materials have relatively high thermal conductivity. Thus, furnaces are constructed from several layers, each of a different material. We can use the thermal breakdown temperatures of each material to find the optimum thickness so that the heat loss is minimal. It is easy to see that each material should receive heat at its thermal breakdown temperature and reject heat at the thermal breakdown temperature of the adjacent material.

A hollow cylinder
Let us use the same assumptions as used for the plane wall, except this time analyze what happens when we have heat transfer through an infinitely long hollow cylinder. The cylinder has inner radius R1 and outer radius R2. Under the assumption that the inner temperature remains constant at T1 and outer temperature at T2, the Laplace equation still holds true:

 * $${{\nabla} ^ 2}T = 0$$

This time, however, since we are in a cylindrical geometry, it makes most sense to use cylindrical coordinates to expand the Laplacian into the following:

 * $$ {{\nabla} ^ 2}T = {1 \over r} {\partial \over \partial r}

\left( r {\partial T \over \partial r} \right) + {1 \over r^2} {\partial^2 T \over \partial \theta^2} + {\partial^2 T \over \partial z^2 }. $$

Since the cylinder is infinitely long and symmetric, the partials with respect to z and θ are zero so the equation reduces to:

 * $$ {1 \over r} {\partial \over \partial r}

\left( r {\partial T \over \partial r} \right) =-q/k $$

when there is heat generation the above equation is valid,when there is no heat generation q becomes zero. Solving this equation with the boundary conditions that T(R1) = T1 and T(R2)=T2 shows us that:

 * $$ T(r) = \frac{T_2-T_1}{\ln{\frac{R_2}{R_1}}}(\ln(r)-\ln(R_1))+T_1 $$

Substituting this into Fourier's law for conduction gives us:

 * $$ Q'' = \frac{-k(T_2-T_1)}{r\ln{\frac{R_2}{R_1}}} = \frac{k(T_1-T_2)}{r\ln{\frac{R_2}{R_1}}}=\frac{2k(T_1-T_2)}{\phi\ln{\frac{\phi_2}{\phi_1}}}$$

Notice that, unlike was the case with the flat slab, the heat flux is not independent of radius for a cylinder, which has important implications when designing a cylindrical heat exchanger, for example.

Now let us express this in terms of a heat flux per unit length, so that we know how to use this as an approximation for cylinders that are not infinitely long. We have the cross-sectional area of the cylinder is $$ A = 2{\pi}rL$$, so:

 * $$ Q' = \frac{Q}{L} =\frac{2{\pi}k(T_1-T_2)}{\ln{\frac{R_2}{R_1}}}=\frac{2{\pi}k(T_1-T_2)}{\ln{\frac{\phi_2}{\phi_1}}}$$

Thus the heat transferred per unit length is closely related to the logarithms of the radii.

Multi-layer conduction and electro-thermal analogy
Often, conduction takes place not through a single plane wall or a single cylinder, but through multiple plane layers or through coaxial cylinders. For example, the walls of modern houses are composed by several layers for increasing their insulation: so, we can find the following stratification, from internal towards external face:

(1) internal painting

(2) plaster

(3) bricks, e.g. porotherm type

(4) a thermal insulator, such as polysthirene

(5) a hollow space (air is a good insulator)

(6) again bricks, plaster and painting

So, we have 8 layers, and the solution of the equation

 * $${-k}{\frac{{d^2}T}{d{x^2}}} = 0$$

becomes more complex, because there are more boundary conditions to be respected. A simplified way for solving the problem is the electro-thermal analogy: if we observe both the expression of $$Q$$ for plane wall and for hollow cylinder, we note that they can be written as:

 * $$Q=G\Delta T=\frac{\Delta T}{R}$$

where $$G$$ (or $$R$$, as one prefers), depend on the geometry and contain the conductivity $$k$$. This formula is analogue to Ohm's law:

 * $$I=\frac{\Delta V}{R}$$

So, the thermal problem of conduction can be modeled with thermal resistances (or thermal conductance, if one prefers $$G=1/R$$): each thermal resistance is an object which is kept at different temperatures on its nodes, so heat passes through it; in the same way, if we apply a difference of voltage to an electrical resistance, current passes through it. This analogy is useful because it allows to model a multi-layer problem as a scheme of resistances connected in series. In fact, if electrical resistance A is connected in series with B, the end node of A is at the same voltage of the start node of B; if thermal resistance A (a layer of the wall) is connected in series (is adjacent) to the thermal resistance B (the other layer), on the common node (the interface) it cannot be a thermal gradient. For the i-th plane wall:

 * $$R_i=\frac{s_i}{k_iA_i}$$

where $$A$$ is the area of the wall. So we have:

 * $$Q=\frac{T_{ext}-T_{int}}{\displaystyle\sum_{i=1}^{n}R_i}$$

For coaxial hollow cylinders (e.g. insulated pipes), we can use the same formula, but resistance is given by:

 * $$R=\frac{\ln\frac{\phi_2}{\phi_1}}{2\pi kL}$$

Finite Difference Method
The finite difference method attempts to solve a differential equation by estimating the differential terms with algebraic expressions. The method works best for simple geometries which can be broken into rectangles (in cartesian coordinates), cylinders (in cylindrical coordinates), or spheres (in spherical coordinates). Otherwise, the finite element method should be used. If the finite difference method can be used, it is considerably easier to implement than the finite element method, at the cost of some accuracy.

The simplest estimate for first-order differentials,

 * $$ \frac{\partial x}{\partial y} = \frac{\Delta x}{\Delta y}$$

It can be shown that the error caused by using this approximation is roughly proportional to $$ {\Delta y}^2 $$.

To estimate a second derivative, it is treated as the derivative of the first derivative, and the approximation above is applied twice in succession:

 * $$ \frac{\partial^2 x}{{\partial y}^2} =

\frac{{(\frac{\partial x}{\partial y}})_2-(\frac{\partial x}{\partial y})_1}{\Delta y} = \frac{(\frac{\Delta x}{\Delta y})_2 - (\frac{\Delta x}{\Delta y})_1}{\Delta y} =\frac{x_3-2x_2+x_1}{{\Delta y}^2} $$

It is evident that three points are necessary to estimate a second derivative, whereas only two are necessary to estimate a first-order derivative. This particular method can also be shown to be second-order with $$ {\Delta y}$$.

Transient Conduction
In problems of transient conduction, the complete Fourier's equation must be solved

 * $${k}\nabla^2T = \rho\cdot C_p \cdot\frac{\partial {T}}{\partial t}$$

The solution of this equation is more difficult than steady-state equation, but it's possible in simple cases. Otherwise, numerical methods should be used.

The plane wall
The sun heating the earth is an example of radiant heat transfer. The sun warms the earth without warming the space between the sun and the earth.

Finite Difference Method
finite difference method is used to find for odd shaped bodies

title: Heat Transfer/Conduction


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Heat Transfer/Convection

Convection

Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar Flow: Smooth uninterrupted flow determined by a low Reynolds number. The Reynolds number for a Newtonian fluid is defined as:

$$ N_{Re} = \frac{Dv\rho}{\mu}$$

where D is a characteristic diameter (such as the diameter of a cylindrical pipe), v is the fluid velocity, $$ \rho $$ is the density, and $$ \mu $$ is the (dynamic) viscosity. There are several other ways of writing it as well (based on volumetric flow rate, mass flow rate, and the like) depending on what is known. Flow in a cylindrical pipe is laminar if the Reynolds number is less than 2100.

In laminar flow in a pipe, the velocity profile is parabolic; the maximum velocity occurs at the center and the velocity is zero at the wall of the pipe.

Turbulent flow: This is flow characterized by movement in random directions, so that the net result is that all the flows cancel and the velocity on average is approximately constant everywhere in the pipe. Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 4000.

Transition regime: In the region between Turbulent and Laminar flow ($$ 2100 < N_{Re} < 4000 $$), we cannot say much about the flow, except by emprical experimentation. The pattern is not linear in general but carries no distinct pattern in this region.

Dimensionless Parameters
In addition to the Reynolds number, $$N_{Re}$$, there are several other dimensionless parameters that are important in correlations involving convection. These include the Prandtl number, the Nusselt number, and the Grashof number. The Prandtl number is a dimensionless combination of three properties of a material: heat capacity, viscosity, and thermal conductivity:

$$ N_{Pr} = \frac{C_p\mu}{k}$$

Since it is a material property, the Prandtl number depends only on the conditions (temperature and pressure) that a material is held at, not the system in which it is placed.

The Nusselt number tells us how important convection is compared to conduction. It is defined as:

$$ N_{Nu} = \frac{hD}{k} $$

In contrast to the Prandtl number, the Nusselt number involves a heat transfer coefficient and a characteristic length, both of which depend on the type of system one is using, so this number must be individually evaluated for each system for maximum accuracy (or an estimate for similar systems can be used).

Finally, the Grashof number is a dimensionless parameter generally used to model natural convection (in which the surrounding fluid is relatively still except very close to the object receiving or losing heat by convection). This number is defined as:

$$ N_{Gr} = \frac{L^3{\rho}^2g{\beta}{\Delta}T}{\mu^2}$$

It is used instead of the Reynolds number in natural convection modelling, since the surrounding environment is not at a high velocity, unlike in forced convection.

External Flow
External Flow, means flow over a surface.

Internal Flow
flow inside a closed,hollow,body.The cross section may be of circular,rectangular, or may be of any shape.

Free Convection
Also called natural convection. Results from a temperature difference between two media in contact.

title: Heat Transfer/Convection


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Heat Transfer/Radiation

 * Radiation: The process by which heat is transferred from a body by virtue of its temperature, without the aid of any intervening medium, is called radiation.

title: Heat Transfer/Radiation


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Heat Transfer/Heat Transfer with Phase Change

Heat Transfer with Phase Change

Boiling
In general, means heating thus increasing the temperature of the substance to its boiling temperature and above. The heat required to change a mass m of a pure substance from a liquid to a vapor is generally given in terms of a latent heat of vaporization as:

$$ Q = m{\Delta}H_{vap} $$ and science

Latent heats are in general functions of pressure; they are usually given at 1 standard atmosphere (or 1 bar) in standard texts. For many applications the pressure dependence of latent heats is neglected.

Condensation
Condensation means lowering the temperature of the vapour substance to its boiling/vaporising temperature. For example, water at 120 deg. Celsius, at atmospheric pressure, will be in vapour state. when its temperature is lowered below 100°C, at the same pressure, vapour gets condensed to liquid state.

The heat released when one condenses a liquid is the same magnitude as the amount required to vaporize the same mass of the liquid. It will just have a negative sign rather than a positive one (because when something condenses, it releases heat).

Freezing and melting
Freezing is the act of lowering the temperature of a system enough to change a substance from a liquid to a solid. Melting is the change from a solid back to a liquid.

The heat required to melt or solidify a pure substance is calculated in the same manner as that required to vaporize or condense that substance, except a different latent heat called the latent heat of fusion is used. it is used to freeze things

Sublimation
At a certain range of pressures, rather than melting, a solid will be transformed directly into a gas, and vice versa. The latent heat of sublimation is the sum of the heats of vaporization and fusion, assuming the effect of pressure changes is negligible:

$$ {\Delta}H_{sub} = {\Delta}H_{Vap} + {\Delta}H_{Fus} $$


text:
Heat Transfer/Heat Exchangers

Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers are devices designed to transfer heat from one fluid to another ,without the fluids coming into contact. There are a wide variety of applications for heat exchangers, for example: radiators, air conditioning and power plants.

Types of Heat Exchangers
Heat exchangers are mainly classified by their flow arrangements. There are two basic types of heat exchangers: in line flow and cross flow. In addition so-called regenerative heat exchangers are used in some industries.

In line
In in line exchangers, the hot and cold fluids move parallel to each other. Heat exchangers where the fluids move in the same direction are referred to as parallel flow or co-current, exchangers where fluids move in the opposite direction are referred to as counter flow or counter-current.

In Parallel flow heat exchangers, the outlet temperature of the "cold" fluid can never exceed the outlet temperature of the "hot" fluid. The exchanger is performing at its best when the outlet temperatures are equal.

Counter flow heat exchangers are inherently more efficient than parallel flow heat exchangers because they create a more uniform temperature difference between the fluids, over the entire length of the fluid path. Counter flow heat exchangers can allow the "cold" fluid to exit with a higher temperature than the exiting "hot" fluid. However many industrial heat exchangers are more complex. To save space, fluids may go to the end of a unit then go back again, perhaps several times. Each time a fluid moves through the length is known as a pass. For example, one fluid may make 2 passes, the other 4 passes. Thus parts of the heat exchanger may be co-current, others counter-current, and calculations must take this into account.

Cross flow
In cross flow exchangers, the hot and cold fluids move perpendicular to each other. This is often a convenient way to physically locate the inlet and outlet ports in a small package, and moreover this is more efficient than counter flow design. Thermodynamically the effectiveness of cross flow heat exchanger is better than counter flow and parallel flow heat exchangers. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) will always be greater for cross flow compared to parallel flow heat exchanger. For a given flow rate and at given inlet, outlet temperatures, a parallel flow heat exchanger requires maximum flow area whereas a cross flow heat exchanger requires minimum flow area and a counter flow heat exchanger area lies between two extreme limit. For this reason parallel flow heat exchanger not used in practice and cross flow arrangement is preferred. Therefore cross flow arrangement is most commonly used because it is easier to provide inlet and outlet header connections with cross flow rather than counter flow. Cross flow heat exchanger provide compact design of heat exchanger. Multi-pass cross flow heat exchanger can be easily manufactured compared to parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.

Some actual heat exchangers are a mixture of cross flow and counter flow due to design features that force the flow paths to wind back and forth.

Regenerative
Regenerative heat exchangers store heat and release it later. They contain a large mass of material which does not leave the exchanger but heats up (or in some cases, melts, absorbing latent heat) as hot fluid is passed through. Thus heat from one batch operation can be used to warm up the next one. Alternatively, they can be used in pairs (or more) with one absorbing heat from a hot stream while the other is discharging it to a cold stream. In some designs the bed of heat absorbing material moves to carry heat from one stream to another.

The term regenerative heat exchanger is also used for counter-flow exchangers in which one side is fluid entering the process and the other side fluid leaving the process.

Analysis of Heat Exchangers
Imagine a simple heat exchanger in which a pipe containing one fluid (A) is surrounded by a jacket filled with another fluid (B) as shown in the diagram. Each fluid has a steady inlet temperature, and it is desired to know what area is necessary to achieve a given set of outlet temperatures.

In order to analyze a heat exchanger like this, one must resort to differential analysis because the temperature drop between fluids A and B is not constant.

To begin, there are three ways to express the total amount of heat that is exchanged between fluids A and B:

$$ \dot{Q} = \dot{m}_B*(C_p)_B*(T_{B2}-T_{B1}) $$ $$ \dot{Q} = \dot{m}_A*(C_p)_A*(T_{A2}-T_{A1}) $$ $$ \dot{Q} = U*A_{ex}*\Delta {T?} $$

The first two are well-defined, since the quantities $$ (T_{B2}-T_{B1})$$ and $$(T_{A2}-T_{A1}) $$ don't change over the course of the heat exchanger. Unfortunately, the third expression's value does depend on where in the heat exchanger you evaluate it, since the change in temperature there is the difference in temperature between the two fluids A and B. Our goal now is to show how we can use the temperature information we have to calculate the total flow of heat or, more usefully, take the total amount of heat that's flowed and calculate the area of the heat exchanger.

title: Heat Transfer/Heat Exchangers


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Heat Transfer/Appendices

Appendices

title: Heat Transfer/Appendices


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Heat Transfer/Bibliography

Bibliography

 * A Heat Transfer Textbook, Johh H. Lienhard IV and John H. Lienhard V

 * Wolverine Engineering Data Book II, Dr. K.J. Bell and A.C. Mueller

 * Wolverine Engineering Data Book III, Pr. John R. Thome

 * Principles of Enhanced Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed. (2005), Ralph Webb and Nae-Hyun Kim, Publisher: Taylor & Francis, ISBN 1591690145

Introduction to thermodynamics and heat transfer, Yunus A. Çengel, McGraw-Hill

Principles of heat transfer, Frank Kreith, McGraw-Hill

For further reading

 * Physics
 * Engineering Thermodynamics

title: Heat Transfer/Bibliography


text:
XQuery/Delivery Status Report

A common task is the need to integrate local data with related data on another site. Although an increasing number of sites provide an RSS feed, it is often necessary to scrape web pages to get the relevant data.

Delivery Status Reporting
One such case is where a company needs to monitor the status of their deliveries which use a courier service.

In this mock example, a company maintains their own records of all deliveries commissioned, the delivery service used and the service's consignment number.. As an XML file, this might look   like;

 Fred FlintstoneCityLink RZL14823 Bill BaileyCityLink RZL14869</Delivery> <Delivery><CustomerName>Jack and Jill</CustomerName><Service>CityExpress</Service> <ConsignmentNo>RXL9999</ConsignmentNo></Delivery> </DeliveryList>

Integrated Report
The following script shows how the local delivery data can be combined with the data for this delivery obtained from the delivery company. In this case, the delivery company City-Line provides a page for each consignment reporting its status.

The script loops over the relevant deliveries and constructs the appropriate URL to read the page for each delivery. The page is input to an HTML-to-XML conversion (used in the Yahoo Weather feed), and then specific elements are retrieved from the HTML to build an extract in XML of the page. This XML data is then combined with the local data to create a combined report.

import module namespace fwiki = "http://www.cems.uwe.ac.uk/xmlwiki" at "../reports/util.xqm"; declare option exist:serialize "method=xhtml media-type=text/html";

declare variable $citylinkURL := "http://www.city-link.co.uk/pod/podfrm.php?JobNo=ZZZZ";

declare function local:get-consignment($consNo) { let $citylinkURL := replace($citylinkURL,"ZZZZ",$consNo) let $page := fwiki:html-to-xml($citylinkURL) return <Consignment> <CustomerReference> {string($page//table[@id="this_table_holds_the_summary_info"]/tr[1]/td[2])} </CustomerReference> <ScheduledDeliveryDate> {string($page//table[@id="this_table_holds_the_summary_info"]/tr[1]/td[4])} </ScheduledDeliveryDate> <DeliveryStatus> {string($page//table[@id="this_table_holds_the_detailed_status_desc"]/tr[1]/td[2])} </DeliveryStatus> </Consignment> };

let $report := <Report> {for $delivery in //Delivery[Service="CityLink"] let $citylink := local:get-consignment($delivery/ConsignmentNo) return <Delivery> {$delivery/*} {$citylink/*} </Delivery> } </Report> return fwiki:element-seq-to-table($report)

Show Report

title: XQuery/Delivery Status Report


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...d6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...Nf6/5. Nc3/5...a6/6. Be3

= Sicilian Defence, Najdorf Variation = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4. Nxd4 Nf6 5. Nc3 a6 6.Be3

In recent years, the most popular way for white to combat the Najdorf Variation at master level has been 6.Be3. A flexible opening, it has been employed successfully by Grandmasters such as Robert Byrne, Nigel Short & John Nunn.

Theory table
.

1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5. Nc3 a6 6.Be3


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 ADRA

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 ADRA

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 ADRA

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Arts and Crafts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Arts and Crafts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Arts and Crafts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Health and Science

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Health and Science

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Health and Science

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Household Arts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Household Arts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Household Arts

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Nature

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Nature

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Nature

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Outdoor Industries

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Outdoor Industries

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Outdoor Industries

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Outreach

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Outreach

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Outreach

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Recreation

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Recreation

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Recreation

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 Vocational

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 Vocational

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 Vocational

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text: User talk:99.238.114.157

title: User talk:99.238.114.157


text:
User talk:200.90.120.172

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 03:24, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:200.90.120.172


text:
User talk:Chord0

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 03:25, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Bellamar caves, cuba.jpg

 * Please make sure you check all images you've uploaded so far, and ensure that you provide license info for any future uploads. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 03:28, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chord0


text:
User talk:Kriswarry

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 03:53, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kriswarry


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. Nf3/1...Nf6

=1.Nf3=

1...Nf6
1...Nf6, keeping the position symmetrical, is the most flexible reply to 1.Nf3. At Grandmaster level this is a very popular move and has been the preferred response of both Anand and Kasparov.

From here, the game can go in a number of directions and there are plenty of transpositional possibilities into 1.d4 and 1.c4 openings.

Theory table
.

1.Nf3 Nf6

title: Chess Opening Theory/1. Nf3/1...Nf6


text:
User talk:Cameron Turner~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! --Panic 04:48, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cameron Turner. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cameron Turner~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:01, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Cameron Turner~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Doabarrelroll~enwikibooks

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Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Reading Room with any questions or ideas.
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 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 04:49, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Doabarrelroll. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Doabarrelroll~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:06, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Doabarrelroll~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:LokiClock

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Reading Room with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 04:49, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

RE: Comment
Hmmm, interesting My fault though is that i only recently (within the last year) have leanred blender, and although I think I have learned a substantial amount of information, the problem comes from that those older concepts, such as bump mapping, were never learned because it is taught as obsolete and, therefore, I have never bothered to learn it. If you would like to give me a hand moving around the pages and links, I really wouldn't mind you editing any sections I drafted, as long as the info in essence and pronouncement is preserved --Bullercruz1 (talk) 09:00, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I either don't know or have forgotten the context for your message. Please link me if you can. I don't come on here often anymore, so you might contact me on Wikipedia Loki Clock (talk) 03:48, 27 July 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:LokiClock


text: Category:Book:Armenian Genocide

title: Category:Book:Armenian Genocide


text:
Armenian Genocide

The Armenian Genocide

This wikibook will look at the situation in which the Armenian Genocide was able to take place. It will look into those involved and where and when important events took place, to try and establish a clear picture of the extent of what has happened.

The Armenian genocide was an extremely terrible series of acts, which caused the deaths of many Turkish Armenians. Estimates of the death rate stand at about 1.5 million Armenians killed throughout the genocide (Adalian), and 800,000 Armenians killed in 1915 alone, (Balakian, 179). Primarily, these terrible incidents were the work of three treacherous leaders: Abdul Hamid II, Talet Pasha, and Talet Bay.

Contents

 * /Long Term Causes/
 * /Bibliography/

title: Armenian Genocide


text:
Armenian Genocide/Bibliography

 * Adalian, Rouben Paul. "Armenian Genocide," 2010. 3 Feb 2010. .
 * Adalian, Rouben Paul. "Telet, Mehmet," 2010. 3 Feb 2010. .
 * Akçam, Taner, From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide, Zed Books, 2004
 * Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. Metropolitan Books, 2006
 * Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: Perennial, 2003
 * Bartov, Omer, "Mirrors of Destruction: War, Genocide and Modern Identity," Oxford Univ. Press, 2000
 * Dadrian, Vahakn, N. The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus Berghahn Books, 1995
 * Dündar, Fuat, "Ittihat ve Terakki'nin Müslümanlari Iskan Politikasi (1913-18)," Iletisim, 2001
 * Fisk, Robert, The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East London: Alfred Knopf, 2005
 * Freedmen, Jeri. "The Armenian Genocide." New York: Rosen 2004
 * Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006. ISBN 1-59333-301-3.
 * Graber, G.S. Caravans to Oblivion: The Armenian Genocide 1915. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996
 * Gust, Wolfgang, "Der Völkermord an den Armeniern," Zu Klampen, 2005
 * Lepsius, Johannes. Deutschland und Armenien 1914–1918, Sammlung diplomatischer Aktenstücke. Donat & Temmen Verlag, 1986
 * Melson, Robert, "Revolution and Genocide. On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust," The University of Chicago Press, 1996
 * Miller, Donald E. and Laura Touryan Miller. "Survivors: An Oral History of the Armenian Genocide." Berkley: U of California Press, 1993
 * Power, Samantha. "A Problem from Hell": America and the Age of Genocide. Harper, 2003
 * Spencer, William. "Turkey. New York: Lippincott 1990
 * Wallimann, Isidor (ed.): "Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death," Syracuse Univ. Press, 2000

title: Armenian Genocide/Bibliography


text:
User talk:Hayastan

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 05:10, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hayastan


text:
User:Hayastan

.

title: User:Hayastan


text:
User talk:84.9.72.107

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 05:11, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.9.72.107


text:
Radiation Oncology/NHL/Cutaneous B-cell lymphoma

Primary Cutaneous B-Cell Lymphoma (PCBCL)
 * For cutaneous T-cell lymphomas, see Mycosis fungoides

Pathology

 * B-cell lymphomas 20-25% of all cutaneous lymphomas
 * Subtypes: primary cutaneous follicular center-cell lymphoma (PCFCCL), primary cutaneous immunocytoma (PCI), primary cutaneous large B-cell lymphoma (PCLBCL) of the leg

WHO Classification
 * Most common histology: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma

EORTC Classification
 * Note: in the EORTC, diffuse large B-cell lymphomas of non-leg site are classified as follicle center cell (i.e., considered indolent instead of aggressive)

Epidemiology

 * Overall (data from SEER, PMID 15908651)
 * Mean age 64 yrs. Male 54%.
 * Incidence increasing
 * Histology (WHO): DLBCL in 33%, NOS 24%, follicular 17%, MZL 8%
 * Site: head or neck 50%, trunk 19%, arm 12%, leg 11%, disseminated 8%

 * PCFCCL
 * Localized to skin; rarely disseminate to extracutaneous sites
 * Usually involve head or trunk
 * 5-yr OS > 95%
 * PCI
 * Usually involve arms and legs
 * Excellent prognosis
 * PCLBCLs of the leg
 * Affects elderly patients
 * More often involves extracutaneous sites
 * Poor prognosis: 5-yr OS 58%

 * SEER; 2008 (1973-2004) PMID 18349400 -- "Analysis of primary CD30+ cutaneous lymphoproliferative disease and survival from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results database." (Yu JB, J Clin Oncol. 2008 Mar 20;26(9):1483-8.)
 * SEER review. 268 cases; 58% males, 87% white. 157 (59%) primary localized PCLPD
 * Outcome: 3-year OS 81% vs. population-matched OS 87%; 5-year DSS 92%. H&N worse outcome
 * Conclusion: Rare disease, with excellent OS; more common in white men, H&N sites worse survival

Prognostic Index

 * Yale; 2005 - PMID 15908651 — "The cutaneous B-cell lymphoma prognostic index: a novel prognostic index derived from a population-based registry." (Smith BD, J Clin Oncol. 2005 May 20;23(15):3390-5.)
 * From SEER registry (1973-2001). 1343 cases. Histology according to WHO classification. Developed prognostic index based on histology and site.

Outcomes

 * Yale (1990-2002)
 * Retrospective, 34 pts. Treated with RT as primary treatment; Median dose 40 Gy (range 20-48 Gy). No systemic disease.
 * Comparison of EORTC and WHO pathologic classification systems, which differ in characterizing these lesions, and therefore recommendations for treatment may differ (based on characterization as indolent or aggressive lymphomas)
 * 2004 PMID 14966086 -- "Primary cutaneous B-cell lymphoma treated with radiotherapy: a comparison of the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer and the WHO classification systems." (Smith BD, J Clin Oncol. 2004 Feb 15;22(4):634-9.) -- Median f/u 3.4 yrs
 * 5-yr OS 96%, RFS 55%, LR-free survival 81%, extracutaneous relapse-free survival 79%. OS and RFS was 67% and 33% for leg-type DLBCL and 100% and 62-73% for other types
 * 62% (8/13) of initial relapses confined to skin (localregional or distant), 24% (8/34) of all pts. Distant relapse (+/- skin) in 38% (5/13) of all relapses or 15% (5/34) of all pts.
 * Pathologic: 68% of lesions classified as follicle center cell (i.e. indolent) by EORTC criteria are classified as DLBCL (i.e. aggressive) by WHO system, but the biologic behavior is indolent.
 * Increased risk of LR with dose < 36 Gy: 5-yr LR-free survival 50% (< 36 Gy) vs 90% (>= 36 Gy).
 * Conclusion: 40 Gy dose is recommended. Worse outcome for leg type; however, for the other lesions, DLBCL histology appears more indolent than in nodal lymphomas.

PCLBCL:
 * European multicenter (1979-98) - PMID 11504742, 2001 — "Prognostic factors in primary cutaneous large B-cell lymphomas: a European multicenter study." Grange F et al. J Clin Oncol. 2001 Aug 15;19(16):3602-10.
 * Retrospective. 48 pts with PCLBCL of leg; 97 with PCFCCL.
 * On multivariate analysis, worse outcomes for location on leg, multiple lesions, and round cell morphology.

Treatment
Solitary lesion: Most often presents as a solitary lesion (~85%). Radiotherapy is preferred treatment for solitary lesions. Dose 40 Gy.

Multifocal disease:
 * Netherlands (1985-97) - PMID 10561311, 1999 — "Treatment of multifocal primary cutaneous B-cell lymphoma: a clinical follow-up study of 29 patients." Bekkenk MW et al. J Clin Oncol. 1999 Aug;17(8):2471-8.
 * Retrospective. Included 29 pts who had involvement of >= 2 nonadjacent skin areas that did not fit into one radiation field without extracutaneous disease (14% of patients seen at this center). Pts treated with either chemotherapy (CHOP in most) or RT.
 * 16 pts had PCFCCL, 8 PCI, 5 PCLBCL of leg.
 * Excellent results in PCFCCL or PCI for either chemo or RT. All pts with PCLBCL relapsed with extracutaneous disease.


text: Category:Book:Psycholinguistics

title: Category:Book:Psycholinguistics


text:
Social Ballroom Dancing/Tango/Argentine

Have you come from another dance background?
If you have never learned a social dance before, feel free to skip this section.

But if not... perhaps you know very much about the waltz, or the foxtrot, or, more commonly, American Ballroom Tango, and you think that many of your skills will translate over; you will instantly be impressive or capable to a given extent once you get the basics down! Right?

This is not true. Many European and Western dance styles have homogenized or been in contact to an extent that there are recognizable similarities between them; or they have certain predictable moves. For example, leading a quarter turn in Waltz is in many ways similar to leading a quarter turn in Foxtrot.

You can not expect this same similarity from Argentine Tango, not only because of a long development isolated from the other dances, but because of the dance's entirely different cultural background. It is not like a latin dance. It is not like a western dance.

Much like Samba, Argentine Tango is an entirely different ballgame. Yet it is one which, if you put the initial effort into learning it, will reward you with social opportunities (Especially in urban environments), good exercise, and a chance to have lots of fun.

Expecting to be able to use one's experience with another dance to dance Argentinian Tango is akin to trying to use one's checkers experience with chess. Unlike a board game however, certain muscle memory habits tend to stick around, and you may find yourself reproducing habits from other dances which do not apply.

This section will provide a brief review of the most important habits that must be commonly un-learned by the A.T. beginner. If you

Leading with the Arms
You do not lead with the arms in Argentine Tango.

I repeat: The arms of your body are not used for leading.

One more time: The wrists, elbows, forearm, bicep, and shoulder are not used for leading.

If you want your follow to travel to the left, you do not push her with your arms to the left. You do not pull her over to the left. There is no push and pull, they are not a ragdoll! You do not tug, you do not even use your head to nod her over to where you want her to be. No, the head is not used for leading either. Never.

How do you lead in Argentine Tango? How, then? You've got to be able to give some physical signal, right? They can't just be watching you all the time! (That's correct. Any good Argentine tango lead is able to dance well with a follower who has their eyes closed.)

In Argentine Tango, you lead with your torso. The lower chest. Movement originates from there. Forward, backward, to the side, around in a circle, all of this is communicated by the torso.

Your arms, shoulders, head, form a "frame," which stays relatively static to the chest. When your torso turns, the rest of your upper body naturally follows, in one, smooth, liquid motion. Nevertheless, the arms and head following your chest around is purely an aesthetic and health and safety measure (we wouldn't want any dancers leaving their heads behind at a milonga somewhere...). Motion and leading is almost always, 98% of the time, from the torso.

Do not try to tell your partner where to go with the push or pull of your arms. It is rude to them. It is disrespectful. It shows that you aren't trying to lead, and that you're not really concerned about whether they're enjoying themselves or not. If you are concerned with learning how to dance Argentine tango well, you will try to learn to lead without your arms.

Technique

 * isolation of cruce

Vocab

 * corte
 * salida
 * camina
 * cambia pasada

Practice
Before we learn a lead-in to a gancha, let us begin an exercise.
 * 1) Stand up straight, your legs beneath you.
 * 2) Lift one leg off the ground. Sway it backward and forward from the hip like a pendulum. Do not exert any effort anywhere but your hip. Just let your leg swing naturally, back and forth. Get used to this motion. During a Gancha, this is how you move your leg.
 * 3) In application, once the back of your thigh comes in contact with your partner's the knee may continue to move independent of the upper leg, resulting in a flicking motion. This knee movement's momentum should, or should at least appear to, originate from the thigh.

title: Social Ballroom Dancing/Tango/Argentine


text:
User talk:75.111.40.194

Urbane  (Talk)   (Contributions)  11:07, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:75.111.40.194