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User talk:Pir

Hi there,

seeing you work, I wonder if you want to build up a book within your user profile? May be you want rather to use the http://en,wikibooks/wiki/*-namespace.

If you have any questions, don't hesistate to ask me :)

--Aschoeke ( talk ) 12:23, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Your new book
Hello, and welcome to wikibooks!

I couldn't help but see your comment on User talk:Aschoeke about the creation of your new book. There is some information to be found at Help:How to start a book, and I have also personally written an essay on the subject from my experiances in creating new books. My essay can be found HERE on my user page.

Windows and Linux are subjects that I know a little bit about, so if you need help working on or creating your book, let me know and I would be glad to help. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 12:45, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Win2Lin
''I also think that it is very difficult for several people to come up with a coherent structure together, it is much better if one person works out a coherent and comprehensive structure on which others can then improve. I feel too many Wikibooks are not that effective at teaching because they suffer from a poor structure.'' --- I couldn't agree more :). -- SB_Johnny | talk 13:56, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pir


text:
Piano/Ledger Lines

Ledger lines are the short, horizontal lines added to the top or the bottom of a staff for the reception of notes too high or too low to be represented on the staff proper.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Piano/Ledger Lines


text:
Talk:Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes

move from "Algebra/Error Correcting Codes" to "Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes"
It is my opinion that this module is out of place here in the algebra book, and that this material would better fit into the Communication Systems book (which already features some information about error-correction and digital coding). If nobody minds, I would like to perform the merger sometime soonish. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 12:37, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't directly object, but it is important somehow when moving modules around like this to note that some topics are inter-discliplinary and it may be useful to try and write about some topics in several different ways. Discussion about error correcting codes from a mathmatical viewpoint might be written slightly different than how it would be discussed from a Communication Systems viewpoint.  One is highly theoretical and the other is more pragmatic on how can I use this right now.
 * That said, I don't see how this material is going to be used by people who are trying to learn Algebra, as this is some pretty advanced mathmatics that is involved here. I would expect this material more for something like a Descrete Mathmatics or Finite Mathmatics textbook intended for upper-division college students, not a freshman Algebra textbook.  --Rob Horning 15:01, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the quick reply on a page that seems "out of the way", at best. I agree with you that this module is highly-interdisciplinary, but I also must point out that the subject in this page has absolutely no business being in a book about "algebra", even if the hamming calculation does require the use of matrices (it also is going to require things like modulo-two arthmetic, which aren't well explained here). It also, on second though, might not belong in the Communication Systems book either (at least, not the way it is written now). I am working on creating a new book about Data Coding Theory, which would be a perfect home for this module, but i haven't had the time to implement it yet. Perhaps I will just keep an eye on this page, and merge it when I finally create the more appropriate book. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 18:29, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Sounds fine to me. A good move.  --Rob Horning 16:03, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

Error in page
There is error in the page. Under section Hamming Code, bit a8 appears out of nowhere in b1 and b2:

"To detect single errors, it's also very simple. Suppose the codeword received is a1a2...a7, we compute 3 values

bo = a1 + a3 + a5 + a7 (mod 2) b1 = a2 + a3 + a7 + a8 (mod 2) b2 = a5 + a6 + a7 + a8 (mod 2)

then we declare the error is at the 22b2 + 2b1 + b0th position."

I have corrected it, and now it is OK.

Onno Bulk

Onnojb (discuss • contribs) 18:12, 3 March 2015 (UTC)

 * ✅. Thank you for fixing it, Onnojb. I confirm that the correct equations calculate b0 from every odd-numbered bit, b1 from odd-numbered pairs of bits, b2 from odd-numbered nybbles. --DavidCary (discuss • contribs) 17:17, 20 January 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes


text:
Talk:Spanish/Exercises/Stem Changing Verbs

Untitled
The exercises should be mixed up in order, probably, so they're not all e -> ie verbs first and then e -> i verbs, etc. Also, "querer" is not defined nor its conjucation described in the lesson for which this is an exercise; it should be added to the lesson or removed from the exercises. --Jim Henry 14:04, 25 August 2006 (UTC)


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Bengali/Grammar

Some basic sentence patterns in Bengali are given below. Subject + "be" verb + noun/adjective

There are different ways of expressing the verb "to be." The "to be" verb that deals with personality and character traits is mostly omitted in the present tense (e.g., the forms আছি, হই, হও, হয়, etc.).

I am. - আমি - Ami. You (sg.) are. - তুমি - Tumi He/she is. - সে - Shay We are. - আমরা - Amra You (pl.) are. - তোমরা - Tomra They are. - তারা - Tara John is. - জন - John

I am well. - আমি ভাল (আছি)। - Ami bhalo (achi). He is tall. - সে লম্বা। - Shay lomba. She is beautiful. - সে সুন্দরী। - Shay sundori. You are intelligent. - তুমি বুদ্ধিমান। - Tumi buddhiman. We are humans. - আমরা মানুষ। - Amra Manush.

In the other tenses, the verb "hooya," which means "to become" can be used.

Another way of expressing the "to be" verb is to use the verb stem "ach-", which literally means "to be present."

Ami ekhane achi. - I am here. Tumi ekhane acho. - You (sg/informal) are here. Se ekhane ache. - He/she (far/informal) is here. Amra ekhane achi. - We are here. (I/we have the same conjugated verb) Tomra ekhane acho. - You (pl/informal) are here. Tini ekhane achen. - They are here.

Present Tense

The simple present conveys ideas such as "I sleep", "We eat", "You work".

In Bengali, the simple present tense is conjugated by adding the verb root, plus an ending. The ending depends on the person of speech (i.e., I/you/we/them etc..).

For example, the verb 'to eat' in Bengali is 'khete', which has the root 'kha'.

Ami (I): Kha-i Tumi (You sg/informal): Kha-o O(he/she): Kha-e Amra (We): Kha-i Tumra (You pl/informal): Kha-o Ora (Them / informal): Kha-e Apna (You formal): Kha-n

In general, the verb endings are as follows:

Ami (I): root + "i" Tumi (You sg/informal): root + "o" O(he/she): root + "e" Amra (We): root + "i" Tumra (You pl/informal): root + "o" Ora (Them / Informal): root + "e" Apna (You formal): root + "en"

Examples:

I eat: Ami Khai You eat: Tumi Khao He eats fish: O Mach khae

We eat quickly: Amra taratari khai

Present Participle

The present participle represents actions which are currently being done in the present. In English, you would say "I am eating", "He is sleeping", "We are working".

In Bengali, you conjugate the present participle by taking the verb root, and adding an ending which depends on the person of speech of the subject (i.e, I / we/ us / they).

For example, the verb 'to eat' in Bengali is 'khete', which has the root 'kha'.

Ami (I): Kha-chi Tumi (You sg/informal): Kha-cho O(he/she): Kha-che Amra (We): Kha-chi Tumra (You pl/informal): Kha-cho Ora (Them / informal): Kha-che Apna (You formal): Kha-chen

In general, the verb endings are as follows:

Ami (I): root + "chi" Tumi (You sg/informal): root + "cho" O(he/she): root + "che" Amra (We): root + "chi" Tumra (You pl/informal): root + "cho" Ora (Them / Informal): root + "che" Apna (You formal): root + "chen"

Examples:

I am eating: Ami Khachi You (inf) are eating: Tumi Khacho He is sleeping: O Gumache We are sleeping: Amra Gumachi You (formal) are sleeping: Apni Gumachen

title: Bengali/Grammar


text:
General Relativity/Tensors and geometry

 * Metric tensor
 * Raising and Lowering Indices
 * Geodesics
 * Curvature
 * Riemann tensor
 * Covariant Differentiation
 * Christoffel symbols
 * The Covariant Derivative

title: General Relativity/Tensors and geometry


text:
Developing Genealogy Web-Pages/Beyond Site Creation

Direction
Where do we go from here? We have the basic tools, now how do we use them ... best use, most effective design? These are excellent questions and what we will try to do here is expand on the basic skillset that you currently have and provide some concrete examples that will completement those skills in the development of your Genealogical Web-Site.

Examining Other Code
Look at the code others use to generate their pages, in particular if you like what you see.

BUT (this is a big one), don't let it throw you off when you come across code that looks daunting (it WILL happen) or complex. Your first thought might be, "I can't do all that."

You might not be able to do it all. That's part of the fun, learning to do it in small steps.

First, remember that HTML, at its core, is easy ... you don't need to be a programmer to be a successful author. The main reason that the code for many pages looks so complex is that it was likely created with a Visual Design Tool (WYSIWYG - What You See Is What You Get) ... which has a knack for generating things that are very difficult to read; as opposed to being hand-generated (what we are trying to achieve here).

Also keep in mind that apparently large-complex sites and pages were most likely created over time; every web-site is changed and approved, built a piece at a time.

Viewing the Source Code
Looking at the HTML code that others have created is easier than you think, but remember the prior warning, some of them can look very complex.

While you've got a web-page open, use the <Right-Click> and select View Source (if View Source does not show up on the list, make sure that the mouse is not hovering over an image).

This method allows you to view the source on any web-page ... there will be a FEW sites that will block the <Right-Click> option, but most allow it ...

Making Sure It Can Be Found

 * The most frustrating thing for most genealogists is locating information. Those thousands of searches can be very frustrating.  What we want to cover here is how to ensure that the information that you've spent all this time developing can be located when someone is looking for it.


text:
Water Resources Directory/USA/Data

 * State of the Nation's Ecosystems - includes indicators for
 * 1) Non-native Species
 * 2) Biological Community Condition
 * 3) Landscape Pattern
 * 4) Air Quality
 * 5) Data Gaps and Monitoring Infrastructure
 * 6) Change in Stream Flows
 * 7) Ecosystem Services
 * 8) Carbon Storage
 * 9) Harmful Algae

title: Water Resources Directory/USA/Data


text:
Political Philosophy: Ancient to Renaissance/The Sophists/Protagoras/Protagoras/Plato's Protagoras, Selections

The following is an annotated selection from Plato's dialog, Protagoras. There is, of course, a potential issue with using Plato's fictionalized account of Protagoras' views as authoritative of Protagoras' actual views, especially given the animosity which Plato demonstrated towards the Sophists. Nevertheless, we have few alternate sources, and only fragments of Protagoras' own writings have survived.

In addition to providing us with a fuller understanding of Protagoras' view, this work also provides us with a depiction of the commonly accepted method of argumentation of the time and place. A story is told using myth or respected poetic sources – most especially Homer, and not the immoderate contemporary authors which we will see Aristophanes disparage later in this text – and then a more, to our ears, normal argument is given. Thus, proper respect is given to tradition, and reason is used as verification of tradition, not as an entirely independent source of normativity. Keep this form, and this example of it, in mind as we move forward into the Platonic texts; this will help make sense of one reason why Socrates was so troubling to the Athenians.

The selection below is taken from Wikisource's version of The Protagoras, which is available in full and without annotations, here: Plato's Protagoras

When Protagoras heard me say this, he replied: You ask questions fairly, and I like to answer a question which is fairly put. If Hippocrates comes to me he will not experience the sort of drudgery with which other Sophists are in the habit of insulting their pupils; who, when they have just escaped from the arts, are taken and driven back into them by these teachers, and made to learn calculation, and astronomy, and geometry, and music (he gave a look at Hippias as he said this); but if he comes to me, he will learn that which he comes to learn. And this is prudence in affairs private as well as public; he will learn to order his own house in the best manner, and he will be able to speak and act for the best in the affairs of the state.

Do I understand you, I said; and is your meaning that you teach the art of politics, and that you promise to make men good citizens?

That, Socrates, is exactly the profession which I make.

Then, I said, you do indeed possess a noble art, if there is no mistake about this; for I will freely confess to you, Protagoras, that I have a doubt whether this art is capable of being taught, and yet I know not how to disbelieve your assertion. And I ought to tell you why I am of opinion that this art cannot be taught or communicated by man to man. I say that the Athenians are an understanding people, and indeed they are esteemed to be such by the other Hellenes. Now I observe that when we are met together in the assembly, and the matter in hand relates to building, the builders are summoned as advisers; when the question is one of shipbuilding, then the ship-wrights; and the like of other arts which they think capable of being taught and learned. And if some person offers to give them advice who is not supposed by them to have any skill in the art, even though he be good-looking, and rich, and noble, they will not listen to him, but laugh and hoot at him, until either he is clamoured down and retires of himself; or if he persist, he is dragged away or put out by the constables at the command of the prytanes. This is their way of behaving about professors of the arts. But when the question is an affair of state, then everybody is free to have a say-carpenter, tinker, cobbler, sailor, passenger; rich and poor, high and low-any one who likes gets up, and no one reproaches him, as in the former case, with not having learned, and having no teacher, and yet giving advice; evidently because they are under the impression that this sort of knowledge cannot be taught. And not only is this true of the state, but of individuals; the best and wisest of our citizens are unable to impart their political wisdom to others: as for example, Pericles, the father of these young men, who gave them excellent instruction in all that could be learned from masters, in his own department of politics neither taught them, nor gave them teachers; but they were allowed to wander at their own free will in a sort of hope that they would light upon virtue of their own accord. Or take another example: there was Cleinias the younger brother of our friend Alcibiades, of whom this very same Pericles was the guardian; and he being in fact under the apprehension that Cleinias would be corrupted by Alcibiades, took him away, and placed him in the house of Ariphron to be educated; but before six months had elapsed, Ariphron sent him back, not knowing what to do with him. And I could mention numberless other instances of persons who were good themselves, and never yet made any one else good, whether friend or stranger. Now I, Protagoras, having these examples before me, am inclined to think that virtue cannot be taught. But then again, when I listen to your words, I waver; and am disposed to think that there must be something in what you say, because I know that you have great experience, and learning, and invention. And I wish that you would, if possible, show me a little more clearly that virtue can be taught. Will you be so good?

That I will, Socrates, and gladly. But what would you like? Shall I, as an elder, speak to you as younger men in an apologue or myth, or shall I argue out the question?

To this several of the company answered that he should choose for himself.

Well, then, he said, I think that the myth will be more interesting.

Once upon a time there were gods only, and no mortal creatures. But when the time came that these also should be created, the gods fashioned them out of earth and fire and various mixtures of both elements in the interior of the earth; and when they were about to bring them into the light of day, they ordered Prometheus and Epimetheus to equip them, and to distribute to them severally their proper qualities. Epimetheus said to Prometheus: "Let me distribute, and do you inspect." This was agreed, and Epimetheus made the distribution. There were some to whom he gave strength without swiftness, while he equipped the weaker with swiftness; some he armed, and others he left unarmed; and devised for the latter some other means of preservation, making some large, and having their size as a protection, and others small, whose nature was to fly in the air or burrow in the ground; this was to be their way of escape. Thus did he compensate them with the view of preventing any race from becoming extinct. And when he had provided against their destruction by one another, he contrived also a means of protecting them against the seasons of heaven; clothing them with close hair and thick skins sufficient to defend them against the winter cold and able to resist the summer heat, so that they might have a natural bed of their own when they wanted to rest; also he furnished them with hoofs and hair and hard and callous skins under their feet. Then he gave them varieties of food-herb of the soil to some, to others fruits of trees, and to others roots, and to some again he gave other animals as food. And some he made to have few young ones, while those who were their prey were very prolific; and in this manner the race was preserved. Thus did Epimetheus, who, not being very wise, forgot that he had distributed among the brute animals all the qualities which he had to give-and when he came to man, who was still unprovided, he was terribly perplexed. Now while he was in this perplexity, Prometheus came to inspect the distribution, and he found that the other animals were suitably furnished, but that man alone was naked and shoeless, and had neither bed nor arms of defence. The appointed hour was approaching when man in his turn was to go forth into the light of day; and Prometheus, not knowing how he could devise his salvation, stole the mechanical arts of Hephaestus and Athene, and fire with them (they could neither have been acquired nor used without fire), and gave them to man. Thus man had the wisdom necessary to the support of life, but political wisdom he had not; for that was in the keeping of Zeus, and the power of Prometheus did not extend to entering into the citadel of heaven, where Zeus dwelt, who moreover had terrible sentinels; but he did enter by stealth into the common workshop of Athene and Hephaestus, in which they used to practise their favourite arts, and carried off Hephaestus' art of working by fire, and also the art of Athene, and gave them to man. And in this way man was supplied with the means of life. But Prometheus is said to have been afterwards prosecuted for theft, owing to the blunder of Epimetheus.

Now man, having a share of the divine attributes, was at first the only one of the animals who had any gods, because he alone was of their kindred; and he would raise altars and images of them. He was not long in inventing articulate speech and names; and he also constructed houses and clothes and shoes and beds, and drew sustenance from the earth. Thus provided, mankind at first lived dispersed, and there were no cities. But the consequence was that they were destroyed by the wild beasts, for they were utterly weak in comparison of them, and their art was only sufficient to provide them with the means of life, and did not enable them to carry on war against the animals: food they had, but not as yet the art of government, of which the art of war is a part. After a while the desire of self-preservation gathered them into cities; but when they were gathered together, having no art of government, they evil intreated one another, and were again in process of dispersion and destruction. Zeus feared that the entire race would be exterminated, and so he sent Hermes to them, bearing reverence and justice to be the ordering principles of cities and the bonds of friendship and conciliation. Hermes asked Zeus how he should impart justice and reverence among men:-Should he distribute them as the arts are distributed; that is to say, to a favoured few only, one skilled individual having enough of medicine or of any other art for many unskilled ones? "Shall this be the manner in which I am to distribute justice and reverence among men, or shall I give them to all?" "To all," said Zeus; "I should like them all to have a share; for cities cannot exist, if a few only share in the virtues, as in the arts. And further, make a law by my order, that he who has no part in reverence and justice shall be put to death, for he is a plague of the state."

And this is the reason, Socrates, why the Athenians and mankind in general, when the question relates to carpentering or any other mechanical art, allow but a few to share in their deliberations; and when any one else interferes, then, as you say, they object, if he be not of the favoured few; which, as I reply, is very natural. But when they meet to deliberate about political virtue, which proceeds only by way of justice and wisdom, they are patient enough of any man who speaks of them, as is also natural, because they think that every man ought to share in this sort of virtue, and that states could not exist if this were otherwise. I have explained to you, Socrates, the reason of this phenomenon.

And that you may not suppose yourself to be deceived in thinking that all men regard every man as having a share of justice or honesty and of every other political virtue, let me give you a further proof, which is this. In other cases, as you are aware, if a man says that he is a good flute-player, or skilful in any other art in which he has no skill, people either laugh at him or are angry with him, and his relations think that he is mad and go and admonish him; but when honesty is in question, or some other political virtue, even if they know that he is dishonest, yet, if the man comes publicly forward and tells the truth about his dishonesty, then, what in the other case was held by them to be good sense, they now deem to be madness. They say that all men ought to profess honesty whether they are honest or not, and that a man is out of his mind who says anything else. Their notion is, that a man must have some degree of honesty; and that if he has none at all he ought not to be in the world.

I have been showing that they are right in admitting every man as a counsellor about this sort of virtue, as they are of opinion that every man is a partaker of it. And I will now endeavour to show further that they do not conceive this virtue to be given by nature, or to grow spontaneously, but to be a thing which may be taught; and which comes to a man by taking pains. No one would instruct, no one would rebuke, or be angry with those whose calamities they suppose to be due to nature or chance; they do not try to punish or to prevent them from being what they are; they do but pity them. Who is so foolish as to chastise or instruct the ugly, or the diminutive, or the feeble? And for this reason. Because he knows that good and evil of this kind is the work of nature and of chance; whereas if a man is wanting in those good qualities which are attained by study and exercise and teaching, and has only the contrary evil qualities, other men are angry with him, and punish and reprove him-of these evil qualities one is impiety, another injustice, and they may be described generally as the very opposite of political virtue. In such cases any man will be angry with another, and reprimand him,-clearly because he thinks that by study and learning, the virtue in which the other is deficient may be acquired. If you will think, Socrates, of the nature of punishment, you will see at once that in the opinion of mankind virtue may be acquired; no one punishes the evil-doer under the notion, or for the reason, that he has done wrong, only the unreasonable fury of a beast acts in that manner. But he who desires to inflict rational punishment does not retaliate for a past wrong which cannot be undone; he has regard to the future, and is desirous that the man who is punished, and he who sees him punished, may be deterred from doing wrong again. He punishes for the sake of prevention, thereby clearly implying that virtue is capable of being taught. This is the notion of all who retaliate upon others either privately or publicly. And the Athenians, too, your own citizens, like other men, punish and take vengeance on all whom they regard as evil doers; and hence, we may infer them to be of the number of those who think that virtue may be acquired and taught. Thus far, Socrates, I have shown you clearly enough, if I am not mistaken, that your countrymen are right in admitting the tinker and the cobbler to advise about politics, and also that they deem virtue to be capable of being taught and acquired.

There yet remains one difficulty which has been raised by you about the sons of good men. What is the reason why good men teach their sons the knowledge which is gained from teachers, and make them wise in that, but do nothing towards improving them in the virtues which distinguish themselves? And here, Socrates, I will leave the apologue and resume the argument. Please to consider: Is there or is there not some one quality of which all the citizens must be partakers, if there is to be a city at all? In the answer to this question is contained the only solution of your difficulty; there is no other. For if there be any such quality, and this quality or unity is not the art of the carpenter, or the smith, or the potter, but justice and temperance and holiness and, in a word, manly virtue-if this is the quality of which all men must be partakers, and which is the very condition of their learning or doing anything else, and if he who is wanting in this, whether he be a child only or a grown-up man or woman, must be taught and punished, until by punishment he becomes better, and he who rebels against instruction and punishment is either exiled or condemned to death under the idea that he is incurable-if what I am saying be true, good men have their sons taught other things and not this, do consider how extraordinary their conduct would appear to be. For we have shown that they think virtue capable of being taught and cultivated both in private and public; and, notwithstanding, they have their sons taught lesser matters, ignorance of which does not involve the punishment of death: but greater things, of which the ignorance may cause death and exile to those who have no training or knowledge of them-aye, and confiscation as well as death, and, in a word, may be the ruin of families-those things, I say, they are supposed not to teach them-not to take the utmost care that they should learn. How improbable is this, Socrates!

Education and admonition commence in the first years of childhood, and last to the very end of life. Mother and nurse and father and tutor are vying with one another about the improvement of the child as soon as ever he is able to understand what is being said to him: he cannot say or do anything without their setting forth to him that this is just and that is unjust; this is honourable, that is dishonourable; this is holy, that is unholy; do this and abstain from that. And if he obeys, well and good; if not, he is straightened by threats and blows, like a piece of bent or warped wood. At a later stage they send him to teachers, and enjoin them to see to his manners even more than to his reading and music; and the teachers do as they are desired. And when the boy has learned his letters and is beginning to understand what is written, as before he understood only what was spoken, they put into his hands the works of great poets, which he reads sitting on a bench at school; in these are contained many admonitions, and many tales, and praises, and encomia of ancient famous men, which he is required to learn by heart, in order that he may imitate or emulate them and desire to become like them. Then, again, the teachers of the lyre take similar care that their young disciple is temperate and gets into no mischief; and when they have taught him the use of the lyre, they introduce him to the poems of other excellent poets, who are the lyric poets; and these they set to music, and make their harmonies ana rhythms quite familiar to the children's souls, in order that they may learn to be more gentle, and harmonious, and rhythmical, and so more fitted for speech and action; for the life of man in every part has need of harmony and rhythm. Then they send them to the master of gymnastic, in order that their bodies may better minister to the virtuous mind, and that they may not be compelled through bodily weakness to play the coward in war or on any other occasion. This is what is done by those who have the means, and those who have the means are the rich; their children begin to go to school soonest and leave off latest. When they have done with masters, the state again compels them to learn the laws, and live after the pattern which they furnish, and not after their own fancies; and just as in learning to write, the writing-master first draws lines with a style for the use of the young beginner, and gives him the tablet and makes him follow the lines, so the city draws the laws, which were the invention of good lawgivers living in the olden time; these are given to the young man, in order to guide him in his conduct whether he is commanding or obeying; and he who transgresses them is to be corrected, or, in other words, called to account, which is a term used not only in your country, but also in many others, seeing that justice calls men to account. Now when there is all this care about virtue private and public, why, Socrates, do you still wonder and doubt whether virtue can be taught? Cease to wonder, for the opposite would be far more surprising.

But why then do the sons of good fathers often turn out ill? There is nothing very wonderful in this; for, as I have been saying, the existence of a state implies that virtue is not any man's private possession. If so-and nothing can be truer-then I will further ask you to imagine, as an illustration, some other pursuit or branch of knowledge which may be assumed equally to be the condition of the existence of a state. Suppose that there could be no state unless we were all flute-players, as far as each had the capacity, and everybody was freely teaching everybody the art, both in private and public, and reproving the bad player as freely and openly as every man now teaches justice and the laws, not concealing them as he would conceal the other arts, but imparting them-for all of us have a mutual interest in the justice and virtue of one another, and this is the reason why every one is so ready to teach justice and the laws;-suppose, I say, that there were the same readiness and liberality among us in teaching one another flute-playing, do you imagine, Socrates, that the sons of good flute players would be more likely to be good than the sons of bad ones? I think not. Would not their sons grow up to be distinguished or undistinguished according to their own natural capacities as flute-players, and the son of a good player would often turn out to be a bad one, and the son of a bad player to be a good one, all flute-players would be good enough in comparison of those who were ignorant and unacquainted with the art of flute-playing? In like manner I would have you consider that he who appears to you to be the worst of those who have been brought up in laws and humanities, would appear to be a just man and a master of justice if he were to be compared with men who had no education, or courts of justice, or laws, or any restraints upon them which compelled them to practise virtue-with the savages, for example, whom the poet Pherecrates exhibited on the stage at the last year's Lenaean festival. If you were living among men such as the man-haters in his Chorus, you would be only too glad to meet with Eurybates and Phrynondas, and you would sorrowfully long to revisit the rascality of this part of the world. you, Socrates, are discontented, and why? Because all men are teachers of virtue, each one according to his ability; and you say, Where are the teachers? You might as well ask, Who teaches Greek? For of that too there will not be any teachers found. Or you might ask, Who is to teach the sons of our artisans this same art which they have learned of their fathers? He and his fellow-workmen have taught them to the best of their ability,-but who will carry them further in their arts? And you would certainly have a difficulty, Socrates, in finding a teacher of them; but there would be no difficulty in finding a teacher of those who are wholly ignorant. And this is true of virtue or of anything else; if a man is better able than we are to promote virtue ever so little, we must be content with the result. A teacher of this sort I believe myself to be, and above all other men to have the knowledge which makes a man noble and good; and I give my pupils their money's-worth, and even more, as they themselves confess. And therefore I have introduced the following mode of payment:-When a man has been my pupil, if he likes he pays my price, but there is no compulsion; and if he does not like, he has only to go into a temple and take an oath of the value of the instructions, and he pays no more than he declares to be their value.

Such is my Apologue, Socrates, and such is the argument by which I endeavour to show that virtue may be taught, and that this is the opinion of the Athenians. And I have also attempted to show that you are not to wonder at good fathers having bad sons, or at good sons having bad fathers, of which the sons of Polycleitus afford an example, who are the companions of our friends here, Paralus and Xanthippus, but are nothing in comparison with their father; and this is true of the sons of many other artists. As yet I ought not to say the same of Paralus and Xanthippus themselves, for they are young and there is still hope of them.


text:
Ukrainian Dancing/Volyn/Steps for Men and Boys

Boys do high kicks and lots of running (moving quickly along the stage while lifting feet high off ground). Keeping toes pointed is very important for the males. When doing the dance as a group they must try to keep time with the females. Showing off is the males favorite past time. Third and sixth positions are used the most.


text:
User talk:Cryssy77

Hello! and welcome to wikibooks!

I saw that you signed your signature on Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Chapter 2. Unfortunately, we had to remove it, because it doesn't belong there. However, if you want to learn about all the things that you can do here, don't hesitate to send me a message about it On my talk page HERE. I'd love to help out in any way I can. Good luck, and happy editing! --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 22:17, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cryssy77


text:
User talk:A3nm

Navigation
Hi! While you're adding navigation to pages, could you also add it to the bottom of each page, especially for long pages? Going back to the contents pages takes about the same amount of time as scrolling up, so navigation at the top of pages isn't really helpful to readers. I made {{chapter navigation}} specifically for this purpose, and added the functions of TopNav into it, although a simple "next" link is fine. Thanks! --hagindaz 22:58, 25 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Hello! Thanks for your suggestion! If your template works the same way and offers more functionnalities than TopNav, I'll be glad to use it. @+ --a3_nm 17:46, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:A3nm


text:
Talk:Dutch/Websites

Untitled
Why is this page locked? Albatalpa 00:01, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

Insecure page
I noticed that on Chrome the http://www.freetranslations.com page brings up a warning about its connection not being secure. MorbidEntree - (Talk to me! (っ◕‿◕)っ♥) (please reply using {{ping}}) 10:18, 15 September 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dutch/Websites


text:
Embedded Systems/PIC Programming

This module assumes
 * you, the reader, know a little about programming using C and assembly.
 * you have a MPLAB ICD 2 and a PICDEM 2 Plus demo board.
 * you have selected a PICmicro microcontroller and want to program it. (Examples in this book will be focus on PIC18F452 microcontroller since it came with the demo board. The same process works with most other PICmicros).

Before getting started,
 * install latest MPLAB IDE from Microchip Technology Inc and MPLAB C18 compiler. When this book was written, the latest MPLAB version is 7.40.

Getting Started with Simple I/O
We will start with a simple input output program using PORTA and PORTB. Let’s light some LEDs on the board. We should assign value 0x0A to PORTB. This will light up LEDs at RB3 and RB1. Everytime the switch button at RA4 is pressed, the value will be negated; thus the LEDS will switch between RB3/RB1 and RB2/RB0.

First, start your MPLAB IDE. In the menu bar, select Project → Project Wizard. Hit next, and select PIC18F452 as your device. Select next again. Under Active Toolsuite, select Microchip C18 Toolsuite and MPLAB C18 C Compiler (mcc18.exe) under Toolsuite Contents. Now, we have to give a name to our project and select a directory for it. Since we going to do a simple I/O, let us name it Simple_IO at Project Name. Then, select a directory. In this case, I would use c:\example\simpleIO. Hit the next button. We do not have any files to add to the project. So, hit the next button again. Now, we are finished with the Project Wizard. Hit the finish button.

Once the project is setup, we should create a C file called SimpleIO.c. At the menu bar, select File → New. Once the new editor pops, select File → Save As. At the new window, save the newly created file as SimpleIO.c. On the Project Window (where Simple_IO.mcv is the title) right click on Source Files. Select Add Files... from the menu. Select SimpleIO.c from where you save just now. On the same window, select Linker Scripts and select Add Files... from the menu. Under Microchip C18 C compiler directory (default is C:\MCC18), go to c:\installed directory/lkr and type 18f452.lkr at the File name. Type the following code into the editor.

Hit the save button on the toolbar or from the menu bar, select File → Save. Next, click on Project → Build All or Build All button at the toolbar at the top. Make sure you have no error or warning at the Output window. Hook up your MPLAB ICD 2 to your computer and connect PICDEM 2 Plus Demo board to the ICD (Please refer to the manual provided). Now, select Debugger → Select Tool → MPLAB ICD 2. Make sure there is no error at the output window. Next, click on Debugger → Program to program the microcontroller. Once you have successful programed the microcontroller, click on Debugger → Run. You can also hit the Run button at the toolbar. On the demo board, LEDs at RB3 and RB1 should light up.

Now, pressed the switch at RA4 on the demo board a few times. Noticed something wrong? The LEDs do flick, but do not switch between RB3/RB1 and RB2/RB0 all the time. And if you just pressed the switch without releasing it, all the LEDs do light up. This is not something that we want. Let us look at the code again to find out what is the problem. Noticed that in the while loop, as long as RA4 is read 0, value at PORTB will be inverted. With the microcontroller running at 16 MHz, a flash push at the switch, which may consume up to 500us, may cause the value in PORTB to invert more than 1000 times. That is why the LEDs appear to be light up in random whenever the switch is pushed. The code has to be modified to detect a push, and a release at the switch. LED Blinker Materials Circuit from “Introduction to the PIC16F877A” 100 Ohm resistor LED

Circuit 1. Pin RB7 to resistor 2. Resistor to LED 3. LED to ground

Code //all these # below set up the PIC
 * 1) include <16F877A.h>
 * 2) device adc=8
 * 3) FUSES NOWDT     //No Watch Dog Timer
 * 4) FUSES HS        //Highspeed Osc > 4mhz
 * 5) FUSES PUT       //Power Up Timer
 * 6) FUSES NOPROTECT //Code not protected from reading
 * 7) FUSES NODEBUG   //No Debug mode for ICD
 * 8) FUSES NOBROWNOUT //No brownout reset
 * 9) FUSES NOLVP     //No low voltage prgming, B3(PIC16) or B5(PIC18) used for I/O
 * 10) FUSES NOCPD     //No EE protection
 * 11) use delay(clock=20000000) 				// Sets crystal oscillator at 20 megahertz
 * 12) use rs232(baud=9600, xmit=PIN_C6, invert) //Sets up serial port output pin & baud rate

//main program starts here void main { //Infinite program loop starts. LED blinks forever. while(true){ output_high(PIN_B7);   //send a “1” to pin RB7, making RB7 “High” at 5v //this will turn on the LED hooked to RB7 delay_ms(500); 		//wait half a second, delays for 500ms output_low(PIN_B7);    //send a “0” to pin RB7, making RB7 “Low” at 0v delay_ms(500);		//wait half a second, delays for 500ms } }

Notes You can easily add more LEDs and make them flash in different patterns. For more readable code, use … … output_high(RED_LED); output_high(GREEN_LED);
 * 1) define RED_LED  PIN_B7
 * 2) define GREEN_LED PIN_B6

Compilers, Assemblers

 * Flowcharts drawn with a "visual flowcharting tool" in the PICAXE system are automatically converted into PICAXE BASIC.
 * PICAXE BASIC in the PICAXE system.
 * PROTON IDE (BASIC Languange for all PIC device) Tutorial For PROTON IDE.
 * mikroBasic by mikroElectronika—a Basic Compiler that supports most PICs.
 * PBASIC Programming—a wikibook about PBASIC, which runs on a PICmicro or Scenix in a Parallax BasicStamp
 * mikroC by mikroelektronika—Very simple C Compiler www.mikroe.com
 * MPC by Byte Craft Limited—Optimizing C compiler; demonstration version creates size-limited executables.
 * Microchip makes "MPLAB" available for free download from their web site. It includes a free assembly language compiler and emulator; also a limited C compiler for some chips (PIC18, PIC24, and PIC32—but alas, not PIC16).
 * the C4SX environment and the CC1B compiler is a C compiler for the SX28 and the SX48 devices.
 * SDCC - Small Device C Compiler—is a C compiler that has some support for both PIC16 and PIC18 chips.
 * "Programming the PIC16f628a with SDCC"
 * "Using the Code::Blocks IDE with SDCC on PIC MCUs" (on the Code::Blocks wiki)
 * SDCC questions at Stack Overflow
 * SDCC tutorials
 * BoostC and BoostC++—a C compiler and a C++ compiler that has some support for both PIC16 and PIC18 chips
 * Pyastra: python assembler translator
 * Compilers for many languages—some of them free for downloading—are listed at http://massmind.org/techref/microchip/languages.htm.
 * FlashForth runs on most PIC18F and dsPIC30F microcontrollers.
 * Optimal PICmicro Code Solutions has a free online tool to scan your assembly code for banking and paging errors.
 * JAL (Just Another Language) created by Wouter van Ooijen in 2003.
 * OOPic: The OOPic ("Object Oriented Programmable Integrated Circuit") is a software development system and programming language for Microchip PIC hardware.

further reading:
 * Robotics: Design Basics: Design software
 * Embedded Systems/Embedded Systems Introduction

title: Embedded Systems/PIC Programming


text:
User talk:Rbrim001

Hi Rbrim001,

Please don't add your signature to project pages. Signatures should, as a rule, only be added to discussion (a.k.a. "talk") pages, except for pages such as author acknowledgement pages, etc. SB_Johnny  | talk 03:25, 26 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Nevermind... I take it that this is your assignment? I'll ask the main contributor. -- SB_Johnny | talk 03:32, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rbrim001


text:
User talk:220.255.215.253

Thanks for experimenting with the page MapleStory/Monsters on Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

-- SB_Johnny | talk 03:50, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:220.255.215.253


text:
User:Geoffster

Hello there

I'm a librarian, horn player, and father of two wonderful boys. I grew up in London, Ont., spent many years in Toronto, and now reside in North Bay, Ont.

title: User:Geoffster


text:
Talk:Nintendo Wars/Advance Wars: Dual Strike

This page needs serious help!!! I need some assistance with making this Wikibook a respectable page! Russian Sage 06:28, 26 August 2006 (UTC)


text:
User:Russian Sage

 Pages I'm Working On

 * 1) Advance Wars: Dual Strike

title: User:Russian Sage


text:
Horn/Repertoire/Orchestral Excerpts/Franck, C. - Symphony in D minor

In the score, this is doubled by the clarinet. The tuning can be very problematic, as the two instruments have different pitching tendencies in this tessitura.


text:
Artificial Intelligence/Circuit encoded in Java

Three bit neuron code :
Explanation will be provided shortly :

Regards

mindaslab@gmail.com


text:
Artificial Intelligence/My research results

In my quest to construct a circit that mimics a neuron in the brain, I ended with a circuit that exhibitted the following results

There are two types of learning

 * Memorized learning
 * Algorithimization

Memorized learning
Lets take the case of Fibonacci series 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34 .............. Say you want to train a circuit the when given a number n gives out the nth Fibonacci number. Example if given n=5 the circuit gives out 3 and so on. When we try to train the circuit by this way the circuit simply remembers that at n=0,1,2,3,4,5 and so on the output must be 0,1,1,2,3 etc.

Algorithmization
But instead if we train give a seed value of 0,1 and variable n which represents a feed back we can get a circuit that forms a algorithm that can generate Fibonacci series, rather than one that just remembers.

If a circuit undergoes algorithmized training it can generate output for previously encountered and non encountered values that are given as input. Else if a circit has learned by memorization it can give right output for previously trained values, but may give out erroneous output for previously nonencountered inputs.


text: Category:Book:Rueda de Casino

title: Category:Book:Rueda de Casino


text:
Talk:Physical Activity/Aerobic Exercise

I would try to fix this page as it stinks but a merge would fix everything. 24.154.173.50 11:11, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

Saddle position?
Can information be added to the Bicycling section on how to correctly position the saddle of an exercise bike to avoid knee injuries and other injuries? Wsmss (discuss • contribs) 09:37, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Physical Activity/Aerobic Exercise


text: Category:Book:Nepal Bhasa

title: Category:Book:Nepal Bhasa


text:
User:Pir/Book1

= Migrating from Windows to Linux =

About this Wikibook
There are already several introductory Wikibooks on GNU/Linux, such as Linux Guide and Linux For Newbies. This Wikibook will be different in that it is much more clearly defined in terms of its 'audience' as well as the Linux distro used :
 * it will be targeted at those who use PCs on a regular basis but have no desire to become experts. Typically these will be people who have used Windows for years, want to migrate to GNU/Linux, but are scared of a steep learning curve. This will be an instructional resource easing the transition by teaching people who to employ the skills they have acquired in a GNU/Linux environment.
 * the distro used is Kubuntu 6.06 LTS. Deciding on a specific edition of a specific distro avoids tons of technical problems. Also, KDE is most similar to Windows and (K)ubuntu is widely regarded as one of the most user-friendly distros.
 * common tasks can be shown side-by-side in Windows and free software

Principles
With GNU/Linux, users are in control of their computer, opening up enormous possibilities for using software. In addition, there are usually many different ways of achieving the same goal. This Wikibook will focus on showing you how to do the most common tasks in one  way - the way that's most appropriate for its audience. To achieve this, we'll have to make choices, based on the folowing principles:
 * choose tasks that most Windows users regard as standard
 * choose the software that is most similar to Windows
 * show how it's achieved in Windows and Linux side-by-side, using screenshots (although not too many screenshots - text and screenshots should take up similar space)
 * when the solution shown is less than perfect, point towards further resources that may be more powerful but less appropriate for ex-Windozers (e.g. link towards the Wikibook about OpenOffice.org)
 * make users apply basic concepts and new knowledge using tutorial exercises

Assumptions

 * Skill level - Knowledge the user is assumed to have. i.e., defining the target audience.
 * working, fresh, installation of Kubuntu 6.06 LTS ; refer to possibility of Live CD

Why would I want to switch ?
[http:/ /www.opensource.org/docs/peru_and_ms.php]

jargon
(should mostly be explained in history part) kernel X KDE GNOME distribution Ubuntu Kubuntu

Understand - Comparison of Windows and GNU/Linux|Comparison of Windows and GNU/Linux
This will be a more theoretical part, introducing those concepts that are most relevant for ex-Widows users because they make the GNU/Linux experience quite different. The section should be to the point, rather than going into too much dept, dealing with things at such a level as is relevant for practical use. Pointers towards more detailed info. The following chapters will then refer back to this part whenever these concepts are put into practice.

http:// www.getgnulinux.org/switch_to_linux/linux_from_windows/ Comparison of Windows and Linux http:// www.psychocats.net/essays/linuxwindowscomparison.php

The filesystem
Windows:
 * tree - hierarchical system of directories and subdirectories ('folders')
 * several trees - hierarchy starts with c: - harddrive (partition where the OS is installed) ;  a: - floppy ; additional e.g. d:-CD/DVD, e: second harddrive, f: USB flash --- these are usually detected when booted, or for USB devices when inserted
 * \MyDocuments
 * FAT, NTFS
 * three letter extension identifies type of file

Linux :
 * one single tree - single hierarchical system, starting with / (root)
 * partitions have to be mounted at mount point in the hierarchical file-system
 * /home/Desktop
 * case-sensitive
 * extension doesn't matter much
 * vfat, ext2, ext3, ReiserFS
 * Linux can read NTFS, but writing NTFS used to be major headache
 * Windows not designed to read ext2, ext3, ReiserFS
 * FAT can be dealt with well by both Windows and Linux

Users
Windows:
 * when start up, either get to desktop, or need to login with username
 * easy to install programmes
 * big security problems, virus, rootkits, worms, spyware

Linux:
 * very strict distinction - 'normal' user and root user
 * root user can access everything - modify system and access all files, create users
 * users have access to their files only, can launch programmes but cannot install new software
 * Kubuntu has it's own way of dealing with this : sudo, need to type in password of user who installed Kubuntu

File Permissions
Windows: not really an issue ; did not exist in Windows ME and before Linux:
 * user who owns the file - group - other users
 * read - write - execute

[https:// help.ubuntu.com/community/FilePermissions] File system permissions

Community

 * (k)ubuntu help documetation
 * forums
 * icq
 * bug reports

Install
not sure yet if it's good to show installation.... if so, then show dual boot, using second HD

Make it your own -- Configuring Kubuntu 6.06

 * demonstrate concepts froim earlier
 * create second user
 * KWallet
 * show where things are
 * progs
 * install new software - upgrade?

Deal with files
copy, backup , find Konqueror ; archive ; beagle

Communicate
How to browse the Internet ; write an e-mail ; Use instant messaging

 * IE6 - uninstallable ; picks up lots of spyware
 * adverts
 * MSN - uninstallable ; login at startup

 * install (?) Firefox
 * import bookmarks from Windows partition
 * Adblock
 * go to Gmail
 * do something useful with Kopete

Entertain yourself
How to listen to my music or watch videos amaroK and Mplayer/VLC music
 * show how to back up a CD with KaudioCreator
 * preferable using a Sony CD with their XCP rootkit http:// www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/11/sonys_drm_rootk.html ; http:// blogs.zdnet.com/BTL/?p=2177
 * discuss ripping using ogg vorbis and flac formats (advantages) ; recommend Ogg Vorbis players - list at http:// wiki.xiph.org/index.php/PortablePlayers
 * then rip into mp3, since this is the most common format and can be played on iPods
 * mention legal issues - mp3, patents, fair use
 * demonstrate amaroK with ripped files
 * access files on iPod with amarok http:// linux.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=06/08/17/2055250&from=rss
 * put mp3s on iPod
 * get some mp3s from iPod, mix with ripped mp3 and make new mix
 * burn using K3b

video
 * watch a DVD
 * backup a DVD (fair use)
 * download video files
 * show democracy player ?

How to edit an image and manage my digital photo collection
The Gimp (or Gimpshop, or Krita) and Picasa

 * mention photo management software native to Linux
 * demonstrate Picasa, since many people use it on Windows
 * installation
 * explain folders, etc etc.
 * import of photos
 * Picasa image manipulation
 * use pic with lab, make into wallpaper?

 * mention Gimp
 * Krita
 * take photo imported using Picasa, modify some Linux mascot, e.g. make something similar to Penguin Liberation Front
 * vector drawing?

How to write a text document or presentation
OpenOffice.org - writer and impress ; how to make pdf files (and flash?)

 * MSOffice
 * open file in WinWord/PowerPoint
 * open file with virus in macro?

 * writer
 * open doc file (sent vie e-mail or Kopete?)
 * make poster ; import image from earlier
 * explain open document format
 * save as .rtf, and demonstrate that it can be opened in Winword (purged of macro virus?)
 * export as pdf
 * presentation
 * make v. similar to writer file
 * but make into little animation
 * save as flash
 * ability to open Powerpoint

Burn a CD/DVD
K3b

Use P2P
bittorrent (Ktorrent or azureus?) ; amule

Making the most of GNU/Linux
multiple screens Konsole APT SuperKaramba Blender Gimp Scribus

Glossary of GNU/Linux terms
>

title: User:Pir/Book1


text:
User talk:148.87.1.172

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

(Note: this IP address has a history of minor and occiasional vandalism, primarily section blanking)-- SB_Johnny | talk 11:58, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

Blocked
This is an open proxy, according to meta; blocked for 1 year. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:39, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:148.87.1.172


text:
Developing Genealogy Web-Pages/Site Creation/color

=Color=
 * When using HTML, there are to basic ways to describe color:

 * {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 bgcolor="EEEE99"

 * bgcolor=
 * color=
 * color=

 * }

Assigned Colors

 * The assigned color scheme is easy to use, but can come up with some interesting colors as you learn to experiment with this technique.

 * This technique is based on Red, Green, and Blue as the primary colors. Each of these three colors can range from 0 to 255.  These colors are expressed in hexadecimal (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) which makes the range 00 to FF.

 * Combined, you will see something like this: #RRGGBB, for example #000000 is black and #FFFFFF is white.

 * For some examples that might make more sense, go to ... My Color Codes, the menu of colors is on the right side of the screen.

Named Colors

 * The colors assigned utilize two methodologies. This first is a simple naming convention - there are basically 16 colors within this convention:

 * {| style="background:#F0F0F0; border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5

Black Silver Gray White Maroon Red Purple Fuchsia Green Lime Olive Yellow Navy Blue Teal Aqua
 * }


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Introduction to Zoology

Zoology is the branch of biology that includes the study of animals and animal life.

Animals are heterotrophic. That means they are organisms that must rely on other organisms (living or dead plants or other animals) to provide the energy for life. Plants, by contrast, are autotrophic, they are organisms that produce their own food from sunlight and other inorganic sources.

Animals further have sense organs or tissues, which allow them to interact with their environment. This distinguishes animals from fungi (mushrooms and relatives), which are also heterotrophs.

By the requirement that animals have sense organs or tissues, this means they must also be multicellular (having more than one cell in their body). This separates the animals from the Protista, the single celled heterotrophs.

Zoology as a discipline includes, but is not limited to, the study of the behavior, ecology, anatomy, physiology, evolution, and classification of animals. Any study that involves animals as it's primary focus can be considered a part of zoology.

In addition to being divided along the lines mentioned above, zoology is often divided by the organisms being studied. The broadest division by organism is the splitting into categories by whether or not the animals studied have a backbone or spinal column, which may be made of cartilage or bone. Each of those divisions would naturally include their behavior, ecology, anatomy, etc.

Using that division, zoology can be subdivided into two large categories:

Invertebrate Zoology
Briefly, an invertebrate lacks a spinal column (backbone). Animals in this category include species of the following: protozoans, annelids, cnidarians, echinoderms, flatworms, nematodes, mollusks, and arthropods. Invertebrates make up 97% of the Earth's animals. They range in size from minute to extremely large. Some, like insects, have an exoskeleton, which is a support structure like our own skeleton, but is on the outside of the animal. Others have hard internal support structures, some have no hard parts at all.

Vertebrate Zoology
A vertebrate has a spinal column or backbone. Animals in this category includes the animals in the subphylum Vertebrata: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. These are all characterized by a segmented spinal column and a distinct differentiated head. These animals possess internal skeletons which include the vertebral column which at least partially encloses the spinal cord and a skull which houses the brain. When people think of animals, this is often the only kind they think of. Largely this is probably due to the fact that the category includes humans.

Table of Contents

 * Intro to Zoology/Invertebrate Zoology
 * Intro to Zoology/Vertebrate Zoology
 * Intro to Zoology/Glossary

zoologia প্রাণিবিজ্ঞানের প্রথম পাঠ

title: Introduction to Zoology


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User:TeaDrinker

I am a graduate student in mathematical ecology. I am usually on the English langauage Wikipedia (see my user page and talk page), which may be the best way to get ahold of me quickly.

title: User:TeaDrinker


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User talk:Tvhsore

Hi Tvhsore,

Thanks for contributing to the book! Are you a member of the Old Dominion University class?

Pete 17:59, 26 August 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tvhsore


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User:Master son

For this user's information - see Master Son on Wikipedia

title: User:Master son


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Goals

Education in today’s society is becoming exceedingly difficult as students’ interests are constantly changing and more skills are needed to become successful in society. Also, the society in which we live is completely different from the world twenty years ago, yet the way of educating children and what is taught has not significantly changed. This shows the need for educational reform. However, it brings up the question: What are the goals for educational change? The change in education needs to encompass the following ideas: cooperative learning, differentiation, technology, and conscious discipline. Cooperative learning is important because studies have found that children, even older children, learn better by actively participating in class instead of passively observing. In addition, they can learn more from working with other students along with what the teacher has to offer. Differentiation is also essential because no two children are identical and they may not learn in exactly the same way. Therefore, the classroom should be taught as individuals instead of a group to best meet the needs of each individual student, taking into account the student’s learning style and preferences. Technology is changing the lives of both students and teachers everyday as life becomes more and more high-tech and it should be used to the advantage of the educational process. Finally is conscious discipline, which focuses more on creating and maintaining a relationship with the student versus a reward system. With these ideas being the basic goals of the education system, the students should be more likely to succeed.

Cooperative Learning
"Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement.  Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it" (Kennesaw State University).

Cooperative Learning as a technique that not only teaches the students more effectively but it also helps to develop their social skills, character, and morals because the students are forced to interact with one another and work as a group. The Kagan strategy, which was developed by Dr. Spencer Kagan, is a method of utilizing cooperative learning. The Kagan strategy switches the teaching methods from lesson-based to structure based, so that the students are learning more on their own than being taught directly from the teacher. It allows the student to not just learn a particular skill, but instead acquire it by actually practicing the particular skill in the classroom. It uses an embedded curriculum to teach the students math, language arts, science and social studies through methods that require each student to actively participate in each lesson, so what is taught is actually being used (Kagan).

Elements of Cooperative Learning

 * 1) Positive Interdependence
 * 2) * Each group member's efforts are required and indispensable for group success
 * 3) * Each group member has a unique contribution to make to the joint effort because of his or her resources and/or role and task responsibilities
 * 4) Face-to-Face Interaction
 * 5) * Orally explaining how to solve problems
 * 6) * Teaching one's knowledge to other
 * 7) * Checking for understanding
 * 8) * Discussing concepts being learned
 * 9) * Connecting present with past learning
 * 10) Individual & Group Accountability
 * 11) * Keeping the size of the group small. The smaller the size of the group, the greater the individual accountability may be.
 * 12) * Giving an individual test to each student.
 * 13) * Randomly examining students orally by calling on one student to present his or her group's work to the teacher (in the presence of the group) or to the entire class.
 * 14) * Observing each group and recording the frequency with which each member-contributes to the group's work.
 * 15) * Assigning one student in each group the role of checker. The checker asks other group members to explain the reasoning and rationale underlying group answers.
 * 16) * Having students teach what they learned to someone else.
 * 17) Interpersonal & Small-Group Skills
 * 18) * Leadership
 * 19) * Decision-making
 * 20) * Trust-building
 * 21) * Communication
 * 22) * Conflict-management skills
 * 23) Group Processing
 * 24) * Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining effective working relationships
 * 25) * Describe what member actions are helpful and not helpful
 * 26) * Make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change
 * http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm

Project-Based Learning
Project-based learning is an approach to engage students in cooperative investigation. It is an emphasis on cooperative learning. In project-based learning, students work together to make sense of what is being taught. There are two components to project-based learning. The first component is a question or problem that organizes and pushes the activity. This question or problem is the meaning behind the project at hand. The second component is developing tasks that address the question or problem.

There are four features to use in project-based learning. The first feature is a driving question. This question is the problem at hand that the students are working towards finding the answer to. The second feature is when students explore to help them apply information, learns concepts, and show what they learned in different ways. The third feature is sharing with other students and teachers that they have learned. This is referred to as the “learning community.”   The fourth feature is using cognitive tools in showing their ideas. An example of this would be using computers to show their information.

Students use Project-based learning by:
 * Asking and refining questions
 * Debating ideas
 * Making predictions
 * Designing plans and/or experiments
 * Collecting and analyzing data
 * Drawing conclusions
 * Communicating their ideas and finding to other
 * Asking new questions
 * Creating artifacts

(Houghton Mifflin)

Project-based learning is a great way for students to learn and share. Though is may have some downfalls, it has been found to be a great way for students to interact and be motivated to learn. It teaches students to learn for themselves how to organize and gather information. It is a great technique to use in any grade level.

Differentiation
"The idea of differentiating instruction to accommodate the different ways that students learn involves a hefty dose of common sense, as well as sturdy support in the theory and research of education. It is an approach to teaching that advocates active planning for student differences in classrooms" (Tomlinson).

Differentiation is essential to classroom instruction because no two children are the same and therefore do not learn in the same way. In addition, all students have different intelligence quotients (IQs) and learning styles so the teaching needs to reflect that. It is also necessary to teach the students to think for themselves that way when they get out of the classroom they do not flounder. In a classroom of twenty-five students, most of them are on different reading levels and some may not even be able to complete certain tasks. Now the teacher should not differentiate his or her class so that there are twenty-five different assignments but rather so that there are several options and the teacher groups them into the section most appropriate for each particular student. This allows the students to learn in a way that is best for them to learn the particular material; therefore, making them more likely to succeed in the education system.

Four Ways to Differentiate Instruction:
 * 1) Differentiating the content/topic
 * 2) Differentiating the process/activities
 * 3) Differentiating the product
 * 4) Differentiating by manipulating the environment or through accommodating individual learning styles
 * http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/differentiating.html

Technology
This is the era of technology where it encompasses almost every part of a student’s daily life from iPods, to the internet, to computer games, and video games. As technology drives the students’ lives, the education system has yet to keep up. Many businesses use computers to save time and make work more efficient; however, most classrooms have only one computer in a classroom and then a computer lab that students use once a week or less. If students were given more opportunities with computers learning could be changed, not just through things like educational video games, students can get on the computer and find information for themselves on the topics being learned in school. It will help them to learn how to find out information for themselves as well as learn to think for themselves and decipher the information that they find. Education needs to stay on hand with today’s technology and use its advantages to better teach the students.

Conscious Discipline
"Conscious Discipline is a comprehensive classroom management program and a social-emotional curriculum. It is based on current brain research, child development information, and developmentally appropriate practices.  Conscious Discipline has been specifically designed to make changes in the lives of adults first.  The adults, in turn, change the lives of children" (Bailey).

Conscious Discipline, developed by Dr. Becky Bailey, starts first by having the teacher change his or her attitude and that will in turn cause the students behavior and attitude toward learning to change. It involves developing a positive relationship with each individual student. However, it switches the classroom discipline from the traditional reward and punishment for good and bad behavior to one where the classroom is like a miniature community and discipline occurs through thinking. Conscious Discipline teaches students how to control their emotions and develop social skills as well as problem solving. It also helps to build the students self-esteem by the sense of community (through students helping one another) that is created within the classroom. Finally, Conscious Discipline is learned through example since the teacher starts by respecting the student and the student in turn will respect the other students as well as the teacher.

Conclusion
With society consistently changing, education needs to change with it and meet the needs of each student in the classroom in the best way possible. By implementing cooperative learning, differentiation, technology, and conscious discipline students will be able to learn more successfully and develop more skills that will help them to succeed outside of the classroom. It is important for students to stay interested in education and if they are learning in a way suitable for them that encompasses elements that are significant to today’s society, then education will become stronger and leave a more substantial impact on the student’s life.

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Bartending/Cocktails/Caipirinha

The Caipirinha is a traditional Brazilian cocktail made from cachaça, limes, sugar, and ice.

Ingredients

 * 1 shot of cachaça
 * 1/2 lime
 * 2 tsp of sugar
 * Ice

Instructions

 * 1) Use a highball, or an old-fashioned glass.
 * 2) Cut 1/2 lime into 4 pieces.
 * 3) Muddle lime and sugar together.
 * 4) Pour cachaça and ice.
 * 5) Stir well.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Caipirinha


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers/Obsolescence

Obsolescence is the state of being which occurs when a person, object, or service is no longer wanted even though it may still be in good working order (Wikipedia definition). Obsolescence can be applied directly to Education in many instances. A barrier is something that poses as an obstacle that must be overcome. Education like many other fields is constantly changing. “Change” being the key word for this article. As the world evolves and changes, certain objects or techniques become outdated or obsolete. This is only one barrier that prevents effective education.

Past, Present, Future
As potential educators we must focus on the past, present, and future. We can only anticipate new change by being knowledgeable about the past as well as what the future has in store. In education there are many areas that experience obsolescence. For example, the technology, textbooks and materials, as well as the teaching methods, even the teachers all run the risk of at some point becoming outdated. Technology is changing everyday, it is our responsibility to learn new systems and apply them to our classrooms. As new technology such as computers and calculators become more apparent in the classroom, we must not let them completely replace our traditional methods of learning.

Changing Technology
Computers are a great resource for students to use; however, they shouldn’t completely replace former methods of learning. New technology is improved every day. The CD-Rom has already replaced the Floppy Disc, as well as CDs replacing tapes. There is always a faster computer that produces information at a quicker rate. “Anyone who has ever tried to get rid of an old PC can appreciate the problems colleges and universities have in getting rid of used mainframes and supercomputers. By the time colleges stop using them, there is almost no resale market for most old mainframes, so colleges find new uses for them--as database servers, for example.” (Olsen). This demonstrates how quickly technology is evolving, making it even more difficult to keep up.

Educational board games vs. computer games – Some games can lose the aesthetic feel when you are using the computer. Computers also limit student participation whereas; more traditional games can include an entire class.

Google.com vs. library – As a student, part of learning should be to understand the importance of books and other resources that will aid in their development. Internet is a great resource, however, not always credible. Libraries offer great physical resources that can be used.

Handwriting vs. typing – Typing is an important skill to acquire for the professional world that awaits all students, however, it should not replace the old standby of handwriting. Focus should not be directed away from teaching handwriting because obviously it is a basic of education growth.

One way to overcome this barrier of changing technology is to incorporate the traditional methods of teaching with the new. This will allow the teacher to use the computer as well as traditional resources to conduct research and overall learning in the classroom.

Calculators are a part of technology that is updated frequently. Calculators are very important but not essential in many early childhood classrooms. Too often students rely on calculators to “do the math” for them instead of taking the time to learn the science themselves. The basics of mathematics need to be taught and never overlooked. These basics are the foundation for educational expansion of the mind for the future. Educators can overcome this barrier by ensuring the fundamentals of math are still taught as thoroughly as they were ages ago.

Changing Resources
As we all know the world is constantly changing. This makes one thing evident, what was new today will be “old news” tomorrow. In an effort to keep up with the changing times, there are many researchers that study new developments everyday. Their jobs are to discover what is unknown and to prove what we believe as being factual.

With all of these new discoveries and developments in our world, our reliable resources become inaccurate information. This includes textbooks, maps, and many other teaching materials. Unfortunately, as we embark on new information, our resources become outdated fast. At times the text can become outdated before it is even printed. When I was in school, we would be assigned a new textbook every year. Inside the front cover would be a list of names (at least 3-5) of students that had used the book in past years. Today, students are given disposable workbooks as their textbooks. This allows the most updated information to be used.

Take for example traditional chalkboards. Classrooms are now being fitted with dry-erase boards because they are easier to use and make less of a mess. There are many ways that the classroom has to try to keep up with the changing resources. One potential issue with all of the examples given is annual budget. We must make an effort to overcome this barrier by reserving adequate funding for updated materials. All an educator can do is put forth the effort to make the material they are teaching accurate not obsolete.

Changing Teachers
This may sound weird but is it possible for teachers to become obsolete? Unfortunately, I think this is possible without the effort of change. Teachers can become outdated much like technology and other resources. They will always know the foundations of education. However, they must be willing to evolve with the changing world. Some styles of teaching may become outdated and stale. Teachers may also fall into the trap of teaching what they know and not what they potentially should know. Teachers never stop learning. They must always keep an open mind to all angles of education.

One way to approach this barrier is to keep teachers informed about anything that is changing. This would include new technology, resources, methods of teaching, the list goes on. Teachers are the forefront of education. Therefore, they must set the example. They should attend meetings or seminars on how to promote new learning methods and apply them in their classrooms and to their peers.

Obsolescence in a “Faster World”
As we have talked about change and how it affects the classroom, we must also understand why. There are obvious reasons why obsolescence exists, however, there is one reason that has become a staple in today’s society. Convenience!! Where have we heard this word before? It can be applied to almost every aspect of our society today. We have reached a point where obsolescence exists because it is easier, faster, and more convenient.

“The word processor facilitated the ‘hurry up’ mentality.” ( Bateman ) This explains how if there is a way to speed up the process, we will find it. People have become impatient and want to use new technology, new techniques to facilitate teaching in a quicker mode. However, we must remember that students are not robots and they mustn’t be taught in a way that would imply that. “The Industrial Revolution proved that machines do very capably, take the place of people. The tutor will be replaced.” Isn’t it ironic that many online classes create the perfect example? A traditional classroom with a physical educator can be replaced with a computer, TV screen, or even telecast class. Please don’t get me wrong, this is a form of obsolescence that I feel is effective.

Evaluation
As educators we must evaluate the new technologies and methods, because with much of the “newness” come a monetary cost. We must remember that the state of obsolescence does not mean that the teaching method, person, or tangible item is not in working, just that the want for it has depreciated because of a new replacement option. The example used in the Wikipedia article “Obsolescence” is a good visual because it refers to Apple’s Ipod. If someone buys an Ipod with a certain hard drive size and screen size and a week later Apple begins selling a new version of the Ipod but with a larger hard drive capacity and a larger screen size, the Ipod that was purchased the week before loses desirability. This does not mean that it does not work any longer, but people would now rather purchase the new model. In a world than changes hour to hour, educators must evaluate desirability and what works. Some technologies may still work and accomplish what needs to be presented and not need replacement because when evaluated the fiscal cost do not outweigh the effectiveness. Then, one may evaluate the content in new history textbook from what they are using in the classrooms at the present time and the fiscal cost may be worth the change because the content is no longer valid. So, as educators we must evaluate the obsolescence of something in regards to if it works (is it still effective) and the fiscal cost of it’s replacement.

Conclusion
Obsolescence is inevitable in any aspect of the world. We, as educators, must be prepared to minimize the obstacles that this creates. As we live in an ever-changing environment, we must be able to recognize the importance of obsolescence within reason. Education needs to grow and be updated. But this can be achieved without neglecting to teach the basic fundamentals of education that can sometimes be taken for granted. “Lack of training focusing on integrating technology in the classroom rather than simply teaching basic skills” can cause major problems (Van Fossen). The main point is teachers must never stop learning and be able to “integrate” these new changes into their classrooms with minimal difficulty.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers/Mobility

One of the barriers to an effective education, mobility, all too often slips people's minds. Student Mobility can occur in many different ways such as: A student may change residence without switching to a new school, a student may change residence and subsequently change his or her school, a student may change his or her school without changing residence, etc. (Biernat and Jax). The mobility that results in a school change is the greatest threat to academic achievement and the school environment. In rural communities families are at risk of being categorized as highly mobile because: Nearly all executive and high ranking managerial positions tend to be in the cities, a higher rate of poverty exists in the rural communities, there is a current trend to “move urban”, etc.

Who Does It Affect?
Students that are considered to be highly mobile move six or more times in the course of their K-12 education and they come from a variety of different backgrounds. Some of the backgrounds are as follows: The children of migrant workers, families experiencing domestic violence, families in unstable work and home situations that result from high poverty, and military and immigrant families. Families that have a low income seem to be a significant factor with 30% of children in these families changing schools versus the 8% of those in families that are well above the poverty line (Walls).

Another group that gets hit very hard by high mobility are urban children. Students in inner city schools are more likely to switch schools frequently. “Approximately 25% of urban third graders were highly mobile compared to approximately one seventh of suburban and rural students” (Walls). Some urban schools even report student turnover rates from 40% to 80%. One of the biggest problems for highly mobile students is its effect on the academics of these students. It could take anywhere from four to six months for mobile students to recover academically from a transfer. Also they are half as likely to graduate from high school than their non-mobile peers (Walls).

These students are also known to have major problems adjusting to different school systems. As stated before, it can take students many months to settle after a major move. Research has found that student mobility is generally detrimental to student achievement (Schleicher). It has been proven that there are multiple issues involving mobility, and half are school related. Students forced to move not only have to leave their current school environment, they must leave all that they have come to know. The uncertainty that comes with having to move away from what is familiar gives children unfair disadvantages during their transfer period. Research also shows that the students that are affected are less likely to go on to higher education. High school completion is the gateway to higher education (Schleicher) and with a constant mobility problem students will inevitably have a harder time reaching their full potential. In the following section further problems of high mobility students will be discussed.

Problems for Highly Mobile Students
Frequent relocation interrupts regular attendance, continuity of lesson content, and the development of relationships with teachers and peers. This can easily lead to a feeling of isolation and can be a big issue for highly mobile students. When they are constantly moving children are not able to make friends with many people. They tend to not share strong connections with the ones they do end up befriending because highly mobile students are not used to keeping friends very long. Every time a student changes schools they have to make new friends and get to know the teachers all over again. Because of this, it is highly unlikely they will keep a lot of the friends they make. Also, moving takes time. It takes time to get things packed up, to find a new place, to actually get everything moved and unpacked, to enroll in a new school, etc. There are so many things involved in moving it makes the children of these families miss a significant amount of schooling. “According the U.S. Government Accounting Office, children who change schools more than three times before the eighth grade are at least four times more likely to drop out of school. Another study shows successive school changes result in a cumulative academic lag -- students who move more than three times in a six year period can fall one full academic year behind stable students.”(Kerbow)

Homelessness and Its Ties to Mobility
Homelessness is another factor affecting student mobility that may not occur to us when we think about it. However, homelessness is a big factor in the mobility of students. Homeless families move frequently due to limited length of shelter stays, an ongoing search for safe and affordable housing, or a search for employment. Also, homelessness affects a child’s educational opportunities because of residency requirements (so obviously if you have no residence this causes problems), guardianship requirements, delays in transfer of school records, lack of transportation, and lack of immunization records. All of these factors often prevent homeless children from enrolling in school. “In a recent study of homeless children in New York City, 23% percent of homeless children repeated a grade, and 51% percent of these children had transferred twice or more.”(Institute for Children and Poverty) Poor children are also more likely to suffer developmental delay and damage than non-poor children. (Miranda)One thing that a lot of homeless children lack is a proper role model. As a teacher, showing the student proper behavior can make a drastic difference. "In poverty, discipline is about penance and forgiveness, not necessarily change." (Payne) Students in homeless families are often punished for bad behavior and then forgiven. These children are not always being taught right from wrong, so teachers have to understand that negative behaviors are a result of this. The students in these families need to be taught a separate set of behaviors for school and the street.

Conclusion
So as we can see there are many ways in which mobility can be a barrier to an effective education. Whether it is because of homelessness, a parents career choice, being in an immigrant family or otherwise, students in a highly mobile environment have a much harder time in school than non-mobile students. It is for these reasons that not only do the students have to work harder, but we, as the teachers, should work harder to make sure that these students don't fall behind. We can do things such as offering after-school tutoring to help those that are lagging behind. Also, for those students who may have that feeling of isolation, we can inform them of sports or other clubs the school has that we think they might be good at. This way they get to meet other children their age and being on a team gives them a sense of belonging. So as one can see, we may not be able to do everything to help the child adjust but we can at least do some things that will make the mobile students transitions much easier.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers/Equity

Equity has been a battle for all of mankind since the beginning of time because it involves the moral value of fairness. Even the youngest of children understand fairness and it is often the center of their universe and what they thrive upon. Therefore, there is no contest that equity is a barrier in education. The equity barrier affects three main groups in education: race, gender, and special needs.

The Difference Between Equity and Equality
It is important not to confuse equity and equality. A good definition of both is “Equity refers to fairness which may require different treatment or special measures, for some persons or groups. Equality refers to the same treatment in dealings, quantities or values” (Gray). With a clear definition of each, the equity barrier, which faces race, gender, and special needs, should be coming clear.

Race
When race and education are mentioned together, the first thing to come to mind is school integration. Integration of schools would fall under equality because it gives all races same treatment with same buildings, books, and teachers. While over the past forty or so years there has been a movement for equality in schools, there is still an equity barrier. There have been studies done correlating home computer ownership and racial equity. Humans now live in a digital world. With the movement, there has been more required to be done on computers. Education has moved to integration of technology into classrooms and today’s students have to rely heavily upon technology and computers. With this, it makes sense to evaluate racial equity in education by evaluating home computer ownership and Internet access. With teachers asking students to rely on computers in home settings, it makes for an unfair education. A study finds this, “…Asian and Pacific Islanders lead other U.S. populations in home computer ownership (55%). White, non-Hispanic house-holds rank second (46.6%), while other race and origin groups (American Indian/Eskimos/Aleuts, blacks, and Hispanics) lag between 12.3 and 23.4 percentage points behind their white counterparts” (Indicator: Racial Equity).

With a computer comes the need for the Internet. Internet access is also lower in black and Hispanic households. This is not to say that the only way to learn is from a computer or the Internet but it does provide an edge over a traditional classroom setting. Based upon the percentages from research, there is not equity among races in education. Just as equality has been an on-going effort to provide same treatment among races, strides will need to be made to bring equity to education.

Gender
With all three (race, gender, and special needs) it is important to remember that treating all the same is not always fair. This is especially true in dealing with gender. Learning approaches among genders is not the same because girls often approach learning differently from boys. Because of different learning approaches, genders analyze and solve problems differently. Girls are often auditory learners whereas boys tend to be more visual learners. Females also have to deal with sexual harassment more than males. This affects self-esteem, which contributes to equity problems among genders. When a female is faced with sexual harassment, it makes for an uncomfortable education setting. Comfort, such as room temperature or hunger, affect how one concentrates and one’s ability to learn. Sexual harassment also leads to an uncomfortable learning atmosphere. Most teachers believe that they are unbiased towards genders. Studies show however that teachers tend to give boys more attention in the classrooms in the form of acceptance, praise, criticism, and remediation. Teachers also tend to ask boys higher orders of questions. Also, societal messages about women and girls lower their self-esteems, which negatively affect them in performing to their full potential in school. Females often feel limited in what they can do (Things to Remember About Gender Equity in Schools). How we treat genders today is probably the result of the perceptions of genders from years ago. Equality among genders actually came after the equality among races. There were many misconceptions about women such as they were incapable to learn like men, vote like men, or make important decisions. While society today does not view women in this light, some of the negative undertones involving women and education still remain in societal messages and unintentional biases.

Special Needs
Special needs children are probably the hardest to accommodate with equality and equity. This is probably because even though they are grouped into one category each individual has different needs. There have been plans implemented by the government to accommodate those who do have special needs, such as Section 504. However, there are still glitches in the system that makes it difficult to accommodate each student individually. Not only is there a fiscal cost to accommodating special needs student but there is also the cost of time. There was a time where all special needs children were placed in a classroom among themselves. While these made it easier for educators it was not the best solution for equity. Education is to teach children to be prepared for the outside world and function productively in society. Therefore, keeping children contained in a classroom, which hinders their abilities, is not fair to the child. In order for inclusion and equity to be obtainable for special needs students technology needs to be acquired, input and output features need to be in place to ensure equal access, educators need to be aware and training, and students need to be ready for the real world. This is not to say that every piece of technology in schools needs to be equipped for special needs students but they need to be accessible. Educators need to be aware of what can be offered to students with special needs and be trained in how to apply accommodations to those students. Schools as a whole as well as districts need to be active in curriculum development, resource allocations, and instruction. If special needs students are constricted to “their” classrooms throughout their entire education, they will not be ready for the real world after school. These children just like every other child need to be introduced to the real world. If they are unable to leave their classrooms, then the real world needs to be able to come to them in the classroom (Indicator: Special Needs Equity).

Conclusion
There is no easy way to ensure equity in schools. Just as bridges are built to cross divides educators must make strides in removing the equity barrier in schools and education. While we continue in our struggle to bring equality to all we must keep in mind that we also need equity and treating all the same is not always fair. Until we find solutions the equity barrier will continue to effect race, gender, and special needs.

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