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IB Chemistry/Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the study of compounds which contain carbon. The name 'organic' refers to the historical link between these compounds and living organisms. 'Inorganic' compounds were those which could be derived from non-living sources. Confusingly, some inorganic compounds contain carbon.

This material in this chapter is restricted to that needed by SL Chemistry students

For further material see Organic Chemistry

=10.1=

10.1.1 Describe the features of a homologous series. This is how organic compounds are classified into 'families'. Successive members of a homologous series differ by a -CH2. Molecular mass increases by a fixed amount as you go up the series. For example, alkanes. Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6, propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10). General formula: CnH2n+2 Other series have an additional 'functional group' which is also shown in the general formula. The functional group is usually a small group of atoms attached to a carbon atom in the molecule. For example, alcohols have the functional group -OH. General formula: CnH2n+1OH.

10.1.2 Predict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series. Since successive members differ by -CH2, their carbon chains will continue to increase in length. Boiling point increases with increasing carbon number. Note that if you know the chemical characteristics of a functional group, you can predict the chemical properties of the series.

10.1.3 Distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulas. The empirical formula is the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms. The structural formula is a representation of how the molecules are bonded together. Full structural shows all bonds, whereas condensed structural omits bonds where they can be assumed. Ethane... Empirical: CH3, Molecular: C2H6, Condensed structural: CH3CH3 Full structural: H  H    |   | H — C — C — H   |   | H  H

10.1.4 Describe structural isomers. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.

10.1.5 Deduce structural formulas for the isomers of the non-cyclic alkanes up to C6. C4H10: Butane and 2-methyl propane. H  H   H   H                  H   H   H    |   |   |   |                  |   |   | H — C — C — C — C — H         H — C — C — C — H    |   |   |   |                  |   |   | H  H   H   H                  H   |   H                                   H — C — H                                       | H C5H12: Pentane, 2-methylbutane, 2,2-dimethylpropane. H  H   H   H   H                   H   H   H   H                    H    |   |   |   |   |                   |   |   |   |                    | H — C — C — C — C — C — H          H — C — C — C — C — H            H — C — H    |   |   |   |   |                   |   |   |   |                H   |   H    H   H   H   H   H                   H   |   H   H                |   |   | H — C — H               H — C — C — C — H                                            |                        |   |   | H                       H   |   H                                                                     H — C — H                                                                         | H

Naming Organic Compounds:

Organic chemistry is concerned with the compounds of carbon. Since there are more compounds of carbon known than all the other elements together, it is helpful to have a systemic way of naming them.

Identify longest carbon chain (-ane) 1 carbon = meth- 2 carbons = eth- 3 carbons = prop- 4 carbons = but- 5 carbons = pent- 6 carbons = hex- 7 carbons = hept- 8 carbons = oct-

Identify type of bonding in the chain All single bonds in the carbon chain = -an- One double bond in the carbon chain = -en- One triple bond in the carbon chain = -yn-

Identify functioning group

Formula           Name                  Example R-H               Alkane                Methane R-OH              Alcohol               ethanol R-NH3  Amine                 Ethylamine R-X               Halogenoalkane        Bromoethane (Where X = F, Cl, Br, I) R-C=O              Aldehyde              Ethanal | H R-C-R              Ketone                Propanone || O R-C-OH             Carboxylix Acid       Ethanoic Acid || O R-C-OR             Ester                 Ethyl Ethanoate || O

Numbers are used to give the positions of groups or bonds along the chain.

Homologous Series The alkanes form a series of compounds all with the same general formula e.g. Methane Ethane Propane

If one of the hydrogen atoms is removed what is left is known as an alkyl radical R- (e.g. methane) When other atoms or groups are attached to an alkyl radical they can form different series of compounds. These atoms or groups are known as functioning groups and the series formed are all homologous series. Homologous series have the same general formula with the neighbouring members of the series differing by by : for example the general formula of alcohols is OH. The chemical properties of the individual members of an homologous series are similar and they show a gradual change in physical properties.

Boiling Points As the carbon chain gets longer the mass of the molecules increases and the van der Waals' forces of attraction increase. A plot of boiling points against the number of carbon atoms show a sharp increase at first, as the percentage increase in mass is high, but as successive groups are added the rate of increase in boiling point decreases. When branching occurs the molecules become more spherical in shape, which reduces the contact surface area between them and lowers the boiling point. Other homologous series show similar trends but the actual temperatures at which the compounds boilwill depend on the type of attractive forces between the molecules. The volatility of the compounds also follows the same pattern. The lower members of the alkanes are all gases as the attractive forces are weak and the next few members are volatile liquids. Methanol, the first member of the alcohols is a liquid at room temperature, due to the presence of hydrogen bonding. Methanol is classed as volatile as its boiling point is 337.5K but when there are four or more carbon atoms in the chain the boiling points exceed 373K and the higher alcohols have low volatility.

Functional Group     Strongest type of intermolecular attraction Alkane                          van der Waals' Alkene                          van der Waals' Alkyne                          van der Waals' Ester                           Dipole:Dipole Aldehyde                        Dipole:Dipole Ketone                          Dipole:Dipole Amine                           Hydrogen bonding Alcohol                         Hydrogen bonding Carboxylix Acid                 Hydrogen bonding

Low Reactivity of Alkanes Because of the strong C-H and C-C in alkanes they have low reactivity and only usually undergo combustion in the presence of Oxygen and substitution reactions with halogens in ultra-violet light.

MECHANISM OF SUBSTITUTION REACTION WITH HALOGENS Chemical bonds can break homolytically or heterolytically. Heterolytically is when both of the shared electrons go to one of the atoms resulting in a positive and one negative ion. When halogen are exposed to ultraviolet light the halogen molecule bond can break homololytically meaning each of the atoms retains one of the pair of previously shared electrons. The bond between two halogen atoms is weaker than C-H or C-C bond in alkanes and so is more likely to become a free radical due to homolytic fission of the covalent bond. When a Chlorine molecule is exposed to ultraviolet rays and becomes two free radical chlorine atoms it is called the intiation stage. Free radicals have an unpaired electron and are therefore very reactive.

Topic 20 is the additional HL material for Topic 11.

Determination of structure

This HL Sub-topic is required for Sub-topic 1 of SL Option A

Hydrocarbons

The material on benzene in this HL Sub-topic is required for Sub-topic 1 of SL Option A

Nucleophilic substitution reactions

This HL Sub-topic is Sub-topic 4 of SL Option

Alcohols

Option G Syllabus
G.1.1: Describe and explain the electrophilic addition Mechanisms of the reactions of alkenes with halogens and hydrogen halides.

The following is an example of an electrophilic addition Mechanism describing the reaction of the alkene Ethene and the halogen Bromine, forming 1,2-dibromoethane and Hydrogen (not pictured)

The next mechanism describes the electrophilic addition reaction between Ethene and Hydrogen Bromide (a hydrogen halide).

G.1.2: Predict and explain the formation of the major products in terms of the relative stabilities of carbocations.

Markovnikov’s Rule(See Mechanism above as example):

In the addition of HX to an unsymmetrical alkene, the H attaches to the C with fewer alkyl substituents, producing the more stable carbocation (Tertiary carbocations are more stable than secondary which are more stable than primary). The X then attaches to the C with more alkyl groups. G.2.1: Describe, using equations, the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones.

G.2.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones.

G.2.3: Describe, using equations, the hydrolysis of cyanohydrins to form carboxylic acids.

G.3.1: Describe, using equations, the dehydration reactions of alcohols with phosphoric acid to form alkenes.

G.3.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the elimination of water from alcohols.

G.4.1: Describe, using equations the reactions of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine with aldehydes and ketones.

G.5.1: Describe and explain the structure of benzene using physical and chemical evidence.

Physical Evidence:

All bonds of benzene are of equal length—shorter than single bonds, but longer than double.

Chemical Evidence:

Benzene does not undergo addition reactions

Heat of hydrogenation of benzene is endothermic whereas the heat of hydrogenation of a triene would be extremely exothermic

G.5.2: Describe and explain the relative rates of hydrolysis of benzene compounds halogenated in the ring and in the side chain.

The rate of hydrolysis in the side chain is much faster than benzene compounds halogenated in the ring because benzene does not undergo addition reactions. Chlorobenzene is much slower than alkanes in hydrolysis and does not undergo nucleophilic substitution for two main reasons:

1.	The nonbonding pair of election of the chlorine may react with the pi bond, and become delocalized, thus strengthening (and possibly depolarizing) the C-Cl bond.

2.	The high electron density of the delocalized pi bond repels the nucleophile and blocks it from the slight positive carbon atom attached to the chlorine.

G.6.1: Outline the formation of Grignard Reagents.

G.6.2: Describe, using equations, the reactions of Grignard reagents with water, carbon dioxide, aldehydes, and ketones

G.7.1: Deduce the reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.

G.8.1: Describe and explain the acidic properties of phenol and substituted phenols in terms of bonding.

Alcohols are not very acidic because they produce an anion which contains only one resonance structure, and localized electrons.

Phenol is acidic due to its electron-withdrawing groups. As an anion, it becomes more stable due to the delocalized electrons which produce various resonance structures.

2,4,6-trinitrophenol contains many electron-withdrawing groups which cause it to be very acidic due to further delocalization of the electrons.

G.8.2: Describe and explain the acidic properties of substituted carboxylic acid in terms of bonding.

The adjacent C=O bond weakens the normally strong O-H bond.

The ion formed by the removal of the H from a carboxylic acid is more stable because of the delocalized electrons forming several resonance structures.

G.8.3: Compare and explain the relative basicities of ammonia and amines.

Ammonia is a weak base

Amines are more basic than ammonia because the inductive effect of the alkyl group pushes the electrons towards the nitrogen atom, increasing the electron density of the nonbonding electron pairs of the nitrogen.

G.9.1: Describe, using equations, the reactions of acid anhydrides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides, and substituted amides.

G.9.2: Describe, using equations, the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides, and substitutes amides.

G.9.3: Explain the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles in terms of an addition-elimination mechanism.

G.10.1: Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of benzene.

G.10.2: Describe and explain the mechanism for the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of benzene.

G.10.3: Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation, and acylation of methylbenzene.

The methyl group is an electron supplier and an activator, so it is an ortho/para-director.

G.10.4: Describe and explain the directing effects and relative rates of reaction of different substituents on a benzene ring.

G.11.1: Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.

title: IB Chemistry/Organic Chemistry


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User talk:Lotus5673

Status of Library and Information Science as a profession.

Library and Information science is still emerging as a profession.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Lotus5673


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A-level English/Wise Children/Angela Carter and Influences on Wise Children

See
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Carter
 * http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/acarter.htm
 * http://www.angelacartersite.co.uk/
 * http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/carter.html
 * http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/carter.html

Angela Carter's Influences
Carter found out she was dying of cancer during the writing of Wise Children which gives reason to the idea of living life to the full in the novel.


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User talk:Aldreneo

[Note to self: Make images on Blender_3D:_Noob_to_Pro/Model_a_Low_Poly_Head smaller than 1024*768]

title: User talk:Aldreneo


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User:Zweifel

hi. umm, i'm avoiding my homework by writing German grammar articles on wikibooks. umm, i'm really into german grammar and i know how to explain it well, so i hope i don't step on anybody's toes if i edit stuff. i hope i haven't done so already. anyway, i'm looking forward to helping write this book, assuming i have time, that is.

ross

i'm totally cutting and pasting these templates into here, for no reason other than to be annoying.

title: User:Zweifel


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User:ElMack~enwikibooks

My name is Mack Mason, I'm a student thus far at Auburn High School, in Washington. I am currently enlisted in the United States Marine Corps. and will ship off to boot camp on June 26th. I enjoy filmmaking, reading, computers/video games, and wikipedia.

title: User:ElMack~enwikibooks


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Trigonometry/Solving Triangles Given ASA

One of the most common applications of trigonometry is solving triangles—finding missing sides and/or angles given some information about a triangle. The area of the triangle may also be required.

We can reconstruct the triangle given:

 * ASA Angle-Side-Angle (see illustration below).
 * AAS Angle-Angle-Side (see later on this page).
 * SAS Side-Angle-Side (see next page).
 * SSA Side-Side-Angle (later in this book). In the SSA case we may have one, two or no possible solutions.

Given ASA (Side and angles at each end of that side)

 * Given two angles, we can find the third angle (since the sum of the measures of the three angles in a triangle is $$180^\circ$$.

The missing angle, $$\theta$$ is given by:
 * $$\theta=180^\circ-(\alpha+\beta)$$

 * Knowing all three angles and one side, we can use the ../Law of Sines/ to find the missing sides.

In the illustration if the side we are given is the base and has length $$c$$, then the side opposite the angle $$\alpha$$ has length $$a$$ given by:
 * $$a=c\cdot\frac{\sin(\alpha)}{\sin(\theta)}$$

Now is also a good time to check that you can derive the law of sines for yourself. If given a problem triangle like this one in an exam, you might be asked both to find its missing sides and to derive the law of sines.
 * Check that this follows from the law of sines.

 * The area may then be found from ../Heron's Formula/, or more easily by the formulae given in Law of Sines.

Given AAS (one side and two other angles)
Again we can work out the missing angle, since they sum to $$180^\circ$$. From there on we have the same information as after the first step in the ASA case.

Exercises
A triangle $$\Delta ABC$$ has:

 * Side $$\overline{BC}$$ of 30m
 * $$\angle ABC=30^\circ$$ and
 * $$\angle BCA=45^\circ$$

Draw a rough diagram.
 * What are the lengths of the remaining sides, and what is the missing angle?

A triangle $$\displaystyle \Delta ABC$$ has:

 * Side $$\overline{BC}$$ of 30m
 * $$\angle BCA=30^\circ$$ and
 * $$\angle CAB=45^\circ$$

Draw a rough diagram.
 * What are the lengths of the remaining sides, and what is the missing angle?

Are these two triangles in Exercise 1 and Exercise 2:

 * Similar to each other?
 * Congruent to each other?

Matemática elementar/Trigonometria/Resolução de triângulos


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Talk:Persian

Mislabelled Picture
The picture is mislabeled as Chehel Sultan. It is Chehel Sotoon. See text from wiki article on Esfahan: Chehel Sotoun (also Chehel Sotoon, Persian: چهل ستون) is a charming pavilion in the middle of a park at the far end of a long pool, in Isfahan, Iran, built by Shah Abbas II to be used for the Shah's entertainment and receptions. In this palace, Shah Abbas II and his successors would receive dignitaries and ambassadors, either on the terrace or in one of the stately reception halls.

The name, "Forty Columns," was inspired by the twenty slender wooden columns supporting the entrance pavilion, which, when reflected in the waters of the fountain, are said to appear to be forty.

Cheers, KR

This book need improve!
This book need improve, just one lesson? I can't learn from it nothing!

Writing lessons
I would really like to see lessons teaching how to read and write Persian step-by-step, rather than just a table showing all the letters. It's hard to learn from a table. The lack of examples is another problem, but even if there were examples after the table the learning situation would be far from perfect because the student would still have to memorise all letters at once in order to be able to begin practising.

What I have found really useful when learning non-Latin alphabets is a "divide and conquer" method that introduces few letters at a time and offers example words for practise immediately after each letter / each set of letters. What's even better is if those example words are understandable without prior knowledge of the language, that is, international words. For example: names of countries, cities or famous people (if their name isn't significantly different in Persian than in English), common personal names, Persian words that have entered English, English words that are used in Persian, words that both Persian and English have derived from Greek or Latin... The advantage of using these words is that students will be able to quickly see their own progress and the whole learning process becomes as fascinating as solving a puzzle. See the "Read Write and Pronounce Greek" lessons in the Modern Greek Wikibook for an example, or this external page on Cyrillic.

If you'd like to try this approach for teaching the Persian alphabet, I'd be glad to help you, even though I don't know Persian (I can read the Arabic alphabet ok though). Just create a big list of suitable words on a planning page like Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan, answer me here and I'll try to find an optimal order for letters.

Thanks for your efforts to teach a language that is hard to find in European schools!

Junesun 16:28, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

P.S.: If there's somebody generally unsure about how to create good language lessons, I really recommend reading the following two pages about it: Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks and Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks/Bite-sized language lessons.

Spacing/Characters
I'm not a technical expert, so I'm unsure why, but for some reason the full characters are not always being displayed. For instance, the word "Farsi" in the Persian alphabet is not displaying correctly, as the "fe" is not fully showing up. --Dpr 19:33, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Is it on the cover where it is not displaying correctly, i.e. underneath the big image? I can see some places where some letters don't display properly, although for me the "farsi" displays properly on the front page.Poppy 20:39, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

Make Persian fonts bigger
Could somebody increase the size of persian fonts. For example at Persian/Phrasebook I have to increase the zoom of Firefox very much to be able to see if a character has 1, 2, or 3 dots. But then the size of the english words is so big that the table doesn't fit on my screen anymore. --188.109.88.23 (talk) 10:31, 29 May 2010 (UTC)
 * I have boosted the font by 50% in the Persian/Phrasebook. If this is acceptable, you could apply it to tables on other pages. The case of scripts outside of tables looks more tricky, and just increasing the browser font size may be better. Recent Runes (talk) 11:28, 29 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes, it's much better now. I still have to increase the font size in Firefox, but not that much anymore. --188.109.94.117 (talk) 09:38, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Persian


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Talk:Persian/Lesson 1

Improvements
Several words (e.g. اثاث) and letters (Jim, Che, He, Khe) do not have an audio example. It would be great if somebody could provide these. --Daniel.furrer (talk) 20:19, 9 August 2009 (UTC)

The section on how to write letters is very helpful. For example, under ج ‹jim›, "The top stroke is written first from left to right above the baseline, followed by the lower hook extending counterclockwise below the baseline. The dot is written later, after any other connected strokes in the word" is important info that's not included by many sources. This section also tells how to write ج when another letter follows it. What I don't see, and would love to know, is how to write ج when it follows another letter. Do you lift your pen from the connected stroke of the previous letter to write the top stroke of the ج before writing the tail (or the next connecting stroke)? Or do you continue with the main connected line and write the top stroke of the ج later? Huttarl (discuss • contribs) 15:37, 24 November 2020 (UTC)
 * OK, based on a YouTube instructional video (qFoVx4pUJPQ at time 1:15) I have put the answer to this question in the text. However my experience with writing Persian is limited, so if someone knows better, please correct me. Huttarl (discuss • contribs) 16:02, 24 November 2020 (UTC)

The page refers a few times to UniPers, and links to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian#UniPers. But the Romanization_of_Persian wikipedia page has no mention of UniPers. The unipers.com web site used to exist (http://web.archive.org/web/20190411053002/http://www.unipers.com/) but doesn't anymore. Based on https://farsi.school/article/romanizations-of-persian, it sounds like UniPers was a project that's now defunct. Maybe switch to a more broadly-accepted romanization scheme. Huttarl (discuss • contribs) 16:26, 24 November 2020 (UTC)

Corrections
This section: John tue khiabun Charles-ra mibinad. Anhah ba ham doost hastand. Pronunciation: (John tŭ-ĕ kh-ē-ă-boon Charles-ră mē-bē-năd. Ăn-hä bä hăm doost hăstănd)

I read the introductory part about teaching non-slang Persian, which is okay with me. But I don't think this is formally right. After a word ending in a vowel, such as tu, the ezafe becomes ye, and is pronounced as such. It thus should be John tu-ye Khiaban. Also I don't like the transliteration of Anha. Why the final h? It isn't written. ditto for Shomah.

Also, hal-e-shoma chetur-ine seems a bit wierd to me. I would just say hal-e shoma chetouri, or hal-e shoma chetour ast. Is this something dialectical?

Note I am not a native speaker. Regards, KR —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 141.156.202.163 (talk • contribs).

/to/ not /tow/
I'm a native speaker and I'm absolutely sure the pronunciation for the second-person singular pronoun is /to/, ending with a short vowel /o/ and not /tow/. It's true that the long vowel /ow/ exists in persian. For example, the word for "new" is pronounced /now/ and the word for "oil" is pronounced /rowqan/, but it's not the case here. --Mohnos (discuss • contribs) 07:41, 7 July 2014 (UTC)

Alphabet
Most people who begin studying a language start with the alphabet. If you want to give people some greetings and such at the beginning of learning the language, you should have a consistent transliteration guide. This site desperately needs help! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 71.112.148.173 (talk • contribs).

OK I am trying to explain the alphabet here. Poppy 19:59, 25 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Persian/Lesson 1


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Practical Electronics/Oscilloscopes

Commonly termed 'scopes, are a vital piece of equipment when designing and making high frequency analogue circuits (i.e. where you can't see the signal changing using a logic probe, etc), as well as being very useful in many other cases.

What is an Oscilloscope?
An oscilloscope is a device that draws a graph of a voltage over time, or a graph of the relationship between two different voltages. This information is given as a 'trace' on a screen. There are three main kinds of oscilloscopes: Cathode-Ray, Digital and Computer-based.

 * Cathode-ray oscilloscopes (CROs) have an which emits a beam of electrons (historically called "cathode rays", hence the name) which is deflected according to the signal being measured. The trace is produced by the electrons striking a  screen, which glows green where they hit.

 * Digital models take the input signal and convert it into a digital signal, which is then analysed and used to plot an image on an LCD screen. Depending on the model, the trace may be monochrome or it may be in colour. The advantage of these is that a trace can be saved and displayed alongside others for comparison or calibration.

 * Computer-based oscilloscopes are becoming more popular. Software is installed on a computer that can analyse a signal after some processing in an external analogue-to-digital converter. The advantage of this is that the computer can be used to supply the necessary processing for dealing with the signal, and the trace can be saved and exported.

For more detailed information about the specific features of the different kinds of oscilloscope, please see the Wikipedia Article.

Terminology
There are many hundreds of models of oscilloscopes, and each may be somewhat unique in its form and function. They can be differentiated not just by the types listed above, but also by other features.

The number of channels on a scope is the number of separate signals it can deal with. Simple oscilloscopes have only one channel, while most scopes are dual-channel - they can handle two signals at once. Advanced scopes can have many more channels.

Bandwidth is the "time-resolution" of the oscilloscope. The higher the bandwidth, the more detail the scope can give on a signal. Bandwidth is measured in Hertz and is defined as the maximum frequency at which the scope can sample a sinusoidal signal before the trace falls below 0.707 (√2/2) the value of the actual signal. It is a recommended practice to use an oscilloscope with a bandwidth at least 5 times that of the maximum frequency in the circuit. Using a scope with insufficient bandwidth can lead to missed details or distorted signals.

The rise-time of a scope measures the fastest time a signal can change from high to low or low to high and still be resolved by the scope. This is related to bandwidth by an inversely proportional relationship, so if you only know the rise time of your circuit, divide by five and you have the minimum recommended rise time of the scope. Rise-times for common electronics you will come into contact with are long enough for almost any low-bandwidth scope to suffice, down to about 10MHz (which is pretty much the lower limit anyway). Some scopes can capture rise-times of tens of picoseconds, have bandwidths of 20GHz or higher and cost over £100,000.

Controls
Below is a diagram of a dual-channel CRO of the kind you will most likely use. The following sections will explain the controls of such an oscilloscope.

Display
A is the display. This can be a phosphor screen or an LCD, and is usually about 100 mm corner to corner.

B shows the 'trace'. This is the line drawn by the scope to represent the signal. On a CRO, this line is created by a bright dot moving across the screen at high speed. On a digital scope, the line is drawn on the LCD like a graphical calculator.

The screen is overlaid with a grid of horizontal (C) and vertical (D) lines, called the 'graticule', which divides the screen into squares, called 'major divisions'. The graticule is usually 10 major divisions wide and 8 tall.

The central horizontal and vertical lines (E) are usually thicker than the others and are divided into 'minor divisions', usually five per major division. When we talk about "divisions" in later sections, we will always mean the major divisions - the minor divisions are just to aid measuring.

There are also special horizontal lines labeled "0" (2.5 divisions below the centre) and "100" (2.5 divisions above it). The "10" and "90" lines have tick marks like the central axes. These four horizontal lines are guides for scaling the signal for rise-time measurement. This will be discussed later.

Power, Calibration and Display Controls
1 is the Power On/Off Button. 2 is the Power Indicator which lights when the oscilloscope is on. This may be an LED in newer scopes or a neon tube in older scopes.

3 is the trace rotation (TR) control. This sets the inclination of a flat signal relative to the graticule. This is usually a Trimpot and needs to be set using a flat-bladed screwdriver. Once set, this control should retain its position and will rarely need adjusting.

4 is the intensity of the trace. Turning this up increases the brightness of the trace, and turning it down makes it dimmer. An overly bright trace can damage the phosphor of the screen if the dot is moving too slowly.

The trace can get fuzzy if the electron beam is not focused correctly. The focus control (5) sets this. Most scopes can focus the beam to form a trace about 1mm wide.

6 is the calibration point. This gives a steady square wave at a set frequency and voltage, allowing the scaling of the trace to be set accurately. Sometimes, more than one frequency and voltage is available to give a more representative calibration. The standard calibration signal is between 0V and 2V at 1KHz.

Vertical Axis Controls
When plotting a signal against time (the standard use for a scope), the vertical axis represents voltage. Most controls for the vertical axis are duplicated for each channel to give independent control over each signal.

7 controls the position of the trace. It can be adjusted to set the voltage relative to a ground, or it can be adjusted to separate the two signals - perhaps the first channel in the top half of the screen and the second channel in the bottom.

8 inverts the relevant channel. That is, the negative voltage is displayed, and the trace is upside-down.

9 is the vertical scale control, often called the volts/div. control. This sets the height of the trace. It operates in discrete steps.

10 is a variable height control. It can adjust the height of the trace up to the next set increment on the volts/div. control. When set to CAL, the height is as stated on the volts/div. control.

11 is the AC/DC toggle. When set to AC, any DC component of the voltage is filtered out by switching a capacitor in series with the input signal, leaving just an AC voltage. This is useful when the DC component swamps the AC component, making it either too small to see or driving it off the top of the screen. When set to DC, the signal is displayed as is.

12 is the GND toggle. By selecting this, the input signal is ignored, and the trace shows 0V. This can be useful to measure a voltage or to eliminate one of the traces from the display.

13 is the Channel 1 signal input and 14 is the Channel 2 input. This is where the oscilloscope's probe is plugged in.

Each channel has a copy of most of these controls (except chop/alt, which applies to all channels). The way the channels are combined is set using 15, which is usually a sliding switch. When set to '''CH. 1, only the trace from Channel 1 is displayed, and likewise for CH. 2. When DUAL''' is selected, the traces are shown side by side. This is when the chop/alt control applies. ADD shows the sum of the two traces as one trace. By inverting the traces, one can be subtracted from the other. This can be seen in the illustration below. This shows a square wave on one channel and a sinusoidal wave on the other. On the left, the scope is set to "dual", and the two traces are shown side by side. On the right, the scope is set to "add", and the trace is the sum of the two signals.

Horizontal Axis Controls
When operating in the normal voltage vs. time mode, this axis represents time. The primary control is the time base selector, 19. The time base is the length of time displayed per major horizontal division on the screen. This ranges from about 0.1 milliseconds to about 1 second (or more on digital scopes).

The position of the trace from side to side is controlled by 17. This is useful if part of the trace is off the edge of the screen but you don't want to change the time base.

The ×10 MAG control, 16, is a very useful control if you want to quickly zoom in on a feature without changing the timebase and losing your settings. This button magnifies the central area of the trace by a factor of 10 in the horizontal direction (but leaves the voltage height unchanged).

18 toggles the mode between the usual voltage vs. time format and the XY mode. This continuously plots the voltage on Channel 1 along the horizontal axis against the voltage on Channel 2 (the vertical axis). This can be extremely useful to analyse frequency or phase relationships. This is a complex topic and will be covered in its own section later in the module.

20 and 21 act in much the same way as 10 does on the vertical axis. This diagram shows it to be slightly different from the vertical control. To select a non-standard timebase, press 20, and adjust 20 until the correct setting is obtained. To return to a calibrated time base, press 20 again. Sometimes these controls are the same style as 10, sometimes the vertical controls are like these.

22 is the GND terminal of the scope. This is used to set a "datum" voltage against which to measure the voltages on the input channels. Be careful when using isolated mains voltage circuits, as the "ground" is sometimes floating at mains voltage, and can short to the real ground, causing injury or death.

23 toggles between chop-mode and alt-mode. Chop-mode means that when the scope is drawing two signals side by side it alternates rapidly between the two over the course of passing across the screen. This action is called chopping. Alt-mode alternates at the end of each pass and can appear to flicker at slow speeds.

Triggering Controls
==== 24 Trigger holdoff is an adjustable period of time after a valid trigger during which the oscilloscope cannot trigger. This feature is useful when you are triggering on complex waveform shapes, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on an eligible trigger point. ====

The trigger level (25) and slope controls (31) provide the basic trigger point definition and determine how a waveform is displayed.
The trigger circuit acts as a comparator. You select the slope and voltage level on one input of the comparator. When the trigger signal on the other comparator input matches your settings, the oscilloscope generates a trigger.

The slope control determines whether the trigger point is on the rising or the falling edge of a signal. A rising edge is a positive slope and a falling edge is a negative slope. The level control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs.

26 Trigger Modes
The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope draws a waveform based on a signal condition. Common trigger modes include normal and auto:

 * In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the set trigger point. Otherwise, the screen is blank (on an analog oscilloscope) or frozen (on a digital oscilloscope) on the last acquired waveform. Normal mode can be disorienting since you may not see the signal at first if the level control is not adjusted correctly.
 * Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without a trigger. If no signal is present, a timer in the oscilloscope triggers the sweep. This ensures that the display will not disappear if the signal does not cause a trigger.

27 Pattern Lock Triggering
Pattern lock triggering adds a new dimension to NRZ serial pattern triggering by enabling the oscilloscope to take synchronized acquisitions of a long serial test pattern with outstanding time base accuracy.

28 Trigger Coupling
Just as you can select either AC or DC coupling for the vertical system, you can choose the kind of coupling for the trigger signal. Besides AC and DC coupling, your oscilloscope may also have high frequency rejection, low frequency rejection, and noise rejection trigger coupling. These special settings are useful for eliminating noise from the trigger signal to prevent false triggering.

29 Trigger Sources
The oscilloscope does not necessarily need to trigger on the signal being displayed. Several sources can trigger the sweep:

 * Any input channel
 * An external source other than the signal applied to an input channel
 * The power source signal
 * A signal internally defined by the oscilloscope, from one or more input channels.

title: Practical Electronics/Oscilloscopes


text:
Talk:A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Systems, Programming and Network Concepts/Introduction to Computer Systems

The "What parts make up a computer" section needs to have information on how each component relates. Jamesgreenwood


text: Category:Book:Movie Making Manual/Watching films


text:
User talk:ABusa~enwikibooks

I moved this "book" into your userspace. If this was not your work, just say so, and I'll be happy to delete it. Thanks. -- LV (Dark Mark) 00:06, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

Thanks, it is my work, so please do not delete it.

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title: User talk:ABusa~enwikibooks


text:
Managing Groups and Teams/Poor Leadership

Introduction
When studying the topic of leadership as a whole, academic thinkers have generally ignored the concept of poor leadership. This was, in fact, a major obstacle to our research. The death of poor leadership research is in stark contrast to the numerous volumes of books that have been written on how to be an outstanding leader. This presents a bit of a paradox—how can we hope to teach good leadership without explaining the pitfalls of bad leadership? To exclude bad leadership from the "conversation and curriculum is misguided, tantamount to a medical school that would claim to teach health while ignoring disease" (Kellerman, 11). Modern leadership literature is biased towards a positive representation of leadership: "[the literature] assumes that people can learn to be leaders and that to be a leader is to be a person of competence and character" (Kellerman, 4). Further, this bias is a recent one. Before the twentieth century, leadership was viewed more as a question of how to control bad leaders than how to create good leaders. For example, Machiavelli did not consider morality in his treatise on leadership. In fact, he stated that “A prince never lacks legitimate reasons to break his promise” (Machiavelli). He assumed that brutality was simply a part of leadership and the world. The U.S. Constitution and the protections built into it were primarily designed to stop bad leadership and protect people from it (Kellerman, 6). Nowadays, however, we tend to look for the good in our leaders rather than dealing with the reality of bad leadership. Leadership studies, therefore, reflect the positive associations that modern American business and cultural thinkers have attached to the term rather than the more neutral view that might also be applied. Almost all contemporary work focuses on this as well. The implicit assumption in most leadership literature is that we can learn to be leaders if we try hard enough.

Well, what happens if your leader has not learned to be a good leader? Our goal in this chapter is to expose readers to the varieties and signs of bad leadership, and in so doing better prepare them for the inevitable time when they have to deal with poor leadership in their own lives. Since there are many, many shades of gray to leadership (both good and bad), we cannot hope to address all possible situations in this paper. What we can do, though, is provide the reader with a sense of what to be aware of and on the lookout for, and how to take preventative measure to curb the spread of bad leadership. Ultimately it is up to each individual how to approach a bad leader or deal with an instance of poor leadership.

What Is a Leader?
For the purposes of our discussion, leaders are people who are making decisions on behalf of a team or group. Followers are everyone else in the affected group that gives at least limited deference to the decision maker. This broad definition can encompass small and well defined groups such as sports teams as well as large groups like major corporations. Regardless of the size of the organization there is almost always a leader somewhere in it. In this context, leadership requires followership. Leaders simply do not happen if others fail to follow them. Further, good leadership can be undone by bad followership and good followership is useless without good leadership. Bad leadership and bad followership often go together although the former is often a catalyst for the latter. To understand the bad leader/follower relationship, first we must define what a bad leader is. According to Kellerman, there are seven different types of poor leadership.

Types of Poor Leadership

 * Incompetent
 * “The Leader and at least some followers lack the will or skill (or both) to sustain effective action” (51).
 * An incompetent leader may, for example, not be comfortable with technology or may not have the foresight to see challenges on the horizon. Whatever the issue, this leader’s lack of ability will have a negative affect on the team.  Some followers may take advantage of the leader’s incompetence while others may not perform optimally simply because the leader is incapable of challenging them to do their best.  The end result can be a dysfunctional team where few goals are accomplished.

 * Rigid
 * “The leader and at least some followers are stiff and unyielding” (75).
 * Rigid leaders, unlike incompetent leaders, are capable of doing all that is necessary for the team to succeed. In the case of a rigid leader, the problem lies in the fact that the leader is unwilling to do the things required in order for the team to succeed. “[T]he key to the leader’s evolving role always lies in understanding what the team needs and does not need from the leader in order to perform” (Katzenbach, 133), so leaders that are not willing to adapt and evolve pose a significant threat to their team’s success. An unwillingness to change can be an attractive attribute to some followers and can lead the entire team towards solutions that are unimaginative and even counter productive.

 * Intemperate
 * “The leader lacks self-control and is aided and abetted by followers who are unwilling or unable to effectively intervene” (95).
 * Even the most talented leader can lead a team to foreseeable disaster due to a lack of control. An intemperate leader is like a gifted child who is incapable to controlling his or her basic desires, and thus cannot achieve the higher goals of the team.  The leader’s position of power may be used as a tool to satisfy the leader’s personal desires.  The end result can be devastating to the group through the loss of time and effort on things unrelated to the end goal.

 * Callous
 * “The leader and at least some followers are uncaring or unkind” (119).
 * Compassion and empathy towards fellow team members is what leads to trust. Trust is essential if a team is to “be comfortable being open, even exposed, to one another around their failures, weaknesses, even fears” (Lencioni, 14). Teams must be able to make progress; a good leader must “put team performance first” (Katzenbach, 131). A callous leader will destroy any good will that exists amongst team members leading to a fundamental breakdown of trust.  The result is often that nobody will be willing to take risks or put forward new ideas for fear that the leader (or the entire team) will react with contempt or scorn.

 * Corrupt
 * “The leader and at least some followers lie, cheat or steal” (147).
 * Leaders lead by example. The result of corruption is going to be more corruption.  Different team members will react to this in different ways.  Some may feel alienated, others may take advantage of the situation.  The worst case scenario is that other team members will want to resort to similar behavior as the leader.

 * Insular
 * “The leader and at least some followers minimize or disregard the health and welfare of people outside of the team” (169).
 * This can result in the team becoming the needless enemy of people who could otherwise make valuable contributions to the work of the team. While the team may have a great working relationship internally, members are always going to feel as though they are “under siege.”

 * Evil
 * “The leader and at least some followers commit atrocities” (191).
 * Regrettably some of the most evil people—such as Hitler—have had some of the best leadership skills. Evil leaders present a whole different problem and motivational scheme, and we do not address evil leaders in this paper.  If you are working under an evil leader, we suggest you focus on your own welfare and get out immediately, if possible.

Why Is There Bad Leadership?
Bad leadership can be divided into two main categories; leadership skills and character traits. A leader's character traits will often determine his or her skill set. Leadership skills might include things like communication skills, organization, or responsiveness to others. Character traits would include things like intransigence, intelligence, or anything that is integral to the person and cannot be changed through education and reasonable effort. A leader can enroll in a workshop to improve a skill; on the other hand, extensive counseling might be required to change a character trait. This division of skills and traits has many shades of grey, but is useful for analyzing what is going wrong in a team.

Good followers are distinguished by traits such as being self-directed, independent, and reliable. In this sense good followers make up integral parts of the teams they are involved in. Bad followers, by contrast, "are weak and dependent, and they refuse in any significant way to commit or contribute to the group" (Kellerman, 33). How followers act can be analyzed through Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. In essence, every follower is constantly weighing the benefit of following against the benefit of not following. For every person there is a point when the benefit they derive is outweighed by the harm that is caused to them from their current course. At this point followers are likely to try to change their situation.

This reality is encompassed in the behavior of followers. Followers will go along with bad leaders who fulfill their needs. If safety is the primary concern and a greedy tyrant can provide it, then followers are likely to consider that situation an acceptable one. But why would people in less extreme situations fail to act? They might not want to rock the boat. "Getting along by going along" (Kellerman, 23) is the primary goal in these cases. Someone with a steady job—under a terrible leader—who needs the job would have an incentive not to risk his career. Going along with bad leadership sometimes simplifies our lives and makes things easier. This may be the case even when we know something is wrong in the abstract (Kellerman, 24). We might look at the political decisions of many people across the world as an example of this type of thinking, such as those who have chosen in the past to follow leaders such as Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, or Saddam Hussein. Following bad leaders may help to "quell our uncertainty" as Kellerman puts it (24). Leadership can help to eliminate the dissonance that we might otherwise encounter, even if leadership is flawed. Bad leaders may provide benefits to the group as well, such as order, work, or identity (Kellerman, 24). These are in addition to the benefits that the individual receives and in some cases might override them. We as groups are dependent on leaders to organize us. It may therefore be inconvenient to throw them out, and risky to everyone involved (Kellerman, 25). The interdependence we see in teams also occurs more generally between leaders and followers. It is bad followers that allow, and even encourage, bad leaders. If we are to stem the tide of poor leadership, we must exert effort at the follower level as well.

Cost-Benefit and Skill-Trait Analysis
At the core, we as followers make decisions based on a simple analysis of the costs and benefits. Everyone will follow to a certain point beyond which they are unlikely to continue to do so. This point is different for everyone. As followers, therefore, we need to keep in mind how well the team is doing and how it affects us. Almost everyone is engaged in a continual cost-benefit analysis of their actions. We suggest bringing this analytical perspective to the forefront when analyzing groups and teams. When analyzing the leader, it is appropriate to ask whether the problem stems from character traits or leadership skills. Followers should question what their commitment to the team is, what rewards it brings, what potential costs exist, and what the likelihood of success is. Finally, a follower needs to have a good sense of his or her relative power within the organization. Followers are capable of making informed decisions about their own future and their current situation, but only if they are armed with all the relative information about the situation.

Followers must start by figuring out if the offending action on the part of the leader is caused by a character trait or poor leadership skills. Often the direct cause of the problem may be a poor leadership skill while the underlying cause of this poor skill is a character trait. The answer to this question is likely to determine how the problem can be addressed. A character trait is almost certainly beyond the ability of a follower in a group to address. In this case, followers need to simply continue to a basic cost-benefit analysis of the situation to decide what to do. Some problems may be possible to manage or avoid, but others may be so egregious that the follower is compelled to leave the team or organization.

A problem stemming from poor leadership skills may have a more manageable solution, but followers must be realistically aware of what is required to change the skill. As in the case of problems stemming from character traits, there are no clear answers. Followers must simply evaluate the situation to the best of their abilities and continue from there. For example, a follower may be faced with a manager who constantly questions them about their use of time. While this is a direct problem with a specific way of managing people, it is probably caused either by a lack of management training or the manager’s insecurity about his or her position and the work of the other members of the organization. The follower in this case should attempt to ascertain where the problem is originating from.

After figuring out exactly what the problem is, followers can continue with a cost-benefit analysis. Followers in an organization need to ask themselves what benefits they are getting and what they might lose if they choose to change their behavior. When contemplating change, followers should also be willing to look at the new situation and recognize that there is a point where they will no longer participate. These situations vary among people and contexts, but each follower should make a conscious effort to define his or her own limits. For example, a player on a recreational soccer team will probably stop playing if she breaks her leg, but not if she skins her knee. In the case of a broken leg, it is more important to get to a doctor than to finish out the soccer game. The employee in the previous example might decide that the real issue is that the manager has no leadership skills and is insecure about this. In this case the employee would be forced to evaluate the manager’s possible reaction to suggestions that they get more training or change responsibilities. These situations both illustrate the type of analysis that must take place.

Followers may decide that the current situation may be unsatisfactory but they are unwilling to walk away. In this case, the goal changes from effecting change on the part of the leader to simply finding a balance where the situation is acceptable in some sense. This boils down to simply asking if the situation is tolerable—at least for the time being—and managing oneself and others to minimize damage or discomfort. Followers should also be looking to do things that will increase their relative benefits or decrease the costs for other actions. This will increase power relative to other people in the organization.

This is only a framework for analyzing choices. Each situation will be different, but this type of cost-benefit analysis will give team members a good sense of how things really are. Followers, especially good followers, should be continually evaluating other people’s actions and their own place within a situation, group or organization.

What Should You Do if You Encounter Bad Leadership?
Working in a situation dominated by poor leadership can be frustrating and intimidating. If team members are not confident in their leader, what should they do? This is one of the most difficult questions to answer, since there are no easy or clear answers. The best we can hope to do is provide a framework for thinking through these complex issues and devising an approach that is likely to be effective. Hopefully you have already begun to understand what sort of thinking must take place in these complex and delicate situations.

Perhaps the most proactive stance to take is to hold our leaders responsible for their actions and/or misconduct. Followers should “seek to effect institutional changes that will make leaders more responsible and accountable” (Kellerman, 242). This could include implementing a system of checks and balance (restrictions on the leader’s power), and should probably also include—if the team is a corporate one—strengthening the board of directors. In order to ensure that the board exercises sufficient oversight, boards should “consider reforms such as: establishing a governance committee; …dividing the responsibilities of the chair of the board from those of the chief executive officer; and opening regular channels of communication to those on the outside” (Kellerman, 242). Followers can also act as watchdogs themselves, reporting fraud or negligence when they see it. It should be noted here that employees should watch out for themselves in the case of fraud—if an employee is involved in fraud, even at a minute level (such as knowing about it and not reporting it), he or she is likely to be brought down with the major players; this is an added incentive to monitor leaders and report illegal activity immediately (Maher, lecture).

In addition to taking action, followers can help prevent bad leadership simply by being aware and prepared. Followers should be skeptical of what their leaders say and do. Leaders are real people, and subject to the same human downfalls and errors in judgment we all are. Followers must empower themselves, so that if the time comes they will be able to take a stand and halt or deter bad leadership. According to Kellerman, “people who think of themselves as followers don’t usually think of themselves as powerful. But they are or…can be” (239).

A good way to achieve empowerment is to band together; as we all know, there is strength in numbers. Followers should seek information from people other than the leader in order to gather “correct and complete information” (Kellerman, 241). If a follower (or group of followers) does decide to take action, collective action is best. Collective action could come in the form of a meeting to discuss strategies or “getting a small group of people together to talk to the boss” (Kellerman, 241). This is far preferable to speaking with the boss alone (at least regarding the poor quality of his or her leadership), and will help to prevent bullying or coercive groupthink. In some organizations, going over the boss’s head is seen as politicking and inappropriate—we leave it to followers to decide what is appropriate and manageable in their own group or corporation. If nothing else, having a group of people who are in agreement aids in getting complaints heard and in substantiating claims of bad leadership. It also reduces a single employee’s chances of getting hung out to dry, so to speak.

As you may have experienced (or may be experiencing now), it can be extremely difficult to resolve these states of affairs (and improve or oust bad leaders) once the team or situation is already underway. If your organization does not have guidelines or conflict management channels in place, it can be near impossible to even approach your leader regarding his or her behavior—let alone change it. With this in mind, we recommend that every organization employ some sort of ombudsman, employee rights activist, or conflict manager for just such occasions. This position—or positions—would be responsible for handling disputes, especially those involving management. They could provide guidelines for approaching a problematic leader, and could even mediate the discussion. This position would ensure that employees would not be punished for bringing these situations or problems to light. There should also be clear lines of communication, so that followers and leaders know who to talk to regarding any concerns they do have. If we are to eradicate bad leadership, followers must be able to feel safe addressing their concerns. If your organization does not yet have an ombudsman or a similar position, we suggest you strive to implement one—before you need one.

While there cannot be an exact prescription of what to do in any given scenario, we hope that this chapter provides new and comprehensive ways of analyzing and approaching the problem of ineffective or bad leadership. We cannot tell you exactly what to do, because every leader, every follower and every situation is different. The main thing to remember is that “once they’re entrenched, bad leaders seldom change or quit of their own volition. This means it’s up to us to insist either on change—or on an early exit” (Kellerman, 243). While it is of course best to prevent bad leadership from occurring in the first place (if possible), there are a number of ways to slow or stop it. If your efforts to improve poor leadership meet with blank stares—or worse yet, retaliation—it may be time to perform another cost-benefit analysis and decide if this organization is really right for you.

Conclusions
Every person who joins a team makes a decision to be a part of that team and has at least some form of commitment to the team’s goals. Teams frequently have complex dynamics that team members need to be aware of from the beginning. It is useful for people to ask clarifying questions of themselves, of other team members, and of the leader—at the inception of the team and as the team progresses. Some or all of these may seem like common sense, but they need to be asked nonetheless.

 * Is there a clear and elevating goal? Can the team leader express it?
 * To what degree are other team members and I committed to the goals of the team? How has the leader influenced this?
 * Do I get along with other team members? Are poor relationships a result of poor leadership?
 * Have team rules been created, and are they being followed? Is the team leader supporting this?
 * What methods of conflict resolution are in place? Does the leader act as a mediator between team members, does the leader defer to another mediator when there is conflict between a member of the team and the leader?

The answers to these questions should provide clues as to where any dysfunction is occurring. Followers can then choose to act as they see fit for the situation at hand. We advise all team members to analyze their teams and their leaders frequently and, if possible, to institute measures early to control and prevent bad leadership. If frameworks and communication channels are in place early on, it will be much easier to address concerns if and when they do occur. We regret that we are not able to offer conclusive advice for specific situations or types of poor leadership, but there is so much room for interpretation that we would not feel comfortable doing so. We hope to have given the reader an idea of what to expect from a poor leader, and ways to approach the situation and the leader to determine the most appropriate course of action.

Definition of a bad leader: A bad leader is someone who, through either character traits or leadership skills, is preventing the group from achieving its goal.
=Introduction= In doing our research for this paper, one of the major obstacles that we faced was the limited amount of literature available on the topic of poor leadership. The dirth of poor leadership research is in stark contrast to the numerous volumes of books that have been written on how to be an outstanding leader. This presents a bit of a paradox--how can we hope to teach good leadership without explaining the pitfalls of bad leadership? To exclude bad leadership from the "conversation and curriculum is misguided, tantamount to a medical school that would claim to teach health while ignoring disease" (Kellerman, 11). Our goal in this chapter is to expose readers to the varieties and signs of bad leadership, and in so doing better prepare them for the inevitable time when they have to deal with poor leadership in their own lives. Pemarino 03:52, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

What is a Leader?
Leaders are, for the purposes of our discussion, whomever is making decisions. Followers are everyone else in the affected group. This broad definition can encompass small and well defined groups such as sports teams as well as large groups like major corporations. Irrespective of the size of the organization there is almost always a leader somewhere in it. In this context, leadership requires followership. Leaders simply do not happen if others fail to follow them. Further, good leadership can be undone by bad followership and good followership is useless without good leadership. Bad leadership and bad followership often go together.

''I think we should come up with a clearer definition of leadership here. There are teams were someone with higher authority decides to create the team, endows some individual with authority and that person becomes the official team leader. In other cases you have a sitution where there is no individual who is endowed with that authority and the leader evolves through a combination of things (situation, persuasiveness, power, etc.)'' Aburda 22:19, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

What seperates a team leader from other members of the team?
Every team has different roles that its various members assume. Often times within those roles individuals will 'commit' acts of leadership even though they are not the designated leader. For the purpose of this paper, we are concerned with teams that have a designated leader who has been granted formal authority and accountability for the team. In this sense, everyone who is not vested with that authority can be considered a "normal" member of the team.

This section needs a good deal of work Aburda 22:11, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Non-Leaders - Motivated and Unmotivated towards change
By nature, followers (or non-leaders) compose the majority of any team. Followers "range from those who are apathetic to those who are deeply committed," so it is important not to lump them into one homogeneous grouping.Pemarino 04:24, 3 June 2006 (UTC)] On a team where there is poor leadership, we classify the other members of the team into two categories. There are those who are not motivated for change, i.e. those who are attempting to maintain the status quo, and there are those who are going to be proactive in trying to change things. This paper is intended for those who are motivated for change, those team members who, for whatever reason, are in a position of neither being able to walk away from the team nor to ignore (or taking advantage of) the poor performance by the leader. The motivations of the two different types of team members in either case can be a result of many different factors. A team member may be complacent with the existing state of things simply because he or she has already made a strong attempt to reform the leader's behavior and has been severely "punished" as a result. In contrast, a proactive team member may be entirely motivated by the fact that he or she has too much money riding on the success of the team to be complacent. For the practical purposes of this paper, we do not concern ourselves with the nature of the motivation--only the fact that an individual is trying to improve the team's performance.

Leadership Traits (or lack of them)
Bad leadership can be divided into two main categories; leadership skills and character traits. Leadership skills might include things like communication skills, organization, or responsiveness to others.  Character traits would include things like stubborness, intelligence, or anything that is integral to the person and cannot be changed through education and reasonable effort. A leader can enroll in a workshop to improve a skill, on the other hand, extensive counseling is required to change a character trait. This division of skills and traits has many shades of grey, but is a useful paradigm for starting to analyze what is going wrong in a team. A leader's character traits will often determine their skill set.

we need a new example here, didn't like the one about stubborness and disorganized Aburda 22:23, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

16 Positive Leadership Traits (Lorber)

 * Strong personal discipline
 * High self-esteem - accepting and learning to like yourself
 * Unwavering integrity
 * The art of persistance
 * The will to finsh stronger than you start
 * Decisiveness -- results oriented
 * Focus on priorities
 * A sense of urgency
 * Still listening and learning
 * A risk taker -- not afraid to fail
 * A feeling of being lucky
 * A commitment to excellence
 * enthusiastic -- not "grown up"
 * A sense of greatness
 * A dedication to making the world a bit better
 * A strong and active faith in god or some other power

The Positive Bias in Leadership Studies
Modern leadership literature is biased towards a positive representation of leadership. As Barbara Kellerman notes "(The literature) assumes that people can learn to be leaders and that to be a leader is to be a person of competence and character"(Kellerman, p.4) Further, this is a recent bias. Leadership studies have been driven by the ascendence of business education in the United States over the last 100 years. Before the twentieth century, leadership was viewed more as a question of how to contral bad leaders than how to create good leaders. Machiavelli did not consider morality in his treatise on leadership. He rather assumed that there would be brutality and dealt with the world as such. The U.S. Constitution and the protections built into it were primarily designed to stop bad leadership and protect people from it. (Kellerman, p.6) We, however, tend to look for the good in our leaders rather than dealing with the reality of bad leadership. Leadership studies, therefore, reflects the positive connotations that modern American business and cultural thinkers have attached to the term rather than the more neutral view that might also be applied. Almost all contemporary work focuses on this as well. The implicit assumption in most leadership literature is that we can learn to be leaders if we try hard enough.

Patrickward 03:44, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

Why do followers go along?
Good followers are distinguished by traits such as being self-directed, independent, and reliable. In this sense good followers make up integral parts of the teams they are involved in. Bad followers, by contrast, "are weak and dependent, and they refuse in any significant way to commit or contribute to the group" (Kellerman, 33). How followers act can be analyzed through Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. In essence, every follower is constantly judging the benefit of following with the benefit of not following. For every person there is a point when the benefit they derive is outweighed by the harm that is caused to them from their current course. At this point followers are likely to do something to change their situation.

Need to insert a picture of Maslow's Hierarchy here I have one, if Aaron knows how to get it in herePemarino 05:38, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

This reality is encompassed in the behavior of followers. Followers will go along with bad leaders who fulfill their needs. If safety is the primary concern and a greedy tyrant can provide it, then followers are likely to consider that situation an acceptable one. But why would people in less extreme situations fail to act? They might not want to rock the boat. "Getting along by going along" (Kellerman, 23) is the primary goal. Someone with a steady job--under a terrible leader--who needs the job would have an incentive to manage in such a way that he does not risk his career. Going along with bad leadership simplifies our lives and makes things easier. This may be the case even when we know something is wrong in the abstract (Kellerman, 24). A good example of this is the Milgram experiment at Stanford. Should we describe the experiment? It may help to "quell our uncertainty" as Kellerman puts it (24). Leadership can help to eliminate the dissonance that we might otherwise encounter, even if leadership is flawed. Bad leaders may provide benefits to the group as well, such as order, work, or identity (Kellerman, 24). These are in addition to the benefits that the individual receives and in some cases might override them. We as groups are dependent on leaders to organize us. It may therefore by inconvenient to throw them out. It may also be risky to everyone involved (Kellerman, 25).

The interdependence we see in teams also occurs more generally between leaders and followers. It is bad followers that allow, and even encourage, bad leaders. If we are to stem the tide of poor leadership, we must exert effort at the follower level as well. Pemarino 05:38, 3 June 2006 (UTC) I want this in this section, but need to rework some things to make it fit.

Problems with Leaders--can we solve them?
Patrickward 05:25, 31 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Character Flaws--Take a look at Kellerman, p.19. She would view these as traits, such as greed for something.
 * Politically Motivated
 * Greed and Corruption
 * Andy Fastow discussion by Kellerman is a good example of this. She discusses how Fastow was both corrupt and how he had surrounded himself with others who were corrupt and profited personally. (Kellerman, p.151-155).  Especially interesting is the notes about whistle-blowers, where she points out that doing this puts personal safety at risk and exposes people to social pressure(Kellerman, p. 154)
 * Juan Antonio Samaranch, as noted below, might fit in here as well.
 * Malice
 * These are all tendencies that do not reflect the actual skills of the leader but rather the underlying motivation behind what they are doing. Patrickward 03:26, 31 May 2006 (UTC))
 * Bad Leadership Skills
 * Unclear Vision
 * Example of Juan Antonio Samaranch, who lost the vision of the olympics.(Kellerman, p. 58-67)
 * In this case, the IOC Chair failed to provide a clear and elevating goal after the Olympic Movement had been rescued from its financial problems. This, combined with an unwillingness to manage the organization, eventually lead to the scandals we associate with the olympics.
 * In this example, Kellerman notes on pages 67-70, how the followers in this case misbehaved as well. In general, people remained loyal because they had been appointed and didn't want to make a fuss.Patrickward 04:44, 31 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Kellerman suggests that this was a strategic rather than tactical failure. The IOC became obsessed with only one goal and forgot the others.  (Kellerman,p.73)
 * "If the ideal leader is able to communicata, mobilize, collaborate, and make good decisions, leaders who are unwilling or unable to employ such skills are less likely to perform well than their better-disposed and better-endowed counterparts."(Kellerman, p.33)
 * Bad People Skills
 * Giuliani described as "distant, cold, and callous" (Kellerman, p. 120)
 * problems with african-american community
 * central problem of Amadou Diallo shooting and his response to it.
 * Leona Helmsley anecdotes (Kellerman, p. 125)
 * Al Dunlap and Sunbeam
 * discussion on pages 137-142. Comments about Price on 141 are most interesting.

What to DO about bad leaders
Working in a situation dominated by poor leadership can be frustrating and intimidating. If team members are not confidant in their leader, what should they do? This is one of the most difficult questions to answer, since there are no easy or clear answers. The best we can hope to do is provide a framework for thinking through these complex issues and devising an approach that is likely to be effective.

Perhaps the most proactive stance to take is to hold our leaders responsible for their actions and/or misconduct. Followers should “seek to effect institutional changes that will make leaders more responsible and accountable” (Kellerman, 242). This could include implementing a system of checks and balance (restrictions on the leader’s power), and should probably also include—if the team is a corporate one—strengthening the board of directors. In order to ensure that the board exercises sufficient oversight, boards should “consider reforms such as: establishing a governance committee;…dividing the responsibilities of the chair of the board from those of the chief executive officer; and opening regular channels of communication to those on the outside” (Kellerman, 242). Followers can also act as watchdogs themselves, reporting fraud or negligence when they see it. It should be noted here that employees should watch out for themselves in the case of fraud—if an employee is involved in fraud, even at a minute level (such as knowing about it and not reporting it), he or she is likely to be brought down with the major players; this is an added incentive to monitor leaders.

In addition to taking action, followers can help prevent bad leadership simply by being aware and prepared. Followers should be somewhat skeptical of what their leaders say and do. Leaders are real people, and subject to the same human downfalls and errors in judgment we all are. Followers should empower themselves, so that if the time comes they will be able to take a stand and halt or deter bad leadership. According to Kellerman, “people who think of themselves as followers don’t usually think of themselves as powerful. But they (we) are or…can be” (239).

A good way to achieve empowerment is to band together; as we all know, there is strength in numbers. Followers should seek information from people other than the leader in order to gather “correct and complete information” (Kellerman, 241). If a follower (or group of followers) does decide to take action, collective action is best. Collective action could come in the form of a meeting to discuss strategies or “getting a small group of people together to talk to the boss” (Kellerman, 241). This is far preferable to speaking with the boss alone (at least regarding the poor quality of his or her leadership), and will help to prevent bullying or coercive groupthink. If nothing else, having a group of people who are in agreement aids in getting complaints heard or in substantiating claims of bad leadership. It also reduces a single employee’s chances of getting hung out to dry, so to speak.

While there cannot be an exact prescription of what to do in any given scenario, we hope that this chapter provides new and comprehensive ways of analyzing and approaching the problem of ineffective or bad leadership. The main thing to remember is that “once they’re entrenched, bad leaders seldom change or quit of their own volition. This means it’s up to us to insist either on change—or on an early exit” (Kellerman, 243). While it is best to prevent bad leadership from occurring in the first place (if possible), there are a number of ways to slow or stop it. Pemarino 07:28, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

Cost/Benefit Analysis of Following the Leader
Patrickward 03:02, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

At it's core, we as followers make decisions based on a simple analysis of the costs and benefits. Everyone will follow to a certain point but beyond that point they are unlikely to continue to do so. This point by definition will be different for everyone.Patrickward 02:53, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Preparation for Team Membership
Every person who joins a team makes a decision to be a part of that team and has at least some form of commitment to the teams goals. Teams frequently have complex dynamics that team members need to be aware of from the beginning. It is useful for people to ask clarifying questions of both themselves, other members and the leader at the inception of the team and as the team progresses. Some or all of these may seem like common sense, but they need to be asked nonetheless.
 * Is there a clear and elevating goal? Can the team leader express it?
 * To what degree am I and other team members committed to the goals of the team? How has the leader influenced this?
 * Do I get along with other team members? Are poor relationships a result of poor leadership?
 * Have team rules been created, are they being followed? Is the team leader supporting this?
 * What methods of conflict resolution are in place? Does the leader act as a mediator between team members, does the leader defer to another mediator when there is conflict between a member of the team and the leader?

''I changed this from an analysis of what you ask before you join a team, to what a team member sho ask while on a team. I could imagine having a section on each of these questions where if the answer the person finds is bad then what to do about it, particularly if somehow the problem lies with leadership'' Aburda 23:00, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

Conclusion
=Referrences=

"Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths & Total Nonsense" by Jeffrey Pfeffer and Robert I. Sutton. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 2006

 * "Not only do leaders overestimate their positive effects on followers, the belief that leaders ought to be in control is a dangerous half-truth because when they weild too much influence and control over followers, bad things often happen to their companies and their employees. No leader is omnicient." (198)
 * "Leaders make mistakes--all people do. But to the extent leaders exert tremendous control over their organizations, there are few or no checks or balances to reign in the errors.  Most corporate disasters and financial scandals, including those perpetrated by Jeff Skilling and Andy Fastow at Enron, Al Dunlap at Sunbeam, Hank Greenberg at the large insurer AIG, and Dennis Koslowski at Tyco, happened not simply because these people were greedy, immoral, or unethical people, but because such people were in leadership positions with so much control that no one could challenge them or raise questions.  Placing so much control in the hands of a single individual violates the principle of checks and balances, a principle designed to ensure that any single individual, no matter how mistaken or how flawed, cannot do unlimited damage." (199)
 * "Another problem arises when leaders have excessive control. One of the most persistant and powerful social psychological processes is that of commitment--we are more likely to carry through on decisions we have made and are therefore committed to.  When leaders make decisions for us or on our behalf, they think the decisions are better--after all, they made them--but the rest of the people have no investment in actually carrying through on actions and choices they had no part in making." (199)
 * "In a perfect world, leaders would seek out and find the best evidence, and never implement policies and practices that clashed with sound eveidence. But we don't live in a perfect world.  Unfortunately, as we've seen, many managers and other employees face pressures to do things that aren't only untested, but are known to be ineffective.  In such cases, a challenge--a genuine moral dilemma--can arise because if they follow orders from superiors, people can knowingly harm their organizations, colleagues, and customers.  We hesitate to recommend what might be called evidence-based misbehavior.  But a case can be made that when leaders are wrong--and people don't have the power to reverse their commands--that ignoring orders, delaying action, or implementing programs incompletely may be best for all involved." (230)
 * "If you can't openly refuse or discreetly ignore a bad policy, a related practice is to drag your feet as long as possible, and when you can't do that any longer, implement it in as few corners of the organization as possible. Again, it is far better to make and implement sound decisions, but a fact of organizational life is that more powerful people sometimes require their underlings to do dumb things." (231)
 * "We've also seen that great leaders, including George Washington, didn't learn their jobs without making mistakes and that even the most experienced leaders will continue to make mistakes. The difference is that bad leaders make the same mistakes again and again, while good leaders, who create conditions for learning, make new and different mistakes.  And it is the leaders of large companies who admit when they make mistakes, and show that they've learned from it, who help their companies perform best over the long haul, not those who only take credit for good news and blame others or bad luck for setbacks." (233)
 * "The most succinct and useful advice we know about how to handle failure comes from medicine, where the motto is forgive and remember. Forgive, so that people are willing to talk about and admit the errors that are inevitable in any human endeavor, and remember, so that the same mistakes don't occur repeatedly.  Organizations that forgive and forget keep making the same mistakes over and over again.  Organizations thet remember--but blame, stigmatize, and punish losers--create a climate of fear.  So the game becomes avoiding personal punishment and humiliation, not helping others learn or fixing the system.  Forgiving but remembering failure promotes learning without creating a climate of fear.  Remembering also helps because when the same people keep making the same mistakes again and again (and others don't), it is a sign that these people need more training or are better suited for a different job." (233)

"Organizational Perception Management" by Kimberly D. Elsbach. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2006

 * "...social psychological research suggests that maintaining such stereotypical images may require people to engage in behaviors that counter what we know about effective leadership (Cialdini, 1984; Greenberg, 1990). That is, our stereotypic conceptions of strong leadership may be inconsistant with what effective leaders actually do.  These paradoxes, or 'stereotype traps' may mean that short-term gains in leadership images (and repair of organizational images) may, ultimately, give way to long-term ineffectiveness in leadership performance." (156)
 * "...leaders who attempt to convince others that they have strong, central control over their organizations may also convince audiences (and themselves) that the views and input of others are neither important nor necessary for decision making. In turn, the expertise of advisors may eventually be withdrawn.  Over time, leaders themselves may begin to believe their own perception management and fall prey to illusions of control (i.e., unrealistically high perceptions of their degree of control over the outcomes of events; Langer, 1975) and overconfidence (i.e., unrealistically high perceptions of their likelihood of obtaining desired outcomes; Oskamp, 1965).  If such perceptions are contradictory to what the public perceives (i.e., the public perceives the leader to lack control based on a scandalous event), then continued expressions of control may be seen as both arrogance and hubris and may ultimately lead to loss of respect and trust for the leader." (157)

"Social Groups in Action and Interaction" by Charles Stangor. Psychology Press, New York, 2004

 * "...a poor leader can lead a group into ruin." (156)
 * "Thus leadership does not represent so much of a power struggle as a mutually cooperative and beneficial relationship in which the goal of the leader is to work with others to reach common goals (Bass, 1985; Tyler & Lind, 1992)." (168)
 * "One approach studies the characteristics of people that allow them to emerge as leaders, under the assumption that some people are born with the personality necessary to be a good leader whereas others are not." (168)
 * "According to this approach, a leader is a good leader if the followers in the group like or respect the leader and feel that he or she is doing a good job. It is useful to consider these two measures separately, because, although they are usually correllated (effective leaders are seen that way by followers), they are not exactly the same." (169)
 * "The leader-member exchange model (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1998) is based on the idea that the leader developes better relationships with some subordinants than with others. and that those who have good relationships with the leader are treated better, get more freedom on the job, and produce high-quality output. The individuals the leader does not get along with, on the other hand, are treated more formally, are given less interesting assignments, and as a result are less satisfied in their positions." (179) -->


text:
Talk:Managing Groups and Teams/Poor Leadership

=Comments Section=

What if we had an appendix or something? We could put the 16 Points about good leaders there, and maybe a list of the tips for leaders and followers (from Bad Leadership). Basically, we could put things there that we think are valuable but don't necessarily apply to our question or fit in with out sections. Also, regarding Aaron's outline (good job Aaron!), I am not sure that we should break the paper/chapter up into the specific questions. Remember we talked about how there is no right answer to the specific problems, but it depends on the people and the context? So maybe we could just talk about some common problems (and give examples--I like the Bill Clinton/Rwanda example a lot) in that section. Than in the What to Do section we can talk about solutions or ways of analyzing the problem. I am working on the What to Do section right now, and will post more of it tomorrow, and I think Lauren is working ont he problems part. Pemarino 05:32, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm going to go through and do some arrangement of the paper that we have now. My first though is that I don't like using the terminology of "follower" is sounds slightly deragatory, although the only alternative I can think of is something like "normal group member" or "non-leader" Aburda 21:34, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

aaron's rough outline
When I was adding and moving stuff this is a rough outline of where I was going, feel free to modify
 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) What is a Leader?
 * 3) Why do leaders peform poorly
 * 4) traits
 * 5) skills
 * 6) How to address issues of traits
 * 7) How to address issues of skill
 * 8) What is a team member's role in leadership?
 * 9) As a participant on a team what questions should you be asking of the team and the leader
 * 10) question1
 * 11) Does the leader have a clear vision, is the team aware of that vision
 * 12) if no, how to get the leader to create an environment where the team creates a vision
 * 13) question2
 * 14) is their buyin from the team about the direction the team should be heading
 * 15) if no, is it because the leader has the wrong vision or are some team members being obstinate for selfish reasons
 * 16) question3
 * 17) Are team members getting along, how much of this is a result of the environment the leader has created
 * 18) if no what can a team member do to facilitate cordial relations between memmbers, prevent the leader from poisoning the waters, etc.
 * 19) question4
 * 20) Are their team rules, is the leader enforcing them
 * 21) if no, how to get the team to create them and buyin to them and ensure enforcement
 * 22) question5
 * 23) Is their excessive unhealthy conflict on the team
 * 24) if yes, what can a team member do to facilitate the leaders management of conflict
 * 25) How to facilitate leadership without usurping it

old sections from the paper (for later use)
for later use This section is aimed primarily at learning as followers how to deal with bad leadership. We restrict ourselves to bad leadership in the sense of incompetence or lesser character flaws rather than evil as a human trait. We do not intend to examine how people might deal with overthrowing a psychotic leader, but rather how someone might deal with an incompetent person who is in charge of an office. In that sense, this chapter will be more useful to someone who needs to deal with a stubborn boss than someone who is faced with a totalitarian dictator or criminal abuse of a company.

example of a character trait and a skill A leader might be poorly organized because they are to stubborn to allow someone to help them with it. We cannot disect every option, so we intend to present a framework for analyzing these interlocking issues.

This chapter will explore some of the issues that are likely to face team members as they navigate the challenges presented by poor leadership. Bad leadership is still leadership. Team members must make decisions about how to deal with it. Further, bad leadership must by definition be attended by bad followership. (Kellerman, p.13) A team member must always make decisions about whom they will follow.

Hi everyone, I've been sticking with the outline, but I'm concerned that we should separate into ineffective vs. unethical as Kellerman does. What do you all think? Patrickward 03:50, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

=Page Outline= Ranjay's Notes
 * 1) Characteristics of Effective Leaders
 * 2) Lauren's 16 Points?
 * 3) RJ - 5 Points
 * 4) Problems with Leaders - in question
 * 5) politically motivated
 * 6) un-clear vision
 * 7) selfish motivation
 * 8) Problem - politically motivated
 * 9) Action step as individual
 * 10) action step as group
 * 11) response to potential reactions
 * 12) Problem-unclear vision
 * 13) Action Steps individual
 * 14) Action Step as group
 * 15) Response to potential Reactions
 * 16) Problem-Character Flaws - examples from Bad leadership
 * 17) Action as an individual
 * 18) Action stepas a group
 * 19) Response to potential reactions

List of Bad Leadership Characteristics
 * 1) Evil
 * 2) Rigid
 * 3) Intemperate-Asshole
 * 4) callous
 * 5) corrupt
 * 6) insular - private or inaccessable
 * 7) Incompetent

OK - I can see how your question differs from ours. Yours in more focused on the leadership, ours is focused on a more egalitarian team (Such as a group in a class writing a wikibook).

=Jeremy=

Admirable Insight into an Unexplored Area of Leadership
Your written work on this subject is groundbreaking and admirable. The undertaking of writing about an unexplored void in our society can be challenging, but I believe that your insight is admirably accurate. It has occurred to me that I am a victim of unsound leadership decisions as well as someone else that I care for, so I am writing with prolonged experience from this end of the spectrum. The list of traits that you proffered of poor leadership hit the nail on the head in describing what has happened. Thank you very much. Best wishes and hopes to you in your noble endeavors.


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