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Talk:United States Government/The Annotated Constitution of the United States

Separate column
I just had a suggestion for this page: I thought it would be nice to have the annotations done in a separate column, as is often done in textbooks. I know the markup for this would be pretty hard to do nicely, and it wouldn't print very well, so there are some cons to this idea as well. Anyway, thanks! -Deicidus 03:30, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree -- the text is very difficult to read as it is, especially on high-res screens, where the text goes a lot further to the right before wrapping around. --Buggi22 17:39, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * Seems like the markup shouldn't be that difficult to implement as a template in a way that makes it quick and easy for editors to use. Here's the beginnings of one attempt, which just floats the annotation to the right in a 25%-width box. - dcljr 17:00, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Copyright
This is a published document of the United States Government (not the Constitution itself, but the annotations and commentary). Does it have copyright restrictions? DSYoungEsq 17:55, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Nothing the US Government produces has ANY Copyright, EXCEPT in the case of Commercial Use, and the only caveat there is the fact that you have to get the specific department's permission to make money off their production. The reasoning behind this system is the fact that all US Government productions are prepared making use of Federal Tax Money, which comes from the People. Thus, the people of the USA paid for the manufacture, publish, etc., of whatever it is the Government has made, and therefore they already own it, and should not have to pay twice for their right to make use of it. When you buy something that contains material produced by the US Government, and it is in a cover, say, with a new introduction by the person preparint the new publication, he can only copyright the work he did preparing the covfer and the introduction. He can't squawk if someone makes use of the original material from his publication, but he can squawk if you copy the whole shebang to make it look like he prepared it. - CORNELIUSSEON 00:36, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

Wikisource
If this is a document originally published by the US Gov its probably better off at Wikisource. Wikibooks is for developing original material. --75.65.208.142 06:48, 10 May 2007 (UTC)


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User:Tony Sidaway

See Lambda Delta on non-Wikipedia matters. On Wikipedia, leave a message here or email me at tonysidaway@gmail.com

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Cookbook:Stock

Stock is a flavorful liquid made by simmering ingredients such as meat, poultry, fish, or vegetables in water for an extended period of time. The solids are removed at the end. Because the flavour of the ingredients is the only thing that matters, stock is often made with left over-ingredients and by-products such as bones, that couldn't be used elsewhere.

Stock can be made with a stock cube or extract, but for best results, make your own. If you cannot, a jar of fond (condensed stock) is the next best thing.

Terminology
Stock and broth are similar, and the two terms may be used interchangeably by some. Technically, stock uses bones, or bones with meat, while broth and bouillon are the result of cooking any food-items with water to obtain a flavoured liquid. Stock is also usually cooked longer.

Vegetable Stock
This article starts with vegetable stock because most non-vegetarian stocks will use some amount of vegetables as well, to add depth to the flavor, so this information is useful for all stocks. Home-made vegetable stock will have a relatively weak flavor, but a strong aroma.

Ingredients
The basic ingredients for a vegetable stock are onion, carrot, leek, and celery. You can make a good stock without any of these, but they are the classic 'backbone' of making stock, and almost all vegetable stocks will contain at least two. Other ideas for vegetables include tomato, bell pepper, fennel, broccoli, mushroom, and garlic. Be careful when using very aromatic vegetables, as they can easily overpower the stock. Do not use beets, which will turn the stock black. Do include the peels of onion and garlic, which will help to color the stock. About 750 grams/26 ounces of vegetables per liter of stock should suffice.

To deepen the flavour of the stock, some herbs and spices are usually added. Some of these will dissolve (like salt), for others it's best to enclose them in a little bag or bundle so you can easily fish them out later. This is called a bouquet garni. Some good herbs to use include bay leaf (about 3 per liter of stock), black peppercorns (about 6 per liter of stock), salt (a pinch), rosemary, and thyme.

Preparation
Do not chop your ingredients too finely—just halve or quarter them. It's a very good idea, especially with vegetable stock, to caramelize your ingredients first. This can be done by pan frying them lightly in oil or butter until they turn brown, but the oil will coat the ingredients, and you may have to de-fat the stock later. The best way to caramelize your ingredients is to put them in the oven, on a tray, until they start to brown.

Add all the ingredients to a pot (preferably large and thick). Cover with cold water, bring to a boil, and simmer anywhere from 30 minutes to an hour, depending on how much stock you're making, and how strong you want it to be. Do not let vegetables simmer for more than an hour or the flavour will become wilted and sour.

The stock should be tasted to see if it's ready. When it is, pass it through a sieve to get rid of the large ingredients. If the sieved stock isn't clear yet, put a wet tea towel or cheesecloth in the sieve, and pass the stock through it again.

Seafood
Fish stock should generally be made using "white" fish bones like haddock, flounder, cod, or snapper, although some Japanese recipes use tuna or similar species for a highly flavored specialized stock. Shellfish stock is generally made the same way as fish stock. Combine fish bones or shellfish shells with cold water to cover, and add some diced mirepoix (celery, onion, white part of leeks, mushrooms, parsnips, etc.). Bring to a simmer, skimming as necessary, and simmer for 40 minutes. Strain the stock and cool it. Salt is usually necessary, add toward or at the end, to taste.

Options

 * Sweat (cook in hot oil and/or butter without browning) the bones or shells and mirepoix before adding the cold water. This is called fish fumet.
 * Replace part of the water with dry white wine or vintage dry cider.
 * Add aromatics such as herbs and spices (thyme, bay leaf, peppercorn, parsley stems). These may be added directly to the stock or tied in a cheesecloth (known as sachet d'épices). Add any other aromatics to impart a particular flavor.

Poultry
Here's the basic method for chicken stock, which you can adapt for other poultry.

After you've eaten a chicken, save the raw or cooked carcass. Put it in a pressure cooker or a large saucepan, and add enough cold water to cover. Add some fresh herbs, such as bay leaves and sage, an onion, a carrot, and a stick of celery, and bring to the boil. Pan drippings are very good to add, as long as they are not too burned.

If you use a pressure cooker cook at pressure for 30-40 minutes. If using a pot, let the stock simmer very gently for at least three hours, but no longer than four lest the bones cloud the stock and overpower the flavour. Drain the liquid through a sieve into another pan. You can use the stock immediately or cool it as quickly as possible and refrigerate or freeze it.

Meat
Beef, mutton and pork broths are made by slowly simmering meat (do not remove gristle - it contains collagen) and bones with vegetables and flavourings. Do not add salt at this stage, it should only be added when the stock is being used in a recipe. Use cold water and warm slowly, which this prevents the meat from sealing.

If bones are used in stock they may be roasted and cracked before simmering.

In a pressure cooker broth takes 45-60 minutes, stock with bones 75-120 minutes. If an open pan is used the liquid should barely be moving, and certainly not boiling fast, and times of several hours for broth and 7-10 hours for bone stock are not excessive.

Defatting and Clarifying
To get most of the fat out of a stock, you can simply chill it. The fat will harden and float on top of the stock where it can be scooped off easily. One can also use a fat separator, which is like a big measuring cup with a siphon from the bottom, which allows you to pour the stock out while trapping the fat.

To completely clarify stock, use the following method:
 * Beat egg whites to soft peaks, one for each quart/liter of stock.
 * Crumple the eggs-shells and mix them through the egg whites.
 * Stir the mixture in to the stock and bring it to a simmer, do not let it boil. The egg-whites will coagulate, rise, and take any particles and cloudiness out of the stock.
 * Keep a close eye on the simmer (push the coagulated egg-whites to the side a bit to see) and let it simmer for about ten minutes.
 * Remove the pot from the heat and let it sit for another ten minutes.
 * Finally, sieve the stock again through a tea towel.

Glace and Consommé
A glace is made by reducing a stock down (gently, stocks shouldn't boil) to about a quarter or less of its original volume. glace can be used as a basis for sauces, or simply to facilitate storage, and turned in to stock again by adding water.

A consommé is the result of the clarification process that uses egg whites and a fine dice of mirepoix to create a raft. this raft traps and removes impurities from a stock result in the classic clear quaity of a consommé

Storage
Stock will keep for about a week in the refrigerator. Frozen stock will keep for around six months.

Use
Stock is used as the basis for most soups and in many dishes as a flavouring or base.

Notes, Tips and Variations

 * Though mushrooms are good for enriching a stock, it is also possible to make the mushroom the main or even the only ingredient of a stock. For this you would need about 200 grams/0.4 lb of mushrooms and an onion per liter of stock.

title: Cookbook:Stock


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Ada Programming/Libraries/Distributed/PolyORB

Library Functions
Excerpt from Homepage.

PolyORB aims at providing a uniform solution to build distributed applications; relying either on industrial-strength middleware standards such as CORBA, the Distributed System Annex of Ada 95, distribution programming paradigms such as Web Services, Message Oriented Middleware (MOM), or to implement application-specific middleware.

Library links

 * Author      : see homepage.

Sample Code
If you are interested in some samples look over at the Programming:CORBA wikibook.

Compile and Install PolyORB
First you should read the INSTALL file which is provided with PolyORB. Most informations needed for compiling PolyORB are contained there.

Linux
TODO

MinGW
You will need to download and install a complete set of MinGW tools. Including a current version of the GNAT compiler.

Refer to Installing chapter so see how to install MinGW.

Python
You need to download and install a version of Python.

XML/Ada
To use all functionality you should also install XML/Ada

Release Version
There is a bug in the makefiles of the release 1.1r (incorrect use of '/' and '\' in filenames) so this version will not compile with Windows.

FIND.EXE
The configure script needs the GNU find utility. The problem is that there is a find utility in  as well. You have to make sure that configure will use the right version of  by making a local change to your PATH environment variable. It is not a good idea to make that change in your Windows setup.

Shared Library Support
Shared library support is much used from the team as static library. So if you compile from cvs you might be better off without.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Distributed
 * CORBA Programming

Object Management Group

 * Ada Language Mapping Specification

|PolyORB


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Ada Programming/Libraries/IO/XML/Ada

Library functions
A full XML suite including support for parsing XML files, including DTDs, as well as a full support for SAX, and an almost complete support for the core part of the DOM. XML/Ada also contains full Unicode support. The latest version added preliminary support for XML Schemas and validation of XML documents.

Library links

 * Author      : AdaCore
 * Homepage    : http://libre.adacore.com/tools/xmlada/
 * Project Info : see homepage.
 * CVS Archive : :pserver:anoncvs@libre.adacore.com:/anoncvs/xmlada
 * Download    : http://libre.adacore.com/download/

Sample code
coming soon

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/IO
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Web
 * Ada Programming (Other Language Libraries)

Ada Reference Manual
- none apply -

|XMLAda XMLAda

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/IO/XML/Ada


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Mythology

This Wikibook is all about Mythology. As with Greek Mythology, when a section obtains enough content for it to be considered material for a book, it will be distended into a separate book that will only be linked to from here. Please only separate the subject of a culture's mythology into a separate book if it has a reasonable amount of content.

Table of Contents
/Introduction/

Mythology by nation or region

 * /Ayyavazhi Mythology/
 * /Egyptian Mythology/
 * /Roman Mythology/
 * Greek Mythology
 * /Mongol Mythology/
 * /American Indian Mythology/
 * Indian Mythology
 * /African Mythology/
 * /Inuit Mythology/
 * /Norse Mythology/
 * British and Irish Mythology
 * /English Mythology/
 * /Scottish Mythology/
 * /Irish Mythology/
 * /Welsh Mythology/
 * /Aboriginal Mythology/
 * /South and Central American Mythology/
 * /Slavic Mythology/
 * /Medieval Mythology/
 * /Semitic Mythology/

Mythologie

title: Mythology


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Cookbook:Beans and Rice

This recipe for beans and rice is great to make on the weekend and bring to work during the week. It's also great for entertaining on a budget, since you can feed 5 or 6 people for less than ten dollars. It is a vegan adaptation of cajun rice and beans, similar to gallo pinto.

Ingredients

 * 1 package (16 oz) dry beans (kidney or black beans preferred)
 * 1 onion, chopped
 * 1 green bell pepper, chopped
 * 1 celery stalk, sliced thin
 * 1 bulb garlic, minced
 * 2 bay leaves
 * 1 tsp ground cumin
 * 1 tsp chili powder
 * 1 tsp ground basil
 * Olive oil
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper, to taste
 * 1–2 whole dried or fresh hot peppers (optional)
 * 1–2 cups rice

Beans

 * 1) Soak beans overnight, or, bring to a boil and let sit for one hour.
 * 2) In a Dutch oven or large pot, sauté onions and garlic in olive oil on medium heat until onions are translucent.
 * 3) Add green pepper and celery, and sauté for a few minutes more.
 * 4) Add beans and enough water to cover all ingredients.
 * 5) Add spices, then bring to a boil. Lower heat, cover, and simmer, stirring occasionally, until done (1–2 hours, depending on the age of your beans).

Rice

 * 1) Add rice and twice as much water to a pot (i.e. 1 cup rice + 2 cups water).
 * 2) Bring to a rolling boil, and cook until the water has boiled down to the level of the rice.
 * 3) Reduce heat to a light simmer, cover, and cook for 20 minutes.

Serving

 * 1) Serve the beans over the rice and enjoy! It is also very tasty with cornbread.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can use canned beans instead of dry. This greatly reduces cooking time, but doesn't allow for the flavor to soak into the beans as well.
 * To make this in a crockpot, sauté the vegetables in a pan, then add all ingredients (except rice) to the crockpot and cook on low for 6-8 hours.
 * You can make this in an Instant Pot or pressure cooker.

title: Cookbook:Beans and Rice


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Talk:PHP Programming/Templates

I like to name my include files .inc.php --  That prevents someone from viewing the source .inc file but still visually distinguishes includes from main files. That can be important if you have database id's, passwords, or other sensitive config information in your include files.

--68.205.153.12 07:55, 11 Mar 2005 (UTC) ''In trying this example I find enclosing the filenames with quotes inside the parentheses yields an error-free result no matter what the extension is. I'm not sure if my version is separate from the author's or if this was a minor oversight.''

Is there anything like managed templating?
Is there anything like managed templating?

There is something like template engines such as Smarty, but not mgd. templating.

User:Wykis - check out later

Roll Your Own
I just added the 'Roll Your Own' template management section. Hopefully it is appropriate here, useful, and proper. Gavin86 08:52, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:PHP Programming/Templates


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Cookbook:Cream of Tartar

Cream of tartar, also called potassium hydrogen tartrate or mistakenly called tartaric acid, is an ingredient byproduct of wine making.

Characteristics
The substance precipitates out of wine and accumulates in the vats, after which it is harvested and refined into a pure white powder. It is mildly acidic, with an otherwise neutral flavor.

Selection and storage
Cream of tartar should be stored in an airtight container at room temperature. It has a very long shelf life.

Use
Cream of tartar's primary uses come from its acidity. When added to egg whites during whipping, it helps coagulate the proteins and stabilize the foam  —2 tsp per 1 lb whites (20 ml per 1 kg) is recommended. It also often makes up the acidic component of baking powder, and it can help reduce crystallization in sugar syrups, as well as add a neutral sour profile to preparations.

title: Cookbook:Cream of Tartar


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Cookbook:Dredging

Dredging - Coat with dry ingredients. An example of this is flour on chicken. Dipping the ingredient in milk before dredging is a good way to improve the way the dry coating(s) stick to the ingredient being dredged.

title: Cookbook:Dredging


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Cookbook talk:Creaming

I'm not sure where this would fit under in this page: —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.100.199.71 (discuss • contribs) 00:16, 3 December 2004

Removed this link: *Baking 911: How to cream - it's dead. 70.169.191.165 07:48, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Creaming


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Talk:Quechua/Pronunciation

Untitled
Quechua doesn't have the same vowels as in Spanish! The best book for Anglophones is "The language of the Inka" from Bruce Mannheim.

Quechua has rather many allophones. The basic Phonemes are:

i = like /I/  more like the y in posh brittish lovely u = like the u in put, but longer. a = like in arab. somewhat like the a in brittisch 'man'

when in contact with uvular sounds, there is change:

i = E like in american english 'get' u = O like in french bonne, or New yorkish: Boss a = A like in father

Linacha, i presume it was you who put in "Ayqey - to escape", i took that out and replaced it with "Ayqena", because i am trying to keep all of the examples as nouns, since they are the most basic part of speech. Do you think that is a good idea or not? The bellman 03:29, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

IPA
all of the IPA symbols are currently uploaded to wikipedia, so when i have the time i will make a copy of them on commons, and then put them into the table. Also, i think that a paragraph or two is required to introduce the concept of phonetics, the IPA, X-SAMPA and to say, that while it may be useful you dont need to know these things for the course. I think quite a bit of that could be copied from the wikipedia articles on Phonetics, the IPA and X-SAMPA. The bellman 05:20, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Consonents
I think we really need to put in some of the information about aspirated and glottalized consonents, possibly starting with what's below. dannya222 00:12, 04 May 2005 (UTC)

These freaking consonents are confusing the hell out of me, due to conflicting sources. My sources are: http://www.zompist.com/quechua.html http://www.omniglot.com/writing/quechua.htm and the lonely planet quechua phrasebook. The bellman 05:20, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The quechua consonant system has a fairly regular structure and it shouldn't be difficult to grasp if properly explained. I'm reordering the chart and adding the missing consonants to make things clear. I'm also correcting the vowel part: there aren't five basic vowels, just three (as reflected in the orthography devised by linguists), because [e] and [o] are merely allophonic, that is, they are not used to distinguish words, which means if you pronounce [i] and [u] before [q] the word is unchanged, although it won't sound as "natural" to native speakers to pronounce it that way. Including them as "basic vowel sounds" is like saying that in English there are two basic t sounds: the one in "take" (aspirated [t_h]) and the one in "stake" (unaspirated [t]). Of course, there is just one phonemic t in English, regardless of how many phonetic allophones it features. The choice between phonetic [t_h]/[t] in English is determined purely by the phonetic environment and if you pronounce a [t_h] in "stake" or a [t] in "take" the word is unchanged, although it won't sound as "natural" to native speakers, just like the choice between [i]/[e] and between [u]/[o] in Quechua. Note that in Quechua those two types of t sound (aspirated [t_h] and unaspirated [t]) are considered completely different consonants and if you use one instead of the other the word is changed, that is, those two sounds belong to different consonant phonemes in Quechua, unlike in English (viceversa, a word is changed in English if you use [i] instead of [e] or [u] instead of [o], because those sounds belong to different vowel phonemes in English, unlike in Quechua). Uaxuctum 00:12, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

/q/ or /x/?
The current module says that the IPA /q/ / Quechua is pronounced as in the Scottish Loch. The last time I checked, is pronounced /lɒx/, not */lɒq/. Mga 04:23, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It's both right and wrong. In Quechua, the sounds fricative velar [x] and uvular [X] are merely positional allophones of the corresponding plosives (/k/ and /q/). Uaxuctum 20:35, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quechua/Pronunciation


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Koine Greek/2

Koine Greek can be pronounced acceptably using Classical Greek or Modern Greek pronunciations.

Breathing Marks
More important than accents are the breathing marks. Breathings normally occur only at the beginning of a word, though they will, at times, be present in the middle - where two words have been joined together. Greek has two types of breathing, the smooth breathing, ᾿, and the rough breathing, ῾. Unlike accents, these are quite important, and you should try to learn them. A word that begins with a rough breathing on a vowel should be pronounced with an 'h'. So the Greek word ὅρος, meaning 'boundary', should be read 'horos', while ὄρος, a mountain, should be read 'oros'. Be careful never to confuse breathings with quotation marks or accents; when you write or quote Greek, the breathings should look like half-rings to clearly distinguish them from other marks. When rho occurs at the beginning of a word, it too takes a rough breathing mark and is transliterated rh, whereas when two rhos occur consecutively, the first takes a smooth breathing and the second a rough, although these breathing marks are not always indicated. Whenever upsilon occurs at the beginning of a word, it takes a rough breathing, except in the name of the letter itself. As with accent marks, breathing marks are written on the second of the two characters of a diphthong. Accents and breathings are often written to the left of capital letters: Ἇ for ἇ.

Vowel length
In Ancient Greek, vowels may be long or short. The vowels ε and ο are always short, whereas η and ω are always long. The vowels α, ι, and υ, on the other hand, may be either short or long. It is often taught in grade school that, e.g., the "a" in "rat" is short, whereas the "a" in "rate" is long. This is not at all like vowel length in Ancient Greek. In Ancient Greek, a long vowel is literally "longer" than a short vowel, that is, its sound lasts for twice as long as the sound of a short vowel. Originally, this was the only difference between short and long vowels, but as the language evolved, the short and long vowels began to differ not only in quantity (length) but also in quality (kind).

It is not always possible to tell whether an alpha, iota, or upsilon is short or long. In dictionaries and textbooks, as here, long alphas, iotas, and upsilons are marked with a macron (¯), whereas short vowels are usually unmarked, but occasionally marked with a breve (˘). If an alpha, iota, or upsilon takes a circumflex, one may conclude that it is definitely long (see the following section), so it is not marked with a macron. If an alpha, iota, or upsilon takes an acute or a grave and it is long, there are typographic difficulties and thus it might not carry a macron even though it is supposed to (although one might occasionally see an attempt, e.g., ἀγορᾱ́, which might not render correctly in your browser).

In practice, alpha, iota, and upsilon are usually short in the word stems of Classical Greek (although the same might not be true of all Ancient Greek dialects); most long alphas in Classical Greek occur in grammatical endings, which makes it easier for the learner to remember which vowels are short and which are long. Developing a habit of pronouncing Ancient Greek words, in reading and in memorization, with full attention to vowel length, will aid the learner in remembering vowel length as well.

Diphthongs
Notice the short line under the long vowels α, η, ω in three instances: this is the iota subscript. It indicates that there was originally an iota after the vowel, i.e. ῳ = ωι. Some texts simply print an iota after the vowel: this is known as an iota adscript, and some texts mix the two, using a subscript with lowercase letters, and an adscript for capitals (Ωιομην for ῳομην). By Classical times, these had become monophthongs (one vowel sound) equivalent to their non-iotized counterparts, and can simply be pronounced as such. Note that when alpha takes the iota subscript, one can infer that the alpha was originally long, whereas the diphthong αι is formed from short alpha.

Diaeresis
The diaeresis, ¨, is not strictly an accent, nor is it an umlaut, as used in German. It is mainly found on iotas to indicate that the letter should be pronounced separately from the vowel before it. For example, Verdi's opera Aïda is not pronounced 'eye-da', but 'a-yee-da'. Likewise, whereas αι is a diphthong, αϊ is two separate vowels.

Aspirates
The letters θ, φ, χ are not fricatives: they are not the same as the sounds th, f, ch in thin, foot, and loch (although these are the sounds they have become in Modern Greek). These letters have hard sounds, but are pronounced with an exhalation, like an h sound. Listen hard to your voice when you pronounce the examples above: you'll find that there is a difference between the p in pot and in spot. Don't worry if you have too much difficulty making this distinction; many teachers and students prefer to use the fricative versions (th, f, kh) so that they are easier to distinguish for speakers and listeners.

 * Much of the information provided in this section came from the article on pronunciation for Ancient (classical) Greek: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek/Alphabet#Pronunciation.

Modern Greek Pronunciation
The Modern Greek pronunciation is preferred within Greece and Cyprus and by the Orthodox Church. It differs from the classical prunuciation in that 'γ' is like a 'y' preceeding 'ε', 'η', 'ι'. 'ω' and 'ο' are pronounced the same, as are 'η' and 'ι', 'χ' is pronounced like 'ch' or similar to a Spanish 'jota' (hijo), 'β' is pronounced [v], δ is pronounced like 'th' in the word 'this', π becomes 'b' following a nasal, with the nasal frequently not being pronounced (especially at the beginning of words). The diphthongs 'ει' 'οι' and 'υι' are pronounced like 'i', and αι is pronounced like 'ε'. The 'υ' in the diphthongs αυ, ευ, ηυ is pronounced as [v] exept before unvoiced consonants and at the end of the word, when it is pronounced [f]. In Modern Greek pronunciation, all accents are treated like acute accents (similar to how Katharevousa Greek was pronounced). Aspirates are not pronounced.

Punctuation
The comma and full-stop (.) are used as in English. The colon or semicolon is a point above the line (·). The Greek question mark looks like the English semicolon.

Inverted commas are often used to denote speech. Capital letters are used at the beginning of paragraphs, sentences (depending on publisher), proper names, and the beginning of quotations.

In actual Greek texts from the era when Koine Greek was used as a day-to-day language, Greek was written with no punctuation*. The words ran together completely, with no spacing or markup. Accents, breathing marks, spaces, and other punctuation are added at a much later time, making texts easier to read.

 * This is actually not entirely accurate, as many of the earliest partial manuscripts of the New Testament do have punctuation. Due to the high cost of the factors of input (ink, paper), punctuation was quickly excluded, to be re-included later by textual scholars (not unlike the adding of vowel-markers to the Biblical Hebrew and Aramaic texts by the Masoretes).

title: Koine Greek/2


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Koine Greek/Authors

Authors
1. Daniel Canaris

2. Peter Norcross

(please contribute!)

title: Koine Greek/Authors


text:
Computer Programming/Statements

println "Hi there!"

println "Hi there!" println "Strange things are afoot..."

title: Computer Programming/Statements


text:
Talk:Music Theory/Music Notation Systems

Oh, if only I had the resources available to talk at length about various notational systems, putting across the encouraging idea that they are constantly evolving and not set in stone and interpretation can be just as creative as creation. I like putting fermatas over measures. I'm not sure how useful this comment is, but I've never made an edit so I'm sort of nervous to just go ahead and do it.

Expanding notation
One might want to add the 8va and 8ba, as well as examples of changing clefs in the middle of a piece, in order to avoid the ledger lines.

What is the intended scope of this book?
This has got off to a rather shaky start. It is addressed as a "how-to" kind of text, but it is getting so chatty and full of sidelines that it threatens to become unusably long.

I have tried (a while back) to simplify some of the material in an article on solmization: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1339337

Accessibility is a major problem, because a certain familiarity with some music theory is required, to make any sense of the terms used. What level of knowledge is to be expected?

I would be against introducing the word "confusingly" so early, or indeed at all. It is our job not to be confusing.

chant
Gregorian chant uses a 4-line staff.

why was this *after* the rhythm section?
???


text:
Cookbook talk:Curry Chicken I

Maybe I'm naive but does a whole cooked chicken mean the chicken has to be in one peice? I ask because it makes a difference in what kind of dish is used to cook this in. Should it be done in a big deep pot or a frying pan? The directions seem to indicate a frying pan but that wouldn't do much good with a whole cooked chicken. liblamb 17:36, 3 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I think that there are some spices missing in this recipe. I attempted it tonight and it was incredibly bland. Using some salt, pepper, chili powder, and a few other spices made it taste better, but I'm not sure what should be used during cooking to make sure the finished product comes out well. -- KeplerNiko 84.85.0.110 23:38, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

Chili powder?
Should it be chile powder (pure chile) or chili powder (spice blend)? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 01:45, 18 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Curry Chicken I


text:
Wikijunior:Big Cats/Cheetah

Cheetahs are built for speed, with a whip-like spine, long legs, and a long tail that acts as a rudder for sudden turns. They are the world's fastest land animal (but the world’s fastest animal is a bird called a peregrine falcon). The cheetah can chase its prey for 274 meters (almost a sixth of a mile) at the speed of 114 kilometers (almost 71 miles per hour) per hour. Both the male and the female of the species are referred to as "cheetahs," unlike in the case of many other animals. Cheetahs can generally live up to seven years.

Where do cheetahs live?
Today, most cheetahs are found in sub-Saharan Africa, though a few are still seen in Iran. In the past, they used to be found throughout northern India and Iran. They prefer to live in semi-deserts, savanna, prairies, and thick brush. As they rely upon speed to hunt, they avoid dense forests. Conservation efforts are required in order to avoid the cheetah becoming an entry on the endangered species list. In India, the forests in which many cheetahs live are not secured and they can leave the forests and travel into cities or villages. In the last two or three years, cheetahs have been found in these urban areas.

What do cheetahs look like?

Cheetahs are rather dog-like, medium-sized spotted cats with long legs and slender, but muscular, bodies. They have a white belly, and a dark stripe that looks like a tear on both sides of their faces. In contrast to leopards, which have palmette shaped spots, cheetahs have round dark spots on their fur. Adult cheetahs weigh from 40 to 65 kilograms (90 to 140 pounds), and are around 112 to 135 centimeters (four to five feet) in length. Cheetahs are built to do what they do: run! Their long tail provides them with balance. They have a big chest, a narrow waist, and powerful muscles in their hind legs. They have small heads and muzzles; large nostrils for increased oxygen intake; and small, round ears. All of this makes the cheetah very sleek and aerodynamic when it runs.

What do they eat, and how do they catch their prey?
Cheetahs mostly eat mammals like gazelles, impala, gnu calves, and hares, which are all about the same size as, or smaller than an adult cheetah.

Cheetahs stalk their prey until they are within about thirty meters, and then give chase. The chase is usually over in less than a minute, and if the cheetah doesn't catch its prey quickly, it will often give up rather than waste energy. This is because cheetahs use a lot of energy when chasing prey at such high speed. They are very fast runners due to the build of their legs and about half of the chases are successful.

Cheetahs must eat their catch quickly or risk losing their food to other stronger predators. They will not usually fight with a larger animal over food as risking an injury would mean certain starvation.

Cheetahs are well-adapted to living in arid environments. In the Kalahari desert, they have been estimated to travel an average of 82 kilometers (51 miles) between drinks of water. They have been seen getting their water from the blood or urine of their prey or by eating Tsamma melons.

Fun facts
See how much you know about the world's fastest land mammal:
 * After running at full speed, a cheetah must rest at least 15 minutes before running again.
 * Cheetahs do not roar, but they make a number of very un-catlike sounds, many of which resemble bird chirps.
 * Cheetah sounds include purrs, bleats, barks, growls, hisses and chirps but the chirp can be heard at a distance of a mile away (more than 1.5 kilometers)!
 * Cheetahs were called leopards before leopards were! Earlier the word for Cheetah was "leopard", and the word for leopard was simply "pard". Cheetahs were called leo-pards then as a mix between "leo", Latin for lion, and "pard", then the name of leopards.
 * Apart from pumas, cheetahs are the only big cats that purr.
 * Many cheetah cubs are killed by a lack of food or their natural enemies: lions, leopards, and hyenas. An old African legend says the tear stain marks on the cheetah's face are from the mother weeping for her lost cubs.
 * Cheetahs do not usually eat the skin or bones of their prey.
 * Hyenas, leopards, and lions steal the cheetah's prey after the cheetah has killed it.

For more information
Next Topic: Pumas
 * Wikipedia: Cheetah

ca:Viquijúnior:Grans felins/Guepard Wikijunior Großkatzen/ Gepard fr:Wikijunior:Les félins/Les guépards Wikijunior_Grandi_felini/Ghepardo

title: Wikijunior:Big Cats/Cheetah


text:
Compiler Construction/Introduction

Introducing Compilers and Interpreters
A compiler is a computer program that implements a programming language specification to "translate" programs, usually as a set of files which constitute the source code written in source language, into their equivalent machine readable instructions (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). This translation process is called compilation. We compile the source program to create the compiled program. The compiled program can then be run (or executed) to do what was specified in the original source program.

The source language is always a higher-level language in comparison to machine code, written using some mixture of English words and mathematical notation, assembly language being the lowest compilable language (an assembler being a special case of a compiler that translates assembly language into machine code). Higher-level languages are the most complex to support in a compiler/interpreter, not only because they increase the level of abstraction between the source code and the resulting machine code, but because increased complexity is required to formalize those abstract structures.

The target language is normally a low-level language such as assembly, written with somewhat cryptic abbreviations for machine instructions, in these cases it will also run an assembler to generate the final machine code. But some compilers can directly generate machine code for some actual or virtual computer e.g. byte-code for the Java Virtual Machine.

Another common approach to the resulting compilation effort is to target a virtual machine. That will do just-in-time compilation and byte-code interpretation and blur the traditional categorizations of compilers and interpreters.

For example, C and C++ will generally be compiled for a target `architecture'. The draw-back is that because there are many types of processor there will need to be as many distinct compilations. In contrast Java will target a Java Virtual Machine, which is an independent layer above the 'architecture'. The difference is that the generated byte-code, not true machine code, brings the possibility of portability, but will need a Java Virtual Machine (the byte-code interpreter) for each platform. The extra overhead of this byte-code interpreter means slower execution speed.

An interpreter is a computer program which executes the translation of the source program at run-time. It will not generate independent executable programs nor object libraries ready to be included in other programs.

A program which does a lot of calculation or internal data manipulation will generally run faster in compiled form than when interpreted. But a program which does a lot of input/output and very little calculation or data manipulation may well run at about the same speed in either case.

Being themselves computer programs, both compilers and interpreters must be written in some implementation language. Up until the early 1970's, most compilers were written in assembly language for some particular type of computer. The advent of C and Pascal compilers, each written in their own source language, led to the more general use of high-level languages for writing compilers. Today, operating systems will provide at least a free C compiler to the user and some will even include it as part of the OS distribution.

Compiler construction is normally considered as an advanced rather than a novice programming task, mainly due to the quantity of code needed (and the difficulties of grokking this amount of code) rather than the difficulty of any particular coding constructs. To this most books about compilers have some blame. The large gap between production compilers and educational exercises promotes this defeatist view.

For the first version of a compiler written in its own source language you have a bootstrapping problem. Once you get a simple version working, you can then use it to improve itself.

At the highest level, compilation is broken into a number of parts:
 * The compilation process
 * 1) Lexical analysis (tokenizing)
 * 2) Syntax analysis (parsing)
 * 3) Type checking
 * 4) Code generation

Requirements
Any compiler has some essential requirements, which are perhaps more stringent than for most programs:
 * Any valid program must be translated correctly, i.e. no incorrect translation is allowed.
 * Any invalid program must be rejected and not translated.

There will inevitably be some valid programs which can't be translated due to their size or complexity in relation to the hardware available, for example problems due to memory size. The compiler may also have some fixed-size tables which place limits on what can be compiled (some language definitions place explicit lower bounds on the sizes of certain tables, to ensure that programs of reasonable size/complexity can be compiled).

There are also some desirable requirements, some of which may be mutually exclusive:
 * Errors should be reported in terms of the source language or program.
 * The position at which an error was detected should be indicated; if the actual error probably occurred somewhat earlier then some indication of possible cause(s) should also be provided.
 * Compilation should be fast.
 * The translated program should be fast.
 * The translated program should be small.
 * If the source language has some national or international standard:
 * Ideally the entire standard should be implemented.
 * Any restrictions or limits should be well and clearly documented.
 * If extensions to the standard have been implemented:
 * These extensions should be documented as such.
 * There should be some way of turning these extensions off.

There are also some possibly controversial requirements to consider (see chapter on dealing with errors):
 * Errors detected when the translated program is running should still be reported in relation to the original source program e.g. line number.
 * Errors detected when the translated program is running should include division by 0, running out of memory, use of an array subscript/index which is too big or too small, attempted use of an undefined variable, incorrect use of pointers, etc.

Overall Structure
For ease of exposition we will divide the compiler into a front end and a back end. These need not even be written in the same implementation language, providing they can communicate effectively via some intermediate representation.

The following list itemizes the tasks carried out by the front end and the back end. Note that the tasks are not carried out in any particular order, as outlined below, and discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters.

 * Front end
 * lexical analysis - convert characters to tokens
 * syntax analysis - check for valid sequence of tokens
 * semantic analysis - check for meaning
 * some global/high-level optimization

 * Back end
 * some local optimization
 * register allocation
 * peep-hole optimization
 * code generation
 * instruction scheduling

Almost all the source-language aspects are handled by the front end. It is possible to have different front ends for different high-level languages, and a common back end which does most of the optimization.

Almost all the machine-dependent aspects are handled by the back end. It is possible to have different back ends for different computers so that the compiler can produce code for different computers.

The front end is normally controlled by the syntax analysis processing. As necessary, the syntax analysis code will call a routine which performs some lexical analysis and returns the next token. At selected points during syntax analysis, appropriate semantic routines are called which perform any relevant semantic checks and/or add information to the internal representation.

Next - Describing a Programming Language

title: Compiler Construction/Introduction


text:
Project Management/Northstar

The opportunity
Most of the software process engineering tools today are proprietary and expensive, affordable only by large corporations.

The following table shows sales figures for the proprietary project management tools business. Even without considering free and pirated software usage, sales more than double over a five year period from 2001.

The growth of project management during the past decade has contributed markedly to project success rates. When 31% of the projects failed in 1994, only 15% failed in 2002. Total cost of financial waste and budget overruns from challenged and failed projects is down. When $140 billion was wasted out of $250 billion spent in 1994, only $55 billion out of $255 billion was wasted in 2002.

For mid size organizations involved in project management, buying and maintaining the standard proprietary tools available is very expensive and there is no full fledged software engineering  tool available in the open source space. . Whatever is available is confined to just scheduling, leaving out the other activities like estimation, WBS, dependency management, risk management, reviews, quality management, requirements management, design, testing  wide open.

‘NorthStar’ the project management and software engineering tool, fills up this gap, and provides the users with  the state of the art project management and software engineering tool, covering all facets of project management.

The Vision Provide the global software engineering community an open tool, which supports end to end software engineering   project management which is easy to customize and affordable..

Scope of work - Develop a requirements capture module

requirements
 * Develop a work break down structure generation / capture module, which can be traced back to
 * Against the work breakdown structure capture planned completion date, revised completion date, actual completion date, planned effort, revised effort, actual effort, primary owner, dependent task (one only)
 * Compute earned value depending on 50-50 rule, that is when the task starts give 50% weightage and when the task ends give the balance 50% weightage
 * Compute and display critical path
 * Compute and display loading chart
 * Generate variance metrics for effort, schedule
 * Integrate with Bugzilla for defect details and generate one metrics on effort in testing Vs number of defects
 * Develop a risk management module which can capture risks, provide rating against each risk item based on the probability of occurrence and impact along with risk mitigation plan and status. Provide a facility to see the risks for a module, a project and for all my projects

The project execution strategy
There will be a core team defining the roadmap for the project and at any point in time, the roadmap for the next 1 year will be defined

The roadmap is broken down into schedules of 3 months each, and at any point in time, the schedules for the next 3 months will be available (wave planning/scheduling)

The project will have a project manager

The project will follow water fall model, and the duration of every waterfall cycle will be 3 months at the end of which there will be  releasable code with additional functionality available for release

The core functionality will be developed by a dedicated in house team and  the not so core functionality will be offered to university students to develop, with support from the core team

The project will use as many reusable code as possible

The project team

 * Project manager - Allan
 * Architect - Sushil
 * Quality assurance - Kent
 * Development team - Madan, Rajesh, Abu, Krishnan, Renuka, Mary  ( Stationed in India),  Tony - team lead;
 * Development team - Arnold, Marina, Dave, Silvester , Jerry, Paul , Jason , Jose (Stationed at USA) ,  Alice - team lead;
 * Unit and component testing is done at the respective locations.
 * System testing is done in India
 * Project Sponsor - Varun;
 * Product manager - Abhishek

Technology used
Java, turbine, PHP, Apache, SVG, Linux

Project estimates
The project size is 40 KLOC (Kilo lines of code or 40,000 lines of code) and will take 1000 person days

Historical information used: Data from previous similar projects shows that a programmer can write an average of 40 LOC/day for Java, which is the main platform for Northstar.

Assumptions
 * enough funding will be available
 * French, German and Japanese versions will be available along with English version
 * the system will work best on Mozilla Firebird and Internet Explorer
 * will work on Linux, Windows
 * will work only on web and will not work in a client-server mode
 * all the reports will be available at the press of a button (maximum processing time will be less than 5 seconds)
 * the system will meet its performance criteria on any network with bandwidth 128 kbps and above

Flexibility matrix for the project
 * Schedule - least flexible
 * Scope - moderately flexible
 * Cost - most flexible

The domain  NorthStar is built around the PMBOK* (project management body of knowledge by PMI*, project management institute) and comprises of the following knowledge areas and it is  important for the project teams working on this project have the basic understanding of the project management body of knowledge. request you to go through the details given below, to get a broad picture of the project management body of knowledge.

Project Integration Management
Describes the processes required to ensure that the various elements of the project are properly coordinated.

It consists of:
 * Project Plan Development
 * Project Plan Execution
 * Integrated Change Control

The key concepts to be understood to practice project integration management are;

 * Role of a project manager as integrator,
 * Project plan development,
 * Contents of a project plan,
 * Project plan execution,
 * Integrated change control - change management systems / processes,
 * Importance of historical information / pitfalls in collecting data,
 * Corrective actions / preventive actions,
 * Project plan updates and revisions,
 * Project plan approval,
 * Project plan baselines,
 * Change control board - CCB,
 * Kick off meeting,
 * Work authorization system,
 * Change requests,
 * Configuration management,
 * Project management information system,
 * Earned value management system - Variations of earned value calculation,
 * Project planning methodology

Project Scope Management
Describes the processes required to ensure that the project includes all the work required and only the work required, to complete the project successfully. Comprises of:

 * Initiation,
 * Scope Planning,
 * Scope Definition,
 * Scope Verification,
 * Scope Change Control,

The key concepts to be understood to practice project scope management are:
 * Work breakdown structure,
 * Project initiation,
 * Project charter,
 * Scope definition and decomposition - characteristics of a good scope definition,
 * Scope verification,
 * Scope management plan,
 * Project selection methods and criteria,
 * Constraints,
 * Structure of a scope statement,
 * Scope management,
 * WBS dictionary,
 * Management by objectives - MBO,
 * Management by wandering around - MBWA.

Project Time Management
Describes the processes required to ensure timely completion of the project. It consists of:
 * Activity Definition
 * Activity Sequencing
 * Activity Duration Estimating
 * Schedule Development
 * Schedule Control

The key concepts to be understood to practice project time management are:
 * Scheduling
 * Crashing
 * Fast tracking
 * Estimation / re estimation
 * Network diagrams
 * Dependencies mandatory / discretionary / external
 * Logic diagrams and networks
 * The critical path
 * Slack / float / free slack / total slack / project slack
 * Calendar scheduling and time based networks
 * Management schedule reserve
 * PDM (precedence diagramming method) networks
 * PERT (program evaluation and review technique)
 * CPM (critical path method)
 * Scheduling with resource constraints
 * GERT (graphical evaluation and review technique)
 * Montecarlo simulation
 * BAR / GANTT charts
 * Milestone charts
 * Schedule management plan
 * Resource leveling
 * Lag
 * Flow charts
 * Heuristics
 * Variance analysis

Project Cost Management
Describes the processes required to ensure that the project is completed within the approved budget. Consists of:
 * Resource Planning
 * Cost Estimating
 * Cost Budgeting
 * Cost Control

The key concepts to be understood to practice project cost management are:
 * Cost estimating
 * Cost escalation
 * Cost estimation and the systems development cycle
 * Cost estimating process
 * Elements of budgets and estimates
 * Project cost accounting and management information systems
 * Budgeting using cost accounts
 * Cost summaries
 * Cost analysis with early and late start times
 * Effect of late start time on project net worth
 * Material expenditures and cash flow
 * Earned value analysis
 * Order of magnitude / budget / definitive
 * Project selection methods
 * BCR / NPV / IRR
 * Variable and fixed cost
 * Direct and indirect cost
 * Payback period
 * Opportunity cost
 * Present value
 * Sunk costs
 * Law of diminishing returns
 * Working capital
 * Straight line / accelerated
 * Life cycle costs
 * Value analysis

Project Quality Management
Describes the processes required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. It consists of:
 * Quality Planning
 * Quality Assurance
 * Quality Control

The key concepts to be understood to practice project quality management are:
 * Problem definition
 * Applying fix
 * Root cause analysis
 * Fish bone diagram / Ishikawa diagram
 * Pareto analysis
 * Quality planning
 * Quality assurance and quality control, cost of quality
 * Control chart
 * Definition of quality
 * Gold plating
 * Integrated quality management plan
 * Quality goals
 * Defect tracking systems
 * Metrics
 * Total quality management
 * Quality control tools
 * Quality audits
 * Continuous improvement
 * Marginal analysis
 * Responsibility for quality
 * Price of conformance and non conformance
 * Mean, median, mode, standard deviation
 * Six sigma
 * Variable, attribute
 * Probability
 * ISO 9000
 * CMMI
 * Malcolm Baldridge
 * Benchmarking
 * Just in time
 * Design of experiments
 * Sampling
 * Quality Gurus

Project Human Resource Management
Describes the processes required to make most effective use of the people involved with the project. It consists of:
 * Organizational Planning
 * Staff Acquisition
 * Team Development

The key concepts to be understood to practice project human resource management are:
 * PMCDF - project management competency definition framework
 * Role of project stakeholders
 * Servant leadership
 * Q12 practices
 * Project team structures
 * Career planning
 * Maslow's hierarchy
 * McGregor's X and Y
 * Herzberg
 * Responsibility chart
 * Team building
 * Powers of the project manager
 * Responsibilities of the project manager (human resource)
 * Enniagram types
 * Perquisites
 * Fringe benefits
 * Expectancy theory
 * Halo effect
 * War room
 * Recruitment
 * Cultural differences
 * Distributed teams
 * Virtual teams
 * Self directed teams
 * 360 degree appraisals

Project Communications Management
Describes the processes required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, dissemination, storage and ultimate disposition of project information. It consists of:
 * Communications Planning
 * Information Distribution
 * Performance Reporting
 * Administrative Closure

The key concepts to be understood to practice effective project communications management are;
 * Team size and communication channels
 * Types of communication
 * Communications planning
 * Formal and informal communication
 * Components of effective communication
 * Communication obstacles
 * Structure of a communication plan
 * Communications management plan
 * Effective meetings
 * Active listening
 * Body language
 * Administrative closure
 * Knowledge management
 * Communication control
 * Communication in virtual teams
 * 6 thinking hats

Project Risk Management
Describes the processes concerned with identifying, analyzing, and responding to project risks. It consists of:
 * Risk Management Planning
 * Risk Identification
 * Qualitative Risk Analysis
 * Quantitative Risk Analysis
 * Risk Response Planning
 * Risk Monitoring and Control

The key concepts to be understood to practice project risk management are:
 * Risk identification
 * Sources of risk
 * Risk identification techniques
 * Risk checklist
 * Application of cause and effect diagram in risk analysis
 * Risk likelihood
 * Risk impact
 * Risk priority
 * Risk transference
 * Risk avoidance
 * Risk reduction
 * Contingency planning
 * Risk acceptance
 * Risk management principles
 * Risk management caveats
 * Expected value
 * Decision trees
 * Uncertainty and pay off tables
 * Simulation
 * Risk rating matrix
 * Risk management plan

Project Procurement Management
Describes the processes required to acquire goods and services from outside the performing organization. It consists of:
 * Procurement Planning
 * Solicitation Planning
 * Solicitation
 * Source Selection
 * Contract Administration
 * Contract Closeout

The key concepts to be understood to practice project procurement management are:
 * Forms of contracts
 * Purchase order
 * Negotiation
 * Incentives
 * Procurement management process
 * Legal terms
 * Types of contracts and their merits and demerits from the buyer's perspective
 * Essentials of a contract
 * Procurement documents
 * Non competitive procurement
 * Make or buy
 * Just in time
 * 80/20
 * ABC analysis
 * Formal acceptance
 * Bidder's conferences
 * Financial closure
 * Contract performance reporting
 * Procurement audit
 * Product verification
 * Evaluation criteria
 * Procurement management plan
 * Special provisions
 * Contract template
 * Proclivity
 * Qualified seller lists
 * Advertising
 * Centralized and decentralized contracting
 * Procurement management
 * Contract interpretation
 * Letter of intent
 * Update and archive records
 * Lessons learned
 * Contract file

title: Project Management/Northstar


text:
User:Seldon~enwikibooks

Ph.D. student in the Biomolecular Structure & Design Program and the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at the University of Washington.

Bachelor's in Biology and Chemistry from the University of Virginia.

"Arrr! The laws of Science be a harsh mistress." --Bender, Futurama. (For best results, say in a pirate accent. Void where prohibited.)

title: User:Seldon~enwikibooks


text:
Project Management/FAQs

What is a project?
In project management a project consists of a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. The main characteristics of a project are:
 * It is a temporary endeavor
 * It has fixed start and end dates
 * It is unique – no two projects are exactly the same, and it is not a routine operation
 * It is performed by a team of people - teams are temporary in nature. Will be dispersed at the end of the project.
 * It has a defined budget.
 * It has a sponsor - someone who wants the project done and will guide and fight for it.
 * It has a defined objective/endpoint such that you can measure when it is complete.

What is project management?
Application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements in addition.

What is a program?
Collection of Activities executed together in such a way that the cumulative benefit is higher than when they are executed one at a time.

What is program management?
Overall management of a program and is not the individual management of the constituent projects in the program. The focus is on the program objectives achievement, rather than individual project progress.

What is an operation?
An operation is also performed by people. The major difference between an operation and a project is that, operations are repetitive in nature, where as projects are temporary in nature.

What are the similarities between a project and an operation?

 * Both are performed by people
 * Both have deliverables
 * Both have limited resources
 * Both are Planned, Executed and Controlled

What are the differences between a project and an operation?

 * Project is temporary in nature, whereas an operation is ongoing
 * Projects have temporary teams, whereas operations have permanent teams (relatively)
 * Each project is unique in nature, whereas operation steps are identical

Who is a stakeholder?
Any person, community impacted by the project execution or project outcome or by non-execution of the project.

What is a PMO?
PMO, Project Management Office, is an organization within an organization supporting the project management practice within the organization. PMO will aid in:

 * Making available critical project management related knowledge to the projects within the organization
 * Providing tools and templates for project management
 * Supporting the tools and templates usage
 * Making available critical resources to the projects on time

The PROJECT MANAGEMENT OFFICE (PMO) concept
An organization conducting several projects on an ongoing basis should consider the creation of a central functional unit to supply project management resources and tools; to develop a methodology and procedures; and to look after systems. All these resources can be regrouped in a special unit to be called one of several names depending upon its intent and staffing. Such a unit is commonly called a Project Management Office (PMO), Project Support Office or Project Information Office. The specific roles and responsibilities assigned to the unit can influence the selection of its name

Depending upon its importance, there are several roles and responsibilities that can be assigned to a project office. They can be broken into the following major categories:

 * Management of Project Environment
 * Project Information
 * Project Support

The organization that wishes to focus primarily on the project management process will usually assign a senior manager to lead the process. This manager, who could be a vice president or director of project management, would assume the following responsibilities: Once an organization has decided to carry out a corporate or departmental project management approach, the complete venture should be organized as a major project. The Project Management Office (PMO) would play a key role in leading this project.
 * Ensure the Transition

The PMO could be the functional organization responsible for supplying senior project managers to major corporate initiatives involving many operational functional groups and requiring unbiased management. It should not be, however, the PMO's responsibility to provide all project managers.
 * Provide Senior Project Managers

The PMO could provide coaching services to project teams across the organization in both project planning and execution. These services could be offered to divisions that are starting to run their own projects with managers and teams who are still lacking the required project planning and management abilities. The coaching could include: (1) planning facilitation to help the project team develop a good project plan in line with the organization's project management methodology and procedures; (2) setting up the monitoring and control processes; and (3) facilitating team building and conflict resolution.
 * Coaching Project Teams

The PMO can provide two major functions for risk assessment for the organization: to have risk assessment tools available with coaching support for project managers to be used upon request; and upon direction of the Project Review Committee or other competent authority, conduct risk assessment against specified projects for corporate management.
 * Risk Assessment

The PMO could provide post evaluation of selected projects if desired by the organization.
 * Project Post Evaluation

In cooperation with the Human Resources Branch, the PMO could take the lead in defining the career paths and training requirements for the project management field within the organization. This task should include:
 * Career Development
 * The development of job categories and descriptions,
 * The selection of personnel to enter the project management field,
 * The development of a training curriculum for project management and
 * The development and delivery of training materials.

What is project portfolio management?
Project portfolio management is all about choosing the right projects to execute--those which align with the organizational strategy and will give the organization the maximum return on investment. The projects to execute are determined by techniques such as:
 * NPV – net present value of investments
 * ROI – Return on investments
 * Payback period
 * Opportunity cost, etc.

What are the different types organizational structures? How do they impact PM role?

 * Functional organization
 * Projectized organization
 * Matrix organization

Functional organization is the most common form of organization. The organization is grouped by area of specialization within different functional areas (sales, manufacturing, purchase, quality control etc). In a functional organization, maximum power rests with the functional manager and the project manager’s role in decision making is minimal. Project managers play a coordinator / facilitator role. Control over the team by project manager is minimal. (Glorified secretary)

Advantages of a functional organization; In a projectized organization, the team gets dismantled, once the project is over, hence the ownership of the career path of the project team members are not fully owned by any. This can be the situation in matrix organizations too, since there are two bosses. Whereas in a typical functional organization, the career progression of the team member is fully owned by the functional manager.

Team members report to only one boss, hence avoidance of conflict of interest. Easier management of specialists. Fully under the control of the functional manager. Similar resources are centralized, hence better synergy within groups

Disadvantages of functional organization;

 * Preference for functional specialization, at the cost of the project
 * No career path in project management
 * Project manager has no authority

Projectized organization

In projectized organization, all the work is considered as a project (construction companies, software project organizations). The project manager has total control over the projects. Personnel are assigned to and report to a project manager.

In the projectized organization approach, all project staff reports to the project manager or to someone within the project team structure. The staff is either seconded or hired/contracted specifically for the project and will remain on the team as long as required. In a pure projectized organization, the project receives all necessary staff, including administrative support. On a larger project, the projectized organization has the appearance of a small company, in that it is a self-contained unit with all the resources necessary to do the job. It is the ideal situation for a project manager.

Advantages of a projectized organization"
 * Team members will be more committed to the project
 * Availability of career paths within the project management stream
 * More effective project related communication

Disadvantages of projectized organization; Matrix organization
 * When the project gets over, the team gets dismantled, hence lack of security leading short term commitments
 * Duplication of facilities and job functions eg:- administrative officer for each project, HR coordinator for each project, seating arrangements for each projects, team outings for each projects etc.
 * Less efficient use of resources. Project teams tend to hang on to resources both material and human, even after the need for them. (Some project manager’s take pride in their team size or develop fear when the team size shrinks).

Matrix organization is a hybrid of both functional and projectized organization, trying to leverage the strength of both. The team members report to two bosses, the project manager and the functional manager.

In a strong matrix, the power rests with the project manager. In a weak matrix, the power rests with the functional manager. In a balanced matrix, the power is shared between the project manager and the functional manager.

The structure of a matrix project organization, when used properly, can be quite effective. When misused, however, it can be quite disastrous. The matrix is a highly complex structure from an organizational point of view and management must constantly work at good communications to make it work properly.

Advantages of matrix organization; Better horizontal and vertical communication (better than functional)
 * More support from functional organizations
 * Maximum utilization of scarce resources, since they are easily accessible to the projects.
 * Team members have a place to go, at the completion of the project

Disadvantages of matrix organization
 * More than one boss for project teams, leaving the team members between devil and deep sea, due to conflicts between the project manager and the functional manager
 * More complex to monitor and control, if it spans different locations

Roles and responsibilities of a project manager?
Roles and responsibilities vary from organization to organization. Project manager is ultimately responsible for the success of the project (cost, schedule and quality). The other responsibilities include:
 * Development of a project plan
 * Executing the project as per the project plan
 * Maintaining the project plan
 * Project tracking
 * Scope management
 * Risk management
 * Project integration management
 * People management
 * Communications management
 * Procurement management
 * Quality management
 * Causal analysis and corrective actions
 * Stakeholder management

Roles and responsibilities of a project sponsor
Project sponsor’s primary role is to make the needed resources available to the project. This includes;
 * Approval for starting the project
 * Approval to the cost budgets of the project
 * Approval to the product road maps, if it is a product development project
 * Decision to short close the projects, if the project deliverables are not viable or do not add value in changed scenarios.
 * Decisions to progress into the subsequent phases
 * Decisions not to progress into the subsequent phases

What is a project management lifecycle?
Project management life cycle is different from project life cycles and product management lifecycles. Project management lifecycle comprises of initiation, planning, execution, control phases. (Hint : It is easy to remember it as IPECC) The following table depicts the project activities grouped under initiation, planning, execution and control (project management lifecycle)

Initiating Planning Executing Control Closing Select project, which will give maximum benefit Create scope statement Execute the project plan Integrated change control Procurement audits Product verification Financial closure Lessons learned Update records End of project performance reporting Formal acceptance

Project archives
Determine project team Refer to historical information, already available within the organization Create WBS Manage project progress Project performance measuring Finalize the team Determine project goals Create WBS dictionary Complete work packages Performance reporting Create network diagram Determine high level deliverables and estimates Determine time and cost Distribute information Scope change control Determine critical path Quality assurance Determine high level constraints and assumptions Create risk management plan Develop schedule Team development Quality control Develop budget Hold progress meetings Risk monitoring and control Determine business need Determine communication requirements Identify changes Schedule control Overall

Influencing the organization
Leading Solving problems Negotiating Communicating Holding meetings

Stakeholder management
Develop product description. Determine quality standards. Use work authorization system. Cost control. Define responsibilities of the project manager. Risk identification, qualification, quantification and response planning. Manage by objectives to the project plan. Scope verification. Iterations – go back. Ensure compliance with plans. Determine high level resource requirements. Create other management plans : scope, schedule, cost, quality, staffing, communications, procurement, dependency management etc.

Project plan updates
Corrective action Finalize the project charter Create project control system

Final project plan development
Gain formal project plan approval Hold kick off meeting

What is a product management lifecycle?
A product management life cycle scope is much wider than project scope. A typical product management lifecycle have the following phases: Idea generation. Idea validation. Feasibility. Commit. Development. Beta. Packaging. Release.

What is the difference between product management and project management?
Product management consists of product idea conception to final product launch and after sales support, where as project management primarily focuses on the development phase. What is a project life cycle? Logical phases, within a project. Example : Requirements, design , coding , testing and maintenance phases in a software project.

What is PDCA?
PDCA – By Edward Deming. Talks about Plan – Do – Check –Act cycle, which is applicable for any work/project. Primarily the work to be done is planned first, then it is performed, the out come is checked , if any variations from plan , then corrective actions are taken. It is also known as PDSA – Plan, Do, Study and Act. Steps for continuous improvement.

What is MBO?
MBO, stands for management by objectives. Again MBO can be visualized from the PDCA angle. In MBO, the objectives for performance are set first, then the team performs to meet the objectives, the progress is checked and corrective actions are taken if necessary. What is management by projects? Some organizations perform all their work as projects. Eg : Construction companies, application software development companies. When an organization performs all their work as projects, it is called management by projects. Is there any relationship between organizational structure and project manager’s role / authority? Yes. Depicted in the following table

Functional organization
1-Weak matrix, 2-Balanced Matrix, 3-Strong Matrix, 4-Projectized. Project manager’s authority: 1-Little or none, 2-Limited, 3-Low to moderate, 4-Moderate to high, 5-High to almost total. Project manager’s role: 1-Part time, 2-Part time, 3-Full time, 4-Full time, 5-Full time.

Common titles for project managers
Project coordinator / leader Project coordinator /leader Project manager /officer Project manager/ Program manager Project manager/ Program manager

What is the difference between leading and managing?
Managing is primarily concerned with ‘consistently producing key results expected by key stakeholders where as leading involves:
 * 1) Establishing direction
 * 2) Aligning people
 * 3) Motivating and inspiring

What is communication? And typically how much time a project manager spends in communication?

 * Involves exchange of information
 * Sender is responsible for making information clear, unambiguous and complete
 * The receiver is responsible for making sure that the information is received in its entirety and understood correctly
 * Can be internal or external to the project
 * Can be horizontal or vertical
 * Can be written or oral
 * Involves media
 * Consumes around 90% of project manager’s time

What is the difference between a project plan and a project schedule?
Project schedule is part of the project plan. Apart from the project schedule, a typical project plan have scope, risk management plan, schedule management plan, communications plan, procurement plan, team structure, tracking mechanisms, assumptions, dependencies, major milestones etc...

What is project size estimate?
In every engineering discipline, the size of the work to be performed is estimated first, prior to developing a cost budget.

Examples of size budgets: Building – 2000 sq ft, Ship – tonnes, Software – Lines of code or function points.

What is a project effort estimate?
Once the size estimates are arrived at, they are converted into effort estimates, by applying the productivity factor. E.g.: If a wall of 2000 sq ft size is to built and if the productivity of the mason/day is 200 sq ft, then the effort required to construct the wall is 2000/200 = 10 person days.

title: Project Management/FAQs


text:
Overview of Theology/Transatheism

Overview
Transatheism is a branch of atheism that acknowledges the commonality of superstitions around the world and their usefulness in human psychological well being, self awareness, and motivation for the individual.

Transatheism down-plays the usefulness of religion, beyond its transitory and sometimes revolutionary social side effects and religions use of alliances to create local social cohesion. Personal explorations directed toward understanding the true biological, physiological and psychochemical responses associated with the historical methodologies of spirituality are favoured over traditional mysticism. Transatheism further explains the overwhelming prevalence of mythology and superstition among humankind by noting the common physiological processes inherent in the human species as a whole. Hence the presence of 'God' or deities in transatheism is not thought of in terms of religion but in terms of existing and measurable biochemical mechanisms linked to the processes of the various methods of spirituality and the response of the human organism to those. Individual perceptions of supernatural beings tend to reflect the subconcious ego of the individual. These perceptions tend to be further moulded by structural social mores and doctrine.

Personal spirituality is promoted and encouraged by transatheists as a means of developing the stimulus-response mechanisms of the brain associated with such practices. Exactly what techniques the individual uses to attain spiritual stimulation are left to the individual. It is the net holistic result that is considered most important in the development of a balanced human psyche.

Religion in transatheism is categorised with clan or tribal behaviours and hierarchal social organisation. These are not considered part of spirituality but rather mere social alliances based on common social and physical practice, possibly resulting in spiritual stimulation.

How to Make Yourself Happy
The complete body is a connected organism. Nothing can happen to one part of the body without affecting another part of the body. The facial muscles are directly connected to the emotional centres of the brain. Changing your facial muscles changes your brain chemistry.

To modify ones personal feeling of well being one can hold a smile for a period of several minutes. Practicing this two or three times throughout the day may improve ones long term sense of well being. Select a quiet spot away from distractions and disruptions to practice smiling. Smile for a few minutes just before sleep to improve restfulness. Smile in the morning for a few minutes after waking to set the emotional tone for the day.

Human beings are social organisms. Volunteer or join a club or community group to meet people with similar interests. Concentrate on developing long term friends for chatting. Listen to what others have experienced and how they feel. Listening to others stimulates the brain and can provide experiential information and perspective.

How to Calm Anxiety
The brain perceives a fake laugh in the same way as it perceives a real laugh. Use laughter to combat anxiety. When anxiety begins to appear, force a big fake laugh. Repeat this for several minutes, or if inspired use real laughter.

Use daily physical exercise to calm anxiety. Cardiovascular exercise stimulates endorphens, and can help balance other hormones in the body and brain. Physical exercise also reduces excess glycogen in the body and stimulates the internal organs which is beneficial for the brain. Smiling while exercising may provide additional benefits.

Reduce exposure to visual strobes such as television, and computers. High frequency strobing lights may have effects on natural brain wave rythmns.

Get a change of scenery and learn new things. Stimulating your brain to think of other things by learning or helping out in the community may help to break the biochemical cycle of anxiety.

Contemplate, appreciate, and verbalize the goodness of others, the world and yourself. This can be perceived or performed as praying or singing if one lacks a learned mental reference for contemplation.

title: Overview of Theology/Transatheism


text:
Talk:French/Lessons/Introduction

Untitled
Hi is Monoco a typo or an actual thing?

{Spoken Wikipedia request|Innovvenkat (discuss • contribs)|will be great if it is speaking the contents. so the slang also will become easier}}

One thing I noticed was That there was no forward button on the bottom of the page. Other then that good Job Bawolff 05:23, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Navigational template
I also say good job. I noticed that your navigation system was makeshift, and I couldn't find a better one, so here's an idea: use the template that I created specifically for this:.

For example, you currently use this: ^ French ^ | [[French/Contents|<

As far as I care, the template is free to be changed. I just wanted something that I knew would perform this function. Let me know what you think.

Actually, the "back" in this case shouldn't even exist, and the "up" should be the ToC. But my template as it is doesn't allow for nonexistent "back" or "next." Maybe someone can change that. -- D. F. Schmidt 05:55, August 12, 2005 (UTC)

Deletions
I've deleted the stuff about French having invaded England and modified the bit about 1/3 of English being French. The invasion was a Norman one, not a French one (the French had no say in the matter). William was Norman, the chroniclers of the event were Norman, and Wace, writing about it in the 12th century, was a Norman who wrote positively of the Normans, and quite negatively of the French. Moreover, the dialects were distinct then, and are separate languages now. Moreover, the French fought against the Normans and conquered much of their territory in 1204. Jade Knight 01:26, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Links for definitions
I've noticed the expression "Allons-y" here (that now[] I know it means "let's go!") and thought that maybe we could include links for these definitions (wiktionary, wikibooks, whatever works), when expressions that were not introduced yet appear. Is this practice allowed, or there is a style guide telling us not to? Thanks for any clarification! --MirianBruckschen (talk) 14:32, 22 June 2009 (UTC)
 * As a book, it is better to not use links, as in the other wikis, as these books also have a printed version. Thus, it would be better to make your definitions in-place. There is a guide on this, but damned if I can find it :-) Coupe (discuss • contribs) 11:23, 25 February 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:French/Lessons/Introduction


text:
User:Moonlightembrace

Hi. I am moonlight embrace. Nice to meet you. You can email me at moonlightembrace@acadine.org.

title: User:Moonlightembrace


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Liberalism

The basic liberal-libertarian debate is between John Rawls (the famous advocate of Liberalism) and Robert Nozick (pertaining to Libertarianism). Rawls argues that what should motivate an optimal political society is placing ourselves from the point of view outside that society. In other words, in order to find out what kind of government would be the best, one must ask what one would desire if one did not know what role he/she was going to play in that particular society (Rawls calls this the Veil of Ignorance). From behind this Veil of Ignorance, one should not have any knowledge of any of the particular aspects of the social institutions or distributions in the state. Rawls thinks that given this objective disposition, one would come up with a government whose principles were such that all people in the society would have equal opportunities for everything (and inequalities would be allowed, but only if they maintained to benefit the worst off).

In contrast, Nozick argues against Rawls that, when pertaining to Distributive Justice, one must not take an ahistorical, patterned view of distribution, but rather look at the situation historically. That is, a distribution is just if it satisfies the principles of justice in attainment and of justice in transfer. For Nozick, one can acquire (own) something in two ways: either that thing was previously unowned, and the person acquired it while leaving enough and as good of it left for others, or that thing was transfered to him/her by an act of legitimately freely informed consent on the part of the previous owner. He allows also for some principles of retribution if an act is unjust, and allows here for there to be some orientations of patterned redistribution. However, at base, Nozick's point is that when trying to decide whether an ownership is just, we must decide whether the individual acquired it legitimately, not whether it brings about the greatest overall happiness (read: Utilitarianism) or benefits the worst off.

Thomas Nagel would give a third opinion to try and reconcile these claims by pointing out that the problem in this debate and subsequently in all of political theory is the delicate balancing and often asymmetry between concerns of personal politics (the individual's concerns) and collective politics (the concerns for others). This is a bit of an echoing of Rousseau's theory of the General Will, where he tries to account for individuals acting in one way to support their private, personal desires, and in another way to act according to concerns of the whole. John Stuart Mill also deals with this dichotomy by claiming that societies need to promote the greatest overall happiness for the greatest number of people (his principle of Utilitarianism) while still maintaining that it (the Government) enables the possibility for its citizens to individually pursue the betterment of their own lives.

title: Introduction to Philosophy/Liberalism


text:
User:Gentgeen/Main Page (table free)

Browse: Subjects | Categories | Alphabetical Listing | By Completion Status | By Reading Level

Sister projects
Wikibooks is run by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Wikimedia operates several other multilingual and open-content wiki projects:

 * Meta-Wiki Coordination of all wikimedia projects
 * Wikipedia The free encyclopedia
 * Wikimedia commons Shared media repository
 * Wiktionary Dictionary and thesaurus
 * Wikiquote Collection of quotations
 * Wikisource Free source documents
 * Wikispecies Directory of species
 * Wikinews Free content news

 All New: 100 200 300 400 500 Orphaned: 100 200 300 400 500 Cat: 100 200 300

The Wikimedia Foundation is a non-profit organization that depends on donations to operate. If you find Wikibooks or other projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation useful, please consider making a donation. Donations are used primarily for purchasing server equipment and launching new projects.

title: User:Gentgeen/Main Page (table free)


text:
Spanish/The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish/Part 2

^ The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish ^ - Part Two. In this section, we'll be looking at some paragraphs given below and translate them into Spanish.

Dorothy lived in Kansas with Uncle Henry and Aunt Em. Their house was small. It had one room and a cellar.

'''Dorothy vivia en Kansas con Tío Henry y Tía Em. Su casa era pequeña. Estuvo un habatacion y una sotano.'''

The land around the house was very flat. The soil was dry and the grass was dead. The sun had turned everything dull and gray.

'''La tierra alrededor de la casa era muy plana. El suelo era seco y la hierba era muerta. El sol had turned todo embotado y gris.'''

Aunt Em was once young and pretty. The sun and wind withered her. They made her sad, too. When the orphan Dorothy came, her laughter made Aunt Em scream in surprise.

'''Tía Em fue joven y bonita. El sol y el viento le marchitaban. La hicieron triste, demasiado. Cuando llegó la huérfana Dorothy, su risa hizo tía Em grito de sorpresa.'''

Uncle Henry never laughed. He worked hard from morning till night. He was sad and gray also. He looked stern and solemn, and rarely spoke.

'''Tío Henry nunca se rió. Trabajó duro desde la mañana hasta la noche. Estaba triste y gris también. Miró austero y solemne y raramente hablaba.'''

Toto made Dorothy laugh. He saved her from growing sad and gray. Toto was not gray; he was a little black dog. He was very cute. Toto and Dorothy played all day. She loved him very much.

'''Toto reír a Dorothy. Le salvó de creciente triste y gris. Toto no era gris; era un pequeño perro negro. Era muy guapo. Totó y Dorothy jugaron todo el día. Ella lo amaba mucho.'''

Today, they were not playing. Uncle Henry looked at the sky. It was very grey today. Uncle Henry was anxious. Dorothy held Toto. She looked at the sky, too. Aunt Em was washing the dishes.

'''Hoy en día, no estaban jugando. Tío Henry miró al cielo. Hoy ha sido muy gris. Tío Henry estaba impaciente. Dorothy sostuvo Toto. Ella miró el cielo, también. Tía Em estaba lavando los platos.'''


text:
Talk:Hindi/Introduction

Untitled
नमस्ते

Namaste is hindi's universal greeting, as well as goodbye. It is common to hold ones hands together in front of the chest as praying and bow slightly when saying it.

The 'e' is like the'é'in Café.It will always be like this. In Hindi every letter is pronounced the same in every word. In fact the script used to write hindi is the most phonetic script. This makes learning Hindi very easy compared to english and other languages. In this lesson i will cover the vowels and the difference between dental, retroflex, aspirated and non aspirated consonants. Devanagari is important to know but too lengthy discussion for this, if you do not know it you should learn. But it is not necessary for this lesson.

In hindi, consonants in which you touch the tongue to the back of your teeth are called 'dental' those which the tongue curls slightly and touches the roof of the mouth just behind the gums are called 'retroflex'. Dentals will be lowercase and retroflex will be uppercase letters in my translations.

Aspirated consonants are ones in which a puff of air is released with the saying of the letter. Put your hand to your mouth and say 'pit' with a good amount of force, feel the air? now say 'spit' with less force. not as much air right? The first p in pit is aspirated and in hindi it is important that you do not mix the two.

Vowels in hindi are as follows.

'a' is the schwa and the short a of the language. It is like the 'a' in 'alive', 'about', 'america' and 'associate'. More of an 'uh' sound.

'aa' is long a and like 'a' in 'father'.

'i' is short i and like that in 'liter of coke'.

'ee' is long i and like the two ee's in 'seek'.

'u' is short u and like the 'oo' in 'soot' (NOT as in poo =)

'uu' is the long u like in 'poo' =)

'e' has already been explained

'ai' this is like the 'a' in 'mad' 'dad' 'sad'

'o' is like long o in bolt, and bowl. though remember PURE vowel. no movement.

'au' this is like in caw. but dont move your tongue or mouth to produce the w at the end. remember "pure vowels". Another important matter, 'c' in hindi is not 'k' or 's' as in english. it is always 'ch' like in church. careful not to aspirate it too much because theres a difference between 'c' and 'ch' in hindi.

Finally, in hindi there is nasalation of vowels. this just means that the vowel is pronounced more through the nose than usual. Say while holding your nose to approximate the sound. In my transliteration it is ~ after the letter.

Now, i think were ready for some script. You should read this aloud as this will help implant it in your brain, you may not notice but you will learn alot just by reading it to yourself even if you do not understand most of it! At the end i will explain most of it and you should read it again.

िहन्दी पाठ

आदमी : नमस्ते ! आप कैसी हैं ?

औरत : मैं अचछी हूँ, और आप?

आदमी : मैं भी अचछा हूँ ।

औरत : अचछा !

आदमी : क्या आप अंग्रेज़ी बोलती हैं?

औरत : नहीं, मैं अंग्रेज़ी नहीं बोलती हूँ । आप कहाँ से हैं?

आदमी : मैं अिर्का से हूँ ।

औरत : अचछा ? और आप िहन्दी बोलती हैं?

आदमी : हाँ, मैं थोड़ा थोड़ा बोलता हूँ, लेिकन बहुत ज़्यादा नही ।

औरत : अचछा ,तो आपकी िहन्दी बहुत अचछी है ।

आदमी : धन्यवाद,नमस्ते ।

औरत : नमस्ते ।

aaj ka hindi paTH.

aadmee: namaste! aap kaisee hai~?

aurat: mai~ acchee hoo~, aur aap?

aadmee: mai~ bhee acchaa hoo~

aurat: acchaa!

aadmee: aap angrezi boltee hai~?

aurat: nahee~, mai~ angrezi nahee boltee hoo~. aap kahaa~ se hai~?

aadmee: mai~ amrikaa se hoo~.

aurat: acchaa? aur ap hindi boltaa hai~?

aadmee: haa~, mai~ thoRaa thoRaa boltaa hoo~,lekin mai~ bahut zyaadaa nahee~.

aurat: accha, to apkee hindee bahut acchee hai.

aadmee: dhanyavaad. namaste.

aurat: namaste.

Hindi Lesson.

Man: hello, how are you?

Woman: I am well, and you?

Man: I too am well.

Woman: Good!

Man: Do you speak english?

Woman: No, i do not speak english. Where are you from?

Man: I'm from america.

Woman: Really? And you speak hindi?

Man: Yes, i speak a little, but i don't understand very much.

Woman: I see, your hindi is very good!

Man: Thank you. Goodbye!

Woman: Goodbye!

look at this.

mai~ hoo~ - I am.

aap hai~ - you are

yah hai - this is

Now, i will explain something very important in hindi. Look at the sentence 'aap kaisi hai~?' It is translated as 'how are you?' in english. Now as an english speaking person you would look at this and say 'aap = how, kaisi = are, you = hai~'. But this is incorrect. In hindi the word order is very different. the verb comes at the end of the sentence! so the auxillary verb 'hai~' (are) is at the end while 'aap' (you) is at the beginning. So it is really 'you how are?'. In english this sounds strange but in hindi it feels quiet natural! So the word order is Subject + object + verb. 'mai~ hindi bolta hoon~' (i speak hindi).

You may also notice that 'acchaa' is translated as 3 phrases/words. 'i see' 'good' and 'really?'. this is because the word is a sort of catchall for these types of things. It's a very useful word to know.

In 'mai~ amrika se hoo~' the word 'se' means 'from' but in hindi its not from america but america from! they are postpositions and not prepositions as in english.

Ajectives come before the noun they describe. but something very important is that they agree with their noun in gender. all nouns in hindi have gender. this is too much to explain here but just know that 'bolti' and 'bolta' both mean 'speaks' but 'yah aurat boltee' and 'yah aadmee boltaa' mean this woman speaks, this man speaks. the difference is the ending sound. this is not for all words but a majority of words. some do not change at all.

Questions. in english a question can be formed by changing the word order, or simply indicated in tone. ie. 'you speak hindi.' as opposed to 'you speak hindi?'. This is similar in hindi but you do not change the word order. you simply place 'kya' in front of the sentence. 'kya aap hindi boltaa hai~?'

and finally some vocabulary to help you get through the proper Hindi lesson.

nahee - no/not

haa~ - yes

acchaa - good, really?, i see, ect.

aadmee - man

aurat - woman

bhi - too

Well, thats all and I hope this introduces you to the language of Hindi and encourages you to learn more! Hindi is a beautiful language and has been called the language of songs because it is very musical. Many people speak Hindi and a widely unknown fact is that it is 3rd or 4th most spoken language in the world behind English and Chinese. It is spoken in India. =)

title: Talk:Hindi/Introduction


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Other Windows

Just when you thought that you were getting the hang of the Buttons window and the 3D Viewport window, there are several more windows to learn about. Have no fear; we will gently guide you through this book and teach you about these windows as the need arises. For now, you only need to know one of them to be aware of your many options.

In the 3D viewport window, you'll see a button on the header all the way to the left that has a grid on it (if not, click on a window separator with the RMB or MMB and choose "Add Header"). That button allows you to switch window types. Click on it with the LMB and you will see a number of different window types to which you can change. Try some of the different window types; you will learn about their relevance in time.

Change the window back to the 3-Dimensional Viewport before moving on to the next tutorial.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Other Windows


text:
User:Louis Jean-Richard~enwikibooks

Visit my page www.ljr.ch to learn more about me.

Post a message

title: User:Louis Jean-Richard~enwikibooks


text:
User:Khakbaz~enwikibooks

Sina K. Heshmati

title: User:Khakbaz~enwikibooks