text:
User talk:Samwilson

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!-- SB_Johnny | talk 12:47, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Need Database Abstraction Class
Please complete the wikibook "PHP Programming/User login systems". It ranks very high in search engines, but it does not contain enough information to let a competent newcomer actually make a user login system.

The database abstraction class is not explained at all. It's one thing to understand the concept of "abstraction", quite another to understand whatever it might be you want from such a class. No examples of a database class are given. Could you include an example for PostGRE and one for MySQL? It's one thing to be database agnostic, but the book should still tell someone at least one concrete way in which this can be done. Ace Frahm (discuss • contribs) 16:41, 7 April 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Samwilson


text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Saving Presets and Combining Filters

Saving Presets and Combining Filters
If you combine multiple filters to an item, they are rendered in the order they appear in the list. This means that when you change the order of the filters, you change the way the finished product will appear. You can always go back to the settings for each filter if you want to change it later.

The Presets option is useful if you have found a specific combination or filters or a custom filter that you like and would like to use again in the future.

Here are a few steps you can use to save a filter combination, or filter setting.

1. Select an item with filters applied to it that you would like to save.

2. Click on the plus icon in the Filters panel to bring up the filter menu. From the Presets menu, select "Save As".

3. Enter the name you wish your preset to have and click OK.

4. The new preset will be added to the Presets menu, with any other saved Presets you might have. You can now apply the preset filter or filters to anything else you wish.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Woodworking/Setting up a home workshop

A great deal of good can come of a home workshop. The craftsperson may build many useful and long-lasting artifacts for the house, and these are most certainly good; the real gains, however, come from the work itself: the process of working wood transforms the woodworker as much as it does the wood, and it is through the work that we come to know both ourselves, and the wood. But for this to be true, we must approach our task in the right way.

On Doing Things Properly
It is best not to set out thinking I will make a coffee table today, because this is probably not what you will do: more likely, you will be planing sticks of timber, trying to get them square and true, and then cutting joints and boring holes. So reduce your day's tasks to what you are actually going to do: I am going to make this board flat today, or, I will sharpen this plane blade now, for then you are focused on what you are doing. This is important. So much frustration and anguish comes from running down to the hardware shop, buying new tools and wood, and then feeling a fool when you can't produce the lovely smooth things you see in the woodworking magazines. So stop. It's not a new piece of wood you need, nor a new tool, but simply an awareness of what you're actually doing. After all, most woodworking tools have very sharp edges. A finished product does not look very good if it is being held with hands that are missing fingers! Pay attention to what you are doing, from all angles.

The Space
The space for your workshop is probably pre-determined by the design of your house; there may be no options. A garage is commonly turned to the purpose (as well as those of cars and storage and everything else!), a basement may be available, or even an attic. But wherever you fit your workshop, aim for a space that is dry, not too hot or cold, and in which you can make a bit of noise without annoying anyone. Size is important, but perhaps not as greatly so as you might think: in a small space, you will simply adapt your practice to fit the space.

If you can, it will help if you can have a space dedicated to your workshop. Although the home workshop is (by definition) not used full-time, by having a full-time workshop space you will be able to keep your tools and materials always ready and generally in better condition. Not sharing a woodworking workbench with the bicycle mechanic of your household, for instance, means that the cross-purposes of these tasks will not come into conflict. Equally, when it is time —those precious couple of hours on a Saturday morning, perhaps— to get to work on your current project, it can be a great deterrent if you first have to disengage the workshop from its other roles.

Organization is key to using those spare hours you have to work your craft. One of the hardest things to do, is straighten and clean up your area when you are short on time. Take the few minutes and do it anyway, your next session will start on the right foot!

The Workbench
A good strong workbench is essential, and probably the most troubling part of a new workshop. It is almost Catch-22: skills and cost aside (for it is not hard to build a cheap workbench), one finds that it is a great deal harder to build a workbench without a workbench on which to work! The answers to this are many, but for the home woodworker probably the best ones are: to purchase a complete bench (new or second-hand); or to progressively work up (from first principles as it were) to a bench by making other items first, such as saw-horses or saw-stools.

Saw-horses are the handyman's workbench out in the field.(someone else's house!) But when at home, he uses them as an extension of his workbench. Having your saw-horses at the same or slightly under the height of your workbench has benefits in your workshop, giving you the ability to build projects that are bigger than your workbench.

As mentioned above, saw horses are the "out in the field" workbench. The crudest form of workbench (actually a "workbench" to build your first workbench, and perhaps toolboxes) would be some manner of workbench top (perhaps built of plywood and 2x4 material or an old flat door) spanning two sawhorses. A possible commercial alternative to this is would be one or two Black and Decker "Workmate" benches, which are readily available at stores, or used. When building a first workbench, follow the section above about "On Doing Things Properly" carefully. Look at workbenches on the Internet, or that others have built, and roughly sketch out what you want. It is probably wise to think about what you have drawn, and perhaps modify the design to make it better. Do this until your sketch is both something that you will be satisfied with, and can build. Take this step by step. Choose your materials, and consider the tools needed to build what you have drawn and assemble them.

Before you build the top, you will probably build a base. The base must be rock solid, even when subject to heavy work. To build a base, you need to build legs, (or better yet two sets of legs). To build the legs or a set of legs, you must build one leg, build a second leg, and join these in such a manner that they are rugged and stable. Suitable joints for building up simple legs and workbench bases include lap joints, rebate or rabbet joints, mortise and tenon joints, and etc. More advanced joints would include dovetails, mitered joints, or more advanced versions of simple joints. The choice of joinery is dependent on your skills, the tools and materials available to you, and your own aesthetics (You need to like what you make, it will be your's to use and display).

The top of the workbench must be flat, and the sides plumb, as this surface is a reference surface, from which you will gauge properties such as squareness and flatness of your work. You will also mount your vises to the sides and bottom of the bench, and the jaws must be plumb. The top of the bench should be sturdy. As stated previously your bench should not move as you work with it / on it. An old quote about workbench tops (when one split logs in order to build a bench top) was "He who a good workbench would win, must split thick and hew thin". This speaks to the weight and mass that a bench / bench top should have.

The dimensions of your workbench are personal taste, however, most workbenches range from 2 - 3 feet in depth / width, 4 - 6 feet (or more) in length, and 28 - 36 inches in height. The most critical of these, perhaps is height, as this must suit your physique. A rule of thumb is that the work surface should fall between the height of your wrist (when standing), and the height of your elbow. The more hand tools you use, the lower in this range your work surface should be (in order to gain leverage when planing, sawing, and etc.). If you tend towards more power tool use, the bench level can come up in the range. A bench at elbow height would be more a mechanics bench as opposed to a woodworkers bench.

First Tools
The most essential tools are:

A saw, a crosscut saw is the most generally handy, but a bow saw, coping saw, or backsaw can be used for a lot of the essentials.

A plane, the jack plane is the best choice, but a block plane will do.

A square, a try square is most convenient; it might be easier to find a combination square or framing square.

A chisel, 1 inch wide, with a solid handle made for striking with a mallet. A narrower chisel will do good work, but will take longer.

A hammer, a claw hammer is the most convenient choice.

A drill, brace and bit type is best, but a bit of a specialty item to find. Various egg-beater styles are handy for smaller holes, but hard to use for holes larger than 1/2 inch.

Whetstone, an inexpensive combination stone (coarse on one side, fine on the other) will help keep the edges sharp. If you're careful with your tools, you won't damage them badly enough to need a grinder for a long time. In the meantime, see if you can find one to borrow on those (hopefully rare) occasions when you chip or ding an edge.

There is an endless array of tools that can be handy for particular tasks, or pleasing to the eye and hand, but the particulars will depend on the kind of work you do, the methods you prefer, and your budget. You'll soon discover many of them, but the more experience you have with the basic tools, the wiser choices you'll make when selecting additional tools. You will also make additional tools, to get just the right tool for the job, to learn the techniques involved, to save money, or a bit of all three.

Initially, to conserve funds, consider learning how to recondition used tools: many good tools can be had at yard sales and thrift store, if you're willing to put in the time to salvage them from years of abuse and neglect. In most cases, no great knowledge is needed to carefully disassemble, clean, polish away, resharpen, and reassemble them and you'll gain an intimate knowledge of their internal parts.

Less expensive tools won't give as good of results, especially when aiming for fine cabinetry; they also don't do their best work as easily as a higher quality tool, so it's difficult for a beginning woodworker to tell when the problem is with technique, rather than with the tool. You must make the tradeoff between being frustrated by low-quality tools and wasting money on expensive tools that aren't really the best choice for your work. Try to get good quality tools for these basic, every day, tools and focus on learning to use these to complete straightforward projects, before investing in an expensive array of other tools.

You may be wondering when power tools are going to be covered: modern woodworking has become much cheaper (either in money or the time needed to complete a project) with the advent of a vast array of inexpensive power tools. However, there are many jobs that are accomplished more quickly or better with a muscle-powered tool. For the beginning woodworker, the most important thing is to understand the nature of wood and how it can be worked, this is more easily accomplished by feeling how edges cut through grain. Power tools get in the way of that feeling.

As you work, you will have inflicted upon you many thoughts about how such-and-such job could be accomplished more quickly with electricity. With the exception of adequate lighting, resist those temptations until you understand the costs that safe use of power tools imposes on your shop space and way of thinking about your projects.

Materials
For building a workbench and most fixtures for the workshop, softwoods like pine or fir are readily available and sufficient for the job.

For the top of the workbench, you may want to invest in a hardwood top; a benchtop of smooth hardwood will be much more durable and satisfying to work on, but it might be just as well to make one out of less expensive wood and plan on replacing it once it's worn out.

title: Woodworking/Setting up a home workshop


text:
A-level Biology/Central Concepts

Central concepts is the primary A2 module and is not optional. It builds on concepts learned in AS year.

Contents
Photosynthesis

Energy and Respiration

Control, coordination and homeostasis

Meiosis, genetics and gene control

Classification, selection and evolution

Populations and interactions

title: A-level Biology/Central Concepts


text:
X Window Programming/Contents

Table of contents

 * Introduction
 * About this book
 * What is X Window? (what is it, what is it used for, what can be done with it, getting it)
 * X Window protocol
 * Available libraries

 * XLib
 * Displays, Screens and Windows
 * Drawing
 * Events
 * Example Program

 * XCB
 * Displays, Screens, Windows
 * Drawing
 * Events
 * Example Program

 * Motif
 * Displays, Screens, Windows
 * Drawing
 * Events
 * Example Program

 * GTK+
 * Displays, Screens, Windows
 * Drawing
 * Events
 * Example Program

 * Qt
 * Displays, Screens, Windows
 * Drawing
 * Events
 * Example Program

 * CLX

 * Making a Toolkit
 * Widgets
 * Interfaces
 * Resources

 * Creating Managers
 * Login Manager
 * Display Manager
 * Window Manager

 * SDL

 * OpenGL

 * wxWidgets

 * Appendices
 * Xlib functions
 * XCB functions
 * Motif functions
 * GTK+ functions
 * Qt functions
 * SDL functions
 * OpenGL functions
 * Freedesktop Specification

title: X Window Programming/Contents


text:
User talk:Jimmyatic

Headline text

TI-Basic
Jimmyatic, I am still active, and, yes, I would be pleased to work on this book. K428 17:30, 4 September 2007 (UTC)
 * I left a message on Talk:TI-Basic Programming, but I figured that having the orange bar at the top of your screen would get a bit more attention than something that may or may not be in your watchlist. Anyway, if you would just take a look at that page and give me a reply here, there, or on my talk page, I'd greatly appreciate it ^_^ --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:33, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

TI-Basic Book(s)
Hey, could we talk about the organization of the Basic books? I notice you created a separate one for 89s, is that really necessary? Could we keep this all in one book? Also, I'd like to make sure you have everything you need to move all the old book content into the new one. Once that gets taken care of, please say something to an admin such as myself so that we can clean up all the references to the old book and delete any unnecessary pages (there's no point in having a book full of all redirects). If you also need help with anything like menu creation or other organization tips (like how to use our slash convention most efficiently), please leave a message on the appropriate Reading room page and we'll help you out. If you have anything to say to me personally, please reply on my talk page. Thanks. -within focus 15:31, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I actually did a lot of TI programming when I was in high school although I never tried on the 89, so if it's C++-like then I agree that it should be a separate book. The distinction should be made clear in the opening pages of the books I feel. Your use of slash convention is fine. I personally prefer deeper than one level, but it depends on the content and you might not need it. I designed and heavily edit the Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter which uses deeper naming and so that's why I mention it. Check out this bit which might help you as well. When you're needing navigation between pages, also check out the template which for example is used here. It's also just fine for the books to co-exist. I've marked them with a merge template which will keep people informed that the two books are coming together. Great work so far. -within focus  00:49, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jimmyatic


text:
Talk:Ethnomedicine

Original research is not allowed per WB:WIW Wikibooks is not a place to publish original works. As a corollary, please avoid use of first person in Wikibooks. If the text must include original research, you might ask about having it hosted on Wikiversity instead. If that's what is decided, an admin can transwiki it for you so you don't loose authorship information. I hope this helps. -- xixtas talk 14:37, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Hi this book has survived it's VfD however you may be interested in looking at the comments (constructive ones!) made on the VfD page for your book. Certainly there are some issues there that you should be aware of and maybe they will help to improve the book and the grades Votes_for_deletion - regards -- Herby talk thyme 08:27, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

As a further clarification of my comment above, the sections on frozen spoon, zits, and cranberry juice all include first-person observations (what we call 'original research'). You might also consider breaking this page into modules. I notice that the same text about jow occurring twice on the page. If the book were written as a series of modules then your various contents and index pages could link to the individual module e.g. Ethnomedicine/Jow, Ethnomedicine/Ginger. Hope this helps. If you have any questions or need anything else, feel free to ping me on my talk page. -- xixtas talk 14:03, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

Similar names
Whats with all these people with the numbers after their names? --Remi 22:58, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

Pedialyte
My section on Pedialyte as an anti-hangover keeps getting deleted. It's a perfectly valid home remedy so if you insist on screwing with it please post something in the discussion about it. Thanks. --Horn, Alex

Ecinacea
I made some minor changes to the information in the section on Ecinacea. Mostly I just added extra information where it was pertinent, such as the warning for allergies and slight clarification on when it began to gain popularity and where. Also, I added some information on doses, frequency of doses, and duration, which was mildly conflicting with what was already there. I believe the information as it is can show two valid points, but if anyone wants to discuss this change or disagrees with what I wrote, please let me know.

IMPORTANT: Notice to project participants
You probably noticed that Ethnomedicine is now a very large document and the software has started faulting when saving the latest revision. In order to alleviate the problem, please start doing the following:

 * Create a new section only in a sub page. For example, if you were creating a sub page detailing "Athlete's foot" (which I know has already been created), you would include all the text in Ethnomedicine/Sections/Athlete's foot.
 * When including the text in the main page of Ethnomedicine, you would then type

Then the text can be used the other "by Culture Group" and "by Illness" modules by using the same code as above, and then the main document doesn't become more bogged down than it already is. --Iamunknown 19:42, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

Has this module been abandoned? Not yet!
I'm wondering if this module has been abandoned by the class that created it at this point. Either way, it still really needs cleanup. Is anyone in contact with this group? -- xixtas talk 03:20, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

I think it will be cleaned up in the coming weeks. Hopefully transformed into something more wikibookish. --Paul James 07:31, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ethnomedicine


text:
Horticulture/The Importance of Studying Weeds

While they're not often a favorite topic of study for the horticulture student or enthusiast, knowing and understanding weeds is one of the most important keys to becoming a successful gardener. Aside from being a maintenance issue (in the sense of always needing control), weeds also play a key role in the ecosystem which the gardener seeks to manage.

What is a weed? This can be hard to define, but a good general definition is that a weed is any plant growing in a place where it is not wanted. Using this definition, the same plant can be both a weed and a crop at the same time, to the same gardener, on two different areas of the ground. For example, clover may be planted on a pasture and considered a forage crop, but at the same time it may appear in the vegetable garden and considered a weed. This also means that the gardener can change his mind about what constitutes a weed over time: that self-seeding basil that escapes to invade the neighboring dill becomes a weed as soon as it crosses the border.

Life cycle
Like any plants, each particular weed has a distinct life cycle. First and foremost, it's important to know whether or not the weed is perennial, since perennial weeds require complete removal or destruction, while annuals and biennials can be controlled using preventative techniques such as pre-emergents or mulches.

Propagation, persistence, and tolerance
Knowing how a weed spreads is also important. Many perennials spread by stolon or rhizome, while other plants (including all annuals and biennials) spread primarily by seed.

How persistent a weed is depends on its ability to grow back from small fragments and the life span of its seed. Certain perennial weeds can grow back from even the smallest root fragment, and the seeds of some weeds can survive dormant in the soil for decades.

A weeds tolerance of abuse such as regular mowing can also provide clues to the easiest possible control techniques.

What to know when deciding whether to control

 * Are they serving as a placeholder on what would otherwise be bare soil (and thus perhaps could be colonized by an even worse weed)?
 * Are they likely to colonize other areas if left unchecked?
 * Are they serving as nectar sources for pollinators and beneficial insects?
 * Are they serving as alternate hosts for pests and diseases?
 * Are they serving as trap crops, attracting pests that would normally eat your crops?
 * Are they providing home for predatory insects?
 * Are they going to seed soon?

Garden uses
Some plants which are usually treated as weeds are intentionally grown in some gardens, so it is important for professional gardeners to be aware of this so that they can ask the client whether they should be removed. Conversely, it's important to know that a plant can be weedy when considering using it in the garden.

Native range
When working in "native plant gardens", it is important to know whether a "weed" is native to the region, since weeds can in those situations be treated as "volunteers".

Pests and diseases
While it's tempting not to worry about pests and diseases that are affecting garden weeds, many weeds serve as alternate hosts for pests and diseases that affect garden plants. In order to provide lasting control for pests and diseases, it may be necessary to either eradicate these alternate hosts, or in the case of pest controls it might be necessary to control the pest on the weed hosts as well as the garden plant hosts, to prevent them from just migrating back to the garden plants after treatment.

On the other side of the spectrum is the use of "trap crops", popular in organic gardening, to draw pests away from garden plants. If a type of weed is getting eaten up by insects, it is likely serving this role. Note that this is only effective if the garden contains sufficient predator populations. Some weeds can serve as both traps and hosts. Lamb's Quarters, a common garden weed across the United States, is a trap for leaf miners but a host to beet leafhoppers.

Nectar value
Weeds in uncultivated areas can be useful in attracting beneficial insects.

Toxicity and edibility
Some weeds contain toxins, ranging from those that cause discomfort to those which are lethal even in small doses, so it is important to be aware of these in gardens where children and pets play.

Many weeds are also edible, and while they tend not to be choice ingredients (if they were, they'd be cultivated), they can be of interest. Some weeds, such as Purslane, are renowned for their nutritional value.

Tools
Many tools are available for weed control. There are hand or powered hoes, flame weeders, hand or powered cultivators, scythes and similar hand cutting tools, mowers, all the way up to tractor-mounted flail mowers for knocking down weedy brush at the edges of meadows or pastures.

Soil types
Some weeds can serve as indicators for the soil type where they are growing, and can be "read" to provide a preliminary description of the soil type when a soil test has not yet been performed.

Disposal
whether it is safe for cold compost piles, hot compost piles, etc.


text:
Wireless Mesh Networks/Bibliography

 * http://research.microsoft.com/mesh/papers/multiradio.pdf Richard Draves Jitendra Padhye Brian Zill "Routing in Multi-Radio, Multi-Hop Wireless Mesh Networks" Microsoft Research, MobiCom 04, Sep 26-Oct 01, 2004 Philadelphia, PA
 * http://www.infoworld.com/article/03/01/03/030103hnrashid_1.html
 * Why all mesh products are not created equal. http://www.muniwireless.com/article/articleview/4537/1/2/Performance Analysis of Mesh Architectures

Architectures
Review of three generation of mesh networking architectures http://wireless-straight-talk.blogspot.com/2006/11/talkin-bout-my-generation.html What is Third Generation Mesh?

Performance issues of First and Second Generation Mesh products http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:bMPl1QN_sI0J:www.dailywireless.org/2004/06/28/ugly-truth-about-mesh-networks Ugly Truths About Mesh Networks

Vendors
Locust World An open source mishap offering for community networks as well as commercial offerings >http://www.locustworld.com LocustWorld

RoamAD For a software based approach to open architecture mesh networks for communities or ISPs. RoamAD also offers public safety networks capable of supporting video surveillance and mobile VoIP. http://www.roamad.com RoamAD

Mesh Networks (now Motorola) http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/columns/article.php/961951 http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/news/article.php/3436581

Metro Wi-Fi Deployments

Cambridge

Books
Held, Gilbert Wireless Mesh Networks

title: Wireless Mesh Networks/Bibliography


text:
Horticulture/Book Development Strategies

This is an outline/stub...:

Linked Web

 * Special:Wantedpages - as pages are created, redlinks are also created.
 * For example, each page about a genus of plants has links to the pests and diseases affecting plants in that genera. As several genera which share some of the same pests and diseases are created, the "wanted" pest and disease pages move up in the Wantedpages list.
 * When the pest or disease page is created, it will conversely have a list of links to the genera it affects, thus moving the genera pages up in the wantedpages list.

User Participation

 * "My Garden" pages (helps steer wantedpages)
 * For example, contributors could make lists of the plants or other features found in their own gardens (should be done in userspace).
 * Userboxes
 * On wikibooks, for fun
 * Possibly on wikipedia/wikiversity as well, to attract outside contributors.
 * Wikiprojects on Wikipedia and elsewhere
 * Web forums
 * Universities and vocational schools
 * Agricultural extension services

Plants

 * Images showing all aspects
 * Images of garden use (combinations, etc.)

Pest/Disease

 * Images showing all aspects
 * Images showing damage

Techniques

 * Images for step-by-step

Learning Materials

 * Plant identification on Wikiversity
 * Similar for pests, diseases, beneficial organisms
 * Bloom Clock on wikiversity, as content development.

/Project


text:
Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Half-Blood Prince/Chapter 21

That last bit about the apparition tests, isn`t that in chapter 22? 0f course, I`m reading the American version, maybe it`s different. (Donnie Love) 68.42.198.32 17:33, 5 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, yes it is. Someone else has already taken that out, it seems... Chazz (talk) 07:54, 2 September 2007 (UTC)


text: Contents

title: Contents


text:
Horticulture/Ipomoea

The genus Ipomoea, with over 500 species, is the largest genus in the family ../Convolvulaceae/. The genus occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, and comprises annual and perennial herbaceous plants, viness, shrubs and small trees; most of the species are twining climbing plants. Many species are known as morning glory, a name shared with some other related genera.

The genus includes important food crops (sweet potato and water spinach) and ../Ipomoea violacea/, source of the Mexican psychedelic drug, tlitliltzin. Species and cultivars of Ipomoea grown as morning glory are popular in gardens for their often stunning flowers.

Description
Flowers are regular and bisexual, with 5 sepals and a funnelform corolla with 5 lobes and stripes. The 5 stamens sit low in the tube, 1 style. The flower buds are "pleated", and open by untwisting. The fruit is a dry 4-6 valved capsule, containing as many seeds. Foliage is alternate, simple or compound. Most if not all temperate species are twining vines, with the stems containing a milky juice.

Growing Conditions
Most species require full sun.

Selected Species

 * ../Ipomoea alba/ L. – Moonflower
 * ../Ipomoea amnicola/ Morong – Redcenter Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea aquatica/ – Water spinach
 * ../Ipomoea batatas/ (L.) Lam. – Sweet potato
 * ../Ipomoea cairica/ Sweet. - Mile-a-minute vine
 * ../Ipomoea cordifolia/ Carey ex Voight – Heartleaf Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea costata/ Australian Bush Potato
 * ../Ipomoea costellata/ Torr. – Crestrib Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea cristulata/ Hallier f. – Transpecos Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea dumetorum/ Willd. ex Roemer & J.A.Schultes – Railwaycreeper
 * ../Ipomoea eggersiana/ Peter
 * ../Ipomoea eggersii/ (House) D.Austin – Egger's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea hederacea/ Jacq. – Ivyleaf Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea hederifolia/ L. – Scarlet Creeper
 * ../Ipomoea horsfalliae/ Hook.f. – Lady Doorly's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea imperati/ (Vahl) Griseb. – Beach Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea indica/ (Burm.f.) Merr. – Oceanblue Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea jalapa/ (L.) Pursh. – Jalap
 * ../Ipomoea krugii/ Urban – Krug's White Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea lacunosa/ L. – Whitestar
 * ../Ipomoea leptophylla/ Torr. – Bush Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea lindheimeri/ Gray – Lindheimer's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea littoralis/ Blume – Whiteflower beach Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea lobata/ (Cerv.) Thell.
 * ../Ipomoea longifolia/ Benth. – Pinkthroat Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea macrorhiza/ Michx. – Largeroot Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea mauritiana/ Jacq. – Giant Potato
 * ../Ipomoea meyeri/ (Spreng.) G.Don – Meyer's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea microdactyla/ Griseb. – Calcareous Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea nil/ (L.) Roth – White-edge Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea obscura/ (L.) Ker Gawl. – Obscure Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea ochracea/ (Lindl.) G.Don – Fence Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea pandurata/ (L.) G.F.W.Mey. – Wild Potato Vine or Manroot
 * ../Ipomoea pes-caprae/ (L.) R.Br. – Beach Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea plummerae/ Gray – Huachuca Mountain Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea pubescens/ Lam. – Silky Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea purga/ (Wender.) Hayne – Jalap
 * ../Ipomoea purpurea/ (L.) Roth – Common Morning Glory or Tall Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea quamoclit/ L. – Cypressvine or Hummingbird Vine
 * ../Ipomoea repanda/ Jacq. – Bejuco Colorado
 * ../Ipomoea rupicola/ House – Cliff Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea sagittata/ Poir. – Saltmarsh Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea setifera/ Poir. – Bejuco de Puerco
 * ../Ipomoea setosa/ Ker Gawl. – Brazilian Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea shumardiana/ (Torr.) Shinners – Narrowleaf Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea sloteri/ – Cardinal Climber
 * ../Ipomoea steudelii/ Millsp. – Steudel's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea tenuiloba/ Torr. – Spiderleaf
 * ../Ipomoea tenuissima/ Choisy – Rockland Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea ternifolia/ – Tripleleaf Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea thurberi/ – Thurber's Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea tricolor/ – Tlitliltzin, Ololiuqui or Mexican Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea triloba/ – Littlebell
 * ../Ipomoea tuboides/ – Hawaii Morning Glory
 * ../Ipomoea turbinata/ – Lilacbell
 * ../Ipomoea violacea/
 * ../Ipomoea versicolor/
 * ../Ipomoea wrightii/ – Wright's Morning Glory

Propagation
Seeds must be soaked before planting.

Pests and Diseases
../Leaf Spots/ ../Blight/ ../Wilts/
 * Alternaria
 * Cercospora abamensis
 * Cercospora ipomoeae
 * Cercospora viridula
 * Southern Blight

../Stem Rots/

../Charcoal Rots/

../Cankers/ ../Rusts/ ../White Rusts/ ../Root Knot/
 * Vermicularia ipomoearum
 * Albugo ipomoeae-panduratae
 * Coleosporium ipomoeae (Alternate hosts in Pinus)
 * Puccinia crassipes
 * Root Knot Nematodes: ../Meliodgyne/ spp.

../Aphids/ ../Scales/ ../Hoppers/ ../Whiteflies/ ../Bugs/ ../Beetles/ ../Weevils/ ../Caterpillars/
 * Cotton Aphid: ../Aphis Gossypii/
 * Lesser Snow Scale: ../Pinnaspis strachani/
 * Potato Leafhopper: ../Empoasca fabae/
 * Western Potato Leafhopper: ../Empoasca abrupta/
 * Silverleaf Whitefly: ../Bemisia argentifolii/
 * Sweet Potato Whitefly: ../Bemisia tabaci/
 * Greenhouse Whitefly: ../Trialeurodes vaporariorum/
 * Garden Flea Hopper: ../Halticus bractatus/
 * Four Lined Plant Bug: ../Poecilocapsus lineatus/
 * Gulf Wireworm (Click Beetle): ../Conoderus amplicollis/
 * Southern Potato Wireworm (Click Beetle): ../Conoderus falli/
 * Eastern Field Wireworm (Click Beetle): ../Limontius agonsus/
 * Columbia Basin Wireworm (Click Beetle): ../Limontius subauretus/
 * Argus Tortoise Beetle: ../Chelymorpha cassidea/
 * Asiatic Garden Beetle: ../Maladerma castanea/
 * Banded Cucumber Beetle: ../Diabrotica balteata/
 * Blister Beetles: ../Epicauta/ spp.:
 * Blacklegged Tortoise Beetle: ../Jonthonota nigripes/
 * Golden Tortoise Beetle: ../Chadidotella bicolor/
 * Mottled Tortoise Beetle: ../Deloyala guttata/
 * Palestriped Flea Beetle: ../Systena blanda/
 * Spotted Cucumber Beetle: ../Diabrotica undecimipunctata/
 * Striped Tortoise Beetle: ../Agrioconota bivittata/
 * Sweet Potato Flea Beetle: ../Chaetocnema confinis/
 * Sweet Potato Leaf Beetle: ../Typophorus nigritus/
 * Whitefringed Beetles: ../Naupactus/ spp.:
 * Sweet Potato Weevil ../Cyclas formicarius/
 * Morning Glory Leaf Miner: ../Bedellia somnulentella/
 * Yellow Woolybear Caterpillar: ../Diacrisia virginica/
 * Corn Earworm: ../Heliothis zea/
 * Morning Glory Leafcutter: ../Loxostege obliteralis/
 * Beet Armyworm: ../Spodoptera exigua/
 * Black Cutworm: ../Agrostis ipsilon/
 * Granulate Cutworm: ../Agrostis subterranea/
 * Southern Armyworm: ../Spodoptera eridania/
 * Sweet Potato Hornworm (Pinkspotted Hawk Moth): ../Agrius cingulata/
 * Yellowstriped Armyworm: ../Spodoptera ornithogalli/

Ipomoea species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Ipomoea.

title: Horticulture/Ipomoea


text:
Cookbook:Baklava with Pistachio Nuts

| Cuisine of Turkey

Syrup

 * 4 cups white granulated sugar
 * 2 cups water
 * 2 cinnamon sticks, each 3 inches long
 * ¾ cups honey
 * 1 tbsp lemon juice

Nut mixture

 * 1½ lb pistachio nuts
 * 2 tsp cinnamon powder

Pastry

 * 1 lb phyllo dough, at room temperature
 * 1¼ lb unsalted butter, melted

Equipment

 * Tall large pot for making syrup
 * Candy thermometer
 * Baking pan about the size of the phyllo sheets
 * 2–3-inch paintbrush for applying melted butter

Procedure

 * 1) If using frozen store-bought phyllo, thaw it inside its plastic package. Don’t open it until you’re ready to use it. If you’re in a hurry you can thaw it in its sealed plastic package in warm water.
 * 2) Chop the nuts with the powdered cinnamon in a food processor. You want a fine chop, not powder.
 * 3) Combine the sugar, honey, water, cinnamon sticks, and lemon juice in a large pot. Stir well and boil until the mixture reaches 220°F (100°C) on a candy thermometer (soft ball stage). Remove it from heat, skim the top, and let cool. Remove the cinnamon sticks. The lemon is an important ingredient in the syrup as it keeps it from crystallizing while cooling.
 * 4) Melt the butter in a saucepan while the syrup is boiling. You can clarify the butter but it’s not necessary.
 * 5) Preheat your oven to 350°F (180°C).
 * 6) Open the phyllo and unfold it. Brush the inside of the baking pan with melted butter. While assembling, cover the unused phyllo with a damp towel to prevent it from drying out. Make sure your butter is very liquid when you start. Put 6 sheets of phyllo in the pan, brushing each sheet with melted butter. Set aside another 6 sheets which will be used for the top layers.
 * 7) After the first 6 sheets, sprinkle a handful of the nut mixture over the last sheet. Add another sheet and repeat the process until you get to the last 6 sheets. Place the last 6 sheets on top of the rest, brushing each with butter. With a very sharp knife, cut the pastry into diamond shapes, all the way through. Sprinkle the top with water.
 * 8) Put the pastry into the preheated oven and bake for 1 hour or until the tops of the pastry are medium golden brown. When done, remove from the oven and ladle the cool syrup over the hot pastry.
 * 9) Let it sit for about 5–15 minutes, then drain off the excess syrup by tilting the pan as much as 45 degrees. Let it cool to near room temperature before eating.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For the syrup, you can add more honey and reduce the amount of sugar.

title: Cookbook:Baklava with Pistachio Nuts


text:
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title: User talk:Ertai~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Nibiki

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Image copyright problem with Image:Preset1.jpg
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title: User talk:Nibiki


text:
User talk:Stevec41x

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title: User talk:Stevec41x


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User talk:Gondee

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title: User talk:Gondee


text:
User talk:Hudson28

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title: User talk:Hudson28


text:
Horticulture/Phytophthora

Phytophthora (from Greek phytón, “plant” and phthorá, “destruction”, “plant-destroyer”) is a genus of plant-damaging Protists of the Oomycetes (water moulds). Heinrich Anton de Bary described it for the first time in 1875.

Phytophthora is sometimes referred to as a fungus-like organism but it is classified under a different kingdom altogether: Stramenopila (previously named Chromista). In contrast to Fungi, stramenopiles are more closely related to plants than animals. Whereas Fungal cell walls are made primarily of chitin, stramenopile cell walls are constructed mostly of cellulose.

Phytophthoras reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sporangia, zoospores, and chlamydospores are asexual. Oospores are sexual.

Symptoms and Signs
Infection by Phytophthora leads to root rots, cankers, foliar blights, and usually results in the death of the host plant. Symptoms vary according to both the pathogen species and the host species.

Life Cycle
Phytophthora can live for long periods in the soil without the presence of a host. During wet conditions, the zoospores swim towards host plants following chemical traces. Once a plant is infected, it cannot be "cured", but may be sustained through foliar feeding for a time, depending on the host's natural resistance.

Phytophthora is easily spread by infected tools, and is often introduced through infected nursery stock. Spores and vegetative tissues can also be spread by animals or wind.

Host Range
Phytophthoras are mostly pathogens of dicotyledons, and are relatively host specific parasites. Many species of Phytophthora are plant pathogens of considerable economic importance. Phytophthora infestans was the infective agent of the potato blight that caused the Irish potato famine. Research beginning in the 1990s has placed some of the responsibility for European forest die-back on the activity of imported Asian Phytophthoras.

Species and host genera

 * ../Phytophthora alni/ – causes alder root rot
 * ../Alnus/
 * ../Phytophthora arecae/
 * ../Phytophthora botryosa/
 * ../Phytophthora cactorum/ – causes rhododendron root rot affecting rhododendrons, azaleas and causes bleeding canker in hardwood trees
 * ../Rhododendron/
 * ../Phytophthora cajani/
 * ../Phytophthora cambivora/
 * ../Phytophthora capsici/ - Leaf spot, damping-off, fruit rots, stem rots, and wilts of Pepper, Tomato, and Eggplant, though the host range has been found to be much wider.
 * ../Abutilon/ (Velverleaf)
 * ../Beta/ (Beet, Chard)
 * ../Capsicum/ (Pepper)
 * ../Carica/ (Papaya)
 * ../Sechium/ (Chayote)
 * ../Citrullus/ (Watermelon)
 * ../Cucumis/ (Cucumber, Melon)
 * ../Cucurbita/ (Squash)
 * ../Lycopersicon/ (Tomato)
 * ../Macadamia/
 * ../Phaseolus/ (Lima Beans)
 * ../Piper/ (Black Pepper)
 * ../Solanum/ (Nightshade)
 * ../Spinacia/ (Spinach)
 * ../Tagetes/ (Marigold)
 * ../Phytophthora cinnamomi/ - causes cinnamon root rot affecting woody ornamentals including arborvitae, azalea, Chamaecyparis, dogwood, forsythia, Fraser fir, hemlock, Japanese holly, juniper, Pieris, rhododendron, Taxus, white pine and American Chestnut
 * ../Phytophthora citricola/
 * ../Phytophthora citrophthora/
 * ../Phytophthora clandestina/
 * ../Phytophthora colocasiae/
 * ../Phytophthora cryptogea/
 * ../Phytophthora drechslera/
 * ../Phytophthora erythroseptica/
 * ../Phytophthora fragariae/ - causes red root rot affecting strawberries
 * ../Phytophthora gonapodyides/
 * ../Phytophthora heveae/
 * ../Phytophthora humicola/
 * ../Phytophthora idaei/
 * ../Phytophthora ilicis/
 * ../Phytophthora infestans/
 * ../Phytophthora inflata/
 * ../Phytophthora iranica/
 * ../Phytophthora katsurae/
 * ../Phytophthora lateralis/
 * ../Phytophthora medicagnis/
 * ../Phytophthora megakarya/
 * ../Phytophthora megasperma/
 * ../Phytophthora melonis/
 * ../Phytophthora mirabilis/
 * ../Phytophthora multivesiculata/
 * ../Phytophthora nicotianae/
 * ../Phytophthora palmivora/ - causes fruit rot in coconuts and betel nuts
 * ../Phytophthora phaseoli/
 * ../Phytophthora porri/
 * ../Phytophthora primulae/
 * ../Phytophthora pseudotsugae/
 * ../Phytophthora quercina/ – causes oak death
 * ../Phytophthora ramorum/ – infects over 40 plant genera and over 100 host species - causes Sudden Oak Death
 * ../Phytophthora sinensis/
 * ../Phytophthora sojae/ - causes soybean root rot
 * ../Phytophthora syringae/
 * ../Phytophthora tentaculata/
 * ../Phytophthora trifolii/
 * ../Phytophthora vignae/

Controls
Plant diseases caused by this genus are difficult to control chemically, thus resistant cultivars are grown as a management strategy.

title: Horticulture/Phytophthora


text:
User:Tapioca~enwikibooks

Welcome to the User Page of Tapioca. Your cranial cavity will shortly be filled with warm, sweet pudding. I also have a User on wikipedia. His name is HeavyMetalCellist/TrogdorPolitiks. If you see him, be sure to say hi. I am new to wikibooks, so if I do something incredibly noobish, please let me know.

title: User:Tapioca~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Tapioca~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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title: User talk:Tapioca~enwikibooks


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1

Page-by-page commentary on Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society copyright 1981 by Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main (Germany) translated by Thomas McCarthy published 1984 by Beacon Press (Boston)

Introduction: Approaches to the Problem of Rationality
To enter the space reserved for detailed commentary pertaining to a page, click on the page number. A blue page number indicates the presence of detailed commentary for that page.

 * {| width=100% border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" al-ign="left"

 * style="background:#c0c0c0" width="5%" align="center" | Page
 * style="background:#c0c0c0" width="95%" align="left"  | Topics Addressed in Detailed Commentary
 * align="center" | 1
 * Introduction to Habermas's writing style.
 * align="center" | 2
 * align="center" | 3
 * Learning as an internally reconstructible sequence of stages of competence.
 * align="center" | 4
 * align="center" | 5
 * align="center" | 6
 * align="center" | 7
 * }
 * align="center" | 4
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 * }
 * align="center" | 6
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
 * }

"Rationality" -- A Preliminary Specification

 * {| width=100% border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" al-ign="left"

 * style="background:#c0c0c0" width="5%" align="center" | Page
 * style="background:#c0c0c0" width="95%" align="left"  | Topics Addressed in Detailed Commentary
 * align="center" | 8
 * align="center" | 9
 * Objective judgment.
 * align="center" | 10
 * align="center" | 11
 * Distinction between realist and phenomenological approaches.
 * align="center" | 12
 * align="center" | 13
 * align="center" | 14
 * Intersubjective understanding.
 * align="center" | 15
 * Communicative rationality within a communication community.
 * align="center" | 16
 * align="center" | 17
 * Critique of Wittgenstein’s rules, as used by Habermas.
 * align="center" | 18
 * Argumentation vs. force. Strategic and communicative action.  Grounding is interwoven with learning.
 * align="center" | 19
 * Redeeming validity claims.
 * align="center" | 20
 * Cultural values, norms of action, and claims to universality.
 * align="center" | 21
 * align="center" | 22
 * align="center" | 23
 * align="center" | 24
 * align="center" | 25
 * align="center" | 26
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 * align="center" | 31
 * align="center" | 32
 * align="center" | 33
 * align="center" | 34
 * align="center" | 35
 * Warranted and unwarranted consensually achieved decisions.
 * align="center" | 36
 * align="center" | 37
 * align="center" | 38
 * align="center" | 39
 * align="center" | 40
 * Heuristic value of lower-level validity claims.
 * align="center" | 41
 * align="center" | 42
 * }
 * align="center" | 23
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 * Warranted and unwarranted consensually achieved decisions.
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 * Heuristic value of lower-level validity claims.
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 * }
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 * Warranted and unwarranted consensually achieved decisions.
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 * Heuristic value of lower-level validity claims.
 * align="center" | 41
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 * }
 * Warranted and unwarranted consensually achieved decisions.
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 * Heuristic value of lower-level validity claims.
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 * }
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 * Heuristic value of lower-level validity claims.
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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Some Characteristics of the Mythical and the Modern Ways of Understanding the World

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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Relations to the World and Aspects of Rationality in Four Sociological Concepts of Action

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 * Popper's third world.
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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The Problem of Understanding Meaning in the Social Sciences

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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Max Weber's Theory of Rationalization

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 * style="background:#c0c0c0" width="95%" align="left"  | Topics Addressed in Detailed Commentary
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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Occidental Rationalism

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
 * }

The Disenchantment of Religious-Metaphysical Worldviews and the Emergence of Modern Structures of Consciousness

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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Modernization as Societal Rationalization: The Role of the Protestant Ethic

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
 * }

The Rationalization of Law: Weber's Diagnosis of the Times

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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
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 * }
 * }

Intermediate Reflections: Social Action, Purposive Activity, and Communication

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 * }
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From Lukacs to Adorno: Rationalization as Reification

 * {| width=100% border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" al-ign="left"

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Max Weber in the Tradition of Western Marxism

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The Critique of Instrumental Reason

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title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1


text:
English in Use/Parts of Speech

The Parts of Speech

Most grammar textbooks will consider eight basic parts of speech. These are summarized below:

 * Nouns--naming words for a person, place, thing, or idea. These are declined into singular or plural forms and/or modified by prepositions.
 * Pronouns--words which may replace a proper noun. All pronouns (other than "I") require an antecedent. Antecedents may be added, as an apposition to a pronoun (e.g. You, Dennis Nedry; He, Johnny Appleseed; We, the jury; They, the developers; etc.). There are four kinds of pronoun—personal, demonstrative, reflexive, and relative. Personal pronouns replace the proper nouns by which something is called: "I", "you", "he", "she", "it", "we", "y'all" (informally), and "they" are such pronouns. Demonstrative pronouns replace something to which someone or something has been referring: "this" and "that" are such pronouns. Reflexive pronouns allow a noun to be the direct object of the sentence in which it is already the subject. Reflexive pronouns are also placed alongside a pronoun to form the emphatic form of a pronoun. "Myself", "yourself", "himself", "herself", "itself", "ourselves", "yourselves", and "themselves" are reflexive pronouns. (Emphatic pronouns are "I myself", "you yourself", "he himself", "she herself", "it itself", "we ourselves", "you yourselves", and "they themselves".). Relative pronouns are used to further describe a noun without the use of adjectives, participles, or a separate sentence: "who", "that", and "which" are relative pronouns.
 * Adjectives--words which specify or further describe the nouns which they modify. Since English is a left-branching language, adjectives generally precede the nouns which they modify. However, appositions may be used to place adjectives after the nouns which they modify. Many participles are adjectives.
 * Verbs--words which, in the active voice, describe an action performed by the grammatical subject of the sentence and which, in the passive voice, describe an action which is imposed upon the grammatical subject. Verbs are frequently combined with other verbs—especially the copulative verb BE—or with participles in the creation of certain tenses.
 * Adverbs-- indeclinable words which primarily modify verbs but which may modify adjectives, other adverbs, or substantives (but only when it modifies an entire prepositional phrase or when it is an adverbial phrase). Adverbs describe the manner in which an action was done.
 * Conjunctions--indeclinable words which link certain words to other words. Conjunctions may be coordinating (in which the words involved are of equal grammatical rank) or subordinating (in which the words involved in the prepositional phrase may not necessarily be of equal grammatical rank). Common conjunctions: and, or, but, nor, both...and, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, whether, whether or no, whether...or not, than, etc.]
 * Prepositions--words which describe the location at which or in which an action is performed or takes place. Prepositions may be used to create adverbial phrases. Common prepositions: in, on, onto, into, unto, within, without, by, through, throughout, than (when combined with a relative pronoun; otherwise, this is an informal usage.), etc.
 * Interjections--indeclinable words which primarily act independently of sentences. These words are used to express the feeling of something at a point in time. Depending upon the emphasis delegated by the speaker to the interjection, these may feature an exclamation point or a period; however, when acting within a sentence (such as responsive structure ["No, I did not work today."]), it may feature a comma unless exceptional stress is delegated to it by the speaker (No! I did not work today, in which the first word of the succeeding sentence need not be capitalized. Common interjections: oh, ah, well, ahem, ha, etc.

title: English in Use/Parts of Speech


text: File:Colormixer.jpg

title: File:Colormixer.jpg


text:
Horn/General/History

The horn's earliest known ancestor is a Norse battle horn, which was used as early as the 13th century has a shape more like a tuba. Sometime in the 16th century, this instrument migrated into France, and a modified version shaped more like the horn we know of today (with tubing that runs in a circle and a flared bell) appeared, and was used for signalling during hunting. This horn had a high, clear pitch that could carry for long distances, but its sound was harsh and not fit for a concert hall. In the late 17th century, Count Anton von Sprock, an eccentric German noble, heard the horn played during a hunt, and paid for a couple of people to be trained in the instrument. This began the horn's transition to a concert instrument.

The horn gradually was modified, through introduction tubing that got wider the farther it got from the mouthpiece and through modification of the metals that were used to make the horn, and transitioned into the Natural Horn. The Natural Horn was originally just used for as a special addition to the orchestra, but during the early 1700s composers began to include horn parts in most pieces, and the Horn became a part of the standard orchestra. The main difference between the Natural Horn and the modern Horn was lack of valves.

Since the Horn's partials are so close together, it is possible to get many different notes without modification of the instrument's length through valves. However, the Natural Horn could only be played in one key, and to avoid having to switch instruments in the middle of a concert, players began using crooks, which were pieces of tubing that the hornist would attach to the lead pipe, changing the length and modifying the key. The valves were invented in the early 19th century, and as early as the 1820s valves were integrated into Horns.

However, at this point the only valve that was used was the Piston Valve, similar to the valves of the Modern trumpet. On the horn, these valves were very awkward, and did not gain very many supporters. In the 1860s, though, the rotary valve was invented. These proved to be a much better match for the Horn, and they are still used today. Using valves produces a slightly different sound, though, so for older pieces many players still use Natural Horns.

Horn players switched to the valve very slowly. Even halfway into the 20th century, some schools mandated study of Natural Horn, and refused to accept valved horn players. However, at this point all Conservatories will train students to use the valved horn, although some still require students to learn Natural Horn along with the Valved Horn.

title: Horn/General/History


text:
English in Use/Subject-verb Agreement

English features a loose conjugation and declension pattern. For this reason, subject-verb agreement is of paramount importance.

Subject-Verb agreement is a rule which states that the number present in a noun must agree with the number shown in the conjugated form of the verb that is being used, and that the person of the noun must agree with the person of the conjugated form of the verb that you are using.

Proper Subject-Verb agreement:
 * TO BE: I am - you are - he is - we are - you are - they are
 * TO WORK: I work - you work - he works - we work - you work - they work

Where the subject is a pronoun or complex or modified as part of an adjectival phrase, or modified by parenthetic expressions, or clarified in meaning by common knowledge or something that occurs later in the sentence, then subject-verb agreement can become a little more complicated. Some grammar rules say that the complex part of the subject closest to verb in the sentence should determine the verbal agreement. However, many examples can be found that make this sound funny. A better rule is to consider the entire complex subject phrase as one subject, and then think about what kind of thing it represents.

The basic idea in idiomatic English is to make the verb agree with the idea that the subject REPRESENTS, which could have different plurality than the actual subject as a word. This is actually helpful in understanding meaning since it gives subject-verb agreement a role that is not simply redundant (in echoing the pluarity of the subject). Whatever the subject represents can be considered singular or plural, and that is what the verb should agree with.

 * The president and the children (plural) are at the party.
 * Neither the president nor the children (plural) are at the party.
 * Either the president or the children (plural) are at the party.
 * Neither the children nor the president (singular) is at the party.
 * Somebody (singular) is at the party.
 * Nobody (singular) is at the party.
 * We (plural 1st person) are at the party.
 * I (singular 1st person) am at the party.
 * The Three Musketeers (singular-book) is a good book.
 * Ten dollars (singular) is enough to buy the book.
 * Ten dollars (plural) are in my pocket.
 * Economics (singular subject of study) is an interesting subject.
 * Bryans and Hastings (singular supermarket) is a great place to shop.
 * The idea of serving frankfurters (singular idea) is a good one.
 * My sister is (singular) with my friend, Roberta, at the party.
 * My sister and my friend are (both) at the party.

In many cases, the author decides whether the subject represents something singular or plural, depending upon which idea is desired to be expressed. For example, a group can act as a whole (singular) or as a group of individuals (plural), and despite many attempts at making rules for this, there is no simple rule that covers all cases:

 * All of my family is going camping.
 * Most of my family is at the party.
 * All of my family are fans.
 * Some of my family are fans.
 * Most of my family is at the party.
 * Most of my family are at the party.
 * Some of my family are in their homes.
 * The sounds the car makes, the ways they irritate (singular idea stated with 2 phrases)--it is all the same idea no matter how you say it.

Another needed example is one in which the noun that is clearly singular until the entire sentence is read, and something near the end changes the meaning of the noun so that it clearly represents a plural thing.

title: English in Use/Subject-verb Agreement


text:
User:Raywood~enwikibooks

This is my page.

title: User:Raywood~enwikibooks