text:
Radiation Oncology/RTOG Trials/7506

RTOG 75-06 (PROSTATE)
 * Title: Phase III Pelvic Irradiation vs Pelvic and Para-aortic Irradiation for Stage A2/B/C Adenocarcinoma of the Prostate
 * Objectives:
 * (1) Determine the value of pelvic vs. pelvic plus para-aortic nodal irradiation (when common iliac and para-aortic nodes are negative or unevaluated), and the value of pelvic plus para-aortic nodal irradiation vs. pelvic, para-aortic, mediastinal and supraclavicular irradiation (when common iliac and/or para-aortic nodes are positive) in locally advanced prostate cancer as measured by relapse-free survival and total survival.
 * (2) Determine whether radiation therapy is superior to hormonal therapy as measured by the relapse-free survival, total survival and complications and reactions.
 * (3) Determine the value of the rate of tumor clearance and post-irradiation biopsy of the prostate cancer bed in predicting long-term local control (cure).
 * Protocol:
 * Randomize patients with positive pelvic nodes and negative common iliac and para-aortic lymph nodes or with unknown nodal status or with no positive nodes to Arm I, II or III
 * Arm 1: Single-agent AST (Stilphostrol or Diethylstilbestrol). Arm terminated early
 * Arm 2: EBRT (pelvic nodes plus prostate boost)
 * Arm 3: EBRT (pelvic and para-aortic nodes)
 * Randomize patients with positive common iliac and/or para-aortic lymph nodes to Arm IV, V or VI.
 * Arm 4: Single-agent AST (Stilphostrol or DES). Arm terminated early
 * Arm 5: EBRT (prostate, pelvic and para-aortic nodes.) Arm terminated early
 * Arm 6: EBRT (prostate, pelvic, para-aortic, mediastinal and supraclavicular nodes.) Arm terminated early
 * Enrolled: 566 patients
 * Conclusion:
 * 1986 PMID 3514555 -- "Extended field (periaortic) irradiation in carcinoma of the prostate--analysis of RTOG 75-06." (Pilepich MV, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1986 Mar;12(3):345-51.). Median F/U 4.2 years
 * Outcome: No difference between arms for DFS, DM, OS
 * Conclusion: No benefit to elective peri-aortic irradiation
 * Publications:
 * 2003 PMID 12478146 -- "Race and survival of men treated for prostate cancer on radiation therapy oncology group phase III randomized trials." (Roach, J Urol 2003). Conclusion: As previously reported, tumor grade (Gleason score), palpation T stage, lymph node status, pretreatment PSA and treatment type are major predictors of overall and disease specific survival. We noted no evidence that race has independent prognostic significance in patients treated for prostate cancer in Radiation Therapy Oncology Group prospective randomized trials.
 * 2000 PMID 10837944 -- "Predicting long-term survival, and the need for hormonal therapy: a meta-analysis of RTOG prostate cancer trials." (Roach, IJRBOP 2000). Conclusion: Based on this meta-analysis of RTOG trials, subsets of patients can be identified who either do not appear to benefit from the use of hormonal therapy, benefit from short-term hormonal therapy, or who benefit only from long-term hormonal therapy. These observations should be confirmed by prospective randomized trials before they can be considered conclusive. In the meantime, however, these observations provide rational guidelines for deciding who should receive hormonal therapy and for how long.
 * 2000 PMID 10837943 -- "Four prognostic groups predict long-term survival from prostate cancer following radiotherapy alone on Radiation Therapy Oncology Group clinical trials." (Roach, IJRBOP 2000). Conclusion: Recognition of these four risk groups provides a basis for estimating the long-term DSS for men treated with XRT alone and should facilitate the design of future prospective randomized trials.
 * 2000 PMID 10894874 -- "Survival advantage from higher-dose radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer treated on the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group trials." (Valicenti, JCO 2000). Conclusion: These data demonstrate that higher-dose radiation therapy can significantly reduce the risk of dying from prostate cancer in men with clinically localized disease. This survival benefit is restricted to men with poorly differentiated cancers.
 * 1999 PMID 10022702 -- "Long-term survival after radiotherapy alone: radiation therapy oncology group prostate cancer trials." (Roach M, J Urol 1999). Conclusion: In the first 10 years Gleason score was the single most important predictor of death. Gleason score should be incorporated into the current clinical staging system.
 * 1999 Valicenti R, Lu JD, Grignon D, et al.: "Radiation dose-response is Gleason score dependent on the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group prostate cancer trials." [Abstract] Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 18: A1194, 311a, 1999.
 * 1998 PMID 9531359 -- "Ten-year outcomes for pathologic node-positive patients treated in RTOG 75-06." (Hanks GE, IJRBOP 1998). Conclusion: A small fraction of node-positive patients are cured at 10-year follow-up by radiation therapy (2 of 90 with PSA +3 of 90 by clinical endpoints). Innovative treatment programs should be directed at node-positive patients in an effort to improve the fraction cured.
 * 1998 Roach M, Lu J, Pilepich M, et al.: "Long term survival in 1500 men treated for prostate cancer with radiotherapy alone (XRT): based on radiation therapy oncology group protocols 7706, 7506, 8531, and 8610." [Abstract] Proceedings of the American Urological Association 1998.
 * 1998 ASCO Abstract -- "Prognostic subgroups predict disease specific survival for men treated with radiotherapy alone on Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) prostate cancer trials." (Roach M, ASCO 1998; Proceedings of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 17: A1201, 312a, 1998.). Conclusion: Recognition of these four prognostic subgroups should allow estimates to be made of the long term DSS of men treated with radiotherapy alone for CAP.
 * 1996 Hanks, G. E., Buzydlowski, J., Perez, C. A., Emami, B., Rubin, P., Sause, W., Earle, J., Rotman, M., Roach, M. and Russell, A.: "The Ten Year Outcome of Pathologic and Imaging Node Positive Patients Treated with Irradiation In RTOG 75-06." AUA, J Urol, 1996.
 * 1995 PMID 7591889 -- "Correlation of survival with quantitative tissue staining of prostate specific acid phosphatase in patients with prostate carcinoma by using microscopic image analysis: a preliminary report of correlative studies on RTOG protocols 75-06, 77-06, and 83-07." (Zhou R, IJRBOP 1995). Conclusion: Quantitative image analysis of the IPSAP stain predicts survival in patients treated with external beam radiotherapy with and without prior hormonal therapy
 * 1994 PMID 8270458 -- "Patterns of Care and RTOG studies in prostate cancer: long-term survival, hazard rate observations, and possibilities of cure." (Hanks GE, IJRBOP 1994). Conclusion: These data make a strong argument for the long-term cure of prostate cancer by external beam radiation, and support the continued use and study of radiation therapy as a curative modality in prostate cancer. No similar national data is available for any other method of management.
 * 1992 PMID 1587749 -- "Comparison of pathologic and clinical evaluation of lymph nodes in prostate cancer: implications of RTOG data for patient management and trial design and stratification." (Hanks GE, IJRBOP 1992). Conclusion: The clinical determination of nodal status, therefore, has no prognostic value in contrast to pathologic determination and should not be used for stratifying patients in clinical trials. The CT scans often used to evaluate nodal status are more useful if delayed until they can be done as part of the treatment planning process where the CT has value. When imaging tests suggest positive lymph nodes in prostate cancer patients, the imaging finding is confirmed by biopsy.
 * 1991 PMID 1917621 -- "The effect of overall treatment time on the outcome of definitive radiotherapy for localized prostate carcinoma: the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 75-06 and 77-06 experience." (Lai PP, IJRBOP 1991). Conclusion: The incidence of late complications was not related to the number of elapsed treatment days. Therefore, the overall treatment time does not have an impact on the outcome of definitive radiotherapy for localized prostate carcinoma. It is hypothesized that prostate carcinoma behaves as late-reacting tissue in which there is little, if any, accelerated repopulation of clonogenic tumor cells during the later half of a protracted course of radiotherapy.
 * 1989 PMID 2463874 -- "Correlation of prostate-specific acid phosphatase and prostate-specific antigen immunocytochemistry with survival in prostate carcinoma." (Hammond ME, Cancer 1989). Conclusion: In those patients who subsequently relapsed and were subjected to hormonal manipulation, there appeared to be a higher likelihood of response to hormones with intense prostate-specific acid phosphatase staining.
 * 1987 PMID 3318090 -- "Prognostic significance of nodal involvement in locally advanced (stage C) carcinoma of prostate--RTOG experience." (Pilepich MV, Urology 1987).
 * 1987 PMID 3546223 -- "Correlation of pre-treatment transurethral resection and prognosis in patients with stage C carcinoma of the prostate treated with definitive radiotherapy--RTOG experience." (Pilepich MV, IJRBOP 1987). Conclusion: The TUR population fared significantly worse for all four end-points (rate of locoregional failure, incidence of distant metastases, disease-free survival, and survival).
 * 1987 PMID 3558026 -- "Prognostic factors in carcinoma of the prostate--analysis of RTOG study 75-06." (Pilepich MV, IJRBOP 1987). Conclusion: Correlation of the assessed variables and the study endpoints (local control, incidence of distant metastases, NED survival, survival) singled out the degree of histological differentiation as the most powerful prognostic factor for all the endpoints.
 * 1987 PMID 3494005 -- "Correlation of radiotherapeutic parameters and treatment related morbidity in carcinoma of the prostate--analysis of RTOG study 75-06." (Pilepich MV, IJRBOP 1987). Conclusion: The study design entailed randomization to either pelvic irradiation followed by a prostate boost or pelvic and periaortic irradiation followed by a prostate boost. Periaortic irradiation was not associated with a significantly increased incidence of bowel injuries manifested by diarrhea. No correlation between the total dose to the regional lymphatics (ranging from 4400 to 5100 cGy) and the incidence of bowel and bladder injuries could be established. Doses to the prostate in excess of 7000 cGy have not resulted in a significantly increased incidence of bladder injuries, but have been associated with a significant increase in the incidence of bowel injuries manifested by diarrhea. The techniques of pelvic irradiation did not seem to significantly influence the incidence of bowel or bladder complications. The technique of delivery of the prostatic boost did seem to influence the incidence of bowel injuries. This refers to the lateral boost technique and the perineal boost technique which have been associated with a higher incidence of diarrhea.
 * 1986 PMID 3514555 -- "Extended field (periaortic) irradiation in carcinoma of the prostate--analysis of RTOG 75-06." (Pilepich MV, IJRBOP 1986). Conclusion: The results of the study revealed no apparent benefit of elective periaortic irradiation in patients with detectable disease confined to the pelvis.
 * 1984 PMID 6483687 -- "Surgical staging in carcinoma of the prostate: the RTOG experience. Radiation Therapy Oncology Group." (Pilepich, Prostate 1984). Conclusion: The incidence of postirradiation lymphedema was found to be strongly dependent upon the extent of dissection.
 * 1984 PMID 6386761 -- "Treatment-related morbidity in phase III RTOG studies of extended-field irradiation for carcinoma of the prostate." (Pilepich, IJROBP 1984). Conclusion: In most instances of treatment-related morbidity, the symptoms were recorded during the first several months to 1 year following completion of treatment. Late occurrences, however, were not uncommon in certain types of radiation-produced injuries, such as proctitis, hematuria, and urethral strictures. Resolution of symptoms has been observed in a large proportion of patients including those with late occurrences of treatment-related morbidity, although the probability and the pattern of resolution differed considerably from one type of morbidity to another. Symptoms of cystitis are more likely to abate than those of proctitis. In patients who develop symptoms of proctitis the probability of persistence of symptoms beyond the second year following occurrence has been estimated at 20%-30%. Hematuria and symptoms secondary to urethral strictures seem to be even more likely to recur or persist, while genital and leg edema remain chronic in the majority of patients.
 * 1983 PMID 6346857 -- "Preliminary report on phase III RTOG studies of extended-field irradiation in carcinoma of the prostate." (Pilepich, Am J Clin Oncol 1983). Conclusion: The use of paraaortic fields in RTOG 75-06 and pelvic fields in RTOG 77-06 have not resulted in a significant increase of GI or GU morbidity at this time. The only statistically significant trend was the incidence of postirradiation genital and lower extremity edema which strongly correlated with the extent of staging lymphadenectomy.
 * 1982 PMID 7155987 -- "Some questions raised by histologic study of RTOG protocols 75-06 and 77-06 as illustrated by selected samples." (Terry, Prostate 1982).

title: Radiation Oncology/RTOG Trials/7506


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Art History/Movements

Glossary of Art Movements

Abstract Expressionism
American art movement of the 1940s that emphasized form and color within a non-representational framework. Jackson Pollock initiated the revolutionary technique of splattering the paint directly on canvas to achieve his interpretation of perfection.

Art Deco
A 1920s style characterized by setbacks, zigzag forms, and the use of chrome and plastic ornamentation. New York's Chrysler Building is an architectural example of the style.

Art Nouveau
An 1890s style in architecture, graphic arts, and interior decoration characterized by writhing forms, curving lines, and asymmetrical organization. Some critics regard the style as the first stage of modern architecture.

Ashcan School
A group of New Jersey realist artists at the beginning of the twentieth century who rejected the formal subject matter of the academy and focused on gritty urban scenes and ordinary, even ugly, aspects of life.

Assemblage (Collage)
Forms of modern sculpture and painting utilizing readymades, found objects, and pasted fragments to form an abstract composition. Louise Nevelson's boxlike enclosures, each with its own composition of assembled objects, illustrate the style in sculpture. Pablo Picasso and Braque developed the technique of cutting and pasting natural or manufactured materials to a painted or unpainted surface.Picasso incorporated elements such as wallpaper pieces and chair caneing.

Barbizon School (Landscape Painting)
A group of 19th-century French painters who rejected idealized landscape painting and sought a more informal, realistic portrayal of nature. They were heavily influenced by 17th-century Dutch genre painting. Theodore Rousseau, one of the principal figures of the group, was a proponent of outdoor painting, based on direct observation of one's surroundings.

Baroque
European art and architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries. Giovanni Bernini, a major exponent of the style, believed in the union of the arts of architecture, painting, and sculpture to overwhelm the spectator with ornate and highly dramatized themes. Although the style originated in Rome as the instrument of the Church, it spread throughout Europe in such monumental creations as the Palace of Versailles.

Beaux Arts
Elaborate and formal architectural style characterized by symmetry and an abundance of sculptured ornamentation. New York's old Custom House at Bowling Green is an example of the style.

Black or African-American Art
The work of American artists of African descent produced in various styles characterized by a mood of protest and a search for identity and historical roots. See Romare Bearden.

Classicism
A form of art derived from the study of Greek and Roman styles characterized by harmony, balance, and serenity. In contrast, the Romantic Movement gave free rein to the artist's imagination and to the love of the exotic.

Conceptual art
An art form originating in the late 1960´s. In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. It has had a prominent effect on art production and art theory until this day.

Constructivism
A form of sculpture using wood, metal, glass, and modern industrial materials expressing the technological society. The mobiles of Alexander Calder are examples of the movement.

Cubism
Early 20th-century French movement marked by a revolutionary departure from representational art. Pablo Picasso and Georges Bracque penetrated the surface of objects, stressing basic abstract geometric forms that presented the object from many angles simultaneously.

Dada
A product of the turbulent and cynical post-World War I period, this anti-art movement extolled the irrational, the absurd, the nihilistic, and the nonsensical. The reproduction of Mona Lisa adorned with a mustache is a famous example. The movement is regarded as a precursor of Surrealism. Some critics regard HAPPENINGS as a recent development of Dada. This movement incorporates environment and spectators as active and important ingredients in the production of random events.

Expressionism
A 20th-century European art movement that stresses the expression of emotion and the inner vision of the artist rather than the exact representation of nature. Distorted lines and shapes and exaggerated colors are used for emotional impact. Vincent Van Gogh is regarded as the precursor of this movement.

Fauvism
The name “wild beasts” was given to the group of early 20th-century French painters because their work was characterized by distortion and violent colors. Henri Matisse and Georges Rouault were leaders of this group.

Futurism
This early 20th-century movement originating in Italy glorified the machine age and attempted to represent machines and figures in motion. The aesthetics of Futurism affirmed the beauty of technological society.

Genre
This French word meaning “type” now refers to paintings that depict scenes of everyday life without any attempt at idealization. Genre paintings can be found in all ages, but the Dutch productions of peasant and tavern scenes are typical.

Impressionism
Late 19th-century French school dedicated to defining transitory visual impressions painted directly from nature, with light and color of primary importance. If the atmosphere changed, a totally different picture would emerge. It was not the object or event that counted but the visual impression as caught at a certain time of day under a certain light. Claude Monet and Camille Pissarro were leaders of the movement.

Indigenouism
An art movement promoting environmental protection by utilizing Indigenous Materials. Indigenouism Art a campaign against global warming. Indigenouism Art is more than just a style; it is a philosophy that encourages artists to look back to their roots and find inspiration in their culture, traditions, and environment. By using natural materials that are locally available, artists can reduce their reliance on synthetic and imported materials, which contribute to the depletion of natural resources.

Intentism
A movement that began to re-establish the role of the artist in an artwork. Intentists believe that all meaning is the outworking of intention

Mannerism
A mid-16th-century movement, Italian in origin, although El Greco was a major practitioner of the style. The human figure, distorted and elongated, was the most frequent subject.

Minimalism
Minimalism describes movements in various forms of art and design, especially visual art and music, where the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features.

Modern Ink Painting
A late-20st-century and early-21st-century movement, Modern ink painting is an emerging style that reaches beyond traditional Asian ink painting in scope and treatment of a minimalist-art. Contemporary ink painting is developing and establishing the recognition it deserves and gaining its own place among the major pictorial works of the world. This global contemporary art movement represents sort of amalgamation of the Western visual art problems and practices with those of East Asia. Best known European contribution to the Modern ink painting is Alfred Freddy Krupa.

Neoclassicism
An 18th-century reaction to the excesses of Baroque and Rococo, this European art movement tried to recreate the art of Greece and Rome by imitating the ancient classics both in style and subject matter.

Neoimpressionism
A school of painting associated with George Seurat and his followers in late 19th-century France that sought to make Impressionism more precise and formal. They employed a technique of juxtaposing dots of primary colors to achieve brighter secondary colors, with the mixture left to the eye to complete (pointillism).

Op Art
The 1960s movement known as Optical Painting is characterized by geometrical forms that create an optical illusion in which the eye is required to blend the colors at a certain distance.

Pop Art
In this return to representational art, the artist returns to the world of tangible objects in a reaction against abstraction. Materials are drawn from the everyday world of popular culture—comic strips, canned goods, and science fiction. It is meant to visually pop out and could be considered along with op-art or optical art used in the famous Zonk poster to have begun the great Black Light poster era.

Realism
A development in mid-19th-century France lead by Gustave Courbet. Its aim was to depict the customs, ideas, and appearances of the time using scenes from everyday life.

Rococo
A French style of interior decoration developed during the reign of Louis XV consisting mainly of asymmetrical arrangements of curves in paneling, porcelain, and gold and silver objects. The characteristics of ornate curves, prettiness, and gaiety can also be found in the painting and sculpture of the period.

Surrealism
A further development of Collage, Cubism, and Dada, this 20th-century movement stresses the weird, the fantastic, and the dreamworld of the subconscious.

Symbolism
As part of a general European movement in the latter part of the 19th century, it was closely allied with Symbolism in literature. It marked a turning away from painting by observation to transforming fact into a symbol of inner experience. Gauguin was an early practitioner.

.

Reference

 * Glossary of Art Movements

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Art History/Movements


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User:Buddha92

Feel free to e-mail me about any of my postings. weezer.boi@gmail.com thanks, constructice critisizm is more than welcome! -john

title: User:Buddha92


text:
Talk:Cryptography/Timeline of Notable Events

Doesn't appear to be a Cryptography timeline, draw your attention to the end of the timeline in particular.
 * I copied this page to Timeline of Cryptography where I think it will get more attention. It can then be copied back or simply referenced. --ArnoldReinhold 03:09, 6 October 2005 (UTC)


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Vietnamese/School

People

 * teacher
 * cô giáo (female)
 * thầy giáo (male)
 * student
 * học sinh (elementary, secondary)
 * sinh viên (post-secondary)
 * exchange student, international student
 * học sinh du học (elementary, secondary)
 * sinh viên du học (post-secondary)
 * principal
 * hiệu trưởng
 * vice-principal, assistant principal
 * hiệu phó
 * chair of a group
 * tổ trưởng
 * vice-chair of a group
 * tổ phó
 * bus driver
 * người lái xe buýt

Objects

 * pencil
 * bút chì

 * pen, marker
 * bút (mực)

 * paper
 * giấy

 * ruler
 * gậy đo

 * book
 * (cuốn, quyển) sách
 * textbook
 * sách giáo khoa
 * dictionary
 * từ điển, tự điển
 * encyclopedia
 * bách khoa toàn thư, từ điển bách khoa
 * magazine
 * tạp chí

 * newspaper
 * (tờ) báo

 * classroom
 * phòng học, lớp học

 * blackboard
 * bảng đen

 * computer
 * máy tính, máy vi tính, vi tính

 * bell
 * chuông

 * desk
 * bàn (viết)

 * homework
 * bài học

 * test, quiz
 * bài thi
 * examination
 * thi cử, kỳ thi

 * grades, notes
 * điểm

 * apple
 * (quả) táo

 * globe
 * địa cầu, quả cầu

 * map
 * bản đồ

Subjects

 * art
 * mỹ thuật, nghệ thuật
 * music
 * nhạc

 * geography
 * địa lý học, địa lý

 * history
 * lịch sử

 * language
 * ngôn ngữ
 * Chinese
 * tiếng Trung Quốc, tiếng Trung, tiếng Hoa, tiếng Tàu
 * English
 * tiếng Anh, Anh ngữ
 * French
 * tiếng Pháp
 * German
 * tiếng Đức
 * Japanese
 * tiếng Nhật, tiếng Nhật Bản
 * Korean
 * tiếng Triều Tiên, tiếng Hàn Quốc, tiếng Hàn, tiếng Đại Hàn
 * Russian
 * tiếng Nga
 * Spanish
 * tiếng Tây Ban Nha
 * Vietnamese
 * tiếng Việt, Việt ngữ, tiếng Việt Nam

 * literature
 * văn chương, văn học

 * mathematics
 * toán học, toán
 * algebra
 * đại số học, đại số
 * arithmetics
 * số học
 * calculus
 * giải tích
 * geometry
 * hình học
 * trigonometry
 * lượng giác học, lượng giác

 * science
 * khoa học
 * biology
 * sinh học, sinh vật học
 * chemistry
 * hóa học
 * physics
 * vật lý học, vật lý

Types of schools

 * school
 * (nhà) trường

 * nursery, preschool
 * nhà trẻ

 * kindergarten
 * (trường) mẫu giáo

 * primary school, intermediate school
 * (trường) tiểu học

 * junior high school, lower secondary school
 * (trường) trung học (cơ sở)

 * senior high school, upper secondary school
 * (trường) trung học (phổ thông)

 * professional secondary school
 * (trường) trung học chuyên nghiệp

 * vocational school
 * (trường) dạy nghề

 * university, undergraduate school
 * (trường) đại học

 * college
 * (trường) cao đẳng

Degrees

 * master's degree
 * thạc sĩ

 * doctorate
 * tiến sĩ

Time

 * period, bell
 * tiết học

 * term, quarter, semester, trimester
 * học kỳ

 * school year
 * năm học

 * break
 * giờ nghỉ (during the day)
 * ngày nghỉ (day-long)
 * tuần nghỉ (week-long)
 * tháng nghỉ (month-long)

 * breakfast
 * bữa ăn sáng, buổi sáng

 * lunch
 * bữa ăn trưa, buổi trưa

title: Vietnamese/School


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Fijian

Fijian is an Austronesian language spoken mainly in the Fiji Islands and is part of the Malayo-Polynesian family.

Introduction

 * /Alphabet and pronunciation/
 * /Common phrases/

Grammar

 * /Nouns/
 * /Adjectives/
 * /Adverbs/
 * /Verbs/
 * /Numerals/
 * /Pronouns/
 * /Prepositions/
 * /Possessives/
 * /Classifier/
 * /Time/

Appendix

 * /Vocabulary/

title: Fijian


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Fijian/Alphabet and pronunciation

Fijian language uses the same Latin alphabet as English. The official Fijian alphabet consists of the same letters as English does.

Letters H, X and Z are used in the Fijian language but only in words borrowed from English.

Fijian pronunciation is not very difficult for the English speakers to learn. The Fijian vowels are pronounced as they are written. However, some consonants are pronounced differently from English:

 * B is pronounced "mb" as in 'bamboo'.
 * C is a lisped "th" as in 'feather'.
 * D is pronounced "nd" as in 'candy'.
 * J is pronounced "nj" as in 'conjunction' or, by some people, "ch" as in 'chocolate'.
 * G is pronounced "ng" as in 'sing'.
 * Q is pronounced "ng" as in 'mango'.

The vowels and diphthongs are pronounced the same as those of Spanish. And the diphthongs are {|Ai|au|ei|Eu|oi|ou|}. The long vowels are marked with the only diacritic in the language, a $$\bar{}$$. And, the stress goes on the ultimate if it is short, and the penultimate if it is long or a diphthong.

title: Fijian/Alphabet and pronunciation


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Physical Activity/Strength Training

There are two important concepts when considering strength training. First, strength training does not necessarily mean that your body will get huge and bulky with muscle. Second, strength training, if done appropriately is important in preventing injury, but if done irresponsibly can cause injury.

Strength is a subject measure. There are many types of strength, such as endurance, pushing, holding, throwing, snapping, and pulling. These strengths are trained for in different ways. For strength irregardless of speed, slow and heavy weight training is the most effective. While, for speed strength fast, high-intensity, exercise is the most effective. It is very difficult to become both fast and extremely strong, they are usually incompatible for the muscles to handle given strength usually increases muscle bulk. Fortunately, the human body can handle being very fast and moderately strong as well as very strong and moderately fast.

The first concentration is building pure strength regardless of speed or muscular endurance. The most effective way to do this is by free weight training. This is one of the main objectives in both body building and powerlifting. The main principle is to set goals to slowly increase the amount of weight your body can lift.

For example, I have a goal to bench press 200 lbs with 8 repetitions for 3 sets and I can only bench press 140 lbs with 8 repetitions and 3 sets. I might start off by increasing the weight of my bench press by 5 lbs. When increasing the weight, I may only be able to bench press 6 repetitions. The next time I am at the gym, I will set the goal to do 7 repetitions with 145 lbs, and the next time 8. After I reach 8, I can increase it another 5 lbs, and so on until I reach my goal of 200 lbs.

Whereas, with muscle endurance training, you train your muscle to constantly work. For this type of training, increasing the total amount of repetitions or sets is a good way to increase muscle endurance. In fact, good muscle endurance is important for muscle strength. Many professionals recommend alternating weeks of strength training and muscular endurance training in a strength training regimen.

For speed training, slowly lifting weights simply won't work. You have to use explosive exercises, like sprints, jumps, and pushes. Explosiveness is especially important in sports. A few examples are in baseball explosive strength is used when swinging a bat; in hockey, when taking a shot; in boxing, when throwing a punch; even in surfing, explosive strength is used to balance on a wave.

This brings me to my next point in strength training: setting sub-goals to your main goal. Basically, you didn't learn to run right away you had to learn your first step, then your first walk, until finally, you trained your body to run. It other words, you need to create small successive steps to reach your goal. It makes a daunting task like increasing your bench press by 60 lbs into a doable endeavor. It is important to set doable sub-goals as well, and when you accomplish those sub-goals it gives you motivation to continue working toward your main goal. In fact, the more sub-goals you set for yourself, the more effective training you will have since you will feel accomplished more often than feeling a failure which keeps self-esteem high.

Goal setting is important in anything, and especially important in building strength, but there are specific things to weight training that should be adhered too. First, don't worry if you are weak at first. In reality, everyone has to start off and most of the time, people are weak when they start and even the massively strong people understand what it's like to just start off which makes them encouraging and non-judgmental. Second, strength building is a slow process and requires hard work. If you push yourself too hard you could injure your muscles, joints, and tendons for life. It's not worth being stupid and lifting more than your body can handle, just take it slow and your gains will come in time.

Types of exercises

 * Benchpress
 * Pushups
 * Chinups
 * Bicep curls
 * Tricep press

Overload and overtraining
Our body is capable of performing at much higher intensities than what it can sustain for long. This is called peak energy output. When lifting weights, for example, we can sometimes lift weights that are almost at dangerous levels for our present state. We might not realize that we are pushing ourselves to those high levels because the body seems to be able to do it.

It happened many years back, I was doing wrist curls. I was lifting almost 100 Lbs. When I look back at it now, I say to myself "how foolish that was?". That day I tore a ligament (or tendon - don't know the exact technical term) in my wrist. It has been years from that day but I still can't lift 20 lbs. using my wrists without pain.

Sometimes it is too easy to push ourselves and we don't realize that we are crossing the delicate line.

It is better to remain moderate. One injury can cast a huge setback for years. It is better to gain slow and steady - from my own experience.

Another hindrance to health is overtraining. Overtraining occurs when you literally exercise too much, or too hard. This happens often with people who weight train. This is because they will lift weights on the same part of the body two or more days in a row, without giving time for the muscles to rest and recuperate. This isn't limited to weight trainers, since an intense exercise can overwork the human body. It is important to give your body adequate rest.

Overtraining harms your body so much that it makes you weaker, takes time to heal, and lowers your immune system. It is counterproductive! Overtraining often happens because people think that they must "feel the pain" to accomplish their exercise goals. This simply isn't true, if you exercise appropriately you should not feel pain, in fact, some professionals recommend not even working out when sore. Although, others think that you shouldn't work out as hard when sore, but, working out is beneficial since it helps to move lactic acid out of the muscles.

What is adequate rest?
Adequate rest differs from person to person given differences in metabolism and genetics. One person may be able to curl dumbbells every two days without overtraining the muscles, while another person can only train them once a week. Usually, the longer a person has been training and the younger they are, the less time they need between training sessions. As well, the harder you work during a training session, the longer you will need to rest before training again. It is important to remember that the resting period is reduced by proper nutrition and sleep.

Generally, if weight training, a person should, at minimum, wait 48 hours before working out the same muscle group and if body building, the wait should be extended to 72 hours. Cardio exercise can be performed every 24-hours for most people. With both, one day a week should be used to rest without any exercise at all.

The best way to figure out your training threshold is to start off with light training and slowly increase the amount each successive training session. This will allow you to figure it out without the worry of injury or overtraining.

__INDEX__ __NEWSECTIONLINK__

title: Physical Activity/Strength Training


text:
Fijian/Nouns

All nouns can take the definite article na, which is equivalent to English the. Na is used with both singular and plural nouns. However, if na starts the sentence, it can be replaced by a, however, na is generally more specific and formal than a. Keep in mind that a can also be used for the indefinite article, which is equivalent to English a/an. Proper nouns get the article o when they are the subject of the sentence. Fijian does not distinguish between plural and singular nouns, so for example, vale, house, can also mean houses.

Examples
Go back to the contents page
 * dua na otela sau lailai
 * Translation: "a cheap hotel"

title: Fijian/Nouns


text:
Radiation Oncology/RTOG Trials/9714

RTOG 97-14 (PROSTATE, BREAST, PALLIATION)
 * Title: Randomized Trial of Palliative Radiation Therapy For Osseous Metastases: A Study of Palliation of Symptoms and Quality of Life
 * Objectives:
 * (1) To determine whether 8 Gy in a single fraction provides equivalent pain and narcotic relief compared to 30 Gy in 10 fractions for patients with painful bone metastases.
 * (2) To determine the frequency and duration of pain relief and narcotic relief for each of the two treatment arms.
 * (3) To determine the effect on quality of life measures for each of the two treatment arms.
 * (4) To determine the incidence of pathologic fracture within the treatment field for 8 Gy in a single fraction compared to 30 Gy in 10 fractions.
 * (5) To evaluate resource utilization and create a model to compare resources/costs for each of the two protocol treatment arms.
 * (6) To correlate survival time with physician prediction of survival, Karnofsky performance status, and FACT quality of life score to determine which gives the best estimation of actual survival time in this group of patients.
 * (7) To determine cost-effectiveness of therapies in terms of cost/quality adjusted life years.
 * Protocol:
 * Arm (1): 3 Gy x 10 (30 Gy in 2 weeks)
 * Arm (2): 8 Gy x 1 (8 Gy single dose)
 * Eligibility:
 * Breast or prostate malignancy
 * Radiographic evidence of bone mets, excluding skull, hands, and feet
 * Enrollment Target: 898 patients
 * Activated: February 1, 1998
 * Closed: April 30, 2001
 * Conclusion:
 * 2005 PMID 15928300 -- Randomized trial of short- versus long-course radiotherapy for palliation of painful bone metastases. (Hartsell WF, J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005 Jun 1;97(11):798-804.) Conclusion: Both regimens equivalent for pain control and narcotic relief at 3 months. 8/1 less acute toxicity but higher retreatment

 * Publications:
 * PMID 19632065 -- Functional interference clusters in cancer patients with bone metastases: a secondary analysis of RTOG 9714. (Chow E, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010 Apr;76(5):1507-11.) Conclusion: Palliative radiotherapy is effective in reducing bone pain. Functional interference component clusters exist in patients treated for bone metastases. These clusters changed over time in this study, possibly attributable to treatment. Further research is needed to examine these effects.
 * PMID 16814950 -- Continuing evidence for poorer treatment outcomes for single male patients: retreatment data from RTOG 97-14. (Konski A, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 Sep 1;66(1):229-33). Conclusion: Patients receiving 8 Gy in a single fraction had significantly higher retreatment rates compared with patients receiving 30 Gy in 10 fractions.
 * ASCO Abstract -- Breast cancer patients have better outcomes than prostate cancer patients for palliation of painful bone metastases: Results of RTOG 97-14 (Hartsell WF, ASCO 2005). Conclusion: Women with bone metastases from breast cancer experience better outcomes in terms of pain control and survival compared to men with prostate cancer with bone mets treated with palliative radiotherapy. Further consideration should be given to tailoring treatment by gender.
 * ASTRO Abstract -- Can Physicians Accurately Predict Survival Time in Patients with Metastatic Cancer? Analysis of RTOG 9714 (Hartsell WF, ASTRO 2004). Conclusion: KPS, FACT scores, and physician predicted survival all are correlated with actual survival. Physicians on this study were able to predict which patients would have longer survival times, although the prediction of survival was optimistic compared to actual survival by an average of 3 months.
 * ASTRO Abstract -- Prospective Health-Related Quality of Life Valuations (Utilities) of 8 Gy in 1 Fraction vs 30 Gy in 10 Fractions for Palliation of Painful Bone Metastases: Preliminary Results of RTOG 97-14 (Bruner DW, ASTRO 2004). Conclusion: Based on this data, there is no difference in overall HUI-III-HRQL scores between the two treatment arms at baseline or at 3 mos. Utility scores increased significantly from baseline to 3 mos. for each of the treatment arms. The increased utility of changes in emotion on the 30Gy arm may indicate a benefit from increased social support gained with longer treatment time. Cognition decreases equally on both arms congruent with the literature on metastasis. Value added of utilities to standard quality of life and symptom assessment is a quantitative valuation of improvement.
 * ASTRO Abstract -- Phase III Randomized Trial of 8 Gy in 1 Fraction vs. 30 Gy in 10 Fractions for Palliation of Painful Bone Metastases: Preliminary Results of RTOG 97−14 (Hartsell, ASTRO #1 2003; Hartsell WF, Scott C, Bruner DW, et al.: Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 57 (2 Suppl): S124, 2003). Conclusion: Palliative external beam radiation therapy is very effective in providing pain relief, with complete or partial improvement in pain seen in 66% of patients. Pain and narcotic relief is equivalent for both 30 Gy in 10 fractions and 8 Gy in a single fraction. At 3 months follow−up, there is no difference between the two treatment arms, regardless of stratification. Treatment was well tolerated with few adverse effects.
 * Video Presentation -- Phase III Randomized Trial of 8 Gy in Fraction vs. 30 Gy in 10 Fractions for Palliation of Painful Bone Metastases: Preliminary Results of RTOG 97 -14  (Hartsell WF, ASTRO 2003)

title: Radiation Oncology/RTOG Trials/9714


text:
Cookbook talk:Skillet

Comment on redirect
I hope that User:220.238.23.207 doesn't mind, but I've redirected Cookbook:Skillet to the synonymous Cookbook:Frying Pan. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 14:30, 11 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not so sure it is synonymous. Isn't a skillet always low-sided and extremely flat? I think this is like redirecting Cookbook:Wok, which I'm definitely not suggesting. AlbertCahalan 14:45, 12 Jun 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Skillet


text:
User:Metaball

Hi,

Just an Australian guy looking to do his bit for the Lineage 2 community.

- Metaball

title: User:Metaball


text:
GCSE Science/Electrolysis answers

Q1 - Na

Q2 - Sodium Chloride. Provided it is the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.

Q3 - From the heat supplied from the bunsen

Q4 -

title: GCSE Science/Electrolysis answers


text:
User:Bergsten

See my page at Wikimedia Commons.

title: User:Bergsten


text:
Cookbook:Mead

| Beverages

Mead or honey wine is a fermented alcoholic beverage made of honey, water, and yeast. It can have a wide range of flavors, depending on the source of the honey, additives including fruit and spices, the yeast used for fermentation, and the aging procedure.

A mead that also contains spices or herbs is called metheglin. A mead that contains fruit is called melomel and was also used as a delicious way to store summer produce for the winter. Mulled mead is a popular winter holiday drink, where mead is flavoured with spices and warmed. Many meads retain some measure of the sweetness of the original honey, and some can even be considered as dessert wines. Drier meads are also available, and some producers offer sparkling meads like champagne.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup room temperature sterilized fruit juice (optional)
 * 1 packet of dry winemaker's yeast (Lalvin EC1118, K1V1116 or similar) as well as yeast nutrient
 * 3 quarts water
 * 3 pounds (1 quart) honey
 * 1 pound raisins (optional)

Equipment

 * 1-quart container
 * Pot
 * Stirring utensil
 * Fermentation vessel—preferably a glass carboy—with an airlock and a rubber bung (can usually be found at a brewer's supply store)
 * Siphon and tube
 * Glass bottles

Procedure

 * 1) Sanitize all of your equipment (see notes).
 * 2) If desired, create a starter culture by mixing the fruit juice and yeast. Place into a 1-quart container fitted with a rubber stopper and airlock. Keep at room temperature, out of direct sunlight, for 1–2 days until the mixture is bubbling. This starter culture will cause the fermentation below to begin with vigor and may prevent the mead from failing to ferment.
 * 3) Heat the water in a pot over medium heat, and slowly stir in the honey until completely dissolved. There is a common disagreement among mead makers as to whether you should boil the mixture or not; Boiling will alter the flavor but will enhance the clarity of the finished mead.
 * 4) Remove the pot from the heat, and cool to 170°F (76°C).
 * 5) Stir in the raisins, and transfer to your fermentation vessel. Cool to room temperature (about 68°F/20°C).
 * 6) Rehydrate the yeast if you did not make a starter culture. Transfer the yeast mixture to the honey mixture in the vessel, and attach the airlock.
 * 7) Place the vessel in a cool (68°F/20°C), dark place. After about a day, the airlock should start to allow bubbles to escape, which indicates beginning fermentation. The raisins will rise to the surface of the mixture. Avoid stirring or agitating the mixture, as it may cause the liquid to rise up and spill out of the airlock.
 * 8) Let the mead ferment for 4–6 weeks.
 * 9) If desired, "rack" the mead to allow the mead to clear faster: carefully siphon it into a second carboy with a sanitized tube, avoiding the sediment to prevent cloudiness and avoiding splashing to prevent incorporating excess oxygen. Attach an airlock to the second carboy.
 * 10) Ferment for another 3 months or until all signs of fermentation have stopped (usually when the airlock doesn't produce any bubbles for a long period of time—typically over 30 seconds between bubbles) and your mead has cleared enough to read a newspaper through it.
 * 11) Rack the mead once more.
 * 12) Bottle the mead by sealing in sterilized bottles using airtight caps or quality corks. If the fermentation is not complete, pressure will build up inside the sealed bottles and cause them to explode.
 * 13) Age the mead in the bottle for at least 6 months (or longer) before drinking.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Mead should be made in sanitized equipment to ensure food safety. Potassium metabisulphite is a common sanitizing agent. Those who are allergic to sulphites can use other sanitizing methods. Failure to remove all traces of this chemical from the equipment may result in poisonous or otherwise undrinkable mead.
 * It is imperative that sterile conditions be maintained while the carboys are open to avoid infection.
 * The mead needs to age, usually for one year, and anywhere up to five or more. Bulk aging can be done done in a tertiary carboy.
 * Excessive racking will promote oxidation, resulting in an undrinkable mead.

 * This module uses text from the Wikipedia module Mead under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. Please see that module for the authors of the text prior to its adaptations in Wikibooks.

title: Cookbook:Mead


text:
Cookbook:Tangerine Jelly

| Brazilian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 dozen big tangerines
 * 2 kg sugar
 * 2 litres water
 * 6 limes

Procedure

 * 1) Cut the tangerines into small pieces, leaving the peel, but removing the seeds.
 * 2) Add the water, and let sit until the next day.
 * 3) Boil the mixture until the fruit is very soft.
 * 4) Add the sugar, and leave cooking until the jelly is firm when dripped on a cold plate.

title: Cookbook:Tangerine Jelly


title: File:Imagem2.JPG


title: File:Imagem3.JPG


title: File:Imagem5.JPG


text:
Topology/The fundamental group

The basic idea of the fundamental group
An easy way to approach the concept of fundamental group is to start with a concrete example. Let us consider the 2-sphere $$S^2$$ and the surface of the torus.

Let us start thinking about two types of loops of the torus (paths starting and ending at the same point). It seems that a path around the "arm" of the torus is substantially different from a “local” simple loop: one cannot be deformed into the other. On the other hand, in the sphere it seems that all the loops can be deformed into any other loop. The set of "types of loops" in the two spaces is different: the torus seems to have a richer set of "types of loops" than the spherical surface. This type of approach constitutes the base of the definition of fundamental group and explains essential differences between different kinds of topological spaces. The fundamental group makes this idea mathematically rigorous.

Definition of fundamental group
Definition: Let $$X$$ be a topological space and let $$p$$ and $$q$$ be points in $$X$$. Then two paths $$f: [0,1] \rightarrow X$$ and $$g: [0,1] \rightarrow X$$ are considered equivalent if there is a homotopy $$H: [0,1]^2 \rightarrow X$$ such that $$H(x,a)$$ is a path from $$p$$ to $$q$$ for any $$a \in [0,1]$$. It is easily verified that this is an equivalence relation.

Definition: Define the composition of paths $$f_1$$ from $$x$$ to $$y$$ and then $$f_2$$ from $$y$$ to $$z$$ to be simply the same adjunction of paths as we had in the section on path connectedness:

$$f(x) = \left\{ \begin{array}{ll} f_1(2x) & \text{if } x \in [0,\frac{1}{2}]\\ f_2(2x-1) & \text{if } x \in [\frac{1}{2},1]\\ \end{array} \right.$$

We shall denote the composition of two paths $$f(x)$$ and $$g(x)$$ as $$f(x)*g(x)$$.

Definition: Let $$f: [0,1] \rightarrow X$$ to be a path. Define the inverse path (not to be confused with the inverse function) as $$f^{-1}(x)=f(1-x)$$, the path in the opposite direction.

Definition: Let $$X$$ be a topological space, and let $$p$$ be a point in $$X$$. Then define $$C_p$$ to be the constant path $$f: [0,1] \rightarrow X$$ where $$f(x)=p$$.

Now consider the set of equivalence groups of paths. Define the composition of two equivalence groups to be the equivalence group of the composition of any two paths. Define the inverse of an equivalence group to be the equivalence group of the inverse of any within the equivalence group. Define $$[C_p]$$ to be the equivalence group containing $$C_p$$.

We can easily check that these operations are well-defined.

Now, in a fundamental group, we will work with loops. Therefore, we define the equivalence, composition and inverse of loops to be the same as the definition as that of paths, and the composition and inverse of the equivalence classes also to be the same.

Definition: The set of equivalence classes of loops at the base point $$x_0$$, is a group under the operation of adjoining paths. This group is called fundamental group of $$X$$ at the base point $$x_0$$.

In order to demonstrate that this is a group, we need to prove:

1) associtivity: $$[\alpha]*([\beta]*[\gamma])=([\alpha]*[\beta])*[\gamma]$$;

2) identity: $$[\alpha]*[1]=[1]*[\alpha]=[\alpha]$$;

3) inverse: $$[\alpha]*[\overline{\alpha}]=[\overline{\alpha}]*[\alpha]=[1]$$.

1) It is quite obvious that when you have a path from $$a$$ to $$b$$, and then $$b$$ to $$c$$, and finally $$c$$ to $$d$$, then the adjunction of the paths from $$a$$ to $$b$$ and $$b$$ to $$d$$ is the same as the path you get when you adjoin the paths from $$a$$ to $$c$$ and then $$c$$ to $$d$$.

In fact, an explicit homotopy on $$[\alpha]*([\beta]*[\gamma])$$ and $$([\alpha]*[\beta])*[\gamma]$$ can be given by the following formula: $$F(t,s) = \begin{cases} \alpha(\frac{4t}{s+1}), & \mbox{if }0\le t\le\frac{s+1}{4}\\\beta(4t-s-1), & \mbox{if }\frac{s+1}{4}\le t\le\frac{s+2}{4}\\\gamma(\frac{4t-s-2}{2-s}), & \mbox{if }\frac{s+2}{4}\le t\le 1\end{cases}$$.

2) $$[C_{x_0}]$$ is the identity. One can easily verify that the product of this constant loop with another loop is homotopic to the original loop.

3) The inverse of the equivalence relation as defined before serves as the inverse within the group. The fact that the composition of the two paths $$f(x)$$ and $$f^{-1}(x)$$ reduces to the constant path can easily be verified with the following homotopy:

$$h(x,y)=f(xy)*f^{-1}(xy)$$

$$\Box $$

Dependence on the Base Point
We now have our fundamental group, but it would be of interest to see how the fundamental group depends on the base point, since, as we have defined it, the fundamental group depends on the base point. However, due to the very important theorem that in any path-connected topological space, all of its fundamental groups are isomorphic, we are able to speak of the fundamental group of the topological space for any path-connected topological space.

Proof
Let's take $$x_0,x_1\in X$$ in the same path-component of $$X$$. In this case, it's possible to find a relation between $$\pi_1(X,x_0)$$ and $$\pi_1(X,x_1)$$. Let $$h:\left [ 0,1 \right ]\to X$$ be a path from $$x_0$$ to $$x_1$$ and $$\overline{h}(s)=1-s$$ from $$x_1$$ back to $$x_0$$. The map $$\beta_h:\pi_1(X,x_1)\to \pi_1(X,x_0)$$ defined by $$\beta_h[f]=[hf\overline{h}]$$is an isomorphism. Thus if $$X$$ is path-connected, the group $$\pi_1(X,x_0)$$ is, up to isomorphism, independent of the choice of basepoint $$x_0$$.

When all fundamental groups of a topological space are isomorphic, the notation $$\pi_1(X,x_0)$$ is abbreviated to $$\pi_1(X)$$.

Definition: A topological space $$X$$ is called simply-connected if it is path-connected and has trivial fundamental group.

The fundamental group of $$S^1$$
This section is dedicated to the calculation of the fundamental group of $$S^1$$ that we can consider contained in the complex topological space. One more time we can start with a visual approach. It's easy to imagine that a loop around the circle is not homotopic to the trivial loop. It's also easy to imagine that a loop that gives two complete turns is not homotopic to one that gives only one. Simple intuition seems to be that fundamental group of $$S^1$$ is related with number of turns. However, the rigorous calculation of $$\pi_1(S^1)$$ involves some difficulties.

We define $$p:\mathbb{R}\to S^1\sub\mathbb{C},p(t)=e^{2i\pi t}$$. It's possible to demonstrate the following results:

Lemma 1: Let $$f:\left [ 0,1 \right ]\to S^1\sub\mathbb{C}$$ be a path. Then there exists $$\overline{f}:\left [ 0,1 \right ]\to \mathbb{R}$$ such that $$p\circ\overline{f}=f$$. Moreover, if $$f(0)=x_0\land z_0\in p^{-1}(x_0)$$, then $$\overline{f}$$ is unique, called a lift of $$f$$.

Lemma 2: Let $$F:\left [ 0,1 \right ]\times\left [ 0,1 \right ]\to S^1\sub\mathbb{C}$$ be a homotopy on paths with start point $$x_0$$. Let $$z_0\in p^{-1}(x_0)$$. Then exists only one homotopy $$\overline{F}:\left [ 0,1 \right ]\times\left [ 0,1 \right ]\to\mathbb{R}$$ on paths with start point $$z_0$$ such that $$p\circ\overline{F}=F$$.

Note: These lemmas allow to guarantee that homotopic loops have homotopic lifts.

For more information see Wikipedia.

Theorem:$$\pi_1(S^1,(1,0))\simeq\mathbb{Z}$$.

Proof: Let $$\alpha$$ be a loop with base $$(1,0)$$ and $$[\alpha]\in\pi_1(S^1,(1,0))$$. Let $$z_0=0$$ and define $$\pi_1(S^1,(1,0))\to\mathbb{Z}\;\;\;v([\alpha])=\overline{\alpha}(1).$$

The good definition of this application comes from the fact that homotopic loops defined in $$\left [ 0,1 \right ]$$ to $$S^1$$ have homotopic lifts. We have $$p(\overline{\alpha}(1))=\alpha(1)=x_0$$.So, $$\overline{\alpha}(1)=k$$ for some $$k\in\mathbb{Z}$$. Therefore $$v([\alpha])\in\mathbb{Z}$$.

1) $$v$$ is surjective. For $$N\in\mathbb{Z}$$ we define the loop $$\alpha_N(t)=e^{2i\pi Nt}$$. We then have $$\overline\alpha_N(t)=Nt$$ and $$v([\alpha_N])=N$$;

2) $$v$$ is injective. Let $$v([\alpha])=v([\beta])$$. Then, $$(\overline{\alpha}(1)=\overline{\beta}(1))\land(\overline{\alpha}(0)=\overline{\beta}(0)=0)$$. We then have that $$F(t,s)=p((1-s)\overline{\alpha}(t)+s\overline{\beta}(t))$$ is a homotopy on $$\alpha$$ and $$\beta$$, or either $$[\alpha]=[\beta]$$;

3) $$v$$ is a homomorphism. We want to demonstrate that $$v([\alpha]*[\beta])=v([\alpha]+v([\beta]$$. Let´s consider $$\gamma(t) = \begin{cases} \overline{\alpha}(2t), & \mbox{if }0\le t\le \frac{1}{2} \\ \overline{\beta}(2t-1)+\overline{\alpha}(1), & \mbox{if }\frac{1}{2}\le t\le 1 \end{cases}$$. $$\overline{\alpha}(1)$$ is an integer and $$p\circ\gamma=\alpha*\beta$$.We then have,$$\gamma=\overline{\alpha*\beta}$$ and

$$v([\alpha]*[\beta])=v([\alpha*\beta])=\gamma(1)=\overline{\alpha}(1)+\overline{\beta}(1)=v([\alpha])+v([\beta])$$

We can note that all the loops are homotopic to $$\alpha_N(t)=e^{2i\pi Nt}$$ for some $$N\in\mathbb{Z}$$, or either, all the loops, up to homotopy, consist of giving a certain number of turns.

We can think this demonstration through the following scheme:

$$\Box $$

Covering spaces and the fundamental group
One of the most useful tools in studying fundamental groups is that of a covering space. Intuitively speaking, a covering space of a given space $$X$$ is one which 'looks like' a disjoint union of copies of $$X$$ in a small enough neighborhood of any point of $$X$$, but not necessarily globally.

This section will define covering spaces formally, state important lifting theorems for covering spaces, and then show what the consequences are for fundamental groups.

Definition: Suppose $$X$$ is a topological space. A space $$Z$$ is called a covering space for $$X$$ if we are given a continuous map $$p: Z \rightarrow X$$ with the following property: for any $$x \in X$$, there exists an open neighborhood $$U \ni x$$ such that

(i) $$p^{-1}(U)$$ is a disjoint union $$\coprod_{\alpha \in A}V_\alpha$$of open subsets of $$Z$$;

(ii) the restriction of $$p$$ to any of these open subsets $$V_{\alpha}$$ is a homeomorphism from $$V_{\alpha}$$ to U.

Unsurprisingly, we call $$p$$ a covering map.

Example: In fact, we've already seen an example of a covering space. In the calculation of $$\pi_1(S^1)$$ above, we implicitly made us of the fact that the real line $$\mathbb{R}$$ is a covering space for $$S^1$$. The map $$p: \mathbb{R} \rightarrow S^1, t \mapsto e^{2\pi i t}$$ is the covering map. How can we check this? Well, recall that $$e^{2 \pi i t_1} = e^{2 \pi i t_2}$$ iff the difference $$t_1 - t_2$$ is an integer. So, suppose we're given a point $$x \in S^1$$. Let $$U_x = S^1 - \{-x\}$$ - that is, the set consisting of the whole circle except for the point antipodal to $$x$$. Then a little thought shows that if $$Arg(x) = t_x$$, we have $$p^{-1}(U) = \mathbb{R} - \{ t_x + \mathbb{Z}\}$$. In other words, the preimage of $$U$$ consists of the whole real line except for a 'hole' at each point $$t_x + n, n \in \mathbb{Z}$$.

It's clear (draw a picture!) that this set is a disjoint union of subintervals, and one can check that the exponential function maps each subinterval homeomorphically onto $$U_x$$. So we do have a covering map. Neat! $$\square$$

Homotopy Lifting
Now we come to a theorem which looks a bit esoteric at first, but in fact allows us to do much with covering spaces.

Theorem (Homotopy Lifting): Suppose $$p : Z \rightarrow X$$ is a covering map for a space $$X$$. Let $$f: I^n \rightarrow X$$ be a map from the unit $$n$$-cube to $$X$$, and $$F: I^{n+1} \rightarrow X$$ a homotopy of $$f$$ to another map $$f': I^n \rightarrow X$$. Suppose (for the last time!) that $$\phi: I^n \rightarrow Z$$ is a map satisfying $$p \cdot \phi = f$$. Then there exists a unique map $$\Phi: I^{n+1} \rightarrow Z$$ satisfying the following:

(i) $$\Phi |_{I^n} = \phi$$;

(ii)$$p \cdot \Phi = F$$. $$\square$$

The proof is quite technical, but straightforward, and so is omitted. Any introductory book on algebraic topology should give it --- see, for example, Armstrong, "Basic Topology" (Springer). At first sight this is pretty daunting, so let's take a concrete case to make it easier to digest. Suppose $$n=0$$ --- then $$I^n$$ is just a point, and hence $$f: I^n \rightarrow X$$ is just a function selecting a particular point of $$X$$. Hence $$f$$ can be identified with its image, a point $$x_0 \in X$$. Now a homotopy from $$f$$ to another map is (recalling the definition of homotopy) just a map $$F: I \rightarrow X$$ such that $$F(0) = x_0$$; hence, nothing more than a path in $$X$$ starting at $$x_0$$. What does the theorem tell us about covering maps $$p: Z \rightarrow X$$?

It says (check it!) that if $$z_0 \in Z$$ is a point such that $$p(z_0) = x_0$$, and $$\gamma$$ is a path in $$X$$ starting at $$x_0$$, then there is a unique path $$\gamma'$$ in $$Z$$ starting at $$z_0$$ such that $$p \dot \gamma' = \gamma$$. In fancier (and looser) terminology, we say that a path in $$X$$ has a unique lift to $$Z$$, once the starting point of the lift has been chosen.

On reflection, this result --- sometimes known as the path lifting theorem --- is not so surprising. Think about a covering space as a 'folded-over' version of the base space $$X$$, as in Fig XXXX. If we look at a small open set $$U \subset X$$, its preimage in $$Z$$ is a disjoint union of open sets each homeomorphic to it. If we just concentrate on the portion of $$\gamma$$ lying inside $$U$$ for now, it's clear that for each of the disjoint sets $$V_\alpha$$, there is a unique path in $$V_\alpha$$ which maps onto $$\gamma$$ via the covering map $$p$$. So to specify a lift, we simply need to choose which of the sets $$V_\alpha$$ it lives in (and this is equivalent to choosing a point in the preimage of $$x_0$$ as above). Now the whole path $$\gamma$$ can be split up as a finite 'chain' of short paths living inside 'small' open sets like $$U$$ (check this!), so finite induction shows that the whole lift is uniquely determined in this way.

Covering Spaces and $$\pi_1$$
Now we come to the connection between covering spaces and the fundamental group, which is of major significance.

Theorem: Given a covering space $$p: Z \rightarrow X$$, the map $$p$$ induces a map $$p_* : \pi_1(Z) \rightarrow \pi_1(X)$$ which is an injective (i.e. 1-1) group homomorphism.

Proof (Sketch): First, consider a path $$\gamma$$ in $$Z$$: it's a continuous map $$\gamma : I \rightarrow Z$$, and so we can compose it with the covering map $$p$$ to get a path $$p \cdot \gamma$$ in $$X$$. So we have a map

$$p':$$ paths in $$Z \rightarrow$$ paths in $$X$$.

We want to show this can be used to define a map

$$p*:$$ homotopy classes of loops in $$Z$$ based at $$z_0 \rightarrow$$ homotopy classes of paths in $$X$$ based at $$x_0$$.

This sounds complicated, but in fact isn't at all: the idea is, given a homotopy $$H: I \times I \rightarrow Z$$ between two paths $$\gamma_1$$ and $$\gamma_2$$ in $$Z$$, the composition $$p \cdot H$$ is a homotopy in $$X$$ between their images $$p'(\gamma_1)$$ and $$p'(\gamma_2)$$. (If this still seems opaque, be sure to check the details.) Also, loops based at $$z_0$$ clearly map to loops based at $$p(z_0)$$.

So, we have our map $$p*$$ as desired, mapping $$\pi_1(Z,z_0)$$ to $$\pi_1(X,p(z_0)).$$ We still need to show (a) that it's a group homomorphism, and (b) that it's injective.

(a) is pretty easy. To prove it, choose two elements of $$\pi_1(Z,z_0)$$. These are homotopy classes of based loops, so we can choose loops to represent them. What we need to see is that if we concatenate these loops, and then look at the image of this concatenation in $$X$$, the result is homotopic to the loop we get if we first map each of the loops via $$p'$$ and then concatenate them. Convince yourself that this is so.

(b) is more tricky. To prove it, we must show that the kernel of the homomorphism $$p*$$ described above consists just of the identity element of $$pi_1(Z,z_0)$$. So, suppose we have a path $$\gamma$$ representing an element $$[\gamma]$$ in the kernel: so $$p*([\gamma])$$ is the identity of $$\pi_1(X,p(z_0))$$. By definition of $$p*$$, this means that $$p'(\gamma)$$ is homotopic in $$X$$ to the constant path at $$p(z_0)$$. So suppose $$F: I \times I \rightarrow X$$ is such a homotopy: the trick is to use the homotopy lifting theorem (above) to 'lift' $$F$$ to $$F'$$, a homotopy in $$Z$$ from $$\gamma$$ to the constant path at $$z_0$$. (Again, one should check the details of this!) Since such a homotopy $$F'$$ exists, this shows that the homotopy class $$[\gamma]$$ is the identity element of $$\pi_1(Z,z_0)$$. So the only element in the kernel of $$p*$$ is the identity element of $$\pi_1(Z,z_0)$$, so $$p*$$ is injective, as required. $$\square$$

Let's think about the significance of this result for a moment. An injective homomorphism of groups $$G \rightarrow H$$ is essentially the same as a subgroup $$G_H \subset H$$, so the first thing the theorem tells us is that there's a significant restriction on possible covering spaces for a given space $$X$$: $$Z$$ can't be a covering space for $$X$$ unless $$\pi_1(Z)$$ is a subgroup of $$\pi_1(X)$$. Right off the bat, this rules out whole classes of maps from being covering maps. There's no covering map from the circle $$S^1$$ to the real line $$\mathbb{R}$$, for example, since the fundamental group of the circle is isomorphic to the integers, as we saw above, while that of the real line is trivial (why?). Similarly, there's no covering map from the torus $$S^1 \times S^1$$ to the two-dimensional sphere $$S^2$$  --- the latter has trivial fundamental group, while that of the former is $$\mathbb{Z}^2$$ (the direct sum of two copies of the integers). And so on, ad infinitum.

This latter example is particularly nice, I think, in that it shows how looking at algebraic invariants of spaces (in this case, fundamental groups), rather than our geometric 'mental picture' of the spaces themselves, vastly simplifies arguments about the existence or form of particular kinds of maps between spaces. Can you give me a simple geometric argument to show that there's no possible way to 'wrap' $$S^2$$ around the torus so that every point is covered an equal number of times? Can you do the same for the three-dimensional sphere $$S^3$$? For $$S^n$$? (If so, I humbly salute you.)

Example: Now let's look at a specific covering space, and see what the homomorphism $$p*$$ we talked about above actually is in a concrete case. Think about the circle $$S^1$$ as the unit circle in the complex plane: $$s^1 = \{z \in \mathbb{C}: |z| = 1\}$$. Then we can define a continuous map $$p:S^1 \rightarrow S^1$$ by $$p(z) = z^2$$.

I claim that $$p$$ is a covering map. To see this, imagine a point $$e^{i\theta}$$ of $$S^1$$ (with $$0 \leq \theta < 2\pi$$). It isn't hard to see that there are exactly two points $$z' \in S^1$$ such that p(z') = z; moreover, if we look at a 'small enough' circular arc around $$z$$, its preimage under $$p$$ will consist of two disjoint circular arcs, each containing one of the two preimages of $$z$$, and each mapped homeomorphically onto our original arc by $$p$$. (Check these details!)

So, $$p$$ is a covering map, and so the above theorem tells us that $$p*$$ is a group homomorphism from the fundamental group of the circle to itself. In symbols, we have $$p^*: \mathbb{Z} \rightarrow \mathbb{Z}$$. But what is it? To answer this, consider a path $$\gamma$$ in $$S^1$$ that winds once around the origin. As we saw in the previous section, the equivalence class of such a path is mapped to the element $$1 \in \mathbb{Z}$$ under the isomorphism $$\pi_1(S^1) \cong \mathbb{Z}$$. Now, to work out $$p*[\gamma]$$, we look at the equivalence class of the path $$p \cdot \gamma$$ in $$S^1$$ (this is just the defintion of $$p*$$). It's easy to check (do it!) that $$p \cdot \gamma$$ is a path is $$S^1$$ winding twice around the origin, and so its equivalence class is $$[\gamma] * [\gamma]$$. So we have $$p*([\gamma]) = [\gamma] * [\gamma]$$. Looking at $$\pi_1(S^1)$$ as the group of integers, we have $$p*(1) = 2$$. So $$p^*: \mathbb{Z} \rightarrow \mathbb{Z}$$ is just the doubling map! Of course, it's all well and good introducing new concepts like covering spaces, but this doesn't achieve a lot unless our new concepts prove useful in some way. Covering spaces have indeed proved useful in many ways, but hopefully the following example will suffice to illustrate this point:

Theorem (Nielsen-Schreier): Any subgroup of a free group is free.

Proof (Sketch): Consult Wikipedia for a rigorous definition of 'free group': roughly speaking, it is a group in which no non-trivial combination of elements equals the identity. Now, the strategy of proof is along the following lines:

1) Given a free group $$F$$, find a graph $$X$$ with $$\pi_1(X) = F$$. (Note that a graph is a topological space consisting of a discrete set of points to which are attached a family of line segments. Again see Wikipedia for a rigorous definition.)

2) Show that for a space $$X$$ and a subgroup $$H < \pi_1(X)$$, there exists a covering space $$Z$$ for $$X$$ with $$\pi_1(Z) = H$$.

3) Show that any covering space for a graph is itself a graph.

4) Show that the fundamental group of a graph is a free group.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Theorem: Let f be a non-constant polynomial with coefficients in the complex numbers $$\mathbb{C}$$. Then there exists a root of that polynomial in $$\mathbb{C}$$. Phrased in the language of algebra, the set of complex numbers $$\mathbb{C}$$ are algebraically closed.

Proof
Suppose that $$p\in\mathbb{C}[z]$$ has no roots in $$\mathbb{C}$$. Without loss of generality, we may assume $$p$$ is monic (if not, then make an appropriate change of variables), and thus we write $$ p(z) = z^n + \sum_{i = 1}^{n} a_iz^{n-i} $$. Given $$q\in \mathbb{C}[z]$$ with no roots, define a function $$ f_q:[0,\infty)\rightarrow \Omega(S^1,1)$$ by $$ \begin{align} f_q(r)(s) = \frac{q(r\exp(2\pi i s))/q(r)}{\vert q(r\exp(2\pi) i s)/q(r)\vert}. \end{align} $$ It is readily checked that $$f_q(r)$$ is a well defined loop in $$S^1$$ for all choices of $$r$$. Given any $$r^\prime\in [0,\infty)$$, we may construct a path homotopy $$H_{r^\prime}:I\times I\rightarrow S^1$$ from $$f_p(0)$$ to $$f_p(r^\prime)$$ by $$H_{r^\prime}(s,t) = f_p(tr)(s)$$. But $$f_p(0)$$ is the constant loop at $$1\in S^1$$, so $$f_p(r)$$ is null-homotopic for all $$ r$$.

We now show that, for a particular choice of $$ r$$, that $$ f_p(r)$$ is homotopic to the loop $$\omega_n:I\rightarrow S^1$$, $$\omega_n(s) = \exp(2\pi i n s)$$, where $$ n$$ is the degree of $$ p$$. Since $$\omega := \omega_1$$ is a generator for $$\pi_1(S^1,1)$$, $$\omega_n$$ is path homotopic to $$\omega^n$$, and we already know that $$f_p(r)$$ is null-homotopic, this will imply that $$ n = 0$$, and thus that $$p$$ is a constant polynomial.

To this end, fix $$ r_0 > \max\lbrace 1, \sum_{i=1}^{n}\vert a_i\vert\rbrace$$, and let $$ C$$ be the circle in the complex plane of radius $$ r_0$$. For all $$ z\in C $$ and all $$ t\in [0,1]$$, we have $$ \begin{align} \vert z^n\vert >& \vert z^{n-1}\vert\sum_{i = 1}^n\vert a_i\vert\\ >& \sum_{i = 1}^n\vert a_iz^{n-i}\vert\\ \geq &\left\vert\sum_{i = 1}^na_iz^{n-i}\right\vert\\ \geq &t\left\vert\sum_{i = 1}^na_iz^{n-i}\right\vert.\\ \end{align} $$

This implies that for all $$ t\in[0,1]$$, the polynomial $$ p_t(z) := z^n + t\sum_{i = 1}^{n}a_iz^{n-i}$$ has no roots on $$ C$$, for if it did, this would imply that $$\vert z^n\vert = \vert t\vert\left\vert\sum_{i = 1}^na_iz^{n-i}\right\vert$$, contrary to the above (strict) inequality. Now define $$ J:I\times I \rightarrow S^1$$ by $$ J(s,t) = f_{p_t}(s) $$. It is easy to check that $$ J$$ is a path homotopy from $$\omega_n$$ to $$ f_p(r_0)$$, which we have shown is null-homotopic. Thus $$ n = 0$$, and the proof is complete.

title: Topology/The fundamental group


text:
Talk:Logic for Computer Science/Propositional Logic

There seems to be a flaw in the proof that resolution is complete (see the second theorem under Properties of Propositional Resolution). The problem comes at the statement:

First, notice that
 * $$Res(\phi^p) = \{C-\{\lnot p\}: C \in Res(\phi), p\notin C\}$$.

Taken literally, this is false. For instance, consider $$C = \{\lnot p\vee p, p\vee r\}$$. Then $$\phi^p = \{q\} = Res(\phi^p)$$ and $$Res(\phi) = \{\lnot p\vee p, p\vee r, q\vee r\}$$, so the right-hand side of the above formula is $$\{q, q\vee r\} \ne \phi^p\}$$. The author seems to have used subsumption, that is, if some clause is a superset of another, remove that clause. With this addition, which is more or less a new inference rule, the two sides do become equal if the right-hand side has been fully reduced by subsumption. Another possibility would be to define the "=" in the statement to mean logical equivalence as defined by truth tables. Either of these would require further exposition. Even then, however, the proof is too brief. It took me some hours to "notice" that the statement is true, even after thinking about subsumption. I believe, therefore, that the proof should be expanded to make it clearer, as follows (I have found it convenient to define "closure", which is in a sense the opposite of subsumption):

First, I would add, earlier in the section, the following.

Fact X: A CNF formula is satiisfiable if and only if the foumula created by replacing every occurrance of some variable $$p$$ by $$\lnot p$$ and vice versa is satisfiable.

This is a useful fact in itself, and one that my students, anyhow, would often not see for themselves. Then, in the proof or elsewhere, I would define the closure $$cl(\phi)$$ to be the formula obtained by adding to $$\phi$$ every superset of the clauses in $$cl(\phi)$$. I would then change the proof, starting with the observation that if $$cl(\phi)$$ contains neither $$\Box$$ nor $$lnot p$$, neither does $$cl(\phi)$$, since the new formula can only produce longer clauses than the old one, not shorter. Also, I would note that if $$\phi$$ is closed, then so is $$Res(\phi)$$. After defining $$\phi^p$$ (as an operation on any formula), I would observe that if $$\phi$$ is closed, then so is $$\phi^p$$. (I might give each of these facts a one-sentence proof.) I would then say

Claim: If $$cl(\phi)$$ is closed, then :$$Res(\phi^p) = (Res(\phi))^p.$$.

Note that this is just a simpler way to write the statement that I first mentioned. Then,

Proof: First, consider any $$C\in \phi^p$$.

--Stefan Burr 15:59, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Go a head and make the changes! MShonle 01:21, 21 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I think the horn clause example is faulty. It says:

 Special case for which SAT is in polynomial time. Example:

$$(p \vee \neg q \vee r) \wedge (\neg p \vee q \vee \neg r)$$ A Horn clause is a disjunction of literals of which at most one is positive.

But in the example both p and r are positive literals!

Magnus Jonsson 21:03, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

Informal presentation needed?
Sorry if this is an incorrect assumption as I am unsure of the intended audience of this book, but it seems to me that if someone is already familiar with the syntax and semantics of set theory, and comfortable reading and understanding formal mathematical definitions, then surely they will be intimately familiar with propositional logic. Even having a chapter on propositional logic tells me that this chapter is probably meant for someone who is also unfamiliar with higher-order logics and discrete math concepts.

I would probably give an introduction and truth tables for logical connectives; and the nature of compound vs atomic statements. Maybe a little bit of history on logic and expand further upon the domain of problems that propositional logic can solve as opposed to higher order logics; and give an overview of these categories - separated from the formal definitions of concepts.

Minor points
I'm no expert, but the second numbered line describing CNF seems wrong to me:

Shouldn't it be "φ is true when $$\neg \psi$$ is true"? Or "φ is true when $$\psi$$ is false"? 75.162.244.167 (talk) 06:01, 2 September 2009 (UTC)


text:
User:Benher~enwikibooks

Professional Ex-Pat presently living in Osaka.

title: User:Benher~enwikibooks


text:
Radiation Oncology/Palliation/Palliation Overview

General review

 * Hoegler - PMID 9202888 — "Radiotherapy for palliation of symptoms in incurable cancer." Hoegler D. Curr Probl Cancer. 1997 May-Jun;21(3):129-83.
 * Nice abstract. Discusses hemi-body radiotherapy.

Palliative Prognostic (PaP) Score

 * Best validated and most widely used predictive scoring system
 * Endorsed by European Association for Palliative Care

 * Milan; 1999 (Italy) PMID 10203875 -- "A new palliative prognostic score: a first step for the staging of terminally ill cancer patients. Italian Multicenter and Study Group on Palliative Care." (Pirovano M, J Pain Symptom Manage. 1999 Apr;17(4):231-9.)
 * Model developed for survival in terminally ill cancer patients
 * Variables (total tally)
 * Dyspnea: no (0) vs yes (1)
 * Anorexia: no (0) vs yes (1.5)
 * KPS: >=30 (0) vs. 10-20 (2.5)
 * CPS (clinical prediction of survival, in weeks): 11-12 (2.0) vs. 7-10 (2.5) vs. 5-6 (4.5) vs 3-4 (6.0) vs. 1-2 (8.5)
 * WBC: <8.5K (0) vs. 8.5-11K (0.5) vs. >11K (1.5)
 * Lymphocyte percentage: 20-40% (0) vs. 12-20% (1.0) vs. <12% (2.5)
 * Risk groups (30-day survival probability):
 * Score 0-5.5: >70%
 * Score 5.6-11: 30-70%
 * Score 11-17.5: <30%

Hemibody Irradiation

 * RTOG 8206 -- Local RT + hemibody RT vs Local RT + observation
 * Randomized. 499 patients with painful body metastases, treated with standard palliative RT 30/10 to symptomatic site, then Arm 1) hemibody irradiation 8/1 (local site shielded, lungs max 7 Gy) vs Arm 2) no further treatment
 * 1992 PMID 1374061 -- "A report of RTOG 8206: a phase III study of whether the addition of single dose hemibody irradiation to standard fractionated local field irradiation is more effective than local field irradiation alone in the treatment of symptomatic osseous metastases." (Poulter CA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;23(1):207-14.)
 * Outcome: 1-year retreatment rate HBI 60% vs OBS 76%; 1-year disease progression HBI 35% vs OBS 46%
 * Toxicity: 5-15%
 * Conclusion: Hemibody irradiation can treat systemic and occult mets

 * RTOG 78-10; 1981 (1978-1980) PMID 6169699 -- "Single-dose half-body irradiation for the palliation of multiple bone metastases from solid tumors: a preliminary report." (Salazar OM, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1981 Jun;7(6):773-81.)
 * Prospective, dose-escalation. 91 patients (mostly breast, prostate, lung), significant cancer pain. Treated with upper hemibody irradiation (UHBI: above head to bottom of L4), midbody irradiation (MBI: top of diaphgram to bottom of obturator foramina), or lower hemibody irradiation (bottom of L4 to mid-ankles). Doses UHBI 6/1 -> 7/1 -> 8/1, and MBI/LHBI 8/1 -> 9/1 -> 10/1. Dose-rate 15-45 rad/min. Protection for eyes, mouth, parotids and lungs.
 * Outcome: Pain relief 77% (complete 21%); within 48 hours in 50%
 * Toxicity: Grade 3-4 nausea/vomiting/diarrhea in 12%, minimal with 8/1 more significant with 10/1
 * Conclusion: 6/1 insufficient, 8/1 effective, no benefit for further increase. Results comparable to conventional 30/1