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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Philosophy and Ethics/Purpose

What is the purpose of schooling? That is the question, isn’t it? Neil Postman said, “without a purpose, schools are houses of detention, not attention” (1995, p.7). Therefore, school must be given a purpose, but how is that done? It proves to be as difficult and contestable as the purpose of life. There are many reasons why there is schooling and why it is essential, but some also argue, no longer necessary.

For the purposes of this article the words schooling and education are used interchangeably, many people try to separate them as having very different meanings. This is simply not true, schooling as well as education, can take place anywhere at anytime. Schooling is not a building; a school is called so because schooling, as well as education, takes place there (See sidebar).

Is School for Knowledge?
If asked, most people would say that the purpose of school is to provide knowledge, but the question becomes what knowledge and who should decide. Is learning for the sake of learning what school is about? Learning expands the mind and school is a way for students to be exposed to different ideas and concepts. Knowledge obtained through school can provide students with a sense of personal fulfillment (Education).

It is argued that anything learned in school could be learned on your own (Gatto, 2005). In the modern day of the Internet and with vast libraries of knowledge available to us, this is very true. There then becomes a problem of motivation. What would make someone want to learn math or science? Does a child just decide someday that they want to learn all about Chemistry? (Postman 1995) It is not an issue of what information is necessary, but an issue of exposing students to different ideas that they can choose to grow and build on. It is teaching them how to learn. Education should expose students to information and teach them how to think not tell them what to think. Martin Luther King Jr said, “Education must enable one to sift and weigh evidence, to discern the true from the false, the real from the unreal, and the facts from the fiction” (1947).

Is School for Producing Citizens?
It has been said by many that public education is for the purpose of producing Americans and “maintaining our democracy” (O’Brien, 2005, p 34). “A democratic state requires the education of critical, thoughtful citizens who can define their own purposes and are able and willing to act upon their ideas" (O’Brien, 2005, p 34). This knowledge is required to keep the United States a democratic nation and the way to make sure all American citizens possess these skills is to teach them in educational institutions.

School is a shared experience in life that helps to develop students into Americans, as well as, the knowledge of how America works, how America got here, and what it means to be a citizen (Roosevelt, 1930). Some do see it as way to control students or teach them only to obey (Gatto 2005). This may be the case in some schools, like a school system in Florida, which is teaching the idea that the American way is the only way as part of their defined curriculum (Postman 1995). It is widely agreed upon that one of the purposes of school is to understand our country and how it works, either as a way to operate in society or question and change it. It makes it possible for students to control their own future.

Is School for Getting a Job?
Not everyone has the opportunities or wants to go to college. Therefore, a purpose of school must be to give students the skills to get a job. This means that education is a way for anyone to support him or herself and economically contribute to society (Education). Some of these skills are taught in the basic classes everyone takes: reading, writing, and arithmetic. There is also vocational education, which is extremely important to the lives of students who do not enjoy academia. Just because a student does not like school does not mean that the school should ignore them. It is the school’s responsibility to educate all students and prepare them for their future.

Is School for Socialization?
It is argued that any of the above items can be learned on your own (Gatto, 2005). As stated earlier, the issue of motivation and outside circumstances does provide a problem with this theory, but what can replace the socialization that a student receives in school?

Einstein said that the school’s responsibility is to educate the individual as a free individual, but to also educate them to be part of society (Haselhurst, 2007). Students are around hundreds of people their own age and this teaches them how to act in society and how to communicate. This is helpful no matter what they do with their future and nothing can replace those skills. Being in a school with that many people also exposes the student to people who are different from him or herself and this is extremely helpful in anyone’s development as a human being and a better member of society (Postman, 1995). Professor Nel Noddings said that school’s aim is “to produce competent, caring, loving, and lovable people” (Kohn, 2004, p.2).

Conclusion
The answer to all of the above questions is, yes and so much more. The answer to the purpose of schooling is everything. It is not all about testable knowledge; it is about life experience and possibilities. Thomas Jefferson conceived of education as “the ideal of offering all children the opportunity to succeed, regardless of who their parents happen to be” (Hirsch, 2006, p 30). That is the true purpose of education, it offers the student options and allows the student to make the choice of what they want to do or be. American society is no longer structured to hold anyone back based on his or her class in society. Schooling provides a place to begin and grow. “The purpose of public education is to help the young transcend individual identity by finding inspiration in the story of humanity” (Postman, 1995, p 171).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Forgotten Half/Alternatives

“A student’s decision to drop out of school has long term consequences that can contribute to juvenile delinquency, welfare dependency, or, in the worst cases, prison” (“Dropouts,” n.d.). The U.S. Department of Education reports the following reasons for students to drop out of school: dislike of school, retention at grade level, a sense that teachers and administrators do not care about them, uncomfortable in a large, depersonalized school setting, and low academic achievement (“Dropouts,” n.d.). In order to prevent a student from dropping out of school, prevention must begin as early as preschool. If a child begins school prepared, the chance of becoming a successful student increases; however, if a child enters school unprepared, the chance that student may drop out increases. Upon recognizing an unprepared student, a teacher may utilize such alternatives as applying different learning strategies and styles to that student’s learning process, and providing additional tutoring to encourage and increase academic achievement.

School Readiness
A school-ready or prepared child possesses the following characteristics: confidence, friendliness, good peer relationships, persistence at challenging tasks, good language development, good communication, listens well, and is attentive (Report on the importance.., 2000). If a child does not develop these characteristics before entering school, behavioral, emotional, and academic problems may result and continue through that child’s life (Report on the importance.., 2000). My son, Nicholas, is an excellent example of a child that was not school ready. He was not socially or emotionally developed; therefore, the decision was made to hold him back from entering kindergarten until the next year. Nicholas is now a fourth grade honor student. The decision resulted in academic success for him. If a child is socially, emotionally, and academically ready for school, the basis for academic success will be laid.

Learning Strategies
Many students enter school unprepared without a basis for academic achievement. As a result, a teacher must intervene by utilizing appropriate learning strategies in order to increase academic achievement for the unprepared student. All students learn differently, what works for one student will not necessarily work for another. A responsible teacher will try to determine the best learning strategy and utilize it daily to increase learning for the unprepared student. Some examples of effective learning strategies are methods for improving memory for better studying or test-taking skills, changing the design of instruction, and following a study skill program.

Classic Memory Technique
A classic memory improvement technique improves the memory for better studying or test-taking skills (“Learning Strategies,” n.d.). This method requires the student to associate facts to be remembered to particular locations (“Learning Strategies,” n.d.).

Change in Design of Instruction
A good example of a change in the design of instruction is reversing the order of when questions are asked about a particular lesson. Instead of asking questions at the end of the lesson, they may be asked before as well as during the lesson (“Learning Strategies,” n.d.). By changing the design of instruction, the student is encouraged to pay closer attention to the lesson.

SQ3R Study Skill Program
The SQ3R study skill program suggests five steps to increase learning, which are as follows:
 * 1) Survey the material to be learned
 * 2) Develop questions about the material
 * 3) Read the material
 * 4) Recall the key ideas
 * 5) Review the material (“Learning Strategies,” n.d.)

By following these steps, a student increases his or her understanding of the material and the chances of academic achievement.

Learning Styles
Before discussing learning styles, the idea that boys and girls learn differently must be understood. Boys tend to work silently while girls use words as they learn (Gurian et al., 2001). Boys use deductive reasoning enabling them to be more successful at multiple choice tests whereas girls use inductive reasoning (Gurian et al., 2001). Girls are generally better listeners than boys, which usually results in the boys giving up on learning or creating mischief (Gurian et al., 2001). These are just a few of the differences in learning between boys and girls; however, teachers need to be mindful of these differences when working to better prepare a student for learning.

“Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning” (“Learning Styles,” n.d.). The three types of learning styles are the visual learner, the auditory learner, and the tactile/kinesthetic learner.

Visual Learner
The visual learner learns best by seeing “the teacher’s body language and facial expression” (“Learning Styles,” n.d.) during a lesson. Diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead projections, videos, and handouts are helpful to the visual learner’s learning process (“Learning Styles,” n.d.).

Auditory Learner
The auditory learner learns best by listening to lectures and participating in discussions (“Learning Styles,” n.d.). Auditory learners also benefit from reading text aloud or listening to a recorder (“Learning Styles,” n.d.).

Tactile/Kinesthetic
The tactile/kinesthetic learner learns best by moving, doing, and touching (“Learning Styles,” n.d.). By taking hands on approach, the degree of learning for the tactile/kinesthetic learner increases.

Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences may also be considered as an alternative to achieve academic success. Wikipedia defines multiple intelligences as an educational theory developed by psychologist, Howard Gardner, which describes a variety of different types of “intelligences” that exist in human beings (“Theory of multiple intelligences,” n.d.). The different types of “intelligences” or set of abilities, talents, or mental skills are as follows:
 * Musical intelligence – important in the perception and production of music
 * Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence – concerned with body movements
 * Logical-mathematical intelligence – enhances problem solving
 * Linguistic intelligence – deals with the development of language
 * Spatial intelligence – the ability to visualize objects from different angles
 * Interpersonal intelligence – the ability to distinguish moods, temperaments, and intentions of other individuals
 * Intrapersonal intelligence – knowledge of one’s inner being (Gardner, 2006).

“Mastery of a concept or theory requires repeated exposure to that material: one almost never achieves instant understanding” (Gardner, 2006, p. 60). In most cases, understanding is more likely to be achieved if information is presented to a student in a variety of ways (Gardner, 2006). Gardner believes the best way to do this is to “draw on all of the intelligences that are relevant to that topic in as many legitimate ways as possible” (Gardner, 2006, p. 60).

When teachers have to determine the different learning styles and intelligences of the students in their classroom, it creates an incredible amount of additional work; however, the goal of every teacher should be to increase a student’s learning and to make that learning enjoyable. When that goal is accomplished, it is rewarding for the teacher.

Tutoring
Tutoring is another possible alternative to increase a student’s learning and the chance for academic achievement. Students may be tutored on a one-on-one basis, or in an after-school program. “The need for successful educational initiatives such as tutoring for lower-performing students has become increasingly important due to the demands of No Child Left Behind and its emphasis on improving standardized test scores” (Baker, 2006, para. 5). According to the experts, after-school hours give students the opportunity to further engage in academic, social, and physical activities (“After-School Program,” n.d.). The afterschool program at Stuart Elementary School in Stuart, Virginia, offers homework assistance from teachers in addition to recreational activities. This routine ensures that the student’s homework gets completed with an understanding of the material; therefore, increasing the chances of academic success.

Conclusion
The alternatives discussed in this article are suggestions for teachers to utilize in helping students to succeed; however, the student has to want to succeed. The teacher can work with the student in every way possible, but the process is a two way street. The student has to put forth as much effort as the teacher. By working with the teacher, a student can attain academic achievement and become a successful graduate instead of a school dropout and a member of the forgotten half.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Dynamic Learning Environment/Engagement

“Do not train children to learning by force and harshness, but direct them to it by what amuses their minds, so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of each” (Shalaway). These words of inspiration for teachers, left to us by Plato, provide the framework for seeing the importance of engaging students in the classroom. Through engagement, a teacher can positively influence the way his or her students view learning. Chances are you remember a certain teacher who truly made an impression on your young life. It is also likely that this particular teacher in your life is someone you would like to model in your own teaching career. All teachers have a desire to be “THE ONE” students remember as making a profound difference in their lives. In order to achieve that goal, we must first look at the importance of engagement in the classroom. After all, learning can not take place unless those being taught are engaged in the lesson! Several keys unlock the door to the importance of the art of engagement in the classroom: enthusiasm, curiosity, opportunity, environment and motivation. Each of these key items plays a vital role in recognizing the importance of engaging students.

Enthusiasm
The first key is enthusiasm. Former classroom teacher and current school librarian Nicole Foley says, “Teachers must be everything. Given the amount and quality of entertainment children are exposed to these days, teachers have to be entertainers to engage their students. You must convey your enthusiasm to hook your students. Engagement is 99% of teaching. If you get their attention and keep it, the lessons themselves are so much easier!”(N. Foley, personal interview, September 16, 2006). Enthusiasm does not necessarily mean doing handstands or waving your arms wildly in front of the classroom, although this would definitely be engaging. Enthusiasm stems from a love of teaching and the attitude a teacher brings into the classroom. ChartHouse Learning and the FISH! Philosophy tells us to: Be There, Play, Make Their Day, and Choose Your Attitude (Strand). These are all keys to engagement, and the great significance engagement plays in the classroom. Attitude is everything, says Ryan and Cooper, who wrote Those Who Can, Teach. “If teachers have warmth, empathy, sensitivity, enthusiasm, and humor, they are much more likely to be successful than if they lack these characteristics” (Ryan). A teacher who models enthusiasm will infect students with a passion and desire to learn. True learning stems from this desire. If a teacher has a genuine enthusiasm for teaching in general, it makes it much easier for him or her to find the enthusiasm within for specific lessons. Remember, it is very difficult to be interested in something that the presenter obviously finds boring. Every classroom can thrive with enthusiasm, because enthusiasm fosters curiosity.

Curiosity
Curiosity is the second key in the importance of engaging students in the classroom. WANTING to know something makes it so much easier to “tune-in” to the subject matter. Enthusiasm is contagious. This point is brought out in The Excellent 11, by Ron Clark, teacher, author, and motivator. It may take some time, but students will begin to “catch” your enthusiasm in the classroom. The excitement you share will foster curiosity (Clark). Humans are, by nature, creatures of curiosity. To tap into that natural interest is to keep the minds of your students open and wanting to learn (Shalaway). Being curious with your students is also very important. Any group of students will be more interested if the teacher shows interest in learning with his or her students. Modeling curiosity sends the message that “we will learn together”. The concept of curiosity provides NATURAL motivation, which brings us to the third key to the importance of engagement: opportunity (not sure colon is best punctuation?).

Opportunity
The science of teaching is dependent upon engagement because it provides the opportunity, through creative means, to see and teach to different learning styles and skill levels. Engagement also provides the opportunity to become aware of areas where strengths and weaknesses lie. Being fully engaged WITH your students provides the opportunity to explore any lesson in a number of different ways (visual, tactile, and auditory). In addition, being fully engaged with your students will give you a chance to practice the true work of a teacher: molding students into independent thinkers and teaching them how to learn. Kathryn Elmore, a teaching associate at Roanoke College, told The Roanoke Times, “Our children are our greatest hope for fixing the messes we have made of this world. We must embolden them to think outside the box. We need to teach them not just to answer correctly, but to question the answers they have been given”(Elmore). It is through the opportunity afforded us by way of engagement that we can achieve this goal. Engagement provides the opportunity to focus on building a relationship with your students. Elmore also states that “The secret to creating a positive learning community is found within the teacher-student relationship. Good teachers already know this little secret." The significance of engagement in the classroom is seen in the opportunities it provides as well as the environment it creates.

Environment
An engaged classroom environment, the fourth key to understanding the importance of engagement, is achieved by creating a place where students WANT to be. Ron Clark tells a personal story in his book, The Excellent 11, about a year in which he walked into his classroom to find white walls and old, ugly desks. He proceeded to make this room engaging by means of electric blue paint. Voila! The students wanted to come to that classroom, probably to see what he would do next!(Clark). Mr. Clark had an instant environment which engaged his students. The concept of environment as part of the significance of engagement is simple. It reaches far beyond electric blue paint. An engaged teacher makes his or her classroom a place of interest, where students are welcomed by a caring instructor who values their thoughts and opinions.

Motivation
Webster’s Third International Dictionary gives this definition of motivation: “to stimulate the active interest in a study through appeal to associate interests or by special devices: to make a study interesting or otherwise appealing to students.” (Janes, Koutsopanagos, Mason, Villaranda, 2000)  Motivational dispositions are within each of us as a person whether we recognize it or not. It is the fifth key to understanding the importance of engagement. Basically we are born with motivational dispositions. However it is also true to say that there are different types of motivation some we are born with and some that we learn as we have more contact with other human beings in both learning and social environments. As a teacher one of the strongest motivational tools you have is yourself and the classroom. Students must find you and your classroom attractive. Each student wants to know that you, the teacher are happy to be there, which in turn influences them to be happy to be there. Motivation is key to a student’s success. “…students’ motivation to learn apply not only to performance (work on assignments or test) but also to the information processing that is involved in learning content or skills in the first place (attending to lessons, reading for understanding, comprehending instructions, putting things into one’s own words).” Brophy.

High motivation can help students get the most out of school. A student’s motivation depends on the student’s desire to participate in the learning process. There are two main types of motivation: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. A student who is intrinsically motivated learns for the enjoyment it provides and for a feeling of accomplishment. When a student learns in order to earn a reward or to avoid a consequence or punishment, the student is extrinsically motivated (Janes, Koutsopanagos, Mason, Villaranda, 2000). Understanding how students are motivated can help teachers engage students in the classroom. In order to develop an engaged learning environment, it is important for teachers to incorporate the students’ interest and curiosity about a particular subject. Incorporating guest speakers, field trips, role-play, reading books and newspapers on a specific subject will engage the students (Janes, Koutsopanagos, Mason, Villaranda, 2000). While utilizing each key (enthusiasm, curiosity, opportunity and environment) to unlock each student’s engagement, keep in mind student’s motivation prevents him or her from being left behind.

Summary
Through the keys of enthusiasm, curiosity, opportunity, environment and motivation you can see the magnitude of engagement in every teacher’s classroom. Although it is our hope as educators that students remember the lessons taught in our classroom, it is certain that they will remember how we made them feel. It is through engagement that a teacher will find the opportunity to make a lifelong impression upon a young child’s heart and mind.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Dynamic Learning Environment/Motivation

Teachers are often faced with three types of students: the overachiever, underachiever, and the child who is some where in between. However, teachers, parents, and school systems are constantly looking for ways to motivate students. Some may say that motivation starts at home. Others may even say that if parents train their child early on to do well in school and to be enthusiastic about learning then most children would do well in school. Then students would not need to be motivated by teachers. In order for motivation to occur all parties must be willing to work together as a whole unit.

What is Motivation
Motivation is to incite, encourage, or arouse a person. People use motivation to help people to enjoy something that they normally find boring and repetitive. There are two basic types of motivation- intrinsic and extrinsic. Jere Brophy states, “ Student motivation is rooted in students' subjective experiences, especially those connected to their willingness to engage in lessons and learning activities and their reasons for doing so.” Motivation is a way for teachers to grab the attention of those who are underachievers in the hope that they will become interested enough in learning so that their grades will rise.

Along with motivation, there comes a motive- a cause or reason to do something. Sometimes it may help if students are given a reason to become higher achievers than they were before. Why should students like history? What will they use history for in the future? Can I succeed without knowing or understanding history? Those are questions students may ask about any subject that does not interest them. The point of motivation is to get students to learn because they want to do it not because state laws require it. Teachers do not wish for students to have the attitude that they are going to do something because they know that it is required. Teachers want their students to learn because it gives them satisfaction.

However, regardless of these facts many children still refuse to learn because a part of them has given up. It's not that they don't care it's the fact that they need someone to care about them and to give them positive reinforcement and encouragement. There are some children who show little to no interest in certain topics, which at times makes it difficult to motivate them to learn. What would it take to get such children interested in learning? Behaviors that help motivate students are "Hold high but realistic expectations for your students, help students set achievable goals for themselves, tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course, strengthen students' self-motivation, avoid creating intense competition among students and be enthusiastic about your subject"(Tools for Teaching).

Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is when people engage in an activity for their own sake. They participate and show interest because they are doing it for their own personal motives. No one has to tell them what to do or why it is important, they just do. Some theories associated with intrinsic motivation are the self-determination theory, basic needs theory and achievement- goal theory.

The self–determination theory states that social settings promote intrinsic motivation when they satisfy three innate psychological needs: autonomy which is self-determination in getting things done the way you want them done, competence which is your ability to learn and use skills for manipulating and controlling environments and relatedness which is your ability to associate yourself with others (Kelly). Those who fall under this category are those whom teachers label as over achievers. “Motivation to succeed is determined by the strength of one’s overall need for achievement….” (Brophy 56). They often already have set goals that they desire to fulfill or are doing so because their parents have always pushed them from the very beginning.

The basic needs theory elaborates the concept of basic needs and its relation to psychological health and well-being (Wiki). This theory goes hand in hand with the self-determination theory because they both deal with healthy development of a person’s personal or psychological needs. Both theories show how people work to become satisfied about something in their lives. These needs are innate, natural, universal, and essential for the health and well-being of all(Wiki).

Achievement goal theory is concerned with individuals who wish to achieve objectives and who desire to succeed. Accomplishment is important for its own sake and not for rewards that accompany it. With this theory people are driven to complete and accomplish goals.

Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is the use of rewards and punishments in order to push students, as well as other unmotivated people, into becoming self-motivated with the desire to learn and to do things required of them. The use of rewards and punishment can be used for both underachievers and those who are neither and do what is necessary only to pass the class. Privileges can also be used to motivate students.

Using extrinsic motivation is a method to an end. Many teachers believe that using extrinsic motivation will meet their short-term expectations goals sooner. Using rewards, even daily, can meet classroom goals, department of education goals and behavioral goals quicker. The students recognize their performance goals, social and academic, by being able to see the end as a reward. Extrinsic motivation is the most popular form of motivation because more students are visual learners then cognitive learners.

According to published results from a conference held on Hard Work and High Expectations, when students combined inspiration and perspiration, they are rewarded. Students are not lazy or stupid. However, you cannot use education reforms to change students who do not set individual goals for themselves. Education is the means to an end.

Teachers are developing classroom strategies to get students to learn. A school format that balances the rewards for effort with the ability works. Set goals for students who are less talented and reward study and personal accomplishments as well as grades. Effort and ability are each student’s instruments for learning.

Active and Passive Motivation
In general, teachers that practice active-motivational techniques will not ask the students to memorize the lecture material through rigorous note taking and repetition. They are more concerned with giving the class the opportunity to understand concepts on an individual level. A student who is actively motivated will learn material understanding that he or she will be putting it to practical use at sometime after. In a sense it’s learning a lesson through direct experience rather than only understanding it conceptually, which allows a student to develop individual perspectives. Passive motivation is described as more of an extrinsic motivational technique. A teacher who motivates students passively will teach material to the students with the intention of testing them after. It is believed that by doing this, the students will learn the material regardless of their interest in it because it will be necessary to complete the test (Benware).

In a study completed by the American Education Research Journal, active and passive motivational techniques were compared in terms of effectiveness. Students learning actively were expected to tutor other students on the material after they learned it as where students learning passively were expected to take a test. It was found that the students who were anticipating tutoring had a learning rating of 7.72 while those learning passively scored a 7.09. They concluded that active motivation more effectively reaches students on an intrinsic level, making it a more efficient method.

How to Motivate Students
There are many possible ways to motivate students. Most students are excited about learning and wants the teacher to challenge them. Parents can help teachers motivate their children by being an active participant in their child’s education. Attending parent teacher conferences can easily do this or by contacting your child’s teacher to see how your child is doing in school. Parents have to be concerned about their children's welfare as well as education. Parents need to be aware of what their child is doing and learning in each of their classes. The concept of doing well in school and enjoying the experience needs to be put into the child’s mind at an early age. Children need to be taught at an early age how important education is and how important it is to have goals.

Teachers can help motivate students in numerous ways. One way to motivate students is that, just as some teachers feel as if they must control their classrooms, students need to feel that they have some control over their education (Kelly). Teachers can give students control by asking them what the class rules should be or asking them how they thought class went last period, and ask them for ways to make the topic more interesting. Secondly, students need to feel competent (Kelly). They need to be able to relate to the topic or subject in some way. Students need to feel that they are able to grasp and understand the material. Finally, students need to feel connected (Kelly). The classroom should be an environment in which they feel safe and wanted. A student should not be afraid or nervous about going into any classroom. Teachers should be supportive and willing to give students recognition when they do something well.

Students play a large role in whether or not they are motivated. They have to make up their own minds that they wish to learn. Parents and teachers can do the things I mentioned above and more, but unless the student is willing to cooperate there is little anyone can do. Motivating students falls not only on teachers but also very much on the students themselves. We look at the teachers when we also need to look at the students and find out why they have no or little interest in learning and what they do have an interest in. Some children just need more help than others. Students must be willing to cooperate with his or her teacher and parents.

According to Tools for Teaching, "Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students' beliefs that they can do well, ensure opportunities for students' success by assigning tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult,help students find personal meaning and value in the material,create an atmosphere that is open and positive and help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community."

Conclusions
Motivating students is a very important topic. Motivating students is a job all by itself unless you have students who are willing to work with you. Involving the students in activities can also help motivate them. I think that any child can be motivated but each party must have open lines of communication. As long as all parties involved feel that they can express their opinions and know that their thoughts are being heard and not falling on deaf ears then that is a huge step in motivating students.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Dynamic Learning Environment/Resource Evaluation

Throughout a person’s life, one is constantly searching for information. One, and sometimes the only, place a person seeks information is on the internet. This is because the internet is growing ever more convenient and requires few skills to navigate. The internet, even though it is easy to retrieve information, does have its drawbacks. One being that just because information is easy to obtain does not mean that it is accurate or valid for that matter.

Pretty much anyone can post information on the internet with relative ease. All that is really needed is internet access, and some knowledge on how to post the information. So, a person does not have to be an authority on any subject to display their knowledge on the internet. With this in mind, the question of how to evaluate the information is constantly being brought up.

As a teacher, it becomes pertinent to teach students how to evaluate this information, and this needs to be done effectively because this is a skill that students will use throughout their lives. Not just in their academic career, but in their professional and personal lives as well.

Things to Look For
Several sources including: Randy Fletcher from Danville Area Community College, Susan Beck from the New Mexico State University Library, the Easley Library of Bluefield College and others, all agree that the 5 major things to look for when evaluating a source of information are: authority, accuracy, objectivity, currency, and coverage/suitability. Being aware of these criteria will aid teachers in teaching students how to evaluate sources of information. While looking through these criteria, there are several questions that need to be asked under each category.

Authority
While trying to evaluate the authority of a site, there are a couple of questions that can be asked. One is, “is the author an expert on the topic, has the author written other material on the topic?” One way to help answer this is to try and find the author’s credentials on the site. Finding credentials will aid in determining why the author is qualified for writing on the topic. If the author is a professor at a college, and the topic being discussed is in his/her field of research, then the author has good credentials and the information most likely valid.

However, for other authors, some background research may be necessary. One quick way to find some background information on the author is to see if there are biographical sources on the author, or perhaps the source provides biographical information.

Another way to quickly determine authority is to look at the URL of the internet source. More reliable sources typically end either in .gov, .edu, or .org. While less reliable sources end in .com. This is because everyone has access to these sites and can post information on these websites. So a source such as wikipedia.com, is not a very reliable source because anyone can post information on that site, regardless of their position.

Accuracy
Another thing to ask when evaluating a source is, “how accurate is the information?” This may require that the person seeking the information has some background knowledge on the subject. Having background knowledge on the subject will make things easier and quicker when deciding whether or not a source is completely inaccurate or does provide some relevance. One more way to help with determining the accuracy of the information from a source is to see if there is a list of sources the author may have used to retrieve information to write their paper. If the author does provide a list of sources, a person can compare the information in the paper with the information from other authors.

Objectivity
In searching for objectivity, one thing to search for is minimal bias. Is the author trying to persuade your opinion? The author should write to present facts and not try to change opinion. The author’s work should contain objectivity. If the author is trying to persuade opinion, then the author’s work is possibly skewed. The author may only be presenting information that will help alter a person’s opinion, while avoiding other information. Sometimes the author only wants you to know what they believe to be true instead of the complete scenario. If this is the case, then the source probably isn’t a reliable one to use, and if the author presents all information without bias, it is probably a more reliable source to use.

Currency
A few things to look for while determining how current an article is are: is there a date present on the article, if so, when the article was last updated, and is the information current. If the article was created or last updated several years prior to the date found, then the information may be out dated. More information on the topic may have been discovered, or some of what was thought to be factual may have been found to be incorrect after more research. The more current a source is, the more reliable the source may be. The author has incorporated more information, and has had a chance to adapt new information, and if need be, alter the information that the author has already retrieved.

Coverage/Suitability
In the source, one thing to look for is how in depth the source delves into the topic. Does the source explain in detail the topic at hand, or does it just give a brief summary? If a source gives a brief summary of the topic, it probably isn't a very reliable source.

Conclusion
As a teacher, we should teach students not just how to find information, but we should teach students how to evaluate the information that they find. A student can find all the information in the world, but that doesn’t mean that the information is factual.

Teaching students to evaluate sources of information is not just a skill, but an ability that they will need, and use throughout their careers. Because of this, this skill needs to be taught effectively. Everything discussed here, will aid in teaching students how to evaluate sources of information, not just internet sources, but all sources. Most of this can be applied to any source of information with a few modifications.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Forgotten Half/Hope Factor

So what is the "Hope Factor" all about anyway? According to Anton Gentry in his book Learning to Survive: Black Youth Look for an Education and Hope, it is the factor that allows even the poorest most destitute individual to succeed. It is the belief that you can do anything you want to do, achieve your wildest dreams, and be anyone in the universe that you want to be. All you need is a sense of hope.

This is evident in the success of many young people. Despite their “bad” beginnings, many go on to do great things, regardless of the stumbling blocks, and sometimes even hurdles, that life throws in their paths. Gentry believes that the Hope Factor is the “triumph of spirit over adversity” and allows students to excel despite their rotten home life, or their boredom with typical school drama, or their chronic colds, and even the dreaded “super-duper senior-itis,” or the repeated failure (Gentry).

The Hope Factor gives those students deemed as the “Forgotten Half” the ability to hope, the belief that they CAN and WILL achieve whatever they want.

Who is the "Forgotten Half"?
According to the William T. Grant Foundation, the forgotten half are the young people who work in construction, auto repair, TV repair, and basically keep the production lines moving. They are the thousands of individuals who want to make a decent wage, but can never quite make it to the right type of job. They are the 20 million non college bound youth in America. They are the teens who drop out of high school all across the nation, the people who leave college everyday without a degree, the people the too few notice slipping away. They are the one who need our help.

Why are they important?
These people are important because they are basically the cogs and wheels of society. Where would we be if there was no one at Firestone to rotate our tires? If there were no bus drivers to get us to work on time, no construction workers to build our homes? We would be out of luck, or in the case of the tires, facing a lawsuit from the person we rammed into because we had bald tires!

The “Forgotten Half” should not be forgotten, however. Job opportunities are much easier to come by if there is a college degree in the mix. Individuals without college degrees are often faced with “bleak job prospects,” leading to low self-esteem, and a general sense of “down and out-ness” (wtgrantfoundation). Many stop looking for jobs altogether because it is too much of a let-down.

A disappointingly large number of American youth give little back to their communities, because they feel “shortchanged” (wtgrantfoundation). Their families pushed the too hard, or didn’t push hard enough; at school, they fell through the cracks, barely passing from one grade to the next; at work, they are mediocre at best, they know they can do better. But how?

Self-Efficacy
The Cambridge Dictionary says that the definition of efficacy is “an ability [...] to produce the intended result; effectiveness.” The definition of self efficacy then, is a person’s belief in their ability to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives (Bandura). A strong sense of self efficacy, however does not apply only to the forgotten half. This should be present in all people; it encourages one to approach problems as trials to be conquered, not as “threats” to be avoided at all costs. This results in an individual who is very intrinsically involved and deeply absorbed in their activities; thus leading to motivated individuals who are no longer content to be a part of the forgotten half.

But what happens when the forgotten half is no longer forgotten? Nothing! We simply have a more motivated, educated, driven society that no longer accepts mediocrity as a solution to their problems. There will be more colleges, better suited to meet the needs of the previously forgotten half. These will focus, perhaps, on vocational skills, rather than classic "book knowledge." The youth will be better suited to this type of learning environment and thus be better motivated to succeed.

Nurturing Hope in the Classroom
It is hard to nurture hope in a classroom full of inner city children. Many of these kids come from poverty stricken, single parent households (Perlstein). Some have parents with drug problems, some have drug problems themselves, some may not have a home to go to at all, but ALL children deserve a chance, and it is YOUR job to make sure that every child in you classroom gets their chance to succeed.

As a teacher, you need to be able to take these kids out of their personal lives for a few hours a day. School needs to become a sanctuary for them. A place where they can come in the morning that is safe for them to explore themselves, and the world around them and leave in the afternoon further enlightened and charged to make a difference in the life of someone else. It will be hard at first. I know I am not looking forward to my first day at an inner city school in Los Angeles. I don’t know, personally, where those kids are coming from, but I do know that it is my job, my calling, to get these kids to the point where they feel that they can do ANYTHING that they set their minds to. Sure there will be attitude, a few scowls and tantrums, but don’t patronize them. Treat them like regular kids. Don’t talk about their home lives; school is not the place for that. Instead focus on your lessons. What do you intend for them to take home with them? What profound words of wisdom do you have to offer? And above all else, don’t sink to their level. Attacking back is like a death knell. They will try to eat you alive.

New Teachers.... New Hope?
New teachers in the inner city are mostly young, hip, and upbeat; however, they are also inexperienced in dealing with the day to day trials of the inner city schools. This is both a drawback and an asset.

It is a drawback in the fact that these teachers are often the least paid, least equipped teachers in the nation. Coming from college, where computers are readily available, libraries are plentiful, families are loving and supportive, and suddenly finding themselves thrust into a school with second hand books, no computers, an ill equipped library (if there is one), broken families, no families, no support groups, nothing. There is no money in the school system; therefore no improvements. How can a teacher have hope for themselves, much less inspire their student to remain hopeful in the face of adversity? It’s simple. Come to class with a smile everyday. No matter what happens. These kids need to have something constant in their lives. It is up to the teacher, in most instances, to be that constant. Now it’s not implied that teachers should be perpetually happy, that would be weird. But at least start the day out with a smile

The asset to being a young, hip, upbeat new teacher? There has been no time for the teacher to become disillusioned by the system. They are new and fresh, full of ideas and concepts that are both innovative and fun. They are motivated to make a difference in the daily grind of their students. They aspire to have every one of their children succeed and statistics show that new teachers have a higher pass rate in their classrooms (Perlstein). Why? They are simply more motivated to make an impression, to keep their jobs in an environment where a pass/fail rate could influence whether they keep their jobs.

Multiple Choice Questions
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Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response. {{question-answer|question=After reviewing the IEP of a special needs student in her fourth grade class, Mrs. Higgens realizes that her student’s needs are not being met and that this is causing a sense of hopelessness as well as behavioral issues. She has tried to contact the student’s guardian (in this case an elderly grandmother) but has been met with stiff resistance. What can Mrs. Higgens, herself, do to alleviate the problems her student is facing?
 * answer=Mrs. Higgens should schedule a meeting with the principal of her school, a special needs teacher, the student, and if possible, the guardian. There can be no resolution of the problem in the home if the grandmother refuses to acknowledge the students problems.  However, the school should exist to serve the needs of the student; therefore, the IEP must be followed (not to mention that is the LAW that IEPs be followed!)  By having the principal present, this ensures that he is aware of the issue and should be available as a resource to the child.  The special needs instructor is present to help both the student and teacher; they have the training necessary to defuse most potentially dangerous or embarrassing situations that may arise.  With the involvement of everybody concerned, the student should be well on the road to adjustment within the school environment.


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Forgotten Half/Learned Helplessness

"Nothing can stop the man with the right mental attitude from achieving his goal; however, nothing on earth can help the man with the wrong mental attitude." This familiar quote stated by Thomas Jefferson, is relevant to the condition of learned helplessness. Learned helplessness allows an individual to believe that no matter how hard he or she tries failure will result, they feel that they have no control over any situation and that whatever it does is futile (Wikipedia). A professor at the University of Pennsylvania, Martin Seligman is the pioneer of learned helplessness developing foundational experiments and theories as an extension of his interest in depression. Learned helplessness may occur in three states: personal, they may see themselves as the problem; internalizing the problem, pervasive, they may see the problem as affecting all aspects of life, permanent, they may see the problem as unchanging (Wikipedia). This condition may affect the way that one may think, apply themselves and/or achieve. Learned helplessness is also a motivational problem where one might have failed in a task or two in the past which has made that individual believe that they are incapable to do anything in order to improve their performance in that task(s) (Seligman, 1988). This is detrimental to children's development throughout life if it is not fixed appropriately. If humans feel as though they cannot control their environment, this lack of control will impair learning in certain situations.

An Encounter with Learned Helplessness
Within education and in our everyday lives, we encounter various examples of learned helplessness. A classic example of learned helplessness is from the motion picture Freedom Writers. The students allowed their ethnicity, their economic status, and their social environment to determine the fate of their success. The students allowing these things to determine their destiny and exhibited behavior of pervasive and permanent learned helplessness. Often, members of the same social environment think in similar patterns, drawing the same inferences and or conclusion. With pervasive learned helplessness they see no way out of their situation and at a dead in, and in permanent learned helplessness they felt that their problems were unchanging.

Many teachers like Ms. Gruwell in Freedom Writers, have a passion for teaching and fostering academic achievement within the classroom. In many cases, we as educators are the only source of hope for our students. Teaching is a profession that encounters a variety of obstacles within the classroom, such as students not being an active participant in class, lack of motivation, and students who have no desire to learn. A student will live up or down to the expectations that others have for them. Thus, if a person expects great things from a student, great things will result. Unfortunately, however, if a person expects little from a student, little will result. Ultimately, a lack of expectations will have a negative effect on a student's self esteem.

Empowered to be Hopeful
How do we as teachers empower students to succeed? Research found from The Forum for Youth Investment (2005), in their work with the Carnegie Schools for a New Society initiative, developed a four-part framework to represent the range of strategies for engaging young people in the educational experience.

1. Engaging youth in their own learning requires a balance of challenging, relevant learning experiences that offer multiple avenues for student choice and responsibility through cooperative, project-based, and active learning. This includes opportunities to select content, set learning goals, ask questions, reflect on their learning, practice communication and problem-solving skills, and assume leadership roles in the classroom. 268 NASSP Bulletin Vol. 91 No. 3 September 2007

2. Youth engagement in their peers’ learning means creating opportunities for cooperative learning between students and empowering students to serve as positive role models, mentors, coaches, and conflict mediators. Such opportunities can include students’ supporting struggling peers and students’ assessing one another’s work and progress. Creating these opportunities requires that adults provide the support and development opportunities young people need to successfully assume these roles. This connects directly to teaching and learning and requires structuring classrooms in ways that encourage interaction among students and provide multiple learning opportunities for students with varied learning styles.

3. Engaging youth in improving educational opportunities means giving young people clear opportunities to share responsibility for school and community reform and improvement processes aimed at increasing achievement for all students. This requires well-thought-out strategies at the school, district, community, state, and national levels that allow youth to partner with adults as leaders in the process of change or continuous improvement in their schools. These strategies can include youth representation in adult structures or youth-led structures and processes with well-defined roles and responsibilities for youth in creating, shaping, and defining policies and practices related to their educational experiences (NASSP Bulletin Vol. 91 No. 3 September 2007).

4. Engaging young people in the community and civic life can include multiple avenues, such as service learning, internships, community action research projects, and community organizing. This strategy connects school- and community based learning experiences, creating opportunities for students to link classroom learning to lived experiences. At the heart of all four strategies is the learning environment and the underlying beliefs, assumptions, and expectations about young people: how they learn, what they think, what they need from schools and adults, what they believe in, and what they are capable of doing. These values set the tone for how all members of the school community interact with one another, both inside and outside the classroom (Forum for Youth Investment, 2005).

The above four part frame work can be used as a proactive method in reversing the cycle and combating learned helplessness.

Reversing the Cycle/Combating the Problem
Here are several tips for combating learned helplessness:
 * Set high expectations for your students
 * Let your students know that you see them as capable individuals
 * Encourage your students to try it on their own
 * Provide multiple opportunities for student trials
 * Positively reinforce the student's efforts
 * If completing the entire task is not a possibility, encourage the student to complete the parts that he or she can do
 * Encourage the student to try a bit more with each success
 * If you must complete a task due to time constraints, let the student know that he or she will be expected to do the task when time is not an issue
 * Allow your students to see you struggle with a difficult task

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Forgotten Half/Perceptions

Foster Care is a life for approximately 800,000 children in America (Craft, 2007). On any given day a child is taken from a home that is not safe, nurturing, or supportive, but it is the only home that child has known. This is traumatic and will affect the life of this child forever. Foster care children are likely to have health problems, social problems, and behavioral problems. The child will move from one home to another several times during their stay in foster care, which will further stunt their education. They find it very difficult to form necessary bonds with teachers and classmates. School records take anywhere from three weeks to eight months to catch up with the child (Zetlin, 2004). During this time, teachers are in the dark as to the child’s situation and educational needs. School councilors do not have the proper information they need to administer to the child’s welfare. Foster parents are lacking in information they so desperately need to care for the child properly.

During this time all involved, due to being either misinformed or not informed at all, form perceptions. A child that is detached, withdrawn and disinterested in class is viewed as a “typical teenager” or a difficult student. Foster children “exhibit with greater frequency behavioral problems in school ranging from aggressive, demanding, immature, and attention-seeking behaviors to withdrawn, anxious, and over-compliant behaviors” (Zetlin, 2006). These children are victims of abuse and has not had the support needed to develop social skills. They are often embarrassed to raise their hand out of fear of any type of attention. How do these children move from one abusive home to a home that is ill equipped to care for them and still grow into a productive member of society? What are the realities of these children’s lives and what are the perceptions of those around them?

Background
Children are placed in Foster Care for a wide variety of reasons that range from neglect, to abuse, and even to extortion. No child should ever have to grow up in an environment that is not nurturing, caring, and educational, but they do. We perceive the Foster Care System to be a safety zone for these children. Our foster care system is supposed to provide safe homes, loving caregivers, stable education, and reliable health care. Foster care is supposed to provide all the necessities that were lacking in the home they were previously taken from. These are perceptions that just do not coincide with reality. In many cases, foster parents do not have resources necessary to care for these children, the educators do not have the necessary information to educate them, and the system itself does not have the funding necessary to provide them with the skills to become productive citizens once they are adults. The realities of children in foster care need to change.

Children of foster care usually have not had a stable educational background when they enter the system. They usually have a variety of health problems, social problems, as well as educational problems. Our first instinct is to find a safe home for the child, address the health problems, and then to submerge the child into an environment that is as close to “normal” as possible. Once enrolled in school, the child is then placed in a classroom that has already begun its year, so the child is behind. The teacher and the students are all unknown to the child, so the child tends to be withdrawn, unsociable, and disinterested. The teacher is unaware of the child’s history, because their records have not yet been received by the school. The homework assigned by the teacher, is way beyond the abilities of the child. The child does not turn in any of the work he has attempted, because of embarrassment. The child also finds it very hard to concentrate given all the disruptions in his life, all the court hearings, and the uncomfortable questions asked by his new foster parents. Now the teacher begins to perceive the child as difficult and has begun to feel that the child is unreachable.

Knowledge
A child viewed as lazy, detached, uncooperative may just be scared, lonely, embarrassed. This child needs someone to guide them and to believe in them. “Unfortunately, for many foster children, the experiences they have endured in their biological families and those they encounter in the foster care system are so overwhelming that failure in school seems inconsequential by comparison” (Noble, 1997). The child’s school records have been reported as being lost, due to so many transfers. Because of this, the child has no way of being properly placed in an appropriate classroom. The teacher is unaware that the child has never been to school on a regular basis and has not had the opportunity to learn how to interact and form attachments with other children. The child also does not know any of the answers to the questions asked by the teacher, so they act out. They “would rather be “bad” than “dumb” (Noble, 1997). Now the child has been “labeled”, not only by the teacher, but by his peers as well. In an age of instant knowledge and advancing technology, we still cannot seem to get organized. If only the child’s records had been able to proceed the child’s first day, the child may have been able to learn and later attend college.

The child’s perception of foster care quickly changes also. A child that is taken out of an unsafe environment may be given the food he so desperately wanted, the clean clothes that he desperately needed, and the comfortable bed that he had never been given, but is he given the support that is necessary for his growth? Children in foster care are moved on average of three times during their stay. This move brings them new foster parents, a new school and a new teacher. The process then begins all over again. Educational and emotional assessments will need to be performed, again. Bonds that were just beginning to be formed are now broken, so it is now harder to form new ones. Emotional attachments are difficult for the child due to his history, but they even more difficult due to his mobile life. The child forms a pattern that everything is temporary. If only the foster home had prepared for the child before hand, the child’s social abilities could have been nurtured and the child could have been involved in his life.

Society sees children as being adults at the age of eighteen. “About 20,000 young people “age out” of the foster care system annually in the United States” (Missouri, 2007). A child who has gone through the foster care system is likely to see becoming eighteen as a time when they can finally make their own decisions instead of having to live with the decisions of so many others. Foster care is a life of change and adulthood is a time when the child is in control of their life. The reality is that a foster child is more likely to end up homeless, in poverty or in prison. “It’s estimated about half of the foster children … who age out become homeless at some point. Less than half have a high school diploma or its equivalent, and about 80 percent of young women who age out become pregnant before 21” (Missouri, 2007). The system has failed to provide the education necessary in today’s world. Most of these children lack the skills to live independently. They have no illusions of going to college, they do not know how to live on a budget, and they do have the social skills to acquire and maintain steady employment. For these reasons, approximately 10% of children of foster care will find themselves in prison (Craft, 2007). If only society had provided these children with the emotional and educational support they so desperately needed, they may have been very productive members of society.

Changes
There are many new proposals in America today to deal with these problems. One important component is to appoint one person that is responsible for the educational growth of the child (Gerber, 2005). This person will follow the child to each school, each teacher, each foster home, and each level of education. No matter where the child is transferred, this one person will always hold the child’s educational records and assessments. The educational contact will also work with the school and teacher prior to the child’s transfer. They will work along side the social worker, will help to educate the foster parent on the history and needs of the child, and will help to provide the stable educational support the every child requires. Noble suggests several, systematic steps the teacher can take to encourage the child’s success, despite the challenges. Her suggestions encourage the teacher to set reasonable expectations, support the child educationally as well as emotionally, to get the foster family involve, be actively aware of the child’s sensitivities, and to make the child feel secure to explore, ask questions and ask for help (1997). Teachers have significant impacts on their students, and can have a greater impact on foster children. “Children in foster care are one of the most educationally vulnerable populations in our schools” (Zetlin,2006). With these tools, teachers can significantly change the statistics and show them the path to success.

The “No Child Left Behind” has even gone some recent reforms that take the realities of children in Foster Care into account. With this type of growth in the Foster Care System, children may be able to curb the trends that have overwhelmed them. With knowledge, understanding, stability, and organization we have the ability to make our positive perceptions of Foster Care a reality. Foster care can be the “Saving Grace” it should be.

Reality

 * Foster children are moved on average three times while they are in foster care. For some, they are moved up to six times. (Noble, 1997)
 * Foster Care children are three times higher to be placed in special education. (Gerber, 2005)
 * 54% of children in Foster Care graduate from High School. (Craft, 2007)
 * 10% of Foster Care children will enter prison. (Craft, 2007)
 * 90% of children in Foster Care have health problems. (Zetlin, 2004)
 * Children’s records take anywhere from 3 weeks to 8 months to be transferred. Among these, many are incomplete or are inaccurate.  (Zetlin, 2004)

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Outcomes

To understand the desired outcomes of educational change, one might first consider a working definition for the term “educational change.” For the purposes of this article, we will define educational change as innovations in schools. These innovations range from basic curriculum revisions to radical social change in school culture.

The desired outcomes of educational change are wide-ranging. On one end of the spectrum, an outcome might simply be improved student performance in middle school math. On the opposite end of the spectrum, another desired outcome might include schools becoming catalysts for large-scale social transformation. This would be educational change with the end being significant change in the greater culture.

On the most fundamental level, educational change looks for an outcome, which avoids resistance and in turn alters the deep structures of learning institutions (Gold, 1999, p. 2) Barry Allen Gold, in his article “Punctuated Legitimacy: A Theory of Educational Change,” argues that, “Innovations in schools frequently encounter problems after adoption and terminate a short time later—often within the first two years—without achieving full implementation”  (p. 1). The desired outcome of educational change is to avoid failure and achieve “full implementation,” whatever that change may be.

Anecdotes from the Present

Educational change is very much alive and well in our culture today. It only takes a brief search of the daily news to find the very term used by a variety of reporters, journalist and the educators they interview. An article posted on The Philadelphia Inquirer Web site on September 22, 2006 entitled “Not yet open, charter school calls it quits” details the struggle for educational change in one New Jersey School district. In this case the desired outcome of educational change was the birth of a new charter school, and the resistance to this change resulted in the schools closure before it even began operation.

The article notes that, “Once hailed as an educational wonder - a charter school in a suburban community with high-performing public schools - the TLC Charter School is closing its doors before it ever opened to students” (p. 1). In the article, Harriet Beckman, a veteran educator, makes it clear that the state is the resisting party to blame for the charter school's failure. She says that, “My frustration is with a system that too often seems stacked against educational change, a system that seems designed to thwart the efforts of educational entrepreneurs, trained and committed professionals, and families trying to find the best ways to give their children the best education possible” (p. 1). Its important to note her use of the key term “educational change.”

Educational change also figures prominently in our current political climate. Scott Leigh, in a recent op-ed in The Boston Globe makes his case for the winner of the last gubernatorial, primary debate on Wednesday, September 20, 2006. One of his reasons for declaring the winner was the candidate’s position on educational change. The losing candidate supports educational change in the form of charter schools, but does so only with caveats. Scott Leigh, our political analyst, offers this breakdown of the hedged position, “Still, it's no surprise: It's awfully hard to make yourself the favorite of the educational establishment and remain independent enough to be a real catalyst for educational change” (p.1). Again, note the use of the term “educational change” and the resistance, which is in the form of the “educational establishment.” If one looks, one can find these important ideas all around.

Desired Outcomes in Broad Stokes
With a general understanding of Educational Change, one can move on to the idea of “desired outcomes.” To understand the desired outcome of educational change in the broadest terms, one might look at many of the political initiatives involving education in 2005. Chester E. Finn, Jr., in an article published in Education Next, describes the unfolding political theatrics starting with the White House. He notes that, “The year 2005 began with high schools taking center stage in Washington’s continuing drama concerning education reform. President George W. Bush started things off…when he delivered a ringing address at a suburban D.C. high school about the urgency of reforming American high schools and offered a bold $1.5 billion plan for doing so” (p. 1).

This address was followed by an educational summit attended by forty-five governors, many educational leaders, and several major CEOs. This summit specifically sought to hash out and define the desired outcomes for the sweeping educational change that Bush proposed (p. 1). Microsoft chairman Bill Gates “pronounced current U.S. high schools ‘obsolete’ and said, ‘Even when they are working as designed, they can not teach all of our students what they need to know today” (Finn, 2006, p. 1). Following Gates, Margaret Spellings, the new secretary of education, argued that the desired outcome of reform is to make the American high school diploma something that is valuable once again. She said that, “We must make a high-school diploma a ticket to success in the 21st century.” In the broadest terms then, restoring value to the diploma is a desired outcome.

Punctuated Equilibrium: The Real Desired Outcome
To get a true understanding of the desired outcomes of educational change, one has to take a more academic look, in terms of educational institutions, at the process of change itself. The desired outcome in the mind of Barry Gold, who conducted 23 years of qualitative research in educational change, is something called punctuated equilibrium (p. 1).

This theory states that “over an extended time, innovation failure, instead of terminating change, creates punctuations that produce alterations between short periods of rapid change that reconfigure and transform the organizational deep structure…and long-term incremental change that refines transformation” (p. 1).

The heart of this theory is that short periods of revolutionary change and failure are naturally followed by longer periods of relative calm and incremental or small changes that refine and shape the revolution (p. 1). After a failed revolution one is forced to pick up the pieces and restore legitimacy. The long period of restoration, the “equilibrium,” is when significant organizational or educational change occurs (p. 14). This means that the true desired outcomes of educational change are the long periods of calm where educators seek to implement small changes that increase education’s legitimacy.

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Essay Question
Propose one substantial educational change, such as the development of a charter school, and discuss how its failure might actually lead to the desired outcome of long-term educational change. Be sure to describe what resistances cause the schools failure, and don’t forget to consider the theory of punctuated equilibrium to argue your point.


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History/17th Century

We are now in the 21st century yet the markers, those items that influenced the advancement of education, and ideas of education are the same as the 17th century with only slightly different instruments. The teachings and technological advances have changed drastically, but the ideas and concepts that have led us to this place are what the educators of the 17th century also fought for. As you begin your career as a teacher, do not think that you are alone in wanting to change the way society views education because it has been a battle for centuries. The concept of education reform was very much alive during the 17th century when educators developed new ways of thinking about education. Many of these ideas were born in Britain and carried over to America during the 1600s. These ideas can still be seen today across America only with advancements. The concerns and desires that you have for your classroom are the same as the educators of the 17th century. The markers of the 17th century were the changes in education to the areas of secondary education, teaching of young children by means of sight and senses, broadening of curriculum, and the teaching that knowledge is power. With these markers came the advancements in many areas that are still being advanced upon today. The desires of the 17th century educators are the same that teachers of today possess, or we would not have signed up to teach the “power of knowledge”.

Knowledge is Power
The movement that taught “knowledge is power” is Empiricism. Wikipedia describes empiricism as a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience. This experience comes from experiments and observations using the senses. This is definitely a change from past education when strict memorization and structure were the basis for teaching. Empiricism allowed a child to play an active role in their own learning and learn from their experiences using their senses. John Locke was an advocate for empiricism and wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, where he explained his views on human learning. Locke wrote that we are born with a blank mind and therefore must gain all knowledge and the only way to gain this knowledge is through experiences (Uzgalis). Locke claimed that “There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses”, and this belief that experiences taught children knowledge lead to education by nature and the real world (Carlile). Locke also introduced the idea that one must first learn the simple ideas and then combine them to gain the more complex ideas; to gain these simple ideas as children in the form of reading, writing, and math gradually and cumulatively (Gutek). Locke desired for each student to search after truth rather than simply accepting the opinion of others (Uzgalis). Is this not the real power of knowledge, for teachers to give students the basis of learning and then watch them discover on their own the complex ideas of knowledge? Francis Bacon also supported the empiricist movement and is given credit for coining the phrase “Knowledge is power” and agreed with Locke that the senses were the only way to search into and discover truth (Landry). Bacon felt that the importance of man was directly rooted in nature.

Expansion of Curriculum
These teachings were more readily available thanks to another important marker of the 17th century, the printing press, which allowed the expansion of printed materials including textbooks. If knowledge is power, then the printing press helped give power to the people. The printing press of the 17th century was a less expensive type-face that reduced the cost of production. It not only resulted in a variety of printed material but preceded the Civil War in England (Griscom). This knowledge gave the people power to question their own government and publication laws were relaxed. This new found freedom allowed the printing of more material and resulted in many more textbooks during the later 17th century, the New England Primer being one of them.

Education Acts
The expansion of curriculum and educational sources did not stop at textbooks; the Education Acts of the 1600s were a large marker of education. The Acts required that a school be established and a suitable teacher found for each area, and later required a schoolhouse and wages for that teacher. Mathematics also became a large part of education during the 17th century and had such advocates as Isaac Watts and Philip Dodderidge and was taught at universities such as Cambridge and Oxford. Watts believed that mathematics should have a place in the curriculum (O’Conner). It seems that the educators of the 17th century fought for textbooks and mathematics the way educators of today fight for computers and technology in each classroom.

Appealing to Student Senses
Educators of today introduce technology into the classroom through computer videos and programs to open a child’s mind to learning by appealing to their senses. John Amos Comenius did the same thing in the 17th century by introducing the first picture textbook, Orbis Pictus. Comenius, called the Father of Modern Education, felt that children should be treasured and taught on their level by uniting words and pictures to appeal to the child’s physical senses and to present new information from the simple to the complex (Kytka). Comenius’ modern view of the education of children is highly accepted today evident in the teaching of children through the physical senses. The video or clip art used in today’s classroom curriculum is obviously used to appeal to a student’s senses and heighten their interest in a subject. It is no wonder that Orbis Pictus was used for over 200 years.

Secondary Education
As the education of children grew so did secondary education and a big marker in America was when the Pilgrims established new schools on new soil. This growth brought about the establishment of Harvard, “the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States”. In 1636, Harvard opened the doors to nine students and a single instructor. John Harvard, for whom the school is named, left half his estate and his library to the school. Harvard claimed in 1643, to exist “to advance Learning and perpetuate it to Posterity” (Harvard.edu). With the opening of Harvard the growth of education exceeded the basic principles and sought to teach students at a higher level. The 21st century brings us to a point where there are a number of different colleges and universities with a multitude of offered classes. The beginning of higher learning in America started with ten people striving for more knowledge.

Conclusion
The 17th century was a time of individuals striving for more knowledge, and all with the belief that with this gain of knowledge meant power: power of mind, power of self, power of country. As teachers, this is the power we wish to give to our students, the power of knowledge. To teach students to use their senses in searching out the interesting simple ideas, allowing those ideas to grow into complex ideas, and going on to higher forms of education wishing only for more learning. The uses of markers such as: the picture textbook, the printing press, the laws of Education, and the establishment of higher learning led the 17th century into a reform of education. Let us hope that we strive to secure markers in order to allow our students to gain power through knowledge the way the reformers of the 17th century did.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History/18th Century

Eighteenth century education was marked by the division of several groups of people. Education was geographically divided between the northern and southern colonies. Due to the rural nature of the South, there were fewer schools and literacy rate lagged far behind the North until the late 19th century. (Wikipedia) However, structure of colonial and post-colonial education differed the most along gender, racial, and class lines. A great divide existed between the vast majority of blacks, whites and Native Americans; men and women; and the upper and lower classes ("Eighteenth Century"). This divide was present from New England to the Deep South.

Very early education was taken care of by women in the home. The women in middle to upper class families often used primers with religious text to teach elementary reading skills. For children whose families could afford it, formal schooling began about the age of 7 or 8. Formal education was taken care of by private community schools known as "little schools". These schools were often run by clergyman and included religious studies along with basic mathematics and writing skills. In gentry families, education past what could be taught by the women in the household may also have been taught by private tutors (Rowe).

The Gender Divide
With very few exceptions, white males had more educational opportunity than any other group of people in the colonies. Across all geographical and socio-economic factions, most white males were taught basic reading, writing, and arithmetic skills. Boys were often taught these basic skills by their mothers at home since public schools were virtually non-existent during this time period and education was thought to be the responsibility of the families. (Rowe) In poorer, planter-class families, education generally stopped for boys once they mastered these basic skills. Boys were too valuable as farmers or trades apprentices to continue schooling past what was thought necessary. Boys in upper-class families often continued their education in preparation for attending one of the new universities such as Harvard ("Eighteenth Century"). This preparation often included instruction from private tutors in subjects such as Latin (Rowe).

In the English colonies a good number of women were taught basic reading and writing skills, regardless of social status. Naturally education was less common for lower-class girls, but it was not unheard of. Past rudimentary reading and writing skills, girls were taught homemaking skills that were thought to be important in the colonial household such as sewing, cooking, and cleaning. This was true for most colonial families since it was thought improper and unnecessary to educate girls on the same level as their brothers. Girls in upper-class families however, were often sent on to what were known as Dame schools to continue their education. At these schools they were taught music, dancing, French and other skills thought to be pleasing to potential suitors. (Rowe) Gentry families also placed more importance on the education of girls in the family because they knew that it would fall on them to teach their children.

There was an interesting exception to the English colonial education system. In French colonial Louisiana more importance was placed on the education of girls than that of boys. Colonial leaders felt that it was going to be females that brought French civilization and sophistication to the colony and that it was more important for boys to be educated in their future trade than to receive formal education (Robenstien 197). When the French first began to settle in North America, the majority of the colonists were male. It was thought by the French clergyman and politicians in the colonies that the men were participating in too much debauchery and that French men marrying Native American women was unacceptable and would lead to the downfall of the colonization effort. Leaders thought that in order for women to civilize the colony, they needed education. So, in order to attract French women to the colonies, politicians promised them education and husbands (Robenstien 206).

The education of French colonial women was overseen by the Ursuline nuns (Robenstien 193). They taught all French colonial girls regardless of class. All students were taught reading, writing, and basic math skills. All students were educated in the Catholic religion (Robenstien 199). They were also taught to sew, knit, as well as other skills thought valuable in running a colonial household (Robenstien 200). Women educated at the school were seen as given a “seal of approval” by the Ursuline nuns and therefore more desirable for marriage (Robenstein 206).

The Racial Divide
A more defined gap existed between the races. While girls may not have received the same level of education as their male counterparts, girls did have some opportunity for education. In contrast, educational opportunities for blacks were almost non-existent. Early in the century, the level of education a slave could receive was decided on by their owner ("Eighteenth Century"). Owners generally decided that slaves needed no more education than the knowledge needed to complete the jobs they were required to do. Since most of a slave’s work consisted of manual labor, reading and arithmetic were considered unnecessary. After the Revolutionary War it came to be believed that the education of slaves made them more prone to disobedience and was a threat to local security. Due to this way of thinking many colonies, particularly those in the South, made it illegal for slaves to learn to read or write ("Eighteenth Century").

Native Americans fared a little better than the slaves. Due to English colonists desire to "civilize" their new neighbors, Native Americans were often offered some type of education. Between the 1730s and 1760s many colonies experimented with the education of Native Americans. In these schools, they were taught reading, writing, and religion, just like the white colonists. ("Eighteenth Century") One such school was formed by Eleazar Wheelock in Connecticut. In New England, girls’ education was primarily focused on “home and hearth” and education was received at home. Since the Native American girls had no home in which to be taught, Wheelock sent the girls to local colonists’ homes to be educated in homemaking. Often these girls were treated like servants or slaves by the families they were placed with (Szasz 222-23). Native American boys at his school were taught reading, writing, and religion much like the English colonial boys in Connecticut (Szasz 224).

Once again, the exception was the Ursuline nuns’ school in French colonial Louisiana. A letter written in 1728 stated that the nuns were teaching 9 slave girls who were also boarders. While slaves as well as Native American girls were taught at the school, they were taught separately from the white girls who attended. Slaves and Native Americans at the school were taught reading, writing, and religion as well as manual skills such as sewing, weaving fabric, and raising silkworms (Robenstien 199).

The Social Divide
While a great number of colonial children, regardless of socio-economic status, received some form of education a divide did exist. Due to the fact that education was primarily given at home, if poorer parents had no education then it was likely that their children were also uneducated. Even if parents in poorer planter-class families had reading skills, education was generally focused on the child being able to help with farm labor as soon as they were old enough. In middle-class merchant families, girls were often given as much reading and writing knowledge as they would need to assist with the family business. Boys in these same places may be further educated in hopes that they could attend a university and better the family’s social standing (Rowe). Boys who attended the “little schools” often did so for as long as their families’ status allowed them to. For working class boys it was a term for about 1-3 years and middle to upper-class boys it depended upon the family’s ability to send them to a university (Rowe).

Conclusion
The racial divide continued on until desegregation laws were passed in the twentieth century. Post-Revolutionary war, however, changes started to be made that began to close the socio-economic and gender divides. During this time period, about half of the American population was under the age of sixteen. Due to the over-whelming population of youth, states started to realize the need for public, state-funded schools. During the 1780s and 1790s the gender and social gap began to close as states began to use tax money to fund elementary schools that offered the same education for students regardless of financial status or gender ("Eighteenth Century").

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