text:
Cookbook talk:Nutmeg

page history from Wikipedia article Nutmeg, where this article's starting text was extracted from.

Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit

* (cur) (last). . M 12:36, 21 Nov 2003. . Wik * (cur) (last). . 21:45, 17 Oct 2003. . 80.12.10.195 (fr:) * (cur) (last). . M 23:08, 28 Jul 2003. . David Stewart (extra info on side effects of too much nutmeg) * (cur) (last). . 14:15, 21 Mar 2003. . Robert Foley (toxic properties) * (cur) (last). . 14:15, 21 Mar 2003. . Robert Foley (toxic properties) * (cur) (last). . M 08:29, 27 Jan 2003. . Jketola (sp.) * (cur) (last). . 12:21, 26 Jan 2003. . Jaknouse (add history note) * (cur) (last). . M 09:29, 24 Dec 2002. . 62.234.73.134 (nl:) * (cur) (last). . 00:41, 11 Sep 2002. . 213.253.40.173 (hallucinogenic) * (cur) (last). . 00:41, 11 Sep 2002. . 213.253.40.173 (See also: Junket) * (cur) (last). . 16:43, 4 Mar 2002. . 212.67.106.166 (link banda islands ) * (cur) (last). . M 18:23, 26 Feb 2002. . Ted Longstaffe * (cur) (last). . 18:20, 26 Feb 2002. . Ted Longstaffe * (cur) (last). . M 18:19, 26 Feb 2002. . Ted Longstaffe * (cur) (last). . M 17:02, 26 Feb 2002. . Espen (cap fix) * (cur) (last). . M 15:15, 26 Feb 2002. . Darius Bacon * (cur) (last). . M 15:14, 26 Feb 2002. . Darius Bacon * (cur) (last). . M 07:43, 25 Feb 2002. . Zundark (moved from Bnutmeg/b !)

title: Cookbook talk:Nutmeg


text:
Talk:Graphic Design/Authors

 * My name is Hal Newnan. I graduated Summa Cum Laude from Macomb (MIchigan's) Community College's South Campuses's Graphic Communication Arts (since renamed) program with 2 Associates Degrees: 1) in Electronic Publishing, and 2) in Illustration.

The point made in the statistic noted in the Wiki Graphic Design book is well taken! Probably less than 10% of the graduates of any given program will find their way into any kind of work related to their studies. Less than 2-5% are likely to achieve positions of high rank or pay. One of our program's directors, Brian Sauriol, speaks at length of the dedication he has admired in other graphic artists who have soared to the pinnacles of success through (often) grim determination and disciplined hard work. Perhaps the wealthy do fall flat on their faces.

As a mid-life career switcher, I was advised (by a friend who had followed her graphic design career from college in NYC to advertising agencies there, and still works it in Ann Arbor, MI) to find work at a print house. This I have done through our Co-op Industrial program.

I can highly recommend this course of action, it is grounding me in completing practical tasks for my employer (like building and modifying their website) and doing their brochure and logo work. I also get frequent chances to work with Illustrator to design labels for our customers as well as for our owners.

I see that Brian's finding teaching work helps him to stay on top of developments in the profession.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Graphic Design/Authors


text:
Cookbook talk:Apple Cobbler

Page history from Apple Crisp

Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit

 * (cur) (last) . . 11:04, 14 Dec 2003 . . The Grimm Ripper (link fix)
 * (cur) (last) . . 11:03, 14 Dec 2003 . . The Grimm Ripper (moved to Wikibooks:Cookbook)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 13:48, 17 Nov 2003 . . Rmhermen
 * (cur) (last) . . 10:53, 15 Nov 2003 . . Morwen (wikify, copyedit)
 * (cur) (last) . . 10:49, 15 Nov 2003 . . The Grimm Ripper (Apple Crisp. Yummy.)

title: Cookbook talk:Apple Cobbler


text:
German/Lesson 7

<< Lektion6 | Lektion 7 | Lektion 8 >>

 Einfache Mathematik ~ Simple Mathematics

Lernen 7 ~ Zählen von 13 bis 100
Once you have memorized the numbers from 1 to 12 (see Lernen 3), counting higher in German becomes very much like counting in English. From 13 to 19, add -zehn (10; "-teen" in English) after the cardinal number root:

13 – dreizehn (irregular in English: ' thir teen') 14 – vierzehn 15 – fünfzehn 16 – sechzehn (note that the 's' in sechs is dropped and the 'ch' is pronounced like the 'ch' in ich) 17 – siebzehn (note that the 'en' in sieben is dropped) 18 – achtzehn 19 – neunzehn

Above 19 the counting system is constant: add -zig ("-ty" in English) to the cardinal root. Thus, we get:

20 – zwanzig 21 – einundzwanzig (note: 'one-and-twenty') 22 – zweiundzwanzig (note: 'two-and-twenty')

And the same for 30, 40, 50....etc.

30 – dreißig (this is an exception to the -zig Rule) 40 – vierzig 50 – fünfzig 60 – sechzig 70 – siebzig 80 – achtzig 90 – neunzig 100 – hundert

So, combining these, we get:

34 – vierunddreißig (note: 'four-and-thirty') 143 – hundertdreiundvierzig (note: 'hundred-three-and-forty') 170 – hundertsiebzig 199 – hundertneunundneunzig

It would be excellent practice towards learning these numbers by counting (in German, of course) from 1 to 199—or counting along any continuous sequence that comes to mind. For example, start with your age and count to 50 (count down if appropriate).

Grammatik 7-1 ~ Math Calculations
The following table presents the symbols used for basic mathematics.

We can use these symbols to ask and answer simple problems in mathematics. Some of the examples that follow include first a question (Frage) and then the answer (Antwort): Wieviel ist sechs und sieben?           How much is 6 and 7? Sechs und sieben ist dreizehn           6 and 7 is 13 Wieviel ist fünfzig plus achtzehn?      How much is 50 + 18? Fünfzig plus achtzehn ist gleich achtundsechzig 50 + 18 = 68 Wieviel ist siebzig minus zehn?         How much is 70 - 10? Siebzig minus zehn ist gleich sechzig    70 - 10 = 60 Wieviel ist neun durch drei?            How much is 9 divided by 3? Neun durch drei ist gleich drei         9 ÷ 3 = 3 Funf ist größer als zwei                5 > 2 Acht ist kleiner als siebzehn           8 < 17

Vokabeln 7-1
Counting to 199 is also included in the vocabulary for Lektion 7.

die Antwort            answer die Frage              question

geteilt/dividiert durch over [math] größer als             greater than kleiner als            smaller than

geteilt/dividiert      divided, forked, split gleich                 equal, same, even hoch                   tall, to the power of [math] mal                    times [math] minus                  minus plus                   plus wieviel? how much?

title: German/Lesson 7


text:
User:Shekko

Guten Morgen!

Ich bin Student an der LMU in München, ich studiere Lateinische Philologie auf Magister und bin viellseitig ehrenamtlich aktiv. Schreiben und Wissen macht mir Spaß, drum bin ich hier :)

 * http://simon.schindlmayr.de/

Projekte:
User:Shekko/Latein -> Latein

title: User:Shekko


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Hubs/Cleaning and repacking a hub

Hub Bearings
Over time the bearings in the hubs of a bicycle wheel may come out of adjustment causing the wheel to wobble from side to side (this can also be the result of the wheel being out of true; a sure sign of loose bearings is that the rim can be moved laterally in the fork by hand). Additionally, road dirt and moisture infiltrate the bearings, causing rough operation and premature wear. Even if these issues do not arise, the bearings' lubrication will eventually need to be replaced in order to maintain the life and health of the hubs. These problems can be addressed by overhauling the hubs. The basic techniques are similar to maintaining any other ball bearing assemblies, whether the headset or bottom bracket on the bike, or on complete different applications.

On some recent model mountain bikes, there has been a rash of rear hubs getting significant play after only a few rides; this may be due to bad cones or lock nuts. The drive side lock nut should be your number one suspect in this case if the bike is new.

Parts of the hub
From the inside out:
 * Shell
 * Bearing cup
 * Bearings
 * Bearing cone
 * Dust cover
 * Lock washer
 * Lock nut
 * Axle
 * Quick release skewer

Shell
Main body of hub, holds the axle assembly and is the connection point for the spokes.

Bearing Cup
Is pressed into the shell.

Bearing Cone
Forms the outside bearing races, fits onto axle, usually adjustable.

Bearings
There are three major types of bearings in use on bicycle hubs:

Cup and Cone types

 * Loose ball bearings are placed individually in the bearing race
 * Caged bearings are simply loose ball bearings held in a framework, which simplifies their insertion in the hub. They differ from sealed, or cartridge, bearings in that the bearings are visible in a simple cage made of a circular piece of sheet metal with holes punched for the bearings, and the bearings can be inserted and replaced into the cage with simple hand tools, or even just with the fingers. Cup and cone bearing hubs also usually have some form of sealing but it is separate to the bearings.

Cartridge type

 * Cartridge bearings are assembled and sealed in a permanently pressed housing which renders them inaccessible. Cartridge bearings which are sealed have the advantage of being highly effective at preventing dust and moisture from entering bearing housing and usually need no adjustment. They will generally last many years without service. If they do fail, they are simply replaced. Some hubs cannot be disassembled when the cartridge bearings are worn or fail; the more expensive ones can sometimes be serviced by the manufacturer...

Cleaning and repacking a traditional cone and cup front hub
At this point, depending on how the grease is distributed on the parts, the ball bearings may well stick to the axle, or drop out of the hub or into the axle hole through the hub, or remain in the cup. If the bearings are in a cage, they will generally remain in place unless the cage has been excessively worn.
 * Place the wheel flat. Have something under the hub to catch loose bearings (unless you know for certain that they aren't loose). Usually, it does not matter which side of the wheel is up, however a few nonstandard axles have the cone on one side cast as an integral non-removable part of the axle and therefore the other cone must be on the top side for removal. This will be obvious to inspection.
 * Using a box or cone wrench, unscrew the lock nut from the cone. It will be necessary to hold the cone from rotating while doing this; this will usually require a cone wrench, as the width of a normal open or adjustable wrench head is too great to fit on a normal cone.
 * Remove lock washer and any other hardware.
 * Unscrew bearing cone
 * Pry out circular dust cover situated above bearings (this may also be done after axle is removed, as is necessary on the bottom side of the wheel)
 * Separate wheel and axle

It is advisable to leave the other cone and locknut assembly undisturbed in its position on the axle, as this will allow you to maintain the original side to side alignment of the axle assembly in the hub as much as possible. (Of course, this is mandatory where this assembly is not removable). It can be cleaned and greased in this condition. (If the cone is damaged, then it will need to be disassembled and replaced).
 * Clean and inspect the bearings. Be prepared to replace any that are cracked or pitted. Most mechanics simply replace all loose bearings with new ones, as the cost is minimal compared to the labor involved in cleaning and examining old ones, and if the hub is reassembled with a bad or dirty ball it will rapidly wear. Similarly, caged bearings are usually replaced as a set, cage and all; in most cases, however, it is advantageous to replace caged bearings with loose bearings of the same size, as this results in a greater number of bearings in the hub, providing greater area and therefore greater resistance to wear, at the expense of only slightly more difficulty in keeping track of the bearings during assembly.
 * Clean and inspect bearing cones. There should be no scratches or rough spots at all in the smooth track caused by the rolling bearings. A damaged cone can usually be replaced.
 * Clean and inspect cups.
 * The cup is factory pressed into the hub shell or sometimes cast as part of the shell, and is not generally user removable. Once again, the track of the rolling bearings should be completely free of scratches or rough spots. If the cup is damaged, sometimes a shop with a press can replace it.
 * Grease bearing cups
 * Re-insert bearings, which should be held in place by the grease
 * Put another layer of grease on top of the bearings
 * Re-insert dust covers
 * Re-assemble by reinserting axle from underside, and replacing the cone, washer(s) and lock nut on top.
 * Adjust as necessary. For ball bearings the adjustment is somewhat particular; there should be no excessive drag from over tightening, but also no excessive play from looseness. Although the proper adjustment is pretty obvious by "feel", tightening the locknut on the cone usually disturbs the adjustment enough to throw it off; therefore a bit of experience helps to estimate to what tightness the bearings should be adjusted, before tightening the locknut to produce the correct result afterwards. In practice, usually three wrenches are needed; one on the locknut, a cone wrench on the cone, and a third wrench on the locknut and cone assembly on the underside of the wheel, presumably firmly gripping the axle. This provides the ability to minutely tighten or loosen the top cone and locknut independently until the perfect tightness is achieved.

Maintaining a cartridge bearing hub

There are many different designs so this is just an overview of the basic principles that can be used to service most cartridge bearing hubs.

Clean and lubricate bearings
If you ride in wet conditions you may be able to extend the life of the bearings by periodically cleaning and lubricating them. In most circumstances this is not required and the bearing will have an acceptable life with no maintenance. The idea is to remove one of the seals from the bearing so it can be cleaned and fresh grease applied.
 * Typically the end caps block access to the seal so need to be removed. The method of attachment varies from hub to hub. Some just press on and can be pulled off by hand, others screw onto the axle and have flats for removal with a spanner or are held on by set screws. The end caps may also be part of the axle itself and the axle is removed by inserting an allen key into each end of the axle and unscrewing.

 * Now there is access to the seal it is removed. This can be done by prying it out with a razor blade or small flat head screwdriver.

 * Clean the bearing using degreaser and or rag.

 * Apply fresh grease, a grease gun makes the job easier.

 * Push the seal back into place and replace the end caps.

Replace bearings
Replacement bearings can be sourced from good bike shop or from any bearing supplier. Typically bearings are identified from the numbers on the side of the bearing, take the old bearings with you to make sure you get the correct replacements.

Removing old bearings.

 * Remove end caps. Some just press on and can be pulled off by hand, others screw onto the axle and have flats for removal with a spanner or are held on by set screws. The end caps may also be part of the axle itself and the axle is removed by inserting an allen key into each end of the axle and unscrewing.

 * Remove axle. Use a rubber mallet to hammer the axle out of the hub. The step on the axle will push one of the bearings out of the hub shell. Remove the bearing from the axle and use the axle to remove the other bearing from the hub shell.

 * Some hubs do not use an axle with steps for the bearings to push against. These typically have a spacer instead. To remove the bearings push the spacer to the side and use a rubber mallet and a large flat head screwdriver to push the bearings out of the hub.

 * Clean and inspect the hub shell and axle.

Installing new bearings.

Cartridge bearings are not good at absorbing side loads. When being pressed into the hub the force needs to be pushing on the outer metal ring to avoid damaging the bearing. A suitable sized socket can be used to do this.
 * Lightly grease hub shell and axle where bearing will sit.

 * Press a bearing into one side of the hub shell. Use a rubber mallet and socket trying to keep the bearings as straight as possible.

 * Insert the axle or spacer.

 * Press the second bearing into the hub. The bearing should be pushed in far enough that there are no side loads on the bearing. With good quality hubs you should just be able to push it in all the way and have everything line up. Cheaper hubs may require care to avoid putting side loads on the bearing. If the hub has a spacer to help keep it lined up you can insert the axle part way into the underside of the hub.

 * Put the end caps back on.


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Cleaning parts

Cleaning parts can be done with a cleaning solution of some kind, and/or with a rag or stiff brush. A couple of notes about cleaning products:
 * Solvents must be thoroughly cleaned off parts that are to be re-lubricated. Residual solvent will have a solvent effect on the replacement lubricant.
 * Even a bio-degradable solvent will have whatever substance it removed mixed in with it after use, and thus must be treated according to both the laws applicable to the solvent itself and the dissolved substances.

Power Washer
Using a power washer is an option in some situations, but care must be taken not to displace lubricant from parts. A high pressure stream of water is capable of displacing the grease from a bearing surface, including from sealed bearings, which are not designed to be lubricated by the user. Some very powerful power washers can also take the paint off of a bike. As such it is not recommended to clean a bike with a power washer because it is very hard to dry the water and replace the grease.

Cleaning and lubricating a bicycle chain
Cleaning and lubricating your chain is one of the simplest and most important things to do to keep your bike in good working order. It is also an activity that draws intense debate with many people insisting that their way is the "Right" way to do it. The short story is, the cleaner and better lubricated your chain is the longer the entire drivetrain (the chain and gears) will last, but no drive-train lasts forever. It is worth spending time taking care of your drivetrain, it's not worth obsessing about.

You need:
 * Lubricant,
 * A couple Rags
 * Old toothbrush

The choice of lubricant is important. DO NOT use WD40* as it is too thin and will evaporate leaving nothing to lubricate the chain. Use special bike chain lube found at any bike store. Some lubricants are formulated for wet conditions, others for dry. The difference is the viscosity. A dry lube used in wet conditions will require more frequent applications, a wet lube used in dry conditions will gather dirt, and require more frequent cleaning.

Prior to lubricating, clean the chain as well as possible. Usually a chain cleaning tool, or a toothbrush is sufficient. Remove the chain from the bicycle and soak it in a solvent such as a cycle degreaser. Hang up chain to dry off. Paraffin will also work, but is unpleasant and unhealthy to work with environmentally hazardous, and flammable; as such it is not recommended.

Dirt is what causes a chain to wear out, so keeping your chain as clean as possible extends its life, and the life of the entire drivetrain.

Apply the lubricant on the chain non-pressurized drip type lubes are recommended as are more accurate, and waste less lube than spray lubricants.

Put a rag behind the chain so that the lube does not contaminate the tires or other parts of the bike. Rotate the pedals to move the chain and lubricate the whole length. Wipe the chain with the rag to remove the excessive lubricant, as this just gathers dirt and does not help lubricate the chain.


text:
Cookbook:Caesar Salad

| California cuisine | Salad

The Caesar salad is a traditional salad served in American restaurants, often prepared table-side. It is referred to by some as the "king" of salads.

Its origin is largely credited to Italian immigrant Caesar Cardini, a restaurateur and chef in Tijuana, Baja California del Norte, Mexico. Cardini reportedly tossed the first such salad table side at his restaurant on July 4, 1924.

Ingredients

 * 1 head Romaine lettuce, roughly chopped
 * ¼ cup (about 50 ml) extra-virgin olive oil, divided
 * Heavy pinch of sea salt
 * Freshly-ground black pepper
 * Drizzle of red wine vinegar
 * 3 shots Worcestershire sauce
 * 2 soft-boiled eggs
 * Garlic croûtons

Procedure

 * 1) Drizzle lettuce with 2 tbsp extra-virgin olive oil. Toss to coat.
 * 2) Add salt and pepper. Toss to coat.
 * 3) Add vinegar and toss to coat.
 * 4) Drizzle Worcestershire sauce over lettuce. Toss to coat.
 * 5) Crack eggs over salad. Toss to coat.
 * 6) Top with garlic croûtons and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

title: Cookbook:Caesar Salad


text:
German/Concepts Basic

<< Vorwort | Lektion N | Lektion NA >>

Richtig oder falsch?
1 a Wir müssen gehen. So wir haben keine Zeit. 1 b Wir müssen gehen. Deshalb haben wir keine Zeit.

2 a Wenn wir haben Stress, machen wir oft Fehler.

2 b Wenn wir Stress haben, machen wir oft Fehler.

3 a Ich mag Leute nicht, die zu spät kommen.

3 b Ich mag Leute nicht, die kommen zu spät.

Richtig sind: 1 b, 2 b, 3 a,

title: German/Concepts Basic


text:
German/Concept Advanced

<< Lektion N | Lektion NA

Contributed to Lesson 1A, but concept not really introduced until Lesson 5:

Beispiel an    können (can)  gehen (go)   sein (to be) pronoun      verb I (irreg?) verb II    verb III (irregular) Basicform     können     gehen     sein ich        kann      gehe      bin du         kannst     gehst     bist er/sie/es     kann      geht      ist wir        können     gehen     sind ihr        könnt      geht      seid sie        können     gehen     sind Sie (formal)    können     gehen     sind

As you can see, any verb uses the same declination for wir, sie and Sie. Also, er/sie/es uses the same declination for all three genders. NOTE: Moved to Lesson 6

''Used this story for German/Level III/Markus Studiert since it nicely followed your other Markus conversation. But I could not match holt or holt aus to any verb. Can you help? '' -- holt is from holen, holt aus is from ausholen, which has another meaning, but "holen" is meant here in the sense of "fetching a book out of the shelf" (trying to match the German sentence literally)

Markus ist in der Universität. Er trinkt dort einen Kaffee und ißt ein Brötchen. Danach geht er in die Bibliothek. Er sucht ein Buch über Biochemie. Er holt das Buch aus dem Regal und setzt sich an einen Tisch. Nach einer Stunde geht er in den Hof und raucht eine Zigarette. Danach geht er an den Tisch zurück. Er denkt: "Wenigstens eine Stunde..." und stellt das Buch wieder in das Regal. Heute ist nicht sein Tag.

''There are already lessons completed for some of these points. However, it might be that the stories or conversations need to made easier to read in those lessons.'' What should be explained here?
 * Genders
 * Articles: der, die das, ein, eine, ein.
 * Nominativ, Dativ and Akkusativ. (We could live without Genitiv for a while)
 * Daklinations with articles.
 * Keep everything in singular.

Note that the book layout is such that the Advanced lessons add to the basic lesson (1A furthers something taught in 1), but 1A cannot be the place where anything basic is introduced, as the berginning student should not even visit Lesson 1A until later.

Just wondering, but isn't this very limited for Advanced Level? I would like like some help for the Wirtschaftsdeutsch Prüfung but this isn't going to help me.
 * This page is meant to be a place for contributors to put proposed lessons. Unsure what you were looking for? - Marsh 01:39, 14 Oct 2004 (UTC)

title: German/Concept Advanced


text:
Bourne Shell Scripting

Hi there! Welcome to this Wikibook on the wonderful world of Bourne Shell Scripting!

This book will cover the practical aspects of using and interacting with the Bourne Shell, the root of all shells in use in the Unix world. That includes interacting with the shell on a day-to-day basis for the purposes of operating the computer in normal tasks, as well as grouping together commands in files (scripts) which can be run over and over again. Since it's not practical to talk about the Bourne Shell in complete isolation, this will also mean some short jaunts into the wondrous world of Unix; not far, just enough to understand what is going on and be able to make full use of the shell's very wide capabilities.

There are also some things this book won't do for you. This book is not an in-depth tutorial on any kind of programming theory -- you won't learn the finer points of program construction and derivation or the mathematical backings of program development here. This book also won't teach you about Linux or any other type of Unix or Unix itself or any other operating system any more than is necessary to teach you how to use the shell. Nothing to be found here about Apache, joe, vi, or any other specific program. Nor will we cover firewalls and networking.

We will cover the Bourne Shell, beginning with the basic functionality and capabilities as they existed in the initial release, through to the added functionality specified by the international POSIX standard POSIX 1003.1 for this shell. We will have to give you some programming knowledge, but we hope that everyone will readily understand the few simple concepts we explain.

Having said that, the authors hope you will find this book a valuable resource for learning to use the shell and for using the shell on a regular basis. And that you might even have some fun along the way.

Chapters

 * /Comparing Shells/ The Bourne Shell versus other shells (or: why the Bourne Shell?)
 * /Running Commands/ How to execute commands in the Bourne Shell
 * /Environment/ The Bourne Shell environment (and how it relates to multiprocessing)
 * /Variable Expansion/ Embedding values of parameters
 * /Control flow/ Programming in Bourne Shell (getting actual work done)
 * /Files and streams/ The (standard) ins and (standard) outs of what to do with your pipe...
 * /Modularization/ Programming in blocks -- and having them interact
 * /Debugging and signal handling/ Shell settings and debugging
 * /Appendix A: Command Reference/ An overview of all the built-in commands of the Bourne Shell
 * /Appendix B: Environment reference/ An overview of all the standard environment variables of the Bourne Shell
 * /Appendix C: Quick Reference/ Quick examples to refresh your memory
 * /Appendix D: Cookbook/

Authors

 * 1) BenTels, started the book
 * 2) Kernigh, added /Substitution/ and /Loops/ chapters
 * 3) Quick reference was originally by Greg Goebel and was from http://www.vectorsite.net/tsshell.html (was public domain licensed) and was partly wikified by unforgettableid.
 * 4) Other and anonymous contributors

External References

 * IEEE Std 1003.1, 2013 Edition - The 2013 Edition of IEEE/POSIX standard 1003.1
 * An Introduction to the Unix Shell - HTML format republication of Steve Bourne's original tutorial for the Bourne Shell.
 * UNIX Shell Script Tutorials & Reference - Richard H. Reepe
 * Beginner
 * BASH Programming - Introduction HOWTO
 * Linux Shell Scripting Tutorial - A Beginners handbook
 * Advanced scripting guide
 * Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide
 * Print
 * UNIX IN A NUTSHELL: A Desktop Quick Reference for System V & Solaris 2.0 (2nd edition) Daniel Gilly et al. August 1994 ISBN 1-56592-001-5

Skriptování v Bourne shellu

title: Bourne Shell Scripting


text:
Creative Writing/Comics

This is a summary of Scott McCloud's "Understanding Comics".

Chapter 1: Setting the Record Straight
Comics is a medium, not a genre.

In one of the few previous books discussing comics as a medium, Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art, comics is defined, unexpectedly, as Sequential Art. Here McCloud expands and formalizes that definition (in a rare panel that reduces neatly to pure text): "com.ics (kom'iks) n. plural in form, used with a singular verb. 1. Juxtaposed pictoral and other images in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer."

The definition is dense (in the book it is developed over several pages, with McCloud's cartoon avatar taking questions from an audience), but to quote another part of the chapter1

The secret is not in what the definition says but what it doesn't say! ||

For example, our definition says nothing about superheroes or funny animals. Nothing about fantasy/science fiction or reader age. No genres are listed in our definition, no types of subject matter, no styles of prose or poetry. ||

Nothing is said about paper and ink. No printing process is mentioned. Printing itself isn't even specified!2 Nothing is said about technical pens or bristol board or Windsor & Newton Finest Sable Series 7 Number 2 Brushes!3  No materials are ruled out by our definition. No tools are prohibited. ||

There is no mention of black lines and flat colored ink. No calls for exaggerated anatomy or for representational art of any kind. No schools of art are banished by our definition, no philosophies, no movements, no ways of seeing are out of bounds!4

Like text, comics can be used in uncountable ways; unlike text, its potential has until recently been tragically squandered.

Chapter 2: The Vocabulary of Comics
Comics are built out of icons -- "For the purposes of this chapter, I'm using the word icon to mean any image used to represent a person, place, thing or idea." Letters and words are completely abstract icons, bearing no physical resemblance to their ideas; pictures have varying levels of abstraction, from the photograph of a face, full of color and shading, an ink copy of photons taken in through a shutter, to =D

That smiley, that :-), that set of dots and lines that looks like a face to us only because our brains contain a lot of face-seeing hardware (after all, no one sees eyes in solitary colons, noses in solitary dashes), is a cartoon. Cartoons focus our attention -- through simplification, by eliminating superfluous features, they amplify the features that remain -- but, McCloud explains, that is not the entirety of their drawing power:

"Thus, when you look at a photo or a realistic drawing of a face, you see it as the face of another."

(McCloud goes on to discuss how varying levels of iconism and realism are used in comics to achieve various effects -- for example, a sword might be drawn as a few quick lines in one panel, to symbolize its connectedness with the iconic character holding it (just as the car one drives becomes, to an extent, an extension of the self), and drawn as detailed and photorealistic in the next panel, as the character gazes down at its strange engravings, to symbolize its mystery, its otherness, to allow the reader to see it, rather than be it.)

The spectrum as described thus far:

real face --> photograph of a face --> realistic drawing --> cartoony drawing --> smiley

The photograph requires little cognition; it is received as pure visual input. The smiley requires an effort, if an unconscious one, a piecing together of the abstract lines. Continuing the spectrum to the right, McCloud argues, we arrive at the word FACE -- bold and distinct, with relatively few letters, reminiscent of prehistoric times, when words and pictures were one -- then at a more detailed description ("Two eyes, one nose, one mouth" is the example given), then at still higher levels of abstraction ("Thy youth's proud livery, as gazed on now...").

reality --> photo --> Batman --> Charlie Brown --> =D --> FACE --> Two eyes, one nose, one mouth --> Thy youth's proud livery, as gazed on now...

""

In addition to iconic abstraction, there exists abstraction of the more traditional sense, the abstraction of abstract art. Thus, the spectrum becomes a pyramid:

The Picture Plane/Art Object /\\               / .\ \ / . \  \ /     \   \ / .     \    \ / .       \   .| /       .   \  / language /.            \/ reality

The pyramid has limitations, of course (Where do The Treachery Of Images and Fountain fall? Does the horizontal axis along the verbal edge dictate how the words are displayed on the page or how they describe things?) but it is a cool little invention.

Chapter 3: Blood in the Gutter
^_^  -_^

As part of normal life, everyone learns to assume certain things (or so one assumes) -- that the world doesn't disappear when you're not looking, for example, that the house across the street has furniture and interior walls. "As infants, we're unable to commit that act of faith. If we can't see it, hear it, smell it, taste it or touch it, it isn't there!  The game "Peek-A-Boo" plays on this idea.  Gradually, we learn that even though the sight of mommy comes and goes, mommy remains. || This phenomenon of observing the parts and perceiving the whole has a name.  It's called closure."

You performed closure when you saw the lines at the top of this section as two anime smilies; more to the point of the chapter, you performed closure when you saw the two smileys as a single winking smiley. "See that space between the panels? That's what comics aficionados have named "the gutter!"  And despite its unceremonious title, the gutter plays host to much of the magic and mystery that are at the very heart of comics...If visual iconography is the vocabulary of comics, closure is its grammar."

Of course, other media make use of closure as well -- in movies, our minds effortlessly connect each frame to those preceding and following it -- but comics requires conscious (or semiconscious), high-level closure between every frame. McCloud has categorized panel-to-panel transitions into six classes:

 * 1. Moment-to-moment
 * The same subject is displayed in adjacent instants, like a movie running jerkily on a slow computer. Very little closure is required.

 * 2. Action-to-action
 * The focus remains on a single subject, but this time, two separate, consecutive actions are displayed (for example, the first panel might contain a car speeding along, the 2nd the car smashing into a tree).

 * 3. Subject-to-subject
 * Both panels are within the same scene or idea, but each portrays a different subject. ("John: What more could go wrong? || Catherine: Well, at least Jerry never called! || Telephone: Rring ")

 * 4. Scene-to-Scene
 * Just what it sounds like: great leaps in time or space. ("Detective: He can't outrun us forever. || Image of darkened house with caption: Ten years later...")  Lots o' closure -- deductive reasoning, even -- is often required to link the panels into a single narrative.

 * 5. Aspect to aspect
 * "Bypasses time for the most part and sets a wandering eye on different aspects of a place, mood, or idea."

 * 6. Non-Sequitur
 * Panels with no logical relationship. (McCloud argues, though, that any panels placed side by side will inevitably generate the impression of some sort of relationship in the reader's mind.  "--alchemy at work in the space between panels which can help us find meaning or resonance in even the most jarring of combinations."

(The transition at the top of this section, iconic and decontextualized as it is, manages to fall into two separate categories, Moment-to-moment and Action-to-action.)

Looking at how often each panel transition is used in a particular comic can reveal some interesting things. Jack Kirby's pioneering style, as invoked in a Fantastic Four comic from 1966, breaks down as follows: 65% action-to-action (type 2), 20% subject-to-subject (type 3), 15% scene-to-scene (type 4); the remaining transitions are unused. Here's the bar graph McCloud makes of the data:

|1|2|3|4|5|6|   | | | | | | | 90%| | | | | | |    | | | | | | |    | |.| | | | |    | |M| | | | | 50%| |M| | | | | | |M| | | | | | |M| | | | | | |M|M|.| | | 10%| |M|M|M| | |

As it turns out, almost every American comic -- regardless of storytelling style, regardless of genre (with a few experimental exceptions like Art Spiegelman's early work) -- charts similarly, from issue 1 of X-Men to Heartbreak Soup to Betty and Veronica to Naughty Bits to Frank in the River to A Contract With God to Maus to Donald Duck. A similar survey of European comics (Squeak the Mouse, Asterix, Welcome to Alflolol, The Long Tomorrow, Manhattan, Clik!, The Black Island, The Clock Strikes) yields similar results.

But here's a popular mainstream Japanese comic from Osamu Tezuka:

|1|2|3|4|5|6|   | | | | | | | 90%| | | | | | |    | | | | | | |    | | | | | | |    | | | | | | | 50%| | | | | | |    | |M| | | | | | |M|M| | | | | |M|M| |L| | 10%|L|M|M|M|M| |

In Japan, where comics developed mostly in isolation following World War II, where they are often published in gigantic anthologies rather than tiny magazines (lessening the premium on space and thus the emphasis on concise, action-oriented transitions 2-4) the charts look quite different. More important still, eastern culture has bequeathed an emphasis on holism and contemplation (aspect-to-aspect works well for setting a mood), an emphasis on the power of intervals -- of silence in a song, of negative space in a painting.

In comics this means a renewed emphasis on the power of closure, on the strange alchemy that occurs in the gutter. The effect is to spark the imagination, to engage every one of the five senses, rather than simply sight. (Sadly, replicating McCloud's demonstration of this in ASCII art is prohibitively difficult.)

""

Chapter 4: Time Frames
We've been trained to see a picture as a snapshot, as a single moment in time, but any student of visual physiology can tell you that the vast majority of information is taken in by a small area at the center of the field of vision; our eyes compensate for this porthole effect by darting continually around and our brains compensate by maintaining the illusion of detailed peripheral vision (for a demonstration, try reading this sentence while keeping your eyes fixed on one of its component words). Much modern art acknowledges this (Cubism, for example, incorporates many perspectives into one image), and so do many comics. McCloud's example is a long panel containing several chatting family members; reading from left to right, the conversation takes maybe 15 seconds to unfold, and the expression and pose of each person matches the moment his or her particular statement is made -- "one panel, containing several panels".

To some extent, then, space in comics translates into time; as your eyes cross the page they also pass through the seconds (or the hours, or the years) and while a frame generally denotes a particular moment (in addition to serving other purposes beyond the scope of this entry), moment is a slippery thing that in practice can be any length at all; in determining a more specific time period, the reader relies heavily on context, on a page's particular content, and, especially, on the sounds portrayed in the text, which we have not been conditioned to think of as having a duration of zero.

(Here there is a quick digression about direction. What would happen if instead of reading solely left-to-right, a comic was made into a labyrinth wherein at every intersection the reader could choose which direction the story takes? What would happen if a comic was circular, its end connecting to its beginning?)

And then there's motion. It can, of course, be portrayed through the frame transitions described in chapter 3, but shortly after the era of futurism had ended, shortly after the invention of the motion picture, comics invented the motion line, which lies "somewhere between the futurists' dynamic movement and Duchamp's diagrammatic concept of movement." Over a period of decades, motion lines evolved from "wild, messy, almost desperate attempts to chart the paths of moving objects through space" to something "more refined and stylized, even diagrammatic", then, eventually, "became so stylized as to almost have a life and physical presence all their own!"

"-- is one of simple normalcy."

Chapter 5: Living in Line
This chapter relies very heavily on visual examples, so is difficult to summarize here.

Chapter 6: Show and Tell
In the beginning, pictures and words were two sides of the same coin. In school, at show-and-tell, you show, and you tell, interchangeably -- "This is my robot...it's got one of these things"; in picture books, simple words combine similarly with images. As we grow up, we learn to separate show and tell from each other -- we paint pictures without words, and read books without pictures.

A similar progression can be traced through history. In cave paintings, the people shown were iconic, symbol-esqe, almost like letters, as were the flat, bright images of the early Greeks and Creteans and the line-drawings of ancient Egypt; early written language, likewise, was full of the descendants of those cave paintings, letters that were pictures. Words and images were side by side, at the lower-left vertex of McCloud's great pyramid.

Over the course of the next few thousand years, they diverged. Letters sacrificed visual representation for writing ease (and, later, printing ease) and pictures grew richer and more complex until looking at them was more like looking at reality than at thoughts.

title: Creative Writing/Comics


text:
Cookbook talk:Policy/Recipe template

>>Unnamed sections as of July 2012<<
I think this page should be moved out of the main namespace, but am unsure if it should go to Cookbook: or Wikibooks:. It's definatly a cookbook item, but it's not intended to be seen by the regular user, only by contributers. Any opinions? Gentgeen 02:02, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * That makes sense to me. Kellen Jan 7 (how do i do a timestamp?!) 2005

I think it would be fine to have some categorical information to each recipe (and ingredient) so that a special search can be applied. I'm thinking about things like seasonal and geographical information or classification like vegetarian, vegan and so on. Even better would be to also have things like preparation time and calories available as search terms. A visitor could then for example search for vegetarian italian dishes under 30 min prep. or similar. I think for that to work we would need a specially programmed search module and I have no clue about the MediaWiki workings in that respect... The jewel on the crown would be if you can search by ingredients: 'hmm.. I have carrots, potatoes and chicken [and hopefully some other basic ingredients]. what will I have tonight?' Any Ideas about that? --Elkmann 23:43, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * Not sure about the search idea (which I think would be good, but I'm not a developer), but if you click the "what links here" link on the side of the page from Cookbook:Carrot you end up at this page which lists all the recipes that link back to the carrot page, which I think is an important reason to wikify each ingredient. Gentgeen 20:29, 20 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Search needs to be low-maintenence. Tagging recipes is troublesome, especially if the absense of a tag implies a meaning which is opposite to having the tag. (are all recipes not tagged as vegan known to be non-vegan, or should they appear as unknowns at the bottom of a search for vegan stuff?) I see two ways to make searching work.
 * Make it Google-like, with a synonym database generated from the redirects.
 * Make it like a music referral service. As you rate recipes, recipes become sorted according to the ratings of people with similar taste in food. This was developed for music so that a heavy metal fan would not get suggestions for country music, etc. The idea should work well for recipes.
 * AlbertCahalan 01:32, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

 * I put in a request at bugzilla that the new search function in use at wikipedia be turned on for the sister projects. If you want the developers to listen to us, please vote here. Gentgeen 05:23, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Why are optional ingredients to be listed separately from the main list? It seems as if variations in cooking method or main ingredients (say, oranges for lemons) would make sense as a separate section at the end, but that optional ingredients (say coconut on top of a cake) should be listed in the main ingredients list. Opinions? Kellen Jan 7 2005

 * Agreed. In some cases, I mark an ingredient as "(optional)". In other cases, I list optional ingredients in a second list immediately after the first list. I don't think it is good to get terribly formal about this sort of thing; the proper answer really depends on the recipe. Some recipes do well with multiple ingredient lists, breaking things up as "filling" and "crust" or similar. AlbertCahalan 06:35, 4 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * If its only one or two I tend to simply use "(optional)" but for more than that I add a line break and start a ne w list marked optional directly below the first list. While it is useful to have multiple lists they should all be together for clarity. If you're reading a recipe to confirm which ingredients you'll need you need to have them all together so that you don't accidentally miss one. Introducing ingrediants into the text of a recipe that aren't invited in the main Ingredients section is a major pet peeve for me. Grimm 23:43, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

people put recipes in the template!
Twice now, people have put recipes into the template. Perhaps they ought to be saved elsewhere:

03:17, 25 Apr 2005 04:51, 9 Apr 2005

For the future though... how shall we clue people in?

 * I've added a note about it to the top. It might be as well to add it to the end as well. Grimm

One might want to fish those recipes out of the page history. AlbertCahalan 05:39, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

04:51, 9 Apr 2005   68.190.244.102  Chicken Taco??? 03:17, 25 Apr 2005  68.9.128.107    Salad w/ Lemon-oil Dressing 20:43, 30 Apr 2005  68.50.62.31     Pickled Bologna

Template
Hello, on the Dutch wikibooks, we've created a new skin for the template:
 * One for recipes with picture: nl:Sjabloon:Receptmetafbeelding, example
 * One for recipes without picture: nl:Sjabloon:Recept, example.

Firefox 10:26, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

 * This is excellent, thanks! We'll probably use something like it! 68.15.29.44 04:31, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Recipes In Progress
Given the open source spirit of "release early, release often", I think that the cookbook would benefit from a template indicating that a recipe is a "Recipe In Progress" (RIP). This would indicate that a given article contains a recipe being created or adapted and should be discussed for possible improvements on the talk page. This way, original recipes that need to be further developed or new recipes that need to be tweaked can be clearly marked as such. Hopefully, this will lead to some testing by the community and at the end, a solid recipe will emerge. It might also be helpful if the template indicates that the recipe should be used at a reader's own risk. Yonkeltron 13:03, 16 March 2006 (UTC)

Serves ??
may be each recipe should show how many people it serves and if its a side serving or full meal

And Perhaps a Variants list for the base article for eg for Macaroni and Cheese there's an article called Macaroni and Cheese and with in that page is a list of the different Variants of the recipe and a short Description: Over Baked: Cooked In the oven for Great Taste takes 1 hour Simple: Super quick Takes 10 minutes Stove Top: cook in a pot takes 20-25 minutes

Weight & Volume
The recipe template recommends use of volumes rather than weights on the grounds that many kitchens do not have scales. In Europe most kitchens do have scales, and a cheap kitchen scale need cost only a few dollars - high accuracy is not necessary.

Outside North America it is far less common to perceive a "cup" as a known volume (8 fl.oz.) and rather to see it as "whatever cup I have close to hand" which may vary by more than 5:2. Furthermore the physical state of an ingredient can cause its density to vary by 3:2 or even more - a cup of white flour can easily be as little as 100 gm or as much as 150 gm. For consistency and repeatability of recipes it is far better to use weight for solid ingredients and volume only for liquids.

I have not found a volume/weight conversion table for different ingredients - is there one?

 * "In Europe most kitchens do have scales, and a cheap kitchen scale need cost only a few dollars" ... wait a minute ... they don't use dollars in Europe. Good point though. Jimp (discuss • contribs) 05:07, 30 October 2016 (UTC)

Conversions versus versions
Simply converting from US to metric often gives a whole bunch of weird measures. The same goes for going the other way. The same again for imperial to/from metric. If you scale things up or down a little, though, you get something sensible. For example, if you round US cups (8 US fl oz) up to 250 ml and pounds up to 500 g, you'll have slightly increased everything without really affecting the proportions and you'll have made a sane-looking metric version. Jimp (discuss • contribs) 05:32, 30 October 2016 (UTC)

Shouldn't be classified as a recipe
This page is classified as a recipe, which it should not be. —Kri (discuss • contribs) 13:09, 16 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Agree - I suppose it is a small thing, but would be more precise if it was moved to a "template" naming. Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 18:55, 22 July 2022 (UTC)

Changing "procedure" to "method", or other name
Hi all, sorry started talking about this on the Policy talk page, but suggested for "procedure" to be renamed. My suggestion was "method", but open for other names. My underlining reasoning is that procedure is a rather formal sounding term, akin to a rocket launch procedure. As well, cook books often refer to there recipe steps as "to cook", or "instructions", etc. - a little less formal. Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 19:52, 22 July 2022 (UTC)

Adding "equipment" as a section into the guidelines
I also proposed on the policy talk page that another section be added called "equipment" after "ingredients" within the guidelines. This would help establish a space to outline what equipment is needed before users attempt their recipe. Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 19:55, 22 July 2022 (UTC)

 * That seems like a good idea for recipes that require specialized equipment, though many recipes can be made with varying tools (using a hand whisk when the recipes asks for an electric mixer, and vice-versa), or with a varying number of bowls (washing out the bowl one mixed bread dough in and reusing for the first rise vs using a second bowl), which might cause a standardization issue with the equipment list, if it’s not clear if it’s a minimum required equipment list or a recommended one.
 * Perhaps someone else has an opinion on this? AceDragonfly (discuss • contribs) 14:51, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

Style guidelines
I've noticed some conflicts of opinion that arise between editors when it comes to recipe stylistic matters, and I propose that additional style guidelines are established here by community consensus so that there is a clear path forward! At the time of writing, myself, @Koavf, @Xeverything11, and @Xania are the primary contributors to the cookbook, and their input would be appreciated. To my knowledge, @Jamzze has also made significant contributions lately, and @AceDragonfly has also been involved.

My proposals include:

 * 1) Decide between hyphens (-) and en dashes (–) when specifying ranges, such as quantity, temperature, time, etc. This would apply to ingredients, procedures, infoboxes, etc.
 * 2) Establish guidelines for conversions: some editors use the convert template, but this can cause issues with legibility, formatting, insertion of additional units, linking, etc.
 * 3) Establish guidelines for using ingredient tables and baker's notation in addition to the standard bulleted ingredient list formatting that already exists here.
 * 4) Decide on whether to consistently/preferentially write out (degrees) Fahrenheit and (degrees) Celsius/Centigrade or to abbreviate them as ˚F and ˚C.
 * 5) Decide on whether to consistently/preferentially spell out units (i.e. tablespoon, ounce, gram, inch, etc.) or to abbreviate them (i.e. tbsp, oz, g, in/", etc.).

I anticipate this will take some discussion. I will direct any future significant contributors to this discussion, but if there are no comments within, say, the next few months, I am inclined to start making decisions and codifying guidelines myself.

I will also be linking this thread in other places to solicit additional feedback. Looking forward to hearing people's thoughts!

—Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 15:13, 24 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the ping. I have been somewhat active on cookbooks and for what it's worth, made Cb for easy linking. As far as my perspective:
 * En dashes are just proper typography and should be used (see w:en:WP:DASH).
 * I use convert, but I'm open to any formatting issues. A solution may be importing the version at w:en:Template:Convert, which is very sophisticated and has lots of nuanced use cases.
 * I'm too ignorant here, but we definitely should get to a point where there are template-based semantics in these ingredients lists to add things like "[Ingredient] dishes" categories.
 * I'm biased toward "˚C and ˚F" as they save space, but it seems fairly trivial.
 * See above.
 * Happy Thanksgiving! —Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 15:24, 24 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I definitely agree that abbreviations for temperature systems and measurement units should be standard, but I’ll leave the other matters up to the folks that do proper article formatting work! AceDragonfly (discuss • contribs) 14:43, 16 May 2023 (UTC)

Hi ya @Kittycataclysm, my perspectives: Happy Thanksgiving for those of you in North America! Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 20:59, 24 November 2022 (UTC)
 * 1) Dashes
 * 2) Convert template - if importing the one used on Wikipedia is possible that would be grand @Koavf - conversions really should be done through a central template so adjustments/ automatic conversions can take place to reduce difference across the cookbook. The only acceptance I would put in place is for historical recipes that do not have a unified units system and are converted into modern units. For these, I think we need a historical template or flagging system to let readers know that these have been converted (just an idea). But for the most part, a standard conversion template would work well.
 * 3) Further examples needed - I am not sure what you mean here. Could you give examples?
 * 4) "˚C and ˚F" - prefer the shorthand.
 * 5) Abbreviate

 * Unfortunately, I cannot do it personally as I'm not an importer or admin. —Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 21:00, 24 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Not a cookbook contributor, so you may ignore me if you wish, but my opinions are:
 * 1. Dashes. Not everybody has access to a character map app.
 * 2. Wikipedia convert template.
 * 3. Not sure what you mean - skipping
 * 4 / 5. Prefer shorthands. Quicker to read and type. (also always make sure any oC measurements have a matching oF in brackets afterwards. Some prefer different ones. I use C.
 * Like I said, I keep out of the cookbook where I can help it. At worst, I make a recipe that gets somebody poisoned... At best it'll taste like wood.... Also happy Thanksgiving to you North Americans! 22:05, 24 November 2022 (UTC)

Thanks everyone for your feedback! To elaborate on two of the original points:
 * 2. I'm not very familiar with w:en:Template:Convert, but if it can get imported it might make sense to try it out and see if it alleviates some of the formatting/legibility issues. My only concern is that when a template is used, it may not be possible to insert wikilinks into the output text so that units can be linked to—however, this may also be a solvable problem.
 * 3. To clarify about ingredient tables: some recipes (see Cookbook:Cheese and Bacon Rolls for an example) format the recipe list as a table. In these instances, the columns and general formatting are not always standardized, which can lead to trouble when editing and collaborating on a recipe. I propose that we come to a consensus on how to format such tables. I also suggest the following columns: ingredient, count, volume, weight, and Baker's percentage; and that the tables have borders for ease of separation and legibility. Some people have had columns for imperial and metric, but I think it makes more sense to separate them like such:
 * {| class="wikitable" | style="background: none;

! Ingredient !! Count !! Volume !! Weight !! Baker's %
 * Eggs || 2 ea. || – || 100 g (3.5 oz) || –
 * Scallions, chopped || 1 bunch || 2 cups || 200 g (7 oz) || –
 * Olive oil || – || 2 tbsp (30 ml) || – || –
 * Total || – || – || 500 g (17.6 oz) || –
 * }
 * Olive oil || – || 2 tbsp (30 ml) || – || –
 * Total || – || – || 500 g (17.6 oz) || –
 * }
 * }

 * This kind of formatting accounts for the variety of different ways that cooks can measure ingredients and for differences in national origin and equipment. I think it's the most flexible! Of course, it wouldn't need to replace the standard bulleted ingredient list we currently have, but it would provide an additional, well-formatted option.

—Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 15:24, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * That table looks like it woold be more convenient to readers than on some pages I've read. Some just have a list. How much milk? A few drops? A cupfull? How big is a cup then? Or do you add a full bottle in? How big is a bottle? Ive seen 5 different sizes in some shops! 15:48, 25 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your feedback: (1) En dashes are used for ranges, (2) importing w:en:Template:Convert would be useful, (3) useful, (4) and (5) prefer shorthands. Xeverything11 (discuss • contribs) 18:17, 25 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Convert, which produces things like this: 40 F already exists here.
 * However, it is a complicated template. The default ends up with over-precision in common uses (e.g., "400 F" – you don't need the oven to be 204 °C exactly; you just need it to be in the general vicinity), and manually set rounding is done to the nearest 10, when the nearest 5 might make more sense.  Also, in that case, you probably want "400 °F, 205 °C, gas mark 6" (and in German, you add "Stufe 3", because their gas marks don't match the UK's).
 * Overall, I think it's probably better if people do this by hand. WhatamIdoing (discuss • contribs) 21:31, 24 March 2023 (UTC)

I've modified/expanded the suggested ingredients table as follows to try and propose a final standardized format:
 * {| class="wikitable" | style="background: none"

! Ingredient !! Count !! Volume !! Weight !! Baker's % (optional) Thoughts? —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 17:46, 27 November 2022 (UTC)
 * colspan="5" style="text-align: center; background: #f5f5f5" | Component 1
 * Ingredient 1 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 2 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 3 || || || ||
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * colspan="5" style="text-align: center; background: #f5f5f5" | Component 2 (optional)
 * Ingredient 4 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 5 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 6 || || || ||
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * }
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * colspan="5" style="text-align: center; background: #f5f5f5" | Component 2 (optional)
 * Ingredient 4 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 5 || || || ||
 * Ingredient 6 || || || ||
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * }
 * Ingredient 6 || || || ||
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * }
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * }
 * Total (optional) || || || ||
 * }
 * That is really good! Hope you don't mind me stealing some of that markup, ive never made a table look that... Erm... Insert word that means "not boring" here. 21:50, 27 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks @L10nM4st3r! Absolutely feel free to use the table markup—I hope it's helpful :) —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 20:24, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

@Koavf @Xeverything11 @Xania @Jamzze @L10nM4st3r Since it's been two weeks since the original proposal and over one week since the last comment, I am planning to edit the recipe template to include the following guidelines that appear to have attained consensus or, at least, have not been rejected: Please let me know if I have misunderstood or anything seems egregious. If not, I will make the changes. Cheers! —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 23:50, 7 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Use en dashes (–) when specifying ranges, such as quantity, temperature, time, etc.
 * Use the abbreviations °F and °C instead of their full written forms.
 * It is preferable to abbreviate certain long units as follows for increased legibility: tablespoon → tbsp, teaspoon → tsp, milliliter/millilitre → ml, centimeter/centimetre → cm. Avoid using a quotation mark to denote inches. Link units to their individual pages.
 * Avoid nested parentheses.
 * When listing ingredients in table format, follow the format above.
 * I'm fine with that. 17:08, 8 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Sounds goodto me Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 23:29, 8 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I think it is better to spell out Tablespoon and teaspoon, because "tbsp" and "tsp" are a single-character typo – or a missing pair of reading glasses – away from disaster. (The worst option is abbreviating to   and , as some of my old handwritten recipes do.)
 * I personally prefer to capitalize Tablespoon; it's a convention I saw in a cookbook years ago, and it helps differentiate it even further.  WhatamIdoing (discuss • contribs) 04:43, 19 May 2023 (UTC)

Conversions
I think the conversions should follow the templates:
 * X cups (X g/X oz) ingredient 1
 * X cups (X ml/X US fl oz) ingredient 2

Where ingredients cannot be measured using cups, the template would be
 * X g (X oz) ingredient 3

Where ingredients are measured by can/box/package, it would also be measured by g and oz, or ml and US fl oz, and optionally cups, the templates would be:
 * X can/box/package (X cups/X g/X oz) ingredient 4
 * X can/box/package (X g/X oz) ingredient 5
 * X can/box/package (X cups/X ml/X US fl oz) ingredient 6

If the particular ingredient is less than ¼ cup or stick, the following templates would be:
 * X tablespoons ingredient 7
 * X teaspoons ingredient 8

It is almost impossible to measure small amount of liquids by mililiter up to 25 ml. Measuring cups often start at 25 or 50 ml, so I think the teaspoons and tablespoons would be simpler.

Do you agree on these proposed templates?

I'll pinging @Kittycataclysm, @SHB2000, @MarcGarver, @L10nM4st3r, @Xania, @Jamzze, @Minorax, @AceDragonfly and @Koavf. Xeverything11 (discuss • contribs) 13:51, 13 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the proposal! Existing policy states that "quantities should be listed with whichever units...the recipe was created in, with the other equivalent values listed immediately after, in " so that "users know which units are 'original' and which are estimated conversions." Your proposal would change the original recipes and prioritize American volumes, which can have unintended consequences on the outcome of the recipe. Moreover, accurate cooking measurement tools for small milliliter volumes do exist, and not everything can be easily converted to the existing ¼/½/1 teaspoon and 1 tablespoon scheme. As such, I recommend sticking with existing policy. —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 16:34, 13 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Hi there! I think in the long term, creating some sort of template that the units of recipes can be nested within would be really helpful to allow automatic updates to occur as to their styling, rounding them, etc.
 * For now, I think keeping to the current way of doings things might be best, otherwise a lot of pages would have to be updated? Until this can be done automatically, this manual process might be too much? Jamzze (discuss • contribs) 17:46, 13 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm curious about what you mean when you say "some sort of template that the units of recipes can be nested within"! Is there something specific you're envisioning? I know my main concern as I mentioned above is the importance of indicating original units to avoid changing the recipe and to avoid prioritizing any particular set of units. —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:40, 14 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Thanks for pinging me. I'm neutral, since this seems like a well-considered proposal, but I'm a little too ignorant of cookbook best practices. I will say that all ingredients should be listed with structured data so that conversions, extractions, doubling-up, etc. can be done automatically. —Justin ( koavf ) ❤T☮C☺M☯ 19:59, 13 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Like you, I'm also neutral for the reasons you state – I would prefer if metric units were always included (which is the case anyway). SHB2000 (discuss • contribs) 10:00, 14 May 2023 (UTC)
 * It seems like you have a similar idea to Jamzze's above! I asked them for elaboration, and it would be good to hear your further thoughts as well. —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 13:43, 14 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I agree with other folks on this, especially with Kittycataclysm’s point about emphasizing/preserving the original measurements of the recipe.
 * Justin & Jamzzee’s idea to have a way to automatically convert amounts is fantastic, and would help reduce the amount of human error involved in the process. There might be some problems with converting between customary volume units and metric weight units depending on the ingredients, but it should be completely possible to make a system that works! Before we have that, standardizing ingredient format manually would be a lot more work, so I think it would be best to make the automated system first. AceDragonfly (discuss • contribs) 14:39, 16 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I'm not optimistic about converting automatically. The volume-to-weight measurements can be very different for different ingredients.  One cup of flour is always going to be about 250 mL, but its weight could be anything from 85 to 180 grams, depending on the kind of flour.  Oat flour weighs less than wheat flour, which weighs less than rice flour, which weighs less than potato flour; whole wheat weighs less than white flour, and pastry flour weighs less than all-purpose, which weighs less than gluten-free flour substitutes.  Conversions from standard volume (e.g., cups) to metric volume (e.g., mL) are easy, but conversions between volume and weight should not be handled automatically. WhatamIdoing (discuss • contribs) 05:02, 19 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I do agree with this point—automatic conversions between volume and weight would be difficult to implement. —Kittycataclysm (discuss • contribs) 17:10, 19 May 2023 (UTC)
 * I have no trouble measuring small amount of liquids by milliliter. I have metric measuring spoons, and a small graduated cylinder is cheap.   WhatamIdoing (discuss • contribs) 04:49, 19 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Sorry my reply is late, ive been busy elsewhere. Im gonna try to be a bit more active again soon. I agree with Xeverything here, but only because im a sucker when it comes to cooking. Where I even a little bit dumber, I wouldnt be able to distinguish a frying pan to a baking tray xD. No idea the full advantage of what method, and wouldnt be able to tell you each measurment if my life depended on it. 20:34, 21 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Policy/Recipe template


text:
Talk:US History

New Information
Should I create pages about the 2016 election, update the 2012 one, and make a page on Trump? PokestarFan*Talk*Contributions 14:29, 12 April 2017 (UTC)

Oh, please do! But, as a partisan (I am against what President Trump has done), please make it as impartial as possible. *This* occurred, *that* was registered, *the other thing* came up in the polls. More facts, fewer impressions. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 15:13, 12 April 2017 (UTC)
 * I am also against Trump. But I would like to keep it all factual.

Making this a featured book again.
This book has been sitting in a state of being a formerly featured book for a while now. I think there are clear issues with the book, and that this was the right call. However I was wondering what exactly it would take to improve the book as it is now to the point where it could be a proper featured book again. Do any other editors have suggestions or thoughts? --Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 20:44, 6 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:US History


text:
Modern Physics/Waves in Spacetime

Applications of Special Relativity
In this chapter we continue the study of special relativity by applying the ideas developed in the previous chapter to the study of waves.

First, we shall show how to describe waves in the context of spacetime. We then see how waves which have no preferred reference frame (such as that of a medium supporting them) are constrained by special relativity to have a dispersion relation of a particular form. This dispersion relation turns out to be that of the relativistic matter waves of quantum mechanics.

Second, we shall investigate the Doppler shift phenomenon, in which the frequency of a wave takes on different values in different coordinate systems.

Third, we shall show how to add velocities in a relativistically consistent manner. This will also prove useful when we come to discuss particle behaviour in special relativity.

A new mathematical idea will be presented in the context of relativistic waves, namely the spacetime vector or four-vector. Writing the laws of physics totally in terms of relativistic scalars and four-vectors ensures that they will be valid in all inertial reference frames.

Waves in Spacetime
Waves in Spacetime

We now look at the characteristics of waves in spacetime. Recall that a wave in one space dimension can be represented by

$$A(x,t) = A_0 \sin(kx- \omega t) \,$$

where $$A_0$$ is the (constant) amplitude of the wave, $$k$$ is the wavenumber, and $$\omega$$ is the angular frequency, and that the quantity $$\phi = kx - \omega t$$ is called the phase of the wave. For a wave in three space dimensions, the wave is represented in a similar way,

$$A(\mathbf{x},t) = A_0 \sin(\mathbf{k}\cdot\mathbf{x}- \omega t) $$

where $$\mathbf{x}$$ is now the position vector and $$\mathbf{k}$$ is the wave vector. The magnitude of the wave vector, $$|\mathbf{k}| = k$$ is just the wavenumber of the wave and the direction of this vector indicates the direction the wave is moving. The phase of the wave in this case is $$\phi = \mathbf{k}\cdot\mathbf{x} - \omega t$$.

Figure 5.1: Sketch of wave fronts for a wave in spacetime. The large arrow is the associated wave four-vector, which has slope $$\omega /ck$$. The slope of the wave fronts is the inverse, $$ck/ \omega$$.

In the one-dimensional case $$\phi = kx - \omega t$$. A wave front has constant phase $$\phi$$, so solving this equation for $$t$$ and multiplying by $$c$$, the speed of light in a vacuum, gives us an equation for the world line of a wave front:

$$ct = \frac{ckx}{\omega}-\frac{c\phi}{\omega}=\frac{ck}{u_p}-\frac{c\phi}{\omega} \quad \mbox{(wave front).}$$

The slope of the world line in a spacetime diagram is the coefficient of $$x$$, or $$c/u_p$$, where $$u_p = \omega/k$$ is the phase speed.

title: Modern Physics/Waves in Spacetime


text:
Dutch/Lesson 2

Gesprek 2-1

 * 1) First push the button to simply listen to the following conversation.
 * 2) Then study the text to find out what the meaning is. If necessary, hover your mouse over a if you don't know it. Once you think you understand the conversation open the dropdown below to see the full translation.
 * 3) Finally listen to the conversation again and see how much you understand. First with eyes open to see the text. Then do it with eyes closed.
 * 4) If there are parts you do not understand when listening, go back to step 2.
 * 5) Finally use the vocabulary box on the right to memorize the vocabulary material

Grammatica 2-1 ~ Introduction to Verbs
A verb (in Dutch: werkwoord) is that part of speech that describes an action. Verbs come in an almost bewildering array of tenses, moods, voices and aspects, and there are several major types: intransitive, transitive, ditransitive, and ergative verbs.

Fortunately, the Dutch verb is not too different from the English one, although it does have a few more forms.

I am called Standish                     Ik heet Standish What are you called (named)? Hoe heet u? ...that she is named (called) 'Alice'    ...dat ze 'Alice' heet  We are both called Robert                Wij heten allebei Robert

The Dutch verb heten can best be translated as "to be named" or "to be called" and we see two forms of it here Actually there are usually three forms. This can be seen from:
 * 1) a singular one: heet used with ik,u,ze
 * 2) a plural one heten used for wij (as well the other plural persons).

In the case of heten the extra -t does not get added because the stem already ends in a -t.

In a later lesson we will revisit the verb forms associated with each person.

The irregular verb to be-zijn has a few more forms in both languages.

Gesprek 2-2 ~ De Engelsman
First push the arrow button to listen to the following conversation. Then inspect the translation and hover over each word you do not know to find out what it means. Once you understand the narrative run the audio again, following along, making sure you know what is being said. Use the pronunciation box on the right to further strengthen your comprehension both in listening and in reading.

Fill in the blank 2-2-F
Say the word you think that belongs in the blank and use the hover method to check your choice

 * Mevrouw Nieman wil Standish haar collega
 * Mr. Standish vraag of ze een beetje wil spreken.
 * Mr. Standish bezoekt de.
 * Mevrouw Nieman vraagt of Standish Nederlands kan

Vocabulary drill 2-1

Of course memorizing words and expressions is an important part of learning any language and there are various ways of doing that. Have a look at the vocabulary pages. They are designed to help you acquire more words in a playful manner.

Grammatica 2-2 ~ Inversion in questions and negations
You may have wondered about the order of the words in

 * ik geloof dat ze Alice heet.

Even though Dutch verbs are not so much more complicated than English ones, word order is. In fact it is quite a bit more complicated than in English. For the moment let's just leave the above sentence for what it is and start with questions.

Questions
A question sentence in Dutch simply reverses the order of subject and verb.

Recall:  U heet meneer Standish ('You are named Mr. Standish).

It became: Hoe heet u ? as a question

The normal word order of subject (u or "you") then verb (heten) is reversed and, in this case, an interrogative (hoe or "how") added.

Additional examples: English does the same thing when using the verb to be:

 * I am - are you?
 * ik ben - bent u?

Dutch does not use the auxiliary to do as English requires in most other cases:

 * ik weet -  weet u?
 * I know  -  do you know? (instead of "know you?")

Negations
The negative is formed by simply adding niet at the end:

 * Ik versta u      -  I understand you
 * Ik versta u niet -  I do not understand you

Again, Dutch does not use the auxiliary to do. (In fact using it sounds very foreign.)

Even a negative question does not use to do:

 * Verstaat u mij niet? - Don't you understand me?

Gesprek 2-3 ~ Het nieuwe meisje
In this conversation, the parties are close friends.

Fill in the blank 2-3-F
Use the hover method to check your answer.

 * Karel vraag aan Heleen wie dat nieuwe is.
 * Karel vindt Karolien erg
 * Heleen denkt dat Karel het lange zwarte leuk vindt.
 * Karel is op dat haar.

Gender
Where English uses the demonstrative pronoun that, Dutch uses either dat or die, recall:

 * dat nieuwe meisje. Die brunette. - that new girl, that brunette

Similarly, where English uses the article the, Dutch has two possibilities: de or het, recall:

 * de boekhouding, het meisje. - the administration, the girl

We will revisit this phenomenon (gender) in the next lesson more extensively. There is a bit of a problem with it in Dutch.

For the moment it is enough to realize that there are two kinds of words,
 * ones that take de and die
 * ones that take het and dat

For this reason it is advisable to always memorize a word together with its definite article, e.g. as "de boekhouding", not simply as "boekhouding".

Both articles and demonstrative pronouns are a special kind of adjectives: words that are added to make the meaning of another word more precise, like new, small or exciting

Inflection
Recall that some adjectives in the dialogue ended in -e (mooie meid), sometimes they did not (is erg mooi).

Adjectives can be used in two ways: in front of a noun and after a verb like is (a copula). In English the adjective remains the same regardless:

 * The house is red (copula + adjective)
 * The red car (adjective + noun)

Behind a copula (as predicate) this is true in Dutch as well:

 * Ik ben gek (I am crazy)
 * Ze is mooi (She is pretty)
 * De auto is rood (The car is red)

But in Dutch they are inflected if they occur in front of a noun (as attribute). Compare:
 * de rode auto - the red car
 * een rode auto - a red car
 * de rode auto's - the red cars
 * rode auto's - red cars

Neuter words are the ones that carry the definite article het and the demonstrative dat. They are a bit different (Again: we will revisit them in the next lesson.)

 * het rode huis
 * een rood huis - a red house
 * de rode huizen
 * rode huizen

As you see the adjective is not inflected after the indefinite article een.

This also holds if there is no article:

 * met groot gemak - with great ease (het gemak: neuter)

But:

 * in hoge nood - in desperate need (de nood)

Thus, apart from the indefinite neuter an attributive adjective is usually inflected with -e.

There are a few exceptions, compare e.g.:

 * de man - the man
 * een grote man - a big man
 * een groot man - a great man

Making nouns out of adjectives
Adjectives can be turned into nouns, by assuming their inflected form:

 * Dat is een grote
 * That is a big one
 * Dat is een kleine
 * That is a small one
 * Die lange heeft mijn fiets gestolen
 * That tall guy has stolen my bike

Notice that Dutch does not use 'one' in such cases.

There are a number of adjectives that can be turned into nouns by adding -te. They all carry de. In English the corresponding suffix is -th:

 * wijd – wijdte (wide - width)
 * lang – lengte (long, tall - length)
 * groot – grootte (big - size)
 * breed – breedte (broad - breadth)
 * eng – engte (narrow - narrowness)
 * zwaar – zwaarte (heavy - heaviness)
 * heet – hitte (hot - heat)
 * warm – warmte (warm - warmth)
 * zwak – zwakte (weak - weakness)
 * sterk – sterkte (strong - strength)
 * droog – droogte (dry - drought)
 * hoog – hoogte (high - height)
 * menig – menigte (many - crowd)
 * duur – duurte (expensive - dearth)
 * gewoon – gewoonte (usual - habit)

More about nouns in the next lesson.

Quizlet
The vocabulary can be practiced as Quizlet (30 terms)

Progress made
If you have studied the above lesson well you should have
 * 1) been introduced to verbs in the present tense
 * 2) been introduced to one element of word order: inversion
 * 3) become able to ask a question
 * 4) become able to make a sentence negative with niet
 * 5) been introduced to adjectives and their inflection
 * 6) gained vocabulary

Cumulative vocabulary count:
 * 1) Les 1: 116 terms, Les 1A: 89 terms. Example 1: 21 terms Total 226 terms.
 * 2) Les 2: 82 terms  Total 82 terms
 * 3) Grand total 308 terms

Pronunciation Guide >>

 * Practice Lesson 2
 * Cultural Lesson 2 >>

title: Dutch/Lesson 2


text:
Talk:German/Concepts Basic

Untitled
Hansm - I like the conversation you developed. It should replace the difficult one I had in Lesson 1 (1-2). Otherwise, the lesson material is similar to the existing, with the exception of discussing verbs. That can be started here, but I was holding off because so much material (vocab, pronouns, wortd order) needs inclusion. I can try putting the verb intro up front, or just delay one lesson (to your 0.2 for example) - Marsh 17:26, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Marsh - what I have done here was just to show up my ideas. Yes, you are right, there is much more to be explained as I thought on the first view. Anyway, I think verb forms are more important than polite and familar forms, aytually, this are special verb forms. Integrate it in your lesson as you like. I know, it's not easy at all. Btw, you see, my English always needs corrections and my grammatical knowlage about German is more intuition than knowing, althought I'm quite sure about it. But It's realy hard for me to give grammatical rules since I don't need them myself. -- Hansm 19:30, 7 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Testing Questions
I do like this idea of having testing questions, developed here by 217.24.226.196 - Marsh 17:38, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Concepts Basic


text:
Bourne Shell Scripting/Comparing Shells

Almost all books like this one have a section on (or very similar to) "why you should use the shell/program flavor/language/etc. discussed in this book and not any of the others that perform the same tasks in a slightly different way". It seems to be pretty well mandatory.

However, this book will not do that. We'll talk a bit about "why Bourne Shell" of course. But you'll soon see that doesn't preclude other shells at all. And there's no good reason not to use another shell either, as we will explain a little further down.

Bourne shell and other Unix command shells
There are many Unix command shells available today. Bourne Shell is just one drop in a very large ocean. How do all these shells relate? Do they do the same things? Is one better than the other? Let's take a look at what makes a shell and what that means for all the different shells out there.

How it all got started...
The Unix operating system has had a unique outlook on the world ever since it was created back in the 1970s. It stands apart from most other operating systems in that its focus has always been towards power users: people who want to squeeze every drop of performance out of their system and have the technical knowledge to do so. Unix was designed to be programmed and modified to the desires of the user. At its core, Unix does not have a user interface; instead it is comprised of a stable OS kernel and a versatile C library. If you're not trying to do actual hard-core programming but rather are trying to do day-to-day tasks (or even just want to put a little program together quickly), pure Unix is a tremendous pain in the backside.

In other words, it was clear from the start that a tool would be needed that would allow a user to make use of the functions offered him by the coding library and kernel without actually doing serious programming work. A tool in other words that could pass small commands on to the lower-level system quickly and easily. Without the need for a compiler or other fancy editor, but with the ability to tap into the enormous power of the underlying system. Stephen Bourne set himself to the task and came up with what he called a shell: a small, on-the-fly compiler that could take one command at a time, translate it into the sequence of bits understood by the machine and have that command carried out. We now call this type of program an interpreter, but at the time, the term "shell" was much more common (since it was a shell over the underlying system for the user). Stephen's shell was slim, fast, and though a bit unwieldy at times, its power is still the envy of many current operating system command-line interfaces today. Since it was designed by Stephen Bourne, this shell is called the Bourne Shell. The executable is simply called sh and use of this shell in scripting is still so ubiquitous, there isn't a Unix-based system on this earth that doesn't offer a shell whose executable can be reached under the name sh.

...And how it ended up
Of course, everyone's a critic. The Bourne Shell saw tremendous use (indeed, it still does) and as a result, it became the de facto standard among Unix shells. But all sorts of people almost immediately (as well as with use) wanted new features in the shell, or a more familiar way of expressing commands, or something else. Many people built new shells that they felt continued where Bourne Shell ended. Some were completely compatible with Bourne Shell, others were less so. Some became famous, others flopped. But pretty much all of them look fondly upon Bourne Shell, the shell they call "Dad..."

A number of these shells can be run in sh-like mode, to more closely emulate that very first sh, though most people tend just to run their shells in the default mode, which provides more power than the minimum sh.

It's Bourne Shell, but not as we know it....
So there are a lot of shells around but you can find Bourne Shell everywhere, right? Good old sh, just sitting there faithfully until the end of time....

Well, no, not really. Most of the sh executables out there nowadays aren't really the Bourne Shell anymore. Through a bit of Unix magic called a link (which allows one file to masquerade as another) the sh executable you find on any Unix system is likely actually to be one of the shells that is based on the Bourne shell. One of the most frequently used shells nowadays (with the ascent of free and open-source operating systems like GNU and Linux) is a heavily extended form of the Bourne Shell produced by the Free Software Foundation, called Bash. Bash hasn't forgotten its roots, though: it stands for the Bourne Again SHell.

Another example of a descendant shell standing in for its ancestor is the Korn Shell (ksh). Also an extension shell, it is completely compatible with sh -- it simply adds some features. Much the same is true for zsh.

Finally, a slightly different category is formed by the C Shell (csh) and its descendant tcsh, native on BSD systems. These shells do break compatibility to some extent, using different syntax for many commands. Systems that use these shells as standard shells often provide a real Bourne Shell executable to run generic Bourne Shell scripts.

Having read the above, you will understand why this book doesn't have to convince you to use Bourne Shell instead of any other shell: in most cases, there's no noticeable difference. Bourne Shell and its legacy have become so ingrained in the heart and soul of the Unix environment that you are using Bourne Shell when you are using practically any shell available to you.

Why Bourne Shell
So only one real question remains: now that you find yourself on your own, cozy slice of a Unix system, with your own shell and all its capabilities, is there any real reason to use Bourne Shell rather than using the whole range of your shell's capabilities?

Well, it depends. Probably, there isn't. For the most part of course, you are using Bourne Shell by using the whole potential of your shell -- your shell is probably that similar to the Bourne Shell. But there is one thing you might want to keep in mind: someday, you might want to write a script that you might want to pass around to other people. Of course you can write your script using the full range of options that your shell offers you; but then it might not work on another machine with another shell. This is where the role of Bourne Shell as the lingua franca of Unix command shells comes in -- and also where it is useful to know how to write scripts targeted specifically at the Bourne Shell. If you write your scripts for the Bourne Shell and nothing but the Bourne Shell, chances are far better than equal that your script will run straight out of the mail attachment (don't tell me you're still using boxes to ship things -- come on, get with the program) on any command shell out there.

title: Bourne Shell Scripting/Comparing Shells


text:
German/Level III/Markus Studiert

Lektion Eins für Fortgeschrittene

Geschichte 1-3 ~ Markus studiert

 * Markus ist in der Universität. Er trinkt dort einen Kaffee und isst ein Brötchen. Danach geht er in die Bibliothek. Er sucht ein Buch über Biochemie. Er holt das Buch aus dem Regal und setzt sich an einen Tisch. Nach einer Stunde geht er in den Hof und raucht eine Zigarette. Danach geht er an den Tisch zurück. Er denkt: "Wenigstens eine Stunde..." und stellt das Buch wieder in das Regal.

This short story (Geschichte) is told in the 3rd person (see Grammatik 1-3). Note how this is apparent from both the pronoun (Er or "he") and verb forms.

Vokabeln 1-3
die Bibliothek          library die Biochemie           biochemistry das Brötchen            roll, biscuit das Buch                book der Fortgeschrittene    advancer die Fortgeschrittenen advancers (pl.) die Geschichte          story der Hof                 courtyard; also court der Kaffee              coffee die Stunde              hour der Tisch               table das Regal               shelf die Zigarette           cigarette

denken                  think                     (Er denkt = He thinks) essen                   eat                       (Er isst = He eats) holen                   fetch, get                (Er holt = He gets/fetches) rauchen                 smoke (a cigarette)       (Er raucht = He smokes) sich setzen             sit (oneself) down        (Er setzt sich = He sits) stellen                 place                     (Er stellt = He places) suchen                  seek, search for          (Er sucht = He looks for) trinken                 drink                     (Er trinkt = He drinks)

aus                     out danach                  afterwards dort                    there in                      in nach                     after über                    about wenigstens              at least, at any rate wieder                  again
 * Pronunciation Guide >>

Grammatik 1-3 ~ Personal Pronouns
As in English, personal pronouns exist in three grammatical persons, each with singular and plural number. In Gespräch 1-1 and 1-2, you see only the singular versions. The table here gives also the plural (nominative case only):

Grammatik 1-3 ~ Incomplete Sentences
What are we to make of short, incomplete sentences such as that in Gespräch 1-1: 'Und dir?'? This translates as: 'And for you?'. In English and German it is not always necessary to express every part of a sentence, especially in conversation where the words left out are easily understood by both or all parties. Walk up to a stranger and say 'And you?' and a possible response is a hostile 'Out of my face, fool'. But in the conversation between Heinrich and Karl, Heinrich knows that Karl is really meaning: Und wie geht es dir?, with that part underlined left out of the conversational statement. Note especially that the pronoun 'you' retains its case—its relation to the missing verb from the implied sentence—distinctive in German (that is, dir instead of du) but not so in English (the form "you" covers both cases).

Übersetzung 1-2
Although these sentences involve many grammatical concepts that have not been covered, each can be written in German by referring to the example sentences and vocabularies in Lessons 1 and 1A. Using a piece of paper and pencil, translate each of these sentences into German:
 * 1) Hello Mark! Do you have a cigarette?
 * 2) Are you studying German?
 * 3) Catherine drinks coffee at a table.
 * 4) The students study at the library.
 * 5) He eats cheese and sausage in the courtyard.
 * 6) She looks for a book about biology.
 * 7) Mark goes back to the University.
 * 8) Mark removes the book from the shelf and places it on the table.

 * Antworten >

title: German/Level III/Markus Studiert


text:
User:Jdoms

i'm jdoms and that's all ya need to know 'bout me :-).

title: User:Jdoms


text:
Talk:German/Lesson 7

Untitled
It's actually -zig not -ßig. The only number where it's -ßig is dreißig. Everywhere else, -zig.

title: Talk:German/Lesson 7