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Talk:Special Relativity/Principle of Relativity

Inertial reference frames
''An inertial reference frame is a collection of objects that have no net motion relative to each other. It is a coordinate system defined by the non-accelerated motion of objects with a common direction and speed.''

 * It always puzzles me what an inertial reference frame is. It is certainly not a collection of objects as the first sentence states. It is indeed meant to be a coordinate system that is not accelerated, and hence is in rest or moves with constant velocity, as one might think. Might think, because how is this observed, how to be measured? The topic of the theory is precise the relativity of movements.Nijdam 20:01, 16 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Two years almost has gone by, and no one has commented on the above remark. The definition is certainly not correct. I will comment it out till it is corrected.Nijdam (talk) 12:05, 2 June 2008 (UTC)

Hi there. These are good points. The definition was very weak. I looked through the web and found tremendous confusion on this issue. Most of the definitions were circular (ie: they assume SR to define an inertial reference frame). The best, non-circular definition that I could find was by Blandford and Thorne and has been included both as a summary sentence and as a full-length quote. Weyl (Space, Time, Matter) also says the same over a couple of pages. Carroll, a prominent cosmologist, gives a similar definition to that of Blandford and Thorne:

"Let us consider coordinates (t, x, y, z) on spacetime, set up in the following way. The spatial coordinates (x, y, z) comprise a standard Cartesian system, constructed for example by welding together rigid rods which meet at right angles. The rods must be moving freely, unaccelerated. The time coordinate is defined by a set of clocks which are not moving with respect to the spatial coordinates. (Since this is a thought experiment, we imagine that the rods are infinitely long and there is one clock at every point in space.) The clocks are synchronized in the following sense: if you travel from one point in space to any other in a straight line at constant speed, the time difference between the clocks at the ends of your journey is the same as if you had made the same trip, at the same speed, in the other direction. The coordinate system thus constructed is an inertial frame." Carroll, S.M. (1997) Lecture Notes on General Relativity. http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/gr-qc/9712019

I would have used Carroll's definition but for the fact that he does not specify Einstein Synchronisation.

Relativity holds that moving objects are not attached to any inertial frame of reference but their own rest frame(i.e.: the clocks go out of sync relative to other inertial frames of reference etc.).

Incidentally, the current Wikipedia definition: "an inertial frame of reference is one in which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a straight line." and the oft quoted "an inertial reference frame is a reference frame in which Newton's First Law is valid" are bizarre because a reference frame is a coordinate system, not a physical law. It may well be the case that where clocks remain synchronised and rods remain the same length at all positions Newton's first law of motion applies but in invoking Newton we are assuming Noether's insights and relativity prior to deciding how we can make the measurements on which these theories are based! RobinH (talk) 15:51, 2 June 2008 (UTC)

Introduction
Special relativity (SR) or the 'special theory of relativity' was developed by Albert Einstein and first published in 1905 in the article "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". It replaced Newtonian notions of space and time and it incorporates Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. The theory is called "special" because it applies the principle of relativity to the "restricted" or "special" case of inertial reference frames in 'flat' spacetime where the effects of gravity can be ignored. Ten years later, Einstein published his general theory of relativity (general relativity, "GR") which incorporated these effects.

Beginners often believe that special relativity is only about objects that are moving at high velocities. This is a mistake. Special relativity applies at all velocities but at low velocity the predictions of special relativity are almost identical to those of the Newtonian empirical formulae. Special relativity introduces a deeper understanding of why physical events happen.

This book is intended for undergraduates but can be used by anyone with a higher school level of mathematics. It is arranged in two sections, a general description and a mathematical description of the theory. As a "Wikibook" it is not complete and the next edition can be edited by anyone who feels they have spotted a mistake or wishes to add more detail and clarity.

I have a replacement intro at here EvanR 10:12, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Reference frame and coordinate system
In general relativity it is important to distinguish reference frames (inertial, flat, curved, etc) from coordinate systems (rectangular, polar, Boyer-Lindquist, etc). It might be helpful to add some text defining these two terms, giving examples of how they are different, and explaining why it is important. I understand the difference myself, somewhat, but not enough to write any good text to describe this. Kwan3217 04:39, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

another view
“Einstein extended the principle of relativity by proposing that the laws of physics are the same regardless of the inertial frame of reference.”

I would not call this an extension. It is more of an “interpretation”, however severely incomplete: in addition, laws of physics must refer to relative velocities only, so that predicted observations are the same regardless of the inertial frame chosen to describe an experiment.

Indeed the principle of relativity of movements stipulates that only relative motion has a reality. Therefore the representation of an object as being at rest or in motion results from a pure convention and should have no impact on predicted observations. For the purpose of describing an experiment where objects are in relative motion, one must first adopt a convention about what is fixed and what is in motion, and then apply laws of physics within this framework.

One may decide to change this convention, leading to another description of the experimental pattern. But according to the principle of relativity of movements the same laws of physics shall apply and the same observations will be predicted within the new framework provided all relative velocities are maintained unchanged through the change of convention… Otherwise it would not be true that only relative motion has a reality.

From the above one can clearly see why it is not sufficient to require that the same laws apply: they must refer to relative velocities only.

When swapping from one convention to another, all velocities are affected by adding the same vector v, more precisely the mathematical representation of the velocity of every object is affected by this vector, leaving the relative velocities between objects unchanged. Of course the same system of coordinates can be used for the mathematical representation of both frameworks…

In this context it is correct to state that v marks the difference between both conventions, between both frameworks used for applying laws of physics. However it would not make sense to imagine the “conventions” being in relative motion, or telling that one goes faster than the other, or claiming that one can be at rest.

Should you try and replace the word “convention” by “reference frame”? If it has any bearing to the principle of relativity of movement, a reference frame must relate to the motion of objects, not to their position. A change of convention concerning what is moving and what is at rest (a change of reference frame then), must remain independent from a change of positions, the latter being obtained through a change of the coordinate system, another arbitrary convention according to the principle of relativity of positions in space. Sugdub (talk) 22:19, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

For readers who do not already know what you mean
The current text says: The velocity transformations for the velocities in the three directions in space are, according to Galilean relativity: and then it goes on to list: $$\mathbf{u^'_x = u_x - v}$$

etc. The problem for the beginning reader is that s/he does not know where the "U" factors are coming from. Even though it is easy to argue that the stated form of something is defensible if correctly understood, it would be better to avoid creating a stumbling block for the beginning reader -- especially in regard to something that already has the reputation of being incomprehensible. It only costs the writer a moment to define terms. Failing to do so could discourage a reader for a lifetime. P0M (talk) 02:48, 30 December 2010 (UTC)

Confusion
I've been trying to understand the problem mentioned in the text for nearly an hour. It's not clear from the illustration's text that the coordinates (x,y,z,t) and (x',y',z',t') refer to the event and not the observers. It's also unclear that the two observers are at the exact same point at t=0.

 * Thank you for pointing this out. I have extended the text.  RobinH (discuss • contribs) 18:29, 1 January 2012 (UTC)

Arriving at spacetime equation
"Einstein himself (Einstein 1920) gives one of the clearest descriptions of how the Lorentz Transformation equations are actually describing properties of space and time itself. His general reasoning is given below. If the equations are combined they satisfy the relation:"

It is not clear which are the equations combined to give rise to the Pythagoras' Theorem extension, resulting in arguably the first critical point in the article, the concept of spacetime described by the math. It would be better to indicate exactly which/how the equations are combined.

Jakesee (discuss • contribs) 04:52, 24 February 2015 (UTC)

Reference works cited
I made a small change to add a "References" section heading before the last book cited (Blandford &c.); then realised that several other works cited (e.g. Einstein 1920) didn't appear there, but at the end of the section that cited it. Also remembered reading just now that the Wikibooks MOS talks about having a bibliography (or References) page, not a ref. section. So I undid my change.

Some questions:
 * 1) Would the reader benefit by our gathering these (four or so) book references at the bottom of the current page?
 * 2) Or in a separate section named "References"?
 * 3) Or on another entirely separate page called "Bibliography" or "References"?
 * 4) Or are they better left exactly where they are, each at the end of the citing section?
 * 5) And if we do leave them where they are, should we format them differently from the main text, to make clear they're some kind of footnote to the section (e.g. by indenting them)?

Yahya Abdal-Aziz (discuss • contribs) 12:18, 14 November 2018 (UTC)

 * Answering my own questions …! I've just read Help:Editing (help - editing - References, which says, inter alia:
 * "Footnotes may also be listed at the ends of each section of text by closing the template with the "close" parameter, as shown in the box just above."
 * and refers to the example .  So, (being BOLD) I'm just going to see how well that works. Yahya Abdal-Aziz (discuss • contribs) 12:49, 14 November 2018 (UTC)

 * End-of-section reflists added. Seems to work quite well.  I'd appreciate any feedback on whether you think this is an improvement.  Yahya Abdal-Aziz (discuss • contribs) 13:27, 14 November 2018 (UTC)


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Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Metabolism

 Previous < Up > Next : Index

What is energy?
In order to live, organisms need to get Energy. Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Animals like you and me get energy by eating food.

Both a wagon rolling down a hill, and a boy chasing after the wagon are using energy. This kind of energy is called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

If the boy catches the wagon and sits it on top of the hill again, the wagon has what we call potential energy. Potential energy is stored energy. Just a little push and the wagon will roll down the hill again.

The food we eat also has potential energy. The energy is stored and just a little push will release that energy so that we can use it to power ourselves.

What is metabolism?
Every living organism is made up of chemicals. When we grow we must make ourselves bigger by putting those chemicals together to make larger molecules that we call macromolecules. Hair is made of a macromolecule called a protein. When we grow hair, we are building those hairs inside the cells of our body. Making hair requires energy and raw materials. We get those by breaking down the molecules in the food that we eat.

Therefore in every cell of our body, molecules are being broken down to provide energy and built up to make parts of ourselves every moment of every day. All of these reactions together are called our metabolism.

Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism
Metabolism is made of the reactions that tear molecules apart called catabolism, and reactions that build larger molecules called anabolism. Catabolic reactions tend to release energy, while anabolic reactions require energy to work. Living organisms use the power of catabolic reactions (such as breaking down food) to drive their anabolic reactions ( such as making hair). This happens even on the small scale where individual anabolic reactions are coupled together with catabolic reactions that will drive them.

Where do cells get energy?
The major food of cells is the sugar glucose. Cells break down sugar to make energy. Organisms that can make food are called autotrophes which means "self feeders". Organisms that eat other organisms are called heterotrophes.

intermediate

Advanced

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Italian/Grammar/Articles

Determinative article (the) / L'articolo determinativo
The English article the has several translations into Italian, according to:
 * gender: masculine or feminine
 * number: singular or plural
 * initial of the following word

Basic articles: Masculine singular: il Masculine plural: i Feminine singular: la Feminine plural: le

Articles must have the same gender and number of the referred noun.

Examples: Il ragazzo (the boy) La ragazza (the girl) I ragazzi (the boys) Le ragazze (the girls)

When the following word begins with z, s+consonant, gn, pn, ps or x, the masculine article is changed as follows:

Masculine articles before impure consonant sounds: Masculine singular: lo Masculine plural: gli

Examples: Lo zio (the uncle) Gli zii (the uncles)

When the following word begins with a vowel, articles are changed as follows:

Articles before a vowel: Masculine singular: l' (lo) Masculine plural: gli Feminine singular: l' (la) Feminine plural: le

The form l' is not colloquial, it is the normal form even in very polite and refined speech.

Examples: L'orso (the bear) - plural: gli orsi (the bears) L'arma (the weapon) - plural: le armi (the weapons)

Note that when the vowel is an i pronounced as a semi-vowel, lo and la are used, eg lo iodio, la iarda.

Indeterminate and Partitive Articles (a/an) / Gli articoli partitivi e indeterminativi (un/uno/una)
Basic indeterminate articles: Masculine singular: un Masculine singular: uno (For impure consonants z, s+consonant, gn, pn, ps, x) Feminine singular: una (un' is written when the following word starts with vowel, do not confuse with masculine un!)

These articles do not have any plural but instead the Partitive Article can be used. These articles all have the meaning of "some" and they are similar to some prepositions but they are not prepositions, they work like articles.

Partitive articles or plural indeterminative: Masculine plural: dei Masculine plural: degli (For impure consonants z, s+consonant, gn, pn, ps, x) Feminine plural: delle

Italienisch/ Artikel Italiano/Artículos Enseignement de l'italien/Les articles Italiano/Articolo

title: Italian/Grammar/Articles


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Cookbook talk:Dirt Pudding

= History = The lead section has been transwikied and merged from Wikipedia.
 * (cur) (last) 14:40, June 15, 2006 w:User:Irongargoyle m
 * (cur) (last) 17:49, June 12, 2006 w:User:Irongargoyle
 * (cur) (last) 17:44, June 12, 2006 w:User:Irongargoyle
 * (cur) (last) 17:31, June 11, 2006 w:User:RicDod (nominated for deletion. Sounds very nice but Wikipedia is not a cook book)
 * (cur) (last) 18:09, June 5, 2006 w:User:Gord8120
 * (cur) (last) 17:38, June 5, 2006 w:User:Gord8120

= Discussion =

title: Cookbook talk:Dirt Pudding


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Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences/Appearance

The Appearance pane of System Preferences lets you adjust the little bits and pieces of the Mac interface. While the changes can be seen as minor, they can make a big impact on your Mac's feel.

The most important controls are the two pop-up menus at the top.

The first is "Appearance", which controls the color of accents in Mac OS X. The default setting, "Blue", is a bit of a misnomer. Not every accent in Mac OS X is blue (for instance, the buttons in window title bars are red, yellow, and green). It would be much better to call this setting "Color". When this pop-up is set to "Graphite", the life is sucked out of the Mac interface. Buttons, scrollbars, the Apple menu, etc. all turn a shade of grey.

This is a very niche option. The colored accents in Mac OS X are very appealing, and almost all users prefer to leave them turned on. Graphite is mainly used among graphic designers, who find extra color distracting and unprofessional. When used together with a neutral Desktop Picture, Graphite gives your Mac a very serious air.

The second pop-up menu lets you choose a highlight color, used when selecting text, windows in Exposé, files on the desktop, etc.

Other options let you customize how scroll bars work, how many items appear in  > Recent Items, and how fonts are smoothed. These options are pretty self-explanatory.


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Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences/Dashboard & Exposé

The Dashboard and Exposé pane is used to set shortcuts that let you access both Dashboard and Exposé. The default shortcuts are:

 * All Windows - F9
 * Application Windows - F10
 * Desktop - F11
 * Dashboard - F12

Using the four pop-up menus at the bottom of the window, you can assign any one of these functions to any "F" key. You can also assign it to the command, option, shift, or control keys, because there are two of each of these keys: if you assign Dashboard to the right shift key, then you can still use the left shift key for its normal purposes.

The top half of the window lets you assign features of Mac OS X to corners of the screen. Drag your mouse into the corner you chose, and the feature you assigned will activate. You can assign each corner to activate one of the following:

 * Exposé All Windows
 * Exposé Application Windows
 * Exposé Desktop
 * Dashboard
 * Start Screen Saver
 * Disable Screen Saver (as long as you leave your cursor in the corner, your screen saver will not start)


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User:Lupin/badwords

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/ball+[- ]?((([sf]uck|bust|[lk]ic?k+|break|sack)(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?)|[sz])/ /bea[nv]er[- ]?(juice|lick|[sf]uck)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g’]?)?[sz]?/ /cawk/ /clit(orise?)?[sz]?/ /(tiny)?[- ]?[ck][o0](c?k+|x)[- ]?(ass|bag|bite|goggle|smoke|head|face|tease|knock|nose|hole|[fs]uc?k+|tease|thirsty|hungry)?(a|e[dsr]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /crank[- ]?(yank)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /cun+(y|ie)s?/ /[ck]unt[- ]?(off|ish|rape|lick|juice|eat|face?|l[ai]p+|munch|head|[sf]uc?k+)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /c+u+n+t+/ C.U.N.T. /(big|little|needle|pencil)?[- ]?di(x|c?k+)[- ]?(bag|bite|chode|head|hold|hole|face|nose||less|lick|[sf]uc?k+|tease|wad)?(a|e[rds]|in[g’]?)?[sz]?/ eroticunt /[gjb]enital(s|ia)?/ /hard[- ]?on[sz]?/ /his peters?/ /kawk/ /kok/ /konts?/ /(num+b?|bust a)?[- ]?nut+[- ]?(bust|sack)?(a|e[dr]|in;g']?)?[zs]?/ /pecker[- ]?(head|wood)?[sz]?/ /penii/ /p[3ei]n[1!iu]s[- ]?(bit|lic?k+|[sf]uck|head|face|hole)?(a|e[rsd]||in[g']?)?[zs]?/ /p+e+n+i+s+/ /peter[- ]?(pu(mp|ff))(a|e[rds]|in[g’]?)?[sz]?/ /phal+(ic|us)/ /pid+er/ /poon[- ]?(tang|tsee)/ /prick[- ]?(head|face|wad|tease)?(a|e[rds]|in[g’]?)?[sz]?/ /pus+(y|ie?)[- ]?(eat|juice|face|lick|lap+|[fs]uck|munch|wh?ip+)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /s(c?h)?longs?/ /scrotums?/ /snatch(es)?/ /stiff(y|ie)s?/ /testicles?/ /twat[- ]?(eat|lap+|juice|munch|head|[sf]uc?k+|lick)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /vagina(l|s)?/ /(a |his |the )?wangs?/

/an(us|al)[- ]?(sex|hole|tova|w?hor?e?)?[sz]?/ /(bang|snog+)(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /bdsm/ /bea?stiali(ty|[sz]t?e?[ds]?)/ /bi[- ]?(sexual|curious)/ /(blow|hand|tug)[- ]?job+(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /(blow|bite|eat) me/ /(little )?blue[- ]?(ba|pi)l+[sz]?/ /bordel+oe?s?/ /broke[- ]?back/ /bug+er+(e[dr]|y|ing)?s?/ /buk+ak+e/ /butche?[sz]?/ /(carpet|rug|minge)[- ]?(bag+|munch)(e[rsd]|a|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /(in |out of )the closet/ /corn[- ]?(hole)(a|e[dsr]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /cross[- ]?dres+(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /cun+[iy]lingus/ /did+le?(a|e[dr]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /dildoe?[sz]?/ /dogg(ie|y)[- ]?style/ /dong[- ]?(lover)?[sz]?/ /donkey[- ]?(punch|fuck|dic?k+|penis|show|rape?)(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?s?/ /down[- ]?(her |their )?blouses?/ /(in|the) drag/ /drag[- ]?queens?/ /d[iy]k[eu][sz]?/ /fag+([oi]t+)?[- ]?(love?)(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ F.A.G /fap+(ing)?s?/ /(auto)?[- ]?fel+atio+n?/ /fetish([es|is[mt])?s?/ /(finger|toe|fist|tit+(ie|y)?)[- ]?(bang|[fs]uc?k+|pul+)?(in[g']?|a|e[dr])[sz]?/ /fitty[- ]?tuck(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /flam(er|o)s?/ /fluf+(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[zs]?/ /fudge?[- ]?pac?k+(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /((i|wa)s|(we|a)re|am|u ?r)?[- ]?(a|th?eh?)?[- ]?(gh?[ae]y)[- ]?(ass|fre+a?k|[fs]uck|boy|guy|dude|sex|dar|love?|lord|m[ae]n|wad)?(a|e[rsd]|est|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /g+a+y+/ /gender[- ]?bender[sz]?/ /[gj]igoloe?{sz]?/ /(goat(ses?)?|sheep|dog|horse)[- ]?(bang|[fs]uc?k+|dic?k+|shag+|sex|rape?)(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /(swings?|go(es)?) both ways/ /gutter[- ]?slut[sz]?/ /hermaphrodites?/ /(is a |are )?homo(sexual)?(phob(e|ic))?[sz]?/ /hum+(a|er)[zs]?/ /(my|her|your|butt|leg|dry|m[ou]th(er|a))?[- ]?hump(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /incest/ /(ja(c?k+|g+)|jerk+|wh?a[ck]+|wan[ck]+)(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?[- ]?(as+|off|up|wad|shit+)?(a|e[rsd]||in[g']?|ery)?[sz]?/ /jail[- ]?bait/ /kajir[ui]a?s?/ /key part(y|ie)s?/ /(is a |are )?lesb(o|ian)([sz]|ism)?/ /libido/ /lick(er)?s?/ /(likes?|loves?|wants?|digs?|(wa|i)s into|gets? off (on|with))[- ]?(the|d?a)[- ]?(coc?k+|dic?k+|cheese|guy|dude|chick|(wo)?m[ae]n|(little )?(boy|girl)|pus+(y|ie))[sz]?/ /lolitas?/ /mast[eu]rbate?(ion|ing)?[sz]?/ /milf(s|y)?/ /(child|kiddie)[- ]?molest(a|[eo][dr]|in[g']?)?s?/ /muff[- ]?(dive?|lic?k+|munch)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /munch(er|a)s?/ /necr[ao](f|ph)il(e|ia|a)s?/ /nookie/ /oral sex/ /orgasms?/ /org(y|ie)[sz]?/ /pa?edo(f|ph)il(e|ia)s?/ /pearl necklaces?/ /perv[eo]?(rt(ed)?|[sd])?s?/ /petafiles?/ /pimp(ed|in['g]?|i)?[sz]?/ /plays? with (them|your|him|her)sel(f|ve)s?/ /prost?itut(e|ion)s?/ /queer[- ]?(mo|boy)?s?/ /rap(e[rd]|in[g']?|ist)/ /reach[- ]?around/ /r[ai]m+[- ]?(job+)[sz]?/ /r[ai]m+[- ]?(a|e[dr]|in[g']?)[sz]?( it)?/ /shag+(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /s?he[- ]?boys?/ /s?he[- ]?males?/ /shock(a|er)[sz]?/ /sixty[- ]?nine/ /snow[- ]?ball(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)[sz]?/ /sodom(i[zst](e[rd]|in[g']?)|y)s?/ /strippers?/ /swal+ow(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /swingers?/ /tea[- ]?bag+(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /touch(e[ds])? ?(him|her|them)sel(f|ves)/ /tran+(y|ie|svestite)[sz]?/ /up[- ]?(her |their )?skirts?/ /vibrators?/ /v[ie]r[gj]in[sz]?/ /([tp]it+((y|ie)?)?)?[- ]?wank(er|ing|ier|iest)?s?/ /wife[- ]?swap+(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[zs]?/

/boo+ger[sz]?/ /burp(er|ing)s?/ /crap+[- ]?([fs]uc?k+|[lk]ic?k|eat|hole?|ola|p?ack|y|ta(cular|stic))?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /cum+[- ]?(eat|drink|bucket|dumpst|felch|gulp|guz+l+|hungry|thirsty)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /defecates?/ /doo[- ]?doo/ /(premature )?eja[ck]ulat(ion|in[g']?|e[dr]?)?[sz]?/ /erect(ion)?[sz]?/ /far[tk][- ]?(bag|breath|face?|ass|arse?|head|smel+)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /fa?eces/ /[fb]elche?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /ji(s+|z+)u?m?(bucket)?[sz]?/ /pee+(k|p)?(e?d|s|z|in[g']?)?[- ]?(tom|up|down|on|wee+)[sz]?/ /pis+[- ]?(ed( off)?|off|ing|e[rs]|drinker|face|head|christ|y)?/ /p(oo+|ou)[fp]?t?(y|ie)?[- ]?(eat|asse?|head|shoot|chute|pant|face|lick|butt|[sf]uck)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /p+oo+p+/ /poo-?poo/ /[Pp][Oo][Oo][Pp][Dd][Ii][Cc][Kk]/ P.O.O. P.O.O.P. /puke?[- ]?(in[g']?|e[rsd]|face|breath|head)?[sz]?/ /spunk[- ]?(buc?ket|asse?|(y|i?e(r|st)))?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /que+f+(s|ing)?/ /s(ch)?megma/ /(c|s)emen/ /sh[!i1]t+e?[- ]?(bag+|can+|eat|face?|fit|[sf]uc?k+|hap+en|head|hole?|house?|list|[kl]ick|[ps]ack|skin+|y|ie(r|st))?(a|e[rsd]|[in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /s+h+i+t+/ /shiz/ S.H.I.T. /shoots? (my|a|his) (load|wad)/ /sperm[- ]?(burp(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?)?[sz]?/ /spl?ooge[dsz]?/ /tinkle/ /turd[- ]?(face?|eat|tickle?|burgla?r?|munch)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /vomit(ing)?s?/

/(my|your|th(e|a)(ir)?|)?[- ]?([a@][s$][s$]+|rse|zz)[- ]?([fs]uc?k+|(h+[0o]+[l1]+[e3]+)|bandit|clown|crac?k|pirate?|mast|head|hat|juice?|[kl]ic?k|kis+|ram+|rap+e?|wh?ip+e?)?(a|e[rd]?|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /a+ss+/ A.S.S. @$$ /b[ao]l+ocks?/ /bb+w/ /(b[0o][0o]+b)(y|ie)?( sex)?[sz]?/ /b+oo+b+s?/ /(big|black|white|gh?et+o|bub+le)?[- ]?(b[o0][o0]t(y|ie))[sz]?/ /breasts?/ /bu(m+|ng)[- ]?(hole?|lic?k+|rape?|fuc?k+|wipe?|chum+)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g’]?)?[sz]?/ /(bub+le)?[- ]?butt+[- ]?(breath|crack|fuc?k+|head|hole?|lic?k+|pirate?|rape?|sex|ugly|ock|seck|wipe?)(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /[can[ck]les?/ /[ck]leavage/ /coot(ch|er)?(y|i?e)?[sz]?/ /crotch[- ]?(rot|face|e[rd]|in[g']?)?/ /fan+(y|ie)[sz]?/ /(ph|fat)+[- ]?(head|y|ie|e(r|st)|as+e?)[dsz]?/ phat /fore[- ]?skins?/ /hairy[- ]?(asse?|back|bal+|(wo)?m[ae]n|coc?k+|puss(y|ie))?[sz]?/ /jig+l+(e|y)s?/ /jug+(y|ie)?[zs]?/ /((in the|my|your|his) )?junk(y|ie|( in (th(e(ir)?|d?a)|her|his) trunk))?[sz]?/ /kankers/ /kn[io]ckers?/ /moose[- ]?knuckles?/ /nipples?/ /plonkers?/ /pub(es?|ic)( hair)?/ /(nice|huge|monster|meat)[- ]?rack[sz]?/ /rect(al|ums?)/ /sph?[ie]ncters?/ /taints?/ /te+a?ts?/ /tit+(y|ie)?[- ]?([sf]uc?k+)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /tub+[- ]?(girl|y|ie[r|st])/

/afro[- ]?saxons?/ /allahu? akbar/ /(ameri|afri)cunts?/ /Amerik+an?'?s?/ /au?nt jemimas?/ /bay?be+[sz]?/ /bey?ot?che?[sz]?/ /bigot(s|ed)?/ /bimboe?[sz]?/ /bints?/ /b[1i]z?[a@]?o?[t+]i?t?ch[- ]?(y|ass)?(a|e[rd]?|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /b+i+t+c+h+/ B.I.T.C.H. /bondage/ /camel[- ]?(toe|jock(y|ie))[sz]?/ /c?hi(c?k|x)(e?y)?[sz]? ?(with )?( a)?(di(c?k|x))?[sz]?/ /chig+(a|er)[sz]?/ /chi[mn][kp][zsy]?/ /china(m[ae]n|loa)/ /ching[- ]?chong/ /chip+(y|ie)[sz]?/ /christacrutchian/ /chu[- ]?person/ /(afri)?[- ]?[ck]oo+n[sz]?[- ]?(ass)?/ /d[ae]goe?(wop)?[sz]?/ /dark(y|ie)[sz]?/ /eye[- ]?(talian|candy)/ /gook[sz]?/ /goy[sz]?/ /gringoe?[zs]?/ /grr+l?[sz]?/ /honke?(ie|y)[sz]?/ /hot+(y|ie)[sz]?/ /injuns?/ /japs?/ /jesus[- ]?(freak[sz]?|juice)/ /j(ew|oo+)w?[- ]?(ed|boys?|ss+|z)/ /jig(aboo)?[sz]?/ /kaf+irs?/ /k[iy]ke[sz]?/ /krauts?/ /MexiJews?/ /mouliewop/ /mud[- ]?(lover|people)s?/ /n[ei]gr(a|o)e?s?/ /[nw][i1]g+([e3]r|ar?|uh)[- ]?(lov(a|er?)|ass)?[sz]?( stole)?/ /niglets?/ /pbuh/ /po('|or)? whites?( trash)?/ /porch[- ]?monkey[zs]?/ /race[- ]?(traitor|mixe?(r|ing))s?/ /rag[- ]?heads?/ /red[- ]?necks?/ /religious ?(fanatic|freak)s?/ /skin[- ]?heads?/ /ske+z+(a|er)[sz]?/ /sl(i|an)t+(e?y|ie)?[- ]?(eye|head)?[sz]?/ /spi(c?k|x)[sz]?/ /spook[sz]?/ /strump(a|et)[sz]?/ /towe?l[- ]?heads?/ /tramp[ys]?/ /uncle toms?/ /wap(anese)?s?/ /wenche?[sz]?/ /wet[- ]?(back|fart|pussy)[sz]?/ /(white|black)[- ]?(asse?|ho|power|trashe?)[ds]?/ /(crack|dirty|nasty)[- ]?w?ho+re?[- ]?(house|master)?s?/ /wiggers?/ /wog[sz]?/ /wombats?/ /wops?/ /yank(e[dr]|ing)?s?/ /zipper[- ]?head(s|ed)?/

/AIDS/ /ch?lam[iy]dia/ /(the )?clap/ /crab[sz]/ /gon+or+h?o?[ie]a/ (genital )?herpes/ /(an? )?STD/ /vd/ /venereal diseases?/

/cex(er|i|y)?/ /(child|kiddies?)[- ]?porn/ /nsfw/ /nudies?/ /p(r0|[0]r)no?/ /p(ro|or)n[- ]?(o|star)s?/ se)( /(too|so|a|the)?[- ]?[$s]e(c?k|x)(ual+y?|y|ie(r|st))?[- ]?(act(ive?)(it(y|ie))?|addict(ion)?|babe?|cunt|being|beast|bitch|fetish(ism)?|kitten|machine?|bastard|fre+a?k|har+as+(ment)?|whore?|slave?(ry)?|offend[oe]r|predat[oe]r|(wo)m[ae]n|boy|girl|mania[cx])?(a|e[srd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/

/baby[- ]?kill(a|er)[sz]?/ /bad[- ]?ass(e[sd])?/ /bar[- ]?girl[sz]?/ /(fat|dirty|a|the)?[- ]?bast[ae]rd?[ao]?[sz]?/ /bell[- ]?ends?/ /bend?(jamin)? d?over?/ /bone[- ]?(head|r)[sz]?/ /b+o+y+[- ]?(z+|lovers?)/ /(brain|mind|dick|clue)les+/ /brown[- ]?no[sz][ea]?(r|[sz]|ing)?/ /candy[- ]?ass(e[ds])?/ /choad[sz]?/ /chodelick/ /creep(y|e[rd]|in[g']?|ie(r|st))?[sz]?[- ]?((me)? out)?/ /dil+iga[ds]/ /ding[- ]?a[- ]?ling[sz]?/ /dinge?le?[- ]?ber+(y|ie)[sz]?/ /dinky?[sz]?/ /dip[- ]?shit[sz]?/ /dirty (old m[ae]n|sanchez)/ /disgust(in[g']?)?s?( me)?/ /dope[sy]?/ /dork[- ]?(wad|face|ier|iest|y)?[sz]?/ /(do+u?[cs]he?)[- ]?(bag)?[sz]?/ /dum+b?[- ]?(ass|arse|o|y|ie)?[sz]?/ /dung[- ]?(heap)?s?/ /(eats? |ate )(your|her|his|my)? ?(shit|pussy|shorts)/ /essex girl[sz]?/ /euro[- ]?(sexual|trash)/ /fall[- ]?out boy sucks/ /fan[- ]?(boy|gi?r+l)[sz]?/ /fre+a?k[- ]?(y|azoid|show|out|ie(r|st))?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /frui?te?[- ]?cakes?/ /funky[- ]?ass/ /geek(z|s|y)?/ /hal?f+[- ]?(a[rs]sed|wit|breed|rican)[sz]?/ /hope you die/ /(horri(d|ble)|nasty|dirty) old m[ae]n/ /hose?[- ]?(bag|beast|head)?(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /[1i]d[1i][0o]t([1i]c)?[sz]?/ /y?id+iot[sz]?/ /juice?y girl[sz]?/ /knife[- ]?nose/ /lam[eo]?[- ]?(oid|brain|er|est)?s?/ /lo+[sz]er(dick)?[sz]?/ /mam+a'?s?/ /m+a+m+a+s?/ /man[- ]?(boob|thong|w?hore|juice)[sz]?/ /mean(y|ie)[- ]?(head)?[sz]?/ /metro[- ]?sexuals?/ /(yo)?ur[- ]?m[uo]m+a?[sz]?/ /mongoloids?/ /monkey[- ]?(as+)?(e[rds]?)?[sz]?/ /moron(ic|s)?/ /mo[- ]?fos?/ /(the |da )?nasty/ /nerd[sy]?/ /(old )?hag/ /pant(y|ie)[- ]?(waist)?[sz]?/ /pencil[- ]?(dick|neck)s?/ /poseu?rs?/ /punk[- ]?ass(es)?/ /(re)?tard([sz]|ed(ly)?)?/ /rotten[- ]?(ass|crotch)?e?s?/ /scal+[ya]wags?/ /s(c?h)?mucks?/ /screw[- ]?(you|up?)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?[- ]?(them|you|me)/ /scu(m+|z+)[- ]?(bags?|y)?/ /sickos?/ /s[lm]ut+(y|ier|iest)?[sz]?/ /smart[- ]?(y|ie|asse?d?)[sz]?/ /(it|s?he|they|you) smells?/ /smell(y|ier|iest)( piece of shit)?/ /snob(by|bier|biest)?s?/ /snott?(t|ier|iest)?s?/ /sons?[- ]?[uo][fv][- ]?a?[- ]?bitch(es)?/ /s[tkp][iua]nk(e[rd]|ing|y|ie(r|st))?[zs]?/ /stupid[- ]?(ity|ness|e(r|st)|head|ly|asse?)?[sz]?/ /tart[ys]?/ /tool[- ]?bag[sz]?/ /f?ugl(y|ie[rs]|iest)/ /u+g+l+y+/ /washed up/ /we+ne+s?/ /wh?(i|(ie|ei))ners?/ /w(ie|ei)rd(o|e(r|st))?[sz]?/ /witfits?/ /(yo|ur?|your) (m[ou]m|m[ou]th(er|a))[sz]?/

/bh?[ao]ng[sz]?/ /(cra[cn]?k|pot|dope|meth|co(ke|caine)|her(oi|io)n)[- ]?(addict|head|hoe?|whore?|pipe?|smoke?)(a|e[rsd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /drug+(y|ie)[sz]?/ /ganja[- ]?(weed)?/ /on (her(oi|io)n|drugs|pot|crack|weed|heroin|meth|dope|coke|steriods)/ /smok(e[ds]?|in[g']?) (cock|pot|dope|meth|weed|crack|her(oi|io)n)/ /snort(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/

/awe?[zs][ou]me?(r/st)?/ /[ao]+www+/ /bla+h?/ /bloody( hell)?/ /(da|th[ea]) bomb/ /b+o+r+(e+d|i+n+g)/ /bo+ya+h?/ /bul+[- ]?(shit+(i?er|ed|ing|iest)?|crap|dyke|queer)[sz]?/ /bust ?a (nut|cap|r(h?y|i)me)/ /cheats?(e[dr]|in[g']?)? on (me|you|hi[ms]|her|us|them)?/ /(pop+(s|ed)|bust(s|ed)|got)?[- ]?(her |his )?cher+(y|ie)[- ]?(boy|girl|bust(a|er))?[sz]?/ /((2|to+)|way|un|not)?[- ]?(coo+l|kewl)/ /[ck]runk[- ]?(juice)?(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /dai?[sz]e?y[- ]?(duke|chain)[sz]?/ /(g[ou][dl]?)?[- ]?d[a4](mm|mn|rn)[- ]?(it)?/ DIE! /d(oo+|u+)de?[sz]?/ /eff(ing?)?/ /fii+ne/ /for a good time/ /fri(c?k+|g+)(in['g]?)?[sz]?/ /[fm]ubar/ /fyi/ /gang[- ]?(sta|bang)(a|e[rd]|in[g']?)?[sz]?/ /(can'?t )?get it up/ /gets? a life/ /(had|having) an affair( with)?/ /hardy har har/ /ha(ve|s|d) a crush/ /ha(ve|s|d) no li[fv]es?/ /(from|what)? ?(the|go ?to)? ?(heck|hell)/ /hell[- ]?holes?/ /hello/ /hershey[- ]?(hi(gh|-)?way|squirt)[sz]?/ hey! /(hi)+/ hi! /hmmm+/ /ho[mn](ey|ie)[sz]?/ /hoo[kt]ers?/ /hoo+[tk]((a|e[rd]|in[g']?)[sz]?)?[- ]?(up)[sz]?/ /(me so )?horne?y/ /hot[- ]?pant[sz]/ /hugz(nkissez)?/ /(i|(yo)?u|s?he|they|we)?[- ]?(l[ou]ve?|h(at|8)e?)s? ((yo)?u|ya|him|her|them|it)/ /(in|up|on|all over) (the(ir)?|his|her|my|y?o?ur|da) (butt|bum|rear|house|hood|mouth|a[rs]se?|face|tit|puss(y|ie))[sz]?/ /(is|are|am|ai)[- ]?(n[o']t )?(an?|no)?[- ]?(dumb|fag+([io]t)?|garbage|hoe?(mo)?(sexual)?|stupid|trash|foxy?|moron|idiot|loser|dork|geek|nerd|cunt|dick|virgin|bastard|jerk)(i?e[rsd]|s)?/ /(it|that|this)[- ]?([i']?s) (bull(shit|crap))/ /(sh|p|b|r)iz+le/ /(ki(ss|ck|beat))(e[ds])?[- ]?(y?our|his|her|th(ei|ie)r|my)?[- ]?(butt|asse?)[sz]?/ kill! /killa[sz]?/ /kink(y|ier|iest)?s?/ /k+rist(ian(ity)?)?[sz]?/ /(love|house)[- ]?(slave|nigg(a|er))[sz]?/ /ma(de|ke[ds]?|king)[- ]?out( with)?/ /(me )?love you long ?time/ /m8s?/ /nii+ce/ /nuk(e([dr])?s?|ing)/ /’?nuff( said)?/ /off (the|da) hook/ oh em gee OMG oll /z?om(f)?g(wtf)?(bbq)?/ /ooo+h?/ r&r /rocks/ rulez /short[- ]?(shorts|skirts?)/ /shouts?[- ]?outs?/ /sleep(in[g'])? together/ /sooo+/ /sowhat/ /steam(y|ier|iest)/ /stfu.*?/ /stud(ly)?[sz]?/ /from ?(heck|hell)/ /tgif/ /(t([ah][ah]?)t|this)'?s?( is)? bull/ /thanks?( you)? for sharing/ /thks/ /thongs?/ /tnx/ /(to|for) my pee+ps/ /txs/ /(lad(y'|ie)s'?)?underwear/ /wan+abe+/ /w[au](s+)?(z+)?up/ /w[au][sz] here/ /w00se/ /w(00|oo)t/ /wo+ho+/ /wha[sz]+up/ /wh(at|o) (the|up) (hell|fuck|bitch)/ /what'?s (happenin([g'])?|shakin[g']?)/ /wicked/ /w+o+w+/ /yoo+/

/0r/ /2qt2bstr8/ /8=+(>?D)/ /afa?i?k/ a/s/l /b4u/ /bbl/ b/c /bfd/ /brb/ /btdtgts/ /btw/ c-t /cul8r/ /cuz/ /cya/ f*** G(-'.'G) /gr8/ /gtfo/ (((H))) /h[a4]x([0o]rs?)?/ /h[oa](h[oa])+/ /hai2u/ /hak[sz]?/ /haxors?/ /iykwimaityd/ j/c j/k j/w /[1l]33[t7]/ l3i+ch l3itch /[lh]8rs?/ /leet/ /lmf?a?o/ /a?LOL/ /n(00|oo)b/ /(wiki)?[0p]wn(e?d|s|ing|er|ia)?/ /rot?fl(mao|ol)?/ /rtf?m/ /suckz0rs?/ /tlk-2-u-l-8-r/ /wt[fg]o?(bbq)?/ /wtsds/ /wycm?/

/(no )?blood for oil/ /bobby ?boulders/ /bogdanov/ /britne?y spe+a?rs/ /buss+h/ /(ste(ph|v)en )?colbert/ /commies?/ /corey shefman/ /fascists?/ /femi[- ]?nazis?/ /fursecut(e|ion)?/ /hal+iburton/ /h(ei|ie)l hitler/ /jeb berkeley/ /jimbo ?(wales)?/ /j(immy|[.])? ?wales/ /k+arl rove/ /matthew martin/ /na(t)?zis?/ /paris hilton/ J. Robert Boulders /s(ei|ie)g h(ei|ie)l/ /tansta+fl/ /terrorist(s)?/ T.E.R.R.O.R.I.S.T. /truthers?/ /thruthines+/

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_]father.jpg/ /Image:Youth[ _]and[ _]suitors.jpg/

title: User:Lupin/badwords


text:
User talk:Rdelre

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Je suis 00:48, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rdelre


text:
User talk:Reverzentative

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Je suis 00:50, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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title: User talk:Reverzentative


text: User:Diplomat~enwikibooks/Mathematics

title: User:Diplomat~enwikibooks/Mathematics


text:
Cookbook talk:Flaky Pie Crust

Good basic article. Perhaps an expanded section on the types of fat being used would be helpful in the variations section.

Different fats are commonly substituted by weight. Their effect on the finished crusts are subtle but noteworthy.

Butter contributes flavor and color from browning.

Vegetable shortening (ex. Crisco) gives flakiness and a longer shelf life. It contains potentially unhealthy trans-fats, compared to the saturated fat of other solid fats.

Lard gives the tenderest flaky crust. However, the crust will have the shortest shelf-life and the pie is best eaten within hours of baking.

Margerine is inexpensive. The hard stick margerine must be used as the softer types are either whipped (increasing volume) or contain water/oils that affect baking. Hydrogenated margerine can contain trans-fats. Rthoughts 01:54, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

It is unclear how much dough to make for a one-crust pie vs. a two-crust (covered) pie.

Vodka
I noticed an NPR piece interviewing Chris Kimball, who suggests using vodka in pie crust to add liquid without adding water. The recipe is here. I haven't tried it but it makes a lot of sense and Cooks Illustrated has a great track record on good recipes. —BenFrantzDale (talk) 22:44, 30 November 2008 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Flaky Pie Crust


text: User:Diplomat~enwikibooks/Mathematics/Main Page


text:
User:Diplomat~enwikibooks/Mathematics/Notes

User:Diplomat/Mathematics/Chapter_One


text:
A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Systems, Programming and Network Concepts/Introduction to Programming

What is Programming?
Programming is the ability to get a computer to perform tasks by writing instructions that a computer can understand and execute. You must remember that the only language a computer understands is binary, a combination of 1s and 0s. This section looks at how we can write instructions and get the computer to understand those instructions.

Programming Languages
When computers were first developed in the 1940s the only way to send instructions to them was by sending them 1s and 0s through flick switches and buttons. Even though the process of sending a computer instructions got better evolving through punch cards, paper tape, magnetic tape and disks, the language computers understand has not changed from the pattern of 1s and 0s, machine code. However the way humans construct these 1s and 0s has gotten easier.

Levels of Programming Language
High/Low level programming languages are terms used to describe how abstracted the language is from the raw machine code and hardware manipulation. Whether a language is high or low level is purely subjective towards the comparison made. Assembly is considered a low level language but is a higher level language than machine code as it resembles English more closely. B.A.S.I.C is even further abstracted and can thus be considered a high level language.

Machine Language - First Generation
The 1s and 0s that a computer can understand and execute

100100101110101000101011010010100101

It is very difficult for humans to understand and difficult to write unaided. Machine code tends to be produced for a specific hardware set up and thus it is not portable to different machines.

Low Level Language - Second Generation
In a low level language the programmer controls and specifies the specifics of how to handle the data, where to store it, how to access it and so on. Assembly is said to be a low level language. Here is a source extract to print "Hello World!" to the screen

; This program displays "Hello, World!" dosseg .model small .stack 100h .data hello_message db 'Hello, World!',0dh,0ah,' ' .code main proc mov   ax,@data mov   ds,ax mov   ah,9 mov   dx,offset hello_message int   21h mov   ax,4C00h int   21h main endp end  main

High Level Language - Third Generation
A high level programming language is one in which the specifics of data handling and manipulation is abstracted away (more so than in a low level language). A high level language generally has more built in functionality than a lower level language and is closer to English for a person to understand. C++ is considered a high language. Here is the source to print "Hello World!".

using namespace std; int main {    cout << "Hello World!"; return 0; } //Note: This code may or may not be compilable, as it varies between compilers and platforms.
 * 1) include <iostream.h>

Program Translators
We already know that computers can only execute Machine Code, so we need a way to convert from 2nd and 3rd generation languages to 1st generation, machine code.

There are three different methods that you may have to use. Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters

Assemblers
When using Assembly language you will have to use an Assembler. The Assembler will take the assembly code and convert it into the corresponding Machine Code 1s and 0s (actually current flowing and current off). There is a one to one correspondence between a single assembly language instruction and a machine code instruction. In general there will be one line of Machine code produced per line of assembly language. This translation or conversion is called 'assembling' and is performed by a piece of software called an assembler before execution of the code can take place.

Compilers
When using a high level language you will have to use a compiler to turn your code into the corresponding machine code. This is done using a compiler and performed before the execution of the code. A program like a PlayStation computer game will be written in a High level language and compiled into machine code. This code will then be burnt to disk at the factory and sent to the shops, when you buy it and place it in the DVD drive of the PS2, the processor will execute the machine code.

Interpreters
Another way of running code written in High level languages is to use an interpreter. This will convert the code you write in machine code for the processor to execute. However the difference here is that the code is converted into machine code as you are running the program, so the code is interpreted only when you need to run it, line by line. This can be much slower than compilation but allows for you to correct errors in the code (debugging) when you meet them. It is also used in common languages like Java and allows you to run the same code on multiple hardware set ups as long as you have an interpreter for that hardware. Think along the lines of running the same Java Application on Linux, Windows and your mobile phone.

Comparisons
You may be asked in the exam which translator you would recommend, here are a few things to think about
 * If the code is in Assembly Language (2nd Generation), then you will use an Assembler
 * If you want the fastest code you will use a compiler
 * If you want the code to be able to run on multiple machines you will need an Interpreter
 * If you want to debug code and not have to recompile with every change you make, you want to pick an Interpreter

Programming Concepts
In this module we will be looking at Imperative languages, Imperative languages are languages that execute one line after another, take this example for instance int x = 1; x=x+1; x=x+1; x=x+1; cout << "x = " << x; // print x output: x = 4

Declaring a variable then assigning a value to that variable is called Assignment int x; x = 45; // this is assigning the value 45 to the variable x

There are other sorts of languages that you will meet in module 4, but for the moment you only need to know about imperative languages. You will not need to know a particular language for the exam but knowing the concepts behind them and how to understand the pseudo code is essential - pseudo code is close to a third generation language, which is understandable what it should do to you and me, but probably wouldn't run on a computer. This section will now outline a few of the concepts you need to understand

Type Definitions
You may have met datatypes in GCSE when using databases or spreadsheets. The idea behind them is to use a type of data to store information that best matches the data you want to store. In computers this is incredibly important as you are trying to make the best use of the computing resources available, so picking the data type that matches the information you are declaring will be the most efficient way of storing the data. For example if you want to store a number you don't want to use a data type that can also store letters and other characters as this would be a waste of space. e.g. 3 stored in ASCII is 0010 0011 3 stored in pure binary is 0011, thus saving 4 bits

In any programming language you generally have 4 different data types. int x = 45; //declares an integer called x and sets the value to 45 string x = "herman"; bool x = TRUE;
 * Integers
 * Integers are whole positive numbers, but unlike in maths the integer range will have limitations to the maximum number. The limitations can vary greatly.
 * e.g. 104
 * Strings (Characters)
 * Strings are a collection of single block characters. e.g.
 * e.g. as54sfgjf/.dfg4
 * Booleans
 * Booleans are variables that are like on/off switches and can only equal one of two values.
 * e.g. TRUE/FALSE ON/OFF 1/0
 * Pointers
 * Pointers are an advanced variable type. A Pointer is a 32bit or 16bit or 64bit number (depending on the environment), this number represents a single block in your computer memory. In essence it points to this memory block because you know that it is the nth memory block. Pointers are probably the most useful variable type however you may or may not come across them depending on what language you are using and how high/low level it is. You do not need to know about pointers for module 1.

There are also other datatypes that languages may possess, such as: char x = 'g'; real x = -23.432; array x = new array ("red", "green", "orange", "blue", "brown")// declare array with five elements, each of type string.
 * Character
 * The Character data type is a single character.
 * e.g. g
 * Real
 * Real is a more advanced number system than integer, allowing for rational and irrational numbers, decimal places and negatives
 * e.g. -12.3231
 * Array
 * Arrays are collections of other datatypes, generally able to store only one datatype, for example an array of type string may look like this:
 * (red, green, orange, blue, brown)
 * Think of an array as a spreadsheet; you have the array (x), which is like a spreadsheet file, and you have the columns inside, e.g. x[2] (array x, 'column' 2). This is a one dimensional array. A two dimensional array would be where you have rows; e.g. x[2,3] (array x, column 2, row three).  One can have, in theory, as many dimensions in an array as one likes.

Variables
In mathematics the idea of variables are introduced. Variables in a program are very similar EXCEPT that they may equal different values at different times of the program (this is why indeed they are called variables, they vary). They are used to store values that may be needed for the program, you can declare variables of any of the data type declared above. Think of them as a box with a name, you can change the contents of the box and look inside to see the value at any time: int x = 5; print x; x = 104; print x; x = 32; print x; output: 5 104 32 Depending on the programming language you may or may not have to declare variables (in Basic you don't in C you have to). Declaring variables is simply telling the compiler/interpreter that you want to use a variable with that name.

Global and Local Variable
Dependent on where a variable is declared,the variable can be seen by other elements of the program code. There are two types of variable declarations, that is the Global and the Local variables.

Global variables are declared in the root area of the program code, that may be right at the beginning of the code (in C for example). The values stored in these variables will be accessible from any area of the code. This can be useful if you need to access a variable from anywhere in the program, but if you declare global variables when you don't need to access them all the time, they will sit and take up main memory, thus wasting precious computing resources. Use with care.

Local variables are declared in a sub area of the program code, this may be in a function or procedure. The values stored in these variables will only be accessible from the sub program they are declared in. This can be friendly on computing resources as they are declared when the sub program is called, used, and when the sub program is exited, destroyed. So you only use main memory when you need to store the variable and it does not waste main memory like global variables do. However if you think you will need to variable outside the sub program you should think of using a global variable.

An easy way to think about local and global variables is to think of them as local and global TV channels. Global channels such as Fox and MTV can be accessed from anywhere in the world, but local TV channels such as Channel 5 or Yorkshire TV, can only be accessed in certain areas.

Special cases could be where you declare a global variable called holder, if you then call a sub routine and in this routine there is a local variable declaration of another holder, you do not overwrite the global variable. What happens is for the duration of the sub routine the local variable holder is in charge, when the sub routine exits, the local variable is destroyed and the original value of the global variable now becomes dominant. Take this code for example

code: main program code int holder = 4 print holder ... subroutine caller int holder = 9 print holder end subroutine ... run caller print holder end main

output: 4 9 4

Rule of thumb: If you want to quickly tell the difference between a global and a local variable use these quick rules.
 * If a variable is declared inside a function or a procedure it is a local variable
 * If a variable is declared inside a iterative or selective statement it is local
 * If the declaration is indented from the left hand boundary it probably meets one of the above criteria and is local
 * If it meets none of the above statements and is declared in the main body of code it is a global variable

Constants
Constants are like variables in their declarations and the ability to look at the value stored inside them, however you can not change the values, the value of a constant remains, constant.

constant int x = 34; print x output: 34

constant int y = 12; y = 11; print y output: ERROR (from the compiler)

Program Design
There are several very useful programming statements that you can use. You probably use these in your everyday lives with out even thinking about it

Selection
An important part of programming is the use of selection, that is the ability to do something if a certain criteria is met. This may be as simple as increasing your health bar in a computer game if you eat a chicken drumstick or inserting the cooling rods into the nuclear reactor if the temperature exceeds a certain value.

The most common selection statement is the if statement, the idea is that you compare a value to some criteria, if the value and criteria match then you proceed in a certain way, otherwise you do something else. For example: If Hungry Then Eat Else 'Go Out' End

The other type is the Case statement, this can be summarised by several if statements where the value is compared to several criteria and the action of first criteria matched is performed, otherwise a default action may be performed. Case Enter Restaurant and pick up menu If Egg and Chips available Then Order Egg and Chips End If If Pie and Chips available Then Order Pie and Chips End If If Curry and Chips available Then Order Curry and Chips End If If Pizza and Chips available Then Order Pizza and Chips End If Default Leave hungry End

Iteration
An incredibly important part of computing is the idea of iteration, that is repeating the same thing again and again. You probably use iteration every day. Take writing lines in a detention for example; you write some lines, check to see if you have met the line limit, and if you haven't you write some more lines, check if you have met the line limit and so on, until you do meet the line limit and then you can stop. There are three main sorts of iteration.

The while loop: For example: While Hungry Do Eat End

Another type of while loop is a Do-While loop. This is slightly different from the While loop in that you perform the task before you check that you have to perform the task: Do Eat While Hungry End

The most complicated tool you may meet is the for loop. This is a glorified While loop and don't be put off by how complicated it looks. For (start with Empty stomach, Is stomach empty?, Eat) Wipe mouth

Procedural Code
Procedures and Functions are very slightly different. Functions return a value whilst Procedures do not. An easy way to remember this is by saying that functions are fun, if you call them they will send you something back, procedures return nothing.

Functions - note the return value code: a = addtogether(2,3) + 4 print (a)

output: 9

Procedure - note the lack of value returned by the procedure code: addtogether(2,3) proc addtogether(a,b) {  print(a+b) }

output: 5

To communicate between different parts of the program and to pass variables to the functions and procedures we use Parameters. For example

Function addtogether (number1, number2) {  return: number1+number2 }

where this code will add together the numbers 1 & 2.

Call Stack
FIXME Expand this article. NB I cannot guarantee the accuracy of the information here, nor how relevant it is to the A Level Syllabus. It is worth knowing, anyhow. if it makes no sense to you then there are plenty of tutorials out there!

Object Orientated code is code which forms resides in blocks. An object, such as a class is declared, similar to how one would declare a variable.

The above code declares an object (of type class) called myClass.

Within myClass a function is declared called SayHello(text), with protection level public (as opposed to protected, or private. Protection layers are effectively the same thing as local and global terms as used for variables.  'Public' means that the function is global, and can be accessed wherever an instance (creation) of the class exists.  An object (by which I mean a variable, class, structure or any defined thing in memory) declared with modifier 'private' can only be used, called or accessed by something in that class, e.g. if I declared a private variable in myClass called text it could only be accessed by another Object within myClass, such as the SayHello function.  Protected is the protection modifier in between public and private.  It can only be accessed by something within the same class, or by an object within a class derived from its class. Derivation, or Inheritance, as it is more often called, is a powerful feature or Object Orientated Programming (OOP), which basically means passing on the objects in one class to a 'child' class. The child class can have its own objects, as well as the objects it received from as many 'parent' classes as required. It can also redefine these objects within itself, e.g. SayHello no longer takes a variable, it prints the text "hello" on the screen without input. I hope this is all making sense to you!

After the class is defined, as instance (Object) of the class is created, called anInstanceofmyClass. One can create as many instances of a class as one likes, e.g. anInstanceofmyClass1, anInstanceofmyClass2, anInstanceofmyClass3 myClass; To call the SayHello function, one would type anInstanceofmyClass.SayHello("Hello Text"); anInstanceofmyClass1.SayHello("") and anInstanceofmyClass2.SayHello("") both do the same thing.


text:
Haskell/Authors

The Haskell wikibook combines original material with the content of some previously existing tutorials. We are extremely grateful to the following authors for allowing us to remix their work.

 * Hal Daumé III - Yet Another Haskell Tutorial
 * Shae Erisson - An Introduction to Arrows (the Monad Reader 4)
 * Jeff Newbern - All about Monads
 * Ross Paterson - The Haskell Arrows page (and the arrows section of the GHC manual)
 * Johnathan Tang - Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours
 * The many contributors to the Haskell.org wiki

The fact that this wikibook is a remix means that a lot of the original content is often cut, reshuffled or sometimes just plain overlooked. It would be a good idea to read the original tutorials as their authors intended: you might find yourself square in the authors' target audiences.

Original wikibook content was written by:
 * Imam Tashdid ul Alam (Uchchwhash)
 * Heinrich Apfelmus (Apfelmus)
 * Stephen Blackheath (Blackh)
 * Joeri van Eekelen (Tchakkazulu)
 * David House
 * Paul Johnson
 * Eric Kow (Kowey)
 * Daniel Mlot (Duplode)
 * Aaron Wolf (Backfromquadrangle)
 * Many members of the Wikibooks and the Haskell community

If you have a Haskell tutorial, examples, diagrams, etc. that you would like to contribute to this project, please let us know by leaving a message on the discussion page! Likewise, if you know of a good tutorial that we might be able to use, please feel free to point it out.

title: Haskell/Authors


text:
WebObjects/Web Services/Common Pitfalls and Troubleshooting

NullPointerException calling WebService with Axis
If you get an exception like the following:

Caused by: java.lang.NullPointerException at java.util.Hashtable.put(Hashtable.java:396) at com.sun.org.apache.xerces.internal.jaxp.SAXParserImpl.setProperty(SAXParserImpl.java:395) at org.apache.axis.encoding.DeserializationContextImpl.parse(DeserializationContextImpl.java:246) at org.apache.axis.SOAPPart.getAsSOAPEnvelope(SOAPPart.java:538) at org.apache.axis.Message.getSOAPEnvelope(Message.java:376) at org.apache.axis.client.Call.invokeEngine(Call.java:2583) at org.apache.axis.client.Call.invoke(Call.java:2553) at org.apache.axis.client.Call.invoke(Call.java:2248) ... 5 more

It's most likely because you are using Java 1.5 with Axis 1.1. If you want your client to run on Java 1.5, you will need to upgrade to Axis 1.2RC2.

SAXParseException when using HTTPS
If, in WebObjects 5.4.x, you get an exception connecting to your web service via HTTPS (through the WebObjects Apache adaptor) and get an error like the following:

org.xml.sax.SAXParseException: Premature end of file. at org.apache.xerces.util.ErrorHandlerWrapper.createSAXParseException(Unknown Source   at org.apache.xerces.util.ErrorHandlerWrapper.fatalError(Unknown Source)    at org.apache.xerces.impl.XMLErrorReporter.reportError(Unknown Source)    at org.apache.xerces.impl.XMLErrorReporter.reportError(Unknown Source)    at org.apache.xerces.impl.XMLVersionDetector.determineDocVersion(Unknown Source)) ... more

You will need to add additional information to the file server.wsdd to tell Apache AXIS what to do when it believes the transport mechanism is 'https.' AXIS will make this determination based on the HTTP header information forwarded by the Apache WebObjects adaptor. If no entry is made to tell AXIS how to handle 'https', it will assume the incoming data from the adaptor is encrypted via SSL, even though the communication between the adaptor and the instance is in the clear. To change the behavior of AXIS, change the file server.wsdd from:

To:

Losing Session with Axis Client
For more information about cookie-based sessions with Axis clients, read the Consuming with Axis in Java section.


text:
Talk:Tagalog/Lesson 0

First, though I'm not logged in, don't be biased against my edits. I ask this: Please, check my IPA, especially for one familiar with pronunciation of Tagalog itself. I've done most of my edits based off of the Wiki article on Tagalog and from the pronunciation of Tagalog that I have become familiar to myself. Also, examine the layout of my addition, please - what I have I only suspect will be a guideline and that it can still be improved. 68.110.119.132 04:54, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

Wet under the ears...
I am new in Wikibooks.

I got drawn here because of the topic on the "new" Filipino alphabet; wondering, how we now pronounce "c","f", "j", "ñ", "q", "v", "x", "z".

It is very interesting/thought-provoking that the current pronunctiation is taken directly from the English language. Is this the pronuctiation sanctioned by the KWF (Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino)?

I've been looking for boks from KWF that I can buy online or here in the States. Got any suggestions?

I am native Tagalog speaker and was educated with the "abakada". I just find it a little unsettling.

But, I know, I'll get used to it. --Towers1209 09:08, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

penultimate or ultimate?

 * It is usually omitted on words that are stressed on the penultimate syllable; talagá.

Do you mean stressed on the ultimate syllable? That is where the accent mark is in this word.

 * It indicates that there is a glottal stop at the end of the word and that penultimate syllable receives stress; akalà.

So the stress is aKAlà?

-- a learner

title: Talk:Tagalog/Lesson 0


text: Category:Book:Artificial Intelligence

title: Category:Book:Artificial Intelligence


text: Category:Book:Aspies Book

title: Category:Book:Aspies Book


text: Category:Book:Asset Allocation

title: Category:Book:Asset Allocation


text:
User talk:Dcljr

Wikiversity
Hello Dcljr,

I apologise for stating my position forcefully before contacting you.

You made some tweaks to the front page of Wikiversity which are probably mostly improvements because I did not notice anything objectionable except:

you inserted a phrase stating that materials were wanted only from teachers not students. I would like this phrase deleted or a correcting bullet added to this page immediately.

This a very large error that gives a totally incorrect impression of Wikiversity. Some of us intend to start with whoever shows up and proceed. If a student chooses to publish his chemistry, college literature, or phy. ed. game rules and asks me for assistance in improving and placing them along a learning trail I intend to help them out because their use of site is supercritical to its success. Wipipedia succeeded because it attract the assistance of hundreds of thousands after it hit critical mass and some of its initial contributors when it was at 39K were uninformed dilletantes like me or lower level students.

We can certainly discuss it some more if you disagree but I would appreciate at least the countering view added alongside your current interpretation of what we intend to do at Wikiversity if it is approved by the Board.

Thank you for your consideration in this matter.

I go now to see if I can find an admin to make the change as I realize you may be an infrequent user or on wikibreak or unavailable for a few days and I view this as important. Please take no offense and merely make the changes requested at bottom of the discussion page if you get there first. Thanks! user:lazyquasar

 * I've responded at Talk:Wikiversity. - dcljr 08:03, 17 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I have responded to your response there. 8) We have some further work.  It appears perhaps the root of the problem is our personally interpretation of "course notes".  In the U.S. schools I attended  at the high school level "course notes" or "student notebooks" were graded in "college prep or track" classes and typically up to ten to fifteen percent of the course grade.  They were explicitly expected to be personal notes and not merely large verbatum chunks of repetition of available materials.  Later in the college the term "course notes" was also used for a comprehensive set of handouts to a course typically available from a copy center for a charge.  Clearly these are instructors copyrights and may not be posted without permission of the copyright holder.   The term "course notes" was also used synonymously with "notebook" after the course was completed and the student notebook was presumed to be a complete snapshot of the course presented as interpreted by the student creator of the set of study materials.  user:lazyquasar

Anonymous Editing
I appreciate the information user:Dcljr but I often prefer to be editing anonymously. If someone sees a mistake or has better wording they are welcome to change it. I experienced a rather severe level of wiki stalking early in Wikipedia's startup and have no desire for all of my inputs to be easily targeted by my editing handle. In my view people often need to learn to evaluate the content rather than who provides it. Lazyquasar 03:20, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dcljr


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Operating Systems/VMS

Formatting to be added at a later time.

VMS Is an operating system introduced in 1978 by Digital Equipment Corporation which ran on their VAX Minicomputer. The VAX was the upgrade to the successful PDP-11. Its processor (VAX-11/780) supported five different levels of operation: 1. PDP-11 emulation mode. In this mode the processor would run PDP-11 code in a native environment. 2. User mode. This is the mode in which applications would work. They could not affect higher levels, other process spaces, etc. 3. Supervisor mode. This is the level at which the command line interface (CLI) also nowadays referred to as a shell would run. 4. Executive mode. This mode provided enhanced and lower level access to file and record management systems. 5. Kernel mode. In this mode running code had full access to the system.

By making the processor protect the level of the running process, true interprocess security and buffer overrun exploits became impossible.

The VAX-11/750 offered a scaled-down version of the same. The VAX-11/730 offered an ever lower version, and finally the VAX 11-720 was the lowest of the low.

Following this successful series, DEC released the VAX-8600 series (later upgraded to include the 8650).

DEC's first VMS supporting systems that did not do PDP-11 emulation mode were the 8700/8800 series, and eventually an entire line of MicroVAXen, VAX workstations ("VAXstations"), etc.

VMS relied on the multiple levels of access to automatically prevent exploits the rest of the world had yet to encounter.

VMS used memory mapping with virtual page tables (now used in Windows 2000, and Windows XP) with page table entries ("PTEs") indicating the virtual to physical page mapping, status (paged out, paged in, valid, ready to read or write, etc.) and when a process ran out of the amount of memory it was allowed to occupy (its "working set") it would put its memory into the swapfile on disk, a process called "swapping."

Device drivers started simple in the PDP-11 emulation days and became two-layer in the 90s. Drivers that had multiple physical layers were broken into "port/class" drivers. A class driver was a higher layer driver that implemented the common functionality across the differing ports. A port class driver specifically addressed a particular port type. Exemplifying this is the TTY driver, which was recoded as a CLASS (serial terminals) driver and PORT drivers (serial port, telnet port, console port, port over DEC's LAT protocol, etc.)

While the VMS CLI (DCL, "Digital Command Language") was not multitasking per process, a software product produced by David Kashtan and Kenneth Adelman called "Eunice" offered a replacement CLI ("shell") for VMS which provided Unix-functionality. Pipes, redirection, forking, etc., were all available in a standard shell. This product was bought by The Wollongong Group.

VMS was the first major OS to actually restrict its users and processes when resources were still available. This prevented unexpected DoS due to lack of resources, and yet led to many efficiency discussions about best use of resources.

VMS was ported to the Alpha architecture in 1991, and DEC entered the 64 bit age. They shortly collected a lot of money from Microsoft as they discovered Windows/NT had a VMS4.0 kernel equivalent in it, courtesy of recently departed DEC Engineer Dave Cutler. DEC was purchased by Compaq in 1998. In 2002 Compaq and Hewlett-Packard merged.

Banks, hospitals, and other highly mission-critical application users rely on OpenVMS daily in 2008.


text:
Haskell/Libraries/Random

Random examples
Random numbers have many uses.

The IO action newStdGen creates a new StdGen pseudorandom number generator state. This StdGen can be passed to functions which need to generate pseudorandom numbers.

(There also exists a global random number generator which is initialized automatically in a system dependent fashion. This generator is maintained in the IO monad and can be accessed with getStdGen. This is perhaps a library wart, however, as all that you really ever need is newStdGen.)

Alternatively, one can using mkStdGen:

Running this script results in output like this:

[0.110407025,0.8453985,0.3077821,0.78138804,0.5242582,0.5196911,0.20084688,0.4794773,0.3240164,6.1566383e-2]

There's more to random number generation than. For example, you can use  (sans 's') to generate a single random number along with a new StdGen to be used for the next one. Also, randomR and randomRs take a parameter for specifying the range. See below for more ideas.

The Standard Random Number Generator
The Haskell standard random number functions and types are defined in the System.Random module. The definition of random is a bit tricky to follow because it uses classes to make itself more general.

From the standard:

This basically introduces StdGen, the standard random number generator "object". It's an instance of the RandomGen class which specifies the operations other pseudorandom number generator libraries need to implement to be used with the System.Random library.

Given, you can say:

That gives you a random Int x and a new StdGen r2. The  function is defined in the RandomGen class, and you can apply it to something of type StdGen because StdGen is an instance of the RandomGen class, as below.

From the Standard:

This also says that you can convert a StdGen to and from a string. (The dots are not Haskell syntax; they simply say that the Standard does not define an implementation of these instances.)

From the Standard:

Put in a seed  to the   function, you'll get out a generator.

As a functional language, Haskell returns a new random number generator with the. In languages with mutable variables, the random number generator routine has the hidden side effect of updating the state of the generator ready for the next call. Haskell won't do that. If you want to generate three random numbers in Haskell, you need to say something like:

The random values (x1, x2, x3) are themselves random integers. To get something in the range, say, (0,999) there ought to be a library routine built on this, and indeed there is:

From the Standard:

Remember that StdGen is the only instance of type RandomGen (unless you roll your own random number generator). Therefore, you can substitute StdGen for 'g' in the types above and get this:

But remember that this is all inside *another* class declaration "Random". This all says: any instance of Random can use these functions. The instances of Random in the Standard are:

So for any of these types you can get a random range. You can get a random integer with:

And you can get a random upper case character with

You can even get a random bit with

So far so good, but threading the random number state through your entire program like this is painful, error prone, and generally destroys the nice clean functional properties of your program.

One partial solution is the "split" function in the RandomGen class. It takes one generator and gives you two generators back. That lets you say something like this:

In this case, we are passing r1 down into function foo, which does something random with it and returns a result "x". We can then take "r2" as the random number generator for whatever comes next. Without "split" we would have to write

Yet this too is often clumsy. We can do it the quick and dirty way by putting the whole thing in the IO monad. Thus, we get a standard global random number generator just like any other language.

From the Standard:

We could write:

That gets the global generator, uses it, and then updates it (otherwise every random number will be the same). But having to get and update the global generator every time you use it is a pain, so its more common to use getStdRandom. The argument to this is a function. Compare the type of that function to that of 'random' and 'randomR'. They both fit in rather well. To get a random integer in the IO monad you can say:

The ' has type , so it fits straight into the argument required by.

Using QuickCheck to Generate Random Data
Only being able to do random numbers via the IO monad is a bit of a pain. You find that some function deep inside your code needs a random number, and suddenly you have to rewrite half your program as IO actions instead of nice pure functions, or you need a StdGen parameter to tramp its way down there through all the higher level functions. We would prefer something a bit purer.

Recall from the State monad chapter, that patterns like:

Can be done with "do" notation:

Of course, you can do this in the IO monad, but it would be better if random numbers had their own little monad that specialized in random computations. And it just so happens that such a monad exists. It lives in the  module, and it's called.

The reason that  lives in   is historical: that is where it was invented. The purpose of  is to generate random unit tests to verify properties of your code. (Incidentally,  works wonderfully, and most Haskell developers use it for testing). See the Introduction to QuickCheck on the HaskellWiki for more details. This tutorial will concentrate on using the  monad for generating random data.

To use  modules, you will need to install the   package. With that done, just put

in your source file.

The  monad can be thought of as a monad of random computations. As well as generating random numbers, it provides a library of functions that build up complicated values out of simple ones.

So lets start with a routine to return three random integers between 0 and 999:

is one of the functions from. Its the equivalent to.

In other words, for any type "a" which is an instance of "Random" (see above), will map a range into a generator.

Once you have a  action you have to execute it.

The  action executes an action and returns the random result:

The three arguments are:

 * 1) The generator action.
 * 2) A random number generator.
 * 3) The "size" of the result.  This isn't used in the example above, but if you were generating a data structure with a variable number of elements (like a list) then this parameter lets you pass some notion of the expected size into the generator.  We'll see an example later.

So for example, this generates three arbitrary numbers:

But the numbers will always be the same because the same seed value is used! If you want different numbers then you have to use a different  argument.

A common pattern in most programming languages involves a random number generator choosing between two courses of action:

-- Not Haskell code r := random (0,1) if r == 1 then foo else bar

provides a more declarative way of doing the same thing. If  and   are both generators returning the same type then we can say:

oneof [foo, bar]

This has an equal chance of returning either  or "   If you wanted different odds, then you could say something like:

frequency [ (30, foo), (70, bar) ]

takes a simple list of Gen actions and selects one of them at random. does something similar, but the probability of each item is given by the associated weighting.

oneof :: [Gen a] -> Gen a frequency :: [(Int, Gen a)] -> Gen a

title: Haskell/Libraries/Random


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