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Tetum/Greetings

Greetings

 *  Elo   Hello
 *  Bon dia   Good day
 *  Botarde   Good afternoon
 *  Bonoite   Good evening
 *  Adeus  or  Hau ba lai   Goodbye

 *  Ba ne'ebe?   Where are you going?
 *  Diak ka lai?   How are you?
 *  Ha'u diak   I'm fine
 *  Obrigadu (barak)   Thank you (very much),  m.
 *  Obrigada (barak)   Thank you (very much),  f.

 *  Ita nia naran saida?   What is you name?
 *  Hau nia naran...   My name is...
 *  Ita hela iha ne'ebe?   Where do you live?
 *  Hau hela iha...   I live in...
 *  Ita (boot) husi ne'ebe?...  Where are you (respectfully) from?...
 *  Hau husi...   I am from ...

 *  Loos   Yes
 *  Lae   No

Pronouns

 *  Hau   I
 *  O   You , informal or to child
 *  Ita   You , formal
 *  Nia   He, She, Him, Her, It

 *  Ami   We , not including person being spoken to
 *  Ita   We , including person being spoken to
 *  Imi   You , plural
 *  Sira   They, Them

title: Tetum/Greetings


text:
Tetum/Introduction

Introduction
Tetum is one of the two official languages of East Timor (Timor-Leste), the other one being Portuguese. It is worth noting that a significant number of people also speak Indonesian, English, Cantonese, or one the other 15 indigenous languages.

For several centuries, East Timor was a Portuguese colony, because of that fact Tetum gained many similarities to that language. Eventually, East Timor was annexed by Indonesia. After a protracted fight for independence, the people was allowed to chose via a referendum. Independence was finally gained and East Timor became the first democracy of the new millennium.

in Portuguese O Tétum é uma das duas línguas oficiais de Timor-Leste, a outra é o Português. Vale a pena notar que existe um número significante de pessoas que também falam Indonésio, Inglês, Cantonês ou um dos outros 15 idiomas locais.

Durante vários séculos, Timor Leste foi uma colónia portuguesa, por esse motivo, o Tétum adquiriu varias similaridades com essa língua. Por último, o Timor Leste foi anexado pela Indonésia. Após uma prolongada luta pela independência, foi permitido ao povo fazer a sua escolha por via de um referendo. A independência foi finalmente ganha e Timor Leste tornou-se na primeira democracia do novo milenário.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tetum/Introduction


text:
Ancient History/Egypt

<<Return to Front Page

Koningen aan de Nijl Civilização Egípcia

title: Ancient History/Egypt


text:
Ancient History/Rome

<<Return to Front Page

Rome under the Etruscans

 * 1) The Etruscans
 * 2) Etruscan Political Systems
 * 3) Etruscan Economy
 * 4) Etruscan Religion and Philosophy
 * 5) Etruscan Daily Life

Early Rome

 * 1) Early Rome (the Seven Hills)
 * 2) Early Roman Political Systems
 * 3) Early Roman Economy
 * 4) Early Roman Religion and Philosophy
 * 5) Early Roman Daily Life

The Roman Republic

 * 1) The Rise of the Republic
 * 2) Republican Political Systems
 * 3) Republican Economy
 * 4) Republican Religion and Philosophy
 * 5) Republican Daily Life

The Late Republic

 * 1) The First Triumvirate (Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus)
 * 2) Late Republic Political Systems
 * 3) Late Republic Economy
 * 4) Late Republic Religion and Philosophy
 * 5) Late Republic Daily Life

The Roman Empire

 * 1) Founding of the Empire (Octavian/Emperor Augustus)
 * 2) Imperial Political Systems
 * 3) Imperial Economy
 * 4) Imperial Religion and Philosophy
 * 5) Imperial Daily Life
 * 6) The Imperial Dynasties
 * 7) The Client States
 * 8) Slavery
 * 9) The Military
 * 10) The Pax Deorum
 * 11) The Equestrian Order

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

 * 1) Imperial Collapse
 * 2) Rise of Christianity
 * 3) Coming of the Dark Ages

Legacy of the Roman Empire

 * 1) /The Romantic Languages/
 * 2) /Romanticism/(Wikipedia)
 * 3) /Effect of Roman Law/
 * 4) /Mention in Literature/

Romawi Kuno ძველი რომის ისტორია Ab Urbe Condita

title: Ancient History/Rome


text:
Ancient History/Ancient Near East/Mesopotamia

<<Return to Ancient History table of contents


text:
User:Pdmaseberg

I like open source. Math and Physics are cool.

title: User:Pdmaseberg


text:
Using PHPEclipse

PHPEclipse is a set of plug-ins for the Eclipse Framework which provide and integrated IDE for PHP developers. Eclipse, and PHPEclipse are written in Java, and will run on all graphical desktop environments. PHPEclipse is Open Source software, freely available under the Common Public Licence. This user manual describes how to install and use PHPEclipse. It is recommended that new users read at least the first few sections in the order provided. If, after reading this manual, you still have questions or problems using PHPEclipse, you may find the help you need at the PHPEclipse Development Portal.

Contents

 * 1) /About PHPEclipse/
 * 2) Why Use PHPEclipse?
 * 3) Feature Overview
 * 4) /Installation/
 * 5) Installing Java
 * 6) Installing Eclipse
 * 7) Installing PHPEclipse
 * 8) Installing Apache/MySQL/PHP (Optional)
 * 9) Installing the DBG Debugger (Optional)
 * 10) Installing the SQL Plugin (Optional)
 * 11) Installing the PHP User Manual (Optional)

title: Using PHPEclipse


text:
Spanish/Gustar

Gustar only uses the third person singular and plural forms, along with a direct object pronoun: me, te, le, nos, os, les. For example:

Me gusta el perro. I like the dog. Me gustan los perros. I like the dogs. Te gusta el perro. You like the dog. Te gustan los perros. You like the dogs. Le gusta el perro. She like the dog. Le gustan los perros. She like the dogs.

Nos gusta el perro. We like the dog. Nos gustan los perros. We like the dogs. Vos gusta el perro. You like the dog. Vos gustan los perros. You like the dogs. Les gusta el perro. They like the dog. Les gustan los perros. They like the dogs.

There are several verbs like this, such as encantar, fascinar, importar, chocar, and flipar, and are referred to as gustar-type verbs

Back to Spanish.

title: Spanish/Gustar


text:
User:Mstults

My name is Matt Stults. I have recently graduated from the University of Iowa with a BFA in art, emphasis in drawing and digital media. I am currently pursuing a degree in Computer Science.

title: User:Mstults


text:
Talk:Color Theory

I'm not sure how detailed this book is going to be in general, but it seems like color should probably be discussed beyond the level of fundamental color theory. I'd be interested in seeing a very very basic introduction to what color is (light-wise) and a brief discussion of psychological function and even basic interaction (like complimentary colors). Much beyond fundamental color theory, though, and it might make more sense to put it into different sections. --Matt S 08:45, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

EFL?
Hi, I got to this article from the Teaching English as a Foreign Language Lesson plan article under the "Beginner" heading. I feel like it may be misplaced as the content of this article doesn't seem to address the teaching of English at all! I'm not sure how to change it, hopefully this will be brought to the attention of the proper authorities. Telor (talk) 08:51, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

Wikibook rename proposal
I'm putting up the proposal to rename this book from Colors to "Color Theory". Colors seems too generic and abrangent to properly describe what is/should be covered. If anyone has a better title please put it forward... --Panic (discuss • contribs) 21:23, 5 February 2011 (UTC)

I agree. Steve11235 (discuss • contribs) 16:26, 7 August 2012 (UTC)

 * done QU TalkQu 16:46, 7 August 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Color Theory


text:
User:Javier Carro/Transformational Grammar

About this wikibook
This page is a stub of what pretends to be a future module dealing with the rules governing the Grammar according to Transformational theories. We may also add the new theories of the Minimalist Program.

As long as this module is a stub, I would prefer to keep it under my user page. But I encourage you to modify, contribute and discuss whatever you consider necessary. And if you want to contribute but you don't like the book to be under my user-page, we may consider moving it.

I am a Spanish native speaker, but I have studied this theory applied only to English language. I'd like to study the transformational principles applied to Spanish language, and then, I'd begin a Spanish wikibook about this topic.

I'd be very grateful to those English speaking wikicontributors who may check my mistakes. Thank you :)

The problem of the branching representation
I just discovered that we can use branching nodes to represent the examples, have a look here, we may also use the box [ ] symbology and/or pictures created by us and uploaded to Commons.

What is the transformational grammar?
The transformational grammar is a mathematically powerful grammar based on the theory of language described by Noam Chomsky. More information in Transformational grammar.

Categorial information
The syntactic category of a word determines its distribution in the syntactic structure.

Word level categories
A adjective

ADV adverb

D determiner

N noun

P preposition

V verb

Phrasal level categories
AP adjectival phrase

(ADVP adverbial phrase) Its existence is discussed.

DP determiner phrase (According to Santorini and Kroch)

NP noun phrase

PP prepositional phrase

VP verbal phrase

IP inflectional phrase

CP complementizer phrase

Constituency tests

 * Preposing: only phrasal constituents may undergo preposing.

1.a.*People at Wikimedia Embassy we have a list with. b. At meta:Wikimedia Embassy we have a list with people. (''Example taken from )

Constituency vs. adjunct tests

Phrase markers

 * Hierarchic structure

In the transformational grammar, it is proposed that the constituents of a clause are hierarchically structured.

 * Branch
 * Node and branching node

The node is the point where two (or more) branches are connected.

 * Dominance
 * Exhaustive dominance
 * Immediate dominance
 * Precedence
 * Immediately precedence
 * C-command: (see also coindexing)
 * A c-command B iff (if and only if) the node that immediately dominates A also dominates B and neither A dominates B, nor B dominates A.

Phrase structure rules
''(More information about this topic in Wikipedia's article Phrase_structure_rules) XP → (W) X(') (Y)

Phrase structure in a NP

 * Determiner rule:

N '' → D N' (According to Radford (2003))

 * Adjunct rule:

N'→ N' PP

 * Complement rule

N' → N PP

Argument structure and Theta-role
The arguments are participants selected by the predicate. Each argument receives a theta role assigned by the predicate and, each theta role needs to be assigned to one and only one argument.

Theta or semantic roles

 * 1) Theme
 * 2) Agent
 * 3) Cause
 * 4) Locative
 * 5) Source
 * 6) Goal
 * 7) Experiencer
 * 8) Benefactive
 * 9) Instrument
 * 10) Manner
 * 11) Reason
 * 12) Time

X' theory
(Initially extracted from X-bar theory).

X-bar theory is a component of linguistic theory which attempts to identify syntactic features common to all languages. The theory claims that there are certain structural similarities among all phrasal categories of all languages. The letter X is used to signify an arbitrary lexical category for the head of the phrase (instead of, for example, N for noun or V for verb) in order to allow a generic description.

X-bar theory adds additional levels of hierarchy to more traditional phrase structure rules using the phrasal constituent called an X-bar.

The head, X, is said to combine with a complement to form an X-bar, and an adjunct is said to combine with an X-bar to form another X-bar. Finally, an X-bar is said to combine with a specifier to form the top level of the phrase, the X Phrase (or XP). [In this way, complements are distinguished from adjuncts by the fact that a complement has an X as a sister, whereas an adjunct has X-bar as a sister.]

These rules can be formalized as follows:
 * XP --> (specifier), X-bar  An X Phrase consists of an optional specifier and an X-bar, in either order.
 * (X-bar --> X-bar, adjunct)  An X-bar may consist of an X-bar and an adjunct, in either order.
 * X-bar --> X, (complement...)  An X-bar consists of an X and any number of complements, in either order.

Note, the adjuct rule is itself optional.

Subcategorization frame
The subcategorization frame shows the constituents selected or subcategorized by a lexical item. The number of constituents subcategorized depends on the valency of the lexical item. For example, the verb "give" is trivalent (or three place predicate). Thus, it is associated with three arguments.

The three Wise Men give many presents to the children. The three Wise Men give the children many presents.

give: [___ NP PP(to)] [___ NP NP] (see Dative shift)

Selectional restrictions
Predicates impose certain semantic restrictions to the arguments selected. For example, in 1. the predicate "overtake" may select the NP "a cyclist" as an argument, but it cannot select the NP "a smile" :

1. a. The car driver overtook a cyclist. b.*The car driver overtook a smile.

Transformations

 * Structure-Preserving Hypothesis

The transformations are structure-preserving. Thus, when a constituent moves to a new position, the constituent must keep the same category as it was.

NP raising
The NP raises to SpecIP position to cover subject requirements and to obtain a compatible case.

V-I or I-V movement
There are two significant and different hypotheses used to explain the process of inflectional affixation in English verbs. While Chomsky suggested that the inflectional element lowers to V position, also called affix lowering, others have suggested that the V rises to I position.

NICE properties
NICE is an acronym used to distinguish the main verbs from the auxiliary and modal verbs.

[IP I(i) do [NEGP not [VP t(i) scream]]]. (Do support in order to fulfill the VI movement requirement when lexical, because lexical verb scream cannot undergo VI movement). *[IP I(i) scream(j) [NEGP not [VP t(i) t(j)]]]. The ungrammaticality of this example shows that lexical verbs cannot undergo V-I movement and they need do-support, as it is shown in the previous grammatical example.
 * Negation

[CP Do(i)[IP you(j) t(i)[VPt(j) scream]]]? (I-C movement)
 * Inversion (in interrogative sentence formation).

 * C
 * Ellipsis

Only verbs in the inflectional domain may undergo these properties. That is why we cannot apply them to lexical verbs, because the lexical verbs stay always in the lexical domain. When a V-I movement is needed, then it undergoes do insertion.

I-C movement
I-C, Inflectional to Complementizer domain movement takes place in:
 * Semiindirect speech
 * Direct questions (see the example above in Inversion, of NICE properties).
 * Subordinate clauses.

Inflectional phrase (IP)
Modal verbs are generated in the functional domain, as it is proved in the next examples:
 * Modal verbs and auxiliary verbs.

 * Negation: (the particle of negation, in English, may only occur between the IP and the VP.

1 a. The wikipedians should not despise other users. b.*The wikipedians not should despise other users.
 * Sentential adverbs: (sentential adverbs are those adverbs which, according to Radford, are immediately dominated by the Sentence node.

2 a. [IP The wikipedians(i) necessarily should [VP (i) respect other users]]. b. *[IP The wikipedians(i) should [VP (i) respect necessarily other users]].

Modal verbs may co-occur in the same clause with one or more auxiliary verbs:

3 a. The wikipedians should have respected other users. b. The wikipedians should have been respected by other users.

However, modal verbs may not co-occur in the same clause with other modal verbs, as it is shown in an ungrammatical sentence like:

4 *The wikipedians must should respect other users.

Wh- movement

 * Wh- base generation

1 a. [CP What(h) do(i) [IP you(j) t(i)[VP t(j) like ____(what)t(k)?]]]

The Complex NP is a Noun Phrases whose head is modified by a relative clause or by a Noun Complement Clause. Wh- movement out of a Complex NP leads to ungrammaticality, because there is no way to extract an element out of a Complex NP. That is the reason why Complex NPs are called islands.
 * Complex NP constraint.

In the same way, no constituent can undergo extraction from a subordinate clause whose CP by a WH- word.
 * Wh-island constraint

 * Head Movement constraint
 * Adjacency and the Boundary theory

Glosary of terms

 * A adverb
 * AP adverbial phrase
 * Complement-adjunct tests.
 * Constituency rules.
 * Constituency tests.
 * DP Determiner phrase
 * NP Noun phrase
 * PP Prepositional phrase
 * VP Verbal phrase

Useful links
Transformational grammar

External linguistic sites
(Be aware that this dictionary is protected under restrictive copyrights, so its content is incompatible with our free lycense GFDL.
 * Lexicon of linguistics Created by Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS (Copyright © 1996-2001)

 * The Syntax of Natural Language
 * Santorini, Beatrice, and Anthony Kroch. 2000.
 * The syntax of natural language: An online introduction using the Trees program.
 * © 2000 Beatrice Santorini and Anthony Kroch
 * (A 21 de diciembre de 2004),última modificación conocida: 4 de febrero del 2004.

 * Descripción:Libro de acceso libre en internet de sintaxis de la lengua inglesa desde una perspectiva de la Gramática Transformacional. Idioma: inglés

 * Une brève introduction aux concepts de la syntaxe générative
 * Descripción:Desarrollado por - Yves Roberge de la Universidad de Toronto con la colaboración de Henriette Gezundhajt. Idioma: francés.

Hemeroteca

Asociaciones, centros de investigación y recursos
 * http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~kathol/120/Docs/ Berkeley University.


text:
Cookbook:Apple Bundt Cake

| Cake

Apple bundt cake is very easy to make, requires no fancy frosting or filling, and is delicious for serving at breakfast, tea time or even as a birthday cake with a chocolate or fruit glaze covering.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (450 g / 16 oz) white granulated sugar
 * Zest of 1 lemon
 * 4 eggs
 * 1 cup (250 ml / 8.5 fl oz) vegetable oil
 * 1 tsp vanilla
 * 2 cups (275 g / 9.7 oz) flour
 * ½ tsp allspice
 * ½ tsp nutmeg
 * 2 tsp baking powder
 * 2 tsp baking soda
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 1 tsp cinnamon
 * 3 large tart apples, grated
 * ½ cup (40 g / 1.4 oz) raisins

Procedure

 * 1) Mix quickly the sugar and lemon rind in a food processor.
 * 2) Add eggs and blend until it becomes a nice cream.
 * 3) Continue blending while slowly adding the oil. Blend until well mixed and add vanilla.
 * 4) In a separate bowl sift the dry ingredients all together (flour, allspice, nutmeg, baking powder, baking soda, salt and cinnamon).
 * 5) Mix the dry ingredients slowly into the batter, blending until it becomes nice and thick.
 * 6) Add grated apples and blend quickly into batter just to mix. Be sure not to overblend and shred the apples too much.
 * 7) Add raisins, and pulse the processor as to just mix them in and not shred them.
 * 8) Bake in a bundt pan for 55 minutes at approximately 320°F (160°C; gas mark 3) or until a knife inserted into the center comes out clean.

title: Cookbook:Apple Bundt Cake


text:
Talk:Algorithms/Mathematical Background

Use Set Notation?
Let's have a discussion about just using set notation for big-O. I think instead of saying that
 * $$O(n\lg n)\le O(n^2)$$

and
 * $$f(n) = O(g(n))$$

We should use the set notation only:
 * $$O(n\lg n)\subset O(n^2)$$

and
 * $$f(n)\in O(g(n))$$

We could still define what the "="s notation means, and mention that it's also used. But it would be nice to avoid these notational issues and follow the "newer" trend and adopt the set notation. We still would say "T(n) is O(n)" instead of "T(n) is in O(n)", because "is" in English is commonly understood to be in only one direction, not both. --MShonle 19:39, 1 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Introduction to Algorithms by Thomas Cormen, et. al. (ISBN 0-262-03293-7) explains its use of = by pointing out that sometimes we will want to say $$3n^2+2n-17 = 3n^2+\Theta(n)$$ or even $$3n^2+\Theta(n) = \Theta(n^2)$$, which don't work if we just replace = with ∈. So it's probably better to keep = and just explain what it means.

 * Good point, we shouldn't get too far off the beaten path. We could leave the set interpretation as just a side note. MShonle 05:16, 21 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Anyway, in order to understand any of this, readers need a basic understanding of set theory, or at least its notation. Discrete_mathematics/Set_theory, Naive set theory, and Set all have basic summaries of the needed notation which could be copied here. I like Naive set theory's best. Was there any resolution to the discussion at Staff_lounge? --jyasskin 01:36, 21 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Hey Jyasskin: BTW, Thanks for your contributions. There was no resolution with how to handle Mathematics books (and the like). For this book I'd like to see it be as self-contained as possible (it assumes the sister book on Data Structures, however it doesn't assume all of Data Structure book's content either). I think it would be safe to assume some knowledge of descrete math, but we wouldn't want to demonstrate, say, the continuum hypothesis.
 * Also, we'd probably want to use more examples than the wikipedia. For example, defining some natural sets along with the notation right away just so the material won't seem so abstract. A section on Set Theory right after the Mathematical Definitions sounds good. (Or perhaps you might like set theory first, to introduce relations too, which the Mathematical Definitions section uses). MShonle 05:16, 21 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Little-o vs. Small-o
I always called what you call "small-o" "little-o."

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Little-oNotation.html
 * That makes sense. Thanks. MShonle 03:50, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

i                     wannt to  knw
Bold text

Undefined Logical Negation symbol under types of relations
In describing the different types of relations, the logical negation symbol is used, for instance in defining irreflexive. However nowhere before that point or around it a suitable interpretation of that symbol is provided. Besides the interpretation is going to depend on the particular relation being defined and its set. --Balbir Thomas 17:00, 21 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Algorithms/Mathematical Background


text:
User talk:64.202.131.190

Thank you
Thank you for helping out at The Pagan Beliefs Surrounding Christmas

title: User talk:64.202.131.190


text:
Policy Debate

Welcome to the wiki-world of Policy Debate! Whether you are a novice, varsity debater, or college hot shot, this book can hopefully be of use. One of the most exciting things about debate is the initial socialization process of the activity. Learning the open-ended rules, the debate jargon, and how to spin your pen around your thumb! Although we can't learn everything online, this repository is the perfect place for an introduction to debate, basic debate theory, and advice about debate. And, heck, because of the limitless and easily maintainable Wiki format, it can eventually expand into argument lists, citelists, and more.

 * 1) What is Debate?
 * 2) /Basic_Format/
 * 3) /Stock Issues/
 * 4) /Topicality/
 * 5) /Disadvantages/
 * 6) /1AC/
 * 7) /1NC/
 * 8) /2AC/
 * 9) /2NC/
 * 10) /1NR/
 * 11) /1AR/
 * 12) /2NR/
 * 13) /2AR/
 * 14) /Response to Criticism of Policy Debate/
 * 15) /Advanced 1AC Advice/
 * 16) /Advanced 1NC Advice/
 * 17) /Advanced 2AC Advice/
 * 18) /Advanced 2NC Advice/
 * 19) /Advanced 1NR Advice/
 * 20) /Advanced 1AR Advice/
 * 21) /Advanced 2NR Advice/
 * 22) /Advanced 2AR Advice/
 * 23) /Glossary and Jargon/

title: Policy Debate


text: File:DataStructuresLinkedListofN.png

title: File:DataStructuresLinkedListofN.png


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Coordinate Geometry and Graphs

Co-ordinates are a way of describing position. In two dimensions, positions are given in two perpendicular directions, x and y.

Straight lines
A straight line has a fixed gradient. The gradient of a line and its y intercept are the two pieces of information that distinguish one line from another line.

Equations of a straight line
The most common form of a straight line is y = mx + c. m is the gradient of the line, and c is the point at which the line intercepts the y-axis. When c is 0, the line passes through the origin (0,0). Other forms of the equation are x = a, used for vertical lines of an infinite gradient and y = b is used for horizontal lines with a zero gradient. Also some equations are commonly written as: px + qy + c = 0. You can also use the equation y-y1=m(x-x1)

Gradient of a line
The steepness of a line can be measured by its gradient, which is the change in the y direction divided by the change in the x direction. The letter m is used to denote the gradient. The formula to find a gradient is: $$m = \frac{y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}$$ As a side note $$\tan\theta = m\,$$.

Point-Gradient Form
The equation of a line having the co-ordinate $$\left(x_1,y_1\right)$$ and having a gradient of m is: $$y-y_1=m\left(x - x_1\right)$$. Then you simply rearrange the equation into the form y = mx + c.

Parallel lines
A pair of lines are parallel (the symbol is $$\|$$ ). If their gradients are equal, $$m_1 = m_2\,$$. So in order to find the equation of a parallel line you need the slope of the original line and one set of co-ordinates on the parallel line. Then you use the Point-Gradient formula to find the equation of the parallel line.

Perpendicular lines
A pair of lines are perpendicular (the symbol is $$\perp$$) if the product of their gradients is $$m_1 \times m_2=-1$$,. So if you need the equation of a line perpendicular to another line, all you need to do is replace the gradient m with the negative reciprocal of m.

So for example if line 1 is y = 2x +3 and you need to find the line perpendicular to this that goes through the point (0,1), then the gradient m = -1/2 (because 2 x -1/2 = -1). This gives y = -x/2 +c.

Putting the known point (0,1) into this equation gives :

1= -0/2 +c which gives c = 1

so the equation is y = 1- x/2.

Distance between two points
Using the co-ordinates of two points, it is possible to calculate the distance between them using Pythagoras' theorem. The distance d between any two points $$A(x_1,y_1)$$ and $$B(x_2,y_2)$$ is given by: $$d = \sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2}$$

Mid-point of a line
When the co-ordinate of two points are known, the mid-point is the point halfway between those two points. For any two points A$$({x_1},{y_1})$$ and B$$({x_2},{y_2})$$, the co-ordinates of the mid-point of AB can be found by $$\left(\frac {{x_1} + {x_2}}{2}, \frac {{y_1} + {y_2}}{2}\right)$$.

Intersection of lines
Any two straight lines will meet at a point, as long as they are not parallel. You can find the point of intersection simply by solving the two equations simultaneously. This is also true for curves, although non linear curves may intersect at multiple points or not at all and usually require different methods to solve.

Curves
To sketch a graph of a curve, all you need to know is the general shape of the curve and other important pieces of information such as the x and y intercepts and the points of any maxima and minima.

Curves in the form $$y=x^n$$
Note: That all the odd powers of $$x$$ share the same general shape, moving from bottom-left to top-right, and that all the even powers of $$x$$ share the same "bucket" shaped curve.

Curves in the form $$y=\frac {1} {x^n}$$
Just like earlier, curves with an even powers of $$x$$ all have the same general shape, and those with odd powers of $$x$$ share another general shape.

All curves in this form do not have a value for $$x=0$$, because $$\frac {1} {0}$$ is undefined. There are asymptotes on the $$y$$ axis, where the curve moves towards the y axis increasingly slowly but will never actually touch.

Curves in the form $$y=\sqrt x$$

All curves in this form will not have values for x < 0. They will all have the same general shape.

Intersection of lines and curves
When a line intersects with a curve, it is possible to find the points of intersection by substituting the equation of the line into the equation of the curve. If the line is in the form $$y = mx + c$$, then you can replace any instances of $$y$$ with $$mx + c$$, and then expand the equation out and then factorise the resulting quadratic.

Need information on describing the geometrical relationship between a curve and a straight line

Intersection of curves
The same method can be used as for a line and a curve. However, it will only work in simple cases. When an algebraic method fails, you will need to resort to a graphical or Numerical Method. In the exam, you will only be required to use algebraic methods.

Graphical Rules
In many cases it is easy to obtain a graph from a preexisting graph using these rules.

Reflection

 * 1) $$y = -f \left (x \right )\,$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ through the x axis.
 * 2) $$y = f \left (-x \right )\,$$ is a reflection of $$y = f \left (x \right )\,$$ through the y axis.

Stretching

 * 1) $$y = f \left (bx \right )\,$$ is stretched away from the y-axis if $$0 < b < 1\,$$ and stretched towards the y-axis if $$b > 1\,$$. In both cases the change is by b units.
 * 2) $$y = af \left (x \right )\,$$ is stretched towards the x-axis if $$0 < a < 1\,$$ and stretched away from the x-axis if $$a > 1\,$$. In both cases the change is by a units.

Translations

 * 1) $$y = f \left (x - h \right )\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by h units to the right.
 * 2) $$y = f \left (x + h \right )\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by h units to the left.
 * 3) $$y = f \left (x \right ) + k\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by k units upwards.
 * 4) $$y = f \left (x \right ) - k\,$$ is a translation of f(x) by k units downwards.

The Circle
A circle is a set of all points in a plane that are a fixed distance r away from a given point called the center. The distance r is the radius of a circle.

The two basic laws of circles are:

$$Area = \pi r^2 \,$$

$$Circumference = 2 \pi r\,$$

Properties of a circle
A radius always bisects a chord if they are perpendicular to each other.

If any point on the circumference of the circle is connected to the diameter, it forms a right angled triangle.

If a radius is drawn and then a tangent is drawn from that point. Then the radius and tangent line will be perpendicular to each other.

Equation of a Circle
The standard equation of a circle is:

$$x^2 + y^2 = r^2\,$$

This will always give us a circle centered around the origin (0,0). If we want a circle with a center at (h,k) we use the following formula.

$$\left (x - h \right )^2 + \left (y - k \right )^2 = r^2$$

However you can not graph either of these equations with a calculator. You will need to split it into two equations, but the graph will not be perfect, because x is undefined when x = 0 and when $$(x -h)^2 = r^2$$: $$y =+ \sqrt{r^2 - \left ( x - h \right )^2} + k$$ and $$y =- \sqrt{r^2 - \left ( x - h \right )^2} + k$$.

Here is how $$\left (x - 5 \right )^2 + \left (y - 8 \right )^2 = 2^2$$ would look graphed:


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Using PHPEclipse/About PHPEclipse

PHPEclipse is a set of plugins for the Eclipse Framework which provide and integrated IDE for PHP developers. Eclipse, and PHPEclipse are written in Java, and will run on all graphical desktop environments. PHPEclipse is Open Source software, freely available under the Common Public Licence.

Why Use PHPEclipse?
There are several decent Integrated Development Environments available for PHP web development, each with their own pros and cons. So what stands out about PHPEclipse?

Eclipse is a Consistent and Mature Platform

The Eclipse Platform provides users with a consistent user interface paradigm. A software development IDE is one of the more complex desktop applications most of us are likely to use, and so the time required for a developer to become efficient with a particular IDE can be significant. Eclipse doesn't reduce this time, but it does provide a consistent interface approach which need only be learnt once in order to develop efficiently with a wide range of programming languages and tools. As part of this approach, Eclipse provides detailed documentation and tutorials on all it's generic functionality, allowing plugin projects, such as PHPEclipse, to focus only on their areas specific to their domain. By learning to use Eclipse as a development platform, or learning to develop your own plug-in tools for eclipse, you are acquiring a useful and flexible skill.

PHPEclipse is Cross Platform

PHP web development is performed by developers using many different operating systems and desktop environments. As PHPEclipse is available on any system which can run Java, it is an ideal choice when a single IDE is desired by a group of developers spread across a range of different environments.

Eclipse Provides a Wealth of Mature Development Tools

Eclipse provides an array of important development tools such as CVS integration, project wide text searching and manipulation. A large range of third party plugins is available for Eclipse (both free and commercial).

PHPEclipse Features

 * PHP, HTML, XML and CSS Syntax Highlighting
 * Code completion
 * Javascript Editor (?)
 * Integrated web browser preview
 * Integrated control of Apache & MySQL servers (if using XAMP distribution) (?)
 * Some PHPUnit Integration (?)
 * Integrated MySQL client view using Quantum DB (?)
 * HTMLTidy integration (?)

(?) indicates that I haven't yet tried this out

Useful Eclipse Features

 * CVS Integration
 * Search across files
 * Task list

Up | Next

title: Using PHPEclipse/About PHPEclipse


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Movie Making Manual/Writing/Rewriting

Writing | Previous

=Rewriting=

Over 80% of your time on any screenplay will be spent on rewrites. So much of screenwriting is about structure that you may have the story in the first few weeks while the rest of the time is spent reworking the script so the story works on the screen.

After you have plowed through and have a first draft script of 90-130 pages the best thing to do probably is to get a little distance from the screenplay so you can evaluate it objectively. This is probably best done by laying the script aside for a few weeks and doing something else then returning to it with fresh eyes.

Top-Down Rewriting
Beginning writers assume that the rewriting process consists of going through the script line by line and fixing any typos or grammatical errors. After a couple of such passes they're bored and the screenplay is still weak.

To be efficient and really make progress requires being more organized and starting with the big picture. Make a series of passes through your screenplay, each time concentrating on one or two elements.

Start with the most important elements of any story such as: Is the hero really appealing and heroic? Is the villain really evil? Is there a powerful and credible conflict? Are the characters great, real, alive, right and consistent?

Strengthening these big elements might result in major restructuring of the screenplay. Only after they have been addressed is the time right to work down to issues such as spelling and grammar. Take a break for a few days at any point if necessary to get a fresh perspective.

A detailed rewriting strategy discussion

'Spitballing'
This rather strange term comes from William Goldman's books. It means getting together with another writer and discussing your script and coming up with ideas to solve problems you are having.

It's essential to discover whether or not your story, characters, dramatic conflict, is working. A screenplay is both a sales document for the film and the blueprint, a set of instructions to the director and the actors. An outside viewpoint is essential if you want to know if your script is going to be successful.

Script Editors
A good script editor is invaluable. Professional editors and coverage experts can be located by searching the web and through ads in screenwriting magazines, however the cost can be prohibitive for independent filmmakers.

Another option is to enlist friends that are avid novel readers and particularly anal-retentive at spelling and grammar. Even the most successful professional writers value the feedback of their trusted friends. If the writing is interesting enough, friends will feel compensated by just getting to be the first to read the new work and share in the creative process.

Next | Screenplay Format

/Writing movies

title: Movie Making Manual/Writing/Rewriting


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User:EugeneH

In wikipedia my account is: Orage

title: User:EugeneH


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Using PHPEclipse/Installation

The process of installing PHPEclipse has several stages. This is because PHP development with PHPEclipse relies upon a number of different pieces of software. If you already use your machine for PHP development, chances are that you will have some of these items already installed. Even if this is the case, make sure you have at least a brief glance at the items below to ensure that you have the required versions installed. The installation process should be followed in the order provided in this manual. The optional items are of course optional, but are strongly recommended.

Contents
 * 1) Installing Java
 * 2) Installing Eclipse
 * 3) Installing PHPEclipse
 * 4) Installing Apache/MySQL/PHP (Optional)
 * 5) Installing the DBG Debugger (Optional)
 * 6) Installing the SQL Plugin (Optional)
 * 7) Installing the PHP User Manual (Optional)

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title: Using PHPEclipse/Installation


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Using PHPEclipse/Installation/Installing Java

The Java Runtime Environment (JRE) is used to run all programs written in the Java programming language. Java 2 is required to run both Eclipse and PHPEclipse. Chances are that you will already have this installed. If not, or if you are not sure, visit Sun's Java Download Site, which will provide you with what you need (or inform you if you already have Java 2) for any operating system.

If you are using a platform with its own software management system (such as many linux distributions), you may wish to use your package management system to install Java rather than the Sun download site.

Third party Java Runtime Environments (such as Blackdown) are also available, and may well run this software. Feedback on this is welcome. Our current experience is that Blackdown will not successfully run Eclipse (under Gentoo Linux, Nov 2004).

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User talk:84.12.66.108

Thanks for your Algorithms contributions! Get an account and join the team! :-) --MShonle 02:18, 2 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.12.66.108


text:
Talk:US History/Reconstruction

Discuss the political, social, and economic reforms introduced in the South between 1864 and 1877. To what extent did these surviv the comprmise of 1877?

First Transcontinental Railroad
The First Transcontinental Railroad golden spike was laid in 1869. The railroad was to be revolutionary in its effect and fits into this era 1865-1877. However full coast-to-coast services took place after this era so can be found in US History/Advancements covering 1877-1913. Darrelljon (discuss • contribs) 09:18, 22 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:US History/Reconstruction


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Using PHPEclipse/Installation/Installing Eclipse

With Java installed, the Eclipse Platform can now be downloaded and installed. In order to use PHP Eclipse, Eclipse version 3.0 or greater is required. You can download eclipse from the Eclipse Download Page. You will want to install the Latest Release, which at the time of writing is 3.0.1. This will install the Eclipse SDK. Eclipse is also available as a Platform Runtime Binary, but this will not let you use the debugging features.

Although in general Java applications are platform independent, Eclipse uses the SWT (Standard Widget Toolkit), which provides native look and feel on a range of platforms. This allows much better integration into your desktop than the normal generic Java widgets. This means, however, that you need to select the correct release of Eclipse for your operating system. A range of different downloads are provided on the download page for your selected release version. Windows and Mac users can simply select the only version for their platform. Linux users need to select the appropriate download for their architure and desktop environment.

Under Linux, eclipse is available for both the Motif and GTK graphical toolkits. GTK is ideal for making eclipse look like your other Gnome applications. No Eclipse version is available for QT (the KDE graphical toolkit) due to the way in which QT is licenced. KDE users will probably want to grab the GTK version. Additionally, you may find it easier to install the Eclipse SDK using your distribution's package management system. For example, under Gentoo Linux, the package dev-util/eclipse-sdk works fine with PHPEclipse.

To install the and Eclipse SDK zip file downloaded from eclipse.org, simple extract the file to the desired location (eg: C:\Program Files). The file contains a single directory called eclipse. To run eclipse, simple execute the eclipse file in this directory. For example, under MS Windows (if installed to the location above), then you would execute "C:\Program Files\eclipse\eclipse.exe". A shortcut could be created for this location.

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Using PHPEclipse/Installation/Installing PHPEclipse

To install PHPEclipse, first download the latest version from SourceForge at http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=57621&package_id=70009. The latest version will be the one at the top of the list displayed on the download page. At the time of writing, it is version 1.1.3 (filename PHPEclipse1.1.3-2005-01-29.zip). This file is platform independent.

The PHPEclipse zip files must be extracted in the same directory in which you installed Eclipse. It contains two directories, plugins and features, and these must be added to the plugins and features in your existing eclipse directory.

'''Note: Eclipse 3.x caches all plugin.xml files into a single repository for quicker loading. If you used eclipse before installing PHPeclipse, you should start eclipse once with the -clean option. This -clean forces Eclipse to rebuild that repository. This applies to anything that is installed into eclipse by unzipping it into its plugins folder.'''

This plugin can be replaced by a similar plugin, the Php Developer Tools (PDT), more here http://wiki.eclipse.org/PDT/Installation

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Using PHPEclipse/Installation/Installing ApacheMySQLPHP

Most PHP developers find it easiest to work with a running web server on their local machine. This allows you to test your work as you go, without having to upload it to a hosting environment. Therefore, it's suggested that at this point you install Apache, PHP, and (if you are using it), MySQL. This step is required if you plan to use the php debugger. Together these tools are often referred to as AMP (or AMPP if you include Perl as well as PHP).

Installing AMP Using the XAMPP Distribution
XAMPP is a software bundle which includes everything you need to install Apache/MySQL/PHP/Perl in one go. It's available for Windows, Linux and Solaris. Particularly on a Windows machine, this is definitely the fastest way to get up and running with these tools, as someone else has done the integration and configuration work for you. Under Linux, it may be a quick solution to set up, will not be as easy to automatically maintain (or integrate with other packages) as if you installed these tools separately with your distribution's package management system (such as: apt, YaST, emerge, or up2date). This is covered in the next section.

To install XAMPP, visit their website at http://www.apachefriends.org/en/xampp.html. Select your operating system (Windows, Linux or Solaris), and then follow the simple installation instructions found on that page.

Note: Since Apache needs to be able to run your php files against php, your workspace, which contains all of your php files, must be in the Apache web root (htdocs folder). By default, this is C:\apachefriends\xampp\htdocs, but may vary depending on where you install XAMPP to. The setting can also be configured in httpd.conf

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Bourne Shell Scripting/Modularization

If you've ever done any programming in a different environment than the shell, you're probably familiar with the following scenario: you're writing your program, happily typing away at the keyboard, until you notice that

 * you have to repeat some code you typed earlier because your program has to perform exactly the same actions in two different locations; or
 * your program is just too long to understand anymore.

In other words, you've reached the point where it becomes necessary to divide your program up into modules that can be run as separate subprograms and called as often as you like. Working in the Bourne Shell is no different than working in any other language in this respect. Sooner or later you're going to find yourself writing a shell script that's just too long to be practical anymore. And the time will have come to divide your script up into modules.

Named functions
Of course, the easy and obvious way to divide a script into modules is just to create a couple of different shell scripts — just a few separate text files with executable permissions. But using separate files isn't always the most practical solution either. Spreading your script over multiple files can make it hard to maintain. Especially if you end up with shell scripts that aren't really meaningful unless they are called specifically from one other, particular shell script.

Especially for this situation the Bourne Shell includes the concept of a named function: the possibility to associate a name with a command list and execute the command list by using the name as a command. This is what it looks like:

This functionality is available throughout the shell and is useful in several situations. First of all, you can use it to break a long shell script up into multiple modules. But second, you can use it to define your own little macros in your own environment that you don't want to create a full script for. Many modern shells include a built-in command for this called alias, but old-fashioned shells like the original Bourne Shell did not; you can use named functions to accomplish the same result.

Functions with a simple command group
Let's start off simply by creating a function that prints "Hello World!!". And let's call it "hw". This is what it looks like:

Hello world as a named function

We can use exactly the same code in a shell script or in the interactive shell — the example above is from the interactive shell. There are several things to notice about this example. First of all, we didn't need a separate keyword to define a function, just the parentheses did it. To the shell, function definitions are like extended variable definitions. They're part of the environment; you set them just by defining a name and a meaning.

The second thing to note is that, once you're past the parentheses, all the normal rules hold for the command group. In our case we used a command group with braces, so we needed the semicolon after the echo command. The string we want to print contains exclamation points, so we have to quote it (as usual). And we were allowed to break the command group across multiple lines, even in interactive mode, just like normal.

Here's how you use the new function: Calling our function

Functions that execute in a separate process
The definition of a function takes a command group. Any command group. Including the command group with parentheses rather than braces. So if we want, we can define a function that runs as a subprocess in its own environment as well. Here's hello world again, in a subprocess:

Hello world as a named function

It's all on one line this time to keep it short, but the same rules apply as before. And of course the same environment rules apply as well, so any variables defined in the function will not be available anymore once the function ends.

Functions with parameters
If you've done any programming in a different programming language you know that the most useful functions are those that take parameters. In other words, ones that don't always rigidly do the same thing but can be influenced by values passed in when the function is called. So here's an interesting question: can we pass parameters to a function? Can we create a definition like

And then make a call like 'functionWithParams(Hello, World)'? Well, the answer is simple: no. The parenthese are just there as a flag for the shell to let it know that the previous name is the name of a function rather than a variable and there is no room for parameters.

Or actually, it's more a case of the above being the simple answer rather than the answer being simple. You see, when you execute a function you are executing a command. To the shell there's really very little difference between executing a named function and executing 'ls'. It's a command like any other. And it may not be able to have parameters, but like any other command it can certainly have command line arguments. So we may not be able to define a function with parameters like above, but we can certainly do this:

Functions with command-line arguments

And you can use any other variable from the environment as well. Of course, that's a nice trick for when you're calling a function from the command line in the interactive shell. But what about in a shell script? The positional variables for command-line arguments are already taken by the arguments to the shell script, right? Ah, but wait! Each command executed in the shell (no matter how it was executed) has its own set of command-line arguments! So there's no interference and you can use the same mechanism. For example, if we define a script like this:

function.sh: A function in a shell script

Then it executes exactly the way we want:

Executing the function.sh script

Functions in the environment
We've mentioned it before, but let's delve a little deeper into it now: what are functions exactly? We've hinted that they're an alias for a command list or a macro and that they're part of the environment. But what is a function exactly?

A function, as far as the shell is concerned, is just a very verbose variable definition. And that's really all it is: a name (a text string) that is associated with a value (some more text) and can be replaced by that value when the name is used. Just like a shell variable. And we can prove it too: just define a function in the interactive shell, then give the 'set' command (to list all the variable definitions in your current environment). Your function will be in the list.

Because functions are really a special kind of shell variable definition, they behave exactly the same way "normal" variables do:

 * Functions are defined by listing their name, a definition operator and then the value of the function. Functions use a different definition operator though: '' instead of '='. This tells the shell to add some special considerations to the function (like not needing the '$' character when using the function).
 * Functions are part of the environment. That means that when commands are issued from the shell, functions are also copied into the copy of the environment that is given to the issued command.
 * Functions can also be passed to new subprocesses if they are marked for export, using the 'export' command. Some shells will require a special command-line argument to 'export' for functions (bash, for instance, requires you to do an 'export -f' to export functions).
 * You can drop function definitions by using the 'unset' command.

Of course, when you use them functions behave just like commands (they are expanded into a command list, after all). We've already seen that you can use command-line arguments with functions and the positional variables to match. But you can also redirect input and output to and from commands and pipe commands together as well.

title: Bourne Shell Scripting/Modularization


text:
Japanese/Dialects/Okinawa

History
Todo: write about Okinawa being a linguistic relative of Japanese, ww2-era efforts to get rid of the language, etc...

ウチナーグチ vs 琉球語 vs 沖縄弁
ウチナーグチ (uchinaa guchi) is the term that the people of Okinawa use when referring to their own language. This translates as "Okinawa mouth" or "Okinawa language".

琉球語 (ryuukyuugo) is the word in standard Japanese that refers to the language of Okinawa (the "Ryuukyuu kingdom", which is often spelled "Ryukyu").

沖縄弁 (okinawa-ben) is the word for just the dialect of Okinawa. In other words, the way people from Okinawa speak Japanese.

Todo: expand this some more

Words

 * アラン　(aran) : disagree
 * デイジ (deiji) : serious
 * マアサン (maasan) : delicious
 * メンソーレ (mensoore) : welcome
 * ウチナ (uchina) : Okinawa
 * チュ (chu) : Person
 * 海人: ウミンチュ (uminchu) : Person of the sea
 * チュラ (chura) : pretty
 * ヤナ (yana) : ugly
 * チュラカギ / ヤナカギ (churakagi / yanakagi) : pretty person / ugly person

In the Okinawan dialect, it is possible to have words or names that begin with ん, which you will never see in standard 日本語.
 * んたまぎる

It is also common to use phonemes that are not part of the normal (ひらがな) Japanese language (though you may see them in 外来語), such as とぅ, てぃ, and ぐぁ
 * とぅい (tui) : bird.
 * とぅんふぁ (tunfa) : a weapon used in Okinawan martial arts.
 * やまとぅ (yamatu) : mainland Japan
 * てぃち (tichi) : one thing (counter)
 * いんぐぁ (ingua) : puppy

title: Japanese/Dialects/Okinawa


text:
PHP Programming/XML

XML stands for Extensible Markup Language and is based loosely on HTML. XML is used mainly to store and transfer information from one protocol or language to another. The code for XML is very open, you can create your own tags though they must follow the syntax rules of XML which are very similar to but stricter than HTML. For Example:

As you can see, the structure is almost identical to that of HTML, but you are able to define your own tags.

Once the template done, it can be manipulated in PHP by the class DOMDocument, as mentioned in the chapter ../XSL/registerPHPFunctions.

title: PHP Programming/XML


text:
Talk:Topology/Basic Concepts Set Theory

can the "Ordered sets are really just a short notation for certain unordered sets" idea be expounded on? I dont understand the equation that follows

 * I've done this. I'm not really sure why this comment is even present, however - it really belongs to set theory, not topology... J Bytheway 19:35, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Can we get the answers to the questions?

Complement of A
"In contexts where there is a set containing "everything," usually denoted U, the complement of A, denoted Ac, is A\U."

Shouldn't it be "U\A"? --SolVolkov (discuss • contribs) 21:40, 20 April 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Topology/Basic Concepts Set Theory


text:
User:Marty~enwikibooks

Marty is an undergraduate student at the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee majoring in Linguistics with a concentration on the Japanese language and linguistic anthropology.

title: User:Marty~enwikibooks


text:
Japanese/Grammar/～ている

The ～ている form has several uses.
 * Progressive
 * Completed actions
 * Stative
 * Habitual
 * Incomplete actions

Conjugation
While Japanese grammar doesn't always correspond to what we know from English, they both use auxiliary verbs in many circumstances.

Continuous tenses in English use the auxiliary verbs am, are, is, was and were.

The Japanese language has a similar auxiliary verb いる with the ～て form of the verb.

Continuous actions
When speaking of continuous actions that occur in the present or occurred in the past, the form has the same meaning as the English continuous tense.

Incomplete tasks
When いる is used in the present-negative conjugation, it conveys a sense of action not taken.

Habitual
This form may also be used to describe a habitual activity.

Stative vs Non-stative verbs
Much like English, there are verbs that describe a state of the subject, rather than an action. These type of verbs are called stative verbs. You may want to think of these as actions that started in the past, arrived to a state, and this state persists to the present.

くる, いく, and かえる
When the verbs くる, いく, and かえる are used in the ～て in conjunction with the auxiliary verb いる, they are translated as has come, has gone, and has returned, respectively.

Exceptions
There are some irregular cases with this form.

 * 1) You can use the word 知っています, but not 知っていません.  Instead, you'll use the negative form of masu - 知りません.
 * 2) You also can't use ある, いる, and 要る in the ～ている form at all.  The same can be said with potential forms of verbs (e.g., 話せる).

Colloquial Variations
When speaking at a high speed, sometimes syllables are dropped from words to make them easier to say. Colloquial variations of the continuous forms exist and are recognized in the Japanese language. While they are not used in proper writing, these forms are used in every day conversation, especially among friends and family.

All the sentences mean "I am riding the train." Notice that the two sentences on the right have simply dropped the い　from いる／います. By dropping the い, the sentence becomes easier to say quickly. This is a standard colloquial form of the continuous tense, and it works with the non-past continuous and the past continuous. The above example is the present continuous, so let's see an example of the past continuous:

Once again, the い was dropped, which forms the colloquial variation. Just remember to use the standard form when writing, but when speaking, the colloquial version will be OK when speaking among friends. However, when speaking to someone of higher status, you may wish to use the standard polite form.

title: Japanese/Grammar/～ている


text:
Japanese/Lesson Progressive/Answers

< Back to Lesson

Answers

 * 1) 手紙を書きます（てがみをかきます）I write a letter.（plain past progressive)
 * 2) * 手紙を書いていた（てがみをかいていた）I was writing a letter.

 * 1) ビールを飲んでいる（びーるをのんでいる）I am drinking beer. (polite past progressive)
 * 2) * ビールを飲んでいました（びーるをのんでいました）I was drinking beer.
 * 1) * ビールを飲んでいました（びーるをのんでいました）I was drinking beer.

 * 1) 寝た（ねた）I slept. (polite present progressive - colloquial variation)
 * 2) * 寝てます（ねてます）I'm sleeping.
 * 1) * 寝てます（ねてます）I'm sleeping.

 * 1) シャワーを浴びてます（しゃわーをあびています）I'm taking a shower. (plain present tense)
 * 2) * シャワーを浴びる（しゃわーをあびる）I take a shower.
 * 1) * シャワーを浴びる（しゃわーをあびる）I take a shower.

 * 1) 写真を撮ってた（しゃしんをとっていた）I was taking pictures. (polite past tense)
 * 2) * 写真を撮りました（しゃしんをとりました）I took pictures.
 * 1) * 写真を撮りました（しゃしんをとりました）I took pictures.

title: Japanese/Lesson Progressive/Answers


text:
User:Marty518

Marty is an undergraduate student at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee majoring in Linguistics with a concentration on the Japanese language and Anthropological linguistics.

title: User:Marty518


text:
Japanese/Vocabulary/Clothes and accessories

Traditional clothing
Japonais/Vocabulaire/Vêtement


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/Christian Theology/Origin of Sin

For the past several centuries, Christian Theologians point to the story of Adam and Eve as the Origin of Sin. This story proceeds that after God created Adam and Eve he also gave them instruction not to eat of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil. A serpent, identified later in the Bible as Satan, persuaded Eve to eat of the fruit of this tree which God told them not to eat. She gave some fruit to Adam, and he also ate of it. They gained the Knowledge of Good and Evil, and then knew they were naked and were ashamed, and hurried to clothe themselves. God found them and, because they had disobeyed Him, cast them out of the Garden of Eden. Mercifully, He also bestowed the gift of death, so that they would not live forever, separated from Himself.

This sin is believed to have been transmitted down the generations, a sin which only the sacrifice of Jesus could rectify. The Bible says that sin entered the world through one man, Adam. Sin is nothing more than disobedience of God. It is often argued that God created evil, but that could not be, since God is perfect. He created mankind with free will, which included the ability to choose to disobey Him. Without that ability to choose, man could never have chosen to love God; rather, we would have been like little wind-up dolls that always say, "i love you", without really meaning it. With Adam's choice, sin entered the world and with it death.

We are born with the stain of that original sin, and our nature is to satisfy ourselves rather than obey God. But God cannot tolerate sin or be in its presence. We sinners have to have another way of getting to God's abode, which we call heaven. God so loved the (people in the) world that He gave His only Son to die a sacrificial death, to atone for man's sins, and to provide the redemption that man needs in order to get to heaven and live forever in God's presence. But He placed a condition on that redemption: believe in Jesus as the Savior, the One capable of forgiving one's sins. That belief leads to repentance and a desire to please God.


text:
Talk:Guide to Unix/Linux

Purpose
Can someone explain to me what direction they think this book is intended to take? I'd be happy to help out, but I'd don't think the goal is clear. Is this intended to be a history of, introduction to, user guide for, or something else altogether? I think making real progress on a useful book would go better is a direction were to be given. --Ahc 04:33, 3 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Author
Why does it say that the Linux "Operating System" was written by Linux Torvalds? No disrespect to the man, but he did not write the operating system. That was started by Richard Stallman 5 years before Linus started working on his kernel.

Linux is a kernel of an operating system.

Unless someone has any objections, I would like to modify this article.
 * Since early November of this year the opening line has been:
 * Linux is a Unix-like open source kernel written by Linus Torvalds...
 * So I'm not clear on what your concern is. --Ahc 16:57, 15 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * From a Linux developer who's been following Linux for over a decade... NO.

 * The GNU project was indeed started first, and Linux (the whole thing) does indeed use some tools from the GNU project. The X and BSD projects are even older, and the GNU project uses parts of them. Heck, the GNU kernel uses large chunks of Linux kernel code for hardware drivers, filesystem support, and networking. If we are to believe that it is somehow right to give credit in the name of an OS, then why is GNU not crediting Linux for providing Hurd with life support? Why is GNU not crediting X or BSD?

 * GNU/Linux is a very obvious attempt to latch onto success. This is being done very rudely and forcefully, without getting concensus from the actual developers. This goes on at many levels, including the OS names used to configure projects that use the auto* tools. In no way did the GNU project write the Linux OS. Parts of the GNU OS were found suitable for Linux, just as parts of BSD were found suitable for GNU.

 * BTW, OS kernels do not traditionally have distinct names. They are "the kernel" or "the exec".

 * Finally, we have the simple facts of marketing. At least in English, "GNU" is a very ugly sounding word. The "/" looks complicated and hostile. Humans have emotional responses to sounds, like it or not.

 * AlbertCahalan 21:43, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Reading the GNU philosophies when talking about them is as important as reading the manual for a program.
 * A thing 05:01, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

 * The filename of the kernel is linux-version.tar.bz2. The simlink to the source is /usr/src/linux. The kernel image is usually stored, or the simlink is /boot/vmlinuz. Besides, calling it only Linux makes it seem as if it is made as one giant product. Unlike Windows, a distribution is actually a zillion independent projects being either pressed, or burned onto a series of CDs.

 * Well, as I said: "OS kernels do not traditionally have distinct names." As for the zillion independent projects, I'd say that's a good argument against the "GNU/" crud. My own independent project, procps, does not support the GNU kernel (Hurd) at all. Some of the old and important projects, like X, predate the whole GNU idea. Lots of recent (and not-so-recent) code is coming from BSD. Even the so-called "GNU" projects, like gcc and glibc, are mainly supported by Linux vendors and embedded systems companies. The true history of Linux is that the kernel was written, and then people like Theodore T'so and H. J. Lu went around to various places (BSD, GNU, alt.sources usenet archives, etc.) grabbing what was needed to have a userspace. In general, the early core developers of Linux have never accepted "GNU/Linux" as a legit term. Many have objected. Today the term is even an abuse of the Linux trademark registered to Linus Torvalds. AlbertCahalan 00:23, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Also, uname --kernel-name prints "Linux", while uname --operating-system, prints "GNU/Linux". Tools that are estential to GNU/Linux, like coreutils, gcc, glibc, bash, where all originaly created by the GNU project. Also, the whole philosphy came from the GNU project. Reub2000 03:39, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Guess why the "--operating-system" option was invented. As I said above, this recent political power grab is "being done very rudely and forcefully". By this I mean things like the uname command. Some tools, essential to Linux®, were created by the BSD project, yet we do not call the OS BSD/Linux. All of the "GNU" tools you mention have been primarily developed by Linux distributers. If you go back prior to the Linux effort, these tools were trivial junk. It would have been nearly as easy to use BSD code, but by chance, FSF "GNU" tools were chosen. Only a small part of the philosophy comes from the GNU project; BSD is older and wasn't even the first. AlbertCahalan 05:24, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * So? How much of the kernel do you think was written by Linux Torvalds? Not much. But he's givin credit because he started it. Besides, RMS can do what you said, because the FSF distributes the coreutils package that contains uname. And yes, GNU/Linux uses part of BSD, just like every other opearting system does. Waddya mean only a little bit of the philosphy comes from GNU? The kernel uses the GNU GPL. Reub2000 14:26, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * It doesn't matter how much of Linux® was written by Linus. Don't fall into the trap of thinking that an operating system name is an appropriate place to be giving anyone credit. Linus didn't name his own OS, and even if he had, so what? The name is a good-sounding marketable name in most (all?) languages. "GNU/Linux" is an abomination, purely political, created because RMS was sore about his Hurd project being upstaged by Linux. RMS is jealous and whiny, and should be treated as such. The GNU GPL is only a codification of prior existing philosophy. RMS didn't invent the idea. Sure, we can give him credit for getting a lawyer to write things up, but not in the operating system name. AlbertCahalan 17:57, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Note that Windows is not called Bill/Windows, and MacOS is not called SteveOS. AlbertCahalan 17:57, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Suppose you wrote an OS, and your friend named it Reubal. Then a few other friends help you port some BSD code to run on your system, along with whatever else they can find. Years later, when Reubal is having major success, Marshall Kirk McKusick rudely and jealously demands that you call your OS "Reubsdal" to give himself credit. Your friends ridicule this offensive idea. Marshall Kirk McKusick then starts telling everyone that your OS is really named BSD/Reubal. Soon, many outsiders start to believe this tale. After all, if you repeat a lie often enough, people will believe it. AlbertCahalan 17:57, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * P.S. The X Windows System isn't really part of the operating system, it's a program that's run on it, similar to how one might run WinRAR on Windows. Sure, it's estential for every user, but it's not part ot the core of the operating system. Reub2000 03:43, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * Even Richard Stallman considers X to be part of a GNU operating system. Part of his claim to owning the right to rename Linux® is that he himself had the idea to cobble together a complete system from X, BSD, and more. When a crowd of Linux hackers (H. J. Lu and Theodore T'so in particular) did this, Richard Stallman felt that his idea had been stolen. Well, the idea was obvious, and Richard Stallman didn't patent it. Even AT&T and Sun were doing this with commercial UNIX®. AlbertCahalan 05:24, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Naming issues aside, just count the times someone says that the Linux Operating System was firstly written by Linus Torvalds and you will know what is unfair in this discussion. ManuelGR 19:57, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

Joining Guide to UNIX?
I added Linux to the table of contents for Guide to UNIX. Kernigh 01:59, 2 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I had wanted a Guide to UNIX/BSD page. I found and expanded a BSD stub.
 * I noticed that the Linux module was mostly links. My idea is that this page is not the Wikipedia article, nor Linux For Newbies, nor Linux software howtos, nor BSD bookshelf. I made this module analogous with BSD module.
 * Thus I decided to use this page instead of making a Guide to UNIX/Linux page.
 * I propose renaming Linux to Guide to UNIX/Linux and GNU. Comment here. Kernigh 22:06, 3 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Moved, minus the political nonsense. AlbertCahalan 03:06, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Good. Call it Guide to UNIX/Linux because it is not about GNU. Kernigh 03:18, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

After the move, Linux still redirected to here. I tried to make Linux point to Computing bookshelf instead so people who type "Linux" and click Go would see the list of Wikibooks for Linux. However, automatic redirect drops the part after #... So now I am expecting that readers going to Linux will see Computing bookshelf and be able to find the Linux section. --Kernigh 01:35, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guide to Unix/Linux


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/begin

The begin keyword in Ada is almost synonymous with the { in C/C++/Java. In the paradigm of structured programming languages, a keyword or symbol is often needed to delimit the beginning of the body from the element (i.e. if, elsif, for loop, while loop) to which it pertains.

For the case of subprograms, packages, tasks and blocks this word is.

For example, Some_Procedure Do_Something; Do_Something_Else; Some_Procedure;

The begin keyword is always closed with the keyword. The opposite is not true in Ada.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords
 * Ada Programming/Tasking

Ada Reference Manual

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Begin Keywords:begin

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/begin


text:
Linux Guide/CD Burning

Burning CDs and DVDs with K3B
K3B (k3b.org) is a CD and DVD burner for Linux. Technically, it is a front-end for some of the commands given in the "using the console" section below.

K3B requires KDE (see also KDE how-to) to run.

Burning CDs and DVDs with Brasero
Brasero (gnome.org) is a popular GTK+ CD burning software. It is part of the GNOME project.

Burning CDs and DVDs using xcdroast
xcdroast is an alternative front end to cdrtools, which does not require KDE. Similarly to K3B and other such programs, it acts as a front end to automate commands which would normally be entered from the console.

1. Make an ISO Image
An ISO Image is a file which contains all the data required on the CD or DVD - that is, all the files plus the directory structure. An ISO file is about the same size as all the files it is created from.

There are several ISO formats available,

To make the ISO in Linux, use 'mkisofs. mkisofs has many options to control how to handle CD and DVD creation - these include how linux-style filenames are converted to work for Windows and Apple Mac, and options for creation of a boot-cd. However, the standard command is:

 * mkisofs -r -o

The easiest way to make an CD/DVD image is to copy all the files required in a new directory, such as "myproject". Then just run the command mkisofs -r -o /tmp/myimage.iso myproject to create the image. The image size should not be larger than the size of the CD (~ 700MB) or DVD (~ 4.4GB).

Note also that the FAT32 file system can only manage files of less than 4GB (which is less than the maximum DVD size)

2. Identify a CD drive
To burn the CD or DVD, we'll use cdrecord. The following command lists all the CD-R and DVD-R drives. and provides an address (a SCSI-style address) cdrecord -scanbus

3. Burn the CD
Burn the CD or DVD with: cdrecord -v speed=2 dev=  [blank=fast] -data  Use blank=fast to clear all data from a CD-RW. cd_image is the ISO file created in step 1.

Example: cdrecord -v speed=2 dev=0,6,0 -data /tmp/myimage.iso

Creation of Video DVDs
For DVDs to work in a DVD player, the movies and file structure must be very specific. A guide to creating a DVD video is given at VideoLan Wiki - see Making a DVD Video with VLC.

title: Linux Guide/CD Burning


text:
Japanese/Grammar/Comparisons

Comparative
The main methods of constructing comparative sentences use the words "より" and "". They can be used individually or together. The former indicates inferiority while the latter superiority (but note that superiority can indicate "lower", "cheaper", "smaller", etc).

Let's look at a few examples asserting that pizza (ピザ) is more delicious than sushi. Take the noun that is superior (in this case, more delicious) and affix "のが" to it. Then, take the inferior noun and append it with "より":

This essentially means "Pizza is more than sushi." but we have yet to explain in what fashion pizza out-does sushi. In this case, we are describing how delicious so we choose "おいしい". To be polite, we will add the polite copula "です" to the end of the sentence.

The adjective can be changed to anything you'd like.

Variations
It doesn't matter which part comes first; "〜の方が" or "〜より" so the following are both grammatically correct:

The adjective, however, must always come last with the copula.

One may drop one of "より" or "の方" when the comparison is clear from context.

Though it is not standard, "の方が" can be replaced with "は". Some people may find this easier to remember.

Instead of "より", you can say "よりも". This is mostly restricted to speech and adds emphasis. Others may use it simply because they like to say it instead of plain "より". You can choose for yourself which you'd like to use.

There is also "もっと" which means "more" or "to a greater degree".

Superlative
In Japanese one can express the superlative by stating that it is "the most ~", or that is "more ~ than anything/anyone".

The most ~
Depending on formality, you may use "もっとも" or "一番" (いちばん, e. number one). The superlative is formed by prepending this to the adjective.

With a subject:

You can also modify a noun by placing it after the adjective. Take a look at these examples:

More than anything
This method has two forms with the same structure, but a different word depending on whether it refers to something that is animate or inanimate. Instead of just "より"or "", you can say "よりも" or "よりも". It's up to you which form you choose to use. Here are some examples!

title: Japanese/Grammar/Comparisons


text:
Living in Japan/Getting Established/Computing

Windows
It is necessary to do some minor changes in order to displaying Japanese text.

Inputting Japanese Text
In the 'Regional and Language Options' Control Panel applet, choose the 'Languages' tab. Ensure that the 'Install files for East Asian languages' checkbox is selected. Click the 'Details...' button. Click the 'Add' button and choose 'Japanese'. Click the 'OK' buttons as necessary to close all dialog boxes.

To test the new settings, open any Unicode-enabled text processing application, such as Microsoft Word. Press the combination [Alt]+[Shift] on your keyboard until 'JP' replaces 'EN' in the new section of your taskbar. To input hiragana, enter the Japanese input mode by pressing [Alt]+[~].

Type a Japanese word using romaji keys (e.g. "nihongo") and either press [Enter] to leave that text in hiragana (e.g. "にほんご"), [F7] to change the text into katakana, or [Spacebar] then [Enter] to choose an alternative version containing kanji (e.g. "日本語").

To return to English input mode, press [Alt]+[~] again.

Windows 95/98/ME
To install a Japanese typeface, simply open Internet Explorer and open a web page coded in Japanese. An Install-on-Demand window should appear, asking to install Japanese text support. After completing this install, the Japanese page should display correctly. (Please note: Wikibooks is not coded in Japanese. Try Google in Japanese.)

Windows 2000/XP
For Windows 2000/XP reading support, you will need to install a Unicode typeface, such as 'Code2000' or Arial Unicode MS. Both will cover nearly all of the non-Latin scripts used throughout Wikipedia.

For input support, you will need to install the East Asian language files. You can do this from the 'Control Panel'. Open the 'Regional and Language Options' and navigate to the 'Languages' tab. Minimally, you will want to check the box for 'Install files for East Asian languages', though you may wish to also install the complex script files, too. Clicking 'Apply' will install the 'Arial Unicode MS', 'MS Mincho' and 'MS Gothic' families of fonts. All of these fonts contain the Hiragana and Katakana scripts, as well as a substantial majority of the Kanji characters most commonly used.

Depending on how your computer was initially setup, you may need the original source CD to complete the installation. Your computer will prompt you to insert the CD if it is necessary

If this does not work you can also download and install the Office XP Tool: Japanese Language Pack from the Microsoft website.

Mac OS X
Apple computers display Japanese characters out of the box, and are capable of inputting Japanese characters very simply. To do so, open up System Preferences (located in the "Dock") or click the Apple icon in the top left of your display and click 'System Preferences...'. Next, select 'International' and then the 'Input Menu' tab. Scroll down until you see 'Kotoeri' and check the box to the left of it. This will by default enable the input methods 'Hiragana', 'Katakana' and 'Romaji'.

To switch between your normal input and Hiragana quickly you can do one of two things. The first way to do this is to enable the input menu in the menu bar (you do this by checking the box next to 'Show input menu in menu bar' in the same place described previously), this will put a flag in the upper right part of your display. To change between input methods click the flag and select the new method. Alternatively, you can use the keyboard combination Command + Space Bar to switch between methods, although this is problematic in Apple's new operating system Tiger as this is also the shortcut for Spotlight. There are also direct shortcuts of Ctrl-Shift-; for Romaji, Ctrl-Shift-J for Hiragana, and Ctrl-Shift-K for Katakana.

Please note, while in the Hiragana input method you can temporarily switch to Katakana by holding down the shift key in much the same way that you temporarily hold down the shift key to type capital letters in English.

X11 (GNU/Linux, UNIX-like, etc.)
For displaying Japanese, you will need the correct fonts selected. Please refer to your distribution's documentation for more on that.

You will need a helper application for inputting Japanese characters. The most prominent are:
 * uim
 * SCIM


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Aesthetics

Humans divide objects which they observe into categories. According to one definition, Philosophy is the discipline of how humans determine these categories, communicate about them and interact with them.

Aesthetics is the sub-discipline of philosophy which acknowledges that humans interact with their environment in the context of sensual experiences.

These experiences include color, sound, and taste. A question which is fair game for Aesthetics might be: "What combinations of notes sound good together?" This is an old question and may demonstrate various trends in philosophy. The answer to this question changes over time. The categories of which chords sound good and which sound bad have changed over time.

Another similar question is which colors look good together. This is completely analogous to the above question about musical harmonies. One may also ask which colors or sounds may easily be distinguished.

A philosopher who is inclined towards linguistics may take the result of these inquiries and ask what languages are possible given the combinations of symbols such as colors or harmony rather than the symbols of distinguishable vocal utterances.

title: Introduction to Philosophy/Aesthetics


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/arrow

Contexts

 * In named notation in subprogram calls.

Ada.Float_Text_IO.Put (Speed, Fore => 3, Aft => 1);

Ada.Numerics.Elementary_Functions.Arctan (X => 0.0, Y => -1.0)

 * In generic instantiations.

Exchange  Swap (Element_T => Character);

 * In array and record named aggregates.

Point'(X => 10.0, Y => -1.0)

 * In exception handlers.

...   Constraint_Error => ... ;

 * In case statements.

Valid False => ...   True  => ... ;

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters

Ada Reference Manual

|=> Delimiters:=>

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/arrow


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/left label

The left label "<<" is used to define labels for the statements.

For details see the chapter Ada Programming/Control - goto.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters/right label

Ada Reference Manual

|<<

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/left label


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/right label

The right label ">>" is used to define labels for the statements.

For details see the chapter Ada Programming/Control - goto.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters/left label

Ada Reference Manual

|>>

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/right label


text:
Civ/Civilization III/Diplomacy

Diplomacy in Civilization III isn't all that powerful against an AI opponent. The only real power that I can see are in making treaties, war, trading, or demanding tribute.

Treaties
When you start the game you are all alone with no one around you, but as you grow and expand your nation you find neighboring civilizations. These civs can either be your ally or foe. Obviously you can destroy him or her, or you can make peace, which is probably a good choice. Early in the game you can only make peace treaties with warring nations. This itself is not very effective because you can break that treaty at any time that you wish. As you progress in the game you can build Embassies. These embassies allow you to make "advanced" treaties such as Right of Passage (RoP) or Declaration of War. The RoP allows your and your allies units to freely traverse each others' terrain. You don't exactly have to be an ally to make a RoP, actually you can have one with a nation that you don't like.........End for now.........

title: Civ/Civilization III/Diplomacy


text:
Movie Making Manual/You the Filmmaker/Growing as an Artist

Should you read the excellent Irving Stone books about Van Gogh ("Lust for Life") and Michelangelo ("The Agony and the Ecstacy") what you will take from them is a new appreciation of the learning process and development of the artist. Both of these men accepted that it would take them years to get to grips with their media — as not only did they want to master their mediums but both were revolutionizing them, taking both painting and sculpture into unexplored territories. The realisation both artists had was that not only would the development take time but that they also needed to live life along the way.

Peter Biskind (a close observer of filmmakers and filmmaking) said that, apart from a few exceptional cases (Welles, Tarantino), it takes at least five to ten years for a director to learn this art/craft. Sometimes it seems like we can be in a huge rush to get there: we make a couple of shorts and then want to make a feature with a big budget. Michelangelo spent years drawing, working with wax and clay before being trusted with expensive marble.

Go a bit easy on yourself if a few years into your film career you have not made something with which you are hugely pleased; this is a complex art form requiring many technical skills and a lot of knowledge and experience, and the tools are in the midst of a huge revolution. Expect things to take awhile.

Growing as an artist


text:
Talk:Perl Programming/Scalar variables

Note not understood
I did not understand this note box very well. Can some one please clear it up for me?

 * Is that clearer now? I added that the note applies to the operators <=> and cmp. -Mairi 01:09, 10 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Yes, it is clearer now. Thank you, --Zoohouse 01:57, 10 Jan 2005 (UTC)

global versus local variables
maybe it's my setup, but i have trouble executing the code in the examples (even the Try It examples). it turns out i have to add "my" before variables - should this be part of the tutorial?

Merger with Perl Programming/Basic Variables
There are labels about a merger of this part with Perl Programming/Basic Variables. I think that it is a good idea to merge them.--Sae1962 (discuss • contribs) 15:42, 12 February 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perl Programming/Scalar variables


text:
Microeconomics/Definition

Economics: The Formation of the Branched Tree
Economics is a social science that studies how individuals make choices to allocate rare resources for the satisfaction of what appears to be unlimited desires and how individuals interact with one another. It is about everyday life, about what choices everyone makes, and how those choices affect others. Often, economics is broken-down into two branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics.

Microeconomics and Macroeconomics
Microeconomics looks at the smaller picture and focuses more on the individual interactions made in particular markets. To be more precise, microeconomics is a branch of economics that analyzes the market behavior of individual consumers and firms in an attempt to understand the decision-making process of sellers and buyers. It is concerned with the interaction between individual suppliers and demanders and the factors that influence the choices made by buyers and sellers. In particular, microeconomics focuses on patterns of supply and demand and the determination of price and output in individual markets (e.g. coffee industry). People who have any desire to start their own business or who want to learn the rationale behind the pricing of particular products and services would be more interested in this area. Macroeconomics, on the other hand, looks at the big picture (hence "macro-"). It focuses on the national economy as a whole and provides a basic knowledge of how things work in the business world. For example, people who study this branch of economics would be able to interpret the latest Gross Domestic Product figures or explain why a 6% rate of unemployment is not necessarily a bad thing. Thus, for an overall perspective of how the entire economy works, you need to have an understanding of economics at both the micro- and macro- levels. To put it simply, macroeconomics focuses on the aggregate national performance of a particular country.

There are two main concepts that we need to understand that not only form the basis of this branch but all of economics: opportunity cost and scarcity. With these two concepts, we can understand almost all human and economic behavior.

title: Microeconomics/Definition


text:
Spanish/Vocabulary/Music

Instrumentos de la Banda

 *  la banda:  band
 *  el clarinete:  clarinet
 *  la batería:  drum
 *  la flauta:  flute
 *  la trompeta:  trumpet
 *  el barítono:  baritone
 *  la tuba:  tuba
 *  el saxofón:  saxophone
 *  la partitura:  score
 *  la guitarra eléctrica:  electric guitar
 *  la guitarra acústica:  acoustic guitar
 *  el bajo:  bass guitar
 *  la púa/el plectro:  plectrum
 *  el amplificador:  amplifier
 *  el tambor de trampa:  snare drum
 *  el bombo:  bass drum
 *  el tamtan: tom-tom
 *  los címbalos/los platillos:  cymbals
 *  el trombón :  Trombone

Instrumentos de la orquesta

 *  el violín:  violin
 *  el violonchelo:  the cello
 *  el contrabajo:  the double-bass

Los géneros

 *  el rock:  rock
 *  el hip hop:  hip-hop
 *  el rap:  rap
 *  el blues:  blues
 *  la música folklórica:  folk music
 *  el pop:  pop
 *  el jazz:  jazz
 *  la música clásica:  classical music

Verbos

 *  tocar:  To play (Used with wind and string instruments)
 *  batir:  To play (Used with percussion instruments)

title: Spanish/Vocabulary/Music


text:
Monetary Economics

Contents

 * 1) /Preface/
 * 2) /What is Money?/
 * 3) /Economic Uses of Money/
 * 4) /Measuring the Money Supply/
 * 5) /The Demand for Money/
 * 6) /The Quantity Theories/
 * 7) /The Baumol-Tobin Model/
 * 8) /Overlapping Generations/
 * 9) /The Supply of Money/
 * 10) /Monetary Intermediation/
 * 11) /The Banking System/
 * 12) /The Supply of Credit/
 * 13) /Monetary Policy/
 * 14) /Goals of Monetary Policy/
 * 15) /The Problem of Time Inconsistency/
 * 16) /Central Banks and Strategies/
 * 17) /Monetary Economic History/

title: Monetary Economics


text:
Monetary Economics/Preface

Preface
Monetary economics is the study of the money market in an economy - the market which, in most macroeconomic models, is represented by the supply of savings available to meet the demand for investment. In the basic macroeconomic models, this market is assumed to clear, by means of an equilibrium interest rate. However, in most countries residing in the real world, the interest rate is managed by the central bank, simply because the money market tends not to clear on its own. The ability to set the interest rate has become a powerful economic management tool in the arsenal of finance ministers throughout the world today, but there are some instances where countries have voluntarily given it up.

This document will attempt to define the nebulous item often labelled as 'money' by economists. It will then set out the factors affecting the demand and supply of money in an economy, and explore the reasons why the money market does not clear. This document will then move on to monetary policy and global monetary economic history - the practice and ramifications of 'real world' monetary economics.

title: Monetary Economics/Preface


text:
Monetary Economics/What is Money?

What is Money?
It is useful when defining the entity 'money' to look at what 'money' is used for, at least according to economists. There are 3 generally accepted uses of money:

 * 1) As a medium of exchange
 * 2) As a unit of account
 * 3) As a store of value

We can then approach the question of exactly what 'money' is by taking 'money' to mean that entity which we can use to fulfil the functions of 'money', as defined above. It is then possible to measure money in the real world, making decisions as to what form of monetary balance would meet our criteria of what 'money' is. Moreover, this approach enables us to section the money market along the various lines defined by the different motives to hold money, increasing the flexibility of our analytic model.

This section will look at each function of money in turn, and examine how each function affects the definition of money. We then look at the practical measurement of money in the real world.

title: Monetary Economics/What is Money?


text:
Monetary Economics/Economic Uses of Money

The Classical Function of Money
Classical economists modelled the demand for money in terms of its use as a unit of account. Money can be used to denote the value of goods, enabling participants in a transaction to measure the value of the transaction item in a common factor. This reduces transaction costs, especially information costs, as there is less possibility of adverse selection.

Under a barter system with no common unit of accounting, a successful transaction depends on the occurrence of a coincidence of wants. This could be surmounted by one party giving credit to another, that is, for the party to accept payment in kind in the future for a good sold today. Even if there were no credit risk (i.e. payment could be strictly enforced) the selling party would still have to gather information regarding the future worth of the good he is contracted to be paid in.

In addition, the selling party would have to know the values of all goods in the economy, denominated in the values of every other good. This causes the information costs required to trade to rise significantly.

Example - the generalised case of n commodities
If there are 2 commodities in the economy, for trade to take place only one price need be known by the trading parties. If there are 3 commodities, the price of commodity A in terms of commodities B and C must be known, and the price of commodity B in terms of commodity C, giving a total of 3 prices. And so on, as the number of commodities rises. For $$n$$ commodities the number of prices is given by:

$${n(n-1)} \over 2$$

Given the presence of a universal denominator of value however, the number of prices that must be known is reduced to $$n$$. (Meltzer, 1998)

The Price Level
Transactions denominated in a common unit of account would determine prices, and it would then be possible to aggregate these prices into a price level for the economy. Given the price level, it is therefore possible to determine inflation. Here money does not affect the real value of the transactions in the economy. Money would therefore be said to be neutral, if the unit of account function were the only function of money in the economy.

The Standard of Deferred Payment
A related function is the standard of deferred payment, whereby money is defined as that entity used to specify future payments for current transactions. Here there is a relation to the store of value function, as the nominal value of money now and at the payment time in the future is invariant, making the contracted future payment affected by the interest rate. Of course, the real value of the future payment is also affected by inflation.

Money under the Unit of Account Function
Put simply, anything that enables transactions to be valued. The definition of money used here can constitute the money stock, bank deposits, etc etc. There is a slight distinction between the money stock defined under the function of money as a means of exchange and the function of money as a unit of account, as prices need not be defined in the currency used as a means of exchange. However in this case an exchange rate between the currency used as a means of account and the currency used as a means of exchange must be known. The money stock is the amount of money as defined under the means of exchange function.

Example - The island of Yap
On the island of Yap in Micronesia, large stones were used as money. Due to the problems associated with transporting such stones, islanders soon moved to an exchange system whereby claims on the stones were used in a transaction. Here the unit of account was the stones, while the means of exchange was the claims (written down on paper). However, there was a well defined exchange rate between claim and stone.

The money supply here does not encompass both the stock of claims and the stock of stones however. It consists of the stock of stones, or the stock of claims as defined by the exchange rate between claim and stone.

Money and Bonds
To analyse this motive for holding money properly we need to distinguish between 'money' and 'bonds'. Bonds here are defined as any sort of asset that pays interest, while money does not pay any interest income. We further assume that the asset allocation choice is purely between money and bonds, that is, a person can only hold either money or bonds, implying that holding money incurs a cost - that of interest income foregone.

The Speculative Motive
Economic agents who hold money for this motive hold it because there is the price of money is invariant to the rate of interest, unlike bonds. It protects the agent from any risk associated with changes in the interest rate.

In this instance, money acts as a store of value, allowing the agent to transfer real purchasing power from the present to the future (assuming inflation is zero). Bonds are not as useful as money here because their value changes with fluctuations in the interest rate.

Money under the Asset Function
So what constitutes money under this definition? Essentially, anything that doesn't pay interest income, but can be used as a store of wealth, and does not change its nominal value under changes in interest rates. In this case, interest bearing bank deposits are not counted as money. The definition of money is likely to be confined to the money stock and non-interest bearing bank deposits.

The Transactions and Precautionary Motives
These motives for holding money were initially postulated by Keynes. The transactions motive is simply that money is required in order to make transactions, and therefore any economic agent who wants to make transactions will want to hold money.

The precautionary motive is related to the transactions motive. In an economy where there is uncertainty regarding the timing of economic transactions, i.e. agents are not certain when they will be able, or want, to make a transaction, an economic agent will want to hold a certain amount of money at all times in order to have some on hand each time he decides to make a transaction. It also means holding of money for a certain purpose like: paying salary/wages to the workers, primarily intended to meet expenditures of the company.

Money under the Means of Exchange Function
Here, anything that can be used in a transaction can be considered money. This definition is fairly broad, encompassing the money stock, bank deposits, mutual funds, funds deposited in checking accounts, etc.


text:
Extemporaneous Speaking

Contents

 * Preface

Introduction to extemporaneous speaking

 * An Extemp Tournament Step by Step
 * /Speech Structure/

Speech in depth

 * /Introductions/
 * /Unified Analysis/
 * /Conclusions/

Advanced topics

 * /Tub Assembly/Use/
 * /Topic Selection/
 * /Using Your Prep Time/
 * /Delivery/
 * /Domestic versus Foreign/

Contributors

 * Chase Nordengren

title: Extemporaneous Speaking