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Drugs:Fact and Fiction/General

Drug use is a threat to physical and mental health. Many of the drugs discussed here are addictive and being caught using or selling them often carries severe criminal penalties.

Drug
So what exactly is a "drug"?

A drug is any substance - natural or artificial - that changes the normal functioning of the body. This can vary between minor drugs that relieve common illness and symptoms, to drugs that block all sensory input to the brain.

So what separates your typical cough medicine from powerful deliriants? You may be surprised to know that it could be nothing! Several over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are just as powerful as even the most dangerous drugs if taken in the wrong dosages.

For example, several OTC pain relievers contain codeine, which is an opiate. It is usually synthesized from morphine, as is heroin. Common cough and cold relief medications contain Dextromethorphan hydrobromide, more commonly known as DXM. At recommended doses it reduces the cough reflex.

Acetaminophen, on the other hand, is one of the most widely used medications for pain and fever relief. Also known as Paracetamol and APAP, it is sold under the brand names Tylenol and Anacin. It's commonly mixed with DXM and Codeine in several OTC medications. Even acetaminophen, which is frequently seen as harmless by the public can be very dangerous in high doses. Similarly, some preparations of DXM, such as Coricidin Cold and Cough, contain chlorphenamine maleate, an antihistamine, which is deadly in high doses. Abuse of the cough syrup Coricidin have lead to overdose and death. No drug, including OTC medicines, should be take beyond the recommended dosages without first consulting a physician.

These examples show how even abuse of common or "every day" drugs which many people believe to be harmless can cause serious damage. There is no "safe" drug, just because it is legal and sold without a prescription doesn't mean it can be taken at any dosage safely.

Don't
Drugs such as those touched on in this book may be readily available and, in some social settings, accepted or encouraged.There is always the option to say no. Many drugs are highly addictive and because of this, experimenting frequently leads to addiction. Drug use is generally considered dangerous and in many cases leads to death or severe harm.

The safest way to not shoot yourself in the head, is to neither load the gun nor pull the trigger. The safest way to avoid bad repercussions from drug use is to not to use drugs.

One always has a choice.

Uncontrolled
Many illicit drugs are illegal, and as such there are no government regulations controlling purity. Drugs purchased on the black market (or "the steet") may be mixed (or "cut") with other substances to increase profits. These substances themselves can often be deadly. Therefore, it is not possible to know what you are taking when you illegally purchase drugs. Often people feel comfortable with "their dealer" and trust them to sell "clean" drugs. Unfortunately a dealer's source can and often does change. The large number of hands that an illegal substance may pass though make it impossible to know precisely what is being sold.

What to do when things get out of hand
Here are some steps that can be taken if you or someone else has taken drugs and you feel that things have "gotten out of hand". You can:
 * Contact your local poison control center.
 * Go the nearest hospital emergency room.
 * Get an ambulance.

In any of the above cases it is very important to tell the medical profession exactly what you are taking. People are often injured more seriously by not being upfront with their doctors because they wish to avoid other consequences.

If possible take a sample of what you were using with you to the hospital. Also make sure they know what quantity and what method you used to ingest the substance.

Before you use any drugs, always think of the consequences to yourself, your family and friends and society. Why should society pay for your emergency treatments in hospital?

Why do people use drugs?
There are many reasons for people to use drugs. Some of the main reasons are prescription, experimentation, self-medication, recreation, family history/genetics, or mental health disorders.

Drug Classifications
All psychoactive drugs fall into three classes: Hallucinogens, Stimulants, or Depressants. Some drugs fall into only one class, while others fall into a combination of classes. There is a debated fourth class of drugs called Anti-Psychotics.

Entheogen is a fairly modern term, referring to a psychoactive substance used for religious purposes. Substances that fall under this category: cannabis, tobacco, psilocybin mushrooms, salvia divinorum, ayahuasca, and many others.

title: Drugs:Fact and Fiction/General


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Visual Basic/Idioms

An idiom is a sort of template or generic method of expressing an idea. In the same way that idioms in a human language make life easier for both the speaker and the listener, good idioms in computer programming make life easier for the programmer. Naturally what is idiomatic in one language might not be in another.

It is not necessary that there exist a physical template, an idiom can exist in your head and be so familiar that when faced with a problem that can be solved by application of an idiom you begin to type the code almost without noticing what you are doing.

Another word often used for ideas like this is pattern. However the word pattern has become so formalised and so strongly associated with object orientation that I feel the more generic word idiom is better also it is the word generally associated with the first major example that I will show.

An idiom can be language specific, library specific, domain specific, or any combination of the three. For instance if you are writing a program that deals with lists of things you might borrow some of the list processing idioms of Lisp even though Visual Basic Classic has no native list processing functions at all. By creating functions that manipulate lists rather than inlining the code to do it you will make your code more meaningful to someone reading it.

It is a commonplace that programmers feel ever so slightly godlike because they are in total control of their programs. I think that programmers would be better off emulating Shakespeare instead: when the English language of his day wasn't up to saying what he wanted he had no hesitation in extending both its stylistic range and its vocabulary.

Resource Acquisition Is Initialization - RAII
The name of this idiom makes it sound like a very complicated idea but in fact it is very simple and fits Visual Basic Classic very well. This idiom is a solution to problems such as setting and clearing busy flags, controlling access to files, setting the mouse icon and so on.

The basic idea is to use the constructor of an object to obtain or query a lock on some resource and to use the destructor to release that lock. In a language like Visual Basic which has deterministic finalization this produces very succinct code.

Let's take the mouse as an example.

Example: Mouse Busy Icon
It is very common in Windows programs to set the mouse icon to indicate that the program is busy and the user must wait. A problem arises when you have lots of different pieces of code that can take a long time and lots of different code paths that invoke them. If the caller doesn't know that the process will be time consuming it won't know that the icon must be changed so we put code in the long running routine to change the mouse pointer. This works fine until we try to combine two or more such routines: which one gets to cancel the busy icon?

One common solution is to regard the mouse as a resource and control access to it with a pair of routines that maintain a count. One routine increments the count when the routine sets the busy icon and the other decrements and clears the icon when the count goes to zero. This works well until an exception occurs, then a routine might exit early and the routine that decrements the counter won't be called. Of course you could put another call in the error handler but that causes extra maintenance.

A better solution is to make use of the automatic termination events built in to Visual Basic. The basic idea is still to use a count but instead of guarding the count with a routine you guard it with an object.

Each procedure that wants to indicate that it is time consuming by showing the mouse busy icon should wrap its code in a with statement that creates a cMouseBusy instance by calling NewMouseBusy. When the routine finishes the cMouseBusy instance will be disposed of automatically, its Terminate event handler will be executed and the reference count will be reduced by one.

Because the program might have many forms open we must take account of the form when we set the busy icon because the MousePointer property belongs to a form not the application

So that we know which form's mouse pointer to change we must keep a separate count for each different client

Exercises

 * Compile the example code and check that it works.
 * Extend the code to allow for more than one type of busy icon. For instance an icon with a pointer that indicates that the user interface is still live and one without a pointer that indicates that the user must wait.
 * Create a test program to demonstrate the new features.

Code
Just add this line as the first line of every function that should show the busy cursor:

or enclose the busy section in:

Client is anything that has a mouseicon property

cMouseBusy
Objects of this class acquire the mouse busy status when created by a constructor called NewMouseBusy. They release it when they are terminated.

The busy status is simply a counter that is incremented each time a new cMouseBusy object is created and decremented when such an object is destroyed. If the counter increments to one then the mouse busy icon is set on the client object, when the counter decrements to zero the normal icon is set.

modMouseBusy.bas
This module provide the constructor for cMouseBusy. This gives us the ability to pass arguments to the object when it is created.

Remember that Visual Basic is single threaded and that the User Interface will not update until all code stops executing unless you call DoEvents so do this to make sure that the change to the mouse icon is visible.

This function increments the count for the given object and returns the new count.

This function decrements the count and returns the new count. Note that if the count goes to zero then the entry is removed from the list; this must be done because the keys are objects and they will not terminate if we do not release the reference.

frmTestMouseBusy
This form lets you test the mouse busy class. Just click the buttons and watch the mouse cursor.

prjTestMouseBusy.vbp
The project file for the test. Note that you need a reference to the Microsoft Scripting Runtime library to provide the Dictionary class.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Visual Basic/Idioms


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User:Antonietti

Hello World.

I am interested in the future of textbooks.

I believe that the evolution of them follows this path:

Textbooks created by individual experts -->(archaic and current situation)

Textbooks created by teams of experts -->(current situation)

Textbooks created by teams of amateurs -->(current situation)

Textbooks created by students -->(incipient situation)

title: User:Antonietti


text:
Water Resources Directory/Funding/USA/Georgia

U.S. Department of Agriculture
Programs under the 2002 Farm Bill

USDA Rural Development - water and wastewater disposal projects funded

National Rural Development Partnership
Georgia has no State Rural Development Council under this USDA program.

Drinking Water State Revolving Fund
"The DWSRF was established by the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments to provide (low or no-interest) loans to publicly and privately owned public water systems for infrastructure improvements needed to protect public health and ensure compliance with the SDWA. As of June 30, 2002, the DWSRF had provided 2,500 loans for $5.1 billion to water systems for eligible projects."  Eligible projects include:
 * enhancing water system management and performance
 * preventing contamination problems
 * source water protection
 * water efficiency activities and programs

Clean Water State Revolving Fund
The CWSRF program was established under the U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1987 to provide loans for point source (§212), nonpoint source (§319), and estuary (§320) projects. As of June 30, 2002, the CWSRF program had privided 12,500 loans for $42.4 billion for water quality protection projects. The CWSRF funds approximately $3 to $4 billion in water quality projects each year. Water efficiency and reuse activities and projects may be considered point sources if they are developed as a component of a (publicly owned) wastewater treatment works (§212 project)."

Restoration Credits
Under the U.S. Clean Water Act provisions for wetlands protection (section 404), owners of proposed projects which will cause unavoidable wetlands damage must provide for mitigation of that damage as a condition for receiving a 404b permit issued by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. One mitigation method is for the project owner to restore sufficient ecological function to compensate for the unavoidable damage to be caused by his proposed project. Or the project owner may buy "ecological credits" from someone else who has already restored ecological function, such as by removing an existing dam, as described in news article about removal of the Lowell Dam on Little River in North Carolina.


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User talk:83.31.235.216

Please stop vandalizing.

title: User talk:83.31.235.216


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User talk:Angelos~enwikibooks

Welcome to Wikibooks! --Dragontamer 20:37, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * -p

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Angelos. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Angelos~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:58, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:32, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Angelos~enwikibooks


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User:Angelos~enwikibooks

My name is Tim

title: User:Angelos~enwikibooks


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Talk:Digital Signal Processing

DSP Templates
I have created the following 2 templates for use in this book:

 * Template:DSP Page
 * Template:DSP Stub
 * Category:Digital Signal Processing
 * Category:DSP Stubs

-- 20:56, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * These cats are now
 * :
 * /Stubs
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 17:49, 30 July 2017 (UTC)

Follow-Up Books
I have already started outlines for 2 books that will be logical follow-ups to this book:

 * User:Whiteknight/Digital Media Processing
 * User:Whiteknight/VLSI System Design

Questions and comments about these outlines are welcome and encouraged. -- 20:52, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

RFC: Making examples matlab/octave compatible
It looks like the examples in this wikibook thus far are done using a proprietary syntax, ie. "X[n] = [ 4 5 6& 7 8 9 ]". What I'd like to propose is replacing these samples with expressions that will run correctly in Octave/Matlab, using the LCD common syntax of these two tools.

On one hand, this is somewhat restrictive, in the sense that all vectors must be enumerated by strictly positive integers. On the other hand, I think it will increase the utility of this book to enable the student to "follow along" in matlab or octave.

Thoughts?

 * DSP mathematical theory requires the use of data sets with negative positions, so we can't use pure matlab syntax. Also, DSP texts use a very similar syntax to the one i've used so far, except the "&" symbol is usually replaced by an arrow, a dot, or an underscore (depending on the text). I think that we need to keep things as close to an accepted textbook standard notation as possible I do plan on adding Matlab/Octave sample code and examples in most chapters though, so we can work on creating and adding them. -- 23:11, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

 * OK.

title: Talk:Digital Signal Processing


text:
Template:DSP Page

 Digital Signal Processing /Templates

title: Template:DSP Page


text:
Template:DSP Stub

''This page of the Digital Signal Processing book is a stub. you can help by expanding this section'' /Stubs :Adds page to /Stubs /Templates

title: Template:DSP Stub


text: User talk:217.107.139.250

title: User talk:217.107.139.250


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User talk:130.111.98.241

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:130.111.98.241


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Talk:Mythology/Egyptian Mythology

Vice versa

 * I think maybe it should be the other way round. Merge the otehr one into this Wikibook as the other one seems only a subsection. --Kyriakos 19:02, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Not much
I understand there is not much here right now. I am currently trying to outline this book and am gathering research. It may seem slow at times but i promise more will come. If anyone wants to add to this that would be greatly appreciated.

Duplication
Under the Wikibook Mythology, there is already a section on Egyptian Mythology. Maybe these should be integrated? JJRosseau 20:54, 27 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Thanks a lot, I inserted merge messages. --Derbeth talk 09:04, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

Creatures
I added the creatures section... Wikisquared 15:06, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mythology/Egyptian Mythology


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User talk:216.254.113.32

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:216.254.113.32


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User talk:85.102.168.183

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:85.102.168.183


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User talk:216.153.223.105

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:216.153.223.105


text:
User talk:12.189.62.152

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:12.189.62.152


text:
User talk:69.236.109.246

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:69.236.109.246


text: User talk:217.12.205.66

title: User talk:217.12.205.66


text: User talk:64.56.141.178

title: User talk:64.56.141.178


text: User talk:201.240.191.247

title: User talk:201.240.191.247


text: User talk:65.164.132.41

title: User talk:65.164.132.41


text: User talk:206.131.39.3

title: User talk:206.131.39.3


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Georgia Water/Policy/Georgia Coastal Marshlands Protection Act

Chapter 2. Water Policy
 * 2.3. Georgia Water Law

Summary of the Act
"This legislation created the Coastal Marshlands Protection Committee which grants, denies, revokes, and amends all permits provided for by the Act and details the process to handle grievances of a party in relation to any rules or regulations adopted by the Board of Natural Resources. The Act outlines the powers and duties of the DNR and the Board of Natural Resources as to coastal marshlands. Marshlands may not be filled, drained, dredged, or otherwise altered without a permit from the committee. The Act indicates the process for obtaining a permit and explains the points reviewed by the committee prior to issuing or denying a permit. It authorizes the inspection of marshlands by officers and conservation rangers of the DNR to verify compliance with the rules, regulations, and permits, and enforcement in the case of noncompliance."


text:
Georgia Water/Policy/Georgia Conservation Use Act

Chapter 2. Water Policy
 * 2.3. Georgia Water Law

Summary of the Act
"This Georgia law provides significant property tax reductions to qualified landowners who conserve environmentally sensitive lands for ten years. Environmentally sensitive areas include habitats with endangered species, wetlands, floodplains, stream corridors, undeveloped barrier islands, steep slopes and wildlife habitat larger than ten acres.

This program can build landowner awareness of and appreciation for conservation needs and incentives, which in turn can lead to a commitment to more permanent land conservation (e.g., a conservation easement in perpetuity). Unfortunately, rules promulgated under this law make it difficult for landowners to have their lands designated and assessed as “environmentally sensitive lands”. The rules should be modified to make it easier for landowners to take advantage of the tax incentives afforded to those who are willing to protect such lands for ten years."


text:
Georgia Water/Policy/Georgia Environmental Policy Act

Chapter 2. Water Policy
 * 2.3. Georgia Water Law

Summary of the Act
"The Georgia Environmental Policy Act (GEPA) requires that all State agencies and activities prepare an Environmental Impact Report as part of the decision-making process for all activities that may have an impact on the environment. Alternatives to the proposed project or activity must be considered as part of the report. The Act states that any proposed governmental action which may “significantly adversely affect the quality of the environment”, including the state’s air, water, land, plants, and animals, requires an Environmental Effects Report. As outlined in the Act, an Environmental Effects Report describes the environmental impact and any adverse environmental effects of the action, alternative actions, mitigation measures proposed to avoid or minimize impact, and other effects of the action. The government agency responsible for the action authors the report and provides it to the director of the Environmental Protection Division (EPD) in the DNR. A notice that the report has been prepared is to be published in the legal organ of each county in which the action is to take place, which may lead to a public hearing regarding the action. The Act requires the director of the EPD to issue guidelines to assist government agencies in the preparation of environmental effects reports."


text:
Talk:Visual Basic/Idioms

Articles on RAII
http://gethelp.devx.com/techtips/cpp_pro/10min/2001/november/10min1101.asp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Acquisition_Is_Initialization

http://blogs.msdn.com/hsutter/archive/2004/07/31/203137.aspx

http://forum.java.sun.com/thread.jspa?threadID=489776&messageID=2304422

http://www.acc.umu.se/~arvid/raii.html

http://www.deez.info/sengelha/blog/2005/09/09/use-raii/

http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0343.html

title: Talk:Visual Basic/Idioms


text:
Talk:Dichotomous Key/Placentalia

Two problems I have with this page as a guy who knows nothing about it: Nothing points to section 5, and section 9 is incomplete. - RealGrouchy 22:35, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

 * There are also problems in that much of it is simply wrong. Aside from #17 and #14 being incomplete, try identifying a camel, rhino, or seal, for example - they all take you to #17, which is incorrect. Anaxial (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dichotomous Key/Placentalia


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A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Computer Systems, Programming and Network Concepts/Introduction to Computer Systems

Definition of this section is available at, page 16. This text will be expanded shortly

What is Hardware and Software?
At the highest level, a computer system is composed of hardware and software components. Hardware consists of all the physical devices. All the programs (code) that run on the computer system form the software part. The hardware and software are tightly coupled and they complement each other. Hardware is useless without software and software requires hardware to carry out computations.

System Software
System software is anything that is an essential part of the computer system; or in other words a software is the artificial intelligence which dictate the rules of operation within its systems.

Operating system software
An operating system is the low-level software that acts as an interface between the user and the hardware. The OS provides a "virtual machine" where the user is safe to execute their applications and program code.

Common operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and GNU/Linux derivatives.

Utility programs
Utility software helps manage and tune the computer hardware, OS or application software. It usually performs a single task or small range of tasks. Good examples include:

 * Archive: utilities take a file or collection of files and output a single file or stream.
 * Disk defragmenters: reorganise file structure so that all file fragments are contiguous on the disk. Modern filesystems, such as those used by Mac OS X and GNU/Linux, do not need explicit defragmenting.
 * Encryption: utilities use a specific algorithm to encrypt/decrypt the contents of a file or stream using an encryption key.
 * Virus scanners: scan for malicious computer program code in files and storage devices.

Library programs
A collection of subprograms used to develop software and hardware compatibilities. Libraries contain "helper" code and data for other programs to use in a modular way; they are usually not executable and exist purely to provide services to other programs.

Compilers, assemblers and interpreters
A compiler is a computer program that translates code written in a high level language to a lower level language, e.g. assembly language or machine language. The most common reason for translating source code is to create an executable program (converting from a high level language into machine language).

Advantages of using a compiler Disadvantages of using a compiler
 * Source code cannot be stolen/copied
 * Tends to be faster than interpreting source code
 * Produces an executable file, and therefore the program can be run without need of the source code
 * Object code needs to be produced before a final executable file
 * The source code must be 100% correct for the executable file to be produced

An assembler translates assembly language into machine language. Assembly language consists of mnemonics for machine opcodes so assemblers perform a 1:1 translation from mnemonic to a direct instruction. Conversely, one instruction in a high level language will translate to one or more instructions at machine level.

Advantages of using an assembler Disadvantages of using an assembler
 * Assembly code is often very efficient (and therefore fast) because it is a low level language
 * It is fairly easy to understand due to the use of English-like mnemonics
 * Lots of assembly code is needed to do relatively simple tasks, and complex programs require lots of programming time
 * Assembly tends to be optimised for the hardware it's designed for, meaning it is often incompatible with different hardware

An interpreter program executes other programs directly, running through program code and executing it line-by-line. This is slower than running compiled code but it can take less time to interpret program code than to compile in then run it — this is very useful when prototyping and testing code.

Advantages of using an interpreter Disadvantages of using an interpreter
 * Useful for prototyping software and testing basic program logic
 * Easy to find errors in source code because the translation will stop when an error is encountered
 * Source code is required for the program to be executed
 * Interpreters are generally slower than compiled programs due to the per-line translation method

Application Software
Application software is designed for the user to allow them to solve a task. These may include Word processors, spreadsheets and database packages. (NOTE: do not use brand names in the exam, unless asked to, it is better to use the type of software instead, e.g. Excel Spreadsheet package)

General purpose
General purpose application software is designed to solve a wide range of tasks, for example:

 * Word processor
 * Spreadsheet package
 * Presentation package

Special purpose
Special purpose application software performs a specific task or set of tasks, for example:

 * Media player
 * Accounting
 * Vector drawing

Bespoke
Bespoke application software has been written specifically for the needs of a user or company. It is "tailored" to their exact requirements. Some examples might be:

 * Air traffic control
 * Factory robot
 * Tourist kiosk
 * etc.

Introduction to how computers store data
Computers can't understand colours, words and sounds like humans. Even if you use digital cameras and voice recognition, a computer has to translate these inputs into the only language it does understand, that is the language of 1 and 0. This is called binary.

Binary is different from our own decimal numbering system. Instead of having 10 different values like decimals: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 (this can also be referred to as denary or base 10), binary (or base 2) only has 2 values: 0 and 1. A binary digit, or bit as it is more commonly known, can either be set to 0 (off) or 1 (on).

By combining many bits together, we create what are known as "bit patterns". Inside the computer, all data is transmitted and manipulated in bit patterns. Apart from individual bits, the two other most important bit patterns are:

 * Byte: This is a quantity of bits that computers tend to use as the smallest sequence of bits to store data, e.g. 10110110. This is eight bits wide on most types of computer, but can vary on more obscure machines.
 * Word: This is sometimes called a 'manipulation unit'. It is a set length of bits that varies between types of computers, but is usually 32 or 64 bits long in most modern computers.
 * Program: A program is a set of instructions that are processed by the computer to do a specific operation. This could be anything, from adding two numbers and outputting the result, to the complex instructions in the program of a computer game.
 * Data: Data (the singular is datum) are raw numbers that have no meaning by themselves. Data could be stored about parts of a video clip, an image, a sound, text or a number.

What parts make up a computer?
These components are found in virtually every computer:

 * Processor: The 'brain' of the computer. It executes instructions sequentially and processes data. The processor is usually divided up into the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), and the Control Unit. The ALU carries out logical evaluations (for example comparisons), and mathematical expressions (such as addition and subtraction). The Control Unit carries out the functions that organise instructions and co-ordinates all the data and instructions, similar to traffic lights controlling the flow of cars. The processor is also called a Central Processing Unit (CPU).
 * Clock: A piece of hardware used to keep the processor (and some other integrated circuits) in time by generating an oscillating signal with a steady frequency.
 * Main Memory: This is temporary storage that stores data currently being worked on. It is accessible to the processor directly, without going through any input/output channels. It does, however, need to connect to the processor via the data, address, and control buses. When power is lost, all data stored in main memory is lost, therefore meaning it is volatile. Main memory is also known as Immediate Access Storage (IAS).
 * Address Bus: A collection of wires between the processor and main memory used to communicate the physical location (address) of data in main memory.
 * Data Bus: A collection of wires between the processor and all internal devices, and is used to send and receive both data and instructions.
 * Control Bus: A collection of wires between the processor and devices used to send commands and get status signals from the devices. For example, it could show whether the computer was reading or writing to memory.
 * I/O Port: An interface and physical connector that allows peripherals, such as a keyboard, mouse or monitor, to communicate with the 'heart' of the computer system — the processor and main memory. I/O stands for Input/Output.
 * Secondary Storage: This is computer memory that is not directly accessible to the processor but uses the I/O channels. It is for storing data not in active use and preserves data even without power, meaning it is non-volatile.

diagram is needed here

How to run programs
All programs are stored as a series of bit patterns ready to be executed (or "run") by the processor. All modern computer systems use the "stored program concept". This is where program instructions are loaded into main memory for the fetch and execute cycle.

The stored program concept basically states that both instructions and data to be operated on can be loaded into memory at the same time, as opposed to having the instructions pre-programmed into the hardware, and then passing this hardware the data to be processed.

The fetch-execute cycle is the retrieval of data and instructions from main memory through the data bus, and then executing the data or instructions using the processor.

An example of these ideas working together would be when a computer system was required to add two numbers together. A program that adds numbers is loaded into main memory. Then each instruction of the program is fetched and executed one after the other by the processor, along with any data required (in this case the numbers to be added). The processor stores the current instruction in a special register and uses its Arithmetic and Logic Unit to process the instruction.


text:
Talk:FHSST Physics/Units/Scientific Notation, Significant Figures, and Rounding

In the table, the number 010 was said to have 3 Significant Digits, though by the given definition it should only have 1 because there is no decimal point. Want/Need verification before change.

I back-up this, the 010 seems very odd. - Ancanus 05:08, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

In this section, are we teaching Engineering notation (exponent must be a multiple of 3) or normalized scientific notation (mantissa must be 1 <= mantissa < 10)? Erpingham (talk) 03:57, 19 February 2009 (UTC)


text:
User:NickBush24

This page is currently under construction.

~NickBush24, 12-13-2005

title: User:NickBush24


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Celts

What country did they live in?
In around 400 BC, the Celts ranged from Britain and Ireland all the way across Europe to northern Turkey. Today, Celtic descendants live in Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, Brittany in France, the Isle of Man and the Republic of Ireland. Other Celtic people live in countries where their ancestors moved to.

What did they look like?
Men wore a loose fitting tunic down to the knees and trousers called Bracae. Women wore long, loose fitting dresses. They made their clothes from linen woven from the flax that Celtic farmers grew. They were very concerned about their appearance and used dye from berries to colour their clothes. Both men and women also wore great cloaks when travelling, women used a decorative brooch to fasten their cloak at the neck. These cloaks were very heavy and often used as sleeping bags for the men when they were away hunting. The Celts used lime to bleach their hair, preferring light hair and both men and women wore their hair long.

What did their buildings look like?
Most Iron Age Celts in Britain lived in roundhouses; circular houses of wood or stone with thatched straw roofs shaped like a cone. Most roundhouses were made up of wooden posts, with the walls made out of "wattle and daub." Wattle and daub consists of wooden sticks (wattles), covered with a mixed mud and clay plaster (daub).

In Scotland most roundhouses were built of stone rather than wood, yet retained the cone-shaped thatched roof. This type of roundhouse is called the Atlantic roundhouse.

Celtic houses in mainland Europe were rectangular.

The Celts in Ireland built many forts and settlements, the most popular design was the ringfort. Inside a ringfort wooden, circular houses were built using wattle and daub.

Celts also built fortified defensive structures, which can still be seen today, especially in the highlands and isles of Scotland, as well as Ireland.

What did they eat?
Celts ate like most other Europeans, subsisting mostly on grains supplemented by meats, fruits, and vegetables. Exactly what they ate varied by area, and Celts grew local crops. Scottish highlanders were famous for supposedly subsisting almost entirely on oats, though this was not entirely true. However, oats remain the favorite grain of Scotland, and Scottish cuisine is full of them. Potatoes serve this role in Ireland, although they were not introduced until after Columbus reached the New World.

The Celts in Ireland farmed the land and reared cattle and sheep. In the spring, they would get milk, butter and cheese from the cattle, killing them later in the year for meat. Cattle were not only a means of food for Celts, the Celts wealth was measured in the amount of cattle they owned. One ancient Irish tale tells of Queen Maedhb (May-ev) and another rival king, and their battle over the Táin Bó Chuaille (a bull). This doesn't just show the importance of cattle in Celtic society, but also the fact that they thoroughly accepted the idea of women as leaders, unlike other societies of that time.

The most famous example of food of any Celtic people is probably the Scottish haggis. Many people aren't quite clear on what a haggis is, and one survey conducted in the United States found that over half of the people they surveyed thought that the haggis was a small rodent native to Scotland. In reality, a haggis usually consists of a sheep's 'pluck' (heart, liver, windpipe and lungs), minced with onion, oatmeal, suet, spices, and salt, mixed with stock, which is traditionally boiled in the animal's stomach for about an hour.

What did they wear?
Celts took a great interest in their clothes when they could afford to do so. Many more modern Celts had colourful designs woven into their clothes called tartan, still shown in Scottish Kilts and Trews today.

Celts also had a great fondness for jewellery, and both men and women wore quite a bit, when they could afford it.

Finally, many warrior Celts wore their weapons (swords, more often than not) as normal attire. This became very complex during the late Middle Ages with Scottish highlanders, who were sometimes seen with a broadsword at their waist, dirk (long knife) on their belt, one or more pistols also attached to their belt, a long hunting rifle, and a small dagger in their sock, called a Sgian Dubh (Gaelic for "Black Dagger").

What did their writing look like?
Celts didn't have a very high opinion of the written word. Instead, they recorded their history and culture in an oral tradition; that is, they recorded their past by telling stories. Early examples of Gaelic Celtic writing have been recovered in Europe, based on the Phoenician alphabet.

In Ireland, a different alphabet was used, primarily in Gaelic Celtic languages like Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic. This alphabet was called Ogham, sometimes referred to as the "Celtic Tree Alphabet." It developed as a way for Irish monks to write in stone.

After Christianity was spread throughout the Gaelic world, Ogham fell into disuse, in favor of the Latin alphabet (largely because Christian writings were all in the Latin alphabet).

What did they believe?
Celts were polytheists; they believed in many gods and goddesses (deities). Unlike many other civilisations, different groups of Celts worshipped various deities, although there were some patterns. Beira was the name that Celts gave to Mother Earth, and some of them believed her to be the mother of all their deities.

Most Celts believed in an afterlife, we know this because archaeologists have found many grave goods within their burial tombs (Dolmens, Cairns). Many, though not all, Celts worshipped in sacred groves.

Are some of them famous even today?
Yes! Today, the British Isles (along with Ireland) are probably regarded to be Celtic more than any other area in the world. No one is quite sure who lived there before them, and they were certainly well-established by the time the Romans came there in AD 43. After 20 years of Roman rule, the chieftain of the Icenii tribe, Prasutagus, died. Though by tradition, his wife Boudicca would have assumed leadership of the tribe, the Romans took Icenii land, brutally humiliating Boudicca and her two daughters. This enraged the Icenii people, and Boudicca raised an army to fight the Romans and liberate Britain. She gained support of many other Celtic tribes, and almost succeeded in toppling the Roman Empire in Britain. She is revered as a national hero in Britain.

The world-renowned Scottish poet, Robert Burns, was a Celt.

Many famous Celts are alive today. The famous Scottish actor, Sean Connery, is proud of his Celtic heritage.

What is left of them today?
Celts are alive and thriving today! Much of the population of Europe are seen as descendants of the Celts, and the nations of Scotland, Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, Brittany and Isle of Man are considered to be made up of primarily Celtic peoples. As well, the Celtic diaspora, the descendants of Celts around the world, is vast, being spread greatly through the British Empire. In particular, Nova Scotia, Canada, is a hotbed of modern Gaelic Celtic culture.

title: Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Celts


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Talk:Consciousness Studies/The Philosophical Problem

Is this the proper place to talk about the book? I thought this would be interesting... http://www.ctmu.net/. I think the real problem is the myth of 'seperate objectness' and the myth of 'outside' vs 'inside'. Objects are not ultimately seperate, only distinct, i.e. reality is one surface with distinctions we perceive as 'seperate'. So there is no "outside" or "inside", it is continuous, with distinctions that appear discrete and disconnected. Like bumps or waves in a unified surface. But the are actually all connected in the ultimate sense. That would do away with any 'problems', each piece of reality = self-excited circuit/self-detecting-self-processing-ring, and it would explain evolution as well.--Zack Bran

 * Hi, I have just had a look at your paper. I found it interesting. I think you clearly identified the regression arguments with the postulate of the universe as a 3D manifold with an independent time dimension. A few thoughts phrased as questions:
 * Can we have states without topologies and are space and time simply terms for degrees of freedom in a topology? Given that the world is at least 3+1D, are you sure that mind is not an nD state at one end of your information channels rather than the transforms/languages that relate the ends? Have you considered the duality inherent in nD projective geometry (cf Steiner)? Have you considered manifolds of signature +++-, +++--, ++++- etc where the negative signature gives a projective geometry? Recursion is a feature of successions of 3D classical manifolds (where time is separate) but is recursion always necessary in higher dimensional manifolds with mixed signatures (in complex manifolds events can be projected and at a point)? RobinH (talk) 19:04, 1 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Robin join the discussion here and the main index http://www.ctmu.org/ and http://www.megafoundation.org/index2005.htm - there's a member area, and a discussion forum for members there. -- Zack
 * (Zack again) I am not the author of CTMU.  I have been working on my own ideas and I disagree with some point's of the CTMU.  Specifically that our reality is 'self-contained', in that the universe of change is the 'real' universe, i.e. that is all there is. I've been studying fractals and fractal recursion, and my current conjecture is that our universe is a fractal subdivision of a larger entity.  I have been developing my own ideas but the are far from complete, you are welcome to contact me though, if interested.  Just leave a message here, and tell me where I can leave a post in your talkback (post a link to where you want me to post so then you can just click and post).  Part of the new ideas I've been working on is partially related to the half-finished (i.e. that's my judgment) ideas of G. Spencer http://www.lawsofform.org/  there is also a discussion group here http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/lawsofform/ and also http://www.boundarymath.org/

I have a problem with the characterization of the hard problem given at the beginning: "A state is an arrangement of things in space over a period of time." This is implying that a conscious state is an arrangement of things in space over a period of time. That is, this assumes physicalism.

In fact, the way this page is written, it betrays a misunderstanding of the Hard Problem, and what the Hard Problem side calls "consciousness."

The Dennett crowd projects that when we (Lanier, Chalmers, myself) talk about consciousness, that we are talking about something that can make decisions, and performs processing with some sort of ontology living within the mind. Soft (like a fuzzy neural network,) or delineated (like a computer,) however.

This is not actually our claim. We are saying that there is a visage, an appearance, an experience, and that it is this visage that is epiphenomenal. Unnecessary. That there is an explanatory gap there.

It needs to be perfectly clear: Any functional explanation isn't it. If you say, "Oh, but the brain rotates shapes this way," or if you say, "But associative reasoning works this way," then you haven't done a thing to explain the epiphenomenal experience. You may as well be talking about the motions of cars outside of the body.

Not only "conscious experience is not required for a nineteenth century model of the behaviour of organisms", but conscious experience is not even required for a 20th or 21st century model of the behavior of the organism.

The brain is just as external to the experience as the motions of cars. And the experience is just as epiphenomenal to the mechanics of the thinking in the brain, as it is epiphenomenal to the motion of the car. The car could move just perfectly fine without anybody experiencing it, and the brain could think, talk, and reason (even about consciousness) just fine, without experience.

It's entirely within bounds to say: "consciousness comes from the motions of the brain." But the epiphenomalism of consciousness is still there, regardless, hangling off as an unnecessary dangler. Poke a body with a brain in it, and it should go "ouch," the brain should start working out strategies for telling a person to bug off, a face should scoul, and the reputation systems held in mind should update and the chemistry and neural patterning of emotions should turn to anger, but -- there's no need for anything to actually experience it.

Dennett argued in "The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies," saying (paraphrased,) "Could you really believe in zombies? I find that hard to believe." But this is an argument from incredulity. The explanatory gap is still present, Dennett's incredulity does not close it.

LionKimbro

Excellent point and a regrettable oversight in the text. I have put in a paragraph in the module pointing to your discussion as a temporary measure. That said, I do not see 'the hard problem' as Chalmers' possession, it also refers to observations by a large number of philosophers from Leibniz gazing at a brain made from cogs and wheels onwards. But the lack of mention of the impetus behind property dualism is a black hole in the current book! RobinH 14:12, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

I have extended the introduction to explain the objective of the section in more depth. The objective of the section is to show that information about the physical state of the world is incomplete and subject to revision. That there are deep, unresolved problems in physics, especially about the nature of time, space and matter that impinge directly on the problem of consciousness. Some arguments for dualism, such as epiphenomenalism, are actually aspects of problems in science that are awaiting explanation. I am also going to add the missing section on dualism in the previous module. RobinH 13:59, 15 December 2005 (UTC)


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German/Level I/Privileg und Verantwortung

Lesson I.11: Privileg und Verantwortung

Careers
Work                       Arbeit Doctor                     Arzt Business Man               Geschäftsmann Business Woman             Geschäftsfrau Teacher                    Lehrer Police Officer             Polizeibeamte Fireman                    Feuerwehrmann Actor 	             Schauspieler Artist 	            Künstler Author 	            Schriftsteller Bank Clerk 	            Bankangestellter Car Mechanic 	            Automechaniker Chemist 	            Chemiker Civil Servant 	    Beamter Computer Programmer       Programmierer Engineer 	            Ingenieur Farmer 	            Landwirt Hairdresser 	            Friseur Journalist 	            Journalist Lawyer 	            Rechtsanwalt Lecturer 	            Dozent Nurse 	            Krankenpfleger Pensioner 	            Rentner Photographer 	            Fotograf Politician 	            Politiker Postman 	            Briefträger Professor 	            Professor Salesperson 	            Verkäufer Secretary 	            Sekretär Student 	            Student Taxi Driver 	            Taxifahrer Waiter 	            Kellner

Tasks
Cleaning                  Reinigung Cooking                   Kochen Homework                  Hausaufgaben Laundry                   Wäscherei Tasks                     Aufgaben

Common Phases
Ich habe Pläne...

I have plans...

Ich habe Pläne mit...

I have plans with...

Vocabulary
Germany                Deutschland Hamburg                   Hamburg Berlin                    Berlin Frankfurt                 Frankfurt Cologne                   Köln Munich                    München

Common Phases
''Ich muss nach ... gehen.''

I have to go to...


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User:Cfgoforce

Alright!! I figured out how to change the font!!

title: User:Cfgoforce


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Java Programming/About This Book

The Java Programming Wikibook is a shared effort in amassing a comprehensive guide of the complete Java platform — from programming advice and tutorials for the desktop computer to programming on mobile phones. The information presented in this book has been conceptualised with the combined efforts of various contributors, and anonymous editors.

The primary purpose of this book is to teach the Java programming language to an audience of beginners, but with its progressive layout of tutorials increasing in complexity, it can be just as helpful for intermediate and experienced programmers. Thus, this book is meant to be used as:
 * a collection of tutorials building upon one another in a progressive manner;
 * a guidebook for efficient programming with the Java programming language; and,
 * a comprehensive manual resource for the advanced programmer.

This book is intended to be used in conjunction with various other online resources, such as:
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Who should read this book?
Everything you would need to know to write computer programs would be explained in this book. By the time you finish reading, you will find yourself proficient enough to tackle just about anything in Java and programs written using it. This book serves as the first few stepping stones of many you would need to cross the unfriendly waters of computer programming. We have put a lot of emphasis in structuring this book in a way that lets you start programming from scratch, with Java as your preferred language of choice. This book is designed for you if any one of the following is true.

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Although this book is generally meant to be for readers who are beginning to learn programming, it can be highly beneficial for intermediate and advanced programmers who may have missed out on some vital information. After completing this book you should be able to solve many complicated problems using the Java skills presented in the following chapters. Once you finish, you are also encouraged to undertake ambitious programming projects of your own.

This book assumes that the reader has no prior knowledge of programming in Java, or for that matter, any object-oriented programming language. Practical examples and exercises following each topic and module make it easy to understand the software development methodology. If you are a complete beginner, we suggest that you move slowly through this book and complete each exercise at your own pace.

How to use this book
This book is a reference book of the Java language and its related technologies. Its goal is to give a complete picture of Java and its technologies. While the book can be read from the beginning to end, it is also designed to have individual sections that can be read independently. To help find information quickly, navigation boxes are given in the online version for access to individual topics.

This book is divided into sections. Pages are grouped together into section topics. To make this book expandable in the future via the addition of new sections, the sections navigation-wide are independent from each other. Each section can be considered as a mini book by itself. Pages that belong to the same topic can be navigated by the links on the right hand side.

How can you participate
Content is constantly being updated and enhanced in this book as is the nature of wiki-based content. This book is therefore in a constant state of evolution. Any Wikibooks users can participate in helping this book to a better standard as both a reader, or a contributor.

As a reader
If you are interested in reading the content present in this book, we encourage you to:
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title: Java Programming/About This Book


text:
User:Seetee~enwikibooks

Neurobiology student

title: User:Seetee~enwikibooks


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User:Swapnil durgade/Regular Expressions Notes

c         matches the non-metacharacter c.       \c         matches the literal character c.       .          matches any character including newline. ^         matches the beginning of a string. $         matches the end of a string. [abc...]  character class, matches any of the characters abc....       [^abc...]  negated character class, matches any character except abc....       r1|r2      alternation: matches either r1 or r2. r1r2      concatenation: matches r1, and then r2. r+        matches one or more r's.       r*         matches zero or more r's.       r?         matches zero or one r's.       (r)        grouping: matches r.       r{n} r{n,} r{n,m}    One  or two numbers inside braces denote an interval expres- sion. If there is one number in the braces, the  preceding regular expression r is repeated n times. If there are two numbers separated by a comma, r is repeated n to  m  times. If there  is  one  number  followed  by  a comma, then r is                  repeated at least n times. Interval expressions are only available if either --posix or                 --re-interval is specified on the command line. \y        matches  the empty string at either the beginning or the end of a word. \B        matches the empty string within a word. \<        matches the empty string at the beginning of a word. \>        matches the empty string at the end of a word. \w        matches any word-constituent character  (letter,  digit,  or  underscore). \W        matches any character that is not word-constituent. \'        matches the empty string at the end of a buffer.


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Organic Chemistry/Dienes/Diene properties and reactions

Organic chemistry > Dienes >Diene Properties and Reactions

<< Conjugation | Next Chapter: Aromatics

Common Reactions of Conjugated Dienes
Conjugated dienes have enhanced stability as compared to molecules without conjugated double bonds due to resonance. In general, this makes them slightly less reactive than other types of alkenes in general and dienes specifically. However, many reactions proceed through high-energy cation or radical intermediates; in these cases the resonance stabilization of the intermediate allyl species makes conjugated dienes more reactive than non-conjugated dienes or simple alkenes.

Hydrobromination:
Adds a Bromine and a Hydrogen to a conjugated Diene.

Example:

Thermodynamic and Kinetic Control of Reaction:
 * At low temperature the reaction is under KINETIC CONTROL: the 3-bromobutene is formed faster because it has a lower transition state free energy, as the intermediate cation is more stable at the secondary carbon.
 * At high temperature the reaction is under THERMODYNAMIC CONTROL: the 3-bromobutene still forms more quickly, but the reaction has enough energy to reverse, and the more stable product (1-bromobut-2-ene) is formed.

Diels-Alder Reaction
One of the most important of all diene reactions is the Diels-Alder Reaction, in which a conjugated diene reacts with an dienophile to form a cyclohexene.

Requirements: The diene must be able to access the s-cis conformation for the reaction to take place.

DIENEOPHILES - A species which likes to attack Dienes - A Dienophile must contain a double or triple bond. Typically, an electron withdrawing group is conjugated to the dienophile to make it electron-poor (nitriles, ketones, and esters are common electron withdrawing groups). Because the reaction is highly stereospecific, the configuration of the dieneophile will determine the relative stereochemistry of the cyclohexene product.

The Diels-Alder reaction occurs most effectively with an electron-poor dieneophile and an electron-rich diene ('normal demand'). 'Inverse demand' Diels-Alder reactions can also be carried out, in which the dienophile is electron-rich and the diene electron-poor.

<< Conjugation | Next Chapter: Aromatics


text:
Series License

The goal for this book is to make it a reference source with related information so one can use this material to actually study for their Series license. The following are licenses that are offered by the NASD by clicking on the links below you will be directed towards relevant material so one can study for the license in question.

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title: Series License


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/M2

This is the Mechanics 2 module of the OCR A-level Mathematics book. This module assumes that you are familiar with the ../C1/, ../C2/, ../C3/, ../C4/ and ../M1/ modules. Please post all questions to A-level Mathematics/Discussion.

Contents

 * 1) /Centre of Mass/
 * 2) /Equilibrium of a Rigid Body/
 * 3) /Projectile Motion/
 * 4) /Uniform Circular Motion/
 * 5) /Impulse/
 * 6) /Work, Energy and Power/

Formulae
By the end of this module you will be expected to have learnt the following formulae:

Projectile Motion

 * Equation of Trajectory: $$y = x \tan \theta - \frac {g x^2}{2 V^2 \cos ^2 \theta} $$

Work, Energy and Power

 * Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE): $$E_p = m g h\,$$
 * Kinetic Energy (KE): $$ E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2 $$
 * Work done by a force: $$ W = F d\cos \alpha \,$$
 * Power of a moving force: $$ P = Fv \,$$

Collisions

 * Newton's Experimental Law: Separation speed $$ = e \times $$ Approach speed
 * It follows that the coefficient of restitution, $$e =\frac{v_2-v_1}{u_1-u_2}$$

Centripetal motion

 * Using $$F=ma\,$$, and $$a=r\omega^2\,$$ $$, F=m\omega^2r\,$$
 * $$a=\frac{v^2}{r}$$
 * $$v=r\omega\,$$

title: A-level Mathematics/OCR/M2


text:
Using KDE/Installing

This page uses information from the KDE Website. Please read the information there too. kde.org

Installation the Easy Way
KDE comes in almost every version of Linux - the easiest way to install it is to select it as your desktop when you install Linux on your computer - you will normally be presented with a menu during installation where you can pick your desktop. Just pick KDE: easy! Some distros such as Kubuntu ship with KDE out of the box.

How to install KDE after that will depend on which Linux distribution you are using.

KDE Packages
KDE is big, so it is split into several packages, which are listed below. KDE requires the three packages kdelibs, kdebase and aRts; and the rest are optional. However, you'll probably want most or all of these other packages because they contain useful applications. In fact, I recommend you install all of them.

Installation
If it is not included by default with your distro, your distro's package system may have KDE available in their repository. Check your distribution's documentation if in doubt.

Installing KDE on Debian and Ubuntu
KDE can be installed in Debian and Ubuntu using apt-get. For Ubuntu, this will change Ubuntu into Kubuntu. Apt-get installs all the correct packages from the Internet or from your Debian CD - see the apt-get manual pages for details.
 * Back up your data (not required, but suggested).

apt-get update apt-get install kde kdm apt-get install kubuntu-desktop
 * Log in as root (super-user), or use sudo if you are in the sudoers list.
 * Update your package information to the latest versions:
 * Debian users should install the kde metapackage as well as the K Display Manager:
 * Ubuntu users should install the kubuntu-desktop metapackage which includes KDE and the K Display Manager:
 * Note: pay attention to any packages that are marked for removal before you continue. If you want to check, use the --dry-run option with this command.

 * Now go to Starting KDE

Avoiding apt-get

 * Synaptic can be used to control apt-get through a gui. This can be easier if you plan to install more than KDE or prefer not to work with a terminal.

 * It is also possible to download the .deb packages from the Debian website and install them using dpkg, in a method similar to the .rpm installation below. If you do this, you should make sure you have all the packages you need - including any dependencies you don't already have. This method should only be used if you are unable to use apt-get.

Installing KDE Using .RPM Files
If you use a version of Linux which uses .rpm to install programs, you can install KDM using rpm files.

rpm -ivh *.rpm
 * Download all the .rpm files you want, and save them into a new folder.
 * Download and read the INSTALL and README files.
 * Back up your data (not required, but suggested)
 * Quit your desktop. This is not always required, but this is a good idea. You can normally quit your desktop by changing your runlevel.
 * Log in as root (super-user).
 * Use  to enter the directory you saved the .rpm files to
 * To install, use the command
 * Now go to Starting KDE

Installation from the Source Code
This type of installation is fairly tricky. You will need the correct version of Qt and some other libraries installed before you start. See the KDE website for details.

The Konstruct tool simplifies this by doing many of the tasks, such as downloading and properly extracting packages, configuring and building them.

Starting KDE
If you are on a desktop or have xserver running already, quit it. To start KDE, type xinit /usr/bin/startkde which will start kde on a new xserver. If this doesn't work, try startx

To start KDE each time (you probably want this) you'll need to edit your startup files. If you use KDM or XDM to log in, edit .xsession, otherwise edit .xinitrc or .Xclients.
 * Backup your current startup file.
 * Remove the lines in the startup file which start up your previous desktop program
 * Replace these with  (if it can't find the X-Server, add   above  ).
 * Restart your computer.

title: Using KDE/Installing


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User:Paul.Paquette~enwikibooks

{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" align="left" width="100%" style="background-color:transparent;"
 * valign=top|

title: User:Paul.Paquette~enwikibooks


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User talk:Mythril

Thanks for helping with Jump Superstars!
Re: ''Hey, you rock! Why don't you create an account? :)'' Guess you convinced me to. XD I also haven't played for a while... not since I unlocked all the komas from the main game mode.  I still haven't gotten a few of the "play for x number of battles" ones. D:

Sorry for the delayed response~ --Soos

title: User talk:Mythril


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Art Tutorials/Presentation and Display

Presentation and Display

 * Portfolios and Slides
 * Gallery Presentations

title: Art Tutorials/Presentation and Display


text:
User talk:170.215.127.74

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:170.215.127.74


text:
User talk:202.7.166.169

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:202.7.166.169


text:
Talk:US History/Presidents

president hoover herbert history 1929-1933

title: Talk:US History/Presidents


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A-level Mathematics/OCR/M4

This is the Mechanics 4 module of the A-level Mathematics book. This module assumes that you are familiar with the ../C1/, ../C2/, ../C3/, ../C4/, ../M1/, ../M2/ and ../M3/ modules. Please post all questions to A-level Mathematics/Discussion.

Contents

 * 1) /Relative Motion
 * 2) /Centre of Mass (Second Level)/
 * 3) /Moment of Inertia/
 * 4) /Rotation of a Rigid Body/
 * 5) /Simple Harmonic Motion (Second Level)/

Formulae
By the end of this module you will be expected to have learnt the following formulae:

Relative Velocity

 * $${}_P\!V_Q + {}_Q\!V_R = {}_P\!V_R$$

Angular Motion
For constant angular acceleration:
 * $$ \omega _1 = \omega _0 + \alpha t \,$$
 * $$ \theta = \omega _0 t + \frac{1}{2} \alpha t^2$$
 * $$ \theta = \frac{1}{2}(\omega _0 + \omega _1)t$$
 * $$ \omega _1^2 = \omega _0^2 + 2\alpha\theta$$
 * $$ \theta = \omega _1 t - \frac{1}{2} \alpha t^2$$

 * Angular momentum: $$ I\omega\,$$
 * Kinetic energy: $$ \frac{1}{2}I\omega ^2$$
 * Equation of motion: $$ C = I \ddot{\theta}$$
 * Work done by a constant couple: $$ W = C\theta\,$$

title: A-level Mathematics/OCR/M4


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User:Swapnil durgade/Bind Notes

Purpose of DNS
1. Resolve hostname into IP addresses (Forward lookup) 2. Resolve IP address into hostname (Reverse lookup) 3. Allow machines to be logically grouped by name 'domains' 4. Provide email routing information

Important Information
1. Domain names are separated by dots with topmost element on right. 2. Each element could be 63 character long. 3. The entire element could be 255 character long. 4. letters, numbers or dashes may be used in an element. 5. Hostname map to IP addresses in a many-to-many relationship 6. Distributed management

Zones and Domains
1. A domain is complete sub-tree of the hierarchical namespace 2. A zone is a part of the domain managed by a particular server. Subdomains are different than zones. A zone may include all subdomains in a domain or may delegate authority for some subdomain as separate zones on other name servers. A zone represents the scope of administration for which one body is responsible

Master/Slave Primary/Secondary DNS/Name Servers
1. Master DNS server is also called Primary DNS Server 2. Contains master copy of a data for a zone 3. Slave DNS server is also called Secondary DNS server 4. Slave provides backup to master server 5. Slave maintain synchronization with his master server 6. Both Master and Slave contain authoritative data. 7. Slave can get its data from other slave server 8. Ther is only one Master server per zone

-Swapnil (Wednesday, December 14, 2005) Email- swapnil_durgade@yahoo.com

title: User:Swapnil durgade/Bind Notes


text: User talk:61.246.79.235

title: User talk:61.246.79.235


text:
User talk:194.125.180.35

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:194.125.180.35


text:
Talk:Online OsiriX Documentation/Extract a 3D volume from a series

14 Dec 2005: centred images

Images
All images on this page are missing copyright information, and will be deleted shortly if no information is added-- SB_Johnny | talk 13:37, 23 August 2006 (UTC)


text:
Statistics/Numerical Methods

Often the solution of statistical problems and/or methods involve the use of tools from numerical mathematics. An example might be Maximum-Likelihood estimation of $$\widehat{\Theta}$$ which involves the maximization of the Likelihood function $$L$$:

$$\widehat{\Theta} = \max_\theta\,\, L(\theta | x_1, ..., x_n)$$.

The maximization here requires the use of optimization routines. Other numerical methods and their application in statistics are described in this section.

Contents of this section: This section is dedicated to the Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization which occurs frequently in the solution of statistical problems. Additionally some results of algebra theory which are necessary to understand the Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization are provided. The Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization is an algorithm which generates from a set of linear dependent vectors a new set of linear independent vectors which span the same space. Computation based on linear independent vectors is simpler than computation based on linear dependent vectors. Numerical Optimization occurs in all kind of problem - a prominent example being the Maximum-Likelihood estimation as described above. Hence this section describes one important class of optimization algorithms, namely the so-called Gradient Methods. After describing the theory and developing an intuition about the general procedure, three specific algorithms (the Method of Steepest Descent, the Newtonian Method, the class of Variable Metric Methods) are described in more detail. Especially we provide an (graphical) evaluation of the performance of these three algorithms for specific criterion functions (the Himmelblau function and the Rosenbrock function). Furthermore we come back to Maximum-Likelihood estimation and give a concrete example how to tackle this problem with the methods developed in this section. In OLS, one has the primary goal of determining the conditional mean of random variable $$Y$$, given some explanatory variable $$x_i$$, $$E[Y|x_i]$$. Quantile Regression goes beyond this and enables us to pose such a question at any quantile of the conditional distribution function. It thereby focuses on the interrelationship between a dependent variable and its explanatory variables for a given quantile. Statistical calculations require an extra accuracy and are open to some errors such as truncation or cancellation error etc. These errors occur due to binary representation and finite precision and may cause inaccurate results. In this work we are going to discuss the accuracy of the statistical software, different tests and methods available for measuring the accuracy and the comparison of different packages.
 * Basic Linear Algebra and Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization
 * Unconstrained Optimization
 * Quantile Regression
 * Numerical Comparison of Statistical Software

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the accuracy of MS Excel in terms of statistical procedures and to conclude whether the MS Excel should be used for (statistical) scientific purposes or not. The evaluation is made for MS Excel versions 97, 2000, XP and 2003.
 * Numerics in Excel

 * Random Number Generation

title: Statistics/Numerical Methods


text:
User:H2g2bob

On: Wikipedia | Uncyclopedia | WikiBooks | Wiktionary

Hello, I'm h2g2bob. I wrote a bit about KDE here, because I use Linux. Feel free to leave a message, though to be honest you'd be better off leaving a message for me over at wikipedia or perhaps ever uncyclopedia. =important= I want u to be my manager cause i know im not the best boss cause u may know more then me so yea

title: User:H2g2bob


text:
Statistics/Numerical Methods/Basic Linear Algebra and Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization

Introduction
Basically, all the sections found here can be also found in a linear algebra book. However, the Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization is used in statistical algorithm and in the solution of statistical problems. Therefore, we briefly jump into the linear algebra theory which is necessary to understand Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization.

The following subsections also contain examples. It is very important for further understanding that the concepts presented here are not only valid for typical vectors as tuple of real numbers, but also functions that can be considered vectors.

Definition
A set $$R$$ with two operations $$+$$ and $$*$$ on its elements is called a field (or short $$(R,+,*)$$), if the following conditions hold:

 * 1) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ holds $$\alpha+\beta \in R$$
 * 2) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ holds $$\alpha+\beta = \beta+\alpha$$ (commutativity)
 * 3) For all $$\alpha, \beta,\gamma \in R$$ holds $$\alpha+(\beta+\gamma) = (\alpha+\beta)+\gamma$$ (associativity)
 * 4) It exist a unique element $$0$$, called zero, such that for all $$\alpha \in R$$ holds $$\alpha+0 = \alpha$$
 * 5) For all $$\alpha \in R$$ a unique element $$-\alpha$$, such that holds $$\alpha+ (-\alpha) = 0$$
 * 6) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ holds $$\alpha*\beta \in R$$
 * 7) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ holds $$\alpha*\beta = \beta*\alpha$$ (commutativity)
 * 8) For all $$\alpha, \beta,\gamma \in R$$ holds $$\alpha*(\beta*\gamma) = (\alpha*\beta)*\gamma$$ (associativity)
 * 9) It exist a unique element $$1$$, called one, such that for all $$\alpha \in R$$ holds $$\alpha*1 = \alpha$$
 * 10) For all non-zero $$\alpha \in R$$ a unique element $$\alpha^{-1}$$, such that holds $$\alpha * \alpha^{-1} = 1$$
 * 11) For all $$\alpha, \beta,\gamma \in R$$ holds $$\alpha*(\beta+\gamma) = \alpha*\beta+\alpha*\gamma$$ (distributivity)

The elements of $$R$$ are also called scalars.

Examples
It can easily be proven that real numbers with the well known addition and multiplication $$(IR, +, *)$$ are a field. The same holds for complex numbers with the addition and multiplication. Actually, there are not many more sets with two operations which fulfill all of these conditions.

For statistics, only the real and complex numbers with the addition and multiplication are important.

Definition
A set $$V$$ with two operations $$+$$ and $$*$$ on its elements is called a vector space over R, if the following conditions hold:

 * 1) For all $$x, y\in V$$ holds $$x+y \in V$$
 * 2) For all $$x, y \in V$$ holds $$x+y = y+x$$ (commutativity)
 * 3) For all $$x, y, z \in V$$ holds $$x+(y+z) = (x+y)+z$$ (associativity)
 * 4) It exist a unique element $$\mathbb{O}$$, called origin, such that for all $$x \in V$$ holds $$x+\mathbb{O} = x$$
 * 5) For all $$x \in V$$ exists a unique element $$-v$$, such that holds $$x+ (-x) = \mathbb{O}$$
 * 6) For all $$\alpha\in R$$ and $$x\in V$$ holds $$\alpha*x \in V$$
 * 7) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ and $$x\in V$$ holds $$\alpha*(\beta*x) = (\alpha*\beta)*x$$ (associativity)
 * 8) For all $$x\in V$$ and $$1 \in R$$ holds $$1*x = x$$
 * 9) For all $$\alpha\in R$$ and for all $$x, y\in V$$holds $$\alpha*(x+y) = \alpha*x+\alpha*y$$ (distributivity wrt. vector addition)
 * 10) For all $$\alpha, \beta \in R$$ and for all $$x\in V$$holds $$(\alpha+\beta)*x = \alpha*x+\beta*x$$ (distributivity wrt. scalar addition)

Note that we used the same symbols $$+$$ and $$*$$ for different operations in $$R$$ and $$V$$. The elements of $$V$$ are also called vectors.

Examples:

 * 1) The set $$IR^p$$ with the real-valued vectors $$(x_1,...,x_p)$$ with elementwise addition $$x+y=(x_1+y_1,...,x_p+y_p)$$ and the elementwise multiplication $$\alpha*x = (\alpha x_1,...,\alpha x_p)$$ is a vector space over $$IR$$.
 * 2) The set of polynomials of degree $$p$$, $$P(x) = b_0 + b_1 x + b_2 x^2 + ... + b_p x^p$$, with usual addition and multiplication is a vector space over $$IR$$.

Linear combinations
A vector $$x$$ can be written as a linear combination of vectors $$x_1,...x_n$$, if

$$x = \sum_{i=1}^n \alpha_i x_i$$

with $$\alpha_i \in R$$.

Examples:

 * $$(1,2,3)$$ is a linear combination of $$(1,0,0),\,(0,1,0), \,(0,0,1)$$ since $$(1,2,3)=1*(1,0,0)+2*(0,1,0)+3*(0,0,1)$$
 * $$1+2*x+3*x^2$$ is a linear combination of $$1+x+x^2,\, x+x^2,\, x^2$$ since $$1+2*x+3*x^2=1*(1+x+x^2)+1*(x+x^2)+1*(x^2)$$

Basis of a vector space
A set of vectors $$x_1, ..., x_n$$ is called a basis of the vector space $$V$$, if

1.  for each vector $$x \in V$$ exist scalars $$\alpha_1,...,\alpha_n \in R$$ such that $$x = \sum_i \alpha_i x_i$$ 2.  there is no subset of $$\{ x_1, ..., x_n \}$$ such that 1. is fulfilled.

Note, that a vector space can have several bases.

Examples:

 * Each vector $$(\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3) \in IR^3$$ can be written as $$\alpha_1 * (1,0,0) + \alpha_2 *(0,1,0) + \alpha_3 * (0,0,1)$$. Therefore is $$\{(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1) \}$$ a basis of $$IR^3$$.
 * Each polynomial of degree $$p$$ can be written as linear combination of $$\{ 1, x, x^2, ..., x^p\}$$ and therefore forms a basis for this vector space.

Actually, for both examples we would have to prove condition 2., but it is clear that it holds.

Dimension of a vector space
A dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors which are necessary for a basis. A vector space has infinitely many number of basis, but the dimension is uniquely determined. Note that the vector space may have a dimension of infinity, e.g. consider the space of continuous functions.

Examples:

 * The dimension of $$IR^3$$ is three, the dimension of $$IR^p$$ is $$p$$.

 * The dimension of the polynomials of degree $$p$$ is $$p+1$$.

Scalar products
A mapping $$<.,.>: V\times V \rightarrow R$$ is called a scalar product if the following holds for all $$x,x_1,x_2,y,y_1,y_2 \in V$$ and $$\alpha_1, \alpha_2 \in R$$ :

 * 1) $$<\alpha_1 x_1 + \alpha_2 x_2, y> = \alpha_1  + \alpha_2 $$
 * 2) $$ = \alpha_1  + \alpha_2 $$
 * 3) $$ = \overline{}$$ with $$\overline{\alpha + \imath \beta} = \alpha - \imath \beta$$
 * 4) $$ \geq 0$$ with $$ =0 \Leftrightarrow x = \mathbb{O}$$

Examples:

 * The typical scalar product in $$IR^p$$ is $$ = \sum_i x_i y_i$$.
 * $$ = \int_a^b f(x)*g(x) dx$$ is a scalar product on the vector space of polynomials of degree $$p$$.

Norm
A norm of a vector is a mapping $$\|.\|: V \rightarrow R$$, if holds

 * 1) $$\| x \| \geq 0$$ for all $$x \in V$$ and $$\| x \| =0 \Leftrightarrow x=\mathbb{O}$$ (positive definiteness)
 * 2) $$\| \alpha v \|= \mid \alpha \mid \| x \|$$ for all $$x\in V$$ and all $$\alpha\in R$$
 * 3) $$\| x+y \| \leq \| x \| + \| y \|$$ for all $$x,y\in V$$ (triangle inequality)

Examples:

 * The $$L_q$$ norm of a vector in $$IR^p$$ is defined as $$\|x\|_q = \sqrt[q]{\sum_{i=1}^p x_i^q}$$.
 * Each scalar product generates a norm by $$\|x\| = \sqrt{}$$, therefore $$\|f\| = \sqrt{\int_a^b f^2(x) dx}$$ is a norm for the polynomials of degree $$p$$.

Orthogonality
Two vectors $$x$$ and $$y$$ are orthogonal to each other if $$=0$$. In $$IR^p$$ it holds that the cosine of the angle between two vectors can expressed as

$$\cos(\angle(x,y)) = \frac{}{\|x\|\|y\|}$$.

If the angle between $$x$$ and $$y$$ is ninety degree (orthogonal) then the cosine is zero and it follows that $$=0$$.

A set of vectors $$x_1, ..., x_p$$ is called orthonormal, if

$$ = \begin{cases} 0 & \mbox{ if } i\neq j \\ 1 & \mbox{ if } i=j \end{cases}$$.

If we consider a basis $$e_1,..., e_p$$ of a vector space then we would like to have a orthonormal basis. Why ?

Since we have a basis, each vector $$x$$ and $$y$$ can be expressed by $$x=\alpha_1 e_1 + ... +\alpha_p e_p$$ and $$y=\beta_1 e_1 + ... +\beta_p e_p$$. Therefore the scalar product of $$x$$ and $$y$$ reduces to

Consequently, the computation of a scalar product is reduced to simple multiplication and addition if the coefficients are known. Remember that for our polynomials we would have to solve an integral!

Algorithm
The aim of the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization is to find for a set of vectors $$x_1, ..., x_p$$ an equivalent set of orthonormal vectors $$o_1,...,o_p$$ such that any vector which can be expressed as linear combination of $$x_1, ..., x_p$$ can also be expressed as linear combination of $$o_1,...,o_p$$:

1. Set $$b_1 = x_1$$ and $$o_1 = b_1 / \|b_1\|$$

2. For each $$i>1$$ set $$b_i = x_i - \sum_{j=1}^{i-1} \frac{<x_i, b_j>}{<b_j,b_j>} b_j$$ and $$o_i = b_i / \|b_i\|$$, in each step the vector $$x_i$$ is projected on $$b_j$$ and the result is subtracted from $$x_i$$.

Example
Consider the polynomials of degree two in the interval$$[-1,1]$$ with the scalar product $$<f,g> = \int_{-1}^1 f(x) g(x) dx$$ and the norm $$\|f\| = \sqrt{<f,f>}$$. We know that $$f_1(x)=1, f_2(x)=x$$ and $$f_3(x)=x^2$$ are a basis for this vector space. Let us now construct an orthonormal basis:

Step 1a: $$b_1(x) = f_1(x) = 1$$

Step 1b: $$o_1(x) = \frac{b_1(x)}{\|b_1(x)\|} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{<b_1(x), b_1(x)>}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\int_{-1}^1 1 dx}} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}$$

Step 2a: $$b_2(x) = f_2(x) - \frac{<f_2(x),b_1(x)>}{<b_1(x),b_1(x)>} b_1(x) = x - \frac{\int_{-1}^1 x\ 1 dx}{2} 1 = x - \frac{0}{2} 1 = x$$

Step 2b: $$o_2(x) = \frac{b_2(x)}{\|b_2(x)\|} = \frac{x}{\sqrt{<b_2(x), b_2(x)>}} = \frac{x}{\sqrt{\int_{-1}^1 x^2 dx}} = \frac{x}{\sqrt{2/3}} = x\sqrt{3/2}$$

Step 3a: $$b_3(x) = f_3(x) - \frac{<f_3(x),b_1(x)>}{<b_1(x),b_1(x)>} b_1(x) - \frac{<f_3(x),b_2(x)>}{<b_2(x),b_2(x)>} b_2(x) = x^2 - \frac{\int_{-1}^1 x^2 1\ dx}{2} 1 - \frac{\int_{-1}^1 x^2 x\ dx}{2/3} x = x^2 - \frac{2/3}{2} 1 - \frac{0}{2/3} x = x^2 - 1/3 $$

Step 3b: $$o_3(x) = \frac{b_3(x)}{\|b_3(x)\|} = \frac{x^2-1/3}{\sqrt{<b_3(x), b_3(x)>}} = \frac{x^2-1/3}{\sqrt{\int_{-1}^1 (x^2-1/3)^2 dx}} = \frac{x^2-1/3}{\sqrt{\int_{-1}^1 x^4 - 2/3 x^2 + 1/9\ dx}} = \frac{x^2-1/3}{\sqrt{8/45}} = \sqrt{\frac{5}{8}} (3x^2-1)$$

It can be proven that $$1/\sqrt{2}, x\sqrt{3/2}$$ and $$\sqrt{\frac{5}{8}} (3x^2-1)$$ form a orthonormal basis with the above scalarproduct and norm.

Numerical instability
Consider the vectors $$x_1 = (1,\epsilon, 0, 0), x_2 = (1,0,\epsilon,0)$$ and $$x_3 = (1,0,0,\epsilon)$$. Assume that $$\epsilon$$ is so small that computing $$1+\epsilon = 1$$ holds on a computer (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_epsilon). Let compute a orthonormal basis for this vectors in $$IR^4$$ with the standard scalar product $$<x,y>=x_1y_1+x_2y_2+x_3y_3+x_4y_4$$ and the norm $$\|x\| = \sqrt{x_1^2+x_2^2+x_3^2+x_4^2}$$.

Step 1a. $$b_1 = x_1 = (1,\epsilon,0,0)$$

Step 1b. $$o_1 = \frac{b_1}{\|b_1\|} = \frac{b_1}{\sqrt{1+\epsilon^2}} = b_1$$ with $$1+\epsilon^2=1$$

Step 2a. $$b_2 = x_2 - \frac{<x_2,b_1>}{<b_1,b_1>} b_1 = (1,0,\epsilon,0) - \frac{1}{1+\epsilon^2} (1,\epsilon,0,0) = (0,-\epsilon,\epsilon,0)$$

Step 2b. $$o_2 = \frac{b_2}{\|b_2\|} = \frac{b_2}{\sqrt{2\epsilon^2}} = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},0)$$

Step 3a. $$b_3 = x_3 - \frac{<x_3,b_1>}{<b_1,b_1>} b_1 - \frac{<x_3,b_2>}{<b_2,b_2>} b_2 = (1,0,0,\epsilon) - \frac{1}{1+\epsilon^2} (1,\epsilon,0,0) - \frac{0}{2\epsilon^2} (0,-\epsilon,\epsilon,0) = (0, -\epsilon, 0,\epsilon)$$

Step 3b. $$o_3 = \frac{b_3}{\|b_3\|} = \frac{b_3}{\sqrt{2\epsilon^2}} = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},0,\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}})$$

It obvious that for the vectors

- $$o_1 = (1, \epsilon, 0, 0)\ $$

- $$o_2 = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},0)$$

- $$o_3 = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}},0,\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}})$$

the scalarproduct $$<o_2,o_3> = 1/2 \neq 0$$. All other pairs are also not zero, but they are multiplied with $$\epsilon$$ such that we get a result near zero.

Modified Gram-Schmidt
To solve the problem a modified Gram-Schmidt algorithm is used:

 * 1) Set $$b_i = x_i$$ for all $$i$$
 * 2) for each $$i$$ from $$1$$ to $$n$$ compute
 * 3)  $$o_i = \frac{b_i}{\|b_i\|}$$
 * 4) for each $$j$$ from $$i+1$$ to $$n$$ compute $$b_j = b_j - <b_j, o_i> o_i\ $$

The difference is that we compute first our new $$b_i$$ and subtract it from all other $$b_j$$. We apply the wrongly computed vector to all vectors instead of computing each $$b_i$$ separately.

Example (recomputed)
Step 1. $$b_1 = (1,\epsilon,0,0)$$, $$b_2 = (1,0,\epsilon,0)$$, $$b_3 = (1,0,0,\epsilon)$$

Step 2a. $$o_1 = \frac{b_1}{\|b_1\|} = \frac{b_1}{\sqrt{1+\epsilon^2}} = b_1 = (1,\epsilon,0,0)$$ with $$1+\epsilon^2=1$$

Step 2b. $$b_2 = b_2 - <b_2, o_1> o_1 = (1,0,\epsilon,0) - (1,\epsilon,0,0) = (0, -\epsilon, \epsilon, 0)\ $$

Step 2c. $$b_3 = b_3 - <b_3, o_1> o_1 = (1,0,0,\epsilon) - (1,\epsilon,0,0) = (0, -\epsilon, 0, \epsilon)\ $$

Step 3a. $$o_2 = \frac{b_2}{\|b_2\|} = \frac{b_2}{\sqrt{2\epsilon^2}} = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, 0)$$

Step 3b. $$b_3 = b_3 - <b_3, o_2> o_2 = (0, -\epsilon, 0, \epsilon) - \frac{\epsilon}{\sqrt{2}} (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}, 0) = (0, -\epsilon/2, -\epsilon/2, \epsilon)$$

Step 4a. $$o_3 = \frac{b_3}{\|b_3\|} = \frac{b_3}{\sqrt{3/2\epsilon^2}} = (0,-\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}, -\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}, \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}})$$

We can easily verify that $$<o_2,o_3> = 0$$.

Exploratory Project Pursuit
In the analysis of high-dimensional data we usually analyze projections of the data. The approach results from the Theorem of Cramer-Wold that states that the multidimensional distribution is fixed if we know all one-dimensional projections. Another theorem states that most (one-dimensional) projections of multivariate data are looking normal, even if the multivariate distribution of the data is highly non-normal.

Therefore in Exploratory Projection Pursuit we judge the interestingness of a projection by comparison with a (standard) normal distribution. If we assume that the one-dimensional data $$x$$ are standard normal distributed then after the transformation $$z=2\Phi^{-1}(x)-1$$ with $$\Phi(x)$$ the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution then $$z$$ is uniformly distributed in the interval $$[-1;1]$$.

Thus the interesting can measured by $$\int_{-1}^1 (f(z)-1/2)^2 dx$$ with $$f(z)$$ a density estimated from the data. If the density $$f(z)$$ is equal to $$1/2$$ in the interval $$[-1;1]$$ then the integral becomes zero and we have found that our projected data are normally distributed. An value larger than zero indicates a deviation from the normal distribution of the projected data and hopefully an interesting distribution.

Expansion with orthonormal polynomials
Let $$L_i(z)$$ a set of orthonormal polynomials with the scalar product $$<f,g>=\int_{-1}^1 f(z)g(z) dz$$ and the norm $$\|f\| = \sqrt{<f,f>}$$. What can we derive about a densities $$f(z)$$ in the interval $$[-1;1]$$ ?

If $$f(z)=\sum_{i=0}^I a_i L_i(z)$$ for some maximal degree $$I$$ then it holds

$$\int_{-1}^1 f(z) L_j(z) dz = \int_{-1}^1 \sum_{i=0}^I a_i L_i(z) L_j(z) dz = a_j \int_{-1}^1 L_j(z) L_j(z) dz = a_j$$

We can also write $$\int_{-1}^1 f(z) L_j(z) dz = E(L_j(z))$$ or empirically we get an estimator $$\hat{a}_j = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n L_j(z_k)$$.

We describe the term $$1/2 = \sum_{i=1}^I b_i L_i(z)$$ and get for our integral

$$\int_{-1}^1 (f(z)-1/2)^2 dz = \int_{-1}^1 \left(\sum_{i=0}^I (a_i-b_i) L_i(z)\right)^2 dz = \sum_{i,j=0}^I \int_{-1}^1 (a_i-b_i)(a_j-b_j) L_i(z) L_j(z) dz = \sum_{i=0}^I (a_i-b_i)^2.$$

So using a orthonormal function set allows us to reduce the integral to a summation of coefficient which can be estimated from the data by plugging $$\hat{a}_j$$ in the formula above. The coefficients $$b_i$$ can be precomputed in advance.

Normalized Legendre polynomials
The only problem left is to find the set of orthonormal polynomials $$L_i(z)$$ upto degree $$I$$. We know that $$1, x, x^2, ..., x^I$$ form a basis for this space. We have to apply the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization to find the orthonormal polynomials. This has been started in the first example.

The resulting polynomials are called normalized Legendre polynomials. Up to a scaling factor the normalized Legendre polynomials are identical to Legendre polynomials. The Legendre polynomials have a recursive expression of the form

$$L_i(z) = \frac{(2i-1) L_{i-1}(z) - (i-1) L_{i-2}(z)}{i}$$

So computing our integral reduces to computing $$L_0(z_k)$$ and $$L_1(z_k)$$ and using the recursive relationship to compute the $$\hat{a}_j$$'s. Please note that the recursion can be numerically unstable!


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Java Programming/Struts/Struts Tag Library

Struts provides a library of JSP tags for use in constructing an application.

Common Features
All Struts tags are designed to accept common attributes, and share a common method of interacting with the environment. These attributes all refer to keyed beans stored in the page, request, session, or application objects using the  function of each. The four most common features are:

All of these attributes, where they apply, are used in similar ways in order to simplify the interface.

Nested References
The struts tag library also provides the ability to call deeper than just what's been added to the available contexts. For instance, to access the bean b within the bean a, you would set the name attribute to "a" and the property attribute to "b". However, if b had a property containing another bean (c) that you wished to access, the property attribute could be set to "b.c".

Additionally, indexed references can be used. If a an array of b, item two of the array could be referenced using a property value of "b[2]".

In summary:

Bean tags
These tags all relate to Java Beans. They are used to create and access objects that use the JavaBeans standard. Because the design of Struts is intended to decouple logic and presentation, these tags are unable to modify beans.

Html tags
These tags create HTML entities. They are used to avoid the use of scriptlets for tasks like prepopulating forms or determining the targets of links.

Logic tags
These tags are used for control flow within the document. If constructions, iteration, and page redirects are included in this namespace.