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Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Field stripping m16

Controversy
I'm pretty sure that this article might cause a bit of a discussion, if not a controversy. Bear in mind that Wikibooks is a textbook guide for various practical applications, and there have been other articles that have been nominated for deletion, due to the question of when is something a textbook, and when is something written for it's own sake.

That all being said, I would not at all mind if the article was deleted, but not for the sake of controversy, but for practicaltiy. Remember, it's an article on field stripping, not marksmanship or how to fire such a weapon. Dessydes

 * I Strongly support the keeping of this article, and particularly the improving of it with various pictures etc. Wikibooks is not censored to only tell you what the government wants people to hear, and there lies one of its significant merits. 203.214.85.83 15:42, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Field stripping m16


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User:Chris~enwikibooks

Chris is a 20-yr-old eager learner in Derby, England. He is new to Wikibooks but frequents Wikipedia and other wikiprojects, where he is generally known as Hayter (and/or, "that bastard").

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Chris~enwikibooks


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Water Resources Directory/USA/Laws

Note: This page is a stub, needing much additional information and editing.

Water Allocation Policy

 * Allocation among (present and prospective) water utility customers
 * "Santa Fe (New Mexico, USA) recently began requiring large developers to buy and transfer to the city the water rights needed to supply their developments."

Federal Laws affecting Federal Water Planning Studies
Reference: US Army Corps of Engineers, ER 1105-2-100 Appendix G

 * Abandoned Shipwreck Act of 1987 	43 USC 2101
 * American Indian Religious Freedom Act 	42 USC 1996
 * Agriculture and Food Act (Farmland Protection Policy Act) of 1981	7 USC 4201 et seq.
 * American Folklife Preservation Act of 1976, As Amended 	20 USC 2101
 * Anadromous Fish Conservation Act of 1965, As Amended 	16 USC 757 a et seq.
 * Antiquities Act of 1906, As Amended 	16 USC 431
 * Archeological and Historic Preservation Act of 1974, As Amended 	16 USC 469
 * Archeological Resources Protection Act of 1979, As Amended 	16 USC 470
 * Bald Eagle Act of 1972 	16 USC 668
 * Buy American Act 	41 USC 102
 * Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Public Law 88-352) 	6 USC 601
 * Clean Air Act of 1972, As Amended 	42 USC 7401 et seq.
 * Clean Water Act of 1972, As Amended 	33 USC 1251 et seq.
 * Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982 	16 USC 3501-3510
 * Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, As Amended 	16 USC 1451 et seq.
 * Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act of 1980 	42 USC 9601
 * Conservation of Forest Lands Act of 1960 	16 USC 580 mn
 * Contract Work Hours 	40 USC 327
 * Convict Labor 	18 USC 4082
 * Copeland Anti-Kickback 	40 USC 276c
 * Davis Bacon Act 	40 USC 276
 * Deepwater Port Act of 1974, As Amended 	33 USC 1501
 * Emergency Flood Control Funds Act of 1955, As Amended 	33 USC 701m
 * Emergency Wetlands Resources Act 	16 USC 3901-3932
 * Endangered Species Act of 1973 	16 USC 1531
 * Estuary Program Act of 1968 	16 USC 1221 et seq.
 * Equal Opportunity 	42 USC 2000d
 * Farmland Protection Policy Act 	7 USC 4201 et seq.
 * Federal Environmental Pesticide Act of 1972 	7 USC 136 et seq.
 * Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965, As Amended 	16 USC 4601
 * Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958, As Amended 	16 USC 661
 * Flood Control Act of 1944, As Amended, Section 4 	16 USC 460b
 * Food Security Act of 1985 (Swampbuster) 	16 USC 3811 et seq.
 * Hazardous Substance Response Revenue Act of 1980, As Amended 	26 USC 4611
 * Historic and Archeological Data Preservation 	16 USC 469
 * Historic Sites Act of 1935 	16 USC 461
 * Jones Act 	46 USC 292
 * Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 	46 USC 4601
 * Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 	16 USC 1801
 * Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, As Amended 	16 USC 1361
 * Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 	33 USC 1401
 * Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1928, As Amended 	16 USC 715
 * Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, As Amended 	16 USC 703
 * National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, As Amended 	42 USC 4321 et seq.
 * National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, As Amended 	16 USC 470
 * National Historic Preservation Act Amendments of 1980 	16 USC 469a
 * Native American Religious Freedom Act of 1978 	42 USC 1996
 * Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act 	25 USC 3001
 * Native American Religious Freedom Act of 1978 	16 USC 469a
 * National Trails System Act 	16 USC 1241
 * Noise Control Act of 1972, As Amended 	42 USC 4901 et seq.
 * Rehabilitation Act (1973) 	29 USC 794
 * Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960, As Amended 	16 USC 469
 * Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 	42 USC 6901-6987
 * River and Harbor Act of 1888, Sect 11 	33 USC 608
 * River and Harbor Act of 1899, Sections 9, 10, 13 	33 USC 401-413
 * River and Harbor and Flood Control Act of 1962, Section 207 	16 USC 460
 * River and Harbor and Flood Control Act of 1970, Sections 122, 209 and 216 	33 USC 426 et seq.
 * Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, As Amended 	42 USC 300f
 * Shipping Act 	46 USC 883
 * Submerged Lands Act of 1953 	43 USC 1301 et seq.
 * Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 	42 USC 9601
 * Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 	30 USC 1201-1328
 * Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 	15 USC 2601
 * Uniform Relocation and Assistance and Real Property Acquisition Policies Act of 1970, As Amended 43 *USC 4601 et seq.
 * Utilization of Small Business 	15 USC 631, 644
 * Vietnam Veterans 	38 USC 2012
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1974, As Amended 	88 Stat 12
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1976, Section 150 	90 Stat 2917
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1986 	33 USC 2201 et seq.
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1988 	33 USC 3301 note
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1990 	33 USC 3301 note
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1992 	33 USC 3301 note
 * Water Resources Development Act of 1996 	33 USC 3301 note
 * Watershed Protection and Flood Control Act of 1954, As Amended 	16 USC 1001 et seq.
 * Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968, As Amended 	16 USC 1271 et seq.
 * Wilderness Act 	16 USC 1131
 * Walsh-Healy 	41 USC 35 et seq.

Executive Orders
 * 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment, may 13, 1979 	36 FR 8921; May 15, 1971
 * 11988, Floodplain Management, May 24, 1977 	42 FR 26951; May 25, 1977
 * 11990, Protection of Wetlands 	42 FR 26961; May 25, 1977
 * 11514, Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality, March 5, 1970, as amended by Executive Order 11991, May 24, 1977
 * 12088, Federal Compliance with Pollution Control Standards, October 13, 1978
 * 12898, Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low Income Populations, February 11, 1994

Other Federal Policies
 * Council on Environmental Quality Memorandum of August 11, 1980: Analysis of Impacts on Prime and Unique Agricultural Lands in Implementing the National Environmental Policy Act
 * Council on Environmental Quality Memorandum of August 10, 1980: Interagency Consultation to Avoid or Mitigate Adverse Effects on Rivers in the Nationwide Inventory.
 * Migratory Bird Treaties and other international agreements listed in the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, Section 2(a)(4)

title: Water Resources Directory/USA/Laws


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User talk:68.184.159.189

Deletion of content
I see that you are adding in a deletion tag (using the   template) in several modules. It would be very useful if you added some comment either in the discussion section of the module or added a comment directly to the deletion tag itself such as this:

This gives us a better idea about why the content needs to be removed from Wikibooks and makes it easier to judge pages with a deletion request. BTW, thank you for your contributions to Wikibooks. --Rob Horning 17:33, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Thank you for the information - Viji

title: User talk:68.184.159.189


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Brewing/Ingredients

Beer is made from four ingredients: water, grain, hops, and yeast. Each of these ingredients can have tremendous affect on the flavor, aroma, alcohol content, and "mouth feel" of the final beer. Sometimes, adjuncts are used to add characteristic flavors, and often nutrients and agents are used improve the life cycle of the yeast.

Water
Water is the largest ingredient (by volume or by weight) in the brewing process.

Water chemistry
If you are using tap water, boil the water for five minutes to remove any chlorine. This will not be sufficient to remove chloramines. Potassium Metabisulfite can be used to remove chloramine. A simple carbon filter will remove chloramines as well as other contaminants that may affect brewing or flavor.

Various minerals may be added to excessively soft water (e.g. rain water) for those recipes that require it: In particular, calcium is an essential cofactor for the enzyme alpha amylase, which is needed to turn the starch in the barley into sugars. Minerals which are often added to water include:
 * 1) Gypsum (Calcium sulfate)
 * 2) Epsom salts (Magnesium sulfate)
 * 3) Calcium Chloride
 * 4) Salt
 * 5) Chalk (Calcium carbonate)

Fermentables
Fermentable sugars make up the primary ingredients of any beer, and are primarily obtained from grain, usually malted barley grain. Depending on the complexity of your brew, you may use barley malt, malt extract, and/or adjuncts to obtain the desired amount of fermentables in your wort (which is a sweet, unfermented liquid that can become beer, and is pronounced wert).

Barley Malt
Barley grain, or seeds, are allowed to sprout for a short amount of time and then dried to prevent further growth. This process is called malting and allows the grain to convert part of its stored starches to starches that can easily be converted to fermentable sugars, and to produce enzymes and nutrients that are important later in the brewing process. Malts are often described as under modified or fully modified and this simply refers to how long the grain was allowed germinate, and thus how well the starches have been converted and most importantly how well those nutrients have developed. Sometimes, this malted barley will be further processed by roasting, toasting, or even smoking, to allow the brewmaster to add special characteristics or complement other flavors expected in the beer.

There are two main types of barley used to make malt; two row and six row. These terms refer to the number of barley corns in the sheaf. Six row barley tends to yield a larger amount of grain per measured area of farmland, but two row generally produces larger barley corns and thus a better yield of convertible starch per measured amount of grain. However, it is generally held that six row barley will have a higher enzymatic power, which is important when using adjuncts without (or with very little of) the needed enzymes to convert their own starches during the brewing process (such as rice or corn).

Malt also varies in colour and its capacity to convert starch to sugar (diastatic power). This variation is determined by the modification level of the malt (described earlier) and by the length of time that the malt is heated after it has been germinated. Lagers and Pilseners tend to use undermodified malt, that is malt which the starch grains are relatively intact such as pale malt, while ales use more modified malts, such as crystal malts. Stouts use heavily modified malts such as chocolate, or roast barley (which technically is not a malt as it hasn't been germinated).

 A note on enzymatic and diastatic powers: enzymatic power refers to the ability of the malt to convert adjunct starches, diastatic refers to its ability to convert its own starches, which are roughly the same damn thing.

Malt Extract
Malt extract is wort which has been concentrated, either by boiling down to a syrup (LME or Liquid Malt Extract) or by being spray-dried to a powder (DME or Dried Malt Extract). Depending on the source, your malt extract may be a self-contained wort concentrate, a single grain extract, or it can be described as something in between. Mountmellick Famous Irish Style Stout malt extract is an example of a self contained concentrated wort in that by simply dissolving the syrup into an appropriate amount of water you will have a fully developed wort, ready to be fermented. It has already gone through a process to extract the sugars from the grain and develop needed nutrients and flavor characteristics. Such prepared kits are invaluable to the first time homebrewer, since they will result in an acceptable beer while allowing the brewer to learn about the processes outside of the actual brewing.

However, to have more control of the flavor, body, alcohol content, and a host of other factors, a malt extract brewer will eventually start to mix and match differing amounts of different malt extracts that have been concentrated from liquid rich in fermentable sugars from differing amounts of barley malts and adjuncts. These malt extracts come from batches with varying degrees of plain malted barley, of varying degrees of modification, roasted barley malt, wheat malt and flakes, rice, corn, many other forms of grain, and even cane sugar. Often these extracts are sold without much indication of what went into them, merely saying "Amber LME," "dark LME," "Light DME" and so forth. While most extract recipes will also use such vague terminology, it might benefit the brewer to request information regarding the ingredients, since certain types of sugars can impart unwanted flavors in a beer if present in too large proportions.

Adjuncts
Adjuncts are sources of fermentable sugars that are not barley. Adjuncts should be used to add unique flavors, aromas, and head retention and body characteristics to a beer. Adjuncts can also be used to increase alcohol content, lower production costs, and add "blanding" characteristics. Major commercial breweries use adjuncts such as corn and rice to reduce production costs and, in conjunction with other techniques and additives, create a consistent but boring tasting beer. This allows them to produce a beer that will be accepted by a wider range of people, and keeping them, while using a minimal amount of capital. While this is good for business, as a home-brewer you are not going to sell your beer, so you should be concerned with what you like. You will likely find that you prefer unique flavors of your own devising to the lower cost of a simpler beer.

Commonly used adjuncts:
 * Barley - Unmalted barley can contribute to head retention.
 * Cane Sugar - Yes, cane sugar can be used to increase fermentables, but can (and usually will) impart a "cidery" taste to the finished beer.
 * Corn - Corn starch can lighten the flavor and body of the beer. Some brewmasters claim it has a stabilizing affect on the flavor.
 * Honey - If added at the beginning of the boil, the sugars in honey will break down become fermentable, however the most potent parts of the honey flavor will then be lost.
 * Oats - Oats can add a meaty, heavy body flavor to a beer. Yes it will taste like oatmeal.
 * Potato - A relatively neutral adjunct that can increase the amount of fermentables in the wort at low cost.
 * Rice - Like corn, rice can lighten the flavor and body of the beer.
 * Rye - Unmalted rye contributes a dry, crisp character.
 * Wheat - Wheat malt can impart a sour flavor, unmalted wheat flour or flakes can assist head retention

Hops
The use of hops is one of, if not the most, important differences in the production of beer from the production of other alcoholic drinks. Without the bittering effect of hops, beer would be nothing more than a low alcohol wine made from barley (in fact, with a more alcohol-resistant strain of yeast and a slightly higher amount of fermentables, it would be a wine). Hops are used for three basic reasons: bittering, flavouring, and aroma. They also have somewhat of a preservative effect, although the extent of this effect is debated. In the days before refrigeration, shipments of beer on long voyages would often sour or spoil, due to bacterial or fungal infection or simply due to aging. Breweries often would steep herbs and plants in the unfermented wort to inhibit this spoilage and stabilize the flavour of the beer. Hops simply won out due to the popularity of the flavor, and the benefits it provided, such as improved head retention, clarification, and the counteraction to the sweet, sticky taste beer had otherwise.

Some examples of hop varieties are Hallertau Mittelfrueh, Tettnang, Spalt, Saaz, Mt. Hood, Perle, and Cascade, and they are available in whole form and pellets.

Bittering
The bitterness in a beer comes mainly from the alpha acid resins present in the hop flower, or cone. Hops are usually labelled according to % alpha acid, which can be used to determine the amount of a given kind of hops to produce a given level of bitterness.

Brewing scientists use International Bitterness Units (IBUs) in their calculations of the bitterness of a given beer. The units describe the amount of alpha acids per liter of wort. However, IBUs do not completely reflect the bitterness perceived in a beer because a given IBU in a light bodied beer will taste much more bitter than a heavy bodied beer with the same IBU. The alpha acids counteract the sweet flavors of the sugars, so the more sugars available, the more alpha acids required to counteract them.

A simpler method used in recipes is the Homebrew Bitterness Unit (HBU), which is simply the % alpha acid × the ounces of hops. Since hops of the same variety can vary from year to year in % alpha acid, this measurement can be useful to maintain consistency in the bitterness of a given recipe. Another unit that can be used is Metric Bitterness Units (MBU) which is calculated exactly as HBUs, but using grams instead of ounces.

Bitterness is extracted by boiling the hops in the wort for an hour or more. The alpha acids require the high temperature for so long to allow isomerization to occur, which is just a fancy word to describe the chemical reaction that causes the alpha acids to dissolve into the wort. The longer this reaction is allowed to occur, the better the utilization of the alpha acids will be, since more of it will be extracted.

Flavouring and Aroma
Hops also contain hop oils that have strong tastes and smells that many home-brewers find quite desirable. These oils, unlike alpha acids, are water soluble, and can quickly be extracted. However, because they are soluble, they will also "boil away." So, to get the desirable flavors and aromas into the beer, Flavoring and aroma hops are added near the end of the boil, sometimes in two stages, and less often a brew master may "dry hop" the fermenting beer.

Yeast
Yeast is technically an ingredient, but yet it really isn't. Yeast can be thought of as the machine by which wort is turned into beer. Before the discovery of yeast, this process was considered somewhat magical, and beer was often fermented by wild strains of yeast, and sometimes by a strain of yeast found on a family's stir stick or in previously used fermentation barrels. In fact, the Reinheitsgebot of Germany stated that the only permissible ingredients in beer were barley, hops, and water. Often, fermenting beer would get contaminated with bacteria and/or undesirable strains of yeast, and barrels would be burned - not because of the contamination but because the barrel was "cursed." A "stir stick" that was used in successful batches of beer would be considered blessed and would be treasured by its owners, not realizing that it was just infected with a desirable strain of yeast.

There are two main types of beer yeast; Ale and Lager. Ale yeast is top-fermenting and prefers temperatures from 60–70°F (15 - 21°C). Ales are typically more complex than lagers, with more flavour and aroma components. Lager yeast is bottom-fermenting and prefers cooler temperatures. It typically results in a cleaner tasting beer, without the esotery character common to ales.

Yeast comes in two main forms, dried and liquid. Dried yeast can be of very good quality (avoid that which comes with tins of malt extract, though), and is often more quickly active in a beer. It can produce a limited range of ales—beware that no dried yeast is truly a lager yeast, nor will it provide the distinctive lager character. Dried yeasts are generally more effective if rehydrated prior to use. Liquid yeasts are harder to store as they must be kept chilled prior to use. There are many more strains of liquid yeast, and thus one can much more exactly reproduce a particular beer or style. Dried yeast is typically used by beginners and liquid yeast by more advanced brewers, although there are exceptions on either end of the scale.

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Brewing/Recipes

 * Recipe for /Mead/ (honey beer/wine)

title: Brewing/Recipes


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Brewing/Equipment

As you continue to homebrew you will gather a collection of homebrewing equipment. This collection will continue to grow and evolve as you continue to brew and you find what works for you.

Basic Homebrewing Equipment
The equipment described here should be considered vital to any homebrewing set up. These items should be purchased from a reputable homebrew supply store, since the quality of materials and construction of these tools is of absolute importance. A brewer can choose to use sub-standard ingredients, and/or less than perfect brewing practices (with the exception of sanitation procedures), and still produce a drinkable beer. Conversely, even with the highest quality ingredients, and the perfect application of brewing procedures, use of poor quality equipment will invariably lead to disaster. When choosing equipment, purchase equipment made from stainless steel, high quality tempered glass, and food grade plastics when possible.

 * Brew Kettle - A brew kettle should always be used to boil wort (unfermented beer) before pitching yeast. Some beer kits may claim that boiling is not mandatory, such as pre-hopped extract kits, but experienced brew masters know that hopping even pre-hopped extracts will result in a fresher taste and boiling ingredients will help prevent unwanted microbial infections. The kettle should be made of stainless steel, or aluminum. While a 3-gallon capacity can be sufficient a larger kettle, capable of holding an entire batch with adequate space to contain foaming will improve the quality of beer produced.  Many homebrewers prefer a kettle with a ball valve attached, allowing simple gravity transfer to the fermenter.
 * Stove or Burner - Some method of heating the wort to boiling is needed. Small batches can be boiled on a kitchen stove, however propane burner are preferred by many, as they can reduce the time needed to bring wort to a boil, and allows larger volumes of wort to be boiled.

 * Stirring Spoon - It is important to stir the wort while bringing it to a boil and while boiling to keep from scorching the solubles. The spoon should be steel or food grade plastic; never use wood or porous materials. Flavors from previous boils can transfer via porous materials, but even worse, so can bacteria.

 * Fermenters - Your fermenter must be made of high quality food grade plastics or tempered glass. There are two types of fermenters commonly used by modern homebrewers; glass carboys and plastic buckets. A few homebrewers use stainless steel conical fermenters, which are similar to the tanks large brewerys use, however these are not necessary to produce great beer. Generally, for a five gallon (19L) batch of beer, the fermenter should have about a 6.5 gallon capacity. During fermentation, a layer of foam will form on the surface of the liquid, which is called krausen. You will need an adequate amount of ullage to prevent the krausen from contaminating the airlock. (Ullage is the space between the surface of the contained liquid and the top of the container.) It is imperative to properly sterilize fermenters before and after use, and to be careful not to scratch or damage the inside surface. You should have at least one fermenter and an additional food grade bucket to serve as a "bottling bucket." Some brewers choose to have two fermenters; one for primary fermentation and one for secondary.

 * Bottling Bucket - A bottling bucket is a simple food grade bucket with a spigot attached. The bottling buckets allows priming sugar to be added to the beer consistently without disturbing the yeast and trub layer at the bottom of the fermenter.  The spigot allows bottles to be filled easily and constantly using gravity.

 * Airlocks - There are several types of airlocks, the two most popular being the three-piece and the single piece airlocks. The goal of the airlock is to prevent foreign particles and oxygen from floating into the fermenting beer while allowing CO2 to push it's way out. The one piece works similar to the drain trap under your sink, CO2 pushes on the trapping water until it pushes slightly past the bottom of the J, allowing part of the interior atmosphere to escape. In the three-piece design, the escaping CO2 actually pushes a plastic cap piece up until the gas can escape around the bottom of the cap. Another type of airlock used with carboys, is called a blowoff hose. A large plastic hose (1.5in for most standard carboys) is attached to the mouth of the carboy and the other end is placed in a container of water. Escaping gas simply bubbles through the water. Blowoff tubes are frequently used for active fermentation.  The yeast matter can then escape through the tube into the bucket of water.

 * Syphon - Once fermentation has begun, and there is alcohol in the liquid, it's a good practice to avoid aerating the liquid. Yeast still in beer will oxidize and cause undesirable tastes. So, it's also good practice to carefully siphon the beer when transferring from container to container. A meter of hose will do the job, but if you purchase a kit from your local brew supply store, you will receive a racking cane, a cane clip, and a tube clip, in addition to some hose. The racking cane is a rigid plastic, cane shaped tube that when clipped to the "from" bucket with the cane clip eases the entire process. The tube clip is will allow the syphoner to stop the flow of liquid by pinching the hose; when filling bottles, it's a good idea to have an "off button."

 * Bottles - A standard 5 gallon (19L) batch of beer will fill approximately two cases (48 bottles), depending on transfer loss. Either swing top bottles (with the rubber gasket) or pry top bottles may be used.  Screw top bottles cannot be capped reliably using equipment available to the homebrewer.

 * Bottle Caps - Caps can be purchased from a brewing supply store, usually by the gross (144).

 * Bottle Capper - There are two main types of cappers, as pictured to the right (someday). Description of pros and cons of each should go here :P

Optional Brewing Equipment
The equipment and tools listed here can ease certain burdens of the brewing process, and/or can allow the brewer to employ complex techniques. Some of the tools can be home made, but they should be constructed using the highest quality materials.

Record Keeping & Measurement
log book, clock

A hydrometer is a device to measure the specific gravity (a measure of density) of a liquid. For the brewer the specific gravity(SG) relates the amount of fermentables in a solution of wort or beer. Taking Specific Gravity readings after boiling (OG) and at the end of fermentation (FG) the amount of alcohol can be calculated. Hydrometers are relatively inexpensive equipment which will help to produce consistent beer. A hydrometer should be verified before each use by placing in distilled water, the hydrometer should read 1.000 in distilled water, if slightly off adjust for the inaccuracy, if far off replace your hydrometer. The alcohol content is approximately ABV=(OG-FG)/7.62
 * Hydrometer

A refractometer is used to measure the refractive index of a solution. A refractometer is used as a substitute for a hydrometer in brewing applications. Refractometers have a few advantages over hydrometers, first they can be re-calibrated easily. The second advantage of a refractometer is only a few drops of a sample are need to take a measurement. The two main drawbacks to a refractometer are they are substantially more expensive than hydrometers and, the a correction is needed for alcohol content in a partially fermented sample.
 * Refractometer

Temperature plays an important role in the brewing process. An accurate thermometer, which can be calibrated is important to ensure a consistent beer.
 * Thermometer

All Grain Brewing Tools and Equipment
Sparge equipment, Grain sack, iodine, etc.

Grain Mill
A grain mill is used to crush grain for steeping or mashing. Crushing the grain breaks the husk and endosperm inside the kernel allowing access to the components inside the grain. Most grain mills are roller mills, where the grain is run between two closely spaced rollers. While having ones' own mill allows more control over the crush of the grain, and allows brewers to purchase bulk grain keeping costs lower, most home brew shops will crush grain for you.

Mash/Lauder Tun
A mash tun is a vessel where the biochemical processes of the mash occur. Most home brewers use a combination mash/lauder tun. The mash/lauder tun must hold the grain and water during the mash and allow the sweet wort to be drained from the vessel. The most common mash tuns used by homebrewers are plastic beverage coolers, with a false bottom (stainless steel plate with holes in it) or a manifold on the bottom of the vessel. The grain bed and the false bottom or manifold act as a filter only allowing the sweet wort to flow out of the mash tun to the boil kettle. Commercial breweries will frequently use a separate mash and lauder tun. The mash tun is where the starch conversion occurs, the entire mash is then transferred to a lauder tun to be drained and rinsed in a process called a lauder or sparge. This frees the mash tun for another batch to be mashed, while the sparge is conducted on the first batch. Separate mash and lauder tuns are unnecessary for smaller operations where a batch needs to be in the boil kettle as much of the time as possible.

Sanitation Equipment
Bottle washer, tree, brushes, bleach, oxyclean

Bottling/Finishing Equipment
bottle fill tube, bottling bucket, spigot, cooler, kegging, etc.

Other Useful Tools
Chiller, labeling

Hop Socks
Hop socks or hop bags are knitted bags. Hop cones or pellets are placed inside a sock to allow alpha and beta acids, and flavoring and aroma characteristics to be extracted from them during the boil, while allowing the spent particles to be quickly removed from the wort. Use of hop bags is a controversial subject. Some believe that hops should be allowed to freely move in the boil, while others use hop bags to reduce the sediment in the bottom of the kettle at the end of to boil.

Chiller
Chillers are used to cool wort to yeast pitching temperatures from boiling temperatures as rapidly as possible. Rapid chilling of wort reduces the formation of DMS (a compound which contributes to off flavors). There are two basic types of chillers, immersion chillers and counter-flow chillers. Immersion chillers are simply a coil of tubing, typically copper, which is placed in the wort. A coolant, typically tap water is then run though the chiller exchanging heat with the hot wort. Counter-flow chillers work by the wort flowing through the chiller on the way to the fermenter, and cool water flowing in around the wort line in the opposite direction. Two varieties of counter-flow chillers are commonly in use. the concentric coil chiller with the wort running thought a metal tube which is surrounded by another tube which the coolant flows though. The other type is the plate chiller, which is much more compact and smaller, however also much more difficult to clean after use. Cleaning and sanitation are very important with counter-flow chillers as the wort flowing though the chiller is not boiling after it leaves the chiller, and it is not possible to examine or scrub the inside of a counter-flow chiller.

Whirlpool
A Whirlpool is used to remove turb from the wort before entering the fermentor. For homebrewers using a whirlpool the hot wort is pumped from the bottom of the kettle and then pumped back into the kettle such that the wort spins. This causes the sediment to set in a pile at the center of the kettle when the pump is turned off and the wort allowed to settle. Many homebrewers are experimenting with combining a whirlpool with an immersion chiller. This has shown to decrease chilling time substantially as well as reducing the solids transferred to the fermenter.

Water Filter
Filtration of brewing water can improve the flavor of a beer. The removal of chlorine or chloramine (common disinfectants used in municipal water supplies) can greatly improve the flavor of a finished beer. This is especially important for all-grain brewers. A activated carbon filter will remove chlorine, chloramine and many organic compounds which are undesirable in the brewing process.

Beer Filter
Many brewers wish to improve the clarity their beer thorough filtering. Filtering of finished beer will remove haze in a beer, as well as any yeast left in suspension. Depending on the degree of filtration a beer many need yeast reintroduced to be naturally carbonated. Alternatively a beer can be force carbonated directly in a keg after filtration.

Oxygen System
Oxygenation systems are used to reintroduce oxygen to the wort before the yeast has begun fermentation. Yeast require oxygen to grow, however boiled wort will be nearly free of dissolved oxygen. Stainless steel diffusion stones are frequently used to encourage the gas to enter solution. Oxygen is either supplied through a pure O2 tank or a air pump using a sterile filter.

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Brewing/Procedures

In the Beginning...
Making beer starts in the field where hardworking farmers raise acres of barley and wonderful hop bines. Barley is grown in winter and spring varieties, and barley for beer is grown in 2-row and 6-row varieties. Hop vines are an annual crop, harvested flower buds, or cones, being the fruit of the plant brewers have interest in. The vines may be trimmed back, and the core of the plant left in the ground for next year. Barley grain is then sent to the maltster, and hops are either immediately used, frozen and vacuum packed until use, or compressed into pellets and stored for future use.

Grain Preparation
Harvested grain is allowed to germinate for 1-3 days until the desired level of modification is achieved. Then the grain is dried using heat to varying degrees and drying times to produce the varying types and styles of malt. For some styles of malt, additional preparations are preformed such as smoking or roasting. The malted grain is milled using varied designs of grinders that attempt to break up the starch rich "meat" of the grain, while leaving the hulls as intact as possible.

Mashing and Lautering
The starches are broken down to fermentable sugars and extracted into water from the milled malt grains or grist by processes called the mash and the lauter. The mash uses heat at specific temperatures to activate certain enzymes that break starch chains down to sugars that can easily be consumed by yeast. Lautering is simply the straining of the spent grain from the sugar enriched water. Sparging is another process that rinses the spent grain, and is usually done as a part of the lautering.

The Mash
There are three major fashions in which the mash is preformed; Infusion, Temperature Controlled Step, and Decoction. The infusion mash is the simplest, in which grist and water are combined and held at a single temperature until the conversion of starches to sugars is complete. It gets its name from the "infusion" of hot water into the grist to obtain the initial temperature. The step mash gets its name from the manner by which the temperature of the mash is brought to an initial point, held there for a period of time, called a rest, and then raised to another rest, and sometimes again. If you plot the temperature with respect to time, the plot will appear to be "steps." The Decoction mash is the oldest method and is done by infusing boiling water to the mash to achieve initial temperature rest. Sometime before the end of the rest, a measured amount of the mash (water and grist) is removed and brought to a boil. When added back in, the mash temperature raises to the next rest. This is usually done once more, and sometimes a fourth rest is used.

The Lauter and Sparge
Once the starches are converted to sugars, and dissolved into the mash water, the sweet liquid is drained away and sent to the boil. The sweet liquid can be filtered through a collander or a screen, but it is often more desirable to carefully drain the liquid away from the grain to avoid excessive aeration of the hot liquid, since this will cause oxidation. Usually the lauter and the sparge are done as one operation.

The mash is carefully put into a lauter tun, using some sparge water to keep the surface of the liquid above that of the grain. This allows the grain to form a "bed" where the spent hulls support each other and form a filtration structure, while the higher temperature of the sparge water stops further enzymatic activity. Sometimes the mash tun and the lauter tun are one and the same, in which case sparge water is added to the mash to maintain the surface while part of the mash is drained and cycled back into the mash. Once the mash is completely transferred, or the cycling liquid "runs clear," or has no large particles, the sweet liquid is slowly drained to the boil kettle while fresh sparge water is carefully added to the top of the tun. When the volume of liquid from the mash is drained, lautering is considered complete. But, the process is usually continued, and is called sparging. The resulting liquid can now be called wort.

Malt Extract
The sweet liquid that results from the mash, lauter, and sparge can be considered "extract." The all-grain home brewer ignores this and proceeds to the boil. However, this liquid can be concentrated, by boiling down to a thick syrup, or cooked into a dry powder. These are the forms we usually refer to as "malt extract." Bulk malt extract and unhopped extract kits are produced this way, and pre-hopped extracts are either obtained after the boil or simply mixed with hop extract.

When a brewer uses malt extracts to make beer, he must first "unconcentrate" the extract. This can be compared to making orange juice from frozen orange juice concentrate. An amount of water is brought to a boil, then removed from the heat source. The malt extract is stirred in, dissolving into the liquid, which then can be again called wort.

The Boil
Hops are then added to the wort, and boiled therein for an hour or more. This causes alpha acids in the hops to break down and dissolve into the wort. Some adjuncts that could not be added in the mash can also be added to the boil, as in the case of molasses, or if a mash was not performed at all (this is then called partial mash brewing). Near the end of the boil more hops may be added to impart flavors and aromas from the hops, certain fining agents may be added such as Irish moss, and certain other adjuncts may be added to pasturize them while leaving their starch chains intact.

Before pitching yeast, the wort must be cooled to a yeast friendly temperature. This can be done by immersing the brew kettle in a tub full of cold water, placing a special chilling coil into the wort, or special chillers that the wort actually passes through. Quick cooling lessens the potential for early bacterial contamination or oxidation of the wort. Slow wort cooling can allow dimethyl sulfide to build up in the wort, which will produce off flavors. Rapid cooling also aids in cold break formation, allowing a clearer beer to be produced.

Yeast Farm?
Professional and commercial breweries usually maintain a culture of yeast that they use in their beer. Many homebrewers do the same, and the science, or art as some might consider it, of maintaining a yeast culture is called zymurgy or, more affectionately, yeast farming. This process can be considered apart from the brewing process, since viable yeast cultures can be bought and quickly pitched to a cooled wort, but a wise brewer knows that understanding how yeast lives is very important to understanding how yeast makes beer. In fact, most experienced homebrewers will prepare what is called a "starter" to pitch instead of blindly tossing in the contents of the store bought vial.

A nurturing environment is produced that is rich in sugars and nutrients, into which yeast is pitched. The mixture is allowed to ferment for a day or two, or even a few hours, after which the sediment may be harvested and placed into cold storage. The yeast sediment may also be freeze-dried to produce the dried yeast that comes in packets with many shelf stored beer kits. The stored yeast, in liquid form, can be expected to have viable cells several months later, but a yeast farmer will repitch after no more than a month, both to keep the culture alive, and to revitalize the amount of viable cells.

A day or two before brew day, a smart brewer will create a starter by preparing perhaps a quart of wort, using a DME (dry malt extract) for simplicity and then pitching either a sample from his yeast farm, a store bought vial of liquid yeast, or rehydrated dry yeast. The yeast will multiply in number until they reach an optimal threshold of yeast per volume of wort, and the fermenting starter will exhibit signs of primary fermentation and it is then ready to pitch to the wort. As an aside, professional breweries who ferment in large batches might make several starters, i.e., a quart to start a five gallon starter to start a 60 gallon barrel. By doing this, the brewer shortens the time it takes for primary fermentation to start, and thus minimizes the chances for unwanted microbials getting a foot hold and ruining the batch.

Fermentation
Fermentation is said to have two stages; primary and secondary. In primary fermentation, yeast is very active, reproducing itself and consuming the easily converted sugars. The process may seem violent, and a foam head will form, which is called krauesen. Once the krauesen "drops," or settles to the bottom, primary fermentation is complete and some brewers will transfer the fermenting liquid off of the sediment and into a secondary fermenter. This is done to prevent the spent yeast cells from negatively affecting the flavor of the beer, however the benefit of doing this is somewhat debatable, and some brewers choose not to do this.

Fermentation can take a couple weeks to a month, or even longer depending on the amount of sugars in the wort and the difficulty of conversion. Light body beers can be quickly fermented with fast working ale yeast. Conversely, heavy body beers fermented with colder working lager yeast can ferment a lot longer. Primary fermentation usually is complete within the first week.

Carbonation
Before consumption beer is normally carbonated, and often aged for a week or more. Generally, longer aging produces a better beer, but too much aging can negatively affect the quality. Beer can be naturally or artificially carbonated. Natural carbonation capitalizes on the fact that even after fermentation is complete, yeast remains suspended in the beer. After transferring the beer into an intermediate "bottling" or "priming" bucket, additional fermentable sugar is added to the beer. The beer is allowed to sit for up to 24 hours, in which time the suspended yeast reawakens and begins to convert the new sugars. The beer is then put into a sealed container or containers, such as a keg or recappable bottles. Within a week the yeast will have converted the new sugars into a negligible amount of alcohol and an amount of CO2 adequate to pressurize the container and carbonate the beer.

Aging becomes most important when the sugars added are different than the sugars present in the source wort. Priming corn sugar is quickly converted and so will result in larger bubbles and a thin head. Given time under pressure these bubbles will break down and allow better head development. Priming malt will perform better, but both priming sources will introduce flavors that may not have been present in the original beer. A process called krauesening is optimal, but requires slightly more work. Aging also allows the suspended yeast to settle, and allow the beer to clear, resulting in a cleaner looking and tasting beer.

Artificial carbonation is done by putting the beer into a keg and applying pressure from a CO2 tank for at least 24 hours to force carbonate.

Consumption
Artificially carbonated beer should be poured into a stein, to avoid sloshing the sediment while drinking. Steins should be washed using a diluted bleach solution, since dish soaps will leave a film on the glass that will destroy beer head. Homebrewed beer still has suspended yeast cells in it, which is a Good Thing(TM). When a human drinks alcohol, its body uses vitamin B complex and water to neutralize and rid itself of the alcohol. If it didn't do this, the human would remain perpetually drunk, which might sound good, but then the human would be unable to drink more beer since it would probably kill it. Now, when that human wakes in the morning after two cases of beer, a bottle of BaerenJaeger, and a few hours praying to a porcelain god, the human's body is depleted of vitamin b and is dehydrated from excessive gifts to the aforementioned god. Yeast cell walls contain vitamin b complex, so a homebrewer, after enjoying a few home brews with good friends will drink a glass or two of water before going to bed. NO HANGOVERS. (Well, at least less likely)

title: Brewing/Procedures


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A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Processing and Programming Techniques/Operating Systems

Operating System Classification
There are several types of operating systems.

Interactive
In an interactive operating system, the user interacts directly with the operating system to supply commands and data as the application program executes and the user receives the results of processing immediately. The user is in direct two way communication with the computer.

Real time
A real time operating system will give guaranteed feedback within a predefined set period of time, therefore taking away the unpredictability of the operation being carried out. This allows for the system to be mathematically modelled to allow the time needed for operations to be carried out to be determined, even under the predicted maximum stress levels. It allows deadlines to be set on operations being carried so as to provide a "best of" result within the time period able to be given for an operation.

Example: If a real time operating system was used to control a planes rudders (via a RT application) it would need to set deadlines on the calculations used to calculate rudder movements. Without these deadlines a calculations results may be returned to late and cause to plane to crash.

One very important factor to remember about real time operating systems and applications is that "the right answer late is wrong". After all what is the point in having the correct answer to a planes rudder calculation if it comes too late and the plane has already crashed because the rudder angle was not changed earlier.

Multi-programming system
Multi programming is the apparent simultaneous execution of two or more programs. In a desktop computer, for example, several programs all seem to be running at the same time. What is really happening is that the processor is switching between each program, giving each one a small slice of processor time. This happens fast enough to create the illusion of several programs running at once.

Multi-user system
A multi user operating system allows two or more users to communicate with the computer at the same time. Each user has a terminal with a display unit and an input device, like a keyboard, which is connected to the computer system. The processor switches between each user's programs very quickly, and each user is unaware of anybody else using the computer from another terminal.

Command Line Interface
A command line interface or CLI is a tool for interacting with computers, often using a text terminal. Commands are entered as lines of text (that is, sequences of typed characters) from a keyboard, and output is also received as text. CLIs originated when teletype machines were connected to computers in the 1950s. In terms of immediate interaction and feedback, they represented an advance over the use of punch cards.

Graphical user interface
A graphical user interface (GUI) allows the user to interact with their operating systems via the use of windows, menus and a pointer. A typical GUI allows the user to click icons on screen and follow through hierarchical structures rather than having to type command lines.


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Brewing/Cleaning and Sanitization

Not enough can be said about sanitation with beer making. Good beer comes about when you use the yeast that you want to without other yeast or bacterium coming in and having a party in your wort at your expense (and bad tasting beer).

 * 1) Assume that everything has to be sanitized before it touches the wort
 * 2) * This is a good rule to live by and helps keep your wort from getting unwanted infections.
 * 3) * Whenever you are brewing keep a pail of sanitizing solution available for anything you may want to sanitize
 * 4) Have a drying rack available
 * 5) Drop your equipment in to the bucket of sanitizer
 * 6) * all of it; hoses, spoons, air locks, etc.
 * 7) Leave it there for the prescribed time period (read the instructions on the side of the package)
 * 8) Remove from the pail, rinse (as necessary) and allow to dry

There is a difference between what is referred to as clean and sanitized. Clean means the chunks, and debris and discoloration are removed from the equipment. Sanitized means that all of the bacteria that may be growing on the equipment is killed. When in doubt, sanitize.

References: Cleaner or Santizer? By: Mike Dixon, taken from http://hbd.org/carboy/newslet/ferm1001.htm

title: Brewing/Cleaning and Sanitization


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Brewing/Fermentation

Yeast pitching
Yeast is added to the cooled wort as (or after it is added to the fermenter). It is important to get enough healthy yeast in to the brew to achieve a healthy fermentation.

When using a yeast slurry the pitching is adjusted for the amount of beer in the yeast. The pitching rate is also adjusted for the number of dead yeast cells in the slurry

Yeast cropping
When yeast is recovered from a fermenter with the intention of re-using the yeast for a subsequent fermentation it is referred to as cropping of the yeast. The timing of the cropping is important to recover yeast with maximum nutritional reserves.

Yeast storage
It is inevitable that yeast will need to be stored between cropping and pitching. By keeping the yeast cold the yeast metabolism is slowed down so that nutritional reserves are available so that the yeast doesn't starve during storage.

Primary Fermentation
Primary fermentation takes place in a bucket or carboy, sometimes left open but often stoppered with the carbon dioxide gas produced venting through a fermentation lock. During this time, temperatures should be kept at optimum temperature for the fermentation process. For ale this temperature is usually 65-75°F / 18-24°C, and for lager it is usually much colder, around 50°F / 10°C. Starting within 12 hours and continuing over the next few days a vigorous fermentation takes place. During this stage the simple sugar maltose in the wort is consumed by the yeast. A layer of sediment, the trub, appears at the bottom of the fermenter, composed of heavy fats, proteins and inactive yeast. A sure sign that primary fermentation has finished is that the head of foam (krausen), built by bubbling of CO2, falls.

Secondary fermentation
Often, the beer is then siphoned into another container, usually a carboy, for aging or secondary fermentation. The siphoning is done to separate the batch from the afore-mentioned layer of sediment so that it is not used as food, as this can give the beer a off-flavor. During secondary fermentation the heavier, more complex sugars and impurities are digested. Secondary fermentation can take from 2 to 4 weeks, sometimes longer, depending on the type of beer. Some homebrewers will keep the batch in the primary fermenter (called single stage fermentation) for secondary fermentation and simply put up with any off flavors. This eliminates the need for a second container, reduces labor, and reduces the likelihood of contaminating the batch with bacteria, or oxidizing it, during transfer to the second container. This is a good beginner strategy, especially for those not skilled with siphoning liquids.

title: Brewing/Fermentation


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Brewing/Bottling and Kegging

Bottling & Kegging
Before you will want to drink your beer you will want to carbonate it. There are two general ways you can do this; bottle conditioning and forced carbonation. Bottle conditioning is a generic term that refers to both natural carbonation and aging the beer, whereas forced carbonation refers to putting the beer under pressure with CO2 in a container such as a keg. Be sure to realize that natural carbonation can be done in a keg, and forced carbonation can be done before bottling.

Natural Carbonation
When fermentation is complete, this only means that all the fermentable sugars have been consumed and converted by yeast; there are still yeast cells floating in the beer. You can take advantage of this, and the fact that a by-product of fermentation is CO2. All you need to do is introduce fermentable sugars into your beer to restart the fermentation process. There are two main ways to accomplish this; priming or kraeusening.

It is also important to note that if there is too much sugar available to the yeast when you seal the container, the yeast will continue processing the sugar until it is gone - even if the pressure exceeds the strength of the container. In other words, without careful attention paid, bottles can and will explode. The best way to avoid this is to first be certain fermentation is complete, and then avoid introducing too much sugar for priming. It is recommended to take at least three gravity readings, a day apart a piece; if the reading remains the same through three readings, you can be reasonably sure fermentation is complete.

Priming
The most common way to restart fermentation is to add a mixture of water and corn sugar or dry malt extract (DME) to the fermented beer. For a 19 Liter (5 Gallon) batch of beer, you will use 180 ml (¾ cup) of corn sugar or 300 ml (1¼ cups) of dry malt extract. More sugar can be used for a higher level of carbonation, but avoid using more than 240ml (1 cup) of corn sugar or 400 ml (1⅔cups) of DME. The measure of sugars should be dissolved into 0.5 l (1 pint) of boiling water, allowed to boil for a few minutes, and then quickly cooled to the temperature of the beer. Stir this mixture into the beer, carefully so as to avoid splashing and exposure to oxygen.

Some experts state that you should "rack," or let sit, the primed beer for about 24 hours before bottling to allow fermentation to restart, however in practice, it seems that as long as the newly added sugars are sufficiently mixed into the beer, consistency will be fine, and the time from priming to enjoying will be the same. The most notable problem with priming beer is the introduction of new flavors that would not be in the original wort. This can impart a subtle flavor that will exist in beers that otherwise would be completely different. The best way to avoid this is to kraeusen your beer.

Advanced Priming
Priming Tablets (Carbonation Tablets) or "Primetabs" are an advanced method of priming beer in homebrewing, They are small, sanitized corn sugar tablets which come in packages of usually 250 tablets per package, and are used when bottling your beer. Some priming tablets also contain DME (Dried Malt Extract) in the tablet with the corn sugar. When bottling your beer you usually add from 1 to 5 primetabs to a regular 12 oz / 330 ml bottle, depending upon how much carbonation you desire. 2 for lowly-carbonated beers like British Ales, and up to 4 or 5 for highly carbonated beers like Hefeweizen and others. There is typically no boiling or other handling required - simply put the desired number of tablets in the bottle, fill with beer, then cap, and that's it. Some priming tablets like Coopers Carbonation Drops only require 1 tablet per a 12 oz [345 -375 ml] bottle so be sure to read the package directions before using. For example, Munton's CarbTabs are different in amount of tablets required verses Cooper's Carbonation Drops. The tablets can be added before or after filling as there no difference either way. However, once the bottle is capped it should be turned on-end 2 or 3 times until the tablets dissolve in the liquid. After the bottle is capped in the first few hours, it is good idea to swirl or tip the bottle end to end to ensure a good mixture throughout the bottled beer. This ensures that the added priming sugars are accessible to the remaining yeast in the bottle, then the bottles can be left in a dark 60F to 70F (15C to 20C) environment for the standard week or two, which is long enough for the carbonation to develop in the bottled beer.. For best results the bottle should sit for two weeks. The only downside with priming tablets or "Primetabs" is their price tag, as they are usually more expensive than your regular run-of-the-mill corn sugar that is typically used to prime beer with.

Kraeusening
Kraeusening requires a bit of fore thought, before you pitch yeast to your wort. The idea is to save a portion of the unfermented wort from fermentation and then add it back to the fermented beer before bottling. This allows you to add more sugars for the yeast to consume without introducing unnatural (to that specific beer at least) flavors. If you use fining agents at boil time (such as Irish moss) this has the added effect of reintroducing some of those fining agents back to the beer and can help clarity and reduce haze.

The saved wort is called gyle, and due to the fact that worts will vary in fermentable sugar content from beer to beer the gyle will have a variable sugar content. Because of this you must calculate the amount of gyle needed at the end of the boil, just before pitching yeast. This requires the use of a hydrometer. First, take a gravity reading of the wort at pitching temperature, after adding any waters to bring the wort to the desired volume (usually 19l or 5 gallons). Subtract from this reading 1 and then multiply that number by 1000. In other words drop the 1.0 from the front of the reading, so that a reading of 1.065 becomes 65. Then divide the volume by this number, and then multiply this number by 3 to find the volume of gyle needed. For example, a 19l (5 gal) batch of wort has a gravity reading of 1.040: (19liters/40) x 3 = 1.425 liters of gyle or (5gal/40) x 3 = .375gal = 1½ quarts of gyle.

It is imperative to store this gyle in a sealed container to avoid contamination by bacteria or wild yeasts. Once you are prepared to bottle, you will use the gyle in the same fashion you use the corn sugar or DME and water mixture. It is not necessary to reboil the gyle, but be sure the temperatures of the gyle and beer are as close as possible to the same, so as to avoid shocking the yeast.

Forced Carbonation
Beer can be put under pressure in a keg, usually higher than pressure required to dispense beer from the keg, and held there for a day or two.

Bottling
The two accepted ways of filling bottles is by siphoning into the bottles or using a special bucket with a spigot in the side. Many home brew supply stores carry a special bottle filling tube that has a valve which allows you to push the tube to the bottom of the bottle to open the valve and gently move the tube out of the bottle to stop flow. These tubes work both with spigots and siphoned bottling. There is another benefit of these tubes, in that by using one to fill the bottle to its brim, the bottle will have the perfect ullage once the tube is removed.

Ullage is an important consideration when filling bottles, to maintain consistency in levels of carbonation. Ullage is the small space between the surface of the beer and the cap. The ideal amount of ullage is about an inch.

If you are siphoning, use a siphon lock, that pinches the hose, to control flow. If you are using a spigot, attach a length of hose, so that filling starts at the bottom of the bottle. It's important not to splash the beer around, because doing you will aerate the beer. After filling, loosely place the caps on the bottles. Wait about 15 minutes before crimping the caps so that escaping and newly formed carbon dioxide can push the oxygen out of the top of the bottle.

Kegging
There are a variety of kegging systems, from tap and pump traditional beer kegs to soda-pop keg systems with CO2 tanks to "party pigs", which are 2.5 gallon plastic bottles which use co2 cartridges to perform force carbonation and dispensing functions.

title: Brewing/Bottling and Kegging


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User talk:Dddstone~enwikibooks

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title: User talk:Dddstone~enwikibooks


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English in Use/Present Simple Tense

The present simple (also simple present) is the grammatical tense expressing actions which took place in the present or future. It is used similar to presente simples do indicativo, presente do subjuntivo and futuro simples do subjuntivo in Portuguese.

Uses of Present Simple

 * We use the present simple for describes general truths, facts and scientific laws.

The earth moves round the sun. You come out of the station. Then you turn right. I watch TV every day. Children like playing. He likes short stories. He lives in London. He interviews boys. The food smells good. If you leave your mobile phone there, someone will steal it. The airplane leaves at 6:00 am tomorrow. Note She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesday. She goes to Milwaukee on Tuesdays, means that she goes to Milwaukee every Tuesday. Note from: Present simple by Wikipedia on 19 January 2006. I promise that I won't be late. I suggest you go and see a doctor. I insist that we pay the bill. ''I won't tell anybody what you said. I promise.''
 * We use the present simple for directions.
 * We use the present simple for habits and routines.
 * We use the present simple for things that are true and that normally happen.
 * We use the present simple for things which you like or dislike.
 * We use the present simple for permanent situations.
 * We use the present simple for procedures.
 * We use the present simple for perceptions.
 * We use the present simple for conditions.
 * We use the present simple for future plans and schedules. (though much less commonly than in many other languages):
 * When using some verbs, we are committing ourselves to action. In this case, you must use present simple.

I love you.
 * We use the present simple for many verbs of thinking, feeling and sensing. This verbs are called stative verbs or 'state' verbs.

See also: Stative verb by Wikipedia

 * We usually use the present simple in jokes, anecdotes and film or book summaries.

The present simple is also very often used in jokes and when telling a story to make the joke or story seem more immediate. This use of the present simple is sometimes called the graphic present. It is also used to retell what happens in a book or film. + Q: A child, an honest politician, and Santa Claus all spot a $20 bill on the ground. Who picks it up?

A: The child. The other two don't exist. A couple is touring a graveyard when they spot a tombstone that reads: "Here lies an honest man and a politician." The man says to the woman:  - "Look honey, there are two people in that grave." Q: What do you call a thousand lawyers at the bottom of the ocean? A: A good start. Examples of jokes from:  Joke by Wikipedia on 11 January 2006.

Lessons

 * Lesson 1: Present simple and exercises (Introduction & 2 exercises)
 * Lesson 2: Present simple (Introduction)
 * Lesson 3: Present simple (Form)
 * Lesson 4: Present simple (Use with pictures)
 * Lesson 5: Present simple (Exceptions in spelling)
 * Lesson 6: Present simple (Short forms)
 * Lesson 7: Present simple (Summary)

Exercises

 * Exercise 1: Present Simple - Gap-fill exercise (Affirmative form)
 * Exercise 2: Present Simple - Gap-fill exercise (Affirmative form)
 * Exercise 3: Present Simple - Gap-fill exercise (Affirmative form)
 * Exercise 4: Present Simple - Gap-fill exercise (Negative form)
 * Exercise 5: Present simple - Mixed-up sentence exercise (Question form)
 * Exercise 6: Present simple - Gap-fill exercise (Affirmative, negative and question form)
 * Exercise 7: Present simple - Rewrite the sentences (Learn more about the short and long negative forms)

אנגלית/דקדוק/זמנים/Present Simple

title: English in Use/Present Simple Tense


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User talk:Krun

Deletion of Pages
Please don't blank pages that you want to delete. It causes us no end of grief here and with other Wikimedia projects, including Wikipedia. If you can, please use the   markup template on the page if you want to delete something from here. We will find the page sooner and be able to deal with the deletion without having to fight through other pages first.

Thank you, though, for trying to help make Wikibooks a better place. We do appreciate people like you trying to help find stuff that really doesn't belong. --Rob Horning 19:10, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I'll bear that in mind in the future. I just didn't know of such a template at that time and didn't have time to look for one. Now I know :) – Krun 22:16, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Krun


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User talk:NickPenguin

Deletion of Pages
Please don't blank pages that you want to delete. It causes us no end of grief here and with other Wikimedia projects, including Wikipedia. If you can, please use the   markup template on the page if you want to delete something from here. We will find the page sooner and be able to deal with the deletion without having to fight through other pages first.

Thank you, though, for trying to help make Wikibooks a better place. We do appreciate people like you trying to help find stuff that really doesn't belong. --Rob Horning 19:13, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

I apologise; I will do this in the future. --NickPenguin 23:39, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Regarding edits made during July 20 2007
Please take care not to replace Wikibooks pages with blank content. Blank pages have a tendency to confuse readers and may be mistaken for vandalism. If it is a duplicate page, please redirect it to an appropriate existing page. If the page has been vandalised, please revert it to the last legitimate version. If you feel that the content of a page is inappropriate, please edit the page and replace it with appropriate content. If you believe there is no hope for the page, please see the deletion policy for how to proceed. If page is no longer useful, insert to its top. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks! Az1568(Talk) 23:56, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

Guitar book
Hi. You asked on the german wikibooks-discussion-site on the guitar-book if the images there are free to use and how to handle them. All pictures in this book are already uploaded on wikimedia commons. Thus, you only have to copy the link of a picture you might use from our german guitar-book and place it on your own site. The image-links will work without any change or modification. The only thing you have to change could be the picture prefix. On german wikibooks two prefixes are working: "Bild:" and "image:". At the english wikibooks the prefix has to be "image:", so you have to change that in the copyed links if you want to use them.

All pictures on the guitar book are free to use on every wikimedia project, so feel free to use it for your own projects. You only have to create new images if there are german words in our images. In this case copy them, fix the words and upload them under another name (on wikimedia commons, of course). Red Rooster 15:57, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

German sources
My English isn't the best, but I writhe the guitar-course and some work-shops of the german wikibooks. for pictures and midis look at

 * Animation Guitarre
 * Chords in guitar
 * Encircled letters numbers symbols (circle of fifth)
 * Guitar
 * Guitar rhythm
 * Guitar picking (Zupfen, Picking etc.)
 * Guitar techniques (pictures and animations)
 * Guitar_tuning
 * Midi files (Guitar)
 * Musical notes (with module of notes)
 * Musik
 * Music theory
 * Musical scales(with interval-diagramm)
 * Scales on guitar

You will find some Songs without Copyright (even english) here

I've prepared a Template:Crd for you. Please go into the template and correct my spelling and style, ant take an English song. But you can see: it works.

 * Alle meine Entchen schwimmen auf dem  See  schwimmen auf dem  See

 * Köpfchen in das Wasser  Schwänzchen in die  Höh'.

Another tip: use not only the bablefish-translation. Take the link from the original-page, or better: copy the source-code.

if you will have any question, send me an E-Mail at mjchael@gmx.de. I don't recognize the changing of the english wikibooks. --Mjchael 11:44, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

rehi: Ok, I makes a suggestion for you... You see the German text. I think, you can recognize which could be interesting for you. I assume that you will see the tabs and pictures. If you'll find something, (maybe you want to write an article over something, then I will translate you the German article into a halfway readable English. But I can better translate the pages that were made by me. (Diploma, Workshops..) But I can work only step by step. So I will translate step by step, and I need a person who can translate and correct and make same advices. You can use the texts, or a part of it, or you will only use the Information. It can be that you need only individual components, or only the pictures and left. I will not care about it. Everything that is written by me, I can translate. I for my part hope to catch some stuff from your page. I'm looking for example for songs without copyright. But I have no idea whether the words are correct, and whether the chords were at the correct places. You will find many examples like: jazz-workshop or samba-rhythm with a standard-jazz progression with tabs, songs and midi. Or I have powertabs for the midi-example like Guitar picking and you can make an English version of the PDF. Even the Pictures of the cords can be "translated" in an English version. I am a simple guitar-teacher. But I make it just as hobby and not for my living. So I am a hunter and collector and look, borrow and steal wherever I coud find something new. Changing and translating is more simply than to develop it completely new. And the most difficult is to find the information (examples) at all. When you (the English wikibooks, not you alone) start to work on the guitar-book I will have more chances to borrow something from your wikibooks. mjchael(de)

Guitar Wikibook
Hello NickPenguin, I think your changes should be fine, and if it's not, it's just an edit away.

Right now, I am focusing upon the first section (guitar parts and amplifier), as that's the section I feel safe about. The thing I am wondering if the order the book should proceed: Do we jump right into open string chords, or go into melodies first? Should power chords be at the first? When should we introduce styles, or keep it as a seperate section? Problem is that different instructors have different idea - The instructor in my community center starts with some basic melody first, then to open chord and strumming, while my jamming club teaches power chord first.

As for German wikibook, I cannot understand the language, but what I can understand impressed me enough, so I think it culd be a good idea to translate them into here.

Another thing I worried is whether it became too much; it was definitely more than most book that I had even read, and could be overwhelming. So we may need to figure out whether it's design to be accomodating for beginners, or be as detail as possible. Anyway, thanks for the message, and happy editing! George Leung 05:39, 3 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:NickPenguin


text:
User:Whiteknight/Solder (Circuits)

This book is in a very early stage of brainstorming, and needs alot of work before it will be ready to introduce to the shelf. --Whiteknight (talk) (current) 19:18, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Preface
This book will discuss the art and technique of soldering electrical circuits and components.

Table of Contents

 * Equipment Needed (Soldering Irons, Solder, De-Soldering Irons, etc)
 * Other Useful Tools (heatclamps, wire-brushes, etc...)
 * Protoboard, Waferboard, and Breadboard
 * Printed Circuit Boards
 * Wires
 * Through-Hole Soldering
 * Surface Mount Soldering
 * Ensuring a Good Connection
 * Basic Desoldering

Resources

 * soldering techniques ... also "reflow" and "hot air soldering".

title: User:Whiteknight/Solder (Circuits)


text:
User talk:Tsivion~enwikibooks

Deletion of Pages
Please don't blank pages that you want to delete. It causes us no end of grief here and with other Wikimedia projects. If you can, please use the   markup template on the page if you want to delete something from here. We will find the page sooner and be able to deal with the deletion without having to fight through other pages first.

Thank you, though, for trying to help make Wikibooks a better place. We do appreciate people like you trying to help find stuff that really doesn't belong. --Rob Horning 19:19, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tsivion. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tsivion~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:48, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:36, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tsivion~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Spanish/Preterite

shouldt there be something about vosotros on here

Yes. Also, what about stem changers? 66.82.9.87 03:34, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spanish/Preterite


text:
Field Remedies

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Healing remedies/
 * /Strength enhancement/
 * Appendix
 * /Preparation/

title: Field Remedies


text:
Field Remedies/Introduction

In many old stories, folk tales, and even fantasy games, many mystical figures from sages to witches to elves used odd concoctions of strange liquids and plant distillates to produce magical effects. Even though these are purely children's stories, all myths are in some way rooted in fact. Perhaps you can't bring the dead to life with a concoction of wolf's bane and mandrake; but you can cure a stomach ache with a light tea made from steeped ginger root.

The Field Remedies Wikibook is the documentation of just that. Any distillates, teas or other herbal remedies may be documented here, offering the valuable knowledge of simple remedies for a range of potential conditions. The information here should be generally useful, enriching, and enlightening to the serious study or casual Wikibooks browser.

Originally the title "Potionology" was chosen for this Wikibook for entertainment value; we also wanted to avoid the term "medicine," which implies greater authority than we care to claim. You should definitely seek medical attention for anything worse than a minor cold; don't try fixing that spreading green infection on your hand with a few herbs that you found listed in some online site. That being said, there is some valuable information contained within.

Once again, the Field Remedies Wikibook is meant to provide practical knowledge, not medical training; it is not a scientific or medical journal, and should not be taken as such. Factual accuracy and sometimes even safety are suspect throughout this Wikibook; although we'd like to try to keep things at least menially correct here. These remedies are likely not effective in treating serious conditions, and in some cases may be downright dangerous; please be mindful.

How to Add Entries
When adding entries, be mindful of the following:

 * Use a lot of references. If you claim something, make a reference to something else, such as Wikipedia.  Use w: links, such as Green tea, to reference Wikipedia.  Any claims made by your own experience should be noted, such as "in the experience of User:Bluefoxicy..."
 * Be realistic. Don't put down that a mixture of garlic and wolfsbane will keep vampires away.  That's just immature.
 * Place warnings on dangerous pages. Certain things will cause nasty side effects, such as dangerous blood pressure increases from excess Licorice; this is dangerous and it needs to be noted that you can kill yourself this way.  Don't tell someone to mess with Mandrake root without warning that just uprooting the plant can release a fatal cloud of narcotic gas, or that small doses can cause irreparable cases of death.
 * Notate works in progress. It's perfectly okay to note that ingredient X has desired effect Y, but that you need another ingredient you can't yet find, or haven't found the right potency, or whatnot.  Concoctions of various herbs are interesting.

title: Field Remedies/Introduction


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Field Remedies/Healing remedies

There are many healing remedies which can be sought by distilling certain plants.

Nausea
Mild to severe stomach aches and nausea can be easily corrected.

 * Ginger tea

While mild nausea may be corrected with small sips of ginger tea (or flat ginger ale), You should give it in tablespoon size amounts every five mnutes. This is important to minimize the chance of vomiting. Continue clear liquids only for 4 hours. If vomiting continues despite this regimen, evaluation by a health care professional is advisable. Dehydration or electrolyte imbalance could occur and have dire consequences.

Mild stomach pain can often be managed at home especially if it is intermittent and associated with nausea or diarrhea. However it can also have a more serious cause. If stomach pain interferes with your normal activity, is constant rather than intermittent, or lasts more than than two hours, you need to be evaluated by a medical professional. Sooner then two hours if very painful. Possibilities include but are not limited to: infection of almost any abdominal organ, appendicitis, pancreatitis, liver disease, severe constipation (NEVER attempt to self treat severe somach pain with laxatives!) plus many other possible diseases. Seek a professional's advice or care and do not risk your life or well being by attempting to treat severe pain at home.

Infections
There are certain configurations that may help heal from infections. These may increase immune response or simply dampen certain diseases.

 * Licorice

title: Field Remedies/Healing remedies


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Field Remedies/Healing remedies/Ginger tea

Ginger tea, made by steeping crushed ginger root in hot water, can be used to cure some digestive issues.

Background
Ginger has many beneficiary properties. It contains many antioxidants, which may help prevent cancer according to medical studies. It is also known to effectively cure all forms of nausea including seasickness and carsickness as well as morning sickness; do note, however, many physicians recommend against the use of ginger to combat morning sickness, although pregnant Chinese women traditionally use it for exactly this purpose.

According to the PDR, ginger has been shown to promote production of saliva, digestive juices, and bile. It also tends to boost the pumping action of the heart, prevent the formation of blood clots, lower LDL cholesterol, and decrease inflammation. It may have a stimulative effect on the immune system; this has not been concluded. Ginger also has mild laxative effects due to stimulation of the GI tract.

The anti-inflammatory properties of ginger has lead some to use it for the treatment of diseases such as arthritis and bronchitis; one study of 261 participants showed that ingesting ginger twice daily significantly reduces the pain experienced by sufferers of osteoarthritis, versus those being administered a placebo.

As ingesting ginger may lower LDL cholesterol levels and prevent blood clotting, it may be helpful in preventing atherosclerosis, heart attacks, and stroke. Ginger also has pain relieving, sedative, fever reduction, and antibacterial effects.

Precautions
Ginger root should not be consumed in doses exceeding 6 grams per day. This may damage the lining of the stomach and cause stomach ulcers. Large overdoses may lead to CNS depression and heart irregularities and you should seek medical attention immediately if you suspect a large overdose.

Avoid ginger if you are at risk of internal bleeding or have gallstones. The PDR also recommends against using ginger to treat morning sickness, although there is no evidence that ginger is harmful during pregnancy.

Do not take large doses of ginger if you are also taking a blood-thinning drug.

Preparation
For ginger tea, you will need a small slice of ginger root and 250mL (about 8oz) of hot water; the PDR recommends 0.5-1g of ginger be used.

To prepare the tea, crush the ginger and pour hot water (recommended: 85C) over it. Fill the vessel with approximately 175-250mL (6-8oz) of hot water and steep for about 5 minutes. Strain, if desired. Honey may be added to sweeten the tea to taste.


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Template:TOCbrewing

TOC

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Field Remedies/Healing remedies/Licorice

Licorice has several beneficiary properties, although can be quite dangerous as well. High doses of licorice increase blood pressure a lot. The increased blood pressure and clotting risk can lead to strokes and other ill effects.

Background
Licorice has many beneficiary properties. It is a highly effective cough medicine, and in this is present its very interesting historical use. Licorice also may have uses related to mouth and stomach ulcers. It also presents itself as a mild laxative. Licorice has also been noted to help with liver disease and reduce the risk of liver cancer; and increases T-Cell count and interferon production, boosting immune response to viruses such as hepatitis and influenza.

In Asian medicine, licorice root has been used for boils, dehydration, diarrhea, eye diseases, headache, sore throat, and swellings from infections. its effectiveness for these disorders has not been scientifically verified.

Licorice has been mentioned in 63 readings by Edgar Cayce. Cayce notes the benefits of Licorice on the intestinal tract, the liver, and the healing process in general; and describes (without medical training) how and why this works. Cayce also has recommended licorice to soothe minor cardiac arhythma problems.

Tentative
It has also been said that licorice stimulates excess red blood cell production, which can have a similar effect to blood doping, where blood is drawn and then later re-injected to increase red blood cell count in the body. The blood doping procedure is a disqualifying infraction in most sports events for this reason; it is detected by checking for elevated red blood cell count.

Increased red blood cell count allows you to supply more oxygen to muscles, leading to efficient removal of waste carbon and thus mildly increased strength, muscular endurance, and stamina. Unfortunately, it also leads to increased platelets, which leads to increased blood clotting and risk of stroke.

Licorice has also been said to increase the general rate of healing.

Special Precautions
Licorice has some unfortunate negative side effects. Large doses of licorice can lead to hypokalemia, a potentially fatal potassium deficiency, as well as severe increases in blood pressure. These dangerous side effects make highly concentrated licorice distillates extremely dangerous.

The PDR notes that dosages of more than 20 grams of Licorice Extract or 50 grams of licorice root daily for an extended period of time will lead to excessive loss of salt from the blood, water retention, high blood pressure, and heart irregularities, sometimes accompanied by fatigue, headaches, and muscle cramps. It further recommends to limit use of Licorice preparations to 6 weeks, noting that the side effects disappear after the drug is discontinued.

The PDR also describes drug interactions. Licorice increases potassium loss associated with other drugs such as diuretics. This potassium loss ca cause increased sensitivity to the heart medication digitalis. Other heart drugs such as quinidine and procainamide can increase licorice-induced potassium loss, leading to a dangerously rapid heartbeat. Licorice may also increase the effects and unwanted side effects of steroid medications such as prednisone (Deltasone).

The PDR specifies quite directly to not take licorice when pregnant.

Preparation
For those who enjoy licorice, a licorice tea can be a soothing and beneficial drink. A tea can be made by using 1-1.5g (1/2tsp) of licorice root. The root must be crushed, possibly utilizing a garlic press; and boiled in water. The root can be added to cold water and boiled, or be placed in a vessel and have boiling water poured over it. In either case, steep in the boiling water for 15 minutes; strain; and drink.

Based on the method given in the PDR.


text:
Talk:Field Remedies

Cold resistance?
In Dragon Quest 8, there's an herb called "Nook Grass" that when distilled into tea or consumed causes the body to warm, and increases cold tolerance. Interestingly enough, ingesting niacin (nicotinic acid) does exactly the same thing. Is there a plant that's safe to make a concentrated distillate or a mild tea from to help with this? The concentrated distillate would (just like popping a 500mg niacin pill) cause extreme flushing and help if you're outside for too long in the cold and starting to freeze (run to the house now that you can move!); while a mild tea would QUICKLY warm you up after being outside in the cold. Continued ingestion of this B vitamin in fair amounts is completely safe; it takes a LOT to overdose on niacin, although it can be done and the consequences are deadly. Also continued ingestion will lead to lasting cold tolerance, even if it stops sudden flushing you hot.

As a nutritional consultant and clinical herbalist, I'd like to reply to the comment of using niacin flushing in order to warm the body. A niacin flush is actually a sensitivity reaction to niacin and is usually harmless - however, if one deliberately used niacin flushing to stimulate body warm in extreme cold temperatures, that would cause capillary breakdown as its the capillaries that expand with the flush, its superficial warming similar to the flushing of skin one sees when someone consumes too much alcohol and about as helpful when it comes to warming the body properly - Niacin is important for good circulation and aids the nervous system. It will improve circulation if yours is poor, however, that's best addressed with diet and supplements in reasonable amounts. B vitamins are also best taken as a complex rather than singles/individual kinds of B's. (I've never heard of a concentrated distillate of niacin - it strikes me as being a dangerous concentrated product of nicotininic acid.  That is the form of niacin that causes flushing - Niacinamide does not.  Interestingly enough, several herbs that are known to be rubefacient (cause localized reddening of skin and usually used to relieve pain) such as nettles and cayenne also happen to be good sources of dietary niacin.  I would suggest Ginger - it is warming to the entire body and if you are chilled, a cup of ginger tea would be just the ticket to warm you from the inside out.  Even taking dry capsules of ground ginger would work to warm the body.   As far as developing cold tolerance using herbs, there are none that I know of that specifically has that physiologic effect on the body, though there are quite a few herbs that are warming to the body and used when a person has a "cold or yin" constitution. I think cold tolerance is more a function of "hardening" oneself by training yourself to be more cold tolerant. That said, I wouldn't encourage it as a practice and think it could also potentially backfire badly. For example, getting wet as well as being cold is the perfect recipe for death by hypothermia. It takes so little to put the body over the edge when it comes to cold, especially combined with damp with such dire consequences as frostbite and that could mean finger and toe loss and potential for gangrene, it just seem risky business to me to deliberately try and develop cold tolerance. People who live in cold climates such as Alaska don't tend to muck around with the cold. Extended cold puts a lot of stress on the body - good outdoor gear is a must in cold climates and they are very careful about excess cold exposure. Ginger is such a versatile herb, also a potent anti-nauseant, settles distressed stomach especially food related, and warms the body from the inside out, that I consider it one of the must have herbs in my survival ready kits/bags. Hope this is of some help. Jesse Tribalgem (discuss • contribs) 12:47, 18 November 2016 (UTC)

More PDR stuff
The PDR has a few good herbal pages. Here's a few more we could use.

 * Echinacea—2 effective varieties, sweet/bitter taste. Relieves colds and shortens the lifecycle of the flu; increases white blood cells, spleen cells, T-helper cells, and interleukin (all immune system agents); has an effect on viruses similar to interferon.
 * Parsely—Kidney/bladdar stones, urinary tract infections. This stuff makes you diuretic, so you should drink a lot of fluids and a little of the oils; then you'll pee and pee and pee and flush your urinary tract out, as opposed to leaving festering infections there.
 * Green tea—Antioxidents, prevents cancer of stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, breast, lung, and pancreas. Helps with diarrhea and upset stomach.  Can be used as a mouthwash to prevent plaque and cavities.
 * Sage—Appetite loss, excess perspiration, sore throat. Watch out for overdoses.
 * Ginseng—Enhanced thought process, decreased reaction time, virus resistence, fatigue reduction, antioxident, blood thinning, decreased blood sugar, decreased LDL.
 * Siberian ginseng—Enhances immune system. May cause high blood pressure.
 * Notoginseng—Slows or stops internal and external bleeding; relieves pain when applied topically; can be used topically to speed the healing of wounds and bruises. Possibly lowers hypertension.  Not known if it can be overdosed on; but not known if we can make tea from this either.
 * Peppermint—Surprisingly useful. Liver and gallbladdar problems; appetite loss; bronchitis; colds, coughs, sore throats; fevers; succeptibility to infections. Damn hard to overdose on (has never been done), but possible.  You can make tea out of this.
 * Rosemary—Can be mixed with wine.
 * Spinach—When "run down," taking spinach will make you feel better. Makes you strong to the finach.
 * St. John's Wort—Smile.
 * Witch Hazel—Use topically to heal wounds and insect bites etc.

Unuseful things:
 * Ginkgo—enhances brain function; but only useful in concentrated extracts. You'll have to buy this stuff.

There's an index on the PDR site of the different plants they know about.

 * Most of these do not work; a few may be dangerous. PCU123456789 (talk) 20:39, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

Factually Disputed
Some of this wikibook deals with purported herbal cures for various diseases. It is absolutely essential that real medical sources be cited for every remedy listed in this book, and remedies lacking conclusive medical evidence must be removed. PCU123456789 (talk) 20:38, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Field Remedies