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Novial/AIL Vocabulary

Vocabulary
As already remarked, a would-be international language must be built up as far as possible on that word material which is already international, i.e. known all over that part of the world where European civilization has penetrated. The form may vary a little from country to country, but there are thousands of words that are already common to practically all nations, thanks to the sameness, or at any rate similarity, of material and spiritual culture in modern life.

There can, therefore, be no doubt that our I.A.L. must adopt such words as the following - I give them in the form they must have according to the principles developed in previous sections: first, names of many of the products of civilization, good and evil: te (tea), kafe (coffee), chokolate, vine, sigare, sigarete, tabake (tobacco), alkahole, opium, telefone, radio, kanone, pistole, paper, lampe, karte (card), bilete, marmore, bensine, diamante, olie ...; further, the following international names of animals and plants which hail ultimately from the most diverse countries and languages, even if some of them have come to us through Latin: elefante, tigre, lemure, gorila, girafe, rose, lilie, banane, tulipane (tulipe?), jasmine (jessamine), palme, begonia.

Further, we have a great many words like the following which show community of ideas: ''nature, kulture, literature, musike, poete, komedie, tragedie. opera, kore (choir), rime (rhyme), forme, danse, persone, studie, universitate, profesore, akademie, botanike, medisine, kemie, fisike, kongrese, konflikte, diplome, poste, minute, sekunde, grame, septembre ... Adjectives like komplet, ordinar, enormi, ideal, universal; verbs like stenografa, aranja, representa, dekora, examina, improvisa ...'' All these, and many more, are practically universal in that part of the world with which we are principally concerned.

But there are, of course, numerous notions for which no such completely international name exists. The task then is to find the most international name and use that, even if there may be countries where it is unknown. It is always a question of degree, but how are we to measure the degree of internationality where two or more names are found? The authors of Idiom Neutral were the first consciously to carry out the principle of choosing everywhere the most international word - for, as already remarked, Zamenhof and other had applied it only instinctively and haphazardly - but the procedure of Idiom Neutral was somewhat superficial, for in each particular case they calculated the number of languages to which a given word was common, including in their calculations Latin, which should not be placed on a par with living languages. Now the essential thing is not the number of languages, for languages are not organisms possessing an individual existence apart from those human beings who speak them. The proper rule, therefore, for determining the internationality of a word or a stem is to count the number of people who know it from their mother-tongue - a simple consequence of the fundamental principle of the greatest facility for the greatest number. It is only natural that each person would prefer to find in the I.A.L. as many words as possible that are already familiar to him, and so, to be impartial, we must attach the same importance to the natural preferences of each of the 150 or 160 millions who speak English as to each of the 120 millions who speak German, or the 90 million Russians, the 60 millions who speak Spanish or French, the 40 million Italians, etc. Even the languages spoken by the smaller nations should be taken into account in proportion to their number.

The choice of words for our neutral language is therefore to a large extent a question of mere numbers. And yet all is not settled by the statistics of the people using each word, for on closer inspection several puzzling questions confront those who want a vocabulary that is satisfactory in every respect, and sometimes unsuspected difficulties in form or meaning are discovered when a word that seemed international enough is put to the test of being used in various contexts or having all kinds of regular derivatives formed from it.

Some of these difficulties have already been mentioned in the phonetic chapter: even if the "same word" is found in several languages it is very often under different forms - mostly due to a different phonetic development - so that the choice of form is often a delicate problem. The English and French may spell change alike, but the sounds are very different; and as we can neither take the F nasal vowel nor the diphthong (ei) as found in the most usual E pronunciation, chanj- seems to be the most convenient form for all. In many cases we have to find what might be termed a common denominator between the divergent forms. If E and D did not differ in the form of many etymologically related words to such an extent that a middle form cannot be found, the Germanic (Gothonic) quota would be predominant, on account of the great number of people speaking those two closely connected languages (cf. water wasser; tooth zahn; speak sprechen; soap seife; week woche; enough genug, etc.). Such being the case, it is the Romanic element of English which weighs down the scale in most cases, since it agrees with F I S, or at least with one of these three languages, and the result is that our I.A.L. will necessarily be very much more Romanic in appearance than might be anticipated.

One very important factor is also operating in the same direction, the fact namely that a large number of Latin derivatives have passed into D (and Sc), even when the primary word itself is not found there. Thus we have in D absentieren, abstinenz, artist, dentist, dental, moral, popular, which greatly facilitate for a German the learning of the words absent, absteni, arte, dente, more, popule, although these words are not found in his own language (apart from pöbel = populache).

In the same way, though the numeral for 100 is practically the same in E D Sc, we should not take hundred for that idea, for the L centum is known all over the world, even in Germany, etc., through per cent. (D prozent) centesimal, centimeter, E centennial, century, centenary, D zentner, Dan centner, the coin cent or centime, etc. (N sent).

Still, it should be remembered that it is not enough that a word is found in a dictionary of a language to make it easy for the man in the street to understand it: many words are so special and scientific that they are only known to a minority of the nation. In order to obtain a word for `bird' it is of very little practical use to go to the word ornithology, and my admired teacher Henry Sweet is unusually wide of the mark when he writes (in the Encycl. Brit.): "Thus the Idiom Neutral ornit `bird' and diurn `day,' are almost self-interpreting even apart from any context, while the Esperanto bird and tag are unintelligible except to those who know English and German." Ornit and diurn will be immediately understood by much less than one per cent. of those who at once understand the two Esp words (though I do not say that these are very well chosen). It is the living knowledge only that is of value.

Let me give a small selection of words justified in the way here indicated by statistics; in each case the initials show the languages used as sources: separa D E F I R S Sc, transporta D E F I R S Sc, transparent E F I S Sc, lauda E F I S, rida F I S, sam E R Sc, blu D E F Sc, bora D E R Sc, blind D E Sc, jena D F Sc, no E F I S, yes E.

Now there is one objection to a language constructed on these principles which must be met here: many people want a homogeneous language and dislike seeing words like sam, blind or yes in a language of so Romanic a type as ours. The objection is emotional or æsthetic rather than intellectual, and perhaps it would be sufficient to rule it out of court by saying simply that we want a practical language, no matter how it looks. Still it may bed worth while to argue the point a little.

Not a single one among the 5,000 (?) languages spoken in the world is perfectly homogeneous, why should an artificial language then be so? There is in many countries a natural reaction against those loan-words which are too obviously intrusive either in sounds or inflexion or which are superfluous because the same idea can be expressed naturally and easily enough through native speech material; but such considerations have no weight in an I.A.L. if the words are well chosen and contain the same sounds and sound-combinations as the rest of the vocabulary. No one objects in E to words like tea, religion, panorama, coach, biography, etc., on the score that they have come from other languages, though nearly everybody prefers short handy "Saxon" words to those long and learned words which pedantry has introduced - but that preference is really an outcome of the principle here advocated, of using the word that is most familiar to the ordinary man.

Curiously enough many people, especially in Romanic countries, object to the immixture of Germanic words like blind or nur in a Romanic language, while they have no strong feelings against Romanic words in a Germanic language. Yet, even so fastidious a nation as the French have adopted or are adopting a certain number of words from E and D: bifteck, rosbif, leader, club, ulster, grog, sleeping-car, football, handicap, sandwich, bitter, bock, kirsch; cf. also fiord, ski, saga from Sc.

Most languages have even examples of hybridism, i.e. words composed of elements from different sources, like E eatable, artless, beautiful, mileage, hindrance; F bureaucrate, blackbouler, snobesse or snobinette, smarteux. Examples of hybrid formations in N have been given above under some of the suffixes.

Such a word as blind is immediately recognized by more than 200 millions, while neither F aveugle (even apart from its vowel) nor I cieco, S ciego, P cego attains nearly the same number (F cécité is not a popular word).

Extensions of the vocabulary are made possible through composition and through word-formation by means of suffixes and prefixes; and it is one of the great advantages of an I.A.L. that there are no limits to these procedures, such as are very often met with in national languages, where formations that are perfectly regular and in accordance with several other words are nevertheless proscribed through tyranny of usage.

Compounds are often very convenient; on the other hand it should not be overlooked that they generally presuppose some element, a preposition or even more, which must be left for the hearer to supply. It is also in some cases more or less arbitrary what components are selected; users of a constructed language are often guided here by their own language without taking into consideration that other nations might dissolve the idea in a different way. Convention come to play a rôle here as in national languages: for `railway' Esp, Ido and N use fervoyo, fervie, which is modelled on D eisenbahn, F chemin de fer, but might just as well have chosen rel-vie like E.

With regard to the number of words or roots to be used in an I.A.L. there are two conflicting principles, both of which are legitimate within certain limits, but which should neither of them be carried to excess, the principle of precision and the principle of economy.

According to the former an I.A.L. should be capable of rendering all shades of thought found in the national languages. As each of these expresses several nuances which are incapable of exact rendering in all other languages, it is clear that the ideal as thus formulated is beyond human power. It will also be found that those who set forth this claim generally have in view only certain nice distinctions that are found in their own, or perhaps one more language known to them, and which appears to them indispensable, while they are not considering the burden thus laid on all the rest of mankind who have never felt the need of those particular nuances. Let me translate here a note I inserted in Progreso (February 1911): "I should like very earnestly and emphatically to insist on an important point, before it is too late: do not let us create too many special words to distinguish nuances that are not absolutely necessary. I think there is a danger in the increasing tendency in that direction. It is easy to understand that nuances can often be necessary or desirable, even where many languages are unable to express them; but many of the proposed nuances can only serve to make the language difficult without any real advantage. (I then give as example the proposal to have three verbs for `to tame': domtar leoni, amansar uceli (birds), domestikigar elefanti, and I conclude:) If one goes on to increase the bulk of the dictionary in that way, I humbly ask people to cease printing over and over again the phrase about `easiest for the greatest number' which I wrote unsuspectingly a couple of years ago." Even now some interlinguists look upon it as their principal task to multiply words without regard to the convenience of users.

The opposite principle of economy was practised by Zamenhof more than by anyone else. The number of roots admitted in primitive Esperanto was extremely small, and a good deal of ingenuity was used to express as much as possible by means of compounds and derivatives. Foremost of the means employed must be mentioned mal- to denote the opposite: malbona bad, maldekstra left, maldolcha bitter, malsato, hunger, etc. Other examples: kreskajho plant (properly `thing growing', as if nothing but plants were capable of growing), irilo stilt (`instrument for going'), pafilego cannon (`big tool for popping'), fajrero spark (`unit of fire'), senkulpigi excuse (`make to be without fault'), vagonaro train (`collection of cars'). Each of these has of course to be learnt separately just as well as special independent words, though they have the advantage, when once learnt, to be firmly associated with well-known ordinary words. There is no doubt that the great number of these rebus-words, together with the "masquerading" of several words from the best-known languages, has deterred many intelligent people from Esp, and incidentally from the idea of an I.A.L. in general.

Both principles are thus faulty when carried through one-sidedly: we must steer between them as between Scylla and Charybdis.

As to the form of international words a difficulty arises from the fact that many Latin verbs had two sometimes pretty widely different stems, both of which are found in our modern languages; as it would obviously be too cumbersome always to carry all these irregularities with us in our I.A.L. we must, in most cases at any rate, select one of them, and the question only is, which one? The want of system in our national languages is seen when we compare the E verb conduct with its derived conducive, and, on the other hand, produce with productive, or negligible (F négligeable) with neglect, or

E discuss	discussible 	discussion F discuter	discutable 	discussion D diskutieren	diskutabel 	diskussion

(In an official document issued by the Société des Nations, 1927, I found the F spelling discution - but t is here pronounced like s.)

Here follows a list of the most important of these two-stem words - arranged according to the final sound of the stems, and with indication of the form selected in Novial, most often the one found in the Latin passive participle, because so many derivatives (chief among them those in -ive and -ion, also -ere = F -eur, E -or) are formed on that basis; E also often uses it as its verb stem:

c/ct: dukte (dedukte, -in, -intro, kon-, pro-, re-, se-), cf. induktione, deduktiv, etc. ''afekte, infekte. satisfakte, -ione. inspekte, suspekte; inspektere. ejekte, in-, kon-, pro-. dikte `say,' edikte, inter-, bene-, kontre-, pre-.'' By the side of dikte with diktione we may take diktate `dictate' with diktatione. g/ct: akte, reakte with ''-tione, tiv. Akto'' `act,' also in play. Aktere one who acts; aktore as independent word `actor' on the stage. redakte `draw up, edit' (F rédiger), redaktere, redaktione. lekte `read' with lektione. (N.B. lege = law, with legal.) ''elekte, selekte, colekte. neglekte. (But neglije'' `dishabille.') ''protekte, detekte. aflikte, konflikte. junkte join, ad-, kon-. distinkte `distinguish,' -tiv, -tione. Adj E distinct is distinktet, but generally klar, separat or diferant'' renders the idea.

It is best to take korekti as an adjective, with the derived verb korektisa `to correct, F corriger'; korektiso `correction.'

Similarly we want direkti as adj; and then direktione as an independent sb; but the vb E to direct, F diriger, D dirigieren, I dirigere, S dirigir, is now so far removed in meaning from either of these that we must have a separate form: diriga (i.e. conduct, at a concert; dirigere conductor).

Funktione with vb funktiona. No verb from L fungi (D fungieren). ''ng/ct: restrikte, astrikte. pikte `paint,' pikture. kontakte. fikte, -iv, -ione; `feign' is generally simula; `fiction' in the special E sense is romanaro. h/ct: atrakte, abstrakte, dis-, ex-, kon-, re-. (But N has no simple verb trakte: `to draw' is tira; trakta'' `treat.') ''-/ct: konstrukte, de-, in-, ob-. p/pt: konsepte, exepte, persepte. Resepte give a reception to, resiva'' get. ''mp/pt: rupte, korupte, erupte. b/pt: skripte write; skripto, skripture; deskripte with deskriptiv, deskriptione; kon-, in-, pre-, su-, transkripte. r/rt: inserte, aserte, deserte; exerte. rq/rt: kontorte, exorte, retorte. r/st: digeste, sugeste, konqueste, inqueste, exhauste. l/lt: sepulte. n/nt: invente, -ione; but veni, eventa. d/s: ofense, extense, pretense, expanse, suspense, digrese, exkluse, konkluse, inkluse, divise, desise, kolise. - aplaudi, spenda. seda `cede' (sesa cease), konsese. Sukseda `succeed,' suksese/a `success' (this in spite of succession, which must be rendered suksedo, and successive, which must be rendered suksedant:'' it does not mean `which can ...'; it is impossible to conciliate the two meanings `succeed' and `success' with the actual forms if we are to keep our rules of word-formation). responda, -o `answer'; responsa `be responsible for' with responsant, responso. vida `see'; visione as an independent word (it does not mean `seeing!'); but revise `revise,' revisione. - Til rivido `au revoir!' ''nd/s: konfuse, difuse, infuse. nd/(n)s: prenda, komprenda; surprisa, enterprisa. nd/ns, nt: tense `stretch,' tensione; tenda tend, incline to (tendentie `tendency; but tente tent, tenta tempt, tentatione); atente `attend,' atentione; intente, -tione. t/s: admise, e-, ko-, kompro-, o-, per-, pro-, re-, sub-, transmise. - konfese, diskuse, sukuse, subverse. Konverte with konvertione better than konverse, which would easily be confused with konversa, whence konversatione. m/s: prese, deprese, exprese, imprese (make impression, but printa print, F imprimer), komprese, oprese, represe, suprese. ct/x: flekte, anekte, konekte. r/s: adhese, kohese, -iv, -ione. r/rs: kurse `run' (kurso running, course, e.g. course of time; but kursu course of lectures, rate of exchange, price), kursivi skripto, exkurse, exkursione; sukurse (kura cure; curatione cure, F curation, S curación); but konkura `compete,' konkurante `competitor' (kunkurse'' `run together'). ''rg/rs: disperse. l/ls: pulse, impulse, expulse, propulse. n/(n)s: posi, `place': positione, aposi, de-, ex-, pro-, su-, transposi. Disposi arrange in various places; dispona have at one's disposal, dispose of: li pekunie es ye vun dispono.''

There is thus a fairly great number of cases in which the existence of necessary derivatives in -ione and -iv obliges us to select verbs ending in -e (akte, aktione, aktiv, etc.); similarly the verbal ending -i is claimed by -itione (expedi, expeditione, etc.) and -u by -utione (evolu, evolutione). But apart from these verbs it is best to have the uniform verbal ending -a, as it would be intolerable in each particular case to remember whether the original verb belonged to the first or second or third Latin conjugation; sometimes living languages have different vowels (F vivre, I vivere, S vivir; F tenir, I tenere, S tener). Our forms viva, tena may also be defended by a reference to F participles vivant, tenant (N the same) and adjectives F vivace, tenace (N vivasi, tenasi) and E F tenable (N tenabli). Only in the "small" verbs pove can, deve ought, and have the ending -e has been preferred to -a, as the verbs would perhaps otherwise be too heavy. (Voli on account of volitione.)

title: Novial/AIL Vocabulary


text:
Novial/AIL Alphabetical List of Hard Words

Alphabetical List
In this list are collected a certain number of words that present difficulties of some kind or other with regard to their use in the I.A.L. It must be reserved for the future to give a complete dictionary of the kind foreshadowed in one of my earliest articles in Progreso: it should contain the forms actually in use in national languages with discussions of their merits and weaknesses from an interlinguist's point of view. Provisionally useful information may be found in Ido dictionaries (best L. H. Dyer's Ido-English Dict, and English-Ido Dict. (I. Pitman and Sons, London, 1924) and in Radicarium Directiv del Lingue International Occidental (Tallinn, 1925). Of less use are G. Peano, Vocabulario Commune ad linguas de Europa Internationale (Ventimiglia, n.d.). Fortunately the greater part of the necessary vocabulary is easier to settle than the words enumerated below.

ADI add, aditione. - Adie good-bye.

ALME (S P, rare I alma) seems the best for `soul'. F âme cannot be used, because am- is wanted for `love'. Nor would (L) I anima be good, as the derivative animal must be used for `animal.' E soul: the diphthong ou must be avoided, and simplified to sol- it would create conflict with sol `alone' I S P, F seul, E in solitude, solitary. D seele conflict with sele `cell.'

BASE, BASI. Ido distinguishes basa (adj) bass (with compounds like basvoco, basreliefo, basklasa) and bazo base, basis, foundation, bottom. I see no inconvenience in having the adj basi by the side of the sb base `basis,' though this latter form may then also mean a man or a woman with a bass voice. Note that when E base means morally base, it must be rendered in other ways: shamindi, nonnobli, etc. No verb should be formed from the sb base: `to base something on' is funda or apoga.

DARF (? DARFE) D may, am permitted. - deve ought, have the duty of; devo duty. - deba owe, be under obligation; debatum debt.

DESERTI: adj `barren, uninhabited'; hence the n. desertum `desert, wilderness.' No conflict possible with vb deserte `run away from,' whence sb deserto (or desertione) `desertion' (-o could not here be m. of the first-mentioned adj, as there is no need to talk of an uninhabited person). Desert in the sense of `what is deserved' is merite. For dessert (part of meal) it is best to say desere (t mute in F D Sc).

DI `day' (24 hours) is better than E day or D tag on account of the days of the week, F I -di: lundi, mardi, merkurdi, jodi, venerdi, saturdi (the last E, as F samedi attains fewer people; I sabato, S sabado give sabate for the Jewish holiday). Sundi E D, no good Romanic form. Medidi `noon.' Jorne (F jour, I giorno) the opposite of nokte. Jornesko `dawn.' Jornim `in the daytime.'

ELEKTRI adj electric, elektreso electricity, elektrisa, elektrifika, above, 137; elektriste electrician.

EME `aim,' EMA to aim at, EMO the act of aiming. Better than Ido skopo (from I: E scope does not mean exactly the same thing); ema serves also for Ido vizar.

FA `do' as the shortest common denominator of the forms derived from L facio; but fa creates difficulties: fo (fao) for the verbal noun - akto may generally be used instead; fere the one who does: better aktere; fabli feasible, conflict with sb fable is not dangerous; in most cases posibli will do, and on the whole these derivatives are not much needed. Other forms from L facio present even greater difficulties: fas-, conflict with fase `phase' (fasie `face'), cf. also fasade façade. Fak-: no existing national form has k; besides fake is wanted for D fach (`division, branch, province of action, department, field of knowledge'). Fakt- is wanted for `fact' (adj fakti D faktisch). So after all fa seems best for the verb; cf. I fa `he does,' fa-nno, fa-re, fa-rò.

FAINI adj E fine, D fein; the simple vowel i as in F, etc., creates conflict with fine.

FEMA `woman' by the side of homa: femal adj `female, feminine, womanly'; fematri `effeminate.' Fema-kolegie, fema-vestes, fema-votiste.

FERNI D `far, far away.' E far will not do, as faro = lighthouse.

FIKA, see p. 137.

FINE, fina end, finish, fino (act of) ending; finali. Independent of this finit(i) `finite' (which is not = `finished'), infinit(i) - but nonfinat unfinished. But with de- we must have the vb in -i: defini on account of definitione and definit.

FOGLE `bird' D vogel, E fowl (which in seafowl and fowler has the old meaning), Dan fugl, Sw fågel; better than Ido ucelo (I uccello; F oiseau is too far be of use) and Romanal ave, "which can be recognized by everyone" (Guérard), i.e. everyone that knows Latin, for others will rather think of Ave Maria; S P ave is rarer than pájaro, passaro.

FRISE `frieze'; no conflict with friso `hairdressing,' vb frisa; frisere.

HAMRE/A/O hammer D E Sc, more international than F marteau and congeners.

HUSE (or HAUSE) house E D Sc better than dom-, which both Esp, Ido and Occ have inherited from Volapük: in West-European languages this is found only with the meaning `dome' or `cathedral' and should be kept in that sense, though R has dom `house.'

ISLE `island' from S isla, I ísola, E spelling isle, D insel. Ido insulo has wrong accent. As a separate word vb isola with isolatione.

JUSTI just; the Ido distinction justa and yusta is arbitrary; vu es ye justum you are right. - jus just now (just then), a short time before now.

KAR(I) dear, i.e. cherished; cher(i) expensive; for `car' we have veture, chare, vagone. (Similarly Ido.)

KASE, KASU, above, p. 81; kasere `cashier,' kaseria `treasury'; kasual, kasuiste.

KONOSA `know': difficult to find other form for the largely divergent Romanic forms. But rekogni, -itione.

LANSE `lance'; lansa vb `launch,' F lancer.

LEFT(I) as Occ from E `left' instead of Ido sinistra (L), which has acquired other meaning.

LIA E D (Sc) `lie,' lieska lie down.

MASE mass; masu mace, F massue; mese mass (church celebration, D F Sc messe.)

MEDI middle, midmost; vb media mediate with participle mediat(i), and meditatione (medio). Medidi. The neuter medum would be different from mediume in the spiritualistic sense. Mid prep. amidst.

MEMORE `faculty of remembering,' memora vb, memoro `act of remembering'; memoratum; memorandum; memorim `by heart.'

MILITE/A/O war, milital, militari, militariste. Neither E war, F guerre, I, nor D krieg yields a good word.

MINE `mine,' mina `(under)mine'; no conflict with min `less,' minus. - Miene from E spelling `mien' (looks). Menase/a/o threat.

MORI `die,' morio `death,' i.e. the transition from being living to moriteso; morit `dead.' "Multi homes tima non moriteso, kel es nulum, ma morio." Memora mori. - Independent word mortal `mortal,' i.e. subject to death: morial would be what has reference to death; morisanti (tuanti) vunde `mortal wound.'

MUS must D E, preterit mused.

NOBLI: Z made a distinction nobla D edel, nobela D adelig, belonging to the nobility; this is difficult to remember; if a distinction seems necessary, we may take nobilito (-a, -e, -i) for the latter, with nobilitaro, nobilitisa confer nobility on.

OBJEKTE object (objektal or objektiv) `objective'); objete make objection to, object to, objetione. (Similarly Occ.)

OLD(I) E Sc `old'; Romanic languages yield no good word, and D alt is of course excluded, because alt(i) must mean `high, tall' (F I S, cf. E altitude.) Quam oldi es li infante? Le es nur (ye) un semani oldi. Ido creates a totally unnatural word evar `to be so and so old' from L ævum which does not mean that), probably because in F one cannot ask `Combien vieux?' or say `L'enfant n'est vieux que d'une semaine.' But there is nothing illogical in the terms here proposed in accordance with many national languages: we have corresponding expressions with all indications of quantity: we ask `How large is it?' even if it is only one millimeter, and `How long does it last?' even if it is only a fraction of a second. Those who are afraid of oldi in such combinations may use the expression mentioned above: li infante es ye un semane. For the sb age, F âge N has naturally aje.

ORDINE/A/O order (arrangement, etc.); ordinari. - ordra/o order (to tradesman, etc., D bestellen). - ordene (honour, decoration).

ORGAN; organal relating to or affecting organs; as a separate adj organik `having organs, belonging to the structure of animals and plants.' Organisme, organisa. For the musical instrument N has orgele (D Sc orgel, F orgue) with orgeliste `organist.'

OSA `dare,' F oser. Conflict with ose `bone,' F os, I osso, S hueso, is not dangerous, and there is no reason to take osto like Esp and Ido from Greek osteon. (Instead of osasi say audasiosi from sb audasie, F audace, I S audacia, etc.)

PASE peace (F paix, I pace, S paz), from which pasifiste, pasifisme; `pass' (go further than, etc., F passer) must be pasa with the verbal sb paso. Pace (F pas) is pasu (L passus), from which we may form vb pasua to step. Thus we distinguish Ido paco, paso, pazo: it should not trouble us that pasal may mean both `relating to peace' and `relating to the act of passing,' for the latter is hardly ever required; cf. also pasosi in two meanings.

PIESE piece (F piè, I pezzo, S pieza); to weigh is pesa (F peser, I pesare, S pesar).

POLI `polish,' participle, adj polit(i) polite. Polise `police,' polisano policeman.

PORTE `door'; porta `carry,' porto act of carrying; portu harbour.

RASE race (ethnological); rasa vb shave, raso shaving.

ROSE rose; rosie dew (F rosée, S rocio).

SEKU `follow': this form is best on account of perseku, proseku with -kutione; sekuent E sequent, I seguente, S siguiente. Konseku.

SELO zeal as verbal sb, sela be zealous; no conflict to be feared with sele cell, though selosi may be both zealous and full of cells. Or we might say selule (F, etc.) for `cell.' But for Ido selo (F selle, I S) we must take sadle from E saddle, Sc sad(d)el, D sattel. E seal (for letters) is sigle with verb sigla (D siegel, I sigillo, Sc segl). Ido has celar hide (F celer, not much used, I celare): it is better to take kasha from F cacher, supported by E sb cache.

SENTI `feel,' sentio. As independent words sentimente, sensa with sensatione, and sensu `one of the (five) senses,' but it will be difficult to delimit these words, cf. also persepte, emotione. E `sensible' in the ordinary sense is saji, prudent, rationosi. N.B. sento from sent 100.

SERO zero. (Serume serum.)

SERTENE, -O, -A, -I a certain (some particular, not specified); serti fixed, sure.

SIGNALE/A/O as independent word, though it looks like a regular derivative of signe.

SINKE zinc; no conflict with sinko the act of sinking, vb sinka, or with sink 5.

SOLI `only, alone'; suole `sole of foot or shoe,' I suola, S suela, D sohle.

SONE `zone' forces us to take suone for `sound,' I suono, F son; vb suona.

STEA `stand' D stehen. Standa be in a certain condition or state (health, etc.). Qualim vu standa? Li afere standa bonim = es in boni stando.

SUME sum, suma to sum (add together). The echo-word D summen (Ido zumar) is best made into huma, E hum, or sumba, S zumbar, zumbir.

TUA F `kill' better than morisa. L occidere, I uccidere gives no good form; kil- is impossible on account of kilo = kilogram.

UNI vb `unite' would not be formed regularly according to the N rules from the numeral un, and would lead to the bad form unitione. Therefore it is better to take the regular unisa and then unione as an independent word with verb uniona. (Unisati States, or Unionati States?)

VADA `go'. It is difficult to find a good word for this idea: Peano has i, which is rather short and is not good in the inflected forms; Occ has ear, but e is only found in some of the L forms, not in living languages; Esp iri, Ido irar takes the L infinitive ending into the root, which should be avoided; va from Romanic is not good as a full verb (the sb vo would be wanted more often than the corresponding fo); the other Romanic and Germanic stems al-, an-, and- and ge-, go- seem unsatisfactory. - vata `wade,', D waten.

VETRE `weather' (D Sc E) on account of the accent better than Ido vetero; similarly vintre `winter,' somre summer,' hamre `hammer,' vespre `evening,' arbre `tree,' (F I S always stressed on a).

VIOLE `violet' (flower); viola `infringe a law, rape a woman,' with sb violo, violatione. Independent violenti adj with violenteso.

VOSE `voice'. Voka `call' with voko, vokatione; vokali adj; vokale vowel as independent word.

YER `yesterday' as Occ from F spoken form of hier.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Electronics/Analog multipliers

Analog multipliers
An analog multiplier is a circuit with an output that is proportional to the product of two inputs:
 * $$v_{out} = K v_1 \cdot v_2$$

where K is a constant value whose dimension is the inverse of a voltage. In general we might expect that the two inputs can be both positive or negative, and so can be the output. Anyway, most of the implementations work only if both inputs are strictly positive: this is not such a limit because we can shift the input and the output in order to have a core working only with positive signals but external interfaces working with any polarity (within certain limits according to the particular configuration).

Two possible implementations will be shown. Both will be using operational amplifiers, but the first one will use diodes to get the needed relationships, the second one MOSFET transistors.

Diode Implementations
As known, using operational amplifiers and diodes it's quite easy to obtain the logarithm and the exponential of a certain input. Remembering the property of logarithms:
 * $$\log (a \cdot b) = \log a + \log b$$

we can multiply two signals first calculating their logarithm, then summing them and finally calculating the exponential of such a sum. From the point of view of mathematics, such an approach works as long as the two inputs are positive, because the logarithm of a negative number does not exist (in the real domain). We'll see that this limit is valid for the actual circuit as well, even if the reason will be more "physical". The block diagram of this implementation is the following:

If we simply append the circuits for logarithm, sum and exponential we get the following configuration:

for a quick overview on the behavior of the circuit, we'll assume that all the resistors R have the same value. It is obviously possible to use different values to get different results, but we will not consider it here. Let us use the following notation for the relationship between current and voltage on a diode:
 * $$i = I_s \left( e^{\frac{v}{V_T}} - 1 \right)$$

where $$V_T = \frac{k*T}{q} $$ is the thermal voltage (25..30mV at common operating temperatures) and Is is the current flowing through the diode if it's inverse-polarized. If we analyze the circuit without introducing any approximation we get:
 * $$v_a = - \left[ - V_T \ln \left( \frac{v_1}{R I_s} + 1 \right) - V_T \ln \left( \frac{v_2}{R I_s} + 1 \right) \right] =

V_T \ln \left[ \left( \frac{v_1}{R I_s} + 1 \right) \left( \frac{v_2}{R I_s} + 1 \right) \right]$$ so the final output is:
 * $$v_b = - R I_s \left( e^{\frac{v_a}{V_T}} - 1 \right) = - \frac{v_1 \cdot v_2}{R I_s} - (v_1 + v_2)$$

as it is clear, in the output there is the multiplication we were looking for, but there is another term we don't want. It can't be simply considered an error because it might be as great as the multiplication element, so it has to be removed. Anyway this is an easy task, since it is necessary only to add another stage to sum exactly $$v_1 + v_2$$, so we will have no error. The complete multiplier circuit is the following:

where the output voltage is given by:
 * $$v_{out} = - \left( - \frac{v_1 \cdot v_2}{R I_s} - (v_1 + v_2) + (v_1 + v_2) \right) = \frac{v_1 \cdot v_2}{R I_s} $$

that's exactly what we wanted. The circuit works as long as the following relationship is verified:
 * $$v_1, v_2 > - R I_s$$

so the inputs can be zero or sightly negative but, since $$ R I_s$$ will be a small voltage, we are allowed to rewrite the relation simply as $$v_1, v_2 \geq 0$$. From the mathematical point of view this is due to the fact that we can't calculate the logarithm of a negative number, from a physical point of view the limit is due to the fact that we can obtain only very small currents (almost zero) inverse-polarizing the diodes.

In practical applications, the diodes are replaced with BJTs connected so to work like a diode.

MOS implementation
Since it is possible to use a MOSFET transistor as a voltage controlled resistor, it is possible to use this feature to create an analog multiplier. Referring to the picture on the right -- the letters indicate the different pins: Drain, Source and Gate. MOS devices are symmetrical, so the drain and source can be exchanged without affecting the behavior of the device. Use source as the lowest voltage terminal and drain as the higher voltage terminal. When the voltage between gate and drain exceeds the threshold voltage, i.e. $$V_{GD} > V_{TH}$$, the relationship between current and voltage is the following:
 * $$I_{DS} = K [2 (V_{GS} - V_T) V_{DS} - V_{DS}^2] \simeq 2 K (V_{GS} - V_T) V_{DS}; \qquad V_{GD} >> V_{TH}$$

assuming we can always use this relationship, the analog multiplier configuration is the following:

where source and drain of both devices are pointed out. If $$v_2$$ and $$V_{ref}$$ are positive, then the sources will be at virtual ground by the operational amplifier. The current flowing through $$R_1$$ is clear: one side of the resistor has the voltage $$v_1$$, the other one is at (virtual) ground. That same current will flow through the MOS $$M_2$$, thus defining the voltage $$V_G$$. The current is given by:
 * $$\frac{v_1}{R_1} = - I_{DS2} = - 2 K (V_{GS2} - V_{T2}) V_{DS2}$$

but $$V_{GS2} = V_G$$ and $$V_{DS2} = V_{ref}$$. replacing and calculating we get:
 * $$V_G = V_{T2} - \frac{v_1}{2 K R_1 V_{ref}}$$

considering the other MOS $$M_1$$ we have:
 * $$\; I_{DS1} = 2 K (V_{GS1} - V_{T1}) V_{DS1}$$

where $$V_{GS1} = V_G$$ and $$V_{DS1} = v_2$$. Replacing we get:
 * $$I_{DS1} = - \frac{v_1 v_2}{R_1 V_{ref}}$$

from which the output voltage is:
 * $$v_{out} = \frac{R_2}{R_1} \frac{v_1 v_2}{V_{ref}}; \qquad V_{ref}, v_1, v_2 > 0$$

which is what is wanted. The difference between the previous configurations are:
 * the MOS implementation is simpler and requires fewer devices
 * in the calculations for the diode configuration we did not introduce any approximation, while the MOS configuration we did.

In other words, the diode implementation is more complicated but it works fine for a wider range on inputs.

title: Electronics/Analog multipliers


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Template:Novial/Exercise

EXERCISE • •

SOLUTION • •

title: Template:Novial/Exercise


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Animal Care/Goldfish

Feeding
Like most fish, goldfish are opportunistic feeders, meaning they will eat whenever food is available, whether they are hungry or not. This habit can be fatal. Their digestive tract often become so jammed with food that the intestines tear open, killing the fish. Also, an excess of food means more waste and feces, which will pollute the tank. Goldfish need to only be fed as much food as they can consume in three to four minutes, and no more than twice a day.

An effective method to determine if your goldfish is being properly fed is to look at their feces. They should be short and chunky, the same color as the food the fish is eating. Long strings of waste that trail behind the fish as they swim could be a sign of over-feeding.

Care has to be taken when choosing the right food for them, because goldfish need less protein (which they cannot digest in excess) and more carbohydrates. However, specialized food for them can be found on the market. Most come in the form of flakes, which float at the top of the aquarium or pellets, which sink slowly to the bottom.

Proper goldfish diet usually consists of a good quality floating pellet type food, along with occasional feedings of peas (removed from their outer skins), blanched green leafy vegetables, and bloodworms. Young goldfish benefit from the addition of brine shrimp to their diet. It is a good idea to set up a feeding ring in their tank where food is always introduced - not only does this prevent food from getting sucked into the filter, but it also ensures the fish know where to go for food. Within a week of its introduction the goldfish should be spending a lot of time at the feeding ring looking for food. Blanched greens should be clipped inside the tank where the goldfish can easily nibble at them.

Fancy goldfish such as Fantails and Black Moors benefit from having their food soaked first as feeding at the surface can increase their risk of getting swim bladder problems (where the fish is unable to control buoyancy).

It is a better idea to introduce blanched greens to the tank than it is to use live plants as a food source. Any plant that can grow fast enough to survive a tank full of voracious goldfish is likely to overrun the tank, creating a maintenance nightmare. On the other hand, tamer plants are likely to be uprooted, or simply torn to shreds, by the efforts of the goldfish.

Aquarium conditions
The goldfish is quite hardy, which accounts in part for its popularity. Their supposed reputation in some areas for dying quickly is often due to poor care amongst uninformed buyers looking for a "cheap" pet. The goldfish is usually classified as a coldwater fish, as it can live in an unheated aquarium or in an outdoor water garden. In a pond, it will even survive brief periods of ice forming on the surface, so long as there is enough oxygen remaining in the water and the pond does not freeze solid.

Like most carp, goldfish produce a large amount of waste both in their feces and through their gills, releasing harmful chemicals into the water. This also happens because goldfish cannot digest an excess of proteins, unlike most tropical fish. Build-up of this waste to toxic levels can occur in a relatively short period of time, which is often the cause of a fish's sudden death. Although goldfish were historically displayed in small "goldfish bowls", a healthy and happy average-sized adult goldfish requires at least 10 US gallons (38 L) of water and above in order to live even a small life. In fact, for single-tailed varieties, such as commons or comets, it is really necessary to have 100 gallons (378 L) (for adult fish). Other goldfish experts say that it is the amount of water surface area, not the water volume, that decides how many goldfish may live in a container; one square foot of water surface area for every inch of goldfish length (370 cm²/cm). For example, if you had three goldfish of length 4 inches (10 cm) each, you might need 12 square feet (1,080 cm²) of water surface area. Surface area is an approximate measure of how much oxygen may be absorbed into the water from the air. If the water is being further aerated by way of water pump, filter or fountain, more goldfish may be kept in the container.

A quick rule of thumb to remember for common and comet goldfish is 40 gallons for the first and 20 gallons for each additional. For the fancy varieties it is 20 gallons for the first and 10 gallons for each additional.

A frequent misconception is that airstones do not increase the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Most of the transfer of oxygen occurs when the bubbles are formed at and around the airstone, and therefore airstones that create smaller bubbles in large amounts are preferred over those creating fewer larger bubbles. The ripples they create at the surface of the water also increase the surface area and therefore facilitate oxygen exchange at the surface of the tank. For the beginner acquiring a goldfish, the best advice that can be given is to get a 40 gallon long tank, these are typically inexpensive, have a huge surface area, and will be a suitable fish home for over 2 years. Beginner filtration can simply be provided by a box filter hung over the back of the tank, though filtration should be rated for ), as the ammonia levels produced by goldfish are much higher than those produced by the tropical fish filters are typically rated for. It is also imperative that adequate biological filtration is provided, as the breakdown of nitrates occurs much more slowly at the colder temperatures goldfish are kept at. One useful compromise is to keep the aquarium heated to a constant 72 °F (22 °C), as this temperature keeps the fish active while at the same time aiding bacterial growth.

In the end, it may be easier to transfer the goldfish to a pond rather than to a 100 gallon tank (378 L), as few homes can support the size. This is an area where most serious aquaculturists will agree, ponds are superior to tanks in the long run for goldfish.

Aquariums
Despite the small size of goldfish, they are able to grow large in a short amount of time. Therefore, a goldfish pond or a massive tank is often more of an investment than typically expected. Inexpensive ways to keep goldfish in more humane conditions until such an environment can be arranged by constructing an emergency home for them out of large plastic or glass containers, which can be as simple as 20 to 40 gallon (76-151 L) plastic boxes. These containers will house a fish much better than a small bowl, though proper hygiene must still be maintained. A 20% change of the water twice a week and using an aquarium vacuum to clean any dropping off of the bottom are effective methods in preserving water clarity. Additional rocks and plants in the tank help to remove nitrates from the water and also keep the fish entertained. A more ideal eventual solution is a 100 to 200 gallon long tank, and while this may seem excessive, common goldfish can grow to a foot (30.5 cm) long and may require such a large tank to have enough room to swim. Goldfish kept in smaller tanks will have much shorter lifespans.

Starting filtration should be provided by a box filter that hangs on the back of the tank. Undergravel filters have their uses, but they are inappropriate in a goldfish tank as they will quickly clog with detritus. Another excellent argument against undergravel filters is that the beneficial bacteria can sometimes die off, yet the filter will still appear to be working. The resulting spike in ammonia is often enough to kill every fish in the tank. Canister filters are another excellent choice, but usually well outside the budget of a beginning aquaculturist. Wet-dry and protein skimmer options are usually reserved for marine aquariums, so it would be extreme overkill to use them here. Simply put, the best option is to purchase a box filter rated for twice the volume of your tank, as goldfish produce copious amounts of waste due to their large size. An external box filter is preferable.

Lighting is the one area where someone on a budget can avoid investing money initially. Goldfish need day and night cycles to be healthy, but for tanks under 30 gallons (113 L) the room lights will be sufficient, at least temporarily. Another excellent area to save money is on the full hoods often sold at a greater cost than the tanks themselves at the pet store. A much more economical cover for the tank can be constructed out of the plastic mesh backing used for making loop-and-stitch rugs. This can be easily found at any craft store, and can be cut to fit the filters for your tank. Suitable covers can also be constructed out of particle board, which can be found at any hardware store. However, if a source of natural light is available (e.g. a window), the fish will be much happier than if they were under artificial lighting.

One last point that should be made for beginning goldfish owners is on the use of a heater. Goldfish may be coldwater fish, but this does not mean they can tolerate rapid changes in temperature. The sudden shift in temperature that comes at night, for example in an office building where a goldfish might be kept in a small office tank, could kill them, especially in winter. Therefore, even for cold water fish under certain circumstances, it is recommended that a tank heater be set to 68-72 °F (20-22 °C) and left in the tank year round. This is especially important for fancy varieties of goldfish, as they are less hardy than their brethren. Bear in mind, however, that temperatures over 25 degrees C can be extremely damaging for goldfish (this is the main reason why they shouldn't be kept in tropical tanks). As long as the room temperature does not fluctuate massively or drop extremely low, a heater can be left out of the aquarium.

As a footnote on tank sizes, a couple of very small goldfish will be fine in a 10-15 gallon (38-57 L) aquarium for a couple of months (with good filtration and water changes twice weekly). Beyond this time, however, the owner begins to run the risk of stunting their fish. A 40-50 gallon aquarium would suit 4 fish for a couple of years, however, in the end, a 100 gallon tank (or larger) needs to be obtained in order to suit the needs of the fishes.

There is a consumer stereotype that goldfish can be kept in small bowls. Unfortunately, the risk of stunting, deoxygenation, ammonia/nitrite poisoning caused by such a small environment means that this is hardly a suitable home for a gold, let alone any fish. It is truly funny and sad when somebody says that their fish 'lived for 4 years in a bowl and grew to a whopping 3 inches!' (7.5 cm) Most goldfish don't make it past a week in these unsuitable environments. Even among otherwise excellent aquarists, there is still an opinion that it is acceptable to keep these fish in small (under 50 gallons) tanks. Perhaps these people have never seen a full-sized goldfish, and this is not surprising, considering the fate that most golds suffer.

Care
There exists a great deal of conflicting information on the best way to care for a goldfish, or rather, on the best feasible ways to care for one. The best solution is to build an indoor pond, as this would provide the benefits of an outdoor pond without the risk presented by raccoons, kingfishers, children, and weather. As for indoor care, there are a few general tips that should be noted.

 * A quality mechanical filtration system rated for at least twice the volume of your tank is optimal for most tanks. Goldfish produce copious amounts of waste, and this factor must be constantly dealt with to prevent ammonia spikes.
 * Undergravel filtration is usually not recommended for most goldfish tanks. These systems require up to six months to establish, and goldfish produce far too much waste. The filter plate will clog with detrious and become useless within a matter of weeks. Not only that, but these systems are only effective in tanks under 40 gallons, while most goldfish pairs or trios require 55 gallon tanks by the time they are fully grown.
 * Floating pellets (particularly floating pond pellets) are one of the best staple foods for fish. Uneaten food can be removed easily, and the fish have no trouble finding the food before it dissolves.
 * A twenty gallon long tank is usually a good choice for starting fishkeepers. While most will eventually have to upgrade to fifty gallon tanks, it is best for a beginner to have a tank that doesn't create additional problems. Larger tanks require more planning, more initial investment, and more mechanical inclination in setting it against the right walls and floor joists of the home. It is also nice in the long run to have the twenty gallon tank to use in case of emergency (such as a bigger tank breaking) or as a hospital/quarantine tank.
 * An excellent idea when moving from a smaller (10-20 gallon) to a medium (37-55 gallon) tank is to use your old filter, and add an additional identical unit on the opposite end of the tank. It is nice to plan your filter so that when you move to a larger tank the filter can handle it as well. Two medium size mechanical filters working in conjunction will do wonders for your water quality, as well as ensure that if a filter were to break, there is at least some filtration until a replacement can be obtained.
 * Air pumps are becoming outdated for most standard filtration setups. Air-driven mechanical filters are simply not powerful enough to deal with larger tanks, and should be reserved for fry tanks. The noise of most air pumps is also annoying. Most decorations driven by these air pumps do little to improve the oxygenation of the water. Another simple argument against the air pump is that it does not deal with the problem of tank overcrowding - if fish are gasping for air (lack of dissolved oxygen) it is almost always better to remove fish from the tank rather than resort to gimmicks to try and increase the air. You never want your fishes lives to depend on an electrical device being able to run constantly, as in the event of a failure their lives would be endangered.
 * Lastly, keep the tank cold. Goldfish cannot be mixed with tropical fish, and indeed it is not even a good idea to mix them with other fish. Most catfish (i.e. plecos) that can be kept in coldwater get too big to keep in the tank, and they are a danger to the goldfish. Numerous accounts can be found of cases where a goldfish was injured, and a catfish will take a liking to sucking on the wounds. There are also a few stories of celestial goldfishes eyeballs being sucked out by a wandering algae eater. The bottom line, don't mix.

title: Animal Care/Goldfish


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Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences/Desktop & Screensaver

This pane has two tabs at the top. One tab lets you choose a desktop picture, and the other lets you choose a screen saver.

=Desktop Picture= The desktop picture is the backdrop your windows are displayed against. By default, it's a layered blue image that Apple refers to as "Aqua Blue". However, there are tons of other choices available.

The sidebar along the left side of the pane lists various collections of desktop pictures. When you click on a collection, the desktop pictures inside appear in the contents pane to the right. If the image doesn't fit your screen correctly, a pop-up box appears offering a few ways to display the image:

 * Stretch to Fill Screen - The image is warped out of shape, shrunk, or enlarged as necessary so that it perfectly fills your screen. This works well for some images, but horribly mangles others.
 * Fill Screen - The image is enlarged or shrunk so that your screen is completely covered. However, the shape (aspect ratio) is unaltered, even if the shape of the image doesn't match the shape of your screen. This means that part of the image will most likely not be shown.
 * Center - The image is shown actual size, actual shape, smack in the middle of your screen. If the image doesn't fill the screen, then the remaining space is filled with a color of your choice. A color well appears next to the pop-up that lets you choose the color.
 * Tile - The image is repeated over and over so that it fills up your screen.

What is lacking is a setting that might be called "Fit Longest Dimension" that would maximize the size of the image without cropping and without altering the aspect ratio. When the aspect ratio of the picture does not match the screen, the remaining space would be filled with a chosen color.

Screensaver
The Screensaver pane is setup much the same way that Desktop pane is set. It will default to A moving picture of the Apple Logo and your computer's name, but you have a plethora of options, including many freely-released third-party screensavers.

The list of the left of the Preference Pane displays all the screensavers installed on your system along with options to add more. When a screen saver is selected a preview will be generated in the rectangle in the centre of the Preference Pan. You may press Test to see a full screen preview. You have the option of adjusting the delay between user inactivity and the appearance of the screensaver, and by pressing the Options button you can configure any settings that an individual screen saver may have.