text:
User:Legionarius/Sandbox

Banana Sweet Bread
Tested

Makes 1 full-sized loaf.

Preheat the oven to 350.

Combine:

 * 4 tablespoons melted butter
 * 2 eggs
 * 3 very ripe bananas
 * 1 cup sugar

Use a fork to squish the banana until most of the banana to be reduced to mush and the ingredients are well mixed.

Add:

 * 3/4 teaspoon salt
 * 1/2 teaspoon baking soda
 * 1/4 teaspoon baking powder
 * 1/2 teaspoon cinnamon

Blend:

 * 1 1/3 cup all-purpose unbleached flour

Mix until the ingredients make an homogeneous mixture.

Bake for around 45 minutes, until a toothpick inserted in the center comes out clean.

Chocolate Chip Cookies

 * 8 ounces (2 sticks) unsalted butter, at room temperature
 * 1 cup packed dark brown sugar
 * 1/2 cup granulated sugar
 * 2 large eggs
 * 2 cups all-purpose flour
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 3/4 teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
 * 3 cups semisweet chunks or morsels.

Place the butter in a large bowl and cream at high speed until fluffy. Add the sugars and beat until light and fluffy, about 4 minutes, scraping down sides of bowl occasionally. Beat in eggs, one at a time, until completely mixed.

In a separate bowl, mix flour, salt and baking soda. Add to the butter mixture at low speed until just combined and add vanilla extract. Beat on medium speed, scraping bowl down, until blended. Do not over mix.

Add chocolate chunks and mix till thoroughly combined. Refrigerate batter until cold, preferably overnight.

Preheat a conventional oven to 350 degrees or a convection oven to 300 degrees, and line several baking sheets with parchment paper. Drop heaping spoonfuls of batter 2 inches apart on the lined baking sheets and bake, turning tray once, until golden brown around edges and soft (but not bubbly), about 9 minutes in a convection oven or 12 in a conventional one. Cool on a wire rack.

Yield: 36 to 72 cookies, depending on size.

Pita Bread

 * 3 cups flour
 * 1 1/2 teaspoons salt
 * 1 Tablespoon sugar
 * 1 packet instant yeast
 * 1 1/4 cups water
 * 2 tablespoons olive oil

Mix the dry ingredients. Add the oil and water and stir them together.

Knead the dough for 10 minutes. Place it in a oiled bowl, rolling the ball of dough around so it is oiled on all sides.

Cover to rise until it doubled in size (90 minutes).

Degas and divide in 8 pieces. Roll each piece into a ball, and cover for 20 minutes.

Preheat the oven to 400 degrees, with a baking stone or cookie sheet inside.

Sprinkle flour on top of the dough and flatten it to between 1/8 and 1/4 inch thick.

The pitas bake in 3 minutes, but can be left up to 8 depending on personal preference.

No-Knead Bread

 * 2.25 pound loaf

 * 4.5 cups flour
 * 3/8 teaspoon instant yeast
 * 3 teaspoons salt
 * 2 1/4 cups of water

Combine flour, yeast and salt. Add water. Cover bowl with plastic wrap. Let rise for 16 hours.

Sprinkle the dough with flour on a floured surface and fold it over itself twice. Cover loosely with plastic wrap and let rest about 15 minutes.

Shape dough into a ball. Put it over a floured plastic wrap. Cover with another floured wrap and let it rise for two hours.

Heat a 6-quart open heavy covered pot (like cast iron) in an oven to 500 degrees 30 minutes before the dough is ready.

Remove the pot from the oven and put the dough on it, seam side up. Shake pan to distribute the dough evenly. Cover with lid and bake 30 minutes, then remove lid and bake another 15 to 30 minutes, until bread has a hollow sound or reaches 200 degrees.

Chocolate Pudding Cake
3/4 cup flour 2/3 cup sugar 1/2 cup unsweetened cocoa powder, divided in half 1 1/2 tsp baking powder 1/2 tsp salt 1/2 cup milk 3 tbsp vegetable oil 2/3 cup brown sugar 1 tsp vanilla extract 1 1/4 cups water, boiling 2 tsp instant coffee/espresso powder

Preheat oven to 350F.

Combine flour, sugar, 1/4 cup cocoa, baking powder and salt in an 8 inch square baking pan, stirring with a fork to combine. Pour in the milk and oil, and stir again with the fork until batter is uniform.

Sprinkle brown sugar and the remaining 1/4 cup cocoa evenly over batter. Stir vanilla extract and instant coffee powder into the hot water, then pour the mixture over everything. Do not mix. Place pan in oven and bake for 30-35 minutes, until surface of the cake looks dry. The pudding will be bubbling around the edges of the pan. Store leftovers in the refrigerator and reheat before serving.

Egg White Pudding

 * 6 beaten egg whites
 * 12 tbsp sugar
 * 1/8 tsp vanilla extract

15-18 minutes in a greased pan in the microwave, low.

Nutella Frosted Cupcakes

 * 10 tbsp softened butter
 * 3/4 cup sugar
 * 3 eggs
 * 1/2 tsp vanilla
 * 1 3/4 cups flour
 * 1/4 tsp salt
 * 2 tsp baking powder
 * 1/3 cup Nutella

Preheat oven to 325F. Cream together butter, sugar. Add and mix eggs one at a time. Blend vanilla, flour, salt and baking powder. Using an ice cream scoop, fill each muffin liner with batter. They should be 3/4 full, if you're not using a scoop. Top each cake with 1 1/2 tsp Nutella. Swirl Nutella in with a toothpick, making sure to fold a bit of batter up over the Nutella.

Bake for 20 minutes. Makes 12.

Semoline Focaccia

 * 9 Tbsp. Olive oil (divided use)
 * 3 Cups all-purpose flour
 * 3/4 Cup semolina flour
 * 1/2 tsp salt (divided)
 * 1 1/2 Tbsp quick-rising dry yeast
 * 1 1/2 Cup hot (between 120 and 130 degrees) milk
 * 1 Tbsp. fresh rosemary leaves

Pour a scant tablespoon of the olive oil into a 9-inch-square cake pan; spread evenly to cover bottom and sides. Place all-purpose flour, semolina flour, 2 tablespoons of the olive oil, 1/4 teaspoon of the salt and all of the yeast in the bowl of a mixer fitted with a dough hook. (The mixing can be done by hand as well.) Blend ingredients on medium speed. Reduce speed to low and slowly add hot milk. Raise the speed to medium and continue mixing for 5 minutes (knead about 8 to 10 minutes by hand). Sprinkle bottom of cake pan with a little flour. Remove dough from bowl and spread out evenly in pan. Cover with a towel and let rest for 30 minutes. Preheat oven to 400 degrees. Remove towel. Brush dough with 1 to 2 tablespoons of the olive oil. Sprinkle top with additional salt and rosemary. Bake for 20 minutes. Remove from oven and drizzle with remaining oil. Makes 6 - 8 servings.

Roman Bread

 * 400 g bread flour
 * 125 ml warm water
 * 1½ tsp instant yeast
 * 1 tsp sugar
 * 60 ml olive oil
 * 75 ml warm milk
 * ½ tsp sea salt

Put the flour in a large bowl, mix in the salt, sugar and yeast and shape a dip in the center. Fill this with the yeast water, olive oil and milk. Mix the flour and water to make a dough, kneading firmly for about five minutes. Add a little more flour or water if necessary to achieve firm dough.

Smear a 1lb baking tin with oil and line with flour. Press the dough into the bottom of the tin. Seal the tin with cling film and stand in a warm place for one hour.

Bake in an oven at 400°f for about 40 minutes. The loaf will have a pale crust and a soft body.

Brotchen

 * 2 1/2 - 3 cups flour
 * 1 teaspoon sugar
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 package active dry yeast
 * 1 tablespoon oil
 * 1 cup warm water
 * 1 egg white

Pour 2 1/2 cups flour into a large bowl and make a well. Pour yeast, sugar, and two tablespoons of warm water (the water comes from the 1 cup listed above) in the well. Mix yeast, sugar and water carefully within the well. Do not mix with the flour at this time. Cover the bowl with a cloth and set it in a warm place for 15 minutes. Add the remaining water and oil and beat until mixed.

Turn out on counter top and knead until smooth. Add the remaining 1/2 cup flour as needed. Put dough in a bowl, cover, and let it rise until double in size.

Punch down and divide the dough into 12 parts. Shape into oval rolls and place 3 inches apart on a greased and floured cookie sheet. Cover and let rise until double in size.

Beat egg white and 1 teaspoon water with a fork until frothy and brush on the rolls. Bake in a preheated oven at 450 for 15 to 20 minutes until golden brown.

Hamburger Bun

 * 1 Cup Water
 * 2 Tbs Unsalted butter, at room temperature and creamed
 * 1 Egg
 * 3 1/4 Cups all-purpose flour
 * 1/4 Cup superfine sugar
 * 1 Tsp Salt
 * 1 Tbs Instant yeast
 * 1 Egg yolk (+ 1 Tsp water)
 * Sesame seeds

Method: Combine all the ingredients and mix well.

Turn the dough out on to a lightly floured working surface and knead for about 10 minutes until you've made a soft, smooth dough.

Place the dough in a clean and lightly greased bowl.

Cover it with plastic wrap and let rise for about 1 hour, until doubled in size.

Divide the dough into 8 pieces and shape each piece into a flattened ball.

Place the buns on greased baking sheets, cover with a towel and let rise 30 to 40 minutes, until they're quite puffy and doubled in size.

Preheat the oven to 190°C (375°F).

Glaze the buns with the egg yolk and water mixture, then sprinkle with sesame seeds.

Bake the buns for 12 to 15 minutes, until they are golden brown.

Brazilian Sour Cassava Flour Biscuit

 * 1 kg Sour Cassava Flour
 * 500 ml Milk, divided in 2
 * 1 tbsp salt
 * 250 ml oil
 * 2 large eggs

Blend the flour with milk and salt. Bring the other milk cup and the oil to a boil. Pour it over the flour mixture. Let it cool and add the eggs. Blend it together; it will be a bit liquid. Use a decorating bag to create small balls in an oiled cookie sheet. Heat the oven to 400 F. After the biscuits rise, lower it to 200F and let them dry.

Brazilian French Bread

 * 500 g bread flour
 * 1/2 ice cold water cup
 * 3/4 cups water
 * 5 g instant yeast
 * 1/2 tsp sugar
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 1 1/2 tsp oil

Sift flour, sugar, salt and yeast in a bowl. Add water and oil and blend. Add the cold water slowly. Knead for 10 minutes. Cover for 30 minutes. Divide the dough in 10 cilindrical portions and set on cookie sheets. Cover and let it double in size, around one hour. Preheat the oven to 425F. Score the bread lengthwise.

Bake the bread with two small boiling water cans in the oven to ensure a crispy crust.

Old Fashioned Pancakes

 * 1 1/2 cups all-purpose flour
 * 1 1/4 cups milk
 * 3 1/2 teaspoons baking powder
 * 1/2 tsp salt
 * 3 tsp white sugar
 * 1 egg
 * 3 tablespoons butter, melted

In a large bowl, sift together the flour, baking powder, salt and sugar. Make a well in the center and pour in the milk, egg and melted butter; mix until smooth.

Heat a lightly oiled griddle or frying pan over medium high heat. Pour or scoop the batter onto the griddle, using approximately 1/2 cup for each pancake. Brown on both sides and serve hot.

Blueberry Muffins

 * 1 1/2 cups all-purpose flour
 * 3/4 cup white sugar
 * 1/2 teaspoon salt
 * 2 teaspoons baking powder
 * 1/3 cup vegetable oil
 * 1 egg
 * 1/3 cup milk
 * 1 cup fresh blueberries
 * 1/2 cup white sugar
 * 1/3 cup all-purpose flour
 * 1/4 cup butter, cubed
 * 1 1/2 teaspoons ground cinnamon

Preheat oven to 400 degrees F (200 degrees C). Grease muffin cups or line with muffin liners. Combine 1 1/2 cups flour, 3/4 cup sugar, salt and baking powder. Place vegetable oil into a 1 cup measuring cup; add the egg and enough milk to fill the cup. Mix this with flour mixture. Fold in blueberries. Fill muffin cups right to the top, and sprinkle with crumb topping mixture. To Make Crumb Topping: Mix together 1/2 cup sugar, 1/3 cup flour, 1/4 cup butter, and 1 1/2 teaspoons cinnamon. Mix with fork, and sprinkle over muffins before baking. Bake for 20 to 25 minutes in the preheated oven, or until done.

Mocha Chocolate Muffins

 * 3 large eggs
 * 1 cup (240 ml) buttermilk
 * 3/4 cup (180 ml) safflower or canola oil
 * 1/2 cup (120 ml) strong black coffee, at room temperature
 * 1 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
 * 1 1/2 cups (210 grams) all-purpose flour
 * 1 1/4 cups (175 grams) whole wheat flour
 * 1/3 cup (25 grams) Dutch processed cocoa powder, sifted
 * 1 cup (210 grams) light brown sugar
 * 1/2 teaspoon baking powder
 * 1 teaspoon baking soda
 * 1/2 teaspoon salt
 * 1 cup (100 grams) pecans or walnuts, coarsely chopped (optional)
 * 1 cup (170 grams) semisweet and/or white chocolate chips

Preheat oven to 375 degrees F (190 degrees C). Position rack in center of oven. Butter or spray with a non stick cooking spray 12 - 2 3/4 x 1 1/2 inch muffin cups. Set aside.

In a large measuring cup or bowl whisk together the eggs, buttermilk, oil, coffee, and vanilla extract.

In another large bowl combine the flours, cocoa powder, brown sugar, baking powder, baking soda, and salt. Stir in the chopped nuts and chocolate chips. With a rubber spatula fold the wet ingredients into the dry ingredients and stir only until the ingredients are combined. Do not over mix the batter or tough muffins will result.

Evenly fill the muffin cups with the batter, using two spoons or an ice cream scoop. Place in the oven and bake until a toothpick inserted in the center of a muffin comes out clean, about 20 - 25 minutes. Transfer to a wire rack and let cool for about 5 minutes before removing from pan.

Makes 12 regular sized muffins or 6 jumbo muffins.

French Toast

 * 3 large eggs
 * 3/4 cup (180 ml) milk or cream
 * pinch of salt
 * 1/4 teaspoon pure vanilla extract (optional)
 * 1/8 teaspoon ground cinnamon (optional)
 * 8 slices of good quality, day old bread (cut into 1/2 inch slices) (1.5 cm)
 * Butter for frying

In a large bowl whisk together the eggs, milk, salt, vanilla extract and ground cinnamon (if using). Transfer the egg mixture to a large shallow glass or ceramic dish. Dip both sides of each slice of bread into the egg mixture.

Meanwhile, in a large non-stick frying pan, over medium to medium-high heat, melt about one tablespoon of butter. Fry the slices of bread until golden brown on one side and then turn and fry the other side. If not serving immediately, keep warm in a 250 degree F (130 degree C) oven. Continue frying the other slices of bread, adding more butter as needed.

Serve immediately with a dusting of powdered sugar and pure maple syrup.

Serves 4.

Olive Garden Alfredo Fettuccine

 * 1 pint heavy cream
 * 1 stick (1/2 cup) butter
 * 2 tablespoons cream cheese
 * 1/2 - 3/4 cup Parmesan cheese
 * 1 teaspoon garlic powder, add in more to suit your taste if you prefer
 * Salt and pepper, to taste
 * 8 ounces fettuccine, cooked and drained

In a saucepan combine butter, heavy cream, and cream cheese. Simmer this until all is melted, and mixed well. Add the Parmesan cheese and garlic powder. Simmer this for 15 - 20 minutes over low heat.

Pizza

 * 1 instant yeast package
 * 2 tbsp sugar
 * 1 egg
 * 6 tbsp oil
 * 1 cup warm milk
 * 1 cup warm water
 * 1 tsp salt
 * about 1 kg flour

Mix yeast, sugar, flour and water and 1/4 cup milk. It will be liquid. Let it rise in a covered bowl. Add the egg, salt and oil. Mix. Add flour until it gets to a ball and knead for 10 minutes. Let it rise until it doubles. Split in four parts. Let it rise again. Bake in 450F oven until puffy.

Gnocchi

 * 2 1/4 pounds Russet potatoes
 * 1 large egg
 * 2 cups all purpose flour
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1/2 teaspoon ground black pepper

Cook, peel and mash the potatoes. Let it cool, add the egg, salt, pepper and flour, a little at a time. Roll pieces of dough and cut the individual gnocchi. Roll each on top of an egg whisker to make the grooves.

Brazilian Cheese Bread
200g grated Parmesan cheese
 * 500 g sweet cassava flour
 * 1 cup milk
 * 1 cup oil
 * 1/2 tsp salt
 * 2 eggs

Boil together milk, oil and salt. Pour over the flour. Let it cool and add the eggs once and a time, mixing well. Add the cheese last. With oiled hands, make small balls. Bake at 375F until browned.

Habib's Sfiha

 * 250g de farinha de trigo
 * 1 package instant yeast
 * 2 tbsp oil
 * 1 cup water
 * 2 tbsp sugar
 * 1 tsp salt
 * cornmeal

Blend all the ingredients and split in 10 balls. Cover with cornmeal. After doubling, open and add the cheese filling.

Cheese filling
 * 300g cheese
 * parsley
 * salt
 * oregano or fresh rosemary

title: User:Legionarius/Sandbox


text:
Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/Larynx/Supraglottis

Anatomy

 * Subsites of the supraglottic larynx: epiglottis, arytenoid cartilages, false cords, aryepiglottic folds
 * Major lymphatic drainage of supraglottic larynx are levels II, III, IV.
 * 55% clinically positive nodes at diagnosis, 16% bilateral
 * Anatomic Landmarks
 * Hyoid bone - C3
 * Superior border of thyroid cartilage - C4
 * Cricoid cartilage - C6

Staging
AJCC Staging System
 * Tumor
 * T1 - limited to one subsite, normal vocal cord mobility
 * T2 - more than one adjacent subsite of supraglottis or glottis or regional outside the supraglottis (e.g., mucosa of base of tongue, vallecula, medial wall of pyriform sinus), but no fixation of vocal cords
 * T3 - vocal cord fixation, or invasion of the following: postcricoid area, pre-epiglottic tissues, paraglottic space, or minor thyroid cartilage erosion (inner cortex)
 * T4a - invades through thyroid cartilage or invades tissues beyond the larynx (trachea, soft tissue of neck, extrinsic muscles of the tongue, strap muscles, thyroid, esophagus)
 * Note: extrinsic muscles of the tongue are: genioglossus, hyoglossus, styloglossus, and palatoglossus
 * T4b - invades prevertebral space, carotid, or mediastinum

 * Nodes (same as for most H&N sites)

 * Metastasis
 * M0 - none
 * M1 - yes

Stage Grouping
 * Stage I - T1N0
 * Stage II - T2N0
 * Stage III - T3N0, T1-3N1
 * Stage IVA - T4a or N2
 * Stage IVB - T4b or N3
 * Stage IVC - M1

Treatment

 * T1 and favorable T2N0 can be treated w/ definitive xrt or larynx conserving surgery.
 * Unfavorable T2N0 can be treated w/ definitive chemoxrt or larynx conserving surgery.
 * Indications for postoperative xrt include: close/positive margins, LVI, PNI
 * Locally advanced disease should be treated with definitive chemoxrt

Pre-op RT vs. Post-op RT

 * RTOG 73-03 (1973-1979)
 * Randomized. 320 patients. Operable stage T2-T4 any N (but not fixed); oral cavity, oropharynx, supraglottic larynx, hypopharynx, or maxillary sinus. Arm 1) Pre-op RT 50 Gy vs. Arm 2) Post-op RT 60 Gy. In addition, OC and OP lesions may be randomized Arm 3) definitive RT 65-70 Gy, with surgery reserved for salvage (n=43).
 * 10-years; 1999 PMID 1993628 — "Randomized study of preoperative versus postoperative radiation therapy in advanced head and neck carcinoma: long-term follow-up of RTOG study 73-03." (Tupchong L et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1991 Jan;20(1):21-8.)
 * Only pre-op vs. post-op subset (n=277). Oral cavity (14%), oropharynx (17%), hypopharynx (43%), supraglottic larynx (26%)
 * Outcome: LRC pre-op 58% vs. post-op 70% (SS), <2 years no difference (failures 59% vs. 58%), but marked >2 years (failures 27% vs 8%); OS no difference due to late (>2 years) deaths from DM and from second primaries
 * Supraglottic larynx : LRC pre-op 53% vs. post-op 77% (SS); 78% failures <2 years
 * Toxicity: no difference
 * Conclusion: Post-op RT better for LRC (especially in SGL), but no impact on OS due to distant failure and second primaries
 * Comment: some argument for definitive chemoRT instead of surgery and post-op RT since after 2 yrs, distant mets are primary cause of failure resulting in similar 10 OS in this trial. LRC still better for post-op vs definitive RT alone. Also, different doses used, at the time believed equivalent given the setting

Definitive RT

 * Varese, Italy, 1997 (1983-92) PMID 9282245 -- Spriano G et al. "Conservative management of T1-T2N0 supraglottic cancer: a retrospective study." Am J Otolaryngol. 1997 Sep-Oct;18(5):299-305.
 * 166 pts w/ SGL CA tx'd w/ larynx conserving surgery or definitive xrt
 * DFS 88% (surg) vs 76% (xrt)
 * Ultimate local control for xrt was 92% if salvage surgery was taken into account.
 * Likely of salvage rescuing a local failure was ~50%.
 * Larynx preservation rate was 95% (surg) vs 72% (xrt)

 * Rotterdam, 1990 (1965-79) PMID 2298616 -- Hoekstra CJ et al.  "Squamous cell carcinoma of the supraglottic larynx without clinically detectable lymph node metastases: problem of local relapse and influence of overall treatment time."  Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1990 Jan;18(1):13-21.
 * 203 pts w/ SCC of SGL tx'd curatively. 193 tx'd w/ primary xrt reserving surgery for salvage; re-evaluation occurred at 40 Gy and definitive course to 60-70 Gy was given if pts had response at re-eval.  33 pts required surgery.
 * 53% RFS for T2, 39% RFS for T4

Hyperfractionation

 * MDACC, 1989 (1984-87) PMID 2808039 -- Wendt CD et al. "Hyperfractionated radiotherapy in the treatment of squamous cell carcinomas of the supraglottic larynx." Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1989 Nov;17(5):1057-62.
 * 41 pts w/ SCC of SGL tx'd w/ 1.2 Gy BID to 72-79 Gy (76.8 median).
 * Local control rates improved w/ hyperfractionation over historical MDACC controls (96% vs 82% at 1 yr, 87% vs 76% at 2 yrs).

 * MGH, 1986 (1979-84) PMID 3943989 -- Wang CC et al. "Twice-a-day radiation therapy for supraglottic carcinoma." Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1986 Jan;12(1):3-7.
 * 106 pts tx'd w/ 1.6 Gy BID to 64 Gy in split course compared to 79 pts tx'd w/ conventional fractionation to 65 Gy
 * 3yr local control was 76% (hyperfractionated) vs 50% (conventional)
 * 3yr local control for T1/T2 was 88% vs 63%
 * 3yr local control for T3/T4 was 66% vs 33%

Induction Chemo-RT vs. Primary RT alone

 * RTOG 68-01 -- methotrexate
 * Randomized. 638 patients, Stage III-IV oral cavity (23%), oropharynx (55%), supraglottic larynx (12%), hypopharynx (10%). Arm 1) RT alone vs. Arm 2) IV MTX 25 mg q3d x5 followed by RT. RT 55-80 Gy
 * 1980 PMID 7410127 -- "Adjuvant intravenous methotrexate or definitive radiotherapy alone for advanced squamous cancers of the oral cavity, oropharynx, supraglottic larynx or hypopharynx." (Fazekas JT, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1980 May;6(5):533-41.)
 * Outcome: median OS RT vs. MTX-RT: oral cavity 11.8 mo vs. 12.4 mo, oropharynx 13.6 mo vs. 13.1 mo, SGL 17.2 mo vs. 19.2 mo, hypopharynx 9.7 mo vs. 13.4 mo
 * Conclusion: Minimal gain, induction methotrexate should not be used

Salvage Surgery

 * Gainesville, 1995 (1964-91) PMID 7790245 -- Parsons JT et al. "Salvage surgery following radiation failure in squamous cell carcinoma of the supraglottic larynx."  Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995 Jun 15;32(3):605-9.
 * 206 pts tx'd curatively w/ xrt. 46 pts had local failure (22%).  Deemed successful surgical salvage if NED at 2 yrs.
 * 26 pts had total laryngectomy, 4 had voice sparing salvage procedure.
 * Most failures after salvage were b/c of inability to control local dz.
 * Rate of post-surgical complications 37%
 * 1/2 to 2/3 of pts w/ local failure undergo salvage surgery. 25-30% long term DFS in this population.

Other Resources

 * ARRO Case- Supraglottic Larynx
 * ARRO Contour- Supraglottic Larynx

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:German/Appendices/Phrasebook

Ciao
"Tschau! Ciao! (Italian for 'see you')"

Ciao is Italian and means "Hello", not 'See you'. This is a big spreaded mistake... someone should edit that.

 * You are right, it's italien, but as far as I know it means both. --Feeela (discuss • contribs) 00:46, 2 November 2011 (UTC)

Phrases
There are definitely not enough useful phrases to be considered 75% done.

Mistake
In German, it's better to write names of languages with a small letter at the beginning. --87.172.218.75 (talk) 12:58, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Appendices/Phrasebook


text:
Number Theory/Irrational Rational and Transcendental Numbers

Definitions
Rational numbers are numbers which can be expressed as a ratio of two integers (with a non-null denominator).

This includes fractional representations such as $$\frac{3}{4} \,, -\frac{27}{3} \, $$ etc.

A rational number can also be expressed as a termininating or recurring decimal. Examples include $$1.25, -0.333333 , 0.999 \ldots$$

However, a decimal which does not repeat after a finite number of decimals is NOT a rational number.

One other representation that is sometimes used is that of a ratio e.g. $$5:4 \, $$

The entire (infinite) set of rational numbers is normally referenced by the symbol $$\mathbb{Q} \, $$.

Irrational numbers are all the rest of the numbers - such as $$\sqrt{2}, \pi , e \, $$

Taken together, irrational numbers and rational numbers constitute the real numbers - designated as $$\mathbb{R} \, $$.

The set of irrational numbers is infinite - indeed there are "more" irrationals than rationals (when "more" is defined precisely).

Algebraic numbers are numbers which are the root of some polynomial equation with rational coefficients. For example, $$\sqrt{2} $$ is a root of the polynomial equation $$x^2 - 2 = 0 \, $$ and so it is an algebraic number (but irrational).

Transcendental numbers are irrational numbers which are not the root of any polynomial equation with rational coefficients. For example, $$\pi, e \, $$ are not the roots of any possible polynomial and so they are transcendental.

The set of transcendental numbers is infinite - indeed there are "more" transcendental than algebraic numbers (when "more" is defined precisely).


text:
Talk:Number Theory/Irrational Rational and Transcendental Numbers

Does this need anything about countable sets etc? --JeremyBoden 22:22, 21 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Knot Tying

1. Define the following terms
It's a good idea to begin this honor with the definitions so your Pathfinders have a working vocabulary of the various terms involved. Telling them to "make a bight" or "take the standing part" makes little sense until these terms are understood.
 * a. Bight: The term bight refers to any curved section, slack part, or loop between the two ends of a rope.
 * b. Running end: Also called the working end, it is the free end of the rope. This is the end of the rope in which a knot is being tied.
 * c. Standing part: The part of the rope between the Running end and the Standing end (the end that doesn't move, think of it as if someone is holding it)
 * d. Underhand loop: A loop formed by passing the running end of a line under the standing part.
 * e. Overhand loop: A loop formed by passing the running end of a line over the standing part.
 * f. Turn:
 * g. Bend: A bend is used to tie two ropes together, as in the Sheetbend. Technically, even the Reef knot is a bend
 * h. Hitch: A hitch is used to tie a rope to a spar, ring or post, such as the Clove hitch. Hitches can also be used to tie one rope ONTO another rope, as in the Rolling hitch.
 * i. Splice: A knot formed by interweaving strands of rope rather than whole lines. More time consuming but usually stronger than simple knots.
 * j. Whipping: A binding knot used to prevent another line from fray.

2. Know how to care for rope.

 * a. Keep the rope clean.
 * b. Always coil a rope before storing it.
 * c. Make sure wet rope is dry before coiling it.
 * d. Return rope to its proper place after using it.

3. Describe the difference between laid rope and braided rope and list three uses of each.
In laid rope, three bundles of fiber or twine are twisted in the same direction, placed close to each other, and allowed to twist together. In braided rope, the fibers are woven together, often around some core material.

Uses of Laid Rope
.
 * 1) Repels water
 * 2) Able to withstand immense strain.
 * 3) Can be spliced with standard techniques

Uses of Braided Rope

 * 1) Works well with pulleys and rigging.
 * 2) Spinning (lariats and lassos).
 * 3) Decorative knots.

4. Identify the following types of rope

 * a. Manila: Manila is a type of fiber obtained from the leaves of the abacá (Musa textilis), a relative of the banana. It is mostly used to make ropes and it is one of the most durable of the natural fibers, besides true hemp. Manila is a coarse, brown fiber, about the same color and feel as a coconut shell.
 * b. Sisal: Sisal is valued for cordage use because of its strength, durability, ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and resistance to deterioration in saltwater. Sisal ropes and twines are widely employed for marine, agricultural (bailing twine), and general industrial use. Sisal fibers are smooth, straight and yellow and can be long or short.
 * c. Nylon: Nylon rope is often white, but any color is possible. It has a smooth, silky feeling to it, and it coils easily.  Nylon rope does not float in water.  It is a synthetic-fiber rope.
 * d. Polypropylene: Polypropylene rope is most often yellow, though any color is possible. It is often used in marine applications because it floats in water.  The rope is sometimes difficult to tie as it is somewhat stiff and brittle.  It is a synthetic-fiber rope.

The easiest way to make an initial identification of a rope is to visit a hardware store where rope is sold. The packaging will tell you what the rope is made of. If you want to be sure, buy some of each type (with the labeling) or examine it closely in the store.

Advantages

 * Improved abrasion-resistance
 * Better UV-resistance
 * Lighter
 * Length does not vary as much when wet
 * Rot-resistant

Disadvantages

 * Some synthetics do not hold knots well
 * More slippery
 * Melts when heated
 * Stretches more than natural ropes.

a. Splice
A splice is used to join the ends of two ropes and results in the spliced part being about twice as thick as the non spliced part. The short splice retains more of the rope strength than any knots that join rope ends. It is tied using the same techniques as the eye splice (see below).
 * Short splice animated

c. Back splice
A back splice (also called an end splice) is a splice where the strands of the end of the rope are spliced directly back into the end without forming a loop. It is used to finish off the end of the rope to keep it from fraying. The end of the rope with the splice is about twice the thickness of the rest of the rope. Begin by unraveling the strands, and tie a crown knot. Then begin splicing the rope onto itself as with the short splice.

Figure eight
The fisherman's knot is a bend (a knot for joining two lines) with a symmetrical structure consisting of two overhand knots, each tied around the standing part of the other. Other names for the fisherman's knot include: angler's knot, English knot, halibut knot, waterman's knot.

Square knot
It is used for the Basic Rescue. ( See basic rescue honor)


text:
Talk:Number Theory/Unique Factorization and Multiplicative Functions

Factorization is is mostly covered by Theorem 4 of Divisibility (only uniqueness left to prove}

If you go beyond just a definition of multiplicative function, then there is enough material to cover several more chapters.

Probably a bit advanced by comparison with the early chapters. --JeremyBoden 22:29, 21 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
Video Game Design/Structure

Though there are many different types of video games, there are a few properties that are constants: Every game requires at least one player, every game gives the player at least one challenge, Every game uses a display, Every game has at least one method of input/control.

The User Interface
As described at the beginning of this chapter, the user interface is made up of sprites, menus and so forth. Its what the user is given to control the actions within the game. These graphics are defined as buttons which can be pushed, or a character' which can be moved by the arrow keys. All of these elements are a part of the user interface.

The Main Menu
To start off with, just about every video game boots up to a main menu. This is usually a screen with some type of background, with an arrangement of buttons for actions such as new game or start game, options, load game and quit game.

This screen acts as a control panel for the game, allowing the player to change settings, choose modes, or access the actual game.

Sometimes, a game will use the main menu as the in game menu. The in game menu is usually accessed by the escape key or the start button during gameplay. The in game menu allows the player to access most of the main menu actions with additional ones such as displaying character stats, points, inventory and so forth. Not all menus have to be squares with words in them though. The game Secret of Mana uses a creative menu where the level stays in focus while the choices form a circle about the player.

These menus are not required, but it is traditional to include them.

Starting the game
When you first start up the game a series of splash screens are shown. A splash screen contains elements such as logos, movies, and so forth. This often is used to tell the player the companies that contributed to the game firsthand and sometimes gives part or whole introduction to the plot.

When the actual game has started there is often an introductory movie that gives the prologue to the plot. This is not a movie like you see in the theater but usually a better rendered use of the game's own graphics and sounds.

In most games, you will then be asked for your name and in some games you will be allowed to customize your character, settings and so forth.

This stage of the game is called the tutorial. It is not always considered a part of the game's plot, but in some games it is integrated into the game that even though it is the tutorial stage it is a part of the game's plot anyways. We will call this tutorial integration. It is widely used in games such as The Legend of Zelda and Super Mario 64

Playing the game
During gameplay there are some basic concepts that just about every game uses. They are listed below:

Player-character relationship
The player's role in the character. How does the player control the character? There are usually 3 types of PCR, 3rd person, 1st person and influence:

3rd person: The player is not the character but instead is controlling the character/characters impersonally.

1st Person: The player is the character/characters - and sees things from the characters point of view both personally and visually.

Influence: The player is not tied to any character/characters but merely has an influence in the game. This is seen in puzzle games such as Tetris, and also in RTS games.

Game world
What is the 'world' that is portrayed by the game? Within this there are 2 considerations.

Character role: There is also the question of what role the character plays in the game itself, there are 3 types in this sense.

Protagonist: Everything revolves around the character/characters the save the day type deal. Seen in games such as Zelda, Mario, Final Fantasy, and so forth.

Arcadic Conventional: An impersonal arcade character.

Influence: The character is a faceless influence within the realm of the game.

Law What are the laws, concepts, rules etc. that define the realm?

Graphics What is seen and the laws of style

Sound What is heard and the laws of style

Gameplay What is played how the game is played

Saving/Loading
Considering the saving and loading of the game, usually this can be a basic menu action wherein the player types a save name and the game is saved. In some games though, more creative approaches are taken so that the player is not pulled out of the gaming experience. Metroid does this with its save stations.

Loading however, is usually a menu action.

The Main Loop
At the heart of our game is the main loop (or game loop). Like most interactive programs, our game runs until we tell it to stop. Each cycle through the loop is like the heart beat of the game. The main loop of a real time game is often tied to the video update (vsync). If our main loop is synchronized to a fixed time hardware event, such as a vsync, then we must keep the total processing time for each update call under that time interval or our game will "chug."

// a simple game loop in C++

int main( int argc, char* argv[] ) {   game our_game; while ( our_game.is_running) {       our_game.update; }   return our_game.exit_code; }

Each console manufacturer has their own standards for video game publication, but most require that the game should provide visual feedback within the first few seconds of starting. As a general design guideline, it is desirable to provide the player with feedback as quickly as possible.

For this reason most start up and shut down code is usually processed from within the main loop. Lengthy start up and shut down code can either run in a sub thread monitored from the main update or sliced into small chunks and executed in order from within the update routine itself.

State Machine
Even without considering the various modes of play within the game itself, most game code will belong to one of several states. A game might contain the following states and sub states:

 * start up
 * licenses
 * introductory movie
 * front end
 * game options
 * sound options
 * video options
 * loading screen
 * main game
 * introduction
 * game play
 * game modes
 * pause options
 * end game movie
 * credits
 * shut down

One way to model this in the code is with a state machine:

class state { public: virtual void enter( void )= 0; virtual void update( void )= 0; virtual void leave( void )= 0; };

Derived classes can then override these virtual functions to provide state specific code. The main game object can then hold a pointer to the current state and allow the game to flow from state to state.

extern state* shut_down;

class game {   state* current_state; public: game( state* initial_state ): current_state( initial_state ) {       current_state->enter; }

~game {       current_state->leave; }

void change_state( state* new_state ) {       current_state->leave; current_state= new_state; current_state->enter; }

void update( void ) {       current_state->update; }

bool is_running( void ) const {       return current_state != shut_down; } };

Time
A game loop must consider both how much real time has passed and how much game time has passed. Separating the two makes slow motion (i.e. BulletTime) effects, pause states and debugging much easier. If you intend to make a game that can rewind time, like Blinx or Sands of Time you will need to be able to run the game loop forward while running the game time backwards.

Another consideration surrounding time depends on whether you want to go for a fixed or variable frame rate. Fixed frame rates can simplify much of the maths and timings within the game but they can make the game much harder to port internationally (e.g. going from 60 Hz TVs in the US to 50 Hz TVs in Europe.) For this reason it is advisable to pass frame time as a variable even if the value never changes. Fixed frame rates suffer from stuttering when the work load per frame reaches the limits and this can feel worse than a lower frame rate.

Variable frame rates, on the other hand, automatically compensate for different TV refresh rates. But variable rates often feel soggy in comparison to fixed rate games. Debugging, particularly debugging timing and physics issues, is usually more difficult with variable time. When implementing timing in your code there are often several hardware timers available on a given platform, often with different resolutions, overheads for accessing them and latencies. Pay special attention to the real time clocks available. You must use a clock with a high enough resolution, while not using excessive precision. You might need to handle the case where the clock wraps (for example, a 32-bit nanosecond timer will overflow back to zero every 2^32 nanoseconds which is only 4.2949673 seconds).

const float game::NTSC_interval= 1.f / 59.94f; const float game::PAL_interval= 1.f / 50.f;

float game::frame_interval( void ) {   if ( time_system == FIXED_RATE ) {       if ( region == NTSC ) {           return NTSC_interval; }       else {           return PAL_interval; }   }    else {       float current_time= get_system_time; float interval= current_time - last_time; last_time= current_time; if ( interval < 0.f || interval > MAX_interval ) {           return MAX_interval; }       else {           return interval; }   } }

void game::update( void ) {   current_state->update( frame_interval); }

Loading
Modern games are usually loaded either directly from CD or indirectly from the hard drive. Either way, your game could spend a significant amount of time in I/O access. Disc access, particularly CD and DVD access, is a lot slower than the rest of the game. Many console manufacturers make it a standard that all disc access must be indicated visually; and that is not a bad design choice anyway.

However, most disc access API functions (particularly those that map through the standard I/O of the C runtime library) stall the processor until the transfer is complete. This is called synchronous access.

Multi-threaded disc access
One way to get feedback while accessing the disc is to run disc operations in their own thread. This has the advantage of allowing other processing to continue, including drawing some visual feedback of the disc operation. But the cost is that there is a lot more code to write and access to resources needs to be synchronized.

Asynchronous disc access
Some console operating system API's handle some of the multi-threading code for you by allowing disc access to be scheduled with asynchronous read operations. Asynchronous reads can tell that they are done either by polling with the file handle or using a callback.

Renderable Objects
Whether a game uses 2D graphics, 3D graphics, or a combination of both, the engine should handle them similarly. There are three main things to consider. Therefore, it is a good idea to create a base class as an interface that separates these functions. This way, every drawable object can be treated the same way, all loading can be done at the same time (for load screens), and all drawing can be done independently of the time interval. OpenGL also requires object display lists to have a unique integer identifier, so we'll also need support for assigning that value.
 * 1) Certain objects may take a while to load, and can momentarily freeze the game.
 * 2) Some machines run slower than others, and the gameplay must continue with a low framerate.
 * 3) Some machines run faster, and animation could be smoother than the time interval with a higher framerate.

class IDrawable { public: virtual void load( void ) {}; virtual void draw( void ) {}; virtual void step( void ) {};

int listID           {return m_list_id;} void setListID(int id) {m_list_id = id;} protected: int m_list_id; };

Bounding Boxes
One common method of collision detecting is by using axis-aligned bounding boxes. To implement this, we will build upon our previous interface, IDrawable. It should remain separate from IDrawable, because after all, not every object drawn on the screen will require collision detecting. A 3D box should be defined by six values: x, y, z, width, height, and depth. The box should also return the object's current minimum and maximum values in space. Here is an example 3D bounding box class:

class IBox : public IDrawable { public: IBox; IBox(CVector loc, CVector size); ~IBox; float X	{return m_loc.X;} float XMin	{return m_loc.X - m_width / 2.;} float XMax	{return m_loc.X + m_width / 2.;} float Y	{return m_loc.Y;} float YMin	{return m_loc.Y - m_height / 2.;} float YMax	{return m_loc.Y + m_height / 2.;} float Z	{return m_loc.Z;} float ZMin	{return m_loc.Z - m_depth / 2.;} float ZMax	{return m_loc.Z + m_depth / 2.;} protected: float m_x, m_y, m_z; float m_width, m_height, m_depth; };

IBox::IBox { m_x = m_y = m_z = 0; m_width = m_height = m_depth = 0; }

IBox::IBox(CVector loc, CVector size) { m_x     = loc.X; m_y     = loc.Y; m_z     = loc.Z; m_width = size.X; m_height = size.Y; m_depth = size.Z; }

Complexity
While it is simple enough in the majority of APIs to display an image, or a textured cube, as you begin to add more complexity to your game, the task naturally becomes slightly harder. With a poorly structured engine this complexity becomes increasingly more so as your engine becomes larger. It can become unclear what changes are needed, and you may end up with huge special case switch blocks where some simple abstraction would have simplified the problem.

Extensibility
This ties in with the above point - as your game engine evolves you are going to want to add new features. With an unstructured engine these new features are hard to add in, and a lot of time may be spent finding out why the feature is not working as expected. Maybe its some strange function that is interrupting it. A carefully crafted engine separates tasks out so that extending a certain area is just that - and not having to modify prior code.

Know your code
With a well thought out game engine design, you will begin to know your code. You'll find yourself spending a lot less time staring (or maybe cursing) blindly at a blank screen wondering why on Earth your code is not doing what you thought you had told it.

DRY Code
DRY is an acronym frequently used (especially in the extreme programming environment) that means do not repeat yourself. It sounds simple but can provide you with a lot more time to do other things. Also, code that does a specific task is in one central location so you can modify that small section and see your changes take effect everywhere.

In fact, it's common sense
The above points probably do not seem that incredible to you - they are really common sense. But without the thought and planning in designing a game engine, you will find reaching these targets a lot harder.

title: Video Game Design/Structure


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Video Game Design/Theory

Game Theory
In this chapter we will go over some theories of game design which are not officially recognized but are reasonable and can be proven. If these theories are correct then it will make designing a fun game all the easier.

There are some primary aspects to a fun game, the challenge, the risk, reward, loss, and innovation.

Challenge
People play a game for the challenge it poses, this challenge is usually set at the beginning of a game. There are 3 types of challenges.

Completion: The challenge to complete/finish the game.

Compounding: The challenge compounds as the player progresses in the plot.

Ultimatum: The initial challenge is too great for the player to take on so the player must gain ability by playing through the game.

Risk
Every game presents a risk factor, which is - if the challenge is lost then there is a negative consequence and if the challenge is won then there is a reward. The topics of reward and loss are discussed below.

Without a risk factor there is no point in playing a game. If there is nothing to lose, there is no challenge. If there is nothing to win, there is no point in playing.

To calculate risk use the following equation: $$R+L = Risk$$ The amount that can be lost (or already has been) added to the amount that can or has been won.

Reward
The reward is the positive consequence of conquering the challenge; it can be anything from an increase in score, new items, or a cut-scene.

Tangential reward: A reward that has nothing to do with the eventual completion of the game. These rewards can be things such as cut-scenes that are cool or even unlocking new modes and mini-games.

Compounding reward: A reward that builds on itself. This could be defined as score, or even completion of a level. Therefore the value of the compounding reward increases each time it is attained. These rewards can be completion of a level (which compounds into the completion of the game) or even score.

Calculating reward Reward is calculated by the difficulty of the challenge plus the effort given $$C + E = Reward$$

It is best that the reward is greater than or equal to what had to be done to get the reward. There are some exceptions - for example compounding rewards; though the initial reward was less than the effort the final result is certainly greater.

Loss
The loss is the negative consequence of failing the challenge; it can be anything from loss score, to a game over.

Tangential loss: A loss that has nothing to do with the eventual completion of the game. Maybe you lose an item that was fun but had nothing to do with winning the game.

Compounding loss:A loss that builds on itself. Losing points, or an extra life (which can compound into a game over or ultimatum loss) Therefore the effect of the loss increases each time it is attained.

Ultimatum loss: A dangerous but effective element, this is, if the player loses a certain challenge they fail the greatest challenge and they receive the ultimatum. Usually a permanent game over (meaning all progress is lost). This can destroy the replay value very easily.

Calculating loss: The difficulty of the challenge plus the effort put in. $$C + E = Loss$$

Difficulty
According to human nature, it is inevitable that a person will learn and gain more skill presented a challenge and a chance to grow - therefore a game must increase in difficulty as the player progresses in order to continue to be challenging.

Difficulty is an important aspect of the structure of a game. There can always be a challenge, but if the challenge presents no level of difficulty then the challenge is useless.

The difficulty is calculated by how much logic and skill is required of the player to complete a challenge.

Logic and skill: The required input from the player, what is actually challenged. As the game progresses (in most cases) the challenge difficulty increases and therefore the required logic and skill increases.

Fun
"Fun" is an easy word to spell, and we all agree on what it means. However, what we call "fun" is as individual as finger-prints. Some people like watching sports, some like shopping, some prefer to write books, and others enjoy drawing art.

There is no magical "fun" formula that guarantees success after success. Video games are meant to be fun. And while it may be impossible to make everybody find your game fun, you should try to make a game as many people as possible find fun.

If you are not sure if your game is "fun", play it a few times. If you find it fun, chances are, other people will too.

Games Art
Game art deals with presentation, specially with non textual information that can be directly part of the game-play or simply used to enrich the player experience.

Sound
As with any other feature in a game sound is of major importance, bringing the richest audio experiences possible into a game is increasingly important to make a product stand out in the market. All games are ultimately attempting to do the same, quality and innovation are the corner stones in any new production.

Some audio features that are implement in games consist in:
 * Dynamic sound mixing system.
 * Interactive music.
 * Ambient and environment simulation.
 * Realtime convolution reverb (simulation of sound waves reflecting on structures).

The audio possibilities of a game are linked to the hardware available and system resources we will cover this issue in the Selecting the Hardware for Audio section of this book.

title: Video Game Design/Theory


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Video Game Design/Programming/Framework/2D vs 3D

Graphics
Graphics is the common name for the visual presentation of the game environment and its components. Creating the visual environment begins generally with the concept artist, that in accordance to the game concept creates visual representation not only of the game characters and objects, but also how the environments will look and even expand on the game creator's imagined visuals. That part of the work is done mostly outside of the game, with third-party software dedicated to those distinct tasks and data.

A game's graphics are not restricted to in-game art, but also found in font design, logos and advertising for marketing purposes. They also can have a great impact on other types of merchandising like t-shirts, toys or other product spin-offs like animation series or even live-action movies based on the game concept.

Vision
Vision is the most important sense in humans. Presenting a visually stunning product will trump most other aspects in attracting players and guarantee initial sales. We already covered why an attractive presentation is important.

multi-view display Since today it is not uncommon to have a multi-monitor setup, as prices continue to fall and image technology increase multi-monitor support in games will also become common. A multi-monitor setup can also easily expand a normal view to into a mosaic without no special consideration from the game creator, but having distinct screens is extremely interesting for strategy games and simulations as it is not uncommon for the game-play to permit the player to visualize a large number of distinct data.

2D or 3D
Most modern games until recently seemed entrenched in the 3D craze, until the mobile phone brought back the market for a return to simpler visuals and good old 2D creativity and innovation. 2D had been mostly relegated to emulators and reimplementation of old game models.

After the initial advances in 3D and the development of good 3D hardware, 3D soon started to be mostly a marketing gimmick, a sell point and a way to hide the frailty of the game concept with good visual, where each new inch gained in performance or visual realism was heralded as a revolutionary must see discovery. Remember what we said about presentation, that is mostly how it is used. Most games do not know how to use it in a way that complements game-play and game design.

A good 3D game uses dynamic composition of scenes and environments, in most the same way movies do, with the express purpose of showing off the game design and engaging the player's imagination, but with unwavering respect for game-play.

Graphics' engines
The game engine should be debugged and tested with more primitive environments and models particularly with game consoles. What the game calls the graphics engine is used to manipulate the games animations scripts characters position in an environment and memory allocation for graphics rendering. Other data such as physics, AI and the game scripts are handled by other engines. There is a large misunderstanding with the general public in that a game is made with only one "engine".

Beyond 3D
stereoscopic view While most game engine intend only in simulate the simulative of depth and a depth environment alien with other graphics artifacts real 3D only recently started to become popular in games. There are several techniques to produce and display 3D moving pictures. At the core there is the requirement to display offset images that are filtered separately to the left and right eye, hence providing independent focus therefore depth to the scene that is being observed. Two strategies have been used to accomplish this: have the viewer wear eyeglasses to filter the separately offset images to each eye, or have the light source split the images directionally into the viewer's eyes (no glasses required). The issue so far was in the CPU or video card to the generate the required similar but distinct images and the software that would generate those vies, the rise of the GPU and the adoption of 3D TVs has finally permitted general use of this 3D view even if there is not a great number of implementation for games.

beyond polygons In science and medicine the concept of point cloud data started to get importance due to the high detail it permits with imagining equipment (magnetic, lazer). An Australian company Euclideon has made claims of and advance in 3D scene rendering using points in place of polygon, therefore an increment in the possible level of detail based on Sparse Voxel Octree Graphics. Others are also working on the this type of technique like Atomontage Engine (hybrid approach) or the Voxlap engine by Ken Silverman (that also wrote the Build engine, used in Duke Nukem 3D).

User Interface
The user interface (UI) is a very important component of any game because this is usually the first thing a new player will see when starting up your game. It is also (in most games) always visible to the player, so it is wise to put some effort into making an interface that is intuitive, easy to use and that looks good! There is nothing like a badly designed interface to put someone off a potentially great game.

A user interface consists of:
 * Graphics - Buttons, info panels, maps, etc.)
 * Layout - Where those things are placed on the screen
 * Interaction - How these things respond to user input; do they bring up a map? your inventory? access settings?

2D and 3D
UIs can be rendered in 2D or 3D, the interface itself is in most cases independent from the game-engine, at most it serves as a I/O interface from the player to the game world. Many of the primitives on a UI render will not be present of a game-engine, especially if one is relying on packaged engine.

2D games can have 3D UIs and 3D games can have 2D UIs. The choice is only on design and presentation. Note that computationally 3D UIs will take more resources away from the game and flashy UIs tend to cause only an impact on first contact if there is not deeper integration with the game-play. The UI should also not outshine the game itself, at best it should aim to be useful and informative.

Packaged solutions
Comercial
 * Autodesk Scaleform (http://www.scaleform.com/) - a vector graphics rendering engine used to display Adobe Flash-based user interfaces as middleware for use in the video game industry. HUDs, and animated textures for games for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, as well as Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, PlayStation 3, PSVITA, 3DS, Wii, iOS, and Android platforms.


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Video Game Design/Process

Design implementation
Before you consider implementing your design one thing that you should ponder as you consider implementation is how costly it will be, in time and money. You can monetize you game design (concept) by selling it to a game creation studio, or you can create an open source project for open implementation.

As you consider what to do, take also in consideration the marketability of the game you created and your objectives. Is it going to be free or are you selling it? If you are selling it, will people want to buy it? How are people going to hear about it? How much money and resources are you willing to spend on marketing this game? Do you have them and are they worth it?

The implementation should also be seen as a sandbox where things will be tried out and pruned to meet the required objectives. You should only get worried in the later stages of implementation since at some point one must accept that too much changes will probably ruin the project.

If you stall in some section of your implementation, go back to your design references a see on how others before you handled the issues. You can, and should, be creative but you should expect that the someone has already found at least a workable solution to every issue, use you creative resources to build upon that in place of recreating something equal to what was already done before.

Concept vs. ability
Before you begin developing remember to discern between what you want to do, and what you actually can do. Figure out the resources that you have and compare them with the resources the project will require and adjust accordingly. If you have a lot of resources but your concept is simple, perhaps you could expand it. And if you have a complicated concept but simple resources, maybe you need to expand your resources.

After you have gone through all of these considerations outline the project, first by how the game will work and how it is arranged then chronologically by how you are going to accomplish those things - it might be helpful to set a due date for yourself.

Resources
Consider your resources, what abilities do you personally have? Can you program, draw, and render a polygon? How much money do you have and how much time are you going to spend on it? Do you have the technology to build a game or do you need to get it? Do you know what you need?

Programming Languages

Graphic Design

Music composition

Teamwork
A video game is a really big project for someone to take on, especially just one person. It may be a good idea to do the project as a team bringing together all the resources you need to put together a good video game. It is almost impossible for only one person to create a game that people will actually enjoy. Being in game development requires you to have good social skills, because 99% of the time you will be working with a team of designers. It Is important that you build a friendly relationship with your fellow game designers to get the best results of a project.

Teamwork

Development phase
The testing and development phase are where the game is actually created. As you program, make graphics, compose music and collaborate these resources you will have a lot of testing and debugging to to do. Consider the following sections.

Debugging

title: Video Game Design/Process


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User talk:Jentaylor312~enwikibooks

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:49, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jentaylor312. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jentaylor312~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:19, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jentaylor312~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Aztecvic

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:51, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aztecvic


text:
User talk:Shannon Compton

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:52, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shannon Compton


text:
User talk:Srais002

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:52, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Srais002


text:
User talk:Legionarius

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:53, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Legionarius. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Legionarius~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:24, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Legionarius


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Eye splice

|


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Cookbook:Chicken Quesadilla

| Southwestern U.S. cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 tablespoon sesame oil
 * 1 tablespoon minced garlic
 * ½ tablespoon crushed red pepper
 * 1 medium yellow onion, julienned
 * 1 red bell pepper, julienned
 * 1 green bell pepper, julienned
 * 1 tablespoon sesame seeds
 * 2 tablespoons teriyaki marinade/sauce
 * 4 boneless skinless chicken breasts (about 6 ounces each), grilled and cut into ½-inch strips
 * 1 tablespoon chopped cilantro
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste
 * 4 ea. 10-inch flour tortillas
 * 8 ounces (about 2 cups) shredded Colby Jack cheese
 * About 2 teaspoons butter

Procedure

 * 1) Heat sesame oil in a large sauté pan over medium-high heat.
 * 2) Add the garlic, crushed red pepper, and onion and sauté for a minute.
 * 3) Add the red and green bell peppers and sauté just barely until soft, around 3 minutes.
 * 4) Add the sesame seeds, teriyaki sauce, and grilled chicken strips.
 * 5) Lower heat to medium and cook, stirring often, until flavors are mixed, about 5 minutes.
 * 6) Stir in the chopped cilantro, and season to taste with salt and pepper.
 * 7) Divide the chicken mixture into fourths, putting the portion only on one-half of each tortilla.
 * 8) Top with the shredded cheese, dividing equally among the tortillas.
 * 9) Fold tortillas over, forming a semicircle, to cover the mixture.
 * 10) Heat a large sauté pan or skillet over medium-high heat.
 * 11) Add just enough butter to make a very thin layer on the bottom of the pan.
 * 12) Cook the quesadillas in the butter until cheese is melted and tortillas are browned on both sides, about 3 minutes per side.
 * 13) Cut each tortilla into four or so triangles and serve immediately.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Good with sour cream and your favorite salsa as toppings.

title: Cookbook:Chicken Quesadilla


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Matthew Walker

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Whipping

|


text:
User talk:70.126.34.71

Webaware talk 02:10, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.126.34.71


text:
User talk:203.84.187.62

Webaware talk 04:43, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

testing

title: User talk:203.84.187.62


text:
Talk:Microprocessor Design

Good Start
I just stumbled on to this book by accident, and I have to say, I'm pretty impressed (microprocessor architecture is my main concentration along with embedded systems). However, it is kind of lacking in the department of gate level design of a processor, but then again its very very good, you could call this a developed text by now. I wish I had time to commit to wikibooks, maybe by this winter I will, since this I'll be graduateing this December. I'll try to make some modifications here and there, to make it look more like a textbook when I roam around wikibooks every once in a while. Asm2750 05:45, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

quote
I think it would be nifty to start each chapter with a quote from a person who has designed a microprocessor.

 * Chuck Peddle ( 6502 )
 * Bill Mensch and Kathryn Mensch ( WDC 65816 ). 2 people. (full custom?)
 * Carver Mead and Lynn Conway
 * Chuck Moore
 * Chip Gracey of Parallax, Inc. says some interesting things about the process he used to design a parallel-processing chip. 8 years, 2 people, full-custom down to the individual polygons.
 * John P. Shen
 * John L. Hennessy and David A. Patterson
 * ... etc.

--DavidCary 21:38, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I like this idea a lot. I wonder if we will be able to scavenge the quotes we need from Wikiquote, or if we will have to get them from other sources. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 20:00, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

multi-core
I'm thinking about merging the 2 chapters "Microprocessor Design/Multicore Processors" and "Microprocessor Design/Multi-Core Systems". Or is there some subtle, yet crucial, difference that I'm missing? --DavidCary (talk) 04:28, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The difference I had envisioned was that one chapter would do with the practice of putting multiple cores on a single die, and the other would deal with the practice of using multiples dies on a single motherboard. With the exception that the busses used to ferry data between the cores in each model are different, the two are very similar in theory. I agree with the merger. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 00:05, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

 * ✅. --DavidCary (talk) 00:48, 6 February 2009 (UTC)

CPU Design HOW-TO
I emailed Alavoor Vasudevan, asking
 * I am helping to write a book currently titled "Microprocessor Design".
 * Do you mind if I copy-and-paste your HOW-TO into my book (giving credit of course)?

His response was
 * Sure you can.

Is there anything else I need to do before I copy-and-paste the entire contents of his "CPU Design HOW-TO" into this Wikibook? --DavidCary (talk) 04:32, 7 April 2009 (UTC)

performance
I seem to be repeating myself in my edits to
 * Microprocessor Design/Performance and
 * Microprocessor Design/Performance Metrics.

Is there some subtle difference between these that I am missing, or should we merge them? --DavidCary (talk) 13:07, 11 March 2010 (UTC)

instruction decoder vs control unit
Is the "lookup table" mentioned in the "Microprocessor Design/Control Unit" section a part of the "control store ROM" mentioned in the "Microprocessor Design/Instruction Decoder" section, or is it a completely separate piece of hardware? --DavidCary (discuss • contribs) 04:10, 29 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Microprocessor Design


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User:Asm2750

BIO
23 year old university student in Las Vegas.

Current Major: Senior Computer Engineering with minor in Computer Science and Mathematics

Areas of Concentration: CAD tool usage, Circuit Design, Microprocessor Design, Embedded Systems, Programmable Logic, VLSI, Reconfigurable Computing and Algorithm Analysis

Interests and Hobbies: R/C aircraft, tabletop strategic warfare, Computer Building, Programming, Engineering, Astronomy & Rocketry, mythTV and PVRs, Linux & BSD, Robotics and Amateur Radio.

Current Work: Finishing degree and senior design project(currently on pcb design for test circuit).

Books Contributed to
Digital Circuits

Programmable Logic

A+ Certification

Books Thinking of Proposing
VLSI Chip Design

Analog IC Design - This is one I dont know much about, but the tools are the same as VLSI

title: User:Asm2750


text:
Linux Audio: A Guide For Beginner and Beyond

Foreword

 * /Preface/
 * About This Book

 * Authors
 * A Word From the Contributors

For the Beginner

 * Introduction
 * Get a basic sound-enabled system up and running

 * First Things First
 * Choosing A Distribution

Linux Sound Systems and Terminology

 * /Sound Support History/
 * OSS

 * /ALSA/
 * Basic block for sound support, "Safe ALSA" standard

 * For the Pro-Audio-Minded User
 * The JACK Audio Connection Kit

Usage Scenarios

 * /Linux DAW - Digital Audio Workstation/
 * Using linux as an audio workstation for sound and music: system setup, software, hardware, MIDI and optimizing for low-latency.

 * /Video Synchronization/
 * Audio aspect related to video creation and editting: hardware differences, synchronization, format conversion, and media authoring.

 * /WEB Audio/
 * Making rich media content for web: web-based formats, tools, optimizations and streaming.

 * /Game Audio/
 * Playing games: system settings, peripheral devices, surround sound output and wine compatibility.

Audio Programming in Linux

 * /Linux Audio API/
 * How to develop sound-enabled software: introduction to libraries and techniques with examples.

 * List of Dependencies and Compiling Tips
 * Development prerequisites and requirements


text:
Logic for Computer Scientists/Predicate Logic/Strategies for Resolution/Iterative Deepending

Iterative Deepening
Iterative deepening is a complete search strategy, which combines depth-first with breadth-first search.
 * $$depthbound = 1$$
 * do while (not found) Search by limited depth-first search until $$depthbound$$. Set $$depthbound = depthbound+ 1$$

Number of expansions in a tree with branching factor $$b$$ until depth $$d$$ is $$ 1+b + b^2 + \cdots + b^{d-1} + b^d $$

The total number of expansions in iterative deepening search is $$ (d+1)* 1 + d*b + (d-1) *b^2 + \cdots + 3 * b^{d-2} + 2* b^{d-1} + 1*b^d $$

Hence time complexity of iterative deepening is still $$O(b^d)$$.

As exemplified by PTTP ("Prolog Technology Theorem Prover") Prolog can be viewed as an "almost complete" theorem prover, which has to be extended by only a few ingredients in order to handle the non-Horn case. By this technique the benefits of optimizing Prolog compilers are accessible to theorem proving. First we will briefly review the standard approach, and then we will describe the necessary modifications to obtain restart model elimination. The PTTP-approach transforms a given clause set into a Prolog program. The transformed Prolog program must execute the clauses according to some complete proof procedure. Model elimination turns out to be particularly useful for this, since it is, like Prolog, an input proof procedure. In particular, the transformation from the input clauses to Prolog works as follows:

(2) not_a :- not_c, b. (3)  not_b :-  a, not_c. This example also shows how negation is treated, namely by making it part of the predicate name. (Red-C) c(Anc) :- member(c,Anc). (Red-notC) not_c(Anc) :- member(-c,Anc).
 * An input clause such as $$C \gets A \land B $$ is transformed into a Prolog clause (1) c :- a, b.  Additionally, since in the model elimination calculus every literal in a clause can equally well serve as an entry point into the clause, all contrapositives are needed. In this case these are
 * Prolog's unsound unification has to be replaced by a sound  unification algorithm. This can either be done by directly building-in   sound unification into the Prolog implementation, or by reprogramming   sound unification in Prolog and calling this code instead of   Prolog's unsound unification.
 * A complete search strategy is needed. Usually depth bounded  iterative deepening is used. The strategy can be compiled into the Prolog program by additional parameters, being used as "current   depth" and "limit depth". The cost of an extension  step can   be uniformly 1 (depth bounded search),    or can be proportional to the length of the input clause (inference    bounded search).
 * The model elimination reduction operation has to be  implemented. This can be realized by memorizing the subgoals solved so   far (the A-literals) as a list in an additional argument, and by   Prolog code that  checks a goal for a  complementary member of that   list. Of course, this check has to be carried out with sound   unification.    The Prolog clause (1) from above then looks like  (1') c(Anc) :- a([-a|Anc]), b([-b|Anc]).   where  Anc is a Prolog list which contains the ancestor literals (called A-literals in  );  code for reduction steps then looks like


text:
Cookbook:Summer Pudding

| Dessert

Summer pudding is a quintessentially British dessert made from wonderful fresh ingredients only available in the summer months. It is redolent of a private dinner at a smart country house, maybe somewhere in the Surrey hills near Shere, with the taste of an exquisite first course still lingering, a bottle of chilled champagne still half full, and the prospect of more enticing conversation to come as the evening turns into night. Once you make it once, you'll make it again and again!

Ingredients

 * 1 punnet strawberries, large ones halved
 * 1 punnet raspberries
 * ½ punnet blackcurrants
 * ½ punnet redcurrants
 * 1 loaf of white, pappy sort of bread or brioche, crusts removed and sliced
 * 2 tbsp caster sugar
 * 1 lime, finely zested
 * 2–3 mint leaves, finely chopped
 * 1 bottle of the best quality blackcurrant cordial you can find, in reserve

Procedure

 * 1) Liberally butter the inside a pudding bowl about 5 inches in diameter. The bowl should preferably not be greater in diameter that the size of your pieces of sliced bread. If you are worried about getting the whole thing out of the bowl in one piece, line the bowl first with some cling film. It's a fiddly job, but ensures you get a perfect shape at the end.
 * 2) Combine the blackcurrants, redcurrants, mint leaves, lime zest, sugar, and about 3 tbsp water. Poach them for about 5 minutes on the lowest possible heat setting of your stove. Add the strawberries and poach for another minute.
 * 3) Turn the heat off and add the raspberries. Leave to cool.
 * 4) Using the prepared bowl as a guide, cut a circle out of the white bread the same diameter as the top of the bowl. Do the same with the bottom of the bowl.
 * 5) Using a sharp knife, slice the bread into squares or oblongs, roughly the same height as the bowl, which will be used to line the inside of the bowl. This does not have to be an exact science. In simple terms what we are trying to do is to line the bowl with the white bread.
 * 6) Lay the smaller circle of white bread on the bottom of the bowl. Put the oblongs of white bread up the side of the bowl, overlapping slightly, and pour the fruit mixture into the void right up to the top. The bread should become well soaked in the juice from the cooked fruit. Indeed if there is not enough juice to soak the bread so it turns very red, use the cordial as a top-up.
 * 7) Place the large circle, or disc, of bread on the top and press it down well.
 * 8) Top with a weight or something that fits into the top of the bowl so it squashes everything down tight, and place it in the fridge for at least 40 minutes.
 * 9) When you are ready to serve the pudding, carefully using a knife to release the bread mould from the side of the bowl, and invert the whole thing onto a plate. If things become a little fraught and wobbly at this point, don't panic—just sort of whack everything back into shape using a wooden spoon.
 * 10) Decorate your plate with some more summer fruit, maybe a couple of mint leaves, and an artistic dollop of fresh whipped cream or crème fraîche, then serve with a flourish.

title: Cookbook:Summer Pudding


text:
User talk:211.26.31.16

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Webaware talk 10:54, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:211.26.31.16


text:
English as an Additional Language/General rules of spelling and capitalization

English has many rules on capitalization and spelling, and spelling tends to vary between different dialects (especially British English and American English).

Capitalization in English
There are several times when letters must be capitalized in English. They are: 1) At the start of a sentence; "The cat is on the bed." 2) The first letter of a proper noun (a month/day/country/language/name etc.) and adjectives, adverbs etc. derived from them; "Peter went to Spain on Tuesday." and "John ate a Spanish dish." 3) In a religious context, when using 'he' to refer to God; "He thought it good." 4) First person singular: “I”.

Spelling in English
British English and American English have different ways of spelling certain words, especially those with ou in the middle, for example: 1. British English: colour, American English: color. 2. British English: honour, American English: honor.

Another variation is the use of 'z' instead of 's' in certain words in American English. 1. British English: capitalisation, American English: capitalization 2. British English: modernisation, American English: modernization. 3. British English: industrialisation, American English: industrialization. This usually only applies to words that end in -ise and -isation.


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English as an Additional Language/Personal pronouns

English has 6 personal pronouns.

= Subject Personal Pronouns =

Subject Pronouns are words that replace subject nouns or subject noun phrases.

I - first person singular (yo, eu, je, ich, أنا) You - second person singular (tú (usted)*, tu (você)*, tu, du, أنت) He/She/It - third person singular (el/ella, ele/ela, il/elle, er/sie/es, هى/هو) We - first person plural (nosotros, nós, nous, wir, نحن) You - second person plural - rarely used (vosotros (ustedes)*, vós (vocês)*, vous, ihr/Sie, انتم\انتن) They - third person plural (ellos/ellas, eles/elas, ils/elles, sie, هم\هن)

(*) formal

Subject Pronouns replace subject nouns.
Consider these two sentences:

Charles picks flowers from the garden. He picks flowers from the garden.

Charles is a noun. Charlie is also the subject of the sentence. Therefore, Charles is a subject noun. Because Charles is a male personal name, the subject of the sentence is male in gender.

'He is a subject pronoun, describing male nouns. He replaces Charles.

Subject Pronouns replace subject noun phrases.
Consider these two sentences:

* BIRDS FROM CANADA fly south in the winter. * THEY fly south in the winter.

BIRDS FROM CANADA is a noun phrase. BIRDS FROM CANADA is also the subject. Therefore, BIRDS FROM CANADA is a subject noun phrase.

THEY is a subject pronoun. THEY replaces BIRDS FROM CANADA.

Subject pronouns agree with the PERSON and NUMBER of subject nouns
Pronouns are either FIRST person, SECOND person, or THIRD person.

Pronouns have NUMBER. This means pronouns are either SINGULAR or PLURAL.

Consider these two sentences:

* JOHN AND I went to the movies. * WE saw Spiderman II.

JOHN AND I is the subject. JOHN AND I is FIRST PERSON. JOHN AND I is also PLURAL.

WE is the FIRST PERSON, PLURAL subject pronoun. WE replaces JOHN AND I.

Subjects which are third person and singular must agree with the GENDER of the noun as well.
Third Person, SINGULAR Pronouns replace People or Things. People can be men or women. Men have a MASCULINE GENDER. Women have a FEMININE GENDER. Things are not people. In English, things usually have NO GENDER (neuter).

Note: ALL third person, PLURAL Pronouns are the same (THEY).

Consider these sentences:

* CINDY ran three miles on the beach. * SHE usually runs five miles.

CINDY is a woman. A woman has a FEMININE GENDER. Therefore, CINDY is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, and FEMININE.

SHE is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, FEMININE Subject Pronoun. SHE replaces CINDY.

Consider these sentences:

* BOB watched nine hours of television. * HE didn't run three miles on the beach.

BOB is a man. A man has a MASCULINE GENDER. Therefore, BOB is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, and MASCULINE.

HE is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, MASCULINE Subject Pronoun. HE replaces BOB.

The third person, single pronoun for most non-human (things) nouns or noun phrases is IT.

* THE CAR is very dirty. * IT needs a car wash.

THE CAR is a thing. Things have NO Gender. Therefore, THE CAR is THIRD PERSON, SINGLE, but NO GENDER.

IT is the THIRD PERSON, SINGLE Subject Pronoun for things with NO GENDER. IT replaces THE CAR.

Never use IT to refer to a person! Use HE if the person is a man. Use SHE if the person is a woman.

If the gender of the person being referred to is unknown or if one wants to refer generically to people, they is often used.

* Whoever THEY were; they did a good job.


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English in Use/Vocabulary/Adjectives

Adjective
A describing word.

An adjective is a word that describes how or what something else is. Examples include hot cold, and fluffy. The adjective usually goes before the object in English, for example: A fluffy duck." However, it can also be used in the following way: "My hamster is sick."

title: English in Use/Vocabulary/Adjectives


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User talk:202.163.71.225

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 11:37, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.163.71.225


text:
User talk:62.171.194.40

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 13:31, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.171.194.40


text:
Calculus/Polar Differentiation

Differential calculus
We have the following formulae:
 * $$r\frac{\partial}{\partial r}=x\frac{\partial}{\partial x}+y\frac{\partial}{\partial y}$$
 * $$\frac{\partial}{\partial\theta}=-y\frac{\partial}{\partial x}+x\frac{\partial}{\partial y}$$

To find the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to a polar curve $$r(\theta)$$ at any given point, the curve is first expressed as a system of parametric equations.
 * $$x=r(\theta)\cos(\theta)$$
 * $$y=r(\theta)\sin(\theta)$$

Differentiating both equations with respect to $$\theta$$ yields

 * $$\frac{\partial x}{\partial\theta}=r'(\theta)\cos(\theta)-r(\theta)\sin(\theta)$$

 * $$\frac{\partial y}{\partial\theta}=r'(\theta)\sin(\theta)+r(\theta)\cos(\theta)$$

Dividing the second equation by the first yields the Cartesian slope of the tangent line to the curve at the point $$(r,r(\theta))$$ :

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{r'(\theta)\sin(\theta)+r(\theta)\cos(\theta)}{r'(\theta)\cos(\theta)-r(\theta)\sin(\theta)}$$

title: Calculus/Polar Differentiation