text:
Floating Point/Normalization

Normalization
You are probably already familiar with most of these concepts in terms of scientific or exponential notation for floating point numbers. For example, the number 123456.06 could be expressed in exponential notation as 1.23456e+05, a shorthand notation indicating that the mantissa 1.23456 is multiplied by the base 10 raised to power 5.

More formally, the internal representation of a floating point number can be characterized in terms of the following parameters: The sign is either -1 or 1. The base or radix for exponentiation, an integer greater than 1. This is a constant for a particular representation. The exponent to which the base is raised. The upper and lower bounds of the exponent value are constants for a particular representation.

Sometimes, in the actual bits representing the floating point number, the exponent is biased by adding a constant to it, to make it always be represented as an unsigned quantity. This is only important if you have some reason to pick apart the bit fields making up the floating point number by hand, which is something for which the GNU library provides no support. So this is ignored in the discussion that follows. The mantissa or significand is an unsigned integer which is a part of each floating point number. The precision of the mantissa. If the base of the representation is b, then the precision is the number of base-b digits in the mantissa. This is a constant for a particular representation.

Many floating point representations have an implicit hidden bit in the mantissa. This is a bit which is present virtually in the mantissa, but not stored in memory because its value is always 1 in a normalized number. The precision figure (see previous article) includes any hidden bits.

Again, the GNU library provides no facilities for dealing with such low-level aspects of the representation. Floating point number is used to enhance the range of representation

The mantissa of a floating point number represents an implicit fraction whose denominator is the base raised to the power of the precision. Since the largest representable mantissa is one less than this denominator(base raised to the power of the precision), the value of the fraction is always strictly less than 1. The mathematical value of a floating point number is then the product of this fraction, the sign, and the base raised to the exponent.

We say that the floating point number is normalized if the fraction is at least 1/b, where b is the base. In other words, the mantissa would be too large to fit if it were multiplied by the base. Non-normalized numbers are sometimes called denormal; they contain less precision than the representation normally can hold.

If the number is not normalized, then you can subtract 1 from the exponent while multiplying the mantissa by the base, and get another floating point number with the same value. Normalization consists of doing this repeatedly until the number is normalized. Two distinct normalized floating point numbers cannot be equal in value.

(There is an exception to this rule: if the mantissa is zero, it is considered normalized. Another exception happens on certain machines where the exponent is as small as the representation can hold. Then it is impossible to subtract 1 from the exponent, so a number may be normalized even if its fraction is less than 1/b.)

title: Floating Point/Normalization


text:
Floating Point/Rounding

Rounding
IEEE 754 specified four distinct rounding modes. We will talk about those modes, and their effects in this chapter. Also, rounding can play an important role in the accuracy of a floating-point computation, so we will discuss those effects here as well.

Relative Error
Relative error is one measure of error commonly used with floating point numbers. If $$\tilde x$$ is an approximation to $$x$$, then the relative error, $$r$$, is defined as

r = {{|x - \tilde x|} \over x} $$

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Floating Point/Rounding


text:
Talk:General Chemistry/Covalent bonds

Shouldn't there be a section on the Hybrid Theory, a lot more about structure, and Lewis structures?

title: Talk:General Chemistry/Covalent bonds


text: Category:Book:Parallel Computing and Computer Clusters


text:
Floating Point/Floating Point Arithmetic

Arithmetic
Floating point numbers would be useless if we couldnt operate on them. Fortunately, there are algorithms for performing the basic arithmetic operations (Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division), as well as other operations such as exponentials, square-roots, and trancendentals. This page will introduce some of the basic arithmetic operations, and more advanced algorithms will be saved for a later page.

Multiplication
Let's multiply the following two numbers:

Variable 	sign 	exponent 	fraction X 	         0 	  1001 	          010 Y 	         0 	  0111 	          110

Here are the steps again:

Product 	sign 	exponent 	fraction X * Y 	       0 	  1010 	          000
 * 1) First, convert the two representations to scientific notation. Thus, we explicitly represent the hidden 1.
 * 2) In this case, X is 1.01 X 22 and Y is 1.11 X 20.
 * 3) Let x be the exponent of X. Let y be the exponent of Y. The resulting exponent (call it z) is the sum of the two exponents. z may need to be adjusted after the next step.
 * 4) For now, the resulting exponent is 2 + 0 = 2
 * 5) Multiply the mantissa of X to the mantissa of Y. Call this result m.
 * 6) Multiplying 1.01 by 1.11 results in 10.0011
 * 7) If m is does not have a single 1 left of the radix point, then adjust the radix point so it does, and adjust the exponent z to compensate.
 * Now, we have to renormalize 10.0011 to 1.00011 and increase the exponent by 1 to 3
 * 1) Add the sign bits, mod 2, to get the sign of the resulting multiplication.
 * 2) The sign bit is 0 + 0 = 0.
 * 3) Convert back to the one byte floating point representation, truncating bits if needed.
 * 4) We need to truncate 1.00011 x 23 to 1.000 x 23 and convert.


text:
Floating Point/Epsilon

Granularity
Floating point numbers, because they are comprised of only a certain number of bits, have a granularity. They therefore cannot express an infinite amount of fractional values. This means that there is a "Largest Possible Value", ε, that satisfies the following equation:

 * $$1.0 \oplus \epsilon = 1.0$$

This value is called the machine epsilon of the floating point system.

Epsilon (ε)
When a real number is rounded to the nearest floating point number, the machine epsilon forms an upper bound on the relative error. This fact makes the machine epsilon extremely useful in determining the convergence tolerances of many iterative numerical algorithms.

Determining Epsilon
The machine epsilon can be computed according to the formula:

\epsilon = {b \over 2} \cdot b^{-p} $$

So, for IEEE 754 single precision we have

\epsilon = 2^{-24} = 5.96046447753906 \times 10^{-8} $$ and for IEEE 754 double precision we have

\epsilon = 2^{-53} = 1.11022302462516 \times 10^{-16} $$

When $$p$$ is not known, but $$b$$ is known to be 2, the machine epsilon can be found by starting with a trial value of, say, 0.5 and successively dividing the value by 2 until $$1.0 \oplus \epsilon = 1.0$$ is true.

Granularity Effects
An effect of this granularity is that some basic algebraic properties don't strictly hold. For instance, if we have three floating-point values, x, y, and z, we can show that:

 * $$x + (y + z) \ne (x + y) + z$$

When the floating-point numbers are used in iterative calculations, round-off and granularity errors can result in large errors.

title: Floating Point/Epsilon


text: Category:Book:Pathology

title: Category:Book:Pathology


text:
Cookbook:Cabbage Rolls in Tomato Sauce (Holubtsi)

Ingredients

 * 12 cabbage leaves
 * ½ cup chopped onion
 * 2 tsp salt
 * 1 tsp pepper
 * ½ cup milk
 * 1 lb (about 500 g) ground beef
 * ¾ cup cooked rice
 * 1 egg

Sauce

 * 1 can tomato paste
 * 1 can chopped tomatoes
 * ½ cup water
 * 2 Tbsp vinegar
 * 3 Tbsp sugar
 * 2 Tbsp cornstarch mixed with ½ cup cold water

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (175°C).
 * 2) Put cabbage into pot of boiling water, cover, let sit for three minutes, then drain.
 * 3) Combine ground beef, milk, egg, rice, onion, pepper, and salt. Divide into twelve portions.
 * 4) Place 1 meat portion on each cabbage leaf.
 * 5) Roll leaf around filling and fasten with toothpick.
 * 6) Place the rolls in a baking dish.
 * 7) Combine tomato paste, tomatoes, sugar, water, and vinegar, then pour over cabbage rolls.
 * 8) Cover baking dish, and bake at 350°F (175C) for 40 minutes.
 * 9) Remove cabbage rolls from pan, and take out toothpicks. Place on the serving dish
 * 10) Add cornstarch and water to sauce mixture and stir together. Warm, if needed, to allow the cornstarch mixture to thicken the sauce.
 * 11) Pour the completed sauce over the rolls on the serving dish.
 * 12) Garnish as desired and serve.


text:
Floating Point/Arithmetic Errors

Arithmetic Errors
When performing floating-point arithmetic, there are a number of possible errors that can occur. Some of these errors are generally small, but some are worth consideration. This is especially true in applications like numerical integration or numerical derivatives, where implementing naive algorithms may lead to accumulation of the errors and completely unreliable results.

title: Floating Point/Arithmetic Errors


text:
Floating Point/Comparing FP Numbers

Floating Point Comparisons
It has been said by many people that floating point numbers should never be compared directly to each other for equality, although this is not strictly true. This page will discuss some common techniques and fallacies for comparing floating point numbers for equality and inequality.

title: Floating Point/Comparing FP Numbers


text:
Category:Book:Persian

ar:تصنيف:فارسية

title: Category:Book:Persian


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Divination

Overview
Divination is presented as the ability to predict the future. While it is taught as a subject at Hogwarts, there are very few wizards or witches who can actually predict the future. As a subject, it is an elective, taught in years three, four, and five; those with sufficiently high O.W.L. marks in the course can then go on to N.E.W.T.-level study in years 6 and 7.

Extended Description
From watching the antics of the Divination teacher Professor Trelawney, one rapidly gets the impression that divination in the Wizarding world is no more a science than fortune-telling in the Muggle world. Formalized as it is, with its textbooks laying out instructions for tea leaf reading, palmistry, crystal balls, and dream interpretation, it still seems to be as deeply buried in nonsensical mysticism as any gypsy fortune-teller on a Muggle fairground.

The alternate Divination teacher, Firenze, seems to be more interested in teaching the methods of Centaur divination, and emphasizing that not all things can be determined completely. We should note in passing that, while it is never stated that we are seeing the results of Divination, the Centaur comments regarding astronomy in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone are almost certainly the result of Divination. Firenze speaks of this sort of interpretation of the heavens, and how it differs from Trelawney's, in his Divination classes.

Analysis
We must be careful to separate Divination from Prophecy. Divination can be taught; Prophecy is apparently a rare gift, inborn and apparently uncontrollable. It would appear that prophets quite often fall into Divination as a career: Professor Trelawney does produce, in the span of seventeen years, two completely valid predictions. This seems to be completely separate from her teachings in Divination, and in fact she does not seem to remember having made either Prophecy.

It is particularly interesting that Divination can be taught and tested, but does not seem to involve any particular magic. We can see quite clearly, as Hermione does, that what Professor Trelawney is doing is little more than a fraud; she is using all the non-magical tricks that Muggle fortune-tellers use, including the foggy and mystical pronouncements. Yet she seems to be teaching out of approved textbooks, and there is evidently some testable technique involved, because there is an OWL exam (and presumably a NEWT exam as well) covering the subject. One wonders whether the purpose of the course is to codify a set of fraudulent techniques, and if so, for what reason. The adult reader also may wonder why Divination classes seem to be designed to hoodwink the students, rather than teaching them the methods by which they may deceive others. Two possibilities come to mind, however. First, if Trelawney knows she is a fraud, it is possible that only those students who show an ability to play along with the fraud are accepted into the advanced, NEWT-level practitioner classes; the initial three years of classes may simply be an elaborate familiarization and testing platform. Alternately, if Trelawney truly believes in the power of divination as she practices it, it's possible that she is teaching the methods and simply expecting that the ones she teaches will similarly believe in their own powers. Again, the three years of classes preceding NEWT exams would be primarily for testing, in this case retaining only those who were gullible enough to become convinced of the validity of the methods they were being exposed to.

It is possible that the published techniques are meant only to improve the sensitivity of the mind, and are not meant to be taken seriously. It is possible that the purpose of teaching Divination is simply to make it more likely that the apprentice Seer, assuming the inborn ability, would actually improve his or her chances of producing a true Prophecy. If this is the case, then it is somewhat unusual that Trelawney herself seems to be so serious in her techniques. It is possible that she herself does not know that she is a true Seer; the two times we have seen her making a real Prophecy, she has been unable to remember doing so. We do not know how common this trait is in Prophecy.

For discussion of prophecies as opposed to Divination, please see that article.

Questions

 * 1) What is the method of reading tea leaves? How is it meant to work?
 * 2) What is the meaning of the Centaur comment that Mars is bright, in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone?


text:
User:Mathos

I really, really enjoy music, partying, movies, knowledge, and partying... Definitely partying, and reading. I like to think I'm modest, but I have a strange theory I am subconsciously constantly fishing for compliments, like, say, being modest! It's a confusing world, and I'm still trying to figure out what I consider the point of living and thinking is. Why are we here? Why do I think? Why should I think about why I think? Why is it wrong to be conditioned, like in Brave New World; I'm still just as happy, just from different things? Is there really human nature? I usually just decide yes, because we evolved to this, but this is disgusting. Look around you.

My biggest question to religious people (PS I love reading the Bible): how can you wake up in your bed, surrounded by your material goods, in a world completely created by somebody else, some worker, some business, some machine, and believe in God? Believe in a collection of stories by nomads in the middle east in 5000 BC? Please, inform me.

I realllllly want to read Neitzche, Mostly Harmless, Silmarillion (I love the Encyclopedias of Middle Earth), etc. Recommend me some books!

My favorite novels, plays, short stories, epics - I'm sure I forgot some?

The Epic of Gilgamesh The Odyssey by Homer Book of Job Genesis <333 Dante's Inferno Ptolemy The Republic Evolution of Discovery Communist Manifesto Federalist Papers The Complete, Annotated Bible from NVW (amazing!) Anything by Virginia Woolf The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne The Minister's Black Veil by Nathaniel Hawthorne The Fall of the House of Usher by Edgar Poe To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee Walden by Henry David Thoreau The Night Thoreau Spent In Jail His Dark Materials Trilogy by Phillip Pullman (screw that Christian series hehe) Encyclopedia of Middle Earth Survivor & Choke by Chuck Palahniuk Anything by Harry Turtledove Anything by Clive Cussler All by Jane Auel Any Xanth novel by Piers Anthony The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy by Douglas Adams

So many more that I wont remember; recommend me some

- I reallllly love ancient languages, maps, and stories, so of course I love the Norton Anthology of World Literature and I ADORE American history, studies, literature, EVERYthing so I naturally love Norton Anthology of American Literature, also.

I love writing and learning, but I love music more. Some of my favorite bands (RECOMMEND ME SOME BANDS, NOWOWOWOWOWOWOW, I LOVE THEM ALL):

dredg, Explosions in the Sky, Circa Survive, King Crimson, Thursday, Mew, M83, Modest Mouse, Blind the Fold, Tom Waits, Saxon Shore, The Decemberists, The Appleseed Cast, Liars, Merzbow, Deerhoof, Cecil Taylor, Ludwig Van Beethoven (only for 4, 7 and 9), Textbook Traitors, From Monument To Masses, Mihai Edrisch, Coheed and Cambria, Iron and Wine, The Receiving End of Sirens, Johnny Cash, Envy, Et Tu Brute, Moby, Agalloch, I Would Set Myself On Fire For You, Saves the Day, Boris, Between the Buried and Me, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, At the Drive-In, The Beatles, CAKE, Clint Mansell, cowboys became folk heroes, !!!, Darkest Hour, Indian Summer, Slint, Shellac, Big Black, The Jesus Lizard, Godflesh, Nine Inch Nails, Can, Taking Back Sunday, Faced Moment, pg. 99, Dripping, Gorguts, Islands, Mineral, Brand New, The Mars Volta, Orchid, Death Cab For Cutie, Buried Inside, Circle Takes the Square, Guster, Chiodos, Sunn O)))

My books:

Intermediate Algebra

My Planned Books:

American Studies

My Reads:

Trigonometry Calculus French Latin Quenya (I love language)

title: User:Mathos


text:
Floating Point/Soft Implementations

Soft Implementations
This page is going to discuss how to create a floating-point implementation in an HDL such as VHDL, Verilog, or SystemC. This page assumes a prior knowledge of Programmable Logic

title: Floating Point/Soft Implementations


text:
Floating Point/Floating Point Hardware

Hardware
This page is going to talk about creating floating-point hardware. This page assumes a prior knowledge of Digital Circuits and Semiconductors.

title: Floating Point/Floating Point Hardware


text: Category:Book:Physical Activity

title: Category:Book:Physical Activity


text:
User:Infinoid

My main userpage is on English Wikipedia. Please see my user page over there.

title: User:Infinoid


text:
User:HSTutorials

Hello-

My name is Lisa Gehman Thorne, and I am working on creating an algebra textbook for the One Laptop Per Child Students to use. It's called [OLPC - Algebra 1 in Simple English]. I also author a free website, HSTutorials.net, that has free tutorials for math and computer applications. I have a mock-up of the student-user interface I'm designing for the book. You'll find it at http://www.HSTutorials.net/olpcmath.htm

I hope you contribute to the book.

Prerequisites for OLPC - Algebra I
Hello Lisa, what should we assume the students who are reading this text already know? The first few lessons suggest that they should already understand the 4 basic arithmetic operations, and are comfortable with applying them to small positive numbers. Would they be familiar with the number 0? What about adding 0? Multiplying by 0? Multiplying by 1? The impossibility of dividing by 0?

I think it would help contributors if we had some guidelines on this. Zahlen 04:07, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:HSTutorials


text:
Basic Algebra/Working with Numbers/Integers and the Number Line

Vocabulary

 * Integer: A whole number (both positive and negative).
 * Number Line: a line marked periodically with numbers
 * Origin: Zero (0)

Lesson
An integer is any number, positive or negative, that does not have a fraction or  decimal point. Integers can be shown on a number line, like the one below.

This number line shows the numbers from -10 to (positive) 10. Notice the arrows on either side to show that the numbers continue in both directions even though they are not shown on the line.

Practice Games
http://www.funbrain.com/linejump/index.html

Practice Problems
 {What is -2+6={ 4_1 }
 * type="{}"}


text:
Basic Algebra/Proportions and Proportional Reasoning/Proportions

Vocabulary
Ratio: The comparison of two numbers.

Reciprocal: The multiplicative inverse of a number -- when the numerator and denominator of a fraction are switched around.

Equivalent Ratios: Two ratios that reduce to the same ratio.

Proportion: An equation stating two ratios are equal.

To Cross-multiply: see below.

Lesson
There are several ways to express a "ratio". Let's compare the number of boys with the number of girls in a particular classroom. Let's say that our classroom has 25 students, 10 of whom are boys. That means there are 15 girls. So, the ratio of boys to girls is 10 to 15.

Writing a Ratio

There are three ways of expressing a ratio. You can simply use words like we did above, or you can separate the two numbers using a colon or a fraction (the mathematician's choice).

10:15 or 10/15 or $$\frac{10}{15}$$

In mathematics, we always use fractions to represent ratios. In this classroom example, many other ratios that can be made:

$$\frac{10}{25}$$, the number of boys out of the total number of students

$$\frac{15}{25}$$, the number of girls out of the total number of students

$$\frac{15}{10}$$, the number of girls to the number of boys

Simplifying a Ratio

Since we're using a fraction to represent ratios, the ratios can sometimes be reduced. For example, the ratio of boys to girls in our hypothetical classroom is $$\frac{10}{15}$$, but can be reduced to $$\frac{2}{3}$$. So, if we would be correct we said that the ratio of boys to girls in our hypothetical classroom is 2:3, or two boys for every 3 girls.

Proportions

The following equation is a proportion:

$$\frac{10}{15} = \frac{2}{3}$$

Any proportion is simply an equation the states two ratios are equal to one another. Sometimes, a proportion may contain variables:

$$\frac{2}{3} = \frac{x}{30}$$

If we wish to solve such an equation, we can use a process called cross-multiplication.

Solving Proportions using Cross-Multiplication

If $$\frac{a}{b} = \frac{c}{d}$$, then the products that are formed by diagonals across the equal sign are also equal: $$ad = bc$$. Note that this would be equivalent to saying $$bc = ad$$.

Example Problems
1) Is the ratio $$\frac{4}{6}$$ equal to the ratio $$\frac{12}{16}$$?

We can test by cross-multiplying. If the cross-products are equal, then so are the original two ratios.

$$4 \cdot 16$$ ?= $$ 6 \cdot 12$$

$$64$$ ?= $$ 72$$

No, $$64 \not= 72$$, so $$\frac{4}{6} \not= \frac{12}{16}$$.

2) Solve the following proportion for x.

$$\frac{3}{4} = \frac{x}{10}$$

Cross-multiply.

$$ 3 \cdot 10 = 4x$$

$$ 30 = 4x $$

Solve for x by dividing both sides of the equation by 4. Your result: $$ x = \frac{30}{4} = 7.5$$.

3) Solve for x:

$$\frac{x + 1}{4} = \frac{3}{8}$$

Cross multiply:

$$ 8 \cdot (x+1) = 3 \cdot 4$$

$$ 8x + 8 = 12$$

Now, solve for x:

Subtract 8 from both sides: $$ 8x = 4$$

Divide both sides by 8: $$x = \frac{1}{2}$$

4) A 9th-grade algebra classroom has a ratio of boys to girls of \frac{1} {2}. If there are 14 girls, how many boys are in the class?

We can create a proportion that compares the ratios of boys to girls, where x is the number of boys in the class:

$$ \frac{1}{2} = \frac{x}{14} $$

Solve the proportion by cross-multiplying:

$$ 2x = 14 $$

$$ x = 7 $$

There are 7 boys in the class.

Practice Games
Online games/resources about RATIOS: All About Ratios

A list of games/resources about RATIOS and PROPORTIONS: Ratios and Proportions from eThemes

Practice Problems
Use  as the fraction line and put spaces between wholes and fractions!  {Reduce each ratio.}

{ $$\frac{2}{10}=$${ 1/5_3 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$\frac{12}{48}=$${ 1/4_3 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$\frac{3x}{9x}=$${ 1/3_3 }
 * type="{}"}

{Solve each proportion.}

{$$\frac{x}{4} = \frac{8}{12}$$ x={ 8/3|2 2/3_7 }
 * type="{}"}

{$$\frac{10}{17} = \frac{14}{x}$$ x={ 238/10|23 8/10|119/5|23 4/5|23.8_7 }
 * type="{}"}

{$$\frac{2}{x-2} = \frac{3}{7} $$ x={ 20/3|6 2/3_7 }
 * type="{}"}

{Set up a proportion to answer the following questions.}

{If the ratio of boys to girls in a particular classroom was 2 to 3, and there are 12 boys, how many girls are in the class? { 18_3 }
 * type="{}"}

{ A recipe for pizza dough calls for 10 cups of flour and 2 cups of water. If Susan wants to only use 3 cups of flour, how many cups of water must she use? { 3/5|0.6_3 }
 * type="{}"}


text:
Basic Algebra/Proportions and Proportional Reasoning/Percents

Vocabulary
Percent: Parts per one hundred

Lesson
Suppose we had a grid of 100 squares, of which 17 are shaded in. There are several ways to express this as a ratio, as you learned in the previous lesson, such as $$\frac{17}{100}$$, the number of shaded squares compared to the number of squares in total. However, we can also write this as a percent. Since there are 17 shaded squares and 100 total, we say that $$17\%$$ of the squares are shaded. The $$\%$$ symbol stands for "percent".

Now suppose that instead of 100 squares, we have 50 squares, with 9 of them shaded. The percent shaded would not be $$9\%$$, because percent means "per 100", and we have 9 shaded squares out of 50 total squares. To find the percent, we need some number over 100, so we can set up a proportion.

 * $$\frac{9}{50} = \frac{x}{100}$$

Cross-multiplying gives us $$9 \times 100 = 50x$$, and $$x = 18$$.

We also could have noticed that $$50 \times 2 = 100$$, so we just need to multiply the numerator, 9, by 2 to get our answer, 18.

Practice Problems
Use  as the fraction line and put spaces between the wholes and fractions!  {What percent of 91 is 137? { 13700/91%|13,700/91%|150 50/91%|13700/91|13,700/91|150 50/91_11 }
 * type="{}"}

{What is 260% of 70.5? { 1833/10|1,833/10|183.3_11 }
 * type="{}"}

{What percent of 109.5 is 49? { 9800/219%|9,800/219%|44 164/219%|9800/219|9,800/219|44 164/219_11 }
 * type="{}"}

{What percent of 135 is 81.7? { 1634/27%|1,634/27%|60 14/27%|1634/27|1,634/27|60 14/27_11 }
 * type="{}"}


text:
Basic Algebra/Proportions and Proportional Reasoning/Percent of Change

Vocabulary
percent - a ratio that compares a number to 100

percent of change - the percent an amount changes from its original amount.

percent of change = (amount of change) / (original amount), where the amount of change is the new value minus the original value.

percent of increase - when a value increases from its original amount, you call the percent of change the percent of increase

percent of decrease - when a value decreases from its original amount, you call the percent of change the percent of decrease

Lesson
Finding the percent of change is using the ratio of the amount of change to the original amount. If the amount increases then the percent of change is called the percent of increase and will result in a positive value. If the amount decreases then the percent of change is called the percent of decrease and will result in a negative value.

The first question to ask yourself when finding the percent of change is: Is it an increase or a decrease? Once you have determined what type of change you are dealing with then you can calculate what that percent of change is.

The percent of change is calculated by dividing the amount of change by the original amount. The amount of change is the new value minus the original value. An easy way to remember how to find percent of change is to consider the no over o method. In the no over o method, n stands for the new amount and the o stands for the original amount.

Here is how to use the no over o method.

(the new amount - the original amount) over the original amount.

(n-o)/o

Example Problems
'''A. Solve and describe the percent of change as a percent of increase or decrease. Round to the nearest percent.'''

1) $12 to $9 new amount = $9

original amount = $12

(n-o)/o

(9-12)/12 = -3/12 = -1/4 = -0.25

no over o is negative which means it decreased so there is a 25% decrease

2) 19 in to 25 in

new amount = 25 in

original amount = 19 in

(n-o)/o

(25-19)/19 = 6/19 = 0.3158

no over o is positive which means it increased so there is approximately a 32% increase

B. Solve the percent of change word problem

1) Anna's grade in Algebra changed from 88 to 94. What is the percent of change in her grade?

new amount = 94

original amount = 88

(n-o)/o

(94-88)/88 = 6/88 = 3/44 = .068 = 6.8%

therefore it was a 6.8% increase

2) Between 1940 and 1980 the Federal budget went from $725.3 billion to $9.5 billion. What was the percent of change?

new amount = $9.5 billion

original amount = $725.3 billion

(n-o)/o

(9.5-725.3)/725.3 = -715.8/725.3 = -0.986 = -98.6%

therefore it was a 98.6% decrease

C. Solve

1) If 46 is decreased by 20%, what is the result?

new amount = x

original amount = 46

(n-o)/o

(x-46)/46 = -0.20

x-46 = -9.2

x = 36.8

2) If 16 is increased by 30%, what is the result?

new amount = x

original amount = 16

(n-o)/o

(x-16)/16 = 0.30

x-16 = 4.8

x = 20.8

Practice Games

(good to check your answers)

Practice Problems
 {'''Find the percent of change. Describe the percent of change as a percent of increase or decrease. Round your answer to the nearest integer.'''}

{36 g to 27 g { -25%|-25_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{500 lb to 1500 lb { +200%|200%|200_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{$100 to $140 { +40%|40%|40_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{238 ft to 207 ft { -13%|-13_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{18 ft to 50 ft { +178%|178%|178_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{58 to 76 { +31%|31%|31_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{100 mi to 175 mi { +75%|75%|75_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{350 to 340 { -3%|-3_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{64 ft to 48 ft { -25%|-25_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{26.2 to 22.8 { -13%|-13_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{Find the percent of change}

{If the price of a pen increased from $100 to $101, what was the percent of increase? { 1%|1_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{If the price of a softball glove decreased from $60 to $36, what was the percent of decrease? { -40%|40%|40_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{Mary decreased her time in the mile walk from 30 minutes to 24 minutes. What was the percent of decrease? { -20%|20%|20_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{A DVD movie originally cost $24.99. Its current price is $19.99. What is the percent of change rounded to the nearest percent? { -20%|-20_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{A hat's price rose from $9.99 to $12.99. What was the percent of change rounded to the nearest percent? { +30%|30%|30_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{Tom's weekly salary increased from $240 to $288. What was the percent of change? { +20%|20%|20_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{Kate had $2,251.35 in her bank account. Currently, she has $1,975.86 in her account. Find the percent of change rounded to the nearest percent. { -12%|-12_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{A car dealer raised the price of a car from $10,500 to $11,000. What was the percent of change? { +5%|5%|5_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{In 1986 the average price of a gallon of gasoline was 93 cents. In 2007 the average price of a gallon of gasoline was $2.77. Find the percent of change. { +198%|198%|198_5 }
 * type="{}"}

{Solve}

{If 48 was decreased by 20%, what would be the result? { 38.4_6 }
 * type="{}"}

{What is the result when 50 is decreased by 40%? { 30_6 }
 * type="{}"}

{A $25 shirt was marked down by 15%. What was the discount? { $3.75|3.75_6 }
 * type="{}"}

{John would like to increase his 140 bowling average by 25%. How many additional pins must he knock down? { 35_6 }
 * type="{}"}

{A shoe store advertises that all shoes are on sale for 30% off the regular price. Find the sale price of a pair of shoes that have an original price of $85. { $59.50|$59.5|59.5_6 }
 * type="{}"}

{A toy store prices items 40% over the price paid by the store. If the store purchases a toy truck for $30, find the selling price of the truck. { $42.00|$42|42_6 }
 * type="{}"}


text:
Basic Algebra/Proportions and Proportional Reasoning/Solving Similar Triangles using Proportions

Vocabulary
Proportions - Proportions are equations resulting from two or more ratios. (Ex. 2/3 = 4/x) Similar triangles - have equal corresponding angles and proportional corresponding sides (Ex. If triangle ABC has side lengths 1, square root of 3, and 2, and angles of 300, 600, and 900, and triangle DEF has side lengths 2, 2*square root of 3, and 4, and angles of 300, 600, and 900, then triangles ABC and DEF are similar, because their corresponding angles are equal, and their corresponding sides are proportional to each other.)

Example Problems
Proportions: 2/3 = 4/x Cross-multiply: 2x = 12 Divide both sides by 2: x = 6 Similar Triangles: If Triangles ABC and DEF are similar: Find DE if AB=3, BC=4, EF=8. Since AB/DE = BC/EF, 3/DE = 4/8 Solving the proportion: DE=6 Find angle C when angle F=600. Since corresponding angles are congruent in similar triangles, angle C=angle F=600


text:
User:Maximum Fear

Hello.

title: User:Maximum Fear


text:
User talk:Indrax

Answering_Stephen
Hello, and welcome to wikibooks. I see your new book, Answering_Stephen, and I wanted to warn you that this isn't the kind of material that wikibooks normally carries. For more information, see What is Wikibooks, and maybe look at some of the Policies and Guidelines that are established here. I just want to point out that your book is potentially in violation of the policy that wikibooks does not permit original research, or unverifiable claims.

If you want to write about this experiment, i suggest doing so at. If you actually do want to work towards an answer in a collaborative fashion, there are other wiki projects out there that dont have the same restrictions as wikibooks has.

If you have any questions about this, let me know. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 19:55, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I know that this is an important topic, and I want to give you plenty of time to move this material to a more suitable venue. Wikia is a similar wiki host, with the same software loaded, that has no restrictions on content in the same manner as wikibooks. I don't know what content licence they are using specifically, but i have never heard a complaint that it differed significantly from the GDFL. You can try to move your material over to that host, and I will provide a link from the page here to the new location. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 13:28, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Indrax


text:
Template:Communication Theory/Navigation

Type    at the bottom of each page in the book.

This template adds pages to :


text:
Communication Theory/Uses and Gratifications

Uses and gratifications approach is an influential tradition in media research. The original conception of the approach was based on the research for explaining the great appeal of certain media contents. The core question of such research is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? (McQuail, 1983). There exists a basic idea in this approach: audience members know media content, and which media they can use to meet their needs.

In the mass communication process, uses and gratifications approach puts the function of linking need gratifications and media choice clearly on the side of audience members. It suggests that people’s needs influence what media they would choose, how they use certain media and what gratifications the media give them. This approach differs from other theoretical perspectives in that it regards audiences as active media users as opposed to passive receivers of information. In contrast to traditional media effects theories which focus on “what media do to people” and assume audiences are homogeneous, uses and gratifications approach is more concerned with “what people do with media” (Katz, 1959). It allows audiences personal needs to use media and responds to the media, which determined by their social and psychological background.

The approach emphasizes audiences’ choice by assessing their reasons for using a certain media to the disregard of others, as well as the various gratifications obtained from the media, based on individual social and psychological requirements (Severin & Tankard, 1997). As a broader perspective among communication researches, it provides a framework for understanding the processes by which media participants seek information or content selectively, commensurate with their needs and interests (Katz et al., 1974a). Audience members then incorporate the content to fulfill their needs or to satisfy their interests (Lowery & Nabila, 1983).

Origin and History
It is well accepted that communication theories have developed through the realms of psychology and sociology over the past 100 years. With illumed by valuable ideas as well as exploring more untilled fields in these two disciplines, researchers elicit a series of higher conceptions of understanding media. As a sub-tradition of media effects research, uses and gratifications approach is suggested to be originally stemmed from a functionalist paradigm in the social sciences (Blumler & Katz, 1974).

To some extent, however, functional theory on communication agrees with media’s effects towards people. For example, a model often used in the theory, the Hypodermic Syringe model, discusses that “the mass media have a direct, immediate and influential effect upon audiences by ‘injecting’ information into the consciousness of the masses” (Watson & Hill 1997, p. 105). Functional theory influenced studies on communication from the 1920s to the 1940s. After that, a shift which rediscovered the relationship between media and people occurred and led to establishment of uses and gratifications approach.

The exploration of gratifications that motivate people to be attracted to certain media is almost as old as empirical mass communication research itself (McQuail, 1983). Dating back to the 1940s, researchers became interested in the reasons for viewing different radio programmes, such as soap operas and quizzes, as well as daily newspaper (Lazrsfeld & Stanton, 1944, 1949; Herzog, 1944; Warner & Henry, 1948; etc.). In these studies, researchers discovered a list of functions served either by some specific content or by the medium itself (Katz et al., 1974b). For instance, radio soap operas were found to satisfy their listeners with advice, support, or occasions for emotional release (Herzog, 1944; Warner and Henry, 1948); rather than just offering information, newspaper was also discovered to be important to give readers a sense of security, shared topics of conversation and a structure to the daily routine (Berelson, 1949). For these diverse dimensions of usage satisfaction, psychologist Herzog (1944) marked them with the term “gratifications.”

Uses and gratifications approach became prevailing in the late 1950s till 1970s when television has grown up. Some basic assumptions of the approach were proposed when it was rediscovered during that era. Among the group of scholars who focus on uses and gratifications research, Elihu Katz is one of the most well-known and contributed greatly to establishing the structure of the approach.

Elihu Katz is served both as a sociologist and as a communication researcher. He received his Ph.D. in Sociology in 1956 from Columbia University and began teaching at the University of Chicago until 1963. During the next thirty years, he taught in the Department of Sociology and Communication at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In the late 1960, invited by the Government of Israel, Katz headed the task force charged with the introduction of television broadcasting. This experience led to his subsequent academic work about broadcasting and television in leisure, culture and communication from the 1970s to1990s (UPENN, 2001). In 1992, he joined the faculty of the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania, and also directed its experimentaln that people use the media to their benefit. In a study by Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973), a subject which is known as the usThey took a more humanistic approach to looking at media use. They suggest that media users seek out a medium source that best fulfills the needs of the user and they have alternate choices to satisfy their need. (Blumler & Katz, 1974). They also discovered that media served the functions of surveillance, correlation, entertainment and cultural transmission for both society and individuals (Blumler and Katz, 1974).

Five basic assumptions were stated in a study of Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch in 1974 as follows. They provide a framework for understanding the correlation between media and audiences:
 * 1) The audience is conceived as active, i.e., an important part of mass media use is assumed to be goal oriented … patterns of media use are shaped by more or less definite expectations of what certain kinds of content have to offer the audience member.
 * 2) In the mass communication process much initiative in linking need gratification and media choice lies with the audience member. This places a strong limitation on theorizing about any form of straight-line effect of media content on attitudes and behavior.
 * 3) The media compete with other sources of need satisfaction. The needs served by mass communication constitute but a segment of the wider range of human needs, and the degree to which they can be adequately met through mass media consumption certainly varies.
 * 4) Methodologically speaking, many of the goals of mass media use can be derived from data supplied by individual audience members themselves- i.e., people are sufficiently self-aware to be able to report their interests and motives in particular cases, or at least to recognize them when confronted with them in an intelligible and familiar verbal formulation.
 * 5) Value judgments about the cultural significance of mass communication should be suspended while audience orientations are explored on their own terms. (p. 15-17).

In addition, Katz, Blumler, and Gurevitch also commented that, although previous researches on gratifications detected diverse gratifications that attract people on the media, they did not address the connections between these gratifications (Katz et al., 1974a). They suggested that uses and gratifications research concern with following aspects: “(1) the social and the psychological origins of (2) needs which generate (3) expectations of (4) the mass media or other sources which lead to (5) differential exposure (or engaging in other activities), resulting in (6) need gratification and (7) other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones” (Katz et al., 1974b, p. 20).

The studies of Katz and his colleagues laid a theoretical foundation of building the uses and gratifications approach. Since then, the research on this subject has been strengthened and extended. The current status of uses and gratifications is still based on Katz’s first analysis, particularly as new media forms have emerged in such an electronic information age when people have more options of media use.

Needs and Gratifications
Uses and gratifications approach emphasizes motives and the self-perceived needs of audience members. Blumler and Katz (1974) concluded that different people can use the same communication message for very different purposes. The same media content may gratify different needs for different individuals. There is not only one way that people uses media. Contrarily, there are as many reasons for using the media as there are media users (Blumler & Katz, 1974).

Basic needs, social situation, and the individual’s background, such as experience, interests, and education, affect people’s ideas about what they want from media and which media best meet their needs. That is, audience members are aware of and can state their own motives and gratifications for using different media. McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972) proposed a model of “media-person interactions” to classify four important media gratifications: (1) Diversion: escape from routine or problems; emotional release; (2) Personal relationships: companionship; social utility; (3) Personal identity: self reference; reality exploration; value reinforces; and (4) Surveillance (forms of information seeking).

Another subdivided version of the audience’s motivation was suggested by McGuire (1974), based on a general theory of human needs. He distinguished between two types of needs: cognitive and affective. Then he added three dimensions: “active” versus “passive” initiation, “external” versus “internal” goal orientation, and emotion stability of “growth” and “preservation.” When charted, these factors yield 16 different types of motivations which apply to media use (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A structuring of 16 general paradigms of human motivation (McGuire, 1974).

Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973) developed 35 needs taken from the social and psychological functions of the mass media and put them into five categories:
 * 1) Cognitive needs, including acquiring information, knowledge and understanding;
 * 2) Affective needs, including emotion, pleasure, feelings;
 * 3) Personal integrative needs, including credibility, stability, status;
 * 4) Social integrative needs, including interacting with family and friends; and
 * 5) Tension release needs, including escape and diversion.

Congruously, McQuail’s (1983) classification of the following common reasons for media use:

Information
 * finding out about relevant events and conditions in immediate surroundings, society and the world
 * seeking advice on practical matters or opinion and decision choices
 * satisfying curiosity and general interest
 * learning; self-education
 * gaining a sense of security through knowledge

Personal Identity
 * finding reinforcement for personal values
 * finding models of behavior
 * identifying with valued others (in the media)
 * gaining insight into oneself

Integration and Social Interaction
 * gaining insight into the circumstances of others; social empathy
 * identifying with others and gaining a sense of belonging
 * finding a basis for conversation and social interaction
 * having a substitute for real-life companionship
 * helping to carry out social roles
 * enabling one to connect with family, friends and society

Entertainment
 * escaping, or being diverted, from problems
 * relaxing
 * getting intrinsic cultural or aesthetic enjoyment
 * filling time
 * emotional release
 * sexual arousal (p. 73)

These dimensions of uses and gratifications assume an active audience making motivated choices.

McQuail (1994) added another dimension to this definition. He states: Personal social circumstances and psychological dispositions together influence both … general habits of media use and also … beliefs and expectations about the benefits offered by the media, which shape ... specific acts of media choice and consumption, followed by ... assessments of the value of the experience (with consequences for further media use) and, possibly ... applications of benefits acquired in other areas of experience and social activity (p. 235).

This expanded explanation accounts for a variety of individual needs, and helps to explain variations in media sought for different gratifications.

Gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO)
The personal motivations for media use also suggest that the media offer gratifications which are expected by audiences. These gratifications can be thought of as experienced psychological effects which are valued by individuals. Palmgreen and Rayburn (1985) thus proposed a model of the gratifications sought (GS) and gratifications obtained (GO) process shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. An expectance-value model of media gratifications sought and obtained (Palmgreen and Rayburn, 1985). The model distinguishes between GS and GO. Thus, where GO is noticeably higher than GS, we are likely to be dealing with situations of high audience satisfaction and high ratings of appreciation and attention (McQuail, 1983).

To investigate the relationship between GS and GO, Palmgreen et al. (1980) conducted a study of gratifications sought and obtained from the most popular television news programs. The results indicated that, on the one hand, each GS correlated either moderately or strongly with its corresponding GO; on the other hand, the researchers found that the gratifications audiences reportedly seek are not always the same as the gratifications they obtain (Palmgreen et al., 1980). A later study conducted by Wenner (1982) further showed that audiences may obtain different levels of gratifications from what they seek when they are exposed to evening news programs.

Media Dependency Theory
Media dependency theory, also known as media system dependency theory, has been explored as an extension of or an addition to the uses and gratifications approach, though there is a subtle difference between the two theories. That is, media dependency looks at audience goals as the origin of the dependency while the uses and gratifications approach emphasizes audience needs (Grant et al., 1998). Both, however, are in agreement that media use can lead to media dependency. Moreover, some uses and gratifications studies have discussed media use as being goal directed (Palmgreen, Wenner & Rosengren. 1985; Rubin, 1993; Parker & Plank, 2000).

Media dependency theory states that the more dependent an individual is on the media for having his or her needs fulfilled, the more important the media will be to that person. DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1976) described dependency as the correlating relationship between media content, the nature of society, and the behavior of audiences. It examines both macro and micro factors influencing motives, information-seeking strategies, media and functional alternative use, and dependency on certain media (Rubin and Windahl, 1982).

As DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) suggested, active selectors’ use of the media to achieve their goals will result in being dependent on the media. Littlejohn (2002) also explained that people will become more dependent on media that meet a number of their needs than on media that provide only a few ones. “If a person finds a medium that provides them with several functions that are central to their desires, they will be more inclined to continue to use that particular medium in the future” (Rossi, 2002).

The intensity of media dependency depends on how much people perceive that the media they choose are meeting their goals. These goals were categorized by DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) into three dimensions which cover a wide range of individual objectives: (1) social and self understanding (e.g., learning about oneself, knowing about the world); (2) interaction and action orientation (e.g., deciding what to buy, getting hints on how to handle news or difficult situation, etc.); (3) social and solitary play (e.g., relaxing when alone, going to a movie with family or friends). DeFleur and Ball-Rokeach (1989) also suggested that more than one kind of goal can be activated (and satisfied) by the same medium.

Dependency on a specific medium is influenced by the number of media sources available to an individual. Individuals should become more dependent on available media if their access to media alternatives is limited. The more alternatives there are for an individual, the lesser is the dependency on and influence of a specific medium (Sun et al., 1999).

Uses and Gratifications Research in a New Era
The uses and gratifications has always provided a cutting-edge theoretical approach in the initial stages of each new mass medium, such as newspapers, radio and television, and now the Internet, which receives the significance via this approach (Ruggiero, 2000).

The uses and gratifications theory has been widely used, and also is better suited, for studies of Internet use. In the Internet environment, users are even more actively engaged communication participants, compared to other traditional media (Ruggiero, 2000). The theory also suggests that people consciously choose the medium that could satisfy their needs and that audiences are able to recognize their reasons for making media choices (Katz et al., 1974). Some surveys have shown that users have little trouble verbalizing their needs when using the Internet (Eighmey & McCord, 1997; Lillie, 1997; Nortey, 1998; Piirto, 1993; Ryan, 1995). Katz et al. (1974) argued that available media choice compete to satisfy individual needs. Thus, there exists competition not only between the Internet and other traditional media, but among each options in the Internet itself as well.

Despite the robustness of this list, history has shown that new media often create new gratifications and new motivations among various audience groups (Angleman, 2000). These new dimensions of users’ motivations and gratifications need to be identified and satisfied. Although motivations for Internet use may vary among individuals, situations, and media vehicles, most uses and gratifications studies explore them based on some or all of the following dimensions: relaxation, companionship, habit, passing time, entertainment, social interaction, information/surveillance, arousal, and escape (Lin, 1999).

Examining how and why students use a university computer bulletin board, Rafeali (1986) found that users seldom skip the factual or informative messages, which indicates their strong interest in messages of this type. Maddox (1998) also suggested that the most important reason why people use the Internet is to gather various kinds of information. Lin (2001) found similar results when she examined online services adoption. She found that online services are perceived primarily as information-laden media, and that audiences who need to create more outlets for information reception are the ones most likely to adopt online services (Lin, 2001).

Internet use is also linked to a series of instrumental as well as entertainment-oriented gratifications (Lin, 1996). Some scholars ranked diversion/entertainment as more important than exchanging information in triggering media use (Schlinger, 1979; Yankelovich Partners, 1995). Rafeali (1986) found that the primary motivation of bulletin board users are recreation, entertainment, and diversion, followed by learning what others think about controversial issues by communicating with people who matter in a community. Entertainment content appears to satisfy users’ needs for escapism, hedonistic pleasure, aesthetic enjoyment, or emotional release (McQuail, 1994). Providing entertainment, therefore, can motivate audiences to use the media more often (Luo, 2002).

Examining the Internet as a source of political information, Johnson and Kaye (1998) found that people use the web primarily for surveillance and voter guidance and secondarily for entertainment, social utility and excitement. In a study of the web as an alternative to television viewing, Ferguson and Perse (2000) found four main motivations for Internet use: entertainment, passing time, relaxation/escape and social information.

The Internet combines elements of both mass and interpersonal communication. The distinct characteristics of the Internet lead to additional dimensions in terms of the uses and gratifications approach. For example, “learning” and “socialization” are suggested as important motivations for Internet use (James et al., 1995). “Personal involvement” and “continuing relationships” were also identified as new motivation aspects by Eighmey and McCord (1998) when they investigated audience reactions to websites. The potential for personal control and power is also embedded in Internet use. Pavlik (1996) noted that online, people are empowered to act, communicate, or participate in the broader society and political process. This type of use may lead to increased self-esteem, self-efficacy, and political awareness (Lillie, 1997).

Heightened interactions were also suggested as motivations for using the Internet. Kuehn (1994) called attention to this interactive capability of the Internet through discussion groups, e-mail, direct ordering, and links to more information (Schumann & Thorson, 1999; Ko, 2002). As such, Lin (2001) suggested that online services should be fashioned to satisfy people’s need for useful information as well as social interaction opportunities.

Group support is another important reason for using the Internet. The Internet can provide a relatively safe venue to exchange information, give support, and serve as a meeting place without fear of persecution (Tossberg, 2000). It provides an accessible environment where individuals can easily find others who share similar interests and goals. As part of a group, they are able to voice opinions and concerns in a supportive environment (Korenman & Wyatt, 1996).

Other studies identified anonymity as one of the reasons why people go online. According to McKenna et al. (2000), people use the security of online anonymity to develop healthy friendships and gratify their need to socialize. Those who play massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) report that anonymity reduces their self-awareness and motivates their behaviors in game playing (Foo & Koivisto, 2004). Another survey done by Choi and Haque (2002) also found anonymity as a new motivation factor for Internet use. Some also suggested that the Internet offer democratic communication to anonymous participants in virtual communities such as chat rooms. Ryan (1995) indicated that anonymity motivates users to speak more freely on the Internet than they would in real life. With small fear of social punishment and recrimination, minority groups can equally participate in the communication process provided the technology is universally available (Braina, 2001).

Criticisms of Uses and Gratifications Research
Although uses and gratifications approach holds a significant status in communication research, the research of the approach receives criticisms both on its theory and methodology represented.

McQuail (1994) commented that the approach has not provided much successful prediction or casual explanation of media choice and use. Since it is indeed that much media use is circumstantial and weakly motivated, the approach seems to work best in examining specific types of media where motivation might be presented (McQuail, 1994).

The researcher Ien Ang also criticized uses and gratifications approach in such three aspects:

Since it is hard to keep track of exposure patterns through observation, uses and gratifications research focus on the fact relied heavily on self-reports (Katz, 1987). Self-reports, however, are based on personal memory which can be problematic (Nagel et al., 2004). As such, the respondents might inaccurately recall how they behave in media use and thus distortion might occur in the study.
 * 1) It is highly individualistic, taking into account only the individual psychological gratification derived from individual media use. The social context of the media use tends to be ignored. This overlooks the fact that some media use may have nothing to do with the pursuit of gratification - it may be forced upon us for example.
 * 2) There is relatively little attention paid to media content, researchers attending to why people use the media, but less to what meanings they actually get out of their media use.
 * 3) The approach starts from the view that the media are always functional to people and may thus implicitly offer a justification for the way the media are currently organized (cited by CCMS-Infobase, 2003).


text:
Communication Theory/Print version

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

= Contents = If you have saved this file to your computer, click on a link in the contents to go to that section.

 * What is Communication?

 * Perspectives on Theory
 * Introduction: An overview of theory in communication study

 * Theorists and Approaches to Communication
 * Uncertainty Reduction: Charles Berger, Richard Calabrese
 * Propaganda and the Public: Walter Lippmann, Harold D. Lasswell, Edward Bernays, and Jacques Ellul
 * Uses and Gratifications: Hetzog, Katz, and friends
 * The Frankfurt School: Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno
 * Semiotics and Myth: Roland Barthes
 * Orality and Literacy: Walter Ong
 * Diffusion of Innovations: Gabriel Tarde, Everett Rogers
 * Sociological Systems: Niklas Luhmann
 * Network Society: Manuel Castells

= What is Communication? =
 * License
 * GNU Free Documentation License

= Introduction =

= Uncertainty Reduction =

= Propaganda and the Public =

= Uses and Gratifications =

= The Frankfurt School =

= Semiotics and Myth =

= Orality and Literacy =

= Diffusion of Innovations =

= Sociological Systems =

= Network Society =

= GNU Free Documentation License =

title: Communication Theory/Print version


text:
Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/cell division

How do things grow?
We know that living things grow. A plant will get taller and produce new leaves and flowers. A baby will grow into a child and then an adult. Growing is a complex business. Growing is capable to a certain living organism.

Growth means getting larger in size, and for multi-cellular organisms this is done by making more cells.

Plants have special tissues called meristems where growth occurs. Root apical meristems grow down into the soil, and shoot apical meristems grow up. A third meristem found as a ring in the stem of some plants grows outward.

Animals, however grow by making new cells all over their body, and when an animal first develops as an embryo, almost all cells are dividing together. Later, as the animal reaches adulthood, most cells are not dividing. Some tissues, such as skin, divide constantly, while others, such as nerve cells, don't divide at all.

Single celled organisms increase their numbers by dividing and making more cells like themselves.

Cell Division
When cells are dividing, they grow in size for a bit and then split in two. The cells must make copies of their chromosomes (the information storing part of the cell) before they split. Bacteria only have one chromosome. Therefore they can split very simply by making a copy of the chromosome, and making sure one chromosome ends up in each cell after it divides. This process is called binary fission.

Eukaryotic cells ( cells with a nucleus containing several chromosomes) can't be so casual about cell division. In order to make two cells containing all of the information found in the original cell, they must copy each chromosome and then divide. This more complex process is called Mitosis.

There is even another form of cell division that is reserved for sex cells. When humans reproduce, the mother gives half of her chromosomes and the father gives half of his chromosomes to the offspring. If the mother and father gave all of their chromosomes to their child, it would have twice as many chromosomes as it's parents. A special kind of cell division is used to make these haploid cells containing half the number of chromosomes as the parents. This sexual cell division is called Meiosis.


text: User:Stan the fisher~enwikibooks

title: User:Stan the fisher~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Stan the fisher~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 10:33, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
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title: User talk:Stan the fisher~enwikibooks


text:
Horticulture/Pollination

Pollination is likely the most overlooked aspect of gardening, and inadequate pollination often limits gardeners' production of fruits and vegetables; indeed many times the problem is not even recognized. Mis-information is also frequently promulgated, even by those who should be experts. A good understanding of pollination, and active involvement in the various aspects of pollination mark an up-to-date gardener.
 * 1. Summary of pollination biology and pollination terms
 * 2. Pollinator decline: an environmental issue of our times
 * 3. Recognizing pollination problems
 * 4. Fixing pollination problems

title: Horticulture/Pollination


text:
Debate/Topics/Abortion

In the course of a pregnancy, the pregnant woman is often given the choice to keep the fetus and have the child, or terminate the pregnancy. There are several issues associated with abortion:

 * The trimester of the pregnancy;
 * The health of the fetus;
 * The religious and ethical beliefs behind the mother;
 * The laws of the state in which the mother resides;
 * The attitude of the mother's family and the father of the fetus;

amongst many others.

title: Debate/Topics/Abortion


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Template:Applied Ecology/Navigation

at the bottom of each page in the book.

This template adds pages to [[:

title: Template:Applied Ecology/Navigation


text: Category:Book:Applied Ecology

title: Category:Book:Applied Ecology


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Microsoft Office/Opening a Word File as Read Only

Open a file as read only with the main menu

 * 1) Click on File -> Open...
 * 2) Select the Word file
 * 3) Click on the arrow on the "Open" button
 * 4) Click on "Open as read only"

Open a file as read only from Windows Explorer with Shift key

 * 1) In Windows Explorer, hold down the Shift key and right click your file.
 * 2) You can now "Open as Read-Only" or "Open in Protected View"

Open a file as read only from Windows Explorer without Shift key

 * 1) In Windows Explorer, click on Tools -> Folder options -> File types
 * 2) Select the file type "DOC"
 * 3) The buttons "Modify" and "Advanced" should appear (if the buttons "Modify" and "Restore" appear, you need to restore the default configuration)
 * 4) Click on "Advanced"
 * 5) Click on "New"
 * 6) In action, write
 * 7) In application used to perform action, write   (adapt the path to your installation folder)
 * 8) Check "Use DDE"
 * 9) In DDE message, write
 * 10) In DDE Application Not Running, empty the field
 * 11) In topic, write
 * 12) Click on "OK"
 * 13) Click on "OK" again
 * 14) Click on "Close"

Now, to open the file in read-only mode, right-click on the file and select Open (read-only)


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Type    at the end of each page in the book.

This template adds pages to Category:Book:Mirad.

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Piano/Pedals

The piano pedals are additions to the piano instrument that enhance a performance in various ways. There are three pedals, each with a separate and distinct function. These are attached to a panel reaching from just behind the keyboard on a piano to the floor, and are played with the pianist's foot. Starting from the left, there is the soft (more correctly una corda/una corde), sostenuto, and sustain (or damper; "forte"). The sostenuto pedal is not found on all pianos, and on others it serves an entirely different purpose than the function described below. Most piano pieces, including the vast repertoire of classics, only require use of the sustain pedal, but the una corda pedal is used occasionally. Very rarely the sostenuto is used, its popularity emerging with new composers utilizing its unique function. Although beginning piano players will not encounter much indication on when or where to use these pedals, they are essential to creating the sound so ubiquitously associated with the piano.

Playing the pedals
When playing classical repertoire, in most cases distinct instructions will be given. The pedals are played with your foot; the sustain with your right, soft with left. The middle pedal is, again, rarely used, but it replaces the function of the sustain pedal in a limited way, so it would be played with the right foot.

Place your foot flat on the floor when progressing through long passages without any pedal usage. When a pedal is meant to be played, put the heel of your foot on the ground directly in front of the pedal. Pivot downwards, pressing down the pedal with the broad ball of your foot. Your heel should not leave the ground while depressing a pedal.

The sustain pedal is the most often used pedal. A cursory observer of any pianist playing any song (composed after the invention of this pedal) will notice this is depressed quite often. It releases the strings of the dampers, felt-covered pieces of wood that deaden a string's vibration. This causes any sound produced by the hammers of a piano to continue vibrating even after the key activating that hammer is released. Used incorrectly, the pedal can cause notes to become confused and sound inarticulate. However, this pedal's function is necessary to execute most passages. The action of depressing and releasing the pedal should be clear and distinct. The pedal should either be depressed completely, or released all the way. Holding the sustain pedal halfway down creates a 'growling' sound as the vibrating strings are partially muffled by the felt. This convention is found in some compositions of Ravel's, but is not a common execution or use of the sustain pedal. The 'new' marker is one indication of when to play the pedal. You would depress the sustain pedal at the moment in the music when the bracket (highlighted in orange) 'begins,' and release it when the bracket is closed. In this example, the sustain pedal should be held throughout the light red section, and released when the music passes the dark red rectangle on the right.

Classical repertoire uses a two-part marker to indicate when to depress the sustain pedal, consisting of an ornamental 'Ped.' to signal depression, and a large asterisk to indicate release. This is displayed on the left in the same context as the 'new' style above, and the pianist would play this particular section exactly the same as before. A drawback to this style was that it was not particularly clear what note the pedal marker was indicating, and thus was difficult to discern exactly when to release or depress.

The soft pedal is common in post-Classical works, such as compositions by Beethoven or Chopin. Its melodramatic tone enhances soft passages, but it is important to know the difference between playing with the dynamic marking piano and with the soft pedal. The soft pedal does not give you license to play harshly when depressing it, simply to sound soft. Piano is a dynamic marking to play quietly but with good tone. The soft pedal smooths out a note's attack, creating a very mellow texture. It is possible to play Forte with the soft pedal, just as possible as it is to play Pianissimo without the soft pedal. The marker is the words una corda (or una corde). Depress the soft pedal from the beginning of the words until instructed to release, at the words tre corda (or tutte corde). In the examples to the right, the soft pedal would be held from the very beginning of the music until the dark red rectangle after the tre corda.

The middle pedal, called sostenuto, is rarely used, but is indicated in music with clear instructions. This pedal keeps the dampers up that were raised when it was depressed, enabling staccato play independent of the sustained note. It is sometimes used arbitrarily by pianists who cannot hold down a pedal tone. On smaller piano models (uprights, consoles, etc.) the sostenuto is usually replaced by the celeste or practice pedal. This pedal is indicated by an indentation next to the pedal's most depressed state, allowing the pianist to slide it into a continuously depressed position. The celeste is not used in standard performance, and was created for practical reasons. When depressed, all notes are softer than the una corda. Use this pedal (if your piano has it) if quietude is a necessity.

title: Piano/Pedals


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Category:Book:Piano

he:קטגוריה:פסנתר

title: Category:Book:Piano


text: Category:Book:Plant Sciences

title: Category:Book:Plant Sciences


text: Category:Book:Plato

title: Category:Book:Plato


text: Category:Book:Playful Organizing

title: Category:Book:Playful Organizing


text: Category:Book:Poker

title: Category:Book:Poker


text: Category:Book:Policy Debate

title: Category:Book:Policy Debate


text: User:Alton

title: User:Alton


text: Category:Book:Political Economy

title: Category:Book:Political Economy


text: Category:Book:Portuguese

title: Category:Book:Portuguese


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Talk:Piano/How Piano Works

Relevancy of this
I don't want to go so far as to nominate this for wholesale deletion, but I don't think a summary of the functions of a piano needs to be in a book on how to play the piano. For that kind of information, someone could go to Pedia. If this is indeed an informative textbook about the piano, then articles like practicing and 'why play piano' need to be re-organized to provide more information. As far as I can see, the extant piano wikibook is headed toward a more 'how-to-play' angle. --Zen 10:18, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Piano/How Piano Works


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Hungarian/Lesson 3

So you've already mastered one group of the Hungarian words and you should be able to express virtually any quantity. Now let's continue with the most common groups of words: nouns, adjectives and verbs.

Besides, now it's time to start building your vocabulary. The vocabulary section at the end of the lesson gives you a great opportunity to check how you mastered the most important words. If you fail to remember one of them at a later stage of the course, just turn up the Vocabulary chapter at the end of the book.

Nouns
There are two main types of nouns: proper nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns include all unique entities and in the Hungarian language we capitalize every such word: Kovács is a surname, István is a christian name, Budapest is a geographical place, Wikipédia is the name of the free dictionary. Every other noun is called common noun and we never capitalize them (only at the beginning of the sentence): asztal means "table", fiú means "boy", lány (archaically leány) means "girl". Note that while in English nationalities are considered proper nouns and thus are capitalized, in Hungarian these are considered common nouns: magyar means "Hungarian", angol means "English", francia means "French". Now let's have a look at the most common Hungarian common nouns (note that in Hungarian there is no grammatical gender):

Plural
Here we're going to learn a difficult but crucial part of the Hungarian grammar: how to suffix, where to use link vowels and how to apply vowel harmony.

If you were observant enough, you may already know that the plural morpheme (-k) in Hungarian is suffixed to the end of nouns. The following rule may seem a bit too complicated, but you'll soon get used to this as the same (or almost the same) rule should be followed every time you use suffixes:
 * when the noun ends in -á (rare), -é, -í, -ó, -ő, -u, -ú, -ü (rare) or -ű (long vowels and -u, -ü) (we could have mentioned -o and -ö as well, but there are virtually no words ending in -o or -ö): simply add -k to the singular form e.g. nő - nők ("women"), fiú - fiúk ("boys")
 * when the noun ends in -a or -e: replace the last letter with -á or -é and add -k to the singular form e.g. alma - almák ("apples") lepke - lepkék (butterflies)
 * when the noun ends in -i it's not so clear-cut but there are only a few such words that you will be able to remember e.g. férfi - férfiak ("men", where a link vowel -a appears)

 * when the noun ends in a consonant: add a link vowel (based on vowel harmony -ö or -e for front words, -a or -o for back words, but there are some exceptions) and add -k to the singular form e.g. kör - körök ("circles"), ember - emberek ("men"), ház - házak ("houses"), barát - barátok ("friends")

As mentioned above, it is crucial to get familiar with these rules. Don't memorise them, but learn how to use them (solve the exercises at the end of every lesson).

Adjectives
In Hungarian, the adjectives always stand before the noun in the noun phrase (szép lány="beautiful girl", kis ország="small country"). If there are more adjectives belonging to the same noun, their order is usually optional. Now let's see the most common Hungarian adjectives:

Substantive verb
Here you can see the conjugation of the substantive verb lenni (this is the infinitive form of the verb, so don't worry if you can't observe any similarities between lenni and the following forms; it used to be useful though to note that in a dictionary, you would have always found the infinitive form of the verbs, however now, most dictionaries will present the declarative present third person singular) in present tense, declarative mode (it's also important to know what tense and mode we are in, as you'll perceive later): (Note: though the formal and official forms of te (maga and ön) and ti (maguk and önök) are in second person, they use the 3rd person verb forms: maga van, ön van, maguk vannak, önök vannak)

Omitting "van"
When the subject is in 3rd person, a unique rule is in effect. In these so-called equational sentences the substantive verb is not used. Later we will learn the cases of the omission, for now remember only the most common case: when using 3rd person (and the official or formal forms of 2nd person) we don't use the substantive verb (van) when the predicate is an adjective: BUT This rule is used in plural 3rd person as well, we'll see an example when learning the plural form of nouns and adjectives in the next lesson.
 * A könyv piros. ("The book is red", "The"=A, "book"=könyv, "red"=piros, "is" omitted)
 * A város szép. ("The town is beautiful", "The"=A, "town"=város, "beautiful"=szép, "is" omitted)
 * Maga fáradt. ("You (formal) are tired.", "You"=Maga, "tired"=fáradt, "are" omitted)
 * Én éhes vagyok. ("I'm hungry.", it's 1st person, so we don't use the rule)

Infinitive
In nearly every Hungarian dictionary verbs are NOT presented in their infinitive form. Instead, they are presented in the third singular present indefinite form, which is usually the most basic form of the verb. To form the infinitive, you normally just add -ni to that basic form. For example> olvas (he-she reads), olvasni (to read). ír (he writes), írni (to write). szeret (he-she loves"), szeretni (to love). There are a handful of exceptions,  but it's a bit too early to care about them.

Articles
"A" and "az" are the definite articles. Remember to pronounce it like aw and not like the English indefinite article "a". A corresponds to the English "the" and before a word beginning with a vowel, A becomes Az. e.g. a könyv but az asztal.

The indefinite article ("a"/"an") is "egy": egy könyv, egy asztal. Note that the numeral for "1" is the same word, so it's easy to confuse them: Ez egy könyv. can mean "This is a book." or "This is one book (and not two).". In speech, you have to emphasize egy when it means "one" for easier understanding.

Examples
Big brother is translated to Hungarian as "nagy testvér" because there's no such a thing in Hungarian as "nagy fiútestvér". And the phrase "nagybáty" is already used for uncle.

Some jokes which cannot be translated to Hungarian:
'''In America you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia party finds you.'''

Doesn't work in Hungarian because:

'''In America you're watching Big Brother. In Soviet Russia Big Brother is watching you. '''

Doesn't work in Hungarian because:

If you got bored from all of this, watch the Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook from Monty Python.

Pronunciation
Using your knowledge on the Hungarian letters, try to pronounce (and memorise) the following Hungarian words, then listen to the audio file to check yourself: erős (strong)  szőlő (grape)   győz (win) csat (buckle)	csík (stripe)	csacsi (donkey) kutya (dog)	latyak (slush)	tyúk (hen) rózsa (rose)	zsúr (party)	zsák (sack) nyár (summer)	kenyér (bread)	nyeremény (prize)

New exercises

 * Recall the meaning of the words in the Vocabulary section.
 * The words are essentially in alphabetical order, but there are two mistakes. Can you spot them?
 * Suffixes (Plural)
 * Suffix the following nouns with the plural morpheme (-k): könyv, föld, kör, sál, kád, lány, ember, ország, város, fogas, híd, narancs, nyeremény, zsák, kenyér, rózsa, kutya, csík, szőlő, tyúk, nyár

(For the solutions see the Exercises section of the next chapter.)

Vocabulary
Alacsony, alma, álmos, asztal, barát, barna, csacsi, csak, csík, csúnya, ember, éhes, erős, fáradt, fehér, fekete, férfi, fiú, fogas, fogás, föld, győz, hát, ház, híd, hit, hosszú, ír, kád, kék, kenyér, kérdez, kerek, kis/kicsi, köd, könyv, kör, kutya, lány, lenni (= inf. of van), lepke, lila, magas, nagy, narancs(színű), négyszögletes, nő, nyár, nyeremény, ország, öröm, piros, rövid, rózsa, rózsaszín, sál, sárga, só, süt ve, szék, szép, szeret, szó, szőlő, szürke, szomjas, tyúk, ülni, város, vastag, vékony, vér, vörös, zöld, zsák

(If you are in trouble, see Vocabulary.)

title: Hungarian/Lesson 3


text:
Hungarian/Lesson 4

Compound nouns
As you might have noticed, the nouns mentioned before are all simple nouns, but there are compound nouns in Hungarian as well that can be as long as the compound words used in German. The resemblance is not a coincidence, Hungarian neologists of the early 19th century loan translated lots of German compound nouns. One of these is anyanyelv=anya ("mother")+nyelv ("language") which means "native language" ("Muttersprache" in German).

We can group the compound nouns based on the relation between the constituents:

Verbs and conjugations
In Hungarian there are only three tenses: past,present and future. In this section we will cover only the present tense.

Infinitive forms end in "-ni". However in the dictionaries verbs are in present indefinite singular 3rd person form.

"eszik" is an "ikes ige" (literally verb that ends in "ik", but this is actually a distinct grammatical category of verbs; there are also fake "ikes ige"; there aren't many of them, you just should treat them as irregular verbs; I don't suggest learning the suffixes alone)

Nearly every verb has an indefinite form, where the object (the item receiving the verb's action) of the verb is indefinite or where there is no object. (This is advanced stuff, you don't really need it at the beginner level, and using the indefinite conjugation instead of the definite or vice versa isn't a source of misunderstanding.) For an English example: I like fish. "I" is the subject, and "fish" is the object. Here we would use the indefinite Hungarian form of the verb, because the object is indefinite (you are saying you like fish in general, not any specific fish-- not for example the fish you are eating right now.) The verb "to go" cannot take an object (it is intransitive), so in Hungarian we always use the indefinite form.

Some verbs have definite and indefinite forms as well. Definite forms are always used with a definite object. In the phrase I like this fish, the verb acts on a definite object (this fish, not just a fish, not just fish in general), so we would use the Hungarian definite form. With the verbs that can use both forms, one must consider the object when conjugating.   Eszik has both definite and indefinite forms. The difference is not apparent in 1st singular, where both endings are -m.

Finally, note that the object of a verb needs to reflect that it is the object. The suffix -t is used to show that the words is in the accusative case. In the above examples, joghurt is the "dictionary" form of the word, but in the phrases is it an object (the yoghurt is being eaten), so it must have a -t suffix. The link vowel o in joghurtot is for vowel harmony.

Kis/kicsi, két/kettő
Hungarian has two words for small and two:

Kis, kicsi - small Két/kettő - two.

Kis usually comes before a noun and kicsi elsewhere, however this is a loose rule, but in compound words, only kis appears (for example, kisgyerek - toddler).

Két/kettő. Again, you should use két before something (e.g. két dollár), but you have to note something. Kettő is more formal, but you can use két in daily speech. The problem with két is only that it sounds similar to hét (seven). So, it is better to use kettő when talking about money!

Yes-no questions
Yes-no questions are formed exactly like normal statements in declarative mode (you may call them declarative questions), but -- and this is crucial-- they have a different intonation. Pitch starts lower and rises towards the end, ending with a sharp drop in tone on the final syllable.

In the above example, the stress is on Józsi. Joe went. Was it Joe (or someone else) who went? However, if I am not wondering about who, but instead want to know whether he went or not, I will ask: Elment Józsi a boltba?

Active/passive voice
In Hungarian passive voice isn't used except for a few simple cases. In complex sentences the usage of passive voice sounds strange, Hunglish. (Instead, the usual equivalent of an English passive is for the verb to be in 3rd person plural and for the subject to be an impersonal "they": Thomas was killed --> They killed Thomas =   Megölték Tamást. / Tamást megölték.

*: These are examples of the few exceptional cases when passive is used. These are made up with the auxiliary verb "van" + "-va/-ve" for the main verb.

1: In this case past tense is used in Hungarian.

Examples (not strictly relating to the grammar in this lesson)
(from the lyrics of a popular rock song (Kölyköd voltam, Edda művek) This example shows complex examples using all the grammar in the four previous lesson. (Conjugation, genitive (possessive "pronoun"), affixes)

Notice: Kölyök is considered a bit vulgar. It is mostly used when referring to animals.

Notice: várjatok is plural imperative form.

Guessing
Scooter is called roller in Hungarian.

The left one is nagyi the right one is nagy i. Capital i is called nagy i. (Notice the space/break.)

abc order
Éhes should be before Ember (long and short vowels are treated together)

Rövid should be after Rózsaszín (vowels with umlauts are considered separate letters)

Suffixes: könyvek, földek, körök (note the difference), sálak, kádak, lányok (note the difference), emberek, országok, városok, fogasok, hidak (irregular, í becomes i), narancsok, nyeremények, zsákok, kenyerek (irregular, é becomes e), rózsák, kutyák, csíkok (note that while the word is a front word, the suffix is a back suffix; the same with sípok ("fifes"), but szírek ("Syrians")), szőlők, tyúkok, nyarak (irregular, á becomes a)

Pronunciation
Using your knowledge on the Hungarian letters, try to pronounce (and memorise) the following Hungarian words, then listen to the audio file to check yourself:

New exercises
(TODO)

Vocabulary
(TODO)

title: Hungarian/Lesson 4


text: Category:Book:Apache Ant

title: Category:Book:Apache Ant


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Video Production/Basic Vdub DvAvi

How to Create a dvavi file [for use in a video editing program] from a DVD. You will need to install * Virtual dub mod - http://sourceforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=65889 download it - it has an installer for windows. * Ac3 Codec - http://www.softpedia.com/get/Multimedia/Video/Codec-Packs-Video-Codecs/AC3-ACM-Decompressor.shtml download it - Uncompress the files from ac3acm.zip archive, right-click on         the ac3acm.INF file and select Install. - You may encounter a prompt saying: "The software you are installing for this hardware... has not passed Windows Logo testing..."; click on the Continue Anyway button. * Panasonic DV codec -  http://www.free-codecs.com/download/Panasonic_DV_Codec.htm download it - Uncompress the files from pdvcodec.zip archive, right-click on the PANADV.INF file and select Install. - You may encounter a prompt saying: "The software you are installing for this hardware... has not passed Windows Logo testing..."; click on the Continue Anyway button. - You should now be able to load DV-AVI Type-2 files with VirtualDub (and        any other program that loads AVI files).

How to do it! Some information: DVD's have their video data on the disk in the format of *.VOB files. A film is often split into several VOB files. If you want these can be played in your media player if you open them up on at a time. It is good to do this to find out which VOB file the particular bit of        footage you want is in. If you want to do this with a bit of footage that is encrypted or spans more than one VOB you will need to use Gordian Knot to do this, http://sourceforge.net/projects/gordianknot Video Open up Virual Dub Mod. File > Open File Choose the *.VOB file that contains the bit of footage you want. You can scan through the file with the Play head like in a video editing program[1]. And you can set the in and out points as well. with buttons [2].      Now we are going to set the Video settings. In the Video Menu choose Compression. Video > Compression. Choose from the list Panasonic DV avi. Click ok      Audio Now we deal with the Audio. This is a "Stream" so we go to          the Stream menu and select Stream list. If your source video file has audio it should be listed as a grey bar with information as seen below. [if you are using Gordian Knot to do          this process from a DVD you will need to click ADD and browse for the *.wav file created in that process] Right hand Click on this bar and select "Full Processing mode".

Then Right hand click again and Select "Compression". If Conversion is greyed out it's because you haven't selected full processing mode. Choose the top option - No compression PCM. Then click ok. Now you are ready to save your DV avi file. File > Save as      Give your file a name choose where to save it and click ok. You should be able to import that file into premiere or other video editing programs.

title: Video Production/Basic Vdub DvAvi


text: Category:Book:Common Lisp

title: Category:Book:Common Lisp


text: Category:Subject:D programming language

title: Category:Subject:D programming language


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Video Production/Making subtitles in subtitle workshop

Creating subtitle Files in subtitle workshop Firstly you need your file to be encoded. This may be          a Xvid file or an Mpeg1. Then download Subtitle workshop and install it. Loading a video file To load a video file simply click the "Movie/Open" menu or press the [Ctrl]+[P] keys, or drag and drop an existing subtitle if in the same folder as the video file. If you get the "File is not a valid video file" error message, make sure you have the right codecs installed. If you don't, download Coda Codec Pack, it should fix most of the playback problems. Create a new file Using Subtitle Workshop you can easily create new files from scratch, and then save them in any format. To do so, click the "File/New subtitle..." menu or press [Ctrl]+[N] keys. Once you have done this, you can start adding subtitles, and then save the file by the "File/Save" menu or pressing [Ctrl]+[S] keys. When you get the miriad of options, I recommend SubRip format which creates an *.srt file. Give your file a relevant name. Remember that if you want subtitles to come up automatically in some players you should name it          the same name as the Video file in the same directory. So if the Video file is here c:/geekvids/freesoftwaresong.avi Then save your subtitle file here c:/geekvids/freesoftwaresong.srt Creating the Individual Titles You just need to press the Insert key or click the "Edit/Insert subtitle" menu. The subtitle will always be added right after the focused item. The default duration of the new subtitle is one second, and the start time of it is always going to be the final time of the previous one plus 1 millisecond. If you are adding the subtitle in a          blank list, the initial time of it will be zero. If you want to insert a subtitle before the selected item, press [Shift]+[Insert] keys or the "Edit/Insert before" menu. Create each subtitle line This can be done by playing and pausing the Video by clicking the play/pause button (and then pressing the [Ins] key) [1]        And setting the In and Out points for the Video [2] Adding the Text in the Text Box [3] Afterwards if needed you can Manually edit a subtitle Every subtitle is composed by three parts: a. The initial time - the time in which the subtitle is shown. b. The final time - the time in which the subtitle is hidden. c. The text - the subtitle itself. [3]        Subtitle Workshop lets you easily edit any of these fields. To edit the initial time just click the "Show" field, set the time (or frames) you wish and press [Enter]. To edit the final time click the "Hide" field, set the time (or frames) you wish and press [Enter]. Note that you can also edit the final time of a subtitle by changing the "Duration" field. Additionally, you can edit any of this time values using the Up-Down buttons at the right side of each text box. To edit the text, simply click the "Text" box and write the desired text. In the list of subtitles, the character "|" (pipe) represents new line. When you are finished - Export the file

File Save > SubRip.


text:
Video Production/Creating subtitle files from DVDs

Ripping subtitle files from DVDs for re-use - and Burning subs to Xvid Files from External files This is a bit geeky so the documentation is a bit brief. But I learnt how to do it so I may as well document it. It may be useful for someone. Creating subtitles as an external file from dvd You can rip the video and subtitle information separately from a            dvd and then create subtitle files in different languages which can be played over the top of the player using clever players like Video Lan or Media Player Classic. To do this you need to convert the sub files you can rip from the DVD information here Software - install a package with lots of tools for riping dvds called Gordian Knot - http://gordianknot.sourceforge.net/ This has a programme attached to it called Vob Sub Rip IFO files can be opened from the DVD with this tool - Know which segment of the DVD you want to encode. Do this by previewing the VOB files that are on the DVD. There will be a screen listing languages. The default is to            choose all of them. This seems fine stick with this. It will then strip the information of subtitles from the DVD and save it as an .idx file and a .sub files - and then you can either encode that to an external file or burn the subtitles directly into a file using Virtual Dub Actually .sub files are not text files... they are in graphic format....            They also come with an index file .idx TO convert an .sub file into an .srt you need to install a program called vobsub onto your virtual pc.... and use a program contained in that package called vobresync Open the programme - Open the *.sub file and then Save As and choose *.srt It works like a scanner ocr program... in which it attempts to identify the letters from the sub graphic text. Whatever it doesn't recognize it will prompt you to enter ... the more it does .. the more it learns...          You can also create your own subtitle files with Subtitle Workshop - Creating subtitles burned into the xvid - using virtual dub

Open Virtual Dub Mod and open the relevant VOB file that corresponds with ifo file. Add a filter Vob Sub - and choose the .sub file that you have just created, there is a choice of languages - choose the relevant one. You can then encode the file normally [see other files for how to            encode to divx or dv avi] With an Srt file you can Add Filter > Subtitler and choose the styles options there.