text:
Automobile Repair/Diagnostics

Diagnostic skills are not taught in automotive schools or books as much as in the past, for several reasons. First, it is often more efficient for a mechanic to remove and replace a part than to try to repair that part. Second, the parts themselves are not made to be repaired as much as in the past. Granted, the time it would take to repair a transmission may be far more than it would be to replace the transmission, so it may be a more efficient system overall. However, the modern way does have its disadvantages--one of them being less ability to diagnose. In one possible example, a customer charged $3000 to replace the transmission in a pickup truck when the problem was a bad spark plug. The plug was not firing properly so the engine computer would downshift looking for more power and would then be told to upshift again because the RPMs were too high. Knowing how to really track down the problem can save you a lot of money.

There are several approaches to diagnosing a problem: 1) using a repair manual 2) relying on your own analysis 3) using the experiences of others with the same problem. I suggest grabbing a repair manual until you know more. As you repair with the guidance of a manual, you will develop an 'intuition' that will guide you to problems.  This process won't happen on its own, however--you have to be hungry for it.

The first step in any diagnosis is to gather information. Use your senses and ask questions: when does the car make that noise? What does it sound like? How does it feel? Where is the sound coming from? Does it happen at all speeds? Does the car do anything at all?

The second step in diagnosis is to grab a manual armed with that information and look for the troubleshooting charts. I believe that factory manuals have great information, but are not as novice-friendly as the manuals from the auto parts stores. For my own vehicles, I try to get the factory manual (for the most authoritative information) as well as the Haynes (or similar) manual. If you only get one, maybe just the Haynes.

Please note that advanced mechanics will often not need this step, as the problems will be obvious to them. After doing enough repairs, the different systems fit together and do not seem foreign, separate, confusing, or threatening.

=Holden / Opel / Vauxhall Astra=

Symtoms diagnostics and repairs for common faults of the Astra Mk3 C14NZ engine. Refer to a Haynes Manual for details concerning the actual repair.

Astra Engine temperature erratic usually low
This is usually caused by the thermostat stuck open. Either luckily or by design thermostats usually fail safe - open. On a C14NZ the thermostat is behind the camshaft belt casing and requires the camshaft belt and pulleys to be removed so it cannot be easily tested. New thermostats are remarkably cheap from generic parts supplier, and can be fitted in the upper radiator hose as an alternative to their proper placement. Haynes does not describe this procedure. Remember to fit the thermostat the correct way around,, that is with the longer piece facing the engine.

Astra Engine temperature high, electric fan not running
First, check the fuse. Fuse #11.

Second, test the Cooling fan thermostatic switch. Removing this will let all the coolant out, observe safety precautions described in the Haynes manual - cool engine and catch coolant. The switch often fails open circuit, use a continuity tester to check if switch closes when heated in a pan of water just before boiling point.

Third, check that 12 Volts is being supplied to the fan motor, if not, broken wires can be the cause.

Last, prepare to replace the fan assembly, remove it and check it before buying a new one.

Astra Engine misfires at low revs
Symptoms such as misfires and stalls until engine is running over 3000 RPM. The engine still runs rough over 3000 RPM. First, check the spark plugs for excessively large gaps, eroded electrode or dirt. Replace if necessary. Otherwise, on the C14NZ engine this is often caused by oil in the distributor cap. The distributor is mounted horizontally on the end of the camshaft and the oil seal allows small amounts of oil into the distributor that then causes short circuits. This can be cured during the early stages by wiping the inside of the distributor cap with a clean rag. Later stages of deterioration burn carbon tracks in the cap and these can be cleaned off, but a new cap is required. If a lot of oil leaks into the distributor the whole unit has to be replaced, it is not possible to buy component parts of the distributor.

Astra Engine falters or stalls
The C14NZ engine may run for long periods and then it falters and perhaps stalls. In many cases it will restart and run normally for a while. This fault is infuriating if the period between failures is weeks since you can never be sure that the problem is fixed and it can be caused by numerous faults. First check the failure mode, if the rev counter drops to zero before the engine stops it is most likely to be the Engine Control Unit or the crankshaft position sensor. The C14NZ ECU is pretty robust and the CPS is more lightly to fail. Surprisingly the CPS can be intermittent, but it will eventually fail completely. It is simple to change, but cannot be bought as an individual component. If the rev counter continues to reflect the engine speed the problem is in the High Tension circuit, most likely the plug leads.

Astra Engine idles erratically
The C14NZ engine should run at 600 RPM at idle, if it hunts, increases in speed and then may cut out completely, first check the air filter is in good condition. Otherwise, the most likely fault is the hose pipe between the Multec CFI single port injection system and the MAP (Manifold Absolute Pressure) sensor. Check the pipe has not come loose or been damaged.

Astra Engine misfires under full throttle
Engine runs normally under light load but misfires at full throttle. Firstly check the condition of the spark plugs. Then look for signs of a rich mixture, check fuel consumption. An over-rich mixture can be due to a broken Coolant Temperature Sensor or wiring. The sensor operates the dashboard temperature gauge, check readings are sensible. A broken sensor failure is the equivalent of running with the choke on. The ECU thinks the engine is cold. The sensor connector is exposed and rather insecure. The sensor should read about 1600 Ohms at room temperature. See Haynes manual for replacement procedure.

Astra 5 speed manual gearbox, cannot select 2nd gear
Usually caused by a worn gear linkage. Inside the engine compartment, the top side to side link is made of plastic and seems to be the "weak link". With an assistant in the car, have them try to select 2nd gear, if there is side to side play replace the link. This is not described in the Haynes Manual - details follow.

=Jeep Cherokee XJ / Grand Cherokee=

Cherokee Diagnostic Trouble Code 11
DTC 11 on the 4.0L Inline 6 MPI "Power Tech HO" (High Output) engine indicates a fault with the CPS (Crankshaft Position Sensor). The Haynes manual describes the electrical checks to diagnose a faulty unit before purchasing and fitting a replacement.

The CPS on the 4.0 Liter automatic uses one 11mm (*) bolt, the manual uses two. Access is possible from the underside of the engine. The sensor is mounted on the back of the clutch bell housing with little clearance between it and the bulkhead. It can be felt but not seen from underneath the vehicle, and seen but not accessed from the top of the engine. Use a socket with an omni directional extension and a couple of straight extensions so that the ratchet is free of the bodywork. The torque setting is fairly low, and once the socket is in place removal does not require much effort. Replacing the sensor is more difficult, the bolt must be started in its thread by hand and there is barely enough room to use your thumb. Use the socket and extensions to tighten to the correct torque setting.

(* on a Feb 97 UK spec manual the bolt heads mike up at 10.7mm across flats so there's a bit of slack. If not corroded in they come out easily enough using an 11mm socket, as did the one I measured. I don't know whether there is a special tool in exactly the right size to prevent rounding off the hex, but I still have one that's seized in to sort... TS)

Cherokee Coolant leaks underneath the manifolds
The 4.0L Inline 6 MPI "Power Tech HO" engine may develop coolant leaks when the engine core plugs become corroded. Corrosion is often caused by running the engine without anti-freeze or corrosion inhibitors in the cooling system.

Access to the front core plug is possible without removing the manifold. Remove the core plug by locating the weaker corroded part and puncturing it with a center punch or a screwdriver. The core plug is made of fairly soft material, but be very careful not to push the plug into the engine block, if this happens the manifold will have to be removed to recover it. Once the core plug is pierced with the screwdriver lever it out until an edge is exposed and then use a Mole grip to remove it.

Refit using a socket that fits the new core plug loosely, 32 mm or similar. Ensure that the core plug is square on the engine block, add sufficient socket extension bars so that they are free of the manifold and the push it using a large piece of wood as a lever. Once the core plug is engaged feel it to check that it is square, if so drive it in with a shorter extension and a hammer (be sure to use a solid steel hammer, not a sand filled or lead "dead blow" type, as the impact of these hammer types is not sufficient to drive in the frost plug), if not use use a smaller socket to drive one side rather than the other to square it up. Stop when the core plug flange is flush with the engine block. Refill the cooling system with rust inhibitor and anti-freeze.

Frost plug sizes are 2", except certain 1987 Renix models which have both 2" as well as 1" frost plugs.

title: Automobile Repair/Diagnostics


text: Template:User cricketer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:User cricketer


text:
User talk:Kabir~enwikibooks

Why do you add nonexisting books to computer software bookshelf? --Derbeth talk 18:34, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kabir. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kabir~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:18, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:06, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kabir~enwikibooks


text:
User:Mathieu Bonnet

My status
As of 2006-11-06, I consider myself as retired from the Wikimedia project. I most probably won't participate anymore, and won't follow any update of my user and discussion page.

Some informations about me and my contributions

 * I'm French, and speak French, English, and a bit of Japanese.
 * I "give up" any "right" I might have been "given", on "my" contributions.

title: User:Mathieu Bonnet


text:
User talk:Mathieu Bonnet

Bar.

title: User talk:Mathieu Bonnet


text:
User talk:Ckrock

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 18:40, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ckrock


text:
Middle School Science/Introduction

About This Book
This book is intended to be a complete replacement for science books in middle school (ages 12-15). Each section should be set up as a module that can be used independently of other modules. Although there are many other informational textbooks, many are very complex and not suited for middle school students. Many of the textbooks that are online lack resources for teachers. The purpose of this Wikibook is to provide teachers quiz and test questions, worksheets, and labs or activities to use in the classroom.

Basic Module Format
The modules for each section should follow this basic format

 * Concept: This is the basic idea of what this section is about. Each page should have a short concept that consists of clear, easy-to-understand sentences.

 * Examples: To keep the concepts as clear as possible, put all examples explaining that concept into this section. This section is intended to be added to and exapanded the most.

 * Optional module sections:
 * History: A brief history of the concept, such as how it was discovered, or how it was developed.
 * Review Questions: Include questions that would be good for a test or quiz
 * Activities/Labs: Include activities that can that might help students understand this concept.

title: Middle School Science/Introduction


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6

Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence
As White, you still have designs on playing f4, but Black with their knight sortie has challenged your control of d5. Should you fight back, or ignore this distraction?

 * /3. f4/: White has had enough of Black's e-pawn, and feels an open f-file would be useful in their later attack.

 * /3. Bc4/: White again restrains themselves from the committal f4 and places another piece where it controls d5. With a little co-operation from Black, White may now head towards one of the most terrifying opening positions yet discovered...

Less critical alternatives are:

 * /3. a3/: the Mengarini Variation, preventing Bb4, but this bishop has at least one other good square.

 * /3. d3/: Having challenged Black to some old-fashioned fisticuffs, White sadistically transposes to a solid King's Indian Attack.

Theory table
.

'''1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6'''


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/GNU C Compiler Architecture

An Overview of GCC Architecture
This section is based on a Red Hat magazine article.

GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) comprises a number of compilers for different programming languages. The main GCC executable gcc processes source files written in C, C++, Objective-C, Objective-C++, Java, Fortran, or Ada and produces an assembly file for each source file. It is a driver program that invokes the appropriate compilation programs depending on the language of the source file. For a C source file they are the preprocessor and compiler cc1, the assembler as, and the linker collect2. The first and the third programs come with a GCC distribution, the assembler is a part of the GNU binutils package. This book describes the internals of the preprocessor and compiler cc1.

Each compiler includes the following three components: a front end, a middle end, and a back end. GCC compiles one file at a time. A source file goes through all three components one after another. Figure 1 illustrates the components and the source file representations associated with each component.

The purpose of the front end is to read the source file, parse it, and convert it into the standard abstract syntax tree (AST) representation. There is one front end for each programming language. Because of the differences in languages, the format of the generated ASTs is slightly different for each language. The next step after AST generation is the unification step in which the AST tree is converted into a unified form called generic. After this, the middle end part of the compiler takes control. First, the tree is converted into another representation called GIMPLE. In this form, each expression contains no more than three operands, all control flow constructs are represented as combinations of conditional statements and goto operators, arguments of a function call can only be variables, etc. Figure 2 illustrates the differences between a tree in generic form and a tree in GIMPLE form. GIMPLE is a convenient representation for optimizing the source code.

After GIMPLE, the source code is converted into the static single assignment (SSA) representation. The central idea of this form is the fact that each variable is assigned to only once, but can be used at the right hand side of an expression many times. Every time the same variable of a tree in the GIMPLE form is reassigned, the compiler creates a new version of that variable and stores the new value into it. When the same variable is assigned to in both branches of a conditional expression, one needs to merge the two possible values of the variable into a single variable. This operation is denoted as PHI function in the SSA form.

The SSA form is also used for optimizations. GCC performs more than 20 different optimizations on SSA trees. After the SSA optimization pass, the tree is converted back to the GIMPLE form which is then used to generate a register-transfer language (RTL) form of a tree. RTL is a hardware-based representation that corresponds to an abstract target architecture with an infinite number of registers. An RTL optimization pass optimizes the tree in the RTL form. Finally, a GCC back-end generates the assembly code for the target architecture using the RTL representation. Examples of back-ends are x86 back end, mips back end, etc.

In the next sections we describe the internals of the C front end and the x86 back end. The compiler starts with its initialization and command line options processing. After that the C front end preprocesses the source file, parses it and performs a number of optimizations. The back end then generates the assembly code for the target platform and saves it to a file.

GCC Initialization
The C front end includes the C/C++ preprocessor and the C compiler. Program cc1 includes both the preprocessor and C compiler. It compiles a C source file and generates an assembly (.S) file.

The compiler frontend and backend interact with each other using callback functions called language hooks. All hooks are included into a global variable struct lang_hooks lang_hooks that is defined in file langhooks.h. There are the following types of hooks: hooks for tree inlining, hooks for call graph, hooks for functions, hooks for tree dump, hooks for types, hooks for declarations, and language-specific hooks. The default values for the hooks are defined in file langhooks-def.h.

GCC initialization consists of command line option parsing, initializing the back end, creating the global scope, and initializing the built-in data types and functions.

Each declaration is associated with a scope. For example, a local variable is associated with its function's scope. A global declaration is associated with the global scope.

Function is the function that processes the command-line options, initializes the compiler, compiles a file, and frees up the allocated resources. Function processes the command-line options and sets the corresponding variables within the compiler.

Following the command line option parsing function is called. It performs the back-end initialization by calling function. After that, function performs language-dependent initialization which includes the initialization of a front-end and a back-end. The C initialization function creates built-in data types, initializes the global scope and performs other initialization tasks. Function creates pre-defined types described in file builtin-types.def.

The standard C types are created at the initialization time. The following table presents several types:

GCC built-in functions are the functions that are evaluated at compile time. For example, if the size argument of a strcpy function is a constant then GCC replaces the function call with the required number of assignments. The compiler replaces standard library calls with built-in functions and then evaluates them once the function's AST is constructed. In case of strcpy, the compiler checks the size argument and uses the optimized built-in version of strcpy if the argument is constant. Builtin allows to find out if the value of its argument is known at compile time. GCC builtins are used beyond GCC. For example, the string processing library of Linux kernel uses builtin_constant_p to invoke the optimized version of a string processing function if the string size is known at compile time.

GCC evaluates each builtin function using a corresponding expand_builtin function. For example, builtin_strcmp is evaluated using. The following table gives examples of GCC builtins:

C Preprocessor
Following the initialization, function calls function. This function invokes parse_file front-end language hook which is set to function for C language. The latter function invokes function which initializes the preprocessor and handles -D, -U, and -A command line options (which are equivalent to #define, #undef, and #assert respectively). The C preprocessor handles the preprocessor directives such as #define, #include in the source code.

Following the preprocessor initialization, function is invoked. This function uses the standard lex/bison tools to parse the file. The preprocessor is implemented as a part of the lexer. The C language lexer function calls the libcpp function  which handles the preprocessor keywords. The state of the preprocessor is defined by variable. Type contains most importantly the list of text buffers being processed. Each buffer corresponds to a source file (.c or .h). Function calls appropriate functions for legitimate preprocessor keywords. For example, when #include is encountered, function is invoked. It allocates a new buffer and places it on top of the buffer stack making it the current buffer. When a new file is compiled the buffer is popped off the stack and the compilation of the old file continues.

Function is called whenever a new macro is defined using #define keyword.

Source Code Parsing
After running the preprocessor GCC constructs an abstract syntax tree (AST) for each function of the source file. An AST is a number of connected nodes of type. Each node has a tree code that defines the type of the tree. Macro is used to refer to the code. Tree codes are defined in files and. Trees with different tree codes are grouped into tree classes. The following tree classes are defined among others in GCC:

There are two types of trees: statements and expressions. Statements correspond to the C constructs, for example an expression followed by a ';', a conditional statement, a loop statement, etc. Expressions are what the statements are build up from. Examples of expressions are an assignment expression, an arithmetic expression, a function call, etc. Examples of tree codes are given in the following table:

In addition to the tree code that defines the type of the tree, a number of operands different for each tree type are available. For example, an assignment expression has two operands which correspond to the left and right sides of the expression. Macro is used to refer to the operands. Macro is used to find the name of an identifier that an  tree represents. The following table presents several tree nodes, their purpose, and their operands.

Each tree has a type that corresponds to the type of C expression that it represents For example, the type of the node is the type of the left-hand side operand. and trees are used for type casting.

Tree NULL_TREE is equivalent to NULL. Function prints out the tree to stderr.

The parser is implemented as a bison grammar. The grammar invokes the GCC functions that construct the AST. When a new identifier is lexed, it is added to the pool of strings that GCC maintains. The tree code of an identifier is. When the same identifier is lexed again, the same tree node is returned. Function returns the tree node for an identifier.

A new variable declaration is processed in a number of function calls. First, function is called with the name of the declaration, its type as returned by the lexer, and its attributes. The function calls that checks the type and argument nodes and returns a tree with the code appropriate for the declaration:  for variables,  for types, etc. The declarartion is then added to the scope. A scope contains all declarations created within a function, but does not contain global declarations. There is also the global scope that contains global declarations. When a function is parsed, its declarations are attached to its body as a node. When a declaration is created, the identifier node is associated with the declaration node using. Function returns the declaration for a given identifier. When a declaration leaves the scope the tree attributes is asserted.

A symbol table is not maintained in GCC. Instead, the compiler uses the pool of identifiers and attribute. Language hook lang_hooks.decls.getdecls returns the variables in the scope chained together.

Functions and  are called for an initialized declaration. Function finalizes the declaration. For an array declaration it computes the size of an initialized array. Then function is called. It computes the size and alignment of the declaration.

Parsing a function depends on the presence of its body. A function declaration is parsed using the same functions as those used for variable declarations. For a function definition, function is called. Then the compiler parses the body of the function. When the function ends function is called.

Functions and  take declaration's attributes parameter as one of their arguments. The attributes are described in the GCC Manual. Attributes are extensions of GNU implementation of C. The following table presents a few of them and explains their purpose:

For each type of C statements there is a function that constructs a tree node of the corresponding type. For example, function builds a CALL_EXPR node for a function call. It takes the identifier of the function name and the arguments as its parameters. The function finds the function declaration using and type casts the arguments using.

The ASTs are then converted into the SSA and eventually to the RTL representations. Whether the conversion occurs after parsing each function or when the whole file is parsed is controlled by the compiler option -funit-at-a-time. It is false by default.

Assembly Code Generation
The backend generates the assembly code for the specified target platform. Function is called for each instruction written to the assembly file. Function generates the prolog of the function before it is saved to the assembly file.

 * 1) https://web.archive.org/web/20160410185222/https://www.redhat.com/magazine/002dec04/features/gcc/


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GEM Framework 3 4


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/Creating a Compiler Extension 3 4

In this section we describe the creation of a new compiler extension step-by-step. First, one needs to download the GCC and patch it with the GEM patch. After that one can start writing the compiler extension. When the extension is ready one can compile other programs using the GEM-patched version of GCC and the new compiler extension.

Installation
Download GEM framework from here. Unpack it and type make all. This will download a copy of GCC, patch it with GCC patch, compile and install GCC, and build examples.

The C function overloading example allows one to overload functions in C just like in C++:

/* one function */ void test(int a, int b) { printf("%d %d\n", a, b); }  /* overloaded function */ void test(char *a, int b) { printf("%s %d\n", a, b); }  void main { test(1,2); test("abc", 1); }

Let us consider the CFO example in more detail.

C function overloading
The source code of the extension is located in ./examples/cfo/cfo.c file. The following hooks are implemented:

gem_start_decl gem_start_function gem_build_function_call

The idea of the implementation is to modify the name of each function declared more than once. The names of these functions are modifier to include the type information of the arguments. For example, function test(int, int) is renamed into test_i_i(int, int). The renaming takes place in function cfo_alias_decl.

Functions cfo_start_decl and gem_start_function call this function. It looks up the name of the function being declared and returns immediately if the name is not found:

cfo_find_symtab(&t_func, func_name); if (t_func==NULL_TREE || DECL_BUILT_IN(t_func)) { return; }

Therefore, the names of non-overloaded functions are not changed. This maintains the compatibility with the unmodified compiler.

If the function with this name was declared previously then the extension checks if an alias with the arguments type information was created:

strcpy(new_name, func_name); strcat(new_name, cfo_build_name(TREE_PURPOSE(T_O(declarator, 1)))); cfo_find_symtab(&t_func_alias, name);

Function cfo_build_name builds the name of the function arguments. An alias is created if it was not created before.

t_alias_attr=tree_cons(get_identifier("alias"),                          tree_cons(NULL_TREE, get_identifier(name), NULL_TREE), NULL_TREE); TYPE_ATTRIBUTES(T_T(t_func)) = t_alias_attr; DECL_ATTRIBUTES(t_func)=t_alias_attr;

Finally, the new declaration is renamed so that it includes the type information of the arguments:

T_O(declarator,0) = get_identifier(new_name);

Function cfo_build_function_call builds the name of the function that includes the argument type information and looks it up in the symbol table. If the name is found then the function name is replace in the function call. If the name is not found then the function was not overloaded and the name of the function being called is not changed. Build the new name:

name = cfo_build_decl_name(t_func, t_parm);

Check if this identifier was parsed previously:

t_new_func = get_identifier(name);

If it was then get the declaration:

if (t_new_func) { t_new_func = lookup_name(t_new_func); }

If the declaration is found then replace the function:

*func = t_new_func;


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4

=Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence=

White has nailed down Black's d-pawn by controlling d5 with three pieces. This prevents Black from breaking open the centre, or does it? The late Alexander Alekhine, world champion in the 1930s, recommends:

 * /3...Nxe4/!

This is the fork trick common to several openings. After 3...Nxe4 Black has eliminated two of the attackers of d5 with one stroke, and will proceed to regain the piece by 4...d5, grabbing a large chunk of the centre as he does so. For now, Black is a pawn up, but White may just have something else up his sleeve too...

Black can also choose to forget about d5 for the time being:

 * /3...Nc6/ transposes back to the Max Lange Defence.

 * /3...d6/ is a timid move. It attempts to maintain a pawn at e5 after White plays f4, but it happens to give White the run of the board in the process.

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks

Function overloading as in C++
This example was presented previously.

Invoke a block of code from a function as in Ruby
Linux implementation of lists allows to invoke a block of code on each element of the list:

pagelist.c:

list_for_each_prev(pos, head) { struct nfs_page *p = nfs_list_entry(pos); if (page_index(p->wb_page) < pg_idx) break; }

list_for_each_prev takes the code in the brackets as a parameter. The trick is to use a macro that rolls out to a for loop whose body becomes the code in the brackets. The goal of this project is to allow programmers to use code blocks in function calls.

Dereference function results when a structure is returned
C allows one to dereference the return value of a function if it is a pointer to a structure:

get_struct->field=0;

If the function returns the structure, not a pointer to it, then a compile-time error is generated:

get_struct.field=0; > request for member `field' in something not a structure or union

This extension addresses the problem of dereferencing structures that are return values.

Use functions to initialize a variable
When a variable is defined and initialized the initializers is constant. You will get an error if you try to use a function, no matter what this function is:

int getint { return 1; } int i=getint; > initializer element is not constant

When a variable is used the function it was initialized with is called.

Default values of function arguments as in C++
void func(int a=0) { printf("a=%d\n", a); } int main { func; } > syntax error before '=' token

Reference parameters as in C++
void test(int &a, int &b); int x,y; test(x,y);

Return address protection (RAD)
Rad

Repair of control-hijacking attacks (DIRA)
Dira

Array bounds checking using segmentation hardware (CASH)
Cash

Detecting interger overflows (DIVINE)
Divine

Develop in userland, install in kernel (DUSK)
Dusk

Dynamic Information Flow Tracking (GDIF)
Gdif

GCC switches in object file
GCC switches in object file

The -fstack-protector feature
GCC 4.1 implements a protection mechanism against buffer overflow attacks and exposes it to a programmer with a -fstack-protector option. This is an example of functionality that benefits from modular implementation because it has nothing to do with core functionality of the compiler. Does GCC have enough hooks to implement -fstack-protector module?

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks


text:
Authoring Webpages/HTML, XHTML and DOCTYPEs

The current version of HTML is HTML5. Since modern browsers have been supporting HTML5 for several years now (as of 2016), you'll probably want to use that one.

Versions of HTML prior to 4.0 are obsolete. Web pages in these versions should be withdrawn or converted to a variant of HTML version 4.01 or HTML5. No new page should be created using a version prior to HTML 4.01. You shouldn't be using any variant of XHTML, since it has largely been abandoned in favor of HTML5.

Internet Explorer version 8.0 and earlier (about 6% of web surfers were using Internet Explorer version 8.0 or lower in December 2014) does not support HTML5.

Validation
Regardless of the version of HTML you choose to use, it is important that you regularly validate your pages to ensure they conform to your chosen specification. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) has an online validator at https://validator.w3.org/. You can either upload or HTML file or copy and paste it into the validator.

HTML5 Doctype
The Doctype for HTML5 is

All HTML5 documents must start with this line. Note that while this looks like a tag, it has special rules. It does not have a closing tag, nor is it self-closing.

Previous: Adapting a webpage for visual browsers - Up: Table of Contents - Next: Collecting pages in a website


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/Links

 * 1) GCC website
 * 2) http://www.gccsummit.org
 * 3) http://www.ecsl.cs.sunysb.edu/gem

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/Links


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/Contributors

AlexeySmirnov - Kernigh - 68.111.13.24 - Ness - 210.214.81.233 Muzammil A. Sayid - 213.249.248.114 - 67.163.203.159 - 195.150.224.236 - 199.254.212.44 - 193.48.171.245 - 193.22.32.200 - 80.71.243.242

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/Contributors


text:
User talk:88.107.140.12

Welcome to Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibooks and create an account. We hope you enjoy your time here on Wikibooks as a Wikibookian!--Derbeth talk 19:30, 25 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:88.107.140.12


text:
Talk:Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 4

Not Finalized
Findings: ευρεσις
 * The transition from Latin to Old English is a natural, thus the transition of Iesous from Greek to Latin to O.E. to English reaches an interesting juncture in Chapter 4. Jesus had foreign relations. Modernity opts (v. 7) for universal language at that point. The Coptic only starts in Chapter 2, first viable sacred name is a preview in 3: 10, unavoidably (the abbreviation IHC represents the unpronounceable name of God already) this shows a mixture of Greek and English translation, an awkward moment, but one of the earliest examples of superlineation and an Aramism of redundant verbage, all in three words, altogether fascinating. Latin makes it easier, Codex D starts at John 3: 16, first viable sacred name John 4: 1. The last leaves or pages in both codices are missing bringing the Latin phrases to a dramatic conclusion in Chapter 20 and 21, even more so the Aramaic in Chapter 20. Can you wait?
 * The preliminary heading was Greek/Latin Word pictures with the addition of Codex D, but that puts Latin on an equal basis with Greek. Findings in Chapter 3 touch on a more descriptive term, so the change to “plus Latin Facsimiles” outlining its tertiary and political role, behind Greek and Aramaic. - Athrash | T a l k 01:51, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

Made reference to Modernity Version Of the Gospel of John in offline essay as (MOV) where acronym was necessary. Will try to give attention to and complete translation slowly, but surely. - Athrash | T a l k 20:48, 16 March 2014 (UTC)


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Gmail/dll

Gmail's huge storage (7 gigabytes) may tempt some to use it as a file storage system. Because of the tedious process of putting one attachment after another and sending it to yourself, someone has taken the liberty of developing a program to add a shell extension to Microsoft's Windows operating systems. There are many different shell extensions (it may take a bit of digging through Google's search engine), each with their own advantages and disadvantages. Here is one to try out, the most popular and well known GMail Drive! There is also an extension for Firefox called "GSpace" that does the same thing.

GMail Drive

GSpace

title: Gmail/dll


text:
Gmail/Other

Gmail as Default e-mail program
Set Gmail as the default mail program on Start Menu of Windows

Gmail as a Filesystem
Gmail as a filesystem on Linux

Gmail as a Filesystem on Windows

title: Gmail/Other


text:
Physical Chemistry/Thermodynamic Processes for an Ideal Gas

Thermodynamic Processes for an Ideal Gas
Let us first consider the expansion and compression of an ideal gas from an initial volume V1 to a final volume V2 under constant-temperature (isothermal) conditions. From the definition of pressure-volume work, we have: $$w=-\int_{V_1}^{V_2} P_{ext}dV$$ If we assume the process occurs reversibly, then $$P_{ext}=P$$ where P is the pressure of the gas; therefore $$w=-\int_{V_1}^{V_2} PdV$$ Now let us use the equation of state for an ideal gas, which is $$PV=nRT$$ where n is the number of moles of gas, R is the ideal gas constant, and T is the absolute (Kelvin) temperature. Substituting for P, we get $$w=-\int_{V_1}^{V_2} \frac{nRT}{V}dV$$ If we have a closed system, then n is a constant; moreover, since we have stipulated that this process occurs under isothermal conditions, T is also a constant. Therefore, the integral simplifies to: $$w=-nRT\int_{V_1}^{V_2} \frac{dV}{V}$$ This integral may be solved to yield $$w=-nRT\ln\left(\frac{V_2}{V_1}\right)\;$$

Next we consider the change in the internal energy of the ideal gas upon isothermal expansion/compression. It is helpful to review the two key assumptions that underlie the ideal gas model:  Ideal gas particles are point particles. Ideal gas particles have no interparticular forces.  From these two statements, we now contemplate what would happen to the internal energy (U) of an ideal gas upon isothermal expansion or compression. Because ideal gas particles are point particles, if the gas sample is compressed, the particles will not experience any change in energy because they have no internal volume to get "squeezed". Similarly, because they have no interparticular forces, they do not experience any change in attraction or repulsion between different particles if they are squeezed closer together. Hence, we may (correctly) reason that for an isothermal process on an ideal gas, the change in internal energy is zero. $$\Delta U = 0\;$$ (isothermal process, ideal gas) (This same result may be rigorously proved using the thermodynamic master equations, or by using statistical thermodynamics.) Note that because U is a state function, $$\Delta U$$ will always be equal to zero for any isothermal process on an ideal gas, whether or not it occurs reversibly. Because of the First Law of Thermodynamics, $$\Delta U = q + w\;$$ and because $$\Delta U = 0$$, the energy change associated with heat upon isothermal reversible expansion or compression is just the negative of the work, or $$q = -w = nRT\ln\frac{V_2}{V_1}$$. In a similar fashion, other results may be derived for processes on ideal gases. A summary of results is given below.

Molar Thermodynamic Properties for an Ideal Gas
We are given that the molar Gibbs free energy of an ideal is $$\bar G = \bar G^\circ+RT \ln\frac{P}{P^\circ}\;$$. Let's try and derive $$\bar U=\bar U^\circ=\bar H^\circ-RT\;$$; noting that $$\bar U^\circ=\bar G^\circ+T\bar S^\circ-RT\;$$ and assuming that the internal energy $$U\;$$ and enthalpy $$H\;$$ of an ideal gas are independent of pressure and volume.


text:
Talk:General Chemistry/Basic Chemical Concepts

This page is orphaned. The page that is replaceing it is General Chemistry/Introduction


text: User:JohnDBuell

title: User:JohnDBuell


text:
Radiation Oncology/Benign/Keloid

Natural history
Recurrence rate of 50-80% after surgery. Recurrence rate reduced to 50% with intralesional steroid therapy. RT reduces recurrence rate to 12-28%.

Treatment Overview

 * No universally accepted treatment protocol
 * Modalities: surgery, radiation, pressure therapy, cryotherapy, intralesional injections of corticosteroids, interferon, fluorouracil, topical silicone, and pulse-dye laser treatment
 * Surgery only has recurrence rate of 50-80%
 * Post-op RT
 * Success rate 75-90% within 10 year follow-up; however, a recent Dutch study had 70+% recurrence within 2 year, in sharp disagreement with prior studies
 * Usually surgical excision followed immediately with RT
 * Usually 3-4 fractions daily in 3-4 Gy/fx; however, recent Dutch meta-analysis suggests that dose is insufficient for long-term control, and should use BED of >30 Gy (e.g. 13/1, 16/2, 18/3)
 * Sites with high rates of recurrence (eg. high-tension areas) should be treated with escalated dosage

Post-op RT
Meta-analysis
 * Utrecht
 * 2005 PMID 16254707 -- "Biologically effective doses of postoperative radiotherapy in the prevention of keloids. Dose-effect relationship." (Kal HB, Strahlenther Onkol. 2005 Nov;181(11):717-23.)
 * Meta-analysis, 18 studies. Recurrence rate for surgery only 50-80%
 * BED: Recurrence rate decreased as a function of BED, if >30 Gy recurrence was <10%. No difference with high stretch tension sites
 * Conclusion: For effective therapy, need a reasonably high dose (BED >=30 Gy, for example 13/1, 16/2, 18/3 or 27/1 LDR), within 2 days of surgery
 * 2009 PMID 19362243 -- "Dose-effect relationships for recurrence of keloid and pterygium after surgery and radiotherapy." (Kal HB, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 May 1;74(1):245-51.)
 * For keloid recurrence after radiotherapy following keloid removal, with either teletherapy or brachytherapy, the recurrence rate after having delivered a BED greater than 30 Gy is less than 10%.
 * Conclusion: "Most of the doses in the radiotherapy schemes used for prevention of keloid recurrence after surgery are too low. A scheme with a BED of 30 to 40 Gy seems to be sufficient to prevent recurrences of keloid"

 * U.Pittsburgh;2011 - PMID 20472370 -- "A Radiobiological Analysis of Multicenter Data for Postoperative Keloid Radiotherapy" (Flickinger JC; Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011 Mar 15;79(4):1164-70.)
 * Review of multiple published studies. For 95% control of keloids with electrons, fractionated (in 3 fx) dose of 18.3-19.2 Gy (earlobe) or 23.4-24.8 Gy (other sites). Single fraction equivalent dose: 11.4 Gy (earlobe) and 14.5 Gy (other sites).

Randomized
 * Beth Israel, 1996 PMID 8646474 -- Steroid injection vs RT
 * 31 keloids treated.
 * "Prevention of earlobe keloid recurrence with postoperative corticosteroid injections versus radiation therapy: a randomized, prospective study and review of the literature." (Sclafani AP, Dermatol Surg. 1996 Jun;22(6):569-74.)
 * Recurrence 2/16, 12.5% (RT) vs 4/12, 33% (Steroids), NS.
 * Conclusion: No statistical difference seen, but small study, likely underpowered.

Single Institution
 * Tokyo; 2007 (2002-2004) PMID 18046154 -- "Postoperative radiation protocol for keloids and hypertrophic scars: statistical analysis of 370 sites followed for over 18 months."
 * Prospective. Compared 109 pts (121 lesions) treated from 2002-2004 on a risk-adapted protocol vs historic controls (218 pts; 249 lesions). Risk-adapted strategy employed 10, 15, or 20 Gy depending on site (higher dose: anterior chest wall, scapular, suprapubic; lower dose: earlobe). Historical controls received 15 Gy standard dose.
 * Minimal f/u 18 months. Recurrence rate 29.3% (historic) vs 14.0% (protocol). The recurrence rate in the anterior chest wall was statistically reduced. Outcomes of earlobe did not differ between irradiation with 15 Gy or 10 Gy.
 * Conclusion: "Keloids and intractable hypertrophic scars should be treated with dose protocols customized by site. Our results suggest that keloid and intractable hypertrophic scar sites with a high risk of recurrence should be treated with 20 Gy in 4 fractions over 4 days and that earlobe should be treated with 10 Gy in 2 fractions over 2 days."

 * Utrecht; 2007 (Netherlands)(1998-2004) PMID 17967309 -- "Postoperative high-dose-rate brachytherapy in the prevention of keloids." (Veen RE, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Nov 15;69(4):1205-8.)
 * Retrospective. 35 patients with 54 keloids (earlobe/auricle n=23, sternum n=17, others n=14), treated with HDR BT. First dose with 6 hours after surgery, 2 additional doses next day 6 hours apart.
 * Outcome: 45% recurrence after HDR 4/1 + 6/2; 3% recurrence after HDR 6/1 + 8/2; no recurrence after HDR 18/3. Better cosmetic results after higher doses
 * Conclusion: HDR effective; recommend 3 x 6 Gy

 * Amsterdam, 2007 (Netherlands) PMID 17519728 -- "The results of surgical excision and adjuvant irradiation for therapy-resistant keloids: a prospective clinical outcome study." (Van de Kar AL, Plast Reconstr Surg. 2007 Jun;119(7):2248-54.
 * Retrospective. 21 patients with 32 keloids. RT 12 Gy in 3-4 fxs. Mean F/U 19 months
 * Recurrence (elevation of the lesion not confined to the original wound area): 72%
 * Conclusion: RT may not be as efficacious as suggested by other studies

 * U. Washington, 1989 (1966-87) - PMID 2745211 — "Radiation therapy following keloidectomy: a 20-year experience." Kovalic JJ et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1989 Jul;17(1):77-80.
 * 75 pts with 113 keloids with follow-up mean time of 9.7 yrs. 74% involved earlobe. 60% no prior treatment. Superficial X-rays used in 89%, 12 Gy in 3 fx over 3 days most common.
 * Control rate 73%. Failure 19% if no prior treatment, 42% if recurrent.
 * Toxicity: No treatment-related complications. 5% mild hyperpigmentation. Carcinogenesis never reported to their knowledge
 * Prognostic: Higher recurrence in those >2cm, previous therapy, in men. No advantage to starting treatment within 24 hrs versus more than 1 day (range 4-21 days). Mean time to recurrence 12.8 months

Patterns of Care
 * Germany, 2003 (1997-2000) - PMID 12540986 -- "Radiotherapy of keloids. Patterns of care study -- results" [Article in German] (Kutzner J, Strahlenther Onkol. 2003 Jan;179(1):54-8.)
 * See also: ASTRO Abstract 2001 #2271
 * 101 institutions. 1672 patients treated over 35 years. 880 pts with follow-up. Total doses 10-20 Gy using 2-3 Gy fractions, 3-5 times/week.
 * 101 relapses; 11.4%. Most relapses occurred within 2 years. Side effects were low. No secondary malignancies seen.
 * Conclusion: post-operative radiotherapy for keloids is effective.

Specfic sites
Earlobe:
 * SUNY-Brooklyn, 1994 PMID 7805600 -- "Ear lobe keloids, surgical excision followed by radiation therapy: a 10-year experience." (Chaudhry MR, Ear Nose Throat J. 1994 Oct;73(10):779-81.)
 * Retrospective. 36 pts. Mean f/u of 5.6 yrs (minimum of 2 yrs for all pts). Treated with 18 Gy (6 Gy x 3) over 5-7 days.
 * Only 1 recurrence (2.8%).

Toxicity

 * London, 1999 PMID 10703484 -- "The risks of treating keloids with radiotherapy." (Botwood N, Br J Radiol. 1999 Dec;72(864):1222-4.)
 * Case report. 20F with severe chest burns, then developed keloids. RT 13/5 to bilateral chest wall. At age 57, L invasive BCA with LN-. At age 59 R invasive multifocal BCA.
 * Lit review conclusion: No carcinogenicity reported thus far. Causal relationship in this case strong. Two other potential patients reviewed, although causality in one is suspect, and other probably received too high a dose by today's standards

Review

 * UT San Antonio, 2006 PMID 16730305 -- "The role of radiation therapy in benign diseases." (Eng TY, Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2006 Apr;20(2):523-57.)

title: Radiation Oncology/Benign/Keloid


text:
Icelandic/Grammar/Capitalisation

Stórir bókstafir
 * Capitalisation

Rules about big and small letters are divided into three parts. Capital letters:

 * 1) after punctuation marks (greinarmerkjum)
 * 2) in nouns (nafnorðum)
 * 3) in other groups

It must be noted that due to (mostly) English influences, both foreigners and Icelanders tend to write capital letters where not appropriate and vice versa. The Icelandic rules also tend to be confusing. However, these few (about five hundred) and simple rules and years of practice, should make it all worth while.

It's studying time!

= Capital letters after punctuation marks =

1
Always start with a capital letter at the beginning of each sentence.

Pretty basic, huh?

 *  É g er svangur. F áum okkur að borða.
 * I'm hungry. Let's have something to eat.
 *  E rtu franskur?
 * Are you French?
 *  E nska er skemmtileg, en ekki eins skemmtileg og íslenska.
 * English is fun, but not as fun as Icelandic.

2
Always write a capital letter after a period (.) or the equivalent of a period (:?!) unless it is followed by a dependent clause (ósjálfstætt orðasamband).

 *  A ðal þema Moby Dicks var: V ertu þú sjálfur.
 * The main theme of Moby Dick was: Be yourself.
 *  J æja! E nn og aftur tókst þér að klúðra þessu.
 * Well! Once again you managed to screw it up.
 *  E r ég ánægður? Ó jæja.
 * Am I happy? Oh well.
 *  H ann missti allt: M anga bækurnar sínar, myndirnar sínar og DS tölvuna sína.
 * He lost everything: his manga books, his pictures and his DS game computer.

The last example was a dependent clause (ósjálfstætt orðasamband)

3
If a direct quote is in a sentence, a lower case letter follows, even if it ends with a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).

 * " E rtu lítill?" spurði hann.
 * "Are you small?" he asked.
 * " É g hata þig!" öskraði hún.
 * "I hate you!" she yelled.

= Rules concerning lowercase and capital letters in nouns =

A list of proper nouns (sérnöfn)

 * Human names (Geir Hagalín), human pet names (Kalli), god and godesses (Hades, Kristur =Krist) and animal names (Lassý)
 * (Örnefni), f.x. the names of the continents (Evrópa =Europe), names of countries (Japan), names of locations (New York), names of regions in countries (Norðurland =Northernland), street names (Kringlumýrarbraut =Kringlumýrar St.), also common nouns which are used as proper nouns e.g. (Tjörnin, which means "the pond" and would be written with a t in that meaning), and shortened names of locations (Fjörðurinn = Hafnarfjörður)
 * Name of institutions (Spítali Íslands), clubs (The Icelandic book club), corporations (Eimskip, Síminn) and political parties (Sjálfstæðisflokkurinn, Samfylkingin)
 * Name of books (The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy), newspapers (Morgunblaðið, Fréttablaðið) and magazines (Hugur og heilsa)
 * Names of musical pieces (Canon in A), poems (Sónettur Shakespears)and essays (Áhrif gróðurhúsaáhrifa)
 * Nations (Skoti =Scottish man), residents in specific areas (Texasbúi = a Texan) or continents (Asíu-maður = an Asian)
 * Stars (Pólstjarnan) and constellations (Óríon = Orion)

(Ísland = Iceland, Íslendingur = an Icelandic person, íslenska = Icelandic.)
 * Note that the names of languages are not written with a capital letter.

Finally, some nouns are written with a lowercase letter if they derive from proper nouns and are then an exception from the rules concerning lowercase letters.

title: Icelandic/Grammar/Capitalisation


text: Template:Middle School Science/Heading

title: Template:Middle School Science/Heading


text:
Middle School Science/Biology/Bacteria

Concept
Bacteria are most widely distributed organisms. These are unicellular micro-organisms. A scientist named Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria in 1677 for the first time. Later, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch worked on them. This was a milestone in the history of biology and medicine. They discovered that bacteria produce many harmful diseases in man and animals. Bacteria(Singular is bacterium) range from 1um to 10um in length and from 0.2um to to 1 um in width. Bacteria can be observed under light microscope. The habitat of bateria is not specific. They are found everywhere, in air, water, living as well as dead bodies of organisms and even in glaciers and hot springs

Kinds Of Bacteria
On the basis of various shapes and forms, bacteria are divided into four types. First is Cocci(Singular Coccus) and means rounded. The second is Bacilli(Singular Bacillus) which is rod-like. The third one is Spirilla(Singular Spirillium) and means spiral shaped and the last is Vibrios( Singular Vibrion) which means comma shaped.

title: Middle School Science/Biology/Bacteria


text:
Cookbook:Bread Machine

| Appliances

A bread machine or breadmaker is a home appliance for baking bread. It handles the process from ingredients to a finished loaf, automatically. The machine consists of a bread pan with a paddle mounted in the centre, in a special purpose oven, with a control panel.

Ingredients (often flour, water, salt, sugar, yeast, butter, and milk powder or fresh milk) are measured and added to the bread pan, which is then placed into the bread machine. The machine takes a few hours to make a loaf of bread, first by turning the ingredients into dough using the paddle, then baking the loaf. When it has finished baking and has cooled down, the pan is removed from the bread machine, and the bread freed from the pan. The paddle is now in the bottom of the loaf, and has to be removed, leaving a small paddle-shaped hole.

Generally, the bread goes stale faster than bread from a commercial baker because it doesn't have the same additives. However, it is possible to use a sourdough starter in bread machine dough recipes. Sourdough contains a symbiotic brew of yeast and lactic acid bacteria cultures. Lactic acid produced by these bacteria greatly preserves bread, as well as enhancing its flavour. However, a sourdough rise takes much longer than a yeast rise, and most bread machines do not have a programmable cycle that caters to this.

Some bread machines are equipped with a timer, so that they can be loaded at night before going to bed, and be set to start in the early morning, presenting a freshly baked loaf ready for breakfast. The machine can sometimes be set to just make the dough, not to bake it, in which case it is baked in an oven. Pizza dough is another option.

Packets of bread mix are available, designed specifically for bread machines. They consist of the ingredients pre-measured. The only other ingredient that needs to be added is water.

The first bread machine was released in Japan in 1986. They became popular in the United Kingdom and the United States in the late 1990s.

Using a bread maker is a convenient way to avoid the hydrogenated vegetable oil that supermarkets add to their bread to make it bake more quickly, as well as other unwanted additives.

Some bread machines can be set to make other things besides bread, such as jam. They can also be used to make mochi, a kind of Japanese rice cake.

title: Cookbook:Bread Machine


text:
Arabic/LearnRW/hamza and Superscript Alif

The hamza is the symbol that is a عين (rħain) with no tail. It looks like this:ء The hamza is best thought of as a vowel separator.

The hamza is not a letter by itself, even though it makes a consonant sound.

The hamza is on either a ياء (yaa') or an ألف (alif) or a واو (waaw) or is by itself. ئ / ؤ / أ / إ / ء

Arabic writing makes sense, but the hamza's carriers cannot be figured out by just hearing. One has to either know the hamza spelling rules or have seen enough Arabic words to know how a word would be spelt. And there do exist spelling rules to figure out whether and which letter a hamza should go over.

But most people don't know the rules of the hamza, and they don't need to. They can spell fine without being able to explain why.

Often people wonder why is the hamza carried by other letters at all. Here is a short explanation:

Whenever a word starts with a vowel in Arabic an alif was written.

And in the old accents, people probably didn't pronounce the hamza anywhere else in a word. for example: فائز faa-iz- meaning winner مؤمن mu'min meaning (religious) believer

were not pronounced in that manner

instead it was: faa-yiz or moomin

So if the hamza existed on a yaa' that means that the different dialects pronounced it like a yaa' instead of a hamza'. You can still hear this pronounciaction very often in Arabic dialects for many words.


text:
Talk:Arabic/LearnRW/hamza and Superscript Alif

hamza rules
Someone should add the hamza rules or link a page of the hamza rules to this page.


text:
Using Firefox/Privacy

History
It is possible to select individual history items to delete, by using the history side bar. You can open the history side bar by selecting from the menu the View -> Sidebar -> History option. Deleting singular items can be achieved by finding the item, right-clicking on it to get the context menu, and selecting Delete. Deleting multiple entries can be achieved by right-clicking the list to focus it (for left-clicking will open the web page under the mouse, and losing focus on the list) and using the up/down arrows, and shift+up/down to select blocks of entries. Pressing Delete on the keyboard will delete the selected history items.

It is possible to delete all history items by opening the preferences dialog on the menu at Edit -> Preferences, and clicking on the Privacy tab and then the History tab. A button will be there to Clear Browsing History Now. This will clear all history items.

Under this tab also, by changing the option Remember my browsing history for X days, to 0, history items will not be kept between sessions.

Auto-completed URLs will disappear as corresponding history items are deleted.

Cookies
Cookies can be cleared by selecting the Privacy tab and then the Cookies tab under the user preferences from the menu at Edit -> Preferences. All cookies can be deleted by clicking the Clear Cookies Now button. Individual cookies can be cleared by clicking the View Cookies button to open the cookie viewing dialog. Selecting cookies and pressing Delete on the keyboard will delete those cookies.

By changing the option to Keep Cookies to Until I close Firefox, cookies will not be kept between sessions. Also it is possible to choose to block all websites from putting cookies on your computer unless you have explicitly allowed them to do so, by adding them to a list accessible from this tab.

Other Data
It is possible to delete other private data by using options under the Privacy tab of the user preferences. See Preferences for more details.

If you just want to delete one or a few values from the saved (remembered) list of field (or form) values, navigate to the item you want to clear (don't click on it, just "point" to it), then use the Shift-Delete key combination to clear it.

Deleting All Private Data
You can delete all private data, including browsing history, cookies, cache, saved form data, passwords, and download history, by opening the Clear Private Data dialog under the menu in Tools -> Clear Private Data (or by pressing Ctrl-Shift-Delete on your keyboard). This will ask you to list your preferences as to what should be cleared from Firefox. If you want to do the same thing often in the future, you can deselect Ask me before clearing private data, and the dialog will not be cleared.

Your preferences for this option can be set in the user preferences dialog under the Privacy tab; there is a button down the bottom right that says Settings, which will effect this function.

Stealther
This Firefox extension allows you to surf the web without leaving a trace on your local machine. It temporarily disables the following while it is active:

- Browsing History (Websites you've visited, no auto-complete of URL's - Cookies (Doesn't allow websites to store cookies *Warning* this could cause difficulties when trying to access user account or E-Mail) - Downloaded Files History (All the files you've downloaded) - Disk Cache (Any files normally stored on your local machine "i.e images" will not be stored for fast viewing) - Saved Form Information (Information that would be used during the save form feature in Firefox "i.e save user name and password on this computer?" will not work) - Sending of ReferrerHeader. (When you click on a link from one web page or website to another, the browser usually sends a Referer/header to the server to tell sites where you came from.)

NoScript
"Winner of the "2006 PC World World Class Award", this tool provides extra protection to your Firefox. It allows JavaScript, Java and other executable content to run only from trusted domains of your choice, e.g. your home-banking web site, and guards the "trust boundaries" against cross-site scripting attacks (XSS). Such a preemptive approach prevents exploitation of security vulnerabilities (known and even unknown!) with no loss of functionality... Experts do agree: Firefox is really safer with NoScript ;-)" -Giorgio Maone

WOT
"Can you recognize good and reliable Internet content? Did you have a bad experience that you would like to share with others? WOT can help you. Seeing website reputations on your browser allows you to learn from other people. This shared knowledge makes it easier to avoid online fraud, including phishing and spyware. WOT can add reputations also to web search results, Digg, Gmail, Wikipedia, and other selected sites." -Against Intuition, Inc.

"This of course preserves your privacy to great extent" - Anonymous

CookieSafe
"This extension will allow you to easily control cookie permissions. It will appear on your statusbar. Just click on the icon to allow, block, or temporarily allow the site to set cookies. You can also view or clear the cookies and exceptions by right clicking on the statusbar icon. For safer browsing you may choose to deny cookies globally and then enable them on a per site basis." -Ron Beckman

Firefox/Vie privée

title: Using Firefox/Privacy