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Electronics/Voltage, Current, and Power

=Voltage, Current, and Power=

Basic Understanding
Experiments show us that electric point charges attract or repel as calculated by Coulomb's law. Integrating (summing) over a distribution of points charges as they are assembled into a specific system configuration allows us to determine a scalar value defined as the electrical potential or electric field of a specific point. This mathematical definition is very useful in electronics circuit theory.

Voltage

 * The potential difference between two test points resulting from the distribution of charge in the circuit, usually measured in volts.

Current

 * Net amount of charge (coulombs) (number of electrons x electron charge) flowing past a specified point during a time interval (seconds), usually measured in Amps (1 Amp = 1 coulomb / 1 second). In typical components and systems the quantity of electrons is quite large and the aggregate charge flow is referred to as electricity.

Power

 * Energy given in a certain amount of time, usually measured in watts.

Law of Charges

 * Opposite charges attract while similar charges repel.

Inductance

 * When electricity passes through a wire it creates a moving magnetic field around the wire. The typical unit of measure is Henrys.

Capacitance

 * When electric fields or charge distributions are created in a physical system that stores recoverable energy, characteristics of the physical components which affect calculation of the electrical quantities are defined as capacitance. The base unit of measure is Farads, however microfarads (μF), are used much more often.

Resistance

 * When potential difference creates movement of electrons between two points, some of the potential energy formerly available in the system is irreversibly transferred from the electric field or the electrons moving through the component via collisions with atoms and molecules within the material. Ohm's Law, V=IR, defines resistance as R=V/I where V is the voltage difference applied across the component, I is the resulting current flow in Amps, and R is a constant created by characteristics of the component which is calculated from the measured voltage loss of the measured current passing through the component.

Electric Field
A charged particle such as a proton or electron may "feel" an electrical force on it in a certain environment. This force is typically due to the presence of other charges nearby. The force will have a direction and magnitude, and can be represented by a vector. (A vector is simply a quantity that represents the direction and magnitude of something.) The magnitude of the force depends on the charge of the particle, the charge on the particles around it, and how close or far away they are: Highly charged particles close to each other exert heavy forces on each other; if the charges are less, or they are farther apart, the force is less. The direction of the force depends on the location of the surrounding charges.

In describing the electrical environment at that location, it is said there is an electric field at that location. The electric field is defined as the force that a single unit of charge  would feel at that location. In some systems of measurement, the unit of charge is the charge of a single proton; in others it is the coulomb. A coulomb is the charge of 6.24×1018 protons

The relationship between force and electric field for a single charged particle is given by the following equation:

\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{F}/q $$

The bold letters indicate vector quantities. This means that a charge q, in an electric field E, having a certain direction and a magnitude E, would have a force F on it, in the same direction and with a magnitude F. Considering only the magnitudes, the following would result from the definition.

E = F/q   these are all magnitudes or numerical quantities

The net electric field E, at a location is due to the presence of all other charges nearby, similar to the net electric force F, if there was a charge q at that location. The contribution of one of these other charges to the total (or net) electric field is a vector E contribution, which for a point charge can be derived from Coulomb's Law. Distributions of charge density in various shapes may also yield vector E contributions to the total electric field, to be added in as vector quantities. Practically speaking, most electricians, electrical engineers, and other electrical circuit builders and hobbyists seldom do these sorts of electric field calculations. Electric field calculations of this sort are more of a theoretical physics or special applications problem, so these calculations are omitted here in favor of more applicable material. See Electric Field for such information on electric field formulas.

There is an electrical force on a charge only if there is a charge subject to the force at a location in an electric field. However, even if there is no such charge subject to the force, there could still be an electric field at a point. This means that an electric field is a property of a location or point in space and its electrical environment, which would determine what a charge q would "feel" if it were there.

Energy
Now, a micro-physics review: Work is causing displacement (or movement) of an object or matter against a force. Energy is the ability to perform work like this. Energy can be kinetic energy or potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy a mass has because it is moving. Potential energy in an object, in matter, in a charge or other situation has the ability to perform work or to be converted into kinetic energy or a different kind of potential energy.

A reason why a particle or a charge may have potential energy could be because it is located at a point in a force field, such as a gravitational field, electric field, or magnetic field. In the presence of such a field, gravity or electric or magnetic forces could cause the particle or charge to move faster or move against resistive forces, representing a conversion of potential energy to kinetic energy or work. The amount of potential energy it has would depend on its location. Moving from one location to another could cause a change in its potential energy. For example, an object near the surface of the earth placed high would have a certain amount of gravitational potential energy based on its mass, location (height or altitude) in and strength of the Earth's gravitational field. If the object were to drop from this location (height) to a new lower location, at least some of its gravitational potential energy would be converted to kinetic energy, resulting in the object moving down. The difference in gravitational potential energy could be calculated from one location to another, but determining the absolute potential energy of the object is arbitrary, so ground level is chosen arbitrarily as the height where its gravitational potential energy equals zero. The potential energy at all other heights is determined from the mass of the object, location relative to the ground level, and strength of the gravitational field.

All energy values are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors.

Electric Potential Energy
Somewhat similarly, a charged particle at a certain point or location in an electrical environment (i. e. an electric field) would have a certain amount of electric potential energy based on its charge, location, and the electric field there, which could be based on quantity and locations of all other charges nearby. If the charge were to move from this location to a new location or point, it could cause a change in its electric potential energy. This difference in electric potential energy in the charge particle would be proportional to its charge and it could be an increase or a decrease. From measurements and calculations, one may be able to determine this difference in electric potential energy, but coming up with an absolute figure for its potential is difficult and typically not necessary. Therefore, in a manner somewhat similar to gravitational potential energy, an arbitrary location or point nearby, often somewhere in the electric circuit in question, is chosen to be the point where the electric potential energy would be zero, if the charge were there. Often the wiring, circuit, or appliance will be connected to the ground, so this ground point is often chosen to be the zero point. The electric potential energy at all other points is determined relative to the ground level. The SI unit of electric potential energy is the joule.

Electric Potential
Because the electric potential energy of a charged particle (or object) is proportional to its charge and otherwise simply dependent on its location (point where it's at), a useful value to use is electric potential. Electric potential (symbolized by V) at a point is defined as the electric potential energy (PE) per unit positive charge (q) that a charge would have at that given point (location). At a point a, the electric potential at a is given by:

Va = (PE of charge at a)/q

Somewhat analogously to an electric field, electrical potential is a property of a location and the electrical conditions there, whether or not there is a charge present there subject to these conditions. On the other hand, electric potential energy is more analogous to electric force in that for it to be present, there should be a subject charged particle or object which has that energy. Electric potential is often simply called potential by physicists. Because the SI unit of electric potential energy is the joule and because the SI unit of charge is the coulomb, the SI unit for electric potential, the volt (symbolized by V), is defined as a joule per coulomb (J/C).

Because electric potential energy is based on an arbitrary point where its value is set at as zero, the value of electric potential at a given point is also based on this same arbitrary zero point (reference point where the potential is set at zero). The potential at a given point a is then the difference between potentials from point a to the zero point, often called a ground node (or just ground).

Calculations of electric potential energy or electric potential based on Coulomb's Law are sometimes theoretically possible, such as might be for electric field calculations, but again these are of mostly theoretical interest and not often done in practical applications. Therefore, such calculations are also omitted here in favour of more applicable material.

Often it is of interest to compare the potentials at two different points, which we may call point a and point b. Then the electric potential difference between points a and b (Vab) would be defined as the electric potential at b minus the electric potential at a.

Vab = Vb - Va

The unit for electric potential difference is the volt, the same as for electric potential. Electric potential difference is often simply called potential difference by physicists. Under direct current (DC) conditions and at any one instant in time under alternating current (AC), potential and potential difference are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors, and they can have positive or negative values.

Voltage
Voltage is electric potential expressed in volts. Similarly, potential difference expressed in volts is often called voltage difference or often referred to as voltage across two points or across an electrical component. The terms electric potential, potential, and potential difference are terms more often used by physicists. Since these quantities are almost always expressed in volts (or some related unit such as millivolts), engineers, electricians, hobbyists, and common people usually use the term voltage instead of potential. Furthermore, in practical applications, electrical force, electric field, and electrical potential energy of charged particles are not discussed nearly as often as voltage, power, and energy in a macroscopic sense.

Additional note: The following explains why voltage is "analogous" to the pressure of a fluid in a pipe (although, of course, it is only an analogy, not exactly the same thing), and it also explains the strange-sounding "dimensions" of voltage. Consider the potential energy of compressed air being pumped into a tank. The energy increases with each new increment of air. Pressure is that energy divided by the volume, which we can understand intuitively. Now consider the energy of electric charge (measured in coulombs) being forced into a capacitor. Voltage is that energy per charge, so voltage is analogous to a pressure-like sort of forcefulness. Also, dimensional analysis tells us that voltage ("energy per charge") is charge per distance, the distance being between the plates of the capacitor. (More discussion is on page 16 of "Industrial Electronics," by D. J. Shanefield, Noyes Publications, Boston, 2001.)

Frequency
When an electric circuit is operating in Direct Current (DC) mode, all voltages and voltage differences in the circuit are typically constant (do not vary) with time. When a circuit is operating under Alternating Current (AC) conditions, the voltages in the circuit vary periodically with time; the voltages are a sinusoidal function of time, such as V(t) = a sin (b t) with constant a and b, or some similar function. The number of times the period repeats (or "cycles") per unit time is called the frequency of V(t). Under DC conditions or at any one instant in time under AC, potential (or voltage) and potential difference (or voltage difference) are numerical or scalar quantities, not vectors, and they can have positive or negative values. However, in AC mode, the overall function of voltage with time V(t), can be expressed as a complex number or a phasor for a given frequency. The frequency can be expressed in cycles per second or simply sec-1, which is called Hertz (Hz) in SI units. Typical commercial electric power provided in the United States is AC at a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz for India).

Ground
Ground is shown on electronics diagrams, but it isn't really a component. It is simply the node which has been assigned a voltage of zero. It is represented by one of the symbols below. Technically, any single node can be assigned as ground, and other voltages are measured relative to it. However, the convention is to only assign it in one of two ways, related to the type of power supply. In a single supply situation, such as a circuit powered by a single battery, the ground point is usually defined as the more negative of the power source's terminals. This makes all voltages in the circuit positive with respect to ground (usually), and is a common convention. For a split-supply device, such as a circuit driven by a center-tapped transformer, usually the center voltage is defined as ground, and there are equal and roughly symmetrical positive and negative voltages in the circuit.

 * Signal ground : Ground for a signal. Since wires have a certain amount of resistance to them, ground points in a circuit aren't all at exactly the same voltage.  It is important in practical circuit design to separate the power supply ground from the signal ground from the shielding ground, etc.  In circuits where minimum noise is especially important, power regulator circuitry should have thick wires or traces connecting the grounds, in a sequence from the power supply to the "cleanest" ground at the output of the filters of the power supply, which will then be a "star point" for the grounds of the signal circuitry.

 * Chassis ground : A direct connection to the chassis of the device. This is used for EMI shielding and also for safety ground in line AC powered devices.

 * Earth ground : Used in radio or power distribution systems, a connection to the earth itself. Also the other end of the connection for the safety ground, since the power line voltage will seek a path through the earth back to the power line supply station.  This was the original usage of the word "ground", and the more modern meaning of the word would have been called a "floating ground".

The earth ground symbol and signal ground symbol are often interchanged without regard to their original meanings. As far as signal-level electronics (and this book) is concerned, ground almost always means a signal ground or floating ground, not connected to the earth itself.

(see: http://www.prosoundweb.com/studyhall/rane/grounding/ground2.php)

Current
Electric current, often called just current, is the movement of charge in a conductor (such as a wire) or into, out of, or through an electrical component. Current is quantified as a rate of positive charge movement past a certain point or through a cross-sectional area. Simply put, current is quantified as positive charge per unit time. However, since current is a vector quantity, the direction in which the current flows is still important. Current flow in a given direction can be positive or negative; the negative sign means that positive charges move opposite of the given direction. The quantity of current at a certain point is typically symbolized by a capital or small letter I with a designation which direction the current I is moving. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A), one of the fundamental units of physics. See ampere for the definition of ampere. Sometimes, ampere is informally abbreviated to amp. The definition of a coulomb (C), the SI unit of charge, is based on an ampere. A coulomb is the amount of positive charge passing a point when a constant one ampere current flows by the point for one second. The second is the SI unit of time. In other words, a coulomb equals an ampere-second (A·s). An ampere is a coulomb per second (C/s).

Conventional Current
Typically, current is in a metal and constitutes movement of electrons which have negative charge; however, people initially thought that current had a positive charge. The result is that even though current is the flow of negative electrons and flows from the negative to the positive terminal of a battery, when people do circuit analysis they pretend that current is a flow of positive particles and flows from the positive to the negative terminal of a battery (or other power source). Actually, it is more complicated than this, since current can be made up of electrons, holes, ions, protons, or any charged particle. Since the actual charge carriers are usually ignored when analyzing a circuit, current is simplified and thought of as flowing from positive to negative, and is known as conventional current.

Analogy to pebble tossing: I have pebbles and I am throwing them into a basket. In doing this the basket gains pebbles and I lose pebbles. So there is a negative current of pebbles to the basket because it is gaining pebbles, and there is a positive current of pebbles to me because I am losing pebbles. In pebble tossing the currents have equal strength but in opposite directions.

Current I is represented in amperes (A) and equals x number of y

Power
Power is energy per unit of time. The SI unit for power is the watt (W) which equals a joule per second (J/s), with joule being the SI unit for energy and second being the SI unit for time. When somebody plugs an appliance into a receptacle to use electricity to make that appliance function, that person provides electrical energy for the appliance. The appliance usually functions by turning that electrical energy into heat, light, or work — or perhaps converts it into electrical energy again in a different form. If this situation is ongoing, it is said that the receptacle or electric power company delivers power to the appliance. The current from the receptacle going in and out of the appliance effectively carries the power and the appliance absorbs the power.

Multiplying a unit of power by a unit of time would result in a unit that represents a quantity of energy. Therefore, multiplying a kilowatt by an hour gives a kilowatt-hour (kW·h), a unit often used by electrical power companies to represent an amount of electrical energy generated or provided to consumers. Oddly, in marketing and retail packaging, portable batteries are often rated in "mAh", which are normally units of power, but do not identify how much power the battery can supply. Rather, the mAh rating is always at the implied voltage defined by the battery's chemistry. For example, a common, premium quality 18650 Li-ion battery would be advertised/rated 3400 mAh, at most. Even though "3400 mAh" is in power units, Li-ion chemistry battery voltage is typically around 3.7 volts, and this does identify the battery as one that should be able to store about 3400 mAh x 3.7 volts = 12.6 mWh (milliwatt hours) of energy per charge.) Also oddly, in marketing and retail packaging, a larger (e.g. vehicle) battery is often advertised based on the "Amps" or "Cold Cranking Amps" (CCA) the battery can provide to indicate the maximum power it can deliver.  Although Amps are not power units, these ratings do represent the amount of power that can be output.

For direct current (DC), power P can be calculated by multiplying the voltage and current, when they are known. P = V I

Note that energy/charge is multiplied by charge/time to give energy/time. At any one point in time t in alternating current (AC) circuitry, power P(t) equals voltage V(t) times current I(t). P(t) = V(t) I(t) at any one time t

Calculations of AC power averaged over time will be discussed under AC power.

Circuit
An electronic circuit is a system in which conventional current flows from the positive terminal of a source, through a load, to the negative terminal of the source. But the current will only flow when there is a closed path from the positive to negative terminal. If there is a discontinuity or an open circuit in its path, the current will not flow and hence the circuit will be non functional. The current does not flow since the open circuit acts like an infinite resistance.

Short Circuit

A short circuit is another name for a node, although it usually means an unintentional node. Has current through it but no voltage across it.

Open Circuit

Has potential across it but no current through it.

Properties of wires
Theoretical circuit connection (wire) has no resistance or inductance. Real wires always have voltage over them if there is current flowing through them (resistance). On high frequencies there are measurable voltage potentials over wire links if there is flowing alternating current through wires (inductance like in inductors).

title: Electronics/Voltage, Current, and Power


text:
Talk:Civ/Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri/Facility Index

I'm confused. The Recycling Tanks says it costs no maintenance, then "(0 with Adv. Ecological Engineering)" -- so it still costs no maintenance. I checked this with Prima's strategy guide which seems to say the same thing... --Furrykef 00:55, 3 Jun 2004 (UTC)

alphax.txt said the same thing, too, so I'm willing to bet that the game is actually wasting CPU cycles checking to see if your Rec Tanks are "Free" or just cost 0 ECs to upkeep. --Anarchie 04:20, 6 Jun 2004 (UTC)

What does the temple of planet do? The effect isn't written.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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The Voynich Manuscript/F1r

Transcription, comments, theories, links to do with VMs page f1r to be added here... :-)

Description:
This page contains four paragraphs (with 4.6, 2.4, 9.5, 5.5 lines, respectively), each followed by a short right-justified "title". '' Paragraphs 2 and 3 begin with big "weirdo" doodles, very unlike normal Voynichese letters. The first (EVA &252) looks like a capital K lying on it side, with the vertical bar at the bottom; it could be said to resemble a bird with its wings outspread. The second (EVA &253) looks similar to the first, with an extra squiggly line rising from between the two "horns". The two symbols are drawn or painted with flaring strokes ending in swallowtail serifs.

A 1-inch band along the right margin is heavily stained. There seem to be two or three columns of letters ("key like sequences" in that band, which are barely visible in the reproductions

There is a faint unreadable text at the top of the page, apparently in cursive handwriting.

Comments:
This page starts both Quire 1 and the whole manuscript. Many of the VMs' mysterious features - such as right-justified "titles", mysterious marginalia, deliberate (yet curious) page-structure, rare one-off characters, etc - are to be found here.

The page layout suggests four quotes with attributions, or signed endorsements, or perhaps descriptive summaries of sections that follow.

The faint scribbling at the top is the signature of Jacobus de Tepenecz, as asserted in many references.

Jim Reeds writes [15 Jul 94]: "The erased key on f1r is discussed by Brumbaugh. It seems to have 3 vertical columns of letters. The leftmost is the ordinary alphabet, lower case italic hand, a through z. I could not check for the presence of every letter (I'm not sure about j, for instance) but a, b, c, ... o, p, q, r, s, ... y, z are pretty clear. Next to those are very spotty frags of Voynich letters. I could make out <8> next to a,  next to c, <6> next to y, and one of the gallows letters somewhere near the q, r, s range. [...] The 3d column seems to be 1 off from the first: italic miniscules, r next to s, and so on. More is visible in UV shots than Petersen shows."

Brumbaugh reportedly claims that there was a date in the upper right corner of f1r before it was obliterated by the application of chemicals (intended to reveal faded writing).

D'Imperio says that the "weirdo" characters EVA &252/&253 are in bright red ink; confirmed by Glen Claston [20 Feb 1998] and Jim Reeds [03 Mar 1998].

Rene [28 Jul 1997] found a medieval astrological diagram [1], in Greek, where EVA &252 is used as a symbol for Aries, which is "kruos" or "kryos" in Greek.

Stolfi suggested [07 Aug 1998] that the symbols may be abbreviations for "Koenig" and "KoenigiN" --- i.e. "K" and "K"-with-squiggle. (How desperate can you get?)

References:
[1] Codex Taurinensis C VII 15 (author anonymous, no date available). http://www.ficom.net/members/ditch/secret.htm

[2] John Grove http://members.tripod.com/~VoynichMs/Prefix.htm

Images:
From [Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library]:

 * http://highway55.library.yale.edu/VOYNICHIMG/size1/D0001/1006076.jpg

[4x JPG] [8x JPG] [Full-Size SID]

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F1r


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/F12v

[Nick Pelling] Even though this page is missing, we can still see the "bleed-across" from its paint on page f13r. It also seems highly likely that f12 was cut out after the folios were numbered: I think it's reasonably safe to conclude that this page was cut out by a later owner. Perhaps by examining the technology used to perform the cut, we may be able to get an idea of who cut it out! However, whether this is the page (from North Wales) described by Paul Floyd in 2003 is another question entirely...

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F12v


text:
Cookbook:Koeksisters (Fried Braided Pastry in Syrup)

| Cuisine of South Africa | Confections

A koeksister is a fritter, usually in the shape of a plait, that is dipped in a cold syrup mixture. Koeksisters are very rich and are usually served as a special treat or kept for festive occasions. Making koeksisters is time-consuming and labour-intensive (another reason why it is not often made in modern day homes), so plan ahead to set a night and day aside for making this delicious treat. If you keep your oil hot and the syrup very cold you get the perfect koeksister—crisp and crunchy on the outside and soft, moist and syrupy on the inside. The syrup is made the night before to chill in the refrigerator in two containers. While making the koeksisters one of the containers is kept chilled in the refrigerator, to replace the other container of syrup when it heats up after a few batches of the fried dough have been dipped into the first container of syrup. If the syrup isn't cold, the dough won't soak up the syrup and you will end up with a dry koeksister.

Syrup

 * 1 kg white granulated sugar
 * 500 ml (2 cups) water
 * 3 cm long piece of fresh ginger, peeled and bruised OR 2–3 sticks of cinnamon (optional)
 * 1 ml (pinch) cream of tartar
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * 2 ½ tsp lemon juice

Dough

 * 240 g all-purpose flour
 * 4 tsp (20 ml) baking powder
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * 2 tbsp (30 ml) butter
 * 125 ml (½ cup) buttermilk OR soured milk OR water mixed with lemon juice

Syrup

 * 1) Combine all ingredients in a saucepan. Bring to a boil, stirring until the sugar has dissolved.
 * 2) Turn the heat down, and simmer for 5–8 minutes.
 * 3) Cool the syrup to room temperature.
 * 4) Divide it into 2 containers, and place in the refrigerator to chill overnight.

Dough

 * 1) Sift together flour, baking powder, and salt.
 * 2) Rub in butter.
 * 3) Add buttermilk. Mix into a soft dough and knead thoroughly. It helps if you oil your hands lightly when starting to knead the dough.
 * 4) Cover the dough with a damp cloth, and leave it to rest for 15 minutes.
 * 5) Roll the dough out to a thickness of 5 mm and cut into 5 x 70 mm (½ cm x 7 cm) strips. Press the ends of two or three strips together and twist or plait, then press the ends together again. Keep the dough you are not working with covered with a damp cloth.
 * 6) Deep fry in hot oil until golden brown on both sides.
 * 7) Remove with a slotted spoon and dip the pieces immediately in the ice cold syrup.
 * 8) Remove and place the koeksisters on a wire rack so that the excess syrup can drain.
 * 9) Store the koeksisters in a sealed container in the refrigerator. They freeze well and can be served straight from the freezer.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This recipe will yield about 3 dozen dainty-sized koeksisters—you can make them bigger for a more substantial treat.


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/F1v

Transcription, comments, theories, links to do with VMs page f1v to be added here...

Description:
One plant centered on page.

 * Root: a knobby, warped, pancake-like tuber with short roots attached like claws or fangs  all around the rim. Light color.

 * Stem: thick, well drawn. Light color.

 * Branches: one straight up, two oblique with drooping tips.

 * Leaves: broad lance-shape, with two short tails.

 * Stalk: short.

 * Flowers: one, growing at the tip of the center branch.

 * Stalk: very short.

 * Chalyx: conical, continuous with petals. Petals: short rounded, light-colored.  Core: hemispherical, dark-colored (could be a berry; see below).

Two paragraphs (with 3.8 and 5.8 lines), just below mid-page, left- and right-justified, interrupted by the plant's main stem.

Comments:
Part of this drawing (root and leaves only) is repeated on Pharma page f102r1[3,2].

The plant looks basically normal, except for the very peculiar root.

Petersen identifies the plant as "Solanum Solatrium, Belladonna" specifically the "flower". He says: "see L.Fuchs p.398". There is no "Solanum solatrium"; rather, "solatrium" is an ancient (Dioscoridean) name for some or all of these species:

Atropa Belladona (deadly nightshade)

http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/library/kohler/1763_010.jpg

http://130.60.70.1/GIFTDB/pict_02.htm

Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)

http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/library/kohler/1763_011.jpg

http://www.runeberg.org/nordflor/110.html

Solanum nigrum (black nightshade)

http://axp.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/WEEDS/black_nightshade.html

Solanum dulcamara (bittersweet)

http://cal.vet.upenn.edu/poison/ppstsleurop.htm

http://www.runeberg.org/nordflor/109.html

and perhaps other somewhat less likely species such as Withania somnifera and Physalis alkekengi.

The leaves of f1v seem most compatible those of Atropa belladonna (shape) and Hyoscyamus niger (attachment to stem), and the "flower" at the top of f1v does resemble the sheathed, shiny black fruits of these two species.

However, A.beladonna's root has been described as a roundish rhizome with a long (up to 1m) tapering root, which does not seem to match the highly distinctive "pancake with claws" of f1v. I have found no image or description of the other plants' roots.

A very similar root, with quite different leaves, can be seen on another Italian herbal:

University of Vermont Library MS 2, fol. 39 (ca. 1500)

http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/biomed/his/immi/vm9437.htm

The medieval text calls that plant "Gran[i]a maggiore". The modern commentary tentatively identifies it with

Ecballium elaterium (Squirting Cucumber)

http://www.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/mi10/mi10043.jpg

However the leaves do not match, and the flower barely so. I have found no image or description of E.elaterium's roots.

All four plants are poisonous in varying degrees. The active principles can be absorbed by smoking or through the skin as well as by ingestion. They were used as potent psychoactive drugs, causing paralysis of involuntary muscles, dizziness, sleep, hallucinations, violent behavior, etc., and have been often associated with witchcraft.

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F1v


text:
File:CoupledOscillators.png

Diagram

title: File:CoupledOscillators.png


text:
General Mechanics/Coupled Oscillators

We often encounter systems which contain multiple harmonic oscillators, such as this:

two identical masses, m, the first attached to a wall by a spring with constant k, and the second attached to the first by another, identical spring.

If the springs weren't linked they'd both vibrate at the same frequency, ω=√(k/m). Linking the springs changes this.

To find out how the linked system behaves, we will start with the Lagrangian, using the displacements of the masses, x1 and x2, as our coordinates.

A moment's inspection of the system shows

 * $$T=\frac{1}{2}m \left( \dot{x}^2_1 + \dot{x}^2_2 \right) \quad

V=\frac{1}{2}k \left( x_1^2 + (x_2-x_1)^2 \right) $$

so, using ω²=k/m,

 * $$L=\frac{1}{2}m \left( \dot{x}^2_1 + \dot{x}^2_2 \right) -

\frac{1}{2}m\omega^2 \left( x_1^2 + (x_2-x_1)^2 \right)$$

The equations of motion immediately follow.

 * $$\begin{matrix}

\ddot{x}_1 & = & -\omega^2 (2x_1 -x_2) \\ \ddot{x}_2 & = & -\omega^2 (x_2 -x_1) \end{matrix} \quad (1)$$

To solve these equations we try a solution in trig functions
 * $$x_1 = A_1 \sin \Omega t \quad x_2 = A_2 \sin \Omega t $$

Substituting this into (1) gives

 * $$\begin{matrix}

-\Omega^2 A_1 & + & \omega^2 (2A_1-A_2) & = & 0 \\ -\Omega^2 A_2 & + & \omega^2 (A_2-A_1) & = & 0 \\ \end{matrix} $$

We would get the same equations from any trig function solution of the same frequency.

Gathering the coefficients of A1 and A2 together lets rewrite the last equation as

\begin{pmatrix} 2\omega^2-\Omega^2 & -\omega^2 \\ -\omega^2 & \omega^2-\Omega^2 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} A_1 \\ A_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix} \quad (2)$$

We can only solve this equation if the determinant of the matrix is zero.

 * $$\Omega^4-3\omega^2 \Omega^2 + \omega^4 = 0$$

The solutions are

 * $$ \Omega_{\pm}^2=\frac{3 \pm \sqrt{5} }{2} \omega^2 $$

so the combined system has two natural frequencies, one lower and one higher than the natural frequency of the individual springs. This is typical.

We can also calculate the ratio of A1 and A2 from (2). Dividing by A2 gives

 * $$\frac{A_1}{A_2}= 1-\frac{\Omega_{\pm}^2}{\omega^2}$$

 * For the lower frequency, Ω-, which is less than ω, the ratio is positive, so the two masses move in the same direction with different amplitudes. They are said to be in phase.

 * For the higher frequency, Ω+, which is more than ω, the ratio is negative, so the two masses move in the opposite direction with different amplitudes. They are said to be in antiphase.

This behaviour is typical when pairs of harmonic oscillators are coupled.

The same approach can also be used for systems with more than two particles.

title: General Mechanics/Coupled Oscillators


text:
Internet Technologies/IRC

Internet Relay Chat, commonly abbreviated IRC, is a chat protocol, a way how to enable several people to talk to each other by entering text messages, each participant seeing everything that the other participants write, as if they were in a telephone conference.

Technology of IRC
Formally, IRC is a real-time text-based multi-user communication protocol specification and implementation, which relays messages between users on the network. According to Efnet.org, IRC was born sometime in 1988. According to IRChelp.org, the official specification for IRC was written in 1993 in the RFC format. The specification "RFC 1459: Internet Relay Chat Protocol" is a really excellent source for both an introduction to and detailed information about the IRC protocol. Today IRC has a very wide range of users and anyone can find a place to participate in chat.

IRC's largest unit of architecture is the IRC network. There are perhaps hundreds of IRC networks in the world each one running parallel and disjoint from the others. A client logged into one network can communicate only with other clients on the same network, not with clients on other networks. Each network is composed of one or more IRC servers. An IRC client is a program that connects to a given IRC server in order to have the server relay communications to and from other clients on the same network but not necessarily the same server.

Messages on IRC are sent as blocks. That is, other IRC clients will not see one typing and editing as one does so. One creates a message block (often just a sentence) and transmits that block all at once, which is received by the server and based on the addressing, delivers it to the appropriate client or relays it to other servers so that it may be delivered or relayed again, et cetera.

Once connected to a server, addressing of other clients is achieved through IRC nicknames. A nickname is simply a unique string of ASCII characters identifying a particular client. Although implementations vary, restrictions on nicknames usually dictate that they be composed only of characters a-z, A-Z, 0-9, underscore, and dash.

Another form of addressing on IRC, and arguably one of its defining features, is the IRC channel. IRC channels are often compared to CB Radio (Citizen's Band Radio) channels. While with CB one is said to be "listening" to a channel, in IRC one's client is said to be "joined" to the channel. Any communication sent to that channel is then "heard" or seen by the client. On the other hand, other clients on the same network or even on the same server, but not on the same channel will not see any messages sent to that channel.

While IRC is by definition not a P2P protocol, IRC does have some extensions that support text and file transmission directly from client to client without any relay at all. These extensions are known as DCC (Direct Client Connect) and CTCP (Client To Client Protocol). For CTCP, clients like mIRC implement commands such as "ctcp nickname version" or "ctcp nickname ping" to get some interesting infos about other users.

Using Internet Relay Chat
To use Internet Relay Chat, you need to do the following:
 * 1) Choose and install an IRC client.
 * 2) Find the channel discussing the topic of your interest (similar to a room in other chat environments).
 * 3) Find the server at which the channel is located. You can be directed to both the server and the channel by the website of a project, such as Wikibooks.
 * 4) Connect to the server using the client, using a nickname of your choice.
 * 5) Connect to the channel (a room).

Registering your nickname
Some IRC networks offer to register your nickname through a service bot. This provides sometimes access to channels that are blocked to unregistered users and in most cases reserves your nickname so no one else can use it (it will at least mark you as the logged in user and anyone else who uses it as not logged in).

The service bots providing this is mostly named "NickServ", sometimes also "AuthServ" or on a big network just "Q". When you found out which one of those bots exists, you can gather more information by typing:
 * /msg [BOTNAME] help

This should get you detailed instructions on how to use the service.

Example HowTo for a network
The process is fairly simple, once you have chosen a nickname you would like to register (assuming it's not owned by anyone else) and chosen a password, follow these steps:

 * If you have not done so already, change your nickname to the one you would like to register
 * /nick [NICKNAME]

For example:
 * /nick JohnDoe

 * Send a private message to the network's nickserv service with the password you chose and your email address with
 * /msg nickserv register [PASSWORD] [EMAIL]

For example:
 * /msg nickserv register 1234abcd JohnDoe@email.com

 * After messaging the nickserv you should shortly receive a reply back stating that the it received your registration request and sent an email to the address you provided.
 * An email containing nickname activation instructions has been sent to JohnDoe@email.com

 * To complete the registration process, you will need to message the nickserv with the registration code emailed to your address.
 * /msg NickServ VERIFY REGISTER JohnDoe p4huc5gqunnc

 * Once you have correctly entered the registration code, the nickserv should message you back stating the nick registration process was completed successfully.
 * JohnDoe has now been verified.

You should now be "logged in" under your nick. If you disconnect from the server, to relogin under your nick you will need to message the nickserv with your password:
 * /msg nickserv identify [PASSWORD]

For example:
 * /msg nickserv identify 1234abcd

Once doing so, it should reply back saying you successfully logged in.
 * You are now identified for JohnDoe

Private conversations and chats
By default, the conversations using IRC are public, visible to all users in the channel.

To have a private conversation with a user in the channel, type "/query nickname".

To have a private chat, join an non-existent channel, and then allow joining only by invitation using the command "/mode +i". Chunked into steps:
 * 1) /join #mynewchannel
 * 2) /mode +i
 * 3) /invite someotherguy

IRC clients
To use IRC, you'll need an IRC client--a program that lets you connect to an IRC server, and enter an IRC channel. There is a variety of IRC clients:

IRC commands
What follows is an overview of some of the basic commands of the IRC protocol. All the commands are already prefixed with a slash "/", as in most clients this will indicate that an IRC command follows that shall be executed. With some IRC clients including ChatZilla and Pidgin, you do not need to know these commands: you tell the client what you want to do using the graphical user interface and the client sends the necessary commands for you.

Basic commands
Some basic commands for IRC are listed in the following section. Please note that not all of them are available in all clients, as some of them are client-sided inventions to make your life easier and not part of the IRC protocol itself.

Privileged User Commands
Commands for half-operators, channel operators, channel owners, and admins:

آي آر سي IRC IRC-kursus Tecnologías de Internet/IRC Guide d’utilisation de l’IRC IRC IRC/Okładka Internet Relay Chat IRC

title: Internet Technologies/IRC


text:
User:Simias~enwikibooks

Le bon sens est la chose du monde la mieux partagée ; car chacun pense en être si bien pourvu que ceux même qui sont les plus difficiles à contenter en toute autre chose n'ont point coutume d'en désirer plus qu'ils en ont. En quoi il n'est pas vraisemblable que tous se trompent. (Descartes)
 * Cato

''Quand je désirais me former une opinion sur un sujet, je l'étudiais, pesais les arguments selon plusieurs points de vue, et j'essayais de parvenir à une conclusion mesurée. J'ai depuis découvert que ce n'est pas la bonne manière de s'y prendre. Un homme de génie connaît tout cela sans avoir besoin de l'étudier.'' (Bertrand Russell)

L'enthousiasme que suscite une croyance ne prouve pas sa vérité. Nietzsche

la:Usor:Cato

 * étudiant en philosophie
 * Wiki sur Nietzsche

title: User:Simias~enwikibooks


text: User:Perl~enwikibooks/tmp

title: User:Perl~enwikibooks/tmp


text:
Geometry/Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

There are two approaches to furthering knowledge: reasoning from known ideas and synthesizing observations. In inductive reasoning you observe the world, and attempt to explain based on your observations. You start with no prior assumptions. Deductive reasoning consists of logical assertions from known facts.

Basic Terms
Before one can start to understand logic, and thereby begin to prove geometric theorems, one must first know a few vocabulary words and symbols.

Conditional: a conditional is something which states that one statement implies another. A conditional contains two parts: the condition and the conclusion, where the former implies the latter. A conditional is always in the form "If statement 1, then statement 2." In most mathematical notation, a conditional is often written in the form p ⇒ q, which is read as "If p, then q" where p and q are statements.

Converse: the converse of a logical statement is when the conclusion becomes the condition and vice versa; i.e., p ⇒ q becomes q ⇒ p. For example, the converse of the statement "If someone is a woman, then they are a human" would be "If someone is a human, then they are a woman." The converse of a conditional does not necessarily have the same truth value as the original, though it sometimes does, as will become apparent later.

AND: And is a logical operator which is true only when both statements are true. For example, the statement "Diamond is the hardest substance known to man AND a diamond is a metal" is false. While the former statement is true, the latter is not. However, the statement "Diamond is the hardest substance known to man AND diamonds are made of carbon" would be true, because both parts are true.

OR: If two statements are joined together by "or," then the truth of the "or" statement is dependent upon whether one or both of the statements from which it is composed is true. For example, the statement "Tuesday is the day after Monday OR Thursday is the day after Saturday" would have a truth value of "true," because even though the latter statement is false, the former is true.

NOT: If a statement is preceded by "NOT," then it is evaluating the opposite truth value of that statement. The symbol for "NOT" is For example, if the statement p is "Elvis is dead," then ¬p would be "Elvis is not dead." The concept of "NOT" can cause some confusion when it relates to statements which contain the word "all." For example, if r is "¬". "All men have hair," then ¬r would be "All men do not have hair" or "No men have hair." Do not confuse this with "Not all men have hair" or "Some men have hair." The "NOT" should apply to the verb in the statement: in this case, "have." ¬p can also be written as NOT p or ~p. NOT p may also be referred to as the "negation of p."

Inverse: The inverse of a conditional says that the negation of the condition implies the negation of the conclusion. For example, the inverse of p ⇒ q is ¬p ⇒ ¬q. Like a converse, an inverse does not necessarily have the same truth value as the original conditional.

Biconditional: A biconditional is conditional where the condition and the conclusion imply one another. A biconditional starts with the words "if and only if." For example, "If and only if p, then q" means both that p implies q and that q implies p.

Premise: A premise is a statement whose truth value is known initially. For example, if one were to say "If today is Thursday, then the cafeteria will serve burritos," and one knew that what day it was, then the premise would be "Today is Thursday" or "Today is not Thursday."

⇒: The symbol which denotes a conditional. p ⇒ q is read as "if p, then q."

Iff: Iff is a shortened form of "if and only if." It is read as "if and only if."

⇔: The symbol which denotes a biconditonal. p ⇔ q is read as "If and only if p, then q."

∴: The symbol for "therefore." p ∴ q means that one knows that p is true (p is true is the premise), and has logically concluded that q must also be true.

∧: The symbol for "and."

∨: The symbol for "or."

Deductive Reasoning
There are a few forms of deductive logic. One of the most common deductive logical arguments is modus ponens, which states that:
 * p ⇒ q
 * p ∴ q

 * (If p, then q)
 * (p, therefore q)

An example of modus ponens:
 * If I stub my toe, then I will be in pain.
 * I stub my toe.
 * Therefore, I am in pain.

Another form of deductive logic is modus tollens, which states the following.

 * p ⇒ q
 * ¬q ∴ ¬p

 * (If p, then q)
 * (not q, therefore not p)

Modus tollens is just as valid a form of logic as modus ponens. The following is an example which uses modus tollens.

 * If today is Thursday, then the cafeteria will be serving burritos.

 * The cafeteria is not serving burritos, therefore today is not Thursday.

Another form of deductive logic is known as the If-Then Transitive Property. Simply put, it means that there can be chains of logic where one thing implies another thing. The If-Then Transitive Property states:

 * p ⇒ q

 * (q ⇒ r) ∴ (p ⇒ r)

 * (If p, then q)

 * ((If q, then r), therefore (if p, then r))

For example, consider the following chain of if-then statements.
 * If today is Thursday, then the cafeteria will be serving burritos.
 * If the cafeteria will be serving burritos, then I will be happy.

 * Therefore, if today is Thursday, then I will be happy.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is a logical argument which does not definitely prove a statement, but rather assumes it. Inductive reasoning is used often in life. Polling is an example of the use of inductive reasoning. If one were to poll one thousand people, and 300 of those people selected choice A, then one would infer that 30% of any population might also select choice A. This would be using inductive logic, because it does not definitively prove that 30% of any population would select choice A.

Because of this factor of uncertainty, inductive reasoning should be avoided when possible when attempting to prove geometric properties.

Truth Tables
Truth tables are a way that one can display all the possibilities that a logical system may have when given certain premises. The following is a truth table with two premises (p and q), which shows the truth value of some basic logical statements. (NOTE: T = true; F = false)


text:
Geometry/Proof

Introduction
Unlike science which has theories, mathematics has a definite notion of proof. Mathematics applies deductive reasoning to create a series of logical statements which show that one thing implies another.

Consider a triangle, which we define as a shape with three vertices joined by three lines. We know that we can arbitrarily pick some point on a page, and make that into a vertex. We repeat that process and pick a second point. Using a ruler, we can connect these two points. We now make a third point, not on the line through the first two points, and using the ruler connect it to each of the other points. We have constructed a triangle.

In mathematics we formalize this process into axioms, and carefully lay out the sequence of statements to show what follows. All definitions are clearly defined. In modern mathematics, we are always working within some system where various axioms hold.

Two-Column Proof
The most common form of explicit proof in high school geometry is a two column proof consists of five parts: the given, the proposition, the statement column, the reason column, and the diagram (if one is given).

Example of a Two-Column Proof
Now, suppose a problem tells you to solve $$x + 1 = 2$$ for $$x$$, showing all steps made to get to the answer. A proof shows how this is done:

Given: $$x + 1 = 2$$

Prove: x = 1

We use "Given" as the first reason, because it is "given" to us in the problem.

Written Proof
Written proofs (also known as informal proofs, paragraph proofs, or 'plans for proof') are written in paragraph form. Other than this formatting difference, they are similar to two-column proofs.

Sometimes it is helpful to start with a written proof, before formalizing the proof in two-column form. If you're having trouble putting your proof into two column form, try "talking it out" in a written proof first.

Example of a Written Proof
We are given that x + 1 = 2, so if we subtract one from each side of the equation (x + 1 - 1 = 2 - 1), then we can see that x = 1 by the definition of subtraction.

Flowchart Proof
A flowchart proof or more simply a flow proof is a graphical representation of a two-column proof. Each set of statement and reasons are recorded in a box and then arrows are drawn from one step to another. This method shows how different ideas come together to formulate the proof.

title: Geometry/Proof


text:
Beginning Mathematics/Introduction to Abstraction

Mathematics takes concrete things, and turns them into abstractions which help to generalize ideas. Take a simple example with numbers. Is quantity the property of a thing? We can have two cars or two shoes, but there are still two. We can also have one car or two cars, but we are still talking about a "car".

Think about it for a minute. Can you define the idea of number? There is no tangible thing as one. There is "one dollar", but there is not a one. There is a symbol for one, but again no tangible "one".

If you attempted to define numbers you probably came up with definitions that just start out listing 1,2,3,etc. or you can also look and see that one plus one is two. There is something inherent in this property.

This seemingly imperceptible condition of abstraction is the defining quality of mathematics. In geometry we consider enclosed shapes with three sides on them, and call them triangles. You may see a triangle, but you will never see the tangible idea of triangle. You merely see a representation of it.

Yet, you can discover such facts like a rectangle can be divided into two triangles. This is true regardless of the rectangle you choose, and you can reason this without actually seeing every rectangle, which would be impossible.

Mathematics is able to generalize various things into abstract ideas, upon which generalized statements can be made for classes of objects without considering each one individually. Triangles have certain properties. Two of anything has certain properties. These are all related in the abstract.

In understanding abstractions, mathematics begins to classify ways in which abstract objects are alike, and ways they are different. Some things are numbers, and others are shapes.

Mathematics deals with this problem by defining different types of equivalences. For any two things it covers, an equivalence class says they are either the same or different in a certain way. In ordinary arithmetic this might be expressed by something like $$3+3=6$$ which says that under the equal equivalence class 3+3 is the same as 6.


text:
User:Leoreo~enwikibooks

はじめまして
Leoreoと申します！かなり適当なWikibooks住民です！当分の間は以下のことを目標にします. WikipediaのLeoreoと同一人物です.

 * Wikibooksの宣伝. （みんなWikipediaの方はよく知っているのにWikibooksの方は知らないんだなあ）
 * 自分のわかる範囲でのWikibooks書き. （世界的迷惑行為と言う…）

私についての情報
ウェブサーフィンをしていると、いつかわかる日が来るかもしれません. きっとすぐにわかるでしょう！

title: User:Leoreo~enwikibooks


text:
Puzzles/Action sequences/Three Bottles/Solution

Puzzles | Action sequences | Three Bottles | Solution


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/Jargon

Your friendly online dictionary for impenetrable Voynich terminology!

Basic Voynich Jargon
Dain = Colloquial Scots, particularly North East Scotland meaning "doing". A typical example may be "Fit i Ye Dain?'" = "What are you Doing?" Can also be "Dein"

dain/daiin/daiiin = a weird-looking "word" that recurs throughout the VMS, often in groups (like dain daiin), which has led to numerous bizarre theories.

EVA = a particular stroke-based transcription format for the VMS, designed to be both linguistically readable and post-processible into whatever glyph format you like. For more on this (and to download the EVA Hand 1 font), go to: http://www.voynich.nu/extra/eva.html

Folio = a pair of pages with a number (the foliation) on the front (typically in the top right). The front page of the pair is denoted "-r" (for recto), and the back (reverse) page of the pair is denoted "-v" (for verso). So, f80r means folio #80, front page.

Gallows / Gallows Characters = the tall squiggly characters seen freqently in the VMS. Less common are Long gallows or Split gallows, which are gallows characters which (typically) have the two 'legs' of the gallows separated and some other text placed beneath.

Interlinear = a merged set of transcriptions of the VMS, where various authors' transcriptions of the same line of VMS text are interleaved (ie, placed one after the other). You can download the latest ("version 1.6e6") Landini/Reeds/Takahashi/etc interlinear file from http://www.dcc.unicamp.br/~stolfi/voynich/98-12-28-interln16e6/

Nymph = one of the small naked women adorning the pages of the balneological and astrological sections.

Picnic Table = an inverted V shape with a flat line across the top (not a gallows character). In EVA this is character .

Quire = a set of bifolios folded around a central "gutter" into a small chapter-like entity: typically 16 pages long. If numbered (as they are in the VMS, usually on the bottom right of the back of each quire), the numbering is referred to as its quiration.

Voynich Section Jargon
Herbal pages = pages with a single type of plant on

Pharma pages = pages with multiple plants and apothecary jars (maiolica)

Astrological pages = the circular volvelles with nymphs (f70v2..f73v)

Astronomical pages = the other circular diagrams (f67r1..f70r2, etc)

9-rosette page = the foldout map page

Recipe / Ephemeris pages = the starred paragraphs at the back of the VMS

Balneological pages = nymphs, baths, plumbing (f75r...f84v)

Key-like sequences = pages with 1+ sets of single glyphs in a row/column/circle

Front page = f1r

Magic circle page = f57v

Fertilisation / Seed page = f86v

The michiton oladabas page = the last page, named after one particularly influential reading of its non-Voynichese letters.

Linguistics/Statistics Voynich Jargon
Core-mantle-crust theory = three separate categories to group letters into: part of a VMS grammar proposed by Jorge Stolfi, explained in depth at http://www.dcc.unicamp.br/~stolfi/voynich/00-06-07-word-grammar/

Entropy = an overall measure of how unpredictable a sequence of numbers is. However, if you change how you predict what the next number is (ie, change the context or model), and you'll get a different entropy value. If you change how you transcribe the text, you'll get a different entropy value too.

Glyph = a single connected entity on a page. But is the ligatured "4o" you often see one glyph or two? Opinions differ...

Grammar = how text 'works'. For the VMS, written in a language and alphabet we (apparently) don't know, working this out has proven hard. A good summary is here: http://www.voynich.nu/a_para.html

(The) Kober/Ventris Approach = the way that Linear B was famously decoded by Michael Ventris, who built his ideas around the patterns noticed by Alice Kober (typically a common triplet at the start of some groups of five symbols, which she suspected formed some kind of root). If the VMS is actually a language, then Kober/Ventris would be relevant, as they decoded Linear B without the help of bilingual texts (like the Rosetta stone, etc). For more info, go to http://www.bib-arch.org/bswb_AO/bswbao0601review.html

Stroke = a single pen-stroke within a glyph.

Transcription = how you choose to convert a text into (ASCII) characters. There are two major types - stroke-based (such as EVA) and glyph-based (pretty much every other one). As opinions differ about what is and isn't a glyph, EVA was introduced so that a single transcription could be post-processed to fit your glyph model.

Cryptography / Shorthand Voynich Jargon
Cipherbet = a contraction of "cipher alphabet" coined by Nick Pelling. Admittedly a horrible word, but if you take a cryptographic view of the VMS, you'll probably end up using this (perhaps unwillingly).

Cleartext = the original text before encoding. Same as plaintext.

Ciphertext = plaintext that has been enciphered/encoded (perhaps encoded text should be called Codetext, but that seems somehow ugly and unusable, I don't know why).

Code / Cipher = a system to fiddle around with text. Technically, codes replace words with a number reference (a code index) and ciphers replace letters with other letters: though nomenclature (whereby particular key words were replaced by special symbols) forms a kind of bridge between the two types of systems.

Cryptanalysis = the art/science of breaking codes/ciphers.

Cryptography = the art/science of making codes/ciphers.

Cryptology = the overall science of code-making and code-breaking

Monoalphabetic = a cipher system that only ever has a single (output) replacement character for a single (input) plaintext character. It's long been agreed that, if the VMs is encoded, it's using a system that's more complex than just a monoalphabetic cipher. cf polyalphabetic.

Notarikon = a system of Qabbalistic word manipulation whereby phrases are transformed into their acronyms (and words expanded back into phrases as if they were acronyms), typically to reveal deeper truths in the Torah. Often described as a kind of possible shorthand / code mechanism, but rarely actually used.

Pair cipher = a cipher which replaces one or more plaintext letters with a pair (or group) of letters from the cipherbet. AKA a verbose cipher.

Plaintext = raw text that hasn't been fiddled around with at all.

Polyalphabetic = a cipher system that has multiple monoalphabetic (qv) ciphers, which it selects between according to context. A "straight polyalpha" will change context every letter, and loop around after (say) every 26 letters: when breaking polyalphas, you often try to discern this "heartbeat". Unless the text has an internal "rhythm" that matches the internal rhythm of the context change, this typically has the effect of emitting all letters at roughly the same rate - which we don't observe in the VMS. So, if it isn't a monoalpha, & it isn't a straight polyalpha... what is it?

Steganography = a system to hide text in plain sight. Rather than relying on mathematics, this relies on psychology and misdirection to distract the eye from seeing the text. Hiding text in JPEGs or WAVs is the modern form of steganography (various intelligence agencies claimed that Al-Qaeda was doing this, but AFAIK have failed to find even one) - but people have taken delight in hiding secret messages in pictures since time immemorial.

Stenography = a modern name for shorthand. Often confused with steganography (qv), even by people who should know better. :-)

Tachygraphy = a shorthand system based around writing a limited number of symbols at speed, typically by using a specially designed "single-stroke" alphabet to take notes onto a wax tablet with a stylus.

Verbose cipher = a cipher which replaces one or more plaintext letters with a pair (or group) of letters from the cipherbet: such systems date back to at least 1440. AKA pair cipher.

Miscellaneous Voynich Jargon
Albarelli = maiolica containers (like small barrels) for potions and lotions. These are relevant to the "barrels" with nymphs in (which Edith Sherwood talks about) in the low-numbered astrological volvelle pages, as these could well be albarelli: the complexity of the glazing designs grew steadily throughout the 15th Century, so moved from austere Islamic geometric shapes (circa 1440-1450) through to complex historical scenes (circa 1510). Similarly, the number of colours that could be employed sensibly increased over the same period - these would date the VMS' albarelli to (say) 1460-1470 (few colours, geometric designs).

Antidotary = manuscript or book from the 15th/16th Century describing recipes, mixtures, plants, jars, etc.

Apothecary = medieval / early modern pharmacist or chemist. The "apothecary oncia" symbol (a 'cursive z' with a bar above it), denoting an ounce or fluid ounce, was a frequent feature of early modern recipes, and is often transcribed as "3". This means a frequent pattern there is "3 iii" (which means "oncia tria", 3 ounces) - so some suspect that the VMS' "dain/daiin/daiiin" could be a steganographic version of "3 i / 3 ii / 3 iii". However, YMMV. :-)

Balneological = a hand-rolled fancy Cuban-cigar way of saying "to do with [medicinal] baths and spas".

(The) Castle Page = part of the foldout page on f85v2. This foldout page is known as "the 9-rosette page", as it is made up of 9 strange circular shapes arranged in a 'tic-tac-toe' pattern, and connected by what look like causeways. Iconographically, the rosette with the castle resembles the circular maps of Milan which appeared in the 15th Century, the most famous of which appeared in Jacopo del Massajo's 1428 edition of Ptolemy's Geographia. Make of that what you will! :-)

Circinus = medieval device used to draw circles.

CopyFlo = a kind of monochrome photocopy printout from microfilm produced by the Beinecke Library which you can buy. It's very nice to own one, but it's just a shame that it's not somewhat better quality.

Foldout = a page larger than the size of most VMS pages that you can "fold out" to see in full. Examples: the famous "9-rosette" map page, the pharma pages, the astronomical pages.

FSG = First Study Group, a early (and significant) group of cryptographers and historians who tried to crack the VMS, 1944-1946. Similarly, there was an SSG in the 1960s. There's a good page listing numerous people involved with the VMS over the years here --> http://www.voynich.nu/solvers.html

Grove Numbers = a way of numbering the nymphs/stars/labels on the circular astrological diagrams: for a particular ring, count clockwise from 9 o'clock (normally the leftmost nymph) up from #1. There are three (partial) justifications for this: (1) this is the location of the ascendant (the horizon) in a circular astrological natal chart; (2) this is roughly where you find stylised markers (probably indicating "start-of-line") in the circular rings of text; (3) if you count from the inside ring first, the nymph associated with the 7th degree of Leo is wearing a crown - the star associated with Leo 7 is Regulus, "the little king". If you're interested, you might like to look at Astromagia. However, YMMV... :-o

Maiolica = 15th/16th century tin-glazed earthenware, AKA lustreware. (Note that Victorian tin-glazed earthenware is called "Majolica", i.e. with a "j"). Maiolica was originally shipped across to Italy from Spain via Majorca (hence the name, somewhat misleadingly), but the technique for making it was copied in Northern Italy, which became the leading centre for their manufacture (circa 1450). http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~kovacevi/homepage.htm

Mirror of Princes = a type of medieval document which purported to advise princes on how to tackle numerous different aspects of stately life. Filarete's utopian "Treatise on Architecture" falls into this category, as does Machiavelli's (in)famous "Il Principe". However, Alberti also wrote a satire ("Momo e Il Principe Italiano", which is online at http://www.intratext.com/X/ITA0734.HTM ) taking the mickey out of these "Mirrors" (which tended to take themselves rather too seriously), & their intention (to influence those in power) seems rarely to have succeeded. Oh well. :-/

Murano = the centre of the Italian glass-making and mirror-making trade, which was tightly controlled by Venice. A few of the containers in the VMS pharma section have decoration similar to glass from Murano circa 1450-1500.

Nocturnelle = a hand-held circular early modern instrument similar to a volvelle, but instead used for calculating the time at night from the position of the stars. AKA moon-dial, or even phebilabe or phebelabium (following David A. King).

Rotoscope / Rotograph = a kind of projective photograph system used in the early 20th Century, whereby images (rotographs) were projected onto the plane of a screen inside a mechanism (a rotoscope), which could then be examined closely or traced from. The British Library was given a set of VMS rotographs in 1931.

Volvelle = a hand-held medieval astrological instrument made from concentric circular dials, & used to calculate planetary positions...

Wiki / WikiWiki = a generic name for a web-page which anyone can edit quickly without having to learn HTML. Try it yourself! :-)

WMV = Wilfrid Michael Voynich, who bought the VMS in Italy in 1912. His original (Polish) name was "Michal Wojnicz", and his clandestine spy-name (don't ask) was "Wilfryd" - when he moved to the West, he westernised his name to be a mixture of the two, spelt more phonetically.

Wolkenband = a chain of clouds, often used as a squiggly decorative feature in 15th Century Italian MS, to be seen on VMS page f68v3 (first brought up by Erla Rosakiewicz in 1945 - see http://www.ehabitat.demon.co.uk/vms/letter-050.html ) and indeed throughout the VMS' balneological section.

YMMV = Your Mileage May Vary, ie "interpret the preceding statement(s) how you will"

title: The Voynich Manuscript/Jargon


text:
GTK+ By Example

This book aims to be an accessible introduction into creating applications with GTK+ widget toolkit. We introduce widgets and give examples on how to use them.

Why a Wikibook on GTK+?
A wikibook is an undertaking similar to an open-source software project: A contributor creates content for the project to help others, for personal enrichment, or to accomplish something for the contributor's own work (e.g., lecture preparation).

An open book, just like an open program, requires time to complete, but it can benefit greatly from even modest contributions from readers. For example you can fix "bugs" in the text (where the bug might be typographic, expository, technical, aesthetic or otherwise) in order to make a better book. If you find an opportunity to fix a bug, simply click on "edit", make your changes, and click on save. Other contributors may review your changes to be sure they are appropriate for the book. If you are unsure, you can visit the discussion page and ask there. Use common sense.

If you would like to make bigger contributions, you can take a look at the sections or chapters that are too short or otherwise need more work and start writing! Be sure to skim the rest of the book first in order to avoid duplication of content. Additionally, you should read the Guidelines for Contributors page for consistency tips and advice.

Note that you don't need to contribute everything at once. You can mark sections as "TODO," with a description of what remains to be done, and perhaps someone else will finish those parts for you. Once all TODO items are finished, we'll have reached our First Edition!

Examples in this book should be written in C as that is the language GTK+ is written in most. Additionally, implementations of the algorithms as an appendix are welcome.

Contributors

 * See also the sources list for contributions used with permission.

 * Tim-Philipp Müller wrote the original tutorial on the GtkTreeView widget, this was already extensive in 2005 when he stopped working on it.

GTK+ GTK+

title: GTK+ By Example


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/F49v

This folio has the numbers 1-5 corresponding to alphabet characters along the left side. If these are indeed values for the characters, it would explain why numbers have not been found with any certainty.

These values have been applied to words in the Astronomical Section in an attempt to find dates. This has met with some success, although the results are not accepted by many.

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F49v


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/F67v1

The central figure may be Tycho Brahe, although this identification places the manuscript at a later date than many researchers are comfortable with.

Under that theory, the prominent stars to the lower left appears to be Casseopeia, and Tycho's Star, the supernova of 1572, is the outer of the two stars in the 8:30 position. The single star to the lower right is Algol.

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F67v1


text:
The Voynich Manuscript/F67v2

One idea concerning the collections of faces in the corners is they may represent planetary conjunctions. Astronomical research has revealed that such configurations do indeed occur. While providing specific dates, they do not help date the manuscript, as they occurred in both the 15th and 16th Centuries.

An interpretation of the folio is that the conjunctions were observed from the central point while the Sun or Moon was setting (or rising) over the trees.

Here are some of the alignment dates:

NW Mercury, Venus, Jupiter (Virgo) 29 August 1554 NE Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn  (Taurus/Aries) 17 April 1588 SE Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter (Leo/Cancer) 10 July 1577 SW ?

Red Ink
Jorge Stolfi discusses the red ink on this page at http://www.dcc.unicamp.br/~stolfi/voynich/99-12-15-f67-reds/. I have a couple of comments on this document.

First he mentions "The shadow is painted red in seven of the moons, and light yellow in the other five." Looking at the more recently available SIDs provided by the Beinecke (2004) I'm of the opinion that this yellow is a thinner "wash" of the same color used in the non-red text. In fact it is difficult to distinguish the color from some of the fainter letters.

As far as the red ink goes, my non-expert opinion based on the high quality scans now available are that they are all the same ink painted at the same time.

However, I'm not so sure that the red ink was necessarily applied at the same time as the rest of the text.

Firstly there has been some discussion about the sloppiness of some of the painting. In the "moons" on this page neither the red nor the "yellow" fillins are very neat.

In the case of the lighter color overpainting I believe that the overpainting was applied after the outline had dried. This theory is based on the appearance of where the overpainting overlaps the outline and produces and "additive" darkening effect. However this could be no more than minutes after the outline was drawn so perhaps doesn't say much.

I considered the possibility that the red text was an overpainting of earlier brown "original" text. I can't find much evidence for this theory though:

 * At the upper right there seems to be a brown dot between two of the words. Dirt?

 * At the upper left there seems to be a brown dot above one of the words. I'm inclined to think this brown does not quite match the primary text color though.  In fact looking back at the first dot I'm inclined to think that it matches the color of this dot and not the primary text color either.

 * Against this theory is the fact that in some places the red text is rather thin. Perhaps the brush was nearly dry.  In those cases I can see no evidence of an "additive" darkening from an underlying brown text, faint or not.

Another random note: What thought has been given to the pattern in the outer band? At first glance it seems to be decorative, but it is fairly complex and not entirely repetitive. It should be noted that this band seems to have the same "yellow" wash in a couple of places as the lighter overpainted moons. This color also appears in the center figure.

KenCausey 18:39, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: The Voynich Manuscript/F67v2


text:
Talk:Statistics/Displaying Data/Bar Charts

Let's see here...

One more...

I am strongly opposed to the use of "independent" and "dependent" as variable names. I would call them "predictor" and "response" variable.


text:
Guide to Social Activity/Appearance

The factual accuracy of this module is disputed.

First, the bad news. There is nothing you can do that will make you attractive to every woman you meet. Every woman has her own unique preferences, turn-ons,  and turn-offs. Even if you happened to be Mel Gibson, there are women who would look at you and think, "Eh, nothing special," or women for whom Mel Gibson reminds them of some person they intensely dislike (Mel Gibson, perhaps). You just can't please everybody.

However, you need not appeal to a woman in terms of looks to make her go out with you. Of course, she needs to admire you, to feel good and comfortable because of you. So the whole area of looks is just to prevent some thoughts like "my, that's a dirty/boring/careless guy/gal" to pop up in her mind the moment she sees you first.

Clothing
Basic elements of style:

Fit: Obviously, the piece of clothing in question needs to fit, preferably loosely. If you feel like flaunting your muscles (if you HAVE muscles), then go ahead and wear something a little tighter.

Comfort: Except in extreme situations (i.e. formal dinners and the like), make sure your clothing feels comfortable on you. If not, you'll wriggle around, and this will make you look odd.

Colour: The ideal colour of your clothes depends on you. Dark, muted tones convey an air of professionalism, whereas light, bright tones convey an air of lightheartedness. Play to your strengths.

Fabric: This ties back into comfort. If the basic material the clothing is made out of is itchy and uncomfortable, it won't play well with the ladies. Obviously, find what you feel most comfortable in.

Appropriateness: Wearing an inappropriate outfit can effectively sink you. What is deemed "appropriate" is determined by the situation: obviously, black-tie galas and other upscale events call for a much more strict standard of dress than, say, a club.

Practicality: When buying an outfit, think: "How will I use it"? If it's fairly expensive, and you're rarely going to use it, then it may not be a good idea to buy it.

Value: Go with what works on your budget. If you attempt to woo the ladies by looking like a millionaire when you are not one, it will lead to disappointment.

Mixing and matching: This is very important. If two items of your wardrobe clash, this can sink you. Think of your wardrobe like an orchestra. No matter how good one instrument is, if another doesn't produce a pleasant sound, that's all people will notice. White, black, and grey are the universal matching colours: nearly every other colour will go with at least one of them.

Accessories: Accessories come in two categories, the utile and the stylish.

Utile accessories: These are the accessories you actually USE. Take your belt for example. It's holding up your trousers. You're using it. A watch is another example. You can use it to tell time.

Stylish accessories: You don't actually use these, they're just there to make something look good (like a "grill").

Your body
If you ask a woman what she wants in a man or woman, considering the looks, they will often prefer men or women without fat, a little bit of muscle up to bodybuilder-like figures. However, reality shows the opposite, and it's more important how you make her feel. If she feels turned on by big muscles, that's okay. If you can make her comfortable and (only then) turn her on via what you say, it's even more powerful! Exercising is a good way to go, though.

Exercise
The sacks of meat charged with moving our brains from place to place are wonderful devices, but they weren't designed for the sedentary lives and atrocious diets so many of us inflict upon them. They are meant to be used and used vigorously.

Exercise is absolutely critical to the human body. There are a dozen reasons, and making yourself gorgeous for women of the female persuasion is just one of them. You want to be able to accomplish the daily tasks of life without getting winded. You want to be able to run and play with your kids. You want to be able to defend yourself in a fight. Just choose a reason that motivates you and compels you to do put in the effort, so your body can live up to its potential.

There is no shortage of exercises to choose from. Running, jogging,  cycling,  weight lifting,  swimming,  basketball,  racquetball,  tennis,  gymnastics,  badminton,  and football (European or American) are all popular. But if you prefer some niche sport like fencing, go for it. The important thing is to tailor your workout to fit your own personality and lifestyle. Is it convenient to bicycle to and from work? Do it. Do you enjoy team sports? Do it. Do you like the idea of upgrading your muscles? Do it.

Many people go the weight lifting route, but don't forget to add aerobic exercise into the mix. The usual advice is three to four times per week, for at least twenty minutes per session.

If you are in a very unhealthy condition (like you have difficulties to move thereof...) you need to begin slowly, assisted by some diet, because the primary goal will be weight loss, and to exercise properly you need less weight. Running is best for fat-reducing, you can run as slow as you want (well it should be more strainful than simply walking) for as long as you can. 15 minutes is ok for beginners, even with casual breaks. After two or three months you will feel your heart has become a lot stronger, and you can do a lot longer. You need more than half an hour to begin burning fat efficiently. One hour seems to be a good time span, that is not too stressful for the rest of your body (after some practice though).

Don't be fooled by sports that don't really give you much exercise. For example, cricket. It's a sport with a long and storied history, but try watching a game. How many of the players are actually moving at any given time? The game is characterized by the occasional frantic burst of activity, and a whole lot of standing around. This pattern of exercise is more likely to result in injuries than in firm, woman-attracting abs. It's great to enjoy cricket, but be sure to give your body other forms of exercise. The overall health that results will make you a better player and reduce your likelihood of injury.

Diet is a tricky subject. We all have different dietary needs, we all have different food preferences,  and some lifestyles aren't conducive to getting proper nutrition. Lifestyle changes aren't easy, but they're worth doing. Put down the twinkies and acquaint yourself with the produce department of your local supermarket. Most of us could benefit from cutting back on fat, cutting our overall calorie intake,  and eating a much wider variety of healthy foods. Avoid fad diets, diets that focus on a single miracle food (the infamous grapefruit diet,  for example),  and starvation diets. The best diet isn't necessarily the one that drops pounds fastest, but one which involves permanent lifestyle changes that keep unwanted pounds from coming back.

The news are always full of studies where eating such-and-such vegetable or fruit prevents cancer/heart disease/arthritis/etc/etc /etc.. A sum-up of all these studies is "Food is medicine, and medicine is food." This is the case when you are careful to eat lots of raw vegetables, fruits, and grains, while eating dairy and meat much less often. Eating veggies raw is to be preferred to eating them cooked, because the heat breaks up the vitamins and minerals. Think of fruit as nature's dessert. Eating healthy foods will do you much more good if you stop eating the unhealthy foods too. The key to this is to avoid the pre-processed foods like the plague, and eat things in as natural a state as possible. High fructose corn syrup in particular kills your bodies ability to determine that you are full, which leads to overeating. (do a Google search on "high fructose corn syrup, health" to find out more.) It is amazing how many foods it is found in now.

Healthy eating affects your looks - the gloss of your hair, the clearness of your skin.. It also affects body odor, your energy level, and your outlook on life. You will know that you're eating healthy if you find yourself feeling fewer and fewer cravings for sweets and meats.

Changing your diet
When you go to the grocery store, choose a new vegetable to try, and get only one. When you get home, wash it in water to get the pesticides off of it, cut a small piece, and eat it raw to see what it tastes like and decide whether you like it. If you like it raw, then that's definitely how you should eat it. If you don't like it raw, then try cooking it for just a few minutes, and then try it again. (It is better to undercook than overcook vegetables.) If you don't like that vegetable at all, then don't try eating it again until 6 months later, when you've gotten more used to your more natural diet and your perception of vegetables and their flavors have changed. Think of it as a scientific experiment, and work your way through all the vegetables this way so that you can find you didn't know you liked.

(Health Note: If you decide to eat a food in a different manner of preparation than conventional methods, it is often a good idea to check into the particular item a little first (Web searches, etc.). While taste, creativity and other points are all concerns, some foods are cooked or prepared in a certain way because of nutritional issues. For example, some raw peas, though eaten are actually not good for your ligaments so should be cooked before eating to break down certain chemicals; also, acorns/chestnuts have tannins which should be broken down by heat or other treatments (some societies prepare it with clay which binds up tannins to prevent them from absorption through the intestinal wall. These are just a few examples.)

Try out fruits in a similar fashion, but omitting the cooking step. Fruits are especially good for satisfying hunger quickly, and a piece of fruit can go a long way.

If you hate breakfast cereals with flakes, go for granola cereal. Test out brands until you find one you like, as not all granolas are created equal. Whenever possible, eat carbohydrates based on whole grain, wheat, wheat flour, and the like. Avoid "enriched" if possible.

Hair and Facial Hair
Hair should be clean and well-groomed. Frequent use of shampoo and conditioner is advised, and the longer your hair is the more important it becomes. Regular trims keep your hair low

Oh, one more thing:  Comb-overs. Don't do it. Just don't. It is becoming commonplace for balding men now to simply shave off all of their hair, which many consider to be a better alternative.

Facial hair is a difficult and controversial area. Some women love it, some women absolutely hate it. For widespread appeal, I would suggest doing away with the beard and sideburns altogether. But if you like how you look with a beard or goatee, go for it,  and keep it neatly trimmed at whatever length you enjoy. When you are happy with the way you look, it shows in the way you conduct yourself,  and the confidence you display is often very attractive to women.

Body Language
Stand up straight. This says you are alert and on top of things. It also shows your body to the best advantage. Same goes for sitting up straight.

What to do with your hands -- Use your hands to help convey your meaning when you speak and tell stories. While listening, you can keep them in your pockets, or on your lap (if sitting down). Having your arms folded across your chest during a conversation conveys an impression that you are resistant or closing your mind against whatever is being said; it is like a barrier between you and other people. Avoid this stance when in any kind of argument with a girl. Having one arm folded across your chest with the other arm resting over it and that hand up touching your face conveys the impression that you are listening carefully. If you are at a table, you can also send the same signal by leaning forward slightly, with your elbows on the table, with your head leaning on your hands.

If you sit on a couch next to a girl you don't know, resting your arm on the back of the couch (assuming the back is low enough to do so comfortably) yet without touching her back may be interpretted by some girls as expressing mild interest. More interest may be conveyed, if your other arm is not similarly draped over the back of the couch and there is another girl sitting on that side.

If you are sitting down with an empty spot next to you and a girl walks into the room who you find attractive, you can subtly signal to her to come over and sit down by you by catching her eye and smiling. This will fulfill a girl's psychological need to feel wanted, and it will draw them to you like a moth to a flame. Even if they don't come over and sit down next to you immediately, they will eventually (unless they have a boyfriend and he is present).

 * Between the time that you signal and the time that she comes and sits down next to you, plan out a line of conversation into which you can immediately enter. The girl has no idea what to expect, but she will be open to being impressed and charmed.

Be Yourself!
The most important thing is to be happy with and confident in your body. If you don't feel confident in the appearance you present to women, this lack of confidence will speak louder than expensive clothes or a new haircut ever could. So if some piece of advice feels totally wrong, jettison it. If some outfit makes you feel like an idiot, wear something else. Attitude is everything.

title: Guide to Social Activity/Appearance


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Existentialism

< Introduction to Philosophy

<-- I have not the time now but I recommend adding Nietzsche's "proto"-existential viewpoint which was neither one of "nausea" or "apathy" --> <-- Indeed, he even says that many people are not existential and are mere skeletons who have shrouded themselves with the beliefs of others. -->

Have you ever felt that "hell is other people"?

 * (Jean-Paul Sartre expressed this thought in Huis clos, his play).

Do you think you are "condemned to be free" because you make your own choices in life, and are not dependent on external morality?

If so, you may be an existentialist.

One existentialist thought is "Nothing is true, everything is permitted". Fyodor Dostoevsky expressed this through Ivan, a character in his book The Brothers Karamazov (Братья Карамазовы). Ivan later shed his existentialism for faith in God (misquoted by Sartre in Existentialism is a Humanism).

One existentialist feeling is nausea, another is apathy. Both feelings are in response to not actually being able to change the world.

Kierkegaard
The "first" existentialist (or at least the first to bear this title of "existentialist") was Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, a Danish philosopher. He talked about three stages in our lives:
 * the aesthetic stage,
 * the ethical stage,
 * the religious stage

These three stages were commonly associated with the "feelings" that accompanied them.

The aesthetic stage, embodied by young people who recklessly pursue youth's pleasures or by students of science or another devotion which requires great discipline in which to achieve success, is characteristically associated with the feeling of "despair" including the aforementioned "nausea".

This is brought on by the realization that no matter how long one parties and drinks and cavorts, or in the second case, no matter how many books are studied and lectures attended, the secrets to life and a happy existence are simply not to be found in this fashion. This leads to a despair darker than night, a wanting to make something of oneself, to be remembered or to be depended upon. This sense of duty brings on the second stage of existential appropriation, the religious stage.

Though termed the "religious stage", this stage is embodied by a clear desire to do a duty to something bigger than oneself. The activities that result in this stage are usually ones of great responsibility, sometimes with others depending upon the individual. Examples of such activities include marriage, volunteering in a military organization, or becoming religiously devout or joining the monastic order. During this religious stage, feelings of guilt are eventually encountered because no matter how devout, responsible, or courageous people can be, certain things occur that are out of their control and they inevitably fail themselves in some way by not being able to uphold their responsibility or oath. For example, an individual could be the best soldier he can be, but alas, his comrade is felled by a bullet that he could not stop, and is thus guilt stricken.

Finally the individual undergoes a schism in which a discovery is made that one can really only be true to oneself, and that from this idiom stems the powerful realization of free will and the terrible responsibility that comes with it. This final stage of realization is known as the existential or enlightened stage. In this stage an individual is aware that his or her "reason for being" is solely decided by his or her own decisions, and nothing else. This enlightenment is the mantle of true freedom, even onto the decision of suicide!

Paris - Sartre
Then in Paris, after the Second World War, many literary and philosophical ideas changed. Albert Camus wrote The Outsider, The Fall and The Plague.

Jean-Paul Sartre, who had studied under Martin Heidegger, started a magazine called Les Temps Modernes with Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Sartre's main philosophical book is Being and Nothingness (L'Être et le Néant), while Existentialism is a Humanism (L'existentialisme est un humanisme) is a concise and less technical work suitable for the beginner. He also wrote plays, such as No Exit (Huis Clos), and novels, such as Nausea (La nausée) and The Roads to Freedom (Les chemins de la liberté) trilogy.

When discussing Sartre in the line of existentialists it may be useful to note that he was by far the most political of the lot. Sartre became a Marxist and in some sense lost some respectability among many existentialists — because he had begun to rely on an external set of values rather than an authentic set of choices.