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Wikijunior:United States Charters of Freedom/Bill of Rights

The United States Bill of Rights is the document containing the first ten amendments to the ../Constitution/. These amendments explicitly limit the Federal government's powers, protecting the rights of the people by preventing Congress from abridging freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, freedom of religious worship, and the right to bear arms, preventing unreasonable search and seizure, cruel and unusual punishment, and self-incrimination, and guaranteeing due process of law and a speedy public trial with an impartial jury. These amendments came into effect on December 15, 1791, when ratified by three-fourths of the 13 states. Initially drafted by James Madison in 1789, the Bill of Rights was written at a time when ideological conflict between Federalists and anti-Federalists, dating from the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, threatened the Constitution's ratification. The Bill of Rights plays a central role in American law and government, and remains a fundamental symbol of the freedoms and culture of the nation. The original handwritten copy is on display in the National Archives in Washington, D.C. It is the third of the three Charters of Freedom along with the ../Declaration of Independence/ and the ../Constitution/.

Background
The Philadelphia Convention, convened in 1787, set out to correct weaknesses inherent in the ../Articles of Confederation/ that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded: it was widely conceded that the government needed broader power to generate revenue, as Congress lacked authority to levy taxes; the Liberum Veto and the requirement of a supermajority to enact major legislation enabled one or two states to defeat legislative proposals; no provisions were made for an executive branch to enforce the laws or for a national court system to interpret them; and individual states could refuse to be bound under treaties and agreements negotiated with foreign powers.

This need for a stronger legislature, a unified currency, and a central authority with a power to conduct affairs of state led to the stronger Federal government adopted by compromise at the Convention.

The newly constituted Federal government, included a strong executive branch, a stronger legislative branch and an independent judicial branch. However, debate between political factions known as the Federalists and anti-Federalists ensued over the balance between strengthening the nation's government and weakening the rights of the people who only ten years earlier had explicitly rebelled against the perceived tyranny of King George III of England.

Arguments against the Bill of Rights
The idea of adding a Bill of Rights to the Constitution was originally controversial, and was strongly opposed by many notable American statesmen, including Alexander Hamilton. In one of the ../Federalist Papers/, published during the Philadelphia Convention on May 28, 1788, Hamilton argued against a "Bill of Rights," asserting that ratification of the Constitution did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, and therefore that protections were unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain every thing, they have no need of particular reservations."As critics of the Constitution referred to earlier political documents that had protected specific rights, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different. Unlike previous political arrangements between sovereigns and subjects in the United States, there would be no agent empowered to abridge the people's rights: "Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, sword in hand, from King John."

Finally, Hamilton expressed the fear that protecting specific rights might imperil rights that were not mentioned: "'I go further, and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted; and on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?'"

The Anti-Federalists
During the debate over the ratification of the Constitution, famous revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry came out publicly against the Constitution. They argued that the strong national government proposed by the Federalists was a threat to the rights of individuals and that the President would become a king, and objected to the federal court system in the proposed Constitution. Thomas Jefferson, ambassador to France, described his concern over the lack of a Bill of Rights, among other criticisms. In answer to the argument that a list of rights might be interpreted as being exhaustive, Jefferson wrote to Madison, "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we cannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can."

The best and most influential of the articles and speeches criticizing the Constitution were gathered by historians into a collection known as the Anti-Federalist Papers, an opposite of the ../Federalist Papers/ which had supported the creation of a stronger federal government. One of these, an essay "On the lack of a Bill of Rights," later called "Antifederalist Number 84," was written under the pseudonym Brutus. In response to the Federalist view that it was unnecessary to protect the people against powers that the government would not be granted, "Brutus" wrote: "'We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion,-that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed,-that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.'"

"Brutus" continued with a dark implication directed against the Framers: "Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I cannot help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage."

Ratification and the Massachusetts Compromise
Individualism was the strongest element of opposition; the necessity, or at least the desirability, of a bill of rights was almost universally felt, and the Anti-Federalists were able to play on these feelings in the ratification convention in Massachusetts. By this stage, five of the states had ratified the Constitution with relative ease; however, the Massachusetts convention was bitter and contentious: "'In Massachusetts, the Constitution ran into serious, organized opposition. Only after two leading Antifederalists, John Adams and John Hancock, negotiated a far-reaching compromise did the convention vote for ratification on February 6, 1788 (187-168). Antifederalists had demanded that the Constitution be amended before they would consider it or that amendments be a condition of ratification; Federalists had retorted that it had to be accepted or rejected as it was. Under the Massachusetts compromise, the delegates recommended amendments to be considered by the new Congress, should the Constitution go into effect. The Massachusetts compromise determined the fate of the Constitution, as it permitted delegates with doubts to vote for it in the hope that it would be amended.'"

Four of the next five states to ratify, including New Hampshire, Virginia, and New York, included similar language in their ratification instruments. Thus, while the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in their quest to prevent the adoption of the Constitution, their efforts were not totally in vain.

Drafting
After the Constitution was ratified in 1789, the first United States Congress met in Federal Hall in New York City. Most of the delegates agreed that a "bill of rights" was needed and most of them agreed on the rights they believed should be enumerated.

James Madison, at the head of the Virginia delegation of the 1st Congress, had opposed a Bill of Rights but hoped to preempt the potential political disaster of a second Constitutional Convention that might have undone the difficult compromises of 1787: a second convention would open the entire Constitution to reconsideration and could undermine the work he and so many others had done in establishing the structure of the United States Government.

Madison based his work on George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), which itself had been written with Madison's input. In addition to this direct influence, Madison's work on the Bill of Rights reflected centuries of English law and philosophy, further modified by the principles of the American Revolution. It has been argued that all men have inalienable natural rights and that the purpose of government was to protect property rights, ideas that became part of the American view of government. Madison, in the United States Bill of Rights, continued in the radical tradition of the American Revolution by further extending and codifying these rights.

Twelve amendments proposed
At first, on June 8, 1789, a motion was made to have the "Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union," that is, the entire House of Representatives work on proposals for amendments until they were deemed fit to refer to the States for consideration. On July 17, 1789, a motion was passed referring this work to a select committee of eleven members, consisting of Congressmen from every State, including Madison, John M. Vining (Delaware), Abraham Baldwin (Georgia), Roger Sherman (Connecticut), Aedanus Burke (South Carolina), Nicholas Gilman (New Hampshire), George Clymer (Pennsylvania), Egbert Benson (New York), Benjamin Goodhue (Massachusetts), Elias Boudinot (New Jersey), and George Gale (Maryland). The committee drafted the precise language of the amendments, and referred their work back to the House. After revisions in the House, the Bill was passed to the United States Senate on August 24, 1789, and returned with revisions on September 21, 1789.

Finally, the joint proposal of twelve Amendments was approved on September 25, 1789 and submitted to the State Legislatures for approval, and while ten were ratified, two failed. The Congressional Apportionment Amendment, intended to determine the number of Congressional Representatives and assure representation for the common people, was ratified by only eleven of the state legislatures, one shy of the twelve required to achieve the three-fourths threshold. The Congressional Compensation Amendment fared even worse, passing only six states, but was revived in the 1980s and eventually ratified in 1992 as Amendment XXVII to the United States Constitution.

Ratification process
On November 20, 1789, New Jersey became the first state to ratify these amendments. On December 15, 1791, ten of these proposals became the First through Tenth Amendments—and official United States law, when they were ratified by the Virginia legislature.

Articles III–XII were ratified by 11/14 States (> 75%). Article I, rejected by Delaware, was ratified by 10/14 States (< 75%), and later by Kentucky (11/15 States < 75%), and failed. Article II was ratified by 6/14, later 7/15 States, and failed.

Ratification dates

 * New Jersey, November 20, 1789; rejected article II
 * Maryland, December 19, 1789; approved all
 * North Carolina, December 22, 1789; approved all
 * South Carolina, January 19, 1790; approved all
 * New Hampshire, January 25, 1790; rejected article II
 * Delaware, January 28, 1790; rejected article I
 * New York, February 27, 1790; rejected article II
 * Pennsylvania, March 10, 1790; rejected article II
 * Rhode Island, June 7, 1790; rejected article II
 * Vermont, November 3, 1791; approved all
 * Virginia, December 15, 1791; approved all

Later consideration
Lawmakers in Kentucky, which joined the Union in June 1792, ratified the entire set of twelve proposals during that commonwealth's initial month of statehood, perhaps unaware—given the nature of long-distance communications in the 1700s—that Virginia's approval six months earlier had already made ten of the package of twelve part of the Constitution!

Although ratification made the Bill of Rights effective in 1791, three of the original thirteen States: Connecticut, Georgia, and Massachusetts, did not "ratify" the first ten amendments until 1939.

Incorporation extends to States
Originally, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government and not to the several state governments. Parts of the amendments initially proposed by Madison that would have limited state governments ("No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases.") were not approved by Congress, and therefore the Bill of Rights did not appear to apply to the powers of state governments.

Thus, states had established state churches up until the 1820s, and Southern states, beginning in the 1830s, could ban abolitionist literature. However, in 1925, the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment, which had been adopted in 1868, made certain applications of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states. The Supreme Court then cited the Gitlow case as precedent for a series of decisions that made most of the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states.

Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights
In 1941, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt declared December 15 to be "Bill of Rights Day", a national holiday commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights.

The Bill of Rights is on display at the National Archives, in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom."

The Rotunda itself was constructed in the 1950s and dedicated in 1952 by President Harry S. Truman, who said, "Only as these documents are reflected in the thoughts and acts of Americans, can they remain symbols of power that can move the world. That power is our faith in human liberty. . ."

After fifty years, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well-preserved: "But if the ink of 1787 was holding its own, the encasements of 1951 were not...minute crystals and microdroplets of liquid were found on surfaces of the two glass sheets over each document...The CMS scans confirmed evidence of progressive glass deterioration, which was a major impetus in deciding to re-encase the Charters of Freedom."

Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, 216 years after the close of the Constitutional Convention, President George W. Bush stated, "The true [American] revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all."

Text of the Bill of Rights
The text of the Bill of Rights can be divided into fourteen sections: the preamble, the Congressional Apportionment Amendment, the Congressional Compensation Amendment, 10 ratified amendments, and the signatures. (Note that these headings are not part of the text of the document).

Preamble
Congress of the United States begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine.

THE Conventions of a number of the States, having at the time of their adopting the Constitution, expressed a desire, in order to prevent misconstruction or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restrictive clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its institution.

RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the following Articles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as amendments to the Constitution of the United States, all, or any of which Articles, when ratified by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the said Constitution; viz.

ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution."

Congressional Apportionment Amendment
''Article the first .... After the first enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundred Representatives, nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons.'' This is just one of the amendments that were taken out of the narrowed 12 amendments.

Congressional Compensation Amendment
''Article the second .... No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.''

Amendment I
''Article the third .... Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.''

Amendment II
''Article the fourth .... A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.''

Amendment III
''Article the fifth .... No Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the Owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.''

Amendment IV
''Article the sixth .... The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.''

Amendment V
''Article the seventh .... No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.''

Amendment VI
''Article the eighth .... In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense.''

Amendment VII
''Article the ninth .... In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.''

Amendment VIII
''Article the tenth .... Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.''

Amendment IX
''Article the eleventh .... The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.''

Amendment X
''Article the twelfth .... The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.''

Signatures

 * Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenburg
 * John Adams
 * John James Beckley
 * Samuel Allyne Otis

Analysis of the text
This section describes each section of the Bill of Rights.

Analysis of the Preamble
The preamble starts out by saying that the 13 states wished to create this document to prevent the federal government from abusing the powers it was granted by the ../Constitution/. Also, it states that the listed amendments are being proposed as stated in Article V of the Constitution.

Analysis of the Congressional Apportionment Amendment
This failed amendment seeks to make certain that seats in the House of Representatives are reapportioned according to population every ten years, but given the current population of the United States, the algorithm that it sets forth would now place very few restrictions on the size of the House. Were this amendment to be ratified today, it would allow anywhere between 200 and nearly 6,000 Representatives.

Analysis of the Congressional Compensation Amendment
This amendment, which also failed, prevented any law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives intervened. This amendment was finally ratified as Amendment XXVII in 1992.

Analysis of Amendment I
This amendment, the most important and well-known to most Americans, prevented the U.S. Congress from infringing on six important human rights. It forbids federal laws that:
 * Establish a state religion or prefer certain religion;
 * Prohibit the free exercise of religion;
 * Infringe the freedom of speech;
 * Infringe the freedom of the press;
 * Limit the right to assemble peaceably;
 * Limit the right to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Analysis of Amendment II
This amendment declares the need for "a well regulated militia", and prohibits infringement of "the right of the people to keep and bear arms".

Analysis of Amendment III
This amendment prohibits the quartering of soldiers (military personnel) in private homes without the owner's consent in peacetime. It makes quartering legally permissible in wartime only, but only in accordance with law.

Analysis of Amendment IV
This amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures. It was a response to the controversial writs of assistance (a type of general search warrant) which were a significant factor behind the American Revolution.

Analysis of Amendment V
This amendment is related to legal procedure. Its guarantees stem from English common law. For instance, grand juries and the phrase "due process" both trace their origin to common law.

Analysis of Amendment VI
This amendment codifies rights related to criminal prosecutions in federal courts. The Supreme Court has ruled that these rights are so fundamental and important that they are protected in state courts by Amendment XIV's Due Process Clause.

Analysis of Amendment VII
This amendment codifies the right to jury trial in certain civil trials. The Supreme Court has not extended the Amendment to the states under Amendment XIV, as it has for many other components of the Bill of Rights.

Analysis of Amendment VIII
This amendment prohibits excessive bail or fines, as well as cruel and unusual punishment.

Analysis of Amendment IX
This amendment protects at least some rights not specifically written in the Bill of Rights.

Analysis of Amendment X
This amendment makes explicit the idea that the federal government is limited only to the powers it is granted in the Constitution, is generally recognized to be hardly worth mentioning.

Analysis of the Signatures
The Bill of Rights is signed by four important cabinet members to ensure its validity. The signers are Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenburg, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, John Adams, the Vice President and President of the Senate, John James Beckley, the Clerk of the House of Representatives and Samuel Allyne Otis, the Secretary of the Senate.

Questions
Here are some questions to answer. If you are stumped, and need the answer, just click and drag your mouse over the space next to the question. The answer will show up. The answers to all the questions are located in this article.

 * 1) The Bill of Rights is a list of amendments for which document? The Constitution
 * 2) On what day did the Bill of Right's amendments come into effect? December 15, 1791
 * 3) Which document influenced the Bill of Rights? The Magna Carta
 * 4) How many amendments were proposed? 12
 * 5) Which was the first state to ratify the amendments? New Jersey
 * 6) How many of the amendments proposed on this document were ratified? 10
 * 7) What day is "Bill of Rights Day"? December 15
 * 8) When was the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom" constructed? The 1950s
 * 9) What year was 216 years after the close of the Constitutional Convention? 2003
 * 10) Which amendment is the most important and well-known to most Americans? Amendment I

Source
Basically a junior version of the Wikipedia article.


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Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Fermentation

Goal
The goal of the Fermentation lab is to introduce the students to the idea of sugar catabolism. They realize that they have seen this occurring in their everyday life but did not know the overall details.

Point out the fact that yeast can breakdown sugar both aerobically and anaerobically, but if they do it anaerobically they yield only 2 ATP energy from each glucose, while they yield 36 or 38 ATP whey they use oxygen.

The lab is designed to clearly show the beginning and end points of the reaction. The students add sugar to water and then add the yeast. In the end, they smell the alcohol and test the CO2.

This lab can be done only qualitatively or quantitatively. Chose which is most appropriate for your students.

Yeast Fermentation Lab
The Fermentation lab is fun and you can easily change the difficulty.

For the simplest case, make it a demonstration. Place the balloon on top of the flask, and let it sit on the teacher's desk while you lecture. The balloon will slowly enlarge.

For more complex protocols allow the student to distill the alcohol produced, and test that CO2 is present by using Lime Water.

Remember that the time required for this lab will vary due to temperature and the quality of the yeast. If students do not get results, let the reaction continue 20 more minutes and try again.

Observing a Yeast sample
If you make a microscope slide of the yeast, you will see sand like dots at 40X, small clumps of round things at 100X, and clumps of nucleated cells at 400X

If you do not dye the cells with a dye that kills the cells like iodine, then the cells will continue to grow, and the students can observe bubbles forming under the glass even without a microscope. Have them draw the slide as soon as they make it, and then draw it again after 15 minutes. The bubbles should be larger and more pronounced. Ask them what is happening in the slide.

Burning Ethanol
1. Your instructor will show you that ethanol still contains energy by burning a sample of 95% ethanol.

A. Pour some 95% ethanol on a watch glass and carefully light.

B. Turn off the light to see it easier.

C. Be careful. I burned my hand doing this experiment today!

D. Tell the students that although ethanol is the end product of fermentation, it still holds energy in the molecules. The way that cells get that energy out is Aerobic respiration.

E. Cover the watchglass with a beaker and watch as the fire goes out. Tell the students that the burning of pyruvate requires oxygen, just like the flame does.

CO2 Demonstration
2. Look at the demonstration flask, and see if you can observe the presence of CO2 gas in the mixture.

A. Cap an Erlenmeyer flask with a stopper containing one hole. Place a glass tube through the hole.

B. Attach this to plastic tubing that goes into another beaker filled with lime water.

C. As fermentation occurs, CO2 will be produced. It will go through the tube and bubble out through the lime water. Hopefully, you will see a white precipitate.

D. Using Lime water CaOH2 to precipitate CO2 is a classic chemical test. The white powder is chalk. The wikipedia entry on CO2 says:

"The gas may be bubbled into calcium hydroxide solution (lime water). The lime water will turn milky if CO2 is introduced because of the formation of calcium carbonate."

The equation is:

Limewater + Carbon Dioxide --> Chalk + Water :

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) --> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

For more info, see the Wikipedia article on [lime water]

Measuring the CO2 content.
Use round balloons for this experiment. Then have the students wrap a string around the widest part of the balloon. Lay down the string and measure the length. This tells you the circumference of the circle.

Calculate the radius to the center of the circle using the equation:

$$C/2 \pi  = r$$

Once you have that, you can figure out the volume of the balloon using the equation:

$$V=4/3 \pi r^3$$

The easiest thing is to compare volumes directly, but it should be able to figure out the amount of CO2 produced.

Assuming that it is pure CO2, and assuming standard temperature and pressure, you can figure out the moles of CO2 generated by this reaction by using the ideal gas law.

The Ideal Gas Law

P is pressure, V is volume, n is moles, T is temperature, and R is the gas constant, which has various values depending on the unit of pressure:

$$\qquad PV=nRT$$

To get the moles of CO2 released use the equation:

$$\qquad n= PV/RT$$

Two moles will have been released for each glucose molecule broken down by glycolysis.

glucose --> 2 Ethanol + 2 CO2

so multiply the number of moles by two to get the number of moles glucose burned in your fermentation reaction.

Variations
1. Repeat the experiment with different carbohydrate sources to find which sugars are utilized best.

2. Measure the volume of the balloon at different time points, or pour the reactants into test tubes and take a measurement of both the sugar and the gas volume at different time points.

(Be sure to ask the students what sources of error they may have in their experiments.)

Possible problems
If you want to go the quantitative route, please note these possible sources of error.

The corn syrup will stick to the graduated cylinder, and if the students are impatient, they may not get all of the sugar out. I have seen almost 5 mls of sugar left in the flask after they have "emptied" it. If you are using the amount of sugar measured in your calculations, it is most likely off.

If you want to calculate the amount of CO2 made, use the mMol/L measurement of the sugar found on the test strips so that you can compare how much sugar was in the original amount.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Fermentation student lab

Fermentation lab
In this lab we will observe fermentation occurring in yeast cells. Yeast cells are fungal cells that can metabolize in two ways. In the presence of oxygen, they use aerobic respiration and break glucose down into CO2 and water. In the absence of oxygen, they ferment sugar creating CO2 and ethanol.

We will take yeast cells and grow them absence of oxygen. We will test the glucose content before and after they are allowed to ferment and notice the difference if any.

A. Make the yeast cultures

 * 1) Measure 10ml of sugar
 * 2) Place into labeled 500ml Erlenmeyer flask and fill to 200ml with warm water. Mix well. Cover tube.
 * 3) Add 1 package of rapid rise yeast to flask and mix briefly.
 * 4) Pour some of the mixture into a small beaker to test.
 * 5) Place a balloon over the mouth of the flask.

B. Observe yeast cultures

 * 1)  Allow yeast to grow for at least 30 minutes.
 * 2)  Look at the balloons on the flasks. Observe changes if any.
 * 3)  Take a bit of brown yeast scum and make a wet mount slide. Observe at 400x. See if you can see the budding action of yeast cell division. ( Do not dye with Iodine, this will kill the cells
 * 4)  Let slide sit for 5 minutes, and observe. Are there air bubbles under the slide?  Explain.

Questions
1 Write the equation for anaerobic fermentation starting with glucose. Label the reactants and the products. C6H12O6 =CO2 +C2H5OH

2. Draw the equation that shows the result of aerobic respiration.

C6H12O6 +O2 =CO2 +H2O

3. What was the glucose concentration in each flask when you started?

4. What was the glucose concentration in each flask when you ended?

5. Was there any difference?

6. If so, why do you think that one flask had less Glucose?

7. Why does ethanol burn when water does not?

8. Name two foods that are fermented.

9. Why is wine stored in sealed casks?

10. Draw a picture of budding yeast cells.


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Managing Groups and Teams/Team Inclusion

Introduction of Best Members for Team Inclusion
How can teams include the "best" members and what does "best" mean in selecting members? What key attributes, skills, competencies, etc, should be looked for in selecting team members, which ones can be sacrificed?

When selecting team members, it is important to select the “best” team members. “Best” in this circumstance could be defined as the right team members with the necessary skills and abilities to function together as a team. However selecting the best team members can be very difficult. Thus it is important to have a process in place to assist in team selection. The proper selection will lead to better inclusion.

If you are not included in a team that you consider will get a benefit with your inclusion, here is presented some steps that can help you to approach the situation.

What Is the Process of Member Selection?
What process should be followed in order to select team members, or should a formal process exist?

The Process should exist, but be somewhat flexible. Flexibility is important to allow for small change within each organization. The three step process as defined below can be used as a foundation for a process.

Identify goal or team purpose

 * Goal : Defining a clear goal is important so the group understands what it is trying to achieve. Without a clear goal or purpose, the team may not be able to identify when the task has been completed or finished. With a clear goal, the team can unify and focus on the objectives rather than determine what the objectives should be.

 * Timeline : It is important to establish a timeline for group selection as well as project finish date (the project finish date may be defined as ongoing or indefinite). While selecting the "best" members of a group, one must not loose track of the date by which the group must be formed.

Identify Group Needs

 * Experience : Identifying experience is important for group confidence. Experience in particular areas can help the group identify with individuals and allow individuals to shine in their appropriate areas.

 * Attributes : Identify attributes that are important to your project as this can either help or hurt the group cohesion. Identifying whether potential members are aggressive, passive, compassionate, dedicated, or motivated can directly influence the speed and accuracy of the completion of team objectives.  It is important to have a well rounded team so they can effectively challenge and complement one another.

 * Specialty interest : Identify passions or non-passions. Identifying individual passions or non-passions can help identify an individual's motivation.  If a team member does not care about the outcome of the project, their motivation and contribution may be limited.  On the other hand, someone with extreme passion may be overbearing and inhibit team success.  Finding individuals with the appropriate interest levels must be balanced.

 * Skills : The necessary skill level is important so highly skilled individuals aren’t bored with the project at hand. However it is important to have appropriately skilled individuals to be able to accomplish the task at hand.

 * Personalities : Are ideas going to be challenged? This question is important.  If you have a group of individuals that behave in the same manner, will the ideas presented in the group environment be challenged sufficiently to be identified as the best possible solution or end product?  Allowing individuals to be challenged, or defend particular point of views can allow healthy collaboration. However with personalities that are overbearing and domineering it can lead to a very “unsafe” group environment.  This can lead to other problems like group polarization.

Identify Possible Team Members
The third step in the process is to identify individuals who may fit within the team. Identify the “best” team members according to the group needs and the defined goal, so the group has appropriate motivation and does not stagnate.

These three steps are starting points to form the “best” team. Following these three processes can allow a group to be interdependent on each other to complete group tasks. Not only can interdependence help the group work together, it fosters a sense of inclusion, because every group member feels that she is needed. As well, a simple process identifying the “best” individuals can help a group overcome stereotyping, social loafing, group process loss.

Team Relationships
To what extent should interpersonal relationships dictate who is included?

It is very important to understand interpersonal relationships to create the best team. The different relationships in a team can destine it for failure or success, so it is very important to consider each person who is part of a team. Also, depending on the task or goal of a team, there may be better types of relationships for that team. A team's sense of inclusion and interpersonal relationships can be improved with training and experience.

In order to answer the posed question, it is important to understand what is involved in interpersonal relationships. These relationships are as diverse as there are different types of personalities. Every person has a personality that has been shaped by years of experiences. Some are very aggressive and others very relaxed. There are outspoken people and quiet people, analytical and qualitative, and many others. All of these things are important in understanding how team members will handle different situations and problems that they will face in a team. A good team facilitator will quickly pick up on the different team member’s skills and personalities and then use this information to make the team effective.

The qualities of relationships that are the best for teams to be effective include being productive, having mutual understanding, and being willing to be self corrective. These things need to be evaluated in who is picked for a team.

 * Productivity : A team needs to be productive, and therefore the relationships within a team need to be productive as well. When all team members are included and involved in the team process, the team becomes very productive.  We have all probably been assigned to teams that were too large and where it did not feel like your individual effort mattered.  When teams get too large, there is no longer a mutual need for the input of every member.  Despite having information or skills that the team needs, individuals may no longer put as much effort into a project when there are too many members, what we call social loafing.  Also in large groups, members tend to have a perception of “someone else will go it”, so there is no need to be assertive.  There usually are a number of members that will no longer participate and feel like their time is being wasted.  Having too large of a team is a common way to lose the inclusion of all members.

 * Mutual understanding : Maybe you have been part of a team where certain members took over and made it harder for others to be involved. Some members are reluctant to express conflicting ideas depending upon who is involved or in charge of the meeting.  Overly aggressive members can really stifle a team’s creativeness and productivity.  The mutual understanding and focus on a group task gets demoted by the over aggressiveness or ego of someone who dominates a team. When everyone in a team feels free to contribute, the mutual strength of the team increases.  So it is important to pick team members with relationships that will create a collaborative environment.
 * Self corrective : When selecting members of a team it is good too look at each individual’s skills in communicating with others and their ability to work with others. Depending upon the type of problem to be solved by a group or team, there may be a need for homogeneity, or a need for great diversity.  In teams where everyone has very similar backgrounds, values, and personalities, there is very low risk of conflicts.  These teams also tend to be more likely to make mistakes and to not explore all of the possibilities in solving problems. They can have a hard time finding their mistakes and correcting them. Teams that have a large difference in personality and background tend to have much more conflict and less cooperation.  Despite these challenges, these teams can be very effective in solving challenging issues, even relationship issues.  One key to making diverse teams be productive is to create a collaborate environment and keep the team focused on the goal or task of the group.  Diverse teams that understand the value of conflict resolution and the value of their diversity, can be self correcting and ease the burden of a team leader or facilitator. Good team skill training and time together with a team can really help diverse teams.

The interpersonal relationships in a team are keys to being successful. So to what extent should they dictate who is included? To a large extent! A good manager will try to understand the different personalities in his organization and be able to include those in teams that can be the most productive in resolving an issue or reaching the team goal.

Being Part of a Team
If you are not included in a team that you think could benefit from you being included, how do you approach the team leader and/or existing team members to be included, or should you at all?

If you are not included in a team that you consider you should be, the best thing to do is to present your concerns to your team leader, your supervisor or manager. From my own experience, you can proceed according with the following steps that have helped me through my last 10 years of work experience:

 * 1) Request a meeting
 * 2) Present your concern
 * 3) Present your point of view
 * 4) Discuss the answers to questions
 * 5) Conclude the meeting
 * 6) Follow up

As part of a team, we need to have an open and honest communication not only with our managers and supervisors, but also with our team leader and co-workers. Communication is the key to success. Communication is more than talking to others or writing e-mails or letters, it also includes the art of “listening”. Also I will explain in detail each of what I call “my golden key to success” in this type of situation:

 * 1) Request a meeting: Is a good idea to request a meeting, especially with superiors, because usually they are busy and you will want to capture all of his/her attention.  When you request a meeting, you can be sure that the other person will pay attention to your concern.  Usually this type of meeting doesn’t last very long.  Remember that our bosses are busy.  A half hour to an hour will be enough.
 * 2) Present your concern: Don’t be afraid, present your concern. Be open and honest.  Ask why you were not considered. The majority of the times you will be surprised that a) there was not a reason behind their decision not to include you on the team, they just didn’t think about you or  b) you can realize the reason behind the decision.  At this point, you will have the opportunity to clarify the perception or you can ask how you can perform better or in a different way in order to be considered in future projects.
 * 3) Present your point of view and the reason(s) why you consider yourself to be a great asset to the team: If the reason is they didn’t think about you, sell yourself and present your ideas. Showing them that you have the experience and knowledge, as well as the skills and background that can benefit the team selected.  If you are still not considered, at least they will have an idea of who you are and it will be a possibility in the future that they will select you.  Remember: be clear, concise and simple.
 * 4) Discuss the answers to questions: Be prepared to defend your ideas, also to answer questions.  Usually the other person just wants to better understand your point of view.  Other times they just want to know if you really have the knowledge and the experience that you said you have. Don't be afraid to sell yourself and tell them about your experience and knowledge. An excellent way to do this is telling stories.
 * 5) Conclude the meeting: Always conclude the meeting on a positive note. Most of the times a diplomatic conversation is more valuable and can open other opportunities.
 * 6) If necessary, always follow up the conversation: If after the meeting you get a possibility to be included in the team, always follow up the conversation to show that you are interested.

As a lesson: Always confront the conflict, never avoid it. Be a peacemaker and not a peacekeeper. An article called “ Avoiding Conflict at any cost” recommends that we should confront the situations and not be afraid to express our feelings. If you truly believe that you should be included in a team, express your concerns.

Managing Inclusion
How do teams effectively deal with changes in team member inclusion?

Changes to the makeup of an existing team can be very disruptive especially if that team is an effectively functioning group. By changing the group membership of an effective team you can cause them to redirect their focus from the tasks and processes at hand, to having to focus on relationships, which can quickly turn that team into an ineffective unit. When changing the membership of a team, there are certain measures which both the existing team and the new members should consider in order to make for a smooth and successful transition.

Suggestions for Existing Team Members

 * Socialize : Anytime someone joins a new group they are coming in as an outsider. Entering into an existing team situation may stifle that person's ability to be effective and to focus on the task at hand.  It is the responsibility of the existing team members to socialize with the new member, help them feel that they belong, let them know that they have a valid voice and that they can and should contribute just as much as any other member of the team.

 * Educate : It will also be necessary for the existing team members to educate the new member on the history of the team. This includes helping them to learn about and understand the goals of the team, and to learn about the progress which has been made.  This will include learning about the obstacles that have been overcome and the obstacles which now lay before them. This is also a good opportunity to let the new member know what everyone's role is on the team and what the new member's role should be.

Suggestions for New Team Members

 * Integrate : Whenever a team is created there will be several key roles which must be filled. These roles can include; Controller, Adviser, Creator, Organizer, Producer and several others.  When someone joins an existing team they should determine which roles are already filled, which are vacant, and how their skills can best fit into one of these vacancies.

 * Self-Education : A new member must be proactive in their education. They will need to be proactive in learning what has been addressed and what has yet to be addressed.  They can’t be shy about asking questions.  In addition, the new member must realize that they are an asset and important part of the team.  They possess a different perspective which is unique from the rest of the team because of their skills and experience which may benefit the entire team.  If they don’t speak up, they may be holding up the progress of the team.

How To Lead for Team Inclusion
''From leader’s perspective, what are the ways to insure full participation/inclusion/contribution of team members? How does the leader or other team members insure the involvment of a passive and uninterested team member?''

Every team consists of different individuals with different personalities, background and values. Some team members are more active than others, some contribute more than others, some are more motivated than others. To ensure a viable and effective team, a team leader must make sure that every team member participates, contributes and feels as part of the team.

 * Put yourself in his/her shoes : In order to influence the behavior of a team member, a team leader must first understand that team member. In order to do so, one should understand the background and values of each team member. Acknowledging the fact that each team member is different will show respect and consideration. In addition, understanding the values will help to identify what kind of things a certain person would cherish or neglect. Values come in handy when a leader needs to use motivation. Overall, the objective of the leader in this step is to get to know his/her team members, in other words, a leader needs to to think as a team member does.

 * Motivation : Motivation is perhaps the most important factor to ensure effective inclusion of team member. The foundation  of recognition and motivation is that people need and want acceptance, approval and appreciation.  Almost all positive motivation is based on these needs. People want to  know that what they do makes a difference. Just recognizing the staff is the  most  important step  one  can  take. In addition to financial rewards, there are number of other ways that can be effectively utilized. One of them is to reward the team members for their contributions to the team. A gift certificate or a free dinner might go a long way. The recognition given for work that is well done and public praise will also strengthen the sense of importance and belonging to the team.

 * Build Confidence : Part of the reason that a team member will not fully contribute could be the lack of confidence in self and his/her abilities to perform the job. A leader's duty is to notice and take steps to improve the behavior of the team member. Even though building self-confidence is a personal matter and a leader may have little influence over it, a leader should be able to identify the strengths of team players and build on those. One way to do it is to delegate responsibilities with freedom to think and act. It is also important to remain fair and impartial as slight advantage given to one member over the other may hinder the progress and undermine the efforts of some team members. Accentuating the positives is another tool a leader should continually keep in his or her arsenal.

 * Ensure collaborative climate : Lastly, the team's ability to effectively collaborate, share data and insight in open and positive climate will affect the degree of participation of its members. Non-judgmental attitude void of team politics is an essential ingredient to building such climate in teams. In addition, a team leader should should be able to establish open and direct relationship with a passive or uninterested team member and encourage other team members to do the same.


text:
Talk:Programmed Math/Order of operations

Following the BODMAS method the expression 3-2+1 results in first adding the 2+1 to get 3 and then subtracting 3-3 to get 0. Entering this expression into an algebraic calculator results in an answer of 2. How can this be?

A more accepted order of operations (and one that gets the same answer as a calculator) follows:

Parentheses (and other grouping symbols such as a fraction bar, absolute value, brackets, etc.); Exponents; Multiplication and Division, left to right; Addition and Subtraction, left to right;

...resulting in the memory aid...

P E MD AS


text:
WebObjects/Overview/Naming Conventions

The contents of this wikibook are out of date and have now moved to http://wiki.objectstyle.org/confluence/display/WO/Home.

The naming convention for objects in WebObjects is that names are written in what is now called "camel case".

The various prefixes are not hard to explain. The "NS" stands for "NextStep", the "EO" for "EnterpriseObject", the "WO" for WebObjects.

title: WebObjects/Overview/Naming Conventions


text:
User:Brian

mi:User:Brian New Zealand
 * Me on Wikinews en
 * Me on Wikipedia en
 * Me on Wikipedia mi
 * Me on Wikibooks mi

title: User:Brian


text:
User talk:WikiWizard~enwikibooks

User name merge
Unfortunately, I can only rename users, but cannot merge their accounts. --Derbeth talk 08:04, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Well could you then rename it to WikiWizardOld (if that is possible)? I mainly just want to remove my name for privacy reasons as I figured that people could find out a lot about me by the edits I have done. Thanks --WikiWizard 08:34, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * You mean renaming your old account to WikiWizardOld, yes? --Derbeth talk 10:30, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes thats what I meant. --WikiWizard 12:31, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called WikiWizard. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name WikiWizard~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:WikiWizard~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:59.14.104.125

Please stop deleting page contents. --Derbeth talk 08:11, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:59.14.104.125


text:
User talk:Cold4smitrh

--Cold4smitrh 10:36, 14 June 2006 (UTC)Bold textAm samuel but my friend calls me cold4smith which is my nick name, am a 23 years old guy, am tall,huge and goodlookingup s ups red

title: User talk:Cold4smitrh


text:
User talk:Etannenb

Wikibooks:How to start a page
Can you explain me why why have you moved this page? --Derbeth talk 10:35, 14 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Ok, you don't need to restore anything, just go on with your work. Good luck, --Derbeth talk 16:58, 15 June 2006 (UTC)

Please contribute to my revision of Physical Chemistry instead. Thanks, hagindaz 15:06, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Etannenb


text: User talk:203.199.41.148

title: User talk:203.199.41.148


text:
Algorithm Implementation/Search/Binary search

Ada
The following Ada implementation used a generic approach to enable searches on arbitrary data.

Element_Type ; Index_Type  ; Array_Type (Index_Type )  Element_Type; "<"       (Left  :  Element_Type;         Right :  Element_Type) Boolean ;   Search (Elements : Array_Type;      Search   :  Element_Type;      Found    :  Boolean;      Index    :  Index_Type') Left : Index_Type' := Elements'; Right : Index_Type' := Elements' + 1; Search < Elements (Left) Index := Left - 1; Found := False; Center   :  Index_Type   := Left + (Right - Left) / 2; Candidate : Element_Type := Elements (Center); Search = Candidate Index := Center; Found := True; ;               ;                Right - Left <= 1 Index := Center; Found := False; ;               Search < Candidate Right := Center; Left := Center; ;           ;          ;       ;      ;    Search;

C++
The following is a recursive binary search in C++, designed to take advantage of the C++ STL vectors.

A small test suite for the above binary search implementation:

C++ (generic w/ templates)
Here is a more generic iterative binary search using the concept of iterators:

C++ (common Algorithm)
A common binary search Algorithm with its pseudocode:

/* BEGIN BinarySearch(data, size, data2Search) SET low to 0, high to size-1 WHILE low is smaller than or equal to high SET midpoint to (low + high) / 2 IF data2Search is equal to data[midpoint] THEN return midpoint ELSEIF data2Search is smaller than data[midpoint] THEN SET high to midpoint - 1 ELSE SET low to midpoint + 1 ENDIF ENDWHILE RETURN -1 // Target not found END */

C# (common Algorithm)
A common binary search Algorithm:

Java
Binary Search implementation in Java. The algorithm is implemented recursively.

Joshua Bloch wrote the binary search in "java.util.Arrays", so perhaps he knows a thing or two about binary searching in Java.

Test class for a BinarySearch class. Note: Array must be sorted before binary search.

JavaScript
JavaScript binary search algorithm with loop:

JavaScript binary search algorithm implemented on all Array objects using prototype chaining.

Example:

Phix
Note this is available as a builtin

PHP
Working PHP binary search code. Note that this code is extremely inefficient because of the use of array_slice.

Here is a better version from the PHP documentation

Python
Working python binary search code.

That code isn't exactly idiomatic. It's a class, but it has no state. Additionally, it unnecessarily consumes stack space by recursing. Here is another version: (Not binary search actually but binary + linear)

Ruby
Example:


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Table Tennis

Welcome to the book on Table Tennis. This book is designed so that any level of player can pick up in the Table of Contents at their current level of play and learn a new technique or strategy. If you have anything to add, as always, feel free to improve or create content.

Contents

 * Introduction
 * /History of Table Tennis/
 * /Leagues/
 * /Standards/
 * Basic Play
 * /Basic Serving/
 * /Strokes/
 * /Ball Placement/
 * Advanced Concepts
 * /Types of Player/
 * /Spin/
 * /Movement/
 * /Advanced Serving/
 * /Feigning/

title: Table Tennis


text:
Table Tennis/Spin

Spin is an essential component of an advanced game. Spin influences every aspect of the players' interaction with the ball. Not to mention the satisfying feeling you get when your side spin makes the ball curve just outside of your opponent's stroke.

When learning how to apply spin to the ball, at first the ball is likely to go everywhere but on the table. It is absolutely imperative that you keep trying. The originating author of this Wikibook made the mistake of giving up on top spin while his friends kept trying. He laughed as he beat them easily, since they were (unsuccessfully) trying to apply top spin. However, once they mastered it, he was unable to stop the onslaught of fast, curving balls, and had to play catch-up.

There are seven types of spin, which makes sense, because there are three axes of motion (forward/backward, left/right, up/down) and no-spin, which can have just as much effect on an opponent as a spun ball. The other six are: Top spin, slice, left side spin, right side spin, left corkscrew spin, and right corkscrew spin.

Theory
Understanding how spin works is important. Knowing why spin makes balls curve and jump and seemingly stop helps when implementing it. Spin actually makes the ball behave like an aircraft's wing. Take slice (backspin), for example. Sliced balls seem to float through the air and never bounce as much as a regular (no-spin) ball. This is because the rotation of the ball makes air move over the top of the ball more quickly than the air on the bottom. The slower moving air is at a higher pressure than the faster moving air above the ball. When there is a difference in pressure, high pressure air tries to move into low pressure areas, so the pressure difference imparts lift on the ball. This pressure difference is responsible for the behavior of all spins. When the ball hits the table, it is spinning backwards, so when it grips the table for a moment, that backward rotation is applied to the table and it seems to not bounce as much. Advanced players can apply slice with such energy that the ball will jump backwards when it hits the table.

Top Spin
Top spin is the bread and butter of most advanced players' strokes. Just like in tennis, top spin in table tennis causes the ball to curve downwards. This allows players to impart considerable power to the ball, but instead of soaring off of the table, it will curve down and strike his opponent's side.

Top spin is applied by forcing the ball to spin end over end in an upward manner relative to the player who hit it. In other words, if you hit the ball with the label pointing straight at you, you would see the label move from the bottom of the ball to the top of the ball, and it would not move from left to right. This can be done with several strokes.

One way to impart top spin is to add a wrist flick to the standard stroke. This is a good, basic way to start.

An alternative to the above stroke is to push the ball. Instead of bringing the paddle back towards the body when finishing a stroke, a player would continue the forward movement, so that the paddle only moves in one direction, forward. This stroke has the advantage of being more easily learned for the backhand, which is more difficult with the other strokes.

Some players choose to only flick their wrists upward when hitting the ball. This has the advantage of being able to impart an insane amount of spin without hitting the ball extremely hard. However, it is also one of the more difficult ways to do it.

Slice
Slice, also known as backspin, is a powerful spin and can easily catch an opponent off guard. Sliced balls seem to float through the air, and never bounce as one would expect. The degree of spin affects what the ball will do when it hits the table. With less powerful spin, the ball will not bounce as far as a no-spin ball. With more powerful spin, the ball will either bounce straight up or backwards (toward the player who imparted the slice). However, it becomes more difficult to get the ball to hit the other side as the amount of slice imparted increases, since the more slice the ball has, the more it floats. When first learning slice, don't be surprised when most of your sliced balls float right off the end of the table. With practice you will gain control of the slice beast.

Almost all methods for imparting slice involve getting the paddle either entirely beneath or mostly beneath the ball and striking it so that it runs along the paddle while the paddle moves away from the player. Slice is called slice because the stroke it uses, for lack of a better word, slices at the ball. If correctly done, the label on the ball will move from top to bottom, and not left or right. if you hit the ball from the top the ball will go back up ward toward to you

Side spin
Side spin is very versatile. It is quite possible to use side spin on every shot in a rally and remain competitive, which is much harder to do with top spin and slice. Also, strokes for side spin are much easier to learn. The only action required is moving the paddle laterally when hitting the ball. When correctly done, the label on the ball will move either from left to right or right to left with no up or down movement. There are two methods of imparting side spin.

Push
Push side spin results from moving the paddle laterally away from your body when hitting the ball. Push side spin doesn't require you to impart as much speed to achieve the same amount of spin as pull side spin. The risk you run with push side spin is that you can hit the ball with the leading edge of your paddle instead of allowing it to glide across. The ball whizzes off with no hope of hitting anything but a spectator or wall.

Pull
Pull side spin can be extremely effective. Pull side spin results from moving the paddle laterally toward your body when hitting the ball. You must be selective when using it, because although it can generate insane amounts of spin, the speed of the ball increases with spin. With no top spin to get it down on the table, it can fly off the table quite easily. Practice is essential, because once you master it, your pull side spin shots will be fast and curve right past your opponent's paddle.

Corkscrew spin
First of all: This type of spin is almost exclusively seen at the highest level (world class) of play. Occasionally novices may hit it by accident when hitting a low (below the playing surface) ball. Corkscrew spin can be described as side spin turned on its head. This is the most powerful spin, and is accordingly the hardest to use, much less master. When hit correctly, a ball with right or left corkscrew spin will jump to the right or left (respectively) when it hits the table. And they jump. If the label is facing you when the ball is hit, the label will seem to rotate in the center, not moving up, down, left, or right.

title: Table Tennis/Spin


text:
Table Tennis/Ball Placement

Ball placement is the basic factor that most influences the winner of a game. Mastering ball placement will make you the puppetmaster of players who have not mastered it. You can move them at will, forcing them to run from side to side, or lean back for a far shot then jump forward for a near shot. You can make your opponent catch the ball with his hand when you place your shot in a far corner that he knows won't make it (and this will happen). If you haven't gotten it yet, ball placement is very important.

Bad placements
Figuring out where not to hit the ball is just as important as placing those corner shots. This actually ties in with the section Types of Player. Here's an exercise to help: Think of shots that you love to hit, forehand, backhand (not very common), or whatever. The odds are that your opponent likes at least a few of those shots too. Do not give those to your opponent. One shot that should be avoided at all costs is a medium-to-high-bouncing ball with no spin (you'll learn about that later) that is three-quarters of an arm's length away from your opponent. That's called asking for a slam.

Backhand vs. Forehand
Most players prefer to hit balls on their forehand. That means that most players are likely to be less proficient hitting backhands than forehands. Therefore, hitting to your opponent's backhand is preferable to hitting to their forehand. This doesn't apply at all times. If you've just sent a ball to your opponent's far backhand, you might want to consider hitting to their far forehand once they return it.

Body
The vast majority, if not all, players dislike hitting balls near their body. This is a great thing to take advantage of. One thing to consider, is that the farther away a player is from the table, the less this dislike will affect their ability to return it. Of course, the opposite also applies. If you notice that your opponent is almost or actually touching the table with their body, the next shot you make should be directed towards his body and should hit the table as far back as you feel you can make it (don't go so far that it could go off the table). After this shot, you should back off the table since their return will either hit the net (very likely), hit your side far back with moderate power (a little likely), or go off the end (even less likely).

Runaround
A simple concept, and also used often in tennis, is hitting to alternating sides such that your opponent must use a considerable amount of energy to get to the balls. This is especially effective when playing in warm, humid weather in such venues as garages.

Near vs. Far
A variation on the runaround is to use the same alternating concept, but instead of forehand to backhand, you hit near to far (in relation to the net). Hitting a near shot right after a far shot can certainly throw your opponent off balance. If your opponent is able to return the near shot following the far shot, continue the cycle.

title: Table Tennis/Ball Placement


text:
Table Tennis/Basic Serving

In table tennis, the ball does not hit the servers side before play. You must strike the ball onto your side and cross the net to the opponents side of the table.

There are many different types of serves, some have spin and some don't, two notable serves without spin are the backhand and the forehand serve. The forehand serve has your palm facing away from you, and you should be facing sideways, when you hit the ball.

The Service
Most social players won't call any rules on you for serving, but there are some widely accepted guidelines. First, you can't serve the ball off the bounce; you must have it in your hand and hit it before it touches anything else. It then hits your side once and then your opponent's side, clearing the net. If the ball hits the net but goes over (colloquially referred to as a netball), a let is called and the server is allowed another try. If the ball hits the net and doesn't go over, a net is called and the receiver gets the point.

Basic strategy for beginning servers is all about control. Try to serve low over the net, but not at the expense of hitting the net more than necessary. Don't serve a high and short ball that bounces vertically, because you give the other player a chance to slam it right back at you, with minimal chance of a return.

title: Table Tennis/Basic Serving


text:
Table Tennis/Feigning

Feigning is an excellent technique, and when used sparingly will almost always catch your opponent off guard. The great thing about feigning is that it can be applied to almost everything in this Wikibook so far.

Service
A basic, but very effective, feign is the placement of your service. Very few players will look at your paddle to determine where the shot will go. Absolutely critical to making the feign believable is your eyes. You must look at where you want your opponent to think the shot is going to go. Also important, but usually only caught by players who have had feigns used on them for a while, is not interrupting your service routine. Don't change anything, and your opponent won't know when to expect a feign.

Rally
Rally feigning is a bit different from service feigning. It is more versatile, however. A common feign is used when performing the runaround. After settling into the forehand-backhand pattern, interrupt it by hitting to the same side (instead of the opposite side) that your opponent returned from. This works flawlessly on unanticipating opponents.

Feigning Spin
Feigning spin is more complicated than feigning placement. First, your opponent must be advanced enough to recognize spin. If you can convince your opponent that you always spin, you can win critical points by not spinning the shot. They will anticipate the spin and either completely miss the ball or miss the sweet spot.

title: Table Tennis/Feigning


text:
Ancient History/Egypt/Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt

The earliest era in Egyptian history is called the Predynastic period. The neolithic ended in Egypt around 4400 BCE with the appearance of the Amratian culture in Upper Egypt. The Amratians buried their dead in communal cemeteries in the desert, and showed signs of caring about the fate of the dead by such actions as covering the bodies with mats. In Lower Egypt, the Maadi culture developed around 4000 CE, about the same time that the Amratians underwent significant changes, evolving into or being replaced by the Gerzean culture. The Gerzeans continued to bury their dead in the desert, while the Maadi placed their dead in burial mounds. All three cultures produced distinctive pottery, which has helped Egyptologists to identify where and when each culture was active. Around 3200 BCE, a group from Upper Egypt came to dominate the whole country, which Egyptologists designate as Dynasty 0. The burial of the Dynasty 0 ruler King Scorpion shows signs of the formation of Pharaonic civilization. Tags that served as an inventory of King Scorpion's funerary goods are the earliest known example of a writing system.

Early Dynastic Egypt
From records, the first pharaoh of the 1st Dynasty, and indeed the first pharaoh of a united Egypt, appears to be Narmer. Narmer is often associated with the pharaoh Menes (evidence of whom is more sparse in the archaeological record than that for Narmer), who is traditionally known as the first pharaoh of the 1st Dynasty (see the writings of Manetho). Though whether or not Narmer and Menes were indeed the same person or whether they were separate pharaohs is unknown. The largest piece of evidence for the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer, is found in the Narmer Palette.

Koningen aan de Nijl/Predynastieke periode Koningen aan de Nijl/Vroegdynastieke periode


text:
Ancient History/Egypt/Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom began with the rise of the 5th dynasty. The Old Kingdom is marked by the construction of most of Egypt's pyramids, giving the first part of the Old Kingdom the name "tha age of pyramids." The architect Imhotep designed the first pyramid—the Step Pyramid—for Pharaoh Djoser at Saqqara. Larger than any building to have built before it, the Step Pyramid is not a true pyramid, but rather a series of platforms stacked on top of each other, with the smallest level at the top and the largest on the bottom. Djoser's successor Snefru constructed three pyramids at Dashur; the third pyramid—the pink Pyramid—became the first true pyramid to be completed. The greatest pyramids were constructed by the fourth dynasty at Giza. The Giza complex includes the Great Pyramid of Khufu and the Great Sphinx.

These large projects could be constructed due to the mobilization of the whole country to serve the order of the pharaohs. The Old Kingdom ended due to a combination of the rising power of priesthoods and nobility, and a dry period in which the Nile failed to flood annually for several years.

Koningen aan de Nijl/Oude Rijk

title: Ancient History/Egypt/Old Kingdom


text:
Ancient History/Egypt/Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom period of Egyptian history is characterized by a powerful noble class and similarly powerful priesthoods of several prominent gods jockeying for power. The Middle Kingdom collapsed when a group of outside invaders called the Hyksos invaded Egypt using chariots, horses and iron. The Hyksos established their own monarchy and controlled Lower Egypt for approximately 200 years.

Koningen aan de Nijl/Middenrijk

title: Ancient History/Egypt/Middle Kingdom


text:
Ancient History/Egypt/New Kingdom

The New Kingdom period of Egyptian history commenced with the uprising of Pharaoh Ahmose, who used the Hyksos technologies of chariots, horses and iron against the outside invaders, and re-conquered Lower Egypt. The New Kingdom's pharaohs were powerful compared with their authority in the Middle Kingdom, but still had to balance their wills against both priesthoods and nobility. A rising middle class also appeared in Egypt, and the idea of a universal afterlife (and acceptance of mummification for all social classes) took hold throughout the country. No pyramids were constructed during this age, since the nobles and the temples had building projects of their own which competed with royal building. However, the rock-cut tombs of the Valley of the Kings date to this period, including the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Religious controversy also shattered the internal peace of Egypt several times, most notably during the reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten, who attempted to institute monotheism upon his subjects.

Koningen aan de Nijl/Nieuwe Rijk

title: Ancient History/Egypt/New Kingdom


text:
Ancient History/Ancient Near East/Mesopotamia/Sumer

Sumer was a civilization located in the southern part of Mesopotamia (modern day southeastern Iraq) from the time of the earliest records in the mid 4th millennium BC until the rise of Babylonia in the late 3rd millennium BC. The term "Sumerian" applies to all speakers of the Sumerian language. Sumer is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization". Settlements such as Ur and Uruk were the first to arise on Earth which could qualify as cities, where the majority of inhabitants were engaged in pursuits other than agriculture, supported by the surplus food production of surrounding lands.

Sumer was a favorable location for a civilization to arise. Watered by the annual floods of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the rich soil of the region, combined with the warm climate, offered farmers a long growing season and high productivity. Sumer also lay at a confluence of trade routes—the Persian Gulf offered access to Arabia and lands around the Indian Ocean, while the Tigris and Euphrates were natural highways leading north and west toward Anatolia and the Mediterranean Sea. Since the first appearance of agriculture six millennia earlier, Mesopotamia had been home to a series of farming cultures of increasing number and sophistication. As populations in the region rose, leaders organized communal labor to build irrigation systems and bring more land into production. These efforts, which required coordination and record-keeping, most likely became the basis for the Sumerian state.

Ubaid period

 * ca. 5300 - 4000 BC

Saw the settlement of the first town in lower mesopotamia, Eridu, ca. 5300 BC, by a group which brought with them the Samarran culture from the north.

First settlement beyond the 5 inch rainfall isohyet - there was not enough rain to grow crops, but the water table was high enough to allow for manual irrigation of the rich alluvial soil - a project which was labor intensive and necessarily centrally coordinated.

Eridu was not the first city - well-known cities such as Jericho and Çatalhöyük already existed as year-round trading colonies or for seasonal protection.

Farming also existed, but was seasonal - when not farming, people continued to be mobile hunter-gatherers.

Uruk period

 * ca. 4000-3000 BC

Archaeological sites show a gradual shift from fine quality pottery of the Ubaid period (which were often made with the help of a turntable), to plain pottery mass-produced on a true fast potter's wheel. The technology used to make the fast potter's wheel would then be used for the mill-wheel and for vehicular wheels.

Ca. 3500, the need for record keeping led to the development of writing - starting with number symbols, pictograms were added to represent what was being counted. This quickly developed into a full logographic script to represent the full range of language, not just counted objects, and the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Elamites soon developed their own logographic writing systems. At first symbols were simple carved in a medium or drawn in clay. By the end of the millennium, a triangular stylus came into use to make impressions in clay, creating the characteristic cuneiform script. With the use of the stylus, symbols became more abstract.

Jemdet Nasr period

 * ca. 3000-2900 BC

Archaeology shows the Jemdet Nasr period is followed by a layer of riverine sediment throughout the Sumerian area in lower Mesopotamia, indicating what was probably a devastating flood event for the Sumerians. The Sumerian king list then picks up the "kingship" in Kish, far to the north.

Early Dynastic periods

 * ca. 2900 - 2334 BC (short chronology)

Ca. 2600, the cuneiform symbols started being used to represent the sounds of individual word syllables, independent of cuneiform symbols' meanings. This syllabary would be adopted by the Akkadians, Eblaites and Elamites, and later by the Hittites and Uragitic speakers. This wide dissemination has allowed the cuneiform script, and the Sumerian language to be deciphered by modern linguists. The previously used logographic scripts, both Sumerian and Elamite, remain undeciphered, unlike the ancient Egyptian, which retained their logographic hieroglyphs well into the Hellenistic period. The Rosetta Stone, a text written in both hieroglyphs and in classical Greek was the key to deciphering ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Because Egyptian hieroglyphs had remained essentially the same since the beginning, we are able to read Egyptian texts going back to ca. 3100 BC. But for Sumer, the historical record only opens for us starting ca. 2600 BC, when the syllabary came into use.


text:
Ancient History/Ancient Near East/Mesopotamia/Akkadian Empire

Akkad was a city that came to dominate the region of northern Mesopotamia, situated on the west bank of the Euphrates. It reached the height of its power between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, before the rise of Babylonia. The Akkadians were recognized as gifted warriors for their time, this reputation was probably attained for the Akkadians after the numerous conquests launched by King Sargon, who built the world's first empire.


text:
Ancient History/Ancient Near East/Mesopotamia/Assyria

Assyria in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper Tigris river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur. Later, as a nation and Empire, it also came to include roughly the northern half of Mesopotamia.

The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian kingdoms, or periods. The most powerful and best-known nation of these periods is the Neo-Assyrian kingdom, 911-612 BC.

Asirija/Povijest


text:
Ancient History/Iran/Parthian Empire

Parthia was a civilization situated in the northeast of modern Iran, but at its height covering all of Iran, Mesoptamia, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula, and Central Asia. Led by the Arsacid dynasty, reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, taking over the eastern provinces of the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BC, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BC and 224 AD. It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia). Parthia (mostly due to their invention of heavy cavalry) was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond central Anatolia.

The Parthian empire lasted four centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. After the Scythian-Parni nomads (Assyrians called them Ashkuz) had settled in Parthia and had built a small independent kingdom, they rose to power under king Mithradates the Great. The end of this loosely organized empire came in 224 AD, when the last king was defeated by one of the empire's vassals, the Persians of the Sassanid dynasty. The Parthins in battle were noted for the use of the so called Partian arrow. This being in retret from the enemy they would losse an arrow at the enemy. Thus a parting shot.

title: Ancient History/Iran/Parthian Empire


text:
Embedded Systems/Memory Units

ROM
One type of memory that is as cheap as it is useless is Read-Only Memory (ROM). I say that it is useless because you can program it once, and then you can never change the data that is on it. This makes it useless because you can't upgrade the information on the ROM chip (be it program code or data), you can't fix it if there is an error, etc.... Because of this, they are usually called "Programmable Read-Only Memory" (PROM), because you can program it once, but then you can't change it at all.

EPROM
In contrast to PROM is EPROM ("Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory"). EPROM chips will have a little window, made of either glass or quartz that can be used to erase the memory on the chip. To erase an EPROM, the window needs to be uncovered (they usually have some sort of guard or cover), and the EPROM needs to be exposed to UV radiation to erase the memory, and allow it to be reprogrammed.

EEPROM
A step up from EPROM is EEPROM ("Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory"). EEPROM can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. This means that EEPROM can be erased in circuit (as opposed to EPROM, which needs to be removed from the circuit, and exposed to UV). An appropriate electrical charge will erase the entire chip, so you can't erase just certain data items at a time.

Many modern microcontroller have an EEPROM section on-board, which can be used to permanently store system parameters or calibration values. These are often referred to as non-volatile memory (NVM). They can be accessed - read and write - as single bytes or blocks of bytes. Like Flash memory EEPROM allows only a limited number of write cycles, usually several ten-thousand.

Write access to on-board NVM tends to be considerably slower than RAM. Embedded software must take this into account and "queue" write requests to be executed in background.

RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a temporary, volatile memory that requires a persistant electric current to maintain information. As such, a RAM chip will not store data when you turn the power OFF. RAM is more expensive than ROM, and it is often at a premium: Embedded systems can have many Kbytes of ROM (sometimes Megabytes or more), but often they have less than 100 bytes of RAM available for use in program flow.

FLASH Memory
Flash memory is a combination of the best parts of RAM and ROM. Like ROM, Flash memory can hold data when the power is turned off. Like RAM, Flash can be reprogrammed electrically, in whole or in part, at any time during program execution.

Flash memory modules are only good for a limited number of Read/Write cycles, which means that they can burn out if you use them too much, too often. As such, Flash memory is better used to store persistant data, and RAM should be used to store volatile data items.

title: Embedded Systems/Memory Units


text:
User talk:68.79.20.103

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:68.79.20.103


text:
Table Tennis/Types of Player

Determining what type of player your opponent is can help you make good decisions, most importantly, shot placement. If you have a group of people that you play with, it should be easy to recall the strengths and weaknesses of each. When playing against a new opponent, it should be your priority to determine what kind of player they are.

Aggressive or Defensive
This is the basic divide in table tennis players, and can usually be easily determined. There are many indicators of aggressiveness or defensiveness. Does your opponent seem to crowd the table even when shots are flying quickly? That's an aggressive stance and you can expect fast returns, which can go into the net or on your side. Defensive players tend to just get the ball back, waiting for their opponents to make mistakes. Defensive players tend to not slam balls, and some extremists refuse to slam even when there is almost no chance of missing. Good players can shift their style of play, just as no basketball team plays offense all the time. When a chronically defensive player and a chronically aggressive player play, the defensive player will find himself standing far from the table, returning the blazing shots the aggressive player is making. Either one could win, taking advantage of weaknesses (with shot placement) could win the game.

Forehand, Backhand, or Both
This is pretty straightforward and easy to determine. Left-handed players can throw a wrench into the works, though. Simply, does your opponent use energy to favor forehand or backhand, or does he hit both with no real preference to either? If they favor one or the other, use shot placement to take advantage of their weaker side.

title: Table Tennis/Types of Player


text: Category:Subject:Anatomy

title: Category:Subject:Anatomy


text:
Category:Book:Angels and Demons

th:หมวดหมู่:เทวากับซาตาน

title: Category:Book:Angels and Demons


text: Category:Book:Anim8or - Basics to Advanced


text: Category:Book:Animal Behavior

title: Category:Book:Animal Behavior


text: Category:Book:Animation:Master Features

title: Category:Book:Animation:Master Features


text: Category:Book:Applicable Mathematics

title: Category:Book:Applicable Mathematics


text: User:Whiteknight/Weekend

title: User:Whiteknight/Weekend


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Stars

| /Honors with Divisional Variants


text:
Category:Book:Ecology

fr:Catégorie:Écologie

title: Category:Book:Ecology


text:
Category:Book:Arabic

ar:تصنيف:عربية cy:Categori:Arabeg fr:Catégorie:Arabe oc:Categoria:Arabi

title: Category:Book:Arabic


text:
Umbraco/Samples and Articles/Multilingual sites

Site structure
Usually best practice is to create separate branche for each language like:

Root
 * en
 * en-pages
 * se
 * se-pages
 * dk
 * dk-pages

By using dictionary items, templates and some xslt, most of the functionality built for one language is easily available for other languages. Pros: - flexibility, sites can really be different and still share mutual resources - easy assignment of user rights for nodes

Cons: - sometimes sharing of resources, like media files, will become a mess. Consider case when you have 5 languages and documentation in 2, which you want to share depending on language.

One other option is to use multiple tabs in your text pages, one tab for each language and change body content depending on a language variable (might be the active sub-domain).

The draw-back (or advantage) with this second solution is that all editors will be able to change all languages since you can't restrict access to different tabs in umbraco. Another one might be that your menu XSLT's will become a bit complex if you have to check if the language exists for each node you want to display...

Language specific char in page names
Umbraco can handle language specific characters so that you do not have them in page names. Like in Icelandic we have ð and þ among others. http://yourdomain.com/þaðan.aspx would become http://yourdomain.com/thadan.aspx if configured correctly. Umbraco handles spaces dots and danish char by default. To ad yours modify umbracosettings.xml from the config folder, find the  section and add your char to it. Like th


text:
Talk:Training Best Practices

Page titles
It looks like you guys have been making some pages without knowing the Naming policy. It then appears you discovered the policy and have been moving content to comply with the policy. This is great. I would ask, however, that you keep track of the old page titles, so the administrators can delete them. You might keep a list on this talk page, or over at Votes for deletion. Thanks for helping us keep the site clean. Gentgeen

Structure
When I came across this book, it was just a list of loosely bound and wide ranging topics. Many were links to non-existent pages — which is fine as long as they form a structure to which content will be added.

Others were stubs that contributed little or nothing or overly specific ones that only the original author can finish. I've tried weeding this a bit, but there is still a lot of work to be done before this book lives up to its potential.

Happy editing. --Swift (talk) 01:39, 12 December 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Training Best Practices


text: Category:Book:Arimaa

title: Category:Book:Arimaa


text: Category:Book:Aros

title: Category:Book:Aros


text: Category:Book:Art Tutorials

title: Category:Book:Art Tutorials


text:
Statics/Three-Dimensional Equilibrium

There are six equations expressing the equilibrium of a rigid body in 3 dimensions.

Sum of Forces: $$\sum_{}^{} F_x=0$$,       $$\sum_{}^{} F_y=0$$,        $$\sum_{}^{} F_z=0$$

Sum of Moments: $$\sum_{}^{} M_x=0$$,       $$\sum_{}^{} M_y=0$$,        $$\sum_{}^{} M_z=0$$

To solve three dimensional statics problems:

Im mad bc why r there only 5 problems here i need the six specific equilibruim equations for a 3 dimensional system. HELP BRO.
 * Resolve force components
 * Resolve moments about a point
 * Resolve moments about a line or axis. See Scalar Triple Product

Knowing how to find the Determinate of a matrix can help a lot here.

title: Statics/Three-Dimensional Equilibrium


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Stars - Advanced

/Honors with Divisional Variants


text:
User talk:Ikeelkhorn

Thanks!
Thank you for your pronunciation uploads. Often users copy old audio files to new file names as tests, so it was a pleasant surprise to hear a new voice. One question I have is regarding your pronunciation of "sympa." I was taught that it was pronounced as "sahmpah", rather than with a hard e. Is that wrong? Again, thank you for your contributions.

Here's the standard welcome message:

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --hagindaz 01:43, 15 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ikeelkhorn


text:
Neapolitan/pronunciation

Final vowel sounds
Neapolitan words can end either stressed (with an accent mark) or unstressed. As a general rule, words ending with a stressed vowel (called "acute" words) have the last vowel pronounced.

The ends of many unstressed words are pronounced as a schwa (ə); that is, it sounds as if the final vowel is being swallowed. This has led to Neapolitan often being written with many words ending in consonants followed by an apostrophe-
 * facenn '  for facenno ("doing"), sacc '  for saccio ("I know") etc.

Generally, all words ending in "a" have the last vowel pronounced, though less strongly than as would be the case in Italian.
 * còzzeca ("mussel"), varca ("boat"), mammà ("mother").

Pronunciation

 * a - /a~ɑ/ in stressed syllables, /ə/ in unstressed syllables
 * b - /b/
 * c - /k/ before a;o;u, /t͡ʃ~ʃ/ before i or e. Cia, cio, ciu have the /t͡ʃ~ʃ/ sound (no /i/ sound). It can also sound like /g/ when preceded by a voiced consonant ('ncoppa is pronounced, and frequently spelled, 'ngoppa)
 * d - /d~r/ intervocalic d is usually pronounced like an r. dd can be pronounced /r/ or /dd/ (ro and do along with arrò and addò are examples of interchangeable spelling)
 * e - /e/ in closed, stressed syllables, /ɛ/ in open, stressed syllables, /ə/ or silent in unstressed syllables
 * f - /f/
 * g - /g/ before a;o;u, /d͡ʒ~ʒ/ before i or e, gia, gio, giu have the /d͡ʒ~ʒ/ sound (no /i/ sound). Before a u that precedes another vowel, the g is silent, as in guaglione, sometimes also spelled uaglione or uagliò
 * h - silent. Used to differentiate between 2 words, such as 'ha' vs. 'a'
 * i - /i/ or sometimes /ɪ~ə/ in unstressed syllables
 * j - /j/
 * l - /l/
 * m - /m/
 * n - /n/
 * o - /o/ in closed, stressed syllables, /ɔ/ in open, stressed syllables, /ə/ or silent in unstressed syllables
 * p - /p/
 * qu - /kw/
 * r - /r/ɾ/ is most common, but can also be pronounced /l/ before another consonant, like in barcone or borsetta, causing them to sometimes be spelled balcone or bolsetta. Or at the end of a word such as tir' or vir', pronounced /til/ and /vil/
 * s - /s~z/
 * t - /t/, /d/ voiced after 'n'
 * u - /u/ or sometimes /ʊ~ə/ in unstressed syllables
 * v - /v/
 * (w) - /w/ only found in foreign words
 * (x) - /ks/ only found in foreign words
 * (y) - /j/ only found in foreign words
 * z - /ts~dz/
 * ch - /k/
 * gn - /ɲ/ [ɲɲ]
 * gli - /ʎ/ or /ʝ/, sometimes [ʝʝ]

title: Neapolitan/pronunciation


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Physical Fitness


text:
User:Atheistx

Atheistx
Name: Zachery P

Age: January 8, 1983

Wikiversity
Participant intent to suppliment and expand upon traditional college courses for furtherment of education.

Interests - Subjects I plan to make my main focus of study.
 * Philosophy
 * Psychology

Development - Subjects in which I am weak, and desire to improve.
 * Mathematics

title: User:Atheistx


text:
User:Belginusanl~enwikibooks

My page at Commons http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Belginusanl

title: User:Belginusanl~enwikibooks