text:
Novial/AIL Esperanto

Esperanto
In the next act history repeats itself, but, as usual, with some modification. When the Polish oculist L. L. Zamenhof first brought out his "Lingvo Internacia de la Doktoro Esperanto" in 1887, he was at once met with the objection, that he came too late because the choice of a world-language had already been settled once and for all by the then undisputed success of Volapük, but he was sensible enough to answer that Schleyer's adherents, however superior in number to his own, represented only a very small minority of civilized mankind and were not powerful enough to rule out-of-court a language which was much better in every way than Volapük. Time has shown that he was right - as time will show that those anti-Esperantists are right who nowadays use the same argument against Esperantists who boast of the number of their adherents.

In the first years the progress of Esperanto was very slow indeed - people were sick of the idea of an artificial language after the fiasco of Volapük - and enthusiastic as Zamenhof's few first followers were, they soon began to criticize details in his creation. He himself was not averse to changes, and in 1894 even put forward a comprehensive scheme of reform, which if it had been accepted would have changed the whole aspect of the language, and done away with some of those features of Esperanto which have always ruffled people more than anything else: the circumflexed letters, the fanciful "correlative" words, the accusative, the aj's and oj's, etc. Unfortunately, these sensible reforms were tied up with things of a much more doubtful character, and the conservative elements in the very small body of Esperantists carried the day, as they did on later occasions, when the number of believers had increased very considerably, and when they did everything to hinder reforms and to hush up Zamenhof's own half-hearted proposals of change (even so late as 1907 he sent to the Delegation a few proposals of that kind). In such matters there will always be some who think that the all-important thing is unity, so that it matters little whether a language be relatively perfect or not, so long as it is the only one in use. Conservative Esperantists looking back on the history of Volapük thought the cause of its downfall lay exclusively in the squabbles of its adherents, while it really lay deeper, in the defects of the language, which invited criticism on so many points. So a great party among Esperantists shut their eyes to the imperfections of Zamenhof's system and gradually worked themselves up into such a state of admiration that their "kara majstro" became the equivalent of the "Datuval" of a former period, the "Fundamento," which embodied the grammar and chief vocabulary of his language, became a thing that must on no account be "touched" (Netushebleco, as they say).

Now it is undeniable that this language of Zamenhof's is a remarkable achievement, which must have struck those who came to it fresh from Schleyer's Volapük as an entirely new and better world. Zamenhof took some things from previous schemes, from Volapük the preposition al, the word dom `house' (as in Latin and Russian, but with a different meaning from that found in West-European languages; the same dom has been taken over into Ido and Occidental), from Steiner's Pasilingua the accusative in -n, from Schipfer the rule that the accusative is used without a preposition for movement towards or to, from Pirro -in as a feminine ending and a good many German words (bald, warm, hund, vund, somer), see also below on the play of vowels in the verbal tenses, but he works all these elements into one harmonious whole. It is true that his inflexional endings and most of his suffixes are just as arbitrary as those of Volapük, but they are better distinguished from the root syllable or syllables; besides they are much fewer and yet enable one to express by simple means a good many shades of thought. A great stride forward is the doing away with verbal endings to indicate person and number. So, on the whole, there is much to admire in the system of 1887, though it is easy to see now that it was far from being perfect.

As for the vocabulary it is often said, by Esperantists and antagonists alike, that Zamenhof's genius showed itself in the way in which he took words with hardly any change from existing languages. This, of course, is the reason why a page of Esperanto looks ever so much more familiar than a page of Volapük. But Zamenhof was not the first to take his words from the best-known languages (see Couturat and Leau, 239-303), and I must here especially mention Pirro, whose book written in 1868 is very little known, but is one to which I constantly recur with the greatest admiration, because it embodies principles which were not recognized till much later. Let me give one little illustration, which will show how much more modern this language looks than Esperanto:

Nos habe el honor, meni senior, informaten evos ke nos habe kreated in dit plats un kommmerkant-haus sub el nom de N. Nos vove enos exklauslit ad exsekutsion de li konmitsion ex fremd, tant per kauf ke per vend de li merkantnes.

Zamenhof, like the authors of all subsequent schemes, took most of his words from the vocabulary common to Romanic languages and English, much of which has also made its way into German, Russian, etc., but he was not really guided by any fixed principles either in his selection or in his phonetic treatment of words. When a word which he wanted to use was refractory in one way or another and might cause ambiguities, he modified it, not quite so violently as Schleyer did, but still without any scruples. Port might represent F porte `door' and F porter `to carry': the first is therefore turned into pordo, with a d, which is found in no existing language. In order to use the French conjunction car, which with k would be in conflict with kar `dear' and with c with car `tsar, czar,' Zamenhof simply puts his circumflex over c: ĉar (char). The word nepre is nothing but the first two syllables of Russian nepremenno - just as if for the same idea he had taken unbe from German unbedingt. The most curious example is edzino `wife,' which is taken from the ending of German kron-prinzessin arbitrarily modified; then, as -in- is the feminine suffix, edzo comes to mean husband, and edzighi to marry. Place-names are changes so that they may receive the substantive-ending -o: Parizo, etc., and the names of countries are reduced to a uniformity, which recalls Volapük: Rusujo Russia, Anglujo, Svisujo, etc.

The vogue of Esperanto dates from about the beginning of the century, more especially from the great success of the first congress (Boulogne 1905). Thousands were fired with enthusiasm. Grammars, textbooks, periodicals, translations of works of many different kinds appeared in all parts of the world, and a most energetic propaganda led to the result - not that the language was adopted everywhere, but that the man in the street identified the notion of "International language" with "Esperanto," a confusion which has been and is highly injurious to the realization of the idea of an interlanguage; for any one seeing Esperanto and realizing that this cannot possibly be the world-language of the future will be tempted to draw the erroneous conclusion that no such language will ever be adopted.

When in an Esperanto book one stumbles on the word ghistiamajn and succeeds in making out that it means `previous' and is a compound of the following elements, ghis (gh or g with a circumflex, pronounced like English j) up to, tiam then, a adjective ending, j plural, n accusative, then one cannot help asking oneself in the face of so much ingenuity if it is really necessary for an auxiliary language to be made up of such utterly arbitrary elements - a question to which the whole of the subsequent history (and of the second part of this book) gives an emphatic answer in the negative.

title: Novial/AIL Esperanto


text:
Novial/AIL Idiom Neutral

Idiom Neutral
The first decades after the birth of Esperanto contributed several books on the question with new "languages," most of them written by former Volapükists, and containing vocabularies based on West-European languages with more or less artificial grammars. None of them had any practical influence, but those of Lott, Liptay and Heintzeler deserve mention here, because they show a growing conciousness, that the task is not so much to invent a language as to find out what is already in international use, and to utilize that to the utmost extent. All the while some members of the Volapük Academy were patiently and steadily at work under the presidency of W. Rosenberger of St. Petersburg, and when finally they brought out their language under the title of Idiom Neutral (1902), it turned out to be something as different from Volapük as day is from night. In the vocabulary, the maximum of internationality had been aimed at, this being calculated by counting how many of the seven principal languages contained a particular word. The result was a language that could be read with comparative ease by every educated person. On the whole, we have here a very conscientious piece of work, which has deeply influenced all subsequent schemes, though as a system it gained very few adherents, probably because its grammar was inadequate in various points, and because too little had been done to avoid disturbing homophones; moreover its many consonant-groups (e.g. nostr patr "our Father") made the language far from euphonious.

Among numerous systems of the same type, but not worked out to the same extent as Neutral, I shall here mention only H. Molenaar's Universal (1906).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Novial/AIL Idiom Neutral


text:
Novial/AIL The Delegation. Ido

The Delegation. Ido.
The number of such schemes, each perhaps with some good points, but none of them in every respect superior to the rest, was disquieting to several earnest friends of the idea of an interlanguage, who were, not without reason, afraid that puffing advertisements, political intrigues, or monetary influences might some day force on the world an auxiliary language which was not quite good enough for the purpose. They also felt that if they now learnt one language and perhaps used it for bringing out an important scientific work, they might find in a few years' time that that system had been abandoned in favour of another one. This anxiety gave rise to the "Délégation pour l'adoption d'une langue auxiliaire internationale" (1900). Under the able and energetic leadership of the French philosopher L. Couturat signatures were gathered chiefly from scientific bodies and men of science for the proposal that the final selection of an international language should be left to some authoritative committee, preferably the "Association internationale des Académies," which comprised all the most important scientific Academies of the world. As, however, the Association declined the task, the Delegation in 1907 thought the time had come to appoint a Committee of its own to select the best auxiliary language for international use.

Under the presidency of the famous chemist W. Ostwald this Committee held a long series of meetings in Paris, in which we discussed the chief projects that had appeared down to that time. Inventors had been invited to appear and defend their schemes, and some made use of this opportunity. Esperantists made an unsuccessful attempt at intimidating the Committee into accepting Esperanto en bloc on account of its having more adherents at the moment than all the other projects counted together. It soon turned out that there were really only two schemes in existence that could receive serious consideration, Esperanto and Idiom Neutral, and that it was out of the question to accept either of them in its then shape, and very difficult to combine the good elements of the two into one harmonious whole.¹

Then, one day, we found on our tables an anonymous pamphlet said to be written by "Ido," no one of us at the time suspecting that under this name was hidden Louis de Beaufront, one of the leading French Esperantists, who on account of his supposed conservatism had just been chosen by Zamenhof to represent him and to defend Esperanto before the Delegation Committee (this, by the way, he had done with great eloquence and skill, laying chief stress on those points in the structure of Esperanto which were kept unchanged by "Ido," and which were criticized in the meetings, by myself more than by anybody else). But this anonymous project struck in some ways that middle course between the two rival languages, of which we were in search, and likewise embodied Couturat's ideas of word-formation. So, though the committee could not accept this project in every detail, in its final verdict it gave the preference to Esperanto, with the reservation of several changes to be worked out by a small sub-committee "in the direction indicated by the secretaries' report and by the project called Ido, and if possible in agreement with the Esperantist Language Committee."

Some of the leading Esperantists had promised, or half-promised, friendship and cooperation, but after a short time Zamenhof and his nearest friends declared that they would have nothing to do with the Delegation Committee or its language, and so began the fratricidal war which has not yet ended, though it has lost much of its bitterness. Dictionaries and grammars were soon brought out in the new language, which after a good deal of hesitation was baptized with the stupid name of Ido; and the monthly publication Progreso was devoted to the propagation and constant improvement of that language under the able direction of L. Couturat. Seven big volumes had appeared, when the world war put an end to the periodical, which is a vast storehouse of (partially at any rate) valuable discussions on linguistic questions. Couturat deserves the highest praise for his liberality in opening up the pages of Progreso even to articles written in rival languages, less for his furious onslaughts on some Esperantists, though it must be admitted that their methods were not praiseworthy. The death of Couturat just at the beginning of the war was a very severe blow to the cause of the international language.

Some of the most influential men in the Esperanto camp joined the Idists (Ahlberg, Kofman, Lemaire, Schneeberger, to mention only a few of them), and brought with them a not inconsiderable body of private soldiers, but a still greater number remained under the old colours. The new language, as it was modified through the discussions in Progreso till it had become more and more unlike de Beaufront's original project, proved a most flexible and rich language, superior to Esperanto in a great many respects, though, as I shall have occasion to show in the special part, not satisfactory in every point. Its chief fault in my eyes is that its framers did not at the outset take as their motto (with an apology to Dante and to a German comic paper) "Lasciate ogni Esperanto voi ch'entrate," but it must be recognized that the Ido chiefs have nearly all of them shown that they take the word "Progreso" seriously, and are ready to go on even now working at the perfection of the IL without thinking that the last word has already been spoken in that respect. This open-mindedness is seen especially in the "Pasilogio" of Ahlberg's monthly Mondo.

The failure of the Committee of 1907 to carry through the programme of producing something which would be accepted by everybody concerned was chiefly due, as it is now easy to see, to two things. In the first place the time was not yet ripe for a final decision: the principles of an interlanguage had not been thrashed out scientifically, and much of the short time at the committee's disposal had to be spent in clearing away much old rubbish, so that a great many important details had to be left for further discussion in Progreso. Secondly, though the Committee comprised some eminently competent members, it was not as a whole authoritative enough in the eyes either of interlinguists or of the world at large; and the same is true of the Ido Academy which was appointed to carry on its work. But in spite of all - in spite also of the amount of energy squandered away in the quarrels of Esperantists and Idists - the Delegation and the Ido Academy have left their indelible mark on the interlanguage movement, and their influence has been chiefly for the good - witness, among other things, the way in which Esperantists have given up several of their compound conundrums in favour of simple internationally known words like akuzi, exkuzi, heziti, etc.

¹ I print here with the permission of Mrs. Sweet, a letter which the late Dr. Sweet sent in 1907 to the Delegation Committee:

DEAR SIR,- It seems clear that the ideal way of constructing an a posteriori language would be to make the root-words monosyllabic, and build up the whole vocabulary on them, without any borrowed words; and to make the grammar a priori in spirit as well as form - independent of European grammar and parts of speech, no concord, no verbs, etc. But the result would be inferior to a wholly a priori system, and yet the foundation would be so obscured that the language would not be easily accessible to Europeans; it would not be learnt in a few minutes, like Idiom Neutral. From this point of view the choice lies between IN and Esperanto. But in their present form they are both so defective from their own point of view that they can only be regarded as a basis. But as IN is, it affords a better basis than Esp because it carries out consistently the principle of the maximum of internationality in the root-words, and because its grammar as well as its vocabulary is a posteriori, and much simpler and less tricky than that of Esp. Esp cannot be reformed: it would fall to pieces. The spelling of IN is good. Its vocabulary is good; it only wants to get rid of its homonyms, such as kar, and its alternative forms, such as sienti(fi)k. The grammar should be thoroughly recast on the same principle of the maximum internationality as the vocabulary. The general principles of word-order and syntax generally should be based on English and French - the most analytic of European languages - whenever they agree. Where they disagree, logical and practical considerations should decide. There would be little difficulty in coming to an agreement on this basis: adjective after noun, accusative shown by position, not by inflection; definite and indefinite articles preserved, but used as in English, etc. A priori elements need not be absolutely excluded. This is what I should do if I were obliged, under pain of death, to furnish a new language within six months.

title: Novial/AIL The Delegation. Ido


text:
Novial/AIL Latino sine Flexione

Latino sine Flexione
In 1903 the famous Italian mathematician G. Peano started his Latino sine flexione. This may be useful to express the abstract truths dealt with in mathematical treatises, but when it is claimed that it can be used also in other sciences and in practical everyday life, the matter is much more doubtful. The idea is to take the ablative of each Latin noun and one simple form of each verb to be used practically everywhere. This "interlingua" is now employed in the publication of Academia pro Interlingua, which purports to be a continuation of the Volapük "Kadem" of 1887; anyone can become a member in consideration of a modest subscription, and members are free to use what dialect they choose of this Latino - and there are several, though superficially different writers seem to write the same language. Some use que only as a conjunction ("that"), where others say quod, some also as a relative and interrogative pronoun and for "than" (que de melio que libertate?); ut is found for "in order that" and in other writers for "as" (ut seque, ut normale); lege in one writer means "law," in another "read," etc. Some use more or less self-made inflexions (veniva preterite, veniri future), while Peano himself, who has a curious predilection for etymology, expresses the former tense by a preposed e (the Greek augment, which has never existed in Latin), and the latter by a i (the Latin root "go", which has never been used for that purpose in any language), thus e i "went," i i "will go" (or perhaps e ire, i ire). It makes a curious impression in the midst of this dead speech material to come upon modern words like utiliza and hazarda: if their number is not greater, this is due to the subjects treated and the necessarily stiff style in which everything is written: there is in this periodical nothing of the freedom and ease of expression found in other recent interlanguages.

Nevertheless the experiment is interesting and has taken the fancy of some scientists who have not entirely forgotten the Latin they were taught at school and who now rejoice to find that they can read most of this Latin without being bothered with irregular verbs and difficult rules of syntax. The facility, however, with which this Latin is read is largely a delusion: for myself, though I have read a good deal of Latin in my life, I have found sentences which I could not make out except by translating them into the mother-tongue of the writer, Italian or French, and others which I was not able to understand even in that way. "Illo es nunc facto plus facile gratias ad factos" - does that mean "this is now an easier fact," or "more easily a fact," or "made easier"? I suppose the last. "Cresce impossibilitate de resana et illo procedi usque ad securo morte"; in the next following sentence "nam Volapük more tunc certo" I first took more to be "custom," but then discovered that it was Latin morior, and that the mark of past time was left out in consequence of the adverb tunc, so that the whole meant "V. died certainly."

This, or rather most of this, may be all very well for those who have learnt Latin, even if they have forgotten most of it; but what about the majority who have never had the benefit of a classical education? It is said that they can understand this Interlingua by means of a Latin dictionary - but how are they to know that when they see more, they are sometimes to look under mos, and sometimes under morior? Or where to look for homine, pote ("can"), etc.? It is, of course, much worse when it comes to writing (or speaking!) the language oneself: what is the use of telling a man who has learnt no Latin grammar that he is simply to take the ablative, when his dictionary gives him only the nominative and genitive? The interlanguage of the future must necessarily be autonomous and have its own grammar and dictionary: it cannot be dependent on reminiscences of other languages - though it may, and must, turn to account the fact that the majority of users have at any rate a smattering of some language or languages besides their own.

Peano is quite right in saying that when we say "Two boys came yesterday," we express both the plural and the time idea twice, and that it would be just as clear to say "Two boy come yesterday," but this is not the same as saying that a sign for the plural and for past time is generally, or even always, superfluous. Peano's ideal would be no grammar, or what he thinks is the same thing, the Chinese grammar; but no language can do entirely without grammar, however true it is that the grammar of an interlanguage can be made much simpler than that of our usual languages. Chinese grammar is simplicity itself, in so far as it has no inflexions of the European kind, but it uses other grammatical means, as when wang with one tone means "king" and with another tone "to be king," or when the rules for word-order show whether ta is to mean "big," or "bigness," not to mention the numerous particles used for grammatical purposes. In imitating the latter feature, and in using word-order to distinguish subject from object we are in perfect agreement with the whole trend of the development of West-European languages.

title: Novial/AIL Latino sine Flexione


text:
Novial/AIL After Ido

After Ido
It is impossible for me in this short survey to name all those who have worked during the last decades at the problem of an interlanguage; let me mention only the following names, chosen perhaps a little arbitrarily: Barral, Borgius, Michaux, Petrashevich, Talmey, Weisbart. Some of them have started from Ido, others have been more or less independent of it; none of them has worked out a language in all details, but none of them is without some good idea here and there - some of these have found their way into my own scheme, though in some cases I had come upon the same thought before knowing that it had been anticipated.

A few lines must here be given to M. René de Saussure ("Antido"), who with a rare assiduity and seriousness has combated Couturat's principles of word-formation and at the same time, through shifting and modifying now one, now another ending, produced successively five or six different "languages," which might easily be mistaken for caricatures of Esperanto, if their author had not seized every opportunity of expressing his deep veneration for Zamenhof's genius.

title: Novial/AIL After Ido


text:
Novial/AIL Occidental

Occidental
A little more space must be given to E. de Wahl, who had for many years given much thought to the problem, which he had followed through all the phases of Volapük, Esperanto, Idiom Neutral, Reform-Neutral, Ido, before bringing out his own Occidental in 1922. The name indicates his principal idea: he wants to make a language for use in the Occidental world with no immediate thought of catering for the people of the Orient, and he therefore bases his scheme on the Occidental languages, chiefly the Romanic ones. This of course is what most recent interlinguists have done, though perhaps not so consistently and consciously as de Wahl; but what is in his own eyes the chief merit of Occidental, is the way in which the formation of words has been built up on the actual use of suffixes, etc., used in the existing modern languages. It forms in that respect a continuation of Neutral and especially of Rosenberger's Reform-Neutral, but is based on more thorough study. He thus does away with the arbitrary word elements of the other languages, but in his pronounced endeavour to have "natural" forms he is obliged largely to abandon ease and regularity of formation, admitting in many cases two root-forms for the same word to be used in different derivatives, e.g. vid "see", vis-ion; curr- "run", curs-iv. It is true that in this way he obtains not a few words which when framed according to his rules agree with the forms actually found in many languages; but in spite of the rules being more complicated than is usual in a constructed language he does not in every case obtain perfect agreement with the forms in national languages; in a few pages I find, for instance, the following words: scrition, analysation, interprension (enterprise), descovrition, which have no equivalents in existing languages. (Other examples will be mentioned in the special part.) The countless irregularities in the word-formation of national languages make it impossible to follow them through thick and thin in a language whose raison d'être should be that it is essentially easier than existing languages: perfect regularity and perfect naturalness cannot possibly be combined, we must compromise here and there, but as I hope to show in Part II, it is possible to much more natural forms than those of Ido, and yet at the same time a much greater regularity than is found in Occidental. Through regularity of word-formation we take into consideration the interests of those who know only their own language - but I am afraid that when Occidental is praised as very easy, it is chiefly by people who are already familiar with two or three of the great European languages.

title: Novial/AIL Occidental


text:
Novial/AIL Conclusions

Conclusions
The history of the Interlanguage Movement should not deal exclusively with the various systems proposed up till now, but should also take into account all those believers in an auxiliary language who have not been willing to enlist in one or the other camp or who, though making practical use of either Esperanto or Ido or Occidental, have yet a strong feeling that the last word has not been said in the question of the final shape of the Interlanguage. Various attempts have been made of recent years by non-partisan interlinguists to have the question referred to some impartial competent committee selected by some authoritative body - the League of Nations or its "Commission de Coopération Intellectuelle," or the "Union Académique Internationale," or the "International Research Council." So far all such attempts have failed, but it seems as if the movement has grown stronger after each rebuff, which has thus proved only a postponement of something that is certain to come when the first indifference of international statesmen and scholars has worn off. An important sign of the times in this direction is the recent foundation of the International Auxiliary Language Association of America (I.A.L.A.), which has already in its brief life through its impartial propaganda for the idea, through various pedagogical experiments, and through the bringing about of gatherings of adherents of different systems, contributed very considerably towards the creation of that general interest and mutual good will without which the Interlanguage Movement cannot hope for a final victory.

It is now time to point the moral. The history of all these various attempts, as I read it, teaches us the following lessons:

(1) There is a real need for a constructed interlanguage: after each failure of one scheme others will crop up, and that will continue until a satisfactory solution has been found.

(2) A language may have a temporary vogue, but if it has obvious defects, criticism will sooner or later lead to schisms and new and better systems, as was the case with Volapük, with Esperanto, with Idiom Neutral, and now with Ido. The scientific and political world will not accept a language that can be justly and severely criticized by competent authorities.

(3) Only those schemes have had a considerable number of adherents which were worked out in sufficient detail and completeness to allow of their being used for the most various purposes.

(4) When details in proposed interlanguages are criticized, it is nearly always because they are unnatural, i.e. deviate more than necessary from what is found in existing languages or what us already international in these, or else because they are unnecessarily complicated in their grammatical structure or incapable of expressing ideas with a sufficient degree of precision. These, then, are the things to be avoided in a future interlanguage. The less arbitrary and the more rational the forms, the more stable will they be.

(5) All recent attempts show an unmistakable family likeness, and may be termed dialects of one and the same type of international language. This shows that just as bicycles and typewriters are now nearly all of the same type, which was not the case with the early makes, we are now in the matter of interlanguage approaching the time when one standard type can be fixed authoritatively in such a way that the general structure will remain stable, though new words will, of course, be constantly added when need requires.

These considerations, and especially the conviction that the technique of language construction has reached a high degree of perfection, have emboldened me to present the new scheme for an international auxiliary language which will form the subject of the second part of this book. As such a scheme must have a name, I have called it NOVIAL = Nov (new) I.A.L.,

where I.A.L. stands for International Auxiliary Language.

The principles which have guided me will appear partly from what I have said already, partly from the detailed discussion in Part II. I must here specially mention the formula I put forward in 1908, and which since then has been very often quoted by Idists: That international language is best which in every point offers the greatest facility to the greatest number (modelled, of course, on Hutcheson's and Bentham's famous dictum: That action is best which accomplishes the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers).

This does not mean, as some would have it, that we should take Chinese as our interlanguage, because that language is known to the greatest number of men: for while written ideographic Chinese is the same all over China (though only partly known to most Chinese), the same is not true of spoken Chinese, which lives in several varieties. Besides, Chinese with its tone system would offer unsurmountable difficulties to everybody else. But I cannot object to my formula being taken to refer only to Europeans and those inhabitants of the other continents who are either of European extraction or whose culture is based on European civilization. If the principle is understood in this way I think it will prove a safe guide in most cases, though it is evident that it is impossible mathematically to calculate the comparative ease of different forms, except with regard to parts of the vocabulary.

It is, however, very important to remember that the facility of which we speak here is not merely the superficial facility, with which a printed message can be understood at first sight - that is something, but not everything. For an interlanguage to be really useful it must be easy not only to the reader, but also to the intending writer and speaker, and this implies a good deal more. An irregularly formed word may be extremely easy of comprehension to anyone who has it in his own language or who knows it from another language with which he happens to be familiar, but it may at the same time be very difficult to anybody else, much more difficult than a regular formation employing a suffix he has learnt once for all and which can be applied to a number of words. Our principle thus makes for the greatest possible regularity - though one or two small exceptions, if well motived and easily remembered, should not alarm us: as a matter of fact, not a single constructed language is totally exempt from exceptions, not even Esperanto, in spite of the boastings of its adherents.¹

An interlanguage can thus be made many times more easy that any of the national languages. The latter may be compared to old picturesque towns with irregularly winding streets having unsystematic names, while are interlanguages are like American cities, whose streets are straight lines intersecting one another at right angles and are numbered instead of named. Or we may say that while a national language is like a stroll between trees on small footpaths, an interlanguage is like rushing along in a railway carriage or motor-car on a good straight broad road. In the latter case one gets rapidly along and reaches tracts that are beyond the reach of the pedestrian, but one cannot enjoy all the delicate shades of beauty which a leisurely walk will reveal to one, and it is impossible to acquire the same intimate familiarity that is to be obtained by repeated strolls. Each method of locomotion has its advantages, and nothing hinders us from combining both. In the same way an interlanguage will never make national languages superfluous, and can never afford the delight felt by all serious students of foreign languages - not to mention the fact that the study of one of these opens up access to that part of its literature which cannot be fully enjoyed in translations. In comparing the value of the two kinds of language study we should thus take into consideration first that one of them requires say ten or twenty times as long a time as the other, secondly that the one gives access to more valuable literature and to the whole national life of a foreign country, but that on the other hand the other puts one in contact with inhabitants of several countries at once. The advantages of the study of the interlanguage will of course be multiplied many times over, when it has spread much more than at present, when, consequently, much valuable scientific and general literature is translated into it, and will be even greater when the interlanguage is taught everywhere as "the second language to everybody."

But that, the reader will say, is a far-off dream. Quite so, but then, as Lowell says, "most of the best things we now possess began by being dreams."

¹ La is not inflected in case and number, like the other adjuncts in -a. Not every adverb ends in -e; and -au, which evidently was meant as a kind of prepositional ending, is used very unsystematically. The genitive in -s (kies) is found only very sparingly and forms an exception to the usual manner of expressing the genitive relation. When multe da or kelke da is used, no sign for the accusative can be added.

title: Novial/AIL Conclusions


text:
User:Provophys

Who is Provophys?
My name is Kevin V. Young, and I taught a physiology class to a group of bright future nurses in Provo, Utah in 2006. We created the first online physiology book for Wikibooks! I was new to editing wikis, as were my students, but I guess that is what makes wikis so great -- we can all participate, regardless of our level. Beginning in Feb 2007 I taught yet another group of bright future nurses and this time we improved upon the existing book with the goal of making it the BEST introductory physiology textbook. Update 2011--I have not used this textbook since then, so it has not improved nor has it become the very best book out there. . . lots of potential if someone feels ambitious.

Making a textbook was a bit overwhelming, so I switched to making wikis that were a bit easier. Using Wetpaint, my students and I have created a Physiwiki site (fall 2007), a Microbiowiki site (spring 2008), and an Anatowiki site (summer 2008). Update 2011: I changed jobs and do not teach Anatomy, Physiology, or Microbiology, so those wikis are dormant (though the anatowiki gets a lot of visitors). The excitement was mainly in the creation, but without a class of new students the content is not really changing (even though someone could improve it if they wanted).

Update November 2020: Wetpaint no longer exists, so all that work was lost, while Wikibooks remains. I am grateful to see positive changes have been made to this book over the years. I have returned to my old position of teaching for Utah State University, and beginning in 2021 I will evaluate using this book again, and making improvements to it.

If you have any suggestions or questions, please leave feedback on my discussion page (which I rarely check) or send me an email (kevin.young@usu.edu). I welcome any participation in the Human Physiology book or any other of my wikis, and believe that the more people use it and edit it, the better it will become. Provophys (talk)

title: User:Provophys


text:
Human Physiology/Cell physiology

What is a Cell?
A cell is a structure as well as a functional unit of life. Every living thing has cells: bacteria, protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals are the main group of living things. Some organisms are made up of just one cell are called unicellular. (e.g. bacteria and protozoans), but animals, including human beings, are multi-cellular. An adult human body is composed of about 100,000,000,000,000 cells! Each cell has basic requirements to sustain it, and the body's organ systems are largely built around providing the many trillions of cells with those basic needs (such as oxygen, food, and waste removal).

There are about 200 different kinds of specialized cells in the human body. When many identical cells are organized together it is called a tissue (such as muscle tissue, nervous tissue, etc). Various tissues organized together for a common purpose are called organs (e.g. the stomach is an organ, and so is the skin, the brain, and the uterus).

Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early biologists saw cells as simple membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today's biologists know that cells are inconceivably more complex than this. Therefore, a strong knowledge of the various cellular organelles and their functions is important to any physiologist. If a person's cells are healthy, then that person is healthy. All physiological processes, disease, growth and development can be described at the cellular level.

Specialized Cells of the Human Body
Although there are specialized cells - both in structure and function - within the body, all cells have similarities in their structural organization and metabolic needs (such as maintaining energy levels via conversion of carbohydrate to ATP and using genes to create and maintain proteins).

Here are some of the different types of specialized cells within the human body.

 * Nerve Cells: Also called neurons, these cells are in the nervous system and function to process and transmit information (it is hypothesized).  They are the core components of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.  They use chemical synapses that can evoke electrical signals, called action potentials, to relay signals throughout the body.
 * Epithelial cells: Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, absorption, protection, transcellular transport, sensation detection, and selective permeability.  Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumen of bodies.
 * Exocrine cells:  These cells secrete products through ducts, such as mucus, sweat, or digestive enzymes. The products of these cells go directly to the target organ through the ducts. For example, the bile from the gallbladder is carried directly into the duodenum via the bile duct.
 * Endocrine cells: These cells are similar to exocrine cells, but secrete their products directly into the bloodstream instead of through a duct. Endocrine cells are found throughout the body but are concentrated in hormone-secreting glands such as the pituitary. The products of the endocrine cells go throughout the body in the bloodstream but act on specific organs by receptors on the cells of the target organs.  For example, the hormone estrogen acts specifically on the uterus and breasts of females because there are estrogen receptors in the cells of these target organs.
 * Blood Cells: The most common types of blood cells are:
 * red blood cells (erythrocytes). The main function of red blood cells is to collect oxygen in the lungs and deliver it through the blood to the body tissues. Gas exchange is carried out by simple diffusion.
 * various types of white blood cells (leukocytes). They are produced in the bone marrow and help the body to fight infectious disease and foreign objects in the immune system.  White cells are found in the circulatory system, lymphatic system, spleen, and other body tissues.

Cell Size
Cells are the smallest structural & functional living units within our body, but play a big role in making our body function properly. Many cells never have a large increase in size like eggs, after they are first formed from a parental cell. Typical stem cells reproduce, double in size, then reproduce again. Most Cytosolic contents such as the endomembrane system and the cytoplasm easily scale to larger sizes in larger cells. If a cell becomes too large, the normal cellular amount of DNA may not be adequate to keep the cell supplied with RNA. Large cells often replicate their chromosomes to an abnormally high amount or become multinucleated. Large cells that are primarily for nutrient storage can have a smooth surface membrane, but metabolically active large cells often have some sort of folding of the cell surface membrane in order to increase the surface area available for transport functions.

Cellular Organization
Several different molecules interact to form organelles within our body. Each type of organelle has a specific function. Organelles perform the vital functions that keep our cells alive.

Cell Membranes
The boundary of the cell, sometimes called the plasma membrane, separates internal metabolic events from the external environment and controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell. This membrane is very selective about what it allows to pass through; this characteristic is referred to as "selective permeability." For example, it allows oxygen and nutrients to enter the cell while keeping toxins and waste products out. The plasma membrane is a double phospholipid membrane, or a lipid bilayer, with the nonpolar hydrophobic tails pointing toward the inside of the membrane and the polar hydrophilic heads forming the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane. 22

Protein and Cholesterol
Proteins and cholesterol molecules are scattered throughout the flexible phospholipid membrane. Peripheral proteins attach loosely to the inner or outer surface of the plasma membrane. Integral proteins lie across the membrane, extending from inside to outside. A variety of proteins are scattered throughout the flexible matrix of phospholipid molecules, somewhat like icebergs floating in the ocean, and this is termed the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

The phospholipid bilayer is selectively permeable. Only small, uncharged polar molecules can pass freely across the membrane. Some of these molecules are H2O and CO2, hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules like O2, and lipid soluble molecules such as hydrocarbons. Other molecules need the help of a membrane protein to get across. There are a variety of membrane proteins that serve various functions:

 * Channel proteins: Proteins that provide passageways through the membranes for certain hydrophilic or water-soluble substances such as polar and charged molecules. No energy is used during transport, hence this type of movement is called facilitated diffusion.
 * Transport proteins: Proteins that spend energy (ATP) to transfer materials across the membrane. When energy is used to provide passageway for materials, the process is called active transport.
 * Recognition proteins: Proteins that distinguish the identity of neighboring cells. These proteins have oligosaccharide or short polysaccharide chains extending out from their cell surface.
 * Adhesion proteins: Proteins that attach cells to neighboring cells or provide anchors for the internal filaments and tubules that give stability to the cell.
 * Receptor proteins: Proteins that initiate specific cell responses once hormones or other trigger molecules bind to them.
 * Electron transfer proteins: Proteins that are involved in moving electrons from one molecule to another during chemical reactions.

Passive Transport Across the Cell Membrane
Passive transport describes the movement of substances down a concentration gradient and does not require energy use.
 * Bulk flow is the collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force, such as pressure. Blood moving through a vessel is an example of bulk flow.
 * Simple diffusion, or diffusion, is the net movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. This movement occurs as a result of the random and constant motion characteristic of all molecules, (atoms or ions) and is independent from the motion of other molecules.  Since, at any one time, some molecules may be moving against the gradient and some molecules may be moving down the gradient, although the motion is random, the word "net" is used to indicate the overall, eventual end result of the movement.
 * Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of solutes through channel proteins in the plasma membrane. Water can pass freely through the plasma membrane without the aid of specialized proteins (though facilitated by aquaporins).
 * Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane. When water moves into a body by osmosis, hydrostatic pressure or osmotic pressure may build up inside the body.
 * Dialysis is the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane.

Active Transport Across the Cell Membrane
Active transport is the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires the expenditure of energy, usually in the form of ATP. Active transport is achieved through one of these two mechanisms:

Protein Pumps

 * Transport proteins in the plasma membrane transfer solutes such as small ions (Na+, K+, Cl-, H+), amino acids, and monosaccharides.
 * The proteins involved with active transport are also known as ion pumps.
 * The protein binds to a molecule of the substance to be transported on one side of the membrane, then it uses the released energy (ATP) to change its shape, and releases it on the other side.
 * The protein pumps are specific, there is a different pump for each molecule to be transported.
 * Protein pumps are catalysts in the splitting of ATP → ADP + phosphate, so they are called ATPase enzymes.
 * The sodium-potassium pump (also called the Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme) actively moves sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell. These pumps are found in the membrane of virtually every cell, and are essential in transmission of nerve impulses and in muscular contractions.

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that results in a mutated chloride ion channel. By not regulating chloride secretion properly, water flow across the airway surface is reduced and the mucus becomes dehydrated and thick.

Vesicular Transport

 * Vesicles or other bodies in the cytoplasm move macromolecules or large particles across the plasma membrane. Types of   vesicular transport include:
 * 1) Exocytosis, which describes the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell.  This process is common when a cell produces substances for export.
 * 2) Endocytosis, which describes the capture of a substance outside the cell when the plasma membrane merges to engulf it.  The substance subsequently enters the cytoplasm enclosed in a vesicle.
 * There are three kinds of endocytosis:
 * Phagocytosis or cellular eating, occurs when the dissolved materials enter the cell. The plasma membrane engulfs the  solid material, forming a phagocytic vesicle.
 * Pinocytosis or cellular drinking occurs when the plasma membrane folds inward to form a channel allowing dissolved substances to enter the cell. When the channel is closed, the liquid is encircled within a pinocytic vesicle.
 * Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when specific molecules in the fluid surrounding the cell bind to specialized receptors in the plasma membrane. As in pinocytosis, the plasma membrane folds inward and the formation of a vesicle follows.
 * Note: Certain hormones are able to target specific cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Cytoplasm
The gel-like material within the cell membrane is referred to as the cytoplasm. It is a fluid matrix, the cytosol, which consists of 80% to 90% water, salts, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions, along with dissolved substances such as proteins and nutrients. The cytoplasm plays an important role in a cell, serving as a "molecular soup" in which organelles are suspended and held together by a fatty membrane.

Within the plasma membrane of a cell, the cytoplasm surrounds the nuclear envelope and the cytoplasmic organelles. It plays a mechanical role by moving around inside the membrane and pushing against the cell membrane helping to maintain the shape and consistency of the cell and again, to provide suspension to the organelles. It is also a storage space for chemical substances indispensable to life, which are involved in vital metabolic reactions, such as anaerobic glycolysis and protein synthesis.

The cell membrane keeps the cytoplasm from leaking out. It contains many different organelles which are considered the insoluble constituents of the cytoplasm, such as the mitochondria, lysosomes, peroxysomes, ribosomes, several vacuoles and cytoskeletons, as well as complex cell membrane structures such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus that each have specific functions within the cell.

 * Cytoskeleton

Threadlike proteins that make up the cytoskeleton continually reconstruct to adapt to the cell's constantly changing needs. It helps cells maintain their shape and allows cells and their contents to move. The cytoskeleton allows certain cells such as neutrophils and macrophages to make amoeboid movements.

The network is composed of three elements: microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate fibers.

 * Microtubules

Microtubules function as the framework along which organelles and vesicles move within a cell. They are the thickest of the cytoskeleton structures. They are long hollow cylinders, composed of protein subunits, called tubulin. Microtubules form mitotic spindles, the machinery that partitions chromosomes between two cells in the process of cell division. Without mitotic spindles cells could not reproduce.

Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments are three protein fibers of decreasing diameter, respectively. All are involved in establishing the shape or movements of the cytoskeleton, the internal structure of the cell.
 * Microfilaments

Microfilaments provide mechanical support for the cell, determine the cell shape, and in some cases enable cell movements. They have an arrow-like appearance, with a fast growing plus or barbed end and a slow growing minus or pointed end. They are made of the protein actin and are involved in cell motility. They are found in almost every cell, but are predominant in muscle cells and in the cells that move by changing shape, such as phagocytes (white blood cells that scour the body for bacteria and other foreign invaders).

Organelles
Organelles are bodies embedded in the cytoplasm that serve to physically separate the various metabolic activities that occur within cells. The organelles are each like separate little factories, each organelle is responsible for producing a certain product that is used elsewhere in the cell or body.

Cells of all living things are divided into two broad categories: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Bacteria (and archea) are prokaryotes, which means they lack a nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes include all protozoans, fungi, plants, and animals (including humans), and these cells are characterized by a nucleus (which houses the chromosomes) as well as a variety of other organelles. Human cells vary considerably (consider the differences between a bone cell, a blood cell, and a nerve cell), but most cells have the features described below.

Nucleus
Controls the cell; houses the genetic material (DNA). The nucleus is the largest of the cells organelles. Cells can have more than one nucleus or lack a nucleus all together. Skeletal muscle cells contain more than one nucleus whereas red blood cells do not contain a nucleus at all. The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope, a phospholipid bilayer similar to the plasma membrane. The space between these two layers is the nucleolemma Cisterna.

The nucleus contains the DNA, as mentioned above, the hereditary information in the cell. Normally the DNA is spread out within the nucleus as a threadlike matrix called chromatin. When the cell begins to divide, the chromatin condenses into rod-shaped bodies called chromosomes, each of which, before dividing, is made up of two long DNA molecules and various histone molecules. The histones serve to organize the lengthy DNA, coiling it into bundles called nucleosomes. Also visible within the nucleus are one or more nucleoli, each consisting of DNA in the process of manufacturing the components of ribosomes. Ribosomes are shipped to the cytoplasm where they assemble amino acids into proteins. The nucleus also serves as the site for the separation of the chromosomes during cell division.

 * Chromosomes

Inside each cell nucleus are chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of chromatin, which is made up of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid strands. Deoxyribonucleic acid is DNA, the genetic material that is in the shape of a twisted ladder, also called the double helix. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Down Syndrome and Cri du Chat Syndrome result from having an abnormal number of chromosomes.

Centrioles
Centrioles are rod like structures composed of 9 bundles which contain three microtubules each. Two perpendicularly placed centrioles surrounded by proteins make up the centrosome. Centrioles are very important in cellular division, where they arrange the mitotic spindles that pull the chromosome apart.

Centrioles and basal bodies act as microtubule organizing centers. A pair of centrioles (enclosed in a centrosome) located outside the nuclear envelope gives rise to the microtubules that make up the spindle apparatus used during cell division. Basal bodies are at the base of each flagellum and cilium and appear to organize their development.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes play an active role in the complex process of protein synthesis, where they serve as the structures that facilitate the joining of amino acids. Each ribosome is composed of a large and small subunit which are made up of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal RNAs. They can either be found in groups called polyribosomes within the cytoplasm or found alone. Occasionally they are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the organelles that function as the cell "powerhouse", generating ATP, the universal form of energy used by all cells. It converts food nutrients such as glucose, to a fuel (ATP) that the cells of the body can use. Mitochondria are tiny sac-like structures found near the nucleus. Little shelves called cristae are formed from folds in the inner membrane. Cells that are metabolically active such as muscle, liver and kidney cells have high energy requirements and therefore have more mitochondria.

Mitochondria are unique in that they have their own mitochondrial DNA (separate from the DNA that is in the nucleus). It is believed that eukaryotes evolved from one cell living inside another cell, and mitochondria share many traits with free-living bacteria (similar chromosome, similar ribosomes, etc).

Endoplasmic Reticulum

 * Endoplasmic means "within the plasm" and reticulum means "network".

A complex three dimensional internal membrane system of flattened sheets, sacs and tubes, that play an important role in making proteins and shuttling cellular products; also involved in metabolisms of fats, and the production of various materials. In cross-section, they appear as a series of maze-like channels, often closely associated with the nucleus. When ribosomes are present, the rough ER connects polysaccharide groups to the polypeptides as they are assembled by the ribosomes. Smooth ER, without ribosomes, is responsible for various activities, including the synthesis of lipids and hormones, especially in cells that produce these substances for export from the cell.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum has characteristic bumpy appearance due to the multitude of ribosomes coating it. It is the site where proteins not destined for the cytoplasm are synthesized.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum provides a variety of functions, including lipid synthesis and degradation, and calcium ion storage. In liver cells, the smooth ER is involved in the breakdown of toxins, drugs, and toxic byproducts from cellular reactions.

Golgi Apparatus
"Packages" cellular products in sacs called vesicles so that the products can cross the cell membrane and exit the cell. The Golgi apparatus is the central delivery system for the cell. It is a group of flattened sacs arranged much like a stack of bowls. They function to modify and package proteins and lipids into vesicles, small spherically shaped sacs that bud from the ends of a Golgi apparatus. Vesicles often migrate to and merge with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents outside the cell. The Golgi apparatus also transports lipids and creates lysosomes and organelles involved in digestion.

Vacuoles
Spaces in the cytoplasm that sometimes serve to carry materials to the cell membrane for discharge to the outside of the cell. Vacuoles are formed during endocytosis when portions of the cell membrane are pinched off.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are sac-like compartments that contain a number of powerful degradative enzymes. They are built in the Golgi apparatus. They break down harmful cell products and waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign invaders such as bacteria, and then force them out of the cell. Tay-Sachs disease and Pompe's disease are just two of the malfunctions of lysosomes or their digestive proteins.

Peroxisomes
Organelles in which oxygen is used to oxidize substances, breaking down lipids and detoxifying certain chemicals. Peroxisomes self replicate by enlarging and then dividing. They are common in liver and kidney cells that break down potentially harmful substances. Peroxisomes can convert hydrogen peroxide, a toxin made of H2O2 to H2O.

Extracellular structures
Human cells, like other animal cells, do not have a rigid cell wall. Human cells do have an important and variable structure outside of their cell membrane called the extracellular matrix. Sometimes this matrix can be extensive and solid (examples = calcified bone matrix, cartilage matrix), while other times it consists of a layer of extracellular proteins and carbohydrates. This matrix is responsible for cells binding to each other and is incredibly important in how cells physically and physiologically interact with each other.
 * Extracellular matrix

 * Flagella

Many prokaryotes have flagella, allowing, for example, an E. coli bacteria to propel its way up the urethra to cause a UTI (Urinary Tract Infection). Human cells, however (and in fact most eukaryotic cells) lack flagella. This makes sense since humans are multicellular, and individual cells do not need to swim around. The obvious exception to this is with sperm, and indeed each sperm is propelled by a single flagellum. The flagellum of sperm is composed of microtubules.

 * Cilia

Cilia are especially notable on the single-celled protozoans, where they beat in synchrony to move the cells nimbly through the water. They are composed of extensions of the cell membrane that contain microtubules. When present in humans they are typically found in large numbers on a single surface of the cells, where rather than moving cells, they move materials. The mucociliary escalator of the respiratory system consists of mucus-secreting cells lining the trachea and bronchi, and ciliated epithelial cells that move the mucus ever-upward. In this manner mold spores, bacteria, and debris are caught in the mucus, removed from the trachea, and pushed into the esophagus (to be swallowed into a pit of acid). In the oviducts cilia move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus, a journey which takes a few days.

Cell Junctions
The plasma membranes of adjacent cells are usually separated by extracellular fluids that allow transport of nutrients and wastes to and from the bloodstream. In certain tissues, however, the membranes of adjacent cells may join and form a junction. Three kinds of cell junctions are recognized:

 * Desmosomes are protein attachments between adjacent cells. Inside the plasma membrane, a desmosome bears a disk shaped structure from which protein fibers extend into the cytoplasm.  Desmosomes act like spot welds to hold together tissues that undergo considerable stress, such as our skin or heart muscle.

 * Tight junctions are tightly stitched seams between cells. The junction completely encircles each cell, preventing the movement of material between the cell.  Tight junctions are characteristic of cells lining the digestive tract, where materials are required to pass through cells,rather than intercellular spaces, to penetrate the bloodstream.

 * Gap junctions are narrow tunnels that directly connect the cytoplasm of two neighbouring cells, consisting of proteins called connexons. These proteins allow only the passage of ions and small molecules.  In this manner, gap junctions allow communication between cells through the exchange of materials or the transmission of electrical impulses.

Cell Metabolism
Cell metabolism is the total energy released and consumed by a cell. Metabolism describes all of the chemical reactions that are happening in the body. Some reactions, called anabolic reactions, create needed products. Other reactions, called catabolic reactions, break down products. Your body is performing both anabolic and catabolic reactions at the same time and around the clock, twenty four hours a day, to keep your body alive and functioning. Even while you sleep, your cells are busy metabolizing.

 * Catabolism: The energy releasing process in which a chemical or food is used (broken down) by degradation or decomposition, into smaller pieces.
 * Anabolism: Anabolism is just the opposite of catabolism.  In this portion of metabolism, the cell consumes energy to produce larger molecules via smaller ones.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is the currency of the cell. When the cell needs to use energy such as when it needs to move substances across the cell membrane via the active transport system, it "pays" with molecules of ATP. The total quantity of ATP in the human body at any one time is about 0.1 Mole. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis. On a per-hour basis, 1 kilogram of ATP is created, processed and then recycled in the body. Looking at it another way, a single cell uses about 10 million ATP molecules per second to meet its metabolic needs, and recycles all of its ATP molecules about every 20-30 seconds.

Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD)
When two hydrogen atoms are bonded, FAD is reduced to FADH2 and is turned into an energy-carrying molecule. FAD accommodates two equivalents of Hydrogen; both the hydride and the proton ions. This is used by organisms to carry out energy requiring processes. FAD is reduced in the citric acid cycle during aerobic respiration

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NADH)
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two important cofactors found in cells. NADH is the reduced form of NAD+, and NAD+ is the oxidized form of NADH. It forms NADP with the addition of a phosphate group to the 2' position of the adenosyl nucleotide through an ester linkage.

NAD is used extensively in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle of cellular respiration. The reducing potential stored in NADH can be converted to ATP through the electron transport chain or used for anabolic metabolism. ATP "energy" is necessary for an organism to live. Green plants obtain ATP through photosynthesis, while other organisms obtain it by cellular respiration.

NADP is used in anabolic reactions, such as fat acid and nucleic acid synthesis, that require NADPH as a reducing agent. In chloroplasts, NADP is an oxidising agent important in the preliminary reactions of photosynthesis. The NADPH produced by photosynthesis is then used as reducing power for the biosynthetic reactions in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis.

MH2 + NAD+ → NADH + H+ + M: + energy, where M is a metabolite. Two hydrogen ions (a hydride ion and an H+ ion) are transferred from the metabolite. One electron is transferred to the positively-charged nitrogen, and one hydrogen attaches to the carbon atom opposite to the nitrogen.

The human body synthesizes NAD from the vitamin niacin in the form of nicotinic acid or nicotinamide.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the energy releasing process by which sugar molecules are broken down by a series of reactions and the chemical energy gets converted to energy stored in ATP molecules. The reactions that convert the fuel (glucose) to usable cellular energy (ATP) are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle (sometimes called the citric acid cycle), and the electron transport chain. Altogether these reactions are referred to as "cellular respiration" or "aerobic respiration." Oxygen is needed as the final electron acceptor, and carrying out cellular respiration is the very reason we breathe and the reason we eat.

Glycolysis
The glycolytic pathway (glycolysis) is where glucose, the smallest molecule that a carbohydrate can be broken into during digestion, gets oxidized and broken into two 3-carbon molecules (pyruvates), which are then fed into the Kreb's Cycle. Glycolysis is the beginning of cellular respiration and takes place in the cytoplasm. Two molecules of ATP are required for glycolysis, but four are produced so there is a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule. Two NADH molecules transfer electrons (in the form of hydrogen ions) to the electron transport chain in the mitochondria, where they will be used to generate additional ATP. During physical exertion when the mitochondria are already producing the maximum ATP possible with the amount of oxygen available, glycolysis can continue to produce an additional 2 ATP per glucose molecule without sending the electrons to the mitochondria. However, during this anaerobic respiration lactic acid is produced, which may accumulate and lead to temporary muscle cramping.

Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle was named after Sir Hans Krebs (1900-1981), who proposed the key elements of this pathway in 1937 and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for its discovery in 1953.

Two molecules of pyruvate enter the Krebs cycle, which is called the aerobic pathway because it requires the presence of oxygen in order to occur. This cycle is a major biological pathway that occurs in humans and every plant and animal.

After glycolysis takes place in the cell's cytoplasm, the pyruvic acid molecules travel into the interior of the mitochondrion. Once the pyruvic acid is inside, carbon dioxide is enzymatically removed from each three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule to form acetic acid. The enzyme then combines the acetic acid with an enzyme, coenzyme A, to produce acetyl coenzyme A, also known as acetyl CoA.

Once acetyl CoA is formed, the Krebs cycle begins. The cycle is split into eight steps, each of which will be explained below.

 * Step 1: The acetic acid subunit of acetyl CoA is combined with oxaloacetate to form a molecule of citrate. The acetyl coenzyme A acts only as a transporter of acetic acid from one enzyme to another.  After Step 1, the coenzyme is released by hydrolysis so that it may combine with another acetic acid molecule to begin the Krebs cycle again.
 * Step 2: The citric acid molecule undergoes an isomerization. A hydroxyl group and a hydrogen molecule are removed from the citrate structure in the form of water.  The two carbons form a double bond until the water molecule is added back.  Only now, the hydroxyl group and hydrogen molecule are reversed with respect to the original structure of the citrate molecule.  Thus, isocitrate is formed.
 * Step 3: In this step, the isocitrate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The NAD molecule is reduced by the hydrogen atom and the hydroxyl group.   The NAD binds with a hydrogen atom and carries off the other hydrogen atom leaving a carbonyl group.  This structure is very unstable, so a molecule of CO2 is released creating alpha-ketoglutarate.
 * Step 4: In this step, our friend, coenzyme A, returns to oxidize the alpha-ketoglutarate molecule. A molecule of NAD is reduced again to form NADH and leaves with another hydrogen.  This instability causes a carbonyl group to be released as carbon dioxide and a thioester bond is formed in its place between the former alpha-ketoglutarate and coenzyme A to create a molecule of succinyl-coenzyme A complex.
 * Step 5: A water molecule sheds its hydrogen atoms to coenzyme A. Then, a free-floating phosphate group displaces coenzyme A and forms a bond with the succinyl complex.  The phosphate is then transferred to a molecule of GDP to produce an energy molecule of GTP.  It leaves behind a molecule of succinate.
 * Step 6: In this step, succinate is oxidized by a molecule of FAD (Flavin adenine dinucleotide). The FAD removes two hydrogen atoms from the succinate and forces a double bond to form between the two carbon atoms, thus creating fumarate.
 * Step 7: An enzyme adds water to the fumarate molecule to form malate.  The malate is created by adding one hydrogen atom to a carbon atom and then adding a hydroxyl group to a carbon next to a terminal carbonyl group.
 * Step 8: In this final step, the malate molecule is oxidized by a NAD molecule. The carbon that carried the hydroxyl group is now converted into a carbonyl group.  The end product is oxaloacetate which can then combine with acetyl-coenzyme A and begin the Krebs cycle all over again.
 * Summary: In summary, three major events occur during the Krebs cycle.  One GTP (guanosine triphosphate) is produced which eventually donates a phosphate group to ADP to form one ATP; three molecules of NAD are reduced; and one molecule of FAD is reduced.  Although one molecule of GTP leads to the production of one ATP, the production of the reduced NAD and FAD are far more significant in the cell's energy-generating process.  This is because NADH and FADH2 donate their electrons to an electron transport system that generates large amounts of energy by forming many molecules of ATP.

To see a visual summary of "Kreb Cycle" please click here.

Electron Transport System
The most complicated system of all. In the respiration chain, oxidation and reduction reactions occur repeatedly as a way of transporting energy. The respiratory chain is also called the electron transport chain. At the end of the chain, oxygen accepts the electron and water is produced.

Redox Reaction
This is a simultaneous oxidation-reduction process whereby cellular metabolism occurs, such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body, through a series of very complex electron transfer processes.

The chemical way to look at redox processes is that the substance being oxidized transfers electrons to the substance being reduced. Thus, in the reaction, the substance being oxidized (aka. the reducing agent) loses electrons, while the substance being reduced (aka. the oxidizing agent) gains electrons. Remember: LEO (Losing Electrons is Oxidation) the lion says GER (Gaining Electrons is Reduction); or alternatively: OIL (Oxidation is Loss) RIG (Reduction is Gain).

The term redox state is often used to describe the balance of NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH in a biological system such as a cell or organ. The redox state is reflected in the balance of several sets of metabolites (e.g., lactate and pyruvate, β-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate) whose interconversion is dependent on these ratios. An abnormal redox state can develop in a variety of deleterious situations, such as hypoxia, shock, and sepsis.

Cell Building Blocks
What major classes of molecules are found within cells?

Lipids
The term is more-specifically used to refer to fatty-acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, and mono-glycerides and phospholipids) as well as other fat-soluble sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Lipids serve many functions in living organisms including energy storage, serve as structural components of cell membranes, and constitute important signaling molecules. Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fat, the latter is in fact a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides and should not be confused with the term fatty acid.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate molecules consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They have a general formula Cn(H2O)n. There are several sub-families based on molecular size.

Carbohydrates are chemical compounds that contain oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms, and no other elements. They consist of monosaccharide sugars of varying chain lengths.

Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of energy in most organisms, including plants and animals. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of sugar units: monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).

The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, which are small straight-chain aldehydes and ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group. Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units and break down under hydrolysis. These may be classified as disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units.

Proteins
All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some also contain phosphorus and sulfur. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. There are 20 different kinds of amino acids used by the human body. They unite by peptide bonds to form long molecules called polypeptides. Polypeptides are assembled into proteins. Proteins have four levels of structure

Primary structure is the sequence of amino acids bonded in the polypeptide.
 * Primary

The secondary structure is formed by hydrogen bonds between amino acids. The polypeptide can coil into a helix or form a pleated sheet.
 * Secondary

The tertiary structure refers to the three-dimensional folding of the helix or pleated sheet.
 * Tertiary

The quaternary structure refers to the spatial relationship among the polypeptide in the protein.
 * Quaternary

The hexagonary structure refers to the carpal relationship among the bipeptide in the person.
 * Hexagonary

Enzymes
A biological molecule that catalyzes a chemical reaction. Enzymes are essential for life because most chemical reactions in living cells would occur too slowly or would lead to different products without enzymes. Most enzymes are proteins and the word "enzyme" is often used to mean a protein enzyme. Some RNA molecules also have a catalytic activity, and to differentiate them from protein enzymes, they are referred to as RNA enzymes or ribozymes.

Review Questions

 * Answers for these questions can be found here

1. List 2 functions of the cell membrane:

Questions 2 - 6 Match the following organelles with their function: 2. Mitochondria 3. Vacuoles 4. Cilia 5. Smooth ER 6. Golgi Apparatus
 * A. Movement of the cell
 * B. Lipid synthesis and transport
 * C. "Powerhouse" of the cell, makes ATP
 * D. Storage areas, mainly found in plant cells
 * E. Packages and distributes cellular products

7. The diffusion of H2O across a semi permeable or selectively permeable membrane is termed
 * A. Active transport
 * B. Diffusion
 * C. Osmosis
 * D. Endocytosis

8. Oxygen enters a cell via?
 * a. Diffusion
 * b. Filtration
 * c. Osmosis
 * d. Active transport

9. The term used to describe, "cell eating" is?
 * a. Exocytosis
 * b. Phagocytosis
 * c. Pinocytosis
 * d. Diffusion

10. Which of the following requires energy?
 * a. Diffusion
 * b. Osmosis
 * c. Active transport
 * d. Facilitated diffusion

11. Protein synthesis occurs at the
 * a. Mitochondria
 * b. Lysosomes
 * c. Within the nucleus
 * d. Ribosomes

12. Which of the following is not found in the cell membrane?
 * a. Cholesterol
 * b. Phospholipids
 * c. Proteins
 * d. Galactose
 * e. Nucleic acids

13. What is a cell?
 * a. The largest living units within our bodies.
 * b. Enzymes that "eat" bacteria
 * c. Microscopic fundamental units of all living things.
 * d. All of the above.

Glossary
Active Transport: the movement of solutes against a gradient and requires the expenditure of energy

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): a cell’s source of energy

Bulk Flow: the collective movement of substances in the same direction in response to a force

Cells: the microscopic fundamental unit that makes up all living things

Cell Membrane: boundary of the cell, sometimes called the plasma membrane

Cytoplasm: a water-like substance that fills cells. The cytoplasm consists of cytosol and the cellular organelles, except the cell nucleus. The cytosol is made up of water, salts, organic molecules and many enzymes that catalyze reactions. The cytoplasm holds all of the cellular organelles outside of the nucleus, maintains the shape and consistency of the cell, and serves as a storage place for chemical substances.

Cytoskeleton: made of threadlike proteins, helps cells maintain their shape and allows cells and their contents to move

Dialysis: the diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane. Most commonly heard of when a patient has had renal failure. In medicine, dialysis is a type of renal replacement therapy which is used to provide an artificial replacement for lost kidney function due to renal failure. It is a life support treatment and does not treat any kidney diseases.

Endocrine cells: similar to exocrine cells, but secrete their products directly into the bloodstream instead of through a duct

Endocytosis: the capture of a substance outside the cell when the plasma membrane merges to engulf it

Endoplasmic Reticulum: organelle that play an important role in making proteins and shuttling cellular products; also involved in metabolisms of fats, and the production of various materials

Epithelial Cells: cells that aid in secretion, absorption, protection, trans-cellular transport, sensation detection, and selective permeability

Exocrine Cells: cells that secrete products through ducts, such as mucus, sweat, or digestive enzymes

Exocytosis: the process of vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents to the outside of the cell

Facilitated Diffusion: the diffusion of solutes through channel proteins in the plasma membrane

Golgi Apparatus: "packages" cellular products in sacs called vesicles so that the products can cross the cell membrane and exit the cell

Glycolysis: process in which sugars (glucose) are converted to acid

Lysosomes: sac-like compartments that contain a number of powerful degradative enzymes

Microfilaments: provide mechanical support for the cell, determine the cell shape, and in some cases enable cell movements

Microtubules: function as the framework along which organelles and vesicles move within a cell

Mitochondria: the organelles that function as the cell "powerhouse", generating ATP

Nucleus: controls the cell; houses the genetic material

Organelles: bodies embedded in the cytoplasm that serve to physically separate the various metabolic activities that occur within cells

Osmosis: the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high solute concentration to an area of low solute concentration.

Passive Transport: the movement of substances down a concentration gradient and does not require energy use

Peroxisomes: organelles in which oxygen is used to oxidize substances, breaking down lipids and detoxifying certain chemicals

Phagocytosis: a form of endocytosis wherein large particles are enveloped by the cell membrane of a (usually larger) cell and internalized to form a phagosome, or "food vacuole." In animals, phagocytosis is performed by specialized cells called phagocytes, which serve to remove foreign bodies and thus fight infection. In vertebrates, these include larger macrophages and smaller granulocytes, types of blood cells. Bacteria, dead tissue cells, and small mineral particles are all examples of objects that may be phagocytosed.

Pinocytosis: also called cellular drinking, is a form of endocytosis, a process in which small particles are taken in by a cell by splitting into smaller particles. The particles then form small vesicles which subsequently fuse with lysosomes to hydrolyze, or to break down, the particles. This process requires adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: occurs when specific molecules in the fluid surrounding the cell bind to specialized receptors in the plasma membrane

Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes): cells that collect oxygen in the lungs and deliver it through the blood to the body tissues

Ribosomes: play an active role in the complex process of protein synthesis, where they serve as the structures that facilitate the joining of amino acids

Simple Diffusion: the net movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Vacuoles: spaces in the cytoplasm that sometimes serve to carry materials to the cell membrane for discharge to the outside of the cell

White Blood Cells (leukocytes): produced in the bone marrow and help the body to fight infectious disease and foreign objects in the immune system

title: Human Physiology/Cell physiology


text:
Human Physiology/Human physiology authors

Authors

 * 1) Kevin Young, U.S. Citizen and resident thereof. I was teaching pre-nursing students of Provo College through distance education technology, while working at the Utah State University Brigham City campus (From 2010-2020 I taught at Snow College, Arizona Western College, and Sul Ross State University, then returned to USU Brigham City). This textbook was created as a class project. I created the chapter pages, but the students are the primary authors (hopefully some of them will list themselves here). The fall 2006 class created the initial structure and content, while the spring 2007 students went through each chapter making improvements. Starting spring 2021, USU students will make contributions to this book.
 * 2) Nursing student, Provo College Stephanie Greenwood 18:13, 30 April 2007 (UTC)
 * 3) Nursing Student, Provo College Danette Seyffert 16:07, 1 May 2007 (UTC)
 * 4) Dr.Elvis Ali, Board Certified Licensed Naturopath and Licensed Acupuncturist.  Staff member of CCNM. August 29th, 2016.

Hopefully this project expands far beyond our classroom. If you wish to be listed specifically as a contributing author, then please include your name above this paragraph. We also thank all those who wrote Wikipedia articles that we borrowed from extensively, and all anonymous contributors.

Content and Contributions
Don P. Demyers, Ph.D

To the best of our knowledge, this is the world's first and only open content human physiology textbook. Not only will this be the most affordable introductory physiology textbook available, but we anticipate that it will become the best one available. We will focus all our efforts for two months on providing valuable content and organizing and explaining information clearly. We anticipate the book becoming increasingly better as worldwide awareness and participation spread.

The original text of this work, and the home of the project, can be found at:
 * Wikibooks: Human Physiology
 * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology

Notes on the preferred style and formatting of each page can be at:
 * Wikibooks: Human Physiology/Formatting
 * http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/Formatting

License
All content contained herein is available under the GNU free documentation license. You can copy it, print it, sell it, and create derivative works from it, in accordance with that license.

This book links to several outside sources, and these links are designed to be illustrative learning tools. Links to outside content do not represent an endorsement of that content. Any of the content not found under the Wikimedia site and subsites is not guaranteed to be under the GDFL; they are most likely not.


text:
User:Jnormal34

Currently, I'm just messing around with editing here at Wikibooks, but I intend to make some serious contributions to several Engineering books, perhaps along with some Astronomy-related books. I recently graduated from the University of Illinois with degrees in Electrical Engineering and Astronomy, along with minors in Mathematics and Physics, and I am currently pursuing my PhD in Electrical Engineering.

title: User:Jnormal34


text:
FontLab

This book is about using FontLab and FontLab Studio, the Font creation tools from FontLab for both Mac and Windows.

Goals

 * The initial goal was to cover just Python scripting, but this draws on font design and production techniques, so they need a place too.
 * Therefore this book aims to document complete and efficient howto info on all aspects of FontLab usage in production of modern fonts.
 * FontLab supports a large range of features and font formats, so the potential scope of this book is correspondingly large.

Within the Python scripting chapter, the aim is to support two learning paths:
 * 1) To give non-programming font designers a complete and efficient tutorial to get useful scripting work done.
 * 2) To give programmers who are not font designers an efficient tour of the APIs so they can write scripts for a font designer.

"Efficient" covers several points:
 * That all the materials needed are in one place, so the reader doesn't have to trawl for fragmented info (i.e. its done once here for everybody)
 * That the material is presented in the appropriate sequence to achieve a given purpose.(need to collate a list of tutorial examples)
 * Compatibility between versions of FontLab, Python and OS's are given, so a working combination can be assembled in every case.
 * Application configuration (options, modes) necessary for each task are included, either for manual setup or as part of the scripting. FontLab has a large number of options and modes, some of which can affect apparently unrelated tasks or functions, so this is an important area.

Chapters

 * Installation where to get which bits and how to put them together
 * Version history what version released when on which OS
 * Configuration setup files, modes, options, etc.
 * Font specification planning requirements for a font
 * Font creation setting up and creating fonts from scratch
 * /Multiple Masters/ setting up and creating MM Fonts
 * Font editing importing and modifying existing fonts
 * Font generation generating the font as a usable file
 * /Scripting/ Python Scripting

title: FontLab


text:
Cookbook talk:Breakfast

Where's a good cereal and milk recipe when you need it?

"Odds and ends"
What does this subject mean? Logictheo 19:16, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

 * It means miscellaneous. i.e. Something which does not fit in the other categories. Kellen T 19:22, 29 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Allright. I will rename it to Miscellaneous breakfast recipes. Logictheo 09:39, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Breakfast


text:
Talk:Introduction to Astrophysics/Light Stars

I would suggest removing the Chandrasekhar Limit equation at the bottom of this page. I am unfamiliar with the equation, the mean electron mass is not clearly defined, and the equation itself is extraneous to the page. This sort of equation would have a place in a much more advanced article.

--Jnormal34 04:09, 19 July 2006 (UTC)


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Philosophy of Religion

This book looks at the basic issues of theological thought: what is religion, why should we be concerned with religion, how do we think about religion, and what do we think about religion?

We use the term "Theology" in a broad sense - not simply the study of God as the word etymologically implies but the study of religion.

This book should be understandable by the reader with very little exposure to religious studies. Yet it is an attempt to cover the subject in considerable depth and completeness. With critical oversight by others of the wiki community, hopefully, it will ultimately be a valuable resource for individuals desiring a solid foundational understanding of the nature of humanity's investigations into the ultimate.

Contents

 * /What is religion?/
 * /Why think about religion?/
 * /How do we think about religion?/
 * /The institution of religion/

Themes in Religion

 * /The divine/
 * /Does God exist?/
 * /Can God be known?/
 * /What is the nature of the divine?/
 * /Eternity/
 * /Love, grace, and mercy/
 * /Justice/
 * /Creator/destroyer/
 * /Providence/
 * /Miracles/
 * /The sacred/
 * /The Human condition/
 * /Humanity's place in the world/
 * /Sin and salvation/
 * /Covenant/
 * /Faith and doubt, belief and disbelief/
 * /God's will and obedience/
 * /Grace and works/
 * /Freedom and choice/
 * /The afterlife/
 * /Healing/
 * /Dreams and oracles/
 * /Death and dying/
 * /Psychology and religion/
 * /Sociology and religion/
 * /Science and religion/
 * /Anthropology and religion/
 * /Civilization/
 * /City life/
 * /Religiosity/
 * /Organized religion/
 * /The local church/
 * /Denominationalism and cults/
 * /Religion and state/
 * /Sacralization and secularization/
 * /Moral validation/
 * /Social institutions/
 * /Folkways/
 * /Unification/
 * /Religions as shapers of society/
 * /Tolerance/
 * /Economics and religion/
 * /Descent and social conflict/
 * /Worship and service/
 * /Tradition and scripture, orthodoxy, heterodoxy, and heresy/
 * /Worship/
 * /Sacrifice/
 * /Service/
 * /Ritual/
 * /The mystical/
 * /Asceticism/
 * /Magic/
 * /Altruism/
 * /Clergy and laity/
 * /Missionary activities and evangelism/
 * /Creation, history, the end, and cosmologies/
 * /Creation/
 * /Cosmology/
 * /Providence/
 * /Eschatology/
 * /Nature/
 * /Nature as entity/
 * /Veneration of nature/
 * /Life as sacred/
 * /Animals/
 * /Place and thing as sacred/
 * /All my relations/
 * /Supernatural/
 * /Nature and supernatural/
 * /Spirit/
 * /Entities/
 * /The spirit world/

Books

 * Bouquet, A. C. (Reprint with revisions 1969) Comparative Religion: A Short Outline . Baltimore:Penguin Books ISBN 1199181277
 * Christian, James L. (4th ed. 1986) Philosophy: An Introduction to the Art of Wondering . New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc. ISBN 0030717477
 * Cogley, John (1968) Religion in a Secular Age: The Search for Final Meaning. (Britannica Perspectives) . Chicago: William Benton, Publisher ISBN 0269670327
 * Einstein, Albert (1954) Ideas and Opinions . New York: Bonanza Books ISBN 0517003937
 * Ewing, A. C. (1962) The Fundamental Questions of Philosophy . New York: The Macmillan Company ISBN 0710005865
 * Geisler, Norman L. (1976) Christian Apologetics . Grand Rapids: Baker Books ISBN 156563800X
 * Haught, John F. (1995) Science and Religion: From Conflict to Conversation . New York:Paulist Press ISBN 0809136066
 * Küng, Hans (1978) Does God Exist? An Answer for Today . New York: Doubleday and Company ISBN 0385235920
 * Macquarrie, John (Rev. ed. 1981) Twentieth-Century Religious Thought . Philadelphia:Trinity Press International ISBN 0334017092
 * Pelikan, Jaroslav (ed.) (1990) A World Treasury of Religious Thought . Boston: Little, Brown, and Company ISBN 0316697702
 * Roland, Vernon C. (1994) Sacred Lies and Silences: A Psychology of Religious Disguise . Collegeville,MN: The Liturgical Press ISBN 0814658474
 * Xavier, N. S. (1987) The Two Faces of Religion: A Psychiatrist's View . Tuscaloosa, AL: Portals Press. ISBN 0916620867

Internet sites

 * The Catholic Encyclopedia
 * Great Books Index
 * The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 * Michael Sudduth's Analytical Philosophy of Religion
 * Philosophy of Religion Resources
 * Project Gutenberg Official Home Site
 * Secular Web: Atheism, Agnosticism, Naturalism, Skepticism, and Secularism
 * Shamanism
 * The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 * Virtual Religion Index

Courses

 * Oden, Robert (Presenter) (1998) God and Mankind: Comparative Religion . Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company
 * Hall, James (Presenter) (2003) Philosophy of Religion: 2nd Edition . Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company

Other media

 * Bill Moyers on Faith and Reason (2006) 12 part series. ISBN 1421353636

title: Philosophy of Religion


text:
FontLab/Multiple Masters

Multiple Master Fonts
A Multiple Master font is a (PostScript Type1) font that contains, a number of styles of a font family in one font. These styles are called masters. Between the masters this specific font format allows interpolation to create instances of this family. The interpolation is defined for up to four dimensions. The result is that a Multiple Master font can interpolate between 16 masters.

Chapter Outline

 * /Planning Multiple Master Fonts/ this information helps you building a MM font
 * /Define Axis/ defining the axis for your MM font
 * /Assign Masters/ assign the Masters to your MM font
 * /Setting up the Master/ adjust the outlines of your masters to match the requirements for the MM format
 * /Import Kerning for Masters/ import the kerning values for the different Masters
 * /Value Patterns for the Axis/ setting up the graduation of the axis of MM fonts
 * /Defining a Primary Instance/ set up the values for the instance that should be used by default
 * /Multiple Master Font Generation/ generating the MM font
 * /Generate an Instance/ Generate an interpolated/extrapolated instance

Resources

 * Adobe Tech Note #5087: Designing Multiple Master Typefaces
 * Adobe Font Developer Tools and AFDKO download page

title: FontLab/Multiple Masters


text:
Comparative Religion

Welcome to the Comparative Religion wikibook. This book is meant to explore world religions while discussing similarities and differences in themes, stories, locations, ideas, etc. Prior knowledge of religious theory should not be needed to understand the content of this book. Feel free to contribute, or ask questions on the discussion page.

Contents

 * /Why study other religions?/
 * /History of religion/
 * /Myth, story, history, archetype/
 * /Gods/
 * /Heroes/
 * /Suffering and justice/
 * /The city/
 * /Rituals/
 * /Places of power/
 * /Temples and schools/
 * /Stones/
 * /Trees/
 * /The Garden/
 * /The Maze/
 * /Life as sacred/
 * /Death as sacred/
 * /Love/
 * /Sex/
 * /The other world/
 * /The afterlife/
 * /Faith and freedom/
 * /Creation/

Books

 * Boquet, A. C. (Reprint with revisions 1969) Comparative Religion: A Short Outline . Baltimore: Penguin Books ISBN 1199181277
 * Leeming, David Adams (1990) The World of Myth: An Anthology . New York:Oxford University Press ISBN 0195056019

Internet sites

 * Virtual Religion Index

Courses

 * Oden, Robert (Presenter) (1998) God and Mankind: Comparative Religion Chantilly, VA: The Teaching Company

title: Comparative Religion