text:
Field Guide/Birds/British Isles

Passeriformes
Thumbnails
 * Tyrannidae, Tyrant flycatchers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eastern Phoebe, Sayornis phoebe
 * Alaudidae, larks
 * Field Guide/Birds/Calandra Lark, Melanocorypha calandra, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bimaculated Lark, Melanocorypha bimaculata, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-winged Lark, Melanocorypha leucoptera, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Lark, Melanocorypha yeltoniensis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greater Short-toed Lark, Calandrella brachydactyla
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Short-toed Lark, Calandrella rufescens, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Crested Lark, Galerida cristata
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wood Lark, Lullula arborea
 * Field Guide/Birds/Skylark, Alauda arvensis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Shore Lark, Eremophila alpestris
 * Hirundinidae, swallows and martins
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tree Swallow, Tachycineta bicolor, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sand Martin, Riparia riparia
 * Field Guide/Birds/Crag Martin, Ptyonoprogne rupestris, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-rumped Swallow, Hirundo daurica, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cliff Swallow, Hirundo pyrrhonota, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/House Martin, Delichon urbicum
 * Motacillidae, wagtails and pipits
 * Field Guide/Birds/Citrine Wagtail,  Motacilla citreola, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White Wagtail,  Motacilla alba. Two races
 *  Motacilla alba alba
 *  Motacilla alba yarrelli, Pied Wagtail.
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey Wagtail,  Motacilla cinerea
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blue-headed Wagtail, Motacilla flava
 * Yellow Wagtail M. f. flavissima is the breeding form
 * Field Guide/Birds/Richard's Pipit, Anthus richardi
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tawny Pipit, Anthus campestris, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blyth's Pipit, Anthus godlewskii, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tree Pipit, Anthus trivialis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Olive-backed Pipit, Anthus hodgsoni , rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pechora Pipit, Anthus gustavi, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-throated Pipit, Anthus cervinus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Water Pipit, Anthus spinoletta
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rock Pipit, Anthus petrosus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Buff-bellied Pipit, Anthus rubescens, very rare
 * Bombycillidae, waxwings
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bohemian Waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cedar Waxwing, B. cedrorum, very rare
 * Cinclidae, dippers
 * European Dipper, Cinclus cinclus
 * Troglodytidae, wrens
 * Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes
 * Mimidae, mockingbirds
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Brown Thrasher, Toxostoma rufum, one record
 * Prunellidae, accentors
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dunnock, Prunella modularis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Alpine Accentor, Prunella collaris, rare
 * Turdidae: thrushes and chats
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blackbird, Turdus merula
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ring Ouzel, Turdus torquatus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eyebrowed Thrush, Turdus obscurus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dark-throated Thrush, Turdus atrogularis, rare
 * Black-throated Thrush, T. a. atrogularis, rare
 * Red-throated Thrush, T.a. ruficollis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dusky Thrush, Turdus naumanni
 * Naumann's Thrush, T. n. naumanni, very rare
 * Dusky Thrush, T. n. eunomus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris
 * Field Guide/Birds/Redwing, Turdus iliacus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mistle Thrush, Turdus viscivorus
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Robin, Turdus migratorius, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Siberian Thrush, Zoothera sibirica, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White's Thrush or Scaly Thrush, Zoothera dauma, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Varied Thrush, Zoothera naevia, one record
 * Field Guide/Birds/ Veery, Catharus fuscescens, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Gray-cheeked Thrush, Catharus minimus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Swainson's Thrush, Catharus ustulatus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hermit Thrush, Catharus guttatus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wood Thrush, Hylocichla mustelina, very rare
 * Rock Thrush, Monticola saxatilis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blue Rock-Thrush, Monticola solitarius, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rufous Bush Robin, Cercotrichas galactotes, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bluethroat, Luscinia svecica
 * Field Guide/Birds/Siberian Rubythroat, Luscinia calliope, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Thrush Nightingale, Luscinia luscinia, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos
 * Field Guide/Birds/Siberian Blue Robin, Luscinia cyanea, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-flanked Bluetail, Tarsiger cyanurus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Robin, Erithacus rubecula
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-throated Robin, Irania gutturalis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Stonechat, Saxicola torquatus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Siberian Stonechat, S. (torquatus) maura may be a separate species, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Whinchat, Saxicola rubetra.
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Wheatear, Oenanthe oenanthe
 * Field Guide/Birds/Isabelline Wheatear, Oenanthe isabellina, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Desert Wheatear, Oenanthe deserti, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-eared Wheatear, Oenanthe hispanica, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pied Wheatear, Oenanthe pleschanka, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-crowned Wheatear, Oenanthe leucopyga, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Redstart, Phoenicurus ochruros
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus
 * Corvidae: crows, ravens, and allies
 * Field Guide/Birds/Carrion Crow, Corvus corone
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Raven, Corvus corax
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix
 * Field Guide/Birds/Jackdaw, Corvus monedula
 * Rook, Corvus frugilegus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Jay, Garrulus glandarius
 * Field Guide/Birds/Chough,  Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Magpie, Pica pica
 * Field Guide/Birds/Nutcracker, Nucifraga caryocatactes, very rare
 * Sylviidae: Old World warblers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cetti's Warbler, Cettia cetti
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lanceolated Warbler, Locustella lanceolata, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella naevia
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler, Locustella certhiola, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/River Warbler, Locustella fluviatilis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Savi's Warbler, Locustella luscinioides, rare breeder
 * Field Guide/Birds/Moustached Warbler, Acrocephalus melanopogon, very rare, has bred
 * Field Guide/Birds/Aquatic Warbler, Acrocephalus paludicola, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sedge Warbler, Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Paddyfield Warbler, Acrocephalus agricola, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blyth's Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus dumetorum, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Marsh Warbler, Acrocephalus palustris
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus arundinaceus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Thick-billed Warbler, Acrocephalus aedon, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Booted Warbler, Hippolais caligata, rare
 * Sykes' Warbler, Hippolais rama,very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eastern Olivaceous Warbler, Hippolais pallida, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Western Olivaceous Warbler, Hippolais opaca, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Melodious Warbler, Hippolais polyglotta
 * Field Guide/Birds/Icterine Warbler, Hippolais icterina
 * Field Guide/Birds/Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus collybita
 * Field Guide/Birds/Iberian Chiffchaff, Phylloscopus brehmii, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Western Bonelli's Warbler, Phylloscopus bonelli, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eastern Bonelli's Warbler, Phylloscopus orientalis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wood Warbler, Phylloscopus sibilatrix
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dusky Warbler, Phylloscopus fuscatus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Radde's Warbler, Phylloscopus schwarzi, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pallas's Warbler, Phylloscopus proregulus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-browed Warbler, Phylloscopus inornatus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hume's Warbler, Phylloscopus humei, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Arctic Warbler, Phylloscopus borealis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greenish Warbler, Phylloscopus trochiloides, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla
 * Field Guide/Birds/Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin
 * Field Guide/Birds/Whitethroat, Sylvia communis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Whitethroat, Sylvia curruca
 * Asian Desert Warbler, Sylvia nana
 * Field Guide/Birds/Barred Warbler, Sylvia nisoria
 * Field Guide/Birds/Orphean Warbler, Sylvia hortensis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rüppell's Warbler, Sylvia rueppelli
 * Field Guide/Birds/Subalpine Warbler, Sylvia cantillans, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sardinian Warbler, Sylvia melanocephala, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spectacled Warbler, Sylvia conspicillata, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dartford Warbler, Sylvia undata
 * Field Guide/Birds/Marmora's Warbler Sylvia sarda, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Zitting Cisticola, Cisticola juncidis, very rare
 * Regulidae: kinglets
 * Field Guide/Birds/Goldcrest, Regulus regulus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Firecrest, Regulus ignicapillus
 * Muscicapidae: Old World flycatchers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa striata
 * Pied Flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca
 * Field Guide/Birds/Collared Flycatcher, Ficedula albicollis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-breasted Flycatcher, Ficedula parva
 * Aegithalidae: long-tailed tits
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-tailed Tit, Aegithalos longicaudus
 * Remizidae: penduline tits
 * Field Guide/Birds/Penduline Tit, Remiz pendulinus, rarity, has bred
 * Paridae: titmice
 * Field Guide/Birds/Marsh Tit, Parus palustris
 * Field Guide/Birds/Willow Tit, Parus montana
 * Field Guide/Birds/Coal Tit, Parus ater
 * Field Guide/Birds/Crested Tit, Parus cristatus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Tit, Parus major
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blue Tit, Parus caeruleus
 * Tichodromadidae: Wallcreeper
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wallcreeper, Tichodroma muraria, very rare
 * Sittidae: nuthatches
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Nuthatch, Sitta europaea
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-breasted Nuthatch, Sitta canadensis
 * Certhiidae - treecreepers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Treecreeper, Certhia familiaris
 * Field Guide/Birds/Short-toed Treecreeper,	Certhia brachydactyla, rare
 * Laniidae - shrikes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Grey Shrike, Lanius excubitor
 * Field Guide/Birds/Southern Grey Shrike,  Lanius meridionalis, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Grey Shrike,  Lanius minor, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-backed Shrike,  Lanius collurio
 * Field Guide/Birds/Isabelline Shrike,  Lanius isabellinus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Woodchat Shrike,  Lanius senator, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-tailed Shrike,  Lanius schach, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Brown Shrike, Lanius cristatus, very rare
 * Emberizidae - buntings and, as very rare vagrants, American sparrows
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellowhammer, Emberiza citrinella
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pine Bunting, Emberiza leucocephalos, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cirl Bunting Emberiza cirlus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ortolan Bunting, Emberiza hortulana
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cretzschmar's Bunting, Emberiza caesia, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Bunting, Emberiza pusilla, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-browed Bunting, Emberiza chrysophrys, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-faced Bunting, Emberiza spodocephala, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-headed Bunting, Emberiza melanocephala, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pallas' Reed Bunting, Emberiza pallasi, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Reed Bunting, Emberiza schoeniclus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Corn Bunting, Miliaria calandra
 * Field Guide/Birds/Snow Bunting, Plectrophenax nivalis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lapland Bunting, Calcarius lapponicus
 * Rufous-sided Towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lark Sparrow, Chondestes grammacus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-crowned Sparrow, Zonotrichia leucophrys, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-throated Sparrow, Zonotrichia albicollis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dark-eyed Junco, Junco hyemalis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Pheucticus ludovicianus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Indigo Bunting, Passerina cyanea, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Savannah Sparrow, Passerculus sandwichensis, very rare
 * Thraupidae - tanagers: very rare vagrant
 * Field Guide/Birds/Scarlet Tanager,	Piranga olivacea, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Summer Tanager, Piranga rubra, one record
 * Vireonidae - vireos: very rare vagrant
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-throated Vireo, Vireo flavifrons, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Philadelphia Vireo, Vireo philadelphicus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-eyed Vireo, Vireo olivaceus, rare
 * Parulidae - New World warblers: very rare vagrants
 * Field Guide/Birds/Golden-winged Warbler, Vermivora chrysoptera, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tennessee Warbler, Vermivora peregrina, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Parula, Parula americana, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow Warbler, Dendroica petechia, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Chestnut-sided Warbler, Dendroica pensylvanica, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Magnolia Warbler, Dendroica magnolia, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cape May Warbler, Dendroica tigrina, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-rumped Warbler, Dendroica coronata, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blackburnian Warbler, Dendroica fusca, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bay-breasted Warbler, Dendroica castanea, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blackpoll Warbler, Dendroica striata, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-and-white Warbler, Mniotilta varia, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Redstart, Setophaga ruticilla, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Waterthrush, Seiurus noveboracensis, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hooded Warbler, Wilsonia citrina, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wilson's Warbler, Wilsonia pusilla, very rare
 * Icteridae - icterids: very rare vagrant
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, very rare vagrant
 * Field Guide/Birds/Baltimore Oriole, Icterus galbula, very rare vagrant
 * Fringillidae - finches
 * Field Guide/Birds/Chaffinch, Fringilla coelebs
 * Field Guide/Birds/Brambling, Fringilla montifringilla
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pine Grosbeak, Pinicola enucleator, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Rosefinch, Carpodacus erythrinus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Parrot Crossbill, Loxia pytyopsittacus, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Scottish Crossbill, Loxia scotica
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra
 * Field Guide/Birds/Two-barred Crossbill, Loxia leucoptera, rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris
 * Common Redpoll, Carduelis flammea
 * Lesser Redpoll, Carduelis cabaret
 * Arctic Redpoll, Carduelis hornemanni
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Siskin, Carduelis spinus
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis
 * Field Guide/Birds/Twite, Carduelis flavirostris
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Linnet, Carduelis cannabina
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Serin, Serinus serinus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hawfinch, Coccothraustes coccothraustes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Evening Grosbeak, Coccothraustes vespertinus, very rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Trumpeter Finch, Rhodopechys githaginea, very rare
 * Ploceidae - sparrows
 * Field Guide/Birds/House Sparrow, Passer domesticus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spanish Sparrow, Passer hispaniolensis, very rare vagrant
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rock Sparrow, Petronia petronia, very rare vagrant
 * Sturnidae - starlings
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rosy Starling, Sturnus roseus, rare but increasing
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Starling, Sturnus vulgaris
 * Oriolidae - orioles
 * Field Guide/Birds/Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus
 * Field Guide/Birds/Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus

Anseriformes

 * Anatidae: swans, geese and ducks
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mute Swan - Cygnus olor A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tundra Swan - Cygnus columbianus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Whooper Swan - Cygnus cygnus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bean Goose - Anser fabalis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pink-footed Goose - Anser brachyrhynchus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-fronted Goose - Anser albifrons A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser White-fronted Goose - Anser erythropus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greylag Goose - Anser anser A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Snow Goose - Anser caerulescens A most records are presumed escapes from captivity
 * Field Guide/Birds/Canada Goose - Branta canadensis A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Barnacle Goose - Branta leucopsis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Brent Goose - Branta bernicla A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-breasted Goose - Branta ruficollis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Egyptian Goose - Alopochen aegyptiaca C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ruddy Shelduck - Tadorna ferruginea B & C many records are presumed escapes from captivity
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Shelduck - Tadorna tadorna A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mandarin Duck - Aix galericulata C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wigeon - Anas penelope A
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Wigeon - Anas americana A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Gadwall - Anas strepera A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Teal - Anas crecca A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Green-winged Teal - Anas carolinensis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mallard - Anas platyrhynchos A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Black Duck - Anas rubripes A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Pintail - Anas acuta A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Garganey - Anas querquedula A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blue-winged Teal - Anas discors A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Shoveler - Anas clypeata A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-crested Pochard - Netta rufina A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pochard - Aythya ferina A
 * Redhead - Aythya americana A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Canvasback - Aythya valisineria A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ring-necked Duck - Aythya collaris A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ferruginous Duck - Aythya nyroca A rare many records are presumed escapes from captivity
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tufted Duck - Aythya fuligula A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greater Scaup - Aythya marila A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Scaup - Aythya affinis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Eider - Somateria mollissima A
 * Field Guide/Birds/King Eider - Somateria spectabilis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Steller's Eider - Polysticta stelleri A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Harlequin Duck - Histrionicus histrionicus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-tailed Duck - Clangula hyemalis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Scoter - Melanitta nigra A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Surf Scoter - Melanitta perspicillata A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Velvet Scoter - Melanitta fusca A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bufflehead - Bucephala albeola A rare most records are presumed escapes from captivity
 * Field Guide/Birds/Barrow's Goldeneye - Bucephala islandica A rare most records are presumed escapes from captivity
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Goldeneye - Bucephala clangula A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Smew - Mergellus albellus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-breasted Merganser - Mergus serrator A
 * Goosander - Mergus merganser A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ruddy Duck - Oxyura jamaicensis C introduced species currently subject to an eradication programme

Galliformes

 * Tetraonidae: grouse
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red Grouse - Lagopus lagopus scotica A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ptarmigan - Lagopus muta A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Black Grouse - Tetrao tetrix A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Capercaillie - Tetrao urogallus B & C reintroduced
 * Phasianidae: partridges, pheasants and quails
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-legged Partridge - Alectoris rufa C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey Partridge - Perdix perdix A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Quail - Coturnix coturnix A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Pheasant - Phasanius colchicus C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Golden Pheasant - Chrysolophus pictus C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lady Amherst's Pheasant - Chrysolophus amherstiae C

Gaviiformes

 * Gaviidae: divers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-throated Diver - Gavia stellata A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-throated Diver - Gavia arctica A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Northern Diver - Gavia immer A
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-billed Diver - Gavia adamsii A rare

Podicipediformes

 * Podicepidae: grebes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pied-billed Grebe - Podilymbus podiceps A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Grebe - Tachybaptus ruficollis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Crested Grebe - Podiceps cristatus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-necked Grebe - Podiceps grisegena A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Slavonian Grebe - Podiceps auritus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-necked Grebe - Podiceps nigricollis A

Procellariiformes

 * Diomedeidae: albatrosses
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris A rare
 * Procellariidae: fulmar, shearwaters, gadfly and other petrels
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Fulmar - Fulmarus glacialis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Fea's Petrel - Pterodroma feae A rare
 * Capped Petrel - Pterodroma hasitata B rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bulwer's Petrel - Bulweria bulwerii A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cory's Shearwater - Calonectis diomedea A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Shearwater - Puffinus gravis  A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sooty Shearwater - Puffinus griseus  A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Manx Shearwater - Puffinus puffinus  A
 * Balearic Shearwater - Puffinus mauretanicus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Shearwater - Puffinus assimilis  A rare
 * Hydrobatidae: storm petrels
 * Wilson's Petrel - Oceanites oceanicus A rare (though more regular well offshore)
 * White-faced Petrel - Pelagodroma marina B rare
 * Storm Petrel - Hydrobates pelagicus A
 * Leach's Petrel - Oceanodroma leucorhea A
 * Swinhoe's Petrel - Oceanodroma monorhis A rare
 * Madeiran Petrel - Oceanodroma castro B rare

Pelecaniformes

 * Sulidae: gannets
 * Gannet - Morus bassanus A
 * Phalacrocoracidae: cormorants
 * Cormorant - Phalacrocorax carbo A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Double-crested Cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Shag - Phalacrocorax aristotelis A
 * Fregatidae: frigatebirds
 * Field Guide/Birds/Magnificent Frigatebird - Fregata magnificens A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ascension Frigatebird - Fregata aquila B rare - one record
 * Phaethontidae: tropicbirds
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-billed Tropicbird - Phaeton aetherius A rare

Ciconiiformes

 * Ardeidae: herons and bitterns
 * Bittern - Botaurus stellata A
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Bittern - Botaurus lentiginosa A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Bittern - Ixobrychus minutus A rare
 * Night Heron - Nycticorax nycticorax A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Green Heron - Butorides virescens A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Squacco Heron - Ardeola ralloides A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cattle Egret - Bubulcus ibis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Egret - Egretta garzetta A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Snowy Egret - Egretta thula A rare
 * Great White Egret - Ardea alba A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey Heron - Ardea cinerea A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Purple Heron - Ardea purpurea A
 * Ciconiidae: storks (rare)
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Stork - Ciconia nigra A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White Stork - Ciconia ciconia A
 * Threskiornithidae: ibises and spoonbills
 * Field Guide/Birds/Glossy Ibis - Plegadis falcinellus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Spoonbill - Platalea leucorodia A

Accipitriformes
Some classifications also include the Falconidae.

 * Pandionidae: Osprey
 * Field Guide/Birds/Osprey - Pandion haliaetus A
 * Accipitridae: hawks, eagles, buzzards, harriers, kites and allies
 * European Field Guide/Birds/Honey Buzzard - Pernis apivorus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Kite - Milvus migrans A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red Kite - Milvus milvus A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-tailed Eagle - Haliaeetus albicilla A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Egyptian Vulture - Neophron percnopterus B
 * Field Guide/Birds/Short-toed Eagle - Circaetus gallicus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Marsh Harrier - Circus aeruginosus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hen Harrier - Circus cyaneus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pallid Harrier - Circus macrourus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Montagu's Harrier - Circus pygargus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Goshawk - Accipiter gentilis A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sparrowhawk - Accipiter nisus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Buzzard - Buteo buteo A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Rough-legged Buzzard - Buteo lagopus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greater Spotted Eagle - Aquila clanga B
 * Field Guide/Birds/Golden Eagle - Aquila chrysaetos A

Falconiformes
Sometimes included in the Accipitriformes

 * Falconidae: falcons
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Kestrel - Falco naumanni A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Kestrel - Falco tinnunculus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Kestrel - Falco sparverius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-footed Falcon - Falco vespertinus A rare
 * Merlin - Falco columbarius A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Hobby - Falco subbuteo A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eleanora's Falcon - Falco eleonorae A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Gyr Falcon - Falco rusticolus A rare
 * Peregrine Falcon - Falco peregrinus A

Gruiformes

 * Rallidae: rails and crakes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Water Rail - Rallus aquaticus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spotted Crake - Porzana porzana A
 * Sora - Porzana carolina A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Crake - Porzana parva A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Baillon's Crake - Porzana pusilla A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Corn Crake - Crex crex A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Moorhen - Gallinula chloropus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Allen's Gallinule - Porphyrio alleni A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Purple Gallinule - Porphyrio martinica A rare
 * Coot - Fulica atra A
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Coot - Fulica americana A rare
 * Gruidae: cranes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Crane - Grus grus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sandhill Crane - Grus americana A rare
 * Otidae: bustards
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Bustard - Tetrax tetrax A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Macqueen's Bustard - Chlamydotis macqueenii B rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Bustard - Otis tarda A rare

Suborder Charadrii: waders

 * Haematopodidae: oystercatchers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Pied Oystercatcher - Haematopus ostralegus A
 * Recurvirostridae: avocets and stilts
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-winged Stilt - Himantopus himantopus A rare
 * Avocet - Recurvirostra avosetta A
 * Burhinidae: thick-knees
 * Stone Curlew - Burhinus oedicnemus A
 * Glareolidae: coursers and pratincoles
 * Field Guide/Birds/Cream-coloured Courser - Cursorius cursor A rare rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Collared Pratincole - Glareola pratincola A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Oriental Pratincole - Glareola maldivarum A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-winged Pratincole - Glareola nordmanni A rare
 * Charadriidae: plovers and lapwings
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Ringed Plover - Charadrius dubius A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ringed Plover - Charadrius hiaticula A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Semipalmated Plover - Charadrius semipalmatus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Killdeer - Charadrius vociferus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Kentish Plover - Charadrius alexandrinus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Sand Plover - Charadrius mongolus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greater Sand Plover - Charadrius leschenaultii A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Caspian Plover - Charadrius asiaticus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Dotterel - Charadrius morinellus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/American Golden Plover - Pluvialis dominica A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pacific Golden Plover - Pluvialis fulva A rare
 * Golden Plover - Pluvialis apricaria A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey Plover - Pluvialis squatarola A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sociable Lapwing - Vanellus gregarius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-tailed Lapwing - Vanellus leucurus A rare
 * Lapwing - Vanellus vanellus A
 * Scolopacidae: typical waders or shorebirds
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Knot - Calidris tenuirostris A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red Knot - Calidris canutus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sanderling - Calidris alba A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Semipalmated Sandpiper - Calidris pusilla A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Western Sandpiper - Calidris mauri A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-necked Stint - Calidris ruficollis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Stint - Calidris minuta A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Temminck's Stint - Calidris temminckii A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-toed Stint - Calidris subminuta A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Least Sandpiper - Calidris minutilla A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-rumped Sandpiper - Calidris fuscicollis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Baird's Sandpiper - Calidris bairdii A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pectoral Sandpiper - Calidris melanotos A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sharp-tailed Sandpiper - Calidris acuminata A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Curlew Sandpiper - Calidris ferruginea A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Stilt Sandpiper - Calidris himantopus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Purple Sandpiper - Calidris maritima A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Dunlin - Calidris alpina A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Broad-billed Sandpiper - Limicola falcinellus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Buff-breasted Sandpiper - Tryngites subruficollis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ruff - Philomachus pugnax A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Jack Snipe - Lymnocryptes minimus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Snipe - Gallinago gallinago A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Snipe - Gallinago media A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Short-billed Dowitcher - Limnodromus griseus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-billed Dowitcher - Limnodromus scolopaceus A rare
 * Woodcock - Scolopax rusticola A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-tailed Godwit - Limosa limosa A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hudsonian Godwit - Limosa haemastica A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bar-tailed Godwit - Limosa lapponica A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Curlew - Numenius minutus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eskimo Curlew - Numenius borealis B extinct
 * Field Guide/Birds/Whimbrel - Numenius phaeopus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Slender-billed Curlew - Numenius tenuirostris A rare
 * Curlew - Numenius arquata A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Upland Sandpiper - Bartramia longicauda A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spotted Redshank - Tringa erythropus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Redshank - Tringa totanus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Marsh Sandpiper - Tringa stagnatilis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Greenshank - Tringa nebularia A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Greater Yellowlegs - Tringa melanoleuca A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Yellowlegs - Tringa flavipes A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Solitary Sandpiper - Tringa solitaria A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Green Sandpiper - Tringa ochropus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wood Sandpiper - Tringa glareola A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Terek Sandpiper - Xenus cinereus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Sandpiper - Actitis hypoleucos A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Spotted Sandpiper - Actitis macularius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey-tailed Tattler - Heterosceles brevipes A rare
 * Turnstone - Arenaria interpres A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wilson's Phalarope - Phalaropus tricolor A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-necked Phalarope - Phalaropus lobatus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Grey Phalarope - Phalaropus fulicaria A

Suborder Lari: skuas, gulls & terns

 * Stercorariidae: skuas
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pomarine Skua - Stercorarius pomarinus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Arctic Skua - Stercorarius parasiticus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-tailed Skua - Stercorarius longicaudus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Skua - Stercorarius skua A
 * Laridae: gulls
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Black-headed Gull - Larus ichthyaetus B rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mediterranean Gull - Larus melanocephalus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Laughing Gull - Larus atricilla A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Franklin's Gull - Larus pipixcan A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Gull - Larus minutus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sabine's Gull - Larus sabini A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bonaparte's Gull - Larus philadelphia A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-headed Gull - Larus ridibundus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Slender-billed Gull - Larus genei A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Audouin's Gull - Larus audouinii A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ring-billed Gull - Larus delawarensis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Gull - Larus canus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Black-backed Gull - Larus fuscus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Herring Gull - Larus argentatus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Iceland Gull - Larus glaucoides A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Glaucous Gull - Larus hyperboreus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Black-backed Gull - Larus marinus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ross's Gull - Rhodostethia rosea A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Kittiwake - Rissa tridactyla A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ivory Gull - Pagophila eburnea A rare
 * Sternidae: terns
 * Field Guide/Birds/Gull-billed Tern - Sterna nilotica A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Caspian Tern - Sterna caspia A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Royal Tern - Sterna maximus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Crested Tern - Sterna bengalensis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sandwich Tern - Sterna sandvicensis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Elegant Tern - Sterna elegans A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Roseate Tern - Sterna dougallii A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Tern - Sterna hirundo A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Arctic Tern - Sterna paradisaea A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Aleutian Tern - Sterna aleutica A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Forster's Tern - Sterna forsteri A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Bridled Tern - Sterna anaethetus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Sooty Tern - Sterna fuscata A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Tern - Sterna albifrons A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Whiskered Tern - Childonias hybridus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Tern - Childonias niger A
 * Field Guide/Birds/White-winged Tern - Childonias leucopterus A rare

Suborder Alcae: auks

 * Alcidae: auks
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Guillemot - Uria aalge A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Brunnich's Guillemot - Uria lomvia A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Razorbill - Alca torda A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Auk - Pinguinus impennis B extinct
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black Guillemot - Cepphus grylle A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Ancient Murrelet - Synthliboramphus antiquus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Auk - Alle alle A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Atlantic Puffin - Fratercula arctica A

Pterocliformes

 * Pteroclidae: sandgrouse
 * Field Guide/Birds/Field Guide/Pallas's Sandgrouse - Syrrhaptes paradoxus A rare

Columbiformes

 * Columbidae: [[Dove|pigeons and doves
 * Rock Dove or Feral Pigeon - Columba livia A & C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Stock Dove - Columba oenas A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Wood Pigeon - Columba palumbus A
 * Collared Dove - Streptopelia decaocto A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Turtle Dove - Streptopelia turtur A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Oriental Turtle Dove - Streptopelia orientalis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Mourning Dove - Zenaida macroura A rare'

Psittaciformes

 * Psittacidae: parrots
 * Ring-necked Parakeet - Psittacula krameri C

Cuculiformes

 * Cuculidae: cuckoos
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Spotted Cuckoo - Clamator glandarius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Cuckoo - Cuculus canorus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Black-billed Cuckoo - Coccyzus erythropthalmus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-billed Cuckoo - Coccyzus americanus A rare

Strigiformes

 * Tytonidae: barn owls
 * Field Guide/Birds/Barn Owl - Tyto alba A
 * Strigidae: owls
 * Scops Owl - Otus scops A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Snowy Owl - Bubo scandiacus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Northern Hawk Owl - Surnia ulula A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Owl - Athene noctua C
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tawny Owl - Strix aluco A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Long-eared Owl - Asio otus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Short-eared Owl - Asio flammeus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Tengmalm's Owl - Aegolius funereus A rare

Caprimulgiformes

 * Caprimulgidae: nightjars
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Nightjar - Caprimulgus europaeus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Red-necked Nightjar - Caprimulgus ruficollis A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Egyptian Nightjar - Caprimulgus aegyptius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Nighthawk - Chordeiles minor A rare

Apodiformes

 * Apodidae: swifts
 * Field Guide/Birds/Chimney Swift - Chaetura pelagica A rare
 * Needle-tailed Swift - Hirundapus caudacutus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Common Swift - Apus apus A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pallid Swift - Apus pallidus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Pacific Swift - Apus pacificus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Alpine Swift - Apus melba A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Little Swift - Apus affinis A rare

Coraciiformes

 * Alcedinidae: kingfishers
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Kingfisher - Alcedo atthis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Belted Kingfisher - Ceryle alcyon A rare
 * Meropidae: bee-eaters
 * Field Guide/Birds/Blue-cheeked Bee-eater - Merops persicus A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Bee-eater - Merops apiaster A
 * Coraciidae: rollers
 * Field Guide/Birds/European Roller - Coracias garrulus A rare
 * Upupidae: Hoopoes
 * Field Guide/Birds/Hoopoe - Upupa epops A

Piciformes

 * Picidae: woodpeckers
 * Field Guide/Birds/Eurasian Wryneck - Jynx torquilla A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Green Woodpecker - Picus viridis A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Yellow-bellied Sapsucker - Sphyrapicus varius A rare
 * Field Guide/Birds/Great Spotted Woodpecker - Dendrocopos major A
 * Field Guide/Birds/Lesser Spotted Woodpecker - Dendrocopos minor A

title: Field Guide/Birds/British Isles


text:
Australian Government

Contents

 * /Preface/
 * /Introduction/

 * 1) /History of Government in Australia/
 * 2) */Government from Britain/
 * 3) */Colonial Self-Government/
 * 4) */Federation/
 * 5) */Post Federation/
 * 6) /The Commonwealth Constitution/
 * 7) */The Constitution/
 * 8) */The Commonwealth Legislature/
 * 9) */The Commonwealth Executive/
 * 10) /The States and Territories/
 * 11) */The State and Territory Legislatures/
 * 12) */The State and Territory Executives/
 * 13) /The Judiciary/

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Australian Government


text:
Australian Government/Contents

Contents

 * Preface
 * Introduction

 * History of Government in Australia
 * Government from Britain
 * Colonial Self-Government
 * Federation
 * Post Federation
 * The Commonwealth Constitution
 * The Constitution
 * The Commonwealth Legislature
 * The Commonwealth Executive
 * The States and Territories
 * The State and Territory Legislatures
 * The State and Territory Executives
 * The Judiciary

title: Australian Government/Contents


text:
Australian Government/The Commonwealth Legislature

The legislature of the Commonwealth is the Commonwealth Parliament or Parliament of Australia. The Parliament of Australia is a bicameral parliament consisting of the House of Representatives (the "lower house") and the Senate (the "upper house" or "house of review"). Section 1 of the Constitution of Australia provides that: "The legislative power of the Commonwealth shall be vested in a Federal Parliament, which shall consist of the Queen, a Senate, and a House of Representatives, and which is herein-after called 'The Parliament,' or 'The Parliament of the Commonwealth'."

Queen Elizabeth II is, in her capacity as Queen of Australia, Australia's head of state, but her constitutional functions in Australia are delegated to the Governor-General of Australia.

The House of Representatives consists of 150 members elected from single-member constituencies of approximately equal population. The Senate consists of 76 members: 12 Senators are elected from each of the six states and two from each of the two territories.

The principal function of the Parliament is to pass laws, or legislation. Any Member or Senator may introduce a proposed law (a bill), except for a money bill (a bill proposing an expenditure or levying a tax), which must be introduced in the House of Representatives. In practice, the great majority of bills are introduced by ministers. Bills introduced by other Members are called private members' bills. All bills must be passed by both Houses to become law. The Senate has the same legislative powers as the House, except that it may not amend money bills, only pass or reject them.

The Parliament performs other functions besides legislation. It can discuss urgency motions or matters of public importance: these provide a forum for debates on public policy matters. Members can move motions of censure against the government or against individual ministers. On most sitting days in both Houses there is a session called Question Time at which Members and Senators address questions to the Prime Minister and other ministers. Members and Senators can also present petitions from their constituents. Both Houses have an extensive system of committees in which draft bills are debated, evidence is taken and public servants are questioned.

Members of the Australian Parliament do not have legal immunity: they can be arrested and tried for any offence. They do, however, have Parliamentary privilege: they cannot be sued for anything they say about each other or about persons outside the Parliament. This privilege extends to reporting in the media of anything a Member or Senator says.

There is a legal offence called contempt of Parliament. A person who speaks or acts in a manner contemptuous of the Parliament or its members can be tried and, if convicted, imprisoned. The Parliament used to have the power of hearing such cases itself, and did so in the Browne-Fitzpatrick case of 1955. This power has now been delegated to the courts, but no-one has been prosecuted for this offence.

The House of Representatives
The 150 members of the house are elected from single-member geographic districts (popularly known as "seats" but officially known as "Commonwealth Electoral Divisions") which are intended to represent reasonably contiguous regions, with relatively equal population in each of about 80 000 people. Voting is by the preferential system.

According to Australia's Constitution, the powers of both houses are nearly equal with the consent of both houses needed to pass legislation. In practice, however, the Lower House is far stronger in some ways, and far weaker in others.

By convention, the party or coalition in the lower house with a majority is invited by the Governor-General to form government, and thus the leader of the party in the lower house becomes the Prime Minister of Australia and his senior colleagues ministers responsible for various government departments. Bills appropriating money can also only be introduced or modified in the lower house. Thus, only parties in the lower house can govern. However, in the rigid Australian party system, this ensures that virtually all contentious votes are along party lines, and the government always has a majority in those votes. The Opposition's only real role in the House is to present arguments why the government's policies and legislation are wrong, and attempt to embarrass the government as much as possible by asking difficult questions at question time.

In a reflection of the color scheme of the United Kingdom House of Commons, the House of Representatives is decorated in green.

The Senate
The voting system for the Senate has changed twice since it was created. The original arrangement was a first past the post block voting mechanism. In 1919, it was changed to preferential block voting. Block voting tended to grant landslide majorities very easily. In 1946, the Australian Labor Party government won 30 out of the 33 Senate seats. In 1948, partially in response to this extreme situation, they introduced proportional representation in the Senate.

From a comparative governmental perspective, the Australian Senate is almost unique in that unlike the upper house in other Westminster system governments, the Senate is not a vestigial body with limited legislative power but rather plays and is intended to play an active role in legislation. Rather than being modelled after the House of Lords the Australian Senate was in part modelled after the United States Senate and was intended to give small rural states added voice in a Federal legislature, while also fulfilling the revising role of an upper house in the Westminster system.

Although the Prime Minister is answerable to, and selected from the House of Representatives (the "lower house"), other ministers are drawn from either house and the two houses have almost equal legislative power. As with most upper chambers in bicameral parliaments, it cannot introduce Appropriation Bills or impose taxation, that role being reserved for the universally elected lower chamber. That degree of equality between the Australian Senate and House of Representatives is in part due to the age of the Australian constitution; it was enacted before the confrontation in 1909 between the British House of Commons and House of Lords, over estate taxes, which ultimately resulted in the restrictions in the powers of the House of Lords in the Parliament Act. The Senate thus reflected the pre-1911 Lords-Commons relationship, namely a house with theoretically wide powers that are by convention not widely used, but which in a crisis could be.

However in one area it possesses a highly sensitive power, namely the right to withdraw or block Supply, i.e. government control of exchequer funding. In most democracies, this power does not exist within upper houses. In the Australian case, probably due to its age and its pre-dating of the British Parliament Act, 1911, that power, once possessed by the House of Lords, is still possessed by the Australian Senate. What it means is that in strict constitutional terms, the Government is also answerable to the Australian Senate, given that the loss of Supply in parliamentary democracies automatically requires the resignation of a government or ministry, or alternatively the calling of a general election, because without access to exchequer funding a government cannot function and would face bankruptcy. However, as in the United Kingdom prior to the 1909 clash over David Lloyd George's budget between the House of Commons and House of Lords, a general convention built up in which the upper house would not use its power to block exchequer funding, leaving that responsibility to the democratically representative lower house. Indeed to break convention in this area is sometimes described as a parliamentary nuclear option because of its political, financial and governmental impact. In 1975, in a dispute strikingly similar to Britain's 1909 clash (an upper House breaking convention by withdrawing Supply on the basis that it was reacting to a breach of another fundamental convention by the government - which the government denied) the Senate did refuse to pass a required financial measure, producing a 'nuclear'-style crisis which resulted in a stand off, a decision of the Prime Minister not to resign or seek a dissolution, and the eventual intervention of the Governor-General to withdraw the commission of the Australian Prime Minister (in effect dismissing him) and the appointment of a minority government from the opposition in the House of Representatives and the calling of a general election.

In practice, however, most legislation (except for "Private Member's Bills") in the Australian Parliament is initiated by the Government, which has control over the lower house. It is then passed to the Senate, which may amend the bill or refuse to pass it. In the majority of cases, voting is along party lines.


text:
Australian Government/The Commonwealth Constitution

< Australian Government/Contents

The Australian Constitution is actually the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which was passed through the United Kingdom Parliament. It provided the new system of government for the new federation, which consisted at its inception on 1 January 1901 of the former separate colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia.

Head of State
The Act vested authority in the Queen, making her the Australian head of state similar to other Commonwealth Realms. In 1973, the monarch was formally designated as 'Queen of Australia'. A representative of the Queen was provided for, known as the Governor-General, who in practice fulfils most of the roles normally possessed by a head of state. Some consider the Governor-General of Australia to be the de facto head of state as the British monarch rarely exercises the reserve powers that the constitution grants to the Crown; however the constitution makes clear that the Governor-General is in no sense a head of state, merely a head of state's representative who in the name of the head of state, or in his own name as representative of the head of state, carries out specified functions and exercises certain powers.

Parliament
Section 1 (of Chapter I) provided that the legislative power was to be vested in Federal parliament, known as the 'Parliament of the Commonwealth', consisting of the Queen, an upper house, called the Senate, and a lower house, called the 'House of Representatives.

Executive Authority
According to Section 61 (of Chapter II):

"the executive power of the Commonweath is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and the laws of the Commonweath."

Article 62 provided for a Federal Executive Council to 'advise' the Governor-General in the governance of the Commonwealth. Though the language indicated that the Executive Council was answerable to the Governor-General, in reality it is answerable to the House of Representatives, though the fact that the Senate possesses the power to withdraw Supply complicates the situation, given that loss of Supply in parliamentary democracies has the most severe implications for a government, given that it in theory should either resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution, should Supply be lost or not granted. See:The Commonwealth Executive.

The Judiciary
The judicial power of the Commonwealth was vested by Section 71 of Chapter III in a federal supreme court to be called the High Court of Australia. It was to be presided over by a Chief Justice. See:The Judiciary

The States
Section 106 of Chapter V provided for the continuation of the constitutions of the various states, subject to the provisions of the federal constitution.

Amendments to the Constitution
Section 128 of Chapter VIII provided that constitutional amendments required

 * "an absolute majority in both houses of the federal parliament"

and

 * "the approval in a plebiscite of the proposed amendment by a majority of electors nationwide, and a majority in a majority of the states."


text:
User:Vuara/Runes and the ancient alphabet

 * http://www.selfpower.com/runes/
 * http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/609217.stm
 * http://www.mind.net/aware/megalith.htm
 * http://www.cyberspaceorbit.com/phikent/pi.html
 * http://www.angelfire.com/ny4/decipherment/alphapron.htm
 * http://www.angelfire.com/ny4/decipherment/ahpath.htm
 * http://www.angelfire.com/ny4/decipherment/egyp.htm
 * http://www.angelfire.com/ny4/decipherment/baslin.htm
 * http://www.itzalist.com/sci/ancient-rune-alphabet.html
 * http://www.sunnyway.com/runes/
 * http://search.ezanga.com/_1_241PUVI02NMGBH6__ezanga.main.aff11/dog/results?otmpl=dog/webresults.htm&qcat=web&qkw=ancient%20rune%20alphabet&top=1&start=&ver=15565
 * http://www.geocities.com/futhark_runes/Ancient_Egyptians_and_the_Futhark_Alphabet.html
 * http://www.simnet.is/gardarj/folk/runes.htm
 * http://altreligion.about.com/library/weekly/aa022203a.htm

http://www.selfpower.com/runes/images/runes1.gif

Runes are characters in the ancient alphabet used by Anglo-Saxon peoples. Runic inscriptions have been found all over western Europe, on stone monuments and on such objects as metal spearpoints and amulets; the greatest concentrations are in England and Scandinavia. The runic alphabet, called futhark after the sounds of the initial letters, originally had 25 characters.

In English versions the number was eventually increased to 33, whereas in Scandinavia it was reduced to 16 and later expanded to 26. It is believed that runes are derived from a northern Etruscan alphabet used among Italic tribes in the eastern Alps, and that they were developed in the 2nd or 3rd century AD by a Germanic people living in the region of modern Bohemia. The earliest surviving inscription is from the mid-3rd century.

http://www.selfpower.com/runes/images/runes2.gif

Runes were in wide use from the 4th to the 12th century. A form of runes was used in Scandinavia throughout the Middle Ages as an alternative to the Latin alphabet used by the clergy, and runes survived in occasional use in rural Sweden at least until the 17th century. Runes were also used to augment the Latin alphabet for certain sounds, notably the thorn (þ, th) used in Anglo-Saxon England and modern Iceland.

+++

Wednesday, 19 January, 2000, 18:04 GMT Ancient alphabet enters cyber age

The alphabet used in Ethiopia and Eritrea is Africa's oldest. Laeke Mariam Demessie reports on the efforts to get the 276-letter script to work on computers.

Ethiopic script has been in use since 100 BC. It is the only indigenous African alphabet still in use today.

But it was only in 1991 that the Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC) first displayed the Ethiopic alphabet on a computer.

The greatest breakthrough was to come up with the idea Programmer Mesfin Belay

The reaction of one European was: "It is impossible - how did you do it?" recalls Dr Nega Alemayehu, a lecturer in information technology at Addis Ababa University.

But as Ethiopian computer programmer Mesfin Belay points out: "The greatest breakthrough was not in developing an Ethiopic alphabet programme or software, it was rather to come up with the idea.

"Just as you have software in Japanese, Korean or Arabic, there was no reason why one cannot develop Ethiopic script."

Quicker than handwriting

Daniel Admasse, an Ethiopian who studied in Sweden, claims to have been the first person to come up with the idea of computerising "fidel", as Ethiopians call their alphabet.

Three challenges Designing the fonts Keyboard layout Printing

While studying in Sweden he helped produce materials for an Ethiopian studies conference. Some of the conference texts were in Ge'ez, the ancient language which is the ancestor of modern Ethiopian languages. But he found that in Sweden he had no means of printing Ethiopic script.

"So the burden of writing by hand in Ge'ez letters and reducing them using a camera fall on me," Mr Daniel recalls.

"My handwriting was bad. Because of that incident I said to myself why shouldn't I develop an Amharic computer programme?".

"I started working on it in 1982 and developed an Ethiopic WordPerfect version 2.01 in one year".

Programmes develop

By 1991, one could take computer courses in Amharic even if one didn't know English Programmer Daniel Admasse Mr Daniel returned to Ethiopia in 1987, and set up a team of computer programmers at the ESTC. There they developed Ethiopic software ranging from a disc operating system to a desktop publishing programme. "So we had a complete set of Ethiopic computer programmes in Fidel and the Amharic language by 1991, which meant one could take computer courses in Amharic even if one didn't know English."

Mr Daniel has since developed an Ethiopic version of WordPerfect 6.0.

He says the first challenge was to design the fidel characters. This was done using a computer programme known as font manager.

Lots of letters

The second challenge was to put the 276 characters onto the English language keyboard designed to accommodate only 26 letters.

Each character in the Ethiopic alphabet represents a syllable: a combination of consonant plus vowel. There are 33 consonants and seven vowels.

So 33 of the keys are assigned to the different consonant sounds, which are used in combination with keys such as "control" and "alt" to create the vowel-consonant combinations.

"The English keyboard was made to recognise only 26 characters, but to make it recognise 276 Ethiopic characters the computer programmers have to override the rules in the computer," Mr Daniel explains.

"This was made possible by using the keyboard handler program."

Ethiopic characters also have to be attuned to American Standard Coding for Information Interchange (ASCII) which assigns letters to the numerical codes which the computer works with.

The third challenge was printing. The printing of Amharic characters was complicated in the earlier generations of printers, Mr Daniel says, but has become simpler with more recent laserjet printers.

Standardisation headaches

Therefore any Ethiopic alphabet software is a package which deals with the designing of characters, keyboard layout and printer set-up.

However efficient and fast a keyboard layout is, it is useless unless accepted as a standard IT lecturer Dr Nega Alemayehu Some Ethiopian computer engineers in Canada have also been developing Ethiopic software independently, out of a sense of patriotism, Dr Nega says. But the enthusiastic rush to develop software led to a new problem: lack of standardisation. Today there are at least 35 Ethiopic software products available, each with its own character set, encoding system, typeface names, and keyboard layout.

"However efficient and fast a keyboard layout is, it is useless unless accepted as a standard by users," Dr Nega argues.

The lack of standardisation also makes it difficult to transfer documents from one computer to another - including e-mail.

The problems of Ethiopic computing have resulted in the creation of the Ethiopian Computer Standard Association (ECOSA), of which Dr Nega is president, and the North American-based Committee for Ethiopian Computing (CEC).

The two groups are working on standardisation of the Ethiopic script on the computer.

"We have come together to face the challenge," says Dr Nega, who is optimistic about finding a solution.

"The sooner we standardise Ethiopic script computing, the faster we hop on the global information superhighway."

+++

Megaliths around the world built to the same geometric plan?

http://www.cyberspaceorbit.com/phikent//Megal6.JPG

Here are some of the notable intersections:

(1) Giza, the Great Pyramid

(3) Tyumen oil field, USSR

(4) Lake Baikal, USSR, many unique plants and animals

(9) Hudson Bay, present location of north magnetic pole

(11) Northern British Isles, Maes Howe, Ring of Brodgar, Callanish

(12) Mohenjo Daro-Rama Empire culture

(13) Pyramids in Xian, China, the largest in the world

(14) Southern Japan Dragon's Triangle, great seismic activity

(16) Hamakulta, nearby lies Hawaii, scene of high volcanic and earthquake activity

(17) The sophisticated canal civilization of Cibola

(18) Bimini, the site of huge man-made walls underwater, discovered in 1969, the date that Edgar Cayce had predicted that evidence of Atlantis would be discovered

(20) Algerian megalithic ruin

(21) Megaliths at Axum, the Coptic Christian center in Ethiopia

(25) Bangkok and Angkor Wat

(26) Sarawak, Borneo, site of ancient megalithic structures

(28) Pohnpei Island, Micronesia, site of the megalithic city of Nan Madol

(35) Lima, Peru, boundary of the Nazca Plate, Pisco, the Candlestick of the Andes & the Nazca Lines

(40) Gabon, West Africa, natural atomic reactor in operation about 1.7 million years ago

(41) Zimbabwe with its ancient mines & structures

(44) The Maralinga Atomic Test Site, which also has megalithic ruins

(47) Easter Island and its megaliths

(62) German underground Antarctic base?

Based on David D. Zink, Ancient Stones Speak: A Journey to the World's Most Mysterious Megalithic Sites (Dutton 1979).

+++

ARE THE ANCIENT ALPHABET SYMBOLS SCHEMATICS? PLANETARY GRID

The Morphogenetic Grid - The Builder of Planetary Destiny

The subject of who influences the Morphogenetic Grid is known as the science of Morphic Energy which has been the province and heritage of the "Ancient Wisdom and Mystery Schools". Protected and encrypted in the symbolism of Sacred Geometry, this knowledge has been reserved for the "Awakened" or "Initiated".

As these schools have always been dedicated to the study of consciousness and the nature of reality, it is their duty to make known the unknown and to pioneer and communicate other states of reality. Integrating the knowledge thus learned and turning it into an evolutionary educational program is an equally important part of their functions.

All of this would be fine except for one fact. Throughout history, the mystery schools have deviated into polarized groups at odds with each other in order to control the process of evolution. This has given rise to many different belief systems and religious constructs responsible for the guidance of moral conduct. The resulting conflict has generated war and indifference.

In such a context, belief systems are created with powerful events such as visions of the Virgin Mary, the resurrection and ascension of Christ, or visions of prophecy. Without even analyzing the exact nature of these miraculous occurrences, it is obvious that an incredible amount of dogma has been generated concerning them. What these miracles or prophecies imply for the future are substantiated only by faith with explicit doctrines designed to maintain them in our civilizations. People are not encouraged to discover and learn the truth but only to believe. "Good Deed Doers", swept away by their own convictions of faith, solicit others and whole generations are born into illusions of reality with fear and control buttons efficiently installed. Finally, prophecies are created to herd the many into subscribing to a particular creation of reality whatever it may be.

As there are many different mystery schools and religions, the numbers of people subscribing to each belief system or particular prophecy will have much to do with engineering the final outcome in the future. This is largely influenced by the power of thought feeding the grid. In such a manner, the greatest numbers that have invested into a prophecy will often prevail.

Based upon the above information, it should be clear that we are entirely capable of feeding the grid and determining the course of our own destiny. Therefore, evolution is in our own hands and our task becomes to take back that which we have lost. How do we do that. First, by opening what doors are available to us.

James, from Hall of Records Newsgroup

+++

In Australia, this alphabet is known as The Panaramitee Tradition

In Australia, this alphabet has been found on many locations and adheres to the grammar and structure of the other known petroglyphs on the other two continents. Ironically, instead of considering the similarity to other archaeological sites around the globe as evidence of a global culture, the scientific community in Australia has denied the possibility that this is any type of "system" at all, either writing or storyboard.

The concept that these odd shapes somehow formed a system of communication was first put forth by Lesley Maynard. Maynard received overwhelming resistance to his assertion and he finally discontinued his efforts. By the late 1980s, there was virtually no interest in these petroglyphs. In 1995, Bednarik reported the results of his experiment to see how readily the Panaramitee Tradition could be recognized. He sent drawings and pictures of several examples of petroglyphs to various rock art scholars around the globe. Ninety-eight (98%) percent wrongly identified petroglyphs from the United States, Africa and Europe as being Panaramitee Tradition. Bednarik summarized as follows,

"It is either not possible to identify the Panaramitee style, or... this is a world-wide style."

http://www.viewzone.com/panar.gif

The map above shows the myriad locations of this style. It has been noted that this style is also accompanied by petroglyphs and pictographs of strange humanoid beings with large eyes. There are also reportedly collections of carved handprints, similar to those recorded in the canyons of Monument Valley and in Southeast Colorado. Dr. Harris has not reported these types of phenomenon in the Sinai.

+++

Ancient Alphabet Pronunciations

A aa, ah, ae, a. B b. G g. D d. W w, oo. U v, u, ou, au. Z z. H h, ea, eh, e. J j. Y y, ee, ie, i. K k. L l. M m. N n. X zh, sh. O o, ao, 'o. P p, f. C ch. Q qh, qu. R r S s. T t, th, dh. +++

ANCIENT HEBREW ARTICLES ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ARTICLES
 * Ancient Hebrew Compound Morphology
 * Deciphering the Ancient Phonetic
 * Vallue of the Hebrew Letter 'He'
 * English and Ancient Hebrew Morphology
 * Methods of Decipherment
 * Hebrew Nomenclature

 * Decipherment of Royal Cartouches
 * Hieroglyphs Deciphered
 * Derivation of the Word 'Hieroglyph'
 * Historical linguistic Approaches for Egyptian Decipherment
 * Methods in Egyptian Hieroglyphic Decipherment: Note: see article entitled 'Methods in Decipherment on the linguistics links page
 * Deciphered Cartouches

LINGUISTICS LINKS

+++
 * Methods of Decipherment
 * Fundamental Principle of
 * the Comparative Method
 * Sound Laws and Dialect mixing
 * Table of Hebrew Alphabet Transliteration Compared With Ancient Alphabet Transliteration
 * Ancient Alphabet Pronunciation Table
 * Greek Letters Transliteration Table
 * Comparative Method in the Chadic Languages
 * Afrocentric Comparative and Historical Linguistic Methods (abstract)

ANCIENT RUNE ALPHABET Ancient rune alphabet resources including runes, alphabet, and other specialty rune items.

Comparison Shop for Ancient Rune Alphabet Offering ancient rune alphabet ratings, side by side price comparisons, and product reviews for a large selection of high quality brand name ancient rune alphabet merchandise.

Ancient Rune Alphabet at eBay Search for a wide variety of ancient rune alphabet merchandise available in Canada. Sellers from all over the world offering pictures and detailed descriptions of new and used products for sale.

SMARTpages Yellow Pages Find ancient rune alphabet listings at Smartpages the online yellow pages directory of SBC communications. Featuring business listings, white pages, city guides, driving directions and more.

Download the BrowserVillage Toolbar. Customize your Browser! Eliminate Pop-up ads before they start, Quick and easy access to the Web, and much more. Click Here to Install Now!

You can find ANCIENT RUNE ALPHABET right now at Info.com. Click here to show top and relevant search results for ancient rune alphabet from 14 Search engines with just 1 click.

Rune Characters Ancient Alphabet Access the Power - Personal development and empowerment workshops - develop your effectiveness intuition and potential. Life - guidance Intuitive counselling and clairvoyance for individuals couples and businesses with Stephen Haynes.

Ancient Rune Alphabet Internet search results for ancient rune alphabet.

Runes, Alphabet of Mystery The runes of the Elder Futhark, their uses in writing, divination, magic during the Norse Viking and Teutonic medieval world and today.

Runes Discover the ancient oracular alphabet of the Norse, the meanings of the Runic cjharacters, and learn how to do a basic divination with Runes. +++

Ancient Egyptians and the Futhark Alphabet

The Futhark Alphabet, which is essentially a set of glyphs representing sounds and ideas, is derived from the Hieroglyphs of the remote Ancient Egyptians. The term "Hieroglyph" was coined by the Ancient Greeks to describe the "Sacred Writings" of the Ancient Egyptians. Hieroglyphs of Ancient Egypt, which represented sounds and ideas, were considered "Sacred" not only in the religious sense, but also because they conveyed a "Secret Meaning".

Similarly the glyphs of the earliest Teutonic Futhark Alphabet, conveyed a "Secret Meaning". This is revealed in the term used to describe them ... "Runes".

The word "Rune" is derived from "Run" (pronounced roon), an Anglo-Saxon word meaning "Secret" or "Mystery".

Also, perhaps not surprisingly, the Latin word "Runa" translates as "Dart", which is descriptive of the Rune writing style, adapted from the Greek, to suit carving.

The Runes are referred to as the Futhark Alphabet because f-u-th-a-r-k are considered to be the first six glyphs of that alphabet. Interestingly however, these first six glyphs are also translated as f-ur-th-o-r-c.

The Futhark Alphabet

Thoth says "Click on a Rune" The Origin of Futhark Runes: The Origin of Writing and the Alphabet

A chart interpreting the development of Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs, down through the Ages, to the Futhark Runes and our current alphabet.

Futhark Runes and the Precession of the Equinoxes Futhark Alphabet and the Constellations

The Secret Meaning of the Futhark Runes +++

Ogham- the Celtic oracular alphabet Related Resources • Runes • Druidry • Celtic symbols • Druid symbols From Other Guides • Viking Runes and runestones • Runes and Rune Magic

The Celtic Ogham alphabet dates from the fourth century. The alphabet is named for Ogmos, the Celtic god of knowledge. Ogmos was associated with the Gaulish Ogmios and occasionally the Greek hermes.

The alphabet consists of twenty letters, each named for a different tree believed sacred to the Druids. Each letter is made up of one to five straight or angled lines incised on a straight base line. Because the number of letters, and the number of lines that make up each letter, some scholars have theorized that the ogham may have originated as a system of hand signs. Examples of Ogham writing have been found all over the British Isles, and even as far away as Spain and Portugal. All surviving examples exist as stone carvings, usually on tombstones and road markers.

Although it is commonly used by modern Druids and other NeoPagans as a divination system, there is no real relationship between modern and historical divination systems. When used as a divination method, the letters are usually notched into straight twigs and used much like runes. In this case, I've provided a print version (MS Word) you can print and cut into small cards if you wish to try a simpler way of divining with ogham: A B


text:
User:Alan Liefting

I reside in Christchurch, New Zealand.

title: User:Alan Liefting


text:
Cookbook:Tomato Salad

| Salad | Vegan cuisine

This tomato salad can be served as a side dish, on toast, or in another salad.

Ingredients

 * 750 grams (26 oz) tomato
 * 3–4 small onions
 * 3 cloves of garlic
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * Olive oil

Procedure

 * 1) Chop the onions really fine. Boil them for about 4 minutes.
 * 2) While they are boiling, cut the tomatoes in quarters, and remove the juicy centre. You can use the centres for tomato soup or throw them away.
 * 3) Dice tomatoes just as finely as the onion.
 * 4) Peel and mince the garlic.
 * 5) When the onions are done boiling, put them in a sieve or something comparable to drain the water.
 * 6) Once onions, tomatoes and garlic are all finely chopped, put all of them in a bowl, and shake/stir.
 * 7) Add a bit of olive oil and salt and pepper to taste.

title: Cookbook:Tomato Salad


text:
Guide to Unix/Files

/etc/fstab
The fstab (for file systems table) file is commonly found on Unix and Unix-like systems and is part of the system configuration. The fstab file typically lists all used disks and disk partitions, and indicates how they are to be used or otherwise integrated into the overall system's file system.

Traditionally, the fstab was only read by programs, and not written to. However, more modern system administration tools can automatically build and edit fstab, or act as graphical editors for it. It is the duty of the system administrator to properly create and maintain this file.

The file may have other names on a given Unix variant; for example, it is  on Solaris.

Example

The following is an example of a fstab file on a Red Hat Linux system:

LABEL=/                /                       ext3    defaults        1 1 none                   /dev/pts                devpts  gid=5,mode=620  0 0 none                   /proc                   proc    defaults        0 0 none                   /dev/shm                tmpfs   defaults        0 0
 * 1) device name		mount point		fs-type	options		dump-freq pass-num

/dev/cdrom             /mnt/cdrom              udf,iso9660 noauto,owner,kudzu,ro 0 0 /dev/fd0               /mnt/floppy             auto    noauto,owner,kudzu 0 0
 * 1) my removable media

/dev/hda1              /mnt/WinXP              ntfs    ro,defaults     0 0
 * 1) my NTFS Windows XP partition

/dev/hda6              swap                    swap    defaults        0 0

/dev/hda7              /mnt/shared             vfat    umask=000       0 0
 * 1) my files partition shared by windows and linux

( kudzu is an option specific to Red Hat and Fedora Core )

The first column indicates the device name or other means of locating the partition or data source. The second column indicates where the data is to be attached to the filesystem. The third column indicates the filesystem type, or algorithm to use to interpret the filesystem. The fourth column gives options, including if the filesystem should be mounted at boot. The fifth column adjusts the archiving schedule for the partition (used by dump). The sixth column indicates the order in which the fsck utility will scan the partitions for errors when the computer powers on. A value of zero in either of the last 2 columns disables the corresponding feature (http://www.humbug.org.au/talks/fstab/fstab_structure.html).

To get more information about the fstab file you can read the man page about it.

The Kfstab graphical configuration utility is available for KDE for editing fstab.

See also
 * mtab

/etc/group
/etc/group stores the definitive list of the users groups and their members.

A typical entry is:

root::0:root,alice

It has four sections which going from left to right are,

 * (root) The group name.
 *  The group password in a hashed form. Normally not. When it is, it allows any user knowing the password access to the group, as such it lessens security.  Group-passwords may be shadowed and stored in a separate file.
 * (0) The unique id assigned to the group. Group ids below 10 are reserved for system use. Some unixs such as HP-UX reserve other groups numbers as well.
 * (root,alice) The list of users who are members of that group.

/etc/passwd
/etc/passwd is the user authentication database, it contains a list of users and their associated internal user id numbers. Historically it also included passwords, however as this file needs to world readable (so all programs can use it to convert between username and user id) it is no longer considered secure to keep passwords in this file.

An entry in this file is of the form:

alice:*:134:20:Alice Monkey:/home/alice/:/bin/bash

It has seven sections which going from left to right are,

 * (alice) The username.
 * (*) The password in a hashed form. In modern systems a star indicates shadowing is in use and hence the password can be found in /etc/shadow/.
 * (134) The unique id assigned to the user. Some unique ids have special purposes. For example the user id 0 is used for the root user.
 * (20) The group that the user is assigned to upon login.
 * (Alice Monkey) The GCOS field, can be used for anything or left blank. Normally used for personal information abou the user such as full name.
 * (/home/alice/) The home directory of the user.
 * (/bin/bash) The users default shell.

/etc/profile
/etc/profile contains the system default settings for users who login using the Bourne shell, "/bin/sh". When these users login, the Bourne shell runs the commands in this file before giving the shell prompt to the user. Most of these commands are variable assignments which configure the behavior of the shell.

Some Bourne-compatible shells also use this file, but other shells, such as the C shell, do not.

/etc/shadow
/etc/shadow contains the passwords for users in systems which use shadowing.

alice:43SrweDe3F:621:5:30:10:100:900:

The sections are:

 * (alice) The username.
 * (43SrweDe3F) The password in hashed form.
 * (621) date of last password change.
 * (5) the mimimum number of days before the password may be changed.
 * (30) the maximum number of days before the user is forced to change their password.
 * (10) the number of days after which a user is advised to change their password.
 * (100) the maximum number of days an account can be inactive for before it is suspeneded.
 * (900) the date the account will expire, if left blank the account will remain indefinitely. Most often used for the purpose of temporary accounts.

/etc/sysctl.conf
/etc/sysctl.conf configures the behavior of the running Unix kernel. During system boot, the scripts read this file and use "sysctl" to set the parameters shown in the file. Changing the file has no effect before the next reboot.

Files to be merged in to the list

 * /etc/aliases - file containing aliases used by sendmail and other MTAs (mail transport agents). After updating this file, it is necessary to run the newaliases utility for the changes to be passed to sendmail.
 * /etc/bashrc - system-wide default functions and aliases for the bash shell
 * /etc/conf.modules - aliases and options for configurable modules
 * /etc/crontab - shell script to run different commands periodically (hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, etc.)
 * /etc/DIR_COLORS - used to store colors for different file types when using ls command. The dircolors command uses this file when there is not a .dir_colors file in the user's home directory. Used in conjunction with the eval command (see below).
 * /etc/exports - specifies hosts to which file systems can be exported using NFS. Man exports contains information on how to set up this file for remote users.
 * /etc/fstab - contains information on partitions and filesystems used by system to mount different partitions and devices on the directory tree
 * /etc/HOSTNAME - stores the name of the host computer
 * /etc/hosts - contains a list of host names and absolute IP addresses.
 * /etc/hosts.allow - hosts allowed (by the tcpd daemon) to access Internet services
 * /etc/hosts.deny - hosts forbidden (by the tcpd daemon) to access Internet services
 * /etc/group - similar to /etc/passwd but for groups
 * /etc/inetd.conf - configures the inetd daemon to tell it what TCP/IP services to provide (which daemons to load at boot time). A good start to securing a Linux box is to turn off these services unless they are necessary.
 * /etc/inittab - runs different programs and processes on startup. This is typically the program which is responsible for, among other things, setting the default runlevel, running the rc.sysinit script contained in /etc/rc.d, setting up virtual login terminals, bringing down the system in an orderly fashion in response to [Ctrl][Alt][Del], running the rc script in /etc/rc.d, and running xdm for a graphical login prompt (only if the default runlevel is set for a graphical login).
 * /etc/issue - pre-login message. This is often overwitten by the /etc/rc.d/rc.S script (in Slackware) or by the /etc/rc.d/rc.local script (in Mandrake and Red Hat, and perhaps other rpm-based distributions). The relevant lines should be commented out (or changed) in these scripts if a custom pre-login message is desired.
 * /etc/lilo.conf - configuration file for lilo boot loader
 * /etc/motd - message of the day file, printed immediately after login. This is often overwritten by /etc/rc.d/rc.S (Slackware) or /etc/rc.d/rc.local (Mandrake/Red Hat) on startup. See the remarks in connection with /etc/issue.
 * /etc/mtab - shows currently mounted devices and partitions and their status
 * /etc/passwd - contains passwords and other information concerning users who are registered to use the system. For obvious security reasons, this is readable only by root. It can be modified by root directly, but it is preferable to use a configuration utility such as passwd to make the changes. A corrupt /etc/passwd file can easily render a Linux box unusable.
 * /etc/printcap - shows the setup of printers
 * /etc/profile - sets system-wide defaults for bash shell. It is this file in Slackware that sets up the DIR_COLORS environment variable for the color ls command. Also sets up other system-wide environment variables.
 * /etc/resolv.conf - contains a list of domain name servers used by the local machine
 * /etc/securetty - contains a list of terminals on which root can login. For security reasons, this should not include dialup terminals.
 * /etc/termcap - ASCII database defining the capabilities and characteristics of different consoles, terminals, and printers
 * /etc/X11/XF86Config - X configuration file. The location in Slackware is /etc/XF86Config.

/proc/

 * /proc/cpuinfo - cpu information
 * /proc/filesystems - prints filesystems currently in use
 * /proc/interrupts - prints interrupts currently in use
 * /proc/ioports - contains a list of the i/o addresses used by various devices connected to the computer
 * /proc/kcore - The command ls -l /proc/kcore will give the amount of RAM on the computer. It's also possible to use the free command to get the same information (and more).
 * /proc/version - prints Linux version and other info

/var/

 * /var/log/messages - used by syslog daemon to store kernel boot-time messages
 * /var/log/lastlog - used by system to store information about last boot (can be read with lastlog)
 * /var/log/wtmp - contains binary data indicating login times and duration for each user on system (can be read with last)
 * /var/log/btmp - contains binary data indicating failed attempts to login (can be read with lastb)
 * /var/run/utmp - contains binary data indicating currently logged-in users (can be read with who)

/boot/

 * /boot/vmlinuz - the typical location and name of the Linux kernel. In the Slackware distribution, the kernel is located at /vmlinuz.
 * /boot/grub/menu.lst - has configuration settings for users of the GRUB bootloader for the available kernels and OS's which can continue the boot process.

/dev/cdrom
/dev/cdrom is not an actual device, but on many systems it is a symbolic link to the actual CD device. For example, a Linux system with /dev/hdb for its floppy drive is likely to have a link /dev/cdrom which redirects to /dev/hdb.

/dev/fd*
At Linux, /dev/fd0 is the first floppy disk drive at the system. Use /dev/fd0H1440  to operate the first floppy drive in high density mode. Generally, this is invoked when formatting a floppy drive for a particular density. Slackware comes with drivers that allow for formatting a 3.5" diskette with up to 1.7MB of space. Red Hat and Mandrake do not contain these device driver files by default.

Likewise, /dev/fd1 is the second floppy disk drive.

/dev/hd*
At Linux, /dev/hda is the first IDE hard drive. The second drive is either <tt>/dev/hdb</tt> or <tt>/dev/hdc</tt>, depending on the hardware configuration. Some IDE hardware allows up to four drives, including <tt>/dev/hdd</tt>.

Many machines have one hard drive (hda) and one cdrom drive (hdc on many machines, but hdb on some). Often, <tt>/dev/cdrom</tt> is a symbolic link to the cdrom drive.

Partitions are numbered from 1, like <tt>/dev/hda1</tt>, <tt>/dev/hda2</tt>, ...

/dev/null
/dev/null is a do-nothing device to use when one wants to ignore or delete program output. This file is useful when a program expects to save to a file, but you want not to save anything. This file can also be used as input to a program to represent an empty file.

There is no actual hardware associated with the <tt>/dev/null</tt> device.

Examples:

Deleting file called "x" (command rm x) sometimes causes an error, for example if the file does not exist:

$ rm x rm: x: No such file or directory

One can hide the error by redirecting it to a file. By using <tt>/dev/null</tt> as the file, the error never saves to an actual file.

Bourne shell: $ rm x > /dev/null 2>&1

In the Bourne shell, the "2>&1" redirects the standard error of "rm" (where the error appears) to standard output, then the ">" redirects the standard output to <tt>/dev/null</tt>.

One way to make an empty file called "y" is: $ cat /dev/null > y

The "cat" command copies the file "/dev/null" to standard output, and the shell operator ">" redirects this output to "y". The "/dev/null" file seems empty when read, so the file "y" appears, but is also empty. (Note that in this case, simply "> y" will do the same thing.)

Dot files
There is some redundancy across these programs. For example, the look and behavior of emacs can be customized by using the .emacs file, but also by adding the appropriate modifications to the .Xdefaults file. Default versions of these files are often installed in users' home directories when the software packages that use them are installed. If a program doesn't find its configuration file in the user's home directory, it will often fall back on a system-wide default configuration file installed in one of the subdirectories that the package lives in.

 * .bash_logout - file executed by bash shell on logout
 * .bash_profile - initialization of bash shell run only on login. Bash looks first for a .bash_profile file when started as a login shell or with the -login option. If it does not find .bash_profile, it looks for .bash_login. If it doesn't find that, it looks for .profile. System-wide functions and aliases go in /etc/bashrc and default environment variables go in /etc/profile.
 * .bashrc - initialization command run when bash shell starts up as a non-login shell
 * .cshrc - initialization commands that are run automatically (like autoexec.bat) when C shell is initiated
 * .emacs - configuration file for emacs editor
 * .fvwmrc - configuration file for fvwm window manager
 * .fvwm2rc - configuration file for fvwm2 window manager
 * .jedrc - configuration file for the jed text editor
 * .lessrc - typically contains key bindings for cursor movement with the less command
 * .login - initialization file when user logs in
 * .logout - commands run when user logs out
 * .wm_style - gives choice of default window manager if one is not specified in startx
 * .Xdefaults - sets up X resources for individual user. The behavior of many different application programs can be changed by modifying this file.
 * .xinitrc - initialization file when running startx. Can be used to activate applications, run a given window manager, and modify the appearance of the root window.
 * .xsession - configuration file for xdm

Directories
Different distributions have different directory structures, despite attempts at standardization such as the Linux Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) organization.

 * /bin - essential UNIX commands such as ls, etc. Should contain all binaries needed to boot the system or run it in single-user mode
 * /boot - files used during booting and possibly the kernel itself are stored here
 * /dev - contains device files for various devices on system
 * /etc - files used by subsystems such as networking, NFS, and mail. Includes tables of disks to mount, processes to run on startup, etc.
 * /etc/profile.d - contains scripts that are run by /etc/profile upon login.
 * /etc/rc.d - contains a number of shell scripts that are run on bootup at different run levels. There is also typically an rc.inet1 script to set up networking (in Slackwar), an rc.modules script to load modular device drivers, and an rc.local script that can be edited to run commands desired by the administrator, along the lines of autoexec.bat in DOS.
 * /etc/rc.d/init.d - contains most of the initialization scripts themselves on an rpm-based system.
 * /etc/rc.d/rc*.d - where ``*'' is a number corresponding to the default run level. Contains files for services to be started and stopped at that run level. On rpm-based systems, these files are symbolic links to the initialization scripts themselves, which are in /etc/rc.d/init.d.
 * /etc/skel - directory containing several example or skeleton initialization shells. Often contains subdirectories and files used to populate a new user's home directory.
 * /etc/X11 - configuration files for the X Window system
 * /home - home directories of individual users
 * /lib - standard shared library files
 * /lib/modules - modular device driver files, most with .o extensions
 * /mnt - typical mount point for many user-mountable devices such as floppy drives, cd-rom readers, etc. Each device is mounted on a subdirectory of /mnt.
 * /proc - virtual file system that provides a number of system statistics
 * /root - home directory for root
 * /sbin - location of binaries used for system administration, configuration, and monitoring
 * /tmp - directory specifically designed for programs and users to store temporary files.
 * /usr - directory containing a number of subdirectory with programs, libraries, documentation, etc.
 * /usr/bin - contains most user commands. Should not contain binaries necessary for booting the system, which go in /bin. The /bin directory is generally located on the same disk partition as /, which is mounted in read-only mode during the boot process. Other filesystems are only mounted at a later stage during startup, so putting binaries essential for boot here is not a good idea.
 * /usr/bin/X11 - most often a symbolic link to /usr/X11R6/bin, which contains executable binaries related to the X Window system
 * /usr/doc - location of miscellaneous documentation, and the main location of program documentation files under Slackware
 * /usr/include - standard location of include files used in C programs such as stdio.h
 * /usr/info - primary location of the GNU info system files
 * /usr/lib - standard library files such as libc.a. Searched by the linker when programs are compiled.
 * /usr/lib/X11 - X Window system distribution
 * /usr/local/bin - yet another place to look for comon executables
 * /usr/man - location of manual page files
 * /usr/sbin - other commands used by superuser for system administration
 * /usr/share - contains subdirectories where many installed programs have configuration, setup and auxiliary files
 * /usr/share/doc - location of program documentation files under Mandrake and Red Hat
 * /usr/src - location of source programs used to build system. Source code for programs of all types are often unpacked in this directory.
 * /usr/src/linux - often a symbolic link to a subdirectory whose name corresponds to the exact version of the Linux kernel that is running. Contains the kernel sources.
 * /var - administrative files such as log files, used by various utilities
 * /var/log/packages - contains files, each of which has detailed information on an installed package in Slackware. The same file can also be found at /var/adm/packages, since the adm subdirectory is a symbolic link to log. Each package file contains a short description plus a list of all installed files.
 * /var/log/scripts - package installation scripts in Slackware are stored here. You can inspect these scripts to see what special features are included in individual packages.
 * /var/spool - temporary storage for files being printed, mail that has not yet been picked up, etc.

External link: Modified Directory Structure

title: Guide to Unix/Files


text:
Talk:Probability

About

 * Started: 29 February 2004
 * Size: 12,500 words (Nov 2009)

Discussion 2004
There is a WikiProject in the Wikipedia that aims to produce an annotated table of contents as a guide to learning probability from the Wikipedia. This may serve as useful starting point for extending this WikiBook.

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Probability/Learn

Ben Cairns On Wikipedia 03:39, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Before I contribute too much to this book, I would like to know what level the other contributors are aiming for in terms of mathematical background required and difficulty of examples/exercises.

Here is my suggestion, on which I invite comments: CyborgTosser 10:56, 12 Oct 2004 (UTC)
 * In the earlier chapters, keep the math background required to a minimum. Perhaps a good guideline would be nothing that wouldn't be covered in a first year college math class.
 * However, when an example involving more difficult math would be enlightening to those with the background necessary to understand it, mark the example as advanced. Possibly put it in a green box to separate it from the rest of the text.
 * Include proofs in appendices. This would also be a good place for more involved examples that require advanced math.

Book structure
Given the scope of probability theory, shouldn't we group combinatorics and permutations in a single chapter? edit: as I've started working on the combinaorics chapter - and have introduced permutations there - I changed it. If this causes any probelm, welll, we'll edit it back the way it was.

I think it would make more sense and make the book more accessible if discrete random variables (including examples) were discussed first, and then move on to continuous rvs with pdfs etc. The concept of discrete rvs is far easier to grasp and so separating that out is useful for those uninterested in continuous RVs. Also for people reading the whole book, it allows them to get to grips with the concept of a random variable, the notation etc, without the worrying inclusion of continuous RVs having probability 0 of taking any particular value. --MarkyParky 23:31, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Introduction to Probability textbook
It turns out that there's a 520-page textbook on probability which has been GPL'd and made available as a free download. The text is by Grinstead & Snell. It can be downloaded here. Perhaps parts of it would make good additions to this wikibook, or perhaps even the entire thing should be wikified? --NeuronExMachina 06:06, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Additional Sections
There are a number of additional sections that I think should be added to this book, so that it can become a more comprehensive resource. Here is a list of topics that I think we should add, and people can feel free to comment on this list or add to it (or give a good excuse why we shouldnt include them):

 * 1) Transformations of Random Variables
 * 2) Rician Fading
 * 3) Markov Processes
 * 4) Error Function, Complimentary Error Function
 * 5) (pseudo-)Random Number Generation
 * 6) Tests for randomness
 * 7) Joint pdf, joint PDF
 * 8) Functions of Random Variables
 * 9) Systems of Random Variables (Jacobians, etc)
 * 10) Moments
 * 11) Expectations
 * 12) Bounds and estimation (markov bound, chebyshev bound, chernoff bound)
 * 13) Entropy
 * 14) Moment Generating Function, Characteristic Equation
 * 15) Cumulant, Second Characteristic Equations

I am taking a class in this subject now, and I will try and incorporate some of my class notes into this book as I go. If there are any comments, questions, or suggestions, please let me know User talk:on my user talk page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 17:42, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Concerning "Transformations of Random Variables": got that covered for contiguous random variables Probability/Transformation_of_Probability_Densities :-) --LarsWinterfeld (discuss • contribs) 12:19, 7 September 2015 (UTC)

 * If you're going to add that many sections into the book, I suggest we label this book so that it is suitable for advanced readers. --Jimli536 (discuss • contribs) 14:00, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

Question and answers
How about adding a small set of questions and answers at the end of each section. This would be helpful.
 * I concur. --Diza talk 10:13, 5 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree too. --Jimli536 (discuss • contribs) 14:39, 16 October 2016 (UTC)

Major edits to Probability/Combinatorics
I am a few days from finishing a major edit to Probability/Combinatorics. So far no effort has been made to integrate it into the book Probability. And, I was unaware that wikibooks transcludes all the chapters together at Probability/Print version. I will be glad to make any re-edits on the page Probability/Combinatorics that are necessary to improve the book Probability. Just let me know what you want. --Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 17:32, 12 November 2021 (UTC)

UPDATE: I removed Template:Under construction from Probability/Combinatorics, but will keep this permalink to the the version that existed before I began my edits. I didn't realize it at the time, but the chapter evolved into something that would traditionally be placed on Wikiversity. Wikiversity is my "home" WMF wiki, and I would be happy to move it there if that is what Wikibooks prefers. Meanwhile, I will continue with my rewrite of Probability/Combinatorics, and hope to be finished in a few weeks.--Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 10:26, 16 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Probability


text:
Cookbook:Spaetzle

| Cuisine of Germany

Spaetzle (German: Spätzle) means literally translated "little sparrow" and is a Swabian specialty from Germany. It is made from flour, eggs, water, and salt. There are different techniques to make spaetzle, such as using a spaetzle-maker or spaetzle-press. The original technique is to use a kitchen board and a grater.

Spaetzle are served as side dishes with a sauce to meat or as main menu with cheese and onions.

Ingredients

 * 500 g flour
 * 5 eggs
 * 150–200 ml water
 * Salt

Procedure

 * 1) Combine all ingredients using hands or an electrical mixer.
 * 2) Add enough water to make a dough that is slightly sticky, but still elastic and stiff.
 * 3) Beat long enough for bubbles to rise.
 * 4) Boil a large pot with salted water.
 * 5) If using only a board, sweep a spoon of dough over the kitchen board with the grater. Cut/grate small pieces of the dough with the grater into the hot water. If using a spaetzle-maker, put a spoon of dough into the maker and press through the holes into the water. The spaetzle are done when they rise and swim on the water surface.
 * 6) Remove spaetzle from the water with a slotted spoon and put into a lightly oiled bowl.

title: Cookbook:Spaetzle