text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Uranus

Sources used

 * Uranus_(planet) -- General data
 * -- Weight data
 * Atlas of the universe ISBN 0 540 06087 9 -Neptune fact

The info about Uranus spinning on its side now appears twice.Geni 22:16, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Astronomical/Astrological Symbol for Uranus
This is something that I've been wanting to work on for some time. The current symbol that is in use for Uranus (in this Wikibook module) is a variant of a symbol that is more commonly used for astrology rather than astonomical purposes, although the distinction when using these symbols is not as clear as you would think. That is the three vertical bars above the circle.

The more "traditional" astronomical symbol for Uranus, the ball with the arrow pointing up, is something is more commonly depicted in astronomical books in the late 20th Century.

In reality, there is no accepted "standard" as the IAU does not keep an "official" list of symbols, but it is merely a convention. Pre-20th Century (and some early 20th Century) astronomical notes very frequently used these symbols when doing studies of these planets, although they were usually hand-drawn as it was the astronomer himself that was using them as a kind of short-hand notation for planetary observations.

I plan to write a major sub-section on the Wikijunior Solar System about this topic, as there is some really cool material about it. For now, however, having two redundant symbols is not really needed, but if a clean and neat rendering of this symbol can be done it would be appreciated. --Rob Horning 10:32, 10 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how appealing a major subsection on symbology would be to kids, but I'll hold off my judgment until I see it. In any case, it wouldn't hurt to have this symbol around in a clean picture. I've taken the liberty of reproducing the symbol in ant's style. If it's not close enough, feel free to replace it. risk 23:09, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

Looks like the Proofing on this is done!
I just went to sign up for a task on proofreading this work prior to publication, and it looks like every task to be completed in the proofing section has been crossed off and completed. I assume this means, all being well, this one is ready to go for publication. Tmalmjursson 16:31, 1 February 2006 (UTC) Thor's Pet "Yack"

title: Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Uranus


text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Mars

Sources used:

 * Mars (planet) -- General data
 * [] -- More general data
 * -- Weight data

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Mars


text:
User:StarryTG

Hello, I joined Wikibooks after finding out about the Celestia wikibook. I soon started to work on the Wikijunior Solar System project.

title: User:StarryTG


text:
Wikijunior talk:South America/Brazil

What do others think about the way ive divided up this page? The bellman 04:09, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I like it, because Brazil article must have one or two pages and this separation gives a good overview about the whole country. Insert a Brazil´s regions map would be nice. A short text about Brazil´s history would be nice too. By the way, are you brazilian? Gbiten 16:23, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Não, infelizmente, sou Australiano. I was in brasil for the first half of this year on intercambio, and i feel in love with it. Agora tengo muito saudade de brasil. Btw, i was just looking at wikipedia:Carnival and there is almost nothing about the brazillian carnival, so could you (i presume you are brazillian) add something to it, cause i dont really know that much about it (except for what happens in salvador). thanks. The bellman 00:48, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Spelling
Hey Bellman (go back to shakespeare wikireader, I'm starting up again too! :)). I think there needs to be a standard spelling for Brazil- I've always known it as a Z, but someone is using the s, which is probably also correct- is that a regional thing or a language thing? I changed the first paragraph to z's, but figured I'd ask before I go changing anything else. Lyellin 16:41, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Sorry for confusing you. I always spell it with an 's' out of habit, becuase that is how it is spelt in portuguese. In english however the correct spelling is with a 'z'. Sorry i didnt realise i was using an 's'. ill go fix it up. If i accedently do it again, go right ahead and change it to a 'z'. i dont know how much time ill have for the bard, but ill try and devote any spare wikitime to him. The bellman 22:42, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I had "thought" that was the case- but I couldn't be sure. I'll make changes to, as I find them- I'm hanging around the wikijunior stuff. Yea- I'm gonna be focusing more on WS now, so if you've got any time, stop back- I wanna get that off the ground finally. Lyellin 22:59, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You know, we can have different spellings for different versions. If we can find a good direct-to-print (or if "print from disk", if you prefer) printer, and they don't mind, languages aside, we can vary bits and pieces of the magazine from country to country, even different ones for different regions (like particular provinces, say). While we'd have to make sure that one standardised edition was working perfectly before doing anything else, this could help make the content more relevant to everyone. --  user:zanimum

 * Bem-vindo versus bem vindo : I am no Portuguese teacher, but since I noticed there has been a few edits concerning the use of "bem vindo" I thought it would be a good idea to create a discussion here. As far as I know "bem-vindo" is an adjective and needs a verb of some sort. Like in "you are welcome here". "Bem vindo" is for the use in this article, for "Greetings!" So one would say "Bem vindo ao Brasil" or "Seja bem-vindo ao Brasil". Yeah... pretty confusing for me too... I tried to find an article explaining this online but Google treats hyphens as spaces on its searches. -- user:CrisDias

image suggestions
I did some additions to the module, but since my English is very poor, I think the text needs revision. Also, I would suggest some images:
 * Brasilia's map - it's shaped like an airplane, the city concept was created by famous architect Oscar Niemayer
 * Northeastern "Sertão" is constantly affected by droughts, perhaps an image of that could serve to teach kids that Brazil's is not only a place of parties and beauties.
 * A picture of São Paulo central streets would be great; the city is very similiar to metropolis of developed countries.

I live in São Paulo, so if there's any doubt or question, ask me! Marcelo Reis 01:03, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You say that Paulistano is the word used to mean someone who lives in São Paulo, i always thougth it was Paulista. So what does Paulista mean then? The bellman 01:58, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Palista is who was born in São Paulo state
 * Paulistano is who was born in the city of São Paulo
 * Gbiten 02:51, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Who lives in Rio isn't Carioca, to be Carioca, like me, must be born in Rio (the city). The same works to be Palistano and Paulista. Gbiten 03:03, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Gbiten, I changed to "paulistano" because the text is refering the city of São Paulo, not the state; so the correct term for Rio is "carioca", indeed. Marcelo Reis 15:28, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

centralweastern
I removed this sentece: "The centralweastern region is the least populated region in Brazil." because the northern region is the least populated region in Brazil. Gbiten 03:23, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * My mistake, sorry. Marcelo Reis 15:29, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Ops... Brazil's region pop comparision
 * The centralwestern is the least populated region. Perhaps you was confused by the article on pt Wikipedia. I fix the information there, too. Marcelo Reis 18:18, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * You are wright, Tocantins is northern region now, when it wasn't separate from Goias the northern region is the least populated. I will correct the article. Gbiten 00:05, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Carnival
With the carnival infobox i was following the idea set out by this. The idea is that the information in the infobox is more indepth on a particular topic, so that those who want to know more can easily read it, and those who dont or cant can easily skip it with out missing any of the greater naritive. What do other people think? should it just be a normal heading? should we have more infoboxes? The bellman 04:21, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Titling, ie the northeast example
Feel pretty. Oh so pretty. And let that show in titles and subtitles. Otherwise, these are no better than the World Book for Kids. It's okay to be a little POV in this aspect, as long as it doesn't hurt the grand scheme of things. Don't mock anything, but just have fun with it. -- user:zanimum

 * Oh so pretty and witty, and OOOOOOOOOOOHHHHHHHHHH i feel pretty, like the preetiest girl in the world. The bellman 22:22, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC) btw, i think your titling idea is great.

translation help
I need to translate these words to english: Gbiten 18:34, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * cana-de-acúcar - a plant used to produce sugar and alcohol
 * brasa - when a wood is on fire, the wood turn red, brasa is the red part of wood on fire.

 * cana-de-açucar = sugarcane,
 * brasa = ember. Marcelo Reis 19:31, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Carnival´s photo
This carnival´s photo isn´t from Brazil, I will try to find some photo in public domain. Gbiten 07:44, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Spanish vs. Portuguese
Im reasonably sure that there are actually more portuguese speakers in South America than there are Spanish speakers. There are more Spanish speakers in the WHOLE of latin america, but because brasil is so huge i think .pt beats .es in south america. Does anyone have any statistics for how many ppl speak spanish in south america? The bellman 23:21, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * This wikipedia article says that Brazil has 176,029,560 ppl and South America has 355,070,540 ppl, so 49.5% of South America's ppl are brazilian and speak portuguese. Gbiten 22:18, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * and the pop of French Guiana (french speaking) is 182,333 and Guyana (enlish speaking) is 698,209 and Suriname (dutch speaking) is 436,494, which adds to 1 317 036, which brings non-spanish speakers up to 177 346 596, which means that spanish still has a majority of 188 674 speakers.

 * However, there are between 8 to 13 million people who speak Quechua as thier first language, a lot of whom speak little or no spanish, living in spanish speaking countries. But i know of no precise statistics.

 * So basicly it looks like both Spanish and Portuguese are minority languages in south america, both with about 49% share. The bellman 22:38, 29 Nov 2004 (UTC)

let's not forget that brazil has one of the highest population growths in the region, while the most populated spanish speaking countries in south america (colombia, argentina) are dropping their numbers when it comes to population growth, portuguese is indeed the most spoken languagei n south america, however spanish is a far more important and international language, therefore it overshadows the portuguese language.

My edition to History section
Hi, I've just made some editions to History section that some may not agree with because of the focus of the project, but here's my reasons:

 * first, I've corrected Portuguese spelling of Álvares Cabral (we always write his name with S instead of Z) and Goiás state (without the acute accent in the version for English-speaking kids to read).
 * I've specified that an Emperor is a kind of king, instead of a kind of leader. I think this is a better piece of information and not too precise.
 * The biggest change: I've rewritten the last paragraph to make clear there were two dictatorship phases in Brazil. They were different in time (1930s-1945, 1964-1985) and nature, and the democratic phase between them was of great importance to the country - it was when important places such as the nation's first steel mill, and Brasília, were built; when oil was first discovered here; and it's an important time for our culture, with writers like João Guimarães Rosa and the Bossa Nova movement in music.

 * I have a little bit of an issue regarding the NPOV of that last paragraph. I lived in Brazil when it went from a military dictatorship to civilian control (which was an amazing experience), and certainly a simplification of what occured there should be covered.  While I believe as well that there were many murders and assasinations (including the President of the Republic in 1985 by the military that got hushed up real good), I feel that this is more political opinion and not necessarily something that needs to be done as abruptly as stated here.  I guess I'm complaining that there is a period of over 60 years of modern history of Brazil that has been compressed down to 3 sentances, and it certainly could be expanded signifcantly.  Well, at least a couple of paragraphs.  The NPOV issue is still there, however, and I don't know an easy way to deal with it. --Rob Horning 10:08, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

Maps
Hi, you will find maps of Brasil at commons: --Patrick-br 15:59, 28 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Maps of Brazil

Racism
Many people in the Southern region are descended from Europeans. Golly gee, I guess this means the other regions in Brazil are simply uninhabited. And in any case, I strongly doubt that "many people" means more than a small minority. Most Brazilians are undoubtedly mestizo or mulatto. The only country in the whole of South Americas that's primarily white is Argentina, the rest are primarily Indian or Black. 70.26.56.242 21:00, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:South America/Brazil


text:
Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formal salutations

Meeting at the airport
Mr. Tanaka is making a trip to Okinawa and has arranged to meet with Ms. Hayasaka at the airport. Neither party has met the other before. She is waiting for him with a sign that has his name on it.

Elevator chat
Mr. Tanaka sees Ms. Hayasaka on the way into their meeting the next day, and she holds the elevator open for him as he steps on.

{{Japanese conversation|break|She holds the elevator door open and Mr. Tanaka steps on. {{Japanese conversation {{Japanese conversation {{Japanese conversation|end}}
 * ja=田中 | japanese=ありがとうございます.
 * en=Tanaka | english=Thank you.}}
 * ja=早坂 | japanese=どういたしまして.
 * en=Hayasaka | english=Don't mention it.}}

Campus greetings
Terumi and Kouichi are friends from school. Terumi sees Kouichi walking across campus one morning and calls out to him.

Personal introduction
Please note the lack of the "さん" honorific, as Yamada is talking about himself.)

Inquiring for names
The word "私"(わたし) is one of the many ways in which you can express the first person singular (i.e. "I") in Japanese. It can be used in polite and plain language. The formal version is read わたくし.

Inquiring for nationality
In Japanese, nationalities are formed by adding adding the word for person,, to the name of a country.

Greeting and introduction
Mr Yamada and his friend Mr Tanaka meet Ms Suzuki.

Vocabulary and phrases

 * こちらこそ
 * This expression can be used to return a polite expression such as ありがとうございます or よろしくおします

 * Formality
 * Some of the phrases above use polite forms, used when speaking to a superior or an equal with whom one has only loose ties.

 * Time of day
 * おはようございます is used in the morning (till about 10:30am) or when first meet in a day.
 * こんにちは is used during the day.
 * こんばんは is used during the evening and at night.
 * These phrases are only used in greeting, never in parting.

 * Literal Meaning
 * おはようございます It is early.
 * こんにちは Today...
 * こんばんは This evening...
 * はじめまして For the first time...
 * よろしくおします I humbly ask for your favor.
 * こちらこそ This side for sure (It is I who should be the one to say)...
 * ありがとうございます I am grateful.

 * 1) さん: Mr.; Mrs.; Miss; Ms.
 * 2) *さん is an appellation added to the end of a name to indicate respect. It is roughly equivalent to Mr., Ms., etc. in English, but can be used on either the family name or the given name. It can also be used on a vocation (e.g. さん "barber", おさん "police officer"), or even an animal (e.g. さん "rabbit"). The latter usage is considered childish.
 * 3) *さん is never used on oneself or those in one's in-group, only on others toward whom one should show respect.
 * 4) *see also, ちゃん, ,

 * 1) (na-adj): healthy; cheerful; energetic
 * 2) *元 means foundation and 気 refers to chi, the Chinese metaphysical concept of energy. Thus, saying one's chi is stable means that the individual is healthy, happy, and energetic.
 * 3) はい (interj): yes
 * 4) ええ (interj): yes
 * 5) *polite and somewhat feminine
 * 6) うん (interj): yeah
 * 7) まぁまぁ (na-adj): okay, fair, not bad, so so

 * ¹ Sounds more masculine.
 * ² Relatively gender-neutral.

 * おですか.
 * This is used between people who are acquainted with each other and is roughly equivalent to English "How are you?" or "How have you been?"
 * When responding, the お at the beginning and the か at the end are dropped, leaving です

 * This is the informal way to ask "How are you?"
 * The question is asked with a rising intonation.
 * The affirmative response can be だ, which sounds somewhat masculine, or, which is more gender-neutral.
 * The affirmative response can be だ, which sounds somewhat masculine, or, which is more gender-neutral.

 * まぁまぁです., まぁまぁ.
 * These are acceptable responses if you are not feeling particularly healthy or cheerful at the moment.

 * Grammatical construction
 * お元気ですか. = お (polite prefix) +  "healthy; happy" + です (noun predicate ending) + か (question marker)
 * 元気です. =  "healthy; happy" + です (noun predicate ending)

 * Clarifications
 * Why is the question お but the answer just -- what happened to the お o?
 * The お is an exalted prefix, meaning that the health ( genki) you are referring to is the health of someone you wish to exalt. Japanese honorifics do not allow you to exalt yourself, so you can never use お o-genki to talk about your own health.
 * Well, can't I just ask ですか without the exalted お?
 * Yes, you may. The お just makes it more polite.
 * Can I ask お informally?
 * It sounds strange because normally if you are exalting someone, you would also use the polite ですか ending.

Supplementary vocabulary

 * 田中 (たなか) - Japanese family name.
 * 鈴木 (すずき) - Japanese family name.
 * 山田 (やまだ) - Japanese family name.
 * こんにちは - "Good day, good afternoon"
 * か - question particle. This is added at the end of a sentence to change it into a question. It should be noted that using the actual question mark (?) is not necessary, but it is not considered incorrect to have it either.

Usage Notes

 * おはようございます is used in the morning (until about 10am) or when waking up.
 * こんにちは is used during the day.
 * こんばんは is used during the evening and at night.
 * はじめまして should be used if one has not already met the other person.
 * These phrases are only used in greeting, never in parting.

 * おやすみなさい is only used before going to sleep

 * １　Japanese regularly omit the subject from sentences when they are obvious from context. Hence, pronouns are hardly used. Whenever forced to use a pronoun, it is better to refer to someone by their proper name or title. あなた, may give the impression of a news anchor speaking at them or some unfamiliar person.

NOTE: Most countries are written in katakana as they are foreign words. "Nihon"　日本, for example, is not and neither is "Chuugoku" 中国(China).
 * １日に本ほん・にほん・Nihon
 * 2韓かん国こく・かんこく・Kankoku
 * 3中ちゅう国ごく・ちゅうごく・Chuugoku

Culture
"How are you?" and "Genki?" may translate the same, but the phrases are culturally incompatible. In general, Japanese do not ask each other how the other is every day. "Genki?" is used only when people meet after a long while. For example, when one calls their mother in Japan, the first thing one might ask is "Genki?", however, one would not ask friends whom the see every day, "Genki?"

"Genki" is, culturally, much closer to "How have you been?". Although "How are you?" is common greeting in Western countries, it is culturally more accepted to simply say "Kon-nichi-wa."

Also in English countries, the expected answer to the English "How are you?" is "Fine, thanks." Japanese, however, tend to respond quite literally to the question おですか. It is not considered rude in Japan to go into detail about your medical situation. In fact, when a Japanese has a cold or other disease that can be transmitted aerially, it is considered good manners to wear a mask resembling a surgical mask over the mouth and nose to avoid infecting others with whom you come in contact.

So if you're sick and a Japanese friend asks you, おですか, feel free to tell them all about your ailment (within reason). The following words might help:

 * cold
 * 咳: cough
 * インフルエンザ: flu
 * sickness

Grammar

 * こんにちは
 * This phrase is equivalent to saying "Good day" in english, and is only said once a day to each person. It is used from 10-11 A.M. to around sunset.

 * お元気　ですか
 * Translated as "Are you well?", it is commonly used after a greeting to politely start a conversation.

 * はじめまして
 * Meaning "Nice to meet you", it's used mostly as a precursor to an introduction.

 * ～は　& ～です
 * は is a particle; it looks like ha but is pronounced wa.
 * The particle is used to express one thing's relation or status, much like English speakers say "My name is Clem" or "He is burning!". It states the topic of the sentence (some more uses and contexts will be studied further on).
 * です is used to affirm a statement.
 * For example, わたしのなまえはメアリーです means 'my name is Mary'.

 * か
 * This is a particle added to the end of the sentence to make it a question. For example:
 * あなたは　山田さんです. (You are Mr. Yamada.)
 * ⇒ あなたは　山田さんですか. (Are you Mr. Yamada?)

 * ~さん
 * This is a honorific. An honorific is a particle added to the end of a name to show respect. Honorifics are never used when talking about yourself or anything related to yourself (like your siblings, for instance), but when you are talking about someone else. So it's wrong to say:
 * 私は山田さんです. (I am Mr. Yamada, This sounds very strange to japanese ears.)
 * or
 * あなたは山田ですか. (Are you Yamada? This is incorrect because you don't know Yamada.)
 * When talking to friends or colleagues you can drop さん or replace it with くん and ちゃん.e.g. Hiroko and Matsumoto, 2 high school friends arrive at school.
 * hiroko: まつもとくん、げんき？
 * matsumoto: ええ、げんき. ひろこちゃんは？

Introducing yourself
When you meet someone for the first time, you first say,
 * はじめまして
 * "Nice to meet you" (more literally, "This is the first time...")

You should not use はじめまして if you have already met the person.

Next, you introduce yourself by saying,
 * 私は＿＿です (わたし　は ＿＿です).
 * I am ＿＿.

Your family name should be used in place of the blank. If you know how, pronounce your name in Japanese.

 * 私 (わたし) means "I, me, myself".
 * は is the topic-marker particle in this sentence, so it is pronounced "wa".
 * です is a polite ending. Here it means "to be" (the copula), but we will see later that it has other uses.

Finally, you say どうぞ　よろしく おねがいします, which means something like "Please favor me with your friendship".

Let's put it all together. If your name were 田中（たなか), you would say.

Note: You can omit 私は and just say "〜です" when it is clear that the topic being talked about is yourself.

Introducing others
When you want to introduce someone to another person, you gesture to the person and say,
 * こちら　は　＿＿さん　です.
 * This is Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms ＿＿.

 * こちら is a polite way of saying "this (person)"
 * 〜さん is an honorific suffix denoting Mr., Miss, Mrs., or Ms.
 * すずき さん
 * Mr/Ms Suzuki.

Note: When you are addressing or talking about someone, you should add the honorific suffix 〜さん to their name. Never use 〜さん after your own name, since this is inappropriate.

Practice
Duration: 5-10 minutes

 * 1) Drill: What is the proper phrase for each situation?
 * 2) *Greeting someone for the first time.
 * 3) *Greeting an acquaintance in the daytime.
 * 4) *Greeting an acquaintance at night.
 * 5) *Greeting an acquaintance in the morning.
 * 6) *Expressing gratitude.
 * 7) *Expressing best wishes to someone you've just met.
 * 8) *Responding to an expression of gratitude.
 * 9) *Welcoming a guest into your home.
 * 10) Drill: What is an appropriate response to each phrase?
 * 11) *おはようございます
 * 12) *はじめまして
 * 13) *ありがとうございます
 * 14) *ようこそ
 * 15) *よろしくおします
 * 16) Converse: Have the following conversations with another student. If self-studying, converse with yourself.
 * 17) * Introduce yourself and tell each other your names.
 * 18) * Meet each other for the second time.
 * 19) * One student should do something kind for another, who should respond gratefully.

Click here to see answers.

 * 1) Ask your neighbor how they are doing in informal Japanese. When asked how you are doing, give an appropriate response.
 * 2) Repeat the same exercise for your teacher using formal Japanese.

 * 1) When should はじめまして be used?
 * 2) What is the meaning of どうぞ　よろしく おねがいします?
 * 3) Is "私は田中さんです" a correct sentence? If not, why?
 * 4) How would you introduce yourself to someone you are meeting for the first time?
 * 5) How would you introduce someone to another person?
 * Answers to Lesson 1

 * Practice by copying kanji into a notebook, preferably a kanji notebook with small boxes in which to draw them. When using these note books, draw the kanji so that they are contained in the center of the box. Avoid crossing the outside lines and try to preserve uniformity as much as possible. Try to write each kanji correctly at least 10-20 times a day.

Imagine you are in these situations. Write the applicable phrase to each situation.

 * 1) You accidentally bump into a man on the street?
 * 2) Your friend introduces you to someone new?
 * 3) You see a friend when you're out at night?
 * 4) You greet your co-workers in the morning?
 * 5) You are about to go to bed?
 * 6) Someone hands you something you need?
 * 7) Someone thanks you?

Links
[http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/gokai/eng/howru.html Misunderstanding about "How are you?" by Keiichiro]


text:
Perl Programming/Scalar variables

Introduction to Scalar Variables
Now that you understand how to use strings and numbers in Perl, you need to start learning how to use variables. The best way to learn about scalar variables - Perl talk for a single variable, as against a group or list of values - is to look at an example.

Now let's break this program down:

 * The first two lines you already know, #!/usr/bin/perl and use warnings;
 * The third line is more interesting, it contains a scalar variable. There are a few important things to point out:
 * In case you haven't figured this out, the scalar variable in this line is $my_scalar_variable
 * Notice the $ before the name my_scalar_variable, in order to define a scalar variable, this sign must appear before the name.
 * Now let's look at the last line. This is just the familiar print function being told to print the value of $my_scalar_variable.

Assigning and Using Scalar Variables
In the course of writing a program, you will most likely use a variable. What is a variable? A variable is something that stores data. A scalar variable holds a single value.

Naming Conventions

 * All scalar variables names must start with a $ symbol. You can remember this by thinking $scalar.
 * Variable names can be comprised of alphanumeric characters and underscores.
 * Numeric characters are allowed in names of variables, but not as the first character after the $.

Scalar Variables and Strings
You may recall that earlier in the book, I said that whether you use <tt>"</tt> or <tt>'</tt> in strings makes a big difference in the interaction of strings and variables. Well now I am going to explain what I meant.

Now that you know what a variable is, what if you wanted to put a variable in a string? Here's the difference:

Would return "I saw 4 lions!"
 * With a double quoted string, this program:

Would return "I saw $variable lions!"
 * With a single quoted string, this program:

This effect is because of what I said before, single quoted strings are interpreted literally.

Comparison Operators

 * Main article: Perl Programming/Operators

There are operators that are used for comparing numbers and strings. This can be very useful when you get to more advanced programming. Both numbers and strings have their own set of operators which test for a condition such as equal or not equal and return either true or false.

Numeric Comparison Operators
Here is the list of numeric comparison operators:

 * <tt>==</tt> - Equal to
 * <tt>!=</tt> - Not equal to
 * <tt><</tt> - Less than
 * <tt>></tt> - Greater than
 * <tt><=</tt> - Less than or equal to
 * <tt>>=</tt> - Greater than or equal to
 * <tt><=></tt> - Numeric Comparison

String Comparison Operators
Here is the list of string comparison operators:

 * <tt>eq</tt> - Equal to
 * <tt>ne</tt> - Not equal to
 * <tt>lt</tt> - Less than
 * <tt>gt</tt> - Greater than
 * <tt>le</tt> - Less than or equal to
 * <tt>ge</tt> - Greater than or equal to
 * <tt>cmp</tt> - String Comparison

Exercises

 * Try writing a program like the Hello World program except elaborate it by storing <tt>"Hello, world!\n"</tt> in a variable and then printing the variable.

 * Play around with all the things we have learned so far. Try to create a program that has an example of everything we have learned so far.

title: Perl Programming/Scalar variables


text:
User talk:213.176.161.200

Hi,

Your contributions should go to Wikisource. Please, see What Wikibooks is not. Thanks. Yann 15:01, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:213.176.161.200


text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Earth

Source(s)

The Cambridge Atlas of Astronomy ISBN 0521363608 -- Inspiration for the diagram
 * Earth -- General data
 * [] -- More general data

Moon Caption
Sorry, don't know how to edit it myself. But the picture of the moon with the caption "The Earth seen from the surface of the moon" is slighlty in acurate since the picture was taken from the apolo 8 which never touched the surface of the moon.

How long a day and year is on earth
Do we think the kids will know (and care) without definition the difference between solar and sidereal?

And then the precision is lost entirely on how long a year is (saying it is 365 days). An explanation of leap years might be cool.

 * In conjunction with the article on Venus, where a sidrial day vs. solar day has a significant impact on what can be called a day, this little tidbit of information does indeed have an impact, and the same can be said to a lesser degree about Mercury. This section could be beefed up a little bit, perhaps, in a follow up article that talks about the relationship between Sidrial time vs. Solar time (Sidrial time is used widely in astronomy to plot positions of objects in the sky, and most good observatories have a sidrial clock next to the telescope for positioning).  Basically, add some content here to explain the significance and value, rather than try to delete it.  --Rob Horning 06:33, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

How old is the Earth?
We really want to keep as many controvercial subject out of this Wikibook, especially with intelligent design or talk about the age of the Earth as according to the King James Version of the Bible (or any other religious text for that matter at the moment). I am a person of faith, and feel that there is a place to discuss and debate these issues, but as an edit war placing a very strong point of view for what should be a children's book is certainly not the place. If you want to tackle this issue like the mass vs. weight issue has been done, feel free to cover all aspects of this debate, including not only Christian thought, but also Mayan, Egyptian, Vedic, and other ancient or religious ideas on the age of the Universe. It can be done tactfully and respectfully, but not as a minor section of what is to be a general look of a planet we live on from the viewpoint of merely one of several planets in a vast solar system. I'm sorry if this may seem harsh or unforgiving to revert text in this nature, but don't place a Christian point of view on this Wikibook, which is against Wikibooks policy as well. --Rob Horning 04:21, 28 August 2005 (UTC)

 * -I must say this view point strikes me as intellectually dishonest. The question: "how old is earth?" is a very common and very valid question. By avoiding it I can't tell if you are trying to protect a particular creationist view point or trying to avoid an arguement with creationists.

 * At any rate, the age of the earth should definately be addressed in the book, which according to current scientific understanding is 4.57 billion years. There is no "debate" to be had here, nor is the notion of earth being so old a "very strong point of view": give or take a few million years, it is a scientific fact.

 * Any attempt to deny or weaken this fact, even by NOT stating it, undermines our understanding of the entire cosmos. I can see no valid reason for not including this section.--Z00 11:21, 23 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Hey, I don't mind answering questions that are many months apart in replies. I would recommend that you go through this history of this page to see what exactly was posted here, as it was a very POV statement about how scientists were fooling the general public that the earth was billions of years old and citing the Bible as evidence that the earth was much younger, as well as spouting off POV material about creationism science.  That was the debate that I felt was inappropriate to this page, and why I removed it completely.  This page is not to debate creationism but rather to give factual details about the Earth.  Even adding a point about the age of the Earth to the content here is only going to add a single minor detail, for something that perhaps should be expanded into a whole other page entirely.  This page is not appropriate to go into details about why we think the Earth is so ancient, as well as the rest of the Solar System.  Supplimental topics have been added to the Wikijunior Solar System book going into more controvercial subjects, and perhaps this could be one of them.  Certainly this is not justification to start an edit war.  --Rob Horning 10:11, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

The How much does the Earth's gravity pull on me? section
As is already present, although perhaps in too sophisticated a style, this section seems to be the place to introduce the notions of gravity and weight in lieu of this section (or the separate modules here and here). All pointers in the book to an explanation of gravity or weight could then arrive here. The answers to each planet X's "How much would X pull on me?" section are (understandably) couched in terms of Earth's gravity, i.e. what is said in this section. Comments anyone? David Kernow 07:41, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

Cruithne
Following the link you might learn that it isn't a second moon and it doesn't orbit Earth but the Sun. So it is better to mention it in a different context. Knightowld 21:00, 18 March 2006 (UTC)
 * I altered the text to be factually correct, yet still fit with the section. --Starchildmom 20:15, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Terrestial Planet
Its states that earth is the largest terrestial planet without defining what this is. 130.95.128.51 03:37, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Good point. Or any object within the orbit of Jupiter, which is often used as a definition of a terrestrial planet.  Mainly a planet that has a comparatively thin atmosphere if you want to give it a non Solar System-centric definition.  i.e. Earth, Venus, and Mars fit this defnition, as perhaps does Titan, but clearly Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune do not.  Mercury and the Earth's Moon are borderline cases under this defintion, and the Asteroids simply don't qualify at all, nor do any of the other moons of the other planets in the Solar System.

 * The point I was trying to make is that the Earth is huge, and this is another cool fact: If you combined all of the mass of all other objects in the inner Solar System, including all of the astroids, Mars, Venus, Mercury, the Earth's Moon, and compared it to the Earth after they were all mashed up together, it would still be smaller than the Earth.  How about that?  --Rob Horning 23:13, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

WikiCast: Audio Conversion?
Ok folks, Your chance to be a Science presenter.

Anyone considered converting this book's chapters into audio clips for net-radio?

I would be interested in your response..

I have a talk page at Wikipedia (not on Wikibooks) ShakespeareFan00 62.56.68.159 17:49, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Earth


text:
PHP Programming/Sessions

Sessions allow the PHP script to store data on the web server that can be later used, even between requests to different PHP pages. Every session has a different identifier, which is sent to the client's browser as a cookie or as a $_GET variable. Sessions end when the user closes the browser, or when the web server deletes the session information, or when the programmer explicitly destroys the session. In PHP it's usually called PHPSESSID. Sessions are very useful to protect the data that the user wouldn't be able to read or write, especially when the PHP developer doesn't want to give out information in the cookies as they are easily readable. Sessions can be controlled by the $_SESSION superglobal. Data stored in this array is persistent throughout the session. It is a simple array. Sessions are much easier to use than cookies, which helps PHP developers a lot. Mostly, sessions are used for user logins, shopping carts and other additions needed to keep browsing smooth. PHP script can easily control the session's cookie which is being sent and control the whole session data. Sessions are always stored in a unique filename, either in a temporary folder or in a specific folder, if a script instructs to do so.

Using Sessions
At the top of each PHP script that will be part of the current session there must be the function. It must be before the first output (echo or others) or it will result in an error "Headers already sent out". This function will do these actions:
 * 1) it will check the  or   data, if it is given
 * 2) if the session file doesn't exist in the  location, it will:
 * 3) generate a new Unique Identifier, and
 * 4) create a new file based on that Identifier, and
 * 5) send a cookie to the client's browser
 * 6) if it does exist, the PHP script will attempt to store the file's data into  variable for further use

Now, you can simply set variables in 2 different ways, the default method: Or the deprecated method: Both of the above statements will register the session variable  as "Test". The deprecated method should not be used, it is only listed because you can still see it in scripts written by programmers that don't know the new one. The default method is preferred.

Session Configuration Options
PHP sessions are easy to control and can be made even more secure or less secure with small factors. Here are runtime options that can be easily changed using php_ini function:

A simple example of this use would be this code: This example simply sets the cookie for the next year.

Ending a Session
When user clicks "Logout", or "Sign Off", you would usually want to destroy all the login data so nobody could have access to it anymore. The session file will be simply deleted as well as the cookie to be unset by:

Using Session Data of Other Types
Simple data such as integers, strings, and arrays can easily be stored in the $_SESSION superglobal array and be passed from page to page. But problems occur when trying to store the state of an object by assignment. Object state can be stored in a session by using the serialize function. serialize will write the objects data into an array which then can be stored in a $_SESSION supergloblal. unserialize can be used to restore the state of an object before trying to access the object in a page that is part of the current session. If objects are to be used across multiple page accesses during a session, the object definition must be defined before calling unserialize. Other issues may arise when serializing and unserializing objects.

Avoiding Session Fixation
Session fixation describes an attack vector in which a malicious third-party sets (i.e. fixes) the session identifier (SID) of a user, and is thus able to access that user's session. In the base-level implementation of sessions, as described above, this is a very real vulnerability, and every PHP program that uses sessions for anything at all sensitive should take steps to remedy it. The following, in order of how widely applicable they are, are the measures to take to prevent session fixation:

 * 1) Do not use GET or POST variables to store the session ID (under most PHP configurations, a cookie is used to store the SID, and so the programmer doesn't need to do anything to implement this);
 * 2) Regenerate the SID on each user request (using   at the beginning of the session);
 * 3) Use session time-outs: for each user request, store the current timestamp, and on the next request check that the timeout interval has not passed;
 * 4) Provide a logout function;
 * 5) Check the 'browser fingerprint' on each request.  This is a hash, stored in a   variable, comprising some combination of the user-agent header, client IP address, a salt value, and/or other information.  See below for more discussion of the details of this; it is thought by some to be nothing more than 'security through obscurity'.
 * 6) Check referrer: this does not work for all systems, but if you know that users of your site must be coming from some known domain you can discard sessions tied to users from elsewhere. It relies on the user agent providing the referrer header, which should not be assumed.

This example code addresses all of the above points save the referrer check.

PHP/Sesje

title: PHP Programming/Sessions


text:
User:WebLuke~enwikibooks

WebSites
http://www.webluke.net

http://wiki.webluke.net

http://mapping.webluke.net

http://blog.webluke.net

http://www.mountainpages.com

Other Names
WebLuke

Geek (_!_)

title: User:WebLuke~enwikibooks


text:
Ada Programming/Attributes

When entities like variables or subprograms are declared, certain properties thereof normally are left to the compiler to specify (like the size or the address of a variable, the calling convention of a subprogram). Properties which may be queried are called Attributes; those which may be specified are called Aspects. Aspects and attributes are defined in the Ada Reference Manual annex.

Language summary attributes
The concept of attributes is pretty unique to Ada. Attributes allow you to get —and sometimes set— information about objects or other language entities such as types. A good example is the attribute. It describes the size of an object or a type in bits.

A : Natural := Integer';

However, unlike the operator from C/C++ the  attribute can also be set:

Byte  -128 .. 127;    Byte'  8;

Of course not all attributes can be set. An attribute starts with a tick ' (apostrophe) and is followed by its name. The compiler determines by context if the tick is the beginning of an attribute, a character literal or a quantified expression.

A : Character := Character' (32); B : Character := ' '; S : String   := Character'(')')'Image;

List of language defined attributes

 * Ada 2005 : This is a new Ada 2005 attribute.
 * Ada 2012 : This is a new Ada 2012 attribute.

 * Ada 2022
 * This is a new Ada 2022 attribute.

 * Obsolescent: This is a deprecated attribute and should not be used in new code.

A – B

 * 'Access
 * 'Address
 * 'Adjacent
 * 'Aft
 * 'Alignment
 * 'Base
 * 'Bit_Order
 * 'Body_Version

C

 * 'Callable
 * 'Caller
 * 'Ceiling
 * 'Class
 * 'Component_Size
 * 'Compose
 * 'Constrained
 * 'Copy_Sign
 * 'Count

D – F

 * 'Definite
 * 'Delta
 * 'Denorm
 * 'Digits
 * 'Emax (Obsolescent)
 * 'Enum_Rep (Ada 2022)
 * 'Enum_Val (Ada 2022)
 * 'Exponent
 * 'External_Tag
 * 'Epsilon (Obsolescent)
 * 'First
 * 'First_Bit
 * 'Floor
 * 'Fore
 * 'Fraction

G – L

 * 'Has_Same_Storage (Ada 2012)
 * 'Identity
 * 'Image (Changed in Ada 2022)
 * 'Index (Ada 2022)
 * 'Input
 * 'Large (Obsolescent)
 * 'Last
 * 'Last_Bit
 * 'Leading_Part
 * 'Length

M

 * 'Machine
 * 'Machine_Emax
 * 'Machine_Emin
 * 'Machine_Mantissa
 * 'Machine_Overflows
 * 'Machine_Radix
 * 'Machine_Rounding (Ada 2005)
 * 'Machine_Rounds
 * 'Mantissa (Obsolescent)
 * 'Max
 * 'Max_Alignment_For_Allocation (Ada 2012)
 * 'Max_Size_In_Storage_Elements
 * 'Min
 * 'Mod (Ada 2005)
 * 'Model
 * 'Model_Emin
 * 'Model_Epsilon
 * 'Model_Mantissa
 * 'Model_Small
 * 'Modulus

O – R

 * 'Object_Size (Ada 2022)
 * 'Old (Ada 2012)
 * 'Output
 * 'Overlaps_Storage (Ada 2012)
 * 'Parallel_Reduce (Ada 2022)
 * 'Partition_ID
 * 'Pos
 * 'Position
 * 'Pred
 * 'Preelaborate_Initialization (Ada 2022)
 * 'Priority (Ada 2005)
 * 'Put_Image (Ada 2022)
 * 'Range
 * 'Read
 * 'Reduce (Ada 2022)
 * 'Relative Deadline (Ada 2022)
 * 'Remainder
 * 'Result (Ada 2012)
 * 'Round
 * 'Rounding

S

 * 'Safe_Emax (Obsolescent)
 * 'Safe_First
 * 'Safe_Large (Obsolescent)
 * 'Safe_Last
 * 'Safe_Small (Obsolescent)
 * 'Scale
 * 'Scaling
 * 'Signed_Zeros
 * 'Size
 * 'Small
 * 'Storage_Pool
 * 'Storage_Size
 * 'Stream_Size (Ada 2005)
 * 'Succ

T – V

 * 'Tag
 * 'Terminated
 * 'Truncation
 * 'Unbiased_Rounding
 * 'Unchecked_Access
 * 'Val
 * 'Valid
 * 'Value
 * 'Version

W – Z

 * 'Wide_Image (Changed in Ada 2022)
 * 'Wide_Value
 * 'Wide_Wide_Image (Ada 2005, changed in Ada 2022)
 * 'Wide_Wide_Value (Ada 2005)
 * 'Wide_Wide_Width (Ada 2005)
 * 'Wide_Width
 * 'Width
 * 'Write

List of implementation defined attributes
The following attributes are not available in all Ada compilers, only in those that had implemented them.

Currently, there are only listed the implementation-defined attributes of a few compilers. You can help Wikibooks adding specific attributes of other compilers:

 * GNAT : Implementation-defined attribute of the GNAT compiler from AdaCore/FSF.
 * HP Ada : Implementation-defined attribute of the HP Ada compiler (formerly known as "DEC Ada").
 * ICC : Implementation-defined attribute of the Irvine ICC compiler.
 * PowerAda : Implementation-defined attribute of OC Systems' PowerAda.
 * SPARCompiler : Implementation-defined attribute of Sun's SPARCompiler Ada.

A – D

 * 'Abort_Signal (GNAT)
 * 'Address_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Architecture (ICC)
 * 'Asm_Input (GNAT)
 * 'Asm_Output (GNAT)
 * 'AST_Entry (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * 'Atomic_Always_Lock_Free (GNAT)
 * 'Bit (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * 'Bit_Position (GNAT)
 * 'CG_Mode (ICC)
 * 'Code_Address (GNAT)
 * 'Compiler_Key (SPARCompiler)
 * 'Compiler_Version (GNAT, SPARCompiler)
 * 'Constrained (GNAT)
 * 'Declared (ICC)
 * 'Default_Bit_Order (GNAT)
 * 'Default_Scalar_Storage_Order (GNAT)
 * 'Deref (GNAT)
 * 'Descriptor_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Dope_Address (SPARCompiler)
 * 'Dope_Size (SPARCompiler)

E – H

 * 'Elaborated (GNAT)
 * 'Elab_Body (GNAT)
 * 'Elab_Spec (GNAT)
 * 'Elab_Subp_Body (GNAT)
 * 'Emax (GNAT)
 * 'Enabled (GNAT)
 * 'Entry_Number (SPARCompiler)
 * 'Enum_Rep (GNAT)
 * 'Enum_Val (GNAT)
 * 'Epsilon (GNAT)
 * 'Exception_Address (ICC)
 * 'Extended_Aft (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Base (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Digits (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Fore (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Image (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Value (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Width (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Wide_Image (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Wide_Value (PowerAda)
 * 'Extended_Wide_Width (PowerAda)
 * 'Fast_Math (GNAT)
 * 'Finalization_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Fixed_Value (GNAT)
 * 'From_Any (GNAT)
 * 'Has_Access_Values (GNAT)
 * 'Has_Discriminants (GNAT)
 * 'Has_Tagged_Values (GNAT)
 * 'High_Word (ICC)
 * 'Homogeneous (SPARCompiler)

I – N

 * 'Img (GNAT)
 * 'Initialized (GNAT)
 * 'Integer_Value (GNAT)
 * 'Invalid_Value (GNAT)
 * 'Linear_Address (ICC)
 * 'Large (GNAT)
 * 'Library_Level (GNAT)
 * 'Low_Word (ICC)
 * 'Loop_Entry (GNAT)
 * 'Machine_Size (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * 'Mantissa (GNAT)
 * 'Max_Integer_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Max_Interrupt_Priority (GNAT)
 * 'Max_Priority (GNAT)
 * 'Maximum_Alignment (GNAT)
 * 'Mechanism_Code (GNAT)
 * 'Null_Parameter (GNAT, HP Ada)

O – T

 * 'Object_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Old (GNAT)
 * 'Passed_By_Reference (GNAT)
 * 'Pool_Address (GNAT)
 * 'Range_Length (GNAT)
 * 'Ref (SPARCompiler)
 * 'Restriction_Set (GNAT)
 * 'Result (GNAT)
 * 'Round (GNAT)
 * 'Safe_Emax (GNAT)
 * 'Safe_Large (GNAT)
 * 'Safe_Small (GNAT)
 * 'Scalar_Storage_Order (GNAT)
 * 'Simple_Storage_Pool (GNAT)
 * 'Small (GNAT)
 * 'Small_Denominator (GNAT)
 * 'Small_Numerator (GNAT)
 * 'Storage_Unit (GNAT)
 * 'Stub_Type (GNAT)
 * 'System_Allocator_Alignment (GNAT)
 * 'Target (ICC)
 * 'Target_Name (GNAT)
 * 'Task_ID (SPARCompiler)
 * 'Tick (GNAT)
 * 'To_Address (GNAT)
 * 'To_Any (GNAT)
 * 'Type_Class (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * 'TypeCode (GNAT)
 * 'Type_Key (SPARCompiler)

U – Z

 * 'UET_Address (GNAT)
 * 'Unconstrained_Array (GNAT)
 * 'Universal_Literal_String (GNAT)
 * 'Unrestricted_Access (GNAT, ICC)
 * 'Update (GNAT)
 * 'VADS_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Valid_Value (GNAT)
 * 'Valid_Scalars (GNAT)
 * 'Value_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Wchar_T_Size (GNAT)
 * 'Word_Size (GNAT)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Aspects
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

title: Ada Programming/Attributes


text:
User:Joelnackman

What I'm Working On
I don't know much about anything but Perl, so that's what I'll work on.

title: User:Joelnackman


text:
Ada Programming/Pragmas

Description
Pragmas control the compiler, i.e. they are compiler directives. They have the standard form of

Name (Parameter_List);

where the parameter list is optional.

List of language defined pragmas
Some pragmas are specially marked:

 * Ada 2005 : This is a new Ada 2005 pragma.
 * Ada 2012 : This is a new Ada 2012 pragma.
 * Obsolescent : This is a deprecated pragma and it should not be used in new code.

A – H

 * Admission_Policy (Ada 2022)
 * All_Calls_Remote
 * Assert (Ada 2005)
 * Assertion_Policy (Ada 2005)
 * Asynchronous (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Atomic (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Atomic_Components (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Attach_Handler (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Conflict_Check_Policy (Ada 2022)
 * Controlled (Removed from Ada 2012)
 * Convention (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * CPU (Ada 2012)
 * Default_Storage_Pool (Ada 2012)
 * Detect_Blocking (Ada 2005)
 * Discard_Names
 * Dispatching_Domain (Ada 2012)
 * Elaborate
 * Elaborate_All
 * Elaborate_Body
 * Export (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Generate_Deadlines (Ada 2022)

I – O

 * Import (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Independent (Ada 2012)
 * Independent_Component (Ada 2012)
 * Inline (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Inspection_Point
 * Interface (Obsolescent)
 * Interrupt_Handler (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Interrupt_Priority (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Linker_Options
 * List
 * Locking_Policy
 * Memory_Size (Obsolescent)
 * No_Return (Ada 2005) (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Normalize_Scalars
 * Optimize

P – R

 * Pack (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Page
 * Partition_Elaboration_Policy (Ada 2005)
 * Preelaborable_Initialization (Ada 2005)
 * Preelaborate
 * Priority (Obsolescent since Ada 2012)
 * Priority_Specific_Dispatching (Ada 2005)
 * Profile (Ada 2005)
 * Pure
 * Queueing_Policy
 * Relative_Deadline (Ada 2005)
 * Remote_Call_Interface
 * Remote_Types
 * Restrictions
 * Reviewable

S – Z

 * Shared (Obsolescent)
 * Shared_Passive
 * Storage_Size
 * Storage_Unit (Obsolescent)
 * Suppress
 * System_Name (Obsolescent)
 * Task_Dispatching_Policy
 * Unchecked_Union (Ada 2005)
 * Unsuppress (Ada 2005)
 * Volatile
 * Volatile_Components

List of implementation defined pragmas
The following pragmas are not available in all Ada compilers, only in those that had implemented them.

Currently, there are only listed the implementation-defined pragmas of a few compilers. You can help Wikibooks adding specific aspects of other compilers:

 * GNAT : Implementation defined pragma of the GNAT compiler from AdaCore and FSF.
 * HP Ada : Implementation defined pragma of the HP Ada compiler (formerly known as "DEC Ada").
 * ICC : Implementation-defined pragma of the Irvine ICC compiler.
 * PowerAda : Implementation defined pragma of OC Systems' PowerAda.
 * SPARCompiler : Implementation defined pragma of Sun's SPARCompiler Ada.

A – C

 * Abort_Defer (GNAT)
 * Ada_83 (GNAT)
 * Ada_95 (GNAT)
 * Ada_05 (GNAT)
 * Ada_2005 (GNAT)
 * Ada_12 (GNAT)
 * Ada_2012 (GNAT)
 * Annotate (GNAT)
 * Assume_No_Invalid_Values (GNAT)
 * Ast_Entry (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Bit_Pack (SPARCompiler)
 * Built_In (SPARCompiler)
 * Byte_Pack (SPARCompiler)
 * C_Pass_By_Copy (GNAT)
 * Call_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Canonical_Streams (GNAT)
 * Check (GNAT)
 * Check_Name (GNAT)
 * Check_Policy (GNAT)
 * CM_Info (PowerAda)
 * Comment (GNAT)
 * Common_Object (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Compatible_Calls (ICC)
 * Compile_Time_Error (GNAT)
 * Compile_Time_Warning (GNAT)
 * Complete_Representation (GNAT)
 * Complex_Representation (GNAT)
 * Component_Alignment (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Compress (ICC)
 * Constrain_Private (ICC)
 * Convention_Identifier (GNAT)
 * CPP_Class (GNAT)
 * CPP_Constructor (GNAT)
 * CPP_Virtual (GNAT)
 * CPP_Vtable (GNAT)

D – H

 * Data_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Debug (GNAT)
 * Debug_Policy (GNAT)
 * Delete_Subprogram_Entry (ICC)
 * Elaboration_Checks (GNAT)
 * Eliminate (GNAT)
 * Error (SPARCompiler)
 * Export_Exception (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Export_Function (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Export_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Export_Object (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Export_Procedure (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Export_Value (GNAT)
 * Export_Valued_Procedure (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Extend_System (GNAT)
 * Extensions_Allowed (GNAT)
 * External (GNAT, SPARCompiler)
 * External_Name (ICC, SPARCompiler)
 * External_Name_Casing (GNAT)
 * Fast_Math (GNAT)
 * Favor_Top_Level (GNAT)
 * Finalize_Storage_Only (GNAT)
 * Float_Representation (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Foreign (ICC)
 * Generic_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Generic_Policy (SPARCompiler)

I – L

 * i960_Intrinsic (ICC)
 * Ident (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Images (PowerAda)
 * Implemented, previously named 'Implemented_By_Entry' (GNAT)
 * Implicit_Code (SPARCompiler)
 * Implicit_Packing (GNAT)
 * Import_Exception (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Import_Function (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Import_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Import_Object (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Import_Procedure (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Import_Valued_Procedure (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Include (SPARCompiler)
 * Initialize (SPARCompiler)
 * Initialize_Scalars (GNAT)
 * Inline_Always (GNAT)
 * Inline_Generic (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Inline_Only (SPARCompiler)
 * Instance_Policy (SPARCompiler)
 * Interface_Constant (ICC)
 * Interface_Information (PowerAda)
 * Interface_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Interface_Name (GNAT, HP Ada, ICC, SPARCompiler)
 * Interrupt_State (GNAT)
 * Invariant (GNAT)
 * Keep_Names (GNAT)
 * Label (ICC)
 * License (GNAT)
 * Link_With (GNAT, ICC, SPARCompiler)
 * Linker_Alias (GNAT)
 * Linker_Constructor (GNAT)
 * Linker_Destructor (GNAT)
 * Linker_Section (GNAT)
 * Long_Float (GNAT: OpenVMS, HP Ada)

M – P

 * Machine_Attribute (GNAT)
 * Main (GNAT)
 * Main_Storage (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * No_Body (GNAT)
 * No_Image (SPARCompiler)
 * No_Strict_Aliasing (GNAT)
 * No_Suppress (PowerAda)
 * No_Reorder (ICC)
 * No_Zero (ICC)
 * Noinline (ICC)
 * Non_Reentrant (SPARCompiler)
 * Not_Elaborated (SPARCompiler)
 * Not_Null (ICC)
 * Obsolescent (GNAT)
 * Optimize_Alignment (GNAT)
 * Optimize_Code (SPARCompiler)
 * Optimize_Options (ICC)
 * Ordered (GNAT)
 * Parameter_Mechanism (ICC)
 * Passive (GNAT, HP Ada, SPARCompiler)
 * Persistent_BSS (GNAT)
 * Physical_Address (ICC)
 * Polling (GNAT)
 * Postcondition (GNAT)
 * Precondition (GNAT)
 * Preserve_Layout (PowerAda)
 * Profile_Warnings (GNAT)
 * Propagate_Exceptions (GNAT)
 * Protect_Registers (ICC)
 * Protected_Call (ICC)
 * Protected_Return (ICC)
 * Psect_Object (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Pure_Function (GNAT)
 * Put (ICC)
 * Put_Line (ICC)

R – S

 * Reserve_Registers (ICC)
 * Restriction_Warnings (GNAT)
 * RTS_Interface (SPARCompiler)
 * SCCS_ID (PowerAda)
 * Share_Body (SPARCompiler)
 * Share_Code (SPARCompiler)
 * Share_Generic (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Shareable (ICC)
 * Short_Circuit_And_Or (GNAT)
 * Short_Descriptors (GNAT)
 * Simple_Storage_Pool_Type (GNAT)
 * Simple_Task (ICC)
 * Source_File_Name (GNAT)
 * Source_File_Name_Project (GNAT)
 * Source_Reference (GNAT)
 * Stack_Size (ICC)
 * Static_Elaboration (ICC)
 * Static_Elaboration_Desired (GNAT)
 * Stream_Convert (GNAT)
 * Style_Checks (GNAT)
 * Subtitle (GNAT)
 * Suppress_All (GNAT, HP Ada, PowerAda, SPARCompiler)
 * Suppress_Elaboration_Checks (SPARCompiler)
 * Suppress_Exception_Locations (GNAT)
 * Suppress_Initialization (GNAT)
 * System_Table (ICC)

T – Z

 * Task_Attributes (SPARCompiler)
 * Task_Info (GNAT)
 * Task_Name (GNAT)
 * Task_Storage (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Test_Case (GNAT)
 * Thread_Body (GNAT)
 * Thread_Local_Storage (GNAT)
 * Time_Slice (GNAT, HP Ada, ICC)
 * Time_Slice_Attributes (ICC)
 * Title (GNAT, HP Ada)
 * Unimplemented_Unit (GNAT)
 * Universal_Aliasing (GNAT)
 * Universal_Data (GNAT)
 * Unmodified (GNAT)
 * Unreferenced (GNAT)
 * Unreferenced_Objects (GNAT)
 * Unreserve_All_Interrupts (GNAT)
 * Unsigned_Literal (ICC)
 * Use_VADS_Size (GNAT)
 * Validity_Checks (GNAT)
 * Warning (SPARCompiler)
 * Warnings (GNAT, SPARCompiler)
 * Weak_External (GNAT)
 * Wide_Character_Encoding (GNAT)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Aspects
 * Ada Programming/Attributes
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

title: Ada Programming/Pragmas


text:
Conhistory/Prehistory

Conworld : conhistory: prehistory

Contrary to popular belief, the story of humanity does not start at Ancient Egypt.

It seems to be a common pitfall of Conworlders that their first peoples, cultures and nations must start with an ancient, venerable, agricultural empire, and that the rest of their conhistory consists of this empire (and others like it) disseminating their civilization outwards. This is, of course, true to a great extent, but it misses another part of the picture completely.

Perhaps it is best if we put things in perspective. Modern humans have existed for at least 100,000 years, 20 times the length of civilization. For 95,000 years all humans of the world lived as hunter gatherers. And even for the remaining 5,000 years of civilization, vast numbers of human beings continued to live in this way, at least until the dawn of modernity in the last few centuries or so. At the time of the rise of ancient Egypt, the majority of our own ancestors lived outside the influence of civilization.

These people are not simpletons either; remember, they are modern human beings of the homo sapiens species. Their physical and mental capacities were the same as ours. They led their own complex emotional and social and romantic lives. Millions of human beings just like us lived and died in such societies. Civilization, from Egypt to Hollywood (inclusive), is like a sudden and brilliant blip at the very last part of the human story — civilization is the great exception of human culture, not the rule.

Of course, the fact that they were, in fact, extremely technologically backwards compared to us or even their contemporaries, gave their lives a very different sort of theme than us. We can see still how their way of life may have been in hunting-gathering peoples like the Khoisan peoples of the Kalahari Desert, in Africa. Of course, keep in mind that we're talking about the all human cultures of the entire World for several dozen millennia, so it's hard to generalize anything.

As a whole, women and children stayed close to home and gathered seeds and fruits; men ventured further away to hunt fast-moving wild animals. (Some people like to connect this to the apparent affinity of men to competitive strategic sports, or women to congregating and gossiping, but we'll leave that for another discussion.) Because people needed to be on the move all the time, they tended not to have so many children (about 4; compare that to 10+ which we commonly see in agricultural societies). People didn't live that long; the average lifespan was about 35 years, though this was probably the result of high infant mortality rates -- if you survive to adulthood, you can live longer than that. Nevertheless they aged very fast, so that a 40-year-old hunter gatherer would look a lot older than a 40-year-old professional urbanite with her face creams and so forth.

The main food source was gathered seeds plus hunted animals. People didn't need to work as long for these (about 30 hours a week), so there was quite some leisure time compared to us. Also, hunting and gathering extracts very little calories per unit area of land, so population density was very low -- less than one person per square kilometer. In general people moved around in small clans across a wide, wild landscape, constantly chasing their prey. There was no overcrowding and they did not come into contact with other clans all that often. As a result, the exchange of ideas and materials was slow, which goes a great deal to explain why for more than 100,000 years human beings didn't seem to advance all that much in terms of philosophy or technology. (Keep in mind that these human beings are basically genetically identical to us, so "because they were stupid" would not be a good enough explanation.)

All that changed, of course, with the development of agriculture, after the end of the last Ice Age about 10,000 years ago.

Agricultural Revolution >>

title: Conhistory/Prehistory


text:
Biblical Studies/New Testament Commentaries/1 John

 * 1) /Chapter 1/
 * 2) /Chapter 2/
 * 3) /Chapter 3/
 * 4) /Chapter 4/
 * 5) /Chapter 5/


text:
Biblical Studies/New Testament Commentaries/1 John/Chapter 5

v 1 The church was characterized by its faith in Jesus as the Messiah, and Jesus promised that through him, as the Son of God, his followers could become sons of God as well. A key element in this is faith in him. The church was filled with the faithful, who were set apart from the faithless in the world. It was a much sharper distinction than today, as the decision to follow Christ was often met with steep opposition and persecution. So those who stayed in the church had to do so through faith, not just a family tradition or feeling of comfort.

John called the faithful to love one another as brothers in one family, all sons of the same Father. To be a Christian meant to love God, and here John continues insisting that the Christian must also love his brothers in the church.

v 2 Again John insists that to love God is to do what God commands, which includes loving the other Christians. They are not just any person, but sons of God himself, and therefore even more deserving of love. The love of a Christian is tested by how he treats the others. Not even in John’s time was being part of the church any guarantee of how a person lived, he still needed to have his actions tested.

v 3 To love God is to obey his commands. But so this doesn’t seem so much like an unsupportable burden, John reminds us that this is not impossible. It could feel impossible to his audience, having to live a life so different from their surrounding culture in so many details, having higher moral and ethical standards and doing many things the “hard way”. To adults, the idea of “obedience” is usually pretty foreign, and John was aware of this when he asked it of his flock.

v 4 Why was it possible to obey God’s commands? Because his audience was made up of children of God, who used their faith to overcome the world. Being a child of God means getting strength from him to continue growing to be ever more like him. John himself was a victor over the world, and was of the same shared faith as his audience. The battle continued even as he wrote but he said that the victory had already been given, a victory over worldly desires and a worldly lifestyle, a continuing and ongoing victory.

v 5 The key to victory was faith in Jesus as the unique Son of God. If Jesus was the Son of God, then everything that he taught was trustable. That meant that his promise of eternal life for the faithful, and judgement of the disobedient, called everyone’s actions into account on the final day. This would have been a huge motivator for the disciples because it was a double-edged sword – blessing as well as punishment. But on top of that, the deep love shown by Jesus’ willing self-sacrifice as God’s Son gave a deep emotional push to the Christians’ relationship with their maker and their obedience to him.

v 6 Water and blood: symbols of Jesus’ baptism and death, or death and life through the spirit. Blood and water came out of Jesus’ side when he was pierced on the cross (Jn 19:34). The Spirit is a witness: not the flesh. The Christians lived by a new set of rules that were very different than those of the world around them, and the other people did not understand the symbols of water or blood as did those of the Spirit. But, the Spirit is truth, even though the truth is contrary to much of common wisdom. (Help me on this verse!)

v 7 This verse was apparently added later on and was probably not in the original letter John wrote. “There are three witnesses in heaven: the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one. And three are the witnesses on the earth, (the Spirit, the water and the blood). Only four late Greek manuscripts have the verse, recorded from the fourteenth century to the present.

v 7-8 John was a witness, and called upon other witnesses to support what he had seen: the Spirit, the water and the blood. The irony of the life in the Spirit and the water is that it came only through the death symbolized by the blood. Just as Christ died, he calls his followers to die to their old life through baptism and to begin a new life through the Spirit in communion with his blood.

v 9 Testimony about Jesus came from the men and women who were with him, but also through God himself, who asserted that Jesus was his son. That testimony came from God to man through the Spirit and the changed lives of those who followed Jesus. (Jn 1:32-34, 8:47, Lk 3:21-22, 9:35) The testimony was also understood individually by the people who responded to the Christians’ message and converted to faith in Christ.

v 10 In becoming a Christian, a person came to believe in God and Jesus as his son, and changed his heart dramatically in response to the love shown by God’s willing sacrifice of his son and Jesus’ willingness to submit for the benefit of others. This faith and change of attitude were the testimony of the heart of a Christian. On the other hand, those who did not believe in God, and consequently in Jesus, his Son, were denying what God said about Jesus. This made God out to be a liar, (v 1:10) and was a grave error on the part of the unbeliever. Each believer and every person should mind what God says and not try to oppose him (parable of the warring kings).

v 11 Explanation of God’s testimony: eternal life through his Son. God gives it to his children, the Christians, (Jn 1:12-13) and does so solely through Jesus (Jn 14:6).

v 12 To have the son of God is to have an intimate relationship with him, that is, to be one of Christ’s disciples. Life is eternal life forever with God in heaven, as well as meaning, purpose and joy in the Spirit even amidst suffering in life here on the earth. These are privileges of Christians only, not enjoyed by those who do not know God.


text:
General Genetics/The DNA Molecule

genetics: The DNA Molecule

DNA stands for deoxyribose nucleic acid, or deoxyribonucleic acid.

Its structure was discovered by James D. Watson and Francis H.C. Crick in 1953 with the assistance of Rosalind Franklin, but the knowledge of DNA was first discovered in 1871.

The DNA molecule has a polymer backbone of deoxyribose molecules (Ribose in RNA), a five carbon sugar, connected together by a phosphate group (see phosphorylation).

The sugar also connects to a nucleobase (or simply called "base", for short). There are 5 different bases used for coding, 4 of which are used in DNA (the other, uracil, is exclusive to RNA).

The four bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. These are represented by the letters A, G, C, & T and carry all information found in the DNA (see nucleic acid nomenclature).

The structure of DNA is a double helix. This means that there are two strands coiled around each other. The molecule is bonded together by the bases with hydrogen bonds. Guanine pairs with Cytosine by three hydrogen bonds while Adenine bonds with Thymine by two hydrogen bonds (see base pair).

Watson and Crick's insight into the double helical structure of the DNA molecule was based upon Erwin Chargaff noting that these pairs of bases were always in the same concentration.

title: General Genetics/The DNA Molecule


text:
Talk:Linear Algebra/Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

When I looked at this page, I noticed that some sections were duplicated. This was caused by a recent edit:

Revision as of 19:35, 26 Oct 2004 137.122.14.20

I'll leave it to someone else to fix.

Joel Buursma

wow
after my lectures and my textbooks, this has been one of the most useful explanations. 141.213.66.46 21:59, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Mistake?
In the example

$$P=\left(\begin{matrix}-1&1\\4&1\end{matrix}\right)$$

and

$$P^{-1}=1/5\left(\begin{matrix}1&-4\\-1&-1\end{matrix}\right)$$,

but I think $$P^{-1}$$ should be

$$P^{-1}=\frac{1}{5}\left(\begin{matrix}-1&1\\4&1\end{matrix}\right)$$.

--Silencer

 * It seems that you are wrong and the article is right--213.179.254.210 19:04, 30 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Hi Silencer. You are right, the article is wrong.

-t. Tristanreid 20:01, 18 July 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. The article is wrong, and I shall change it. -MarkHudson 11:41, 4 August 2005 (UTC)

Lambdas replaced in last example
The last (vector ODE) example concluded that solutions to the equation would require that lambda be an eigenvalue of the matrix, but the rest of the example continues to use lambda. I just replaced the lambda with its specific values (4 and 2) in the rest of the problem.

134.126.91.18 18:03, 29 March 2006 (UTC)Spock

Most probably a typo
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors are not mere pretty facts about these vectors;... Should have been matrices? --88.73.234.250 23:05, 3 December 2006 (UTC)


text:
LSAT Prep Guide

The LSAT is Learnable
The first thing to understand about the LSAT is that you can prepare for it by honing the mental skills required by the exam as well as becoming familiar with the format of the test. Many people think that since it is an aptitude test, it is largely a matter of innate ability. Granted, some innate ability is necessary to get a perfect score on the LSAT, but many with sufficient ability will get lower scores because they do not prepare effectively.

This is not to say that learning the LSAT is easy. However, with sufficient time and effort, most students are able to learn the skills necessary to significantly increase their LSAT score.

Attack the Analytical Section First
'''Note: the analytical section has become significantly easier since the writing of the instructions below. It is no longer nearly as highly timed, i.e., there tend to be fewer problems than there were five years ago.'''

Basically, you should understand that if you attack the analytical section in your preparation, then the logical reasoning section should follow easily. The reading comprehension section will come to you easily as well, so long as you are a fast reader. If you are a slow reader (as I was a few years ago), then you will need to do some deliberate practice in your reading in order to improve.

In order to beat the analytical section, you need to see the differences between the types of questions that occur repeatedly. Some of the questions involve ordering, others involve pigeonholing, others both of these at once. Usually, expressing the rule system in a diagram is essential to solving the problem quickly. A pigeonholing problem usually implies a grid diagram, with a spot for each possible assignment of variables. Ordering usually involves a 1 by X grid, with the ordering rules expressed (in shorthand) alongside the grid. In a hybrid game, you will have the X by Y grid along with ordering rules expressed in shorthand.

If you immediately see some further implications of a rule set, then you should express them immediately in shorthand along with the given rules. For instance, if the rules say: John always must go before Sarah Sarah must go with Martin Ralph goes after Martin then you should write out that John must go before Ralph in some form of shorthand. This example is very simple, but the LSAT questions will often give you something more complex which results in some implications that are key to solving the problem set quickly. The reason you should take a moment to write out these implications is that you will solve five or six problems, not just one, under these rules. You want to work out the intricacies just once, write them down, and then refer to your shorthand as you proceed.

Because the analytical section is highly timed, if you see an answer that appears absolutely correct before you've read all alternatives, I recommend you just circle it and move on. Often, if this is not the last problem in the section, you will recognize any possibility of error later, as you work out the other problems. It generally seems that the harder questions come toward the end of the section.

Analytical Section Game Types
The game section consists of several different types of games. The linear, grouping and linear/grouping hybrid games are by far the most common. By one analysis, they make up 75% of all the released LSAT games. You must master these two types thoroughly because they are going to appear on your test for certain.

Linear
Also, known as ranking, the game asks you to arrange different elements in a certain order. Here, the order is important. Let's look at one example. Simple Linear Game During Wikimania 2007 conference, the seven participants, Albert, Bart, Ciara, Don, Ellen, Fred and Greg signed the guestbook consecutively.

Albert signed the guestbook before Greg. Greg signed neither first nor last. Ciara signed either before or after Bart. Fred signed second.

Grouping
Unlike the linear (ranking) games, grouping games do not specify the order of the elements. In these games, how the elements are paired is what matters.

General Method of Preparation
You may or may not wish to buy a "Study Guide" book. I've recommended Master the LSAT for that purpose. But what is essential is that you obtain some of the official PrepTests. If you have thirty days to prepare, buy at least twenty PrepTests, and start working on them immediately.

At first, you must work untimed. The time factor would otherwise distract you from your ability to understand and solve the problems. You must also keep records of which problems you missed, and keep them with the idea that you will be reviewing these particular problems very intensely toward the end of your preparation. You will be looking for patterns in the problems you missed throughout all your tests. Granted, the questions you miss early on will be less relevant than the ones you still miss toward the end of your preparation.

You can get one official PrepTest for free from the LSAT website. You may wish to take this first test under simulated test conditions, just for the sake of gauging how much improvement you make over the study phase. In any case, you want to answer all the questions and see how many you got right (timed or not).

At first, instant feedback on a problem is better than feedback on the whole section after you've completed it. You don't want to go on solving more problems if you're unsure whether you understood, for example, #1. In this case just make sure you have the solutions to #2 and later covered up (credit card works nicely), then check the solution to #1 and move on (if you got it right). If you got it wrong, classify your mistake, (don't get too upset about it), and move on to #2. When you've finished the section in this manner, give an honest assessment of how many you missed, and then give an accurate assessment of why you missed each problem. You should find a surprising number of misread mistakes. Generally, this problem is corrected as you take more PrepTests, and get better at noticing when a problem says, for example, "all of these are true EXCEPT," versus "all of these are true:".

Other types of mistakes may reflect genuine misunderstanding, or a rift between your thinking and that of the test-makers. In the end, in my opinion, what makes LSAT questions answerable is that the test-makers picked an answer. It has nothing to do with actual truth (except in AR). They generally follow rules of logic, but in the end some questions are misphrased. Fortunately, you can learn enough about the test writers, through taking their official tests, that you can distinguish between their traps and their solutions.

If your mistakes were due to genuine misunderstanding, then you need to review the basics. For instance, in Logical Reasoning, you must understand the rules of logic impeccably. The same is true for Reading Comprehension and Analytical Reasoning, but these two have other issues surrounding just the application of logic, (reading quickly and diagramming, respectively).

At least have your problems classified before you attempt another test. At best, go and remediate any major problems before attempting another. But eventually, do move on to another exam. For the second and third test it is still okay to be taking them untimed. By the fourth test, you should definitely be able to take the Logical Reasoning section under a timer and complete it. The Reading Comprehension will either be right with your Logical Reasoning or behind it.

Every aspect of the test is improvable. And every aspect of the test evaluates your ability to make logical deductions and (in the case of Logical reasoning) figure out logical flaws. Contrary to popular opinion, the Reading Comprehension section is most definitely improvable. It is a question of figuring out the way the different points were explicated and proven to you through the passage. It's like reading one big (and slightly less challenging) Logical Reasoning passage. If you do enough of these, you will eventually max this section out.

Another misconception is the hardness of the Analytical Reasoning. It is by far the section you can improve the fastest on. All it requires is several months of diligent games practice and understanding how certain groups of games are similar to others and how they connect with respect to deductions.

Understanding the Basics of Logical Reasoning
If you want to get a score higher than 160, then you have to have a basic understanding of logical reasoning. An argument contains premises and conclusions. Think of premises as the evidence upon which the conclusion is made. The conclusion is the specific point that you are trying to make. For example, take the simple argument: Jenny must not like apples, because I've never seen her eat one. The premise: I've never seen her eat one, and the conclusion: Jenny must not like apples.

Another part of an argument are assumptions. Assumptions are simply unstated premises. They have to be true in order for the conclusion to be true. Think of an argument as a table. The legs of the table would be the premises and assumptions and the table top would be the conclusion. The conclusion rests upon the premises. This is true of all simple arguments.

Finding the conclusion in each stimulus is important. Most of the questions on the Logical Reasoning will have some effect on the conclusion. On the LSAT, some questions will contain conclusion indicators. Not all questions in the Logical Reasoning section will have conclusion indicators, especially Main Point questions. There are also premise indicators. Make sure to memorize the following lists.

On Test Day
There is a lot of basic and very true test advice out there. Don't drink alcohol in the days leading up to the LSAT. Get a good night's rest. Eat a healthful breakfast. Drink a little coffee if you need to. Don't drink too much coffee. Bring a snack to keep the brain active. Common sense stuff, but it counts.

Digital devices are not allowed, but analog watches can be used. The best way to use a watch is to adjust the minute hand and point it at the 12. When it reaches the 7, your time should be up.

On the LSAT, you can cancel your score before you hand in the test if something went wrong. They also allow you to cancel your score by mail. If you finish taking the exam and do not feel comfortable with your performance, it is recommended that you take a day or two to sleep on your cancellation decision rather than canceling your score before you hand in the exam and regretting the decision later. If you ultimately decide to cancel your score my mail, ensure that you send your cancellation request via overnight mail, and retain documentation of the correspondence and tracking information.

"LSAC recommends that you keep proof that your score cancellation request was received by LSAC by the six-calendar-day deadline, as well as a photocopy of your score cancellation request. If you cancel your score, you will not receive a score or copy of your answer sheet. You will receive written notification of a score cancellation and, if you took a disclosed test, you will receive a copy of the test questions and the credited responses for the scored sections as well. Law school reports will reflect that your score was canceled at your request; this advises the law schools that you were exposed to test questions. There are no refunds for canceled scores. Valid score cancellation requests are irreversible and cannot be rescinded."

Additionally, know that you will be taking an extra, experimental section on test day, which is ungraded. However, they will not tell you which section is experimental, so it is imperative that you take each section seriously. The experimental section is used to try out new questions for use on future exams. The additional time required to complete the 4 graded sections of the LSAT along with an additional experimental section and writing sample can be exhausting for unprepared test-takers. Consider occasionally adding a 5th section to your LSAT prep tests to simulate the experimental section and build up your stamina for test day.

title: LSAT Prep Guide


text:
Wikijunior:Solar System/Comets

What is a Comet?
Think of a comet as a big, dirty, gassy snowball. Comets are formed in the ring of rocks, dust, and ice that orbits the Sun beyond Pluto called the Kuiper Belt. Comets form when rocks, dust, and ice condense – that is, join together. As a comet grows larger, it starts to be pulled towards and around the Sun. Comets in our Solar System usually take many years to go around the Sun – from a few dozen years to many thousands of years. This is because they start to orbit the sun from very far away. They make long, egg-shaped orbits around the Sun instead of almost circular ones like the planets.

What does a Comet look like?
The comets that can be seen in the sky without telescopes are unusual because they are the biggest and brightest comets of all. You might have the chance to see one once or twice during your life. Most comets can only be seen with a telescope. The few that can be seen with human eyes are usually just hazy streaks or faint smudges in the night sky.

When comets are very far away from the Sun, they are covered in a coating of icy, black rocks and dust. As a comet approaches the Sun, however, the ice starts to melt. This creates large amounts of water and gas that break through the coating, freeing some of the dust and rocks. Sometimes this water, gas, rocks, and dust can be seen from the Earth as one or two tails streaming away from the comet. Even when only one tail can be seen, there are two, one made from the lighter gas and water, and the other from the rocks, dust, and chunks of ice.

Comets themselves are usually between a few kilometres and several hundred kilometres in size, but their tails can be several million kilometres long.

Seeing Comets in the Sky
The "great comets" that produce particularly spectacular tails are some of the rarest objects in our solar system. Usually they can only be seen about once every hundred years, so it is very rare to see one of these comets. The last great comet appeared in 1910, but it may still be another hundred years before another one comes near the Earth. Astronomers can't predict exactly how or when they will appear as there are still things about our Solar System that they don't understand. If you hear about a comet coming into the sky soon, follow the instructions below to watch it!

 * 1) Find out if the comet is going to be in your area of the sky.
 * 2) Get a telescope or binoculars and some chairs to view it.  Many of the largest comets have never even needed a telescope to see them.
 * 3) Ask your parents to take you to a park, the woods or another dark place away from city lights.
 * 4) Look up into the sky and enjoy this amazing sight.

Usually the dust making up the comet's tail is so faint you can't see it. However, when the Earth's orbit takes it through one of these tails, the dust hits the Earth's atmosphere and burns up.

These are the recurring meteor showers that happen from time to time, and most major meteor showers have now been identified either with an existing comet or the remains of a comet that was observed earlier, usually in previous centuries. When the Earth travels through this "swarm" of dust left behind, you can see shooting stars or meteors at night.

How many Comets are there?
No one really knows. All comets spend most of their orbit so far away from the sun that they can't be seen -- even with a telescope. However, every year amateur astronomers discover over 100 never-seen-before comets that have come close enough to be discovered. As of November 2005, astronomers have discovered 2 857 comets. Most of the comets we see either crash into the Sun, or leave the Solar System entirely. There might be millions of these comets that sooner or later will come within range of our telescopes.

Of all the comets that have ever been seen, astronomers only expect 253 comets to ever return.

How is a Comet named?
A comet is usually named after the astronomer who first discovered it. When several people are involved in its discovery, sometimes you will see multiple names on a comet, like Comet Hale-Bopp, or Comet Shoemaker-Levy. It is generally considered to be a great honor to have a comet named after you.

What are some famous Comets in history?
[[Image:Halley's comet orbit.PNG|right|thumb|upright=1.5|This diagram shows the orbit of Halley's comet around the Sun. There are a few things to note about this orbit.
 * It is much more elongated than a planet's orbit.
 * It is not in the same plane as the planets.
 * It goes round its orbit in the opposite direction. This is called retrograde motion. ]]

 * Halley's Comet - Perhaps the most famous of all comets, and this was the first comet to be identified as a recurring comet.
 * Comet Encke - The second comet to be identified as a recurring comet.
 * Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 - This was the first comet to have been observed hitting another body in the Solar System. In this case, it smashed into the planet Jupiter in what was possibly  the most studied astronomical event in history.

Do comets bring bad luck?
In ancient times people didn't have a very good understanding of what comets really were or where they came from. They were seen as very unusual objects in the sky, and very temporary in nature as well. In some societies it was often a sign of bad events in the future when a comet arrived, associated with the death of a king or a significant military defeat. In other countries comets were considered to bring good luck, bringing increased fertility and more food. The ancient Chinese astronomers seem to have done the best job of actually recording when comets appeared in the sky, and left detailed descriptions of what they looked like and approximately where in the sky each comet was seen.

Even as recently as the 1910 appearance of Halley's Comet there was widespread panic when it was discovered that the Earth might pass through the tail of that comet. The panic was over the possibility of gases from the comet flooding the atmosphere of the Earth with poison. The reality was that there is so little gas in a comet tail that there is no measurable effect in the content of the Earth's atmosphere when an event like this occurs. Next Topic: Kuiper Belt

title: Wikijunior:Solar System/Comets


text:
Wikijunior:Solar System/Glossary

A glossary of words used in this book:

 * Antimatter: the opposite of normal matter. Not usually found outside of a laboratory. When mixed with matter they cancel each other out and release lots of energy.

 * Arachnoid: a scientific term for something shaped like a spider, like the legend of the weaving contest.

 * Asteroid: a large rocky object that orbits a star, but is too small to be a planet. It is found in space.

 * Astronomer: a person who studies stars and planets. Also a person who explores new planets and solar systems.

 * Astronaut: a person who travels beyond the atmosphere of the Earth.

 * Atmosphere: a layer of gases around a planet.

 * Atom: a very tiny particle that is the basic building block of matter. It is the tiniest thing on Earth.

 * Basalt lava: molten basalt, a kind of rock from a volcano.

 * Belt: A name used for bands of dark-colored cloud layers on Jupiter.

 * Binoculars: a folding pair of small telescopes with an eyepiece for each eye.

 * Carbon dioxide: a gas that animals breathe out and plants take in.

 * Carbonaceous chondrite: A type of meteorite that contains a lot of water and organic compounds.

 * Centaur: an icy planetoid that orbits the Sun between Jupiter and Neptune.

 * Channel: a groove in the surface of something.

 * Comet: a small icy object orbiting a star.

 * Conjunction: when two objects orbiting the same body come closest together.

 * Continent: a huge landmass on a planet, usually made of tectonic plates that have locked together.

 * Convection: a type of movement in a gas or liquid that carries heat toward a cooler location. When the gas or liquid cools, it sinks back down again.

 * Core: the center of a planet or star.

 * Corona: a region of very hot gas that surrounds the photosphere of a star.

 * Crater: a dent in a planet's surface made by a meteorite falling on it.

 * Crust: the outermost layer of a planet's surface.

 * Dwarf planet: a rounded body that is in orbit around the Sun. It is not a moon and it is not big enough to sweep up the other objects along its orbit.

 * Eclipse: the shadow made when one object comes between another object and the Sun.

 * Energy: what you use to do work.

 * Environment: the conditions on a planet.

 * Equator: an imaginary line around a planet, perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

 * Erosion: the slow wearing away of a surface, usually from wind, water, and temperature changes.

 * Galaxy: a huge mix of gas, dust, stars, planets and other objects that are held together by their own gravity.

 * Gas giant: one of the four outer planets made out of giant balls of gas.

 * Gravity: the force that pulls on anything with mass (see the About gravity, mass, and weight section).

 * Hemisphere: one half of a planet's surface.

 * Ice cap: A huge body of ice at the pole of a planet.

 * Lagrange point: the places where the gravity from two orbiting objects balance each other.

 * Lava: molten rock above a planet's surface.

 * Latin: the language of the Roman Empire that was later used by scientists to name things.

 * Mantle: a layer of molten rock below a planet's crust.

 * Maria: a large sea of magma that has cooled into solid rock.

 * Mass: the amount of matter that something is made of (see the About gravity, mass, and weight section).

 * Matter: a scientific word for 'stuff'.

 * Meteor: a small or medium-size rock from space that has entered a planet's atmosphere but has not reached the ground.

 * Meteor shower: a large number of meteors that enter a planet's atmosphere at about the same time.

 * Meteorite: A meteorite that made it through a planet's atmosphere and landed on the ground.

 * Methane: a gas that makes up most of the gas giants.

 * Near Earth asteroid: an asteroid that has an orbit that brings it very close to the earth.

 * Newton: a unit of measurement the describes how hard gravity is pulling you down (see the About gravity, mass, and weight section).

 * Observatory: A special building where astronomers keep their telescopes ready for use.

 * Orbit: the path that an object takes around a larger object.

 * Orbit System: a planet and its moons rotating around a star.

 * Organic compounds: compounds (collections of atoms) containing carbon.

 * Phase: how a planet or moon looks to us at some part of its orbit, when it is lit by the Sun.

 * Planet: the celestial body that has a greater mass than all other objects of the same orbit system together and that describes a well-defined, special orbit around a star.

 * Planetary nebula: a great cloud of gas that was blown off by an old star.

 * Photosphere: the layer of a star that releases light and other energy into space.

 * Prominence: an eruption of hot gas at the surface of the Sun.

 * Provisional designation: a temporary name given to a newly-found object. Later a permanent name may be picked.

 * Radar: radio waves used to find distances to and make maps of things.

 * Regolith: loose soil on the Moon created by rocks hitting the surface at very high speed.

 * Retrograde motion: a rotation that is the opposite way from the rotation of most of the Solar System.

 * Retrograde orbit: an orbit that is the opposite way from the orbit of most of the planets and moons in the Solar System.

 * Ring: A flat, circular band of many small, loose objects that orbit a planet.

 * Rotate: to spin around on an axis.

 * Satellite: an object in a stable orbit around a much larger object.

 * Scarp: a type of cliff.

 * Sidereal day: the time for a planet or moon to rotate so that a distant star overhead is again overhead.

 * Silicate: an object composed mostly of the element silicon, which makes rocks.

 * Shooting star: another name for a meteor.

 * Solar day: the time for a planet or moon to rotate so that the Sun is again overhead.

 * Solar wind: a very hot gas that is being blown away from the Sun at a high speed.

 * Spacesuit: A special sealed suit that protects an astronaut. It has its own air supply so the astronaut can breath, and is insulated against the cold of space.

 * Spectrum: the colored band of light made when white light passes through a prism.

 * Star: a huge ball of gas that is so heavy that it causes nuclear reactions inside itself. This produces heat and light.

 * Sulfuric acid: a strong type of acid that is used in car batteries, and contains the element sulphur.

 * Supergiant: a star near the end of its life that puffs out into a huge body many times larger than a normal star.

 * Surface area: the area on the outside of something.

 * Tectonic Plate: a solid part of the crust that very slowly moves across the surface of a planet

 * Telescope: a system of lenses or mirrors that are used to see distant objects.

 * Terrestrial planets: the four planets closest to the Sun.

 * Tether: A cord that is used to keep two things attached to each other, such as an astronaut to a spaceship.

 * Tide: the rise in the surface caused by gravity from another object, such as the Moon or Sun.

 * Tidal lock: when tides have slowed rotation so that a moon or planet is always facing the same side toward the planet or star.

 * Transit: When astronomers observe one object pass in front of a larger object.

 * Trojan asteroid: an asteroid in the same orbit as a planet or moon that always stays the same distance ahead or behind.

 * Volcanic: something that relates to volcanoes.

 * Volume: the size of a three-dimensional object.

 * White dwarf: a star that has run out of fuel to burn and is slowly cooling off.

 * Zone: A name used for bands of light-colored cloud layers on Jupiter.

Wikijunior Il sistema solare/Glossario Wikijunior Sonnensystem/ Glossar fr:Wikijunior:Système solaire/Glossaire

title: Wikijunior:Solar System/Glossary