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A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Polyamides

Polyamides
A polyamide is a polymer containing monomers joined by peptide bonds. They can occur both naturally, examples being proteins, such as wool and silk, and can be made artificially, examples being Nylon, Kevlar and sodium poly(aspartate).

Production from monomers
The amide link is produced from the condensation reaction of an amino group and a carboxylic acid or acid chloride group. A small molecule, usually water, ammonia or hydrogen chloride, is eliminated.

The amino group and the carboxylic acid group can be on the same monomer, or the polymer can be constituted of two different bifunctional monomers, one with two amino groups, the other with two carboxylic acid or acid chloride groups.

Amino Acids can be taken as examples of single monomer (if the difference between Alkyl|R groups is ignored) reacting with identical molecules to form a polyamide:

Kevlar (pictured below) is made from two different monomers which continuously alternate to form the polymer:

Nylon
Nylon represents a family of synthetic polymers, a thermoplastic material, first produced on 28 February 1935 by Gerard J. Berchet of Wallace Carothers' research group at DuPont. The first product was a nylon-bristled toothbrush (1938), followed more famously by women's 'nylons' stockings (1940). It is made of repeating units linked by peptide bonds (another name for amide bonds) and is frequently referred to as polyamide (PA). Nylon was the first commercially successful polymer and the first synthetic fibre to be made entirely from coal, water and air. These are formed into monomers of intermediate molecular mass, which are then reacted to form long polymer chains. It was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in parachutes after the United States entered World War II in 1941, making stockings hard to find until the war's end. Nylon fibres are now used in fabrics and ropes, and solid nylon is used for mechanical parts and as an engineering material. Engineering grade Nylon is processed by extrusion, casting and injection moulding. Type 6/6 Nylon 101 is the most common commercial grade of Nylon, and Nylon 6 is the most common commercial grade of cast Nylon.

Chemistry of nylon
Most nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. The numerical suffix specifies the numbers of carbons donated by the monomers; the diamine first and the diacid second. The most common variant is nylon 6,6, also called nylon 66, which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain. As with other regular copolymers like polyesters and polyurethanes, the repeating unit consists of one of each monomer, so that they alternate in the chain. Since each monomer in this copolymer has the same reactive group on both ends, the direction of the amide bond reverses between each monomer, unlike natural polyamide proteins which have overall directionality: C terminal → N terminal. In the laboratory, nylon 6,6 can also be made using adipoyl chloride instead of adipic acid.

It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to chain termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons (amu). To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid "nylon salt" can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1:1 ratio of the acid and the base to neutralize each other. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer. Above 20,000 daltons, it is impossible to spin the chains into yarn, so to combat this, some acetic acid is added to react with a free amine end group during polymer elongation to limit the molecular weight. In practice, and especially for 6,6, the monomers are often combined in a water solution. The water used to make the solution is evaporated under controlled conditions, and the increasing concentration of "salt" is polymerized to the final molecular weight.

DuPont patented nylon 6,6, so in order to compete, other companies (particularly the German BASF) developed the homopolymer nylon 6, or polycaprolactam — not a condensation polymer, but formed by a ring-opening polymerisation (alternatively made by condensation polymerisation of aminocaproic acid).

The properties of nylon 6 are sometimes indistinguishable from those of nylon 6,6—except for melt temperature (N6 is lower) and some fibre properties in products like carpets and textiles. There is also a nylon 9.

Other nylons include other copolymerized dicarboxylic acid/diamines. For example, some aromatic nylons are polymerised with the addition of diacids like terephthalic acid (→ Kevlar) or isophthalic acid (→ Nomex), more commonly associated with polyesters.

Because of the way polyamides are formed, nylon would seem to be limited to unbranched, straight chains. But "star" branched nylon can be produced by the condensation of dicarboxylic acids with polyamines having three or more amine groups.

The general reaction is:

A molecule of water (or another small molecule e.g. HCl) is given off and the nylon is formed. Its properties are determined by the R and R' groups in the monomers. In nylon 6,6, R' = 6C and R = 4C alkanes, but one also has to include the two carboxyl carbons in the diacid to get the number it donates to the chain. In Kevlar, both R and R' are benzene rings.

Bulk properties of nylon
Above their melting temperatures, thermoplastics like nylon are amorphous solids or viscous fluids in which the chains approximate random coils. Below Tm, amorphous regions alternate with regions which are lamellar crystals. The amorphous regions contribute elasticity and the crystalline regions contribute strength and rigidity. The planar amide (-CO-NH-) groups are very polar, so nylon forms multiple hydrogen bonds among adjacent strands. Because the nylon backbone is so regular and symmetrical, especially if all the amide bonds are in the trans configuration, nylons often have high crystallinity and make excellent fibers. The amount of crystallinity depends on the details of formation, as well as on the kind of nylon. Apparently it can never be quenched from a melt as a completely amorphous solid.

Nylon 6,6 can have multiple parallel strands aligned with their neighboring peptide bonds at coordinated separations of exactly 6 and 4 carbons for considerable lengths, so the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens can line up to form interchain hydrogen bonds repeatedly, without interruption. Nylon 5,10 can have coordinated runs of 5 and 8 carbons. Thus parallel (but not antiparallel) strands can participate in extended, unbroken, multi-chain β-pleated sheets, a strong and tough supermolecular structure similar to that found in natural silk and the β-keratins in [eathers. (Proteins have only an amino acid α-carbon separating sequential -CO-NH- groups.) Nylon 6 will form uninterrupted H-bonded sheets with mixed directionalities, but the β-sheet wrinkling is somewhat different. The three-dimensional disposition of each alkane hydrocarbon chain depends on rotations about the 109.47° tetrahedral bonds of singly-bonded carbon atoms.

When extruded into fibres through pores in an industrial spinneret, the individual polymer chains tend to align because of viscous flow. If subjected to cold drawing afterwards, the fibres align further, increasing their crystallinity, and the material acquires additional tensile strength. Block nylon tends to be less crystalline, except near the surfaces due to shearing stresses during formation. Nylon is clear and colourless, or milky, but is easily dyed. Multistranded nylon cord and rope is slippery and tends to unravel. The ends can be melted and fused with a flame to prevent this.

There are carbon fibre/nylon composites with higher density than pure nylon.

Historical uses
During World War II, nylon replaced Asian silk in parachutes. It was also used to make tires, tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military supplies. It was even used in the production of a high-grade paper for U.S. currency. At the outset of the war, cotton accounted for more than 80% of all fibres used, and manufactured and wool fibres accounted for the remaining 20%. By August, 1945, manufactured fibres had taken a market share of 25% and cotton had dropped.

Some people, such as Jack Herer, surmise that Cannabis sativa was made illegal because the fibres from the hemp plant, used for fabrics and ropes, were in strong competition with nylon (along with paper, fuel, and other industries). While the production of rope from hemp requires no chemicals or industrial processes, nylon fibre is more than twice as strong as hemp and weighs 25% less. An additional problem is that hemp rope rots from the inside out, making it difficult to determine the condition of a rope at a glance. While hemp was originally used in climbing rope, this is no longer the case, even in countries where cannabis is legal. Even though industrially produced nylon rope is superior than hemp, hemp is a strong alternative to nylons and plastics for many other products, and has the additional advantage of being biodegradable.

Uses of nylon

 * nylon fibre
 * clothing
 * tights and stockings
 * toothbrush bristles
 * fishing lines
 * nets
 * carpet fibre
 * airbag fibre
 * auto parts: intake manifolds, gas (petrol) tanks
 * slings and rope used in climbing gear
 * machine parts, such as gears and bearings
 * parachutes
 * metallized nylon balloons
 * classical and flamenco guitar strings
 * paintball marker bolts
 * racquetball, squash, and tennis racquet strings

Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the cocoon of silkworm larvae reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance for which silk is prized comes from the fibres' triangular prism-like structure, which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles.

Early history
Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, possibly as early as 6000 BC and definitely by 3000 BC. Legend gives credit to a Chinese Empress Xi Ling-Shi. Though first reserved for the Emperors of China, its use spread gradually through Chinese culture both geographically and socially. From there, silken garments began to reach regions throughout Asia. Silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants, because of its texture and lustre. Because of the high demand for the fabric, silk was one of the staples of international trade prior to industrialization.

Animal rights
The process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larvae. Silk has recently come under criticism from some animal rights activists who claims that the common practice of boiling silkworms alive in their cocoons is cruel.

Other uses
In addition to clothing manufacture and other handicrafts, silk is also used for items like parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and artillery gunpowder bags. Early bulletproof vests were also made from silk in the era of blackpowder weapons until roughly World War I. Silk undergoes a special manufacturing process to make it adequate for its use in surgery as non-absorbable sutures. Chinese doctors have also used it to make prosthetic arteries. Silk cloth is also used as a material to write on.

Wool

 * See Alpaca wool, Angora wool (of rabbits) and Cashmere wool (of goats) for information about other wools.

Wool is the fibre derived from the fur of animals of the Caprinae family, principally sheep and goats, but the hair of certain species of other mammals such as alpacas and rabbits may also be called wool. This article deals explicitly with the wool produced from domestic sheep.

Most of the fibre from domestic sheep has two qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it has scales which overlap like shingles on a roof and it is crimped; in some fleeces the wool fibres have more than 20 bends per inch.

The quality of wool is determined by the following factors, fibre fineness, length, scale structure, colour, cleanliness, and freedom from damage. For example merino wool is typically 3-5 inches in length and is very fine. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat are typically more course, larger diameter, and fibres are 1.5 to 6 inches in length. Freedom from damage refers to the structure of the wool when it is removed from the sheep and implies that the wool is clean, white, long, fine, and free of defects from the environment[2].

Both the scaling and the crimp make it possible to spin and felt the fleece. They help the individual fibres attach to each other so that they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have a greater bulk than other textiles and retain air, which causes the product to retain heat. Insulation also works both ways; Bedouin and Tuareg use wool clothes to keep the heat out.

The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibres. A fine wool like merino may have up to a hundred crimps per inch, while the coarser wools like karakul may have as few as one to two crimps per inch.

Hair, by contrast, has little if any scale and no crimp and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed, and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products.

Wool is generally a creamy white colour, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colours such as black, brown (also called moorit) and grey.

Wool straight off a sheep contains a high level of grease (thus "greasy wool") which contains valuable lanolin. In this state it can be worked into yarn or knitted into water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. The grease is generally removed for processing by scouring with detergent and alkali. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in the cosmetics industry.

After shearing, the wool is separated into five main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk), pieces, bellies, crutchings and locks. The latter four are packaged and sold separately. The quality of fleece is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified wool classer tries to group wools of similar gradings together to maximise the return for the farmer or sheep owner.

The fibre diameter of wool varies from 15 micrometres (superfine merino) to 30 or more micrometres for the coarser wools. The finer diameters are generally more valuable.

Due to high concentrations of carbon dioxide, sheep wool does not burn and is therefore also used as an insulation.

Production of wool
Global wool production is approximately 1.3 million tonnes per annum of which 60% goes into apparel. Australia, China and New Zealand are leading commercial producers of wool. Most Australian wool comes from the merino breed. Breeds such as Lincoln and Romney produce coarser fibres and wool of these sheep is usually used for making carpets.

In the United States, Texas, New Mexico and Colorado also have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). There is also a thriving 'home flock' contingent of small scale farmers who raise small hobby flocks of speciality sheep for the handspinning market. These small scale farmers may raise any type of sheep they wish, so the selection of fleeces is quite wide.

Global wool clip 2004/2005
(source)
 * 1) Australia: 25% of global wool clip (475 million kg greasy, 2004/2005)
 * 2) China: 18%
 * 3) New Zealand: 11%
 * 4) Argentina: 3%
 * 5) Turkey: 2%
 * 6) Iran: 2%
 * 7) United Kingdom: 2%
 * 8) India: 2%
 * 9) Sudan: 2%
 * 10) South Africa: 1%
 * 11) United States: 0.77%

Keeping with the times, organic wool is becoming more and more popular. This blend of wool is very limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia[1].

Uses of wool
In addition to clothing, wool has been used for carpeting, felt, insulation (see links) and upholstery. Wool felt covers piano hammers and it is used to absorb odours and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt.

Mohair
Mohair is a silk-like fabric made from the hair of the Angora goat. Mohair is durable, light and warm. Mohair is used to make sweaters and other clothing and blankets. It is also popular material to make teddy bears.

Mohair should not be confused with the fur from the angora rabbit which is called angora.

The term mohair is often used to describe a type of material used for the folding roof on convertible cars, however in this sense it has no connection with the term's more traditional usage. In these circumstances mohair refers to a form of denim-like canvas.

Angora wool
Angora wool is a generic term for either Mohair if the hair is from an Angora goat or Angora fabric if the hair is from an Angora rabbit.

Alpaca wool
Alpaca fibre is warmer than sheep's wool and lighter in weight. It is soft and luxurious and lacks the "prickle" factor. However, as with all fleece-producing animals, quality varies from animal to animal, and some alpaca produce fibre which is less than ideal. Fibre and conformation are the two most important factors in determining an alpaca's value.

In physical structure, alpaca fibre is somewhat akin to hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the spinner to produce satisfactory yarn with comparative ease. Alpaca fiber can even be spun into yarn with one's fingers.

Alpaca fiber industry
In recent years, interest in alpaca fibre clothing has resurged, perhaps partly because alpaca ranching has a reasonably low impact on the environment. Outdoor sports enthusiasts recognize that its lighter weight and better warmth provides them more comfort in colder weather, so outfitters such as R.E.I. and others are beginning to stock more alpaca products. Occasionally, alpaca fibre is woven together with merino wool to attain even more softness and durability. Alpaca fibre is difficult to felt alone but by combining it with merino this is overcome.

The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing process of alpaca and mohair are similar to that of wool.

Cashmere wool
Cashmere wool is wool obtained from the Kashmir goat. The name derives from an archaic spelling of Kashmir. It is sometimes incorrectly applied to any extremely soft wool, similar to Champagne being used to describe any sparkling wine.

Classification
Cashmere is characterized by its soft fibers. For a natural sheep fiber to be considered cashmere, it must be under 19 micrometers in diameter and at least 3.175 centimeters long. It is noted as providing a natural light-weight insulation without bulk. Fibers are highly adaptable and it easily constructed into fine or thick yarns, and light to heavy-weight fabrics. Appropriate for all climates, high moisture content allows insulation properties to change with the relative humidity in the air.

Primary uses
Cashmere is used in men's and women's clothing. One of the most notable applications of cashmere is the highly regarded cashmere sweater.

General characteristics
Cashmere is characterized as luxuriously soft fiber, For a natural sheep fiber to be considered cashmere, it must be under 19 micrometers in diameter and at least 3.175 centimeters long.It is noted as providing a natural light-weight insulation without bulk. Cashmere is extremely warm (in order to serve its original purpose of protecting goats from cold mountain temperatures.) Fibres are highly adaptable and are easily constructed into fine or thick yarns, and light to heavy-weight fabrics. Appropriate for all climates, a high moisture content allows insulation properties to change with the relative humidity in the air.

The finest fibers are gathered from the saddle of the Cashmere goat; most of the cashmere comes off of the sides and back, from the shoulder to the rump. It is a misconception that the finest fibers come from the neck and belly, as these parts collect the most debris. If the goat is shorn, the fiber must be "de-haired" to remove the coarse, unusable guard hair. Sometimes the fine fibers are collected by combing the goat; either method is time consuming and tedious, thus the high cost of cashmere.

Natural colours
The original undyed or natural colors of cashmere wool are various shades of grey, brown and white. Source of the fibre Cashmere wool fiber for clothing and other textile articles is obtained from the Cashmere domestic goat. The goat (Capra hircus laniger) is a mammal belonging to the subfamily Caprinae of the family Bovidae. The goats produce a double fleece consisting of the fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair mingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. In order for the fine under down to be sold and processed further, it must first be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair and after de-hairing the resulting "cashmere" is ready to be dyed and converted into yarn, fabrics and garments. The word 'cashmere' is sometimes incorrectly applied to any extremely soft wool.

Source of the fiber
The Cashmere (Kashmir) or down goat is the source of the wool that becomes cashmere fibre for clothing and other textile articles.

The goats produce a double fleece consisting of the fine, soft undercoat or underdown of hair commingled with a straighter and much coarser outer coating of hair called guard hair. In order for the fine underwool to be classified and used as cashmere it must be de-haired. De-hairing is a mechanical process that separates the coarse hairs from the fine hair and after de-hairing the resulting "cashmere" is ready to be dyed to colour and converted into yarn, fabrics and garments.

Production
China is the largest producer of raw cashmere and current estimates of production put their annual clip at approximately 10,000 metric tons. Mongolia produces somewhat more than 3,000 tons annually with Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Pakistan, India and Central Asian Republics producing significant but lesser amounts. In total the annual world clip is estimated to be in excess of 15,000 but less than 20,000 tons. After the natural animal grease, accumulated dirt and coarse hairs have been removed from the fleece creating "pure cashmere" it is estimated the refined quantity is only about 6,500 tons.

Pure cashmere can be dyed and spun into yarns and knit into sweaters, hats, gloves, socks and other apparel items or woven into fabrics then cut and assembled into garments such as outer coats, jackets, pants, scarves, blankets and other highly luxurious and desirable items.

Leather
Leather is a material created through the tanning of [hides, pelts and skins of animals, primarily cows. Leather is a very important clothing material, and its other uses are legion. Together with wood], leather formed the basis of much ancient technology. Leather with the fur still attached is simply called fur.

There are a number of processes whereby the skin of a dead animal can be formed into a supple, strong material commonly called leather.

Leather—usually vegetable-tanned leather—can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. Frequent oiling of leather keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.

Dyeing leather
Leather dying usually involves the use of spirit or alcohol based dyes where alcohol quickly gets absorbed into moistened leather, carrying the pigment deep into the surface. "Hi-liters" and "Antiquing" stains can be used to add more definition to patterns. These have pigments that will break away from the higher points of a tooled piece and so pooling in the background areas give nice contrasts. Leaving parts unstained also provides a kind of contrast.

Alternatives to spirit stains might include a number of options. Shoe polish could be used to dye and preserve leather. Oils, neatsfoot or linseed, can be applied to preserve leather but darkens them. For that reason, a wax paste more often than not serves as the final coat.


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A-level Applied Science/Colour Chemistry/Fibres/Synthetics

Nylon is a form of synthetic fibre. See under Polyamides and protein fibres.

Cellulose fibres such as cellulose acetate are chemically-modified. See under Cellulose fibres.

Acrylic
Acrylic fibres are synthetic fibres made from a polymer with a weight average molecular weight of ~100,000. To be called acrylic in the U.S., the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer. Typical comonomers are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate.

Properties
Acrylic fibre don't dye very well but have excellent colourfastness. Because acrylic fibres form anions in solution, they are very suitable for use with basic dyes. It is resilient, retains its shape, and resists shrinkage and wrinkles. It is quite varied in form and sometimes has an appearance similar to wool or cotton.

The disadvantages of acrylic is that it tends to fuzz (or pill) easily and that it does not insulate the wearer as well as cashmere. Many products like pashmina or cashmina use this material to create the illusion and deception of cashmere to the consumer.

Acrylic is resistant to moths, oils, and chemicals, and is very resistant to deterioration from sunlight exposure. However, static and pilling can be a problem.

Aesthetic Qualities
Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel.

Uses
End uses include sweaters, hand-knitting yarns, rugs, awnings, boat covers, and as a precursor for carbon fibre. Production of acrylic fibres is centered in the Far East, declining in Europe and now shut down (except for precursor) in the U.S.

Acrylic has recently been used in clothing as a cheaper alternative to cashmere, due to the similar feeling of the materials.

Synthesis
The polymer is formed by free radical polymerisation. The fibre is produced by dissolving the polymer in a solvent, metering it through a multi-hole spinnerette and coagulating the resultant filaments in an aqueous solution of the same solvent. Washing, stretching, drying and crimping complete the processing.

Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers, or, more specifically condensation polymers, which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although polyesters do exist in nature, polyester generally refers to the large family of synthetic polyesters (plastics) which includes polycarbonate and above all polyethylene terephthalate (Terylene, Dacron, PET or PETE). PET is one of the most important thermoplastic polyesters. Extreme care with fire around polyester should be exercised, as polyester is extremely flammable and flames can leap from a match to polyester at a range of at least three inches.

History of polyester
Terylene was the first polyester fibre and was produced in England. It was brought to the U.S. in 1951 by Dupont under the trade name Dacron.

Properties
Polyester has excellent durability, abrasion resistance, tenacity and high elongation. The fibre also has high appearance retention, dimensional stability, elastic recovery and excellent resiliency. It remains very strong when it is wet.

Aesthetic Qualities
The fibre blends well with other fibres and maintains a natural look. Polyester can be engineered to be very similar in appearance and feel to wool, linen and silk.

Polyester clothing is generally considered to have a "less natural" feeling to it compared to natural fibres. The low absorbency causes the fabric to be very uncomfortable. This can be improved through blending it with other fibres. Polyester fibres are often spun together with fibres of cotton, producing a cloth (sometimes called 'polycotton') with some of the better properties of each.

Static can be controlled through additives and changes in the compound.

Environmental impact
The impact is very similar to that of nylon. Polyester is extensively recycled, and less pollution is created when the recycled fibres are reengineered than when new ones are created.

Uses
Polyester is the most widely used manufactured fibre in the U.S. Woven fabrics are used for apparel and home furnishings. These include bed sheets, bedspreads, curtains and draperies. Polyester used in knitted fabrics include shirts and blouses. Fiberfill is also used to stuff pillows, comforters and cushion padding.

The first synthetic polyester, glycerine phthalate, was used in the First World War for waterproofing. Natural polyesters have been known since around 1830.

 * Fibres (and microfibres) for fabric
 * Bottles
 * Films such as biaxially oriented PET film, often aluminised
 * Photographic film (after cellulose triacetate, polyester is the most important substrate film base)
 * A common matrix for glass-reinforced plastic (commonly called "fibreglass") and other composite materials.
 * Liquid crystal displays
 * Holograms
 * Filters
 * Dielectric film for capacitors and film insulation for wire, and insulating tapes
 * Carpet

Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystalline polymers. In general they have extremely good mechanical properties and are extremely heat resistant. For that reason, they can be used as an abradable seal in jet engines.

Synthesis
Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction.

Azeotrope esterification
In this classical method an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react to form a carboxylic ester. To assemble a polymer, the water formed by the reaction must be continually removed by azeotrope distillation.

Acylation (HCl method)
The acid begins as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water.

 * Silyl method
 * In this variant of the HCl method, the carboxylic acid chloride is converted with the trimethyl silyl ether of the alcohol component; trimethyl silyl chloride is produced.

Acetate method (esterification)

 * Silyl acetate method

Ring-opening polymerisation
Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Cookbook:Huevos Rancheros

| Mexican cuisine | Breakfast

Huevos Rancheros (Spanish for "eggs ranch-style") is a traditional Mexican country breakfast. From its home in Mexico, the dish has spread throughout the Americas.

Ingredients

 * 3 tablespoons (45 ml) vegetable oil
 * 1 medium onion, chopped
 * 1 clove garlic (optional), minced
 * Chopped chile peppers, to taste
 * 1 pinch chili powder
 * 4 plum tomatoes, peeled, seeded and chopped
 * 2 corn tortillas
 * 2 eggs
 * ½ teaspoon sugar
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste
 * 1 tablespoon cilantro or parsley (optional), finely chopped

Procedure

 * 1) To prepare the ranchero sauce, in a skillet, heat 1 tablespoon oil over medium-high heat. Add the onion and optional garlic, and sauté until softened but not brown (4–5 minutes).
 * 2) Add the tomatoes, peppers, chili powder, salt and a few grinds of black pepper and reduce to a simmer. Simmer for about 10 minutes, until the sauce begins to thicken up.
 * 3) Add the cilantro or parsley, turn off the heat and cover the pan to keep the sauce warm.
 * 4) In another skillet, lightly fry the tortillas in 1 tablespoon of oil. Remove and drain.
 * 5) If necessary, add additional oil to the second skillet, and fry the eggs until they are "sunny-side up". Transfer the eggs to the tortillas, and cover with the ranchero sauce.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Add sliced avocado, shredded Monterey Jack cheese, refried beans, or fried potatoes.
 * Scramble the eggs instead of frying them.
 * Quick and simple method is to scramble eggs and add salsa to taste.

title: Cookbook:Huevos Rancheros


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Measure Theory/Basic Structures And Definitions/Semialgebras, Algebras and σ-algebras

Semialgebras
Roughly speaking, a semialgebra over a set $$\,X$$ is a class that is closed under intersection and semi closed under set difference. Since these restrictions are strong, it's very common that the sets in it have a defined characterization and then it's easier to construct measures over those sets. Then, we'll see the structure of an algebra, that it's closed under set difference, and then the σ-algebra, that it is an algebra and closed under countable unions. The first structures are of importance because they appear naturally on sets of interest, and the last one because it's the central structure to work with measures, because of its properties.

Definition 1.1.1: A class $$\mathcal{S} \subseteq \mathcal{P}(X)$$ is a Semialgebra over $$\,X$$ if:
 * The empty set and whole set are in $$\mathcal{S}$$:
 * $$ \emptyset \in \mathcal{S}, X \in \mathcal{S} $$

 * It's closed under intersection:
 * $$ \forall A, B \in S \Rightarrow A \cap B \in \mathcal{S} $$

 * The set difference of any two sets in $$\mathcal{S}$$ is the finite disjoint union of elements in $$\mathcal{S}$$:
 * $$ \forall A, B \in S, \; \; \exist \{C_i\}_{i=1}^{n} \subseteq \mathcal{S} $$ pairwise-disjoint such that $$\; A \setminus B = \bigcup_{i=1}^{n} C_i $$

Example: It might seem—at first sight—that a semialgebra is a very restricted subset of $$ \mathcal{P}(X)$$, but it's easy to prove that with $$ X = \mathbb{R} $$ the class of all intervals (bounded, unbounded, semi-open, open, closed or any other class) is a semialgebra over $$ \mathbb{R}$$ and clearly this set is non-trivial. For example, let A be $$(2, 5)$$ and B be $$(3, 4)$$. Then $$ A \setminus B = (2, 3] \cup [4, 5) = C $$, say. Let us call $$(2, 3] = C1 $$ and $$ [4, 5) = C2 $$. Then $$C = C1 \cup C2, C \notin S$$ (because it is not an interval) even though $$C1, C2 \in S$$. Further, $$C1$$ and $$C2$$ are disjoint.

Algebras
An algebra over a set $$\,X$$ is a class closed under all finite set operations.

Definition 1.1.2 : A class $$\mathcal{A} \subseteq \mathcal{P}(X)$$ is an Algebra over $$\,X$$ if:

 * 1) $$X \in \mathcal{A}$$
 * 2) $$\forall A,B \in \mathcal{A} \Rightarrow A \setminus B \in \mathcal{A}$$

This definition suffices for the closure under finite operations. The following properties shows it

Proposition 1.1 : A class $$\mathcal{A} \subseteq \mathcal{P}(X)$$ is an algebra if and only if $$\mathcal{A}$$ satisfies :

Proof : $$(\Rightarrow)$$
 * 1) $$X \in \mathcal{A}$$
 * 2) $$\forall A \in \mathcal{A} \Rightarrow A^c \in \mathcal{A}$$
 * 3) $$\forall A, B \in \mathcal{A} \Rightarrow A \cap B \in \mathcal{A}$$

Property 1 is identical.

For property 2, note that $$\forall A \in \mathcal{A} $$:

 * $$ A^c = X \setminus A \in \mathcal{A} $$

Finally for property 3, since the property 2 holds, $$\forall B \in \mathcal{A}$$ :

 * $$ B^c \in \mathcal{A} \Rightarrow A \setminus B^c = A \cap B \in \mathcal{A}$$

$$(\Leftarrow)$$

Property 1 is identical.

For all $$ A, B \in \mathcal{A} $$, from property 2 we have that $$ B^c \in \mathcal{A}$$. Property 3 then implies that $$ A \cap B^c \in \mathcal{A}$$, which is equivalent to $$ A\setminus B \in \mathcal{A} $$ $$ \Box $$

Note: It's easy to see that given $$ \forall A, B \in \mathcal{A}$$, then, from properties 2 and 3, $$(A^c \cap B^c)^c = A \cup B \in \mathcal{A} $$, so an algebra is closed for all finite set operations.

σ-algebras
A σ-algebra (also called σ-ring) over a set $$\,X$$ is an algebra closed under countable unions.

Definition 1.1.3 : A class $$\mathcal{T} \subseteq \mathcal{P}(X)$$ is a σ-algebra over $$\,X$$ if:

\cup_{n \in \mathbb{N}} A_{n} \in \mathcal{T}$$
 * 1) $$\mathcal{T}$$ is an algebra
 * 2) $$\forall \_{n \in \mathbb{N}} \subset \mathcal{T} \Rightarrow

Note: A σ-algebra is also closed under countable intersections, because the complement of a countable union, is the countable intersection of the complement of the sets considered in the union.

Theorem
Let $$X$$ be a set and let $$\mathcal{F}$$ be a collection of subsets of $$X$$. Then, there exists a smallest σ-ring $$\mathcal{F}^*$$ containing $$\mathcal{F}$$, that is, if $$\mathcal{M}$$ is a σ-ring containing $$\mathcal{F}$$, then $$\mathcal{F}^*\subseteq\mathcal{M}$$

Proof
Let $$\mathcal{F}^*$$ be the intersection of all σ-rings that contain $$\mathcal{F}$$. It is easy to see that $$E\in\mathcal{F}^*\Rightarrow E^c\in\mathcal{F}^*$$ and that $$\mathcal{M}_1,\mathcal{M}_2,\ldots\in\mathcal{F}^*\Rightarrow\bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty}\mathcal{M}_i\in\mathcal{F}^*$$ and thus, $$\mathcal{F}^*$$ is a σ-ring.

$$\mathcal{F}^*$$ is sometimes said to be the extension of $$\mathcal{F}$$

Now, let $$\mathcal{T}$$ be a topology over $$X$$. Thus, there exists a σ-algebra $$\mathcal{B}$$ over $$X$$ such that $$\mathcal{B}=\mathcal{T}^*$$. $$\mathcal{B}$$ is called Borel algebra and the members of $$\mathcal{B}$$ are called Borel sets


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User talk:Bunder

Talk goes here --Bunder 08:49, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bunder


text:
GENtle/Command line options

GENtle can be called from the command line/shell/DOS box. You can automatically import and open files by adding them to the command line: > GENtle my_sequence.gb my_sequencing.ab1

New parameters as of version 1.8.6:
 * --view-sequencing-start=X:When auto-opening an alignment, show only the sequence from position X on (first position=1)
 * --view-sequencing-end=X:When auto-opening an alignment, show only the sequence up to position X on (first position=1)
 * --view-sequencing-reverse-complement:When auto-opening an alignment, show the reverse complement sequence
 * --no-splash-screen:Do not show splash screen
 * --no-tips:Do not show tips

title: GENtle/Command line options


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User:Viller~enwikibooks

See this: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Viller

title: User:Viller~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Estonia

| European cuisines

Introduction
The cuisine of Estonia is a bit similar to Finnish. The national foods of Estonia are often thought to be black pudding, sauerkraut, mulgipuder, kanepitemp, kama, jellied meat and rye bread. Estonians used to improve their foods and drinks with honey but now it's starting to be forgotten. The food on the table depended on the season. In the winter the dishes were heavy but in the end of the summer there were lots of vegetables and root vegetables.

Soups

 * Beer soup
 * Milk soup with egg
 * Sauerkraut soup with beans
 * Gruel
 * Bean soup
 * Milk soup with pearl barley
 * Wedding soup or wedding mash
 * Baltic herring soup
 * Sauerkraut soup with cold mashed potatoes
 * Lentil soup with smoked meat
 * Meat and dumpling soup
 * Sour sorrel soup
 * Beetroot soup

Meat dishes

 * Pigs' feet in aspic
 * Headcheese
 * Blood dumplings
 * Blood bread
 * Blood pancakes
 * Blood sausage
 * Veal slices in dough
 * Smoked lamb shank
 * Meat and potatoes

Fish dishes

 * Dried flounder
 * Salted Baltic herring
 * Stewed dried fish
 * Baltic herring in vinegar
 * Baltic herring casserole
 * Pike stew
 * Fresh pike sautéed in butter
 * Cold herring filling in unpeeled potatoes
 * Baltic herring rolls re-baked with egg and mustard sauce
 * Stewed pike with horseradish
 * Salted whitefish with additions
 * Fish rolls in aspic

Vegetable and mushroom dishes

 * Baked unpeeled potatoes
 * Vegetable cooked in fast broth
 * Sweet and sour fresh cabbage
 * Mulgi sauerkraut
 * Pea spread
 * Hempseed spread or jurss
 * Potato salad with red beets
 * Potato-pearl barley porridge or mulgi porridge
 * Meatloaf of peas
 * Pearl barley and mushroom dish
 * Salted mushroom salad
 * Large mushroom pie

Desserts and pastries

 * Honey cakes
 * Mulgi curd cake
 * Wheat bread
 * Rye bread
 * New Year's cake
 * Barley bread
 * Wedding cake
 * Plaited sweet bread
 * Berry froth
 * Farina cream
 * Bread soup
 * Sour milk pancakes
 * Cabbage pie
 * Baked apples
 * Kefir jelly with gooseberries
 * Curd pie
 * Bubert

Other

 * Curd with caraway seeds
 * Egg butter
 * Cottage cheese
 * Sour milk crumbs
 * Oatmeal flummery
 * Kama dumplings
 * Nott or thick sauce
 * Russian salad

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Estonia


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Suzuki UC125/Specifications

UC 125 X Epicuro 2001

Overall Length: 1 990 mm

Overall Width: 685 mm (27.0 in)

Overall Height: 1 070 mm

Seat Height: 760 mm (29.9 in)

Wheelbase: 1 350 mm

Dry Weight: 123 kg

Engine type: Water-cooled 125 cc SOHC, 4 valves. single cylinder, variomatic transmission. 15 hp (11 kW)/ 9,500 rpm, 10,9 Nm/ 8.900 rpm.

title: Suzuki UC125/Specifications


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Jeep Liberty/Chrysler 8.25"

The Chrysler 8.25", also known as the Corporate 8.25", is the 29 spline steel rear axle found in most Jeep Liberties. In 2003, the rear drum brakes were replaced with discs. Strength wise, the Chrysler 8.25" fits between the Dana 35 and Dana 44. The axle has two more splines than the Dana 35 and one less spline than the Dana 44.  It also uses the larger 6508 bearings, while the Dana 35 uses smaller 5707 bearings.  Unlike the Dana 44 and like the Dana 35 it has the weaker c-clips.  The Chrysler 8.25" requires a Chrysler Bearing Preload Wrench, Miller# C-4164 or OTC# 6602, to set the carrier bearing preload. It also requires either a 1-1/8", 1-1/4", or 1-5/16" socket to remove and install the pinion nut.

Axle Shafts

The Chrysler 8.25" uses c-clips to hold the axle shafts into the differential side gears. Limited clearance between the axle shaft c-clip grooves and side gears can make c-clip installation and removal difficult.  When c-clip installation is difficult, selecting thinner c-clips should allow easier future removal.  ARB Air Lockers actually come with multiple c-clip thicknesses from which the installer can choose.

Removal of the c-clips is greatly eased by removing the spider gear pinion shaft. Rotate the carrier until the pinion shaft pin is exposed and remove the pin, pinion shaft, and small spider gears. The axle shafts can now be pushed in further to allow the c-clips to fall out with little effort. Re-install everything in the reverse order, being sure to retain the thrust washers on all four spider gears. Loctite is used on the pinion shaft pin from factory and should also be used during re-assembly.

Yukon manufactures 30-7/8" 29-spline c-clip axle shafts, specifically designed for the Jeep Liberty's Chrysler 8.25" rear axle. Made of 1541H steel, they are 25% stronger than the OEM shafts.

Superior also manufactured 30-7/8" 29-spline c-clip axle shafts, for the Jeep Liberty's Chrysler 8.25" rear axle. They were made of 4340 chromoly steel and were advertised to be 35% stronger than OEM shafts (Superior Gear is no longer in business).

The majority of aftermarket shafts (if not all) for the Chrysler 8.25" 27 and 29 spline are 1541H shafts.

Differential Covers
The Ruff Stuff Specialties Chrysler 8.25" .375 One Piece Diff Cover is currently the only fabricated cover constructed of 3/8" plate steel with a 1/2" plate steel ring. It features a 1" fill plug. Many companies make 1/4" covers but Ruffstuff is the only company known for a 3/8" thick cover. This cover is welded inside and out and then machined flat.

The Blue Torch Fabworks 8.25" Differential Cover is constructed of 1/4" plate steel with a 3/8" plate steel ring. It's built to resist peel up and features a protected fill plug.

Moe's Metalworks 8.25" Differential Cover

The PML 8.25" Differential Cover is constructed of aluminum, features both a threaded fill plug and a threaded drain plug, and holds 3/4 quart more oil than stock. The cover also comes with heatsinking fins, but they must be ground off if the cover's to be used in conjunction with a fuel tank skid plate.

Gear Lube
The gear lube in the Chrysler 8.25" should be changed every 12,000 miles. Off-roading and towing subjects the differential to increased torque, dirt, and water. If the Liberty isn't off-roaded, isn't used for towing, and follows the Schedule A maintenance plan, it may be possible to stretch this interval. The differential housing requires 4.4 pints (2.08 liters) of lube and, if a limited slip is present, 4 ounces (118 milliliters) of limited slip additive. Aftermarket differential covers will change the required lube volume. 75W-90 dino lube should be used for light duty applications and 75W-140 synthetic for heavy duty off-roading and towing.

Ring & Pinion Gears

The following companies sell ring and pinion gear sets for the 8.25":

 * Genuine Gear - considered the worst among off-roaders
 * Motive Gear
 * Richmond
 * Sierra Gear & Axle - re-branded by West Coast Differential
 * Superior Axle & Gear
 * US Gear - considered the best among off-roaders
 * Yukon Gear & Axle - Best Warranty in the Industry
 * Whitelk 4x4 Division - made in Italy gears historically considered the best

title: Jeep Liberty/Chrysler 8.25"


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension

General
The front suspension of the Jeep Liberty is an a-arm/wishbone IFS. The rear is a live tri-link trailing arm solid axle. Both the front and rear suspensions use coil springs.

 * /Shocks & Struts/

Pre-Lowered vs. Lowered
On April 12, 2002, DaimlerChrysler lowered the ride height of the Jeep Liberty suspension by 22mm (7/8") in the front and 19mm (3/4") in the rear. This change was made to improve road handling and perceived safety concerns. Many speculate that this is in response to the Autoweek Magazine Slalom test in which a Liberty rolled. Libertys built prior to April 2, 2002 are considered "pre-lowered", because they were made previous to the time when DaimlerChrysler lowered the Liberty. Libertys built after April 2, 2002 is considered "lowered", because they have a lower ride height than the pre-lowered. While a spacer lift will maintain the difference between lowered and pre-lowered, a spring replacement lift will render whether the Jeep was lowered or pre-lowered from the factory irrelevant.

OTT
OTT stands for "Over the Top" which means instead of placing the spacer underneath the coil/strut assembly it is placed on top of the assembly.

There are three OTT lifts on the aftermarket for the Jeep Liberty:
 * Rocky's 2-1/8" Combo Lift
 * Rocky's 2.5" Budget Lift
 * Rusty's 2.5" Spacer Lift

While no spacer lift will give you a superior ride over a full coil lift, each of the spacer lifts listed above has its own pros and cons. Rocky's budget lift has known problems, but their combo lift is of much higher quality. Rocky's combo lift is not a full OTT lift. It combines the spacer lift and the OTT lift to give you the full 2-1/8" in the front. In the rear it's a straight spacer lift. Rusty's OTT lift is similar to Rocky's budget lift, but is known to have fewer problems. The front is a full OTT lift and the rear a spacer lift. Rusty's OTT lift will give you a total of 2.5 inches of lift. None of the Daystar lifts are OTT. Daystar's lift product is superior to both Rusty and Rocky's spacer lifts. Go cougars!

Spacer Lifts

 * /Daystar/
 * /Rocky Road Outfitters/
 * /Rusty's Offroad/
 * /Skyjacker/

Saying that daystar is far superior to ott lifts is a very opinionated statement. daystar put extra undue stress on the already weak stock coils.

Full Coil Spring Lifts

 * /BDS/
 * /Frankenlift/
 * /Rocky Road Outfitters/
 * /Rusty's Offroad/
 * /Skyjacker/
 * Old Man Emu
 * Ironman

Other Lifts

 * /Clevis Lift/
 * /Spring Isolator Lift/

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension


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Jeep Liberty/History

The Jeep Liberty (KJ), or Jeep Cherokee (KJ) outside North America, was introduced in 2002 to replace its predecessor the Jeep Cherokee (XJ). The Liberty comes with Jeep's distinctive 7-slot grille and round headlights. On April 12, 2002, the Liberty was lowered one inch. In 2003, the rear drum brakes were replaced with disc brakes. In mid-2003, the automatic transmission was changed from the 45RFE to the 42RLE. In 2005, Jeep redesigned the front end and added a diesel model (available for export outside the US since 2002). In 2004, a passenger seat airbag sensor was added. In 2006, ESP and VLP were added and ABS became standard. The Liberty has come in four trim levels: Sport, Latitude, Renegade, and Limited and two special models: CRD and Rocky Mountain Edition. The Sport, Latitude, and Limited are the only versions still in production.

Sport
The Sport edition Liberty is recognized by its gray fender flares and bumpers.

Limited
The Limited edition Liberty is recognized by its color-matched fender flares/bumper and chrome grille surround/side strips. A narrow-spoke 17" wheel and tire combination became the standard in 2005, with an optional 5-spoke chrome wheel available exclusively for the Limited models.

The interior has options for an in-dash navigation system, and is appointed with leather seats and a premium sound system.

Renegade
In 2005, Jeep redesigned the Renegade with the flat hood to give it the rugged look. Jeep also added bumper mounted fog lights. It still had all the features the 2002-2004 Renegade came with, such as the roof mounted lightbar, pocket-style flares, and Renegade emblems.

Rocky Mountain Edition
The Rocky Mountain Edition is a special edition Liberty based on the Renegade X package. Special features include painted exterior pieces, interior accents, a power sunroof, upgraded wheels, seats embroidered with the Jeep logo, and a Rocky Mountain Edition badge.

In 2004 Columbia Sportswear teamed up with Jeep and offered a Columbia Edition. This was offered prior to The Rocky Mountain Edition. A coupon for a free Columbia Bug A Boo parka came with the vehicle. 26,000 units were manufactured.

title: Jeep Liberty/History


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Shocks & Struts

In the Jeep Liberty the front is a coil-over IFS and the rear is a solid live axle. The fronts uses struts and the rear uses shocks. Once you lift your Liberty you must swap out the stock shocks & struts with longer ones. Some say that you can leave your front strut without any problems, but to achieve the best ride quality and off-road capabilities longer struts will help. The after-market offers a few options on shocks and struts for your lifted and unlifted Liberty. The most popular being the Ranchos.

Lifted
* A strut for a Liberty with 0" Lift.

** A rear shock for a stock 1998-2003 Dodge Durango 4WD and a stock 1997-2004 Dodge Dakota 4WD.

Old Man Emu (OME)
<i>OME Suspension kits and parts are manufactured by ARB.</i>

Medium duty Struts: Better fitted for use on a 3.7L Gas engine with stock bumper.

Heavy duty Struts: Better fitted for use on a 3.7L Gas with after-market bumper or a 2.8L diesel engine with/without after-market bumper/winch.

Rear Shocks:

Skyjacker
Front Strut: Is included with the 2.5" Platinum ../Skyjacker/ lift, not sold separately.

Rear Shock:
 * N8088: This is a twin-tube Nitro-charged rear shock.
 * M9088: This is a mono-tube gas-charged rear shock.
 * H7088: This is a twin-tube hydraulic rear shock.

BDS
Rear Shock:
 * 55968: For the 2002-2004 Jeep Liberty with a 2" lift. It is a mono-tube Hydraulic rear shock.
 * 95968: For the 2002-2004 Jeep Liberty with a 2" lift. It is a gas-charged rear shock.

Doestch
Doestch rear shocks are sold through Rocky Road Outfitters.
 * Series 3000: A rear shock for a better performance on-road and off-road, yet delivers a softer ride than factory shocks.
 * Series 8000 Prerunner: These shocks are those who tow or haul heavy loads and like to go fast off-road.

Rusty's
Rusty's shocks and struts are only sold through Rusty's Offroad and can be ordered for the stock Liberty or 2" lifted one. Rusty's also carry OME shocks and coil springs.

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Shocks & Struts


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/BDS

The BDS is a full coil spring suspension lift providing 2" in the front and 1.5" in the rear. It allows 30" inch tires with minimal to no rubbing and 31" inch tires with some fender trimming. The lift comes with four coils and optional gas or hydraulic rear shocks.

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/BDS


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Daystar

Daystar
Daystar Products offers spacer lifts for the 2002-2006 Jeep Liberty 2WD and 4WD gasoline and diesel. All of the following products can be purchased at All J's Products (see link below) and other retailers such as Summit Racing; who may have cheaper prices on some kits.

2.5" Lift - Front & Rear

 * P/N: KJ09115
 * Front and rear 2.5" coil spring spacers
 * Sway bar bushings
 * Bump stops
 * Upper strut plates and boots
 * All J's price: $155

2.5" Lift - Front & Rear

 * P/N: KJ09116
 * Front and rear 2.5" coil spring spacers
 * Upper strut plates
 * All J's price: $155

2.5" Lift - Front Only

 * P/N: KJ09117
 * Front 2.5" coil spring spacers
 * Upper strut plates
 * All J's price: $155

2" Lift - Rear Only

 * P/N: KJ09118
 * Rear 2.5" coil spring spacers
 * All J's price: $125

1.5" Lift - Front Only

 * P/N: KJ09119
 * Front 1.5" coil spring spacers
 * All J's price: $125

1.5"/2" Lift - Front & Rear

 * P/N: KJ09123
 * Front 1.5" coil spring spacers
 * Rear 2" coil spring spacers
 * All J's price: $155

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Daystar


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Frankenlift

The Frankenlift is a 2.5" lift kit built by All J products. Widely considered the best lift kit for the Liberty, it's a combination of many different lift kit brands.  The front rubber spring spacers contribute 1" and the front Old Man Emu springs contribute 1.5" for a total of 2.5" in the front. The rear Old Man Emu springs contribute 1.5". The Liberty is 1" lower in the front from the factory and leveled out by the 1" difference between the front and rear of the Frankenlift.  The front coils and struts come pre-assembled and can be purchased separately from the rear coils and shocks.

This info has not been updated recently; check website for updated versions. Current nomenclature of Frankenlift includes: Frankenlift I & II with or without "Premium" option. Premium option substitutes Rancho front struts with Old Man Emu front struts.

Frankenlift Components
This info has not been updated recently; check website for updated versions. Current nomenclature of Frankenlift includes: Frankenlift I & II with or without "Premium" option. Premium option substitutes Rancho front struts with Old Man Emu front struts.

Frankenlift revision 3:
 * OME rear coils
 * Rancho shocks
 * OME front coils
 * Rancho front struts
 * Custom strut plate with built-in bumpstop
 * Daystar bumpstops in rear

CRD Frankenlift:
 * OME front struts
 * OME rear coils - 948 HD coils
 * 2.5" Daystar Coil Spacer Lift Kit
 * Daystar Upper Strut plates & Daystar Spacers
 * Daystar Rear Bump Stops
 * KJ Brake Line Relocation Bracket (required for 2006 KJs only).

Frankenlift II and CRD Frankenlift:
 * Same as Frankenlift revision 3 or CRD Frankenlift, but with OME front struts

Frankenlift revision 2 (no longer sold):
 * OME rear coils - 948 HD coils, 947 MD coils optional
 * Rancho shocks - RSX 17004
 * OME front coils - 927 HD coils, 926 MD coils optional
 * Rancho front struts - RSX 17505
 * Custom strut plate with pipe-clamped bump stops on front strut
 * Daystar bumpstops in rear

Frankenlift revision 1 (no longer sold):
 * Skyjacker rear coils
 * Rancho shocks
 * OME Front coils
 * Rancho front struts
 * Custom strut plate with pipe-clamped bump stop on front strut
 * Daystar bumpstops in rear

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Frankenlift


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Rocky Road Outfitters

Rocky Road Outfitters
Rocky Road Outfitters (RRO) makes three lifts for the Jeep Liberty:

2.5" Budget Lift

 * This lift uses an OTT (Over The Top) strut spacer. This allows you to maintain the factory ride quality and have a relatively simple installation. Depending on the Liberty, it may require doing some clearance on the upper A arm to prevent contact with the front coil spring. Another option is to use the Rocky Road replacement upper A arm which will allow more room and has replaceable ball joints.

Rockfather Lift

 * Rockfather I: This lift is a combination of coil and spacers. For the front, you get coil springs and spacers to give you a full 3" lift. For the rear, you get 2.5" spacers and RRO shocks. This kit does not come with struts.

 * Rockfather II: This lift is a combination of coil and spacers. For the front, you get coil springs and spacers to give you a full 3" lift. You also get OME front struts. For the rear, you get full 2.5" coil springs and rear RRO shocks. The kit is available with the front struts pre-assembled.

 * Rockfather Deluxe: This lift is a combination of coil and spacers. For the front, you get coil springs and spacers to give you a full 3" lift. The Deluxe includes the RRO upper A arms with replaceable ball joints. You also get OME front struts. For the rear, you get full 2.5" coil springs and rear RRO shocks. the kit is available with the front struts pre-assembled.

Optional rear shock upgrades include Rancho adjustable and OME long travel choices.

RRO also offers Old Man Emu (OME) parts and complete suspension lifts.


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Jeep Liberty/Dana 30a

The 27 spline Dana 30a, also know by Chrysler as the 186FIA, has always been the only front axle available in the Jeep Liberty. It's an IFS axle with an aluminum housing as indicated by the 'FI' and 'A'/'a' respectively. Essentially, it's an aluminum version of the Dana 30 with a longer pinion shaft. Unfortunately, the light weight aluminum construction makes it weaker than the D30 and the longer pinion shaft means pinion related D30 parts won't fit it. The D30a requires a 1-1/8" socket to remove and install the pinion nut.

CRD Libertys have a different front cradle that lowers and leftward shifts the differential to provide more clearance for the diesel engine. The lowering results in better half-shaft constant velocity joint angles but too little clearance for a differential collar. The leftward shift requires different length half-shafts than those used in the gas Liberty. Due to the shorter left side half shaft CRD models cannot be lifted as high before the CV joints begin to bind.

Traction Aiding Devices
The axle housing's aluminum construction is weak and installing a locker in the front differential could cause it to crack. It is recommended that an LSD be installed in place of a locker. It should be noted that installing any traction aiding device in the front will make steering slightly stiffer and cause the steering wheel to spring back to center more quickly than usual.

Gear Lube
The gear lube in the Dana 30a should be changed every 12,000 miles. Off-roading and towing subjects the differential to increased torque, dirt, and water. If the Liberty isn't off-roaded, isn't used for towing, and follows the Schedule A maintenance plan, it may be possible to stretch this interval. The differential housing requires 2.6 pints (1.24 liters) of lube. 75W-140 synthetic lube should be used for either light duty applications or heavy duty off-roading.

Gearing
Mopar is the only manufacturer of the longer pinion gears required by the Dana 30a. As a result, there are only three sources of 4.10 gears for the Liberty's front differential: wrecked I4 Libertys, online stores that sell discounted Mopar parts, and Jeep dealerships.

title: Jeep Liberty/Dana 30a


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Jeep Liberty/Dana 35C

The Dana 35C is a steel rear axle found in some 2002 Jeep Libertys. Strength wise, it's weaker than the more common Chrysler 8.25" rear axle. The Dana 35C is different from the Dana 35. The "C" in the model number refers to custom, not complete. It indicates that Dana Corporation ships their Dana 35 to DiamlerChrysler who then builds it.

title: Jeep Liberty/Dana 35C


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Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Rusty's Offroad

Rusty's makes a full coil spring lift and a spacer lift for the Jeep Liberty; both are 2.5 inches:

Full Coil Spring Lift:

 * Rusty's 2.5 inch coil spring lift that comes with four coils, two front performance gas struts (They are OME struts just with a rusty's sticker on them) and two rear twin-tube hydro shocks. The Rusty's coil lift comes second behind the Frankenlift.

Spacer Lift:

 * Rusty's 2.5 inch OTT spacer lift that comes with four spacers and two rear shocks (optional). The front is a OTT lift and the rear is a spacer lift.

The front struts are not OME with a sticker, they are built by Monroe to Rusty's spec's, the rear shocks are a twin tube gas shock

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Rusty's Offroad


text:
Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Skyjacker

Skyjacker
Skyjacker offers two lift kits for the Jeep Liberty. Their coil spring lift is not recommended for CRD applications. Daystar spacer lifts are recommended over Skyjackers because they've been used over and over without problems; the Skjacker spacer lift is not very popular. Skjacker's platinum coil spring lift is a quality lift, and can be found at almost half the price of All J's ../Frankenlift/

Platinum 2.5" Coil Spring Lift
Image:http://www.skyjacker.com/image/search/kit/LIB250K.jpg
 * P/N: LIB250K
 * 4 Coil Springs
 * 2 Front Struts (9050S lift 2" to 6")
 * 2 Front Bumps Stops

Extra rear struts:
 * H7088 lift 2.5"
 * H7041 lift 4"
 * H7060 lift 6"
 * N8088 lift 2.5"
 * N8041 lift 4"
 * N8060 lift 6"

2.5" Polyurethane Coil Spacer Lift

 * P/N: KJ25
 * 4 Coil Spacers
 * Front Sway Bar Bushing
 * Strut Mounts

title: Jeep Liberty/Suspension/Skyjacker


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Jeep Liberty/Lockers/ARB Air Locker

The ARB Air Locker is an air operated manually controlled locker. The selectability of the ARB allows you to turn it on for traction off-road and leave it off for a smooth ride on road. The locker is normally unlocked and requires a constant (85 PSI min / 105 PSI max) air supply to lock. ARB manufacturers numerous small compressors to fulfill this air supply requirement.

Front Dana 30a
While the ARB RD100 and RD101 Air Locker have been installed in the Dana 30a without issue by many, it is not recommended by some because of the differential's aluminum housing. The force resulting from the ARB can crack the D30a housing more easily than it can a steel one. However, it has also been pointed out that whenever the front diff housing has cracked it has usually been the result of a rapidly spinning wheel making contact with the ground. With an ARB air locker in the front diff there would be no wheel spin in the first place and therefore a lesser chance of cracking the diff housing. Putting a locker in the front differential will not affect on-road and most off-road steering as the ARB is selectable and should be set to "open" when not needed. You need the RD100 for 3.73 and up gears and the RD101 for 3.54 and down gears.

Rear Chrysler 8.25"

The ARB RD93 Air Locker is used most frequently in the rear of the Liberty because the rear differential is made of steel and won't crack as easily as the weaker aluminum front differential.

title: Jeep Liberty/Lockers/ARB Air Locker


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Jeep Liberty/Lockers/PowerTrax No-Slip

The Powertrax No-Slip is an automatic locker for the Chrysler 8.25" 29 spline axle. It works in the rear of 2002-2007 Jeep Libertys, but is incompatible with Dana 35C rear axle found in some 2002 Jeep Libertys and might be incompatible with ESP system found in all 2006-2007 Jeep Libertys. While specially designed to eliminate the ratcheting sound that most automatic lockers make, it is still a little noisier than some may like.  A "lunchbox" type device, it replaces the internal parts of the stock carrier.  The 92-0382-2905 model is for open carriers and the 92-0382-2925 for Trac-Loc carriers.  No ring and pinion gear set up is required and installation shouldn't take more than a few hours.

title: Jeep Liberty/Lockers/PowerTrax No-Slip


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Jeep Liberty/Tires & Rims

General Information
The Jeep Liberty has an Independent Front Suspension (IFS) which prevents installing a suspension lift greater than 4" without major and costly modifications. Without a major overhaul a lift of over 4" will cause your CV axles and ball joints to possibly fail. With the currently available lifts, the Jeep Liberty can be fitted with up to 265/75R16 (32"x10.5") tires. Tires larger than 265/75R16 will require modification of the vehicle and can cause rubbing which will detract from offroadability. The Liberty comes from the factory without locking lug nuts on the wheels, so many owners replace one lug on each wheel with a Mopar locking lug. 245/75R16 (30"x9.7") is the most popular size used with a 2 1/2" lift; this size requires minimal trimming. 265/75R16 is the largest recommended tire size; this size often requires trimming the plastic wheel well insert and flattening the pinch weld on the 1st Gen libertys with smaller lifts.

16x7

Bolt Pattern: 5x4.5"

Backspacing: 5.5"

Offset: 38mm

17x7.5
Bolt Pattern: 5x4.5"

Backspacing:

Offset:

16" vs. 17" Wheels
With a 17" wheel there is a limited selection of all-terrain tires available. A popular upgrade for the lifted Liberty is stock 16x8" Jeep Wrangler Rubicon wheels (Moab Wheels) with 5" of backspacing and 245/75R16 Goodyear MTR Tires. The Liberty's stock 16x7" wheel can fit a 10.5" wide tire with no problems. Only a few 15" wheels can fit on the Liberty without interfering with the brake caliper. Some other choices are the Rock Crawler Xtreme Steel Wheels with a backspacing of 4.5" or 3.75" or Cragar Wheels with 4-4.5" of backspacing. A backspacing of under 4" will work, but is not recommended because rubbing on suspension components may occur.

Backspacing and Wheel Spacers
Backspacing is a measurement of the distance from the mounting point on the wheel to the back of the rim. The larger the backspacing the closer the wheel to the Jeep and the more likely the wheel will rub on suspension components. The smaller the backspacing the more the wheel sticks out from the wheel well and the more likely the tires will throw mud up the side of the Jeep. A good rule of thumb is to keep the tires within the fender flares but far enough from the suspension components that they don't rub. Putting larger tires on the Liberty will often require decreasing the backspacing in order to eliminate tire rub on the sway bar. This is where spacers come in. A smaller backspacing can be made by installing a wheel spacer to push the wheel out and away from the suspension components. Spidertrax is a reputable cast aluminum spacer manufacturer/dealer whose spacers are safe to install on the Liberty. Just remember that in some states wheel spacers are illegal.

/List of States Where Wheel Spacers are Illegal/

Tire/Lift Chart

* Note: These tire sizes come standard or optional from the factory.

Tire Load Ranges
Every letter increase indicates two additional plys.

 * P - Passenger tire with little sidewall protection. The stock Goodyears that come on the Liberty from the factory fall into this load range.  These tires are definitely not recommended for off road as they are street tires with no sidewall protection.
 * LT (C) - 6 ply Light Truck tire with a good balance of sidewall protection and flex. These tires are recommended for off roading the Liberty because they are both moderately well armored and fit the ground better.
 * LT (D) - 8 ply Light Truck tire that's in between C and E. Many tires such as the Bridgestone Dueler A/T Revos don't have this load range as an option
 * LT (E) - 10 ply Light Truck tire with maximum sidewall protection and minimum flex. These tires are very heavy and don't flex very much, as a result they will decrease your gas mileage and are less suited for off road use.  The extra sidewall plys that cause the increase in stiffness also will increase the sidewall puncture resistance. Because of this higher resistance to puncture you may want to consider these tires if you spend a lot of time in rocky areas.

Common Tire Choices

 * BFGoodrich All-Terrain T/A KO
 * Goodyear Wrangler MT/R
 * Bridgestone Dueler A/T Revo
 * Firestone Destination M/T
 * General Grabber AT2
 * Kumho Road Venture MT KL71
 * Fuel Off-Road Tires

Tire Reviews
 * On/Off-Road All-Terrain A/T Tire Comparison chart
 * Off-Road Maximum Traction M/T Tire Comparison Chart

title: Jeep Liberty/Tires & Rims


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Jeep Liberty/Electrical/Auxiliary Lights

There are many auxiliary light manufacturers with prices ranging from less than $100 up through $500. Shape, wattage, and size also varies from model to model.

Hella
Hella fog lights and a Hella lightbar come standard on the 05 Jeep Liberty Renegade. Unfortunately, the lenses of the Hella fog lights are known to crack when used in cold weather. The difference in temperature between the hot air inside of the lamp when it's turned on the and the cold air outside the lamp when it's cold causes the glass to stress crack.

PIAA
Warranty valid for as long as the original purchaser owns the light. Stress cracks are covered under the warranty.


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Jeep Liberty/Electrical/Satellite Radios

The only two currently available satellite radios manufacturers are Sirius and XM. Satellite radio requires a monthly service plan, but both Sirius and XM allow prospective customers to listen for free for a few days via their websites.

Sirius
The Liberty can be equipped with Sirius from the factory or with Mopar parts later on. These installations give full integration with the other car equipment. Note, however, that even with factory and Mopar installs the only radio that will be able to display song information is the Chrysler RB1 navigation radio.

XM
Daimler-Chrysler does not sell an XM radio option for the Jeep Liberty. There is however an aftermarket interface available, called XMDirect, that is compatible with many newer Chrysler radios. The interface is manufactured by Terk (Audiovox) and listed under the following model numbers depending on the store selling it: XMDCPK, CHYXMD100, XMDCHY100. The following Chrysler radios are compatible with the module:

 * RAZ (2003-2005)
 * RB1 (2003-2005)
 * RBK (????-????)
 * RBP (2003-2005)
 * RBQ (2003-2005)
 * RBU (2003-2005)

XMDirect only supports radios that use the Liberty's native PCI bus. It also doesn't support the Chrysler RB4 radio. If audio quality and fit aren't of concern, one could also simply use an XM receiver that features an FM modulator.


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Jeep Liberty/Electrical/Batteries

The Jeep Liberty Renegade comes stock with a 120CC and 600RC battery and upgraded 160 amp alternator (over the 136 amp in other models) which can power most accessories. A CRD comes with a red top Optima battery from the factory. However, adding an accessory with high current draw, such as a winch, warrants a battery upgrade. A battery with a reserve capacity of at least what the winch manufacturer recommends is a smart idea. Many people opt to install an Optima red top battery which are designed to handle engine cranking and the abuse of off-camber and uneven offroad driving. An Optima yellow top battery can be used instead as they have a greater reserve capacity, but you'll need to over specify the battery to be able to provide the same cold cranking amps that a red top, or any other starting battery for that matter, would otherwise provide.

title: Jeep Liberty/Electrical/Batteries


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Jeep Liberty/Accessories

Towing and Cargo

 * /Rack Systems/
 * /Towing Hitches/

Suspension

 * /Control Arms/
 * /Sway Bar Disconnects/
 * /Ball Joints/
 * /Tie Rods/

Other

 * /Onboard Air/

title: Jeep Liberty/Accessories


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Wikibooks:General voting rules/Proposal

Voting on Wikibooks
Currently, voting takes place on Wikibooks in different circumstances. Some general principles apply in all circumstances, and in addition the separate circumstances each have specific principles relevant only to them. This policy first discusses the general principles, and then goes on to outline the circumstance-specific principles. The circumstances in which voting is used are as follows:

 * Circumstance A - books of the month/quarter

 * 1) To determine the following month's book of the month
 * 2) To determine the following month's collaboration of the month
 * 3) To determine the following quarter's Wikijunior book of the quarter

 * Circumstance B - to give additional user rights

 * 1) To agree to make a Wikibookian an administrator
 * 2) To agree to make a Wikibookian a bureaucrat
 * 3) To agree to give a Wikibookian checkuser rights

 * Circumstance C - as an aid to discussions

 * 1) On decisions as to whether a page should be deleted
 * 2) On an ad hoc basis, where it is considered that a vote might be a useful aid to discussion

Policy is generally derived from community consensus. Sometimes a vote is used to affirm consensus.
 * Circumstance D - to help affirm policy

What we mean by "vote"
On Wikibooks, by vote we mean the action of discussing a topic, casting opinions and reaching a consensus. So a vote is not just a yes or a no, but also any comments and discussions a user makes during the voting process.

What consensus means
Consensus is the requirement to have general acceptance from the community. In the case of elections voting on Wikibooks is vaguely according to the principles of a democratic organisation, however, unlike a democracy that appoints representatives to decide issues, editorial issues require the involvement of the editors. In the case of resolving disputes voting is a measure of opinion and unrelated to concepts such as democracy, we do not define "consensus" to be a particular percentage of the vote. However, we do not require that a particular vote obtain complete agreement from all parties involved. If dissenting issues are presented, an effort must be made to compromise. Failure to work towards a compromise, or stubbornness on any side can be viewed as a failure to adhere to this policy, and an act in bad faith.

Consensus also cannot be declared prematurely. If someone objects to a decision alleged to be made by consensus shortly after it has been announced, it is likely that the original claim that there was consensus was wrong. The most important point is that wikibookians should work together and compromise to make decisions, and to make wikibooks a better place. However, it is important that individual Wikibookians with strong views should be prepared to compromise and allow decisions where many others disagree with their views. Concensus should not be declared until all dissenting opinions, cast in good faith, are addressed.

The right to vote
All registered wikibooks users who have made at least 20 bona fide edits have the right to vote, although users that are suspected of voting in bad faith are liable to having their votes crossed out and ignored or removed. The 20 vote minimum should be counted as a general guideline, and not as a strict rule. Users with few edits cannot be expected to fully understand the workings of wikibooks policy, and are occasionally assumed to be voting in bad faith.

Wikibooks operates on a "one vote per person" rule, not "one vote per username". This means that if you maintain multiple usernames, you may only cast a meaningful vote with one of them. Sockpuppets and bots will not be allowed for use in voting.

While new users are encouraged to get involved with discussions and helping to plan future directions for this project, it is considered bad form to make your only editorial contribution to Wikibooks involving casting votes on opinion pages. If you are new to Wikibooks, try to read up on the issues involved and help participate in writing content first, to get a sense of understanding about this project. Regular active contributors will be more highly regarded on their opinions anyway.

How to make a vote
When voting, you must be signed in. Every vote should be appropriately signed. The easiest way to do this is by following every comment that you write with --~. Anonymous votes will not be counted. An unsigned template may be used to identify the voter.

Setting out what a vote is for
It should be made clear from the start what the subject of the vote is and what the consequences of the vote are. The terms under which the voting process will be considered complete (eg after a specified period of time or at the later of a specified time and a minimum number of votes cast). You should aim to get consensus for this before allowing the vote to start.

The proposal should not be altered during voting (except spelling/grammar/formatting corrections). If the meaning of the proposal has changed after any users have voted, the vote should be cancelled or started from the beginning. Users who cast votes in a vote that gets cancelled and then restarted should be notified of the changes and encouraged to cast another vote.

Except when in circumstance A, it is a good habit to notify other users about the vote, for example in Bulletin board or Staff lounge. It is also best practice that if the vote affects a particular book to make a reference to it on the talk page of the title page of the book. It is also good practice to inform any Wikibookians who you know are likely to be particularly interested in the vote on their user talk page.

Announcing the results of the vote
Once a vote has ended, any Wikibookian can formally announce the result, except in Circumstance B, where only a bureaucrat or steward, as appropriate, can announce the result. If the rules outlined elsewhere in the policy have been followed, the declaration of the result should be non-controversial.

Circumstance A - books of the month
The specific rules for circumstance A are as set out at the top of the respective voting pages.

Circumstance B - to give additional user rights
A significant level of support needs to be gained for a user to gain additional user rights. As a general guide, recent history has seen users promoted to administrator status with 6 to 1 and 8 to 2 support or greater. A bureaucrat nomination requires greater support than that to succeed. Whether there is sufficient support for a checkuser nomination to succeed is determined by a Wikimedia steward, and the determining criteria are not within Wikibooks' power to change.

Circumstance C - as an aid to discussion
Sometimes votes are used as a discussion aid. The determinant of the vote is based on the weight of the arguments as measured by the effect of the discussion on the voters. For example, Votes for deletion is really a discussion on whether or not a module or book is consistent with Wikibooks' inclusion criteria. Although people will summarise their views as keep or delete, the factor deciding the discussion is whether it is shown that the module or book meets the inclusion criteria or not. In discussions the vote reflects, to some extent, the way that the discussion has persuaded the voters.

Circumstance D - to help affirm policy
Policy (broadly any overarching principle to be applied either throughout Wikibooks or throughout a particular Wikibook) is decided by consensus.

No vote should be started until all issues and concerns raised by Wikibookians in good faith have been addressed. That does not mean agreement necessarily has to be reached, but it does mean that all pertinent questions should be answered, even if they do not yield answers the questioner is happy with.

A vote may either be used to affirm consensus, or alternatively to overrule dissenters. The latter case should only be used with reluctance - unless the proposers and dissenters accept in advance that they will accept that a vote will resolve the dispute. If possible, some accommodation should be made with dissenters so that the policy proposal is acceptable to everyone, even if a vote has already started.

The aim of the process is to reach a consensus, and the process should therefore not end whilst there is substantive ongoing discussions about the matter in hand. It may be that discussions develop in such a way that it is clear there is consensus and the vote is just a formality. Where it appears that consensus has been reached, say so, but allow the discussion to remain open for at least one week to allow any additional votes or opinions are voiced. It is, however, considered bad form for someone fully aware of the discussion to remain silent about their concerns and then try to block the proposal at the last minute.

When a vote is reaching a close, it is a good idea to announce the impending closure of the vote in a public forum, such as Staff lounge or Bulletin board.

If the vote is on a matter of policy, the new policy takes effect immediately after the vote has been decided.

title: Wikibooks:General voting rules/Proposal