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Western Music History/Medieval Music

Introduction
The Medieval period dates approximately from 700 A.D. to 1400 A.D

During this time European society was rigidly divided into three social classes: the nobility, consisting of kings, queens, barons, princes and lords; serfs and peasants; and thirdly, the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. All segments of society felt the power of the Roman Catholic Church because Christianity had risen in western Europe to fill the power vacuum left by the demise of the Roman empire around the fourth century. Rome still exerted a powerful influence over western Europe especially after the Roman Emperor, Constantine, converted to Christianity. Rome at the beginning of the Medieval period was still a distributive base of regional information and a central hub of European learning. It was also the cumulative center of Christian liturgical musical life. Many musicians were priests or members (predominantly of minor orders) of the clergy, and as such liturgical singing played an important role in worship. It is thought that the church discouraged the use of musical instruments although we can infer from period paintings and literary descriptions that instruments were played. It is thought that instruments were used when good singers were not available. The instruments would then either replace the vocal part or help the voice stay in tune. The church discouraged instruments because it was the desire of the church leaders to keep the congregation's focus on the words that were being sung. Anything that would detract from that was considered at odds with the holy purpose of the music.

Gregorian Chant (plainsong)

For over 1000 years, the official music of the Roman Catholic Church was the Gregorian Chant, which was named after Pope Gregory I. He began the task of organizing and codifying the chants in the 6th century used by the church. By the era of Charlemagne in the early 9th century, Gregorian Chant was a mostly unified body of music throughout western Europe.

With Gregorian Chant, there is no definite sense of rhythm, the timing is very flexible and there is no sense of beat. This creates a floating, improvisational quality to the music. The chant essentially consists of a Melody, set to a sacred Latin text, sung unaccompanied which moves predominantly in stepwise motion within a narrow range of pitches. It may be either Syllabic - one note for each syllable - or Melismatic - many notes to one syllable. The composers of the chants were anonymous, and the chants were based on church modes (Ionian, Dorian etc...).

Development of Polyphony
Polyphony was developed during the period of 700 A.D. to 900 A.D. where the chant melody was duplicated at an interval of a 4th or a 5th. The voices moved in parallel motion with the actual chant being sung by the bottom voice. Medieval music consisting of Gregorian chant and one or more melodic lines moving in parallel motion is called Organum. From 900 A.D. to 1200 A.D Organum became truly polyphonic, with the melodic lines becoming independent and each line had its own rhythm and own melody. Generally, the chant in the bottom voice was sung in very long, drawnout notes, while the added melody on top moved in shorter note values. Early polyphony was still quite rhythmically free. Then during the period of 1170 A.D. to 1200 A.D. the Notre Dame School of Composers developed rhythmic innovations. The leading composers at the school were Leonin and Perotin, who used measured rhythm with definite time values and a clearly defined meter. The newly developed notation indicated precise rhythms and pitches. However, the beat could only be subdivided into threes, which was symbolic of the Trinity. Few triads were used, resulting in Medieval polyphony sounding very hollow, thin and stark to the modern ear. The interval of a 3rd was hardly ever used as it was considered to sound dissonant...

Guido d'Arezzo
Guido of Arezzo was a well-known music theorist and pedagogue in the Middle Ages. He was born in Italy ca. 990-992 (though there is no exact or accurate birth date). Historians and musicologists have estimated it to be so through an explicit record of a manuscript in the Micrologus. The document is now lost, but it stated that it was completed at the age of 34 under the papacy of John XIX.

Guido is known today for his innovation of an exact pitch notation through the depiction of lines and spaces. Many regarded him as the sole inventor of modern staff notation, which greatly influenced Western Musical notation and practice. He also developed a method of sight-singing which relied upon the syllables of Ut-Re-Mi-Fa-So-La. He wrote a treatise, the Micrologus, which according to Claude V. Palisca, "was the most copied and read instruction book on music in the Middle Ages" next to the treatise of Boethius.

"Early life"

Through a letter dedicating his Micrologus to Bishop Theodaldus, a few of the most important moments in Guido's career can be pieced together. It begins in his "early life", or the earliest times that are known to date. D'Arezzo was educated in the abbey of Pomposa, Italy, where he later became a teaching Benedictine monk. He became renowned through his 'starting' principles on staff notation. He began to draft his second work, known today as the antiphonary Regulae Rhythmicae, which he probably worked on with his friend and colleague Michael of Pomposa. In 1013 he built a reputation for his work in training singers to learn new chants in short periods of time. In the prologue of his antiphony, he expressed how frustrating it was to have singers take such a long time in order to memorize music. According to his new system, this would greatly decrease the time spent learning and memorizing music, giving the singers more time to concentrate on learning other religious texts.

His unique way of teaching and his second work, known as Prologus in Antiphonarium, earned him jealousy and resentment from his fellow teachers, so around 1025, Guido moved to Arezzo, where a bishop named Theodaldus took him under his wing from 1023 to 1036. With his reputation following close behind, Guido was tasked with training singers for the city's cathedral. With his new method of staff notation, he had singers learning various amounts of music in a very short time. There, in the city of Arezzo, he wrote the famous Micrologus, which was dedicated and commissioned by none other than Bishop Theodaldus himself.

According to the records of the Micrologus, this document was primarily a musical manual for singers, and it is said to have discussed a variety of topics, including chant, the monochord, polyphonic music, melody, syllables, modes, organum and neumes, as well as a variety of his teaching methods. At this time, the successful training of an ideal singer took them around 10 years of completion. However, Guido d'Arezzo shortened that significantly to only two years of training.

After the completion of his treatise, the Micrologus, Pope John XIX, called Guido back to Rome as he had heard of the antiphoner and his staff notation technique. He didn't last long in Rome due to the heat and humidity as well as health issues, so off he went promising to return to explain more of his antiphoner and notation. On his way back to Arezzo, he visited Abbot Guido of Pomposa, who had been one of the reasons Guido left the Pomposa abbey in the first place. At this time, monks and bishops were being accused of 'simony', so Abbot Guido encouraged him to avoid the cities. Guido d'Arezzo chose to settle in a monastery near Arezzo, and it is speculated that it was the monastery of Avellana of the Camaldolese, as several of their manuscripts are shown to use the Guidonian notation.

Guido d'Arezzo's works
There are four known works that can be attributed to Guido of Arezzo without question:

-The Micrologus -Prologus in Antiphonarium -The Reguale Rhythmicae -Epistola ad Michaelem

The Epistola ad Michaelem is the only not-formal musical treatise, and it was written right after Guido's trip to Rome. The Epistola mentions all three treatises in it, which can only mean it was written last.

Solmization

It is known that Guido developed new ways of teaching, such as staff notation and the famous use of "ut-re-mi-fa-so-la" (solmization). The syllables were supposedly taken from the initial syllables of each of the first major philosophical concepts back in the Middle Ages, which are:

Do: Dominus (which was originally "Ut", was changed by Giovanni Batista) Re: Rerum, Mi: Miraculum, Fa: Familias, So: Solis, La: Lacteal Via, Si: Siderae (the syllable "si", also the seventh note, comes from the initials of "Sancte Iohannes", which is the Latin for Saint John the Baptist, and it was added to complete the diatonic scale)

According to the Catholic church, however, these lines and notes come from the first stanza of a hymn, "Ut Queant Laxis", in which the notes are continuously raised by one step.

The Guidonian Hand

His most known "invention" yet is the Guidonian Hand. "A Widely used mnemonic system where note names are mapped to parts of the human hand." This very handy tool consisted of naming each joint and fingertip in the human hand with the gamut, allowing musicians to sight sing, learn with ease and memorise music as well as solmization syllables. It is known that the popularity of the use of the Guidonian hand reached even the 17th and 18th centuries, making it a standard learning tool in music. This marvellous tool also allowed musicians to transpose and identify intervals with ease and aid in creating new music and its notation.

Guido d'Arezzo's developments and creations, such as the hexachord, the solmization syllables, and his music notation system, most definitely revolutionized the teaching and learning methods of music during his own time and laid the foundation for the system of music we know today.

Secular Music
The first large body of decipherable, secular songs that have survived comes from the 12th and 13th centuries. It was written by French noblemen Troubadours (coming from Southern France) and the Trauvéres (coming from Northern France). Most of the songs deal with the subject of love. There were also dance and spinning songs (spinning songs come from when the maidens would spin cloth and sing songs to pass the time). Their songs were played mainly by court minstrels. Many of the songs have been preserved because the nobility had clerics to write down the songs.

Secular songs also appear in Italy, Spain, England and Germany. They use a regular beat, unlike the Gregorian Chant. Instruments used included : Harps; Fiddles, Recorders; Lutes; Flutes; Shawms; and Bagpipes.

Ars Nova (new art)
Ars Nova began in the 14th century as a result of a conscious effort to write music in a new style. An essay entitled “Ars Nova”, by Phillipe de Vitry (a musical theorist), was published describing the new characteristics of style in music.

A significant development in rhythm which occurred during this period was that the beat could now be subdivided into two equal parts. Syncopation was introduced and polyphonic compositions became increasingly complex and sophisticated. One important form of music was the Mass, consisting of the PROPER and the ORDINARY. Composers set the ordinary to music which contained five sung prayers : Kyrie; Gloria; Credo; Sanctus; Agnus Dei.

Hildegard von Bingen (1098 - 1179)
The youngest of ten children, Hildegard von Bingen was born to Hildebert and Mechtilde, who were members of the nobility. From childhood, Hildegard demonstrated visionary abilities. It is believed that her parents did not know what to do with her "condition," so they dedicated her to God as tithe, sending her to a Benedictine monastery. At eight years old, Hildegard became a companion to Jutta von Sponheim, the current abbess who lived in hermitage. From Jutta, Hildegard learned how to sing and read in Latin, both critical skills Hildegard needed to do her most famous work.

As more noble people sent their daughters to the monastery, there gradually became enough girls to form a small convent. Hildegard practiced and grew her musical skills, learning to arrange and perform the Opus Dei without the monks. In 1136, Jutta died and Hildegard became the new abbess. Although this was a big step in her life, the real change for Hildegard came in 1141 when she received a blinding vision to "tell and write." Hildegard fell quite ill afterwards and first kept this vision a secret in her humility. After telling her lifelong friend and monk, Volmar, about the vision, she was encouraged to follow its telling and write about her visions. Volmar's enthusiasm and advice led to her most famous visionary writing Scivias.

Scivias is shorthand for "Scrito vias Domini" (Know the Wars of the Lord). Scivias contains very detailed descriptions and explanations of 26 visions, separated into three sections: six, seven, and thirteen visions. For each vision, Hildegard uses the words or some close variation on "voice from heaven" to differentiate between her explanation and the vision itself. The topic of her visions are numerous: the Trinity, the final judgment, Lucifer's fall, the fall of Adam, human knowledge, etc. Her writing went up the chain of command in the church from Volmar to Abbott to the archbishop and finally to Pope Eugenius III. The pope was so impressed with Hildegard's work that he sent her an approval letter. His approval welcomed her writing and accepted Hildegard as a visionary of the church.

Because of her growing fame, numerous girls were coming to the convent. The monastery was running out of space, and after Hildegard received a vision telling her to move her women, she wanted to start her own convent in Rupertsberg. This desire faced opposition from the monks at Disibodenberg. Hildegard's presence as a "holy woman" brought the monastery gifts, visitors, and financial gain. Hildegard leaving would give the women more independence and ultimately hurt the monastery. After falling ill, Hildegard was finally granted allowance to purchase the abandoned building in Ruperstberg. The building needed renovations and Hildegard’s health seemed to get better when work was going well and worse when there was trouble with the building.

During the 1150s, after her move to Rupertsberg, Hildegard wrote two volumes in natural science: Physica and Causae et curae. Historians believe that even if Hildegard never wrote any theological or musical works, her two scientific volumes would be enough to put her as a valued female in history. Physica contains nine books, each covering one component of the natural world: plants, elements, trees, stones, fish, birds, animals, reptiles, and metals. Each section describes the natural world Hildegard would have been able to observe and describes things she would have had to read or heard about, such as unique trees or animals such as the elephant and camel that were not present in her area. Hildegard's work in this text was complete and thorough. For example, up until the 1920s, Hildegard's descriptions of fish in the Rhine River were the most accurate listing.

Causae et Curae contains six books. The last consists of "astrological predictions of character" and are considered the least genuine of her writings. The other books in this volume are closer to the other trusted work of Hildegard. Including descriptions of the physical world and how that relates to the theological one. In this volume, Hildegard briefly discusses the harmony of the spheres, an Ancient Greek idea. Though she provides many of the same diseases and remedies as seen in Physica, Hildegard goes much more in-depth in this volume and classifies illness from head to toe. She included cures for things like migraines, toothaches and hiccups. Hildegard quite frankly talks about the sexual act, sexual health, and even gives instructions for an abortifacient. Hildegard is likely "the first scientific writer to discuss sexuality and gynecology from a female perspective." Because of the controversial nature of how Hildegard would know intimate and specific details on sexual topics as a nun, many 19th century writers took this work out of her Opus. However, Hildegard would have received calls from noblewomen in the community and likely aided them with their health issues and listened to their needs. Hildegard also had widows join her nunnery. It is through listening and helping other women that Hildegard would have gained knowledge in this area and thus it is acceptable to recognize her as having this knowledge.

Hildegard's most unusual works are her Lingua ignota and Litterae ignotae. They mean Unknown Language and Unknown Writing, respectively. Hildegard established her own 23-letter alphabet and created over 900 made-up nouns. Her words are arranged from what she considered the highest, her created word for God, down to lower things of the earth like plants and animals. The use of the language is debated. It is generally agreed that it was for intellectual reasons versus practical ones, meaning her made-up words were likely not implemented as part of regular speech.

By 1158, Ruperstberg was financially independent of Disibodenberg and had finally achieved some stability. Because she no longer worried about the state of her house, Hildegard started another theological work, Liber vite meritorum and started preaching tours. Historians believe that Hildegard completed four tours from 1158-1171. This outreach was a big step for Hildegard, especially since female preachers at this time were prohibited. Despite this fact, the little documentation of the tours accepts the tours as a success and shows that the religious and laypeople accepted Hildegard's preaching. Hildegard's popularity continued to grow, and in 1165, a daughter house was founded in Eibingen. This abbey is still running today.

Hildegard died in 1179.

Riesencodex

The Riesencodex is a canonization of almost all of Hildegard's works. It was mostly completed before her death but there were some texts that were copied afterwards. The volume is enormous, weighing 33 pounds, it is 49 cm x 32 cm and contains 481 folios. It was nicknamed the "Giant Codex." The volume includes: Books were expensive at this time, so it is incredible to see a volume so large and complete. Noticeable absences are her scientific works. This absence accounts for some questioning on the authenticity of Physica and Causae et Curae as Hildegard's writings. As these texts share many themes and the style of her other works, the scientific works can likely be attributed to Hildegard.
 * three theological and visionary works (Scivias, Liber vitae meritorum, Liber divinorum operum),
 * Symphonia"" and ""Ordo virtutum,
 * a collection of Hildegard's letters
 * Lingua ignota, Litterae ignotae
 * a collection of homilies on the Gospels
 * her biography by the monks Gottfried and Theoderich (Vita),
 * the letter to the prelates of Mainz

Hildegard's Music
Hildegard's music was a reflection of her visionary and theological work. Her music would often contain exact phrases or clear references to her writings. Her writings themselves are also filled with numerous musical references and analogies. Hildegard believed that music had great theological power and connected musical life on earth with heavenly paradise.

The typical early staff was made up of four lines. This score was perfect for the music of the Medieval Period that consisted of limited ranges, but Hildegard wrote music that exceeded the octave and used both C and F clefs on the four-line staff to accommodate such range eliminating the use of ledger lines.

Hildegard's music fits in the category of plainchant, meaning her music was performed without accompaniment and was written as single melodic lines. Though still classified the same as earlier plainchant, her music is quite different. Hildegard has her own unique compositional voice, making it easy to identify her music. Though mainly stepwise, her music uses leaps much more frequently than other plainchants of the time. Popular in her music is to leap up a fifth, followed by another upward leap of a fourth. This motion outlines the fifth and octave of whatever mode was being used. These two consecutive leaps are a musical thumbprint, especially in Hildegard’s Ordo virtutum. This musical chunk also contrasts the common practice of following a leap of a fifth with a leap in the opposite direction.

Ordo virtutum
One of Hildegard's famous musical works is her Ordo virtutum or The Play of the Virtues. The latest possible date for completion is 1151, as much of the text is mirrored in Scivias and thorough analysis is seen to originate with the play and not the visionary volume. The most reliable source for the play is found the Reisencodex. The other version is the text found in Scivias, and the third is not musically reliable. The Ordo virtutum is unique in many ways. For example, it is one of the only medieval plays that's complete text and music can be attributed to a known author and composer, and it is the earliest known morality play yet discovered. The play employs an entirely allegorical cast, which became popular much later, around the 14th century. Hildegard's talent as a musician and author is evident throughout the play, especially as she makes biblical allusions and references Song of Songs and Isaiah extensively but still manages to create unique poetic originality among medieval works.

The play contains mostly female roles, as it was written to be performed by Hildegard's nuns. Characters consist of Anima, Diabolus, the Devil, Patriarchs and Prophets, Humility and 16 Virtues: Knowledge of God, Charity, Hope, Chastity, Heavenly Love, Discretion, Faith, Contempt of the World, Discipline, Patience, Modesty, Fear of God, Obedience, Innocence, Mercy, and Victory.

The plot follows Anima, anima meaning soul in Latin, who is one of the fallen souls who has lost their place as "daughters of the King." In the group of souls, Anima is so focused on returning to be with the King that it seems real, and she is happy. The Virtues praise Anima for her happiness but remind her of the battle ahead, making Anima turn to lament. Anima then acts in reference to Adam and Eve, casting off her clothes, hiding from the creator and turning to the world for enjoyment. Diabolus finds Anima this way and convinces her further to live of the world. The Virtues grieve her loss. After the chorus of Virtues sings, they find Anima weary and try to call her back like the lost sheep. She is too weak to come to them, so the Virtues must carry her. They are interrupted by Diabolus, but now Anima, strengthened by the Virtues, can defeat him.

The text for the play is considered free verse. Though there is some syntactic parallelism and rhyme, nothing is purposeful enough to create a rhyme scheme or verse structure. Hildegard also employed word-painting, which is unique for her time. Diabolus' speech is disjunct and more staccato, whereas the Virtues have melodic, lyrical lines. Anima usually speaks like the Virtues, but in her moments of defiance against them has speech more like Diabolus. Hildegard uses musica poetica by using musical elements to convey different human characteristics, a method that had yet to be developed and defined.

Leoninus (died c. 1201)
Leonin, a French composer, was the first-known significant one to write in polyphonic organum. He most likely worked at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, and heralded the Notre Dame school of polyphony. His widely known moniker is the French form of his Latin name, Leoninus. He wrote a book called Magnus liber organi, which was a great book of religious music. Later it was revised by Perotinus.

Perotin (fl. c. 1200)
Perotin is arguably the most well-known figure in the Notre Dame school of polyphony. Like Leonin, he is assumed to be French, and the name Perotin is derived from his Latin name, Perotinus. He is often paired with Leonin as they both pioneered choral polyphony. He expanded on the developments of Leonin, and helped create three and four-part polyphony. Viderunt omnes is an example of a Gregorian chant, written centuries before, in which Perotin inserted an organum.

Guillaume de Machaut (1300 - 1377)
Guillaume de Machaut was arguably one of the most important composers of Medieval Music. He was a poet and musician born in France who wrote in the Ars Nova style. He mainly composed secular music and worked for various royal families. He travelled extensively and his output consisted mainly of love songs for two voices and instrumental accompaniment. He is most famous for his ‘Missa Notra Dame’ (Notre Dame Mass), which is one of the finest compositions of the 14th century. It was the first polyphonic setting of the Mass Ordinary and was written for four voices – possibly doubled by instruments.

Agnus Dei movement Arranged for four voices – one soprano, two altos and one tenor. It made use of triple meter – symbol of the Trinity - and consisted of complex rhythms and syncopation. The two upper parts are rhythmically active while the two lower parts move in longer note values and play a supportive role. The movement includes dissonances and triads which sounds fuller than previous Organum.

== Francesco Landini (c. 1325 - 1397) == The Italian Landini, like Hildegard, fits the characteristics of a Renaissance man. He was a composer, singer, organist, instrument maker, and poet. He was a master of the trecento. Though considered a Medieval composer by most musicologists, his music paved the way for the musical quattrocento and the early Renaissance, both of which began around 1400. ==References ==

title: Western Music History/Medieval Music


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Western Music History/Renaissance Music

The Renaissance Period spans from circa 1400 A.D. to 1600 A.D. The word 'Renaissance' is of French origin and means "a rebirth of interests", especially in the arts of ancient Greece and Rome (i.e. : antiquity). This renewed interests stems from the fact that a large amount of art work from antiquity was discovered during the Renaissance period. The Renaissance was predominantly a period of exploration, for example, the voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama occurred during this period.

The Renaissance was also an age of individualism and curiosity, the predominate example is seen in the life of Leonardo da Vinci. Education in the Renaissance was encyclopedic in nature. The people of the time believed in educating themselves in a vast number of fields, from art to science to history to architecture.

The Catholic Church was less powerful than it was in the Middle Ages, and no longer had the monopoly on learning.

The ‘Reformation’ movement challenged the corrupt practices of the Catholic Church, and was inaugurated by people such as John Calvin and Martin Luther. The Catholic Church answered with the ‘Counter-Reformation’ from 1562 A.D. to 1563 A.D. A committee of Cardinals met over a period of 20 years to discuss corruption that has crept in to the church (e.g., Secular songs during church services). This committee of Cardinals was started by the Council of Trent. They complained about the complex polyphony prevalent in sacred music as it made the text too hard to hear over the overlapping voices. There were also complaints about the secular elements in sacred music as some masses were based upon popular melodies of the time.

Aristocrats and upper middle class considered education a status symbol and hired scholars to teach their children.

Music in the Renaissance Era
Around 1450 A.D. the printing press was invented. This widened the circulation of music. This helped music to play an increasingly important role in daily life. Musicians worked for the church, courts and towns. Church choirs grew in size, and the church remained an important patron of music. However, musical activity shifted to the courts. Kings and princes competed for the finest composers.

Many leading important composers came from Holland, Belgium and Northern France, called the ‘Franco-Flemish’ composers. They held important positions throughout Europe, especially in Italy. Other countries with vibrant musical lives include Germany, England and Spain.

Characteristics of Renaissance Music
MUSIC

Renaissance vocal music was more important than instrumental music. Nevertheless, many songs were accompanied by instruments. These instruments were commonly members of the lute, organ, recorder, or viol families.

There was a close relationship between the words and the music. Composers wanted to enhance the meaning and emotion of the text, and did so by means of ‘word painting’ - trying to project poetic imagery through link between music and words. As vocal music was more important, most music was sung a cappella.

TEXTURE

Two basic textures existed. Firstly HOMOPHONIC, where parts move in step with one another (like a hymn) – rhythms are the same. Secondly POLYPHONIC, where each voice is of equal importance and contrapuntal imitation was an important procedure. The bass register was now used for the first time, producing richer harmonies, and extending the range of the voices. There was a change from successive to simultaneous writing in music. That is, from linear, voice-by-voice to ‘cyclical’, considering all voices at once whilst writing.

NOTE : contrapuntal imitation
 * adjective of counterpoint.
 * the ability to say two things at once comprehensibly. In essence, counterpoint is the same as polyphony.

Rhythm and Melody

In Renaissance music, there is a gentle flow, moving away from sharply defined beats. Melodies are easy to sing as they move along a scale with few leaps. This is called conjunct motion. However, Melodies were still modal.

The "Contenance Angloise"

Humanists thought that consonance and dissonance should be determined by the human ear, not by mathematics as many older thinkers, such as Pythagoras, believed. In the Middle Ages, intervals of seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths were thought to be dissonant, as per mathematics. Fourths, fifths, and octaves were considered consonant. With humanism gaining influence during the Renaissance, musicians began using their intuition to determine consonance and dissonance. Fourths became considered dissonant, while thirds and sixths became considered consonant. Composers of the Renaissance began exhibiting this new classification of intervals in their works. This new style was first popular with English composers, particularly John Dunstable. From there it moved to continental Europe. The French poet Martin le Franc dubbed this new style the "Contenance Angloise" meaning "English Guise."

Sacred Music
Two main forms of sacred music existed. Firstly, the motet; a short, polyphonic, choral work set to a sacred Latin text. The motet was performed as a short religious ritual such as the communion. Secondly the Mass; a longer work, comprised of all five movements of the Ordinary.

Christian Music In Northern Germany During the Early Reformations
The Reformation led to many changes throughout Europe, including quite a few at the musical level. Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk and teacher of theology at the University of Wittenberg, was one of the leading actors of the Reformation in Germany and Europe in general, criticizing the Catholic Church and founding the Lutheran Church. Moreover, he also brought many thoughts regarding music in Church in his Weimarer Ausgabe (Luther’s Works); his view of music was very optimistic, as he declared it a gift from God, after theology itself. As for the technical aspects of Christian music, Luther inspires himself according to a passage in the Bible, which is in Colossians 3:16.

“Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly in all wisdom; teaching and admonishing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, singing with grace in your hearts to the Lord.” – Col. 3:16

He brings up two topics about music’s proper purpose and usage in Church; Simplicitas and Exultatio. When Luther writes Simplicitas, he refers to the simple form music needs to be; according to him, music should bring up concepts of truth, innocence, and sincerity, as the more straightforward it is, the more truthfulness and authenticity the music upholds. Therefore, he favours most of Josquin Des Prèz’s works, as they strive to be better understood, going hand-in-hand with the “wisdom” concept Martin Luther refers to in his teachings.

The second topic that Luther associates church music with, Exultatio, depicts the “grace” part of the biblical verse above. According to Luther’s writings, he depicts music to show exaltation towards God, which needs to be voluntary, with cheerfulness and full of love. Thus, he promotes Josquin’s works vigorously once again, for he displays virtuosic compositional “freedom”, as Luther describes it, which is approved by Luther’s theology concerning Christian songs. Josquin did not necessarily break musical rules, per se; on the other hand, he would use them more creatively, thus manifesting a more sincere essence and praise to God through his compositions.

With this predetermined ideology of what music should look like in Church, Martin Luther brought a few substantial changes to music during the Reformation. He inaugurates what is now called “Congregational Singing”, which according to Luther, was a way to bring this sense of inclusiveness inside the Church by involving the laypeople in worship through singing. It was primarily based on the older medieval vernacular german song called Leisen, which would be integrated during the Mass service and sung by the congregation itself instead of the professional performers. Luther would also develop Lutheran Chorale (Chorales), song adaptations arranged for congregational singing. They are four-part singing compositions, having the soprano line as the melody line to make it easier for the congregation to sing along during the Mass. There were three main ways to redesign musical works into Lutheran Chorales; First, there are songs adapted from older Gregorian chant songs, either in a direct or free translation. Second, some secular german songs would be converted into Christian Lutheran songs to be sung in Church, and lastly, free innovative compositions written with no previously-made inspiration would end up in the Lutheran hymnals as well, such as Martin Luther’s most famous work, Ein Feste Burg ist unser Gott (1529).

Christian Music In Southern Germany During the Early Reformations
Leonhard Paminger (1495-1567) and his son, Sophonias, were the main change contributors in the southern part of Germany regarding music in the Church. Leonhard agreed with Martin Luther’s teachings but remained silent throughout his life about his Christian affiliation, maybe to not cause any tension between the Reformed denominations in the region, such as the Calvinists, Puritans and the Anabaptists. Thus, his works were primarily published posthumously, having his son Sophonias Paminger held responsible for releasing his father’s works. Paminger started composing in Latin, then switched to vernacular German and later turned to German liturgical songwriting during the 1540s. As mentioned earlier, Paminger had the same vision towards music as Luther, which can be seen in his works and how in his compositions, like his song Ach Got straff mich nit (Psalm 6), which he not necessarily copied it from the Bible word-for-word, but instead put his praise towards God, thus showing Luther’s ideology in Paminger’s work(s).

As for his song’s publishing, Sophonias uncovered his father’s compositions, as mentioned earlier. Most of Leonhard’s compositions were individual songs; however, one of the most well-known publications that Leonhard Paminger is featured in is the Tricinia, a compilation of 52 songs gathered and released by Johann von Berg and Ulrich Neuber in 1557. Paminger’s contribution is of 12 catechistical songs, of which 11 are in German and one in Latin. With this release, Sophonias wanted to fulfill his father’s wish concerning his Christian music to enlighten the youth on educational and devotional levels and keep them on the righteous path. This publication was also propelling the Lutheran Reformation Ideology as well.

Christian Music In the Italian Nunneries during the Council of Trent
With the reformations gaining expansion and popularity in Europe, The Roman Catholic Church decided to re-establish the Catholic doctrine during “The Council of Trent”, which occurred in the city of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563. This meeting was their initiative to counter the Reformation, commonly known as the “Counter-Reformation”. Many religious subjects were discussed, but there was little room concerning music itself. However, one Counter-Reformation decision that involved the music part was the seclusion for all Italian nuns, which was a topic discussed during the 25th session of the Council (Dec. 1563).

After the Council, the nuns were confined inside the Italian nunneries at risk of ex-communication if not obeyed. Throughout Italy, this measure took place to make the nuns break connections with the outside world to remain pure and not be contaminated by worldly temptations. So, through the means of musical performance, the nuns were able to project themselves outside the nunnery walls out into the “outside church”, as it was called, using music as a way to be in contact with the external world. Moreover, most women who had musical skills were already set on the way to becoming nuns not only because of the societal standards during the 16th century but also because it was an essential asset for them to access the outside premises in order to fulfill one of their primary duties as nuns; “pray and feed” the town. This concept, called “spiritual feeding”, was their way of portraying their musical performances’ purpose by serving “audible food” to the laypeople to purify them from sin in this particular way.

Music inside the convents consisted mainly of both Gregorian chant and polyphony. However, polyphony was a controversial topic during the Council of Trent. Some churchmen were against this type of music because it invoked lasciviousness and impurity, according to the Archbishops of Bologna, labelling polyphony along with “sensuality”, making it irreverent for the church masses. However, nuns would continue to perform and even publish liturgical polyphonic songs in Bologna, going against the Church’s mandate. Lucrezia Orsina Vizzana (1590- 1662) is an excellent example of a nun that composed polyphonic pieces and was the only Bolognese nun ever to publish music. Vizzana’s most famous publication, the Componimenti musicali de motetti concertati a una e più voci, is a series of 20 motets released in 1623, showing advanced theoretical techniques, such as heterolepsis, which was not documented and “discovered” before Christoph Bernhard (1628-1692), which he labels is as stylus theatralis in 1628, a common technique used in 17th-century operas and cantatas. Another technique seen in her compositions is the usage of two major thirds piled up together, which was non-existent before the 1620s, even in famous composers’ works such as Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) and other Italian sacred songs.

Christian Music In Spain
During the 16th century, there was a massive growth of the Society of Jesus, commonly known as the Jesuits. As they gained more popularity, especially in France and Spain, more refining was necessary for certain levels of their doctrines, thus pushing them to develop the “Casuistic literature”. The Jesuits would publish those manuals englobing their moral teachings, more specifically about the true nature of sin and what consists of committing it. They would also talk about music and its effects, which have a particular way of being used in the Church. These guidebooks were written mainly by Spanish Jesuits and a few French ones. One Spanish Jesuit that would write about music in the Church is Martin de Azpilcueta (1491-1586) in his casuistic book called Manual de Confessores y Penitentes. His manual breaks down how music can be used in godly or evil ways into three main topics: First, music must be used as divine worship only. Second, music can lead to its very own worship, repulsing the adoration of God as a consequence, and Third, music can lead to lust and other ungodly urges.

Christian Music In France
On the French side, Jesuits came up with a term called Musique Intérieure (Inner Music), which describes music’s purpose as a medium to the soul’s feelings, commonly labelled as “Music for the Soul”. With this description, they also associate music’s harmonic feature along with prayer, which means that music’s purpose, according to them, must be linked with prayer itself, thus emphasizing its true essence. Moreover, This concept would go against the Chansons Parisiennes, a French Madrigal song style, as it utilizes secular lyrics, ruining the religious purpose of music’s usage.

Jean Benedicti, a French theologian during the 16th century, also contributed to the Casuistic literature library with his most well-known work, called Somme des Péchéz. In some parts of this book, like Azpilcueta, he talks about the correlation between music and sin and the human soul’s behaviour when exposed to it. However, this publication was more destined towards the laypeople instead of the clergy in order for them to get more educated. In other words, the primary function of his manual was for ecclesiastical teaching purposes and not for religious ideal debating purposes.

When he surfaces the music’s topic, he wrote about this concept in what Benedicti calls Le Péché de la Langue (The Tongue Sin), which describes how the lyrics of certain songs can lead to sinning and stays particularly neutral concerning the melodic aspect of the music in context. He tends to focus more on criticizing the texts than the instrumental part of the songs. Moreover, Benedicti approaches the relation between music and the human soul by saying that bad music can arouse evil emotions, thus them leading the mind away from godly behaviour. He also deduces that “evil” music affects the human body through the “Black Bile”, as he calls it, or the melancholia feeling, in other words, and then tormenting the body once introduced. This idea also is related to Plato’s philosophy Musica Humana, as mentioned earlier, which is also a notion associated with Boethius, a 6th-century Roman philosopher who wrote a treatise called De institutione musica, approaching several theoretic and philosophical subjects about music.

Christian Music in Denmark
Luther’s story made it towards King Christian III (1503-1559) in Denmark, which resulted in what we call now the “Danish-Lutheran Reformation” (1536). It primarily began in 1528, but the King’s decree officialized it with the Kirkeordinansen (Church Ordinance Law), officially instituted in Latin in 1537 and two years later in Danish. Later on, Niels Jesperssøn, under the reign of Christian III’s son, King Frederik II (1559-1588), published a congregational-singing hymnal in Danish called Gradval (Gradual) in 1573. It became the normalized, standard hymn throughout the kingdom in the late 16th century.

Christian Music in Switzerland
In actual-day Switzerland, a few reformers had their word about church music, which differed from Luther’s teachings. Some of them were Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) and John Calvin (1509-1564), which had a marginal view towards music. In some instances, they considered the absolute removal of it from the church services. According to them, especially Calvin, music is too bound to lead to sin, which was his main reason to avoid music, if possible. This idea parallels Plato’s Musica Humana (Music for the Soul) philosophy, which describes how music can profoundly affect the human spirit, both in good and evil ways. Calvin approaches the Neo-Platonic view of music with the same concept, adding that music should always be in order to pray to God and give Him praise, a notion he calls “Singing as Prayer”. Therefore, he implies that music without words does not belong in the Church and is inappropriate for worship.

Italy
The musical Renaissance began in northern Italy around 1400. One of the prominent groups that was very influential in shaping the early Renaissance was the Florentine School in Florence, Italy. The quattrocento, which might have begun slightly earlier than 1400, overlaps the late Medieval and early Renaissance periods. Nevertheless, it is generally considered to be part of the early Renaissance. Notable composers include the following:
 * Zacara da Teramo (c. 1350-c. 1413)
 * Paolo da Firenze (c. 1355-c. 1436)
 * Giovanni Mazzuoli (1360–1426)
 * Bartolomeo da Bologna (fl. 1405-1427)
 * Antonio da Cividale (fl. 1392-1421)
 * Antonius Romanus (fl. 1400-1432)
 * Cristoforo de Monte (1383-?)
 * Nicolaus Zacharie (c. 1400 – 1466)
 * Johannes de Quadris (c. 1410 – c. 1457)
 * Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro (c. 1420 – 1484).

John Dunstable (c. 1390 - 1453)
Dunstable was an English composer, renowned during his lifetime and influential throughout Europe. A contemporary of Leonel Power (an English composer probably born slightly before Dunstable), his music bridges the late Medieval and early Renaissance styles. He also helped develop the style of the early Renaissance Burgundian School.

Guillaume Dufay (1397 - 1474)
Dufay was a Franco-Flemish composer and the central figure of the Burgundian School. He was ordained a priest but composed both sacred and secular music. He learned his craft from cathedral authorities, and he spent a chunk of his life in Italy, where he stayed intermittently and met the composers Hugo and Arnold de Lantins. One of his most famous compositions is the motet Nuper rosarum flores (1436), which incorporates both the old isorhythmic style and the new contrapuntal style.

Gilles Binchois (1400 - 1460)
Binchois was another Franco-Flemish composer who was influential in the Burgundian School. He is often compared to Dufay, and there is even a contemporary portrait of them together. Like Dufay, he is one of the earliest members of the Burgundian School. Although often ranked behind Dufay and Dunstable by musicologists and other scholars, Binchois is debated by others as being more influential than the other two. His melodies are easy to be sung and are familiar to those interested in early Renaissance music.

Josquin Des Prez (1450 - 1521)
Josquin was an important composer of Renaissance music. He was a contemporary of Christopher Columbus and Leonardo da Vinci, and considered a master of Renaissance music. He had an international career, being born in Belgium and spending most of his life in Italy, serving Dukes and Popes. Later he worked for King Louis XII of France.

His output includes masses, motets and secular vocal pieces, and he strongly influenced other composers. He has many published volumes of music devoted exclusively to him. This was testimony to his skills as a composer as only a select few were chosen to have their works published.

Ave Maria (by Josquin Des Prez)
This piece was a Latin prayer to the Virgin Mary, written as a four voiced motet. It opens with strict, contrapuntal / polyphonic imitation. It is an example of true polyphonic writing, as each phrase has a different melody. There is overlapping, which creates a continuous flow. This makes it difficult to understand text, but creates continuity in the music. There is varied texture, as he uses imitation for three and four voices, then paired imitation for two voices. This variation of texture was introduced by Josquin. Two voices sing together, then they are imitated by another two voices. In bar 31 of this piece we see a move to homophony, where the voices are singing in step with one another. There is then a change in meter from duple to triple, with the use of thirds.

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525 – 1594)
Palestrina was a very prolific composer of the Late Renaissance period who was born in the town of Palestrina, near Rome. Though he also wrote secular madrigals, he is most famous for his masses and sacred motets. His works are known for their beauty and the relative ease for a listener to understand the texts compared to those in other polyphonic works.

Palestrina was also a critical actor of music’s development during the Counter-Reformation, him being one of the last composers who used the Ars Perfecta style in such late times. However, Palestrina’s compositions were criticized by churchmen during the Council of Trent, describing this post-Josquin style as non-fulfilling to Church’s music’s true purpose. Moreover, the artistic complexity of this genre of music suffocated the understanding of the words, according to those churchmen, having somewhat a connection with Luther’s Simplicitas’s doctrine, ironically. In response to that, Palestrina decided to compose the Missa Papae Marcelli (Mass of Pope Marcellus), a Mass which, according to the Pope, was understandable and intelligible, as it should be, thus becoming Palestrina’s new composition standard. This “style” was not necessarily adopted by Palestrina himself, per se, but it was mainly imposed by the Church, resulting in Palestrina’s newly modified compositional genre after the Council’s debate.

Missa: “Papae Marcelli” (by Palestrina)
Palestrina's most famous work was Missa Papae Marcelli, which he dedicated to Pope Marcellus II. Palestrina was concerned with a clear projection of the text, as the church was becoming concerned about the infiltration of complex polyphony, which was obscuring the text. It was written for Soprano, Alto, two Tenors, and two Basses, which makes it sounds fuller due to the six voices. For many years there was a legend that this mass was so beautiful that it convinced the Council of Trent not to ban polyphonic music from the church altogether. This story, however, is not true. Palestrina was born just outside of Rome. He was devoted to Catholic Church music, with his career based in Rome. He spent most of his life as director of three of the most celebrated Roman Catholic churches: St. Peter’s; St. John Lateran; and Santa Maria Maggiore. His output consisted of 104 masses, and over 450 sacred works. He was influenced greatly by the Counter-Reformation and the Council of Trent.

Secular Music
During the Renaissance, secular vocal music became increasingly popular. Music was set to poems in various languages, including Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, German, Dutch and English. The invention of the printing press helped to spread popular music. Thousands of song collections became available. This led to a rise in more national genres. These included the Parisian Chanson, the Italian Frottola, the Italian Madrigal, the English Madrigal, and the English Lute Song.

Music became important for leisure purposes, with every educated person being expected to play an instrument. Music was generally written for solo voices with instrumental accompaniment. However, with the rise of printing, instrumental music was becoming more important, with wide variety of instruments being used. These included recorders, viols, keyboard instruments and woodwinds.

The Venetian School
As the name suggests, this school of music was based in Venice. It was the center of instrumental and vocal music. It was also a thriving commercial center, responsible for much trade between Venice and the East. The Venetian School operated out of St. Marks’ Cathedral, with Willaert and Gabrielli as its music directors. Willaert and Gabrielli directed the orchestra and choir for the church. Venetian composers wrote polychoral music (for many choirs), with the choir always accompanied by instruments. Their music tended to be more homophonic in texture.

William Byrd (c. 1540 - 1623)
William Byrd is one of the most famous English composers of the Renaissance. Although he never made the transition to the new Baroque style, his keyboard music is said to have marked the beginning of the Baroque organ and harpsichord style; titles such as My Ladye Nevells Booke and Parthenia were two collections of Renaissance keyboard music Byrd contributed to. Though little is known about Byrd's early life, he is known to have been a composer since his teen years, collaborating with two of his contemporaries, John Sheppard and William Mundy, on a musical setting of Psalms 114 and 115. Byrd was a musician in the employ of Queen Elizabeth I, and together with his contemporary and teacher Thomas Tallis, managed to secure a printing patent for music in England - in short, nobody else in England could legally print sheet music. Following this, he published much music, including a collection of sacred songs with Tallis, and composed well into his old age, with examples such as the Gradualia, a collection of polyphonic music for use in the Catholic Church, and many more motets, songs, sonnets, and psalms.

Byrd lived as a Catholic in a Protestant England, and faced scrutiny for this. Catholics in England were not well-liked; many were implicated in plots against Queen Elizabeth, and the Pope went so far as to excommunicate her, leading to high tensions. Byrd was investigated by fanatical Protestants such as Sir Francis Walsingham, but he was protected through the intervention of Queen Elizabeth. It is likely that Byrd's struggle with the faith affected his composition; much of his Catholic music, written in Latin, has tension, dissonance, and a sense of sadness to it. On the other hand, as a musician employed by the Queen, Byrd worked in the Chapel Royal, a private chapel for the Queen to practice her faith, and music written for the chapel, written in English, was often more energetic and joyful.

Some contemporary English composers include Thomas Tallis - his teacher, Thomas Morley - one of his students, John Bull, John Dowland, Thomas Weelkes, and Orlando Gibbons.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Western Music History/Renaissance Music


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title: Template:Java:ch


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Modern Greek/Lesson 2x

This is the second lesson teaching you how to read, write and pronounce Greek. In the last lesson, you have already learned the letters alpha, iota, kappa, omicron, tau and rho. Now, we will slowly build on those, so that you can read more words. At the end of this lesson you will find the translations of the words. First try to find out the meanings on your own!

The next letter you should learn is Nu (this letter is pronounced ni in Greek):

Ν ν

Again the capital letter looks the same as in the Latin alphabet. The small letter looks similar to a lowercase V. It's still pronounced like a regular N (IPA [n]) though. It also appears in the following names that you should be able to read now:

ΝΑΤΟ (very difficult ;-) ) Άννα (a girl's name) Ιράν (a country in the Middle East) Κίνα (a country in the Far East) Τίρανα (capital city of Albania) Ανόι (capital city of Vietnam)

Next letter is Mu:

Μ μ

While the capital letter is identical again, the lower letter is decidedly different from the Latin one this time. It's very commonly used as a special symbol in various academic fields though. The pronunciation is just like a regular M (IPA [m]). Here are words with Mu:

μαμά (every child's call) Μαρόκο (African country south of Spain) Ομάν (Arabic country) Αμμάν (capital of Jordan) Μαρκ Μαρία Μόνικα αρμονία άτομο μονοτονία

I'd also like you to meet the letter Epsilon:

Ε ε

Capital letter as in the Latin alphabet, small letter a variation on the capital letter. You have probably seen it before. Epsilon is pronounced approximately as in bet (IPA [ε]). German "Bett" and French "mère" are exactly the same as this Greek sound. Practise reading some more words:

Αρμενία Κορέα Κάρμεν Κατερίνα κέικ κρέμα κάμερα

Finally, here's the letter Lambda:

Λ λ

This is the equivalent of the letter L. It looks quite different, but you will probably be able to memorise it quickly anyway (anyone familiar with the Cyrillic alphabet will immediately notice its similarity with the letter Л). Be careful not to confuse a capital alpha with a capital lambda! Here are a few more words to practise, and of course this letter and all the others will frequently appear in the following lessons, too.

αλκοόλ κιλό Ιταλία καραμέλα

That's it for this lesson! If you didn't have trouble reading the example words, you're ready to continue with lesson 3!

Solutions

title: Modern Greek/Lesson 2x


text:
TI 83 Plus Assembly/Registers

Many parts of this page are based highly upon taken from Sean McLaughlin's Learn Assembly in 28 Days, Day 3.

=Number Systems= Necessary reading, this. Computers don't count the same way you and I do.

Decimal
All number systems use a particular radix. Radix is synonymous with "base" if it helps, although I should caution you that saying such things as "All you radix are belong to us" is a great way to get people to throw pointy things at you (but whether it's because of the horrid pun or the tired pop-culture reference is hard to say... :-). To understand what a radix is, consider our everyday system of numbers, which uses base ten.

Like you learned in grade school and forgot over summer, in a base ten number, each digit specifies a certain power of 10, and as a consequence you need ten different digits to denote any number. The rightmost digit specifies 100, the second digit specifies 101, the third 102 and so on. You can, therefore, break down a decimal number, such as 276310, like this (although it does wind up to be redundant):

276310 = (2 x 103) + (7 x 102) + (6 x 101) + (3 x 100) = (2 x 1000) + (7 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (3 x 1) = 2000 + 700 + 60 + 3        = 276310

Computers enjoy working with two other bases: binary and hexadecimal. Octal is base-8, and seems to have died out. The only operating system to use octal was UNIX.

Binary
Binary is a base-2 system, so it uses only two digits (0 and 1), and each digit represents a power of 2:

101101012 = (1 x 27) + (0 x 26) + (1 x 25) + (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) = (1 x 128) + (0 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (1 x 16) + (0 x 8) + (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 128 + 32 + 16 + 4 + 1           = 18110

A single binary digit is familiarly called a bit. Eight bits are called a byte. Other combinations you could hear about: Name 	Size nibble 	4 bits word 	16 bits dword 32 bits quadword 	64 bits Since the Z80 can directly manipulate only bytes and words (and nibbles in some circumstances), the majority of data handling you do will involve mostly those, so you don't have to concern yourself with the others too much (although it would still be a good idea to familiarize yourself with them).

We will find ourselves working with, or at the very least referencing the individual bits of a byte or word. The nomenclature:

 * If we arranged the bits out horizontally, we call the rightmost bit "bit 0", and each bit to the left is given a number one greater.
 * The leftmost and rightmost bits are given special names: the leftmost bit is called the high-order bit or the most-significant bit (since it controls the highest power of two of the number, it makes the most significant contribution to the value). The rightmost bit is called the low-order bit or the least-significant bit.
 * We can apply these points to nibbles in a byte, bytes in a word or dword, etc. So for example the rightmost byte in a 64-bit quantity would be termed the least-significant byte.

Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal is base-16, so it uses 16 digits: the regular digits 0 to 9, and the letters A to F that correspond to the decimal values 10 to 15.

1A2F16 = (1 x 163) + (10 x 162) + (2 x 161) + (15 x 160) = (1 x 4096) + (10 x 256) + (2 x 16) + (15 x 1) = 4096 + 2560 + 32 + 15        = 670310

Hex values have an interesting relationship with binary: take the number 110100112. In hex, this value is represented as D316, but consider the individual digits:

D16 = 11012

316 = 00112

Compare these two binary numbers with the original. You should see that one hex digit is equivalent to one nibble. This is what's so great about hexadecimal, converting binary numbers used by the computer into more manageable hex values is a snap.

Designating Base
To designate base above, we have adopted the notation used by many mathematicians by writing the radix as a subscript. Too bad we must write assembly code in plain text format, which has no capability for such niceties. The way to denote radix varies, but in all cases it involves attaching an extra character or characters to the number. TASM gives you a choice between a symbolic prefix or an alphabetic suffix. Prefix Format Suffix Format   Base %10011011     10011011b       Binary $31D0         31D0h           Hexadecimal @174          174o            Octal 12305 *       12305d          Decimal * no prefix It doesn't matter which format you use, provided you don't mix them (like $4F33h). The prefix formats may be easier to read, since the letter sort of gets lost among the numbers (especially if it's upper case).

=Registers= Registers are sections of very expensive RAM inside the CPU that are used to store numbers and rapidly operate on them. There are fourteen registers on this CPU: A B C D E F H I L R PC SP IX and IY. You don't need to concern yourself about registers I, R, PC and SP yet.

The single-letter registers are 8 bits in size, so they can store any number from 0 to 255. Since this is oftentimes inadequate, they can be combined into four register pairs: AF BC DE HL. These, along with IX and IY, are 16-bit, and can store a number in the range 0 to 65535.

These registers are general purpose, to a point. What I mean by that is that you can usually use whichever register you want, but many times you are forced to, or it's just better to, use a specific one. For example, only the HL, IX and IY registers can be used for indirect memory addressing when loading into registers other than A, all 16-bit registers can be used to load to or from an indirectly addressed memory location when loading from or to (respectively) register A.

The special uses of the registers:

8-bit Registers:
 * A is also called the "accumulator". It is the primary register for arithmetic operations and accessing memory. Indeed, it's the only 8-bit register you can use.
 * B is commonly used as an 8-bit counter.
 * C is used when you want to interface with hardware ports.
 * F is known as the flags. The bits of this register signify (that is to say they "flag") whether certain events have occurred. For example, one of the flags (bits) reports if the accumulator is zero or not. The uses of the flags will be explained at a later day because we have no use for them at this point.
 * I is the high byte of the interrupt vector when the processor is in Interrupt Mode 2 (IM 2), the low byte of the vector comes from the data bus and is functionally random. Note that this vector is used to load a value from RAM first, then that address is called. You can only load to and from it using A.
 * R is the dynamic RAM refresh register, it increases after every instruction by an amount depending on the instruction. Its contents are pseudo random. You can only load to and from it using A.

The two bytes of all 16-bit registers can be used separately as well.

16-bit Registers:
 * AF is only used in pushes and pops.
 * HL has two purposes. One, it is like the 16-bit equivalent of the accumulator, i.e. it is used for 16-bit arithmetic. Two, it stores the high and low bytes of a memory address.
 * BC is used by instructions and code sections that operate on streams of bytes as a byte counter.
 * DE holds the address of a memory location that is a destination.
 * PC holds the address of the currently executing instruction, you can only change its contents with jumps, calls and rets. The only way to load directly to it is 'jp (hl)' you could see this as a 'ld pc,hl'.
 * SP is the Stack Pointer, it determines where in RAM values are Pushed and Popped, you can only load to it using HL, and you can only load from it using arithmetic like 'add hl,sp', if HL was zero before the addition it now holds the value of SP.
 * IX and IY is a funky li'l registers called the index registers. Almost everywhere HL is acceptable, so too is IX and IY. Important to note that using IX and IY results in slower and more inflated code than HL would (approximately double the size and time) because they were not present on the 8080 (the processor the Z80 is based on), so use it only when necessary (usually when HL is tied up). IX and IY can do something special that no other register can though, we'll look at that in due time.

To store to a register, you use the LD instruction. LD destination, source        Stores the value of source into destination.

Valid arguments for LD

There are many more, but they involve registers you haven't heard of yet.

Note: imm8: 8-bit immediate value. imm16: 16-bit immediate value. Destination source A       B       C       D       E       H       L       BC      DE      HL      (BC)    (DE)    (HL)    (imm16) A      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                               *       *             *        * B      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * C      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * D      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * E      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * H      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * L      *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                       * BC                                                                                * DE                                                                                * HL                                                                                * (BC)   * (DE)   * (HL)   *       *       *       *       *       *       * (imm16) *                                                      *       *       * imm8   *       *       *       *       *       *       *                                               * imm16                                                          *       *       * You obviously have no clue what difference parentheses make for an operand. You'll see shortly. You can only to/from I and R using A.

Examples: LD A, 25      Stores 25 into register A LD D, B        Stores the value of register B into register D. LD ($8325), A  Stores the value of register A into address $8325 (explained later on).

Some points that should be made clear:

The two operands for LD cannot both be register pairs, excepting SP. You have to load the registers separately:

; Since we can't do LD DE, HL... LD   D, H   LD    E, L   ; But we can do this: LD SP,HL ; The following instruction effectively loads HL into PC  JP (HL)

If you use LD with a number that is too big for the register to hold, you will get an error at assembly time. Storing negative numbers, however, is legal, but the number will get "wrapped" to fit. For example, if you assign -1 to A, it will really hold 255. If you assign -2330 to BC, it will really hold 63206. Adding one plus the maximum value the register will hold gives you the value that will be stored. There is a reason for this phenomenon that will be made clear shortly.

An instruction similar to LD but functionally different, is EX. Despite the fact that it is very particular about its operands, it is a very useful instruction. (90% of the time the registers you want to exchange are HL and DE).

EX DE, HL     Swaps the value of DE with the value of HL.

If you want to swap and other register pair with HL (or an index register) without losing an other register you could do the following (although slow)

PUSH BC EX (SP),HL POP BC

Registers F and AF cannot be used as operands for the LD instruction. Actually, these registers can not be operands for any instruction barring a few.

=Negative Numbers= Up to this point there has been an implication that registers are only capable of assuming positive values, but in the real world negative numbers are just as common. Fortunately, there are ways to represent negative numbers. In assembly, we can attribute a number as either signed or unsigned. Unsigned means that the number can only take on positive values, signed means that the number can be either positive or negative. It is this concept of signed numbers we need to look at.

It turns out that there are many signed numbering schemes, but the only one we're interested in is called two's complement. When we have a signed value in two's complement, the most significant bit of the number is termed the sign bit and its state determines the sign of the number. The existence of the sign bit naturally imposes a restriction on the number of bits a number may be composed of. With this, the amount of bits at our disposal to represent the number is reduced by one; for a string of eight bits, we can have a numeric range of -128 to +127 in decimal. For a string of sixteen, it's -32768 to 32767, etc.

As to what bearing the state of the sign bit has on the value, it is this: if the sign bit is clear, the value is a positive quantity and is stored normally, as if it were an unsigned number. If the sign bit is set, the value is negative and is stored in two's complement format. To convert a postive number to its negative counterpart, you have two methods, either of which you can choose based on convenience.

 * 1) Calculate zero minus the number (like negative numbers in the Real World). If you're confused how to do this, you can consider 0 and 256 (or 65536 if appropriate) to be the same number. Therefore, -6 would be 256 - 6 or 250: %11111010.
 * 2) Flip the state of every bit, and add one. Therefore, -6 would be %11111001 + 1 or %11111010.

There is one special case of two's complement where negation fails, and that is when you try to negate the smallest negative value:

%10000000       -128      %01111111        Invert all bits %10000000       Add one (=-128)

Of course -(-128) isn't -128, but the value +128 cannot be represented in two's complement with just eight bits, so the smallest negative value can never be negated.

There is an instruction to automate two's complement: NEG 	Calculates the two's complement of the accumulator. I'm sure you find the theory wonderfully engrossing, but what you're probably interested in is how the CPU handles the difference between unsigned and signed numbers. The answer is, it doesn't. You see, the beauty of two's complement is that if we add or subtract two numbers, the result will be valid for both signed and unsigned values:

unsigned       signed %00110010          5             5      + %11001110       + 206          + -5      %1 00000000         256             0   (Disqualify ninth bit)

This phenomenon was not lost on the makers of the Z80. You could use the same hardware for adding signed numbers as unsigned numbers only with two's complement, and less hardware means a cheaper chip (true, nowadays you can get a fistful of Z80s for fifty cents, but back in 1975 it was a big deal, just look at the 6502).

title: TI 83 Plus Assembly/Registers


text:
User:Irmgard

Just here for a visit.

See German Wikipedia where I'm usually to be found.

title: User:Irmgard


text:
Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Wine

Edit history from en:Wikipedia

 * 01:55, 5 February 2006 Irmgard
 * 20:25, 25 December 2005 DreamGuy (rv recently added self-promotional link)
 * 16:35, 22 December 2005 12.8.196.2 (→Related links)
 * 07:12, 14 December 2005 Gregmg (revert edits by 201.35.193.64 that didn't make any sense.)
 * 04:38, 14 December 2005 201.35.193.64 (→Winemaking at home)
 * 04:37, 14 December 2005 201.35.193.64 (→Winemaking at home)
 * 04:36, 14 December 2005 201.35.193.64 (→Winemaking at home)
 * 21:46, 12 December 2005 Charlene.vickers m (Forgot instructions to add yeast!)
 * 00:36, 6 December 2005 Charlene.vickers (→Winemaking at home)
 * 21:43, 27 November 2005 Wnissen m (rvv)
 * 19:17, 27 November 2005 134.225.182.213 (→Wine making under difficult circumstances)
 * 20:10, 25 November 2005 Gjs238 m (- white wine wikilink)
 * 09:45, 15 November 2005 Ashley Y m
 * 17:30, 2 November 2005 192.35.35.34 (→Wine making under difficult circumstances)
 * 11:30, 12 October 2005 165.247.30.191 (fix link)
 * 22:21, 1 October 2005 209.135.104.12
 * 20:14, 26 September 2005 WikidSmaht
 * 21:08, 20 September 2005 Nuno Tavares m (pt:)
 * 00:27, 11 September 2005 Beland
 * 18:26, 26 August 2005 Pearle m (Changing to  )
 * 21:54, 16 August 2005 Gregmg m (→Wine making under difficult circumstances - typos)
 * 23:43, 15 August 2005 82.45.4.188 (→Basic steps)
 * 18:01, 15 August 2005 Gregmg m (Intro, heading for basic steps, 'see also' wine.)
 * 04:54, 31 July 2005 Leopard (→See also)
 * 16:07, 15 July 2005 Wnissen (→See also - Made 'difficult circumstances' its own section)
 * 15:04, 15 July 2005 JGSmith (→See also)
 * 22:33, 29 May 2005 82.46.102.224
 * 10:13, 28 May 2005 Andypasto m
 * 23:14, 13 May 2005 Nina Gerlach m (sorry: de)
 * 23:13, 13 May 2005 Nina Gerlach m (→See also - +de)
 * 04:20, 28 April 2005 216.102.59.2
 * 07:24, 15 April 2005 66.167.141.16 (add details about ripeness, ageing, various other bits)
 * 18:56, 13 April 2005 Inter m (Reverted edits by 216.20.26.13 to last version by Justinc)
 * 18:56, 13 April 2005 216.20.26.13
 * 13:35, 30 March 2005 Justinc m (cat)
 * 03:27, 30 March 2005 Justinc m (move cat)
 * 00:14, 18 March 2005 Jschwa1
 * 10:23, 16 March 2005 Dante Alighieri m
 * 06:36, 1 December 2004 209.90.162.46 (fr)
 * 00:58, 4 November 2004 Ahoerstemeier m (Reverted edits by 62.68.241.41 to last version by Justinc)
 * 00:47, 4 November 2004 62.68.241.41
 * 20:26, 6 October 2004 Justinc m (added category)
 * 23:07, 27 August 2004 SimonP
 * 01:18, 22 August 2004 Marcus2
 * 04:19, 14 August 2004 RedWolf m (disambiguation: egg)
 * 00:14, 27 July 2004 Jaberwocky6669
 * 00:14, 27 July 2004 Jaberwocky6669 m
 * 01:06, 15 April 2004 Niteowlneils m (fix seperate)
 * 09:59, 5 April 2004 128.135.62.56
 * 19:49, 31 March 2004 Hajhouse (copyediting)
 * 04:34, 19 February 2004 Catbar (add link to 'must')
 * 16:01, 18 December 2003 Evil saltine m (Reverted to last edit by 67.100.123.210)
 * 16:00, 18 December 2003 146.145.179.226
 * 15:59, 18 December 2003 146.145.179.226
 * 12:33, 20 November 2003 67.100.123.210 (Moved from the main wine page; needs work)
 * ?3:13, 13 May 2005 Nina Gerlach m (→See also - +de)
 * 04:20, 28 April 2005 216.102.59.2
 * 07:24, 15 April 2005 66.167.141.16 (add details about ripeness, ageing, various other bits)
 * 18:56, 13 April 2005 Inter m (Reverted edits by 216.20.26.13 to last version by Justinc)
 * 18:56, 13 April 2005 216.20.26.13
 * 13:35, 30 March 2005 Justinc m (cat)
 * 03:27, 30 March 2005 Justinc m (move cat)
 * 00:14, 18 March 2005 Jschwa1
 * 10:23, 16 March 2005 Dante Alighieri m
 * 06:36, 1 December 2004 209.90.162.46 (fr)
 * 00:58, 4 November 2004 Ahoerstemeier m (Reverted edits by 62.68.241.41 to last version by Justinc)
 * 00:47, 4 November 2004 62.68.241.41
 * 20:26, 6 October 2004 Justinc m (added category)
 * 23:07, 27 August 2004 SimonP
 * 01:18, 22 August 2004 Marcus2
 * 04:19, 14 August 2004 RedWolf m (disambiguation: egg)
 * 00:14, 27 July 2004 Jaberwocky6669
 * 00:14, 27 July 2004 Jaberwocky6669 m
 * 01:06, 15 April 2004 Niteowlneils m (fix seperate)
 * 09:59, 5 April 2004 128.135.62.56
 * 19:49, 31 March 2004 Hajhouse (copyediting)
 * 04:34, 19 February 2004 Catbar (add link to 'must')
 * 16:01, 18 December 2003 Evil saltine m (Reverted to last edit by 67.100.123.210)
 * 16:00, 18 December 2003 146.145.179.226
 * 15:59, 18 December 2003 146.145.179.226
 * 12:33, 20 November 2003 67.100.123.210 (Moved from the main wine page; needs work)

title: Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Wine


text:
User:JimD~enwikibooks

Mostly a Linux geek. Active at Wikipedia:User:JimD, less so for Wiktionary:User:JimD. Home page: Starshine.org: JimD

title: User:JimD~enwikibooks


text:
ILife/iPhoto/Fixing Photos

It happens. Your otherwise perfect shot is marred by bad lighting, a slanted camera, or a bad case of red eye. With the advent of digital cameras, you can now re-touch photos using your Mac, and iPhoto is one of the easiest and most powerful pieces of software available to do just that. This chapter will show you how to correct all common image problems.

title: ILife/iPhoto/Fixing Photos


text:
Cookbook talk:No-Bake Chocolate Oatmeal Cookies

where is the ingredient list?