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European History/European Imperialism and Nationalism

The period between 1870 and 1914 saw a Europe that was considerably more stable than that of previous decades. To a large extent this was the product of the formation of new states in Germany and Italy, and political reformations in older, established states, such as Britain and Austria. This internal stability, along with the technological advances of the industrial revolution, meant that European states were increasingly able and willing to pursue political power abroad.

Imperialism was not, of course, a concept novel to the nineteenth century. A number of European states, most notably Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands, had carved out large overseas empires in the age of exploration. However, the new technologies of the nineteenth century encouraged imperial growth. Quinine, for instance, allowed for the conquest of inland Africa, whilst the telegraph enabled states to monitor their imperial possessions around the world. When the value of these new technologies became apparent, the states of Europe began to take control of large swathes of territory in Africa and Asia, heralding in a new era of imperialism.

France
After France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck required France to hold elections so that he could negotiate a peace. Elections were held for a provisional government, and monarchists were elected, which was unacceptable to revolutionaries of Paris. Paris responded by forming its own government, a 40 member council or "commune" with its own national guard. The commune established the equality of all citizens, promotion of women's rights, and communal workshops. On May 21, Adolph Theirs, leader of the French provisional government, sent in troops to "restore order" in Paris. Members of the commune killed the Archbishop, packed the Tuileries with gunpowder, and blew it up. When it was all over, however, 20,000 Parisians had been killed by the troops.

Thus began the 3rd Republic of France from 1871 until 1940. The 3rd Republic consisted of a ceremonial President and a two chamber Parliament with universal male suffrage.

Germany

The idea of a German state had existed since the formation of the Kingdom of Germany in the early Middle Ages. The kingdom was succeeded by the Holy Roman Empire, but the authority of the emperors was weak, and the power of the central state declined until its final abolition in 1806. In 1815 the German-speaking territories were divided into around 40 states, many of them small.

The beginnings of popular nationalism in Germany can be traced to Napoleon's invasion of German territory in 1806. Whilst this act helped precipitate the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon's political machinations helped to encourage nationalist feeling. Many people within the German heartlands wished to escape the influence of foreign autocrats, such as the emperors of France and Austria, and build their own state.

This broad feeling was encouraged by the works of eighteenth century German writers and philosophers, such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and particularly Johann Gottfried von Herder. With his work on aesthetics, gothic art, and folk poetry, Herder encouraged an idea that the Germans had a rich common cultural heritage. Although Herder glorified the Germans, he was well travelled, feeling that every country had its unique features, and was worthy of some admiration.

However, the unification of Germany was not solely due to nationalism. It is worth noting that, in an era when Europe was increasingly dominated by large empires, many German states were small to the point of insignificance. Most German rulers understood that there was strength in working together. This understanding was to lead to inter-state co-operation across the region, the most notable example being the Zollverein, the customs union that encompassed most of northern Germany by the early 1830s.

This variety of factors, both nationalistic and economic, were exploited by the conservative King of Prussia, William I, and his chief minister, Otto von Bismarck. Both understood the value of a unified German state, particularly one which excluded Austrian influence.

Wars of Unification
Whilst he had a clear idea that the unification of Germany should be his goal, Bismarck was a shrewd politician and exploited, rather than initiated, events. The complicated dynastic successions within the German confederation proved to be a useful tool to this end.

The first such conflict was triggered by the Schleswig-Holstein problem. Schleswig and Holstein were German duchies whose ruler was also the Danish king, Frederick VII. Frederick's death in 1863 caused consternation amongst German nationalists as his successor, Christian IX, decided to annex Schleswig and Holstein, and make the German duchies into part of the Danish state. The Diet of the German Confederation demanded that this be prevented and encouraged Prussia and Austria, the only German states to have significant military strength, to invade Denmark.

The war between Denmark and the Germany states was short and decisive and the Danes were defeated in 1864. In the resultant peace treaty, the Danish king renounced his rights to the disputed territories of Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia and Austria respectively.

The occupation of Schleswig and Holstein was to prove the catalyst for the next German war, the Seven Weeks War of 1866. Whilst control of these provinces was regulated by the Gastein Convention of 1865, Bismarck was able to provoke the Austrians into declaring war. This was as decisive as the previous conflict. The meticulously planned Prussian advances outmanoeuvred the Austrians, who were forced on the defensive, and quickly defeated.

In 1867, Prussia established the North German Confederation, made up of 21 small northern states with a constitution and Kaiser Wilhelm as king. The small states were still in a vacuum, however, and needed some form of encouragement to join with Prussia.

In 1870, Prince Leopold Hohenzollern was asked to take the crown in Spain, and France demanded that the Prussians agree that no Hohenzollern ever take the Spanish throne in the so-called "Ems Dispatch." Bismarck manipulated the telegram; his modifications made France and Germany appear more hostile than they actually were. After he released it to the press in Europe, France declared war on Prussia, and the remaining German states joined Prussia for protection.

The Franco-Prussian war lasted from 1870 to 1871, and resulted in the defeat of Emperor Napoleon III. He was captured on September 2, 1870 at the Battle of Sedan. On January 18, 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles as a major snub to the French. On May 1871, the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed, and France ceded Alsace-Lorraine and 5 billion gold francs to Germany.

Italy
Throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period Italy consisted of a patchwork of small states. Its urbanization and position in the Mediterranean meant that Italy was a politically important region and, for much of this period it was dominated by foreign powers, most notably the Bourbon dynasty which, during the eighteenth century, provided kings for both France and Spain.

The dominance of foreign powers was brought to an end by the Napoleonic wars. Napoleon's attempts to dominate the peninsula failed, and the monarchies of France and Spain were weakened by long years of war. Moreover, Napoleon had attempted to conglomerate much of Italy into a single state, a process that encouraged a sense of the Italians belonging to a nation. It is notable, for instance, that Napoleon provided Italy with its national flag, the green, white, and red tricolore.

Although the Treaty of Vienna restored many of the small Italian states, nationalist feeling remained, and was preserved by nationalistic and revolutionary groups, such as the Carbonari in southern Italy. These groups were inspired by revolutionary activity in other European states. As a result, the early nineteenth century saw numerous small insurrections against the autocrats ruling the Italian states, most notably with the French-inspired revolts of 1831, which afflicted the Papal States. Such revolts were frequently small in scale, however, and were easily dealt with by the rulers of Italy.

The Italian Unification movement was led primarily by two central figures: Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, who supplied much of the ideology for the movement, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, who led the fighting of the movement. Cavour was the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia and served King Victor Emmanuel II. He built up the strength of Piedmont-Sardinia, establishing a strong army, a healthy economy, and political freedoms, such as freedom of the press. He gained the support of Napoleon III by promising him Savoy and Nice. Austria invaded Italy, but the Italians, aided by French troops, defeated the Austrians at the battles of Magenta and Solferino.

Garibaldi led the Red Shirts, or guerilla fighters in Italy. He was a supporter of a republic but conceded to a monarchy. He took his forces into southern Italy and successfully conquered Naples and the two Sicilies. Cavour sent troops south to stop Garibaldi from invading Rome, which was occupied by French troops, but both sides met in Naples and surprisingly became allies. In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was declared with Piedmont's Victor Emmanuel as king. However, Italy's agrarian south and industrial north had difficulty uniting, and the unification was not complete until 1870, at the end of the Franco-Prussian War.

Russia
During the late 1800s, Russia began to work to increase its power and to overall westernise itself. The state was considered weaker in military terms than other nations and had lost to Britain and France in the Crimean War of 1853–1856. It had an autocratic tsar with no social contract, and serfdom still existed in Russia. There was a small middle class with much less industrialization.

Nicholas I came to power after the death of his brother, Alexander I. His reign began marred by the Decembrist revolt of 1825 among the soldiers, some of whom supported his other brother. Thus, Nicholas ruled through police action and use of the army.

Alexander II came to power, using the defeat in the Crimean War as the major impetus to reform. He believed that Russia needed to follow the European model in order to become more powerful. As a result, in 1861, he gave the serfs freedom. However, the serfs were still bound in many ways to their formal feudal dues. The former serfs were given only half of the land, and the nobles were allowed to keep the other half. In addition, former serfs had to pay a communal redemption fee to their former lords.

In addition, Alexander II ended the secret police started by Nicholas I, and he created public trials that had professional judges with state salaries as well as juries. Zemstvos were created, which were local provincial councils, elected by the people, that dealt with local governmental issues such as roads and schools. Finally, Alexander reduced the draft from 25 years to 6 years.

Despite Alexander's actions, unrest continued in Russia. Peasant revolutionaries resented the redemption fees, and two new groups arose in Russia. The first, the nihilists, believed in nothing but science and rejected traditional society and culture. The second, the anarchists, led by Mikhail Bakunin, set out to destroy any government, even a reformist tsar like Alexander II. In 1881, an anarchist group known as the "People's Will" assassinated Alexander II with a bomb.

Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905
In 1860, the Russians founded the city of Vladivostok on the Pacific Ocean, and began work on the Trans-Siberian Railroad to connect the East to the West. The Russo-Japanese war was caused by the imperialist ambitions of Russia and Japan in Manchuria and Korea. In a number of key battles, the war resulted in a surprise victory for Japan in a peace agreement brokered by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1905.

The war resulted in the establishment of Japan as a major world power. Japan modelled European industrialization and militarism, and increased its focus on China, gaining dominion over Korea and establishing a claim to Manchuria. This expansion helped to cause World War I. The war marked the first major victory of a non-western power over a western power. As a result of the failure of the war in Russia, there was considerable discontent at home, and this discontent led to the Revolution of 1905. Finally, as a result of the defeat, Russia turned its interests back to the West and the Balkans.

The Revolution of 1905
Under Czar Nicholas II, who ruled from 1896 to 1917, the people believed that "papa czar" could hear their grievances and he would fix them. However, the people soon learned that the czar could not be trusted.

On what has become known as "Bloody Sunday," June 22, 1905, a peaceful march of thousands of St. Petersburg workers to the Winter Palace by Father Gapon took place. The marchers desired an eight hour work day, the establishment of a minimum wage, and a constitutional assembly. However, the Czar was not in the city, and Russian troops panicked and killed several hundred of the marchers.

As a result of Bloody Sunday, riots erupted throughout the country during 1905. Soviets formed the councils of workers in St. Petersburg and Moscow. Demands for representation increased, and the moral bond between the people and the czar was broken. As a result, the October Manifesto was granted to stop the disturbances. The October Manifesto provided a constitution, a parliament called the Duma, and some civil liberties. The Duma actually possessed little power, however, and was primarily intended to divide and subdue the revolutionaries.

Stolypin's Reforms
Pyotr Arkadyevich Stolypin was appointed minister by the Czar to address the problems of 1905. At Stolypin's recommendation, the czar ended redemption payments by the serfs, increased the power of the zemstvos, and allowed the peasants to own their land outright for the first time. Peasants were now allowed to buy more land to increase their holdings, and were even given loans. In some sense this was a sincere attempt at reform, and it created a new class of prosperous, entrepreneurial peasants called Kulaks. However, for the most part this was again an attempt to subdue revolutionaries, as the ulterior motive of the plan was to create a new class of peasant farmers who would be conservative and loyal to the czar. Under Stolypin's lead, revolutionaries and dissenters were brutally punished in what became known as "Stolypin Neckties." Stolypin was assassinated in 1911.

Imperialism
The Ultramarine Papal disputes between Spain and Portugal were long gone and both nations had been in decline since late 16th, first one then the other as the British Empire had started to take shape as a challenge to thwart the old powers, especially Spain and France. The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) permitted Britain's to rise among the world's predominant powers, it destroyed France's supremacy in Europe, in North America (1760s) and opened the conquest of large parts of India, thus altering the European balance of power. This was also the time the Industrial Revolution started to take shape in Great Britain. So by 1871, political stability of European nations resulted in renewed interest in imperialist endeavours, expansionism and power. Britain had became heavily involved in colonialism. The newly-unified Germany saw expansion as a sign of greatness and France and other European nations also remained involved in imperialist affairs due to the pressured of foreign competition. By 1837 we see the start of the Victorian era, Pax Britannica and the heights of Imperialism.

This age cemented the notion of British exceptionalism as it had political, military and economic domination of the world. Giving birth to the British notion of the white man's burden. While similar there are distinctions between this ideology and motivations in relation to the previous ones, especially the religious fervor that marked the Spanish maritime expansionism. Spain was a Roman Catholic Nation and Britain had long become Protestant (In 1534, King Henry VIII put an end to all papal jurisdiction in England, after the Pope failed to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon), this seemingly simple differences had very large implications, first the Papacy had been the seat of power during the previous "world orders", much of the benefit and actions reflected into gains for the Roman church that had more or less maintained stable control over the head of states of what are the territories of today's Europe and the territories they controlled across the world, this important distinction is self evident in the ways Portugal and the Spain "colonized" and controlled territories in relation to England. The other subtle distinction is how Protestantism sees personal worth, it is more centred in work, social structure, participation. This lead not only the seat of power being the Britain head of state, but that any national religious fervour be turned into national profitability and a centralization and depuration of notions regarding economic policies and legal proceeding. This is further validated when we compare the evolution of other Protestant dominated nations and their central social strength around the same values, for instance Holland and Germany.

The white man's burden held that the white man had an obligation to forcefully spread their ideas and institutions with others. This, of course, was utilized by some of the European governments as moral justification for their imperialistic foreign policies as British supremacy and influence increased.

In addition, as a result of European industrialization, nations had an increased need for various resources, such as cotton, rubber, and fuel. Moreover, a high level of nationalism was at the time being experienced across Europe, particularly as a result of Napoleon's Empire. As nationalism grew at home, societies began to desire more troops for their army, and thus colonies were needed to provide more troops, as well as naval bases and refuelling points for ships.

By the late 1800s, a number of nations across Europe possessed new colonial territories. Belgium had taken the Congo in central Africa. France controlled Algeria, and Italy controlled Somalia.

It was said that "The sun never sets on the British Empire." By this time, Britain's colonial territories spanned the world, and during the late 1800s Britain expanded their territorial possessions to include Egypt, Kenya, and South Africa.

In Asia, the British, Dutch and French all established or expanded their colonies.

Crimean War
The Crimean War found its roots in the so-called "Eastern Question," or the question of what to do with the decaying Ottoman Empire.

The Crimean War was provoked by Russian tsar Nicholas I's continuing pressure on the dying Ottoman Empire, and by Russia's claims to be the protector of the Orthodox Christian subjects of the Ottoman sultan.

Britain and France became involved in order to block Russian expansion and prevent Russians from acquiring control of the Turkish Straits and eastern Mediterranean, and to prevent Russia from upsetting the European balance of power.

The Crimean War is considered one of the first "modern" wars and it introduced a number of "firsts" to warfare. The Crimean War marked the first time rail-roads were used tactically to transport troops and to transport goods to troops over vast distances. The War also marked the first time steam powered ships were used in war. Additionally, new weapons and techniques were used, including breech-loading rifles, which loaded from the rear, artillery, and the deployment of trenches. The telegraph was used for the first time as well, allowing for the first "live" war to be broadcast in the press.

The conflict marked the end of Metternich's Concert of Europe. At the end of the war, Russia was defeated and as a result looked weak. The shock of the defeat in the Crimean War in Russia led to Alexander II enacting sweeping internal reform. Alexander recognized that in order to compete with other nations, it would have to industrialize and modernize. As a step toward this, Alexander liberated the serfs in 1861. Finally, the Ottoman Empire was kept intact, and it would continue to decline until World War I.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution
In his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) wrote that creatures experience genetic mutations prior to birth. Some of these random mutations are beneficial, and some are not. He wrote that in the world, the creatures who are the "most fit" are most likely to survive and thus pass on their genes. This process, known as natural selection results in the strongest creatures thriving and the weak dying off.

One of the most massive results of Darwin's theory of evolution was that it was another major challenge to the Catholic Church. This, coupled with the Reformation, Renaissance, the Enlightenment and its subsequent rise of deism, and other related movements, caused the Church to lose even more influence in society.

Also, Darwin's theory led to the rise of the concept of social Darwinism, or "survival of the fittest." The theory was fathered by Herbert Spencer. Social Darwinism espoused the idea that consensual economic interaction and property rights enabled societies to progress by allowing productive members of society to flourish and unproductive members to be punished by poverty. Accordingly, the theory of social Darwinism had a large impact on classical liberal and libertarian theory. However, in non-libertarian circles, social Darwinism did not enjoy a favourable reputation, as it was perceived to have espoused apologism on behalf of the rich, while condemning the poor.

New Mental Sciences
As a result of Darwin's theory, a new group of mental sciences arose. People now began to believe that life is a struggle, and they began to try to explain these struggles. These new mental sciences supported the concepts of real politics and capitalism, and rejected the notion that life is orderly, harmonious, predictable, or reasonable.

During this time, Sigmund Freud founded what is known as the psychoanalytical school of psychology. He argued that people are not creatures of reason, as the Enlightenment suggested, but rather that people act because of subconscious motivations. He broke these motivations into three areas:

 * Id : The id produces unconscious desires and is the most primitive of the three. The id desires instant gratification. Freud argued that people will use defence mechanisms and rationalization to justify acting upon the id.
 * Ego :The ego is the reality principle or the conscious self. It attempts to suppress the id and its intense desires.
 * Superego : The superego is a person's conscience.

Lombroso argued that you can tell criminals by their appearance. Pavlov argued that people's actions are a response to being conditioned by stimuli in an environment. Finally, Binet devised IQ tests, arguing that intelligence is a measurable quotient. As a result, eugenicists used this to try to prove that some people were more fit to live than others.

Society and Culture
The Victorian Age was a period in which appearances were critical to social status. The dominating social class was the middle class, or bourgeoisie. High moral standards and strict social codes, especially of etiquette and class status, were followed. This era also saw a middle-class interest in social reform for the lower classes.

Modern life was often unsettling to Europeans, as their old ways were being replaced by urbanization, industrialization, socialism, imperialism, and countless other new "ways."

The population was rising, with the Agricultural Revolution as well as advances in medicine allowing the citizens to live longer. This resulted in a portion of the rising population migrating to other locations, including emigrating to other nations. Europeans migrated from the country to the city in search of industrial jobs. In addition, many Europeans fled to the United States, South America, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand for a number of reasons - to escape anti-semitic persecution, to flee the Irish potato famine of 1840, and as a result of a general overcrowding in Italy.

However, at the same time, there were falling birth rates as a result of massive social changes in Europe. Child labour laws were being enacted across the continent, and compulsory education was enacted. Thus, the value of children to families fell since they could not generate income, and the overall cost of having children was now bore much more upon the parents.

White collar workers now arose in society, and Europe saw the entrance of educated females into clerical jobs in business and government. Disposable income became more common, and thus department stores and other similar stores began to open. People spent their extra income on fashion, home furnishings, cameras, and various other items. New leisure activities became popular, including hunting, travelling, and bicycling, as well as team sports, including polo, cricket, and soccer.

Impressionist Art

Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement that began as a loose association of Paris-based artists exhibiting their art publicly in the 1860s. The name of the movement is derived from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, Sunrise (Impression, soleil levant), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satiric review published in Le Charivari.

Radicals in their time, early Impressionists broke the rules of academic painting. They began by giving colours, freely brushed, primacy over line, drawing inspiration from the work of painters such as Eugène Delacroix. They also took the act of painting out of the studio and into the world. Previously, still lifes and portraits as well as landscapes had usually been painted indoors. The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting "en plein" air. Painting realistic scenes of modern life, they emphasized vivid overall effects rather than details. They used short, "broken" brush strokes of pure and unmixed colour, not smoothly blended, as was customary, in order to achieve the effect of intense colour vibration.

Post Impressionist Art

Post-Impressionists extended Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours, thick application of paint, distinctive brush strokes and real-life subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize geometric forms, to distort form for expressive effect, and to use unnatural or arbitrary colour.

The Post-Impressionists were dissatisfied with the triviality of subject matter and the loss of structure in Impressionist paintings, though they did not agree on the way forward. Georges Seurat and his followers concerned themselves with Pointillism, the systematic use of tiny dots of colour. Paul Cézanne set out to restore a sense of order and structure to painting, to "make of Impressionism something solid and durable, like the art of the museums". He achieved this by reducing objects to their basic shapes while retaining the bright fresh colours of Impressionism. The Impressionist Camille Pissarro experimented with Neo-Impressionist ideas between the mid 1880s and the early 1890s. Discontented with what he referred to as romantic Impressionism, he investigated Pointillism which he called scientific Impressionism before returning to a purer Impressionism in the last decade of his life. Vincent van Gogh used colour and vibrant swirling brush strokes to convey his feelings and his state of mind. Although they often exhibited together, Post-Impressionist artists were not in agreement concerning a cohesive movement. Younger painters during the 1890s and early 20th century worked in geographically disparate regions and in various stylistic categories, such as Fauvism and Cubism.

Christianity and Religion Questioned
New scientific theories such as Darwin's Theory of Evolution and Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis threatened traditional values. Historical scholarship, especially archaeology, led to questioning the veracity of the Bible, and philosophers like Marx and Nietzsche cast doubt on the morality of Christianity. Due to government's expanding role in education, organized religion also came under attack from the secular state.

These pressures led Pope Pius IX to put forth the Doctrine of Papal Infallibility. Pope Leo XIII addressed the great social issues of the day, condemning Socialism but urging improvements in labor conditions.

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European History/World War I

As a result of German unity and increasing German nationalism, as well as various other causes, Germany began on what Kaiser Wilhelm II called a "new course" to earn its "place in the sun." After 1871, Germany's trade and industry increased vigorously, challenging and, in some areas, even exceeding that of Great Britain, until then the premier industrial nation of Europe. A many-sided rivalry developed between Germany and Britain, intensifying when the sometimes-bellicose Wilhelm II assumed power and began building a strong, ocean-going navy.

Seeking to balance the rise of German power, Britain and France began to draw closer together diplomatically as the 20th century began. Germany, meanwhile, had allowed an implicit alliance with Tsarist Russia to lapse, and faced ongoing French resentment over the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine which Germany had annexed in 1871. The perceived danger of "encirclement" by hostile nations began to loom in the minds of German leaders. These factors together formed some of the tinder which would ignite the outbreak of war in 1914.

It is interesting to note, however, that all the ruling families of Europe were related to each other in some form or fashion. This led to many Europeans feeling that it was a family affair that they had been dragged into and forced to endure.

The Road to War
World War One is one of the most hotly contested issues in history; the complexity and number of theorized causes can be a major cause for confusion. One of the main reasons for this complexity is the long period over which this war’s tension built, beginning with the unification of Germany by Bismarck, and escalating from there on. There is no doubt that Germany's misguided foreign policy contributed to the outbreak of war, however the extent to which it contributed is the contended issue.

Some historians suggest that Germany willed the war and engineered its outbreak, and others even suggest that Germany felt compelled to go to war at that time. However, some suggest that the war was brought about by poor leadership at the time, others argue that the war was brought about by accident - that Europe stumbled into war due to tension between alliance systems. Finally, some historians argue that World War I was the culmination of historical developments in Europe. This argument states that war was inevitable between Austria and Serbia, that imperial expansion by Russia eastward was also likely to provoke war, and that the French were still furious over their loss of Alsace-Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian war.

There was certainly a general rise in nationalism in Europe, which played a major role in the start of the conflict. The war became inevitable when the so-called "blank check" was created when Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph sent a letter to German Kaiser Wilhelm II, asking for German support against Serbia. Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, Kaiser Wilhelm II's Imperial Chancellor, telegrammed back that Austria-Hungary could rely on Germany to support whatever action was necessary to deal with Serbia.

The Alliance System
One factor which helped to escalate the conflict was the alliance system of the late nineteenth century. Although there had always been alliances between different European nations, the diplomatic trend during the nineteenth century was to have secret alliances, committing states to defensive military action. These were encouraged by Bismarck who, in the process of unifying Germany, sought to pacify those surrounding states which might proved hostile. Although Germany had originally allied itself with the empires of Austria and Russia at this time, by the beginning of the twentieth century alliances had shifted. Germany found itself allied with Austria-Hungary and Italy, the so-called "Central Powers"; together the countries formed what was known as the "Triple Alliance". Meanwhile, France, desperate for allies after the Franco-Prussian war, had cultivated a friendship with Russia. Great Britain, too, felt isolated in the increasingly factionalised European environment, and sought out an alliance with another of Europe's great powers. This led to the Entente Cordial with France, which was to develop into the "Triple Entente" between Britain, France and Russia.

By 1914 most of the smaller European states had been drawn into this web of alliances. Serbia had allied itself with Russia whilst its enemy, Bulgaria, chose the patronage of Germany. A number of small states maintained their neutrality in this complicated network of alliances. Belgium, for instance, was a neutral state, its independence guaranteed by Britain, France, and Germany.

The Schlieffen Plan

The Schlieffen Plan was designed by Field Marshall Count Alfred von Schlieffen, who became Chief of the Great General Staff in 1891 and submitted his plan in 1905. Out of fear of a two front war, which Germany was nearly certain it could not win, it devised the plan to eliminate one of the fronts of the war before the other side could prepare. The plan called for a rapid German mobilization, sweeping through Holland, Luxembourg and Belgium into France. Schlieffen called for overwhelming numbers on the far right flank, the northernmost spearhead of the force with only minimum troops making up the arm and axis of the formation as well as a minimum force stationed on the Russian eastern front. Swift elimination of the French threat would in theory allow Germany to better defend against a Russian, or a British force. However, the British involvement was not looked for under the Schlieffen plan, not at the commencement of action at least. In 1905 Count Schlieffen expected his overpowering right wing to move basically along the coast through Holland. He expected the Dutch to acquiesce and grant the army the right to cross their borders. Schlieffen knew that navigating around the Belgian fortress at Liege in this way would speed the advance while still defeating the fortress simply by encirclement. Schlieffen retired from his post in 1906 and was replaced by Helmuth von Moltke. In 1907-08 Moltke adjusted the plan, reducing the proportional distribution of the forces, lessening the crucial right wing in favor of a slightly more defensive strategy. Also, judging Holland as unlikely to grant permission to cross its borders the plan now called for a direct move through Belgium but expected the French force to officially invade neutral Belgium first in an attempt to take the advantageous position at Meuse. Moltke's variation called for an artillery assault on Liege, but with the rail lines and the unprecedented firepower the German army brought what he did not expect any significant defense of the fortress.

August 1914: War Erupts
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungary throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo. As a result, Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany declared war on both Russia and France. On August 4, Germany invaded neutral Belgium before the French. This precipitated in Great Britain's declaration of war on Germany.

Enacting the Moltke variation of the Schlieffen Plan, German forces entered Belgium, attacking the fortress of Liege. Although they could not stop the large invading force, Belgian troops fought bravely, and the siege lasted 10 days, arguably upsetting the German timetable and allowing for mobilization of the French and the British Expeditionary forces. During the second half of August, however, a hasty French counteroffensive in Lorraine collapsed, with heavy casualties in the face of German machine-gun fire. French armies fell back in disarray as the Germans crossed from Belgium into France on a wide front.

Keeping its alliance with France, Russia's armies invaded Germany's easternmost province, East Prussia, in August. The German high command dispatched General Paul von Hindenburg to defend the province. Hindenburg took command and defeated the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg, ending the hope of a Russian advance to Berlin.

The end of August was marked by near-panic in northern France as the German offensive rolled south toward Paris, seemingly unstoppable. On the German side, however, a gap developed between the westernmost army corps, and the rapid advance was exhausting the troops. The French rushed reinforcements from Paris—some in taxicabs—to the front, and by the first week of September, amid heavy fighting, the Germans had been halted along the River Marne. This marked the beginning of the static trench lines which would define the front in Western Europe for four years.

1915-1916
On February 4, 1915, Germany declared a submarine blockade of Great Britain, stating that any ship approaching England was a legitimate target. On May 7, 1915, Germany sank the passenger ship Lusitania, resulting in a massive uproar in the United States, as over 100 U.S. citizens perished. On August 30, Germany responded by ceasing to sink ships without warning.

The front in France became the focus of mass attacks that cost huge numbers of lives, but gained very little. Britain became fully engaged in France, raising a large conscript army for the first time in its history. 1915 saw the first attacks with chlorine gas by the Germans, and soon the Allies responded in kind. During much of the year 1916, the longest battle of the war, the Battle of Verdun, a German offensive against France and Britain, was fought to a draw and resulted in an estimated one million casualties. On July 1 through November 18, the Battle of Somme, a British and French offensive against the Germans, again resulted in approximately one million casualties but no breakthrough for either side.

1917-1918: Final Phases
On February 1, 1917, Germany again declares unrestricted submarine warfare. The Germans believed that it was possible to defeat the British in six months through this, and assumed it would take at least one year for America to mobilize as a result of the actions. Thus, they banked on the hope that they could defeat Britain before America would enter the war.

A mood of cultural despair had settled over much of Europe by this time, as an entire generation of young men was fed into the maw of combat. French armies came close to mutiny in 1917 when ordered into an attack they knew would be hopeless. Germany, blockaded from overseas trade, saw hunger and deprivation among the population, with labor strikes and political discontent growing. Russia underwent collapse, its armies defeated and the Tsar ousted in favor of a liberal-socialist regime.

On April 6, 1917, the United States entered the war by declaring war on Germany. This was in part due to the sinking of the Lusitania and the Zimmerman Telegram, which was a ploy to convince Mexico to attack the United States in exchange for the return of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona should the United States enter the war. From July 31 through November 10, 1917, the Third Battle of Ypres, also known as Passchendaele, resulted in minor gains for the British, but there was still no breakthrough of the well-developed German defenses. During this time, on November 7, Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, overthrew the post-Tsar Russian government.

As a result, in March 1918, the new Russian government, represented by Leon Trotsky, signed an armistice treaty with Germany, removing the eastern front of the war for Germany. On March 21, Germany thus launched what is known as the Ludendorff offensive in the hope of winning the war before American troops arrived. The final German effort, however, fared no better in the end than the previous ones; the Germans pushed closer to Paris than ever before, but by the end of summer they had exhausted themselves against the Allied defenses, now including fresh American armies.

On September 29, 1918, allied troops broke through the German fortifications at the Hindenberg line, and the end of the war came into view. On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, and on November 10 the German Weimar Republic was founded. On November 11, 1918, at eleven o'clock on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918, the war ended as Germany and the Allies signed an armistice agreement.

The War in Italy
Italy had been allied with the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires since 1882 as part of the Triple Alliance. However, the nation had its own designs on Austrian territory in Province of Trento, Istria and Dalmatia. Rome had a secret 1902 pact with France, effectively nullifying its alliance. At the start of hostilities, Italy refused to commit troops, arguing that the Triple Alliance was defensive in nature, and that Austria-Hungary was an aggressor. The Austro-Hungarian government began negotiations to secure Italian neutrality, offering the French colony of Tunisia in return. The Allies made a counter-offer in which Italy would receive the Alpine province of South Tyrol and territory on the Dalmatian coast after the defeat of Austria-Hungary. This was formalised by the Treaty of London. Further encouraged by the Allied invasion of Turkey in April 1915, Italy joined the Triple Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary on May 23. Fifteen months later Italy declared war on Germany.

Militarily, the Italians had numerical superiority. This advantage, however, was lost, not only because of the difficult terrain in which fighting took place, but also because of the strategies and tactics employed. Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, a staunch proponent of the frontal assault, had dreams of breaking into the Slovenian plateau, taking Ljubljana and threatening Vienna. It was a Napoleonic plan, which had no realistic chance of success in an age of barbed wire, machine guns, and indirect artillery fire, combined with hilly and mountainous terrain.

On the Trentino front, the Austro-Hungarians took advantage of the mountainous terrain, which favoured the defender. After an initial strategic retreat, the front remained largely unchanged, while Austrian Kaiserschützen and Standschützen engaged Italian Alpini in bitter hand-to-hand combat throughout the summer. The Austro-Hungarians counter-attacked in the Asiago towards Verona and Padua, in the spring of 1916, but made little progress.

Beginning in 1915, the Italians under Cadorna mounted eleven offensives on the Isonzo front along the Isonzo River, north-east of Trieste. All eleven offensives were repelled by the Austro-Hungarians, who held the higher ground. In the summer of 1916, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. After this minor victory, the front remained static for over a year, despite several Italian offensives. In the autumn of 1917, thanks to the improving situation on the Eastern front, the Austrians received large numbers of reinforcements, including German Stormtroopers and the elite Alpenkorps. The Central Powers launched a crushing offensive on 26 October 1917, spearheaded by the Germans. They achieved a victory at Caporetto. The Italian army was routed and retreated more than 100 km (60 miles) to reorganise, stabilizing the front at the Piave River. Since in the Battle of Caporetto Italian Army had heavy losses, the Italian Government called to arms the so called '99 Boys (Ragazzi del '99), that is, all males who were 18 years old. In 1918, the Austro-Hungarians failed to break through, in a series of battles on the Asiago Plateau, finally being decisively defeated in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto in October of that year. Austria-Hungary surrendered in early November 1918.

The War at Sea
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect Allied shipping. For example, the German detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East-Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East Asia Squadron — consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau, light cruisers SMS Nürnberg and SMS Leipzig and two transport ships — did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it encountered elements of the British fleet. The German flotilla, along with SMS Dresden, sank two armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel, but was almost completely destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914, with only Dresden and a few auxiliaries escaping, but at the Battle of Más a Tierra these too were destroyed or interned.

Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval blockade of Germany. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by several international agreements of the past two centuries. Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare.

The 1916 Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, or "Battle of the Skagerrak") developed into the largest naval battle of the war, the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war. It took place on 31 May–1 June 1916, in the North Sea off Jutland. The Kaiserliche Marine's High Seas Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, squared off against the Royal Navy's Grand Fleet, led by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. The engagement was a standoff, as the Germans, outmaneuvered by the larger British fleet, managed to escape and inflicted more damage to the British fleet than they received. Strategically, however, the British asserted their control of the sea, and the bulk of the German surface fleet remained confined to port for the duration of the war.

German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany modified its rules of engagement. After the notorious sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond the protection of the "cruiser rules" which demanded warning and placing crews in "a place of safety" (a standard which lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas.

The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered convoys escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after the introduction of hydrophone and depth charges, accompanying destroyers might actually attack a submerged submarine with some hope of success. The convoy system slowed the flow of supplies, since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats had sunk almost 5,000 Allied ships, at a cost of 178 submarines.

World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol.

New Military Techniques and Technologies

World War I introduced the first time that total war was employed - that is, the full mobilization of society occurred in participant nations. In addition, it marked the end of war as a "glamorous occupation," showing how brutal and horrifying war could be when fought by industrial nations with mass production of weapons, and mass armies drawn from whole populations.

World War I introduced a number of new technologies and techniques. The outbreak of war took the world from the age of coal to an age where energy was largely derived from petroleum, a much higher-grade fuel source used in many new fighting machines and transport systems on land and sea. The deadliest product of this new industry was chemical warfare, with countless fighting men suffering and dying in gas attacks. Submarines also were used with effect, leading to the advent of depth charges and sonar. Rudimentary tanks and mechanized warfare also entered the battlefield near the end of the war. Finally, the machine gun took its toll for the first time in World War I. All this was aimed at breakthrough in trench warfare, in which both sides would dig deep trenches, and attempt to attack the other side, most often with little or no success.

The Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution marked the first outbreak of communism in Europe. Contrary to popular belief, however, there were in fact two specific and unique revolutions that took place during 1917 - a true Marxist revolution as well as a revolution led by Lenin that was not a true Marxist revolution.

March Revolution of 1917
The peasants were unhappy with the czar as a result of losses from World War I, the lack of real representation and the czar's dismissal of the Duma, the influence of Rasputin upon Alexandra, hunger, food shortages, and industrial working conditions.

As a result, on March 8, 1917, food riots broke out in St. Petersburg; however, the soldiers refused to fire upon the rioters. At this time, two forces were in competition for control of the revolution. Members of the Duma executive committee called for a moderate constitutional government, while Soviets, members of worker councils, pushed for revolution and industrial reform.

On March 15, 1917, the Czar attempted to return to Russia by train, but was stopped by the troops and was forced to abdicate.

From March through November, a provisional government was led by Alexander Kerensky, a socialist, and Prince Lvov. However, this government was destined to fail because it took no action in land distribution, continued to fight in World War I, and failed to fix food shortages. General Kornilov attempted a coup, but Kerensky used the Soviets and Bolsheviks to put down the coup. However, this action showed the weakness of Kerensky.

The March Revolution marked the first time that the class struggle predicted by Karl Marx took place. Thus, the March Revolution was a true Marxist revolution based upon the theories of Marx in The Communist Manifesto.

November Revolution of 1917

Vladimir Lenin realized that the time had come to seize the revolution. He authored the "April Theses," in which he promised peace with the Central Powers, redistribution of the land, transfer of the factories to the owners, and the recognition of the Soviets as the supreme power in Russia. In this sense, the November Revolution was led by Lenin rather than being an overall coup by the workers, and thus the November revolution cannot be dubbed a true Marxist revolution.

The Revolution may never have happened had not the Prime Minister of the Time, Aleksandr Kerensky, destroyed the power of authority within the Army and Navy by allowing the Bolshevik and Menshevik committees greater powers. Kerensky effectively disarmed the Man who could have prevented the Revolution ever happening. The man in question, was the Commander-in-Chief, General Lavr Kornilov who attempted to bring to heel the populist Government of Kerensky and instill some authority back in to the state and the Army. Kerensky seized the opportunity to relieve Kornilov of his office and effectively gave the Bolsheviks, namely the Red Guard within the ranks of the Petrograd sailors, a Carte Blanc to take up arms in the so called defense of the Provisional Government. The Army lost its Commander and the streets were handed over to the Bolsheviks.

In March 1918 Lenin established the "dictatorship of the proletariat," adopted the name "Communist Party," and signed the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, withdrawing Russia from World War I.

Civil war raged in Russia from 1918 until 1922, pitting the Reds (Bolsheviks led by Trotsky) against the Whites, which consisted of czarists, liberals, the bourgeois, Mensheviks, the U.S., Britain, and France.

The victorious Bolsheviks acted to eliminate their opposition using secret police groups such as the Cheka, the NKVD, and the KGB. Lenin attempted to maintain Marxism, hoping to reach Marx's state of a propertyless, classless utopia. However, the pursuit of communism generally failed and the economy declined. Accordingly, Lenin enacted the New Economic Policy in March 1921, which compromised many aspects of communism for capitalism's profits.

Modern Art
The 1900s led to the creation of the new, modern art movement. Fauvism is a type of modern art that emphasized wild, extreme colors, abstraction, simplified lines, freshness, and spontaneity. Cubism is another form of modern art, which utilizes a geometrical depiction of subjects with planes and angles. The modern art movement arose because, with the advent of photography, art subjects no longer needed to be a realistic portrayal.

Perhaps the most famous modern artist is Pablo Picasso, a Spanish painter and sculptor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: European History/World War I


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Template:EuropeanHistoryTOC

 European History 01. Background • 02. Middle Ages • 03. Renaissance • 04. Exploration • 05. Reformation 06. Religious War • 07. Absolutism • 08. Enlightenment • 09. French Revolution • 10. Napoleon 11. Age of Revolutions • 12. Imperialism • 13. World War I • 14. 1918 to 1945 • 15. 1945 to Present Glossary • Outline • Authors • Bibliography /Templates

title: Template:EuropeanHistoryTOC


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Template talk:EuropeanHistoryTOC

Other possibility:

<< Back to Contents Preface | 1. Shift to Europe | 2. Renaissance | 3. Exploration | 4. Reformation 5. Religious War | 6. Absolutism | 7. Political Wars | 8. Enlightenment | 9. French Revolution 10. Napoleon | 11. Age of Revolutions | 12. Imperialism | 13. World War I

title: Template talk:EuropeanHistoryTOC


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Basic Math for Adults

Welcome to the Basic Math For Adults wikibook. This book covers basic arithmetic concepts including whole numbers, decimals, fractions, and English and metric measurements. Instructional emphasis is on application to typical problems one would encounter in the workplace. Simple and yet effective algorithms (methods) are used to solve them. Furthermore, you should notice that all digits here involve the base 10 numbering system.

Chapters

 * 1) /Basic Terminology/ (Includes decimals and numerals)
 * 2) /Basic Whole Numbers/ (Rounding, Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, Dividing and Factoring Whole Numbers)
 * 3) /Fractions/
 * 4) /Decimals/
 * 5) /Measurements/
 * 6) /Glossary/

title: Basic Math for Adults


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Cookbook:Cuisine of Slovenia

| European cuisines

 * Prekmurska gibanica

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Slovenia


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Cookbook:Prekmurska Gibanica (Slovenian Layered Strudel Cake)

| Cuisine of Slovenia

Prekmurska gibanica is a pastry similar to Strudel, with poppy seeds, curd cheese, walnuts, and apples. It is a national specialty of Slovenia.

Strudel dough

 * 500 g flour
 * 40 g sunflower seed oil
 * 200–300 ml lukewarm water
 * Salt

Short pastry dough (base)

 * 150 g flour
 * 100 g solid fat (e.g. butter or margarine)
 * 1 egg yolk
 * 50 g icing sugar
 * 1 pack of vanilla sugar

Walnut filling

 * 250 g ground walnuts
 * 80 g white granulated sugar
 * Ground cinnamon
 * Grated lemon peel

Curd cheese filling

 * 80 g raisins
 * Rum
 * 1000 g full-fat curd cheese (e.g. quark, pot cheese, or farmer cheese)
 * 1 egg
 * 100 g white granulated sugar
 * Salt
 * 1 pack vanilla sugar

Poppy seed filling

 * 150 g ground poppy seeds
 * 80 g white granulated sugar
 * Ground cinnamon
 * Grated lemon peel

Apple filling

 * 1 kg apples
 * 100 g white granulated sugar
 * Ground cinnamon

Assembly

 * Vegetable oil
 * 700 ml sour cream
 * 2 eggs or 3 egg yolks, mixed well
 * 250 g butter, cut in very small cubes

Equipment

 * A fireproof earthenware baking mould (preferably round, diameter 32–35 cm, height 7–9 cm)

Strudel dough

 * 1) Sift the flour onto a working surface, and make a well in the middle. Add a pinch of salt, oil, and water, and mix everything together.
 * 2) Knead for about 10 minutes until the dough is smooth and elastic.
 * 3) Shape the dough into a ball, coat with oil, cover, and leave to rest for 30 minutes on a floured board.

Short pastry dough

 * 1) Sift the flour onto a working surface, and make a well in the middle.
 * 2) Add the butter, sugar, egg yolk, and vanilla sugar. Knead together quickly.

Walnut filling

 * 1) Thoroughly combine ground walnuts, sugar, vanilla sugar, and cinnamon.

Curd cheese filling

 * 1) Soak the raisins in rum until softened.
 * 2) Mash the curd cheese. Thoroughly mix in the egg, vanilla sugar, sugar, some salt, and grated lemon peel until the filling spreads nicely.
 * 3) Mix in the softened raisins.

Poppy seed filling

 * 1) Thoroughly combine the ground poppy seeds, sugar, vanilla sugar, cinnamon, and grated lemon peel.

Apple filling

 * 1) Peel and slice the apples.
 * 2) Mix the apples with sugar and cinnamon.

Assembly

 * 1) Combine the sour cream and eggs.
 * 2) Grease the baking mould well. Roll out the short pastry dough and line the base of the baking mould with it, then prick it gently with a fork.
 * 3) Stretch the strudel dough out, and brush it with oil.
 * 4) Pull the strudel though thinly over the baking mould so that the thick edges hang down over the mould. Cut off the edges to make 8 equal-sized sheets of strudel dough.
 * 5) Place the first sheet of strudel dough on the short pastry dough, then spread with some poppy seed filling. Spread some of the sour cream mixture on top, and dot with a few pieces of butter.
 * 6) Place the second sheet of strudel pastry on top, spread with some curd cheese filling, and top with sour cream mixture and some butter pieces as previously.
 * 7) Cover with the next sheet of strudel dough, spread with some walnut filling, and again top with sour cream mixture and butter.
 * 8) Add the fourth sheet of strudel dough, spread with the apple filling, and top with sour cream mixture and butter. The gibanica is now half-assembled.
 * 9) Repeat steps 5 through 8 until you end up with 8 uniform layers.
 * 10) Cover with a sheet of strudel dough and pull it over the edge of the baking mould. Top with butter and sour cream mixture.
 * 11) Prick the gibanica with a long needle. Bake in a pre-heated oven at 175°C for about 75 minutes.
 * 12) Coat with sour cream and allow it to cool a little.
 * 13) Cut into triangles, sprinkle with icing sugar and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can also assemble the individual layers of the gibanica in a different order. The only important point is that moist (curd cheese, apple) and drier (poppy seed, walnut) fillings should alternate.


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User talk:Omegatron

 * 1) REDIRECT(Wikipedia:en:User talk:Omegatron)

title: User talk:Omegatron


text:
Radiation Oncology/Esophagus

Esophageal Cancer

 * Staging
 * Official Guidelines
 * Overview
 * Potentially Resectable
 * Unresectable
 * Randomized Evidence
 * RTOG: Esophagus Trials
 * Review

title: Radiation Oncology/Esophagus


text:
User:Bootedcat

User:Bootedcat is a kitty from Jiangsu province, People's Republic of China.

Discussion
Hello lobster, please don't modify my WikiSci pages... --Bootedcat 13:22, 18 Sep 2004 (UTC)

OK - I will leave that for someone else

title: User:Bootedcat


text:
User:Alex beta

Currently working on
I am currently contributing to:
 * The modal logic section in the Introduction to Philosophy wikibook.
 * The Logic course in the School of Philosophy.
 * The History of Ancient Philosophy course.
 * The Hegel course.

Main contributions
I have participated in the creation of the following modules:
 * School of Philosophy
 * School of Philosophy courses:
 * Logic
 * Eastern Philosophy (I contributed to the index and the article on Japanese Philosophy, as most of the articles on eastern thought come from the Wikipedia)

Other projects
I am also contributing to the Spanish language Wikiversity and Wikisource. I am registered as Alex beta at both sites.

Contact
If you wish to contact me, please leave your comments on my discussion page.

title: User:Alex beta


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/JDNC

Learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to
 * build a desktop client for a J2EE network service using JDNC

Introduction
JDNC web site

Chapter awaits author

title: XML - Managing Data Exchange/JDNC


text:
What You Should Know About Medicines/Antipyretic

Antipyretic is medication used to lower body temperature when a fever is present.

Examples: Aspirin, acetaminophen/paracetamol (Tylenol), ibuprofen, and others.

Clinicians practicing allopathic medicine (the predominant form of medicine practiced in the US by MD's, DO's, etc) see tremendous value in the reduction of a patient's temperature when it is over 100.5 degrees Fahrenheit. Body temperatures higher than that will likely cause aching of muscles, increased metabolism, lack of appetite, inability to ingest enough liquids, etc./ A fever higher than 104 degrees in a child may cause seizure activity, which can lead to death. Prolonged fever higher than 105 can cause permanent brain damage or death.

Many people try to bring their temperature down without the use of medications. Within limits, this is worth trying. Things that are dangerous include: using alcohol on the skin (which causes a cool sensation, but closes the blood vessels that are close to the skin, thereby actually raising body temperature); use of ice, which may also close the blood vessels on the skin, making things worse. The best way to start lowering temperature is to take off most clothing and dampen the skin with water that is neither hot nor cold, usually called "tepid". As it evaporates, it takes a lot of heat away from the skin.

Children under 12 should not be given Aspirin if there is any possibility of Chicken pox, as there can result a more serious illness. (See /Reye's Syndrome/ ) Tylenol can alternate every 2 hours with ibuprofen if necessary, but as noted above, keeping the child in normal bedclothes, or under blankets while feverish, will only maintain the high temperature and work against the medication.

People who practice homeopathic medicine believe the body's response with a fever is somehow helping the patient overcome the illness. This is not the predominant view in the world.


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What You Should Know About Medicines/Analgesics

An analgesic is a medicine used to relieve pain. The body of analgesic knowledge is vast and complex. Morever it is ever changing with an increasing array of new molecules and drugs.

Examples of Analgesics:

1. Flexin Continus tablets  Useful in Osteoarthritis and Painful Musculoskeletal disorders

2. Codafen Continus tablets  Useful in Dental pain, post-operative pain, dysmenorrhea

Pain relief has traditionally relied on three main groups of drugs:
 * Opioids, which reduce pain awareness in the brain, but don't change the pain
 * Local anaesthetics, which confuse the nerves sending pain signals to the brain
 * Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which reduce the inflammation **which leads to pain

Researchers continue to search for new ways of using these traditional drugs. (a) Varying the routes of administration.
 * The oral route is the most common, but means the medication has to be swallowed, absorbed into the body, and pass the liver before it can work.
 * Transdermal Opioids (putting cream or patches on the skin) is an advantage for continuous pain treatment, like cancer pain or severe arthritis, and one formulation may last 72-80 hours, reducing medication administration errors and side effects
 * Injectable pain medication is frequently used for areas that allow surgery or other pain relief when the entire body does not need to be involved, like fixing a tooth at the dentist, or sewing a laceration closed on an arm.

(b) Use of some different delivery formulations. (c) Changing the species to which they may be given.

Research has also brought in various new compounds offer improved pain relief and reduction in side effects.


text:
What You Should Know About Medicines/Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a disorder of the central nervous system. It is characterized by loss of consciousness and convulsions

Anti-epileptic drugs: Gabapentin and pregbalin are anti-epileptic drugs


text:
User:PicoMedia

PicoMedia: Double master's degree in automatic control and industrial IT from KTH in Stockholm in Sweden and L'Ecole Supérieure d'Electricite in France. Main topics that interest PM is embedded electronics, modern art and the armed conflicts of the 20th century.

title: User:PicoMedia


text:
Template:Radiation Oncology/Template Edit

[ Edit ]


text:
Talk:Radiation Oncology

This book was born on: September 8, 2004.

Instructions for Authors
See a list of standards for this wikibook.

Template Usage

 * Template for Table of Contents
 * Prior versions used . The above version, which uses the Template namespace (Template/Radiation Oncology:TOC) is preferred.

 * Add link to edit a template
 * where page name is the module name alone without the name space, such that http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Radiation_Oncology:Introduction would be Introduction.
 * where text is the text you want to appear after the word Edit in the box, such as "Edit this", or "Edit Table of Contents"
 * —Brim 01:35, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Listing of templates
To see a list of templates used in the Radiation Oncology wiki, use this link.
 * Note: older templates used the naming scheme Radiation Oncology/subject:TOC or Radiation Oncology/subject/TOC. Not all have been moved to the Template namespace.

A partial listing of older templates is below:

Note: all are preceded by a colon, e.g.
 * Radiation Oncology:TOC - general table of contents header
 * Radiation Oncology:Colorectal_staging - common staging used for colon/rectum/small bowel
 * Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/Node staging
 * Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/Stage grouping

Sections with table of contents templates:
 * Radiation Oncology/Prostate:TOC - table of contents header for prostate
 * Radiation Oncology/Breast:TOC
 * Radiation Oncology/NHL:TOC - Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
 * Radiation Oncology/Hodgkin/TOC - Hodgkin's lymphoma
 * Radiation Oncology/Lung/NSCLC:TOC - Non-small cell lung
 * Radiation Oncology/Lung/SCLC:TOC - Small cell lung
 * Radiation Oncology/Thyroid:TOC - Thyroid

It's suggested that you add the link   to the top of a main page for a section (i.e. Prostate) that has subpages that use a table of contents template specific for that section. This will allow easy editing of the table of contents bar so it can be kept in sync with the section main page.

To make creating table of contents pages for subpages easier, you can copy fill-in-the-blank templates using the substitute command subst:.
 * For the main page for a section, use
 * For the table of contents bar for a section, use

 * Example:

Let's say you wanted to create a section called "Earlobe tumors" which was large enough that you needed multiple subpages.
 * 1) Create the page "Radiation Oncology/Earlobe tumors".
 * 2) Type   and save the page.
 * 3) Edit the page, replacing the ___INSERT TEXT HERE___ as appropriate, create the subsections that you would like, and save the page.
 * 4) Now edit the table of contents bar for this section (Radiation Oncology/Earlobe tumors:TOC), which you can do by following the link "edit the ___ table of contents bar."
 * 5) Type   and save the page.
 * 6) Edit the page.

Talk section
Brim,

Hope here.

Just wondering if you mind significant contributions... I already have a WikiWiki internally that has a large quantity of site-specific information, which I've been updating for ~1 year. It's not advertised and WikiBooks might be the way to go for a generalized resource. Any concerns about merging the two over time?

Also, what is the goal of this Wiki? Comprehensive text with everything (a la Perez) or more focused on specifics relating to evidence based treatment?

Hope

 * Hi Hope. Welcome aboard and thank you for your contributions so far to the Radiation Oncology Wikibook.

Ideally and eventually this should be a comprehensive text, but the main goal is ease of use. I'd rather the text be easy to read (bullet points) rather than have lengthy paragraphs, so in that regard it would be different from major print textbooks.

Really I see its main utility as being a repository of important radiation oncology articles, which would make it useful as a study guide for boards. I think it's important to give full citations for all articles mentioned. Now Wikipedia and Wikibooks both support links to PubMed by using the syntax  PMID 12829145  which produces the result PMID 12829145. I've been inconsistent with how I've been formatting articles, but you can look some of the chapters in the book to see in general how I've been formatting them. Once the book grows, there should probably be some policy on a recommended format.

In addition to listing the results of key articles, I would eventually like it to include treatment recommendations (i.e. how to treat advanced breast cancer) and radiation techniques (with pictures). I've also put Radiation Biology and Radiation Physics on the table of contents listing so that they may also be added at some time.

Since the project is still in its very early stages, how it develops exactly remains to be seen.

What I would definitely like to avoid is having it become like the oncology-related articles on Wikipedia which are written very simply in layman's terms and read like general interest newspaper articles. The scope of this text should be for the cancer specialist.

I would really welcome any contributions you can make to this project. It would be great to try to merge your previous WikiWiki work over to here. Just be careful about copyright since Wikibooks requires that its articles be licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. In the spirit of Wiki, be bold and if you see a way that this book needs to be changed, go for it, or ask me on my talk page.

Once again, welcome. By the way, do you also contribute on Wikipedia?

 * —Brim 16:36, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

P.S. Say hello to Kat for me.

---

I'll let Cat know you said hello.

Basically, it sounds like this wikiwiki is similar in many ways to the wikiwiki I already have going. I will probably start shifting some of the content over as I can. I'll probably maintain both for a while, just to see how this one goes.

I haven't submitted much to Wikipedia, mostly because nothing has really struck my fancy there.

I'm on Pediatrics right now, so I'll probably start with that for the next few articles.

Hope

---

I just noticed you (Brim) wrote "Really I see its main utility as being a repository of important radiation oncology articles, which would make it useful as a study guide for boards." To what depth should these pages go? Would you want to keep it to just randomized evidence if available, or major studies? Or to whatever depth one has interest of entering information? As an example, I have done a project looking at predicting outcomes after radical prostatectomy, so I have somewhere all the studies that have developed predictive models. I could write it up as a subarticle. Or just add the 2-3 major prognostic models. Tdvorak 17:00, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)
 * I think the general rule should be that good quality articles (i.e. randomized control trials) are preferred, but that any article that is valuable or of historical interest can or should be included. Often, there are major important articles that are retrospective studies.  These may be followed then by data from randomized studies.  If a non-randomized article is important for historical reasons or otherwise, it should be included.   The main obstacle we should avoid is to have this wikibook get bogged down with too much information.  The wiki shouldn't be a list of "all articles about prostate cancer."  That would defeat its purpose of being an easy-to-use reference.  I guess for now, with the wiki being in its relatively early stages, it would be better to err on the side of including articles that you think are important.  Later, as the wiki grows, we may need to eliminate some redundant articles.  Since we're not limited by space as we would be in a print textbook, we may elect to just move less-important artices to subpages of the main article (i.e. a page called "other prostate articles") while keeping the important articles in easy-to-find places.  As for your idea about the predictive models after RP, there might be enough information for that all to go on its own page.  You could list the 2-3 major prognostic models at the top so they're easier to spot.  — Brim 02:57, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Is it a coincidence that the rad onc page seems to be the most comprehensive of any of the medical specialties on Wiki?
 * no, i think we have the most computer time during the work day

---

It seems that the Treatment Toxicity and the Supportive Care sections have a fair amount of overlap. I wonder what's the best way of handling it? I am thinking of combining them under each organ, and then having 3 sections - tolerance, acute toxicity & treatment, and long-term toxicity & treatment. --Tdvorak 02:21, 7 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I think the treatment toxicity section should be concerned with the risks of radiation complications and treatment planning aspects. For instance, data on esophagitis, data on lung V20, genitourinary toxicity, rectal tolerance, etc.  It's more academic in scope, like the chapters on treatment.  On the other hand Supportive Care is more of a field guide on how to deal with toxicities when they occur: a listing of helpful medicines and treatments, etc., that you can turn to as a handy reference.  I think   the sections function better separately since they're not commonly used together; but it would be helpful to have hyperlinks between related section. Brim 19:55, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

ARRO list of key papers
Here's a useful link:
 * Key articles in radiation oncology

Wikibooks Statistics

 * Overall Wikibooks statistics
 * Statistics per Wikibook

Recognition
Publication References
 * EORTC; 2007 PMID 18065746 -- "Adjuvant radiotherapy after surgery for pathologically advanced prostate cancer." (Van der Kwast TH, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Dec 10;25(35):5671-2.)
 * Reference #8: link to Radiation_Oncology/Prostate/Randomized

Mentions of the Radiation Oncology wikibook in the media:

In the Wikibooks project, anybody can help write school textbooks by, say, augmenting the chapter on Saint Sava in "Serbian History" or the brachytherapy section in "Radiation Oncology."
 * January 9, 2006 - Newsweek article

On Wikibooks:
 * June 23, 2006 - Added to Hot picks list
 * May 9, 2008 - Featured Book

On the web:
 * Media Matrix website - 5 stars

Redesigned front page
It looks great. I've been on holiday, so haven't been able to see it. I'm very glad the book became featured; it's fantastic :). Regards, —Cel es tianpower háblame 18:25, 11 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I am glad you suggested it. I have been thinking about reorganizing it for a while and this was a good impetus.

title: Talk:Radiation Oncology


text:
User:Josh~enwikibooks

This account is a placeholder for the "JOsH" account. I assume in the future the wikibooks software will not be case sensitive, so I made this account which will remain inactive for now.

title: User:Josh~enwikibooks


text:
User:Bestian~enwikibooks

nice simplification of wikiversity front page - if that was you :-) Lobster 05:54, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Bestian~enwikibooks


text:
User:Myturn~enwikibooks

Time killer

http://www.c6.org/archive/tony/killer.jpg

''$$Let A be the matrix of T. Then A^k is the matrix of T^k, and$$

$$        det(A^k - e^kI)$$

$$      = det((A - eI)(A^(k-1) + eA^(k-2) + ... + e^(k-1)))$$

$$      = det(A - eI) det(A^(k-1) + eA^(k-2) + ... + e^(k-1))$$

$$    det(A - eI) = 0 since e is an eigenvalue of T, that is,$$

$$    det(A^k - e^kI) = 0, that is, e^k is an eigenvalue of T^k.$$''

HI. 我是 myturn
--Myturn 06:38, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Myturn~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Myturn~enwikibooks

我是 myturn 喜歡考試跟讀書

UTF-8 真棒

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Myturn. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Myturn~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:17, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Myturn~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Mussel

| Seafood

Mussels are bivalve shellfish that can be found in lakes, rivers, creeks, intertidal areas, and throughout the ocean. The saltwater mussels (family Mytilidae) and freshwater mussels (family Unionidae) are not thought to be closely related despite considerable similarities in appearance. Mussels are filter feeders, and tend to absorb any toxic chemicals and pollutants from the water pumped through them. For cooking purposes:
 * mollusks deteriorate rapidly and if not cooked right away may lead to infections in the mollusk tissues
 * Make sure that the lake or river source of the mussels is not polluted and that the mussels are not diseased.
 * to test a mussel for freshness, try sliding the two halves of the shell across each other. If they move at all, then the shell is probably filled with mud
 * wash mussels by agitating them in a colander with running cold water
 * scrub mussel shells with a stiff brush
 * mussels may be steamed, removed from the shell, or served in the shell with or without sauce.

To avoid danger of food poisoning, when cooking mussels the following two "chef's rules" should always be adhered to:
 * before cooking, discard any mussels where the shells are open (including those which are cracked)
 * and discard any mussels which did not open during cooking (in other words, if the're still closed after cooking - get rid of them).

Cleaning and eating mussels
Here are some safety guidelines for buying, eating and cooking live bivalves (mussels and clams):

 * Never buy a mussel/clam that's open or cracked.
 * Never eat a mussel/clam that won't open after cooking.
 * Cook mussels/clams within 24 hours of purchasing.
 * Always brush mussels/clams clean before cooking. Remove beards from mussels as well.

For more on this subject have a look at Happy as a clam by Chef Mark R. Vogel

Mussel recipes

 * Moules Mariniere
 * Mussels with Potatoes

title: Cookbook:Mussel


text:
Cookbook:Mussels in Onion and Butter Sauce (Moules Mariniere)

| Seafood | Mussel

Ingredients

 * 6 shallots, chopped
 * 1 clove of garlic
 * ¼ cup butter
 * ¼ cup dry sherry
 * ½ a bay leaf
 * 3 quarts scrubbed, bearded mussels
 * ¼ cup chopped parsley
 * Salt
 * Pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Sauté the shallots with the garlic clove in ¼ cup butter until golden.
 * 2) Place wine and bay leaf in a large skillet.
 * 3) Add the sautéed shallots and mussels, salt, and plenty of pepper.
 * 4) Agitate pan for 6–8 minutes on moderate-high heat. Allow mussels to cook evenly, removing them from the heat once the shells open.
 * 5) Discard any mussels that did not open.
 * 6) Pour mussels into heated bowls.
 * 7) Sprinkle with parsley and serve.


text:
Cookbook:Mussels with Potatoes

| Seafood | Mussel

Ingredients

 * 450 g (1 lb) mussels, rinsed and scrubbed
 * 225 g (8 oz) potatoes, cooked and diced
 * 175 g (6 oz) carrots, cooked and diced
 * 1 tbsp olive oil
 * 3 tbsp wine vinegar
 * Salt
 * Freshly-ground black pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Place the mussels in a large pot or steamer with about 1–2 inches of boiling liquid (e.g. water, wine, or seasoned broth)
 * 2) Cover and steam over high heat for approximately 5 minutes or until the shells open
 * 3) Discard any mussels that do not open.
 * 4) Remove mussel meal from the shells
 * 5) Mix together the mussels, potatoes, and carrots and arrange on a suitable serving dish.
 * 6) Thoroughly blend the oil, vinegar, and seasoning and pour over the salad.
 * 7) Chill well before serving.

title: Cookbook:Mussels with Potatoes


text:
PHP Programming/PHP and MySQL

Introduction
Note: You should know SQL to use MySQL. You can learn that in the SQL book.

PHP integrates well with MySQL, and contains a library full of useful functions to help you use MySQL. There are even many database managers written in PHP.

MySQL is not a part of the server that runs PHP, it is a different server. MySQL is one of many database servers, it is open source and you can get it here.

As of PHP5, MySQLi integration is not enabled by default and you should add it manually, see here for installation instructions, PHP4 has it enabled by default.

Note: mysql_* functions are deprecated in PHP 5.6+ and removed in PHP7+. Use PDO or mysqli instead.

Let's get started!

Connecting to a MySQL server
To connect with a MySQL server, you should use the mysqli_connect function or mysqli class. It is used in the following manner:

mysqli_connect(servername, username, password,database);

servername - The name or address of the server. Usually 'localhost'. username, password - The username and password used to login to the server.

database - The database name you want to select. It's optional.

Multiple MySQL connections
Though not commonly used, you can connect to more than one database server in one script. On a successful connection, mysqli_connect returns a reference to the server, which you can capture with a variable:

$con = mysqli_connect("localhost", "root", "123"); $con2 = mysqli_connect("http://www.example.com/", "root", "123");

Selecting your database
In order to perform most actions(except for creating, dropping and listing databases, of course), you must select a database. To do so, use mysqli_select_db only if you didn't defined it in mysqli_connect.

mysqli_select_db(db_name);

Where db_name is the database name.

By default, mysqli_select_db will try to select the database on the last mySQL connection opened. So in the following code, mysqli_select_db will try to select the database on the "example.com" server.

$con = mysqli_connect("localhost", "root", "123"); $con2 = mysqli_connect("example.com:3306", "root", "123"); mysqli_select_db("database1");

The function takes a second, optional, parameter that you can use to select a different database then the one last opened:

$con = mysqli_connect("localhost", "root", "123"); $con2 = mysqli_connect("example.com:3306", "root", "123"); mysqli_select_db("database1", $con);

Executing a query
To execute a query, use mysqli_query. For example:

mysqli_query($con,"UPDATE table1 SET column1='value1', column2='value2' WHERE column3='value3'");

Important: mysqli_query returns a resource link which you will need for certain operations. So you should capture it by storing the result in a variable:

$query1 = mysqli_query($con,"UPDATE table1 SET column1='value1', column2='value2' WHERE column3='value3'");

Functions for SELECT queries
Executing a SELECT query is all good and well, but just sometimes, we may want the result (people are strange like that). The PHP developers are those strange people, and they added to PHP a few functions to help up with that:

mysqli_fetch_row
Returns the next row in the result. It is returned as an array, so you should capture it in a variable.

For example:

$query1 = mysqli_query($con,"SELECT id, name, address FROM phone_book"); $person = mysqli_fetch_row($query1); print_r($person);

This should output something like this:

Array {    [0] => 1     [1] => Sharon [2] => Helm, 3 }

This function will always return the next row in the result, until eventually it runs out of rows and it returns false. A very common use of this function is with a while loop, for example:

$query1 = mysqli_query($con,"SELECT id, name, address FROM phone_book"); while($person = mysqli_fetch_row($query1)) {     print_r($person); echo "\n"; }

This should output something like this:

Array {    [0] => 1     [1] => Sharon [2] => Helm, 3 } Array {    [0] => 2     [1] => Adam [2] => 23rd street, 5 } Array {    [0] => 3     [1] => Jane [2] => Unknown }

mysqli_fetch_array
This one does exactly what mysqli_fetch_row does, except for the fact it returns an associative array.

$query1 = mysqli_query($conn,"SELECT id, name, address FROM phone_book"); $person = mysqli_fetch_array($con,$query1); print_r($person);

Should output something like this:

Array {    [id] => 1 [name] => Sharon [address] => Helm, 3 }

mysqli_num_rows
Sometimes we want to know how many rows we get in the result of a query. This can be done by something like this:

$counter = 0; $query1 = mysqli_query($con,"SELECT id, name, address FROM phone_book"); while(mysqli_fetch_row($query1)) {    $counter++; }

$counter now stores the amount of rows we got from the query, but PHP has a special function to handle this:

$query1 = mysqli_query($con,"SELECT id, name, address FROM phone_book"); $counter = mysqli_num_rows($query1);

$counter stores the same value, but wasn't that easier?

Functions for other queries
The following functions are not just for SELECT queries, but for many types of queries. Those queries can be useful in many cases.

mysqli_info
Will return information about the last query executed, or about the query you send it a resource of:

mysqli_info;   //For the last query executed mysql_info($query); //For $query, what ever that is...

The information is returned as string, and though it's templated, it's not normally to be analyzed by the script, but to be used in output.

mysqli_affected_rows
Returns the number of rows affected by a query, only works with INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE queries:

mysqli_affected_rows;      //For the last query executed mysqli_affected_rows($query); //For $query, what ever that is

mysqli_insert_id
Returns the id mysql assigned to the auto_increment column of the table after an INSERT query.

$result = mysqli_query($con,"INSERT 'Bob' INTO names(firstname)"); $new_id = mysqli_insert_id;

''Note: You should call mysqli_insert_id straight after performing the query. If another statement is issued in between mysqli_insert_id will return NULL!''

Closing a connection
You should use mysqli_close to close a mySQL connection. This would typically close the last connection opened, but, of course, you can send it a connection identifier.

mysqli_close; //Close the last connection opened mysqli_close($con); //Close connection $con

title: PHP Programming/PHP and MySQL


text:
Marine Hydrodynamics

This Wikibook is an introductory course in marine hydrodynamics. The course concerns fluid flow in general but generally assumes that the fluid is sea water. We will cover the following in this course:

Contents

 * Basic Equations
 * Introduction to Water Waves
 * /Long Waves/
 * /Finite Amplitude Waves/

title: Marine Hydrodynamics


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Brazil

| South American cuisines

 * Brigadeiro
 * Bobó de Camarão
 * Casquinha de Siri (Stuffed Crab Shells)
 * Churrasco — Brazilian barbecue
 * Coxinhas — Light snack - seasoned chicken encrusted in bread dough and deep-fried
 * Farofa — Farofa is a typical Brazilian dish made of toasted manioc flour (farinha de mandioca torrada). It's usually served as a side dish along with Feijoada or grilled meat.
 * Feijoada — Traditional Brazilian staple made from beans and meat
 * Moqueca de Peixe
 * Pão de queijo
 * Tangerine Jelly
 * Vatapá
 * Acarajé
 * Tapioca
 * Cozido
 * Dobradinha

Livre de cuisine/Recettes de cuisine brésilienne Livro de receitas/Culinária do Brasil

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Brazil


text:
Cookbook:Moqueca de Peixe (Brazilian Seafood Stew)

| Brazilian Cuisine

This is a recipe for the original Bahian moqueca de peixe.

Ingredients

 * 1 kg fresh white fish, cut into two finger-wide strips/slices
 * 1 lemon, juiced
 * 2 mid-sized onions, cut into circular slices
 * 2 bell peppers (one red, one green), cut into circular slices
 * 1 clove of garlic, pressed
 * 4 ripe tomatoes, optionally skinned then chopped
 * 4 cilantro stems with leaves, finely chopped
 * 12 tablespoons Azeite de dendê (a very tasty, heavy, saffron-colored palm oil, which may not be omitted under any circumstances)
 * 200 ml coconut milk
 * Salt
 * Pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Leave the fish in a marinade made out of lemon juice and fine powdered pepper for at least 1 hour.
 * 2) Put the fish, onions, bell peppers, garlic, tomatoes and the cilantro in numerous layers into a pot.
 * 3) Pour the azeite de dendê and the coconut milk over all, and boil everything for 20 minutes. From time to time, ladle/scoop the liquid from the pot's bottom to its top. Be careful, in order to not break the fish!
 * 4) Season to taste with salt.
 * 5) Serve with white rice.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * To get the best taste you have to add more salt than you might think.
 * Try using coal fish.


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/Christian Theology

Christian Theology is a systematic view of the doctrines of the Bible.

Theology Proper
The doctrine of God
 * Character
 * Existence
 * Gender
 * Immanence
 * /Immutability/
 * Nature
 * Omnipotence
 * Omnipresence
 * Omniscience
 * /Transcendence/
 * Trinity

Angelology
The doctrine of Angels and Demons

 * Angels
 * Demons
 * Satan

Anthropology
The doctrine of man

 * /Creation/
 * /Nature/

Bibliology
Origin of the Bible

The doctrine of the Bible

 * /Inspiration/
 * /Inerrancy/
 * /Preservation/
 * /Canonicity/

/Apocrypha/

/Cult Usage/

Christology
The doctrine of Jesus

 * /Atonement/
 * /Deity/
 * Historicity
 * /Humanity/
 * Incarnation
 * /Infallibility/
 * Messiahship
 * Miracles
 * /Offices/
 * Resurrection
 * /Return/
 * Titles
 * Virgin Birth
 * Christ and the Eucharist

Ecclesiology
The doctrine of the Church
 * /Origin of Church/
 * /Nature of the Church/
 * /Church Polity/
 * currently a separate Wikibook: History of Christianity

Eschatology
The doctrine of End Times
 * Introduction
 * Christian eschatology
 * Second Coming

 * End of the World
 * Prophetic Views
 * Millennialism
 * Premillennialism
 * Pretribulationism
 * Midtribulationism
 * Posttribulationism
 * Amillennialism
 * Postmillennialism
 * Preterism

Hamartiology
The Doctrine of Sin
 * /Origin of Sin/
 * /Effect of Sin/
 * /Human Depravity/

Pneumatology
The doctrine of the Holy Spirit

 * /Deity of the Spirit/
 * /Nature of the Spirit/
 * /Ministries of the Spirit/
 * /Gifts of the Spirit/

Soteriology
The doctrine of Salvation
 * /Adoption/
 * Justification
 * Original Sin
 * Perseverance of the saints
 * Predestination
 * Regeneration
 * Reprobation
 * Repentance
 * Sanctification

Prayers & Worship

 * Worship & Sacraments in the Early Church
 * The Catholic Mass and its Scriptural Origins
 * Spiritual Exercises
 * Prayer in the Ignatian Understanding

 * Arminianism
 * Calvinism
 * Theosis
 * Universalism


text:
Baptist Theology/Existence of God

< Baptist Theology

Does God Exist? That is the principle question of theology.

There are several arguments attempted to prove the existence of God.
 * Cosmological
 * Ontological
 * Teleological

In Genesis 1:1, the existence of God is assumed, not argued

title: Baptist Theology/Existence of God


text:
Talk:Trigonometry/The Unit Circle

Proposal: Hourhand becomes an Exercise
Convert the piece about the speed of movement of the hour hand into an exercise? JamesCrook (talk) 17:52, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

Proposal: Changes to 'useful values' diagram
Coordinates in radicals on chart are a bit oversized relative to other values. Possibly give decimal values too? Add a caption or key that explains we're giving values in radians, degrees and coordinates, and where... JamesCrook (talk) 17:52, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trigonometry/The Unit Circle


text:
Talk:Biblical Studies/Christianity/Christian Theology

Organization? How do we organize this topic?

Also, is there interest in a WikiCommentary?

--

I believe it's imposible to include all of the different ways in which christians see things.

Take just the nature of God, One God or a combination of three? Some christians (me included) don't believe that The Holy Spirit is a person, or they believe that Logos/Jezus/Michael was created by God.

or take the first part of the lord's prayer:

 * Our Father, who art in Heaven, hallowed be Thy Name.
 * What name? Why should it be hallowed?
 * Thy Kingdom come, Thy Will be done, on Earth, as it is in Heaven.
 * What Kingdom? Why would He need a Kingdom? What is His Will for the Earth?

How would anyone be able to write about this without this turning into a editwar? Maybe it would be beter for every one to write their own book and leave it at that? -- Gmlk 21:31, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)

--

There are the various theologies at the theology page - Christian, Hindu, etc.

I think it is possible to include a discussion - if people add and not 'edit'? if everyone added their own view it would be comprehensive if organized. most times there are not 12 different views on the personality of the holy spirit for example, there is two - yes or no, permitting it to be concise.

Do we split it into Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Methodist, Presbyterian, Liberal/Progressive, Traditional/Conservative, Fundamentalist, Evangelical, Ecumenical, Feminist, Liberation, etc?

--

I actually have started a wikicommentary page at wikicommentary.net. Its in a beta stage right now and I haven't completely settled in on a permanent data structure. Go ahead and check it out if you're interested in a wikicommentary. I think it can work. People can write their commentary directly on scripture, simply searching for a passage would retreive all relevant commentary in the database. It would be really cool if the order in which they appear could be randomized also. Anyway I'm just full of ideas right now and they need to be put in place before it will really work. --Stevecrozz 22:38, 13 April 2006 (UTC)


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/Christian Theology/Existence of God

Does God Exist? That is the principal question of theology.

There are several arguments attempted to prove the existence of God.
 * Cosmological

"The existence of God, as a First Cause, from the effects seen in the world" (James Boyce). One may look around and observe reality, energy, matter, etc. and conclude that there must be a cause for the reality, energy, matter, etc. a Supreme Being.

 * Ontological

The ontological argument was developed by Anselm: "Something than which nothing greater can be thought so truly exists that it is not possible to think of it as not existing"

 * Teleological

Also known as Intelligent Design, the argument assumes that for there to be order, there must be a creator. The alternative is often referred to as the "Tornado in the Junkyard"

From a literal viewpoint, in Genesis 1:1, the existence of God is assumed.
 * Biblical


text:
User:Yath~enwikibooks

Currently working on:

 * Programming:Perl
 * Programming:Python -- scratch page: User:Yath/Python
 * Programming:Ruby

Navigation templates:

Discussion about programming languages and what their book names should be: Talk:Computer programming

monobook.css

title: User:Yath~enwikibooks