text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/Islam

Islam
Islam, meaning submission and obedience, is the religious system allied to one God, Allah, developed in the 7th century C.E. by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) from Arabia and recorded in the Quran for the Muslim population. Islam is a total way of life, not a Sunday religion, but founded on sharia-based family laws, with five pillars: Shahadah or affirmation of faith, Salaah or prayer five times a day toward Mecca, Sawm or fasting during Ramadan, Zakat or alms giving, Hadj or pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

Christianity

 * For so greatly did God love the world that He gave His only born Son, that everyone who believes in Him should not be subject to death but have eternal Life.

Life
Jesus Christ, the founder of Christianity and prophet according to Islam, was born in Bethlehem, Judea, according to the generally accepted chronology in the year of Rome 750, that is, 4 BC. This apparent discrepancy in date is due to an error that was made when the Christian calendar originated with Dionysius in 556 AD. He fixed upon the year of Rome 754 as that in which Christ was born. Later information proved beyond a doubt that this date should have been 750, which gives the birth of Christ four years before the beginning of the Christian era according to the calendar of Dionysius. The mother of Jesus was Mary, who was probably a descendant of David. Her husband, Joseph, was also a descendant of the same family. The birth of the holy child occurred in a manger at a public inn in Bethlehem, where Joseph had gone to be registered in his place of origin in accordance with the Roman census and Jewish law relating to taxation. The miraculous conditions connected with his birth to the Virgin Mary prove to the satisfaction of most followers of Christianity that Jesus was of divine origin. His parents remained at Bethlehem for some time. The infant Savior was circumcised on the eighth day, and at the end of the fortieth day he was presented in the Temple, and his mother, according to the Jewish law, made the customary offers for her purification. Soon after this he was visited by wise men, or Magi, from the East, who claimed to have been guided to the spot where he was by the miraculous appearance of a star. Inquiries of these men as to where the child who was to be king of the Jews was born, led Herod (at that time ruler of Judea under Rome) to cause all the male children in Bethlehem under three years of age to be put to death. Joseph, however, was warned by an angel, and he fled with Mary and Jesus into Egypt, where he remained an uncertain length of time, until after Herod's death, when the holy family returned and took up their residence at Nazareth. There, Jesus lived and grew to maturity, and because of that connection he is frequently called the Nazarene.

Of the boyhood and youth of Jesus almost nothing is known. The only authentic account given is that of his appearance in the Temple when twelve years of age (Luke 2: 46-50). All legends concerning his life previous to his public ministry are without foundation, but it is probable that he remained with the family at Nazareth and engaged in the same work as his father, who was a carpenter. The public ministry of Jesus was preceded by the preaching of John the Baptist, his cousin, who proclaimed the coming of the kingdom of God and called men to repentance. Jesus was pointed out by John as the Son of God, and two of John's disciples from that time became his followers. He was baptized by John, when his divine nature was manifested by the miraculous appearance of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove and by a voice from heaven saying, "This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased." After the initial meeting, his new followers declared Jesus, the Christ, or the expected Jewish Messiah. Following the baptism, Jesus retired into the wilderness of Judea, where he was subjected to various temptations. His first public appearance was at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, where he performed the miracle of turning water into wine. He then visited Capernaum, affirmed the apostles Andrew, Peter, James and John nearby and later appeared in Jerusalem at the time of the Passover to reveal his majesty and power by cleansing the Temple of those who were changing money and selling animals for sacrifice. He received an inquisitive teacher of Israel at night by the name of Nicodemus and pointed out the way to everlasting life. His works and teachings immediately aroused the opposition of the leaders of the Jews because the news was spreading over Judea that Jesus' disciples were baptizing even more new adherents than John the Baptist and, finding that this work in Judea was to be rejected, he departed into Galilee. During the remainder of the first year of his ministry he preached at Nazareth, where his own townspeople attempted to cast him over a precipice because of his teachings; then at Capernaum again. After the calling of his disciples he began his first circuit through Galilee. During this time occurred the Sermon on the Mount; also the Sermon in the Boat, which was followed by the miraculous draught of fishes. Near the close of this year he called Levi, or Matthew, who became one of his most devoted followers.

The second year's ministry began with the attendance upon the Passover at Jerusalem and the healing of the lame man at the Pool of Bethesda. Following this were several other miracles, followed by discussions with the Pharisees and other leaders of the Jews, in which Jesus continued (Matthew 9: 12-13) to set forth his gospel, or good news, calling for repentance and the forgiveness of sins, and showed clearly the difference between this new dispensation and the underlying principles of the Jewish law and the ceremonials largely practiced at that time. This increased the already growing opposition and was followed by the sending out of the twelve disciples to promulgate his teaching concerning entry into the kingdom of heaven. After the visit to Jerusalem, Jesus began his second general circuit through Galilee. This circuit was characterized by the performing of a number of miracles and the relating of some of the most important parables in the Gospels, among them those of the sower, of the tares, of the mustard seed, of the leaven and of the hid treasure. This was followed by the third general circuit, during which occurred the death of John the Baptist, the feeding of the five thousand and the walking on water. The third and last year of Jesus' ministry was by far the most important with many discourses, parables, and miracles recorded, the year which saw the Transfiguration, curing of an epileptic boy, his appearance at the Feast of Tabernacles, sending out the seventy to prepare the way with all power over demons and disease, his calling the fallen Prince of this world to account, and the raising of Lazarus which so aroused the envy of the Jews that they resolved upon putting him to death, while just before the events of the last week leading up to the crucifixion, generally known as the Passion Week, he stopped everything to welcome the little children into his presence, for such is the kingdom of God. After which he warned about the dangers of the accumulation of wealth, and then gave a prediction of his own death and resurrection for the third time. As his passion drew near, Jesus prepared to eat the last Passover with his disciples. On the first day of the week, which is still remembered as Palm Sunday, he made his triumphal entrance into Jerusalem as the long awaited but unique Son of David. During the next two days he spent his time in and around the city, cursing a barren fig-tree, cleansing the Temple, predicting the destruction of Jerusalem and the nation, sealing the judgment to come with separation of the sheep from the goats and delivering discourses in which he used a number of parables, in particular, those conveyed in private to his disciples to answer the ultimate questions concerning his mission. These things accomplished, he retired to Bethany. On Wednesday he gave a warning of the betrayal by one of his own, and on the following day in a specially prepared upper room in the holy city he ate the last Passover with his disciples assuring them that after his departure he would come again to usher in his kingdom and during the discourse proclaimed the wine and the bread a lasting remembrance of the new covenant established that evening, additionally, a new commandment was directed to his disciples: that you love one another as I have loved you, for greater love has no man than this, that he lay down his life for his friends. After the Passover meal, having been betrayed by Judas, he was arrested in the Garden of Gethsemane, brought before the high priest Caiaphas, condemned by the Jewish Sanhedrin for claims of divinity (Mark 14: 62) and early on Friday morning sent before Pilate, the Roman governor of Jerusalem, in order that the sentence of death might be legally confirmed, which led to the requisite punishment of flagellation and further humiliation. By Pilate he was released to the Jews, by whose compliance he was crucified on that day. Late in the afternoon, Jesus cried out, “It is finished,” and yielded up the spirit. The Sabbath approached demanding his body be taken down from the cross and prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus. The tomb was one belonging to this same Joseph, a member of the Sanhedrin, a man of considerable means, and there the body of Jesus was buried that same day in a garden close to Golgotha, the place of the skull, the site of the crucifixion.

Resurrection
On the morning of the first day of the week, or the third day after his death, Mary Magdalene and other women in charge of the spices hastened to the tomb in order to complete the work of embalming the body, but they found the stone rolled away from the door of the tomb and the place where Jesus had lain occupied by an angel, who told them that Jesus had risen. After his resurrection on that Sunday which would later be celebrated as Easter Sunday, Jesus remained on earth for forty days, during which time he appeared eleven times to his disciples and followers, the instance (John 20: 27-28) of a doubting Thomas tempered all unbelief. Jesus commissioned his disciples to continue his earthly ministry and at the last gathering on the Mount of Olives he ascended into heaven and was received by a cloud out of their sight. The disciples stood there awe-strucken with eyes skyward after the ascension, even as, heavenly messengers in attendance (Acts 1: 11) announce his return would be in like manner, evidently, at the end of the age. They returned to the upper room in Jerusalem as instructed and devoted themselves to worship and fellowship together in the common calling while planning for the future, with earnest prayer, blessing God continually. Their numbers increased to 120 believers as they awaited the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, or Advocate, as promised by the risen Savior.

Various attempts have been made to explain away the resurrection of Christ. There is the supposition, (1) of fraud; that, according to the statement of the Jews, the disciples stole the body and then published the story that their Lord was risen; (2) that Jesus had not really died on the cross; that His apparent death was only a swoon, from which He afterward recovered; (3) that there had been no real resurrection, but that the disciples had been deceived by visionary appearances or hallucinations; (4) that the assertion of the resurrection was originally allegorical. In Acts, chapter 5, the words of one of the most learned Jews of the time, Gamaliel, are more to the point, “put forth [the apostles] a little space... for if this counsel or this work be of men, it will come to naught: but if it be of God, you cannot overthrow it.” Thus, with regard to the significance of Christ's resurrection, to Christians it is the crowning event, evidence of the divine character of His mission and His atonement for the sins of the world.

Maxims of Christianity
The great commandment according to the gospel was love the Lord your God with all your heart and the second, similar to it, love your neighbor as yourself. Jesus reinforced his teaching by miracles and by parables. His miracles were evidently for the purpose of convincing the people of his divine origin and power. They were thirty-five in number and ranged in importance from the turning of water into wine to the raising of the dead to life. Most of them were connected with the healing of disease and a majority of those contained a demonstration of the petitioner's faith, and with few exceptions all of them were for the welfare of those upon whom or in whose favor they were wrought. The parables, forceful maxims of a metaphorical nature such as the Pearl of Great Price, the Prodigal Son and the Good Samaritan, were thirty-three in number and contain the best illustrations of moral and religious truth to be found anywhere in literature. So broad is their application that the truths which they teach are accepted by the non-Christian as well as by the Christian world.

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/Islam


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Colors

For use in your stylesheet: these colors can be used for both background and fonts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Colors


text:
Icelandic/Lesson 1

Kafli 1: Halló!
 * Lesson 1: Hello!

Kveðjur og orðasambönd (Greetings and phrases)
Athuga
 * When talking to or about someone, gender is an important part of Icelandic conversation and speech. For example, when greeting a man, you must say Komdu sæll, blessaður or sæll. To a woman, you would say Komdu sæl, blessuð, or sæl
 * If the situation is informal, you can just say Hæ or Bæ regardless of gender
 * When there is a group of people of mixed gender, you could say Komið þið sæl og blessuð
 * When you want to welcome someone, you also must take into account the gender of the listener. If you are welcoming a man, you say Velkominn, if a woman, you say Velkomin. If you are welcoming a group of people, you also would say Velkomin
 * Although Allt í lagi means okay (Ok!), you will of course also hear ókei, said the same as the English okay
 * As you may have noticed, Góða daginn (or Góðan dag) means both good morning and good afternoon. Icelanders use this greeting from the early morning hours (after midnight) until slightly before dinner time. In Iceland, since there is sunlight almost 24 hours in the summer months and about 4 hours in the winter months, using these greetings based on how it looks outside is not a good reference
 * Remember that the letter Æ is pronounced like the English i in mine. Refer back to the Alphabet and Pronunciation page if you are struggling with reading words in Icelandic. The phonetic pronunciation will go away after this lesson, since Icelandic words are pronounced as they are read. Therefore, it is essential that by the end of this lesson, you are comfortable with the Icelandic alphabet and how it is pronounced

Nafnorð (Nouns)
A noun is a person, place, or thing. It has the same function in Icelandic. A noun in an Icelandic sentence, unlike one in English, reflects its case, gender, and number as it's being used in the sentence. There are 4 grammatical cases in Icelandic (Nominative, Accusative, Dative, and Genitive), which we will talk about individually.

Kyn (Gender)
This might seem odd for an English speaker, a word in a language having gender? There are many languages that do indeed give their nouns gender. In Icelandic, we have three genders, masculine, feminine, and neutral nouns. When learning new vocabulary, it is important that you establish its gender whilst you memorise it. This will come in great importance when declining the noun (giving it the right endings) and using it. There are some simple rules to determine if a noun is masculine, feminine, or neutral:

Greinir (Articles)
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. In English, articles are the, a, and an. In Icelandic, there is no indefinite article, meaning there is no way to say a or an in Icelandic. Therefore, the word maður could mean man or a man. You determine the proper translation by the context, which isn't as difficult as it might seem at first.

There is however a definite article (the). Unlike English though, Icelandic has postfixed definite articles, meaning the article attaches itself to the end of a word to make it definite. For example, in English, you would say the man, whilst in Icelandic we say manthe. This might be confusing at first, but in time you will get used to this. Let's take a look at how we form the definite article in Icelandic.

 * Karlkyn (Masculine) -inn, -nn
 * Kvenkyn (Feminine) -in, -n
 * Hvorukyn (Neuter) -ið, -ð

Examples: Maður → Maðurinn - Man → The man Kona → Konan - Woman → The woman Barn → Barnið - Child → The child Barnið er strákur - The child is a boy

Allt í lagi? Skilurðu? (Do you understand?). Pretty soon we will be able to construct simple sentences.

Nefnifall (Nominative Case)
The Nominative case, or Nefnifall, is the first case we will talk about. This case also exists in English, though we do not think about it when we use it. This case represents a noun that acts as the subject of the sentence—the person or thing that's doing the verb (rather than having the verb done to it: in The dog bit the kid, dog is the subject and kid is the object). Another use of the nefnifall is in equivalent sentences, which equate one noun with another, such as sentences which use the copula verb to be. (For example: I am a man.) In these sentences, both nouns are nominative (at first it may seem like a man is having "being" done to him, but Icelandic doesn't treat it that way). The nominative form of the noun is also the dictionary form. The words you have just learnt in this chapter are all in the nominative (strákur, stelpa, maður, kona). Examine this chart and examples below:

Fornöfn (Pronouns)
Pronouns are nouns which substitute other nouns in a certain phrase or sentence. For example, in English pronouns are I, you, he, she, it. In Icelandic they are:

 * Note that when you have a group of males, you use Þeir and if you have a group of females then you would use Þær. If the group is of mixed gender, then use Þau.

Tengisögnin "að vera" (The verb "to be")
The most important verb in any language is the verb "to be". It is important to know how to say things like I am, you are, he is, she is and so on. The following table is a verb conjugation. Conjugating verbs is an important part of learning a language. We can't just say I to be, you to be, he to be. We have to conjugate a verb in order to find the appropriate form for the adjective. First, we will show you how it is done in English, then the Icelandic equivalent. Remember your pronouns?

TO BE

 * Note that in English, the plural pronouns “they” and “their” are also used for the neuter, where the gender of the person or persons is either unknown or may be either male or female, e.g. “someone has left their bag here”, “Someone phoned you today. I don’t know what they wanted”.

AÐ VERA

To make a question, you do the same as you would do in English, flip the verb and subject around. (Er ég? = Am I?, Er hann? = Is he?). You will also commonly see Ert þú combined into Ertu. Don't be put off by this, ertu simply means are you, although ert þú is also correct and a bit more formal.

Now that we know the simple structure to construct an Icelandic sentence, try to figure out the translations of the following. Highlight the space next to it to see if you are correct.

 * Ég er strákur [ I am a boy ]
 * Hann er maður [ He is a man ]
 * Er hún konan? [ Is she the woman? ]

Siðir (Customs)
In most European languages, there are two forms of you, a polite form and a familiar form. In Icelandic, þú is used for informal and formal situations. Formality is more or less similar to how English speakers use formality. It tends to be in your voice and the type of language you use when addressing someone in a formal situation. Whilst English has words such as Mr, Mrs, Ms and Miss, Icelandic speakers tend to address people by their first names. The Icelandic equivalents of the English titles just mentioned are Herra, Frú, and Ungfrú, but these are seldom used. If you ask someone Hvað heitir þú? (What is your name?), they will tell you their first name, first name and middle name, or even their full name. It is perfectly all right to call them by their first name, even if the situation is formal. Icelandic schoolchildren, believe it or not, would call their teachers by their first name without including Herra or Frú.

When meeting someone for the first time in Iceland, it is proper to shake their hand. When two women meet for the first time, they might exchange a kiss on the cheek. When meeting for the first time, it is polite to use the greeting Blessaður or Komdu sæll for a male, and Blessuð or Komdu sæl for a woman. The younger generation would tend to ignore formalities upon meeting, and might even say Hæ or Halló for an introductory meeting.

Þýðing (Translation)
Leiðbeiningar: Translate the following into English.

 * 1) góðan daginn - [ good morning ]
 * 2) velkomin - [ welcome ]
 * 3) já - [ yes ]
 * 4) kannski - [ maybe ]
 * 5) strákur - [ boy ]
 * 6) maðurinn - [ the man ]
 * 7) við - [ we ]
 * 8) hún er - [ she is ]
 * 9) og - [ and ]
 * 10) góða nótt - [ good night ]

Hvaða kyn? (Which gender?)
Leiðbeiningar: Determine the gender of the following nouns (masculine, feminine, or neuter). You might not know the meanings of the words yet, but see if you can figure it out by the way the word looks.

Dæmi (Example): staður (place), masculine

 * 1) spurning (question) [ feminine ]
 * 2) bakarí (bakery) [ neutral ]
 * 3) bolti (ball) [ masculine ]
 * 4) tölva (computer) [ feminine ]
 * 5) móðir (mother) [ feminine ]

Ákveðinn grein (Definite article)
Leiðbeiningar: Make the following words definite by adding an article.

 * 1) kona
 * 2) strákur
 * 3) barn
 * 4) maður
 * 5) stelpa

title: Icelandic/Lesson 1


text:
User:Magicfly

In the Beginning
There are many theories about the beginning of the Universe as we know it. Although these theories differ in a variety of ways, but they all have some underlying fundamental truths, at least for the realm of understanding.

Each religion has its own beliefs, most of which are essentially the same. That is that some Entity created the Universe, for the Christian's it is God but there is also Buddha, Mohammad etc. Science also has had several theories on the beginning of the Universe. There are many beliefs and theories ranging from simple stories related to children, to more sophisticated theories related by philosophers and scholars. So where did the Universe come from?

"In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth." According to the King James Bible, the Earth was created by a supreme being known as God. This idea is present in most of the other religions of the world as well, the name is different from religion to religion, but the concept is the same. In every religion, the Universe is created, spoken, molded, sculpted, breathed etc into existence by some supreme being. It is a common theme, as all religions need a starting point, a place which man can begin to understand their surroundings. Because man has a limited capacity for thought and an even more limited capacity for understanding, it becomes quite hard for them to understand the overwhelming concepts of the Universe.

For most people to believe that the Universe has existed forever and will exit forever is a concept that they can not grasp. Science is a little easier to understand because it is based on facts and not merely beliefs. Though in many cases the facts are nothing more than beliefs that have not been proven or not proven. For example it was once thought that the Earth was flat and that if you sailed too far in any direction you would simply fall off. It was a theory that was proven incorrect. It was once thought that the Earth was the center of the Solar System, and in fact the Universe. That too was proven to be incorrect, until now. Science is no different than any religion of the world in this regard, because just as all religions are given words from the supreme being to guide them, these words are always unclear and subject to interpretation. Science too is subject to interpretations.

With every religion in the world, the Words of God can and many times do have different meanings to different people. They are words written a long time ago to help guide the people of that day to become the people of today, and to guide the people of today into becoming the people of tomorrow. With that in mind, you must take a look at how society changes over the ages. All aspects of life change over the course of time, either because our morality has changed, or our morality has changed because of the changes in the way we dress, the way we maintain our appearance, even the way we work and play. Even our language changes as words are added through slang, and colloquial phrases are removed because they are outdated. The religious writings of long ago have all but been redefined through various translations and editing. To make the writings easier for the current reader to understand man has found it necessary to change certain aspects with respect to the beliefs of that day. As society changes so too changes what society believes is moral. With each revision and with each translation new morality is inserted into the writings to coincide with the moral beliefs of the day.

What is the Universe
By definition, the Universe is Space and everything within that space. All matter, all energy, all life, and all consciousness make up the Universe as we know it. Most scientific minds see the whole of space as a series of Universe's know as a Multiverse. This is actually a logical way of thinking of the Universe, since Einstein's theory of relativity states that the laws of Physics are the same for everybody in the Universe, but that the perception of those laws are different based upon the observers relation to the Universe itself.

Are there more than one Universe
Through modern technology we have been able to photograph with an electron microscope the essence of the atom. The image is not truly a photo of the atom, merely the energy emitted by the atom. Using this technology it is possible to 'photograph' the fluctuating states of the atoms and witness their relationship to other atoms and space in general. We now have proof that atoms exist simultaneously in several locations at the same instance. This startling discovery leads to the conclusion that there are an unlimited number of Universe's, known as the Multiverse. It is this theory that every atom exists in every Universe simultaneously, and more that the same atom can exist in different states in each Universe.

How are Time and Space Linked
It has been said that time and space are linked. Time is difficult to describe, but is required for space to even exist. Space is a little easier to describe because we see space with our own eyes, but space can not be described properly without the use of time in the description. Everything in space occupies a specific place at a specific time. Simply put, we travel through space and time, and space and time travel through us. It is a dance that has been going on in the Universe since time and space began, and will continue for eternity. So then how are time and space linked? Can one exist without the other? Is there some other cosmic force that links time and space? Are the stars random? Does life exist because we imagine it? Are the rules of the Universe such as the speed of light, gravity, sound, etc. constant or varied by perspective.

The great minds of the past have asked these questions and many more, for centuries. The answers are not clear cut however; many times there seem to be multiple answers for the same question, seemingly contradictory answers to the questions. The biggest controversy in understanding is religion verses science. The very existence of life is apparently in controversy.

Why am I the Center of the Universe?
Space is vast, very very vast. Space it is said goes on forever. That simply means that there is no boundary between space and something on the other side. This is a hard concept for most people to understand, since they are used to being in something such as a room or a building which has walls as a boundary. When we are in something there is a boundary that holds the "in" part, and there is always something on the other side of this boundary. Yet we are in space and there is no boundary. There can be no boundary, just by the very essence of what the Universe is. If you are in this room for example and the boundaries are the walls, ceiling and floor, then if you made a hole in them and went through the boundary, you would still be in 3 dimensional space. You would just be changing the boundary you are in, because now you are in a different room with different walls.

By definition a boundary holds something in, and separates that which is in from that which is out. To say that the Universe has a boundary is to say that something exists out side of this boundary. If that were the case, then this area outside its boundary would have its own boundary. This would continue to infinity. It is true that there are boundaries in space such as the afore mentioned rooms, but there are boundaries on other scales as well. A drop of water for example has a boundary between the water inside and the air outside. A diamond has a boundary between the compressed carbon and the silver or gold holding it, which also has a boundary between the ring and the finger that the ring is on. Even on a molecular scale, the atoms have boundaries between the nucleus and the electrons. As you increase the macroscopic view of the universe, the boundaries become fewer, but the Universe can ultimately never be contained.

That said space continues on forever in all directions. If you could see far enough when you looked you would see infinity on your right, and infinity on your left. Since infinity equals infinity, you are directly in the center no matter where in the Universe you are standing. You are the center of the Universe, and similarly time will exist for eternity, as it already has so we are at the center of time.

It is all a matter of perspective. As Einstein developed the theory of relativity, the key to the matter (if you will pardon the pun), all matter, is perception or perspective. All of the laws of the Universe follow the same guidelines for every viewer in the Universe. To rephrase for clarity, just as we are at the center of the Universe and the center of Time, we could also say that we are on top of the world. The reason this is true is simply that we are on the surface of a sphere which by definition (of a sphere) is an object that all lines perpendicular to all of the tangent planes travel through the center of the object. Much like a circle is described as a two dimensional object whereby all of the lines perpendicular to all tangent lines travel through the center of the object. If therefore you are standing on one of these tangent planes, up would be everything on your side of the plane and down would be everything on the other, or you would be on the top side of the plane on which you are standing. Simply put, in Space there is no up or down, no left or right, and no front or back. There is only the direction you chose to call up, down, left, right, front or back. Your up could just as well be someone else’s left or right, front or back. It is merely a matter of perspective.

title: User:Magicfly


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/A single entity/Exercises

Single-Entity CHAPTER => A Single Entity

Single-Entity ANSWERS => Answers

---  Class Example - Wine Store

Develop an XML Document, an XML Schema, and an XML Stylesheet that integrate information about the wine found in a wine store: wine id, winery, vintage, style, country, region, cost, price, inventory level, and description. ---

1. A museum problem.
 * a. Create an XML schema to describe a museum entity that has the following attributes: museum name, date established, address and URL.  Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * b. Using the schema, create an XML document and populate it with data for two museums. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * c. Write an XML stylesheet to display the name of the museum, date established and the URL. Check that it is well-formed and valid.

2. XML dataflow model. Try to build a dataflow model containing the following components and how they work together: - XSL stylesheet - XML documents - XML schema - XSL(T) Processor - different outputs

3. A fraternity or sorority problem.
 * a. Create an XML schema to describe a fraternity or sorority that has the following attributes: name of organization, type of organization (fraternity or sorority), address, URL.  Check that it is well formed and valid.
 * b. Using the schema, create an XML document and populate it with data for two organizations. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * c. Write an XML stylesheet to display the name of the organization, type of organization, address and the URL. Check that it is well-formed and valid.

4.Concept to XML. Using the output below, design an XML Document, XML Schema, and XML Stylesheet that will produce such a display.

Single-Entity CHAPTER => A Single Entity

Single-Entity ANSWERS => Answers


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/A single entity/Answers

Single-Entity CHAPTER => A Single Entity

Single-Entity EXERCISES => Exercises

=Class Example - Wine Store=

XML Schema
name the schema file wine.xsd

XML Stylesheet
=Exercise 1=
 * 1) A museum problem
 * a. Create an XML schema to describe a museum entity that has the following attributes: museum name, date established, address and URL.  Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * b. Using the schema, create an XML document and populate it with data for two museums. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * c. Write an XML stylesheet to display the name of the museum, date established and the URL. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * d. Write a Java program to parse the XML document and list each museum and its address.

Answer= 1a. Submitted by Madeleine on February 3, 2004, 5:48 PM

XML Schema
1b. Submitted by Madeleine on February 3, 2004, 5:48 PM

XML Document
1c. Submitted by Madeleine on February 3, 2004, 5:48 PM

XML Stylesheet
= Exercise 2= Solution to Nr. 2:

=Exercise 3= Submitted by Chris Collins on March 28, 2005

XML Schema
--Exercise 3a.--

XML Document
--Exercise 3b.--

XML Stylesheet
--Exercise 3c.--

Single-Entity CHAPTER => A Single Entity

Single-Entity EXERCISES => Exercises


text:
Statistics/Methods of Data Collection/Experiments

Experiments
In a experiment the experimenter applies 'treatments' to groups of subjects. For example the experimenter may give one drug to group 1 and a different drug or a placebo to group 2, to determine the effectiveness of the drug. This is what differentiates an 'experiment' from an 'observational study'.

Scientists try to identify cause-and-effect relationships because this kind of knowledge is especially powerful, for example, drug A cures disease B. Various methods exist for detecting cause-and-effect relationships. An experiment is a method that most clearly shows cause-and-effect because it isolates and manipulates a single variable, in order to clearly show its effect. Experiments almost always have two distinct variables: First, an independent variable (IV) is manipulated by an experimenter to exist in at least two levels (usually "none" and "some"). Then the experimenter measures the second variable, the dependent variable (DV).

Suppose the experimental hypothesis that concerns the scientist is that reading a wiki will enhance knowledge. Notice that the hypothesis is really an attempt to state a causal relationship like, "if you read a qiki, then you will have enhanced knowledge." The antecedent condition (reading a wiki) causes the consequent condition (enhanced knowledge). Antecedent conditions are always IVs and consequent conditions are always DVs in experiments. So the experimenter would produce two levels of Wiki reading (none and some, for example) and record knowledge. If the subjects who got no Wiki exposure had less knowledge than those who were exposed to wikis, it follows that the difference is caused by the IV.

So, the reason scientists utilize experiments is that it is the only way to determine causal relationships between variables. Experiments tend to be artificial because they try to make both groups identical with the single exception of the levels of the independent variable.


text:
Statistics/Methods of Data Collection/Observational Studies

The most primitive method of understanding the laws of nature utilizes observational studies. Basically, a researcher goes out into the world and looks for variables that are associated with one another. Notice that, unlike experiments, in an observational study the Independent Variables are not manipulated by the experimenter. The independent variable could be something like "smoking". It would be unethical and probably impossible to do an experiment where one randomly selected group is assigned to smoke and another group is assigned to the non-smoking group. Therefore, in order do determine the health effects of smoking on humans, an observational study is more appropriate than an experiment. The health of smokers and non-smokers would be compared without the experimenter assigning treatment.

Some of the foundations of modern scientific thought are based on observational research. Charles Darwin, for example, based his explanation of evolution entirely on observations he made. Case studies, where individuals are observed and questioned to determine possible causes of problems, are a form of observational research that continues to be popular today. In fact, every time you see a physician he or she is performing observational science.

There is a problem in observational science though — it cannot ever identify causal relationships because even though two variables are related both might be caused by a third, unseen, variable. Since the underlying laws of nature are assumed to be causal laws, observational findings are generally regarded as less compelling than experimental findings.

The key way to identify experimental studies is that they involve an intervention such as the administration of a drug to one group of patients and a placebo to another group. Observational studies only collect data and make comparisons.

Medicine is an intensively studied discipline, and not all phenomenon can be studied by experimentation due to obvious ethical or logistical restrictions.
 * Case series: These are purely observational, consisting of reports of a series of similar medical cases. For example, a series of patients might be reported to suffer from bone abnormalities as well as immunodeficiencies. This association may not be significant, occurring purely by chance.  On the other hand, the association may point to a mutation in common pathway affecting both the skeletal system and the immune system.
 * Case-Control: This involves an observation of a disease state, compared to normal healthy controls. For example, patients with lung cancer could be compared with their otherwise healthy neighbors.  Using neighbors limits bias introduced by demographic variation.  The cancer patients and their neighbors (the control) might be asked about their exposure history (did they work in an industrial setting), or other risk factors such as smoking.  Another example of a case-control study is the testing of a diagnostic procedure against the gold standard.  The gold standard represents the control, while the new diagnostic procedure is the "case."  This might seem to qualify as an "intervention" and thus an experiment.
 * Cross-sectional: Involves many variables collected all at the same time. Used in epidemiology to estimate prevalence, or conduct other surveys.
 * Cohort: A group of subjects followed over time, prospectively. Framingham study is classic example.  By observing exposure and then tracking outcomes, cause and effect can be better isolated. However this type of study cannot conclusively isolate a cause and effect relationship.
 * Historic Cohort: This is the same as a cohort except that researchers use an historic medical record to track patients and outcomes.


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/Using an XML Editor

NetBeans

=Using an XML Editor: NetBeans : Single - Entity= Return to the Single Entity Chapter => [[../A single entity/]

XML document:
To validate an XML document: If the XML file, city.xml, conforms to the XML schema provided, city.xsd, your Output Window should look like the following:
 * 1) Go to File -> New File -> XML -> XML Document.
 * 2) Save your file as ‘city’
 * 3) Select XML Schema-Constrained Document as the document type.
 * 4) Next, specify your schema location (Go to Browse, then select the schema just created) and root element name (tourGuide).
 * 5) Copy and paste the above code into the NetBeans editor and save.
 * 6) Check the XML document to make sure it is well-formed (ALT-F9).
 * 1) Right-click the document's node and choose Validate XML.

Open this file, city.xml, in NetBeans.

Netbeans Tips
The prefix "xsi" for attribute "xsi:noNamespaceSchemaLocation" associated with an element type "Listing" is not bound. -Caused because line "xmlns:xsi='http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance'" is       missing from the top of the document.

cvc-elt.1: Cannot find the declaration of element 'Listing'. -Caused due to lack of extension(.xsd) at the end of the schema name.

cvc-complex-type.2.4.a: Invalid content was found starting with element 'MuseumName'. One of '{"":Museum}' is expected. [5]      -Caused due to lack of naming at the beginning and end of the variable naming section.

The element type "MuseumName" must be terminated by the matching end-tag "". -Could be caused by a missing "/" in the end tag of one of the variables

XML Schema
Any XML document, including XML schema and XML stylesheet documents, can be checked to make sure they are “well-formed”. An XML document is said to be well-formed if it adheres to the XML syntax rules, as outlined in the Chapter 1, such as there must be exactly one root element, every start tag must have an end tag. The well-formedness of an XML documents can be checked using an XML editor software, in this case, the NetBeans. If any errors are detected, they are listed along with the line number in the Output window. This location is not necessarily the line where the error occurred. By double-clicking on any error message, you can go to the line in the XML document where the error was detected.

Use NetBeans to create a new project: Use NetBeans to create the above XML schema:
 * 1) Go to File -> New Project

To check an XML document to see if it is well-formed:
 * 1) Go to File -> New File -> XML -> XML Schema.
 * 2) Save your file as ‘city’ (this gives the file an extension of .xsd).
 * 3) Copy and Paste the above schema into city.xsd and save
 * 1) Right-click the document's node (under files, city.xsd) and choose Check XML schema or press Alt-F9.

If the XML schema, city.xsd, is well-formed, your Output Window should look like this:

Netbeans Tips
Element type "xsd:element" must be followed by either attribute specifications, ">" or "/>". -Caused by lack of ">" or "/>" symbol at the end of either the specified line or the line there after. The value of attribute "name" associated with an element type "xsd:complexType" must not contain the '<' character. -Often caused by lack of closing quotation around the variable name on either the specified line or the line there after. src-resolve.4.2: Error resolving component 'xsd:strin'...     -Caused by invalid "type", most likely misspelled. Can be for any "type", not just "string." The element type "xsd:sequence" must be terminated by the matching end-tag "". -Caused because  is not found in order to close the statement. -Also caused because the closing statements are out of order as      they at the beginning of the Schema.

XML Stylesheet
Use NetBeans to create the above XML stylesheet:

 * 1) Go to File -> New File -> XML -> XSL Stylesheet
 * 2) Save your file as ‘city’
 * 3) Copy and paste the above code into the NetBeans editor and save.
 * 4) Check the stylesheet to make sure it is well-formed (ALT-F9).

Note: The city example files (city.xsd, city.xml and city.xsl) can be created using a text editor, and the results are displayed correctly in a compatible web browser such as Mozilla 1.6. You will need to store all of the files in the same directory and insert the following line after line 1 of city.xml: This associates the XSL Stylesheet with the XML file containing the city data. Also, If you are using Netbeans, be sure to take off the xmlns line in the beginning which looks like xmlns='http://xml.netbeans.org/examples/targetNS', otherwise it will not display all data.

Netbeans Tips
The element type "xsl:text" must be terminated by the matching end-tag "". -Caused by either lack of end-tag or misspelling of the end- tag.

The element type "xsl:for-each" must be terminated by the matching end-tag "". -Caused due to either lack of end-tag for the specified tag or       end-tags placed in the wrong order.


text:
Talk:US Constitutional Law

NOTE: Legal scholars delimit this field to discussion of constitutional provisions that do not primarily govern the process of imposing punishment for crimes.

I recommend a macro structure that begins by examining the Constitution Article by Article up through Article 6, a special section on the Bill of Rights, and then individual sections on the later amendments.

Much attention must be paid to the 14th Amendment: some care must be taken to ensure lay readers get that the 14th Amendment is possibly the most important Amendment in American history, at least from the perspective of how much it has shaped American life. It is the 14th, after all, that made most of the Bill of Rights operable against the states.

If no one objects, I am going to begin editing the content of this book, shaping it into the form of a modern casebook. This is a rough outline of what I want to add over the next several months. Judge Narragansett 05:58, 2 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Introduction
 * History and ratification process
 * Bill of Rights
 * Judicial Review
 * Introduction
 * Dr. Bonham’s Case
 * Policy Analysis
 * The Federalist # 78
 * Why The Federalist Matters
 * Marbury v. Madison
 * Analysis & Background
 * Criticisms
 * Jefferson/Madison/Calhoun
 * The Counter-Majoritarian Difficulty

Object?
No one objects, just do it. Please.JeffEverhard (discuss • contribs) 22:13, 25 March 2011 (UTC)

Simplify the Case Method?
My question about formatting the book into something akin to a case book is the concern that it may somewhat jade lay readers and may not properly explain some jargon often used by constitutional scholars and lawyers. The benefit of law school is the ability to summarize and to introduce the jargon. Some readers may not have the time to do that, so I suggest we add a "preamble," per se, or an "analysis of the source" proceeding or following after the primary source, respectively.

For example, when introducing Lemon v Kurtzman, 411 U.S. 192 (1973), one may discuss the introduction of the Lemon test to the Supreme Court's tools in determining if any part of the federal government violated the establishment clause.

Also, in the case that interpretation of the law may be different now than previously, do we talk about the history and then introduce the current doctrine through the appropriate SCOTUS case, or do we use the original source for each doctrine of the time? I am asking this because this may be an issue when discussing the "free exercise" clause.

Musical Inquisit (discuss • contribs) 10:16, 18 December 2021 (UTC)

 * My favorite law textbook was case-based, but the cases were super easy fabricated or boiled-down real cases, just to explain the core principles in the chapter at hand. To be fair, this book was on criminal law, I’m not sure how well this adapts to constitutional law, since here the decisive points tend to be quite abstract in nature. Usually a new doctrine is still largely based on the earlier doctrine, therefore you’ll still need to (to some extent) explain the previous considerations. I think particularly in constitutional law is particularly important to consider and present many points of view. This includes a historic POV. ‑‑Kai Burghardt (discuss • contribs) 00:24, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:US Constitutional Law


text:
User:Aznrocket~enwikibooks

http://stw.ryerson.ca/~m4yip/

Currently reading the wikibooks guidelines and will contribute to Mechanical Engineering, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Mechanical_Engineering section a.s.a.p.

title: User:Aznrocket~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:216.229.75.142

Welcome to Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibooks and create an account. We hope you enjoy your time here on Wikibooks as a Wikibookian! -- LV (Dark Mark) 06:10, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.229.75.142


text:
MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook/Sidebar

Working with the Navigation Side Bar
One of the more esoteric features of MediaWiki software that is under the control of an administrator is the maintenance of the navigation side bar that appears (usually) to the left of the content on all MediaWiki pages.

Accessing the Side Bar Template
The main sidebar template is kept in the collection of standard MediaWiki messages that may be edited by or protected from ordinary users just like any other template. These pages are always protected from editing, however, unless you have administrator rights.

The typical page for this in the MediaWiki software is found at MediaWiki:Sidebar, and can be found on all MediaWiki projects.

Default Settings
The default sidebar information for most MediaWiki installations is as follows:

 * navigation
 * mainpage|main
 * portal-url|portal
 * ict-url|ict
 * currentevents-url|currentevents
 * recentchanges-url|recentchanges
 * randompage-url|randompage
 * helppage|help
 * sitesupport-url|sitesupport

Explaining features
There are two sorts of links that can be added through this interface:

 * Predefined project variables
 * Direct project links

Both of these have advantages and disadvantages which will be explained below.

Predefined Project Variables
The default setup of the navigation bar is only the predefined variables, so a common misconception is that this is the only sort of item that can appear on the navigation bar. Indeed prior to MediaWiki 1.5 this was the only way that you could make changes to the navigation bar, so it is common for people to still use this approach.

The values for these project variables must be changed from the list of System messages directly. For example from the default example above regarding the current events link, currentevents-url can be changed at MediaWiki:Currentevents-url and currentevents at MediaWiki:Currentevents. Note that if you want to change the page links or even the text of the navigation bar for this one item, you don't even need to edit the navigation bar itself directly but simply need to edit the variable link instead.

An additional description is available if you edit MediaWiki:Monobook.js that is related to each project variable that appears as a "hint text" for each project variable.

Advantages

 * Displays hint text (not available for direct project links)
 * Standard translations are available for default multi-lingual configurations which include these variables

Disadvantages

 * Additional step of trying to hunt down variable pages if you want to make changes
 * Often the actual content in the variable has absolutely nothing to do with the name of the variable. For example, portal-url may in fact be a link to a self-referential parody group of pages or to the main project discussion pages.
 * Adding additional variables requires developer access/root access to the computer that is hosting the content.

Direct Project Links
This is a more recent feature for adding in the navigation bar, but is much easier to work with. Specific syntax issues will be addressed in the next major section.

Advantages

 * No need to create variables or edit outside of the main side bar template
 * Context of the content is obvious
 * Can be performed by somebody with sysop privileges
 * Less likely to mess up whole project (such as might happen if MediaWiki:Monobook.js is edited with the wrong syntax)

Disadvantages

 * Lack of hint text (is it really that important?) Note that even this may be fixed in a later version of MediaWiki software.

Sidebar Syntax
It is important to note that either naming convention can be used to help rearrange the order of the links on the sidebar, and both may be used simultaneously. You are not restricted to sticking to one naming convention.

MediaWiki software uses the unordered list syntax for keeping track of items in the sidebar. Major sections are delimited by a single asterisk (*) and individual links by two asterisks (**). Additional levels may be added depending on the nature of the link, but only affect indentation of links on the sidebar and should be used very sparingly.

Following the asterisk, the link is added by using the format of URL (or page link) followed by the public description of that link. There is no need to use the or  brackets to form these links as the MediaWiki software will do this automatically.

Here is an example of a modified sidebar from the default:

 * navigation
 * mainpage|mainpage
 * portal-url|portal
 * currentevents-url|currentevents
 * helppage|help
 * sitesupport-url|sitesupport
 * Project:Village Pump|Village Pump

 * tools
 * recentchanges-url|recentchanges
 * randompage-url|randompage

Note here that Recent Changes and the Random Page links have been moved to a completely separate section. As an example, a link to the main project discussion page has been added.

Other text or even images can be added to this sidebar, but you should be careful as it is used on every project page and has a major draw on server resources as a result. This is something that should be kept very simple and neat as a guideline.

 * Note: Keep in mind that these changes will be very visible to all participants of the project, and that experimentation with this feature is likely to confuse new users to the project. On larger projects with many users, you should try to get a general feel for what changes need to be made from the users rather than arbitrarily make changes on a whim.


text:
MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook/Page Deletion

Sometimes it is necessary to hide a page rather than just fix it or redirect it elsewhere. Although this function is described as "deletion" it doesn't physically remove it from the underlying database. Instead the page is marked as delete and is hidden from view for normal users (that is, those without administrator privileges).

Once you have become an administrator one of the first things you will notice is a brand-new "delete" tab at the top of most pages in addition to the normal ones. This will take you to a deletion prompt.

Once there, fill in the explanation and click "Delete page". Some versions of MediaWiki have a "Yes, I really want to delete this" checkbox, so tick that before clicking delete otherwise it will not work.

What should be deleted depends on the project's inclusion rules, but generally:

 * Test pages
 * Vandal pages
 * Spam pages
 * Copyright violations
 * Duplicates
 * Project-incompatible pages

Deleting specific revisions
If you wish to delete only some revisions of a page - for example someone's private contact details or a copyright violation -this can be done using the "revision deletion" functionality from the page history display. Select the revision you wish to delete then click the show / hide selected revisions button. You will be given the option of hiding the content of the revision, the account name that made the revision or the edit summary. One or more options can be selected. Enter a reason for hiding the revision then click apply to selected revision to complete the action.

Hidden revisions remain visible to other administrators. In some cases the revision may need to be hidden from administrators as well. This is achieved using the suppression function (called oversight in earlier versions of MediaWiki). On all Wikimedia projects the suppression function is only available to Oversighters and Stewards.

Restoring some or all deleted revisions
Once a page has been deleted it is invisible to normal users, but admins visiting that same "no such article" page will also see a line at the top saying " View or restore ## deleted edits? ". This line also appears on the revision history page if the page still exists but has had some past revisions deleted.

Regardless of its location, clicking on the link will display the revision history. MediaWiki builds from before February 16, 2006 will show the last revision before deletion above the revision history. Each of these can be viewed on its own by choosing the appropriate date and time entry. MediaWiki builds from after February 16, 2006 will display the raw wiki source for the page (with a button below which can render it as it appeared), while those before this date will show the rendered page. Regardless of what version you are using the diff view function is currently not supported for deleted pages.

If you want to restore all deleted revisions merely click "Restore!", but if you want to exclude specific revisions you will need to check the boxes of every revision other than those ones before clicking Restore, at the moment there is no "restore all but selected" option. For pages that have had a lot of edits this can be a laborious process.

Revision restoration does not have to happen all at once however, and even multiple admins can simultaneously restore edits of the same page (although they will encounter some errors if they both select a matching revision).

Merging page histories
Sometimes when merging pages it is desirable to merge their edit histories together rather than simply using redirects. In this case you will need to delete the page in question, move one of the source pages over top of it, delete the page again, move the next over top, etc. etc. etc. Once completed simply restore all the revisions by clicking the history tab and going through the procedure described above.

Depending on the version of MediaWiki running the newest revision may become the current revision, so you may need to revert to an earlier revision where all the source pages had already been merged.

A step-by-step explanation is found in Edit History.

Mass page deletion
The mass deletion function (also known as nuke) can be used to remove a large number of pages quickly and easily. It is useful when combating page creation vandalism. The mass deletion function is accessed from Special:Nuke. Three options to filter the pages to be deleted are available:

 * All users or by username or IP address
 * All pages or by page name (using a pattern)
 * Maximum number of pages

Selecting go will bring up a list of pages based on your selection criteria. By default all pages are "checked" and will be deleted. Enter a reason in the description field then select delete selected to complete the mass deletion. Be careful with this function as there is no mass undelete!

Local Policies

 * en.wikibooks -- Deletion policy
 * en.wikipedia -- Wikipedia:Deletion policy
 * en.wikiversity -- Wikiversity:Deletion policy
 * commons.wikimedia -- Commons:Deletion guidelines
 * en.wiktionary -- Wiktionary:Page deletion guidelines
 * en.wikisource -- Wikisource:Deletion policy
 * en.wikiquote -- Wikiquote:Deletion policy
 * en.wikinews -- Wikinews:Deletion guidelines


text:
MediaWiki Administrator's Handbook/Page Protection

Sometimes it is necessary to protect a page against vandalism or other unwanted edits.

First of all visit the page in question and click the protect tab. You will be presented with one of two boxes, depending on the version of MediaWiki your wiki is running. Both methods are presented below. For the record, Wikicities is currently running MediaWiki 1.4 while Wikimedia projects are running 1.5.

Page Protection in MediaWiki 1.4 and earlier

At this screen simply check "Confirm protection". If you only want to prevent people moving the page check that box (by default the page will be protected from both). In this version of MediaWiki you cannot choose to protect solely against page moves while leaving editing access open.

Page Protection in MediaWiki 1.5 and later

By default the left and right options both move to the same place when you change the left-hand one. If you check "Unlock move permissions" each may be adjusted independently. You can for example decide to allow only sysops to edit the page, but for non-sysops--the "(default)" category--to move the page if they choose to do so. In most cases you will want to protect against both, which is why this is the default. Some wikis also have a "new users" option (not shown).

If the page has been protected in the past, a "Protection log" will be displayed beneath the prompt.

Unprotecting in MediaWiki 1.4 and earlier

Simply give a reason and tick "Confirm unprotection", then click "Confirm". When using MediaWiki 1.4 this results in all protection restrictions being removed from the page.

Unprotecting in MediaWiki 1.5 and later
For this just see above and set the access type you're re-enabling to "(default)". You can also subjectively turn the two different permissions on and off at will.

If the page has been protected in the past, a "Protection log" will be displayed beneath the prompt.

Things to note
Note that the talk page of the page you are protecting will NOT be protected along with its sibling, and vice versa. If this is necessary you will need to do it separately.


text:
Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pangaea

Pangaea was a big super-continent of Earth. A super-continent means a very large area of land made up of several continents we know today. Pangea formed during the Mesozoic era three hundred million years ago. Nearly all the countries we have today were part of Pangaea. Many mountains today were made in this supercontinent. Pangaea was surrounded by one big ocean called Panthalassa.

Pangaea broke up during the Jurassic period 180 million years ago and it split into two continents: Gondwana in the South and Laurasia in the North. After this they split again into the continents we have today.

Other super-continents
Scientists think that there were two super-continents before Pangea, one called Rodinia which was made 1,100 million years ago, then split 750 million years ago and one called Pannotia which was made 600 million years ago, then split 540 million years ago.

The Tethys Ocean has been around for millions of years; it probably was around when these super continents existed. During the Triassic period, the Tethys Ocean was located to the east of Pangaea and Laurasia. During the Jurassic, when the supercontinent split into Gondwanaland and Laurasia, the south-eastern opening to the Tethys Ocean became tighter, thus making the Tethys Ocean more contained. During the Cretaceous, Gondwanaland split into the continents of Africa, Australia and India. India was drifting through the Tethys Ocean; but now the Tethys Ocean is probably part of the Indian Ocean. Laurasia wasn't always part of the two Jurassic cotinents; it was also part of Pangaea. Laurasia was the northern part of Pangea. Laurasia stayed Laurasia for millions of years while Pangea split and shaped into a different continent called Gondwanaland.

title: Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pangaea


text:
Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Extinction

Extinction is the process which happens when a type of animals or plants dies out. This means that all of them die and none survive. Species become extinct when they are no longer able to get what they need to live such as food, water, or shelter. This can also happen when the weather is too hot or too cold for a long time.

As long as there has been life, extinction has happened. 99.9% of all species that ever lived on earth have become extinct! Extinction still happens today, a group of animals which scientists are afraid will become extinct are called endangered.

All the big dinosaurs became extinct at the end of Cretaceous period about 65 million years ago, but no-one knows for sure why. To find out more see Wikijunior Dinosaurs/K-T Event.

Many paleontologists today believe that one group of dinosaurs survived and is alive today. We call them birds. Many people don't think about them as dinosaurs because they have feathers and can fly. But there are a lot of things about birds that still look like a dinosaur. They have feet with scales and claws, they lay eggs, and they walk on their two back legs like a T-Rex.

title: Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Extinction


text:
Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/K-T Event

65 million years ago, many different kinds of animals on Earth died out. It is believed that the larger land creatures suffered the most and most animals bigger than a dog disappeared, including most dinosaurs!

Something extraordinary had happened to destroy so much life. Scientists call this event the Cretaceous-Tertiary event (K-T for short). Nobody is sure what the K-T event was, but scientists have some ideas about what might have happened.

Asteroid explanation
An asteroid is a giant piece of rock moving through space. Very rarely, these asteroids fall on Earth. Some scientists think that an asteroid 10 kilometres wide fell on Earth 65 million years ago. A large asteroid hitting the Earth would cause a huge fire storm, and cause a lot of dust to fly into the air. This dust would block out the sun for several months, or even for several years.

With most sunlight blocked by dust, the ground would get colder, and a long winter would come. To make things worse, the large amount of dust in the air would cause acid rain, rain so poisonous that it can harm or even kill plants.

The combination of the cold, little sun and poisonous rain would kill many plants. Herbivore dinosaurs would not have enough left to eat, and would starve and without herbivores to eat, the carnivores would starve too.

When scientists examine layers of very old rocks from 65 million years ago, they find a lot of one type of rare metal called iridium. Because iridium is so rare on earth, it must have come from somewhere else, like an asteroid. More evidence of this is an enormous 180 kilometre (111 miles) wide crater in Mexico, called the Chicxulub Crater. An asteroid impact could have made such a crater.

A few scientists disagree with this explanation. They say that all this would cause dinosaurs to die much faster than they did. There are similar big craters around the world that affected ancient life.

Other explanations
Some scientists think that volcano eruptions could have caused the K-T event. These volcanoes would release huge amounts of ash and poisonous gases into the air. Like the dust in the asteroid explanation, this ash would stay in the air for a long time and cause a winter and acid rain.

These gases would also destroy the protective ozone layer in the sky. The ozone layer protects us from the Sun's harmful rays.

Scientists have found out that there had been some huge eruptions. These eruptions could have covered both the states Alaska and Texas in one kilometer of ash and lava!

title: Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/K-T Event


text:
User talk:ImperfectFreak

Copyright problem with Image:Enemy-color.png
--Derbeth talk 09:00, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:ImperfectFreak


text:
User:Cookie4869~enwikibooks

jawp | jawt | jawb | jawq | jaws | jawn

enwp | enwb | enws

meta | commons

I will transwiki japanese articles.

title: User:Cookie4869~enwikibooks


text:
World History/AP World History Standard

Students are expected to be able to analyze six themes in World History:

 * 1) The impact of geography on civilization, such as Egypt's Nile and China's Yangtze River.
 * 2) Continuous and accelerated movement of people and ideas around the world; growing interdependence and shrinking of world
 * 3) Shift from agrarianism to urbanity; constant desire for progress
 * 4) Interaction between government and people
 * 5) Dominating focus on race, gender, and culture
 * 6) Evolution of religious ideas and customs

title: World History/AP World History Standard


text:
Wikibooks:Transwiki log/ja

They have been already transwikied to ja.wikibooks. --Cookie4869 15:47, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語:目次 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語:目次 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語第1課 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語第1課 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語第2課 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語第2課 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語:仏和辞典 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語:仏和辞典 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語:仏和辞典:F --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語:仏和辞典:F --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語:仏和辞典:K --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語:仏和辞典:K --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * フランス語:世界の国名 --> ja:Tranwiki:フランス語:世界の国名 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 光の偏極 --> ja:Tranwiki:光の偏極 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * ウィキバーシティ --> ja:Tranwiki:ウィキバーシティ --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 日本語 --> ja:Tranwiki:日本語 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 物理学 --> ja:Tranwiki:物理学 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 物理学入門 --> ja:Tranwiki:物理学入門 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 物理数学 --> ja:Tranwiki:物理数学 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * ベクトル解析 --> ja:Tranwiki:ベクトル解析 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 一般相対性理論:上級編 --> ja:Tranwiki:一般相対性理論:上級編 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 電磁波の式の導出 --> ja:Tranwiki:電磁波の式の導出 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 数学 --> ja:Tranwiki:数学 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 数論 --> ja:Tranwiki:数論 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 高校数学 --> ja:Tranwiki:高校数学 --Cookie4869 10:23, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 初等整数論 --> ja:Tranwiki:初等整数論 -- Cookie4869 10:29, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 数論に関する基本的な文献 --> ja:Tranwiki:数論に関する基本的な文献 -- Cookie4869 10:29, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 整除性および素数に関する初等的定理 --> ja:Tranwiki:整除性および素数に関する初等的定理 -- Cookie4869 10:29, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 光の偏極:楕円偏極 --> ja:Tranwiki:光の偏極:楕円偏極 -- Cookie4869 11:55, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 光の偏極:光学素子 --> ja:Tranwiki:光の偏極:光学素子 -- Cookie4869 11:55, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 光の偏極:用語集 --> ja:Tranwiki:光の偏極:用語集 -- Cookie4869 11:55, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 日本語:目次 --> ja:Tranwiki:日本語:目次 -- Cookie4869 12:09, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 日本語:まずはじめに --> ja:Tranwiki:日本語:まずはじめに -- Cookie4869 12:09, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 日本語:日常会話 --> ja:Tranwiki:日本語:日常会話 -- Cookie4869 12:09, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 韓国語会話 --> ja:Tranwiki:韓国語会話 -- Cookie4869 13:49, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 韓国語会話: Lesson 1 --> ja:Tranwiki:韓国語会話: Lesson 1 -- Cookie4869 13:49, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 韓国語会話: Lesson 2 --> ja:Tranwiki:韓国語会話: Lesson 2 -- Cookie4869 13:49, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * 韓国語会話: Lesson 3 --> ja:韓国語会話: Lesson 3 -- Cookie4869 13:49, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks:Transwiki log/ja


text:
Category:User ro

br:Rummad:Implijer ro scn:Category:User ro

de:Kategorie:User ro eo:kategorio:uzanto ro it:Categoria:Utenti ro ja:カテゴリ:User ro ro:Categorie:Utilizator ro

title: Category:User ro


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Haskell/Libraries

Haskell has a rich and growing set of libraries. They fall into several groups:

 * The Standard Prelude (often referred to as just "the Prelude") is defined in the Haskell 2010 standard and imported automatically to every module you write. It defines standard types such as strings, lists, numbers, and the basic functions on those, such as arithmetic,, and.

 * The Standard Libraries are also defined in the language standard, but you have to import them when you need them. The specification of these libraries can also be found in the Haskell 2010 standard.

 * Since 1998, the Standard Libraries have been gradually extended, and the resulting de facto standard is known as the Base Libraries. The same set is available for both Hugs and GHC.

 * Other libraries may be bundled with the various compilers. In particular, GHC includes a handful of commonly used libraries, including important packages such as,  , and.

 * Many other libraries are available from Hackage, and can be installed using the  utility.

When Haskell 98 was standardized, modules were given a flat namespace. That turned out to be inadequate, and a hierarchical namespace has been added by allowing dots in module names. For backward compatibility the standard libraries can still be accessed by their non-hierarchical names, so the modules  and   both refer to the standard list library.

For details of how to import libraries into your program, see the Modules chapter. For an explanation of the Cabal system for packaging Haskell software see Haskell/Packaging.

Haddock Documentation
Library reference documentation is generally produced using the Haddock tool. The libraries shipped with GHC are documented in this way. You can view the documentation online, and if you have installed GHC then there should also be a local copy.

Haddock produces hyperlinked documentation, so every time you see a function, type, or class name you can click on it to get to the definition. The sheer wealth of libraries available can be intimidating, so this tutorial will point out the highlights.

Note that Haddock cross-references types and classes by instance. For example, in the  library the   data type is listed as an instance of  :

If you declare a type  is an instance of   then the type   will automatically be an instance of   as well. If you click on the word  in the document then you will be taken to the definition of the   class and its (very long) list of instances. The instance for  will be down there as well.

title: Haskell/Libraries


text:
User talk:62.65.107.149

Social Deviance/Power Conflict
Even though I it has been a while since I have worked on the social deviance wikibook, I am still currently working on the project. I understand that the module might look like a candidate for deletion, but I have recently gotten back to work in order to fill in useful information for the power conflict theories of deviation. I have filled out information for Foucault and I think the module is no longer a candidate for deletion. Boneheadmx 18:07, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.65.107.149


text:
User:Ginslinger

Ginslinger is a bartender from New Orleans, who enjoys a good cocktail, and the stories that accompany them.

title: User:Ginslinger


text:
Haskell/Understanding monads

There is a certain mystique about monads, and even about the word "monad" itself. While one of our goals of this set of chapters is removing the shroud of mystery that is often wrapped around them, it is not difficult to understand how it comes about. Monads are very useful in Haskell, but the concept is often difficult to grasp at first. Since monads have so many applications, people often explain them from a particular point of view, which can derail your efforts towards understanding them in their full glory.

Historically, monads were introduced into Haskell to perform input and output – that is, I/O operations of the sort we dealt with in the Simple input and output chapter and the prologue to this unit. A predetermined execution order is crucial for things like reading and writing files, and monadic operations lend themselves naturally to sequencing. However, monads are by no means limited to input and output. They can be used to provide a whole range of features, such as exceptions, state, non-determinism, continuations, coroutines, and more. In fact, thanks to the versatility of monads, none of these constructs needed to be built into Haskell as a language; rather, they are defined by the standard libraries.

In the Prologue chapter, we began with an example and used it to steadily introduce several new ideas. Here, we will do it the other way around, starting with a definition of monad and, from that, building connections with what we already know.

Definition
A monad is defined by three things: The function and operator are methods of the  type class and have types
 * a type constructor  ;
 * a function ;
 * an operator  which is pronounced "bind".

and are required to obey three laws that will be explained later on.

For a concrete example, take the  monad. The type constructor is, while   and   are defined like this:

is the monad, and  brings a value into it by wrapping it with. As for, it takes a   value and a   function. If  is , there is nothing to do and the result is. Otherwise, in the  case,   is applied to , the underlying value wrapped in  , to give a   result. Note that this result may or may not be, depending on what   does to. To sum it all up, if there is an underlying value of type  in , we apply   to it, which brings the underlying value back into the   monad.

The key first step to understand how  and   work is tracking which values and arguments are monadic and which ones aren't. As in so many other cases, type signatures are our guide to the process.

Motivation: Maybe
To see the usefulness of  and the   monad, consider the following example: Imagine a family database that provides two functions:

These look up the name of someone's father or mother. In case our database is missing some relevant information,  allows us to return a   value to indicate that the lookup failed, rather than crashing the program.

Let's combine our functions to query various grandparents. For instance, the following function looks up the maternal grandfather (the father of one's mother):

Or consider a function that checks whether both grandfathers are in the database:

What a mouthful! Every single query might fail by returning  and the whole function must fail with   if that happens.

Clearly there has to be a better way to write that instead of repeating the case of  again and again! Indeed, that's what the  monad is set out to do. For instance, the function retrieving the maternal grandfather has exactly the same structure as the  operator, so we can rewrite it as:

With the help of lambda expressions and, we can rewrite the two grandfathers function as well:

While these nested lambda expressions may look confusing to you, the thing to take away here is that  releases us from listing all the  s, shifting the focus back to the interesting part of the code.

To be a little more precise: The result of  is a monadic value (in this case, either   or , depending on whether  's father is in the database). As the  function takes a regular (non-monadic) value, the   feeds  's   to it as a non-monadic value. The result of  is then monadic again, and the process continues.

So,  helps us pass non-monadic values to functions without actually leaving a monad. In the case of the  monad, the monadic aspect is the uncertainty about whether a value will be found.

Type class
In Haskell, the  type class is used to implement monads. It is provided by the module and included in the Prelude. The class has the following methods:

Aside from return and bind, there are two additional methods,  and. Both of them have default implementations, and so you don't need to provide them when writing an instance.

The operator, spelled "then", is a mere convenience and has the default implementation

sequences two monadic actions when the second action does not involve the result of the first, which is a common scenario for monads such as.

The function  handles pattern match failures in   notation. It's an unfortunate technical necessity and doesn't really have anything to do with monads. You are advised not to call  directly in your code.

and
An important thing to note is that  is a superclass of. That has a few consequences worth highlighting. First of all, every  is also a   and an , and so  ,  ,   can all be used with monads. Secondly, actually writing a  instance also requires providing   and   instances. We will discuss ways of doing that later in this chapter. Thirdly, if you have worked through the Prologue, the types and roles of  and   should look familiar...

The only difference between the types of  and   is that the constraint changes from   to. In fact, that is the only difference between the methods: if you are dealing with a  you can always replace   and , and vice-versa. The same goes for /  – in fact, it is not even necessary to implement   if there is an independent definition of   in the   instance, as   is provided as a default definition of.

Notions of Computation
We have seen how  and   are very handy for removing boilerplate code that crops up when using. That, however, is not enough to justify why monads matter so much. Our next step towards that will be rewriting the two-grandfathers function in a quite different-looking style: using  notation with explicit braces and semicolons. Depending on your experience with other programming languages, you may find this very suggestive:

If this looks like a code snippet in an imperative programming language to you, that's because it is. In particular, this imperative language supports exceptions :  and   are functions that might fail to produce results, raising an exception instead; when that happens, the whole  -block will fail, i.e. terminate with an exception (meaning, evaluate to , here).

In other words, the expression, which has type  , is interpreted as a statement in an imperative language that returns a   as the result, or fails.

This is true for all monads: a value of type  is interpreted as a statement in an imperative language   that returns a value of type   as its result; the semantics of this language are determined by the monad.

Under this interpretation, the then operator  is simply an implementation of the semicolon, and    of the semicolon and assignment (binding) of the result of a previous computational step. Just like a  expression can be written as a function application,

let x = foo in (x + 3)       corresponds to      foo  &  (\x -> id (x + 3))      -- v & f = f v

an assignment and semicolon can be written with the bind operator:

x <- foo; return (x + 3)     corresponds to      foo >>= (\x -> return (x + 3))

In case of functions,  and   are trivial; in case of a monad,   and   are substantial.

The  operator combines two pure calculations,   and , while creating a new binding for the variable   to hold  's value, making   available to the second calculational step,.

The bind operator  combines two computational steps,   and , in a manner particular to the monad  , while creating a new binding for the variable   to hold  's result, making   available to the next computational step,. In the particular case of, if   will fail to produce a result, the second step is skipped and the whole combined computation will fail right away as well.

The function  lifts a plain value   to , a statement in the imperative language  , which statement, when executed / run, will result in the value   without any additional effects particular to. This is ensured by Monad Laws,  and  ; see below.

Different semantics of the imperative language correspond to different monads. The following table shows the classic selection that every Haskell programmer should know. If the idea behind monads is still unclear to you, studying each of the examples in the following chapters will not only give you a well-rounded toolbox but also help you understand the common abstraction behind them.

Furthermore, these different semantics need not occur in isolation. As we will see in a few chapters, it is possible to mix and match them by using monad transformers to combine the semantics of multiple monads in a single monad.

Monad Laws
In Haskell, every instance of the  type class (and thus all implementations of bind   and  ) must obey the following three laws:

Return as neutral element
The behavior of  is specified by the left and right unit laws. They state that  doesn't perform any computation, it just collects values. For instance,

is exactly the same as

by virtue of the right unit law.

Associativity of bind
The law of associativity makes sure that (like the semicolon) the bind operator  only cares about the order of computations, not about their nesting; e.g. we could have written   like this (compare with our earliest version without  ):

The associativity of the then operator  is a special case:

Monadic composition
It is easier to picture the associativity of bind by recasting the law as

where  is the monad composition operator, a close analogue of the function composition operator , only with flipped arguments. It is defined as:

There is also, which is flipped version of. When using it, the order of composition matches that of, so that in     comes first.

Monads and Category Theory
Monads originally come from a branch of mathematics called Category Theory. Fortunately, it is entirely unnecessary to understand category theory in order to understand and use monads in Haskell. The definition of monads in Category Theory actually uses a slightly different presentation. Translated into Haskell, this presentation gives an alternative yet equivalent definition of a monad, which can give us some additional insight on the  class.

So far, we have defined monads in terms of  and. The alternative definition, instead, treats monads as functors with two additional combinators:

For the purposes of this discussion, we will use the functors-as-containers metaphor discussed in the chapter on the functor class. According to it, a functor  can be thought of as container, so that   "contains" values of type , with a corresponding mapping function, i.e.  , that allows functions to be applied to values inside it.

Under this interpretation, the functions behave as follows:
 * applies a given function to every element in a container
 * packages an element into a container,
 * takes a container of containers and flattens it into a single container.

With these functions, the bind combinator can be defined as follows:

Likewise, we could give a definition of  and   in terms of   and  :

and Friends
Earlier, we pointed out that every  is an , and therefore also a. One of the consequences of that was  and   being monad-only versions of   and   respectively. It doesn't stop there, though. For one,  defines , a function with a strangely familiar type signature...

As you might suspect,  is merely   implemented with   and , just as we have done in the previous section. and  are therefore interchangeable.

Another  function with an uncanny type is  :

Analogously to the other cases,  is a monad-only version of.

There are quite a few more examples of  functions that have versions specialised to   in   and other base library modules. Their existence is primarily due to historical reasons: several years went by between the introductions of  and   in Haskell, and it took an even longer time for   to become a superclass of , thus making usage of the specialised variants optional. While in principle there is little need for using the monad-only versions nowadays, in practice you will see  and   all the time in other people's code – at this point, their usage is well established thanks to more than two decades of Haskell praxis without   being a superclass of.

title: Haskell/Understanding monads