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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Glass Craft

1. Name ten kinds of glass.
It is sufficient to merely name these. We present a little more information about them though, as that makes the list more meaningful.
 * Soda-lime glass: Soda-lime glass, also called soda-lime-silica glass, is the most prevalent type of glass, used for windowpanes, and glass containers (bottles and jars) for beverages, food, and some commodity items. Glass bakeware is often made of tempered soda-lime glass.
 * Borosilicate glass: Borosilicate glass is a type of glass well known for having very low coefficient of thermal expansion, making them resistant to thermal shock, more so than any other common glass. Borosilicate glass was first developed by German glassmaker Otto Schott in the late 19th century and sold under the brand name "Duran" in 1893. After Corning Glass Works introduced Pyrex in 1915, it became a synonym for borosilicate glass in the English-speaking world.
 * Acrylic glass: Acrylic glass is a transparent thermoplastic. It is sold under many trade names, including Policril, Plexiglas, Gavrieli, Vitroflex, Limacryl, R-Cast, Per-Clax, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylex, Acrylite, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Polycast, Oroglass, Optix and Lucite and is commonly called acrylic, perspex or plexiglas.
 * Sugar glass: Sugar glass (also called candy glass and breakaway glass) is an edible mixture of sugar, corn syrup and water, which has the appearance of glass when hardened for a limited time before warping and melting. It is used in stunt sequences of television and film in the place of real glass, as it breaks more easily and is less dangerous than real glass. Sugar glass must be used soon after hardening or it loses its effect.
 * Isinglass (Muscovy-glass): Muscovite (also known as Common mica, Isinglass, or Potash mica) is a phyllosilicate mineral of aluminium and potassium.
 * Aluminium oxynitride: Aluminium oxynitride (AlON) is a transparent ceramic composed of aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. It is marketed under the name ALON. The material remains solid up to 1,200 °C (2,190 °F), and is harder than glass. When formed and polished as a window, the material costs about US$10 to US$15 per square inch (~ US$20,000/m²). It is currently the crucial outer layer of experimental transparent armor being considered by the US Air Force for the windows of armored vehicles.
 * Fluoride glasses: Fluoride glass is a class of non-oxide optical glasses composed of fluorides of various metals. Heavy metal fluoride glasses (HMFG) are composed of heavy metal fluorides. They are very clear, but also are difficult to manufacture, are fragile, and have poor resistance to moisture and other environmental attacks.
 * Aluminosilicates: Aluminosilicate minerals are minerals composed of aluminium, silicon, and oxygen. They are a major component of kaolin and other clay minerals.
 * Phosphate glasses: Phosphate glass is a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of various metals. Instead of SiO2 in silicate glasses, the glass forming substrate is P2O5. Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers.
 * Chalcogenide glasses: The modern technological applications of chalcogenide glasses are widespread specifically as moldable infrared optics including lenses, and infrared optical fibers as these materials transmit across the full range of the infrared spectrum. The physical properties of chalcogenide glasses (High refractive index, low phonon energy) also make them ideal for incorporation into laser and other active devices when doped with rare earth ions.

2. Know what kind of glass is used for furniture, cloth insulation, airplanes, and automobiles.
When people speak of glass, they ordinarily mean a transparent, shiny substance that breaks rather easily. They may think of the glass in windows and the glass used in eyeglasses as being the same material. Actually, they are not. There are many kinds of glass.

Flat glass is used chiefly in windows. It is also used in mirrors, room dividers, and some kinds of furniture. All flat glass is made in the form of flat sheets. But some of it, such as that used in automobile windshields, is reheated and sagged (curved) over molds.

Glass containers are used for packaging food, beverages, medicines, chemicals, and cosmetics. Glass jars and bottles are made in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Many are for common uses, such as soft-drink bottles or jars for home canning. Others are made from special glass formulas to make sure there will be no contamination or deterioration of blood plasma, serums, and chemicals stored in them. See.

Optical glass is used in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, camera lenses, and many instruments for factories and laboratories. The raw materials must be pure so that the glass can be made almost flawless. The care required for producing optical glass makes it expensive compared with other kinds of glass.

Fiberglass consists of fine but solid rods of glass, each of which may be less than one-twentieth the width of a human hair. These tiny glass fibers can be loosely packed together in a woollike mass that can serve as heat insulation. They also can be used like wool or cotton fibers to make glass yarn, tape, cloth, and mats. Fiberglass has many other uses. It is used for electrical insulation, chemical filtration, and firefighters' suits. Combined with plastics, fiberglass can be used for airplane wings and bodies, automobile bodies, and boat hulls. Fiberglass is a popular curtain material because it is fire-resistant and washable.

Laminated safety glass is a “sandwich” made by combining alternate layers of flat glass and plastics. The outside layer of glass may break when struck by an object, but the plastic layer is elastic and so it stretches. The plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and keeps them from flying in all directions. Laminated glass is used where broken glass might cause serious injuries, as in automobile windshields.

Bullet-resisting glass is thick, multilayer laminated glass. This glass can stop even heavy-caliber bullets at close range. Bullet-resisting glass is heavy enough to absorb the energy of the bullet, and the several plastic layers hold the shattered fragments together. Such glass is used in bank teller windows and in windshields for military tanks, aircraft, and special automobiles.

Tempered safety glass, unlike laminated glass, is a single piece that has been given a special heat treatment. It looks, feels, and weighs the same as ordinary glass. But it can be several times stronger. Tempered glass is used widely for all-glass doors in stores, side and rear windows of automobiles, and basketball backboards, and for other special purposes. It is hard to break even when hit with a hammer. When it does break, the whole piece of glass collapses into small, dull-edged fragments.

Colored structural glass is a heavy plate glass, available in many colors. It is used in buildings as an exterior facing, and for interior walls, partitions, and tabletops.

Opal glass has small particles in the body of the glass that disperse the light passing through it, making the glass appear milky. The ingredients necessary to produce opal glass include fluorides (chemical compounds containing fluorine). This glass is widely used in lighting fixtures and for tableware.

Foam glass, when it is cut, looks like a black honeycomb. It is filled with many tiny cells of gas. Each cell is surrounded and sealed off from the others by thin walls of glass. Foam glass is so light that it floats on water. It is widely used as a heat insulator in buildings, on steam pipes, and on chemical equipment. Foam glass can be cut into various shapes with a saw.

Glass building blocks are made from two hollow half-sections sealed together at a high temperature. Glass building blocks are good insulators against heat or cold because of the dead-air space inside. The blocks are laid like bricks to make walls and other structures.

Heat-resistant glass is high in silica and usually contains boric oxide. It expands little when heated, so it can withstand great temperature changes without cracking. This quality is necessary in cookware and other household equipment, and in many types of industrial gear.

Laboratory glassware includes beakers, flasks, test tubes, and special chemical apparatus. It is made from heat-resistant glass to withstand severe heat shock (rapid change in temperature). This glass is also much more resistant to chemical attack than ordinary glass.

Glass for electrical uses. Glass has properties that make it useful in electrical applications: ability to resist heat, resistance to the flow of electric current, and ability to seal tightly to metals without cracking. Because of these properties, glass is used in electric light bulbs and for picture tubes in television sets.

Glass optical fibers are glass fibers used to transmit information as pulses of light. Thin, extremely pure optical fibers are used to carry telephone and television signals and digital (numeric) data over long distances. Glass optical fibers are also used in control board displays and in medical instruments.

Glass tubing is used to make fluorescent lights, neon signs, glass piping, and chemical apparatus. Glass tubing is made from many kinds of glass and in many sizes.

Glass-ceramics are strong materials made by heating glass to rearrange some of its atoms into regular patterns. These partially crystalline materials can withstand high temperatures, sudden changes in temperature, and chemical attacks better than ordinary glass can. They are used in a variety of products, including heat-resistant cookware, turbine engines, electronic equipment, and nose cones of guided missiles. Glass-ceramics have such trade names as Pyroceram, Cervit, and Hercuvit.

Radiation-absorbing and radiation-transmitting glass can transmit, modify, or block heat, light, X rays, and other types of radiant energy. For example, ultraviolet glass absorbs the ultraviolet rays of the sun but transmits visible light. Other glass transmits heat rays freely but passes little visible light. Polarized glass cuts out the glare of brilliant light. One-way glass is specially coated so that a person can look through a window without being seen from the other side.

Laser glass is an optical glass containing small amounts of substances that enable the glass to generate laser beams efficiently. Such glass is used as the active medium in solid-state lasers, a type of laser that sends light out through crystals or glass (One substance commonly used in laser glass is the element neodymium. Researchers are using glass lasers in an attempt to harness nuclear fusion (the joining of atomic nuclei) as a source of commercially useful amounts of energy. In their experiments, powerful glass lasers heat hydrogen atoms until hydrogen nuclei fuse, releasing large amounts of energy.

"Invisible glass" is used principally for coated camera lenses and eyeglasses. The coating is a chemical film that decreases the normal loss of light by reflection. This allows more light to pass through the glass.

Photochromic glass darkens when exposed to ultraviolet rays and clears up when the rays are removed. Photochromic glass is used for windows, sunglasses, and instrument controls.

Photosensitive glass can be exposed to ultraviolet light and to heat so that any pattern or photograph can be reproduced within the body of the glass itself. Because the photographic print then becomes an actual part of the glass, it will last as long as the glass itself.

Photochemical glass is a special composition of photosensitive glass that can be cut by acid. Any design can be reproduced on the glass from a photographic film. Then when the glass is dipped in acid, the exposed areas are eaten away, leaving the design in the glass in three dimensions. By this means, lacelike glass patterns can be made.

Heavy metal fluoride glass is an extremely transparent glass being developed for use in optical fibers that transmit infrared rays. Infrared rays are much like light waves but are invisible to the human eye. In optical fibers, infrared light transmits better over distance than visible light does.

Chalcogenide glass is made up of elements from the chalcogen group, including selenium, sulfur, and tellurium. The glass is transparent to infrared light and is useful as a semiconductor in some electronic devices. Chalcogenide glass fibers are a component of devices used to perform laser surgery.

Sol-Gel glass can be used as a protective coating on certain solar collectors or as an insulating material. It is also used to make short, thick tubes that are drawn into optical fibers. To make Sol-Gel glass, workers dissolve the ingredients in a liquid. They then heat the liquid. The liquid evaporates, leaving behind small particles of glass. Heating these particles fuses (joins) them to form a solid piece of glass. The temperatures involved in Sol-Gel processes are often lower than those needed to make ordinary glass.

4. Know the steps in making a picture with glass, and complete such a picture, using at least three colors.

 * Step 1. Decide on a project: If you have a tabletop that is damaged or needs refinishing, you could cover it in glass mosaic instead. Kitchen tables, coffee tables, end tables, nightstands, and occasional tables all look great with glass mosaic tops. An old windowpane covered in glass mosaic makes a great alternative to stained glass, or you could cover a photo frame in glass mosaic as a smaller project. If you have a bathroom or kitchen floor that needs to be redone, you could cover it cheaply and attractively in tile mosaic.

 * Step 2. Finding enough glass or tile for your project: You can find it in many different places, and for fairly cheap if you are creative about it. If your project calls for clear glass, you can use colored bottles, vases, ashtrays, and other various pieces of clear, colored glass. If you want opaque glass, consider using old dishes and other unwanted glass or porcelain items. You may also be able to find broken tile for little or no money.

 * Step 3. Break the glass for your project: The goal is to create many random-shaped pieces that are large enough to work with. In other words, you don’t want to shatter the glass into bits. Hit each piece of glass with the hammer just once and take a look at the results before hitting it again.Once you have broken all of your glass into pieces, start arranging it on the surface that you are redoing. Of all the steps to making glass mosaics, this step requires the most time and planning. You will need to decide whether to create a picture or a pattern with your glass mosaic, or just arrange the pieces randomly.While you are doing this, keep in mind that the pieces don’t need to fit together perfectly, like a puzzle. In fact, there should be about an eighth of an inch of space between each piece, so that you have room for the grout when you get to that step.

 * Step 4. Arrange the colors and the size according to your desires:

 * Step 5. Glue down each and every piece of glass: The point of arranging the glass first, and then gluing it down is to make sure you get everything in the right place, so make sure you are done with the previous step before you start on this one.

 * Step 6. Fill in all the spaces between the pieces of glass with grout: Take the grout and be sure to fill every space completely. If the glass is still sharp, you will need to wear rubber dishwashing gloves to protect your hands. Once the spaces are all filled, you can use a damp towel to remove the grout from the tops of the pieces of glass. Once your glass mosaic is finished, be sure to let the glue and grout set for a while before using the piece, particularly if it is a table or a window hanging.

India (Hindu Kingdoms)
Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE. Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass bead along with a hoard of beads dating to that period, making it the earliest attested glass from the Indus Valley locations. Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600–300 BCE displays common color.

Chalcolithic evidence of glass has been found in Hastinapur, India. Some of the texts which mention glass in India are the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka. However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities, dating from the 3rd century BCE, has been uncovered from the archaeological site in takshashila, ancient India.

By the first century C.E., glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the succeeding centuries.[41] The Satavahana period of India also produced short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.

Islamic world
The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820–897) described the clarity of such glass, "Its color hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container."

Stained glass was also first produced by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia using colored glass rather than stone. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing colored glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.

By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Islamic Spain.

Medieval Europe
Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.

Until the 12th century, stained glass – glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring – was not widely used.

The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice.

The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes.

Murano glassmaking
The center for glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in dinnerware, mirrors, and other luxury items. What made Venetian Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a small or large amount of a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents still exist today; for a list of coloring agents, see below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the light, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye.

The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Murano’s reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire might burn down the city’s mostly wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291. Murano's glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Many took a risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Glass Etching

1. Name the tools and items needed for Glass Etching.

 * Aprons and gloves: Glass etching involves the use of acids, so the safety of your Pathfinders should be your utmost concern.
 * Exacto knives: To cut out traced design from contact paper.
 * Contact paper: To protect the area you DON'T want etched.
 * Carbon paper: To copy designs.
 * Etching cream: Typically, "glass etching cream" available from art supply stores consists of fluoride compounds, such as sodium fluoride and hydrogen fluoride. The fluoridation of the glass causes the characteristic rough, opaque qualities of frosted glass.
 * Paint brushes: To apply etching cream.
 * Newspaper: To protect the surface that you work on.
 * Rubbing Alcohol: To clean off the glue left from the contact paper.
 * Window cleaner: To wash the glass before working on it.
 * Colored Masking tape: To put around the edge of the finished mirror.
 * Scissors: To cut contact paper.
 * Timer: (optional, a watch works just as well.) To time how long the etching cream has been on.
 * Cotton swabs (e.g. Q-tips): To apply the rubbing alcohol.
 * Pens and Pencils: To draw/trace the chosen pattern onto the contact paper.
 * Paper towels: To wipe off window cleaner.
 * Stencils: (optional) For ready-made patterns and ideas.
 * Glass projects: Items made from glass that you want to work on. These can be found at most craft stores and special glass stores.

2. Name the eleven steps of Glass Etching.

 * 1) Clean the glass with window cleaner and paper towels.
 * 2) Choose a design and plan how you want it to look.
 * 3) Cut contact paper to fit over the ENTIRE project and put it on the project.
 * 4) Rub out all air bubbles.(I've found it's easiest to do this while putting on the contact paper.)
 * 5) Trace stencil pattern on to the contact paper. If you are using an original design, draw the design on white paper. Then put carbon paper over the contact paper-covered glass, making sure to cover the area where the design will be. Now put the paper with the design over the carbon paper, and heavily trace the design.
 * 6) Cut out the design from the contact paper with the exacto knife, by going over the lines with the knife.
 * 7) Peal off the design, so that all the glass, except the design, is covered with contact paper.
 * 8) Remove the glue residue within the design area with alcohol, by using cotton swabs.
 * 9) Apply etching solution in even brush strokes, going up/down and side to side, covering the exposed glass. Leave it on for the specified length of time.
 * 10) When the time is up, rinse the glass so that no etching cream remains, and then dry with paper towels. Peal off the contact paper, and wash the glass with window cleaner.
 * 11) Mount and display the finished project.

3. What is the technique of applying velvet etch?
Velvet etch is a brand of reusable etching cream. Other brands are available that may have different standing time for the etch. When you apply the etch, you need to brush it on with even, up/down, side to side, brush strokes. Apply etch with a generous amount on the project. Let it stand for five minutes. Wash off with warm water.

4. Make a project on clear glass. a. Lettering or verses. b. Flowers, animals, or people.
Follow the procedure outlined in requirement 2.

You can buy what is called "memory glass" at most craft stores. Also, if you can't find any, you can cut big pieces of glass into smaller pieces, though glass cutting is a task that requires some skill.

You can find all the supplies at craft stores and household-goods stores.(e.g. Fred Meyer...)

Design options vary depending on the size of glass you have. Since this is your first project, unless you are a good artist, it's nice to have small, uncomplicated stencils to work with.

5. Make a project on a mirror. Include the following: a. Lettering, verses, flowers, animals, or people. b. Finish by framing around mirror with colored tape.
Small mirrors can be bought at most craft stores. Look for mirrors with finished edges so that your Pathfinders are unlikely to cut themselves while working with them. There are no significant differences between etching mirrors and etching glass, just be sure to etch the front side of the mirror. Most mirrors are made by applying a reflective coating to a sheet of glass. The side of the glass without the coating is the reflective side, and that's the side that should be etched.

6. Make a project on a glass, jar, or oval object.
When etching a drinking glass, jar or oval object, you may want to lay it on its side instead of etching it upright. Either way is fine. If you are doing designs all the way around the object, you will want it to be upright or tipped, not on its side. If you opt to lay the object on its side, keep tabs on it to make sure it doesn't roll off the table when your back is turned. However, there is nothing special to keep it from rolling. The contact paper needs to be applied all the way around. The reason is to keep the etching cream from dripping on any part of the object you do not want etched. This is especially true if the object is on its side.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Ancient Greek/Basic Nouns

Gender
Ancient Greek, like many other languages, has nouns of different genders. An Ancient Greek noun is either masculine, feminine, or neuter. The names of men and male gods are always masculine, whereas those of women and goddesses are always feminine. A group consisting of only men, or both men and women, is grammatically masculine, and a group consisting of only women is grammatically feminine.

Furthermore, the grammatical gender in Greek is not always linked with actual gender. Inanimate objects are not necessarily neuter: they can be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. One can sometimes, but not always, infer the gender of a noun from its ending. It is important to know the gender of a noun because any adjectives used to describe that noun will have to match the noun in gender.

Number
In English, most nouns can be either singular or plural. The same is true in Ancient Greek. Ancient Greek also had a dual number, which, in its earliest attestations, was used instead of the plural when there were exactly two of something. It is not necessary to learn the dual number right now, as it gradually faded from the language, and in the Classical era it was already rare.

Case
In English, word order and prepositions are used to indicate the roles that nouns play in sentences. For example, the sentences "Alice sees Bob" and "Bob sees Alice" use exactly the same words, but in different orders; in the former, it is understood that Alice is the subject and Bob is the object, and in the latter, vice versa. In Ancient Greek, on the other hand, there is considerable (although not total) freedom in the ordering of words in a sentence. How did the Greeks know which noun was the subject and which was the object? They changed the endings of the nouns, rather than their order. This is known as declension. (They also changed the ending of the word in the plural, just as we often do in English by adding "s".) Only some pronouns in English still retain the vestiges of declension; "I"/"me" is one good example, as is "who"/"whom".

Declension in Ancient Greek is complex because not all nouns use the same set of endings. Nouns are classified into three broad categories, known as the first declension, second declension, and third declension. Even nouns belonging to the same category do not necessarily use the same set of endings, although there are conspicuous similarities.

There are 5 cases in Greek. The case of a noun tells you something about its role in the sentence:

 * The nominative case is used when a noun is the subject of a sentence (e.g., I am running). It is also used when it is the predicate of a copula whose subject is in the nominative (e.g., Who is it? It is I).
 * The genitive case denotes possession or limitation. Whereas in English we often use "'s" or the word "of" to denote possession (e.g., Alice's car, or the end of the day), in Greek the noun is simply put into the genitive case.
 * The dative case is the case into which indirect objects fall; whereas in English we usually use the word "to" (e.g., My friend gave a book to me), in Greek the noun is simply put into the dative case. The dative case has many other uses, to be explained later.
 * The accusative case is usually used for the direct object of a verb.
 * The vocative case is used when directly addressing a person, god, etc.

The accusative, genitive, and dative cases, but not the nominative and vocative, are also used for nouns that are objects of prepositions. Prepositions indicating motion towards, into, or against something are generally used with an accusative noun; prepositions governing motion away, out of, or under, the genitive; fixed position and proximity, the dative.

With nouns expressing time or dimension, the accusative case indicates a length of time or space (as in Odysseus sailed for ten years); the genitive indicates time within which (as in We'll arrive within the next hour), and the dative indicates when something happened (as in There will be a test tomorrow).

Important: When a noun is indicated in the dictionary or in the vocabulary of a textbook such as this, usually both its nominative singular and genitive singular forms are given. This is because the nominative form often does not give enough information to decline the noun, whereas the nominative and genitive together often do. Of course, if the noun has no singular form, then the nominative and genitive plural will be given.

title: Ancient Greek/Basic Nouns


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Knitting - Advanced

2. Knit a pair of argyle or patterned socks, gloves, or some other article, using four needles and yarn bobbins.
Intarsia is a knitting technique used to create patterns with multiple colors. As with the woodworking technique of the same name, fields of different colors and materials appear to be inlaid in one another, but are in fact all separate pieces, fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.

Unlike other multicolor techniques, there is only one "active" color on any given stitch, and yarn is not carried across the back of the work; when a color changes on a given row, the old yarn is left hanging. This means that any intarsia piece is topologically several disjoint columns of color; a simple blue circle on a white background involves one column of blue and two of white---one for the left and one for the right. Intarsia is most often worked flat, rather than in the round. However, it is possible to knit intarsia in circular knitting using particular techniques.

Common examples of intarsia include sweaters with large, solid-color features like fruits, flowers, or geometric shapes. Argyle socks and sweaters are normally done in intarsia, although the thin diagonal lines are often overlaid in a later step, using Swiss darning or sometimes just a simple backstitch.

Knitting in intarsia theoretically requires no additional skills beyond being generally comfortable with the basic knit and purl stitches. Materials required include multiple colours of yarn, standard needles, and bobbins. Bobbins serve to contain the inactive yarn and help keep it from getting tangled. Unlike the narrow, wooden ones used to make bobbin lace, modern intarsia bobbins resemble translucent plastic yo-yos that can snap tight to prevent the yarn from unwinding.

After winding a few yards of each colour onto its own bobbin (and possibly several bobbins' worth of some colours), the knitter simply begins knitting their pattern. When they arrive at a point where the colour changes, the knitter brings the new colour up underneath the old one (to prevent holes) and starts knitting with it. If flat knitting, at the end of the row, the piece is turned round just as with regular knitting, and the knitter returns back the way they came.

The simplest intarsia pattern is for straight vertical stripes. After the first row, the pattern is continued by always working each stitch in the same colour as the previous row, changing colours at exactly the same point in each row. To make more elabourate patterns, one can let this colour boundary drift from row to row, changing colours a few stitches earlier or later each time.

There are several techniques to execute intarsia when circular knitting. Executing intarsia "in-the-round" eliminates the need for seams and, in one case, turning the piece and working from the wrong side.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Lapidary

1. Name four safety precautions to be taken when sawing rocks.

 * 1) Wear eye protection
 * 2) Do not wear loose clothing or accessories (watches, jewelry, etc.) that can get caught in a machine.
 * 3) Never use cutting tools dry.  They must be continually lubricated when in use.
 * 4) Read all instructions and safety precautions before operating equipment.
 * 5) Operate the equipment up on a sturdy, level surface.
 * 6) Do not remove any safety guards or shields from the saw.  They are there for a reason.
 * 7) Rock saws must be plugged in to a Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) outlet.  These circuits continually monitor the current flowing in and the current flowing out.  The only way that these can be unequal is if the current has found another path to ground, such as through a person.  When this condition is detected, the circuit is interrupted and the person is not electrocuted.  High fives all around!
 * 8) Wear safety goggles.

2. Name two types of diamond saw lubricating and cooling solutions and their purpose.
In rock cutting, several fluids have been used as lubricating and cooling solutions, including:
 * Water: Water provides almost no lubrication and will cause the blade to rust. It is not recommended.
 * Kerosene: Kerosene is flammable and does little to inhibit rust. Further, it is smelly and somewhat toxic (care should be taken to avoid skin contact).
 * Diesel: Diesel has much the same properties as kerosene.
 * Vegetable oil: Vegetable oils are not as flammable as diesel and kerosene, but they are still flammable. They also oxidize and thicken when cold.  However, they do a fair job of lubricating and cooling, are not toxic, and have low odor.
 * Mineral oil: These include Texaco's Almag and Chevron's Superla #5. Mineral oils have low flammability, are not toxic, and have low odor.  They are also more stable than vegetable oils.

The purpose of lubricating and cooling solutions is twofold:
 * Remove the "sawdust" from the cut (this is essentially lubrication). The lubricant washes the cut material out of the slot.
 * Cool the blade so that is does not lose its tempering. If a blade gets too hot, it will undergo a change in its hardness and brittleness.  This damages the blade.

3. Explain how a diamond saw cuts rocks, how it gets dull, and how it can be sharpened.
A diamond saw consists of a thin body coated with a matrix around its edges. Diamond particles are embedded within this matrix. As the saw rotates, the hard diamonds come into contact with the material being cut and grind it off. The lubricant washes away the tiny chunks dislodged by the diamonds. Over time, the diamonds can break off the saw so that only the matrix is left on the cutting surface of the blade (or a significant portion thereof). When this happens, the blade can be sharpened by using it to cut through a brick. This action will wear the matrix down exposing more diamonds embedded deeper within.

The rim of the blade is wider than the disc of the blade. This is by design so that the blade cuts a slot that is wider than the disc, thus preventing the sides of the disc from coming into contact with the material being cut. If it were to come into contact, the blade would bind up, and both blade and rock would heat up. When the rim gets worn down and is no longer wider than the disc, it can be restored by lightly tapping all around the rim of the blade with a ball peen hammer to flare the rim out again. Care should be taken to strike the edges straight on so that the rim remains perpendicular to the plane of the disc.

6. What is a template, and how is it used?
A template is a flat piece of material with holes cut in it, similar to a stencil. The template is placed on a slab, and the slab is then marked along the inside edge of the selected hole in the template. Typically, the mark is made with an ALUMINUM NAIL, since the aluminum will not "wash off" in either the oil or water.

7. What is a cabochon, and what is the usual thickness of the slab from which it is made?
A cabochon is a gemstone which has been shaped and polished as opposed to faceted. The resulting form is usually a convex top with a flat bottom. Cutting "en cabochon" is usually applied to opaque gems, while faceting is usually applied to transparent stones. Hardness is also taken into account as softer gemstones with a hardness lower than 7 on the Moh's hardness scale are easily scratched, mainly by silicon dioxide in dust and grit. This would quickly make translucent gems unattractive. Instead they are polished as cabochons, making the scratches less evident.

The one notable exception to this is the case of asteriated stones such as star sapphires and chatoyant stones such as cat's eye chrysoberyl, where a domed cabochon cut is used to show the star or eye, which would not be seen in a faceted cut.

Cabochons are usually cut from slabs ranging from one to three eighths of an inch thick (3 to 10 mm).


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Leather Craft - Advanced

Punching Holes
There are basically two types of leather punches: the rotary punch and the hollow punch.
 * Rotary punch: The rotary punch looks like a regular paper hole punch, except that it has a "spur" on the end allowing the user to select the size of the hole to be made. This type of punch should not be used when making holes for lacing or sewing.  It is more suited to punching holes for a belt, a wrist band, or a snap.
 * Hollow punch: A hollow punch looks a bit like a small pipe with a sharpened end. The sharpened end is held against the leather and the other end is then struck with a mallet.  The leather should be backed by a piece of soft wood.  A small leather disc is removed from the piece and goes up into the punch.  The punch usually features a slot in the side so that these discs can be removed.

Setting Snaps
Before a snap can be set, a hole must be punched in the two pieces of leather to be joined by the snaps, and located wherever the snaps shall be. It is best to punch both pieces at the same time so that the holes (and thus the two parts of the snap) will line up. Choose a punch that will make a hole which will provide a snug fit for the snap.

The snaps themselves consist of four pieces. Two of them are riveted together to make the part of the snap that shows (let's call this the finished half), and the other two pieces are riveted together to make the part of the snap that will be hidden (we'll call that the hidden half).

Once the holes are punched, insert the finished half of the snap into the hole which will be most visible on the finished piece.

Setting the snap requires the use of a two-part tool specially designed for this purpose. The first part of the tool is a small anvil. The finished side of the snap is placed in the concave surface of the anvil. Note that the snap should still be positioned in the hole punched earlier, and the leather should be situated with its finished-side down. The other half of the snap is then placed on the first half, and the second part of the tool is brought to bear. This part of the tool is similar to a punch, but it is designed to mushroom over the first half of the snap, forming a rivet joint. The tip of the tool is placed on the shaft of the bottom half of the snap, and then the tool is struck sharply with a mallet. Repeated blows may be necessary to form a tight rivet joint.

Setting the hidden half of the snap is done in the same way.

Saddle Stitching
In saddle stitching, two needles are used, one on each end of the thread. One needle is passed through the first hole in the piece and pulled through until there is an equal length of thread on both sides of the hole. Then both needles are passed through the next hole (one at a time). The stitch is pulled tight, and then both needles are passed through the next hole. This is repeated until the seam is finished. To tie off the saddle stitch, pass each needle through only one of the two pieces and tie them together with a square knot on the inside of the seam.

Lacing

 * Running stitch: The running stitch is the simplest type of lacing. Begin by tying an overhand knot in one end.  Lay the two pieces of leather to be joined together and punch a row of holes through both thicknesses.  Pass the end of the lace through the holes from bottom to top.  Pull it tight until the knot meets the hole.  Then pass the lace through the next hole from top-to-bottom.  The third stitch goes from bottom-to-top, the fourth from top-to-bottom, etc.

 * Whip Stitch: Punch a row of holes through two pieces of leather as with the running stitch. Tie a knot in one end of the lacing and pass the other through the first hole, from bottom-to-top.  In a whip stitch, all the lacing passes through from the bottom to the top.  The lace wraps around the edge of the pieces to get from the bottom to the top.  This makes the same pattern the piece of wire in a spiral notebook makes.

 * Cross whip stitch: The cross whip stitch is made like the whip stitch, but the lace passes through every other hole. A second piece of lace does the same thing, but through the holes skipped by the first length of lace.

Hatchet or Ax Sheath
Follow the same procedure for making an ax sheath as for a hatchet sheath. These instructions custom fit the sheath to the ax or hatchet head.

 * Lay the hatchet on a large paper bag and trace an outline of the hatchet head.
 * Flip the hatchet over and trace another image. The butt end of the hatchet head needs to be spaced such that it is as wide as the hatchet's thickness.  The blade ends of the two outlines should touch.
 * Outline a tab on each end of the pattern. The width of the tab should be half the thickness of the hatchet head.
 * Add a quarter inch to the blade end of the outline.
 * Draw the flap that will fold around the hatchet head and fasten with a snap. In the photo above, the flap joins the pattern at the end of the blade - this was a mistake.  It is better to continue the sweep of the blade's outline, including the allowance for the seam.  The other thing to watch for is that the other end of the flap allows for room to wrap around the thickness of the blade at the handle.  That end of the flap is longer than the tip end.
 * Cut out the pattern and fold it around the hatchet head, testing the fit.
 * Transfer the pattern to a piece of leather and cut it out.
 * Fold the rear tabs and stitch them together to make a T-shaped seam. The first stitch is made across the top of the T.  A second stitch is made to fasten the two tabs together (forming the vertical part of the T).  Sewing the seam will be a lot easier if you make the needle holes with an awl first.
 * Fasten the snaps to the folding tab. To make sure the snaps are properly aligned and the flap is not too tight, put the hatchet in the sheath (such as it is).  Slip a piece of scrap leather between the hatchet blade and the sheath directly beneath the place where the snap will go.  Then fold the flap over and punch through both pieces with a hollow punch.  The piece of scrap leather will keep you from dulling the punch when you break through the second layer of sheath.  If using a rotary punch, punch the snap hole on the flap first, fold it closed, and mark the hole beneath by poking a marker or an awl through the hole.  Once the holes are punched, rivet the snap in place.
 * Make a saddle stitch along the blade. Again, the stitching will be a lot easier if you make the holes with an awl.  Be sure to pierce both pieces at the same time.  Start stitching at the top end of the blade (farthest from the handle).  If you start at the other end, you may have difficulty tying off the saddle stitch.  Pass the needles through only one piece of leather for the final hole, so that the two ends may be tied together on the inside of the sheath.  It is easiest to tie them off if you turn the sheath inside out first.
 * Once the saddle stitching is done, you may opt to place a dot of white glue on the knot (both in the saddle stitch and in the back seam).
 * Ta da! Put the hatchet in the sheath and snap it closed!

Knife Sheath

 * Cut out the leather: As with the hatchet/ax sheath, you could lay out a pattern on a paper bag and trace it first. Cut it out and fold it around the knife to test for a good fit.  Leave a quarter inch around the perimeter of the blade to accommodate rivets.  If satisfied with the results, use that to cut out a piece of leather.  If you are not satisfied with the result, you've only lost a paper bag and a little time, so you can do it again.  Once you have a pattern you like, trace it onto a piece of leather with a pencil and then cut it out.  Use a thick piece of leather for this.  A thin piece will be floppy and not hold up well.
 * Make a strap to hold the handle: A knife sheath typically has a strap near the top to hold the handle against the sheath. Without this piece, the knife tends to flop about and may even fall out of the sheath when the wearer bends over.  This strap should be a little wider than the snaps you plan to use and long enough to wrap around the knife handle at the point where it will be fastened to the sheath.  Most (perhaps all) knife handles have a different girth at different points along their length.  It's better to make the strap a little too loose than it is to make it a little too tight.
 * Punch holes: Punch a hole in the center of the strap.  Then fold the top of the sheath over on itself to form a loop through which a belt can be slipped.  Punch a hole through both thicknesses near the top (make sure you know where you want the strap before punching these holes).  Lay the strap on the sheath and then place the knife on top of it, positioned where you want it.  Then wrap the strap around the handle and mark it for the snaps.  Punch holes for the snaps.
 * Saddle stitch the belt loop: Fold the top of the sheath over on itself and saddle stitch it across the width of the sheath.
 * Set the snaps: Set the snaps following the instructions given above for the hatchet sheath.
 * Rivet the strap in place: Rivet the strap to the sheath. You can buy rivets, or if you feel adventurous (or cash-strapped), you can make your own rivets from nails.  To make a rivet from a nail, cut the nail so that it is a little longer than the thickness of the leather (all layers) through which it will pass.  The nail should poke out from the leather by an amount equal to half the diameter of the nail shank.  Put the nail in place and lay it on an anvil (or on a sledge hammer or on a bench vice's table) with the nail head down.  Using the flat face of a ball peen hammer, tap on the cut end of the nail.  Then begin tapping on the cut end holding the hammer face at an angle, going all around the edges.  Finally, flip the hammer over and use the rounded end (the ball peen) and repeat the process.  The end of the nail should mushroom over and flatten out.  You can shape the mushroomed portion into a dome with practice.
 * Rivet the sheath closed: Use brass or copper rivets for the sheath. If making your own rivets, use brass or copper nails. Brass and copper are softer than steel, so when the knife blade slides into the sheath and hits the brass or copper rivets, it will not dull the blade as steel rivets would.  If you do not rivet the sheath, but merely stitch it closed, the knife may eventually cut through the stitches.  Use five evenly-spaced rivets to hold the sheath closed, with the fifth rivet near the tip of the sheath.
 * Stitch between the rivets: Stitch the sheath to keep it from gapping open between the rivets.  Locate the stitches closer to the edge of the sheath than the rivets.  That way the rivets can protect the stitching from the knife blade.

4. Complete a figure-carved belt, doing your own tooling.
The amount of leather you will need for this will depend on the waist-size of the intended recipient of the belt. The width should be roughly, but some variability here is OK - just make sure it will fit through the belt loops.

The length of the belt should be equal to the waist size of the intended wearer plus about. of this excess will be allowed for the end that goes through the buckle, and the remainder will be for the end that attaches permanently to the buckle. Once the belt has been cut out, you can tool it using the standard means. It is not necessary (or even desired sometimes) to tool the entire length of the belt.

When tooling has been completed, the belt can be dyed. Finally, the holes should be punched and the buckle attached.

If you prefer, you could make a guitar strap instead.

5. From your own design, cut from leather, tool, punch, and lace a project such as a case, purse, bag, or an equivalent.
There are many items you use in everyday life and as a Pathfinder that can benefit from having a carrying case. Here are a few such things:
 * Bible
 * Binoculars
 * MP3 player
 * Cell phone
 * Eyeglasses
 * Toiletries
 * Flint and steel
 * Notebook
 * Daily planner
 * Pathfinder pins
 * Laptop Computer
 * PDA
 * Camera

You may prefer to make a garment or accessory:
 * Vest
 * Hat
 * Sun visor
 * Gloves
 * Moccasins
 * Tool belt

6. Show six leather items you have made.
You should already have made:
 * 1) a sheath (knife, hatchet, or ax)
 * 2) a belt
 * 3) an item of your own design
 * 4) an item you made when completing requirement 4 of the standard level of the Leather Craft honor.

You will therefore only need to make two more items to meet this requirement. You can make items of your own design, or make items that someone else has already designed, or one of each. It's up to you.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Lettering & Poster Making

1. Write from memory the complete lower case alphabet in two of the following: Gothic, Roman, or Italic.
"Lettering" is often used to have the same meaning as "Calligraphy". This is the case with this honor. The goal of this requirement is to have the student learn two lowercase alphabets for hand lettering or calligraphy that could be used in the creation of signs and posters.

The words Gothic, Roman, and Italic in this case do not apply to the fonts familiar to us on the computers, (although they are related), but more specifically to the type of letters that could be formed with a calligraphy pen, or with any wedge tipped felt marker. Felt markers are particularly useful for poster and sign making.

Gothic
The Gothic script (also known as Black Letter) was in common use during the Middle Ages in Western Europe. Because Gothic Script looks antique, it is often chosen to write on certificates, quotes from scripture, or holiday cards.  Wiki Article on Gothic Script How to form Gothic Script  Sample Gothic script

Italic
The italic script is called italic because it was developed in Italy during the early Renaissance period. It was adopted for use by Pope Nicholas V.

Wiki Article on Italic Script How to form Italic Script  Sample Italic Script

Roman
Roman letters were inscribed in stone in ancient Rome, and were only capital letters. All modern styles have descended from Roman Capitals. Lower case Roman styles were developed later by Italian scholars. These lower case forms are also known as bookhand, due to its popularity in English language printed materials.

Shown here is a version of Roman, known as Single Stroke Roman. It is called this because unlike some of the more complicated Roman letters, each letter can be created without going over any of the strokes more than one time. This makes Single Stroke Roman very useful for poster making and signs. For most letters the nib is held flat so it is parallel with the baseline. For "s,v,w,x,y,z, and parts of i, j, and k" the pen is angled, somewhere near 30 degrees.

The following example shows the direction to make the strokes, as well as pen or brush angle for this letter type.

Wiki article on Roman Capitals

Foundational
Another good alphabet to learn is foundational, also called "round hand".

Here are links to a nice site with animations showing how to form this alphabet. Lower Case and Upper Case

Sans Serif
Not all alphabets require a wedge tip pen, or nib. A simple sans serif text can be used to create an attractive poster. You can use a regular round tip felt marker, crayon, or pen to use this alphabet.

Types of Pens
There are three basic types of pens used in writing calligraphy.
 * Dip Pens

Dip pens are simply a metal nib that fits into a solid handle. The nib of the pen must be dipped into an ink bottle as you write.
 * Advantages
 * Precise interchangeable nibs
 * Highest quality of pens available
 * Disadvantages
 * can be expensive
 * difficult to use
 * delicate nibs can bend
 * nibs can snag paper
 * ink can be messy
 * must be cleaned after each use

 * Fountain Pens

Fountain pens have an ink cartridge in the handle, which supplies ink to the nib. As long as there is ink in the cartridge, you do not have to stop and dip the pen in a bottle.
 * Advantages
 * Better quality than felt tip pens
 * Easier to use than dip pens
 * Don't require dipping in ink bottle
 * Disadvantages
 * not as precise as dip pens
 * sometimes the ink can stop flowing on a push stroke
 * changing the ink cartridge can be messy and requires cleaning the nib

Felt tipped pens are complete with a felt nib, and ink in the handle. Most cannot be refilled, but some of the more expensive art pens can now be refilled, and have the felt tips replaced.
 * Felt Tip Pens

This set of pens are double ended, with a 3.5mm tip on one end, and a 2mm tip on the other.

 * Advantages
 * Least expensive
 * Easiest to use
 * Don't leak
 * Require no maintenance
 * Disadvantages
 * Least precise of the three types
 * Most (but not all) are not refillable
 * Can dry out
 * Quality of the line decreases as the felt tip wears (some can have the tip replaced)

Nib Width
Pens Come with nibs of varying width. The width of the pens nib, usually measured in millimeters, will effect or determine the size of the lettering. When writing calligraphy, most lettering types are measured in "Nib Widths". Italic script lower case, can be specified as five nib widths in height. The ascender and descender height is also measured as three or four Nib Widths (or N.W.).

In this example, you can see how the size of the lettering changes when a 3.5mm nib is used, versus when a 2.0mm nib is used.

Lettering with Pencils
One of the best ways to make lettering for posters is actually with pencils. By placing two regular pencils beside each other and joining with tape, or elastic bands, you can sketch the letters onto a poster, and then use felt markers, paint, or crayons to finish the letters. This is a safe way to make posters, because you can erase any mistakes and redo that spot, while in the sketching phase. If you are making very large letters, you can use 3 or even 4 pencils, with the middle pencils simply used as spacers.

First step is to use the two pencils to sketch the lettering.

Second step is to fill the lettering in using the method of choice. Here the letters are painted in, but other choices could be felt pens, crayons, etc.

Here is a complete sign. Normally I'd not recommend mixing two fill styles like this on the same poster. It's shown here as an example of possible ways to fill in the letters. A common mistake, since computers have become such a popular tool, is to place too many types of lettering or typefaces on the same piece. Best practice is to limit your typefaces to as few as possible. You should have a good reason to use more types, and they should add to the look, not detract from it.

Here you can see the steps. The two pencils are used to sketch the letter, then a black marker is used to make the letter solid, and finally the pencil marks are erased.

In this example, two pencils were used to sketch the letters first. The first two have been filled in with marker, and the third letter started shading with pencil. You can still see the pencil marks here because they have not yet been erased.

The second example shows how you could create outline letters, by sketching with the two pencil method, and then tracing the lines with a felt marker and erasing the original pencil marks.

Margins
Margins will vary for different styles and shapes of posters, but there is a way to lay out an standard portrait page that can be helpful.
 This involves 3 steps.
 * 1) Side margins are calculated at 1/8th of the page width. You can multiply by .125 (12.5%) to find this number. For my example, I'm going to use A4 (210mm X 297mm) paper, This size is close enough to 8.5" X 11" to be considered the same, for this example. Since the page is 21 cm wide, we can find the side margins are 2.6 cm. We can round this down to 2.5 cm for easy calculating. For the 8.5" calculation, we can simply round the page to 8" wide, and calculate 1/8th of that as 1".
 * 2) The top margin is then calculated at 80% of the side margins. For the metric folks, 80% of 2.5 cm = 2 cm. For the imperial measure, .8" is pretty close to .75" so 3/4 of an inch would be good to use.
 * 3) The bottom margin is simply twice the top. 4 cm or 1.5 inches.

On the left is the standard margins as calculated above. On the right is a page where all four sides are equal. This creates the illusion that that he text appears to be lower than center on the page.

Non-standard paper sizes
If you have a page wider than it is tall, it is best to leave more margin on the sides than the top and bottom.

If your page is tall and narrow, better to leave more margin at the top and bottom.

Attractive Posters
Use upper and lower case lettering appropriately. All capital letters is usually difficult to read.
 * Case

Contrast is an important concept when making posters. Contrast for our purposes can be described as the amount of difference between the background of a poster, and the lettering or other elements on the poster. The more different, or opposite, one is from the other, the higher the level of contrast. Black lettering on a white background is considered the highest level of contrast. Complementary colors also highly contrast with one another.
 * Contrast

Below you see an example where the text is only slightly different from the background compared to the black and white version. As you can see, it is very difficult to read the low contrast example.

Contrast can also be created by using two brightnesses of the same colour. In the example below, I show how low contrast and high contrast can be created by using different brightnesses of blue.

Using two different colours, can also create contrast. Highest contrast is between complementary colours on the colour wheel. It is important though that you remember to include brightness as a factor when using complementary colours. In the example below, the orange against the medium blue background gives an appearance of the two colours competing with each other for attention. If I alter the brightness of each colour by lightening the blue, and darkening the orange, a much nicer and more readable colour scheme is created.

The most attractive and attention getting posters have high contrast. If the contrast is too low, it will be difficult to read your poster.

Be creative when making posters. Experiment with lettering to create a desired effect. Just be careful to make sure that the creativity does not make the message hard to read. This example shows a design with custom lettering. It is still easily readable.

 * Creativity

Adding colour to a poster is an excellent way to create an attractive poster. The most attractive posters will make good use of an artists knowledge of the colour wheel and colour schemes. Keep your colours well organized and planned on the page. Perhaps use colour to highlight the most important part of the poster.
 * Colour

Notice how colour has been used to emphasize the word "Love" in the Pathfinder Motto poster shown below.
 Wiki Article on The Colour Wheel. Wiki Article on Colour Schemes.

Decorations on your poster can be used to attract the eye. Here's a list of some ideas.
 * Decorations

 * A nice border around the edges.
 * Corner designs.
 * Interesting horizontal dividers to separate sections of text.
 * Drawings to illustrate the theme.
 * Themed bullets for a bullet list.
 * Visual icons rather than text in some cases.
 * Fancy capital letters or initials.
 * Patterned background as long as it does not detract from the text.

Layout is the word used to describe the placement of items on a page or poster. Planning where each item goes on the poster is important to the overall attractiveness of the poster. Here are some things to keep in mind.
 * Layout

 * Layout your poster with headings and subheadings.
 * Layout the information into sections.
 * The items on the page should have balance and simplicity.
 * Choose where you want to add decorations, photographs, graphs, borders and design text around these.
 * Avoid presenting too much detail.
 * Leave enough white space (background space).
 * Information should flow by column or by row.

Keeping a poster simple can be harder than it first sounds. Have you ever walked into a building that had so many items in it, that it was hard to see the beauty of the building? Over-cluttered posters can have the same effect. The message can get lost in the complications.
 * Simplify

Here's a list of ideas to keep your posters simple.

 * Use only one or two types of lettering.
 * Choose a simple colour scheme.
 * Use decorations sparingly, and only to strengthen the message.
 * Organize the page space, try and have items balanced.
 * Have a single message in mind when making a poster.
 * Don't mix styles, try and have a uniform approach to text and images.
 * Limit your creative elements, you can always use that other great idea on your next poster.

The following wiki articles may be useful to helping you create an attractive poster.
 * Further reading.

Illuminated Manuscript
 Initials
 Graphic Design
 Design Elements and Principles

==4. Make three posters in a variety of sizes to be used by any of the following groups: Sabbath School, church, school, Pathfinder Club, or AY Society. Use at least two different types of lettering in these posters. ==

One suggestion is to complete one poster of the Pathfinder Pledge, Law, Aim, or Motto. You could complete the requirement for your level in the section on Personal Growth - Commitment. A poster like this would be considered an art project.
 * Explorer - Pathfinder Pledge
 * Ranger - Pathfinder Law
 * Voyager - Pathfinder Aim
 * Guide - Pathfinder Motto

Other suggestions might be posters for; Remember that this requirement is to make posters in a variety of sizes. You do not have to make every poster with large poster boards. Perhaps one can be legal or even letter size. Be creative.
 * song lyrics
 * school projects (science fair etc.)
 * advertising posters for Pathfinder events
 * summer Bible school poster
 * memory text poster
 * fund raising chart poster
 * poster to teach other levels skills or honors

==5. Make five additional posters on topics of your own choice. These posters will be judged for acceptance on the following three conditions: a. Arrangement b. Neatness c. Selection in type of lettering used.==

Some suggestions for topics: Some of these ideas will help you with other Pathfinder honors.
 * decorative poster for your room
 * get well poster for someone in the hospital
 * motivational message for at home
 * list of goals for your next year
 * emergency phone numbers posted near the phone
 * home fire escape plan
 * bicycling safety and rules
 * lettering on a knot board
 * any information learned in a Pathfinder honor class.

Making a practice sheet
It is a good idea to create a practice sheet for each of the different alphabets you are learning.

 * 1) Draw a horizontal line which will be the base of your lettering.
 * 2) Holding your pen at a 90° angle to this base line draw the number of squares that you are planning for your descenders.
 * 3) Draw a second horizontal line at the top of these squares.
 * 4) Now use your pen to make more squares. The number squares you plan for the x-height (main body) of your letters.
 * 5) Draw a third horizontal line at the top of these squares.
 * 6) Add the number of squares you need for your ascenders next.
 * 7) Draw a fourth horizontal line at the top of these squares.
 * 8) Repeat this a few times to fill the page with practice lines. You can either photocopy this sheet for practicing on, or use it as a guide under tracing paper.

You can also find sheets like this on the internet available for download and print them, but they may not be exactly the right height for the pen you are using.

Follow the stroke guides
Follow the arrows and numbers shown on lettering stroke guides. If you deviate from these guides and try to draw the letters based on their appearance alone, you’ll have trouble forming the letters properly and will likely develop bad habits.

Trace letters to learn
It's not a bad thing to trace from a guide when first learning. Don't forget to follow the arrows and numbers in order even when tracing, to avoid forming bad habits.

Strokes for different letters
Practice some basic strokes. This example shows vertical, horizontal, angled, and curved strokes to practice.

For each alphabet style, practice strokes that are found commonly within the letters.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Model Boats

b. Build a model boat with an electric motor from your own plans or from a kit, size 10 to 18 inches, (25.4 to 45.7 cm) and operate the boat for three to five minutes.
===c. Build a model boat 18 to 30 inches (45.7 to 76.2 cm) long from your own plans or from a kit. Install a small bore internal combustion engine .029 or .049 and operate for at least two successful runs of three to five minutes each. Record in writing the operating characteristics of the model and state what you did to improve its performance. ===

a. Displacement
Displacement is the volume of water a boat's hull moves out of the way when it floats. The displaced water is the same weight as the boat as long as the boat is floating. If the boat sinks then the amount of water being displaced is equal to the volume of the boat instead of the weight.

c. Propeller pitch
Propeller pitch is the distance a propeller would move in one revolution if it were moving through a soft solid, like a screw through wood. For example, a 21-pitch propeller would move forward 21 inches in one revolution.

d. Thrust and lift
Thrust is the force exerted by a propeller to move a boat through the water. As the boat moves forward, it may experience lift, which is a force that will raise the boat slightly.

e. Mono hull
The body of the boat.

f. Hydro
something similar to a speed boat. (hydroboat)

g. Bow
The front of the boat.

h. Keel
has two distinct meanings related to two different types of boats: one a riverine cargo-capable working boat, and the other a classification for small- to mid-sized recreational sailing yachts.

i. Transom
The wide, usually flat area at the very back of a boat. This is where an outboard motor is typically mounted. This is also where you usually find the name of the boat on larger vessels.

j. Cavitation
Inefficient low-pressure pockets on propellers form bubbles that collapse against the blades resulting in premature wear. Cavitation causes vibration, noise and serious damage to a propeller.

k. Heeling
Heeling is normal, sideways tipping. Heeling is a result of the force of wind on the sails. Some heeling is inherent in sailing; as the force of the wind is transferred into forward motion, any excess is transferred into sideways motion, some of which is slippage and some of which is heeling. A boat that has too much sail set so that it heels over beyond a certain angle will sail less efficiently.

When a boat is heeled, the center of effort changes. The center of effort is the pivot point of the sails and is related to the center of lateral resistance, which is below the waterline. One way to reduce heeling is to move the center of lateral resistance upwards by raising the centerboard or daggerboard. The boat will have less resistance below the waterline and consequently less heel.

l. Planing
is the mode of operation for a waterborne craft in which its weight is predominantly supported by hydrodynamic lift, rather than hydrostatic lift (buoyancy).


text: Wikibooks:Book of the month/January 2007 voting


text: Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/January 2007 voting


text:
User:Herraotic

Objective
Create a series of mathematics textbooks which cater from elementary to an advanced curriculum.

 * Addition : ages 5-7; more digits ages 8-9
 * Subtraction : ages 5-7; more digits ages 8-9
 * Multiplication : ages 7-8; more digits ages 9-10
 * Division : age 8; more digits ages 9-10
 * Pre-algebra : ages 11-13
 * Algebra I: ages 13+
 * Geometry : ages 14+
 * Algebra II : ages 15 +
 * Trigonometry : ages 16+
 * Calculus : ages 17+

Note to self: Refer to starting a new page or book

California Education Standards for Mathematics

title: User:Herraotic


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/House Cup

Overview
When entering Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, the students are sorted into one of four different houses: Gryffindor, Ravenclaw, Hufflepuff, or Slytherin. Every year, these houses compete against one another to win the House Cup, which is awarded to whichever house collects the most house points. These points are given out by teachers for good behavior or excellent schoolwork. However, the teachers can also take away house points for any rule-breaking or poor performance.

Event Details
While the House Cup is supposed to be awarded every year, we only see the actual award in Harry's first year. In that year, Slytherin House seem to have won the Cup for what we are told is the seventh year in a row, but in the seconds before the Cup is awarded, a number of House points are awarded to Harry, Hermione, Ron, and Neville, to bring the total for Gryffindor house above that for Slytherin house.

In Harry's second year, the House Cup is again awarded to Gryffindor, mainly due to the face that Harry and Ron earn 400 points for saving Ginny down in the Chamber of Secrets, and saving the school from closing.

We hear that the House cup is awarded to Gryffindor in Harry's third year, largely because of Gryffindor's winning of the Quidditch cup.

In all other years, the House Cup is barely mentioned. It is safe to assume that Gryffindor does not win the Cup in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, because of Professor Umbridge's partisanship towards Slytherin House. We also suspect that the competition was suspended in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire due to the death of Cedric Diggory, and in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince due to the death of Professor Dumbledore.

Notable Consequences
As the Cup is awarded at the Leaving Feast, at the end of the school year, it generally does not have any direct consequences. However, competition for the Cup is important to the students through the course of the year, and gains and losses of House points are tracked quite closely. Harry, Ron and Neville between them losing a hundred and fifty points for Gryffindor in a single night, as happens in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, is grounds for their virtual ostracism by other members of Gryffindor house. And it is Harry's fear of losing yet more House points that prevents his investigating several questionable events that occur later in that book.

Analysis
Splitting the school into Houses, and then having a competition between the Houses, is a standard procedure in English boarding schools, and so it makes sense to have it happen at Hogwarts as well. It is uncertain why this is done, as having competition between houses tends to have a separating effect on the students; however, it does mean that there are closer relationships between people in each individual House. Inter-House competition also provides an outlet for the students' excess energy. At Hogwarts it is particularly important, as there are apparently no other Wizarding schools in England. Most English schools can create school-wide teams that compete against other schools, but with no schools nearby, Hogwarts must get all its competition from within.

It should be noted that Hogwarts has evolved a means of separating students by similarity of character, while the British private schools, and others working on the British model, generally use a more random basis. This does have the tendency of concentrating House Cup wins in the two more fiercely competitive House, Slytherin and Gryffindor; Hufflepuff, for instance, is mentioned as being a House that seldom gets any glory in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. We cannot judge what effect this has on harmony between Houses, but we would guess that a House that consistently falls near the bottom of the House Cup standings may well end up resenting its position.

We hear that a major influence in the awarding of the House cup is the Quidditch cup, but we do not learn exactly how much of an influence it is. We know that it is not the sole determinant, of course, because with Harry out of commission at the end of the first book, the final Quidditch match is won by Ravenclaw, putting Gryffindor out of the running; and yet it is Gryffindor who win the House cup, with Slytherin in second place.

In Harry's first year, we can see that the House cup is of great importance to him, as it is to the rest of the school. At this stage in his development, Harry has discovered this literally magical world of which he had been previously unaware, and where he seems to be not just accepted, but actually famous. However, he clearly is insecure in this world, not yet sure that he is welcome, and afraid that his presence in this world is due to the disappearance of Voldemort. While Harry understands that he was involved in Voldemort's disappearance, he also knows that he had no conscious part in it, and so feels something of a fraud because of the plaudits that he receives for this disappearance. Because of this, he feels he must strive for acceptance in this new world on his own terms, and a large part of that is the Quidditch competition and the House points contest. This fight for acceptance makes Gryffindor's winning the House Cup in the closing chapter of the first book a much larger victory for Harry than his defeat of Lord Voldemort and Professor Quirrell a few days earlier.

As Harry matures, he becomes more secure in himself and in his position in the Wizarding world, and the House cup rapidly loses importance to him. He still cares about House points, and is heartened when he gains them or dismayed when he loses them; however, Gryffindor's winning or losing the House Cup is no longer a thing of which we take much note.

Greater Picture
As the House cup pales into seeming insignificance in books after the first, one wonders, what is the purpose of bringing it into the story at all? The author's intent is never clearly stated, but we can surmise that its purpose is to provide, by means of the associated House Points count, a quick and clear measure of Harry's acceptance into the Wizarding world. Harry is initially unsure of his welcome, despite his "hero" status, and is forever wondering if he is going to be unceremoniously packed up and returned to his hated Muggle home. This fear remains part of Harry's makeup until at least Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, when the Ministry threatens to expel him from Hogwarts and snap his wand. Harry's being instrumental in winning the House cup, and publicly so, is key to his feeling accepted by Hogwarts, and thus by the Wizarding world. While his worries about not fitting in will remain, they are largely blunted by this one single event; and as it has had its effect, it does not need to be explicitly repeated.

However, the use of House points remains a constant throughout the series. The bestowing and removal of House points is used throughout the book as a way of indicating that students' behaviour is exceptionally good or exceptionally bad, and the egregious removal of House points, by Professor Snape, Professor Umbridge, Draco Malfoy, and others is used to highlight the ways in which those characters are acting unfairly.


text:
User talk:59.95.11.48

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Xania 20:03, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:59.95.11.48


text:
User talk:69.167.118.250

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Xania 20:04, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.167.118.250


text:
Xray Crystallography/Introduction

Introduction
X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique for visualising the structure of protein. X-rays are directed onto a crystal where the rays diffract from planes within the crystal in accordance with Braggs law. The resulting diffraction pattern can then be collected. The positions of the spots in the diffraction pattern give information about the structure of the crystal. However not all of the information about the crystal is collected by the recording equipment, spot intensities can be measured but the phase information is lost, resulting in a phase ambiguity. There are many techniques used to extract the phase information from the crystal in other ways, for small molecules the phase can be solved directly using a Patterson map, for more complex molecules phases from a similar structure can be used, or phase information can be extracted from anomalous scatters. In all cases a model is calculated from the observed structure factors and the calculated phases, this model is then refined to fit the model to the data.

Why a Wikibook?
So why write or use a Wikibook? Much with the success of [CCP4], where many crystallographers around the world have contributed code freely to the community and in return everyone can enjoy a whole suite of programs, the same can be true of a Wikibook. If everyone maintained one section, then for a small amount of work you can share in a whole textbook for free. With a little maintenance here and there the book will always be up to date. If enough people get involved it will be peer-review at its best.

How to Help
There are many ways in which you can help this Wikibook. If you can see a mistake - correct it! If you feel the book is missing an important topic - then write it, or if you cannot, suggest it on the talk page. The book may need grammatical or spelling corrections, new illustrative images are always welcome. If you feel you can write about an advanced topic outside the scope of this book, such as formula derivations or details on specific equipment, then add in an appendix or write an article in Wikipedia and link to it.

Abbreviations

 * Å: 		Angstrom, unit of distance (1Å = 10nm = 1x10-10m)
 * a.s.u.:		Asymmetric Unit
 * c:             speed of light in a vacuum ( 299,792,458 meters per second or aprox. 3x108m/s)
 * CC:		Correlation coefficient
 * CCD:		Charge-Coupled Device
 * CCP4:		[Collaborative Computer Project number 4]
 * Cryo:          Cryogenic temperature, at or below 77K (temperature of liquid Nitrogen)
 * Da:		Dalton
 * EDTA:		Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
 * eV: 		electron-volt, unit of energy, It is the amount of kinetic energy gained by a single unbound electron
 * EXAFS:		Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Spectra
 * FOM:		Figure Of Merit
 * GUI:		Graphical User Interface
 * Gy:            Gray, Unit of dose, (1 Gy = 1 J•kg-1)
 * h:             Planck's constant (6.626 × 10-34 J•s)
 * HEPES:		4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid
 * HEWL:		Hen Egg-White Lysozyme
 * K:		Kelvin
 * kDa:		kiloDalton
 * keV:		kilo-electron Volt
 * M:		Molar concentration
 * MAD:		Multiple-wavelength Anomalous Dispersion
 * MIR:		Multiple Isomorphous Replacement
 * MIRAS:		Multiple Isomorphous Replacement with Anomalous Scattering
 * MPD:		2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol
 * MX:		Macromolecular Crystallography
 * NaAc:		Sodium Acetate
 * nm: Nanometre, unit of distance (1nm = 1x10-9m)
 * NMR:		Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
 * pA:		pico Amps (current)
 * pdb:		[RCSB Protein Data Bank]
 * PEG:		Polyethylene Glycol
 * PX:		Protein Crystallography
 * RCSB:		Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics
 * RIP:		Radiation-damage Induced Phasing
 * RIPAS:		Radiation-damage Induced Phasing with Anomalous Scattering
 * RMSD:		Root Mean Square Deviation
 * SAD:		Single-wavelength Anomalous Dispersion
 * Se-Met:		Selenomethionine
 * SIR:		Single Isomorphous Replacement
 * SIRAS:		Single Isomorphous Replacement with Anomalous Scattering
 * Tris:		Tris (hydroxymethyl) aminomethane buffer
 * v/v:		Volume by volume
 * w/v:		Weight by volume

title: Xray Crystallography/Introduction


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Xray Crystallography/Authors

List of Authors of this book;

 * Drew

title: Xray Crystallography/Authors


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Xray Crystallography/References

Journals in the Field

 * Acta Cryst D
 * Biochemistry
 * Current Drug Targets
 * Current Opinion of Structural Biology
 * EMBO Journal
 * J. Appl. Cryst.
 * Journal of Biological Chemistry
 * J.Med.Chem
 * J. Mol. Biol
 * Journal of Synchrotron Radiation
 * Methods in Enzymology
 * Phys Rev Letts
 * PNAS
 * Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology
 * Science
 * Structure

General

 * X-ray_crystallography
 * Electromagnetic_wave
 * X-ray

X-ray Generation

 * X-ray_tube
 * Synchrotron
 * Synchrotron_radiation
 * Synchrotron_light
 * Beamline
 * Bremsstrahlung

Crystals

 * Crystal
 * Crystallographic_point_group
 * Crystal structure
 * Crystallization
 * Crystal_lattice
 * Bravais_lattice
 * Unit_cell
 * Space_group
 * Crystal_system
 * Screw_axis
 * Glide_plane
 * Point_group
 * Symmetry_group
 * Crystallographic_restriction_theorem
 * Primitive_cell
 * Crystal_growth
 * Seed_crystal

Diffraction

 * Phase_problem
 * Diffraction
 * Bragg_diffraction
 * Bragg's_law
 * Bayes'_theorem
 * Patterson_function
 * Dynamical_theory_of_diffraction

Refinement

 * Probability_distribution
 * Likelihood_function
 * Unbiased_estimator
 * Maximum_likelihood
 * Molecular_modeling
 * Standard_deviation
 * Gaussian_distribution
 * Mean_squared_error

 * Fourier_transform
 * Reciprocal_space

title: Xray Crystallography/References


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User talk:213.42.21.77

Xania 21:25, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:213.42.21.77


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Talk:Introduction to Economics

This is a good module, but it needs work. It seems close to being completed but still has red links. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 21:56, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

There is a circular argument in The market->Setting a Price. "Now, we know that the price ends up somewhere between the seller's valuation of the item and the buyer's valuation of the item." The reason for this is that the value of the product to buyer and seller differ. This cannot then be used to argue that without subjective value nothing will be sold or bought. A more valid argument is that if the seller cannot make a profit then he won't bother aquiring or making more of the item so once current stocks are exhausted there will be nothing for the buyer to buy. 190.65.89.31 (talk) 14:40, 14 March 2008 (UTC)

merge or delete
The content of this page is written well enough, but its entirely redundant with the current contents of principles of economics. I recommended merger, but, the union doesn't add much to principles. Please discuss. I'll recommend deletion if there's no objection. Jcress410 (discuss • contribs) 00:57, 11 April 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Economics


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Wikijunior:Alphabet/A

A is for Astronaut

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/B

B is for Banana

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/C

C is for Cat

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/D

D is for Duck

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/E

E is for Egg

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/F

F is for Fish

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/G

G is for Gate

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/H

H is for Horse

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/I

I is for Igloo

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/K

K is for Kangaroo

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/J

J is for Jam

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/L

L is for Lion

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/M

M is for Mouse

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/N

N is for Nest

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/O

O is for Octopus

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Cookbook talk:Lemon Curd

Merge Request
I think that the content on this page should be merged with Cookbook:Lemon curd. Any views? Xania 22:51, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

I agree completely. They are the identical recipe. A.
 * Done. QU TalkQu 12:47, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Lemon Curd


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Wikijunior:Alphabet/P

P is for Pig

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/Q

Q is for Queen

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/R

R is for Road

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/S

S is for Sun

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/T

T is for Turtle

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/U

U is for Umbrella

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/V

V is for Volcano

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/W

W is for Window

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/X

X is for Xylophone

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/Y

Y is for Yo-yo

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Wikijunior:Alphabet/Z

Z is for Zebra

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Talk:United Nations/General Assembly

Anyone else want to contribute?
So far it's just been me writing all the facts about the General Assembly. I feel like I'm missing something else. If any of you Wikibook-ians would like to add more, feel free.

By the way, I'm using Everyone's United Nations, 10th edition to write the module section. The book is sponsored by the UN so I'm assuming that all the facts are true. I participate in MUN and I also cross-referenced there and found that all the facts listed so far in the Module section are authentic. Neil the Cellist 23:38, 3 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:United Nations/General Assembly


text:
User talk:142.165.115.232

Xania 00:18, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:142.165.115.232


text:
Talk:The Unicyclopedia/Organisations

This is a good module, but it needs some work. It seems almost complete, but has red links and headings with no words for them. Thanks for contributing this module to Wikibooks. Tannersf 00:19, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Unicyclopedia/Organisations


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Talk:Irish Pennywhistle

Request for Expansion
I have a request for expansion of this Wikibook because I do not feel like it gives enough information for a beginner to learn how to play the pennywhistle. I am a beginner and would like very much to use this Wikibook (in my attempt) to learn how to play the pennywhistle. A suggestion in addition to the actual playing of the pennywhistle would be instructions on how to make a pennywhistle. --Think Fast 02:05, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

Neutrality
I feel that this module is let down by a lack of NPOV. Namely the following: -Tin whistles are NOT exclusive to Irish traditional music. For a long time now they have been a core part of Scottish folk music, and though I'm not an expert on these, I'm aware of tin whistles being prominent in English and Breton folk, Victorian middle-class revivals and South African Kwela. Some of these also feature their own distinctive playing styles, and even if they aren't yet covered for completeness' sake, it should at least be acknowledged. -The recommendations for whistle makes ARE good ones in my opinion, but you can't offer subjective reviews of products on wikibooks -especially not just these few and ignoring the vast majority out there. I'd be in favour I think of rewriting that section to remove all reference to individual brands. There are after all, fairly comprehensive review sites already out there -which I am just not going to make links for. -Zaepherius 00:10, 30 November 2007 (UTC)

There is a section on how to play the Whistle under the Wikipedia entry for "Tin whistle", which contains more information than held here. See 80.176.152.10 19:37, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

Corrections
A good start! Just a few things I noticed:

"it's" is ONLY a contraction of "it is" or "it has". The possessive has no apostrophe.

"Bore" refers not to the tube itself but to the cavity inside the tube. For example, to make a tube, you bore a hole through the length of a rod or dowel. The diameter of the bore is the inside diameter of the tube. The bore can be tapered, even if the tube is not.

The Sweetone is a new model by Clarke. The whistle you refer to simply as the "Clarke" is now called the "Clarke Original".

What does "semiconical" mean? The Clarke Original is conical (shaped like a cone). I don't think "semiconical" is a proper word. And if it was, it would seem to mean half a cone, whereas the whistle tube is a complete (360-degree) cone.

The block of wood is inserted not "as" but "into" or "as part of" the mouthpiece.

Long notes and phrases are certainly NOT "all but impossible" on the Clark Original. They require more air than on a Sweetone, but are hardly impossible. (Maybe it's time to quit smoking!)

The idea that a whistle can be tuned by moving the mouthpiece is not entirely true. By altering the length of the tube, yes, you adjust the pitch; but you also adjust the relative pitch of each hole as they are no longer spaced apart at the same percentage of the overall length. Truly tuning the whistle would also require adjusting the hole sizes and/or positions. If a whistle is somehow far out of tune with other instruments, then it can be altered so that one of the notes is in tune and the rest not too far off; but if it's that far out of tune, it's either improperly made, or someone put it out of tune - probably by adjusting the mouthpiece.

Painted whistles come in several colours besides black.

Keys are offered for plastic whistles as well as wooded ones. Sharps/flats can also be achieved by alternate fingerings, called "cross fingering".

"Sharp" is not a verb. One can "sharpen a note" or "make a note sharp", etc.

PVC is not the final nor the most unusual non-metal whistle. There are plenty made of ABS and other polymers.

Buying a whistle in another key is not the solution to encountering a sharp/flat in a tune. Half holing or cross fingering is. And it's easier to half hole or cross finger than transpose the tune to another key.

D is the most common key, but G is less common than C and Bb. Qb is not a key.

Low whistles are in fact less (not more) likely to have a wooden fipple block than high whistles. Professional whistle makers that use wooden fipple blocks do not make low whistles. Homemade whistles are more likely than professionally-made ones to have a wooden fipple block, and people make their own high as well as low whistles.

"Hold the whistle so that it comes from your mouth at about forty-five degree angle." - To the left? Right? Up? There are photos of players holding it off to one side, so beginners might be confused.

The "correct" way to hold the whistle is with the left hand above the right. However many don't consider it important to use this convention, and if not, then whichever feels more natural, comfortable, and capable is far more important than adhering to a rule based on left- or right-handedness.

"For a higher octave" should be "For the higher octave" as there are essentially two octaves available, with a few notes of the third available to some players on some whistles.

The conventional fingering for high D is to lift the top finger as well as blowing harder. On some (but not all!) whistles it makes little or no difference.

In English there are "ornaments" and there is "ornamentation". "Ornamentations" is a French word.

title: Talk:Irish Pennywhistle