text:
MATLAB Programming/Psychtoolbox/KbCheck

Back to MATLAB Programming/Psychtoolbox Back to MATLAB Programming/Psychtoolbox/Work arounds

A changed kbcheck that will check all connected keyboards and will sort out some invalid devices that appear to be keyboards.

It should be noted that this script will stop and return on the first keyboard that has a key that is pressed. Perhaps this could be modified so that the sum of all checked keyboards is returned and so if you are pressing a key on one keyboard you can also be pressing another key on another keyboard and get both responses.

function [keyIsDown,secs, keyCode] = KbCheck(deviceNumber) % [keyIsDown,secs,keyCode] = KbCheck([deviceNumber]) % % Return keyboard status (keyIsDown), time (secs) of the status check, and % keyboard scan code (keyCode). % %   keyIsDown      1 if any key, including modifiers such as , %                  or is down. 0 otherwise. % %   secs           time of keypress as returned by GetSecs. % %   keyCode        Mac: a 128-element logical array. Each bit within the %                  logical array represents one keyboard key. If a key is %                  pressed, its bit is set, othewise the bit is clear. To %                  convert a keyCode to a vector of key numbers use %                  FIND(keyCode). To find a key's keyNumber use KbName %                  or KbDemo. % %                  Win: a 256-element array. It seems that the first %                  128 elements correspond to the %                  ascii sequence of the characters, and may be consistent %                  with the Mac key codes. % % KbCheck and KbWait determine whether any key is down now, including the % meta keys:, , , , and. The % only key not reported is the start key (triangle) used to power on your % computer. % % GetChar and CharAvail are character-oriented (and slow), whereas KbCheck % and KbWait are keypress-oriented (and fast). If only a meta key was hit, % KbCheck will return true, because a key was pressed, but CharAvail will % return false, because no character was generated. See GetChar. % % KbCheck and KbWait are MEX files, which take time to load when they're % first called. They'll then stay loaded until you flush them (e.g. by % changing directory or calling CLEAR MEX). % % OS X: ___________________________________________________________________ % % KbCheck uses the PsychHID function, a general purpose function for % reading from the Human Interface Device (HID) class of USB devices. % % OS 9: ___________________________________________________________________ % % Command-Period causes an immediate exit. % % The Mac OS Event Manager detects and queues typed characters in the % background. GetChar will return any characters typed before the call to % GetChar. FlushEvents can be used to clear the character event buffer % read by GetChar. Unlike GetChar, KbCheck only reports keys depressed at % the moment KbCheck is called. FlushEvents has no effect on KbCheck. % % Hitting CapsLock makes KbCheck and KbWait think that you're holding the % shift key down. They will continue to think so (returning 1) until you % release the shift by hitting CapsLock again. % % KbCheck and KbWait detect that a key is down by using the low-level Mac % OS call GetKeys. It's not clear what temporal accuracy this provides, but % it's much better than going through the higher-level Event Manager. Our % impression from reading the documentation in Dan Costin's KeMo package % web http://psychtoolbox.org/kemo.html %  is that this % low-level call still has uncertainty on the order of 11 ms because of the % way the Mac OS polls ADB devices. Someone clever could probably use his % advice to develop MEX files that timed keypresses more accurately than % KbCheck does. % % _________________________________________________________________________ % % See also: FlushEvents, KbName, KbDemo, KbWait, GetChar, CharAvail, KbDemo.

% TO DO: % % - Mention that on USB systems there the USB bus is sampled at 100hz % - We could augment this to to accept an optional keyboard device number.

% 3/6/97 dhb  Wrote it. % 8/2/97 dgp  Explain difference between key and character. % 1/28/98 dgp Explain CapsLock. % 2/4/98 awi  Explain keyCode. % 2/13/98 awi Changed keyCode to logical array, pointers to KbDecode, KbExplore. % 2/19/98 dgp Shortened by moving some text to GetChar.m. % 3/15/99 xmz  Added comment for Windows version. % 6/23/00 awi Added paragraph contrasting queuing of GetChar and KbCheck. % 7/7/00 dgp  Cosmetic. % 6/17/02 awi ****** OS X-specific fork from the OS 9 version ******* %               Added conditional invocation of PsychHID on OSX % 7/12/04 awi Cosmetic. Separted platform-specific help. Use IsOSX now. % 7/13/05 rpk Added ability to sort out invalidProducts that were %                  considered keyboards. Also, will now check all %                  valid keyboards insted of just the first one. keyIsDown = 0; if IsOSX if nargin==1 [keyIsDown,secs, keyCode]= PsychHID('KbCheck', deviceNumber); elseif nargin == 0 invalidProducts = {'USB Trackball'}; devices = PsychHID('devices'); for i = 1:length(devices) if(strcmp(devices(i).usageName, 'Keyboard') ) for j = 1:length(invalidProducts) if(~(strcmp(invalidProducts{j}, devices(i).product))) if(~keyIsDown) [keyIsDown,secs, keyCode]= PsychHID('KbCheck', i); end end end

end end elseif nargin > 1 error('Too many arguments supplied to KbCheck'); end end

title: MATLAB Programming/Psychtoolbox/KbCheck


text:
Cookbook:Baked Sweet Potatoes

This is a simple recipe for baked sweet potatoes.

Ingredients

 * 4 large "yam style" sweet potatoes, unpeeled

Procedure

 * 1) Scrub the sweet potatoes very well.
 * 2) Place into large glass baking dish. Cover loosely with aluminum foil.
 * 3) Place into preheated 400°F (205°C) oven.
 * 4) Bake for 90 minutes or until very soft.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Baked Sweet Potatoes


text:
Cookbook talk:Baked Sweet Potatoes

Originally added to en:Wikipedia:Yam by en:Wikipedia:User:65.248.36.212 - see. 65.96.188.174 20:41, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Baked Sweet Potatoes


text:
Linux Guide/Installing SugarCRM On Linux

Here is how I installed on a new PC:

 * Download the four Fedora Core 4 image files and make install CD’s
 * Install Fedora Core 4 using the standard “Workstation” settings (don’t use the Server setup as it will put all the Apache, PHP, and MySQL files in the wrong place. Enable Firewall, Enable SELinux, Install Default Software Packages)
 * Finish Installing, Reboot, Login as ‘root’
 * After booting, click Desktop -> Security -> Security Level (if using Gnome GUI), check the box next to WWW (HTTP), click OK to close.
 * Launch WEB browser
 * From http://www.mysql.com/ download the v4.1.12 MySQL Linux x86 RPM Files, you will need the Server, Client Program, Libraries & Headers, and Dynamic Client Libraries.
 * From http://www.php.net/ download PHP 4.3.11 (tar.gz)
 * From http://www.apache.org/ download Apache 2.0.54 (tar.gz)
 * Copy downloaded files to /usr/src directory
 * Open a terminal window, Applications -> System Tools -> Terminal
 * Type the following in the terminal to install MySQL
 * 1) cd /usr/src
 * 2) rpm -i MySQL* 		(don’t worry if MySQL fails to start)
 * 3) mysql_install_db
 * 4) mysqld_safe &

 * Now set the root password for MySQL
 * 1) mysqladmin –u root password ‘enter-new-root-password-in-single-quotes’

Enter Password:
 * Now check to see if install was successful
 * 1) mysqlshow –p

You should see something like:

Databases - mysql test

Enter Password: mysql>SET PASSWORD FOR ‘root’@’localhost’=OLD_PASSWORD(‘New-Password’); mysql>use mysql mysql>delete from user where User=’’; mysql>quit
 * Now we need to set the ‘root’ password to the old password format and delete the blank user that was created automatically when MySQL was installed.
 * 1) mysql –u root –p

--with-mysql-sock=/var/lib/mysql/mysql.sock
 * Now MySQL is installed and we need to install Apache and PHP. Type:
 * 1) gzip –d httpd-2.0.54.tar.gz
 * 2) tar xvf httpd-2.0.54.tar
 * 3) gunzip php-4.3.11.tar.gz
 * 4) tar -xvf php-4.3.11.tar
 * 5) cd httpd-2.0.54
 * 6) ./configure --enable-so
 * 7) make
 * 8) make install
 * 9) cd ../php-4.3.11
 * 10) ./configure --with-apxs2=/usr/local/apache2/bin/apxs \   (hit enter key)
 * 1) make
 * 2) make install

 * Now copy the php.ini file to the correct place
 * 1) cp php.ini-dist /usr/local/lib/php.ini

Search for: memory_limit = 8M, change 8M to 16M Save & Close file
 * Edit the php.ini file

 * Look for libphp4.so file in /usr/local/apache2/modules/ to make sure it’s there.
 * Edit the Apache configuration file in /usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf

Find loadmodule and make sure this line was added, (or add)

LoadModule php4_module modules/libphp4.so

Find addtype and add

AddType application/x-tar.tgz AddType application/x-httpd-php .php .phtml AddType application/x-httpd-php-source .phps

Find directoryindex and add index.php to the line:

DirectoryIndex index.php index.html index.html.var

 * launch apache by typing in the terminal
 * 1) /usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl start

If you get the following error: “ Cannot load /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so into server: /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so: cannot restore segment prot after reloc: Permission Denied” Type:
 * 1) chcon –t shlib_t /usr/local/apache2/modules/libphp4.so

now try and start:
 * 1) /usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl start

Create a file in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/ named test.php and enter the following line in the file:
 * Test Apache by opening a web browser and typing in http://localhost/ . You should see an apache success screen.
 * Test PHP

Save and close. Set permissions on file to 755. Now in a browser type http://localhost/test.php You should see a PHP information screen with your current settings.

Edit or create the /etc/my.cnf file, make it look like the following:
 * Edit MySQL’s my.cnf file

[mysqld] old-passwords basedir=/var/lib/mysql
 * 1) use old password encryption method (needed for 4.0 and older clients).

Save and close file.

 * Edit the MySQL startup file /etc/init.d/mysql

Find: basedir=/ and change to: basedir=/var/lib/mysql

select mysql, click restart
 * restart MySQL by going clicking Desktop -> System Settings -> Server Settings -> Services

 * create sugarsuite folder in /usr/local/apache2/htdocs
 * copy the contents of the SugarCRM 3.0.1 folder (or latest) to the sugarsuite folder
 * Set permissions on all files to 777 for installation. Type in a terminal:
 * 1) chmod -R 777 /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite

 * alternate instructions that worked great for me...
 * 1) cd .. [now in htdocs folder]
 * 2) chown -R apache sugarsuite [change file owner to the apache webserver]
 * 3) cd sugarsuite [back to sugar webroot]
 * 4) chmod -R 775 cache custom data modules
 * alternately #chmod -R 775 ./cache/ ./custom/ ./data/ ./modules/
 * 1) chmod 664 config.php
 * 1) chmod 664 config.php

 * To install SugarCRM, open a browser and type http://localhost/sugarsuite/
 * Follow install instruction: Create User, Create Datbase. Finish Installation.
 * Set SugarCRM directory permissions in terminal window.
 * 1) chmod -R 755 /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite
 * 2) cd /usr/local/apache2/htdocs/sugarsuite
 * 3) chmod -R 777 ./cache/ < does not work!
 * 4) chmod -R 777 ./custom/
 * 5) chmod -R 777 ./data/
 * 6) chmod -R 777 ./modules/
 * 7) chmod -R 444 config.php

 * Sugar install is finished!

 * Now let’s add apache to the startup process. First. Let’s copy the apache startup file to the startup directory. Type in the terminal:
 * 1) cp /usr/local/apache2/bin/apachectl /etc/init.d/

 * Edit the /etc/init.d/apachectl file: Add the lines in bold.

# #chkconfig: - 85 15 #description: Apache is a Web server to serve HTML files and CGI. #
 * 1) 1/bin/sh
 * 1) copyright (c) 2000-2004 The Apache Software Foundation

 * To enable httpd to start automatically. Type in a terminal:
 * 1) /sbin/chkconfig --add apachectl

 * Reboot server to see if everything starts up and works!


text:
User:Klingoncowboy4

Book I have worked on

 * How To Build A Computer
 * Web Design
 * OpenOffice.org
 * Programming:Game Maker
 * Wikijunior The Elements

Books I started

 * Raising Chickens
 * Klingon
 * Raising Cattle

My blog

title: User:Klingoncowboy4


text:
User:JMRyan

Logic
I've started doing some work on the Logic section of Introduction to Philosophy in July 2005. I moved my work to Formal Logic, unfortunately leaving something of a mess. I plan to get back to Introduction to Philosophy/Logic and clean up the mess I made Real Soon Now.

It appears some one or more editors have done substantial cleanup. That's a good thing.

Formal Logic
I have started a new book, Formal Logic by moving material from Introduction to Philosophy/Logic.
 * User:JMRyan/Formal Logic Resources
 * User:JMRyan/New Page1

 * User:JMRyan/Sandbox

 * User:JMRyan/Test1
 * User:JMRyan/Test2
 * User:JMRyan/Test3

Shelf templates

 * User:JMRyan/Shelf templates
 * User:JMRyan/Shelf1
 * User:JMRyan/Shelf2

title: User:JMRyan


text:
Talk:General Chemistry/Carbon is an especially important element

This is a disaster area. Will somebody please fix all the en:en: links? Metric1000 00:06, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

from where id you copy this? source, please
rubbish statement:  composed of algae and lichens 69.9.26.80 (talk) 18:38, 19 July 2008 (UTC)


text: Software Engineers Handbook/Operating Systems/Unix


text:
User talk:65.240.133.194

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 02:31, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.240.133.194


text:
User talk:202.141.70.2

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 03:06, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.141.70.2


text:
User talk:217.33.74.20

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you want to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 03:14, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 12:37, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 09:28, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:217.33.74.20


text:
User talk:66.230.10.225

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 03:16, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Thank you for removing the rubbish on the Wikiversity site. Appreciated. Abc123.

title: User talk:66.230.10.225


text:
User talk:82.214.194.186

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 03:28, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.214.194.186


text:
User talk:203.10.121.81

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

November 2010
We welcome and appreciate your contributions, but your recent edits to Transwiki:Romeo and Juliet had to be undone. Please see What is Wikibooks? to learn more about what contributions are beneficial to Wikibooks. Please be aware that some edits can be considered vandalism, use the sandbox for any test edits you would like to make, and read the welcome page to learn more about contributing constructively to this project. Thank you. – Adrignola talk 13:56, 22 November 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.10.121.81


text:
User talk:203.10.121.80

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you want to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 03:31, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.10.121.80


text:
User talk:Suavecito

With regards to Image:Suavecito.jpg and Suavecito Productions, please refrain from promoting your vanity projects here on Wikibooks. Wikibooks is not a place for your projects, for this other places as outlined in WB:WIN would be preferable. KelvSYC 04:13, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Suavecito


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Osteochondroses

The osteochondroses are a motley group of entities that were initially lumped together due to morphological similarity. They often occur in children are associated with apparent fragmentation of bone in an epiphysis or apophysis. With the perspective of time, we can now divide these entities into one of three rough groups: post-traumatic, osteonecrosis and normal variants of ossification.

Kienböck's Disease
Definition: Avascular necrosis of the lunate bone, one of the bones in the most proximal carpal row. It is also known as lunatomalacia.

Etiology: Idiopathic or secondary to repetitive trauma. Has been associated in the past past with negative ulnar variance, however this has been recently questioned. The condition was first described in 1910 by a Viennese radiologist, Dr. Robert Kienböck.

Clinical Findings:

Many people with Kienböck’s disease believe they have a sprained wrist at first, usually after some form of trauma to the wrist, such as a fall. This type of trauma can disrupt the blood flow to the lunate. In most people, two vessels supply blood to the lunate, but in some people there is only one source. This puts them at greater risk for developing the disease. As the disease progresses, other signs and symptoms are noted, including:

 * A painful and sometimes swollen wrist
 * Limited range of motion in the affected wrist (stiffness)
 * Decreased grip strength in the hand
 * Tenderness directly over the bone (on the top of the hand at about the middle of the wrist)
 * Pain or difficulty in turning the hand upward

Stages of Disease:

Kienböck’s disease follows a specific progressive pattern through four stages.

Treatment:

In its early stages, Kienböck’s disease may be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms are so similar to those of a sprained wrist and radiographic findings are often negative. Splinting or casting the wrist for two to three weeks is often attempted initially, as well as anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin or ibuprofen for pain relief.

Surgical options include bone grafting, bone leveling, proximal row carpectomy and eventually fusion procedures, but none are curative.

References:

 * 1) Chung KC, Spilson MS, Kim MH. Is negative ulnar variance a risk factor for Kienbock's disease? A meta-analysis. Ann Plast Surg. 2001 Nov;47(5):494-9.
 * 2) The Kienböck Disease Information Center


text:
Ordinary Differential Equations/Substitution 2

Substitution methods are really applicable anywhere you can find a differential equation. However, there's very few instances where you will always give a certain substitution. You generally pick one and plug it in as needed. So I'll give situations where you could use a substitution method, although you may later learn better methods.

Parametric equations
One time where you may need it is when solving parametric equations. Lets say we're given functions for velocity in two dimensions- $$v_x(t)$$ and $$v_y(t)$$. If we want to solve for $$y(x)$$, you have to divide $$\frac{v_y}{v_x}$$. This works out to be $$\frac{\frac{dv_y}{dx}}{\frac{dv_x}{dx}}=\frac{dy}{dx}$$. When you do this, you will frequently (although not always) get a chance to use $$\frac{y}{x}$$ substitution.

Constant velocity
Lets say we're swimming across a river with constant velocity $$v_0$$. The river has no current. We start swimming at an angle of $$\theta$$ with respect to the shore. Solve for $$y(x)$$

The first thing we need to do is break the velocity into x and y components. This is fairly simple.

 * $$v_x=v_0cos(\theta)$$
 * $$v_y=v_0sin(\theta)$$

Using simple trig, we can remove the theta.

 * $$v_x=v_0\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}$$
 * $$v_y=v_0\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}$$

Now we divide the two to find $$\frac{dy}{dx}$$.

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{v_0\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}}{v_0\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}}=\frac{y}{x}$$

Now this is simple to solve separably. It could also be solved via substitution. This is a trivial example, but it can be made more complicated.

Motion against a current
Imagine the same swimmer. Now there is a current with speed r going straight up the river (positive y direction). How does this change our example?

The x component is still the same.

 * $$\frac{dx}{dt}=v_0cos(\theta)=\frac{v_0x}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}$$

And in the y direction we also have a term due to the current.

 * $$\frac{dy}{dt}=v_0sin(\theta)+r=\frac{v_0y}{\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}+r$$

You can get $$\frac{dy}{dx}$$ by dividing the two equations

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{y}{x}+\frac{r\sqrt{x^2+y^2}}{v_0x}$$

We can move the x into the root to simplify the equation a bit

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{y}{x}+\frac{r\sqrt{\frac{x^2}{x^2}+\frac{y^2}{x^2}}}{v_0}$$

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{y}{x}+\frac{r}{v_0}\sqrt{1+\frac{y^2}{x^2}}$$

Well, this complicated equation looks like a case for $$\frac{y}{x}$$ substitution.

 * $$v=\frac{y}{x}$$

 * $$y=vx$$

 * $$y'=v+v'x$$

 * $$v+v'x=v+\frac{r}{v_0}\sqrt{1+v^2}$$

 * $$v'=\frac{r}{xv_0}\sqrt{1+v^2}$$

That looks like a nice, easily solved separable equation. Let solve it.

 * $$\frac{dv}{\sqrt{1+v^2}}=\frac{r}{xv_0}$$

 * $$\int \frac{dv}{\sqrt{1+v^2}}=\int \frac{r}{xv_0}$$

The left end is an ugly integral. Just trust me on it.

 * $$ln(v+\sqrt{1+v^2})=\frac{r}{v_0}ln(x)+C$$

 * $$v+\sqrt{1+v^2}=e^{ln(x^{\frac{r}{v_0}})+C}$$

 * $$v+\sqrt{1+v^2}=Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}$$

Lets try to get rid of that root. Isolate it, and square both sides.

 * $$\sqrt{1+v^2}=Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}-v$$

 * $$1+v^2=Cx^{2\frac{r}{v_0}}-2vCx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}+v^2$$

 * $$2vCx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}=C^2x^{2\frac{r}{v_0}}-1$$

 * $$v=\frac{Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}}{2}-\frac{1}{2Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}}$$

Plugging in for v, we get

 * $$\frac{y}{x}=\frac{Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}}{2}-\frac{1}{2Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}}$$

We can solve for y by multiplying through by x

 * $$y=\frac{Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}+1}}{2}-\frac{x}{2Cx^{\frac{r}{v_0}}}$$

 * $$y=\frac{C}{2}x^{\frac{r}{v_0}+1}-\frac{1}{2C}x^{\frac{-r}{v_0}+1}$$

This complicated equation does make sense- the bigger the current, the further you go in the y direction as a portion of the x.

If you ever find an equation this evil in real life, do yourself a favor and buy a computer program to solve it.


text:
User talk:Destrogal

Abc123 Howdy! Excellent work with the ancient page. Thanks for getting involved. Be sure to add content such as pictures, sound and external links if you find any. Try to differentiate your course from a textbook!

Hello,

I am just writing to say thank you for contributing to the course on the history of ancient philosophy. (Alex beta 21:35, 17 July 2005 (UTC))

Wikiversity vote
You might want to read rule #2 of the Wikiversity voting rules. - As it is your vote does not count. --Krischik T 07:10, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:SPanaximenesWV.png
--Derbeth 11:28, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Destrogal


text:
User talk:164.164.87.57

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 12:30, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:164.164.87.57


text:
User talk:134.171.29.62

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 12:39, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:134.171.29.62


text:
User talk:62.252.224.14

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you want to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 12:51, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:54, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.252.224.14


text:
Mythology/Egyptian Mythology

Introduction
When you think of the ancient cultures and the beginning of man, one of the first to come to mind are the Ancient Egyptians. Their culture still affects us to this day. You can find references from their religion and culture everywhere, whether it be the movies or the bible. The Egyptian culture has left us with great stories, tales and epics. The Egyptians started a lot of beliefs and traditions that we still practice to this day. They were probably the first civilization that believed in an afterlife, and the first to have any positive belief about it.

Contents

 * Gods & Deities
 * Creatures
 * Creation of the world
 * End of the World
 * The Afterlife

(please add as appropriate)

title: Mythology/Egyptian Mythology


text:
User talk:203.145.145.10

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 12:57, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.145.145.10


text:
Choosing a Car

This page details some of the factors to take into account when choosing a new or used car.

What type of car do you need?
Think carefully about what you actually need in a car. Do you need a sedan or would an SUV be sufficient? Will you use a four-wheel drive system? If you're covering long distances, fuel economy will be important. Will it be a statement of your personality? Will you be using it to pick up your kids? Or do you just need a cheap runabout that goes (skip to the last section)? Read on to find out more.

Points to consider
Evaluate these points on a scale of personal preference. In other words, which features are more important for you and which ones matter less?

Performance

 * What is the volume of the engine, in liters or cubic inches? How many cylinders does the engine have?
 * Note the peak horsepower and torque ratings and at what RPM the peaks occur. Note the top speed of the car.
 * Does the car have a manual or automatic transmission? Is it a three-, four-, five- or six-speed? A greater number of gears in the transmission mean greater fuel efficiency at high speeds (due to lower RPMs) and faster acceleration times (due to the engine spending more time near its power peak.) Is it a continuously-variable transmission?
 * Does the car come with four-wheel disc brakes or front disc and rear drum brakes?

Safety

 * What safety equipment does the car have? Note the presence of crumple zones, pre-tensioning seatbelts, number and locations of airbags, child safety locks, integrated child seating and so on.
 * How well does it score in the Euro NCAP test or the NHTSA crash tests?
 * Does the car possess traction control or a stability control systems?
 * Does the car come with anti-lock brakes?
 * If the intended driver is petite, does it have adjustable pedals to place them a safe distance away from the airbag?

Equipment

 * Is the car well equipped for its price?
 * Do you prefer cloth or leather seating surfaces?
 * Note the presence of power accessories, such as power windows, power door locks, power mirrors, and power seats.
 * Does the car come with air conditioning? Is the climate control system manual or automatic? Are there dual temperature controls?
 * Examine the car's audio system. Note presence of AM/FM radio tuner, cassette deck, and/or CD player or changer. Some audio systems may have a line-in jack for external equipment such as an MP3 player. How many speakers does the car have? Is there a subwoofer? What is the wattage rating of the audio system?
 * Note the presence of other comfort and convenience features that are important to you. Note their cost if they are available as options.

Quality and aesthetics

 * Does the manufacturer have a reputation for building quality vehicles that are not plagued by malfunctions?
 * Do you like the design of the automobile? Is the exterior pleasing to the eye? What about the interior?

Costs

 * Taking into consideration the car's size, class, and feature packages, is the car's price competitive with similar automobiles on the market?
 * What kind of warranty does the manufacturer offer? Common warranty periods include 3-year/36,000 mile, 5-year/60,000 mile, and 10-year/100,000 mile. Be sure to note the difference between bumper-to-bumper warranties, which cover all parts in the automobile, and powertrain warranties, which only cover the engine and transmission. The latter will usually have longer warranty periods.
 * How expensive will the car be to maintain and service? Are parts easily available?
 * Does the car require synthetic oils and/or premium (high-octane) fuel?
 * What will be the cost of insuring the car?
 * Will the car depreciate significantly over a 3 or 5 year period, or does it hold its resale value well?

Environmental impact

 * Is the car fuel-efficient? Note its fuel consumption, in miles per gallon, or liters per 100 kilometers. Higher fuel efficiency results in lower fuel costs, but may also require a sacrifice in performance.
 * Cars with hybrid engines, such as the Toyota Prius (right) have greater fuel efficiency in city cycles. However, it usually takes several years to recoup the hybrid car's price premium via saved fuel costs.
 * Is the car diesel-powered? Modern diesel engines are about 15% more efficient compared to gasoline engines and possess a greater amount of low-end torque, which aids in acceleration and towing. However, they generally have higher particulate emissions, such as soot.
 * Consider the amount of emissions, such as carbon dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen, that are produced by the engine. In some countries, including the UK, cars with cleaner engines incur lower road tax charges.

Test drive
Once you think that a certain car may be right, go to the dealer and ask for a test drive - it shouldn't cost you anything. If possible drive on a range of roads - the motorway, in town, country lanes, and off-road if you're going for an SUV.

During the test drive, pay particular attention to these points:

Performance

 * Note the car's acceleration. Is it satisfactory for your driving style? Do you feel you can safely merge onto a freeway?
 * Evaluate the car's handling characteristics and whether they suit your driving style. Does the car possess understeer or oversteer when turning into corners? Is the car steady at high speeds? Is the steering communicative and on-center or is it vague?
 * How well does the car brake? How well does the car perform in panic stops?

Quality and aesthetics

 * Observe the exterior of the car. Are the body panels flush with respect to each other? Are the gaps between panels small or large? Does the paint show signs of fading?
 * Observe the interior of the car. Are the panels closely fitted? Do the plastic materials feel hard and cheap or are they soft to the touch? Do the controls feel cheap or do they have good tactile response?
 * Is the instrumentation well-designed? Are all important controls located at a comfortable arm's reach?
 * Do you find the seats comfortable?
 * On the road, does the car feel solid or does it rattle over bumps? Observe noise, vibration, and harshness while coasting and accelerating.

Comparing potential choices: an example
One way to make your final choice is this:
 * 1) Make a list of three or four possible models within your budget.
 * 2) List all the qualities which are important to you, such as safety, equipment, boot / trunk space, and so on.
 * 3) Then award 3 points to the car best in each category, 2 to the second best, and 1 to the worst. If there were four cars you would award 4, 3, 2 and 1 point from best to worst.

If certain categories are more important (such as economy) you could award double or triple points, so the winner would get 6 or 9.

Here is an example, based on a choice between the "Volkswagen Contessa", the "Nissan Frisk" and the "Fiat Morning Tea", rated under ten criteria. All the details, like the cars, are entirely fictitious.

And so in this test, the Frisk is the best buy with 24 points. All three gained 3 points for safety as this was a draw; both the Contessa and the Frisk gained 2 points for the warranty because they both offered a 3-year warranty.
 * The Contessa gets 1+2+1+1+3+3+1+3+2+2=19 points,
 * The Frisk gets 3+3+3+2+2+3+2+2+1+2=24 points, and
 * The Morning Tea gets 2+1+2+3+1+3+3+1+3+3=22 points.

Renting a car before buying it
Regardless of your initial opinion of a vehicle, it might be a good idea to rent the same model for a few days before deciding to buy it. This precaution has several advantages:

 * 1) No hassle from dealership sales people. Renting allows you to drive the car when you want, how you want, and where you want. You have the freedom to take the time to "learn" the car: it's positives and negatives. You'll be able to determine whether the vehicle will meet your needs. You will also know whether you will have the visibility and the confidence and comfort to drive the vehicle.
 * 2) You'll be making a minimal investment in a rental vehicle. You will be making a financial commitment to another vehicle over the next two or three years or even longer (depending on whether you purchase or lease).
 * 3) If something should break down while driving the rental vehicle, most rental companies will be able to assist you. At the dealership, all you'll hear will be excuses about why the car broke down.
 * 4) You can make an objective evaluation of the vehicle without the pressure from a salesperson. Typically, rentals are a minimum of one day or even for a weekend so you'll have lots of time to determine whether this is the vehicle for you.

Once you've chosen the vehicle you (and your family, if applicable) feel most comfortable with, go to the dealership and test drive the new model to reinforce why you are choosing that particular vehicle. And if it's a used vehicle, be sure to arrange to have your mechanic do an inspection to ensure you aren't buying "someone else's problem(s)".

Cheap and older cars
If you are a student, or are on a limited budget, sometimes the main issue can be the mechanical condition of the car. In this case, you will want a car that will pass safety testing and not break down, while not breaking the bank. Different countries have different safety standards that the cars must pass; It may be a good idea to find a list of things your country tests before allowing a car on the road. This will eliminate any nasty surprises. There are also quite a few things to check, so prioritisation may help. Some of this advice may also apply to motorbikes.

Traps for newbies
The number of kilometers or miles that a vehicle has done does not indicate its condition. A car that has done a lot of city driving with 100,000 km on the clock may be a lot more worn than a car that has done 300,000 km of highway driving. A question you might ask the seller is "how often was the car serviced?", "do you have the receipts to prove it?". If the car has been well looked after, especially if the owner is a car enthusiast the owner may tell you a bit about the history and repairs the car has undergone. Of course this is a big unknown if the seller didn't own it for very long. The world record for the longest number of miles a car has done is 2.6 million miles, accomplished in a Volvo 1800. The owner claims he simply services the car regularly.

It is also a good idea to ask if the car has been in an accident. You may or may not get an honest answer. However, if the owner tells you that the car was in an accident, ask about the extent of the damage, how it was repaired, and if the owner has the estimate or the bill from the company that made the repairs; this will give you a better idea of the extent of the damage. Be cautious if you learn that the car's frame was bent, however slightly, in an accident. A bent frame cannot usually be fully repaired, and it can become worse as the car ages. Be aware that the car you are interested in may have been involved in a major accident or event. Written off by insurance companies as total losses due to salt water damage (Katrina) or rebuilt from salvage using several cars.

Mechanics
Generally there are a couple of things that can go wrong.

 * Loss of compression due to burnt valves or very worn piston rings
 * Damaged bearings (on the crankshaft)
 * Cam belt breaks (yikes!)

Loss of compression will cause the engine to stall if not idled at unusually high revs. This is usually caused by burnt valves or very worn piston rings. Burnt valves are usually not expensive to repair, but may indicate poor maintenance elsewhere. Damaged bearings are caused by the car running low on oil. Ask the owner when the cam or timing belt was last replaced. Cam or timing belts usually last around 80,000 km or 5 years. Check the owners manual for specific belt replacement times. If you are lucky and have "Free running" valves, a broken timing belt will only leave you stranded on the roadside. If you have "Interference" type valves a broken timing belt may can cause the heads of the valves to impact the tops of the piston often resulting in very expensive repairs. It is advisable to check with the dealer or manufacturer to check which type of valve is used. Always change the timing belt on engines with interference valves at the recommended interval.

Exhaust
Put your hand on the exhaust. There should be a good pressure build up, or there is a leak/hole in the exhaust somewhere. (Basically your hand should be forced off)

After doing this, sniff your hand (Sniffing the exhaust directly is not recommended!). If there is a smell of petrol, the car is running rich. If it wasn't already, try this again later when the car is warmed up (5-10 minute drive usually does it). If the exhaust still smells you could get better fuel economy by getting it tuned.

If the car is emitting white smoke, this is normal (it is actually steam). If the car is emitting blue tinged smoke, then the car is burning oil. This indicates significant engine wear. Ask the owner how often they have to top up the oil. If it uses all its oil within a couple of thousand kms or miles, the engine may be on its last legs. If you don't use it much and it's a really cheap car it may still be worth it, however.

If the car burns oil continuously, then the piston rings are worn. If you, for example, take your foot off the accelerator while going downhill and then accelerate at the bottom and a puff of smoke comes out the back, then the valve guides are worn. (Get a friend to follow you in another car to confirm the latter.)

Piston rings are expensive to replace, valve guides can usually be ignored. But do ask the owner how often they top up the oil and how much they put in. If they never check the oil, check it yourself! It might be empty or very dirty! (Which could lead to a lot of expensive wear)

Engine noise
There are a lot of normal engine noises. If there is a noise that sounds suspicious (such a loud rattling) use your judgement, or ask a mechanic. A roughly running engine may only require a tune up or it may have expensive damage. If the seller claims it only requires a tune up, ask why they haven't done so, and be very suspicious without a second opinion. Claiming an engine only requires a tune up is a very common excuse for much more serious damage.

A rattling noise can mean the cam chain (if the car doesn't have a cam belt) is loose. It may require adjusting or replacement. If you think of an engine as a rectangular shape, the cam chain is at one of the ends.

A ticking noise can simply mean that the tappets require adjustment. This is usually normal if a car has not been serviced in a long time. Tappet adjustment is not a difficult task if you are into fixing things.

A rumbling noise in the bottom of the engine can indicate worn bearings. This can be expensive to replace.

Knocking noises are hard to distinguish. They indicate a lean fuel mixture or the car running on a lower octane fuel than it was designed. This can lead to burnt valves.

Springs
To make sure your springs and dampeners (shock absorbers) are in good condition, push the car down HARD on each of its four corners. If the car acts like a spring, i.e. it bounces up and down, then the shock absorbers are worn. The car should rise back up after pushing down, but bounce very little or not at all.

If the car has been lowered, ask the owner if the springs have been cut. In order to lower a car, a common trick is to cut a section out of the springs. This makes the springs shorter, thus lowering the car. This is very cheap and arguably dangerous, especially if a poor job was done.

Brakes
If the car has vacuum braking (or 'power' brakes) the brake pedal should depress easily for a bit and then harden up. If the car doesn't have vacuum braking, then the brakes will not be extremely easy to depress for the first bit. If the brake pedal feels soft, kind of spongy, there may be air in the brake lines. You can basically 'pump up' the brakes if this is the case. Try pumping the brakes several times, and they will go from spongy to hard. This is usually easily fixed, take a note to see a mechanic; ask them if the brakes just need bleeding.

If the car squeals when you brake, it could mean the brake pads are worn to the bone so to speak. If the car has disc brakes (most cars do, at least on the two front wheels) you will see a metallic disc behind the wheel with a brick shaped clamp around it. If you take a close look from behind the brick, you will see the disc in the middle, and two plates on either side. If you get a friend to press the brakes, the plates will push onto the middle disc. If the plates have a smaller piece of material sticking out in between them and the disc (looks a bit like solid sandpaper) that's the pads themselves and it means there's some left.

Wheel Bearings
If the car's wheel bearings are worn, there will be a rumbling sound audible from the tire when the car is rolling.

C.V. Joints
If the car makes a click click noise when you turn with the steering wheel fully locked, it indicates wear of the CV joints. This can be comparatively expensive to fix if the car is cheap. This only applies to front wheel drive or 4 wheel drive vehicles.

Rust
This totally depends on the safety test of your country. Generally cars that have noticeable amounts of rust are going to get worse, fast! The exception is if they are garaged which may slow the process. Some specific areas prone to rust that may become safety concerns should be investigated these are: -brake lines especially in locations where salt and sand accumulates. -gas tanks. Look for rust along the top of the tank and any welded seams where salt and sand will sit. Wet areas and the smell of gasoline will indicate seepage. - holes in the body that access the passenger compartment. Lift up carpeting and liners especially in the trunk area and look for signs of road dust. -front and rear suspension towers. These are the large pockets in the car body that house and provide support points for the coil springs and struts. When these become seriously rusted they may collapse. Repair is often expensive or impossible. - areas around the pillars (these hold the roof up)and are difficult to repair - areas of the frame or reinforcing channels on unibody cars exposed to salt and sand. If in doubt get an expert opinion. If there is a bit of general minor rust you're probably ok, but if there is significant rusting, you may not pass the safety inspection.

title: Choosing a Car


text:
Gambas/Difficult

What I think makes Gambas hard to use.
The only thing I find hard about Gambas is the lack of good tutorials.

Take the "goto" tutorial for example. I think this it is a very bad example on how to use the goto command.

Why? Because after studying it I still have trouble using the goto command. What would have been better is if the example just showed me how to goto a certain part.

like this:

 * a = print "hello"
 * goto a

or

 * a = print "hello"
 * b = print "gamabs"
 * goto a then b
 * goto b then a

Edit 10/3/06

First be aware that goto is bad programming practice. It is a holdover from the old days of GWBasic with its line numbers and lack of proper control structures.

Using goto creates code that is hard to follow and debug and lacks logical structure - so called spaghetti code.

That said, goto works like this

goto a a:

Print "Hello World"

b:

Print "Hello Wicked World"

The output of this will be BOTH print statements because goto simply branches to the defined label and then continues to the end of the sub/function.

Change the goto to 'goto b" and only the second statement prints.

This example will not work in Gambas, but it wasn't meant to, I just wrote this to help you understand what I mean. I think all Gambas tutorials should start with very simple examples and work their way up to advance examples.

title: Gambas/Difficult


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Troubleshooting

ATI Radeon Slowdown Problems
Go the ATI site driver downloads section and select the appropriate OS/graphic card. This will (most likely) link you to the d/l for the current Catalyst 4.4 drivers.

At the bottom of that page is a link to "Previous driver versions".

D/L the Catalyst 3.7 driver package. Run the EXE and it will extract the driver install package to:

C:\ATI\SUPPORT\

In this directory will be a directory named (for XP/Win2K users: \wxp-w2k-7-93-030812a1-010735c-efg\

This is where the driver install package is located. DO NOT RUN THE SETUP. You don't need to install the old driver.

Navigate down thru the dir structure to the following dir: C:\ATI\SUPPORT\wxp-w2k-7-93-030812a1-010735c-efg\2KXP_INF\B_10679

In this dir you'll find a file called: atioglxx.dl_ This is a "packed" version of the ATI OGL driver.

The next step specifies how you can extract these files to your hard disk using the 'expand.exe' utility included on the cd.

The 'I386' folder on the Windows XP CD contains a utility 'expand.exe' that can be used to uncompress all compressed dll files. It is a commandline utility, so you have will have to run it from either the command prompt or the Run dialog. Some examples of its usage are: expand X:\I386\ADROT.DL_ C:\ADROT.DLL The above command decompresses the compressed DLL ADROT.DL_ on the WinXP CD, copies it to C:, and changes the extension to .DLL.

Just extract that file (atioglxx.dll) to your Blender install directory. Usually C:\Program Files\Blender Foundation\Blender\

Launch Blender.... no more slowdown.

Addendum: I found this solved a problem of crashing on start up after updating my Catalyst driver from 7.2 to 7.8, that is expanding the old 7.2 atioglxx.dl_ to atioglxx.dll and copying it to the Blender directory.

For people who the above solution leads to Blender crash at start up

 * Thanks to Xenobius at Blenderartists Forum

This solution is tested on ATI radeon express 200 (x200) integrated video card. However it should work on other ATI card.

Download the Nvidia 53.03 Driver HERE

Extract the driver to C:\NVIDIA

Copy the nvoglnt.dll from the C:\NVIDIA folder to your blender program folder (i.e. C:\Programs Files\Blender 2.40\)

Rename nvoglnt.dll (the one in the blender program folder) to atioglxx.dll

Run blender...voilà! Blender runs like it should!

[This works, because it can't use proper gl calls and uses no hardware acceleration so speed goes crappy...]

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Troubleshooting


text:
Talk:Editing Wikitext/Pictures

Naming policy
Please review this naming policy, as all books are required to comply with it - be careful when moving pages. Thanks. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:22, 29 March 2008 (UTC)
 * I have reverted the bad naming of this module again, per policy. If it is changed back to a form which does not comply with policy, I will have the module protected against moves. If you aren't aware of the policy, please read it. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:05, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Editing Wikitext/Pictures


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Metabolic Basic/Rickets

Rickets is a disorder of infancy and early childhood of multiple etiologies. Rickets, causing soft bones, may occur if enough vitamin D is not present to assist in calcium absorption. When enough calcium is not absorbed by the bone, it does not harden properly, and is too soft to support the weight of the growing body properly. The disease of rickets takes its name from the Greek word for spine, rhakhis.

Etiology
Vitamin D is made by the body when it is exposed to ultraviolet light (which is found in sunlight). Vitamin D is also added to milk, milk products, and multi-vitamin pills through a process originally patented by Harry Steenbock. Some people who do not get enough sun exposure, milk products, or green vegetables may also develop the disease. Deficiency of calcium can also cause rickets, particularly in some developing countries where the intake of calcium-rich products such as leafy greens, nuts, and seeds is low.

Hereditary rickets, is caused by an inherited disease that interferes with the resorption of renal tubular phosphate in the kidney. Rickets can also be caused by certain liver diseases.

A similar disorder can occur in adults, and is called osteomalacia. Then, it is caused by the inability of bone cells to calcify, or harden. Less frequently, nutritional shortage of calcium or phosphorus may produce rickets.

Manifestations of disease
Rickets causes bone pain, slowed growth in children, dental problems, muscle loss and increased risk of fractures (easily broken bones). Medical problems seen in children with rickets are

 * 1) Vitamin D deficiency,
 * 2) Skeletal deformity,
 * 3) Growth disturbance,
 * 4) Hypocalcemia (low level of calcium in the blood),
 * 5) Tetany (uncontrolled muscle spasms).

The X-ray, or radiograph, in the article is the classic image of advanced rickets sufferers: bow legs (outward curve of long bone of the legs) and a deformed chest. Changes in the skull also occur causing a distinctive "square headed" appearance. These deformities persist into adult life.

Treatment and prevention
Treatment involves increasing dietary intake of calcium, phosphates and Vitamin D. Exposure to sunshine, cod liver oil, halibut-liver oil, and viosterol are all sources of vitamin D.

A sufficient amount of sunlight each day and adequate supplies of calcium and phosphorus in the diet can prevent rickets. Darker-skinned babies need to be exposed longer to the ultraviolet rays. The replacement of Vitamin D may correct rickets using these methods of ultraviolet light and medicine.


text:
Movie Making Manual/Short Ends

What is a "short end"?
A "short end" is a can of unexposed filmstock that low-budget filmmakers can use as free filmstock.

Why do they exist?
Well, consider any typical film shoot. They will load the camera with filmstock and shoot. If they finish the day before finishing the film loaded in the camera then they'll split the film loaded in the camera: the exposed footage will go off to their lab for developing whilst the unexposed footage will go into a can to be used at a future date.

But why doesn't the production company in question re-use the short end?
Because they won't get negative insurance (insurance which will pay for a re-shoot if the negative film turns out to be duff).

Oh, and what's a "re-can"?
A re-can is filmstock that has been loaded into a magazine but never used in the camera. Re-cans contain as much filmstock as a new can would (i.e. either 400 or 1000 foot).

Great, how do I get short ends?
Spend a day on the phone calling up your local production companies. If you want to be clever then find try to find companies which only shoot on film. Say "Hi, my name's blah and I'm producing a low budget film. I'm sorry to bother you but I was wondering if you happened to have any 16mm short ends kicking about?" Most will say "no". One or two will say "um, what's a short end?". And about 1 in 100 will say "sure, come over later".

Make sure you're very polite and thankful. Make sure you credit the people who helped you out.

When you go to collect the short ends, take a big bag and a friend. You don't want to have to turn down any short ends just because you can't carry enough.

UK

 * http://www.kftv.com/product-4410.html
 * http://www.theknowledgeonline.com/
 * http://www.4rfv.co.uk/

How to I test my short ends?
You do a dip test at a developing lab. They will take a few foot from each can and test it. About half your cans will probably fail. Don't chuck this stock away though - it's useful for learning to load a camera.

/Cinematography /Pre-production /Production

title: Movie Making Manual/Short Ends


text:
User:Jim Cocola

Jim Cocola is a Ph.D. candidate in the English Department at the University of Virginia, and a Wh.D. candidate in the School of Media Studies at the Wikiversity.

He became a full-fledged Wikipedian on Bastille Day, 2005.

title: User:Jim Cocola


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Informal Logic

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Informal Logic

For now, see Informal Logic.


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Formal Logic

Logicians describe various formal systems of logic which are intended to match a precise but limited range of reasoning. Each such system defines a formal language. A scope of such a system—and the corresponding expressability of its formal language—matches the range of reasoning it is supposed to describe.


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic

Sentential Logic

Complete Sentential Logic in a Single Module   (Very large page, loads very slowly)

Contents

 * 1) Sentential Logic

title: Formal Logic/Sentential Logic


text:
Talk:Samba

This should be a tutoral samba, anything and everything. I will update it as I can (and as I learn) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 206.40.146.193 (talk • contribs) 22:00, 14 Jul 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Samba


text:
User:Bryant

MSU Freshman studying Film/Computers

title: User:Bryant


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Life Cycle/Development Methodologies

Iterative Development Method
the Wikipedia entry

Waterfall Development Method
the Wikipedia entry

Agile Development Method
the Wikipedia entry


text:
User talk:65.16.220.32

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:43, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.16.220.32


text:
User talk:172.212.226.108

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:49, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:172.212.226.108


text:
User talk:207.105.169.167

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:51, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:207.105.169.167


text:
User talk:62.252.224.15

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you want to experiment, please use the sandbox. Thank you. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:56, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.252.224.15


text:
User talk:84.188.50.67

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 23:59, 14 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.188.50.67


text:
User talk:211.25.50.10

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 00:11, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:211.25.50.10


text:
User talk:Pyro~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 00:14, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

Thanks!
Thanks for the advice. I'm really enjoying working at wikibooks.org.

 * You're welcome.:) (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 00:23, 16 July 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pyro. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pyro~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:38, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:23, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pyro~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Slapout~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 00:21, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Slapout. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Slapout~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:30, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Slapout~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Rocastelo

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 00:22, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rocastelo


text:
User:Denni~enwikibooks

See my Wikipedia account.

title: User:Denni~enwikibooks


text:
PHP Programming/Setup and Installation

Principle
Since PHP is a server-side technology, you should naturally expect to invest some time in setting up a server environment for production, development or learning. To be frank, PHP is quite easy to set up compared to other monsters like J2EE.

Nevertheless, the procedures are complicated by the various combinations of different versions of web server, PHP and database (most often MySQL). That's why in a process of learning it's possible to execute some commands on http://phpfiddle.org/ or Tutorialspoint, without installing anything.

Below we will introduce the steps needed to set up a working PHP environment with MySQL database on one's machine.

Linux
If your desktop runs on Linux, chances are that Apache, PHP, and MySQL are already installed for you. This wildly popular configuration is commonly referred to as LAMP, i.e. Linux Apache MySQL PHP, or P, the latter 'P', can also refer to Perl another major player in the opensource web service arena. If some components are not installed, you will likely have to manually install the following packages:

 * Apache or Lighttpd
 * PHP
 * MySQL or Postgres
 * The PHP integration plugin for the database.

Debian or its derivatives
On Debian or its derivatives, Ubuntu included, you can use the corresponding commands:

If you chose to use Ubuntu with Apache and MySQL you might wish to utilize the Ubuntu community site for such a configuration ubuntu lamp wiki.

Gentoo
For Gentoo Linux users, the gentoo-wiki has this HowTo available: Apache2 with PHP and MySQL.

In general, you'll want to do the following under Gentoo:

RPM-based
The exact procedures depend on your Linux distribution. On a Fedora system, the commands are typically as follows:

It's impossible to cover all the variants here, so consult your Linux distribution's manual for more details, or grab a friend to do it for you.

One sure-fire way of getting PHP up and running on your *nix system is to compile it from source. This isn't as hard as it may sound and there are good instructions available in the PHP manual.

Windows
PHP on Windows is also a very popular option. On a Windows platform, you have the option to use either the open source Apache web server, or the native Internet Information Services (IIS) server from Microsoft, which can be installed by searching the start menu or control panel for 'Turn Windows Features On or Off' (Windows 7, 8, 10), or via Windows CD on older installations. When you have one of these servers installed, you can download and install the appropriate PHP Windows binaries distributions from the PHP download page. The installer version requires less user-interaction.

For increased performance you will want to use FastCGI. There is a wikibook that will assist you on Setting up IIS with FastCGI.

Databases
On Microsoft Windows you must always install your own database.

Some popular choices are the open source Postgres, SQLite, and MySQL. Postgres and SQLite are more liberally licensed, and are free to use for commercial purposes.SQLite is solely an embedded database, similar to Microsoft Access, and is hosted on the same application server as the PHP instance or applications that are referencing it, whereas MySQL and Postgres are typically used a database server that may be connected to by many machines at once.

PostgreSQL
Official Zend documentation: http://us.php.net/pgsql

Postgres is simple and easy to install, browse to http://www.postgresql.org/ftp/binary/v8.3.0/win32/ and download the exe and double-click.

MySQL
Official MySQL documentation: http://us.php.net/mysql

You might wish to install the MySQL database. You can download the Windows version of MySQL, and follow the installation instructions. If you have PHP 4, you do not need to install the equivalence of php-mysql on Linux, as MySQL support is built-in in Windows distributions of PHP. In PHP 5 you will need to uncomment the following line in your php.ini file (that is, remove the ';' at the beginning of the line):

Bundled Package
If you find all the above too much a hassle, you have another option. Driven by the eternal desire to do things the safe/easy way, several conveniently packaged AMP bundles of Apache/MySQL/PHP can be found on the net. One of them is PHPTriad. Or, you can try Uniform Server. It is a small WAMP Package. (The acronym WAMP refers to a server stack where Microsoft Windows is the operating system, Apache is the Web server, MySQL handles the database components, and PHP, Python, or PERL represents the dynamic scripting languages). Uniformserver is packaged as a self-extracting zip archive, and is easy to use. After trying it out you can simply delete the directory and everything is clean. XAMPP for Windows is another WAMP server that is easy to use. In addition, it has an installation option that allows you to install it on a computer if you have administration rights. XAMPP has options to run PERL and JAVA (on a tomcat server). A number of other portable Windows AMP package choices are summarized at List of portable Web Servers.

Also, a package installer called WAMPserver is available. It simply installs Apache, PHP and MySQL on windows with ease.

Easy Windows Setup Instructions
1) PHP authoring environment
 * Any text editor will do, but I recommend one with syntax coloring especially for someone new to coding or PHP. Notepad++ is my favorite so far with its ease of use, customizability and the ability to collapse tags. All editor help will be in reference to Notepad++
 * Install Notepad++. Download the binary file from here: http://notepad-plus.sourceforge.net/uk/site.htm

2) PHP running environment
 * Now that you have the ability to create and save PHP files you need an environment that can process them and generate the output that your browser displays. There are two ways to accomplish this.
 * 1) Get a web host that supports PHP and upload your files every time you make a change.
 * 2) Use your own computer as a personal server with PHP support, and only upload final versions to a web host.
 * Accomplishing 2. above is actually easier than you think (assuming you are running Windows).
 * 1) Download The uniform server. Here is the link to the latest version: http://sourceforge.net/projects/miniserver/files/
 * 2) Run the self-extractor UniServerX_Y_Z.exe. Copy the directory to your "C:" drive so the full path is "C:\UniServer".
 * 3) In the directory where you had it extract hit the "Start.exe" file to get the server running
 * 4) Place any files and subfolders you want the server to read and process in the "www" folder.
 * 5) Your web browser should open to "http://localhost/index.php"
 * Now you have the resources to effectively edit PHP documents and process them on your own computer.
 * Here is how to create a test page
 * 1) Inside "C:\UniServer\www\", create a webpage called "test.php"
 * 2) Edit "test.php" with Notepad++, and copy the following

Hello world! Hello world! Hello world!
 * 1) Save the webpage as "C:\UniServer\www\test.php"
 * 2) Open "http://localhost/test.php" in your web browser to view the page. You should see:
 * 1) (Optional: Follow these instructions for how to make PHP code work with webpages that end in ".html" in addition to ".php": http://www.desilva.biz/php/phpinhtml.html)

Mac OS X
Mac OS X comes with Apache server as standard, and enabling it is as simple as checking the box next to 'Personal Web Sharing' in the 'Sharing' section of System Preferences. Once you have done this you can place files in /Library/WebServer/Documents to access them on your server. Mac OS X does come with PHP but the installation lacks any significant quantity of extensions, so if you want any you're going to have to install PHP yourself. You can do this by following the instructions in Apple's Developer Connection, or you can download an automatic installer such as the ones available at Entropy. Once you've done one of those, you'll have a server with PHP running on your Mac.

To install MySQL just download and run the OS X installer package or use XAMPP for MacOS X.

If you use unix or learning it, however, compiling might be the way to go for all three, or just the ones you like. The advantage is that you can choose exactly that extensions you want for PHP and Apache. Also you can choose which versions to compile together. To do this make sure you have the Developer Tools installed. They are shipped with OS X.

= How Do I Know My Setup is Working? =

After you have successfully completed the previous section, it's time to make sure that everything went well. You also get the chance to write your very first PHP scripts! Open your favourite plain text editor (not Microsoft Word or another word processor), and type the following magical line:

Save it as phpinfo.php in your web server's root document directory. If you are using a web hosting server, upload it to the server to where you would place HTML files. Now, open up your web browser, and go to http://localhost/phpinfo.php, or http://your-web-hosting-server.com/phpinfo.php if you are using a web hosting server, and look at the output.

Now scroll down that page and make sure there is a table with the title "mysql", and the top row should read: "MySQL support: enabled". If your output does not have this, your particular installation of PHP does not have MySQL support enabled. Note that this test doesn't tell you whether MySQL server is running. You should fire up your MySQL client and check before you proceed.

Some dedicated php or script editors even have color coding of different words that can be very useful for finding mistakes. A free implementation of this is the powerful Notepad++, available from Sourceforge and licensed under the GPL.

title: PHP Programming/Setup and Installation


text:
User talk:Denni~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 01:04, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Denni. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Denni~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:09, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:52, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Denni~enwikibooks


text:
Statistics/Methods of Data Collection

The main portion of Statistics is the display of summarized data. Data is initially collected from a given source, whether they are experiments, surveys, or observation, and is presented in one of four methods:

 * Textual Method : The reader acquires information through reading the gathered data.
 * Tabular Method : Provides a more precise, systematic and orderly presentation of data in rows or columns.
 * Semi-tabular Method : Uses both textual and tabular methods.
 * Graphical Method : The utilization of graphs is most effective method of visually presenting statistical results or findings.

title: Statistics/Methods of Data Collection


text:
User talk:208.131.172.149

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 02:51, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:208.131.172.149


text:
History of Historical Writing

Frontmatter

 * /Preface/

Chapters

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) /Archaic Historians/
 * 3) /Ancient Historians/
 * 4) /Medieval Historians/
 * 5) /Early Modern Historians/
 * 6) /Enlightenment and Historical Professionalization/
 * 7) /Academic Historians/

Appendices

 * /Bibliography/

title: History of Historical Writing


text:
History of Historical Writing/Preface

History of Historical Writing

The following is a Wikibook textbook on the history and the development of historical writing. It consists of information compiled from various sources listed within the Bibliography by individuals like yourself.

A Wikibook can be edited by anyone who wants to expand the usability and correctness of the work, however, please do not contribute any works that you do not hold the copyright to. If you find that this textbook is incomplete, feel free to fill in the blanks.

See also: History, Historiography and List of historians on Wikipedia

title: History of Historical Writing/Preface


text:
Learn Electronics

/Foreword/
(Note book is under construction)
 * 1) Aim of book
 * 2) Prerequisites
 * 3) Materials

/Basics/

 * 1) Basic Theory
 * 2) Open/Closed/Short Circuit
 * 3) Circuit Diagrams

/Resistors/

 * 1) Materials - as Chapter 1, but add the multimeter (describe how to measure battery voltage) and high wattage resistors (or use some nichrome wire?; show circuit symbol).
 * 2) Voltage drop - connect in series with light bulb and observe drop in brightness, measure with multimeter.
 * 3) Ohms law - describe how to measure resistance, then calculate current from voltage drop, do an experiment to check.
 * 4) A couple more experiments here...

/Capacitors/

 * 1) Materials
 * 2) Charging and Discharging
 * 3) more...

/Alternating Current/
The previous chapters dealt with DC. This chapter gives a brief introduction to AC or Alternating Current. Although most people associate AC with the 120V or 230V outlets, it also involves any other electric signal which change polarity periodically e.g. audio signals. This chapter will address a small subset of AC signals: single phase AC as it's produced by the electricity company and delivered through the outlets in your home.

A note on safety: This chapter doesn't contain experiments. There are 2 reasons for this. First, any interesting experiments would require the use of an oscilloscope. Secondly, experimenting with electricity from an outlet is dangerous in so many ways: Death through electrocution, 3rd degree burns from electricity, house fire after a short circuit,... Schools have special infrastructure to be able to do such experiments in relative safety. Most of them would use a variable AC power supply rather than AC outlets anyway.

What is AC?

This image shows a typical AC signal. How this signal changes over time is shown. If you've had trigonometry you'll notice the typical shape of the sinus function.

This image shows the amplitude of the AC signal, denoted as Um. This is the highest value the signal reaches.

If you look at the 2 lines marked with the T, you'll see they connect 2 identical points on the sine curve. The time it takes to get from the first to the second point is called the period and is indicated with the symbol T. This is a time and therefore expressed in seconds (or more likely milliseconds ms).

Frequency is the inverse of the period: f = 1 / T and is expressed in Hertz (Hz). It's defined as the number of periods per second.

title: Learn Electronics


text:
Learn Electronics/Foreword

1. Aim of book: To make it possible for people to read this and start creating their own electronic devices and understanding them. Introducing theories only when they apply to what the reader is doing (follow the Keep It Short and Simple rule).

Although the Electronics wikibook has about the same goal, it introduces too many theories that don't apply to beginners and no hands-on experience, making it impossible to learn out of that book. Links to some theories in that book may be added so they are not replicated on both books, unless it needs to be shortened.

2. Prerequisites: Some knowledge of physics and math is assumed

3. Materials: You may want to consider getting the following materials: Breadboard, and a source of voltage to start with. (under construction) =Sources of Direct current (DC) Voltage=

I have 2 sets of 3-volt (two 1.5 volt each in series) D-size batteries, one new, call it black, and the other used, call it red. The open-circuit actual measured voltages are approximately Red=2.75 Volt, Black=2.97 Volt. Each of these sets of batteries has an internal resistance which can be calculated as follows:
 * For simple hands-on experiences to learn about Electronics it is best to start with BATTERIES as a simple source of electricity. All sorts of types of batteries are available, and it is important to select the correct type for the particular usage.
 * AN EXAMPLE:

..... Use a load resistance, but which? My ammeter has a range with a full-scale deflection of 0.5 Amperes, which I could get by using a resistor having about 3/0.5 = 6 Ohms (6 Ω). But I do not have such a resistor.

..... Using a 25 Ω resistor as a load, I get a current flow of 95 milliamperes (mA) from the black batteries. Calculating the total approximate resistance in circuit (internal plus external) 2.97/0.097=31.3 Ohms (total). Deduct the external 25 Ω, and get approximately 6 Ω for the internal resistance of the black battery set.

..... Using the same 25 Ω external resistor, I get a current flow of only 60 mA from the red batteries, which indicates an approximate internal resistance of (2.75/0.060) - 25 = 46 - 25 = 21 Ω.

 * Another simple source of DC is a BATTERY CHARGER. This gets its energy from one of the sockets usually available at the bottom in every room. A battery charger starts off with Alternating Current (AC) derived from the mains/line via that socket, and, using one or more rectifiers, converts it into Direct Current (DC) whose voltage keeps changing very quickly all the time from zero to maximum and back again. Often a Capacitor, also sometimes called a Condenser, is used to "smooth" the available DC voltage, and the resulting DC. It is connected across the DC voltage source.
 * An example of a battery charger with 3 different output circuits described on the label:
 * 1) for two or four AA, two or four C or two or four D rechargeable batteries (2.9V, 100 mA for two in series)
 * 2) for only one 9V rechargeable battery (9V, 5 mA), and
 * 3) for only one(?) AAA rechargeable battery (5.8V 18mA).
 * Some manufacturers have on the battery label their instruction showing for how long their rechargeable battery should be charged. Never attempt to "charge" any battery not labelled as being rechargeable - it may be dangerous.

 * Many different types of adapters are available that supply either AC or DC for toys, players/recorders, etc. at the correct voltage as required. The correct adapter must be used for each purpose.

=Sources of Alternating current (AC) Voltage=
 * CAUTION! Using the wall socket as source can be very dangerous, and should be postponed until much is known about electricity, its uses, and safety measures associated with it.
 * The voltage available at the wall socket is too high for elementary experimentation, but transformers are available that will reduce the voltage to non-dangerous levels. Look for adapters that also are available in many different types and AC voltages.

Next chapter: ../Basics/ | Go back to Index

title: Learn Electronics/Foreword


text:
History of Historical Writing/Introduction

< Table of Contents

Introduction
This wikibook is about the development of historical writing.

Prolegomena
There are many ways in which such a history could be organized for individuals. For example, we could organize the narrative spatially, discussing the historians of the individual countries. Or we could identify the principal forms of historical writing, such as the chronicle, the annal, the monumental inscription, the monograph, the treatise, the legend, the biography and its cousins, and so on and so forth. Or we could enumerate the different forms of philosophy of history and the conceptions of history, and then exemplify these forms by correlating them with their styles and representatives. And these are just a few of the possible approaches.

However, historians have a gentle preference for chronological arrangements, and that with good reason. For each of the different organizing principles we have just named — countries, historical forms of writing, philosophies and conceptions of history — are themselves historical. Countries change; their boundaries move; their territories are renamed; their rivers change their courses or stop running altogether. Equally literary forms: they are invented, they undergo development, they fall out of fashion, they get rediscovered. The process for philosophies of history is not dissimilar.

The intention is now clear: Organizing a historical narrative along forms that are themselves historical complicates the matter considerably. It is therefore appealing to use time, that is, an idealized linear chronological sequence of time, as a common reference system, in which all the changes of the other principles can be put into relation to each other and described.

Unfortunately, a chronological sequence is merely a start. Most of what historians work with beyond just time is itself historical. This is especially true for many of the words with which historians write and for many of the concepts that historians use. At the same time, we would prefer not to be restricted to those words that the historians of a particular time knew or employed.

The method historians employ to get around this apparent contradiction of wanting to use the concepts and words of their subject matter but also use the conceptual tools since then developed is to use the hermeneutical circle. Basically, the hermeneutical circle says that as one studies and re-studies evidence from the past, one comes to a deeper understanding of its meaning by realizing the assumption the reader made and the assumptions that the author made, and reflecting them explicitly.

Finally, we must briefly think about the problem of historical interest. Almost any event of significant size is so rich in detail that one could not enumerate the detail completely. At the same time, not every little detail is in fact "relevant" in all situations. That is why in historical writing we find "historical interest" at work, namely the observation that the authors of historical texts will choose from the multitude of details those details that they consider relevant to the stories that they want to tell.

The problem is that people can and will disagree on what the important details of an event are. In addition, rhetorical devices such as the "lie of omission" indicate that manipulating the amount of information can seriously distort the impression that one gets of an event. At the same time, historical interest is itself historical and influenced by socio-political conventions.

Thus, with the above said in mind, we will attempt a chronological reconstruction of the history of historical writing. The following briefly sketches the contents of the individual chapters.

Archaic Historians
In our modern information society, it may be surprising to learn that historical writing was a relative late development. But people who could write were few; and since they were writing, others had to provide food and shelter for them. Consequently, it was not until the first bureaucratic states, such as Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, that the surplus of food and labor was sufficient to make historical writing possible.

At the same time, the historians writing for the pharaos, priests and kings of the ancient civilizations are rarely known to us by name. There was little interest in their authorship; the focus of their writing was on the deeds and tribulations of their masters, states, people or colleagues. Indeed, initially I was tempted to call this chapter not the archaic, but the anonymous historians, for this seems to be one of their key characteristics.

Their stylistic repertoire was equally limited. Often, these early historians were primarily chronicler of events, that is, they wrote a form of historical writing that simply enumerates the individual events but provides no overarching narrative or structure.

Ancient Historians
With the beginning of the 5th century BC, we begin to encounter the first historians who are authors in the modern sense of the word, that is, people who are associated with their works in the mind of their audience.

For the Mediterranean world, this means writers like Herodotus of Halicarnassus, Thucydides, Livy, Plutarch or Flavius Josephus, to name just a few of the more well-known names.

The majority of the writing that was produced at the beginning of this period was still intended for public reading to the audience. The authors might travel from settlement to settlement and read from their stories. As the period progressed, the number of people with literary training in society increased. As a result, historical writings for a more personal consumption were produced. Writers like Xenophon come to mind, who not only wrote books intended for public, that is, political consumption, such as his Anabasis, but also books to be circulated among good friends, such as his Hellenica.

The situation is more complicated for the Far East. Take China, where during the period of the Warring States, some form of historiography must have taken place, as the Confucian Classics include both a Book of History and an annal, the Spring and Autumn Annals of the State of Lu. Unfortunately, the authors of these works remain anonymous, assuming that Confucius primarily functioned as their editor. It is not until Sima Qian's Records of the Great Historian that we can associate a name and a biography with a great Chinese history.

Toward the latter third of this period, we see the rise of Christian Church Historiography, a topic that would deserve its own Wikibook.

Medieval Historians
The state of historical writing in the West changes very drastically with the fragmentation of the Roman Empire at the end of the 5th century AD, and the invasion of the Germanic tribes. In the western half of the empire, local pockets of both the ability to write and the ability to deal with existant sources remain, especially in the larger cities and on the more secure island of Ireland. Administrators of the Roman state or the Christian churches, such as Gregory of Tours, Paulus Diaconus or Bishop Asser continue to write historical records of their times, often with heavy theological interpretative agendas. The new potentates of the former Roman provinces sponsored annals and chronicles, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, and eventually also vitae, that is descriptions of their life. Two mid 9th-century examples would be Einhard's Vita Caroli and Notker's De Carolo Magno.

For the former Eastern half of the Roman Empire, most of the cultural productivity remains focused in the capital Byzanthium. The production of historical writing revolves around the maintenance of existing literature and of writing that is relevant to the imperial court, e.g. the Alexiad of Anna Commena, one of the first female historiographers we will encounter.

 * development of Persian historiography and the "passing of the staff" to the Arabs and finally to the North African historiographer Ibn Khaldun

 * the developments in China, Japan, Korea (including the Secret History of the Mongols and similar such things)

 * the developments in India

Early Modern Historians

 * the rise of Humanism

 * the Reformation and its impact on historiography

 * Machiavelli, Montesquieue and other fans of the past

 * the historiographers of the New World, such as Landa and Diaz

 * the historical writings of the Incas and Aztecs

Englightment and Historical Professionalization

 * the criticism of existing world history in Spinoza and Bayle

 * Vico, a transitional figure

 * Voltaire and the French Encyclopedists

 * the librarians as historians: Lessing and Hume

 * Marx and the discovery of the economic problem

 * David Friedrich Strauss (maybe Feuerbach?) and other examples of historical writers who could live off their writing

 * what's happening in the rest of the world?

Academic Historians

 * the rise of University Historiography

 * the development of the philosophy of history

 * the rise of University geography

 * the rise of nationalism and its influence on historiography: Ranke and Droysen

 * the invention of sociology and the historical question: Durkheim, Weber, et al.

 * European University Historiography goes to America

 * WWI

 * historiography and Faschism

 * WWII

 * the rise of Social History

 * the development of Structuralism

 * the development of Post-Modernism


text:
Template:History of Historical Writing

Introduction | Archaic Historians | Ancient Historians | Medieval Historians | Early Modern Historians | Enlightenment & Professionalization | Academic Historians

title: Template:History of Historical Writing


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 3/Absolute Necessities

The Absolute Necessities of the Christian Faith

 * The one who comes to God must believe. Hebrews 11: 6

 * You must be born again. John 3: 3

 * Christ must have suffered. Acts 17: 3

 * He must rise again from the dead. John 20: 9

 * No other name except Jesus whereby we must be saved. Acts 4: 12

 * He must increase, but I must decrease. John 3: 30

 * Righteousness before God must come from Christ Jesus and through the Holy Spirit. John 16: 10


text:
Cookbook talk:OpenCola

License
OpenCola soda is distributed under the terms of the General Public License (GPL). That means you're free to use this recipe to make your own cola, or to make derivative colas. If you distribute derivative colas, you're expected to send email to the recipe's author, Amanda Foubister (amanda@opencola.com) with your updates. In the future, we expect to have a CVS server up to handle additions, bug-reports, etc.

Thanks, Acknowledgements and Afterward
The 7X that I experimented with comes from the great Coke history book, For God, Country, & Coca-Cola, by Mark Pendergrast, Basic Books, 1993, 2000, ISBN 0-465-05468-4. I know, I know. I list 8 oils, not 7. It notes in the book that many believe lavender to be part of the 7X formula, so I tried it. We liked it in testing.

Special thanks to Pharmacist David at the IDA (Queen West near Jameson, Toronto) for advice on phosphoric acid and chemistry.

Thanks to Barb Holland and Rose Murray from Foodland Ontario for advice on various ingredients and general soda making. Contributors:

The following people have contributed refinements to the formula. Thanks to:

Cory Doctorow (cory@opencola.com)

Tom Swulius (swulius@ih2000.net)

Thanks to whoever fixed the grammatical error.

Teaspoon?
Is "one teaspoon" meant to mean exactly 5 milliliters, as per the US official definition for food declarations? Or is it just some rough measure? -- 92.229.147.30 (talk) 23:57, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Too much arabic gum
Way too much for the amount of oil added, I was left with globs floating around brown sugar water. --2601:154:C002:A910:98AD:5BB8:3679:7F64 (discuss) 21:51, 28 September 2016 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:OpenCola


text:
Speed Reading/Subvocalization

Subvocalization, or silent speech, is defined as the internal speech made when reading a word, thus allowing the reader to imagine the sound of the word as it is read (Carver 1990). This is a natural process when reading and helps to reduce cognitive load, and helps the mind to access meanings to enable it to comprehend and remember what is read.

There is no evidence that normal non-observable subvocalizing will negatively effect any reading process (Carver 1990)(McWhorter 2002). At the more powerful rates (Memorizing, learning, and reading for comprehension) subvocalizing is very detectable by the reader. At the less powerful faster rates (skimming and scanning), subvocalization is less detectable. For normal competent readers, subvocalizing to some extent even at scanning rates is normal. However, speed reading advocates generally teach lengthy prescriptive practices to eliminate subvocalising when reading as they claim it "places extra burden on the cognitive resources, thus, slowing the reading down." Normal reading instructors may simply apply remedial teaching to a reader who subvocalizes to the degree that they make visible movements on the lips, jaw, or throat (McWhorter 2002).

It may be impossible to totally eliminate subvocalizing because people learn to read by associating the sight of words with their spoken sounds. Sound associations for words are indelibly imprinted on the nervous systems, even of deaf people, as they will have associated the word with the mechanism for causing the sound. Subvocalizing is an inherent part of reading and understanding a word, and micro-muscle tests suggest that subvocalizing is impossible to eliminate. Attempting to stop subvocalizing is potentially harmful to comprehension, learning and memory. At the more powerful reading rates (100-300wpm), subvocalizing can be used to improve comprehension.

Links
Other ways to improve Reading Better and Bypassing the Subvocalization problem
 * A technique for eliminating subvocalization (part of a speed reading tutorial)
 * NASA researching on subvocalization as a new way to interact with computers.

title: Speed Reading/Subvocalization


text:
User:Oscar

m:User:Oscar

w:nl:Gebruiker:Oscar

→ my main talk page

title: User:Oscar


text:
User talk:203.162.3.148

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 10:56, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.162.3.148


text:
User talk:203.200.40.199

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 10:59, 15 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.200.40.199