text:
Cookbook talk:Lamb

This module uses text adapted from the public domain US Department of Agriculture article ''[http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OA/pubs/focuslamb.htm FOCUS ON: LAMB. . . from Farm to Table]''.

I thought it seemed a bit strange that the second sentence referred to US spring lamb. I've removed "In the US, if the phrase Spring Lamb is on a meat label, it means the lamb was produced between March and October, but lamb is available all the time," since this is an international resource. Maybe it could be reintroduced as part of a more global description.

title: Cookbook talk:Lamb


text:
Applicable Mathematics/Probability

Probability is a way of expressing an expectation about the likelihood of an "event" occurring in an "experiment", based on whatever information is available either about the mechanism which lies behind the experiment (theoretical probability) or knowledge of previous events (experimental probability).

An example of a random experiment and often used in Maths puzzles is the birth of a child, in which the gender of the child cannot be known beforehand and is usually deemed to be 50/50 boy versus girl. In this case, the experiment is the birth, the possible "outcomes" are "girl" and "boy". The word "event" usually refers to the particular outcome we consider a "success" (which simply means the type of outcome whose probability we wish to calculate). Often, the "outcomes" are expressed as the result of a SERIES of experiments ("What are the chances of throwing heads twice in two tosses of the same coin").

The Measure of Probability
The normal measure of probability is a number between 0 and 1, where 0 means "impossible" (not quite true, see below), .5 means "as likely as not" and 1 means "certain to happen". For example, the probability of tossing a head" is usually taken to be 0.5. In everyday language, the number is more likely to be expressed as a fraction (1/2 or "one in two") or a percentage ("50% chance").  When throwing a die, the probability of getting a 1 is 1/6 (i.e. we expect that in a large number of throws, the frequency of "1s" will be close to 1/6 of the number of throws).

Two kinds of Probability

 * Theoretical Probability - Based on a knowledge of the mechanism behind the event. It is simplest to calculate when there are a finite number of possible outcomes, all believed to be equally likely.  The probability of an event is simply the number of outcomes which would match our "event", divided by the total number of possible outcomes. On a die, there are 6 possible (and equally-likely) outcomes for each roll, but only one of these outcomes results in a 1.  Therefore we calculate the probability of rolling a 1 as 1/6.  This is the most common type of probability used in math classes.  The usual mistake made in calculating probability this way is not checking carefully whether you are counting "equally likely" outcomes.  (To be silly, one might say "there are two possible outcomes ; 1 or not 1, therefore the chance of rolling a 1 is 1/2").  The more common reason for falsely believing asset of outcomes to be equally likely is either that the dice or coin is "loaded" or that you have missed a possible outcome, or confused two separate outcomes as a single one.  For instance, if the coin is thick enough, the possibility  that the coin can land stably on its edge should not be ignored.  When tossing TWO coins, many people think there are three equally likely outcomes (two heads, two tails, one of each) and that therefore the chance of getting "one of each" is 1/3: but actually there are two different ways of getting a head and a tail, so the chance of getting "one of each" is actually 2/4 = 50%.    If you are sure that you have calculated the probability correctly then you can ascribe a single number to the probability of the event, but the only way to be sure that you have not missed a possibility, or done the sums wrong, is to go ahead and try it lots of time and see what happens.  But you are then into "Experimental Probability".
 * Experimental Probability - Based on experience. This is less prone to mistakes (provided the experimental conditions are fair) and easy to calculate the result (number of successful trials divided by total number of trials). The larger the number of times that you perform the test, the closer you will come to the theoretical probability (provided that you calculated the theoretical probability correctly!), but the greater the chance that the result will not be EXACTLY the same.

In Maths classes, the first type of probability is more common, in science, the second.

Repeated Events
Where an event can be repeated in the same way as often as desired, then not only is it clear what the calculated probability means ("I expect that if I toss this coin 500 times, I will see about 250 heads"), but also it will be possible to check whether the estimate was correct (toss the coin and see how many times you get a head).

One-offs
Where a trial (or event) is a one-off (neither this trial, nor a very similar one can be done again) then not only must the calculation be a theoretical one, but also it is less clear what the calculated figure MEANS. "There is a 50% chance of the Earth being destroyed by collision with a comet during this year". Either the Earth will or will not be destroyed, neither outcome will show you whether your calculated probability was correct. Actually, you CAN run the trial as many times as you like (treat each year as one trial), but there will be a maximum of ONE "successful" outcome, so it is not easy to see what light 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 destruction-free years sheds on your calculation. If, however, you have the opportunity to gamble on many different one-off events, and experience gives you good reason to trust your probability estimates, then probability does have some meaning: you would be wise in future wagers to bet on events to which you ascribe high probability and better to avoid improbable ones (except at very favorable odds). This is actually similar to horse-racing - you are encouraged to believe you can calculate the odds of a horse winning, but most races are really one-offs run in very different circumstances to all the other races. If you only bet on one race in your life, then you are unlikely to back a real outsider at whatever odds - but if you spend a lot of time at racecourses, you may probably back quite a lot of outsiders, but only in the cases where you believe that the high odds against them are more generous then necessary - expecting (perhaps unwisely, since it is the bookies, not you, who set the odds) that the few that win will pay enough to outweigh your many small losses on the ones that did not.

Outcomes and sample spaces
When doing experiments, the answer is not known prior to the actual experiment. However, we should know what we can get. The possible results of an experiment are called outcomes. A certain group of outcomes is called a sample space.

When you throw a die, you can get 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 eyes. These are the possible outcomes in a throw. the sample space is U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. When we're looking at whether a birth results in boy(B) or girl(G), the sample space is U = {B, G}

Model of probability
A model of probability gives the probability of every outcome a number between 1 and 0. The sum of the probability of all possible outcomes is 1 (if you cannot make them add up to 1, then you have missed or double-counted some possibilities).

Let's for instance take a die-throw as an example. The model of probability for that would be:

P(1) = P(2) = P(3) = P(4) = P(5) = P(6) = 1/6

However, when we're looking at whether a birth results in a boy or a girl, the model of probability results in:

P(B) = 0.514 and P(G) = 0.486

In the first example, all the outcomes have the same probability - the model is uniform. In the second example, the outcomes have different probabilities - the model is not uniform.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Applicable Mathematics/Probability


text:
Dichotomous Key/Coleoptera

1

 * Notopleural sutures
 * Present - (Suborder: Adephaga)
 * Not present - (Suborder: Polyphaga)

2

 * Coloration
 * Ventrally metallic/iridescent; extremely large eyes and cursorial form- ../Cicindelidae/
 * Brown, black, or uniformly metallic (some are iridescent on elytra only) - ../Carabidae/

3

 * Toothed or scalloped edge on front tibia
 * Present - ../Scarabaeidae/
 * Not present -

4

 * Abdomen adapted to produce light
 * Yes - ../Lampyridae/
 * No -

5

 * Makes a clicking sound when escaping or flipping over
 * Yes - ../Elateridae/
 * No -

6

 * Antennae clubbed
 * Yes - either Bostrichidae or Nitidulidae
 * No -

7

 * Head visible
 * No, covered by pronotum - ../Coccinellidae/
 * Yes -

8

 * Antennae arise from middle of snout
 * Yes - ../Curculionidae/
 * No -

9
Could be Buprestidae, Cantharidae, Cerambycidae, Chrysomelidae, Scolytidae

title: Dichotomous Key/Coleoptera


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Authors

Kurt Kawohl

/MK/

Daniel

EuropracBHIT has loved philosophy ever since she realised that it is a matter of 'thinking things over carefully', and has been around it in one form or another since. She is especially interested in the Existentialists, and has contributed to that part of the book. She also knows something about Utilitarianism and Pragmatism.

publunch might make some contributions to the logic part, and maybe to the philosophy of mind part as well. But I don't think I'll achieve much without your help and encouragement.

Frazzydee

poetreason is currently a student of philosophy, has made contributions to the Metaphysics section (particularly the section on person hood), and intends to continue contributing.

Destrogal: I am trying to put some order behind this project by expanding the ease of joining in on it. That is, making it simple for users to be able to write chapters. I am also contributing to chapters. See: Origins of Philosophy

EatAlbertaBeef: I see every stub and blank page as an opportunity, I hope to jump start this project. Expect to see my first contributions on Communism and political philosophy, afterwhich I will branch out. (I also plan to use information I wrote for wikipedia)

title: Introduction to Philosophy/Authors


text:
Diplomatic History

Table of contents

 * What is Diplomatic History?
 * Why Study Diplomatic History?

 * /Middle East/
 * /World War I/ (1914–1919)
 * /Interwar Period/ (1919–1937)
 * /World War II/ (1937–1945)
 * /Britain/
 * /France/
 * /Germany/
 * /Spain/
 * /United States/
 * /Russia and the USSR/
 * /China/
 * /Japan/
 * /Israel/
 * /India/

Credits

 * /Authors/

title: Diplomatic History


text:
Dichotomous Key/Petromyzonidae

This is a Dichotomous Key for the Family Petromyzonidae.

1

 * Dorsal and caudal fin distinction
 * The dorsal and caudal fins are distinct - Dichotomous Key:Petromyzon
 * The dorsal and caudal fins are not distinct -

2

 * Depth of dorsal fin notch
 * Shallow - Dichotomous Key:Ichthyomyzon
 * Deep - Dichotomous Key:Lampetra

title: Dichotomous Key/Petromyzonidae


text:
Diplomatic History/Authors

Bigrabid is an undergraduate student of Diplomatic History and International Relations at the University of Pennsylvania. He began the Diplomatic History textbook at 3:00 AM on a school night. He plans to make his major contributions to the chapters on Germany, the Cold War, World War II, and the EU. He invites others to contribute at will.

Admiral is an undergraduate student of Linguistics and Political Science at the University of Florida. He hopes to assist Bigrabid by making major contributions for all time periods of China, Eastern and Central Europe, and Africa.

Soska is an undergraduate student of International Relations at the Technical University of Lisbon, ISCSP. He hopes to assist the other authors by making contributions to the chapters on Russia and the USSR and Germany.

title: Diplomatic History/Authors


text:
Cookbook:Turkey

Turkey is a large, widely domesticated North American bird with white plumage and a bare, wattled head and neck. The name turkey was originally applied to an African bird now known as the guinea fowl, which was believed to have originated in Turkey. When the Europeans came upon the American turkey, they thought it was the same bird as the African guinea fowl, and so gave it the name turkey, although the two species are quite distinct. Turkeys are traditionally eaten at Christmas in Britain, and Thanksgiving in the United States.

Raw turkey skin color is off white to cream-colored. Under the skin the color ranges from a pink to a lavender blue depending on the amount of fat just under the skin.

When the turkey has reached an internal temperature of 165 °F (82 °C) as measured in the thigh away from any bone by an appropriate meat thermometer (any juices should be clear), it should be safe to eat. When there is a pink color in safely cooked turkey, it is due to the myoglobin in tissues which can form a heat-stable color. This can also happen when smoking, grilling or oven cooking a turkey.

How to buy a turkey
Fresh turkeys are considered the best but are very expensive compared with frozen. Often, during holiday seasons, a fresh turkey needs to be ordered in advance from a butcher or meat counter at a supermarket. Frozen turkeys can be bought well ahead of time from a supermarket. If a turkey is frozen it must be properly defrosted inside a refrigerator or cooler before cooking.

What size bird?
There are a number of factors that are generally taken into account when choosing a size. The most important being the number of guests, with about 1 pound per person normally being plenty. Other things worth considering are:
 * The bigger the bird, the greater the meat to bone ratio. Small birds tend to be very bony, with little meat. If there are only a few guests consider using a large chicken instead.
 * For frozen turkeys, the bigger the bird the longer it takes to defrost. As defrosting takes several days, there is little point in buying a huge frozen turkey the day before preparation.
 * Some domestic ovens can be too small for a large bird.

Defrosting safely
Even though a frozen turkey is a veritable meat glacier, it is still quite possible it may be warm enough for bacteria to grow on its surface and meat yet still have a frozen center. A turkey with a frozen center will not cook properly thereby increasing the risk of food poisoning. For this reason, it is essential to thoroughly defrost the turkey correctly.

The best method
The bird should be placed in a tray in the bottom of a refrigerator, and left for at least 5 hours per pound. A typical turkey will take around three days to defrost. Some home cooks report that 5 hours per pound is far too optimistic for a large turkey. (this is because the surface area, through which heat is gained, increases with the square of the length while the volume of meat increases with the cube of the length)

A quick method
In the event that a turkey is purchased at the last minute and needs to be defrosted relatively quickly, as this will still take several hours, the bird can be unwrapped, and placed in a bowl of cool, lightly running water. On no account should warm water be used. It is dangerous and will encourage bacteria to grow on the skin of the turkey.

Safe cooking
When cooking a whole turkey, use a food thermometer to check the internal temperature in the innermost part of the thigh without touching bone. The internal temperature should reach a minimum of 165 °F. For optimum safety and uniform doneness, it is recommended to cook stuffing outside the bird. If stuffing the bird, the center of the stuffing must reach 165 °F (74 °C). Turkey breast should reach 165 °F (77 °C). Drumsticks, thighs and wings should be cooked until they reach an internal temperature of 165 °F. However, uniform temperature is difficult to obtain due to location and thickness of the meat. There are many techniques, good and bad, which will create a safe, moist, and delicious bird throughout.

Consult the following information for safe turkey cooking directions.

Roasting a turkey
There are many of recipes for stuffing: chestnut, sage and onion (flavored bread), and sausage are the most traditional. It is the conventional "wisdom" of the modern day that the body cavity should not be stuffed, as it will prolong cooking time a great deal and "dry out the bird".

Contrary to this opinion, it is possible to stuff a turkey without prolonging cooking time or drying out the bird. The stuffing must be fully cooked, piping hot (In addition to increasing cooking time, uncooked stuffing--especially sausage--presents a health risk.), and quite moist. Likewise, one must not pack the bird's cavity tight with stuffing. Instead, it should be loosely spooned in. One can stuff both the "main cavity" of the bird and the volume between the skin and the breast to some extent, although the latter will impart stuffing flavor to the breast meat, and some diners may object.

Making a separate dish of the stuffing is of course easier, both for cooking and at the table, and avoids getting turkey innards mixed into the stuffing.

Another preparation method is to brine or marinate the turkey overnight. Brining with a low to moderate amount of salt in enough water can result in just the right amount of water entering the meat. Too little salt can result in the meat being too watery while too much salt can actually dehydrate the meat.

Some people like to place herbs with or without an onion or an orange in the body cavity to provide flavor.

Turkeys have a large breast which can become dry if overcooked. There are several ways to prevent this, though consider that some guests may enjoy the chewiness.

One method is to make a 'tent' out of aluminum foil. The breast should be covered in butter or a cooking oil (olive oil will work) and the bird should be completely wrapped in the foil that is sealed loosely at the top to include an air space. This allows the bird to very mildly brown while steaming in its own juices. Alternatively, one can cook the bird at a high temperature for a short time (30 minutes) and then only cover the breast and body with foil, leaving the dark meat uncovered, reduce heat, and continue roasting. It is 'strongly' recommended that the cook pre-fit the foil "breastplate" and have it set aside for use 'before' starting the roasting, as this is far less likely to result in singed fingers. Some people like to lay streaky bacon over the breast--a practice known as larding--to keep it moist and add flavor.

For single-temperature roasting, the oven should be set to medium (gas mark 4 180°C/350°F). The cooking time depends on the size of the bird. Approximate times are given in the table below.

The times given are only approximate. The best way to tell if a turkey is cooked is to test it.

 * To test with a skewer: Insert a skewer or a long thin knife into the part of the turkey where the thigh joins the body. If the turkey is cooked, the juices will run clear. If there is any blood in the juices, the turkey is not yet thoroughly cooked.

 * To test with a thermometer: Insert a turkey thermometer into the thigh. The turkey is not cooked until the thigh has reached a temperature of 185°F. Alternatively, a remote probe thermometer can be inserted into the bird before it goes into the oven, permitting constant monitoring of temperature without opening the oven door.

Double-temperature cooking (pre-browning) starts at 400 °F for 30 minutes, followed by putting on the foil "breastplate" and finishing roasting at 300 °F. This method requires thermometer testing for doneness.

 * ""The Brown bag (grocery bag) Roasting"" (noted below) has been a popular method of cooking meats in the past but due to the changes in the current methods of making grocery bags, according to the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service, the glue and ink on brown bags are not intended for use as cooking materials and may give off harmful fumes. In addition, brown bags are usually made from recycled materials nowadays and are not sanitary. Thankfully there are alternate cooking materials that give comparative results sold at your local grocery, such as aluminum cooking foil, and turkey sized oven-cooking bags at a reasonable cost. Do remember when using the aluminum foil and oven-cooking bag methods there is no need to grease the areas not coming in direct contact to the turkey.

"Brown Bag (grocery bag) Roasting" is a fool-proof method for perfectly roasting a moist, golden-brown turkey (any size; stuffed or unstuffed) in about 3 to 3.5 hours. Simply place the completely thawed and rinsed bird (you may season and/or stuff the bird as you desire, or leave unseasoned and unstuffed) into a thoroughly greased paper bag, like those from the grocery. To prepare the bag, rub grease, or Crisco, to completely coat the inside of a heavy brown paper bag evenly, but not heavily, until it saturates through to the outside of the bag. Then, touch up the outside of the bag where the grease had not made its way. This prevents the bag from burning and creates a sealed, steamy environment. NOTE: Leave no part of the paper bag ungreased as it may catch fire. Seal the opening of the bag by folding it over and staple it shut along the entire length of the fold. Place the bagged turkey into the bottom half of a roasting pan and into a pre-heated oven. Bake at 500 °F for the first hour, then reduce the oven's temperature to 400 °F for the second hour, then down to 300 °F for the final hour. Thermometer test the bird after the third hour for doneness.

(If appropriate to add a personal note here, I have used the paper bag method for decades and, no matter to whom it has been served, has been deemed "the best" or "the most moist" oven-roasted turkey the consumer ever had. Thanksgiving 2005's 23 lb. turkey was baked in a gas oven (unseasoned and unstuffed) in 3 hours to a moist, golden-brown perfection.  Final temperature 190ºF.)

Deep-frying a turkey
Deep-fried turkey originated in the American South as an alternative to the traditional method of preparing a Thanksgiving turkey. The bird is submerged into 375°F oil (often peanut oil) for 30 to 45 minutes (depending on the weight of the bird). Some fans of this method claim it results in a juicier turkey and leftovers are juicier than those from a roasted turkey.

How to carve a turkey
A turkey, like all meat, should not be carved as soon as it is cooked, but should be left for about 1/2 an hour to an hour to rest. Covering the bird while resting will keep it warmer and will result in less drying out. This improves the texture, and allows the turkey to be handled without burning the fingers.

There are two methods of carving the breast.
 * Slide a sharp knife down one side of the breastbone and remove half the breast in one swoop. Carve this boneless slab of meat crosswise in thick slices.
 * To carve the breast at the table, hold the turkey with a carving fork and slice parallel to the breast bone. This method is easier if you remove the wishbone before cooking the bird. That way the knife can cut through the meat and the stuffing giving a very large slice of turkey and stuffing.

Serving suggestions
For Christmas in Britain, turkey is traditionally served with cranberry jelly, bread sauce and winter vegetables including roast potatoes, brussels sprouts, and parsnips. Sometimes sausagemeat that has been wrapped in bacon is also served. A bread-based stuffing flavoured with herbs and onion is a common accompaniment. Gravy made from a stock of enriched stewed giblets or turkey offal and seasoned juices released by the carcass during cooking, thickened with flour, forms a side serving.

For Thanksgiving in the United States, turkey is traditionally served with cranberry sauce and gravy. Other items vary, but common complimentary dishes include mashed potatoes, biscuits, dinner rolls, black olives, various vegetables such as corn, squash, sweet potatoes, and various types of pies for dessert (such as pumpkin, apple and pecan).

Other turkey recipes

 * Brown Rice with Ground Turkey
 * Roasted Brined Turkey
 * Turkey Biscuit
 * Turkey Soup (includes instructions for making broth)
 * Whole, Roasted Turkey with Stuffing

External link

 * Turkey Recipes Over 330 turkey recipes at AllRecipes.com
 * Does eating turkey make you sleepy? from About.com
 * Over 1,800 Turkey Recipes and How-to Videos at EatTurkey.org

title: Cookbook:Turkey


text:
Cookbook talk:Turkey

This module uses text adapted from the public domain US Department of Agriculture article FOOD SAFETY OF TURKEY ... from Farm to Table.

This module uses text adapted from the Wikipedia article Cooking a turkey. The page history at the time the text was moved is included below.

* (cur) (last). . 10:07, 24 Dec 2003. . Dogface * (cur) (last). . 10:06, 24 Dec 2003. . Dogface * (cur) (last). . 09:59, 24 Dec 2003. . Dogface * (cur) (last). . 09:58, 24 Dec 2003. . Dogface * (cur) (last). . 09:57, 24 Dec 2003. . Dogface * (cur) (last). . M 09:56, 24 Dec 2003. . Sarge Baldy (preperation->preparation) * (cur) (last). . M 11:07, 14 Dec 2003. . Minesweeper (disambig squash) * (cur) (last). . 10:08, 8 Dec 2003. . Frecklefoot (+extern link) * (cur) (last). . 09:55, 8 Dec 2003. . Frecklefoot (+extern link) * (cur) (last). . M 11:23, 2 Dec 2003. . Frecklefoot (typos) * (cur) (last). . 14:07, 1 Dec 2003. . Rmhermen * (cur) (last). . 12:40, 1 Dec 2003. . Jredmond (rewrote prep section - now incl. marination/brining) * (cur) (last). . 09:44, 1 Dec 2003. . Frecklefoot (more info on deep frying) * (cur) (last). . 10:59, 27 Nov 2003. . 62.109.69.81   * (cur) (last). . M 09:53, 21 Nov 2003. . Maximus Rex * (cur) (last). . 09:48, 21 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (removed duplicate wikilinks) * (cur) (last). . M 09:23, 21 Nov 2003. . Noldoaran (added links) * (cur) (last). . 09:18, 21 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (+see also) * (cur) (last). . 09:13, 21 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (+info on Thanksgiving) * (cur) (last). . 08:39, 21 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (Serve with cranberry jelly and winter veg (mmm I can't wait 'till christmas)) * (cur) (last). . M 07:31, 21 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (sp, disam "orange") * (cur) (last). . M 04:08, 21 Nov 2003. . Secretlondon (sp.) * (cur) (last). . 04:01, 21 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (carving the bird) * (cur) (last). . 01:20, 21 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (It's main course not entree, unless you've a very big apetite indeed.) * (cur) (last). . M 19:00, 20 Nov 2003. . Jengod * (cur) (last). . M 18:55, 20 Nov 2003. . Jengod * (cur) (last). . M 18:52, 20 Nov 2003. . Jengod * (cur) (last). . M 07:28, 20 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (Spelling corrections) * (cur) (last). . 07:00, 20 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (copyedit) * (cur) (last). . 06:45, 20 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (cooking times) * (cur) (last). . 00:35, 20 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (stuffing goes into brest cavity. Never in body cavity) * (cur) (last). . 00:28, 20 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott * (cur) (last). . M 15:37, 19 Nov 2003. . Jengod * (cur) (last). . M 15:36, 19 Nov 2003. . Jengod (added, alphabetized links) * (cur) (last). . M 15:31, 19 Nov 2003. . Jengod (added external links) * (cur) (last). . M 15:27, 19 Nov 2003. . Jengod (added subheds for the cooking section) * (cur) (last). . M 08:49, 19 Nov 2003. . Secretlondon (sp.) * (cur) (last). . 08:45, 19 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (copyedit) * (cur) (last). . M 08:39, 19 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (capitalization) * (cur) (last). . M 08:38, 19 Nov 2003. . Frecklefoot (capitalization) * (cur) (last). . M 08:33, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (fixed link to turkey(bird)) * (cur) (last). . M 08:32, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott * (cur) (last). . M 08:31, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (fmt) * (cur) (last). . M 08:27, 19 Nov 2003. . Jimfbleak (edits) * (cur) (last). . 08:24, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (defrosting) * (cur) (last). . 08:13, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (a bit on buying a turkey) * (cur) (last). . 07:39, 19 Nov 2003. . Theresa knott (work in progress (A deliberate attempt to cash in on to search results at this time of year as given by Ask Jeeves.)

The content copied from Wikipedia resided for a while in the Transwiki pseudo namespace before being merged into this article. The page history from Transwiki:Cooking a turkey is included below.

* (cur) (last) 13:46, 14 Aug 2004 Gentgeen (cookbooked) * (cur) (last) 05:09, 13 Aug 2004 68.77.90.237 (How to carve a turkey) * (cur) (last) 05:08, 13 Aug 2004 68.77.90.237 (Roasting a turkey) * (cur) (last) 20:14, 8 Mar 2004 68.251.181.62 * (cur) (last) 20:10, 8 Mar 2004 68.251.181.62 * (cur) (last) 19:17, 3 Feb 2004 Gentgeen (transwikied from en:Cooking a turkey. See talk page for authors.)

Copied Discussion from w:Talk:Cooking a turkey
How many lbs turkey per head approx? are there different varieties? giblets in or out? organic/ fed on different things?

I dunno - i'm just thinking what we need to add to make a fabulous xmas article ;) Secretlondon

I'm working on it. I'll dig out some mrs beaton when i get home from work. we could also do with some good stuffing recipes if anyone knows any. theresa knott 16:27, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I agree that we need some stuffing recipes, though I think they should go in the woefully short stuffing article instead of here. - Jim Redmond 16:56, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

The prep section is a bit awkward, and it doesn't include my favorite method (brining). I plan to work on it a bit tonight, after I submerge my turkey in a tub of cold salt water. :) - Jim Redmond 16:56, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Whilst researching this article I came across brining, but didn't include it as I had no personal experience. I look forwards to your edit, as I am thinking of brining my turkey this christmas. BTW does the bird taste salty ? theresa knott 22:56, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Actually, if you make the brine correctly, the bird will be juicier and its own flavors will be enhanced. If you overdo the amount of salt in the brine, though, then the turkey will be salty.  I can post a recipe in the brining article if it'll help. - Jim Redmond 20:57, 1 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * Please do theresa knott 09:10, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I have come across the brining section of the article and think that it is not scientifically correct. A salt solution is usually hypertonic to the cells of an animal and will *dehydrate* them readily.  However a salt solution can be made that is less concentrated than the cytoplasm and in that case water *will* enter cells.  This offers a way for the cook to control the *amount* of water entering the meat by controlling the concentration of salt in the brine.  Soaking a turkey in pure water will result in too much water in the meat and soaking a turkey in a brine too salty will actually dehydrate the meat.  Soaking a turkey in a brine with just the right concentration of salt will cause the optimal amount of water to enter the meat.  10 Oct 2008 (UTC)

End of copied discussion Gentgeen

title: Cookbook talk:Turkey


text:
User:Bigrabid

Bigrabid is an undergraduate student of International Relations and Diplomatic History at the University of Pennsylvania. He created the Wikibook, Diplomatic History. He believes in the relentless pursuit of truth and strives to use his poorly developed cognitive skills to this effect. He also enjoys reading, singing, religion, and Aikido, and has distant and far-fetched hopes of being a college professor one day.

--Bigrabid 09:22, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Bigrabid


text:
GCSE ICT

This book will cover the major components of all the courses. It should not be based around any specific board and it is hoped that it will become a resource for those studying ICT at any level. It looks at visible applications of computers in the world around us and covers the topics in context. Anyone of these case studies should be looked at as a resource to help you produce coursework.

You might like to:
 * pick up on a case study which hasn't been started yet;
 * add something to an existing one;
 * add a new one.

If you found something difficult to understand please alter it to help those who follow you or contact some one who can!

This resource will also need a content mapping / index - so that it is possible for teachers and pupils to find example of particular usage.

Revision Guides
/GCP Revision Guide/

Case studies

 * /ICT in Schools/
 * /ICT and Voluntary Organisations/
 * /ICT in Libraries/
 * /ICT and the Police/
 * /ICT at the DVLA/
 * /ICT and Banks/
 * /ICT and Travel/
 * /ICT in Shops/
 * /ICT and Estate Agencies/
 * /ICT in Newspaper Production/
 * /ICT for Weather Forecasting/
 * /ICT and the Health Service/
 * /ICT in Agriculture/
 * /ICT in Manufacturing/
 * /ICT and Local Authorities/
 * /ICT in the Home/

Contributors

 * User:RichardRothwell 2004/03/04

title: GCSE ICT


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User:RichardRothwell

Hi,

I'm Director of a social enterprise M6-IT CIC (http://www.m6-it.org) that promotes free software and sustainable computing to education, the voluntary sector and charities. I'm also Chair of SourceForge UK (http://www.schoolforge.org.uk). In both roles I'm promoting the use and cause of Free and Open Source Solutions in Education. I also work as a freelance author and consultant.

Please feel free to contact me by e-mail: richard at caliban dot org dot uk

title: User:RichardRothwell


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GCSE ICT/ICT in Schools

Schools use ICT for:

Administration
Schools have to keep information about all the pupils and staff. The Schooltool project is developing an open source solution for this problem and has a detailed analysis of what is needed in all sorts of schools. Proprietary solutions include CCM's product CMIS and Capita's SIMS. Schools need to store information on:
 * Individual Pupils:
 * Name
 * Name and Addresses of parent(s) and/or guardian(s)
 * Subjects that a pupil is doing
 * Past Examination Results
 * Photographs
 * Attendance records
 * Groups of Pupils:
 * Teaching Groups
 * Pastoral Groups
 * Clubs, Societies, Teams, etc.
 * Previous pupils of the school
 * Teachers
 * Names and addresses
 * Groups they teach
 * Salary information

A subject and a teaching tool
Schools also teach ICT and/or computing as a subject and often have networks for pupils to store their work on and to access eductional resources. The types of applications that the pupils will use will include: These would include both specific and general resources.
 * Standard Office Tools
 * Word Processors
 * Spreadsheets
 * Presentation Graphics
 * Database Management Systems
 * Specific Teaching Tools
 * Circuit Simulators
 * Mathematical models of specific systems (e.g. prey/predator relationships)
 * Drill programs
 * Information Resources

title: GCSE ICT/ICT in Schools


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GCSE ICT/ICT and Banks

Banks have been heavy users of ICT for a long time. From the introduction of MICR in the 1950's through to the current push for 'Chip and PIN'.

The reason for this enthusiasm for new technology is to keep costs down. A simple estimate of the number of transactions that occur daily in the UK will explain why automation is essential!

How many people have bank accounts? - estimate 1/3 of the population... some 20 million people.

How often do they use their accounts? this is a for bill payments, holes in the wall transactions, debit cards, etc. - estimate every other day... so 10 million transactions per day.

How long does it take to handle a transaction? guess 30 seconds of human work... so 5 million minutes of work per day.

How many transactions could a worker handle in a day? based on an 8 hour day... 8 hours = 480 minutes (roughly 500 minutes...)

So how many workers would be needed to keep up with these transactions?

$$Workers \ Needed = \frac {Minutes \ work \ needed} {Minutes \ in \ a \ working \ day}$$

$$Workers \ Needed = \frac {5,000,000} {500} = \frac {50,000} {5} = 10,000 $$

So around an additional 10,000 workers would be required - and these figures are underestimates.

title: GCSE ICT/ICT and Banks


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Talk:GCSE ICT

What does ICT mean/stand for ? --Karl Wick

 * Information and Communication Technology. Currently, Edexcel requires students to do one databases coursework and one spreadsheets coursework, and two more from a bunch of other choices (word document, free choice (can be picked twice), data logging and control...). As you can see, it has no Computer Science and, I hate to say this, the qualification is almost useless. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 21:09, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:GCSE ICT


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General Chemistry/Matter is measured

Measurement is the determination of the size or magnitude of something. Measurement is not limited to physical quantities, but can extend to quantifying almost any imaginable thing such as degree of uncertainty, Index of Consumer Confidence|consumer confidence, or the rate of increase in the fall in the price of beanie baby|beanie babies.

 * "A measurement is a comparison to a standard."—William Shockley

In physics and engineering, measurement is the process of comparing physical quantity|physical quantities of real-world object (philosophy)|objects and event|events. Established standard objects and events are used as unit|units, and the measurement results in at least two numbers for the relationship between the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement, where at least one number estimates the statistics|statistical uncertainty in the measurement, also referred to as measurement error (in a philosophical distinction). Measuring instruments are the means by which this translation is made.

Metrology is the study of measurement.

A metric is a standard for measurement. The quantification of phenomena through the process of measurement relies on the existence of an explicit or implicit metric, which is the standard to which the measure is referenced. If I say I am '5', I am indicating a measurement without conveying an applicable standard. I may mean I am 5 years old, 5 feet high, or 5-time world raquetball champion.

Measuring physical quantities accurately is important in science, engineering and commerce.

For example, the unit for length might be a well-known person's foot, and the length of a boat can be given as the number of times that person's foot would fit the length of the boat.

Laws to regulate measurement were originally developed to prevent fraud. However, units of measurement are now generally defined on a scientific basis, and are established by international treaties.

The history of measurements is a topic within the History of Science and Technology. The meter was standardized as the unit for length after the French revolution, and has since been adopted throughout most of the world. The United States and the UK are in the process of converting to the SI system. This process is known as metrication.

Systems of measurement:
 * Imperial units
 * SI system, also known as the metric system
 * Chinese units

Measuring the ratios between physical quantities is an important sub-field of physics.

Some important physical quantities include:
 * the speed of light
 * the fine-structure constant
 * the charge of an electron

title: General Chemistry/Matter is measured


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General Chemistry/Properties of elements are periodic

The periodic table of the chemical elements is a display of known chemical elements, arranged by electron structure so that many chemical property|chemical properties vary regularly across the table.

The original table was created without a knowledge of the inner structure of atom|atoms: if one orders the elements by atomic mass, and then plots certain other properties against atomic mass, one sees an undulation or periodicity to these properties as a function of atomic mass. The first to recognize these regularities was the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner who, in 1829, noticed a number of triads of similar elements:

This was followed by the English chemist John Alexander Reina Newlands, who in 1865 noticed that the elements of similar type recurred at intervals of eight, which he likened to the octave|octaves of music, though his law of octaves was ridiculed by his contemporaries. Finally, in 1869, the German Lothar Meyer and the Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev almost simultaneously developed the first periodic table, arranging the elements by mass. However, Mendeleev plotted a few elements out of strict mass sequence in order to make a better match to the properties of their neighbours in the table, corrected mistakes in the values of several atomic masses, and predicted the existence and properties of a few new elements in the empty cells of his table. Mendeleev was later vindicated by the discovery of the electronic structure of the elements in the late 19th century|19th and early 20th century.

Lists of the elements List of elements by name|by name, List of elements by symbol|by symbol, and List of elements by number|by atomic number are available. The following figure shows the currently known periodic table of the elements. Each element is listed by its atomic number and chemical symbol. Elements in the same column ("periodic table group|group") are chemically similar.

Colour coding for atomic numbers:
 * Elements numbered in blue are liquids at room temperature;
 * those in green are gases at room temperature;
 * those in black are solid at room temperature;
 * those in red are synthetic and do not occur naturally (all are solid at room temperature).
 * those in gray have not yet been discovered (they also have muted fill colors indicating the likely chemical series they would fall under).

The number of electron shell|electron shells an atom has determines what period it belongs to. Each shell is divided into different subshells, which as atomic number increases are filled in roughly this order:

1s 2s          2p 3s          3p 4s       3d 4p 5s       4d 5p 6s    4f 5d 6p 7s    5f 6d 7p 8s 5g 6f 7d 8p ...

Hence the structure of the table. Since the outermost electrons determine chemical properties, those tend to be similar within groups. Elements adjacent to one another within a group have similar physical properties, despite their significant differences in mass. Elements adjacent to one another within a period have similar mass but different properties.

For example, very near to nitrogen (N) in the second period of the chart are carbon (C) and oxygen (O). Despite their similarities in mass (they differ by only a few atomic mass units), they have extremely different properties, as can be seen by looking at their allotrope|allotropes: diatomic oxygen is a gas that supports burning, diatomic nitrogen is a gas that does not support burning, and carbon is a solid which can be burnt (yes, diamond|diamonds can be burnt!).

In contrast, very near to chlorine (Cl) in the next-to-last group in the chart (the halogen|halogens) are fluorine (F) and bromine (Br). Despite their dramatic differences in mass within the group, their allotropes have very similar properties: They are all highly corrosion|corrosive (meaning they combine readily with metal|metals to form metal halide salt|salts); chlorine and fluorine are gases, while bromine is a very low-boiling liquid; chlorine and bromine at least are highly colored.


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General Chemistry/Chemical formulas describe chemical compounds

A chemical formula

'' is a concise way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound. It identifies each type of chemical element|element by its chemical symbol and identifies the number of atoms of such element to be found in each discrete molecule of that compound. The number of atoms (if greater than one) is indicated as a subscript.''

For example methane, a simple molecule consisting of one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms has the chemical formula:

 * CH4

and glucose with six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms has the chemical formula:
 * C6H12O6.

A chemical formula may also supply information about the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in the chemical, though it does not necessarily specify the exact isomer. For example ethane consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, each having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as CH3CH3. If there were a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only had two hydrogens), the chemical formula may be written: CH2CH2, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is assumed. However, a more explicit and correct method is to write H2C:CH2 or H2C=CH2. The two dots or lines indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.

A triple bond may be expressed with three dots or lines, and if there may be ambiguity, a single dot or line may be used to indicate a single bond.

Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed in the following way: (CH3)3CH. However. this implies a different structure from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms (isomers). The formula (CH3)3CH implies a chain of three carbon atoms, with the middle carbon atom bonded to another carbon: C-C-C    |    C and the remaining bonds on the carbons all leading to hydrogen atoms. However, the same number of atoms (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or C4H10) may be used to make a straight chain: CH3CH2CH2CH3.

The alkene 2-butene has two isomers which the chemical formula CH3CH=CHCH3 does not identify. The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (cis or Z) or on the opposite size from each other (trans or E).

Polymers
For polymers, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a hydrocarbon molecule that is described as: CH3(CH2)50CH3, is a molecule with 50 repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter n may be used to indicate this: CH3(CH2)nCH3. Ions For ions, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example Na+, or Cu2+. The total charge on a molecule may also be shown in this way. For example H3O+

Isotopes
Although isotopes are more relevant to nuclear chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may also be indicated as a left-hand superscript in a chemical formula. For example, the radioactive phosphate ion is 32PO4-.


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General Chemistry/Gases, liquids and solids each have specific physical characteristics

In the physical sciences, a phase is a set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (i.e. density, crystal structure, index of refraction, and so forth.) The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials.

Phases are sometimes called states of matter, but this term can lead to confusion with thermodynamic states. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different thermodynamic states, but the same "state of matter".

Definitions
Although phases are conceptually simple, they are hard to define precisely. A good definition of a phase of a system is a region in the parameter space of the system's thermodynamic variables in which the free energy is analytic. Equivalently, two states of a system are in the same phase if they can be transformed into each other without abrupt changes in any of their thermodynamic properties.

All the thermodynamic properties of a system—the entropy, heat capacity, magnetization, compressibility, and so forth—may be expressed in terms of the free energy and its derivatives. For example, the entropy is simply the first derivative of the free energy with temperature. As long as the free energy remains analytic, all the thermodynamic properties will be well-behaved.

When a system goes from one phase to another, there will generally be a stage where the free energy is non-analytic. This is known as a phase transition. Familiar examples of phase transitions are melting (solid to liquid), freezing (liquid to solid), boiling (liquid to gas), and condensation (gas to liquid). Due to this non-analyticity, the free energies on either side of the transition are two different functions, so one or more thermodynamic properties will behave very differently after the transition. The property most commonly examined in this context is the heat capacity. During a transition, the heat capacity may become infinite, jump abruptly to a different value, or exhibit a "kink" or discontinuity in its derivative.

Possible graphs of heat capacity (C) against temperature (T) at a phase transition.

In practice, each type of phase is distinguished by a handful of relevant thermodynamic properties. For example, the distinguishing feature of a solid is its rigidity; unlike a liquid or a gas, a solid does not easily change its shape. Liquids are distinct from gases because they have much lower compressibility: a gas placed in a large container expands to fill the container, whereas a liquid forms a puddle in the bottom of the container. Not all the properties of solids, liquids, and gases are distinct; for example, it is not useful to compare their magnetic properties. On the other hand, the ferromagnetic phase of a magnetic material is distinguished from the paramagnetic phase by the presence of bulk magnetization without an applied magnetic field.

Emergence and universality
Phases are emergent phenomena produced by the self-organization of a macroscopic number of particles. Typical samples of matter, for example, contain around 1023 particles (Avogadro's number). In systems that are too small—even, say, a thousand atoms—the distinction between phases disappears, since the appearance of non-analyticity in the free energy requires a huge, formally infinite, number of particles to be present.

One might ask why real systems exhibit phases, since they are not actually infinite. The reason is that real systems contain thermodynamic fluctuations. When a system is far from a phase transition, these fluctuations are unimportant, but as it approaches a phase transition, the fluctuations begin to grow in size (i.e. spatial extent). At the ideal transition point, their size would be infinite, but before that can happen the fluctuations will have become as large as the system itself. In this regime, "finite-size" effects come into play, and we are unable to accurately predict the behavior of the system. Thus, phases in a real system are only well-defined away from phase transitions, and how far away it needs to be is dependent on the size of the system.

There is a corollary to the emergent nature of phase phenomena, known as the principle of universality. The properties of phases are largely independent of the underlying microscopic physics, so that the same types of phases arise in a wide variety of systems. This is a familiar fact of life. We know, for example, that the property that defines a solid—resistance to deformation—is exhibited by materials as diverse as iron, ice, and Silly Putty. The only differences are matters of scale. Iron may resist deformation more strongly than Silly Putty, but both maintain their shape if the applied forces are not too strong.

Phase diagrams
The different phases of a system may be represented using a phase diagram. The axes of the diagrams are the relevant thermodynamic variables. For simple mechanical systems, we generally use the pressure and temperature. The following figure shows a phase diagram for a typical material exhibiting solid, liquid and gaseous phases.

A typical phase diagram.

The markings on the phase diagram show the points where the free energy is non-analytic. The open spaces, where the free energy is analytic, correspond to the phases. The phases are separated by lines of non-analyticity, where phase transitions occur, which are called phase boundaries.

In the above diagram, the phase boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely. Instead, it terminates at a point on the phase diagram called the critical point. This reflects the fact that, at extremely high temperatures and pressures, the liquid and gaseous phases become indistinguishable. In water, the critical point occurs at around 647 K (374 °C or 705 °F) and 22.064 MPa.

The existence of the liquid-gas critical point reveals a slight ambiguity in our above definitions. When going from the liquid to the gaseous phase, one usually crosses the phase boundary, but it is possible to choose a path that never crosses the boundary by going to the right of the critical point. Thus, phases can sometimes blend continuously into each other. We should note, however, that this does not always happen. For example, it is impossible for the solid-liquid phase boundary to end in a critical point in the same way as the liquid-gas boundary, because the solid and liquid phases have different symmetry.

An interesting thing to note is that the solid-liquid phase boundary in the phase diagram of most substances, such as the one shown above, has a positive slope. This is due to the solid phase having a higher density than the liquid, so that increasing the pressure increases the melting temperature. However, in the phase diagram for water the solid-liquid phase boundary has a negative slope. This reflects the fact that ice has a lower density than water, which is an unusual property for a material.

Polymorphism
Many substances can exist in a variety of solid phases each corresponding to a unique crystal structure. These varying crystal phases of the same substance are called polymorphs. Diamond and graphite are examples of polymorphs of carbon. Graphite is composed of layers of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms, in which each carbon atom is strongly bound to three neighboring atoms in the same layer and is weakly bound to atoms in the neighboring layers. By contrast in diamond each carbon atom is strongly bound to four neighboring carbon atoms in a cubic array. The unique crystal structures of graphite and diamond are responsible for the vastly different properties of these two materials.

Each polymorph of a given substance is usually only stable over a specific range of conditions. For example, diamond is only stable at extremely high pressures. Graphite is the stable form of carbon at normal atmospheric pressures. Although diamond is not stable at atmospheric pressures and should transform to graphite, we know that diamonds exist at these pressures. This is because at normal temperatures the transformation from diamond to graphite is extremely slow. If we were to heat the diamond, the rate of transformation would increase and the diamond would become graphite. However, at normal temperatures the diamond can persist for a very long time. Non-equilibrium phases like diamond that exist for long periods of time are said to be metastable.

Another important example of metastable polymorphs occurs during the processing of steel. Steels are often subjected to a variety of thermal treatments designed to produce various combinations of stable and metastable iron phases. In this way the steel properties, such as hardness and strength can be adjusted by controlling the relative amounts and crystal sizes of the various phases that form.

Phase separation
Different parts of a system may exist in different phases, in which case the phases are usually separated by boundary surfaces.

Gibbs' phase rule describes the number of phases that can be present at equilibrium for a given system at various conditions. The phase rule indicates that for a single component system at most three phases (usually gas, liquid and solid) can co-exist in equilibrium. The three phases can all co-exist only at a single specific temperature and pressure, characteristic of the material, called the triple point. The conditions where two phases become indistinguishable is called a critical point. The phase rule also indicates that two phases can only co-exist at equilibrium for specific combinations of temperature and pressure. For example for a liquid-gas system if the vapor pressure is lower than that corresponding to the temperature, the system will not be at equilibrium, rather the liquid will tend to evaporate until the vapor pressure reaches the appropriate level or all of the liquid is consumed. Likewise, if the vapor pressure is too great for the given temperature condensation will occur.

For the case of multi-component systems the phase rule indicates that additional phases are possible. A common example of this occurs in mixtures of mutually insoluble substances such as water and oil. If a few drops of oil are poured into pure water, there will be a small amount of intermixing, but there will be two distinct phases: one primarily oil and the other primarily water. The exact composition of the phases will be a function of the temperature and pressure but not a function of the amount of oil. It may be possible to change the temperature such that one of the phases disappears: for example, if the mixture is heated, it is possible that at some temperature, all of the oil is dissolved in the water. Above this temperature there is only one phase, and the composition of the phase does depend on how much oil was put in.

Phase separation can also exist in two dimensions. The boundaries between phases, the surfaces of materials, and the grain boundaries between different crystallographic orientations of a single material can also show distinct phases. For example, surface reconstructions on metal and semiconductor surfaces are two dimensional phases.

Gas
A gas is one of the phases of matter. Gases are, like liquids, fluids: they have the ability to flow and do not resist deformation. Unlike liquids, however, unconstrained gases do not occupy a fixed volume, but instead expand to fill whatever space they occupy. The kinetic energy in a gas is the greatest of the states of matter. Because of this increased kinetic energy, gas atoms and molecules tend to bounce off of one another, more so as the kinetic energy is increased.

Liquid
One of the four phases of matter, a liquid is a fluid whose volume is fixed under conditions of constant temperature and pressure; and, whose shape is usually determined by the container it fills.

Liquids tend to pull themselves together into droplets due to surface tension. The kinetic energy in a liquid is greater than that of a solid, but less than that of a gas. A liquids atoms/molecules are "slippery"; that is, they slide over one another, allowing the liquid to flow.

If a liquid is at rest in a uniform gravitational field, the pressure $$p$$ at any point is given by
 * $$p=\rho gz

$$ where $$\rho$$ is the density of the liquid (assumed constant) and $$z$$ is the depth of the point below the surface. Note that this formula assumes that the pressure at the free surface is zero.

It should be noted that glass at normal temperatures is not a "supercooled liquid", but a solid. See the article on glass for more details.

Solid
A solid is a state of matter, characterized by a definite volume and a definite shape (i.e. it resists deformation). Within a solid, atoms/molecules are relatively close together, or "rigid"; however, this does not prevent the solid from becoming deformed or compressed. In the solid phase of matter, atoms have a spatial ordering; because all matter has some kinetic energy, the atoms in even the most rigid solid move slightly, but this movement is "invisible".

Physicists call the study of solids solid state physics. This includes semiconductors and superconductivity. Solid state physics is a type of condensed matter physics.

Materials science is primarily concerned with properties of solids such as strength and phase transformations. It overlaps strongly with solid state physics.

Solid state chemistry overlaps both of these fields, but is especially concerned with the synthesis of novel materials.

Links

 * Science Daily, 2003-10-10: Metallic Phase For Bosons Implies New State Of Matter
 * 2004-01-15, ScienceDaily: Probable Discovery Of A New, Supersolid, Phase Of Matter Citat: "...We apparently have observed, for the first time, a solid material with the characteristics of a superfluid...but because all its particles are in the identical quantum state, it remains a solid even though its component particles are continually flowing..."
 * 2004-01-29, Sciencedaily: NIST/University Of Colorado Scientists Create New Form Of Matter: A Fermionic Condensate


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Statistics/Different Types of Data/PS

Statistical data can be obtained from two sources primary or secondary.

Primary Data
Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the original source first hand. Data collected this way is called primary data.

The people who gather primary data may be an authorized organization, investigator, enumerator or they may be just someone with a clipboard. Those who gather primary data may have knowledge of the study and may be motivated to make the study a success. These people are acting as a witness so primary data is only considered as reliable as the people who gathered it.

Research where one gathers this kind of data is referred to as field research.

For example: your own questionnaire.

Secondary Data
Secondary data is data that has been collected for another purpose. When we use Statistical Method with Primary Data from another purpose for our purpose we refer to it as Secondary Data. It means that one purpose's Primary Data is another purpose's Secondary Data. Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a different context.

Research where one gathers this kind of data is referred to as desk research.

For example: data from a book.

Why Classify Data This Way?
Knowing how the data was collected allows critics of a study to search for bias in how it was conducted. A good study will welcome such scrutiny. Each type has its own weaknesses and strengths. Primary Data is gathered by people who can focus directly on the purpose in mind. This helps ensure that questions are meaningful to the purpose but can introduce bias in those same questions. Secondary Data doesn't have the privilege of this focus but is only susceptible to bias introduced in the choice of what data to reuse. Stated another way, those who gather Secondary Data get to pick the questions. Those who gather Primary Data get to write the questions.

<< Sources of Data | Statistics | >> Qualitative and Quantitative

title: Statistics/Different Types of Data/PS


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User talk:Boit

I like the box images you uploaded ! --Karl Wick

Thankyou ^_^.

Yikes! The font on the main page is too small. -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 02:21, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I don't agreen with Mkn, the small font makes the main page SOOOOOOOOOOO much more readable, I added a few little changes myself. Great work, and I too love the box images you uploaded!--Naryathegreat 03:28, 21 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Statistics
Are you a principle contributor to the Statistics text book? I saw that you had posted the note requesting assistance, and I'd be willing to help out. I'm taking an Advanced Placement statistics course right now and I could add notes as we go. For example, we just finished probability and I could fill out that section with some help. LockeShocke 04:13, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Boit


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User:Lars Hennings~enwikibooks

http://www.LarsHennings.de

title: User:Lars Hennings~enwikibooks


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Cookbook:Game

| Basic foodstuffs | Meat and poultry

Game are wild animals and birds. Farm-raised game are originally wild species of animals and birds that have been raised for sale. Large native game animals living in North America include antelope, buffalo, bear, caribou, deer, elk, moose, reindeer, and wild boar. Elsewhere in the world, even rarer varieties eaten by humans are camel, elephant, kangaroo, wild goats, wild sheep, zebra, and other species.

Small game animals include alligator, rabbit, squirrel, beaver, muskrat, opossum, raccoon, armadillo, porcupine, and other species.

Game birds include grouse, guineafowl, partridge, squab (young pigeon), quail, pheasant, wild ducks, wild geese, wild turkey, and other species. Rock Cornish hens -- thought by many consumers to be game birds -- are actually young domesticated chickens.

Game animals

In culinary terms, venison can be meat from deer, elk, moose, caribou, antelope, and pronghorn. However, when this meat is offered for sale, the name of the specific animal normally is specified on the package label.

Bison (buffalo) is native to North America. Once about 60 million in number, bison were hunted almost to extinction by the 1890’s. Currently there are more than 150,000 animals being raised across North America.

Musk-ox is a heavy-set, shaggy-coated wild ox that lives in northern North America, the Arctic islands, and Greenland. The meat tastes similar to buffalo.

Collared Peccary (javelina) is a hoofed animal native to parts of Mexico, South America, and the southwest U.S. A substitute is fresh pork.

Kangaroo Kangaroo, native to Australia, is an iconic marsupial known for its distinctive hopping movement. Kangaroo meat, often described as lean and nutritious, has gained popularity as a sustainable and protein-rich alternative to traditional meats. It is prized for its low-fat content and is not usually utilized in culinary dishes.

Rabbits sold for consumption are usually either crosses between New Zealand and Belgian varieties, Chinese rabbits, or Scottish hares.

Wild boar, along with feral (wild) hogs, are found in 23 states in the U.S. and are estimated to number over 2 million. Like our domestic swine, these animals are not native to North America, but were originally brought over from other continents. Originally domesticated and then released into the wild, these animals are now hybrids.

Game Birds

Wild Ducks – The Chinese were the first to raise wild ducks domestically for food. Today’s domestic wild ducks are descendants of either the Muscovy or Mallard species. America’s Long Island ducks are offspring of Peking ducks (a variety of Mallard) brought from China in the late 1800’s. A young duck or duckling (usually under 8 weeks of age) has dark, tender meat and weighs about 3 1/2 to 5 pounds. A mature duck is usually over 6 months of age and has tougher meat.

Goose – Geese were farm-raised in ancient Egypt, China, and India. Today’s goose weighs between 5 and 18 pounds. A young bird of either sex ("goose" is the female of the species; "gander," the male) has tender meat, while a mature goose of either sex has tougher meat.

Guineafowl – This relative of the chicken and partridge, sometimes called a guinea hen or African pheasant, was thought to originate in Guinea, West Africa. A young guineafowl, about 11 weeks old, has tender meat, while a mature bird has tougher meat. Female guinea fowl are more tender than males. The meat is light red and slightly dry with a mild gamey flavor. Due to their small size – about 2 to 3 pounds, including giblets – guinea fowl are usually sold whole.

Partridge – There are no native partridge species in the United States. Most partridge in the market are from European or African varieties. The Grey partridge, a European species, was imported from Hungary and raised in England. Found as far away as the Middle East, this variety is sometimes called Hungarian partridge. Chukar is a partridge species from India.

Pheasant - Originally from Asia, the female of this medium-size game bird (weighing about 3 pounds) has more tender, plump, and juicy meat than the male, which weighs about 5 pounds. Young birds can be roasted, but older birds need moist heat because their flesh is drier and leaner.

Quail – American quail are known regionally by various names: Bobwhite, partridge, and quail (blue, California, mountain and Montezuma). American quail nest on the ground and are not related to the European quail of the partridge family. A ready-to-cook quail weighs about 3 to 7 ounces, including the giblets. Due to their small size, they are usually roasted and served whole. The meat is dark, but mild flavored.

Squab, Pigeon or Dove – This species originated in the Middle East and Asia, and is one of the oldest birds known to man. A squab is a young, immature pigeon about 4 weeks old. Because it is too young to fly, the meat is very tender. Squab usually weigh about 12 to 16 ounces, including giblets, and have dark, delicately flavored meat. They are usually stuffed whole and roasted. A pigeon that has been allowed to mature and has tougher meat than a squab.

Wild Turkeys -- Turkey is one of North America’s native birds. The name "turkey" was originally applied to an African bird, now known as the guineafowl, which was believed to have originated in Turkey. When the Europeans came upon the American turkey, they thought it was the same bird as the African guinea fowl, and so gave it the name turkey, although the two species are quite distinct. Compared to their domestic counterparts, wild turkeys are leaner, less meaty, not as tender, and have a stronger flavor.

Taste
Because their diets and activity levels are not the same as that of domestic animals and poultry, the meat of farm-raised game animals has a different flavor – stronger than domesticated species and milder than wild game. The factors that determine the meat's quality include the age of the animal (younger animals are more tender), the animal's diet, and the time of year the animal was harvested. (The best is in the fall, after a plentiful spring and summer feeding.)

Equally important is how the animal was handled in the field. Hunters must be absolutely certain of their targets before shooting and should make every effort to get the animal down as quickly and as painlessly as possible. Once confirmed dead, the animal should be eviscerated within an hour of harvest, and the meat refrigerated within a few hours. Meat is damaged (and sometimes ruined) if it is not dressed, transported, and chilled properly.

In general, wild game is less tender than meat from domestic animals because the wild animals get more exercise and have less fat. Any fat is generally bad tasting and should be removed. For maximum tenderness, most game meat should be cooked slowly and not overdone. It can be cooked with moist heat by braising or with dry heat by roasting. Ways to keep game moist include basting, larding, or barding.

Are game "red" or "white" meat?
Game birds are poultry and considered "white" meat. Because they are birds of flight, however, the breast meat is darker than domestic chicken and turkey (which stand a lot, but do little, if any, flying). This is because more oxygen is needed by muscles doing work, and the oxygen is delivered to those muscles by the red cells in the blood.

All game animals are "red" meat. One of the proteins in meat, myoglobin, holds the oxygen in the muscle, and gives the meat a darker color.

General cooking guidelines
The tenderness of a particular cut of game is similar to the corresponding cut of domestically-raised meat or poultry. All game tends to be leaner than that of domesticated animals, which have been bred for tenderness and fat marbling. Overcooking can toughen game. You can use moist heat, basting, and larding or barding (inserting slivers of fat or wrapping in bacon) to help keep the meat tender during cooking. Fast searing over high heat can also work for smaller cuts, such as tenderloin medallions or rib chops.

title: Cookbook:Game


text:
Cookbook talk:Game

This module uses text adapted from the public domain US Department of Agriculture article Food Safety Of Farm-Raised Game.

title: Cookbook talk:Game


text:
Cookbook talk:Venison

This module uses text adapted from the Wikipedia article Venison and the public domain US Department of Agriculture article Food Safety Of Farm-Raised Game.

Featured ingredient
This module was the featured ingredient on the main Cookbook page from May 23, 2004 - June 1, 2004. Gentgeen 12:31, 23 May 2004 (UTC)

Elk vs. Moose
This article confuses the names of large members of the deer family. This is forgivable, since the animals have different names in different places.
 * Alces alces is called a Moose in N. America and an Elk in Europe.
 * Cervus elaphus is called an Elk or Wapiti in N. America and a Red deer in Europe.

 * As this module was taken pretty much verbatum from a USDA article, I'm not supprised that the american usage is predominant. That does not make it confused. Gentgeen 05:05, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Picture
Is there someone out there with a better picture than an elk calf? (proper name, not fawn) The majority (99.99%) of hunters don't kill immature animals (calves, fawns, etc), except in extremely rare cases. This gives a very inaccurate impression and seems to cater more to the anti-hunting crowd than to an honest, NPOV encyclopedic treatment. 74.237.50.152 (talk) 06:14, 25 December 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Venison


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Cookbook:Ham

| Basic foodstuffs | Meat and poultry

The word ham means pork which comes from the hind leg of a hog. Ham made from the front leg of a hog will be labeled "pork shoulder picnic." "Turkey" ham must be made from the thigh meat of turkey.

Hams may be fresh, cured, or cured-and-smoked. The usual color for cured ham is deep rose or pink; fresh ham (which is not cured) has the pale pink or beige color of a fresh pork roast; country hams and prosciutto (which are dry cured) range from pink to mahogany color.

Hams are either ready-to-eat or not. Ready-to-eat hams include prosciutto and fully cooked hams; they can be eaten right out of the package. Fresh hams and hams that are only trichina treated must be cooked by the consumer before eating; in most countries, these hams will bear a safe handling label.

Curing
Curing is the addition of salt, sodium nitrate (or saltpeter), nitrites and sometimes sugars, seasonings, phosphates and ascorbates to pork for preservation, color development and flavor enhancement.

Nitrate and nitrites contribute to the characteristic cured flavor and reddish-pink color of cured pork. Nitrite and salt inhibit the outgrowth of Clostridium botulinum, a deadly microorganism which can occur in foods. The nitrates and nitrites create cancer-causing chemicals when overcooked, so avoid eating ham that has been browned or blackened.

The two most-used methods of adding solutions to pork are: injection into muscle by needle; and tumbling or massaging into muscle to produce a more tender product.

Dry curing
In dry curing, the process used to make country hams and prosciutto, fresh meat is rubbed with a dry-cure mixture of salt and other ingredients. Dry curing produces a salty product. In 1992, FSIS approved a trichina treatment method that permits substituting up to half of the sodium chloride with potassium chloride to result in lower sodium levels. Since dry curing draws out moisture, it reduces ham weight by at least 18% -- usually 20 to 25%; this results in a more concentrated ham flavor.

Dry-cured hams may be aged from a few weeks to more than a year. Six months is the traditional process but may be shortened according to aging temperature.

These uncooked hams are safe stored at room temperature because they contain so little water, bacteria can't multiply in them. Country hams may not be injected with curing solutions or placed in curing solutions but they may be smoked.

Wet curing or brine cure
Brine curing is the most popular way of producing hams. Contrary to popular misconception, not all brine-cured hams are "injected". Many traditional ham styles (such as the English Wiltshire ham) are wet-cured hams. Brining ingredients can be salt, sugar, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, sodium erythorbate, sodium phosphate, potassium chloride, water and flavorings. Smoke flavoring (liquid smoke) may also be injected with brine solution. Cooking may occur during this process.

Smoking and smoke flavoring
After curing, some hams are smoked. Smoking is a process by which ham is hung in a smokehouse and allowed to absorb smoke from smoldering fires. This gives added flavor and color to meat and slows the development of rancidity.

How much to buy
When buying a ham, estimate the size needed according to the number of servings the type of ham should yield:

 * 1/4 - 1/3 lb. per serving of boneless ham
 * 1/3 - 1/2 lb. of meat per serving of ham with little bone
 * 3/4 - 1 lb. of meat per serving of ham with large bone.

Ham glossary
Labeling regulations referenced in this glossary are those of the United States.
 * Bayonne Ham, Air dried ham from the Adour valley in S W France 'the Basque country'. Salted, then air cured for a mimimum of seven months.
 * Butt (sirloin) end, half, or portion - the upper, meatier part of the whole leg; a butt portion has had some center slices removed for separate sale as ham steaks or center cut ham slices. The half includes this meat.
 * Canned ham -- Canned hams come in two forms:
 * Shelf stable - store on shelf up to 2 years at room temperature. Generally not over 3 pounds in size. Processed to kill all spoilage bacteria and pathogenic organisms such as Clostridium botulinum, Salmonella and Trichinella spiralis. The product is free of microorganisms capable of growing at ordinary room temperature. However, high temperature storage -- above 122° F (50° C) -- may result in harmless thermophylic bacteria multiplying and swelling or souring the product.
 * Refrigerated - may be stored in refrigerator up to 6 to 9 months. Its weight can be up to 8% more than original uncured weight due to uptake of water during curing. It need not be labeled "Added water" except for "In Natural Juices." Net Weight is the weight of the actual ham excluding the container. Processed at a time/temperature sufficient to kill infectious organisms (including Trichinae) but the ham is not sterilized so spoilage bacteria may grow eventually.
 * Capacolla - Boneless pork shoulder butts which are dry cured; not necessarily cooked., Ham capacolla is made with ham instead of pork shoulder butts.
 * Cook before eating - needs further cooking. Is not completely cooked in the plant and should be cooked to 135° F.
 * Cottage ham - a ham made from the shoulder butt end.
 * Country ham - uncooked, cured, dried, smoked-or-unsmoked meat products made from a single piece of meat from the hind leg of a hog or from a single piece of meat from a pork shoulder. Smithfield and country hams are not fully cooked but are dry cured to be safe stored at room temperature. They should be cooked before eating according to manufacturer's instructions. A ham labeled "Smithfield Ham" must be processed in the city of Smithfield, Virginia.
 * Fresh ham - the uncured leg of pork. Since the meat is not cured or smoked, it has the flavor of a fresh pork loin roast or pork chops. Its raw color is pinkish red and after cooking, greyish white.
 * Fully cooked - needs no further cooking. Fully cooked in plant. Can be eaten directly as it comes from its packaging or reheated.
 * Gelatin - about one-fourth ounce of dry gelatin is often added before a canned ham is sealed to cushion the ham during shipment. During processing, natural juices cook out of the ham and combine with the gelatin. When the ham cools, a jell forms. Gelatin is included in the net weight statement on the label.
 * Ham - the product is at least 20.5% protein in lean portion and contains no added water.
 * Ham with natural juices - the product is at least 18.5% protein. Can weigh 8% more than uncured weight. Example: canned hams.
 * Ham -- Water added - the product is at least 17.0% protein with 10% added solution; it can weigh 8% more after curing than uncured.
 * Ham and water products - Product may contain any amount of water but label must indicate percent of "added ingredients." For example, "X % of weight is added ingredients" for any canned ham with less than 17.0% protein.
 * Ham steak - another name for center cut ham slices.
 * Hickory-smoked ham - a cured ham which has been smoked by hanging over burning hickory wood chips in a smokehouse. May not be labeled "hickory smoked" unless hickory wood has been used.
 * Honey-cured - may be shown on the labeling of a cured product if honey is the only sweetening ingredient or is at least half the sweetening ingredients used, and if the honey is used in an amount sufficient to flavor and/or affect the appearance of the finished product.
 * "Lean" ham - The term "lean" may be used on a ham's label provided the product contains less than 10 grams fat, 4.5 grams or less of saturated fat, and less than 95 milligrams cholesterol per 100 grams and Reference Amount Customarily Consumed (RACC).
 * "Extra lean" ham - A ham labeled "extra lean" must contain less than 5 grams fat, less than 2 grams saturated fat and the same cholesterol as allowed per the amount of "lean" ham.
 * Picnic, pork shoulder picnic - a front shoulder cut of pork which has been cured in the same manner as ham.
 * Prosciutto ham - An Italian-style dry cured raw ham; not smoked; often coated with pepper. Proscuitti can be eaten raw because of the way they are processed. Parma ham is prosciutto from the Parma locale in Italy. These hams tend to be larger than the U.S. produced product, as Italian hogs are larger at slaughter.
 * Sectioned and formed or Chunked and formed - a boneless ham that is made from different cuts, tumbled or massaged and reassembled into a casing or mold and fully cooked. During this process it is usually thoroughly defatted.
 * Shank end, half, or portion - the lower, slightly pointed part of the leg. A "portion" has the center slices removed for separate sale as "ham steaks" or center cut ham slices. The half includes this meat.
 * Skinless, shankless - A ham with all of the skin and the shank removed. The leg bone and aitch (hip) bone remain.
 * Sugar cured - a term that may appear on ham labels if cane or beet sugar is at least half the sweetening ingredients used and if the sugar is used in an amount sufficient to flavor and/or affect the appearance of the finished product. Most hams contain sugar in the curing mixture.
 * Westphalian ham - A German-style dry cured ham that is similar to Prosciutto; smoked, sometimes with juniper berries. Also called Westfalischer Schinken.

title: Cookbook:Ham


text:
Cookbook talk:Ham

This module uses text adapted from the public domain US Department of Agriculture document FOCUS ON: Ham.

title: Cookbook talk:Ham


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Statistics/Different Types of Data/Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Qualitative data
Qualitative data is a categorical measurement expressed not in terms of numbers, but rather by means of a natural language description. In statistics, it is often used interchangeably with "categorical" data.

For example: favorite color = "blue" height = "tall" i hated the most = "zen"

Although we may have categories, the categories may have a structure to them. When there is not a natural ordering of the categories, we call these nominal categories. Examples might be gender, race, religion, or sport.

When the categories may be ordered, these are called ordinal variables. Categorical variables that judge size (small, medium, large, etc.) are ordinal variables. Attitudes (strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree) are also ordinal variables, however we may not know which value is the best or worst of these issues. Note that the distance between these categories is not something we can measure.

Quantitative data
Quantitative data is a numerical measurement expressed not by means of a natural language description, but rather in terms of numbers. However, not all numbers are continuous and measurable. For example, the social security number is a number, but not something that one can add or subtract.

For example: molecule length = "450 nm" height = "1.8 m"

Quantitative data always are associated with a scale measure.

Probably the most common scale type is the ratio-scale. Observations of this type are on a scale that has a meaningful zero value but also have an equidistant measure (i.e., the difference between 10 and 20 is the same as the difference between 100 and 110). For example, a 10 year-old girl is twice as old as a 5 year-old girl. Since you can measure zero years, time is a ratio-scale variable. Money is another common ratio-scale quantitative measure. Observations that you count are usually ratio-scale (e.g., number of widgets).


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Cookbook:Sausage

| Basic foodstuffs

Summer sausage, kielbasa, bologna, bratwurst: The list goes on and on. There are so many varieties of sausage. How long can you store them — and where? Are they fully cooked or not? The following background information will answer these questions and others.

Types of Sausages
Sausages are either ready to eat or not. They can be made from red meat, poultry or a combination. Uncooked sausages include fresh (bulk, patties or links) and smoked sausages. Uncooked smoked sausages containing pork must be treated for trichinae.

Ready-to-eat sausages are dry, semi-dry and/or cooked. Dry sausages may be smoked, unsmoked or cooked. Semi-dry sausages are usually heated in the smokehouse to fully cook the product and partially dry it.

Let the label be your guide to sausage selection and handling. It will tell you if the product must be kept refrigerated, the nutrient content and the ingredients. All ingredients in the product must be listed by weight in descending order in the ingredient statement.

In the United States, safe handling instructions are mandatory for all raw or partially cooked meat and poultry products.

Fresh Sausages
Fresh sausages are a coarse or finely comminuted meat food product prepared from one or more kinds of meat, or meat and meat byproducts. They may contain water not exceeding 3% of the total ingredients in the product. They are usually seasoned, frequently cured, and may contain binders and extenders. They must be kept refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating.

 * Fresh Pork Sausages - May not contain pork byproducts and no more than 50% fat by weight.
 * Fresh Beef Sausages - May not include beef byproducts and no more than 30% fat by weight.
 * Breakfast Sausages - May contain meat and meat byproducts and no more than 50% fat by weight.
 * Whole Hog Sausage - Meat from swine in such proportions as are normal to a single animal and no more than 50% fat by weight.
 * Italian Sausage Products - Cured or uncured sausages containing at least 85% meat, or a combination of meat and fat, with the total fat content constituting not more than 35% of the finished product. It contains salt, pepper, fennel and/or anise and no more than 3% water. Optional ingredients permitted in Italian Sausages are spices (including paprika) and flavorings, red or green peppers, onions, garlic, and parsley, sugar, dextrose, and corn syrup.

Cooked and/ or Smoked Sausages
These products are made of one or more different kinds of chopped or ground meats which have been seasoned, cooked and/or smoked. Water can be no more than 10% by weight. Meat byproducts may be used. Included in this category are:

 * salami
 * liverwurst
 * hot dogs
 * bologna
 * knockwurst
 * bratwurst
 * braunschweiger
 * blood sausage
 * jellied beef loaf
 * thuringer-style.

Cooked salami (not dry) is made from fresh meats which are cured, stuffed into casings and cooked in a smokehouse at high temperature. It may be air dried for a short time. It has a softer texture than dry and semi-dry sausages and must be refrigerated.

Meat Specialties
A ready-to-eat sausage product. It is made from comminuted meats that are seasoned and usually cooked or baked rather than smoked. They are usually sliced and served cold. Included in this category are:

 * chopped ham loaf
 * luncheon meat
 * peppered loaf
 * head cheese
 * jellied corned beef
 * ham and cheese loaf
 * honey loaf
 * old fashioned loaf
 * olive loaf
 * pickle and pimento loaf
 * scrapple
 * souse
 * veal loaf.

Dry and Semi-Dry Sausages
Dry sausages may or may not be characterized by a bacterial fermentation. When fermented, the intentional encouragement of a lactic acid bacteria growth is useful as a meat preservative as well as producing the typical tangy flavor. The ingredients are mixed with spices and curing materials, stuffed into casings, and put through a carefully controlled, long, continuous air-drying process.

Dry sausages require more production time than other types of sausages and results in a concentrated form of meat. Medium-dry sausage is about 70% of its "green" weight when sold. Green weight is the weight of the raw article before addition of added substances or before cooking. Less-dry and fully-dried sausages range from 80% to 60% of original weight at completion.

Dry sausages include:

 * chorizo (Spanish, smoked, highly spiced)
 * Frizzes (similar to pepperoni but not smoked)
 * pepperoni (not cooked, air dried)
 * Landjäger
 * Lola or Lolita and Lyons sausage (mildly seasoned pork with garlic)
 * Genoa Salami (Italian, usually made from pork but may have a small amount of beef; it is moistened with wine or grape juice and seasoned with garlic)

Semi-dry sausages are usually heated in the smokehouse to fully cook the product and partially dry it. Semi-dry sausages are semi-soft sausages with good keeping qualities due to their lactic acid fermentation. "Summer Sausage" (another word for cervelat) is the general classification for mildly seasoned, smoked, semi-dry sausages like Mortadella and Lebanon bologna.

Casings
If you've ever wondered what "Lamb casing" or "Beef casing" meant, that means what animal the casing comes from. If you really want to know what a casing is, then I'll tell you: Natural casings mean, well something very unappetizing: The connective tissue lining on the intestines. You still want to eat sausages now? Nowadays, many companies use a synthetic casing, collagen actually, that is shaped to look like a natural casing.

Preparation
Sausages can be boiled, fried, or browned (usually in preparation for inclusion in another dish). It can be prepared with the casing on, or with it removed. The method of preparation fundamentally affects the taste and texture of the resulting dish.

Safety precautions
Because dry sausages are not cooked, people "at risk" (the elderly, very young children, pregnant women and those with weakened immune systems) might want to avoid eating them. The bacterium E. coli O157:H7 can survive the process of dry fermenting, and recently some children became ill after eating dry cured salami containing the bacteria. Also, the casing poses a sanitation problem because, in the first place, it is what makes raw meat infected with bacteria.

Sausage recipes

 * Wiejska - the most popular form of Kielbasa, or Polish sausage
 * Boerewors - a very popular South African sausage
 * Seitan Bratwurst - a very easy and tasty vegetarian Bratwurst.

title: Cookbook:Sausage


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Cookbook talk:Sausage

This module used text adapted from the public domain US Department of Agriculture article FOCUS ON: Sausages.

-

This article could really benefit from more breadth. From the British point of view, there are two particularly glaring omissions:

 * Blood Sausages (Boudin Noir/Black Pudding; half cooked?)
 * Haggis

Unfortunately I don't have the specific knowledge of how these are made to make the changes myself.

Two points: 1) very US-centric 2)"Fresh Pork Sausages - May not contain pork byproducts" BUT THAT'S THE POINT OF SAUSAGE! I may add a family recipe for pork sausage made of Boston Butt later. 66.215.20.28 (talk) 06:23, 22 July 2008 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sausage


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Cookbook:Beef and Barley Stew

| United States | Meat | Stews

Beef and barley stew is a hearty stew that can be prepared from freezer to table in under 2 hours. It's easy to prepare ahead of time and refrigerate or freeze for later use.

Ingredients

 * 3 pounds (1.25 kg) beef, cubed
 * 1 white onion, diced
 * 4 cubed potatoes
 * 1 cup (240 g) barley
 * ¼ cup (60 g) flour
 * 1 can tomato paste
 * 1 small can diced tomatoes
 * 1 slug Worcestershire sauce
 * 1 bunch parsley
 * salt, pepper, paprika to taste
 * 1 teaspoon thyme
 * 2 teaspoons marjoram
 * 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
 * 2 cartons beef broth
 * 1 lb (450 g) mushrooms
 * 1 pkg frozen green beans
 * 3 cloves halved garlic
 * 3 stalks celery
 * 4 large carrots
 * water, enough to cover all ingredients in pot

Variation I

 * 1) Dust beef cubes lightly with flour, then brown in vegetable oil.
 * 2) Move to separate pot and clean pan with beef broth and add to pot.
 * 3) Sauté celery, garlic and onion briefly and add to pot. Simmer for 1.5 hours.
 * 4) Add barley and simmer additional ½ hour.
 * 5) Add potatoes, sliced mushrooms, frozen green beans, diced tomatoes and tomato paste.
 * 6) Add slug of Worcestershire sauce. Simmer for 1 additional hour.
 * 7) Chop parsley and stir into stew before serving.

Variation II

 * 1) Combine the flour, salt, pepper, and paprika on a plate, and dredge the cubed beef in the flour mixture.
 * 2) Add the oil to a Dutch oven or large saucepan on medium high heat. Brown the beef in the oil.
 * 3) When the beef is evenly browned on all sides, add the water, beef broth, bay leaf, onion, carrots and barley. Allow to come to a simmer and reduce heat.
 * 4) Allow to simmer for 1 to 1½ hours, until the meat is tender. Remove the bay leaf and serve with noodles or rice.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Don't overcrowd the beef when browning. If there is not enough room to brown all the meat at the same time, do it in batches, and then add the reserved beef with the other ingredients.

Warnings

 * Always follow safe handling guidelines when using raw meat.

title: Cookbook:Beef and Barley Stew


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Template:Invertebrate Zoology

Contents ~ Introduction ~ Protozoans ~ Metazoans ~ Sponges ~ Cnidaria Ctenophores ~ Flatworms ~ Nemerteans ~ Pseudocoelomates ~ Annelids ~ Mollusks Arthropods ~ Chelicerates ~ Crustaceans ~ Insects ~ Echinoderms

title: Template:Invertebrate Zoology


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Invertebrate Zoology/Arthropods

Introduction to the Arthropods
Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) constitute the largest phylum of animals, and include the insects, arachnids (e.g., mites, ticks, spiders), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp), and other similar creatures. Between 75 and 80% of all organisms on planet Earth are arthropods—over a million modern species are known, and the fossil record reaches back to the early Cambrian. However, species in the world's tropical forests remain largely undiscovered; Thomas (1990) estimated that perhaps 6 to 9 million species are yet to be discovered in this environment alone. Arthropods are common in all environments, and include symbiotic and parasitic forms. They range in size from microscopic plankton (~0.25 mm) up to forms several metres long.its class insecta bear almost 1.4-1.5 million species.

Because this group is so large, we will devote the next several chapters to the various subgroups: the subphyla and classes of arthropods.

 * Read Arthropods ( Links need not be persued at this time )

The Trilobites
Because of the hard exoskeleton, arthropods tend to make excellent fossils. A particularly large group of arthropods known as trilobites are known only from the fossil record: flourishing in Cambrian seas and into the lower Palaeozoic. The last of the triliobites disappeared at the end of the Permian.

 * Read Trilobitomorpha
 * Read Trilobita and follow link to Cambrian geologic period.

title: Invertebrate Zoology/Arthropods


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Dichotomous Key/Testudines

1

 * Number of vomers
 * One -
 * Two - ../Proganochelys/

2: Casichelydia

 * Head retraction
 * Head can not be fully placed inside shell - ../Chelydridae/
 * Head can be fully placed inside shell -

title: Dichotomous Key/Testudines