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GCSE Science/Current, voltage resistance and Ohm's law

Electronics GCSE Science/Electricity

What is electricity anyway?
So far in this module we have been using words like electricity, current, voltage, and resistance without actually explaining in depth what these words mean. On this page you will learn what these words mean, and how they relate to one another.

What is electricity on an atomic level
Let's think about a wire, made of copper. You should already know that it is made of particles called copper atoms, which have a positive nucleus surrounded by negative electrons. We need not concern ourself with the nucleus, because it does not move. They are stuck in a rigid crystal structure. Instead we need to look at the electrons. Copper, like all metals, has some loose electrons. These electrons are not held rigidly by the atoms but are free to roam about anywhere as long as they stay somewhere in the metal. We call them conduction electrons because they are the ones that conduct electricity. To see how electric current flows imagine a small petri dish, with an even smaller one glued inside. The channel between the two dishes is then filled with peas. The channel represents the wires in a circuit, the peas the electrons.

Charge is the quantity of free charged particles (in this case electrons). The SI unit of charge is the coulomb.

You could count the electrons, but there are an awful lot of electrons! Each electron carries a tiny charge, of −1.602×10-19 coulomb. We can turn this figure on its head and say that if we grouped together 6.2415×1018 electrons we would have −1 coulomb of charge.

Electric field
An electric field is a region where an object experiences a force due to its charge.

The strength of the electric field (electric field strength E) is described by considering how much force is experienced by a unit charge (a charge of 1 coulomb) when it's placed in the field.

The electric field at any point is therefore expressed in newtons per coulomb.

Some fields (such as the field between two parallel charged plates) have the same field strength throughout the field - uniform fields. Others (particularly radial fields due to isolated point charges) do not have constant field strength.

In a battery there is a negative and positive terminal. The conventional current flows from positive to negative (the large line to the small line). Because opposites attract, these charges in the battery will be attracting each other, but they can not move directly to each other through the battery because of the chemical processes. If there is a complete external circuit, this attraction from the battery will give the free electrons in the metal (i.e. the wire) a force which will make them move. If you think about it these electrons are being forced to the other side of the battery because of this attraction. We call this driving force the Electro-motive Force (e.m.f). Emfs are measured in volts, and are sometimes referred to simply as voltage. The larger the emf (the voltage) the more quickly electrons flow round the circuit. What is the rate of flow of the electrons?....the current. so, a larger voltage means a larger current.

Current
Now imagine that you were to put your finger on one pea and push it in a clockwise direction. All the peas would move because they are all touching one another. This is just what happens when an electric current flows.

Current is the flow of charged particles (the particles are usually electrons). The SI unit of current is the ampere (symbol A).

To understand how current is defined think of standing at a given point in the wire. Electrons are flowing past you.

One Ampere is a flow of one coulomb going past every second.

 * 1 A = 1 C·s-1 (1 A = 1 C/s)

Definition of the ampere
BUT this flow of charge idea is NOT the definition of the ampere. The ampere is defined in terms of the force produced between two wires each carrying identical currents:-

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of length.

Voltage
Having looked at charge and current, we now need to look at what voltage means.

As you know, electrons repel each other. If you hold one electron near another electron, you have to push against it to hold it in place. If you try to bring it even closer, you have to do work (force times distance) to get it to that new position.

The voltage between one point and another is simply how much work per coulomb is required to move any small test charge from point A to point B.

In most electronic components, it doesn't matter much which path the test charge takes in-between point A and point B.

Voltage is related to the energy of the charges. Let's go back to the peas in the petri dish. They can be pushed slowly or they can be pushed quickly. The faster they go, the more energy they have. It's a similar situation for the electrons, except the push isn't provided by a finger! It's provided by the battery.

The battery gives the charges energy. This energy is given up to the various components in the circuit, e.g. bulbs, resistors etc. The energy per unit charge is called the voltage (or the potential difference).

Definition of the volt
One volt means one joule of energy per coulomb of charge.

More accurately it has 2 definitions:

Electromotive Force is the amount of energy converted from non-electrical to electrical form when driving 1 coulomb of charge around a completed and closed circuit.

Potential Difference is the amount of energy converted from electrical to non-electrical form when driving 1 coulomb of charge around a completed and closed circuit.

The potential difference between 2 points in a conductor is defined as 1 volt, if 1 Joule of energy is converted from electrical form to non-electrical form, when 1 coulomb of charge per second (1 amp) flows through it. Note: This will only occur between 2 points in a conductor, that has a resistance, defined as 1 ohm. See resistance below.

 * 1 V = 1 J·C-1 (1 V = 1 J/C)

Resistance and Ohm's law
Resistance is easy to understand. It's just how difficult it is for the charges to flow through an electrical component or from one point to another in an electrical circuit. Imagine a group of walkers travelling down a road. They approach a fork in the road. To the left is a flat straight road leading to a nearby town. To the right is a huge mountain, over which a steep and winding road traverses. This road also leads to the nearby town.

Naturally all the walkers chose the left route. Let's now suppose that there are millions of walkers. They are jam packed on the road, and they are all in a hurry to get to the town as quickly as possible. Now when they come to the fork in the road which way should they go? Most will still go to the left, but a few might chose to go to the right, the road is more difficult but there is no traffic jam, so they might get there quicker.

It's a similar thing with moving charges. Like charges repel, so they would rather not pack in very closely together. Some routes, like wires have very low resistance, while other routes like bulbs have much higher resistance. More charges will go down a low resistance route than a high resistance one. The unit of resistance is the ohm, represented by the Greek letter Omega (Ω).

Ohm's Law
This law relates resistance, current, and voltage. It's very easy to remember because it's obvious when you think about it.

Let's think of a wire carrying current from a battery, to a bulb then back to the battery. The voltage of the battery provides the energy of the flowing electrons. Let's assume we want to increase the rate of flow of charge. Remember that current is the rate of flow of charge so we want to increase the current.

 * Increase the voltage If we increase the voltage, we increase the energy of the charges. Each charge will then flow faster, so the current will increase. (A fast moving river carries more water per hour than a slow one of the same size). So current must be proportional to voltage.

 * Increase the number of charges flowing The more charges that flow, the bigger the current will be. (A wide river carries more water per hour than an equally fast flowing but narrower one.) The way to increase the number of charges is to decrease the resistance. So the current must be proportional to 1÷Resistance. We say that it is inversely proportional to the resistance.

 * So, the current is proportional to the voltage, and is inversely proportional to the resistance.

So $$Current = Voltage \times \frac{1}{Resistance}$$

 * $$Current = \frac{Voltage}{Resistance}$$

Rearranging gives :
 * $$Voltage = Current \times Resistance$$

In symbols:
 * $$V=IR$$

This is Ohm's law. Learn it by heart.

Q2) A wire has a resistance of two Ω and a voltage of 3 V is applied. What is the current?

Q3) A wire has a 5 V potential difference applied. the current is 10 A, what is the resistance?

Q4) A current of 2 A is flowing through a wire with a voltage of 20 V. What is the resistance of the wire?

(Remember to give the units for all your answers).

Answers | <>


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User talk:Kpjas

Hey Kpjas, thanks for the work on Othello. Was it hard ? Can we expect more Shakespeare plays to follow ? Did you have to write the script yourself ? --Karl Wick

If a blessing is all you need and mine is good enough, then go for it ! It took me quite some time to do just one scene of Othello by hand. A little bit of noise due to unexpected variations are no big problem for me; each modern version of Shakespeare's plays has variations due to editorial insight anyways. Any slight errors can be worked out over time, right ? Thanks for your help on this, I am very excited about the opportunities we will have to bring people together for learning. --Karl Wick

 * So what did you decide ? Are you going to go for it ? --Karl Wick

Cool, with Macbeth I see you have not yet given up. Who do we have to talk to tho to enable the annotation feature ? --Karl Wick

Importing texts
Is it possible to use scripts to import other texts, such as the physics book that we started to import over to the site by hand ? It would certainly save a lot of tedious work. --Karl Wick

Protecting Shakespeare texts
Hello Kpjas,

I am feeling very tired with deleting the vandalism on Romeo and Juliet. I cannot revert to your version, because I do not know how

This has been done on 2 acts (Act 3, Scenes 1 and 3) by at least 6 separate IPs, during the past 2 days (8-9 June 2004).

Since you are the one who designed these pages (and will almost certainly have to retype Scene 3 of Act 3), would you consider protecting them?

Thank you very much,

EuropracBHIT 04:17, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

wikification of slovio
Great work! I'll continue writing the next lesson tomorrow :) --Dcabrilo 06:35, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Re:Health science bookshelf
User:Mike.lifeguard has done a little bit of work over on the health sciences bookshelf. Specifically, the First Aid book was his masterpiece. I guess I don't really understand what kinds of problems you are talking about with copyright. What kinds of unforeseeable legal problems are you anticipating? We're pretty flexible, as long as you aren't straight copying content that doesn't belong to you. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:05, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

 * Okay, I see what you are saying. That page you mentioned does look a little suspect, however going back a few revisions shows us a page that seems less likely to be problematic. If there is something you suspect is a copy+paste violation, do a best effort google search to double check. If things do go bad, we can try, in order of most disruptivity: (1) reverting to a clean revision on the page, (2) deleting the entire page but not the surrounding book, and finally (3) deleting the book. Things would have to be pretty bad, and obviously so, if we were going to resort to option #3.
 * If a page doesn't appear to be a copyvio, or if it appears so but you can't confirm it, or if nobody raises an allegation about it, don't worry about it. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 22:46, 26 September 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Kpjas


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Botany/Introduction

<< Contents Page

Introduction to the Botany Study Guide
This Study Guide to the Science of Botany is a textbook at Wikibooks shelved at the biology bookshelf and intended to establish a course of study in the subject of Botany, utilizing articles provided in Wikipedia, with links to other relevant web sites and other Wikibooks as appropriate. In some cases, portions of the text from Wikipedia articles have been used to materially develop introductory text within the Guide.

For the new user, it need be pointed out that Wikipedia differs from a standard encyclopedia in two important respects: 1) it is a hypertext document, and 2) it is open and editable, and therefore constantly changing. For the student following this or any guide through Wikipedia to cover a specific subject, it is recommended that each article (page) be read first in its entirety, before any hyperlinks are followed to other topics or explanations. It is too easy, otherwise, to simply become lost in a maze of links, and miss the main thrust of an article presented as an assignment from the Guide. Because Wikipedia is constantly changing (and, it is believed, improving) the quality of each article encountered will be variable. Some articles are well written and go to adequate depth, whereas others, lacking a proponent, are shallow and incomplete. Short or sloppy looking articles may contain questionable facts. These short-comings should diminish with time, but can be a problem for the student.

One clear advantage to using this Guide linked to a hypertext like Wikipedia is the "circular redundancy with serendipity" factor that arises when an article is read and its hyperlinks followed; this factor can be a powerful learning tool. The persistent reader is subjected to a fairly high degree of repetitive reading, often presenting slightly differing perspectives on the same general topic, with the result that learning comes from redundancy and seeing difficult concepts presented in more than one way. At the same time, some hyperlinks lead down less relevant paths, bringing new and unanticipated knowledge. If, as a student, you are truly interested in mastering the subject of botany, you must be prepared to read beyond the basic assignments; in some cases, beyond Wikipedia to explore other, "outside" web sites.

It seems likely that the typical user of the Study Guide to the Science of Botany is not necessarily an active student taking a course in botany at the high school (AP) or college level, but a person with a strong interest in plants—an amateur naturalist or a gardener. Therefore the guide must incorporate both the basic biological and physiological aspects of plants as well as extensive taxonomy-based coverage of the diversity of plants and related organisms. The amount of material now available on the web covering the latter subject is becoming nothing short of phenomenal. In effect, one now has access to much of the world's plant diversity, with photographs and descriptions, in many cases from web sites maintained by specialists. One goal of the guide is to provide a systematics-based approach to capturing this kind of information, hopefully giving the student a strong background in plant systematics. The importance of this approach is not that everyone should become a taxonomist—or become more familiar with plant taxonomy, a specialized field of botanical science with a relatively narrow following—but that appreciation for (and understanding of) species diversity is most critical at this time in our earth's history marked by accelerated species extinctions and destruction of native ecosystems by both human population expansion and man-induced spread of non-native species.

The Study Guide to the Science of Botany includes two other "parallel" documents intended to enhance the usefulness of the Guide. These could also be used separately or independently as source documents for a beginning course in Botany. They are the Discussion pages and the Laboratory Exercise pages. Both are explained in detail in the next Section titled How to use this Guide.

title: Botany/Introduction


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Botany/How to use

<< Contents Page

How to Use the Botany Study Guide

The purpose of the Study Guide to the Science of Botany is to weave - out of the information on Life Science and especially Botany contained in Wikipedia - a course of study for the student or layman. It is anticipated that this course will be either supplemental to instruction being received at a school or college, or will be self-directed. In either case, the Guide is not a novel and should not be approached as one. A smooth flow of dialogue is simply not possible and should not be anticipated. The Guide may be closer to the sometimes disjointed notes generated by a student from a lecture or careful reading of a detailed textbook.

Within each subsection of a Chapter, introductory text is followed by one or more "reading assignments" of the form:

 * Read Botany ( Links need not be pursued at this time )

Following (that is clicking on) the link (to Wikipedia "Botany" in this case) will open an article intended to provide the details of the Chapter subsection. Recommended articles should be read from top to bottom, and then re-read following some or all of the links embedded in the article to other articles for expanded elucidation or to clarify terms; that is, in most cases, completion of an "assignment" (recommended article) includes at least some or all articles linked to the first. Obviously, it cannot be the case that all links are followed to articles, whose links are then followed to articles, and so on until no new material is encountered. It is likely there would be no quick end to such a pursuit. The amount of time spent wandering beyond the original article is partly a personal matter of how much the reader is getting out of the foray than anything else. Realize it is certainly possible to wander well off the subject at hand. As in the example above, notes are provided with assignments giving some direction for pursuing links. An instruction NOT to follow links simply means the additional material will be encountered later in the course of instruction, and going beyond the assigned article may provide too much detail for a beginning student. The following example:

 * Read Science ( The following links are included: )
 * Scientific Method
 * Philosophy of Science

specifies that two other links ARE part of the assignment. Other links encountered may be followed to expand your knowledge or, as always, to aid in understanding of technical terms encountered. Hyperlinks included with the text in the Guide are there simply for convenience, usually to topics somewhat peripheral to the main one. In all cases, finding your way back to the Guide may become tricky, but we have to leave this up to you to establish, beyond pointing out that your browser's Back button is intended for this purpose.

Discussion Questions
At the end of each subsection are posted one to several questions. In general, you will get more out of these questions if you write out your answer on a piece of paper. You may wish to accomplish this on the re-read, allowing each question to guide your quest for an answer. A discussion page for each chapter provides answers to the questions posed. However, the questions are intended to be thought-provoking, and may not have a single straight-forward answer. Answers on the discussion pages are also necessarily much longer than would be expected of any one student; it is expected that each student answer will fit somewhere within the broad discussion presented.

Laboratory Exercises
A natural sciences course laboratory unit is supposed to provide hands-on experience in exploring topics raised in the text and lecture units. The best that a website can give towards this goal is a manual that is liberally provided with pictures and diagrams. The student must provide the "hands on" from the neighboring natural world. Fortunately, in botany, this is much easier to accomplish than in almost any other field of science. Both the outdoors, the local market, and (if available) a botanical garden can be sources of materials for study. Indeed, we may teach the structure of a pome using an apple in the hope that the student will end up with a pear.

In using any of the Laboratory Exercises, it is always best to read through the entire module before actually doing anything. Resist the temptation to view the material as an instruction manual to be followed in a specific order. For one thing it is difficult to write a module that covers, at each step, all that the student should know before proceeding on to the next step. The value of any exercise will be significantly enhanced if you have a pretty good idea where it is going in advance.

General Navigation
The Study Guide is divided into Sections and Chapters which define the subject material of each module. At the bottom of each text page (main text of a module), is a short version of the Table of Contents, allowing the reader to jump between chapters within a Section. Here is an example of the "Wiki Contents Table" for Section I:

Note that at the beginning of each module, links are provided to both the previous chapter and the succeeding chapter, as well as to the main Table of Contents. Links to units associated with a module, as for example to a Laboratory Exercise, appear near the end of the module

Final Note
As a final note, read the next Section and consider how you might make a contribution to the Guide.

title: Botany/How to use


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Botany/Plant structure discussion

Further Discussion
The questions posed in '''Chapter 3. Plant Structure''' are discussed further on this page. Remember, some questions are intended to be thought-provoking and more than one answer may be "correct".

Question:
 * At this point the conceptual differences between cell types, tissues, organs, and organisms may be somewhat confusing. Using the leaf as an example, describe this structure in a way that considers the cell types, tissues, and organs for that part of the leaf where photosynthesis is concentrated.

Photosynthesis is concentrated in the mesophyll of the leaf. The mesophyll is a type of tissue composed of two layers or arrangements of chlorenchyma cells: an upper pallisade layer of tightly packed parenchyma (called pallisade chlorenchyma), and a lower spongy layer of loosely packed parenchyma (or spongy chlorenchyma). One could regard these layers as different tissue types (simple tissues) and the mesophyll as a complex tissue. The mesophyll is packed between two protective layers of epidermal cells (tissue: epidermis of epidermal cells and cuticle), which along with the vascular tissue and perhaps other structural tissues form an organ called the leaf whose primary function is food production for the organsim: the plant.

Leaves usually have a stem-like structural part called a petiole by which they attach to another plant organ termed the stem.

<< Chapter 3

title: Botany/Plant structure discussion


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Botany/A final note about the Guide

Botany

Both this Guide and all articles in Wikipedia are free content that can be added to or edited by anyone. It is an opportunity for the user of these documents to contribute information, or even state given information more clearly, simply by editing a page. As a student with a textbook and a lecturer (teacher), you may find yourself in possession of useful facts, another point of view on existing facts, or a report you prepared of exceptional quality. Any of these can be added to an appropriate page in this Guide or the Wikipedia. However, this caution is strongly advised: Do not place into the Guide any text or pictures taken verbatim (or close to verbatim) from a text book, web site, or other copyrighted source without permission of the copyright holder. In general, this means, anything you submit should be your own work.

To learn how to edit or contribute material to this textbook, first read the introduction at: How to Edit.

title: Botany/A final note about the Guide


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Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Gibbs free energy

<< Acids and bases |

Gibbs free energy is represented by the following equation:

 * ΔG = ΔH -TΔS

 * ΔG is the change in Gibbs free energy.
 * ΔH is the change in potential energy, sometimes known as the enthalpy of a system.
 * T is the temperature in Kelvin.
 * ΔS is a statistical correlation, known as the entropy of a system.

The basic principle is that total entropy increases. This increase can be because of an increase in the entropy of the chemicals, ΔS, or because the reaction has produced heat, increasing the entropy of the environment.

The Gibbs free energy lets us calculate the total increase in entropy, including the effects on the environment, without needing to know anything about the environment.

At low temperatures, ΔG is approximately ΔH, and nature favours the reaction with lowest energy products, which release the most heat. This may reduce the entropy of the system, but the increase in the entropy of the environment more than compensates.

At high temperatures, ΔG is approximately -TΔS, and nature favours the reaction with high energy products, which may actually absorb heat. This may reduce the entropy of the environment, but the increase in the entropy of the system more than compensates.

Either way, the Gibbs free energy always decreases.

<< Foundational concepts | << Acids and bases | Gibbs free energy | Alkanes >>


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Latin/Appendix G

Latin Mottos

 * Aliena pericula, cautiones nostrae
 * Others' dangers are our warnings.

 * Anno Domini (A.D)
 * In the Year of Our Lord

 * Ante Meridiem (am)
 * Before midday

 * Ars Gratia Artis (MGM slogan)
 * Art for the sake of art

 * Carpe diem
 * Seize the day

 * Caveat emptor
 * Let the buyer beware.

 * Cave canem
 * Beware of the dog.

 * Cavete a canibus
 * Beware of the dogs.

 * Dum Spiro, Spero
 * While I breath, I hope

 * E pluribus unum
 * Out of many, one

 * Exempli Gratia (e.g.)
 * For (the sake of) example

 * Id est (i.e.)
 * That is

 * Lapsus linguae
 * a slip of the tongue

 * Per se
 * In itself

 * Post Meridiem (pm)
 * After midday

 * Quod erat demonstrandum (QED)
 * What was to be demonstated

 * Quid pro quo
 * Something for something

 * Sic semper tyrannis
 * Thus always to tyrants

 * Semper fidelis
 * Always faithful

 * Semper paratus
 * Always ready

 * Tempus fugit
 * Time flies

 * Terra firma
 * Solid land

 * Veni, vidi, vici
 * I came, I saw, I conquered

 * Versus (vs.)
 * Turned to (competing against)

 * Vice versa
 * The other way around

Latin

title: Latin/Appendix G


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Latin/Index II

This Page is incomplete

For explanations of terms used in these grammar tables, check the Glossary.

5th Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender): res

 * m = masculine
 * f = feminine
 * n - neuter

NOTES

4/5th declensions are modified 3rd declensions, thus behave similarily. 3rd declension is either M/F/N, 4th declension is either M/F/N and 5th declension is either M/F. So for 3rd, 4th, and 5th declension is of most importance to memorise the gender because the adjective will still need to agree (ie have the same) with the noun in both case, gender, and number.

The Vocative only changes for the 2nd declension masculine singular (however not for the nouns that leave the -us suffix when in nominative).

There are a few exceptions in the 1st declension which are not feminine. Such nouns are poet-a (1st declension masculine, so to agree you need to use -us on the adjective) and naut-a.

There are a few second declension nouns with irregularities. It is of most importance that you memorise them.

When memorising a noun's meaning, make sure that you also memorise any irregularities the noun has, the gender, and the declension. Without doing this you may have trouble translating. For example, 2nd declension masculines have -us in the nominative singular; however, 4th declension masculines have -us in the nominative singular, nominative plural and accusative plural. This may get you confused if you do not memorise the declension of each noun.

Single Declension Theory
If you look at the above list of declensions, you may feel that you are going to be overcome if you have to memorize all of it. Memorization is indeed the key, but it will be easier than you think.

Each word in Latin has three parts: the root, the stem vowel, and the ending. There are five vowels in Latin, so there are five stem vowels: A,O,I,U,E. Any word not really having a stem vowel naturally was given to I.

If you study the declension patterns enough you will see that there are many similarities in the declensions. All accusative singulars end in "m" except neuters that sometimes still do. All accusative plurals end in 's' except neuters that always end in a. All genitive plurals end in "um", be it ium, rum, uum or whatever else.

If you read enough Latin you will actually find that authors would switch a declension of a word at will if it made the sentence clearer. Thus many words that are of the 4th declension were sometimes written as if 2nd, and 5th declension as if 3rd and vice versa. Some ending patterns that we use for one declension may also be used in another, again to make the sentence clearer. Thus "filiabus" would be used in any sentence where we want to make it clear that we are talking about the Daughters and specifically not the Sons. We also see examples of this in animabus. Some think that the IS used in the first and second declensions was actually an abbreviation of bus.

Some students find the ablative difficult since it sometimes looks like the nominative singular, dative plural or neither. All you really need to do to get the hang of this is to know that in the plural, the ablative always looks like the dative. If there is no preposition in front of it then it is probably a dative, unless it is being used in an ablative construction that would likely be apparent. If there is a preposition and it looks like a dative, just remember that no preposition takes a dative, only ever ablative and sometimes accusative. Dative plural plus preposition equals ablative. The ablative singular is really just the root plus the stem vowel with no ending to speak of, since the preposition tells you the grammar of the word.

Some students also get confused by words that are the same in the nominative singular and plural. Don't worry about that; the verb will tell you which it is since the verb always agrees with the nominative.

It is thought that originally there was only one declension, but during the task of applying it to every word in natural speech it was found that some words naturally changed the way the basic sounds of the original declension worked. Here is one idea of the original basic declension.

When speaking in everyday conversation, Latin speakers would shorten the word in their pronunciation so long as it still made sense.

If you go to New Orleans you will likely hear someone say 'prowly'. This is not a new dish at a restaurant or a new new code name for the police, it is actually the local pronunciation of the word probably. It is ok to shorten this word because when it is shortened everyone can still understand it.

The Latins did the same thing. It is known that I can change to E and vice versa, so we can see that pattern in the dative singular of all declensions. The IS of the genitive was kept in the 3rd declension, shortened in the 1st, 2nd, and 5th and slightly altered in the 4th. The 'add M' rule of the accusative singular is seen in the altering of the stem vowel in the 2nd and 3rd declensions. The ES of the nominative plural became E in 1st, I in 2nd, and US in 4th. The RUM of the genitive plural was shortened in the 3rd and 4th declensions.

The accusative plural as a rule never changes, but keep in mind that neuter words followed a different pattern of using A for the accusative plural, and all neuters took the accusative singular or plural for the nominative of the same number.

The BUS of the dative/ ablative plural was shortened to IS in the 1st and 2nd declensions but kept in the others.

The 4th declension has a tendency to copy the IBUS of the 3rd in some authors but retain the UBUS in others.

When studying Latin declensions you really should strive to memorize the patterns, but also look to see how they are similar to other patterns in the language as it will help you to remember. Also note that the IS of the genitive singular is what eventually gave us the word HIS and the 'add 's'" rule of English.  Latin also gave us the 'add 's'" to make a plural by way of the accusative plural.

If you study other inflexive languages related to Latin, such as Greek, you will notice even similarities across languages.

title: Latin/Index II


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Latin/Lesson 2-Genitive and Dative

The Genitive
The genitive case is a descriptive case. The genitive case describes the following features of the described noun:
 * Possession e.g. The dog of Marcus or Marcus's dog (canis Marcī)
 * Origin e.g. Marcus of Rome (Marcus Romae)
 * Relation e.g. A thing of beauty (rēs pulchrae)
 * Quantity e.g. A gallon of water
 * Quality e.g. Day of wrath (diēs irae)

Quite simply, a word in the genitive case is translated with the preposition "of". Note that Latin does not have a separate form for the possessive genitive (Marcus's dog vs The dog of Marcus), as English does. A word in the genitive case showing possession can be translated either way.

Exercise 1
Indicate the word in the genitive:
 * 1) Flavia's dog is good.
 * 2) The man has his mother's good taste.

Agreeing with the Adjectives
When adjectives are used to describe nouns in the genitive case, they must have the same case, number, and gender as the noun to which it refers.

Example

 * A road of beautiful Rome → Via Romae pulchrae.
 * If we look at the bare necessities, namely nouns, in this phrase, then we get "road of Rome," which is translated as "via Romae." Now, let's look at the adjective: beautiful (pulchra). Its antecedent (the noun it modifies) is Rome. Since Rome is in the genitive case, pulchra also needs to be in the genitive case. Both are already feminine, so we don't need to change that.
 * To make pulchra in the genitive singular case, we replace the final "-a" with a "-ae," and we get pulchrae.

It's that simple.

The Dative
The dative case, also known as the indirect object case indicates:
 * For whom, e.g., I made this car for him.
 * To whom, e.g., I gave this car to him.

Latin does not distinguish between "to" or "for", though this is sometimes the case in English:
 * I made this car for him. ↔ I made him this car.
 * I gave this car to him. ↔ I gave him this car.

Example 1
'For' is the preposition indicating a dative. 'For' can be used in some other constructs. To determine whether it is dative, analyse the meaning of the sentence (see Example 3). Practice will enable you to quickly spot the case of a noun in the sentence without much effort.

Example 2
He gave the book to John; He gave to John the book; or He gave John the book.

This demonstrates how English can use prepositions to change word order and even 'presume' a certain preposition exists that has been left out, giving a dative construct. Also, the dative is used only for a noun

Exercise 2: Translate into English
Note that placeo requires the dative case, as opposed to the accusative case. Verbs such as this are denoted with (+dat.) or similar abbreviations.

Roman Numerals
The Romans did not use the Hindu-Arabic numerals we use today. They used their own symbols and own numeric system. We still use Roman Numerals today.

Note the declensions of the first three numbers. Nullus is the Latin equivalent of zero, for example: nullam puellam in agro video means I see no girl in the field.

title: Latin/Lesson 2-Genitive and Dative


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User talk:Undotwa

Undotwa, the book you have started here will live for generations as the basis for many people's learning and undertanding of Latin. Best wishes in your project and thank you for being among the first persons to do serious work in this space. --Karl Wick

Page formatting
Your question: "Do you have any advice on fixing layout? After editing the changes the page looks hideous."

Dan, I'm looking around for some good links on how to format things in Wiki markup language (I just made that term up). Mostly regular HTML works but there are a number of shortcuts .. like to make an external link use a single pair of these things: [ ] with the link inbetween. For an internal link do double:  and just put the last part of the link on there, the page name. Is that what you are talking about ? Or other formatting issues .. you can upload images easy too. Do you want a different font, or what ? I'm not the most knowlegable but there are people around that I can find to help you. --Karl Wick

title: User talk:Undotwa


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Spanish/Exercises/Verbs ser And estar - Solutions

Soluciones a los ejercicios. Solutions to the exercises

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "ser". Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "ser" (to be).

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "estar".Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "estar" (to be).

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "ser" o "estar". Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "ser" or "estar" (to be).

Enlace a los Ejercicios Link to exercices

Enlace a la lección 1 Link to the lesson 1.


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Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes

Haloalkanes are otherwise simple alkanes that contain one or more members of the halogen family. In practice, the halogens found in organic molecules are chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), fluorine (F), and iodine (I). Some texts refer to this class of compounds as halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides. This text (and the chemical literature) will frequently use the terms haloalkane and alkyl halide interchangeably.

Note: The X in R-X represents a generic halogen atom.

=Preparation=

Methods for preparation are found elsewhere in this text:

 * Preparation from Alcohols (nucleophilic substitution)

 * Preparation from /Alkanes/ (radical substitution)

 * Preparation from Alkenes (electrophilic addition)
 * Preparation by halogen exchange.*It is generally used for preparing iodoalkanes.
 * Preparation from silver salts of acids*

=Properties=

Naming Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes are named by adding a prefix to the name of the alkane from which they are derived. The prefix denotes the particular halogen used.

F = Fluoro- Cl = Chloro- Br = Bromo- I = Iodo-

If other substituents need to be named, all prefixes are still put in alphabetical order. When necessary, numbers identify substituent locations.

Physical properties
R-X bond polarity: C—F > C—Cl > C—Br > C—I

The difference in electronegativity of the carbon-halogen bonds range from 1.5 in C-F to almost 0 in C-I. This means that the C-F bond is extremely polar, though not ionic, and the C-I bond is almost nonpolar.

Physical appearance: Haloalkanes are colourless when pure. However bromo and iodo alkanes develop colour when exposed to light. Many volatile halogen compounds have sweet smell.

Boiling point: Haloalkanes are generally liquids at room temperature. Haloalkanes generally have a boiling point that is higher than the alkane they are derived from. This is due to the increased molecular weight due to the large halogen atoms and the increased intermolecular forces due to the polar bonds, and the increasing polarizabilty of the halogen.

For the same alkyl group, the boiling point of haloalkanes decreases in the order RI > RBr > RCl > RF.This is due to the increase in van der Waals forces when the size and mass of the halogen atom increases.

For isomeric haloalkanes, the boiling point decrease with increase in branching. But boiling points of dihalobenzenes are nearly same; however the para-isomers have higher melting points as it fits into the crystal lattice better when compared to ortho- and meta-isomers.

Density: Haloalkanes are generally more dense than the alkane they are derived from and usually more dense than water. Density increases with the number of carbon and halogen atom. It also increases with the increase in mass of halogen atom.

Solubility: The haloalkanes are only very slightly soluble in water, but dissolves in organic solvents. This is because for dissolving haloalkanes in water the strong hydrogen bonds present in the latter has to be broken. When dissolved in organic (non polar) solvents, the intermolecular attractions are almost same as that being broken.

Bond Length: C—F < C—Cl < C—Br < C—I

Larger atoms means larger bond lengths, as the orbitals on the halogen is larger the heavier the halogen is. In F, the orbitals used to make the bonds is 2s and 2p, in Cl, it's 3s and 3p, in Br, 4s and 4p, and in I, 5s and 5p. The larger the principal quantum number, the bigger the orbital. This is somewhat offset by the larger effective nuclear charge, but not enough to reverse the order.

Chemical properties
Bond strength: C—F > C—Cl > C—Br > C—I

The orbitals C uses to make bonds are 2s and 2p. The overlap integral is larger the closer the principal quantum number of the orbitals is, so the overlap is larger in the bonds to lighter halogens, making the bond formation energetically favorable.

Bond reactivity: C—F < C—Cl < C—Br < C—I

Stronger bonds are more difficult to break, making them less reactive. In addition, the reactivity can also be determined by the stability of the corresponding anion formed in solution. One of the many trends on the periodic table states that the largest atoms are located on the bottom right corner, implying that iodine is the largest and fluorine being the smallest. When fluorine leaves as fluoride (if it does) in the reaction, it is not so stable compared to iodide. Because there are no resonance forms and inductive stabilizing effects on these individual atoms, the atoms must utilize their own inherent abilities to stabilize themselves. Iodide has the greatest surface area out of these four elements, which gives it the ability to better distribute its negative charge that it has obtained. Fluorine, having the least surface area, is much more difficult to stabilize. This is the reason why iodine is the best leaving group out of the four halogens discussed.

=Reactions=

Determination of Haloalkanes: A famous test used to determine if a compound is a haloalkane is the Beilstein test, in which the compound tested is burned in a loop of copper wire. The compound will burn green if it is a haloalkane. The numbers of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine atoms present in each molecule can be determined using the sodium fusion reaction, in which the compound is subjected to the action of liquid sodium, an exceptionally strong reducing agent, which causes the formation of sodium halide salts. Qualitative analysis can be used to discover which halogens were present in the original compound; quantitative analysis is used to find the quantities.

Substitution reactions of haloalkanes
R-X bonds are very commonly used throughout organic chemistry because their polar bonds make them reasonably reactive. In a substitution reaction, the halogen (X) is replaced by another substituent (Y). The alkyl group (R) is not changed.

Substitutions involving haloalkanes involve a type of substition called Nucleophilic substitution, in which the substituent Y is a nucleophile. A nucleophile is an electron pair donor. The nucleophile replaces the halogen, an electrophile, which becomes a leaving group. The leaving group is an electron pair acceptor. Nuclephilic substition reactions are abbreviated as SN reactions.

Example: Suggest a reaction to produce the following molecule.

Answer:

+

OR

+

Any halogen could be used instead of Br

Reaction mechanisms
Nucleophilic substitution can occur in two different ways. SN2 involves a backside attack. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate.

SN2 mechanism

SN1 mechanism

Comparison of SN1 and SN2 mechanism
Stereochemistry: SN2 - Configuration is inverted (i.e. R to S and vice-versa). SN1 - Product is a mixture of inversion and retention of orientation because the carbocation can be attacked from either side. In theory the products formed are usually racemic due to the 50% chance of attack from the planar conformation. Interestingly, the amount of the inverted product is often up to 20% greater than the amount of product with the original orientation. Saul Winstein has proposed that this discrepancy occurs through the leaving group forming an ion pair with the substrate, which temporarily shields the carbocation from attack on the side with the leaving group.

Rate of reaction: SN2 - Rate depends on concentrations of both the haloalkane and the nucleophile. SN2 reactions are fast. SN1 - Rate depends only on the concentration of the haloalkane. The carbocation forms much slower than it reacts with other molecules. This makes SN1 reactions slow.

Role of solvent: SN2 - Polar aprotic solvents favored. Examples: Acetone, THF (an ether), dimethyl sulfoxide, n,n-dimethylformamide, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA). Nonpolar solvents will also work, such as carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) Protic solvents are the worst type for SN2 reactions because they "cage," or solvate, the nucleophile, making it much less reactive. SN1 - Polar protic solvents favored. Examples: H2O, Formic acid, methanol. Aprotic solvents will work also, but protic solvents are better because they will stabilize the leaving group, which is usually negatively charged, by solvating it. Nonpolar solvents are the worst solvent for SN1 reactions because they do nothing to stabilize the carbocation intermediate.

Role of nucleophile: SN2 - Good nucleophiles favored SN1 - Any nucleophile will work (since it has no effect on reaction rate)

Carbocation stability: 3° carbon - most stable = SN1 favored 2° carbon - less stable = either could be favored 1° carbon - seldom forms = SN2 favored CH3+ - never forms = SN2 favored The reason why the tertiary carbocation is most favored is due to the inductive effect. In the carbocation intermediate, there is a resulting formal charge of +1 on the carbon that possessed the haloalkane. The positive charge will attract the electrons available. Because this is tertiary, meaning that adjacent carbon atoms and substituents are available, it will provide the most electron-density to stabilize this charge.

Example
Predict whether the following reactions will undergo SN2 or SN1 and tell why.

1:

2:

3:

Answers: 1) SN2. Good nucleophile, polar solvent. 2) SN1. Tertiary carbon, polar solvent. Very slow reaction rate. 3) SN2. Primary carbon, good nucleophile, nonpolar solvent.

Grignard reagents
Grignard reagents are created by reacting magnesium metal with a haloalkane. The magnesium atom gets between the alkyl group and the halogen atom with the general reaction as stated below:

R-Br + Mg → R-Mg-Br

Gringard reagents are very reactive and thus provide a means of organic synthesis from haloalkanes. For example, adding water gives the alcohol R-OH. Basic: R-X + Mg → R-Mg-X For example (X=Cl and R=CH3): CH3-Cl + Mg → CH3MgCl (methylmagnesiumchloride)

Elimination reactions
With alcoholic potassium hydroxide, haloalkanes lose H-X and form the corresponding alkene. Very strong bases such as KNH2/NH3 convert vic-dihalides (haloalkanes with two halogen atoms on adjacent carbons) into alkynes.

<< Stereochemistry | Haloalkanes | Alcohols >>

title: Organic Chemistry/Haloalkanes


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US History/Early Colonial Period

The Arrival of Columbus
Christopher Columbus and three ships - the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria - set sail on August 3, 1492. On October 12, a lookout cried out that he had sighted land. The crew set foot on an island that day, naming it San Salvador. It is unknown which exact island was discovered by Columbus. (Note that the island presently called San Salvador is so-called in honor of Columbus' discovery; it is not necessarily the one on which Columbus set foot.)

The Native Americans inhabiting the islands were described as "Indians" by Columbus, who had believed that he had discovered the East Indies (modern Indonesia). In reality, he had found an island in the Caribbean. He continued to explore the area, returning to Spain. Columbus' misconception that he found Asia was corrected years later by the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci, after whom America may be named.

The Protestant Reformation
In Europe, the power of the Pope and the influence of Catholicism was undoubted. The Catholic religion affected every aspect of politics on the continent. However, in the sixteenth century, the conditions were ripe for reform. Gutenberg's printing press made the spread of ideas much easier. The influence of nationalism grew, and rulers began to resent the power possessed by the Pope.

The Protestant movement may have commenced earlier, but the publication of Ninety-Five Theses by Martin Luther in 1517 spurred on the revolution within the Church. Luther attacked the Church's theology, which, he believed, misrepresented The Bible and placed too much authority in the hands of the clergy, and wished to reform the Church. After being excommunicated, Luther published many books on Reform. Luther's works were most influential in Germany and Scandinavia.

Persons other than Luther championed the cause of Reform. In Switzerland, Huldreich Zwingli advanced Protestant ideas, which mostly affected his home country. Similarly, Frenchman John Calvin helped the spread of Protestantism in France and the Netherlands.

English Protestantism resulted from the direct influence of the British monarch. Henry VIII (1509-1547) sought to divorce his wife, Catherine of Aragon, because she had failed to produce a viable male heir to the throne. When his divorce led to excommunication by the Pope, Henry simply declared the entire country free of Catholic domination and a bastion of Protestantism. Henry reasoned that England could survive under its own religious regulation (Anglican) and he named himself head of the church.

Elizabethan England
Elizabethan Succession

After Henry VIII died, he was succeeded by his son Edward VI (1547-1553) who reigned briefly before dying. Edward's death led to the ascension of Henry's daughter by Catherine, Mary I (1553-1558). A staunch Catholic, Mary sought to return England back to the Catholic church. Her religious zeal and persecution of Protestants earned her the nickname, "Bloody Mary." After a short reign, she was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) was the daughter of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Her ascendency to the throne resulted when neither of her half siblings, Edward and Mary, produced an heir to the throne.

Religious Reform

Under her siblings' reign, the nation constantly battled religious fervor as it sought to identify itself as either Protestant or Catholic. Henry VIII had severed ties with the Roman Catholic Church upon his excommunication after divorcing Catherine of Aragon. He established the Church of England (the precursor to the Anglican Church) as the official state religion and named himself, not the Pope, as its head. Under Mary, the country returned to Catholic rule. The Elizabethan Age brought stability to English government. Elizabeth sought a compromise (the Elizabethan Settlement) which returned England to a nation governed by Protestant theology with a Catholic ritual. Elizabeth called Parliament in 1559 to consider the Reformation Bill that re-established an independent Church of England and redefined the sacrament of communion. Parliament also approved the Act of Supremacy, establishing ecclesiastical authority with the monarch.

Economic Reform

Elizabeth's far more important response was to stabilize the English economy following the 1551 collapse of the wool market. To respond to this economic crisis, Elizabeth used her power as monarch to shift the supply-demand curve. She expelled all non-English wool merchants from the empire. Her government placed quotas on the amount of wool that could be produced while also encouraging manors to return to agricultural production. She also started trading directly with the Spanish colonies in direct violation of their tariff regulations. This maritime violation would later result in an attack on England by the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Queen Elizabeth was a very popular monarch. Her people followed her in war and peace. She remained unmarried until her death, probably through a reluctance to share any power and preferring a series of suitors. This gave her the name, the Virgin Queen, and in honor of her, a colony was named Virginia a few years after her death.

In the aftermath of the Armada's overwhelming defeat and building on the development of a strong fleet started by Henry VIII, England began to gain recognition as a great naval power. Nationalism in England increased tremendously. Thoughts of becoming a colonial power were inspired. These thoughts were aided by the fact that the defeated Spanish lost both money and morale, and would be easy to oppose in the New World.

Early Colonial Ventures
Richard Hakluyt

In 1584, Richard Hakluyt proposed a strong argument for expansion of English settlement into the new world. With his Discourse Concerning Western Planting, Hakluyt argued that creating new world colonies would greatly benefit England. The colonies could easily produce raw materials that were unavailable in England. By establishing colonies, England would assure itself of a steady supply of materials that it currently purchased from other world powers. Second, inhabited colonies would provide a stable market for English manufactured goods. Finally, as the economic incentives were not enough, the colonies could provide a home for disavowed Englishmen.

Roanoke

The English had already begun the exploration of the New World prior to the Armada's defeat. In 1584, Queen Elizabeth granted Sir Walter Raleigh a charter authorizing him to explore the island of Roanoke, which is part of what is now North Carolina.

Between 1584 and 1586, Raleigh financed expeditions to explore the island of Roanoke and determine if the conditions were proper for settlement. In 1586, about a hundred men were left on the island. They struggled to survive, being reduced to eating dogs. They were, however, rescued- except for fifteen men whose fate remained a mystery.

After another expedition in 1587, another group of men, women, and children- a total of more than one-hundred people- remained on the island. Governor John White of the Roanoke colony discovered from a local Native American tribe that the fifteen men who were not rescued were killed by a rival tribe. While attempting to gain revenge, White's men killed members of a friendly tribe and not the members of the tribe that allegedly killed the fifteen men.

Having thus strained relations with the Natives, the settlers could not survive easily. John White decided to return to England in 1587 and return with more supplies. When he returned, England faced war against Spain. Thus delayed, White could not return to Roanoke until 1590. When he did return, White discovered that Roanoke was abandoned. All that gave clue to the fate of the colony was the word Croatan, the name of a nearby Native American tribe, carved out on to a tree. No attempt was made to discover the actual cause of the disappearance until several years later.

There are only theories as to the cause of the loss of Roanoke. There are two major possibilities. Firstly, the settlers may have been killed by the Natives. Second, the settlers may have assimilated themselves into the Native tribes. But there is no evidence that settles the matter beyond doubt.

Review Questions
Use the content in this chapter and/or from external sources to answer the following questions. Remember to properly cite any sources used.

 * 1) Identify or explain the significance of the following people: (a) Christopher Columbus (b) Martin Luther (c) King Henry VIII (d) Richard Hakluyt (e) Elizabeth I (f) Sir Walter Raleigh
 * 2) What primary factor(s) led to the shift from Catholicism to Protestant belief in England?
 * 3) Why did King Henry VIII establish the Church of England? How did this influence the English Reformation?
 * 4) Differentiate between Elizabeth I's policies and Henry VIII's. What attitudes did the English have toward Elizabeth and her rule?
 * 5) What did the defeat of the Spanish Armada symbolize to all of Europe?
 * 6) What difficulties did the colonists of Raleigh face between 1584 and 1587? What was the fate of the colony?

title: US History/Early Colonial Period


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US History/English Colonies

Patterns of Colonization
The islands of Great Britain changed greatly in the Renaissance, resulting in the Church of England, the British Civil War, and total transformation of economic, political, and legal systems. Yet through this time, despite pressure from other nations and America's own Natives, a diverse set of English colonies were planted and thrived.

These new colonies were funded in three different ways. In one plan, corporate colonies were established by joint stock companies. A joint stock company was a project in which people would invest shares of stock into building a new colony. Depending on the success of the colony, each investor would receive profit based on the shares he had bought. This investment was less risky than starting a colony from scratch, and each investor influenced how the colony was run. These investors often elected their own public officials. (An example of a joint stock company on another continent was the British East India Company.) Virginia was settled in this way.

Proprietary colonies were owned by a person or family who made laws and appointed officials as he or they pleased. Development was often a direct result of this ownership. Charles II granted William Penn the territory now known as Pennsylvania. Penn's new colony gave refuge to Quakers, a group of millennial Protestants who opposed the Church of England. (Quakers did not have ministers and did not hold to civil or religious inequality, making them a dangerous element in hierarchical societies.) Penn was an outspoken Quaker and had written many pamphlets defending the Quaker faith. He also invited settlers from other countries and other Protestant minorities, and even some Catholics.

Finally, royal colonies were under the direct control of the King, who appointed a Royal Governor. The resulting settlement was not always identical to England. For example, England had broken with Catholicism during the reign of Henry the Eighth, and the Old Faith was seen not only as religious heresy but the prelude to domination by other countries. Yet Maryland's grant of toleration of Catholics was granted as a boon from the British Crown. In 1634, Lord Baltimore appointed George Calvert of England to settle a narrow strip of land north of Virginia and south of Pennsylvania as a Catholic colony via a royal charter. Fifteen years later, in 1649, he signed the Act of Toleration, which proclaimed religious freedom for its colonists. Despite the original charter, Protestants later became the majority faith. After Lord Baltimore's death several years later, Margaret Brent, the wife of an esteemed landowner in Maryland, executed his will as governor of the colony. She defied gender roles in the colonies by being the first woman of non-royal heritage to govern an English colony.

Massachusetts Bay Colony
The Massachusetts Bay Colony, another corporate colony, was founded as a place far from England where its religious dissenters could live. The Puritans, a group of radical Protestants who wanted what they called a return to the faith of the Bible, suffered torture and execution because they disagreed with the official Church of England. In 1620, forty-one Puritans (who called themselves Pilgrims) sailed for the new world. Their own contemporary accounts show that the Pilgrims originally intended to settle the Hudson River region near present day Long Island, New York. Once Cape Cod was sighted, they turned south to head for the Hudson River, but encountered treacherous seas and nearly shipwrecked. They then decided to return to Cape Cod rather than risk another attempt to head south. After weeks of scouting for a suitable settlement area, the Mayflower's passengers finally landed at Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts on December 26, 1620. They called it Massachusetts after the name of the Indian tribe then living there.

William Bradford, who was selected as a governor after the death of John Carver, wrote a journal that helps us to better understand the hardships colonists endured, encounters with the Native Americans, and ultimately, the success of the colony. The Pilgrims agreed to govern themselves in the manner set forth in the Mayflower Compact, which signed on the Pilgrims' ship, The Mayflower. After two years they abandoned the communal form of partnership begun under the Compact and in 1623 assigned individual plots of land to each family to work.

Ten years later, the joint-stock Massachusetts Bay Company acquired a charter from King Charles of England. The colony of Plymouth was eventually absorbed by Massachusetts Bay, but it remained separate until 1691.

A large group of Pilgrims later migrated to the new colony of Massachusetts Bay. In keeping with its mother Church of England, the colony did not provide religious freedom. It only allowed (male) Puritans the right to vote, established Puritanism as the official religion of the colony in The Act of Toleration, and punished people who did not go to their Church.

New York
Other countries used the joint-stock company to fund exploration. In 1609, the Dutch East India company discovered a territory on the eastern coast of North America, from latitude 38 to 45 degrees north. This was an expedition in the yacht Halve Maen ("Half Moon") commanded by Henry Hudson. Adriaen Block and Hendrick Christiaensz explored the territory from 1611 until 1614. In March of 1614 the States General, the governing body of the Netherlands, proclaimed exclusive patent for trade in the New World. The States General issued patents for development of New Netherland as a private commercial venture. Ft. Nassau was swiftly built in the area of present day Albany to defend river traffic and to trade with Native Americans. New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic in 1624. The northern border was then reduced to 42 degrees north, as the English had encroached north of Cape Cod.

According to the Law of Nations, a claim on a territory required not only discovery and charting but settlement. In May 1624 the Dutch completed their claim by landing thirty Dutch families on Noten Eylant, modern Governors Island.

In the next few decades incompetent directors-general ran New Netherland. The settlers were attacked by Native Americans, and British and Dutch conflicts seemed destined to destroy the colony. All that changed when Peter Stuyvesant was appointed Director-General in 1647. As he arrived he said, "I shall govern you as a father his children". He expanded the colony's borders. He oversaw conquest of the one settlement of northernmost Europe, New Sweden, in 1655. He resolved the border dispute with New England in 1650. He improved defenses against Native American raids, and the population of the colony went from 500 in 1640 to 9,000 by 1664. But in August of 1664, four English warships arrived in New York Harbor demanding the surrender of the colony. At first, Stuyvesant vowed to fight, but there was little ammunition and gunpowder. He received weak support from the overwhelmed colonists, and was forced to surrender. New Netherland was subsequently renamed New York, in honor of the British Duke of York.

In an attempt to gain supremacy over trade, the English waged war against the Dutch in 1664. The English took control over the Dutch harbor of New Amsterdam on the Atlantic coast of America. James, the brother of King Charles II, received the charter for New Amsterdam and the surrounding Dutch territory.

In 1673 the Dutch, lead by Michiel de Ruyter, briefly reoccupied New Netherland again, this time naming it New Orange. After peace was made, ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War, they agreed to return it to the English.

Patterns of Colonization in the Other Early Colonies
The territory of Carolina, named after the British King Charles I, was granted as a proprietary colony to eight different nobles. The proprietors divided Carolina into two separate colonies -- North Carolina and South Carolina.

Four colonies were formed by division from already extant larger territories. When New Holland was taken to become New York, King James granted a portion of the territory, present-day New Jersey, to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Cartaret, while retaining present-day New York for himself as a proprietary colony. Sir George had come from the Isle of Jersey, and the new colony was named accordingly. Another portion of the territory became the crown colony Connecticut. This colony was also named for its native tribe of Indians. A corner of Pennsylvania which was not peopled by Quakers separated in 1704 to become the colony of Delaware. This was given the name of Thomas West, Third Baron De La Warr, a nobleman under Queen Elizabeth and a noted adventurer.

Rhode Island was a unique experiment in religious and political freedom. Massachusetts banished Roger Williams after he began asserting that Jesus Christ meant for the Church to be separate from the governing authority. This dissenter from the Church of England, and then from the Puritans, became the first American Baptist. After many adventures in other colonies, he bought land from the Narragansett Indians for a new settlement. Providence was meant to be a colony free from religious entanglements and a refuge for people of conscience. He was later followed by Anne Hutchinson. She had outraged Boston divines because she was a woman who preached, and because she believed that one's works were not always tied to grace, unlike the Puritans. She also bought land from the Indians. On this was the settlement subsequently named Portsmouth, and afterward a dissident sister town, Newport. The colony was partially based upon Aquidneck Island, later called Rhode Island for unknown reasons, and the entire establishment eventually took its name from that place.

Georgia was another proprietary colony, named after King George I, with a charter granted to James Oglethorpe and others in 1732. It was intended as a "buffer" colony to protect the others from attacks from the Florida Spanish and the Louisiana French. Because of this, Georgia was the only colony to receive funds from the Crown from its founding. The laws in Great Britain put people in prison for debt. Many of these people were shipped from overcrowded jails to freedom in the wilds of Georgia colony. America was already seen as a land of prosperity, and Oglethorpe hoped that the ex-prisoners would soon become honest and rich. However, few of the prisoners of London jails knew how to survive in the new wilderness.

Portrait of the British Colonies
The Colonies are often considered as three groups: New England (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut), the Southern Colonies (Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia), and the Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware). Sometimes the Carolinas and Georgia are counted as separate from the Chesapeake Colonies.

Each group had geographic and economic characteristics. New England's rocky soil only encouraged small farms, and its agricultural opportunities were limited. Thus it focused on fishing, forestry, shipping, and small industry to make money.

Richer land in the Southern colonies was taken over by individual farmers who grasped acreage. This created large plantation farms that grew tobacco, and later cotton. Farms in the Carolinas also farmed sugar, rice, and indigo. In the 17th century, these were farmed by indentured servants, people who would work for a period of years in return for passage to America and land. Many of these servants died before their indentures ended. A group of indentured servants rose up in Bacon's Rebellion in 1676. After Bacon's Rebellion, plantations began using African slaves instead. Even after release from indenture, many of these white people remained in the economic lower classes, though not subject to the slave codes, which became more harsh as time passed, denying almost all liberty to slaves in the southern colonies. By the American Revolution, one in five colonists was an African slave. And the products produced by slavery in the South were consumed and traded by towns in the Middle Colonies and New England. Few people questioned the slave economy.

The Middle Colonies had medium-sized farms. These colonies also had people from many different cultures with many different beliefs. Individuals in these states used indentured servants, and later slaves, but there was not the concentration of masses of slave labor found in the Southern colonies.

Another distinction lies in religious practices. New England was mostly Congregationalist, with some admixture of Presbyterian congregations and the religious non-conformists who called themselves Baptists. These were all descendants of dissenters before and during the British Civil War. The South was mostly Anglican, cherishing religious and secular traditions and holidays. The Middle Colonies held small groups of people from Holland, German lands, and even Bohemia, and they brought a welter of Catholic and Protestant faiths.

Among the whites sent to the colonies by English authorities were many Scots-Irish people from Ulster. These had been Calvinist Protestants in the middle of a Irish Catholic majority, at odds both with them and with England. This minority settled in the frontier region of the Appalachian Mountains and eventually beyond in the Ohio and Mississippi country. In America their desire for land and freedom pushed the colonial boundary westward at little cost to the government, and provided an armed buffer between the eastern settlements and Native American tribes which had been driven away from the seaboard. Colonial frontiersmen endured a very harsh life, building their towns and farms by hand in a dense wilderness amid economic deprivation and native attack.

Each colony developed its own areas of edification and amusement, depending upon the local faith and the local capacities. The culture of the South recorded early interest in musical theater, with Charleston, South Carolina and Williamsburg, Virginia as hubs of musical activity. A performance of Richard III, the first professional production of Shakespeare in America, took place in New York City in 1750. And preachers, lecturers, and singers entertained the colonists.

Their commonalities were stronger than their differences. All three regions shared a population mostly derived from the British Isles. All had terrible roads, and all had connections to the Atlantic Ocean as a means of transportation. And all were tied to the Atlantic economy. Atlantic merchants used ships to trade slaves, tobacco, rum, sugar, gold, silver, spices, fish, lumber, and manufactured goods between America, the West Indies, Europe and Africa. New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Charleston were the largest cities and main ports at that time.

Early Technology
The first wave of colonists used hand labor to cultivate their farms, and established such land-based crafts such as pottery and tanning. As later ships brought cattle and horses, draft animals became part of the economy. Indentured servants, and then slaves kidnapped from Africa, were imported. This was when larger plantations began to be founded. In the latter part of the eighteenth century small-scale machine-based manufacturing began to appear. Individuals started to dig for coal and iron ore. New England used the latter to begin making building tools and horseshoes. A new textile industry arose, dependent in part upon Southern cotton. Powered by wood or coal and fed by the need for strong metal, household forges pioneered new techniques of iron-making. The blacksmith and the tinsmith became part of large settlements. Colonies started making mechanized clocks, guns, and lead type for printing.

Mercantilism, Salutary Neglect and British Interference
The American colonies, entirely new societies separated by an ocean from Great Britain, believed they had the right to govern themselves. This belief was encouraged by Great Britain's Glorious Revolution and 1689 Bill of Rights, which gave Parliament the ultimate authority in government. A policy of relatively lax controls or Salutary Neglect ended in increased British regulation resulting from the policy of mercantilism, and seen through the Lords of Trade and the later Navigation Acts.

Mercantilism
Parliament placed controls on colonial trade in obedience to the economic policy of mercantilism. This was the idea that a nation's economic power depended on the value of its exports. A country could use its colonies to create finished goods, rather than raw materials. These could be traded to other countries, thus increasing the strength of the colonizing nation. This policy had been put forth by a Frenchman named Jean-Baptiste Colbert. It seemed tailor-made for Great Britain. Spain had American gold as its economic base, and France had American furs. England had neither of these. But it had American cotton, molasses, and tobacco, as well as its state-of-the-art ships. Prior to the mid-1700's, the colonies had enjoyed a long period of "salutary neglect", where the British largely let the colonies govern themselves. This now ended.

The Lords of Trade
In an attempt to enforce mercantilism policies, King Charles II created the Lords of Trade as a new committee on the Privy Council. The Lords of Trade attempted to affect the government of the colonies in a manner beneficial to the English, rather than to the colonists.

The Lords of Trade attempted to convert all American colonies to royal ones so that the Crown could gain more power. Under King James II, the successor to Charles II, New York, New Jersey, and the Puritan colonies were combined into the Dominion of New England in 1687.

However, the Dominion only lasted a brief time. King James II, a Catholic, was seen as a threat by British Protestants. James was overthrown (he was technically held abdicated by Parliament) in the bloodless Glorious Revolution of 1688. In 1689, James' daughter Mary II and her husband William III took the throne as joint rulers. However, the British Parliament actually held the power. The Dominion of New England was dissolved, the various separate colonies were reestablished, and the Lords of Trade were abandoned (replaced by a Board of Trade, a purely advisory body).

Navigation Acts
Beginning in 1660, the Parliament of England passed the Navigation Acts to increase its benefit from its colonies. The Acts required that any colonial imports or exports travel only on ships registered in England, meaning that only England could have the shipping power and the fees derived from them. They forbid the colonies to export tobacco and sugar to any nation other than England. (Tobacco was then used as medicine, and sugar was used to make alcohol, also a medicine.) And the colonies could not import anything manufactured outside England unless the goods were first taken to England, where taxes were paid, and then to the colonies.

In the 1730s, The Sugar Act established a tax of six pence per gallon of sugar or molasses imported into the colonies. By 1750, Parliament had begun to ban, restrict, or tax several more products. It tried to curtail all manufacture in the colonies. This provoked much anger among the colonists, despite the fact that their tax burdens were quite low, when compared to most subjects of European monarchies of the same period.

Colonists hated the Navigation Acts because they believed they would be more prosperous and rich if they could trade on their own behalf. They also believed that some vital resources would not be found in Britain.

Indians in the 1700s
Indians of the Great Plains:

Today, the area where the Indians of all the Great Plains lived is located from the Rocky mountains to the Mississippi River. During the 1700s, there were about 30 tribes that lived on the Great Plains. These tribes tended to rely on buffalo as their food source as well as other daily needs, such as clothing. Not only did Indians, specifically women, make their clothing out of buffalo, but also out of deer. Women would soak the deer or buffalo and scrape off the hair of the dead animal.

Also, Indian tribes traded with one another. The number of horses an individual owned was a sign of wealth; Indians would trade their horses for food, tools, weapons(such as guns), and hides. Since the tribes spoke many different languages from one another, they had to use sign language to be able to trade with each other.

Philadelphia Election Riot
A riot broke out on election day in Philadelphia in 1742 as a result of the Anglican population disagreeing with the Quaker majority. The riot stemmed over a power struggle between the Anglican and Quaker population. The Quakers had a history of political dominance over Philadelphia. The German population backed the Quaker vote because of the Quaker Pacifism which would protect from higher taxes and ultimately the draft. On election day, the Anglicans and sailors fought with the Quakers and Germans. The Quakers were able to seek shelter in the courthouse and complete the election. The Anglican party lost the election and 54 sailors were jailed following the riot.

Education
As the three sections of the colonies through the 1700s were made up of people with different interests, they provided differing sorts of education for their children. Although there were commonalities -- a rich family in any of the three regions might send a son to Europe for his education -- people in different colonies tended to educate in differing ways.

New England's motives for education were both civil and religious. The good citizen had to know his or her Bible. The Massachusetts General School Law of 1647 stated that if more than 50 families lived in a community, a schoolteacher must be hired. This law gave a justification: "It being one chief project of that old deluder, Satan, to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an unknown tongue, so in these latter times by persuading from the use of tongues, that so that at least the true sense and meaning of the original might be clouded and corrupted with love and false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers; and to the end that learning may not be buried in the grave of our forefathers, in church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting our endeavors." This was the Pilgrim ethos, set up in opposition to what they saw as the ignorance imposed by tyrants. Both boys and girls were often taught to read the Bible by their parents, perhaps with the aid of a horn book, an alphabet and syllabary page covered by a protective layer of horn.

In addition to being able to read the Bible, a Christian ought to be able to govern in his society. (His society: for government was the province of godly, property-holding men, rather than women.) To obtain this youths had to gain a classical education -- that is, one based thoroughly on Latin. The 1647 law was the beginning of the American grammar school, which initially taught Latin, but later included practical subjects such as navigation, engineering, bookkeeping, and foreign languages. Most of the schools opened in the colonial era were private. However, they had been preceded by the first public-supported school, the Boston Latin School, in 1635. It had a rigorous education, and as a result, few students. Harvard was the first university in America, founded in 1636 and originally intended to teach Protestant clergy. Because of the small number of people graduating from the classical curriculum, attendance was low. Some people jumped directly from the classical curriculum to the University, sometimes entering Harvard as young as 14 or 15 years old. Cotton Mather graduated Harvard at 15, an exception only because of his extreme precocity. In private schools, boys and girls learned penmanship, basic Math, and reading and writing English. These fed the various trades, where older children were apprenticed. Girls who did not become servants were often trained for domestic life, learning needlework, cooking, and the several days-long task of cleaning clothes.

Like New England, the Middle Colonies had private schools which educated children in reading and writing. However, the basics were rarer. The further west one lived, the less likely one was to be able to go to school, or to read and write at all. Ethnic and religious sub-groups would have their own private schools, which taught their own children their own folk-ways. In none of the colonies was higher education certain. Secondary schools were very rare outside of such major towns as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.

The Chesapeake experience was different again. Children could only could only read and write if their parents could. And the South had few schools, of any kind, until the Revolutionary era. Children in wealthy families would study with private tutors. Though wealthy girls might learn 'the womanly arts,' they would not have the same curriculum as their brothers. Martha Washington's granddaughter Eliza Custis was laughed at by her stepfather when "[I] thought it hard they would not teach me Greek and Latin because I was a girl -- they laughed and said women ought not to know those things, and mending, writing, Arithmetic, and Music was all I could be permitted to acquire." Middle class children might learn to read from their parents, and many poor children, as well as all black children, went unschooled. The literacy rates were lower in the South than the North until about the 19th century.

In 1693 the College of William & Mary was founded, Virginia's first University. As the 18th century wore on, it specialized not in theology for clergymen but in law. In 1701, the Collegiate College was founded. In 1718 it received funds from a Welsh governor of the British East India Company, Elihu Yale, and was renamed Yale College. These were later joined by several other universities, including Princeton in 1747. In the 18th century, astronomy, physics, modern history and politics took a bigger place in the college curriculum. Some colleges experimented with admitting Native American students in the 18th century, though not African-Americans.

In 1640, The whole Booke of Psalms Faithfully Translated into English Metre, commonly known as the Bay Psalm Book, was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It was the first book written in the new world. The Bay Psalm Book was the first metrical English translation of the Biblical psalms. This famous and influential songbook was succeeded by a whole New England publishing industry. Sometime after 1687 the first New England Primer was published as an aid to childhood reading and spelling.

An alternative to the classical curriculum emerged in Benjamin Franklin's American Academy, founded in Philadelphia in 1751. This body represented something closer to the modern American high school, offering vocational education. This sort of school later outnumbered the classical secondary school. However, Franklin's Academy was private as well, making such learning open only to those who could afford it.

During this period colonists attempted to convert Native Americans to Christianity.

Review Questions
1. Choose one of the following colonies: New York, Virginia, Massachusetts, Georgia. In which of the three areas is it located? Why and how was it initially colonized? How did its immigrants and the religions they adhered to affect it?

2. Why did the British interfere with the colonies?

title: US History/English Colonies