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Hebrew/Intro to Verbs

Hebrew is a root based language. Every verb is based on a 3 or 4 consonant root (שורש, shoresh). These letters form a skeleton around which vowels are placed to form a complete word.

Binyanim
The patterns that dictate which vowels are placed and where are called binyanim (בנין), or constructions. There are 7 binyanim:

 * 1) Pa'al פעל. Active, Mild
 * 2) *Example: הוא אכל, he ate
 * 3) Pi'el פיעל. Active, Intense
 * 4) *Example: הוא איכל, he consumed
 * 5) Hif'il הפעיל. Active, Causative
 * 6) *Example: הוא האכיל, he fed (to cause to eat)
 * 7) Hitpa'el התפעל. Reflexive (subject acts on itself)
 * 8) *Example: הוא התאכל, he fed himself
 * 9) Nif'al נפעל. Passive, Mild (sometimes reflexive)
 * 10) *Example: הוא נאכל, he was eaten
 * 11) Pu'al פועל. Passive, Intense
 * 12) *Example: הוא אוכל, he was consumed
 * 13) Huf'al הפעל. Passive, Causative
 * 14) *Example: הוא האכל, he was fed

Not all roots are meaningful in all 7 binyanim. In addition, some do not have the expected meaning. Therefore, it is advisable to learn each root-binyan combination as its own verb.

Root type
The roots themselves are divided into 3 types: Strong, Weak and Hollow.

Strong roots have roots in which all letters appear in all conjugations.

Weak roots have letters that disappear in some conjugations. These letters are called weak letters. The weak letters are: א alef, ע ayin, ה heh, ח chet, י yod, ו vav, and נ nun.

Hollow verbs are verbs in which the 2nd root letter is a ו vav or a י yod. These disappear in conjugation.

Weak and hollow root types can be abbreviated using a 2 letter abbreviation. To denote the position of the weak letter, פ (first letter), ע (second letter), or ל (third letter) is written in the first position. Then the weak letter is written in the 2nd position. For example, roots with a ה in the third position are abbreviated ל"ה, while hollow roots are abbreviated ע"ו or ע"י.

Related
In addition to the lessons that are organized by topic, some vocabulary is organized by roots.

title: Hebrew/Intro to Verbs


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User talk:213.48.162.16

Y'know, if somebody wants to vandalize the "Vandalism in Progress" page in such a damn obvious way, let them. I can think of no better way to ask for blocking them.

This mess was bot-created, and would best be cleaned up via bot.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:213.48.162.16


text:
User:JoshCarson

Sup. I'm me. I'm Jewish. I live in Maryland, and attend a jewish community day school. That's about it.

title: User:JoshCarson


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Java Programming/Basic IO

This section covers the Java platform classes used for basic input and output. But before we begin we need to have a concrete understanding of what input and output means in programming. To grasp this concept, think of the Java platform as a system.

Understanding input and output
The Java platform is an isolated entity, a space on your OS in a way, where everything outside this system is its environment. The interaction between the system and its environment is a two-way dialog of sorts. Either the system receives messages from its environment, or it conveys its messages to the same. When a message is received by the system, it is called an input, its opposite is an output. On a whole, this communication is termed input/output abbreviated as I/O.

The following chapters are designed to introduce basic input and output in Java, including reading text input from the keyboard, outputting text to the monitor, and reading/writing files from the file system. More advanced user interaction using Graphics and Graphical User Interface (GUI) programs is taken up in the later section on Swing.

There are two packages for I/O: the older java.io package (does not support symbolic links) and the newer java.nio ("new io") package that has improved exception handling at java.nio.file.

Simple Java Output: Writing to the Screen
Writing to the screen is very easy, and can be accomplished using one of two methods:

Simple Java Input: Inputting from the keyboard
As of version 5, Java provides a class in the  package called   that simplifies keyboard input.

Alternatively, one could write a method to handle keyboard input:

Note that the code above shouldn't be used in most applications, as it creates new Objects every time the method is run. A better alternative would be to create a separate class file to handle keyboard input.

title: Java Programming/Basic IO


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Music Theory/Jazz

What is Jazz?
Jazz is a label that encompasses many aspects of an internationally loved art form and the culture that surrounds it. Its rich history ties it originally to the songs and rhythms of ancient African societies, which are associated with sacred traditions that in turn made way, if one looks closely enough, for the innovations of modern computing. As European colonials brought slaves to the Americas, the music of Africa came with them, leading to contributions like gospel, ragtime, and, perhaps most importantly, the blues. Jazz music can be "legit:" official and classically regimented, like the Gershwin brothers and Scott Joplin; it can also be "free:" chaotic, improvised, and experimental, like Ornette Coleman and the later work of Miles Davis. Jazz is also found in dance, art, and poetry, and no form of rock or hip-hop would have ever happened without it.

Early Jazz
Jazz music has its earliest roots in Africa. Throughout the 1700s Africans were taken by the millions to the North American colonies for the purpose of slavery. There, on plantations, slaves would sing work songs with each other in a call and response manner. These songs still exist in the form of Spirituals today.

With the ending of the Civil War in 1865 came freedoms these men and women, most of whom had been born in America, had never known before. Also around this time, a new music started popping up around the Louisiana delta, in and around New Orleans. Marching bands were formed, with odd instrumentations consisting mostly of brass instruments, playing music almost entirely by ear.

In the early 1900s, a new style of music called Ragtime started gaining popularity. Ragtime is characterized by the stride left-hand part ("boom chick" type of bass line) and syncopated rhythms in the right hand part on the piano. Famous names of this genre include Scott Joplin and "Jelly Roll" Morton.

Also out of New Orleans, along with Ragtime, was the Dixieland Jazz style, characterized by the distinct style of counterpoint and stride bass line.

Then, just a couple decades later, came a new style called Swing. The man most responsible for the growth of Swing in the mainstream was Louis Armstrong. Armstrong was known for playing using the "swing eighths", which is characterized by playing the two eighth notes of a subdivided quarter in a non-symmetrical fashion. Below is an example of how straight eighths (normal eighths) music might be notated:

In the swing style, however, 8th notes are often played as though one subdivides the quarter note as an eighth note triplet and plays a quarter note-eighth note combination. This is a rather technical way to describe it, and indeed people originally thought that it was music solely of feeling that could not be written down. The first person to write down jazz successfully was Jelly Roll Morton. Swing rhythm might be notated as below:

Sometimes, swing rhythms are played as a dotted quaver followed by a semiquaver. This is sometimes called heavy swing, and is most common in the Dixie Land style. This would be notated:

Playing music with a swing is characteristic of nearly all forms of jazz, and should not be confused with the Swing music sub-genre.

Bebop
In the 1940s, after the Great Depression and two World Wars, a new style of music was emerging out of New York city. Bebop sprouted out of the artists' need for self-expression, unconstrained by the demands of the dancing public, for whom Swing music evolved. Additionally, during the second world war, the overall movement and unavailability of men of a fighting age (who made up the majority of jazz musicians) meant that the traditional "big band" format became untenable, due to a lack of musicians, which led to a greater emergence of smaller groups which were more suited to the less constrained style of bebop.

Bebop is characterized by fast tempos and improvisation based on harmonic structure rather than melody.

Jazz Evolution
Jazz quickly evolved throughout the 20th Century. A sub-genre was Swing, which featured high energy and infectious melodies. Benny Goodman and Glenn Miller are notable leaders.

After Swing, Cool Jazz became popular, growing from its West Coast roots. One of the most popular musicians of the genre is Dave Brubeck, who with his album Time Out first challenged the notion that jazz could only be in 4/4 or waltz-style 3/4 time. It ignited a firestorm of controversy, but was immensely popular thanks to the single "Take Five."

An era of experimentation followed Cool Jazz with Miles Davis leading the way. Fusion, the attempt to blend jazz and rock and roll, also came about during this time. Notable fusion artists include Jaco Pastorius and the band Weather Report. Latin jazz also exploded during this time, led by people such as Chick Corea. Free Jazz also developed during this era, lead by Ornette Coleman. Free Jazz is played without a definite rhythmic structure and while there is some element of randomness, there is still a cohesive bond between the players. Some dispute whether Free Jazz is real jazz, or even real music.

Recently, jazz has splintered into a large grouping of subgenres without one truly leading the way. Smooth jazz has gained some popularity thanks to artists like Kenny G, but it is reviled by many as "not really jazz" because no improv happens and usually 'smooth' songs are just vamped on one chord. Other artists are trying to blend jazz with other forms of music, such as the band Béla Fleck and the Flecktones who combine jazz with bluegrass, funk, latin, reggae, and Asian music. Fleck himself plays banjo, an indication of the iconoclastic nature of the group.

(this should get you all off to a nice start)

title: Music Theory/Jazz


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Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Properties Window

Under "Editing" I have Links and materials and Mesh, but not Mesh Tools or Mesh Tools 1. Is this correct, or am I missing something?

 * Make sure you're in Edit Mode, not in Object Mode. To enter Edit Mode, select the object you want to edit and press TAB. --Spiderworm 12:06, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Shading
The shading part of this tutorial needs to be updated. :(

resize button-groops windows XP only?
In windows XP I can resize the buttongroops (actually the font-size) by scrolling the mouseweel while holding down controlbutton. I don't know if this is also possible in other OS.

continuety problems
um, it says "you have modeled a person" but we haven't even gotten to making cubes yet!
 * It says "suppose." It's asking you to imagine that you've already done it.

Resizing buttons
I can also resize the button panes by CTRL + SCROLL (using GNOME) --Aids 06:24, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

on my mac it works by holding down ctrl+cmd plus using the scroll wheel. This feature should definitely be documented. By mistake I had them magnified like crazy and I did not find how to make the buttons smaller again.

 * I added zooming to the manipulations section.--Stepheng3 (talk) 14:53, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Images needed
What's needed now, I think, are screenshots and VTT's for the Shading, Object, Editing, and Scene contexts. Some of this material will eventually get moved to a later tutorial.--Stepheng3 (talk) 14:53, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

I'm new to Blender and am going through this guide with 2.57, which is apparently much different in its organization of the Buttons Windows. On some previous pages (like the one describing windows generally), there were screen shots of 2.5--which was useful. This would indeed be useful with this page, but for me the more difficult matter is that it seems that there has been significant changes to what menus appear (Render, Scene, World, Object, Object Constraints, Modifiers, Object Data) their submenus/windows. The things referenced here don't match up with 2.5 very well.

Thanks for putting this guide together, though--it's generally quite hopeful.

Information for those using Blender 2.57
As stolen from a Google result...

Buttons window = Properties window now. (Right side of screen by default) Modifiers = see the spanner icon in this window Link and Materials = see the round (sort of red) material icon in this window Multires = under Add Modifier (Generate --> Multiresolution) Shapes = see the Object Data (triangle icon) in this window

The moar you know :) 207.210.29.71 (discuss) 04:50, 19 May 2011 (UTC)

Change URL
Hi guys,

I just updated this page and noticed that the URL didn't change. This might be a little problematic on the Noob to Pro homepage where the page titles are listed according to their URL. Anyone know how to change it? --JamesNZ (discuss • contribs) 09:26, 25 July 2011 (UTC)


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User talk:Artic

your hobbies
I have to wonder if these are related...

 * 1) you keep boxes full of thousands of stinging insects
 * 2) you eat plants that taste like riot control spray and bear repellant

Any other hobbies that cause agonizing pain? AlbertCahalan 07:02, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Now that gave me a good hardy chuckle. I figure variety is the spice of life. Either way after a few habaneros, bee stings don’t seem to bother as much. As for other hobbies, I also SCUBA dive, and if not done properly I could imagine that could get rather painful. I’m afraid though that I don’t do anything like sword swallowing or juggling flaming torches, but hey there is always next year. --Robert Engelhardt 15:34, Apr 22, 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Artic


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Super NES Programming/SNES memory map

=Memory Mapping= There are two main types of SNES cartridges, the SNES community refers to them as LoROM and HiROM cartridges. Both have different memory mapping. Before explaining LoROM and HiROM though, we should define some keywords here:

$ or 0x prefix: the following number is hexadecimal. Addresses are often shown as hexadecimal values.

Bank: 64 Kilobytes (65536 or $10000 bytes), basically the most significant byte of the 3 byte address the CPU understands. The bank of the address $AABBCC is $AA (170). With three bytes of address space the SNES can address up to 16 Megabytes (2^24 or 1<<24 or 16777216 Bytes == 16384 Kilobytes == 16 Megabytes). Beware that just because the SNES can address 16 Megabytes does not mean it also HAS 16 MB of RAM (here so-called WRAM) - it will be explained in detail later. Just keep in mind that therefore the SNES has $100 or 256 Banks (start at $00, end at $FF).

Page: 256 bytes ($0100 bytes). Pages are used whenever the machine has to perform mapping tasks (for example, ensuring that address $AABBCC and address $DDBBCC point to the exactly same data, if that's how the machine is supposed to work). Pages are also used for normal PCs (x86/x86-64 architectures) and are hence not exclusive for the SNES. A page is the smallest mappable unit of a machine. You will notice that in the tables below there is no entry in which a certain memory range does not end with $FF - this is because $FF is the last address of a page, and after this byte a new page begins. The SNES relies heavily on mapping - for example, without mapping it wouldn't be possible to give all banks of $00 – $3F two pages of WRAM directly at the beginning of the bank. One bank holds 256 ($100) pages, so the SNES has $100 (banks) * $100 (pages) == $10000 (65536) pages available.

Both LoROM and HiROM are capable of storing up to 4 Megabytes (32 Megabits) of ROM data. ExLoROM, ExHiROM and some expansion chips like SA-1 and SDD-1 are said to be able to store up to 8 Megabytes (64 Megabits).

How do I recognize the ROM type?
In byte $15 in the SNES header (see below for more details), the ROM makeup byte is stored.

The bitmask to use is 001A0BCD, the basic value is $20:

- A == 0 means SlowROM (+ $0), A == 1 means FastROM (+ $10). - B == 1 means ExHiROM (+ $4) - D == 0 means LoROM (+ $0), D == 1 means HiROM (+ $1), is used with B and C in case of extended ROMs.

Keep in mind that some people sometimes use "Mode 20" to refer to the LoROM mapping model, and "Mode 21" to refer to HiROM, although it's technically wrong. As the table shows, there are two LoROM and two HiROM mappings which have a different markup byte than the name suggests.

ExLoROM is an unofficial map, so it does not have its own type value. To detect it one would typically just check if the game is a regular LoROM then check the ROM file size.

Note that expansion chips like the SuperFX have their own memory map, which is not covered here. SA-1 and SDD-1 in particular are MMC chips, which means they can do bank switching to change which parts of the ROM are accessed for a given bank.

LoROM
This is the LoROM memory map:

In LoROM mode, the ROM is always mapped in the upper half of each bank, thus 32 Kilobytes per chunk. The banks $00 – $7D (address: $8000 - $FFFF) hold continuous data, as well as banks $80 - $FF. SRAM on the cartridge is mapped continuously and repeatedly - 8 Kilobyte of SRAM are mapped at $0000 - $1FFF, $2000 – $3FFF, $4000 – $5FFF and so on. Because the WRAM of the SNES is mapped at bank $7E - $7F, these banks do not map to the last SRAM/ROM chunks. This memory has to be accessed via the banks $80 - $FF. There is no other way of accessing this memory both in LoROM and HiROM mode.

LoROM was established to make sure that the system banks ($00 – $3F) higher pages (>7) are actually used. This is done by loading the entire ROM only in higher pages and in 32 Kilobyte chunks. 32 KB * $80 banks == 4 Megabyte.

HiROM
This is the HiROM memory map:

HiROM is a bit more complex to understand. Unlike LoROM, it does not use $80 (128) banks to map the ROM into the address space of the SNES, but only $40 (64) banks. Also unlike LoROM, these banks are used to their full extend, that is, 64 KB per chunk. 64 KB * $40 banks == 4 Megabytes. The banks $40 – $7D (address: $0000 - $FFFF) hold continuous data, as well as banks $C0 - $FF. Beware that HiROM also creates mappings for banks $00 – $3F and $80 - $BF. As those are system banks, their lower pages (<8) are already mapped - but the higher pages are free, so that many portions of the ROM are mirrored four times into the address space of the SNES. SRAM on the cartridge is mapped into the banks $20 – $3F, in 8 Kilobyte chunks. As there are only 32 banks reserved for this, the possible SRAM amount accessible in HiROM is theoretically lower than in LoROM (256 KB vs. 512 KB). Because the WRAM of the SNES is mapped at bank $7E - $7F, these banks do not map to the last ROM chunks. This memory has to be accessed via the $80 - $FF banks

Banks $80 - $FF can also be used for faster memory access. Many portions of memory <$80 are accessed at 2.68 MHz (200 ns). Accessing memory >$80 is done at 3.58 MHz (120 ns) if the value at address $420D (hardware register) is set to 1.

LoROM basically means that the address line A15 is ignored by the cartridge, so the cartridge doesn't distinguish between $0000-$7FFF and $8000-$FFFF in any bank. Smaller ROMs use this model to prevent wasted space in banks $00–$3F.

ExLoROM, ExHiROM
LoROM and HiROM were designed to store 4 MB in a ROM and map it into the 24 bit address space of the SNES (which can, in case you have forgotten it, address up to 16 Megabytes). Usually that is enough for many games, especially if one considers the fact that in the beginning the SNES was not supposed to render a lot of later games using the control deck alone. This is also the reason why the SNES reserved some address space for the usage of SuperFX chips that would enable games to spare the CPU - it was not intended to have the SNES play games like Tales of Phantasia, or Final Fantasy 6, or Star Fox without the aid of enhancement chips.

Apart from the hardware problems that the SNES was designed with, the programmers also have/had huge space limitations. Final Fantasy 6's English script - a early draft, to be precise - was cut down to 75% because it would have otherwise exhausted the 24 Megabit (3 Megabyte) cartridge that was used for the Japanese version. Expanding the ROM from 24 MBits to 32 MBits does not cause really big issues, but everything bigger than 4 Megabytes goes beyond the boundaries of LoROM/HiROM.

A huge advantage of the SNES is that it does not define how certain address blocks are mapped into the cartridge's ROM. The cartridge does take care that the addresses it needs to use are mapped properly to its ROM. For people who would like to program an emulator this behaviour imposes certain problems, as they have to program and emulate the SNES hardware AND the cartridge as well. Keep in mind that the cartridge, as the SNES, contains its own processors and microchips, which may perform differently from chip to chip. Take for instance a common problem: the usage of MAD-1 address decoding chips within the cartridge, which maps the content of the $40–7D:8000-FFFF ROM areas to the lower halves of the banks as well (so that there is no difference between $400005 and $408005 - see the LoROM table for the exact addresses). The real SNES does not have to care for this, emulators do.

Thus, using a format which allows the usage of up to 8 Megabytes of ROM space without using an expansion MMC chip imposed no definite hardware problems, as the address decoding chips on the cartridge would need to take care of that. Two new formats were introduced: ExLoROM (the prefix "Ex" stands for "extended," in case you wondered), and ExHiROM. Only two games which actually never officially got released in NA use ExHiROM, Tales of Phantasia and Daikaijuu Monogatari II. ExLoROM on the other hand was not used in any commercial games and is considered an unofficial map, so emulator support for it has been known to be somewhat lacking or inconsistent at times. But ROM hacks which contain new game content usually expand the original ROM size, and might use one of these two formats. In fact, both the re-translations of Chrono Trigger by "DoctorL" and "KajarLab" expand the game from 4 to 6 Megabytes.

There are many either misleading or not understandable explanations and examples of the memory layout of ExLoROM and ExHiROM, for two valid reasons:

 * hackers often do not encounter these formats.
 * incapability to see why someone would need so much memory at their hands. *

Let's first cover the memory map of ExLoROM - we will not go into detail for the mapping of the system banks lower halves, as these were already covered before and do not change for the extended ROM formats:

Note: This information are wrong, as I had to realize. A ROM which starts at offset $200000 makes no sense at all. Also, since it is still a LoROM format, the first ROM bank HAS TO be loaded to $00:8000-FFFF. Yet, the template will be corrected soon, and deleting it all serves no purpose.

(Explanation and ExHiROM table coming soon).

(*The second reason is in fact a protection mechanism. In case that a hacker encounters someone who wants to enlarge a ROM beyond the 32 Megabit limit, the hacker automatically assumes that this person is a newbie who has not much idea what he is talking about, and in an awful lot of occasions he is right. This, however, does not justify the mere lack of documentation regarding these topics.)

=The SNES header= At the end of bank 0 (the very first bank of the cartridge), 64 ($40) bytes of cartridge information are stored. This information is crucial to the execution of the ROM saved on the cartridge, as it includes the internal name of the ROM, the interrupt vectors (addresses to machine code within the ROM in 16 bit format), version, etc. This portion of the ROM is also known as the SNES header (not to confuse with the SMC header, which we will touch very soon).

The end of the very first bank of the ROM depends on with memory map it uses. In case of LoROM, the end of the first page is at $7FFF, for HiROM the first page ends at $FFFF. So you basically have to check on both positions of the ROM if the information fit the normal header format, that is, if they are plausible enough.

Some cartridges are delivered with a so-called SMC header. A SMC header is usually written by a copier device at the very beginning of the ROM, and occupies $200 (512) bytes of additional space. Often patches depend on your ROM being "headered" or being "headerless", as this changes the offsets within the ROM. A patch which is applied to the wrong type of ROM can easily kill the program code of the cartridge.

Creating a SMC header is "relatively" simple, removing it more so. Usually the SMC header contains the size of the ROM divided by 8 KB units &$FF (bitwise AND with 255) in byte 0, the size >> 8 (bitwise shift right by a whole byte) in byte 1, and the type of cartridge in byte 2. The other bytes (509) left are set to zero. For creating a header, you simply have to add a block of 512 bytes at the beginning of the ROM which contains these information. For removing a header, you simply have to save the ROM on your HDD/SSD while "forgetting" the first 512 bytes.

The reason why we poke into SMC header when we should actually deal with SNES header is simple - actually, there's two of them:

1. The existence of a SMC header has to be taken into account when mapping the ROM into memory. The bank in a ROM with header will not begin at offset $0, but at $200 (512, the size of the header), and so the end of the bank shifts accordingly.

2. If there is no SMC header in the ROM, or you simply do not trust this information when parsing the ROM, your only way of determining the type of cartridge you are trying to load in is by checking for well-formed headers at the already-mentioned positions. But IF you do trust this information (which you shouldn't), it is a way to determine whether you are dealing with LoROM or HiROM.

Before you try to load in this information, you have to determine the size of the SMC, may it be there or not. The length of the ROM modulo 1024 (ROM size % $400) gives you the size of the SMC header. If it's 0, there is no header. If it's not 512, the header is malformed.

The following offsets in the ROM are that of a headerless ROM. You have to add the size of the SMC header to all addresses in the ROM to properly read it. x is the last page of the current ROM bank ($7 if the cartridge uses the LoROM mapping, $F if it uses HiROM).

Interrupt vectors
After this information, the interrupt vector tables begin. An interrupt is a signal that is cast by the hardware directly to the CPU that needs to be dealt with if the interrupt was not masked. An interrupt vector specifies the address where the code is to deal with the given type of interrupt. These vectors are all 16 bits in size and are supposed to lie within the first bank of the ROM. This is because the DBR (Data Bank Register) and PBR (Program Bank Register) are set to 0 every time the emulation mode is changed or an interrupt is executed.

Vectors are all 2 bytes in size and are stored in little-endian format (in case the reader did not know it - the CPU is a little endian one, which means that the MSBs are stored in higher positions. Big endian means that the MSBs are stored in lower positions). Program execution begins in emulation mode at the reset vector ($xFFC-D).

Some small examples
The current section covers the initial parsing methods for both LoROM and HiROM. The games that this text is about to analyze are Final Fantasy 4 (LoROM) and Final Fantasy 6 (HiROM), both headerless.

Final Fantasy 4
We first look at the address $7FC0 in the ROM - the last byte of the LoROM bank is $7FFF, and the header takes up to 64/$40 bytes. The first byte of the header, IF it is LoROM (which we officially don't know yet, mind you) is therefore located at $7FC0.

That looks good. In the very first two lines the name of the ROM is written (since Final Fantasy 4 was released as Final Fantasy II in NA, this actually makes sense). The first 21 bytes are just ASCII characters (and a rare opportunity to see clear text in a ROM, since the dialogues are usually stored in an other format than ASCII). The next byte after this string can be misinterpreted as just another space character, but in fact the byte at $D5 indicates that it's a LoROM cartridge (now we have two proves that the cartridge is LoROM: first the position of the header, second the byte indicating that the cartridge uses LoROM. By the way, if those two do not happen to match, the ROM is considered corrupted).

One might perform other check there (for example the size of the ROM vs. the size stored in the header, the country and licensee codes, the SRAM size ...), but for now, basically only two other bytes are essential to boot the ROM: the position of the RESET interrupt vector in emulation mode (which is issued the moment the ROM was mapped into the address space of the SNES). This vector is stored at $7FFC-D in little endian format (see above), which means that the vector is calculated this way:

In this example, the vector is $8000 - the start-up code is right at the beginning of the first bank (yes, the first bank. Remember how the first bank gets stored in $8000 - $FFFF, while $0000 - $7FFF contains system information?).

Let's look a bit at the code there:

Hex:

Disassembled (with a program that I am developing myself, so don't bother asking where I'd got it):

You see that this seems plausible enough to be totally valid start-up code.

Final Fantasy 6
Again let's poke at offset $7FC0:

This seems to be a little off. Maybe it uses HiROM?

Yes, it does. And the RESET vector is at $FF00. Again in hex:

And disassembled:

In short, this code tells the executing CPU that $C0:0019 is the next instruction to execute. Since this is a HiROM memory mapping, this means that we have to look where the bank $C0 got mapped to. Referring to the former HiROM mapping table, the $C0 - $FD banks are direct mappings of $40 – $7D. And these banks in fact contain all the ROM content continuously - since $C0 <=> $40 and $40 is the beginning, the code to execute is basically at the beginning of the ROM, offset $19:

Disassembled:

=External Links=
 * SNES Memory Map
 * Another SNES Memory Map
 * Yet Another SNES Memory Map
 * List of various hardware registers
 * Explanation about Most Significant Bytes (MSBs)
 * Explanation of the 65816 architecture (SNES CPU) that is actually helpful

=See Also=

 * SNES hardware registers

title: Super NES Programming/SNES memory map


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User:Daneel Olivaw~enwikibooks

Hi, I'm a professional physicist, huge Asimov fan (hence the user name). More to come...

title: User:Daneel Olivaw~enwikibooks


text:
Emulation/On PC - Windows

Emulating games on a Windows OS is actually very easy. There are plenty of programs for emulating everything from GB to the PS2.

Generally you have the software and either a rom image or a disk (image or otherwise). Emulation on the simpler platforms like the GB, GBC, GBA, SNES or NES will not require additional tweaking beyond simply running the software and selecting the image.

More complicated systems such as the Dreamcast, PlayStation and PlayStation 2 will require that the emulator be set up with plugins; these specify how different qualities are rendered on your system (Graphics, Sound, Controllers, etc.).

Check out these sites for emulation:

 * EmuFanatics
 * Zophar's Domain
 * The Emulator Zone

Products

 * VMware
 * Microsoft Virtual PC 2004

title: Emulation/On PC - Windows


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User talk:Wikibooks is Communism

See Power structure

Oh. Also don't vandalize. But you knew that... - Omegatron 12:21, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wikibooks is Communism


text:
Probability/Conditional Probability

Motivation
In the previous chapter, we have actually only dealt with. To be more precise, in the problems encountered in the previous chapter, the sample space is defined initially, and all probabilities are assigned with respect to that initial sample space. However, in many situations, after defining the initial sample space for a random experiment, we may get some new information about the random experiment. Hence we may need to the sample space based on those information. The probability based on this updated sample space is known as a.

To illustrate how we get the new information and update the sample space correspondingly, consider the following example:

From the example above, we are able to calculate the (conditional) probability "reasonably" through some arguments (see (b)) when the sample points in the initial sample space are equally likely. Furthermore, we can notice that the condition should be an occurrence of an event, which involves the sample points in the sample space. When the condition does not involves the sample points at all, it is irrelevant to the random experiment. For example, if the condition is "the poker deck costs $10", then this is clearly not an event in the sample space and does not involve the sample points. Also, it is irrelevant from this experiment.

To motivate the definition of conditional probability, let us consider more precisely how we obtain the (conditional) probability in (b). In (b), we are given that an ace is drawn out from the poker deck beforehand. This means that ace can never be drawn in our draw. This corresponds to the occurrence of the event (with respect to original sample space) $$\{\text{not drawing that ace from the poker deck}\}$$ (denoted by $$B$$) which consists of 51 sample points, resulting from excluding that ace from the original 52 sample points. Thus, we can regard the condition as the occurrence of event $$B$$. Now, under this condition, the sample space is updated to be the set $$B$$, that is, only points in $$B$$ are regarded as legit sample points now.

Consider part (b) again. Let us denote by $$A$$ the event $$\{\text{an ace is drawn from the deck}\}$$ (with respect to the original sample space).

Now, only of the points (whose also lie in the set $$B$$) in the set $$A$$ are regarded as legit sample points. All other points in set $$A$$ are no longer legit sample points anymore under this condition. In other words, only the points in sets $$A$$ and $$B$$ (i.e., in set $$A\cap B$$) are legit sample points in event $$A$$ under this condition.

In the part (b) above, only the three aces remaining in the deck (in both sets $$A$$ and $$B$$, and hence in set $$A\cap B$$) are considered to be legit sample points. The other ace in set $$A$$ (the ace that is drawn out in the condition) is considered to be a legit sample point, since that ace is not in the deck at all!

To summarize, when we want to calculate the of event $$A$$, we do the following: In the above example, we encounter a special case where the sample points in the initial sample space (assumed to be finite) are equally likely (and hence the sample points in the updated sample space $$B$$ should also be equally likely). In this case, using the result about combinatorial probability (in previous chapter), the conditional probability, denoted by $$\mathbb P(A|B)$$, is given by $$\mathbb P(A|B)=\frac{|A\cap B|}{|B|}=\frac{\text{number of (valid) sample points in }A}{\text{number of sample points in updated sample space }B}.$$ (Notice that "$$\mathbb P(A|B)$$" is just a notation ($$\mathbb P(\cdot|B)$$ is a function, $$A$$ is the "input"). Merely "$$A|B$$" means nothing. Particularly, "$$A|B$$" is an event/set.)
 * 1) We update the sample space to the set $$B$$.
 * 2) We only regard the sample points in set $$A\cap B$$ to be the (valid) sample points of event $$A$$.

When the sample points are equally likely, we can apply a theorem in the previous chapter for constructing probability measure on the updated sample space $$B$$. (Here, we assume that $$B$$ is countable.) Particularly, since we are only regarding the sample points in set $$A\cap B$$ as the (valid) sample points of event $$A$$, it the (naive) "conditional probability" of $$A$$ given the occurrence of event $$B$$ should be given by $$\mathbb P(A\cap B)=\sum_{\omega\in{\color{darkgreen}A\cap B}}^{}\mathbb P(\{\omega\})$$ according to that theorem (where $$\mathbb P$$ is the probability measure in the probability space $$(\Omega,\mathcal F,\mathbb P)$$).

However, when we apply the original probability measure $$\mathbb P$$ (in the original probability space) to every singleton event in the new sample space $$B$$, we face an issue: the sum of those probabilities are just $$\sum_{\omega\in B}^{}\mathbb P(\{\omega\}) =\mathbb P(B), $$ which is not 1 in general! But that theorem requires this probability to be 1! A natural remedy to this problem is to define a new probability measure $$\mathbb P(\cdot|B):\mathcal F\to[0,1]$$, based on the original probability measure and the above (naive) "conditional probability" $$\mathbb P(A\cap B)$$, such that the sum must be 1. After noticing that $$1=\frac{\mathbb P(B)}{\mathbb P(B)}$$, a natural choice of such probability measure is given by $$\mathbb P(A|B)=\frac{\mathbb P(A\cap B)}{\mathbb P(B)},$$ for every $$A\in\mathcal F$$. The probability $$\mathbb P(B)$$ can be interpreted as the constant, and every (naive) "conditional probability" (as suggested previously) is scaled by a factor of $$\frac{1}{\mathbb P(B)}$$. (It turns out that the probability measure $$\mathbb P(\cdot|B):\mathcal F\to [0,1]$$ defined in this way also satisfies all the probability axioms. We will prove this later.)

When comparing this formula with the formula for the equally likely sample points case, the two formulas look quite similar actually. In fact, we can express the formula for the in the same form as this formula (since the equally likely sample points case is actually just a special case for the theorem we are considering): $$\frac{|A\cap B|}{|B|}=\frac{|A\cap B|/|\Omega|}{|B|/|\Omega|}=\frac{\mathbb P(A\cap B)}{\mathbb P(B)}.$$

So, now we have developed a reasonable and natural formula to calculate the conditional probability $$\mathbb P(A|B)$$ when the outcomes are equally likely (applicable to finite sample space), and the outcomes are not equally likely (only for countable sample space). It is thus natural to also use the same formula when the sample space is uncountable. This motivates the following definition of conditional probability:

Definition
The following is a generalization to the formula $$\mathbb P(A\cap B)=\mathbb P(A|B)\mathbb P(B)$$. It is useful when we calculate the probability of the occurrence of multiple events together, by considering the events "one by one".

Two important theorems related to conditional probability, namely law of total probability and Bayes' theorem, will be discussed in the following section.

Law of total probability and Bayes' theorem
Sometimes, it is not an easy task to assign a suitable unconditional probability to an event. For instance, suppose Amy will perform a COVID-19 test, and the result is either positive or negative (impossible to have invalid results). Let $$P=\{\text{Amy tests positive at the COVID-19 test}\}$$. What should be $$\mathbb P(P)$$? It is actually quite difficult to answer directly, since this probability is without any condition. In particular, it is unknown that whether Amy gets infected by COVID-19 or not, and clearly the infection will affect the probability assignment quite significantly.

On the other hand, it may be easier to assign/calculate related conditional/unconditional probabilities. Now, let $$I=\{\text{Amy gets infected by COVID-19}\}$$. The probability $$\mathbb P(P|I)$$, called, may be known based on the research on the COVID-19 test. Also, the probability $$\mathbb P(P^c|I^c)$$, called, may also be known based on the research. Besides, the probability $$\mathbb P(I)$$ may be obtained according to studies on COVID-19 infection for Amy's place of living. Since $$\mathbb P(P)=\mathbb P(P\cap I)+\mathbb P(P\cap I^c),$$ by the definition of conditional probability, we have $$\mathbb P(P)=\mathbb P(P|I)\mathbb P(I)+\mathbb P(P|I^c)\mathbb P(I^c).$$ Since the conditional probability satisfies the probability axioms, we have the relation $$\mathbb P(P|I^c)=1-\mathbb P(P^c|I^c)$$, and thus the value of $$\mathbb P(P|I^c)$$ can be obtained. The remaining terms in the expression can also be obtained, as suggested by above. Thus, we can finally obtain the value of $$\mathbb P(P)$$.

This shows that conditional probabilities can be quite helpful for calculating unconditional probabilities, especially when we condition appropriately so that the conditional probabilities, and the probability of the condition are known in some ways.

The following theorem is an important theorem that relates unconditional probabilities and conditional probabilities, as in above discussion.

Now, suppose Amy has performed a COVID-19 test, and the result is positive! So now Amy is worrying about whether she really gets infected by COVID-19, or it is just a. Therefore, she would like to know the conditional probability $$\mathbb P(I|P)$$ (the conditional probability for getting infected given testing positive). Notice that the conditional probability $$\mathbb P(P|I)$$ may be known (based on some research). However, it does not equal the conditional probability $$\mathbb P(I|P)$$ generally. (These two probabilities are referring to two different things.) So, now we are interested in knowing that whether there is formula that relates these two probabilities, which have somewhat "similar" expressions. See the following exercise for deriving the relationship between $$\mathbb P(A|B)$$ and $$\mathbb P(B|A)$$:

The following theorem is the generalization of the above result.

The following is a famous problem.

Independence
From the previous discussion, we know that the conditional probability of event $$A$$ given the occurrence of event $$B$$ can be interpreted as the probability of $$A$$ where the sample space is updated to event $$B$$. In general, through this update, the probability of $$A$$ should be affected. But what if the probability is somehow the same as the one before the update?

If this is the case, then the occurrence of a particular event $$B$$ does not affect the probability of event $$A$$ actually. Symbolically, it means $$\mathbb P(A|B)=\mathbb P(A)$$. If this holds, then we have $$\mathbb P(B|A)=\frac{\mathbb P(A|B)\mathbb P(B)}{\mathbb P(A)}=\frac{\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(B)}{\mathbb P(A)}=\mathbb P(B)$$. This means the occurrence of event $$A$$ also does not affect the probability of event $$B$$. This result matches with our intuitive interpretation of the independence of two events, so it seems that it is quite reasonable to define the independence of events $$A$$ and $$B$$ as follows: "Two events $A$ and $B$ are independent if $\mathbb P(A"

However, this definition has some slight issues. If $$\mathbb P(A)=0\text{ or }\mathbb P(B)=0$$, then some of the conditional probabilities involved may be. So, for some events, we may not be able to tell whether they are independent or not using this "definition". To deal with this, we consider an alternative definition, that is equivalent to the above when $$\mathbb P(A)\ne 0$$ and $$\mathbb P(B)\ne 0$$. To motivate that definition, we can see that $$\mathbb P(A|B)=\mathbb P(A)\text{ or }\mathbb P(B|A)=\mathbb P(B)\iff \mathbb P(A\cap B)=\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(B)$$, when both $$\mathbb P(A)$$ and $$\mathbb P(B)$$ are nonzero. This results in the following definition:

But what if there are more than two events involved? Intuitively, we may consider the following as the general "definition" of independence: "The events $E_1,E_2,\dotsc,E_n$ are independent if $\mathbb P(E_1\cap E_2\cap\dotsb\cap E_n)=\mathbb P(E_1)\mathbb P(E_2)\dotsb\mathbb P(E_n)$. ($n$ is an integer that is at least 2.)"

But we will get some strange results by using this as the "definition":

From this example, merely requiring $$\mathbb P(E_1\cap E_2\cap\dotsb\cap E_n)=\mathbb P(E_1)\mathbb P(E_2)\dotsb\mathbb P(E_n)$$ cannot ensure all of events involved are independent. So, this suggests us another definition: "The events $E_1,E_2,\dotsc,E_n$ are independent if all the pairs of events involved are independent."

However, we will again get some strange results by using this as the "definition":

The above examples suggest us that we actually need requirements in the definition of independence of events $$A,B,C$$ for the definition to "make sense".
 * 1) $$\mathbb P(A\cap B\cap C)=\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(B)\mathbb P(C)$$. (This ensures $$\mathbb P(C|A\cap B)=\mathbb P(C),\mathbb P(A|B\cap C)=\mathbb P(A)\text{ and }\mathbb P(B|A\cap C)=\mathbb P(B)$$. That is, if we condition on the intersection of two events, the probability of another one is not affected.)
 * 2) All the pairs of events $$A,B,C$$ are independent. (That is, $$\mathbb P(A\cap B)=\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(B),\mathbb P(B\cap C)\mathbb P(B)\mathbb P(C)\text{ and }\mathbb P(A\cap C)=\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(C)$$.

Similarly, the independence of four events $$A,B,C,D$$ should require
 * 1) $$\mathbb P(A\cap B\cap C\cap D)=\mathbb P(A)\mathbb P(B)\mathbb P(C)\mathbb P(D)$$.
 * 2) All the triples of events are independent.
 * In other words, we need the probability of intersection of any three and any two events to be able to "split as product of probabilities of single events" as in above.

This leads us to the following general definition:

In general, we have the following result.

Conditional independence
independence is a conditional version of independence, and has the following definition which is similar to that of independence.

title: Probability/Conditional Probability


text:
Sociology of Religion/Religion and Gender

Ordaining Women
See Chaves, Mark. 1997. Ordaining Women.


text:
Social Psychology

Status

 * 1) Currently, this book consists of partly-written and largely separate components, some of which are copied/adapted from Wikipedia articles, etc.
 * 2) Potential contributors should feel to dive in and start editing, particularly if they are knowledgable.

Front Matter

 * /Noted Contributors/

Introduction

 * 01. /Introduction/
 * 02. Research Methods

Social Self

 * 03. Action and Person
 * 04. The Social Mind
 * 05. Personality, Self, and Identity

Interaction

 * 06. Interaction
 * 07. Types of Social Action
 * 08. Relationships

Collectives

 * 09. Collective and Mind
 * 10. /Group Dynamics/
 * 11. Crowd Behaviors

Applied Social Psychology

 * 12. Applications to Sociology

title: Social Psychology


text:
Social Psychology/Group Dynamics

Originated in work done by Lewin and his colleagues at the University of Iowa (Lippitt 1940; French 1944), Lewin then moved to MIT and opened the Research Center for Group Dynamics in 1946; center moved to Michigan after Lewin's death
 * group is conceptualized as a scientifically legitimate unit of analysis
 * looks as social influence pressures, group cohesiveness, cooperation and competition, deindividuation, communication in social hierarchies, individual motivation for the group, and social perception
 * works was theory driven and developed    'state-of-the-art' experimental methods
 * came to understand that when people who don't know each other first get together and are required to state an opinion on a subject they haven't thought much about before, they will influence and be influenced by others in the group; what drives the influence pressure is a need to be confident that one's opinion is right

title: Social Psychology/Group Dynamics


text:
MUMPS Programming/overview

MUMPS Terminology
First, some MUMPS terminology-

 * Routines - the term for programs, lines of commands in sequence.
 * Each routine has a name (RoutineName) which is used to execute it by way of the DO command.
 * An up arrow ^ (caret character) is a prefix to the RoutineName distinguishing it as a routine versus a label within the current routine.
 * Traditionally a routine is about a page in length as a logical section that is easily visible as a cognitive unit.
 * Globals are the persistent database variables in MUMPS. These are a unique feature.
 * Global Names begin with up arrow (caret) also.
 * Global names have a comma-separated list in parentheses of subscripts as a multi-dimensional array.
 * Subscripts create a hierarchical database, which may be huge, may be shared among many simultaneous tasks.
 * Globals are persistent on the Hard Drive (or other devices like flash drives) as they are the database representation in MUMPS.
 * The intrinsic nature of globals in the MUMPS language largely hide the necessity of application programmers dealing with issues of file opening, buffering, caching, encryption, compression, etc. These are managed with historic sophistication by the binary tree encoding and dynamic creation of the MUMPS system. See MUMPS as an Operating System.

^PtData(ClinicId,PtNum,VisitNum,NoteNum,Line)= ...       ; ;where data is separated by Clinic first, then by patient, then visit, then note, ;  and the node itself contains the text for one line of the patient note.

title: MUMPS Programming/overview


text:
Trigonometry/For Enthusiasts/Trigonometry Done Rigorously

Introduction to Angles

An angle is formed when two lines intersect; the point of intersection is called the vertex. We can think of an angle as the wedge-shaped space between the lines where they meet. Note that if both lines are extended through the meeting point, there are in fact four angles.

The size of the angle is the degree of rotation between the lines. The more we must rotate one line to meet the other, the larger the angle is.

Suppose you wish to measure the angle between two lines exactly so that you can tell a remote friend about it: draw a circle with its center located at the meeting of the two lines, making sure that the circle is small enough to cross both lines, but large enough for you to measure the distance along the circle's edge, the circumference, between the two cross points. Obviously this distance depends on the size of the circle, but as long as you tell your friend both the radius of the circle used, and the length along the circumference, then your friend will be able to reconstruct the angle exactly.

Definition of an Angle
An angle is determined by rotating a ray about its endpoint. The starting position of the ray is called the initial side of the angle. The ending position of the ray is called the terminal side. The endpoint of the ray is called its vertex. Positive angles are generated by counter-clockwise rotation. Negative angles are generated by clockwise rotation.

Consequently an angle has four parts: its vertex, its initial side, its terminal side, and its rotation.

An angle is said to be in standard position when it is drawn in a cartesian coordinate system in such a way that its vertex is at the origin and its initial side is the positive x-axis.

Definition of a Triangle
A triangle is a planar (flat) shape with three straight sides. An angle is formed between each two sides of a triangle, and a triangle has three angles, hence the name tri-angle. So a triangle has three straight sides and three angles.

If you give me three lengths, I can only make a triangle from them if the greatest length is less than the sum of the other two. Three lengths that do not make the sides of a triangle are your height, the height of the nearest tree, the distance from the top of the tree to the center of the sun.

Triangle Ratios
Angles are not affected by the length of lines: an angle is invariant under transformations of scale, that is:

If you make the triangle bigger, but keep the sides in the same ratio, its angles won't change.

Right Angles
An angle of particular significance is the right angle: the angle at each corner of a square or a rectangle. A rectangle can always be divided into two triangles by drawing a line from one corner of the rectangle to the opposite corner.

It is also true that every right-angled triangle is half a rectangle.

A rectangle has four sides; they are generally of two different lengths: two long sides and two short sides. (A rectangle with all sides equal is a square.) When we split the rectangle into two right-angled triangles, each triangle has a long side and a short side from the rectangle as well as a copy of the split line.

So the area of a right-angled triangle is half the area of the rectangle from which it was split. Looking at a right-angled triangle, we can tell what the long and short sides of that rectangle were; they are the sides, the lines, that meet at a right angle. The area of the complete rectangle is the long side times the short side. The area of a right-angled triangle is therefore half as much.

Right Triangles and Measurement
It is possible to bisect any angle using only circles (which can be drawn with a compass) and straight lines by the following procedure:

 * 1) Call the vertex of the angle O.  Draw a circle centered at O.
 * 2) Mark where the circle intersects each ray.  Call these points A and B.
 * 3) Draw circles centered at A and B with equal radii, but make sure that these radii are large enough to make the circles intersect at two points.  One sure way to do this is to draw line segment AB and make the radius of the circles equal to the length of that line segment. On the diagram, circles A and B are shown as near-half portions of a circle.
 * 4) Mark where these circles intersect, and connect these two points with a line.  This line bisects the original angle.

A proof that the line bisects the angle is found in Proposition 9 of Book 1 of the Elements.

Given a right angle, we can use this process to split that right angle indefinitely to form any binary fraction (i.e., $$\frac{1}{2^n}, n \in \mathbb{Z}$$, e.g. $$\frac{1}{2}, \frac{1}{4}, \frac{1}{8}, \frac{1}{16}, \frac{1}{32}...$$) of it. Thus, we can measure any angle in terms of right angles. That is, a measurement system in which the size of the right angle is considered to be one.

Understanding the three sides of a Radian
To illustrate how the three sides of a radian relate to one another try the below thought experiment:
 * Assume you have a piece of string that is exactly the length of the radius of a circle.
 * Assume you have drawn a radian in the same circle. The radian has 3 points.  One is the center of your circle and the other two are on the circumference of the circle where the sides of the radian intersect with the circle.
 * Attach one end of the string at one of the points where the radian intersects with the circumference of the circle.
 * Take the other end of the string and, starting at the point you chose in Step 2 above, trace the circumference of the circle towards the second point where the radian intersects with the circle until the string is pulled tight.
 * You will see that the end of the string travels past the second point.
 * This is because the string is now in a straight line. However, the radian has an arc for its third side, not a straight line.  Even though a radian has three equal sides, the arc's curve causes the two points where the radian intersects with the circle to be closer together than they are to the third point of the triangle, which is at the center of our circle in this example.
 * Now, with the string still pulled tight, find the half way point of the string, then pull it onto the circumference of the circle while allowing the end of the string to move along the circle's circumference. The end of the string is now closer to the second point because the path of the string is closer to the path of the circle's circumference.
 * We can keep improving the fit of the string's path to the path of the circle's circumference by dividing each new section of the string in half and pulling it towards the circumference of the circle.

Is a radian affected by the size of its circle?
Does it matter what size circle is used to measure in radians? Perhaps using the radius of a large circle will produce a different angle than that produced by the radius of a small circle. The answer is no.

Recall our radian and circle from the experiment in the subsection above. Draw another circle inside the first circle, with the same center, but with half the radius. You will see that you have created a new radian inside the smaller circle that shares the same angle as the radian in the larger circle. We know that the two sides of the radians emanating from the center of the circles are equal to the radius of their respective circle. We also know that the third side of the radian in the larger circle (the arc) is also equal to the larger circle's radius. But how do we know that the third side of the radian in the smaller circle (the arc that follows the circumference of the smaller circle) is equal to the radius of the smaller circle? To see why we do know that the third side of the smaller circle's radian is equal to its radius, we first connect the two points of each radian that intersect with the circle with each other. By doing so, you will have created two isosceles triangles (triangles with two equal sides and two equal angles).

An isosceles triangle has two equal angles and two equal sides. If you know one angle of any isosceles triangle and the length of two sides that make up that angle, then you can easily deduce the remaining characteristics of the isosceles triangle. For instance, if the two equidistant sides of an isosceles triangle intersect to form an angle that is equal to 40o, then you know the remaining angles must both equal 70º. Since we know that the equidistant sides of our two isosceles triangles make up our known angle, then we can deduce that both of our radians (when converted to isosceles triangles with straight lines) have identical second and third angles. We also know that triangles with identical angles, regardless of their size, will have the length of their sides in a constant ratio to each other. For instance, we can deduce that an isosceles triangle will have sides that measure 2 meters by 4 meters by 4 meters if we know that an isoscleses triangle with identical angles measures 1 meter by 2 meters by 2 meters. Therefore, in our example, our isosceles triangle formed by the second smaller circle will have a third side exaclty equal to half of the third side of the isosceles triangle created by the larger circle. The relationship between the size of the sides of two triangles that share identical angles is also found in the relationship between radius and circumference of two circles that share the same center point - they will share the exact same ratio. In our example then, since the radius of our second smaller circle is exactly half of the larger circle, the circumference between the two points where the radian of the smaller circle intersect (which we have shown is one half of the distance between the two similar points on the larger circle) will share the same exact ratio. And there you have it - the size of the circle does not matter.

Using Radians to Measure Angles
Once we have an angle of one radian, we can chop it up into binary fractions as we did with the right angle to get a vast range of known angles with which to measure unknown angles. A protractor is a device which uses this technique to measure angles approximately. To measure an angle with a protractor: place the marked center of the protractor on the corner of the angle to be measured, align the right hand zero radian line with one line of the angle, and read off where the other line of the angle crosses the edge of the protractor. A protractor is often transparent with angle lines drawn on it to help you measure angles made with short lines: this is allowed because angles do not depend on the length of the lines from which they are made.

If we agree to measure angles in radians, it would be useful to know the size of some easily defined angles. We could of course simply draw the angles and then measure them very accurately, though still approximately, with a protractor: however, we would then be doing physics, not mathematics.

The ratio of the length of the circumference of a circle to its radius is defined as 2π, where π is an invariant independent of the size of the circle by the argument above. Hence if we were to move 2π radii around the circumference of a circle from a given point on the circumference of that circle, we would arrive back at the starting point. We have to conclude that the size of the angle made by one circuit around the circumference of a circle is 2π radians. Likewise a half circuit around a circle would be π radians. Imagine folding a circle in half along an axis of symmetry: the resulting crease will be a diameter, a straight line through the center of the circle. Hence a straight line has an angle of size π radians.

Folding a half circle in half again produces a quarter circle which must therefore have an angle of size π/2 radians. Is a quarter circle a right angle? To see that it is: draw a square whose corner points lie on the circumference of a circle. Draw the diagonal lines that connect opposing corners of the square, by symmetry they will pass through the center of the circle, to produce 4 similar triangles. Each such triangle is isoceles, and has an angle of size 2π/4 = π/2 radians where the two equal length sides meet at the center of the circle. Thus the other two angles of the triangles must be equal and sum to π/2 radians, that is each angle must be of size π/4 radians. We know that such a triangle is right angled, we must conclude that an angle of size π/2 radians is indeed a right angle.

Summary and Extra Notes
In summary: it is possible to make deductions about the sizes of angles in certain special conditions using geometrical arguments. However, in general, geometry alone is not powerful enough to determine the size of unknown angles for any arbitrary triangle. To solve such problems we will need the help of trigonometric functions.

In principle, all angles and trigonometric functions are defined on the unit circle. The term unit in mathematics applies to a single measure of any length. We will later apply the principles gleaned from unit measures to larger (or smaller) scaled problems. All the functions we need can be derived from a triangle inscribed in the unit circle: it happens to be a right-angled triangle.

The center point of the unit circle will be set on a Cartesian plane, with the circle's centre at the origin of the plane — the point (0,0). Thus our circle will be divided into four sections, or quadrants.

Quadrants are always counted counter-clockwise, as is the default rotation of angular velocity $$\omega$$ (omega). Now we inscribe a triangle in the first quadrant (that is, where the x- and y-axes are assigned positive values) and let one leg of the angle be on the x-axis and the other be parallel to the y-axis. (Just look at the illustration for clarification). Now we let the hypotenuse (which is always 1, the radius of our unit circle) rotate counter-clockwise. You will notice that a new triangle is formed as we move into a new quadrant, not only because the sum of a triangle's angles cannot be beyond 180°, but also because there is no way on a two-dimensional plane to imagine otherwise.


text:
Talk:Trigonometry/For Enthusiasts/Trigonometry Done Rigorously

Problems with this page
This page still has way too much content on it for an introductory page. The page originally came from wikipedia which attempts to be encyclopaedic. We have pages for many of the individual topics. JamesCrook (talk) 18:23, 18 October 2010 (UTC)

Wikipedia edit history

 * 01:46, 2005 Apr 16 Uncle G
 * 21:48, 2004 Dec 19 Ta bu shi da yu
 * 12:57, 2004 Oct 18 User:212.219.116.67 (i>I)
 * 23:06, 2004 Oct 6 Pt m (→Angle-values simplified - sin, cos -> \sin, \cos)
 * 00:38, 2004 Sep 20 Dfan (lots of copyediting although I gave up halfway through)
 * 08:42, 2004 Sep 19 Charles Matthews (copy edit start)
 * 07:26, 2004 Sep 19 Slicky m
 * 07:25, 2004 Sep 19 Slicky m
 * 22:05, 2004 Sep 18 Michael Hardy (→Simple introduction)
 * 22:05, 2004 Sep 18 Michael Hardy
 * 17:46, 2004 Sep 18 Slicky m (created new article (outsource trig-funcs))

Quick note
If there's going to be original definitions used, then you should note that $$180^o = \pi radians$$ en:User:JSpudeman
 * Also, please note that the definition that is used at the moment is completely incorrect; when two lines meet, that is a bisect, when a line moves about a point along it's extremity, the difference between them is the angle with respect to a unit circle. 86.112.216.103 16:32, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

clarification for Summary and Extra Notes section
Can someone address the following statement appearing in the 4th paragraph of the Summary and Extra Notes section:

Now we let the hypotenuse (which is always 1, the radius of our unit circle) rotate counter-clockwise.

Actually the entire 4th paragraph seems confusing to me. Is it trying to explain how angles are measured in the cartesian plane? consider revising this section. --209.67.181.254 00:12, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

The last section of the paragraph starting from "Quadrants are always counted counter-clockwise,...." is meaningless The hypotenuse is equal to the square root of (2) not to 1 as in the aside picture

-The image changed, it's now clarify what the author say

More Illustrations
That statement in the triangle ratios section, "In particular, a triangle can be divided into 4 congruent triangles by connecting the mid-points on the sides of the original triangle together, each congruent triangle is similar on half scale to the original triangle", needs an illustration really bad. It would really help those of us who actually read these wiki articles on math to learn it and are not math geniuses. Thanks

More Clarity
In the "In Simple Terms" Section, under the subsection "Introduction to Radian Measure" -- I don't believe that this section is as clear as it could be.

Textually
Textually speaking: If I understand the section correct, the step by step exercise involves the assumption that one is using a string of the length of the radius. If this is the case it would be good to state this explicitly. Were someone to be trying to follow along using a compass, they could easily become confused and assume that after extending the radius to the circumference, we'll mark this as Pt. 1, that they should then use the radius length to mark another point on the circumference using the radius length and then to use another radius length to connect the second point back to the center of the circle in order to create an equilateral triangle with three sides the same length, i.e. 1 radius. This would make the circumference between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 to be larger than one radius. A straight line between two points in 2 or 3-dimensional space is shorter than a curved line between the two points (or something like that, I must admit I haven't touched a math text since 1998 so I may be getting this wrong). The idea is, that if one is using a string here, then one is able to "trace" the circumference of the circle with the string for the length of the string, i.e. 1 radius, marking this point Pt. 2. This would make the length of the curvature of the circle, i.e. the circumference traced, equal to 1 radius. Thus the line between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 would be LESS THAN the circumference length between the two points of 1 radius. The distance between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2, making this third side of the triangle less than 1 radius. We would therefore have a triangle with two equal sides, each of 1 radius length extending out from the center of the circle and one line between the two points that must be less than 1 radius while the length of the circumference that shares Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 with this third side of our triangle being equal in length to the other sides of the triangle, all of them being 1 radius in length. Overall, tell people whether they should be using a string here or a compass.

Visually
Visually, this could be shown by using the types of hash-marks employed in geometry. The two radius sides of our triangle would have 1 hash-mark, the length of the circumference of our circle between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 would also have 1 hash-mark and the straight line between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 would have 2 hash-marks to indicate that it is equal in length to neither the radius lines or the circumference of the circle between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2. It might also be useful to show another example where we use the radius of the circle to create an equilateral triangle within the circle that touches the circumference of the circle at Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 (Pt. 1 is same as above but Pt. 2 here would be diff. from Pt. 2 above) and with our hash-marks indicate that all the sides of this triangle have equal lengths of 1 hash-mark but that now the circumference between Pt. 1 and Pt. 2 is not one radius in length by marking it with 2 hash-marks and further writing an indication that this length of circumference is NOT equal to a radian and the angle formed within is NOT equal to a radian. I will try to draw a makeshift image to show what I mean. I don't know how to upload the image here so if you'd like me to do that you'll have to explain how. I read the help file on image uploads but I don't want to mark up your nice looking page. Overall: Geometry-like hash-marks help.

Relevance Needed
This "simple terms" introduction needs introduction of its own. Rather than some arcane discussion of how to bisect angles, we need a relation of trigonometry to our modern world. We need a discussion of cell-phone triangulation; we need a discussion of how a bridge or building will collapse without proper angle calculation; we need discussion of electromagnetic wave calculations for antennas and cooking of food; etc.

Like others mention in this discussion, I agree it needs pictures and diagrams; sore need. This is the age of the internet, not some dried up text in the back of the teacher lounge acting as a coaster. --Normanjparker (talk) 10:39, 7 January 2010 (UTC)

I'm not sure what this page adds
I've made a few cosmetic improvements, but I do wonder how it helps the book as a whole. It isn't rigorous enough to deserve its name, and I doubt that anyone capable of dealing with the advanced topics would find it useful.--Wisden (discuss • contribs) 09:25, 19 January 2011 (UTC)

 * If in time we lose this page I won't mind. IIRC Thenub314 was keen on the idea of a page about trig done rigorously, particularly defining 'what is an angle?', but I may be mis-remembering.  The history of this page is another matter.  It used to have an attempt at covering all of trigonometry in a very condensed way, so only introducing cos, then later presenting sin and results about sin in terms of cos.  Not the best for teaching it to someone relatively new to algebra. --JamesCrook (discuss • contribs) 10:30, 19 January 2011 (UTC)


text:
Social Psychology/Cognitive Social Psychology

Introduction
Cognitive Social Psychology is modeled after the perspective of Heider and Gestalt psychology; to understand the 'common-sense' ways in which individuals make sense of the self and the world
 * unit of analysis was cognition
 * theoretical aim to specify the processes involved in how cognitions are formed, stored, and changed.
 * criticism: just what is included under the rubric 'cognitions' is unclear; are believing angels exist and knowing one's telephone number both cognitions? Are they the same or different?

(see Pepitone, Albert. 1999. Chapter in 'Reflections on 100 Years of Experimental Social Psychology'.)

Social neuroscience and Social cognitive neuroscience. These fields engage in the study of how the brain processes, understands, and is affected by the social environment on a neurological level. Social cognition.

Emotion and motivation

Philosophical approaches to the emotions have been around for a long time, written with explanatory depth in such writers as Thomas Hobbes, Aristotle and Jiddu Krishnamurti. Social psychological approaches use these perspectives as launching points from which further theories might proceed.

Hedonistic theory of action
This theory finds its roots explicitly from the philosophy of Epicurus, followed by philosophers like John Locke, Jeremy Bentham, and Ludwig von Mises (among many others). The hedonistic theory (or psychological hedonism) states that human action occurs when:
 * The actor is compelled to increase their pleasure by achieving a goal, or
 * The actor is compelled to relieve the burden of uneasiness by achieving a goal.

Psychological hedonism has a fundamental place in most theories of action, most notably behaviorism, praxeology, and psychosocial theory.

Psychosocial descriptions of motivation
Erik Erikson conceived of a psychosocial developmental theory as an extension of Freudian psychodynamic developmental theory. The psychosocial model, called the "psycho-social theory of the self", is meant to be used to explain the most important variables in bodily development, and how they might relate to socialization. It includes:
 * The erogenous zones on the body which provide stimulation. For example, the oral, anal, and phallic zones. Can also be expanded to non-erogenous zones of the body, including cerebral-cortical, loco-motor, sensory-motor, respiratory, muscular, and kinesthetic;
 * The psychosexual mode, or the actions associated with each zone. For example, retention and elimination for the anal zone;
 * The psychosocial modality, or the social analogy that can be associated with each respective mode. For example, "anal-retentiveness";
 * The meaning, or preferred external objects associated with each mode and zone.

With this addition, Erikson made steps towards a developmental theory that was both psychological and sociological. Psychosocial theory helps to explain what kinds of goals the social actor may develop.

All of the above theories have provided models by which we might describe the subject of emotions, but more needs to be said in order for the researcher to explain and predict them. Pivotal questions include, "When and why do people have feelings?", "Are emotions themselves a cause of action, or are they mere epiphenomena (or illusions)?", and "How does the brain work to create social emotions?"

Affect control theory
One attempt to explain human emotional behavior has come in the form of affect control theory, which states that people in a situation will try to maintain any initial feelings or impressions that they have, rather than try to change them.

Three schools of the emotions
There are many ways in social psychology that have been used to study emotions. There is the social constructionist approach of James Averill and Rom Harre, and the realist approach of Paul Ekman and his study of facial expressions. In cognitive emotion theories there are the contesting works of Lazarus and Zajonc.

Social constructionist emotion research uses cultural evidence and review of historical documents. For instance, it's hard to find a western equivalent for Japanese emotion of amae. Another example often used is the emotion of acide, which has disappeared from European discourse in the 15th century.

Emotion and sequence
The main debate in the cognitive school has been about the sequence of events. In other words, a main concern has been: does cognition trigger emotion or does emotion trigger cognition?

The conventional view on this issue is that first a person will feel an emotion, and second, that emotion will compel an action.

However, Willam James's theory of the emotions says the reverse: that we first experience physical feelings in our bodies that we afterward interpret as emotions. If one sees a bear in the woods and decides to make a run for it, then one interprets oneself later on as being scared because one's heart, respiration, and feet are functioning faster. Lately Antonio Damasio has revived Willam James' emotion theory in an updated version.

James' theory of emotions can be considered physiological as well as social, for he emphasizes the situational aspects that arouse emotions. Examples William James makes use of include music, aesthetic experiences, and moral judgements.

"These [subtler emotions] are the moral, intellectual, and æsthetic feelings. Concords of sounds, of colors, of lines, logical consistencies, teleological fitnesses, affect us with a pleasure that seems ingrained in the very form of the representation itself, and to borrow nothing from any reverberation surging up from the parts below the brain.[...]

A glow, a pang in the breast, a shudder, a fulness of the breathing, a flutter of the heart, a shiver down the back, a moistening of the eyes, a stirring in the hypogastrium, and a thousand unnamable symptoms besides, may be felt the moment the beauty excites us. And these symptoms also result when we are excited by moral perceptions, as of pathos, magnanimity, or courage.[...]

In all cases of intellectual or moral rapture we find that, unless there be coupled a bodily reverberation of some kind with the mere thought of the object and cognition of its quality; unless we actually laugh at the neatness of the demonstration or witticism; unless we thrill at the case of justice, or tingle at the act of magnanimity; our state of mind can hardly be called emotional at all. It is in fact a mere intellectual perception of how certain things are to be called[...]" (Principle of Psychology part II, 468 - 471) all italics added

Spindle neurons
Recent research by John Allman has suggested that a certain kind of neuron in the brain may be responsible for the social emotions of humans and primates.

Applications
Whatever the theory of motivation, it will likely shed some light upon broader social issues such as Alienation and Depression.

Social perceptions
The ways in which people perceive and make judgments about events in the world.

 * Attribution theory
 * This field of social psychology is concerned with the ways in which people explain (or attribute) the behavior of others. It explores how individuals "attribute" causes of actions either to the actors involved or to situations -- in other words, whether or not an observer judges an actor to have had control over the act and its consequences.
 * One discovery in this field is that it is normal for people to place blame upon others when some harm befalls them, but they are more likely to blame situations when the harm is upon themselves. Those suffering from depression do not seem to be susceptible to the same error.

 * Social comparison theory
 * A theory created by Leon Festinger which postulates that people are more likely to compare their own situations and wellbeing to that of those who they are most similar.

 * Attitude formation
 * An area of research that inquires into the attitudes and values people come to have. One question of particular interest is, "Do attitudes cause actions, or vice-versa?" Two theories which argue this question are reasoned-action theory (Fishbein) and self-perception theory (Bem), respectively.

 * Theory of mind module
 * Research and experimentation has recently come to suggest that part of the human mind is innately specialized in creating and processing an awareness of other minds. This "module" is thought to be absent for subjects with autism.

 * Pattern recognition and chaos
 * Human beings have a perceptual inclination towards finding patterns out what they sense, even if what they sense is noise. This desire for pattern-making can also manifest itself in a desire for social and intellectual orderliness. However, the extent to which the perceptual inclination towards orderliness leads to social and intellectual dispositions of the same kind requires further study. It may just as well be said that human beings, in the pursuit of creative endeavors, thrive upon some degree of chaos.

 * Types of belief systems
 * Belief systems can be structured according to certain variables: systematicity, empirical relevance, adaptability to new information, tolerance of competing beliefs, degree of commitment required to maintain, and style of belief organization.


text:
Social Psychology/Introduction

What is social psychology?
Social psychology is the study of how individuals perceive, influence, and relate to others. According to Gordon Allport's classic definition, social psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behavior of individuals is influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By imagined or implied presence, Allport is suggesting that the effects of social influence are felt even when there are no other people about.

Psychological and sociological emphases
Social psychology is usually considered as subfields of psychology or sociology, which concentrate on the relative importance of individual or social influences and effects respectively. Some of the differences are organizational (e.g., psychological and sociological social psychologists tend to publish in different journals) whilst other differences include the type of processes emphasized by the respective disciplines.

Psychological social psychologists tend take an interactional approach to human social behavior which emphasizes factors both within the person (cognition, affect, motives, neurophysiology, and personality traits), and the immediate social situation. Sociological social psychologists tend to emphasize processes outside of the person at a more distant macro-level, such as social structure and a more immediate micro-level, such as social interaction. Both include the use of the individual and the group as units of analysis in their research.

Relation to other fields
Social psychology has close ties with the other social sciences, especially sociology and psychology. It also has very strong ties to the field of social philosophy.
 * Sociology is the study of group behavior and human societies, with emphasis on the structures of societies and the processes of social influence. Includes all organizational behavior.
 * Psychology is the study of the underlying psychological processes that make all behaviors and experiences possible. Some examples of the things it seeks to explain are: the attribution of mental states to others, the notion of a unitary 'self', sight and perception, personality and identity, warfare and violence, love, being hungry, waking up, etc.
 * Philosophy of the social sciences is the study of theoretical questions about the experience and behavior of persons and the justifications involved with how they are studied in the social sciences. It involves questions related to the philosophy of mind, the philosophy of language, social epistemology, and many other fields.

History
The discipline of social psychology began at the dawn of the twentieth century. Landmark moments include the publication of Charles Horton Cooley's "Human Nature and Social Order" in 1902, which sought to explain the social order by use of the concept of a looking-glass self. The first textbooks in social psychology would be published six years later by E. A. Ross and William McDougall.

John Stuart Mill, Auguste Comte and others laid the foundation for social psychology by asserting that human social cognition and behavior could and should be studied scientifically like any other natural science.

General research interests
Social psychology attempts to understand the relationship between minds, groups, and behaviors in three general ways.

First, it tries to see how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other(s) (Allport 3). This includes social perception, social interaction, and the many kinds of social influence (like trust, power, and persuasion). Gaining insight into the social psychology of persons involves looking at the influences that individuals have on the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of other individuals, as well as the influence that groups have on individuals. This aspect of social psychology asks questions like:
 * How do small group dynamics impact cognition and emotional states?
 * How do social groups control or contribute to behavior, emotion, or attitudes of the individual members?
 * How does the group impact the individual?
 * How does the individual operate within the social group?

Second, it tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviors have upon the behavior of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the workplace and group decision making. It looks at questions like:
 * How does persuasion work to change group behavior, emotion or attitudes?
 * What are the reasons behind conformity, diversity, and deviance?

Third, and finally, social psychology tries to understand groups themselves as behavioral entities, and the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group (Michener 5). It asks questions like:

 * What makes some groups hostile to one another, and others neutral or civil?
 * Do groups behave in a different way than an individual outside the group?

In European textbooks there is also fourth level called the "ideological" level. It studies the societal forces that influence the human psyche.

Underlying issues
In social psychology, as in any other discipline, there will be a number of underlying philosophical predispositions in the projects of scientists. Some of these predispositions involve the nature of social knowledge itself, the nature of social reality, and the locus of human control in action (Cote and Levine, 2002; Slife and Gantt, 1999). One main and lasting crisis has been the debate over positivism and phenomenology. In the former, the research focus has been an attempt to find overarching, universal laws to social behavior and history. In the latter, by contrast, the emphasis is upon a focus of empirical study, and making accurate descriptions of social reality, regardless of whether or not they fit a grand theory or explanation. These two forms have tended to lend themselves to favor either quantitative or qualitative methods, respectively. In addition to these two orientations, there is a third outlook: a kind of social rationalism, which makes use of axiomatic presuppositions in order to explain social reality.

One underlying problem for the social psychologists is whether or not their studies can or should ultimately be understood in terms of the meaning and consciousness behind social action, as with folk psychology, or whether or not more objective materialist and behavioral facts are to be given exclusive study. This problem is especially important for those within social psychology who study meaning and language, and for those in the sociological social psychology tradition who favor symbolic interactionism, because a rejection of the study of meanings would lead to the reclassification of such research as unempirical.

Three persistent themes in the philosophy of the social sciences, and which directly affect social psychology, have been the structure-agency debate, and the related arguments over determinism and free will.

First, especially important among sociological social psychologists, the structure-agency debate (sometimes referred to by the terms "individualism" and "holism") involves questions about the nature of social behavior: whether it is ultimately predictable in terms of the creative volition of the individual, or is largely a product of socialization, interaction, and greater social structures. (Bunnin and Tsui-James, 2003)

The concern over free will has often been posed as philosophical and methodological, and not empirical, usually in the tradition of incompatibilism. However, some compatibilists see the issue as itself being something which can be investigated empirically by social psychologists. The work of Benjamin Libet is one example of research that has been taken to be an empirical refutation of the notion of free will.

Research ethics
Social psychologists are concerned with ethical issues, and there are certain ethical controversies that are especially apparent in this area. The goal of social psychology is to understand naturally occurring cognition and behavior in a social context, but the very act of observing people in social contexts tends to influence and alter their behavior. For this reason, many social psychology experiments utilize deception to conceal or distort certain aspects of the study. Deception may include false cover stories, false participants (known as confederates or stooges), false feedback given to the participants, and so on. This practice has been challenged by some psychologists who maintain that deception under any circumstances is not ethically correct, and that other research strategies (e.g. role-playing) should be used instead. Unfortunately, research has shown that role-playing studies do not produce the same results as deception studies and this has cast doubt on their validity. In addition to deception, experimenters have at times put people into potentially uncomfortable or embarrassing situations (e.g. the Milgram experiment), and this has also been criticized for ethical reasons.

To protect the rights and wellbeing of research participants, and at the same time discover meaningful results and insights into human behavior, virtually all social psychology research must pass an ethical review process. At most colleges and universities, this is conducted by an ethics committee or institutional review board. This group examines the proposed research to make sure that no harm is done to the participants, and that the benefits of the study outweigh any possible risks or discomforts to people taking part in the study. Furthermore, a process of informed consent is often used to make sure that volunteers know what will happen in the experiment and understand that they are allowed to quit the experiment at any time. A debriefing is typically done at the conclusion of the experiment in order to reveal any deceptions used and generally make sure that the participants are unharmed by the procedures. Today, most research in social psychology involves no more risk of harm than can be expected as by routine psychological testing or normal daily activities.

title: Social Psychology/Introduction


text:
User:Simon Shek

Main article:Simon Shek's Wikipedia user page.
 * My name is Simon Shek. I prefer use Chinese for leave a message or speak to me. Thank you.

zh:User:石

title: User:Simon Shek


text:
User:TheDaveRoss

Wiktionary Userpage

title: User:TheDaveRoss


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/The Rusty Ball

This is a good start! Thank you for doing this! Now the instructions need to be more detailed, and an image to use for the rust needs to be uploaded for readers to use in this tutorial. Thanks again! --Spiderworm 19:16, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

"go to materials (f5) and select the default material" ??? there seems to be no button that says that or anyting. --V2os 02:14, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

I am using v2.37 and I cannot seem to get any materials or textures to take even at rendering!, this is very frustrating as I have made several attempts with several tutorials what am I doing wrong? --user:glpotter


text:
Discrete Mathematics/Sieve of Eratosthenes

The Sieve of Eratosthenes is a method for find prime numbers that is attributed to the ancient Greek mathematician Eratosthenes. The idea is to begin by listing all the natural numbers bigger than 2.
 * $$2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 \ldots$$

and beginning with 2 we go to the first number that has not been crossed off and cross every multiple of that number that is later on in the list.

So in the case of 2, no numbers have been crossed so we start by removing every second number after 2. Our list would then look like
 * $$1, 2, 3, \cancel{4}, 5, \cancel{6}, 7, \cancel{8}, 9, \cancel{10}, 11, \cancel{12}, 13, \cancel{14}, 15, \cancel{16}, 17, \cancel{18}, 19, \cancel{20}, 21, \cancel{22}, 23, \cancel{24}\ldots$$

And we keep applying our rule. Here our next number not crossed out will be 3, we cross out every third number after 3. That will be 6, 9, 12,… and our list the becomes
 * $$1, 2, 3, \cancel{4}, 5, \cancel{6}, 7, \cancel{8}, \cancel{9}, \cancel{10}, 11, \cancel{12}, 13, \cancel{14}, \cancel{15}, \cancel{16}, 17, \cancel{18}, 19, \cancel{20}, \cancel{21}, \cancel{22}, 23, \cancel{24} \ldots$$

And so on. At the end only the prime numbers will be left.

In this case we have already found all of the primes less than 25. This is because composite numbers must always have a prime factor less than their square root. If this were not the case for some integer $$n$$ we could write $$n=p_1\times p_2\times\cdots\times p_k$$. Since we are assuming $$n$$ is composite we know there are at least two prime factors $$p_1$$ and $$p_2$$. If both of which are greater than $$\sqrt{n}$$, then $$p_1\times p_2 > \sqrt{n}\times \sqrt{n}=n$$. This would contradict that $$n=p_1\times p_2\times\cdots\times p_k$$. So for us, since we have crossed out every number with a factor smaller than 5 we have crossed out every composite number less than $$5^2=25$$.


text:
Subject talk:Blender 3D

Want to talk about the Blender wikibooks? Use the discussion tabs, or chat with the authors in real time here:

Server: irc.freenode.net

Channel: #blenderwiki

(originally by Spiderworm) [ alerante | “” 22:40, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC) ]

Tutorial Authors Wanted on Official Blender MediaWiki!
The main Blender documentation and tutorial authors are now working on the Official Blender MediaWiki. If you're considering helping write Blender tutorials or documentation, please consider helping us at the official wiki instead.--Popski 17:44, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

 * The link is broken. --Mortense (discuss • contribs) 21:58, 21 December 2016 (UTC)

Wanted!

 * Blender 3D: The Gimp for the Blender — texture creation using the Gimp
 * Wouldn't it be nice with a big fat, always updated Blender reference book. The current hotkey reference should be merged into it. Maybe it's ok just to copy the official reference for a start? (Open Content License).
 * Starting a Blender Reference book :) Hope this could be the one doc in what the developers edit changes.
 * Heh, you can't count on Blender developers. You are developer here! --Popski 14:08, 22 May 2005 (UTC)

Alphabetical order
I sorted list of Blender WikiBooks in alphabetical order. --Popski 19:08, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

Links to external material
How can this extensive resource be taken advantage of? --Jkh.gr 16:56, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

Namespacing
How we will now name modules? Like Blender 3D: ModuleName or Blender 3D/ModuleName? --Popski 16:14, 4 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * I think the better way to do it is "Blender 3D: ModuleName". This way the module can better be a stand-alone book.  What do you think?  --68.3.31.10 14:43, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Yes I agree. Who changed this anyway? --Popski 11:04, 9 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * From history was ZeroOne: (:s to /s. this naming scheme creates automatic back links to the top of the articles.) --Popski

With this few changes ZeroOne just messed with redirections and there is no more history. C'mon!! If you start to make changes like this then do it right and please discuss first. You can use some Sandbox for such testings. This automatic back links are totally unimportant anyway, I'll put it back. -Popski 09:58, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks for doing that, Popski. Hopefully I'll be able to get back onto this Blender book here in a week or so when I'm done with this terrible class I'm in, give you some help.  ZeroOne was trying to help, but I don't think that this particular contribution was beneficial.  Just so everybody remembers, he has in the past contributed in a positive way many times, so it's all good. Popski, we need to get the templated keyboard shortcuts book going, I'll spend time on it in about a week, the templates will be very helpful for integration with the other blender books.  --Spiderworm 04:56, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I know that he didn't want to make any harm, but why people don't say anything before doing such things? You'll be back in a week? Well, that's good news! :) Blender 2.37 have some new ShortCuts (need to add). Another good news is that is Varuag interested to have his !great tutorials here! Unfortunatly is his homepage as down as is www.blenderman.org :( What do you think Spiderworm where to put such tutorials as are his car tutorials? --Popski 21:24, 17 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Sweet! Good job Popski!  We should probably put Varuag's tutorials up under the Intermediate Modeling/Mechanical Modeling section.  I haven't seen Varuag's stuff myself but I'm assuming it's pretty awesome.  --Spiderworm 18:03, 18 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Merge from Creating a jewel in Blender
G'day, a Vote for Deletion has concluded that Creating a jewel in Blender should be merged into this book. Please see what you can make of it. cheers, Webaware talk 14:43, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

"Blender" vs. "Blender 3D"
Why "Blender 3D"? Is there a difference between "Blender 3D" and "Blender"? --Mortense (discuss • contribs) 21:42, 21 December 2016 (UTC)

title: Subject talk:Blender 3D


text:
User talk:GumbaGumba

♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫♫ to you, too. - Omegatron 23:13, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

You've been blocked forever. If you ever decide to become a reasonable person who respects others, let an admin know. Gentgeen 01:27, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * a small flower for gentgeen...

title: User talk:GumbaGumba


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Talk:Super NES Programming/SNES memory map

I realize the memory map graphic probably took a long time to make, but I think it would be more clear as either a table or a SVG illustration.

Joe Lee 23:36, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Ya, I agree. It's also a bit more complicated than this. I was only looking at the LoROM memory model. I'll see what I can come up with in Inkscape. Snargle 09:39, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Watermelon

| Melon

Watermelon is usually large, sweet, heavy, juicy, bulky, prone to causing stains, and very big. Japanese watermelons are often cube-shaped, to better fit in a small refrigerator.

title: Cookbook:Watermelon


text:
Cookbook:Truffle

| Fungus

Truffles are pieces of a fungus which eats tree roots. People vary in their ability to taste truffles. Pigs are used to locate and dig up truffles.

title: Cookbook:Truffle


text:
Cookbook:Sushi Roller

| Kitchen appliances

Sushi rollers (makisu) are used to make some kinds of sushi.

title: Cookbook:Sushi Roller


text:
Cookbook:Makiyakinabe Pan

| Pots and Pans

Makiyakinabe pans are used to make inari-zushi sushi.

title: Cookbook:Makiyakinabe Pan