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Civ/The Basics

This chapter is a guide to all Civ and Civ-related games. Therefore every guide will include this chapter. Civilization terminology is used here; see Civ/Terminology.

This page is to some extent up to date with the release of Civ IV.

The goal of the game
The precise goals of the game vary from game to game, although all games employ conquest (eliminating all other players) and histographic (have the highest score after a set number of turns) methods of victory. In many games, more are employed, such as the "space race" (construct a spaceship that consists of multiple parts), "domination" (have most of the map within the reach of your cities), "regicide" (kill a specific unit), or "transcendence" (the researching of a specific technology).

As in chess, the game is divided into several phases and the ultimate goal of the game should not distract you from playing each phase correctly. Checking the king without purpose is useless in chess, as is making empty threats for no reason other than to make threats in Civ. In both games, an empty threat may or may not be effective, but for it to be truly effective it must have sound reasoning behind it, and if it does not work it must not punish the player who made the threat.

Cities
All Civilization games have cities. Alpha Centauri refers to them as "bases", Colonization as "colonies", but they serve exactly the same function.

The primary function of a city is production: food, military or other units, and/or structures (including facilities for increasing defensive strength of the units in the city).

The secondary function of a city is acquiring and holding territory. By acquiring territory, you reduce your enemy's possibilities for production and/or efficient movement. Therefore, an unproductive city can be useful even if "loss-making", but a productive city will almost always be more useful.

The ideal city serves both functions.

Good city sites
The details of what constitutes a good city site depend on the game. For instance, in Alpha Centauri, high elevation is desirable. However, most other Civilization games have no concept of elevation. What they do share in common is that different terrain will produce different resources and have different defensive capabilities. Therefore, what makes a certain site desirable is always the same: an abundance of resources and an ability for the city to defend itself.

On worldwide considerations, proximity to your other cities is advantageous too. The different games have different ways of making that count.

Resources and production
Cities (except in Colonization) always produce three resources. These are usually named food, shields, and trade. In SMAC, these are called nutrients, minerals, and energy, respectively. In Civilization III, "trade" was renamed "commerce". In Civilization II: Test of Time, the names depend on the current game being played. Regardless of their names, they always serve the same functions. For consistency, we will refer to them as food, shields, and trade.

All games have cities, each populated by at least one "citizen" (which term here includes people such as slaves). They will work the surrounding terrain and produce goods. Each citizen may work one tile; the central city tile is always worked automatically when the city is created. For instance, a city with 6 citizens can work up to seven tiles: the center tile plus one tile per citizen. In most Civ games, citizens are restricted to the tiles they can work to a city radius. However, any one tile on the map may only be worked by a single laborer within a single city: that is, if two cities have overlapping city radii, a laborer working a tile within the overlap within one city will prevent laborers from any other city from working the same tile location in the second city. Citizens can also be specialists and not work tiles; this will be discussed later. Civ cities contain 21 tiles (a 5 by 5 square without the corners), Colonization colonies contain 9 tiles.
 * Colonization allows citizens to do specific indoor work, in purpose-built or pre-existing buildings. Most of the high-value production comes from this work.

These are the three kinds of goods that your cities will produce:
 * Food – No civilization can survive without food. Surplus food will accumulate until the food box is full. When it is filled, another citizen will be added to the city and the food box will empty. The food box grows with the size of the city, (and thus requires ever more surplus food to fill it in order to get the next citizen or worker), usually at a constant rate. Each citizen requires two food per turn to survive. A citizen will never take more or less than this. If the city is not producing enough food to meet demand, this food will be taken from the food box. If the food box is empty and a citizen still must eat, a citizen starves and the population count will be reduced by one. In some Civ games, Settlers units need support in the form of food from their home city in addition to the shields they need for support. In these cases, if the food box empties and more food is needed, the most distant such unit will be disbanded. If more food is still needed after that, then a citizen will die. The population count will never be reduced by more than one per turn due to starvation.

 * In many Civ games, improvements and wonders may also affect how food is used to create new citizens. For example, many Civ games have the Granary (a city improvement) that only half-empties the food box upon creation of a new citizen, dramatically reducing the time required to refill it, and a wonder that gives Granaries to every friendly city.  In Civilization III, possession of the Longevity wonder will make your cities create two citizens instead of one when the food box fills.  In other cases, a new citizen may not be created when the food box is full because of the city reaching a population limit. (The food box may nevertheless lose all or half its store, with no compensation.)

 * Shields – A city must produce raw materials (shields), which can then be used to build things. (The Colonization equivalent is "hammers", produced from lumber.) Your city will always be working on one of three kinds of projects:
 * Unit – Build a unit, such as a military unit or Settler.
 * Improvement – An improvement to benefit the city, or a Wonder to benefit much or all of your entire civilization or even the entire world, but which is physically located in the city that built it (and passes to a rival, unless destroyed, if the city is captured).
 * Capitalization (in some games, Wealth) – Shields are converted to gold for the player's treasury, usually with a heavy penalty (e.g., four shields is converted to one trade unit). Civ 2 does not have this penalty. Completed buildings may be "sold" on a 1:1 basis in most games. In Civ IV, the ability to create research and culture'' was added.

 * Shields are added to the shield box (except that when "building" Capitalization the gold generated goes into the treasury instead). When the shield box is full, production is complete and the unit or improvement is immediately available. In most Civ games, but not the latest versions, III and IV, shields are also used to support units beyond those that are deemed "free". If more shields are needed by units than are being collected in the city, then in Civilization a unit is disbanded, but in other versions the needed shields are removed from the shield box. If the box empties but more shields are still needed, one unit will randomly be disbanded. In most games, shields in the shield box can be destroyed through espionage activities of the Spy unit.

 * Trade – Every civilization has some form of currency or barter system. You allocate the total trade resources of your civilization on the "set tax rate" screen (except that in Colonization the Monarch back in Europe sets the rate of excise duty on goods you sell there).
 * Each turn, the trade resource is "spent" according to the rates you set on at least one of three things:

 * Tax – The trade goods become money in your civilization treasury. You can use it to rush-build, given the right conditions, use it as part of a trade with another civilization, or even give it as a gift. Tax revenue is also used to pay required maintenance fees for improvements and wonders, as well as, in the latest versions, support and upgrade your units.
 * Science – The trade goods go toward scientific research, allowing you to research new technologies that can unlock new units, improvements, wonders, and unit abilities. Falling too far behind your competitors in the science race the most reliable way to lose the game. (As mentioned below, the Colonization equivalent is the Liberty Bell, where the "new technologies", such as faster ships or greater production, are called "Founding Fathers".)
 * Luxury/Culture – The trade goods go toward entertaining the populace, keeping them happy or content, which increasingly becomes a factor the larger your city population becomes. In addition, in some games, the more cities you have, the sooner you have to deal with unhappy citizens.  In many Civ games, luxury output first transforms content citizens to happy ones, then, if there are still unallocated luxury output and no content citizens, transforms unhappy citizens to content, then happy, citizens.  Angry citizens and resisters are generally unaffected by luxuries. This was replaced in Civilsation IV by a culture slider, accessible  with music. Commerce is diverted to producing culture, which expands you borders and, with some buildings, helps to make citizens happy.

Colonization
Colonization, instead, has 16 types of "cargo" produced, some "gathered" directly from the terrain and some produced by conversion of another (or, in the case of horses, just fed with surplus food production as long as there are two or more). They can all be bought or sold for money and moved in ships or wagon trains. Two other elements can be produced but not traded.
 * Food, one of the 16 cargoes, is needed to sustain workers (two units each per turn as in the other Civ games), and is exchanged for a new colonist in a colony that has a 200-ton surplus after the end of a turn. Colonists who are not working in a colony (eg traveling (with or without horses or engineering tools) or engaged in defense duties) need no food or other support.
 * Forests can be worked for lumber, tradeable as one of the 16 cargos but having prime value when converted by carpenters into hammers (the equivalent of Civ shields) for producing units, ships, wagon trains, and structures.
 * The Colonization equivalent of "science" is the Liberty Bell (produced to a limited degree by every colony but much more where a worker works in the Town Hall and still more if he's an Elder Statesman), which (in addition to an effect on the productivity of the colony that produced it) goes toward having successive "Founding Fathers" joining your Continental Congress and thereafter providing your empire with various benefits, some major and some minor.
 * An extra feature of production is the cross, produced to a limited degree by every colony but much more where a church is built and staffed and still more where a Firebrand Preacher is installed: crosses go towards encouraging fare-paying emigrants from the religious persecution of Europe attracted to your religious freedom.

Corruption and waste
Resource output can be lost through corruption, although in many games there is no corruption of food. Corruption of shields is generally known as waste. In many games, the amount of corruption is heavily dependent on the distance a city is from the civilization's capital city, as well as the overall number of cities controlled by a civilization. Some games may also have an upper limit on the amount of corruption a city can have, so that a city that suffers heavy corruption could still be productive. The amount of corruption also depends on the presence of certain improvements that reduce corruption, the type of government, as well as whether a city is celebrating "We Love the King Day".

In Civilization IV, this concept is replaced with maintenance, which goes up exponentially with the number of cities you rule and their distance from your palace.

Many games have a civilization starting in a form of government with relatively high corruption, with scientific achievement allowing switching to a form of government with less corruption. In many games, there is also a form of government in which the distance factor is eliminated, while other forms of government eliminate corruption altogether. When switching between governments, it is typical that neither shields nor trade are produced, or conversely, cities in a state of anarchy suffer total shield and trade corruption.

In many Civilization games, the Courthouse city improvement (available with the Code of laws technology) reduces a city's corruption and waste substantially.

Citizen happiness
For your cities to be productive, their citizens must be kept content. There are generally four degrees of happiness in a Civ game. From most happy to least happy, they are:
 * Happy
 * Content (normal)
 * Unhappy
 * Angry

Unhappy citizens are created from numerous sources. One of the most common is unhappiness due to overpopulation, in which new citizens from city growth are created unhappy. This is generally dependent on the difficulty setting in a game, with the highest difficulty level having its second and subsequent citizens in a city born unhappy. Other sources of unhappiness in many Civ games include having military units away from home, drafting citizens, or war weariness.

If the number of unhappy people exceeds the number of happy people in a city, the city will fall into civil disorder. Content citizens and specialists do not enter the equation. When a city is in civil disorder, no goods are produced other than food. In some games, you cannot rush-build during disorder as well. In many games, there are city improvements that are dangerous to have in a city under civil disorder, such as nuclear power plants and their risks of meltdown. Prolonged civil disorder in a city, or multiple cities under civil order, may lead the citizens to destroying certain city improvements (but never wonders), or, in the worst case, revolt, sending your government to anarchy. This is especially true of representative governments such as Democracy in many Civ games, where having two cities in civil disorder, or one city for more than one turn, will lead to a revolution.

This, however, is not true of Civilization IV. Instead, 'happiness' and 'unhappiness' modifiers are listed. For each point the unhappiness modifiers exceed the happiness ones, one citizen will refuse to work. Cities never revolt.

A city may also turn some or all of its citizens into specialists. In some games, this ability is restricted to cities above a certain size. Specialists are always considered content, and do not work a tile in the city radius, but instead produce other effects. Many Civ games have at least three kinds of specialists: taxmen, who create additional gold for a player's treasury; scientists, who contribute to research; and entertainers, who create luxuries that can content unhappy citizens or turn content citizens happy.

Civilisation IV uses a whole new system of specialists, with more impressive attributes and greater variety.

Angry citizens usually appear only after capturing an enemy city, being loyal to their mother country. Angry citizens refuse to work for the new regime, and thus do not contribute anything to the city, and cannot be converted to a specialist, and in some games, rush-building is impossible while an angry citizen exists. Many strategies of dealing with angry citizens include starvation and the garrisoning of strong defensive troops. Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri does not have angry citizens, having Drones (unhappy citizens) serve both roles.

In many games, there is an additional incentive for having happy citizens, as, with the exception of angry citizens, there is no production bonus or penalty associated with the mood of a citizen and its association with the tile they work on. This incentive is called "We Love the King Day" (although in many cases "King" is substituted for a title based on the government, EG. in Communism it's "Comrade"). This occurs when there are no angry or unhappy citizens, there are more happy citizens than content citizens, and the city is growing. "We Love the King Day" generally brings reduced corruption and waste to a city, and may bring forth additional production through production bonuses or the elimination of production penalties, depending on the type of government. In some games, and under representative governments, a city may even spontaneously grow in size. In a histographic game, happy citizens contribute more to the score than content citizens.

 * Colonization has a similar productivity loss when the number of Loyalists in a colony exceeds a fixed number (which varies with the "Degree of Difficulty"). The solution is to increase production of Liberty Bells so as to increase the proportion of citizens who are of the Rebel persuasion instead.

Research
Each turn of the game, you have a chance to accumulate research toward a civilization advance, often simplified to "tech". Techs will grant you new capabilities, or at least the chance to acquire them later, and can be used as a trading item. The only circumstances you will not accumulate research are if you have no cities, your research rate is at 0% and you do not employ scientists, or you have cities and a research rate but are not generating sufficient trade in any cities to put taxes into research.

The technologies always follow a hierarchy, called the "tech tree". All but the most basic techs require knowledge of two others if you are to research them. Most Civ games have one huge tech tree, but certain games (and certain scenarios therein), such as Civilization III, have multiple tech trees. All the games have extremely different tech trees, but they all share similarities. For instance, many players could not tell you the exact effects of "Electricity" for every single Civ game without looking it up (but good players will certainly know them for their favorite games). This is because the name of the tech may have little to do with its effects.

Choosing which tech to start researching is an important decision. It matters even more in the early game, as each tech usually takes many turns to research (with the increased "cost" of each successive one offset by your greater productivity). Researching many techs early can trigger a game-lasting advantage. Whatever you do, make sure (except when at war sometimes) to keep researching down the path that your strategy is based on. You won't get very far in war against a much more advanced civilization.

From Civ2 onwards, there's on-screen help in deciding which tech to try next, but in Civ1 you rely on your memory or the manual.

If in contact with other civs or expecting to be, it is a good idea to research the most advanced tech available because it is most likely to be tradeable.

In some games the Great Library gives you any tech discovered by two or more other civs. If you have it, you can often profitably sell libraries and set science to a minimum and concentrate on tax and luxuries, until the Library ceases to be effective.

Expansion phase
The first phase of any Civ game is the expansion phase. Each civilization tries to stake its claim to as much territory as it can, possibly even knocking out a rival with a "rush". The details of this will differ from game to game and from player to player. For instance, in Civilization I and II, a player might place cities as far apart as necessary to avoid overlap, four squares between cities, not including the cities themselves, being roughly optimal. In Civilization III, the same player might place cities extremely close together, with two squares between cities, or even one square in extreme situations. All games share a need to produce colonizing units as fast as practicable in the expansion phase.

However, following this strategy in Civilisation IV will lead to rampant costs, and potentially damage your economy permanently. As such, player have come up with a '60% rule': expand until you are forced to lower your science to 60% to stay in the black.

Infinite City Sprawl
Infinite City Sprawl (ICS for short; "smallpox" in FreeCiv), refers to the strategy based on the concept that a player should have as many cities as possible to crank out hordes of cheap military units. In Civ1, this is marked by building many cities adjacent to other cities without so much as a space in between. This strategy was so powerful that in all other Civ games, it is illegal to place a city immediately next to another. So players started placing them with a one-square buffer zone in between. Civ2 did have some other countermeasures in place, such as having too many cities will cause unhappiness problems, but on the whole, using ICS was far more effective than not using it would be. Against a player already known to use ICS, the only real effective response was to also use ICS. Because this simplifies the game to an absurd degree and increases the tedium, many players hated ICS and players would usually forego their differences to gang up on anybody found to be using it. To this day, using ICS against human opponents in Civilization I or II is a serious breach of playing etiquette.

ICS as an "unbeatable" strategy came to an end by Alpha Centauri or Civilization III, although it can still be an effective strategy and many players will still use it, while facing much less hostility in response because the strategy is now beatable by other means.

Diplomacy and the meta-game
The term "meta-game" when applied to Civ diplomacy was possibly first proposed by Velociryx, one of the acknowledged masters of Civilization-style games. It is difficult to define this concept precisely, but it refers to idea that diplomacy is a game in itself, with its own rules and strategies, particularly in the way that three civs can interact with one another.

Warfare
No matter what you do, it's likely you'll eventually end up in a state of war with someone. Sometimes the warring parties are too far apart to actually engage in combat, and declaring war is mostly a token way of saying "I hate you". (Don't rely on that, though: sometimes they'll send in the navy or air force!) In the original Civilization, all computer opponents tended to become aggressive and warlike after extensive contact; it can be an effective strategy to be constantly aggressive against your enemies through constant conquest of their cities.

Combat mechanics
In every game there is a way of fighting against either barbarians or other players. What determines the outcome of the battle is largely the same in every game. Each unit in any Civ(except Civilisation IV, where it is represented by 'strength' and 'movement', accompanied by a large selection of modifiers and promotions) game has an attack/defense/movement rating (or ADM rating), which determines its power when attacking other units, its power in resisting attacks, and how many spaces it can move (or, if attacking, how many attacks it can make in one turn). The ADM rating can be modified by various factors, such as "veteran status", the terrain it is in, and whether the unit is in a fortified position.

In each turn of Civ, every unit has a chance to move to an adjacent square. Each type of terrain has its own movement cost, and the movement cost is taken out of a unit's movement rating whenever it moves. The movement ends for a unit whenever a unit's movement rating falls below zero for the turn. Movement points are replenished every turn. Most games also have a form of terrain enhancement that would reduce or eliminate movement costs for units. In some games, some forms of terrain are impassible. Also, some games may also have air units that use a fuel system, and thus must return to a form of refueling station (such as a city or airbase) after a certain number of turns. In addition to ADM ratings, many Civ games also have a hit point system, where a unit is destroyed when out of hit points (instead of instantly, as in the early games).

Many games allow the possibility for a unit to have a fractional amount of movement points, due to terrain features or terrain improvements that allow a unit to only expend a fractional amount of movement points to move to the tile. In some games, exhaustion also comes into play: if there is an insufficient amount of movement points remaining, a unit may not move to a tile as commanded, and if a unit is ordered to attack, its attack strength may be reduced. Injury has a similar effect in games that have hit points. In Colonization, sailing close to an enemy ship may reduce movement points, which can be serious if "you" were expecting to slip into a safe port.

Zones of control
In many games, units exert a zone of control. With the notable exception of Civilization III, whose definition of "zone of control" is considerably different, a unit's zone of control is the eight tiles that surround the tile which the unit is on. It is generally illegal for a unit that is in an opposing civilization's zone of control to move into a space that is in another opposing zone of control. This not need be the same unit, or the same player. Thus, it is sometimes possible to form a defensive barrier using units that are strategically placed.

Units of an allied civilization, or similar "right of passage" agreement, ignore zones of control. Some units can also ignore zones of control, regardless of their nationality.

Combat experience
Many Civ games also employ a system of combat experience. A regular unit may be promoted to Veteran status, and receive certain statistic bonuses. Veteran units in some games may be promoted further for more bonuses.

Nuclear warfare
All Civ games except Colonization allow the possibility of nuclear war. For instance, all Civ games have nuclear warheads, and Civilization II allows spies to detonate nuclear devices. (The retrovirus Probe Team action in Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri is similar to this.) Use of a nuclear weapon usually has the following effects:
 * If aimed at a city, half of its population dies
 * If aimed at a stack of military units, the stack is completely destroyed. In Civilization III, however, there is a 50% chance that a unit in a stack survives with 50% health.
 * Surrounding tiles have pollution added, influencing the possibility of global warming. In Civilization III, any terrain improvements on these tiles are also destroyed.
 * In many games, every civilization will declare war on anyone that uses a nuclear weapon. In Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, this happens only if the UN charter is in effect.  In any case, the reputation of the user of the nuclear weapon is greatly soured.

Using nuclear weapons is not recommended unless you either have a lock on the game and want to finish it more quickly, or are in such a desperate losing position that it is the only thing that may turn the tide in your favor. Of course, if you are playing a one-on-one game, or all civs but you and another civ are eliminated, and you are at war with the other civ, you shouldn't worry about other civs declaring war on you, because there is no other civ to declare war on you!

title: Civ/The Basics


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Talk:Learning the vi Editor

I can write a section on interacting with external programs, like :r ! and :w ! and :make and :K, but I'm not sure where to put it. Maybe I'll just throw it out there, and if other, better organized people can figure out where to put it.

 * Go ahead, but just keep VIM-specific stuff, for example, properly clarified as VIM-specific. Take a look what I did with your .vimrc addition.
 * You could probably create a new page on "interacting with external programs"? Dysprosia 13:42, 29 May 2004 (UTC)

Idea: should this be put with the section about using other OSS? seems to me like it would fit nicely there. Dhuss 20:01, 2 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * No, some vi versions aren't open source.

Great book, but split off vim!
Hi Dysprosia! I *love* your neat vi book, I am an old vi user too, and I can still find useful hints in there. As you might know, I am in the process of reviewing some of the books to give development stages. Right now I can give your book only 50%, only because of the open sections of the vim part. If you take out the vim part, that doesn`t belong here to my opinion anyway, then I`d give your book a perfect 100%! (also the table of contents is the wrong one for the vim part). Make another book called "vi clones" or something, move those chapters there, and make a link there, like "Other Wikibooks on vi: *...". Or if you haven`t done it and I have some time, I`ll do it by myself :-) --Andreas Ipp 23:14, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Layout issues with sections
Moved section Appendix up below Contents, as it contains a link to a page that contains the most common vi commands. In Wikipedia style, links to other Wikimedia projects and then external links are further below (AFAIK). -Mardus (discuss • contribs) 04:49, 23 April 2016 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Learning the vi Editor


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User talk:152.163.252.200

This is H Padleckas. I was logged in. I don't know why it doesn't show my member name.

title: User talk:152.163.252.200


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Romanian/Lesson 1

Basic sayings

 * Da — Yes
 * Nu — No
 * Poate — Maybe
 * Salut/Bună — Hello, Hi, Hey
 * La revedere — Goodbye
 * Ce mai faci? / Ce mai faceţi? — How are you? (informal/formal)
 * (Eu sunt) bine — (I am) well
 * Rău — Bad(ly)
 * Prost — Bad(ly)
 * Așa și așa — So and so
 * Și/Dar_tu? / Dar/Și_dumneavoastră? — And you? (informal/formal)
 * Dar tu? / Dar dumneavoastră? — And you? (informal/formal) - literally "but you?"
 * Mulţumesc — Thank you
 * Te rog / Vă rog — Please (informal/formal)
 * Îmi pare bine — Pleased to meet you
 * Îmi pare rău — I'm sorry
 * Scuzaţi-mă / Scuzaţi — Excuse me
 * Scuze - Sorry (informal)

Introductions

 * Cum te cheamă? — (informal) What is your name? (lit. How are you called?)
 * Cum vă numiţi/cheamă? — (formal) What is your name? (lit. How are you named?)
 * Mă cheamă . . . — I am called . ..
 * Mă numesc — I am named . ..
 * Numele meu este . . . — My name is . ..
 * Îmi face placere să vă întâlnesc. — Nice to meet you. (It does pleasure to me to meet you.)
 * Acesta este prietenul meu . . . — This is my friend . . . (for a male)
 * Aceasta este prietena mea . . . — This is my friend . . . (for a female)

Next Lesson >

title: Romanian/Lesson 1


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Talk:European History/A Background of European History

Byzantium
It seems as someone is forgetting byzantine history... Isn'it it european??? Please do something about it!!

This needs a good once, or twice, or thrice over...but it's looking good and although I might want to flesh out a few paragraphs a bit more it's more or less done. Please do not add any new paragraphs without consulting my talk page, but if you want to expand on any of the shorter paragraphs, please go at it. --Alexbl 03:41, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

What's up with all the dead Wikipedia links? Wikibooks can't link back to Wikipedia, can it? - booyabazooka
 * Fixed. - SamE 22:43, 15 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Please, consider the following sentence: "Constantine chose to divide the empire among his sons, and because of attacks from barbarians and the fact that Rome was relatively run down chose a new capital at Byzantium (now Constantinople)." This is somewhat misleading. The name of the city is Istanbul. Smithbrenon 16:50, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

Please consider rephrasing the following sentence: "Kiev, which would fall under the power of the Mongols in the 13th century and would keep Russia out of European politics until Peter the Great was converted to Christianity in 988 by followers of Methodus and Cyrill..." At first read, it sounds like Peter the Great was converted to Christianity in 988! Maybe split the sentence up, change the word order, or punctuation. - James M. Boekbinder

Title
Shouldn't this be called "A Background to European History"? 195.92.40.49 10:31, 4 July 2006 (UTC)

Constantine
"Most significant of Constantine's acts as Emperor was to make a death bed conversion to Christianity."

That statement doesn't corroborate with the information at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_I_and_Christianity#Conversion - specifically the following statement:

"Constantine was over 40 when he finally declared himself a Christian." among others. Constantine was baptized on his death bed as was common among Christians of that time, but clearly he identified himself as a Christian before his death. -Brian Beaudry

Seriously bad
You haven't done anywhere near enough research on Romanesque and Gothic architecture to attempt to write about it! A lot of what is said is just plain silly!

Also:
 * Manuscript illuminations were also a popular artistic outlet in Romanesque and Gothic art.
 * This sounds like cake decoration or scrap-booking. No, don't use the magazine language "popular outlet".
 * Try "Manuscript illumination was a major art form of the Middle Ages.''

 * Poetry and music were perpetuated by a group of travelling musicians called Troubadours.
 * "A group of travelling musicians"........ Do you really mean a "Group of travelling musicians called Troubadours"? Think about this!  Were they a "group"?  You have to leave that word out entirely.

Here is a complete rewrite of the architecture section Some of what is written there now is total and absolute nonsense! Before you add this, you need to read it carefully and go over what is in the article, and think about the differences in the information it is really quite simple.
 * 1) you need dates, or else you plainly don't know your stuff
 * 2) Romanesque didn't imitate the style of Ancient Rome. It grew out of it, by way of the great Constantinian churches which were built by Romans (OK). Romanesque was not an imitation. It was a continuing tradition
 * 3) Total nonsense about not needing flying buttresses! They didn't use them because they hadn't been invented.  Walls had to be thick.
 * 4) Gothic needs a timeframe.
 * 5) Gothic developed from Romanesque. It needs to be said.
 * 6) Differences need to be properly understood, clearly expressed and listed in a logical order so they can be compared.

 * Romanesque architecture is the name given to the style that was found across Europe from the 10th to early 13th centuries and retained some elements of Ancient Roman architecture, in a structurally simplified form. Many churches remain from this period.  Many castles were also begun at this time and extended later.  The chief characteristics of Romanesque architecture are round-headed arches in windows, doors and arcades, rectangular piers, cylindrical columns, barrel vaults, groin vaults and paired windows.  Late Romanesque churches may have ribbed vaults. Walls are thick and buttresses are flat. Doorways are often surmounted by sculptured tympanum, particularly with sculpture of Christ in Majesty. Interior wall were often frescoed with scenes from the Bible.
 * Gothic architecture developed out of Romanesque architecture in France in the early 12th century and spread across Europe, being modified in different regions. It lasted in some parts of Europe into the 1500s. Gothic architecture, as seen in many of the great churches and cathedrals of Europe, is distinguished by the use of the pointed, ribbed vault.  Later ribbed vaulting became very complex and decorative, particularly in England, Spain and Eastern Europe. The development of projecting buttresses and flying buttresses allowed openings in the walls to be larger and vaults to be higher. Columns and piers often had a cluster of shafts supporting the ribs and mouldings above.  Doors and windows have pointed arches.  Doors were often set into richly carved portals and surrounded by figurative sculpture. Windows became increasingly large and were filled with stone tracery supporting the glazing.  Stained glass became a more important art form than fresco in most of Europe except Italy.

Amandajm (discuss • contribs) 10:37, 2 December 2011 (UTC)

Rearranging the content
I was thinking of rearranging the sections so that the introduction and the material from The Fall Of The Roman Empire are together. I would like to move the Geography section and Historical Investigation section to the top.. Historical Investigation followed by Geography. I think its important to outline some of the environmental factors that played a part in Europe's character using geographical descriptions. The topography of Greece should be described to allow readers to understand why Greece looked to the east for trade and more. Also that the islands that form the Aegean cyclades are extensions of the mountain ranges of Europe. A small section on flora and fauna maybe.

If no one objects then I'll rearrange the sections at a later date. Feel free to revert any edits you disagree with.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 01:33, 18 September 2012 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Trigonometry/Geometric Definitions of Trig Functions

The unit circle in question by definition has a radius equal to 1. Then the March 20, 2004 definitions of sin, cos, and tan by Jedwards are correct. User 211.29.136.11 apparently thought that the radius was not specified and set it equal to b, and accordingly divided x and y in the sin and cos definitions by b. I explained that the unit circle has a radius of 1 by definition, and added a link to the previous section on the unit circle. The unit circle section is very short and I think I will combine these two sections into one maybe sometime in the future. H Padleckas 22:25, 29 May 2004 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Alexbl

I have recently started some work on the Canadian History book, I just happen to have my old work book from elementary school sitting around. My notes are kind of hard to read, would you be up to editing what I put in? I bug you as you're the only other person I've seen comment on it. - Nmontague 21:23, 30 Jan 2005 (UTC)

German Levels I, II, and III aren't meant to go in order; they're different curriculums. If there was a "Level 1" (as in a year of study), it stops after my lesson 9. This may seem a little small, but the lessons are covering more and more each lesson (for example, I plan to have five times the amount of stuff I have currently on Lesson 3, plus then there's the problems, answers, and test). I have no idea about the other levels, as to the time it takes to study each lesson.

Thank you for reading what I have in Level I. Honestly, it's the least worked-on of the three levels. It's just less than 3 months old (started on March 6th, 2004), while the rest of the book is about 9 and a half months old (started on October 15th, 2003). Not only that, but I really have been the only writer/editor (see the history for Lesson 2 for an example). Everyone else on the Contributors page is working on Levels 2 and 3.

Thanks for looking at Level I German. I can't wait for you to finish the European History textbook; it's the one area of history I haven't been taught yet and I won't learn next year, either. - SamE 23:03, 29 May 2004 (UTC)

Pictures
As you can see at the top of this page, "All unlicensed images uploaded to wikibooks before November 1, 2006 will soon be deleted." You have uploaded images and some of them are untagged. You can see them here. Please review them and add appropriate tags. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. --Think Fast 04:24, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Ancient Civilizations Textbook
Hi there, I saw that you are interested in creating history texts. I am currently working with the Saylor Foundation to create Saylor.org's Ancient Civilizations of the World. If you have time and are interested we would love for you to check out the book and make some contributions. I am sure there are some chapters in which you could provide worthy contributions! --Azin (discuss • contribs) 20:55, 1 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alexbl


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/What is Ethics

Ethics is a term. Many people think ethics has to do with a set of social conventions or a religious decree. In professional philosophy we do not typically consider this to be the definition of ethics. Philosophical ethics could be called the study of what is good and bad. Generally, philosophical ethics concerns itself with discovering a system one may use to determine who or what is good, or with evaluating systems that others have proposed.

The pursuit of moral knowledge dates back to Ancient Greek philosophers, but it is mostly the influence of Enlightenment moral thought that continues to shape ethics today. There are many well-known figures in the history of ethics, including the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle, but some of the most important modern influences include such people as Immanuel Kant, Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, D.W. Ross, C.L. Stevenson, Alasdair MacIntyre, and John Rawls.

In ethics, a premium is placed upon defining "the good". Different approaches to defining the good, the nature of moral properties, the source of moral knowledge, and the status of moral facts have played an important role in shaping various branches of moral theory. The three major divisions of ethical philosophy may be called Virtue Ethics, Deontology, and Consequentialism.

Ethical mandates from society and church do not qualify as genuine philosophical ethics.

This last statement causes concern in that it reeks of negative presuppositions. First of all, ethical mandates ALWAYS have ethical undertones. It is inescapable. An ethical mandate may not fit certain schools of thought, but then certain schools of thought can be erroneous. All ethics are religious by nature, if one defines religion as an attempt to discover the good. Ethics stem from the question "What is right?" Whoever decides the answer to that question is a law maker. Laws are always expressions of religious thought be they theonomic or autonomous.

Ethics is the philosophical attempt to answer Socrates' question of how one should live. This is a very general question, which could for any individual translate to "How should I live?" It is important however to note that not all answers to this question are answers of the ethical type. One could conclude that one should live a self-indulgent life without any kind of logical contradiction. Moral philosophers study this idea, known as “egoism,” as well, and the question "Why be moral?" is because of this distinct from Socrates' question.

It is also important to note that Socrates' question not only allows for non-ethical answers but also answers from different ethical theories. His question is not the same as Kant's question "What is my duty?" or the egoist/utilitarian question of "How can we be happy?" There are many different ways of answering Socrates' question, and answers from the Categorical Imperative to the imperative "Sit on the couch and watch television" are equally answers to it, but Ethics attempts to find through reason the best answer to the question.

Ethics, often called Morality interchangeably, tries to answer "How should one live?" given that we already live in a society. Everyone is born with a place in society even if it is only "Stranger," and accordingly everyone has expectations for action placed upon them. One is expected to act a certain way as a brother, a friend, and a passer-by. Ethics primarily concerns itself with this realm of individual action. For the most part, ethical theories attempt to develop a system of obligations that we have towards others. Obligations that are common among different theories are the obligation to tell the truth, the obligation to help those in distress, and the obligation not to murder. Of course, most of the theories allow for flexibility based on the situation such as the ability to help in this circumstance and whether one has any other, higher obligations.

The ethical theories of the past have been of many types. Aristotle proposed a theory of virtue, a notion that was already a part of Greek culture. He espoused the view that the good man is one who lives in a way as to allow him to move towards the goal of man-as-such, the telos, and the way to reach the telos is to live a life of virtue.

Another prominent theory has been consequentialism. This theory includes John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism, and its focus is, from its name, on the consequences of one’s actions. General consequentialism will say we have obligations to help people because helping people produces a better result than not helping people. Utilitarianism goes beyond this to mathematize ethics. It quantifies the utility, which it defines as “happiness” or “pleasure,” a given action will produce and weighs that number against the amount of utility produced by another action. Whichever action produces the most utility is the one that is obligated.

A third common ethical theory is deontology, and its main supporter has been Kant. Deontology is the study of obligations in a very narrow sense. It attempts to divine from reason alone the obligations every man holds simply because he is a rational being. Kant first argues for what he calls the Categorical Imperative, and from that it is possible to derive other universal maxims, which follow the formula “When in situation X, do Y.” Kant has two formulations of his Categorical Imperative. The first is Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. The second, which Kant claims carries the same meaning, is "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end."

When considering ethics, it is also important to note that the Enlightenment project of justifying morality is judged by some prominent contemporary moral philosophers to have been a failure. These contemporary philosophers take it to be that morality cannot be grounded in reason alone. Three important alternatives are the philosophies of Alasdair MacIntyre, Richard Rorty, and Bernard Williams. MacIntyre advocates a return to the Aristotelian tradition of living out the virtues in reference to the telos, or goal, of man. Rorty is a pragmatist and argues that the question we must ask of every moral obligation is “Is this useful?” He would argue that treating strangers with distrust and keeping promises are good moral principles because they are primarily useful for building a better society. Finally, Williams critiques ethical theory on the whole and the notion of obligation. He also asks why ethics is taken to be a better answer to Socrates’ question than non-ethical answers.

Types
Normative ethics deals with questions of what we ought to do, or what things are good to do.
 * What behavior (or intentions) are good or bad?
 * What kind of things can be adduced as moral justifications ("justifying reasons") for certain kinds of behavior?
 * Is killing another human being (murder) morally acceptable? Killing an enemy in war?  Ethnic cleansing? Killing a person in self-defense?  Executing a convicted murderer?  Assisting a terminally ill person to die? Killing yourself?  Abortion?  Abortion of a deformed fetus?  Killing of an animal?
 * Do animals have rights? Do women?  Children?  Mentally handicapped people?
 * Is torture ever justified? Theft?  Lying?  Promise-breaking?
 * What is the best way for human beings to lead their lives?
 * What are the justifying reasons for war? Is there such a thing as a "just war"?
 * Can the cultural practices of other times and societies be condemned as immoral? How about American slavery?  Segregation and apartheid?  Chinese footbinding?  African female genital mutilation?  Mormon or Muslim polygamy?
 * What are the proper bounds for the toleration of diversity, or the respect for personal privacy? Is there a point at which the (proper) toleration of diversity or respect for privacy becomes (improper) passive acceptance of immorality?  What is that point?

Meta-ethics deals with questions about the nature of ethics.
 * What do ethical words such as "good", "right", "wrong", "ought" mean?
 * What makes a judgment a moral judgment as opposed to, say, an aesthetic judgment, or an etiquette judgment, or a simple personal preference?
 * What is the basis of moral law? Divine command?  Natural law?  Human nature?  Custom?
 * Why should we be moral? What is the motivational basis of moral behavior?  What "motivating reasons" (as opposed to "justifying reasons") can be made for moral behavior?
 * Why do people act morally?
 * Is it possible for some behavior to be right in one society/culture, and wrong in another?
 * What is the moral basis for law? Is there a moral basis for laws?  Should there be a moral basis for law?  Should we try to enforce moral behavior by legal means?

History of Ethics deals with the study of what philosophers have written in the past on the subject of ethics.

The boundary is not always sharply-drawn between questions of normative ethics and meta-ethics. Ethical questions can easily shade off into other areas of philosophy, for example into philosophy of law and philosophy of religion. And of course the study of the history of ethical thought is inter-twined with all topics in ethics: almost all ethical questions have been discussed in the past, and ethics continues to progress as an ongoing conversation between living and historical thinkers.


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European History/Authors

Zach B is a sophomore at Unionville High School in Pennsylvania. He has edited much of the text and looks forward to making the book more easy to read and more interesting to the casual learner.

Alex Botero-Lowry is a senior in high school in the United States. He is interested in history and especially enjoys European History. He started this project because he could not believe there was not a European History text started, and has greatly enjoyed researching the material so far. He sadly has little time to work on the project but just decided to rearrange things so that he would be more able to work on the project. He tries to keep in contact with anyone who begins to work on or edit the project, so please email him if you become interested.

Payam Doostzadeh is currently a sophomore at Woodbridge High School, in Irvine, California. He is currently attending school on a regular basis while taking on a rigorous academic course and having fun on the weekends with his friends. He is a man with dreams, dreams that cannot be denied. Wisdom is the key to wisdom.

Josh Harmon is a sophomore at Brea Olinda High School. He wants to contribute as much as he can to this Wiki so that his fellow classmates, as well as future AP European history students will have a resource that can assist them with the course.

Brandon Johnsonn is a pseudonym for this contributor. He is an avid learner and tweaked the chapter on exploration and discovery for easier understanding. He is in late junior high school.

title: European History/Authors


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Cookbook:Mock Hollandaise Sauce I

| Sauces

Hollandaise sauce is a warm emulsion of clarified butter and lemon juice using egg yolk to bind them. This recipe is not exactly Hollandaise but tastes exactly the same and almost never fails. This recipe also does not require a double boiler which is often a handicap in preparing Hollandaise.

Ingredients

 * 1½ sticks butter (170 g or ¾ cup), cut into small pieces
 * 2 egg yolks
 * 1 tbsp lemon juice
 * 1 tbsp water
 * ¼ tsp salt
 * ¼ tsp cayenne pepper
 * 1 tsp parsley

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the butter until it melts, taking care not to burn the butter. Once melted, allow to cool until solids appear on the top.
 * 2) Skim off the milk solids, and keep the clarified butter warm/liquid (in a hot cup will do fine).
 * 3) Put egg yolks, lemon juice, water, salt and cayenne pepper into a non-reactive saucepan, and beat until smooth.
 * 4) Heat over very low heat, beating constantly with a whisk. If the egg starts to solidify, remove from heat, and do not stop whisking.
 * 5) When the whisk forms streaks in the bottom of the pan (around 8 minutes), add clarified butter, one teaspoon at a time to begin with, adding more as it combines. Adding the butter too quickly will make the sauce split, and you will have to start over. The sauce should thicken as butter is added—when it is the desired thickness, remove from the heat.
 * 6) Add optional parsley and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Never use aluminium tools. Aluminium will react with the acid in the lemon juice, discoloring the sauce and giving it an unpleasant taste,
 * If any indication of burning is evident, remove pan from heat and whisk rapidly. If that is not enough, dunk the pan into cold water.
 * Using clarified butter will allow for a better (easier) emulsion, although much of the flavour in butter comes from those milk solids not found in clarified butter.
 * For a more traditional recipe, whisk the egg yolks over a double boiler in which the water is hot rather than boiling (i.e., start off simmering, do it off the heat). Add the butter one piece at a time, making sure each piece is fully incorporated into the sauce before adding the next. Finish off by adding lemon juice.

title: Cookbook:Mock Hollandaise Sauce I


text:
User talk:Waxmop

Hi Waxmop - welcome to Wikibooks :)

Your contributions to the vi book look good, but you may want to avoid introducing commands before they are explicitly introduced - otherwise it may confuse the reader. Re the additions to the Basic Tasks section, I'll move them to a latter section.

Dysprosia 04:14, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

(Sorry, misread) Dysprosia

The ComputerScience:Distributed Systems Distributed Systems page seems to be progressing nicely. I particularly like how you've incorporated assembly code. Unfortunately I lack the time to contribute currently, but hopefully that will change soon. Anyways, keep up the good work!

Oh, and I'll get around to making a page... eventually.

--Eibwen 19:24, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thank you for starting the Distributed Systems book. I'm interested in fault-tolerant computing. I am setting up a "distributed wiki". --DavidCary 14:25, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Waxmop


text:
User talk:Pingveno

Message for Pingveno:

I'm now working on a European History text which intends to atleast cover the material for the AP test. I'm considering writing test/essay material for it, including DBQs. The AP World History, AP European History, and AP US History essays are each distinct entities. (I've taken all 3 now!) World is minimal SFI, minimal POV, Euro is minimal SFI, heavy POV, US is heavy SFI, minimal POV. For your how-to guide my work would atleast beable to help you develop material for European History. If I do decide to write one, it'll likely be about Absolutism, because the source book I have on my floor is heavy on it, and it's less likely to be copyrighted then something modern. --Alexbl 04:31, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pingveno


text:
General Chemistry/Calculations

Miscelaneous information about mathematics in chemistry.

Dimensional Analysis
Basically, dimensions can be treated as algebraic quantities. So dimensions can be added and subtracted only if they have the same base. Simple! In chemistry you can use this technique to do problems you don't understand on multiple choice tests. Look at the answers and see what units they are in, then look at the question and see what units are given. After that use conversion factors to try and cancel them out.

Significant Figures
Every measurement entails a degree of uncertainty; this can vary depending on the measure device and skill with which the device is operated. It is accepted that there is doubt of at least one figure in the last digit. For example, a miniscus occurs when water is stored in glass, it is the thin line that curves upward. Someone might read the top of the miniscus and another person the bottom, this would cause an inaccuracy in the measurement.

Significant figures are the digits in any measurement that are known with a certainty plus a digit that is uncertain on the end. For example, a graduated cylinder is labeled in one millimeter increments, you can be sure of the number to the last line and then guess if the liquid is halfway between the next solid measurement.

The rules for finding significant figures are as follows:

Rule 1: In numbers that do not contain zeros, all the digits are significant. For example, the number 3.1228 has 5 significant figures, 3.14 has 3 and 514 has 3 significant figures.

Rule 2: All zeros between significant digits are significant. For example, the number 7.05 has 3 significant figures, 6002 has 4 significant figures and 3.0041 has 5 significant figures.

Rule 3: Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit serve only to fix the position of the decimal point and are not significant. For example, 0.00058 has 2 significant figures, 0.0003094 has 4 significant figures, and 0.000001 has 1 significant figure.

Rule 4: In a number with digits to the right of a decimal point, zeros to the right of the last nonzero digit are significant. 43 has 2 significant figures, 43.0 has 3 significant figures, 43.00 has 4 significant figures, and 0.40050 has 5 significant figures.

Rule 5 is harder to explain and needs an example, suppose a 100 gram brick was measured, in this notation it is impossible to know how precise the measurement was. It could have been measured to the nearest gram (100 plus or minus 1 g) if so it has 3 significant figures, or it could have only been weighted to the nearest 10 grams (100 plus or minus 10) in which case it has 2 significant figures.

The mass of the brick should be reported as either 1.00 x 10^2 g (in which case there are 3 significant figures

or

1.0 x 10^2 grams (2 significant figures)

or finally it could be reported as 1 x 10^2 g (only one significant figure)

It is important to remember that when multiplying or dividing, the number of significant figures in the answer should be the same as the number that had the fewest significant figures when working out the problem.

Example: A bus leaves a location and arrives in another 8.05 hours later. Let’s pretend the distance between them was 486.9 miles. What is the average speed of the bus in miles per hour?

To solve for speed we need to formulate the following equation, speed = distance traveled/time so filling in the equation it would be s=486.9 miles/8.05 hours. First calculate the number of significant figures in both numbers, 486.9 has 4 significant figures, and 8.05 has 3 significant figures, so that means our answer must have 3 significant figures. Now solve 486.9/8.05 which is equal to 60.48447205, however we are only allowed 3 significant figures so the answer is changed to 60.5 miles per hour.

For addition and subtraction the process is a little different, the number of decimal places in the result will be the same as the number with the smallest number of decimal places. For example, 10.21 + 0.2 + 256 would be equal to 266.

The official way to arrive at that number is to add the numbers normally and then change the answer so that it has the corresponding number of significant figures. However I find it just as simple to ignore the excess decimals during the equation, so instead of working the entire equation out I would simplify it into 10 + 0 + 256, which is equal to 266. The normal degree of inaccuracy caused by this faster method is generally considered acceptable. This can be important because it simplifies chemistry by shaving off irrelevant information.

title: General Chemistry/Calculations


text:
Hebrew

Hebrew עִבְרִית

Learning the Hebrew Language, for English Speakers

title: Hebrew


text:
General Chemistry/Book Cover

General Chemistry

A Free Online Textbook

Proceed to Table of Contents

A three-dimensional representation of an atomic 4f orbital.

About General Chemistry
General Chemistry is an introduction to the basic concepts of chemistry, including atomic structure and bonding, chemical reactions, and solutions. Other topics covered include gases, thermodynamics, kinetics and equilibrium, redox, and chemistry of the elements.

It is assumed that the reader has basic scientific understanding. Otherwise, minimal knowledge of chemistry is needed prior to reading this book.

Other Chemistry Books

 * Organic Chemistry
 * Inorganic Chemistry
 * Biochemistry
 * Other Chemistry Books

Beyond General Chemistry

 * Organic Chemistry - Chemistry studies focusing on the carbon atom and compounds.
 * Inorganic Chemistry - Chemistry studies focusing on salts, metals, and other compounds not based on carbon.
 * Biochemistry - Chemistry studies of or relating to living organisms.

About Wikibooks
This is a wiki textbook. Anyone from around the world can read, as well as write it! All of the content in the book is covered by the GNU Free Document Licence, which means it is guaranteed to remain free and open.

Authors and Significant Contributors

 * NipplesMeCool (talk)
 * Orngjce223 (talk)

(Add your user name if you help write General Chemistry!)

title: General Chemistry/Book Cover


text:
Civ/Terminology

This is a glossary of sorts for players of Civilization games.

This page is not up to date with the release of Civ IV.

General glossary

 * Babs – Babylonians
 * Apolyton – http://www.apolyton.net/
 * Civ – Civilization (either the game or a civilization within it)
 * Epic Game – A single-player random or customized map, as opposed to a scenario.
 * Goodie hut – Minor Tribe (Civ), Unity Pod (SMAC); "pod" is more common for the latter.
 * ICS – Infinite City Sprawl, also derisively Infinite City Sleaze and other uncomplimentary phrases
 * MP – Multiplayer game
 * OCC – One City Challenge. An attempt to complete the Epic Game with only one city. More specifically, an organized contest involving this.
 * PBEM – Play by e-mail
 * Territory – What you do not have enough of and everybody else has too much of
 * Village – See "goodie hut"

Civ2 glossary

 * ToT – Test of Time (special edition of Civilization II)

Civ3 glossary

 * C3C – Civilization III: Conquests (expansion pack)
 * GL – (Military) Great Leader; Great Library
 * MGL – Military Great Leader
 * PTW – Play the World (expansion pack)
 * REX – Rapid Early Expansion
 * SGL – Scientific Great Leader

Call to Power glossary

 * CTP – Call to Power

Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri glossary

 * >pop< - Xenofungal bloom
 * AA – Alien Artifact
 * CC – Cybernetic Consciousness
 * CDF – The Citizens' Defense Force
 * CP – Colony Pod
 * HGP – The Human Genome Project
 * HSA – The Hunter-Seeker Algorithm
 * IoD – Isle of the Deep
 * MCC – The Maritime Control Center
 * ME – The Merchant Exchange
 * PB – Planet Buster
 * PK or PKs – The Peacekeeping Forces
 * PTS – The Planetary Transit System
 * SCC – Super science city (a base with lots of labs-enhancing Secret Projects)
 * SMAC – Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri
 * SMAX – Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire
 * SP – Secret Project; Single Player
 * ToE – The Theory of Everything
 * UoP – The University of Planet
 * VW – The Virtual World
 * WP – The Weather Paradigm

Freeciv glossary

 * Smallpox (spox)- Freeciv term for Infinite City Sprawl, see ICS in general glossary, although 'smallpox' usually refers to building lots of cities with no city improvements very close together, while 'ICS' usually refers to any tactic that relies mainly on building more cities rather than improving existing cities.
 * Bigpox (Largepox, lpox) – Freeciv term for strategies involving improving a few cities and building in depth rather than expanding. Bigpox games are games where the rules are changed to favour such strategies.
 * Rapture – We love the King day in the other civilizations; the citizens of a city are celebrating

Differences of terminology among games
The Civ games tend to share identical concepts, though sometimes they are referred to by different names. Differences between units will not be listed here except for very basic types common to all games. SMAC has the most different terminology, being an unofficial Civ game (although designed in part by Sid Meier) and being set in the future on another planet. For differences in terminology among the Test of Time games, consult the manual. Freeciv always uses the Civ2 term.

Warning: This may not be accurate yet, and does not include Call to Power terms.

[1] In Civ1 and Civ2, Settlers function both as city-building units and terrain-enhancing units. If we were to follow Civ1 terminology here, the word "Settler" would create ambiguity for Civ3 and SMAC players. Therefore, the Civ3 terminology for "Settlers" and "Workers" has been adopted as an exception to the general rule to use Civ1 terminology. Civ1 and Civ2 players can simply read both words as "Settlers".

[2] The word "village" is synonymous with Minor Tribe. They are invariably called "goodie huts" by fans, because they usually dispense "good" things such as free technologies or money and in most graphics sets they are represented by a hut (or small number of huts). "Goodie hut" is often abbreviated to "hut".

title: Civ/Terminology


text:
Category:Meats

Meat and poultry ingredients.

title: Category:Meats


text:
Category:Ingredients

Index of ingredients in the Cookbook. For the actual module on ingredients, see Cookbook:Ingredients.

''This is an automatically generated category. Do not add recipes or ingredients here by hand.''

de:Kategorie:Kochbuch/ Zutaten es:Categoría:Ingredientes hy:Կատեգորիա:Բաղադրամասեր nl:Categorie:Ingrediënt

title: Category:Ingredients


text:
User:Tex~enwikibooks

Please, see My user page on the french Wikipedia.

title: User:Tex~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Civ/The Basics

"Shields are added to the shield box (except in Capitalization). Shields are never removed from this box."

Can't spies Sabotage Production, causing that second sentence to be false? I know this isn't in all games, but which ones is it in? I think you should turn it into something like, "The shields cannot be exported to another city or civilization; they must be used, or wasted, in this city." - SamE 12:40, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I forgot about that. (I'd also forgotten about losing shields due to support.) --Furrykef 00:22, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Civ:Civilization "I"
Is there a reason why there is no specific page for the original game? Someone looking at the list of versions sees Civ:Civilization, Civ:Civilization II, then Civ:Civilization III, and naturally goes to the first one for the game with that name but finds it's a redirect from "Basics". Maybe some contributor has never seen the original game?? Robin Patterson 01:17, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * It's not a redirect, and it never has been. I assume you're talking about Civ:Civilization, right? - SamE 03:32, 1 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Civilization and Civ:Civilization are different, yes. I'll create Civ:Civilization I to redirect to the latter in case somebody types it in. Also note that you can type in shortcuts if typing in the full wikibooks URL, e.g., http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Civ:SMAC is one I use all the time. Use "what links here" to find the shortcut names and feel free to make some more. --Furrykef 00:22, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

25 Tiles?
The article says:

"Civ cities contain 25 tiles"

I thought civ cities contained the city tile itself and 20 more (ie. a 5x5 grid without the corners) giving 21 not 25.

Civilization rating
I'm a big Civ II fan, and have played it through many times, and I just can't seem to get a lock on getting a 100% Civilization rating. The highest i have ever gotten was 90%, and they named me "Caesar the Lionheart", or something like that, but i know there are better ratings (and better titles out there). In my best game, I was playing with Raging hordes of barbarians, Diety difficulty level, I had millions of citizens, A spaceship, Future technology 10.... In short, i played the best game of my life, and only got to 90%. so what is the secret to getting 100%? is it even possible? --Whiteknight T C E 14:57, 17 November 2005 (UTC)

Out of date with the release of Civ4
This page is out of date and says many things which no longer apply with the release of Civ4. I know that rewriting this to be consistent with Civ4 is no small task, so maybe there should be a (hopefully temporary) notice to the effect that this page is out of date regarding civ4. 202.7.166.168 01:33, 26 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Ok, will do. I'll put a big message at the top, and start making changes. A'trix 16:16, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Civ/The Basics


text:
Electrodynamics/Magnetic Fields

Electric Currents
In an electric field, especially in a conductor, charged particles will move according to the electromotive force applied by the electric field. In a practical sense, the charged particles in question are the free electrons in the conductor. Electrons are attracted to the areas of positive charge, and are repelled from the area of negative charge.

The mass-flow of electrons through a conductor is known as electric current.

Units of Current
The flow of electrons through a conductor is measured in Amperes. The electric potential that causes electrons to flow is measured in Volts.

Magnets
Since ancient times, people have known about special rocks and materials that display a certain attractive and repulsive force on other such rocks. Termed "magnets", the force between them operates on a similar principle to the electric force that we have studied so far.

All magnets have two sides or poles, dubbed "North" and "South". Like positive and negative charges, like poles repel and opposite poles attract. The magnetic force works over distance, with the effect of the magnet decreasing over distance.

Induction
Electric currents, or moving electric fields produce a magnetic force.

Magnetic Fields
Like an electric field, there is a magnetic field that extends everywhere. the strength of the magnetic field is dependent on the location of magnets in the field. It is a vector field, so every point has both a strength and a direction.

We will discuss the mathematical determination of the magnetic field starting in the next chapter when we discuss the Biot-Savart Law.

Field of a Current

the magnetic lines of forces are wrongly shown in the figure as the current is traveling downwards the magnetic lines of force will pop out of the page from the left of the wire and go into the page on the right side

Solenoids
Solenoids

title: Electrodynamics/Magnetic Fields


text:
Computer Programming/Aspect oriented programming

= Preface =

Aspect Oriented Programming (AOP) is a follow-on development to Object Oriented Programming (OOP), developed with the intention of solving some of the practical limitations of OOP.

OOP aims to manage the complexity of software development by encapsulating data and methods into discrete objects, reducing the dependencies between different software constructs, and polymorphism, or the ability to treat different program constructs as identical for a particular purpose. Overall, the definition of a well-constructed set of objects standing in explicit relationships with each other allows programmers to 'componentize' the software, working at a small, simple, focussed scale, creating constructs that are easily and safely combined into larger constructs for greater functionality.

The practical difficulty with OOP is that, in any large-scale application, there are aspects that are not easily decomposed into objects/components, or easily used as such. "Cross-cutting concerns", or crosscuts, are parts of a larger software project that exist identically in several places, or for multiple objects, where implementing code to answer those concerns effectively breaks encapsulation and increases, rather than decreases, dependencies. AOP aims to reduce dependencies and complexity by moving the code handling those crosscuts into separate programming constructs that can then be woven back into the OOP source code in an automated fashion by a weaver. The result is object oriented code that can then be compiled as normal.

Example
The classic example of an appropriate area for AOP is logging. Often, a programmer will use logging to record the state and flow of a program, both for debugging during development and bug-fixing after deployment. In an OOP program, this takes several possible forms:

 * Every object has access to a global logger object, and calls its methods to log events or state.
 * All objects requiring logging repeat the same code to write to the log.
 * Each object keeps its own log, possibly to a file.

The essential problem here that AOP tries to solve is that the code is repeated in several places, making it difficult to maintain, and increasing dependencies across different constructs. Changing the behaviour of the logger requires, in the second and third cases, rewriting the same code in multiple files; changing the use of the logger requires rewriting the same code in all cases.

By defining logging as a crosscut and using an aspect to solve the problem, the programmer writes the aspect code to handle logging and makes use of a weaver to inject the code into the OOP source, which is then compiled as normal OOP code. The logging function has been removed from the source code for the classes, put into one location, and treated as another single construct that can be locally defined and implemented, and then used discretely in the rest of the program.

= Overview =

In theoretical terms, AOP is the way to implement separation of concerns. Objects are often called upon to handle several conceptually different concerns. An invoice in a sales entry application contains some obvious properties, such as the identity of the purchaser, and the items purchased; but the invoice object may also be required to know how to log its actions, how to persist itself in a database, how to verify the purchaser's credit limit, and how to raise a flag when it is past due. As a result, the invoice class may become large, complex, and difficult to maintain. Each of these concerns is legitimate for the class to handle, but by the principles of OOP must be handled internally and invisibly. If those concerns are shared by other objects with only a distant relationship, then not only do the classes involved have unnecessary complexity, but that complexity is repeated in multiple places.

A few definitions will help:

A cross-cutting concern, or crosscut, is any part of the design of an OOP application that occurs simultaneously in several different parts of the OOP application that are not otherwise related. Logging is the obvious example, but persistence is another one: In a banking application, many different objects must be stored and retrieved in the same way (e.g., a relational database). Persistence is a crosscut on the objects of the application.

A join-point is a semantically definable point in the OOP code that the weaver can identify. For our logging example, the programmer may wish to record the call stack, so the logger should record the entry and exit of every function.

A set of join points are identified, collectively, by a pointcut: The join-points are the actual places in the code that the weaver identifies; the pointcut is the AOP code that defines the join-points to be found.

A pointcut not only identifies join points, but includes code to act on those points. The code is called advice or advices.

An aspect, then, is a set of pointcuts defining a particular crosscut to be handled by the AOP module. In practice, our solution to the logging example is an aspect module that defines pointcuts identifying those join-points where the programmer wants logging to occur. Having identified the join-points, the programmer writes advices into the AOP module, and the weaver injects that code into the OOP source code as a preliminary step to compilation of the code.

At this point, it looks like AOP is nothing more than a way of pulling utility code out of classes and centralizing it; that is one of AOP's virtues. However, AOP can separate much more complex concerns. In our invoice example, we mentioned that invoices have a past due date. Likewise, our own payables might have a past due date. This 'past due' concern could be encapsulated as an aspect that defines pointcuts on the construction or initialization of both invoice and payable objects. At those join-points, a past due date member could be added to both classes, along with code to register the invoice/payable with a past-due monitoring system that generates a daily report of upcoming deadlines. Code for tracking payment deadlines has been moved to a single module, decreasing the complexity of the invoice/payable objects, eliminating a dependency between the invoice/payable classes and the deadline monitoring system, and making maintenance and changes to the system easier.

= Implementation =

The most popular platform for AOP is currently AspectJ, an extension to the Java language. It is the language that will be used here for examples.