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Western Music History/Classical Music

Introduction
The Classical era occurred between 1750 and 1820. It was an age of enlightenment, set in motion by the great philosophers Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau. People of the Classical period believed in reason, moving away from custom. They attacked the privileges of the aristocracy. The four great composers of the Classical Period were Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert. The latter two made the transition to the succeeding Romantic period. The first three were drawn to Vienna, and Schubert born there. The middle class was more powerful in the Classical era than before, now having access to music, music lessons, printed music etc... which used to be a privilege of the aristocracy. Public concerts were now given for the first time.

Mood
There is a much greater variety and contrast in mood, with lots of fluctuation. This is contrasted with Baroque pieces, which convey a single mood according to the "Doctrine of Affection".

Rhythm
There is now an enormous flexibility of rhythm. Classical pieces contain a wealth of rhythmic patterns, which make use of syncopations, or stresses of the upbeat, changes in note values etc... In a Baroque piece, few patterns are reiterated throughout. In Classical pieces, there is constant rhythmical change.

Texture
Most Late Baroque music is polyphonic. Classical music moves back towards homophonic textures consisting of melody + accompaniment.

Melody
In contrast the relatively asymmetrical and elaborate melodies of Baroque music, classical era melodies are generally balanced and symmetrical, and often have a question-answer relationship in the cadences.

Dynamics
There is a widespread use of dynamics. With the invention of the piano (pianoforte), crescendos and decrescendos come into widespread use. The music is not restricted to the terraced dynamics typifying that of the Baroque era.

Harmony
The basso continuo and the figured bass are abandoned in the Classical era, as there were many amateur musicians who could not improvise from the figured bass. Another reason for this was that composers wanted more control over their work.

Major-minor tonality provides the structural framework for all musical forms and genres.

Orchestra
In Baroque music, the orchestra changes from piece to piece. In the Classical period, there is a standard group of instruments constituting the orchestra:

Strings

The Strings form the most important group (and still are the foundation of the modern orchestra). The first violins carry main melody. The lower strings play accompaniment.

Woodwind

The purpose of the Woodwind section is to add contrasting tone colours to the accompaniment and to provide occasional melodic solos.

Brass

The Brass give power to the music and fill out the harmonies.

Percussion

Timpani give rhythmic bite and emphasis.

Forms
Classical pieces consist of several movements that contrast each other in character and in tempo. Forms carried over from the Baroque era include the Concerto, Opera and Symphony. The new emerging forms in the Classical era are the String Quartet (four movements - Fast; Slow; Dance-like; Fast), the Sonata (four movements - Fast; Slow; Dance-like; Fast).

Various forms employed in the classical period include: Binary (A | B), and Ternary (A | B | A). Ternary may be used in an individual movement, and often the third movement in a symphony, string quartet, sonata, etc. There was also the Minuet (A | Trio B | Minuet A), for example, the third movement of Eine Kleine Nachtmusik (Mozart). The Rondo form was also employed (A | B | A | C | A, etc.) For example: Mozart’s String Quartets, only found in last movements. The Minuet and Trio (A | B | A), where A – Minuet, B – Trio. Theme and Variation form (A | A1 | A2 | A3 | etc… ) is basically the theme followed by variations,for example, Haydn’s Surprise Symphony, 2nd movement.

The most important new form of the Classical period was sonata form. It can be found in solo form, chamber music, concertos, and symphonies. Sonata form divides a movement into three basic parts:

 * 1) Exposition: The theme or themes of the movement are introduced, often in different keys.
 * 2) Development: The composer experiments with his or her theme(s), changing their keys around or writing variations of them.
 * 3) Recapitulation: The themes are restated in more or less the original form, but are now all in the tonic, i.e. the key of the piece.

Sometimes a composer also uses a slower-paced introduction or an extra concluding passage called a coda.

Symphony
One of the great contributions to the classical era is the symphony. Haydn wrote an amazing 104 symphonies, Mozart wrote over 40, and Beethoven wrote 9 (the first two of which best fit the classical style). The classical symphony lasts between 20 and 45 minutes, consisting usually of four movements:

1st movement : Sonata form

2nd movement : Slow. May use sonata, ternary or theme-and-variation form.

3rd movement : Dance-like. Minuet and Trio form.

4th movement : Brilliant and heroic. May use sonata, rondo or sonata-rondo form.

Concerto
The Concerto is a three-movement work for instrumental soloist (or occasionally two or three soloists) and orchestra. The first movement is always in a lively, brisk tempo. A cadenza often appears near the end of the first movement, during which the orchestra is silent and the soloist is given an opportunity to demonstrate technical ability. The second movement is generally slow, and any form may be used. the third movement is contrasted from the second and usually quite fast, usually employing rondo form.

The concerto uses a specialized sonata form containing two expositions, the first of which is normally for the orchestra alone, the second for the soloist with the orchestra accompanying. The concerto lasts between 20 and 45 minutes.

String Quartet
The string quartet is for two violins, viola and cello. It consists of four movements, using the same forms as used in a symphony.

Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach (1714-1788)
During his lifetime, C.P.E. Bach was more famous than his father, Baroque master J.S. Bach. He is regarded as a key founder of the Classical style and period, and most, if not, all of his compositions have more simplistic techniques that use more emotional power, in contrast to the ornamental Baroque music of his father. He composed an immense output consisting of keyboard sonatas, concertos, symphonies, oratorios, chamber music, and more. One of his most well-known pieces is the "Solfeggietto in C minor".

Christoph Willibald von Gluck (1714-1787)
Gluck was a German composer from Bavaria, known for his contributions to changes in operatic form of the Classical period. Aside from writing opera, he also wrote ballet suites, chamber music, orchestral music, and other genres, but is most well-known for his operatic reforms.

Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
Joseph Haydn is referred to by many scholars as the "Father of the Symphony". He was born in Austria, and his father made wagon wheels. Haydn incorporates folk tunes in his music which his father sang to him as a child. He was a pioneer in the development of the symphony and the string quartet. Mozart and Beethoven influenced his style, even as did he theirs. He was a master at developing themes, often using contrasts of key, mood, texture, rhythm, dynamics and orchestration. His music contains unexpected pauses and tempo changes. He wrote over 100 symphonies, 68 string quartets, piano sonatas, concerti, operas and masses. His last 12 symphonies are called his "London symphonies". The London Symphonies each have a nickname, such as “Surprise”; “Clock”; “Military”; “Drum Roll” etc.

Trumpet Concerto in Eb maj (1796)

His Trumpet Concerto in E flat major was written on a different trumpet to what was around before. It consists of three movements: Fast | Slow | Fast. The third movement uses Rondo Form.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791)
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Austria. He is one of the most versatile of composers in the entire history of music. He wrote masterpieces in all musical forms. All his music has a ‘singing’ quality, even his instrumental melodies seem to grow out of the human voice. His music conveys a feeling of ease, grace, balance and perfect proportion. He created compositions with ease (e.g., writing his last three symphonies in 6 weeks!). He wrote over 600 compositions, all of which were catalogued by Von Köchel (a botanist) in chronological order. Thus, we refer to Mozart’s work by the “K” number, which indicates the chronological position of the work in his output. Many of his concertos were among his finest works; he wrote many for piano, several for violin and for horn, as well as two flute concertos, one bassoon concerto, one clarinet concerto and one oboe concerto. He was a master of opera, with most of his operas being comedies. The Italian operas were sung throughout, whereas the German operas included speech. Some of his better known operas were :The Marriage of Figaro", "Don Giovanni ", and "The Magic Flute". Additionally, Mozart wrote forty-one symphonies.

Mozart’s Concertos The Piano Concerto No. 23 in A major was written during a very productive stage in Mozart’s life. Its three movements stress delicacy and lyricism, rather than orchestral power and virtuosity. Trumpets and timpani are absent from the orchestral setting, whereas the clarinets, flutes and bassoon are highlighted. The first movement has two expositions. The orchestra presents the two themes, which are restated by the piano in the second exposition. The development is based on a new theme, introduced by the orchestra. Towards the end of the movement, there is a cadenza.

Mozart's Last Year
Mozart's early life for context Mozart has become a household name, so much so that even those who know next to nothing about classical music will have heard of Mozart the musical genius. Many of those who are more familiar with classical music would not say that Mozart was the greatest composer who ever lived. That prize might go to Beethoven, and yet Mozart holds this spot as an absolute undeniable musical genius whose compositions reached levels of perfection, purity, and humanity unmatched in music history. Many people think that the story of Mozart is a boring one without any points of interest. However, this paper will show how much life and especially the last year of the great composer, has genuinely changed the way that people live their lives musically and also changed the way they view death. Before that, though, the story begins in a humble town in Austria called Salzberg. Mozart was born here to a highly musical family, being exposed to it right away. His father was an accomplished violinist and composer as well as a conductor for local music ensembles. His sister was an accomplished harpsichordist who practiced many hours every day. Mozart and his sister were the only two of 7 children that were born and that survived past infancy. From a very young age, Mozart and his family toured around the countries where they lived so that they could give him even more experience in the field of music in order to help him grow musically, as this is what their family was good at. Mozart then went on to tour Italy for two years around the age of 10. He wrote his first true Opera at the young age of 11 called Apollo et Hyacinthus. By age ten, he had achieved continental fame as a musical child star, having played all across the German territories, the Netherlands, Paris and London. While in Londo,he even went through scientific testing to prove that he truly was a child prodigy and not just a very musical dwarf. He Then went on to continue composing throughout his life; however he did not have the glamorous high, paid positions in court that say Hyden or Salieri held. Instead, he spent most of his career as a freelancer and while he continued to compose and develop a career in music. He never entirely lost his childish side, perhaps a common trait in those who become famous too young.

Middle life while he was composing beautiful, sublime masterpieces, his letters to his cousin were filled with smut. The crude,foul-mouthed scatological content. Occasionally, though rarely, this pariah's attitude met with his musical ability. For example, he wrote a complex musical canon to the words lek McKim arsh which loosely translated means kiss my ass. This is a side of Mozart's personality that is exaggerated in Peter Schaffer's outstanding play Amadeus which was later made into an oscar-winning film. Amadeus is Mozart's middle name but it also means literally love God, a cruel irony if you know the film. The story of the play is mostly fiction. There wasn't really a conspiracy with Salieri to kill Mozart but it makes for a brilliant drama. There are many truths about Mozart the musician and many beautiful descriptions of his music. The story follows how Salieri has to deal with his own mediocrity in the shadow of an absolute genius. How Salieri is smart enough to recognize genius but never able to obtain it. I'd highly recommend watching it especially if you're new to Mozart. Anyway Mozart was initially a big success in Vienna the musical capital of Europe at the time but his money actually came mostly from performing rather than composing. He also had a reputation for having an extraordinary musical memory and a great ease with musical improvisation. In his concerts people would submit themes for him and he would then improvise in all sorts of styles. Mozart became an orchestra master in his teen years and this is when he met his future wife Constanze. When he was a child he was also friends with Haydn. Haydn once wrote that he wished he could impress Mozart's music on the hearts of all that he played to in order to show them the sheer magnitude of how powerful Mozart's music was and this was all in Mozart's early years. Mozart was struggling to make any money, perhaps the city had become tired of him. He had to move to a smaller apartment, he lost his status possessions, and went heavily into debt. This is where the story begins and where it will now skip over to his final year of life. Mozart's final year When talking about Mozart's last year one must not go without talking about the Magic flute. The Magic flute was Mozart's last opera that he wrote. He was the original conductor of the piece and the piece was surrounded by some fraudulent contract issues. When Mozart was first commissioned the man who had it commissioned owned the opera house. Mozart had one request in the contract that he wouldn't charge the commissioner money if Mozart would have sole rights to make the Opera and that he would be the only one allowed to sell to other opera houses. The commissioner agreed with this and gave Mozart all the freedom he wanted; however, when Mozart finished the opera and it was a complete success, the commissioner ended up selling the score for the magic flute to the other opera houses. This deeply upset Mozart but Sources state that within an hour he was over it. This shows how grudgeless Mozart was. Mozart also wrote parts into his opera which would be given to his friends and family who wanted to be in it. This was a great success for him as he always wanted his family to be a part of his works. Mozart also wrote themes for all of his characters so that the audience would be able to tell when a character was coming before they could actually be seen. This type of music has since been named leitmotif. This just means leading motive. Also the musical theme of the magic flute mirrors the thoughts and feelings of the main character Tamino. The first three chords of the piece are E Flat major, C Minor, And E flat Major inverted. The first chord is naive but also confident like Tamino in the beginning. The second chord is more so melancholy like Tamino in the middle of the play when he realized he was tricked. The last chord is the same as the first but inverted showing how the bottom note of the chord was moved to the top to show how Tamino has now ascended a little bit towards heaven in his mentally and growth in his maturity. That is the story of Mozart's magic flute, his final opera.

Mozart's Requiem Mozart was commissioned to compose a requiem for an anonymous buyer. Count Herr's was the anonymous buyer but Mozart never became privy to the information. The count’s daughter died and thus this prompted him to commission a requiem to be performed every year on the anniversary of her death. The count had sent someone to go and speak with Mozart to see if he could commission a requiem for his daughter. The man asked Mozart how much he wanted for the work and Mozart asked 100 ducats for the work. (In today's money is $30,000 CDN). The messenger gave Mozart a bag of 100 ducats and asked how long it would take. Mozart said 4 months and the messenger agreed and said that he would return in 4 months for the work. Mozart began working right away, and ended up getting sick and fainting multiple times a day. He had caught this sickness whilst working on the requiem. He had originally asked for 4 months to finish but due to his sickness he took longer than anticipated. When the steward of the buyer came to his house and asked for the requiem he understood the predicament and to thank Mozart for his hard work gave him another 100 ducats and 4 more months to finish. His sickness included swelling of the hands and feet, inability to move and sudden vomiting. People say that he had military fever. In his last hours he didn't worry about his requiem that he had not been able to finish but rather he worried about his wife and children that he could no longer provide for. On his deathbed his family brought him his requiem and he said with tears in his eyes “Didn't I say I would be writing that for myself?” His wife crawled into bed with him hoping to catch his illness and die with him but they had to pull her out as she needed to tend to the children.

Mozart's death There was a large procession of people outside who had come to show their respect for the great composer. A good friend of Mozart, Schikaneder had said “his ghost follows me all the time”, and cried out to the heavens begging for it to stop. The requiem however was left unfinished and now Constanze needed someone to finish it in order to give it to the anonymous buyer. Mozart gave instructions to Sussmayr and his other student on how to write out the rest of the work, so they were the most obvious answer to the dilemma. and thus Sussmayr, a student of his, had to take up the mantle and dare to be a Mozart, and none were the wiser. Sussmayr put his heart and soul into the completion of the requiem and after working tirelessly for about a month, he finally finished the piece in time and was able to give it to the anonymous buyer and it has since become one of the most influential and impactful pieces ever written. He died at the age of 35 and was buried in a common grave. In those years of composing he wrote so many works of music; so much music in fact that it takes a multitude of pages to properly catalog it all. hauntingly the last piece of music he was working on before his death was a requiem a mass for the dead. He died with this work left unfinished though the fragments he did complete contain some of his most powerful music. Perhaps we recognize Mozart most for his melody, the purity, simplicity and unforgettable tunes. Take his string piece eine kleine Nachtmusik or his simple c-major piano sonata. The first tune of his fortieth symphony and doubtless many more. Yet simplicity and memorable tunes aren't enough to hold a status as one of the world's greatest musical geniuses. Mozart had an extraordinary talent for turning the simple into something sublime. Listen to this moment from his flute and harp concerto; it starts in utter simplicity but then becomes something more. It's as if in his music we see our own humanity reflected back at us and listen to the movement from his serenade four winds number ten known as the gran partita. Here is a quote from Amedeo's that describes it beautifully “indeed Mozart was the expert at taking something pure and molding it into something which expresses unfulfillable longing”. In his best works we get the sense that he is reaching out towards the infinite toward something more, something bigger than ourselves. Listen to this moment from the key of Mozart's great mass in C minor. Herod rises up and evermore up and then gracefully back down to the climax. He had a gift for phrases that sounded like they were just meant to be that they had always existed and were just waiting to be written down. We often hear the word perfection used to describe his music and perhaps this perfection is something ineffable; something impossible to describe but Mozart did have a wonderful sense of balance in his music.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827)
Ludwig van Beethoven's career has 3 phases. His first phase was between 1770 – 1802, during which his music was strongly influenced by Mozart and Haydn. He wrote his first two piano concertos, first two symphonies, string quartets Op.18 and first 10 piano sonatas all during this period. His second phase was between 1802 – 1815. During this stage he was going deaf. He greatly expanded upon existing forms, and infused his music with heroic expression. his works include the Kreutzer Sonata for violin and piano; his only violin concerto; 3rd, 4th and 5th piano concertos and some of his greatest piano sonatas including “Les adieux”, “Waldstein” and “Appassionata”. His third phase was from 1815 – 1827. Now he was totally deaf, leaving him completely isolated from society. He departs substantially from established conventions, both in form and in style. His works include the 9th symphony, the Missa Solemnis, the last piano sonatas and the late string quartets.

Beethoven believed that there was a moral force behind music. He revised and refined his work repeatedly. He used classical forms and techniques but gave them new power and intensity, creating a bridge between classicism and Romanticism. His works convey tension and excitement through syncopations and dissonances. Entailing many contrasts in mood, tiny rhythmic ideas are repeated over and over to create momentum. There is an enormous range of expression in his work: tempo, dynamic and expressive indications are marked far more extensively in his scores than in those of his predecessors. Often he had markings such as “< p”. He uses extremes of pitch far more. He unified the movements of his symphonies, sonatas and string quartets. Often, one movement leads directly into another with out a pause (attacca). There are also thematic inter-relationships between movements. Many of his movements use sonata form, but the development section and the coda are greatly expanded. He uses the scherzo rather than the minuet for the 3rd movements of his pieces. His scherzos have rapid movement with rhythmic drive. His most famous works are his nine symphonies, which were conceived for large orchestras. In some of them he adds piccolos, trombones and contrabassoon. All instruments play difficult music, and Beethoven was the first composer to make dynamic use of brass instruments within the orchestra. Beethoven's odd numbered symphonies are more forceful, whereas the even numbered symphonies are very calm and lyrical. His Symphony No. 9 is the first up to that time in music history to use a choir, which we hear in the "Ode to Joy" finale movement. He wrote 32 piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, five piano concertos, one opera (“Fidelio”), two ballets, one violin concerto, and two masses. He incorporated fugues extensively in his later works.

Symphony no.3 This symphony was intended to reflect on the life of Napoleon. However, Beethoven scratched out its dedication to Napoleon when he found out the general had invaded Austria. Nicknamed the Eroica Symphony, it was the longest symphony ever composed at the time of its premiere.

Symphony no.5 In his Symphony number 5, he unifies all contrasting movements. The first four-note motif is used extensively in first and third movements. The third movement theme reappears in the finale. The last two movements are connected by a bridge. This contrasting element that he retained by employing the motif in all four movements of Symphony no. 5 is known as a cell.

Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
Franz Schubert was a Viennese composer and child prodigy. His earliest works, like that of his predecessor Beethoven, were in the Classical style. His output consists of over 600 songs, nine Symphonies, eight completed operas, six masses, and an abundance of piano music, string quartets and other chamber works. His songs embrace a wide spectrum of moods, and his melodies range from simple folk-like tunes to complex lines. He makes use of very rich harmonies and rich accompaniments.

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title: Western Music History/Classical Music


text:
Western Music History/Romantic Music

Introduction
The Romantic era spans from 1820 A.D. up until 1900 A.D. It can be characterized by the individuality of style, where there is an emphasis of self-expression and individuality in compositional style. The music is generally very programmatic, where the instrumental music depicts a story, idea or a poem - e.g., Smetena’s “The Moldau” depicts scenes along the Moldau River. The programmatic style can also be seen in the titles, which are usually very descriptive. Nationalism becomes important during this era, where composers created music using folk song, history and dances of their homelands.

There is a variety of mood, atmosphere and tone color. The orchestra expanded due to the growing size of concert halls and opera houses, causing an increase in the power of the brass section. The woodwind section takes on new tone colors, with the addition of the contrabassoon, bass clarinet, piccolo and the cor anglais. There are huge technological improvements in musical instruments which made them more musically flexible and accurate. New sounds were now created/used in all instruments. i.e. flutes were required to play in the breathy, lower registers; violins were asked to strike the strings with the wood of the bow – col legno. All instruments were required to play with more virtuosity.

Harmony
In Romanticism, a broader harmonic vocabulary was used, such as chromatic harmonies, adding color to the music. Dissonant, unstable chords where also used more freely. Delayed resolution of dissonances gave an increased feeling of angst. Extensive modulation was now used much more than previously in the Classical era. Because of this extensive modulation, there is less tonal gravity (the centration around one common key).

Dynamics And Rhythm
Romantic music uses a wide range of dynamics from fff (fortississimo: very, very loud) to ppp (pianississimo:  very, very soft). The range of pitch is expanded. Tempo becomes another tool in the hands of the Romantic composers as indicated by the increased use of accelerandos (speeding up) and ritardandos (slowing down), as well as extensive use of rubato (the bending of tempo/rhythm). These techniques were used to express the individuals emotions and meanings.

Forms
Composers wrote musical miniatures as well as monumental pieces. Some genres are carried over from classicism, but are more greatly exploited, such as sonatas and symphonies. Additionally, a few new forms are invented.

Art Song

One of the forms of the Romantic Era is the Art Song. It is standardly a composition for solo voice and piano. The piano accompaniment is an integral element in the piece, and serves as an interpretive partner to the voice, rather than a simplistic accompaniment. Poetry and music are thus intimately fused. The best Art Song composers of the Romantic era include Schubert, Schumann and Brahms. The Art Songs based on German texts tended to favour the poets Heine and Goethe. The song composers interpret the poems, translating their mood and atmosphere into music. Most songs have a piano introduction and in many cases a postlude.

Types of Art Songs: Strophic - The same music is used for each stanza. Like a hymn in structure. Through-composed - New music is used for each stanza. Allows music to reflect changing moods in the poem. Song Cycles - Contains several art songs, grouped into a set. Often unified by a single story line. i.e. : Schubert's “The Winter Journey”

'Tone Poem

Beethoven (1770 – 1827)
Ludwig van Beethoven's career has 3 phases. His first phase was between 1770 – 1802, during which his music was strongly influenced by Mozart and Haydn. He wrote his first two piano concertos, first two symphonies, string quartets Op.18 and first 10 piano sonatas all during this period. His second phase was between 1802 – 1815. During this stage he was going deaf. He greatly expanded upon existing forms, and infused his music with heroic expression. His works include the Kreutzer Sonata for violin and piano, his only violin concerto, the 3rd, 4th and 5th piano concertos and some of his greatest piano sonatas, including “Les adieux”, “Waldstein” and “Appassionata”. His third phase was from 1815 – 1827. Now he was totally deaf, leaving him completely isolated from society. He departs substantially from established conventions, both in form and in style. His works include the 9th symphony, the Missa Solemnis, and the late piano sonatas and string quartets.

Beethoven believed that there was a moral force behind music. He revised and refined his work repeatedly. He used classical forms and techniques but gave them new power and intensity, creating a bridge between Classicism and Romanticism. His works convey tension and excitement through syncopations and dissonances. Entailing many contrasts in mood, tiny rhythmic ideas are repeated over and over to create momentum. There is an enormous range of expression in his work: tempo, dynamic and expressive indications are marked far more extensively in his scores than in those of his predecessors. Often he had markings such as “< p”. He used extremities of pitch far more. He unified the movements of his symphonies, sonatas and string quartets. Often one movement leads directly into another with out a pause (attacca). There are also thematic inter-relationships between movements. Many of his movements use sonata form, but the development sections and the coda are greatly expanded. He uses the scherzo rather than the minuet for the 3rd movements of his pieces. His Scherzos have rapid movements with rhythmic drive. His most famous works are his 9 symphonies, which were conceived for large orchestras. In some of them he adds piccolos, trombones and contrabassoon. All instruments play difficult music, and the odd-numbered symphonies are more forceful, whereas the even-numbered symphonies are very calm and lyrical. His Symphony No. 9 is the first up to that time in music history to use a choir, which we hear in the "Ode to Joy" finale movement. He wrote 32 piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, 5 piano concertos, 1 opera (“Fidelio”), 1 ballet, 1 violin concerto, and 2 masses. He incorporated fugues extensively in his later works.

Symphony no.3 This symphony was intended to reflect on the life of Napoleon. However, Beethoven scratched out its dedication to Napoleon when he found out the general had invaded Austria. Nicknamed the Eroica Symphony, it was the longest symphony ever composed at the time of its premiere.

Symphony no.5

In his Symphony no. 5, he unifies all contrasting movements. The first four-note motif is used extensively in first and third movements. The third movement theme reappears in the finale. The last two movements are connected by a bridge. This contrasting element that he retained by employing the motif in all four movements of Symphony no. 5 is known as a cell.

Rossini (1792 - 1868)
Though his career as an operatic composer only spanned two decades, Gioacchino Rossini was one of the most significant operatic composers in Italy in the first half of the 19th century. Along with Bellini and Donizetti, Rossini was among the last of bel canto composers. Rossini started his career with several one-act farces at Venice's Teatro San Moisè before he moved on to other cities in Italy, and by 1817 he had basically settled in Naples. After settling in Paris in 1824 he became an important figure in establishing French grand opéra, later taken up by Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864), with what many people considered his masterpiece, Guillaume Tell (1829). After this Rossini wrote no further operas and very little else until his death in 1868, but he left a profound impact on many composers in both Italy and France.

Schumann (1810 – 1856)
Robert Schumann was a very conservative composer, whose works are very autobiographical and programmatic in nature. He was the founder of the first musical journal – “The New Journal of Music”. His most famous Art Song is considered to be "In The Lovely Month Of May", an example of an Art Song which makes use of Strophic form.

Clara Schumann (1819 – 1896)
Introduction

Clara Schumann was a prominent pianist and composer during the Romantic period. She was the wife of the famous composer Robert Schumann and the mother of eight children. As a child prodigy, Clara was surrounded by music all her life which she exhibited through her 61-yearlong performance career. Clara was acquainted with many of the distinguished composers of her time and even surpassed their musical talents. Sadly, Clara was not acknowledged as much as she should have been during her lifetime due to her gender. Many people have not heard of Robert Schumann’s wonderful wife, the composer, pianist, and astounding artist.

Early Life

Clara Josephine Schumann (née Wieck) was born on September 13, 1819, in Leipzig, the Kingdom of Saxony, to Friedrich Wieck and Marianne Wieck (née Tromlitz). Her father was a piano maker and a music dealer. Later in life, he taught piano, notably to Robert Schumann. Clara’s mother was also a musician, gifted in piano and voice. Friedrich and Marianne had five children, and their first child died, leaving Clara as their oldest living child. At age four, Clara did not speak a single word and seemed deaf and mute, which could have been due to her father’s aggressive nature or that her nurserymaid, Johanna Strobel was relatively silent. Yet, this issue was resolved entirely at around age eight.

When Clara was five years old, her parents divorced, having been separated for some time before. Clara’s father was not an easy man to be around, which could have contributed to the divorce. He was known to have “a violent temper and disliked interference and arguments”. Before the divorce, Clara lived with her mother, but at age five, she needed to return to her father and began her music studies immediately. The custody laws required Clara and her sibling to return to their father as “they were legally his property”. Years later, in 1828, Friedrich Wieck married Clementine Fechner, with whom Clara was not close. She considered Clementine a rival for her father’s affections. Clara’s mother married Adolph Bargiel, a close colleague of Clara’s father, a few months after her divorce.

Friedrich Wieck wanted Clara’s piano playing to be “with feeling” and so did not make her “practice to death”. Therefore, Clara’s father limited her piano playing to three hours per day. For a year and a half, Clara attended school and was tutored in English and French afterward. From age three, Clara went on long walks for several hours with her parents, which continued to be a habit her entire life. These walks created stamina in Clara, contributing to good health and long life. The tradition of long walks continued in her marriage with Robert, as often, after tea, the couple would go on an hour walk together.

Becoming the “Forever Unforgettable”

From her birth, Clara’s father wanted her to have “a great artistic career [that was] to be directed by him”. Indeed, Clara fulfilled her father’s desire. Clara became the primary breadwinner for her family when she lived with her father and was married to Robert Schumann. At age seven, Clara was given a diary by her father, who wrote many entries using Clara’s name. It was not until she left home at nineteen that the diary finally became hers alone. During her childhood, Clara’s father hosted the music circle of Leipzig, which included prominent composers such as Friedrich Hoffmeister. Through this, Clara emerged in the music society as she would play for the members of the music circle, and at age nine, Clara became a part of this group.

At age nine, Clara had her first official performance in a concert on October 20, 1828. While it was just a little duet with her father’s student, Emilie Reichhold, this concert emerged and exposed Clara to the public eye. The renowned violinist, Niccolò Paganini, praised Clara for her performance, and from then on, Clara vowed to be the Paganini of the piano. Although her performance was minor, Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung’s review of the concert mentioned Clara and her father taking part in it. This concert marked the beginning of her 61-year-long career. Through favorable reviews and a promising place in musical society, Clara became known to the world around her. She met many distinguished musicians, including Chopin, Liszt, and Mendelssohn. By age twelve, Clara was performing without music which was foreign to Germany at the time, although relatively common in France. Clara was known for playing “by [only] looking at the keys,” which some people thought was odd. Yet, Clara was one of the leading musicians in promoting memorization for performances.

“The Schumann Couple”

Clara first met Robert Schumann when she was nine years old, and he was eighteen. Robert was a piano student of Friedrich Wieck while studying law in Leipzig. He did not stay there long and soon moved to Heidelberg to continue his law studies there. Yet, Robert used his law studies as an undercover for music and arts, his true passion. So, in 1830, after consulting with his mother, Robert began his music career. He moved back to Leipzig to stay with and study under Friedrich Wieck, the only person his mother trusted would make Robert into a prominent musician. Robert admired Fredrich Wieck’s musical skills and abilities but thought of him as “dull, boring, and arrogant”. Clara fell in love with Robert through his stay with the Wiecks. She would see him many times during the day as they had lessons with Friedrich Wieck together in the morning. Robert would become a child again in the evenings, playing with Clara and her two younger brothers. In 1843, Ernestine von Fricken came to stay at the Wieck household, with whom Robert seemed to be engaged. Clara, who was in Dresden, tried to ignore the stories she heard. Soon, the rumors reached Ernestine’s father, who quickly resolved the issue. Robert stated noticing Clara more, and in November of 1835, a kiss marked the beginning of their long, challenging engagement.

When Friedrich Wieck found out about Robert’s and Clara’s mutual affections, he tried everything to separate the two. He even threatened to shoot Robert if he ever saw Clara again. Clara and Robert rarely saw each other for a year and a half and wrote letters through their mutual friend, Ernst Adolf Becker. On August 13, 1837, Clara performed three of Roberts’s compositions, who was present for the performance. The next day, August 14, was considered their betrothal date. Yet, there were still many challenges, including Clara’s father.

In 1837, on Clara’s birthday, Robert asked Friedrich Wieck for Clara’s hand in marriage but received no answer. He was afraid that Clara would not have a stable future and that her career as a prominent musician would end. Clara’s father filed many lawsuits against the couple, which hindered them from being able to marry. Furthermore, Clara’s relationship with her father became strained as she was still entirely dependent on him. In December of 1839, the court threw out all the accusations against Robert except for one. Immediately, the couple began preparing for marriage. Clara became Mrs. Schumann on September 12, 1840, a day before her twenty-first birthday.

Family Life

Clara and Robert kept a joint dairy for the first four years of the marriage. Clara enjoyed her unique married life. Both Clara and Robert were drawn together, not only by musicality and musical abilities but also through mutual attraction. Robert would always encourage Clara to compose. Often, Clara would give him her composition as a gift on his birthday or Christmas. Clara found it hard to practice piano when Robert was composing, as he was distant and very much in his own world. Yet, Clara continued performing and doing some tours throughout her marriage. While she was pregnant and had children, Clara would also perform and hold concerts because of her love of performing and the piano and to provide money for her family. Clara and Robert had eight children. Marie (1841-1929), Elise (1843-1928), Julie (1845-1872), Emil (1846 - 1847), Ludwig (1848 - 1899), Ferdinand (1849 - 1891), Eugenie (1851 - 1938), and Felix (1854 - 1879). Four of Clara’s children died before she did, which was hard for her. Clara and Robert’s daughter Eugenie was the one who complied their diary entries and journal and published them in the 1900s.

Life After Robert’s Death

In early 1854, Robert attempted suicide, as he struggled with mental health issues, but was saved by some sailors. It was a hard time in Clara’s life, and she “did not go to bed for sixteen days and was at his side throughout the day”. Soon after, Robert was put into a private asylum where Clara was not permitted to see him until two days before his death on July 29, 1856. Clara stayed with him until July 29, and Robert died in alone peace that afternoon. A different life began for Clara; she was a thirty-seven-year-old widow, left with seven children. Clara loved motherhood, but her divided life made it hard for her to accomplish her role as a mother well. Often, her children were scattered all over the place while she was performing. Some were at boarding school, some with her mother, and some with Clara.

Clara continued performing piano as she was accustomed to doing. She began to tour many places, including England, which became one of her best places to perform and a source of income. Clara also gave lessons each day, performed soirées, and toured many other places. As she became older, Clara began suffering from rheumatic pain in her hands and arms. Later in life, Clara also suffered from arthritis and found it challenging to play challenging pieces. Brahms wrote some more manageable pieces for her play that were less technical. In 1884, Clara began to have hearing problems, but this did not hinder her from performing as she continued playing at concerts for over ten years. Her last public performance was in March of 1891. Clara died from a stroke on May 20, 1896, while listening to music from Robert Schumann’s Intermezzi, op. 4, and his F-sharp Major Romance, op. 28.

Friendship with Johannes Brahms

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) was a close friend of the Schumann family. When he was twenty, he met the Schumanns through a mutual friend, Joseph Joachim, and was influenced musically by their family. Brahms stayed with the Schumann family many times throughout his life and was Clara’s main supporter during her husband’s mental breakdown and death. Brahms had strong feelings for Clara and was deeply in love with her. Clara, however, had “motherly feelings and [thought] of him as a son”. He was deeply impacted by Clara’s death in 1896 and died a year after her.

Main Compositions

Although she stopped composing after Robert’s death, Clara composed many pieces throughout her lifetime. Clara’s Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7 was published on September 1, 1835. She began writing and orchestrating the entire concerto in 1833 at age thirteen. The concerto premiered in November of 1835, with Clara as the soloist and Mendelssohn conducting the orchestra. Liebesfrühling (Love’s Spring), Op. 12 was a joint work Clara composed with her husband, Robert. The composition was based on a cycle of poems by Friedrich Rückert and was published in 1841. There are twelve songs in this work of which Clara composed three pieces and are labelled her Op. 12. Clara composed one piano trio in her lifetime, involving the violin, violoncello, and piano. Her Piano Trio in G major, Op. 17 was written in 1846 and published the year after. During its composition, Clara was going through hard times in her life. Robert was ill, and Clara suffered from a miscarriage and the death of her fourth child, Emil. Clara inspired Robert to begin writing his piano trios. When his was composed, Clara felt her trio lacked palatability when compared to Robert’s trio. The Drei Romanzen (Three Romances for Violin and Piano) was Clara’s main work she composed after her Piano Trio. She began to write this piece in the summer of 1853 after a visit from Brahms. It first premiered in 1855 while Robert was in the private asylum. Clara dedicated this work to Joseph Joachim, and it was one of the last pieces she wrote.

Schubert (1797 – 1828)
Schubert was a Viennese composer and child prodigy. His output consists of over 600 songs, nine Symphonies, eight completed operas, six masses, and an abundance of piano music, string quartets and other chamber works. His songs embrace a wide spectrum of moods, and his melodies range from simple folk-like tunes to complex lines. He makes use of very rich harmonies and rich accompaniments.

The Erl King

'The Erl King' is an Art Song based on a ballad by Goethe. The Poem is in dialog throughout. The story is about a father riding through a storm on horse-back with his sick child in his arms. The boy has visions of the Erl King – a symbol of death. A through-composed setting is used to capture the tension and excitement of the poem. The piano part has a triplet motion, describing the galloping of the horse. The motif in the bass symbolizes the Erl King and death. Schubert makes one singer portray several characters. The ‘boy’ is sung in the high register in a minor key, often with dissonant harmonies (symbolic of his sickness), whereas the ‘father’ sings in the low register, trying to reassure the boy. The ‘Erl King’ sings coy and enticing melodies in the major key. The highlight of the piece is its closing recitative, announcing the father's discovery on reaching home of his son dead in his arms.

The Symphony
During the Romantic era, two groups of Symphony composers arose. The first being the "Conservative" Group, comprising of Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Tchaikovsky and Brahms. The second is known as the "Revolutionary" Group, and consists of Berlioz, Liszt, Mahler, and Dvorak.

Berlioz (1803 – 1869)
Berlioz was a French composer, whose work contains abrupt contrasts in dynamics and tempo changes. He assembled hundreds of musicians in his orchestras to achieve an enormous range of power. He made use of unusual orchestral effects such as col legno, and the combination of bells and brasses. His melodies are long, irregular and asymmetrical. All his works are for orchestra or for orchestra with chorus and vocal soloist, and have a literary program and are dramatic and use new forms.

Symphnonie Fantastique, 1830

Berlioz's Symphonie Fantastique (1830) is a five movement programmatic symphony. A single melody, called the ideé fixe, is used to represent the beloved, and makes an appearance in all movements, unifying the symphony. The theme changes in character throughout the symphony. He makes use of a large and colorful orchestra consisting of bells, harps, timpani, piccolo, cor anglais, etc… He has the heaviest orchestration in the last two movements which depict the fantastic and the diabolical.

1st movement: slow introduction with 11 tempo changes, followed by the Allegro, in which the ideé fixe is very noble and shy.

2nd movement: A waltz, using ternary form and including the harps. 3rd movement: describes a country scene and includes the cor anglais.

4th movement: a march, here the timpani are tuned a 3rd apart.

5th movement: most fantastic. Starts with muted strings. Here the ideé fixe is a witch, and is transformed into a dance tuned decorated by trills. Bells are used, tubas and bassoons intone the Dies Irae, symbolizing eternal damnation. There are contrasting Pizzicato in the strings. The movements ends with a figure in the lower strings. There is a huge crescendo at the end, culminating in a musical nightmare.

Brahms (1833 – 1897)
Brahms was a German composer, influenced by Schumann to a small extent. He created masterpieces in all forms except opera. His output includes four symphonies, two piano concertos, one violin concerto, short piano pieces, many songs (over 200) and a large number of choral pieces. He was a master of ‘Theme and Variation’ form. Strongly influenced by Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, his music embraces a wide range of moods and uses intricate and dense polyphonic textures. He makes extensive use of imitation, canon and fugue, with intricate rhythmic patterns, including polyrhythms (various rhythms placed against each other E.g. : 2 against 3, or 3 against 2). Brahms treated tonality with greater freedom whilst adhering to strict, formal classical forms and standards. Each of his 4 movements are arranged in the traditional sequence: Allegro, Slower 2nd, Scherzo and massive finale. He employs extensive modulation throughout. He was very fond of mellow instruments / tone colors such as viola, clarinet and French horn.

Symphony IV opus 98

1st movement : Sonata form

2nd movement : Slow and lyrical, with a pair of song-like themes.

3rd movement : Scherzo. Incorporates Sonata-rondo from.

4th movement : Theme and Variation Form (Allegro in E min). Consisting of the theme, 30 Variations and a coda. The brasses and woodwinds introduce the theme (consisting of an ascending, eight bar/note melody). Variations embrace a wide range of moods, and are connected to each other and maintain the themes eight bar form and triple meter. In variations 1 – 3, the theme is presented in the top or middle parts. In variations 4 – 11, the theme is presented in the bass. In variations 12 onwards the theme is presented in the top, middle or bass parts. This movement uses an overall ternary form:

A

Theme, then Variations 1 – 11 in a Minor key. Very Forceful.

B

Variations 12 – 15 in a Major key with a slower tempo and more relaxed.

A

Variations 16 – 13 with a quick tempo in a minor key followed by the Coda.

Liszt (1811 – 1886)
Liszt wrote very controversial music. His output consists mainly of piano compositions. He found new and exciting ways to exploit the piano. He uses an enormous range of dynamics, reminiscent of Beethoven's symphonic compositions. Pianists are required to play rapid octaves and daring leaps. He transcribed many operas and symphonies for the piano. He is said to have created the symphonic poem, a one movement orchestral composition, based on a literary or pictorial idea. A single musical idea recurs throughout the work and its character is transformed. Similar in nature to the idée fixe utilized by Berlioz. Many of Liszt’s compositions deal with the devil or death. He makes constant changes of tempo and mood in his pieces.

Transendental Etude no.10 in F min

Uses ABA / ternary form, as well as the inclusion of a Coda. The B section is more lyrical and in a higher register, and there is constant contrast between brilliant virtuosity and melodic ideas, which occur throughout the movement.

Chopin, Frederic (1810 – 1849)
Frederic Chopin wrote relatively few works, but almost all of them remain in the pianist’s repertory today. Most of his music are short, musical miniatures, which evoke a variety of moods. Even his virtuoso passages are melodic. His music is nationalistic, and expresses his love of Poland (his home country) through his many Mazurkas and Polonaises. Chopin does not use literary titles or programs in his music, but rather, his poetic effects are created by the exploitation of the pedal. All of his harmonies blend together in a rich fashion.

“Revolutionary” Etude no.12 Opus 10 (1831)

This etude is inspired by the Russian Invasion of Warsaw. It is essentially a study which develops speed and endurance in the pianist’s left hand. The left hand plays rapid scale passages throughout. The piece begins with high, dissonant chords, and rushing passages.

Verdi (1813 – 1901)
Verdi's music has a great variety of moods. His operas are fast moving, and involve characters who are quickly plunged into extremes of hatred, love, jealousy and fear. The vocal melody is the soul of Verdi’s opera. He uses many trios, duets and quartets in which the emotions of each character are clearly depicted. Verdi’s last three operas are among his greatest: Aida, Falstaff and Otello.

Wagner (1813 - 1883)
Wagner was one of the few great composers who was able to write his own librettos, which he based on legends and myths such as the story of Tristan and Isolde and of the Norse gods. He called his works “music dramas” or “Universal Art Works” (gesamtkunstwerk in German). Wagner shifted the musical gravity from the voice to the orchestra, and so expands his orchestra, which is treated symphonically. His orchestral interludes were used to describe the present scene. He exploited the power of brass instruments fully and even invented a new instrument, the Wagner tuba. He used leitmotifs, which are a recurring, short musical idea associated with a person or object in the drama. He varied and transformed these leitmotifs to convey changes of character, and these leitmotifs are what unify Wagner’s operas. He uses chromatic and dissonant harmonies, and frequent modulation, but avoids resolution of dissonances, leading to the breaking down of tonality.

The Ring

"The Ring" (AKA Der Ring des Nibelungen) is Wagner's most famous work. It is a widely performed sequence of 4 operas /dramas, arranged in a gigantic cycle.

Fanny Crosby (1820-1915)
Fanny Crosby is one of the greatest-known hymn lyricists in today's age, despite her blindness. She has composed lyrics for many famous hymns such as "Tell Me The Story of Jesus," "Pass Me Not My Gentle Saviour," and "Blessed Assurance" (Seventh-day Adventist Hymnal, 1988). The purpose of this entry is to examine the impact that Fanny Crosby had on the hymns of today, as well as how she came to write hymn lyrics.

She was born to John and Mercy Crosby on March 24, 1820, in Southeast Putnam County, New York (Blumhofer, 2013). She started infancy as a healthy baby but developed an infection at a few weeks old that affected her eyes. A fake doctor prescribed poultices for her eyes, which had detrimental effects and left her blind (Hawthorn, 1939). A couple of months later, her father passed away from an unknown cause (Blumhofer, 2005). As she grew, her mother did her best to explain the scenes of the country where they lived to help her grasp her surroundings and to give her enjoyment.

When she was eight, her family moved to Ridgefield, Connecticut, where she developed her love of hymns from the Methodist Church. It was there that her memory flourished. She started to memorize scriptures, and it was not long before she could recite "the greater portion of the New Testament, the five books of Moses, the book of Ruth, as well as most of the Psalms, and selections from the Prophets" (Hawthorn, 1939). She had an incredible memory and was eager to learn.

At the age of fourteen, she was accepted into the New York Institution for the Blind. This was an answer to prayer (Crosby, 1906). She had difficulty leaving, as it was her first time away from home. She learned many great skills at the Institution, such as the "phonetic alphabet and methods of printing raised characters and maps" (Crosby, 1906). At the time, the teachers at the Institution had to change society's ideals, as many thought that blind people could not learn. She loved her music and English classes but discovered that she disliked math.

Before 1840, her poems received much praise from friends and family. As a result of the praise, she became overconfident in herself. The school's superintendent, Mr. Jones, saw this attitude in her and called her to his office to meet with her. He told her that he was sorry that the praises had influenced her idea of herself and reminded her that, ultimately, her gifts come from God. She recalls that this advice was "worth more than the price of rubies" (Crosby, 1906) as it showed her the importance of constructive criticism and God.

The Blind Institution was where she met George Frederick Root, a music teacher and a composer. Root encouraged Crosby to write lyrics for songs and had her write for some of his cantatas, such as "The Flower Queen" and "Pilgrim Fathers" (Blumhofer, 2013). After graduating, Crosby was hired on as a teacher. She resigned after marrying Alexander van Alstyne, a musician, in 1858.

The poetry that would make her known started in 1864 when she met William B. Bradbury through Peter Stryker, a minister of a Dutch Reformed church that she attended (Crosby, 1906). He was a composer but had trouble writing lyrics. Upon meeting, he wanted her to write lyrics for a patriotic song that he composed. After Crosby composed the lyrics, Bradbury wanted her to do more for him and hired her at his publishing company. The first hymn she composed lyrics to was called "We Are Going, We Are Going" in the same year. This opportunity gave Crosby a sense of purpose and "brightened dark hours in her own life" (Hawthorn, 1939). She was also grateful that she could give the message of salvation through songs to those spiritually struggling. Crosby worked for Bradbury until he died in 1868.

After his death, Sylvester Main and Lucius Horatio Biglow took over the publishing company. The company became known as Biglow and Main (Crosby & Hustad, 1977). Crosby was affiliated with them for the rest of her life. However, she was not on a contract with them, as she also composed lyrics for people such as William J. Kirkpatrick and John R. Sweney, who wrote hymns such as "Tell Me the Story of Jesus" and "Redeemed" (Seventh-day Adventist Hymnal, 1988). During the 1870s, there was a revival in Gospel Preaching when many great hymns were printed and published (Hawthorn, 1939). It is said that most of the hymns today were written during this time. Crosby could have profited from her poems during the revival, but instead, she only charged $2.00 per poem when, at times, poems were being commissioned for $10.00 (Crosby & Hustad, 1977). She was not in the poetry business for the money but for blessing people. When she was paid, she gave what she could to others.

In 1880, she felt God leading her to do missionary work where she lived in New York. During her mission work, she was known as "Aunty Fanny" (Burger, 1997). She spent time in places such as the Y.M.C.A. and the Bowery Mission, a well-known place in New York. (Hawthorn, 1939). At the Bowery Mission anniversaries, she gave a short speech and wrote a hymn for sixteen of them. Even though she was denied motherhood, she loved children. Children would gather around to listen to her share stories from a wordless book she carried, captivating their minds.

Her poetry slowed in the 1900s as she grew older and moved in with a widowed sister in Connecticut. While in Connecticut, she participated in Chautauqua meetings and wrote two autobiographies (James & College, 1971). She died in Bridgeport, Connecticut, on February 12, 1915, from a battle of arteriosclerosis and a cerebral hemorrhage (James & College, 1971) (Blumhofer, 2013).

Over her lifetime, she composed between six and nine thousand poems, approximately three thousand of which were made into hymns. Fanny Crosby was not only a poet but a missionary and a dedicated servant of God. Her poetry for hymns began through a series of events that led her to the right place at the right time. One could say that this was the workings of the hand of God. She did everything she could for the people around her and served others despite her disability. The hymns she composed lyrics to continue to be sung in many church denominations, even over one hundred years after her death. She exemplifies what it means to be humble, selfless, and dedicated to bettering the world.

title: Western Music History/Romantic Music


text:
PHP and MySQL Programming

Table of Contents
PHP
 * 1) /Introduction to PHP/
 * 2) /Syntax Overview/
 * 3) /File Handling/
 * 4) /Database Connectivity/
 * 5) /Session Handling/
 * 6) /Command Line Programming/
 * 7) /Form Handling/

MySQL
 * 1) /Introduction to MySQL/
 * 2) /Creating a Database/
 * 3) /Creating a Table/
 * 4) /Basic Queries/
 * 5) /Common Functions and Operators/

Advanced Topics
 * 1) /XML and PHP/

title: PHP and MySQL Programming


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Definitions/Furnished lettings

Paragraph 4(2) of Section 15(1) of ICTA (which sets out what is meant by Schedule A) defines furnished lettings as being where:

 * A sum is payable in repset of the use of premises, and
 * The tenant or other person entitled to the use of the premises is also entitled in connection with that use, to the use of furniture.

For these purposes, premises is taken to include a caravan or houseboat.


text:
PHP and MySQL Programming/PHP Syntax

 * Enclose php code

 * Can be configured in the php.ini to be <? ?>, etc.

 * Embedded in normal HTML code

 * Within php tags, statements are separated by a ; (generally also followed by a new line).

Example:

<?=

 * Used if you just want to print out the value of a variable

Example:  <?=$name?> Which will output Bobby.

Example: <?=date(“Y-m-d H:i:s”)?>

Which will output something like 2005-11-09 19:40:05.

#

 * Comments out one line

echo “Hello”; # Everything from the hash is commented out
 * Example:

 * Example:
 * 1) This entire line is commented out

//

 * Works just as in Java and JavaScript

 * Same function as #

/* (text) */

 * Comments out everything between the /* and the */

/*All of this is commented out. Even this line!*/
 * Example:

Variables
➢ Variables in PHP are denoted by the $ prefix.

e.g. : $a = “Hello World”; # this assigns the string “Hello World” to $a.

e.g. : $b = “$a, I'm Ralfe”; # this assigns “Hello World, I'm Ralfe” to $b.

e.g. : $b = $a.”, I'm Ralfe”; # exactly the same as the previous example.

➢ PHP supports dynamic variables.

e.g. : $c = “response”;

e.g. : $$c = “Hello Ralfe”; # this assigns “Hello Ralfe” to $response.

➢ PHP variables do not have to be declared ahead of time, nor do they require a type definition. PHP handles all data type conversions.

e.g. : $a = 4;

e.g. : $b = 12;

e.g. : print “The value of a is $a.”; # Uses a as a String.

e.g. : $c = $a + $b; # $a is now used as an Integer again.

➢ PHP supports boolean variables, which can be assigned either a one or a zero, or a true or false.

e.g. : $a = true;

e.g. : $b = 1;

e.g. : # $a and $b are the same thing!

e.g. : $c = false;

e.g. : $d = 0;

e.g. : # $c and $d are the same thing!

Operators
➢ Arithmetic Operators

$a = 4;

$b = 2;

// Addition: $a + $b = 6

// Subtraction: $a - $b = 2

// Multiplication: $a * $b = 8

// Division: $a / $b = 2

// Modulus: $a % $b = 0

// Increment: $a++

// Decrement: $a--

➢ Assignment Operators

$a = 4;

$b = $a;

// $b = 4;

➢ Comparison Operators

$a == $b // test if two values are equal

$a != $b // test if two values are not equal

$a < $b // test if the first value is less than the second

$a > $b // test if the first value is greater than the second

$a <= $b // test if the first value is less than or equal to the second

$a >= $b // test if the first value is greater than or equal to the second

Concatenation
$a = “Fill the halls “;

$b = “with poisoned ivy...“;

$c = $a. $b; # the '.' operator concatenates two variables.

// $c = “Fill the halls with poisoned ivy...”

Arrays
PHP supports both numerically indexed arrays as well as associative arrays.

$a = array(1, 2, 3, 4);

// $a[0] = 1;

// $a[1] = 2;

// $a[2] = 3;

// $a[3] = 4;

$b = array(“name” => ”Fred”, “age” => 30);

// $b['name'] = “Fred”;

// $b['age'] = 30;

Decision and Loop Statements
IF THEN ELSE statement

$a = 1; $b = 10; if ($a > $b) { echo "a is greater than b"; } else if ($a == $b) { echo "a is equal to b"; } else { echo "a is not greater than b"; } // OUTPUT: // a is not greater than b

SWITCH statement

$a = 100; switch($a) { case(10): echo "The value is 10"; break; case(100): echo "The value is 100"; break; case(1000): echo "The value is 1000"; break; default: echo "Are you sure you entered in a valid number?"; } // OUTPUT: // The value is 100

FOR statement

for ($i = 0; $i < 10; $i++) { # initialize $i ; while condition ; increment statement echo $i; } // OUTPUT: // 0123456789

FOREACH statement

$a = array(1, 2, 3, 4, 5); foreach ($a as $val){ echo $val; } // OUTPUT: // 12345

WHILE statement

while ($row = mysql_fetch_row($result)){ print $row[0]; }

DO WHILE statement

$i = 0; do{ # never be printed to the screen, but print $i; # a DO WHILE loop always executes at } while ($i >0);
 * 1) Note that it might seem that $i will
 * 1) least once!

Functions
function square_number($number) { return ($number * $number); } $answer = square_number(10); echo "The answer is {$answer}"; // OUTPUT: // The answer is 100

Classes
class dog { var $name; function dog($name){ $this->name = $name; }   function bark{ echo "Woof! Woof!"; }   function who_am_i { echo "My name is {$this->name), and I am a dog";   } } $the_dog = new dog("John"); $the_dog->who_am_i; // OUTPUT: // My name is John, and I am a dog

title: PHP and MySQL Programming/PHP Syntax


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 18 of the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988

Section 18 of ICTA sets out the charge to tax under Schedule D.

Subsection (1) raises the charge to tax in respect of:

 * Annual profits or gains arising or accruing on worldwide income from property of UK residents
 * Annual profits or gains on worldwide trading income for UK residents
 * Annual profits or gains on UK trading income or income from property
 * All interest of money, annuities and other profits or gains not charged under Schedule A or ITEPA and not specifically exempted from tax.

Subsection (2) provides that the charge under Schedule D happens under different Cases.

Subsection (3) sets out the different Cases. There are different definitions for some of the Cases depending on whether you are looking at income tax or corporation tax. However, subsection (4A) provides that Subsections (1) to (4) only apply to income tax to the extent that they are needed in the application to corporation tax.

Subsection (5) notes that Parts III and IV of ICTA as well as ITTOIA have further related provisions.

Case I
This Case covers tax in respect of any trade carried on in the United Kingdom or elsewhere but not contained in Schedule A.

Case II
This Case covers tax in respect of any profession or vocation not contained in any other Schedule. In practice, it is not thought possible for a company to be charged to tax under Case II.

Case III
For companies, this Case covers tax from loan relationships charged under this Case by Chapter II of Part IV of FA 1996. It also covers any annuity or other annual payment which is payable in respect of anything other than a loan relationship and which is not a payment under Schedule A.

For individuals, this Case covers UK interest-like receipts, but in practice this rule only applies insofar as it is relevant for the operation of corporation tax as individuals are taxed under ITEPA.

Case IV
This does not apply to companies. For individuals, this Case covers income from overseas securities, but in practice this rule only applies insofar as it is relevant for the operation of corporation tax as individuals are taxed under ITEPA.

Case V
This Case covers tax in respect of income arising from possessions out of the UK that are employment, social security or pension income taxed under ITEPA. For companies, it excludes anything falling within Case III.

Case VI
This Case covers tax in respect of any annual profits or gains not falling under any other Case and not taxed under Schedule A, or as employment, social security or pension income under ITEPA.

Further provisions and definitions
Subsections (3B) to (3E) provide some supplemental provisions.

Subsection (3B) expands the meaning of relevant foreign holdings to include proceeds of a sale or other realisation of coupons for foreign dividends effected by a UK bank that pays the proceeds over or credits them to an account, and any proceeds of a sale of such coupons in the UK by a person who isn't a bank or another dealer of coupons.

Subsection (3C) defines relevant foreign holdings for the purposes of this Section to mean non-UK government, public or local authority securities or any share or securities issued by a non-UK resident.

Subsection (3D) defines foreign dividends essentially to mean payments in respect of relevant foreign holdings.

Subsection (3E) defines bank to have the meaning given by Section 840A of ICTA. References in Section 18 to coupons include, in relation to any foreign dividends, warrants for an bills of exchange purporting to be drawn or made in payment of those dividends.


text:
Template:Trigonometry/Navigation

Next Page: Trigonometry/ | Previous Page: Trigonometry/

Home: Trigonometry

title: Template:Trigonometry/Navigation


text:
User talk:Ralfe

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck!--Derbeth talk 10:33, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Programming:PHP & MySQL
It would be better if you named pages consistently: when you have TOC in Programming:PHP & MySQL and chapter name is PHP & MySQL/PHP Syntax, chapter won't have automatic link to the TOC. I suggest renaming main book page to PHP & MySQL, it would be shorter. --Derbeth talk 10:33, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ralfe


text:
User talk:145.97.204.116

Welcome to Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
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 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages
 * The ability to upload images
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibooks and create an account. We hope you enjoy your time here on Wikibooks as a Wikibookian!--Derbeth talk 10:34, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:145.97.204.116


text:
User talk:Mtcv

Copyright problem with Image:IJssel Wijhe.jpg
--Derbeth talk 10:37, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The problem arose because the old links weren't working anymore. They did before wikibooks.org became en.wikibooks.org. I fixed it (and someone else placed the right licence template). Mtcv 21:04, 26 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mtcv


text:
File:CONMEBOL Logo.jpg

Summary
CONMEBOL logo.

Licensing
/Logos

title: File:CONMEBOL Logo.jpg


text:
File:River Plate Logo.gif

Summary
River Plate logo.

Licensing
/Logos

title: File:River Plate Logo.gif


text:
File:Boca Juniors Logo2.jpg

Summary
Boca Juniors logo.

Licensing
/Logos

title: File:Boca Juniors Logo2.jpg


text:
User talk:Bduttabaruah

Contributor 88.106.238.130 on Dec 29, 2005 expressed his opinion regarding orthopAEdic vs orthopEdic. This nameless person did so on my user page. I am removing the matter with immediate effect. I must suggest that you express yourselves in the talk/discussion pages.

That was wrong of me. Now I know that the user page could be used for discusions and is not a page that belongs to me. You are most welcome to pass comments on my activities in wikibooks over here.

BDB 13:48, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Surgery department
Hi. The five departments Wikibooks currently has are: natural sciences, social sciences, computing, arts, and miscellaneous, all of which contain bookshelves. Because Surgery department contains only four books, all of which are found on Health science bookshelf, I have redirected the page to that bookshelf. I don't think we should confuse browsers with extra pages. Is this alright? BTW, I'm glad to see someone finally working on Orthopaedic Surgery again! Thanks and regards, hagindaz 13:18, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes, the natural sciences bookshelf is really a "miscellaneous natural sciences" bookshelf. Math and computer science, which are under the same department, are not natural sciences at all. In fact, some don't even consider math a science. Engineering and health science would both fit better under an applied sciences department. And this is only one department! The others suffer from similar problems. I have proposed a more sensible organization here, based on list of academic disciplines, but unfortunately it hasn't gotten much attention. Good luck on your books, hagindaz 22:25, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Yes hagindaz, it appears that you have been working hard with a few others to get the whole bookshelf arranged. At the moment I don't have anything specific to suggest. I presume it will take a while to get the best/working combination. Don't be disappointed. I am sure you will get it right, especially when there are more books on the shelves! Good luck.
 * And thanks for your encouraging words.
 * BDB 06:24, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

I wonder if this is the best way to contact you. I have some content for the orthopaedic wikibook but am unsure what is the best way to put it on there. elfar 02:59, 17 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bduttabaruah


text:
Talk:Arabic/Arabic alphabet

lots squares in columns about name and transliteration
I see lots square simbols in two colums: name and transliteration. My o.s. is windows XP

Where did this come from?
i feel like this isn't very clear, even to someone who's studied Arabic. The image labelled "self-explanatory" isn't at all - why are only half the letters labelled? The chavi 00:31, 6 May 2006 (UTC)

I think it's a cop out to say that you won't hear or will hear as a different sound the rest of the letters. It's important to teach people how to speak the language, and leaving an aspect like this out will cause major trouble for anyone using this as a legitmate resource.

Agreed: Not clear
This article is not very clear at all. The pictures have awkward MSPaint arrows, and need more explanation. The table at the bottom is the best part, but some of the letters show up as boxes. These need to be changed to pictures.

Alienating the Reader
It seems to me that the sentence "just in case you haven't noticed yet, Arabic is written from right to left" sounds arrogant, even if the reader isn't one of those rare individuals who've managed to let that basic fact about their topic of study pass them by. I suggest "Please note that Arabic is written from right to left" or "We wish to remind the reader..." as alternatives. Dorfl 07:07, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Arabic/Arabic alphabet


text:
Water Resources Directory/Education

This page links to sections which describe educational goals, model curricula, best teaching examples and programs for the major specialties within the water resources profession.

Planning

 * University of Karlsruhe Institute of Water and River Basin Management (technical university of Germany) offers since 1991 a two-year Master of Science Programme in Land and Water Resources Development with particular reference to the Developing World.

 * Masters Degree Program in Water Resources and Hydrology offered jointly by University of Adelaide, University of South Australia, Flinders University

 * UNESCO International Hydrological Program - list of endorsed degree programs

Simulation

 * Reservoir and river simulation - short course at Georgia Tech
 * Education through Simulation, initiative at Georgia Institute of Technology

Short courses for professionals

 * Efficient Management of Wastewater, by EMWater Consortium (Middle East)
 * International School of Water Resources, at Colorado State University (USA)
 * Computer applications in integrated water resources planning and management, one semester
 * Dam operation and maintenance, six weeks
 * Decision support systems for water resources and irrigation management, two months.

 * US EPA's Online Training in Watershed Management (about 40 units)
 * http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/

 * NRCS Conservation and Areawide Planning - training courses
 * http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/programs/planning/

 * USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service: Conservation Planning Course
 * http://www.nedc.nrcs.usda.gov/catalog/consplan.html

 * US Army Corps of Engineers, Water Planners training curriculum
 * http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/iwr/planningcapabilities/
 * http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/iwr/planningcapabilities/curriculum.htm
 * Description of courses

Educational resources for stakeholders

 * Animal waste management, USDA
 * Drinking water and human health, USDA
 * Environmental restoration, USDA
 * Nutrient and pesticide management, USDA
 * Pollution assessment and prevention, USDA
 * Water Conservation and agricultural water management, USDA
 * Water policy and economics, USDA
 * Watershed management, USDA

title: Water Resources Directory/Education


text:
Water Resources Directory/Education/Planning

Educational Goals

 * Skills desired in members of an interdisciplinary forest planning team, as stated in
 * "In addition to technical knowledge in one or more resource specialties, members should possess other attributes which enhance the interdisciplinary process. As a minimum, these attributes should include--
 * An ability to solve complex problems;
 * Skills in communication and group interaction;
 * Basic understanding of land and natural resource planning concepts, processes, and analysis techniques; and
 * The ability to conceptualize planning problems and feasible solutions."

University Courses

 * Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Planning in Developing Countries, MIT, Urban Studies and Planning, Course 11-479, Spring 2005.

Training Programs

 * Professional Certificate Program in Watershed Management, Michigan State University
 * Four semester courses, via distance learning, for academic credit or certificate. Plans for watershed protection.


text:
Talk:Statistics/Introduction/What is Statistics

General observations
I hope you will consider the following criticism as constructive.

As the opening paragraphs of a book, neither the flow nor the content are sufficiently "racy" to capture the attention of a putative student. The traditional opening remarks found in many if not all statistics textbooks refer to the etymology of the word "statistics". Such discussion is easily understood and gently eases the reader into the subject matter.

The reasons for doing statistical studies are much more varied than garnering biometrics from large animals, and at the very least a selection of contrasting applications should be included in the book's opening preamble.

The English is not sufficiently straightforward in places to allow smooth reading of the text. By this I mean that one has to pause periodically and work out what the author intended to say. J.Morgan. 6 Feb 2006

=An Outline=

I think it would be best if we came up with a good general outline for a "What is Statistics?" section. It would give us a clear train of thought from beginning to end, improve the flow of the section, and address any overall issues we may have with the section. I am just throwing out a first draft, please edit as necessary as we transition the actual content to match the outline.

Additionally, it would be a good idea to think about the questions which might be asked in a quiz on this section. Here are some possible questions:

 * "From where do we get the word statistics?"
 * "Who invented the term "standard deviation"?"
 * "I give you a list of numbers and ask for their sum. This is an example of ___________ statistics."
 * "Name three of the five(/six/seven) central concepts of statistics."
 * "Give a real-world example where it would be appropriate to use statistics."

Outline

 * Some Loose Examples
 * I always found those first pages in maths textbooks which laid out one or two real-world examples were very helpful in alleviating the more numbers-heavy aspects of the rest of the book. It would also be good if these examples covered the gamut of statistical topics (data description, probability, distribution, surveys/samples, correlation/causation, etc.) without too much overlap. They also can provide nice tie-ins to later chapters ("In the opening chapter, we asked how you would conduct a test to determine a drug's effectiveness ...")
 * Medicine: Drug testing = samples, null hypothesis, placebo effect
 * Business: Sales data report = mean/median/mode, standard deviation, bar graphs
 * Sports: Proposition bet = probability
 * Politics: Conducting a poll = sample size, bias, margin of error
 * Technology: Widget maker error = tolerance, yield, min-max analysis
 * A General Definition
 * Again, as this is the general definition contained in the introduction, we should be leery of any attempt to compartmentalize it ("Statistics includes Bayesian statistics, which does such and such, and also Gaussian statistics, and also, and also" ad infinitum), to overgeneralize it ("Statistics is the study of why nothing in life is certain"), and especially to underrepresent it ("Statistics are used a lot in the worlds of business, politics, and technology," with the implication that no other fields use statistics "a lot.")
 * Etymology
 * Does anyone have any interesting stories about the etymology of statistics? Or the history of statistics as it relates to its etymology? When did the word itself come into popular use? I find the fact that its modern derivation is German in origin to be particularly amusing.
 * History
 * The history should be 4 paragraphs at most, in my opinion, for two reasons. First is that this book, while attempting to encompass many facets of statistics, is more primarily concerned with the mathematical treatment of it - in short, this is not the History of Statistics book. (And there are many good references for its history.) Secondly, most of the concepts to be covered in this book have been discovered and enumerated in the past 200 years, suggesting that the topic's history is not so illustrious.
 * Also, these paragraphs should focus less on the details of the concepts, and more on what particular aspects of statistics were being advanced at this time.
 * Good Example - "In the 1860s, British scientist Francis Galton began using statistics to study hereditary traits, and helped form the concept of regression to more accurately identify and predict the relationships between things."
 * Paragraph 1 - Pre-1600 - Summarize all statistical efforts prior to the modern adoption of statistics in the 17th century. My own personal suggestion would be to focus on the taxation and collection efforts of the ancient world, with a culmination in the Domesday Book.
 * Paragraph 2 - 1600-1800, Early efforts to modernize statistics: Graunt, Pascal, Bernoulli, Bayes.
 * Paragraph 3 - 1800 - 1900, Gauss, LaPlace, Galton, the bell curve, Social Statistics
 * Paragraph 4 - modern day advances, Pearson, Spearman, Fisher, Neyman
 * "For additional reading, consider Stephen Stigler's Statistics on the Table: The History of Statistical Concepts and Methods."

 * Statistics as a subset of mathematics
 * By this I mean we should also explain that statistics is a lead in to many modern mathematical concepts: probability, distribution, samples, surveys, the bell curve, estimation, and data analysis. We shouldn't try to get into too many practical applications (that's covered in a later part of the introduction), nor should we get bogged down in definitions or examples. It should be sufficient to say that in answering the question "What is statistics?", part of the answer is "Statistics is an important part of mathematics."
 * Up Ahead
 * Just like it says, telling them what lays ahead within the Introduction chapter. Also, what's the deal with navigation within the Wikibooks? Is there some sort of navigation code available? Because right now all of these sections are just dead ends from the book perspective.Kthejoker 17:21, 7 March 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Statistics/Different Types of Data

It's book - not an encyclopedia!
Sorry to say this, but the current text is valueless. J. Morgan 6 Feb 2006

The section currently says:

 * Some made-up examples of ordinal scales are <0,1,2> representing ,  representing , and <-10,-9,-8> representing . Note that in these examples, the exact difference between [peaceful] from [threatened] was not important in determining that the next rank is [at war]; it is only important that [peaceful] is stronger than [threatened] in the same way that [threatened] is stronger than [at war].

How are the four colours ordinal? I can't see how they are supposed to be ranked data at all. Jimbotyson (discuss • contribs) 11:11, 9 October 2011 (UTC)

I removed the examples about planar objects, colours and peace and war and replaced it with an example of a Likert scale to illustrate the notion of rank. I think this is clearer. Jimbotyson (discuss • contribs) 15:13, 12 October 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Statistics/Different Types of Data


text:
GarageBand/The Loop Browser

In addition to letting you record your own musical performances (see the next chapter), GarageBand comes stocked with a library of musical building blocks called "loops". These beats, basslines, hooks, and other assorted bits of music are best taken along with other, more varied sounds that you record yourself, but for the purposes of learning how to use GarageBand, your first project will be composed exclusively from loops.

 * 1) This column is a filter for all the loops. You can click on the buttons to filter the loops out that you want. In this case 'Urban Bass' loops which show up on the right side of the panel.
 * 2) In this column you can see if a loop is a midi track or an actual recording. The loops with green icons are midi and the ones with blue icons are actual recordings.
 * 3) This column shows the name and also the description of the loop.
 * 4) This column shows the original tempo of the loop. When your project is a different tempo, the loop will adjust to it. If the tempos of your project and the loop differ greatly, the loop might not sound very good.
 * 5) In this column you can find the key of the loop. In case you do not know the meaning of key, use loops from the same key and they are likely going to sound nice together. Still you can use a mix of keys and this will make your song sound more experimental.
 * 6) This column shows the length of the loop in beats.
 * 7) You can also use the search function to search for loops.

title: GarageBand/The Loop Browser


text: User:Intgr

title: User:Intgr


text:
User:לערי ריינהארט/tests/bugzilla/01342

b:en: w:en: b:es: w:es:

01342
→ 01342 – "Error in link es "

tests
generates:
 * es → http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Es
 * es → http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/B:es

 * es → http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Es
 * es → http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/B:es

title: User:לערי ריינהארט/tests/bugzilla/01342


text:
Talk:Series License

I am making my own study guide (basic outline) the the Series 6 I'll be taking next week... would I be able to post it here or elsewhere. Of course I'd distribute for free since the guide is more for me than others.

title: Talk:Series License


text:
Talk:Modern Greek/LegacyLesson 10

Untitled
Very good try for the modern greek language, as is my native language i ll try to help you and correct if you have any mistake ;)

Infinitive
All sources on Greek grammar agree in that the infinitive does not exist in Modern Greek. The Greek word απαρέμφατο for infinitive is used only for ancient Greek. 70.52.2.61 19:14, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Accent
Every Greek word has an accent on one syllable: Enklitic forms, articles, and other short words like και are unstressed. In fact, the accent on από is there for historical reasons, because the word is unstressed. 70.52.2.61 14:32, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Hi 70.52.2.61 -- Thanks very much for your help! I edited the section about constructions with να a little more, to explain the aorist and progressive; I hope I didn't reintroduce any more mistakes :-) --Bcrowell 03:14, 7 February 2006 (UTC)

Introducing the letters
I think it would be easier to introduce the letters using the capital forms rather than the small ones (or both together). That way, many more of them look just like Latin letters, and have pretty much the same sounds: A, E, Z, I, K, M, N, O, T. --Macrakis 20:43, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi -- Thanks for your help and suggestions! On this point, however, I disagree with you. Many of the lowercase letters are also immediately recognizable to English speakers, and since writing is almost all lowercase normally, it seems better to me to teach the lowercase letters first.--Bcrowell 07:07, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

The sound of kappa
You say that kappa has the same sound as in English. That is more or less true (though Greek k isn't aspirated) before the sounds a/o/u, but not before e/i, where Greek k is palatalized, almost like kj. So it is unfortunate that your first few words include και, which doesn't sound much like "keh" in English. If you must have κ in your first line of words, how about κάτω, κότα, άκου? --Macrakis 20:43, 8 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Good suggestion -- done! --Bcrowell 07:08, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Greek words in English
I've added the comment about 10% to 20% of English words being of greek origin, you can see the Wikipedia article at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_words_of_Greek_origin and the ongoing discussion about this issue.

We need charts
There should be a section on noun declensions, and how each is declined along and there should be a big chart to describe regular 'ω' verbs and how they are conjugated in each mood, tense, and voice. But I don't know enough modern greek to do it.

title: Talk:Modern Greek/LegacyLesson 10


text:
Talk:Trigonometry/Remembering Trig Formulae

This page is out of order! The link is wrong at the bottom

Robinson0120 This page could do with a few graphs and maybe a few different explanations of why the identities exist (i.e., unit circle example of x^2 + y^2 = 1 and addition of opp/hyp instead of A/C off the top of my head). I'll get started on the explanations a little later, but the graphs are out of my hands. If whoever added the previous trigonometric function graphs could help out here, that would be great.

 * Secondary Note: Link at bottom fixed.

Misleading page name & Merger proposal
The page name "Using fundamental identities" implies that the page will show examples of how to use them. Instead, it just lists the fundamental identities and in one case derives it. As the page stands now, I think a better page name would be "Fundamental identities".

Also, I think this list of identities should appear earlier in the book -- I think it would be a good idea to merge this page into the page entitled Trigonometric Identities, which currently does nothing more than define "identity". Douglas W. Mitchell (talk) 16:09, 27 August 2010 (UTC)

Nemonic for trig identities
I know Soh-Cah-Toa is the popular one today; but I wonder if possibly others should be given in case some finds one easier than the another. Not everyone will find the same nemonic works for them.

For instance, the one I learned gives the formulas for all 6 identities: Sin, Cos, Tan, Cot, Sec, Csc and is:  oh ah oh-ah ah-oh ha ho;  where for example the spoken 'oh' is for o/h -and- 'oh-ah' is oh over ah or o/a.

Just the 1st 3 are easy to say; oh ah oh-ah. Saying all six is not as easy for some people. You need to practice saying it for some 10-15 min. But I still remember it after 45 years and personally prefer it. I am sure there must be others. Bob.A51 (discuss • contribs) 10:14, 6 November 2013 (UTC)