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Instructional Technology/Utilizing Technology for Meaningful Learning

= Technology for Meaningful Learning =

The information provided in this section of the Instructional Technology Book is provided by students in the Master's of Education program at the University of Mary Washington. Students are in the Leadership in Educational Technology program and are working in conjunction with Dr. Teresa Coffman in the ITEC547 Special Topics course (Integrating Technology for Meaningful Learning) during the Fall 2008 semester.

This chapter will investigate and explore the various theories and resources on technology tools and meaningful learning. The course also created classroom activities that explores the idea of technology and meaningful learning.

Here is the page to help with formatting text http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Help:How_to_edit_a_page#Wiki_markup

Please feel free to add to our research and classroom activities to grow the wiki of meaningful learning!

=What is meaningful learning?= What is Meaningful Learning?

Meaningful learning occurs when complex ideas and information are combined with students’ own experiences and prior knowledge to form personal and unique understandings. Learning is meaningful when the student comprehends the relationship of what is being learned to other knowledge.

The main characteristics of meaningful learning are that it is active, constructive, intentional, authentic, and cooperative.

 * Active – learning occurs through interactions with and manipulations of the environment
 * Constructive – learning occurs when we reflect on our learning activities in order to assign meaning to them
 * Intentional – learning occurs when students can identify the learning goals and are aware of their progress toward actively achieving the goals.
 * Authentic – learning occurs when context-based, complex, and relative to real-life.
 * Cooperative – learning occurs through working with others and participating in a learning community (Grabe & Grabe, 2007).

Meaningful learning can be recognized through the following indicators, which were presented by the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL). These indicators are useful as guidelines for planning new instructional activities and lessons and evaluating current instructional methods.

 * Vision – What does meaningful learning look like? Classes of enthusiastic learners collaborating to solve problems and gain understanding.  Students responsible for their own learning, actively defining goals and evaluating their own progress.
 * Tasks – Learning tasks are challenging, cross-curricular, and authentic. Often problem-based, collaborative, and time intensive.
 * Assessment – Assessment is ongoing, generative, and equitable for all learners.  Students are assessed through diverse performance-based methods which gauge what they know and can do with their knowledge.
 * Instructional Models and Strategies – Instructional strategies are interactive and constructive and involve individual and group models of instruction. Students are interacting with, teaching to, and learning from teachers and peers.
 * Learning Context – The classroom is a learning community that values diversity, fosters empathy, and builds on strengths of each learner. The learning community extends beyond the classroom to families, social communities, and corporate communities.
 * Grouping – Students are collaborating in heterogeneous groups that are reconfigured as needed by the teacher to ensure equitable, learning-centered work.
 * Teacher Roles – The teacher is acting as facilitator, guide, or co-learner. Through these roles the teacher is providing the learning environment for students, coaching students, and co-investigating with students.
 * Student Roles – The students are exploring, discovering, reflecting, teaching, and contributing within the learning environment. Students are interacting with each other and the world, advancing from apprentices to teachers themselves through integrating their knowledge (Jones, B., Valdez, G., Nowakowski, J., & Rasmussen,C., 1994, ¶ 2).

The NCREL provides several tools for planning meaningful lessons (http://www.ncrtec.org/pd/lwtres/laelt.pdf) and evaluating existing lessons (http://www.ncrtec.org/pd/lwtres/eawla.pdf).

“Children derive greater meaning in their school-based academic work from three sources. First, when they are actively engaged in the attempt to make sense of things they experience in school, they are encouraged to be meaning makers. Second, they derive meaning from seeing the relationship of parts to the whole, rather than being left with only parts. Opportunities to connect one concept or one skill to another increase students’ conceptual grasp of what they are doing, whether it involves communication, problem solving, appreciation of artwork, or carrying out projects. Third, they find meaning by connecting new learning experiences to their existing body of knowledge, assumptions, and meanings, much of which is rooted in their upbringing and cultural roots. We refer to teaching that seeks to maximize these three things as ‘teaching for meaning’” (Knapp and Associates, 1995, ¶ 2)

Elementary

Leadership in Technology: IT Starts at the Top

Technology in education is becoming a way of life behind school walls. One major factor to the success and growth of technology education at the elementary level is proficient training and support for teachers. Georgia State University has designed such a program for the sole purpose of teacher training. Due to the development of NETST or National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers, a significant number of pre-service teachers at universities like Georgia State University are beginning their teaching careers with strong educational technology backgrounds. With recent changes in the school’s curriculum and financial assistance, Georgia State’s College of Education is developing teachers with the experience, knowledge and confidence necessary to integrate technology into their instruction in meaningful ways. According to Weinburg, Collier & Rivera (2003), the Department of Early Childhood Education (ECE) remains committed to producing teachers who are “technically and emotionally” prepared to incorporate a variety of technologies into the instruction of elementary classrooms. School administrators credit the assistance of their ITC (Instructional Technology Center), skilled faculty and a team of educators who share the vision of integrating technology into everyday learning.

Learning Old Things in New Ways

A significant reason why technology should be present in elementary schools is to allow for effective differentiation of instruction. Depending on a student’s learning style, multi media is an excellent way of enabling elementary students to construct their learning and enjoy the overall learning experience. German researchers, Zumbach, Kumpf and Koch (2004) conducted a case study on an elementary school in Germany that assessed the benefits of combining PBL with technology. Using Micro Power Point, students worked in groups to tell, infer, predict the outcome of a story about a badger. The students were found to be engaged and focused on the task at hand. Audio, visual effects were used in this lesson and found to be very effective to the learning experience. Pre and post assessments found the students to be able to recall details and facts more vividly and the students appeared to be more motivated.

'Quality And'' Equity in Education?

A Balanced Playing Field for All Students

Means (1997) claims that schools that capitalize on the relationship between technology and education reform will help students to develop higher order skills and to function effectively in the world beyond the classroom. Achieving such fundamental change, however, requires a transformation of not only the underlying pedagogy (basic assumptions about the teaching and learning process) but also the kinds of technology applications typically used in classrooms serving at-risk students.

The NSRC's Impact on Student Achievement

According to the National Science Resource Center (2002), a significant amount of research indicates that quality instructional materials such as the NSRC’s Science and Technology for Children (STC elementary curriculum) enhances student achievement. For example, Delaware school districts base their elementary science instructional program almost entirely on the NSRC’s elementary science curriculum, Science and Technology for Children (STC). About ninety percent of Delaware public school fourth graders and seventy-four percent of its sixth graders met or exceeded state science standards on the 2002 Delaware State Testing Program (DSTP). And although the scores of minority students still lagged behind those of white students, the gap was narrower for science than any other academic area. In nearly half of the eighty elementary schools tested, there was essentially no achievement gap between white and black fourth graders. Virtually all Delaware school districts have attended an NSRC Elementary Science Strategic Planning Institute that prepared them to base their science programs on research and best practices.

Middle
Middle schoolers are a breed apart. They are breaking away from their family’s mandates toward those of their peers’. They fear the adult responsibilities which high schoolers are beginning to embrace, but, nonetheless, are curious about the adult world they see approaching. “Be certain that school is not just a preparation for a future world but a place where one can truly practice what one is learning; …making technological connections with real people who are part of the country in the text — in other words, using what they are learning in class to do what adults do” (Baenen, 2006). For learning to be meaningful then for middle schoolers, it must concentrate on being ‘authentic’ (or problem-based) and ‘cooperative.’

According to the National Educational Technology Standards (NETS), middle schoolers are able to use practical computer applications, Web tools, graphing calculators, communication delivery systems, and are familiar with ethical issues surrounding computer use (Tileston, 2004, pp. 23-27). Middle schoolers are ready to move on to using technology to develop critical thinking skills. However, these require metacognition. At a time when middle schoolers tend to project outwardly, longing to be part of a group, such an introverted activity may seem anathema. However, middle schoolers are still in a stage of vacillation from introversion to extroversion and back again. Therefore, it behooves educators to coax the reflective state in middle schoolers by requiring them to constantly monitor their progress. “Reflection cements the knowledge that learners construct. (Jonassen, 2000, p. 99). Just how can instructional technology (IT) enhance meaningful learning in the middle school? “IT enables activities like videoconferencing so that students can talk with others who are physically, intellectually, and culturally distant from them. The technology also enables classes in different communities to collaborate on science experiments, sharing data and results to enrich each other’s findings” (Pritchard, 2002, p. 41). As long as lesson plans can be devised to make the experience feel real to middle schoolers, learning can be meaningful to them by requiring them to define, classify, compare, contrast, challenge assumptions, project, explain, and/or reason all in an atmosphere of cooperation. “Working with technology can help students to reach the higher levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy, especially analysis, synthesis, and evaluation” (Tileston, p. 37).

High School
Technology can be used in many different ways to promote learning at the high school level. However, at any level, “students do not learn from technology, they learn from thinking” (Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003, p. 11). Teachers often use the same material from year to year making few changes each year. When incorporating technology teachers should keep in mind their overall objectives. If the technology does not support the objectives or it takes away from the lesson, then the teacher may want to rethink the use of technology.

“The skill and interest level in technology, as well as access to handhelds, laptops, and tablet computers, means students can – and want to- use technology (Jackson, 2005, ¶12). One way to integrate technology is through authentic assessments. A Webquest is an example of an authentic assessment. “Webquests are online, interactive modules that allow students to be involved in inquiry-oriented learning” and therefore leading to a more meaningful approach (Kundu & Bain, 2006, ¶8). Depending on the type of Webquest, students are not limited to the normal resources. They can take virtual fieldtrips to learn the material through the Internet.

Whatever type of technology a teacher chooses, the technology “should be used as engagers and facilitators of thinking and knowledge construction” (Jonassen, et al, 2003, p. 12).

=Theories=

Definition
Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of a new behavior. (Funderstanding, 2001)

Theorists and Effects to Education
One of the best examples of behaviorism is the story of Pavlov’s dog. In case you are not familiar I will summarize the story: Pavlov would ring a bell every time he fed his dog so after a while the dog expected to get food when he rang the bell. Pavlov slowly started reducing the amount of food the dog received when he rang the bell and eventually the food didn’t arrive when the bell rang. Another name for behaviorism would be conditioning.

In the 1950’s and 1960’s behaviorism was a very popular style of teaching. Students that were using correct behavior were rewarded and students that were not acting properly were punished. B. F. Skinner was a well know psychologist known for his research on behaviorism. Skinner believed this is the reason that people and animals act the ways they do. Skinner stated that a student does not passively absorb knowledge from the world around him but must play an active role, and that the action is not simply talking” (Boerre, p.5). I think that most of us agree that the more active a role a student plays in the classroom the more they are learning. An active role can be accomplished by asking questions, presenting to the class, answering direct questions, and helping out fellow students are just a few of the ways. B.F. Skinner said, “A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future.”(Boerre, p.3) When students are successful they feel good about themselves and then become more active participants in their own education.

Direct instruction is not a lecture approach but it is an instructional model that focuses on the interaction between teachers and students. (Magliaro, Lockee, & Burton, 2005, p.1) Projects that require interaction among students are very powerful. They allow the students creativity and show them that what they are learning is valuable and worthwhile. Student projects that involve multimedia assets encourage this belief even more. The students learn to take pride in their work.

Constructivism
Constructivist learning theory believes that the student must be able to build learning processes rather than just gain knowledge. While the latter statement may be oversimplified, it is the driving force behind constructivist learning theory and stands in stark contrast to behaviorism theory. Many theories on education and current research have “demonstrated the importance of social interaction in teaching and learning…and highlight the ‘knowledge construction’ processes of the learner and suggest that ‘meaning making’ develops through the social process of language use over time” (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004). This research reflects Vygotsky’s educational theory (1978) that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Per Vygotsky (1978), “Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57). Students must be able to transform knowledge gained through social interaction into something meaningful to themselves.  Central to constructivism is its conception of learning. Von Glasersfeld (1995) argues that: "From the constructivist perspective, learning is not a stimulus-response phenomenon. It requires self-regulation and the building of conceptual structures through reflection and abstraction" (p.14). Fosnot (1996) adds that "Rather than behaviours or skills as the goal of instruction, concept development and deep understanding are the foci (...) (p.10). Research suggests that students who are more actively engaged in the learning experience will be more responsible for their education and will be have a sense of ownership over it. “Technology can offer ways for students to establish personal and intellectual ownership of new concepts while they visualize and interact with abstract ideas” (Ferdig & Trammell, 2004). Students can formulate introspective analysis on materials presented and can personalize the knowledge in a way that is meaningful to them.

Problem Based Learning
History

For at least 100 years, educators such as John Dewey have stated the benefits of experiential, hands-on, student-directed learning (BIE, 2002). Problem-based learning, the term we know it as today, began at McMaster University Medical School (Canada) over 25 years ago.

What is Problem-based Learning? Problem-based learning is a total approach to education; a learner-centered educational method. It is based on real-world problems. Students are involved in active learning; the problems are real-world and are seen as important and relevant to their lives. These problems are carefully designed and selected for the learner to help build critical knowledge, problem solving skills, self-directed learning strategies and teamwork skills. The learners encounter a problem that they must solve. They solve these problems first with information that they already possess and then they will need to fill in what they don’t already know. Learners may turn to information resources such as books, journals, information found online, and interviews with experts. They will have to identify what they need to learn to understand the problem and how they are going to resolve it. Problem-based Learning prepares students to think critically and analytically. It also teaches students to find and use appropriate learning resources.

What is the Role of the teacher? The teacher has a unique role in Problem-based Learning; they act as a facilitator, coach and/or tutor. The teacher helps to guide the students in their problem solving efforts by providing materials, guidance and evaluation. The teacher is the guide on the side, not the sage on the stage in Problem-based learning.

What is the Role of the Student? The students assume responsibility for their own learning. This gives them ownership of their learning and also fosters motivation to learn and feelings of accomplishment. This helps to promote independent learners who will continue to be lifelong learners. The student will usually work in learning groups with five to seven members. These group members will work together to solve the problems and learn. They, along the way, will gain collaborative or team learning skills. After they have solved the problem they should assess themselves and their peers.

What type of problems are best? Real-world, complex problem act as a motivation or stimulus for learning. A good problem is one that is ill-structured, messy and complex in nature; requires inquiry, information-gathering, and reflection; is changing and tentative; and has no simple, fixed, formulaic, "right" solution (Finkle & Torp, 1995). These problems are used to engage students' curiosity and initiate learning. These problems are also designed to challenge learners to develop effective problem-solving and critical thinking skills.

Active Learning
What is Active Learning?

Active learning is just what one might guess, a method of education where students are actively participating in their own learning. Students are not passive in the classroom listening to lectures all of the time, but are reading, writing, discussing, or otherwise engaging themselves in solving problems (Bonwell and Eison, 1991, p.1). To be fully active in their own learning, students must be using higher-order thinking skills, including the three highest levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy: analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Thus, active learning activities require students to actively participate, and most importantly to think (Bonwell, et. al., 1991, p.1).

History

Active learning has been a strategy in education for as long as man has been around. Long ago, hunters and gatherers used a watch and imitate strategy to teach their young to survive. In his time, Socrates used what we now call the Socratic Method to get students to interact and discuss a problem to help them discover a solution. More recently, many different philosophers have supported active learning. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, John Dewey, and David Kolb all argue that experiences, whether it be Rousseau’s sensory, Dewey’s practical, or Kolb’s concrete experiences, are an essential part of learning. (Lorenzen, 2001, p.2)

What is the Role of the teacher?

Much like in problem-based learning, the teacher is no longer an authoritarian responsible for lecturing 100% of the time. In active learning, the teacher is responsible for facilitating experiences that will allow students to participate in their own learning and discover new information (Lorenzen, 2001, p.1) on their own and with their classmates.

'''What is the Role of the Student? '''

The active learning approach to education is built around allowing students to master ideas while developing strong thinking skills. In order for this to happen, students must be active participants in lessons and activities. They must be able to follow directions and take initiative during each lesson in order to learn and develop their thinking skills.

What are some examples of active learning techniques?

 * Small-group discussion
 * Role playing
 * Hands-on projects
 * Teacher driven questioning
 * (Lorenzen, 2001, p. 10)

 * Writing activities (Bonwell, et. al., 1991, p. 2)
 * Debates
 * Demonstrations
 * Simulations
 * (McAndrews, 1991, p. 40)

 * WebQuests (Grabe, et. al., 2007, p. 236)

Inquiry Learning
Inquiry is an approach to learning that involves exploration and discovery. Inquiry encourages students to ask questions, test hypotheses, and make conclusions all in search for new understandings. This approach is similar to problem-based learning. Instead of children listening to a teacher and repeating back information, they are actively involved in the learning process. Inquiry is driven by a students curiosity and interest. (National Science Foundation, 2000).

Inquiry is defined as:

 * seeking or requesting truth, information, or knowledge
 * investigating
 * inquiring or seeking information by questioning; interrogation.
 * question and query (dictionary.com).

From the above definition, we can get a broad understanding of the inquiry process. Students can not simply sit in class and absorb information, they need to be involved in activities that help them to build understanding. Inquiry learning stresses skills development. Students learn from their experiences and from asking questions. It is an open-ended and ongoing learning process that does not concentrate upon closure or on some important process, fact, principle, or law. “Inquiry means that teachers design situations so that pupils are caused to employ procedures research scientists use to recognize problems, to ask questions, to apply investigational procedures, and to provide consistent descriptions, predictions, and explanations which are compatible with shared experience of the physical world (Dettrick, n.d. ¶.1).”

=Using Technology Tools in New Ways=

E books – electronic books

 * Text is presented as digital text
 * Eliminates need for cumbersome textbooks and several textbook storage rooms per school
 * Easily reloaded if file lost or corrupted
 * Ebook files are often downloadable from the Internet, negating the need for shipping time and expenses
 * Students can carry hundreds of Ebooks in a PDA
 * Portions of text can be highlighted
 * Ebooks can be created by both students and teachers

Resources:

 * Project Gutenberg, the first producer of free electronic books (ebooks) http://www.gutenberg.org/
 * Leading online source of commercially available Ebooks http://www.ebooks.com/
 * University of Mary Washington eContent Collection http://www.netlibrary.com/
 * Free Ebook library from the University of Virginia for Microsoft Reader and Palm http://etext.virginia.edu/ebooks/
 * Online source of commercially available Ebooks and other digital products http://clickbankmall.t83.net/

Digital Story Telling

 * Story telling that combines graphics, sound, text, music, narration
 * Can be edited over and over
 * Can be published and easily shared
 * Extremely easy to use

Resources

 * Non-profit site with a mission to “assist young people and adults in using the tools of digital media to craft, record, share, and value the stories of individuals and communities”
 * http://www.storycenter.org/

 * Using digital story telling in the classroom.
 * http://www.teachingteachers.com/story.htm

 * Online workshop for creating digital stories for instructional reasons **http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/howto/Digital_Storytelling/

Virtual Supervision for Teacher Evaluation

 * Removes the impact of outside observer on classroom activity
 * Can be archived
 * Teacher can view observation prior to meeting w/ supervisor
 * Viable alternative to repeated cancellations of scheduled observations

Resources

 * Article by Anthony J. Amodeo and Andrew Taylor titled A Virtual Supervision Model.
 * http://www.techlearning.com/showArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=4RHH302UOL2WSQSNDLPCKHSCJUNN2JVN?articleID=17000147

 * Description of project designed to promote distance video conferencing as a means "developing strategies to improve and support initial teacher licensure education, facilitate human resource management, and help support observation of teaching by subject specialists".
 * http://www.techlearning.com/showArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=4RHH302UOL2WSQSNDLPCKHSCJUNN2JVN?articleID=17000147

Podcasting
Recording voices and movements has long been a tool of educators. Today you can record in many different ways very easily and share with a wide audience. One of the ways to record is through podcasting. A podcast is simply a voice recording that is in an MP3 format so that it can be downloaded on to an iPod or MP3 player. It can also be displayed in a webpage or blog and listened to on your computer. You could even link it in a Power Point or simply have an icon on your desktop for students to click and listen.

Click here for resources to start your own podcast!  http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/sound

RSS Feeds

 * Using an aggregator, you subscribe to sites that have RSS feeds. The result is that, instead of going to all you favorite sites to stay up to date on what’s new, you only need to check your aggregator site!

Resources

 * Blogging and RSS — Column by Will Richardson, Supervisor of Instructional Technology, Hunterdon Central Regional High School: The "What's It?" and "How To" of Powerful New Web Tools for Educators
 * http://www.infotoday.com/MMschools/jan04/richardson.shtml

Yahoo! Groups – An interactive classroom website
Teacher web pages have become a very popular tool that educators can use to increase communication with both parents and students and increase student achievement. As Johnson (2000) notes, "genuine, regular, real-time collaboration with parents can make a positive difference in a child’s learning experience." There are many sites, free and subscription, available to assist teachers in designing and maintaining webpages.

Free Teacher Webpages

 * Scholastic Homepage Builder
 * http://teacher.scholastic.com/homepagebuilder/
 * School Notes
 * http://schoolnotes.com/
 * Your Homework
 * http://www.yourhomework.com/
 * Assign-a-Day
 * http://assignaday.4teachers.org/

These websites have basic functions – posting syllabi and homework, teacher information, etc. While these sites are great for beginners the functions are basic and do not allow room for creativity by the teacher or students or interactivity between teacher, student and parent. Instead of creating a teacher webpage, teachers can create an online learning community by starting a Yahoo! Groups Page. On a group page students and parents can interact with each other and the teacher through a message board, create shared learning tools used the database feature or the file and photo share feature, share useful resources through the links feature and much more.

Online Learning Community
The Yahoo! Groups pages are a free resource that can be accessed at http://groups.yahoo.com/ Anyone can register for a new group. The groups can be open to the public or by invitation only. Other controls include the ability to decide which members can post messages, approve or deny posted messages and control which features members can see. There is also a blast e-mail feature to send emails to the whole group at one time. These control features are important when designing a webpage for student use.

The Yahoo Groups page has many useful and interactive features. The main feature of the webpage is a message board. Depending on the page settings, anyone can post to the board to discuss any number of topics. Grabe and Grabe (2007) note that computer mediated communication (CMC) has many advantages,

CMC may encourage more productive discussion by increasing the number of active student participants and extending the time available for discussion. It can help those who cannot think as quickly as others, may not be as proficient in      using the language, or may be apprehensive of sharing when in the physical presence of peers (Althaus, 1997). Even for those who have no difficulty expressing themselves in class, the writing activities involved in e-mail allow the time for reflection not available in a fast-paced classroom discussion. (2007, p. 188)

Access to a message board opens up many opportunities for students to interact with each other and the teacher digitally. Parents can even ask questions of the teacher on the message board. If one parent has a question it is likely that other parents have the same question. The “files” section gives users 20 MB of file storage. This would be an ideal place to post a syllabus, class policies, notes from the previous week, etc. This could also be used for document sharing. For example, students could collaborate to produce a group paper by posting the shared paper to the Groups page and allowing each group member to download the paper, make changes and re-post the paper with the changes and a new file name with the draft number. This would allow students to easily work collaboratively on the computer and track the update/revision process.

The "photos" section, with 30 MB of storage, could be used to give parents a peek into the classroom by posting photos taken during the day, or a place for the teacher or students to post photos for use in an assignment. There is a “links” section for posting live links to websites that accompany the class and also a “calendar” section for keeping track of project due dates and other important events. Lastly, there is a “database” feature that keeps databases such as phone books, class assignment lists, inventories, a FAQ and more. There is also a blank template which users can use to create their own database. A teacher could use this database in conjunction with an assignment. For example, students can collect information to put in the shared database. Once collected, students can process information into reports, graphs, or other appropriate product.

The greatest drawback to the Yahoo! Groups page is that an e-mail address is required for membership. This would likely restrict use of the Yahoo! Groups to high school students or as a webpage for parents. This is yet another good reason to advocate for a district-wide e-mail system for students in order that teachers and students have the opportunity to take advantage of an online learning community with Yahoo! Groups.

Gaggle.net is a FREE e-mail system for students which has e-mail, chat, message boards, wikis and blogs as well as a digital locker for on-line storage. Gaggle assists the teacher in monitoring student e-mails with very effective administrative tools. Any e-mail communication with inappropriate language, initials, or code words will automatically bounce into the administrator's inbox instead of delivered to the recipient. The teacher can also add words or slang that may be specific to your school or region that need to be blocked as inappropriate. The default can also be set up to limit student communications to students within the class, school or district. The only drawback to Gaggle is the FREE version has limited storage space and at times there are server issues, but this is a very robust tool for no charge.

Making Power Point a Multimedia Tool
The Microsoft program Power Point is ubiquitous today. Almost any meeting you go to, whether you are a teacher, doctor, or lawyer the presenter will be using Power Point to display the presentation. But have you thought of using Power Point as more than a presentation tool in your classroom? Power Point has many features that are not often used that can make it an interactive, multimedia experience. As DenBeste notes, with careful planning “Power Point can move beyond its static presentation by a ‘sage on the stage’ and lead to opportunities for discussion and consideration of visual sources” (2003, p. 492).

Hypermedia
Most Power Point presentations go in a straight line. Click to get to the next slide. However, it is very easy to insert an element of choice into the presentation through “action buttons.” This tool can make presentations more interactive as teachers and students explore the presentation together, choosing the next learning objective as fits the discussion. Teachers can also design interactive presentations that students can complete independently. This option is an excellent way to introduce K-2 students to the art of using hyperlinks to explore a webpage without the worry of unleashing young students on the Internet. Hyperlinks can also be used to link to an Internet site. This option allows for many educational opportunities. The presentation can link to further information, pictures, games for practice, etc.

For an example of a non-linear presentation with hyperlinks see the power point presentation Archaeology in this wiki. (http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/space/showimage/archaeology.ppt)

Make it happen:

Add an action button

1. Under Auto Shapes on the drawing toolbar choose an Action Button

2. Insert the Button into your slide

3. An Action Settings dialog box will appear

4. Use the Hyperlink pull down menu to link to any slide in the presentation or a url

Link an already existing clip art or word

1. Highlight the clip art or text

2. Under the Slide Show menu choose Action Settings

3. Use the Hyperlink pull down menu to link to any slide in the presentation or a url

Multimedia
One of the most powerful tools available in PowerPoint is the option to include video and sound files. By including multiple types of media, teachers can increase student interest in the presentation while helping students to discover new ways of viewing and processing information. As Grabe and Grabe note, “Multimedia presentation allow students more diverse experiences that may be more motivating or present information in ways that are more informative” (2007, p. 167). Additionally, this is an excellent way to differentiate instruction to meet the varied learning needs of students.

Make it happen:

Please note: It is important to include all video and sound files when copying the presentation to another media such as a CD or disk. This will ensure that the presentation will be able to access these multimedia files.

Video

1. Save a video file to your computer

 * http://www.unitedstreaming.com

2. From the Insert menu select Movies and Sounds

3. Select Movie from File

4. Browse for the saved video file, insert

5. Choose whether the movie will play automatically or on click

Sound

1. Save a sound file to your computer

 * http://www.stonewashed.net/sfx.html

2. From the Insert menu select Movies and Sounds

3. Select Sound from File

4. Browse for the saved audio file, Insert

5. Choose whether the sound will play automatically or on click

Commercials
Looking for a new way to transmit information? Why not make a commercial using Power Point? Design your presentation with quick, easily readable statements/instructions and graphics like a commercial. Follow the directions below to play the presentation continuously, sit back and watch your students enjoy and learn.

Make it happen:

1. Under Slide Transition choose Advance Slides Automatically

2. Apply to all slides

3. On the Slide Show menu choose Set Up Show

4. Select Loop Continuously Until Esc

Photo Essay
PowerPoint can be a great way to reach visual learners. Design a lecture for visual learners based on pertinent pictures. Or have students design a photo essay by taking pictures related to a specific subject and stringing them together. For example, students can take pictures of the angles that can be found all around the school or outside. Lastly, you can use pictures of your students to make a fun and touching slideshow.

Make it happen:

1. Save picture files to your computer

 * http://images.google.com/

2. From the Insert menu select Picture From File

3. Resize picture to take up the entire slide

=Technology Integrated Lesson Plans=

The links below are activities that use technology as tools to enhance meaningful learning in the classroom

 * http://www.technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/

 * Simulations
 * http://www.technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/simulations
 * Databases
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/database

 * Video
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/video

Art Lessons
These lesson plans have been used at different levels in the art curriculum. All can be adjusted to suit a particular grade level.

Mini Masterpieces SOLs listed for grades 5,8, and Art I. Students are divided into three groups: before, during, and after computer use.
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/Mini+Masterpieces

Tessellations This lesson is written for middle school students but can be used with fifth graders as well. Students create a tessellation on the computer to reproduce as a two dimensional work of art.
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/Tessallations

Watercolor Landscape and Haiku Fourth grade students painted a fall landscape and wrote a haiku to expain the feeling autumn promotes in them. One class period was spent in the computer lab typing the haiku. This form of visual literacy can be added to any art project.
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/Watercolor+Landscape+and+Haiku

Alphabet Book Fifth grade students created alphabet books for the kindergarten classes. Their tasks were to create a collage and a word page for the letters of the alphabet. One class period was spent in the lab typing their words and saving the pages for printing at a later time.
 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/Alphabet+Book

=Useful Resources=

Meaningful Learning Activities

 * http://technologymeaningful.wikispaces.com/getting+started

Computers as Mindtools for Engaging Learners in Critical Thinking

 * http://www.coe.missouri.edu/~jonassen/Mindtools.pdf

Enriching Student Minds: Meaningful Learning Experiences through Technology-Rich Information Inquiry

 * http://eduscapes.com/sessions/mind/

Meaningful, Engaged Learning

 * http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/engaged.htm

Using the New Bloom's Taxonomy to Design Meaningful Learning Assessments

 * http://www.apa.org/ed/new_blooms.html

= Reference= Baenen, J. (2006, October). Exploring the 'cusp culture' helps adolescents navigate the way to adulthood. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from National Middle School Association Web site: http://www.nmsa.org/moya/moya_2004/presskits/brave.htm

Boeree, G. (2006). B.F. Skinner. Retrieved on September 17, 2006 from http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/skinner.html

Bonwell, C., & Eison, J. (1991). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. George Washington University, Washington DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED340272)

Buck Institute for Learning. (2002). Problem based learning handbook. Retrieved October 29, 2006 from: http://www.bie.org/pbl/pblhandbook/intro.php#school

Carbonell, L. (2004). Behaviorism. What kind of questions do the behaviorists ask? Why? Retrieved on September 17, 2006 from http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/behaviorism.html

DenBeste, M. (2003). PowerPoint, technology and the web: More than just an overhead projector for the new century? The History Teacher, 36 (4). Retrieved from Wilson Web on November 17, 2006.

Dettrick, G. (n.d.) Constructivist teaching strategies. Retrieved October 11, 2006 from: http://www.inform.umd.edu/UMS+State/UMD-Projects/MCTP/Essays/Strategies.txt

Ferdig,R. & Trammell, K. (February, 2004). Content delivery in the blogosphere. T H E Journal, 31, p12 (4). Retrieved September 18, 2006 from Computer Database via Thompson Gale.

Finkle, S.L., & Torp, L.L. (1995). Introductory Documents. (Available from the Center for Problem-Based Learning, Illinois Math and Science Academy, 1500 West Sullivan Road, Aurora, IL 60506-1000.)

Fosnot, C. (1996). Constructivism: A psychological theory of learning. In C. Fosnot (Ed.) Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice, (pp.8-33). New York: Teachers College Press.

Funderstanding. (2001). Behaviorism. Retrieved on September 17, 2006 from http://www.funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm

Grabe, M., & Grabe, C. (2007). Integrating technology for meaningful learning. (5th ed.), New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company

Hill, W.F. (1990) Learning: A survey of psychological interpretations (5th Ed) NY: Harper & Row, Publishers Inc. Retrieved on September 30, 2006.from http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/2000/scheepers_md/projects/loo/theory/watson.html

Inquiry. (n.d.). Dictionary.com unabridged (v 1.0.1). Retrieved September 29, 2006, from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/inquiry

Jackson, L. (2005). Computers in the high school classroom. Retrieved November 20, 2006, from http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech/tech211.shtml

Jones, B., Valdez, G., Nowakowski, J., & Rasmussen, C. (1994). Designing Learning and Technology for Educational Reform. Oak Brook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved September 18, 2006, from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/engaged.htm

Johnson, D. (2000). Teacher web pages that build parent partnerships. Multimedia Schools. 7(4) pp. 48-51. Retrieved from Wilson Web on November 12, 2006

Jonassen, D., Howland, J., Moore, J. and Marra, R. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology: A constructivist perspective. (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle Rive, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall

Jonassen, D. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc..

Knapp, M. S. & Associates. (1995). Teaching for meaning in high-poverty classrooms. New York: Teachers College.

Kundu, R. and Bain, C. (2006). Webquests: Utilizing technology in a constructivist manner to facilitate meaningful preservice learning. Art Education. 59(2) pp. 6-11. Retrieved from Wilson Web on November 24, 2006.

Lorenzen, M. (2001). Active learning and library instruction. Retrieved on November 25, 2006 from http://www.libraryinstruction.com/active.html

Magliaro,S., Lockee,B., and Burton, J. (2005). Direct instruction revisited: A key model for instructional technology. Educational Technology Reasearch and Development 53 no441-55.

Maricopa center for learning & instruction (2001). Problem-based learning. Retrieved October 26, 2006 from: http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/pbl/info.html

McAndrews, L.J. (1991). Tearing down the wall: Adventures in active learning. The History Teacher, 25 (1), pp. 35-43. Retrieved from JESTOR on November 25, 2006.

Means, B. (1997). Critical issue: Using technology to enhance engaged learning for at-risk students. Retrieved from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at400.htm

National Science Foundation: Division of Elementary, Secondary, and Informal Education (2000) An introduction to inquiry in: Inquiry thoughts, views, and strategies for the K-5 classroom. Retrieved October 11, 2006 from: http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf99148/intro.htm

National Science Resource Center. (2002). The NSRC's impact on student achievement. Retrieved from http://www.nsrconline.org/about_the_nsrc/impact.html.

Pritchard, G. (Ed.). (2002). Improving learning with information technology. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Samford University (2006) Problem-based learning. Retrieved October 26, 2006 from: http://www.samford.edu/ctls/pbl_background.html

Scheepers, D. (2000) Learning Theories: Behaviorism. Retrieved from September 20, 2006 on http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/2000/scheepers_md/projects/loo/theory/behavior.html

Southern Illinois University School of Medicine. (1999) Problem-based learning initiative. Retrieved November 3, 2006 from: http://www.pbli.org/pbl/pbl.htm

Tileston, D. (2004). What every teacher should know about media and technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Torp, L. and Sage, S. (2002) Problems as possibilities: Problem-based learning for K–16 education. (2nd Ed).(pp. 15–16), Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). A constructivist approach to teaching. In L. Steffe & J. Gale (Eds.). (1995). Constructivism in education, (pp.3-16). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in society. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

Weinburg, M., Collier, S., & Rivera, M.  (2003). Preparing elementary teachers: Infusing technology as recommended by the international society for technology in educational technology standards for teachers (NETS.T). Tech Trends 47(4)pp. 43-47. Retrieved November 15. 2006 from the Wilson Web database.

Zumbach, J., Kumpg, D., & Koch, S.C. (2004). Using multimedia to enhance problem-based learning in elementary school. Information Technology in Childhood Education. pp. 25-37. Retrieved on November 1, 2006 from the Wilson Web database.


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Thai/Alphabet

Thai is a tonal language with 5 different tones. The Thai script may seem complicated to foreigners, but in order to study the Thai language, one must first know the Thai consonants and vowels. This page is based on the transliteration by the Royal Institute of Thailand, so you may find many other ways of transcribing the characters from other sources.

In Thai, there are 44 characters that represent only 21 consonant sounds -- that means some of the characters share the exact same sound! The native Thai has a way to remember such numerous letters, that is by memorizing with vocabulary. This is equivalent to English's "A as in Alpha", "B as in Bravo", "C as in Charlie", etc.

ก Gaw Gai

ข Kaw Kai

ฃ Kaw Kuat

ค Kaw Kwai

ฅ Kaw Kon

ฆ Kaw Ra Kang

ง Ngaw Nguu

จ Jaw Jaan

ฉ Chaw Ching

ช Chaw Chang

ซ Saw Soo

ฌ Chaw Cher

ญ Yaw (Pu) Ying

ฎ Daw Cha Daa

ฏ Dtaw Bpa Dtak

ฐ Taw Taan

ฑ Taw Mon Too

ฒ Taw Puu Tao

ณ Naw Nane

ด Daw Dek

ต Dtaw dtao

ถ Taw Tung

ท Taw Tahan

ธ Taw Tong

น Naw Nuu

บ Baw Bai Mai

ป Bpaw Bplaa

ผ Paw Pung

ฝ Faw Faa

พ Paw Paan

ฟ Faw Faan

ภ Paw Sam Pao

ม Maw Maa

ย Yaa Yaak

ร Raw Rua

ล Law Ling

ว Waw Waen

ศ Saw Sala

ษ Saw Ru Si

ส Saw Sua

ห Haw Heep

ฬ Law Ju Laa

อ Aw Aang

ฮ Haw Nok whook

Special symbols and exceptions

 * ทร (t + r) = ซ (s)
 * รร (r + r) = a[n]
 * ร -> อ when no vowel is present
 * ๆ (maiyamok) -> repeat word.
 * ฯ = abbreviation
 * ฯลฯ = etc.
 * -์ (karan) = silent / pronounce as in English

Live and dead syllables

 * Live syllables end in a long vowel or -am, -ai, ao or n, ng , m , y, w.
 * Dead syllables end in a short vowel or k, t, p.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thai/Alphabet


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Botany

Contributors

 * Introduction to the Guide
 * How to use this Guide
 * A special note ~ How to contribute

Table of contents
Plants tend to dominate both natural and rural landscapes in all but the most rigorous of environments

Plant Biology

 * Chapter 1 ~ An Introduction to Botany
 * Botany as a Science
 * Living Systems
 * Plants and their Uses
 * Introduction to Classification

 * Chapter 2 ~ Plant cells
 * Plant Cell Structure
 * Basic Cell Function
 * Plant Cell Specializations
 * Microscopy laboratory

 * Chapter 3 ~ Plant tissues
 * Meristems

 * Chapter 4 ~ Plant organs
 * The Leaf
 * The Stem
 * The Root

 * Chapter 5  ~ Plant reproduction
 * Vegetative Reproduction
 * The Flower
 * The Seed and germination
 * The Fruit
 * Flower laboratory
 * Seed laboratory

 * Chapter 6  ~ Plant Morphology

Plant Systematics

 * Chapter 7  ~ Plant Systematics

 * Chapter 8 ~ Microbiology
 * Bacteria
 * Viruses

 * Chapter 9  ~ Phycology (The Algae)

 * Chapter 10  ~ Mycology (The Fungi)

 * Chapter 11  ~ Bryology (The Liverworts & Mosses)

 * Chapter 12  ~ Division Pterophyta (The Ferns)

 * Chapter 13  ~ Division Equisetophyta (The Club Mosses and Horsetails)

 * Chapter 14  ~ Division Pinophyta (conifers)

 * Chapter 15  ~ Division Magnoliophyta (I) (flowering plants)
 * Magnoliopsida (dicots)

 * Chapter 16  ~ Division Magnoliophyta (II) (flowering plants)

 * Liliopsida (monocots)
 * Grasses

title: Botany


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Arabic/Writing lessons plan

This is a plan for propaedeutic lessons teaching the student the Arabic alphabet and its pronunciation (including letter combinations like laam-alif etc.). The goal is to introduce letters one by one so as not to overwhelm the student. In order to raise his confidence and provide feelings of success, words used for illustration and exercises shall mostly be understandable without any knowledge of Arabic: Arabic words that come from English (e. g. sandwich), Arabic words used in other languages (e. g. algebra?), common personal names (e. g. Ahmed) and names of countries or places whose name is not very different in Arabic (e. g. Iran, Hanoi).

For now, it will just be a list of words that could be used, but eventually it shall turn into an order for letters to be introduced like Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan and then into actual step-by-step lessons like the writing lessons at Modern Greek.

Please post any words that could be used here, preferably with vowel indications. Also transliterate or give the English equivalent.

Could somebody please add vowel signs to the Arabic words?

title: Arabic/Writing lessons plan


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User:Whiteknight/Message

This template is used to display an optional message as a floating box.

title: User:Whiteknight/Message


text:
Greek Mythology/Heroes/Achilles

Achilles was one of the best warriors "If not the best" of all time. His mother was a Nereid, or sea nymph. Shortly after he was born his mother dipped him into the river Styx, which made him invulnerable to all that went against him, but when he was dipped into the river his left heel was not submerged, leaving him with one weak spot. He went on to fight in the Trojan War, where he distinguished himself as the greatest warrior of both sides, defeating the Trojan hero, Hector, the oldest son of the king. In revenge, the prince's brother, Paris, threw a spear at him from the city wall, which struck him in the heel and killed him.

Mitologi Yunani/Akhilles

title: Greek Mythology/Heroes/Achilles


text:
Technical Theatre/Sound/Dynamic

Dynamic Microphones Dynamic microphones are versatile and ideal for general-purpose use. They use a simple design with few moving parts. They are relatively sturdy and resilient to rough handling. They are also better suited to handling high volume levels, such as from certain musical instruments or amplifiers. They have no internal amplifier and do not require batteries or external power.

How Dynamic Microphones Work As you may recall from your school science, when a magnet is moved near a coil of wire an electrical current is generated in the wire. Using this electromagnet principle, the dynamic microphone uses a wire coil and magnet to create to create the audio signal.

The diaphragm is attached to the coil. When the diaphragm vibrates in response to incoming sound waves, the coil moves backwards and forwards past the magnet. This creates a current in the coil which is channeled from the microphone along wires. A common configuration is shown below.

Earlier we mentioned that loudspeakers perform the opposite function of microphones by converting electrical energy into sound waves. This is demonstrated perfectly in the dynamic microphone which is basically a loudspeaker in reverse. When you see a cross-section of a speaker you'll see the similarity with the diagram above. If fact, some intercom systems use the speaker as a microphone. You can also demonstrate this effect by plugging a microphone into the headphone output of your stereo, although we don't recommend it!

Technical Notes:

Dynamics do not usually have the same flat frequency response as condensers. Instead they tend to have tailored frequency responses for particular applications.

Neodymium magnets are more powerful than conventional magnets, meaning that neodymium microphones can be made smaller, with more linear frequency response and higher output level.

title: Technical Theatre/Sound/Dynamic


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Technical Theatre/Sound/Condenser

Condenser Microphones Condenser means capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into electrical energy.

Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source. The resulting audio signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic. Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamics, making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. They are not ideal for high-volume work, as their sensitivity makes them prone to distort.

How Condenser Microphones Work A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them. In the condenser mic, one of these plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance. Specifically, when the plates are closer together, capacitance increases and a charge current occurs. When the plates are further apart, capacitance decreases and a discharge current occurs.

A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.

Cross-Section of a Typical Condenser Microphone

The Electret Condenser Microphone The electret condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage built in during manufacture. This is somewhat like a permanent magnet, in that it doesn't require any external power for operation. Therefore you don't need to worry about batteries or phantom power.

Other than this difference, you can think of an electret condenser microphone as being the same as a normal condenser.

Technical Notes:

Condenser microphones have a flatter frequency response than dynamics.

A condenser mic works in much the same way as an electrostatic tweeter (although obviously in reverse).

title: Technical Theatre/Sound/Condenser


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Human Anatomy/Neurology

Neurology is the study of neurons and their functions within the nervous system. Neurons are specially designed cells that transmit and receive messages enabling the body to perform tasks. Neurons consist of dendrites, cell body (or soma), and an axon. Dendrite comes from the latin word for tree as they branch out to make connections with other neurons. Dendrites create a graded potential when neurotransmitter substance opens chemically gated channels to receive incoming messages. If the signal is strong enough it will reach the neuron's threshold (in most cells it is about 70mv) and create an action potential by opening voltage gated channels and the neuron is said to 'fire'. A neuron will either fire or it will not - this is the all-or-none law. If a neuron reaches threshold it will fire the same electrical energy every time.

Normally a neuron has an overall negative charge. However when an action potential is created, sodium ions rush into the cell giving it a temporary positive charge. The electrical sign travels down the axon where it reaches the synapse. The synapse consists of the axon terminal of one neuron, the receptors on the dendrite or cell body of another neuron and the space between them (called the synaptic cleft). When the electrical signal reaches the axon terminal the energy is converted from electrical to chemical. A chemical neurotransmitter is released into the synapse where it will stimulate receptors on a postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitter fits into receptors like a lock and key - only specific neurotransmitter will stimulate a particular receptor. Examples of common neurotransmitter include dopamine, serotonin or acetylcholine.

title: Human Anatomy/Neurology


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Mathematics for Chemistry/Vectors

Free Web Based Material from HEFCE
There is a DVD on vectors at Math Tutor.

Vectors
Imagine you make a rail journey from Doncaster to Bristol, from where you travel up the West of the country to Manchester. Here you stay a day, travelling the next morning to Glasgow, then across to Edinburgh. At the end of a day's work you return to Doncaster. Mathematically this journey could be represented by vectors, (in 2 dimensions because we are flat earthers on this scale). At the end of the 2nd journey (D-B) + (B-M) you are only a short distance from Doncaster, 50 miles at 9.15 on the clockface. Adding two more vectors, (journeys) takes you to Edinburgh, (about 250 miles at 12.00). Completing the journey leaves you at a zero vector away from Doncaster, i.e. all the vectors in this closed path add to zero.

Mathematically we usually use 3 dimensional vectors over the 3 Cartesian axes $$x$$, $$y$$ and $$z$$.

It is best always to use the conventional right handed axes even though the other way round is equally valid if used consistently. The wrong handed coordinates can occasionally be found erroneously in published research papers and text books. The memory trick is to think of a sheet of graph paper, $$x$$ is across as usual and $$y$$ up the paper. Positive $$z$$ then comes out of the paper.

A unit vector is a vector normalised, i.e. multiplied by a constant so that its value is 1. We have the unit vectors in the 3 dimensions:

$${\hat {\mathbf i}} + {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

so that

$${\mathbf v} = A_x{\hat {\mathbf i}}  + A_y {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + A_z {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

The hat on the i, j, k signifies that it is a unit vector. This is usually omitted.

Our geographical analogy allows us to see the meaning of vector addition and subtraction. Vector products are less obvious and there are two definitions the scalar product and the vector product. These are different kinds of mathematical animal and have very different applications. A scalar product is an area and is therefore an ordinary number, a scalar. This has many useful trigonometrical features.

The vector product seems at first to be defined rather strangely but this definition maps onto nature as a very elegant way of describing angular momentum. The structure of Maxwell's Equations is such that this definition simplifies all kinds of mathematical descriptions of atomic / molecular structure and electricity and magnetism.

A summary of vectors
The unit vectors in the 3 Cartesian dimensions:

$${\hat {\mathbf i}} + {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

a vector $${\mathbf v}$$ is:

$${\mathbf v} = A_x{\hat {\mathbf i}}  + A_y {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + A_z {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

The hat on the i, j, k signifies that it is a unit vector.

Vector magnitude
$$V_{mag}  =  \sqrt { { A_x }^2 +  { A_y }^2 +  { A_z }^2 }$$

A constant times a vector
$${\mathbf v_{new}} = c A_x {\hat {\mathbf i}}  + c A_y {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + c A_z {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

Vector addition
$${\mathbf A}   + {\mathbf B}  = ( A_x + B_x  ) {\hat {\mathbf i}} + ( A_y + B_y  ) {\hat {\mathbf j}}  + ( A_z + B_z ) {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

Notice $${\mathbf B}   + {\mathbf A} = {\mathbf  A}   + {\mathbf B}$$

Vector subtraction
$${\mathbf A}   - {\mathbf B}  = ( A_x - B_x  ) {\hat {\mathbf i}} + ( A_y - B_y  ) {\hat {\mathbf j}} + ( A_z - B_z ) {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

Notice $${\mathbf A}   - {\mathbf B} = - ( - {\mathbf  A}   + {\mathbf B})$$

Scalar Product
$${\mathbf A}. {\mathbf B} =  A_x. B_x  +  A_y. B_y  +  A_z. B_z$$

Notice $${\mathbf B}. {\mathbf A} = {\mathbf A}. {\mathbf B}$$

Notice that if $${\mathbf A} = {\mathbf B} $$ this reduces to a square.

If A and B have no common non-zero components in $$x$$, $$y$$ and $$z$$ the value is zero corresponding to orthogonality, i.e. they are at right angles. (This can also occur by sign combinations making $${\mathbf A} . {\mathbf B} $$ zero. corresponding to non axis-hugging right angles.)

Vector product
$${\mathbf A}  {\rm x }{\mathbf B}  = ( A_y  B_z  - A_z B_y) {\hat {\mathbf i}} - ( A_x  B_z  - A_z B_x ) {\hat {\mathbf j}} +  ( A_x  B_y - A_y B_x) {\hat {\mathbf k}}$$

Notice $${\mathbf B}   {\rm x }{\mathbf A} = - {\mathbf  A}   {\rm x }{\mathbf B}$$

The minus sign on the middle term comes from the definition of the determinant, explained in the lecture. Determinants are defined that way so they correspond to right handed rotation. (If you remember our picture of $$\cos^2 + \sin^2 = 1$$ going round the circle, as one coordinate goes up, i.e. more positive, another must go down. Therefore rotation formulae must have both negative and positive terms.) Determinants are related to rotations and the solution of simultaneous equations. The solution of $$n$$ simultaneous equations can be recast in graphical form as a rotation to a unit vector in $$n$$-dimensional space so therefore the same mathematical structures apply to both space and simultaneous equations.

title: Mathematics for Chemistry/Vectors


text:
User:FayssalF

FayssalF at the english wikipedia

title: User:FayssalF


text:
Talk:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Comprehension

Pictures
Hi!

Would be nice to see some pictures, if possible. Look in the wikimedia-Collection or make your own drawings. In "Non-Human Language - Animal Communication" needs a bit trimming, you could make some more paragraphs and subheadings. If you can fill the rest, it will be a good chapter :D --Aschoeke 11:53, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

Cleanup required
Since 2009 some duplicated text has been introduced, but it does not seem exactly the same as the original material. It may have been copied from the Google books version, which looks like it has been modified since this page was written. Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 20:52, 5 December 2011 (UTC) The duplicated and unformatted text is still there. I can't see how to remove it (being a novice), or I would have done. This needs sorting out. Martin852 (discuss • contribs) 19:16, 17 August 2012 (UTC)


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Cookbook:One Cup Chai

This is a simple guide to brewing one cup's worth of chai.

Ingredients

 * ¾ cup water
 * 1 tablespoon milk
 * 1 tablespoon honey
 * 1 teaspoon earl grey tea leaves
 * 6 cardamom seeds
 * 8 cloves
 * 3 black peppercorns
 * 1 cinnamon stick (or ½ teaspoon of cinnamon sugar)

Procedure

 * 1) Place the water in a pot on the stovetop on the lowest setting, or just below a boil. The more you let evaporate, the stronger the chai's flavor will be.
 * 2) If you have a mortar and pestle, mash the cardamom seeds, cloves, and black pepper corns together. If you do not have a mortar and pestle, then de-shell the cardamom seeds and consider using a pepper grinder. If you have cinnamon stick, break it into four pieces, if you have cinnamon sugar, put it in the water now. Put all of the spices in the water, as well as the honey. Mix well so that the honey dissolves into the water.
 * 3) Stir, occasionally smelling or tasting a bit of the chai. If the spices are not strong enough, then let it brew longer or add more spices. Usually, it takes 5–10 minutes for all of the spices to let their flavor out.
 * 4) Once you are satisfied with the spices, add the tea. Depending on how long you leave the tea in, it will be stronger.
 * 5) At this point, the chai is probably a bit strong and may have a bitter flavor (though the honey will often make it a bit sweeter). Bring the chai to a simmer at this point, so that the milk doesn't make it too cold. Don't cook it too much—it may all evaporate or the spices may overpower it!
 * 6) Take the pot off of the stove. Put a strainer on top of an empty pot or pan. Dump your concoction into the strainer, so that all the liquid pours into the pot or pan below it. Put the hot pan or pot back on the stove so it doesn't crack or melt your counter top.
 * 7) Pour some milk in a mug/teacup. Then pour the strained tea into the milk (we do this so the milk is not scalded and flavorless).
 * 8) If it is too bitter, consider adding a little bit of honey or making changes to the ingredients list.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * There may be some spice residue floating around in your chai. You can get rid of it using a finer sieve, but it adds flavor and isn't going to hurt anyone.

title: Cookbook:One Cup Chai


text:
Mathematics for Chemistry/Trigonometry

Trigonometry - the sin and cosine rules

In the following trigonometric identities, $$a$$, $$b$$ and $$c $$ are the lengths of sides in a triangle, opposite the corresponding angles $$A$$, $$B$$ and $$C$$.

 * The sin rule $$\frac{a}{\sin A} = \frac{b}{\sin B} = \frac{c}{\sin C}$$
 * The cosine rule $$c^2 = a^2 + b^2 -2ab \cos C$$
 * The ratio identity $$\tan A = \frac{\sin A}{\cos A}$$

Trigonometric identities
$$ \cos^2 \theta + \sin^2 \theta = 1$$

Remember this is a consequence of Pythagoras' theorem where the length of the hypotenuse is 1.

$$\sin ( \theta + \phi ) = \sin \theta \cos \phi  + \cos  \theta \sin \phi$$

$$\cos ( \theta + \phi ) = \cos \theta \cos \phi  - \sin  \theta \sin \phi$$

The difference of two angles can easily be generated by putting $$\phi = -\phi$$ and remembering $$\sin -\phi = - \sin \phi$$ and $$\cos -\phi = \cos \phi$$. Similarly, the double angle formulae are generated by induction. $$\tan ( \theta + \phi )$$ is a little more complicated but can be generated if you can handle the fractions! The proofs are in many textbooks but as a chemist it is not necessary to know them, only the results.

Identities and equations
Identities and equations look very similar, two things connected by an equals sign. An identity however is a memory aid of a mathematical equivalence and can be proved. An equation represents new information about a situation and can be solved.

For instance,

$$ \cos^2 \theta + \sin^2 \theta = 1 $$

is an identity. It cannot be solved for $$\theta$$; it is valid for all $$\theta$$. However,

$$ \cos^2 \theta = 1 $$

is an equation where $$\theta = \arccos \pm 1$$.

If you try and solve an identity as an equation you will go round and round in circles getting nowhere, but it would be possible to dress up $$\cos^2 \theta + \sin^2 \theta = 1$$ into a very complicated expression which you could mistake for an equation.

Some observations on triangles
Check you are familiar with your elementary geometry. Remember from your GCSE maths the properties of equilateral and iscoceles triangles. If you have an iscoceles triangle you can always dispense with the sin and cosine rules, drop a perpendicular down to the base and use trig directly. Remember that the bisector of a side or an angle to a vertex cuts the triangle in two by area, angle and length. This can be demonstrated by drawing an obtuse triangle and seeing that the areas are $$\frac 1 2 \frac 1 2 .R.h$$.

The interior angles of a polygon
Remember that the interior angles of a $$n$$-sided polygon are $$180 (n-2)$$(in degrees) or ($$n \pi - 2 \pi$$) (in radians)

For benzene there are six equilateral triangles if the centre of the ring is used as a vertex, each of which having an interior angle of 120 degrees. Work out the angles in azulene, (a hydrocarbon with a five and a seven membered ring), assuming all the C-C bond lengths are equal, (this is only approximately true).

title: Mathematics for Chemistry/Trigonometry


text:
User:Srah

I was an English Assistant from 2002-2003 at the Lycée Valéry Larbaud in Cusset, France. I can be reached at smcnitt AT umich DOT edu.

title: User:Srah


text:
Modern Greek/Lesson 01.4

This is the fourth lesson teaching you how to read, write and pronounce Greek. By this time, you're already more than halfway done. The rest of the letters will be easy to learn.

Let's start with Eta:

Η η

Even though the capital letter looks like an H and the small letter looks somewhat like a small N, this is actually a vowel. In Hellenistic, Medieval, and Modern Greek, it is pronounced like the Spanish "i" (IPA [i]), same as the letter Iota. In Ancient Greek, it used to be pronounced like a long "e", as in the word "pain". That's why words which got derived in the past from Greek and are spelled with an Eta are actually spelled with an E in English, which is also a different sound from the original eta. An example: δημοκρατία became "democracy" and not "dimocracy" in English. In Attic Greek it must have sounded different from both. Fortunately, this reference to those English words is a way to know whether a Modern Greek word is spelled with Eta or Iota. In standard transliteration this letter is rendered as ī (the dash is used in order to distinguish it from Iota), while in names and toponyms it is transcribed simply as i (with the disadvantage of being unable to distinguish it from Iota). Sometimes h is used just because of the similarity of the respective capital letters, providing though a weird and wrong spelling. Practice your reading now:

 * ακαδημία
 * Κρήτη
 * Αμερική
 * ηλεκτρονικά
 * Ισραήλ
 * Ινδονησία
 * Μαδρίτη
 * Τρίπολη
 * Άρης
 * Σπάρτη
 * Ταϊλάνδη

There is yet another letter that sounds like i: upsilon.

Υ υ

The shape of this Greek letter seems to refer us to both Y and U, and that's correct: when English words derive from Greek ones, most of times this letter is rendered as Y in English and vice versa. Also, in very ancient Greek this letter was pronounced like the u in "rule" (IPA [u]) but later it transformed to the French U sound (German Ü, IPA [y], sound which doesn't exist in English). In medieval Greek the letter started sounding just like Iota and Eta. Example words:

 * δυναμική
 * ανάλυση
 * Σύδνεϋ
 * Τόκυο
 * Συρία
 * Υεμένη

Now you're probably wondering how to write the u sound as in "rule" in Modern Greek. Greeks need two letters for this: Omikron and Upsilon (ου). This probably sounds familiar to those who have studied French, because French also spells [u] as "ou". Here are a lot of sample words with this letter combination, for practice:

 * Ουκρανία
 * Ρουμανία
 * Τουρκία
 * μουσική
 * Καμπούλ
 * Καλκούτα
 * Ιερουσαλήμ
 * Σεούλ
 * Περού
 * Ρουάντα

Now you're going to learn another very important Greek letter: Omega.

Ω ω

This is the second variety of O in Greek. The O that you already learned is called Omikron, which translates to "small O". This one is called Omega, which translates to "big O". They are both pronounced the same, as o in obey. In standard transliteration, this letter is rendered as ō because in ancient Greek it had the sound of a long [o], which made it essentially a different vowel. Transcription in names and toponyms is usually just o. Sometimes unofficially it is rendered as w (inspired by the shape of the small letter), but this leads to weird and incorrect spelling, as in some pretty weird-looking transliterations, like "egw agapw". Knowing this letter (and the ones taught before), you can read some new words:

 * Ιαπωνία
 * Ρωσία
 * ωροσκόπιο
 * ερωτικός
 * άρωμα
 * Κώστας
 * Κως
 * Πορτ-ω-Πρενς
 * Ρώμη
 * Πολωνία

The last letter I'd like to introduce to you in this lesson is Beta.

Β β

As I mentioned earlier, this letter sounds like an English V (IPA [v]), not like a B. That's why it is often used for English words that contain V or W. In classical Greek it was pronounced like English B, explaining the common origin of the two letters, but the pronunciation changed to V in Hellenistic Greek. Compare the sound of Beta to the sound of the Spanish 'B', which has a V sound unless it's found in the beginning of a word. Beta is generally used very often and there are lots of example words that you can use for practice:

 * ασβέστης
 * αμβροσία
 * Βιετνάμ
 * Βολιβία
 * Λίβανος
 * Ιβάν
 * Οττάβα
 * Κούβα
 * Κουβέιτ
 * Αλβανία
 * Λίβερπουλ
 * Βρετανία
 * Βανκούβερ
 * Μελβούρνη
 * Βιέννη
 * Βατικανό
 * Βουδαπέστη
 * Ελ Σαλβαδόρ
 * Βέρνη
 * Βομβάη
 * Ρέυκιαβικ
 * Κολομβία
 * Βαρσοβία
 * Λισαβόνα
 * Δουβλίνο
 * Ταϊβάν

That's it for this lesson! If you didn't have trouble reading the example words, you're ready to continue with the next lesson!

Solutions

title: Modern Greek/Lesson 01.4


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Ocimum basilicum

This module originally a transwiki of Basil from this version, now forking as a how-to-grow chapter. -- SB_Johnny | talk 18:28, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Horticulture/Ocimum basilicum


text:
User talk:Kitty the Random~enwikibooks

Hello! Please add anything you'd like to the Pixel-Art book. I sort of forgot about it a while ago, maybe you can rekindle my interest. Make any additions you like, I will try and moderate them if they are too radical. Thanks for the help :) Jellocube27 18:51, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kitty the Random. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kitty the Random~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Kitty the Random~enwikibooks


text:
Sexual Health/Abstinence

Abstinence is the only 100% guaranteed method to avoid unwanted pregnancy and sexual transmission of diseases. Abstinence is the practice of not engaging in any sexual contact: Intercourse, oral sex, anal sex, or fondling or any sort of foreplay.

What is Abstinence?
Sexual abstinence can be defined in different ways, but most frequently it is the avoidance of sexual intercourse with a partner. Abstinence always includes avoiding vaginal intercourse, and sometimes people extend it to mean forebearance from oral and/or anal sex as well.

Through abstinence, one avoids pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections.

To use abstinence to protect against pregnancy, no sexual contact that could allow sperm to enter the vagina can be engaged in - vaginal sex has the highest risk of pregnancy, but leakage of sperm from anal sex or contact with sperm from non-penetrative sex ('frotting') can lead to pregnancy.

To use abstinence to protect against sexual transmission of diseases, anal, vaginal, and oral sex must all be avoided. It must also be remembered that many sexually transmitted diseases, most importantly AIDS, can be transmitted through exposure to infected blood.

Many people who are abstinent refuse to have sex and some (or all) forms of sexual contact before marriage.

A person may masturbate while being abstinent, so long as the masturbation does not involve contact with another person, or another person's fluids or genitals. If complete abstinence is practiced faithfully, there is zero risk of pregnancy or sexual transmission of diseases.

Anal sex carries a higher STD transmission risk than vaginal and oral sex. If a person practices abstinence by engaging in anal sex when they would otherwise have engaged in vaginal or oral, they will raise their risk of contracting an STD if their partner or partners are infected.

It is important to remember that 100% protection only applies if abstinence is 100% practiced. Practicing abstinence most of the time and occasionally engaging in unprotected sex will elevate your risk of becoming pregnant or contracting an STD.

Keep in mind that even if you practice abstinence, STDs and other diseases can still be transmitted through direct blood contact with an infected person, or through sharing an intravenous needle with an infected person.

Virginity
People who have never had sex are called virgins. As different people have different opinions as to what constitutes sex, some people may consider themselves virgins even if they have had some forms of sex. Also, some people who have had sex previously, but are now waiting until marriage to have sex again refer to themselves as born again virgins, and some people use the term lapsed virgin or non-practicing virgin to refer to a person who engages in sexual activity.

Romance and Abstinence
It is very possible to maintain a lasting romantic relationship and remain abstinent. Typically, people following this path choose to wait until marriage to have sexual intercourse with their partner for the first time. People who are taking this route are still not immune to risk, and should test themselves for STDs before engaging in sex for the first time with their partners. It is possible for an abstinent person to have contracted an STD at birth, or from another event, such as exposure to infected blood (blood transfusions were common culprits historically, but now all blood donated is tested for disease), sexual activity that happened before they began practicing abstinence, or anal or oral sexual activity, which can be passed to their partner after they are married. People who are abstinent until marriage may still use birth control methods to prevent unwanted pregnancies after marriage (if getting pregnant is unwanted).

Even couples that are sexually active may practice abstinence at certain times of their life. Certain medical conditions may make intercourse difficult, painful, or unsafe, for example. Also, couples that use fertility awareness for birth control must practice abstinence while the woman is fertile. Keep in mind that fertility awareness as a means of birth control has a high failure rate, especially in women with irregular menstrual cycles.

Instead of having sex, abstinent couples can bond in other romantic ways, such as cuddling, hugging or kissing. They can also express their feelings for each other verbally, instead of relying only on touch to convey affection.

title: Sexual Health/Abstinence


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Sexual Health/Sexually Transmitted Diseases

'''NOTICE: While this page in a good attempt at basic information, it is in no way completely accurate nor inclusive of all essential information for those seeking generalized information on sexually transmitted diseases. For example, while oral sex is mentioned, the oral transmission route via saliva and throat tissue is not indicated in the very first paragraph, only semen or vaginal secretions. '''

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) are diseases that can be passed between sexual partners via semen or vaginal secretions. Some of the most common or famous STDs include HIV, Herpes, and Gonorrhea. Many STDs can be transmitted through oral and anal sex, as well as vaginal intercourse.

Contracting STDs
As their name implies, the primary method for contracting an STD is through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected partner. For this reason, sexual partners should be tested to ensure that they are not infected, and therefore do not pose an infection risk to their partners. Being in an exclusive, long-term monogamous relationship with an uninfected partner is a good way to avoid STDs. Keep in mind that a person might be infected with an STD and not know about it. It is important, therefore, that couples should get tested for STDs.

The only 100% way to avoid sexual transmission of an STD is abstinence. However, condoms offer good protection from most STDs. Cervical barriers such as diaphragms may offer some protection from STDs, but not as good as condoms. Other methods of birth control do not offer any protection from STDs.

STDs may also be contracted in non-sexual ways. The child of an infected mother might contract the infection during childbirth or breastfeeding. STDs can also be transmitted directly by blood. People who use intravenous drugs, such as heroin, can pass STDs on infected needles. All blood transfusions are tested for STDs, and infected blood is discarded, but infected transfusions have transmitted in the past. People who are very recently infected may test (falsely) negative for the disease, and should retest themselves after a period of some weeks.

STDs
There are many different STDs in this world. Some STDs can be cured with treatment. Some STDs cannot be cured, but can be managed with treatment. Some STDs cannot be cured, and are fatal.

HIV
Human Immunodeficiency Virus, or "HIV" is one of the most well-known STDs, and certainly one of the most dangerous. HIV is caused by a virus, and there is no known cure. HIV attacks the immune system, making the victim prone to infections. When the Immune system is destroyed by the HIV, the person is said to have Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, or "AIDS". HIV can be helped with medicine, but it is almost always a death sentence in the long run. HIV can be transmitted through sex, direct blood contact, and through contact with other infected fluids. HIV can be passed in a number of ways besides sexual contact, such as birth (from the mother to the child), or through sharing intravenous needles. People who are virgins, or who have previously engaged in safe sex practices may still be infected with HIV.

When it was first discovered, HIV was predominant in gay men, but recently it has been infecting homosexual and heterosexual people equally. HIV can be transmitted easily through anal and vaginal sex, and not as easily through oral sex. HIV is a large problem in the developing world, and is a growing problem everywhere else. Here are some facts about HIV:

 * HIV currently is not curable, but is treatable—to a degree—with medication.
 * There is no vaccine for HIV.
 * HIV infects people equally well, regardless of race, gender, age, or sexual orientation.
 * 1 in 4 people who have HIV don't know they are infected.
 * HIV causes AIDS.
 * HIV has no visual symptoms. It is impossible to tell if a person has HIV by their appearance.
 * HIV can be spread by any transmission of infected bodily fluids. Unprotected sex, sharing of intravenous needles, and other contact between bodily fluids can transmit the disease.
 * People who have multiple sexual partners, or who frequently engage in unprotected sex are at high risk for contracting and spreading HIV.

If you suspect you may have been exposed to HIV, or if you are not certain, you should consult a doctor immediately.

Herpes
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is the most common STD. It is a virus that is transmitted by skin to skin contact. Unlike HIV, herpes isn't fatal, nor does it reduce the effectiveness of the immune system.

Herpes causes occasional outbreaks known as cold sores, which are open sores on the skin in the area of the original infection. People with herpes are especially capable of transmitting the disease during an outbreak, but it is possible to transmit herpes even when there is no outbreak at all. Herpes can be treated with medicine, but cannot be cured.

1 in 4 of women and 1 in 9 men carry HSV-2, the type that most commonly causes genital cold sores. Although, 8 in 10 people who have herpes are asymptomatic and unaware they have it. Up to 90% of people test positive for HSV-1, the type that most commonly causes oral cold sores. Because it is so common, most doctors do not test for it unless the patient is complaining of an outbreak (to confirm the diagnosis), or specifically asks to be tested for herpes.

HPV
HPV (human papilloma virus) is also a virus. There are many different strains of HPV. Some strains cause unsightly warts to form on the genitals. Other strains cause cervical cancer in women - this is why it is important for sexually active women to have regular pap smears to test for precancerous cervical cells.

While a person's immune system may fight off the viral infection, there is no treatment for HPV. Warts may be removed by a doctor if they are bothersome. There is now a vaccine for HPV that is available to women.

Gonorrhea and Chlamydia
These are bacteria infections that are transmitted through sex. They may also infect other locations, such as the eye or throat. Like all bacterial infections, they may be treated with antibiotics.

The most common symptom is none at all, especially in women. In people who do have symptoms, painful urination is the most common one. In women, both gonorrhea and chlamydia can spread to the uterus and fallopian tubes, causing Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID). PID can cause infertility and greatly increases the woman's future risk for ectopic pregnancy.

Syphilis
Syphilis is a bacterial infection. It has three stages. In the first stage, primary syphilis, the person develops a sore in the location where they contracted the infection. In the second stage, secondary syphilis, the person develops a distinctive rash. One feature of this rash is that it is symmetrical - if it is on the right hand, it will be on the left hand also. If it is on the right hip, it will be on the left hip, too.

Both the sore and the rash will heal on their own. Between one to ten years after infection, tertiary syphilis will begin. In this stage, tumor-like growths will begin to appear, and neurological and cardiovascular damage may occur. Syphilis is treated with antibiotics.

Pubic Lice
Pubic lice are lice that are living in the pubic hair. They are not to be confused with head lice or scabies. Pubic lice can be transmitted through direct skin contact with an infected person, clothing, furniture or bedding, but cannot be transmitted through fluids or blood.

Protect yourself
The only way to completely protect yourself from acquiring STDs through sex is to remain abstinent. However, barrier birth control methods, such as condoms, do provide some protection, if used properly. The best ways to protect yourself from STDs are not to have unprotected sex, and not to have sex with strangers. Oral and Anal sex can transmit STDs, so protection should be used when engaging in these types of activities as well.

Get Tested
It is a good idea to get tested for STDs regularly if you are, or have been, sexually active. People with multiple sexual partners are at the greatest risk for contracting an STD, and then to pass on that STD to many partners. If you have unprotected sex, you should get tested immediately, and also get tested again in 6 months, to make sure. If you are infected, you should see a doctor immediately to discuss treatment options, and you should not engage in unprotected sexual intercourse again until it is deemed safe to do so (if ever).

Hospitals and primary care physicians can either perform an STD test, or can tell you where to get one. Many organizations offer free or low-cost tests for people who need them.

Talk With your partner
It is important to talk with your sexual partners about STDs. Many people who are infected don't know that they are infected, and some people who are infected might not mention it before sex. Women should insist that men wear condoms before having sex. It is a good idea for a woman to know the proper way to put on a condom, just in case. You should ask your partners when they were last tested, and what the results of those tests were. It is impossible to tell just by looking at a person whether they have an STD or not, so you should always talk with your partners before engaging in sexual intercourse.


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Sexual Health/Sex

Sex, is both a noun and a verb. Sex - the noun - refers to male and female components needed for sexual reproduction, and is quite different from gender. Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and women. Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men (masculine) and women (feminine).

Sex as a verb refers to any action capable of provoking an orgasm. Heterosexual means an act involving a male and female. Homosexual refers to sexual acts between partners of the same sex. There are multiple ways to enjoy sexual encounters, including ways that are likely to provoke pregnancy and ways that invoke transitory pleasure.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) may be contracted during unprotected sexual contact. STIs can reduce fertility, cause death or serious health risk, and should be taken care of immediately by a health care professional. See Sexually Transmitted Diseases for more information.

Vaginal Intercourse
Vaginal intercourse can be defined as the penetration of the vaginal cavity. In a heterosexual context, vaginal intercourse occurs when a penis enters a vagina. In this case, the biological purpose of penile penetration of a vagina is to implant semen and provoke the conception of a fetus. However, the intention of heterosexual vaginal intercourse does not have to be conception. Likewise, homosexual vaginal intercourse, or sex between two women, can be accomplished with the use of fingers, hands or sex toys. Between queer individuals no standard definition of sex can be applied, as sex can take on any form of physical pleasure.

A vaginal cavity usually produces adequate lubrication for the act, but additional lubrication may be needed, particularly for older women. Only water-based lubricants intended for that purpose should be used, as other lubricants can cause irritation and may reduce the effectiveness of any barrier-method contraceptive used. Some lubricants are neutral whilst others explicitly have spermicide to reduce the possibility of conception. It is important to note that even small quantities of semen splashed near the vagina can occasionally provoke pregnancy without actual penetration having occurred.

Anal Sex
Anal sex can be defined as an object entering an anal cavity in order to provide pleasure. The anus does not produce natural lubrication as the vagina does, so lubricant should always be used when engaging in anal intercourse. Also, the lining of the rectum is not as strong as the lining of the vaginal canal, so vigorous sex can cause rips and tears in the lining of the rectum. For this reason, plenty of lubrication should always be used, and partners should proceed carefully.

When engaging in anal sex, a condom should always be worn to prevent the bacteria from the digestive tract from entering the urethra of the penis. These bacteria can cause dangerous infections in an exposed penis. Also, STIs from the penis can be quickly absorbed through the thin membrane of the rectum. When using hands or fingers to engage in anal penetration, be sure to wear well-fitting sterile gloves, and change gloves between sexual acts to ensure maximum safety.

Oral Sex
Oral sex occurs when the genitals of one partner are stimulated by the mouth, lips, and tongue of the other partner. When oral sex is performed on a man, it is called fellatio, and when it is performed on a woman, it is called cunnilingus. When performing oral sex, care should be taken not to touch your teeth to your partners genitals, because those sensations are typically unpleasant.

During fellatio, the man should wear a condom to prevent the transmission of disease into the mouth of his partner. During cunnilingus, a dental dam can be used for the same purpose. A dental dam is a thin sheet of plastic or latex which goes over the genitals, to prevent direct fluid contact, and thus prevent the spread of disease. A condom may be unrolled, cut along one side, and spread open to be used in place of a dental dam. Plastic cling wrap that is not microwave safe may also be used in place of a dental dam.

Manual Sex
In addition to the actions described above, people can also use their hands to stimulate the genitals of their partners. Manual sex is a reasonably safe sexual contact technique in that the hand has no mucous membranes (like the mouth, anus, and vagina have), and therefore are less likely to transmit or contract STIs. If the hand has open wounds on it, however, diseases can be passed directly to and from the bloodstream.

Before touching another person's genitals with your hand, make sure to wash your hand with plenty of soap and water.

Warnings
In some cultures sex is regarded as 'dirty'. In fact it is important to protect the body from infection, so frequent washing is appropriate as a primary measure. Washing alone, although vitally important, can not provide complete protection from sexually transmitted diseases. Washing can usefully form part of pre and post sexual activity for both partners.

Any object inserted into the anus (dildo, hand, penis, etc) should be clean, and never subsequently be inserted directly into a mouth or a vagina. The rectum is intended to eliminate body wastes, and so contains a large number of bacteria that can be transmitted to the mouth or vagina, and cause infection. An object that has been in an anus should be washed with soap and water immediately afterwards.

Oral, anal, and vaginal contact with an unprotected penis can all spread STIs, so a condom should be used. Condoms and dental dams should be used to prevent the mucous membranes of the genitals, mouth, and anus from coming into contact with body fluids which may bear infection (saliva, semen, naturally produced sexual lubricant, blood etc. )

A hand, used for so many activities, can be especially dirty, and may well carry bacteria unless carefully cleaned. Washing may seem obvious, but disclosing soap (which changes color) is used to train medical staff to wash themselves properly! Inserting a hand into the anus, vagina, or mouth of a partner can easily cause infection. Touching the head of a penis, especially around the urethral opening can also spread disease. Careful and thorough washing with soap and water before any sexual activity such as touching, fondling, and manual stimulation is important to minimize such risks.

title: Sexual Health/Sex


text:
Sexual Health/Sexual Touching

Touch and Affection
Touch is commonly used to convey affection. Holding hands, kisses on the cheek, and "pecks" (quick, closed-mouth kisses) on the lips are all common ways to display affection between friends, family members, and romantic partners.

Different people and cultures have different comfort levels and cultural norms when it comes to affectionate touching. Body language is very important in human relations, and like spoken language, is variable easily misunderstood.

In the United States, two adults holding hands is usually considered to signify romantic attachment. In Asian and Middle Eastern countries, however, friends without romantic intention commonly hold hands. In the United States, kisses are generally only regarded as appropriate between very close family members and romantic partners, in many European countries kissing cheeks and making a sound with the lips closed is a common greeting between family and friends of any age and any sex.

Sexual Touching
Sexual touching is touch that is used to provoke sexual arousal and is sometimes called foreplay. Usually, touching a person's breasts, nipples, genitals, inner thighs, or buttocks is considered sexual. (A few exceptions exist, such as medical examination.) Using hands to touch these areas sexually is known as "fondling" or "groping". Kissing on the lips, especially with the mouth open (French kissing) is also likely to provoke sexual arousal.

The difference between affectionate touching and sexual touching is not always clear, however. A kiss on the lips may be purely platonic, or intensely passionate. A shoulder massage may be a friendly gesture, or an intimate experience. It is very important to get consent from the person being touched before touching occurs.

Sexual Touching and Affection
Touching someone sexually is often considered to convey a strong emotional connection to that person. However, some people engage in such activities only because of the positive physical feelings that result, and not because of a romantic connection.

title: Sexual Health/Sexual Touching