text:
Calculus/Real numbers

Fields
You are probably already familiar with many different sets of numbers from your past experience. Some of the commonly used sets of numbers are
 * Natural numbers, usually denoted with an $$\N$$, are the numbers $$1,2,3,\ldots$$
 * Integers, usually denoted with a $$\Z$$, are the positive and negative natural numbers: $$\ldots,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,\ldots$$
 * Rational numbers, denoted with a $$\Q$$, are fractions of integers (excluding division by zero): $$\left\{\frac{p}{q}:p,q\in\Z,q\ne0\right\}$$
 * Real numbers, denoted with a $$\R$$, are constructed and discussed below.

Note that different sets of numbers have different properties. In the set integers for example, any number always has an additive inverse: for any integer $$x$$, there is another integer $$t$$ such that $$x+t=0$$ This should not be terribly surprising: from basic arithmetic we know that $$t=-x$$. Try to prove to yourself that not all natural numbers have an additive inverse.

In mathematics, it is useful to note the important properties of each of these sets of numbers. The rational numbers, which will be of primary concern in constructing the real numbers, have the following properties:
 * There exists a number 0 such that for any other number $$a$$, $$0+a=a+0=a$$
 * For any two numbers $$a,b$$, $$a+b$$ is another number
 * For any three numbers a,b, and c, a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
 * For any number a there is another number -a such that a+(-a)=0
 * For any two numbers a and b, a+b=b+a
 * For any two numbers a and b, a*b is another number
 * There is a number 1 such that for any number a, a*1=1*a=a
 * For any two numbers a and b, a*b=b*a
 * For any three numbers a,b and c, a(bc)=(ab)c
 * For any three numbers a,b and c, a(b+c)=ab+ac
 * For every number a there is another number a-1 such that aa-1=1

As presented above, these may seem quite intimidating. However, these properties are nothing more than basic facts from arithmetic. Any collection of numbers (and operations + and * on those numbers) which satisfies the above properties is called a field. The properties above are usually called field axioms.  As an exercise, determine if the integers form a field, and if not, which field axiom(s) they violate.

Even though the list of field axioms is quite extensive, it does not fully explore the properties of rational numbers. Rational numbers also have an ordering.' A total ordering must satisfy several properties: for any numbers a, b, and c
 * if a ≤ b and b ≤ a then a = b (antisymmetry)
 * if a ≤ b and b ≤ c then a ≤ c (transitivity)
 * a ≤ b or b ≤ a (totality)

To familiarize yourself with these properties, try to show that (a) natural numbers, integers and rational numbers are all totally ordered and more generally (b) convince yourself that any collection of rational numbers are totally ordered (note that the integers and natural numbers are both collections of rational numbers).

Finally, it is useful to recognize one more characterization of the rational numbers: every rational number has a decimal expansion which is either repeating or terminating. The proof of this fact is omitted, however it follows from the definition of each rational number as a fraction. When performing long division, the remainder at any stage can only take on positive integer values smaller than the denominator, of which there are finitely many.

Constructing the Real Numbers
There are two additional tools which are needed for the construction of the real numbers: the upper bound and the least upper bound. Definition A collection of numbers E is bounded above if there exists a number m such that for all x in E x≤m. Any number m which satisfies this condition is called an upper bound of the set E.

Definition If a collection of numbers E is bounded above with m as an upper bound of E, and all other upper bounds of E are bigger than m, we call m the least upper bound or supremum of E, denoted by sup E.

Many collections of rational numbers do not have a least upper bound which is also rational, although some do. Suppose the numbers 5 and 10/3 are, together, taken to be E. The number 5 is not only an upper bound of E, it is a least upper bound. In general, there are many upper bounds (12, for instance, is an upper bound of the collection above), but there can be at most one least upper bound.

Consider the collection of numbers $$\{3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, \dots\}$$: You may recognize these decimals as the first few digits of pi. Since each decimal terminates, each number in this collection is a rational number. This collection has infinitely many upper bounds. The number 4, for instance, is an upper bound. There is no least upper bound, at least not in the rational numbers. Try to convince yourself of this fact by attempting to construct such a least upper bound: (a) why does pi not work as a least upper bound (hint: pi does not have a repeating or terminating decimal expansion), (b) what happens if the proposed supremum is equal to pi up to some decimal place, and zeros after (c) if the proposed supremum is bigger than pi, can you find a smaller upper bound which will work?

In fact, there are infinitely many collections of rational numbers which do not have a rational least upper bound. We define a real number to be any number that is the least upper bound of some collection of rational numbers.

Properties of Real Numbers
The reals are totally ordered.
 * For all reals; a, b, c
 * Either b>a, b=a, or ba implies b+c>a+c
 * b>a and c>0 implies bc>ac
 * b>a implies -a>-b

Upper bound axiom
 * Every non-empty set of real numbers which is bounded above has a supremum.

The upper bound axiom is necessary for calculus. It is not true for rational numbers.

We can also define lower bounds in the same way.

Definition A set E is bounded below if there exists a real M such that for all x∈E x≥M Any M which satisfies this condition is called an lower bound of the set E

Definition If a set, E, is bounded below, M is an lower bound of E, and all other lower bounds of E are less than M, we call M the greatest lower bound or inifimum of E, denoted by inf E

The supremum and infimum of finite sets are the same as their maximum and minimum.

Theorem
 * Every non-empty set of real numbers which is bounded below  has an infimum.

Proof:
 * Let E be a non-empty set of real numbers, bounded below
 * Let L be the set of all lower bounds of E
 * L is not empty, by definition of bounded below
 * Every element of E is an upper bound to the set L, by definition
 * Therefore, L is a non empty set which is bounded above
 * L has a supremum, by the upper bound axiom
 * 1/ Every lower bound of E is ≤sup L, by definition of supremum
 * Suppose there were an e∈E such that e<sup L
 * Every element of L is ≤e, by definition
 * Therefore e is an upper bound of L and e<sup L
 * This contradicts the definition of supremum, so there can be no such e.
 * If e∈E then e≥sup L, proved by contradiction
 * 2/ Therefore, sup L is a lower bound of E
 * inf E exists, and is equal to sup L, on comparing definition of infinum to lines 1 & 2

Bounds and inequalities, theorems: $$A \subseteq B \Rightarrow \sup A \le \sup B$$ $$A \subseteq B \Rightarrow \inf A \ge \inf B$$ $$ \sup A \cup B = \max (\sup A, \sup B)$$ $$ \inf A \cup B = \min (\inf A, \inf B)$$

Theorem:  (The triangle inequality)
 * $$\forall a,b,c \in \R \quad |a-b| \le |a-c|+|c-b|$$

Proof by considering cases

If a≤b≤c then |a-c|+|c-b| = (c-a)+(c-b) = 2(c-b)+(b-a)≥b-a = |b-a|

Exercise: Prove the other five cases.

This theorem is a special case of the triangle inequality theorem from geometry: The sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than or equal to the third side. It is useful whenever we need to manipulate inequalities and absolute values.

title: Calculus/Real numbers


text:
User:Kaycee

Knowledge wants to be free. Support the wiki.

Currently writing: Lucid Dreaming

Currently browsing:

 * RetroPsychoKinesis Project
 * www.gotpsi.com

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Kaycee


text:
User:Harry~enwikibooks

....

title: User:Harry~enwikibooks


text:
Electronics/Preface

Importance of Electronics
Electronics is the study and use of devices that control the flow of electrons (or other charged particles). These devices can be used to process information or perform tasks using electromagnetic power.

Electronic circuits can be found in numerous household products, including such items as telephones, computers, and CD players. Electronic devices have also allowed greatly increased precision in scientific measurements.

Interest in the field of electronics increased around 1900 and the advent of radio. Interest reached an all-time high in the 1940s, 50s, 60s, with the invention of transistor radios, the launch of Sputnik, and the science and math educational push to win the space race. Interest in electronics as a hobby in the 1970s led to the advent of the personal computer (PC).

Electronics have since seen a decline in hobbyist interest. Electronics is now generally studied as part of a college-level program in electrical engineering.

This book is an attempt at reviving the hobbyist mentality that made electronics so big in the first place, by making electronics concepts more accessible and giving practical knowledge, as well as providing technical information for the student.

title: Electronics/Preface


text:
Latin/Introduction to Verbs (L3)

=Introduction to Verbs=

Verbs in Latin, like verbs in English, are the "action words". "Go", "throw", "kick", "fly", "think", and "be" are all examples of verbs.

Verbs in Latin
Just like nouns, we can tell a lot about a Latin verb by looking at its ending. This is because verbs conjugate (remember, nouns decline). There are four groupings of verbs, called "conjugations". Like the declensions for nouns, each verb conjugation contains a group of verbs with similar endings.

We saw that nouns have three incidents. Verbs, however, have five. As a result, there is a vast number of forms that each verb can take. We'll start slow, of course. First, before we get into talking about verbs themselves, we should talk about what those five incidents are.

Mood
Verbs have three different moods - the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive. The indicative, from the word "indicate", is the mood that shows action happening. When Bob kicks a ball, "kicks" is a verb in the indicative because it tells us that something is actually happening. The imperative is a command. If I say to Bob, "Kick the ball", "kick" is in the imperative - I'm telling Bob to kick the ball, the ball isn't actually being kicked yet. Finally, Latin verbs have a subjunctive mood. This usually represents hypothetical action. "Bob might kick the ball" uses "kick" in the subjunctive mood.

We'll learn more about the indicative mood later in this lesson.

Voice
Just as in English, there are two voices that verbs can take. The active voice is used when the subject of a sentence (the nominative case noun) is doing the action. Such as "Bob kicked the ball" - Bob is the subject and he is doing the kicking. But when we say "The ball was kicked by Bob", the ball is the subject of the sentence. The ball isn't doing anything though! In this case, the verb "was kicked" is passive - the subject has something done to it. Note that in English we need to use the auxiliary (helping) verb "was" along with our main verb "kick" to show the passive voice. In Latin, a form of "kick" is used that shows passive voice without needing an auxiliary.

We'll start off by focusing on the active voice.

Tense
We're familiar with tense in English - we can tell the difference between "Bob kicks the ball", "Bob kicked the ball", and "Bob will kick the ball". Those are just a few of the tenses that we use in English - the present, the past, and the future. Latin has a total of six tenses. We'll go into each of the tenses later (starting with the present in this lesson), but for now just know that there are six.

Person
"I kick the ball". "You kick the ball". "Bob kicks the ball". What's the difference in these three sentences? The person of the verb. We all remember from our English classes the different points-of-view that can be used in writing. First person is the use of words that refer to the person speaking (I, me, we, us). Second person refers to the person being spoken to (you). Third person talks about someone else entirely (Julia, Bob, the girl, the poet). Note in the three sentences above the first and second person in English use "kick" while third person uses "kicks" - this is a vestige of the Latin conjugation system. In Latin, each of those three sentences would use a different form of "kick". The person of a verb is determined by the subject of a sentence.

Number
Just like nouns, verbs have number. They can be singular or plural. The number of the verb is determined by the number of the subject of the sentence - if you have a singular subject, you need to use a singular verb. Multiple subjects require a plural verb. In English, we really only see this in the third person ("Bob kicks the ball" vs. "Bob and Julia kick the ball"). However, Latin has two different forms for each person.

=First Conjugation=

The first conjugation is the most regular of the four groupings of verbs. Both of the verbs we used in our last lesson belong to the first conjugation. Can you tell from the sentences what person and number those verbs were? How about tense, voice, and mood?

If you decided that they were third-person singular, you're right. Bonus points for present active indicative. Let's stay with the present active indicative for right now, and take a look at the different endings for person and number.

Present Active Indicative
Present active indicatives are forms of verbs that show a subject doing an action now. They can be translated into English either as simple presents (something happens) or as progressive presents (something is happening).

Note that "you" in English can be singular or plural, so we will distinguish it here as follows: "you" - singular, "y'all" - plural.

The dat should look familiar because we used it in the last lesson. We also used amat. From looking at the chart above, can you guess what the other forms of amat are?

If that's what you came up with, you did well.

Dictionary Entries
The dictionary entry for a Latin verb has four "principle parts". Once we get into the later lessons, you will need all four parts to be able to fully conjugate (i.e., list all the forms of) a verb. For now, only the first two are important. They are the first-person singular present active indicative and the present active infinitive. We'll talk more about infinitives, and why they don't have person or number, later. The dictionary entries for the two verbs we've used so far are:

 * do, dare, --, -- To give.
 * amo, amare, --, -- To love.

The "--"s will be filled in later when we learn the rest of the principle parts.

Stem
Notice anything similar about the two entries? The second part (the infinitive) of each ends in -are. Any time that you see that ending for the infinitive, you will know that the verb is first conjugation. To find the stem of the verb, you simply slash off the -re from the infinitive. This holds true for all four conjugations. What are the stems of our two verbs?

dare --> da- amare --> ama-

Personal Endings
What can we do with this stems? Well, to get each of the person/number combinations we simply add a "personal ending" to the verb's stem. The endings are:

One issue you might notice is in the first-person singular. Take a look at the stem of amare. It is ama-. If we were to add the first-person singular ending to that, we would get ama- + -o = amao. But we know from our dictionary entry that the first-person singular is amo. What's up? In Latin, sometimes certain vowels get "consumed" by other vowels that are stronger. This is what has happened in this case: the -o is a strong enough sound that it simply obliterates the "a" in the stem. Because all first conjugation verbs have stems that end in "a" (remember that for a verb to be first conjugation, the infinitive must end in -are and so cutting the -re will always leave -a-), every first conjugation verb will exhibit this change.

Missing Subjects
Often in Latin, you will see sentences that have no noun in the nominative case. Don't panic; there is still a subject for that sentence. Let's take a look at an example. The sentence "Sapientiam amo" has an accusative (sapientiam) and a verb (amo), but no nominative. You can find the subject by looking at the verb - amo is the first-person singular. There is really only one option for who subject is. It has to be "I" because "I" is the only subject that will use a first-person singular verb ("we" uses a first-person plural"). Therefore, the sentence translates to "I love wisdom".  You can use the same logic easily with second-person verbs as well.  Third-person is a bit trickier because it has more options, but the singular is "he", "she", or "it" and the plural is "they".

Practice
Let's learn a new verb now. How about this one:

 * laudo, laudare, --, -- To praise.

What is the stem? What is the third-person singular? The second-person plural?

=Vocab=

In addition to the three verbs you learned earlier in this lesson, add this one to your memory:

 * culpo, culpare, --, -- To blame

Let's add another couple of nouns as well. How about the proper nouns "Rome" and "Italy"?

 * Roma, -ae, f. Rome
 * Italia, -ae, f. Italy

=Exercises=

 * 1) Romam amo.
 * 2) Puellae poetas culpant.
 * 3) Julia sapientiam dat.
 * 4) Italiam amas.
 * 5) Poetam amatis.
 * 6) Juliam laudamus.

Answers

=Summary=

You now know what a verb is, what conjugation means, and how to conjugate the present active indicative forms of first conjugation verbs. Your noun vocab is expanding, and you've learned your first four verbs. You can translate sentences with subjects, direct objects, and present tense verbs. You can even fill in gaps when the subject of a sentence is missing by looking at the verb.

In the next lesson, we'll learn about the dative case and indirect objects. We'll finally discover to whom Julia is giving those tables!

Lesson 2 - First Declension | Latin | Lesson 4 - Dative Case and Indirect Object

L3 Word List

title: Latin/Introduction to Verbs (L3)


text:
Latin/L3/Answers

Introduction to Verbs (L3) Answers
These are the answers to the exercises in the "Introduction to Verbs" chapter.

 * 1) I love Rome.
 * 2) The girls are blaming the poets.
 * 3) Julia gives the poet.
 * 4) You love Italy.
 * 5) Y'all love the poet.
 * 6) We are praising Julia.

Return to Introduction to Verbs

title: Latin/L3/Answers


text:
Scouting/BSA/Orienteering Merit Badge

Requirement 1

 * Explain what orienteering is.

Requirement 2

 * Point out and name five major terrain features on a map and in the field.
 * Point out and name 10 symbols often found on a topographic map.

Requirement 3

 * Explain how a compass works. Describe the features of an orienteering compass and their uses.
 * In the field, show how to take a compass bearing and how to follow one.

Requirement 4

 * Explain the meaning of declination. Tell why declination must be taken into consideration when using map and compass together.
 * Provide a topographic map of your area with magnetic north-south lines.
 * Show how to transfer a direction on a map to your compass.

Requirement 5

 * Show how to measure distances, using a scale on an orienteering compass.
 * Set up a 300m pace course. Figure out your running pace for 100 meters.

Requirement 6

 * Explain a descriptive clue. Tell how it is used in orienteering.
 * Explain how to use an attack point. Describe the offset technique. Tell what is meant by collecting features.

Requirement 7

 * Take part in three orienteering events. One of these must be a cross-country course.
 * After each course, write a report with a copy of the master map and descriptive clues, 2. a copy of the route you took on the course, a discussion of how you could improve your time between points, and list of your major weaknesses on this course. Describe what you could do to improve.

Requirement 8

 * Set up a cross-country course of at least 2,000 meters long with five control markers. Prepare the master map. Mark the descriptive clues.
 * Set up a score-orienteering course with 12 points and a time limit of 60 minutes. Prepare the master map. Set the descriptive clues and point value for each control on this course.

Requirement 9

 * Act as an official during an orienteering event. (This may be during the running of the course you set up for requirement 8.)

Requirement 10

 * Teach orienteering techniques to your patrol, troop or post.

Using a Shadow to Find Directions
1. Find a straight stick, preferably one about a meter long.

2. Find an area to place your stick. This area ahould be as open as possible, free of brush or trees. It should also be as level as possible.

3. Place the stick in the ground sticking up.

4. Mark the tip of the shadow cast by the stick.

5. Wait for fifteen or twenty minutes until the shadow has moved noticeably.

6. Mark the tip of the shadow again.

7. Draw a line between these two marks. The first mark is west and the second is east.

8. If you stand with the first mark directly to the left of the second mark you will be facing north.

title: Scouting/BSA/Orienteering Merit Badge


text:
Outdoor Survival

Before you go

 * Be ready. Tell people where you are going and how long you will be there before you leave.
 * Bring a survival kit.

In an outdoor survival emergency

 * Do not panic — This can lead to making very bad choices. Sit down and relax or hug a tree. All is not lost — human beings are very resourceful, and many people have survived despite impossible odds. Think of home, family, and loved ones. Calmly take stock of your resources. (Even things like the stuffing in your car seat can save your life by helping to insulate your clothes.
 * Deal with immediate first aid issues.
 * Find a phone — Your next priority is to use a phone if you know for sure where one is.
 * Keep warm — The most important priority in surviving outdoors is keeping warm. Thirst and hunger may kill you over the course of several days, but hypothermia can kill you in minutes. Furthermore, a low body temperature can severely impair your judgment, one of the worst things that can happen in a survival situation.
 * If you are lost and have no idea where to go, stay where you are! The farther you move without knowing where you're going, the harder it will be for searchers to find you. If you must leave the area, leave a note about your plans or at least leave a sign indicating the direction you are traveling. If you don't know which way to go, walk downhill until you find water and then follow the water.
 * Your next order of priorities is shelter, water, signals, and food. (note: fire when possible may be part of keeping warm, purifying water, and signaling)

Contents

 * /Survival Kit/
 * /Shelter/
 * /Water/
 * /Fire/
 * /Signals/
 * /Food/
 * /Preparedness/
 * /Emergency Situations/
 * /First Aid/

Related Wikibooks

 * First Aid

title: Outdoor Survival


text:
User talk:Kaycee

A super-quick markup guide: italics, bold, ~ to sign your name and date (see the end of my message)

I hope you keep contributing to the wikibook! r3m0t (cont) (talk)

Nice work on the lucid dreaming articles, well done - am a lucid dreamer myself. Thumbs-up. 21:14, 4 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Please see Talk:LD Dream Recall and reply there. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 07:21, 7 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kaycee


text:
User talk:68.81.113.148

Don't vandalise, or you will be blocked from editing. Perl 01:06, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.81.113.148


text:
User talk:Carandol

I have just edited your article to show that the origin of the content was from Millennium Relativity and not Special Relativity. I have no objection to the findings being presented in Wikibooks as long as the credit is properly given the millennium relativity papers in which they were originally introduced. I remind you, these are copyrighted works. Joseph A. Rybczyk

User:Rybczyk

So what is the relationship between spin and magnetism? The only spin-0 particle I know of is the Higgs Boson, so does that mean Higgs Bosons create a magnetic field? Also are there any other E&M like waves besides photons?

User:Wanderer

All charged particles produce magnetic fields, irrespective of spin, if they are moving relative to the observer.

Maxwell's equations are classical, they don't depend on the spin of the charge, and they accurately describe the behaviour of EM fields under classical conditions. Maxwell didn't need spin to explain EM, so neither do we.

Normally, the effects of spin are only visible on a quantum scale. The only exception is permament magnets. In these, every atom has spin 1/2, and they are all pointing in the same direction, producing a magnetic field. Carandol

Ok. I have been studying E&M for a while and am having trouble understanding the relationship between an Electric Field and a Magnetic Field. From looking at E&M waves as far as I can tell they are the same thing only having gone through some strange rotation transformation. User:Wanderer

Electricty and magnetism are different aspects of the same thing. In relativity, the two 3-d vectors, E and M, turn out to be the 6 spatial and temporal components of an antisymmetric tensor. If you are moving this tensor gets rotated through an imaginary angle, just like velocities do, so what looks like a pure electric field to one person can look like a mixed EM field to someone else.

E.g If you stood still next to an (hypothetical) charged particle with zero magnetic moment, you'd see an inverse square electic field and no magnetic field.

Someone else, running past you, would see the charge moving relative to them, and a moving charge is a current, so they'd see a magnetic field as well as the electric field. The equations for the transformation are similar to those for time dilation and length contraction.

While E and B both depend on the observer, the scalars $$E^2-c^2B^2$$ and $$\mathbf{E}\cdot\mathbf{B}$$ are observer independent. If one person sees electric and magnetic fields at right angles, everyone will. Carandol

 * In fact, it was Maxwell's equations that lead Einstein to formulate special relitivity in the first place. Theresa knott 21:57, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Minor edits
Hi, just a quick note about marking edits as minor. This feature is for correcting typos and spelling mistakes, changes to formatting, slight changes in wording for readability or good grammar, that sort of thing. Small changes in content should not be marked as minor. Theresa knott 21:57, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

GR Page
Hi Carandol, I've noticed that you've posted on the GR page. I've written what little there is so far, and today I noticed some text was added to the documents. Was that you? If so, I really appreciate the help, as when I first found the page it was completely blank. Stop by my page (Lathem) if you wanna chat. Also, I'm adding a section to the GR discussion page (about the order of the Tensor section). Have a good evening.

Vector pictures, Figures 1 - 4
Thanks for putting the pictures of vectors in Figures 1 - 4 in module Modern Physics:Math:Vectors. They look quite nice. I am wondering why a gray background was used for the second two pictures.

 * I just copied them from the base text.

I am thinking of moving the scalar discussion to the beginning of the module someday and inserting a few simple un-numbered pictures showing the effect of scalars multiplied by vectors. In particular, I'm interested in showing reversal of direction when multiplying a vector by a negative scalar. Also, maybe a picture showing a vector consisting of x and y components. It may take me some time to get this done. If you plan to do this, let me know, so there's no duplication of effort.

 * I've got no such plans. For now, I'm not likely to be many diagrams at all.Carandol 13:24, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Mathematically, the order of operation probably doesn't really matter for scalar and vector, but traditionally the scalar quantities seem to be shown in front of the vector when multiplied by it, like a coefficient. H Padleckas 06:54, 16 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Re Modern_Physics:Twin_Paradox
I posted something of a rant on the discussion page thereat. EvanTPeoples 00:54, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Template:ModernPhysicsNav
I created this template for use in navigation on the Modern Physics book. It will help to create a standardized "look and feel" for every page in this book, as well as providing some much needed (and often forgotten) functionality. If you don't have any big problems with this (as the primary contributor), I would like to go through and add this template to every page in the book. Let me know about this, because I have all sorts of time starting next week when I can start making those edits. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:14, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I already went though and added navigation templates to each page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:21, 3 July 2006 (UTC)

Acetone peroxide synthesis
I have proposed the acetone peroxide synthesis for deletion. What do you think? Ewen 14:19, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright
Thanks for uploading images on Wikibooks. However, the images may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you.--Az1568(Talk) 05:03, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Carandol


text:
Electronics/Power Conversion

AAC
Analog-to-Analog Conversion is the conversion of a continuous electrical signal from one form to another.

An example would be converting between the 60 Hz current of the US into the 50 Hz current of Europe.

ADC
Analog to digital

Used in power supplies

involves a transformer to change the voltage and diodes to rectify the voltage.

(What?)

Analog to Digital Conversion is the process of making a computerized representation of some physical attribute in the real world. Turning a voltage into binary numbers is the handiest way to do this, the voltage could be manipulated by a microphone transducer, a potentiometer wiper, or the conductivity of prevarication.

DAC
Digital to analog

DDC
digital to digital

title: Electronics/Power Conversion


text:
Electronics/Timeline

< Electronics/Expanded Edition

Different ways of looking at electronics.

 * 1) Timeline
 * 2) Introduction: The saga

 * 1) Early days: Early developments
 * 2) Academics: E&M experiments

 * 1) Electricity: Dynamos, motors, and AC power distribution.
 * 2) Energy Sources: how to power everything

 * 1) Broadcasting: Radio and TV
 * 2) Radio Astronomy: Looking at the solar system and the universe

 * 1) Computers: Computers

[]

title: Electronics/Timeline


text:
Electronics/Electromagnetic Waves

< Electronics/Timeline

Originally people thought that radio waves propagate through the ether.

The ether was disproved by showing that it did not flow.

EM waves are photons that travel through free space.

title: Electronics/Electromagnetic Waves


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/Recursive relationships/Answers

Exercises 2a

 * Create a schema describing one team in a relay race. The information needs to describe the runners in the race as well as from whom the runner received the baton. Create an XML file containing sample data for this schema and populate it with at least four runners. Make sure the XML document is well formed and valid.

Answer: File relayXML.xml

File relayXSD.xsd

File relayXSL.xsl

 * Each state has many life insurance sales people, and each region (North, South, East, West) of the state has one regional head salesperson.  A salesperson can only sell in one region and can only have one head salesperson he/she is working under. Create a schema to describe this relationship. Create an XML document and populate it with data for two states. Make sure the XML document is well formed and valid. Each state should have data for at least two regions, and each region should have at least three salesman, including the region head. Each salesperson should be uniquely identified by a number. Each state shoud be uniquely identified by its two letter abbreviation. Create an XSL stylesheet to display this data, with a separate table for each state. If the salesperson is a regional head, it should say so. Create an entity named doublespace in the stylesheet that is the equivalent to two carriage returns. Use the new entity to create two blank lines between the two tables.

Answer:

File insuranceXML.xml

File insuranceXSD.xsd

File insuranceXSL.xsl

 * A restaurant has many appetizers on its menu. A restaurant may also create a sampler dish which is a conglomeration of smaller portions of select appetizers. Create a schema to describe this relationship. Create an XML document and populate it with enough appetizers to create at least two sampler groups. Make sure the XML document is well formed and valid.

Answer: File appetizerXML.xml

File appetizerXSD.xsd


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Images

Let us start with a quick minimum example:

And let us also have a look at more extended example:

Images are normally stored in external files. To place an image into an HTML source, use the  tag with the   attribute containing the URL of the image file. To support browsers that cannot render images, you can provide the  attribute with a textual description of the image. To provide a tooltip to the image, use the  attribute.

The space before the  in the examples is there on purpose. Some older browsers behave strangely if the space is omitted.

Placement
Per default, images are placed inline to their surroundings. To place the image as a block or float instead, you can use Cascading Style Sheets.

Alternative text and tooltip
The HTML specification requires that all images have an  attribute. This is commonly known as alt text. Images can be split in to two categories:
 * those that add to the content of the page;
 * those that are purely decorative, e.g. spacers, fancy borders and bullets.

Decorative images should have empty alt text, i.e. . Images used as bullets may use an asterisk,.

All other images should have meaningful alt text. Alt text is not a description of the image, use the  attribute for short descriptions. Alt text is something that will be read instead of the image. For example, The alt text should be the company's name not the ever popular 'Our logo', which would give the sentence 'Our logo makes the best widgets in the world.' when read in a text only browser.

The  attribute stands for alternate which screenreaders for the blind, as well as non-graphic-capable browsers (such as Lynx) may use to better enable its user to understand the purpose of the image. Fully and accurately using alt text is essential for the following reasons:
 * Allows blind and vision impaired users to understand the content of your website.
 * Assists robots and search engines in understanding the content of your website.

Tooltips
Some older browsers incorrectly use the  attribute' tag to produce image tooltips. However, the  attribute should actually be used for this.

Width and height
To have an image appear smaller than it is in the external file, use the attributes  and. When only one or the other is specified, images will scale to keep the same overall ratio.

Format
Most images for the web will be made using a limited number of formats. Below is a simple list of commonly supported formats.
 * jpg / jpeg
 * Useful for photographs.
 * Near universal support.
 * Does not recreate images perfectly, leading to visible issues with many simple logos and illustrations.
 * webp
 * More efficient alternative to jpg.
 * Also supports animation and transparency.
 * png
 * Useful for images with transparency.
 * Good for simple or flat colors, such as cartoons, such as logos.
 * svg
 * Vector format with infinite resolution.
 * Great for logos and simple geometry.
 * Not useful for photographs.
 * gif
 * Supports animated images.
 * Very limited in color and resolution support.
 * Very inefficient format.

HTML/Immagini

title: HyperText Markup Language/Images


text:
Electronics/Expanded Edition

Chapter 5: Electronics Revisited

 * 1) Basic principles
 * 2) See also Learn Electronics and Learn Electronics/Analogue and Digital
 * 3) DC circuits
 * 4) AC circuits I
 * 5) AC circuits II
 * 6) Aerials, antennae and transmission lines
 * 7) Analog electronics
 * 8) See also Electronics/Analog Circuits and Wikipedia: Analog circuit and Wikipedia: Analog signal and Wikipedia: Analog computer
 * 9) Digital electronics
 * 10) See also Electronics/Digital Circuits and Digital Circuits and Wikipedia: Digital and Wikipedia: Digital circuit
 * 11) The wider picture

Chapter 6: Radio

 * 1) Crystals
 * 2) Signal Propagation
 * 3) Signal Modulation
 * 4) Signal Modulation 2
 * 5) Error Correcting Codes

Chapter 7: Radio Astronomy

 * 1) Radio Astronomy[]

Chapter 8: Computers

 * 1) Computers
 * 2) Data Formats
 * 3) Cables
 * 4) Displays
 * 5) Printers
 * 6) Audio Electronics

Chapter 9: Electricity

 * 1) Power
 * 2) Motors
 * 3) Transformers
 * 4) Power Transmission

Chapter 10: Appliances

 * 1) Light Bulbs

Chapter 11: Bioelectricity

 * 1) Medical Equipment
 * 2) Microscopes

Chapter 13: Semiconductors
Semiconductors are often made of silicon.
 * 1) FPGAs
 * 2) ASICs

Chapter 13 and a half: Component Construction details

 * 1) Magnetic Materials
 * 2) Capacitor Construction
 * 3) Inductor Construction
 * 4) Transformer Construction

Chapter 15: Robotics
An excellent source of info is the various Robotics Societies, including Seattle Robotics Society and Dallas Personal Robotics Group. There is a lot of info on these groups websites, especially in the archived pages of The Encoder, published by SRS.

To begin, an excellent source would be the Wikipedia pages on Robotics (Robotics) or the Robotics Wikibook.

Chapter 16: Spacecraft
Telemetry - Measurement at a distance. Critical in the success of early spacecraft. This technology allowed an incredible pyramid of resources to be applied to monitoring and safely operating the machine and human occupied spacecraft of the pre-space era of human development. Modern development efforts are focusing on a new generation of space based grid technologies that are hopefully sustainable independently from the mother planet with only occasional unnoticed intervention from the Lord Almighty but which when prematurely, suddenly or unexpectedly exposed to an adverse probability surge from outside the locally anticipated systems or universes can survive long enough to request and receive assistance.

Telecommunications []

Book 5: History of Electronics

 * 1) Timeline
 * 2) Introduction
 * 3) Early days
 * 4) Academics
 * 5) Electricity
 * 6) Energy Sources
 * 7) Broadcasting
 * 8) Radio Astronomy
 * 9) Computers

Various topics not yet in books

 * 1) Other Components
 * 2) Devices
 * 3) Links to Other Subjects

title: Electronics/Expanded Edition


text:
Electronics/Electrolysis

Electrolysis involves an electric field and the motion of electrons through a liquid.

GCSE Science/Electricity

Electrolysis is the decomposition of certain types of substance using electricity.The types of substance that can be split are ionic substances.This just means that they are made of charged ions rather than neutral atoms.{Remember that an ion is just an atom that has either a positive or negative charge}. An example of an ionic substance is common table salt sodium chloride. The sodium atom has a positive charge, the chlorine atom has a negtive charge. It is usually written as Na+Cl-.

Q1) Check in a periodic table, what is the symbol for sodium Na or Cl?

As you may already know if you've studied the Metals module, a salt is any substance made by combining an acid with an alkali. Acids, alkalis, and therefore all salts are ionic.

Q2) Which of the following substances can be broken up by electrcity Sodium chloride, iron sulphate, copper nitrate?

Basic Experimental Setup
Most ionic compounds are not liquid at room temperature. This is a problem because the ions need to be able to move for the electric current to be able to flow. This can be achieved by melting. Look at the electrical setup shown on the right. The electrodes are just tqwo carbon rods connected to a battery. The one connected to the positive electrode is called the anode. The one connected to the negative electrode is called the cathode.

Consider for example the compound lead bromide. This compound is a solid at room temperature but can be molten over a Bunsen flame. So what you would do is put some lead bromide into a beaker. Put the beaker on a tripod over a bunsen flame. Melt the lead bromide, then put in the electrodes and turn the power supply on at a setting of say 2V. What you would see happening is the anode, is a silvery coating of pure lead forming, and bromine forming at the cathode. The current would continue to flow until all the lead bromide was turned into lead and bromine.

Q3) It takes energy to split uo a compound like lead bromide. Where does this energy come from ?  Q4) Predict what products you would get at the anode and cathode if copper chloride was the electrolyte.

What happens at the anode
The anode is the positive electrode. It attracts negatively charged ions, because unlike charges attract. The bromine ions move through the melt until they reach the anode. Once they get there, they give up their two extra electrons to become bromine atoms.

Br2- --> Br + 2e-

The electrons flow up the anode to the positive terminal of the battery.

What happens at the cathode
The cathode is the negative electrode. It attracts the positively charged ions. Metal ions are always positive and so the lead ions flow through the melt until they get to the cathode. Once they get there they take two electrons each from the cathode. The electrons flow down the cathode from the negatively terminal of the battery and onto the lead ions.

Pb2+ + 2e- --> Pb

Q5) Solid ionic substances do not conduct electricity and are not split up by it. Why do you think that is?

Quantity calculations (higher tier only)

In the experiment with lead bromide, you saw that lead was deposited at the cathode. If you actually do the experiment you will see that the lead coats the cathode. In this section we will look at how much metal will coat a cathode in a given time.

A scientist performed the following experiment.
 * A copper cathode was carefully cleaned and accurately weighed.
 * It was placed along with an abnode into a solution of copper sulphate.
 * It was connected via a ammeter to a variable power supply.
 * A current was left to run for a given time then the cathode was removed and weighed again.

His results were:

You can see from the results that the total amount of copper deposited depends on both the current and the time it flows. This is because the number of copper atoms that can be made from ions depends on the total amount of charge that flows. The unit of charge is the coulomb.

One coulomb is the amount of charge when one Amp flows for one second (see GCSE Science/Measuring electricity

Q6)Look at the results table above. How much copper is deposited when 1A flows for 3000 seconds?

Q7)How much copper do you predict would be doposited if 1A were to flow for 6000 seconds.

Q8)What about if 2A were to flow for 12000 seconds ?

Electrolysis of Aqueos solutions (Advanced)
Before studying this section check with your teacher to see if you need to.

Earlier on in this module you've learned that ions must be able to move in order for electrolysis to work. If the ions are held rigid {such as in a solid}, they can't move and no electricity will flow. We've looked at how the freeing up of ions can occur by melting the electrolyte. Another way to achieve this is by dissolving th electrolyte in water. The trouble with this method is, there will be more than one type of ion present.

water partially splits up into ions {this is why it's such a good solvent for ionic compounds}. It splits into hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.

H2O --> H+ +OH-

So at the cathode there will be two ions present. The Metal ion and the hydrogen ion from the water. Which element is actually produced at the cathode depends on how reactive the metal is. If the metal is very reactive, such as potassium, or sodium, then hydrogen will be produced. If the metal is unreactive such as silver, the metal will be produced.{I hope you learned your displacement reactions in lower school}. To work out which ion wins, the metal or the hydrogen, compare their reactivities in a the reactivity series. The one that is most reactive, will not be produced at the cathode.

A similar situation occurs at the anode. Hydroxide ions {from the water} are usually discharged at the anode ultimately producing oxygen.

OH- --> OH + e-

4OH --> 2H2O + O2.

This is true for most things but if the ions are bromine, chlorine, or fluorine {i.e. a halogen} then the halogen will be produced. {You are unlikely to need to remember this, only understand it}

Q9) Sodium chloride is dissolved in water and subjected to electrolysis. Explain what you see at each of the electrodes.

Answers | <>

title: Electronics/Electrolysis


text:
Statistics/Displaying Data

A single statistic tells only part of a dataset’s story. The mean is one perspective; the median yet another. And when we explore relationships between multiple variables, even more statistics arise. The coefficient estimates in a regression model, the Cochran-Maentel-Haenszel test statistic in partial contingency tables; a multitude of statistics are available to summarize and test data. But our ultimate goal in statistics is not to summarize the data, it is to fully understand their complex relationships. A well designed statistical graphic helps us explore, and perhaps understand, these relationships. This section will help you let the data speak, so that the world may know its story.

Types of Data Display

 * 1) Bar_Charts
 * 2) Histograms
 * 3) Scatter_Graphs
 * 4) Box_Plots
 * 5) Pie_Charts
 * 6) Comparative_Pie_Charts
 * 7) Pictograms
 * 8) Line_Graphs
 * 9) Frequency_Polygon

External Links

 * "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information" is the seminal work on statistical graphics. It is a must read.

 * "Show me the Numbers" by Stephen Few has a less technical approach to creating graphics. You might want to scan through this book if you are building a library on making graphs.

Statistics | >> Bar Charts

title: Statistics/Displaying Data


text:
Cookbook:Paprika

Paprika is a sweet-to-mildly hot cultivar of the chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum, of the family Solanaceae). Paprika peppers are a bright red elongated or round fruit.

Hungary is probably the world's leading producer of paprika; in the United States, California and Texas are the main producers.

Paprika is often eaten ground as a powder and sometimes as a fresh vegetable. It is commonly used in Hungarian, Balkan, Middle Eastern, and Central Asian cuisines. The round type can be stuffed with cottage cheese or salad to make a portable lunch.

Some specialty varieties of paprika are hot but the generally available ground preparation is quite mild.

Smoked paprika has an extra strong smoky flavour. It is very strong and needs to be used in moderation, but it adds a distinctive touch to dishes such as Chicken Paprikash and Paprika Chicken.

title: Cookbook:Paprika


text:
Cookbook talk:Paprika

Edit History

* (cur) (last). . m 16:01, 1 Jan 2004. . JeLuF * (cur) (last). . 16:08, 17 Nov 2003. . 62.107.96.250 (da:) * (cur) (last). . 23:47, 24 Oct 2003. . Wiwaxia (Fixed up "Unites States") * (cur) (last). . 18:24, 18 May 2003. . Marj Tiefert (added a bit more) * (cur) (last). . 18:09, 18 May 2003. . 62.178.228.146 (de:) * (cur) (last). . m 12:30, 16 Jan 2003. . Liftarn (Doh!) * (cur) (last). . m 12:30, 16 Jan 2003. . Liftarn * (cur) (last). . m 20:22, 18 Oct 2002. . Lee Daniel Crocker * (cur) (last). . 19:53, 18 Oct 2002. . Rmhermen

title: Cookbook talk:Paprika


text:
User:Frogjim~enwikibooks

I suppose be a member of Wikibooks so as to share others knowledge!

title: User:Frogjim~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Vegetable Stew and Dumplings

| Vegan cuisine

Stew

 * 4 medium potatoes
 * Margarine or olive oil (or a mixture of both)
 * 4–5 large carrots, peeled and sliced
 * 2 medium sized onions, chopped
 * 4–5 sticks of celery, chopped
 * 1 large green bell pepper, roughly chopped
 * 1 large red bell pepper, roughly chopped
 * 2 level tablespoons flour
 * 1 tin (400 g) tomatoes, chopped
 * 2 tablespoons tomato paste
 * 1 (or more) cloves of garlic, crushed
 * 2 teaspoons vegan dehydrated vegetable stock
 * 1 dessert spoon (2.5 teaspoons) yeast extract spread (Marmite)
 * 1 tin (260 g) butter beans or chickpeas (or a mix of both)
 * ½ cup (200 g) frozen or fresh garden peas
 * Salt to taste
 * Ground black pepper to taste

Dumplings

 * 110 g (4 oz) self-raising flour
 * 50 g (2 oz) margarine
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder (optional)
 * 1 teaspoon baking soda (optional)
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * Ground black pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Peel the potatoes and cut them into roughly 4 cm (1½-inch) chunks.
 * 2) On low heat, heat the margarine in a large saucepan. Add the potatoes, carrots, onions, celery, and bell peppers. Stir, making sure all vegetables get a good coating of the oil.
 * 3) Gently fry/sweat the vegetables for 3 minutes and season well, then add the flour and continue to stir and coat all the vegetables.
 * 4) Stir in the tin of chopped tomatoes and the tomato paste, then add enough water to cover all the ingredients in the pan.
 * 5) Simmer gently for a further 3 minutes, occasionally stirring.
 * 6) Stir in the stock/bouillon, yeast extract, and garlic.
 * 7) Place a lid on (with a slight gap to allow some of the steam to escape), and gently simmer on a low heat for 35–50 minutes. Stir occasionally to prevent the ingredients from sticking to the bottom of the pan and burning.
 * 8) Make the dumpling mixture: Sift the self-raising flour, baking powder, and baking soda into a large bowl. Cut the margarine into the flour, and add a pinch of salt and fresh ground pepper.
 * 9) Add a very small quantity of cold water and pinch-mix with your fingers (you can always add more later), just enough to make a strong, sticky dough.
 * 10) Test the main stew to see if it's ready for adding the dumpling dough. Take a carrot from the pan and if it feels semi-cooked, but still firm, then it is the perfect time to add the butter beans and peas.
 * 11) Taste, then adjust seasoning with salt and pepper if necessary.
 * 12) Distribute walnut-sized lumps of dough, evenly spaced, on top of the simmering stew.
 * 13) Replace the lid and cook for a further 20–25 minutes, at which time you should have large, light and fluffy dumplings.
 * 14) Serve the stew and dumplings piping hot straight from the pan with fresh crusty bread and prepared yellow mustard on the side.

title: Cookbook:Vegetable Stew and Dumplings


text:
Cookbook talk:Vegetable Stew and Dumplings

This module was transwikied from the Wikipedia article Wiki cookbook. The author of the content at the time the text was moved is anon user 80.177.22.69


text:
Cookbook:Gingerbread

| Dessert

This recipe produces a soft gingerbread cake, not gingerbread cookies. Gingerbread is a type of spice cake. Parkin, a variation traditionally eaten in England around Bonfire Night, is partially oat-based.

Ingredients

 * 110 g (4 oz) butter
 * 110 g (4 oz) brown sugar
 * 220 g (8 oz) golden syrup
 * 220 g (8 oz) all-purpose flour
 * 5 ml (1 level teaspoon) baking powder
 * 5 ml (1 level teaspoon) mixed spice
 * 10 ml (2 level teaspoon) ground ginger
 * 2 eggs
 * 120 ml (4 fluid oz) milk

Procedure

 * 1) Put the butter, sugar, and syrup in a saucepan. Heat gently until the butter melts.
 * 2) Place the dry ingredients in a bowl. Pour the melted butter mixture into the bowl, and beat thoroughly.
 * 3) Warm the milk in a saucepan (so it will dissolve the syrup).
 * 4) Add the milk to the bowl, and beat thoroughly.
 * 5) Beat the eggs, and then stir them in to the mixture.
 * 6) Pour the mixture into an 8-inch (20 cm) greased square cake tin.
 * 7) Bake at 170°C (325°F) for 1 hour.
 * 8) Cool in the tin for 15 minutes, then remove.
 * 9) Leave at least 1 day before cutting into squares. Serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * To make parkin, replace half of the flour by weight with 110 g (4 oz) coarse oat flour.

title: Cookbook:Gingerbread


text:
Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Light switches

Presentation
With the "light switches" reality check, you check if light switches work normally.

This is one of the less reliable reality checks, but for some people it works perfectly.

Examples of this reality check working

 * I was in my bedroom but it was dark. I tried to switch on the light, but nothing happened. I kept trying for a minute until I realised I was dreaming.

 * I dreamed I was working on my computer. I decided to quit and go to bed, so I shut off the computer. As I was walking to my room, I couldn't see anything, so I tried to put on the light by pushing the switch, but the switch didn't work. I ignored this and eventually found the way to my bed. In my bed, I thought: "Wait a minute, the light switch didn't work, I must be dreaming!" However, this excitement caused me to wake up.

 * I was dreaming and woke up in my room. I tried to turn on my light switch, but it melted off the wall. It turned into a liquidy substance, like the oily butter you get at most movie theaters.

 * (Note that this is not quite the same, but still similar). I was working on the computer at night, when I had been told to go to sleep. Not wanting to bother my room-mate/parents/spouse, who gets annoyed at me working late, I was working with the lights off. When I heard a noise, I thought it might be them waking up, so I quickly tried turning off my computer monitor. However, the button did not work. Even when I tried unplugging the monitor or forcing the computer to shut off, the monitor would not turn off, so I realized I was dreaming.

 * I just woke from a nightmare-turned-amusement where the light switch didn't work in my bedroom, leaving me immersed in a frightening darkness... but when I opened my bedroom door, looked out into the hallway, and flipped the switch a few more times, it started changing night to day and day to night outside! Well, okay, then! That got my attention.

Examples of this reality check failing

 * I flicked the switch and my light immediately turned on. Luckily though, I always use back up reality checks. So I got lucid anyways. Yay!

 * Half the time when I try this, the dream supplies some mundane reason why the switch didn't work. There's a short. A storm has knocked down the power lines. Wait, when was the last time I paid the electric bill?...

Sueño lúcido/Test de Realidad/Interruptores de luz


text:
User talk:Evilshiznat

Welcome! You might want to check out Talk:Lucid dreaming - it has some extra info about the wikibook. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 21:43, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Single line breaks do not show up in Wikibooks - only double line breaks do. For example, if you edit this page you will see that I have put single line breaks in my message. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 14:43, 17 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Evilshiznat


text:
Electronics/Cables

Everything past this point is notes
Gage of wire. The larger the gage the smaller the wire if you are using AWG. Metric sizes go the other way.

Cables
Component video and audio.

Coaxial
Coaxial cable is an electrical cable consisting of a round, insulated conducting wire surrounded by a round, conducting sheath, usually surrounded by a final insulating layer.

The cable is designed to carry a high-frequency or broadband signal, usually at radio frequencies. Sometimes DC power (called bias) is added to the signal to supply the equipment at the other end, such in direct broadcast satellite receivers. Because the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists (ideally) only in the space between the inner and outer conductors, it cannot interfere with or suffer interference from external electromagnetic fields.

Coaxial cables may be rigid or flexible. Rigid types have a solid sheath, while flexible types have a braided sheath, both usually of copper. The inner insulator, also called the dielectric, has a significant effect on the cable's properties, such as its characteristic impedance and its attenuation. The dielectric may be solid or perforated with air spaces. Coaxial cables are usually terminated with RF connectors.

Electromagnetics
Open wire transmission lines have the property that the electromagnetic wave propagating down the line extends into the space surrounding the parallel wires. These lines are low loss, however they have undesirable characteristics. They cannot be bent, twisted or otherwised shaped without changing their characteristing impedance. They also cannot be run along or attached to anything conductive, as the extended fields will induce currents in the nearby conductors causing unwanted radiation and detuning of the line.

Coaxial lines solve this problem by confining the electromagnetic wave to the area inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The line itself forms a coaxial waveguide, and the transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through the wave that propagates inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents on them.

Coaxial lines are filled with a dielectric material that maintains the spacing between the center conductor and shield. Unfortunately, all dielectrics have loss associated with them, which causes most coaxial lines to be lossier than open wire lines.

Important parameters

 * The surge impedance, also called the characteristic impedance, can be directly measured with an impedance meter in ohms (Ω) or calculated from the ratio of the inner and outer diameters (ø). Assuming the dielectric properties of the material inside the cable does not vary appreciably over the operating range of the cable, this impedance is frequency independent. The surge impedance does not depend on the length of the cable.
 * Capacitance, in farads per metre.
 * Resistance, in ohms per metre, can be directly measured with an ohmmeter.
 * Attenuation or loss, in decibels per metre. This is dependent on the loss in the dielectric material filling the cable, and resistive losses in the center conductor and shield. These losses are frequency dependent, the losses becoming higher as the frequency increases. In designing a system, engineers must consider not only the loss in the actual cable itself, but also the insertion loss in the connectors.
 * Outside diameter φ, which dictates which connectors must be used to terminate the cable.

Standard cable types
Most coaxial cables have a characteristic impedance of either 50 or 75 ohms. The RF industry uses standard type-names for coaxial cables. The U.S. military uses the RG-# or RG-#/U format (probably for "radio grade, universal", but other interpretations exist). For example:

 * RG-6/U: 75 Ω, low loss at high frequency for satellite television
 * RG-11:
 * RG-58: 50 Ω, φ = 0.2 in (5 mm)
 * RG-59/U: 75 Ω, φ = 0.25 in (6.5 mm)
 * RG-178:
 * RG-179: 75 Ω, φ = 2.8 mm

(φ = diameter, ΩΩ = ohms)

Uses of coaxial cable
Short coaxial cables are commonly used to connect home video equipment, or in ham radio setups.

Long distance coaxial cable is used to connect radio networks and television networks, though this has largely been superseded by other more high-tech methods (fibre optics, T1/E1, satellite).

In broadcasting and other forms of radio communication, hard line is a very heavy-duty coaxial cable, where the outside shielding is a rigid or semi-rigid pipe, rather than flexible and braided wire. Hard line is very thick, typically at least a half inch or 13mm and up to several times that, and has low loss even at high power. It is almost always used in the connection between a transmitter on the ground and the antenna or aerial on the tower. Hard lines are often made to be pressurised with nitrogen or desiccated air, which provide an excellent dielectric even at the high temperatures generated by thousands of watts of RF energy, especially during intense summer heat and sunshine. Physical separation between the inner conductor and outer shielding is maintained by spacers, usually made out of tough solid plastics like nylon.

Triaxial cable also exists, in which a third layer of insulation and sheathing is included. This allows a nearly perfect signal which is both shielded and balanced/differential to pass through. Multi-conductor coaxial cable is also used sometimes.

Biaxial cable or biax is a figure-8 configuration of two 50 ohm coaxial cables, used in some proprietry computer networks.

Timeline

 * 1884 - Coaxial cable patented in Germany by Ernst Werner von Siemens, but with no known application. [unverified: more details needed]
 * 1894 - Waveguide transmission demonstrated to the Royal Institution by Oliver Lodge.
 * 1929 - First practical coaxial cable patented by Lloyd Espenschied and Herman Affel of AT&T's Bell Telephone Laboratories.
 * 1934 - First transmission of TV pictures on coaxial cable, from the Berlin Olympic Games to Leipzig.
 * 1936 - AT&T installs experimental coaxial TV cable between New York and Philadelphia.
 * 1936 - Coaxial cable laid by the Post Office (now BT) between London and Birmingham, providing 40 telephone channels. [Source: archives at http://www.bt.com]
 * 1941 - First commercial use in USA by AT&T, between Minneapolis, Minnesota and Stevens Point, Wisconsin. L1 system with capacity of one TV channel or 480 telephone circuits.
 * 1956 - First transatlantic coaxial cable laid, TAT-1.

Copper

Fiberoptics

Cat 5

Twisted Pair
Twisted pair cabling is a common form of wiring where two conductors are wound around each other for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference known as crosstalk. The number of twists per meter make up part of the specification for a given type of cable. The greater the number of twists, the more crosstalk is reduced.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) has an outer conductive casing similar to coaxial cable and theoretically offers the best protection from interference. It was commonly used for token ring networks.

UTP or unshielded twisted pair is not surrounded by shielding. It is the primary wire type for telephone usage and is very common for computer networking.

UTP is standardized into various categories by number, which indicate signal integrity attributes. Category 5 cable is commonly used for Ethernet with 10BASE-T or 100BASE-TX.

In telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a standard 25 pair color code originally developed by AT&T. A typical subset of these colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables.

Audio cables that are twisted are often referred to as balanced.

Connectors
Registered Jack (RJ) - Untwisted and Twisted pair
 * 1) RJ11 = 6 Phone Line
 * 2) RJ14 = 6 Double Phone lines
 * 3) RJ45 = 8 Ethernet

 * SMA Connector from Cmpter

GCSE Science/Electricity

Everyone knows mains is potentially dangerous. There are however safety features included in plugs. This module looks at how to correctly wire a plug.

The three pin plug
Nowadays most appliances are sold with moulded plugs already fitted. Nevertheless it is still important to understand the correct wiring of a plug because enough of the old plugs still exist. You are very likely to need to change a plug at some time in your life. In the UK mains electricity is 230V. if you were to touch the live wire a current would flow through your body to the ground. This current may be enough to kill you.

The cable from the appliance usually consist of three wires. The wires are made of copper surrounded by a plastic sheath. The sheath is made of plastic and is coloured:

 * The live wire is brown
 * The neutral wire is blue
 * The earth wire is green & yellow

The three wires are covered by an outer sheath made of plastic.

Q1)Use you knowledge of insulators and conductors to explain
 * Why are the wires made of copper
 * Why are the sheaths made of plastic

The plug has the following features:
 * A cable grip, to grip the cable and prevent it being pulled out of the plug
 * Three pins made of brass. One of which is the earth pin.
 * A fuse
 * A case made of plastic

Q2) Why are the pins made of brass and why is the case plastic?

The live and neutral wires
They carry the current around the circuit. Mains current is AC this means that it is going backward and forwards in cycles. (clockwise and anticlockwise around the circuit). The frequency of the cycle is 50 times a second (50 Hertz) This cycling of current is achieved by varying the voltage on the live wire from +230V to -230V and back again. The voltage on the neutral wire does not vary. It stays close to zero ( hence the term neutral). In contrast the voltage of a battery does not cycle. It says constant. This is known as D.C. (direct current)

The live and neutral pins of a plug often have the half nearest the case surrounded by a plastic shroud. This is to prevent your fingers from touching them if you curl them around the plug as you push the plug into the socket.

Q3)Why is only the part nearest the cases sheathed. Why not the whole pin?

The earth wire
This wire is there to protect you. Many appliances have metal cases. For example kettles, toasters, dishwashers and washing machines. If the live wire were to become loose inside the appliance and touch the case the whole case would become live. If you were then to touch it a current would flow through you to the earth. The earth wire is just a wire connected to the case of the appliance. It goes down the flex into the socket. In side the wiring of your house it travels down to the earth. It is often connected to a metal plumbing pipe. If the live wire were to touch the case a huge current would flow through the earth wire. This would probably blow the fuse and break the circuit {see next section} but even if the fuse doesn't blow the current would still prefer to flow through a nice low resistance wire than a high resistance human body.

The earth pin on a plug is longer than the live and neutral pins. This ensures that the earth pin always connects with the socket first.

The fuse
A fuse is simply a very thin wire. The wire has a low melting point. As current flows through the wire it heats up. If too large a current flows it melts. This breaks the circuit. Fuses are used to protect appliance. If too large a current flows through an appliance it may damage it. It may even cause a fire!

Fuses are rated according to how much current they can carry before melting. In plugs fuses are usually 3A, 5A, or 13A. The correct fuse for an appliance is one that is just above the normal working current for that appliance.

Q4) A table lamp usually carries a current of 0.5 A what fuse should be put in the plug 3 A, 5A, or 13A?

Q5) An iron usually carries a current of 5.2 A what fuse should be put in the plug 3 A, 5 A, or 13 A?

Q6) A kettle is protected by an earth wire and a 13 A fuse. The live wire comes loose and touches the side of the kettle. The fuse blows. Explain why. The unit is designed to break the circuit if the current spikes above 13A.

Summary

 * The live wire is brown, and has AC voltage of 230 V
 * The neutral wire is blue and has AC voltage of approximately zero
 * The earth wire is green & yellow and is a safety device designed to protect people from shocks.
 * The fuse is a device that melts and breaks the circuit when the current gets too high
 * The case is made of plastic (an insulator) for safety

title: Electronics/Cables


text:
Statistics/Displaying Data/Bar Charts

Bar Charts
The Bar Chart (or Bar Graph) is one of the most common ways of displaying catagorical/qualitative data. Bar Graphs consist of 2 variables, one response (sometimes called "dependent") and one predictor (sometimes called "independent"), arranged on the horizontal and vertical axis of a graph. The relationship of the predictor and response variables is shown by a mark of some sort (usually a rectangular box) from one variable's value to the other's.

To demonstrate we will use the following data(tbl. 3.1.1) representing a hypothetical relationship between a qualitative predictor variable, "Graph Type", and a quantitative response variable, "Votes".

tbl. 3.1.1 - Favourite Graphs

From this data we can now construct an appropriate graphical representation which, in this case will be a Bar Chart. The graph may be orientated in several ways, of which the vertical chart (fig. 3.1.1) is most common, with the horizontal chart(fig. 3.1.2) also being used often

fig. 3.1.1 - vertical chart

fig. 3.1.2 - horizontal chart

Take note that the height and width of the bars, in the vertical and horizontal Charts, respectfully, are equal to the response variable's corresponding value - "Bar Chart" bar equals the number of votes that the Bar Chart type received in tbl. 3.1.1

Also take note that there is a pronounced amount of space between the individual bars in each of the graphs, this is important in that it help differentiate the Bar Chart graph type from the Histogram graph type discussed in a later section.

title: Statistics/Displaying Data/Bar Charts


text:
Main Page/test

Browse: computing | engineering | humanities | mathematics | science | social sciences | miscellaneous | more... Wikibooks is a free library of educational textbooks that anyone can contribute to. Never used Wikibooks before? Read Using Wikibooks.

title: Main Page/test


text:
User:Vuara/PINXXIEE Tenstrokes

Dr H. C. Tien's PINXXIEE Tenstrokes Transcode PX2001 language software
 * http://www.internetchinese.com/english/faq.htm
 * http://www.internetchinese.com/english/Newsletter%202003-12-01.htm
 * http://www.internetchinese.com/english/English_=_Internet-Chinese.htm

google search
 * http://www.google.ca/search?q=chinese+alphabet+phonetic+ideographic+unified&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en&btnG=Google+Search&meta=&X=1
 * http://www.honco.net/japanese/03/page3.html

Educational Technology and Language R&D 1961-2004

Tenstrokes® Graphic Alphabet™ Internet-Chinese® SCRIPT

TENSTROKES® ALPHABET & THE INTERNET-CHINESE SCRIPT™

ABSTRACT: The Internet-Chinese script evolved from the TENSTROKES® Graphic Alphabet. It is both a graphic and a phonic Alphabet, with only 10 Stroke-letters. This Tenstrokes® can spell both Latin Letters, Chinese characters and symbols.

INTRODUCTION: TENSTROKES® Alphabet is the standardized Transcode™ of multilingual scripts, including the 10 Indo-Arabic Numerals, 26 Latin alphabet Letters and the 60 thousands or more of Chinese graphic characters, and innumerable multicultural graphic symbols. In short, all letters, numbers and graphics can be unified into one set of alphabetic code. In 1961, Dr. Tien discovered the TENSTROKES® Transcode©. By 1999, China Standardization Association had certified TiENSTROKES™ script as standardized Internet-Chinese®, an alternative script to Chinese characters and English, in sending e-mails.

TiENSTROKES©

For example, A, 0 and  Ä¾ can all be spelled with the same set of TiENSTROKES letters. That is,

The fact that TENSTROKES® Alphabet can spell English letters and symbols as well as Chinese characters, and modernized Internet-Chinese script, heralds new steps in global education and world trade, East-West, across WWW.

Internet-Chinese script is now a Web reality. It is being used to e-mail like English. Internet-Chinese is plainly readable to all who are using the Latin Alphabet. In our Information Age of communication tools and digital literary education, it will connect East and West more closely and efficiently.

Chinese can now learn English faster, and Americans can learn the Internet-Chinese faster. And at the same time, any English-speaking person can acquire the ability in reading and spelling "Ideograms=Haanzii’ and, at the touch of button, converting Internet-Chinese words to "ºº ×Ö = ºº ×Ö ", the beautiful Chinese characters as easily as our ancient or modern calligraphers, using TiENSTROKES™ software tools and Internet-Chinese Spellcheckers. Cogently, today learning Internet-Chinese is as easy as learning French or any other latinized language script.

What first step should I take, if I am interested in TiENSTROKES®?

Take 3 steps:

[] FIRST STEP. Begin with TiENSTROKES! It only takes 10 minutes to learn TiENSTROKES™ Alphabet. (See table above).

[] THE SECOND STEP: After the TiENSTROKES™, learn a little Internet-Chinese. This will add fun, understanding and friendship, to learn about the other side of the world. An Introductory INTERNET-CHINESE© Lesson is in the table below.

For further lessons, and much, much more, see: CHINESE FOR EVERYONE™

[] THE THIRD STEP: Plan a trip to China. See the other side of the world. Visit the Great Wall. See the Three Gorges. Visit Terra Cotta Warriors in XiAn. Learn a new culture, a new language, and try new food. Lots and lots of fun!

Above all, ENJOY LIFE.

Bon Voyage! A safe trip! Yih Luu Pinng An! Ò» Â• Æ½ °²!

+++

Questions and Answers on PINXXIEE

A Peking-born Michigan Doctor has discovered a Tenstrokes alphabet of only 10 letters, that can teach anybody in the world (who already knows the English Alphabet) within an hour to decode any Chinese character independently. No prior knowledge of Chinese is required. With the Tenstrokes alphabet, Dr H. C. Tien has created a computer-compatible Chinese script (PINXXIEE), an alphabetic touch-typeable language, like English, which is a perfect tool for English-Chinese communication and creates a new way of processing Chinese language on computer. With this PINXXIEE script and today's computer technology, it is now practical and profitable to touch-type on a standard computer keyboard. Dr. Tien has received patents on his technology in China and in United States, 1n 1992 and 1993, respectively.

Q. What are PINXXIEE's general features? A. PINXXIEE is a general language technology that has both phonetics-&-graphics(x) in its script (containing both alphabet and icons). The common features are: 1. The phonetic scripts are for the "ear", whereas the graphic scripts are for the "eye". For example, the English letters of "ABC..." are used to transcribe and decipher sounds; and the Chinese strokes of "- | /..." are used to transcribe and decipher shapes. Pinxxiee spellings combine both basic phonetic and graphic information of Chinese characters into a unique and unified PX spelling for each Chinese character. For example: MAXX. MAXX = MA(sound of ma) + XX(shape for female) => maxx(mother)

Q. What is the basic discovery of PINXXIEE language technology? A. The Chinese Tenstrokes Global Alphabet.

Q. What are its unique features? A. The Tenstrokes Alphabet has only 10 letters: V H L J I T G N C Z, associated with 10 strokes: ` - | / \ / \ ) ( z, to form the Global Alphabet or Tenstrokes Transcode(TM): V` H- L| J/ I\ T/ G\ N) C( Zz.

Q. What is the nature of this Transcode(TM)? A. Tenstrokes are the elementary "particles" of linguistics, analogous to those in physics; and the letter are "atoms". For instance, the English letter 'A' can be split into 3 strokes JIH: / \ - => A; or the Chinese character THREE can also be split into 3 different strokes HHH: - - - => = =_(3); (you need a Chinese character word processor to see the nature of the graphics more accurately).

Q. What are the benefits of using this product to user? A. Pinxxiee Language Technology empowers the users to utilize the existing keyboards, software and hardware on the international market for multilingual word processing and data transfer, including Chinese, Japanese or English getting prepared for the multilingual Information Superhighway.

Q. Who are some of the major clients of this technology? A. Purdue University, CBS, EDS, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 6 Peking schools; Peking University, Peking Normal College, Huiwen and Chongwen elementary and middle schools in China, Chinese Consulate in Chicago, and other corporate translators and academic centers have acquired the PX2001 language software.

Q. What products have these centers acquired from PINXXIEE Corporation? A. Pinyin+Plus ChineseStar for Windows 3.1 Pinyin+Plus Input Diskette Pinyin+Plus Dictionary (hard copy) Pinyin+PX2001 Tutor 1.1 ChineseStar 2.0 for windows 3.1

Q. Is this technology patented, copyrighted and/or trademarked? A. Yes. PINXXIEE Technology has received copyrights and trademarks since 1961. And PINXXIEE obtained both China patent (1992) and US patent (1993). An article by Washington Post (1985) gave the history and an article by Chicago Chinese Times (1994) gave more recent details.

Q. What is PX2001 software? A. It is a tutor that teaches the Pinxxiee Language Technology. PX2001 1.1 is a basic Chinese language learning and word processing software program, and it has broad applications and implications for users interested in R&D with multilingual technology for the information industry the near future (1-5 years).

Q. What will Pinxxiee do for me? A. Because Pinxxiee is inherently multi/translingual, it will assist

Q. Why would I use Pinxxiee over Pinyin? A. The alphabet is very effective in the development of pronunciation and the learning process in general, which is why Pinyin  was developed. A natural alphabetic language assists in pronunciation and provides meaning. The Pinxxiee alphabet does this, whereas the Pinyin alphabet only assists in pronunciation.

Q. Chinese has been talked about though out most of this book, but Pinxxiee is referred to as a multilingual language. Can Pinxxiee do other languages? A. Yes. Most ideographic languages derive from Chinese, which is why it is referred to as a multilingual language.

Q. If I learn Pinxxiee, can it help me with other language? A. Yes. In a basic sense you can always revert back to TiENSTROKES to represent any letter or character. But in a practical sense once you have bridged the gap between alphabetic and ideographic languages, your ability to learn and use any language is greatly increased. For instance, this is especially useful for programmers interested in developing multilingual computer systems.

+++

PINXXIEE HISTORY CAIS'99

Back Side of the Rosetta Stone

Today in 1999, one-fifth of the world's population is Chinese. And the remaining four-fifths can't read Chinese characters. How do we improve communication between China and the rest of the world, for example with the United States? Since 1873, the American invention of typewriter by Sholes & Remington motivated countless attempts to adapt the ideographic script into a touch typable format like English; and up to now, over a thousand encoding methods have been devised to input ancient Chinese ideographs into the modern computer. so far, none has achieved the efficiency and flexibility to match the Latin phonetic script. The Chinese bottleneck remains. There may exist a historical missing link to be discovered, comparable to the Rosetta Stone of Egypt.

H. C. Tien, M.D., a practicing physician working with children, discovered such a scientific link between the tow major languages of the world, Roman letters and Chinese characters. After more than 25 years of research and development, he perfected the Tenstrokes Pinxxiee script (pin-shay, meaning phonics-graphics), with a Tenstrokes language theory and technology, linking to the Egyptian Rosetta Stone(196 BC, in the reign of Ptolemy V).

The Rosetta Stone helped French linguist Jean-Francois Champollion(1790-1832), with the aid of English physician-physicist Thomas Young(1773-1829) and his insight of reading Hieroglyphic graphic signs as alphabetic phonic letters, thus deciphering the inscrutable Egyptian Hieroglyphics, linking to Demotic and Greek. Thence to French and to English.

In 1961, Dr. Tien gained insight into children's dyslexia and reversed the reading of English phonetic letters back to Chinese ideographic signs. He thus discovered and created a basic Tenstrokes Alphabet as if it were on the "Back side of Rosetta Stone". It now enable anyone in the world to learn Chinese Characters more easily. This discovery attracted scientists and scholars, East & west, because Tenstrokes turned out to be a phonographic alphabet underpinning all the world's languages. This global alphabet similarly deciphers the inscrutable Chinese Ideographics, linking to Pinxxiee and English, completing the circle. In fact, this alphabetic Transcode actually serves as the missing link between the various linguistic cultures of the world.

CAIS'99(ComputerChinese Auto Input System)™ is the embodiment of the e-Chinese translingual tool now available in personal computer and palm computers. TiENSTROKES can be used at once as a central switch to multilingual translations amongst all the languages on the Web.

TiENSTROKES will help build electronic Chinese links with English and Indo-European languages as well as with other Sino-Asian languages on the Multilingual Information Superhighway( MISH™) for current Internet applications, and for the expansion of the World Wide Web.

The discovery of Tenstrokes Alphabet truly bridges East & West in the global Information Age.

+++

December 1, 2004 Vol. II. Bulletin 1.

World InterNetters Society Bulletin

THE TREE MODEL OF LANGUAGE CONVERTER Multilingual Information Super-Highway (MISH):

By H. C. Tien, M.D. An Introduction to PINXXIEE Translingual Dictionary, World Journal Press, 1990

In 1947, Warren Weaver, Director of the Natural Sciences Division of the Rockefeller Foundation, wrote to Professor Norbert Wiener at MIT, a memo that launched machine translation (MT). By 1955, Weaver was seeking "a system of prelinguistic symbols (that) underlies all human languages, like a shared source code of thought. If such a system could be discovered, or created, it could be used as medium for converting ideas from one language into another. By translating the words in an original text into this code, and then translating back into the desired language, the code could be used as a universal interface between languages."

In 1961, unbeknownst of Warren Weaver’s search, Dr. Tien, indeed, researching with Rorschach inkblots and Chinese characters, discovered the first fragment of a code for his language converter linking to the ancient Rosetta Stone. And by 1999, he perfected precisely such a basic system of prelinguistic symbols, named Tenstrokes Transcode[. TiENSTROKES® also provided the long-sought solution to the Chinese Homophone Puzzle. Defying the dire predictions of nearly all world classical linguists, Dr. Tien’s Transcode made it possible to transform traditional Chinese characters into the modernized and linearized Internet-Chinese script, directly readable like English and learnable like French.

And so, the alphabetic spelling of an ideographic character like ‘ Ä¾ ’ is ‘ HLJY ’ or in its prelinguistic symbols ‘ Ò» Ø Ø¯«£ ’, which is same for all languages. But, of course, the pronunciation or its phonetic spelling of

Ä¾ ó Ò» Ø Ø¯«£ ó HLJY ó Tree

for any language is uniquely different for each and every one, that is, for example, ‘Tree’ in English, ‘Arbre’ in French, ‘Baum’ in German, and so on, or now ‘Muuh’ in the Internet-Chinese, a new lingua sinica on MISH. [See Tree Model]

This is a significant development for the world of education since students need only to learn the basic 10-letter Chinese stroke alphabet to map 10 English letters, in order to learn convert the entire language (see Global Alphabet Chart). Truly prophetic, in 1955 Warren Weaver, the foremost theoretician of MT (Machine Translation) actually wrote: "It is very tempting to say that a book written in Chinese is simply a book written in English which was coded into ‘Chinese code.’ We have useful methods for solving almost any cryptographic problem, may it not be that with proper interpretation we already have useful methods for translation?" The answer is "Yes, and it’s all Chinese!"

And again, Dr. Tien successfully published such a trilingual tutorial book, decoding "Chinese For Everyone", using CCC’s TiENSTROKES® MarcoPolo Converter 2003.

[ Tenstrokes® Transcode is a system of prelinguistic symbols, because it is a motion alphabet of 10 directional strokes, according to Pinxxiee Theory (pron. pin-shay, meaning phonics+graphics). It can draw Chinese characters and it can even ‘spell’ English letters with the same stroke alphabet. Today, would colleagues of Prof. Weaver or Erwin Reifler recognize this example? The big English letter E is made of 4 stroke letters Ø Ò» Ò» Ò» ó E (phonic); however, the square Chinese character King,Íõ (graphic) is also made of the same 4 stroke letters Ò» Ò» Ø Ò», except for their sequence. And so it is for all 26 English letters and for 2,500 basic Chinese characters, which Chinese elementary school children must all learn by rote memory in order to become literate.

+++

Students take two or three years of Spanish or French and six months after their last class all they remember is how to count to ten and say hello and good-bye. Why will it be any different with Mandarin-Chinese? Because of TiENSTROKES, which is the key that unlocks the entire Mandarin-Chinese language. Students will learn to read, write, and decode the 100 most commonly used Chinese graphic characters. That beats hello or good-bye in Spanish or French.

Quick answer to that question that is going through your mind. Why won't they forget the hundred words of Mandarin-Chinese? The reason they won't forget the first 100 words, or the hundreds to follow as the program progresses, is that they need only to remember the TiENSTROKES (10 STROKES)! This is the link between English script, Internet-Chinese, and Chinese graphic characters.

Still wondering about how you will motivate your students to learn a new language, especially Chinese? Let them know that TiENSTROKES and Mandarin-Chinese is part art class! That's right. What other language do you know of where the characters of a tree actually look like a tree when you write (draw) them out using TiENSTROKES. Chinese is the most artistically creative language in the world and our students deserve the opportunity to learn it through the user-friendliest software on the market ... TiENSTROKES

title: User:Vuara/PINXXIEE Tenstrokes


text:
User:Maximus Rex~enwikibooks

en:User:Maximus Rex

title: User:Maximus Rex~enwikibooks


text:
Electronics/Op-Amps

Op-Amp (operational amplifier)
Op-amp stands for operational amplifier. It is available in IC (Integrated Circuit) chip. It is an electronic circuit of many electronic components already connected and packaged inside a chip of many pins for external connection. Originally, op-amps were so named because they were used to model the basic mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation, etc. in electronic analog computers. In this sense a true operational amplifier is an ideal circuit element.

 * {| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" width=100%

! Op-amp || Pins || Symbol !  ||  ||
 * }

Symbol
The 741 op-amp has a symbol as shown.
 * [[image:opamppinouts.png|op-amp]]

Its terminals are:
 * V+: noninverting input
 * V−: inverting input
 * Vout: output
 * VS+: positive power supply
 * VS−: negative power supply

Operation
The 741 op-amp can be thought as Universal Voltage Difference Amplifier. The main function of the 741 op-amp is to amplify the difference of two input voltages which can be expressed mathematically like below
 * $$V_o = A(V_+ - V_-)$$

From
 * $$V_o = A(V_+ - V_-)$$ . The op-amp acts as a voltage difference amplifier.

It can be shown that an op-amp can function as a noninverting voltage amplifier or inverting voltage amplifier.
 * $$V_o = A V_+$$ . $$V_- = 0$$ . The op-amp acts as a noninverting voltage amplifier.
 * $$V_o = - A V_-$$ . $$V_+ = 0$$ . The op-amp acts as an inverting voltage amplifier.

Also, it can be shown that an op-amp can function as a voltage comparator
 * $$V_o = 0 $$ . $$V_- = V_+$$ . No difference between the two input voltages
 * Vo = VS+ . $$V_+ > V_-$$ . Non Inverting input voltage is greater than the Inverting input voltage
 * Vo = VS- . $$V_- > V_+$$. Inverting input voltage is greater than the Non Inverting input voltage.

Ideal Op-amps
The output voltage is the difference between the + and - inputs multiplied by the open-loop gain
 * Vout = (V+ − V−) * Avo.

The ideal op-amp has
 * an infinite open-loop gain,
 * infinite input impedances and
 * zero output impedance.
 * The input impedance is the impedance seen between the noninverting and inverting inputs.

The model for the op-amp is shown in Figure 1. Where V+ − V− is equal to vd; Rin is the input impedance; Rout is the output impedance; Avo is the open loop gain; and Rs is the source impedance.

 * Figure 1: The model of the op-amp.

Using voltage divider rule, we can determine the voltage vd.
 * $$v_d=\frac {V_{in}R_{in}}{R_{in}+R_{s}}$$ (1)

Since the dependent voltage source amplifies the voltage vd by Avo. We can work out the output voltage across RL once again using voltage divider rule.
 * $$V_{out}=\frac {A_{vo}v_dR_{L}}{R_{L}+R_{out}}$$ (2)

Substituting equation 1 into 2.
 * $$V_{out}=\frac {A_{vo}V_{in}R_{in}R_{L}}{(R_{L}+R_{out})(R_{in}+R_{s})}$$

Now if the properties of an Ideal op-amp are applied. The ideal properties of an op-amp are infinite input impedance and zero output impedance. Since Rin >>, much greater than, Rs, Rin/(Rin+Rs) $$\approx$$ 1.
 * $$V_{out}=A_{vo}V_{in} \,$$

Which is basically the definition of an op-amp. But if the input impedance was not infinite and the output impedance nonzero then this would not be so.

Real Op-amps
Real op-amps are (normally) built as an integrated circuit, but occasionally with discrete transistors or vacuum tubes. A Real op-amp is an approximation of an Ideal op-amp. A real op-amp does not have infinite open loop gain, infinite input impedance nor zero output impedance. Real op-amps also create noise in the circuit, have an offset voltage, thermal drift and finite bandwidth.

An offset voltage
 * means that there exists a voltage vd when both inputs are grounded. This offset is called an input offset because the voltage vd is offset from its ideal value of zero volts.  The input offset voltage is multiplied by the open loop gain to create an output offset voltage.

Thermal drift
 * means that the characteristics of the op-amp change with temperature. That is the open loop gain, input and output impedances, offset voltages and bandwidth change as the temperature changes.

Finite bandwidth
 * Op-amps are made up of transistors. Transistors can only respond at a certain rate because of certain capacitances that they have.  This means that the op-amps cannot respond fast enough to frequencies above a certain level.  This level is the bandwidth.

Modern integrated circuit MOSFET op-amps approximate closer and closer to these ideals in limited-bandwidth, large-signal applications at room temperature. When the approximation is reasonably close, we go ahead and call the practical device an 'op-amp', forget its limitations and use the thinking and formulae given in this article.

DC Behaviour
Open-loop gain is defined as the amplification from input to output without any feedback applied. For most practical calculations, the open-loop gain is assumed to be infinite; in reality, however, it is limited by the amount of voltage applied to power the operational amplifier, i.e. Vs+ and Vs- in the above diagram. Typical devices exhibit open loop DC gain ranging from 100,000 to over 1 million. This allows the gain in the application to be set simply and exactly by using negative feedback. Of course theory and practice differ, since op-amps have limits that the designer must keep in mind and sometimes work around.

AC Behaviour
The op-amp gain calculated at DC does not apply at higher frequencies. This effect is due to limitations within the op-amp itself, such as its finite bandwidth, and to the AC characteristics of the circuit in which it is placed. The best known stumbling-block in designing with op-amps is the tendency for the device to resonate at high frequencies, where negative feedback changes to positive feedback due to parasitic lowpasses.

Typical low cost, general purpose op-amps exhibit a gain bandwidth product of a few MHz. Specialty and high speed op-amps can achieve gain bandwidth products of 100s of MHz.

Op-amp Configurations

 * /Linear Configurations/
 * /Non Linear Configurations/
 * op-amp Configurations

Applications

 * audio and video pre-amplifiers and buffers
 * voltage comparators
 * differential amplifiers
 * differentiators and integrators
 * Filters
 * Precision rectifiers
 * Precision Peak Detector
 * voltage and current regulators
 * analogue calculators
 * Voltage clamp
 * analogue-to-digital converters
 * digital-to-analogue converters

Quick Design Process
Imagine we have a (weak) input signal, and we want to amplify it to generate a strong output signal; or we have several different voltages, and we want to add them together. For these purposes, we need op-amp amplifying and summing circuits. It seems that there is nothing new to say about these bare (usually single op-amp) circuits. Only, the innovator Dieter Knollman has suggested a new simpler design procedure in an EDN's article. He has also placed his work on the web (see also a circuit story written after Dieter's work).

We assume:

 * All inputs are ideal voltage sources.
 * Gain is defined as the gain from the ideal voltage source to the op-amp output.
 * The feedback resistor, Rf, connects from the op-amp output to the inverting input.
 * The input resistor, Ri, connects from the ideal voltage source input to the op-amp input. (This *includes* any source resistance).
 * positive-gain inputs connect (through that resistor) to V+
 * negative-gain inputs connect (through that resistor) to V−

Design procedure:

 * First, specify the desired circuit gains for each input.
 * Then calculate the ground gain, as follows:

 * Daisy's theorem:
 * The sum of the gains = +1 in a properly-designed op-amp circuit.

Therefore, choose

 * Ground gain = 1 - ( the sum of the desired positive and negative gains).

 * Choose a feedback-resistor value. For example, let Rf=100 kiloOhms.

 * Next, calculate the resistor values for each input, including the ground-gain resistor, using

 * $$Ri = \frac {Rf} { |gain| }$$.

 * where |gain| is the absolute value of the desired gain.

Some op-amp circuits need a resistor to ground from the op-amp's inverting input. Others need a resistor to ground on the noninverting input. The sign of the ground gain determines where to place the ground resistor.

If the desired gains add up to one, a resistor to ground is unnecessary.

You will see below some examples that illustrate using the quick design procedure. First of all, answer the question, "What's the highest and lowest output voltage you want?" Make sure the power terminals of the op-amp are at least that high and low. (If you want it to swing from +5 V to -5 V, then an op-amp connected to 0 V and +10 V won't work).

The generic op-amp has two inputs and one output. (Some are made with floating, differential outputs.) The output voltage is a multiple of the difference between the two inputs:

''floating outputs? Are you perhaps misunderstanding "fully differential amplifier" ?''

 * Vout = G(V+ − V−)

G is the open-loop gain of the op-amp. The inputs are assumed to have very high impedance; negligible current will flow into or out of the inputs. Op-amp outputs have very low source impedance.

If an Operational Amplifier is used with positive feedback it can act as an oscillator.

Other Notation
The power supply pins (VS+ and VS−) can be labeled many different ways. For FET based op-amps, the positive, common drain supply is labeled VDD and the negative, common source supply is labeled VSS. For BJT based op-amps, the VS+ pin becomes VCC and VS− becomes VEE. They are also sometimes labeled VCC+ and VCC−, or even V+ and V−, in which case the inputs would be labeled differently. The function remains the same.

Basic Applications
... insert drawings of basic FDA amplifying circuits here ...

Fully Differential Amplifier versus Instrumentation Amplifier
An instrumentation amplifier has extremely high input impedance-- much higher than the input impedance of a fully differential amplifier (once all the feedback resistors are in place). So an instrumentation amplifier is better for measuring voltage inputs with unknown (and possibly time-varying) output resistance.

A fully differential amplifier is better than an instrumentation amplifier for precisely generating differential output voltages, with good rejection of differential noise on the input, output, and power lines.

Applying a Quick Design Procedure
Can we apply Dieter's procedure to a fully differential amplifier? We can, if we revise it a little:

 * Daisy's theorem revised:
 * The sum of the gains = 0 in a properly-designed fully differential amplifier circuit.

Here is the FDA quick design procedure:

 * Use equal feedback resistors Rf, one from the + output to the - input, and one from the - output to the + input. Connect the "common" input to the appropriate voltage source.
 * The sum of the gains = zero in a properly-designed fully differential amplifier circuit (note that this new formulation differs from Daisy's theorem, which claims that the sum is always 1).
 * Calculate resistor values for each input, using Ri = Rf / |desired gain|.
 * For inputs with positive gain, connect the calculated resistor value between that input and the + input on the amplifier.
 * For inputs with negative gain, connect the calculated resistor value between that input and the - input on the amplifier.
 * If all your inputs are differential pairs, then the sum of all the gains is now zero. Done. Otherwise add a ground resistor to bring the total gain to zero.

-

Example 7 (a classic design procedure):

-

Example 8 (a quick design procedure):

-

title: Electronics/Op-Amps