text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Citation

Overview
 Citations
 * Purpose
 * Avoid plagiarism
 * Enable verification
 * Location
 * In-text or parenthetical
 * Bibliography
 * Style
 * MLA
 * Title for bibliography: Works Cited
 * In-text – example: (Goodview 98)
 * APA
 * Title for bibliography: References
 * In-text – example: (Goodview, 1998, p. 98)

Any time you use in your paper information that you paraphrase, summarize, or quote from another source, you must give the author or the publication proper credit. Failure to do so is considered plagiarism.

Plagiarism can be avoided by using parenthetical citations alias in-text citations within the text of your paper or essay and by using a bibliography (a list of your sources) at the end of your paper or essay.

The specific details of how to cite sources are prescribed in various citation styles. One of the most common writing systems in the educational systems is The Modern Language Association (MLA) style of writing. Most students learn first how to write using the MLA format in elementary school. Another very common writing system frequently used by the social sciences is the American Psychological Association (APA) format. MLA was updated for its eighth edition in 2016 to make citing online sources more accessible.

In MLA the bibliography is titled "Works Cited," and in APA the list is titled "References."

APA Essay Format
APA style is commonly used within the social sciences. When writing in APA you must follow these basic guidelines: 1. Typed with standard double space 2. Paper size 8.5" x 11" 3. 1" margins on all sides 4. 12 pt. Times New Roman Font (recommended) 5. You must insert a running head (page header) on the top of every page 6. Page Numbers 7. Your paper should consist of at least four sections: Cover page, Abstract, Main Body and a References Page

If you have further questions please visit the Purdue OWL

Cover Page
In your cover page you must include the following information: 1. Running Head on the top of the page (page header) which should be the tittle of your essay in capital letters (preferably spelled correctly), or a shorter version if the title is too long Ex. Running Head: TITLE OF YOUR GANG 2. In double-space, type the title of your essay in the upper half of the page, with all letters centered. 3. The write the author's name starting with first, middle initials, and last name. No personal titles should be included Ex. Paulo Coelho 4. Lastly, you must include the educational institution you belong to Ex. Saint Cloud State University

Please visit the Purdue OWLto see a sample of a cover page

Abstract
Your abstract is a brief and insightful summary of the research you have conducted.

Page Format
As with the rest of the essay pages, this page must contain the running head. This should be automatically added to all the essay pages. Then, type the Abstract in the center of the page. No formatting should be done to this title. Then, your abstract should be a double-spaced, one paragraph with around 150 to 250 words. Lastly, this page must have a page number, which should be number 2, as it comes right after the cover page.

See Abstract Page Sample

Content
Your abstract should include the following points: 1. Research topic 2. Research questions 3. Participants 4. Methods 5. Results 6. Data analysis 7. Conclusions

Visit the Purdue OWL to see a sample

Reference Page
To cite your sources in APA format, you do this on your References page. To write your References page, follow the steps below.

1. Start a new page for your list, and center the word "References" at the top of the page. There is no need to format the words any different than the rest of your text, so don't waste your time by underlining, italicizing, or making them bold. 2. Number this page in continuation of the pages in your essay or research work. 3. Start each entry flush with the left margin. Indent any subsequent lines 1/2 inch, and double space the entries like the rest of your paper. 4. Alphabetize your sources by the author's last name and first initial, or by using the information provided below. If there is more than one author, list the first author by the last name first, followed by the first name initial, then for all others list the first initial first, followed by the last name, and separate by commas. 5. In dealing with the titles of all books, articles, or webpages, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and all proper nouns. 6. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. 7. Italicize or underline book and journal titles. (Be consistent, always italicize, or always underline, but never use both.) 8. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections.

Books a. Author - List author by last name, (comma) first name initial. If there are more than six authors, list the first author and first initial followed by "et al." b. Year of publication in parenthesis. c. Title - Underline or italicize the title and subtitle. Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. d. Publication Information - Provide the city of publication and the state code if the city is unfamiliar, followed by a : (colon)- a space and the shortened version of the publisher's name. Creakly, P. (2008). Whatever you said is true: Unless you are lying. New York: Penguin.

Journal article - by issue a. Author - List author by last name, (comma) first name initial. If there are more than six authors, list the first author and first initial followed by "et al." b. Year of publication in parenthesis. c. Title of the article - No underling, italics, or quotes are used. Capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. d. Title of the journal/periodical- Italicized or underlined. Capitalize the first letter of all words. e. Volume number(issue number), pages- The volume number and issue number are italicized. Treasure, J. C., S. Kuepers, & J. Edward. (2000). How to determine whether people are lying to you by watching their eyes. Human Behavior, 22(16), 24-64.

Website a. Authors name (if known) last name followed by first initial. b. Year of publication in parenthesis. c. Title of webpage document. Only capitalize the first letter of the first word. d. Provide the date your retrieved it, listed in order by the month and day followed by a comma, then year followed by a comma. e. Include the web address you retrieved if from. Do not end with a period. Wertjes, A. (2007). Facts on finding truth. Retrieved January 21, 2008, from http://freedinformationforall.com

Citing Outside Sources In-Text
Your in-text citations should correspond to the first item listed in your bibliographic citations, which is usually the author's last name. For example, if the in-text citation looks like this:

Then by going to the bibliography page and looking down the list of sources, the name "Booth" should start the citation. For example,

Parenthetical Citations
Parenthetical Citations serve to inform your reader of where you found the data or quotation you are providing to them. Generally, in MLA, if you are citing more than one source, you should include the author's or editor's name and the page number in your parenthetical citation. For example: (Jones 127). If you are only using a single source which is already identified elsewhere in the text, simply use the page number. The eighth edition of MLA did little to change the mechanics of in-text citations. The information required is still only author and page number

MLA Examples
MLA Parenthetical (or In-Text) Citation Examples:

You may also mention the author's name within the text rather than in a parenthetical citation.

If a source has two authors, mention both names within the text, or in a parenthetical citation, separated by "and."

If your source has three or more authors, use only the first author's last name followed by "et al."

More detailed information regarding MLA in-text citations can be found at The Owl, Purdue's online writing guide, which has the most up-to-date information on the changes from the seventh to the eighth edition of MLA, and at Literacy Education Online (LEO), St. Cloud State University's online writing guide.

APA Examples
APA Parenthetical (or In-Text) Citation Examples:

In APA format, you also include the author's name in parenthetical citations; however, whenever you use the author's name in APA, you must also include the date of the publication.

You may also mention the author's name within the text.

If you need to cite two authors of the same work who are mentioned within the text, use both their last names and separate it with "and."

If you do not mention the two author's names within the text, you do so in parenthesis using an ampersand instead of the word "and."

If you have three to five authors, list them all by last name the first time you mention them in the text. Thereafter, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al."

If you mention the authors in parenthetical citations instead of within the text, follow the same guidelines as noted above.

If you have six or more authors, list only the first author's last name followed by "et al."

If you do not know the author's name, use a portion of the article or book title instead. Titles of articles are placed within quotes. Book and report titles are italicized or underlined. (Note that in APA only the first word of an article title is capitalized.)

For more information on APA in-text citations, see The Owl Purdue's online writing guide for APA citations or LEO St. Cloud State University's online writing guide for APA citations

Citing Outside Sources in a Bibliography
While parenthetical in-text citations already indicate the sources of the information, a full identification of the cited sources is required to make it possible for the reader to unambiguously locate the source in a library or on the internet. The list of fully identified sources usually goes at the end of your paper, into a bibliography section. A full identification of a source usually includes the year of publication, the authors, the title of the work, the publishing organization, and more. The information included in the full identification of a source varies with the publication style such as MLA style and APA style.

MLA Works Cited
In MLA, you do this on your Works Cited page. To write your MLA works cited list, follow the steps below.

1. Start a new page for your list, and center the words "Works Cited" at the top of the page. There is no need to format the words any different than the rest of your text, so don't waste your time by underlining, italicizing, or making them bold. 2. Number this page in continuation of the pages in your essay or research work. 3. Start each entry flush with the left margin. Indent any subsequent lines five (5) spaces. 4. Alphabetize your sources by the author's last name or by using the information provided below.

Basic Information Required Under MLA 8th Edition. Note all of these elements may not be within a given citation, but this is the prescribed order for them to appear in a citation.
 * 1) Author
 * 2) Title
 * 3) Title of Container (Self-contained if in a book)
 * 4) Other Contributors (Editors or Translators)
 * 5) Version (Edition)
 * 6) Number (Volume and/or Number)
 * 7) Publisher
 * 8) Publication Date
 * 9) Location (Pages, Paragraphs, DOI, or URL)
 * 10) 2nd Container's title
 * 11) Other Contributors
 * 12) Version
 * 13) Number
 * 14) Publisher
 * 15) Publication
 * 16) Publication Date
 * 17) Location
 * 18) Date of Access (if applicable)

Books - one author a. Author - List author by last name, (comma) first name. b. Title - Italicize title and subtitle. Capitalize any major words even if not officially capitalized in the book's title. c. Publication Information - The city of publication is no longer required under the eighth edition guidelines for MLA; just provide the publisher's name (an MLA-spproved shortened, accepted version of the publisher name may be used). (Penguin for The Penguin Press - a, (comma) is required and the year of publication. Johnson, Steven. Everything Bad is Good for You. Penguin, 2005. Relating that the source is a print source is no longer required in MLA's 8th edition.

Books - two authors a. Authors - List the first author last name first. Then list the name of the second author in normal order, with a, (comma) between the names and a ,and (comma and) before the last author. b. Follow the remaining steps as you would with one author. Caldwell, Ian, and Dustin Thomason. The Rule of Four. The Dial Press, 2004.

Books - three or more authors a. Authors - Give the first author listed on the title page, followed by a, (comma) and "et al." b. Follow the remaining steps as you would with one author. Pilot, John, et al. A Lifetime of Success. Grey Wolf, 2005.

Books - corporate author a. Give the name of the group listed on the title page as the author even if the same group published the book. b. Follow the remaining steps as you would with one author. National Multiple Sclerosis Society. Dealing with MS: a Guide for the Newly Diagnosed. National Multiple Sclerosis Soc., 2000.

Books - unknown author a. Start the entry with the title, and list alphabetically by the first major word of the title. b. Follow the remaining steps as you would with one author. Time Life Treasury of Letters. Harvard UP, 1976.

Books - two or more by the same author(s) a. Arrange entries alphabetically by title. b. List the name(s) of the author(s) in the first entry, but in subsequent entries, us three hyphens followed by a period. Tims, James. What Went Right for Democrats in 2004. Wave, 2004. ---. What Went Wrong for Republicans in 2004. Wave, 2004.

Books - editor or editors a. Treat as you would another source, and after author and title add the editor after this and include "edited by.". b. Follow the remaining steps as you would for a regular book source.. Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. Edited by Margaret Smith, Oxford UP, 1998. Example used from Purdue Owl for MLA webpage.

Website The following list is the order to list information from an online source. a. Author and/or editor names (if available) b. Article name in quotation marks. c. Title of the website, project, or book in italics. d. Any version numbers available, including editions (ed.), revisions, posting dates, volumes (vol.), or issue numbers (no.). e. Publisher information, including the publisher name and publishing date. f. Take note of any page numbers (p. or pp.) or paragraph numbers (par. or pars.). g. URL (without the https://) DOI or permalink. h. Date you accessed the material (Date Accessed). Note-- Remember to cite containers after your regular citation. Examples of containers are collections of short stories or poems, a television series, or even a website. A container is anything that is a part of a larger body of works. Schanaansberg, Arthur. "Hurricane Katrina 2005". What is Happening as a Result of the Greenhouse Effect. November 6, 2005. www.en.geowarming.org/recent_disasters.

More Examples on Formatting Bibliographies
See The Owl or LEO. n

title: Rhetoric and Composition/Citation


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Sciences

Introduction
Writing in the sciences fulfills one of two purposes:
 * 1) Inform the reader of new discoveries
 * 2) Assist the reader in clarifying the truth using new facts or perspectives

A comparison: While writing in the humanities is used to explore the human condition, writing in the sciences is used to examine nature, human experience, and/or technology.

This leads to the two major types of papers written in the sciences:
 * 1) Lab report
 * 2) Literature review

Writing in the sciences requires elements not necessarily needed when writing in the humanities. It requires data, evidence, facts, and precision, which in turn require intimate attention to detail. The goal of writing in the sciences is to clearly present what you have discovered or what you did. This generally requires the writing to be done in the past tense. The language used should allow no room for interpretation by the reader. The nature and subject matter of the ideas in your paper must be presented in a factual style, leaving out figurative or emotional language.

Besides lab reports and literature reviews, writing in the sciences also includes reviews for a peer or textbook, or grant proposals and equipment or facility requests. It is easy to get caught up using jargon and highly technical language. While this language may be appropriate in certain cases, you should know your audience and avoid using words they will not understand (also including definitions where appropriate).

Space occasionally becomes an issue when writing in the sciences. For example, grant proposal applications and abstracts require the text to be limited to a short paragraph. Therefore, an indispensable tool for the scientific paper is the ability to summarize quickly and get to the point. An example grant proposal may include the following sentences:

"Our preliminary research shows a high probability of success if allowed to develop. This requires us to find additional monetary help, as well as a facility to use long term. We are asking for your company's help."

Although you may include a few facts or numbers to back up your claim of success, this is the general format for such a request.

There are basic tips to keep in mind while writing your scientific paper.
 * Be detailed
 * Remain focused on your topic
 * Leave figurative language out
 * Be precise
 * Define jargon based on assumed audience knowledge

There are two categories of sciences writing; social sciences and natural sciences.

Social Sciences
When writing in the social sciences, the writer will spend less time in the library researching data, and a majority of time documenting actual events. Writing in the social sciences is the study of human behavior, the value systems of people, and the interactions between people, whether in the family unit or simply in a group setting.

Writing in this discipline can be a very challenging experience. Gathering the data and interpreting the information can be tedious. Interviews are conducted, and attitudes must be examined and recorded. But recording data gathered from studying human beings is difficult because the human mind is an ever-changing thing.

One key element to writing a paper in the social sciences is the art of taking a stand. Choose your topic, make your claim, provide evidence to support your claim, and finally, convince your reader that your claim is the one with which to side. Take a hard look at both sides of the issue you intend on addressing. Doing so will prepare you to defend arguments in opposition to your viewpoint. Because issues in the social sciences are subjective, the writer should expect some degree of opposing opinions and even, possibly, some controversy. This is why it is suggested that when you write a social sciences paper you choose a topic that you either possess first hand knowledge, know a great deal of information on, or simply a topic about which you are passionate.

Charts and graphs are common elements included in the social sciences paper. A valuable source of information for the social scientist is a government document. These documents contain the most up-to-date information in a variety of fields.

Writing in the social sciences uses a technical vocabulary.

Social sciences attempt to study and describe human behavior and societies. The social sciences can be broken down into further into the following categories:

Psychology
The case study is one of the main writing choices in psychology. These are often studies of a patient seeking help through psychotherapy. These types of case studies can generally be divided into five sections:

 * 1. Background Information
 * This section describes the person based on information a therapist would get from the person during an intake interview. This would include, but is not limited to: demographic information, family history, and history of symptoms.

The following three sections will consider how a person would react to three general categories of psychotherapy. In each section, the following questions should be answered:
 * What is the therapy like?
 * What does the person talk about or do in that therapy?
 * What is the therapist's role?
 * How would this person react to that therapist role?
 * Would the person benefit from this therapy? Why or why not?

 * 2. Psychoanalytic Therapy
 * This type of treatment could be a traditional or contemporary style of psychoanalysis. In other words, the typical patient laying on a couch and talking about his or her feelings, or a more contemporary approach of question and answer, or another setting in which the patient feels more comfortable. A form of psycho-dynamic therapy (changing up the environment for the patient) could also be used.

 * 3. Behavioral Therapy
 * This could be a form of behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, or a mixture of both.

 * 4. Humanistic Therapy
 * This could be existential therapy, gestalt therapy, Zen therapy, or whatever style seems to fit the patient. This is a very progressive form of psychotherapy.

 * 5. Conclusion
 * This section should draw an overall conclusion of how the person in question would react to each kind of considered therapy. The patient's feelings do need to be taken into account when recommending the best treatment, as no one can be helped when they do not want to be. A final recommendation is made, and the case study is usually reviewed by colleagues, or a board or some kind, to comment and recommend a course of action to the psychologist.

Places you may want to look for current information include psychology encyclopedias and abstracts and mental health journals.

(Further resources to consider follow at the end of this section.)

Anthropology
Presenting a case study is a common form of presenting the anthropology paper. The writer is looking at and analyzing the past.

There are specific guidelines to follow when writing an anthropology paper. Stick to the facts and document these thoroughly in the reference list. Quotations are important, but not as important as data.

Because anthropology is such a specialized field, be sure that you re-read your paper several times to be sure that it is comprehensible to a person who may not be a specialist in the field. In other words, can your average college student understand what you are talking about? The trick here is to find a balance in this paper; it must be scholarly, yet understandable.

Political Science
Writing case studies is the main type of writing in this discipline. When writing a paper in political science, you will probably be analyzing how different political organizations function, both individually and as a group. While many of the other categories of the social sciences involve directly observing the group dynamics, writing a paper for political science involves indirect observation. You will pick one specific behavior to observe and focus your paper on that chosen behavior.

Writing for political science can include any level of the government; city, state or federal. Places you may want to look for current information include government documents and newspaper articles. You should expect to be able to support and defend the chosen topic or argument that is the subject of your paper, and do so in a convincing and scholarly manner. If you accomplish all this, and make it a sound political argument, you have then written a solid political science paper.

Sociology
Writing a good sociology paper includes a clear thesis statement. While this is important in all papers requiring a thesis statement, the field of sociology carries with it a potential danger; taking sides.

Writing about sociology is about studying human behavior and the interaction between individuals or groups. An effective sociology paper will analyze these interactions and remain objective. The pitfall that many writers fall into when writing a sociology paper is that they take sides, and as a result they will slant their terminology toward one view or another. This is the trick to a successful sociology paper; staying on the median.

The case study to be the primary focus in sociology writing. In this discipline, writing about group dynamics is a key element.

Education
Many topics are covered in the education section of the social sciences, including students with special needs and child development. The instructor may choose to assign a topic for each individual student or the class as a whole. This gives the group the opportunity to work together and developed a more refined paper. The case study is a common type of paper chosen for a group assignment. Other times, the education instructor may allow each student to choose his or her own topic related to the education field. If that is the case, choose a topic that is of interest to you. You may not have a lot of knowledge about your chosen topic, but if you are genuinely interested in it, the information will be easy to come by and just as easy to understand.

Some of the possible types of papers you may be required to write include literature reviews, an analysis paper, case studies, research papers and lab papers. There are many more types of papers to write in this discipline, so be sure to clarify with your instructor what he or she expects.

Economics
When writing a paper in the economics discipline, the goal is to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the general or specific fields of economics. It also seeks to define the many areas of economics, such as goods, services, and simple the state of economics in our society.

The economics paper may be as simple as a journal review (the Wall Street Journal, for example). Academic journals will be used often, as will statistical data from government sources.

One important thing to remember when writing in this discipline: be sure your vocabulary reflects the nature of the subject. Use topic-specific words and avoid personal observations. Be as factual as possible, avoiding jumping to unsubstantiated conclusions.

Elements of the Social Sciences Paper
When it comes down to actually writing your paper, be sure to include the following elements: an introduction, a thesis statement, the body of the paper, and the conclusion. Many social scientists use these headings in their paper.

One element of the social science paper that greatly differs from the humanities paper is that it should be written in such a way that the reader can take any section from the paper and read it independently from the rest of the paper, without having to look back at any other section. It is this type of technical writing that sets the social sciences paper apart from the humanities paper; each section is its own mini-paper. Knowing your audience members will greatly assist you in writing your social sciences paper.

A social science paper include many elements such as a title page, an abstract, thesis statement, introduction, body, conclusion and bibliography.

Your title page should include the subject or title of your paper, your name (and, if required, your address and phone number), and the current date. Some instructors also require you include the name of the course along with course number. An abstract is a short summary of the ideas you will be proposing in your paper. It is the place to state the argument you intend to address. You can do so by writing an outline of the background information for the paper. When writing your abstract, consider what experiments you did and what kinds of interviews you conducted. The abstract will be set aside from the rest of the paper, usually in the beginning. It will be the only element of the paper on its own page. An effective abstract will be able to summarize the paper with anywhere between 100 and 300 words.

The thesis statement will also come at the beginning of your paper. It will state the purpose of your argument and will introduce your claim to a specific type of human behavior. Your thesis is generally a part of your introduction. Your introduction will introduce your paper's main ideas. Keep them succinct, but make them interesting. Some questions to answer in your introduction may include: Why did you choose this topic? Is there a need for the general public to know about this issue, and why? How does this issue affect you, if at all? Define the problem clearly. Give examples so the reader knows exactly why this is a problem and how it affects society. Your instructor may want your introduction to be a separate element of the paper or a part of the body of your paper.

Toward the beginning of the body of your paper you will put your hypothesis. If you conducted experiments, what did you think would happen when you first began them? Working through the body of the paper you should cover the testing of the hypothesis, along with the discussion of any research conducted. The body of the social sciences paper will include many elements: the background of the problem or issue you are addressing (which addresses the issue of topic importance), your rationale (which justifies your choice of topics), your statement of qualification (which outlines why you, as a writer, as qualified to write on the subject), a survey of literature (which denotes the sources you used in forming your hypothesis), the methods of research used, the time estimate outline (for completing your experiments/projects), and any information about budget limitations. The body is where you will include any charts or graphs that will assist you in reporting your information. Supporting discussion should be written to explain these elements.

In the conclusion of the social sciences paper, you should recap the information you addressed in the body of the paper, keeping in close contact with the thesis. Did your test results differ from your hypothesis? If so, why? The conclusion should explain how the data supported or did not support your hypothesis. During your entire conclusion, you should always back up the main theme of your paper.

You will certainly need to include a works cited page (bibliography) to credit any sources used in your paper. Also, many education research papers include an appendix. You may include charts, graphs, and definitions. Most social sciences papers use the APA (American Psychological Association) format for documentation style, however, you will want to discuss style with your instructor before you begin your paper.

Resources to Use
Different resources you will use in order to complete your social sciences paper will provide different levels of information. An encyclopedia will provide basic information in pretty general terms. The information here will be in a the form of a summary, and will not be very comprehensive in nature. This is where books, a better source for information, will be beneficial. When you search for one specific book, this search may lead you to several other valuable books that you find you will want to reference in your paper. Finally, journal articles should be the final source you should rely on for information. Journal articles will provide the most comprehensive and up-to-date information in the subject you are researching. This is one of the reasons that it is important to use the journal article as your last source of information; the journal article is written in such a way that it assumes the reader has prior knowledge on the subject matter. So read your encyclopedia first (general and summative information), then research your subject in books (dedicated material), and finally in journal articles (comprehensive and scholarly).

In any case, you should steer yourself away from the mainstream media for your information. Stick with the scholarly print sources.

Natural Sciences
Writing in the natural sciences means writing about the natural aspects of our world. Theories are tested in order to solve problems. The natural sciences paper is used to evaluate and conclude from this testing.

Writing in this discipline is a detailed, tedious process. Specific steps must be taken to ensure you have gathered accurate data. Once you have gathered enough data, you must organize it into a coherent flow of ideas, ending with your evaluation or conclusion. One of the critical parts of the natural sciences paper is the presentation. You have your data, you have organized it, so now it is time to present it in a factual, knowledgeable way.

Natural Sciences can be broken down into 2 categories; pure sciences and applied sciences.

Pure Sciences include the life sciences, physical sciences, and earth sciences. Life sciences focuses on how plants, animals, and organisms (living things) relate to each other and how they interact with their surroundings. Biology is one area of the life sciences. Others include ecology, molecular biology and genetics, and food sciences. To write about the physical sciences is to write about matter (anything that occupies space) and energy (what causes matter to move), not living things. There are many topics in the field of physical science. The list includes aerodynamics, thermodynamics, chemistry, and even astronomy.

Earth science, quite simply, is the study of the earth and its history. There are four main areas of earth science: geology (the study of the structure of the earth and how it formed), meteorology (the study of weather), oceanography (the study of the ocean and the creatures living in it), and space science (the study of the planets, stars, and everything else out there). Possible earth science topics may include volcanoes, tornadoes, the study of rocks, our atmosphere, earth minerals, or the solar system.

Applied Sciences include medical sciences (i.e. forensics, pharmaceuticals), engineering sciences (i.e. electrical/mechanical engineering) and computer science.

Elements of the Natural Sciences Paper
Keep in mind that when writing in the sciences, fact is preferred over flair. Write about the facts - the experiment outcomes, the process of information gathering, or a succinct hypothesis. Focus on the "what" and keep away from describing the "what."

It is good pedagogic practice to require student write ups to be near in style to what would be expected in a published paper. There is a tradition in science of using a neutral tone, the third person and the passive voice, and some institutions may require this style for high marks. It can however lead to rather stilted writing and other institutions encourage the use of the 1st person in write ups. It is necessary to be aware of the requirements of the course, the potential audience of the article and perhaps even the personality of the marker.

There are seven steps to writing in the Natural Sciences:

 * 1) The problem being addressed must be stated in an objective fashion.
 * 2) Unbiased relevant information must be gathered.
 * 3) The information gathered must be analyzed.
 * 4) A hypothesis is formulated.
 * 5) Experimentation (the fun stuff) to prove your hypothesis.  Remember that keeping a journal of experiment outcomes is important for your final steps, so be detailed.
 * 6) Analyze your journal notes.
 * 7) Arrive at your conclusion, which may or may not prove your original hypothesis.

When it comes down to actually writing your paper, be sure to include the following elements:

 * Title : The title of the natural sciences paper is very important. It should be concise and clearly describe what your paper is about. You may choose to introduce what you tested. For example:

 * This title describes the molecule of interest and the reaction of interest, making it easy for the reader to determine if this paper is one they would want to read.

 * Abstract : This is a brief description of your paper. Take the main ideas and summarize them in 250 words or less. For example, this is an abstract for a paper written in the organic chemistry field.

 * There is little to no explanation of the details of the experiment or results. If the reader is interested in this synthesis, they now know that this experiment showed a poor but pure yield, and used both IR and NMR spectroscopy to analyze the product. This is important in scientific writing because of the massive amounts of information available to a researcher. The nature of modern computer searches has meant that the abstract of a published paper is of paramount importance. There may be a hundred people reading the abstract for every single one who actually ever reads the full paper. Anything useful which the paper contains therefore must be mentioned in these 250 words. Abstracts help research scientists to weed through papers to find information pertinent to their specific interest.

 * Introduction : The paper should begin by introducing and forming a question in the introduction. The introduction should include relevant theories and equations used in your experiment. If other scientists have conducted similar experiments, give recognition to these predecessors of your work. Any hypotheses you have formed should be stated here. A brief description of the experiments conducted should be outlined in the introduction also, saving the intimate details of the experiments for the body of the paper.

 * This introduction goes into detail regarding the synthesis used and what is synthesized in the experiment. This provides ample background information for the reader who may not be an expert in the experiment performed.

 * Thesis Statement : The thesis statement of a scientific paper is a clear and concise statement of your topic of study. This could be included in your introduction.

 * This thesis statement clearly defines what is being accomplished (or trying to be accomplished) through this experiment. Notice that this particular example does not include a hypothesis. For a synthesis-type experiment, there may not be any predictions to be made. Not all scientific papers need to include a hypothesis.

 * Body
 * Since the goal of the scientific paper is to present facts supported by evidence, there are general rules to follow in the paper. Avoid adjectives and adverbs (being descriptive), and instead focus on the nouns (the focus of the paper) and the verbs (how it acted).
 * Structure your sentences so that they are clear and easy to understand. Keep your audience in mind when using technical jargon. Limit yourself to words and jargon that your audience should be familiar with. Overuse of unfamiliar jargon will not make you sound smarter, it will only thoroughly confuse your readers.

 * The body of the paper will include the following:
 * Experimental: This section contains all of the reagents you used in your experiment, most likely accompanied by any hazard warnings they might carry. If a colleague wants to reproduce your experiment, they need to know what they are getting themselves into. Also described here should be all of the equipment used in your data collection process, including specific equipment names and numbers.
 * Procedure: This section contains the steps taken during your experiment. If you used a procedure previously recorded elsewhere, feel free to simply reference that procedure to save time and precious space for data. If you are using a self-written procedure, you need to meticulously write every step down so that your experiment could be repeated in exactly the same way by a different team of scientists.
 * Results : Here you would record all of the numerical data you generated during your experiment. Refrain from drawing conclusions. Simply enter tables, graphs, and numbers that are pertinent to your conclusions.

 * Conclusion : In your conclusion, you should focus on the data you presented. Share and discuss your results. Here you are allowed to give your opinion on what the results mean. Although you are given the freedom to interpret your data how you see fit, avoid linking your findings with other, unexplored subject matter. If you didn't cover it in your introduction or experiment, leave it out of the conclusion!

 * Acknowledgments : Sometimes, but often not, you will need to put this section in. Examples are if you have used a service to run spectra or analysis for you, or someone has given you help by lending some part of their apparatus made for a different experiment. Acknowledgment sections are very appropriate and recommended for academic writing, as all equipment utilized usually belongs to the university. Some scientific service providers require a specific form of words in the acknowledgment as part of their regulations. These will be provided along with the results of your submitted sample.

 * References Cited Page : Follow the specific documentation style chosen or required. If citing, for example, a huge reference book of analytical and preparatory chemistry, give the page or chapter number so the reader stands a chance of finding the text you used. It is a good idea to make sure you cite any important references already cited for you in the laboratory instructions and add some more to show that you have looked further than just reading your assignment brief.

 * Appendix: This section is reserved for boring calculations and notes that you made during the actual experimentation process. No one really wants to see your hand written notes, but you are still required to present them to prove that you did observe what you claim in your paper. This section, therefore, usually contains a photocopy of the laboratory notebook page, or pages, that contain data and comments relevant to your paper.

Resources to Use
Seeing as writing in the natural sciences is technical in nature, you will find that your resources are going to have to be scholarly, comprehensive, and up-to-date (the only time you should use a reference that is several years old is to do comparisons). The first step is to educate yourself on your topic by locating information through a simple search. Information and data can be compiled by doing a search and writing down the information you find to familiarize yourself with the subject. When you feel comfortable with the level of knowledge of this information, you can move on to the next step in the research process.

That next step is finding encyclopedias, textbooks, reference books, and the like to continue filling in the details on your topic. These resources will be dedicated to the chosen topic. They will provide more detailed information and help you fill in any holes in your research or to simply answer questions that may have popped up during the information gathering stage. A good way to find if there are newer articles than your favorite reference is to use the citing references feature of many search systems. These might well give you a link to a more comprehensive and up to date reference.

Finally, you will turn to review articles, lab reports, and research reports to get the most up-to-date information. This is the most important resource you will use, and the most challenging. These articles and reports provide information that reveal the most recent discoveries on the chosen topic. However, they also tend to be technical in nature and are written in a way that assumes the reader is familiar with technical jargon associated with the field or subject. While keeping this in mind, review articles and research reports will round out your resource selection nicely.

Don't be afraid to search the Internet for information. There is a great deal of good stuff out there, but you should be careful in what you use. Be sure to gather any Internet information from a scholarly source, such as an educational site or a non-profit site. Use the Internet as a secondary or even better a tertiary source and preferably cite a review article or a journal of record. The citing of either the Internet or encyclopedias is sometimes expressly forbidden so you need to check on institutional policy here. (Despite this some book series, though they have encyclopedia in the title, such as Wiley's The Encyclopedia of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance are actually review journals and are eminently citable.) Internet articles change and so a citation should include the date accessed, for example:

Acronyms and Abbreviations
Science abounds in acronyms and abbreviations, which can be very irritating if you are not in the know. Even common ones like IR for infrared spectroscopy or MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) should be named in full followed by the abbreviation the first time they are mentioned and then the abbreviation used from then on.

Acronyms do not always mean the same to different people. A RAS can be either a Reusable Asset Specification, or in a system performance context Reliability, Availability and Serviceability or many would guess it is a Random Access Something-or-other

Longer reviews in subjects like biochemistry which have to name numerous macromolecules and cell constituents might require a separate acronyms glossary after the references and bibliography.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Rhetoric and Composition/Punctuation

What Is Punctuation For?
"Proper punctuation" shows up repeatedly in discussions about expectations and criteria for what constitutes good academic writing — whether it's administrators, teachers, students, or legislators talking about what should be taught in the first-year writing classroom. But the word "proper" might limit or even mislead our thinking of punctuation. Used knowledgeably and deliberately, punctuation is more than proper; it's essential to making meaning. Also, there's a faint connotation of "arbitrary" with the word "proper" — and effective punctuation is anything but arbitrary.

Nor is punctuation merely a reflection of oral behavior, as suggested by the familiar injunctions "Use a comma for a pause" or "Where your voice drops, use a period." Instead, punctuation functions as a rich set of clues that have emerged specifically for readers working through text on a page or screen, visually and two-dimensionally.

The nature of reading demands such clues precisely because text is not speech. Speakers have pitch, pace, hand gestures, facial expressions, and other means to let a listener know such things as which points to link to each other and which points should stand on their own, or whether information is necessary in that it restricts meaning or whether it is extraneous. Moreover, ordinary speech usually accommodates a listener's questions, allowing for a more rapid arrival at a joint understanding between speaker and listener. The greater temporal and spatial distance between writer and reader, however, calls for a code that can work to give clues about the writer's intended meaning in the absence of such direct two-way communication.

Is It Worth the Work?
While punctuation does function as a vital part of making meaning within a text, it can’t be denied that it serves another function as well: that of credibility marker. Using punctuation according to the conventions of the academic community does serve as a sort of license into, and within, that community. To take the time and effort to learn and use punctuation conventionally sends the message to readers that “I’m part of your community; I can speak your language (use your code). So, listen to me.” It signals a sort of collegial willingness to hear and to be heard: to use a common code that enhances and expands understandability instead of restricting it to yourself. Codes can exclude and include; by using the code of “correct” punctuation, you’re signaling a willingness to be included in a group of people who’ve agreed on how to use certain dots and squiggles on the page to indicate certain relationships among ideas. For whatever reason you value inclusion in the academic community, subscribing to (buying into) conventional punctuation is one among many certificates of authenticity you can carry.

Why is that? Why should conventional punctuation exert such influence? Part of the answer can be found in the way different punctuation marks support characteristics that the academic community values in its overall discourse. This is another way in which conventional punctuation operates on more than a merely arbitrary level: It serves to indicate relationships among ideas in a sentence or paragraph that echo the very ways in which the academic community organizes and develops its lines of thought. Those ways include segmentation, coordination, subordination, modification, and supplementation -- concepts discussed later in this section.

What's With All the Jargon?
Have you ever tried to complete a task with someone who doesn’t know the names of the objects you’re working with? Think of changing your oil with a person who doesn’t know the terms “dipstick,” “oil pan,” “drain plug,” or “filter wrench.” Or imagine trying to show someone how to make an omelet, and they don’t know what a “whisk” is or what it means to “dice” onions. Chances are, it will take longer than usual for you to get the task done; perhaps you may even decide to start off with a brief vocabulary review before focusing on the task itself. Let’s face it, “that thingy there” takes you only so far.

Like other specialized subjects, punctuation has a specialized vocabulary that allows us to talk about it: a set of terms we use to name parts, describe purposes, explain activities, and identify errors. The attractive thing about a lexicon is that it saves time by eliminating a lot of guesswork and reinvention. While punctuation jargon can sometimes sound unnecessarily inflated (the word “and,” for example, is a “coordinating conjunction”) or even faintly accusatory (an unnecessary comma is called “disruptive”), having a consistent set of terms makes it easier to use punctuation correctly.

In short: Yes, it does help to know some of the jargon when learning punctuation. The good news is, once you learn a few terms, you can plug them into formulas that you can use to quickly get a solid grasp on correct punctuation.

OK, which terms do I need to know?
The sections below about specific punctuation marks introduce terms as you’ll need them. But there are a few terms it helps to know beforehand.

Independent clause
This is a group of words that could stand on its own as a complete sentence because it expresses a complete thought.

How can you tell if a thought or sentence is “complete”? While there are more complicated tests involving more jargon, one simple test that usually works is to read the group of words out loud with extra expressiveness. We almost always can “hear” completeness or incompleteness. Every independent clause must have a subject (even if it is only implied as in a command) and a verb (even if it is only the verb to be).

When you read an independent clause aloud, it has a sound of being finished. You and any other listener are not waiting for more information. Your voice usually drops with an air of finality when you are done reading an independent clause aloud.

Examples:
 * Conflict resolution requires looking first at involved parties collectively.
 * One challenge is determining whether all parties truly want to resolve the conflict.
 * The conflict may be serving another purpose.

Dependent clause
In contrast, when you read a dependent clause aloud, you or your listener has the feeling of “Well...? What’s next? Finish it up!” A dependent clause is a group of words that can’t stand on its own as a sentence because it does not express a complete thought. It leaves the listener (and reader) hanging.

In addition, there are certain words that make a clause dependent. When the following words appear at the beginning of a clause, that clause is dependent:

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, as though, because, before, during, even if, even though, ever since, if, in case, in order that, once, on condition that, provided that, since, so that, then, though, unless, until, what, whatever, when, whenever, whether, which, whichever, while, whomever, whose, why

Examples:
 * Until all parties agree that resolution is a shared priority
 * Which allows the process to move forward
 * An example being one person who retains power as long as the conflict goes unsolved

Independent clause and dependent clause refer to groups of words. Two more terms it helps to know beforehand are labels for certain individual words.

Coordinating conjunctions
When these seven short words words link two independent clauses together within one sentence, they are called coordinating conjunctions:

and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet

Each coordinating conjunction signals a specific relationship between the independent clauses it joins.

 * And signals addition and extension. Used with a comma between two independent clauses, it tells the reader that the thoughts expressed in those clauses should be considered together and with equal weight.
 * Each workplace conflict is unique, and each requires its own assessment.
 * But expresses contrast. It tells readers that the thought expressed in the second independent clause is in opposition to, or otherwise different from, the thought expressed in the first independent clause.
 * Each workplace conflict is unique, but several general principles apply to finding solutions.
 * For signals that the second thought is a statement of causation relative to the first thought or that the second thought should be considered as significantly informing the first thought.
 * Each workplace conflict is unique, for each context is unique.
 * Nor links two complete thoughts expressed as negatives, indicating that neither is an option.
 * Serious conflicts cannot be solved by ignoring them, nor can they be solved by attempting to legislate past them.
 * Or conveys option/choice or consequence (as in the sense of “or else”) between the two thoughts.
 * Conflicts may be resolved with one mediated discussion, or extended negotiation may be required to bring about consensus.
 * So signals that the second thought is a statement of effect or consequence relative to the first thought.
 * Workplace conflicts can ultimately be opportunities for growth, so managers should approach them confidently.
 * Yet tells the reader that the thought expressed in the second independent clause is in opposition or contrast to the first. It also can indicate simultaneity, in effect saying to the reader, “At the same time, after you’ve read the first thought, you should also consider this thought.”
 * Workplace conflicts can ultimately be opportunities for growth, yet most managers approach them with dread and apprehension.

Conjunctive adverbs
These are words expressing a relationship or transition between two independent clauses. Common conjunctive adverbs are:

so, otherwise, also, consequently, for example, furthermore, however, in addition, in contrast, in fact, instead, likewise, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore

Conjunctive adverbs other than SO or OTHERWISE require either a period or semicolon preceding them and a comma following them. Once you understand these terms, you’re ready to look at punctuation formulas for using commas, semicolons, and colons.

Example #1 The CEO will be attending the lecture; accordingly, the vice president will be available for the luncheon at noon.

The two clauses are independent. The semicolon replaces a coordinating conjunction and indicates that the two clauses are independent.

Example #2 Jaime wanted to see "Billy Madison"; however, Nick wanted to see "Happy Gilmore."

The two clauses are independent. The semicolon replaces a coordinating conjunction and indicates that the two clauses are independent.

Uses of "That"
 That in the English language serves five different syntactic functions. They are:

1. Demonstrative determiner example: That house

2. Demonstrative pronoun example: That is my car

3. Functions as a noun example: That works for me.

4. Complementizer example: I know that she was waiting for me

5. Relative pronoun example: The book that I read was interesting

title: Rhetoric and Composition/Punctuation


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SimCity and Urban Planning/Zoning

Zoning is an important concept both in real-life town planning, and in the SimCity game.

Zoning in Urban Planning
Zoning is a system of land use regulation which designates the permitted uses of land based on mapped zones, which separate one part of the community from another. Theoretically, its primary purpose is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is used as a permitting system to prevent new development from harming existing residents or businesses. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities.

Zoning commonly includes regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed (low density housing such as single family homes to high density such as apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may occupy by limiting how close a building may be from the edge of the lot, the proportions of the types of space on a lot (for example, how much landscaped space and how much paved space), and how much parking must be provided.

Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances - exceptions to the zoning rules, usually because of some perceived hardship due to the particular nature of the property in question.

While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch planners are important in managing the growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged as smart growth.

There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique monuments and gardening in the park, and unique gates or boundary-markers for the edges of the cell. The commercial areas naturally become diverse. These differences help instill a sense of place, while the similarities of the cells make each place in the city familiar.

Zoning in SimCity
In SimCity, players can chose to zone land as residential, commercial, or industrial. From SC2K onwards, players can also chose the density of various zones in their city.

As in real life, wealthy residents don't like living near to dense industrial areas, clean hi-tec industry doesn't like to be close to dirty industry which many types of commercial zones prefer to be located alongside busy roads.

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Zoning


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SimCity and Urban Planning/Natural Disasters

A key aspect of planning, both in real life urban planning, and in SimCity, is natural disasters.

Natural Disasters in real-life Urban Planning
Many cities are constructed in places subject to flood, storm surges, extreme weather or war. City planners can cope with these. If the dangers can be localized (for flood or storm surge), the affected regions can be made into parkland or greenbelt, often with lovely results. Another practical method is simply to build the city on ridges, and the parks and farms in valleys.

Extreme weather, flood, war or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure evacuation routes and emergency operations centers. These are relatively inexpensive and unobtrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space.

Many cities also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters.

Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. This was certainly the case of Rome (Italy), where Fascism in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. France currently uses similar methods to control ethnic-Arabic groups on welfare.

In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behavior and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianization" as ways of making urban life more bearable.

City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories like socio-architecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism.

Other social theories point out that in England and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market.

Natural Disasters in SimCity
The SimCity games also incorporate natural disasters - either recurring randomly (if you so chose), or by your selection. Natural disasters include flooding, tornadoes, fires, riots, earthquakes, etc. Later disasters included lightning strikes, volcanoes, meteors and attack by extra-terrestrial craft.

Effective planning can be used to limit the impact of natural disasters; for example, building enough Fire Stations (and adequately funding the fire departments) can prevent a major fire from engulfing your SimCity.

Air Crash
Air crashes happen intermittently. It is unpreventable, so better build an airport, only when requested by the commercial zones, near the edge of the city to reduce the risks.

Earthquake
Earthquakes happen intermittently and cause massive fires. It is unpreventable. The 1906 San Francisco earthquake is a playable scenario.

Fire
Fires can break out at random. They tend to strike areas of forest or industry. They can be prevented, by ensuring comprehensive fire station coverage, but cannot be fought after they break out.

Flood
Flooding results in widespread damage to water front properties. It is unpreventable.

Monster
A large, Godzillaesque monster appears and attacks the city. The monster tends to attack polluted areas such as industrial zones and airports. It destroys whatever it touches. If it happens to reach a garbage dump it will proceed to eat garbage and empty out the dump.

Nuclear meltdown
The nuclear meltdown disaster occurs randomly at nuclear power stations. It is unpreventable and renders a large area of the city, marked with radioactive symbols, uninhabitable.

Ship wreck
A ship may wreck randomly. If occurring in the middle of a waterway, any fire tends to drop in the water. It is unpreventable. When playing the Terrain Editor, do not place any channel too closely to any land.

Air Crash
Air crashes happen intermittently, whether "No Disasters" is selected or not. However, with "No Disasters" off, the aeroplane will explode upon collision with the ground, setting fire to surrounding tiles.

Fire
Fire tends to break in industrial or abandoned buildings. It can be fought by using "Fire" dispatches. Fires can be caused by riots, earthquakes, UFO attacks and microwave power station misfire.

Riot
Riots break out in cities with poor police coverage. They can be fought using the "Police" and "Military" dispatches.

Monster
A large, spider-like monster appears over the city, zapping targets with a large ray gun fired from its eye. This gun produces either fire, trees or wind turbines to appear at the target, destroying buildings and roads. The monster can be fought by the "Military" dispatch.

Floods
Floods occur at random, and are most dangerous to water front properties. Placing a wall of dispatches represents building sandbag walls and levees, and as such, protects buildings. Larger floods occur on typing of the code "Noah".

Chemical cloud
The 'chemical cloud disaster occurs over polluted areas. The cloud drifts across the city, causing abandonment of buildings beneath. It is unfightable.

Nuclear meltdown
The nuclear meltdown disaster occurs randomly at nuclear power stations, especially during fires and earthquakes. It is unpreventable and renders a large area of the city, marked with radioactive symbols, uninhabitable.

Disasters in Simcity 3000
Note: All disasters in Simicity 3000 can be mitigated with the emergency siren.

Fire
See above.

Riots
See above.

UFO
A fleet of UFOs appear and randomly attack the city. They are unfightable and leave circles in corn fields. The swarm can be made larger by the cheat code "UFO swarm".

Chemical cloud
As Simcity 2000, except that the cloud also produces acid rain, which destroys road.

Whirlpool
(3000 Unlimited only)

A large whirlpool appears randomly in the ocean. This destroys waterfront buildings and sinks ships. This disaster is unavoidable.

Space junk
(3000 Unlimited only)

Space junk is the most devastating disaster on Simcity 3000, and is completely unpreventable. It results in most of the map being destroyed and cratered. It is unavoidable and unfightable.


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SimCity and Urban Planning/Environment

Creating a pleasant environment to live in is a concern both of real-life urban planning, as well as in the game SimCity.

Environmental planning in real-life Urban Design
Environmental concerns have been a growing focus for urban planners. Arcology seeks to unify the fields of ecology and architecture, especially landscape architecture, to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things. On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100-140 person scale for communities.

In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening assumes a central role not only in agriculture but in the daily life of citizens. A series of related movements including green anarchism, eco-anarchism, eco-feminism and Slow Food have put this in a political context as part of a focus on smaller systems of resource extraction, and waste disposal, ideally as part of living machines which do such recycling automatically, just as nature does. The modern theory of natural capital emphasizes this as the primary difference between natural and infrastructural capital, and seeks an economic basis for rationalizing a move back towards smaller village units.

The Environment in SimCity
SimCity provides a number of options for making your city a pleasant place to live for your SimCitizens. This can be done by building parks around your city. In the game, parks reduce pollution and increase land value.

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Environment


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User:Phyzome

My name is Tim McCormack. My main account is at Wikipedia. I've been active in the Wikimedia community since September 2004.

title: User:Phyzome


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User talk:Phyzome

As noted on my user page, I'm more active over at Wikipedia. If you need me to respond to something on this page within a window of a couple weeks, you might want to drop me an email

title: User talk:Phyzome


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SimCity and Urban Planning/Tax and Money

Financial considerations are important in both real life Urban planning, and in SimCity.

Fiscal Policy in real life Government
Fiscal Policy is the economic term which describes the behavior of governments in raising money to fund current spending and investment for collective social purposes and for transfer payments to citizens and residents of the territory for which the government is responsible. The money may be raised by taxation, by borrowing, by user charges on social assets or services, or by fiat. (On the last, the government declares a particular token to be money and demands that it be accepted in settlement of debts.) Fiscal policy can include deficit spending to stimulate demand for domestic goods and services to rise (to fight unemployment) or efforts to cut deficits or raise the budget surplus to fight inflation.

Budgets in SimCity
In the game SimCity, as in real-life, balancing budgets is an important role of the mayor. Financial considerations are important when planning out your city. As the mayor of a SimCity, you raise money for explaining your city through taxes, ordinances, and loans.


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Blender 3D: Blending Into Python

This is the start of a Blender/Python manual. At the moment the most useful areas are the optimization guide and the cookbook.

Python is high-level, easy to learn scripting language, that can be applied to various aspects of Blender, and MANY other things. For an introduction, download it. Then google Python Tutorial, and you'll find a wealth of excellent beginner's tutorials. Once you've mastered the basics, you can start learning Blender type stuff.

Contents
Please feel free to add content to other areas.

 * /Optimize/ [[image:50%.svg]] — Python/Blender Optimization Guide
 * /Cookbook/ [[image:50%.svg]] — Blender/Python CookbookBlender 3D:
 * /OrphanScripts/ [[image:50%.svg]] — Orphan Scripts - community maintained scripts.
 * /Features/ [[image:50%.svg]] — Python/Features
 * /Blender Python C API/
 * /2.5 quickstart/
 * /Reference/

title: Blender 3D: Blending Into Python


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Blender 3D: Blending Into Python/Reference

Blender Python API Reference

DataBlock Wrapper Submodules
 * Reference: Camera — Modify the properties of camera
 * Reference: Curve — ...
 * Reference: Image — Deals with Image objects loaded into Blender.
 * Reference: Ipo — Animated curves used for controlling a veriety of properties.
 * Reference: Lamp — Animated curves used for controlling a veriety of properties.
 * Reference: Lattice — ...
 * Reference: Material — ...
 * Reference: Texture — ...

Blender Interface SubModules
 * Reference: Draw — Access user interface elements.
 * Reference: BGL — OpenGL Access inside blender.
 * Reference: Window — Global events, user interactions.

Blender General SubModules
 * Reference: Mathutils — 3D Math Functions
 * Reference: Noise — Random/Noise/Turblence functions
 * Reference: Registry — Global events, user interactions.
 * Reference: Sys — Used instead of python sys, adds some blender specific functions.


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Talk:Ada Programming/All Chapters

Purge Link
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title: Talk:Ada Programming/All Chapters


text: User:Ludovic Brenta

title: User:Ludovic Brenta


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Korean/Verbs

Introduction
Most Korean dictionaries list verbs (동사) in a form that ends in 다(da):

Verb stems
Like English verbs, Korean verbs change their endings and take auxiliary words to fit the tense (when an action occurs) and mood (statements vs. commands vs. questions) of the situation. However, Korean verbs also change form to express honorifics and speech levels in order to reflect the social relationships between the speaker, the subject, and the audience. The speech level listed in most books (including dictionaries) is called 해라체. It is formal but of low to neutral politeness. The 해라체 speech level is sometimes used by close friends, relatives of similar age, and young people. As shown above, the indicative forms of verbs in the 해라체 speech level end in 다. The part of the word preceding 다 is called the "verb stem".

Exercise
Identify the verb stem of the following verbs:

Honorifics
Korean grammar expresses the relationship between the speaker, the subject, and the listener by using honorifics and speech levels in conjugation and word choice. Honorifics express the speaker's relationship and politeness or social humility toward the subject of the sentence, and speech levels to express these to the audience. When talking about someone of superior status, one must indicate their superiority by using special honorific affixes. Generally, someone is considered superior in status if he or she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, an employer, a teacher, a customer, or the like. Someone is looked upon as equal or inferior in status if he or she is a younger stranger, a student, an employee or the like.

Note: If the subject is considered inferior to the listener, the honorific should not be used, as the misuse of honorifics or the use of inappropriate speech levels is likely to be considered insulting, or hilariously disrespectful.

A few Korean verbs have special honorific equivalents, but most can be converted into an honorific form by adding an honorific affix after the stem and before the ending.

If the verb stem ends in a vowel, add 시,

but if it ends in a consonant, add 으시.

Thus, the honorific form of 가다 ("to go") is 가시다 and the honorific form of 걷다 ("to walk") is 걸으시다.

Exercise
Write the honorific form of the following verbs:

Formal polite speech level (합쇼체)
Since the 해라체 speech level is not polite enough for many of the initial encounters you might have speaking Korean, we will first learn a polite speech level instead. 합쇼체 is the formal, polite speech level in Korean. It is used commonly between strangers, among male co-workers, by TV announcers, and to customers.

To create statements (that is, to use the indicative mood of verbs) in the 합쇼체 form,

⋅Add the honorific affix 시 or 으시 if applicable. ⋅Then add ㅂ니다 if the result ends in a vowel or 습니다 if it ends in a consonant. E.g.:

Exercise
In this exercise, you are talking with a stranger about various subjects. Determine correct 합쇼체 form for the following verbs based on the given subject:

Informal polite speech level (해요체)
When people of similar age or social standing converse, they often use the informal polite speech level, called 해요체. 해요체 is appropriately polite for most of the situations you will typically encounter, so it is the next form to learn.

To create the 해요체 form of Korean verbs, do the following:
 * 1) Take the stem.
 * 2) Add the honorific 시 or 으시 if applicable.
 * 3) If the last letter is ㅂ, change it to 우.
 * 4) If the result ends in a vowel followed by 르, insert an extra ㄹ, making the end ㄹ르.
 * 5) If the last vowel is now ㅡ, change it to ㅏ if the next-to-last vowel is ㅗ or ㅏ. Otherwise, change ㅡ to ㅓ.
 * 6) If the last vowel is now ㅗ or ㅏ, add ㅏ요.
 * 7) If the last character is 하, add ㅕ요.
 * 8) For others, add ㅓ요.

Korean spelling rules make the above rules seem just a bit more complicated in practice:
 * If the result ends in ㅏㅏ요, that collapses to ㅏ요.
 * If the result ends in ㅗㅏ요, that collapses to ㅘ요.
 * If the result ends in ㅜㅓ요, that collapses to ㅝ요.
 * If the result ends in 시ㅓ요, that collapses to 세요.
 * If the result ends inㅣㅓ요, that collapses to ㅕ요.
 * If the result ends in 하ㅕ요, that collapses to 해요.

The usual spelling rules also apply, so an ㅏ without an initial consonant is written as 아 and an ㅓ without an initial consonant is written as 어.

Exercise
In this exercise, you are talking with a friend about various subjects. Determine correct 해요체 form for the following verbs in both honorific and non-honorific forms:

Casual speech level (해체)
When close friends and relatives talk with each other, they may use a very casual speech level called 해체. Be careful not to use this 해체 with someone with whom you are not very close, as it can be considered offensive.

Since you already know the 해요체 form, creating the casual 해체 form of Korean verbs is easy, just take the 요 off of the end of the 해요체 form:

Exercise
In this exercise, you are talking with a close friend. Determine correct 해체 form for the following verbs:

Tense
Korean verbs can be conjugated into several different tenses to indicate the time when an event occurs.

Past tense
The past tense of a Korean verb is formed as follows:
 * 1) Take the verb stem.
 * 2) Add the honorific suffix (시 or 으시) if applicable.
 * 3) Add one of the following:
 * 4) * If the word now ends in 하, add 였. Note: 하였 often is contracted as 했.
 * 5) * Otherwise, if the preceding vowel of the verb stem is ㅏ or ㅗ, add 았.
 * 6) * Otherwise, add 었.
 * 7) Add the ending for the appropriate speech level.

Exercise
Determine the honorific and non-honorific past tense forms of these verbs.

Future tense
The future tense of a Korean verb is formed as follows:
 * 1) Take the verb stem.
 * 2) Add the honorific suffix (시 or 으시) if applicable.
 * 3) Add the suffix 겠.
 * 4) Add the ending for the appropriate speech level.

Other tenses
Korean also has a remote past tense, used to indicate that an event occurred long ago, a past future tense, and a (rarely-used) remote past future tense. To form the remote past tense, first form the past tense, then add an extra 었 before the ending for the appropriate speech level.

Copula and existence verb
이다 and 있다:

Two Korean words conjugate similar to verbs and are often translated as verbs but are not considered verbs in Korean grammar: 이다 (the copula, often translated as "to be") and 있다 (the existence particle, often translated as "to exist").

Reference
Coréen/Grammaire/Verbes

title: Korean/Verbs


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Cookbook talk:Sirniki (Russian Cheese Fritters)

So, how dry do the curds have to be? Could we possibly use Ricotta cheese in place of the cottage cheese? It is already considerably drier.
 * Hi! My family is Russian, and I LOVE sirniki. In answer to your question, we never heard of sirniki with cottage cheese. It is almost always made with tvarog (I think in English that it is called Russian farmer's cheese). Tvarog is very dry. It can also have sweet fillings like jam or dried fruit (often apricots or raisins). The sweeter versions are often used to make sirniki. If you use the plain version, the sirniki are often often served with jam.

(Unrelated: for some reason when I think about Russian food, or Russian things in general, my English gets messed up. Usually I speak better then this.) JonathanHopeThisIsUnique (discuss • contribs) 14:53, 26 July 2014 (UTC)


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AQA Information and Communication Technology/ICT1/10.1 Knowledge, Information and Data

What is data, information and knowledge?
Data -Data are raw facts or figures, or a set of values, facts, figures, measurements, records of transactions

Information -Information is data, which has been processed or converted to give it meaning

Knowledge -Knowledge is a “set of rules or concepts” used to interpret/make use of information


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User talk:Peaceman~enwikibooks

Thanks for popping into the Chrono Trigger wikibook.

Here's the gamefaqs entry for the game, by the way, it's got a lot of exhaustive FAQs, the problem is they have a lot of conflicting information: http://www.gamefaqs.com/console/snes/game/563538.html

One thing I could really use some help investigating is:

For the trial sequence, which juror voting innocent or guilty corresponds to which action you take, such as the first juror depending on whether you talked to Marle before grabbing her pendant, trying to sell it, etc. Different sites have different theories, and one site even suggests the second juror is just glitched and chooses randomly. If we could settle that one it would be nice.

I'll probably hammer through the walkthrough as I play through the game again myself, anything you could contribute would be welcome.--BigCow 15:09, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Peaceman. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Peaceman~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:36, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Peaceman~enwikibooks


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SimCity and Urban Planning/Municipal Infrastructure

Municipal infrastructure typically includes transportation, sewer, reservoir, potable water supply systems, police stations and local jails, and other infrastructural capital - the built environment - under the jurisdiction of a municipal government or other local government.

The terms urban infrastructure and rural development are often used interchangeably but imply either large cities or developing nations' concerns respectively. The terms public infrastructure or critical infrastructure are also used interchangeably but suggest the inclusion of some facilities like hospitals, banks and concerns like national security and terrorism which are not under the mandate of municipal officials alone.

Typically, infrastructure in the urban context denotes two general groups of support systems: transportation modalities (roads, rail, etc.) and utilities. These typically compose both public and private systems, and some ambiguously held in common.

Infrastructure may also refer to necessary municipal or public services, whether provided by the government or by private companies. If provided by nature, e.g. the flow of a river, they are called nature's services and are distincted (at least in economics) as the product of natural capital. This may be augmented or directed by infrastructural capital, e.g. a dam or canal or irrigation ditch. In general what is called infrastructure tends to be very embedded in the natural landscape and cannot be moved from place to place. Even municipal services rely necessarily on fixed locations, e.g. fire stations in central positions in a city, radio towers on tall buildings, etc.

Beyond transport (which is discussed in another chapter), Urban infrastructure includes:
 * Public utilities
 * Electricity
 * Natural gas
 * Coal delivery
 * Water supply
 * Sewers
 * Telephone service
 * Radio and television bandwidth allocation
 * Cable television service
 * Public services
 * Fire service or fire department
 * Flood protection
 * Police protection
 * Waste management
 * National Services
 * Defense
 * Monetary systems or currency, including the minting of coins, and printing and backing of banknotes.
 * Postal system
 * "Soft Infrastructure" is a term that denotes institutions that maintain the health and cultural standards of the population. Principally, this refers to:
 * Public education
 * Public health systems including public hospitals
 * Public libraries
 * Social welfare

In SimCity
A key aspect of SimCity is building tiles representing different utilities, public services, and soft infrastructure.


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Talk:Programming HP Calculators/Commands

Well, reformatting this page is complete. Now, we just need to add in all the commands. :-)

s p l i n t a x  (talk) 15:29, 23 September 2005 (UTC)


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Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Baking

Maybe this link helps a bit for this tutorial:

http://vegastrike.sourceforge.net/wiki/HowTo:Radiosity_baking_in_Blender

Add some screenshots of results
Please add some examples of how different values affect the resulting light.

title: Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Baking


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User:FremdeBardin~enwikibooks

[fremdeBardin]

title: User:FremdeBardin~enwikibooks


text: Category:User java

title: Category:User java


text: Category:User c

title: Category:User c


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Category:GNU/Linux users

 * See also category: Linux users

A category for Wikibookians who use GNU/Linux operating systems.

"I suppose I need to explain why we need two different categories for Linux users: GNU is not Linux, although most Linux-based operating systems use GNU. It is possible to have an OS using only Linux, but not GNU. Plus, some users (like the creator of this page) would never accept to say that they use a 'Linux' OS, since they actually use a 'GNU/Linux' OS. You should understand, however, that a GNU/Linux user is still a Linux user, in addition to being a GNU user."

Want to add yourself here? Just paste this at the bottom of your userpage:

title: Category:GNU/Linux users


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User:Misza13

-BEGIN PGP SIGNED MESSAGE- Hash: SHA1

This message certifies that this English Wikibooks account: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Misza13

belongs to the following English Wikipedia user: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Misza13 -BEGIN PGP SIGNATURE- Version: GnuPG v1.4.6 (GNU/Linux) Comment: http://firegpg.tuxfamily.org

iD8DBQFHCNip9FNGl/GZZhIRAipoAJ0WAImoDSUTmWuNdB9AVhZjjRDAdwCfcdcl +z29JAwwdik5S03+etr0qh8= =Ja4L -END PGP SIGNATURE-

title: User:Misza13


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Talk:Rhetoric and Composition/Drafting

Sections of this are repetitive - why does it need the sections on brainstorming and writer's block when this was covered in earlier chapters? Also, the last 3 external links don't work. - Mindy, 11/9/08

Wikification
I wikified this page to break it up and make it visually more appealing and easier to browse. I'm not part of the class, just a friendly wikibook fellow stopping by. If the edits aren't the direction you wanted to go, feel free to revert them. liblamb 18:11, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

Do we really need the section on "And you're off!"? I am confused to why it is there, so if it needed, can someone explain what should go there? thanks. wost0201 12/05/05

Building Common Ground?
I don't think this Building Common Ground section belongs in the Drafting section. I think this section should concentrate on problems and concerns specific to writing drafts, and the importance of drafting. I've put the information here so that we can find another area for it.

Building Common Ground Ask yourself these questions to build common ground and prevent yourself from alienating readers:

Is there anything that is assumed between you and your readers? Explain in detail the ideas or positions being displayed in your writing that you once had to be informed on as well. Never assume your audience will completely understand or share your perspective. Also, watch for language implying bias on your part, language that suggests approval or disapproval, and the ways in which you employ we, you, and they. For example, when you use the word "you" the reader is now included in the paper itself, and if they don't agree with the sentence that the "you" appears in, they will view the usage negatively. Have you done away with language that could be perceived as sexist? An effective way to avoid problems with gender is to make things plural: say readers instead of reader to avoid needing he/she. Ensure that any references to race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, etc. are necessary and pertinent to the discussion. Remember who your audience is. Are any terms used in reference to groups acceptable and accurate?

coam0801 12/18/08

Matt's Thoughts
First off, this chapter seems quote-heavy. I like the idea of having an opening quote to set the tone and mood, but it's overdone here. Let's lose all but the best or most relevant one to cut down on the distraction.

In the overview, I'd like to see some "they" talk, such as "Many beginning writers assume drafting is a straightforward, linear process" or so on; then we could explain that it is often more complex than that. I think the main thing to focus on here is that writers shouldn't be self-critical at this stage; just get some stuff down and worry about editing it later. I would also stress the importance of understanding the assignment and conventions before starting out; it's silly to draft something that will just be rejected out of hand.

There are plenty of good metaphors to help people understand the drafting process. One is sculpting--start with a lump of clay and work it until you've got the sculpture you want. Another is pencil drawing; even a professional constantly erases and smudges hard lines--not because it was "wrong," but because those techniques are essential to the craft.

The "Final Drafting Hints" section has a misleading title; "Final Draft" is a technical term that shouldn't be confused here.

Finally, the example here seems weak. It's fine for a start, but we should see a series of drafts so that people get an idea of how it evolves over subsequent drafts. It'd also be a good idea to link to the sections on editing and revising here. --Mattbarton.exe (talk) 22:49, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

Matt H's thoughts
I don’t know if some quotes have been removed since Matt B's "quote heavy" comment, but I actually like the quotes and feel that they offer some light-hearted variety.

The tone here works for me—seems really informal, accessible and unintimidating … perfect for college writers who want a quick place to start.

--Matt.helm (discuss • contribs) 02:39, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Faith's thoughts
I don't mind the quotes. For those who like quotes, they're there and for those who don't, they're easy to simply overlook. I also like the tone and style and believe that it is very student friendly. One thing I miss here (and that I hear many students complain of) is writer's block. There are several ways to adress the problem and drafting seems the most logical place to add it.--SFaithL (discuss • contribs) 15:49, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Emily's Thoughts
This section does seem more accessible, although I do think there are too many quotes. Is it possible to put them off to the side of the screen and not interfere with the flow of text?

Also, under "Let it flow" it seems like "discouraged" may be a more appropriate word than "distracted." --Emily.isackson (discuss • contribs) 20:42, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Karl's Thoughts
I'm a little confused by Dr. B's comments here, as I found this the most readable section so far. The remaining quotes at least seemed to make this piece feel much more accessible. Rather than talk down to me, it seems to talk "with" me. The fact that they're also in a different background color tells me that if I'm in a hurry I know where to skip. I appreciated that function. I think that Faith makes a good point about writers' block, but that may warrant a section of its own as there are so many approaches to dealing with it.

title: Talk:Rhetoric and Composition/Drafting


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SPM/Block design

Many of the first proof-of-concept fMRI experiments were block designs with two conditions. In a block design, each condition is presented continuously for a period usually longer than 20 seconds. In the earliest fMRI studies (see Kwong, 1992, and Ogawa 1992), one common paradigm was to alternate between 60 second blocks of a flickering visual stimulus, and blocks without stimulation. Analysis was done using a simple t-test between values of the MR signal collected in the "on" condition versus the "off" condition. In addition to comparing "on" versus "off" conditions, block designs have been used to look at differences between more similar conditions as well. (Kanwisher has used block paradigms where the subject is presented with blocks of pictures of faces and blocks of pictures of houses to probe high-level features of the visual system)

These block designs tend to be quite powerful for assessing BOLD signal magnitude differences between conditions. The length of the blocks of stimulation allows for the HRF to reach maximal values, while the inter-stimulus intervals are long enough for the HRF to return completely to baseline during non-stimulation. The downside of block designs is that they are not powerful at estimating the shape of the haemodynamic response (aside from its magnitude).

Block designs are also not as useful with many experimental paradigms having special requirements. In the DM paradigm for example, subjects are scanned while they are presented with single words. After scanning, they are given a list of words composed of words seen earlier mixed with new words, and instructed to mark them as "old" or "new". For the old words, the fMRI trials are analyzed according to whether or not the subject remembered them during the second part of the experiment. In this example, blocks of "remembered" and "forgotten" trials cannot be reliably constructed, because the event categorization depends on a parameter outside the control of the experimenter.

title: SPM/Block design


text: Template:User blank

title: Template:User blank


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User:MathMan64~enwikibooks/Arithmetic/Rounding

= Rounding =

Rounding rules
The most commonly used method of rounding numbers is:
 * less than five, round down,
 * five or more, round up.

To round down, change the appropriate digits on the right to zeros. Changing a digit to a zero makes the number smaller, rounds it down.
 * Changing 72 to 70 yields a smaller number.

To round up, add one to the appropriate digit, and then change the digits on the right to zeros. Adding 1 makes the number larger, rounds it up.

 * Changing 47 to 50 yields a larger number.

If any of these zeros are on the right of the decimal point, they are not written.
 * Rounding 3.7238 could change it to 3.724

To place value
Many times rounding is done to a stated place value. This is accomplished by;
 * finding the appropriate place,
 * looking one place to the right and deciding whether or not to add one,
 * changing all the digits to the right to zeros and deciding whether to write the zeros.

Whole numbers
Round 47,268 to the hundreds place.
 * Find the 2 in the hundreds place.
 * Look at the 6. It is 5 or larger.  Thus add 1 to the 2.
 * Write the digits to the left with no change, those to the right as zeros.
 * 47,268 rounded to the hundreds place is 47,300

Round 41,579,243 to the ten millions place.
 * Find the 4 in the ten millions place.
 * Look at the 1. It is smaller than 5.  Thus do not add 1 to the 4.
 * Write the digits to the left with no change, those to the right as zeros.
 * 41,579,243 rounded to the ten millions place is 40,000,000

Decimals
Round 7.3158 to the hundredths place.
 * Find the 1 in the hundredths place.
 * Look at the 5. It is 5 or larger.  Thus add 1 to the 1.
 * Write the digits to the left with no change, those to the right are not written.
 * 7.3158 rounded to the hundredths place is 7.32

Round 0.003961 to the ten thousandths place.
 * Find the 9 in the ten thousandths place.
 * Look at the 6. It is 5 or larger.  Thus add 1 to the 9.  But 9 + 1 is 10.  Think 39 + 1 is 40.  This zero is needed because it is in the place that was rounded to.
 * The 6 and 1 are changed to zero but not written.
 * 0.003961 to the ten thousandths place is 0.0040

To significance
Sometimes rounding is done to a number of significant digits. Significant digits are those that are not zeros, and the zeros that have non-zero digits on both sides.
 * 230,000 has 2 significant digits (2 and 3.)
 * 0.00592 has 3 significant digits (5, 9 and 2.)
 * 3.142 has 4 significant digits (3, 1, 4 and 2.)
 * 50,900 has 3 significant digits. The zero in the thousands place has non-zero digits on both sides.
 * 0.00420086 has 6 significant digits. The zeros in the hundred thousandths and millionths places have non-zero digits both to the left and to the right.

When rounding to a stated number of significant digits, the most significant digits are used. These are the significant digits that are the farthest to the left.

Round 432,749 to 2 significant digits.
 * The 4 and 3 are the most significant digits.
 * Look at the 2. It is small.  Do not add.
 * Change the digits to the right to zeros.
 * 432,749 rounded to 2 significant digits is 430,000.

Round 68.251 to 3 significant digits.
 * The 6, 8 and 2 are the most significant digits.
 * Look at the 5. It is large.  Add 1 onto 2.
 * Do not write the digits to the right.
 * 68.251 rounded to 3 significant digits is 68.3

Round 0.008627 to 1 significant digit.
 * The 8 is the most significant digit.
 * Look at the 6. It is small.  Add 1 onto 8.
 * Do not write the digits to the right.
 * 0.008327 rounded to 1 significant digit is 0.009