text:
Instructional Technology/Ruth Clark

Abstract
There are many great people who have worked, and are working within the field of Instructional Technology. These leaders in the field and their work serve to shape our views, influence our practices, and fuel our research. This paper will look at one such person, Ruth Colvin Clark. Ruth Clark’s work thus far has been focused in the following areas: cognitive and evidence-based methods for training and performance improvement, effective use of graphics, multimedia and learning, and e-learning. This paper will look at Clark’s career, her significant contributions to the field of Instructional Technology, and the impact her work could have, and is having on the way Instructional Technology practitioners develop instruction, look at media’s role in education, and design and develop e-learning.

Influential Leader in IT – Ruth Clark
This is an exciting time for the field of Instructional Technology. Not too long ago, Instructional Technology was just an emerging field of study (Seels & Richey, 1994). Today, Instructional Technology is not only an area of academic study, but a profession. What this means is that, Instructional Technologists are no longer simply focused on producing products as practitioners, but are involved in research as scholars (Seels & Richey, 1994). There have been many countless people who have contributed, and are contributing, to the way instructional designers and the general public view the field of Instructional Technology. One such individual is Ruth Clark.

Background and Career
Ruth Clark was born in San Francisco, California. Her father was a military man, so the family moved annually. She says that she attended twelve different schools while growing up. (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006) After graduating high school, Clark went on to earn a Bachelors of Arts in Biology and Chemistry, graduating Magna Cum Laude from Immaculate Heart College in 1964. She then went on to earn a Masters of Arts in Biological Chemistry from the Department of Biology at the University of California, Los Angeles in 1966. In 1998, Clark completed her Doctor of Education degree in Instructional Psychology from the School of Education at the University of Southern California.

When asked why she chose to pursue a doctoral degree in Educational Psychology, Clark said, “I was a science major for both my undergraduate and masters degrees, and what appealed to me was the research basis of learning wedded with the creative aspects of instructional production” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006).

Since graduating from USC, Clark has worked as a Curriculum Developer, a Training Manager, and an Adjunct Professor. She currently serves as President for Clark Training & Consulting where she provides seminars and consulting services to improve organizational performance. She also strives in her everyday work to translate research in instructional psychology for practitioner application. Clark is also the author and/or co-author of five books and numerous articles. She has also won various awards for her seminars and publications.

As far as her role thus far in the field of Instructional Technology, Clark says that, “My goal has been to translate valid empirical research into usable guidelines for practitioners. I feel my books written with research scientists such as Richard Mayer and John Sweller are contributions that I personally value the most” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006). Clark’s work has centered on cognitive methods for designing training as well as media’s application in instruction. The two researchers she cited are well-known in these areas. Richard Mayer has served as a Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) since 1975. Mayer’s current research centers on cognition, instruction and technology (Department of Psychology, UCSB, 2003). John Sweller resides at the University of New South Wales, Australia, and has worked since the early 1980s on cognitive load theory (Clark, Nguyen & Sweller, 2006). Evidence-Based Instruction and Cognition Load Theory.

In her many articles, presentations and books, Clark addresses the issue of Instructional Technology practitioners incorporating more rapidly research and learning psychology into their design, development, and delivery decisions (Clark, 2003). She says, “I hope we will see a greater accumulation and synthesis of research on learning mechanisms and how to harness learning psychology through Instructional Technology. I believe we will continue to see the impact of globalization on Instructional Technology implementations. I would like to see more precision of our terms and definitions with an emphasis on defining interventions in terms of their psychological mechanisms rather than their surface features” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006).

She cites the separation of research and practitioner communities as the main barrier to evidence-based practice (Clark, 2003). She says, “My hope is that the field is moving more toward evidence-based practice and I have tried to move things in that direction by summarizing the research of the best instructional scientists in my books and seminars” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006).

In her article, “Applying Cognitive Strategies to Instructional Design” (Clark, 2002), she states that in this information era where brains are in higher demand than brawn, training that optimizes organizational performance is more important than ever. She says, “Instructional technology is a design science that must guide the professional production of instruction … we need to allow research rather than fads and folk wisdom to serve as the infrastructure for the professional practice of training and delivery” (Clark, 2002, p. 8). In the past few years, Instructional Technology has come under fire as being old, obsolete, and ineffective (Gordon & Zemke, 2000). In response to these charges, Clark says, “…the ISD boxes are still relevant and can be profitably populated by new models and techniques drawn from cognitive theories of learning” (Clark, 2002, p. 9). This shift from visible to invisible value in work calls for Instructional Technology to be equally focused on defining and teaching mental processes as observable job procedures (Clark, 2002).

She goes onto say that with this shift from labor to knowledge, there have also been major shifts within in the psychological sciences. Educational psychologists have moved from behavioral to cognitive models of learning. She says, “The research in instructional psychology over the past 20 years provides a good start to a scientific foundation for design of effective instruction (Clark, 2002, p.9). She adds that Instructional Technology practitioners must incorporate an understanding of how cognitive and memory systems work during the learning process.

When instructional technologists design instruction, in order for it to be effective it must support human cognitive processes (Clark, 2002). The works that Clark has produced with John Sweller has focused on the cognitive load theory. This theory, “is a universal set of leaning principles that are proven to result in efficient instructional environments as a consequences of leveraging human cognitive learning processes” (Clark, Nguyen & Sweller, 2006, p.7).

Clark says that the challenge for instructional designers is to develop instruction that provides new instruction to learners without overloading their cognitive circuits (Clark & Taylor, 1994). “Once the learner is overloaded, frustration and demoralization inevitably set in. And people can’t learn when they’re frustrated and demoralized. One key to teaching, then, is to avoid overloading the learner’s working memory” (Clark & Taylor, 1994, p. 40). She offers eight strategies to avoid cognitive overload. They are: talk less and turn key learning points into brief reference notes, do less and make learners do more, chunk training appropriately and dispense it over time, design workbook pages and computer-training screens so that they aid memory during practice, design job aids to aid memory and transfer after training, build automaticity, provide “training wheels” for new learners, and detect and remedy while the training process is in session (Clark & Taylor, 1994).

Clark’s work in the area of making the research findings about cognitive load readily available to instructional designers and training practitioners has had a huge impact on the field. The Human Performance Technology Primer names Clark as one of the leaders in the field along with such notables as John Keller, Robert Gagne and Robert Mager (HPT Primer). Her books and articles are being widely used in educational and training settings. She has been published many times by the International Society for Performance Improvement, which is one of the premier organizations for performance and instructional technologists. Clark also served as ISPI’s President in 1996. As a result of her making this research available, instructional design practitioners are more cognizant about the effect of cognitive load on their learners, and design their instruction accordingly. About Clark’s influence, M. David Merrill said, “Few have done more than Ruth Clark to provide instructional practitioners easy access to the findings of scientific educational psychology” (Clark, 2003, cover).

As far as her expectations for the impact her works will have on practitioners in the field, Clark says, “I’m hoping that we’re starting to professionalize – meaning people increasingly understand that training is an expensive investment, technology is complex and we need to leverage our work on the basis of scientific evidence” (Materi, 2003, p.7). Graphics, Media, and E-Learning.

In her book, coauthored with Chopeta Lyons, “Graphics for E-learning,” Clark looks at ways practitioners can effectively use graphics in e-learning environments to improve learning outcomes. In answer to the question, does graphics improve learning, Clark says, “It depends. Many studies that compared lessons that used text alone to teach content with lessons that added relevant visuals to the text have shown that the versions with the graphics do improve learning” (Clark, August 2003, p. 2). Clark says there are three factors that influence the effectiveness of visual treatments. They are: instructional goal, learning landscape, and features of the graphics itself (Clark, August 2003).

Instructional goals must be factored into the decision making process when selecting graphics. Depending on whether the leaning is procedural or problem-based will influence the types of graphics that will best suite desired learning outcomes.

The learning landscape will also have an impact on the types of graphics that are most effective. Environmental factors such as prior knowledge of the audience, computer capabilities, bandwidth, budget, and organizational standards must be considered when selecting graphics for use in instruction (Clark, August 2003).

Clark explains that graphics contain two types of features, surface and functional. She notes that it does not come as a surprise that graphical features themselves can influence learning effectiveness. What is surprising is that it is not the surface features, which are typically associated with graphics that make the difference. Surface features describe the graphic. Is it a line art, or a photograph? But surface features alone do not determine the effectiveness of a graphic. Rather, it is its functionality that determines its impact on learning (Clark, August 2003).

She says, “Many of us are not using graphics effectively. We need to think about ‘what is my content, what is my instructional goal, who is my audience, what is the delivery method, and what is the best graphic to use,’” (Materi, 2003, p. 7). Clark has also co-authored a book with Richard E. Mayer entitled, “E-learning and the Science of Instruction.” In it, they define e-learning as, content and instructional methods delivered on a computer with the aim of improving organizational outcomes (Materi, 2003). She adds though that e-learning should not be generalized. There are many types of e-learning, from synchronous to asynchronous, and from merely delivering information to improving performance. She states that e-learning should be designed on four course architectures: receptive, directive, guided discover or exploratory (Materi, 2003).

With the increasing growth of e-learning, there has been much debate about its effectiveness and levels of quality. Research now shows that traditional classrooms and virtual classrooms (synchronous e-leaning) are about equally effective overall. It is not the medium that makes the difference; rather it is the way instructional designers utilize the features of media that influences learning (Bernard, 2004).

Clark agrees with these findings by saying, “The trick to successful use of delivery medium, electronic or traditional, is to exploit the features of that medium in ways that lead to learning” (Clark, 2005, p. 2). In an effort to aid practitioners in the field design more effective e-learning instructional modules, Clark has developed the DVEP model.

The DVEP model stands for Define, Visualize, Engage, and Package (Clark, 2005). The Define stage is the first and in it the designer is articulating the business goals and the knowledge skills needed to achieve them. Then, the designer needs to choose the instructional methods needed to achieve the stated learning objectives. The last step in this initial stage is selecting the delivery media that best deliver the instructional methods identified (Clark, 2005).

The second stage is Visualize. In this stage, the designer selects and/or designs the various types of visuals that will best promote learning. She states that it is crucial that designers select visuals for learning functions, and not just because they look good (Clark, 2005). She says, “… you should de-emphasize decorative graphics that can distract learners and depress learning in favor of representational visuals that illustrate the job environment, along with explanatory visuals that promote deeper understanding” (Clark, 2005, p. 5).

The third stage in the model is Engage. Frequent, meaningful learner interaction with the content is the main route to learning, and the virtual classroom offers many options to engage learners (Clark, 2005). Clark says that in order to keep learners engaged, designers must provide frequent, job-related interactions and use variety in question type (Clark, 2005).

The final stage in the model is Package. In this stage designers must pay attention to all the elements that precede and follow the virtual classroom event (Clark, 2005). This means helping with technical issues, stating course objectives and assignments, and establishing a social presence during the early stages of the virtual session. She also says that designer should design working aids for handouts. This should be done during the planning phases of design. Once these handouts are created, it is then imperative that exercises are provided that require learners to reference these handouts during the virtual session and later on the job (Clark, 2005).

As e-learning continues to expand, the need for effective evaluation of its effectiveness grows with it. Clark says, currently there is not much evidence on the best practices for implementing synchronous learning environments. She does say though, that designers can implement what is known about asynchronous learning and human learning processes until more research is forthcoming (Materi, 2003). Explore one of her elearning symposia. In this symposium, Clark presents an "Evdienced Based Guidelines for Effective Instructional Visuals".

The impact of Clark’s work in the areas of graphics, media and e-learning is being felt in positive ways by practitioners in the field. Her book with Mayer was the number one best seller according to its publisher, and the International Society for Performance Improvement awarded it with Outstanding Instructional Communication (Materi, 2003). Apart from the awards she’s received for her publications, Clark’s work is also impacting practitioners from all around the world.

In her article, “The e-Learning Edge: Leveraging Interactive Technologies in the Design of Engaging, Effective Learning Experiences,” Lisa Galarneau of New Zealand, cites the work of Clark and Mayer to show how the effective use of media can positively impact learning outcomes (Galarneau, 2004).

In an article entitled, “A Cognitive Approach to Instructional Design for Multimedia Learning,” Stephen D. Sorden of Northern Arizona University cites the work of Clark and Mayer as it pertains to online learning. Their research states that online learning can only be effective if structure it in a way that efficiently maximizes learning. What has to be emphasized is not how the instruction is delivered, but whether empirically-tested strategies for multimedia instruction are employed that facilitate knowledge construction by the learner (Sorden, 2005).

Also, Hansjorg von Brevern from the Institute of Information Systems University of Bern, Switzerland in his article, “Cognitive and Logical Rationales for E-Learning Objects,” cites the works of Clark as it pertains to media selection and managing cognitive load.

Clark compares the US ISD certification program to what is being offered by her training consultancy. Explore how you can build performance technology and instructional design competencies. . For those who have ever used Clark's products and training services, would you want to share your experiences, and the products effectiveness?

Conclusion
Ruth Clark’s work over the years has proven to be of vital importance to practitioners in the field of Instructional Technology. She is calling for the field to grow into its professionalism. She says, “We don’t have the professional recognition and the credibility that other professions do and my hope is in the next 20 years we’ll get a lot more of that. I think part of the key is evidence-based practice, to know what the research is and begin to apply it” (Materi, 2003, p. 7). Currently, Clark is working on finishing a book on how to use the new virtual classroom technologies effectively. This will give her an opportunity to discuss the relationships between media affordances and learning and to emphasize again that what causes learning are instructional strategies - not delivery media. She is also always looking for partnerships with academic practitioners engaged in long-range programs of experimental research on instructional and other performance support methods (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006).

Instructional Technology

title: Instructional Technology/Ruth Clark


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Mazda Guide/Protege 5/Headlight Blackout

This tutorial is from xswimordiex on the mazdas247.com forums.

What You Need

 * 8mm Socket
 * 10mm Socket
 * Flathead and Philips Screwdrivers
 * Oven
 * Paint
 * This tutorial uses Rustoleum hi temp flat black barbecue paint. make sure you get a high temp paint...you dont want those catching fire! dunno if it gets hot enough, but just to be safe.
 * [[Image:Mazda Guide-Protege 5-Headlight Blackout-paintcan.jpg]]

Steps
ok so to get the headlights off you have to take off the bumper. it's pretty straightforward but there's some tricky parts. unbolt the mudguards on the bottom and the two 10mm bolts attaching it to the undercarriage. then get up under the fender well and unbolt the two 10mm bolts attaching it to the fenders. unscrew the screws along the top of the bumper grill area. now before you try to pull off the bumper make sure you push in the little tabs under the outer part of the headlight, you can push em down with a thin flathead screwdriver. it looks like this close up... and it's located right here on the headlight so the bumper should come right off after that. don't worry about taking all the fog light and turn light stuff off, you can just rest the bumper right in front of the car like so.... so after that is off you can start unbolting the headlights. there are three 10mm bolts holding it to the frame. before you pull it off though take off the bumper support brackets from the bumper support beam. otherwise it'll be tough to get the lights out. that thing looks like this... make sure you unplug all the lights first! then the headlight should come right out! ok next step, getting the light ready for the ez bake oven. the oven heats the urethane or whatever it is that holds the lens on, and makes it easy to take apart. you dont need to take too much off just the rubber thing that goes around the low beam and that thing with the tab that holds the bumper on i mentioned earlier. also take out this little screw... that screw holds in that side of the lens, so easy to take it off while it's still cool. ok it's ready! get your oven to 200, shouldn't take long. get a cookie sheet and put a small towel on it, and put your headlight on that. then just plop it in the oven for 10 minutes after the 10 minutes is up pull it out (wear gloves! mecanix or the home depot ones i have, cuz the light will be hot!) now to get the light apart just use some flathead screwdrivers and gently pry it loose from the tabs and apart from the housing. be patient here or you'll put some dents in the housing. so once that's completely off, you just have to unscrew the two screws holding the bezel onto the lens. now comes the long part. sanding. i used a foam 150 grit pad to get the majority and then a scotch brite to get those fun little spots that are hard to get to. so once the lights are all nice and scuffed and smooth, make sure they are clean. then you paint them! i put a few coats. just make sure it's all coated and not to paint too fast or you'll make it run. and let the paint dry a little inbetween coats. then place em in the sun but out of wind for like 30 minutes or so if using the rustoleum so once they are dry enough to touch, put em back into the lens and screw em back on. then place them back on the bezel and push em as far as they'll go and put them back into the oven at 200degrees for like 5 minutes. take em out and push the lens all the way on. here's me pushing... make sure it's sealed all the way around like this! aint that pretty. so after that you just put everything back on. dont forget that small screw that holds the edge of the lens on. and make sure you dont have spare parts and then take pictures to show everyone! so all in all it took about a total of 4 hours or so cuz i had food halfway through. but i am very pleased with the results. hope you guys enjoy!

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/File Organization

File organization
Most operating systems require files to be designated by a name followed by a specific extension. The C++ standard does not impose any specific rules on how files are named or organized.

The specific conventions for the file organizations have both technical reasons and organizational benefits, very similar to the code style conventions we will examine later. Most of the conventions governing files derive from historical preferences and practices, that are especially related with lower level languages that preceded C++. This is especially true when we take into consideration that C++ was built over the C89 ANSI standard, with compatibility in mind, this has led to most practices remaining static, except for the operating system's improved support for files and greater ease of management of file resources.

One of the evolutions when dealing with filenames on the language standard was that the default include files would have no extension. Most implementations still provide the old C-style headers that use C's file extension ".h" for the C Standard Library, but C++-specific header filenames that were terminated in the same fashion now have no extension (e.g.  is now  ). This change to old C++ headers was simultaneous with the implementation of namespaces, in particular the std.

File names
Selecting a file name shares the same issues to naming variables, functions and in general all things. A name is an identifier that eases not only communication but how things are structured and organized.

Most of the considerations in naming files are commonsensical:
 * Names should share the same language: in this, internationalization of the project should be a factor.
 * Names should be descriptive, and shared by the related header, the extension will provide the needed distinction.
 * Names will be case sensitive, remember to be consistent.

As you will see later, the C++ Standard defines a list of headers. The behavior is undefined if a file with the same name as a standard header is placed in the search path for included source files.
 * Do not reuse a standard header file name

Extensions
The extension serves one purpose: to indicate to the Operating System, the IDE or the compiler what resides within the file. By itself an extension will not serve as a guarantee for the content.

Since the C language sources usually have the extension ".c" and ".h", in the beginning it was common for C++ source files to share the same extensions or use a distinct variation to clearly indicate the C++ code file. Today this is the practice, most C++ implementation files will use the ".cpp" extension and ".h" for the declaration of header files (the last one is still shared across most assembler and C compilers).

There are other common extensions variations, such as, ".cc", ".C", ".cxx", and ".c++" for "implementation" code. For header files, the same extension variations are used, but the first letter of the extension is usually replaced with an "h" as in, ".hh", ".H", ".hxx", ".hpp", ".h++" etc...

Header files will be discussed with more detail later in the Preprocessor Section when introducing the #include directive and the standard headers, but in general terms a header file is a special kind of source code file that is included (by the preprocessor) by way of the #include directive, traditionally used at the beginning of a ".cpp" file.

Source code
C++ programs would be compilable even if using a single file, but any complex project will benefit from being split into several source files in order to be manageable and permit re-usability of the code. The beginning programmer sees this as an extra complication, where the benefits are obscure, especially since most of the first attempts will probably result in problems. This section will cover not only the benefits and best practices but also explain how a standardized method will avoid and reduce complexity.

Simple programs will fit into a single source file or at least two, other than that programs can be split across several files in order to:
 * Why split code into several files?

 * Increase organization and better code structure.
 * Promote code reuse, on the same project and across projects.
 * Facilitate multiple and often simultaneous edits.
 * Improve compilation speed.

Some authors will refer to files with a .cpp extension as "source files" and files with the .h extension as "header files". However, both of those qualify as source code. As a convention for this book, all code, whether contained within a .cpp extension (where a programmer would put it), or within a .h extension (for headers), will be called source code. Any time we're talking about a .cpp file, we'll call it an "implementation file", and any time we're referring to a header file, we'll call it a "declaration file". You should check the editor/IDE or alter the configuration to a setup that best suits you and others that will read and use this files.
 * Source file types

In general terms a declaration specifies for the linker, the identifier, type and other aspects of language elements such as variables and functions. It is used to announce the existence of the element to the compiler which require variables to be declared before use.
 * Declaration vs Definition

The definition assigns values to an area of memory that was reserved during the declaration phase. For functions, definitions supply the function body. While a variable or function may be declared many times, it is typically defined once.

This is not of much importance for now but is a particular characteristic that impacts how the source code is distributed in files and how it is processed by the compiler subsystems. It is covered in more detail after we introduce you to variable types.

.cpp
An implementation file includes the specific details, that is the definitions, for what is done by the program. While the header file for the light declared what a light could do, the light's .cpp file defines how the light acts.

We will go into much more detail on class definition later; here is a preview:

.h
Header files mostly contains declarations to be used in the rest of the program. The skeleton of a class is usually provided in a header file, while an accompanying implementation file provides the definitions to put the meat on the bones of it. Header files are not compiled, but rather provided to other parts of the program through the use of.

A typical header file looks like the following:

Since header files are included in other files, problems can occur if they are included more than once. This often results in the use of "header guards" using the preprocessor directives (#ifndef, #define, and #endif). #ifndef checks to see if SAMPLE_H has appeared already, if it has not, the header becomes included and SAMPLE_H is defined. If SAMPLE_H was originally defined, then the file has already been included, and is not included again.

Classes are usually declared inside header files. We will go into much more detail on class declaration later; here is a preview:

This header file "light.h" declares that there is going to be a light class, and gives the properties of the light, and the methods provided by it. Other programmers can now include this file by typing  in their implementation files, which allows them to use this new class. Note how these programmers do not include the actual .cpp file that goes with this class that contains the details of how the light actually works. We'll return to this case study after we discuss implementation files.

Object files
An object file is a temporary file used by the compiler as an intermediate step between the source code and the final executable file. All other source files that are not or resulted from source code, the support data needed for the build (creation) of the program. The extensions of these files may vary from system to system, since they depend on the IDE/Compiler and necessities of the program, they may include graphic files, or raw data formats.

Object code
The compiler produces machine code equivalent (object code) of the source code, contain the binary language (machine language) instruction to be used by the computer to do as was instructed in the source code, that can then be linked into the final program. This step ensures that the code is valid and will sequence into an executable program. Most object files have the file extension (.o) with the same restrictions explained above for the (.cpp/.h) files.

Libraries
Libraries are commonly distributed in binary form, using the (.lib) extension and header (.h) that provided the interface for its utilization. Libraries can also be dynamically linked and in that case the extension may depend on the target OS, for instance windows libraries as a rule have the (.dll) extension, this will be covered later on in the book in the libraries section of this book.

Makefiles
It is common for source code to come with a specific script file named "Makefile" (without a standard extension or a standard interpreter). This type of script files is not covered by the C++ Standard, even though it is in common use.

In some projects, especially if dealing with a high level of external dependencies or specific configurations, like supporting special hardware, there is need to automate a vast number of incompatible compile sequences. These scripts are intended to alleviate the task. Explaining in detail the myriad of variations and of possible choices a programmer may make in using (or not) such a system goes beyond the scope of this book. You should check the documentation of the IDE, make tool or the information available on the source you are attempting to compile.


text:
Radiation Oncology/Breast/Benign

By analogy to colon CA, breast lesions may develop in a linear fashion:
 * Normal -> Usual ductal hyperplasia -> Atypical ductal hyperplasia -> DCIS -> Invasive CA
 * Causal evidence is lacking

 * Mayo, 2005 (1967-1991) PMID 16034008 -- "Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer." (Hartmann LC, N Engl J Med. 2005 Jul 21;353(3):229-37.)
 * Retrospective. 9087 women with benign breast disease, compared to SEER registry. Median F/U 15 years
 * Histology: Nonproliferative 67%, proliferative without atypia 30%, atypical hyperplasia 4%
 * Relative risk: overall 1.6; nonproliferative 1.3 (but if also no FH, RR 1.0); proliferative without atypia 1.9, atypical hyperplasia 4.2
 * Family history independent risk factor

Radial Scar

 * Region of central sclerosis, surrounded by epithelial proliferative lesions, cystic changes, and papillomas extending radially from the central sclerosis. If >1.0 cm, can be termed "complex sclerosing lesions"
 * On screening mammogram, may be indistinguishable from small invasive CA
 * It appears to be pertuberation of normal stroma, but whether it is a precursor lesion is yet to be established
 * Associated with invasive/DCIS pathology ~20%, proliferative/ADH pathology ~20%, and benign ~60%
 * One study (Nurses Heatlh Study, 1999) found presence of RS to be an independent risk factor for BCA. However, a larger study (Vanderbilt, 2006) found that the risk is largely attributable to co-existent proliferative disease (e.g ADH)
 * If there is associated invasive CA, DCIS, or proliferative pathology, it should be managed as such. There is no consensus as yet on how to manage benign solitary radial scar

 * Ottawa, 2006 (1995-2003) PMID 16944680 -- "Management of radial scars found at percutaneous breast biopsy." (Becker L, Can Assoc Radiol J. 2006 Apr;57(2):72-8.)
 * Retrospective. 184/227 radial scar biopsies done via 14-gauge (144 biopsies) or 11-gauge bx (40 biopsy). 30 lesions 14-gauge followed by 11-gauge
 * Presence of RS: associated with CA 20%, high-risk lesion 20%, benign lesion 60%.
 * Specificity: 4% CA missed (5% for 14-gauge and 0% for 11-gauge), underestimated in 22% (25% and 17%).
 * Conclusion: If benign RS found on 14-gauge, need 11-gauge or surgery. If benign RS found on 11-gauge, mammographic follow up sufficient

 * Vanderbilt, 2006 (1950-1986) PMID 16502407 -- "Interdependence of radial scar and proliferative disease with respect to invasive breast carcinoma risk in patients with benign breast biopsies." (Sanders ME, Cancer. 2006 Apr 1;106(7):1453-61.)
 * Retrospective. 9556 women (biopsied) enrolled in Nashville Breast Cohort. RS in 9.2% Most found incidentally. Average F/U 20.4 years
 * Risk of IBC: RS 7.0% vs. 5.5% controls (RR 1.8 at 10 years, SS). 92% of women with RS had proliferative disease; but RS only present in 1.3% of bx without proliferative disease. Stratifying for proliferative disease resulted in minimally increased risk
 * Conclusion: RS mildly elevates risk of IBC, but largely attributable to co-existent proliferative disease. Further interventions should be based on extent of atypical hyperplasia
 * Newcastle upon Tyne, 2005 (UK)(1988-2002) PMID 16024215 -- "All radial scars/complex sclerosing lesions seen on breast screening mammograms should be excised." (Fasih T, Eur J Surg Oncol. 2005 Dec;31(10):1125-8.)
 * Retrospective. 124 women from screening program, detected by mammogram, with histologically confirmed RS
 * Presence of RS: 66% pure radial scar, 18% ADH, 16% DCIS or invasive CA
 * Mammogram: If FNA, mammogram 5/9 malignancy; if localization Bx, mammogram 4/11 malignancy
 * Conclusion: All screen-detected stellate lesions should be excised due to association with pre-malignant and malignant disease

 * Melbourne, 2003 PMID 12518358 -- "Fourteen-gauge needle core biopsy of mammographically evident radial scars: is excision necessary?" (Cawson JN, Cancer. 2003 Jan 15;97(2):345-51.)
 * Prospective. 75 consecutive RS detected by mammogram from population-based screening. 55 patients stereotactic core Bx first, 8 patients US-guided core Bx first, followed by excision bx
 * Radial scar: overall 51/62 patients (82%). Sensitivity for stereotactic 85%, for US-guided 63%
 * Associated lesions: in 4 patients with DCIS on excision, stereotactic bx revealed ADH or DCIS (both of which require excision). No invasiave CA. ADH present in 57%, found on biopsy in 72%
 * Conclusion: Stereotactic core bx proven RS can be managed by mammography, provided there is no associated DCIS, ADH, or LCIS

 * John Wayne CI, 2002 PMID 12388495 -- "Percutaneous core needle biopsy of radial scars of the breast: when is excision necessary?" (Brenner RJ, AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2002 Nov;179(5):1179-84.)
 * Retrospective. 157 lesions treated with surgery (102) or followed by mammography (55)
 * CA risk: if ADH present, CA in 28%; if no atypia, CA in 4%.
 * Sensitivity: Missed in 9% of spring-loaded vs. 0% of vacuum-assisted (SS); missed in 8% if <12 samples vs. 0% if >=12 samples
 * Conclusion: RS diagnosis likely reliable if no ADH, bx includes >=12 specimens, and mammography agrees. If not, then need excisional bx

 * Nurses Health Study, 1999 PMID 9971867 -- "Radial scars in benign breast-biopsy specimens and the risk of breast cancer." (Jacobs TW, N Engl J Med 1999 Feb 11;340(6):430-6.)
 * Case-control. 1396 women from Nurses' Health Study, 255 women with BCA, 1141 controls. Median F/U 12 years
 * Radial scar: 99/1396 women (7.1%); mostly incidental finding (median 4.0 mm)
 * Cancer risk: Overall RR 1.8; if proliferative disease without atypia, RR 3.0 if RS vs. RR 1.5 if no RS; if proliferative disease with atypia, RR 5.8 if RS vs. RR 3.8 if no RS
 * Conclusion: RS is an independent histologic risk factor for BCA

Review

 * 2005 PMID 16034013 -- "Benign breast disorders." (Santen RJ, N Engl J Med. 2005 Jul 21;353(3):275-85.)

title: Radiation Oncology/Breast/Benign


text:
User talk:59.92.40.163

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 19:34, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:59.92.40.163


text:
Talk:Accountancy/Introduction to Accountancy

Global context needed. Only U.S. is mentioned (at least in lead paragraph). --Dpr 19:38, 9 April 2007 (UTC)

Unconfusing debits and credits
Like many people, I find the assignment of debits and credits very confusing. After thinking hard, I think I have a good way to explain it. If someone else agrees that this is good, please move it into the main text in a suitable place:

Many people find the ways accountants use "debit" and "credit" very confusing; they seem to be used exactly backward from what makes sense. Shouldn't an asset be a credit? Why are assets tracked as debits? There is actually a simple logic to them, based on a few fundamental rules:
 * 1) The accountant never creates or destroys any money.  This is inherent in the double-entry system.  Money is shuffled between accounts, but debits and credits are always in exact balance.
 * 2) And so, the entire business never creates or destroys any money.  The final "catch-all" account where profits and losses end up is owner's equity.  Any assets in excess of liabilities are owner's equity.
 * 3) The terms "credit" and "debit" are used with the intuitive meaning of "credit is good and debit is bad" from the point of view of the owner.  Profits are recorded as a credit to owner's equity.  This is because accountants are fundamentally reporting to the owners about the state of the business.
 * 4) But because credits and debits always balance, the only way to credit an equity account is to debit another account.  So to non-equity accounts, debits are "good" and credits are "bad".

The point to remember is that from the point of view of the accountant, owner's equity is just another kind of liability. If the business were to be liquidated tomorrow, all of the debit accounts would be collected (e.g. assets sold), and the credit accounts (creditors) paid. From the owner's point of view, equity is the "good" kind of credit account and liabilities are the "bad" kind, but as far as the accountant is concerned, they're both creditors to be paid.

So the terminology makes sense from the owner's point of view, but from the point of view of the business, it seems backward because it is backward.

The rest of the confusion is based on people's aversion to negative numbers. Rather than just declare that credits are positive and debits are negative (or vice-versa), and that all accounts must add up to zero, accounts are divided into "normally credit" accounts and "normally debit" accounts, whose values are both recorded using positive numbers. This saves writing a lot of minus signs, but you have to know to negate the right accounts before adding them together.

71.41.210.146 10:14, 19 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Debit = left
 * Credit = right
 * Thats is it! --196.210.200.81 (talk) 15:28, 12 August 2009 (UTC)

balance sheet
how about complimenting the presentation with asbalance sheet analysis from a bNK nd consumer and or industrial corporations that are somewhat complicated. especially those which have items like pother income and other terms that require explanation.


text:
Proteomics/Protein Separations - Centrifugation/Preparative Centrifugation vs. Analytical Centrifugation

Table of Contents: Protein Separations - Centrifugation
 * 1) History of the Centrifuge
 * 2) How the Centrifuge Works
 * 3) Density Gradient Centrifugation
 * 4) Differential Centrifugation
 * 5) Preparative Centrifugation vs. Analytical Centrifugation

Analytical
·     Uses small sample size (less than 1 ml)

·     Built in optical system to analyze progress of molecules during centrifugation

·     Uses relatively pure sample

·     Used to precisely determine sedimentation coefficient and MW of molecules

·     Beckman Model E is an example of centrifuge used for these purposes.

Preparative
·     Larger sample size can be used

·     No optical read-out – collect fractions and analyze them after the run

·     Less pure sample can be used

·     Can be used to estimate sedimentation coefficient and MW

·     Generally used to separate organelles and molecules. Most centrifugation work done using preparative ultracentrifuge

·     Several models available, including L5-65 and L5-75 used for preparative purposes.


text:
Proteomics/Protein Sample Preparation/Sample Preparation for Mass Spectrometry

Sample Preparation for Mass Spectrometry
Mass spectrometry (MS) proves to be one of the more sensitive techniques in proteomics which, while making it an incredibly useful technology, leaves it susceptible to strict sample preparation requirements. The conditions of any particular MS experiment will ultimately dictate the degree and types of preparations necessary but some concepts can be applied to any MS experiment, such as enrichment and fractionation. Furthermore, with the current emphasis being put on high-throughput techniques involving MS there is an increasing demand for automated and streamlined sample preparation tools for protein and peptide extraction upstream of MS.

Protein Fractionation, Partitioning & Enrichment
The first step to any proteomics experiment, particularly MS, is often to reduce the complexity of the sample; or fractionate the sample. The goal of fractionation is usually to remove the “highly abundant components of the proteome” followed by “subsequent fractionation of the moderate to low abundance proteins” in order to produce a concentrated sample of proteins with the potential to be clinically relevant. There are a number of fractionation protocols and tools available and it is not uncommon to utilize more than one to adequately reduce the convolution of a sample. A protein sample can be fractionated on the basis of size, charge, hydrophobicity, and/or binding affinity. These qualities are often the basis of the many available kits capable of enriching a sample by partitioning out highly abundant proteins from a sample such as serum. Examples of such kits include Beckman Coulter’s ProteomeLab IgY-12 spin and LC column kits which “selectively partition 12 highly abundant proteins found in serum or plasma” or Bio-Rad’s ReadyPrep protein extraction kits which “fractionate protein mixtures based on cellular location (the cytoplasmic/nuclear fraction, membrane proteins, and membrane proteins specifically involved in intracellular signaling).”

Sample Clean-up
The clean up of a protein sample is more crucial prior to introduction to the mass spectrometer than in most other proteomics experiments primarily because of the sensitivity of the technology, but also because ‘dirty samples’ can be quite detrimental to the machine. In terms of MS sensitivity, it is “necessary to remove the detergents, [ion suppressing] salts, and chaotropes commonly used in proteomic sample preparation to increase solubility” as they can compromise analysis. In cleaning up samples for MS, one can utilize any number of concepts described in the Contaminant Elimination section of this chapter. Finally, it should be noted that it is important to maintain an awareness of protein yield while attempting to maximize the quality of data.

Differential Labeling of Proteins
Insert information relating to the 18O-labeling of proteins and peptides here.

Optimization of Proteomic Sample Preparation Procedures for Comprehensive Protein Characterization of Pathogenic Systems
Heather M. Mottaz-Brewer, Angela D. Norbeck, Joshua N. Adkins, Nathan P. Manes, Charles Ansong, Liang Shi, Yasuko Rikihisa, Takane Kikuchi, Scott W. Wong, Ryan D. Estep, Fred Heffron, Ljiljana Pasa-Tolic, and Richard D. Smith J Biomol Tech. 2008 December; 19(5): 285–295. PMCID: PMC2628077

Main Focus

The results that can be derived from an experiment depends on the way the sample used was prepared. Optimizing the steps in sample preparation to get better results in mass spectrometry can help in the better understanding of host pathogen interactions.

Summary

Mass Spectrometry can be used in proteomics to find out about the interactions pathogens have with the host. However in any analysis the results are largely dependent on the characteristics of the sample used. Changing the way the sample was prepared in the experiment can lead to better results. There are a lot of different steps in sample handling that can be optimized to give better results. However Influence diagrams need to be made to determine the changes made to the sample preparation procedures. For example an increase in selectivity leads to a decrease in sensitivity and vice versa. Biomass losses have to be considered as well. The different steps which can be optimized are:

 * 1) Proteins of interest –      The protein of interest should be identified and its possible location found out. The experiment should be designed keeping this in mind.
 * 2) Growth conditions –         The growth conditions that are most suitable for the particular host pathogen can be designed
 * 3) Sample Preparation –        Sample size used and the way it is prepared can be changed to optimized for each experiment
 * 4) Sample Analysis Platforms – The platform used to analyze the samples should be considered
 * 5) Data Analysis –             It is important how the data found out can be analyzed. Since not every bacterium study has been sequenced optimal data analysis plays an important role.

Tweaking the different steps above can lead to better results in finding out the interactions between pathogens and hosts leading to drug discovery.

New Terms

 * HeLa cell : Immortal cell line used in research, which are derived from cervical cancer cells of Henrietta Lacks( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HeLa )
 * BCA protein assay : Bicinchoninic acid assay is an assay used to determine the total level of protein or the protein concentration in a solution. The extent of color change from green to purple indicates how much protein is present.
 * SPE (Solid phase extraction): This is a separation process that is used to remove certain compounds from a mixture of impurities based on their physical and chemical properties(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_Phase_Extraction)
 * Influence Diagram : It is a compact graphical and mathematical representation of a decision situation. It is a generalization of a Bayesian networking which not only probabilistic inference problems but also decision making problems (following maximum expected utility criterion) can be modeled and solved.(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influence_diagram)
 * Lipidomics : Study of pathways and networks of cellular lipids.

Course Relevance

 * This paper discusses the importance sample preparation and sample analysis has in the analysis of experiments. It tells us the different optimizations we can perform in various steps to get a better result.

Web Site Title
Thermo Scientific (http://www.piercenet.com/products/browse.cfm?fldID=69893E05-475D-4DA1-9DE5-D37CCFA31DF7&Format=Print)

Schematic of tandem mass spectrometry

Main Focus

The different sample preparation kits and reagents that are available and can be used to optimize mass spectrometry results

Summary

The website talks about the different reagents and kits that can be used to optimize sample preparation. The different kits available are:

 * 1) SILAC Kits and Reagents - Kit used for stable isotope labeling using amino acids in cell culture. It can quantify and identify relative differential changes in protein sample
 * 2) Tandem Mass Tag Technology - Isobaric chemical tags that enable concurrent identification and quantification of proteins in different samples.
 * 3) Use of deuterated crosslinkers
 * 4) 2D sample preparation kits and albumin removal kits form optimizing sample preparation
 * 5) SilverSNAP stain for silver staining of 2D gels to increase sensitivity
 * 6) Strong Ion Exchange spin columns for easy and better purification
 * 7) Trifluoroacetic acid for reverse phase peptide separations
 * 8) Formic Acid ampules as a contamination free alternative for preparing elution solvents for HPLC separation of proteins and peptides
 * 9) PepClean C18 Spin columns for purifying or concentrating multiple peptide samples in less than 30 minutes
 * 10) Protein Precipitation plates for target molecule isolation
 * 11) Phosphopeptide isolation kit for isolating phosphorylated peptides from complex protein digests
 * 12) Matrices for MALDI Analysis

New Terms

 * SILAC (Stable isotope labelling with amino acids in cell culture) : A mass spectrometry-based technique developed to detect differences in protein abundance between two (or more) samples( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SILAC )

 * Deuterated crosslinkers: Chemical reagents which when used in mass spec studies produces a Dalton shift compared to proteins cross linked with the non deuterated analog. The two analogs can be used for isotopically labeling proteins and peptides.

 * Elution: The emergence of a chemical from a chromatographic column.

 * MALDI: Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) is a soft ionization technique used in mass spectrometry, allowing the analysis of biomolecules (biopolymers such as proteins, peptides and sugars) and large organic molecules (such as polymers, dendrimers and other macromolecules), which tend to be fragile and fragment when ionized by more conventional ionization methods(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MALDI-TOF)

Course Relevance

The website details the different tools and reagent kits that one can use to optimize the sample preparation in the proteomics laboratory

Article to Summarize
Xiaoying Ye, Brian Luke, Torkell Andresson and Josip Blonder. Briefings in Functional Genomics and Proteomics. Vol 8. NO 2. 136-144. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19151093
 * 18O Stable Isotope Labeling in MS-based Proteomics

 * Reviewer: Arthur Principe

Main Focus

 * This article is a review of a mass spectrometry(MS) labeling technique using 18O isotopes for proteomics research. The article gives a robust background of the history and principles of the technique and then goes on to explain different specific technique applications. The article then concludes with an evaluation of the circumstances when it is best practice. Areas the versatile technique is applied to include : global proteomic investigations, targeted proteomic investigations, and post-translational modifications.

New Terms

 * 18O labeling:
 * using the oxygen isotope 18O as a label by incorporation into a protein or peptide.
 * (http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ac010043d)

 * Enzyme-mediated isotope incorporation:
 * using enzymes as a catalyst to cause the chemical reaction leading to isotope incorporation.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics)

 * Stable isotope labeling:
 * using a isotope that has not been observed to decay as a label.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_isotope)

 * MS-based proteomics:
 * used to distinguish relative quantities of a protein by adding a stable isotope to an analyte and observing the mass shift.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_proteomics#Mass_spectrometry-based_proteomics)

 * Unbiased proteome coverage:
 * analysis of the entire set of proteins expressed at a given time period for a given context such as the tissue or cell.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteome)

 * Post-translational modifications:
 * a chemical modification of a protein after its translation.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-translational_modifications)

 * Protein biomarkers:
 * proteins that are produced during a diseased state that can be used to detect that disease.
 * (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics#Biomarkers)

Summary

 * Labeling Chart.jpg stable isotope labeling in the context of mass spectrometry is a technique that is used in many assay protocols. In simplest terms, the stable oxygen isotope 18O is attached to the target protein in an attempt to identify and quantify unknown proteins. Details vary from there depending on the goal of the experiment. The article identifies details of common methods and the categories of the results produced. One group of methods uses the metabolic function of the cell or organism to insert the isotope. Other methods label using chemical or enzymatic incorporation to accomplish the binding of the isotope.

 * While not the most common isotope labeling technique 18O labeling has certain advantages. Results are generated very quickly, the materials needed to run the assay are relatively cheap, and the amount of sample needed is small. This third point is important as it allows using amount-limited samples, such as those obtained through clinical methods, to be used effetely.

 * Global proteomic investigations : using 18O labeling samples are profiled quantitatively on a proteome wide basis. Problems can occur through variable cleavage causing error in results. However an unbiased coverage of the proteome is a major advantage over 2D-PAGE-based methods.

 * Targeted proteomic investigations : techniques using 18O labeling to identify proteins in low abundance. Useful in early diction of biomarkers for disease or identifying proteins used in sorting and trafficking in cell organs.

 * Post-translational modifications : using 18O labeling to identify proteomes used in process regulation. Quantifying the abundance of the proteome before, after and after translation.

 * Compared to other technique : 18O labeling has certain advantages making it very useful under the right conditions. Reagents are relatively cheaper than other assay techniques. Assay turn around times is short. This is useful for generating quick results needed in clinical settings. Assays can be conducted with small sample volumes. Using less sample is very important when dealing with limited supply samples.

 * Conclusion, the choice of technique depends on experimental design. While not always the best choice, 18O labeling is very efficient at generating certain types of information quickly and inexpensively.

Relevance to a Traditional Metabolism Course

 * This article was an overview of the diverse application of the 18O labeling technique. It sets forth a very thorough background of the technique and principle. Sections are then presented on major areas where 18O labeling has and continues to be applied. Breaking down the history of the technique, improvements and breakthroughs in major research areas.


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/DVD Studio Pro

Authoring Interactive Discs with DVD Studio Pro
=General notes=

Historical Perspective

 * 1. Desktop publishing: 1980s - Pagemaker – Reliable/affordable, personal computers
 * 2. MIDI & sequencing1990s – Studio Vision/Personal Composer, Finale
 * 3. Desktop audio: 1996 – Protools, 100 MHz processors
 * 4. Desktop video: 2003 – Premiere, 2 GHz processors, cheap hard drives & RAM, consumer DVD cameras, affordable/reliable/easy DVD burning
 * 5. Desktop virtual reality – multiprocessor PCs, the end of the information age

Formats

 * 1. ROM: Read only, like CD but much more storage.
 * 2. -R: 2 kinds (General/Super drive & Authoring/Professional drive Pineer DVR-S201)
 * 3. -RW: Same as -r but read/write.
 * 4. RAM: Multisession, but won't play in most drives so is not recommended
 * 5. +R & +RW: Won't record in a superdrive, but plays in most drives AFTER recorded.
 * 6. Double sided
 * 7. Double sided double density Vrs Blueray
 * 8. DVD Hybrids: Video and Data
 * 9. DVD audio: much greater capacity AND higher quality audio. DVD Pro - No

Things to Know

 * 1. Tracks - 99 maximum
 * 2. Angles - 8 maximum
 * 3. Menus - still or motion - a total file size of no more than 1 gig.
 * 4. Buttons - 36 total on 4x3, only 18 on 16x9 video
 * 5. Slideshow - maximum of 100 images in one show
 * 6. Audio: AIFF, WAV, SDII, MPEG-1, AC3 - all OK in Studio Pro
 * 7. Subtitltes: up to 32 streams with a maximum of 4 colors
 * 8. Scripting: DVD can make decisions (loop x times, play random, create a random button, passcode protect a certain track.
 * 9. Region coding: 9 total. Don't use them.  Not on DVD -R.  1=US, 2=Europe, 3=Orient,               .        8=special purpose (airlines)

Help info you won’t find in Books

 * 1. A one-off disc is NOT the same as one pressed from a glass master.
 * 2. No longer necessary to use digital tape masters.
 * 3. There is no such thing as a one-off disc that is 100% reliable. The combination of blank media brand, playback drives, and authoring software produces more than 20,000 permutations.
 * 4. Copy protection: CSS or Macrovision (APS) prevents copy to VHS tape.
 * 5. Info Source: DiscDoctor.com
 * 6. Double sided duplication is now cost effective
 * 7. DVD/CD ROM double format discs duplication can be located with difficulty.
 * 8. Don't create a track, slideshow or menu that you may not require - can't be deleted consistently.
 * 9. Improve reliability by playing a 1 second video track, rather than a menu, first.
 * 10. 3. Be sure your content will fit. Encoding quality determines maximum size. Don't plan on more than 80 minutes (not including slideshows, menus, ROM data, etc.) on a 4.7 gig DVD.

Terminology to Impress Your Friends

 * 1. GOP: MPEG group of pictures is 15 frames. Markers go ONLY on GOPs.
 * 2. VOBU: Video group of objects - usually 2 GOPs - .4 to 1.2 seconds long. Most common source of burn errors.
 * 3. One chapter = A program
 * 4. A story = a chain of programs (chapters)
 * 5. VTS" video title set: maximum of 99 on any single video DVD

Storage Capacities

 * 1. 4.7 gigs
 * 2. 8.5 gigs Sony DRX 820UL-T $90, $3 per disc for under 50 in quantity.
 * 3. 100 gigs

Three steps in production (plus three more they don’t’ tell you about)

 * 1. Plan
 * 2. Author
 * 3. Encode
 * 4. Duplicate
 * 5. Label
 * 6. Packaging

Still Image Formats
Create at 720x540, resize to 720x480 (don't bother to crop 6 pixels from 486)
 * Photoshop, Tif, JPG or TGA at 72 DPI (plus 6 other formats, if you care)
 * Multiplexed into MPEG-2 stills
 * To avoid square pixel, rectangular pixel distortion:
 * An exception for Pros: Create at 640x480 and stretch up to 720x540 to accommodate thin lines that stretch horizontally, but not vertically)

Compressor Tips
Use VRB Variable Bit Rate 2 pass of higher

Advanced DVDs

 * 1. DVD@ccess
 * 2. Widescreen 16x9
 * 3. Multilanguage discs
 * 4. Subtitles

Issues That Matter

 * 1. Assets
 * 2. Tracks, markers
 * 3. Layered Menus
 * 4. Overlay Menus
 * 5. Slideshows
 * 6. Finishing: first play, hybrids, burn/format


text:
User:Whiteknight/Compiler Design

This is going to serve as a rewrite of the Compiler Construction book. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:47, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

Introduction

 * Introduction (what is a compiler, compiler components, uses of compiler techniques)
 * Programming Languages (types of languages, evolution of, features, commonality, etc)

Lexical Analysis

 * Terminology (Lexeme, Token, Pattern, Grammar, Etc)
 * Grammars (recap of regular expressions, syntax-free grammars, formal languages)
 * Automata (recap of automata, transition diagrams, NFA, DFA, etc)
 * Translation Algorithms (Regex <-> DFA, DFA <-> NFA, etc)
 * Lexical Analyzer Generators (introduction to Lex/Flex, brew your own, etc)

Syntax Analysis

 * Introduction to parsers (Lexical Analysis v. Syntax Analysis)
 * Grammars (left and right recursion, left and right factoring, non-context-free constructions)
 * Top-Down Parsing (LL Parsing, non-recursive predictive parsing, Recursive-descent)
 * Bottom-Up Parsing
 * LR Parsing
 * LALR parsing
 * Parser Generators (Yacc/Bison, brew your own, etc)

Syntax-Directed Translations

 * Syntax Directed Definitions
 * Evaluation Orders (L- and S-Attributed definitions)
 * Translation Schemes
 * Implementations

Intermediate Representations

 * Syntax Trees
 * Three-Address Code
 * Ideal Stack Code
 * Translation of Expressions
 * Type Checking
 * Control Flow
 * Backpatching

Optimizations

 * Introduction to Optimizations
 * Data Flow Analysis
 * Partial Redundancy Elimination
 * Flow Graphs
 * Region-Based Analysis
 * Symbolic Analysis

Machine Code Generation

 * Target Language
 * Address Allocation
 * Blocks and Flow Graphs
 * Block Optimization
 * Peephole Optimization
 * Register Allocation
 * Tree Rewriting
 * Optimal code generation
 * Dynamic programming code generation

Instruction-Level Parallelism

 * Parallel processor architectures
 * Scheduling and Arbitration
 * Loop Unwrapping
 * Affine Transforms
 * Iteration spaces
 * Affine Array Indexes
 * Data Reuse
 * Data-dependence analysis
 * Synchronization-Free Parallelism
 * Locality Optimizations

Storage and Memory

 * Storage Allocation (stacks, local and nonlocal data)
 * Heaps and dynamic data allocation
 * Garbage Collection (reachability, trace-based collection, short-pause collection)

Resources
The original outline was based, in part on:
 * A. V. Aho, M. S. Lam, R. Sethi, J. D. Ullman, "Compilers: Principles, Techniques, & Tools", Pearson/Addison Wesley, Boston, 2006.

title: User:Whiteknight/Compiler Design


text:
Mongolian

General Stuff

 * Introduction to the course
 * /The Alphabet/ — Pronunciation of the Mongolian alphabet
 * /Before You Begin/ — Simple grammar points

Lessons

 * 1)  Greetings, Introductions, Goodbyes
 * 2)  /Classroom Orientation/
 * 3)  /Food/
 * 4)  Directions
 * 5)  /Transportation/
 * 6)  /Communication/
 * 7)  /Shopping/
 * 8)  /Medical/
 * 9)  /Travel/
 * 10)  /Bank/
 * 11)  /Phone/
 * 12)  /General terms/

Grammar
/Verbs/

Appendix

 * /Glossary of words in Dialogues/
 * /Numerals and Fractions/

Mongolian Dictionaries

 * Mongolian Wiktionary

Mongolian Language Related Wiki

 * Mongolian Wikipedia

title: Mongolian


text:
Uzbek/Glossary

E
Erkak     Is men Eshik     Is door Ena       Is mom

title: Uzbek/Glossary


text:
Uzbek/Numerals and Fractions

The Uzbek cardinal numbers are:

In compound numerals the lower orders of numerals follow the higher. Each numeral is written separately:

The Uzbek ordinal numbers are formed by adding the suffix -nchi (after vowels) or inchi (after consonants) to cardinal numbers:

In Uzbek the denominator of a fraction always takes the ablative suffix while the numerator does not take any suffix:

The decimals are expressed by the word butun (whole) followed by the denominator and the numerator:

In spoken Uzbek the word butun frequently is omitted or replaced by -u or va, both meaning 'and':

title: Uzbek/Numerals and Fractions


text:
User:W1k13rh3nry

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:W1k13rh3nry

title: User:W1k13rh3nry


text:
Horticulture/Clematis

Clematis is a genus of perennial plants, most of which are vigorous, semiwoody climbing vines, but others are herbaceous perennials or shrubs. They are found throughout the temperate regions of both hemispheres, and also in mountains in the tropics. Most of the cool temperate species are deciduous, while many of the warmer climate species are evergreen.

Most species are known as Clematis in English, while some are also known as traveller's joy, leather flower, vase vine and virgin's bower, the last three being names used for North American species.

One recent classification recognised 297 species of clematis and modern taxonomists subdivide the genus. Magnus Johnson divided Clematis into 19 sections, several with subsections; Christopher Grey-Wilson divided the genus into 9 subgenera, several with sections and subsections within them. Several of the subdivisions are fairly consistent between different classifications, for example all Grey-Wilson's subgenera are used as sections by Johnson.

Subgenera of Clematis according to Grey-Wilson:
 * Clematis, Cheiropsis, Flammula, Archiclematis, Campanella, Atragene, Tubulosae, Pseudanemone, Viorna

Some of these were previously classed as separate genera.

Description
Clematis have opposite (or in rare cases alternate), pinnately compound leaves, with the petioles often twining to support the plant. Flowers are borne solitary or in panicles, bell-shaped or flattened. Bisexual or sometimes unisexual, stamens many, carpels numerous. Sepals in 4s or 5s, petal-like, petals lacking. Stamens are petaloid in some species. Fruits are achenes, often with long, feathery styles. Stems contain an acrid sap, and the bark of wody species exfoliates in long strips.

Growing conditions
Deep, organic-rich soils. Most species need their root zones shaded during the growing season. Full sun to part shade.

Maintenance
Young shoots are very delicate in the spring and brittle afterwards, so trellis structures should be installed during winter.

Propagation
Stratified seed, layering, division, cuttings, or in rare cases grafting

Pests and diseases
../Crown Gall/ ../Powdery Mildew/ ../Leaf Spots/ ../Leaf Blights/ ../Wilts/ ../Mushroom Rots/ ../Rusts/ ../Smuts/ ../Nematodes/ ../Aphids/ ../Scales/
 * ../Agrobacterium tumeifasciens/
 * ../Erisiphe polygoni/
 * Cylindrosporium clematidis
 * Cercospora rubigo
 * Cercospora squalidula
 * Glomerella cingulata
 * Phyllosticta clematidis
 * Ramularia clematidis
 * Septoria clematidis
 * Phleospora adjusta
 * Ascochyta clematidina
 * ../Armillaria/
 * Puccinia pulsatillae
 * Puccinia recondita var. agropyri
 * Puccinia stromatica
 * Urocystis carcinoides
 * ../Meliodgyne hapla/
 * ../Meliodgyne incognita/
 * Green Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/

../Whiteflies/

../Bugs/ ../Earwigs/
 * Garden Fleahopper: ../Halticus bractatus/

../Beetles/ ../Caterpillars/ ../Mites/
 * Black Blister Beetle: ../Epicuata pennsylvanica/
 * Japanese Weevil: ../Callirhopalus bifasciatus/
 * Clematis Borer: *../Alcathoe caudata/

title: Horticulture/Clematis


text:
Game Maker Programming/Expressions

Expressions are comparisons of two things. An example of an expression would be (8 > 6)

Types of Expressions
Expressions can be real number like 6 or 7, 'hexadecimal numbers', strings or more complicated expressions. By default all text is considered a Variables though if the text was in single or double quotes it would be a string. Any number in an expression is considered a real number unless it has a $ sign in front of it. If it had a $ in front of it then it is a 'hexadecimal number'

Operators
An operator is a symbol used for the comparison of two things in an expression. In (8 > 6) the > sign is the operator. There are many different types of operators. For expressions, the following binary operators exist:

 * && means "and". For example "if(pi=3.14 && 3+4=7)"
 * || means "or". For example "if(x=0 || y=0)"
 * ^^ means "xor".  example "if(x=32 ^^ y=27)"
 * <  means "less than".
 * >  means "greater than".
 * <= means "less than or equal to".
 * >= means "greater than or equal to".
 * ! means "Not". For example "if !(Variable=5)"

title: Game Maker Programming/Expressions


text:
Talk:Network Plus Certification/Introduction

Topologies
Just a suggestion: This page mentions network topologies without defining them. Why not have a section before network media that defines a topology and lists the types? 24.14.127.59 02:48, 10 April 2007 (UTC)


text:
User:Dictouray

So this is my userpage. I like my the source of my software to be as open as possible and enjoy contributing to other open projects. I'm pretty sure the sciences fit in there somewhere.

title: User:Dictouray


text:
Instructional Technology/Instructional Design/The Paradigm Shift

Introduction
It would certainly help if we know what is a paradigm in the context of Instructional Technology. Then, we might be able to explain and discuss paradigm shift.

Davis (1978) defines paradigm as "a more concrete conceptualisation of an underlying idea or theory, involving definitions, statements and interrelationships between the statements" (p.23). In the context of instructional technology (educational technology, he views that the activity of a group of people working together sharing common values and concepts would likely be a shared paradigm. In time this paradigm or series of paradigms will be presented and/or proposed. He notes that "once a paradigm or series of paradigms has been proposed, there will still be details and ambiguities to be identified and resolved" (p.23). In this case, variations of a proposed paradigm will be formed. Lastly, Davis (1978) critically states "the paradigms that are currently available are worryingly limited, although the variations offered seem endlessly lacking in anything creatively different" (p. 23).

As commonly known, audio-visual education, behavioral psychology, and systems theory are the foundations of the field of IT. The trend being identified here could add the fourth foundation, philosophical. Visscher-Voerman and Gustafson (2004) stated that analyze, design, develop, implement, and evaluate (ADDIE) activities cannot be observed consistently in application of design processes. Hence, designers can show different frequencies and sequences during the progress of the phases. The transitions and overlaps between the stages produced diversity, too. That is why the different models have been revealed. As a result of these data, they recommended a conceptual framework including of four paradigms for design:

 * 1) Instrumental paradigm: planning-by-objectives
 * 2) Communicative paradigm: communication to reach consensus.
 * 3) Pragmatic paradigm: interactive and repeated try-out and revision.
 * 4) Artistic paradigm: creation of products based on connoisseurship (p. 76).

Philosophical Roots
Visscher-Voerman and Gustafson (2004) proposed each paradigm with their philosophical movements, (a) modernism, (b) critical theory, (c) pragmatism, and (d) post modernism. They are consistent source for different stances and rationalities.

Instrumental paradigm relies on the idea of modernism. In modernism, the end (the solution to problem) is defined separately from and prior to the means (the way to solve the problem). The rationality of modernism is ends-means reasoning. General emphasis of this philosophy is logical reasoning and decomposition of problem into smaller problems to solve. That is why instrumental paradigm concerns with objectives that were expressed as a part of system or programming (Januszewski, 2001).

Communicative paradigm asserts that design process is realized on the basis of communication and negotiation perceptions and opinions to solve a problem. The parading is stemmed from critical theory. According to critical theory, means and ends cannot be perceived independently. Communicative rationality, the current representative of critical theory, aims at reaching consensus. Pragmatic paradigm proposes that design is a process of quick building, testing, and revising several prototypes or early product versions. This paradigm relies on pragmatism and pragmatic rationality. It offers that human kind must focus on practical solutions rather than theoretical issues. If something works well and is perceived as useful, this meant that true statement.

According to artistic paradigm, the unique expertise and experience are the critical players of the design process. This paradigm advocates that design processes cannot be planned and are made in direct reactions to the specific situations where the designer involved. Artistic paradigm is associated with postmodernism. Postmodernism seeks for ultimate theory and the one-only-truth. However, sciences reduce the reality of one view to one foundation. Deconstruction is a strategy which postmodernism uses. In that strategy, current literature and existing meaning are criticized and denied. Postmodernism tries to close gap between the science and the arts. That is why the rational of it is called artistic.

Trend Effect on Instructional Design
These four paradigm views were developed to: (a) emphasize and highlight the different applications of design processes in order of ADDIE activities, (b) help designers understand differences between design approaches and their activities, and (c) facilitate designers’ own design work processes and own design styles, and (d) support values and limitations of each paradigm that are useful form one situation to another (Visscher-Voerman & Gustafson, 2004).

Kozma (1994) stated that traditional instructional design models do not address the complex interrelationships among media, method, and situations. Most of them were derived from behavioral models. For this reason, they cannot be useful in constructivist environment, social models of learning (Winn, 1989, as cited on Kozma). These four paradigms could be identified as a potential impact trend because after that framework, the model concept of the IT could be rethought. Hence, the framework supports designers with all possible philosophically rooted rationales including necessary techniques and tools. Even though there are too many models in the IT field, especially for design processes, most of them are from the same perspective. In fact, the models seem different but their point of view for analyzing the problem is the same. In contrast to these models, this framework provides different angles to analyze the problem. For this reason, it could be named as the fourth foundation of the IT field.

Visscher-Voerman and Gustafson (2004) suggested that additional field based research should be implemented to analyze the benefits of design practices for both theorists and practitioner. Because of this point, the framework also provides a concrete relation between theory and practice components of the IT field. The relation can be determined more empirically than ever. This suggestion is going to lead the major dissertation titles in future.


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Canon Still Camera

The Canon PowerShot A640 is one of the still cameras that are made available for the MMI students to use for their project.

(See below link for photograph and product details)

Product Link: http://www.usa.canon.com/consumer/controller?act=ModelDetailAct&fcategoryid=145&modelid=14109


text:
Talk:Carbon Nanotube Cookbook

I have started writing a cookbook for carbon nanotubes some time ago when I realized that I have to explain certain routine things over and over again to new students. There are lots of great textbooks about nanotechnology out there (including the excellent Wikibook on this topic) but there is not really a comprehensive resource for the "simple" things.

I will put the small collection of material I got so far up to form a nucleation point. Hopefully a comprehensive hands on carbon nanotubes manual will form around it.

title: Talk:Carbon Nanotube Cookbook


text:
Talk:Systems Of Logic

how about a chapter on model theory? --FairPhyllis 08:43, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Systems Of Logic


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Clematis

species list from wikipedia
A partial list of species:
 * Clematis addisonii - Addison's Leather Flower
 * Clematis albicoma - Whitehair Leather Flower
 * Clematis alpina - Alpine Clematis, a hardy clematis flowering in August
 * Clematis armandii - one of two evergreen Clematis species (the other is C. cirrhosa); it includes the 'Apple Blossom' and 'Snowdrift' cultivars.
 * Clematis baldwinii - Pine Hyacinth
 * Clematis bigelovii - Bigelow Clematis
 * Clematis campaniflora - Portuguese Clematis
 * Clematis caracasana - Clematis
 * Clematis catesbyana - Satin curls
 * Clematis cirrhosa - one of two evergreen Clematis species (the other is C. armandii); it includes the 'Freckles,' 'Wisley Cream,' 'Jingle Bells,' and 'balearica' cultivars.
 * Clematis coactilis - Virginia Whitehair Leather Flower
 * Clematis columbiana - British Columbia Virgin's-bower
 * Clematis crispa - Curly Virginsbower
 * Clematis dioica - Cabellos de Angel
 * Clematis drummondii - Drummond Clematis
 * Clematis durandii
 * Clematis flammula - Fragrant Virgin's Bower
 * Clematis Florida - Asian Clematis
 * Clematis fremontii - Fremont's Leather Flower
 * Clematis glaucophylla - Whiteleaf Leather Flower
 * Clematis hirsutissima - Hairy Clematis
 * Clematis integrifolia
 * Clematis x jackmanii - Jackman's Clematis
 * Clematis lasiantha - Pipestem Clematis
 * Clematis ligusticifolia - Virgin's Bower
 * Clematis macropetala
 * Clematis marmoraria - New Zealand Dwarf Clematis
 * Clematis montana - Anemone Clematis
 * Clematis morefieldii - Huntsville Vasevine
 * Clematis occidentalis - Western Blue Virginsbower
 * Clematis ochroleuca - Curlyheads
 * Clematis orientalis - Chinese Clematis
 * Clematis palmeri - Palmer Clematis
 * Clematis pauciflora - Ropevine Clematis
 * Clematis pitcheri - Bluebill
 * Clematis recta - Ground Clematis
 * Clematis reticulata - Netleaf Leather Flower
 * Clematis socialis - Alabama Leather Flower
 * Clematis tangutica - Golden Clematis
 * Clematis terniflora - Leatherleaf Clematis
 * Clematis ternifolia - aka Clematis paniculata
 * Clematis texensis - Scarlet Leather Flower
 * Clematis versicolor - Manycolored Leather Flower
 * Clematis viorna - Vasevine or Traveller's joy
 * Clematis virginiana - Devil's Darning Needles, Virginia Bower
 * Clematis vitalba - Traveller's Joy or Old Man's Beard - The flowers of this species are eaten by the larvae of moths including The V-Pug and Double-striped Pug and the leaves by Willow Beauty.
 * Clematis viticaulis - Millboro Leather Flower
 * Clematis viticella - Italian Clematis

title: Talk:Horticulture/Clematis


text:
User talk:Lorenzgl

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck!-- SB_Johnny | talk 09:04, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lorenzgl


text:
Cookbook:Garlic Powder

Garlic powder is dehydrated garlic cloves that have been ground to a white-yellow powder. It provides some of the flavour, but not the texture, of fresh garlic, lasts for a long period of time and disperses well in liquid, hence the usage in marinades. High quality brands consist of pure garlic, while low quality brands may add artificial colour and flavour enhancers.

Garlic powder is often included in dried spice blends, where the most common is garlic salt.

Garlic is believed to be a natural alternative to pesticide and to protect against fleas, and garlic powder is added to pet food with this purpose.

One clove of fresh garlic can be substituted by 1/5 - 1/8 teaspoon of garlic powder.

title: Cookbook:Garlic Powder


text:
Cookbook:Annatto

Annatto, also called onoto or achiote, is a spice and food coloring made from the seeds of the South American achiote tree.

Characteristics
Annatto seeds grow inside the spiky pod of the achiote tree and have a red color. The mature seeds are harvested, after which they can be dried and powdered, processed into a paste, or steeped in oil or water. Theses seed extracts lend a yellow-orange color to foods.

In addition to their vibrant color, annato seeds also have a mild peppery and musky flavor. These flavors are largely derived from its terpene family and caryophyllene content.

Selection and storage
Annatto powder has a long shelf life (up to a couple years) when stored in an airtight container away from light and heat. The paste and oil have a shorter shelf life, remaining good on the order of weeks to months when stored in the fridge.

If you cannot find any annatto, a substitute can be made by combining equal parts of ground turmeric and paprika to approximate its color and flavor profile.

Use
Annatto is widely used in Central/South American cuisines, as well as in those of the Caribbean and the Philippines. The traditional Venezuelan dishes hallaca and perico use annatto in their preparation.

Due to its potency as a colorant, annatto is frequently used in many foods to give them a yellow-orange color. Various cheeses, condiments, beverages, and snacks contain it. For example, annatto gives cheddar and red leicester their colour, and it helps tint butter and margarine yellow.

Whole annatto seeds are rarely used in dishes; instead, the seeds are either steeped in water or oil to release their flavor and color. More seeds are needed to infuse water, since the water-soluble compounds are less abundant. Ground annatto powder can be used like other powdered spices, sprinkled directly into the dish. The paste can be thinned with water before mixing into a dish, and the oil can be used when cooking foods or in marinades.

If using annatto for its flavor, consider making and/or using annatto oil, since many of its characteristic flavor compounds are primarily fat-soluble.

title: Cookbook:Annatto


text:
User talk:Alva~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested in reading our Cookbook policy page, and talk with other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 09:53, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Alva. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Alva~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:56, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:31, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Alva~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Turms

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
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 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested in reading our Cookbook policy page, and talk with other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 10:01, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Turms. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Turms~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:48, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Turms


text:
User:Coffee2theorems

Same user as wikipedia:User:Coffee2theorems.

title: User:Coffee2theorems


text:
User talk:24.38.56.250

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 11:48, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.38.56.250


text:
Radiation Oncology/Breast/Staging

Current staging
AJCC 7th Edition (2009) Primary Tumor:
 * T0 - no primary tumor found
 * Tis - in situ (DCIS or LCIS or Paget's)
 * T1 ≤ 2 cm
 * T1mi ≤ 0.1 cm (microinvasive)
 * T1a > 0.1 to 0.5 cm
 * T1b > 0.5 to 1 cm
 * T1c > 1 to 2 cm
 * T2 > 2 to 5 cm
 * T3 > 5 cm
 * T4 Chest wall /skin
 * T4a Chest wall (not including pectoralis muscle)
 * T4b Skin edema (peau d'orange), ulceration, or satellite skin nodules
 * T4c Both 4a and 4b
 * T4d Inflammatory carcinoma

Mnemonics: "A" Nodes are "A"xillary, "B" Nodes are internal "B"reast (eg IMNs), "C" Nodes are supra"C"lavicular - excludes N1 subgroups

Note: For node counting, at least 1 LN must contain a tumor deposit > 2mm and all remaining quantified nodes must contain tumor deposits > 0.2 mm (at least micromets). Nodes containing only tumor deposits <= 0.2mm (ITCs) are excluded from the positive node count (but should be recorded as additional ITC involved nodes)

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - none
 * cM0(i+) - no clinical or radiographic evidence of distant metastases, but tumor cells detected in circulating blood, bone marrow, or other tissues (e.g. prophylactically removed ovaries), ≤ 0.2 mm, in a patient without symptoms or signs of metastases.
 * M1 - distant detectable metastases; or histologically proven > 0.2 mm

Stage Grouping:
 * 0: Tis
 * IA: T1 N0
 * IB: T0-T1 N1mi
 * IIA: T0-1 N1 or T2 N0
 * IIB: T2 N1 or T3 N0
 * IIIA: T3 N1 or T0-3 N2
 * IIIB: T4 N0-2
 * IIIC: N3
 * IV: M1

Changes from 6th edition:
 * T1mic changed to T1mi to indicate microscopic disease
 * Clarification of wording of "not clinically detected" and "clinically detected" internal mammary nodes. *Clarification of Isolated tumor cells (ITC).
 * Subdivision of Stage I into IA and IB (IB includes T0-T1 with N1mi nodal micrometastases). Otherwise, no changes in TNM or Overall Stage
 * New cM0(i+) category for circulating tumor cells or incidentally discovered metastatic cells in other tissue
 * Clarification of assigning staging after neoadjuvant therapy (yc or ypTNM)

8th Edition
AJCC 8th edition (2017)
 * To be used for staging beginning Jan 1, 2018.
 * The prognostic stage group is preferred for patient care, is to be used for reporting of all cancer patients. The anatomic stage group is provided so that stage can be assigned when biomarkers cannot be routinely obtained.
 * LCIS is no longer included as in situ

Primary Tumor:
 * T0 - no primary tumor found
 * Tis (DCIS)
 * Note: LCIS is no longer included (benign)
 * Tis (Paget)
 * T1 ≤ 2 cm
 * T1mi ≤ 0.1 cm (microinvasive)
 * T1a > 0.1 but ≤ 0.5 cm (round any measurement from >1.0-1.9 mm to 2 mm)
 * T1b > 0.5 but ≤ 1 cm
 * T1c > 1 but ≤ 2 cm
 * T2 > 2 but ≤ 5 cm
 * T3 > 5 cm
 * T4 Chest wall /skin
 * T4a Chest wall (not including pectoralis muscle)
 * T4b Skin edema (peau d'orange), ulceration, or satellite skin nodules (satellite tumor nodules in the skin must be evident grossly. Those identified only microscopically do not constitute T4b)
 * T4c Both 4a and 4b
 * T4d Inflammatory carcinoma

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - none
 * cM0(i+) - no clinical or radiographic evidence of distant metastases, but tumor cells detected in circulating blood, bone marrow, or other tissues (e.g. prophylactically removed ovaries), ≤ 0.2 mm, in a patient without symptoms or signs of metastases.
 * M1 - distant detectable metastases; or histologically proven met > 0.2 mm (pM1)

Prognostic Stage Grouping:

Anatomic Stage Grouping:
 * 0: Tis
 * IA: T1 N0
 * IB: T0-T1 N1mi
 * IIA: T0-1 N1 or T2 N0
 * IIB: T2 N1 or T3 N0
 * IIIA: T3 N1 or T1-3 N2
 * IIIB: T4 N0-2
 * IIIC: N3
 * IV: M1

Source:

Older staging versions
AJCC 6th edition (2002) Primary Tumor:
 * T0 - no primary tumor found
 * Tis - in situ (DCIS or LCIS or Paget's)
 * T1 ≤ 2 cm
 * T1mic ≤ 0.1 cm (microinvasive)
 * T1a > 0.1 to 0.5 cm
 * T1b > 0.5 to 1 cm
 * T1c > 1 to 2 cm
 * T2 > 2 to 5 cm
 * T3 > 5 cm
 * T4 Chest wall /skin
 * T4a Chest wall (not including pectoralis muscle)
 * T4b Skin edema (peau d'orange), ulceration, or satellite skin nodules
 * T4c Both 4a and 4b
 * T4d Inflammatory carcinoma

Mnemonics: "A" Nodes are "A"xillary, "B" Nodes are internal "B"reast (eg IMNs), "C" Nodes are supra"C"lavicular - excludes N1 subgroups

Nodes:
 * Isolated tumor cells (ITC) - small clusters of cells <= 0.2 mm (and < 200 cells), usually with no histologic evidence of malignant activity (such as proliferation or stromal reaction). Designated pN0. If IHC or PCR is performed, may be designated pN0(i+),pN0(i-),pN0(mol+),or pN0(mol-).
 * Micrometastases (pN1mi) - > 0.2mm but <= 2.0 mm. May also be designated pN1mi(i+) or pN1mi(i-) if IHC is performed.

Distant metastasis:
 * M0 No
 * M1 Yes

Stage grouping:
 * Stage 0: Tis
 * Stage I: T1,N0,M0
 * Stage IIA: T0-1,N1,M0 or T2,N0,M0
 * Stage IIB: T2,N1,M0 or T3,N0,M0
 * Stage IIIA: T3,N1,M0 or T0-3,N2,M0
 * Stage IIIB: T4,any N,M0
 * Stage IIIC: any T,N3,M0
 * Stage IV: any T,any N,M1

AJCC 5th Edition (1997) Otherwise unchanged compared to 6th edition
 * pN1a - micrometastases (<0.2 cm)
 * pN1bi - 1-3 nodes, < 2 cm
 * pN1bii - 4+ nodes, < 2 cm
 * pN1biii - extracapsular extension, < 2 cm
 * pN1biv - > 2 cm

New Classifications

 * ''For additional information, see Tissue microarrays (Breast/Breast overview)

Gene expression profiling is the basis for additional classification schemes.
 * Luminal A type - ER+ and/or PR+, HER2–. Usually low grade. These express genes similar to normal cells lining breast ducts and glands
 * Luminal B type - ER+ and/or PR+, HER2+. These are similar to luminal A, but grow faster and have a slightly poorer prognosis.
 * Basal type - ER–, PR–, HER2–, cytokeratin 5/6 positive, and/or HER1+. Also known as "triple negative". Higher prevalence in young African American women.
 * HER2 type - ER-, PR-, HER2+. Usually high histological grade.

title: Radiation Oncology/Breast/Staging


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Panasonic HD Video Camera

While this camera is not made available to the MMI students for use, the faculty members of ORU affiliated, ETV, contribute footage that they have shot with this camera of the MMI students and their activities.

Product Link: http://panasonic.com/business/provideo/hvx200microsite/index.asp