text:
CCNA Certification/Switching

Bridge
A layer 2 device used to connect different networks types or networks of the same type. It maps the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each segment and allows only the necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. Packet destined to the same segment is dropped. This "store-and-forward" mechanism inspects the whole Ethernet packet before making a decision. Unfortunately, it cannot filter out broadcast traffic. Also, it introduces a 20 to 30 percent latency when processing the frame. Only 2 networks can be linked with a bridge. bridge is necessary device used in switching.

Switch
Switches are layer 2 devices (it can be of layer3 and above) that can link up four, six, eight or even more networks. Switches are the only devices that allow for micro segmentation. Cut-through switches run faster because when a packet comes in, it forwards it right after looking at the destination address only. A store-and-forward switch inspects the entire packet before forwarding. Most switches cannot stop broadcast traffic. Switches are considered dedicated data link device because they are close to a 100 % of the bandwidth. While bridging does most of its work by software, switches use ASICS hardware to handle most of its work. A Switch can be thought of as a multi-port bridge.

Store-and-forward
The entire frame is received before any forwarding takes place. The destination and/or the source addresses are read and filters are applied before the frame is forwarded. Latency occurs while the frame is being received; the latency is greater with larger frames because the entire frame takes longer to read. Error detection is high because of the time available to the switch to check for errors while waiting for the entire frame to be received. This method discards frames smaller than 64 bytes(runts) and frames larger than 1518 bytes (giants).

Cut-Through
The switch reads the destination address before receiving the entire frame. The frame is then forwarded before the entire frame arrives. This mode decreases the latency of the transmission and has poor error detection. This method has two forms, Fast-forward and fragment-free.

Fast-forward switching
Fast-forward switching offers the lowest level of latency by immediately forwarding a frame after receiving the destination address. Because fast-forward switching does not check for errors, there may be times when frames are relayed with errors. Although this occurs infrequently and the destination network adapter discards the fault frame upon receipt. In networks with high collision rates, this can negatively affect available bandwidth.

Fragment Free Switching
Use the fragment-free option to reduce the number of collisions in frames forwarded with errors. In fast-forward mode, latency is measured from the first bit received to the first bit transmitted, or first in, first out (FIFO). Fragment-free switching filters out collision fragments, which are the majority of packets errors, before forwarding begins. In a properly functioning network, collision fragments must be smaller than 64 bytes. Anything greater than 64 bytes is a valid packet and is usually received without error. Fragment-free switching waits until the received frame has been determined not to be a collision fragment before forwarding the frame. In fragment-free, latency is measured as FIFO.

VLANs and trunking
A virtual LAN, commonly known as a vLAN or as a VLAN, is a method of creating independent logical networks within a physical network. Several VLANs can co-exist within such a network. This helps in reducing the broadcast domain and aids in network administration by separating logical segments of a LAN (like company departments) that should not exchange data using a LAN (they still can exchange data by Inter-VLAN routing).

A VLAN consists of a network of computers that behave as if connected to the same wire - even though they may actually be physically connected to different segments of a LAN. Network administrators configure VLANs through software rather than hardware, which makes them extremely flexible. One of the biggest advantages of VLANs emerges when physically moving a computer to another location: it can stay on the same VLAN without the need for any hardware reconfiguration.

Advantages of VLANs

 * Increase the number of broadcast domains but reduce the size of each broadcast domain, which in turn reduces network traffic and increases network security (both of which are hampered in cases of single large broadcast domains).
 * Reduce management effort to create subnetworks.
 * Reduce hardware requirement, as networks can be logically instead of physically separated.
 * Increase control over multiple traffic types.

Protocols and design
The primary protocol currently used in configuring virtual LANs is IEEE 802.1Q, which describes how traffic on a single physical network can be partitioned into virtual LANs by tagging each frame or packet with extra bytes to denote which virtual network the packet belongs to.

Prior to the introduction of the 802.1Q standard, several proprietary protocols existed, such as Cisco's ISL (Inter-Switch Link, a variant of IEEE 802.10) and 3Com's VLT (Virtual LAN Trunk). ISL is no longer supported by Cisco.

Early network designers often configured VLANs with the aim of reducing the size of the collision domain in a large single Ethernet segment and thus improving performance. When Ethernet switches made this a non-issue (because they have no collision domain), attention turned to reducing the size of the broadcast domain at the MAC layer. Virtual networks can also serve to restrict access to network resources without regard to physical topology of the network, although the strength of this method remains debatable as VLAN Hopping is a common means of bypassing such security measures.

Virtual LANs operate at Layer 2 (the data link layer) of the OSI model. However, administrators often configure a VLAN to map directly to an IP network, or subnet, which gives the appearance of involving Layer 3 (the network layer).

In the context of VLANs, the term "trunk" denotes a network link carrying multiple VLANs, which are identified by labels (or "tags") inserted into their packets. Such trunks must run between "tagged ports" of VLAN-aware devices, so they are often switch-to-switch or switch-to-router links rather than links to hosts. (Confusingly, the term 'trunk' is also used for what Cisco calls "channels" : Link Aggregation or Port Trunking). A router (Layer 3 switch) serves as the backbone for network traffic going across different VLANs.

On Cisco devices, VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocol) allows for VLAN domains, which can aid in administrative tasks. VTP also allows "pruning", which involves directing specific VLAN traffic only to switches which have ports on the target VLAN.

Assigning VLAN Memberships
The four methods of assigning VLAN memberships that are in use are:
 * Port-based: A switch port is manually configured to be a member of a VLAN. In order to connect a port to several VLANs (for example, a link with VLANs spanning over several switches) the port has to be member of a trunk. Only one VLAN on a port can be set untagged; the switch will add this VLAN's tags to untagged received frames and remove this VLAN's tag from transmitted frames.
 * MAC-based: VLAN membership is based on the MAC address of the workstation. The switch has a table listing the MAC address of each machine, along with the VLAN to which it belongs.
 * Protocol-based: Layer 3 data within the frame is used to determine VLAN membership. For example, IP machines can be classified as the first VLAN, and AppleTalk machines as the second. The major disadvantage of this method is that it violates the independence of the layers, so an upgrade from IPv4 to IPv6, for example, will cause the switch to fail.
 * Authentication based: Devices can be automatically placed into VLANs based on the authentication credentials of a user or device using the 802.1x protocol.

Port Based VLANs
A port based VLAN switch determines the membership of a data frame by examining the configuration of the port that received the transmission or reading a portion of the data frame’s tag header. A four-byte field in the header is used to identify the VLAN. This VLAN identification indicates what VLAN the frame belongs to. If the frame has no tag header, the switch checks the VLAN setting of the port that received the frame. If the switch has been configured for port based VLAN support, it assigns the port’s VLAN identification to the new frame.

Spanning Tree
The spanning tree network protocol provides a loop free topology for any bridged LAN. The Spanning Tree Protocol, which is also referred to as STP, is defined in the IEEE Standard 802.1D. Spanning tree is based on an algorithm invented by Radia Perlman while working for Digital Equipment Corporation. STP is used in switched networks to prevent loops, and has been standardized by IEEE 802.1D. As the name suggests, it finds a spanning tree within the mesh network formed by the installer, whether purposefully created or not, and disables the links not part of that tree. There are two different standards of STP: IEEE and DEC. IEEE is the most common, and is recommended to be the one used in a network. Problems can be caused in networks where both standards of STP are implemented. It is likely that both standards will elect their own root bridge and cause loops in the topology. The way in which both standards handle Bridge Protocol Data Units (see below) also differs.

If more than one open path were to be active at once then there would be several problems. First, a broadcast storm caused by broadcast packets looping between switches would reduce available CPU resources and bandwidth (many modern bridges can detect and limit the effects of this, although it usually still causes a breakdown in connectivity). Second, the traditional source-based location system (filtering database) used by switches would fail to operate correctly. However, a good network design should include spare (redundant) links to provide an alternate path if one fails. Hence the need for spanning tree in a switched network.

Protocol operation

 * Elect a root bridge.
 * Find paths to root bridge.
 * Determine least cost (measured as sum of all traversed port costs) path to root bridge.
 * Disable all other root paths.

Electing a root bridge
Each switch has a unique identifier (ID) and a configurable priority number; both of these numbers make up the Bridge Identification or BID. The BID is used to elect a root bridge based upon the lowest priority number; if this is a tie then the numerically lowest ID wins. Because it is next to impossible that two IDs will be the same (they are uniquely assigned), one switch should always be successfully elected as the root bridge with the switch that has the next lowest priority/cost acting as a secondary (backup) root bridge. Other switches in the network that use spanning tree will use the same algorithmic process to calculate the shortest path to the root bridge and so produce a loop free tree topology where multiple paths to the root bridge exist. The priority number is normally left at its default value but can be reconfigured to a lower number if the network administrator wishes a particular switch to be elected; otherwise the whole process is fully automated. The Bridge ID is the concatenation of bridge priority number and MAC address of the switch. The bridge priority number varies from 0 to 65535. The Switch with least administrative cost is selected as a Root Bridge.

Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs)
BIDs and other Spanning Tree Protocol information are carried in special data frames called bridge protocol data units (BPDUs). BPDUs are exchanged regularly (every 2 seconds by default) and enable switches to keep track of network changes and activate or disable ports as required. When a device is first attached to a switch port, it will not immediately start to forward data. It will instead go through a number of states while it processes BPDUs and determines the topology of the network. When a host is attached such as a computer, printer or server the port will always go into the forwarding state, albeit after a delay of about 30 seconds while it goes through the listening and learning states (see below). The time spent in the listening and learning states is determined by a value known as the forward delay (default 15 seconds and set by the root bridge). However, if instead another switch is connected, the port may remain in blocking mode if it is determined that it would cause a loop in the network. Topology Change Notification (TCN) BPDUs are used to inform other switches of port changes. TCNs are injected into the network by a non-root switch and propagated to the root. Upon receipt of the TCN, the root switch will set a Topology Change flag in its normal BPDUs. This flag is propagated to all other switches to instruct them to rapidly age out their forwarding table entries.

STP switch port states:

 * Listening - The switch processes BPDUs and awaits possible new information that would cause it to return to the blocking state.
 * Learning - While the port does not yet forward frames (packets) it does learn source addresses from frames received and adds them to the filtering database (switching database)
 * Blocking - A port that would cause a switching loop, no user data is sent or received but it may go into forwarding mode if the other links in use were to fail and the spanning tree algorithm determines the port may transition to the forwarding state. BPDU data is still received in blocking state.
 * Forwarding - A port receiving and sending data, normal operation. STP still monitors incoming BPDUs that would indicate it should return to the blocking state to prevent a loop.
 * Disabled - Not strictly part of STP, a network administrator can manually disable a port

To prevent the delay when connecting hosts to a switch and during some topology changes, Rapid STP was developed and standardized by IEEE 802.1w which allows a switch port to rapidly transition into the forwarding state during these situations.

Per-VLAN Spanning Tree (PVST)
In Ethernet switched environments where multiple Virtual LANs exist, spanning tree can be deployed per Virtual LAN. Cisco's name for this is per VLAN spanning tree (PVST and PVST+ which is the default protocol used by Cisco switches). Both PVST and PVST+ protocols are Cisco proprietary protocols and they cannot be used on 3rd party switches. PVST only works with ISL due to its embedded Spanning tree ID. Due to high penetration of the IEEE 802.1Q] trunking standard and PVST's incompatibility with 802.1Q, Cisco redefined its PVST standard and called it PVST+.

Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP)
In 1998, the IEEE introduced an evolution of the Spanning Tree Protocol: Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) or 802.1w. In the 2004 edition of 802.1D, STP is superseded by the RSTP.

RSTP is an evolution of the Spanning Tree Protocol; it was introduced in the extension IEEE 802.1w, and provides for faster spanning tree convergence after a topology change. Standard IEEE 802.1D-2004 now incorporates RSTP and obsoletes STP.

RSTP bridge port roles:

 * Root - A forwarding port that has been elected for the spanning-tree topology
 * Designated - A forwarding port for every LAN segment
 * Alternate - An alternate path to the root bridge. This path is different than using the root port.
 * Backup - A backup/redundant path to a segment where another bridge port already connects.
 * Disabled - Not strictly part of STP, a network administrator can manually disable a port

RSTP is a refinement of STP and therefore shares most of its basic operation characteristics. However there are some notable differences as summarized below:

 * Detection of root switch failure is done in 3 hello times, which is 6 seconds if default hello times have not been changed.
 * Ports may be configured as edge ports if they are attached to a LAN which has no other bridges attached. These edge ports transition directly to the forwarding state. RSTP still continues to monitor the port for BPDUs in case a bridge is connected. RSTP can also be configured to automatically detect edge ports. As soon as the bridge detects a BPDU coming to an edge port, the port becomes a non-edge port.
 * Unlike in STP, RSTP will respond to BPDUs sent from the direction of the root bridge. An RSTP bridge will "propose" to its designated ports its spanning tree information. If another RSTP bridge receives this information, determines this is the superior root information, and sets all its other ports to discarding. The bridge may send an "agreement" to the first bridge confirming its superior spanning tree information. The first bridge, upon receiving this agreement, knows it can rapidly transition that port to the forwarding state bypassing the traditional listening/learning state transition. This essentially creates a cascading effect away from the root bridge where each designated bridge proposes to its neighbors to determine if it can make a rapid transition. This is one of the major elements which allows RSTP to achieve faster convergence times than STP.
 * As discussed in the port role details above, RSTP maintains backup details regarding the discarding status of ports. This avoids timeouts if the current forwarding ports were to fail or BPDUs were not received on the root port in a certain interval.

Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol (MSTP)
The Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol (MSTP), originally defined in IEEE 802.1s and later merged into IEEE 802.1Q-2003, defines an extension to the RSTP protocol to further develop the usefulness of virtual LANs (VLANs). This "Per-VLAN" Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol configures a separate Spanning Tree for each VLAN group and blocks the links that are redundant within each Spanning Tree.

If there is only one Virtual LAN(VLAN) in the network, single (traditional) STP works appropriately. If the network contains more than one VLAN, the logical network configured by single STP would work, but it is possible to make better use of the redundant links available by using an alternate spanning tree for different (groups of) VLANs.

MSTP allows formation of MST regions which can run multiple MST instances (MSTI). Multiple regions and other STP bridges are interconnected using one single common spanning tree (CST).

MSTP was inspired by Cisco Systems' Multiple Instances Spanning Tree Protocol (MISTP), and is an evolution of the Spanning Tree Protocol and the Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol. It was introduced in IEEE 802.1s as amendment to 802.1Q, 1998 edition. Standard IEEE 802.1Q-2003 now includes MSTP.

Unlike some proprietary per-VLAN spanning tree implementations, MSTP includes all of its spanning tree information in a single BPDU format. Not only does this reduce the number of BPDUs required on a LAN to communicate spanning tree information for each VLAN, but it also ensures backward compatibility with RSTP (and in effect classical STP too). MSTP does this by encoding additional region information after the standard RSTP BPDU as well as a number of MSTI messages (from 0 to 64 instances, although in practice many bridges support less). Each of these MSTI configuration messages conveys the spanning tree information for each instance. Each instance can be assigned a number of configured VLANs and frames (packets) assigned to these VLANs operate in this spanning tree instance whenever they are inside the MST region. In order to avoid conveying their entire VLAN to spanning tree mapping in each BPDU, bridges encode an MD5 digest of their VLAN to instance table in the MSTP BPDU. This digest is then used by other MSTP bridges, along with other administratively configured values, to determine if the neighboring bridge is in the same MST region as itself.

MSTP is fully compatible with RSTP bridges, in that an MSTP BPDU can be interpreted by an RSTP bridge as an RSTP BPDU. This not only allows compatibility with RSTP bridges without configuration changes, but also causes any RSTP bridges outside of an MSTP region to see the region as a single RSTP bridge, regardless of the number of MSTP bridges inside the region itself. In order to further facilitate this view of an MST region as a single RSTP bridge, the MSTP protocol uses a variable known as remaining hops as a time to live counter instead of the message age timer used by RSTP. The message age time is only incremented once when spanning tree information enters an MST region, and therefore RSTP bridges will see a region as only one "hop" in the spanning tree. Ports at the edge of an MST region connected to either a RSTP or STP bridge or an endpoint are known as boundary ports. As in RSTP, these ports can be configured as edge ports to facilitate rapid changes to the forwarding state when connected to endpoints.

title: CCNA Certification/Switching


text:
CCNA Certification/Physical Layer

=Physical Layer= The physical layer is level one in the seven level OSI model of computer networking as well as in the five layer TCP/IP reference model. It performs services requested by the data link layer.

The physical layer is the most basic network layer, providing only the means of transmitting raw bits rather than packets over a physical data link connecting network nodes. No packet headers nor trailers are consequently added to the data by the physical layer. The bit stream may be grouped into code words or symbols, and converted to a physical signal, which is transmitted over a physical transmission medium (e.g. coaxial cable, optical fiber ,or twisted pair). The physical layer provides an electrical, mechanical, and procedural interface to the transmission medium. The shapes of the electrical connectors, which frequencies to broadcast on, what modulation scheme to use and similar low-level parameters are specified here. An analogy of this layer in a physical mail network would be the roads along which the vans carrying the mail drive (i.e., the transmission medium is the roads while the signals are the vans).

The physical layer determines the bit rate in bits per second (bit/s or bps), also known as channel capacity, digital Bandwidth, maximum throughput or connection speed.

The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
 * Bit-by-bit node-to-node delivery
 * Providing a standardized interface to physical transmission media, including
 * Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables, for example maximum cable length
 * Electrical specification of transmission line signal level and electrical impedance
 * Radio interface, including electromagnetic spectrum frequency allocation and specification of signal strength, analog bandwidth, etc.
 * Specifications for Infrared(IR) radiation over optical fiber or a wireless IR communication link

 * Modulation
 * Line coding
 * Bit synchronization in synchronous serial communication
 * Start-stop signalling and Flow control in asynchronous serial communication
 * Circuit mode multiplexing
 * Carrier sense and collision detection utilized by some level 2 multiple access protocols

 * Equalization filtering, training sequences, pulse shaping and other signal processing of physical signals

The physical layer is also concerned with
 * Point-to-point, multipoint or point-to-multipoint line configuration
 * Physical network topology, for example bus, ring, mesh or star network.
 * Serial or parallel communication
 * Simplex, half duplex or full duplex transmission mode

Physical signaling sublayer
In a local area network (LAN) or a metropolitan area network (MAN) using open systems interconnection (OSI) architecture, the physical signaling sublayer is the portion of the physical layer that:
 * interfaces with the medium access control sublayer| (MAC)which is a part of Data Link Layer
 * performs character encoding, transmission, reception and decoding
 * performs mandatory isolation functions.

Source: from Federal Standard 1037C

Examples

 * V.92 telephone network modems
 * xDSL
 * IRDA| physical layer
 * USB physical layer
 * Firewire
 * EIA RS-232, EIA-422, EIA-423, RS-449, RS-485
 * ITU Recommendations: see ITU-T
 * DSL
 * ISDN
 * T1 and other T-carrier links, and E1 and other E-carrier links
 * 10BASE-T, 10BASE2, 10BASE5, 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, 100BASE-T, 1000BASE-T, 1000BASE-SX and other varieties of the Ethernet physical layer
 * Varieties of 802.11
 * SONET/SDH
 * GSM radio interface
 * Bluetooth physical layer
 * IEEE 802.11x Wi-Fi physical layers

Hardware equipment (network node) examples

 * Network adapter|
 * Repeater
 * Ethernet hub
 * Modem

Note: Physical layer Associated with transmission of unstructured bit streams over a physical link. Responsible for the mechanical, electrical and procedural characteristics that establish, maintain and deactivate the physical link.

T1
Frame Relay

Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was designed for use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces. Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces as well. This chapter focuses on Frame Relay's specifications and applications in the context of WAN services.

Frame Relay is an example of a packet-switched technology. Packet-switched networks enable end stations to dynamically share the network medium and the available bandwidth. The following two techniques are used in packet-switching technology:

•Variable-length packets

•Statistical multiplexing

Variable-length packets are used for more efficient and flexible data transfers. These packets are switched between the various segments in the network until the destination is reached.

Statistical multiplexing techniques control network access in a packet-switched network. The advantage of this technique is that it accommodates more flexibility and more efficient use of bandwidth. Most of today's popular LANs, such as Ethernet and Token Ring, are packet-switched networks.

Frame Relay often is described as a streamlined version of X.25, offering fewer of the robust capabilities, such as windowing and retransmission of last data that are offered in X.25. This is because Frame Relay typically operates over WAN facilities that offer more reliable connection services and a higher degree of reliability than the facilities available during the late 1970s and early 1980s that served as the common platforms for X.25 WANs. As mentioned earlier, Frame Relay is strictly a Layer 2 protocol suite, whereas X.25 provides services at Layer 3 (the network layer) as well. This enables Frame Relay to offer higher performance and greater transmission efficiency than X.25, and makes Frame Relay suitable for current WAN applications, such as LAN interconnection.

PAP/CHAP
'''PPP=> PPP stands for Point-to-Point Protocol, and is an Open standard protocol works with same & different company routers. E.g. Cisco--Cisco, Cisco--Nortel. PPP supports compression. PPP supports authentication. there are two types of PPP authentication. a) PAP---Password Authentication Protocol  b) CHAP--Challenge Handshake authentication protocol

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: CCNA Certification/Physical Layer


text:
CCNA Certification/Router Operation

=Router Operation=

Operating and Configuring IOS Devices
One can think of Cisco networking devices as specialized computer devices designed to perform the task of handling data packets. As with other computers, the Cisco device has an operating system. Most Cisco networtking equipment executes the Cisco Internetworking Operating System which is usually just known as Cisco IOS.

Cisco IOS has a command line interface (CLI) and using this is similar in style to using the command line environment in Windows, or alternatively a Unix shell such as Bash. It is important to realize that the set of commands that one uses in Cisco CLI is completely different from those available on the CLIs for Windows or Unix. Cisco CLI is designed for the purposes of configuring, and therefore also for inspecting the configuration of, a networking device. Obviously it is not designed for general purpose computing in the way in which the Bash shell is.

Telnet and Console Access
Generally, there are two ways to get access to the Cisco CLI. On the one hand, one can always connect to the console port on the device and this is the way that devices, e.g. routers or switches, are configured when they are taken out of the box to be installed and commissioned. On the other hand, once the device has been commissioned and placed on a network, one can launch a telnet session from a computer on the network and connect to the telnet server on the Cisco device. What distinguishes these two access mechanisms is whether or not one needs to be physically beside the device. Obviously with console access one needs to be close to the device whereas with telnet access one could, in principle, be anywhere on the IP network on which the device is installed. Of course there may be, and usually there are, security mechanisms installed on the network to restrict the client which can access any networking device such as a Cisco router or switch.

Regardless of the mechanism by which one establishes a connection to the CLI, the activity is known in Cisco terminology as establishing an EXEC session.

Privilege Levels within an EXEC Session
Most command line environments provide some type of restriction on which commands a user can execute. In Unix for example, this is achieved through a combination of the user id and group id. In Cisco CLI, it is achieved by having two levels of privilege. Normally, when any user logs in, they are automatically in user mode. In this mode, the configuration of the device can be viewed but not modified. This means that the commands which can be actioned in user mode are not critical to the operation of the device.

If the device has been configured to have the name MyDevice, then the CLI prompt in user mode will be

MyDevice>

One example of a command is show version, which prints out details of various aspects of the hardware and IOS software running on the device. Executing

MyDevice>show version

on a Cisco Catalyst 2960G 24 port Ethernet switch, which has been configured to have the hostname MyDevice, yielded the following output

Cisco IOS Software, C2960 Software (C2960-LANBASE-M), Version 12.2(25)FX, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc1) Copyright (c) 1986-2005 by Cisco Systems, Inc.   Compiled Wed 12-Oct-05 22:05 by yenanh

ROM: Bootstrap program is C2960 boot loader BOOTLDR: C2960 Boot Loader (C2960-HBOOT-M) Version 12.2(25r)FX, RELEASE SOFTWARE (fc4)

MyDevice uptime is 27 weeks, 4 days, 23 hours, 1 minute System returned to ROM by power-on System image file is "flash:c2960-lanbase-mz.122-25.FX/c2960-lanbase-mz.122-25.FX.bin"

cisco WS-C2960G-24TC-L (PowerPC405) processor (revision A0) with 61440K/4088K bytes of memory. Processor board ID FOC0938T107 Last reset from power-on 1 Virtual Ethernet interface 24 Gigabit Ethernet interfaces The password-recovery mechanism is enabled.

64K bytes of flash-simulated non-volatile configuration memory. Base ethernet MAC Address      : 00:14:A9:52:07:80 Motherboard assembly number    : 73-10015-04 Power supply part number       : 341-0098-01 Motherboard serial number      : FOC093813VK Power supply serial number     : AZS094402EQ Model revision number          : A0    Motherboard revision number     : A0    Model number                    : WS-C2960G-24TC-L System serial number           : FOC0938T107 Top Assembly Part Number       : 800-26673-01 Top Assembly Revision Number   : B0    Version ID                      : V01 CLEI Code Number               : COM2300ARA Hardware Board Revision Number : 0x01

Switch  Ports  Model              SW Version              SW Image --  -  -              --              --    *    1   24     WS-C2960G-24TC-L   12.2(25)FX              C2960-LANBASE-M

Configuration register is 0xF

If one types the command enable when in user mode, then IOS will attempt to enter privileged mode. Generally, a password is set for privileged mode, clearly a good security practice, when the device is commissioned but this is not always the case. If a password has been set, then the user will be required to enter it successfully in order for IOS to transition to privileged mode.

Once in privileged mode, all of the commands that were available in user mode remain available but in addition the user now has access to commands which can configure, restart or debug the networking device. In that sense, these are deemed to be critical commands. For example, one can switch off an Ethernet port thereby stopping all layer 2 data packets to/from computers connected, whether directly or indirectly, to that port. If this were not the action which one intended, then the consequences for users of the connected computers could be catastrophic.

To exit from privileged mode and return to user mode, the CLI command is

disable

Setting passwords on a Cisco router
Cisco router has five passwords: The Console, Aux, and VTY passwords are used to enter into user mode via console port, auxiliary port, and Telnet, respectively. The enable, and enable Secret passwords are used to enter into privileged EXEC mode.
 * Console
 * Aux
 * VTY
 * Enable password
 * Enable Secret

Configuring an enable password
Enter privileged EXEC mode router> enable Configuring an privileged EXEC mode password Router(config)# enable password {password}

Configuring an enable secret password
Router(config)# enable secret {password} Force encrypted passwords Router(config)# service password-encryption

title: CCNA Certification/Router Operation


text:
CCNA Certification/Advanced Addressing Topics

= Advanced Addressing Topics =

 * IP Addressing
 * IPv4 Addressing Types
 * Subnetting
 * Variable Length Subnet Mask(VLSMs)
 * Network Address Translation
 * Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol(IP) is basically the Internet layer. The other protocols in this layer exist to support the IP. IP uses the packet address and looks up the address in its routing table and decides where to send the packet by selecting the best possible path. IP receives segments from the Host-to-Host layer and fragments them into datagrams (packets) if necessary.IP then reassembles datagrams back into segments on the receiving side. Each datagram is assigned the IP of the sender and of the recipient. Each router (layer-3 device) that receives a datagram makes routing decisions based on the packets destination I address.

An IP header is made up of the following fields.
 * Version: IP version number.
 * Header length: Header length (HLEN) in 32-bit words.
 * Priority and Type of Service: Type of Service tells how the datagram should be handled. The first 3 bits are the priority bits which is now called the differentiated service bits.
 * Total Length:- Length of the packet including header and data.
 * Flags: Specifies whether fragmentation and reassembly if the packet is too large to put in a frame. It allows different maximum transmission units (MTUs) on the internet.
 * Time To Live: The time to live is set into a packet when it is originally generated. If it doesn't get to where it wants to go before the before the TTl expires, the packet is dropped from the network. This stops IP packets from continuously circling the network looking for a home.
 * Protocol: Port of upper-layer protocol (TCP is port 6 or UDP is port 17). Also supports Network layer protocols, Like ARP and ICMP (this can be called Type Field in some analyzers).
 * Header Checksun: Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) on header only.
 * Source IP address: 32-bit IP address of the station this packet is destined for.
 * Destination IP address: 32-bit IP address of the station this packet is destined for.
 * Options: Used for network testing, debugging, security, and more.
 * Data: After the IP option field will be the upper-layer data.

Network Address Translation
Network address translation (NAT) is used to connect hosts from a private network to the public internet.

Cisco NAT configuration require three settings:

Router(config) # interface FastEthernet 0/0 Router(config-if)#ip nat inside Router(config) # interface Serial 0 Router(config-if) # ip nat outside ip nat inside source list 10 192.168.2.2 overload
 * Set one or more interfaces inside the private network
 * Set one or more interfaces outside the private network (i.e. the public internet).
 * Set one or more ACLs for the NAT and indicate its type (static, dynamic, PAT, or overload).


text:
CCNA Certification/Advanced Routing Topics

= Advanced Routing Topics =


text:
CCNA Certification/Advanced Switching Topics

=Advanced Switching Topics=

IP source guard without DHCP When DHCP snooping is enabled, a switch maintains a database of the DHCP addresses assigned to the hosts connected to each access port. IP source guard references this database when a packet is received on any of these interfaces and compares the source address to the assigned address listed in the database. If the source address differs from the "allowed" address, the packet is assumed to spoofed and is discarded. Assuming DHCP isn't available or in use on a subnet, static IP bindings can be manually configured per access port to achieve the same effect.

Configuration

sw1(config)#ip dhcp snooping sw1(config)#ip dhcp snooping vlan 146

sw1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/13

switchport access vlan 146

switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q

switchport mode access

ip verify source

sw1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/16

switchport access vlan 146

switchport mode access

ip verify source

sw1(config)#ip source binding 000D.29C0.F180 vlan 146 155.1.0.2 interface Fa0/13

sw1(config)#ip source binding 000D.29E3.AB00 vlan 146 155.1.0.3 interface Fa0/16

sw1(config)#do sh ip source binding

MacAddress         IpAddress        Lease(sec)  Type           VLAN  Interface -- ---  --  -          0:0D:29:C0:F1:80   155.1.0.2        infinite    static         146   FastEthernet0/13

00:0D:29:E3:AB:00  155.1.0.3        infinite    static        146   FastEthernet0/16

Total number of bindings: 2

sw1(config)#do sh ip verify source

Interface Filter-type  Filter-mode  IP-address       Mac-address        Vlan - ---  ---  ---  -  -- Fa0/13     ip           active       155.1.0.2                           146

Fa0/16    ip           active       155.1.0.3                           146

sw1(config)#

If you don't enable the dhcp snooping on sw1 it will show the following under Filter- mode lists inactive-no-snooping-vlan for any entry. sw1(config)#no ip dhcp snooping vlan 146

sw1(config)#do sh ip verify source

Interface Filter-type  Filter-mode  IP-address       Mac-address        Vlan - ---  ---  ---  -  -- Fa0/13     ip           inactive-no-snooping-vlan

Fa0/16    ip           inactive-no-snooping-vlan change the ip address of sw2 to 155.1.0.22 now try to ping 155.1.0.3 (sw3 ip address) the following error messages will be generated in sw1(3560).

sw1(config)#

02:30:26: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                                f180/155.1.0.22/000d.29e3.ab00/155.1.0.3/02:30:25 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:26: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Res) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.            f180/155.1.0.22/ffff.ffff.ffff/155.1.0.22/02:30:25 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:33: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0. f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:32 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:35: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0      f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:34 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:37: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.        f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:36 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:39: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0. f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:38 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:40: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                                 f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:40 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:42: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                                  f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:42 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:44: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.       f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:44 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:30:46: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                                 f180/155.1.0.22/0000.0000.0000/155.1.0.3/02:30:46 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) sw1(config)# 02:39:44: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Req) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                            f180/155.1.0.22/000d.29e3.ab00/155.1.0.3/02:39:43 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) 02:39:44: %SW_DAI-4-DHCP_SNOOPING_DENY: 1 Invalid ARPs (Res) on Fa0/13, vlan 146.([000d.29c0.                                f180/155.1.0.22/ffff.ffff.ffff/155.1.0.22/02:39:43 UTC Mon Mar 1 1993]) sw1(config)# do sh ip arp inspection Source Mac Validation     : Disabled Destination Mac Validation : Disabled IP Address Validation     : Disabled Vlan    Configuration    Operation   ACL Match          Static ACL -   -   -          -- 146    Enabled              Active Vlan    ACL Logging      DHCP Logging ---       146     Deny             Deny                                                                                Vlan      Forwarded        Dropped     DHCP Drops      ACL Drops -       ---     --      -  146              3             12             12              0      Vlan   DHCP Permits    ACL Permits   Source MAC Failures ---  ---  146              3              0                     0 Vlan   Dest MAC Failures   IP Validation Failures   Invalid Protocol Data -  --   - Vlan   Dest MAC Failures   IP Validation Failures   Invalid Protocol Data -  --   -  146                   0                        0                       0 sw1(config)#ip arp inspection vlan 146

DAI ON NON DHCP SERVER ON SW1 sw1(config)#ip arp inspection vlan 146

sw1(config)#ip arp inspection filter vlan146 vlan 146

sw1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/13

switchport access vlan 146

switchport trunk encapsulation dot1q

switchport mode access

ip arp inspection limit rate 50 burst interval 10

sw1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/16

switchport access vlan 146

switchport mode access

sw1(config)#interface FastEthernet0/19

switchport access vlan 146

switchport mode access

sw1(config)#arp access-list vlan146

permit ip host 155.1.0.2 mac host 000d.29c0.f180

permit ip host 155.1.0.3 mac host 000d.29e3.ab00

ON SW2

sw2(config)#interface FastEthernet0/13

no switchport

ip address 155.1.0.2 255.255.255.0

no shutdown

ON SW3

sw3(config)#interface FastEthernet0/13

no switchport

ip address 155.1.0.3 255.255.255.0

no shutdown

ON SW4

interface FastEthernet0/13

no switchport

ip address 155.1.0.4 255.255.255.0

no shutdown

when you try to ping from sw4 it will generate arp error in sw1 but there will be no issue in case of sw2 and sw3 as the ip address to mac-address mapping is done by using arp-acl.


text:
CCNA Certification/Security

= Security =

Managing IP traffic with Access Lists
Access list (ACL) is a sequence of rules that inform the cisco router which network packets it should block and which it should route normally. By itself, an ACL has no effect on the routing process. In order to take effect, one should apply the ACL to one or more interfaces on the router. Moreover, one should specify whether the rule is applies to incoming or outgoing network traffic.

IPv4 Standard ACLs
Standard ACLs filter IP packets based on their destination only.The access-list command syntax is: Router(config)# access-list {1-99} {permit | deny} source-addr [source-mask]

IPv4 Extended ACLs
Extended ACLs can filter packets based on protocol type, source and destination addresses, and port numbers.

IPv6 ACLs

 * One can only assign names to IPv6 ACLs (not numbers).
 * Compared to IPv4 standard & extended ACLs, there is only one type of IPv6 ACLs.
 * One should use the command traffic-filter (instead of access-group in IPv4).

title: CCNA Certification/Security


text:
CCNA Certification/WAN

= WAN =

WAN = Wide Area Network

WANs function at the physical and datalink layer of the OSI model. What differentiates a WAN from a LAN is the physical distance that a WAN can traverse while LANs are limited to buildings, WANs cover extensive geographical areas.

WAN interconnects physically distance LAN WAN usually operate at the lower two layers of the OSI model, which is physical and datalink. Packet switching, circuit switching and leased lines are the valid WAN connectivity methods.

In a WAN the layer two address differs from the layer two address of the LAN. Since in a WAN the data is not traveling through the Ethernet, the valid encapsulations are DLCI for frame relay and HDLC (high level data link connection identifier).

title: CCNA Certification/WAN


text:
CCNA Certification/Configuration

= Configuration =

Getting started with Cisco
The basic router prompt, called user exec mode, - If it's not properly configured means, Router >

If it's configured properly means, Hostname of router >

Modes Router>? or Router>show ? Router# - privileged exec mode

Configuring your Cisco Router Router#show interfaces Router#show ip protocols Router#show ip route Router#show ip arp

Then go to the global configuration mode... Router#config Router(config)#

Configuring Hostname

Router(config)#hostname ExampleName ExampleName(config)#

Designate the DNS server ExampleName(config)#ip name-server aa.bb.cc.dd ExampleName(config)#ctrl-Z ExampleName# Then save configuration using CTRL+Z

Configure Serial and Ethernet Interfaces ExampleName#config terminal ExampleName(config)#interface ethernet 0/1 ExampleName(config-if)#ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0 ExampleName(config-if)#[Ctrl-Z]

ExampleName#config ExampleName(config)#interface serial 1/1 ExampleName(config-if)#ip address 192.168.155.2 255.255.255.0 ExampleName(config-if)#no shutdown ExampleName(config-if)#ctrl-Z ExampleName#

Note the no shutdown command. An interface may be correctly configured and physically connected, yet be "administratively down". In this state it will not function. The command for causing an interface to be administratively down is shutdown.

Configuring Cisco Routing

ExampleName(config)#ip routing ExampleName(config)#ctrl-Z ExampleName#config ExampleName(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.150.1 ExampleName(config)#ctrl-Z ExampleName#show ip route

Configuring Access Lists and Network Security

Interface Serial0 ip access-group 101 in ip access-group 6 out access-list 10 permit 234.5.6.12 access-list 10 deny 5.10.10.32 0.0.0.31 access-list 10 permit 5.10.0.0 0.0.255.255 access-list 10 permit 123.234.0.0 0.0.0.255

access-list 101 permit tcp any any established access-list 101 permit tcp any 204.34.5.25 host eq 80 access-list 101 permit ip 203.45.34.0 0.0.0.255 204.34.5.0 0.0.0.255 access-list 101 permit tcp 203.44.32.0 0.0.0.31 204.34.5.0 0.0.0.255 eq telnet access-list 101 permit tcp any 204.34.5.10 eq smtp

title: CCNA Certification/Configuration


text:
CCNA Certification/Conclusion

= Conclusion =

title: CCNA Certification/Conclusion


text:
CCNA Certification/References

= References =

title: CCNA Certification/References


text:
CCNA Certification/Appendix C - Exam Notes: Quick Reference Sheet

= Quick Reference Sheet =


text:
A-level Applied Science/Energy Transfer Systems/Body Temperature

The body generates heat as a result of chemical reactions taking place in it. Energy is constantly lost from the surface of the body through the skin as heat. A small amount of heat is also lost with expired air, urine and faeces.

The rate at which heat (energy) is lost from the body depends on conditions such as the temperature of the surroundings, how much skin is exposed and the level of activity of the body.

Normally, body temperature is regulated by homeostatic mechanisms and maintained at a more or less constant value. Variation from this value may indicate a failure of these mechanisms and a probable health problem. However, the body can produce a physiological response to conditions such as fever and will raise the body temperature to aid recovery.

The range of body temperatures measured in the mouth: normal 36.8 °C ; range 36.5.37.2 °C death below 25 °C hypothermia 32 °C fever above 37.2 °C heat exhaustion or heat stroke likely if above 38 °C in absence of infection high temperatures that would lead to death above 43 °C

19• how temperature is controlled and regulated by the nervous system, the circulatory system and the skin. You should be able to describe the temperature control mechanisms of sweating, vasodilation, vasoconstriction and shivering; 20• the circumstances in which particular individuals may be at risk of hypothermia, heat exhaustion or heat stroke.

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when temperature surrounding is very different. This process is one aspect of homeostasis: a dynamic state of stability between an animal's internal environment and its external environment.

If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal, a condition known as hyperthermia occurs. The opposite condition, when body temperature decreases below normal levels, is known as hypothermia.

Heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts. Hence it is important to determine the temperature of those parts which most nearly approaches to that of the internal organs. Also for such results to be comparable they must be made in the same situation. The rectum gives most accurately the temperature of internal parts. Occasionally that of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use. More usually the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla or groin.

Temperature regulation

 * 1) conduction - heat escapes from or enters into your body e.g.when lying on a cold or hot surface.
 * 2) convection - cooler air currents remove heat from the surface of your skin, warmer air currents make the skin hotter.
 * 3) evaporation - evaporative cooling occurs when water (from perspiration or swimming) leaves the skin surface as a vapour, lowering the body temperature by taking the heat from the body.
 * 4) radiation - e.g. acquisition of heat from solar radiation or losing heat from the skin.

Types of thermoregulation
There are two types of thermoregulation that are used by animals:

 * 1) physiological regulation: Endothermy - This is when an organism changes its physiology to regulate body temperature. For example, many mammals tend to sweat in order to lower temperature. Another example is when humans get cold, muscles may shiver in order to produce heat.
 * 2) behavioral regulation: Ectothermy - This is when an organism changes its behaviour to change its body temperature. For example, when animals warm up in direct sunlight, they may wish to find shade to cool down.

Thermoregulation in vertebrates
Almost all birds and mammals have a high temperature almost constant and independent of that of the surrounding air. This is called homeothermy.

To regulate body temperature, an organism may need to prevent heat gains in arid environments. Evaporation of water, either across respiratory surfaces or across the skin in those animals possessing sweat glands (mammals) helps in cooling body temperature to within the organism's tolerance range.

Skin often has a continuous layer of insulating fat beneath the dermis — in marine mammals like whales this is referred to as blubber. Organisms when presented with the problem of regulating body temperature not only have behavioural, physiological and structural adaptations, but also a feedback system to trigger these adaptations to regulate temperature accordingly. The main features of this system are; Stimulus, Receptor, Modulator, Effector and then the feedback of the now adjusted temperature to the Stimulus. This cyclical process aids in homeostasis.

In cold environments, mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to minimize heat loss:
 * 1) using small smooth muscles (arrector pili) which are attached to hair shafts; this shivering thermogenesis distorts the surface of the skin as the hair shaft is made more erect (called goose bumps or pimples)

In warm environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to maximize heat loss:
 * 1) behavioral adaptations
 * 2) evaporative cooling by perspiration

Variations from thermometer placement
As stated above, the temperature of warm-blooded animals is maintained with but slight variation. In health under normal conditions the temperature of humans varies between 36.5 °C and 37.5 °C, or if the thermometer be placed in the axilla, between 36.25 °C and 37.5 °C. In the mouth the reading would be from 0.25 °C to 1.5 °C higher than this; and in the rectum some 0.9 °C higher still. The temperature of infants and young children has a much greater range than this, and is susceptible of wide divergencies from comparatively slight causes.

Variations associated with development
The average temperature falls slightly from infancy to puberty and again from puberty to middle age, but after that stage is passed the temperature begins to rise again, and by about the eightieth year is as high as in infancy.

Variations due to circadian rhythms
In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, the maximum ranging from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m., the minimum from 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially regulated by circadian rhythms.

Variations due to women's menstrual cycles
During the follicular phase (which lasts from the first day of menstruation until the day of ovulation), the average basal body temperature in women ranges from 36.45 - 36.7 °C. Within 24 hours of ovulation, women experience an elevation of 0.15 - 0.45 °C due to the increased metabolic rate caused by sharply elevated levels of progesterone. The basal body temperature ranges between 36.7 - 37.3 °C throughout the luteal phase, and drops down to pre-ovulatory levels within a few days of menstruation. Women can chart this phenomenon to determine whether and when they are ovulating, or to aid conception or contraception.

Variations due to fever
Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment that people without fever do not.

Limits compatible with life
There are limits both of heat and cold that a warm-blooded animal can bear.

The effect of too extreme a cold is to lessen metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of heat. Both catabolic and anabolic changes share in the depression, and though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. This diminished metabolism tells first on the central nervous system, especially the brain and those parts concerned in consciousness. Both heart rate and respiration rate become diminished, drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until it passes into the sleep of death. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and a death somewhat similar to that of asphyxia takes place.

On the other hand, too high a temperature hurries on the metabolism of the various tissues at such a rate that their capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnea and soon exhausts the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre. Heart rate is increased, the beats then become arrhythmic and finally cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected, consciousness may be lost, and the patient falls into a comatose condition, or delirium and convulsions may set in. All these changes can be watched in any patient suffering from an acute fever. The lower limit of temperature that man can endure depends on many things, but no one can survive a temperature of 45 °C or above for very long. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50 °C, and obviously should this temperature be reached the sudden rigidity of the whole body would render life impossible.

Hot
Fevers are not to be confused with heat stroke. In fever the person can feel cold at high body temperatures since the body is fooled into thinking it is cold by the infectant microbe affecting the point that the body thermostat is set at. It is literally set higher than usual.

 * 37 °C (98.6 °F) - Normal body temperature (which varies between about 36.12-37.5 °C (96.8-99.5 °F)
 * 38 °C (100.4 °F) - Sweating, feeling very uncomfortable, slightly hungry.
 * 39 °C (102.2 °F) (Pyrexia) - Severe sweating, flushed and very red. Fast heart rate and breathlessness. There may be exhaustion accompanying this. Children and epileptics may be very likely to get convulsions at this point.
 * 40 °C (104 °F) - Fainting, dehydration, weakness, vomiting, headache and dizziness may occur as well as profuse sweating.
 * 41 °C (105.8 °F) - (Medical emergency) - Fainting, vomiting, severe headache, dizziness, confusion, hallucinations, delirium and drowsiness can occur. There may also be palpitations and breathlessness.
 * 42 °C (107.6 °F) - Subject may turn pale or remain flushed and red. They may become comatose, be in severe delirium, vomiting, and convulsions can occur. Blood pressure may be high or low and heart rate will be very fast.
 * 43 °C (109.4 °F) - Normally death, or there may be serious brain damage, continuous convulsions and shock. Cardio-respiratory collapse will occur.
 * 44 °C (111.2 °F) or more - Almost certainly death will occur; however, patients have been known to survive up to 46.5 °C (115.7 °F).

Cold

 * 36 °C (97.0 °F) - Normal body temperature (which varies between about 36-37.5 °C (96.8-99.5 °F)
 * 36 °C (96.8 °F) - Mild to moderate shivering (it drops this low during sleep). May be a normal body temperature.
 * 35 °C (95.0 °F) - (Hypothermia) is less than 35 °C (95.0 °F) - Intense shivering, numbness and bluish/greyness of the skin. There is the possibility of heart irritability.
 * 34 °C (93.2 °F) - Severe shivering, loss of movement of fingers, blueness and confusion. Some behavioural changes may take place.
 * 33 °C (91.4 °F) - Moderate to severe confusion, sleepiness, depressed reflexes, progressive loss of shivering, slow heart beat, shallow breathing. Shivering may stop. Subject may be unresponsive to certain stimuli.
 * 32 °C (89.6 °F) - (Medical emergency) Hallucinations, delirium, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness that is progressively becoming comatose. Shivering is absent (subject may even think they are hot). Reflex may be absent or very slight.
 * 31 °C (87.8 °F) - Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems.
 * 28 °C (82.4 °F) - Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. Patient may appear to be dead.
 * 24-26 °C (75.2-78.8 °F) or less - Death usually occurs due to irregular heart beat or respiratory arrest; however, some patients have been known to survive with body temperatures as low as 14.2 °C (57.5 °F).

Hypothermia
Hypothermia refers to any condition in which the temperature of a body drops below the level required for normal metabolism and/or bodily function to take place. In warm-blooded animals, core body temperature is maintained at or near a constant level through biologic homeostasis. When the body is exposed to colder temperatures, however, its internal mechanisms may be unable to replenish the heat that is being lost to the body's surroundings.

Hypothermia is the opposite of hyperthermia. Because the words sound alike, they are easily confused.

Stages of Hypothermia in Humans

 * Stage 1: Body temperature drops by 1 °C - 2 °C below normal temperature. Mild to strong shivering occurs. Unable to perform complex tasks with the hands; the hands become numb. Blood vessels in the outer extremities contract, lessening heat loss to the outside air. Breathing becomes quick and shallow. Goose bumps form, raising body hair on end in an attempt to create an insulating layer of air around the body (a vestigial response, but useful in other species).
 * Stage 2: Body temperature drops by 2 °C - 4 °C. Shivering becomes more violent. Muscle miscoordination becomes apparent. Movements are slow and laboured, accompanied by a stumbling pace and mild confusion, although the victim may appear alert. Surface blood vessels contract further as the body focuses its remaining resources on keeping the vital organs warm. Victim becomes pale. Lips, ears, fingers and toes may become blue.
 * Stage 3: Body temperature drops below approximately 32 °C (normal is 37 °C). Shivering usually stops below 32 °C; difficulty speaking, sluggish thinking, and amnesia start to appear; inability to use hands and stumbling are also usually present. Cellular metabolic processes shut down. Below 30 °C the exposed skin becomes blue and puffy, muscle coordination very poor, walking nearly impossible, and the victim exhibits incoherent/irrational behavior including terminal burrowing behaviour or even a stupor. Pulse and respiration rates decrease significantly but fast heart rates (ventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation) can occur. Major organs fail. Clinical death occurs. Because of decreased cellular activity in stage 3 hypothermia, the body will actually take longer to undergo brain death.

Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia (hyperpyrexia), in its advanced state referred to as heat stroke or sunstroke, is an acute condition which occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually due to excessive exposure to heat. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to effectively deal with the heat, and body temperature climbs uncontrollably. This is a serious medical emergency that requires immediate attention.

Hyperthermia is the opposite of hypothermia. Because the words sound alike, they are easily confused.

Progression
Body temperatures above 40 °C are life-threatening. At 41 °C, brain death begins, and at 45 °C death is nearly certain. Internal temperatures above 50 °C will cause rigidity in the muscles and certain, immediate death.

Heat stroke may come on suddenly, but usually follows a less-threatening condition commonly referred to as heat exhaustion or heat prostration.

Signs and symptoms
Heat prostration, or heat exhaustion, is characterized by mental confusion, muscle cramps, and often nausea or vomiting. At this stage the victim will likely NOT be sweating. With continued exposure to ambient heat, which sometimes is facilitated by the mental confusion, temperature may rise into the 39 to 40 °C range, and lead to full-blown heat stroke.

One of the body's most important methods of temperature regulation is sweating. This process draws heat from inside, allowing it to be carried off by radiation and/or convection. Evaporation of the sweat furthers the cooling process, since this is an endothermic process that draws yet more heat from the body. When the body becomes dehydrated enough to prevent the production of sweat, this method of heat reduction is stopped. When the body is no longer capable of sweating, core temperature begins to rise quickly.

Victims may become confused, hostile, often experience headaches, and may seem drunk. Due to dehydration, blood pressure may drop significantly, leading to possible fainting or dizziness], especially if the victim stands suddenly. As blood pressure drops, heart rate and respiration rate will increase (tachycardia and tachypnea) as the heart attempts to supply enough oxygen to the body. The skin will become red as blood vessels dilate in an attempt to increase heat dissipation. As heat stroke progresses, the decrease in blood pressure will cause blood vessels to contract, resulting in a pale or bluish skin colour. Complaints of feeling hot may be followed by chills and trembling, as is the case in fever. Some victims, especially young children, may suffer convulsions. Acute dehydration such as that accompanying heat stroke can produce nausea and vomiting; temporary blindness may also be observed. Eventually, as body organs begin to fail, unconsciousness and coma will result.


text: Topfield 5800/Wiki Guides Format Conversion


text:
User:JCraw

I don't like baseball, damn you!

Solve this very easy set theory question :-) A = B if (A ∪ B == A ∩ B) Explain by using hypothetical sets of A and B.

title: User:JCraw


text:
User talk:JCraw

Welcome to Wikibooks! Not that you probably need a welcome because you certainly don't seem like a stranger to wiki.

The current TOC represents a basic outline that I worked on to help give structure to the algrebra book. Prior to that outline, the book had no structure, and was a mishmash of all sorts of unrelated subjects. I went through the book and removed all the nonsense, and tried to reorder the good material, but as you can plainly see the "good material" is a pathetically small quantity of text.

Since the book is so absolutely pathetic, and since no other editors are particularly active in contributing to it, you essentially have free-reign over it, if you want. Wikibooks is a little different from Wikipedia in that authors tend to focus on one book at a time (instead of editing several articles) and books here tend to only have one author at a time. Some of the more popular books, of course, draw larger crowds of people.

My point being that if you intend to serve as an author to this book, you will be the only one, and "consensus decision making" involves you doing whatever you want to do. You can delete the current text, or you can keep it and expand on it, you can change the TOC and the templates and whatever else you want to change. The entire world could benefit from a good, free algebra text, and if you have a vision, run with it.

I would be willing to lend my help and support to you in any aspect that you need. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:58, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:JCraw


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p106

Restatement of Paragraph 2
Durkheim saw a trend toward the linguistification of the sacred. That trend is visible in several ways: in rationalization of worldviews, in universalization of law and morality, and in progressive individuation.

Durkheim's view predicts that the concept of ego-identity

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p106


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p102

Predictive Self-Identification as a Presupposition of Generic and Numerical Identification (p. 102.1.bot)
In this sentence, Habermas refers to three forms of identification: generic identification, numerical identification, and predictive self-identification, all of which have been discussed on p. 101. He argues this point over the next three pages, concluding in virtually identical language at 105.2.bot.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p102


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p100

Henrich's Distinction Between Identity and Numerical Identification (p. 100.bot-1.bot-3)
Henrich distinguishes philosophical from social-psychological concepts of identity. In the philosophical concept, you have identity as soon as you have a single thing. For example, there is a person. You can identify it as a person. Therefore, it has a philosophical identity -- what Habermas is soon (p. 102.1.5) calling "numerical" identification. You don’t need additional knowledge about its unique characteristics to say that it has philosophical identity. You wouldn’t say it has "a" philosophical identity; it just has philosophical identity. It is identifiable as a person. It doesn’t acquire or lose this sort of identity if, say, it goes through some changes while still remaining a person.

In the social psychological sense, by contrast, people can acquire unique identities, but they don’t necessarily do so. Acquiring an identity makes you independent. With an individual identity, you can avoid the influence of others; you can be autonomous -- although the concept of autonomy may entail no more than being "a speaking and acting subject in general" (p. 102.1.6). This is your social psychological identity. If multiple individuals have the same kind of social psychological independence, then you can say they have philosophical identity as autonomous individuals, and again (on the philosophical level) you can say they are indistinguishable for philosophical purposes.

Notwithstanding Henrich's distinction between philosophy and social psychology, this really sounds like nothing more than a distinction between levels of analysis. If you're philosophizing on a grand scale, you are apt to talk about autonomous individuals, but not about any particular autonomous individual (except perhaps using a hypothetical one to illustrate a point). If, on the other hand, you are philosophizing on the micro level, you notice distinctions between individuals. It seems simplistic to say that you "acquire" identity (p. 101.1.mid). More likely, people acquire various levels of independence, and you would notice the distinctions among their levels of independence if you were looking at it on the micro level.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p100


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User:Meskarune

Meskarune is an avid supporter of free culture and the GNU project. She hopes that someday schools will be able to use all free online material to teach students, which will help give better educations to everyone.

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User talk:Meskarune

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Biblical Studies/New Testament Commentaries/The Gospel of John/Chapter 10

Verses 1-21
Jesus begins the Chapter with a parable. His imagery begins with a description of a sheep pen. Jesus then describes the duties of the shepherd, and the gate over the sheep. The text then breaks because those who are listening to Jesus' parable do not understand. Jesus then clarifies further that he represents the gate and that "whoever enters through [him] will be saved" (Verse 9). Jesus testifies that he is also the kalos  shepherd. Kalos means beautiful or faithful. Good is a bad translation. Upon hearing this, those listening to Jesus begin to argue amongst themselves. Though they have yet to take in the bulk of Jesus' teaching (thus far hinting that he is close if not one with God), his listeners ponder whether or not he is demon possessed. Nevertheless, Jesus' testimony is heavily laced with language that suggests foreknowledge of his crucifixion.

Through his use of words and phrases, Jesus makes the assertion that he is God's agent, His faithful shepherd as opposed to all the unfaithful leaders of Israel at that time. God is the shepherd of Israel and only God is good. So Jesus in making himself the gatekeeper to God is clearly showing that his position is inferior to God. He is the one who opens the door, but God is the owner of the sheep who calls them forth and they hear his voice and follow him.

The good shepherd John uses the word "kalos" and the normal Greek word for good Agathos is not included in verses 11 and 14. It might be preferable to translate "good" as the "model" or "noble" shepherd. The "noble" shepherd could be defined as the "genuine" shepherd. Here in vv 11-13, the noble relates to the readiness of the shepherd to lay down his life for the sheep. Verses 15-17 reveal that the shepherd, laying down his life for sheep, is doing this in obedience to the command of the Father.

A faithful shepherd will fight to his last breath to save the sheep. One must not get the idea that Jesus just laid down and died. No shepherd prostrates before the wolf but fights the wolf with every ounce of strength. Jesus fought sin and temptation to his last breath. By winning the victory over sin he saves his flock from the Land and Power of death. The shepherd incident (10:1-10:18) begins negatively. The first question to answer is "who is the thief and bandit?" Every prophet who came before Jesus teaching that salvation came through obeying the old Torah. Jesus suggests, however, that the thief who comes into the pen is concerned only with stealing and killing; in essence, the thief is only concerned with things pertaining to himself. Jesus, the faithful Shepherd, is interested only in his sheep and their well being.

Chapter 10 also seems to have a foretelling of Jesus as being the way to eternal life. In the first verse it states: "Truly, Truly, I say to you, he who does not enter by the door into the fold of the sheep, but climbs up some other way he is a thief and a robber." Then again in verse 9 Jesus says: "I am the door; if anyone enters through Me, he shall be saved, and shall go in and out, and find pasture." (NAS) He was simply saying that Jesus is the only way to the Father and to eternal life. Pasture might even refer to life, since sheep graze on it for nutrients. Then in verse 10 "The thief comes only to steal, and kill, and destroy; I came that they might have life, and might have it abundantly." (NAS) The word “abundantly” was referring to eternal life not to the earth life. With that said, these are all predictions of the more direct words in John 14:6. "I am the way and the truth and the life; no one comes to the Father, but through me." (NAS) With this verse and these meanings behind the verses in 10, we can now better understand why the Jews, who did not believe Jesus to be the messiah, are dueling. (See "The Controversy" below) There is also other cross references to take into consideration with this theory that this was a foretelling of Jesus being the only way to eternal life. They are: John 10:15, 17, 18, Romans 5:2, Ephesians 2:8 etc.

Jesus says that the only true way to heaven is through him, and anyone who says otherwise is false. He also foreshadows his own death by saying that a faithful Shepherd would lay down his life for his flock, and that he is, in fact, a faithful Shepherd. Only some of the people listening to him, however, believed his words. Everyone else still claimed that he was possessed by the devil and mad.

God's Saving Grace In another reference to the good shepherd/thief theme, in verse 8 there is talk of another type of thief that is trying to steal the flock from Jesus, and they come in the form of false prophets. Jesus was the last prophet and he warns us that many false ones would come after him. These false prophets, through their "smooth" talking would try and convince the flock to follow them instead of the ways of God. However because God is sheltering and protecting his flock they are not deterred by false prophets and what they say. Instead they are kept safe by God and remain His followers.

The Controversy The issue of Jesus' relationship to God is once again controversial in Chapter 10. Jesus claims in Verses 25-30 "The works that I do in my Father's name testify to me; but you do not believe, because you do not belong to my sheep...What my Father has given me is greater than all else, and no one can snatch it out of the Father's hand. The Father and I are one." There are definitely some different interpretations of this situation. Some scholars and religions use this section as evidence of the Trinity, and the claim that God and Jesus are one in the same. However, there is so much language stating Jesus' obedience to his Father in other chapters of John (for example John 9:28: "...I do nothing on my own, but I speak these things as the Father instructed me."). Considering the emphasis on Jesus' obedience throughout the Gospel of John, it is possible that the narrator of John believed the Jews were misinterpreting Jesus' claims: While the Jews possibly believed Jesus was saying he is the same as God, Jesus was actually saying he is equal to God in terms of having the same mission and heart. He prays that God will make the disciples one with himself the same way that he and Jesus are one.

Also, it is interesting here to take a look at the response that Jesus gives to the Jews who accuse him of blasphemy. John 10:32-34, "Jesus replied, 'I have shown you many good works from the Father. For which of these are you going to stone me?'  The Jews answered, 'It is not for a good work that we are going to stone you, but for blasphemy, because you, though only a human being, are making yourself God." Jesus answered, 'Is it not written in your law, 'I said, you are gods' (elohim)?"   Smith postulates that what is actually meant here is something along the lines of, "Your law says that the ones to whom God gave His word are gods"

Angels are Elohim and God's agents like Moses and the Judges are elohim. What Jeus is saying is > If Moes and the judges can bear the title of elohim God, then you cannot stone men who might say "I am elohim."., but I have never claimed to be elohim. I have told you repeatedly God is greater than me. I am his agen I am the son of Elohim. You yourselves claim God for your father. In fact David wrote that everyone in Israel was supposed to be God's agents to the gentiles. Ye are God's all of you."

The Lack of Faith in John Chapter 10 The Jewish people were tired of being kept in the dark about the nature of Christ's person, so in Verse 24, they ask him directly: "The Jews gathered around him, saying, 'How long will you keep us in suspense? If you are the Christ, tell us plainly.'"  This kind of demand calls into question the strength of the Jews' faith, which at this point seems weak. They are demanding to know whether or not Christ was the Messiah, which, if He answered, would negate the necessity of faith. He only revealed himself as the Messiah to the Samaritan woman at the well. He even mentions the miracles that He performed in God's name, but it is as though the people around Him have forgotten that these things have occurred. They begin to pick up stones with which to kill Christ, but He rebukes them: "I have shown you many great miracles from the Father. For which of these do you stone me?" It is disarming speech, designed to make the people aware of the severity of their reaction, but it does not work. The people simply choose to make another claim (that Christ is a blasphemer), and once again they have put off acknowledging the necessity of faith in Christ.

This chapter is another example of the so-called "unforgivable sin." Jesus has told the people that God will forgive all sin through belief in Jesus except for one. The one that is unforgivable is ascribing the work of God's spirit to the devil.. The Jews seemingly commit this sin by saying that Jesus is demon-possessed and raving-mad. Another time when Jewish leaders made this claim about Jesus, Jesus told his disciples that they were sinning against the Holy Spirit and this sin was the "unforgivable sin."


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Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p101

Tugendhat and Qualitative Identification (p. 101.2.mid)
Apparently Tugendhat divides Henrich's concept of social psychological identity (p. 100) into two parts. First, there is the generic identification of a person who is capable of autonomous action, as Henrich noted; but second, there is the qualitative identification of an individual who has a life history. As in the commentary on p. 100, this too seems to be a simple matter of stating the unit of analysis.

Tugendhat evidently goes beyond that, however, to introduce "the question of who one wants to be" (101.2.mid). Habermas presents it as a matter of when the person "gets clear about who he wants to be." Suddenly the perspective is not that of the third-party observer who is choosing among numerical, generic, or qualitative identification of individuals as a category or as discrete items.

Instead, we are now inside the person's head, and there seems to be a whole new agenda. When the person "gets clear," s/he distinguishes him/herself from others -- not as a matter of observation, but rather "through his life project." This life project is defined as "the organization of a life history that he has responsibly taken on." So getting clear about yourself apparently entails taking on the project of organizing a life history.

History being a backward-looking thing, maybe the idea is that you are constructing something or other that you will present (to someone) as who you are. But it's not clear why this has to be a responsible effort. It seems like an irresponsible approach would also produce a life history, and maybe one that would more accurately portray who one really is. Indeed, it is not clear whether responsibility has anything to do with the question of whether one finds oneself thrown into a life in which constructing a life history is an inextricable part of being human.

Qualitative identification, which is thus defined as a matter of self-identification, also appears to go by the name of "predicative self-identification" (p. 101.2.bot-7). It is not clear what the word "predicative" adds.

Separation of Ego-Identity from Identification of the Individual (p. 101.bot)
Henrich has a generic concept of ego-identity: the person is able to act autonomously. Tugendhat has a qualitative concept of ego-identity: it is "the ability of a person to identify himself, on the basis of a reflective self-understanding, as the person who he wants to be" (p. 102.1.4). It sounds like Tugendhat would say that you don't have ego-identity if you can't honestly say that you are the person you would like to be. Of course, some pretty awful people are also pretty sure that they have the right idea about life, so it's not entirely clear that ego-identity would be something that an honest, humble, self-deprecating individual would ever have, or want to have -- unless, of course, we define "reflective self-understanding" so as to bar the riffraff.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2/p101


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Introduction to Art/Finer points for Contemporary Fine Artists

How Long Did It Take You to Paint That?

A couple stops to admire a painting. Watch their expressions. They smile, they nod, they speak in low tones to each other. Sometimes they point to certain parts of the painting, their hands moving as though they are creating the composition themselves, as if they have a brush in their hands, making the strokes that create the elements in the painting.

They glance at you. You smile; they smile. One of them nods his head toward the painting and says "How long did it take you to paint that?"

You've heard it countless times. It's usually the first question people ask. Even other artists will ask that question, but for professional reasons. It's also a very hard question to answer frankly. After all, you wonder, shall I make an estimate of the actual number of hours I manipulated the paint onto that canvas--or shall I detail the real time it took to get that painting done? The difference may be between eight hours or thousands of hours. It's your call.

You can impress the dickens out of the couple by saying the work took eight hours (or three, or twenty--whatever). They will respond with admiration. They will ask the price and mentally figure out how many dollars an hour you are getting (although they won't consider the cost of the materials) and decide if they want to pay what you are asking for those hours of creation. They consider what it is worth to them. But what if you tell them what really went into making that work of art?

Contemplate this. When you work for a company you are paid a salary or by the hour. If you have a degree or certification for the job you do, or several years' experience in that type of work, your wages are set accordingly. Included in the paid hours of work are the time you spend figuring out how to best do the job, gaining experience with the equipment you use, making purchase orders for needed supplies, traveling to other work sites, learning from trade magazine articles, attending meetings or conventions regarding your work, such trivial things as cleaning and rearranging your desk, etc. Ideally you are paid for all work-related activities. In addition, you'll have health and perhaps life insurance, and even paid time off. You may receive other perks such as bonuses and business discounts.

Now regard the real time you spend making your art. You may have additional activities to add to the following list.

Years of study and experience

Ongoing education attending seminars, classes, meetings with other artists to learn from their experience

Purchase and independent study of art books and magazines

Through trial and error, learning which materials work best for you

Time spent earning the dollars to buy these materials

Time spent shopping for these products--when and where to get them, hopefully when they are on sale

Putting on mileage to take photos if you are interested in landscapes, or taking photos of other subjects

Maintaining a physical photo file or organizing a computer file, and perhaps taking the time and expense to learn photo editing on your computer

Making mental notes about compositions and then creating sketches and full studies of works of art before you ever make the actual artwork

Arranging all the brushes, paints, canvas, or other materials you use; you must also maintain them to keep them in working order

Building or renting a studio or creating and maintaining a space in your home

The time spent doing the actual work of art

Framing

Besides all this and more, you don't receive paid time off, insurance, or the other perks of working with a company. Consider that if you worked for a company, you would be paid for all these activities in addition to the actual eight hours, or three, or twenty, that you put into the piece of art itself. Thus, that hourly "wage" you charge for your objet d'art is usually far underestimated. In fact, all the above activities except doing the artwork itself are more or less "in kind." And this is as it should be for all non-professional artists, creating art because they love to do it and because it gives them the greatest satisfaction. They don't consider these things as if they were employees or artists competing in the world of professionals. They don't even consider them in the pursuit of the personal gratification resulting from creating something beautiful from their own efforts. These activities enhance artists' joy in creation.

So the next time someone asks you "How long did it take you to paint that?" you have a choice. You can go through the above extensive list, or, with your smile of complete contentment, you can give them the honest and succinct tally of the hours you indulged yourself with the materials of your bliss.

Dolores Marusarz


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User talk:169.204.109.130

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User:Orgone

Welcome to Orgone's Wikibooks Userpage!

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User talk:Orgone

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Advanced Interactive Media/Interactive Media Versus Other Kinds of Media

People will always crave media that that allow them to experience an environment that is more like the world as God made it. In other words, the more media becomes like the "real" world, the more it will be accepted and embraced by human beings. We are made in God's own image and this is why we can look at the beauty of the earth and say "it is good", just like God said in the book of Genesis.

This is also why television overtook radio, color television overtook black and white and why high definition television is overtaking standard definition TV. Interactive, immersive, multisensoral, multimedia will eventually be widely accepted and even demanded because it is more like God's real world - never as good as his world, but "like" his real world. When it's not possible to actually stand in a rain forest, virtual experiences will offer the next best thing until you can get there.

Is interactive media something that is completely attainable though? I view it as an immersive element of our world that few will actually indulge in when the media becomes available. I am not doubting that the media will be attainable (technology and creativity are at an all-time high), I am merely asking whether or not those ordinary people in everyday life will be excited about the medium that is starting to get a huge buzz in this field.

Then my second question - is it healthy to have such interactive media in today's lifestyles? According to www.healthgood.com One in three people in this world are obese. "According to the National Institutes of Health, obesity and overweight together are the second leading cause of preventable death in the United States, close behind tobacco use. An estimated 300,000 deaths per year are due to the obesity epidemic." My question then, is it going to be a problem as more and more interactive types of media are surfacing, is it going to take away fom user physical interactivity or will it add to it.

In my personal opinion I believe that it is our job as the initiators and developers of this medium to make it add to the amount of physical activity. I believe Nintendo hit the mark when they released the Wii to the consumer. It is completely interactive and it makes the user become physically involved in the interactive pursuit. If our media, which up until now has been engaged in by sitting back and watching or by clicking a mouse here or there, can physically involve it's user in the process, I think that we can help better our future.