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Financial Modelling in Microsoft Excel/Specifying a model

Find out first –
 * what exactly it is for, & what it needs to do
 * what inputs it needs and where the data & assumptions will come from
 * what business logic is required
 * what level of detail it needs to provide
 * what flexibility is required – i.e. what needs to be able to change
 * who will use it & how, & what are their skills
 * how often it will be used, & for how long
 * how soon it is needed

For anything except a small model with a clearcut specification and design, it is a good idea - and essential in many cases - to document the specification clearly,

It is extremely important to fully understand and document the business logic, i.e. all the business rules that need to go into the model. For example, most business models involve tax, so you’d expect some rules on how tax affects the model. As you will see, errors in logic – and especially omissions – are among the hardest to find – and they can be extremely dangerous.

You should always ensure you have copies of all relevant correspondence or documents, and anything that will help you understand the business. For example, if you are modelling a workers’ compensation portfolio, you would need documentation on the benefits that are paid, previous actuaries’ reports, publications that might indicate recent trends or issues, etc.

Where other people will be using the model, ensure you know their skill level and experience, and find out how they will use the model (e.g. daily or weekly; briefly or for hours on end; in depth, using all the features, or just using basic features; etc.). It doesn’t matter how clever your model is, if no-one can use it!

Writing a specification
A specification is a written description of your model. It should cover
 * what your model will and won’t do
 * what data and other information it needs
 * what results it will produce
 * documentation and support (if applicable)
 * maintenance (if applicable)
 * timing
 * cost


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Immunology/Antibodies

Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are Y-shaped glycosylated proteins that are secreted by plasma B cells and reside in the membranes of activated effector B cells. The two arms of the Y are formed from the Variable regions of the two Heavy chains (which form both the stalk and the medial portions of both Y arms) and the entire Light chains (which form the lateral portions of both Y arms). The two arms of the antibody are known as the Fab fragments, as they are the portion that acts as an antibody, binding to antigen. The parallel heavy chain stalks of the antibody are known as the Fc fragments, which are relatively constant across all antibody (immunoglobulin) subtypes. There are certain hypervariable, or Complementarity-Determining Regions (CDRs) at the very ends of the arms, that is the Variable regions, of the antibody. The remainder of the Variable regions are known as Framework Regions. Genetic shuffling will give each antibody (immunoglobulin) a specificity to certain antigenic epitopes. Light chain proteins, secreted in excess in patients with multiple myeloma cancer of the plasma B cells, are known as Bence-Jones proteins, and are one of the few large proteins in the body with a notable positive charge. Waldenström macroglobulinemia (WM) is a non-Hodgkin lymphoma that also causes increased B-J proteins; it is a rare condition that also results in large numbers of IgM proteins throughout the serum.

Any of the Ig isotypes can contain one of two light chain subtypes, kappa κ (60%) or lambda λ (40%, with subtypes λ1, λ2, λ3).

There are several classes of immunoglobulin, each of which has a similar but distinct basic Fc structure, although several Ig subtypes form oligomers. The different subtypes of Ig are: Short (350 aa Fc) Ig isotypes with a hinge region Long (440 aa Fc) Ig isotypes with no hinge region
 * IgA (α Fc stalk)
 * IgA1, IgA2
 * Can be found in monomer, dimer, trimer, or tetramer form with joining (J) chain between the monomers
 * IgG (γ Fc stalk)
 * IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4
 * Monomer only
 * IgD (δ Fc stalk)
 * Monomer only
 * IgE (ε Fc stalk)
 * Monomer only
 * IgM (μ Fc stalk)
 * Monomer or pentamer only, with joining (J) chain at center of pentamer

Ig can be in a secretory sIg form or a membrane-bound mIg form. Naive B cells have only mIgM; as they mature, they express both mIgM and mIgD. Memory B cells can express mIgA, mIgG, mIgE, or mIgM (but not mIgD). Thus, as some point between naive and memory status, B cells stop expressing mIgD. Every B cell, be it memory or plasma, reacts against one specific epitope, even though a single cell can secrete or express on their membrane several different isotypes of Ig at once.

Although the arms of the Ig Y structure are important for binding Ag, macrophages, NK cells (mediators of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, ADCC), and neutrophils have Fc receptors on their surface. Thus, antibodies will attach to pathogens, and passing neutrophils and macrophages will attach to the Y stalk pointing outwards, eating up the pathogens with greater fervor. Thus, Ig is an opsonizing agent.

The Complement System can be activated by both IgM and IgG. The complement system both
 * forms pores in the cell membranes of target pathogen cells and
 * attaches certain sticky proteins, such as C3b, which attach to RBCs and APCs, causing complement-attacked pathogens to be carried along with other blood cells to the liver and spleen for destruction

Immunoglobulin A (IgA)

 * Secreted as dimer, with J (joining) chain between mononer substituents
 * Most important secretory antibody, capable of passing across epithelial cell layers (transcytosis)
 * Secreted in mother's milk to child
 * Huge amounts are secreted in the GI tract each day (~10g per day)
 * sIgA-secreting plasma B cells interact with poly-Ig receptors on basalateral surfaces of mucosal cells, especially those close to the GI tract lumen

Immunoglobulin G (IgG)

 * Passes through mucous membranes, and thus is partially secretory
 * Crosses placenta from mother to fetus in third trimester (although IgG2 may not) via a neonatal Fc receptor
 * Partial activator of the Complement System (IgG3>IgG1>IgG2; IgG4 does not activate complement)
 * Fc regions bind very well to Fc receptors on neutrophils, NK cells, and macrophages (IgG1=IgG3>IgG4>IgG2)

Immunoglobulin D (IgD)

 * Expressed on membrane of mature B cells

Immunoglobulin E (IgE)

 * Fc regions bind very well to high affinity IgE receptors on Mast Cells (tissue) and basophils (blood), mediating their activation and release of histamine/heparin, and the production of multiple mediatiors inducing an allergic response. Low affinity IgE receptors, CD23, are also found on other cell types.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM)

 * Expressed on membrane of mature B cells as monomer
 * Expressed as a secretory pentamer, with monomer substituents joined by J (joining) chains
 * First Ig produced by infant
 * First Ig produced during primary (non-memory) immune response
 * Major activator of the Complement System
 * Shows some secretion across epithelial layers

The B Cell Receptor
Ig has a short cytoplasmic tail and must be complexed with a small dimer in order to form, altogether, the B Cell Receptor (BCR). A small dimer with an Ig-β and Ig-α component. This Ig-α is not related to the α Fc region of the IgA protein. The relatively long cytoplasmic tails of this small dimer allow the different mIg isotypes to send signals within the B cell upon binding with antigen.

Ig Classifications

 * Isotype--within a species, all individuals share a given isotype of the Ig (this is concerned with the conserved regions of the Ig constant region)
 * Allotype--within a species, each individual will have a given allele that codes for their Ig constant region (thus, individuals generally have a unique allotype)
 * Idiotype--within an individual, each B cell will create a unique variable region, specific for a given antigen; this is the idiotype of each Ig/Ab, and can be similar only when B cells are reacting to a similar antigen

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Antigens || Next Chapter: Immune System Genetics

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Immunology/Antibodies


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Immunology/B Cells

These cells differentiate into antibody secreting plasma cells. B cells remain in medullary cortex.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: T Cells || Next Chapter: Cell-Mediated Immune Response

title: Immunology/B Cells


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Immunology/Cytokines

These are signalling molecules that activate cells of the immune system.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Cell-Mediated Immune Response || Next Chapter: The Complement System

title: Immunology/Cytokines


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Immunology/The Complement System

Complement serves to opsonize antigens, lyse pathogens, and mediate inflammation. There are three pathways by which complement can act: classical, alternative, and MB Lectin.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Cytokines || Next Chapter: Inflammation

title: Immunology/The Complement System


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Immunology/Inflammation

Inflammation is characterized by four key symptoms:
 * 1) Redness-caused by warm blood flowing to the area
 * 2) Pain-caused by damage to nerve fibers or irritation to toxic chemicals
 * 3) Heat-also caused by warm blood flowing to the area
 * 4) Swelling-caused by fluid moving from the blood to the tissue spaces of the injured area

Inflammation can cause a loss of function in an injured area. It traps microbes, toxins, and foreign material at the site of injury and prepares the site for tissue repair. For this reason, it helps to maintain tissure homeostasis.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: The Complement System || Next Chapter: Hypersensitivity

title: Immunology/Inflammation


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Immunology/Hypersensitivity

An allergic response, or hypersensitivity, is an immune system overreaction.

There are four kinds of hypersensitivity:
 * Immediate Hypersensitivity (Type I) - an immediate response to an allergen (a foreign substance that poses no danger in and of itself yet is treated as an antigen) that the immune system has had prior exposure to.
 * Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity (Type II) - an immune response to human cells with foreign antigens. Patients require blood type compatibility for transfusion because of the dangers of Type II hypersensitivity.
 * Immune Complex Hypersensitivity (Type III) - an immune response to immune complexes (antigen-antibody complexes) that become stuck in a given area. This results in continuous immune attack (and ensuing tissue damage).
 * Delayed Hypersensitivity (Type IV) - an immune response to foreign substances that occurs over the course of several hours. Poison Ivy's effects are the result of Type IV hypersensitivity.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Inflammation || Next Chapter: Infectious Disease

title: Immunology/Hypersensitivity


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Immunology/Autoimmunity

Autoimmune disease is a group of disorders in which the body's immune system improperly recognizes self-antigens (the body's own antigens - not foreign antigens) and induces an immune response that results in tissue destruction. Autoimmune disease can be either organ-specific (such as: Type I diabetes, Multiple sclerosis, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis etc.) or not organ-specific (Systemic lupus erythematosus, Rheumatoid arthritis, etc.). Although autoimmune diseases are mediated through various mechanisms and can be induced by multiple environmental or hereditary causes, they all are a result of a failure in immunological tolerance. Immune cells that are improperly selected in the thymus (T-cells) and bone marrow (B-cells) can result in an expansion of these cells when they encounter self-antigens and cause disease. To safeguard against this, there is a type of regulatory T-cell (T-regs) that recognizes self-antigens and suppresses auto-reactive cells that are improperly selected. A failure in T-reg-mediated tolerance can result in autoimmunity without a defect in selection due to the molecular mimicry of foreign microbes. Although there is no known cure for any autoimmune disease, treatment with immunosuppressants (such as ciclosporin a and rapamycin) can be effective at managing symptoms.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Immunodeficiency || Next Chapter: Transplants

title: Immunology/Autoimmunity


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Immunology/Transplants

There are three types of transplantation: autotransplantation (transplantation of self-tissue), allotransplantation (transplantation of non-self tissue from another non-identical individual of the same species), and xenotransplantation (transplantation of tissue from another species). With the exception of autotransplantation, all types of tissue transplants have a risk of undesired immune responses that result in the rejection of the transplanted tissue or disease. Both of these complications that can arise are a result of genetic incompatibility that is recognized by immune cells. Success of transplantation is dependent upon the similarity (histocompatibility) of the antigens of the donated tissue with that of self-antigens. Similarity at certain genetic sites (loci) are more important (major histocompatibility complex - MHC) than others (minor histocompatibility antigen MiHA) due to their broad expression on various types of tissue and their frequent interaction with immune cells.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Autoimmunity || Next Chapter: Cancer

title: Immunology/Transplants


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Immunology/Vaccines

The adaptive immune system is slow to recognize new diseases, but can react faster to diseases the immune system has previously recognized. Vaccines are a means of attaining immunity to disease by training the adaptive immune system of the body so the immune system is prepared when a real example of the disease is encountered.

Typically vaccines are made of either a version of the disease which has been rendered impotent, or some component of a pathogen which the immune system recognizes. This is done to eliminate or reduce the danger caused by the disease.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Cancer || Next Chapter: Experimental Methods in Immunology

title: Immunology/Vaccines


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Immunology/Experimental Methods in Immunology

Stem Cells
The growth of stem cells in the bone marrow is the basis for cellular immunity. In vitro mimicry of this growth can be achieved by filling a semisolid medium with stromal cells. By adding different growth factors and cytokines, as well as stem cells of various differentiation level, the influence of chemical mediators of hematopoiesis can be understood. HSCs can be taken from a donor and injected into a person who has a defective or absent hematopoietic system. As little as 10% of the donor's bone marrow is removed and injected into the recipient, and the HSCs will find their way to the bone without direction, replenishing the hematopoietic system of the recipient. There are several types of stem cell grafts:
 * autologous--donor is the recipient themself; the recipient can freeze HSCs prior to chemotherapy or radiation therapy for cancer; additionally, genetically engineered autologous HSCs can be injected back into the patient
 * syngeneic--donor is genetically identical to recipient (identical twins)
 * allogeneic--donor is genetically different from recipient
 * this can lead to graft-vs.-host disease (GVHD)
 * GVHD is based on MHC/HLA types, and so a bone marrow "match" occurs when an allogeneic member of the population is found to have relatively similar MHC/HLA types relative to the recipient

Knock-Out Mice
Genetic factors that produce certain cytokines (or certain cell types themselves) can be studied through the use of knock-out mice. In these mice, a certain gene is inactivated and the animal is allowed to grow. The resulting phenotype is compared against other knock-out mice, in an attempt to piece together the genetic basis of different cellular functions and phenotypes. The process of gene knockout has become fine-tuned in recent years. Basically, a gene library is searched for a candidate gene to be knocked-out. A full mouse genome with the candidate gene knocked-out is developed and grown in a preliminary stem cell, and it is injected into a mouse stem cell via electroporation. Besides making the candidate gene inoperable, the altered genome will usually have two factors:
 * A gene to make the cultured preliminary stem cell resistant to a certain antibiotic. Because not all of the stem cells will incorporate the altered genome, an antibiotic is applied to the treated cells, and only those that survive have therefore been injected with the altered genome (including both the antibiotic resistance gene and the knocked-out gene sequence)
 * A gene to make the phenotype of a fully-altered knockout mouse obvious. For example, the altered mouse genome might include a gene to make the knockout mice pure white in color.  The stem cells, before being treated, are collected from a black mouse.  Thus, when the black fur mother mouse is injected with the treated stem cells, she will give birth to baby mice with varied coat colors, from black to white and grey in between.  The nearly-white progeny are then cross-bred with each other, and the process is repeated until mice with pure white coats are created.  These mice are most likely to have both the pure white genotype and the knocked-out gene.  Thus, linked phenotypes are a marker for linked genotypes.

Several genes effect hematopoiesis, and have been developed via gene knockout. These include:
 * GATA-2--regulates lymphoid and myeloid cell production, as well as RBC (erythrocyte) production
 * Ikaros--regulates lymphoid cell production
 * Oct-2--regulates differentiation of naive B cells into plasma cells

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Concentration
Irradiation of a mouse can wipe out the HSCs in the bone marrow, destroying the mouse's ability to produce red blood cells and leukocytes. These cells can be replaced with the bone marrow cells of an immunologically identical mouse, although in the injected replacement cells very few cells are actually HSCs. In order to concentrate the amount of actual HSCs in a sample, mice can be irradiated and replacement bone marrow cells are injected with fluorescent immunoglobulins that bind to mature RBCs and WBCs. A flow cytometry method can now be used to weed out these labelled cells, and the process can be repeated until only those that are most likely undifferentiated remain. The HSCs can be found in a subset of cells that contain the CD34 receptor on their surface; the CD34+ subpopulation is almost totally HSC with few differentiated cells.

Monoclonal Antibodies
A given antigen can have many epitopes, each one reacting with the immune system to create antibodies specific for each of the epitopes. When a given antigen is given to an experiment animal, the animal will produce antigens for each of the epitopes of the antigen, forming a polyclonal antibody response. Plasma B cells are then isolated from the animal's spleen, and these cells are fused with special cancerous (and therefore immortal) myeloma B cells, which do not generate any specific antibody themselves. The myeloma cells lack a certain enzyme, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase, or HGPRT, and therefore cannot grow under certain conditions (namely in the presence of HAT medium). The product of these B cell/myeloma cell hybridizations are known as hybridomas, and they secrete monoclonal antibody indefinitely. After hybridization, there will be three types of cells: 1) spleen B cells, 2) myeloma cells, and 3) successfully formed hybridomas. In order to select for the hybridomas, the mixture is grown on HAT medium (killing any unhybridized myeloma cells) and the spleen B cells (as they are not cancerous and will die of old age) are allowed to die.  Only those cells that can live a very long time (myeloma component) and contain HGPRT (plasma cell component) are able to survive the selection process.  This results only in hybridomas, each secreting a different antibody.  The mixture of polyclonal hybridomas are now separated via differential dilution in order to isolate the hybridomas for each specific epitopes, finally resulting in functional, immortal, monoclonal B cells.

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are incredibly useful. They can be radiolabelled or labelled with fluorescent molecules in order to detect proteins, such as cancer proteins in a tissue. The use of fluorescent antibodies has also allowed scientists to image cellular components, increasing the understanding of the cell's structure as well as its genetics. Additionally, the anticancer properties of immunotoxins result from a mAb bound to a certain toxin, which becomes localized to the cancer epitope that matches the mAb. Antibodies can also be formed with enzymatic function (abzymes), which hold the promise of cleaving proteins at specific points in order to study proteomes more successfully.

Affinity Chromatography
A column of beads contains monoclonal antibodies. A mixture of proteins (potential antigens) is then passed through the column, and the antigen in question binds with the monoclonal antibodies. The column is then washed, removing any antigen that is not captured by the monoclonal antibodies. The pH is then adjusted in order to break the Ab/Ag interactions, and the column is rinsed; the Ag in question will be eluted in this last wash.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
A radioimmunoassay is a scientific method used to test hormone levels in the blood without the need to use a bioassay. It involves mixing a radioactive antigen (frequently labelled with isotopes of iodine attached to tyrosine) with antibody to that antigen, then adding unlabeled or "cold" antigen in known quantities and measuring the amount of labeled antigen displaced.

Initially, the radioactive antigen is bound to the antibodies. When cold antigen is added, the two compete for antibody binding sites - and at higher concentrations of cold antigen, more binds to the antibody, displacing the radioactive variant. The bound antigens are separated from the unbound ones in solution and the radioactivity of each used to plot a binding curve.

Once this standard curve has been created, a sample can be taken from a patient. The sample is then added to the Ab/radioactive Ag mixture. The sample is allowed to mix with the radioactive Ag, and the unlabelled Ag (often a hormone being tested for in the body) will displace some of the radioactive Ag. The mixture is then "rinsed," and the amount of remaining radiolabelled antigen is compared with a standard curve, allowing an easy determination of unlabelled (patient-derived) Ag/hormone levels.

The technique is both extremely sensitive, and specific, if costly, and it is especially useful in diagnosing and treating autoimmune diseases such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.

Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay (ELISA)
A sample of antigen is applied to the surface of a well, and the spaces between the sample are filled with proteins that do not bind antibody. A large amount of antibody, linked to a certain enzyme that can create a color change, is added to the sample under conditions that allow only Ab/Ag binding; there must be enough Ab added to react with every possible Ag molecule in the sample--if you have more Ag than Ab, the extra Ag will not be detected by the test. The well is then washed, and the color-changing reaction is activated. The level of color change can be measured by spectrometry, and the concentration of antigen can be determined via comparison of color change with a standard curve.
 * Sandwich (capture) ELISA--for Antigens of very low concentration, such as cytokines, binding to the well plate can be difficult. This method uses an Ab specific for one of the epitopes on the Ag, attaching these bottom antibodies to the plate well, where they bind the added small concentration of Ag.  A second type of antibody, one that binds to a different epitope on the Ag, is added to the well. Thus, the Ag is sandwiched between a bottom "holding" antibody and an upper, "detector" antibody that is linked to a color-changing enzyme.

Competitive Inhibition Assay
Similar to the RIA, in this test a fixed amount of Ab is attached to the surface of a well. A known amount of radiolabelled Ag is added to the well, and the sample (ostensibly containing unlabelled Ag) is also added to the well. There must be enough labelled Ag added to react with every Ab, otherwise the test will not be accurate. This is because the unlabelled Ag must compete with the labelled Ag, and to truly compete every Ab binding site must be potentially filled with the labelled Ag. The well are rinsed, and the amount of unlabelled Ag that "out-competed" the labelled Ag is compared to a standard curve (thus, the amount of remaining labelled Ag is inversely proportional, via some relationship in the std curve, to the amount of Ag in the sample.

Blood Typing
The fact that each antibody has at least two (and, in the case of dimers and pentamers, more than two) identical binding sites for an epitope allows agglutination of antigens. Hemagglutination is the use of this property to test for blood types; anti-A Ab anti-B Ab, and a mixture of anti-A and anti-B Ab are added to aliquots of a blood sample, and the clumping (agglutination) indicates the blood type.

Coombs Test
The Coombs Test (also Coombs' Test) is a blood test used to determine whether there are red blood cell antibodies, which leads usually to hemolysis, especially in Rh disease. Coombs antibody is an anti-human globulin. It was first described in 1945 by Cambridge immunologists Robin Coombs, Arthur Mourant and Rob Race. The test is also used in screening blood prior to blood transfusion.

Two types of the test exist:

 * Indirect Coombs test - also known as the indirect antiglobulin test (IAT). This is used in the matching of blood products. It detects immunoproteins present on red blood cell membranes, by adding a polyspecific antiserum which contains antibodies specific for human immunoglobulins and complement to agglutinate the cells.
 * Direct Coombs test - also known as the direct antiglobulin test (DAT). It detects antibodies capable of attaching to normal red blood cells, by incubating normal red blood cells in the serum, washing the cells, and then using a polyspecific antiserum which contains antibodies specific for human immunoglobulins and complement to agglutinate the cells. The DAT is used to determine if the patient has immune-mediated hemolysis (antibody-mediated destruction of red blood cells), as occurs in Rh disease.

The Coombs Test is used to detect the presence of agglutinated red blood cells in a patient's blood. If positive, the interpretation is that an antigen-antibody reaction has taken place in vivo. The Coombs test is sometimes referred to as the Direct Antiglobulin Test. The indirect antiglobulin test is also called an antibody screen. In this test, a few drops of patient serum is placed in a small test tube with a drop of reagent red blood cells and checked to see if there is an antigen-antibody reaction. If there is such a reaction, it means the patient's serum contains antibodies to the known antigen on the reagent red blood cells.

Back to Immunology || Previous Chapter: Vaccines


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User talk:BAW~enwikibooks

Radiation Oncology wiki
Hi, BAW. Welcome to Wikibooks! I figure that you're the same BAW as on Wikipedia. Thanks for your help on the Radiation Oncology wikibook. If you have any questions about the project, please feel free to leave a comment on my talk page or send me an e-mail. Brim 09:00, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called BAW. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name BAW~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:01, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:36, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:BAW~enwikibooks


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Nintendo Wars/Advance Wars: Dual Strike

A turned based strategy game, made for the Nintendo DS

History

Advance Wars: Dual Strike was made by Intelligent Systems. Dual Strike is the third title in the Advance Wars series, which started in 1995. This series started off of an older series called Gameboy Wars. Not surpisingly, Advance Wars came out on the Gameboy Advance. (Gameboy Wars, the earlier title experienced quite a bit of success in Japan.) Gameboy Wars was never released in English.

Gameplay

The game is a little like a game of rock-paper-scissors, albiet much more complex. Simply put, some units are stronger than other units, but are disadvantaged to yet other units. You must decide how best to position the "scissors" to have the greatest effect.

Commanding Officers'

 * 1) Jake
 * 2) Rachel
 * 3) Nell
 * 4) Hachi
 * 5) Andy
 * 6) Max
 * 7) Sami
 * 8) Olaf
 * 9) Grit
 * 10) Colin
 * 11) Sasha
 * 12) Eagle
 * 13) Drake
 * 14) Jess
 * 15) Javier
 * 16) Kanbei
 * 17) Sonja
 * 18) Sensei
 * 19) Grimm
 * 20) Hawke
 * 21) Flak
 * 22) Lash
 * 23) Adder
 * 24) Jugger
 * 25) Koal
 * 26) Kindle
 * 27) Von Bolt

title: Nintendo Wars/Advance Wars: Dual Strike


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Social Psychology/Human Relations

Understanding the essence of People and their interactions....
We as people interact on a physical basis on many levels, firstly through our body language, secondly through our tone of voice and finally through the content of our words spoken, surprisingly this last level offers the least amount of information to the other person in the communication process whom is receiving the message. This is because when people communicate they are expressing not only through their mental conscious thoughts but are also being influenced by their sub conscious mind, consequently communicating other messages to the receiver in the form of body language. As a result of this, the perceptive receiver may hear the words being spoken by the communicator but may also get an understanding of the feelings behind the messages, these messages may contradict the message from the words, consequently adding more understanding to the interactions. For example, a person may say to you "I feel comfortable around you" and at the same time may be crossing his/her arms possibly showing the defensive body posture. The receiver in this situation, if aware of these messages, would obviously have to consider the sincerity of the other's words. Finally, careful listening needs to be exercised when listening to the words, as the way that words are expressed can add many different messages. For example, "Hi." in a low-toned, brief manner could indicate that the communicator is feeling tired or down, whereas a longer, higher-toned "Hi!" could mean happiness or happy to see you.

Therefore, to ensure a full understanding of how each interaction between yourself and any fellow person in this world is achieved, as long as you both speak the same language of course, you need to actively pay attention and consider the three essential levels. It must also be noted that there are other factors which affect a person's ability to understand all of these messages. Firstly, our perception--how each individual see things in this world--can limit understanding. Perception is developed through a person's lifetime through their life experiences; one is more likely to perceive an event based on what they have experienced in the past, making a connection in understanding from what they have already understood/experienced about the event. This can have limiting effects on one's ability to understand, as a person can get the feeling of confidence that they fully understand the situation when in fact they may miss important messages being communicated through their interactions. An example of this would be early judgements on the communicator's behaviour and motives.

title: Social Psychology/Human Relations


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Nintendo Wars/Advance Wars: Dual Strike/Units

Advance Wars Dual Strike Units

Types of Weapons

Keep in mind that stronger unit's weapon will be stronger even if they are the same type. Example is Md tanks and tanks have the same weapon but Md is stronger.

Machine Gun

Effective against: Infantry

Ineffective against: Vechiles and Copters

Found on: Infantry, Mech, Recon, tank, Md tank, Neotank, Megatank

Ammo: Unlimited

Bazooka

Effective against: Vehicles

Ammo: 3

Cannon  (direct)

Effective against: Vechiles

Ineffective against: Ships and Subs

Found on: Tank, Md Tank

Ammo: 9(tank) 8(Md tank)

NeoCannon

Effective against: Vechiles

Ineffective against: Ships and Subs

Ammo: 9

MegaCannon

Effective against: Vechiles

Ineffective against: Ships and Subs

Ammo: 3

Cannon (indirect)

Effective against: Infantry and Vechiles

Ineffective against: Ships and Subs

Range: 2~3

Ammo: 9

Rockets

Effective against: Infantry and Vechiles

Range: 3~5

Ammo: 6

Anti-air

Effective against: Infantry, Planes, and Copters

Ineffective against: Vechiles

Ammo: 9

Missles

Effective against: Copters, and Planes

Ammo: 3

Pipe Cannon

Effective: Infantry, Vechiles, Ships, Subs, Planes, and Copters

Ammo: 9

Units

Human Units

Humans are the only one that can capture buildings so in any non pre-deployed you have to build human units. Human capture building at the same rate as their Hp (unless your sami or using a force). Each building has 20 points when it reachs 0 the building is captured. The counter is restart when a unit walks off the building or is destoryed. Human units get +3 vision on mountains but that only effects Fog of War.

Infantry

Cost: 1000

Movement: 3

Movement type: Foot

Vision: 2 (5 on mountains)

Primary Weapon: None

2nd Weapon: Machine Gun

Thoughts: Infantry will are useful as meatshield and for capturing building due to them being faster than mechs. Infantry are normally killed in 2 hits by almost every unit except a few CO that get an attack bonus, Grimm would be an example. building a few Infantry to protect Indirect units is great defense even better when using Grit as a CO.

Mech

Cost: 3000

Movement: 2

Movement type: Mech

Vision: 2 (5 on mountains)

Primary Weapon: Bazooka

2nd Weapon: Machine Gun

Thoughts: VERY cost effective. Mech can do some serious damage to Tank($7000) and Racon($4000). they are good as meatshield too. A way to win is to do a mech flood with COs like Sami and Sensei, but don't except to get a good score.

Direct Vehicles

These are what will be used the most. Neo tanks, Tanks and Anti-air are probably the most cost effective. Jess is the master of land based vechiles units but Max, kanbei, Grimm and Hawke are good too.

Tank

All images taken from http://www.advancewarsnet.com but all images Copyrighted by Nintendo and Intelligent Systems.


text:
User:Ignis

Hi. I am a Japanese wikipedian. ignis on Japanese Wikipedia

Ignis 12:18, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Ignis


text:
Rueda de Casino/Moves for Beginners

This is listed in order of where they might come in a beginners' rueda. A typical calling sequence might be:

El Pozo, Arriba, Abajo, Dile Que No, Guapea (this is normally implicit), Dame, Enchufa, Enchufa Doble, Pelota, Candela

title: Rueda de Casino/Moves for Beginners


text:
User:Slideyfoot~enwikibooks

About Me
I was born in Belgium to a German mother and Turkish father, but we moved to the UK three months later, meaning I’m quite Anglicized. My life is focused around several interests, especially martial arts and poetry, the latter also being my area of academic study for the past six years or so. The other major focus is of course my girlfriend, who I live with for half the week.

I'm a keen martial artist, and have experience in various styles. However, my main training is in Zhuan Shu Kuan and Brazilian jiu jitsu. Some of my other interests are music, film, history and travel.

Links
Wikipedia Tutorial

title: User:Slideyfoot~enwikibooks


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User:Chriswaterguy

My main interests here are:

 * Indonesian
 * English as an Additional Language
 * How to learn a language
 * Cookbook (very occasional involvement)
 * Demystifying Depression (just looking so far).

I'm a Wikipedian, Wikian, and Appropedian:

 * Wikipedia profile. My main focus on Wikipedia is the WikiProject International development.

 * Wikia profile. Not very active.

 * Appropedia profile. For appropriate technology, development & sustainability issues that aren't suitable for Wikipedia (e.g. how-to's, original research).

For more info about me, see my homepage.

What's in my Wikibooks userspace

 * Learning techniques - focused on mnemonics. These are things I find useful - feel free to draw on this, e.g. if doing something for Wikibooks.
 * Recipes and cooking tips. I believe in good food - taste, satisfaction, and nutrition. I'm not really compatible with Cookbook on Wikibooks (I want original recipes and a rating system, whereas Cookbook is more like a textbook of standard recipes), so I'll eventually move it somewhere else, such as Communipes.

Conversations I'm keeping an eye on

 * Staff lounge/Archive 14 re Where can I put a thesis? & Foundational Books.
 * Talk:Cookbook

title: User:Chriswaterguy


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Japanese/Dialects/Toyama

Some notable aspects of Toyama dialect:

 * 1) Pauses in sentences are often accompanied by a pitch vibration.
 * 2) * あのねぇ ano nee
 * 3) * それで sore de
 * 4) * そこへ行って soko e itte
 * In each of these examples, the pitch goes up-down-up-down, or even up-down-up-down-up-down. Pitch intervals can be as much as as 5-8 whole steps.
 * 1) の no is replaced by が ga (except in the possessive).
 * 2) * そうなの？ sou na no? becomes そうなが？ sou na ga?
 * 3) * できないので dekinai no de becomes できないがで dekinai ga de
 * 4) か ka as a question marker is replaced by っけ kke
 * 5) * 分かるか wakaru ka becomes 分かるっけ wakaru kke
 * 6) いる iru becomes おる oru or おん
 * 7) * ここにいる koko ni iru becomes ここにおる koko ni oru or ここにおん koko ni on
 * 8) てる -te ru (contraction of ている -te iru) becomes とる -toru or とん -ton
 * 9) * 分かってる wakatteru becomes 分かっとる wakattoru or 分かっとん wakatton
 * 10) ない -nai becomes -ん
 * 11) * できない dekinai becomes できん dekin
 * 12) * 分からない wakaranai becomes 分からん wakaran
 * 13) * だれもいない dare mo inai becomes だれもおらん dare mo oran

Putting everything together, you can get the very comical phrase:
 * トンガ行っとんが知っとんが? Tonga itton ga shitton ga?
 * meaning トンガに行っているのを知っているの Tonga itte iru no o shitte iru no? or "Did you know he went to Tonga?"

title: Japanese/Dialects/Toyama


text:
Mass Media/Forms

 * Visual Media
 * Mass Media/Television
 * Mass Media/Posters
 * Mass Media/Billboards
 * Mass Media/Cinema

 * Audio Media
 * Mass Media/Radio

 * Print
 * Mass Media/Books
 * Mass Media/Newspapers
 * Mass Media/Magazines
 * Mass Media/Essays
 * Mass Media/Reviews

 * Internet
 * Mass Media/World Wide Web, Newsgroups and Discussion Groups
 * Mass Media/Digital Television

Print can lay claim to being the first mass medium. 20% of Americans don't (or can't) read. The average American reads .8 books a year.

It is traditionally been suggested that it first made an impact with the invention of Gutenberg's system of movable type in 1452. However, the earliest example of a printed book is the Diamond Sutra printed using movable clay type in China in 868CE. Though this is the earliest available example, it is thought this system was already well established when the Diamond Sutra was published. Gutenberg's innovation, made apparently without knowledge of the Chinese system, was to cast individual letter forms from metal.

Ratings are used to get statistics on popularity of programming. The ratings system used for TV is Nielsen, and the system for radio is Arbitron.

The press is called the "Fourth Estate." In the US, it is protected by the First Amendment. Print press is unrestricted, but TV and radio isn't. Radio stations and network broadcasters must have licenses. Cable networks aren't required to have licenses, so they can do whatever they want.

"On the Media" is an NPR show about media analysis. Audio and transcripts can be found at |http://www.wnyc.org/onthemedia/.

title: Mass Media/Forms


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User talk:193.67.126.2

Welcome to Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibooks and create an account. We hope you enjoy your time here on Wikibooks as a Wikibookian! -- LV (Dark Mark) 16:34, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:193.67.126.2


text:
User:Danhash

i'm very new to wikibooks. i've been a member of wikipedia since around June, 2005. for more information check out my user page on wikipedia.

title: User:Danhash


text:
Drugs:Fact and Fiction/Nicotine

Any of various drugs that inhibit, enhance, or mimic the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, the primary transmitter of nerve impulses within the parasympathetic nervous system—i.e., that part of the autonomic nervous system that contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels, increases bodily secretions, and slows the heart rate. Some cholinergic drugs, such as muscarine, pilocarpine, and arecoline, mimic the activity of acetylcholine in stimulating the parasympathetic nervous system. These drugs have few therapeutic uses, though one of them, nicotine, is the principal addictive ingredient in the tobacco used in cigarettes and cigars. Other cholinergic drugs, such as atropine and scopolamine, inhibit the action of acetylcholine and thus suppress all the actions of the parasympathetic nervous system. They are used therapeutically to diminish salivation and bronchial secretions during anesthesia and to dilate the pupil during ophthalmological procedures. Scopolamine is also used to treat motion sickness, an effect that depends on its ability to depress the activity of the central nervous system.

title: Drugs:Fact and Fiction/Nicotine


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Drugs:Fact and Fiction/Hydrocodone

Hydrocodone is a popular pain-relief medication. Common prescription names are Vicodin, Lortab, and Vicoprofen. Prescribed for pain relief, hydrocodone is much like codeine, an opiate agonist, analgesic and antitussive used in the treatment of mild to moderate pain.

Prescription doses of hydrocodone include:

Vicodin (Hydrocodone/Acetaminophen)
 * 5/500 mg
 * 7.5/750 mg
 * 10/660 mg

Generic and/or Lortab

(Hydrocodone/Acetaminophen)
 * 2.5 mg/500 mg
 * 5 mg/500 mg
 * 7.5 mg/325 mg
 * 7.5 mg/500 mg
 * 7.5 mg/650 mg
 * 7.5 mg/750 mg
 * 10 mg/325 mg
 * 10 mg/500 mg
 * 10 mg/650 mg
 * 10 mg/660 mg
 * 10 mg/750 mg

Liquid "Elixir" Hydrocodone

For people who may have trouble swallowing due to throat/tonsil surgery, or who may have heavy congestion of musus either Lortab Elixir, Atuss HX, Cotuss-V, Entuss, or Vortex are prescribed for pain relief and/or moderate to severe congestion from flu or similar illnesses. Liquid hydrocodone syrups commonly contain guaifenesin and hydrocodone.

title: Drugs:Fact and Fiction/Hydrocodone


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Talk:Guide to Social Activity/The Catch

Types of people?
I removed the following content from this module. I was not sure how reliable it was to spot these types of persons, or if these tips were useful. --Kernigh 19:23, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

Advice by Type

 * By profession...
 * 1) Academics
 * 2) The Spotter's Guide: hunched posture, long pauses, social awkwardness, lack of attention to dress, long working hours, absent-mindedness.
 * 3) Associated Boons: fascinating, if exoteric, conversation, healthy income, long holidays, keep fascinating company, easily pleased.
 * 4) Dating: speak quietly; swat up on their field of study; think cultured, not expensive; aim at simple beauty, not gauwdy showiness.
 * 5) Nerds
 * 6) The Spotter's Guide: introversion, caustic humour, questionable personal hygene, general amiableness, long hair, thick-lensed glasses, nocturnal hours.
 * 7) Associated Boons: often remarkable intelligence, knowlegeable, technically useful, abundant leisure time, lack of competition.
 * 8) Dating: think ultra-modern; low lighting; be a little late; keep it brief; say you'd like to e-mail sometime.

 * By location...
 * 1) City slickers
 * 2) Suburb Slobs
 * 3) Country Bumpkins

 * By steadiness...
 * 1) Rocky the Reliable
 * 2) The Provider
 * 3) Listless Youth
 * 4) The Rebel without a Cause
 * 5) The Rollercoaster

The Phase

The Moment

'Timing, timing, timing' is the dating equivalent of 'location, location, location'. With all other factors being perfectly equal, sometimes the match will come together beautifully and at other times it won't. How therefore do you know when the time is right?

 * The Foul Weather Friend. Be around for him when he's just been rejected for all 150 jobs that he's just applied for or embarrassed himself in public.

title: Talk:Guide to Social Activity/The Catch


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Java Programming/Preventing NullPointerException

is a. In Java, a special can be assigned to an object reference. is thrown when an application attempts to use an object reference, having the value. These include: Applications should throw instances of this class to indicate other illegal uses of the null object.
 * Calling an instance method on the object referred by a null reference.
 * Accessing or modifying an instance field of the object referred by a null reference.
 * If the reference type is an array type, taking the length of a null reference.
 * If the reference type is an array type, accessing or modifying the slots of a null reference.
 * If the reference type is a subtype of, throwing a null reference.

The above code shows one of the pitfall of Java, and the most common source of bugs. No object is created and the compiler does not detect it. is one of the most common exceptions thrown in Java.

Why do we need ?
The reason we need it is because many times, we need to create an object reference before the object itself is created. Object references cannot exist without a value, so we assign the  value to it.

In the code section 6.14 we want to create the  inside the if-else, but we also want to return the object reference to the caller, so we need to create the object reference outside of the if-else, because of the scoping rule in Java. Incorrect error-handling and poor contract design can be a pitfall with any programming language. This is also true for Java.

Now we will describe how to prevent. It does not describe general techniques for how you should program Java. It is of some use, to make you more aware of null values, and to be more careful about generating them yourself.

This list is not complete — there are no rules for preventing  entirely in Java, because the standard libraries have to be used, and they can cause  s.  Also, it is possible to observe an uninitialized final field in Java, so you can't even treat a final field as being completely trusted during the object's creation.

A good approach is to learn how to deal with s first, and become competent with that. These suggestions will help you to cause less s, but they don't replace the need to know about  s.

Comparing string variable with a string literal
When you compare a variable with a string literal, most of people would do that this way:

Always put the string literal first:

If the  variable is null, you get a   in the first example, but not in the second one.

Minimize the use of the keyword 'null' in assignment statements
This means not doing things like:

You can replace this with:

You might also consider replacing null with "" in the first example, but default values bring about bugs caused by default values being left in place. A  is actually better, as it allows the runtime to tell you about the bug, rather than just continue with a default value.

Minimize the use of the new Type[int] syntax for creating arrays of objects
An array created using  has 10 null pointers. That's 10 more than we want, so use collections instead, or explicitly fill the array at initialization with:

or:

Check all references obtained from 'untrusted' methods
Many methods that can return a reference can return a null reference. Make sure you check these. For example:

can return null if  is not a directory.

You can decide to trust some methods not to return null, if you like, but that's an assumption you're making. Some methods that don't specify that they might return null, actually do, instead of throwing an exception.

For each loop trap
Beware if you loop on an array or a collection in a for each loop.

If the object is null, it does not just do zero loops, it throws a null pointer exception. So don't forget this case. Add an  statement or return empty collections:

External tools
There is tools like FindBugs that parse your code and warn you about potential bugs. Most of the time, it detects possible null pointers.


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User:N1person

Due to limitations of the Wiki, the name should be #1 Person

Backround
Although #1 Person is a pretty smart person, he should not be considered an expert in most topics, and anyone with formal education most likely is correct.

However #1 Person has studied Biotechology at Roger Williams University.

Also #1 Person has a backround in advanced geographical studies, engineering and Arabic/Islamic history.

Other Languages
N1 person has a advanced understanding of the English language, as well as a working understanding of Latin and Arabic. However he should not be considered an expert (as in don't always accept him in grammar and the like) in the latter two.

Projects
Contributions- http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/N1person

N1 person is an active author in Wikijunior Project.

He is currently working on his own projects at random times.

Non-official Wikijunior on Particle Physics and Nuclear Engineering

Other
When forgetting to sign in he uses the IP 24.2.226.231

title: User:N1person


text:
Russian/Introduction

The Russian Wikibook is designed to present lesson material through intellectually conducive methods. The lessons are designed to give maximum immersion, and will only provide Cyrillic text. It might be frustrating initially, but learning the alphabet quickly is the first step to facilitating quicker progress.

The lessons aim to provide the student with a good knowledge of reading and writing. As with any language, to learn Russian it is best to find a language partner: a native speaker who is patient and willing to help correct your mistakes. A book can only take even the most self-motivated student so far. This book is highly integrated with Wiktionary and Wikipedia, giving a stronger foundation in vocabulary and culture. It is highly suggested to read the Wikipedia articles about Russia, Russian language, and Cyrillic alphabet.

Alphabet >>

title: Russian/Introduction


text:
Latin/Lesson 6-The Subjunctive Perfect Passive

=Subjunctive Passive Verbs=

Subjunctive Passive Perfect
Subjunctive passive verbs form from the 4th principle part as shown in the example below.

The verb's third principle part, e.g. in the word impedire(to obstruct): impedio, impedire, impedivi, impeditus; gains the passive ending for the appropriate person.

This is an example of the Subjunctive Passive in the perfect tense. muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum -- to change

To make the verb into a perfect passive, take the fourth principle part, make it agree with the subject in gender, number, and case, and then add in the appropriate form of esse. In the perfect, we use the present form of esse, and specifically the subjunctive present(sim, sis, sit, simus, sitis, sint.)

For example, Do you know what has been done to him? would be made into: scis quid eum factum sit?

Singular

mutatus sim     I have been changed. mutatus sis     You have been changed. mutatus sit     He has been changed.

Plural*

mutati simus    We have been changed. mutati sitis    You have been changed. mutati sint     They have been changed.

 * Note well that in the plural, the word "mutatus" becomes "mutati," thus taking on the plural nominative. Remember that the perfect passive verbs require the fourth participle to agree in gender and number!

Exercises
'''In this section, it is only truly necessary to translate the italicized portion. The rest exists in order to make the subjunctive necessary.'''

the children were so bad that they have been scolded. (Children- Liberi; To scold- vitupero, vituperare, vituperavi)

He asked how I was tricked.(trick-ludo, ludere, lusi, lusus)

My parents drove to town so that now I have been born in a hospital.(born- cresco, crescere, crevi, cretus; Hospital- valetudinarium, valetudinarii-n.)

Subjunctive Passive Pluperfect
The subjunctive passive pluperfect is very similar to the perfect, with the major difference being the way esse is conjugated. In specific, the word esse is simply given the active endings(m,s,t,mus,tis, nt)

mutavi + isse -->
 * Singular

 * mutatus essem   I had been changed.
 * mutatus esses   You had been changed.
 * mutatus esset   He had been changed.

 * Plural*

 * mutati essemus  We had been changed.
 * mutati essetis  You had been changed.
 * mutati essent   They had been changed.

Exercises
In these exercises, only the italicized parts require translation. The rest exist to make the subjunctive necessary. Remember, the subjunctive is not used in any but complex sentences or other rare circumstances.

Ovid wrote so much in the Metamorphoses that his hand had been changed into stone.


text: User talk:Nahallac Silverwinds

title: User talk:Nahallac Silverwinds


text: User:Nahallac Silverwinds

title: User:Nahallac Silverwinds


text:
Wikijunior talk:Ancient Civilizations/Carthage

My information is from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal_2.html

Problems? N1person 23:34, 19 December 2005 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Rice Bubble Cake

Rice bubble cake is quick and easy to make. Made with crisped rice cereal, the only other ingredients are butter, sugar and honey.

Ingredients

 * 100 g (4 oz) butter
 * 6 tbsp sugar
 * 4 heaped tsp honey
 * 5 cups rice cereal

Procedure

 * 1) Add the first three ingredients to a large saucepan (large enough to later add the rice cereal) and melt over a medium heat
 * 2) Bring the mixture to the boil and allow it to turn over for about 4 minutes or until the mixture starts to turn brown. Stir occasionally
 * 3) Remove from the heat and add the rice cereal. Stir well to evenly mix everything together
 * 4) Press the mixture into a lined tin (buttered)
 * 5) Before it sets too hard, cut into even squares.

title: Cookbook:Rice Bubble Cake


text:
Talk:Political Economy/General

Out of the many centuries of political economics, it was only in the 20th century that there was a focus on money as capital. Whereas previous capitalist models focused on the means of production and the production of commodities, it was not until the 20th century that capital itself and the investment of capital in the money market began being a huge issue. The section on money is not really appropraite for this module on political economy since political economy is focused on the philosophy rather than mechanics of the flow of resources. This conception of money only works assuming a few basic things: free markets, the liberal idea that economics is not a zero-sum game, and that money can be freely distributed and invested. There have been many times in history when not all of these assumptions have been met. For example, in the feudal times, money was not used very extensively and barter was used instead. Also, it does not cover mercantilist conceptions of money in the 1600s. This article is about the development of modern assumptions that are used in the studies of politics and economics today. What you take for fact in those studies are only conclusions reached by the philosophers of political economy. In other words, what you take for granted are only a few theories out of many, because these theories are used as baseline assumptions for figuring the mechanics out of those two studies which have branched from this one. Boneheadmx 00:35, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Political Economy/General


text:
Template:Use the Source

1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 - 8 - 9 - 10 - 11 - 12 - 13 - 14 - 15 - 16 - 17 - 18 - 19 - 20

title: Template:Use the Source


text:
Template:Use the Source/Stub

''This page or section of Use the Source is a stub. You can help Wikibooks by [ expanding it].'' :This template adds page to /Stubs.

title: Template:Use the Source/Stub


text:
IB Mathematics (HL)

Future students of IB HL Maths are advised that the content of these pages will be out of date soon, and will no longer be appropriate for courses starting in August 2012.

The IB Mathematics HL curriculum consists of seven core topics and four options. All seven core subjects are required and one of the four options must be chosen.

 * Introduction

Core Syllabus

 * Topic 1: Algebra
 * Topic 2: Functions and equations
 * Topic 3: Circular functions and trigonometry
 * Topic 4: Matrices
 * Topic 5: Vectors
 * Topic 6: Statistics and Probability
 * Topic 7: Calculus

Options

 * Further Statistics and Probability
 * Sets, Relations, and Groups
 * Series and Differential Equations
 * Discrete Mathematics

title: IB Mathematics (HL)


text:
Cookbook:Lapis Legit (Many-Layered Spiced Cake)

| Cuisine of Indonesia

Lapis legit (Dutch: spekkoek) is a spice-flavored multilayered cake. A legacy of Dutch occupation in Indonesia, the cake is enjoyed during Eid ul-Fitr and Christmas celebrations. In the Netherlands, the sliced cake is served as dessert in Rijsttafel (Indonesian rice table).

The cake has a firm texture similar to baumkuchen, but without a chocolate or sugar shell. The cake requires much patience to bake. Each layer of the cake is made by pouring a small amount of batter from a cup into the baking tin, then putting the tin into the oven until the layer has become golden from the heat. The tin is then removed from the oven and the process is repeated until all the layers have been built up. Baking the cake in a gas oven gives a better aroma than using an electric oven, but a Dutch oven with a charcoal fire on top of the lid produces the best result.

If cloves or cardamom seeds are difficult to find, use spekkoek powder as a replacement. Milling and mixing the spices before baking produces a cake with an excellent aroma.

Ingredients

 * 10 whole cloves, ground
 * 10 cardamom seeds, ground
 * 2 teaspoon nutmeg powder
 * 1 teaspoon cinnamon powder
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla powder
 * 10 egg yolks
 * 4 egg whites
 * 125 g castor sugar
 * 195 g sweetened condensed milk
 * 500 g butter
 * 125 g cake flour

Procedure

 * 1) Mix and sift cloves, cardamom, nutmeg, and cinnamon.
 * 2) Beat butter until smooth and creamy.
 * 3) Whip egg yolks with sugar until fluffy.
 * 4) Whip egg whites in separate mixing bowl until fluffy, then mix with egg yolks.
 * 5) Combine the spices, condensed milk, flour, and butter.
 * 6) Grease a cake pan.
 * 7) Using a small cup, spread 30–35 ml batter into the pan to make a layer.
 * 8) Bake in preheated 350°F oven, heated from the top, until golden (4–5 minutes).
 * 9) Remove from oven, brush with butter for flavoring, and top with another 30–35 ml batter to make another layer.
 * 10) Repeat the baking and layering to make around 30–40 layers.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Adding to the complexity of the baking process, some cake shops add dried plums (prunes) inside and on top of the cake.

id:Resep:Lapis legit


text:
Cookbook:Ginger Snaps

| Dessert

Ingredients

 * 2 cups butter, melted
 * 2 cups dark molasses
 * 1 lb dark brown sugar
 * 2 tsp cinnamon
 * a little allspice
 * 1 tsp ground cloves
 * 1 tsp nutmeg
 * 1 tbsp ground ginger
 * a little black pepper
 * 10–12 cups all-purpose flour

Procedure

 * 1) Combine melted butter, molasses, sugar, and spices.
 * 2) Add flour, mixing in 1 cup at a time up to 10 cups, working first with a fork, then by hand. Add another 1–2 cups flour just until the dough holds together.
 * 3) Chill dough at least 2 hours in the refrigerator.
 * 4) Preheat oven to 350°F.
 * 5) Roll the dough out as thin as possible, and cut out shapes with cookie cutters.
 * 6) Transfer cookie cutouts to a pan lined with parchment paper.
 * 7) Bake cookies in the preheated oven for 7 minutes. Let cool on a rack.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For a spicier ginger flavor, increase the amount of ginger as desired.

title: Cookbook:Ginger Snaps


text:
Cookbook:Rum Balls

| Dessert

This recipe involves no cooking.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup ground vanilla wafer cookies
 * 1 cup pecan crumbs
 * 1 cup powdered sugar
 * 2 tbsp Dutch-processed cocoa powder
 * 1½ tbsp light corn syrup
 * ¼ cup apple juice
 * Powdered sugar and pecan crumbs, for coating

Procedure

 * 1) Combine ingredients.
 * 2) Shape approximately 1 tbsp of dough into balls, approximately 1 inch in diameter.
 * 3) Coat in powdered sugar or pecan crumbs. For best results, let age for a week or so in a tin.

title: Cookbook:Rum Balls


text:
Cookbook talk:Grape Seed Oil

Smoking point
So which article is correct? Wikipedia's (approximately 216 °C) or Wikibook's (approximately 160 °C) ? -Christiaan 04:51, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Grape Seed Oil


text:
Political Economy/Classical Political Economy

Classical Political Economics

Introduction
The classical branch studies range from the conservative philosophers such as Machiavelli to liberals such as Adam Smith or critics of liberalism such as Marx.

Rousseau
A French philosopher and writer born in Switzerland, he believed that the natural goodness of man was warped by society, most of his ideas were influenced by the French Revolution.

Liberalism
Classical liberalism came from the philosophy of the Enlightenment of the 18th century. Liberals generally believe that individuals are virtuous people who can more or less govern themselves by a mixture of this virtue and by rationality (which also draws from the Enlightenment idea that there is a definite Truth in the world, and that Truth may be found by actively searching for it and by applying logic to facts). Since liberals believe that individuals are naturally virtuous, they can and should be able to govern themselves and to decide the paths of their own lives with as little government intervention as possible. Liberals are not anarchists because they do recognize that a state is important in order to control the people as a whole, but they do believe that the state which governs least is the one which governs best.

Marx
And finally, the division of labor offers us the first example of how, as long as man remains in natural society, that is, as long as a cleavage exists between the particular and the common interest, as long, therefore, as activity is not voluntarily, but naturally, divided, man’s own deed becomes an alien power opposed to him, which enslaves him instead of being controlled by him. For as soon as the distribution of labor comes into being, each man has a particular, exclusive sphere of activity, which is forced upon him and from which he cannot escape. He is a hunter, a fisherman, a herdsman, or a critical critic, and must remain so if he does not want to lose his means of livelihood; while in communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic. (The German Ideology)


text:
Political Economy/Modern Political Economy

Modern Political Economics

Introduction
The economy is the realized social system of production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area. Today the range of fields of study exploring, registering and describing the economy or part of it. Practical fields directly related to the human activities involving production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and services as a whole. Sumer developed a large scale economy based on money, while the Babylonians and their neighboring city states later developed the earliest system of economics as we think,in term of rules/laws on dept. The ancient economy was mainly based on subsistence farming.

Introduction
Modern economies generally produce a large (by historical standards) economic surplus. This surplus is composed of a vast number of goods in addition to those associated with the basic physiological needs of food, shelter, etc.

However, in the modern world, the majority of human beings live in large-scale, organized societies, called states. The government of a state claims a de jure, and often possesses de facto, the monopoly of legitimate force within its borders. This control of the monopoly of force allows a government to re-allocate, through law, portions of the economic surplus between private individuals. This study of political power as it affects distribution and production of goods in an economy creates the field of political economy.

To varying degrees, ranging from the very slight to the very extensive, all modern and pre-modern states in the world redistribute economic goods within their borders. The manner, extent and moral legitimacy of such redistribution is the source for much political debate and disagreement.

Hence government is a lucrative source of income (or economic rents ) for any group that can control or influence it. Competition between organized social groups for control of government has therefore been a source of conflict throughout history. This competition continues to express itself in everything from peaceful democratic elections to civil war. Modern political economists are often concerned with the problem of how to form a stable power bloc sufficient to gain and hold control of the government.

Modern Capitalist Conception Of Money
Money is only a means of exchange. It is quite possible to have communities use barter instead, such as "I give you a cow for (whatever)". In a society that uses money care should be taken, if at all possible (unfortunately very often it is NOT possible), to ensure that the total of the spending of money per year is always less than the total income per year of the individual, or community, concerned.

Money loses its value continually; this is called inflation, because prices increase as the value of the currency decreases. This could be thought of as being a tax on all savings and also at the same time as a reduction of all debts.

Many people borrow money and later repay that amount - unfortunately borrowing can be very expensive, because interest usually has to be paid in addition to the amount borrowed (called "The Principal"). Sometimes the economic conditions are so very bad that no repayment of the principal is possible for a very long time, if at all; even to get enough money for paying the interest on the debt may be quite difficult. If interest is not paid at the time it is due, then the loan is said to be "in default", and considerable trouble can be the result.

See also:
 * Personal Finance
 * Money and inflation
 * Introduction to Economics
 * Economic Uses of Money
 * What is Money?

From Wikipedia:
 * Bank
 * Credit
 * Currency
 * Debt
 * Default
 * Finance
 * Financial services
 * Inflation
 * Loan
 * Money
 * Personal finance

Social Liberalism

 * The economy of a country is closely connected to the well-being, or otherwise, of the people living there, and politics can influence considerably the economy of that country. In general the income of individuals is related to their education, and the jobs available at the time may require a particular set of skills. Poverty results from inability of individuals to have income larger than the actual expenditures.
 * Governments can have large expenditures, possibly larger than the revenue obtained via taxation; then there is a deficit, requiring the borrowing of money and the consequent payment of interest on the amount borrowed. That interest payment could have been prevented if the revenue obtained from taxes would have been higher.
 * One group of politicians may want to supply a lot of expensive services to people for free or at low cost, while other politicians may want to minimize the amount of taxes that have to be paid, and they may even promise tax cuts. In democratic countries the number of votes obtained by candidates for parliamentary/congressional seats depends considerably on election promises, and these, if implemented by the government, may considerably influence the economic health of the country, and of its individuals, eventually.

Marxism
Marxism deals with the processes that constitute objective reality.

Dependency Theory

 * Core
 * Periphery
 * Multinational corporations.

Elite Theory
Elite Theory is based on the idea that a society is always divided into two groups i.e. the minority elite and the ruled.Elite Theory is a direct contradiction to the Marxist Ideology.

Nationalistic Theory

 * Control of growth.
 * Rapid industrialization.

Development
The area of development is a diverse field with many political orientations, Marxist, Neoliberal and Postmodernist being among them. It covers the reasons behind the historical growth of Less Developed Countries (LDC), sometimes called the Third World. Political economy of development embraces an interdisciplinary approach that includes many social sciences. Much of the research into this area is focused on the growth of what are now developed countries, like Taiwan, Korea and Japan. The debate is how these countries became rich, what political and economic factors caused these places to change so much.

Another strand of research is in the failure of countries to change, such as India's post independence state failure in Industrialisation. Other debates include whether democracy or inequality causes or constrains growth and sustainable development.

Typically political economists view the world as heterogenous, that is there are no universal laws to explain development. Instead they focus in on an area in the world and even individual countries and sub-nation-state units which allow them to come to conclusions on questions.

Khan's Patron Client Model of Development
Khan applied the patron client model to development in many developing countries. Essentially the state is given as a patron, and it has many clients who are capitalists. These capitalists bribe the state and in exchange get subsidies and other benefits forming a patron-client relationship. Other clients in the nation-state are the middle class, who engage in political activism to obtain benefits.

This model is applied to different developing countries, so Korea, which did not have any middle class had high growth due to the capitalist clients getting most of the money from the government to invest and market their products. On the other hand India had a large middle class which meant that its industrialisation programme was hindered by middle class competition for resources from the state.


text:
Cookbook:Date Nut Bars

Ingredients

 * 1 cup nuts (e.g., pecans), ground
 * 1 cup seeded dates, ground
 * ½ cup white granulated sugar
 * 3 egg whites
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * 1 tablespoon cream
 * 1 cup flour
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder
 * 1½ cup confectioner's sugar
 * ¼ cup lemon juice
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract

Bars

 * 1) Grind the nuts and dates; sift in the granular sugar.
 * 2) In another bowl, whip egg whites until stiff.
 * 3) Gradually add the sugar mixture, whipping constantly. Fold in the cream.
 * 4) Sift the flour, then re-sift the flour with the baking powder. Fold into the egg mixture.
 * 5) Grease and flour a baking sheet.
 * 6) Pat dough ½-inch thick on the baking sheet, and bake for 10 minutes at 350°F (175°C).

Glaze

 * 1) Mix confectioner's sugar with lemon juice and vanilla in a blender.
 * 2) When the cookies are still hot, spread the glaze over them.

title: Cookbook:Date Nut Bars


text:
Talk:JavaScript/Functions

(random heading)
(inserted for readability Rursus (talk) 20:44, 18 May 2010 (UTC))

Firefox 1.5 and Opera 8.5 shows 105 and 108 instead if 2005 and 2008 for the code:

var mydate = new Date; document.write(mydate.getYear); document.write("

"); mydate.setYear(2008); document.write(mydate.getYear);

That's why we should always use getFullYear instead of getYear, as recommended by
 * http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/jscript7/html/jsmthgetfullyear.asp
 * http://www.devguru.com/technologies/javascript/10590.asp
 * http://www.webreference.com/js/tips/000707.html

Perhaps there are some ideas and tips in http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?CategoryJavaScript we could paraphrase in this Wikibook, such as, for example, http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?PrivateVariablesInJavaScript .

-

Is there a place in this Wikibook for these techniques?

 * Aspect-oriented-programming in JavaScript in 20 lines of code http://www.jroller.com/comments/deep?anchor=aop_fun_with_javascript

 * continuations in JavaScript http://levelplusplus.blogspot.com/2004/07/continuations-in-mozilla.html

-

I don't find interjections like "That wasn't very hard, was it?" or "Don't let Bill Gates know -- he'll patent it!" to be helpful. To me they seem silly and childish -- but then I don't like the "Dummies" books either. What do other people think?
 * The following has been removed due to its condescending nature, and general lack of coherentness.
 * "Now that wasn't very hard, was it? At this point, we are only using functions to save us some typing (actually, in the examples we used it is actually taking more typing - however, real-world programs will use the same function throughout the scripts.) When you learn about parameters, that's when functions really start to shine."
 * Pmw57 (talk) 13:04, 21 February 2009 (UTC)

-

The Classes section had the following at the start of some code: var site = new Object; //Required to not cause error in Internet Explorer site = {};

As the error hasn't been able to be duplicated from IE3 to IE7, more details about the error need to be provided. The code now starts with var site = {}; Pmw57 (talk) 00:27, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

Merge
I suggest merging all of JavaScript/Functions into JavaScript/Functions and Objects. --DavidCary (talk) 03:43, 14 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I agree with you.--Sae1962 (discuss • contribs) 13:17, 18 March 2015 (UTC)
 * As there were no objections since 2009, I completed the merge and splitted the pages (see the table of contents).--Sae1962 (discuss • contribs) 14:23, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

Bad code!!
The code in the section this keyword is discouraged according to the link under Further reading, because it creates methods as objects for totalValue, addQuarters and addDollars again and again for each object. The link provided instead explains another coding style that makes any OOPL programmer cry in despair! One has to create a "parent" type and then assign a predefined prototype property with that "parent" type. D*rn!! Rursus (talk) 20:44, 18 May 2010 (UTC)
 * Well, there is help for the OOPL programmer: to switch from an object-based language to an object-oriented one! :->--Sae1962 (discuss • contribs) 13:46, 18 March 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:JavaScript/Functions


text:
User:Etnoy

http://www.omskakas.se

title: User:Etnoy


text:
Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/M3/Kinematics

From the equation for velocity, and the two equations for acceleration, you can derive the equations of motion. These equations can be used to solve problems that seem very complicated at first. The equations are:

 * $$ \vec v_f = \vec v_i + \vec a t$$
 * $$ v_f^2= v_i^2+ 2 \vec a . \vec s$$
 * $$ \vec s = \vec v_i t+{\frac {1}{2}} \vec a t^2$$
 * $$ |s| = \frac {( |v_i|+ |v_f|)}{2} \times t$$

Where $$\vec a$$ is acceleration, $$ \vec s$$ is displacement, which can also be written as $$ \vec x_f - \vec x_i $$, $$ \vec x_i $$ and $$ \vec x_f $$ being the initial and final position vectors of the body respectively, $$t$$ is time, $$\vec v_i$$ is initial velocity and $$ \vec v_f$$ is final velocity. Note that these equations only work when an object is moving in a straight line and has constant acceleration.

Note that in the 3rd equation the dot product of the two vectors $$ \vec a $$ and $$ \vec b $$ is taken. The 4th equation gives the distance covered not the displacement. As a result, it's usage is not preferred.

The derivation of the above formulae, uses the basic definitions of velocity and acceleration, with the help of calculus.

By definiton,

 * 1) $$\  \vec v = d\vec x / dt $$
 * 2) $$\  \vec a=d\vec v/dt    $$
 * 3) $$\ \vec v d \vec v / d \vec x = \vec a $$

Where $$ \vec x $$ is position vector (from an axis), $$ \vec v $$ is velocity, and $$ \vec a $$ is accleration

Assuming $$ \vec a $$ to be constant, since the above formulae are defined under that condition only,

V-T Relation
$$\ \vec a dt = d\vec v $$

$$ \int_{0}^{t} \vec a\, dt = \int_{v_i}^{v_f} d \vec v $$

$$\ \vec at = \vec v_f - \vec v_i $$ or $$\ \vec v_f = \vec v_i + \vec a t $$

where $$ \vec v_f $$ is final velocity, and $$ \vec v_i $$ is initial velocity.

X - T Relation
$$\ d \vec x / d \vec t = /vec v $$

$$\ d \vec x = \vec v dt $$

$$\ d \vec x = (\vec v_i + \vec a t )dt $$

The last step was got by substituting the result from the previous derivation. Intergrating,

$$ \int_{x_i}^{x_f} dx =  \int_{0}^{t} (\vec v_i + \vec a t ), dt $$

$$ \vec x_f - \vec x_f = \vec v_i t + 1/2 \vec a t $$

V-X Relation
$$\ \vec v d \vec v / d \vec x = \vec a $$

$$\ \vec v d \vec v = \vec a d \vec x $$

Intergrating

$$\ \int_{v_i}^{v_f} \vec v, d \vec v = \int_{x_i}^{x_f} \vec a, d \vec x $$

$$\ 1/2(v_f ^2 - v_i ^2) = \vec a. (x_f - x_i) $$

$$\ v_f ^2 = v_i ^ 2 + 2 \vec a. (x_f - x_i) $$

Here $$ x_f - x_i $$ is nothing but the displacement of the body, and is substituted by the term $$ \vec s $$. So the final formula is,

$$\ v_f ^2 - v_i ^2 = 2 \vec a. \vec s $$

One very important thing that must be noted here is that the terms $$ v_f ^2 $$ and $$ v_i ^2 $$ are  not  the vector quantities, but the magnitude of the vector whole squared. Technically, it is: $$ v_f ^2 = \vec v_f. \vec v_f $$, i.e the dot product. Another thing to note is that the term $$ 2 \vec a. \vec s $$ is again the dot product of the acceleration and the displacement.


text:
Rueda de Casino/Guapea

All the leaders face clockwise, and all the followers face anti-clockwise, one between each leader.

The leader takes the follower's right hand in his left, and does a mambo step, but reversed. The left foot goes back and the right goes forward, but not very far, as the follower will be in the way. The leader's right hand meets the follower's left at the same time as the right foot goes forward. They push against each other, and let go with the leader's right, follower's left. The leader's left keeps hold of the follower's right.

Meanwhile, the follower does normal mambo steps, except that the step forward is smaller, as the leader would be in the way of a bigger step.

title: Rueda de Casino/Guapea


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Episkey

Overview
Episkey is a healing charm that works well on broken bones. We see it used on facial injuries, but it may have other uses as well.

Extended Description
We first see this spell when it is used by Tonks on Harry's nose in the Hogwarts Express at the start of the sixth year. Harry later uses it to cure Demelza's mouth on the Quidditch pitch in that same year.

Analysis
Used as it is, this is clearly a healing spell, but we cannot be entirely certain as to its function. When Tonks uses it on Harry, it works to mend his nose which had just been broken by Draco Malfoy. Demelza's injury, caused by a thrown Quaffle, is not likely as severe, so probably does not include any broken bones, which implies more of a general healing spell rather than something specific to bones.

We must wonder somewhat about the necessity of visiting the Hospital Wing in cases of broken bones, if the spell to mend them is simple enough to be used by a sixth-year Charms student. (Our assumption is that this is a Charm, as the nature of the thing acted on does not change; it is still, for example, a nose, just one that is no longer broken.) We cannot argue the need for the Hospital Wing, as magical injuries so often seem to be more severe than a simple broken bone, but there should have been no need for Neville to go to the Hospital Wing for his broken wrist after he fell off his broomstick. It is possible that Madam Hooch is unable to work this charm, she may not have reached NEWT-level in Charms, but this is not explained.


text:
User talk:Fir0002~enwikibooks

Welcome Fir!!!
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Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
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title: User talk:Fir0002~enwikibooks


text:
Medical Informatics/MUMPS

Mumps
Mumps (also referred to as 'M') is a general purpose programming language that supports a native hierarchical data base facility. It is supported by a large user community (mainly biomedical), and a diversified installed application software base. The language originated in the mid-60's at the Massachusetts General Hospital and it became widely used in both clinical and commercial settings. A dwindling number of implementations exist for the language. There have been ANSI, ISO (ISO/IEC 11756:1992) and DOD approved standards for Mumps.

As originally conceived, Mumps differed from other mini-computer based languages of the late 1960's by providing: 1) an easily manipulated hierarchical (multi-dimensional) data base that was well suited to representing medical records; 2) flexible string handling support; and (3) multiple concurrent tasks in limited memory on very small machines. Syntactically, Mumps is based on an earlier language named JOSS and has an appearance that is similar to early versions of Basic that were also based on JOSS.

See also MUMPS

See also Mumps By Example

See also M Technology Association of the UK & Ireland

See also Annotate Mumps Standards

The Mumps Compiler
See The Mumps Compiler Manual

See The MDH Toolkit

See Mumps Compiler/MDH Downloads

Intersystems Cache'
See Cache' Overview

See Free Single User Download

See Cache Online Documentation

GT.M Mumps
See Sanchez GT.M (Fidelity Information Systems)

See GT.M Online Manual

See SourceForge GT.M Distributions

O'Kane 15:27, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Medical Informatics/MUMPS