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Wikijunior:Europe/Portugal

Portugal is a country in south western Europe. It shares borders with Spain only. The capital city is Lisbon. The other big city in Portugal is Porto. Portugal has been a member of the European Union since 1986 and uses the Euro as its currency.

Portugal's History
The history of Portugal is much intertwined with Spain's except for a few but important differences. The Romans first ruled Iberia (the peninsula that is now the main territory of Portugal and Spain), one could attribute first nationalistic movement of that part of Iberia to a group of tribes that lived on what is today Portugal and Galicia (a region of Spain) that actively opposed Roman occupation over that territory, their leader was called Viriathus, he was later assassinated and Rome was then able to take over, until collapse of the Roman Empire. Iberia, especially what is now Portugal due to the large coastline, was then prey to a succession of invasion by barbaric tribes. The Visigoths took control of Iberia but it was then invaded by the moors (a group of North Africans, mostly Muslims) in 711. They completely conquered Portugal but they did not conquer Northern Spain (mostly Christian). Soon these tiny kingdoms would start to push into Moorish Spain this reconquest would be called “la Reconquista”. Portugal was created by his first King, Afonso Henrique Henriques in recent reclaimed territory, by revolting against his mother Queen Teresa, finally leading to Portugal's independence in 1139, but the Reconquista didn't end till 1492. Due to the close family tree of the monarchs, Portugal was several times under the same ruler as Spain (most leading to active opposition and armed conflict). Between 1595 and 1663 it was one of the greatest empires. In 1663, Portugal was again independent. Later its colonies would gain independence. First Brazil in 1825 then Angola, Guinea and Mozambique in 1974 followed by East Timor in 1975 and finally Macao was returned to China in 1999.

Portugal's Geography
Portugal has a Mediterranean climate with warm winters and hot summers.

Mount Pico at 2,351 metres is the country's highest mountain. It is located on Pico, one of the islands of The Azores. There are a number of mountains in the north of the country and the Portuguese like to go skiing in the region during the winter months.

Animals which exist in Portugal but are rare in the rest of Europe include the Iberian lynx and the Iberian wolf.

Portugal's People
The majority of people living in Portugal are ethnic Portuguese but nowadays there are small minorities of people from Brazil, Ukraine, Romania, Russia as well as many people from former Portuguese colonies in Asia and Africa (Cape Verde, Angola).

The language of Portugal is Portuguese.

Although Portugal has one of the lowest incomes in the European Union (lower than many newer EU countries), it has a very high standard of living. The majority of people in Portugal are Christian, mostly Roman Catholic.

Portugal's Sights
Portugal is a very popular tourist destination partly because of its hot summer climate. Over 12 million tourists visit the country every year with most coming from Spain, the United Kingdom and Germany. The Algarve region and the capital, Lisbon, are the country's most popular destinations for foreign visitors. Lisbon is Europe's second most popular city for tourists (after Barcelona in Spain).

Portugal has thirteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These sites are considered places that are especially important in the world for cultural, scientific, historical or geographical reasons. Some of the sites include the historical centres of Évora and Porto and the Monastery of the Hieronymites in Lisbon.

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Portugal


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User talk:69.211.79.115

Hey there!
I'm Monk, and I work on the East Coast Swing book occasionally. Today I noticed that you recently edited the book.. It seemed like you were just experimenting with using wikibooks, and that's all right. I thought I'd drop in and point you in the right direction.

 * Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
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 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:69.211.79.115


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Wikijunior:Europe/Liechtenstein

Liechtenstein is a tiny country in central Europe and is one of the smallest countries in the world. It shares borders with Austria and Switzerland. The capital city is Vaduz. It is not part of the European Union and uses Switzerland's currency, the Swiss Franc, as its currency.

Liechtenstein's History
Liechtenstein had many advances in the 19th century. In 1836, the first factory was opened. In 1861, the Savings and Loans Bank was founded, as was the first cotton-weaving mill. Two bridges over the Rhine were built in 1868, and in 1872 a railway line across Liechtenstein was constructed. Liechtenstein follows a policy of neutrality and is one of few countries in the world to have no army. In 1866 Liechtenstein became permanently independent from the German Empire and has been a completely independent country ever since. In the years after World War II, during which Liechtenstein remained neutral, the country became richer because of low taxes and attractive laws for businesses. Today Liechtenstein is a tax haven with many wealthy people and big corporations having bank accounts in the tiny country. Liechtenstein's people have one of the highest standards of living in the world. During the Cold War Liechtenstein remained neutral.

}

Liechtenstein's Geography
Liechtenstein is the fourth smallest country in Europe, after the Vatican City, Monaco, and San Marino. Liechtenstein is located in the Upper Rhine valley of the European Alps. The entire western border of Liechtenstein is formed by the river. In winter, the mountain slopes are well suited to winter sports.

The highest mountain in Liechtenstein is Grauspitz at 2,599 m. Liechtenstein is one of only two double landlocked countries in the world (with the other being Uzbekistan); this means that Liechtenstein is landlocked (it has no coast) and all countries surrounding Liechtenstein (Austria and Switzerland) are landlocked too.

Liechtenstein's People
Only 36,000 people live in Liechtenstein. Its population is made up of mostly ethnic Alemannic, although its resident population is approximately one third foreign-born, primarily German speakers from the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, Swiss, Italians, and Turks. Foreign-born people make up two-thirds of the country's workforce. Nationals are referred to by the plural: Liechtensteiners. The official language is German. Most of the population is Roman Catholic but 5% of people living in the country are Muslim.

Liechtenstein's Sights
Because Liechtenstein is a small country there are not many tourists. Business people and wealthy individuals visit the country for financial reasons and some curious tourists come just because they want to visit one of the smallest countries in the world.

Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein, the national museum, is a popular site for locals and tourists who make it to the country. Vaduz Castle (see the image above) and Gutenberg Castle are popular for cultural reasons and it is possible to go skiing in Liechtenstein's high mountains.

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Liechtenstein


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Wikijunior:Europe/Denmark

Denmark is a country in northern Europe. It shares a border with Germany and is connected to Sweden by a road and rail bridge. Denmark is made up of a mainland and hundreds of islands. The capital city is Copenhagen. Other big cities in Denmark are Århus and Odense. Denmark has been a member of the European Union since 1973 and uses the Danish Krone as its currency.

Denmark's realms extend well beyond the few islands and peninsulas it makes up in Scandinavia. The Realm of Denmark or the Kingdom of Denmark also includes Greenland, the world's largest non-continental island and the Faroe Islands, an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. Both the Faroe Islands and Greenland have a considerable level of autonomy, but are both a part of the Nordic council, use the Danish Krone as their currency, and observe the Danish monarch as their head of state.

Denmark's History
People have lived in Denmark since around 12,500 BCE. Over time, the original population mixed with people from other parts of Scandinavia (a region consisting of Denmark, Sweden and Norway proper), the British Isles (UK and Ireland) and other nearby countries. Between the 8th and 10th century CE The Vikings (the name the Danish were known as at this time) invaded, traded with, discovered and fought people in other parts of Europe and North America. The Vikings discovered North America in the 10th century—over 400 years before Christopher Columbus (see Vinland).

In later centuries, Denmark was closely associated with neighbouring countries and there was for many hundreds of years a union between Denmark, Sweden and Norway. In the late 19th century, Denmark had a period of cultural growth with the famous storyteller Hans Christian Andersen and the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard producing their most famous works. During World War II, Denmark was controlled by Germany's army (or "occupied") while its main colonies of Greenland and Iceland were occupied by the British and the USA. After the war, Iceland became an independent country while Greenland became an autonomous region.

Denmark has been a member of the European Union since 1973 joining at the same time as the UK and Ireland.

Denmark's Geography
Denmark has thousands of islands, including 443 which are named. Denmark is a very flat country and its highest mountain is Møllehøj, at 171 metres. Because of Denmark's indented coast and thousands of islands, Denmark has a coastline of over 7,300 kilometres. The climate in Denmark is temperate and the country experiences cold winters and moderate summers.

The Øresund Bridge connects the island of Zealand (where the capital is located) with Sweden measuring almost 8 km in total. No location in Denmark is more than 52 km from the sea.

Denmark's People
Just over 5.8 million people live in Denmark. The majority of people in Denmark are of Danish descent. There are small minorities from South Asia and the Middle East and Inuit people from Greenland and the Faroe Islands (both territories are possessions of Denmark). The national language is Danish, which is similar to English. Most Danes also speak English.

Around 83% of the population are Lutheran Christians and 3.7% are Muslim.

The most popular sports in Denmark are football, sailing, badminton, and handball.

Like many other countries in northern Europe, Denmark is a monarchy but the king or queen does not have any real political power. The ruler as of 2022 is Queen Margrethe II.

Denmark's Sights
Denmark is a popular destination for tourists and is very popular for short trips for visitors from Sweden, Norway, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Denmark's many sandy beaches attract large numbers of Germans and the capital city Copenhagen is popular with others especially tourists from the UK and Sweden—often because of the quality beers and lower taxes compared to Sweden. The popular Roskilde Festival attracts music fans from all over Europe every summer.

Denmark is home to 3 UNESCO World Heritage Sites including: Kronborg Castle and Roskilde Cathedral.

title: Wikijunior:Europe/Denmark


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Cookbook:Pumpkin Risotto

| American cuisine | Holiday | Rice

Ingredients

 * 1½ pounds (650 g) pumpkin or winter squash, whole
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * 6 grinds freshly cracked black pepper
 * 1 bunch fresh marjoram, chopped (some reserved for garnish)
 * 2 cloves garlic, peeled and thickly sliced
 * 5 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil, divided
 * 1 quart (120 ml) chicken stock/broth
 * 10 tablespoons unsalted butter at room temperature, divided
 * 1 medium red onion, finely diced
 * 1½ cups (360 g) risotto rice
 * 5 tablespoons extra-dry white vermouth
 * 1½ cups (360 g) Parmiggiano Reggiano, finely grated, plus extra to sprinkle at the table

Preparation

 * 1) Preheat oven to 425°F (210°C).
 * 2) Remove seeds and fiber from inside the pumpkin and cut into chunks. Place skin side down on a baking pan brushed with a little olive oil. Season with salt and pepper, scatter the marjoram and garlic over the pieces, cover with foil and bake about 45 minutes, or until soft.
 * 3) Remove from oven and allow to cool. Cut the flesh from skin into small cubes and reserve the baking juices.
 * 4) Heat the chicken stock and check for seasoning.
 * 5) Melt 6 tablespoons butter and 2 tablespoons olive oil in a wide, heavy-bottomed sauté pan or pot. Add onion and gently sauté until soft. Add rice and stir until completely covered in oil. Then, add vermouth and stir until it is absorbed by the rice.
 * 6) Turn heat to medium-high and begin adding stock, ½ cup (120 ml) at a time, and stir until stock is completely absorbed by the rice. Continue this process until all the stock is incorporated.
 * 7) Stir in remaining butter in small pieces, pumpkin with its juices, and cheese. Serve immediately with a sprinkle of cheese and fresh marjoram to garnish.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Risotto rice refers to plump, medium grain rice that contains a lot of starch. Arborio or Carnaroli rices are traditionally best. Other rices that work well include Roma, Vialone, Nano and Maratelli.

title: Cookbook:Pumpkin Risotto


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User talk:216.255.199.45

Xania 22:25, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.255.199.45


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Talk:Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing

Time to structure East Coast Swing.
Alright, I've been working on this book for a while now (about half of the content on East Coast Swing is my own writing, sadly. C'mon. Need some contributors, people! I don't want people to be doing a step wrong nobody checked an error in my work!), and the book has reached a point where it needs to be broken down into chapters. The book needs some style and direction, too. As we're having a bit of an editing lull on this book, I think now would be a good time to do so.

I don't know exactly how I want this book to be structured, and like with most writing, it's best to go over it a few times. But you have to start somewhere, so I will be structuring it. I realize the first structure isn't going to be perfect, and may not be the optimal layout, so I'm going to try to keep it somewhat flexible. Feel free to make reasonable changes.

What wouldn't be a reasonable change? (Answer: writing plans in the book)
One thing I think would be a bad idea, though, would be if people made a bunch of "to-create" chapters or sections on the table of contents. Such an exercise is normally useless, and gives the impression that Neither of these are true, and creating an unfilled table of contents, is scary and unnecessary. I figure that, until we have most of the book's content written down (not necessarily copyedited), there's no real point in laying out on the table of contents what we haven't done. Add the chapter after you've started writing it.
 * 1) This project is way too huge and intimidating for any normal human to work on.
 * 2) That there are already plenty of people working on the project actively, and that it's got all the help it needs.

Until then, if it's very important for you to mentally organize what you want to get done with this book, please write such plans on this talk page, and not in the book, or within the structure of the book itself. You don't have to actually implement the suggestions yourself. If you don't feel up to editing, don't worry. Your feedback is appreciated anyway. Good to know what I'm doing right and what I'm doing wrong.

The corrolary is that if you do feel like contributing, then by all means, go ahead. I don't know everything there is to know about swing, and I could sure use some help.

title: Talk:Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing


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IB Biology/Nucleic Acids and Proteins

DNA Structure
'''Describe the structure of DNA, including the anti-parallel strands, 3’–5’ linkages and hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines. '''
 * DNA has a double stranded helix which has uniform diameter along its entire length

 * Both helices are right handed which allows it to fit within a defined three dimensional space.

 * Two polynucleotide chains are 'anti-parallel', running in opposite directions.

 * The polynucleotides are form around the outside of the helix with the bases extending into the centre.

 * Polynucleotide chains are linked by the bases (in centre) hydrogen bonding with bases on the opposite polynucleotide.

 * The hydrogen bonding is specific and known as complementary base pairing.

Outline the structure of nucleosomes.
 * A nucleosome is a section of DNA wrapped around eight smaller protein molecules called histones. Another histone seals the octamer of histones to the DNA double strand molecule.

 * DNA is bonded to proteins called Histones.

 * Nucleosomes enable the DNA molecule to be super coiled to make chromosomes about 8000 times smaller in length.

 * A nucleosome is a basic unit of DNA packaging. It consists of eight histones (histone is a kind of protein) with the DNA double helix wrapped around it. This "bead' is fastened onto the "string" of DNA by another histone.

 * The combination of DNA and histones is secured by the 'H1 linker'

State that only a small proportion of the DNA in the nucleus constitutes genes and that the majority of DNA consists of repetitive sequences.

 * Only a small proportion of the DNA in the nucleus constitutes genes and that the majority of DNA consists of repetitive sequences.

Describe the structure of DNA including the anti-parallel strands, 3'-5' linkages and hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines.

 * The sides of the ladder of DNA consist of alternating phosphate groups and deoxyribose (a sugar). The two sides are anti-parallel, meaning that the sugar and phosphates are running in opposite directions (one looks "upside down"). Each side has a 5' end and a 3' end. If a strand is structured from 3' to 5', that means that the sugar-phosphate backbone runs from sugar to phosphate. Since the sides are anti-parallel, one side goes in the 3' to 5' direction, and the other goes in the 5' to 3' direction. There are two types of nucleotides, pyrimidines and purines. Pyrimidines hydrogen bond to purines to create the rungs of the DNA ladder.

 * Thymine and cytosine are pyrimidines, adenine and guanine are purines.

DNA Replication
State that DNA replication occurs in a 5' to 3' direction.

 * DNA replication occurs in a 5' to 3' direction.

'''Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes including the role of enzymes (helicase, DNA polymerase III, RNA primase, DNA polymerase I, and DNA ligase), Okazaki fragments and deoxynucleoside triphosphates. '''
 * The process of replication begins at specific nucleotide sequences called the origins of replication on the DNA strand. It is at these points that helicase splits the DNA into its two anti-parallel strands. On the strand running in the 5'--->3' direction, DNA polymerase III latches on at one end of the opening, called the replication bubble, and begins to continuously lay a new DNA strand from free nucleotides in the nucleus. As always, an exact copy of the now-detached strand is formed from this template due to base-pairing rules. At the same time DNA polymerase III is laying new DNA, helicase is continuing to split the strands, thus allowing replication to continue uninterrupted. On the opposite strand running 3'--->5', replication is not so simple. Because new strands have to be laid in the 5'---3' direction, DNA polymerase III cannot lay continuously as it can on the other strand. Instead, RNA primase lays short segments of RNA primer nucleotides at many points along the strand. Polymerase III fills in between the RNA primers with DNA nucleotides, until it comes into contact with another RNA primer. DNA polymerase I replaces the RNA primer with DNA. Although the lagging strand is completely made up of DNA nucleotides, between the RNA primer points that are now replaced by DNA nucleotides there are small gaps; these segments of DNA are called Okazaki fragments. Once these fragments have been laid, they are joined by yet another enzyme known as DNA ligase, which attaches DNA into the gaps between fragments and completes the new strand. The 3'--->5' strand with Okazaki fragments is called the lagging strand, while the leading strand is the continuously replicating one.

State that in eukaryotic chromosomes, replication is initiated at many points.

 * In eukaryotic chromosomes, replication is initiated at many points.

Transcription
Define Transcription

 * Transcription - is the synthesis of a strand RNA using a strand of the DNA as a template. An enzyme (RNA polymerase) moves along the DNA strand, temporarily unwinding the double strands. Nucleotides attach to the template strand and elongate the forming RNA strand. The building RNA strand is separated from the DNA as the enzyme moves along the DNA, and the DNA rewinds. RNA differs from DNA in composition, where all instances of thymine are replaced by uracil.

State that transcription is carried out in a 5' to 3' direction.
 * Transcription is carried out in a 5' to 3' direction (from phosphate to sugar). The 5' end (phosphate) of the RNA nucleotide is added to the 3' end (sugar) of the part of the RNA molecule which has already been synthesized.

Explain the process of transcription in prokaryotes including the role of the promoter region, RNA polymerase, nucleoside triphosphates and the terminator.
 * RNA polymerase separates the two strands of the DNA and bonds the RNA nucleotides when the base-pair joins to the DNA template.
 * RNA polymerase binds to parts of the DNA called promoters in order for separation of DNA strands to occur.
 * Transcription proceeds as nucleoside triphosphates (type of nucleotide) bind to the DNA template and are joined by RNA polymerase in the 5' to 3' direction.
 * Transcription ends when RNA polymerase reaches a termination site on the DNA. When it reaches the terminator, the RNA polymerase releases the RNA strand.

Distinguish between the sense and antisense strands of DNA
 * The sense strand is the coding strand and has the same base sequence as the mRNA (with uracil instead of thymine). The antisense strand is transcribed and has the same base sequence as tRNA.
 * The sense strand is also called the non-template strand, and the antisense strand is also called the template strand.

State that eukaryotic RNA needs the removal of introns to form mature mRNA.
 * Eukaryotic RNA needs the removal of introns to form mature mRNA. This is because the introns are Highly Repetitive Sequences, or non-coding sequences.
 * Introns contain nucleotides that do not code for amino acids.
 * After introns are removed after transcription and before translation, the exons are joined. This process is called splicing.

State that reverse transcriptase catalyses the production of DNA from RNA.
 * Reverse transcriptase catalyses the production of DNA from RNA. This helps to show the aspects of the DNA viral life cycle to that of the AIDS virus (an RNA virus).

Explain how reverse transcriptase is used in molecular biology.
 * This enzyme can make DNA from mature mRNA (eg insulin) which can then be spliced into host's (eg bacteria) DNA without the introns. Then when the host's DNA is transcribed, proteins like insulin are made.
 * It is important that the DNA created by reverse transcriptase have no introns, because the host does not have the genes (and therefore proteins) necessary to remove the introns.

Translation
Explain how the structure of tRNA allows recognition by a tRNA-activating enzyme that binds a specific amino acid to tRNA, using ATP for energy.
 * Each amino acid has a specific tRNA-activating enzyme that help to tRNA to combine with its complementary mRNA codon. The enzyme has a 3-part active site that recognizes three things: a specific amino acid, ATP, and a specific tRNA. The enzyme attaches the amino acid to the 3' end of the tRNA. The amino acid attachment site is always the base triple CCA.
 * It is important to note that each tRNA molecule can attach to one specific amino acid, but an amino acid can have a few tRNA molecules with which is can combine.

Outline the structure of ribosomes including protein and RNA composition, large and small subunits, three tRNA binding sites and mRNA binding sites.
 * A ribosome consists of two subunits: small and large. These two subunits separate when they are not in use for protein synthesis.
 * In eukaryotes, the large subunit consists of three different molecules of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and about 45 different protein molecules. A small subunit consists of one rRNA molecule and 33 different protein molecules.
 * A ribosome can produce all kinds of proteins. It has a mRNA binding site, and two tRNA binding sites where the tRNA are in contact with the mRNA.

State that translation consists of initiation, elongation, and termination.
 * Translation consists of initiation, elongation, and termination.

State that translation occurs in a 5' to 3' direction.
 * Translation occurs in a 5' to 3' direction, the ribosome moves along the mRNA toward the 3' end.
 * The start codon is nearer to the 5' end than the stop codon.

Explain the process of translation including ribosomes, polysomes, start codons, and stop codons.
 * Initiation: Once the RNA reaches the cytoplasm, it attaches its 5' end to the small subunit of the ribosome. AUG is called the start codon (remember: codon is a base triple on the mRNA) because it initiates the translation process. The anticodon on one end of a tRNA molecule is complementary to a specific codon on the mRNA, meaning that the anticodon and the codon bond by hydrogen bonds. The codon AUG hydrogen bonds with a tRNA molecule holding the amino acid methionine (the initiator tRNA). The large ribosomal subunit has two tRNA binding sites: the P site and the A site. tRNA molecules in these sites attach to the mRNA "conveyor belt". tRNA molecules move from the A site to the P site (because the mRNA moves that way), so when initiation is done the initiator tRNA is in the P site.
 * Elongation: Another tRNA (let's call it tRNA "X") carrying a specific amino acid attaches itself to the next codon at the A site of the larger subunit. These two amino acids (methionine and the amino acid on X) now make a peptide bond with each other. The initiator tRNA breaks off and tRNA X moves from the A site to the P site. Then another tRNA molecule (tRNA "Y") attaches to the codon in the A site. The amino acid that is attached to tRNA Y makes a peptide bond with the amino acid from tRNA X. The codon keeps moving through the ribosome in a 5' to 3' direction (from A to P). (In actuality, it is the ribosome that is moving across the mRNA chain.) This makes the A site vacant for another tRNA to attach a new amino acid etc. etc.
 * Termination: The stop codon is one that does not code for an amino acid and that terminates the translation process. The polypeptide is released and the mRNA fragments return to the nucleus. These nucleotides are recycled and used for RNA and DNA synthesis. tRNA also is returned to its free state and attaches to its specific amino acid so as to be ready for the translation process when needed.

State that free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell and that bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for lysosomes.
 * Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell and bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for lysosomes.

Proteins
Explain the four levels of protein structure, indicating each level's significance.
 * The primary structure is the basic order of amino acids in the polypeptide protein chain, before any folding or bonding between amino acids has occurred. Proteins are usually not functional on the primary level, and all proteins have a primary structure.
 * The secondary structure is the repeated, regular structure protein chains take due to hydrogen bonding between amino acids. The secondary structure is usually in the form of an alpha helix (similar to a DNA chromosome) or a beta- pleated sheet (similar in form to the corrugations of cardboard).

Alpha helix is due to hydrogen bonding within one polypeptide chain, while the beta pleated sheet is due to hydrogen bonding between separate polypeptide chains.
 * The third structure is the tertiary structure. It is the complex, three-dimensional protein shape resulting from the folding of the polypeptide due to different types of bonds between the amino acids. These bonds include hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages and electrovalent bonds. A disulphide linkage is where one of the amino acids, cysteine, contains sulfur. Two of these can have a bond between their sulfur atoms which results in a disulphide linkage which leads to a folding in the chain. An electrovalent bond is between the negative and positive molecules or amino acid groups along the chain.
 * The quaternary structure is the most complicated form of a protein. It encompasses the primary, secondary and tertiary, and then adds another level: the quaternary is one or more peptide chains bonded together. This is the functional form of many proteins, but again, just as not all proteins have secondary or tertiary structure, not all proteins have a quaternary structure. For a common example of a quaternary-structured protein, see hemoglobin.

Outline the difference between fibrous and globular proteins, with reference to two examples of each protein type.
 * Fibrous proteins are in their secondary structure, which could be in the alpha helix or beta pleated forms. They are made of a repeated sequence of amino acids that can be coiled tightly around in a pattern that makes it a very strong structure. Two examples are keratin (in hair and skin) and collagen (in tendons, cartilage, and bones).
 * Globular proteins are in their tertiary or quaternary structure, which is folded, creating a globular, three-dimensional shape. Two examples are all enzymes and microtubules (form centrioles, cilia, flagella, and cytoskeleton).

Explain the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids.
 * Non-polar amino acids have non-polar (neutrally charged) R groups. Polar amino acids have R chains with polar groups (charged either positive or negative). Proteins with a lot of polar amino acids make the proteins hydrophyllic and therefore able to dissolve in water. Proteins with many non-polar amino acids are more hydrophobic and are less soluble in water. With these abilities, proteins fold themselves so that the hydrophilic ones are on the inner side and allow hydrophilic molecules and ions to pass in and out of the cells through the channels they form. These channels are vital passages for many substances in and out of the cell.

State six functions of proteins, giving a named example of each.
 * One function is transport. An example is hemoglobin, which transports oxygen around the body within a blood cell.
 * Another function is the contraction of muscles. An example is actin and myosin which are involved in the contraction of muscles.
 * Enzymes are all proteins and catalyze reactions. Some examples are trypsin and amylase.
 * Some hormones are proteins. An example is insulin, a hormone secreted by the pancreas which is used to regulate blood sugar levels.
 * Another function is antibodies that fight against disease are made of proteins.
 * The sixth function is support through structural proteins. Examples include nails (keratin) or tendons (collagen).
 * Note that membrane proteins should not be included.

Enzymes
State that metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme- catalysed reactions.
 * Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme catalysed reactions.

Describe the induced fit model.
 * This is an extension of the lock-and-key model. It accounts for the broad specificity of some enzymes. The induced fit model of enzymes states that the active site of an enzyme does not fit perfectly with the substrate, as would a lock and key. Instead, the fit is not quite perfect; thus when a substrate collides with an enzyme and enters the active site, the substrate is stressed in a way that allows its bonds to break easier. When another collision occurs with the substrate in the active site, the bonds are then broken and the substrate released. Enzymes can process reactions such as this very rapidly.

Explain that enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse.
 * All reactions, either with or without enzymes, need collisions between molecules in order to occur. Many molecules have strong bonds holding them together, and as such require powerful collisions at high speed in order to break these bonds. However, increasing the rate of collision to a rate at which these reactions would occur would require prohibitive amounts of energy, usually in the form of heat. Enzymes, by stressing substrate bonds in such a way that a weaker collision is required to break them, reduce the amount of energy needed to cause these reactions to occur, or the activation energy.

Explain the difference between competitive and non-competitive inhibition, with reference to one example of each.
 * Competitive inhibition occurs when an inhibiting molecule structurally similar to the substrate molecule binds to the active site, preventing substrate binding. Examples are the inhibition of butanedioic acid (succinate) dehydrogenase by propanedioic acid (malonate) in the Krebs cycle, and inhibition of Folic Acid synthesis in bacteria by the sulfonamide prontosil (an antibiotic).
 * Non-competitive are an inhibitor molecule binding to an enzyme (not to its active site) that causes a conformational change in its active site, resulting in a decrease in activity. Examples include Hg, Ag, Cu and CN inhibition of many enzymes (eg cytochrome oxidase) by binding to SH groups, thereby breaking -S-S- linkages; and nerve gases like Sarin and DFP (diisopropyl fluorophosphate) inhibiting ethanyl (acetyl) cholinesterase.

Explain the role of allostery in the control of metabolic pathways by end product inhibition.
 * Allostery is a form of non-competitive inhibition. The shape of allosteric enzymes can be altered by the binding of end products of an enzyme to an allosteric site (an area of the enzyme separate from the active site), thereby decreasing its activity. Metabolites, a type of allosteric inhibitor, can act as allosteric inhibitors of enzymes earlier in a metabolic pathway and regulate metabolism according to the requirements of organisms; they are a form of negative feedback. Examples include ATP inhibition of phosphofructokinase in glycolysis and inhibition of aspartate carbamoyltransferase (ATCase) which catalyses the first step in pyrimidine synthesis.

title: IB Biology/Nucleic Acids and Proteins


text:
Talk:Map This!

As this is Wikibooks and all books should have the appearance of a book, it might be a good idea to split this book into parts on separate pages. This will make it more book-like and help readers also. Xania 22:52, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Map This!


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Stars/Nearest neighbor

The Earth's nearest celestial neighbor is the Moon, which has an average distance from the Earth of about 240,000 miles (386,000 kilometers).

|


text:
Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing/Intro

Prologue: Welcome to East Coast Swing.

How to use this book

Take Lessons!
To be blunt: you can not learn how to dance from a book. Even a book with illustrations will not make you into a skilled dancer. Practice and getting to know the movement of your body is one thing. But if you really want to dance well, you would be wise to take lessons. The benefits to taking lessons are numerous. The key benefit is that a book is guaranteed to miss things. Many dance moves have nuances to positioning and style that a book cannot accurately describe. A dance teacher will often have knowledge and experience, the kind that cannot fully be conferred through a book or pictures.

The many benefits, summarized:

 * You get to see moves in action.
 * You can ask questions of the dance teacher on how to perform certain moves if you are unsure.
 * Most of the time, dance lessons are small enough that a dance teacher is able to pay attention to you personally and help you out on what you're having trouble with, or something you're missing.
 * Other dancers are able to catch mistakes that you would normally have trouble noticing yourself.
 * Dance instructors are often connected to, or know of, dance locales and the dance scene in your town.
 * Dancing is fun! Dancing with others doubles the fun!
 * You get a feel for dancing, and what dancing is actually like.

The difference between reading words on a page and actually getting out there and learning from a professional how to dance is huge. You will thank yourself later. Lessons are rarely so expensive as to be unaffordable (Average for public lessons is more or less $5-6 per person per hour, but prices will surely vary per studio).

Although private, one-on-one lessons may be tempting, if you are just starting dance, you would be wise to ignore them in favor of public lessons. Some dancers believe that they will become a better dancer if begin with private lessons, because they will get more individual attention. This does not necessarily prove true. Although a private lesson will get you more individual attention, it may discourage you from dancing for the following dancers:
 * 1) Private lessons take more out of your pocket weekly. This does not encourage perseverence.
 * 2) Private lessons are, more often than public lessons, better for dancers with months and months of experience looking to hone their skills. Private lessons can be very intensive. If you're just starting dance, private lessons may burn you out if you don't have an extremely upbeat, positive, or determined attitude.
 * 3) With a private lesson, it is very easy to quit out of laziness. There will be times when you're just exhausted and don't feel like dancing. In a public lesson, you will meet and make friends, or at least good acquaintances. Like having jogging buddies, when you have colleagues expecting you, the pressure to show up and fulfill your promises to yourself is higher. This will keep you diligent.
 * 4) In a public lesson, you'll have a lot more fun and variety when you're dancing with more than one person, it's nice to have someone else who's not an expert around.

That's not to say private lessons are useless. They can be fantastic for increasing your performance and ability in dance. But if you are taking your first ever dance lessons, public lessons can provide you with fun, connections, and encouragement to continue dancing.

A note about move names
Traditionally in ballroom dance, and in east coast swing, the leader is male, and the follower female. We will use this precedent when discussing lead and follower moves simply for the sake of clarity. This is not bigotry, males and females are fully capable of filling either role, it's simply a way to ease explanation of dance moves. In this book, we will assume the leader is a "he" and the follower a "she," because it is easier to write and understand "The leader positions his arm to his left and spins the follower around to her right" than to say "The leader positions the leader's arm to the leader's left 1'o and spins the follower around to the follower's right."

Also, dance moves, although the names vary, have common names. Dance has dated back hundreds of years, and traditionally, dance moves are named after what the lead does. This tradition has not been broken in east coast swing. When you hear the name of a move, it probably refers to what the lead does during the move. The exception is when you hear "follower's" in the name. Move names starting with "Follower's" are, predictably, hints as to how the follower moves.

title: Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing/Intro


text:
Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing/Starting Out

Starting Out East Coast Swing

The Simplest Step
First I'll talk about the lead, then the follow is the mirror.

First, get comfortable counting evenly to six. Once you've got that down, here's how you would move on each count. Before we start, your feet should be no more than shoulder-width apart, and neither in front of or behind each other.

Lead

1. Step left. The classic rookie mistake is to step too far. Take the tiniest step you can. Even just play around with shifting your weight left.

2. Relax!

3. Step right.

4. Relax!

5. Move your left foot to the side and a bit behind your right foot and shift your weight to your left foot.

6. Keep both feet on the floor, but shift your weight from your back left foot to your front right.

You're done with your first swing step! Now, repeat the same sequence again. But in the very first step, when you step left, step slightly forward as well, using that step to get your feet laterally aligned again.

Now, those steps can be replaced later with fancier moves like triple steps, or shuffle steps, or any of that, but if you master this really basic rhythym, you'll be well prepared for that.

Follow Just to clarify for the follows, the footwork is:

Beats 1-2 Right

Beats 3-4 Left

Beat 5 Step back with Right

Beat 6 Shift weight to Left

What to do with your partner
The lead's left hand should hold follow's right hand. Hold in a light grip at waist level. Your left arm should be loose and relaxed.

Lead's right hand is on follow's lower back, or, holding follow's left hand. In general, lead communicates and guides mostly with the left hand.

Practice
Practice minimizing the steps and translating them into lighter, shifting-weight motions. Also, with your partner, try rotating around together.

Play around with not even using your left hand, and communicating entirely through shifting your partner's weight in the desired direction using the connection between your right hand and your partners shoulder. During this exercise, remember that weight changes in swing dancing are led from the center of the body. Both leads and follows: avoid moving your feet, knees, hips or shoulders first and following with your body. Instead, shift your weight from your center of balance, or core (which is near the belly button for both men and women). Thinking about weight changes in this way will help your dancing develop a smooth feel, and will strengthen your ability to lead and/or follow.

Terminology (essential)
Now that the basic of swing has been introduced, it would be a good idea to establish some common vocabulary. All of these words are already available in the swing glossary, but these words in particular are ones that you definitely need to learn for swing basics. The approach we will take here is presenting new words to you progressively, a few at a time, in preparation for learning a new move. But for starters, we're going to have to introduce five different terms. These are the fundamentals when speaking swing.

 * Rock-Step
 * Swing steps have a slow-slow-quick-quick tempo, like foxtrot. On the left step you wait two counts, on the right step you take two counts, and both the rock step with the left foot and the right replace (where you step in place with the right foot after) take one count. However, when performing swing, it is often easier to use the traditional model of counting steps, which is the established form: one, two, rock step.

 * The clock
 * When locating your arms as a lead, visualize a clock, with 12'o'clock being holding your hand straight up in front of your partner, 3 at your right, 6 below and in front, and 9 to the left. This visualization is commonly used for communicating correct hand position.

Now we're going to learn some words for turning. Turning is a very dizzying subject, so we'll try to make our definitions as clear as possible, as to reduce confusion.

 * Pivot
 * To pivot is to turn. When you pivot, you spin on one foot, while the other foot goes around it in a circle. The foot you use as a pivot point is the foot you spin on. If you're using your left foot as a pivot point, your left foot should turn around, but should remain at roughly the same location on the floor. If you're pivoting to your right using your left foot, it means you are turning to your right using your left foot as a pivot point.

 * Inside Turn
 * A turn towards the center. Generally lead with the lead's left / follow's right hand.  This results in the follow turning counter-clockwise.

 * Outside Turn
 * A turn away from the center. Generally lead with the lead's left / follow's right hand.  This results in the follow turning clockwise.

Lead rock steps back, follow takes impulse to move forward. Lead steps out of way with step, and follow proceeds forward until she her arm is fully compressed, and uses the spring effect of the compressed arm to turn herself around, all while maintaining positive connection with the lead until she is fully turned around.
 * Walkthrough

Basic turns
Turns (and many other moves) typically occur during the first and second units, with the rock-steps delineating them.

Left Underarm turn
On "rock" count, lead raises his left arm to 11'o'clock (often the easiest angle) and "spins" the follower clockwise by moving his wrist. Lead raises left arm up, follow turns clockwise (to her right) underneath their arms, using her right foot as a pivot point.

By the time the next measure starts (when you step "one" again), the turn should be just about complete. However, if you maintained hand position over the turn, your hands will be "flipped" and opposite of the traditional position.

To restore the hands to the normal position, you can use an Right underarm turn right after on the next measure. However, if you're not ready, you can always just delay with the basic step. You are not limited to a particular follow-up after a left underarm turn. For example, this turn is a good setup for Charleston.

Remember: It is important to keep your hands loose and not maintain a tight grip in a turn; otherwise you may twist the follower's arm. Your hands may stay connected, but do not hold on too tightly.

Lead Step-By-Step

Remember that lead steps left, then right, then rock steps.

 * 1) lead raises left arm on fourth count.  That's the signal to your partner you want to turn.
 * 2) keep the left arm high.  (In closed position, use your right hand to gently guide your partner under your raised left hand.)
 * Rock step: just hang out as she turns.

Follow Step-By-Step

Remember that follow steps right, then left, then rock steps.

 * 1) Step right just like normal.  In general, since you're the follow, you wait for a signal from your lead, and react in the second unit (the third or fourth count).  Lead should make an obvious archway with your right arm for you to walk through.
 * 2) You still step with your left foot, but instead of stepping forward-left, now, step forward right and rotate yourself to your right.
 * Rock step: Pivot right on your right foot and put your left foot down behind you. Finish out the turn so you're facing your partner.

Tuck turn
1-2 rock open, leads shift hand to follow's left shoulder blade 3&4 compress on lead's left/follow's right, release on 4 5 & 6 spring off of compression into an outside free spin or outside underarm turn

Terminology (footwork)
These footwork terms are actually common dance terms. You may know them from somewhere else like Tango or merengue. If you've learned these terms before, don't worry about re-learning them: In swing, 'close' and 'replace' means the same thing it does in other dances.

 * Close
 * To close is to move one foot to the other so that they are right next to each other. For example, if you have your left foot out, and you are asked to close to your right, you keep your right foot where it is, and move your left food towards your right so they are side-by-side. After closing you should be standing over your two feet.

 * Replace
 * To replace a foot is to step in place. You pick a foot up and put it back down where it was. For example" if both your feet are side by side, and you're asked to "replace left" or "replace your left," you'd lift your left foot just a couple inches off the ground and put it back down. Like most moves, this usually takes a single count. Sometimes during a replace you don't lift your foot off the ground at all.

Triple Step
To keep swing dancing simple, and to acquaintance them more with the "feel" of the dance, new dancers are encouraged to "stick with the basic." However, once they are able to perform a few moves well, it is fine for them to move on to Triple step.

The Triple Step is interchangable with the Basic. That is, it uses the same 6-count, and can be used in replacement of the basic with barely any negative consequence on one's ability to perform the dance, and vice versa. Note however, that it it usually looks better if the step you're using is the same style as your partner's.

As usual, when you're starting from a normal position, your feet shouldn't be much more than shoulder-width apart, and neither in front of or behind each other.

Lead

1-2. Step left with your left foot as you would normally, but with about 1.5 times the speed. Close to your left foot with the same speed. Replace left with the same speed.

3-4. Do step above, but start with your right foot stepping right. Close to your right, and then replace right.

5. As in the basic, step back with your left foot and shift your weight to your left foot.

6. As in the basic, keep both feet on the floor, but shift your weight from your back left foot to your front right.

As you can see, the triple step is a bit more strenuous than the basic. If you're out of shape, you may feel a bit like you're trying to tapdance.

Often, a "triplet" of steps, (such as in counts 1-2) is done unevenly, for example the first is done slowly and the close and replace done after it are really fast. Ideally, each step should take the same amount of time: 2/3rds of a count. If the fraction is too intimidating, just think three steps in two counts.

The most common phrasing for the triple step can be sounded out by saying “One-a-two, Three-a-four.” This helps you keep the beat in your head while remembering to do the triple steps in time.

Follow Once again, to clarify for the follows, the footwork is:

Beats 1-2 Right, close to right, replace right

Beats 3-4 Left, close to left, replace left

Beat 5 Step back with Right

Beat 6 Shift weight to Left

Terminology (hand positioning)
We will now learn some of the variations on hand positioning.

 * Open-hand position
 * In this position, the lead is only holding the follower's right hand with his left hand.

 * Two-hand position
 * In this position, the lead and the follower are holding both hands. That is, the lead is, with his left hand, holding the follower's right hand, and with his right hand, holding the follower's left hand.

 * Closed position
 * This position is very similar to standard waltz or foxtrot position. For those unfamiliar:

 * Lead
 * Extend your right hand under the follower's arm and around to her left shoulder blade. Your left hand should be low, with elbow bent at about 90 degrees holding her hand.

 * Follower
 * The follower's left hand is put on the lead's right bicep, just below his sholder, her right hand hand should be low, with elbow bent at about 90 degrees holding his hand.

 * The movements taken during the basic are actually different in closed position, but we will not cover those right now.


text:
Swing Dancing/East Coast Swing/Intermediate

Intermediate moves
Let's introduce some symbols to quickly reference counts and motions you have probably become familiar with:

 * 1-2 is rock step
 * 3-4 is left step
 * 5-6 is right step
 * CW is clockwise
 * CCW is counter-clockwise

The Swayze
rock-step: On the forward step the lead takes a big step forward, bringing his midriff in contact with the follow's. Lead's right hand should be low on follow's back.

3: Lead quickly does a quarter-turn CCW, bringing follow with him (still connected at midriff).

4-6: Lead and follow bend away from each other at knees, interleaving knees and rotating clockwise. For style, follow can dip a little backwards and go "whoo!"

Headroll-dip-hop
(I have no idea what it's actually called)

Init: Lead and follow in open position, holding right hands

rock-step: like normal, but lead also grabs follow's left hand (?)

3-6: lead turns follow half-around (CW or CCW?), getting right hand onto follow's right shoulder. Follow's hand drop down.

rock-step: like normal

3-6: Follow turns CCW, dipping head under lead's right arm. Should end with lead bringing follow in midriff-to-midriff.

rock-step: lead brings follow into dip. Weight should be over left leg, with right leg straight and slightly angled to right.

3-6 (or however long it takes): Lead brings left hand down, holding it firm to support follow's hop. Follow hops over lead's right leg (don't stick it out too far, so she can actually hop over it). Lead uses right hand to help pull her through hop.

Minidrag
(with this move, the lead may need to warn the follow he's about to do the minidrag, unless she's telepathic or really good)

Init: Lead and follow in open position, holding right hands

rock-step: Like normal

3-4: Lead has follow do quarter-turn CCW, while he does quarter-turn CW. Lead bends down while positioning follow's right arm over him.

5-6: Follow leans back. Lead's back should be perpendicular from birds-eye perspective.

At this point the lead does a sideways "Pimp walk," starting out by stepping to the right with his right foot (taking 2 beats). He then crosses over with his left foot (taking 2 beats). This is repeated as many times as desired. When stepping out with right leg, right arm should swing out; when cross-over with left leg, right arm should come back in. For extra style, snap your fingers every two beats.

Meanwhile, the follow is sort of dragging her feet backwards to keep up. To get back to open position, the lead turns a little to the right, positioning his butt against her butt. Lead then pops butt, sending follow outwards. Lead and follow turn to face each other and dancing continues.

Cuddle-drop
Init: Open position, with both left and right hand holds.

Rock-step: Normal

3-6: Lead gets follow into cuddle position by having her do a standard CCW turn while maintaining hold with both hands. At end of cuddle, lead and follow should be side-by-side. Lead should be certain that he has a firm grip with his left hand, as well as his right.

(not sure about timing after this)

At this point, the lead shifts to the left, so that follow leans on him. Lead then pushes follow forward a little, so she slips in front of him, while he shifts weight to right. Lead supports follow with his hands while she dips down to the ground (almost like sitting down, like lying down if follow is really confident in lead's capabilities).

The lead then uses his arms to lift the follow back up onto her feet, and dancing continues.


text:
User talk:Republicali

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 00:46, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Republicali


text:
User talk:68.34.10.173

Great job!
Dutch/Lesson 8 is a great module. Thanks for contributing to this module and Wikibooks. I also recommend that you get a username. Tannersf 00:49, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Actually Tannersf this person did not write that module (I did) but he did do a lot of damage to it: he distroyed all the exercises by interspersing all the answers with the questions. That is the same things as giving an exam with all the answers printed on the exam paper. Educationally insane

Iarlagab 22:02, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages.
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

-- Herby talk thyme 18:36, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.34.10.173


text:
User talk:89.138.156.205

Great job!
Political Economy/Contents is a great module. Thanks for contributing to this module and Wikibooks. I also recommend that you get a username.

title: User talk:89.138.156.205


text:
User:Unforgettableid

Hi all! See w:user:unforgettableid.

title: User:Unforgettableid


text:
Talk:XForms/Selecting Codes From File

Is this method sympatico with initial values?

http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/Forms/2003/xforms-for-html-authors.html#InitialValues

title: Talk:XForms/Selecting Codes From File


text:
Neuroscience/Contributors

 * --Psychofarm 02:54, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Neuroscience/Contributors


text:
Wikibooks talk:Maintenance

Overlap with Cleanup
There is considerable overlap in content between the two. I've started a discussion on this issue at Wikibooks talk:Cleanup. --Swift 02:55, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Organizing book's pages
It's freaking hard to do this with the anti-spam bot taking away move rights all the time!--Qubodup (talk) 16:21, 23 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Just to note, there is no anti-spam bot, nor can anyone at Wikibooks remove move rights. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 19:42, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

Upload log
I think it's not necessary anymore, since only uploaders can upload.  Kayau  David Copperfield  MOBY DICK   the great gatsby  13:28, 27 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Really, I hadn't realized that changed. It must have happened while I was away. I do occasionally upload things here still, but I probably have the permissions to. The only question is if I should. Thenub314 (talk) 15:27, 27 April 2010 (UTC)
 * So, should I be bold and take that away from the maintenance page?  Kayau  David Copperfield  MOBY DICK   the great gatsby  10:56, 28 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Sure thing. This page, the community portal, and Help:Contents may all be candidates for improvement. -- Adrignola talk contribs 12:33, 28 April 2010 (UTC)

Technical work
Technical work is not mentioned on this page. "Where do I go if I'd like to propose a new software feature?". I bloody hope that the technical village pump, where the thoughts get archived, isn't the only place. Gryllida✎✍ 23:50, 31 July 2014 (UTC)
 * Actually, I'd sugges the proposals reading room. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 02:16, 1 August 2014 (UTC)
 * Or you can try Tech. QuiteUnusual (discuss • contribs) 07:38, 1 August 2014 (UTC)

merge and ...
Hi. There is merge request. Is there a split request for books? ( I have not found). TIA Soul windsurfer (discuss • contribs) 07:34, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Perhaps the template or the template  would work for you. They work similar to the  template or the other templates listed in category:merge templates. --DavidCary (discuss • contribs) 22:03, 21 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Maintenance


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/IPOD NANO

IPOD_NANO
Initially I nominated this new page for speedy deletion as it's more of an encyclopedic article than a book however I think that maybe I'm being too mean by nominating lots of pages for deletion. As this isn't 7 days old I guess a vfd shouldn't occur either... any comments? Xania 01:30, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Speedy Delete - This is not Wikipedia. I've flagged the rest of the pages this author has made with a delete tag and blocked the user infinitely for spamming garbage over pages for several months. This is a vandal account. -within focus 04:41, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Speedy delete - Encylopædic content. Not a wikibook. --Swift 17:40, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Speddy -- all the other contribs too. Spam pure and simple. -- SB_Johnny | talk 17:58, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Speddy - Spam --Az1568 09:35, 7 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Speedy Deleted - I took the initive and killed this page. A much better version can be found at iPod nano, and there is no need to even have a redirect here on Wikibooks.  This was not a serious attempt to write a book about the iPod or go into details about it.  --Rob Horning 19:29, 7 December 2006 (UTC)


text:
The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Cache

Cache is pronounced like the word cash. It is an area of memory which is of high speed. The computer uses this memory to store often used data. The purpose of storing certain data in cache memory is to speed up the usage process of the data stored on this memory. In modern computers, the cache memory is stored between the processor and DRAM; this is called Level 2 cache. On the other hand, Level 1 cache is internal memory caches which are stored directly on the processor. Data and commands that are often used over and over again for programs are mainly what the computer stores in the cache memory. There are mainly two types of caching; memory cache, and disk cache. Memory cache is a part of the memory that is made of high speed. The space on the memory cache is very limited. It is high speed because it is static RAM instead of dynamic RAM. This is called memory cache.

There is also disk cache; having the same idea as memory cache; it is stored in the conventional main memory of the disk. This is called a memory buffer. The data that is most commonly accessed on the disk is what is stored in the buffer. Cache memory is very useful because it saves the computer user a lot of time in opening common data and giving common commands. Cache memory is very convenient because opening data in cache is dramatically faster than opening data on the main hard disk.

The Internet browser has another form of cache, which is sent to the temporary cache in the hard drive. Clearing up your Internet Brower cache, or also known as “Temporary files”, will help improve your Internet speed. Internet files clog up your cache on the Internet browser. This may cause your Internet browser’s performance to react slow and lag when loading files or loading different web pages.

Another important reason to clear your Internet cache is for privacy and security. When people use different computers they may become vulnerable in becoming victims of fraud, or identity theft. That is why it is important to clear the Internet browser’s cache after using a computer. Depending on which Internet browser is used, there are different ways of deleting the cache in the Internet brower.

title: The Computer Revolution/Hardware/Cache


text:
User:Swift/vfd

'' has been listed on Votes for deletion. Please see for justifications and discussion.''

title: User:Swift/vfd


text:
Talk:Ecology/Biosphere Organization

The first chapter i felt was a good intoduction to some basic terms and concepts of ecology. After getting into Chapter 2, the first paragraph or so felt fluent but then after it got into all the sub divisions of ecology, biosphere, biotrope...ect. it gets confusing and hard to keep track of what fits where. To me none of the terms seem too advance or hard to grasp, just the arrangement of all the different terms.(justinsmestad)

I think that the basic ecology definitions should somehow be placed in the first chapter. Also, I thought that the units of the biosphere should have been explained in more detail and a bit more clear. The introduction, I agree, seemed out of place as well.

I must agree with the others. Starting Chapter 2 with "the objective of this wikibook..." seems out of place to me. Especially given there seems to be no true "introduction" in the first chapter. Chapter 1 might be better suited for some of the trivial vocabulary and background. The first section overall seemed difficult to maintain focus and interest on, and felt disconnected not only from the other subject matter of that section, but also with the rest of the chapter. After starting the second section things seems to move much more nicely, however, with editing I think the chapter could be more cohesive and fluid.Blissjunkie (talk) 21:40, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

The introduction paragraph in this chapter seems out of place mostly because there was no introduction to the book until chapter two. It could possibly be moved to chapter one as a general introduction. (Roise (talk) 21:27, 26 August 2010 (UTC))

The paragraphs on biocycle in Chapter 2 could be cleaned up a little bit. It was odd to read and too philosophical for my taste. Many of the key words could be better defined as well or addition of more links could be added? (Markus.Wilson (talk)) Chapter 2 is difficult to read and understand. It should also be apart of the introduction. Terms should be described thoroughly before going on to the next term. I also think the terms can be explained better. Adavis (talk) 19:59, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

I think parts of this chapter should be combined with chapter one. It is still very much an introduction, yet it creates much confusion while reading. Being a novice Ecologist, I can say it is difficult to learn and pull relevant information from the text.Jordanwald (talk) 16:22, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

I agree that the first paragraph is confusing as it seems out of place after the first chapter. The section on basic definitions seems out of place as well considering the title of the chapter is Biosphere Organization (Amberk (talk) 01:02, 26 August 2010 (UTC)).

I wonder whether some discussion of the narrower, classical definition of ecology (the study of populations of organisms and their interactions - so generational studies, island theory, predation and competition etc) would be in order?Peri Coleman (talk) 23:25, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

The first paragraph here is plain hard to read. The first sentance alone is downright confusing. I've been put off so much that I'm not even going to continue reading. This page, and probably the book for that matter, needs some major editing.

Chapter 2 seems more like an introduction than chapter 1 did. There is alot of great, raw material in here, but I think it needs some major editing. There are some minor grammar mistakes. The beginning of the chapter was quite confusing; however, as I progressed through the chapter it became easier to read, as well as more interesting. --Bgosch1 (talk) 06:17, 27 August 2010 (UTC)

I felt that chapter 1 was pretty well put together and considering that it is biology content was not extremely boring to read. I felt like I was able to retain the vocabulary well in chapter 1 because there were few words and they were spaced throughout the chapter.

However, chapter 2 was very hard to read because there is so much raw material and vocabulary that must be explained. The fact that it must be explained gives problems on where to place it because there is so much information to get out there. I had to read chapter 2 twice to even briefly understand what was being said. I think some of the concepts in this chapter could be explained a little more in depth. Some of this information could be moved to chapter one or spread out into a whole new chapter that jus dealt with biosphere. 08.48 CST 08/27/2010

Chapter 1 was really good but chapter 2 was difficult to read. I would suggest placing the terms and there definitions at the begining of chapter 1. This would allow one to easily compare and contrast each term and distinguish there subtle differences. (Tech2 (talk) 15:22, 27 August 2010 (UTC))

I thought both chapters were interesting. However, chapter 2 was a little more difficult to comprehend than the first. There was alot of terms thrown at me that i felt could have been explained better. Although it did contain alot of useful information. Jordan Kizima

The first chapter was understandable. The second was less so, but I think that that is because there are a lot of terms, some new, others not. It's a lot of information to absorb, but I didn't think that any of it was extremely confusing. It could be written in a more simplified or more compacted way. (redsight890.)

I moved the paragraph from chapter two dicussing the basic units of the biosphere to chapter 1 because I thought it fit better with basics of ecology. I wasn't sure what to do with the gaia theory so I left it as is. (Gary.heitkamp (talk) 13:48, 10 September 2010 (UTC))

title: Talk:Ecology/Biosphere Organization


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Wikijunior How Things Work/Flush toilet

Wikijunior How Things Work/Flush toilet
This was marked as a speeedy by an editor as This page is abandoned and redundant to Wikijunior. I felt it maybe should be reviewed rather than that. I have no vote on this issue -- Herby talk thyme 13:41, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

Comment - Does anyone know where I can find the other 'Flush Toilet' page. I used it last week when I had a problem with my toilet but it was a different page with really useful pictures but now I can't find it. :( Xania 14:30, 18 November 2006 (UTC)
 * History merge, leave as redirect -- Xania: it's Wikijunior How Things Work/Flush Toilet. -- SB_Johnny | talk 15:09, 18 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment. I marked it for speedy, I think I also accidentally caused the orphan page in the first place by changing the case of the entry on the main page to make it match the others. The content of "Flush toilet" was not ever incorporated into "Flush Toilet". History merge, leave as redirect seems good to me. --xixtas 18:11, 18 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Redirect. I would argue that there isn't any quality information to be found on this page, and that merging/history merging this page is a useless waste of time. Delete the current contents, and merge the page to the new location. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 01:13, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Comment I wonder (and truly don't know the answer) which requires more time; merging the history, or spending time discussing whether we should. --xixtas 17:58, 22 November 2006 (UTC)


text:
Template talk:Rfd

Adding sub-page functionality
For completeness I'd like to point to a discussion about how this template relates to the new sub-page archiving scheme in the VfD process at Wikibooks talk:Votes for deletion. --Swift 03:48, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Rfd


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Christian Theology/Apocrypha

 * Note on archiving: The module discussed for VfD below was originally at Apocryphal but after closing the discussion and moving the page to Christian Theology/Apocrypha, the vfd tag wasn't removed. For clarity, both these discussions are archived here together.

Apocryphal
Permastub, Jguk 07:23, 30 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Comment The Wikipedia article is longer than many of our books. Apocryphal also seems like would be (and is?) a suitable chapter of Christian Theology. --अagin·ძaz 07:33, 30 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Move to Christian Theology/Apocryphal, as it is already linked from that book. Kellen T 13:37, 30 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Delete - Stub. -Matt 18:45, 2 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Move/merge to Christian Theology book. --Kernigh

Prometheuspan 23:33, 3 May 2006 (UTC) hey, i agree its christian theology, but, you do know that some christians are gonna think you are putting satanic verses into their wikibook, right? (not like it matters to me.)
 * Keep. First off, the Apocryphae are not main-stream christain thought. Many of the apocryphae are heavily disputed, and affect many different christian sects, but also some jewish sects as well. While there may be some relation to christianity, this material would be ill-served by being put in the christianity wikibook. This book is also not a stub, but it does need to be cleaned up. --Whiteknight (talk) (current) 18:15, 4 May 2006 (UTC)
 * It's not an issue if we think it's ill-served by being put in the christianity wikibook; it's already a part of that book; it's just an improperly named subsection. Kellen T 18:34, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Move to Christian Theology. Probably better to call it "Christian Theology/Apocrypha" than "Christian Theology/Apocryphal".  The latter would be like calling Christian Theology "Christian Theological".  Wikibooks is sufficiently messy that the link from Christian Theology does not guarentee that Apocryphal was originally intended to belong there.  However, it is a reasonable supposition, and the page is not doing too well standing as its own book.  It does appear to be written from a Christian perspective rather than the broader perspective Whiteknight (talk) (current) has in mind.  Perhaps a broader book would be a good idea, but the author of such a book would not be losing anything significant by having to start it anew.  --JMRyan T E C 19:16, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

Christian Theology/Apocrypha
I have moved Apocryphal to this location suggested by JMRyan. However, there does not seem to be consensus about whether to move or delete the module, so I left the vfd tag. --Kernigh 02:49, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Christian Theology/Apocrypha
Just peaking under the carpet for the dust!!!

I thought some of my closing was open to interpretation but this was "closed" in archive 9 with However, there does not seem to be consensus about whether to move or delete the module, so I left the tag.. Unsatisfactory springs to mind so I am relisting it for a vote we can actually conclude (as far as I can see more will follow). I have no vote -- Herby talk thyme 18:26, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Delete - This book hasn't been edited for some time and the links just direct to Wikipedia. Not a useful book. Xania 20:27, 1 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep - This is not a book, it is a stub of a subsection of a much larger work called Christian Theology, which is not up for a VfD at the moment. As far as being a chapter about the Apocrypha, I think it is a very legitimate topic, particularly within the range of something that ought to be discussed in a book about Christian thought and customs.  That at the moment it is largely pointing to Wikipedia as a sort of psuedo-transclusion is besides the point, and that goes more to WB:WIW to show that you can include other Wikimedia (or GFDL in general) resources to expand a book.  More content like this IMHO should be encouraged in the development of Wikibooks, not discouraged. --Rob Horning 05:54, 2 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep. There was no consensus that I see from the discussion but I see the resulting action (moving to the current book) as the logical compromise. --Swift 19:28, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Comment. To the person who ends up archiving this: please move the Apocryphal section from archive 9 in the sub-page archive. --Swift 19:28, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Keep. I remember back when this went up for VfD last time. I still dont see a reason to delete it. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 02:48, 7 December 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:XForms/Hierarchical Bookmarks

Is it possible for blank input fields to be inserted when the triggers are clicked?

title: Talk:XForms/Hierarchical Bookmarks


text:
Talk:Control Systems/Controllers and Compensators

I will add basic PID discussion here (draft pad) I will add a jpeg link for a typical PID GUI. The GUI handles many desirable elements of the control including: 1. enable/disable/simulate 2. mode:  auto/manual/cascade 3. operator assist raise/lower (R/L) 4. indication of the quality of control 5. show setpoint(SP), input value(PV), and output(OP) clamps 6. clearly show output target selection when multiple choices 7. it is preferable to have warning of key events such as output being at its clamp, IO communications loss or primary/secondary cascading disconnect. 8. other parameters such as tuning gains can be edittable via alternate display layers not defaulted visible

Additionally, there are several control aspects which follow

a. secondary disable triggers primary disable b. in auto, operator assist targets SP; manual targets OP c. Primary cannot select cascade if secondary ctrl disabled or in manual d. secondary cannot select cascade unless primary is enabled and in auto e. outputs to field are blocked in SIMULATE mode. f. loss of IO comm, unavailability of output target prevent enabling the loop or disables an active loop.

Cascade mode is used when several variables/inputs affect the control. A primary/secondary cascade setup allows for other variables to separately target the setpoint of the secondary loop. --Billymac00 05:05, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Here is a process display having pumps with PID control. Notice the pump radio buttons, which are the popup links.

Here is a recent reference on PID tuning - Handbook of PI and PID Controller Tuning Rules by Aidan O'Dwyer, March 2003 ISBN 186094342X.


text:
A-level Applied Science/The Role of the Pathology Service/Examples

=Morriston Hospital, Swansea=

The Swansea NHS Trust serves 250,000 people and manages 1800 hospital beds. It is a teaching hospital trust with all major specialities including burns, renal, cardiac surgery and neurosurgery. There are two main hospitals, Singleton (600 beds) and Morriston (850), and 7 smaller hospitals. Morriston is on the northern outskirts of the city. Singleton is west of the city centre.

There are two main laboratories in the Swansea NHS Trust, one at Morriston and the other at Singleton. The Pathology Departments have concentrated most resources on one or other sites in order to maximise use of facilities. A comprehensive service is achieved despite this specialisation, by means of efficient IT and transport systems. The department has an annual budget of approximately £8.5 million.

The department is Clinical Pathology Accreditation (UK) Ltd (CPA) accredited. CPA is the key accreditation body for NHS pathology laboratories. Laboratories are required to apply CPA standards in all aspects of their daily operations.

CPA standards apply to the laboratory’s organisation, staffing, resources, analysis and examination methods and quality assurance.

Organisation
Pathology services in Swansea are provided by the Directorate of Pathology. The Directorate is made up of Departments of:
 * Cellular Pathology (9 consultants )
 * Chemical Pathology (2)
 * Haematology (4-6)
 * Medical Microbiology/Virology (1-3)

All pathologists are involved in the interpretation of laboratory test results and giving advice about the appropriate investigation of patients.

Workload
The department performs over 2.6 million investigations annually.

Annually, 1.7 million test requests are received, covering a huge spectrum of analysis including highly automated chemical pathology tests, the culture of an enormous range of micro-organisms, highly detailed blood and bone marrow analysis and the provision of screening programmes for breast and cervical cancer.

Staffing
There are 19 consultant medical staff in Pathology together with 5 clinical scientists and approximately 150 technical and clerical staff. Together they provide both a clinical and an analytical service.

The Directorate of Pathology is involved in several aspects of undergraduate medical teaching.

Information Management
Both medical and technical staff work together to provide the analytical service. There is a very strong emphasis on quality control and efficient timely procedures throughout. Managing such a huge volume of information is highly dependent on an effective laboratory computer system. Clinical scientists play an important role in monitoring quality control measures and undertaking research and development as well as leading teams in specific technical areas (i.e. molecular biology).

Most NHS clinical laboratories keep their documentation as paper records, but this causes problems when staff need to access documentation and problems maintaining document control. The Chemical Pathology and IT departments at Swansea NHS Trust have developed an intranet as an effective yet inexpensive method of access and storage for all its procedural documentation and record keeping.

Types of sample
Most samples received in chemical pathology and haematology are blood samples collected by phlebotomy, using the evacuated blood collection (VacutainerTM)system

Order of Draw of Evacuated Tubes.
 * 1) Blood culture bottles, sterile tubes
 * 2) Tubes without additives (red stoppers)
 * 3) Tubes containing Gel
 * 4) Tubes for coagulation studies (light blue - contain citrate)
 * 5) Tubes with additives:-
 * Pink/lavender stoppers (EDTA)
 * Black stoppers (citrate - for ESR haematology)
 * Grey stoppers (fluoride and oxalate - for glucose determination)

Serum or plasma zinc level will show misleading elevation due to the presence of zinc in the stopper. Special tubes for trace element studies (dark blue stopper - sodium salt of heparin) are available from the Chemical Pathology Department.

Health and safety
Most samples received are blood samples collected with the evacuated blood collection system. Guidelines for safely collecting blood in this way include:

 * Wear gloves during venepuncture and when handling blood collection tubes to minimise exposure to hazards.
 * Do not remove needle shield.
 * After use, DO NOT resheath needle but dispose of both the needle and holder into an appropriate sharps disposal container

General notes about high risk samples
Under the Health and Safety at Work Act (HSWA) and the COSHH Regulations, anyone taking and/or sending potentially hazardous material for laboratory examination has a duty to conduct the work safely.

Section 3 of the HSWA requires staff to pass on knowledge of known or suspected hazards to those who need to handle the material.

Laboratories must be informed of any potential risk of infection (e.g. cases of known or suspected communicable diseases such as T.B., hepatitis B and C, HIV, CJD). Both the request and the specimen must be labelled “DANGER OF INFECTION” with a special yellow label.

Specimen containers and request forms must be transported to the laboratory in the specially-designed “double pocket” sealable pathology specimen plastic transport bag. The request form should be placed in the separate pocket.

The medical officer taking the sample must ensure that a senior member of the department is informed that the sample is to be sent. Only the most appropriate tests will be performed on hazardous samples. Prior consultation with the consultant pathologist concerned is advised.

Cellular Pathology
Cellular pathologists work closely with clinical teams, particularly in cancer care, providing key diagnostic and prognostic information and advice.

Annual Workload
Surgical Pathology (Histology): 24-25,000 including 250 frozen sections

Cytopathology: 25,000 gynaecological smears and 4,000 surgical cytology including 300 FNAs (fine needle aspiration biopsies).

Autopsies: Approximately 1000 in total. 300 at Neath, 550 autopsies requested by HM Coroners, 55 autopsies performed at the request of clinicians with relatives’ consent (“permission cases”).

Types of sample
1. Histology specimens (25,000 p.a.), including intraoperative frozen sections, endoscopic biopsies and samples from GP’s.

Gross specimens and biopsies are usually received in 10% buffered formalin, which must be about 20 times the volume of the tissue.

The bottles and buckets used to transport the specimens must have well fitting lids to prevent leakage, and be properly labelled.

Frozen Sections: The specimen must be sent dry.

Lymph Node Biopsy: Molecular diagnostic methods are increasingly important in the diagnosis of lymphoma. These methods are facilitated by the availability of snap frozen, fresh, unfixed biopsy material. Therefore these specimens should be sent as quickly as possible to the laboratory unfixed, in a dry container.

Renal Biopsy: Should be sent immediately to the laboratory.

Wales Cancer Bank: Tissues are received fresh from theatre.

2. Cytology service (30,000 specimens p.a.) including fine needle aspiration cytology and cervical screening.

Cytology: Most fluids, urines, pleural fluids, etc. should be collected in white capped universal bottles and sent to the laboratory without delay. Generally, four universal bottles are considered to be a representative sample.

Sputum Examination: Early morning deep cough specimens sent on the day of production and collected into plain universal bottles.

Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology: Specimens should be sent to the department via the portering service as soon as possible. A member of Cytology staff may assist in the collection.

Cervical Cytology: Liquid Based Cytology. (LBC)

Health and safety
The bottles and buckets used to transport the specimens must have well-fitting lids to prevent leakage, and be properly labelled. Containers of various sizes are available.

Formalin is a moderately flammable liquid when exposed to heat or naked flame. It is a known carcinogen, a strong eye, skin and mucous membrane irritant and a skin sensitiser and may be fatal if swallowed. Spillage absorption granules should be present in any department using formalin together with instructions for their correct use.

Chemical Pathology
Chemical pathologists run diabetic and lipid clinics.

The Chemical Pathology department was formed from the merger of 3 local laboratories in 1995. There is now one main laboratory (Morriston) open 24/7 and two “satellite” laboratories. In the satellite laboratories, there is no on site analyst between midnight and 8am.

Types of sample
Mostly blood samples, also urine, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), faeces

Haematology
Haematologists have an extensive clinical practice managing patients with a wide range of blood related disorders.

Types of sample
Blood samples for full blood count (FBC) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) tests.

Bone marrow aspirate and trephine samples.

Donor blood for cross-matching.

Microbiology
Microbiologists also advise on the management of infectious disease and monitor hospital acquired infections and community outbreaks. The Microbiology Department is part of the Public Health Laboratory Service which also deals with environmental (food, water etc.) microbiology and incorporates two national reference laboratories, for Toxoplasmosis and Cryptosporidium.

Types of sample

 * Swabs
 * Faeces
 * Sputum
 * Pus
 * Urine
 * Blood, clotted blood, serum
 * Biopsy material, washings, aspirates, fluids (cerebrospinal, seminal, etc.), smears
 * Intrauterine contraceptive devices (IUCDs)
 * Vomit
 * Food suspected of contamination
 * Sellotape samples of threadworm eggs
 * Skin, nail, hair

Viral Hepatitis
7ml clotted blood should be collected and labelled with a “DANGER OF INFECTION” sticker. Use warning labels for blood from patients with acute hepatitis, abnormal liver function tests, jaundice, chronic carriers, intravenous drug abuse and close contacts of cases.

HIV
If HIV test is required contact the Consultant Microbiologist. However, if the sample is collected by a GP, 7ml clotted blood should be sent, labelled "DANGER OF INFECTION".

Notifiable Diseases
The following diseases must be notified, as soon as diagnosed, to the Consultant in Communicable Disease Control.

=References=


text:
Horticulture/Senecio vulgaris

Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) is a cosmopolitan (world-wide) annual plant in the family ../Asteraceae/. It is a common weed of agricultural fields, gardens, and other areas of exposed and regularly disturbed ground.

There are several other species of Groundsel, all of which are typically weedy but with usually more attractive flowers in as much as they have ray florets ("petals") around the margin of the flower head like most other members of the Daisy family.

Description
Extremely variable in all its parts, the deeply toothed leaves and slightly fleshy stems topped with rayless, yellow flower heads (capitula) and fluffy white seed heads are very familiar to gardeners everywhere.

Ecology
This plant can grow from seed to seeding in only a few weeks and do so in all types of soils, damp or dry. The windblown seeds make its presence in the garden almost inevitable.

Uses
A good nectar source in the cold seasons.

title: Horticulture/Senecio vulgaris


text:
Horticulture/Onopordum acanthium

Onopordum acanthium (Cotton Thistle) is a flowering plant in the Family ../Asteraceae/. Other common names include, Scottish thistle, and Scottish cotton thistle. Native to Europe, North Africa and Asia, it is a vigorous, biennial with coarse, spiny leaves and conspicuous spiny-winged stems.

The botanical name is derived from the Greek words onos (donkey), perdo (to consume), and acanthos (thorn), meaning 'thorny plant eaten by donkeys'. The common name Cotton thistle derives from the cotton-like hairs on the leaves; the name Scottish thistle comes from a legend that the plant's thorny thickets helped protect Scotland from the Vikings, though this legend more likely applies to the common Scottish native Spear Thistle Cirsium vulgare, rather than the Cotton Thistle which does not occur naturally in Scotland. Oral folklore holds that as Vikings attempted to sneak up at night to attack and raid Scottish villages, they were stuck by the thistles' thorns and cried out in pain, alerting the townsfolk to the attack and allowing them to fight back and drive back the invaders. Following this the Thistle was adopted as the floral emblem of Scotland.

Description
Cotton thistle is a biennial plant, producing a large rosette of spiny leaves the first year. The plants typically germinate in the autumn after the first rains and exist as rosettes throughout the first year, forming a stout, fleshy taproot that may extend down 30 cm or more for a food reserve.

In the second year, the plant grows (0.2-) 0.5–3 m tall and a width of 1.5 m. The leaves are 10–50 cm wide, are alternate and spiny, often covered with white woolly hairs, with the lower surface more densely covered than the upper. The leaves are deeply lobed with long, stiff spines along the margins. The leaves have winged appearance that continues down the stems of the plant. Fine hairs give the plant a greyish appearance (Global). The massive, main stem may be 10 cm wide at the base, and is branched in the upper part. Each stem shows a vertical rows of broad, spiny wings (conspicuous ribbon-like leafy material), typically 2-3 cm wide, extending to the base of the flower head.

The flowers are globe-shaped, 3-5 cm in diameter, from dark pink to lavender, and are produced in the summer from July to September. The flower buds form first at the tip of the stem and later at the tip of the axillary branches. The flower heads exist singly or in groups of 2 or 3 on branch tips. They are androgynous, with both pistil and stamens, and sit above numerous, long, stiff, spine-tipped bracts, all pointing outwards, the lower ones wider apart and pointing downwards. After flowering, the ovary starts swelling and forms about 8,400 to 40,000 seeds per plant. It prefers habitats with dry summers, such as the Mediterranean, growing in sandy, sandy clay and calcareous soils, rich in ammonium salts. It grows in ruderal places, as well as dry pastures and disturbed fields. Its preferred habitats are natural areas, disturbed sites, roadsides, fields, and especially sites with fertile soils (Encycloweedia), agricultural areas, range/grasslands, riparian zones, scrub/shrublands, water courses.

Cotton thistle reproduces only by seeds. Most seeds germinate in fall after the first rains, but some seeds can germinate year round under favorable moisture and temperature conditions. Seeds that germinate in late fall become biennials. But when they germinate earlier, they can behave as annuals. Buried seed can remain viable in the soil seed bank for at least 7 years and possibly 20 years or more. Yearly seed production and seed dormancy are highly variable depending on environmental conditions. These slender and smooth achenes are about 3 mm long and are brown with gray markings. They are tipped with a pappus of slender bristles. They are mainly locally dispersed by wind, or more widely by humans, birds, wildlife, livestock or streams. The seeds are sensitive to light and only germinate when close to the surface. Seedlings will emerge from soil depths up to 4.5 cm, with 0.5 cm being optimal.

Ecology
In the late 19th century, it was introduced to North America and temperate Australia as an ornamental plant, and is now considered a major agricultural and wildland noxious weed problem in areas it has been introduced. It is difficult to eradicate because of its drought resistance. It can spread rapidly and in the end dense stands prohibit foraging by livestock. Infestations of Cotton thistle often start in disturbed areas such as roadways, campsites, burned areas, and ditch banks. The weed adapts best to areas along rivers and streams, but can be a serious problem in pastures, grain fields, and range areas. A single Cotton thistle is imposing enough, but an entire colony can ruin a pasture or destroy a park or campsite, sometimes forming tall, dense, impenetrable stands. Besides creating an impenetrable barrier to humans and animals, Cotton thistle nearly eliminates forage use by livestock and some mammal species such as deer and elk.

Known infestations include most of the Pacific Northwest along with Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, and South Dakota. On western rangeland, infestations directly result in significant economic losses for ranchers.

Uses
Cotton thistle is sold as an ornamental plant. It has reportedly been used to treat cancers and ulcers and to diminish discharges of mucous membranes. The receptacle was eaten in earlier times like an artichoke. The cottony hairs on the stem have been occasionally collected to stuff pillows. Oil from Cotton thistle seeds has been used in Europe for burning and cooking. Cotton thistle is the national emblem of Scotland, dating from the time of James III of Scotland. The thistle is also part of the logo of Encyclopædia Britannica.

title: Horticulture/Onopordum acanthium