text:
Cryptography/Substitution cipher

A Substitution Cipher is similar to a ../Caesar cipher/, but instead of using a constant shift left or right, the plain alphabets and the cipher alphabets are mixed arbitrarily.

For example:

Plain Alphabet: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Cipher Alphabet: Z Y X W V U T S R Q P O N M L K J I H G F E D C B A

With the above, the Plain text "This is a sample" would encrypt to "Gsrh rh z hznkov." This particular substitution cipher, which relies on transposing all the letters in the alphabet such that the resulting alphabet is backwards, is known as an atbash cipher.

With Substitution Ciphers, the secret is in the mapping between the plain and cipher alphabets. However, there are several analytical techniques to help break these ciphers with only the ciphertext. See ../Frequency analysis/

Solving substitution ciphers
English-language ciphers be solved using principles such as these:
 * Single-letter words are almost always A or I.
 * As Edgar Allan Poe points out in The Gold Bug, "E predominates so remarkably that an individual sentence of any length is rarely seen, in which it is not the prevailing character."
 * Apostrophes are generally followed by S, T, D, M, LL, or RE.
 * Repeating letter patterns may be common letter groups such as TH, SH, RE, CH, TR, ING, ION, and ENT.
 * Double letters are most likely to be LL, followed in frequency by EE, SS, OO, and TT (and on to less commonly seen doubles).
 * Two-letter words almost always have one vowel and one consonant. The five most common two-letter words, in order of frequency, are OF, TO, IN, IS, and IT.
 * The most common three-letter words, in order of frequency, are THE, AND, FOR, WAS, and HIS.
 * The most common four-letter word is THAT. An encrypted word beginning and ending with the same letter is likely to be THAT. Others are AQUA, AREA, AURA, BARB, BLAB, BLOB, BOOB, BULB, CHIC, DEAD, deed, DIED, DYED, ease, edge, ELSE, FIEF, GANG, GONG, HASH, HATH, HUSH, KICK, LULL, MAIM, NEON, NOON, NOUN, ONTO, ORZO, PEEP, PIMP, PLOP, POMP, PREP, PROP, PULP, PUMP, REAR, ROAR, SAYS, SEAS, SEES, TACT, TART, TENT, TILT, TINT, TOOT, TORT, TUFT, URDU, and WHEW.

title: Cryptography/Substitution cipher


text:
User:Phil Boswell

I normally hang out at the English Wikipedia where you can find out some things about me.

Otherwise I snoop around the place and ferret out all sorts of things which are probably of no interest to anyone else.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Phil Boswell


text:
Cryptography/One time pads

A One Time Pad (OTP) is the only potentially unbreakable encryption method. Plain text encrypted using an OTP cannot be retrieved without the encrypting key. However, there are several key conditions that must be met by the user of a one time pad cipher, or the cipher can be compromised.

 * The key must be random and generated by a non-deterministic, non-repeatable process. Any key generated by an algorithm will not work. The security of the OTP relies on the randomness of the key. Unfortunately, the randomness of a key cannot be proved.
 * The key must never be reused. Use of the same key to encrypt different messages, no matter how trivially small, compromises the cipher.
 * The key must not fall in the hands of the enemy. This may seem obvious, but it points to the weakness of system in that you must be able to transmit large amounts of data to the reader of the pad. Typically, one time pad cipher keys are sent via diplomatic pouch.

A typical one time pad system works like this: Generate a long fresh new random key. XOR the plaintext with the key to create the ciphertext. To decrypt the ciphertext, XOR it with the original key. The system as presented is thus a symmetric and reciprocal cipher. Other functions (e.g., addition modulo n) could be used to combine the key and the plaintext to yield the ciphertext, although the resulting system may not be a reciprocal cipher.

If the key is random and never re-used, an OTP is provably unbreakable. Any ciphertext can be decrypted to any message of the same length by using the appropriate key. Thus, the actual original message cannot be determined from ciphertext alone, as all possible plaintexts are equally likely. This is the only cryptosystem for which such a proof is known.

The OTP is extremely simple to implement.

However, there are limitations. Re-use the key and the system becomes extremely weak; it can be broken with pencil and paper. Try to build a "one-time-pad" using some algorithm to generate the keys and you don't have a one-time-pad, you have a stream cipher. There are some very secure stream ciphers, but people who do not know one from a one-time pad are probably not able to design one. It is unfortunately fairly common to see weak stream ciphers advertised as unbreakable one-time pads.

Also, even if you have a well-implemented OTP system and your key is kept secure, consider an attacker who knows the plaintext of part of a message. He can then recover that part of the key and use it to encrypt a message of his own. If he can deliver that instead of yours, you are in deep trouble.

Example
First, an OTP is selected for the plaintext:

Preshared Random Bits = 101001001010101011101 0010000101011110101001110100011 Plain text = 110101010101010010100 Length(Plain Text) = 21 Key(21) = 101001001010101011101

The example indicates that the plaintext is not always the same length as the key material. This can be handled by methods such as: Such signaling systems (and possibly the plaintext encoding method) must be designed so that these terminators are not mistaken for plaintext. For this example, therefore, it is assumed the plaintext already contains endpoint/length signaling.
 * appending a terminator to the plaintext before encryption, and terminating the cyphertext with random bits.
 * prepending the length and a preamble terminator to the plaintext, and terminating with random bits.

For increasingly long plaintext/key pair lengths, the cross-correlation gets closer to zero.

Encryption
Key(21)   = 101001001010101011101 Plaintext = 110101010101010010100 $$\oplus$$bitwise   ||||||||||||||||||||| cyphertext = 011100011111111001001

For increasingly long plaintext/cyphertext pair lengths, the cross-correlation also gets closer to zero.

Decryption
Preshared Random Bits = 101001001010101011101 0010000101011110101001110100011 cyphertext = 011100011111111001001 $$\oplus$$bitwise   ||||||||||||||||||||| Plain text = 110101010101010010100

An astute reader might observe that the decryptor needs to know the length of the plaintext in actual practice. This is done by decrypting the cyphertext as a bitstream (i.e. xor each bit as it is read), and observing the stream until the end-of-plaintext ruleset is satisfied by the signals prepended/appended to the plaintext.

Making one-time pads by hand

One-time pads were originally made without the use of a computer and this is still possible today. The process can be tedious, but if done correctly and the pad used only once, the result is unbreakable.

There are two components needed to make a one-time pad: a way to generate letters at random and a way to record two copies of the result. The traditional way to do the latter was to use a typewriter and carbon paper. The carbon paper and typewriter ribbon would then be destroyed since it is often possible to recover the pad data from them. As typewriters have become scarce, it is also acceptable to hand write the letters neatly in groups of five on two part carbonless copy paper sheets, which can be purchased at office supply stores. Each sheet can given a serial number or some other unique marking.

Historically, the key material for manual one-time pads was distributed as a pad of many small pages of paper. Each small page typically had a series of 5-digit groups, each digit randomly selected from 0 to 9.

A one-time pad set consists of two identical pads. Some writers refer to the two as "two identical originals", to emphasize that no copies should ever be made of the key material.

Traditionally two-way communication requires two pad sets (a total of 4 pads): One person gets the "IN" pad of one set, and the "OUT" pad of the other set.

Each small page typically contains 50 groups of 5 random decimal digits 0...9, enough for one normal message, and a unique "page number" of five digits.

A conversion table is used to convert the letters of the plaintext message to numbers, and the numbers of the decoded message back to letters. Perhaps the simplest conversion table is A=01, B=02, ... Z=26, but historically some sort of straddling checkerboard was usually used, such as CT-37c, CT-37w, CT-46, etc.

The key material for a one-time pad was sometimes written as 50 groups of 5 random letters A...Z. One-time pads where the keys are written as letters are sometimes called letter one-time pad (LOP) or one-time letter pad (OTLP).

The key material for cryptographic machines, including one-time pad systems, was often punched in a binary code on long, narrow paper tape—a "one time tape" OTT.

letter tiles
The simplest way to generate random letters in the Roman alphabet is to obtain 26 identical objects with a different letter of the alphabet marked on each object. Tiles from the game Scrabble can be used, as long as only one of each letter is selected. Kits for making name charm bracelets are another possibility. One can also write the letters on 26 otherwise identical coins with a marking pen. The objects are placed in a box or cup and shaken vigorously, then one object is withdrawn and its letter is recorded. The object is returned to the box and the process is repeated.

10-sided dice
Another way to make one time pads is to use ten-sided dice. One can generate random number groups by rolling several ten-sided dice at a time and recording a group of decimal digits—one decimal digit from each die—for each roll. This method will generate random code groups much faster than using Scrabble tiles. The plaintext message is converted into numeric values with A =01, B =02 and so on. The resulting numeric values are encrypted by adding digits from the one time pads using non-carrying addition. One can then either transmit the numeric groups as is, or use the straddling checkerboard to convert the numbers back into letters and transmit that result.

6-sided dice
Another way to make one time pads is to use 6-sided dice.

It is possible to generate random decimal digits (to make a traditional decimal one-time pad) using 6-sided dice.

If the message is converted into two digit base-6 numbers, then ordinary six-sided dice can be used to generate the random digits in a one time pad. Digits in the pad would be added modulo-6 to the digits in the plaintext message (again without carry), and subtracted modulo 6 from the ciphertext to decrypt. For example:

Using this table, "Wikipedia" would convert to 52 30 32 30 41 22 21 30 14. If the pad digits were 42 26 21 35 32 34 22 62 43, the ciphertext would be 34 50 53 05 13 50 43 32 51. (Note that 6 = 0 modulo 6).

Key Exchange
In order to use this algorithm, each party must possess the same random key. This typically involves meeting the other party in person or using a trusted courier. Other methods are sometime proposed, such as or both users to have identical devices that generate the same semi-random numbers, however these methods are essentially stream ciphers and are not covered by the security proof of one time pads.

title: Cryptography/One time pads


text: Gardening

title: Gardening


text:
User:Lussmu~enwikibooks

Hei, nimeni on Toni ja olen Helsingistä. Tarkista kotisivuni tai Wikipedia-käyttäjäsivuni.

Yritän kirjoittaa filosofiasta, politiikasta ja tietoliikenteestä.

title: User:Lussmu~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Gardening

I did some adapting to port this PD text to form the basis of this article and subsections of it. 67.23.154.119 20:56, 25 May 2004 (UTC)

Is there maybe an option of linking to a dictionary to add the various names of plants, diseases and insects in several languages??

If so, I've got a lot to add to this (mainly biological info). Finding out the translations of all is much nicer if I can add them in a dictionary for all to see ;)

anyone, please let me know.

mail me

my site, in Dutch

Convert to Wiki
Dear author. I've seen you did a lot of work in copying Bailey's (1858-1954) Manual of Gardening book into Wiki. I would suggest, you put the original title and author's name more prominently on the first page (that it is a historic book of gardening. Also, please use Wiki markup in the chapters.. for example == section == for different sections. Thanks --Andreas Ipp 23:35, 13 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * It also needs an awful lot of updating - getting the terminology and scientific names up to date, and conversion to standard international metric measurements (in particular to get rid of that awful archaic Fahrenheit cr@p) - before it can be considered a useful item to refer to - 82.39.130.135 16:44, 29 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Use this as a basis for something practical?
I think it's a good idea for Wikibooks to have a gardening manual - it's a companion to the Cookbook - but this at present isn't it.

Well done for uploading this, but I think we should try to convert it into something more practical and less historical. I mean, have you read the entry on garlic? It can only just restrain itself from calling garlic filthy foreign muck! I'm changing that, and soon. The framework is something we can use but we need to encourage work on the entries.

Redlentil 10:35, 25 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Yeah, that's wrong, unfortunately. We can still call garlic putrid and revolting though. That ought to do. AlbertCahalan 03:51, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Cross-referencing
I've just created the template in en.wikipedia.org for your cross-referencing pleasure. Cheers. --bleh fu talk fu  20:19, 24 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Link: w:Template:gardeningpar --Kernigh 17:09, 18 November 2005 (UTC)

move to Garden?
That would save 3 keystrokes whenever I don't have the prefix ready to paste. "Gardening" would of course redirect to "Garden". AlbertCahalan 03:55, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

maybe start over
This is awful. We could just delete it. A fresh start would really help I think. The book has and/or suffers from:

 * needlessly complex wording
 * big meandering blatherings
 * generally obsolete tools, like horses
 * obsolete ideas, like selling your herbs to the local store
 * generally non-wiki style
 * a "completed" or "finished" feel that is uninviting for editing
 * a "personal opinion" feel that is uninviting for editing

As evidence, the book has been sitting this way for ages and is not getting fixed.

Probably this should be two separate books anyway. You can make a productive garden, or useless decorative nonsense. The two are very different. The useless decorative nonsense could go in a Landscaping book.

AlbertCahalan 04:55, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

Feeling a bit daunted...
I was surprised and happy to find this book here, then saw the non-wikied problems. I'm not sure whether to work from what's here, or start over? I do think a wiki encyclopedia of garden would be nice to have on wikibooks. (Gardening "encyclopedias" are mostly how-to, so better here than on the 'pedia, perhaps (with lots of crosslinking, of course). I am opening a category for gardening... a few friends and I want to write some books on the subject. I assume these books should be new projects, not edits of this book. (Are there project pages on wikibooks? See The wikiproject on horticulture and gardening. Johnny 12:26, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

 * No, do not work from this book. See Requests for deletion/Gardening. The consensus so far is that we will move the public domain text to Wikisource, then delete this book. You can start a different horticulture and gardening book if you want. --Kernigh 15:47, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Merge, new book, etc.
Because of the odd nature of this book (seems to be mostly a transcription of an outdated text), I think it's better to work on a new one. I've made a small start with A Wikimanual of Gardening, which will need some formatting decisions (multivolume?, what goes in each volume?, etc.). Probably best to just leave this one be and use the original version as source material when appropriate. Johnny 16:10, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

Broken link
"Manual of Gardening" goes nowhere, I couldn't be sure what book it was trying to link to either. Anyone know what's going on with this? Remfan1994 (discuss • contribs) 04:44, 13 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gardening


text:
User:KelvSYC

Hi there and welcome to kelvSYC's little corner of Wikibooks!

I'm a contributor to the various game guides here at Wikibooks. Among my significant projects include the Wikibooks Pokémon Guide, which tries to be the companion to the English Wikipedia's w:Wikipedia:WikiProject Pokédex, and Mega Man Battle Network, a book dedicated to the video game series.

I am also an administrator here at Wikibooks (and in no other Wikimedia wiki). If you have some important Wikibooks-related admining to do, then you should leave a message at my talk page. I will try to check VFD and speedy weekly and delete all the filth there, as a continued commitment to an admin. I also intend to strictly enforce the intention of Wikibooks as a repository of instructional material.

My admin philosophy
Many people (wikipedians especially) are in the belief that Wikibooks is just a repository of book-length material, and thus believe that Wikibooks can be a place to expand Wikipedia articles in the hopes of making it an in-depth encyclopedia. This is contrary to WB:WIN. I do aggresively seek out article forks and nominate them for VFD, but I do this infrequently due to the possibility of organic growth and the fact that I have better things to do.

I am also a proponent for enforcing the Wikibooks naming conventions, but I rarely do so due to other commitments and the acknowledgement that it is a gradual process (MediaWiki, however, is very weak in regards to managing how books are organized - tree-like subpage or graph-like namespace conventions are still very arbitrary and have weak back-end support).

Let me remind you that Wikibooks is a place for instructional material. VFD precedents have shown that an encyclopedia article or a long biography is not instuctional material in and of itself.

My projects
Here are the big books I've been working on lately:

Mega Man Battle Network
I'm the founder of this book, which attempts to be a complete strategy guide to the game. Currently I am working on the walkthrough of BN5, others may come later.

The following is my BN5 to-do list

To do

 * Team ProtoMan dialog
 * finish price lists in Higsby's chip order
 * finish patch code list for infinite chips in folder
 * how do I fit in Number Trader codes, NCP compress codes, etc...?

Pokémon
Pokémon is another book that I have created, among which Wikibooks Pokédex is the big part (and constitutes one of the larger Wikibooks). Since WB Pokédex is the largest part of Pokémon, currently a lot of it is data (and thus not very instructional in nature). I hope that contributors can help put more emphasis on teaching others how to finish the game.

The following is my WB Pokédex to-do list

To do list

 * Update all move lists for Emerald
 * FL/E move tutor moves
 * Links to Wikipedia's Pokédex (although I'd have to deal with some merge talk there)
 * Perhaps go over the level-up movelists for each series and check if the evolution section needs to be updated (eg. a lower form learns a move but the higher form does not) — or perhaps just eliminate the evolution section altogether...
 * More Japanese/English parity - eg. only the English cards are listed here so far...
 * EX Emerald card lists...

When WP started, MediaWiki was in its early 1.3 stages, and templates containing links didn't work as most people planned it to work (eg. had two template parameters and not one, so you could never use piped links). But now that it works, I may want to redo the evolution templates.

The major obstacle to making templates out of the move tables is the 5 inclusion limit currently in MW 1.3. I'd like to standardize widths and mess with the look with CSS a bit later on, so that there is more uniformity in each entry. Now that it's resolved in 1.4, the conversion process can get under way, although it will take a while as I try to perfect my styles.

Other plans for Wikibooks Pokédex include:
 * Attack index for the RPGs (I'm currently considering whether to include them in the Pokédex or put them elsewhere)
 * Super Smash Bros movelists for the relevant Pokémon (or at least a link to the appropriate book...)
 * Petitioning for a separate namespace, or alternatively, moving to use the standard subpage convention?

Related Pages

 * For my work in Wikipedia, check out w:User:kelvSYC (talk)
 * For my work in Wiktionary, check out wikt:User:kelvSYC (talk)

title: User:KelvSYC


text: File:Mejadrah-cooking.s.jpg

title: File:Mejadrah-cooking.s.jpg


text:
User:Leland~enwikibooks

I was a high school assistant in Tours in 2001, and I spent most of last year in Tarbes with Nathan and the other assistants there.

Please see my wikipedia homepage.

title: User:Leland~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Electronics/Definitions

I like the look of the "official" definition syntax, too. Does anyone else like it better? - Omegatron 14:15, 26 May 2004 (UTC)

 * AC : Alternating current. Consists of a periodic oscillation between two different voltages.  Usually said to look like a sine wave, but is not always.

 * AM : Amplitude modulation. In radio communications, a signal controls the amplitude of a carrier wave that is at a much higher, constant frequency.  The carrier wave is filtered out and a loudspeaker plays based on the amplitude of the signal.

 * Ampere, Amp (A) : The SI unit for current I. Equals a coulomb (1 C) of charged particles moving past a point in one second (1 s).
 * $$A = \frac{C}{s}$$

 * Amplify : To increase the strength of the signal.

 * Anode : An electron collector. Means up the path from a negative to a positive voltage.  An anode has a more positive voltage relative to some other place.

 * Attenuate : Decrease the strength of a signal.

 * Band-Pass Filter : An analog filter that absorbs low and high frequencies (f) but allows a band of frequencies in the middle to pass through.

 * BJT : Bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor in which the resistance of the channel is controlled by a current at the gate.  Can be thought of as a current-controlled resistor.  FET is the other major type of transistor.

 * Capacitor : An electronics component that stores energy in the form of electric charge (static electricity). It resists a sudden change in voltage.

suggestiom
improvement is necessary in this page....definations which are given above are not very clear....

title: Talk:Electronics/Definitions


text:
Cookbook:Tarbes Salad

| Salad Recipes

Tarbes salad is a sweet and sour salad that is both tasty and easy to make.

Salad

 * 1 white or yellow onion
 * 1 tablespoon olive oil
 * ½ head your favorite lettuce
 * About 5 walnuts, broken into bits
 * 1 ripe orange, cut into small pieces
 * Small chunk of hard blue or Roquefort cheese, diced

Dressing

 * 50 ml extra-virgin olive oil
 * 25 ml balsamic vinegar
 * 1 teaspoon whole grain mustard
 * 1 squirt of lemon juice
 * Salt
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Cut the onion into half moons and brown it in a bit of olive oil. Make it nice and crispy. Once it's done, put it aside in a bowl and squirt a bit of lemon juice on it.
 * 2) As the onion is cooking, wash the lettuce thoroughly. Soak it several times. Nothing is worse than gritty lettuce in a salad. Break the lettuce into bite-size pieces and drop them in your spinner under running water. Once it's washed, spin it until it's dry. Wet lettuce will dilute the dressing.
 * 3) Once the lettuce is dry, put it in a bowl. Add the onions, walnuts, orange and cheese.
 * 4) To make the dressing, just mix the ingredients in a jar and give them a good shake.
 * 5) Toss everything together in a big bowl and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Prepare the lettuce and onions early. Add the onions to the lettuce (once they've cooled down) and cover the bowl. This will allow the onions to flavor the lettuce.
 * Put a bit of beer in with the onions as you brown them, or even white wine or vermouth.
 * Add some minced garlic either to the dressing or to the onions.
 * Use a ripe pear or a kiwi instead of the orange.
 * Add a sliced up, deeply browned zucchini in addition to or instead of onion.
 * If you're in a hurry, skip the onion/zucchini.
 * Try browning the walnuts with the onions in olive oil.
 * Turn the salad into dinner by adding strips of chicken or turkey (heavily salted and peppered, browned in butter).
 * Double the dressing ingredients and save yourself the trouble the next day. Also, you can wash and break up all of your lettuce at once and store it in an airtight bag in the crisper drawer of your refrigerator.

title: Cookbook:Tarbes Salad


text:
Talk:Electronics/Resistors

R Circuit

What is this for?

Power equation in Load section
Please don't crucify me if I'm wrong here. I'm not an electronics wiz. In fact, I came here because I want to read about electronics, not write about it. But I do know some algebra, and I believe there is a mistake under the Load section where Ohm's law is substituted (substituDed?) into the power equation.

If $$P=VI\!$$, and $$V=IR\!$$, then wouldn't $$P=\left(IR\right)I\!$$, or $$I^2R\!$$, instead of $$IR^2\!$$?

If $$P=VI\!$$, and $$I=\frac{V}{R}$$, then wouldn't $$P=V\left(\frac{V}{R}\right)$$, or $$\frac{V^2}{R}$$, instead of $$\frac{V}{R^2}$$?

I'd just like to say that this page is very informative - keep up the good work! 81.77.59.126 16:42, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

Symbols
it appears to me that the page uses the pre-ISO symbol for resistors, would it be appropriate to update it?

title: Talk:Electronics/Resistors


text:
Biochemistry/Carbohydrates

Introduction
"Carbohydrates" are chemically defined as "polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketones or complex substances which on hydrolysis yield polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone." Carbohydrates are one of the fundamental classes of macromolecules found in biology. Carbohydrates are commonly found in most organisms, and play important roles in organism structure, and are a primary energy source for animals and plants. Most carbohydrates are sugars or composed mainly of sugars. By far, the most common carbohydrate found in nature is glucose, which plays a major role in cellular respiration and photosynthesis. Some carbohydrates are for structural purposes, such as cellulose (which composes plants' cell walls) and chitin (a major component of insect exoskeletons). However, the majority of carbohydrates are used for energy purposes, especially in animals. Carbohydrates are made up of a 1:2:1 ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen (CH2O)n

Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides)
These are used only for energy in living organisms. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Monosaccharides".The chemical formula for all the monosaccharides is CnH2nOn. They are all structural isomers of each other. There are two main types of monosaccharides. The first type are aldoses, containing an aldehyde on the first carbon, and the second type are ketoses, which have a ketone on the second carbon (This carbonyl group is always located on the second carbon). Name           Formula            Aldoses                Ketoses Trioses        C3 H6 O3           Glycerose              Dihydroxyacetone Tetroses       C4 H8 O4         Erythrose              Erythrulose Pentoses       C5 H10 O5          Ribose                 Ribulose Hexoses        C6 H12 O6          Glucose                Fructose Heptose        C7 H14 O7          Glucoheptose           Sedoheptulose The suffix -oses is kept for the aldoses & the suffix -uloses is kept for the ketoses except fructose. Ketoses are as common as aldoses. The most abundant monosaccharide in nature is the 6-Carbon sugar -i.e.D-Glucose. All aldoses are reducing sugars. Many ketoses are also considered reducing sugars because they can isomerise to aldoses.

Monomers
There are two main forms of monomers, aldoses and ketoses, of which, all have the same backbone. The simplest form of monomers are trioses. The trioses consist of three carbons in the backbone.

Fructose
Fructose is a ketohexose with the molecular formula of C6H12O6 ; which is same as the molecular formula of Glucose but different structure. The structure of fructose differs from glucose at carbon 1 and 2 by the location of the carbonyl group. Fructose is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar. Fructose is also called levulose and fruit sugar; fructose is also found in fruits, root vegetables(such as sweet potato and onion) and honey. It is a isomer of glucose and a ketose simple sugar. Fructose has the highest solubility among all sugars. Fructose can be converted to its isomer glucose, after it enters the blood stream. CH2OH C=O OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH2OH

Glucose
The hexoses glucose, galactose, and fructose are important monosaccharides. Glucose is the most prevalent monosaccharide in diet. The most common hexose, D-glucose, C6H12O6 also known as dextrose and blood sugar, is found in fruits, vegetables, corn syrup, and honey. Glucose is a building block of the disaccharides(sucrose,maltose,lactose) and polysaccharides (glycogen,cellulose,starch). In the body, excess glucose is converted to glycogen and then stored in the muscle and liver.

CHO

H-C-OH

OH-C-H

H-C-OH

H-C-OH

CH2OH

Galactose
Galactose is a sugar component of the disaccharide lactose, as found in milk. It is not as sweet as glucose and is separated from the glucose in lactose via hydrolysis.In addition, galactose is an aldohexose that does not occur in the free form in nature; galactose has an important role in the cellular membrane of the brain and nervous system. D-galactose has a structure similar to D-glucose and the only difference between them is in the arrangement of the –OH group on carbon number 4. Galactose can be found in human breast milk and is incorporated into the structure of Human Milk Oligosaccharides. The backbone of Human Milk Oligosaccharides is the disaccharide lactose, which is formed by the linkage between galactose and glucose sugars..

Oligosachharides Tha oligosachharides yields 2 to 10 monosachharides on hydrolysis. Disachharides are most common oligosachharide found in nature.

Disaccharides
Monosaccharides are simple forms of sugars consisting of one sugar, disaccharides on the other hand, consists of two. The two sugars are bonded together via a glycosidic bond. Most linkages between sugars occur between the first and fourth carbon on the sugars.

Polysaccharides
Sugars do not stop at disaccharides, they are much more complex than that. Multiple sugars are linked together forming many polysaccharides. Polysaccharides are made up of monosaccharides linked together.

Compound Carbohydrates (Disaccharides)
These are used by living organisms for energy. They are composed of two monosaccharides joined together by the process known as dehydration synthesis. In this process, one molecule loses one hydrogen atom, while the other loses one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom. The reverse of this is hydrolysis, where water is added to break down a molecule into two or more simpler molecules. Disaccharides have the chemical equation C12H22O11. The reason it does not follow the 1:2:1 ratio is, obviously, due to the H2O taken way from it. Some examples of disaccharides are: Disachharides

Non reducing                       reducing

C1-C1 glycosidic    C1-C2 glycosidic          C1-C4 glycosidic    C1-C6 glycosidic linkage             linkage                   linkage             linkage Trehalose           Sucrose                    Lactose             Gentiobiose Maltose            Melibiose Cellobiose         Isomaltose

Maltose
Maltose is a white crystal sugar, also known as malt sugar and a reducing disaccharide                               made from two glucose units. The bonding of two glucose units is called 1-4 glycosidic linkage which joins the carbon number 1 of one glucose to carbon number 4 of the second glucose.In the presence of enzyme maltase,1-4 linkage of two glucose is broken down and maltose is hydrolized into glucose Maltose is present in sprouting barley. It is the major product of hydrolysis of starch.
 * 1) Chemistry-
 * 1) occurrence-

Sucrose
3Occurrence- It is the costituent of sugarcane. it is also found in Beet,carrot, etc. Nectar of flower is particularly rich in sucrose. 3Chemistry- Sucrose is white crystal sugar.When heated above its melting point it forms a brown substance known as "Caramel". it is non reducing sugar. Sucrose is formed by the C1-C2 glucosidic bond between glucose & fructose. Sucrose on hydrolysis yield equimolar mixture of glucose & fructose which is offen called as "invert sugar" by the "enzyme".

Lactose
3 Occurrence- It is found in milk of animal. It is also "Milk sugar". The percentage of lactose in human milk is 6.8 % & in cow milk is 4.8 % 3 Chemistry- Lactose is made by the C1-C4 glycosidic bond between galactose & glucose. The hydrolysis of Lactose gives the monosacchride: glucose + glactose by the enzyme lactase. Lactose can be a reducing sugar.

Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
Polysaccharides, also called as glycanes, are high molecular weight which on hydrolysis yield monosaccharides. Some sources of complex carbohydrates are pasta, bread, rice, cereals, crackers, corn, beans, potatoes, pumpkin, and peas. Digestion of complex carbohydrates could take more time because digestive enzyme have to work harder to break down the chain into individual sugars. Complex carbohydrates contain hundreds of sugar units. Studies show that glucose levels both rise and fall more slowly after the consumption of bread compared to sugars or fruit, suggesting slower digestion. Both monosaccharides and disaccharides are used only for energy. Another difference is that while monosaccharides and disaccharides can be used for energy immediately, polysaccharides release their energy slowly. Research shows that the carbohydrate oxidation rate rises more slowly after the consumption of bread rather than sucrose following an overnight fast. The carbohydrate oxidation rate is also lower over a six-hour period following the consumption of bread in lieu of sucrose. Chemically, the polysaccharide may be distinguished into homopolysachharide & heteropolysachharide. Homopolysachharides which on hydrolysis yield only single monosachharide. Eg. starch, cellulose, etc. Hateropolysachharide which on hydrolysis yield two or more monosaccharide. Eg. heparin, chondroitin, etc. POLYSACHHARIDE Homopolysachharide             Heteropolysachharide Starch                         Mucopolysachharids Glucogen                       Chondroitin Inulin                         Hyaluronic acid Cellulose                      Keratosulfate Pectin                         Heparin Chitin                         Vegetable gum Xylan                          Agar agar polysachharide may be classified on the basis of functional aspect as Nutritive & Structural. Nutritive- starch,glycogen,inulin etc. Structural- cellulose,chitin,pectin,etc.

Cellulose (Fiber)
Cellulose is a special kind of carbohydrate. It is insoluble and most organisms can not produce enzymes to break it down. It is made by β-D-glucose. It is found only in plants, and it's found in the cell wall. It is composed of β glucose molecules, which create a more rigid structure. Cotton used to make clothes etc. is cellulose from around the seeds of the cotton plant. Fibre helps the plant keep a strong structure. Humans can't digest fibre.it gives no color with iodine.It is completely absent in meat, egg, fish & milk.

Starch
Starch is the energy storage molecule of plants.It is formed by long chains of α glucose molecules linked together. It is mostly found in potato. Starch is actually a mixture of 2 types of molecules, amylose and amylopectin. These large polysaccharides are very good for energy storage because they have lots of glucose molecules crammed into a small space which can then be easily broken off, one at a time, by hydrolysis and then used for energy. It is hydrolysed by enzyme Amylase.It is non reducinh sugar. It gives blue, purple colour with iodine

Glycogen
Glycogen is the energy storage molecule of animals. It is formed by branched chains of alpha glucose molecules with 1-4 glycosidic bonds on the main chains and 1-6 glycosidic bonds to form the branches. Humans store small amounts of glycogen in the liver and muscles. It is created when there are high blood sugar levels. The pancreas secretes insulin, which stimulates the creation of glycogen from glucose and signals the body to use glucose as its main form of energy. It is non reducing sugar. It gives red colour with iodine.

title: Biochemistry/Carbohydrates


text:
Cookbook talk:Salad Recipes

This module uses text adapted from the Wikipedia article Salad. The page history at the time the text was copied is included below.

* (cur) (last). . 16:06, 26 May 2004. . Gentgeen (disambig rocket to rocket) * (cur) (last). . m 11:29, 10 May 2004. . Leland * (cur) (last). . 10:37, 20 Apr 2004. . Quadell (Replaced picture) * (cur) (last). . m 16:24, 13 Mar 2004. . David Thrale * (cur) (last). . 06:16, 13 Mar 2004. . Sfdan (Editting, formatting) * (cur) (last). . m 03:53, 13 Mar 2004. . Chameleon (Link to pasta) * (cur) (last). . 03:50, 13 Mar 2004. . Sfdan (A few more things) * (cur) (last). . 03:46, 13 Mar 2004. . Sfdan (Things -> food items) * (cur) (last). . m 03:06, 13 Mar 2004. . Chameleon (Etymology) * (cur) (last). . m 09:20, 5 Mar 2004. . Tarquin * (cur) (last). . 04:49, 5 Mar 2004. . 134.59.21.38 (+fr) * (cur) (last). . 13:01, 3 Mar 2004. . Tarquin * (cur) (last). . 10:37, 3 Mar 2004. . Hephaestos (image) * (cur) (last). . 15:48, 28 Feb 2004. . Raul654 (+watergate salad) * (cur) (last). . m 18:38, 19 Feb 2004. . Mark T (Linked to Waldorf salad; egg/s) * (cur) (last). . m 04:15, 16 Jan 2004. . Jpatokal * (cur) (last). . m 01:10, 16 Jan 2004. . Branddobbe (potato/e) * (cur) (last). . 19:50, 8 Jan 2004. . Ike9898 (rewrite dressings section) * (cur) (last). . m 19:49, 8 Jan 2004. . Meelar (edit for grammar) * (cur) (last). . 19:46, 8 Jan 2004. . Ike9898 (rearrange) * (cur) (last). . 19:43, 8 Jan 2004. . Ike9898 (add more types ) * (cur) (last). . 22:39, 2 Jan 2004. . Emperorbma (dandelion leaves) * (cur) (last). . 06:02, 13 Nov 2003. . 218.41.203.52 (+ja) * (cur) (last). . 05:33, 22 Aug 2003. . Someone else ((-) "salads are disgusting, filth-ridden comestibles") * (cur) (last). . 04:41, 22 Aug 2003. . Tillwe * (cur) (last). . 04:39, 22 Aug 2003. . Tillwe (rewording) * (cur) (last). . 02:47, 22 Aug 2003. . Someone else (cooked mayonnaise: still a problem, just not so much as raw) * (cur) (last). . 02:42, 22 Aug 2003. . Tarquin (raw) * (cur) (last). . 02:13, 22 Aug 2003. . 80.225.3.222   * (cur) (last). . 02:10, 22 Aug 2003. . Someone else (mayonnaise is still a problem, when left out long enough. It's a really good growth medium.) * (cur) (last). . 02:05, 22 Aug 2003. . Tarquin (it's only a problem is the egg was raw) * (cur) (last). . 23:31, 21 Aug 2003. . Someone else (salmonella) * (cur) (last). . m 05:05, 5 Aug 2003. . Patrick * (cur) (last). . 05:01, 5 Aug 2003. . Heron (Niçoise) * (cur) (last). . 04:57, 5 Aug 2003. . 128.178.153.212 (Ethnic salads) * (cur) (last). . 21:35, 6 Jan 2003. . 203.109.254.58   * (cur) (last). . 20:44, 21 Jul 2002. . Tarquin (croutons, pasta, lettuce, tomato, vinaigrette etc) * (cur) (last). . m 14:57, 13 Jul 2002. . 0 (spelling :-))   * (cur) (last) . . m 14:48, 13 Jul 2002 . . Roadrunner

title: Cookbook talk:Salad Recipes


text:
Cookbook:Louis Dressing

| Salad Recipes | Appetizers | California cuisine

Louis dressing is a salad dressing commonly used with seafood salads, such as Crab Louis and Shrimp Louis. It can also be used as a dip or sandwich spread, or many other uses. The dressing is creamy but has a little spicy kick. This is not the "traditional" recipe, but it is the easiest for untrained cooks to succeed at.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (235 ml) mayonnaise
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) cup mild salsa with green chile peppers
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) ketchup
 * 1 tablespoon (15 ml) lemon juice
 * 1 ½ teaspoon (7 ml) worcestershire sauce
 * Hot sauce (e.g., Tabasco, Crystal), to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Combine all ingredients in a blender, and process until smooth. The goal is to have a pink smooth sauce with little green flecks.
 * 2) Pour the sauce into a bowl, cover, and chill in the refrigerator for at least 30 minutes prior to use.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For the traditional recipe, replace the salsa and ketchup with ½ cup chile sauce (or store-bought chile sauce), and 3 tablespoons each of finely-minced green onion and green chili peppers. Instead of using a blender, whisk the ingredients in a bowl.
 * Keep refrigerated.

title: Cookbook:Louis Dressing


text:
Constructivist Theories in Education/The New Century:Classroom Applications of Constructivism

WebQuests are another constructivist tool. The shortage of text material for the early grades is glaring. It is there, but hard to find.

Computer game programming is an area where Constructivist learning is practiced. With tools such as Gamemaker and Klik&Play, it is being used in classrooms from grade 3 up


text:
Talk:Indonesian/Tenses

Untitled
I've just read the article on tenses and I think it's one of the best explanations of Indonesian tenses I've seen anywhere. I'm a begginner at learning Bahasa Indonesia and I found it very helpful. Very nice work.

editing
I hate to edit something so well written and designed, but the section on Past Perfect seemed to be referring to present perfect, so I've edited it to reflect that.

move to Grammar/Tenses?
Should we move this section to Grammar/Tenses so that there aren't two same topics (Indonesian Tenses)? Benny Lin

confusion of tense and aspect
This section confuses the grammatical concepts of tense and aspect. Aspect markers like sedang/lagi (progressive aspect) and sudah/telah (perfective aspect) should be distinguished from other temporal markers.

Poor article, badly explained and with fake concepts
This book is a total nonsense, it confuses everything. It confuses the declension languages, and the existence of the tenses. Do the authors know what is a language without the past tense? There will be no mean no indicate a past action, no "sudah", no "telah".. The fact that the past is often implied, most of the time, is a different thing. But this article confuses everything and has no ideas about comparative grammar. If the authors know only English and Indonesian, they shouldn't write about comparative grammar, like Indonesian has NO past tenses or other wrong things that a learner will trust without questioning. If there are things to explain, explain them, in details.

title: Talk:Indonesian/Tenses


text:
Metabolomics/Nutrition

Back to Previous Chapter: Computational Modeling of Metabolic Control Next Chapter: Databases

Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolomics
Metabolomics has been widely adopted in pharmacology and toxicology but is relatively new in human nutrition. The ultimate goal, to understand the effects of exogenous compounds on human metabolic regulation, is similar in all 3 fields. However, the application of metabolomics to nutritional research will be met with unique challenges. Little is known of the extent to which changes in the nutrient content of the human diet elicit changes in metabolic profiles. Moreover, the metabolomic signal from nutrients absorbed from the diet must compete with the myriad of nonnutrient signals that are absorbed, metabolized, and secreted in both urine and saliva. The large-bowel microflora also produces significant metabolic signals that can contribute to and alter the metabolome of biofluids in human nutrition. Notwithstanding these possible confounding effects, every reason exists to be optimistic about the potential of metabolomics for the assessment of various biofluids in nutrition research. This potential lies both in metabolic profiling through the use of pattern-recognition statistics on assigned and unassigned metabolite signals and in the collection of comprehensive data sets of identified metabolites; both objectives have the potential to distinguish between different dietary treatments, which would not have been targeted with conventional techniques. The latter objective sets out a well-recognized challenge to modern biology: the development of libraries of small molecules to aid in metabolite identification. The purpose of the present review was to highlight some early challenges that need to be addressed if metabolomics is to realize its great potential in human nutrition.

American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 82, No. 3, 497-503, September 2005 © 2005 American Society for Clinical Nutrition

What is Metabolomics?
Metabolomics is newly developing field studying the products and effects of the metabolism on the pathological and physiological states within biological samples. Metabolomics offers the possibility of discovering the reasons and causes of certain phenotypes. Another discovery from Metabolomics is the discovery of biomarkers, which reveal changes in health and disease, and can reflect dietary habits. Metabolomics is essential in the study of how specific diets interact with the human body, one of the most important aspects of nutrition.

Koulman, A., and D. A. Volmer. "Perspectives for metabolomics in human nutrition: an overview." Nutrition Bulletin 33.4 (2008)

Small molecule metabolites, the end product of cellular processes, are the most accurate marker of the responses of biological systems resulting from changes either genetic or environmental. There are approximately 2,900 biochemicals (metabolites) that are the key to cellular phenotypes.

Milburn, Michael. "Using Metabolic Profiling Technology to Advance Cell Culture Development." BioPharm International June 2009, p.28-34

Limitations of Metabolomics
Metabolic profiling has been conducted for over 50 years, which has provided a lot of very helpful information but currently there is not enough data nor a standard way to collect and record data for the study of metabolomics to really be helpful now. Metabolomics has the potential to discover early warning signs of certain diseases as well as determine the effects of certain foods and drugs on the body. This potential could be much greater if more data is collected and recorded accurately and precisely into a database. By recording the effects of age, gender, race, ethnicity, body composition, health, dietary intake, physical activity, stress, and many more factors, people would be able to better interpret their new metabolomic data and advance the general metabolomic knowledge. Without this there is no baseline or control group with which to compare data which greatly hinders proper research and theory creation.

Walsh, M. C. and A. Nugent, L. Brennan and M. J. Gibney. "Understanding the metabolome – challenges for metabolomics." UCD Institute of Food and Health, University College Dublin, Ireland. The British Nutrition Foundation. The Nutrition Bulletin, December 2008. URL: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&hid=109&sid=bd42c8d7-0cb2-4f8b-954e-d93dc1b131df%40sessionmgr111

Future Of Metabolomics
The future of Metabolomics seems to be coming ever clearer in the wake of increasing scientific innovation in the area of the genome. Through the use and study of various aspects of the genome there has been great scientific improvement which has laid the groundwork for more relevant innovations. Such innovations would include proteome (the study of entire protein complements of cells tissues or fluid compartments), and the metabolome (the study of entire metabolite complements in cells, tissues or fluids) which will support modern nutrition (1). With these scientific leaps in genomic research, Metabolomics, lead by Nutrition, has the potential to reduce disease in both individuals and entire populations. This is all made possible by several innovative and relatively new technologies such as the gene array which performs global gene expression analysis (1). This is just one of the many feats of engineering which have made it possible for us to quantify and understand the human gene and how it relates to Nutrition. J. B. German, M. A. (2002). Metabolomics and Individual Metabolic Assessment: The Next Great Challenge for Nutrition. The Journal Of Nutrition, URL: http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/132/9/2486#BIBL.

Nutrition, Metabolomics, and Disease
Dysregulation at the level of primary metabolic organs and tissues form the foundation of many diseases. Some primary tissues of current interest include adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, the intestine and liver. The metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes and obesity may all be understood as ecological phenomena where metabolism is the primary intermediary between diet and health outcomes. The assessment of essential nutrient status and a comprehensive understanding of metabolic response (e.g. metabolic phenotype) to ecological risk factors is necessary for the identification of effective disease prevention strategies as well as interventions in the clinical treatment of metabolic disease.

Nutrition and Oral Disease
The below is not medical advice, and is not (as prohibited by government regulation) designed to treat, or prevent any illnesses. The information is currently under review for quality and accuracy.

Nutrition plays a key role in the prevention of many oral diseases, dental caries, dental erosion, developmental defects, oral mucosal diseases and periodontal disease. Poor nutrition can lead to a breakdown in tooth enamel and an increase in oral mucosal. The consumption of soft drinks, which are heavy with acid, has been shown to lead to significant dental erosion. A balanced diet and proper nutrition are essential to the maintaining of a healthy oral system, as well as the rest of the body. Bacteria can also cause periodontal disease, gum disease, and erosion. Chewing antibiotics is one way to prevent periodontal disease.

Periodontal disease, an oral infectious disease involving inflammation and loss of bone and supporting tissues, progresses more rapidly in undernourished developing populations around the world. Many local and systematic factors influence the severity and longevity of progression of the common yet preventable disease.

Malnutrition however exacerbates the severity of oral infections, which are contributing factors to other life-threatening diseases. Deficiencies in vitamin C lead to scurvy, while deficiencies in vitamin A, D and other protein-energy components are associated with enamel hyplosia and salivary gland atrophy. Antioxidant intake in foods, such as pomegranate seeds, green or black teas, have been used as buffers of reactive oxygen species that lead to tooth decay. Antioxidants are found in high fruit and vegetable diets and have been determined to contain anti carcinogenic properties. Diet plays an important role in the dynamic equilibrium of dimineralization-remineralization of the tooth surface. Therefore, food's form, frequency of sugar and alcohol intake, and combination of vital nutrients and minerals play an important role in maintaining a healthy oral system.

Moynihan, Paula J. "The role of diet and nutrition in the etiology and prevention of oral diseases." Bulletin of the World Health Organization 83.9 (2005)

Position of the American Dietetic Association: Liberalization of the Diet Prescription Improves Quality of Life for Older Adults in Long-Term Care Journal of the American Dietetic Association - December 2005 (Vol. 105, Issue 12, Pages 1955-1965, DOI: 10.1016/j.jada.2005.10.004)

Rugg-gunn A. Nutrition, diet and oral health. Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh [serial online]. December 2001;46(6):320. Available from: Academic Search Complete, Ipswich, MA. Accessed June 3, 2010.

Nutrition and Celiac disease
Celiac disease (CD) is an inflammatory small intestinal disorder that can lead to severe villous atrophy, malabsorption, and malignancy. It is triggered by the gluten proteins of wheat, barley, and rye. All patients express the antigen presenting molecules human leukocyte antigen-DQ2 (HLA-DQ2) and/or HLA-DQ8, which bind gluten peptides and thus activate destructive intestinal T cells. Patients with untreated CD have circulating IgA autoantibodies to the enzyme tissue transglutaminase (tTG), a component of endomysium. Testing for serum IgA tTG has a high predictive value. Therapy of CD is a lifelong gluten-free diet. Counseling by an expert dietitian and association with a celiac support group are important in helping the patient embark on a healthy gluten-free diet. Current research focuses on non-dietary therapies and treatment of refractory (diet-unresponsive) CD.

Kelly, Ciaran P., Dennis, Melinda D., Schuppan, Detlef. “Celiac Disease: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Nutritional Management”. Nutrition in Clinical Care (April 2005).

There is an estimated prevalence of 1% in North America. Typically symptoms become present in early childhood and consist of abdominal cramps, diarrhea, malabsorption and nutrient deficiencies. A link has been found with giving infant cereal, which contains gluten, too young and developing Celiac disease. Parents are advised to wait until 4-6 months of age before giving babies infant cereal. In a study of over 1500 children 51 developed the disease and those who were exposed to infant cereal before 3 months were at 5 times more likely to develop the disease.

Belanger, Jeanette E.; Wooltorton, Eric; "Is the timing of infant cereal introduction a risk factor for celiac disease autoimmunity?" Canadian Medical Association Journal p.1374, November 22, 2005

Nutrition and Childhood Obesity
The rapid increase in the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents is alarming, particularly in light of its many medical and psychosocial consequences.Due to the multifactorial etiology of overweight and obesity, action is needed concurrently at many levels. Physicians should screen for overweight and obesity regularly in order to address the problem at an early stage. One promising approach is to introduce healthy eating habits, focusing on portion control and a diet rich innon-starchy vegetables, fruits, and legumes, and sufficient in moderate-glycemic index/load foods, protein, healthy types of fat, and reduced-fat dairy foods. In addition, it is important to decrease sedentary behaviors and increase physical activity. The earlier a healthy lifestyle is introduced into a child's life, the more likely it is to become a way of life. Parents have a major role to play in controlling what their young child eats and in reinforcing healthy eating at an early age, serving as role models themselves. Interventions that include the whole family in the process are likely to have the most success in the prevention and treatment of childhood overweight and obesity.

Philippas, Niki G, Lo, Clifford W. “Childhood Obesity: Etiology, Prevention, and Treatment”. Nutrition in Clinical Care. (April 2005).

Nutrition and the link between Childhood Obesity and Severe Adult Obesity
Childhood obesity not only affects the health and nutrition of a child’s life, but also puts them at a higher risk of having severe adult obesity. In a study done by Ilonna and Alfred Rimm where they conducted a questionnaire completed by 73,532 women, they found that a large portion of severely obese women were also obese children. The data found from their study also suggests that the risk of an overweight child developing severe adult obesity is significantly greater than that of non-obese children. Since adult obesity can be linked to so many health problems and adult diseases, this study shows the importance of weight control through childhood.

Rimm, Ilonna J., and Alfred A. Rimm, PHD. "Association between Juvenile Onset Obesity and Severe Adult Obesity in 73,532 Women." Public Health Briefs66.5 (1976): 479-81. Print.

Obesity and the Link to Malignant Cancer
Not only does being obese contribute to things like cardiovascular disease and diabetes, research has shown that it can also be linked to an increased risk of cancer. Researchers estimate that excess weight may account for 14 percent of cancer death in men and 20 percent of cancer deaths in women. As far as preventable risk factors for cancer go, only smoking rates higher. There is a major connection between cancer and insulin, which happens to be one of the main hormones that responds to obesity. The more obese the individual, then typically the more insulin they will have in their system. Also, concentrations of hormones that cause inflammation may rise with fat concentrations, which also may set cancer in motion Any of these fluctuations in hormone levels could work together to initiate carcinogenesis.

Nutrition Health Review: The Consumer's Medical Journal; 2009, Issue 100, p8-8, 1/2p

Maternal Influence on Nutrition
Adequate nutrition and balance of vitamins has a huge effect on human growth before we are even born. During pregnancy, it is important for mother’s to maintain proper balances of vitamins and minerals in order to support the long term develop and health of the metabolism in her child. A recent study published in The New England Journal of Medicine indicated the importance of Vitamin A, for example. The article notes that “vitamin A deficiency in a mother during pregnancy could have lasting adverse effects on the lung health of her offspring” by not providing the child with the support it is needs to build healthy alveoli of the lungs (West et. Al 2010). Properly developed lungs, help contribute to the overall health of an infant. Other research has also determined the importance of micronutrients in a mother’s diet that help support a healthy baby. Mother’s who maintained diets high in micronutrients and vitamins found in green leafy vegetables, fruit and milk tended to have larger and healthier babies. The study also notes that mother’s who had high levels of glucose; insulin, cholesterol, and triglycerides during pregnancy increased the chances that their child would develop higher insulin resistance, which is one of the main causes of diabetes (Yajnik 2006).

Checklye W, West KP Jr, Wise RA, Baldwin MR, Wu L, LeClerg SC, Christian P, Katz J, Tielsch JM, Khatry S, Sommer A. 2010. Mineral Vitamin A Supplementation and Lung Function in Offspring. New England Journal of Medicine. 13:362(19): 1784-94.

Yajnik, Chittarani. 2006. Nutritional Control of Fetal Growth. Nutrition Reviews. 64(5): 49-51.

Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy
Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones. Nearly 80 percent of the iodine in the body is found in the thyroid gland, most of it is the thyroid hormones. The amount of iodide, a form of iodine, in drinking water generally depends on the iodine content of local soil. Some 10 percent of the world population is at risk of developing iodine deficiency because they live at high altitudes where the drinking water is low in iodide. To counteract low iodine levels iodide is sometimes added to commercial table salt.

In iodine deficiency, the thyroid gland attempts to capture more iodide for the synthesis of thyroid hormones and enlarges. The iodide level in the blood and urine is very low. A pregnant woman who is deficient in iodine may have a baby whose brain is improperly developed because of iodine deficiency. This condition is called cretinism (Beers: 1999). Cretinism is marked by irreversible mental and growth retardation (Tatsumi: 1992).

The Merck Manual, 17th ed. Mark H. Beers, MD, Robert Berkow, MD, eds. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck Research Labs, 1999.

Ke-ita Tatsumi1, Kiyoshi Miyai1, Tsugunori Notomi1, Kyoko Kaibe1, Nobuyuki Amino1, Yuji Mizuno2 & Hitoshi Kohno.3 “Cretinism with combined hormone deficiency caused by a mutation In the PIT1 gene” Nature Genetics 1, 56–58 (1992) doi: 10.1038/ng0492-56

Nutrient specific sections
The are many types of vitamins classified by the materials in which they will dissolve, two of which are: Fat Soluble and Water Soluble. Others are Calcium, Fish Oil, Flax Seed, Iron, Vitamin K, Vitamin E, and Vitamin D.

Calcium
Calcium is mineral that is the most likely to be deficient in the human diet. 99% of the calcium in the human body is stored in the bones and teeth. It is the most supportive element in bones and teeth and makes up 70% of bone weight and accounts for bone strength. The last 1% floats in the bloodstream and performs a variety of functions throughout the body. It also helps in contracting muscles and regulating the contractions of the heart. It also plays a key role in the transmission of nerve impulses and in blood clotting. It is also involved in the stimulation of contractions during childbirth as well as milk production. In order for the body to absorb calcium, there needs to be Vitamin D in the blood. Vitamin D is a key ingredient that enables calcium to pass from the digestive system into the bones or blood. Even though everyone knows that calcium is important in a healthy adult diet, some people still don’t get enough and end up being deficient. Calcium deficiency causes the bones to weaken and thin out and can even cause them to be brittle. It also causes osteoporosis which means that the bones have developed tiny holes and increases risk of fracture. Osteoporosis seems to affect women more often than men. So, for the average adult, ingest 1000mg of calcium and you will continue to grow up big and strong.

References: http://www.thedietchannel.com/What-You-Should-Know-About-Calcium-Deficiency.htm; http://www.vitamins-nutrition.org/vitamins/calcium.html

At the other end of the spectrum, a study was done by Taru K Pilvi et al. to investigate energy restriction and its effect on weight loss. As a further investigation, this study also aimed to explain "whether the [weight-loss] effect of energy restriction can be further enhanced by modification of dietary protein source and calcium." They found that the increased levels of dairy protein and calcium had a "significant effect on hepatic lipid changes." The mice of this study that were fed a diet with increased levels of whey protein and calcium exhibited a reduction in "the relative level of potentially diabetogenic ceramides and diacylglycerols to the level observed in lean animals." Another study showed similar effects of increased dairy in the diet of obese subjects. This study done by Zemel MB et al. showed a direct association between increased dietary calcium and lipid utilization. Both of these studies concluded that increased calcium consumption during energy restriction results in augmented weight loss in obese individuals.

References:

Taru K Pilvi et al. 2008. Metabolomic changes in fatty liver can be modified by dietary protein and calcium during energy restriction, World J Gastroenterol, 14(28): 4462–4472.

Zemel MB et al. 2005. Dairy augmentation of total and central fat loss in obese subjects, International journal of obesity, 29(4):391-397.

Fat Soluble Vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins can be very important to some people more than others for many reasons. The American Society for Nutrition claims that, "fat-soluble vitamins are needed for maintaining optimal function of innate and adaptive immune cells." In that case, fat soluble vitamins can help improve immune response to tumors. However, that is not the only thing that fat soluble vitamins can help improve. There are a variety of fat soluble vitamins that can improve health. The beneficial effects can vary considering that they can improve different aspects of the human body. Fat-soluble vitamins -- vitamins A, D, E and K -- dissolve in fat before they are absorbed in the blood stream to carry out their functions. Excesses of these vitamins are stored in the liver. Because they are stored, they are not needed every day in the diet.

 * /Vitamin A/
 * /Vitamin K/

Fish Oil
Fish oil is found in omega 3 and is part of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. It a natural oil usually produced from the body of cold-water fish. The generic name is vitamin A and the brand names are A-25, A/Fish Oil, Aquasol A which comes in a capsule form with soft gel liquid inside. It is known as the marine oils and is essential fatty acids that are found in fish. There are two main ingredients to fish oil. One is the 20 carbon eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). The other is the 22-carbon docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The average fish oil supplement is 20 EPA and 10 DHA for a total of 30 omega-3, which may help to keep block triglycerides in check and help protect against atherosclerosis. Studies have found that fish oil may help prevent Crohn's disease, high blood pressure, high triglycerides and rheumatoid arthritis. Fish oil is also good for the brain because the brain is one of the largest consumers of DHA. It can be known as brain food.

Reference: http://www.nutrasanus.com/fish-oil.html, http://vvv.com/healthnews/fishoils.html

In one Australian study, fish oil supplements taken by women during pregnancy were associated with improved hand-eye coordination of their children. It is also suggested that high doses of fish oil are beneficial in the last weeks of pregnancy and further research is being done to determine the ways in which it is.

Reference: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/02/health/nutrition/02nutr.html?scp=3&sq=fish+oil+supplements&st=nyt

Populations that consume large amounts of fish have been associated with reduced incidences of breast cancer. LIke it has been said, fish oil is high in omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), and research is being done to determine whether it is that aspect of fish that seems to contribute to protection against breast cancer.

Reference: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/12g6398b?query=fish%20oil

Flax Seed
According to health experts, the seed of the blue-flowering flax plant that can be easily found on Canadian and Mesopotamian soil, is packed with disease-fighting nutrients and fiber. It is also loaded with two fatty acids that are necessary for our bodies: omega-3s and lingans, which also work as natural antioxidants. The omega-3s in the flax seed help remove toxins from the human body, as well as helping with the prevention of heart disease and inflammation. The lignans aid with the prevention of cancers and provides 700 times the amount of fiber that can be found in legumes or whole grains. This fiber is also great for fighting bad cholesterol and type 2 diabetes. Omega-3 and lignan are essential to every membrane and cell in the human body, making them extremely beneficial. Flax seed has the ability to fix radical oxygen atoms. Radical oxygen molecules can cause molecular damage to DNA, shortening and damaging it. They are associated with the deterioration of the body often associated with aging.

Flax seed also has notable effects on the menstrual cycle. It prolonges the fertile stage of the menstrual cycle, the luteal phase. It also helps regulate the release of an ovum. Women that regularly consume flax seed are more likely to release an egg for every menstrual cycle they have than women who have a low fiber diet withno flax seed supplements. Two phytochemicals in flax seed are linked to changes in the female hormonal cycle associated with these changes in the menstrual cycle. They are absorbed in the intestines and affect the ratios of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone during different times in the menstrual cycle. A study at Duke University found that men scheduled for prostate cancer surgery who began eating two teaspoons of flaxseed oil daily, showed that within 30 days the flax seed halted tumor growth and many of the cancer cells had self-destructed. Although all parts of the flax seed including the seed, oil, or both would benefit our diets, shopping for flaxseed can prove difficult as there are so many processed variations of the plant, each of which with its own care instructions. Be sure to read the back of all packaging’s to make sure you choose the best one for you.

Reference: Rubin, Tina. "The Flax of Life." Better Nutrition Apr. 2010: 54. Print.

Prasad, Kailash. "Hydroxyl radical-scavenging property of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) isolated from flax-seed ." Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry Mar. 1997: 168. Print.

WR Phipps, MC Martini. "Effect of flax seed ingestion on the menstrual cycle." Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1993: 77. Print.

Iron
Iron is split into two categories. HEME iron can be obtained only from meat, fish and poultry and is an easier type of iron for the body to break down and use as a nutrient. NON-HEME iron can be obtained from fruits, vegetables, beans, nuts and grains and is more difficult for the body to absorb. The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for males aged 19 to 50 is 8mg/day. Females in the same age range are suggested to consume 18mg of iron per day. Iron deficiency is the number one nutritional disorder in the world. It can be caused by a low dietary intake of iron or the inability to absorb the iron consumed. Also, excessive blood loss is another factor. Women are at a higher risk for iron deficiency because of the consistent menstrual blood loss experienced during their menstrual cycle. To help fight iron deficiency many breakfast cereals are iron-fortified shown on the nutrition label.

Reference: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron.asp#h4 http://www.mckinley.illinois.edu/Handouts/dietary_sources_iron.html

Iron is both an essential nutrient and a potential toxicant to cells, requiring a highly sophisticated and complex set of regulatory approaches to meet the demands of cells as well as to prevent excess accumulation. For humans, iron plays a central role in oxygen transport and the synthesis of haemoglobin, myoglobin, and some important enzymes to energy production. Many studies have demonstrated that iron deficiency may impair the performance of athletes, so normal iron status in athletes is especially important. Exercise alone may not lead to a true iron deficiency, but probably results from dietary choices, inadequate iron intake, and menstruation. Iron deficiency affects particularly pregnant women, young children, and adolescents. Iron is a micro-nutrient and is required for regulation of brain neurotransmitters by altering the pathway enzymatic system. Studies have shown that iron deficiency in infants can negatively impact neurological development necessary later in life. It is thought that early iron deficiency can possibly impair the development and function of the hippocampus in the brain, which plays an important role in developing and retaining long-term memories. Iron deficiency in infants might also impair the dopamine system. It is possible that those adolescents who were exposed to chronic and sever iron deficiency in their infant stages may exhibit deficits on tests in things like Spatial Working Memory, Rapid VIsual Information Processing, Pattern Recognition Memory, and Spatial Recognition Memory.

Reference: Qian, Zhong Ming. "Nitric Oxide and Changes of Iron Metabolism in Exercise". Cambridge Journals.

Agarwal, Kailash N. "Iron and the Brain: Neurotransmitter receptors and Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy". British Journal of Nutrition.

Lukowski, Angela F. "Iron deficiency in infancy and neurocognitive functioning at 19 years: evidence of long-term deficits in executive function and recognition memory."

Vitamin K and Vitamin E Interactions
As noted above each vitamin is necessary "for maintaining optimal function of innate and adaptive immune cells" yet it is important to remember that each vitamin also interacts with the others. Interestingly, some studies have indicated that Vitamin E may decrease Vitamin K's addition to the immune system. Though the connection has not been proven, preliminary clinical trials have reflected that Vitamin K's metabolism is slowed with an excess of Vitamin E. One hypothesis is that Vitamin K and E compete for the enzyme. So far only rats have been tested, though it has been observed with statistical significance that when an excess of Vitamin E is present there are far fewer MK-4's (the metabolized Vitamin K).

Vitamin A is a vitamin that is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of a specific metabolite, the light-absorbing molecule retinal. This molecule is necessary for both scotopic and color vision. Vitamin A also functions in a very different role, as an irreversibly oxidized form of retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. Vitamin A can be found in two principal forms in foods: Retinol which is the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources. The carotenes alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene; and the xanthophyll beta-cryptoxanthin (all ofwhich contain beta-ionone rings), function as vitamin A in herbivores and omnivore animals. The discovery of vitamin A may have stemmed from research dating back to 1906, indicating that factors other than carbohydrates, proteins, and fats were necessary to keep cattle healthy. Adequate supply of Vitamin A is especially important for pregnant and breastfeeding women, since deficiencies cannot be compensated by postnatal supplementation. However, excess Vitamin A, especially through vitamin supplementation, can cause birth defects and should not exceed recommended daily values. Since vitamin A is fat-soluble, disposing of any excesses taken in through diet is much harder than with water-soluble vitamins B and C, thus vitamin A toxicity may result. This can lead to nausea, jaundice, irritability, anorexia vomiting, blurry vision, headaches, hairloss, muscle and abdominal pain and weakness, drowsiness, and altered mental status. Toxic effects of vitamin A have been shown to significantly affect developing fetuses. Therapeutic doses used for acne treatment have been shown to disrupt cephalic neural cell activity. The fetus is particularly sensitive to vitamin A toxicity during the period of organogenesis.

Reference: Traber, Maret G. (2008). "Vitamin K Interactions a 50-year Problem." Nutrition Reviews, 66(11):624-629, doi: 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00123.x.

Vitamin D
Vitamin D is sometimes known as the “sun-shine vitamin” due to it's ability to fight off infections. It is also important for bone health. It can protect against osteoporosis, arthritis and other bone problems. In the study of Osteoporotic fractures in men study, researchers found that low vitamin D levels were connected to a greater possibility for arthritis, whereas men with higher vitamin D levels had reduced chances of developing arthritis. With a sufficient intake of Vitamin D, it is possible to build a defense against arthritis, as the vitamin D helps to regulate the development and maintenance of bone and cartilage.

Vitamin D has been recently found to have many additional health benefits outside of bone health. People with sufficient vitamin D levels have been found to have increased testosterone and muscle mass. Gaining your vitamin D solely through sunshine is generally not enough to maintain a healthy level.

Vitamin D supplements are widely recommended for people who live in environments that don’t receive an adequate amount of sunshine. Vitamin D is one of the body’s essential vitamins and a 2010 study by Japanese researchers suggest there might be a link between vitamin D and flu prevention. Although more studies will be necessary to make a conclusive link, there was an 8% decrease in flu diagnoses among children who received the recommended 700-1000 IU a day as compared to those receiving a placebo. A lack of Vitamin D has been known to be a leading cause of rickets; soft and weak bones. Low levels of vitamin D have also been related to heart disease and some forms of cancer. This vitamin can be attained through direct sunlight or food fortified with vitamin D. Individuals with darker skin require more sunlight exposure to take in as much vitamin D as a fair-skinned person.

Vitamin D is one of many important body essential vitamins that help balance the body. It is known to be an immune system regulator. Researchers states that, “the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3], has been shown to inhibit the development of autoimmune diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).” In total reverse of proper Vitamin D intake and low counts of Vitamin D receptors, it can result in accelerated inflammatory bowel disease. Dietary calcium can help trigger the effects of Vitamin D on the immune system because it has its own independent effects on inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment of mice on low-calcium diets can improve the symptoms of inflammatory bowel disease.

Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids, the two major physiologically relevant forms of which are vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D without a subscript refers to either D2 or D3 or both. Vitamin D is produced in the skin of vertebrates after exposure to ultraviolet B light, and occurs naturally in a small range of foods. In some countries staples such as milk, flour and margarine are artificially fortified with vitamin D, and it is also available as a supplement in pill form. Vitamin D is carried in the bloodstream to the liver, where it is converted into the prohormone calcidiol. Circulating calcidiol may then be converted into calcitriol, the biologically active form of vitamin D, either in the kidneys or by monocyte-macrophages in the immune system. When synthesized by monocyte-macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a cytokine, defending the body against microbial invaders. When synthesized in the kidneys, calcitriol circulates as a hormone, regulating, among other things, the concentration of calcium and phosphate in the bloodstream, promoting the healthy mineralization, growth and remodeling of bone, and the prevention of hypocalcemic tetany. Vitamin D insufficiency can result in thin, brittle, or misshapen bones, while sufficiency prevents rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, and, together with calcium, helps to protect older adults from osteoporosis. Vitamin D also modulates neuromuscular function, reduces inflammation, and influences the action of many genes that regulate the proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis of cells. Important that Washington citizens try to find time to get out in the sun and get there vitamin D. there are a vast array of consequences for the human body that does no obtain enough vitamin D. So get out there and get your sunshine.

There was a study done about the correlation between milk consumption and prostate cancer. The study, although far from having definite answers seemed to find a pattern in the decreased rates of prostate cancer in men who take in lots of vitamin D. The vitamin D seems to have some sort of preventative effect on prostate cancer. It was certainly found that men who take in less vitamin D have a greater chance of getting and dying from prostate cancer. The study did find that the calcium in milk decreases the production of vitamin D3 which in turn cancels out the beneficial effects of the vitamin. In other words vitamin D from milk, although still good for you, does not have to preventative effect on prostate cancer as a healthy does of pure vitamin D does. Givens, D. I. and R. Morgan and P. C. Elwood. "Relationship between milk consumption and prostate cancer: a short review." Animal Science Research Group, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK; Department of Primary Care and Public Health Centre for Health Sciences Research, Cardiff University, Neuadd Meirionnydd, Heath Park, Cardiff, UK. December 2008 http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=6&hid=109&sid=c363fced-4af5-4cc1-8834-e7cbab5d40a6%40sessionmgr113

Brown, Jordana, Weir, Kirsten,

 * /Vitamin E/

Water Soluble Vitamins
B-complex vitamins and vitamin C are water-soluble vitamins that are not stored in the body and must be replaced each day.These vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage and preparation.The B-complex group is found in a variety of foods: cereal grains, meat, poultry, eggs, fish, milk, legumes and fresh vegetables. Citrus fruits are good sources of vitamin C. The use of megadoses of vitamins is not recommended and in some cases can have undesirable results. In 2010, Canadian researches studied 238 people with chronic kidney disease, challenging earlier studies that had suggested B vitamins could protect the kidneys because they lower blood levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that is linked to a higher risk of kidney damage. Yet after three years of studies it was found that those who got the high-dose B vitamins had a greater decrease in kidney function that those who received the placebo. Vitamins are essential nutrients found in foods. The requirements are small but they perform specific and vital functions essential for maintaining health. Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored; they are eliminated in urine. We need a continuous supply of them in our diets. The water-soluble vitamins are the B-complex group and vitamin C.

Water-soluble vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage or preparation. Proper storage and preparation of food can minimize vitamin loss. To reduce vitamin loss, refrigerate fresh produce, keep milk and grains away from strong light, and use the cooking water from vegetables to prepare soups

 * /Vitamin C/
 * /Folate/
 * /Dietary fiber/

title: Metabolomics/Nutrition


text:
Talk:Metabolomics/Nutrition

TUF-KAT, what's your goal here? Is this information that can be covered in the cookbook's ingredient pages? Gentgeen 07:03, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * It seems a good idea to collect everything into one page. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 09:05, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, I think detailed nutritional data would clutter up the cookbook page. As soon as I figure out the template system, I think I will make a footer that links between e.g. Nutrition:Apple, Gardening:Apple, Cookbook:Apple and Field Guide:Apple.  That's my goal anyway. TUF-KAT 16:17, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * I think this is it: Nutrition: | Cookbook: | Field Guide: | Gardening: in Template:Food and  elsewhere. I think. I'm testing it at TestWikipedia. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 20:54, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I wonder if people would be amenable to including interwiki links (to wiktionary and wikipedia) in a footer on all the MediaWiki pages on apples. More than you ever wanted to know about apples only one click away... TUF-KAT 04:35, 28 May 2004 (UTC)
 * And perhaps a pharmacopeia Wikibook. TUF-KAT 04:35, 28 May 2004 (UTC)

Merge all nutrition content?
With the creation of Nutrition:Vitamin C I though that I should link it back to Nutrition. I have noticed that there is a duplicate Cookbook:Nutrition section (and Cookbook:Vitamins too), so I added it there too. We really should decide how things should be split between the two, or if they should be merged. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 02:08, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

I want to discuss the content of the article. The last section states that all humans need in a lifetime is 1 cup of vitamins. I'm hoping for a reference. Also I wanted to ask if the author has considered the following: mineral deficient soil, old age, disease states, orthomolecular psychology, poor understanding of nutrition by the public, history of nutritional disease (pellagra, beriberi, rickets, microcytic anaemia, megaloblastic  anaemia, creationism due to iodine deficiency), bioavibility of nutrients, special religious diets and similar diets (Hindu, Buddhist, Seventh Day Adventists, Muslims, vegans, and vegetarians for instance), gender differences in need, special concerns for infants and children, the effects of heavy metals and other poisons on nutritional needs, etc. 69.72.254.10 05:49, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

updates
Hello, I am new to Wikibooks and will be on here quite often from now on. I am currently a registered dietitian and will be contributing to this Nutrition page quite extensively. My plan is to create an on-line textbook similar to the printed books I used in college. I will also be adding recent research articles and, if people would like, tips for dieting, exercise, diabetes, and any other topics people would like to speak with a dietitian about. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Mdahlheim (talk • contribs) 16:43, 2 Dec 2006 (UTC)

Page needs cleanup
This page needs to be organized.

An introductory section should discuss Metabolomics, nutrition and general health implications/applications.

A second section should link to independent pages discussing the metabolomics of specific nutrients. --YakbutterT (talk) 03:09, 11 June 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Metabolomics/Nutrition


text:
User:Dominik~enwikibooks

de:Benutzer:Dominik

title: User:Dominik~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Red Chile Sauce

| Tex-Mex cuisine

Dried red chiles can be soaked and pureed to make red chile sauce. It can be used in many ways, including as an enchilada sauce, chicken marinade, or in huevos rancheros.

Ingredients

 * 3 oz (90 g) dried chile peppers, such as New Mexico chile
 * 2 cups (500 ml) hot water (boiled water that has cooled a little)
 * 1 tablespoon (15 ml) vegetable oil
 * ½ ea. onion, chopped
 * 3 cloves garlic, minced
 * 1 teaspoon (5 ml) ground cumin
 * 1 tablespoon (15 ml) Mexican oregano

Procedure

 * 1) Wipe chile peppers with a damp cloth to clean. See warning for handling instructions.
 * 2) Break off stems, and remove seeds.
 * 3) Soak chili peppers in hot water until softened, about an hour.
 * 4) Taste the soaking water. If it is bitter, replace it with fresh water.
 * 5) Purée chili pepper and water mixture in a blender
 * 6) Heat the oil in a pan, add onion, garlic, and seasonings.
 * 7) Once the onions are cooked, add the chili purée to the pan. Simmer for 15 minutes.
 * 8) Return mixture to the blender, and purée. See warning.
 * 9) Pour sauce through a sieve. Use a spoon to stir and press the mixture against the sieve to extract all the sauce.
 * 10) Add salt to taste. If the sauce is a little bitter, some sugar can be added to compensate.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This sauce freezes well.
 * The sauce may stain certain materials, including some plastics. Store in glass to avoid staining.

Warnings

 * Use caution when handling chili peppers. Wearing rubber gloves is recommended, and be sure to wash the gloves, and your hands, thoroughly after handling the chili peppers. If rubber gloves are not available, rub some oil onto your hands before handling the chilies. The capsaicin in the chili peppers, the chemical that makes them hot, will burn the eyes, nose, or mouth on contact, and exposed skin if left for long.
 * Use caution when pureeing hot liquids in a blender. The hot liquid can spill out the top of the blender. Either allow the sauce to cool first, or hold the lid in place during blending, using a towel or oven glove to protect your hand. Only fill the blender half full, do multiple batches if required.

title: Cookbook:Red Chile Sauce


text:
User talk:216.209.40.120

User 216.209.40.120,

Why did you take "Sine, Cosine, and Tangent for Right Triangles" subsection out of "Right Triangles and Pythagorean Theorem"?

H Padleckas 20:47, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.209.40.120


text:
Talk:Trigonometry/Thales Theorem

Name for Page
I would call this Section "Right triangle trigonometry." -- H Padleckas 20:57, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with the comment that appeared on 27 May 2004. The page should be renamed "Right triangle trigonometry".  That term is conventional in US usage, though I don't know about UK usage.  Douglas W. Mitchell (talk) 15:48, 27 August 2010 (UTC)

Answers for Exercise
What I would like to see are some answers to the questions. Without them there's no way to be certain that you understand correctly. --Rastilin 09:49, 6 Apr 2005 (UTC)

What a Mess
What the heck is going on in this section? There's a lot of stuff in here that is or should be in other pages... --Ilg 17:49, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Pretty messy a page. Also I want to see math symbols in LaTeX. If no one is gonna change that, I am.--BLY 06:26, 15 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I've started to take things out to new pages JamesCrook (talk) 19:06, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

Im going to at least add some headers so we know what we're dealing with. It looks like some of the proofs in there are useful but should be moved to their appropriate sections (I can start on that after I've labeled everything...) Mattb112885 02:56, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

OK, the headers are added. It looks like whoever wrote the stuff knew what he or she was talking about but did not really look into what the rest of the book was about, it seems to assume some knowledge of calculus, which the author kind of put there out of the blue like, oh by the way you can approximate it with a polynomial... the complex number stuff is quite in-depth, is there a wikibook on complex analysis or something we can put that in? I'm sure we can condense the author's proof to something workable for the target audience. -- Mattb112885 03:19, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

 * I've moved the derivatives of sine and cosine into new pages. Eventually all the material on this page that requires calculus or power series or complex numbers will move into the second chapter of this book. JamesCrook (talk) 18:59, 14 October 2010 (UTC)

"Construction of Right Triangles" - Unclear Directions
If followed, it would seem that the directions in this section would not create a Right Triangle. In fact, it seems like it would create anything but a right triangle. Can someone create an image to demonstrate these directions? 63.65.189.106 (talk) 20:31, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Your correct that these directions are not that great, maybe we should add some different explanations of how to construct a right triangle. In the mean time I will at least point out that they do in fact always produce a right triangle.  This is a consequence of Thales' theorem.  The reason this explanation seems unclear is probably because it is not at all obvious the result will be a right triangle, unless you already knew this theorem.  Thenub314 (talk) 20:51, 16 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Ah yes, I was wrong. Upon reading the Wikipedia article on the theorem I saw that this would always create a right triangle.  I'm going to add a gif animation from the wikipedia article to add clarification. 63.65.189.106 (talk) 16:30, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Nice work, you should think about making an account and tinkering around for a bit. Thenub314 (talk) 18:19, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Account created. Wasn't originally going to make an account as I wasn't planning on making more then one or two edits.  Now I'm thinking of doing some quality edits as I read through this entire book.Theyain (talk) 20:20, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

 * That is excellent to hear. I am not sure if every page is on my watchlist, so if you have a question and no one is responsive to the talk page right away you can always drop a note at the mathematics project discussion page.  Thenub314 (talk) 21:04, 17 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Its going to be a while (a week at most) before I can start again as my classes have changed again. This means constant access to the Online world is limited once again.  -_- Theyain (talk) 21:54, 22 September 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Trigonometry/Thales Theorem


text:
General Chemistry/Molecular Shape

Covalent molecules are bonded to other atoms by electron pairs. Being mutually negatively charged, the electron pairs repel the other electron pairs and attempt to move as far apart as possible in order to stabilize the molecule. This repulsion causes covalent molecules to have distinctive shapes, known as the molecule's molecular geometry. There are several different methods of determining molecular geometry. A scientific model, called the VSEPR (valence shell electron pair repulsion) model can be used to qualitatively predict the shapes of molecules. Within this model, the AXE method is used in determining molecular geometry by counting the numbers of electrons and bonds related to the center atom(s) of the molecule.

The VSEPR model is by no means a perfect model of molecular shape! It is simply a system which explains the known shapes of molecular geometry as discovered by experiment. This can allow us to predict the geometry of similar molecules, making it a fairly useful model. Modern methods of quantitatively calculating the most stable (lowest energy) shapes of molecules can take several hours of supercomputer time, and is the domain of computational chemistry.

Table of Geometries
The hybridization is determined by how many "things" are attached to the central atom. Those "things" can be other atoms or non-bonding pairs of electrons. The number of groups is how many atoms or electron pairs are bonded to the central atom. For example, methane (CH4) is tetrahedral-shaped because the carbon is attached to four hydrogens. Ammonia (NH3) is not trigonal planar, however. It is trigonal pyramidal because it is attached to four "things": the three hydrogens and a non-bonding pair of electrons (to fulfill nitrogen's octet).

Tetrahedral Shape
Consider a simple covalent molecule, methane (CH4). Four hydrogen atoms surround a carbon atom in three-dimensional space. Each CH bond consists of one pair of electrons, and these pairs try to move as far away from each other as possible (due to electrostatic repulsion). You might think this would lead to a flat shape, with each hydrogen atom 90° apart. However, in three dimensions, there is a more efficient arrangement of the hydrogen atoms. If each hydrogen atom is at a corner of a tetrahedron centered around the carbon atom, they are separated by about cos-1(-1/3) ≈ 109.5°—the maximum possible.

Hybridization
To align four orbitals in this tetrahedral shape requires the reformation of one s and three p orbitals into an sp3 orbital.

Lone Electron Pairs
The VSEPR model treats lone electron pairs in a similar way to bonding electrons. In ammonia (NH3) for example, there are three hydrogen atoms and one lone pair of electrons surrounding the central nitrogen atom. Because there are four groups, ammonia has a tetrahedral shape but unlike methane, the angle between the hydrogen atoms is slightly smaller, 107.3°. This can be explained by theorizing that lone electron pairs take up more space physically than bonding pairs. This is a reasonable theory: in a bond, the electron pair is distributed over two atoms whereas a lone pair is only located on one. Because it is bigger, the lone pair forces the other electron pairs together.

Testing this assumption with water provides further evidence. In water (H2O) there are two hydrogen atoms and two lone pairs, again making four groups in total. The electron pairs repel each other into a tetrahedral shape. The angle between the hydrogen atoms is 104.5°, which is what we expect from our model. The two lone pairs both push the bonds closer together, giving a smaller angle than in ammonia.

Electron-Poor Atoms
In some molecules, there are less than four pairs of valence electrons. This occurs in electron deficient atoms such as boron and beryllium, which don't conform to the octet rule (they can have 6 and 4 valence electrons respectively). In boron trifluoride (BF3), there are only three electron pairs which repel each other to form a flat plane. Each fluorine atom is separated by cos-1(-1/2) = 120°. A different set of hybrid orbitals is formed in this molecule: the 2s and two 2p orbitals combine to form three sp2 hybrid orbitals. The remaining p orbital is empty and sits above and below the plane of the molecule.

Beryllium, on the other hand, forms only two pairs of valence electrons. These repel each other at cos-1(-1) = 180°, forming a linear molecule. An example is beryllium chloride, which has two chlorine atoms situated on opposite sides of a beryllium atom. This time, one 2s and one 2p orbital combine to form two sp hybrid orbitals. The two remaining p orbitals sit above and to the side of the beryllium atom (they are empty).

Bent vs. Linear
Some elements will have a bent shape, others have a linear shape. Both are attached to two groups, so it depends on how many non-bonding pairs the central atom has.

Take a look at sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Both have two oxygen atoms attached with double covalent bonds. Carbon dioxide is linear, and sulfur dioxide is bent. The difference is in their valence shells. Carbon has four valence electrons, sulfur has six. When they bond, carbon has no non-bonding pairs, but sulfur has one.

Five and Six Groups
Recall that some elements, especially sulfur and phosphorus, can bond with five or six groups. The hybridization is sp3d or sp3d2, with a trigonal bipyramidal or octahedral shape respectively. When there are non bonding pairs, other shape can arise (see the above chart).

How The Shapes Look
The yellow groups are non-bonding electron pairs. The white groups are bonded atoms, and the pink is the central atom. This is referred to as the AXE method; A is the central atom, X's are bonded atoms, and E's are non-bonding electron pairs.

title: General Chemistry/Molecular Shape