text:
A Beginner's Guide to D/Templates and Generic Programming/Template Classes

Container classes are usually most useful if they can hold any kind of item. Otherwise, you would have to write a different container for each type you wanted to hold. The traditional object-oriented approach (used by Java before version 1.5) takes advantage of polymorphism. Since all classes derive from Object, a container that holds Object instances can serve as a general-purpose container. This has a number of disadvantages:

 * Primitive types (e.g. int) cannot be directly held in the container. You must write a wrapper class (such as Java's Integer) to hold such items.
 * The container is not typesafe. You must cast items from Object to their real type when removing them from the container. There are also no particular limits on the actual types of the items in the container, meaning a given container is capable of holding a random mix of types.
 * All of this up- and down-casting can have a negative impact on performance.

The simpler solution of just writing a custom container class for each type you want to hold has obvious drawbacks. (Most obviously, it does not promote code reuse.)

Template classes were originally added to C++ to solve this problem, and D's template features are based on those in C++. A library writer first writes a generic container (say, a linked list), as though any type may be contained in it. At the start of the container, the library writer puts a placeholder for the type that will be stored in it. By convention, we usually call this T. This generic class is called a template class, so called because it serves as a template for more concrete implementations.

Syntax
A template class in D looks like this:

Note the (T) after the name of the class. This is the template parameter list. To actually use the class, we must instantiate it, by saying something like:

The template parameter list can have multiple parameters in it, just like a function parameter. A parameter with just a name is taken to be a type. Attempting to pass anything other than a type to T is an error. There are four kinds of template parameters:

 * Types : The T in the example above is a type parameter.
 * Constant values : Nearly any value which can be determined at compile-time can be used as a template parameter. Value template parameters look just like function parameters, e.g. <tt>int i</tt> in a template parameter list means the template expects an integer literal or a <tt>const int</tt>.
 * Alias parameters : These parameters can accept essentially any symbol which can be determined at compile-time. This includes functions, other templates, classes, and much more. Alias parameters are declared by putting <tt>alias</tt> before the parameter's name.
 * Tuple parameters : D supports variadic templates. This is an advanced topic, and is covered later.

Example
A simple templated stack (implemented with a linked list) might look like this:

To use the above example, we might say:

Note the syntax: <tt>LinkedStack!(int)</tt>. This is a template instantiation. This tells the compiler to generate a version of the <tt>LinkedStack</tt> class where <tt>T</tt> is replaced with <tt>int</tt>. The type of the <tt>list</tt> variable in the above example is <tt>LinkedStack!(int)</tt>. The type of <tt>strList</tt> is <tt>LinkedStack!(string)</tt>. These two types are distinct from each other. In terms of inheritance, they are only related insofar as they both inherit from <tt>Object</tt>.


text:
User:KirkMcDonald

Author of Pyd. Python and D coder.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:KirkMcDonald


text:
User talk:86.136.238.163

Regarding edits made during January 1 2007 (UTC)
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 06:12, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:86.136.238.163


text:
User talk:D00d~enwikibooks

Regarding edits made during January 1 2007 (UTC)
Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. Az1568(Talk) 06:19, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.  --Az1568(Talk) 06:21, 1 January 2007 (UTC) Hello. --D00d 06:23, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called D00d. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name D00d~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:07, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:50, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:D00d~enwikibooks


text:
A Beginner's Guide to D/Templates and Generic Programming/Template Functions

Just as template classes allow the writing of generic data structures, template functions allow the writing of generic algorithms. Generally speaking, template functions allow the library writer to write functions for argument types without having to overload the function with the same code.

Syntax
A template function looks like a regular function with two sets of arguments:

The first set of arguments are the template arguments. (See the section on template classes for what are allowed as template arguments.) The second set of arguments are the regular function arguments.

In the case of the above example, the function can just be called by passing the regular function arguments. D will derive the template parameters automatically based on the types of the arguments. This is called implicit function template instantiation, or IFTI for short.

Function templates may be explicitly instantiated like any other template, as in foo!( int, char [])(12, "hello" ).

Example
The classic example of a template function is the min function:

This function determines which of any two arguments (of the same type) are smaller. (With the stupid caveat that it will return the second argument if they are equal.)

min(12, 20); // Returns 12 min("green"[], "blue"); // Return "blue"

(A note about the second example. We pass min a slice of "green", because otherwise D will infer the type of the argument to be char[5], a static array. The type of "blue" is char[4], a different type. By slicing "green", we get a char[], a dynamic array, and D knows how to implicitly convert "blue" to this type.)


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Creating Ogg-Theora movies using Blender

Wikimedia Commons requires that movies be uploaded as Ogg-Theora (OGG) files. As of Blender 2.42a, this is not a builtin feature of Blender. To get OGG files from your finished animation isn't difficult, though. However, you'll need additional software.

There are basically two ways to generate OGG files: you can use one of the many fine video editors or you can use special conversion programs. Video editors like LiVES or Cinerella allow you to load your AVI or your rendered frames, manipulate them, and create the OGG file from it. Please refer to the editor's documentation on how to achieve this.

A disadvantage of a video editor is they are huge pieces of software, duplicating functionality that you already used when you created your animation file/s with blender. It's actually not necessary to install a video editor just for converting your animation to OGG Theora format.

Converting saved frame picture files to Ogg Theora
It's actually possible to convert frame pictures that you saved before to OGG format movies. The ffmpeg2theora software package, which is available in source or binary for all relevant systems, is capable of batch-processing files into an Ogg format movie. For example, if your frames were saved as PNG (with filenames filename001.png, filename002.png, etc.), you could convert them to a soundless OGG file with:

ffmpeg2theora filename%03d.png -o output.ogv

Sound is possible too, as well as being able to set the quality and framerates. Consult the ffmpeg2theora documentation for more.

Converting AVIs to Ogg Theora
ffmpeg2theora can also convert AVI movies to OGG. Usage example:

ffmpeg2theora --optimize my.avi


text:
Category:Stir fry recipes

See main page: Stir Fry.

title: Category:Stir fry recipes


title: User:Scienceman123


text: User talk:Scienceman123

title: User talk:Scienceman123


text:
User:Webaware/sandbox/tmp1

$$I_{\mathrm{w}max} = \frac{1}{2} ( \omega_5 u_l )_{max}^2 \ \rho_{m\mathrm{w}} \nu_{\mathrm{w}} ( W / m^2)$$

title: User:Webaware/sandbox/tmp1


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/How to install h3knix (2)

How to install h3knix
Far as I can see this one never got listed only tagged. No vote -- Herby talk thyme 19:22, 1 December 2006 (UTC)
 * It was briefly discussed at Requests for deletion/How to install h3knix. No vote. GarrettTalk 19:35, 3 December 2006 (UTC)
 * What do you mean by "No vote"? Wasn't there a vote by User:Kernigh?

 * Unsure. I was going to vote "re-close" but as User:Kernigh states, this distribution has merged with a different one and the website has shut down. So, I figured I'd go for delete as it doesn't seem like the distribution is obtainable. Then I found some iso images and I reckoned we needed some extra information on this. I'm contacting the original contributor and the new project at http://www.arcanelinux.org/. --Swift 20:33, 7 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I just got a reply from User:Pianoman87, the original contributor.
 * "I found that by accident while searching for typoes on wikipedia, and transwikied it to wikibooks. I know nothing about the distribution. I nominated that page for deletion in January but it was kept. I'd be inclined to vote delete for now assuming the distribution doesn't exist anymore. Pianoman87 00:53, 8 December 2006 (UTC)"
 * No word from the Arcane distro. --Swift 02:16, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm unsure whether to delete or keep even if the distro is unobtainable. It still might be of use to someone. Cheers, Iamunknown 18:19, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Comment. Looking at this the websites links are generally parked/defunct.  If this distro no longer exist a page on installing it seems to be of historical interest only and not a textbook.  Unless someone wishes to make a positive case I will close this as a delete shortly -- Herby  talk thyme 16:47, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Comment, Perhaps it could be merged/turned into a book on Arcane Linux, since it consists of only one page? Some clean up would probably be necessary, if someone wishes to take on the task of doing so. There also seems to be a general guide to using Linux, where it may be of use if the people contributing to that book are interested in for example comparing differnt linux distros to help new users decide which to use. --dark [[Image:Yin yang.svg|12px]] lama 17:30, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Comment - very good idea indeed, are you suggesting that as a title (and anyone else with views?) -- Herby talk thyme 17:33, 15 December 2006 (UTC)


text:
User talk:FairPhyllis

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:51, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

And
Thanks for the pointer to the link - regards -- Herby talk thyme 12:51, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:FairPhyllis


text:
Talk:Tcl Programming/regexp

another often very useful feature is the *? and +? operators for searching for the shortest match.

Done. Suchenwi 12:52, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tcl Programming/regexp


text:
Acoustics/formulas/Max efficiency

This formula is a template, for inclusion into pages about Acoustics. Use the following syntax to include it:

$$\eta_{\max} = 1 - \frac{2}{k_\mathrm{eff} \sqrt{Q_E Q_{m0}}} \qquad \left ( k_\mathrm{eff} \sqrt{Q_E Q_{m0}} \ll 1 \right )$$

title: Acoustics/formulas/Max efficiency


text:
Cookbook:Batter

Batter is a term for a variety of coatings put on food before cooking, to give a crispy coating.

Most batters contain beaten eggs and flour, but there is an enormous variety of recipes and techniques. Japanese cuisine uses batter extensively in the form of tempura.

Simple egg batter
This is a Basque batter, useful to coat fillets of fish. It is easily scaleable - use one egg for each two fillets.
 * Preheat a large frying pan and add cooking oil when it is hot
 * Separate the egg and reserve the yolk
 * Beat the egg white until it is almost forming soft peaks
 * Beat the yolk lightly on its own, then fold it into the egg white
 * Coat the fish fillets in flour (which can be seasoned) then dip them in the batter
 * Fry the fillets in the oil, turning once, until the batter is browned.

Examples of dishes dipped in batter before cooking

 * Mozzarella Sticks
 * Onion Rings
 * Tempura

title: Cookbook:Batter


text:
Acoustics/formulas/Ultrasonic Intensity

This formula is a template, for inclusion into pages about Acoustics. Use the following syntax to include it:

$$I_{\mathrm{w}max} = \frac{1}{2} ( \omega_5 u_l )_{max}^2 \ \rho_{m\mathrm{w}} \nu_{\mathrm{w}} ( W / m^2)$$

title: Acoustics/formulas/Ultrasonic Intensity


text:
Acoustics/formulas

So that formulas can be created once and reused, like images, they have been placed into templates.

Acoustics/formulas/Max efficiency

renders as:

Acoustics/formulas/Ultrasonic Intensity

renders as:

Acoustics/formulas/Condition

renders as:

Acoustics/formulas/Electro acoustic efficiency

renders as:

title: Acoustics/formulas


text:
Talk:Ruby on Rails/ActiveRecord/Validations

Should it be record.errors.add ? This didn't seem to work for me, so I removed the record bit, and it was ok.


text:
XHTML/HTML vs. XHTML

Despite what the title may suggest, the aim of this module is not state which version is "better". Each language has a specific use cases, and this guide simply exists to clarify these scenarios.

Syntax
XHTML has a stricter, XML-based syntax that does not appear in HTML, therefore making it slightly more advanced for new users.

The most important change is that there are no unpaired tags such as or .As such, there is now a corresponding closing tag, or the tag is immediately closed within the tag itself. + JavaCorehtml5

Which Version is Right For Me?
(This section is only meant to highlight the positives for each language.)

The Case for HTML5
You should use HTML if the following conditions are met:
 * I want cross-compatibility without resorting to complex methods.
 * I want to use the most established, thus most bug-free version of HTML.
 * I want more flexibility when it comes to error-handling.

The Case for XHTML
You should use XHTML if the following conditions are met:
 * I want to take advantage of XML applications such as MathML and XSL.
 * I want to take advantage of XML's more efficient parsing processing.
 * I want to use XHTML's inherent extensibility to create custom elements.

title: XHTML/HTML vs. XHTML


text:
XHTML/What is XHTML

Extensible Hypertext Mark Up Language (XHTML) is the successive markup language to the near ubiquitous Hypertext Mark Up Language (HTML). Rooted in Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), HTML is flexible but complex, leaving the liberties with which web browsers take with its rules to cause a number of problems. Based on the strict and simple Extensible Markup Language (XML) standard, XHTML aims to resolve said problems while offering extensibility with other XML-based applications. In summation, XHTML is HTML rewritten to comply with XML, hence its name.

XHTML, being a subset of XML, will also be extensible to other XML applications and featured. For example, it may also include fragments from other XML based languages, such as Scalable Vector Graphics or MathML through the usage of namespaces.

What HTML Stands For
The abbreviation of HTML stands for HyperText Mark-Up Language. Explained in more detail, this means:
 * H (Hyper): The opposite of linear. Instead of going from the first line to the following one, the decision in where and when everything is set is up to the programmer (Specifically, you.).
 * T (Text): This one is self-explanatory. The programming language is created through text.
 * M (Mark-Up): This is what you can do with the text; you can mark-ups to edit a text's style, such as boldness, headings, bullets, and so on.
 * L (Language): Also self-explanatory. HTML is a programming language.

The Components
An XHTML document is made up of four main components:
 * Document Type Definition (DTD): This used to be optional in HTML, but it is compulsory in XHTML. The DTD describes the language or script in which the text has been encoded.
 * Text content: the headers and paragraphs that appear on the page.
 * References: Advanced content like links and images.
 * Mark-Up: Instructions on how the content should be displayed.

Each of these components is comprised of text. This means that the page can be saved in text format and viewed in any browser.

XHTML stands for extensible Hypertext Markup Language. It is a different version of HTML, it is based off of XML. XHTML is used to make webpages and has a very specific way to be written to be correct and without error. XHTML is also very case-sensitive. the tags are written in lowercase and need to be closed.The order of the tags also need to be in correct order for the information to come out correct. there are three main sections of XHTML consist of A declaration statement, a Head statement and a body.

title: XHTML/What is XHTML


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Contributing

Guidelines
When working on this project, remember that it's aimed at children. It's more important to be understood than to be precisely accurate on every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work. Whenever you have to use a word, list it in the glossary of basic terms, and define it. Either that, or note it needs to be defined in the glossary page. Giving definitions when such words are used is generally a good idea as well.

Please, if you can contribute to this book, do so. You can work on almost anything including this page, but if you want to make some significant changes please bring them up on the discussion page. Additional new elements are welcome; see the section below.

Try to restrict discussion to the main discussion page so that people can actually see your message without having to check specific pages.

Create or request an article
You are encouraged to create an article on an interesting or useful Bug. Note however that not all articles will make it into the final published version, though they will all be available on this live online version. If you would like someone else to write a page about a bug, add your suggestion to the Article Stubs list. When creating stub articles please use the Wikijunior Bugs/Stub Template.

Major questions
The questions that will appear in every article are:

 * What does it look like?
 * Where does it live?
 * What does it eat?
 * How does it defend itself?
 * Is it safe to touch?
 * What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
 * What special behavior does it exhibit?
 * How does this bug affect people?

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Contributing


text: Wikijunior:Bugs/Stub Template

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Stub Template


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Authors

=Authors= Please add your name to the list below. Thanks for contributing!!!
 * 1) Urbane User
 * 2) Wes
 * 3) Avenue of Covina -- Sam A. Orona; California, United States; b.1992
 * 4) Sam86 - Samuel Newman - Near London, United Kingdom; b. 1986
 * 5) User:Unnikrishnan Vijayan - Bee Keeper, Kerala, India; b. 1978
 * 6) User:flolit - Diana Litteral, Wilmington, Delaware
 * 7) Karl Basallote - Bicol Region, Philippines; b. 1988

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Authors


text:
User:Reece

{| width="100%" style="background-color:#C80001; border:5px solid #A00000" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" | style="text-align:center; font-size:32px; border-bottom:5px solid #A00000" | Reece Talk  - Contributions  - Email  - 29 July 2024 |- |

title: User:Reece


text:
Operating System Design/Case Studies/NTFS

NTFS (or NT File System) is a proprietary file system created by Microsoft. This is the default file system used on a system using Windows NT, Windows Server, Windows XP, and Windows Vista, Windows 7.

Although this file system is proprietary, there are open-source applications that are able to reliably read/write to it, for instance NTFS-3G.


text:
Wikibooks talk:Requests for Comments

Mediation and Arbitration
Until now (famous last words) there hasn't been a real need for mediation beyond very informal mediation and airing grievances on the Staff Lounge (or occasionally spilling over onto Textbook-l). In the very few situations that it has gone completely out of control, at least in the past, Jimbo or somebody else came in to help out. I will point out, however, that the stewards in particular want to stay completely away from Wikibooks politics as much as absoltutely possible and IMHO have yet to realistically come in to help even when their assistance has been formally requested.

Formal Arbitration has never been done at all.... even by Jimbo (here on Wikibooks). At least unless you count the issues regarding the video game guides and removal of some content by Jimbo as arbitration, but it wasn't to settle any disputes. Jimbo simply came into Wikibooks and set out some decrees of what he thought Wikibooks should be looking like.

In some ways, I hope that we can continue this general record of trying to resolve issues by concensus. I know that there is on a (very few) rare situations that Wikibooks has been a case of the "last user standing wins" kind of mentality, but on the whole there has been an acceptance of compromise even when not all users agree on the same course of action. While I havn't always been complacent and sometimes very vocal on talk pages, I will accept decisions made that don't go my way. I certainly won't revert changes made to project pages unless there is a very strong concensus on a course of action.

In this regard, I would even suggest (perhaps very strongly) that the sections on this page regarding mediation and arbitration be simply removed for this reason. I am willing to listen to debate about this, and I'm not going to perform that seemingly drastic action. Still, we need to be cautious to jump here too fast to grow something that discourages cooperation and compromise.

As far as any time limits are concerned: Wikibooks is not Wikipedia. It seems as though just about any decision on Wikipedia is resolved in "about a week". About every page on Wikipedia is archived "in about a week", and AfD discussions are usually closed "in about a week". That seems to be the average attention span of Wikipedians, as anything else said is ancient news. Given the nature of the project on Wikipedia, that is fine there, and I'm not out to change any of those practice there.

The problem here is that the very nature of Wikibooks takes quite a bit more concentration and not all Wikibookians necessarily "come up for air" and read discussion fora like Staff Lounge or policy pages. At least on a semi-daily basis. That and I've strongly suggested that to help keep Wikibooks growing, not to mention the comparatively fewer active users, that discussions should be allowed to run much longer. Indeed if you look at the Staff Lounge there are discussions sometimes a couple of months old, as well as on the VfD pages, but still considered active discussions.

I strongly believe that such longer term attitudes need to prevail among arbitrators as well, where a chance to achieve compromise can be made first well before the arbitrators need to come into the fray. A week to come to a decision is way too short in terms of a context for Wikibooks, and I would strongly disagree to any such time limits being used here. If there is a huge cultural difference between Wikibooks users and Wikipedians, this would have to be one of the most defining characteristics. --Rob Horning 17:42, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Robert, we are currently in a situation where consensus building has failed (and we've been there for a long time). I understand the desire not to have to use these kinds of structures, but we've been stuck for months now, and need a formal structure. I'd rather not use the SL as a forum for dispute resolution actually... that shouldn't be the first thing a new user sees. -- SB_Johnny | talk 17:45, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Coming in somewhere between you. No the lounge isn't the place for some stuff, two months is daft (apologies), that looks like a hope that one party will get bored and leave in that time.  However two weeks (one week, 21 days whatever) is equally non Wikibooks.  It amazed me when I arrived that stuff was not "finished" more quickly, however now it doesn't bother me.  In the case of VfDs (an interest of mine) there does seem a "natural" end quite often.  I'm also quite unsure of the enforceability - folks have to accept it whatever/whoever it is - could be quite divisive? -- Herby  talk thyme 18:00, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree, slow is OK sometimes, but sometimes it's really not. I'll change the wording a bit. -- SB_Johnny | talk 18:01, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Very Wikibookian -- Herby talk thyme 18:04, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * LOL... I assume that's a compliment? :). It's ugly wording, but aimed at allowing the parties to request the arbitration after 2 weeks of deadlock, or if one party isn't willing to accept mediation. The point now is to make sure thay at least try for 2 weeks before an arbitrator gets involved. -- SB_Johnny | talk 18:12, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Arbitrators
So where do they sign up - I will certainly be one as long as I don't have to deal with Johnny (for those without my sense of humour the first part is real the second is a joke!) -- Herby talk thyme 18:19, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I'd rather do without a comittee... whoever wants to get involved can get involved, or not :). Anyone with this page on their watchlist would be a good criteria. -- SB_Johnny | talk 18:29, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * IMHO this is what administrators ought to be doing best... if you can stomache it. Stepping in between two users to try and cool things off.  But the problem does come in when one of the parties involved is an administrator, as active users here on Wikibooks often get admin status.  The problem with arbitration is that you have to have somebody with enough "authority" to make things stick, even when seemingly prevailing concensus is to do the opposite of the ultimate arbitration decision.  And somebody who can cut through the BS of all the arguments and find the core principles that are holding everything up.

 * Wikipedia had Jimbo for the longest time, and the arbitrators there were (at least initially) hand selected by Jimbo, even though now they are elected positions. How and under what sort of criteria somebody like that should be selected here is something up for question.  Hopefully if the situation arises (being a smaller community here on Wikibooks) we can find a comparatively uninvolved admin who is willing to act as an arbitrator without getting into the thick of the fight.

 * I certainly don't want Wikibooks arbitration "cases" to end up so legalistic that you have to file "briefs", do "discovery", present "evidence" and other judicial steps that have gone to the point that some users are now specializing in Wikipedia law. I am not kidding here either, as it is that bad right now.

 * What keeps things more under control here on Wikibooks is that it is possible for everybody to know everybody. There is a numerical population theory that suggests levels of organization based on essentially just population, and that groups less than 100 people are something that a human mind can fully grasp and that you can develop personal relationships with all of those individuals in a community that size.  Once it gets larger, you no longer get to know everybody involved.  This isn't a hard and fast rule, and in groups like Wikibooks people come and go, but it is something to think about.  And one of the reasons why certain organizational structures are in place on Wikipedia that aren't found here on Wikibooks (yet).  --Rob Horning 07:50, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Requests for Comments


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Ant

What do they look like?
Even though ants can look like small moving dots if you're standing, when looking closely at an ant, you can see that it has antennae which are curved to look a lot like our own elbows. Ants also have small sharp claws that help them keep hold of things while moving around on objects such as trees.

Where do they live?
Ants live in little "cities" called ant colonies. Ant colonies are found in many places: under stones, within living or dead wood, and even underground. More advanced ant species are great builders and create many chambers that are used for different reasons. A chamber may be used as a nursery or to store food. When ant colonies are underground they are often covered with piles of dirt, sand, clay, or pine needles. These piles are called ant hills. Ant hills are used as entrances to the colony and as protection of the colony. Some ant hills are small but others can grow as tall as 3 feet!

What do they eat?
Counting on what type of species or role in its ant colony, ants eat many different types of food. Species like the meat-eater ant eat mainly meat like remains of dead animals, but also can eat other foods including honey. Some other ant species, such as leafcutter ants actually "grow" their own food. They do this by collecting leaves and cutting them into pieces on which a type of fungus grows. The ants then harvest and eat this fungus.

How do they defend themselves?
Most ants work as a group to defend themselves. Whole colonies working together are sometimes called superorganisms, as the colony can act much like one large whole organism instead of the hundreds of tiny bugs that they really are. Another ant defense system is that some species of ant have venom which they could use for defense. This is also a reason why one particular species of ant is called a 'killer ant', even though these ant don't kill but can cause some damage to their victim.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Ants go through a type of metamorphosis called holometabolism which is a type of metamorphosis that includes a total of four stages. The ant begins life as an egg laid by the only reproducing female ant in an ant colony, called a queen ant. After the egg hatches, it is in its baby stage which is called the larval stage. After a while, the ant larvae goes into a stage in which it cannot move, and is also gaining its adult features; this stage is called the pupal stage. Finally after a few weeks, the pupal casing the young ant was enclosed in is broken and the fully-adult ant comes out.

Most ants live up to 6 to 10 weeks with the exception of some queen ants which may live up to 15 years and some worker ants which may live up to 7 years.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Unlike many other animals, ants use smell instead of noises to talk to each other. Ants use a type of chemical called pheromones that leave a scent to help ants communicate, as well as figure out where each member of the colony is or was last located at. Ants also use their elbow-shaped antennae to smell, as they don't have nostrils like humans have.

How does this bug affect people?
Ants can either help get rid of pests or be the pest itself. Ants can eat smaller insects that can be pests to a human's backyard or garden, but ants can also be pests as they can destroy some gardens. One species of ant known as the carpenter ant is sometimes a pest to humans, because they eat wood. One kind of ant, the red imported fire ant, which is common in the southern United States, can deliver a very painful bite.

People in some parts of the world eat ants as food! Countries known for having dishes with ants on the menu include Mexico, Colombia and Thailand.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Ant


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Beetle

What does it look like?

Beetles come in all shapes and sizes. Some are very large. Some are smaller than a grain of rice. The Goliath Beetle can be 4 or 5 inches long. A Bark Beetle is about 1/4 inch long.

Beetles have a hard, flexible cover called an exoskeleton. They have a head, mid-section (thorax), and abdomen. Thin front plates (elytra) protect the back wings. Beetles have large compound eyes and chewing mouthparts. Antennae may be threadlike or clubbed. Their strong jaws are called mandibles. Beetle bodies can be rounded or long and thin. Most are dull shades of brown or black. Some are shiny with bright rainbow colors. Some have dots and stripes.

Bark Beetles are brownish-black. Some beetles have spots that glow in the dark. The Eyed Beetle has two big spots that look like eyes on its back. Click Beetles are mostly black; some have patterns.

Hercules Beetles are greenish-gray with black blotches. They are about 2 to 2-1/2 inches long. Males are called Unicorn Beetles because they have a horn on the front of the head.

Lady Beetles have oval, dome-shaped bodies. They have short legs and antennae. They are brightly colored. Most have red-orange wing coverings and black spots or stripes. Some are yellow, pink, or brown. Others are black with red, orange, or yellow spots. Some have no markings at all.

Tiger Beetles are brownish-black or green. Many have patterns and bright colors. They have long slender legs.

Where does it live?

Beetles can be found all over the earth in all kinds of habitats. They live in dark, moist places under logs, rocks, and leaves. They like gardens, grain fields, ponds and lakes. They have not been found in the frozen areas at the North and South Poles. Most species live on plants. Many tunnel, burrow, or swim.

Bark Beetles live on leaves and flowers, under bark, and in rotting wood. They are sometimes found in firewood. They hide in dark crevices of buildings. Hercules Beetles are found in tropical jungles and rainforests. They are common in Central and South America, Mexico, and southeastern United States. They range as far north as southern Ohio and Indiana. They are found in fallen debris and leaf litter on the forest floor.

Ladybird Beetles are found all over the world in gardens, farm fields, and meadows. They live in grasslands, forests, near rivers, and in cities. Lady Beetles are the official state insect of Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, and Tennessee.

Stag Beetles live in wooded areas and on beaches. Tiger Beetles like bright sunlight and open shade. They are found on sandy beaches and along paths and lanes.

What does it eat?
Beetles eat many things besides insects. Some beetles eat both plants and animals. Carnivorous beetles eat earthworms and snails.

A few beetles drink liquids from plants, trees, and fruits. Some can eat only one kind of plant. Bark Beetles eat the inner bark of trees like hickory, walnut, and Douglas fir. They destroy the tree’s food and water tubes that keep it alive.

Click Beetles feed on newly planted seeds. They eat the roots of vegetables, grains, and cotton. Their larvae feed on plants and vegetables.

Lady Beetles eat small insects like mealy bugs and mites. They are best known as aphid eaters. Some eat melons, potatoes, and beans.

Carrion Beetles eat dead animals. Clown Beetles eat the larvae of other insects. Diving Beatles eat tadpoles and other small water creatures.

How does it defend itself?
Beetles have various defense strategies. They use camouflage to blend into their surroundings to hide from predators. They mimic the color and shape of other insects to deceive enemies. Some are poisonous. They have large many-faceted compound eyes to detect small movements. Wing coverings (elytra) make a hard shield to protect the soft body and wings.

Click Beetles use a special body part that clicks and flips the beetle over in the air. The sound startles the predator so the beetle can escape.

Male Hercules Beetles use their long horns to fight other males. Many Longhorn Beetles look like wasps, even though they are harmless. Stag Beetles rear back and open their jaws wide to scare predators. Sometimes they play dead.

Ladybird Beetles fall to the ground and play dead. Their bright colors warn predators away. They secrete a bad tasting fluid from their leg joints. They cluster together in large numbers for protection when they hibernate. The cluster gives off a strong smell to repel predators.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?

Beetles undergo complete metamorphosis with 4 separate life stages: egg, larva (feeding stage), pupa (resting stage), and adult. Beetles mate in spring or summer. Females lay eggs in protected areas near a food source or inside a ball of food. Some beetles feed their young.

When the larvae hatch from the eggs they are wingless. Later, they enter the pupa or resting stage. Many spend the winter in the pupa stage. They change to adults during the pupa stage. They live about one year after becoming adults.

Ladybird Beetles complete their life cycle in about a month, depending on the weather. Some Lady Beetles live 2 or 3 years.

Bark Beetles chew under the bark to make tubes called galleries. They lay eggs along the sides of the galleries. When the eggs hatch, the larvae bore into the wood to make the galleries bigger. When it is full grown, the adult Bark Beetle bores a hole in the bark to emerge from the tree.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Scarab Beetles push or roll balls of dung to their brood sites. It is thought that this behavior inspired the design in Egyptian art showing the Scarab Beetle pushing the sun across the sky.

Although most beetles have a hard time righting themselves when turned upside down, the Click Beetle does not. It has a special part on the underside of its body to flip it right side up.

Many beetles make noises by tapping on hard surfaces or by rubbing parts of the body together. These beetles seem to have better hearing than beetles that do not make such sounds.

Burying Beetles are known to hide small animal carcasses to feed their young. A small dead animal, such as a mouse, supplies food for a whole brood of larvae that a pair of beetles will care for together. Horned Beetles are bred for fighting in some parts of the world.

How does it affect people?
Beetles are important waste recyclers. Many species decompose dead plants and animals and dung. Some beetles help farmers by eating insects that destroy trees and crops. Ladybird Beetles eat aphids and other harmful insects.

Some beetles are very serious pests that can transmit disease. Others cause millions of dollars in damage to plant products. Woodworm Beetles damage furniture and wood floors. Bark Beetles chew inside tree trunks to make tunnels. This opens up the tree to diseases. Bark Beetles have caused thousands of elm trees to die from Dutch Elm Disease.

Click Beetles eat newly planted seeds. They feed on roots of vegetables, grains, and cotton. Their larvae eat plants and vegetables. In the South, Mexican Bean Beetles and Squash Lady Beetles spoil crops.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Beetle


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Firefly

What does it look like?
Have you ever been in a field at night and sometimes seen little flying specks of light around? Well, if you were to look at one up close you'd realize that these lights are really bugs! These bugs are called fireflies. When you look close-up, you can see that fireflies have soft bodies, compound eyes and a bright, glowing rear end. The firefly's larvae look almost exactly like fully grown fireflies, except that they don't have the compound eyes the adults have.

Fireflies are among the most familiar insects. They belong to the Family Lampyridae. Lampyrids are able to flash their lights on and off, unlike other luminescent insects which glow continuously. The flashing rhythm is different in various species.

Like many other beetles, fireflies are brownish or blackish in color. Fireflies are medium sized insects, from 1/4 to 3/4 inches long. The sheath or covering that protects the wings is fairly soft. The protective shield (pronotum) extends forward beyond the body to hide the head from above. Females may be short-winged or wingless. The last 2 or 3 segments of the abdomen have a green, yellow, or orange luminous organ. The light comes from many tiny air tubes (tracheoles). They contain unstable molecules that break down to create light. The light on the firefly’s tail does not feel warm to the touch.

The Pyralis Firefly is 3/8 to 1/2 inches long. The protective shield is rosy pink with dull yellow edges. There is a black spot in the center. The protective wing coverings (elytra) are mostly blackish brown with dull yellow sides and middle. Both males and females have flashing lights. Females have a smaller light and do not fly. The smaller Scintilating Firefly is yellow and pink with a large black spot on its pronotum.

The Pennsylvania Firefly is 3/8 to 5/8 inches long. The body is long and flattened. The head is dull yellowish in color with threadlike antennae. Eyes are large and widely separated. The pronotum is a dull yellowish color with a black spot inside a reddish ring. Elytra are brown or gray and with a narrow pale stripe down the middle and yellow bands down the sides. Both sexes have a green luminous organ at the end of the abdomen. The larva is spindle-shaped.

Where does it live?
Fireflies (or Lightning Bugs, as they are called in some parts in the United States) are found everywhere in the world, usually in marshes and forests; places that have enough food for the firefly's young. The firefly is so widespread, that in some parts of the United States, the firefly is known by both the name firefly and the term "lightning bug". They are also known as "glowing bug".

Fireflies spend a lot of time clinging to foliage, tree trunks, and branches. Some live in moist places under debris and decaying vegetation on the ground. Others are found beneath bark and decaying vegetation.

Pyralis Fireflies are found east of the Rocky Mountains. They are usually seen in meadows. The Skintilating Firefly is found from New England to Kansas and Texas. Fireflies in the Pennsylvania Family are found from the Atlantic Coast to Texas and north to Manitoba. They live in meadows and open woods.

What does it eat?
Fireflies are predatory when young, but as adults they usually eat plant pollen and nectar. This mixed diet depends on the type of species of firefly as there are around 2,000 different firefly species. The larvae of the firefly mainly eat the larvae of snails and slugs. They catch their prey usually by spitting digestive fluids (like spit and stomach acid) at their prey using organs near their mouth known as mandibles.

Adults are not known to feed, but they are sometimes attracted to moth baits. Firefly larvae prey on small animals, insect larvae, snails, and slugs.

Pennsylvania Fireflies eat soft bodied insects, snails, slugs, and mites. They also eat members of their own species.

How does it defend itself?
It is not well known how fireflies actually protect themselves.

Both fireflies and their larva are luminescent. The light may serve as a warning to predators that they do not taste good.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Fireflies flash their lights to help them find a mate of their own species. There may be several different species courting in the same field, so each species has its own flashing code.

The firefly goes through the four-stage type of metamorphosis known as holometabolism. The firefly starts life as an egg and in three to four weeks hatch into larvae. The larvae hatch mainly in the spring and already glow like the adult firefly. For this reason, the larvae of some firefly species are known as glowworms. Most of the time, the firefly larvae will stay in this stage until the next spring. Then they go into the pupal stage for approximately two weeks. Finally, they emerge as adult fireflies; however, some firefly larvae won't reach the pupal and adult stage for a few years, depending on the species.

Pennsylvania Fireflies and Pyralis Fireflies lay eggs in rotting wood and humid debris on the ground. Larvae hatch in spring. The fully grown larvae spend the winter in pupal chambers hidden in the soil. They pupate the following spring. Adults emerge from early summer to late August. Eggs, larvae, and pupae are all luminous.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
The firefly's well known behavior is its bright rear end, which is used usually around mating. The process that makes the firefly's rear end glow is known as lighting, which is caused by the firefly's special organs inside itself. Most species of firefly are also nocturnal. Some species of firefly surprisingly do not have the glowing rear end, and are diurnal, which means that they are active at daytime like humans are. Some of these non-bright species glow when they are under shade, though.

Fireflies have trouble surviving in captivity. In just a few minutes after capture, the regular rhythm of their flashes is lost and the light slowly fades. Most of the fireflies that we see are males. Each species emits a specific signal. Upon recognizing the specific code, the female will respond with her own signal. The male quickly finds her and they mate.

Sometimes females of one species flash another species’ mating code. When the male nears it is captured and eaten. Glowworms and fireflies belong to the same beetle sub-family. Only the females produce light to attract males.

How does this bug affect people?
The firefly is known for being part of different people's cultures. In ancient Mayan folklore, the firefly used to be associated with the stars. In ancient China, fireflies were caught and used to light lanterns. The Pyralis Firefly is named after a fabled fly that rose from the fire. Pyralis is Greek for “of fire.” In modern times, the firefly is known for being the state insect of Pennsylvania.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Firefly


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Caterpillar/Butterfly

What does it look like?
Butterflies are common insects that have a worm-like body and highly colorful wings. The body and wings are covered with tiny scales that are best seen through a microscope. If you catch a butterfly by the wings some of the scales will peel off on your fingers. Butterflies are common in the garden. They can often be seen visiting flowers during day time.

Moths look similar to butterflies and they are closely related. Moths are nocturnal in nature, though, with stocky bodies. Most moths have dusky colors.

Where does it live?
Butterflies are very common throughout the world. In cooler climates they are especially common during spring and summer. You can find them in your own neighborhood or garden. Anywhere that there are many plants and flowers you can find butterflies. Some people grow gardens for the purpose of attracting butterflies. These are called "butterfly gardens." Butterfly larvae are called caterpillars. Each butterfly species eats specific types of plants. These plants are called "hosts." The caterpillar of the monarch butterfly feeds on the milkweed plant.

What does it eat?
Caterpillars eat their own egg shells as soon as they hatch in most cases. The larvae (caterpillars) feed on tender shoots and leaves. In most species larvae eat more than their own body weight. Caterpillar mouths are suited for cutting and chewing and have strong mandibles.

The pupae are dormant and do not feed.

All adult butterflies feed on liquid food. Adults have long tubular mouths which remain coiled under the head. These mouth parts can be extended while feeding. Butterflies feed on nectar and plant saps. A few feed on sap from fruits or fermented saps. In some species, the adults do not feed at all.

How does it defend itself?
Hairy caterpillars have spiny bristles. These bristles bother predators by lodging in the skin or mucous membranes. Some of these bristles also contain venom that can cause irritation.

Some caterpillars eat food that contains toxins. They store these toxins in their bodies even after they become adult butterflies. This makes animals that eat them sick. Bad tasting butterflies are often brightly colored.

Caterpillars and some butterflies use camouflage to avoid detection. They can be the same color as the plants where they live, or look like sticks or other common objects. The pattern on a butterfly's wings sometimes looks like the face of a much larger animal. This is thought to frighten off some predators.

What stages of growth does it go through?
A butterfly goes through four stages during its life. It starts life as an egg. It then becomes a larva and then a pupa, and finally an adult. During the larval stage, a butterfly is called a caterpillar. During its pupal stage it is called a chrysalis, and during the adult stage it is called an imago, which is the butterfly. Butterflies go through complete metamorphosis, which means that the adult form is very different from the juvenile form.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Butterflies sense the air for scents, wind and nectar using their antennae. The antennae are very sensitive.

A butterfly tastes with its feet (called tarsi.) It picks which plant to lay eggs on based on the taste it senses when it lands on the plant.

Butterflies have four independent wings. This allows them to be nimble fliers.

Many butterflies migrate over long distances. One famous migration is the Monarch butterfly's which goes from Mexico to southern Canada. Butterflies navigate using the sun as a compass.

How does this bug affect people?
Butterflies are pollinators. They add beauty to gardens.

Caterpillars of many butterfly species are major pests of crop plants.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Caterpillar/Butterfly


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Moth

What does it look like?
Moths have 4 wings with delicate scales that rub off easily. They have a long coiled tube (proboscis) for drinking nectar or tree sap. The proboscis is small or absent in some species. A few species have jaws for eating pollen.

Most moths are night fliers and have dark, dull colors. Those that fly in the day have brighter colors. Moths have different ways of holding their wings. Some hold them like a roof over the body. Others curl them around the body. Antennae sometimes look like combs or feathers.

Yucca Moths are small with a wingspan of 1-3/8 inches or less. Many are black or metallic blue. They are sometimes marked with gold or silver. Others are pure white. They have long threadlike antennae. The wings are covered with tiny hair-like spines under the scales.

Fairy Moths are a kind of Yucca Moth. Males have long delicate antennae. They have a wingspan of ½ to 5/8 inch. The front wings are shiny black or bronze. Wings are sometimes yellowish-brown with rows of black dots and silver bands.

Clothes Moths are small and pale. There is a tuft of dense bristly hair on the head. Their threadlike antennae have scales around each segment. Their wingspan is 3/8 to 1-3/8 inches. Wings may have a dull golden sheen.

Bagworm Moth males are small with blackish or transparent wings. The wingspan is 3/8 to 1 inch. Most female Bagworm Moths are wingless.

Gelechiid Moths are small. They often have brilliant metallic colors. Their wingspan is less than 5/8 inch. The back wings are broader and pointed at the tips. Wings are fringed along the outer edges.

Potato Tuber Moths are a kind of Gelechiid Moth. The body is silver-gray or brown. The wingspan is 3/8 to 5/8 inches. Wings have dark specks or streaks. Back wings are smaller and have fringe along the outer edges. The forewings are silver-gray or brown.

Ermine Moths are small with a wingspan of 1-1/8 inch or less. They have spots or patterns on their wings. Wings wrap around the body when at rest.

Ailanthus Webworm Moths are a kind of Ermine moth. Their wingspan is 1-1/8 inches. Forewings and thorax are shiny orange. Forewings have greenish-yellow spots and black borders. Hind wings are pale gray with dark gray borders.

Clear Winged Moths are slender. They look like wasps. They have dark bodies banded with yellow or red. Fringes of hair cover the legs. There are tufts of bristles on the tips of the antennae. Wings are narrow and partly transparent. They have a wingspan of ½ to 2-3/8 inches.

Manroot Borers are a kind of Clear Winged Moth. They have a wingspan of 1-5/8 to 2-3/8 inches. The front wings are brownish to gray. The back wings are feathery and reddish orange.

Spanish Vine Borers are a kind of Clear Winged Moth. Their wingspan is 1 to 1-1/2 inches. The body is about 5/8 inches long. They resemble wasps. The forewings are metallic olive-green. Hind wings are transparent with narrow brown margins. They have a red abdomen and a row of black dots on the back. Their legs are black with thick reddish fringes.

Doll’s Clearwing Moths are about 7/8 of an inch long. They have a wingspan of 1-1/8 to 1-5/8 inches. The wings are reddish-brown with yellow bands and streaks.

California Sycamore Borer is a kind of Clear-Winged Moth. The body is about ¾ inch. Wingspan is ¾ to 1 inch. The forewings are clear with a large black spot. Hind wings are transparent with black veins and fringes.

Tortricid Moths are small. They can be brown, tan, yellow-gray, or black-and-white. Many have square-tipped forewings. They have a wingspan of 3/8 to 1-3/8 inches. The wings fold back in a shield shape when at rest.

Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller Moths are a kind of Tortricid Moth. They have a wingspan of ¾ inch. The front wings are pale yellow-brown with cream colored spots on the front margin.

Orange Tortrix Moths have a wingspan of ½ to 5/8 inch. The wings are tan to rusty brown. The wings fold over in a V-shape when at rest. Codling Moths are a kind of Tortricid Moth. Their wingspan is 5/8 to ¾ inch. The body and front wings are brownish-gray. Back wings are brown with pale fringes.

Where does it live?
Fairy Moths are found throughout North America, at the edges of shady woods. In the northern regions, they can be seen flying April through July.

Yucca Moths live in dry regions wherever yucca plants grow. They are found from New York to the Midwest, south to the Southwest and Mexico. Many caterpillars live inside leaves and feed on leaf tissue. They are called leaf miners, They make tiny lines or spots on leaves. Others spin cases (cocoons) from dark coarse silk. Some make cocoons at the base of the tree. Others wrap up in living leaves. Adults can be seen in flight May through July.

Potato Tuber Moths live in potato fields and storage areas. They are found in the southern and southwestern United States.

Ailanthus Webworm Moths live in meadows of southern New England to Michigan and south to the Gulf of Mexico.

Manroot Borer Moths live in dry open areas. They are found in Kansas and western Texas, in southern California, and north to Oregon.

Spanish Vine Borers live in open areas that are being prepared for raising crops (cultivated). They are found from southern Canada to Mexico, but not on the Pacific Ocean coast.

Doll’s Clearwing Moths live in woods where the trees are not too close together. They live on tree-lined streets and along roads. They are found along the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia.

California Sycamore Borers live in forests that have California sycamores and oaks trees. They are found from Idaho to California and north to Washington.

Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller Moths are found throughout North America. They are found in forests and orchards living among trees. Their caterpillars live in rolled up leaves held together with silk.

Orange Tortrix Moths live in orchards and in fields where shrubs and plants grow close to the ground. They are found from Wyoming to California and north to Canada.

Codling Moths are found throughout North America in fruit orchards, especially apple and pear trees.

What does it eat?
Fairy Moth caterpillars feed on flowers or seeds of milkweed and other plants. As they grow they feed on foliage.

Yucca Moths eat foliage and seeds. Their caterpillars eat yucca plant seeds. Without moths, yucca plants cannot reproduce by pollination. They have to reproduce by root offshoots instead. Fewer new yucca plants grow by offshoots.

Clothes Moth caterpillars have moveable cases and live near a food source. They feed on leaves, fungus, vegetable fibers, and hair. Adults are short-lived and do not feed. Bagworm Moths spin a cocoon to carry around while feeding.

Gelechiid Moth caterpillars include leaf miners, gall makers, and seed eaters. Leaf miner larvae live inside plant leaves. Leaf miners make little lines in the leaf. Gall makers cause little bumps on leaves, stems, flowers, and roots. Galls appear in many shapes and sizes.

Potato Tuber caterpillars feed on leaves, stems, and potatoes. Ermine Moth caterpillars eat leaves or bore into fruit. Spanish Vine Borer caterpillars eat gourds, squash, pumpkin, cucumber, and musk-melon.

Clear Winged Moth caterpillars make holes on stems, roots, and bark of trees and other plants. Dolls Clearwing Moth caterpillars bore into willow and poplar trees. California Sycamore-Borer caterpillars usually eat older, living trees.

Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller caterpillars eat leaves of apple, pear, quince, and walnut trees. Orange Tortrix caterpillars feed on buds, leaves, and blossoms of fruit trees and shrubs. Codling Moth caterpillars feed on fruit.

How does it defend itself?
Some species of moths make a clicking sound to defend against bats. The clicking sound disrupts echolocation signals that bats use to find prey.

Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller caterpillars use silk threads to drop to the ground when threatened. They use the same threads to return to their nests after danger passes.

The Wood Tiger Moth has bright colors to warn predators. This moth has two kinds of defenses. One is a very bad smell to keep birds away. The second is a toxic fluid that defends against insects.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Bagworm Moth females lay eggs in a cocoon to protect the caterpillars.

Gelechiid Moth females lay 150 to 300 eggs on leaves, stems, or exposed tubers (fleshy outgrowths). The caterpillars spin silken cocoons.

California Sycamore-Borer females lay eggs in bark crevices. Caterpillars hatch in a few days and bore into the bark. They make tunnels where they over-winter and mature.

Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller females lay their eggs in tree trunks or branches. They cover them with a kind of cement. The eggs hatch in the spring. They grow in rolled-up leaves.

Orange Tortrix females lay masses of pale-yellow eggs on twigs and branches. Caterpillars make nests among twig tips, where they overwinter and grow.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Fruit Tree Leaf-Roller caterpillars make silk threads to drop to the ground when danger threatens. ok

A Leaf-Roller caterpillar makes silk threads to wrap up a leaf and make a protective covering. ok

Yucca Moth females make a sticky ball from yucca flower pollen. They carry the ball to a different yucca flower to lay their eggs. This cross-pollinates the plant so many flowers will bloom. It also makes food for the caterpillars. ok

How does this bug affect people?
Adult flying moths do not damage clothing. Clothes Moth larvae make holes in clothes made from wool, silk, and other fibers.

Pantry Moths are also called Indian Meal Moths. They eat flour, bird seed, pet food, cereal and other grains.

Most Gall-making moths do not damage host plants. Galls are often used in flower arrangements and crafts.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Moth


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Praying Mantis

What is a Praying Mantis?
A cartoon version of this very helpful bug is a praying grasshopper. Here we wrote all we can figure out about them. They are very shy creatures.

What does it look like?

The praying mantis is a skinny insect with long, curved legs in the front. The position of these legs make the mantis look like it is praying. Most, but not all, mantes (the plural of mantis) are green or brown but some are black or even pink! The mantis uses the colors to blend in with its surroundings to catch prey. Some are so well disguised that other bugs think they are flowers.

Where does it live?
Mantes are found all around the world including North America and Europe. Many different types are found in Asia. Some common species of mantes were introduced to North America from Asia and Europe. Nearly 2,000 species live throughout the world. Most are found in places with warm temperatures. A mantis will often roost in something close to its own body color. Most mantes are green or brown and they perch in grasses, bushes and trees. However, some other species are brightly colored and depend on flowers for camouflage.

What does it eat?
The mantis is a carnivorous ambush predator. Mantes eat other insects which they catch with their spiny front legs. The rows of spines act like hooks, so they can grab and hold their prey. There is almost no way to escape. The mantis' strong arms and hooked claws are a deadly trap. Their camouflage helps them stay hidden and they are so fast they can snag prey in the blink of an eye. Some species of mantes also eat lizards, spiders, other mantes, and even small birds and mice.

 Did You Know? When the Chinese saw the praying mantis defending itself, they created Praying Mantis Kung Fu. It is a style of martial arts that mimics the attacks and movements of a praying mantis.

How does it defend itself?
When the praying mantis needs to defend itself against predators, it will stand up tall, raise its large front legs, and open its wings to look as big as possible. It uses its front legs not only to catch prey but also to defend itself if necessary. It does this by standing up tall and making clicking noises to frighten its enemies. If that does not work the mantis either flies away quickly or it delivers a powerful punch with its hooked front leg. Although an angry mantis can be frightening, they are generally not aggressive to humans.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
The female lays eggs in the autumn in an egg sack. The eggs prepare to hatch in the spring. When the nymphs hatch, they look like miniature versions of their parents. The new born mantes scamper off to find food. The nymphs may be eaten by bugs, birds or bigger mantes. The nymphs hatch and molt several times before reaching adulthood. But once a mantis becomes an adult it mates, and lays eggs of its own, restarting the mantis life cycle, an endless circle of life.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
The praying mantis depends a lot on camouflage and blending into its surroundings. It will dance to make it look like it is blowing in the wind like a leaf or a twig. A praying mantis can also hold very still to surprise its prey. Some people haven't seen it before, but all mantes can fly. These remarkable talents show that big surprises can come in small packages.

How does this bug affect people?
Some people think mantes are pests. That is only partly true, as mantes often eat helpful bugs like ladybugs. They can be beneficial too! Praying mantes are excellent exterminators. They keep down the population of bugs that are a threat to farming. They can also eliminate bugs with harmful diseases. A master of disguise, the praying mantis can be an able assistant to a farmer or gardener. Look at a bush in your yard, very very carefully. You might find a mantis poised on a leaf if you are very lucky!

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Praying Mantis


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Cricket

What does it look like?
Crickets are small, often nocturnal insects. They are usually dark brown or black, so that they blend in with the ground. They have six legs. Four are walking legs and two large back legs are used to make very long jumps. Attached to the head are two long antennae, also known as feelers, used for touching and smelling. Crickets are sometimes confused with grasshoppers because they are similar in size and body shape, but grasshoppers have shorter antennae and are green in color.

Crickets are related to grasshoppers. True crickets belong to the Family Gryllidae. They have a broad, somewhat flattened body between 3/8 inch and 1 inch in length. The long, tapered antennae (feelers) usually grow much longer than the body. Most crickets have flat overlapping wings on top of the back. Some species have tiny wings and others are wingless. Females have long, needlelike ovipositors for laying eggs.

Both males and females have a flat, round tympanum (hearing organ) in each front leg. Males have a hard, sharp-edged “scraper” on the right forewing. The scraper is rubbed with a thick, toothed vein on the left forewing. The action of the vein on the scraper (stridulation) produces sound.

Field crickets (Gryllus assimilis) are also known as common black crickets. They are brown, red or black in color and about 1/2 to 1 inch long.

House crickets (Acheta domesticus) are light yellowish-brown in color. They have a light-colored head with three dark bands on top and between the eyes. The wings cover the abdomen. There is another pair of long hind wings at the very tip of the abdomen. These are sometimes shed in adulthood. There are spines on the hind legs.

Tree crickets belong to the genus Oeceanthus. They are usually green with broad transparent wings. Snowy tree crickets are about 1/2 inch long and pale green to white in color. They have a very slender body and two long antennae.

Ant-loving crickets (Myrmecophila) are a tiny wingless species, less than 1/4 inch long and about l/4 inch wide.

Bush crickets are slender and range from 1/4 inch to 3/4 inch in length. They are brown or gray in color. They may have small wings or no wings at all. Some female bush crickets are called “sword-bearing” because they have a long, sharp ovipositor (egg laying organ).

Mole crickets are brownish with broad, spade-like front legs designed for digging. They are usually about 1 inch long and have relatively short antennae. Pigmy mole crickets are less than 1 inch long.

Only male crickets chirp. They do not rub their legs together to do this. Instead they run the top of one wing against the “teeth” on the bottom of the other wing to make a chirping sound. The wings are held up and open to make the sound louder. In slow motion, they appear to be shrugging their shoulders when chirping. At actual speed, the chirping movements are too fast for the eye to follow.

Crickets have been chirping and singing for more than 300 million years—long before the earliest sounds of amphibians and birds. Experts recognize four types of cricket songs: calling, courting, aggressive, and mating. The calling song is fairly loud. It is meant to attract females and repel other males. The very quiet courting song is used when a female is near. Only signals from a male of her kind will cause a female to approach and accept him as a mate. An aggressive song is used when another male is detected.

Crickets that live in trees and bushes usually sing only at night. Those that live in weeds generally sing both day and night. House crickets and field crickets make songs both day and night.

Females of chirping and singing species have organs on their legs to hear sound. Most camel crickets do not produce sounds, so neither males nor females have hearing organs.

Where does it live?
Crickets have a variety of habitats. They can be found in trees and on or around different types of plant life.

Field crickets are common in North America. They live in fields, lawns, pastures, along roadsides, and in woods. Bush crickets live in tropical areas, such as the south eastern coastal plain of the United States. They are usually found in bushes, under debris near ponds, or moist, sandy areas near water. Tree crickets occur in trees, shrubs, high grass or weeds.

Mole crickets burrow in moist ground and are rarely seen. Pigmy mole crickets prefer moist sandy places along shores of ponds and streams. They burrow in the ground but are sometimes found on the surface. Ant-loving crickets live in ants’ nests.

What does it eat?
Crickets are omnivores and scavengers. They feed on leaves, flowers, bark, and seeds. Some species are predatory, feeding on other insects, snails or even small vertebrates such as snakes and lizards.

Field crickets eat a variety of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants. They eat live or dead insects, grasshopper eggs, and pupae of flies, moths and butterflies. Sometimes they steal prey from spider webs. Spotted camel crickets come out on warm humid nights to feed. They eat fungi, roots, fruit, and dead insects, including other crickets. Bush crickets eat leaves, flowers, and fruits of living plants. Ant-loving crickets eat ants’ young.

Tree crickets feed on aphids. Snowy tree crickets eat small insects. They also feed on fruit crops such as apples and peaches.

If keeping a cricket as a pet, they will eat fish food. Crickets will also eat potatoes.

How does it defend itself?
The main predators of the cricket are frogs, lizards, tortoises, salamanders, and spiders.

Unlike other insects, crickets do not actively defend themselves. Crickets have cerci (long hairs) at the end of the abdomen to detect movement. They use their strong legs to hop away from danger. Some use camouflage to blend with their surroundings.

Crickets cease sound production when they detect a disturbance. If captured, they will try to wrench free, risking the loss of a leg, without making a sound.

Bush crickets have a row of spines on the hind legs to deter predators. Some bush crickets are unable to make sounds. Since they are relatively large, sound might increase the danger of being detected. Their silence may protect them from predators.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Crickets undergo simple or incomplete metamorphosis. They develop in three main growth stages—egg, nymph, and adult. There is no “resting” stage before the adult stage. They mature in 6 to 8 weeks after molting 6 to 12 times. One generation hatches each year. Crickets cannot make sounds until after the final molt.

Bush crickets lay eggs in pith, bark, or soft wood of plant stems. Female house crickets deposit eggs in damp sand, peat moss, and other moist places. They complete their life cycle in 2 to 3 months in warm weather.

Field crickets lay eggs in warm, damp soil. Newly hatched nymphs burrow up to the surface where they molt 8 to 10 times. In 2 to 3 months they become adults.

Female snowy tree crickets make a series of tiny holes in the bark of the host plant to lay eggs. The egg stage lasts through cold winter months. Eggs deposited in early autumn hatch as nymphs in spring. One generation is produced each year.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
The very regular chirping rate of snowy tree crickets is a common night sound in many places. As the temperature drops, songs become slower and the pitch of the song falls. People use the chirp rate to estimate the temperature.

How does this bug affect people?
Crickets are attracted to light so sometimes they come indoors. When inside a house they like to eat clothes made from cotton, silk or wool. Crickets are sometimes eaten by people! This is common in Africa or Asia, where they are considered a delicacy. In other places it is considered good fortune to have a cricket in the home because the singing is pleasant. Crickets are popular pets and are considered good luck in Asia.

Crickets are harmless to humans. They are used to catch many kinds of fish. They are sold as food for reptiles, lizards, and frogs. In ancient China, crickets were valued pets kept in golden cages.

Field crickets are considered a nuisance pest because of their chirping. They sometimes cause damage to fruit and vegetable crops. They are known to chew on wood, rubber, plastic, or leather. Snowy tree crickets may cause damage to fruit crops by introducing disease.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Cricket


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Bee

What does it look like?
Bees are flying insects with two pairs of transparent wings. Many common species have colored stripes on their body. Honey bees are the most well-known kind of bee. They live in colonies and make honey. Honey bees have a hairy striped body. Each pair of a honey bee's legs is designed for certain tasks like cleaning antennae, carrying pollen, or picking wax made by their body. The mouth is suited for chewing solid food like pollen and for lapping up liquids like nectar.

There are other families of bees, though. These other types of bees are different from honey bees in look, feeding, and nesting habits. There are bumble bees, mining bees, leaf cutter bees, mason bees, digger bees, carpenter bees and many others. These other types of bees are common but aren't as familiar as honey bees.

All bees, wasps, hornets and ants belong to a common insect order Hymenoptera. All these insects have transparent wings and share a similar anatomy.

Where does it live?
Many bee species are social, living in small communities. But some are solitary. Bees make their own nests using wax, propolis, plant parts, mud etc. The nests are often built in the open on trees and shrubs, in holes bored into wood, in underground tunnels, or in cracks and crevices in buildings. Bees can make their hives or nests in the open as well as in dark places. Nesting habits differ with species.

Honeybees are social insects and have large colonies. They live in hives made of wax and propolis which they make from plant resins and sap. Female worker bees secrete the wax they use (beeswax) from glands in their abdomen.

What does it eat?
Most bees eat nectar and pollen as their primary food. Pollen is a source of protein that helps to build body parts and nectar is a carbohydrate source that provides energy.

In honey bees, there are queen, worker and drone bees. These different types of bees are called "castes." The main food differs for each caste. The queen and the growing larva are fed with a liquid called royal jelly that is secreted by the worker bees. As a honey bee grows, its food changes from royal jelly to pollen and nectar. The adult workers feed mostly on nectar and pollen. Drones are fed with royal jelly, nectar and pollen. Honey bees convert nectar into honey and store it for times like winter when nectar and pollen are not available.

How does it defend itself?
Female honey bees have stingers. Worker bees sting to defend the colony when they feel threatened. A bee's stinger is in the last segment of its abdomen. In many species the bee dies after it stings. The stinger is connected to a venom gland. Worker bees have tiny barbs in the stinger like a harpoon. Because of these barbs, the stinger is ripped from the bee while stinging and the bee dies due to the injury. The stinger is left in the body of the victim. If the stinger is not removed, venom continues to be pumped into the wound by pulsing venom gland only if they are allergic to bees

The stinger left in the victim’s body is an alarm signal to the colony. Once it stings, it releases a chemical called pheromones. This attracts other bees in the colony to sting the victim. So when a person is stung by a bee, the stinger should be removed immediately to avoid more stings. Bee stings are painful, but quick removal of the stinger will reduce the pain and swelling. Some species are highly venomous and stings can be life threatening. For some people, even the sting from bee species that are not very venomous can cause allergic reactions. These allergic reactions can lead to intense pain or even death if not treated immediately.

Some species, like killer bees, are highly irritable. They have a reputation of attacking innocent passers-by. These bees are present in North and South America. It is a good idea not to go near a bee colony unless one is has a good knowledge of handling bees. Often it is difficult to tell the difference between killer bees and domesticated bees in the wild. Bee stings can be fatal if there are too many stings or if the species is highly venomous.

A few bee species that do not have stingers bite using the mandibles. Mandibles are mouth parts of the insect that are using for cutting and chewing.

What stages of growth does it go through?
Bees are advanced insects that have all the four stages of metamorphosis. A bee's life cycle includes egg, larva, pupa and adult stages.

In most bees species the eggs hatch by the third day after laying or within a few days. During the larval stage growth rate is high and hence larvae are hungry and eat a lot. Adult bees take care of the larvae by feeding them. The larval stage lasts for a week or two, after which larvae enter the dormant pupal stage. The pupal stage lasts for anywhere from a week to a couple of weeks. Larvae and Pupae are housed in special cells prepared by adult bees made of wax, propolis or plant parts. Larvae do not forage on their own and require parental care to survive.

In a few primitive species of bees, the adults stuff the cells with reserve food and lay the egg in the cells. The emerging larvae feeds on the stored food till it enters pupal stage.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Each honey bee colony has different castes of bees that look different from each other. Each honey bee colony has a queen. The queen is the only female that can lay fertilized eggs. When the eggs hatch, they become larvae and can develop into an either a queen or worker. Queens are generally larger in size compared to other castes in the colony. There are also a few drones in the honey bee colony which are male bees which have only reproductive function. Drones mate with newly emerged queens. After mating the drones die.

The majority of bees in a honey bee colony are female worker bees. Usually, they cannot lay eggs unless the queen dies. The workers forage for pollen and nectar, and make nectar into honey and royal jelly. They feed the queen, drones and larvae. They also build, maintain and defend the hive.

A major activity of worker bees in a honeybee colony is preparation of honey. The worker bees lap up nectar (which is water like in consistency) from flowers and other plant parts. They store the nectar in their stomach until they return to their hive. In the bee’s stomach water is removed from the nectar to concentrate and thicken the nectar. Some digestive juices also mix with the nectar. When the bee returns to the hive, the concentrated nectar is regurgitated into special honey storing cells. The nectar becomes thicker by evaporation. The worker bees beat their wings to create an air flow in the hive. This is called fanning. When nectar in the cells reaches the required thickness it is called honey and the cells are sealed with wax by the bees.

Honey bees also collect and store pollen in special cells for reserve food.

Bees, like most insects, communicate using chemical signals called pheromones. In addition to this, honey bees also communicate by movement inside the hive. This is called bee dance. The communication by bee dance is symbolic and is thought to convey the direction and distance of a food source from the hive.

How does this bug affect people?
Honey is taken from honey bee colonies in the wild and from colonies that are reared in apiaries (bee farms). In addition to honey pollen, bee's wax, propolis and royal jelly are major apiary products.

Bees are very important pollinators and improve productivity in crops. Many species are reared by farmers to enhance crop productivity by proper pollination.

As noted before bee stings can be extremely painful and can lead to health problems if they are not treated correctly.

Some species of leaf cutter bees and wood borer bees are household or garden pests that eat plant parts like leaves and flowers, or bore into wooden articles in the house hold.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Bee


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Flea

What does it look like?

Fleas are wingless insects about 1/25-inch long. Their flattened brown, shiny bodies are covered with bristles and spines. They have six long gangly legs. The backward-pointing, comb-like structures behind the head are called ctenidia. Some species have a row of bristles called a genal comb on the lower front of the head. They have compound eyes and their short antennae are normally hidden in grooves. They have specialized “knife-and-straw” mouthparts for ripping into skin and sucking bodily fluids. There are 18 families and about 2000 species of fleas. They belong to the Order Siphonaptera.

Where does it live?
Fleas are found in various habitats--dog dens, gopher burrows, and nests. Some species like the European Rabbit Flea live in nests containing newborn animals. Rodent Fleas occur worldwide, but are found mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. Sticktight Fleas are common in the warmer climates of the southeastern United States. Carnivore Fleas occur in the West. Chigoe fleas occur in tropical areas--Caribbean, Africa and South America.

What does it eat?
Fleas are ectoparasites, meaning they live on the outside of their host animal and feed on it without killing it. Before biting they lubricate an area with a special saliva to prevent clotting so the blood moves easily. Larvae feed on detritus left behind by adult fleas.

Rodent Fleas feed on mice, wood rats, and other rodents; a few attack birds. Sticktight Fleas feed on poultry, birds, and mammals. Malacopsyllid Fleas are parasites of opossums and rats. Carnivore Fleas feed on large meat-eaters such as wolves and bears.

How does it defend itself?
Fleas are easily able to jump away from danger using a structure called the pleural arch in the hind leg. It is made of a rubberlike protein called resilin. When a flea prepares to jump, the pleural arch is compressed to keep muscle energy stored. When released, most of the stored energy is suddenly unleashed. This causes the hind leg to snap straight, lifting the flea’s body. When the tips of the hind legs leave the surface, the flea can stay airborne for as long as 1/10 of a second. A camouflaging layer of dust on sticky new cocoons offers some protection to larvae.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Fleas undergo complete metamorphosis involving an egg, a legless larva, a pupa, and an adult. Most female fleas lay only a few eggs at a time. A few weeks after hatching from the egg, the larva spins a silken cocoon and pupates inside the cocoon. Adult fleas emerge from the cocoon when they sense the presence of a host. Depending on the temperature, the pupa might transform into an adult flea anywhere from a week to a year. Newly emerged adult fleas can live only about one week without feeding. However, completely developed adults can live inside their puparia, for several months without eating. Fleas need to eat while mating. Males need food energy for stamina and females need it for ovulating. A few hours after mating, females lay eggs on the host itself or in the nest or burrow.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Fleas have amazing jumping ability. They can jump 150 times their height upward and 80 times their height horizontally.

Fleas usually find a host by detecting body heat. They can also detect carbon dioxide from the host's breath. Mouse Fleas are different. Instead of detecting carbon dioxide from the host, they recognize the mouse’s odor.

Rabbit fleas are sensitive to hosts’ hormones and mate only when the rabbits do.

Most fleas move freely on and off their hosts, but some like female Chigoes (sand fleas) attach themselves permanently to their hosts. They fix themselves to peoples’ feet, usually under toenails. The resulting swelling can grow to the size of a pea. Female Sticktite Fleas also attach themselves permanently to their hosts.

How does this bug affect people?
Flea bites leave itching red welts and the saliva may cause some people to have an allergic reaction.

Dog Fleas carry tapeworms that harm dogs, cats, and humans. Cat scratch disease is carried by Cat Fleas, but is usually transmitted by a cat scratch. Some flea species carry the Myxoma virus. Fleas that carry the Myxoma virus transmit deadly myxomatosis in rabbits. Fleas carry the human disease endemic typhus, which killed many soldiers in World War I. Some scientists believe a bacterium carried by rat fleas caused bubonic plague, a disease that ravaged Europe in the Middle Ages. Others believe the plague is transmitted from one rodent to another, but not to humans.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Flea