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Communication Theory/Semiotics and Myth

Barthes's Life
"Who does not feel how natural it is, in France, to be Catholic, married, and well qualified academically?" This sentence—found in the book Roland Barthes par Roland Barthes, a collection of Roland Barthes's autobiographical essays—encapsulates his general cynicism about "the natural." This semi-ironic question might have originated from his own unique life; he was a Protestant in a predominantly Catholic nation, an unmarried homosexual, and a professor without a doctoral degree.

In 1948 he returned to the academic field. He held positions at the Institute Francais in Bucharest in 1948 and at the University of Alexandria in Egypt in 1949. There, he learned about structural linguistics from A.J. Gremas, a specialist in semantics, and had his "linguistic initiation"

Writing Degree Zero
As Todorov writes "It was very difficult to categorize Barthes's texts as belonging to one of the principal types of discourse with which we are familiar, and which our society takes as given," (in D. Knight, p. 124). It is difficult to define the category or categories in which he would fit. First of all, he is frequently seen as a literary critic. Much of his early academic achievement is composed of works of literary criticism written with a semiotic approach. His later work would reflect his reading of Kristeva, Derrida, and others, and reflect more of a post-structural position. The post-structural critiques find his most representative theme, an argument regarding "the death of author". His books On Racine, Critical Essays, and Sade, Fourier, Loyola are works that advance his thought on literature.

To some degree his literary criticism was influenced by Jean-Paul Sartre. The first book that Barthes wrote, translated into English as Writing Degree Zero, is in part a response to Sartre's What is Literature? This is important insofar as it would largely define Barthes's approach not only to literature, but to other media, as well as culture in general.

In brief, in What is Literature Sartre called upon the writer's and reader's commitment to not only their own, but also the human freedom of others. In Writing Degree Zero Barthes explored this idea of commitment through a concern with form. Barthes's "notion of writing concerns that which is communicated outside or beyond any message or content". For Barthes, writing in its extreme form is "anticommunication."

Barthes was also a cultural theorist. His thoughts are affected by existentialism, Marxism, structuralism and psychoanalysis. He developed these philosophical ideas and theories, and in turn had influence on later theorists. He was impressed in particular by Saussure, Levi-Strauss, Marx, and Jacques Lacan.

As Moriarty (1991) says, the label "theorist" as applied to Barthes is still reductive. With journalistic passion, his activity as a theorist of semiology moves into popular culture. His style as an essayist adopted other forms. He evolved a writing style that adopted both novelistic styles and critical or political discourse. Even if his writings do not resemble a typical novel, they offer everything the reader might desire from a novel. (Moriarty, 1991, p. 5)

Barthes did not establish any specific theory, but he can be considered as an important thinker positioned between structuralism and post-structuralism. It is not only because of his multilateral intellectual activities but also his continuous reflexive and critical consciousness about "right here" where he belonged; as a "New Leftist" he said that he was both "Sartrian and Marxist," which means "existential Marxist". He was critical about the platitudinous and depthless criticism against bourgeois literature; as a poststructuralist, he tried to overcome the limitations in structuralism.

Saussure and Barthes
Like many other structuralist scholars, Barthes was influenced by Saussure's structural linguistics. To Saussure, the linguistic mechanism operates on two levels, the systematic system and the variation by speaking actors. The former is called langue and the latter parole. "Langue is the systematized set of conventions necessary to communication, indifferent to the material of the signal which compose it; as opposed to it, speech (parole) covers the purely individual part of language" (Barthes, 1967, p. 13). Barthes interprets Saussure's linguistic system within the social dimension. The structure level, langue, is the social convention or value shared through a society which is stabilized and standardized. On the contrary, parole is flexible because it is the actual expression at the individual level. However, it is considered 'relatively' flexible due to the fact that speech by an individual cannot be free from the shared convention, the structure.

A language is therefore, a social institution and a system of values. It is the social part of language, it is essentially a collective contract which one must accept in its entirety if one wishes to communicate. It is because a language is a system of contractual values that it resists the modifications coming from a single individual and is consequently a social institution. In contrast to language, which is both institution and system, speech is essentially an individual act of selection and actualization. The speaking subject can use the code of the language with a view to expressing his personal thought. It is because speech is essentially a combinative activity that it corresponds to an individual act and not to a pure creation. (Barthes, 1967, pp. 14-15)

Focusing on the systematic level, Sausurre distinguishes the language system into two parts, the signified and the signifier. The signified is a concept or meaning which is expressed through the form. The form is called the signifier, which is the external part of language. For example, both the word 'dog' in English or 'gae' in Korean are the external forms expressing the actual animal dog. Here, the actual animal, the concept in question, becomes the signified. "I propose to retain the word sign (signe) to designate the whole and to replace concept and sound-image respectively by signified (signifié) and signifier (significant); the last two terms have the advantage of indicating the opposition that separates them from each other and from the whole of which they are parts" (Saussure, 1959, in R. Innis (ed.), p. 37).

The correspondence of the concept/meaning to the external form is not in the destined relation, but rather, in the arbitrary relation. It is not the inevitable internal relation but the difference between the signs that operates the signifying system. Saussure (1960) argues that "language does not reflect a pre-existent and external reality of independent objects, but constructs meaning from within itself through a series of conceptual and phonic differences".

According to Saussure, "meaning is produced through a process of selection and combination of signs along two axes, the syntagmatic (e.g. a sentence) and the paradigmatic (e.g., synonyms), organized into a signifying system" (Barker, 2002, p. 29). As a grammatical set of signs or the underlying systematic order, the syntagmatic comprises a sentence, and the paradigmatic means a field of possible signs that can be replaced with one another. Despite various possibilities in selecting the signs within the same paradigmatic, the selection is also regulated by the consensus of linguistic community members. For an example of the syntagmatic and the paradigmatic, let's consider the following sentence: "I went to a theater with my girlfriend." This sentence is established through the linear combination of signs. The signs within the example, such as I, theater, my, and girlfriend can be substituted for by other signs in the paradigmatic, such as "She went to a restaurant with her mother." Through the syntagmatic and the paradigmatic, Saussure tells us that signs are operated only when they are related to each other. "Crucially, signs do not make sense by virtue of reference to entities in an independent object world; rather, they generate meaning by reference to each other. Thus, meaning is understood as a social convention organized through the relations between signs" (Barker, C., 2002, p. 29).

"It is central to Saussure's argument that red is meaningful in relation to the difference between red, green, amber, etc. These signs are then organized into a sequence which generates meaning through the cultural conventions of their usage within a particular context. Thus, traffic lights deploy 'red' to signify 'stop,' and 'green' to signify 'go.' This is the cultural code of traffic systems which temporally fixes the relationship between colours and meanings.  Signs become naturalized codes. The apparent transparency of meaning (we know when to stop or go) is an outcome of cultural habituation, the effect of which is to conceal the practices of cultural coding". As Barker explains, even though there might be infinite possibilities to change the relation between the signified and the signifier due to its arbitrariness, this relationship is limited and stabilized through consensus within the particular social and historical contexts. Even though Saussure's study itself is limited to linguistics, it suggests the possibility of the study of culture as signs. Barthes is one of the most popular scholars who expanded Saussure's concepts to interpreting cultural phenomenon as "codes."

Lévi-Strauss
Lévi-Strauss is another structuralist who influenced Barthes. Lévi-Strauss was an anthropologist who applied Saussure's theory to anthropological areas of study, such as kinship. "Although they belong to another order of reality, kinship phenomena are of the same type as linguistic phenomena" (Lévi-Struass, 1963, in R. Innis, p. 113). Lévi-Strauss accepted Saussure's idea that "Language (langue), on the contrary to speech (language), is a self-contained whole and a principle of classification. As soon as we give language first place among the facts of speech, we introduce a natural order into a mass that lends itself to no other classification the norm of all other manifestations of speech" (Saussure, 1959, in R. Innis (ed.), p. 29). He went further, however, by conceptualizing language itself as the production of its society.

Like Saussure, Lévi-Strauss focused on the structure of language, and sought to find the hidden structures that he believed to exist in archetypes. Based on the laws of language underlying speech, he specifically tried to uncover the underlying substructure of various cultural phenomena such as customs, rites, habits, and gestures - "phenomena which themselves said to be intrinsic to the creation of language" (Kurzweil, 1982, p. 64). He also examined the underlying structure of the myth. "Its substance does not lie in its style, its original music, or its syntax, but in the story which it tells. Myth is language, functioning on an especially high level where meaning succeeds practically at 'taking off' from the linguistic ground on which it keeps on rolling" (Lévi-Strauss, 1955, in H. Adams & L. Searle (Eds.), p. 811).

Kurzweil (1982) indicates that Barthes questioned why the dimensions of time often become irrelevant for creative writers. This question is very similar to that of Lévi-Strauss, who wrote, "With myth, everything becomes possible. But on the other hand, this apparent arbitrariness is belied by the astounding similarity between myths collected in widely different regions." Lévi-Strauss (1955) explains this problem, "Therefore the problem: If the content of a myth is contingent, how are we going to explain the fact that myths throughout the world are so similar?" (p. 810). It seems natural that Barthes was attracted to Lévi-Strauss's findings of the similarities between tribal myths in discrete cultures, as well as between structural elements in the lives and tales of diverse tribes.

Through his work, Lévi-Strauss believed that there would be one universal system connecting all myths and all societies. Barthes, despite not being a Marxist, but working as a scholar who wanted to reveal the false notions in petite-bourgeois ideology, adopted Levi-Strauss's systemic approach (Kurzweil, E., 1982, p. 64-69). He expected to analyze all past and future creative acts and works through the language their authors used, and argued that these authors were no more than expressions of their times and societies (Kurzweil, E., 1982, pp. 64–69).

Barthes goes further
Barthes was able to expand upon the work of these scholars. His classified concepts, such as Language and Speech, Signified and Signifier, Syntagm and System, Denotation and Connotation (Barthes, 1968, trans. Cape, J., p. 12) expanded on Saussure's work. For example, he added the concept of "the motivated" as the middle concept between "the icon" as only one functional meaning and "the arbitrary" as infinite possible meanings. "The motivated is carefully defined by accepted conventions; national flags or uniforms are beginning to merge into the motivated when they give rise to the wearing of civilian clothes that have a complex but nevertheless very clear set of associations in the particular society in which they have grown up."

Also, while Lévi-Strauss sought for the universality throughout all different kinds of myths, Barthes emphasized on the potential of difference as a role of language, especially in his later thought. Barthes thus becomes a link between structuralism and post-structuralism.

Barthes and mass communication
In Communication Studies, the reason Roland Barthes can be considered an important scholar is that he applied linguistic rules to general cultural codes, from a magazine "text" to an "image" in advertisements. His approach to cultural products becomes a good example in today's Cultural Studies, Critical Communication and various semiotic analyses of media programs or in Visual Communication field.

Books most related to media culture among Barthes's writings are Elements of Semiology (1964), the Fashion System (1967) and Mythologies (1957). These are perhaps the most "structuralistic" of his works.

Elements of Semiology
Elements of Semiology does not analyze popular culture directly. Rather, Barthes shows his critical interest in mass culture, writing about the value of semiological analyses of mass cultural products in an era of mass communication. "The development of mass communications confers particular relevance today upon the vast field of signifying media, just when the success of disciplines such as linguistics, information theory, formal logic and structural anthropology provide semantic analysis with new instruments" (Barthes, 1964, p. 9).

With Elements of Semiology, Barthes introduced four classifications of the elements that create the process of semiological analysis. These classifications are borrowed from structural linguistics, and consist of the categories of language and speech, signified and signifier, syntagm and system, and denotation and connotation (Barthes, 1964).

 * Language and Speech : Barthes (1964) applied the concepts of language, or the part of the semiological system which is agreed upon by society, and speech, or the individual selection of symbols, to semiological systems. The application of these concepts can be applied to the semiological study of the food system.  According to Barthes (1964), a person is free to create their own menu, using personal variations in food combinations, and this will become their speech or message.  This is done with the overall national, regional, and social structures of the language of food in mind (Barthes, 1964).  Barthes (1964) then expanded on Saussure’s terms, by explaining that language is not really socially determined by the masses, but is sometimes determined by a small group of individuals, somewhat changing the relationship of language and speech.  Barthes (1964) claims that a semiological system can essentially exist in which there is language, but little or no speech.  In this case, Barthes (1964) believes that a third element called matter, which would provide signification, would need to be added to the language/speech system.

 * Signifier and Signified : For Saussure (1959), the signified was a representation of a concept, while the signifier was used to represent the sound-image of that concept. Barthes (1964) points out that the importance of both the signified and the signifier is the relationship between them; it is within this relationship that meaning is created.  “…that the words in the field derive their meaning only from their opposition to one another (usually in pairs), and that if these oppositions are preserved, the meaning is unambiguous” (Barthes, 1964, p. 38).  Out of this relationship, the sign is created.  Saussure (1959)  considered the sign to be arbitrary in nature, based primarily on the relationship between the signified and the signifier.  Barthes (1964) explained that the sign can no longer be arbitrary when semiological systems are considered.  Instead, Barthes shows that once a sign takes on a function or use, it will gain its own meaning in the process.  “…as soon as there is a society, every usage is converted into a sign of itself” (Barthes, 1964, p. 41).  The sign can actually lose its arbitrary nature and become motivated (Barthes, 1964).

 * Syntagm and System : Barthes (1964) defines the syntagm as a linear combination of signs. Within semantic analyses, this would be something like a sentence, where each term is related to the other terms within the phrase (Barthes, 1964).  The syntagm is compared to the system, which explains associations on the same level, such as how certain words relate to the meaning of other words within our minds, as in the case of the relations between “education” and “training” (Barthes, 1964, p. 58).  Barthes expands upon these ideas by applying them semiologically to various systems, including food.  With food, the systematic level becomes the various dishes within a particular category (i.e. types of desserts), whereas the syntagmatic level becomes the menu choices selected for a full meal (Barthes, 1964).

 * Denotation and Connotation : The terms denotation and connotation were used by Barthes for examining the relationships between systems. Each semiological system can be thought of as consisting of an expression, a plane of content, and a relation between the two (Barthes, 1964).  A connotation then examines how one system can act as a signifier of this first relation, specifically how it represents the expression within the first system (Barthes, 1964).  These elements were particularly useful for examining relations between systems of symbols, rather than just relations between elements.

Despite the theoretical discussion, Elements of Semiology offers Barthes's own interpretation about the political or existential conditions. He recommends a "total ideological description" (Barthes, 1964, p. 46) of the culture to "rediscover the articulations which men impose on reality" (Barthes, 1964, p. 57). "Semiology will describe how reality is divided up, given meaning and then 'naturalized' (Barthes, pp. 63-4), as if culture were nature itself." (Rylance, 1994, p. 38)

The Fashion System
Barthes most bitterly denounces consumerism in the Fashion System. "In the Fashion System, he asked how the fashion model projects what clothes are to be worn (and bought); what effect (of luxury and availability to all) the expensive production of the magazines themselves produces on readers; how color, texture, belts, or hats, depending upon their combination, transmit messages in relation to morning or evening activities; and how we thereby learn that there are rules of dress for every occasion-rules that parallel the transformations and oppositions we know in language. Barthes expected to reconstruct all the social implications, codes, and messages hidden in the literature on fashion" (Kurzweil, E., 1982, p. 72).

Although this work is worthwhile in that the fashion magazine of mass culture can be analyzed with the same method as the so-called high culture is, Barthes failed to distinguish the commercial and the popular. Kurzweil (1982) indicates that Barthes also failed to distinguish between what is just sold and what people actually do with it, i.e., what people do with consumer goods, apart from buying them.(p. 75) This negative attitude toward mass culture and consumerism was a common tendency of leftist intellectuals in Europe at that time. It also helps explain why intellectuals at that time called cultural products mass culture, and not popular culture.

Mythologies
Mythologies is a compilation of a series of articles, which were originally published in the magazine Les Lettre Nouvelles between 1953 and 1956. Even if it is not a theoretical work, it is perhaps the most influential of all Barthes's writings, particularly in relation to Communication Studies. Barthes's biographer even suggests that in France, Mythologies influenced not just journalists and critics, but novelists and the film-makers of the "New Wave," especially Godard (Rylance, R., 1994, p. 43).

In Mythologies, inconsistent subjects, such as wrestling, photographs, film or wine are all treated as myth. These diverse subjects can be bound together, as Barthes did not intend to talk about the subjects themselves, but to show how their underlying messages can be circulated and naturalized. The subjects treated in Mythologies share a similar circulation process within mass culture.

For example, professional wrestling carries two messages, "wrestling as sport" and "wrestling as spectacle". Barthes compares professional wrestling with Greek theater to demonstrate that audiences are not so much interested in athletic contests as they are in a cathartic, Manichean performance. These double messages are shared by the audience as well. Audiences are not only accustomed to the conventions of wrestling but also take pleasure out of the double nature of wrestling. Barthes reflects that a wrestling match is not merely an aesthetic act but has ideological significance as well, just as is the case with the realistic art enjoyed by the petit-bourgeois.

In the case of wine, he argues that the wine is signified as of Frenchness or of virility in French culture but in fact, the image of wine is a mystification. Knowledge about types of wine obscures the fact that wine is not so different from other commodities produced under capitalism, and lands in North Africa and Muslim laborers, neither of which are of Frenchness, are exploited in its production.

Barthes (1972) also examplified the advertisement of soap in order to show such mystification The advertisement compares two brands with each other and sheds light on the issue of selection between two brands as a matter of importance. It blurs the fact that both brands are actually produced by the same multinational company. Through these examples in mass culture, he suggests the consistent argument that "a message is read into some substance, custom or attitude that seemed to carry its own justification in terms purely of practical use. The message thus revealed turns out to be concealing the operation of socio-economic structures that require to be denounced, both because they are concealing their identity and because that identity is inherently exploitative" (Mortiary, 1991, p. 21).

"Myth Today" in Mythologies
As the concluding chapter in Mythologies, "Myth Today" combines the various cases into a unified theoretical idea. Here, Barthes conceptualizes myth as "a system of communication, that it is a message cannot be possibly be an object, a concept, or an idea; it is a mode of signification, a form" (Barthes, 1972, p. 109) Also, he analyzes the process of myth concretely, presenting specific examples.

Based on Saussure's definitions, Barthes argues that signification can be separated into denotation and connotation. "Denotation is the descriptive and literal level of meaning shared by most of members within a culture; connotation, on the other hand, is the meaning generated by connecting signifiers to the wider cultural concerns, such as the beliefs, attitudes, frameworks and ideologies of a social formation."

Myth is the signification in connotative level. "Where connotation has become naturalized as hegemonic, that is, accepted as normal and natural, it acts as conceptual maps of meaning by which to make sense of the world. These are myth." If a certain sign is adopted repetitiously in the syntagmatical dimension, this particular adoption is seen as more suitable than applications of other alternatives in the paradigmatic. Then, the connotation of the sign becomes naturalized and normalized. Naturalization of myth is nothing but a cultural construct.

Myth is "a second-order semiological system. That which is a sign in the first system (namely the associative total of a concept and an image) becomes a mere signifier in the second" (Barthes, 1972, p. 114) Barthes defines the sign in the first-order system, or language, as the language-object, and the myth as metalanguage.

In order to advance his argument, he uses two examples, that of a sentence in a Latin grammar textbook and a photograph of a black soldier. The signified of the sentence and the photograph in the first-order system disappears when the sign becomes the form for the concept in the second-order system. The sentence loses its own story and becomes just a grammatical example. The factual discourse about the young black soldier is also obscured by the lack of context concerning French imperialism. According to Barthes's table (Barthes, 1972, trans. A. Leavers, p. 115), the examples can be drawn like below.

The signification of myth deletes the history or narrative of the sign and fills up the empty space with the intentioned new meaning. "Myth is thus not just a message, but a message that is political by depoliticizing. It turns history into essence, culture into Nature, and obscures the role of human beings in producing the structures they inhabit and thus their capacity to change them" (Moriarty, 1991, p. 28)

Rhetoric of the Image
As Barthes says in Mythologies, "We must here recall that the materials of mythical speech (the language itself, photography, painting, posters, rituals, objects, etc.), however different at the start, are reduced to a pure signifying function as soon as they are caught by myth" (Barthes, 1972, p. 114). He applies his semiological analysis into other visual materials. For instance, in the Panzani advertisement analyzed in "Rhetoric of the Image," he analyzes three kinds of message: a linguistic message, a coded iconic message, and a non-coded iconic message (the cultural message). He also reflects about the relationship between linguistic message and image. He devised the concepts of "anchorage" which is the faculty for the linguistic message to control the meaning of the image, and "relay," the supportive relationship of text and image. Anchorage and relay are useful conceptual tools in analyzing media products such as news, advertisements, or soap operas.

Shift to post-structuralism
According to many commentators, by the end of the 1960s, Barthes's work shifted from structuralism to post-structuralism. Although it can be valued in that it turns theoretical reorientation from the value of the individual unit towards system, function and structure, structuralism has been criticized due to its methodological limitations. Two of the main problems of structuralism were that the overemphasis on how to function results in the negligence of reflection on history or value-judgment, and also that it ignores the individual agency-parole, pragmatic etc., focusing too much on structure or system-langue, syntagmatic. As a result, the post-structuralism school began to challenge the "objectivity" which was assumed in language as "a reliable yardstick for the measurement of other signifying system," even though they agreed with the argument of structuralism that "analysis of language is central to any modern intellectual project" (Rylance, 1994, p. 66)

As Rylance (1994) says, "Barthes's structuralism, as well as resuming earlier themes, contains a number of his later anti-structuralist positions."(p. 32) For example, "despite his agreement with Saussure's concepts, 'langue' and 'parole' in Elements of Semiology (1964), Barthes casts doubt on their limitation; he realizes that it also downgrades individual language use and the model is undeviatingly controlling which langue controls parole, asking 'if everything in langue is so rigid, how does change or new work come about?'" (Rylance, 1991, p. 40). Barthes was consistently aware of problems of structuralism and eventually gave up parts of it in his later works.

"Instead of having one stable denotive meaning, signs are said by the later Barthes to be polysemic, that is, they carry many potential meanings." In his later days, Barthes definitely emphasized the difference rather than focusing on repetition. He focuses more on the text, aware of the cleavage between writer and writing.

His shift can be understood as a rethinking of the biased preposition of the language systems. "Despite his anti-idealist view of the subject as a product of cultural forces rather than an origin, his hedonistic idea of the body in Pleasure of the Text (1975) re-centers the self as a transhistorical source of meaning." (Haney, 1989, in Semiotica, p. 313) This admits the relative autonomy of the parole from the langue. At the same time, it opens the plurality of meaning. This is revealed in his discussion about writing and reading.

Writing and Reading
Barthes argues that writing lies in between the historical and the personal. The text is thus the interplay between the writer's freedom and society. "A language and a style are data prior to all problematic of language; but the formal identity of the writer is truly established only outside of permanence of grammatical norms and stylistic constraints. It thus commits the writer to manifest and communicate a state of happiness or malaise, and links the form of his utterance, which is at once normal and singular, to the vast History of the Others" (Barthes, 1968, p. 14; Haney, W. 1989, p. 319)

His thought about reading further expands the potential of meaning. He separates reading into two categories, the "writerly/scriptable" and the "readerly/legible." The writerly reading means that a reader participates actively in producing meanings as if he/she re-writes the text. "The text which makes this activity possible resists being appropriated by paraphrase or critical commentary because it escapes conventional categories of genre, and hence cannot be read as a representation, cannot even be reduced to a structure." (Moriarty, 1991, p. 118) A reader finds pleasure from reading the writerly text. The readerly text is opposite to the writerly, which makes the reader passive in interpreting the text.

Camera Lucida
The pleasure of interpretation by the interplay between langue and parole or the history and the individual creation is also applied to his speculation about photography. Camera Lucida a meditation on the photographic, was to be his last work. In this, Barthes examined two elements that for him comprised the meaning of image, the studium and the punctum. The studium of a photograph presents meanings which are culturally coded, and corresponds to the photograph's symbolic meaning. The punctum, on the other hand, disturbs the obvious meaning in photographs. It "puntuates" the meaning of the photograph. For example, in a Lewis Hine photo, Barthes points to a girl's bandaged finger, and a boy's collar. The problem, as Barthes was aware, is that when Barthes points out these details, they move from the status of punctum to that of studium.

As the writerly reading touches the creative participation of readers in interpreting the text, the image also can be the writerly text which arouses the pleasure of interpretation of appreciator thanks to puctum. According to Barthes, studium is always coded, while punctum is not.

Even though they retain their heterogeneity to each other, they are not opposed to each other. The "subtle beyond" of the punctum, the uncoded beyond, exists with the "always coded" of the stadium. (Derrida, 1981, in Knight, 2000, pp. 130–131)

Conclusion
Roland Barthes had lived with his mother for much of his life. After her death in 1977 he reflected, "From now on I could do no more than await my total, undialectical death" (cited in Allen, 2003, 134). In March 1980 he was struck by a laundry truck, and died after a month in hospital.

Barthes's thought is inter-related with the arguments of other post-structuralists. Later in his career Barthes sought to define langue and parole as discrete but intermingled entities. The interplay of the contradictory elements happens between writer and history, text and audience, or the structured and the abrupt widens the horizon of meaning.

Barthes is enigmatic in that both the focus of his work and writing style are hard to concretely define. He "lived in the plural" (Derrida, 1981, in D. Knight, (ed.), p. 132) As Todorov (1981) commented, "No one would ever again think of Barthes as a semiologist, a sociologist, a linguist, even though he might have lent his voice to each of those figures in succession; nor would they think of him as philosopher or a 'theorist'" (in D. Knight (ed.) p. 125). Barthes nonetheless was a semiologist, sociologist, linguist and a theorist.

Barthes is important to the field of Critical Communication in that he applied a semiological approach to media culture. His thought can also be regarded as a foundation for empirical research about the relationship between messages and audiences, in that he argued for the plurality of the message meaning produced through the interwork of structure and agency.

title: Communication Theory/Semiotics and Myth


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User talk:Soos~enwikibooks

Thanks for helping with Jump Superstars!
Hey, you rock! Why don't you create an account? :) Sorry that I haven't done much myself... I've actually mostly stopped playing the game after getting all the komas. *sigh* I need to erase my data and replay the game some time... --Mythril 10:57, 12 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Heh, don't worried about the delayed response... Anyways, have you read the discussions about game books in wikibooks? I'm not quite sure what they've decided yet... but either way, I've gotten so many other games now that I'm not sure if I'll ever go back to examining Jump Super Stars for this guide... :/ Hum... --Mythril 12:35, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

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Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes

Introduction
Transfer of information from one place to another faces many difficulties. Principal among them is noise. For example suppose 01010101 is sent from one end. Due to noise, it may be received as 11010101, with the first digit changed by noise. Clearly if what is sent is not what is received, communication can be problematic. Error correcting codes have been developed to solve this type of problem.

In practical applications it makes sense to send messages in blocks, i.e. a series of digits one after another, e.g. 11111100. It is well known that electronic data are represented using 0's and 1's. Each digit (0 or 1) is called a bit. A byte is made up of 8 bits. A byte allows us to represent $$2^8 = 256$$ symbols. Let's suppose for the moment that data is sent a byte at time. As before, due to noise that is sent may not always be what is received.

Computer scientists came up with a simple error detection method called parity check. With this method, we represent data using only the first 7 bits. The last bit is always chosen so that together with the other seven there are an even number of 1's in the byte. When the data arrives at the other end, the receiver counts the number of 1's in the byte. If it's odd, then the byte must have been contaminated by noise so the receiver may ask for retransmission.

This method only detects errors but it can not correct them other than ask for retransmission. If retransmission is expensive (e.g. satellite), parity check is not ideal. Also its error detection ability is very low. If two bits were changed by noise, then the receiver will assume the message is correct. More sophisticated error correction codes address these problems.

Hamming Code
Hamming code is an improvement on the parity check method. It can correct 1 error but at a price. In the parity check scheme, the first 7 bits in a byte are actual information so $$2^7 = 128 $$ different symbols may be represented using a byte. But for Hamming code each block of data contains 7 bits (not 8) and only 4 bits in a block are used to represent data, so only $$2^4 = 16$$ symbols may be represented in a block. Therefore, to send the same amount of info in Hamming code, we will need to send a lot more bits. Anyhow let's see how Hamming Code works.

In this section we will see that Hamming code has some amazing properties, although we will not discuss why it works just yet. In fact, if only one error is introduced in transmission, i.e. only one bit got changed, then the decoding method employed by the receiver will definitely be able to correct it. It is easy to appreciate then, that if 2 or more errors are made, correction and even detection may not be possible.

For now, we will describe how Hamming code works, but only later do we develop the mathematics behind it. Therefore, this section can be skipped if one wishes.

We let each of a, b, c and d take the value 0 or 1, and these are called information bits. A Hamming code is a block of 7 bits in the form of
 * (a + b + d, a + c + d, a, b + c + d, b, c, d) (mod 2)

..give matrix repn as can be seen, the digits a, b, c and d appear on their own in component 3, 5, 6, and 7. All other components are a combination of a, b, c and d. So we call the 3rd, 5th, 6th and 7th component the information component, all other components are check components, and these components carry extra information that allows us to detect and correct single errors. We will explain the funny notation above in turn. The (mod 2) notation means that we take each of the values in the bracket, separated by commas, and look at its value modular 2 (we will see an example later).

We have represented the block of 7 bits in vector form, where each component corresponds to a bit. E.g. let a = b= c = d = 1, then we have
 * (1 + 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1, 1, 1 + 1 + 1, 1, 1, 1) (mod 2)

which is
 * (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)

therefore 1111111 is the block of bits we are sending.

To detect single errors, it's also very simple. Suppose the codeword received is $$a_1a_2...a_7$$, we compute 3 values
 * $$b_0 = a_1 + a_3 + a_5 + a_7 \pmod2$$
 * $$b_1 = a_2 + a_3 + a_6 + a_7 \pmod2$$
 * $$b_2 = a_4 + a_5 + a_6 + a_7 \pmod2$$

then we declare the error is at the $$2^2{b_2} + 2{b_1} + b_0$$th position.

Suppose 1111111 is sent but 1111011 is received. The receiver computes
 * $$b_0 = 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 = 1\pmod2$$
 * $$b_1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 0\pmod2$$
 * $$b_2 = 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 = 1\pmod2$$

so the error is at the $$2^2{b_2} + 2{b_1} + b_0 = 4 + 1 = 5$$th position as predicted!

If no error is made in transmission, then $$2^2{b_2} + 2{b_1} + b_0 = 0$$.

 Summary  If one wishes to send a block of information consisting of 4 bits. Let these 4 bits be abcd, say.
 * To send: abcd
 * we compute and send (a + b + d, a + c + d, a, b + c + d, b, c, d) (mod 2)

 * To decode:
 * $$b_0 = a_1 + a_3 + a_5 + a_7 \pmod2$$
 * $$b_1 = a_2 + a_3 + a_6 + a_7 \pmod2$$
 * $$b_2 = a_4 + a_5 + a_6 + a_7 \pmod2$$
 * $$e = 2^2{b_2} + 2{b_1} + b_0$$
 * if e = 0 then assume no error, otherwise declare a single error occurred at the eth position.

Exercise
...compute some codewords and decode them

Basics
The mathematical theory of error correcting codes applies the notion of a finite field, called also Galois field (after the famous French mathematician, Evariste Galois, 1811–1832). In particular, the 2-element set {0,1} supports the structure of a finite field of size 2. In general, a finite field may have q elements, where q is a prime power (no other number of elements is possible in a finite field; any two finite fields with the same number of elements are essentially alike, i.e. isomorphic). E.g. a 7-element field may consist of elements 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, and its arithmetic operations + - * are performed modulo 7.

We denote the finite field of size q as $$\mathbb{F}_q$$ or GF(q). GF stands for Galois Field.

Some Definitions
Code & Codeword
 * Let A be a finite set, called alphabet; it should have at least two different elements. Let n be a natural number. A code of length n over alphabet A is any set C of n-long sequences of elements from A; the sequences from C are called codewords of C.

If alphabet A = {0,1} then codes over A are called binary.

For example, let C be a code over alphabet A := GF(5) := {0,1,2,3,4}. Let C := {000,111,222,333,444}. It has codewords 000, 111, 222, 333 and 444.

Now we should discuss some properties of a code. Firstly, we can have the notion of distance between two codewords.

Hamming Distance
 * Let C be a code, and x and y (bold to signify that each codeword is like a vector) are codewords of C. The Hamming distance of x and y denoted
 * d(x,y)
 * is the number places in which x and y differ.

E.g. d(000,111) = 3.

Hamming distance enjoys the following three fundamental metric properties:

 * 1) d(x,y) = 0 <==> 'x' = 'y'
 * 2) d(x,y) = d(y,x)
 * 3) d(x,y) ≤ d(x,z) + d(z,y); triangle inequality

Minimum distance
 * The minimum distance of a code C denoted d(C) is the minimum distance possible between two different codewords of C

E.g. Let C = {000,111,110,001}, then d(C) = d(000,001) = 1, as the distance between any other codewords are greater than or equal to 1.

The significance of minimum distance
The minimum distance of a code C is closely related to its ability to correct errors. Let's illustrate why, using a hypothetical code C. Let say this code has minimum distance 5, i.e. d(C) = 5. If a codeword, x is sent and only up to 2 errors were introduced in transmission, then it can be corrected.

Suppose x is sent but x + e is received, where e corresponds to some vector with up to 2 non-zero components. We see that x + e is closer to x than any other codeword! This is due to the fact that d(C) = 5.

E.g. let C = {00000,11111,22222} and 00000 is sent but 00012 is received. It is easy to see that 00000 is the closet codeword to 00012. So we decode 00012 as 00000, we have in effect corrected 2 errors. But if 3 or more errors are made and we decode using the closest codeword, then we might be in trouble. E.g. if 11111 is sent but 11222 is received. We decode 11222 as 22222, but this is wrong!

No error correcting code is perfect (although we call some perfect codes). No code can correct every possible error vector. But it is also reasonable to assume that only a small number of errors are made each transmission and so we only need codes that can correct a small number of errors.

Nearest Neighbour decoding
If m > n, then it is reasonable to assume that it is more likely that n errors were made than m errors. In any communication channel, it is reasonable to assume that the more errors, the less likely. Therefore it is very reasonable to decode a received block using nearest neighbour decoding, i.e. if y is received, we look for a codeword x (of C) so that d(x,y) is minimum.

Using the above scheme, it is easy to see that if a code C has minimum distance d(C) = 2t + 1, then up to t errors can be corrected.

Exercises
If a code C has minimum distance d(C) = 2t + 2. How many errors can it correct using nearest neighbour decoding?

Linear Codes
Basic linear algebra assumed from here on. Notation
 * Let $$\mathbb{F}_q^n$$ and $$\mbox{GF}(q)^n$$ both denote the n-dimensional vector space with components coming from {0,1,2,..,q - 1} with arithmetic performed modulo q

A linear code C is a q-ary [n,k,d] code, if
 * 1) C is a set of vectors of length n,
 * 2) each component (of a codeword) takes a value from GF(q),
 * 3) all the codewords of C are spanned by k linearly independent vectors, and
 * 4) d(C) = d

Note that if x and y are codewords then so is x + y. In other words, we can think of C as a vector-subspace of $$\mathbb{F}_q^n = GF(q)^n$$, of dimension k. So C can be completely determined by providing a basis of k vectors that span the codewords. Let {$$v_i$$ | i = 1, 2, ..., k} be a basis for C, we call the matrix
 * $$G= \begin{pmatrix}v_1\\ v_2\\ ...\\ v_k\end{pmatrix}$$

the generator matrix of C.

E.g. let C be a 5-ary [5,3,3] code spanned by {10034,01013,00111} then the generator matrix is
 * $$G= \begin{pmatrix}1&0&0&3&4\\ 0&1&0&1&3\\ 0&0&1&1&1\end{pmatrix}$$

 Information rate A q-ary [n,k,d] code can have $$q^k$$ different codewords as each codeword c is of the form
 * $$c = a_1v_1 + a_2v_2 + .. + a_kv_k$$

where $$a_i$$ may take values 0, 1, .., q - 1 (as arithmetic is performed modulo q). So this code can represent $$q^k$$ symobols.

We see that the row span of G are all the codewords, so suppose one wants to send $$c_1c_2..c_k$$, we can compute the corresponding codeword c by
 * $$c = \begin{pmatrix}c_1&c_2&..&c_k\end{pmatrix}G$$

E.g. let C and G be as above and we wish to send 012 to the receiver, we compute the codeword
 * $$\begin{pmatrix}0&1&2\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}1&0&0&3&4\\ 0&1&0&1&3\\ 0&0&1&1&1\end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix}0&1&2&3&0\end{pmatrix}$$

Notice how the first 3 digits of the codeword is actually the message we want to send, so the last 2 digits are not needed if we don't want any error-correction ability in the code.

A linear code is in standard form if it's generator matrix is of the form (I|N) (has an identiy matrix at the left end of the generator matrix). The matrix G above is in standard form. It turns out that if G is in standard then it's easy for the receiver to read the intended message. It has another advantage which will be discussed in the next section.

Decoding
One advantage of using linear code is that detection of errors is easy. Actually, we can find a matrix H such that $$H\underline{x}^T=\underline0$$ if and only if x is a codeword. So if y is received and $$H\underline{y}^T \ne \underline{0}$$ then we can confidently say that y has been contaminated by noise.

To find such a H, let's suppose C is a q-ary [n,k,d] code and C is spanned by $$v_i$$ i = 1, 2, .., k.

Definition—Inner Product & Orthogonality Define the inner product of any two vectors to be
 * $$<(x_1,x_2,..,x_n),(w_1,w_2,..,w_n)> = x_1w_1 + x_2w_2 + .. + x_kw_k \ \pmod{q}$$

we say two vectors v and w are orthogonal if  = 0.

E.g. let C be a 7-ary [7,4,3] code, then
 * <(0,1,2,4,5,6,3), (1,4,5,0,3,2,0)> = 4 + 10 + 15 + 12 = 41 ≡ 6 (mod 7)

Firstly note that H must be a n by j matrix for some j. Think of H as a linear transformation in $$GF(q)^n$$. By definition kerH = C, and by the rank-nullity theorom
 * $$n = dim(imH) + k$$

so H has rank n - k. In fact, the row span of H is the span of n - k linearly independent vectors, $$w_i$$ i = 1,2,..,n - k where $$w_i$$ are orthogonal to each codeword in C.

Notice that C = imH and kerH are vectors subspaces (exercise). In fact we denote
 * $$kerH = C^\bot$$

where $$C^\bot$$ means the vector subspace where any vector is orthogonal to every vector in C.

So we need to find a basis for $$C^\bot$$ and let H be the matrix whose rows the basis vectors! If the generator matrix G of C is in standard form, then H is very easy to compute. Indeed if
 * $$G = (I_k | N) \!$$

then
 * $$H = (-N^T | I_{n-k}) \!$$

For example, let G be as above i.e.
 * $$G = \begin{pmatrix}1&0&0&3&4\\ 0&1&0&1&3\\ 0&0&1&1&1\end{pmatrix}$$

then we can conclude
 * $$H =

\begin{pmatrix} -3&-1&-1&1&0\\ -4&-3&-1&0&1\end{pmatrix}$$ look at the values modulo 5 (recall that G generates a 5-ary code), we get
 * $$H =

\begin{pmatrix} 2&4&4&1&0\\ 1&2&4&0&1\end{pmatrix}$$

We call H the parity check matrix as H can tell us whether a code has been contamniated with.

To see that each codeword $$Hx^T = 0$$, all we need to do if multiply H by each row of G (transposed) since the rows of G span C (exercise).

Exercises
1. Let H be the parity check matrix of a code C, i.e. HxT = 0 for all codewords x of C. Think of H as a linear transformation. Prove that C = imH and kerH are vectors subspaces.

2. If G (the generator matrix) is in standard form, prove that H as constructed above is spanned by all the vectors orthogonal to the row span of G.

Why Hamming code works
The binary Hamming code is a [7,4,3] code. Since the minimum distance is 3, so it can correct 1 error. The Hamming code is special as it tells the receiver where the error is. To construct a Hamming code, it is easier to construct the parity check matrix first
 * $$H =

\begin{pmatrix} 0&0&0&1&1&1&1\\ 0&1&1&0&0&1&1\\ 1&0&1&0&1&0&1\\ \end{pmatrix}$$

We will not discuss how to find G, it is left as an exercise. Notice the columns of H are just the binary representation of the number 1,2,.., and 7 in increasing order. This is how Hamming code can tell us where the error is.

Let x be a codeword of the Hamming Code, and suppose x + ej is received, where ej is the vector where only the jth position is 1. In other words, one error is made in the jth position.

Now notice that
 * $$H(\underline x + \underline e_j)^T = H\underline x^T + H\underline e_j^T = \underline 0 + H\underline e_j^T = H\underline e_j^T$$

but $$H\underline e_j^T$$ is just the j column of H which is the binary representation of j.

title: Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes


text: Template:WikipediaCredit

title: Template:WikipediaCredit


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/Utilities

The Utilities folder (inside the Applications folder) includes a number of useful utilities that can be used to configure, monitor and maintain your Mac.

Contents

 * 1) Activity Monitor
 * 2) AirPort Admin Utility
 * 3) AirPort Setup Assistant
 * 4) Audio MIDI Setup
 * 5) Bluetooth File Exchange
 * 6) ColorSync Utility
 * 7) Console
 * 8) DigitalColor Meter
 * 9) Directory Access
 * 10) Disk Utility
 * 11) Grab
 * 12) Grapher
 * 13) Installer
 * 14) Keychain Access
 * 15) Migration Assistant
 * 16) NetInfo Manager
 * 17) Network Utility
 * 18) OBDC Administrator
 * 19) Printer Setup Utility
 * 20) System Profiler
 * 21) Terminal
 * 22) VoiceOver Utility

title: Mac OS X Tiger/Utilities


text:
US Tort Law

Based on the podcast series www.lifeofalawstudent.com/ by Neil Wehneman.

{| style="width:65%;"
 * style="background-color: cream; border: solid 1px gray; padding: 1em;" valign="top" |

Part 1: Topics

 * /Overview/
 * /Introduction/
 * /Causes of Action/
 * /Ordinary Person of Reasonable Prudence/
 * /Wrongful Death/

Part 2: Appendices

 * /Bibliography/
 * /Glossary/
 * /Style Guide and Authors/

 * }

title: US Tort Law


text:
US Tort Law/Causes of Action

In this chapter of the Torts Casebook, we look at Brown v. Kendall and the concept of a Cause of Action.

title: US Tort Law/Causes of Action


text:
US Tort Law/Introduction

In this chapter of the Torts Casebook, we will give a general overview of the concept of tort.

What is a Tort?
A Tort is a civil wrong for which the law provides a remedy. A tortfeasor is considered to be liable for a tort, never guilty; the word guilty is used in criminal law. The word came into English from the latin tortus via French tort, pronounced.

Someone tripping on a walkway, kids sending a baseball through a window, a new Mercedes chipped by wood chips thrown from a lawnmover, a tire blowing out on your car: they can all be examples of torts. Some torts, such as sexual harassment, are also (in some jurisdictions) criminal actions. (Note: at common law, this usually means you can be hit with two cases, whereas in civil law countries, especially in France, there often exists a preference for attaching the tort suit to the criminal suit.)

What's the point?
Tort law exists to provide a relief for wrongs -- to "make whole" those who are injured. As such it fulfills a moral role. Yet, tort law also has a number of more practical purposes. It arose largely to prevent people from doing what would be the natural thing in a society without courts: revenge, or "vigilante justice". Also, it exists to as a deterrent towards potential tortfeasors from tortious action, and to encourage responsible actions.

Torts and constitutions
Some constitutions, such as the Ohio State constitution, specifically open courts to suits over damages to person, property, or reputation. These rather obvious-sounding constitutional provisions have become relevant lately as they can provide an impediment to tort reform and proposed damage caps.

Example: a car crash
Suppose you end up in a car crash, and it is determined the crash was due to somebody else's negligence. You may now try to lay claim to various sorts of damages. First, there is physical injury. While the question of assigning value to the human body has been contentious at times (think connotations of slavery!), it is generally accepted that monetary compensation can be assessed for physical injury in and of itself. Similarly, you can these days claim emotional and mental damages, which is a relatively new innovation, and to financial injury, say, if you are no longer able to work for your employer. Currently, it is not commonly possible to bring a tort action for a purely financial injury; those are usually considered more fit to be treated under the heading of contract law. Some exceptions to that are malpractice in such professions as law and accounting.

Sources of tort law
US tort law is primarily state-level common law. There is little impact from statutes or from federal law.

The big question
How do we determine who should be compensated and how much? This is the major question on which the study of the law of torts focuses. There is no simple answer to it.

Insurance
You can insure yourself against some form of tortious liability. In many jurisdictions, though, some forms of insurance may be illegal. You cannot insure against, for instance, sexual harassment damages (considered contrary to public policy), or punitive damages.

Crimes and torts
Crimes are a whole different can of worms from torts. Common law crimes are rare these days, and in fact many common law jurisdictions, including Ohio, have made it explicit that all crimes are statutory. Criminal suits are brought by a public prosecutor in the name of the public interest of society at large, and punishment is viewed as the remedy. In a civil action, such as a tort action, both parties are generally private actors, and the remedy comes in the form of damages (payments of money), or occasionally injunctions, that is, instructions by the court to perform or refrain from certain actions. Occasionally, punitive damage are awarded that go beyond the actual damage incurred. Punitive damages can be seen as a fuzzy areas where tort law looks more like criminal law.

Theories of liability
There are three major kinds of liability: intentional acts, unintentional/accidental acts, and acts for which there is ''strict liability'', that is, you are liable for them regardless of whether they are intentional. The latter category includes acts related to some inherently dangerous activities, such as setting of fireworks.

Stages of a tort suit
Initially, the allegedly injured party files a complaint. In a complaint, you set out theories of why you should win, and what your claims are. There is no need initially to be very specific about how exactly you are going argue the case, although you will have to choose a specific recovery later on.

The second stage, a relatively new innovation in the common law, is discovery. It is often the longest phase, and it exists to allow the parties to get to know the other side's case. The key aspects of discovery are depositions and interrogatories. Discovery is also when pre-trial motions, such as motions to dismiss, are filed and decided upon. Discovery prevents surprises during the actual trial.

The trial itself may or may not involve a jury. If neither party requests a jury, both issues of fact and law will be decided by a judge. If a jury is requested, the judge will restrict him/herself to issues of law, and the jury decides on issues of fact. (Note that the fact/law distinction is to some extent a technical and non-intuitive one.)

Next comes the verdict, which may be rendered "from the bench" at trial, or after some time.

After the verdict, there is often an opportunity to appeal in a higher court.

History of torts
The most common view of the history of (common) tort law is that it grew from those duties imposed upon actions that caused physical harm, regardless of fault, and expanded from there to determine more refined moral standards of general liability, but not everyone would agree. Some early quotes are "the thought of man shall not be tried for the devil himself knoweth not the thought of man" (Chief Justice Brian, 1468), and "in all civil acts, the law doth not so much regard the intent of the actor, as the loss and damage of the party suffering" (Lambert v. Bessey, 1681).

Early post-Norman England required writs, which cost money, in order to bring a defendant to court. There were a limited number of very specific writs. Local aristocracy would limit the writs that could be issued to bring people to the King's court, largely because they wanted to increase the power of the local courts.

Two writs of specific historic interest are the writ of trespass, and the writ of action on the case.

...

Weaver v. Ward
...

title: US Tort Law/Introduction


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Life Cycle/Software Requirements Specification

Links

 * Guide to writing effective requirement specifications
 * Soda-pop machine example SRS using Swedish currency
 * IEEE Recommended Practice for Software Requirements Specifications IEEE Std 830-1998


text:
US Tort Law/Overview

The Torts Casebook is intended to be a casebook treating the subject of Torts much as would happen in a US law school. It is based on a series of podcasts by Neil Wehneman, which he has been recording as he attends law school.

The class that Neil is taking follows the traditional North-American format of legal education, where the students are supposed to discover the principles of law gradually as they study one or more historical cases for each lecture. It is therefore important to take such a course as a whole, lest you end up with an outdated or simplistic view of the law.

The podcasts themselves are under Creative Commons, but Neil has given explicit permission for use of his materials in GFDL'ed Wikimedia projects.

To help write this textbook, you can follow a very simple procedure:

 * Listen to an episode of Neil's torts podcast
 * Create a chapter of the book containing
 * A link to the podcast
 * Links to relevant source materials
 * Links to relevant Wikipedia articles
 * A summary (or elaboration) of the episode's contents

title: US Tort Law/Overview


text: User talk:195.144.131.12

title: User talk:195.144.131.12


text:
Social Ballroom Dancing

This book is designed as an introduction to Social Ballroom Dancing.

Introduction

 * /Introduction/
 * /American vs. International/
 * /Social vs. Competitive/
 * /General Style Guidelines/
 * /Rhythm, Style, and Movement/
 * /Line of Dance/

Standard/Smooth Dances

 * /Foxtrot/
 * /Waltz/
 * /Quickstep/
 * /Tango/
 * /Viennese Waltz/

Rhythm/Latin Dances

 * /Cha Cha Cha/
 * /Mambo/
 * /Samba/
 * /Rumba/
 * /Bolero/
 * /East Coast Swing/

Nightclub Dances

 * /Nightclub Two-step/
 * /West Coast Swing/
 * /Hustle/
 * /Jive/
 * /Lindy Hop/

Latin Nightclub Dances

 * /Salsa/
 * /Merengue/
 * /Cumbia/
 * /Bachata/

Useful Resources

 * Wikipedia's entry on ballroom dance

title: Social Ballroom Dancing


text:
Social Ballroom Dancing/Tango

American tango

Argentine tango

Characterizations of the three styles of tango:

http://www.dance-forums.com//showpost.php?p=568&postcount=1

On a thread of general dance jokes:

http://www.dance-forums.com//showthread.php?t=213

title: Social Ballroom Dancing/Tango


text: User talk:12.214.37.195

title: User talk:12.214.37.195


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User talk:68.77.24.91

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title: User talk:68.77.24.91


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title: User talk:84.176.246.168


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User talk:61.247.255.120

You have been temporarily blocked from editing Wikibooks. You were warned several times that linking to commercial sites is not allowed. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires.

title: User talk:61.247.255.120


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User talk:70.105.37.23

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title: User talk:70.105.37.23


text:
Reaktor/Core Technology

Reaktor Core Technology gives low level signal processing possibilities to users, with the capability to design new filters, oscillators, delays, and more. The core cell library offers a selection of new effects, filters, and more to builders; plus there is a selection of standard macros, expert macros, and built-in modules to aid in the design of new core cells.

title: Reaktor/Core Technology


text:
Wikibooks:Mirrors and forks

This is list of sites that copy content of Wikibooks.

License
Wikipedia's license, the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) requires that any derivative of works from Wikibooks must be released under that same license, must state that it is released under that license, and must acknowledge the main authors (which some claim can be accomplished with a link back to that article on Wikibooks). This does not apply to material that was released into the public domain, to material whose authors have given permission, and to use that can be defended as fair use.

The web sites listed on the "compliance" pages below use content original to Wikibooks as a source for at least some of their content. Wikibooks itself are not included.

Non-compliance process
If you see a site that uses Wikibooks content improperly, report it here.

Next step is to send standard GFDL violation letter to the page author. Remember to add entry to Non-compliant site coordination.

www.recipes24.net
fully compliant
 * link to license and source

http://www.recipes24.net/recipes/meat/paella.html and Cookbook:Paella. However, I can't find other articles taken from Wikibooks. I sent an e-mail. --Derbeth talk 19:15, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Done. Author of the page promised he will fix any recipies taken from Wikibooks if we find any. --Derbeth talk 10:48, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

www.researcharea.org
fully compliant
 * link to license and source

Well done. --Derbeth talk 19:15, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

www.strategywiki.net
fully compliant
 * link to license and source

See their copy of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas for example. Also some Wikipedia dumping. I left a message regarding this, and hopefully they'll clear it up soon. GarrettTalk 05:00, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * UPDATE: now corrected, seems they just weren't aware of the niggling fine print. GarrettTalk 04:30, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks:Mirrors and forks


text:
Raising Cattle/Water

Depending on where you live there are many ways to supply water to your cattle.

Dugouts, Slough, Ponds and other natural sources of water

There are several methods of handling this. You can let the cattle drink from the water source naturally. However, this will cause erosion and change the shape of the pond. This can be beneficial at times especially for a dugout where minor erosion around the dugout will speed the process of naturalization and increase holding capacity. However, this is often more harmful than beneficial and it is recommended by many sources that if you can afford it you install a solar or wind powered pump and fence off your water source. With this set up you can water your herd from a trough and in northern climates can water them from this water source all year round (as long as the pump is below the maximum ice depth).

Watering them in from a well or other man made source
For this you will need a trough and a hydrant or other form of a tap connected to a well. If you are lucky and have a deep well or a separate well for your cattle then you can constantly water your herd without running out. However, if you are sharing a shallow well with your herd and household water supply then you might run out of water if you need to supply too much. If this is the case you may need to limit the size of your herd even more than local regulations may dictate.

title: Raising Cattle/Water


text:
User talk:207.192.248.182

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:207.192.248.182


text:
Sociological Theory/Karl Marx

How do we define Marxism?
In defining Marxism a distinction has to be made between the writings and ideas of Karl Marx, the ideology of Marxism as a sociological perspective between his day and the present, and the politics of communism, socialism, and Labour’s third way. Textbooks on sociology often contrast social systems or structuralism with social action perspectives. They frequently then differentiate between consensus theories (like functionalism) and conflict theories (like Marxism or feminism). These distinctions may arise from the sociological cannon’s axiomatic reliance on a few key historical thinkers providing a basis for almost all modern development of the subject.

Who was Karl Marx?
Sociology can be thought of as a cannon of ideas and thought, stretching back into the nineteenth century. Its thinkers are “dependent on influences from elsewhere – they are not spontaneous individuals, geniuses who somehow spin their theories from thin air.” (Rob Stones 1998). Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) was a university educated German and was influenced by the philosopher Hegel, French revolutionary and socialist politics and English economics. Hegel’s writing provided a technical and theoretical basis for ideas concerning freedom, conflict and contradiction (dialectic logic) and man’s place in the world. This combined with the French tenets of Equality, Fraternity and Liberty along with the pragmatic analyses of economics in England by Adam Smith and David Ricardo. His friend, financier and collaborator Frederick Engels, led Marx to see conflict rather than consensus in society. At the age of 30 he published the Communist Manifesto (1848). He opens saying “the history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle”. By the time he wrote Das Kapital (1867) he had become more focused on the reality of capitalism and the nature of class struggle (and therefore of society) than the trans-historical and inevitable overthrow of capitalist, antagonistic modes of production. It is important to remember the historical perspective; he lived in a world without television, in which England led the world towards industrialization. Imperial Britain had acquired a quarter of the planet (and its resources) so it is not hard to see why he thought that “as capitalism consolidates its hold around the globe, non-capitalist classes are eliminated and the proletariat expands…”

What resources are available and who controls them influences (almost deterministically) the nature of the superstructure, which is made up of all the non-economic articles of society, such as legal, religious and educational systems. Marxism divides the capitalist economic structure into two broad class strata; the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The bourgeoisie own the means of production, land and factories and buy labour for wages from the proletariat. The proletariat having no means of subsistence themselves, have no choice but to sell their labour for wages to the bourgeoisie. Everyone needs the results of production, food, shelter and commodities. The scarcity of resources leads to a society primarily defined by its economics or infrastructure. In this way Marx thought that the economic base of society provided the foundation for all other features or functions of society, the superstructure. How and to whom the responsibility falls to of first, the funding, production and distribution of agriculture, and second, the provision of all other goods, determines the ruling class and their interests. They, of course, act using their overwhelming economic interests to consolidate their power politically (and culturally according to Gramsci), as well as economically. The legal system, nuclear family and even personal tastes and entertainment are shaped by the ruling class ideology and Marx’s description of capitalism in these terms vividly conveys the contradictions inherent in society. For example, he highlights the collective nature of production, whereby many hundred may work in a factory and yet only a very few own the factory and its equipment (capital) and thereby accrue profit. This is gained through the surplus effort of the workers over the wages paid to them, inspiring the term: ‘wage slaves’. Many people work for the (overwhelming) benefit of very few. Neoliberals might argue that with modern stock markets, in fact many get to own the capital of business. Even if many workers do have pensions (the most frequent type of personal investment) and thereby a stake-holding, this is hidden behind the profit making and exploitative financial market that operates these investments. Only the already wealthy are in a position to genuinely benefit from the big financial institutions.

Marx could not have noticed the damaging of the environment by industrialisation himself, but Marxism certainly points to an ecological limit to the expansion of capitalism. Profits have to come from somewhere and as resources become more scarce, cheaper processing, environmentally friendly or not, will be employed to add value or profit when wages can be depressed no further. In the mean time capitalism has been buoyed up against rapid collapse ever more effectively by advertising. The power of persuasion using the modern media of TV and the Internet has allowed products as unhelpful and destructive as tobacco, guns and financial credit (debt) to be sold in great quantity. People are conduced by advertising to buy what they do not need and their position as wage slaves is consolidated by their growing addiction to consumerism. This false consciousness or reification (Lukàcs and Hegel) distracts the working classes from the true nature of their both economic and superstructural subjugation and their collective potential for overturning the domination by employing their combined class-consciousness to unite. The power of advertising to persuade people to buy that which they do not need is today nearly absolute. Marx may well have viewed television and the Internet as tools of the economic base as well as cultural artefacts.

Antonio Gramsci popularised the term ‘hegemony’ to refer to the importance of popular culture in forming a collective class consciousness and referred to a need for a counter-hegemonic force in the form of intellectuals drawn from and representative of the working class. Both Hegel and George Lukacs might have criticised this view saying that as individuals undertake non-manual labour they lose direct contact with their human essence and as they loose touch become unable to understand the nature of society. This view would certainly have upset Stalin and Zedong but not ‘El Che’ Guevara, who insisted on digging and building at the weekends even when he was in charge of the national bank. In Russia Lenin’s version of Marxism never truly followed the Communist template as his ‘New Economic policy’ allowed a limited capitalist investment to stimulate the economy and create a petty bourgeoisie. This was necessary because Russia was a largely rural country of peasants rather than an industrialised one with an alienated middle class. In fact Marx really envisioned Britain being ripe for his socialist revolution as in 1850 half of all manufactured goods globally were made there. The social suffering and damage of this massive development in rapidly overcrowding, and unplanned cities provided (so he thought) a large enough proletariat. Indeed, despite the lack of violent revolution, Britain now has a NHS and welfare state, as well as being nominally secular, democratic and largely socialist with the Labour party currently in government.

Many of the classic criticisms of Marxism arise either out of its macro-nature or the fact that it is about 150 years old. Since then new ideas have been incorporated into neo-marxist ideology most notably by Antonio Gransci and George Lukacs. Combining Marx’s view of the economy as infrastructure with new manifestations of culture, Gramsci vividly saw the hegemony of the ruling class ideology flooding into peoples lives in ever more powerful and effective media (like new technology such as mobile ‘phones and the internet). In fact the global dominance of capitalism today is so complete that the remaining (self-styled) communist regimes (all 5 of them) all receive the Internet, TV and radio signals and so are (probably fatally) exposed to the hegemony too. On the face of it postmodernism seems to blow Marxism apart simply by recognising the overwhelming complexity of society at any one moment in time. It is right that we will never be able to fully understand the reality of society and its functions, not least because such knowledge would introduce new unknown realities re-challenging our understanding. Conversely the numerically undeniable truth underwriting statistical mathematics proves some aspects of the modernist reality, in particular with regard to economics. Our absolute need to share scarce resources means that our lives are primarily concerned with acquiring the means to live.

Marxism largely ignores the subjugation of women (and other gender issues like homosexuality) and given their historical inability (equally to men) to contribute to the monetary economy it seems reasonable for a historically generated macro-view to ignore them. However, in his Communist Manifesto, Marx addresses patriarchy saying, “Bourgeois marriage is, in reality, a system of wives in common … it is self-evident that the abolition of the present system of production must bring with it the abolition of free love springing from that system, i.e., of prostitution both public and private.” He seems to envisage, with the abolition of class differences, no further innate repression of women as they represent a sub-class of the oppressed classes. Also ethnicity issues and racism are mostly ignored, although they are intrinsically involved when considering issues of class. Finally, the growth of the middle classes in the form of clerical and administrative jobs and the expanding service industry (at least in Britain and the “first world”) has complicated the reality and definitions of class strata.

Having briefly outlined the origins of Karl Marx’s thinking about Socialism the argument has progressed from the role of economics, the existence of contradictions, the nature of the ruling class ideology to some common criticisms. It becomes clear that the Marxist perspective in sociology is still an effective method for examining societies. The macro-nature of the Marxist perspective (and functionalist) neither claims to help explain micro-issues nor assist in thinking about them. That said, it still has limitations in both examining micro-issues and in addressing the twenty-first century world’s post-modernist thinking. The neo-Marxism of Lukacs and Gramsci, in addressing hegemony and culture, help to move on with and beyond postmodernism. Society is complex and getting ever more so. As a template to understand the relations between people and the world in which they live Marxism dutifully conveys the genuine nature of suffering even today.

Bibliography/ References:

Hutton, W (1997) The State to Come. London: Vintage. Stones, R (1998) Key Sociological Thinkers. Hampshire: Macmillan Press.

Cuff, E.C., Sharrock, W.W., Francis, D.W. (1998) Perspectives in Sociology (4th Edition) London: Routledge.

Giddens, A. (2005) Sociology. Cambridge: Polity press.

Marx, K., Engles, F. (1848) The Communist Manifesto. Internet Download.

title: Sociological Theory/Karl Marx


text:
Talk:Sociological Theory/Karl Marx

I wrote this for a sociology essay titled "Outline and evaluate a sociological perspective". I've not had it marked yet so any usefull feedback or comment would, at the least, be interesting. Oh, and I'm not neccessarily persuaded by Marxism...honestly! JBoam2005.

This is good, but I think it would be better to give a more objective study of Marx. Perhaps splitting up this article into parts? I'm suggesting important components of Marx's theory. So yeah, I was thinking of a rough outline of Marx, written in a more objective, textbook-style form instead of using a paper that makes too specific an argument for a textbook type of article. Tell me what you think! Boneheadmx 04:24, 18 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Marx In Das Kapital
 * Historical materialism
 * The stages of history
 * The subjugation of classes
 * The critique of capitalism
 * Inequality stemming from the division of labor
 * The nature of capital itself
 * Means of production
 * The accumulation of private property and capital
 * The Communist utopia
 * Marx In Communist Manifesto
 * Towards a communist state
 * The rise of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat from previous classes
 * Socialism
 * Revolution
 * Infrastructure and institutions in the socialist state

title: Talk:Sociological Theory/Karl Marx


text:
User talk:24.118.76.6

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:24.118.76.6


text:
User:Macgyver~enwikibooks

Just a surfer wit some spare time!

title: User:Macgyver~enwikibooks


text:
User:ElAmericano~enwikibooks

Look me up on Wikipedia, where I am currently most active.

title: User:ElAmericano~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:ElAmericano~enwikibooks

Look me up on Wikipedia, where I am currently most active.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called ElAmericano. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name ElAmericano~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:55, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:ElAmericano~enwikibooks


text: Template:User es-2

title: Template:User es-2


text:
Talk:Modern Photography

Photography "Perfectly Exposed" exposure, f stops, shutter speed and depth of field authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Photography "Perfectly Exposed" exposure, f stops, shutter speed and depth of field =
 * 2005-11-12 02:47:20 User:Chairboy (AFD)
 * 2005-11-12 02:45:06 User:69.9.145.120

title: Talk:Modern Photography


text:
User:D'Arby

"Beware of the young doctor and the old barber." -- Benjamin Franklin

Topics of Interest

 * Mathematics
 * Physics
 * Orbital Mechanics

Currently working on: Orbital equations of motion

title: User:D'Arby


text:
TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Necessary Items

To write TI-Basic Z80, you will need a compatible calculator. The list of calculators that use TI-Basic Z80 are:
 * TI-83
 * TI-83+
 * TI-83+ SE
 * TI-84+
 * TI-84+ SE
 * TI-84+ CE

Other Utilities
It is also possible to use a virtual calculator, or emulator, to program and test TI-BASIC programs without a calculator. Virtual TI was one of the first emulators for TI calculators. Wabbitemu is currently the best free Z80 emulator, for both Windows and Mac users. To use an emulator, a ROM image is needed. It is a "snapshot" of the current state of a calculator. Wabbitemu can generate its own image, however, a ROM image can be obtained from any calculator using one of these methods. Texas Instruments has created its own excellent and all-inclusive emulator/debugger for the TI-83 and TI-83 Plus calculators, called TI-83 Plus SDK, as it is free for anyone who registers their owned TI calculator, and is found here, along with other Texas Instruments software.

The main advantage of using an emulator is that, while it may be convenient to write a program and test it on the fly on an actual calculator, it is faster to type-up code on a computer to test with an emulator. An added advantage is the ability to include lower case letters on TI-83 Plus calculators, though not on regular TI-83 calculators.

A common application for programming TI-BASIC on the computer is TI Edit. It allows the user to program as they would on a calculator, with built-in menus and functions. The drawback, however, is that TI Edit cannot run code. It can, however, save the code as a file that can be transferred to a calculator. The better thing to do is to use an emulator to test the programs you write before you transfer them onto a calculator. Remember to always back up your calculator before the transfer, because there is a small chance that the program will crash the operating system.

Normally, when buying a TI calculator, a CD is included with the set that includes computer software for coding on a computer and sending files to and from computers via a TI PC Link cable (not included). The link software provided by Texas Instrument is called TI-Connect, while the included program writing software is called TI-Graph Link, which can also be used as a linking program, but is out of date.

Other free 3rd party software can be found at ticalc.org, which has a large community of TI calculator owners and programmers. This specific page in ticalc.org's directory contains a large list of Windows, MAC, and UNIX related software.


text:
Template:High School Mathematics Extensions/Suggestions

= Feedback = What do you think? Too easy or too hard? Too much information or not enough? How can we improve? Please let us know by leaving a comment in the discussion tab. Better still, edit it yourself and make it better.


text:
Guide to Schools/Alphabetical/Family Foundation School

=|Family Foundation School=

Contact Information
Address 431 Chapel Hill Road, Hancock, NY 13783

Phone (845) 887-5213

Fax 845-887-4939

Administrative head
name, title _

Admission Contact
name,title

Head of Academics
name,title

Head of counseling or therapauetics
name,title

Other key staff
name,title

Ownership
The Family Foundation School is independently owned and operated.


text:
TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Hello, World!

Opening and Navigating the Program Editor
To begin coding TI-BASIC on your calculator, you must use the program editor. This allows you to edit, manage, and run your programs. To access it, press  NEW . Then, type in a short name for your program. The names for programs must follow these rules:

Press, and an empty program will appear. In the following example, the program has been named :
 * Must include only uppercase letters and numbers, where the first character must be a letter
 * Cannot include any other tokens, such as symbols or math functions
 * Maximum length of 8 tokens long

To navigate the program editor, use the arrow keys to move the cursor, which is represented by a blinking black box. Press to move the cursor down a line, or to create a new line if the cursor is at the bottom-most line. To insert a line at any point, move the cursor to the end of the line above where the new line should be inserted. Then press  [INS] . To clear a line, press. Press on any empty line to delete it.

Always, the first line on the screen shows the name of the program. It is not a line in the code, but rather a header to show the name of the current program. Press. Now, a new line on the program editor is created:

In TI-Basic, colons are used to signify new lines.
 * Colons are automatically placed by the calculator when creating a new line. These colons cannot be deleted, except by deleting the line itself.
 * Manually adding a colon ( [:]) also signifies a new line. These colons can be deleted.

To run a program, you need to first exit the program editor. Press  [QUIT] to return to the home screen. Press and use the up and down arrows to select your program. Now, press twice: once to paste it to the home screen and second to execute it.

To stop a program during execution, press the key and an error will be thrown, stopping the program.

Hello, world!
Now that you have learned how to navigate and perform simple edits on a program, now we will program our first program: the "hello world." This simple program tells the calculator to display the text  on the screen.

Now, let's break down each line of this program and understand how it works.

Every new line in a TI-BASIC program automatically starts with a colon. It's how the calculator knows when a line ends and a new line begins. ClrHome ( I/O 8) is the instruction that clears the home screen, erasing any text or numbers that may have been on it.

Disp ( I/O 3) displays a variable, value, or string to the screen. If the screen is full, it will scroll down a line. If the string is more than 16 characters, <tt>Disp</tt> will only show the first 15 of them, followed by an ellipse (…). During the execution of the program, you will not be able to scroll and see the rest of the line if the 16 character limit is exceeded. Strings are displayed left-aligned, and values are displayed right-aligned.

In order to add quotation marks (<tt>"</tt>), press.

In this example, the string  is printed to the screen.

Alternate Method
Another command offered for printing to the screen is the <tt>Output</tt> (<tt> I/O 6</tt>) command. This command offers more arguments to specify where on the screen to print.

Here's how to use this command in the "hello world" program. It prints  at row 1 column 1:

This program will result in the same output.

You try it!
Try these examples to practice the <tt>Disp</tt> and <tt>Output</tt> commands.

Poem
Use the <tt>Disp</tt> commands to print a simple poem to the screen. Your poem should be 7 or fewer lines to fit on the screen (if you try to print an 8th line, the first line will move off the screen).

This example poem will print to the screen:

Centered Text
Using <tt>Output</tt>, replicate the following output exactly. You will need to use the command more than once.

title: TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Hello, World!


text:
TI-Basic Z80 Programming

This book covers the Z80 processor's version of TI-BASIC.

Overview
TI-BASIC is a simple programming language used on Texas Instruments (TI) graphing calculators. The language is quite simple, and integrates many normal graphing calculator commands (such as storing variables or graphing) into its code.

TI-BASIC is very easy to program, especially when compared to assembly, which is the other main language that can be used to program TI graphing calculators. Also, programs written in TI-BASIC can have small file sizes, since common functions can be programmed with just one character (1-2 bytes), such as  or. However, this makes execution of TI-BASIC programs very slow, since each line of code must be read and parsed before execution. Despite the crawling speed of TI-BASIC, it's appropriate for many simple programs.

Versions of TI-BASIC
There are two main versions of TI-BASIC in use today:

 * The TI-BASIC that comes with the TI-89, TI 89 Titanium, TI-92, TI-92 Plus and Voyage 200 calculators. This is the more powerful version of TI-BASIC.

 * The TI-BASIC that comes with the TI-83, TI-83+, TI-83+ Silver Edition, TI-84+ and TI-84+ Silver Edition calculators. This is a less powerful version of TI-BASIC, but is still fairly versatile. This Wikibook covers this version.

Please note that within these two versions of TI-BASIC, there are slight variations.

Table of Contents
This table of contents arranges the sections in the best order possible for those who are trying to learn the language. However, if you are already familiar with TI-BASIC, you may decide to skip certain sections.

 * 1) Appendix A: List of Commands

Learning and Programming TI-BASIC
Here are the manuals that come with TI calculators from the Texas Instruments website, which can be used to learn TI-BASIC.

 * TI 83 (See Chapter 16)
 * TI 83 Plus (See Chapter 16)
 * TI 83 Plus Silver Edition (See Chapter 16)
 * TI 84 Plus (See Chapter 16)
 * TI 84 Plus Silver Edition (See Chapter 16)
 * TI 89 (See Chapter 17)
 * TI 89 Titanium (See Chapter 18)
 * TI 92 Plus (See Chapter 17)
 * Voyage 200 (See Chapter 18)

Programmeren in TI-Basic

title: TI-Basic Z80 Programming


text:
User talk:65.43.156.166

Hello. Thanks for your contributions, but I do not think it's a good idea to move the pages by copying & pasting. We should use "move" action instead so that the page histories continue (thus, meet the GFDL requirement). To use "move" action, you have to create an account and log in.

I'm sorry but I'm goint to put the pages you created to VfD(Vote for Deletion), and after they're deleted, I'll move the correspoinding pages. - Marsian / talk 06:41, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.43.156.166


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Talk:Writing Effective Songs

I am considering renaming this book (and all its subpages) from Writing Effective Praise & Worship Songs to Writing Effective Praise and Worship Songs . (Using the How to rename (move) a page process). Any objections? --DavidCary 07:31, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Actually, may be just generalize into Writing songs George Leung 07:20, 2 February 2006 (UTC) EDIT: There, I did it. Consolidate all those pages into one, and transfer many gospel specific items into a seperate page. George Leung 09:24, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Unconstructive edits
I've removed a number of edits which I consider harmful. I replaced them with a disputed note to mark the expressed concerns. Feel free to discuss the matter here, or consider making more constructive edits to improve this book. --Swift (talk) 04:59, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

It's okay Oflelele (discuss • contribs) 20:03, 12 August 2020 (UTC)

"Swing"
In "The Mechanical Elements of a Song" there is a line which says :"The traditional, where every note is played as shown, and the "swing", used in Blues and Jazz, where, for example, two half-beats go "bomp-bomb" (kind of like heartbeat". I thought that kind of swing you mentioned is called shuffle. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 91.61.10.149 (talk • contribs) 17:19, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

Better known example regarding originality
Warner Bothers Looney Tunes Cartoon uses a copyright song called "Merry go round broke down" but this bears an uncanny resemblance to the almost universal nursery rhyme "Mary had a lamb". The difference is subtle but seems sufficient to protect the rights. possibly, I am not a musician. --Tradimus (discuss • contribs) 03:54, 11 June 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Writing Effective Songs


text:
Template:Japanese/JLPT N5 Vocabulary

JLPT N5 Vocabulary あ行 – か行 – さ行 – た行 – な行 – は行 – ま行 – や行 – ら行 – わ行

title: Template:Japanese/JLPT N5 Vocabulary


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User:Tutorial~enwikibooks

Ilans Tutorial

Kontrollieren eines Balles in GameBlender

Ok, in diesem Tutorial erkläre ich euch wie man einen Ball im GameBlender kontrolliert

Als erstes öffnen Sie Blender. Wenn Sie Blender öffnen erscheint ein Quadrat! Löschen Sie es mit Entf! So, Als nächstes drücken Sie die Leertaste, es erscheint ein Menü! Es steht auf dem Menü “Add“! Klicken Sie auf es! Dann erscheint eine Liste! Mit vielen Formen! Eines davon heißt “Plane“, klicken Sie auf des! Wenn Sie es angeklickt haben kommt automatisch ein Plane! So, als nächstes wollen wir den Plane Vierecke verpassen! Um das zu machen drücken Sie auf "W", es erscheint eine Liste mit vielen Funktionen, eine davon heißt "Subdivide"! Drücken Sie 3 mal auf Subdivide! Der Plane bekommt schon langsam Vierecke! Herzlichen Glückwunsch! Als nächstes drücken Sie bitte 2 mal auf "B"! Es erscheint dann ein Kreis! Diesen Kreis übrigens können Sie, K/G (kleiner oder größer) machen indem Sie mit der mittleren Taste ihrer Maus hinter & vorwert gehen! So, mit diesem Kreis können Sie ein paar von dem Vierecken auf dem Plane selektieren! Wie gesagt nur ein paar! Dann klicken Sie mit der RMT ( Rechten Maus Taste ), damit der Kreis verschwindet! Dann gehen Sie zu "Seidview", Nummer3 auf der Tastatur ( Rechts neben den Buchstaben)! Dann drücken "E". (Extrude)! Es steht dann da Region klicken Sie es! Dann ziehen Sie die Maus ein kleines Stück nach unten! So, jetzt gehen Sie in dem Kameraview NR 0! Jetzt sehen Sie das Resultat! Jetzt machen wir den Spieler einen Ball1 Um denn zu machen drücken Sie die Leertaste, dann ADD>MESH>UVSphere wenn Sie jetzt auf UVSphere sind, klicken Sie es! Dann kommt die Zahl 32, diese Zahl können Sie löschen, indem Sie einfach auf die Zahl klicken! Die Zahl die wir haben wollen ist, 16! So, wenn Sie die Zahl getippt haben, kommt automatisch ein Ball! Jetzt, um den Ball zu kontrollieren mit dem Pfeiltasten, müssen Sie als erstes auf "i" drücken, dann kommt eine Liste, mit vielen Funktionen, eine davon heißt "LocRot"! Klicken Sie es! Dann wechseln Sie auf Frame25 um, & bewegen denn Ball ein kleines Stück nach vorne & wieder LocRot!

So, Sie haben denn Tutorial überstanden

title: User:Tutorial~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:84.176.222.94

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:84.176.222.94


text:
User talk:Vladimircezar

Hi, you are the first contributor to the Cellular Automata wikibook. The nomenclature in the definition is going to change, you can see the last version on. If you are going to contribute more, use the new nomenclature, but do not copy the other contents of the pdf, it is not under GFDL. --IzI 09:48, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vladimircezar


text:
User talk:62.96.100.42

Please don't add vulgar comments to Wikibooks. If you want, you can ask for help at WB:FAQ. --Derbeth talk 09:50, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.96.100.42


text:
User talk:Ilan~enwikibooks

Why are you doing this nonsense page moving? I blocked you for one day. Stop adding German-language texts - we do not accept them (visit de.wikibooks.org if you want to write in German). Furthermore, we do not accept contributing personal opinions like requests to open Blender. --Derbeth talk 10:06, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Ilan. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Ilan~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:14, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:03, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ilan~enwikibooks