text:
FOSS Localization/Resources and Tools

Bangladesh

 * Ankur - Supporting Bangla (Bengali) on GNU/Linux.
 * http://www.bengalinux.org

 * Bangla Innovation Through Open Source.
 * http://biosindex.blogspot.com/

 * Bangladesh Linux Users Alliance.
 * http://www.linux.org.bd

 * Bangladesh Linux User Group.
 * http://www.bdlug.org

Cambodia

 * Resources on Khmer font in Unicode.
 * http://www.khmeros.info/drupal/?q=en/support/faq/installation

 * Khmer Unicode Windows.
 * http://www.khmercivil.com/unicode/index.php

 * Khmer Open Source.
 * http://www.khmeros.info/

China

 * Linux China.
 * http://www.linux.org.cn

 * GNU China.
 * http://www.gnuchina.org

 * Red Flag Linux.
 * http://www.redflag-linux.com/eindex.html

 * China Linux Forum.
 * http://www.linuxforum.net

 * Free Software.
 * http://www.linuxeden.com

 * Linux Home.
 * http://linux.softhouse.com.cn

 * China software.
 * http://www.cosix.com.cn

 * Xteam Software.
 * http://www.xteam.com.cn

 * TurboLinux China.
 * http://www.turbolinux.com.cn

India

 * Linux India.
 * http://www.linux-india.org

 * Free Software Foundation of India.
 * http://www.gnu.org.in

 * Linux Localization Team, National Centre for Software Technology.
 * http://janabhaaratii.org.in/page_gen.php?lang=en&body=/intro.html

 * OpenOffice localization project for Hindi.
 * http://hi.openoffice.org

 * Indian localization projects.
 * http://www.indlinux.org

Indonesia

 * Indonesian Open Source Contributor Group.
 * http://www.itb.ac.id

 * Indonesian Open Source Community.
 * http://www.pandu.org

 * Open Source Indonesia.
 * http://opensource-indonesia.com/kioss.php/index.php

 * Gnome Indonesia.
 * http://gnome.linux.or.id

 * openSUSE
 * http://en.opensuse.org/ID-Welcome_to_openSUSE.org

 * openOffice.org
 * http://id.openoffice.org/

Lao PDR

 * Lao Unicode and related resources.
 * http://sabaidi.imag.fr/laounicode-en.htm

 * Various documents on Lao: fonts, encoding schemes, and locales.
 * http://park.lao.net/references

 * Lao KDE localization project.
 * http://laonux.muanglao.com

 * OpenOffice Lao version project.
 * http://xangdao.muanglao.com

Myanmar

 * Ubuntu Myanmar LoCo Team
 * http://ubuntu-mm.net\
 * https://www.facebook.com/UbuntuMM

 * FOSS Myanmar
 * https://github.com/fossmyanmar
 * https://www.facebook.com/fossmm

 * Linux Project.
 * http://www.myanmarlug.org/pegunc-linux

 * Myanmar Linux User Groups.
 * http://www.myanmarlinux.org

 * Myanmar Language Support Project.
 * http://sourceforge.net/projects/mandalay

Malaysia

 * Malaysia Open Source.
 * http://www.my-opensource.org

 * KDE Malaysia.
 * http://kde-ms.sourceforge.net

 * OpenOffice Malaysia.
 * http://oo-l10n-my.sourceforge.net

Mongolia

 * Open Source Initiative.
 * http://www.openmn.org

Nepal

 * FOSS Nepal Community
 * http://www.fossnepal.org

 * Open Technology Research Center
 * http://www.otrc.gov.np

 * Nepalinux.
 * http://www.nepalinux.org/

Pakistan

 * Linux Pakistan.
 * http://www.linuxpakistan.net

Philippines

 * Philippines Linux User Group.
 * http://plug.linux.org.ph

 * Open Source Foundation.
 * http://opensource.asti.dost.gov.ph

 * Linux Localization Project.
 * http://www.bayanihan.gov.ph

 * Government Open Source Initiatives.
 * http://www.asti.dost.gov.ph

 * Open Source Centre.
 * http://osl.apc.edu.ph

Sri Lanka

 * Lanka Linux User Group.
 * http://www.lklug.pdn.ac.lk/index.php

 * Lanka Open Source Foundation.
 * http://www.opensource.lk

 * Tamil Linux.
 * http://www.tamil.homelinux.org

Thailand

 * Thai Linux Working Group.
 * http://linux.thai.net

 * Thai Open Source Network.
 * http://opensource.thai.net

 * Linux TLE, OfficeTLE.
 * http://opentle.org

 * Pladao Office.
 * http://www.pladao.org

 * Thailand's IT standards.
 * http://www.nectec.or.th/it-standards

 * Thai Open Source Federation.
 * http://www.tosf.org

 * Thai Open Source portal.
 * http://tosdn.com

 * OpenOffice Thai Project.
 * http://th.openoffice.org

Viet Nam

 * Linux Viet Nam.
 * http://www.linuxvn.com

 * Linux Forum.
 * http://www.linux.cmc.com.vn

 * Ho Chi Minh Linux User Group.
 * http://h0lug.sourceforge.net

 * Vietnamese KDE Localization Project.
 * http://vi.i18n.kde.org

 * Vietnamese Gnome Localization Project.
 * http://gnomevi.sourceforge.net

 * Chuong T.L., Ministry of Science & Technology, Minh H.T., CMC Co Ltd.
 * http://www.asiaosc.org/uploads/20030313_1/downloads/TranLuuChuong/Slide/html/img0.html

 * Linux User Groups in Viet Nam.
 * http://www.ssc.com:8080/glue/groups/nonus/vietnam

 * ISOC - Internet Society Viet Nam.
 * http://www.isoc-vn.org/www/index-vn.html

 * Linux Viet Nam - VietKey Group.
 * http://linux.vietkey.net

Localization Information Portals and Tools

 * Microsoft's global development portal.
 * http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev

 * A portal with information, software and links on translation.
 * http://www.translation.net

 * News, tools, processes for global software
 * http://www.i18ngurus.com

 * KDE and GNOME
 * http://www.kde.org and http://www.gnome.org

 * OpenOffice.org
 * http://www.openoffice.org

 * Mozilla.
 * http://www.mozilla.org

Organizations

 * The official Web site of the Unicode Consortium.
 * http://www.unicode.org

 * A Unicode resources website with links to variety of useful tools and utilities e.g. Unicode fonts, shareware, etc.
 * http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/

 * An introduction to Unicode with many useful links.
 * http://www.czyborra.com/unicode/characters.html

 * Internationalization standards and tools.
 * ftp://dkuug.dk/i18n/index.htm

 * Localization Industry Standards Association (LISA).
 * http://www.lisa.org

 * This site is dedicated to the tools and technologies used in the localization of software, online help and documentation.
 * http://www.opentag.com

 * The International Standards Organization (ISO).
 * http://www.iso.ch

title: FOSS Localization/Resources and Tools


text:
FOSS Localization/Glossary

 * ASCII
 * American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

 * Character
 * Logical unit that represents a letter, digit or symbol of a writing system.

 * Character Set
 * The mapping of characters from a writing system to a set of binary codes.

 * CJK
 * Chinese, Japanese and Korean. Usually used to refer to the common Han ideographs shared by th three languages and other issues surrounding this. Sometimes associated with Vietnamese and called CJKV.

 * DNS
 * Domain Name Server, a service that resolves symbolic host names into numeric IP addresses, and vice versa.

 * Encoding
 * A character encoding scheme is a set of rules for representing a sequence of character codes with byte sequence.

 * Font
 * Resource that provide a set of glyphs for text rendering.

 * Fontconfig
 * A client-side font configuration library split from Xft as an X-independent module. Modern GNU/Linux desktops are using it as default font system, as opposed to the traditional font system managed by X server.

 * FOSS
 * Free/Open Source Software.

 * Glyph
 * Graphical unit for composing text display of a writing system. A glyph may represent the shape of a single character, part of a character (in the case of characters with multiple parts), or a combined form of character sequence (in the case of ligatures).

 * GNOME
 * GNU Network Object Modelling Environment, a desktop environment based on GTK+ toolkit and other desktop components.

 * GNU
 * A recursive acronym standing for "GNU's Not Unix." GNU is an effort to create a completely free operating system based on Unix architecture.

 * GTK+
 * The GIMP Tool Kit, a toolkit initially created for using with The GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program), but later becomes an independent general-purpose toolkit. GTK+ is written in C, licensed under LGPL.

 * I18N
 * Abbreviation for Internationalization.

 * IIIMF
 * Internet/Intranet Input Method Framework, a new framework for cross-platform input method developed by OpenI18N.org. IIIMF bridges different IM protocols by using wrappers that communicate with a common protocol.

 * Internationalization
 * The practice of developing software with the readiness to work in different languages and cultures without modification of the source code or re-compilation. This usually means abstraction in culture-sensitive operations as well as defining the mechanism for dynamically loading locale-based implementations.

 * KDE
 * K Desktop Environment, a desktop environment based on Qt toolkit and other desktop components.

 * Kernel
 * A very low-level software that manages computer hardware, multi-tasks the many programs that are running at any given time, and other such essential things.

 * L10N
 * Abbreviation for Localization.

 * Locale
 * The features of the user's environment that are dependent on language, country and cultural conventions. The locale determines conventions such as string collation; date and time formats; number and currency formats; and so on.

 * Localization
 * Implementation of cultural conventions defined by the internationalization process according to different languages and cultures.

 * Multilingual
 * Supporting more than one language simultaneously. Often implies the ability to handle more than one script and character set.

 * OTF
 * OpenType Font.

 * Pango
 * A Unicode-based multi-lingual text rendering engine used by GTK+ 2. Like GTK+, Pango is written in C and licensed under LGPL.

 * PHP
 * A server-side scripting language for creating dynamic web pages.

 * POSIX
 * Portable Operating System Interface Specification is the minimum specification of system calls for operating systems based on Unix, defined by IEEE so that applications based on it are guaranteed to be portable across OSs. Although based on Unix, POSIX is also supported by some non-Unix OSs.

 * Qt
 * A cross-platform toolkit developed by TrollTech, and later used as the base for the KDE project. Qt is written in C++ and dual-licensed under GPL and QPL.

 * Script
 * A system of characters used to write one or several languages.

 * SSH
 * Secure Shell is used for remote login using an encrypted connection to prevent sniffing by third parties.

 * Toolkit
 * A library for GUI application development. It provides common widgets and controls such as menu, button, text entry, etc.

 * TTF
 * TrueType Font.

 * UCS
 * Universal Multi-octet coded character set, as defined by ISO/IEC 10646 to represent the world's writing systems. It is maintained by ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2, with contributions from the Unicode Consortium.

 * Unicode
 * A 24-bit coded character set used to represent the world's writing systems. It is maintained by the Unicode Consortium, in synchronization with ISO/IEC 10646.

 * UTF-8
 * Unicode (UCS) Transformation Format, using 8-bit multibyte encoding scheme.

 * X Client
 * Application process that makes requests to the X server for displaying graphical outputs on the screen and/or accepts events from input device. (See also: X Server.)

 * X Font Server
 * A service that provides font accesses to the X server.

 * XFS
 * X Font Server.

 * Xft
 * An extension introduced in XFree86 for managing glyph images of vector fonts at client side. This allows X applications to add special effects to the glyphs, such as anti-aliasing.

 * XFree86
 * A free X Window implementation for PC, although Mac is also supported. It is developed on top of the free source code from the X consortium (X.org), along with hardware drivers and some extensions. It used to be the only X Window implementation for FOSS on PC, until recent forks 1 by efforts such as Xouvert, freedesktop.org X server, Keith Packard's kdrive, and X11R6.7, the latest one which is endorsed by X.org itself. (See also: X.org.)

 * XIM
 * X Input Method framework, introduced in X11R6 as part of its I18N. It makes complicated text input processes, such as those for CJK, possible.

 * XKB
 * X Keyboard extension, introduced in X11R6 as part of its I18N. It provides a method to describe keyboard layouts, to combine multiple layouts, and to switch between them.

 * XOM
 * X Output Method framework, introduced in X11R6 but fully implemented in X11R6.5.1 to provide complex text rendering. But its late arrival, when rendering engines like Pango have already matured, makes its usefulness questionable.

 * X.org
 * The X consortium that maintains the X Window system. Normally, it maintains the X specification and provides the framework implementation source code in free license. In early 2004, triggered by license change in XFree86, a group of developers forked XFree86 source and made it X11R6.7 release in the name of X.org.

 * X Server
 * The service that provides interface to graphical hardware and input devices in the X Window system. Its clients are called X Clients. (See also: X Client.)

 * X Window
 * A graphical environment initially developed by the Athena project at MIT with support from some vendors, and later maintained by the X consortium. X Window is the major graphical environment for most Unix variants nowadays.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: FOSS Localization/Glossary


text:
FOSS Localization/About the Authors

Anousak Souphavanh is a computer scientist, an ICT consultant and a GNU/Linux enthusiast. He obtained his B.S. in Computer Science from Binghamton University's Watson School of Engineering and Applied Science, The State University of New York and his Masters in Computer Science from the Rochester Institute of Technology, New York. He was a senior systems administrator, technical lead person and network specialist for IBM in Rochester from 1995 to 2003. In 2003, he was an IT project manager for Jhai Foundation, managing a rural area IT project in Lao PDR. He is currently an IT consultant. He is an author of Laonux (Laonux.muanglao.com), the Lao version of GNU/Linux (KDE). He is also working on several other projects for Lao language: OpenOffice.org, PHPNuke, and Mozilla. He is an active member of the Lao Open Source community. His interest in GNU/Linux led him to initiate the Lao Linux User Group in Vientiane, Laos in 2003. He developed the Lao locale definition for GNU C library. He is also a leading voice on Lao support in GNU/Linux desktops with several working groups.

Theppitak Karoonboonyanan is a member of the Thai Linux Working Group (TLWG). He obtained his B.Eng. (Honors) in Computer Engineering from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand, in 1993.

He has contributed significantly to Thai GNU/Linux localization. His first contribution was an enhanced version of Thai string collation rules based on the Royal Institute's model. He then developed the Thai locale definition for GNU C library based on it. He has contributed to many FOSS projects to establish Thai support infrastructure for GNU/Linux desktop, including XFree86, Pango, GLib, and GTK+.

As a TLWG member, he helped the LibThai project to collect and develop routines for basic Thai Language processing, and currently maintains the Thai LaTeX project and contributes to thaifonts-scalable, a Thai font development project. Also, he tracks the overall status of Thai support in GNU/Linux desktops and occasionally updates the group to keep up the momentum of development.

He was a member of Linux TLE and was among the founding members of GNU/Linux localization project at the National Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC). Currently, he freelances and has contributed advice and experience to the development of Laonux, a Lao KDE-based GNU/Linux desktop, and developed solutions for other clients.

title: FOSS Localization/About the Authors


text:
FOSS Localization/About APDIP

The Asia-Paciﬁc Development Information Programme (APDIP) is an initiative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that aims to promote the development and application of new Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for poverty alleviation and sustainable human development in the Asia-Paciﬁc region. It does so through three core programme areas, namely, Policy Development and Dialogue; Access; and Content Development and Knowledge Management.

In collaboration with national governments, APDIP seeks to assist national and regional institutions in the Asia-Pacific through activities that involve awareness-raising and advocacy, building capacities, promoting ICT policies and dialogue, promoting equitable access to tools and technologies, knowledge sharing, and networking. Strategic public-private sector partnerships and opportunities for technical cooperation among developing countries (TCDC) are APDIP's key building blocks in implementing each programme activity

http://www.apdip.net

title: FOSS Localization/About APDIP


text:
FOSS Localization/About IOSN

The International Open Source Network (IOSN) is an initiative of UNDP’s Asia-Paciﬁc Development Information Programme (APDIP). Its overall objective is to serve as a Center of Excellence and a Clearinghouse for Information on Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) in the Asia-Paciﬁc region. In order to accelerate the world-wide adoption of FOSS, IOSN seeks to raise awareness, facilitate networking of people, strengthen capacities, and conduct R&D.

The beneﬁciaries of IOSN are governments, IT professionals, software developers, the FOSS R&D community, academics and the NGO community. IOSN serves as a resource center to help policy-makers and decision-makers in the public sector, educational institutions, businesses and others develop policies and plans for the use of FOSS in their respective organizations. Much of IOSN’s activities are undertaken online and the IOSN portal has been developed for this purpose and serves as a comprehensive online resource center on FOSS. The IOSN portal also provides a means for the FOSS community in the region to contribute to its efforts and to interact with each other.

http://www.iosn.net

title: FOSS Localization/About IOSN


text:
XForms/Simple Message

Motivation
This is a simple message in XForms. The user presses a button and they see an alert panel. This is an example of a modal message, which the user must respond to in order to continue using the form. We will cover two other types of message later.

Screen Image
Here is a screen image with the ephemeral message showing:

Link to working XForms Application
Simple Messages

Sample Program
  Put your cursor in the first input. A message will appear for just a moment.  Ephemeral message:  This is an ephemeral message. Don't worry, I go away after a few seconds.  Press enter in the input field to get a modeless message:  Modeless message input:    A standard and intrusive modal message that must be dismissed:  Press for a modal message <xf:message level="modal" ev:event="DOMActivate">This is a modal message.</xf:message> </xf:trigger>

Discussion
The data for the first and last message come from the body of the document. The modeless message is taken directly from the body by using an XPath expression into the model.

Note that the first event happens when you start to enter data in an input field. This is the   event. The other two use the   event which happens when you enter a return on the second example and press the button on the last example.

--the above explanation does not appear to refer to the Simple Message example ! --EXAMPLE FIXED

Example not working in my environment. eXist, jetty, betterFORM, Firefox. Result is a betterFORM message: xforms-binding-exception: model 'myModel' not found XPath: /html[1]/body[1]/xf:input[2]/xf:message[1]

This above error was because the id of the element was not set. partly fixed now with <xf:model id="myModel">, but still not getting modeless message—FIXED

title: XForms/Simple Message


text:
Psychiatric Disorders/Psychotic Disorders/Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a devastating illness that affects approximately 1% of the population. Its primary impact is on thought, and its cardinal symptom is psychotic thinking in affecting individuals. In addition, however, it can affect many aspects of cortical function. Although great strides have occurred in treating this disorder it remains one of the most debilitating of psychiatric disorders.

Phenomenology
Schizophrenia is a chronic and often progressively deteriorating disorder of thought and mind, which affects behavior and perception. The signs and symptoms of schizophrenia are usually divided into positive and negative symptoms.

Positive symptoms are disorders of commission, including things patients do or think. Examples are hallucinations, delusions, other formal thought disorders, and bizarre or disorganized behavior.

Negative symptoms are disorders of omission, or things patients do not do. Negative symptoms include:
 * alogia: marked poverty of speech, or poverty of content of speech
 * affective flattening
 * anhedonia: inability to experience pleasure
 * asociality: a lack of interest in social contacts
 * avolition: a lack of motivation
 * apathy: a general lack of interest.

Motor disturbances
Motor disturbances include disorders of mobility, activity and volition. Schizophrenic patients can exhibit either too little or too much movement. Catatonia (from Greek 'katatonos' or “stretching tight”) is a broad term used to describe a variety of movement disorders thought to have a psychiatric cause. For example, Catatonic Stupor is a state in which patients are immobile, mute, yet conscious. They may exhibit waxy flexibility, so one can move their limbs into postures and the patient will retain these postures, like a wax doll. Catatonic excitement is uncontrolled and aimless motor activity.

Other disorders of movement include:
 * Stereotypy: repeated but non-goal-directed movement such as rocking.
 * Mannerisms: normal goal-directed activities that appear to have social significance but are either odd in appearance or out of context, such as repeatedly running one's hand through one's hair or grimacing.
 * Mitgehen: moving a limb in response to slight pressure on it despite being told to resist the pressure.
 * Echopraxia: imitating the movements of another person.
 * Automatic obedience: carrying out simple commands in a robot-like fashion.
 * Negativism: refusing to cooperate with simple requests for no apparent reason.

Behavioral Disturbances
Disorders of behavior may involve deterioration of social functioning-- social withdrawal, self-neglect, neglect of environment (i.e. deterioration of housing) or socially inappropriate behaviors (talking to oneself in public, obscene language, exposing self). Substance abuse is another disorder of behavior. Patients may abuse cigarettes, alcohol or other substances; substance abuse is associated with poor treatment compliance, and may be a form of "self-medication" for negative symptoms or medication effects.

Disturbances of Affect and Mood
Disorders of mood and affect include affective flattening, which is a reduced intensity of emotional expression and responsiveness that leaves patients indifferent and apathetic. Typically, one sees unchanging facial expression, decreased spontaneous movements, poverty of expressive gestures, poor eye contact, lack of vocal inflections, and slowed speech. Anhedonia, or the inability to experience pleasure, is also common, as is emotional emptiness. Patients may also exhibit inappropriate affect, such as laughing at a funeral.

Transient, isolated, and mild mood disturbances are not infrequently seen in schizophrenia, with these changes tending toward elation, depression, or anxiety. A number of patients, during a partial remission of the psychotic symptoms, develop a full depressive syndrome, the so-called “post-psychotic depression” of schizophrenia.

Epidemiology
The Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study reports the following statistics on schizophrenia:
 * 1% lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia
 * Relatively lower incidence rate of 1/10,000/year indicates this is a chronic illness
 * 1:1 male to female ratio
 * However, women have later onset and better psychosocial functioning

The National Comorbidity Study reported a 0.7% incidence of "Nonaffective Psychosis:" an amalgam that included schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, schizoaffective    disorder, delusional disorder and atypical psychosis.

Neurotransmitter Theories: The Dopamine Theory
Stated briefly, the dopamine theory suggests that psychosis is caused by dysregulation of dopamine in the brain. The simplest version of the dopamine theory suggested that schizophrenia was associated with an increase of dopamine in the central nervous system. Evidence for this association includes the fact that all available medications used to treat psychosis are dopamine blockers and a number of dopamine agonists (ex. levodopa, amphetamine) can cause psychosis. There are, however, problems with the dopamine neurotransmitter theory. Studies measuring dopamine metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid are inconclusive. In addition, the dopamine blockers used to treat schizophrenia are not disease specific: they are equally effective in treating other types of psychosis, for example, a drug-induced psychosis. Finally, a simple dopamine theory does not adequately account for the negative symptoms, which are also prominent in many patients with schizophrenia.

The theory has subsequently undergone refinements. For example:

Specific dopamine pathways and schizophrenia
In the central nervous system, dopamine neurons follow relatively discrete pathways. Two pathways seem particularly relevant in schizophrenia:

 * Mesolimbic System. This system is composed of the dopamine neurons from the ventral tegmental area that release dopamine to the nucleus accumbens. This system regulates reward pathways and emotional processes and is associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

 * Mesocortical System. This system is composed of the dopamine neurons from the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra. The ventral tegmental area neurons included in the mesocortical system release dopamine to the prefrontal cortex and regulate areas involved in cognitive processing (i.e. the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex that regulates executive function). The neurons in the substantia nigra release dopamine to the basal ganglia and regulate areas involved with motor control. The mesocortical system is associated with the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

It is hypothesized that hyperactivity of mesolimbic dopamine neurons and hypoactivity of mesocortical dopamine neurons are responsible for positive and negative symptoms, respectively. Support for this includes the observation that the use of amphetamines, which can cause psychosis, seems preferentially to produce hyperactivity of mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons. Patients with schizophrenia seem to be particularly sensitive to amphetamines, and can experience exacerbations of their disease at even small doses. In addition, hypoactivity of mesocortical dopamine neurons has been correlated with severity of negative symptoms and impairment in performance on tests of prefrontal cortical function.

However, schizophrenia is more than simply a neurochemical disorder. Concentration on relative levels of dopamine does not account for the time lag until antipsychotics exert their effect: most of the dopamine blockers start blocking dopamine immediately, yet it takes about 2 weeks for psychosis to resolve. Most likely, the dopamine dysregulations represent a final common pathway for psychotic episodes.

Receptor Theories of Schizophrenia
Modulation of cortical function can be achieved via the D1, D2, D3 and D4 dopamine receptors, leading to the "fine tuning" of information processing. D1 and D2 are high in the striatum, D3 is located in the nucleus accumbens and D4 is high in the frontal cortex and limbic areas. Evidence supporting this theory includes:
 * The downregulation of D1 receptors in the frontal cortex may contribute to the hypoactivity of the mesocortical pathway and thus the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. In schizophrenics, there is a correlation between fewer cortical D1 receptors with the severity of negative symptoms and with poor function in frontal executive tasks.
 * The expression of cortical D1 receptors is increased by the chronic antipsychotic treatment.
 * Both typical and atypical antipsychotics exert their effects mainly via D2 receptor blockade by reducing the regional dopamine hyperactivity associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. There is a significant correlation between the D2 receptor blockade and the clinical efficacy of antipsychotics in treating positive symptoms.
 * Atypical antipsychotics also block the D4 receptor, and may block the D3 receptor.

Serotonin
In addition to the dopamine receptors, serotonin may play an important role. The serotonin 5-HT2A receptor is also of relevance for the pathophysiology and treatment of psychosis. Hallucinogens, e.g. LSD, act as agonists at the 5-HT2A receptor and several antipsychotic compounds, especially the atypical neuroleptics, block the activity of the 5-HT2A receptor. Because LSD produces positive symptoms this suggests a possible role for serotonin in schizophrenia. Several postmortem studies have reported a decrease of 5-HT2A receptors in schizophrenia, but others have not. Atypical antipsychotics act as 5-HT2A antagonists.

Glutamate
Alterations of the cortical glutamatergic system have also been implicated in schizophrenia. The glutamate model complements the dopamine model in presenting a hypothesis that explains the etiology of both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Prolonged exposure to NMDA receptor antagonists such as phencyclidine (PCP) has been associated with chronic, severe psychotic illness displaying both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Ketamine, which is also an NMDA antagonist drug, produces transient, mild psychotic symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive deficits in normal subjects, mimicking schizophrenia. When administered to patients with schizophrenia, ketamine produces transient exacerbations of psychotic symptoms.

Glutamate can bind to dopamine neurons and is hypothesized to produce regional hyperactivity and hypoactivity in dopamine neuron release. Chronic NMDA antagonist administration results in persistent elevation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens (Mesolimbic System) and decreases in dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex  (Mesocortical System). Because NMDA antagonists produce schizophrenic symptoms, schizophrenia may be a result of hypoactivity of the glutamatergic system. It is hypothesized that a lesion in the hippocampal or frontal cortical glutamatergic circuits develops in schizophrenia. This lesion then produces dopaminergic hyperactivity in the nucleus accumbens and hypoactivity in the frontal cortex contributing to both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Association Cortex
There is a focus on neurotransmitters and their receptors in schizophrenia since most treatments are based here. However, the etiology of the neurotransmitter imbalances may result from structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenics with changes in the brain architecture leading to dysregulation of neurotransmitters and their receptors. Schizophrenics are not properly able to “sort” or “filter” information from the external world to create a correct mental representation of an experience. Normally, incoming sensory information is processed by the thalamus, which sorts out what sensory information should be sent to different cortical areas for processing. After the primary sensory cortex areas receive the appropriate sensory information from the thalamus and process this information, it is sent to the association cortex. The association cortex are composed of the cortical areas of the brain excluding the primary sensory cortices. The association cortex integrates information from the primary cortices, subcortical structures, and brain areas serving memory (such as the medial temporal lobe) to create the representation of the sensory experience. Schizophrenics have been shown to lack the ability to sort out what sensory information is or is not relevant and to filter and process the relevant information. Dysfunction in such information processing areas of the brain may explain the disordered thought associated with schizophrenia.

The association cortex is of special interest in schizophrenia research because it includes the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, which modulates executive functioning. The association cortex of the human brain is a six-layered isocortex. Cortical layers 2 and 4 are defined by a high density of small interneurons. In contrast, layers 3 and 5 are defined by a high density of pyramidal cells that collect input through their dendrites and project to other cortical or subcortical areas. Interneurons are GABAergic cells and exert an inhibitory influence on their targets whereas pyramidal cells are  glutamatergic and have an excitatory influence. Normal cortical function depends on an intricate balance of GABAergic inhibition and glutamatergic excitation, however, glutamatergic function is abnormal in schizophrenics. Volume reduction of the association cortex in schizophrenia has been reported in several postmortem and neuroimaging studies. Sulci are widened, indicating decreased brain tissue. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and glucose metabolism were found to be abnormal in the frontal cortex at rest as well as during the performance of cognitive tasks. hypofrontality,, a phenomenon in which patients cannot activate prefrontal cortex, has also been observed. This may explain the cognitive insufficiency and deficits in attention, alerting, memory, learning and shifting sets that schizophrenic patients display even before their first psychotic episode. In normal patients asked to play a game where the sets of rules constantly change (as in the Wisconsin Card Sort Test), the prefrontal area would light up on a SPECT or PET scans, denoting increased executive function activity. However, schizophrenics do not show increased prefrontal areas activity on Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) or Positron Emission Tomography, or PET scans, and thus do not perform well on such tasks.

However, Single Proton Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) has been used to show that some major language areas of the cerebral cortex is being affected in patients with schizophrenia. The Broca's area of the brain is most active during hallucinations. the Broca's area is known to be active during speech production. Whereas the Wernicke's area of the brain involves language comprehension. Auditory hallucinations are usually the understanding of speech of others, therefore, in a healthy person, the Wernicke's area would be expected to have more activity. This supports the theory that hallucinations are not the hearing of voices of other, but are actually listening to their self created voices and or thoughts, and are incapable of recognizing the difference. Therefore, there shows deficits in speech processing that results in these hallucinating distortions.

Medial Temporal Lobe and Hippocampus
The medial temporal lobe serves two major functions in the brain: to integrate multimodal sensory information for storage into and retrieval from memory, and to attach limbic valence to sensory information. In schizophrenia, mild cortical atrophy has been reported in the medial temporal lobe along with cortical neuronal disarray. Focal abnormalities indicating abnormal alignment of neurons have been observed in medial temporal lobe structures such as the amygdala, entorhinal cortex, and especially the hippocampus. There is evidence for the contribution of hippocampal dysfunction to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. The serial circuitry of glutamatergic pyramidal and nonpyramidal neurons provides the structural basis for the formation of long-term memories. The hippocampus is also closely connected with the limbic system. The hippocampal formation is recruited via these connections to regulate emotion or to modulate information with respect to emotions. Most studies have found no change in the number of hippocampal pyramidal neurons but nonpyramidal cells in the hippocampus seem to be reduced by nearly half. Synaptic organization is changed, possibly indicating altered plasticity of the hippocampus in schizophrenia. The metabolism and blood flow of the hippocampus are increased at baseline in schizophrenia. Furthermore, hippocampal and parahippocampal regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) is increased during the experience of psychotic symptoms and correlates with positive symptoms (delusions, hallucinations). As stated previously, a lesion in the hippocampal glutaminergic circuit is hypothesized to produce regional variations in dopamine in the schizophrenic.

Thalamus
The thalamus is the gateway to cortical processing for all incoming sensory information, here represented by the three major systems: somatosensory, auditory, and visual. Two abnormalities of thalamic function have been proposed in schizophrenia. First, a decrease in the total thalamic volume might signify a breakdown of its sensory filtering capabilities, leading to increased stimulation of primary sensory cortical areas. Second, dysfunction of the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus leads to impairments of cortical association areas, especially the dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex.

Basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are primarily involved in the integration of input from cortical areas, particularly from the motor cortex. Post-mortem studies have provided evidence for an overall increased number of striatal neurons and for a change in the synaptic organization of the striatum along with a decreased number of nucleus accumbens neurons in schizophrenics. Antipsychotic medicines act as D2 receptor blockers, and thus act predominantly in the striatum where D2 is most abundant. The volume of basal ganglia structures is increased in medicated schizophrenic patients.

Genetic Insights
Concordance rates for relatives of schizophrenics are remarkably high: approximately 50% for monozygotic twins, 40%, if two parents have schizophrenia, 12-15% for dizygotic twins, 12% 1 parent for 1 parent with schizophrenia, and 8% for non-twin siblings (compared with approximately 1% for the general population). An individual had a ten-fold increased risk for schizophrenia with a schizophrenic first-degree relative

These rates suggest that the disorder is inherited, but that there is either incomplete penetrance or that disorder is multifactorial in etiology. The latter is most likely, and it is generally thought persons can be predisposed to schizophrenia through a genetic vulnerability which is then triggered by environmental stimulus; both are then required for the actual disease. The environmental trigger is not clear, and various insults have been suggested, including prenatal exposure to the flu or famine, obstetric complications, CNS infections in early childhood, and various psychosocial stresses in childhood and early adulthood.

Psychosocial Theories
Current thinking is that schizophrenia is clearly not caused by psychosocial factors alone. However, such factors as stress may mitigate the presentation of the disorder (time of onset, degree of social impairment) and the response to treatment.

It has been noted that schizophrenics often have low socioeconomic status. Social theories have been developed regarding the possible effects of environmental stressors on brain development. However, it appears that the correlation between socioeconomic status and schizophrenia may be better explained by the "downward drift" theory. This holds that because schizophrenics cannot hold a job or function well in society, they "drift" down to a lower status.

Historically, there was a great deal of attention on parenting style and the development of schizophrenia. For example, Lidz described what came to be known as a “Lidzschizophrenogenic” parenting style. Though not entirely abandoned, such etiological explanations are outside the mainstream of psychiatry now and in fact considered by some as harmful: though criticized by Lidz, others have used his work as a basis to “blame” parents for causing this disease in their children.

Pathology
Certain brain structure abnormalities are consistently found in schizophrenics. These include:
 * Schizophrenic patients show widened ventricles on neuroimaging. This has been shown even early in their disease.
 * Other areas of the brain are decreased in size, for example the anteromedial temporal lobe.
 * A reduced neuronal density has also been found in the prefrontal region, thalamus and cingulate gyrus. In the areas of low neuronal density, there is no gliosis or inflammation, both which are normally seen in degenerative processes. This suggests a possible developmental abnormality.

These abnormalities may actually be related either to a congenital cause of the disease or to the degenerative process of the disease.

A substantial proportion of schizophrenic patients display non-localizing neurological signs called "soft signs." They may reflect defects in the integration of proprioceptive and other sensory information, and may represent a biological marker for schizophrenia. Some relevant neurological soft signs include:
 * abnormalities in stereognosis.
 * abnormalities in graphesthesia (the ability to identify characters written on the skin using a dull pointed probe through touch alone, i.e. with patients’ eyes closed)
 * problems with balance
 * decreased proprioception (the ability to sense the position, location, orientation and movement of the body and its parts)
 * disorders of smooth pursuit eye movement. Smooth eye pursuit movements are abnormal is 50 to 85% of schizophrenic patients. It is also abnormal in 45% of their relatives, even if they do not have schizophrenia.  However, this phenomenon is non-specific. It occurs in other disorders such as mood disorders.
 * sleep disturbance
 * poor accommodation to novel stimuli (this phenomenon is also present in relatives of schizophrenics)

In addition, it is noted that the usual IQ of patients with schizophrenia is less than normal population for their age. Unlike dementia, however, it tends to remain stable and does not decline over time.

Diagnostic Criteria
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) defines schizophrenia as characterized by at least one psychotic episode, accompanied by associated functional decline.

Diagnostic Criteria for Schizophrenia

 * Patients have to have been psychotic at some time. This is sometimes referred to as the "A" Criteria of Schizophrenia (as the criteria are listed using an alphanumeric outline organization).
 * Additionally, two or more of the following (1 if the delusions or hallucinations are severe) are required:
 * delusions
 * hallucinations
 * disorganized speech
 * disorganized behavior or catatonia
 * negative symptoms
 * The symptoms must persist for 1 month (less if treated).
 * During the course of the disorder, the patient must show some signs of disturbance (psychotic episode + prodromal or residual symptoms) for at least 6 months.
 * The disturbance affects some aspect (social, occupational, self-care) the individual’s functioning.

Subtypes of Schizophrenia
The purpose of subtyping is to improve prediction of likely effective treatment and/or course of illness. The types are listed as follows:

 * Catatonic subtype. Catatonia is, broadly speaking, any disorder of abnormal motor activity thought to be caused by a psychiatric disorder. As defined in DSM-IV, it is defined as having at least two of the following
 * motoric immobility as evidenced by catalepsy or stupor
 * excessive motor activity
 * extreme negativism or mutism
 * peculiarities of voluntary movement (e.g., stereotypies, mannerisms, grimacing)
 * echolalia or echopraxia.
 * Disorganized subtype. This is characterized by disorganized speech and behavior, and flat or inappropriate affect and not meeting the criteria for catatonic schizophrenia.
 * Paranoid subtype. This is characterized by a preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations. Disorganized speech/behavior, catatonic behavior, and flat or inappropriate affect are not prominent in this subtype.
 * Undifferentiated subtype. A residual category for patients meeting criteria for schizophrenia but not meeting criteria for the paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic subtypes.
 * Residual subtype. This subtype is used for patients who no longer have prominent psychotic symptoms but who once met criteria for schizophrenia and have continuing evidence of illness.

Delusional Disorder
Patients present with persistent delusions in this disorder, however the delusions are nonbizarre, i.e., they could seem plausible, thus differentiating this from schizophrenia. Hallucinations are not prominent. Generally, psychosocial functioning is okay, except for the direct impact of the delusions. For example, patients with delusional disorder might not take the bus because they think people are talking about them but might still be able to hold down a job.

Brief Psychotic Disorder
This disorder is different in that the psychotic symptoms last for less than a month and there is full remission by one month.

Schizophreniform Disorder
This disorder shares the characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia except the duration is less than six months (but more than one month) including prodrome + episode + residual phase. Impaired psychosocial functioning is not required for the diagnosis and about 2/3 of patients go on to develop schizophrenia.

Schizoaffective Disorder
Schizoaffective disorder has features of both schizophrenia and a mood disorder. For a diagnosis to be warranted, Criterion A of the diagnostic criteria of schizophrenia must be met; furthermore, psychotic symptoms have to occur independently of the affective disturbance for a significant length of time (two weeks or more). The episodes of mood disorder, which can consist of depressive, manic, or mixed-manic symptoms, must also be present for a substantial portion of time.

Shared Psychotic Disorder
Also called Folie à Deux, this disorder has two components. The inducer or “primary case” is a person who already has some psychotic disorder. There is a second person who is in close relationship with the inducer and who does not have a psychotic disorder. The inducer (with the psychotic disorder) convinces the second person (without the psychotic disorder) that a delusion is true. The non-psychotic second person is usually in a dependent relationship with the inducer. This second person rarely seeks treatment; rather, shared psychotic disorder comes to attention when the inducer is treated. Treatment is to separate the second person from the inducer.

Psychotic Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition
There is a long list of medical conditions that can cause psychotic symptoms; these justify a diagnosis of Psychotic Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition. One would not want to make the diagnosis of schizophrenia without ruling these diagnoses out. Some examples of medical conditions with schizophrenia-like symptoms include:
 * Delirium: Delirium is an acute confusional state with multiple possible etiologies that can cause delusions and hallucinations. Usually delirious delusions and hallucinations are poorly formed, not very elaborate, and they occur in a setting of "clouding of consciousness."
 * Dementia: Dementing Disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease can cause delusions and hallucinations. Typically these are persecutory delusions--after losing a wallet, an Alzheimer’s patient might accuse a loved one of stealing it.  Delusions and hallucinations tend to be poorly formed, not elaborate, and thus would not justify a second diagnosis of a psychotic disorder.
 * Neurological Disorders: Examples include temporal lobe epilepsy, tumor, stoke and brain trauma
 * General Medical disorders: Examples include endocrine and metabolic disorders (like porphyria), vitamin deficiency, infections, autoimmune disorders (like systemic lupus erythematosus) or toxins (like heavy metal poisoning)
 * Substance-induced disorders: Medications and drugs that can cause psychotic symptoms may include stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine), hallucinogens (PCP), and anticholinergic medications. Alcohol withdrawal (delirium tremens), and barbiturate withdrawal can also manifest with psychotic symptoms. Because antipsychotic medicines can produce extrapyramidal side effects, it is important to differentiate schizophrenic catatonic behavior from antipsychotic induced movement disorders.

Mood Disorders
Mania and depression may cause delusions or hallucinations, but these only occur within the context of the mood disorder and will cease upon treatment of the mood disorder.

Anxiety Disorders
Patients with anxiety disorders share some symptoms with schizophrenics. Patients who experience panic attacks may report they feel they are "going crazy." Patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder may have obsessions that are so severe they reach the point where they seem like delusions. However, classically speaking, these symptoms experienced by patients with anxiety are ego dystonic, meaning that the patient has good insight into the abnormality of their behavior.

Personality Disorders
Personality Disorders can show elements of psychosis as well as delusions. However, symptoms tend to be short lived, as opposed to the chronic symptoms of schizophrenia. The Cluster A or Odd group of personality disorders: Schizoid, Paranoid and Schizotypal, can have odd or unusual thoughts, but are generally not psychotic.

Comorbid Disorders
Comorbidity is very common. In one study of new-onset psychosis, about 50% of patients had some other medical or psychiatric disorder. The most common of these are substance abuse and mood disorders.

Substance abuse
Substance abuse is more common in schizophrenics versus in the general population. Substance abuse is associated with poorer outcome. Eighty to ninety percent of schizophrenics smoke cigarettes and a high percentage abuse alcohol.

Mood disorders
Sixty percent of Schizophrenics are reported to have depressive symptoms. However, depression is difficult to diagnose, as it overlaps with (negative) symptoms of schizophrenia and medication side effects.

Medical disorders
Medical problems are also more common in psychotic individuals than in the general population (17% in one study). These patients tend to be older. They have a higher incidence of diabetes. In chronic medical disorders, schizophrenia is associated with a poorer outcome.

Anxiety disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder and panic disorder are common in schizophrenic patients.

Course And Prognosis
Schizophrenia tends to be a chronic disease with a variable course. It most commonly starts in late adolescence/early adulthood. It rarely occurs in children. Women are more likely to have a later onset and generally tend to have better psychosocial functioning. Schizophrenia occurs throughout the world, regardless of site or culture. Schizophrenia has three stages of disease:

Prodromal phase
The prodromal phase precedes the active phase of illness by many years. It is characterized by negative symptoms such as social withdrawal, deteriorating grooming, unusual behavior, outbursts of anger and other subtle changes in behavior and emotional responsiveness.

Active phase
Psychotic symptoms predominate in the active phase. Onset of the active phase generally occurs between the late teens and early thirties. Onset can be acute, occurring over weeks, or gradual, occurring over years. A particular stressor (such as moving away to college) may precipitate onset. The age of onset has prognostic significance.

Residual phase
Negative symptoms predominate in the residual phase (similar to the prodromal phase) although affective flattening and role impairment may be worse. Psychotic symptoms may persist, but at a lower level of intensity, and they may not be as troublesome to the patient.

There are four possible outcomes to psychotic episodes:
 * Complete resolution, with or without treatment. Complete resolution of psychosis is typical of brief reactive psychosis, and medical/substance related causes of psychosis.  It can also be associated with mood disorders with psychotic features.
 * Repeated recurrences with full recovery. These are more typical of mood disorders with psychotic features (ex. Bipolar Disorder).
 * Repeated recurrences with a partial recovery. In this outcome a persistent defect state develops. This is typical of delusional disorder as well as schizophrenia.
 * Progressive deterioration. Progressive deterioration is typical of schizophrenia, where symptoms may alternate between positive and negative but become worse with the course of the disease.

Predictors of a good outcome include:
 * acute onset
 * short duration of active phase
 * good premorbid functioning
 * affective symptoms
 * good social functioning
 * higher social class

Predictors of a poor outcome include:
 * insidious onset
 * long duration (chronic)
 * personal and/or family history of psychiatric illness
 * obsessions or compulsions
 * assaultive behavior
 * poor premorbid functioning
 * poor psychosocial functioning
 * neurological soft signs
 * indications of brain structural abnormalities
 * lower social class
 * family history of schizophrenia

Psikolojiye Giriş/Şizofreni


text:
User:Z4ns4tsu

Other user pages:
 * on WikiPedia <- main user page
 * on WikiQuote

title: User:Z4ns4tsu


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User:Z4ns4tsu/monobook.css

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User:Z4ns4tsu/monobook.js

// User:Lupin/popups.js

mw.loader.load(            'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Lupin/popups.js'             + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s');

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title: User:Z4ns4tsu/monobook.js


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XForms/Incremental Many to One

Motivation
Sometimes a single input field will be used to create a new output. Not only does the input field need to be updated, but other fields that depend on this input also need to change.

Here is an example program that has three input fields. As an example, it uses a data dictionary entry (called a Data Element). The name of the Data Element is a concatenation of three fields: the Object Class Name, the Property Name and the Representation Term. The first two are text fields and the third is a value that is picked from a list.

This form creates a single output based on the values of the input fields. This shows that the model can take many different inputs and create a single output.

Link to working XForms Application
Load XForms Application

Discussion
How can you then take that output and put it back into the model? This will be covered later in the tutorial.

title: XForms/Incremental Many to One


text:
Lush/Macros

A macro is a meta-function that returns some code to be run. To the user of a macro, a macro looks and behaves exactly like a function. Indeed most users of Lush can become fairly fluent with its built-in libraries without concerning themselves with which functions are actually macros.

Why write a macro?
Macros are more tedious to write than functions, and harder to debug. However, they offer advantages that make them worthwhile in some cases:

 * Argument type flexibility in compiled code Often one wants to write a compilable function that can take any numeric type or idx as an argument. In compiled lush, you need to restrict each function to taking one specific type. Macro functions need not restrict themselves in that way, so long as the generated code compiles with the given argument types.
 * Metaprogramming: Sometimes we end up writing many functions whose bodies are nearly identical except for a few isolated differences. A single macro can expand into these different functions depending on read-time traits of its arguments.
 * Variable-length argument lists: Macros can have variable-length argument lists. This can be used as a compilable alternative to regular functions with  arguments, which are not compilable.

Limitations of compiled macros
When compiling expressions that compile macros, the macro is deprived of much information that is only available at runtime. This limits compiled macros from using any kind of runtime information, such as:

 * Argument type Type information, such as the numerical type of an idx, cannot be gleaned from the arguments of a macro at compile-time (macro arguments will typically have the generic symbol type ).
 * Tensor dimensionality Unlike in some other programming languages, lush tensors of different dimensionality (e.g. vectors vs matrices) are all of the same type, . Thus having a macro make compile-time decisions based on idx dimension is a sure loser.

So what can you switch on in a compilable macro? Any value known at compile time, such as:
 * Literals You can have a macro make compile-time decisions based on an  argument, as long as the argument is suppied as a literal, rather than the result of a computed expression.
 * Number of arguments See below for how to implement variable-length argument lists.

How to write a macro
Macros are functions that are evaluated at read-time, and return function bodies. Consider this dirt-simple non-macro function: A macro equivalent could be written as follows: As you can see, macro functions are declared using dm rather than de. Also, they have an additional first argument,, that holds the name of the macro. Finally, they don't calculate the answer of the function, they calculate an expression that, when evaluated, returns the function body. In the macro above,  will evaluate out to   at read-time.

The following will show you the basic changes you need to apply in order to mechanically transform a function into a macro. (Somebody should write a macro that does this!):

Replace lists with list-generators
Any lush expression is a list of elements in parentheses: (a b c d) In the macro version of the function, all such lists should be changed into list-generators: (list a b c d) This rule should be applied recursively to each of the list elements. If the element is a list, replace it with a list-generator. Otherwise, quote it with a leading  so that it gets returned as-is without being evaluated. ; normal code (sum (range 5)) ; macro code (list 'sum (list 'range 5))

Quote all non-argument symbols
Notice in the example above,  and   are preceded by an apostrophe. This prevents the interpreter from evaluating the value of the symbol " " at read-time and changing it to " . Likewise, symbols such as operators (" "), class names (" ") and non-argument variables all need to be "quoted" with an apostrophe so they make it into the generated function body as-is.

Below are some examples of quoting: ; normal code: (+ 1 2 3) ; macro code (don't need to quote numeric literals): ('+ 1 2 3) ; normal code (embedded C code): ; macro code: '#{ exit(0); #} ; normal code (==> my-object some-method) ; macro code (list '==> 'my-object 'some-method) ; normal code (:my-object:some-slot) ; macro code (expands the ':' shorthand into the 'scope' function that it represents). (list 'scope 'my-object 'some-slot) Note that literals such as the numeric literals,  , and   above, or string literals such as  , need not be quoted.
 * 1) { exit(0); #}

Put multi-line functions in an enclosing list
(Write about using list, progn, or let).

Use argument variables at most once
The  example above is a naive implementation, because it uses the arguments directly. The problem with this is that every time  or   is used in the macro, is is evaluated. For example, if the user plugs in  into the   slot, that function will be called each time   appears in the macro. This is fine in a simple macro such as, where each argument is used just once, but most functions refer to their arguments many times. An easy work-around is to assign the arguments to local variables at the beginning of the macro: Getting into the habit of enclosing your macro body with  has the additional benefit of making sure all your macro lines get returned, not just the last line (see previous section).

Debugging Macros
Of the three kinds of code you can write in lush (interpreted, compiled, and macro), macro code is arguably the hardest to debug, since a bug could be in the read-time code generation or in the generated run-time code. When debugging the run-time code you can use the same functions used in debugging normal functions, only "macroized" as described earlier. In other words,  becomes   and   becomes , etc. When debugging the read-time generation, you can use the following tools:

(macro-expand)
The first thing you should do after coding up your macro is to view the code it generates. Use, which formats and prints out the code generated by a macro expression.

Example:

(print)
You can also insert  statements to print out the compile-time value of certain expressions, so long as you're careful that these   statements don't change the value of the macro-expansion.

title: Lush/Macros


text:
Talk:Lush/Beginning Lush

Things that need work:

 * The "Just enough Lisp to get by" section has empty subsections (list manipulation).
 * The "numeric comparisons" section is empty.
 * The idx-loop section:
 * Missing idx-cloop
 * Missng the parallelized idx-*loop variants.

-- Matt

title: Talk:Lush/Beginning Lush


text:
Talk:Buddhist Philosophy/Quips

I wonder if someone could explain these further. I am aware that they might lost their mystical aura or whatever, but as it is now, they don't help much. (128.61.122.124 = moseslmpg)

title: Talk:Buddhist Philosophy/Quips


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Template:Flute

Basic Flute Method  Method book for those beginning to learn flute. Introduction Introduction • Maintenance

Getting started Lesson 2 • Lesson 3 • Lesson 4 • Lesson 5 • Lesson 6

Playing the flute Lesson 7 • Lesson 8 • Lesson 9 • Lesson 10 • Lesson 11 • Lesson 12 • Lesson 13 • Lesson 14

Building on skills Lesson 15 • Lesson 16 • Lesson 17 • Lesson 18 • Lesson 19 • Lesson 20 • Lesson 21 • Lesson 22 • Culmination

Appendicies Links • Learning a piece of music

Related books Saxophone • Music Theory • Baroque Flute Handbook • Western Music History

title: Template:Flute


text: Talk:Flute/Staff and notes

title: Talk:Flute/Staff and notes


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User:Hasan aljudy

My name is Hasan (pronounced more accurately as hasen), I'm 21 years old, I'm originally from Iraq, but I live in Calgary, Canada. I'm a Computer Science student at the University of Calgary.

My mother language is Arabic, at home I speak the beghdadi and the muslawi dialects (the dialects of Baghdad and Mousel, respectively). Sometimes I say short phrases in English, and recently I discovered that I even think in English sometimes!!

I have an interest in the Japanese language, due of course, to watching anime. Boku wa hesen desu! ぼくはヘセンです. I'm even taking a Japanese class this semester. It's kinda funny, because I don't even watch alot of animes, I used to be very interested in DBZ (subbed), and now I'm interested in Meitantei Conan (Detective Conan). The problem with Conan is that alot of episodes are still not subbed, and what's being subbed is not being done in order. There are many episodes and few subbing groups. I want to be able to watch it and understand it in Japanese.

I think kinda lied .. because actually, when I talk at home, I usually say short things in a weird mix of Arabic, English and Japanese. For example, "Where is watashi no ekil", which means "Where is my food". "watashi no" means "my" in Japanese, and "ekil" is my translitiration of the word that means "food" in beghdadi and muslawi.

My interest in computers started when I was a child. Back home, at Baghdad, in the good old days, my aunt had an MSX computer, and at elementary school, computers and ataris were kind of a big thing that we always talk about. I remember how we were talking about that "big" and "advanced" computer called "IBM", and we also were hearing roumers about even a bigger and better computer called "Amega". These sort of big computers were very mysterious to us. (I never knew what that Amega thing was all about, does any one know?!). I always wanted to have an MSX like my aunt (actually we called it 'sekher'), and one day, my dad bought one for us! and it was a very nice surprise. I started learning programming with BASIC. I remember learning about if statements and for loops, also goto's and sub programs. I don't remember doing any actual programming, but the concepts kinda sank in my head. About six years later, a friend of my dad gave him a book about C++. At the time, I didn't have a computer at home, and I didn't know English, so I couldn't even read the book, but my dad used to sit with me, and read it for himself and for me. (The book was Dietels' C++ How to Program). It was only two years later that I got a PC, and probably one year after that when I started getting serious about programming (not many years ago).

title: User:Hasan aljudy


text:
How To Assemble A Desktop PC/Silencing

In contrast to overclocking, you may prefer to silence your computer. Some high-performance PCs are very loud indeed, and it is possible to reduce the noise dramatically. The main sources of noise are: Fans (CPU, case, power supply, motherboard, Graphics card), and Hard disks. While total silence in a PC is possible, it is far cheaper and easier to aim for something 'virtually inaudible'.

Note that quieter computers sometimes run slightly hotter, especially in small form factor (SFF) systems, so you need to monitor carefully what you do. Usually you can't overclock and silence at the same time (although it is possible with the right CPU and cooling techniques). Sometimes CPUs (and even GPUs) are underclocked and/or undervolted to achieve greater silence at the expense of performance.

Designing a powerful and quiet machine requires careful consideration in selecting components, but need not be much more expensive than a normal, loud PC. If you are looking to quiet an existing PC, find the offending component that produces the loudest or most irritating noise and replace it first, then work down from there.

Another way to do this is by undervolting; see here to find out more about it.

Fans

In general, large diameter (120 mm), high quality fans are much quieter than small diameter ones, because they can move the same amount of air as smaller (80mm or 92mm) fans, but at slower speeds. Temperature-regulated fans are also much quieter, as they will automatically spin at a reduced speed when your computer is not in heavy use. Wire mesh grills (or no grill at all) allow better airflow than the drilled holes used in many cases.

 * CPU
 * Modern CPUs can generate a lot of heat in a very small area: sometimes as much as 100-watt lightbulb! For the vast majority of processors, a dedicated fan will be a necessity. There are some, like VIA processors, that require only a heat sink, but you will not find passively cooled CPUs at nearly the same speeds allowed by active cooling. However, for modern computers, CPUs are not the limiting component for speed in daily tasks, so unless you do demanding 3D gaming or video editing, then a passively cooled processor may be just for you. They would also be very attractive in media-center PCs, or other specialized applications where computer noise would be more noticeable.
 * The noisiest fan is usually the CPU fan: the Intel-supplied fan-heatsinks are particularly loud, although they do provide good cooling. Some BIOSs allow you to slow the CPU fan down automatically when it is not too hot - if this option is available, turn it on. Also, you can get 3rd party coolers, which are designed to be less noisy: for example, those made by Zalman.

 * Power Supply (PSU) : Noisy power-supplies simply have to be replaced with quieter ones. Consider selecting a power supply that intelligently throttles fan speed based on load, or an altogether fanless model, though those can be hard to find depending on the wattage you need. As a compromise, some power supplies will stay silent as long as it is under light load.

 * Case Fans : Case fans can be slowed down by using fan-speed controllers, or resistors (but beware of insufficient cooling). Also, they can be replaced with higher quality (ball bearing) or (sometimes) larger fans, both of which will make less noise.

 * Video Card and Motherboard Chipset
 * A graphics card with active fan-cooling is very common in gamer PCs. Since 2004, most of these cards have a built in fan-speed controller, so the fan will slow down if 3D acceleration is not needed. As you will lose warranty coverage if you change the fan, you should check (through reviews) if the card is a noisy one. If you insist on exchanging the cooling device, be sure the card is compatible with the new fan. Motherboard and lower-end video card fans can often be replaced with a passive heatsink.

Many systems only have fan-speed controllers for the CPU and for the graphics card. Some people make the other fans quieter by undervolting them: running the 12 V fan on 9 V or 7 V or 5 V,  or adding a series resistor to the fan cable.

Dust and debris can accumulate on fan blades in a short period of time. Dust on PC components acts as an insulator, trapping in heat and forcing your fans to spin at higher speeds to keep everything cool. Keep your PC clean to reduce noise and increase efficiency.

Water cooling

An efficient, if expensive way to eliminate the need for most fans in ones computer system is the implementation of water cooling devices. Water cooling kits are available for beginners, and additional components or "water blocks" can be added to the system, allowing virtually any system needing cooling to be put "on water".

Most water cooling systems are not fanless as the radiator component still needs to spread the heat. There are fanless solutions but they need to be placed exterior of the PC case making the computer less transportable.

Other cooling fluids are possible in a sealed system, although plain water is generally preferred because it has higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity than oil, and it is easier to clean up if a leak ever occurs: turn off the computer, shake off most of the water, and use a hair dryer to evaporate the rest of the water.

Keep in mind, however, that water and electronics don't mix, and that leaks could cause components to short out, seriously damaging them. Be sure you're willing to risk this and thoroughly check for leaks before providing power to the system components. If possible, activate the water pump(s) for 10-15 minutes and check potential trouble spots.

Full immersion cooling
Some people are experimenting with cooling personal computers by immersing them almost completely in non-conductive liquids such as transformer oil and flourinert.

Oil cooling
Transformer oil has been used to cool electrical equipment for decades.

Some people are experimenting with oil cooling personal computers. Since oil is non-conductive, the motherboard and graphics card and power supply (but not the hard drives or optical drives!) will continue to run submerged in a "fishtank" filled with oil. Some people prefer colorless transparent "mineral oil" or cooking oil, but Frank Völkel recommends motor oil.

Oil cooling is lower cost than water cooling, because it doesn't require water-tight "blocks" or hoses. Some people leave the fans running on the motherboard and power supply to "stir" the oil. Other people remove all the fans and add a (submerged) pump to "blow" a stream of oil onto the CPU hot spot. Some CPUs, if given a big enough metal heat sink, can be adequately cooled by passive convection currents in the oil (and the large surface area of the oil-to-case and case-to-air), without any fans or pumps.

If any cable (the hard drive ribbon cable, the power cable, the monitor cable, etc.) exits the case below the oil line, it must have an oil-tight exit seal -- consider making all cables exit the top of the case instead.

Low boiling point chemicals
Another point of recent experimentation has been Novec 1230 (trademarked and produced by 3M), which has a boiling point of 49 C. This means that as the liquid touches a part above that temperature, it evaporates immediately. It then condenses at the top of the tank, only to drip down and convect through the tank again. CPUs usually have no problem running in Novec 1230 without any heatsink at all. The force of convection is enough to drive the liquid around the tank, so it does not need any fans either.

Immersion in other cooling fluids has been attempted, such as fluorinert or liquid nitrogen, however they are generally not used because of the costs involved in the equipment and the liquid nitrogen.

Solid State Disk
Solid state disks have no moving parts, and thus don't make audible noise. When trying to build a totally silent system, consider only using SSDs for your storage.

Hard Drive
A 'resting' hard disk is generally quite quiet compared with any fan, but increases dramatically when it starts 'churning', as when you open or save a file or perform a virus scan. There will usually be a compromise between performance and sound, so opting for a slower RPM or smaller capacity single-platter HDD may be necessary to reach very quiet levels. Also, 2.5" notebook drives can be much quieter than 3.5" desktop drive, but come in smaller capacities.

After selecting a quiet drive, or if you want to reduce the noise coming from a loud drive, look into mounting options. Hard drives are usually mounted with four screws attaching them directly to the case, providing very stable support, some heat dissipation and a lot of direct transmission of HDD vibrations to the case. Reducing this transmission to almost nothing is possible, though it is not always easy.

The best noise reductions come from suspending the hard drive with elastic, providing no direct route for sound transmission to the case. You can make your own from elastic in a fabric store, or buy kits that provide materials and instructions. (Rubber bands are not recommended, as they will become weak from the HDD heat and oxidation and snap.)

Foam can be used to dampen vibrations, but may trap more heat than is safe. Resting the hard drive on the floor of your case on a bed of foam can be very effective at reducing noise.

Using silicone or rubber screws instead of metal mounting screws will give you marginal sound reduction, but is easiest and cheapest to implement. You also won't have to worry about shifting of the HDD if you move your computer.

Other

 * Steel cases are quieter than aluminum ones, because the denser material vibrates less easily.
 * Quiet cases are available, containing noise-damping acoustic foam. There are 3rd-party acoustic foams you may decide to add as well.
 * Experiment with rubber or foam washers when mounting drives and fans. These will dampen any vibration these devices cause.
 * Keep cables tied up and neat. Not only will this keep them clear of fans (which could quickly cause dangerous heat build-up), but the reduced impedance of airflow throughout your case will make things cooler. Flat, ribbon-shaped cables can safely be folded up to a fraction of their original width.
 * Make sure your case has rubber or foam feet if it rests on a hard surface. Placing it on carpeting will also reduce vibrations.
 * Underclocking will reduce system performance, but you can also then reduce the CPU voltage, and power consumption as a whole. Noisy fans may then also be operated at reduced speed or eliminated altogether, as the computer will produce less heat. The converse of the diminishing-returns law for overclocking is that underclocking can prove surprisingly effective.
 * The really obvious, but surprisingly effective: keep the computer under your desk or even in a closed cupboard, rather than under or beside your monitor.

NOTE: No matter what technique you use to quiet the machine, be sure to keep a steady supply of fresh air over all components. Don't put your machine in a closed cupboard unless you are sure heat will not be an issue. If you use acoustic foams, be sure they aren't acting as insulators, too - and keeping components hot.

title: How To Assemble A Desktop PC/Silencing


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Outdoor Industries/Beekeeping

1. Know a brief history of keeping bees for honey.
Beekeeping is one of the oldest forms of food production. It was particularly well developed in Egypt and was discussed by the Roman writers Virgil, Gaius Julius Hyginus, Varro, and Columella.

Traditionally, beekeeping was done for the bees' honey harvest, although nowadays crop pollination service can often provide a greater part of a commercial beekeeper's income.

Western honeybees are not native to the Americas. American, Australian, and New Zealand colonists imported honeybees from Europe, partly for honey and partly for their usefulness as pollinators. The first honeybee species imported were likely European dark bees. Later Italian bees, carniolan honeybees and caucasian bees were added.

Probably the most important innovation in modern beekeeping, and indeed, it is the innovation that defines modern beekeeping, was the movable frame hive. Prior to its invention, bees were housed in skeps (conical straw baskets), which did not allow inspection of the colony. Furthermore, it was not possible to extract honey from a skep without destroying the colony.

Movable frame hives were developed in Slovenia by Anton Janša (1734–1773), and perfected by the Rev. Lorenzo Langstroth in the 19th century. Langstroth was the first to suspend movable frames in boxes, spacing them perfectly so that bees would confine comb construction to the frames. This allows the frames to be easily removed without destroying the comb and without injuring the bees.

a. Honey
The main uses of honey are in cooking, baking, spreading on bread or toast, and as an addition to various beverages such as tea. Because honey is hygroscopic (drawing moisture from the air), a small quantity of honey added to a pastry recipe will retard staling. Raw honey also contains enzymes that help in its digestion, several vitamins and antioxidants.

Honey is used in traditional folk medicine and apitherapy, and is an excellent natural preservative.

In ancient history, the Ancient Egyptian and Middle-Eastern peoples also used honey for embalming the dead. However, only rich and powerful people had the luxury of this type of funeral.

Honey is also the basic ingredient to mead, which is a fermented beverage. However, the Seventh-day Adventist church does not condone the use, production, or sale of mead or any other alcoholic beverage.

b. Beeswax
Beeswax is used commercially to make fine candles, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals including bone wax (cosmetics and pharmaceuticals account for 60% of total consumption), in polishing materials (particularly shoe polish), as a component of modeling waxes, and in a variety of other products. It is also used as a coating for cheese, to protect the food as it ages. While some cheesemakers have replaced it with plastic, many still use beeswax in order to avoid any unpleasant flavors that may result from plastic. Beeswax is also an ingredient in mustache wax, as well as dreadlock wax, and was used in the manufacturing of the cylinders used by the earliest phonographs.

c. Propolis
Propolis is a wax-like resinous substance collected by honeybees from tree buds or other botanical sources and used as cement and to seal cracks or open spaces in the hive. Propolis is marketed by health food stores as a traditional medicine, and for its claimed beneficial effect on human health. Depending upon its precise composition it may show powerful local antibiotic and antifungal properties. Also it is generally efficient in treating skin burns. Claims have been made for its use in treating allergy; it may stimulate the immune system, but some warn that it should not be taken if the user is likely to have severe allergic reaction to bees.

Old beekeepers recommend a piece of propolis kept in the mouth as a remedy for a sore throat.

Propolis is used by music instrument makers to better show the wood grain. It is a component of Italian varnish and was reportedly used by Stradivari

3. Name ten foods that would be very difficult to grow if there were no honey bees.

 * Almonds
 * Apples
 * Blackberries
 * Blueberries
 * Cantaloupe
 * Cucumber
 * Kiwi
 * Peach
 * Pumpkin
 * Raspberry
 * Squash
 * Strawberries
 * Watermelon

4. List the duties of the drone, the worker, and the queen bees.

 * Drones: Drones are male bees, and their only function is to mate with the queen. A healthy hive will have a few thousand drones (out of a population of 40,000 to 80,000 bees).  Drones do no work in the hive and will beg food from the worker bees.  If none supply him with food, he will eventually feed himself.  The phrase "busy as a bee" certainly does not pertain to the drone!  Once mature, drones leave the hive and congregate, waiting for a queen with which to mate.  Ten or more drones will mate with a virgin queen on her maiden flight. "Successful" drones die a short time later.  The worker bees do not allow the drones to overwinter in the hive, as they are a tremendous drain on resources and serve no function during the winter when the queen lays no eggs.  They are sometimes ejected from the hive when food is scarce.  Drones are hatched from unfertilized eggs, so the lack of any drones in the hive will automatically result in the production of drones when the next brood is hatched.

 * Workers: Workers are sexually sterile female bees. Most bees are worker bees.  For the first ten days of their lives, the female worker bees clean the hive and feed the larvae. After this, they begin building comb cells. On days 16 through 20, a worker receives nectar and pollen from older workers and stores it. After the 20th day, a worker leaves the hive and spends the remainder of its life as a forager. The foragers die usually when their wings are worn out after approximately 500 miles of flight.  Workers die after stinging fleshy creatures (such as beekeepers or bears), but they can sting non-fleshy creatures (such as other bees) multiple times without dying.

 * Queen: The queen bee is the only female bee that lays eggs. The queen's eggs hatch in three days, and the larvae are fed with royal jelly produced by worker bees. After a few more days, the larvae are fed on honey and pollen. The exception is a larva fed solely on royal jelly, which will develop into a queen bee.  When the queen dies, the worker bees produce several new queens, and when these mature, they fight to the death until only one queen is left.

5. Describe how bees build combs. Why does the comb turn dark with age?
Thin scales of beeswax are produced by glands of 12 to 17 days old worker bees on the ventral (stomach) surface of the abdomen. Worker bees have eight wax-producing glands on the inner sides of the sternites (the ventral shield or plate of each segment of the body). Wax is produced from abdominal segments 4 to 7. The size of these wax glands depends on the age of the worker. Honeybees use the beeswax to build honey comb cells in which their young are raised and honey and pollen are stored. For the wax-making bees to secrete wax the ambient temperature in the hive has to be 33 to 36 °C (91 to 97 °F).

Broodcomb becomes dark over time, because of the cocoons embedded in the cells and the tracking of many feet, called travel stain by beekeepers when seen on frames of comb honey. Honeycomb in the "supers" that are not allowed to be used for brood stays light colored.

6. What is meant by the following terms

 * a. Movable-frame hive: Modern beehives consist of several 4-sided boxes (no tops or bottoms) stacked on top of each other. Frames are hung inside these boxes, and bees build combs on the frames.  Because of "bee space" (see below), the bees build only one comb on each frame.  This allows the frames to be removed from the hive without destroying the comb.
 * b. Crossed comb: Sometimes bees do not behave the way the beekeeper wants them to. Instead of confining a comb to a single frame, bees sometimes build a single comb on more than one frame.  The comb "crosses" a frame boundary.  When crossed comb is built, the frames cannot be removed without destroying the comb.
 * c. Bee space: A gap in a beehive about 5/16 inch (8 mm) wide. Langstroth hives make use of the discovery of bee space.  European honeybees propolize spaces less than 1/4 inch (6.5 mm), gluing wooden parts together and fill spaces larger than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) with wax comb.  But they hold spaces between 1/4 inch and 3/8 inch open for traffic channels for the bees. Langstroth's cleverly designed hive makes use of this bee space so that frames are neither glued together nor jammed up with burr comb.  This makes it possible to remove frames from the hive without damaging the hive or killing the bees.
 * d. Swarming: Swarming is the natural means of reproduction of honeybee colonies (considering the colony as the organism rather than individual bees which cannot survive alone). In the process two or more colonies are created in place of the original single colony. It is considered good practice in beekeeping to reduce swarming as much as possible by several techniques, as allowing this form of reproduction often results in the loss of the more vigorous division, and the remaining colony being so depleted that it is unproductive for the season.

7. What is a smoker? What materials make good fuel for a smoker?
Smoke is the beekeeper's second line of defense; protective clothing provides remarkably little protection from agitated bees. Most beekeepers use a "smoker"—a device designed to generate smoke from the incomplete combustion of various fuels. Smoke calms bees; it initiates a feeding response in anticipation of possible hive abandonment due to fire. Smoke also masks alarm pheromones released by guard bees or when bees are squashed in an inspection. The ensuing confusion creates an opportunity for the beekeeper to open the hive and work without triggering a defensive reaction. In addition, when a bee consumes honey the bee's abdomen distends, making it difficult to make the necessary flexes to sting.

Smoke is of no use with a swarm, because swarms do not have honey stores to feed on in response. Usually smoke is not needed since swarms tend to be less defensive, as they have no stores to defend, and a fresh swarm will have fed well from the hive.

Many types of fuel can be used in a smoker as long as it is natural and not contaminated with harmful substances. These fuels include hessian, cardboard, and rotten or punky wood. Some beekeeping supply sources also sell commercial fuels like pulped paper and compressed cotton, or even aerosol cans of smoke.

 * Proper smoker fuels
 * burlap rags, cotton rags, cotton string or twine
 * Woodchips, pine needles, twigs, sticks, dried leaves and grass
 * Stove pellets
 * Charcoal (burns long and hot, may be best to use with other fuel)

 * Improper smoker fuels
 * poison ivy, poison sumac, etc
 * insulation material
 * plastic or rubber
 * newspaper (as sole fuel source)
 * greasy rags

8. What consideration should be given when choosing a hive location?
Hives should be located near an ample source of pollen and nectar. Also, there should be a source of clean water with a quarter mile. If there's no water the beekeeper should provide a pan of water with a place for the bees to land (such as a board, rocks, or gravel).

Hives should be located in the sun rather than in the woods, and windy ridges should be avoided. They should also be located away from constant noise (such as a highway) and away from children. The hive needs to be easily accessible to the beekeeper so that the temptation to neglect the bees is reduced. In order to prevent vandalism, hives should also be located near a dwelling, but screened from common view.

9. How are honey bee diseases spread from hive to hive?
There are two main ways diseases are spread from one hive to another: by the bees, and by the beekeeper. Spreading by bees is covered in the next requirement.

The beekeeper must keep his tools clean. If disease is detected in one of the hives, the beekeeper must take steps to control the disease, and must thoroughly clean the beekeeping tools between hives. Failure to do this will cause the problem to spread to the remaining hives.

Beekeepers spread disease by moving infected frames from one hive to another, by not cleaning out dead hives (encouraging robbing), using old, infected equipment, and by not recognizing the presence of disease (and thus not treating it). Inattentive beekeepers are responsible for most bee disease among their hives.

10. What is robbing? Describe a robber bee.
Robbing among bees is about the same thing that it is among people. A bee that invades another hive is a robber bee. If the hive is unable to defend against the robber, the robber will gather as much honey as it can carry and take it back to its own hive. This is done during times of low nectar availability (it's a lot less risky for a bee to gather nectar than it is for her to invade another hive).

If the robber's hive is infected, she may carry the disease to the invaded hive. If the invaded hive is infected (more likely), she may carry disease back to her own hive.

11. Name four ways to help prevent swarming. Why should swarming be prevented?
During the first year of a queen's life the colony has little incentive to swarm, unless the hive is very crowded. During her second spring, however, she seems to be programmed to swarm. Without beekeeper "swarm management" in the second year, the hive will cast a "prime swarm" and one to five "after swarms." The old queen will go with the prime swarm, and other swarms will be accompanied by virgin queens.

Swarming is to the beekeeper what losing all of his calves is to a cattleman. The hive that cast the swarm is often so badly depleted that it will be unproductive for the entire season. For this reason, beekeepers try to anticipate swarming and assist the bees to reproduce in a more controlled fashion by splitting hives. This saves the "calves" and keeps the "cow" in condition to accomplish some work.

Beekeepers that do not wish to make increase may use one or more of the many methods for swarm control. Most methods simulate swarming to extinguish the swarming drive.

Bees will not swarm if their hives need more honey. Therefore, you can reduce the likelihood of swarming by supering the hives. Supering is the process of adding an empty super to the hive. The bees will begin building comb in the empty supers and then fill them with honey.

The Demaree method of swarm control is to remove a frame of capped brood with the queen. This frame is put in a hive box with empty drawn frames and foundation at the same location of the old hive. A honey super is added to the top of this hive topped by a crown board. The remaining hive box is inspected for queen cells. All queen cells are destroyed. This hive box, which has most of the bees, is put on top of the crown board. Foraging bees will return to the lower box depleting the population of the upper box. After a week to ten days both parts are inspected again and any subsequent queen cells destroyed. After another period of separation the swarming drive is extinguished and the hives can be re-combined.

Another common swarming control method is to simply keep the brood nest open. In preparation for swarming bees fill the brood nest with honey which causes the queen to stop laying which slims her down to fly and leaves nurse bees unemployed to go with her. The concept of this method is to open the brood nest to employ those nurse bees and get the queen laying again and redirect this sequence of events. This is done by any number of slight variations from empty frames in the brood nest, frames of bare foundation in the brood nest or drawn combs in the brood nest, or moving brood combs to the box above to cause more expansion of the brood nest.

Another swarming control method is called checkerboarding. In the early spring, frames are rearranged above the growing brood nest. The frames above the brood nest are alternated between full honey frames and empty drawn out frames or even foundationless frames. It is believed that only colonies that have enough reserves will attempt to swarm. Checkerboarding frames above the brood nest apparently destroys this sense of having reserves.

12. What three requirements must be met for the colony to successfully weather a winter?

 * 1) There must be enough bees to keep the hive warm and raise the first brood of the spring.  Basically, each hive should have enough bees to cover five or more brood frames.
 * 2) There must be enough honey in the hive to feed the bees during the winter.  A colony needs at least forty pounds of honey.  The hive should consist of one hive body and two supers, or two hive bodies and one super.
 * 3) The colony must have a healthy, laying queen.  The queen will lay a large brood in the late fall, and these bees will maintain the hive during the winter.  She must also lay a new brood in the spring to restore the hive to its summer population.

13. What is the advantage of using a double-brood chamber system?
The double-brood chamber system provides an easy way for a small-scale beekeeper who does not have a lot of equipment to create new queens. In this system, the hive is stacked up like this:

After a few weeks, the workers in the upper story will have raised several queens by feeding royal jelly to the larvae and enlarging their cells. The beekeeper can collect these queens and use them to requeen existing colonies or create new ones.

14. Carry out the following duties of successful beekeeping
It's a good idea to perform these duties with (or under the supervision of) an established beekeeper. If you know anyone who keeps bees, talk to them and see if they would teach you and let you help them. If you don't know any beekeepers, contact your local bee inspector. Bee inspectors will know all the beekeepers in your area and will be able to recommend one to you.

a. Spring feed to stimulate brood production
Bees can be fed sugar water (2 parts water, 1 part sugar) in the spring, and it's a good idea to add a two tablespoons of vinegar to each gallon of sugar water to keep it from spoiling. New colonies should be fed for a couple of weeks until they have built out their comb.

b. Supering and other swarm prevention techniques
It's a good idea make sure the bees have plenty of space to store honey, and adding supers gives them plenty of space. Adding too much space in the summer does not hurt, but adding too little will cause them to quit making honey and will encourage them to swarm.

c. Extract honey and put into jars
Honey is extracted by removing frames from the supers. Do not extract the honey into an open container, or the bees will be attracted to it. This can incite them to rob.

d. Fall feeding and "taking the hive down" to prepare it for the winter months
Feed the bees more sugar water (with vinegar) in the fall, to make up for the honey you have harvested from them. Remove all but one super. Bees need a small hive for overwintering, as they are easier for the bees to heat. Many beekeepers also insulate their hives at this time. Install entrance reducers to keep mice out of your hives.

15. How do you know when a frame is ready to be removed from the hive for extraction?
During a honey flow, remove the frames periodically and check them. If they are full of honey, and at least 80% of the cells are capped, the honey is ready to be extracted. Extracting it too soon can cause the honey to ferment.