text:
Art History/20th Century

The twentieth century has seen huge changes in the modes and meanings of artistic production that mirror the enormous social changes that have occurred during the same time period. Continuing with the break with the academic values such as the hierarchy of genres, many movements and many countries re-evaluated aesthetics, technique, color, media, meaning, and many other aspects of artistic enterprise. Technology has had not only an indirect impact on artists, but often is the subject matter, or even the media that artists have worked with.

The Impressionists, at the end of the nineteenth century, who championed landscape painting and revolutionized technique and use of color, helped to open the floodgates for many more movements (not all of which identified themselves as such). The Secession movement, Fauvism, Cubism, Expressionism, Dada, The Bauhaus, Futurism, Surrealism, Suprematism, De Stijl, Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art, Op Art, Minimalism, and the Postmodern are some of the major movements that have shaped the century and changed our very conceptions of what art is.

Secessionist movement
The Secessionist movement was the Austrian branch of a larger movement known primarily as Art Nouveau ("new art"). Depending on the country, the style is also known as Jugendstil (Germany), Style Liberty (Italy), Modernisme (Spain), or Latvian Romanticism. Art Nouveau is an umbrella term but also refers to works of this style produced in France and Belgium. Art Nouveau has its roots in the English Arts and Crafts movement of the 19th century; in fact, certain artists, like Charles Rennie Mackintosh, work in both styles. The purpose of Art Nouveau was to create what is known as a complete work of art - a work that includes painting, drawing and printmaking as well as applied arts and architecture. For this reason, some of the most beautiful and informative Art Nouveau works are complete rooms or houses where every object within is executed in Art Nouveau style. Art Nouveau is characterized by free-flowing floral, vegetal, and other typically feminine motifs. It also features a kind of romantic mysticism that can be traced back to the Pre-Raphaelite and Symbolist movements of the 19th century. Some well-known Art Nouveau artists and craftsmen include Alphonse Mucha (Czech), an accomplished printmaker and painter; Antoni Gaudi (Spanish), whose architectural works dot Barcelona; Hector Guimard (French), whose wrought-iron entrances for the Paris metro have become his legacy; Gustav Klimt (Austrian), who led the Austrian Secessionists with his opulent and complex paintings; and Louis Comfort Tiffany (American), who is well-known for his distinctive stained-glass work.

Fauvism
Fauvism, whose name derives from the French word for "wild beast," was a Primitivist movement centered in Paris in the first decade of the 20th century. The most well-known Fauvist artists are Henri Matisse and Andre Derain. The large blocks of color and simplified forms Fauvist artists used undoubtedly influenced the Cubist movement, which overlapped Fauvism by a few years.

Cubism
The Father of Cubism is said to be Cezanne. Pablo Picasso, a Spanish artist, who had many phases in his long career, picked up the gauntlet of Cubism. His famous "Demoiselles d'Avignon" of 1907, housed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York, depicts five nude women, possibly prostitutes, in an interior. The painting is primitivistic - Picasso synthesized his well-documented interest in African masks into the faces of the figures. The fragmentation and flattening of the figures also anticipates the development of analytical Cubism a few years later. One of the Spaniard's most socio-political cubist paintings is "Guernica" of 1937, his grey, black and white portrait of the horrors of war. The basque town of Guernica was bombed by the German Luftwaffe on April 26, 1937.

Another founding member of the Cubist movement was Georges Braque, a French artist whose analytical Cubist work from the 1910s is quite similar to Picasso's. Braque and Picasso worked together closely, and Braque's influence on Picasso (and vice versa) should not be downplayed. Other major artists of the analytical Cubist movement include Juan Gris, whose interest in mathematics made his art more regularized, and less fragmented, than Picasso's; Marcel Duchamp, whose early, pre-readymade works such as "Nude Descending a Staircase" are highly fragmented and undeniably Cubist; Jean Metzinger; and Albert Gleizes.

Dadaism
Dadaism was a German-French-American movement of the 1920s up to the 1960s which was a reaction to the horrors of World War I; it incorporated wordplay (largely nonsensical) and collage. It was founded by the poet and playwright Tristan Tzara in the Cabaret Voltaire, France. Major members included Francis Picabia, Hugo Ball, Hannah Höch, and Marcel Duchamp.

Futurism
Futurism was an Italian movement in the 1910s and 1920s that was based on a fascination with movement, technology, and machinery. Major members included the founder Filippo Marinetti (Zang Tumb Tumb; poem), Umbertro Boccioni (Unique Forms of Continuity in Space; sculpture) and Giacomo Balla (Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash; painting), the latter two both painters and sculptors.

Vorticism
Vorticism was an English movement of the 1910s; it was founded by writer and painter Wyndham Lewis as a reaction to Futurism.

The movement officially began in 1914, in the first issue of literary magazine BLAST, but ended after the main members witnessed (or died in) World War I. The war painter Christopher Richard Wynne Nevinson was briefly involved, but was later expelled from the group and became identified as a Futurist. Sculptor Jacob Epstein was not formally involved, but his Torso in Metal from Rock Drill is regarded as a major Vorticist work.

Major members included David Bomberg (The Mud Bath; painting), Edward Wadsworth (Dazzle-ships in Drydock at Liverpool; painting), Henri Gaudier-Brzeska (Vortex (written from the trenches); essay) and Ezra Pound (Vortex; essay).

Postmodernism
Postmodern artist Barbara Kruger is known for critical images inspired by commercial advertising. She is the author of several books. "Love for Sale" shows Kruger's blown up photographic black and white images with text in a red box superimposed creating a new meaning for the viewer. Kruger taught at the Art Institute and Cal Arts during the 70s. Kruger's work often focuses on feminist issues. Kruger's Whitney Biennial 2'x3' work, enlarged as she tackled billboards in the US and other countries.

She was the subject of a lecture given at the 3rd Annual Conference of the Society of the Word and Image at Carleton University in Ontario, Canada in 1993.

Abstract Expressionism
A school of painting that flourished after World War II until the early 1960s, characterized by the view that art is nonrepresentational and chiefly improvisational.

Abstract art is defined as art that has no reference to any figurative reality. In its wider definition the term describes art that depicts real forms in a simplified or rather reduced way - keeping only an allusion of the original natural subject. The abstract paintings of Joan Miró are a good example of this wider definition. The term non-figurative is used as a synonym.

In the twentieth century Wassily Kandinsky is considered as the inventor of non-figurative art. Over a period of several years his paintings moved gradually away from figurative subjects. In 1910 he created the first completely abstract work of art - a watercolor - without any reference to reality. Wassily Kandinsky not only became the first abstract artist, he also promoted it as a theorist. In 1912 his book On the Spiritual in Art was published.

A movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school. Jackson Pollock 's turbulent yet elegant abstract paintings, which were created by spattering paint on huge canvases placed on the floor, brought abstract expressionism before a hostile public. Willem de Kooning 's first one-man show in 1948 established him as a highly influential artist. Other important artists involved with the movement included Hans Hofmann, Robert Motherwell , and Mark Rothko ; among other major abstract expressionists were such painters as Clyfford Still , Theodoros Stamos, Adolph Gottlieb, Helen Frankenthaler, Lee Krasner, and Esteban Vicente.

title: Art History/20th Century


text:
German/Lesson 10

<< Lektion 9 | Lektion 10 | Lektion 11 >>

Wiederholung
Lesson 10 is a review (Wiederholung) lesson to summarize the German language lessons presented in Lessons 6 through 9. You should, as well, return to Lektion 6 and review (that is, completely reread) each of the four lessons back up to this point. For a more advanced course, you should now incorporate each of the advanced lessons into this "review" process. That is: review Lesson 6, then do Lesson 6A, review Lesson 7, then do Lesson 7A, etc. If the advanced lessons have already been completed, then now review lessons in the order 6 -> 6A -> 7 -> 7A -> 8, etc.

Verb Conjugation
You have learned that there is a relationship between the subject of a verb and the form that verb takes in German. Some verbs follow a predictable regular pattern, while others are less predictable (irregular verbs).

verb:               können (can)          gehen (go)         sein (to be) pronoun             verb I (irreg.)       verb II            verb III (irregular) Basicform           können                gehen              sein ich                 kann                  gehe               bin du                  kannst                gehst              bist er/sie/es           kann                  geht               ist wir                 können                gehen              sind ihr                 könnt                 geht               seid sie                 können                gehen              sind Sie (formal)        können                gehen              sind

As you can see, any verb uses the same declination for wir, sie and Sie. Also, er/sie/es uses the same declination for all three genders.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: German/Lesson 10


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Cookbook:Curry Leaf

Curry leaf or kadi patta is an herb common to South and Southeast Asian cooking.

Characteristics
The leaf is small and green, with a pointed tip and glossy appearance. The flavor is described as complexly aromatic, with notes of citrus, sulfur, pine, bay, and more. The leaves are sometimes dried and even ground, though the flavor is less than that of fresh leaves.

Selection and storage
When purchasing fresh leaves (ideal), select those that are small and nicely green, without blemishes or rot.   They can be wrapped in paper towels and stored in the fridge in a plastic container for 1–2 weeks or so. They can also be stored in the freezer for at least a couple months. If you need dry leaves, drying them yourself can give you more control and gives you a better idea of their age.

Use
The leaf is used in many South Indian dishes, where it adds flavor and a spicy pleasant smell. Typically, it is first fried in oil to help it bloom and release its aromatic compounds, as in tadka. However, the whole leaf itself is rarely eaten.

Substitution
Unfortunately, it's very difficult to substitute another ingredient for curry leaf—you may simply want to leave them out if you can't find any.

title: Cookbook:Curry Leaf


text:
Art History/Glossary

Art Movements
abstract expressionism Movement in painting, originating in New York City in the 1940s. It emphasized spontaneous personal expression, freedom from accepted artistic values, surface qualities of paint, and the act of painting itself. Pollock, de Kooning, Motherwell, and Kline, are important abstract expressionists.

art deco Design style prevalent during the 1920s and 1930s, characterized by a sleek use of straight lines and slender form.

art nouveau A decorative art movement that emerged in the late nineteenth century. Characterized by dense asymmetrical ornamentation in sinuous forms, it is often symbolic and of an erotic nature. Klimt worked in an art nouveau style.

Ash Can School Group of American artists active from 1908 to 1918. It included members of The Eight such as Henri and Davies; Hopper was also part of the Ash Can group. Their work featured scenes of urban realism.

Barbizon School An association of French landscape painters, c. 1840-70, who lived in the village of Barbizon and who painted directly from nature. Theodore Rousseau was a leader; Corot and Millet were also associated with the group.

Baroque A movement in European painting in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, characterized by violent movement, strong emotion, and dramatic lighting and coloring. Bernini, Caravaggio and Rubens were among important baroque artists.

Byzantine A style of the Byzantine Empire and its provinces, c. 330-1450. Appearing mostly in religious mosaics, manuscript illuminations, and panel paintings, it is characterized by rigid, monumental, stylized forms with gold backgrounds.

classicism Referring to the principles of Greek and Roman art of antiquity with the emphasis on harmony, proportion, balance, and simplicity. In a general sense, it refers to art based on accepted standards of beauty.

color field painting A technique in abstract painting developed in the 1950s. It focuses on the lyrical effects of large areas of color, often poured or stained onto the canvas. Newman, Rothko, and Frankenthaler painted in this manner.

conceptual art A movement of the 1960s and 1970s that emphasized the artistic idea over the art object. It attempted to free art from the confines of the gallery and the pedestal.

constructivism A Russian abstract movement founded by Tatlin, Gabo, and Antoine Pevsner, c. 1915. It focused on art for the industrial age. Tatlin believed in art with a utilitarian purpose.

cubism A revolutionary movement begun by Picasso and Braque in the early twentieth century. It employs an analytic vision based on fragmentation and multiple viewpoints.

dadaism A movement, c. 1915-23, that rejected accepted aesthetic standards. It aimed to create antiart and nonart, often employing a sense of the absurd.

The Eight A group of American painters who united out of opposition to academic standards in the early twentieth century. Members of the group were Robert Henri, Arthur Davies, Maurice Prendergast, William James Glackens, Ernest Lawson, Everett Shinn, John Sloan, and George Luks.

excessivism Refers to the contemporary consumer’s urge to go beyond what is needed and beyond one’s means when acquiring material goods. The works, based on excessive tendencies, are a commentary in and of themselves on materialism. The inaugural exhibition of was held in 2015 at the LA Artcore Gallery, Los Angeles, Calif., curated by Kaloust Guedel, author of the Excessivism Manifesto.

expressionism Refers to art that uses emphasis and distortion to communicate emotion. More specifically, it refers to early twentieth century northern European art, especially in Germany c. 1905-25. Artists such as Rouault, Kokoschka, and Schiele painted in this manner.

fauvism From the French word fauve, meaning "wild beast ." A style adopted by artists associated with Matisse, c. 1905-08. They painted in a spontaneous manner, using bold colors.

folk art Works of a culturally homogeneous people without formal training, generally according to regional traditions and involving crafts.

futurism An Italian movement c. 1909-19. It attempted to integrate the dynamism of the machine age into art. Boccioni was a futurist artist.

Gothic A European movement beginning in France. Gothic sculpture emerged c. 1200, Gothic painting later in the thirteenth century. The artworks are characterized by a linear, graceful, elegant style more naturalistic than that which had existed previously in Europe.

impressionism A late-nineteenth-century French school of painting. It focused on transitory visual impressions, often painted directly from nature, with an emphasis on the changing effects of light and color. Monet, Renoir, and Pissarro were important impressionists.

mannerism A style, c. 1520-1600, that arose in reaction to the harmony and proportion of the High Renaissance. It featured elongated, contorted poses, crowded canvases, and harsh lighting and coloring.

minimalism A movement in American painting and sculpture that originated in the late 1950s. It emphasized pure, reduced forms and strict, systematic compositions.

Nabis From the Hebrew word for "prophet." A group of French painters active in the 1890s who worked in a subjective, sometimes mystical style, stressing flat areas of color and pattern. Bonnard and Vuillard were members.

naive art Artwork, usually paintings, characterized by a simplified style, nonscientific perspective, and bold colors. The artists are generally not professionally trained. Henri Rousseau and Grandma Moses worked in this style.

neoclassicism A European style of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Its elegant, balanced works revived the order and harmony of ancient Greek and Roman art. David and Canova are examples of neoclassicists.

op art An abstract movement in Europe and the United States, begun in the mid-1950s, based on the effects of optical patterns. Albers worked in this style.

photorealism A figurative movement that emerged in the United States and Britain in the late 1960s and 1970s. The subject matter, usually everyday scenes, is portrayed in an extremely detailed, exacting style. It is also called superrealism, especially when referring to sculpture.

pointillism A method of painting developed by Seurat and Paul Signac in the 1880s. It used dabs of pure color that were intended to mix in the eyes of viewers rather than on the canvas. It is also called divisionism or neoimpressionism.

pop art A movement that began in Britain and the United States in the 1950s. It used the images and techniques of mass media, advertising, and popular culture, often in an ironic way. Works of Warhol, Lichtenstein, and Oldenburg exemplify this style.

postimpressionism A term coined by British art critic Roger Fry to refer to a group of nineteenth-century painters, including Cézanne, Van Gogh, and Gauguin, who were dissatisfied with the limitations of expressionism. A movement in France that represented both an extension of Impressionism and a rejection of that style's inherent limitations.It has since been used to refer to various reactions against impressionism, such as fauvism nd expressionism.From the 1880s several artists began to develop different principles for the use of color, pattern, form and line, derived from the Impressionist.

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood A group of English painters formed in 1848. These artists attempted to recapture the style of painting preceding Raphael. They rejected industrialized England and focused on painting from nature, producing detailed, colorful works. Rossetti was a founding member.

realism In a general sense, refers to objective representation. More specifically, a nineteenth century movement, especially in France, that rejected idealized academic styles in favor of everyday subjects. Daumier, Millet, and Courbet were realists.

Renaissance Meaning "rebirth" in French. Refers to Europe c. 1400-1600. Renaissance art which began in Italy, stressed the forms of classical antiquity, a realistic representation of space based on scientific perspective, and secular subjects. The works of Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael exemplify the balance and harmony of the High Renaissance (c. 1495-1520).

rococo An eighteenth-century European style, originating in France. In reaction to the grandeur and massiveness of the baroque, rococo employed refined, elegant, highly decorative forms. Fragonard worked in this style.

Romanesque A European style developed in France in the late eleventh century. Its sculpture is ornamental, stylized and complex. Some Romanesque frescoes survive, painted in a monumental, active manner.

romanticism A European movement of the late eighteenth to mid nineteenth century. In reaction to neoclassicism, it focused on emotion over reason, and on spontaneous expression. The subject matter was invested with drama and usually painted energetically in brilliant colors. Delacroix, Gericault, Turner, and Blake were Romantic artists.

suprematism A Russian abstract movement originated by Malevich c. 1913. It was characterized by flat geometric shapes on plain backgrounds and emphasized the spiritual qualities of pure form.

surrealism A movement of the 1920s and 1930s that began in France. It explored the unconscious, often using images from dreams. It used spontaneous techniques and featured unexpected juxtapositions of objects. Magritte, Dali, Miro, and Ernst painted surrealist works.

symbolism A painting movement that flourished in France in the 1880s and 1890s in which subject matter was suggested rather than directly presented. It featured decorative, stylized, and evocative images.

title: Art History/Glossary


text:
Introduction to Art/Introduction

Welcome to Art: The Wikibook. This page is meant to introduce art. Art is a very abstract concept, and as such, it makes writing a book on the topic very difficult. Even more difficult is the introduction to such a book. So to start off, it is very important to discuss what this book plans to accomplish, and what it does not plan to accomplish.

 What this book will not do:

title: Introduction to Art/Introduction


text:
Applications of ICT in Libraries

 * /Diploma ICTL/
 * /Advanced Diploma ICTL/
 * /Locating Information/
 * /Supporting Reader Development/
 * /Supporting Client Learning/
 * /Using ICT in Professional Practice/
 * /Safe and Legal Use of ICT/
 * /Net Navigator/
 * /Educator/
 * /Digital Culture - Online Communication/
 * /Digital Culture - Online Collaboration/

title: Applications of ICT in Libraries


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Lebanon

| Mediterranean

Lebanese Cuisine consists of a variety of fresh vegetarian recipes, salads and stews all seasoned with a flavoursome combination of herbs and spices. One of the most widely recognised Lebanese specialties is called Maza, also written "Mezze", which is a selection of appetizers: olives, cheeses, Labanee, or small portions also known as muqabbilat (starters).

The cuisine of Lebanon includes an abundance of starches, fruits, vegetables, fresh fish and seafood; animal fats are consumed sparingly. Poultry is eaten more often than red meat, and when red meat is eaten it is usually lamb. The cuisine also includes copious amounts of garlic and olive oil, often seasoned by lemon juice - nary a meal goes by in Lebanon that does not include these ingredients. Most often foods are either grilled, baked or sauted in olive oil; butter or cream is rarely used other than in a few desserts. Vegetables are often eaten raw or pickled as well as cooked. While the cuisine of Lebanon doesn't boast an entire repertoire of sauces, it focuses on herbs, spices and the freshness of ingredients; the assortment of dishes and combinations are almost limitless. The meals are full of robust, earthy flavors and, like most Mediterranean countries, much of what the Lebanese eat is dictated by the seasons.

Chicken

 * Garlic Lemon Chicken Slow-cooked chicken with a lemon/garlic marinade.
 * Chicken Shawarma Chicken heavily marinated in yoghurt and various spices in a yoghurt and tahini sauce, wrapped in a pita with tomato.

Lamb

 * Sheik el Mahshi Eggplant with lamb, tomato and pine nuts
 * Warak Dawali Grape leaves stuffed with lamb, rice and tomatoes
 * Lamb Shawarma Lamb heavily marinated in yoghurt and various spices in a yoghurt and tahini sauce wrapped in a pita with tomato.

Mezzah (Lebanese appetizers)

 * Hommos (Hummous) Mashed chickpeas (US: garbanzo beans) with Tahina
 * Moutabbal (Baba Ghannouj) Mashed eggplant with tahini/tahina
 * Balila Peas
 * Sawda nayyeh (sawda nayyeh) or Asbeh Nayyeh: raw lamb liver with some white meat and special spices include black pepper, cumin and dried flower petals. Served raw with pepper, chili, mint, salt. Sawda nayyeh is best paired with the Lebanese homemade Liquor ARAK.

Salads

 * Tabbouleh Parsley, tomato, burghol
 * Fattoush Various green vegetables, radish, toasted pita bread.

Yoghurt (Dishes cooked with yoghurt)

 * Kebbe Labnieh Meatballs with yoghurt and garlic
 * Laban Emmoh Same as Kebbe Labnieh with rice

Vegetarian

 * Batata Harra Potatoes, red peppers, coriander, chilli, and garlic, Cut the potatoes in small square like pieces with the size of your thumb, deep fry these potatoes until cooked, then dry them from fried oil, then add them to the already fried coriander and garlic in an open pan, stir them for 7 min, add the chili and salt. Best eaten with pita bread.
 * Moujadara Lentils, burghal wheat and onions

Desserts

 * Ma'amoul pastries filled with dates or nuts.

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Lebanon


text:
Cookbook:Garlic Lemon Chicken

| Cuisine of Lebanon

This is a recipe for chicken flavored with garlic and lemon, served with a garlic sauce called toom.

Chicken

 * 2 lemons, juiced
 * 6 cloves garlic
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 1 tsp pepper
 * 1 tsp basil
 * ¼ tsp cayenne pepper
 * 4 chicken breasts, boneless and with skin
 * 6 large potatoes, sliced ¼ inch thick

Toom

 * 4 cloves of garlic
 * ½ cup olive oil
 * ¼ cup lemon juice
 * ¼ tsp salt
 * a dash of cayenne

Chicken

 * 1) Combine the lemon juice, garlic, salt, pepper, basil and cayenne pepper to make a marinade.
 * 2) Put the chicken breasts in a deep pan, and pour the marinade over top.
 * 3) Cover, and let marinate in the fridge overnight. In the morning, flip the chicken to the other side and continue marinating for an additional 4 hours.
 * 4) Drain and reserve the liquid from the pan. Bake the chicken in a preheated oven at 375°F (190°C) for 10–15 minutes. The goal is to brown the chicken, without cooking it through.
 * 5) Return the marinade to the browned chicken. Tightly cover the pan with tin foil, and put back in the oven.
 * 6) Set the oven to 250°F (120°C). Bake chicken for 4 hours, basting it with the marinade every hour.
 * 7) Add the sliced potatoes to the pot, baste everything, and recover with foil.
 * 8) Put back in the oven, and cook for another hour.

Toom

 * 1) When the chicken is in its final hour of baking, blend all of the ingredients for the toom in a food processor until smooth.
 * 2) Serve the chicken and potatoes with the toom and some warm pita bread.

title: Cookbook:Garlic Lemon Chicken


text:
User:Eviled

Derek Billingsley, born in Saint John Canada.

I love the idea of Wikipedia and hopefully I can make a few decent contributions. Try my Garlic Lemon Chicken Recipe!

title: User:Eviled


text:
User:Evice

I am the same Evice from Wikipedia, and I've decided to make a Wikibooks account. I don't have much to put on this page, so just click one of the following if needed:

My Contributions My Talk

title: User:Evice


text:
Cell Biology/Energy supply/Krebs cycle

The Krebs Cycle is also known as the Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle and occurs within the Matrix of the Mitocondria.

Acetyl-Coenzyme A produced from the Link Reaction is synthesised into Citric Acid by the action of citrate synthase and its combination with Oxaloacetate. The citric acid, known as Citrate in its ionised form is then converted into Isocitrate by aconitase. This is then converted to Alpha-Ketoglutarate by citrate dehydrogenase in an oxidative decarboxylation reaction, in which one molecule of CO2 is given off and one molecule of NAD+ is oxidised to NADH. Another oxidative deecarboxylation converts the alpha-ketoglutarate to Succinyl Coenzyme A with the addition of CoA-SH and again the loss of a CO2 and the oxidation of NAD+ is seen. Succinyl CoA is then converted into Succinate by the action of Succinyl CoA Synthetase, the addition of water, the loss of CoA-SH and the substrate level phosphorylation of one molecule of ADP to ATP. Succinate is then converted to Fumarate by Succinate Dehydrogenase, a dehydrogenation reaction which results in the reduction of FADH+ to FADH2. Fumarate is, in turn, hydrated by the addition of one water molecule by Fumarase to Malate which is finally converted back to Oxaloacetate by Malate Dehydrogenase in a dehydrogenation reaction that oxidises one NAD+ to NADH. The cycle can then begin again.

There are many products of, and substrates for the Krebs cycle: for instance, amino acids can be metabolised to or catabolised from Acetyl CoA, Alpha-Ketoglutarate, Succinyl CoA, Malate and Oxaloacetate, depending which specific amino acid. Pyruvate can be re-synthesised by Pyruvate carboxylase from Oxaloacetate, which can either replenish the Krebs Cycle or make glucose by Gluconeogenesis. Citrate can be used for fatty acid (fat) or cholesterol synthesis. Succinyl CoA can be used to make Haem for Red Blood Cells.

NADH and FADH2 are then used in the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Net gain for the Krebs Cycle: 2 Carbon Dioxide, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per molecule of Acetyl CoA

title: Cell Biology/Energy supply/Krebs cycle


text:
Cell Biology/Genes/Gene translation

The Translation Phase of Genetic Expression is divided into 2 Steps Transcription and Translation. During Transcription RNA Polymerase unzips the two halfs of the DNA where it needs to transcript. Then free RNA bases Attach to the DNA bases with the Polymerase starting at the promoter and ending at the Termination signal. From this the RNA can become mRNA, rRNA, or tRNA. The mRNA is a ribbon like strand that takes the genetic information from the nucleus of the cell to the ribosome. rRNA forms a globular ball that attaches to the rough E.R. to help make ribosomes. finally the tRNA forms a hair shaped landing base that reads the genetic information to make proteins. Translation happens when mRNA is pulled through a ribosome and tRNA reads the RNA bases on the mRNA to make anti-codons of 3 bases and brings amino-acids to form the protein. This starts with the condon AUG and ends at UAG. When done the protein forms the correct shape and does the task it was created for. This brings the genetic code from the nucleus, which it never leaves, to the cytoplasm of the cell where proteins are produced to upkeep the body.

title: Cell Biology/Genes/Gene translation


text:
Talk:Marathi

Teaching how to read and write Marathi?
I would really like to see lessons teaching how to read and write Devanagari for Marathi step-by-step. It's hard to learn from an overview of letters. Lack of examples is another problem, but even if there were examples afterwards the learning situation would be far from perfect because the student would still have to memorise all letters at once in order to be able to begin practising.

What I have found really useful when learning non-Latin alphabets is a "divide and conquer" method that introduces few letters at a time and offers example words for practise immediately after each letter / each set of letters. What's even better is if those example words are understandable without prior knowledge of the language, that is, international words. For example: names of countries, cities or famous people (if their name isn't significantly different in Marathi than in English), common personal names, Marathi words that have entered English, English words that are used in Marathi, words that both Marathi and English have derived from Greek or Latin... The advantage of using these words is that students will be able to quickly see their own progress and the whole learning process becomes as fascinating as solving a puzzle. See the "Read Write and Pronounce Greek" lessons in the Modern Greek Wikibook for an example, or this external page on Cyrillic.

If you'd like to try this approach for teaching how to write Marathi, I'd be glad to help you, even though I don't know it yet (I'd learn it though and I have learned a variety of foreign alphabets already). Just create a big list of suitable words on a planning page like Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan, answer me here and I'll try to find an optimal order for letters.

Thanks for your efforts to teach a language that is hard to find in European schools!

Junesun 16:42, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

P.S.: If there's somebody generally unsure about how to create good language lessons, I really recommend reading the following two pages about it: Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks and Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks/Bite-sized language lessons.

title: Talk:Marathi


text:
User talk:BillKress

Hi Bill, I noticed your interest in the DS book. I've made some changes to the outline you've proposed and I recommend we just start making the changes. The DS book isn't too active, and I think giving it focus is necessary for it to get started ("necessary": sufficient is another story). MShonle 04:22, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Hi, Bill! I want to write knew book on Object oriented programming, but there is a problem such book is exist. I want to write a book with completely diffirent approach. Panic the author of the book, told me that you was one of the contributionare of the book. I want to discuss with you this issue. alexsmail 17:37, 15 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:BillKress


text:
Cell Biology/Cell types/Bacteria

Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. Bacteria are very small; so much so that 1 billion could fit on 1 square centimeter of space on the human gums, and 1 gram of digested food has 10 billion bacteria. Bacteria are the simplest living organisms. Previously they fell under the Kingdom Moneran, but now they fall into two different Domains: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. There are several differences between the two. Typically, microbiologists in the 21st century call these groups "Archaea" and "Bacteria." One of the co-discoverers of the three Domains has argued that the term "prokaryote" should be removed from classrooms because it reflects an evolutionary hypothesis that has been disproved, given that the Archaea are more closely related to the Eukarya than they are to the Bacteria (Pace 2006, Nature 441 p. 289).

It is incorrect to think of bacteria as particularly "simplistic" for all that they do not have internal organelles that can be visualized using a light microscope. The bacterial nucleoid, for example, is a highly organized structure even though it typically contains just one or two circular chromosomes with a total of millions of basepairs of DNA (Thanbichier et el., 2005, J Cell. Biochem. 96:506-521; see also http://www.microbelibrary.org/Laboratory%20Diagnostics/details.asp?id=782&Lang=English). Bacteria have complex cell walls exterior to the cell membrane. Some bacteria contain plasmids, which are typically circular DNA with replication that is uncoupled from binary fission (cellular division). Plasmids in nature often encode traits of significant interest to humans, such as the ability to be resistant to clinically important antibiotics, or the ability to degrade "odd" carbon sources such as TNT or human-made pollutants. Plasmids from Escherichia coli have been "domesticated" and have long been in use for genetic engineering, as it is easier to isolate and modify plasmid DNA, and introduce it into a new cells, than it is to modify a bacterial chromosome (see "Techniques" at dnai.org; see also http://www.microbelibrary.org/Laboratory%20Diagnostics/details.asp?id=707&Lang=English). A few phylogenetic groups of bacteria can make endospores, which are metabolically inert but are able to resist high temperatures, radiation, and desiccation (see http://www.microbelibrary.org/Laboratory%20Diagnostics/details.asp?id=2511&Lang=English).

Bacterial reproduction is always asexual and usually occurs through binary fusion, once thought to be a simple process of growing and dividing. Microbiologists now know, however, that binary fission is complex in that it requires dozens of proteins cooperating to build the septum (new cell wall between 'daughter' cells) and to actively separate the two daughter chromosomes. Furthermore, there are other forms of reproduction in bacteria, all of them "asexual" in that they do not use gametes or involve genetic exchange (Angert 2005, Nature Reviews Microbiology 3:214-224). Genetic exchange in bacteria is instead called horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer, because bacteria can obtain genetic information from organisms that are not their parents (Amabile-Cuevas 2003, American Scientist 91:138-149). (Vertical genetic transmission is the inheritance of DNA down through the generations.) Horizontal gene transfer can happen any time and has nothing to do with cell division. There are three main types, conjugation which is the sharing of plasmid DNA; transduction, where a bacterial virus accidentally transfers bacterial DNA from one bacterium to another, and transformation, where bacteria bind to DNA in the environment, internalize it, and can use that DNA as genetic material.

Archaea
Archaea are microbes that are more closely related to Eukaryotic cells than they are to the Bacteria (http://tolweb.org/tree/home.pages/aboutoverview.html). Under a light microscope, they visually resemble Bacteria, so that it wasn't until the advent of the use of molecular methods in evolutionary biology that they were recognized as belonging to their own Domain (a phylogenetic grouping above the level of Kingdom). Archaea have ultrastructural features that are superficially similar to those in Bacteria but are usually comprised of distinctive molecules. They do, for example, have a cell wall, yet that cell wall never contains peptidoglycan. Instead, peptidoglycan is a unique molecular signature of the Bacteria. Archaea also have odd lipids in their cell membranes. They were originally discovered living in extreme environments thought to resemble conditions on early earth, but now that microbiologists have become more adept at detecting them, it is clear that the Archaea are not confined to extreme habitats and can instead be found everywhere. It is true that some Archaea are "extremophiles," found in extremely salty or hot environments, but there are also extremophile Bacteria and even some very unusual extremophile Eukarya. The best-understood groups of Archaea are:
 * 1) Methanogens use Carbon dioxide and Hydrogen to make Methane. They are found in sewage, cows, and swamps, and they do not take in oxygen.
 * 2) Extreme Halophiles live in extremely salty places (i.e.:  the dead sea and great salt lake).
 * 3) Thermoacidophiles prefer extremely hot, acidic areas (i.e.:  hot springs and volcanos).

Bacteria
(sometimes called "eubacteria")

Bacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls, and they have no unusual phospholipids. Bacteria have four shapes:
 * bacilli (rod shaped)
 * vibrios (curved shaped)
 * coccus (round shaped)
 * spirilli (spiral shaped).

Bacteria can also have prefixes before their names: strepto, indicating chains of the shaped bacteria, and staphylo, indicating clusters of the shaped bacteria. A 19th century microbiologist invented the Gram stain, still used today to differentiate bacteria into two types, Gram negative and Gram positive (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Gram). These types are not useful in determining phylogeny but can be very useful in a clinical setting, because Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria can exhibit differential sensitivity to some classes of antibiotics. There are probably dozens of "Kingdoms" within the Domain Bacteria, but the phylogeny of Bacteria is still disputed as microbiologists continue to study the evolution of bacteria using molecular methods. Some of the major types of Bacteria are:
 * 1) Cyanobacteria are photoautotrophs that strip electrons from water and use them to fix carbon dioxide; they are a major source of organic carbon in marine ecosystems.
 * 2) Spirochetes are Gram negative bacteria that have flexible cells and internal flagella in an unusual form of a more typical Gram negative cell wall.
 * 3) Proteobacteria (E-coli)

Some bacteria produce virulence factors that can cause sickness. Some examples of these are serotoxins, which are given off by the Gram positive bacteria, and endotoxins, which are given off by Gram negative bacteria as they die. There are many other examples, however, and specific pathogens make a unique suite of virulence factors that lead to the particular disease caused by that pathogen.

title: Cell Biology/Cell types/Bacteria


text:
User:Mshonle/Scrap

Introduction
Our word for economy came from word roots that mean literally "household management." Today the word refers to all goods and services that an entire community produces. But there's another way in which we use the word-- for example in the phrase "it's more economical for me to ride my bike." This more common usage typically refers to either saving money or time. We claim is that these uses of the term are identical: At heart, economics is the study concerned with the proper allocation of limited resources.

Wether you support socialism, capitalism, anarcho-syndicalism, or self-sustaining tribal communities you cannot get around the need for an economy: unless we can live off an ecology so suited to us that whatever we want can be plucked from the trees we'll have to make decisions about how to allocate the resources available to us to best suit our needs. Political issues arise when people have different ideas as to what really is "best" for our needs, and who decides, and what groups should be given what resources.

Currency and the Division of Labor
Many people naturally think of money after hearing the word economics, but our primary concern in this book is not with money, nor is the field of economics primarily concerned with money. However, as an example of the allocation of goods, currency systems are a good place to start, as most people easily understand the advantages of having a currency.

The use of currencies in society to enable efficient trade is a relatively old idea and has evolved over many centuries: currencies are a human invention that wasn't ever planned nor designed. Instead, it was something that came into use through accident, much like the spoken languages we use. That currencies are so useful explains why they have survived through many different forms and that their adoption has spread.

Money is useful because it creates a universal trading "good" that can be used to purchase almost anything that is tradable, whether it's a food item that might spoil in a couple of days, a sturdy home appliance, clothes that are just the right size, or payment to a neighbor's teenager for mowing your lawn. If we received payment in fruit, this would be excessively less useful for us, because we would either have to consume the fruit, or trade it for something else, before it over-ripened. Instead of playing a scavenger hunt where we trade fruit for spices, spices for blenders, and blenders for jogging suits, we can directly go to sellers of jogging suits and pay with money.

In some sense, money doesn't really exist: It's just something backed up by our government as suitable for payments of debts between people, or public or private entities. In the United States, the dollar is only legal tender for debts that are already owed: For example, it's legal for a bus system to accept payment only in non-dollar tokens, or for a hair stylist to only accept payment in massage. The legal tender aspect of the dollar only comes in when it's for a debt already owed: If the hair stylist gives you a hair cut anyway but you back out on the massage deal, she can take you to court, but the court would allow you to pay in dollars instead. It's requirements like this that give the dollar its legitimacy and thus culture accepts this form of wealth, even though it doesn't exist.

Not every time is using currency actually the most efficient means of trade. For example, you might have a home recording system that is high quality, but you can't sell it for enough dollars to get the used car you want, while your friend is ready to start a band and just got a new car as a gift. It might be more efficient for the two of you to trade the recording system and his old car rather than sell them to a wider market (which would require advertising) or a middleman (who would charge a fee for the service). Nevertheless, when it comes to goods that spoil or services that can only be experienced once (like getting a haircut) it's usually better to use some form of currency as a means of later acquiring specific wealth. Further, it can be rare to find perfect trades so easily.

[TODO: stuff on the division of labor: allows more productive people to do X instead of everyone needing to do it, and that implies economies of scale]

Wealth and Capital
Now that we've got the topic of money out of the way, we can actually start talking about wealth. Wealth is simply something that is valuable to someone. There are many different kinds of wealth: the natural resources of the earth, and the great sunset views, are a type of wealth that exists without human creation. In fact, human creation can actually ruin some of this natural wealth by making views or skies less pleasant to look at through pollution or intrusive construction.

Other forms of wealth are created by taking raw materials of a lesser value and transforming them into goods that are more valuable. For example, you might not think much of a hunk of metal and plastic given to you, although you might value a portable audio player made of the same materials. Still other forms of wealth are a little more abstract: the biological diversity of the world is wealth that is a means of taking sunlight that pours onto the earth (something we get for free), molecules from the air and trace elements from the soil and uses photosynthesis to turn them into something that nourishes our bodies (for example, the wealth of the DNA encoded in seeds that, when planted, turn into tomato plants). Other abstract forms of wealth include the works of Shakespeare and folk songs: the simple arraignment of words or tones is something that is valuable to us. A world with 8 billion DVDs of a single Adam Sandler film isn't worth as much as a world with only 1 billion DVDs but which include all of the works of Hitchcock, Kubrick, Kieslowski, and even Mr. Sandler.

Yet another form of wealth is a contract: contracts may be broken, but the legal enforcement behind contracts make them valuable and are something that people want to buy. For example, a band might be interested in buying a contract that lets them perform at a venue on a given night, even though the sheet of paper itself has very little value, and even though the contract doesn't provide for contingencies if the venue burned down before the play date. Sometimes what's valuable to us only has a high probability, but not a certainty, of being useful to us.

We now consider wealth's relationship to capital. First, think of an acre of forest: it has some trees, some rocks and minerals, and some areas with high hay grass. Now suppose a hard working woman named Alice comes to this acre and makes some tools from the rocks and trees and starts cutting down the high hay to make usable lawn, cuts down only as much trees as needed to make a two-bedroom home, and then starts to make bedding and musical instruments with the remaining resources. Even though it started with the same resources, the acre now is worth more than it was before. (Or, at least, it's worth more to Alice.) There are actually two kinds of wealth in this story: the value of the natural resources, and the higher degree of wealth they became. and the wealth inside of Alice's head. Alice's wealth is known by economists as human capital.

The term capital simply means the "means of production." While Alice's arms and legs were also part of the means of production, none of the wealth would have been produced were it not for her human capital. Alice then created further capital by making the tools that she used to cut and build more things. When she gets around to building a weaving loom, she'll have even more capital.

We refer to some business as being capital intensive when they require large amounts of capital to be run. For example, starting your own printing press business requires an enormous investment in machinery and the infrastructure required to store, run, and maintain it. Other businesses, such as being a real estate agent, only require modest office space, licenses, and a car. It is important to understand the role capital plays in an economy, because capital is how we can create more wealth.

Over time, innovation has made it so that we are more productive at creating more wealth. For example, 200 years ago the majority of the population worked as farmers. We have become so much more effective at farming, primarily through gains from the industrial revolution, that a small minority of the population are farmers today. The industrial revolution, and now the information age, has shrunk the amount of hard labor required. Some people still have back breaking work, but our advances in technology have freed up many more people to have service-based jobs.

To some, a service-based job doesn't feel as "real" as a manufacturing job: i.e., one that creates a good that can be traded. But given that most of the US economy is based on service jobs, it's hard to say they aren't useful. Service jobs are much more than just office administration, and waiting on tables. Service jobs are held by teachers, coaches or other trainers; all forms of entertainers, including athletes, actors, commedians, disc jockeys, and musicians; lawyers and paralegals; health professionals, healers, veterinarians and massage therapists; software developers and hardware designers; architects; translators; tourist guides; clerks and other retailers; all managers; food service workers; taxi cab drivers, and bus drivers; and day care workers. The list could go on, but the short message is that people providing services to other people is something people find to be very valuable.

we'll return later to Marxism and capitalism, but the key point here is that Marxism and capitalism primarily disagree as to who should own capital and how it should be organized.

The Used Book Market Can Boost the Demand for New Books
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title: User:Mshonle/Scrap


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Talk:Ruby Programming/Overview

I will try and do some work on this since this is rapidly becoming my programming language of first choice. Sjc 06:29, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Had to run in the midst of a big edit.. will tidy up later --Jedediah Smith (talk) 03:48, 28 June 2009 (UTC)

Neutrality
"They are similar to Java's anonymous classes but are easier to use.", isn't this subjective?

title: Talk:Ruby Programming/Overview


text:
Ruby Programming/Hello world

The classic Hello, world! program is a good way to get started with Ruby.

Hello, world!
Create a text file called  containing the following code:

Now run it at the shell prompt.

$ ruby hello_world.rb Hello, world!

You can also run the short "Hello, world!" program without creating a text file at all. This is called a one-liner.

$ ruby -e "puts 'Hello, world!'" Hello, world!

Option  means evaluate (Ruby code). You can run this code with irb, but the output will look slightly different. will print out " ", but  will also print out the return value of   — which is.

$ irb >> puts "Hello, world!" Hello, world! => nil

Comments
Like Perl, Bash, Python, and C Shell, Ruby uses the hash symbol (also called Pound Sign, number sign) for comments. Everything from the hash to the end of the line is ignored when the program is run by Ruby. For example, here's our  program with comments.

You can append a comment to the end of a line of code, as well. Everything before the hash is treated as normal Ruby code.

You can also comment several lines at a time:

Although block comments can start on the same line as, the   must have its own line. You cannot insert block comments in the middle of a line of code as you can in C, C++, and Java, although you can have non-comment code on the same line as the.

Executable Ruby scripts
Typing the word  each time you run a Ruby script is tedious. To avoid doing this, follow the instructions below.

Unix-like operating systems
In Unix-like operating systems – such as Linux, Mac OS X, and Solaris you will want to mark your Ruby scripts as executable using the  command. This also works with the Cygwin version of Ruby.

$ chmod +x hello_world.rb

You need to do this each time you create a new Ruby script. If you rename a Ruby script, or edit an existing script, you do not need to run " " again.

Next, add a shebang line as the very first line of your Ruby script. The shebang line is read by the shell to determine what program to use to run the script. This line cannot be preceded by any blank lines or any leading spaces. The new  program – with the shebang line – looks like this:

If your  executable is not in the   directory, change the shebang line to point to the correct path. The other common place to find the  executable is.

The shebang line is ignored by Ruby – since the line begins with a hash, Ruby treats the line as a comment. Hence, you can still run the Ruby script on operating systems such as Windows whose shell does not support shebang lines.

Now, you can run your Ruby script without typing in the word. However, for security reasons, Unix-like operating systems do not search the current directory for executables unless it happens to be listed in your PATH environment variable. So you need to do one of the following:

 * 1) Create your Ruby scripts in a directory that is already in your PATH.
 * 2) Add the current directory to your PATH (not recommended).
 * 3) Specify the directory of your script each time you run it.

Most people start with #3. Running an executable Ruby script that is located in the current directory looks like this:

$ ./hello_world.rb

Once you have completed a script, it's common to create a  directory, add this to your PATH, and move your completed script here for running on a day-to-day basis. Then, you can run your script like this:

$ hello_world.rb

Using env
If you do not want to hard-code the path to the  executable, you can use the   command in the shebang line to search for the   executable in your PATH and execute it. This way, you will not need to change the shebang line on all of your Ruby scripts if you move them to a computer with Ruby installed in a different directory.

Windows
If you install the native Windows version of Ruby using the Ruby One-Click Installer, then the installer has setup Windows to automatically recognize your Ruby scripts as executables. Just type the name of the script to run it.

$ hello_world.rb Hello world

If this does not work, or if you installed Ruby in some other way, follow these steps.

 * 1) Log in as an administrator.
 * 2) Run the standard Windows "Command Prompt",.
 * 3) At the command prompt (i.e. shell prompt), run the following Windows commands. When you run , change the command-line arguments to correctly point to where you installed the   executable on your computer.

$ assoc .rb=RubyScript .rb=RubyScript $ ftype RubyScript="c:\ruby\bin\ruby.exe" "%1" %* RubyScript="c:\ruby\bin\ruby.exe" "%1" %*

For more help with these commands, run " " and " ".

title: Ruby Programming/Hello world


text:
Talk:Ruby Programming/Hello world

For some reason the Previous doesn't want to appear in the template output, maybe to do with string length or something. Will look into it and if I can't resolve it will pass for debugging. Sjc 06:57, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ruby Programming/Hello world


text:
Category:Subject:Ada programming language

es:Categoría:Programación en Ada


text:
Talk:Hindi/Speaking and Writing

Untitled
Bold text

Question
Hello

I am currently trying to learn hindi but i have a lot of questions doing so. I was wondering if you could help me out.

In a lot of hindi words they use letters i cant find back in the alphabet. For example the word pathar (stone) has a strange letter in the middle, i wonder where that came from because shouldnt it be written पठर or something like that.

In the middle of the word you have to imagine the a but sometimes between two consonants you imagine one and sometimes not. In the word यह it even becomes an "e"

I would be really thankfull if you could help me out.

Ps sorry for my bad english Dagmarstragier (discuss • contribs) 21:58, 18 November 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hindi/Speaking and Writing


text:
User:Drauh~enwikibooks

Drauh

title: User:Drauh~enwikibooks


text:
User:Glitch010101~enwikibooks

Eric Skiff

Open Source Advocate, Blogger, CC Content Creator.

Currently working on Ardvark The Aardvark, an illustrated cc-by-sa educational children's book. Images (which are all also cc-by-sa) wil be added to the commons as each is completed, and written works will probably end up here, although there is much discussion going on regarding where (wikimedia commons, wikibooks, etc...) it is best to place the books.

 * My Website/blog: Glitchnyc.com

title: User:Glitch010101~enwikibooks


text:
Ukrainian

You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, descendant of language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, Principality of Rus, language of Cossacks - free people by the will of God known all over the world and of modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state and society.

Please remember, the main secrets in quick learning of every language—freedom of mind and constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language - read, write, listen, make friends with us and soon you will become the real Cossack, free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry to pronounce or say in your own way, to use mixed language—we, Ukrainians often also use it and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :)

Such sites as Wikipedia in Ukrainian and Google Translate (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time.

/Introduction/

 * Ukrainian/History

Ukrainian language reference and parts of speech

 * /Alphabet and Pronunciation/
 * /Grammar/
 * /Words/
 * /Simple Sentences/
 * /Complex Sentences/
 * /Common Phrases/
 * Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts

/Ukrainian Culture/

 * Naming
 * /History/
 * /Religion/

Authors & Contributors

 * /Authors & Contributors/

Українська мова

אוקראינית

title: Ukrainian


text:
Movie Making Manual/Writing/Writing

Theory | Previous

=Writing for the Screen=

Screenwriting is different from other literary forms. The script is essentially a "blueprint" that will guide the other filmmakers through the production of the film. Often, the final film will differ from what was on the page. These differences can be as small as a few simple dialogue changes, or as large as a complete change in tone, direction, and intent. Accepting this process is key to being a screenwriter who not only writes well, but will work well with the other people involved in the film's production.

In addition to being the blueprint for the film, the script also serves as a way to get that film made in the first place. Based on the strength of your screenplay, budget, talent, and enthusiasm will fall into place. It is the strength of the story that can secure financing and production talent. It's not innovative and thrilling setpieces or even a smattering of really great scenes peppered throughout your script, but a cohesive, intriguing story that holds the reader's (and eventually the viewer's) attention from beginning to end. This is such a basic concept, and yet one that seems utterly lost on some screenwriters, even those already established in Hollywood.

Every script should be written in the industry format. The industry's script format help readers to understand how long the movie is going to be.

The screen writer has to be creative and original and also to be flexible with the script and to adapt it to the budget of the film

Write what you Know
This adage is always "Write what you know". This is excellent advice as writing from your personal experience will make the story, characters and tone believable.

The flip side of this is the joke that all first time scripts by writers who have recently moved to Hollywood are about...the struggles of a young writer recently moved to Hollywood. So write what you know but choose something of interest to an audience. You would be amazed at how easily a little known hobby of yours or a quirky friend translates into a scene or a character. Shamelessly mine your personal history and cut and paste characteristics of your friends together and you will be surprised at how little you need to spin from whole cloth.

The first ten pages of script are said to be the most important. They should begin to show how the entire film will work as a whole.

The Right Budget
More often than not, the beginning screenwriter will find that his first sold screenplay will result in low-budget film. This also applies to those writing for the independent film scene.

With that in mind, it may not be a good idea to call for giant six-legged creatures scurrying up the side of a skyscraper or epic space battles across multiple solar systems in your script. While such effects can be done on a limited budget, they will not be of similar quality to those features for which money is not a constraint.

It is not only extended special effects sequences that can break a budget, but also a large cast and/or sets. For low-budget films, try to keep both the cast and the different locations as few in number as possible. While this may seem limiting to a writer's creativity, many find the opposite to be true when they are confronted with the challenge of creating a compelling and memorable story within the confines of a low budget.

Of course, if money is not an issue, feel free to create a Lawrence of Arabia-style epic with a cast of thousands and computer-generated graphics that would break Industrial Light and Magic.

=Screenwriting Books and Authors=

Screenwriting books come in two forms: those written by successful screenwriters in Hollywood and those by, well, other types of people. And while you may be thinking that you would prefer to read a book on screenwriting by someone who has actually sold a script, both types of books actually have their strengths and weaknesses.

Successful screenwriters have a certain pedigree to their "how-to" books because they have actually been there and done that. However, success in artistic fields is rarely formulaic. They themselves may be confused as to what it was exactly in their script that allowed them to sell it in the first place. These books tend to be slightly muddled in thought and offer a strong temptation to handle things the way this particular author did (because, after all, he did sell his script).

While his method may have worked for him, it may not work for you for any number of reasons. These books are worth reading because they do offer a glimpse into the thought-process of a successful screenwriter, along with the usual samples that you can study, but just remember to take their pathway and alter it to fit your writing style and personality.

The other type of screenwriting books usually comes from academia: often from a professor who has never sold a screenplay, but seems to know a lot about the format. These books are useful in learning the mechanics of the screenplay. It is crucial for a first-time writer to remember that all the characterization and pathos in the world cannot help a script that doesn't hold true to the basic foundation of what makes a screenplay a screenplay in the first place. While it is true that there are plenty of scripts that break convention, knowing the convention is the only way you can break it successfully. The writers of these books can take a more generalized view of the process and focus in on things like act structures, climaxes, and inciting incidents, but rarely offer the advice on making your characters and story come alive. So any good writer will have a library that has at least two books from these two separate categories.

Syd Field and Robert Mckee
These are the two most well known screenwriting "gurus," though neither has written a successful movie. This does not mean they have nothing worthwhile to say; both writers are good analysts of structure and form. However, what you won't find in their books is how to put heart and spirit into your story. What is a story without heart and spirit? Lifeless. So get their books, read them, and use them to help you with structure. Just don't take their methods as gospel and don't be afraid to discard what they teach when the time is right.

William Goldman
Goldman won an Academy Award for "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid", another one for "All the President's Men" and he has written (among others) two famous books on screenwriting, Adventures in The Screen Trade and More Adventures in the Screen Trade. The oft-quoted "nobody knows anything" (meaning you can have all the right elements for a great movie and flop at the box office) is a quote from "Adventures in the Screen Trade". Although he does not teach structure, as Syd Field or Robert McKee do, he does provide often funny, sometimes heart-breaking insights into the life of a working (striving and surviving) screenwriter in Hollywood. His books are no screenwriting manuals, but the life and heart that are lacking in McKee's or Field's books are abundant in his memoirs. Read McKee once, so you know what people talk about when they mention "inciting incident" and other McKeeisms, but read Goldman every now and then, to be inspired, and know that, as hard as you think writing is for you, it is even harder for him.

Cherry Potter - Screen Language
An excellent counterweight to the more structural and formalistic screenwriting guides. Includes inspiring and original suggestions for approaching the process of generating and elaborating story ideas. Also contains insightful analyses of a number of classic films, concentrating on the sequence (a series of scenes) as an essential building block.

J. Michael Straczynski - The Complete Book of Scriptwriting
The Creator of the Emmy-winning series Babylon Five (as well as other credits too numerous to mention), J. Michael Straczynski provides a notable tome that marries insider experience with practical tips for outlining, writing, finding an agent, pitching and more. While his topic is broad (with sections on writing for movies, television, animation, radio, theatre and the business itself) his grasp and the script examples alone make it a worthy read. Producing between 2000 and 3000 pages of published or produced material every year, authors don't get much more credible than this.

Elliot Grove - Write and Sell the Hot Screenplay
From the director of Raindance, this book presents a down-to-earth, systematic approach to all the elements of writing a screenplay, plus a detailed strategy for selling it once it’s written. It covers a lot of ground and is therefore inevitably concise, but the clarity of the concepts and practical advice is hugely valuable. Elliot Grove regularly presents a two-day workshop of the same name, which is well worth attending

Blake Snyder - Save the Cat!
Save the Cat! is a popular screenwriting book (and book series) by Blake Snyder. Even its critics (and there are) say you should read it but you have to know its strengths and weaknesses.

Stephen King
Okay, so he's not a screenwriter. He is, however, one of the best-selling authors of all time, so anything he has to say about writing is probably worth listening to. King's book On Writing is excellent as he tries to come to grips with what causes us to create and looks at from where the writing comes. Anybody doing any sort of writing will find this book most useful.

=Screenwriting Websites=

http://www.wordplayer.com
WORDPLAY / wordplayer.com is a phenomenal resource. Ted Elliott and Terry Rossio are working screenwriters who co-wrote the DreamWorks animated feature SHREK, winner of the first Academy Award for Best Computer Animated Film in 2002. These guys have written a number of brilliant essays and articles on the art and business of screenwriting that are essential reading.

The Artful Writer
A blog on "information, theory and debate for the professional television and film writer". Lots of useful info.

http://artfulwriter.com/

Screenplay Talk
Screenplay Talk is a free community for screenwriters to share ideas and discuss industry trends.

http://www.screenplaytalk.com

movie school 4 freer
A blog on all aspects of filmmaking including script writing

http://movieschoolfree.com/ Next | Rewriting

/Writing movies

title: Movie Making Manual/Writing/Writing


text:
Movie Making Manual/Pitching/Elements

What is an "Element"
Remember that seventies band Earth, Wind & Fire? Actually, in film parlance, an element is not one of the four classical elements - nor one of the 101 modern elements. It is, instead, a well-known cast or crew member. Jude Law is an element, as is Yuen Woo-ping, the famed fight director.

If you have an element, studios and independent investors are inclined to give you money. You will get more money if you have signed Jude Law than if you have signed Yuen Woo-Ping, but both are enough to make your project a "go."

How to get an Element
First, you need to decide who would be great for your part. A small part for a crotchety grandfather who used to be a cop? Try Clint Eastwood. Once you have decided who you want, you need to attempt to contact them. Direct contact is always best; if you know anyone who knows them, or if you can arrange to bump into them, take these options. If direct contact is not possible, make contact with their agent or manager. Here are some resources for finding managers or agents.

 * Who Represents
 * IMDB Pro

/Directing /Actors /Funding and budgetting

title: Movie Making Manual/Pitching/Elements


text:
Movie Making Manual/Sound Recording

Types of microphone
* Omnidirectional: pickup sound in a circle around the mic * Cardioid: pickup sound better directly in front of the mic, less sound pickup as you move around the sides of the mic
 * Dynamic: Most common / cheapest. Dynamic Microphones have a metal coil within a thin plastic diaphragm which vibrates beside a fixed-charge magnet, generating a voltage. These microphones do not require an external power source.
 * Condenser: Most require Phantom Power. Known for producing more detail, especially in the upper frequencies. Condenser microphones use one fixed and one movable electromagnetic plate, the vibration of which generates a voltage. These mics require external power to charge the electromagnets.
 * Shotgun: A subtype of condenser mic that is used in filmmaking to catch dialogue during filming. Shotgun mics are generally designs which use a long, notched barrel to increase side and rear rejection, picking up more sound from the front of mic.
 * Ribbon: Ribbon Microphones use a thin charged ribbon beside a charged magnetic plate to generate a voltage. Was rare, becoming more common. Catching speed as being 'smooth' on guitars. These mics require external power to charge the electromagnets.
 * Also: Mic Patterns

Balanced versus unbalanced
Balanced audio connections use 3 wires for sending each channel: a positive phase, a negative phase, and a ground. The sending device sends its output over both the plus phase and the negative phase. But (and here's the clever bit) the signal is inverted on the negative phase. The receiving device then inverts the negative phase back (to match the positive phase) and adds it to the positive phase. Any noise picked up along a stretch of wire will be out of phase with itself, (once the destination reverts the negative phase) and be cancelled out.

Phantom power
Phantom power is used for condenser microphones that need power to run. It is also used to power direct boxes. Direct boxes turn unbalanced signal into balanced signal for reducing and preventing hum. You will most often see phantom power in 48v. You can get phantom power from a source such as many sound consoles, especially if you have a recording console. If you don't have it built into your console, you can buy a portable unit that takes up an outlet and has an xlr in and xlr out(with 48v power).

Boom technique

 * http://www.filmunderground.com/77/Article/NWFS/Boom%20Techniques.htm

Mixing
As a quick rule of thumb for a TV mix, dialogue should average 3.5/4 ppm on a meter i.e. around -20/-18dB. You should record it like this and mix at these levels. Peak dialogue shouts etc shouldn't really go above 6 ppm (-10dB). If you are recording or mixing for TV nothing should peak over 7ppm (-6dB). And those peaks should last a minimal amount of time. Music is mixed at the dubbing mixer's discretion, so that it works with the programme and fits with the dialogue, but shouldn't peak above 6.5ppm. A limiter would usually be placed across the output to ensure nothing goes above 7ppm.

If you are mixing for DVD or Theatre release you would use the full digital scale. Dialogues should still average -20/-18dB however your fx peaks can go the full range to 0dB but not over!

So you would have two mixes one for TV and one for DVD.

the BBC's audio delivery specification states:

"Peak sound levels (when measured on a BS 5428 Peak Programme Meter) within the programme must not exceed PPM 6: that is, no greater than +8dB with respect to the reference level of -18dBFS."

In other words there should be no less than 10db of 'headroom' between the highest level you can record and your programme's highest peak.

You can find the full document at: http://web.archive.org/web/20050312163940/http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/delivering_quality/pdf/tv/tv_standards_london.doc

It is preferable to have sound with "hiss" rather than distortion. Distortion cannot be fixed, background noise can be somewhat fixed.

The video camera
I've recorded onto camera quite a few times - the skinny is that you can get great audio from the cameras with XLR inputs and also:

The Canon XL1 does not have phantom power - you need an external mic power supply.

The DVX-100a has small audio controls which are more difficult to manipulate, a little movement seems to make a big difference in level

One of the two DVX100a's I've used had a buzz only when the DV tape was installed. Very annoying, but the other one was quiet.

The Sony PD170 has a good set of audio controls - especially the ch1/ch2 link function when using one microphone (two channels are better than one!)

The PD100 has needs a +48/XLR hot shoe attachment, otherwise it sounds fine.

It's wise to back up audio, and slate scenes without pausing, when using DV cameras - back up on DAT. On a recent 3 camera shoot, I had a total of 6 audio tracks, one into the DVx100a, one into a Canon Optura PI (fine little camera!), but with 1/8" connector and one into a Sony tcd-08 DAT - the DAT won as the best overall sound with the lowest noise and cleanest sound. BM

DAT
DAT-Heads concerns itself with Digital Audio Tape decks, with an emphasis on their use for the recording and distribution of live music.

MiniDisk
ATRAC 3 is a proprietary lossy perceptual audio codec developed by Sony and used for minidisc and other Sony products such as the PlayStation Portable. Uncompressed PCM offers higher quality, and therefore field recording with a portable DAT or harddisk recorder is almost always preferable to a minidisc recorder. Personally, I'd trust a tape (DAT) more as I have accidentally recorded over material with the minidisk's chapter functions. It's easier to track down ABS (absolute time code) on a DAT, especially for sound logging purposes. DAT = Digital Audio Tape

Hard Disk
Hard Disk recording has quickly become the industry standard (aside from analog tape.) Benefits include: Non-linear editing - no need to rewind or fast-forward to find different songs. Cost - You can buy a hard drive with well over a hundred gigs, for around a hundred bucks. 100 gigs can hold 300 hours of uncompressed single-channel audio, making it a very cheap way to record.

Portable Devices
With the advent of mp3 players, portable audio has become a household convenience. Some devices can be slipped into a pocket or clipped to a belt, but certain recorders are more bulky and cannot be carried as easily. Take this into consideration and make sure you have, if nothing else, long enough audio cables to allow your recordist to move around as he captures sound during your shoots.

Wild track
When on location you should always record a "wild track". This should be a few minutes of the ambient noise from your location (the sound of traffic in the distance, birds singing etc). You should ask the assistant director to tell the entire crew to be quiet so you get an undisturbed track.

Why bother? In the edit it's very useful (and often absolutely required) to keep a wild track running in the background to smooth over the changes from cut to cut.

A Wild Track is an audio only recording of an actor's lines while the camera is NOT rolling. There are no sync marks or visible slates. These wild recordings are used to replace dialogue from a filmed take that may be unusable for various reasons. Perhaps a plane flew over during the scene. The Wild Track Or Wild Line will be used in part or in whole to replace the on-camera dialogue. It is also used for Off-camera lines that need to be recorded on-mic. Many times wild Lines are used to replace compromised recordings made during a Wide master shot where the microphone could not be placed in the optimal position. Because the shot is wide, lip-sync of these lines is not as critical and sync errors are not as visible as for a close up.

"Room Tone" or "Presence" is a wild recording of just the ambient sound of a location (no one speaking). It is used in post production to cover unwanted sounds (like the director's verbal instruction during the take). To record Room tone you should place the same microphone in the same position as it was during the dialogue take. Record at the same level used for the actual take but have everyone remain still and quiet.

title: Movie Making Manual/Sound Recording


text:
Movie Making Manual/Why Make a Short

Short films are often used as the starting place for new filmmakers, but others use them as an art form unto themselves, allowing the filmmaker far more creative control than he or she would have over a feature. However, for those wanting to make a feature, it is commonly considered that one should make shorts first. Why is this?

Filmmaking is a skill that can only be learned by practice. Diving into your first feature before learning your craft on shorts would be like driving your Dad's expensive sports car on the motorway before you'd had any lessons on quiet back-roads. There has never been an easier time to make a short film. Everyone owns or knows someone with a video camera.

Advantages of shorts over features

 * Lower cost
 * Less time commitment
 * Can take bigger risks
 * Good practice for filmmaking skills (almost all directors have made short films at one time or another)
 * You can basically do anything you want - there are no censorship restrictions for short films (since there's no real market for them), and you don't need to tell a story in under ten minutes. You can just have an insane barrage of jokes and gags if you wish.

Disadvantages of shorts

 * You'll never make your money back. It's rare to make any money at all from your short.

What do you get (possibly)?

 * Publicity if you do well
 * Networking
 * Experience
 * Fun (very important)

Publicity and Networking
The first two are maybes. Keep in mind that there are a lot of shorts out there. Don't expect them to come beating down your door just because you made something witty.

Experience
It is tough to start out big, and if you do, you can fall flat on your face (and the creditors can become your worst enemies). But, it helps to just try to get out there and shoot something. Taking a look at the outcome of a short piece can teach you a lot about yourself and what you need to improve (and maybe whether you are in the right industry).

Fun :)
A short can be done with a bunch of friends in a week(end), or just some student actors. It can be shot with a cheap few hundred dollar handheld, and you can try out all kinds of things that you might feel a bit nervous about on a bigger budget film. You can take it easy and experiment. It can just be fun. If it isn't fun for you, well perhaps it is best that you only made a short.

/Short films

title: Movie Making Manual/Why Make a Short


text:
Ukrainian/Alphabet

Ukrainian Alphabet

<< HISTORY | INDEX | GRAMMAR >>

The Ukrainian language, like Russian and Belarusian, uses the Cyrillic writing system, but Ukrainian alphabet has quite many differences from the aforementioned languages. Cyrillic alphabet is the modification of Greek alphabet which was used by saint fathers Cyril and Methodius to write sacred texts translated in Old Slavonic language. That is why many letters of the Ukrainian alphabet are similar to the Latin letters (because the Latin alphabet was also based on the Greek one).

There is a special sign in Ukrainian language, the apostrophe (апостроф), that used prior to я, ю, є, ї (ya, yu, ye, yi). For example, подвір'я (paw-dveer-ya), в'юн (v-yun), об'єкт (ob-yekt), під'їзд (pid-yizd). Unlike the hard sign in Russian, it is used much more often in Ukrainian.

Unlike other Slavic languages, like Russian and Polish, Ukrainian has no consonant devoicing. Consonants are always the same at the end of a word. So, for instance, a d at the end of a word is still pronounced like a d, not a t, as it would be in Russian or Polish.

Pronunciation
Almost always Ukrainian words are pronounced literally i.e., each letter has fixed pronunciation and is pronounced only in one way, separately from the others. There are a few minimal exceptions, however, - they will be described also.

So the Ukrainian letters are pronounced:

 * Consonants:

 * Б - like b in big
 * В - usually like v in vote, but at the beginning of words and the end of syllables is closer to w in how
 * Г - voiced counterpart of h, as in hood or Hamlet. Never like h in a common pronunciation of huge. Sometimes pronounced like a "g" as in "gate", especially by those who are also Russian speakers.
 * Ґ - hard g, like g in go, goose. Never soft g, like g in germ, general.
 * Д - like d in door
 * Ж - like s in measure, pleasure''
 * З - like z in zoo
 * Й - like y in play, joy
 * К - like k in skin. Note that the sound lacks aspiration, thus pronounced differently from k in keen.
 * Л - like l in love
 * М - like m in month
 * Н - like n in night but the tongue touches the teeth, and not the alveoles
 * П - like p in spy. Note that the sound lacks aspiration, thus pronounced differently from p in pig.
 * Р - somewhat like r in rabbit. The sound is a "rolled r" at the front of your mouth, and actually an alveolar trill, like Spanish rr in perro, or an old-fashioned British pronunciation of r in three.
 * С - like s in sing
 * Т - like t in stable. Note that the sound lacks aspiration, thus pronounced differently from t in table.
 * Ф - like f in fair
 * Х - somewhat like h. The sound is a velar fricative, i.e., it is pronounced with back of the tongue almost touching back of the throat, as j in Spanish mojado, but contrasting with English h where the tongue doesn't move. It is similar to uvular fricative, as in Arabic kh, also as ch in German ach (But not the ch in German "ich", which is pronounced further forward in the mouth.) or Scottish pronunciation of loch.
 * Ц - is pronounced like ts in bits
 * Ч - like ch in chess
 * Ш - like sh in shore, shook
 * Щ - is pronounced like two separate sounds: ШЧ. Consider the sounds the letters 'shch' make in these phrases: "Cash cheque", "fish chowder", "reddish cherry".

There are two sounds in Ukrainian that are represented by two letters:
 * дз - like ds in goods, bids
 * дж - like dg in hedge or the j in jam

They are pronounced differently from coincidental combinations of the letters д and з or д and ж. (cf. дзвеніти and підземний, бджола and віджахнутися)

Also there is a soft form of most consonants: mild Л sounds like l in leap, mild Р sounds like the second r in carry or r in the Spanish arriba and so on. Ч is not always mild like it is in Russian or always hard like in Belorussian, it can be both mild and hard as in течія or чотири respectively.

The soft form is called palatalization where the tongue is moved from its original position. Consider the difference in pronunciation of key and cool. In key the /k/ (preceded by closed front vowel, the tongue moves up and forward) is palatalized and in cool the /k/ (labialized, and oral cavity is increased by this) is not. Same thing with tea and tool. When we talk about soft or mild consonants we are talking about palatalization. Palatized consonants are called soft in Ukrainian.

A pair of identical consonants pronounced not as a simple consonant and not as two separate sounds, but as long consonant.

 * Vowels:
 * Simple Vowels:
 * А - like a in father or the second a in apart
 * E - like e in echo, edit.
 * І - like ''ee" in "meet" and softens the previous consonant
 * И - like y in myth or 'i' in 'big' (near to the Russian sound Ы), it is almost the same as І but should never be after a soft consonant
 * О - like o in "more", "lore", "fore". NOT like "o" in obey, and but never spoken as ou.
 * У - like oo in "moon".
 * Complex Vowels - have their analogs among simple vowels; if a complex vowel follows an hard (not mild) consonant, the consonant becomes mild and the vowel is pronounced as the simple; else first Й is pronounced, followed by the corresponding simple vowel:
 * Я - ЙА pronounced "ya" a 'y' in front of an 'a' as in yard
 * Є - ЙЕ pronounced "ye" as in yes
 * Ї - ЙІ pronounced "yi" it is never placed after a consonant because І already palatalizes the consonant automatically
 * Ю - ЙУ pronounced like as in "you"

Ь is not pronounced, it is called м’який знак (soft sign) or знак м’якшeння (sign of softening) and is used to make preceding consonant palatized. For example, in замість (instead of) the т is softened. In fact, the м is also softened by the і and the с is also softened by being in front of the soft т

Keep in mind that there is no complex vowel that corresponds to О. Instead, Й and Ь are used together with О letter: його, льодом.

Also the apostrophe sign is used after a consonant and before a complex vowel to prevent the consonant from becoming mild. The complex vowel is therefore pronounced like й and corresponding simple vowel. For example, в'язати (to tie up) is pronounced like вйазати.

 * Some cases of discrepancies between spelling and pronunciation:
 * unvoiced consonant + voiced consonant = voiced pair (боротьба is pronounced like бородьба); but voiced consonant + unvoiced consonant or unvoiced consonant + approximate consonant do not change, except:
 * З + unvoiced consonant = С (розпис is pronounced like роспис);
 * Г + К or Т = Х (нігті is pronounced like ніхті);
 * a pair of sibilants converges (зшити is pronounced like шшити; стежці → стезці; дочці → доцці).

Try to Pronounce
Here are some Ukrainian words. Try to pronounce them keeping in mind the bolded vowels are stressed:

 * Рак (rak; crayfish) - Pronounce "rruk", not "rzake".
 * Юрба (yurba; crowd)
 * Їжа (yizha; food)
 * Ранок (ranok; morning)
 * Коли-небудь (koly-nebud' ; somewhen)
 * Ядро (yadro; kernel)
 * Словa (slova; words)
 * Ґедзь (ged'z'; gadfly) - "Ґ" is pronounced like "g" in "get". In this word "дз" is palatalized. Touch your tongue to the palate and say "z".
 * Прохання (prokhannya; request, wish) - Long and soft "ннь" [-ɲːɑ].
 * Бути (buty; to be) - Do not pronounce it "beauty" and "и" doesn't sound like [i], slide back a bit.

Ukrainian is written as pronounced just like the other Slavs, but, like Russian and Bulgarian, the stress is very unpredictable and stressing the wrong syllable can lead to misunderstandings. Virtually every textbook and dictionary will write these words with an acute accent (ˊ) on the stressed syllable: юрба́, кість, ра́нок, коли́-небудь, ядро́, слі́дувати, ґедзь, бу́ти. Watch out for words that are written the same, but stressed in a different syllable, such as замок (castle) — замок (lock).

Ukrainian Alphabet

<< HISTORY | INDEX | GRAMMAR >>

title: Ukrainian/Alphabet


text:
Movie Making Manual/IFX Piranha HD

This Module is part of the Movie Making Manual wikibook

IFX Piranha HD is an ultra high end compositor. Actually it's much more than a compositor. It's really an effects suite along the lines of an inferno system (A turn key effects system from Discreet/SGI). It provides Hardware assisted rendering as well.

http://www.ifx.com/

title: Movie Making Manual/IFX Piranha HD


text:
Movie Making Manual/Nuke

This Module is part of the Movie Making Manual wikibook

Nuke is another highend compositor. from Digital Domain

http://www.d2software.com/nuke.php

title: Movie Making Manual/Nuke


text:
Wings 3D

Wings 3D is a free, open source polygon modeler that was originally inspired by Nendo and later Mirai (both by Izware).

Once learnt, its clean, no-frills interface and wide-ranging (but unbloated!) toolset lets the user concentrate on their prime purpose: modeling.

The current release is available from the Wings 3D site. Other software is necessary to allow models made in Wings to be (properly) rendered and / or animated, although Wings does have an excellent feature-rich native UV unwrap facility.

Many industry standard import / export options are supported by Wings to allow it to communicate with the 'outside world'

 * /User Manual/
 * /Tutorials/
 * /Useful links/

title: Wings 3D


text:
User:Sam Hocevar

Wikimedia: Commons ~ Meta ~ Wikisource Wikipedia: Afrikaans ~ Asturianu ~ Български ~ Català ~ Česká ~ Kaszëbsczi ~ Cymraeg ~ Dansk ~ Deutsch ~ Ελληνικά ~ English ~ Esperanto ~ Español ~ Eesti ~ Suomi ~ Français ~ Galego ~ עברית ~ हिन्दी ~ Hrvatski ~ Magyar ~ Interlingua ~ Bahasa Indonesia ~ Italiano ~ 日本語 ~ 한국어 ~ Kurdî / كوردی ~ Latina ~ Lëtzebuergesch ~ മലയാളം ~ Bahasa Melayu ~ Plattdüütsch ~ Nederlands ~ Norsk ~ Polski ~ Português ~ Română ~ Русский ~ Sicilianu ~ Simple English ~ Slovenščina ~ Svenska ~ ไทย ~ Türkçe ~ Українська ~ اردو ~ Tiếng Việt ~ Walon ~ 中文 Wiktionary: Deutsch ~ English ~ Español ~ Français ~ 日本語 ~ Polski Wikibooks: Deutsch ~ English ~ Français ~ Polski ~ Русский ~ Svenska ~ 中文 Wikiquote: English ~ Français

title: User:Sam Hocevar


text:
Talk:Guitar/Hammer-ons, Pull-offs, and Trills

can be in spanish please?? xD! == here it is in spanish== i used an internet translater, so i dont know how much sence it'll make...

El Martillo-ons y tira -offs es dos técnicas de cerca relacionadas. Se utilizan para jugar ' ' el '' del legato, es decir, de una manera lisa, y también se utilizan para ayudar al guitarist a jugar más rápidamente. Se utilizan lo más comúnmente posible en trabajo de la guitarra eléctrica, pero pueden ser utilizadas en consonancias acústicas como adornos.

martillo-en huelga del
una E abierta en la primera secuencia. Mientras que la nota todavía está sonando, rápidamente y firmemente presione un dedo en el tercer traste. Si está hecha correctamente, una nota de G debe sonar. Esto se llama "martilleo en" la secuencia. Sin la amplificación eléctrica, martillo-en tiende para hacer el &mdash más reservado sano; ¡mucho más reservado si uno no lo ha practicado! (aunque, porque las secuencias están más cercano al fingerboard, el martillo-ons es más fácil de ejecutarse en una guitarra eléctrica, son utilizadas extensivamente por los guitarists acústicos también.) Martillo-en la lata apenas como juegúese fácilmente con las notas preocupadas: juego justo la nota normalmente y martillo sobre otro traste (alto-numerado) en la misma secuencia. el

tira -apagado del
tira -apagado es el contrario del martillo-en. Sostenga la secuencia de E en el tercer traste. Pulse la secuencia y, mientras que la nota todavía está sonando, lance el dedo de preocupación. Si está hecho correctamente, el G se debe seguir por una E abierta. Como martillo-en, esto tiende para hacer el sonido más reservado. Para ayudar a aliviar esto, un movimiento oblicuo leve del dedo mientras que el quitar agregará la vibración adicional a la secuencia, preservando el volumen. Es muy duro que un principiante logren, y las ayudas oblicuas del movimiento grandemente. el

el trill del
A del trill es dos notas que se alternan, tales como una A y se pulsa A #. solamente la primera nota; el resto está rápidamente martillar-en y quitado


text:
Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 8

=Lesson 8= = 她是谁？ =

Dialogues
You can check out the translation here

title: Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 8


text:
User:Brooke Vibber/Test

Current guides and walkthroughs for the TI 83+:
 * Return to Video Game Walkthroughs

Note: The TI 83+ is a calculator that you can download games from the internet (via a USB cable) onto.

 * 1) Phoenix [[Image:Solid_red.png]]

title: User:Brooke Vibber/Test


text:
Category:Yiddish recipes

Recipes of Jewish origin.

title: Category:Yiddish recipes


text:
Talk:Statistics/Probability

Any reason the conditional should not be included? It seems to have been removed without comment. --Llywelyn 05:44, 24 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Statistics/Probability


text:
User:Dphrag

Modules I pay attention to:

 * Economics

I am currently working on an honours degree in Economics at the Univerisity of Alberta. I have a previous diploma in object-oriented software design.

title: User:Dphrag


text:
General Astronomy/Apparent Motions of the Planets

Before the common acceptance of the heliocentric model in the mid 1500s, the Earth was believed to be the center of the known universe. Many inherent problems in the geocentric model of the universe led Nicolaus Copernicus to formulate an alternate means by which planets and stars moved. Two such problems are the apparent retrograde motion of various planets, specifically Mars, and the ensuing epicycle theory made to compensate for this issue, as well as the phases of Venus that occur.

Planetary Motion and Epicycles
Viewing Earth as the center of our universe, many of the planets in our solar system take on a peculiar motion across the night sky. For instance, Mars appears to move in a retrograde fashion from time to time. Since the geocentric model holds that all the planets in our solar system orbit the Earth, this would mean that from time to time Mars reverses its orbital direction only to resume it later. The Greek astronomer, Ptolemy, sought to explain this phenomenon with the use of epicycles - that is, small circular motions that planets orbiting the Earth followed on top of their circular orbit around the Earth. Astronomers from Greek times to the Enlightenment compensated for flaws in the geocentric model by adding extra layers of epicycles, until the system was so complex it became virtually unusable. Copernicus' heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center with planets going around it rather than around the Earth, rid the universe of many of the epicycles that plagued astronomy at that time.

Phases of Venus
Another problem with the geocentric model occurred when observing Venus and its relative phases: should Venus and the Sun orbit the Earth, then it would be impossible for Venus to be in the "full" phase, that is complete illumination (similar to a full moon). Thus, the Ptolemaic model predicted only crescent and new phases of Venus. Yet, as Galileo observed, this was clearly not the case; Venus exhibited all phases of the moon, a phenomenon predicted and accounted for by Copernicus' model. Discovered by Galileo, this phenomenon was one of the key factors that would end up supporting the Heliocentric view of the universe.

Note that this is only one of a number of observations made by Galileo that contradicted the ancient beliefs, but this one most directly called into question the idea that planets orbit the Earth.