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Wikijunior:The Elements/Structure

=Structure= Protons, neutrons and electrons make up atoms. Because of this, they are called subatomic particles. Each type of atom can differ in the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons. According to the current electron cloud theory of atoms: there are two parts to the atom, the nucleus and the electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons, and in turn each of these nucleons is made up of triples of even smaller particles called "quarks".

The nucleus is the center of the atom and contains the protons and neutrons. The nucleus is very small compared to the size of the electron cloud. This means there a massive amount of empty space around the nucleus. The protons and neutrons of an atom are in specific locations. Both protons and neutrons have a mass of about 1 amu (atomic mass unit) each. The atomic mass of an atom is thus the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. (Electrons are thousands of times lighter, so they aren't part of the calculation.)

The protons have a positive charge. The number of protons decides what element an atom is. For example, if an atom has one proton, that means it is a hydrogen atom; only hydrogen can have one proton. On the periodic table, the atomic number of the element is the same as its number of protons.

The neutrons have no charge, but they help stabilize the nucleus; if the positive charges of the protons were by themselves in the nucleus, they would repel each other and make the nucleus less stable. Atoms of the same element but with different numbers of neutrons called isotopes of each other. For example, hydrogen has three natural isotopes, one with no neutrons, one with one neutron, and one with two neutrons. They all have one proton and so they are all hydrogen, but because they differ in the number of neutrons they are different isotopes. Some isotopes are radioactive, which means that they decay, or release over time. A certain radioactive isotope of carbon, called carbon-14 (carbon with an atomic mass of 14) is used by paleontologists to discover the age of fossils. They can do this because they know the rate at which carbon-14 decays.

The outer part of the atom, the electron cloud, surrounds the nucleus. According to a theory called quantum mechanics, we never know the exact location or speed of a specific electron; we can only say the probability of it being anywhere. If we know exactly where the electron is, we don't know how fast it is going. If we know how fast it is going, likewise, we cannot determine where exactly it is located. An electron has a negative charge that is as powerful as a proton's positive charge. Some scientists used to think that electrons orbited the nucleus like planets around the sun, but we now know this isn't true. The electrons move somewhat randomly around the nucleus and are attracted to the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus.

Atoms = Building Blocks
Atoms are the basis of chemistry and everything in the Universe. You should start by remembering that matter is composed of atoms. Atoms and the study of atoms are a world unto themselves. We're going to cover basics like atomic structure and bonding between atoms. As you learn more, you can move to the biochemistry tutorials and see how atoms form compounds that help the biological world survive.

Electron Arrangement
Electrons are organized in energy levels.

The energy levels don't have to be full for electrons to be in a higher energy level. For example, titanium has an electron configuration of 2-8-10-2. That means it has 2 electrons in the first energy level, 8 in the second, 10 in the third, and 2 in the fourth.

As explained before, some atoms only have a certain amount of electrons, so some elements don't have as many energy levels with electrons as others.

The outermost energy level is called the valence energy level. Likewise, electrons in the outermost energy level are called valence electrons. These electrons help atoms combine into molecules.

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Structure


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The Cold War/Cover

The Cold War

 Open WikiBook

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Cold War/Cover


text:
Horticulture/Topping

Tree topping is the practice of removing large branches and/or trunks from the top of a tree's canopy. Topping is often harmful for the tree. Large pruning wounds often fail to heal and become entry points for disease and pests, undermining the long term health of the tree. Aesthetic appeal is compromised as the natural shape of the tree is lost. Trunks grow at the topping location and as these weakly attached trunks increase in size, they often fall during windstorms.

Previously topped trees are often dangerous and should be inspected by a qualified arborist who can recommend possible solutions: removal, cabling/bracing, or ongoing inspection. Better alternatives to tree topping, based on scientific research, are replacing the practice of tree topping. Spiral thinning (canopy thinning) decreases wind resistance and allows the wind to pass through the trees, decreasing the likelihood that the tree will fall due to wind-throw. It also allows more light penetration and air circulation, both important for the tree’s health.

/Techniques

title: Horticulture/Topping


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Talk:Horticulture/Topping

Transwiki notes
Copied from Tree topping 12:27, 7 October 2006 (UTC) using this revision.

title: Talk:Horticulture/Topping


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The Cold War

Contents

 * /Introduction/[[Image:75%.svg]]

 * Background History
 * /East vs West: The Ultimate Love-Hate Relationship/[[Image:75%.svg]]
 * /How did it all start?/
 * /How was the Cold War fought?/[[Image:75%.svg]]

 * First Tensions
 * /A Divided Europe/[[Image:75%.svg]]
 * /Yalta/[[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Potsdam/
 * /The Truman Doctrine/[[Image:50%.svg]]
 * /The Marshall Plan and the Reconstruction of Europe/[[Image:75%.svg]]

 * Conflict Under Stalin
 * /The Berlin Airlift/[[Image:75%.svg]]
 * /Korean War/[[File:100%.svg]]

 * The mid-20th Century
 * /Hungarian Revolution/[[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Prague Spring/[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /The Space Race/[[Image:75%.svg]]
 * /Cuban Missile Crisis/[[File:100%.svg]]

 * The Guerilla Wars
 * /Vietnam/
 * /Afghanistan/

 * The End of the Cold War
 * /Changes in the USSR/[[File:100%.svg]] - Gorbachev, glasnost and perestroika
 * /"A Forward Strategy to Freedom"/[[Image:75%.svg]] - Reagan, SDI and Star Wars
 * /The break-up of the Soviet bloc/
 * /The 1991 coup and the rise of Yeltsin/

 * /Nuclear Arms Race/[[Image:25%.svg]]

title: The Cold War


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The Cold War/Introduction

After the Allies had defeated Nazi Germany in 1945, two nations emerged out of the war as world superpowers - the United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the Soviet Union or the USSR).

By the end of World War 2, they had earned their place as the strongest countries in the world. But although they had been fighting the war as allies, there were many things which separated them:

 * Economic System - the USA had a capitalist economic system which basically means that the industry is owned by private individuals who can make and keep their profit independently. The Soviet Union had a socialist economic system. All industry and land was owned by the state (i.e., the government) and the wealth generated distributed to the population.

 * Social System - the USA believed in freedom of speech (for example, allowing criticism of the government), freedom of personal belief and freedom of the press. Citizens exercised these rights under the constitution which limited the powers of the state. The Soviet Union did not guarantee these rights to its citizens, it subordinated these rights to the "greater interest" of the state. This led to censorship of those things considered "undesirable" or and potentially "dangerous" to the government. The government controlled the media.

 * Election Process - the USA believed in free, multi-party elections which allowed all types of parties no matter how far right or left they were, to be represented and allowed to be voted for in elections. The party which won the majority of votes by the population would get into power. The Soviet Union held elections but allowed only one political party - the Communist Party - effectively preventing citizens from choosing who would govern them.

So what was the problem?
Germany was a common enemy in World War 2, leading to cooperation between the USSR and USA. With the end of the war the clashes of system, process and culture led to the countries falling out. With two years of the end of the war, the former allies were now enemies and the Cold War began. It was to last for the next 40 years and would be fought for real, by proxy armies, on battlefields from Africa to Asia, in Afghanistan, Cuba and many other places.

The fundamental problem was their ideologies:
 * The USA was a fundamentally capitalist society. They believed in a free market, and in freedom to earn social status, power and respect.
 * The USSR was a communist state. They believed in the inevitability of world revolution - the passing of power into the hands of the people. This meant that, in creating this society, everyone had to be equal.

As a result, they were enemies; the USA wanted to secure its position in the world, whereas the USSR wanted to spread its ideology across the world.

>>Next Page

title: The Cold War/Introduction


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The Cold War/East vs West: The Ultimate Love-Hate Relationship

Early History
Before 1917, the West had a good relationship with Russia; they were allies in the then ongoing First World War, for example. However, in October 1917 (or November, if you're using the old Russian calendar), the Bolsheviks seized power in central Russia. Before the revolution, Russia was politically and technologically far behind the West and found itself in a terrible position - there was famine, living conditions were poor, mass poverty abounded and World War I was draining away Russia's limited money and resources.

In 1917, there were actually two revolutions, in addition to the failed revolution in 1905, and the Kornilov coup in mid-1917:

 * 1) February Revolution of 1917 - The Duma (Parliament) deposes Tsar Nicholas II, and takes control, creating a 'Provisional Government'.
 * 2) October Revolution of 1917 - Under Lenin, the Bolsheviks seize power, by capturing key buildings in Petrograd and Moscow. Shortly after, Russia made peace with Germany and withdrew from World War I.

This was not good news for the Western leaders. They had just lost a crucial ally in the war against Germany and its allies, and having witnessed the revolution in Russia they were terrified that something similar might happen in their countries.

However, the Bolsheviks did not yet have undisputed control over Russia. A civil war followed the revolution, between the Bolshevik 'Red Army' forces (led by Leon Trotsky) and anti-communist 'White Army' forces (a combination of ex-Tsarists and Western aid). Eventually, the Red Army won, and the USSR was born.

From that time onwards, relations were strained between the West and the newly formed USSR. Each had a general dislike of the other, but it was nothing compared to the level of mistrust and competition there was to be later in the real Cold War.

The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939
Before World War II began, the Soviets had unexpectedly signed a non-agression pact with Nazi Germany. In the treaty, each side promised not to attack the other. This seemed confusing to the spectators in the West, as Hitler hated Communism and the USSR.

Similarly, Joseph Stalin, the Soviet leader at the time, had the same hatred towards fascism and the Nazis. However, he felt that they were a threat to the Soviet Union, so he signed the pact to delay the invasion while he prepared the USSR for war. The pact lasted just two years before it was broken in 1941 when Hitler executed Operation Barbarossa - the invasion of the Soviet Union.

Operation Barbarossa
Hitler broke the non-aggression pact on June 21, 1941 by crossing the border with 3 million troops into the Eastern, Soviet-occupied half of Poland and over the next few months, advanced eastwards, capturing major Soviet towns and cities along the way, including Kiev (now the capital of Ukraine), Kursk, Minsk and approaching the outskirts of the Soviet capital, Moscow.

There are many reasons why such a small nation as Germany posed such a heavy threat to the USSR:
 * Stalin's Purge of the Red Army

Stalin thought that many army leaders in the Red Army were plotting against him, so he purged:
 * 3 out of 5 marshals
 * 13 out of 15 army commanders
 * 8 out of 9 admirals
 * 50 out of 57 army corps commanders
 * 154 out of 186 division commanders
 * 25 out of 28 army corps commissars

This resulted in the Red Army lacking experienced military leaders. Many of those purged were executed, although some were simply expelled from the Communist Party. The purge of the Red Army was part of a larger purge that included the intelligentsia, artists, and the middle-class.

 * Stalin's assumption

Stalin had a lot of warning of a German attack from the many intelligence reports he had received, but he refused to believe any of them and thought they were from agents working for the West who were trying to deceive the Soviet Union into starting an open war against Germany.

 * Lack of training & preparation

A lot of the soldiers in the Red Army were young and inexperienced and had never engaged in combat before. Their doctrine was "there won't be any invasion before 1942", so they were not prepared for the invasion.

 * Underestimation of the Germans

The Red Army was fooled by a gross overestimation of its own capabilities. In reality, they were weak, unlike the Germans. The German Army was the best trained and most experienced in the world and their various victories were the result of superior tactics, communication and arms

Following the invasion, the Soviet Union joined the Allies and from then onwards, they worked together in bringing about the end of Nazi Germany and the other Axis Powers. But this was not to last. As soon as World War II was over, old grudges came to the forefront again.


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User:Eyepredictor

Personal Investing 101 Where do I start

title: User:Eyepredictor


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User talk:Eyepredictor

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 16:16, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

Personal Investing 101

Chapter 1
Chapter 1

title: User talk:Eyepredictor


text:
User talk:66.36.243.77

Please use Study help desk. --Derbeth talk 13:26, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.36.243.77


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Wikijunior:The Elements/Bonding

Bonding
Atoms are able to bond to each other to make molecules and compounds. A compound is a molecule with more than one kind of element in it. How do they do it? It has to do with their electrons.

Ionic Bonds
When an atom is by itself before it has reacted with anything, it has the same number of protons as it has electrons. With an equal number of protons and electrons, the charges cancel each other out and the atom has no charge.

Sometimes, atoms do not have an equal number of protons and electrons. If an atom loses an electron, that means it has more protons than electrons, and so the atom has a positive charge. If an atom gains an electron, that means it has more electrons than protons, and so the atom has a negative charge. Atoms with a charge are called ions.

To form an ionic bond, some atoms will take an electron from another atom; this will make both of them ions, one positive and one negative. Because one is positive and one is negative, the ions will attract to each other and form an ionic bond. An ionic bond is a bond formed when one atom takes the electron or electrons of another atom.

Covalent Bonds
Not all bonds are formed by taking electrons away. Atoms can share electrons instead. By sharing electrons, atoms can bond together, but they do not form ions because none of the atoms lost or gained electrons.

Pure Covalent Bonding
This is when the two atoms that form the bond share the electrons equally.

All atoms can attract electrons in a pure covalent bond. Some have high attracting powers, like oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and fluorine. Some have low attracting powers like metals, carbon, and hydrogen. Elements with identical or similar attraction are considered to form pure covalent bonds.

Polar Covalent Bonding
This involves unequal sharing. The further right and up the Periodic Table, the greater the attracting powers of the element. The exceptions to this are the noble gases. If two elements have significant differences in attracting powers, the result is a Polar Covalent Bond.

Metallic bonds
A slightly different form of sharing that can be thought of in terms of atoms sitting in a sea of shared electrons. Metallic bonds exist only in metals, such as aluminum, gold, copper, etc.

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Bonding


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Ossicle/Otology

NEUROLOGY REVIEW
Multiple Sclerosis - multiple demyelinated areas in CNS, “remissions” and “exacerbations”, paresthesias AND weakness (most neuro dz is one or the other), EOM’s affected, vertigo, CN7 involvement, internuclear ophthalmoplegia is pathognomonic Charcot Triad - nystagmus, slurred speech, intention tremor Diagnosis - MRI findings, incr IgG in CSF with oligoclonal banding  Myasthenia Gravis - M>F, eye weakness in 90%, facial weakness in 70%, pharyngeal weakness, nasal regurg, abnl fatiguability of skeletal mm, reflexes preserves, no nystagmus, no vertigo. Tensillon test for diagnosis (short-acting cholinergic).  Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis - hyperreflexia, weakness, mm atrophy, fasiculations and fibrillations (esp tongue), dysarthria, upper and lower motor neuron signs, ocular nuclei spared Pseudobulbar Palsy - affects motor tracts of brainstem nuclei (Bilat corticobulbar tracts), trouble w/ speech, facial extpression, tongue motion, chewing, swallowing, breathing. Guillain-Barre - Proximal and distal weakness with paresthesias, areflexia and hypotonia, facial diplegia in 50%, respiratory weakness, ocular weakness Increased CSF protein and cells  Wallenburg’s Syndrome - PICA thrombosis> Lateral Medullary syndrome. Vertigo, nystagmus, Horner’s, dysphagia, hypotonia, ataxia, decr pain and temp sensation of IPSI face and CONTRA body Vertebrobasilar Syndrome - vertigo, hemiparesis, dysarthria, vomiting, drop attacks Migraine - Abort with ergotamine

FACIAL NERVE
Hemifacial Spasm - Irregular contraction of of side of face. Orbicularis oculi and perioral muscles affected

Primary - electrophysiologic testing is diagnostic and showing synchronous firing rate ~350/sec.

Secondary - from tumor or cholesteatoma. Asynchronous firing rate.

Blepharospasm - Always bilateral, asynchronous firing with normal rate ~50-70/second Melkerson's - Recurrent facial paralysis, facial edema, fissured tongue (or furrowed tongue) Mobius Syndrome - Bilateral congenital facial paralysis with unilateral or bilateral VI palsy

Repairing the Facial Nerve:

Primary Anastomosis - Best overall option if possible. Do epineural repair except at Pes Anserina, then do fasicular repair.
Cable graft (from sural n.) - for gaps > 1.5cm usually.
XII --> VII Jump - Only when proximal VII not available. Within 18 months of injury.
NERVE REGROWS 1MM PER DAY !
Muscle transfer - when you can't use nerve.

EMG - tests voluntary units

Fibrillation potentials = denervation (takes 14-21 days to see).
Polyphasic action potentials = reinnervation.

Trauma - wait 72 hours after injury for ENOG

Neuropraxia - conduction block without structural damage.
Axonotmesis - Degeneration of myelin sheath without dysruption of neurolemnal sheath.
Neurotmesis - Dysruption of nerve trunk.
Frontal branch least likely to return after injury.
Greater auricular nerve most likely nerve injured in rhytidectomy.
Frontal branch most common 7th nerve branch injured in rhytidectomy (lies just superficial to periosteum over zygoma).

INFECTION AND ITS COMPLICATIONS
Acute Necrotizing OM - β-hemolytic Strep, "sick kids", necrosis of soft tissues and bones of middle ear Acute Mastoiditis - S. pneumo, Strep pyogenes, Staph Otitis Externa - Staph, Fungi including Candida and Aspergillus niger Tuberculous Ear Dz - multiple perforations, oroless discharge, pale granulations, hearing loss out of proportion 11% complication rate after PET placement - otorrhea most common. Osteoma - singular, large, pedunculated, unilateral, at bony-cartilaginous junction. Exostosis - Most common EAC tumor, bilateral, multiple. Related to cold water (surfers). Winkler's - Painful nodule @ helix, AV anastomosis, chondrodermatitis nodularis helicus

Complications of AOM (Suppurative):

Subperiosteal abscess - most commonly post-auricular. Also Zygomatic or Bezold's (extending into SCM)
Facial Paralysis - through dehiscence in bony canal (30%) or erosion by cholestatoma
Labyrinthitis - 2' fistula in Lateral SCC. Can be serous or suppurative
Petrositis - Petrous Apex pneumatized in 30% of healthy tbones.

Gradiengo's Triad - OM, CN VI paresis, CN V with pain or paresthesia

Coalescent Mastoiditis - Loss of bony septations in mastoid
Meningitis - Most common intracranial complication. CSF with high protein, low glucose.
Epidural Abscess - Persistent headache, some releif with drainage from ear. 2nd most common complication of AOM after mastoiditis.
Subdural Abscess - Rare. Headache, malaise, focal seizures, hemiplegia, from thrombophlebitis or direct extension.
Brain Abscess - Most frequent cause of death from AOM. Most frequent site is temporal lobe followed by cerebellum. Elevated ICP, Thrombophlebitis.
Lateral Sinus Thrombosis - spiking picket-fence fevers, papilledema, Queckenstedt's Test (no increase in CSF pressure when ipsilateral jugular vein compressed). Greisinger's sign (tenderness over mastoid area from extension through mastoid emissary vein).
Otic Hydrocephalus - Elevated ICP without brain abscess following OM. Clear CSF. Sxs include headache and CN VI palsy. Rx is repeated LP's.
Pneumococcus - Bug with highest risk for intracranial complications.

AUDIOLOGY QUICKIES
Speed of sound = 300m/s or 1100f/s Velocity = Wavelength x Frequency N dB = 20 x log (P1/P2) Standard Pressure = .0002 dynes/cm2 Resonant Frequency of EAC = 3kHz TM Surface Area = 70-80mm2, pars tensa = 55mm2 Footplate Surface Area = 3.5mm2 Lever Ratio of ossicles = 1.3:1 or 2.5dB Hydraulic Action Mechanical Advantage of TM:Footplate = 17:1 or 25dB Combined mechanical advantage of lever and hydraulic advantages = 22:1 (1.3 x 17) Speech Recognition Testing (SRT) uses Spondees Discrimination Testing used phonetically balanced phrases Stenger's - when Pure Tone Average does not agree with SRT and descrimination. Performed to detect malingering of unilateral loss. If sound is presented to both ears, patient will deny hearing in the ear with the feigned loss. If sound is presented to the good ear at a suprathreshold level, simultaneous to a louder sound in the questionable ear, a malingerer will localize the sound to his "bad" ear, and therefore deny hearing anything at all. Masking necessary when AC threshold is 40dB greater than in contralateral ear. OSHA Sound Exposure Guidelines

90dB x 8hr
95dB x 4hr
100dB x 2hr

DEAFNESS & SYNDROMES
Rubella - cataracts, cardiovascular abnormalities, retinitis Cogan's aka nonsyphillitic interstitial keratitis. Vertigo with tinnitus, progressive SNHL. Autoimmune etiology. Rx is Steroids Syphilis - bilateral asymmetric SNHL with vestibular symptoms (like Meniere's)

Hennebert's Sign - increased mobility of footplate, positive fistula test but no fistula
Tullio's Phenomenon - vertigo with loud noise
Histo of Syphilis - Osteitis with mononuclear leukocytosis, obliterative endarteritis, endolymphatic hydrops
Congentical syphilis associated with saber shins, Hutchinson's Teeth, short stature, interstitial keratitis (corneal opacifications), frontal bossing

EAC Stenosis - normal pinna usually means good middle ear structures. Correct at 4-5y if bilateral >15y if unilateral.

CN VII takes abrupt turn anterior at 2nd genu (caution)

Congenital Hearing Loss 90% are autosomal recessive

Michel - complete aplasia
Mondini - cochea is single curved tube. Cochlear aqueduct is patent. High risks of otic hydrocephalus and meningitis. Also risk of CSF leak from spontanous window fistula. Autosomal Dominant.
Scheibe = cochlear-saccular aplasia (pars inferior) with normal bony labyrinth and pars superior. Profound SNHL, only hears very low frequencies.
Alexander - cochlear duct aplasia, hi frequency SNHL.
Bing-Siebenmenn - membranous vestibular abnormality.

Congenital Deafness Syndromes

Tietz's - AD, albinism, SNHL, absent eyebrows
Waardenburg's - AD, wide medial canthi, confluent eyebrow, white forelock, abnormal tyrosine metabolism, SNHL in 20%.
Apert's - AD, premature closure of cranial sutures, syndactyly, CHL secondary to stapes fixation.
Klippel-Feil - AD or AR, F>M, SNHL with middle ear abnormalities, fused cervical vertebrae, spina bifida, EAC atresia.
Marfan's - AD, mixed HL, scoliosis, arachnodactyly, ectopia lentis, cardiovascular abnormalities.
Osteogenesis Imperfecta - AD, fragile bones, blue sclera, CHL secondary to otosclerosis or ossicular fracture.
Alport's - AD, SNHL begining @ age 10, renal failure. Hearing improves with renal transplant.
Crouzon's - AD, CHL in >50% secondary to EAC atresia or ossicle malformation.
Treacher-Collins - aka mandibulofacial dysostosis, AD, hemifacial asymmetry, CHL secondary to EAC stenosis or ossicular malformation.
Goldenhar's - AR, colobomas, epibulbar dermoids, CHL.
Jervell-Lange-Nielson - AR, congenital SNHL, prolonged QT interval, sudden death before adolescence.
Hurler's - AR, mixed HL, abnormal mucopolysaccharide deposits in tissue, corneal opacity.
Hunter's - Sex-linked version of Hurler's.
Pendred's - AR, U-shaped audiogram, euthyroid goiter.
Usher's - AR, vestibular symptoms common, deaf at birth, retinitis pigmentosa (blind by age 20).
AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE = P.H.U.G.J. = Pendred, Hurler, Usher, Goldenhar, Jervell-Lange-Neilson
CHL = O.G.A. = Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Goldenhar, Apert

VESTIBULAR DISEASE
Utricle - activated by linear acceleration Acoustic Neuroma (Schwannoma) - Originates from superior vestibular nerve, CNVII displaced anteriorly at IAC. Accounts for 80% of CP-angle tumors. /Otosclerosis/ - Fluoride may help Benign Positional Vertigo - rotatory, fatiguable nystagmus, +Dix-Hallpike, Rx: Epley, Singular neurectomy Labyrinthine Nystagmus - fast AND slow component. Central Nystagmus is usually pendular (without fast/slow component). Ampullo- or Utriculopedal flow is stimulatory in Lateral SCC, but Ampullofugal flow is stimulatory in posterior and superior SCC. Meniere's Disease

Crisis of Tumarkin - loss of extensor strength, falling with Vertigo
Lermoyez - Improved hearing after vertigo

TEMPORAL BONE FRACTURE
Longitudinal - 80%

Commonly conductive HL 2' to perfed TM or ossicular chain dysruption
20% injure CN VII, usually at labyrinthine segment

 Transverse - 20%

50% injur CN VII, usually at geniculate ganglion
Often 2' to occipital force

 Middle Ear CSF Leaks - Oval window or round window leaks most commonly

Hyrtl's Fissure - (usually infants) opening just anterior/inferior to round window leading to subarachnoid space near CN IX ganglion.

Anatomy of the Intratemporal Facial Nerve
VII - The Facial Nerve G1 - First Genu, at the Geniculate Ganglion G2 - Second Genu CT - Chorda Tympani TM - Tympanic Membrane m = Malleus i = Incus C = Cochlea SSCC = Superior Semicircular Canal PSCC = Posterior Semicircular Canal

Internal Auditory Canal from medial aspect
BB = Bill's Bar (bony) TC = Transverse Crest, aka Falciform Crest (bony) FN = Facial Nerve (also shown is Nervus Intermedius) SVN = Superior Vestibular Nerve inntervates superior & horizontal canals & utricle IVN = Inferior Vestibular Nerve to posterior canal and saccule CN = Cochlear Nerve

In Radiology, we describe this as "Seven-Up and Coke (Cochlear) Down" follow this link for a picture: http://rad.usuhs.mil/medpix/medpix_image.html?mode=image&imageid=16779&topic_id=2255&quiz=no#top

Type I 95%; 10 fibers to 1 inner hair cell, bipolar
Type II 5%; 1 fiber to 20 outer hair cells, monopolar
Inner Hair Cells 20%; afferent.
Outer Hair Cells 80%; efferent. Sensitive to trauma

Cochlea in cross section
SV = Scala Vestibuli contains perilymph SM = Scala Media contains endolymph ST = Scala Tympani contains perilymph RM = Reissner's Membrane BM = Basilar Membrane VASC = Stria Vascularis - generates +80-100mV potential in endolymph of Media LIG = Spiral Ligament LIMB = Spiral Limbus contains inner and outer hair cells SG = Spiral Ganglion - cochlear nerve fibers located in modiolus of cochlea

title: Ossicle/Otology


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Ossicle/Nose and Paranasal Sinuses

Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
Back to TOC

Rhinitis & Sinusitis

 * Allergic Rhinitis
 * Vasomotor Rhinitis
 * The Osteomeatal Complex
 * Nasal Polyps & Polyposis
 * Sinusitis, Acute
 * Sinusitis, Chronic
 * Sinusitis, Allergic Fungal
 * Sinusitis, Invasive Fungal
 * Septal Deviation
 * Turbinate Hypertrophy
 * Nasal Valve Prolapse

Tumor & Neoplasia

 * Papilloma
 * Inverting Papilloma
 * see Head & Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma
 * Adenocarcinoma of the Nasal Cavity
 * Esthesioneuroblastoma
 * Juvenile Angiofibroma

Miscellaneous

 * Epistaxis
 * CSF Leak & CSF Rhinorrhea
 * Granulomatous Disease
 * Granulomatosis with polyangiitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Sarcoidosis, Tuberculosis, Relapsing Polychondritis, Behcet, Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis, IMDD, etc
 * Nasal Valve Prolapse

Sinusitis
Orbital Complications of Sinusitis; Chandler's Classfication: Intracranial Complications of Sinusitis, in order of prevalence
 * Group I. Periorbital Cellulitis: aka pre-septal cellulitis. Extraocular muscles and globe unaffected.
 * Group II. Orbital Cellulitis: aka post-septal cellulitis. Globe/EOM findings.
 * Group III. Subperiosteal Abscess: Globe displaced inferolaterally; proptosis.
 * Group IV. Orbital Abscess: Collection of pus within orbit proper; proptosis, chemosis, ophthalmoplegia.
 * Group V. Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis: Bilateral eye findings, ophthalmoplegia, meningismus, prostration. MRI best for diagnosis.  Veins of face are valveless!
 * Meningitis
 * Epidural Abscess
 * Subdural Abscess
 * Intracerebral Abscess
 * Thrombophlebitis of venous sinuses

 * Frontal Sinus is most commonly implicated in intracranial complications
 * Foramina Brescht allows frontal sinus to communicate with brain

Sphenoid Sinus has 12 close structures: II, III, IV, V1, V2, VI, Vidian Nerve, Carotid artery, Brain, Dura, Pituitary.
 * Invasive Fungal Sinusitis
 * Aspergillus: septated hyphae branching at 45-degrees. PAS or silver stain.
 * Mucormycosis: 70% of DKA patients. Broad non-septated hyphae, variable branch angle.
 * On pathology angioinvasion and neuroinvasion.
 * Clinically dusky or blackened necrotic turbinates.
 * Treatment is aggressive debridement and Amphotericin B.

Schematic of Cavernous Sinus Anatomy:

 * II = Optic Nerve: 25-50% with bony dehiscence into sphenoid sinus.
 * III = Oculomotor Nerve
 * IV = Trochlear Nerve
 * V1 = Ophthalmic division, Trigeminal Nerve
 * V2 = Maxillary division, Trigeminal Nerve: exits foramen rotundum, superomedial to V3's foramen ovale.
 * VI = Abducens Nerve
 * C = Carotid Artery: often with bony dehiscence into sphenoid. Together with CN II forms opticocarotid recess.

Sinus communicates posteriorly, so thrombosis is bilateral.

title: Ossicle/Nose and Paranasal Sinuses


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Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences/Speech

Mac OS X features a range of brilliant speech features. These go from setting the computer to read out error messages and alerts in a voice of your choice, to using a microphone and getting you Mac to do tasks through its built-in Speech Recognition.

All the settings for these for these features can be found in your Mac's System Preferences. This option can normally be found on the Dock when you first buy your Mac, but if not, it should be in your Applications folder. After System Preferences has loaded up, click Speech which comes under System.

More help about this topic can be found in your Mac's Help Viewer.


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Ossicle/Craniofacial

Back to TOC

Benign Proliferative Disease of Bone

 * Fibrous Dysplasia
 * Monostotic: predominant, affects facial bones, M>F, "painless swelling", Rx = surgical excision
 * Polyostotic: Albright's, long bones, skin pigmentation (Café au lait), precocious puberty in females

Ossifying fibroma: sclerotic bone margins, "shells out" surgically

Trauma

 * Mandible Trauma
 * Midface Trauma
 * Frontal Sinus Trauma
 * Orbital Trauma
 * Nose & Nasal Trauma
 * Temporal Bone & Skull Base Trauma

Cosmetic Procedures

 * Blepharoplasty
 * Rhinoplasty
 * Rhytidectomy
 * Genioplasty & Chin Implant
 * Laser Rejuvenation
 * Injectable Bulking Agents

title: Ossicle/Craniofacial


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Talk:Practical Electronics/Stepper Motors

What are the suggested diode values in the unipolar circuit? I am speaking of the bottom schematic.

Other type
This page seems to completely omit one of the most usual types of stepper motors, where several (4) coils are connected to common ground and the rotation is achieved by connecting them consequently. (At least 2 on the photo are of this type - I know it, because I have taken it ;) --Filip Dominec 07:32, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Yes, "5-wire stepper motors" are pretty common. Now the page briefly mentions them under Unipolar as "Sometimes there are just five, as the centre taps may be joined internally." And the circuit shown is the standard one for 5-wire unipolar stepper motors (even though it shows the center taps joined externally). Is there anything else that needs to be said about 5-wire stepper motors? --DavidCary 06:01, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

MOSFETS
The IRF530/9530 and similar mosfets usually require more than 5v to *fully* turn on (I am not sure about the 530's tho). I am not an expert, but are you sure you don't need to transistor the gates of these using the motor supply? Looking in the datasheet the threshold voltage states 4v, but I am not sure if that fully saturates the gate. Furthermore, would the TTL outputs on the logic supply be fast enough supplying the needed gate charge to switch the mosfets fully without causes some heating. What I mean is, mosfets act like resistors when the mosfet is only partially on or off, we want the mosfets to go through this "resistive zone" as fast as possible.

Lastly, the mosfets turn off slower than they turn on, in the given schematic there is going to be a very momentary short in the supply during transitions (15ns of full short before the shorting mosfet starts turning off). Ok, if you arent doing PWM (chopper mode) like here, but it will generate significant heat if you do.


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The Cold War/How was the Cold War fought?

The Soviet Union and the West didn't directly fight against each other in the Cold War, even though they were dangerously close to doing so. If they did, then it would have been a "hot" war. But there were various other ways in which they actively fought!

Intelligence
Both sides were actively spying on each other in an attempt to gather as many military secrets and other top-secret information as possible about the enemy. Each side had their own national intelligence agencies which were responsible in carrying out these tasks. Below are a number of them:
 * USA - C.I.A.
 * Soviet Union - K.G.B.
 * Britain - MI5
 * Canada - C.S.I.S.
 * East Germany - M.f.S
 * West Germany - B.N.D.
 * Australia - A.S.I.S.

Nuclear Arms Race
The USA and USSR were also locked in competition over developing more deadly weapons than the other side, and in countering the other side's latest inventions.

Media Propaganda
During the Cold War, each side tried to portray each other's government and social living order as inferior, "evil" and a great injustice to mankind, through the use of newspapers, books, television, radio etc.

American Propaganda
The Americans tried to portray the Soviets and other communists as having a cruel and dictatorial regime which ignored human rights.

Anti-communist sentiment influenced nearly all areas of life.

Many Hollywood films and some cartoons, showing the Russians, as the antagonists, eventually being defeated. There was a great supply of anti-communist literature being distributed in many locations, including pubs, churches, places of work and schools! In the early and mid-20th century, although not many Americans had televisions, many had radios. The US Government seized the opportunity to fund radio stations, such as Voice of America and Radio Liberty, which spread negative propaganda about communism.

Soviet Propaganda
The Soviets also used propaganda as a tool to portray the Americans and other Western capitalists as fat, greedy, money-worshiping businessmen who treated their workers as slaves. Just as Americans would criticize very real Soviet abuses of human rights, Soviets would point to the very real abuse of human rights in America, particularly regarding the abhorrent treatment of African Americans.

The media and press were mostly state-controlled and the government used it to publish their own propaganda.

In schools, pupils were taught to be anti-American, and history was regularly rewritten to fit the official government view. Also, radio stations, such as Radio Moscow, and television channels showing propaganda, were funded. Many films were released portraying the West as imperialistic and expansionist. One U.S. film called "Uncle Tom's Cabin", about a black slave in America, was used and highly publicized by the Soviet Union, so to depict the West as "evil" and racist.

Space Race
The technological race between the USA and the Soviet Union wasn't just on Earth. It also reached into space in what came to be known as the "Space Race". Both sides competed against each other to explore inner space. The USSR started the Race by sending the first-ever satellite, "Sputnik" into orbit. For the next half a century, they competed to be the first country to put a man in space or on the moon and to explore the planets.

Proxy War
On the more violent side, the USA and the Soviet Union indirectly fought wars against each other overseas through a third party or "proxy", which could either be a government or an armed group. Each side "fought" the other, by providing money, arms, training and logistical support to their proxy and sending it to war against the other side's proxy. Sometimes, a proxy was used to fight more directly with the opposing superpower.

Examples of two proxies fighting each other were the 1973 Arab-Israeli War and the War in Angola, and examples where a proxy fought the army of the superpower itself include the Vietnam War (1962 - 1975) and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979 - 1989).


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User talk:65.95.176.175

Thank you for experimenting with Wikibooks by creating the page America. Your test worked, and has been or will soon be removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing.--Az1568 18:29, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.95.176.175


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The Cold War/Nuclear Arms Race

The first atom bomb was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima on the 6th August, 1945. The power of the bomb had truly shocked the world. Try guessing how much Stalin was shivering at the thought of their new enemy having the most powerful weapon ever made in the history of the world, and the potential for them to destroy their cities in the touch of a button. Stalin put enormous pressure on his scientists to produce one quickly - and in 1949, they did. This had set it off. Everyone knew an arms race between the USA and the USSR was in the making.

The Americans responded with the first ever hydrogen bomb, which was 100 times more destructive than a nuclear bomb and tested it on the Pacific Island of Eniwetok. Scary! But the Soviets caught up and in just ten months they had managed to successfully test their own hydrogen bomb. This had done it. The then American President, General D. Eisenhower decided it was time to build up a huge stockpile of nuclear weapons. This happened to be good for the economic expenditure, as nuclear weapons were actually cheaper than conventional ones. To quote from a politician, technically they "gave more bang for buck".

In 1957, the Soviet Union developed the first Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). They were basically rockets designed to carry and transport nuclear weapons (on a nuclear warhead) to a target, by leaving the Earth's atmosphere and then falling down at high speed towards the destination. They eliminated the conventional method of delivering nuclear bombs by having to riskily fly a bomber plane to a particular destination and then dropping the nuclear payload. The ICBMs could also be delivered to their targets much faster than a bomber plane; it only took about half an hour.

title: The Cold War/Nuclear Arms Race


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User talk:Ka34

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 19:48, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ka34


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Wikijunior:The Elements/Radon

What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?
Radon is an invisible, odorless gas. You can't see, smell, or taste it.

How was it discovered?
Radon was discovered in 1900 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn. Dorn originally called the gas "radium emanation". The gas was later called "niton", and, in 1923, it became "radon". It was named after the element radium.

Where did its name come from?
Radon was named for radium, another element, which decays (breaks down) into it.  Did You Know?
 * Radon is the heaviest noble gas.
 * It was originally called radium emanation.
 * Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer (after tobacco smoking.)

Where is it found?
Radon makes up a small part of the air. It naturally comes up from the ground. It is released from the decay of uranium in rocks and soil. Radon is created when radium in the earth's crust decays.

What are its uses?
It is used to treat some forms of cancer, and is also used in earthquake prediction.

Is it dangerous?
Radon is highly radioactive. Based on studies carried out by the National Academy of Sciences in the United States, radon is the second most common cause of lung cancer, after tobacco smoking. Homes need to be regularly tested for it.

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Radon


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Lush/Debugging

Parse errors
Parse errors can be particularly hard to locate and fix. A typical parse error looks like the following: You can narrow the error down to the file that was misparsed by answering 'y' and printing out :

title: Lush/Debugging


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Sneakoscope

Overview
The Sneakoscope is a glass spinning top that stands upright when placed on a surface, and spins, whistles, and lights up when it detects someone untrustworthy.

Extended Description
Harry receives a Pocket Sneakoscope from Ron for his birthday in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. Almost every time we see it in the book, it is lit up and spinning at great speed; and every time, it is dismissed as being unimportant. Ron, at least, should know better than to dismiss it so easily; after he got it, before he shipped it off to Harry, Bill had been telling Ron it was cheap and probably defective because it kept lighting up; but while Bill did not know that Fred and George had put beetles in his soup, Ron did know, and so knew that there really was someone untrustworthy in range. It also went off when he was tying it to Errol's leg for the journey; at the time, it was Ron who was being untrustworthy, because he knew he wasn't meant to use Errol for any long-distance journeys.

Professor Moody also has a Sneakoscope in his study in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire; he says he's had to disable it, it's an extra sensitive model, but there are too many untrustworthy people in its 20-mile range. Harry's own Sneakoscope is mentioned only in passing in this book; Harry needs a gift for Dobby, so he presents Dobby with the socks he has been using to cushion his Sneakoscope since he first got it.

There is also mention in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix that there are a number of Sneakoscopes in the Room of Requirement when Dumbledore's Army first meets there.

While it is not directly identified, the old, broken Sneakoscope that Harry cleans out of his trunk at the beginning of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is almost certainly the one Ron had bought him four years before. On his birthday four days later, Hermione presents him with a new one.

It is the new Sneakoscope, we believe, that Hermione packs into her little beaded bag, and carries with the rest of their gear as they leave Bill and Fleur's wedding, and then again later as they abandon the house at Grimmauld Place. The Sneakoscope, usually sitting quiescent on the table, is used extensively as an indicator of possible peril while the Trio are camping in various locations around England.

Analysis
The Sneakoscope only serves a major plot purpose in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. There, it is produced as a way of pointing out that someone in the vicinity is not trustworthy. When it is triggered in the Hogwarts Express, the only people we know about who are present are Harry, Ron, Hermione, Professor Lupin, Scabbers, Hedwig, and Crookshanks, although presumably Draco Malfoy could have been in range. When it is triggered on Christmas Day, only Harry, Ron, Hermione, Scabbers, and Crookshanks are present. Looking at this analytically, we have to assume that it is either Crookshanks or Scabbers that we are meant to distrust; however, most readers will discount them, as they are only animals and thus cannot, presumably, affect the Sneakoscope, and so will conclude that the Sneakoscope is defective, something that Ron has been saying all along.

In later books, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the Sneakoscopes are no more than set dressing. Because of their function, it is expected that anyone who is involved with battling against Dark Magic will have one; so we see that Moody has one and the DA practice room has several.

We see the Sneakoscope again several times in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows; there, it is used to let us know that there are no untrustworthy people about, as it is always standing quiescent, rather than spinning and whistling. For instance, as Ron tries to rejoin Harry and Hermione, we see that the Sneakoscope remains quiescent despite the sounds and indications of someone nearby that both Harry and Hermione notice. This should indicate that whoever is in the vicinity is a friend. The Sneakoscope does report when the Snatchers surround the tent some months later, but the warning is given too late.

Questions

 * 1) Ron knew from the beginning that the Sneakoscope was not defective; why did he dismiss it during the year?
 * 2) The Sneakoscope does not sound at the Dursleys'. Does this indicate that Vernon and Dudley are trustworthy? Could there be another explanation, perhaps to do with their being Muggles?

Greater Picture
Eventually, we learn that Scabbers is actually Peter Pettigrew, a.k.a. Wormtail, and that he is not trustworthy, so the Sneakoscope triggering in his presence would be expected, if it is reliable. Scabbers was in its effective range all along, of course, in the boys' dorm, so the question is, as it clearly is working properly, why was it not always sounding the alert? When it first triggered, in the Hogwarts Express, the motion of the train had dislodged it from the nest of Vernon's socks that Harry had packed it in for travel; at Christmas, Ron, trying to intervene in the sudden battle between Scabbers and Crookshanks, had dislodged it again. We can assume that at all other times, it was securely packed in its little nest and could not sound; the description of it spinning and whistling suggests that, like a child's musical top, it makes its whistling noise by spinning, and if it can't spin, it also can't whistle.

Harry's finding it, cracked, in his trunk and discarding it at the beginning of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, is a useful device to explain away any instances where it should have sounded in the intervening books, and didn't. Harry had given Vernon's old socks to Dobby at Christmas in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, so the packing that would keep it quiet was gone; if Harry's trunk had been approached by anyone untrustworthy after that point, the Sneakoscope should have sounded, but can now be explained away by saying it had previously broken, and Harry had simply never cleaned out his trunk. This also gives Hermione a ready-made idea for a birthday gift for Harry.


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Technical Theatre/Lighting/Gels

Gels, are the coloured 'filters' placed in front of the lights found in theatres, so to colour the beam. Gels are referenced and referred to by number or a letter and number combination. The numbers correlate to a specific color. Since the numbers are assigned by the manufacturer, and are not interchangeable between brands, if gels from multiple manufacturers are present in one shop they will be marked with a letter before the number; typically an R for Roscolux, and L for Lee Filters or an A for Apollo. Three of the most common manufacturers of gels, Lee Filters, Roscolux, and Apollo manufacture 'swatches'. These are packaged as small books with samples of all the different gel colors, allowing lighting designers to sample different gels. You can also obtain a color equivalancy chart from the manufacturers that compares the different manufacturers number systems relate to the color of the filter.

History
Gels were originally made out of gelatine. "Gelatine" was shortened to "gels". How and when this occurred is not known. Today, gels are made from a mylar-like polyester. However, the term "gel" remains in common usage. The more correct term color filter, sometimes shortened to color, is also used to refer to these filters.

When gels were made of gelatine, many lighting rookies were given dusty gels that they were to get clean by rinsing in hot water. When they came back, some came back smiling and others came back horrified, convinced that they had done something wrong.

Usage
Gels are normally placed in a "color frame", which is a metal or flame-retardant paper frame that holds the gel. This ensures the gels do not wrinkle from the heat as much as they would otherwise and also that they do not bend and fall out of the light. Metal frames are used in most applications because they are more sturdy, and last longer. Paper frames are sometimes used in positions where the lighting instrument will be placed above the audience. The frames are put into the color frame slot at the front of the lighting instrument to color the light.

During use, gels wrinkle and eventually burn through after being used for some time. This is due to the large amount of heat coming out of the luminare and going into the gel. Gel color determines how quickly the gel wrinkles and 'burns-through', with the rate depending on how much heat is concentrated on the gel. Darker colors, which have a lower rate of transmission, mean that more light is stopped from going through, resulting in more heat, and shorter lifespans.

Related Links

 * Lee Filters
 * Lee Filters Swatch Ball
 * Rosco
 * Apollo

title: Technical Theatre/Lighting/Gels


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Technical Theatre/Lighting/DMX

DMX512, is a control protocol, used in most theatres to control dimmers and intelligent fixtures. DMX, is the replacement of AMX192 which is an analogue system that is based around using a voltage difference between 0-10V to control lights. DMX 512, has many advantages over the old AMX system: DMX, can be used to control intelligent moving lights, and is much easier to interface with computer based systems.

The DMX system consists of what are referred to as channels, and the value of each channel varies from 0 to 255. However in the case of a dimmer, this would normally be changed on the controlling device so that the brightness was displayed in a percentage form. Each XLR cable run, can carry up to 512 channels, hence DMX is referred to as DMX512.

DMX 512, works on a system of highs and lows, and packets of data; these packets that tell the fixture or dimmer what to do and are refreshed as soon as the last packet has finished being interpreted. When there are no channels transmitting data in what is known as a 'no-data' situation, the DMX control device will output a continuous high signal. At the start of the next DMX packet, there is a Break, and this is then followed by the Mark After Break, this followed in turn by the Start Code and this again followed by the Mark Time Between Frames which is followed by the Channel Data, which is finally followed by the Mark Time Between Packets.

DMX can be transferred through various cable types, the three most common, are XLR5, XLR3 and RJ45 Ethernet. Originally the standard was XLR5, as whilst DMX only utilised 3 wires, there were two extra cores, to allow for possible expansion, and also separate DMX cable, from microphone cable. However more recently, many manufacturers have started using XLR3 connectors as it allows the utilisation of microphone cable, which is often more easily available. RJ45 ethernet connectors began to be used, as it allowed the networking of all DMX devices, as both lighting desks, dimmers and some newer intelligent fixtures began to have networking capability, a feature which could be found extremely useful in larger theatres.

More information regarding DMX, can be found on the U.S. Institute of Theatre Technology's website, as DMX512 is based on their standards

title: Technical Theatre/Lighting/DMX


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Technical Theatre/Lighting/PAR

PAR lights, or Parabolic aluminized reflector light, are often referred to as Parcans. They are normally a single lamp/reflector unit, that looks similar to a car headlight inside a metal can, which has the appearance of a sausage. Parcans can come in a variety of different sizes, anywhere between a Par16, which is based around an MR16 lamp and the whole unit is approximately 3 inches long, to a Par64, which utilizes a much bigger lamp and is around 2 feet long.

The number following PAR [PAR 64, 38, 16 etc] refers to the diameter of the lenses of the lamp. The formula being n/8 inch = diameter. [ie: a Par64 is 8 inches in diameter]

Parcans have a much greater usage outside of the theater industry, and are used large amounts for music concerts and tours. If large areas need to be lit, a 3 x 3 grid of Parcans is useful, which is known as a "nine-light".

It is now possible to get LED PARs, which are very similar to Parcans, except, instead of using halogen lamps, they use LEDs, to output light, most also have three different color LED's: Red, Green and Blue allowing color mixing to some extent as well as white.

Lamps
Parcans cannot be focused, but you can change the beam angle by changing the lamp. You can get lots of different bulb sizes for them, and some of the most common are show below:

 * CP60 - 1000 W, 240 v - VNSP (Very Narrow Spot)
 * CP61 - 1000 W, 240 V - NSP (Narrow Spot)
 * CP62 - 1000 w, 240 V - MFL (Medium Flood)

See /Lamps for more information

Uses
Parcans don't have any methods of focusing, and limited methods of beam shaping; as such, they are mainly used for color washes, instead of tight focused areas. They can also be used effectively for blending colors. Their fast flash time makes them good for chase sequences.

title: Technical Theatre/Lighting/PAR


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Russian/Grammar/Past tense

English has two basic past tenses: the simple past ('I walked') and the past progressive ('I was walking'). Russian has only one past, and the rules are the same for both imperfective and perfective verbs. Objects called by the verb are still in the accusative case, and indirect objects are still in the dative case.

Usage
Forming the Russian past tense is relatively straightforward, but first we have to decide which aspect of the verb we want to use. As discussed in Verbal Aspect, the imperfective aspect of verbs is used for incomplete or indefinitely repeated actions, while perfective aspects are for completed actions, or actions repeated a known number of times. These correspond roughly with the past progressive ('I was verbing') and the simple past ('I verbed'), respectively. So the English past progressive sentence "I was reading" would correspond to the Russian imperfective (я читал), since it refers to an action that wasn't completed. Likewise, the English simple past sentence "I read" corresponds to the Russian perfective (я прочитал), as it refers to an action that was completed:
 * I was reading a book when she rang - Я читал книгу, когда она позвонила
 * I read a book, and then she rang - Я прочитал книгу, потом она позвонила

Notice that in Russian, as in English, as well as using different past tenses, we also use different words: interruptions can use the conjunction 'when' (когда), while sequential actions can use the adverb 'then' (потом).

Imperfective past
Past tense sentences where the action was unfinished ('I was reading when she interrupted me', or any 'X was/were verbing'), actions repeated indefinitely ('She wrote to me every day'), and expressions of duration ('We rode for four hours'), all require the imperfective:
 * I was reading when she rang me - Я читал, когда она мне позвонила - the reading is incomplete, so is imperfective. The call was successful, so it's perfective.
 * He called me while I was writing a letter - Он мне позвони́л, когда́ я писа́л письмо́ - the call was successful, so it's perfective. the writing was interrupted, so it's imperfective.
 * He was walking - Он шёл - no mention of interruption, but incompleteness implied, so imperfective
 * She wrote a letter to me every day - Она мне каждый день писала письмо - indefinitely repeated
 * She wrote me interesting letters - Она писала мне интересные письма - no mention of time, but repetition is implied, so imperfective
 * She wrote for a long time - Она долго писала - completed action, but with a time duration, so imperfective. 'For a long time' is simply долго.
 * They were flying for three hours - Они летели три часа - complete action with time duration, so imperfective. 'For three hours' is simply 'three hours', no prepositions or special cases needed.

Sentences where no action was attempted ('I didn't call her'), or actions were attempted but without success ('I tried to call you (but failed)'), or which denote states ('He was cold'), generally use the imperfective tense:
 * She lived in France - Она жила во Франции
 * They didn't call me - Они́ мне не звони́ли
 * We didn't call her - Мы ей не звони́ли
 * I called you (but didn't get through) - Я вам звони́л

To refer to states, use the dative for the person or thing; literally 'to me it is interesting', 'to her it is boring'. To refer to these states in the past tense, always use было; 'she was cold'/'to her it was cold' is ей было холодно.
 * He was cold - Ему было холодно
 * They were bored - Им было скучно

Notice that what these all emphasise is the process, not the result.

Perfective past
Perfective verbs, on the other hand, emphasise the result. They refer to a completed action ('I rang her (and succeeded)'), to sequences of successive actions ('He did X, then Y, then Z'), and their negation refers to attempted (but failed) actions ('She didn't understand'):
 * She bought my book, read it, and then wrote me a letter - Она́ купи́ла мою́ кни́гу, прочита́ла её и написа́ла мне письмо́  - sequence of actions, so all take the perfective aspect.
 * I called you (and got through) - Я вам позвони́л - successful action, so perfective aspect taken.
 * She didn't understand/She failed to understand - Она́ не поняла́ - failed action, so perfective aspect taken.

Taking both of the above, you can see that negating verbs in the past tense can be done in several ways: не + perf. refers to actions attempted but failed, while не + imperfective refers to actions that were never attempted. The imperfective on its own can also implicitly refer to a failed attempt (e.g., 'I rang you', with the implication of failure).

Regular conjugation
So now that you know which aspect of the verb you want to use, we can conjugate it. To form the past tense of either aspect of a verb, remove the ending -ть, and add -л. If the subject of the verb is feminine, add -ла. If it is neuter, add -ло, and if it is plural, add -ли:

For example, the verb 'to read' is чита́ть in the imperfective and прочита́ть in the perfective. The imperfective conjugates into the past tense as follows:

 * You were reading a book - Ты читал(а) книгу - could be either masculine or feminine or, indeed, neuter
 * You were reading a book - Вы читали книгу - вы always takes the plural ending, even when referring to a single person
 * I am writing a letter - Я письмо пишу
 * I was writing a letter - Я письмо писал(а)
 * I wrote a letter - Я письмо написал(а)

Although verbs change by person and ignore gender in the present and future tenses, the past tense changes with gender ignore person, very similar to a short-form adjective.

To be, быть
An important perfective verb is быть, 'to be'. It has no imperfective aspect, and is generally omitted in the present tense. However, it is used in the past tense, and means 'was' or 'were'. It conjugates as all regular verbs do: был, была, было, and были.
 * He was in Moscow - Он был в Москве́
 * She is beautiful - Она краси́вая
 * She was beautiful - Она была́ краси́вая
 * When I was in New York, I saw the Empire State Building - Когда́ я была́ в Нью-Йо́рке, я увиде́ла Эмпа́йр-стейт-би́лдинг
 * The film was interesting - Фильм был интере́сный
 * The wine was good - Вино́ бы́ло хоро́шее
 * The film wasn't interesting - фильм не был интере́сный / фильм был неинтере́сный (second version is better).
 * The wine wasn't good - Вино́ не бы́ло хоро́шее / Вино́ бы́ло нехоро́шее (second version is better).

The past tense of быть can also mean 'there was/were', replacing там:
 * There are Russian books in the shop - Там ру́сские кни́ги в магази́не
 * There were Russian books in the shop - В магази́не бы́ли ру́сские кни́ги
 * There was an Englishwoman here - Здесь была́ англича́нка

To negate this and say 'there wasn't/weren't', the phrase не́ было + gen is used:
 * There weren't any buses - Не́ было авто́бусов - note the genitive plural авто́бусов
 * There was a bookshop there - Там был кни́жний магази́н
 * There wasn't a bookshop there - Там не́ было кни́жного магази́на

Note that the stress falls on the не́.

Быть is not the only verb 'to be' in the Russian language. In some cases it may be replaced by the imperfective verbs быва́ть ('to exist' or 'to spend some time somewhere') and явля́ться (mainly used in the present tense).

To have, есть
If you've learned the genitive case, recall that to say 'I have...' is У + gen + есть + nom, and to say 'I haven't...' is У + gen + нет + gen:
 * I have cats - У меня́ есть коты́
 * I don't have cats - У меня́ нет кото́в

To form the past tense, 'I had...', replace есть with был/была́/бы́ло/бы́ли as appropriate. Notice that the gender and number of the verb depends on the possessed item, not the possessor, since that is the subject of the verb:
 * I had a bottle of vodka - У меня́ была́ буты́лка во́дки - меня follows у so is genitive; буты́лка is the subject so is nominative; во́дки is genitive as it's in the bottle ('bottle of vodka').
 * He had dollars - У него́ бы́ли до́ллары - ''note the use of него after a preposition.

To negate these and say 'I hadn't...', use the same construction as 'There weren't...': У + gen + не́ было + gen:
 * He had no dollars - У него́ не́ было до́лларов
 * We had no dollars - У нас не́ было до́лларов

Reflexive verbs
Some verbs, such as the imperfective улыба́ться ('to smile'), have the reflexive ending -сь/ся to indicate that the object is also the subject. Instead of saying 'I dress myself', Russians say 'I dress' and place the reflexive ending on the verb. Though not always reflexive in meaning (there is no verb улыбать, and 'to smile' isn't reflexive in English, but Russians still use it reflexively), the ending nonetheless must be accounted for when forming the past tense. Similar to how reflexive verbs are conjugated in the present tense, you add the appropriate reflexive ending after forming the past tense.

For instance, though there is no verb улыбать, that is what we get when we remove the reflexive ending from улыба́ться. We form the past tense from this, and then reattach the reflexive ending. Note that, as in the present tense, we use -ся if the word ends in a consonant, and -сь if it ends in a vowel. So, the past tense of улыба́ться is:

 * He was smiling - Он улыба́лся
 * She was smiling - Она улыба́лась
 * It was smiling - Оно улыба́лось
 * They were smiling - Они улыба́лись

The reflexive imperfective verb учи́ться ('to study') conjugates as follows:
 * He was studying - Он учи́лся
 * She was studying - Она учи́лась
 * It was studying - Оно учи́лось
 * They were studying - Они учи́лись

Irregular conjugation
Not all verbs end in -ть. Some, such as идти ('to walk') and мочь ('to be able'), have irregular past tenses that cannot be predicted. To walk, идти:
 * He walked - '''Он шёл
 * She walked - '''Она шла
 * It walked - '''Оно шло
 * They walked - Они шли

To be able, мочь:
 * He was able - Он мог
 * She was able - Она могла́
 * It was able - Оно могло́
 * They were able - Они могли́

Participles
Though participles are covered more thoroughly in their own chapter, a brief summary is included here:
 * The past active participle is formed by replacing -ть with -(в)ший, usually on a perfective verb. It tells us that the noun did something in the past, such as 'The man who drove'. 'Who drove' is the past active participle, and would be a single adjective in Russian: 'Мужчина поехавший'.
 * The past passive participle is formed by replacing -ть with -нный, ённый, or -тый, on perfective verbs only. It tells us that the noun had something done to it in the past, such as 'The apple that was carried'. 'That was carried' is the past passive participle, and would be a single adjective in Russian: 'Перенесённое яблоко'
 * The past adverbial participle is formed replacing -ть with -в, -ши, or -вши, usually on a perfective verb. It acts as a secondary verb, such as in 'Having gathered the apples, the man tripped over'. 'Having gathered' is the past adverbial participle.

title: Russian/Grammar/Past tense


text:
Cookbook:Irish Soda Bread

 * Irish cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Bread

Conventional bread, containing live yeast, leavens (rises) as the micro-organisms make carbon dioxide gas as a by-product of their metabolism. Similarly, soda bread utilizes the reaction between baking soda and vinegar, or some other acid, to make the bread rise through the production of carbon dioxide. This recipe uses buttermilk, or optionally a combination of milk and vinegar, but other recipes use sour cream.

Ingredients

 * 3 cups all-purpose flour
 * 1 tablespoon baking powder
 * 1 teaspoon baking soda
 * ⅛ cup white sugar
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 egg, lightly beaten
 * 2 cups buttermilk
 * ¼ cup butter, melted

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 325°F (160°C).
 * 2) Grease and flour a 9x5-inch loaf pan.
 * 3) Combine flour, baking powder, baking soda, sugar, and salt in a large mixing bowl.
 * 4) Blend egg and buttermilk together, and add all at once to the flour mixture.
 * 5) Mix until just moistened. Too much mixing will make it tough.
 * 6) Stir in butter; pour into prepared pan.
 * 7) Bake for 65–70 minutes, or until a toothpick inserted in the bread comes out clean. The loaf should sound hollow if you tap the base.
 * 8) Cool on a wire rack.
 * 9) Wrap in tea-towel or foil several hours or overnight for best flavor.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * May serve toasted and buttered.
 * Soda bread rises as a result of acid being mixed with baking soda. The acid is commonly in the form of vinegar, lemon juice, or buttermilk. A tablespoon of lemon juice or vinegar in one cup of milk can be substituted for each cup of buttermilk.
 * For best results, bake it at 375°F (190°C), for about 50 minutes, on a preheated baking stone.

title: Cookbook:Irish Soda Bread


text:
Cookbook:Cornbread I

| American cuisine | Bread | Vegetarian Cuisine

Cornbread is a type of quick bread made of cornmeal and sometimes supplemented with wheat flour. Some variations may include whole corn kernels.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (140 g / 4.9 oz) cornmeal
 * 1 cup (140 g / 4.9 oz) all-purpose flour
 * 4 tsp baking powder
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 1 cup (250 ml / 8.5 fl oz) milk
 * 1 ea. (50 g) egg
 * ¼ cup (60 g / 2.1 oz) shortening, melted
 * ¼ cup (55 g / 1.9 oz) white granulated sugar (optional)
 * ½ of a 15 oz can whole corn kernels, drained (optional)
 * ¼ ea. onion, finely chopped (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 425 F. Grease an 8 in baking pan.
 * 2) Combine cornmeal, flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar in a large mixing bowl.
 * 3) Add egg, milk, and shortening.
 * 4) Beat until fairly smooth (about a minute).
 * 5) If using corn and/or onion, fold in these ingredients.
 * 6) Pour the mixture into the baking pan.
 * 7) Bake for 20–25 minutes or until a toothpick inserted in center comes out clean. If corn is added to batter, increase time by ~50%
 * 8) Serve hot!

title: Cookbook:Cornbread I


text:
User talk:24.47.244.201

Thank you for experimenting with Wikibooks by creating the page Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Hinkypunk. Your test worked, and has been or will soon be removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing.--Az1568 03:04, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.47.244.201


text:
Cookbook:Corn Sticks

| Bread

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (240 ml) cornmeal
 * 1 cup (240 ml) all-purpose flour
 * 4 tsp baking powder
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 1 cup (240 ml) milk
 * 1 egg
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) shortening
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) sugar (optional)
 * ½ can (7.5 ounces / 212 g) whole corn (optional), drained

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 425°F (220°C). Grease a corn stick pan well, and preheat inside the oven. Cast iron works best.
 * 2) Combine corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar in a large mixing bowl.
 * 3) Add egg, sugar, and shortening. Beat until fairly smooth (about 1 minute).
 * 4) Pour into the hot, well-greased cornstick pan.
 * 5) Bake for 15–20 minutes until golden brown. If corn is added to batter, increase time a little.
 * 6) Serve hot and buttered.

title: Cookbook:Corn Sticks


text:
User talk:Jamesacheung

Stupid sister jessamine Digs her nose every day After shower, She comes out naked and ask her maid to help her wear her t-shirt

title: User talk:Jamesacheung


text:
Cookbook:Spicy Corn Bread

| Bread | Texas cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 cup corn meal
 * 1 cup all-purpose flour
 * 4 tsp baking powder
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 1 cup milk
 * 1 egg
 * ¼ cup shortening
 * 1 tsp–¼ cup chopped jalapeños, to taste
 * ¼ cup sugar (optional)
 * ½ of a 15 ounce can whole corn, drained (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 425°F. Grease an 8-inch baking pan.
 * 2) Combine corn meal, flour, baking powder, salt, and sugar in a large mixing bowl.
 * 3) Add egg, sugar, and shortening.
 * 4) Beat until fairly smooth (about 1 minute).
 * 5) Bake for 20–25 minutes or until a toothpick inserted in center comes out clean. If corn is added to batter, increase time by about 50%
 * 6) Serve hot!

title: Cookbook:Spicy Corn Bread


text:
MATLAB Programming/Psychtoolbox/eyelink toolbox

% Short MATLAB example program that uses the Eyelink and Psychophysics % Toolboxes to create a real-time gaze-dependent display.

% edf 09.19.06: adapted from http://psychtoolbox.org/eyelinktoolbox/EyelinkToolbox.pdf % and http://www.kyb.tuebingen.mpg.de/bu/people/kleinerm/ptbosx/ptbdocu-1.0.5MK4R1.html % (also available in local install at Psychtoolbox\ProgrammingTips.html)

% see also % Psychtoolbox\PsychHardware\EyelinkToolbox\EyelinkDemos\Short demos\EyelinkExample.m % which calls some functions that do not work on the windows openGL ptb

% ex: [v vs]=Eyelink('GetTrackerVersion') unimplemented for win % also: el=EyelinkInitDefaults sets el.keysCached to 0 on windows. %      this causes EyelinkDoTrackerSetup and EyelinkDoDriftCorrect to %       fail, because they call EyelinkGetKey, which depends on cached key id's. %       updating the eyelink toolbox to use the new KbName('UnifyKeyNames') %      should fix this.

% necessary for windows: % copy EyelinkToolbox144\EyelinkToolbox\EyelinkBasic\eyelink.dll % (from http://www.psychtoolbox.org/eyelinktoolbox/downloads/EyelinkToolbox144.zip) % to Psychtoolbox\PsychHardware\EyelinkToolbox\EyelinkBasic\Eyelink.dll % (note capitalizing Eyelink.dll is important) % the rest of the eyelink toolbox is included in ptb 1.0.6 openGL beta

% see ptb forum thread http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/psychtoolbox/message/4993

% note eyelink functions are documented in % C:\Program Files\SR Research\EyeLink\Docs\*.pdf

function eyelinkWinDemo format long g KbName('UnifyKeyNames') %enables cross-platform key id's

doDisplay=1; %use ptb createFile=1; %record eyetracking data on the remote (eyetracking) computer and suck over the file when done mouseInsteadOfGaze=0; %control gaze cursor using mouse instead of gaze (for testing, in case calibration isn't worked out yet) textOut=1; %write reports from tracker to stdout

edfFile='demo.edf'; %name of remote data file to create screenNum = 1; % use main screen

% STEP 1 % Initialization of the connection with the Eyelink Gazetracker. % exit program if this fails. if (Eyelink('initialize') ~= 0) error('could not init connection to Eyelink') return; end;

try % STEP 2 % Open a graphics window on the main screen % using the PsychToolbox's SCREEN function.

priority = MaxPriority('KbCheck'); oldPriority = Priority;

if doDisplay AssertOpenGL window = Screen('OpenWindow', screenNum, 0, [], 32, 2); HideCursor; Priority(priority); ifi = Screen('GetFlipInterval', window, 200); Priority(oldPriority);

white=WhiteIndex(window); black=BlackIndex(window);

[scrWidth, scrHeight]=Screen('WindowSize', window);

xRange = [0 scrWidth]; %range of gaze estimates over display, which probably come in terms of the ptb stim display yRange = [0 scrHeight];

dotHeight = 7; dotWidth = 7; end

% STEP 3 % Provide Eyelink with details about the graphics environment % and perform some initializations. The information is returned % in a structure that also contains useful defaults % and control codes (e.g. tracker state bit and Eyelink key values). if doDisplay el=EyelinkInitDefaults(window); else el=EyelinkInitDefaults; end % make sure that we get gaze data from the Eyelink status=Eyelink('command','link_sample_data = LEFT,RIGHT,GAZE,AREA,GAZERES,HREF,PUPIL,STATUS,INPUT'); if status~=0 error('link_sample_data error, status: ',status) end % open file to record data to (just an example, not required) if createFile status=Eyelink('openfile',edfFile); if status~=0 error('openfile error, status: ',status) end end

% STEP 4 if doDisplay && strcmp(el.computer,'MAC')==1 % OSX % Calibrate the eye tracker using the standard calibration routines EyelinkDoTrackerSetup(el); %fails on win, see header comments % do a final check of calibration using driftcorrection EyelinkDoDriftCorrect(el); %fails on win, see header comments else warning('cannot do calibration/drift correction unless on OSX with an open ptb window') end % STEP 5 % start recording eye position status=Eyelink('startrecording'); if status~=0 error('startrecording error, status: ',status) end % record a few samples before we actually start displaying WaitSecs(0.1); % mark zero-plot time in data file status=Eyelink('message','SYNCTIME'); if status~=0 error('message error, status: ',status) end

stopkey=KbName('space'); eye_used = -1; %just an initializer to remind us to ask tracker which eye is tracked

% STEP 6 % show gaze-dependent display

Priority(priority); if doDisplay vbl = Screen('Flip', window); %Initially synchronize with retrace, take base time in vbl end

while 1 % loop till error or space bar is pressed

% Check recording status, stop display if error err=Eyelink('checkrecording'); if(err~=0) error('checkrecording problem, status: ',err) break; end

% check for presence of a new sample update status = Eyelink('newfloatsampleavailable'); if status> 0 % get the sample in the form of an event structure evt = Eyelink('newestfloatsample');

if textOut evt end if eye_used ~= -1 % do we know which eye to use yet? % if we do, get current gaze position from sample x = evt.gx(eye_used+1); % +1 as we're accessing MATLAB array y = evt.gy(eye_used+1);

% do we have valid data and is the pupil visible? if (x~=el.MISSING_DATA & y~=el.MISSING_DATA & evt.pa(eye_used+1)>0) || mouseInsteadOfGaze

if mouseInsteadOfGaze if doDisplay [x,y,buttons] = GetMouse(window); else [x,y,buttons] = GetMouse(screenNum); end else x=scrWidth*((x-min(xRange))/range(xRange)); y=scrHeight*((y-min(yRange))/range(yRange)); end

% if data is valid, draw a circle on the screen at current gaze position % using PsychToolbox's SCREEN function if doDisplay gazeRect=[ x-dotWidth/2 y-dotHeight/2 x+dotWidth/2 y+dotHeight/2]; penSize=6; Screen('FrameOval', window, white, gazeRect,penSize,penSize); end else % if data is invalid (e.g. during a blink), clear display if doDisplay Screen('FillRect', window,black); end

disp('blink! (x or y is missing or pupil size<=0)') end

if doDisplay Screen('DrawingFinished', window); vbl = Screen('Flip', window, vbl + 0.5*ifi); end

else % if we don't, first find eye that's being tracked eye_used = Eyelink('eyeavailable'); % get eye that's tracked

switch eye_used case el.BINOCULAR disp('tracker indicates binocular, we''ll use right') eye_used = el.RIGHT_EYE; case el.LEFT_EYE disp('tracker indicates left eye') case el.RIGHT_EYE disp('tracker indicates right eye') case -1 error('eyeavailable returned -1') otherwise error('uninterpretable result from eyeavailable: ',eye_used) end end else disp(sprintf('no sample available, status: %d',status)) end % if sample available

% check for keyboard press [keyIsDown,secs,keyCode] = KbCheck; % if spacebar was pressed stop display if keyCode(stopkey) break; end end % main loop

% wait a while to record a few more samples WaitSecs(0.1);

% STEP 7 % finish up: stop recording eye-movements, % close graphics window, close data file and shut down tracker cleanup(createFile, oldPriority, edfFile); catch cleanup(createFile, oldPriority, edfFile); ers=lasterror ers.stack.file ers.stack.name ers.stack.line rethrow(lasterror) end

function cleanup(createFile, oldPriority, edfFile) Eyelink('stoprecording'); Screen('CloseAll'); ShowCursor; Priority(oldPriority); if createFile status=Eyelink('closefile'); if status ~=0 disp(sprintf('closefile error, status: %d',status)) end status=Eyelink('ReceiveFile',edfFile,pwd,1); if status~=0 fprintf('problem: ReceiveFile status: %d\n', status); end if 2==exist(edfFile, 'file') fprintf('Data file %s can be found in %s\n', edfFile, pwd ); else disp('unknown where data file went') end end Eyelink('shutdown');


text:
User talk:Diplomat~enwikibooks/Early Republic/Students

Wikiversyity has been created! You'll find the new School of History here. 128.187.0.164 07:44, 8 October 2006 (UTC)


text:
Novial/Tutorial Group

Intro
If you wish to ask questions about Novial grammar and usage you may do so here. You may also leave homework for marking here. Quick turnaround is likely but please allow a few days for response.

Cameron Nedland, Lesson 1
Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives (1) Complete the following sentences by translating the English word in brackets.

 * 1. (You) interesa me multim, sinioro Watson.  Vu
 * 2. E (you), doktoro Watson e siniore Holmes, interesa me.  Vus
 * 3. ( I ) sava vusen seriosi e exterordinari probleme.  Me
 * 4. (We) non fuma ma bonvoli sida e fuma.  Nus
 * 5. (She) observa (my) bon amike.  La, men
 * 6. Ob (he) renkontra les disdi?  Lo
 * 7. Yes, (they) visita (his) bon amike, doktoro Mortimer.  Les, lon

Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives (2) Complete the following sentences by translating the English word in brackets.

 * 1. Li hunde interesa nus: (it) nur sida e observa. Lu
 * 2. Li familie have problemes: (they, the problems) interesa sinioro Holmes. Lus
 * 3. (Their, male only) laboro sembla bon a me.  Lon
 * 4. (They, female only) have autoritate in Europa.  Las
 * 5. (Her) familie prefera non fuma.  Lan
 * 6. Holmes e Watson, pro quu (your) problemes interesa me?  Vun
 * 7. Ob vus sava ke lus es (my) problemes?  Men

Please leave me a message on my English Wikipedia userpage User: Cameron Nedland.

Cameron Nedland

 * A. In the following sentences change the present tense into the past preterite (simple past) and translate the English in brackets into Novial.

 * 1. Li doktore tira li papere ek (his or her) poshe. (But not the doctor’s pocket.)  Li doktore did tira li papere ek len poshe.

 * 2. La dona li hunda a (her own) amikes.  La did dona li hunda a sen amikes.

 * 3. Li oldi homo mori in (their) chambre.  Li oldi homo did mori in lesen chambre.

 * 4. Me envada (her) chambre.  Me did envada lan chambre.

 * 5. Lo prisenta li fraudo a (my) amike.  Lo did prisenta li fraudo a men amike.

 * 6. La parla ofte pri (our) malediktione.  La did parla ofte pri nusen malediktione.

 * 7. Les pove ama nur (their own) filies.  Les did pove ama nur sen filies.

 * 8. Li experte data (his) manuskrite. (Not the expert’s manuscript.)  Li experte did data lon manuskrite.

 * 9. Las trakta me kom (their) amike.  Las did trakta me kom sen amike.

 * 10. Nus non es expertes ma sava (our) dokumentes.  Nus non did ese expertes ma did sava nusen dokumentes.

 * 11. Vus have laboro nur por (yourselves).  Vus did have laboro nur por vus.

 * 12. Vu renkontra li bon doktore in (his) chambre. Vu did renkontra li bon doktore in lon chambre.

 * 13. Los non sava (themselves).  Los non did sava sen.

 * 14. Les observa (their own) chambres.  Les did observa sen chambres.

 * 15. Les ofense non li altres, ma (their own) familie.  Les did ofense non li altres, ma sen familie.

 * B. Use endings and affixes to convert the following Novial root words to the English words indicated.

 * amike – female friend Amika
 * praktikal – practicality Praktikaleso
 * siniore – lady Siniora
 * disi – this man Diso
 * exakti – exactness, exactitude Exakteso

inteligenti – intelligence Ineligenteso
 * nome – nominal Nomal
 * experte – expertise Experteso
 * mali – evil Maleso
 * pluri – plurality Plureso
 * ti – that woman Ta

title: Novial/Tutorial Group


text:
User talk:62.30.38.243

Please do not add commercial links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is not a vehicle for advertising or a mere collection of external links. Note that books may be collections of external links for educational purposes only. See the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

title: User talk:62.30.38.243


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/sealed

The keyword is used to specify that a class cannot be inherited from. The following example shows the context in which it may be used:

Notice: The class inheritance is the same as that of a  class in Java.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/sealed


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/interface

The keyword is used to declare an interface. Interfaces provide a construct for a programmer to create types that can have methods, properties, delegates, events, and indexers declared, but not implemented.

It is a good programming practice to give interfaces differing names from classes that start with an I and/or finish with ...able, like or  or.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/interface


text:
Dichotomous Key/Protista

The most ancient eukaryotic kingdom, protists include a variety of eukaryotic body (single-celled-colonial-multicellular?) and nutritional heterotrophic, autotrophic, and both) forms. Perhaps they are best defined as eukaryotes that are NOT fungi, animals, or plants.

title: Dichotomous Key/Protista


text:
Dichotomous Key/Bacteria

Include the cyanobacteria (autotrophic) and eubacteria (heterotrophic).

 * Acidobacteria (acidophilic, gram positive, high G+C, common in dirt)
 * Actinobacteria (high G+C gram positive bacteria)
 * Aquificae (hyperthermophilic chemolithoautotrophs, gram negative)
 * Bacteroidetes (really diverse group with pathogens, commensals, and free-living bacteria; anaerobic, gram negative, rod shaped)
 * Chlamydiae (obligate intracellular parasites of eukaryotic cells, gram negative)
 * Chlorobi (anaerobic, photoautotrophic, gram negative green sulfur bacteria)
 * Chloroflexi (greeen nonsulfur bacteria)
 * Chrysiogenetes (chemolithoautotrophic bacterium)
 * Cyanobacteria (oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and chloroplasts)
 * Deferribacteres (aquatic, anaerobic bacteria)
 * Deinococcus-Thermus (extremophiles, gram negative)
 * Dictyoglomi (thermophilic chemoorganotrophs)
 * Fibrobacteres (cellulose digesting, anaerobic rumen bacteria, two species)
 * Firmicutes (low G+C gram positives)
 * Fusobacteria (obligate anaerobic heterotrophs, many involved in human infections, gram negative, non-spore forming)
 * Gemmatimonadetes (Gram negative bacteria lacking DAP in cellular envelopes)
 * Nitrospira (gram negative; includes nitrite-oxicizers, thermophilic sulfate reducers, and acidophilic iron reducers)
 * Planctomycetes (ovoid gram negative bacteria, reproduce by budding)
 * Proteobacteria (purple bacteria and relatives, gram negative)
 * Spirochaetes (spiral-shaped chemoheterotrophs, gram negative)
 * Synergistetes (gram negative, rod/vibroid cell shape)
 * Tenericutes (gram positive, no cell wall)
 * Thermodesulfobacteria (thermophilic, sulfate-reducing bacteria)
 * Thermomicrobia (hyperthermophilic chemoheterotrophs)
 * Thermotogae (hyperthermophilic, obligate anaerobic, fermentive heterotrophs)
 * Verrucomicrobia (terrestrial, aquatic, some associated with eukaryotic hosts; gram negative)

title: Dichotomous Key/Bacteria


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/event

The keyword is used to declare an event.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/event


text:
Dichotomous Key/Archaea

The most primitive group, the archaebacteria, are today restricted to marginal habitats such as hot springs or areas of low oxygen concentration.

title: Dichotomous Key/Archaea


text: User talk:213.156.219.136

title: User talk:213.156.219.136


text: User talk:69.230.223.148

title: User talk:69.230.223.148


text:
C++ Programming/Classes/Inheritance

Inheritance (Derivation)
As seen early when introducing the programming paradigms, inheritance is a property that describes a relationship between two (or more) types or classes, of objects. It is a characteristic of OOP, and in C++, classes share this property.

Derivation is the action of creating a new class using the inheritance property. It is possible to derive one class from another or even several (Multiple inheritance), like a tree we can call base class to the root and child class to any leaf; in any other case the parent/child relation will exist for each class derived from another.

A base class is a class that is created with the intention of deriving other classes from it.
 * Base Class

A child class is a class that was derived from another, that will now be the parent class to it.
 * Child Class

A parent class is the closest class that we derived from to create the one we are referencing as the child class.
 * Parent Class

As an example, suppose you are creating a game, something using different cars, and you need specific type of car for the policemen and another type for the player(s). Both car types share similar properties. The major difference (on this example case) would be that the policemen type would have sirens on top of their cars and the players' cars will not.

One way of getting the cars for the policemen and the player ready is to create separate classes for policemen's car and for the player's car like this:

and then creating separate objects for the two cars like this:

So, except for one thing that you can easily notice: there are certain parts of code that are very similar (if not exactly the same) in the above two classes. In essence, you have to type in the same code at two different locations! And when you update your code to include methods (functions) for  and , you'll have to do that in both the classes above.

Therefore, to escape this frustrating (and confusing) task of writing the same code at multiple locations in a single project, you use Inheritance.

Now that you know what kind of problems Inheritance solves in C++, let us examine how to implement Inheritance in our programs. As its name suggests, Inheritance lets us create new classes which automatically have all the code from existing classes. It means that if there is a class called, a new class with the name   can be created which will have all the code present inside the   class. The following code segment shows it all:

As you can see, using the colon ':' we can inherit a new class out of an existing one. It’s that simple! All the code inside the  class is now available to the   class. And if you are intelligent enough, you can already see the advantages it provides. If you are like me (i.e. not too intelligent), you can see the following code segment to know what I mean:

In the code above, the two newly created classes PlayerCar and PoliceCar have been inherited from the Car class. Therefore, all the methods and properties (variables) from the Car class are available to the newly created classes for the player's car and the policemen's car. Technically speaking, in C++, the Car class in this case is our "Base Class" since this is the class which the other two classes are based on (or inherit from).

Just one more thing to note here is the keyword protected instead of the usual private keyword. That’s no big deal: We use protected when we want to make sure that the variables we define in our base class should be available in the classes that inherit from that base class. If you use private in the class definition of the Car class, you will not be able to inherit those variables inside your inherited classes.

There are three types of class inheritance: public, private and protected. We use the keyword public to implement public inheritance. The classes who inherit with the keyword public from a base class, inherit all the public members as public members, the protected data is inherited as protected data and the private data is inherited but it cannot be accessed directly by the class.

The following example shows the class Circle that inherits "publicly" from the base class Form:

The new class Circle inherits the attribute area from the base class Form (the attribute area is implicitly an attribute of the class Circle), but it cannot access it directly. It does so through the functions getArea and setArea (that are public in the base class and remain public in the derived class). The color attribute, however, is inherited as a public attribute, and the class can access it directly.

The following table indicates how the attributes are inherited in the three different types of inheritance:

As the table above shows, protected members are inherited as protected methods in public inheritance. Therefore, we should use the protected label whenever we want to declare a method inaccessible outside the class and not to lose access to it in derived classes. However, losing accessibility can be useful sometimes, because we are encapsulating details in the base class.

Let us imagine that we have a class with a very complex method "m" that invokes many auxiliary methods declared as private in the class. If we derive a class from it, we should not bother about those methods because they are inaccessible in the derived class. If a different programmer is in charge of the design of the derived class, allowing access to those methods could be the cause of errors and confusion. So, it is a good idea to avoid the protected label whenever we can have a design with the same result with the private label.

Now one more additional "syntax trick". If the base / parent class has a constructor which requires parameters, we are in trouble, you may think. Of course calling constructors directly is forbidden, but we have a special syntax for this purpose. The way, is just so that when you define the constructor of the delivered class, you call the parent constructor like this:

Multiple inheritance
Multiple inheritance allows the construction of classes that inherit from more than one type or class. This contrasts with single inheritance, where a class will only inherit from one type or class.

Multiple inheritance can cause some confusing situations, and is much more complex than single inheritance, so there is some debate over whether or not its benefits outweigh its risks. Multiple inheritance has been a touchy issue for many years, with opponents pointing to its increased complexity and ambiguity in situations such as the "diamond problem". Most modern OOP languages do not allow multiple inheritance.

The declared order of derivation is relevant for determining the order of default initialization by constructors and destructors cleanup.

title: C++ Programming/Classes/Inheritance


text:
User talk:80.63.213.182

Chemical synthesis
Thanks for your work on Chemical synthesis. Most recently, however, you recreated a redirect at Chemical synthesis:Cyclonite synthesis which had previously been deleted. If the page is linked to from an outside source, please contact the site admin and ask him to update it (or fix it yourself if you can). You can also contact me on my talk page with information on where the link is and I'll take care of it. --Swift 19:48, 8 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:80.63.213.182


text:
Talk:William Shakespeare's Works/Comedies/All's Well That Ends Well

Page name changes
Currently the "Study guides" have the name form: "Act X, Scenes Y-Z: Study Guide". Isn't the "study guide" part quite obvious. Might these simply be called "Act X, Scenes Y-Z"? A nitpick, I know... --Swift 20:00, 8 October 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Geodesy

The reference books can be introduced here. Everyone, who has read or knows some helpful books in any subject can list them in wiki pages. For example I know some Geodesy books which they are textbooks and could be introduced or listed. Then everyone interested to any subject, will quikly find proper textbooks. I would like to hear your ideas. what do you think?

title: Talk:Geodesy


text: User talk:68.13.30.45

title: User talk:68.13.30.45