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Lojban/Introduction to Lojban

Loglan
In 1955, sociologist from Philippines Dr. James Cooke Brown began work on Loglan, a constructed language designed for linguistic research, particularly investigation of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, a theory stating that linguistic structures affect people's thoughts. The object was to make a language so powerfully expressive for logic and calculation that people learning it would become measurably smarter if the hypothesis was true.

He intended it to be as culturally neutral as possible, logically and linguistically powerful, incorporating all known expressive features of any language (e.g., compounded location tenses), metaphysically parsimonious (e.g., you are not required to express any feature of reality, as you are in English time-tenses of verbs), and totally regular and unambiguous. He even used maximally stable phonemes.

The formal grammar was disambiguated mechanically (at first).

The language's grammar is based on predicate logic (the name Loglan is short for "logical language"), which also makes it particularly suitable for human-computer communication, an application that led Robert Heinlein to mention the language in his novel The Moon is a Harsh Mistress.

Dr. Brown founded The Loglan Institute to develop the language and other applications of it. He always considered the language a research project that was never complete, so although he released many papers about its design he never "released" it to become a usable language. A group of his followers later formed The Logical Language Group to create the language Lojban along the same principles, but with the intention to make it freely available and encourage its use as a real language. This latter group has a small but active community of speakers.

Loglan allows very strange speech, because one can say things that are simply not meaningful. For example, you can literally say that John, a person, is a short word. Or one can directly and precisely say any of the many possible meanings of the English phrase "a pretty little girls school."

In natural languages, the ambiguity of the grammar hides these odd meanings; but in Loglan they are all available and add expressive freedom to the language. This feature is so pronounced that people fluent in Loglan say impossible things as a sort of joke — a type of humour simply not supported by the linguistic machinery of natural languages.

The oddest, most difficult thing for a speaker of an Indo-European language like English is that Loglan has no distinction between nouns or verbs, objects, direct objects, indirect objects, possessive forms or tenses. There are only predicates, with places for variables: for example, botso: X buys item Y from seller P for price Q. There are prefixes to reorder predicates; for example, price would be botso with a little word to make price the first variable. With different reorderings, one speaks of buyer, bought-thing, or seller.

Tenses for time, location, actor, type of action, etc. are provided by "little words" which are optional. Predicates compound, so a predicate can fit in the variable of another predicate. Every feature of the language has standard, regular forms for acting in compounds. For example, time-travel tenses are available trivially in Loglan (I did X from time Y to P in time Q.) using compounding forms normally used for location tenses.

After long use of Loglan, the world gains a sort of timeless, objectless, actorless flavor. Time words and location words fall away except when needed to make a point, usually with emotional emphasis. It is rather easy to avoid blame for responsibilities in Loglan, and scheduling may be creatively ambiguous because the tenses are optional.

The language is designed so that the patterns of phonemes always parse into words. Thus, one cannot babble Loglan, because even when run together, the language is still parsable.

Lojban
The constructed language Lojban (SAMPA ['loZban]) was created by the Logical Language Group in 1987 based on the earlier Loglan, with the intent to make the language more complete, usable, and freely available. The language itself shares many of the features and goals of Loglan; in particular:

 * The grammar is based on predicate logic, and is capable of expressing complex logical constructs precisely.
 * It has no irregularities or ambiguities in spelling or grammar, so it can be easily parsed by computer.
 * Lojban is designed to be as culturally neutral as possible.
 * It is, nonetheless, simple to learn and use compared to many natural languages.

While the initial goal of the Loglan project was to investigate the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the active Lojban community has additional goals for the language, including:

 * General research into linguistics.
 * Research in artificial intelligence and machine understanding.
 * Improved human-computer communication, storage ontologies, and computer translation of natural language text.
 * Use of language as an educational tool.
 * Personal creativity.

Lojban Grammar
All words in Lojban belong to one of three overall categories: brivla, for both common nouns and verbs; cmene, for proper nouns; cmavo, for structural particles: articles, numerals, tense indicators and other such modifiers. The cmavo are further subdivided into selma'o, which are closer to the notion of parts of speech (e.g., UI includes interjections and discursives). There is no distinct class of words for adjectives or adverbs, unlike most Indo-European languages. Most types of noun phrases are always preceded by an article; there are different articles to indicate whether it is being treated as an individual, mass, set, or typical element. Brivla do not inflect for tense, person, or number; tense may optionally be indicated by separate cmavo, and number may optionally be indicated in various ways.

As befits a logical language, there is a large assortment of conjunctions. Logical conjunctions take different forms depending on whether they connect sumti (the equivalent of noun phrases), selbri (phrases that can serve as verbs; all brivla are selbri), parts of a tanru (a construct whose closest English equivalent is a string of nouns), or clauses in a sentence.

The typology is Subject Verb Object, with Subject Object Verb also common. Word formation is polysynthetic; many brivla (all of which, except for a handful of borrowings such as alga, have at least five letters) have one to three three-letter forms called rafsi which are used in making longer words. For example, gasnu means "to make something happen"; its rafsi form of -gau regularly forms compounds meaning "to cause...x", in which the agent is in the subject place of the new predicate.

Lojban has a positional case system, though this can be overridden by marking predicate arguments with explicit case particles. For instance, bramau means "is bigger than"; the bigger thing is in first position, and the smaller is second, and the measured property in the third. So mi bramau do le ka clani means "I am bigger than you in the property of height" or "I am taller than you"; but this could also be expressed as something like fi le ka clani fe do fa mi bramau, "In height, you are exceeded by me".

 * le cinfo cu bramau le mlatu -- "The lion is bigger than the cat"
 * mi bramaugau le cinfo le mlatu -- "I make the lion bigger than the cat"

What a particular place means depends entirely on the brivla. For animals and plants the second place is the species, variety, breed, or other taxon; for verbs of measurement it is the numerical measurement, and a further place is the standard; for klama ("go" / "come") it is the destination. There may be up to five places for some brivla.

Something of the flavor of Lojban (and Loglan) can be imparted by this lightbulb joke: Q: How many Lojbanists does it take to change a broken light bulb? A: Two: one to decide what to change it into, and one to figure out what kind of bulb emits broken light. This makes use of two features of the language; first, the language attempts to eliminate polysemy, that is, having a word with more than one meaning. So while the English word "change" can mean "to transform into a different state", or "to replace", or even "small-denomination currency", Lojban has different words for each. In particular, the use of a brivla such as the word for "change" ("binxo") implies that all of its predicate places exist, so there must be something for it to change into. Another feature of the language is that it has no grammatical ambiguities such as appear in English phrases like "big dog catcher", which can mean either a big person who catches dogs or a person who catches big dogs. In Lojban, unless you clearly specify otherwise with cmavo, such modifiers always group left-to-right, so "big dog catcher" is a catcher of big dogs, and a "broken light bulb" is a bulb that emits broken light (you can also avoid the ambiguity by creating a new word, so "broken lightbulb" has the intended meaning).

title: Lojban/Introduction to Lojban


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Lojban/Other resources

 * Wikipedia: Lojban
 * Official Loglan Homepage
 * Online Lojban Dictionary
 * Printed copy of The Complete Lojban Language by John Woldemar Cowan ISBN 0-9660283-0-9
 * Lojban Wiki
 * Lojban for Beginners Lessons
 * lojbo skicu (jbofi'e) - Automatic Lojban parser and glosser
 * Gismu Thesaurus

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lojban/Other resources


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Lojban/Attitudinals

Attitudinals are markers of attitude or emotion, modifying the word (brivla, cmavo, cmene, sumti, or tanru) directly before it. For example, the simple << mlatu >> for "cat" can become << mlatu .ui >> for "cat (happiness!/:D)". At the beginning of a sentence (after the place of .i) they modify the entire sentence (bridi), and after the attitudinal beginning bracket << fu'e >>, they continue the emotion for all the statement until the closing bracket << fu'o >>.

Attitudinals can also affect vocatives, the same way a change in vocal tone can greatly affect a simple "hello". For example, << coi .ui >> means not a simple "Hello.", but something like "Hello! :D". Combined with the attitudinal question-maker pei, you can easily create more complex << coi .uipei >> may be thought of as "Hello - are you glad to see me?", while << co'o .uipei >> may be viewed as "Good-bye - are you happy that we part?".

Beyond mere emotion, they can mark prepositional ideas such as desire ("I want this to happen"), obligation ("This needs to happen"), and many other complex functions we take for granted - for example, << mi citka >> means "I eat", while << .au mi citka >> means "I want to eat", and << .e'e mi citka >> means "I am able to eat".

Miscellaneous indicators:
See also: Emotions

title: Lojban/Attitudinals


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Lojban/Vocatives

Since {ki'e} means approximately "Thank you," it might seem appropriate to respond by saying {fi'i}, seemingly corresponding to the English "You're welcome." However, {fi'i} means "welcome" in the sense of an invitation/acceptance only. In order to respond, {je'e} should be used.

{coi co'o} means "Greetings in passing." English speakers generally just say "Hi."

"ju'i" can be used as an attention-grabber such as the first word in each of the following utterances (if they started a conversation): "Attention, all shoppers", "So, I just got back from my date with Ryan", "Lo! Listen to the news which I bring". This is the function of the very first word of Beowulf. It can also return an audience's attention to the speaker/discussion, such as with some usages of "ahem", clearing the throat, or wrapping on a desk.

Exercises
In Exercises 1-7, give the most suitable Lojban word(s) to say in each situation.

01. The beginning of a conversation. 02. Begging. 03. During an oath. 04. Inviting a guest into your house. 05. Getting a group of people to listen to your announcement. 06. You desire the floor while someone else has it. 07. Leaving a party.

In Exercises 8-43, give the closest Lojban translation of the English sentences.

08. Attention! 09. Listen to me, Victoria. 10. I swear, Benjamin. 11. I don't understand, Christian. 12. I am Pete. 13. Goodbye, Jonathan. 14. Roger, Logan. 15. Wilco. 16. Hello, Rodrigo. 17. Hi, Bertand. 18. Wait! We're not done discussing this! 19. Hark! 20. Agreed. 21. Can I say something, Jose? 22. Just a minute, Jennifer. 23. I'm not done talking, Morgan. 24. Please, Sydney. 25. Over and out. 26. I appreciate that, Chloe. 27. Make yourself at home, Rachel. 28. May I speak, Jasmine? 29. Sorry for interrupting, Sophia, but... 30. I promise, Megan. 31. Thanks, Samuel. 32. Hold on, Nathan. 33. What did you say, Natalie? 34. I interrupt. 35. Greetings, Justin. 36. Uh-huh. 37. Thank you, Dylan. 38. At your service, Austin. 39. I'm listening, Kevin. 40. I understand, Julia. 41. "Houston, we have a problem." 42. Hello! Susan has just left Harold. 43. Hello, Susan! Harold has just left.

Answers to exercises
01. coi 02. pe'u 03. nu'e 04. fi'i 05. ju'i 06. ta'a 07. co'o

08. ju'i 09. ju'i. vektarias. 10. nu'e. bendjamen. 11. je'enai. krestien. 12. mi'e. pit. 13. co'o. janaten. 14. je'e. logen. 15. vi'o 16. coi. radrigos. 17. coi. bertrend. 18. fe'onai 19. ju'i 20. vi'o 21. be'e. xozeis. 22. re'inai. djenefer. 23. mu'onai. morgen. 24. pe'u. sednis. 25. fe'o 26. ki'e. clos. 27. fi'i. reitcel. 28. be'e. djezmen. 29. ta'a. sofias. 30. nu'e. meigen. 31. ki'e. semiul. 32. re'inai. neitan. 33. ke'o. netalis. 34. ta'a 35. coi. jesten. 36. je'e 37. ki'e. delen. 38. fi'i. .asten. 39. re'i. keven. 40. je'e. djulias. 41. doi xustyn. mi'a se nabmi 42. coi do'u la suzyn. la xeirold. puzi cliva 43. coi la suzyn. la xeirold. puzi cliva

title: Lojban/Vocatives


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User:Wintermute~enwikibooks

My log:

Wintermute 22:14 4 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I have created this user. --- Wintermute 22:14 4 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Examples and little corrections in Spanish. --- Wintermute 18:23 6 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Vocabulary and navigation bartools in Spanish.

- Wintermute 13:04, 11 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Vocabulary in Spanish.

- Wintermute 13:03, 12 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Vocabulary and little corrections in Spanish.

Wintermute 19:09, 12 Aug 2003 (UTC)

A page for my drafts. A few of grammar drafts for Spanish. --

A few execises for the Spanish lesson 1.

Wintermute 17:56, 27 Aug 2003 (UTC)

I have created: Spanish/Exercises/Verbs_ser_And_estar_-_Solutions

Wintermute 21:00, 11 Sep 2003 (UTC)

-

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Wintermute_drafts

title: User:Wintermute~enwikibooks


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Discrete Mathematics/Set theory

Introduction
Set Theory starts very simply: it examines whether an object belongs, or does not belong, to a set of objects which has been described in some non-ambiguous way. From this simple beginning, an increasingly complex (and useful!) series of ideas can be developed, which lead to notations and techniques with many varied applications.

Definition: Set
The present definition of a set may sound very vague. A set can be defined as an unordered collection of entities that are related because they obey a certain rule.

'Entities' may be anything, literally: numbers, people, shapes, cities, bits of text, ... etc

The key fact about the 'rule' they all obey is that it must be well-defined. In other words, it must describe clearly what the entities obey. If the entities we're talking about are words, for example, a well-defined rule is:

X is English

A rule which is not well-defined (and therefore couldn't be used to define a set) might be:

X is hard to spell

 * where X is any word

Elements
An entity that belongs to a given set is called an element of that set. For example: Henry VIII is an element of the set of Kings of England. : kings of England {Henry VIII}

Set Notation
$$\{ -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 \}$$
 * To list the elements of a set, we enclose them in curly brackets, separated by commas. For example:

$$\{ \text{ integers between } -3 \text{ and } 3 \text{ inclusive} \}$$
 * The elements of a set may also be described verbally:

$$\{x | x \text{ is an integer and } |x| < 4 \}$$
 * The set builder notation may be used to describe sets that are too tedious to list explicitly. To denote any particular set, we use the letter $$x$$:

$$\{x | x \in \mathbb{Z}, |x| < 4 \}$$
 * or equivalently

$$\text{dog } \in \{ \text{quadrupeds}\}$$ $$\text{Washington DC} \notin \{\text{European capital cities}\}$$
 * The symbols $$\in$$ and $$\notin$$ denote the inclusion and exclusion of element, respectively:

$$\{2, 3, 5, 7, 11, \dots \}$$
 * Sets can contain an infinite number of elements, such as the set of prime numbers. Ellipses are used to denote the infinite continuation of a pattern:

Note that the use of ellipses may cause ambiguities, the set above may be taken as the set of integers individible by 4, for example.

 * Sets will usually be denoted using upper case letters: $$A$$, $$B$$, ...
 * Elements will usually be denoted using lower case letters: $$x$$, $$y$$, ...

The universal set
The set of all the entities in the current context is called the universal set, or simply the universe. It is denoted by $$U$$.

The context may be a homework exercise, for example, where the Universal set is limited to the particular entities under its consideration. Also, it may be any arbitrary problem, where we clearly know where it is applied.

The empty set
The set containing no elements at all is called the null set, or empty set. It is denoted by a pair of empty braces: $$\{ \}$$ or by the symbol $$\varnothing$$.

It may seem odd to define a set that contains no elements. Bear in mind, however, that one may be looking for solutions to a problem where it isn't clear at the outset whether or not such solutions even exist. If it turns out that there isn't a solution, then the set of solutions is empty.

For example:

 * If $$U = \{\text{words in the English language}\}$$ then $$\{\text{words with more than 50 letters}\} = \varnothing$$.
 * If $$U = \{\text{whole numbers}\}$$ then $$\{x | x^2 = 10\} = \varnothing$$.

Operations on the empty set
Operations performed on the empty set (as a set of things to be operated upon) can also be confusing. (Such operations are nullary operations.) For example, the sum of the elements of the empty set is zero, but the product of the elements of the empty set is one (see empty product). This may seem odd, since there are no elements of the empty set, so how could it matter whether they are added or multiplied (since “they” do not exist)? Ultimately, the results of these operations say more about the operation in question than about the empty set. For instance, notice that zero is the identity element for addition, and one is the identity element for multiplication.

Special numerical sets
Several sets are used so often, they are given special symbols.

Natural numbers
The 'counting' numbers (or whole numbers) starting at 1, are called the natural numbers. This set is sometimes denoted by N. So N = {1, 2, 3, ...}

Note that, when we write this set by hand, we can't write in bold type so we write an N in blackboard bold font: $$\mathbb{N}$$

Integers
All whole numbers, positive, negative and zero form the set of integers. It is sometimes denoted by Z. So Z = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

In blackboard bold, it looks like this: $$\mathbb{Z}$$

Real numbers
If we expand the set of integers to include all decimal numbers, we form the set of real numbers. The set of reals is sometimes denoted by R.

A real number may have a finite number of digits after the decimal point (e.g. 3.625), or an infinite number of decimal digits. In the case of an infinite number of digits, these digits may:

 * recur; e.g. 8.127127127...

 * ... or they may not recur; e.g. 3.141592653...

In blackboard bold: $$\mathbb{R}$$

Rational numbers
Those real numbers whose decimal digits are finite in number, or which recur, are called rational numbers. The set of rationals is sometimes denoted by the letter Q.

A rational number can always be written as exact fraction p/q; where p and q are integers. If q equals 1, the fraction is just the integer p. Note that q may NOT equal zero as the value is then undefined.
 * For example: 0.5, -17, 2/17, 82.01, 3.282828... are all rational numbers.

In blackboard bold: $$\mathbb{Q}$$

Irrational numbers
If a number can't be represented exactly by a fraction p/q, it is said to be irrational.
 * Examples include: √2, √3, π.

Set Theory Exercise 1
Click the link for Set Theory Exercise 1

Relationships between Sets
We’ll now look at various ways in which sets may be related to one another.

Equality
Two sets $$A$$ and $$B$$ are said to be equal if and only if they have exactly the same elements. In this case, we simply write:

$$A = B$$

Note two further facts about equal sets:

 * The order in which elements are listed does not matter.

 * If an element is listed more than once, any repeat occurrences are ignored.

So, for example, the following sets are all equal:

$$\{1, 2, 3\} = \{3, 2, 1\} = \{1, 1, 2, 3, 2, 2\}$$

(You may wonder why one would ever come to write a set like $$\{1, 1, 2, 3, 2, 2\}$$. You may recall that when we defined the empty set we noted that there may be no solutions to a particular problem - hence the need for an empty set.  Well, here we may be trying several different approaches to solving a problem, some of which in fact lead us to the same solution.  When we come to consider the distinct solutions, however, any such repetitions would be ignored.)

Subsets
If all the elements of a set $$A$$ are also elements of a set $$B$$, then we say that $$A$$ is a subset of $$B$$ and we write:

$$A \subseteq B$$

For example:

In the examples below:

If $$T = \{2, 4, 6, 8, 10\}$$ and $$E = \{\text{even integers}\}$$, then $$T \subseteq E$$ If $$A = \{\text{alphanumeric characters}\}$$ and $$P = \{\text{printable characters}\}$$, then $$A \subseteq P$$ If $$Q = \{\text{quadrilaterals}\}$$ and $$F = \{\text{plane figures bounded by four straight lines}\}$$, then $$Q \subseteq F$$

Notice that $$A \subseteq B$$ does not imply that $$B$$ must necessarily contain extra elements that are not in $$A$$; the two sets could be equal – as indeed $$Q$$ and $$F$$ are above. However, if, in addition, $$B$$ does contain at least one element that isn’t in $$A$$, then we say that $$A$$ is a proper subset of $$B$$. In such a case we would write:

$$A \subset B$$

In the examples above:

$$E$$ contains ... -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, ... , so $$T \subset E$$

$$P$$ contains $, ;, &, ..., so $$A \subset P$$

But $$Q$$ and $$F$$ are just different ways of saying the same thing, so $$Q = F$$

The use of $$\subset$$ and $$\subseteq$$; is clearly analogous to the use of < and ≤ when comparing two numbers.

Notice also that every set is a subset of the universal set, and the empty set is a subset of every set.

(You might be curious about this last statement: how can the empty set be a subset of anything, when it doesn’t contain any elements? The point here is that for every set $$A$$, the empty set doesn’t contain any elements that aren't in $$A$$.  So $$\oslash \subseteq A$$ for all sets $$A$$.)

Finally, note that if $$A \subseteq B \text{ and } B \subseteq A \text{ then } A$$ and $$B$$ must contain exactly the same elements, and are therefore equal. In other words:

$$A \subseteq B \text{ and } B \subseteq A \text{ then } A = B$$

Disjoint
Two sets are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common. For example:

If $$A = \{\text{even numbers}\}$$ and $$B = \{1, 3, 5, 11, 19\}$$, then $$A$$ and $$B$$ are disjoint sets

Venn Diagrams
A Venn diagram can be a useful way of illustrating relationships between sets.

In a Venn diagram:

 * The universal set is represented by a rectangle. Points inside the rectangle represent elements that are in the universal set; points outside represent things not in the universal set.  You can think of this rectangle, then, as a 'fence' keeping unwanted things out - and concentrating our attention on the things we're talking about.

 * Other sets are represented by loops, usually oval or circular in shape, drawn inside the rectangle. Again, points inside a given loop represent elements in the set it represents; points outside represent things not in the set.

On the left, the sets A and B are disjoint, because the loops don't overlap.

On the right A is a subset of B, because the loop representing set A is entirely enclosed by loop B.

Venn diagrams: Worked Examples
Example 1

Fig. 3 represents a Venn diagram showing two sets A and B, in the general case where nothing is known about any relationships between the sets.

Note that the rectangle representing the universal set is divided into four regions, labelled i, ii, iii and iv.

What can be said about the sets A and B if it turns out that:

 * (a) region ii is empty?

 * (b) region iii is empty?

(a) If region ii is empty, then A contains no elements that are not in B. So A is a subset of B, and the diagram should be re-drawn like Fig 2 above.

(b) If region iii is empty, then A and B have no elements in common and are therefore disjoint. The diagram should then be re-drawn like Fig 1 above.

Example 2

 * (a) Draw a Venn diagram to represent three sets A, B and C, in the general case where nothing is known about possible relationships between the sets.

 * (b) Into how many regions is the rectangle representing U divided now?

 * (c) Discuss the relationships between the sets A, B and C, when various combinations of these regions are empty.

(a) The diagram in Fig. 4 shows the general case of three sets where nothing is known about any possible relationships between them.

(b) The rectangle representing U is now divided into 8 regions, indicated by the Roman numerals i to viii.

(c) Various combinations of empty regions are possible. In each case, the Venn diagram can be re-drawn so that empty regions are no longer included. For example:
 * If region ii is empty, the loop representing A should be made smaller, and moved inside B and C to eliminate region ii.

 * If regions ii, iii and iv are empty, make A and B smaller, and move them so that they are both inside C (thus eliminating all three of these regions), but do so in such a way that they still overlap each other (thus retaining region vi).

 * If regions iii and vi are empty, 'pull apart' loops A and B to eliminate these regions, but keep each loop overlapping loop C.

 * ...and so on. Drawing Venn diagrams for each of the above examples is left as an exercise for the reader.

Example 3

The following sets are defined:

 * U = {1, 2, 3, …, 10}
 * A = {2, 3, 7, 8, 9}
 * B = {2, 8}
 * C = {4, 6, 7, 10}

Using the two-stage technique described below, draw a Venn diagram to represent these sets, marking all the elements in the appropriate regions.

The technique is as follows:

 * Draw a 'general' 3-set Venn diagram, like the one in Example 2.

 * Go through the elements of the universal set one at a time, once only, entering each one into the appropriate region of the diagram.

 * Re-draw the diagram, if necessary, moving loops inside one another or apart to eliminate any empty regions.

Don't begin by entering the elements of set A, then set B, then C – you'll risk missing elements out or including them twice!

Solution

After drawing the three empty loops in a diagram looking like Fig. 4 (but without the Roman numerals!), go through each of the ten elements in U - the numbers 1 to 10 - asking each one three questions; like this:

First element: 1
 * Are you in A? No
 * Are you in B? No
 * Are you in C? No

A 'no' to all three questions means that the number 1 is outside all three loops. So write it in the appropriate region (region number i in Fig. 4).

Second element: 2
 * Are you in A? Yes
 * Are you in B? Yes
 * Are you in C? No

Yes, yes, no: so the number 2 is inside A and B but outside C. Goes in region iii then.

...and so on, with elements 3 to 10.

The resulting diagram looks like Fig. 5.

The final stage is to examine the diagram for empty regions - in this case the regions we called iv, vi and vii in Fig. 4 - and then re-draw the diagram to eliminate these regions. When we've done so, we shall clearly see the relationships between the three sets.

So we need to:
 * pull B and C apart, since they don't have any elements in common.

 * push B inside A since it doesn't have any elements outside A.

The finished result is shown in Fig. 6.

The regions in a Venn Diagram and Truth Tables
Perhaps you've realized that adding an additional set to a Venn diagram doubles the number of regions into which the rectangle representing the universal set is divided. This gives us a very simple pattern, as follows:

 * With one set loop, there will be just two regions: the inside of the loop and its outside.

 * With two set loops, there'll be four regions.

 * With three loops, there'll be eight regions.

 * ...and so on.

It's not hard to see why this should be so. Each new loop we add to the diagram divides each existing region into two, thus doubling the number of regions altogether.

But there's another way of looking at this, and it's this. In the solution to Example 3 above, we asked three questions of each element: Are you in A? Are you in B? and Are you in C? Now there are obviously two possible answers to each of these questions: yes and no. When we combine the answers to three questions like this, one after the other, there are then 23 = 8 possible sets of answers altogether. Each of these eight possible combinations of answers corresponds to a different region on the Venn diagram.

The complete set of answers resembles very closely a Truth Table - an important concept in Logic, which deals with statements which may be true or false. The table on the right shows the eight possible combinations of answers for 3 sets A, B and C.

You'll find it helpful to study the patterns of Y's and N's in each column.

 * As you read down column C, the letter changes on every row: Y, N, Y, N, Y, N, Y, N

 * Reading down column B, the letters change on every other row: Y, Y, N, N, Y, Y, N, N

 * Reading down column A, the letters change every four rows: Y, Y, Y, Y, N, N, N, N

Set Theory Exercise 2
Click link for Set Theory Exercise 2

Operations on Sets
Just as we can combine two numbers to form a third number, with operations like 'add', 'subtract', 'multiply' and 'divide', so we can combine two sets to form a third set in various ways. We'll begin by looking again at the Venn diagram which shows two sets A and B in a general position, where we don't have any information about how they may be related.

The first two columns in the table on the right show the four sets of possible answers to the questions Are you in A? and Are you in B? for two sets A and B; the Roman numerals in the third column show the corresponding region in the Venn diagram in Fig. 7.

Intersection
Region iii, where the two loops overlap (the region corresponding to 'Y' followed by 'Y'), is called the intersection of the sets A and B. It is denoted by A ∩ B. So we can define intersection as follows:

 * The intersection of two sets A and B, written A ∩ B, is the set of elements that are in A and in B.

(Note that in symbolic logic, a similar symbol, $$\scriptstyle \wedge$$, is used to connect two logical propositions with the AND operator.)

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then A ∩ B = {2, 4}.

We can say, then, that we have combined two sets to form a third set using the operation of intersection.

Union
In a similar way we can define the union of two sets as follows:
 * The union of two sets A and B, written A ∪ B, is the set of elements that are in A or in B (or both).

The union, then, is represented by regions ii, iii and iv in Fig. 7.

(Again, in logic a similar symbol, $$\scriptstyle \vee$$, is used to connect two propositions with the OR operator.)

 * So, for example, {1, 2, 3, 4} ∪ {2, 4, 6, 8} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8}.

You'll see, then, that in order to get into the intersection, an element must answer 'Yes' to both questions, whereas to get into the union, either answer may be 'Yes'.

The ∪ symbol looks like the first letter of 'Union' and like a cup that will hold a lot of items. The ∩ symbol looks like a spilled cup that won't hold a lot of items, or possibly the letter 'n', for i'n'tersection. Take care not to confuse the two.

Difference

 * The difference of two sets A and B (also known as the set-theoretic difference of A and B, or the relative complement of B in A) is the set of elements that are in A but not in B.

This is written A - B, or sometimes A \ B.

The elements in the difference, then, are the ones that answer 'Yes' to the first question Are you in A?, but 'No' to the second Are you in B?. This combination of answers is on row 2 of the above table, and corresponds to region ii in Fig.7.

 * For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, then A - B = {1, 3}.

Complement
So far, we have considered operations in which two sets combine to form a third: binary operations. Now we look at a unary operation - one that involves just one set.

Clearly, this is the set of elements that answer 'No' to the question Are you in A?.
 * The set of elements that are not in a set A is called the complement of A. It is written A′ (or sometimes AC, or $$\bar{A}$$).

 * For example, if U = N and A = {odd numbers}, then A′ = {even numbers}.

Notice the spelling of the word complement: its literal meaning is 'a complementary item or items'; in other words, 'that which completes'. So if we already have the elements of A, the complement of A is the set that completes the universal set.

1. Commutative

 * $$A \cup B = B \cup A$$
 * $$A \cap B = B \cap A$$

2. Associative

 * $$A \cup (B \cup C) = (A \cup B) \cup C$$
 * $$A \cap (B \cap C) = (A \cap B) \cap C$$

3. Distributive

 * $$A \cup (B \cap C) = (A \cup B) \cap (A \cup C)$$
 * $$A \cap (B \cup C) = (A \cap B) \cup (A \cap C)$$

4. Special properties of complements

 * $$(A')' = A$$
 * $$U'=\phi$$
 * $$\phi'=U$$
 * $$A\cap B' = A - B$$

5. De Morgan's Law

 * $$(A \cap B)'= A' \cup B'$$
 * $$(A \cup B)' = A' \cap B'$$.

Cardinality
Finally, in this section on Set Operations we look at an operation on a set that yields not another set, but an integer.

 * The cardinality of a finite set A, written | A | (sometimes #(A) or n(A)), is the number of (distinct) elements in A. So, for example:
 * If A = {lower case letters of the alphabet}, | A | = 26.

Generalized set operations
If we want to denote the intersection or union of n sets, A1, A2, ..., An (where we may not know the value of n) then the following generalized set notation may be useful:

 * A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An = $$\scriptstyle \bigcap_{i=1}^{n}$$ Ai

 * A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An = $$\scriptstyle \bigcup_{i=1}^{n}$$ Ai

In the symbol $$\scriptstyle \bigcap_{i=1}^{n}$$ Ai, then, i is a variable that takes values from 1 to n, to indicate the repeated intersection of all the sets A1 to An.

Set Theory Exercise 3
Click link for Set Theory Exercise 3

title: Discrete Mathematics/Set theory


text:
Talk:Calculus

gfdl vector calculus book
You know about this? http://mecmath.net It looks in terms of licensing like it can be incorporated into the wikibook, and maybe the author would like to participate. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 207.241.238.217 (talk • contribs) 04:46, 2 July 2008 (UTC)

Current Contributors
Hello, I'm fairly new to Wikibooks but interested in helping on this chapter. Would anyone be willing to give me an overview of the goals and organization, as well as where the most help is needed

Hearing no objections, I'm planning on doing some reorganization of the Integration Techniques modules. I would love to get some input from the community, let me know. W3asal (talk) 05:32, 20 September 2008 (UTC)

 * If anyone else is currently working on this book, let me know. I'm planning on doing major rewrites of several sections (starting in the Applications of Integration), and I'd love to coordinate with others. Leave me a message below or on my talk page. Thanks, W3asal (talk) 01:27, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Style for theorems.
Is there a standard style for stating theorems in this book? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 199.170.84.172 (talk • contribs) 09:39, 7 October 2008 (UTC)
 * This book seems to lack a contributor's guide or local manual of style. --Swift (talk) 06:36, 13 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I've created for this sort of thing.
 * The old Calculus/Outline resembled a contributor's guide, so I've expanded it at Calculus/Contributing. --Mrwojo (talk) 16:28, 8 September 2009 (UTC)

Merge with Solving Integrals by Trigonometric substitution
I would agree with this merger. Unless there are objections, I will be happy to start this process. --Shiftout (talk) 23:11, 29 October 2008 (UTC)

 * The merger sounds like a good idea to me.Thenub314 (talk) 19:13, 20 January 2009 (UTC)

 * I've moved the merge notice to the appropriate sub-page. Go ahead and be bold. --Swift (talk) 06:12, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

Expanded TOC
I've just expanded the TOC on the main page. While the collapsed version may be more contributor friendly, those who are new to calculus and unfamiliar with the book structure benefit from a more detailed view. To further help them catch their bearings (and pretty this up a bit) I've added some relevant images to the first few sections. --Swift (talk) 06:11, 13 February 2009 (UTC)

Inclusion of more examples and intent of book
Is there a policy on the number of examples/worked problems within the text? I think more examples would be of great value. Secondly, I'm curious as to the intent of the book. Certainly, someone looking for a survey of calc text would not be served well by this book but the content they want/need is within. Any suggested reading ideas? Tiled (talk) 17:47, 17 November 2009 (UTC)

 * I think lots of examples is a good thing. However, the exercises have solutions so it's not that important.  I mean, you should have enough examples to show how to do the standard calculations/problems.  Beyond that, people can just look at solutions to exercises if they need more help.  So, an extra example won't hurt anything either probably, but once there are a good amount of examples, you could just add to exercises maybe.  This is just what seems good to me at the time but I'm not saying it is definitely the best way.

 * I'm not sure what your second question is supposed to mean. This is just a calculus book like any other calculus text, at least that's what I assume.  What do you mean someone looking for a survey of calc text would not be served well by this?  If you just want a survey of calculus, skip some sections.  All the basics are here, as well as nonbasics.  Of course, the book could use a lot of work but it's certainly got a lot of good stuff in it already.  NumberTheorist (talk) 20:42, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

Exercises
The exercises in this book need lots of work. I will work on them a little but they could use a lot of work. For example, problem 8 in Differentiation is currently to find the derivative of $$x^3 * 2 \sqrt{y}$$ and the solution is given as $$\frac{x^3}{\sqrt{y}} + 6\sqrt{y} x^2$$. Hopefully if you're helping on this book, you understand that this makes no sense, sort of a hybrid of a derivative with respect to x in some parts and with y in other parts. And, the exercises have all sorts of formats. This looks bad. Also, some come in the middle of the section and some come in their own section at the end. This is actually fine if we want to do it that way but it's probably best to just put them all at the end in one section (or to have all exercises pertaining to a certain section at the end of that section). Any way, point is all aspects of exercises need work and I will do only a little work so need lots of help. NumberTheorist (talk) 02:39, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Okay, for starters, what are opinions on where exercises should go? My vote is they should be at the end of each section because there are too many topics per chapter to have them all there.  For example, currently we have a chapter Differentiation with sections
 * Differentiation - An introduction
 * More differentiation rules - More rules for differentiation
 * Higher Order derivatives - An introduction to second power derivatives
 * Implicit Differentiation
 * Exercises
 * My thought is we do away with the section Exercises altogether and we put exercises at the end of each of the 4 other sections. This is how your typical calculus book does thing.  NumberTheorist (talk) 02:46, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I suggest that each module end on an exercise section with problems that specifically practice the concepts just covered. We could also collect the exercises into a special set of modules, but little is gained and it would make keeping the content up to date harder. --Swift (talk) 10:10, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Hmm, well, I don't know the terminology here :) What's a module?  If you look above, you'll see my terminology.  Differentiation is a chapter and then there are 5 sections under it, Differentiation through Exercises.  I am saying, and perhaps you are too, that exercises should go at the end of each section.  This is what basically any calculus book, and almost any math textbook, would do.  It would be way too confusing to cover all of differentiation and then go to the exercises.  You need to cover a little bit and then have focused exercises on those concepts.  Then, cover a bit more and do some exercises, and on and on.  All of the Differentiation chapter covers a ton of material, equal to at least 9 sections in the calculus book I am teaching from right now.  NumberTheorist (talk) 16:00, 18 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Also, I realized that most calc books have a section at the end of each chapter with additional exercises, so it's not wrong to put them at the end of a chapter but there need to be exercises at the end of each section, if you ask me. NumberTheorist (talk) 16:02, 18 February 2010 (UTC)
 * And, sorry, but I looked up what a module is and it seems that we agree if I understand it correctly. NumberTheorist (talk) 16:15, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, we seem to see this the same way. --Swift (talk) 22:47, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

question-answer template
I am assuming that the question-answer template is OK for all exercises? I love it. I will be sandboxing some multivariate exercises, and will try to include them here in the next few weeks.

Multivariable Calc Exercises
I dumped a bunch of multivar calc exercises in the corresponding sub-section (it used to be empty). Some of them in the beginning may be more properly located in single-var calc, and the reason they are there is because I used them as a part of review in a multivar calc course. Of course, now we can move them, as long as they work with the text already written. Another area where more work is almost certainly needed is the consistency of the notation: I didn't look very carefully, so some of the notation I used (which is the same as that used by Stewart and Sullivan, and is pretty standard) may be in conflict with the text already written. I believe, though, that many exercises may be used as they are. Melikamp (discuss • contribs) 18:04, 8 January 2014 (UTC)

A few questions, how should this book be organized
1. Should we introduce some sort of numbering system, such as Precalculus is labeled Chapter 1 and Limits is Chapter 2 (some books might make Precalculus Chapter 0 and Limits Chapter 1)? And, then below that, sections being labeled. And, how should this be done? Should it be Chapter 1, then Section 1, or we could do an outline form, I and then 1 and then a and so forth? Or other?

 * I'm against the idea of numbering systems. They serve little purpose and make restructuring content a pain. --Swift (talk) 23:11, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

2. Does it make sense to put solutions to all exercises? If so, where should these go? Should there be a link to the solutions? Should we just Hide the solutions so you click on "Show" and they pop up?

 * I think solutions to all examples are a good idea. Something along the lines of might be useful. --Swift (talk) 23:11, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

3. What is the standard format for an exercise? I see some putting the \, in to make the math bigger and then I see some without it. And, if you have a question, such as "What is the area of blah blah blah $$f(x) = 6x$$?", what do you do with that if your general rule is to make all the math type bigger?

That's a good start I guess. NumberTheorist (talk) 16:30, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * There doesn't seem to be a standard format. Just be bold. The format can always be changed later. --Swift (talk) 23:11, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

Calculus/More Differentiation Rules
Without going into extreme detail, this section has the amount of material in about 5-8 sections in your normal calculus book (I've looked through 2 different ones and I think it's 5 sections for one and 7 or 8 for the other). So, it seems to me this section should be split up some. It could be done in many ways probably. Any thoughts? NumberTheorist (talk) 16:51, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I think this content would best be split in four along the level-two headings: One for the chain rule, another for the product (and quotient) rule, a third for implicit differentiation and a fourth for derivatives of common functions. --Swift (talk) 23:19, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Hmm, I was thinking more like separate pages (or modules might be the right word). The reason I thought that was because of exercises.  Right now, it seems like too much material to go through before having exercises.  If it were split at least in 2 or 3 or 4 modules (for example, your suggestion), then there would be less material before the exercises show up and it seems like this would be easier to learn from.  What do you think? NumberTheorist (talk) 23:49, 18 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, that was what I was talking about: To split the content (up into separate modules/pages). --Swift (talk) 00:51, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Alright, hehe, I guess I need to get down this new vocab. I think your four headings are good but with the added point that product and quotient rule should come first.  I noticed that in the discussion on some page, maybe this one, it was already mentioned by one person and agreed by another that those are easier and should come first.  They came first in the 2 calc books I looked at. NumberTheorist (talk) 03:01, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Upon looking at it again, I have a couple thoughts. First off Implicit Differentiation is already a section so the implicit differentiation part of this section should just be merged with the implicit differentiation one that is already there.  Beyond that, it might be nice to do the derivatives of trig functions before the chain rule, as you only need the quotient rule to do them, so that you can have a little more variety than just a polynomial to a power.  And, technically you use implicit differentiation to prove the derivative of logs and also of inverse trig functions.  So, I propose we put inverse trig functions in the implicit differentiation section and then after that put exponential and logarithm functions as another section.  I will create these sections right now. NumberTheorist (talk) 03:14, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I put in the top nav bars for each of the new pages and labeled them to not included "More Differentiation Rules". As far as that section, I moved all the exercises to the Exercises section temporarily.  I did notice all the new sections are showing up under Subject:Calculus but maybe they will go away now that I deleted BookCat from each one.  I don't know what causes that.  NumberTheorist (talk) 22:34, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

Reorganization of Structure
Contents page is too long. I propose we stick to just major sections on the contents page, and their subsections. Links to subsections introduce the subsection and show the contents of its pages. Links to major sections show table of contents for the whole section. I believe this was what was originally planned (from the contribution page) but seems to have been drifted away from. Italienmoose (talk) 19:31, 5 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Dude, I'm in totally agreement with you on the length. Personally, I don't think that this wikibook should be one giant treatise, like the popular Stewart Calculus book.  That book is over 1,100 pages.  That's too long, too much content.  It takes about three semesters to go through the whole thing.  That's the real reason why this contents page is too long.  If this book, with its current ambitions, was seen to total fruition, it would be way long.  If anyone ever wanted to make a physical version of it, you could use it for crushing.  Anybody else think it would be smart to split this book up? Tiled (talk) 22:20, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Uhh, it covers the material that would be 3 semesters at most colleges. And, most colleges would use 1 textbook for such a course.  I own 3 different calculus books (one begin Stewart's) and teach from another and they're all essentially the same, as far as the main topics covered goes.  I say it's smart to leave this wiki book as is.  Perhaps you could do, as most textbooks do, and make several editions of the book.  There could be a single variable version, a multivariable version, an early transcendentals version, whatever.  But, this one book should stay together as it is a standard list of topics for one textbook.  I will admit it may have a few sections here and there that wouldn't be in a standard calculus book but that's the beauty of an online book.  We don't have to exclude topics to save money in printing. NumberTheorist (discuss • contribs) 19:20, 26 April 2011 (UTC)

GFDL
This book (at least in the printable version) ends with a copy of the GFDL. I think it should be removed since now wikibooks is under CC-BY-SA. Can I do it, or am I wrong? Fale (talk) 16:45, 9 June 2010 (UTC)
 * I don't have a problem with it. The whole point of moving to CC-BY-SA was to avoid having to include the full text of the GFDL with every instance of the content. – Adrignola talk contribs 16:58, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Go ahead and remove it, this was indeed one of the benefits of relicensing. Thenub314 (talk) 17:40, 9 June 2010 (UTC)

the title of the "Infinite Limits" section
The section titled "Infinite Limits" should be titled "Limits at Infinity". The definition is for "limits at infinity" and we talk about limits at infinity for rational functions. The discussion is almost exclusive about finite limits at infinity. Only the last example is an infinite limit. Chrislmorin (discuss • contribs) 16:20, 27 January 2013 (UTC)
 * I agree. I plan to make the change in the near future unless anyone has any objections. Greenbreen (discuss • contribs) 10:13, 21 May 2016 (UTC)

Sequences and series section
I think that the sequences and series section is in dire need of some TLC. I think it should be broken up better, like the other sections, and I think even simple topics like geometric and arithmetic sequences should get their own page. Right now, all the tests for convergence are on one page and I think it's just kind of ugly and unorganized like that. Lazauya (discuss • contribs) 15:54, 19 August 2017 (UTC)

Moving Mathmensch's content to the extension section
I personally think 's content is quite pure and abstract to be considered as core (eg: Calculus/The_chain_rule_and_Clairaut%27s_theorem). I doubt someone looking for help with multivariate calculus (eg a college student) will be able to grasp what they've written, as to me it requires a significant background in real (and even functional) analysis. My proposal is to hence move them to the extension section. Leaderboard (discuss • contribs) 18:47, 16 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calculus


text:
Biochemistry

Contents

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) /The Cell/
 * 3) Thermodynamics
 * 4) Catalysis
 * 5) Metabolism and energy
 * 6) pKa values
 * 7) /Proteins/
 * 8) Introduction
 * 9) The chemistry of proteins
 * 10) Protein structure and folding
 * 11) Types of Protein
 * 12) /Carbohydrates/
 * 13) /Regulation of Glucose Transporter Translocator in Health and Diabetes/
 * 14) /Membranes and Lipids/
 * 15) /Lipids And The Plasma Membrane/
 * 16) /Complex Lipid Metabolism and Cholesterol/
 * 17) /Enzymes/
 * 18) /Metabolism/
 * 19) Glycolysis
 * 20) Gluconeogenesis
 * 21) Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
 * 22) Glycogenolysis and glycogenesis
 * 23) Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
 * 24) Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle
 * 25) Electron Transport Chain
 * 26) /DNA and RNA/
 * 27) /Micro RNA(miRNA)/
 * 28) /Respiratory Pigments/
 * 29) /Cell Signaling Pathways/
 * 30) /Bioinformatics/
 * 1) /Bioinformatics/

 * /Authors/

Biochemie und Pathobiochemie Βιοχημεία Bioquímica Biochimie Biochemie Biochemia Bioquímica Biyokimya

title: Biochemistry


text:
Biochemistry/Introduction

Biochemistry

 * 1) Biochemistry/Thermodynamics
 * 2) Biochemistry/Catalysis
 * 3) Biochemistry/Metabolism and energy
 * 4) Biochemistry/pKa values

Next chapter: Proteins >>

Intro: What Is Biochemistry?
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of, and relating to, biological organisms. It forms a bridge between biology and chemistry by studying how complex chemical reactions and chemical structures give rise to life and life's processes. Biochemistry is sometimes viewed as a hybrid branch of organic chemistry which specializes in the chemical processes and chemical transformations that take place inside of living organisms, but the truth is that the study of biochemistry should generally be considered neither fully "biology" nor fully "chemistry" in nature. Biochemistry incorporates everything in size between a molecule and a cell and all the interactions between them. The aim of biochemists is to describe in molecular terms the structures, mechanisms and chemical processes shared by all organisms, providing organizing principles that underlie life in all its diverse forms.

Biochemistry essentially remains the study of the structure and function of cellular components (such as enzymes and cellular organelles) and the processes carried out both on and by organic macromolecules - especially proteins, but also carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules. All life forms alive today are generally believed to have descended from a single proto-biotic ancestor, which could explain why all known living things naturally have similar biochemistries. Even when it comes to matters which could appear to be arbitrary - such as the genetic code and meanings of codons, or the "handedness" of various biomolecules - it is irrefutable fact that all marine and terrestrial living things demonstrate certain unchanging patterns throughout every level of organization, from family and phylum to kingdom and clade.

Biochemistry is, most simply put, the chemistry of life.

title: Biochemistry/Introduction


text:
Biochemistry/Catalysis

<< Biochemistry | << Thermodynamics | Catalysis | Metabolism and energy >>

Catalysis refers to the acceleration of the rate of a chemical reaction by a substance, called a catalyst, that is itself unchanged by the overall reaction. Catalysis is crucial for any known form of life, as it makes chemical reactions happen much faster than they would "by themselves", sometimes by a factor of several million times.

A common misunderstanding is that catalysis "makes the reaction happen", that the reaction would not otherwise proceed without the presence of the catalyst. However, a catalyst cannot make a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction proceed. Rather, it can only speed up a reaction that is already thermodynamically favorable. Such a reaction in the absence of a catalyst would proceed, even without the catalyst, although perhaps too slowly to be observed or to be useful in a given context.

Catalysts accelerate the chemical reaction by providing a lower energy pathway between the reactants and the products. This usually involves the formation of an intermediate, which cannot be formed without the catalyst. The formation of this intermediate and subsequent reaction generally has a much lower activation energy barrier than is required for the direct reaction of reactants to products.

Catalysis is a very important process from an industrial point of view since the production of most industrially important chemicals involve catalysis. Research into catalysis is a major field in applied science, and involves many fields of chemistry and physics.

Two types of catalysis are generally distinguished. In homogeneous catalysis the reactants and catalyst are in the same phase. For example acids (H+ ion donors) are common catalysts in many aqueous reactions. In this case both the reactants and the catalysts are in the aqueous phase. In heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in a different phase than the reactants and products. Usually, the catalyst is a solid and the reactants and products are gases or liquids. In order for the reaction to occur one or more of the reactants must diffuse to the catalyst surface and adsorb onto it. After reaction, the products must desorb from the surface and diffuse away from the solid surface. Frequently, this transport of reactants and products from one phase to another plays a dominant role in limiting the rate of reaction. Understanding these transport phenomena is an important area of heterogeneous catalyst research.

Enzymes
Enzyme (from Greek, in ferment) are special protein molecules whose function is to facilitate or otherwise accelerate most chemical reactions in cells. They are simply biological catalysts. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules called ribozymes. Many chemical reactions occur within biological cells, but without catalysts most of them happen too slowly in the test tube to be biologically relevant.

Enzymes can also serve to couple two or more reactions together, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to "drive" a thermodynamically unfavorable one. One of the most common examples is enzymes which use the dephosphorylation of ATP to drive some otherwise unrelated chemical reaction.

Chemical reactions need a certain amount of activation energy to take place. Enzymes can increase the reaction speed by favoring or enabling a different reaction path with a lower activation energy (Fig. 1), making it easier for the reaction to occur. Enzymes are large globular proteins that catalyze (accelerate) chemical reactions. They are essential for the function of cells. Enzymes are very specific as to the reactions they catalyze and the chemicals (substrates) that are involved in the reactions. Substrates fit their enzymes like a key fits its lock (Fig. 2). Many enzymes are composed of several proteins that act together as a unit. Most parts of an enzyme have regulatory or structural purposes. The catalyzed reaction takes place in only a small part of the enzyme called the active site, which is made up of approximately 2 - 20 amino acids.

The substrates (A and B) need a large amount of energy ( E1 ) to reach the intermediate state A...B, which then reacts to form the end product (AB). The enzyme ( E ) creates a microenvironment in which A and B can reach the intermediate state ( A... E ...B ) more easily, reducing the amount of energy needed ( E2 ). As a result, the reaction is more likely to take place, thus improving the reaction speed.

Enzymes can perform up to several million catalytic reactions per second. To determine the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is achieved (Fig. 3). This is the maximum velocity (Vmax) of the enzyme. In this state, all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate. This was proposed in 1913 by Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten. Since the substrate concentration at Vmax cannot be measured exactly, enzymes are characterized by the substrate concentration at which the rate of reaction is half its maximum. This substrate concentration is called the Michaelis-Menten constant (KM). Many enzymes obey Michaelis-Menten kinetics.

The speed V means the number of reactions per second that are catalyzed by an enzyme. With increasing substrate concentration [S], the enzyme is asymptotically approaching its maximum speed Vmax, but never actually reaching it. Because of that, no [S] for Vmax can be given. Instead, the characteristic value for the enzyme is defined by the substrate concentration at its half-maximum speed (Vmax/2). This KM value is also called Michaelis-Menten constant.

Several factors can influence the reaction speed, catalytic activity, and specificity of an enzyme. Besides de novo synthesis (the production of more enzyme molecules to increase catalysis rates), properties such as pH or temperature can denature an enzyme (alter its shape) so that it can no longer function. More specific regulation is possible by posttranslational modification (e.g., phosphorylation) of the enzyme or by adding cofactors like metal ions or organic molecules (e.g., NAD+, FAD, CoA, or vitamins) that interact with the enzyme. Allosteric enzymes are composed of several subunits (proteins) that interact with each other and thus influence each other's catalytic activity. Enzymes can also be regulated by competitive inhibitors (Fig. 4) and non-competitive inhibitors and activators (Fig. 5). Inhibitors and activators are often used as medicines, but they can also be poisonous.

A competitive inhibitor fits the enzyme as well as its real substrate, sometimes even better. The inhibitor takes the place of the substrate in the active center, but cannot undergo the catalytic reaction, thus inhibiting the enzyme from binding with a substrate molecule. Some inhibitors form covalent bonds with the enzyme, deactivating it permanently (suicide inhibitors). In terms of the kinetics of a competitive inhibitor, it will increase Km but leave Vmax unchanged.

Non-competitive inhibitors/activators ( I ) do not bind to the active center, but to other parts of the enzyme ( E ) that can be far away from the substrate ( S ) binding site. By changing the conformation (the three-dimensional structure) of the enzyme ( E ), they disable or enable the ability of the enzyme ( E ) to bind its substrate ( S ) and catalyze the desired reaction. The noncompetitive inhibitor will lower Vmax but leave Km unchanged.

An uncompetitive inhibitor will only bind to the enzyme-substrate complex forming an enzyme-substrate-inhibitor (ESI) complex and cannot be overcome by additional substrate. Since the ESI is nonreactive, Vmax is effectively lowered. The uncompetitive inhibitor will in turn lower the Km due to a lower concentration of substrate needed to achieve half the maximum concentration of ES.

Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways (e.g., the citric acid cycle, a series of enzymatic reactions in the cells of aerobic organisms, important in cellular respiration). In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. The end product(s) of such a pathway are often non-competitive inhibitors (Fig. 5) for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called committed step), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathway (Fig. 6).

 * 1) The basic feedback inhibition mechanism, where the product (P) inhibits the committed step (A⇀B).
 * 2) Sequential feedback inhibition. The end products P1 and P2 inhibit the first committed step of their individual pathway (C⇀D or C⇀F). If both products are present in abundance, all pathways from C are blocked. This leads to a buildup of C, which in turn inhibits the first common committed step A⇀B.
 * 3) Enzyme multiplicity. Each end product inhibits both the first individual committed step and one of the enzymes performing the first common committed step.
 * 4) Concerted feedback inhibition. Each end product inhibits the first individual committed step. Together, they inhibit the first common committed step.
 * 5) Cumulative feedback inhibition. Each end product inhibits the first individual committed step. Also, each end product partially inhibits the first common committed step.

Enzymes are essential to living organisms, and a malfunction of even a single enzyme out of approximately 2,000 present in our bodies can lead to severe or lethal illness. An example of a disease caused by an enzyme malfunction in humans is phenylketonuria (PKU). The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which usually converts the essential amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine does not work, resulting in a buildup of phenylalanine that leads to mental retardation. Enzymes in the human body can also be influenced by inhibitors in good or bad ways. Aspirin, for example, inhibits an enzyme that produces prostaglandins (inflammation messengers), thus suppressing pain. But not all enzymes are in living things. Enzymes are also used in everyday products such as biological washing detergents where they speed up chemical reactions, (to get your clothes clean).

Digestive and Metabolic Enzymes
In the previous section we have been talking about the digestive enzymes, both the ones produced by the body, such as salivary amylase, and the food enzymes. Their primary role is for the digestion of food. Another class of enzymes is called metabolic enzymes. Their role is to catalyze chemical reactions involving every process in the body, including the absorption of oxygen. Our cells would literally starve for oxygen even with an abundance of oxygen without the action of the enzyme, cytochrome oxidase. Enzymes are also necessary for muscle contraction and relaxation. The fact is, without both of these classes of enzymes, (digestive and metabolic,) life could not exist. Digestive enzymes function as biological catalysts in which it helps to breakdown carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. On the other hand, metabolic enzymes function as a remodel of cells. Digestion of food has a high priority and demand for enzymes; digestive enzymes get priority over metabolic enzymes. Any deficiency in metabolic enzyme can lead to over work, which could lead to enlarge organs in order to perform the increased workload. The result is unhealthy and could cause enlarged heart or pancreas. The deficiencies of metabolic enzymes can have a tremendous impact on health. As we grow older enzyme level decline and the efficiency in the body decline.

Enzyme naming conventions
By common convention, an enzyme's name consists of a description of what it does, with the word ending in "-ase". Examples are alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase. Kinases are enzymes that transfer phosphate groups. The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology has developed a nomenclature for enzymes, the EC numbers; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers, preceded by "EC". The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism:
 * EC 1 Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions
 * EC 2 Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate group)
 * EC 3 Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
 * EC 4 Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
 * EC 5 Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
 * EC 6 Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds

Some other important enzymes are: Protease: breaks the protein into amino acids in high acidity environments such as stomach, pancreatic and intestinal juices. Act on bacteria, viruses and some cancerous cells. Amylase: Break complex carbohydrates such as starch into simpler sugars (dextrin and maltose). It found in the intestines, pancreas and also in salivary glands. Lipase: breaks down fats and some fat soluble vitamins (A,E,K, and D). helpful in treating cardiovascular diseases. Cellulase: break down cellulose that found in fruits, grains, and vegetables. It increases the nutritional values of vegetables, and fruits. Pectinase: break down pectin that found in citrus fruits, carrots, beets, tomatoes, and apple. Antioxidants: protect from free radical negative effect that can damage cell in the body. Cathepsin: break animal protein down. Lactase: break down lactose that found in milk products. the production of lactase decrease with age. Invertase: assimilate sucrose that can contribute to digestive stress if not digested properly. Papain: break down protein and help the body in digestion. Bromelain: Break proteins that found in plants and animals. it could help the body to fight cancer and treat inflammation. Glucoamylase: break down maltose that found in all grains in to two glucose molecules.

<< Biochemistry | << Thermodynamics | Catalysis | Metabolism and energy >>

title: Biochemistry/Catalysis


text:
HyperText Markup Language

This is a guide to HTML, a standard markup language for web pages. A text editor and a web browser is all you need to create web pages, view your handiwork, and share information with others all over the world.

This book covers simple HTML syntax. For dynamic behavior in websites, see the JavaScript wikibook. Another separate book covers Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) which handle overall look and styling, but the present book addresses CSS briefly. Additionally, XHTML has its own textbook.

Contents

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) Head and Body Elements
 * 3) Paragraphs and Headings
 * 4) /Text Formatting/
 * 5) Hyperlinks
 * 6) /Images/
 * 7) /Lists/
 * 8) /Tables/
 * 9) /Quotations/
 * 10) /Comments/
 * 11) /Forms/
 * 12) /CSS/
 * 13) /Canvas/
 * 14) /Validating HTML/
 * 15) Proscribed Techniques
 * 16) Using Frames
 * 17) Using Layers
 * 18) Adding Music that auto-plays
 * 19) Browser extensions
 * 20) /Conditional Comments/
 * 21) Appendices
 * 22) Alphabetical list of HTML 4.01/XHTML 1.0 elements
 * 23) /Standard Attributes List/
 * 24) /Index/
 * 25) /Glossary/
 * 26) /Links/
 * 27) /To Do/

Other Wikibooks

 * Authoring Webpages
 * Cascading Style Sheets
 * JavaScript
 * Web Development
 * XHTML

HTML Llenguatge html HTML Lær HTML de:Websiteentwicklung: XHTML HTML Lenguaje HTML Le langage HTML HTML HTML HTML HTML HTML HTML HTML Bahasa Penanda Hiperteks (HTML) HTML Web para curiosos/A web do lado cliente/Linguagens de marcação/(X)HTML HTML HTML

title: HyperText Markup Language


text:
User:Youssefsan

Hi. I would like to start a book on Maltese (the language) with teaching material (dialogs, vocabulary, grammar) and some appendixes (grammar, books, web resources). I am not very familiar with Wikibooks. So any comments and suggestions are welcome. By the way, I was not sure what was the right subroom of the reading room where I could talk about this project. Regards.--Oualmakran Youssef (discuss • contribs) 13:43, 10 November 2013 (UTC)

I am the same youssefsan as in English wikipedia, meta, fr wikipedia, wiktionary, etc.

Youssefsan 16:22 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Bonjour ! Je suis Oualmakran Youssef.

For more information,see http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilisateur:Youssefsan

Links (English)

 * German ;
 * German/Contents
 * German/Level I
 * German/Level I/Wie heißt du?

 * Spanish.

 * Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks

 * European Union Law

 * Future

 * Python Programming

 * Language Learning Difficulty for English Speakers

Tmp

 * User:Youssefsan/tmp
 * User:Youssefsan/sandbox

Contributions

 * cours d'allemand ;
 * cours d'espagnol.

Liens

 * http://wikibooks.org/wiki/MediaWiki:Cours_d_espagnol

title: User:Youssefsan


text:
User:Dhum Dhum

Hi, I'm the same as me.

title: User:Dhum Dhum


text:
Talk:HyperText Markup Language

About

 * Size: 11,300 words (Sep 2008)
 * Started: 5 August 2003
 * Headings case: Currently inconsistent, mixing sentence case ("Heading title") with title case ("Heading Title")
 * Headings case: Currently inconsistent, mixing sentence case ("Heading title") with title case ("Heading Title")
 * Headings case: Currently inconsistent, mixing sentence case ("Heading title") with title case ("Heading Title")

Book topic discussion
It's a good idea to write a book about HTML (though it would be better about web design and web building).

However what has been written here seems to be all wrong! First writing simple web pages is not programming at all. It is marking up content of the page. Writing a CSS stylesheet is not programming either. Using DOM and for example Javascript to produce DHTML effect can be called programming.

So let's start all over again. First I think one should consider
 * audience
 * aim
 * scope
 * methodology to archieve the aim
 * multimedia to use in the book

Kpjas 20:38 5 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Writing CSS can be called programming. The other day I had to come up with a cross-browser effect to add bullets to list items only on hover. This is easy enough using JavaScript and rollover images, but the cooler effect - and quicker loading - is to use . Coming up with this code required using the same skills/thought processes as if I had done the same thing using JS and the DOM.

 * I think there should be a distinction between a markup language languages like HTML, programming languages like Java, C++ and scripting languages. HTML and CSS should not be categorized under Programming Languages as it would confuse those who are unfamiliar with what is a progamming language. Perhaps, we can make a book on WebDesign instead and clump HTML, CSS, etc under that instead of under Programming Languages. --VoeD 2 Nov 2003

CSS is a markup language, and cannot be considered a programming language. Markup may be used to generate interesting effects, but it remains markup. The fact that programming languages can generate output similar to markup is irrelevant to its classification.

--Eibwen 06:51, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I agree -- let's make one big book called something like web design and web building or perhaps simply web building. Then we can discuss the "best practices" in web building -- whether it's HTML, Programming:XHTML, XHTML (XML), CSS, XML, DHTML (aka JavaScript), AJAX, Flash (Macromedia Flash MX: Formtweening ?), RSS, or something that none of heard of when we started the book, but now everyone is doing it. This lets us make recommendations -- if you want to start a blog, we can immediately recommend a few free blog sites (and what features to look for in a blog site). Same for "start a wiki". Or "install a web server". Instead of making them wade through a bunch of irrelevant-to-them stuff about HTML tags, JavaScript, etc. Web advertising (This also makes it easier for us to add a couple of paragraphs about some new upcoming technology, then a few months later delete it if it's a flash in the pan, or else split it into it's own Wikibook if it catches on). --DavidCary 20:53, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Great, it looks like someone has already done this at Web Design. --DavidCary 04:44, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

rollovers
FIXME: move VoeD's tip and the following links to a page in a wikibook (where?) that discusses rollovers.
 * http://www.alistapart.com/articles/taminglists/
 * http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/index.htm

examples

 * Can't we upload HTML files and link to them with [[media:]] links? --Geoffrey 03:48 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)

browser-specific information / recommendations
Should a Free book recommend using Internet explorer, especially considering that it is about 3 years behind the state of the art in web browsers? Arvindn

 * Fixed -- Paddu 12:13, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Moreover, should any particular browser be recommended at all? Aside from the most standards complaint browser (I believe it's Mozilla Firefox), any browser recommedations are purely subjective. However, the point should be made that different browsers render markup differently and several sections of the specification state that the browser itself is to govern the appearance of a particular "widget" (not all browsers conform to the specifications).

--Eibwen 06:51, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Help provided in Article Introduction
I started working on this this morning. So far I've just copied the intoductory information from the HTML article in the Wikipedia to the introduction in this article, made sense and the text was already linked. I guess I should read up on how to link articles. Just thought I'd pitch in.

HTML vs XHTML
The HTML img tag syntax page uses the XHTML example. While modern browsers may be able to parse "self-closing" tags (eg <img />, it is not proper HTML (whether such pages validate as HTML is another matter entirely, albeit an interesting one). This is probably prevalent throughout the site.

World Wide Web Consortium HTML 4.01 Specification

--Eibwen 06:51, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I'd guess that it's perfectly valid (at least if the W3C recommendation to put a space before the slash is followed) - the W3C recommend it, and HTML has always been supposed to degrade gracefully. On this subject, though, the examples in the text aren't valid HTML at all! There's no doctype. Perhaps this would be a bit much to throw at beginners, so I'd recommend a piecewise approach to building up the HTML covered: HTML tags, HEAD and BODY tags, content, and then the doctype.
 * - Perey 18:27, 25 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * It's not recommended per se, it's recommended as the best solution to a transition style, i.e. when the page is intended to be transferred into XHTML at a future point without requiring a major rewrite.
 * The closing slash on empty elements can lead to confusion in some browsers strictly following the SGML specifications (according to which, if I remember correctly, the syntax  and / are identical), which will render the slash as if placed after the element tag, not within it, other browsers' rendering might break (probably not an issue with 21st century generations of browsers) and in the case of elements requiring a closing tag as per HTML 4.01, this may lead to the tag being treated as an opening tag that is never closed (or treated as automatically closed at the end of its containing element).
 * It's litterally a Best Current Practice for this specific purpose, but not for HTML 4.01 in general.
 * Well-formdness, validity (i.e. full HTML 4.01 Strict compliance -- the Transitional doctype is intended to be a transitional aid for people used to HTML 3.2 or garden shed markup) and semantic markup should be a key goal of this book if it shouldn't end up being worth no more than any of the random "HTML 4" books on the market since the 1990s, but this is still a book about clean HTML 4.01 (if more versions should be covered, please keep them seperate), not wannabe-XHTML. -- Ashmodai 00:18, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

bold and italic vs. strong and emphasis
Bold and italic are "discouraged" by W3.

I'm going to replace with <em> and <strong>. --DavidCary 20:53, 6 Jun 2005 (UTC)

borders and getting rid of them
Many web browsers display something like

with a thick blue rectangle around the image.

To get rid of that blue rectangle, many people add border="0" something like this:

(For example, as of 2005 the Google Search Bar at Google http://www.google.com/searchcode.html still used   border="0" . )

However, http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/struct/objects.html#h-13.7.3 informs us that the "border" attribute is deprecated.

The modern way to get the same effect is with CSS. Leave the HTML as simply  . Add something like this to the head of your HTML file, then *all* images will (by default) have no border.

 img { border-style: none; }

(one could get basically the same effect with any of:

 * border-style: none;
 * border-color: transparent;
 * border-width: 0;

)

--DavidCary 01:32, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

discussion
Technically HTML is a markup language and JavaScript is a scripting language. Compiled languages like C++ and Java are programming languages. --CarbonUnit

 * I agree that HTML isn't a "programming language". Let's move it from "Programming:HTML" to somewhere in the Web Design book. --DavidCary 16:20, 14 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Is anyone still working on this? I'd love to help.  I'm a bit inexperienced as far as anything Wiki is concerned, but I'm a quick learner.  --twistofreality 21:07, 16 August 2005 (UTC)

I have some ideas that I think would be productive, but, being new to Wikibooks as I am, I'm hesitant to start editing things without support from previous contributors. I taught myself HTML, Javascript, and Cascading Style Sheets six years ago using nothing but online tutorials, so I believe that I have a rough idea of what someone who has never attempted to build a web page is looking for in a reference guide and textbook. For instance:

  The easiest approach for a beginner's module may be to write the text with a specific browser in mind (I learned on Internet Explorer, but Safari and Firefox are both gaining popularity). Later discussions in an intermediate or advanced module could stress cross-browser design and standards compliance.   The language and structure may need to be improved to appeal to individuals who have little to no experience with web design or computers in general. With personal computing becoming so wide-spread, many people who are barely interested in why or how their computers work are interested in building web pages for various reasons. Many will resort to WYSIWYG editors that produce awful code, but many will strive to learn the languages for themselves, as I did. Some examples of modifications to consider are:   The descriptions of the elements of the "simple document." They seem a bit convoluted and may scare of novices. </li> <li> The submodules' titles. They may seem to contain jargon for those not "in the know." Is it safe to assume that someone unfamiliar with HTML is going to know what a form, table, layer, or frame is? </li> </ol> </li> <li> Few people want to learn HTML solely; rather, people who seek out knowledge of HTML often want to design a web page, which can encompass several different languages and design methodologies. A concerted effort should be made to make beginning, intermediate, and advanced information on JavaScript and CSS more readily available from the HTML modules where appropriate. Efforts should also be made to standardize the layout and content struction of all web-design related modules to ensure ease of use. </li> <li> Finally, consideration should be made for the development of exercises, the results of which could be displayed as screen shots within the module. In my opinion, reading about any programming/markup language is boring; being able to utilize techniques and see an actual product shortly after a concept is introduced and discussed will almost certainly promote comprehension. </li> </ul>

Any feedback would be greatly appreciated. --twistofreality 02:37, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

 * As this is a HTML book, it should only cover HTML. Strict HTML 4.01 as per its Specification does not have any strictly presentational features. Cross-browser compliance is therefore not an issue unless the behavior of the elements strongly varies across mainstream browsers (abbr and acronym for example don't behave identically in MSIE). The primary scope of this book should be semantic markup, rather than presentation, so concepts like the difference between lists, the hierarchy of headers and the like should be described in-depth and tables should not be described as presentational tools (while they can be (ab)used in that way without strictly violating the Specs, there are other means to achieve a tabular layout in CSS-compliant browsers and as the modern W3C chant goes: HTML is not a presentational language) and be described in their entirety (tables in HTML have lots of features, so don't just stick to the good old table->tr->td model). And don't you dare leaving all the things that can and should go in the head element out -- just because not many browsers take note of the link element (other than for stylesheets) doesn't mean it should be taught -- although it should not be the primary focus.
 * Since HTML and CSS work hand-in-hand, this relation should be described in one of the later chapters. Stylesheets, alternate stylesheets, classes and IDs need to be explained (an ID is more than a unique class anyway), although this book should not explain CSS syntax and functionality in full detail, that's what the CSS book is for. -- Ashmodai 00:31, 20 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm new to the Markup Languages, and I think it is a good idea to separate all those languages in three sorts of languages: Markup Languages, Scripting Languages and Programming Languages.
 * I hope that the writers of the lessons will emphasize the abilities with using each language.
 * Suppose that an absolute beginner decided to lean programming, an he visited this article in Wikipedia. I guess he will start with the html to learn programming, wich is not wise from him, since he will never bring any application to existence with language. This is also the same case of JavaScript. Although this last language is something stronger than the html/ xhtml or CSS. I don't believe people can make any application with it. The other point is that it is often unclear to understand the use/abilities of the scripts if the author, wouldn't make it clear. As example I learnt some basics of JavaScript but i can hardly know what i can do with it.Htmlb 16:36, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Thank you!
I am new to HTML and website building. I liked going through the chapter on making tables. It helped with the basic concepts and how to read html markup in general. I appreciate the time and effort put into this work. Thanks again. 8-19-05

Adding Music to a Page
If most browsers prefer the Object element, why doesn't the page teach that to the user? Why doesn't the page teach the user how to add music to the page using the object element? As you see, there really is no reason to put this under "Techniques that shouldn't be used" when there is a valid way that should be used to add music! Catch my drift?

[user:VenomousNinja]

Frontpage
No offense, but Frontpage is horrid. It should -not- be suggested for any beginner. It adds bits of unnecessary text that make learning from it nearly impossible, and editing it worse.

I totally agree, what I do is type the html source in notepad and save it as a .html document rather than a .txt, try it out. Also, a free html editor (open source) is out there. I use it sometimes, it is okay. It is called Nvu. Another one called Notpad++ is excellent too. These two are used if you want the syntax highlighted when you are editing. --Grich 01:15, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

If and when it is merged...
The title should be considered, as HTML is not programming, but a markup language as noted by others.

Link to a download
Is there a way to have a link bring up a 'Save as...' box by default rather than try opening the linked to file inside the browser. More specifically, I have a long lecture on my site that opens in visitors' browsers rather than offering to be downloaded. I know visitors can right-click on the link to get a 'Save as...' box, but I would rather 'Save as...' be the default action whenever the link is clicked.

Yeah, this is when you get into a Server lngauge called PHP. Were you can let a user download a file. Look it up on the wikibooks. I don't know any other way. Sorry. --Grich 09:04, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

Title: HTML Programming?
HTML isn't a programming language. It's a markup language. I don't think you can consider it programming any more than the very wiki markup on this page. Shouldn't it be called HTML formatting rather? --Jocke pirat 02:55, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Well, its an important part of programming. The XML format is used alot in programming. Within HTML, you can incorporate JAVASCRIPT and PHP. It should be classed amoungst Programming and Web Developement. --Grich 09:08, 22 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Support renaming. A "HTML Programming" book would actually need to be a book about JavaScript, for which we already have one. That XML, of which XHTML is just a species, can be used for all kinds of things around the world including programming has no bearing on whether HTML is a programming language or has to do with programming. That said, HTML indeed needs to be marked up or encoded. Proposals: "Marking up HTML", "Mastering HTML", "HTML Guide", "A Guide to HTML". I am uncertain about articles: "the", "a". --Dan Polansky (talk) 13:37, 12 September 2008 (UTC)

Merger
I don't think it's a good idea to merge HTML with CSS and XHTML with XML. It's best to learn XHTML first and then move to CSS and/or XML. It doesn't make any sense to learn XML first. Or to learn CSS and HTML at the same time. --Stefán Örvarr Sigmundsson 00:24, 18 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes. I agree that we should cover the preliminary stuff in the earlier chapters of a book, and the dependent stuff in the later chapters of the same book, rather than trying to cover everything in the first chapter. --DavidCary (talk) 14:25, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

The article you wish to place is a redirect to a non-existent article, so there is no point. -- anonymous

 * Huh? --DavidCary (talk) 14:25, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

I suggest merging HTML into HTML Programming.

Although, as I've said earlier, I think "HTML Programming" is not a very good name. Is it too late to rename this whole book to Web Design? --DavidCary (talk) 14:25, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Title. AFAIK, the subject of web design goes far beyond HTML, being related to book design, to the choice of colors, fonts, including type faces and display faces, various layouts of pages, the software tools supporting the process, and the like. In contrast to this, this book so far has been a mixture of a reference and a user guide to HTML, the specific mark up language. Web design would need to encompass CSS, on which there is a standalone book: Cascading Style Sheets. --Dan Polansky (talk) 14:34, 12 September 2008 (UTC)

Conditional comments
There has been a recent attempt to remove the chapter Conditional Comments, per it's not being part of the standard HTML. I think the book should better document all that there is, even if supported only by certain browsers. How else are the readers going to find out about such comments when they see them in HTML? --Dan Polansky (talk) 13:04, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

Please fix: no page advancement links
The only way to move to the next section is to go back to the contents and click on the next section. This is not the case with other books on wikibooks, which have a link to the next section on the top right of the page.

Intro question
Re: "A text editor and a web browser is all you need to create web pages, view your handiwork, and share information with others all over the world"

Granted I am not an expert, but if this statement is correct one should be able to create webpages and share them with anonymous people on the other side of the pond even if one has no internet connection. I doubt this is true, but please educate me if I am wrong. btw if you are wondering I found this page by clicking on Random book in the left sidebar.

Thanks in advance, Ottawahitech (discuss • contribs) 17:32, 18 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:HyperText Markup Language


text:
World History/California Content Standard

http://www.cde.ca.gov/re/pn/fd/documents/hist-social-sci-frame.pdf

http://www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/hstgrades9through12.asp


text:
Wikibooks:Welcome

Wikibooks is a Wikimedia project for collaboratively writing open-content textbooks that anyone, including you, can edit right now by clicking on the edit link that appears near the top of each Wikibooks page. Wikibooks has two subprojects; Wikijunior which is aimed at children and the Cookbook which is our collection of recipes and culinary topics. Contributors maintain the property rights to their contributions, while the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License and the GNU Free Documentation License makes sure that the submitted version and its derivative works will always remain freely distributable and reproducible. See Copyrights for more information. Wikibooks went online on 10 July 2003.

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title: Wikibooks:Welcome