text:
SAASTE Science/Scientific Method

SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A method is a procedure for handling a set of problems. Every kind of problem requires a set of special methods or techniques. The general method of science, by contrast, is a procedure applying to a whole cycle of investigation into every problem of knowledge. The best way to learn how the scientific method works is to engage, with an inquisitive attitude, in some scientific research broad enough to ensure that the special methods or techniques do not overshadow the general pattern. (Bunge, M. 1967)

The webpage va.essortment.com/sientificresea_rqce.htm/ explains the scientific method as follows:
 * The first step to using the scientific method is to have some basis for conducting your research. This is based on observed phenomena that are either directly or indirectly related to the specific subject matter of your proposed research. The first step is then actually observations you make for scientific research.
 * The next step is to form a hypothesis to explain some aspects of your observations. The hypothesis is ready to be tested. You must now use your hypothesis to predict other phenomena that have not yet been observed.
 * The final step of the scientific method is to rigorously test your prediction. It is important to know that you can not "prove" your hypothesis. You can only fail to disprove it. While this is an example of how the scientific method is used in everyday research and hypothesis testing, it is also the basis of creating theories and laws. It should be noted that a theory or hypothesis is not meaningful if it is not quantitative and testable. If a theory does not allow for predictions and experimental research, than it is not a scientific theory. A common error encountered by people who claim to use the scientific method is a lack of testing. A hypothesis brought about by common observation and common sense does not have scientific validity.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
The following ordered sequence of operations are recommended by Bunge (1967)

 * 1. Ask well-formulated and likely fruitful questions.
 * 2. Devise hypotheses both grounded and testable to answer the questions.
 * 3. Derive logical consequences of the assumptions.
 * 4. Design techniques to test the assumptions.
 * 5. Test the techniques for relevance and reliability.
 * 6. Execute the tests and interpret their results.
 * 7. Evaluate the truth claims of assumptions and the fidelity of techniques.
 * 8. Determine the domains in which the assumptions and techniques hold, and state the new problems raised by the research.

RULES OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
For the sake of illustration we shall mention and exemplify some quite obvious rules of scientific method.

Rule 1
State your problem precisely and, in the beginning, specifically.

For example, do not just ask "Does antacid increase the pH of gastric fluid?, but pose a wellcircumscribed question such as e.g., At what tempo does various brands of antacids increase the pH of gastric fluid?

Rule 2
Try definite and somehow grounded conjectures rather than noncommittal and wild hunches.

Formulate a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon with definite relations among clear-cut variables. e.g. "Antacid 1 would lower the pH value of gastric fluid the quickest".

Rule 3
Subject your assumptions to tough tests rather than soft ones.

e.g. by comparing four different brands of antacid under the same conditions. Devise an experiment test all antacids under the same conditions e.g. temperature ...

Rule 4
Do not pronounce a true satisfactorily confirmed hypothesis: regard it as, at best, partially true.

Allow yourself to be led to deductions/conclusions only by empirical results from experiment.

Rule 5
Ask why the answer should be as it is and not f*** otherwise

title: SAASTE Science/Scientific Method


text:
SAASTE Science/Guidelines for Scientific Investigations

Guidelines for selecting suitable investigations
How do I go about selecting and initiating a suitable investigation for my learners?

Many investigations deal with the selection of the appropriate materials to perform a particular function e.g.
 * Perform an investigation to determine which material is best for insulation purposes
 * Perform an investigation to determine which material is best to create a specific structure or product.

Investigations concerning events in the school's immediate surrounding should also be considered. The following is a suggested route for the educator to assist his/her learners in arriving at a suitable investigation: Perform a few focus tasks to improve the learners' observational skills. One must bear in mind that observations can include all five senses (taste, touch, hearing, sight and smell).

A possible way of improving observation in terms of hearing:
 * pair learners
 * one learner from each pair is blindfolded
 * one learner leads the blindfolded learner
 * the blindfolded learner mentions all the sounds he/she hears and reports happenings in the surroundings to the other learner who records it on a sheet

A possible way of improving observation in terms of touch:
 * put different objects in a container
 * learners identify objects in the container by means of touch only (learners are not to see the objects in the container)

A warning in the case of tasting: This observational skill should be practiced under controlled circumstances

Once the focus tasks on observation have been completed the educator can ask learners to prepare a list of events which occur in their immediate surroundings e.g.
 * Gardening
 * Making a noise
 * Working
 * Littering

Ask the learners to indicate what events they are happy or unhappy about - this will lead to problem identification.

A hypothesis can then be formulated.

The extent of the problem can then be determined quantitatively, which implies that measurements have to be made.

The educators now have to assess whether the measurements can be performed within a reasonable time frame.

If the outcome of this assessment is positive the educator can confidently go ahead with this investigation, knowing his/her learners will be exposed to the majority of the science process skills.

A look at a few science process skills:

Text books
Bunge, M. (1967) Scientific Research I - The Search for System - Springer-Verslag Berlin Heidelberg New York

Petrucci, R.H. (1985) General Chemistry: Principles and modern applications. 4th edition: Macmillan Publishing Company. New York.

Internet
www.epa.gov/radon/index.html

www.lungusa.org

sedwww.cr.usgs.gov:8080/radon/georadon/2.html

va.essortment.com/sientificresea_rqce.htm

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
SAASTE Science/Ideas for Class Projects

IDEAS FOR CLASS PROJECTS
Water Analysis Project Water quality testing of certain sectors of the Berg river/Palmiet river
 * Field work -testing skills/analysis (biological/chemical)
 * Out of the classroom experience
 * Sensitize learners -environmental awareness/responsibility
 * Promotes group work
 * Learners formulate hypothesis
 * Learners planning the sequence of activities/design experiments
 * Interdisciplinary approach - biology, geography, physical science, mathematics, history, communication, technology
 * Communication skills-written, verbal, graphical
 * Data analysis and conclusions

Time management is critical when performing such a project. Additional information might be needed beforehand e.g. Topographical maps and information from the local municipality.

Effective Gastric antacids  Comparing the effectiveness of different brands of commercial gastric antacids

 * Identification of a problem
 * Learners formulate hypothesis
 * Literature survey
 * Experiment design
 * Conduct experiment
 * Process skills -observation, time keeping, recording of data, measuring, variable identification and control e.g. temperature, referencing Data presentation
 * Data analysis and conclusions

Fungi development To investigate the conditions for fungi growth.This can be linked to sell by/use by dates on commercial perishable products.

 * Identification of a problem
 * Learners formulate hypothesis
 * Literature survey
 * Experiment design
 * Conduct experiment
 * Process skills -observation, time keeping, recording of data, measuring, variable identification and control e.g. temperature and moisture, referencing
 * Data presentation
 * Data analysis and conclusions

Insulation materials ''To investigate the insulation properties of different materials. This can be useful to determine the best way to keep foodstuffs cold or warm.''

 * Identification of a problem
 * Learners formulate hypothesis
 * Literature survey
 * Experiment design
 * Conduct experiment
 * Process skills -observation, time keeping, recording of data, measuring, variable identification and control e.g. temperature, referencing
 * Data presentation
 * Data analysis and conclusions

PH -Levels of different brands of commercial soaps

To determine which soaps have the most suitable pH-levels for human use.

 * Identification of a problem
 * Learners formulate hypothesis
 * Literature survey
 * Experiment design
 * Conduct experiment
 * Process skills - observation, time keeping, recording of data, measuring, variable identification and control e.g. temperature, referencing
 * Data presentation
 * Data analysis and conclusions

 * Mesothelioma
 * Information Reference

title: SAASTE Science/Ideas for Class Projects


text:
SAASTE Science/Radon Measurement

MEASUREMENT OF INDOOR RADON IN PAARL
SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS PROJECT'

REASON FOR STUDY
Paarl is situated about 60 km from Cape Town and is built on the slopes of a hill consisting granite rock. Granite rock typically has a higher than average uranium content. Radon is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas that is a decay product in the uranium decay chain in soil and rock . Radon diffuses easily through cracks in walls and floors and may therefore accumulate in homes with poor ventilation. Radon gas has been found to be a major cause of lung cancer and contribute to at least 15 000 deaths in the United States annually. Radon measurements have been performed previously in Paarl and elevated levels were found in some older homes 1. It was therefore proposed that further measurements are needed for a broader study of radon gas concentrations in soil and inside homes in Paarl.

HYPOTHESIS
The Radon concentrations in houses and soil in areas with high granite deposits are higher than in houses and soil in areas with low granite deposits.

What is Radon?
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is produced in the uranium decay chain. Radium is a product of the radioactive decay of uranium. Radon is then formed during the decay of radium. Radioactive decay is a natural, spontaneous process in which an atom of one element breaks down to form another element by losing atomic particles. When solid radium decays to form radon gas it loses two protons and two neutrons. The two protons and two neutrons are called an alpha particle. An alpha particle is identical to the nuclei of helium-4 atoms. Radon itself eventually loses an alpha particle to form the element polonium.

Radon is considered a noble gas and is thus very reluctant to react with other elements. Radon is not detectable through human senses; the only way to determine radon occurrence is by measurement.

The rate of radioactive decay is measured in terms of half-life, the time it takes for half of a sample of an element to decay. While uranium has a half-life of 4.4 billion years, the half-life of the most common isotope of radon is only 3.8 days. This means that 50 % of a given volume of radon will decay in 3.8 days to form decay products like polonium, bismuth and lead. When we inhale high concentrations of radon, the gas molecules may decay to the above mentioned elements, which may stick to the epithelial cells of the lung. The presence of these elements may eventually cause lung cancer.

Radon formation
All rocks contain some uranium-most of them in the region of 1 to 3 parts per million (ppm) of uranium. Granite rocks, as volcanic rocks, dark shale and certain sedimentary rocks, have higher than average uranium content, as much as 100 ppm. The higher the uranium content in rocks and soil in an area, the greater the chances of higher radon levels indoors.

Radon movement and diffusion
Radon is released from mineral grain via alpha recoil. As each radium atom decays by ejecting an alpha particle, the newly formed radon atom recoils in the opposite direction. By recoiling the radon atom may then enter the pore space between grains in a fractured rock. The radon atom could also recoil towards the interior of the grain and not enter the pore space.

Because radon is a gas it moves more easily than radium that is fixed in rocks and soil. Radon easily escapes into fractures in rocks and pore spaces between grains of soil. The ease of movement of radon affects how much radon may enter a home. Radons movement is dependent on porosity of soil, soil permeability and soil moisture content. Radon moves rapidly through permeable soils, such as sand and gravel, than through impermeable soils like clay. Fractures and pores allow radon to diffuse more quickly. In water, however, radon moves slower than in air.

For these reasons, homes in areas with drier, highly permeable soils and fractured bedrocks may have higher levels of indoor radon. The air pressure in the ground around most houses is said to be higher than the air pressure inside the house. Air tends to move through cracks in the foundation and walls of houses. Soil air may thus diffuse easily into houses with low indoor pressures, poorly sealed foundations and several entry points for soil air, leading to higher than normal radon levels.

Equipment used
There are a few methods to measure radon indoors, but this procedure explains the handling and usage of a standard (S) chamber E-PERM monitoring device. This device takes the measurement over a few days. To measure radon with this method, the equipment used were:

 * A SChamber E-PERM
 * An electret to fit the S  Chamber
 * A special reader to read voltage on electret
 * A Mylar bag (A type of plastic bag)
 * Data Logging Sheet

Method of data collection
When an electret (ST) is fitted to a S-chamber, the E-PERM configuration is called a SSTE-PERM.

1. All electrets are covered by a protective cap when in storage. Unscrew the cap and place the electret face down in the slot provided on the electret reader to measure its Initial Voltage (I). Record the value on the data logging sheet provided.

2. Screw the electret into the bottom of the S-Chamber. Make sure not to touch the white surface of the electret.

3. When you are ready to start measuring, turn the E-PERM to the on position, by unscrewing the top screw cap.

4. Place the E-PERM at the location to be monitored. Make sure to read the instructions on where to place the detector or where not to in a later section in the supplement. Record the date and time of the placement.

5. After the exposure period (about seven days), close the cap of the E-PERM which returns it to its off position. Record the date and time on the logging sheet when the measurement was stopped.

6. Read the Final voltage (F) on the electret thereafter with the reader and record it.

7. The radon concentration is then calculated with a few equations.

footnote
[1] Lecture, Professor Robbie Lindsay, Department of Physics, University of the Western Cape

The uranium decay chain can thus be summed up as follows:

Data from the project
In xls format from SPSP-DATA & GRAPHS-Radon-WW.xls Note: We need to load this file up to a server, so people can download it --Riaan 07:14, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: SAASTE Science/Radon Measurement


text:
SAASTE Science/Road Markings

INTRODUCTION
This project involved ten committed educators from the EMDC, South Metropole (Mitchell's Plain and surrounding areas). The objective of the project was to engage their learners in science process skills and empowering them in facilitating investigative skills in their classrooms. Educators from different schools were at different stages within their learning programmes. In order to choose a common topic to advance the project it was decided to select a topic that could easily be done in the different classes, without undue disruption of the learning programmes in progress.

Another reason was to focus on skills, values and attitudes in the broader society and that in using science skills, everyday issues within our communities could be highlighted. The assumption was that learners would take to the topic because it has direct bearing on their own attitude in getting safely to school and back.

In choosing the topic in terms of mentioned reasons, it was also realised that road safety was a major concern with government, nationally and provincially. We are reminded daily about road safety with projects like "ARRIVE ALIVE" that was instituted by the ministry of transport. In an address to mourners at a memorial service of victims who lost their lives on South African roads, the Minister of Transport said the following:

"I urge you to make road safety an issue within your communities. Identify places where accidents happened and the causes of the accidents and bring them to the attention of your local authorities. Give your children the tools to be safe on the roads by teaching them how to behave as pedestrians and cyclists. Buckle up on front and back seat of cars. We can reduce our risks on the road by obeying traffic rules and regulations. Let us all undertake to be law abiding road users-life is too valuable not to". (10 October 2003)

Media reports on "road accidents" also show a keen awareness by members of the public as reported in the CAPE ARGUS, 19 April 2004, when a reader reacted to the comments made by the MEC for Transport. The reader commented that "most deaths on our roads are not `accidents', a term which should be avoided. In collisions, crashes or smashes are a result of negligence and non-compliance with traffic regulation and normal civilised behaviour".

Literature also shows that the issue of road safety is being addressed at various levels of town planning. Ribbens (1996) states that the accident rate amongst children in Mitchell's Plain, a less spacious town, is higher compared to older, more spacious towns.

A vast majority of South Africans, urban and rural, are pedestrians (Ribbens,1996). In "ROAD TRAFFIC", the recommendation is made that "road user knowledge, skills and attitudes" should be enhanced through formal and non-formal education.

Choosing the site
The sites were restricted to the South Metropole, easily accessible by members of the individual schools. The road markings initially included the solid stop line, directional arrows and the channelling lines at both robotic intersections and stop streets.

Designing the instrument
The initial discussion around designing the instrument included the type of road surface markings as mentioned above, the gender of driver/road-user, and the vehicle type (commercial, private, government and public). We also considered the time allowed for gathering data, using the instrument at a specific time and date. The instrument was to be used by the learners and needed to be of a simple format. The number of learners used to collect data was not specified. Participants felt that they would adopt a system to suit their situation. Pilot projects were conducted at robotic intersections and stop streets. Table 1 shows the proposed data collection instrument.

Table 1: Proposed initial template for data collection.

Refining the instrument/ limiting the variables
We considered all the recommendations made by the learners and ourselves after conducting pilot investigations. It was decided that observers needed to be inconspicuous so as to allow road users to respond as normally as possible.

K53 considers "stopping" in relation to the surface marking as "bringing your vehicle to a complete stop, with the front before the white stop line" (Gibson, et al, 1999). However for the purpose of this investigation and for the sake of simplicity, stopping was considered to be bringing the vehicle to a complete halt with the wheels before the stop line (RTM1 &iuml &iquest &frac12 see addendum). A further recommendation was that the stop line be an extension of the observer. Due consideration was given to the complexity of the different sites, which includes safety aspects and effective recording of data. The sample size per site was limited to 50 cars irrespective of the time taken to collect the data. The investigation was further limited to stop streets only, making data collection and recording easier.

RESULTS
The sample contained a cross section of vehicle types used in townships. Mitchell's Plain was created in the apartheid era as a residential area, away from big business and industrial areas. Table 2 shows that the private vehicle count overshadows the other vehicle types. The number of public transport vehicles indicates that a large percentage of residents are dependent on public transport and therefore there is a large amount of pedestrians on Mitchell's Plain roads.

Table 2: Vehicle type in sample based on use/ownership

The gender composition is somewhat expected, 291 male drivers and only 68 female drivers. The K53 booklet, used by learner drivers defines the broad white line (RTM ) as the stop line mark 1 and the other two lines (RTM3) as the pedestrian crossing lines. These being regulatory traffic signs at a crossing, it is expected to be religiously observed by all drivers.

Figure 1: Driver Observance of Stop street regulatory traffic road markings

In figure 1 above it is clear that a majority of drivers in this sample do not observe road markings at stop streets. Gender Male Female Stopped 37 15 Stopped on line 6 4 Stopped over line 60 12 No Stopping 188 37

Table 3: Breakdown of gender observance of road markings at stop streets

The patterns in Table 4 show an alarming tendency amongst both male and female drivers not to stop at stop streets and/or not to observe RTM3 lines. Only a small number, both genders, do observe the road markings.

Another important pattern show n in this study is that a large number of commercial and government vehicle drivers do not observe stop street road markings as seen from Table 5 below.

Table 5: Observance shown across the vehicle type in sample.

Discussion
Due to the nature and objectives of this limited study no definitive conclusions could be made. However, patterns observed with this small sample may serve as a basis for further investigation. The safety of learners, on their way to and from school, is influenced by driver observance of traffic signs and signals, and an extension of such a study in the area may just arouse community interest. Results of such a study might serve as interesting discussions at SGB meetings.

Concluding remarks
The project had twofold objective namely empowering participants in investigative skills and to involve learners as far as possible. The success rate of the project will only surface once participants initiate new projects within their respective classrooms. The input from learners during the pilot was essential in refining the data collecting instrument. This once again underlines the fact that learners do bring `something' to the education table and that educators should not underestimate the abilities of their learners.

ADDENDUM RTM3 RTM1
Key: RTM1= Stop line markings RTM3= Pedestrian crossing lines

title: SAASTE Science/Road Markings


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User talk:ManuelGR

gnat make
I think that the two word "gnat make" is better suited for beginners. Partly because of the better help screen:

GNAT 3.4.3 Copyright 1996-2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc. List of available commands GNAT BIND              gnatbind GNAT CHOP              gnatchop GNAT CLEAN             gnatclean GNAT COMPILE           gnatmake -f -u -c GNAT ELIM              gnatelim GNAT FIND              gnatfind GNAT KRUNCH            gnatkr GNAT LINK              gnatlink GNAT LIST              gnatls GNAT MAKE              gnatmake GNAT NAME              gnatname GNAT PREPROCESS        gnatprep GNAT PRETTY            gnatpp GNAT STUB              gnatstub GNAT XREF              gnatxref Commands FIND, LIST, PRETTY, STUB and XREF accept project file switches -vPx, -Pprj and - Xnam=val

Computer programming/Types
got additions by AlMac effectively doubling the size of the article since you last worked on it. I just thought you might like to see what I did to it. AlMac 23:52, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

Ada Quality and Style Guide
Hola otra vez, después de bastante tiempo algo alejado de "Wikibooks" tenía ganas de colaborar otra vez en el libro de Ada. Entre otras cosas, tenía una propuesta que haceros sobre la sección "Ada 95 Quality and Style Guide" (mejor escribe tu opinión en esa página de discusión). Si os gusta la idea a ti y a Martin estoy dispuesto a hacer yo mismo todos los cambios. Un saludo --surueña 09:28, July 24, 2005 (UTC)

Wikibooks Newsletter, Volume 1
(Wikibooks gazette home | Discuss | Bulletin board | Subscription list)

This is a short newsletter that is being distributed to all active wikibookians. You are getting this message because you are recognized as an established contributor to the project. This newsletter will be distributed on a regular basis to help share news, information, and tips. It comes from a bot account, User:The Staff. User:The Staff is currently operated by a team of wikibooks admins, the complete list of which is available on the user page of the bot. If you would like to not receive this newletter anymore, please remove your name from the list at Active wikibookians.

The work you do at Wikibooks is greatly appreciated. However there are plenty of other opportunities for you to get involved and help us to create a thriving Wikibooks community. We are sure that there are things we can do to help you and your understanding of Wikibooks and similarly there are certainly things you could do to help Wikibooks become a better place.

We would like to ask all wikibookians to add the Bulletin Board to your watchlists. The Bulletin Board is a fast and easy way for wikibookians to communicate important news and events to the entire community. If you have important news to share with the community, you can feel free to add your own entry to that page.

If you have general questions or comments about Wikibooks, you are welcome to post a message on The Staff Lounge, a free discussion area. Your input would also be welcomed in the Votes for Deletion and Requests for Adminship discussion pages. These pages are all active discussion areas that help to shape the Wikibooks community as a whole.

Sometimes it is easy to forget that the Wikibooks community is much larger and more diverse then the people who work in a single book, or on a single bookshelf. Hopefully, together we can all make Wikibooks a better place, and a more valuable educational resource.

The Staff 04:17, 19 December 2006 (UTC)

Inclusion != transcusion
Transclusions between Wikibooks aren't helpful, they break several subsystem, including book renames, even deletion, categories and ultimately make edits problematic (edits can break one of the books sharing the same content by using transclusion), you should copy the content and give attribution to the original book if the size of used content is relevant, Wikibooks should be self containing... --Panic (talk) 00:07, 19 December 2008 (UTC) I've made a generalazation of this post in Reading_room/General, if you disagree please share your rational there, txs. --Panic (talk) 00:15, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

A new proposal
Hi, there is currently a proposal at Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals for non-admins to be given the ability of    and. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time Synoman Barris (discuss • contribs) 13:00, 14 September 2020 (UTC)

Ada Programming/Libraries/Ada.Storage_IO
Hi Manuel,

where do the copyright notes on this page come from? In the RM legal information (file:///C:/Users/Grein/Documents/Christoph/Language%20Manuals/Ada/Ada%202012/TC1_2016/RM-TTL.html), there are a lot of copyright notes, but they do not match with the ones given on this page. Expecially: Can some Maxim Reznik add a copyright notice on a specification which he does not own? I'm not a lawyer, but am wondering.

I did not check whether there are similar notes on other copies of RM specs.

It does look like there is something terribly wrong.

Christoph CKWG - Ada Magica (discuss • contribs) 19:41, 10 October 2022 (UTC)

 * Hi @CKWG - Ada Magica,
 * I got the specifications for the pages for the Ada library up to version 2005 from https://github.com/reznikmm/adalib because it was easier, in principle, to obtain them from there instead of from the RM. That specifications have some modifications in the private part to make them valid Ada, but not all of them are. For Ada 2012, which were not in that repository initially, I finally got them directly copying the RM, and they don't have Reznik's copyright notice. I'd prefer them to not have any notice at all, but since I'm not a lawyer either, I didn't dare to remove them at that time. If you want to do it now, I won't complain. ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 23:10, 14 October 2022 (UTC)
 * I guess best would be a reference in the header to the title page of the RM. There the relevant copyright notices can be found.
 * http://ada-auth.org/standards/rm12_w_tc1/html/RM-TTL.html
 * I've changed this page accordingly. Hope this solves the issue. CKWG - Ada Magica (discuss • contribs) 10:34, 15 October 2022 (UTC)
 * OK. That's a convincing solution. — ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 12:19, 15 October 2022 (UTC)
 * By the way, if we are going to change all the specifications, I think we should make a new template for the header, in order to have a single place where we can update at once that notice. — ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 10:46, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:ManuelGR


text: File:SA NC Saaste Activities 3.png

title: File:SA NC Saaste Activities 3.png


text:
History of Elven Writing Systems/Third Age

= Classical Quenya Mode = At least in that Age, we see the Tengwar Table divided in Series (Témar) and Grades (Tyeller) as found in Appendix E. It was divided in two parts: the 24 “primary” letters, those composed by a telco and lúvar, and 12 “additional”. There was applied a number to each of them, Tinco being the #1 and Úrë the #36, making the glyphs useable as numbers.

A number of tehtar are described by Tolkien concerning the modes used near the end of the Third Age (which doesn’t mean they hadn’t been invented as early as in 2nd Age, or even since Fëanor’s time): The two dots of Tyelpetéma were now considered separate tehtar, able to be imported by other letters (like Anna and Hyarmen as we saw). A 'hook' is known (a small version of Silmë?) called Sa-rince in Quenya and Gammas in Sindarin, that indicates “following s” in the clusters ts, ps and ks/x. An under-tilde was used to indicate long consonants.

We can state with certainty at last, that Yanta and Úrë were now used only for for dipthong compounds.

Tyelpetéma was discarded, as well as the grade with extended stems, although they were used in various ways according to each one’s needs.

The names of the tengwar were now regularised, their Quenya names being the official ones. It is also stated that the Númen, Formen, Rómen, Hyarmen were used as direction marks even in maps written in other languages.

Examples
It is interesting to compare the 3rd Age with earlier spelling:

- `V1 `V`C7Rj°^ `V2^7R5#: `M1~Mj%`V5 = 8`B5^t$ t#7&yE5 `C6 9TmT5#Ì6 1R5: `Cw#6 t$1E; --

''Et Earello Endorenna utúlien. Sinome maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn’ Ambar metta.''

3Df#9DÍ2^ 	Sangahyando < *Thangahyando (‘Thong-cleaver’, a name)

`V7Fj^°dE6 	*Erellochar < Ezellochar (Green Mound in Valinor)

9FjnE 	Helwa < HEL (pale blue)

9YqE 	Hópa < *Chópa (harbour)

g^jt$ 	nolme < ñgolme (knowledge)

nR2$ 	*vende < wende (maiden)

½7~ByR 	hríve (Winter, a season of the Calendar of Imladris)

Tolkien has written Namárie in Tengwar. Some inconsistencies with other rules and sample are found, like non-constant use of Esse and Silme nuquerne, Vala where Wilya would be expected and absence of Súle (súrinen and hísie with Silme although < thúrinen and híthie). That means maybe that some rules weren't followed strictly by the end of the 3rd Age. He has also forgot the ‘following y’ underdots in maryat, the first a of the first namárie and he provides an alternate spelling of the dipthong in caita.

= "General Use" = In The Howlett Rivendell Inscriptions, Tolkien affirms that there was a "general use (applicable to both S[indarin] and Q[uenya]) of the period of the tale" (which refers to The Lord of the Rings). He provides three samples: The Sindarin name Imladrist [sic] `Btj#27T81 and two versions of the English name Rivendell 7Tr2{$j and 7r%2{j$. Possibly, this mode already existed as early as the ../Second Age/, and used in Eregion.

No other samples are explicitly called "general use". There is however a mode that is attested with Sindarin, Quenya and English: A tehtar mode where the Quessetéma is a k-series while Calmatéma is used for postalveolar/palatal sounds. This matches also with the "Westron mode" as described in Appendix E and with the Numenian Mode Chart. So we can consider all these modes to represent applications of the "general use" to different languages.

The "general use" was mainly used by men. It is attested primarily with English, which supposedly corresponds to the Westron (or Numenian) language, and the Elvish texts attested in this mode relate closely to men: Elendil's Oath seen behind the throne of Gondor on The Return of the King Jacket (draft), and the letter of Aragorn to Samwise seen in the King's Letter, Third Version.

The vowel placement in the "general use" seems to be variable: either on the preceding or on the following tengwa. The main Quenya text places them on the following tengwar. Most English texts place them on the preceding tengwar, but there are also contrary samples. The inclusion of the letters Yanta (named "Ai") and Úre (named "Au") in the Numenian Mode Chart may be a hint that the usual Westron placement was with the vowel tehtar on the preceding tengwar.

"General Use" Sindarin (Sindarin Tehtar Mode)
This mode is attested in the King's Letter, Third Version. Therefore this mode was probably used mainly by Men, and not by Elves.

The main difference between this mode and other varieties of the "general use" is the representation of the semivowel /j/, which is not represented with the letter Anna, but with the letter Yanta. The distribution of the letters Óre and Rómen is also special, the former only being used at word endings.

When an article causes mutation to the following consonant, the whole cluster is written as one word (transcribed with a hyphen by Tolkien: i-Varanduiniant, r%7#2{#hU5`C1[E ). A new tehta appears, for the Sindarin vowel y, which is 2 amatixi (overdots) over a consonant. The bar of nasalisation (seen in i-Varanduiniant) except d, t and g, is used also over n, to double it (annon, 5{#5^ ) and maybe this could be applied to m as well. We also see the w-tilde used in words like edwen, and the under-bar of doubling consonants. There appears the letter mh. This sound became v in 3rd Age, and in other cases we see it transcribed as v, but as it seems the traditional spelling was kept in tengwar.

Most of the tengwar are not attested in that text, and their value is guessed by analogy, but many of them seem to have been useless for this mode.

Examples
The King’s Letter is the longest Sindarin text, and was written in this mode:

And some interesting words. Note that diphthongs au, -aw and the semivowel w aren’t attested, so these are only these supposed forms.

1b# tang (string)

1yE7E 5% 27~M2$hD5 Tawar-in-Drúedain (forest of the Woses)

Xè.D5 gwaun (goose)

1~Gy Têw (letter, tengwa)

b% bj$hD4 in ngelaidh (the trees)

t#5^ m.D Amon Lhaw (Hill of Hearing)

Sindarin "Full Writing" with "General Use" Consonants
This Mode appears in another version of the King’s Letter. Probably used by the Dûnedain of Arnor and came to Gondor when Aragorn ascended the throne. It derived from the Mode of Beleriand used in Imladris, but keeps some Adunaic elements.

It differs from the tehta-mode, as well as the Mode of Beleriand. The rules are the same that apply to the Mode of Beleriand, but now Númen and Malta have the value of n and m as in Quenya, and Óre is interchangable with Rómen (no constant rules appear for when each one should be used).

In the King’s Letter, two different ways are found for the diphthong ae: Yanta can be written as an overposed tehta above a (Iorhael, ~h79]âj and ~h79]lj ).

There are two similar "full writing" modes where the k-series is repsented by the quessetéma and not by the calmatéma as in the Elvish modes (classical Quenya and Sindarin mode of Beleriand). One of them is attested with Sindarin, the other with English translations of Westron texts. The were used by Westron speakers, Gondorian men and dwarves from the Erebor. The Sindarin version may be deprecated.

Examples
In this mode a slightly different version of the King’s Letter is written. Let’s compare

ljlk]6 1ljzh1[]6 ]7]xh65 ]6]3h65`Bh5 l4lj9]65 ]6]5 xh2{h6 ]6 ]65h6 ]6 9`V6 `Bw{]Ö6 ]5{.Ö ]x{jl5{]3] `B r]6]2{{.Ö5`B]1[ l6`B5 2hjh3l5 l3.Öj - lxh6 wl5 xl6l2`B]2 26]5{]Öj l6`B5 xè`B6`B3 l2èl5-= ]6 l ]5`B6] l5{]8 8.Öj]5{]2 šlj°®5 `V5 e]Ö5ˆ l27l xhj l ]5`V6] 1`V6]2 `B cl62`B6 ql69]lj › `B 8l5{.Ö q]1[9]lj l81]3]6 ]Þ5 › zh2{`B6 `B 26]5{ - ]6 tl6`Bj wlk 2`V5 - ]6 lj]5h6= tl6`Bj= xjh6e`B5{`Blj ]6 lÖ6`Bl5 8lj°]3 2`V5 - ]6 ~Bh69]Þj= xlj`B6= zh62hr= ]6 w]6]rh65 = ~Bh5{]3 2`V5 = ] el69]Þj ]6 ]t tl6`Bj 8.Öj]2 .Ö5 ]6]5 h t`B5]81`B6`B3 5ljc]Þ5l5 .Ö5 lc.Ö7 =-=

''Elessar Telcontar Aragorn Arathornion Edhelharn Aran Gondor ar Arnor ar Hír iMbair Annui anglennatha i Varanduiniant erin dolothen Ethuil, egor ben genediad Drannail erin Gwirith edwen. Ar e anira ennas suilannad mhellyn in phain. Edregol e aníra tírad I cherdir Perhael (I sennui Panthael estathar aen) Condir I Drann. Ar Meril bess dín, ar Elanor, Meril, Glorifinniel ar Eirien sellath dín, ar Iorhael, Gelir, Cordof ar Baravorn, ionnath dín A Pherhael ar am Meril suilad uin Aran o Minas Tirith nelchaenen uin Echuir''

And the previous words. Note that diphthongs au, -aw and the semivowel w aren’t attested either.

1]b 	Tang (string)

1]y]7 `B5 27.Fl2]Ö5 	Tawar-in-Drúedain (forest of the Woses)

Xè]ê5 	Gwaun (goose)

1ly 	Têw (letter)

`Bb blj]Ö4 	in ngelaidh (the trees)

]th5 m]ê 	Amon Lhaw (Hill of Hearing)

"General Use" Westron
The Westron speakers seem to have fitted perfectly the sounds of their language in the table, according to the shapes of each letter, better than any elvish language did. The main reason was maybe the wider variety in Westron phonology.

The names of the letters may be a sound game. They used the vowel o for dental names, i for labial, e for palatal and a for alveolar. It seems they considered o a frontal vowel, a a back vowel and i, e their intermediate.

Table
This table uses the letter names attested on the Numenian Mode Chart.

Examples
There are of course no Westron texts by Tolkien, or even single Westron words written in the Numenian mode, but our best examples of this mode are the English Tengwar transcriptions (like the Title Page) and the Ring Inscription that both used a mode similar to Numenian (where the tehtar were placed above maybe the preceding consonant). Following this, we will try to represent a few known Westron (Hobbitish) names as they could be written.

w#1'T ,Tjw%7~CeD 	Batti Zilbirâpha (Barney Butterburr)

t.D7E j#w%b% 	Maura Labingi (Frodo Baggins)

7E,D5&6 1~Mz 	Razanur Tûc (Peregrin Took)

m^37Et 	Hlothram (cottager)

Northern Numenian Mode
This mode is a Westron convention in its northern variety. It is exemplified (as English texts) in the King’s Letter and the Book of Mazarbul.

The main difference from the other known full modes is of course the value of the letters which match those of the Numenian mode and not Sindarin. Note also that the letter ‘a is used for a instead of the known crescent a-tengwa. An underdot is used by Tolkien to indicate unvoiced sounds in English, which maybe fulfilled the absence of ‘a.

In the King’s Letter, a distinction is made between Ar and Aro, like Óre and Rómen in Quenya. Au is used as semiconsonatal w and Wí has the value of u. Consonantal y is expressed by the long carrier. However in the Book of Mazarbul, Aro takes the value of w, as in the Adunaic Mode.

Dipthongs are shown again with the two amatixi and the w-tilde. It is interesting to note that except the long consonants, even long vowels make use of the under bar.

Examples
It’s interesting to compare the same words as written with this mode.

wn1'` ,`jw`7n;en 	Batti Zilbirâpha (Barney Butterburr)

tné7n jnw`b` 	Maura Labingi (Frodo Baggins)

7n,n5y6 1y;z 	Razanur Tûc (Peregrin Took)

mh37yt 	Hlothram (cottager)

= Angerthas Erebor = In TA 1981, the Dwarves fled from Moria. Years later Thráin I came to Erebor and founded a dwarf-kingdom. There the Cirth were modified further and some new were added, but some reverted back to their Elvish usage.

They reintroduced $ and q but substituted R and T again for g and gh this time, or as variants to their original cirth. The only cirth they introduced are only X and C for ps and ts.

This mode was used in Westron by Dwarves. The lower inscription of Balin’s Tomb is written in English, as well as the Book of Mazarbul. There we find some new cirth for vowel combinations and dipthongs, not known if valid in Westron or just used only by Tolkien in English.

We learn also how long vowels and consonants are treated. An over circumflex indicates a long consonant while an under bar indicates a long vowel. Must we exclude the cirth for long vowels? There is however a distinct letter for long ll by Tolkien for English words like fall.

After the 2nd Age, the Cirth were obsoleted by the Tengwar among the western races and the Cirth remained in use only by Dwarves and Men. The Rohirrim and the Men of Dale used two related simplified forms. The Dwarves developed even pen-written cursive forms, since they used them exclusively in any form of writing communication, even in paper.

Examples
That is how a Dwarf or a Northerner could write these Westron words.

2c8ÊlIDla2l@cÎ3c 	Batti Zilbirâpha (Barney Butterburr)

6*@cIac2lhl 	Maura Labingi (Frodo Baggins)

@l2c9Gcu 	Ribadyan (byrding)

.c6c,S:cg 	Hamanullas (‘Lobelia’)

Go to:
 * ../Second Age/
 * ../Appendix/


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Talk:Conlang/Intermediate/Sound notation

Untitled
I think that the articulations and types of consonants are better explained in the phonology article. This page just needs to inform the reader of what the IPA is, some of it's history, why we use it, and what the alternatives are; e.g. XSAMPA (but not neccissarily in that order). - Ingolemo 10:10, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Oops.... I think you are right. I didn't remember about that page! Silly me... Jotomicron 21:05, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Display Problems Section?
I think it would be a good idea for us to have a section explaining how to get browsers to display IPA. This seems like the obvious place to put it, but I'm unsure as to whether it would be benificial to have it earlier on in the book (seeing as some IPA characters show up in the beginners section). Opinions? - Ingolemo 15:36, 19 March 2006 (UTC)


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Coordinate Reference Systems and Positioning

Introduction
This book is intended to develop content for a new chapter on Coordinate Reference Systems and GNSS Surveying for the Spatial Data Infrastructure Cookbook developed through the Global Spatial Data Infrastructure (GSDI) initiative. The purpose of the chapter is to provide high level information for a basic understanding of global coordinate reference systems (e.g., WGS 84, ITRFxx/GRS80) and case studies from different regions and countries of the world about the challenges of tying their datums to global coordinate reference systems. As the final product will be incorporated in a Portable Document Format (PDF) document, it is important that sufficient information be extracted from open sources so that the user does not have to jump from article to article to get high level information about Global Coordinate Reference Systems and Positioning. Content will be condensed into a chapter covering 15-20 pages.

The Wikibooks approach is being used to foster international collaboration and to quickly develop content. Anyone can contribute and change existing content, and one does not need to register. If, however, you want attribution for your contribution, you are encouraged to register. If you decide to contribute, it is recommended that you familiarize yourself with Wiki markup. The Wikibooks approach is not for people who do not want their masterpiece altered!

As of 2005-01-26, our wish list for contributions is as follows:

 * 1) Extraction of information from open sources for inclusion in this chapter
 * 2) Graphics and figures
 * 3) Case studies from various regions and countries of the world for tying into global coordinate reference systems such as WGS 84 and ITRFxx/GRS80
 * 4) Anything marked as TBSL (To Be Supplied Later)

Context and rationale
Consistent with the SDI Cookbook, this section establishes the background, context, and rationale for the subject suitable as general orientation for all readers, but targeted for managers and end-users.

Ellipsoid
In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a mathematically defined surface that approximates the true figure of the Earth or geoid. It is used as the surface on which geodetic network computations are performed and [geographic] point co-ordinates calculated.

Mathematically, the reference ellipsoid is an oblate (flattened) ellipsoid of revolution with two different axes, an equatorial semi-major axis $$a$$ and a polar semi-minor axis $$b$$. The ellipsoid of revolution is obtained by rotating the ellipse about the semi-minor axis $$b$$ (refer to )

The flattening $$f$$ is defined as

f = \frac{a-b}{a} $$

- from Reference ellipsoid

GRS80 was adopted by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) at its XVII General Assembly in Canberra, Australia, December 1979.

For GRS80, $$a$$ = 6 378 137 m and $$f$$ = 0.003 352 810 681 18

External links

 * 1) IUGG home page
 * 2) IAG Geodesists' Handbook - Geodetic Reference System 1980

Geoid
A geoid is a close representation of the shape of the Earth. According to C.F. Gauss, it is the "mathematical figure of the Earth", in fact, of the Earth's gravity field. The geoid is that equipotential surface which coincides on average with mean sea level. - adapted from Geoid

The geoid has an irregular surface and unlike the ellipsoid, cannot be expressed by a mathematical formula.

Height
In geodesy, height is the distance of a point (usually on the terrain surface, such as a mountain top) vertically above or below a reference surface - adapted from Height

An ellipsoidal height uses the reference ellipsoid as its reference surface. A geodetic height uses the geoid as its reference surface.

Cartesian coordinate systems
Cartesian coordinates

Geographic coordinate systems
Geographic coordinate systems

Latitude

Longitude

Grid/Image coordinate systems
Unrectified image CRS

Georectified image CRS

Image georeferencing TransformationImage georeferencing Transformation

International Terrestrial Reference System(ITRS)
International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)

International Terrestrial Reference Frame(ITRF)
The International Terrestrial Reference Frame - The International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is a set of points with their 3-dimensional Cartesian coordinates which realize an ideal reference system, the International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS)

World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS 84)
NIMA Technical Report TR8350.2, "Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984, Its Definition and Relationships With Local Geodetic Systems"

Plate tectonics and positioning
Plate tectonics

How positions are determined
GNSS determine positions on the earth through trilateration.

Satellite constellations
Global Positioning System (GPS)

GLONASS

Galileo positioning system

Organizational issues
Consistent with the SDI Cookbook, this section addresses the design architecture of organisations, roles, and software systems that are intended to interact.

This section will provide case studies on how various regions and countries of the world are tying into Global Spatial Reference Systems.

Regional reference frames
IAG Subcommission 1.3: Regional Reference Frames

Asia-Pacific (TBSL)
IAG SC1.3e: Regional Reference Frame - Asia-Pacific

Permanent Committee on GIS Infrastructure for Asia and the Pacific (PCGIAP) Working Group 1: Regional Geodesy

Australia
Geocentric Datum of Australia

Reference Frame: ITRF92(International Terrestrial Reference Frame 1992), Epoch 1994.0, Ellipsoid: GRS80

New Zealand
New Zealand Geodetic Datum 2000 (NZGD2000)

Reference Frame: ITRF96 (International Terrestrial Reference Frame 1996), Epoch 2000.0, Ellipsoid: GRS80

New Zealand lies along the boundary of the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate and therefore, is a geophysically active area. The effects of slow crustal deformation (plate tectonics) amount to about 5 cm per year. These changes will be managed through the use of a velocity model to generate NZGD2000 coordinates from observations made at times other than the datum reference epoch. This will allow specialised users to generate coordinates for times other than the reference epoch.

United Kingdom
OSGB36 (Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936)

Reference Frame: OSGB36, Ellipsoid: Airy 1830

Standards and specifications
ISO 19111:2003, Geographic information - Spatial Referencing by Coordinates - scope only; ISO standard carries a copyright

ISO 19127, Geographic information - Geodetic Codes and Parameters - scope only; ISO standard carries a copyright

OpenGIS Implementation Specification: Coordinate Transformation Services, Revision 1.00

OGC Abstract Specification: Topic 2 - Spatial Referencing by Coordinates

OGC Web Coordinate Transformation Service (WCTS)

Recommended XML/GML 3.1.1 encoding of common CRS definitions (XML for CRS)

Recommended XML/GML 3.1.1 encoding of image CRS definitions (ImageCRS)


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Talk:Real Analysis

I feel that Real analysis now contains quite a bit of stuff on quite a few topics. However, the book needs some clean-up and some major re-organisation to make it more reader-friendly (though new material is also welcome, particularly on multivariable analysis and Fourier analysis).

SPat (talk) 08:46, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

Also, these are suggestions from previous authors (moved here from the contents page)

 Other suggested topics for inclusion

Since the goal here is to put calculus on a solid footing, I am going to add background, so that we develop the concept of a number first, and work to functions more slowly and methodically, to include Heine-Borel, Weierstrass, etc.

Things that seem to fit in this context:
 * (Basic) functional analysis:
 * Uniform Convergence, function spaces
 * Arzela-Ascoli Theorem
 * Stone-Weierstrass Theorem
 * Riemann-Stieltjes integrals and bounded variation
 * Measure theory:
 * Measure theory/Lebesgue integrals
 * Generalized function (distributions) theory
 * Some basic harmonic analysis (Fourier series and transforms).

However, both functional analysis and measure theory could do with their own Wikibooks

Things that might better be in Set Theory:
 * Infinite sets and cardinality

Things that might better be in Topology:
 * Introduction to different concepts of space: topological, metric, normed, inner product
 * Basic topology: accumulation points, closure, interior, boundary, convergence of sequences, in each case with discussion of the type of space the concept is appropriate to.
 * Completeness
 * Compactness
 * Connectedness
 * Continuous maps
 * Metric spaces
 * Contraction Mapping Principle

Comments by Msmithma

 * I have just submitted a major rewrite of the Sequences section. Amongst other things I changed the notation for sequences from $$\{x_n\}_{n=1}^\infty$$ to $$(x_n)_{n=1}^\infty$$.  This is more standard, easier to type, easier to read in source and will not conflict with the set theory book (if that is ever written).  It also inlines better (in the form $$(x_n)$$) when you have the "Recommended for modern browsers" math view option selected. J Bytheway 15:56, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * Incidentally, I would welcome discussion concerning the structure and approach that should be taken in this book, but in the mean time I shall continue to do things the way I think they should be done. J Bytheway 22:55, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * I too was a little overwhelmed by the work to be done in the set theory book, will start on Topology/Compactness tomorrow. Made minor edit to Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, Bolzano was spelt wrong and definition was not limited to the reals. Will check the proof tomorrow as I'm too tired for reasoned arguement now. Badge 01:31, 04 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I just did a major re-write/organization of "The real numbers" section. Added a couple sections on ordered sets and fields, didn't put much onto the field section.  I broke the main chapter of the section up into two pages so that the wiki stoped complaining about the size of the page and to make it easier to read.  Now the axioms are on one page and the properties/consequences are on the next. I also added a cover page as per the wikibooks style guide. Also add your names to the Real analysis/Authors  Page! Msmithma 07:42, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

--Msmithma 11:13, 4 December 2007 (UTC)
 * I just merged the edits on the natural numbers section with the original text, there was some redundant text that was removed and I'm not sure I did a great job placing the two new axiomatic approaches to the natural numbers but it restores the old flow while truing to incorporate the new material. We should probably choose if we want the natural numbers to start at 1 or 0, I vote 1.

Differentiation

 * Personally, I would like to see there be separate sections for Functions and Differentiation, rather than differentiation as a subsection of Functions as it is now. How does everyone else (assuming there is anyone else :-p) feel about this change? --Notanut 10:43, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Topics Covered
Ch.0, Background 0.0 Sets (unless it's assumed the reader is already familiar) 0.1 The Real Numbers 0.2 Construction (though I still don't know what is planned for this) 0.3 Metric Spaces (maybe) 0.4 Regions (ie Neighborhoods, Open/Closed sets, Boundaries, Compactness... all that fun stuff) Ch.1, Real Variables and Functions 1.1 Functions 1.2 Limits 1.3 Continuity 1.4 Sequences 1.5 Series Ch.2, Differentiation 2.1 Derivatives 2.2 Stuff about derivatives 2.3 L'hospital (maybe) 2.4 Taylor's Theorem Ch.3, Integration 3.1 Riemann Integration 3.2 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 3.3 Lebesgue Integration Ch.4, Advanced Topics 4.1 Measures 4.2 Fourier Series 4.3 Distributions 4.4 Hilbert Spaces 4.5 Other Forms of Integration (like Riemann-Stieltjes and so on) Obviously Ch.4's outline is wildly unorganized, and the rest could probably be improved upon. Suggestions are welcome, especially since I've never had formal training in Real Analysis. --Notanut 12:12, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * In response to the comment about structures and topics, I've started this thread. Personally, I don't like the current organization very much and I would also like to see a broader coverage of topics (ie a little basic topology - open/closed set, compactness and the like) in addition to coverage of topics currently deemed too advanced (especially integrals other than the Riemann integral... at least I think Lebesgue integrals are currently out because they're too advanced). I think a good organization would be something mor or less of the form:

 * In principle I agree with you. When I laid out the present structure I would have included more metric/topological stuff had it not been for the fact that there was already a Topology book.  I thought it would be better to have two seperate works, but heavily intertwined.  With luck, this would allow people who don't want to study topology the chance to learn real analysis independantly, and those who do the chance to learn the two together (which, I agree, is somewhat more elegant).  Writing it all out twice may aid learners who want a different presentation, but it nevertheless seems slightly silly when we have the opportunity to make good use of the wiki format to avoid it.
 * A presentation along the lines suggested above would certainly work, although I would rather put Lebesgue integration after measures, and relegate most of the other advanced topics to a book on functional analysis (with a link in the "where next?.." section of this book).
 * The construction section (about which you seem confused) is intended to describe ways of constructing the real numbers (out of the rational numbers, e.g. as equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences). When I learnt real analysis, this aspect was very much brushed over, and I feel it deserves more attention.  It's certainly not crucial for understanding of the other topics, however. J Bytheway 16:12, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * I provided a proof of the Squeeze Theorem, and added the equivelant characterizations of completeness that were promised in the "Real Numbers" section. If I did something terrible, let me know.   The proofs I gave could doubtlessly be improved, and I will keep editing them myself.  I did this more as a way of getting some text out there than anything else.  I'm a bit of a newcomer here, so I apologize for any faux pas I may have committed.  I think most of the changes I made are of a reversible nature, anyway.  Also, I had some problems with the math formatting that I couldn't fix.  If someone knows how to make things work right, please do.  L Culler 3:46, 11 May 2005

Set Theory Notation

 * I find some of the Set Theory notation odd. For example: $$\forall\epsilon>0:\exists N:\forall n \geq N:|x_n-a|\leq\epsilon$$,doesn't have an implication arrow.  Neither does any other theorem have an implication arrow.  I am used to seeing set theoretic statements written as such:$$(\forall\epsilon>0)(\exists N)(\forall n \geq N)\implies |x_n-a|\leq\epsilon$$, which is a little less ambiguous. But, $$(\forall\epsilon\in\mathbb{R}>0)(\exists N\in\mathbb{N})(\forall n\in\mathbb{N}\geq N)\implies |x_n-a|\leq\epsilon$$ is even less ambiguous.  What do you think?  --Fraxtal 22:44, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Welcome to Wikibooks Math! MikeBorkowski 20:56, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

Why was the Real Analysis book moved be be a Topology sub-book?
Why was the Real Analysis book moved be be a Topology sub-book? Surely these should be separate books. Would anybody object if I moved Real Analysis to be its own book again? --JMRyan T E C20:11, 19 April 2006 (UTC)
 * I second that vote and will start the move --M. Smith-Martinez

Measure and Integration
I'm interested in begin a wikibook about measure and integration and i want to know if someone has some work done to cooperate or begin the book myself. --Bunder 05:13, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

Why Analysis?
As a newcomer I'm unsure if this belongs here, but one of the things which I struggled with (and which many other newcomers to analysis struggle with) is the question of why analysis needs to be done at all.

The common situation is that a first-year undergraduate mathematician will have studied calculus at A-level, concentrating on the how and trusting in the why (or seeing an intuitive, rather than rigorous, proof of the why). This is no bad thing IMO, but it does result in a feeling of confusion and disappointment as our undergraduates learn that they're going to spend their first year "learning differentiation and integration".

Of course, once the course is over it's more apparent why it was necessary, but until then the whole thing is rather bewildering.

So one thing I'd like to propose writing is a sort of streetmap of real analysis, explaining - in fairly untechnical language - how all the parts of the topic slot together, where everything fits, and why it's not the same as calculus.

Would this be a good place to add it? (I've yet to sign up for a username, but will likely do so soon...)

 * Ah... ignore that. I've just seen that the front page has exactly that. --81.187.181.66 14:53, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

Exponential Function
I am adding a chapter solely on the exponential and logarithmic functions. The usual way to construct these functions is to define the logarithm as $$\int_1^x\frac{dx}{x}$$ and $$e^x$$ as its inverse. Although the method I'm providing is longer, I believe it has its own merits.

I am also moving the section on rational exponentiation currently in the Continuity chapter to the new chapter. SPat (talk) 09:48, 12 April 2008 (UTC)

Cover
This is my temporary proposal for a cove page. Please feel free to comment or edit/replace as you may see fit

SPat (talk) 05:53, 24 May 2008 (UTC)

analysis book in portuguese
hi.. i'm writing the Real analysis's book in portuguese and if somepeaple wann to help in verification of demonstration, proof, ..., etc. Let welcome. Thank you!! Real analysis's book in portuguese
 * Thiago Marcel

Introduction
The introduction seems opiniated and vague. It might be best not to state that " the subject of Real Analysis may seem rather senseless and trivial " in the first paragraph. The introduction should rather explain why real analysis has an important place in higher mathematics, and how its study is necessary for the understanding of other more advanced or applied subjects. I also disagree that real analysis "is simply a nearly linear development of mathematical ideas you have come across". The subject is often presented in this way to students not majoring in math, but it is not true of the whole subjet. 216.246.250.81 (discuss) 13:44, 24 March 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Real Analysis


text:
Horn/General/Types

Natural
The natural horn is the ancient ancestor of all modern horns, having no valves whatsoever. Since it lacks valves, only the notes in the harmonic series can be produced without the use of the right hand. In order to play notes outside of the harmonic series,hornists originally used varying hand positions, a practice still commonly used today on modern horns to make minor pitch adjustments. Today, when playing music written before the advent of valves, we see parts written for horn in many keys besides F. While multiple keys consistently challenge players of modern valved horns to accurately transpose by sight, they actually simplify the reading and playing of music for the natural horn. The hornist would just add the correct crook to change the natural horn's key, thereby enabling the player to both read the music as written and more easily play passages with the hand. Realizing that handhorn technique doesn't change between keys can help make transposition much easier. All we need to know is which key combinations are equivalent to the key of the horn part.

List of natural horn keys with their corresponding fingering on the modern horn:
 * C alto - none
 * B alto - none
 * Bb alto - T0
 * A alto - T2
 * Ab alto - T1
 * G - T12 or T3
 * Gb - T23
 * F - F0 or T13
 * E - F2 or T123
 * Eb - F1
 * D - F12 or F3
 * Db - F23
 * C - F13
 * B basso - F123
 * Bb basso - none
 * A basso - none
 * Ab basso - none

Handhorn Technique
Before starting to learn handhorn get to know the harmonic series of the horn or the notes that can naturally be played without valves.

For every pitch there are a few things we can do to give us a near chromatic range:
 * To play one half-step lower, close off the bell a bit. This will take some experimenting to figure out how much, but it should be relatively easy.
 * To play one half-step higher, fully stop the bell. (For a full explanation see Stopped horn.) For modern horns, we are encouraged to make this sound quite nasally. For the natural horn, it should be much smoother. Experiment to make the note sound more uniform with other notes. This may even require playing some of the open notes slightly more closed.
 * Pitch bending with the lips is required for some notes. For example Beethoven especially likes throwing in low written G's (bottom line base clef in new notation). This is not a note in the harmonic series, but bending the pitch that low is quite possible. Another example that is not used often is for playing the D just below the treble clef staff. It is a whole step away from the C and E which can be played open. Bending all the way to the D from either note is quite difficult, but a half-step bend down from the E is very doable. So if we bend a half-step and then close off the bell a bit we can get a D.

Some repertoire for natural horn:
 * Mozart Horn Concerti
 * Beethoven Sonata for Horn

Single
The single horn has three valves which lower the pitch of the instrument two, one, and three half steps respectively. Valves eliminate the need for hand-horning, though stopped horn is still commonly used among modern players. Single horns are usually made in the key of F, though many can be found in Bb alto.

Double
The double horn combines the F and Bb single horns into one instrument. Double horns have four valves; the three valves of the single horn plus an additional valve, played with the thumb, to switch between the F and Bb horn. The double horn is the most commonly used today. It gives players extra versatility by allowing them to use the Bb horn to produce better tone in the upper register and in the low range from the F below middle C to the C a fourth below that. The F horn is typically used in the mid-low to middle register.

Descant
The descant horn is a single horn in the key of F, but pitched an octave higher than the usual F horn. It is often used for pieces in which the horn part is entirely in the upper and upper-middle registers.

Triple
The triple horn combines the single F, single Bb, and descant horns into one instrument. It has the four valves of a double horn plus a fifth valve to switch to the descant "side" of the horn.

Closely related instruments

 * Alp Horn
 * Wagner Tuba

For more information on all types of horns see Horn.

title: Horn/General/Types


text:
Biochemistry/Enzymes

Introduction
Enzymes are macromolecules that act as organic catalysts in most of the organism's biochemical reactions that have functions indispensable to maintenance and activity of life. It is crucial to note that reaction rates of certain chemical conversions occurring in living organisms are extremely low, and catalysis is necessary to maintain reasonable time of cell development and division. Majority of functional enzymes are proteins, like trypsin, fumarase or papain. A small subset of enzymes are composed of RNA and are known as ribozymes, for example hammerhead ribozyme, responsible for cleaving and joining at a specific site of RNA molecule, or 23S rRNA of prokaryotic 50S ribosome subunit activity of peptidyl transferase. The general mechanism by which enzymes work is by reducing the energy required to start the reaction, otherwise known as the activation energy. Microorganisms producing certain enzymes, or extracted and purified enzymes alone have extremely varied uses: ethanol production (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Zymomonas mobilis) forensic science (restriction enzymes), and polymerase chain reaction amongst them. Uses of enzymes are not purely scientific. These diverse molecules form a huge part of industries such as brewing and pharmaceuticals; the use of enzymes alone in the brewing process of Guinness is worth over a billion euro to the Irish economy.

Structure of Enzymes
Model enzymes are monomeric, globular proteins. Majority of studies on nature of enzymatic reactions were conducted on trypsin, chymotrypsin or amylase. As every protein, to work correctly enzymes require proper folding, and, by consequence, are susceptible to deactivation by denaturation. The key to enzyme activity is a structure called active site. Interactions between residues of polypeptide chain aminoacids cause them to create a structure of defined size, shape and sequence. The difference between active site and structural domain is that the latter is able to recognize (recognition site) and process a defined molecule. Whether the interaction between the molecule and recognition site is sterical (shape-based), hydrophobic (chymotrypsin) or ionic (trypsin) it is always specific and temporal. Inhibitors often use specific covalent binding to an active site, which deactivates enzyme permanently.

Two theories regarding active sites were created. Theory of key and lock states that active site and substrate are of matching size and shape - substrate being a key and active site a lock. Binding of perfectly matching molecule would induce conformational changes of enzyme, causing catalysis. Second theory of induced fit states that active site and substrate have different, mismatching structures. When substrate meets active site it induces it to assume certain conformation, whether it is by removing structural water molecules, or straining interactions between aminoacid residues.

Mechanism of Enzymes
The mechanism how enzymes work is done by lowering the activation energy of the reaction which the specific enzyme is to catalyse. Each of the enzyme is entirely specific to the reactants; it will only work for one specific reaction, this is due to the unique active site of each enzyme. The enzyme's active site is in a unique 3D shape, with a unique pattern of electrostatic charge and hydrophobicity. Here the specific substrates -- the substances upon which the enzyme works -- are temporarily combined with the enzyme, forming an enzyme substrate complex, or ESC. The reaction then occurs, and the product of the reaction separates from the enzyme, at which point the product may be used. The enzyme is then capable of repeating the reaction many thousands of times, although they may have to be replaced every so often.

Activity of Enzymes Control of Enzyme activity in Cell The production of enzymes can be enhanced or diminished by changing the internal environment of the cell. This is called enzyme induction and inhabitation. The enzyme inhibitor or the enzyme inductor will be bound to the enzyme and either decrease or increase the activity of the enzyme. The inhibitor stops the entre of substrate to the active site. It can be reversible or irreversible. Enzyme activities are compartmentalized; this means that the reduced activity of one enzyme can lower the productivity of another, since they are linked. Some enzymes will be activated by environmental factors inside your body, for example the lowering of body pH changes the activity of hemagglutinin in influenza. Thus, the lower the potential energy barrier to reaction, the more reactants have sufficient energy and, hence, the faster the reaction will occur. All catalysts, including enzymes, function by forming a transition state, with the reactants, of lower free energy than would be found in the uncatalysed reaction.

Enzyme Graph

Enzymes do not modify the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes only catalyze or speeds up the rate of reaction by stabilizing the transition state and do not participate in the chemical reaction. The transition state is the highest activation energy (Ea) on a reaction coordinate in which the molecule is only partially reacted. The activation energy is lowered when a catalyst (enzyme) is used. When an enzyme is not used, the activation energy of a reaction is much higher, which will take the reaction much longer to proceed. The enzyme is complementary to the transition state and not the substrate, in order to facilitate the reaction efficiently. A catalyst is present in the reactants and also appears in the end products.

Properties of Enzymes
1. Enzymes are sensitive to heat, and are denatured by excess heat or (inactivated by excess cold), i.e. their active site becomes permanently warped, thus the enzyme is unable to form an enzyme substrate complex. This is what happens when you fry an egg, the egg white (albumen, a type of protein, not an enzyme), is denatured. 2. Enzymes are created in cells but are capable of functioning outside of the cell. This allows the enzymes to be immobilised, without killing them. 3. Enzymes are sensitive to pH, the rate at which they can conduct reaction is dependent upon the pH of where the reaction is taking place, e.g. pepsin in the stomach has an optimum pH of about pH2. Whereas salivary amylase has an optimum pH of about 7. 4. Enzymes are reusable, and some enzymes are capable of catalysing many hundreds of thousands of reactions every second, e.g. catalase working on hydrogen peroxide. 5. Enzymes will only catalyse one reaction, e.g. invertase will only produce glucose and fructose, when a glucose solution is passed over beads of enzyme (see Immobilisation). 6. The reaction rate for an enzyme is limited by its saturation point. Saturation is essentially the point at which an enzyme can no longer speed up the reaction to compensate for the increase in substrate concentration (push the equilibrium towards the products). Graphically this is portrayed as a horizontal asymptote and is also called the maximum velocity. Each enzyme has its own maximum velocity for a given substrate. Measuring the rate of product formation with varying concentrations of substrate is one way of determining the maximum velocity of an enzyme. 7. Enzymes are capable of working in reverse, this acts as a cut off point for the amount of product being produced. If there are excess reactants the reaction will keep going and be reversed, so that there is no overload or build up of product. Enzymes are catalysts in the breaking down of substances by bonding with them briefly. Hydrogen peroxide they break it down into water and oxygen much faster than it would naturally occur. Inside the body they are used to break down food and to start off the digestion process. They are proteins they are affected by the pH level of the substance and also the temperature of the substance. The last important note is that obviously the concentration of the enzyme will affect how well it works.They are substrate specific which is illustrated by the lock and key hypothesis.

Enzymes may be immobilised in two ways, firstly by bonding them chemically to some sort of rigid structure, and secondly by physically placing the enzymes on an insoluble support structure, e.g. a gel or bead. The second method of enzyme immobilisation is much more common, is cheaper, but it does reduce the enzyme's ability to catalyse reactions.

Steps in Enzyme immobilization

1. Make up a 5% w/v solution of sodium alginate, and leave to stand overnight, to mix properly.

2. Add the enzyme, or in this case, a cell e.g. yeast, to the alginate solution, and mix in well. At this point the mixture will be very thick, and should be left for twenty minutes to eliminate the air bubbles, from the solution; such air bubbles would increase the surface area of the beads, making them less efficient.

3. Take a syringe, and fill it with the alginate/cell matrix.

4. Make a 2% w/v solution of Calcium Chloride.

5. Hold the syringe about 20 cm perpendicularly above the calcium chloride solution, and drip in the alginate solution, trying to create the smallest possible beads, approx 3-4mm in diameter.

6. Remove and discard any alginate strings or floating beads from the chloride solution.

7. Rinse the beads in deionised water.

8. Using a retort stand set up two tap funnels above each other, placing the beads in the bottom funnel, and strong glucose in the top.

9. Allow the glucose to run through the beads, and draw off the product.

The product is a type of alcohol, which should not be ingested as it is impossible to tell whether it is ethanol or methanol, the later being toxic.

Naming Enzymes
Until quite recently enzymes have been given arbitrary names, for example, ptylin (amylase), this tells us nothing of what the enzyme acts upon, instead biologists have devised a means of naming enzymes, whereby enzymes end -ase; e.g. DNA Helicase, they have also included a clue as to what the enzyme acts upon; DNA Helicase working to separate nucleotides in a chain of DNA. Other common enzymes include protease, lipases, pepsin, amylase, and lysomase.

title: Biochemistry/Enzymes


text:
User:Poetreason

poetreason AKA Mike
Hey. I'm new to wikimedia, but I really like the idea, and I hope to contribute as much as I can. I am a student of Philosophy and Justice & Peace Studies at the University of St. Thomas in St. Paul, Minnesota.

title: User:Poetreason


text:
Movie Making Manual/Adobe on Linux

This page is part of the Movie making manual wikibook

Will Adobe port their software to Linux? Here's a bunch of press clippings and general paraphernalia from the web suggesting that they might:

Petitions

 * Adobe and Macromedia for Linux Petition

Discussions

 * Discussion thread on Gentoo Linux forum
 * Thread on Adobe's Premiere forum

November 2004

 * Adobe Dipping toes into desktop Linux - Nov 2004 - News.com
 * Job advert from Adobe - Nov 2004

2002

 * Would Adobe Port PhotoShop to Linux - PC magazine

title: Movie Making Manual/Adobe on Linux


text:
User talk:Jyasskin

Excellent work on the DS book! Glad to have you on board! MShonle 21:19, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks! Two caveats: I may not contribute very consistently. I have a senior thesis to write, and this is my method of procrastination. Second, my writing may not be as smooth to read as a book should be. I'm just trying to get the material down and leave the editing and exposition to others later. Feel free to refactor anything I write. --jyasskin 04:52, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * OK, will do: that is, when my own time is free. :-) MShonle 05:23, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Seeing the light...
I agree with you now that the Data Structures book should use some kind of form of generics. See the talk page for details. Basically, we can just put the "unspecified types" in the angle-brackets and not get too carried away with declarations (since it's pseudocode, and it's more important that the reader knows what we mean, so just treating Key and Element, e.g., as real types is good enough). MShonle 20:26, 29 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jyasskin


text:
User:Dan-aka-jack

=Who is Jack?=

I was a free lance filmmaker but I've returned to my geeky roots and am doing a Computer Science PhD at Imperial College London on "Disaggregating Smart Meter Readings". As a filmmaker, I've worked on over 35 films including roles as producer, director, editor and stills photographer.

My personal website is Jack-Kelly.com

Jack Kelly on IMDB

My real name is Daniel but everyone calls me Jack!

The website for a film I produced is here: Mirrors (short film)

=What I contribute to=

I'm a keen contributer to WikiBooks... in particular:

 * Movie making manual
 * SPM - a book about the Statistical Parametric Mapping software used to analyse fMRI brain scans
 * Climate change

I also contribute to WikiPedia as dan_aka_jack

title: User:Dan-aka-jack


text:
Emergency Medicine

General symptoms
Altered mental status, Anxiety, Apnea, Ataxia, Back pain, Bleeding, Coma, Confusion, Crying/Fussiness, Cyanosis, Decreased level of consciousness, Dehydration, Dizziness, Edema, Failure to thrive, Fatigue, Feeding problems, Fever, Hypotension, Jaundice, Joint pain/Swelling, Limp, Lymphadenopathy, Malaise, Multiple trauma, Needle stick, Pain, Paralysis, Paresthesia/Dysthesia,

Head and neck symptoms
Congestion, Diplopia, Dysphagia, Eye pain, Headache, Loss of hearing, Loss of vision, Rhinorrhea, Sore throat, Stridor, Tinnitus, Vertigo,

Chest symptoms
Chest pain, Cough, Dyspnea, Hemoptysis, Hiccough, Orthopnea, Palpitations, Shortness of breath, Tachycardia, Wheezing,

Abdominal symptoms
Abnormal vaginal bleeding, Anuria, Ascites, Belching / GERD, Colic, Constipation, Cramps, Diarrhea, Dysmenorrhea, Dysuria, Hematemesis, Hematochezia, Hematuria, Nausea/Vomiting, Pain, Pelvic pain, Peritonitis, Rectal bleeding, Rectal pain, Urinary incontinence, Urinary retention,

Abdominal and gastrointestinal disorders
Abdominal Wall, Esophagus, Gall Bladder and Biliary Tract, Large Bowel, Liver, Oropharynx, Pancreas, Peritoneum, Small Bowel, Stomach.

Cardiovascular disorders
Arterial, Cardiopulmonary Arrest, Congenital Abnormalities of the Cardiovascular System, Diseases of the Myocardium, Acquired, Diseases of the Pericardium, Disorders of Circulation, Disturbances of Cardiac Rhythm, Endocarditis, Hypertensive Emergencies, Tumors, Valvular Disorders, Venous,

Cutaneous disorders
Bacterial, Cancers of the Skin, Decubitus Ulcer, Dermatitis, Fungal, Infections, Maculopapular Lesions, Papular/Nodular Lesions, Parasitic, Vesicular/Bullous Lesions, Viral,

Disaster medicine
Emergency preparedness, Chemical warfare agents, Bioterrorism, Infectious Disease outbreak, Radiation emergencies, The Dirty Bomb, Explosives,

Endocrine, metabolic and nutritional disorders
Acid Base Disturbances, Adrenal Disease, Fluid and Electrolyte Disturbances, Glucose Metabolism, Nutritional Disorders, Parathyroid Disease, Pituitary Disorders, Thyroid Disorders, Tumors of Endocrine Glands,

Environmental disorders
Bites and Envenomation, Dysbarism, Electrical Injury, High Altitude Illness, Snake Bite, Submersion Incidents, Temperature Related Illness,

Head, ear, eye, nose and throat disorders
Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis, Ear, Eye, Nose, Oropharynx/Throat, Tumors,

Hematologic disorders
Blood Transfusion, Hemostatic Disorders, Lymphomas, Pancytopenia, Red Blood Cell Disorders, White Blood Cell Disorders,

Immune system disorders
Collagen Vascular Disease, HIV and Manifestations, Hypersensitivity, Kawasaki Syndrome, Sarcoidosis, Transplant Related Problems,

Infectious disorders
Bacterial, Biologic Weapons, Fungal Infections, Protozoan - Parasites, Tick-Borne, Viral, Sepsis,

Musculoskeletal disorders (non-traumatic)
Bony Abnormalities, Disorders of the Spine, Joint Abnormalities, Muscle Abnormalities, Myofascial Pain Syndromes, Overuse Syndromes, Soft Tissue Infections,

Nervous system disorders
Cranial Nerve Disorders, Demyelinating Disorders, Headache, Hydrocephalus, Infections/Inflammatory Disorders, Movement Disorders, Neuromuscular Disorders, Other Conditions of the Brain, Seizure Disorders, Spinal Cord Compression, Stroke, Transient Cerebral Ischemia, Tumors,

Obstetrics and gynecology
Complications of Delivery, Complications of Labor, Complications of Pregnancy, Female Genital Tract, High Risk Pregnancy, Normal Labor and Delivery, Normal Pregnancy, Postpartum Complications,

Renal and genitourinary disorders
Acute and Chronic Renal Failure, Complications of Renal Dialysis, Glomerular Disorders, Infection, Male Genital Tract, Nephritis, Structural Disorders, Tumors,

Thoracic-respiratory disorders
Acute Upper Airway Disorders, Disorders of Pleura, Mediastinum, and Chest Wall, Noncardiogenic Pulmonary Edema, Obstructive/Restrictive Lung Disease, Physical and Chemical Irritants/Insults, Pulmonary Embolism/Infarct, Pulmonary Infections, Tumors,

Toxicologic disorders
Acetaminophen, Amphetamines, Anesthetics, Antiarrhythmics, Anticholinergics/Cholinergics, Anticoagulants, Anticonvulsants, Antidepressants, Antihistamines and antiemetics, Antihypertensives, Antiparkinsonism drugs, Antipsychotics, Beta blockers, Bronchodilators, Calcium channel blockers, Carbon monoxide, Cardiovascular drugs, Caustic agents, Cocaine, Cyanides, hydrogen sulfide, Ethanol, Glycol, Hallucinogens, Heavy metals, Herbicides, insecticides, and, Hormones/Steroids, Household/Industrial chemicals, Hydrocarbons, Hypoglycemics/Insulin, Inhaled toxins,

Traumatic disorders
Abdominal trauma, Burns, Chemical Burns, Chest trauma, Cutaneous injuries, Facial fractures, Genitourinary trauma, Head trauma, Injuries of the spine, Lower extremity bony trauma, Multi-system Trauma, Neck trauma, Ophthalmologic trauma, Otologic trauma, Pediatric fractures, Pelvic fracture, Soft-tissue extremity injuries, Spinal cord and nervous system trauma, Trauma, Trauma in Pregnancy, Upper extremity bony trauma,

Imaging
CXR, Head CT, C-Spine XR, Abdo CT, KUB, Pelvic US, Cardiac US, Biliary US, FAST US,

Lab Investigations
ABG, Electrolytes, CBC, D-Dimer, Troponin,

Point of Care Testing
EKG,

Procedures
Endotracheal Intubation, Other Airway Procedures, Chest Tube, Thoracotomy, Cardioversion, Central Line Insertion, Laceration Repair, Incision and Drainage, Lumbar Puncture, Medicine

Resuscitation
Cardioversion, Blood and Fluids,

Other Treatment
Procedural Sedation,

Special populations
Pediatrics, Pediatric Airway Emergencies, Pediatric Rehydration, Geriatrics, Immunocompromised, Alcoholic Patient, Mentally Disabled Patient,

Practice and administration
Contract Principles, Financial Issues, Operations, Performance Improvement, Pre-Hospital Care, Professionalism, Systems-Based Management, Risk Management, Legal and Regulatory Issues,

Knowledge and communication
Biostatistics, EBM, Guidelines, Presentations and Lecturing, Research, Health Informatics

title: Emergency Medicine


text:
User:Paris Lovett

Hi,

I'm just getting started on this page. I'm an ER doc and I live in New York. You can email me at paris a t pazzah d o t com.

title: User:Paris Lovett


text:
The Unicyclopedia

Welcome to The Unicyclopedia! The goal of this project is to create a complete encyclopedia of unicycling knowledge. We need more pictures of unicycles, so if someone would like to add them, it would be great. Be sure to also visit the Unicycle entry on Wikipedia.

Advice for editing The Unicyclopedia
If you feel that something is missing or may be improved in this book you may modify it. This is done by pressing edit to the right of the section that you want to modify. If you need general directions on how to edit the Wiki, please visit How to edit a page and the User's Guide. Try to make your contribution fit into the context.

Notice that everything you contribute has to be under the GNU Free Documentation License and Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. This means that you are not allowed to simply cut and paste advice from R.S.U. without permission from the author. It is usually better to rewrite it for The Unicyclopedia anyway. If you add something anyone is free to further improve it later!

Do not hesitate to make small improvements such as correcting problems in grammar and spelling. Some of the contributors do not speak English natively. If you feel that a section is missing but don't know what to write, just create an empty section!

Last but not least, do not forget to post in the forum about your additions, it will inspire others to do the same thing!

Thank you for helping us improve The Unicyclopedia. Only together can we fully develop this project.

title: The Unicyclopedia


text:
Emergency Medicine/Stencil Chapter

Open-Content Textbook of Emergency Medicine (OCTEM)

This is a Disease Oriented Template - Consider other Templates (to come soon) that are structured in different manners, e.g. a symptom or symdrome Template, to discuss the workup of a severe acute headache, or syncope in a young person.

Title
Blah blah blah.

Quick Summary
Blah blah blah.

Bullet Summary

 * Bullet 1
 * Bullet 2
 * Bullet 3
 * Bullet 4

Introduction to Current Edition
Blah, Blah

Historical Aspects
Blah blah blah.

Background
Blah blah blah.

Definition
Blah blah blah.

Pathophysiology / Etiology
Blah blah blah.

Epidemiology
Blah blah blah.

Risk factors
Blah blah blah.

Morbidity and Mortality
Blah blah blah.

ED Presentations
Blah blah blah.

Diagnosis
Blah blah blah.

Symptoms (with LRs)
Blah blah blah.

Signs (with LRs)
Blah blah blah.

Investigations (with LRs)
Blah blah blah.

Lab
Blah blah blah.

Imaging
Blah blah blah.

Bedside
Blah blah blah.

Invasive
Blah blah blah.

Other
Blah blah blah.

Consultations
Blah blah blah.

Differentials
Blah blah blah.

Complications
Blah blah blah.

Therapy, with indications and evidence
Blah blah blah.

Prehospital
Blah blah blah.

ABCs
Blah blah blah.

Medication
Blah blah blah.

Procedures
Blah blah blah.

Disposition
Blah blah blah.

Admission criteria
Blah blah blah.

Type of admission
Blah blah blah.

Discharge (criteria)
Blah blah blah.

Follow-up (with timing)
Blah blah blah.

Prognosis
Blah blah blah.

Cost and impact of care
Blah blah blah.

Patient Education Leaflet
Blah blah blah.

Evidence Based Medicine
Blah blah blah.

Controversies and Consensus
Blah blah blah.

Changes in practice
Blah blah blah.

Pitfalls
So where is the content?

Common questions on examinations
Blah blah blah.

title: Emergency Medicine/Stencil Chapter


text:
Botany/Plant reproduction laboratory seed

A monocot seedling
The photograph at the right shows two germinating seeds. These are seeds of the fan palm, Pritchardia remota, a species found naturally only on (endemic to) the remote island of Nihoa in the Hawaiian islands. The seed on the left is in the proper orientation in the planting medium (only a part of the fruit coat covering the seed is visible), while the one on the right (in a slightly earlier stage) has been laid on the surface in order to better reveal development of the root. The following structures are labeled:
 * co - coleoptile or shoot pole of plant axis; essentially a cap within which the plumule (first leaf) is developing, to eventually project through as in the seedling on the left.
 * ra - radicle; primordial root or root pole of axis (note tiny root cap), buried in the medium in the seedling on the left.
 * sc - scuttelum; that part of the cotyledon that remains inside the seed to absorb food stored in an endosperm.

([[media:Monocot_seedling.jpg|enlarge to examine]]).

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