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HSC Information Processing and Technology/Information Systems and Databases

Characteristics of an Information System

 * organise data into information (needs to be done carefully otherwise data becomes meaningless, uses data dictionaries)
 * analysing information to give knowledge (access to information purpose of system, analysing done by tables, queries and reports, decisions based on this information)

Organisation of Data
Data must be organised before it can be analysed by the information system. This must be done carefully, though, or the resulting information will be meaningless. This may require sorting, summarising or classifying. Data is organised using structures such as data dictionaries.

Analyses of Knowledge
Access to information and the resulting knowledge is the purpose of an information system. For people to gain knowledge the information must be analysed. Information systems provide a range of tools for analysis of data such as tables, queries and reports. People make decisions based on the information they receive from an information system.

Types and Purposes of Information Systems

 * TRANSACTION PROCESSING SYSTEMS (TPSs)- collect, store, modify and retrieve the daily transactions of an organisation e.g. a point-of-sale terminal. There are two types of transaction processing:
 * BATCH PROCCESSING collects the transaction data into a group and processes it later and is currently used where the data is in paper form such as cheques. This type has a time delay.
 * REAL-TIME PROCESSING works where each transaction is immediately processed providing instant confirmation but it does require access to an online database.
 * DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS (DSS)- assist people to make decisions by providing information, models and analysis tools. They can be used on a daily basis or when an organisation has to react to something unexpected or make changes. Expert systems are a type of DSS.
 * EXPERT SYSTEMS- provide information and solve problems that would otherwise require a person experienced in that field (an expert). They are useful in diagnosing, monitoring, selecting, designing, predicting and training. An expert system asks users a set of questions and compares answers to a knowledge base, which is a set of general facts and if-then rules supplied by an expert. It must then reason to attain a solution. These are not always correct and the choice is up to the user.
 * MANGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (MISs)- provide information for the organisation’s managers. An MIS presents basic facts about the performance of the organisation e.g. a budget or report. The awareness of how performance is measured provides motivation for workers and helps make decisions. A special type is called the Executive Information System (EIS) which is designed for the information needs of senior managers and provides strategic information.
 * OFFICE AUTOMATION SYSTEMS- provide people with effective ways to complete administrative tasks in an organisation. They use software tools such as word processors, databases etc. and also use communication technology.
 * A GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM  (GIS), geographical information science, or geospatial information studies is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographically referenced data.[1] In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis, and database technology.,
 * DATABASE INFORMATION SYSTEMS (DIS)- Most information systems (IS) store data in a database. Databases are accessed by a Database Management System (DBMS). A DBMS is a software package that allow users to manage data. SOme examples include; MS Access, FileMaker Pro, MySQL.

Examples
Information systems that use a database are called database information systems. Databases are accessed by a database management system (DBMS) which has no data in it but is a software package that allows the user to enter maintain and provide access to a database. The user can choose which data is required and how to display it in a meaningful way. The term database is often used instead of DBMS.

Organisation Methods
Organising is the process of arranging, representing and formatting data. A database is an organised collection of data.

Non-Computer Methods
A database is simply a place to organise and store data so that it can be retrieved later for a particular purpose. A telephone book is a non-computer database that organises data alphabetically according to a person’s family name. Searching for the person’s name retrieves their phone number. A paper filing system is a non-computer database. It involves paper, folders and filing cabinets to store data in an organised way. Searching the folders in the filing cabinet retrieves a single piece of paper. Non-computer databases are often the best way to organise data. It is convenient to obtain information from a book or access it from a filing cabinet. People can easily and inexpensively organise data using a non-computer data-base. They do not need a computer or computer skills. Non-computer databases are easier to keep secure, and they remain more private. The data is more difficult to use for other purposes. For example, a telephone book does not allow a thief to search for an address and find the phone number of a house. Computer-based databases are being increasingly used to organise and store data. Some examples include taxation records, library systems, car registrations, student records, CD-ROM encyclopedias and census data. Computer-based databases have several advantages over non-computer databases: Computer-based methods of organising include flat file systems, database management systems and hypermedia.
 * Easily edited
 * Large storage
 * Fast retrieval.
 * Display options.

Electronic/Computer-Based Methods of Data Organisation
•	COMPUTER BASED DATABASES such as car registrations and CD-ROM encyclopedias, have several advantages over non-computer based methods:
 * EASILY EDITED. Data can be corrected and updated without retyping.
 * LARGE STORAGE. Data is stored on a disk and retrieved when required.
 * FAST RETRIEVAL. Data is searched and sorted quickly and accurately to obtain required information.
 * DISPLAY OPTIONS. Data is presented in a number of ways using tables, forms and reports.

Flat File Databases
A flat file database organises data into a single table and is suitable for many small applications. using data structures called files, records, fields, and characters
 * A file is a block of data. When you have done some work on the computer, it is stored in a file. The Address database is a file. A file in a database is divided into a set of related records.
 * A record is a collection of facts about one specific entry in a database. In the Address database, a record is information about a person’s name, address and home phone. A record is divided into one or more related fields.
 * A field is a specific category of data in a database. In the Address database, the family name, given name, street, suburb, postcode and home phone are fields. Data items in a field are made up of characters.
 * A character is the smallest unit of data that people can use. Characters include letters, numbers, and special symbols.

Keys are fields that are used to sort and retrieve information. Usually, each key holds a unique item that applies to only one record. When the records are sorted, the key is used so that not all the data has to be read or retrieved. There are different types of keys A single key is a field in which each item of data is unique. Care must be taken when choosing a single key, as some fields, such as Family Name, are not always unique.
 * A composite key, or compound key, is made by joining two or more fields together. It is used when no data item in any field can be guaranteed to be unique. For example, a compound key can be made from such fields as Gender and Date of Birth.
 * A primary key is a single/unique key or compound key that must have a value. Primary keys cannot be empty or null.
 * A secondary key is a field that contains useful items of data often used in searches. Unlike other keys, secondary keys are not always unique.

Relational Database Systems
A relational database organises data using a series of related tables. Relationships are built between the tables to provide a flexible way of manipulating and combining data. Forms are used to view, enter and change data in the tables. Relational databases are the most commonly used database structure. The organisation of data in a relational database involves a schema.

Schemas
A schema (pronounced ‘skee-ma’) is the data definition for a database. It is an organised plan of the entire database showing how and where the data is found, descriptions of the data, and the data’s logical relationships. In a relational database, the schema defines the entities, attributes and relationships:
 * An entity is a specific thing about which information is collected and stored. The School database has an entity for students, for teachers, for classes and for students and classes A flat file database would have a separate file for each of these entities.
 * An attribute is a defined property of an entity. The Students entity in the School database has such attributes as LastName, FirstName and PhoneNumber. Each attribute of the entity contains a data item. Attributes are the same as fields in a flat file database.
 * A relationship is the way the entities are related to each other. In the School database, the entities are related using keys, such as StudentID. Entities are related in three ways
 * A one-to-one relationship occurs when each record in the first entity is related to exactly one record in the second entity. For example, in primary school each class has one teacher and each teacher relates to only one class.
 * A one-to-many relationship occurs when one record in the first entity is related to many records in the second entity, but any record in the second entity only relates to one record in the first entity. For example, one student can take out many books from the library, but any one book can only be taken out by one student at a time.
 * A many-to-many relationship occurs when each record in the first entity is related to many records in the second entity, and each record in the second entity is related to many records in the first entity. For example, each student studies many subjects, and each subject is studied by many students.

A foreign key is an attribute (field) of a table that is a primary key of another table. In the School database, the StudentID attribute is a foreign key of the Students and Classes table and a primary key of the Students table. The data in a foreign key of one table must match the data in the primary key of another table.

A secondary key is a field that is identified as being suitable for indexing the data such as a surname, It is used to sort the data in a different order to the primary key, A table can have many secondary keys in fact every field could be a secondary key.

Tables
Information about an entity is displayed in a table. A table is the organisation of data into columns and rows. It is sometimes referred to as a relation. A column of a table is also an attribute of an entity or a field of a record. The data in a column must have the same data type and have a distinct name. A row in a table is also called a tuple of an entity, or one record. Each row must be uniquely identified by a key. The intersection of a row and column stores a particular data item, such as ‘Rebecca’ in the first row and second column of the School database. The rows and columns in a table can be viewed in any order without affecting the contents of the table.

Forms
Data is viewed for different purposes using forms. A form is used to view, enter, and change data in a table. The layout of the form can be changed. The user can position fields, headings, instructions and graphics. A well designed form provides information explaining the required data and any data entry rules that apply to particular fields. For example, the field name ‘Sex (M/F)’ leaves no confusion about what data is required and how it should be entered. In a relational database, forms can be based on a single table or on multiple tables.

Advantages
Data independence

Elimination of data redundancy

Easier maintenance of data integrity

Centralised security - greater control over data

Disadvantages
Large size

High Cost

More hardware needed

Higher impact of failure

Data Modelling Tools for Organising Data
Data modelling is the process of identifying entities, the relationships between those entities and the attributes of those entities. It is used to develop a schema for the database. Data modelling is critical to creating an efficient database. There are a number of tools used for data modelling, such as data dictionaries, schematic diagrams and normalisation.

Data Dictionaries
A data dictionary is a comprehensive description of each field (attribute) in the database. It contains information about the characteristics of each item entered in the database, such as the field name, field size, data type and field description:
 * Field name is the name of the field. It should be carefully selected to avoid confusion. Field names should be relatively short but clear and unambiguous.
 * Data type (or field type) is the kind of data that can be stored in the field. Each field stores data in a single data type. Some common data types are text, memo, number, currency, yes/no and date/time. Logical fields contain the logic values ‘true’ or ‘false’.
 * Data Format shows how the data is to be displayed
 * Field size, or width, is the number of characters allowed in each field. It should be limited to the smallest number of characters likely to be needed, as smaller field sizes let the database work faster.
 * Description specifies the contents of the field.
 * Example provides an example of a valid entry in the field.

A data dictionary is a fundamental tool in the development of a database. It consists of metadata, or information about data. It provides a common ground for people working on a project at the same time. For example, if people are working on different entities, they can refer to the data dictionary to check whether a particular attribute already exists. This reduces data redundancy (any undesirable duplication of data) within a database.

Schematic Diagrams
Schematic diagrams are graphical tools that help define the database and develop a schema. A common schematic diagram is called an entity-relationship diagram. An entity-relationship diagram (ERD) is a graphical method of identifying the entities and showing the relationships between them. It helps to determine the data to be included in and excluded from the database. ERDs force people to have a common understanding of the database. They are a useful tool to explain the database. There are numerous notations for ERD.

Normalising Data
Normalisation is the process of organising data into tables so that the results of using the database are unambiguous and as intended. It is a refinement process that aims to reduce data redundancy. Normalisation results in a database that is more efficient but more complex because data is separated into more tables. For example, a table is used to keep track of customer purchases and the price of the products. If you deleted a customer, you would also delete a price. Normalising would solve this problem by dividing this table into two tables: a table about each customer and a product they had bought and a table about each product and its price. Making additions or deletions to either table would not affect the other. The degree of normalisation has been defined in terms of forms, such as:
 * First Norm Form (1NF)—moving data items into separate tables where the data in each table is a similar type. Each table is given a primary key. 1NF is the basic level of normalisation and usually corresponds to the definition of a database.
 * Domain/key normal form (DKNF)—a key uniquely identifies each row in a table. A domain is the set of permissible values for each attribute. Enforcing key and domain restrictions ensures there are no problems when modifying the database. DKNF is a final level of normalisation that most designers aim to achieve.

Hypermedia
Hypermedia is a combination of media whose locations are linked electronically to provide an easy way to navigate between the information. The information is stored using a set of documents that may contain text, images, audio, video or executable programs. Each document is independent, and information is retrieved using hypertext. Hypertext is a system that allows documents to be cross-linked in such a way that the user can move from one document to another by clicking on a link. A link, or hyperlink, is indicated by a highlighted item (usually an underlined word or a graphic) that allows the electronic connection. The author of the hypertext must specify the location of the information accessed by each link. If another computer is the destination of the link, that computer is called a node. The most well-known application of hypermedia and hypertext is the World Wide Web. On the Web, each document is accessed through its uniform/universal resource locator (URL).

HTML
Web pages are created using hypertext markup language (HTML). HTML is a set of special instructions that indicate how parts of a document will be displayed and navigated. HTML documents are actually text files that contain HTML instructions. Many applications will save a document in HTML and insert the special instructions. HTML documents are viewed in a Web browser. An HTML editor is a software program that specialises in writing HTML code. Instructions in HTML are given using HTML tags. HTML tags are metadata, or information about data. A tag consists of a left angle bracket (<), a tag name and a right angle bracket (>).Tags are usually paired, such as  and , to start and end the tag instruction. The end tag looks like the start tag except a slash (/) precedes the text within the brackets. Every HTML document contains certain standard tags, such as and. The tag precedes the title and the tag indicates the beginning of the actual text.

Uniform resource locator
A URL is the address of a file or resource on the Web. It is usually written in lower case, as a single unbroken line, with no spaces. The main parts of the URL are the: URLs must be complete and exact; if they are not, the file or resource will not be found. It is not necessary to memorise URLs. Web browsers have the ability to store the addresses of Web sites. These stored URLs are called bookmarks or favourites and can be organised into categories or folders to save you time.
 * protocol—the transfer method used to access a particular resource on the Web. In most cases the protocol will be ‘http://’ (hypertext transfer protocol).
 * domain name—address of the specific computer where the resource is located, such as ‘www.hi.com.au’. The domain name can be replaced by the IP address.
 * file path—the full path to the file to be retrieved. It may be a simple filename, or it may be a directory path, such as ‘atlas/about.htm’. The domain name and the file path are separated by a forward slash (/).

Storyboard
A storyboard is a series of frames, each representing a different action or screen image. It is a tool used to organise hypermedia. Storyboards are drawn on paper or using a computer. They are frequently edited. They define each screen and its specific media type. Storyboards consist of navigation paths, information and graphics. They are popular because they are simple to construct, are easy to read and can be modified at every stage. There are four storyboard layouts:
 * linear—a simple sequential path that is set up quickly
 * hierarchical—a sequential path in a top-down design; the user starts at the beginning and moves down through the multimedia product
 * non-linear—no structure; the user moves between different layouts in any direction
 * combination—a blending of the above layouts.

Storage and Retrieval
A database management system is used to provide secure and efficient methods for storage and retrieval of information from a database.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)- is a software package that allows users to access a database so they can enter, maintain and view the data. In a DBMS data is organised into tables, viewed in forms, retrieved using queries and displayed in reports. DBMSs manipulate the data in ways such as searching and sorting. They also perform a number of tasks to help users develop and maintain a database:
 * organising the data using a data dictionary
 * showing relationships between entities using schematic diagrams
 * checking for identifiable errors in data entry
 * allowing flexibility to change the definition of the database
 * restricting access to the data to authorised people
 * providing information about the performance of a database.

Accessing Data

 * SEQUENTIAL ACCESS occurs when data is accessed in a sequence. Data is accessed in the order it was stored. It does not require the exact location of the data item. Sequential is much slower than direct and impractical when immediate processing is required. It is the only method of accessing data stored on magnetic tape.

 * DIRECT ACCESS occurs when data is accessed without accessing previous data items. Data is stored in a particular storage location based on a mathematical procedure or algorithm. Direct access uses this algorithm to calculate the approximate location of the data. If the data is not found here the computer searches through successive locations until it is found. Direct data often requires the use of an index and this is called indexed access.

 * INDEX- is a table that contains information about the location of data. Data is accessed by referring to the index and obtaining the exact location of the data. The indexed method is widely used to store data on a disk, as well as store the logical location of data in a database.

Distributed Database Systems
DISTRIBUTED DATABASES- are databases located at more than one site. They act as a single collection of data that is geographically dispersed. Distributed databases reduce data transmission costs that would occur if all users at all sites had to access one centralised database. However they make it more difficult to obtain a complete view of the database. Distributed databases often need to be synchronised to keep them current. A two-phase commit is a part of the DBMS used to maintain consistency across a distributed database. It checks whether both parts of the database are ready for transmission and then performs it.

Storage Media

 * ONLINE STORAGE uses a peripheral device that is under the user’s direct control e.g. a hard disk.
 * OFFLINE STORAGE uses a peripheral device that is not under the user’s direct control e.g. a centralised database.

Both online and offline storage use a variety of peripheral devices and storage mediums:

 * HARD DISK- is a storage device made of metal or glass and covered with magnetic material. Usually mounted or fixed in case with storage capacity measured in Gb and accessed using direct access.

 * OPTICAL DISK- is a polycarbonate plastic disk with a reflective layer of metal covering the surface. Data is read and written using lasers and data is retrieved using direct access. Types:
 * CD-ROMS (Compact Disks Read Only Memory) are 12cm and capable of storing 650Mb. Convenient for storing constant data.
 * DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory) are same physical size as CD but store between 4.7 and 17Gb.

-Zip disks store 100 or 250Mb of data and have a transfer rate of 1Mbps. -Jaz disks are an upgrade of Zips. They store up to 2Gb and have a transfer rate of 5.5Mbps.
 * REMOVABLE CARTRIDGE- is a hard disk encased in a plastic or metal cartridge that can be removed like a floppy disk. Fast (yet not as fast as a fixed hard disk) and use direct access. Two types:

 * MAGNETIC TAPE- is a very thin, long strip of plastic, coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. The tape is wound on 2 reels inside a cartridge. They can store large quantities of data, inexpensively, using sequential access and are usually used as a back-up medium.

Encryption and Decryption
ENCRYPTION is the process of coding data, and decryption is the process of decoding it. It is the most effective way of achieving data security. Data is encoded, transmitted and then converted back to its original form. Encryption is essential for financial transactions and is used extensively on the Internet. Methods often involve complex manipulation of bit patterns. One problem is to find a method that is difficult to decode yet practical to use. Two main types:
 * ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION requires a key for encryption and a key for decryption. Common method is public key encryption, which involves a public key that is widely available and used for encryption and a private key that is kept secret and used for decryption. Both are developed using complicated number theory.
 * SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION requires the same key for both encryption and decryption. Common method is Data Encryption Standard (DES).

Data Backup and Security
BACKUP- is another copy of data that can be used to rebuild the system. DBMSs contain backup and recovery capabilities where backups are created at specified times. If the system goes down the recovery process rebuilds the data. It uses the last completed backup and a journal listing all the actions completed by the DBMS since the last backup. The success of backup and recovery depends on implementing appropriate procedures. Backups are usually stored offsite or in a fireproof safe. Backups eliminate the need for replacing data, which is an enormously costly action.

DATA SECURITY- involves a series of safeguards to protect the data. First access is limited to authorised users using passwords, personal objects and biometric devices. Further safeguards involve encryption and firewalls.
 * FIREWALL- checks the password of anyone trying to access the network (can be used on Internet also) to verify and authenticate incoming data. Expensive to install and maintain. Large systems require more than one, as barriers need to be placed at critical points.

Sorting
SORTING is the process of arranging data in a particular order. Meaningfully organised data in a database is easier to use. Sorts are performed in ascending or descending order. Sorting can be done on more than one field (attribute) so that records are arranged in the most useful order.

Searching
SEARCHING is the process of examining the database to retrieve data. In small databases the effective way to do this is to browse or use the Find or Search command. In large databases it is done with a query.

Structured Query Language
QUERY- is a search of a database for records that meet a certain condition. It is a question you ask the database. The results are usually displayed in a table but can be used as the basis for a form, report, graph or another query. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time and perform calculations on data. Queries are constructed in the form :-  .

The data is often called the criteria. A common method for constructing a query is query by example, which requires a user to enter the criteria against a field. If the search of a database involves two or more entities it is called a relational query.

QUERY LANGUAGE- is a specialised language designed to search a database.

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL) is a query language used to access and manipulate data in a relational database. SQL statements contain keywords that are used to perform a particular task. When searching in SQL it is essential to use correct syntax. In most DBMSs keywords are in uppercase, fields are separated by commas, an entity and an attribute in that entity are separated by a fullstop, and the search criteria or data item is enclosed in double quotes. The keyword ORDER BY sorts on a field in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order with ascending as the default.

OPERATORS are used to construct some queries. The operator represents the action to be performed. Operators are classified as relational or logical:

 * RELATIONAL OPERATORS (=, <>, <, >, <=, >=) are characters or symbols indicating the relationship between two expressions.
 * WILDCARD CHARACTERS represent one or more unknown characters. Common wildcards include (*) which substitutes for any number of characters, and the (?) which substitute for just one.

 * LOGICAL OPERATORS (AND, OR, NOT) are used to combine queries so that a search is carried out on one or more fields. It is important to understand the difference between AND and OR operators:
 * AND operator requires both the first and second query to be true as it retrieves records that satisfy both.
 * OR operator requires either the first or second query to be true as it retrieves records that satisfy either e.g. ‘Last Name = Howe’ OR ‘Suburb = Kearns’.

SELECT ARTWORKS.ArtisName, ARTWORKS.ArtistSurname, GALLERIES.GalleryName, ARTWORKS.Cost     //SELECT the attributes
 * Example

FROM GALLERIES INNER JOIN ARTWORKS ON GALLERIES.GalleryID = ARTWORKS.Gallery               //FROM the entities

WHERE (((ARTWORKS.Cost)>5000))                                                            //meeting these criteria

ORDER BY ARTWORKS.ArtisName DESC;                                                        //ASC or DESC order

Using a Search Engine
SEARCH ENGINE- is a database of indexed Web sites that allows a keyword search. Search engines are used to search hypermedia. An index is a table, which contains information about the location of data. Indexes allow documents to be found using a keyword search. A search engine’s index is built by regularly scanning the Web for new sites and accepting submissions from Webpage authors. The scanning is often completed by programs called spiders, crawlers or robots. They send back the URL of any document they find to the search engines indexing software. This indexing software collects information, such as titles and keywords, from the Web sites then indexes these in a database. Each search engine has a different method of building its index, which is why searches of the same keyword using different search engines obtains different results. A keyword is entered related to the topic of interest. Most search engines allow a search on a series of keywords. When the user requests a keyword the search engine scans the index and displays a list of Web sites that contain that keyword. Choosing the right keyword is essential to the success of a search. More than one word, a synonym, should be used and it should be very specific. Search engines allow the use of Boolean qualities such as ‘AND’, ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’ to refine a search. Some search engines also offer dictionaries.

DICTIONARIES are lists of Web sites organised into categories (e.g. sport). They are another way to find information on the net. The owners of a site need to register it to be included in a directory. As a result directories often cover a small fraction of the pages available on the Net. A directory is useful for finding information on a general topic.

How does a Search Engine Work?
SEARCH ROBOT- is a program that accesses Web sites and gathers information for search engine indexes. Alta Vista uses a robot called Scooter.

Displaying Data in a Database Report
DISPLAYING is presenting the output from an information system or database to meet a given purpose.

Report Design
REPORT- is the formatted and organised presentation of data (e.g. an invoice). A DBMS allows complete control is the design of a report in either tabular or column layout. It is possible to insert headings, sort data, choose the fields, switch fields, change column widths and select records. The purpose of the report determines its content, format and style. Before creating a report the user needs to select the required records by constructing a query. Next they select the fields, which are placed in appropriate positions, formatted and sorted. Most DBMSs offer functions such as count and sum. Most DBMS reports have the following sections:
 * REPORT HEADER- appears once at the beginning of a report. It contains such items as logo, report title and date.
 * PAGE HEADER- displays information such as title, column headings, or any information needed at the top of every page. Appears after report header on first page of report.
 * DETAILS- section displays most of the information.
 * PAGE FOOTER- displays information such as date, page number or anything else wanted at bottom of every page.
 * REPORT FOOTER- appears once at end of report after page footer on last page of report. It displays items such as report totals.

DIFFERENT VIEWS of a database are constructed using a form. A form is used to view, enter, and change data in a table and the layout can be changed. The user can position fields, headings, instructions and graphics. A well-designed form provides information explaining the required data and any rules that apply to particular fields. Good design principles include:
 * headings that identify the purpose of the report
 * layouts such as tabular or column that efficiently present information
 * text that is balanced on the page horizontally or vertically
 * consistent styles throughout report
 * columns with clear descriptive headings
 * appropriate white spaces
 * page numbers and date in header in footer.

Acknowledgement of Data Sources
DATA SOURCE- is the person or organisation that developed the data. Data may come from informal sources, such as conversations, meetings or observations, or it may come from formal sources, such as a report, book or official document. A formal source often provides data that is logically organised. However there is no guarantee to its accuracy. The source of data is protected by the Copyright Act. People cannot copy another’s work without their permission and it is illegal to violate copyright. Most data from the Net is protected by copyright. Text and audio etc. from a Web site should not be used without acknowledgment of and permission from the owner. However the Copyright Act makes special provisions for students to use information for research purposes. The student is allowed to use a reasonable portion of the original work if it is correctly cited. This includes author’s surname and initial or organisation’s name, title of complete work or Web page, URL, date of document, and download date.

The Freedom of Information Act
ACCESS to data is the extent data is available to people. The Freedom of Information Act is designed to allow individuals to find out what data is being kept by the government and other public bodies. It states that individuals have the right to access information where it relates to the individual and does not invade another person’s privacy. There is free release of this information. However knowing what data is kept does not indicate how it is being used. People can use our preferences, weaknesses and habits to their advantage. Ownership and control of such data is an ethical issue.

Privacy
PRIVACY is the ability of an individual to control personal data. It is a major concern for those involved with databases especially as privacy is eroded by linking databases.

Data Integrity
DATA INTEGRITY describes the reliability of the data. Reliable data is accurate, current and relevant. There is no guarantee the information on the Net is reliable as it is easy to publish to the Internet.

DATA VALIDATION is used to check the entry of data:
 * RANGE CHECK- is used if the data is restricted to a small range of particular values.
 * LIST CHECK- is used when the data can be compared to a set of accepted data.
 * TYPE CHECK- is used to determine whether the data type is correct.
 * CHECK DIGIT- is a digit calculated from the digits of a code number and then added to that number as an extra digit.

ACCURACY OF DATA- is the extent to which it is free from errors. Data that is collected on individuals is not always accurate. This inaccuracy may be caused by mistakes in gathering or entering data, mismatch of data and the person, or out-of-date information. Opportunities to check and change incorrect data should be provided. It is often necessary to compare data from a number of different sources to determine which data is accurate.

New Trends in the Organisation, Processing, Storage and Retrieval of Data
DATA WAREHOUSES are databases that collect information from different data sources. It is a storage area of raw data that can be analysed to assist organisations to make decisions. The contents of a data warehouse are usually historical and static and will change if new requirements are identified. A more sophisticated approach to obtaining information is data mining.

DATA MINING is a process that looks for relationships and patterns in the data stored in a database. It sorts through the data and turns up interesting and useful connections (e.g. in the transactions at a supermarket). One problem is that many patterns occur by chance and have no value in making decisions. It raises issues of privacy and ownership of data.

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Online Transaction Processing (OLTP)
OLTP refers to optimising databases to improve online performance. According to http://www.databasejournal.com, this optimising consists of organising the data into layers.
 * Business logic layer – rules and procedures, optimised so that frequent requests are handled fast
 * Presentation layer – the only thing that happens at the client’s end
 * Data layer – all data needed to process transactions

Online Analytical Processing
OLAP is about analysing historical data with a view to extracting information from it. In the past, this has been a slow process because properly normalised databases have data stored in discrete tables. It does this by prebuilding sets of data based on a snapshot of the real database. File size blows out because the data is no longer normalised, but query speed is much higher.

More information available at

http://www.ebroadcast.com.au/lookup/encyclopedia/ol/OLAP.html

http://office.microsoft.com/en‐au/excel/HP101774371033.aspx

Drilling down refers to taking a generalised set of results and looking more deeply at a part of those results. For example, “The rainfall in May was relatively high” contains some information. question “If you ask the question, Did it rain all month or come in bursts?”, you are drilling down.

Drilling down further could look at a day by day, hour by hour or minute by minute analysis of the rainfall. There is a nice demonstration at

http://www.quietlyscheming.com/blog/charts/chart‐drilldown‐animations/


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C Sharp Programming/Keywords/delegate

The keyword is used to declare a delegate. A delegate is a programming construct that is used to obtain a callable reference to a method of a class.

/Keywords

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/delegate


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Cookbook talk:Peanut Butter Sandwich

Rename
Could this be renamed to something less POV? Like Cookbook:Honey Peanut Butter Sandwich? --Swift 01:37, 19 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Works for me and better to be less POV. Imagine the author who cdomes along with a "better" one, naming could get interesting! Cheers -- Herby  talk thyme 08:51, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I disagree. The point of this recipie is to provide useful tips on creating the best peanut butter sandwich. I would have said "disagree strongly" but for one fact. The amazing history page. I spent a lot of time getting rid of un-wiki statements and hopeless romanticism. Poke around. -User:Joecool94 11:36 PM Friday, October 20, 2006

 * The problem here is that - to you - it is the best ever but that is very much POV and not really acceptable on Wikibooks. If there had been some independent published assessment of peanut butter sandwiches that would be a different matter - otherwsie it is POV.  Looking at the history page I see that you appear to be the only editor - as such it is your own POV statements you have been dealing with? -- Herby  talk thyme 08:45, 24 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Forget it. It is not meant to be an arbitrary recipie, but one to be edited ruthlessly and turned into what the general concensus feels is the best. - Joecool94 8:01 PM Wednesday, October 25, 2006 Standard Time +0000 UTC

 * Hey fair enough but this is part of the "edited ruthlessly" process . I see your point of view and don't feel strongly -- Herby  talk thyme 07:05, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Peanut Butter Sandwich


text: User:Moe Epsilon

title: User:Moe Epsilon


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User:Swift/PAG

 This page documents an official Wikibooks policy.

Guidelines are rules and principles that the Wikibooks community has accepted and wikibookians must follow.

Except for minor edits, please make use of the discussion page to propose changes to this policy.  This page documents an official Wikibooks guideline.

Guidelines are rules and principles that the Wikibooks community has accepted and wikibookians should follow.

Except for minor edits, please make use of the discussion page to propose changes to this policy.  This page contains a draft of a Wikibooks policy or guideline.

The text of this proposal has been drafted by a member or members of the community, and is proposed to be accepted by the community. If the community agrees on the text of this draft, it will become either an official policy or guideline. See the discussion page for progress on this.  This page documents an obsolete Wikibooks policy or guideline.

The text of this former policy or guideline has been superseeded by.  This page documents a rejected Wikibooks policy or guideline.

The text of this guideline has been rejected by the wikibooks community, and should not be followed. It is documented here for historical reasons. If you would like to open up this guideline for reconsideration, do so on the discussion page.

title: User:Swift/PAG


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Umbraco/Samples and Articles/Macros

A macro for getting the url of an image
Go to Developer/XSLT Files, create a new xslt file GetImageURL with the following content:

 <!DOCTYPE xsl:Stylesheet [ <!ENTITY nbsp " "> ]>

Now go to Developer/Macros, create a new macro, Get Image URL, giving it the alias GetImageURL. In Use XSLT File, select the XSLT file you just created.

On Parameters, add a new parameter with the alias imageID and name Image ID. The type should be set to mediaCurrent and Show should be checked. Save the macro and your home!

title: Umbraco/Samples and Articles/Macros


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Authoring Webpages/Preventing link rot

If you maintain a web site, or if you use links to other web sites (like in a blog or on a wiki), then you could suffer from link rot. Link rot is the process by which links on a website gradually become irrelevant or broken as time goes on, because websites that they link to disappear, change their content or redirect to new locations. Link rot particularly affects free web hosts, like GeoCities, where people lose interest in maintaining their site.

Discovering
Detecting link rot for a given URL may be difficult using automated methods. If a URL is accessed and returns back an HTTP 200 (OK) response, it may be considered accessible, but the contents of the page may have changed and may no longer be relevant. Some web servers also return a soft 404, a page returned with a 200 (found) response (instead of a 404) that indicates the URL is no longer accessible. In the end, the only reliable way to test that a link is still valid is to click through and check it.

Webmasters
A number of basic rules can help webmasters to reduce link rot, including:
 * Do not keep a hyperlink collection unless you are willing to look after it.
 * Design your hyperlinks to be maintained, such as a central hyperlink collection.
 * Do not link to sub-pages ("deep linking") unless you are confident that they will remain stable.
 * Use hyperlink checker software or a Content Management System (CMS) with link checking included.
 * Use permalinks.
 * Put the right e-mail address or other contact information on the same page where the links are with specific information ("Found a bad link? Contact links@example.com and we'll fix it.")
 * When changing domains, help others fix their link pages by spreading the information well ahead of the migration, and use HTTP status codes to communicate that a page has moved (e.g. "301: Moved Permanently").

Citing URLs
When linking you should avoid citing "unstable" Internet references. There are several approaches that you can take to avoid introducing link rot:
 * Avoid using URLs that point to resources on a personal site
 * Use Persistent Uniform Resource Locators (PURLs) and digital object identifiers (DOIs) whenever possible.
 * Use WebCite to permanently archive and retrieve cited Internet references

Tools
There are a number of tools that can be used to combat link rot by archiving web resources:
 * WebCite, a tool specifically for scholarly authors, journal editors and publishers to permanently archive "on-demand" and retrieve cited Internet references.
 * Archive-It, a subscription service, allows institutions to build, manage and search their own web archive
 * hanzo:web is a personal web archiving service created by Hanzo Archives that can archive a single web resource, a cluster of web resources, or an entire website, as a one-off collection, scheduled/repeated collection, an RSS/Atom feed collection or collect on-demand via Hanzo's open API.
 * Spurl.net is a free on-line bookmarking service and search engine that allows users to save important web resources.

Modern management
On Wikipedia, and other Wiki-based websites only external links still present a maintenance problem. Wikipedia uses a clear color system with internal links, so the user can see if the link is live before clicking on it. If referencing an old website or dated information, users can externally link to pages in the Internet Archive, allowing for a reliable permanent link.

title: Authoring Webpages/Preventing link rot


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Template:Twwp

 *  imported → Transwiki:

This template is for use on the transwiki log.

Usage:

WIKIPEDIAARTICLENAME ~

title: Template:Twwp


text: Template:Dewikify

title: Template:Dewikify


text: Template:Bookify

title: Template:Bookify


text: Template:Tw-adopt

title: Template:Tw-adopt


title: Template:Twwp-2


text: Category:Transwiki templates

title: Category:Transwiki templates


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Template:Twwp-c

 *  imported → Cookbook:

This template is for use on the transwiki log for cookbook articles.

Usage:

~

title: Template:Twwp-c


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Category:Pages needing to be dewikified

To add a page to this category, place on the page.

title: Category:Pages needing to be dewikified


text:
Category:Pages needing to be bookified

Place on a page to have it appear in this category.

title: Category:Pages needing to be bookified


text:
Category:Transwikis needing a home

To add a page to this category, place on the page.

title: Category:Transwikis needing a home


text:
Scienceshow/Cryogenics

Cryogenics experiments

/Freezing Water/

/Creating Solid LN2/

/Shrinking Balloon/

/Growing Balloon/

/The Fountain/

/Shooting Corks/

/Shrinking Hammer/

/Speed of Sound/

/Freezing Tennis Balls/

/Freezing O-rings/

/Superconductor/

/Nitrogen Over Hands/

/Liquid Oxygen/

/Banana Hammer/

/LN2 Ice Cream/

title: Scienceshow/Cryogenics


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Template talk:Bookify

Instead of referring to the "Local manual of style" for a book, at least until we make an WB:LMOS policy, perhaps we should say "Local style conventions", or even just "the style of the book". --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 13:55, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

 * LMOS isn't intended to be a policy, just a helpful suggestion (i.e., things to think about when defining the structure and scope of a wikibook). It could be a policy within a particular book, but that's one of those "low impact decisions" we spoke about back in the day :). -- SB_Johnny | talk 21:08, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Bookify


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User:Dnjkirk~enwikibooks

I Live at Wikiversity

title: User:Dnjkirk~enwikibooks


text:
User:Pashley

Sandy Harris

I'm a fairly active editor on Wikitravel, also as Pashley. See my user page there: http://wikitravel.org/en/User:Pashley

I make occasional contributions on several other Wikis.

title: User:Pashley


text:
User:Simoneau

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Matthewsim

title: User:Simoneau


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Revit User's Manual/Area Plans

Introduction
Unlike in drafting progams where areas are cacluated using poly-lines, a pad of paper and a calculator, Revit uses area plans and schedules. An area plan is a view of the model where you can associate area boundaries and choose the areas that these boundaries define. The area information automatically populates your area schedule.

Area Types
Revit calculates areas based on the area type you choose when creating your area plan. For example, Gross Building area calculates to the exterior of the area walls, whereas Rentable area calculates to the interior. It is important to choose your area type appropriately; if you are trying to find out the footprint of a building, the Rentable area type would be the wrong one to choose.

Scheduling Areas
As Gross Building area is often used to calculate both floor plate area (square footage) as well as site area, it is useful to use the comment parameter to keep track of these separately. You may want to use a comment such as "Square Footage" or "Above Grade" for your building areas, and then "Site" for your footprint and lot areas. When you set up your schedules, you can filter out the areas that don't have the appropriate comment. For example, your site schedule may have two areas, the site area and the building footprint. Make sure the comment field for both of these areas is "Site", and then set up a filter in the schedule properties to exclude any area that does not have the comment "Site". The schedule will then only report the relevant site areas. You may want to hide the comment field in the appearance tab because you are only using it to sort and doesn't actually need to appear in the schedule on the plans.

title: Revit User's Manual/Area Plans


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Talk:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/Red Alert

This book has a pretty good start, but some of the answers are incomplete. Some multi-part requirements are only partially answered, and some answers just need more text. Jim Thomas 18:15, 19 October 2006 (UTC)


text:
Game Maker Programming/Statements

A statement is an instruction within the Game Maker Language. They are most commonly used when a variable is set. For example:

speed = 5; //Set the speed of the current object to 5

In Game Maker a statement can simply be written as above in a code object, or in the D&D event "Set the value of a variable" under "control".

title: Game Maker Programming/Statements


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Talk:Trigonometry/Selected Angles Reference

Robinson0120 If anybody knows how to add in some pictures, it would be great to show the additional relationship between the unit circle and triangles.

Pentagon and decagon
It would be nice if the formulas used in the construction of the regular pentagon and decagon were placed in this table. Albmont (talk) 16:41, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

Suggest new name for page
The page name "Natural trigonometric functions" sounds like it refers to functions which differ from those previously introduced. I think a better page name would be "Special values of the trigonometric functions". Douglas W. Mitchell (talk) 15:42, 27 August 2010 (UTC)


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Talk:Trigonometry/Trigonometric Unit Circle and Graph Reference

Robinson0120 These sections come a little late. Perhaps we should add them to the top? The Unit Circle and graph relation are pretty elementary concepts from what I understand.

More prominent legend for the ordering of (sin,cos) pairs on the unit circle.
I think it would be better if there was a more prominent (sin,cos) in a medium and/or bold type, possibly at the -y axis - as a legend so there will be no confusion if the order is (sin, cos), or is (cos,sin) which relates to the common (x,y) ordering as (x value of the unit circle, y value of the unit circle). It could be valuable since people tend to look at the figure and interpret it before looking at the words below; especially people in a hurry or people like me who look first and read the words/instructions later. Bob.A51 (discuss • contribs) 09:34, 6 November 2013 (UTC)


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Talk:Trigonometry/Trigonometric Formula Reference

Robinson0120 Maybe we could add some proofs or reasons why the formulas work to this section later.

Merger suggestion
This section is called "Trigonometric Formula Reference" and the next section is called "Trigonometric Identities Reference". There's a bit of overlap between them, but not a whole lot. I suggest that either they be merged into one page, or the overlap be eliminated and the pages be renamed to specify in each case just what types of formulas are included on that page. Douglas W. Mitchell (talk) 16:22, 27 August 2010 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Dewikify

Dewikify means to remove excess links from books, often for pages originally from another project (like Wikipedia). This is normally the first step in cleaning up a transwikied page.

Why dewikify?
Many projects encourage heavy linking between pages and often links for desired pages are added. For those projects, this is generally justified, because each project is essentially one very large book with pages for every topic relevant to the scope of that project. With few exceptions, individual books at Wikibooks won't be large enough to justify linking to that extent, won't have pages for topics outside its scope, and links between books are generally discouraged because books should be self-contained. For example, there is no point in having a link to bubble gum, because there is unlikely to be a book by that name, and even if there was, it would be an entire book on the subject and not likely to cover the topic in a useful way for that book's target audience. Other examples are old interwiki links to other languages or navigation templates which are no longer useful.

Adding new chapters
Books are supposed to be self-contained resources to be as useful for reading offline as they are when reading from the website. However, writing books is a larger commitment than writing articles. If a link is needed to understand a concept, a link to an existing work can be used in the same way that desired links are used at other projects: namely, to suggest that a chapter explaining a concept is needed.

If an entire Wikipedia article is necessary to explain a concept, it's probably best to simply request that the article be imported, and then adjust it to fit into the flow of the book you are working on. Transwikiing several closely related Wikipedia articles in this manner can be a good way to build up a skeleton for a book.

If there are chapters in the same book that should be linked to, there are a couple of shortcuts for doing this, depending on the structure of the book you are working on. If the book has a flat structure (i.e., a main page and one level of chapters), links can be made between chapters using the form ../Chapter/ (note that the forward slash ("/") on the end makes the "../" at the beginning invisible). If the book uses subchapters, you can link to another subchapter of the same chapter using ../../Subchapter/, or to the subchapter of a different chapter using ../Chapter/subchapter (flat structures are often preferred, in part for this reason). Please do not create redirects in the main namespace as shortcuts... these will likely be deleted when found.

Cleaning up
Once a new transwiki has been dewikified, simply remove the template from the top of the page (this is placed on all transwikis by the importing admin). If you find you enjoy dewikifying (some people do!), there's usually plenty more to attend to in Category:Pages needing to be dewikified.

title: Wikibooks:Dewikify


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Horticulture/Sowing

Sowing is the simplest (and often the least expensive) way to bring introduce new plants into the garden. Seeds can be sown directly into the garden (in situ), or in containers where they are grown to a hardy size for transplanting into the garden.

In large gardens and farms, seeds are almost always sown in situ, to avoid the additional labor involved in transplanting.

Hand sowing is the process of casting handfuls of seed over prepared ground: broadcasting. Usually, a drag or harrow is employed to incorporate the seed into the soil. Though labor intensive for any but small areas, this method is still used in some situations. Practice is required to sow evenly and at the desired rate. A hand seeder can be used for sowing, though it is less of a help than it is for the smaller seeds of grasses and legumes.

In agriculture, most seed is now sown using a seed drill, which offers greater precision; seed is sown evenly and at the desired rate. The drill also places the seed at a measured distance below the soil, so that less seed is required. The standard design uses a fluted feed metering system, which is volumetric in nature; individual seeds are not counted. Rows are typically about 10-30 cm apart, depending on the crop species and growing conditions. Several row opener types are used depending on soil type and local tradition. Grain drills are most often drawn by tractors, but can also be pulled by horses. Pickup trucks are sometimes used, since little draft is required.

A seed rate of about 100 kg of seed per hectare (2 bushels per acre) is typical, though rates vary considerably depending on crop species, soil conditions, and farmer's preference. Excessive rates can cause the crop to lodge, while too thin a rate will result in poor utilisation of the land, competition with weeds and a reduction in the yield.

Among the major field crops, oats, wheat, and rye are sowed, grasses and legumes are seeded, and maize and soybeans are planted. In seeding, little if any soil is placed over the seeds. In planting, wider rows (generally 75 cm (30 in) or more) are used, and the intent is to have precise, even spacing between individual seeds in the row; various mechanisms have been devised to count out individual seeds at exact intervals.

Open-field refers to the form of sowing used historically in the agricultural context whereby fields are prepared generically and left open, as the name suggests, before being sown directly with seed. The seed is frequently left uncovered at the surface of the soil before germinating and therefore exposed to the prevailing climate and conditions. This is in contrast to the seedbed method used more commonly in domestic gardening or more specific (modern) agricultural scenarios where the seed is applied beneath the soil surface and monitored and manually tended frequently to ensure more successful growth rates and better yields.

Information about sowing
Generally, seed packets labels includes: This information can be represented graphically.
 * Common plant name and the botanical name (in parentheses).
 * Space and deep: how deep to place the seeds in the soil, space between plants (from one row to the other one and from one plant to the other one in the same row).
 * Height: approximate height the plant will reach when mature.
 * Soil: type of soil the plant prefers.
 * Water: It can indicate "keep the soil lightly damp", "bottom water the plant", "drench the soil with water", "daily misting of water" and "almost dry out before re-watering".
 * Sun: full direct sunlight, partial sun, diffused sunlight, or grows well in the shade.
 * Door and temperature: if the plant is best suited for growing Indoor, Outdoor or both.
 * Life: Perennial or annual.
 * Planting, germination and harvest period: a lot of plant are planted in March. This information can be indicated by months or quarters of the year.
 * Special requirements, if necessary.

/Techniques

title: Horticulture/Sowing


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Swing Dancing/Connection

The basic connection in swing is far different than that the traditional ballroom position, both in the open and closed positions.

In both open and closed positions, be sure to keep a decent amount of "frame" or "tension". Some people will also refer to this as "giving weight". All this means is to be sure to give a small amount of pressure back to your partner - this will make it significantly easier to feel the moves and will help with momentum in turns.

The Open Position
In the open position, the lead begins with their arms bent at roughly a 90-degree angle at waist height with their hands curved and thumbs up (pretend you're holding a soda can, then point your thumbs up and you basically have the right shape). The follow's arms are similar to a position of pushing a shopping cart - similarly bent at about 90-degrees at waist height with palms parallel to the ground and the fingers curved (as to fit into the lead's hands). These are exaggerated descriptions, you can relax into more natural hand positions, but be sure to keep your arms bent and around waist level.

The Closed Position
This position is significantly closer to the traditional ballroom position. The lead puts their right hand on the follow's back approximately at the level of the follow's shoulder blade. Keeping this hand high will help significantly when you go to lead a move that requires you to drop the hand to the follow's waist. The left hand should be in a similar position as in the open position, approximately at the waist and bent. The follow should keep their left hand on the front of the lead's shoulder. Moving the hand to the lead's back will prevent you from feeling when the lead comes forward and can result in some awkward accidents and generally a weaker sense of lead. The right hand should be similar to the open position, approximately at waist height. A note about the left and right hands for the lead and follow, respectively - moving the hand up closer to shoulder height, in a more traditional ballroom style will prevent the lead from being able to effectively signal a turn out of the closed position. Plus, it's just more stylistically appropriate to keep the hand low.

title: Swing Dancing/Connection


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Talk:Beginner's Guide to Interactive Fiction with Inform 7/Designing NPC's

Items To Be Added from my own exploration:

to command an npc the phrase is: try myNPC trying going north or whatever the action is

to put an action along with this: After someone trying going somewhere: to trigger after someone moving somewhere.

-Huntsfromshadow 23:26, 19 October 2006 (UTC)


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Swing Dancing/Circle

Circles are traditional Lindy Hop dance moves where partners circle around each other. Sometimes, the lead stays in the middle and the follow moves around him. Sometimes, the follow stays in the middle and lead moves around her. Sometimes, both lead and follow move around a common center, around each other. The conventional direction for circles in Lindy Hop is clockwise, which is the opposite of ballroom, though dancers move in both directions.

Lindy circles evolved from Charleston circles. Circles cannot quite be categorized as either basic, sugar push, side pass, swing out, or Aerial Dance moves.

Circles have less scope for variation than other dance moves, because both dancers often cling to each other to keep from moving apart. Circles have less natural asymmetry to play with.

Closed circles
Closed circles are usually fast, because the couple is close and they have a good grip.

Rock, step, turn to cuddle (low promenade), the follow walks backwards while the lead walks forwards. They may spin for as long as desired, from two counts up.

Start variations
From Closed: Just go.

From Rock Step: Lead a rock step, pull to cuddle, in 4 counts.

Middle Variations
Walk: Walk forward, backward, or sideways. Turn the hips.

Grapevine: The follow grapevines, while the lead turns to face her.

Hop: Hop while circling (closed), (like shag 2 left, 2 right, 1 left, 1 right) or (4 left, 4 right).

Slide: The follow hangs onto the lead and lifts her legs enough to slide sideways or to clear the ground. See aerials for more details about slides.

Tap: Anything you can think of.

Ballet: Hold various ballet positions while spinning.

Hip Hop: Moon walking, and various hip hop moves.

Ending Variations
Stop: Ending can be a stop, blocking further rotation.

Swing Out: treat like a swing out (pull forward with the right arm and let go).

Lead Jump: The lead jumps around ahead of the follow.

Split Spins: Split into independent spins, where the outside motion of both remains the same.

Open Circles
Open circles are usually slow, because the couple is further apart and they do not have a good grip. Ending open circles is easy, because the motion is slow.

Middle Variations
Walk: Both lead and follow could walk naturally, or they could walk with fast steps in a slow, open circle.

Kick Ball Changes and Mule Kicks: The follow does kick ball changes, while lead does mule kicks. The follow often alternates moving her arm up and down. This form a very common in performances.

Suzy Q: Both lead and follow do Suzy Qs.

Moon Walk:

Grapevine: Both lead and follow do grapevines.

Alternate Kick Ball Changes and Triple Steps:

Tap: Anything you can thing of.

Guy Stand: The lead can stand in the middle, while the follow moves around him. (Open and Free)

Alternate Middle Variations
The lead moves for 4 or 8 counts and then the follow moves for 4 or 8 counts, alternating. Or, they both do something for 2 or 4 counts, and then they both do something else for 2 or 4 counts, alternating.

Foot Sweeps: They may do foot sweeps together, or alternate. Alternate kicks or foot sweeps. (Or together) (Simplify)

Pikes: Partners may alternate or do pikes together.

Tango Swoops: Partners may alternate or do tango swoops together.

Swivels: (2 hands, 1 hand, alternate hands, whole body) (Fast, medium, slow)

Egg Beater: Right to right hand hold. When lead steps forward with his left foot, he pulls his right hand back, he touches the follow in the back with his left hand. When the lead steps forward with his right foor, he pushes his right hand forward, the follow touches him in the back with her left hand. Exit with a free spin.

Style
Arm: When circling, the lead and follow may wave their free arm up and down, or just up, or just down, or may keep it at their hip. Arm at hip, or arm alternates up and down, in open. (Down?)

Back and Forth in Open Circle
In these variations, dancers do 4 or 8 counts in one direction and then 4 or 8 counts in the other direction.

Kick Throughs: This usually has double crossed hand lead.

Foot Sweeps: They can trade foot sweeps. They can do foot sweeps at the same time or alternate.

Kick Arounds: Face opposite each other, side-by-side, grab around waist. Then hop with kicks to the side. (Move)

Free Circles
Run: Guy runs around girl, who spins in opposite direction.

Styling
Direction: Dancers can spin clockwise or counter-clockwise.

Spin Center: When one dancer is in the center, he or she may spin on one leg, while the other turns them both. (This is usually in closed, to give support.)

Torso: When they are face to face, both walk forward or sideways. Then they are side by side, the lead walks forward and the follow walks backwards.

Speed: They may move at any speed, from very slow to very fast.

title: Swing Dancing/Circle


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Swing Dancing/Skip up

Skip ups are traditional Lindy Hop dance moves that cannot quite be categorized as either basic, side pass, swing out, or aerial dance moves.

The names of these moves are somewhat arbitrary, and different people call the same move by different names.

Skip Ups (Walk the Dame, Jig Walks)
The basic skip up is a six count move, as follows:

On counts 1 and 2, the lead rock steps. On counts 3 and 4, he kicks left and steps left. On counts 5 and 6, he kicks right and steps right. (The kick step left and kick step right may be repeated any number of times.)

Skip Ups in Closed: Partners need to be standing offset, to not kick each other. One kick goes inbetween the partners legs (but the kick should be kept very low anyway). End with tuck turn or big kick at end. Both directions.

Skip Ups in Open:

Change Direction: Instead of repeating kicks, the next kick left should push on hip, and on step, they turn and rock step. This switches the feet orientation.

Free Spin: Instead of changing direction, they can do a free spin and come back together in the same position.

Tempo: Fast or slow.

Feet: Step, kick step, kick ball changes.

Arms: The arms usually hold onto the partner, so there are few variations (tied up).

Variations
8-count variation: counts 1-5 remain as before, 5-8 are kick right, kick left (and step on right), kick right (and step on left), kick left (and step on right). These kicks are faster, just one count each, so the rhythm is rock - step - kick - step - kick - kick - kick - kick.

Direction: Forward and backward.

Speed:

Footwork: They can step, step; kick step, kick step; or other.

title: Swing Dancing/Skip up


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Swing Dancing/Groucho

Grouchos are traditional Lindy Hop moves that cannot quite be categorized as either basic, side pass, swing out, or aerial dance moves. In grouchos, you and your partner move back and forth between two points, starting and ending in closed position. This move is often repeated several times.

Here's how to perform the moves:

Forward Groucho
Begin in a closed position:

 * On counts 1 and 2, rock step like normal.
 * On counts 3 and 4, the lead moves the follow in front of him to face her, as they triple step.
 * On counts 5 and 6, the lead walks forward and the follow walks backwards.
 * On counts 7 and 8, the lead closes to the follow, and the follow remains in place, as they triple step.
 * The couple ends in closed position facing where they started, a few steps away.

Spins: The lead and follow can both spin.

To Open (Lead Spin Out): On counts 5 and 6 (walk walk), the lead stands still or spins in place, so they move into open.

Reverse Groucho

 * On counts 1, 2, 3, and 4 they rock step and triple step, just like a swing out from closed.
 * On counts 5 and 6, the lead walk walks backwards and the follow walk walks forwards.
 * On counts 7 and 8, the lead triple steps in place and pulls the follow into closed, who triple steps as she moves.

Escorted Spin (Outer Turn): Reverse groucho with follow outer (usually free, sometimes overhead) spin on counts 5 and 6. They close on count 7 and 8.

Inner Turn: On counts 5, 6, 7, and 8, the follow moves like an inner turn swing out, but the lead closes to the follow on counts 7 and 8.

Apache Turn: On counts 5, 6, 7, and 8, the follow moves like an apache turn swing out, but the lead closes to the follow on counts 7 and 8.

To Open (Lead Open): On counts 5 and 6, the lead walks backward and leaves the follow in place, opening up space. On counts 7 and 8, they may style as they like. This resembles a swingout variation.

Style
Stylings are independent of one's partner.

 * Counts 5 and 6
 * Head: Add pecking to match the step step.

Variations
Variations require cooperation with one's partner.

Extend: Extend the middle with push-pulls. This is related to the Yo Yo.

Lead Spin: On the Escorted Spin and Inner Turn, the lead may also spin.

title: Swing Dancing/Groucho


text:
Swing Dancing/Silly moves

Silly dance moves are especially common in Lindy Hop. Early Lindy was very silly (consider the dance sequence from Hellzapoppin). The point is to do fun and unusual things, while keeping the rhythm of the music. Silly moves are performed socially and in competitions all the time.

To paraphrase Leo Tolstoy (Anna Karenina) "All dancers do swing outs alike, but every dancer is silly in his or her own way." Silly moves add personality to Lindy.

Silly moves exist in other dances as well. They may be seen in many folk dances, where they may evolve into whole pantomimes. Many street dances feature silly moves. Examples in Salsa Rueda are calls "Un Fly", "Frankenstein", "Cucaracha", "Telefoto" and many others. West Coast Swing, a close relative of Lindy, uses silly moves, among many other styles of improvisation. Elements of silliness are sometimes introduced even in ballroom dances, especially in showtime performances.

Examples
Silly moves include:

 * Shimmy: Shaking the shoulders.
 * Running in Place:
 * Guy running around the girl: Often the follow spins in the opposite direction.
 * Swimming with arms: Back stroke while moving away from follow or crawl while moving toward follow.
 * Walking: Walking with funny steps. Think Monty Python's silly walk.
 * Cradle Follow: Cradling the follow, by picking her up can seem quite silly.
 * Running and Jumping: Run several steps and jump in the air. Clicking the heels together (bells in Tap) is nice style.
 * Running and Sliding: Run several steps, then slide to a stop, then hold a pose.
 * Bowling: The guy stands still and straight, until the follow bowls. Then he falls down with style.
 * Sailor kicks: Lead and follow are side by side facing opposite directions, doing charleston kicks to their left while turning clockwise. Lead's left hand is holding the follow's right armacross the leads shoulders. Lead's right arm is wrapped around the follow's back holding the follow's left hand at the waist.
 * Titanic: A freeze made popular by the movie Titanic. The Freeze stops in a tandem position with the follow in front leaning forward while the lead braces from behind. It is started from facing with a cross handed lead, and is done as an explosive underarm turn in 1 count.
 * The Pterodactyl: In position for tandem Charleston, jumping up and down, flapping arms, and making pterodactyl noises.

title: Swing Dancing/Silly moves


text:
Talk:Swing Dancing/Silly moves

Old talk
"All dancers do swing outs alike, but every dancer is silly in his or her own way" sounds like a paraphrase of the opening lines of Tolstoy's Anna Karenina, rather than something by Dostoevsky. I don't know enough to make the edit, though.
 * Molinari

Not sure where these should go ... but could help remember doing these:

Sailor kicks: Lead and follow are side by side facing opposite directions, doing charleston kicks to their left while turning clockwise. Lead's left hand is holding the follow's right arm across the leads shoulders. Lead's right arm is wrapped around the follow's back holding the follow's left hand at the waist.

Titanic: A freeze made popular by the movie Titanic. The Freeze stops in a tandem position with the follow in front leaning forward while the lead braces from behind. It is started from facing with a cross handed lead, and is done as an explosive underarm turn in 1 count.

Article name
Why does this page exist? "Silliness" is extremely subjective, and considering that none of the dance moves listed here actually belong to a real category of dance moves called "silly dance moves," this page isn't really necessary, or factually complete/correct. It should be a section in an article about dance moves, under "Humorous moves" or somesuch other name. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Swaly (talk • contribs) 2005-12-15 19:46:00UTC.
 * I agree that the article name is rather incorrect. Yes, silliness is subjective, but the described moves are purposefully "silly", whatever, so a separate article makes sense. Also, the word "silly" in this context does not mean "stupid", but  "playful" or "humorous". For sure, there is no move with the proper name "Silly", so I am renaming the  "Silly (dance move)" to a more specific title, Silly dance moves in Lindy. I don't feel that   "playful", "funny" or "humorous" properly cover the term "silly" here. I don't have much time now to explain what I mean. Just think about "silly songs". mikka (t) 20:05, 15 December 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm not convinced "Silly" is the right term either. I'm not argueing against the concepts of parody that exist in AVJD, especially in the Cake Walk.  The moves under this category are not all silly, maybe some are playful... but really what you're talking about are jazz steps that can be conducted with a "Siily" or "playful" styling and that, my friends, is *all* of the jazz steps that exist.   Azeroth 18:20, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

New Talk
PlainJaneI t hink that the issue of humour in lindy hop is really important. Humourous dance steps are very important in African American vernacular dance, particularly in lindy. They take a range of forms, from the 'pimp walk' which is an immitation of pimps in Harlem to the 'shorty george'. Humorous steps can derisive, appreciative, inviting observers to recognise the immitated person or character, etc etc. Today, humour is just as important in lindy hop communities. There is a range of scholarly literature discussing the role of humour in dance, and people like Lee Ellen Friedland, Katrina Hazzard Gordon and Jacqui Malone make the argument that dance is a space for social commentary - where people in the community can indicate their dislike of someone or something (through derisory immitations), can resolve conflicts (as in battles), can woo potential partners. The best argument for humour as important to lindy hop and other vernacular dances is the cake walk where black slaves would immitate white plantation owners in a dancing competition, exaggerating the primping and preening and 'snooty' posing and walks of Europeans. While these competitions were often sanctioned by the very slave owners who were being immitated, this often made the irony and humour even more pertinent. For slaves who had no social power, the power to immitate and comment on their lives through dance were very important. That the cake walk later became an international dance trend with whites is even more ironic.

Having said that, this article does not address these issues in sufficient depth. It needs to be rewritten. I am happy to go back and do this but I'm a bit busy atm. If anyone's particularly interested, they should consult books and articles by these authors:

etc
 * Tommy DeFrantz
 * Katrina Hazzard Gordon
 * LeeEllen Friedland
 * Johnathon David Jackson
 * Jacqui Malone
 * Marshall and Jean Stearns
 * Arthur Murray (limited use)

title: Talk:Swing Dancing/Silly moves


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Swing Dancing/Side pass

The side pass is an essential move for Lindy Hop and all swing dances. The girl (follow) starts on one side of the guy (lead) and moves to the other side, usually in 6 or 8 counts. There are many variations.

The key variations of the side pass are the Jitterbug and Hollywood side passes.

Jitterbug Side Pass
The Jitterbug side pass begins with a rock step.

Lead

 * Count 1
 * Feet: He steps straight back onto his left foot.
 * Arms: Push away.
 * Count 2
 * Feet: He steps in place onto his right foot.
 * Arms: Pull back.
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Arms: Pull through.
 * Counts 5 and 6: Sync Up
 * Feet: Triple step into place.

Follow

 * Count 1
 * Body: She is pushed back.
 * Feet: She steps straight back onto her right foot.
 * Count 2
 * Body: She is pulled forward.
 * Feet: She steps straight forward onto her left foot.
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Body: She is pulled forward so she moves past the lead.
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Counts 5 and 6: Sync Up
 * Body: She turns to face the lead, adjusts the connection, and prepares for the next move.
 * Feet: Triple step into place.

Hollywood Side Pass
The Hollywood side pass begins with a step step.

Lead

 * Count 1
 * Feet: Step straight back on the left foot.
 * Torso: The step moves the whole body back.
 * Count 2
 * Feet: Step left with the right foot, to move out of the slot.
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Counts 5 and 6: Sync up
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Body: He returns to the slot and adjusts for the next move.

Follow

 * Count 1
 * Arms: She is pulled forward, so she steps forward.
 * Feet: She steps forward onto her right foot.
 * Count 2
 * Feet: She steps forward onto her left foot.
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Counts 5 and 6: Sync Up
 * Feet: Triple step.
 * Body: She turns to face the lead, adjusts distance, and prepares for the next move.

Notes on the Side Pass
As noted side pass could be lead using both 6 or 8 counts, this uses different footworks, but the movement as described in previous sections are mostly the same.

6 count
Footwork: The footwork for both versions of the side pass is step, step, tri-ple step, tri-ple step.

One Lead: There is one lead on count 1. The pull with the left arm on count 1 matches the step back on count 1.

8 count
Footwork: The footwork for both versions of the side pass is step, step, tri-ple step, step, step, tri-ple step.

Two Leads: The initial lead is on count 1. The pull with the left arm on count 1 matches the step back on count 1. The second lead is on count 5, and is used to distinguish the 8 count from the 6 count. The lead gives a distinct push to indicate the step-step movement.

Stylings
Stylings are simple variations that are independent of the partner. However stylings can conflict with other side pass variations.

Lead
 * Counts 1 and 2
 * Head:
 * Body:
 * Arms:
 * Feet: Kick ball change.
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Counts 5 and 6
 * Touch floor
 * Spin?
 * Foot sweep:
 * Trade hands at end.

Follow
 * Counts 1 and 2
 * Kick Ball Change:
 * Counts 3 and 4
 * Counts 5 and 6
 * Touch floor
 * Turn away
 * Foot sweep:

Variations
Variations require cooperation between the lead and follow.

Standard Variations
These are similar to swing out variations.

Simple Left:

Simple Right:

Inner Turn:

Outer Turn:

Quick Stop:

Both Spin: Underarm pass for follow, underarm for lead. (She Goes-He Goes)

Two-Handed Tuck (Outer):

Apache Turn:

Free Turn: Like the apache turn, but don't grab the follow's hand with the lead's right hand. Just let her spin continue.

Other Variations
Barrel Roll: Rock, step, down, up and over. (as side pass and as parallel) (right to right or left to right grip). There are single, double, and triple rolls. There are different grips (left to right, right to right). Spin either inner or outer direction.

Split Barrel Roll:

Follow Spin:

Lead Spin: Side pass with guy spin at the same time. Or lead can do a turn at end.

Both Face Away:

Curls: Grab the follow's left shoulder with the lead's right hand. Then lead an outer turn. Often followed by points. (See Lindy Basic)

Open, Spin to Cuddle, Throw out: This starts right to right. The lead may begin facing the follow or facing away from the follow.

Mini Dip: This starts with a right hand to right hand grip. Rock, step, down and let go, step up and lead's left hand graps follow's right hand, pose and hold and snap fingers, hold, stomp off.

Simple Footwork: Step, step, step, step, step, step. This is for fast music, or simple rhythms.

Left-Side Spin: Lead the follow in a rock step. As she completes the step, lead a J hook to get her to spin. She will finish on the other side.

Closed Position
Close: From open, pull to side and close.

Throw Out: From close, cuddle, or promenade. Simple, tuck (outer), inner. Double. (directions, spins) (like swing out from closed)

Miscellaneous Variations
Spin Timing: Spin early, middle, or late.

Length: 6 or 8 counts are common. Follows may add an extra step-step on 7 and 8 if necessary. This can be extended by any number of counts.

Fast: (4 counts)

Slow: (8 counts)

Spin and Pull Back: Under the leg is a variation. Spin, follow tucks, pull her back, kick leg over as she passes. (K+C) (T+E)

Double Outside: This is 2 outside turns, during the side pass.

Start Variations
Syncopated: Both can start with a kick ball change and come in on 2. (Hollywood style)

Something: The lead's right to the follow's left. First go to cuddle or free spin. (Can turn overhead or wrap arm.) Many variations.

Cuddle: Open to spin to cuddle (4 counts), to throw out (4 counts) (like swing out variation).

Middle Variations
Extend Middle: They may pause, freeze, step backward and forward, walk together forward.

Slide: Inner turn, slide, throw out. Like a reverse with a slide.

End Variations
Extend End: They may pause or do spins.

End with Spin (Lead): (left, right) (overhead, free, apache) (1, 2, more) Do a side pass, with a late overhead spin, so the follow does 1+1/2 turns.

End with Spin (Follow): (left, right) (overhead, free, apache) (1, 2, more)

Other Variations
Cross to Lean: Pull across body, then do lean dip.

Simple: Side pass on left, right, start facing follow or away, turn or simple, lead turn early or late.

Lunge: Lunge is a 1/2 side pass to cuddle, with a lunge return.

Hip Block: Side pass with stomache or hip block. (WC type move) (to side?)

Feet and Legs: Move the follow with feet or legs.

Both Jump: Both jump up and touch the ground.

Sugar Tuck and Pull Back: This is a sugar tuck, but when the follows faces away, grab her hips, and pull her backwards. Kick over her if she ducks.

Other Details
Change Orientation: Over turn (3/4 turn) or under turn (1/4) turn. This is useful to find space on a social dance floor. This is useful in performance to present a specific angle to the audience or adjust to or from other moves.

Change Position: The follow may move, or the lead may move, or both may move (trade places). This has the effect of shifting position.

Mirror Image: Switch left and right.

Switch Roles: The girl may lead the guy.

Start Count: The move need not begin on any particular count. For example, they couple may hold for 4 counts, do a side pass for 6 counts, and then hold for 6 more counts, so the side pass starts on count 5.

Speed: Fast or slow.

title: Swing Dancing/Side pass


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Talk:Swing Dancing/Side pass

To do section
I removed the "To Do" section from the article. I am copying it below. --Cswrye 01:38, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

Like a reverse swing out with slide, from close. On cuddle side pass, do outer spin. Cross arm lead to a spin. Over shoulder arm moves (from x to promenade). Throw out and Close are variations of side passes. (from open to close, vice versa)

title: Talk:Swing Dancing/Side pass


text:
Swing Dancing/Jazz dance moves

Jazz moves are a key part of Lindy Hop.

History: Jazz moves evolved from Tap, which was originally called "Jazz dance". In the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, jazz meant tap. Modern jazz is softer than Tap with more emphasis on the body and less emphasis on footwork. Yet, many moves carry over from Tap. Bob Fosse and Broadway style jazz was created in the 1950s, long after Tap dance and Lindy Hop were established.

Moves
Traditionally jazz moves start on the 8 count. They must be made in perfect balance

Body
Scare crow: Knees together, arms wide, forearms dangling, head to side.

Itches: Touch hands to random places on body.

Shimmy: Shake shoulders. Bend forward or backward.

Pushes and Cross Over: From Shim Sham. In a lunge position (45 degrees from forward), push forward with hips three times (on 8, 2 and 4). On 5&6, bring rear foot forward and across. On 7, take up lunge position facing the other way (e.g. 45 degrees left instead of right).

Feet
"Lindey" Chasse right and ball change on you right foot reverse left side

Fall off the Log: Kick right and snap fingers, step right behind left, step left, step right in front of left; kick left and snap fingers, step left behind right, step right, step left in front of right. This can be with turn or not.

Suzy Q: Step right front and bring knees together; and step left side and bring knees apart (twist).

Shim Sham: Step out and slide back. Right, left, right, right, left, right, left, left.

Tacky Annie: Toe back right on count 1, replace on 2, toe back left on count 3, replace on 4, toe back right on count 5, replace on 6, left toe back on 7, stomp off (right to left) on counts & 8 (using a swung rhythm for the "and 8").

Boogie Down: Step right, step right, down right (almost on knee). Step left, step left, down left (almost on knee).

Jazz Box: Step forward, step left, step back step across.

Knee Slaps: Hold on count 1, lift right leg and slap on count 2, hold on count 3, lift left leg and slap on count 4. This can be 2 rights and 2 lefts, or 1 right and 1 left, or 4 rights, or whatever.

Half Break: Stomp on right, step left, kick ball change.

Almost any tap pattern.

Walk
Boogie Forward: Kick forward: brush right, step right, brush left, step left.

Boogie Backward: Kick ball changes backward: Kick with the right foot and scoot back. Dancers usually keep their feet wide apart.

Pimp Walk: Step front, step side, repeat swing arms.

Shorty George: Kick ball change, step forward, step forward, .... Put one knee behind the other on each step. Knees should point in the direction of the leading foot on each step and stay bent throughout.

Hands on knees, and Crazy Legs:

Fish Tail: Clap or shake hands at the ground.

Cakewalk: Jump and kick on each leg while holding the suspenders.

Skating (Sailor step):

Truckin':

Boogie drops (Boogie down): Step, step, step, fall on each side / or step step fall (and hold 2 counts)

Head
Pecking: Move head forward and back (possibly swing arms)

Hands
Jazz hands: the dancer's fingers are spread open with the palms facing out and the hand is vigorously rotated back and forth. swing your posterior and move your legs quickly

Variations
Direction: Face partner or audience.

Spider Hand- Hands are open and wide with your arms going anything.

title: Swing Dancing/Jazz dance moves


text:
Talk:Swing Dancing/Jazz dance moves

another dance move is called a step ball change it is when you put one foot of another then bounce a bit

Removed "spider hand" as the description is incoherent Added Pushes & Cross Over from shim sham Clarified Shorty George --Loupdebois

To Do
PlainJane 11:29, 26 April 2006 (UTC) removed from main page Break step

Pushes: from shim sham

Cross over: from shim sham

Suzy Q:

Much of this article seems spurious or at least under-researched.

title: Talk:Swing Dancing/Jazz dance moves


text:
Talk:Beginner's Guide to Interactive Fiction with Inform 7/Getting Started with Inform 7

Here is the layout emily short uses in Bronze. I've found this layout very helpfull in wrapping my mind around where stuff should go in a I7 file.

Part 1 - Adjustments to the World Model Chapter 1 - Modifying Existing Kinds Chapter 2 - New Kinds Part 2 - The World Part 3 - The Plot

-Huntsfromshadow 23:42, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

I think that we need to be careful about telling people that games are "written in English", as that gives the impression that any arrangement of words that would make sense to an english speaker will be okay. Natural Inform is a programming language. It's designed to closely resemble english in order to make the source easy to understand, but really it's a very narrow subset of english. Pinkmouse 09:08, 20 October 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Mundo de Mario/montanha do bolinho/Castelo Super de Ludwig Castle

super mario world