text:
Organic Chemistry/Glossary

> Glossary

A

 * Acetal - a molecule with two single bonded oxygens attached to the same carbon atom

 * Acetyl - a functional group with chemical formula -COCH3

 * Achiral - a group containing atleast two identical substituents

 * Acid anhydride - hydrocarbon containing two carbonyl groups.Acyl group attached with carboxylate group. eg RCOOCOR'

 * Acid halide - acyl group with any halogen attached with carbon of carbonyl group. eg RCO-X(X=F,Cl,Br,I).

 * Acidity constant Ka -

 * Activating group - any group which activates a molecule by increasing positive or negative charge on a carbon atom. Mainly towards neucleophilic or electrophilic substitution reactions.

 * Activation energy - the energy required for reactants to cross energy barrier to undergo any chemical change; denoted by Ea.

 * Acyl group - a group having an alkyl or aryl group with a carbonyl group RCO-

 * Adam's catalyst - a catalyst for hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis in organic synthesis. Also known as platinum dioxide

 * Addition reaction - a reaction where a product is created from the coming together of 2 reactants.

 * Alcohol - a saturated hydrocarbon chain with an -OH functional group.

 * Aldehyde - a hydrocarbon containing at least one carbonyl group having one hydrogen attached to it.(>C=O)

 * Aldol reaction - a reaction of two aldehydes yielding a product with both an aldehyde(>C=O) and an alcohol group.

 * Aliphatic - A non-cyclic, non-aromatic, hydrocarbon chain (e.g. alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes)

 * Alkane - A hydrocarbon with all the carbon-carbon bonds are single bonds.

 * Alkene - A hydrocarbon with at least one carbon-carbon bond is a double-bond.

 * Alkoxide ion - The conjugate base of an alcohol without the terminal H atom. For any alcohol R-OH, the corresponding alkoxide form is R-O-.

 * Alkyl - A hydrocarbon having formula CnH2n+1

 * Alkylation - Addition of alkyl group in a compound.

 * Alkyne - An unsaturated hydrocarbon containog triple bond.and having general formula CnH2n-2

 * Allyl - An alkene hydrocarbon group with the formula H2C=CH-CH2-

 * α Position - Carbon attached to a functional group is called α-carbon and the position is known as α position.

 * α-carbon - Carbon attached to a functional group is called α-carbon

 * Amide - A hydrocarbon containing amine group attached to acyl group. eg.- RCONH2

 * Amine - A simple hydrocarbon containing atleast one -NH2 group.

 * Amino Acid - A fundamental unit of polypeptides or proteins.having general formula-COOHRCHNH2.eg.- glysine, alanine etc.

 * Anti conformation -

 * Anti periplaner -

 * Anti stereochemistry -

 * Anti bonding molecular orbital - Molecular orbitals having higher energy than bonding molecular orbitals after combination of atomic orbitals.denoted by an astric over Sigma or pi notations.

 * Arene - Another name for an aromatic hydrocarbon.

 * Aromaticity - A chemical property in which a conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibit a stabilization stronger than would be expected by the stabilization of conjugation alone.

 * Atomic mass - Total no of nucleon i.e. number of proton and number of neutrons. Atomic mass is denoted by A.

 * Atomic number - Total no. of protons is called the atomic number.

 * Axial bond - The bond parallel or antiparallel to axial coordinate passing center of gravity.

 * Azide synthesis - Dutt-Wormall reaction in which a diazonium salt reacts with a sulfonamide first to a diazoaminosulfinate and then on hydrolysis the azide and a sulfinic acid.

 * Azo compound - A compound containing -N=N group.

B

 * Benzoyl Group - The acyl of benzoic acid, with structure C6H5CO-

 * Benzyl Group - The radical or ion formed from the removal of one of the methyl hydrogens of toluene (methylbenzene).

 * Benzylic -

 * β position -

 * β-carbon -

 * Bicylcoalkane - A compound containing two cyclic rings.

 * Bimolecular reaction - A second order reaction where the concentration of two compounds determine the reaction rate.

 * Boat cyclohexane - A less-stable conformation of cyclohexane that somewhat resembles a boat.

 * Bond - The attractive forces that create a link between atoms. Bonds may be covalent or ionic.

 * Bond angle - The angle formed between three atoms across at least two bonds.

 * Bond length - The average distance between the centers of two atoms bonded together in any given molecule.

 * Bond strength - The degree to which each atom linked to a central atom contributes to the valency of this central atom.

 * Bonding molecular orbital -

 * Bromonium ion -

 * Brønsted-Lowry Acid -

 * Brønsted-Lowry Base -

C

 * Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priorities - A rule for assigning priorities to substituents off of carbon in a double-bond or in a chiral center.

 * Carbocation -

 * Carbonyl group - A functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O.

 * Carboxylation - A chemical reaction in which a carboxylic acid group is introduced in a substrate.

 * Carboxylic acid - An organic acid characterized by the presence of a carboxyl group.

 * Chain reaction - A sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place

 * Chair cyclohexane -

 * Chiral - A term used to describe an object that is non-superposable on its mirror image

 * Chiral center - A carbon atom bonded to four different groups

 * Chromatography - The process of separating compounds such as a dye into its constituents

 * Cis-trans isomers -

 * Claisen condensation reaction -

 * Claisen rearrangement reaction -

 * Concerted -

 * Configuration - the permanent geometry of a molecule that results from the spatial arrangement of its bonds.

 * Conformation -

 * Conformer -

 * Conjugate acid -

 * Conjugate base -

 * Conjugation - A system of atoms covalently bonded with alternating single and multiple (e.g. double) bonds (e.g., C=C-C=C-C).

 * Covalent bond - A form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of pairs of electrons between atoms.

 * Cracking - The process whereby complex organic molecules such as heavy hydrocarbons are broken down into simpler molecules (e.g. light hydrocarbons) by the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds.

 * Cycloaddition reaction -

 * Cycloalkane - An alkane that has one or more rings of carbon atoms in the chemical structure of its molecule.

D

 * Debye -

 * Decarboxylation -

 * Delocalization - The ability of electrons to spread out among pi bonds to provide stabilization to electronically unstable areas of a molecule.

 * Dextrorotatory -

 * Diastereomers - Two or more isomers of a molecule which are not enantiomers of one another.

 * 1,3 Diaxial interaction - The steric intereaction between two methyl or larger groups attached at the 1 and 3 cis positions of cyclohexanes. The cyclohexane is in a higher energy state in the ring flip conformation that results in both 1 and 3 positions being axial due to steric strain between the 2 groups. This strain does not exist when hydrogens are bonded at these positions.

 * Diels-Alder reaction -

 * Dienophile -

 * Dipolar -

 * Dipole moment -

 * Disulfide -

 * Downfield - A term used to describe the left direction on NMR charts. A peak to the left of another peak is described as being downfield from the peak.

E

 * E geometry -

 * E1 reaction -

 * E2 reaction -

 * Eclipsed conformation -

 * Eclipsing strain -

 * Electron - An elementary subatomic particle that carries a negative electrical charge and occupies an electron shell outside the atomic nucleus.

 * Electron configuration - The arrangement of electrons in an atom or molecule

 * Electron-dot structure -

 * Electron shell - The orbit followed by electrons around an atomic nucleus. The atom has a number of shells and they are normally labelled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q.

 * Electronegativity - The ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a covalent bond.

 * Electrophile - Literally, electron lover. A positively or neutrally charged reagent that forms bonds by accepting electrons from a nucleophile. Elecrophiles are Lewis Acids.

 * Electrophilic addition reaction -

 * Electrophilic aromatic substitution -

 * Elimination reaction - A reaction where atoms and/or functional groups are removed from a reactant.

 * Endergonic - In an endergonic process, work is done on the system, and ΔG0 > 0, so the process is nonspontaneous. An exergonic process is the opposite: ΔG0 < 0, so the process is spontaneous.

 * Endothermic - An endothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that absorbs heat, and is the opposite of an exothermic reaction.

 * Enol - An alkene with a hydroxyl group affixed to one of the carbon atoms composing the double bond.

 * Enolate ion -

 * Entgegen - German word meaning "opposite". Represented by E in the E/Z naming system of alkenes.

 * Enthalpy -

 * Entropy -

 * Equatorial bond -

 * Ester - An inorganic or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group.

 * Ether - An organic compound which contains an ether group — an oxygen atom connected to two (substituted) alkyl or aryl groups — of general formula R–O–R'.

 * Exergonic -

 * Exothermic - An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases heat, and is the opposite of an endothermic reaction.

F

 * Fingerprint region -

 * First order reaction - A reaction whose rate is determined by the concentration of only one of its reactants leading to a reaction rate equation of $$Rate = k[X]$$

 * Fischer projection -

 * Formal Charge -

 * Friedel-Crafts reaction -

 * Functional group - This is a specific group of atoms within a molecule that is responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of that molecule. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.

G

 * Geminal -

 * Gibbs free energy -

 * Gilman reagent -

 * Glycol - A chemical compound containing two hydroxyl groups (-OH groups). Also known as a Diol.

 * Glycolysis - The metabolic pathway that converts glucose, C6H12O6, into pyruvate, C3H5O3. This process usually occurs outside the mitochondria of a cell to help produce energy.

 * Grignard reagent -

 * Ground state - In electrons, the state where they have the least energy. Electrons that gain energy get "excited" and leave the ground state, now able to do more work. Moving electrons out of their ground state is a key part of photosynthesis, where plants create sugar from the sun, carbon dioxide, and water.

H

 * Halohydrin formation -

 * Hammond postulate -

 * Hemiacetal -

 * Hemiaminal -

 * Heterocycle - A cyclic molecule with more than 2 types of atoms as part of the ring. (e.g. Furan, a 5-membered ring with four carbons and one oxygen, or a Pyran, a 6-membered ring with five carbons and one oxygen)

 * HOMO - Acronym for Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital.

 * Homolytic cleavage - Where bond breaks leaving each atom with one of the bonding electrons, producing two radicals.

 * Hybrid orbital -

 * Hydration - A chemical reaction in which a hydroxyl group (OH-) and a hydrogen cation (an acidic proton) are added to the two carbon atoms bonded together in the carbon-carbon double bond which makes up an alkene functional group.

 * Hybride shift -

 * Hydroboration - A reaction adding BH3 or B2H6 or an alkylborane to an alkene to produce intermediate products consisting of 3 alkyl groups attached to a boron atom. This molecule is then used in other reactions, for example, to create an alcohol by reacting it with H2O2 in a basic solution.

 * Hydrocarbon - A molecule consisting of hydrogens and carbons.

 * Hydrogen bond -

 * Hydrogenation - Addition of a hydrogen atoms to an alkene or alkane to produce a saturated product.

 * Hydrophilic - literally, "water loving". In chemistry, these are molecules that are soluble in water.

 * Hydrophobic - literally, "water fearing". In chemistry, molecules that aren't soluble in water.

 * Hydroxylation - A chemical process that introduces one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) into a compound (or radical) thereby oxidizing it.

 * Hyperconjugation -

I

 * Imide -

 * Imine -

 * Infrared spectroscopy -

 * Intermediate -

 * Isomer - Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae. There are two main forms of isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism.

 * Isotope - The different types of atoms of the same chemical element, each having a different atomic mass (mass number). Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons (the same atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons.

 * IUPAC - Acronym for International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

 * IUPAC Nomenclature - The international standard set of rules for naming molecules. (|Documentation Available Here)

K

 * Kekulé structure -

 * Keto-enol tautomerism -

 * Ketone - The functional group characterized by a carbonyl group (O=C) linked to two other carbon atoms, or a chemical compound that contains a carbonyl group

L

 * Leaving group -

 * Levorotatory -

 * Lewis acid - A reagent that accepts a pair of electrons form a covalent bond. (see also Lewis Acids and Bases)

 * Lewis base - A reagent that forms covalent bonds by donating a pair of electrons. (see also Lewis Acids and Bases)

 * Lewis structure -

 * Lindlar catalyst -

 * Line-bond structure -

 * Lone pair electrons -

 * LUMO - Acronym for Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital

M

 * Markovnikov's rule - States that "when an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with a hydrogen halide to give an alkyl halide, the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents, and the halogen to the carbon of the alkene with the fewer number of hydrogen substituents."

 * Mass number - The total number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus

 * Mass spectrometry -

 * Mechanism -

 * Meso compound -

 * Meta -

 * Methylene group -

 * Molality - A measure of the concentration of a solute in a solvent given by moles of solute per kg of solvent.

 * Molarity - A measure of the concentration, given by moles of solute per liter of solution (solute and solvent mixed).

 * Mole - A measure of a substance that is approximately Avogadro's Number (6.022×1023) of molecules of the substance. More simply, calculate the molecule's atomic mass and that many grams of the substance is a mole.

 * Molecule -

 * Monomer - A small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to form a polymer.

N

 * Nitrile - Any organic compound which has a -C≡N functional group.

 * NMR - See Nuclear magnetic resonance.

 * Non-bonding electrons -

 * Normality -

 * Nuclear magnetic resonance -

 * Nucleophile - Literally, nucleus lover. A negatively or neutrally charged reagent that forms a bond with an electrophile by donating both bonding electrons. Nucleophiles are Lewis Bases.

 * Nucleophilic addition reaction -

 * Nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction -

 * Nucleophilic substitution reaction - A reaction in which a halide is removed from a molecule and replaced with a nucleophile.

 * Nucleophilicity -

O

 * Optical isomer -

 * Optical activity -

 * Orbital -

 * Ortho -

 * Oxidation -

 * Oxime -

 * Oxymercuration reduction reaction -

P

 * Para -

 * Pauli exclusion principle -

 * Pericyclic reaction -

 * Periplanar -

 * Peroxide -

 * Peroxyacid -

 * Phenol - A toxic, colourless crystalline solid with the chemical formula C6H5OH and whose structure is that of a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a phenyl ring. It is also known as carbolic acid,

 * Phenyl - A functional group with the formula -C6H5

 * Pi bond -

 * Polar aprotic solvent -

 * Polar covalent bond -

 * Polar protic solvent -

 * Polar reaction -

 * Polarity -

 * Polarizability -

 * Polymer - A large molecule (macromolecule) composed of repeating structural units (monomers) typically connected by covalent chemical bonds.

 * Primary -

 * Prochiral -

 * Prochirality center -

 * Protic solvent -

R

 * R group -

 * R,S convention -

 * Racemic mixture -

 * Radical -

 * Radical reaction -

 * Rate constant -

 * Rate equation -

 * Rate-limiting step -

 * re face -

 * Reducation -

 * Regiochemistry -

 * Regioselectivity -

 * Resonance form -

 * Resonance hybrid -

 * Ring-flip -

S

 * Saponification - The hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions to form an alcohol and the salt of a carboxylic acid.

 * Saturated - Saturation in a general means possessing a maximal quantity. A compound is commonly called saturated when it has no double or triple bonds. Saturated can refer to a maximal amount of a solute which can dissolve in a solution. Whether the context is chemical bonding or solutions will determine which meaning is appropriate.

 * Saytzeff's Rule - See Zaitsev's rule

 * Second order reaction - A reaction whose rate is dependent on the concentration of two reactants, leading to a reaction rate of $$Rate = k[X][Y]$$

 * Secondary -

 * si face -

 * Side chain -

 * Sigma bond -

 * Simmons-Smith reaction -

 * SN1 reaction -

 * SN2 reaction -

 * Solvation -

 * Solvent -

 * sp orbital -

 * sp2 orbital -

 * sp3 orbital -

 * Spin-spin splitting -

 * Staggered conformation -

 * Stereochemistry -

 * Stereoisomer -

 * Steric hinderance -

 * Steric strain -

 * Substitution reaction - Reactions where one functional groups is replaced with another functional group.

 * Symmetry plane -

 * Syn addition -

 * Syn periplanar -

T

 * Tautomers -

 * Tertiary - adjective describing a third occurrence or position

 * Thioester -

 * Thiol - A compound that contains the functional group composed of a sulfur atom and a hydrogen atom (-SH).

 * Thiolate ion -

 * Torisional strain -

 * Tosylate -

 * Transition state -

 * Twist-boat conformation -

U

 * Ultraviolet spectroscopy -

 * Unsaturated - Unsaturated commonly describes a situation in which a compound contains double or triple bonds.

 * Upfield - A term used to describe the right direction on NMR charts. A peak to the right of another peak is described as being upfield from the peak.

V

 * Valence bond theory -

 * Valence electrons -

 * Valence shell -

 * Van der Waals forces -

 * Vicinal -

 * Vinyl - An organic compound that contains a vinyl group (also called ethenyl), −CH=CH2.

 * Vinylic -

W, X, Y, Z

 * Zaitsev's rule - In elimination reactions, the major reaction product is the alkene with the more highly substituted double bond. This most-substituted alkene is also the most stable.

 * Zussamen - German word meaning "together". Represented by Z in the E/Z naming system of alkenes. Simple mnemonic, Z=Zame Zide (Same Side).

title: Organic Chemistry/Glossary


text:
German/Introduction

A Textbook on Five Levels

The question arose early in the development of this textbook as to precisely who would be the target audience. Although intended to be a "beginning" textbook on German, many felt that the early lessons were too difficult for younger students with very limited or no experience with German and, perhaps more importantly, limited skills in English grammar. For this reason a textbook on three levels was conceived. Beginning German (Level I) puts more emphasis on building vocabulary around subject matter interesting and useful to young students. Basic German (Level II) emphasises grammar, and assumes a greater knowledge of English grammar more typical of an older high school or a college student. If you are just beginning to learn German or attempting to teach yourself, you may wish to try both approaches and see which works better for you, since some people require a strong structural approach to learning a new language while others find this "structure" only impedes progress by adding another layer of complexity. Intermediate German (Level III), which requires even more knowledge of English, is for college students, preferably for sophomores or juniors. With even more complex lessons, grammar and vocabulary comes Advanced German (Level IV), which with the most complex and difficult parts of the German language, is for late college students (Seniors) and college graduates. The last level, which is a review level, but also has cultural facts and the history of the German language, is Reviewed German. (Level V). An existing, separate text, German/Grammar, may eventually be merged into the lesson modules or developed into useful appendices as a grammar reference. At present, however, German Grammar is an expanding, significant contribution to the textbook; it provides an important reference on German language grammar rules useful to the student working through any of the three levels.

The German Language
German (Deutsch) is a member of the western group of the Germanic languages. It is spoken primarily in Germany, Austria, the majority of Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Südtirol (South Tyrol) region of Italy, the Opole Voivodship of Poland, the eastern part of Belgium, parts of Romania, the Alsace (Elsass) region of France and parts of Denmark. Additionally, several former colonial possessions of these countries, such as Namibia in Africa, have sizable German-speaking populations. There are German-speaking minorities in several eastern European countries including Russia, and in the United States as well as countries in South America like Brazil, Argentina and Chile. Over 120 million people speak German as their native language. German is the third most popular foreign language taught worldwide, and the second most popular in Europe. Continue reading about the German language.

German and English
If you are an English speaker unfamiliar with German, you may be surprised to learn that English and German are closely related languages and share many words that are very similar. Such words are called cognates. This is particularly true for everyday words in English that are Anglo-Saxon (that is, Germanic) in origin. Consider the following list of English words followed by their German counterparts:

 * arm         ~ der Arm
 * book        ~ das Buch
 * cat         ~ die Katze
 * father      ~ der Vater

 * finger      ~ der Finger
 * wagon       ~ der Wagen
 * house       ~ das Haus

 * hand        ~ die Hand
 * June        ~ der Juni
 * man         ~ der Mann

 * mother      ~ die Mutter
 * mouse       ~ die Maus
 * name        ~ der Name

 * son         ~ der Sohn
 * garden      ~ der Garten

 * lamp        ~ die Lampe
 * bush        ~ der Busch
 * baker       ~ der Bäcker
 * net         ~ das Netz
 * storm       ~ der Sturm
 * hat         ~ der Hut
 * fire        ~ das Feuer
 * grass       ~ das Gras
 * fish        ~ der Fisch
 * kindergarten ~ der Kindergarten

Some German words have the same origin as their English counterparts but the meaning has changed:

 * worry       ≠ würgen (strangle)
 * kind        ≠ das Kind (child)

 * Audio: [[Media:English-german words.ogg|OGG]] (308KB) ~ Hear these words

Of course, even words whose spelling is no different in English and German may be pronounced quite differently. But in reading German, you will see the connections between these languages, even in many of the "small" words (the above examples are all nouns). For example:

 * This week, my father is with my brother in the city.
 * Diese Woche ist mein Vater mit meinem Bruder in der Stadt.

 * Audio: [[Media:Example sentence.ogg|OGG]] (87KB) ~ Hear these sentences

Note also the general similarity of sentence structure with English. The only real difference in the German is that the verb is moved forward in the sentence. However, there are many German sentences in which a verb form is the last word in the sentence.

Unfortunately, while German is perhaps the easiest "foreign" language for an English speaker to learn, meanings of words that are spelled similarly are not always identical. These "false friends" can be confusing for the beginner. Further, German is a more structured language than English, with a more complex grammar, and it will become apparent as you learn German that you will also learn more about English language structure than you might ever recall from your high school English classes. For a quick listing of similarities and differences between English and German, read the Introduction to Level I.

Vocabulary and Grammar
In learning to read or speak any language with which you have minimal acquaintance (that is, are not a native speaker of), the two aspects to be mastered are vocabulary and grammar. Acquiring vocabulary is a "simple" matter of memorization. For the language(s) we learn as children, this process is so transparent that we have trouble conceiving of the importance of having a large vocabulary. By the age of conscious recognition of our communicating with others through speech, we have already learned the meaning of thousands of words. Even words we have trouble defining, we readily understand their use in conversation. This process can be "reactivated," as it were, by immersion in a second language: a method of learning a new language by moving to a place where that language is spoken and having to get around and live without use of one's native tongue.

The student of German language, if not residing in a German-speaking environment, must put forth substantial effort to learning words, including their meaning, their pronunciation and their usage in common sentences. Be sure to "learn"—commit to memory—all of the vocabulary words in each lesson as they are presented. Early lessons have simple sentences because it is assumed that the student's vocabulary is limited. But throughout the text, more complex discourses (often as photo captions) are included to introduce the student to regular German in use. It may be helpful to translate these using a German-English dictionary (access to one is a must; see Appendix 5 for on-line options). Other sources of German, such as newspapers, magazines, web sites, etc., can also be useful in building vocabulary and developing a sense of how German words are put together. The German Wikipedia provides an ever expanding source of German language articles that can be used for this purpose. Further, a German version of the Wikibooks project—a library of textbooks in German—is available at German Wikibooks.

German grammar is more complex than, but sufficiently similar to, English that "reading" German is possible with minimal vocabulary in the sense that the student should generally recognize the parts of a sentence. With a good dictionary or an online translator, an English speaker can usually translate a German sentence close to correctly. However, to accurately speak and understand German, you must learn how each word functions in a sentence. There are eight basic grammatical functions: case, gender, number, tense, person, mood, voice, and comparison. How words "signal" these functions is an important aspect of learning a new language. English speakers should know all of these functions and the signals used in English, but it is often the situation that you know perfectly well how to speak English, without understanding much about word-functions and signals. For this reason, this textbook incorporates considerable detail on grammar, including both English and German grammar. The reference book English at Wikibooks may be consulted for additional help. When we say German is more complex than English, what we really mean is that the signals used in German are different from and more numerous than those used by English.

Pronunciation
A guide to the pronunciation of German is provided. You should become familiar with this page early on, and refer to it often. Nothing can replace learning a language from a native speaker, but the text is liberally sprinkled with audio files providing the student with valuable input from hearing spoken German. Analyze the spoken words carefully. The pronunciation guide can only closely, not exactly, convey how German words should be pronounced. And of course, German (like English) has a number of dialects distinguished by differences in pronunciation.

Help in the pronunciation of individual words can be found by accessing the sound files of either of the online dictionaries, links to which are given in the German websites appendix.

Layout of Lessons
This textbook is intended as a beginning course in the German language for English speakers. Early lessons emphasize conversational subjects and gradually introduce German grammatical concepts and rules. In addition, sound files accompany appropriate parts of each lesson. Although the basic lessons (Grundlegende Lektionen) are presented at about the (US) high school level, beginners (including those attempting to learn German outside of a course structure) are expected to work through several basic lessons up to an indicated point, when review is suggested along with additional study. The basic way lessons go to other lessons is very simple and direct:
 * Lesson 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > and on to the end of the text.

Layout within Lessons
The following subheadings or categories are offered within the lessons (Level II and above):

 * 1) One or more conversation (Gespräch) or story (Geschichte) pieces in German alone to illustrate the language in use.
 * 2) Study material (Lernen) in English and German to present lists of conceptually related words.
 * 3) One or more grammar (Grammatik) lessons covering elements of German grammar, with illustrations drawn from the conversation, story, or study materials.
 * 4) A list of words (Vokabeln) and phrases introduced in the lesson, above that point, usually in the conversation, story, or study presentations. Words and phrases are arranged alphabetically within groups, and the groups are presented in the following order: 1) nouns, 2) phrases, 3) verbs, and 4) all other words. A guide to pronunciation of the words presented is consolidated within Appendix 1. However, in each Vokabeln, nouns stressed on other than the first syllable (the general rule in German) are indicated by bolding of the stressed syllable (e.g., Biologie). Note that the English translation of all German words in a Vokabeln is the best equivalent for the lesson example. The lesson Vokabeln is not a dictionary, but a quick reference for translation purposes. For this reason, verbs are not translated into a typical English infinitive form with a preceding particle, "to".
 * 5) A list of additional, related words or phrases (Andere Wörter; advanced lessons only) that relate to, but are not included in, the vocabulary presented in the basic and advanced lessons.
 * 6) English sentences and other material to be translated by the student into German (Übersetzung). These are numbered and a matching answer sheet is linked to this category. The student should write out the German using material from the lesson (and previous lessons) before checking their work against the answer list.

The Student and the Lesson
Each level of the text is designed to constitute a course of study in the German language. For any level selected, each lesson should be read thoroughly and mastered before moving on. Substantial text in German is included and the student should read all of it, not once, but multiple times. At Levels II and III, complete translations into English are included only in selected places. Most of this text must be translated by the student using his or her acquired vocabulary and the vocabulary presented at the bottom of each lesson. As the German text is read (preferably out loud), the student must succeed in gaining an understanding of the meaning of each sentence, and of the role each word plays in establishing that meaning. To the beginner, there will seem to be many words in a German sentence that are out of place or even redundant or unnecessary. These add subtleties to the language that will make sense eventually. But it is important to experience these subtleties from the very beginning.

Continue to the level one introduction.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: German/Introduction


text:
German/Level III

LEVEL III: MITTLERE STUFE
Section 1 ~ Bonn, Germany

 * Lesson 1: Markus Studiert ~ A short story, personal pronouns, incomplete sentences.
 * Lesson 2: Gespräche Unter Geschäftsmännern ~ Polite conversation, word roots, personal pronouns in the nominative case, some German/English verb forms.
 * Lesson 3: Mach Dir Keine Sorgen! ~ Gender of ordinals, details of telling time.

Section 2 ~ Innsbruck, Austria

 * Lesson 4: Die Geschäftsleute ~ Personal pronouns in the accusative case, personal pronouns in the dative case.
 * Lesson 5: ~ Der Engländer in Österreich ~ Personal pronouns in the genitive case.
 * Lesson 6: ~ Tour de France

Section 3 ~ Bavaria, Germany

 * Lesson 7: ~ Undeveloped
 * Lesson 8: ~ Undeveloped
 * Lesson 9: ~ Undeveloped

Section 4 ~ Ruhrgebiet, Germany
 * Lesson 10: ~ Das Ruhrgebiet ~ The definite and indefinite articles, Plurals
 * Lesson 11: ~ Undeveloped
 * Lesson 12: ~ Undeveloped

title: German/Level III


text:
User:Gokul madhavan~enwikibooks

I'm a student in the 12th grade, studying under the Indian CBSE system of education.

We study organic chemistry in detail (advanced enough that we can use any freshman introductory text in organic chemistry as a study guide) in the 11th and 12th grades. I hope to be able to contribute more to the Organic Chemistry 'textbook' on this site when I have more time on my hands. There's so much we can add to this book!

I also hope to contribute to the Hindi and mathematics books on the site, since I've studied both for quite some time.

title: User:Gokul madhavan~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:High School Mathematics Extensions/Primes

"In mathematics, only the most important (yet basic) theorems are coined fundamental. If you see the word fundamental as part of the naming of a theorem, it means that theorem is of extreme importance."

I am afraid that we have one exception: the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra.

Good point, the exception being that it's extremely hard, and hence not basic. But... by basic i dont mean easy, but fundamental. I'll fire up the thesaurus then

Do the multiplicative inverses have to be written as 1/k? Dysprosia 09:17, 6 Nov 2003 (UTC)

No, but I guess what i wanted to do was to illustrate the ideas using something they're familiar with. I guess a better notation will be x-1. I will adopt that notation in later sections. Xiaodai
 * The problem I have with it implies that you can divide in Zn which in fact you can't. That √(-1) notation threw me off too... Dysprosia 00:16, 29 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Okay, I fixed the grammar. I'm probably the only person who can listen to music, fix grammar, learn, and fix source code at the same time :-). Ugen64 01:03, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Hey, thanks a thousand. Those fixes are exactly what this online-book needs!!! You are da man!Xiaodai AUSEDT 12.34 18 Dec 03

I might look stupid, but I don't understand what I'm supposed to notice about the values of the powers of two in modulo 11... can someone help me? Ugen64 20:45, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * In mod 11 arithmetic, 2 is called a generator. Let's list all the powers of 2 from 1 to 10:
 * 2, 4, 8, 5, 10, 9, 7, 3, 6, 1.
 * The number 2 is called a generator, because its powers generate all the numbers from 1 to 10! That is, for every number x mod 11, we can find a number p, such that 2p = x. Utilizing this idea, calculating xn for big x and n is no longer a problem! Consider 67, notice 29 is 6, therefore 67 = 263 = 23 = 8.
 * Notice 6 is also a generator, can you find the other generators(Using the powers of 2 or 6)? Xiaodai 8:05, 20 Dec 03 Sydney
 * Which means that Zn is a cyclic group for some values of n :) Dysprosia 23:21, 19 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I also just happened to notice that the operations between numbers are mirrored on either side of the 10.
 * 1+1=2+2=4+4=8-3=5+5=10
 * 10-1=9-2=7-4=3+3=6-5=1

info -- Recursion

 * xn = x * xn-1 if n>0
 * why is n>0?
 * x0 = x * x0-1 = x/x = 1 this is not a special case it follows the same rules
 * x-1 = x * x-1-1 = x/x2 = 1/x ...
 * I'm not a math guy but n>0 seems not to be needed.
 * Pk2000 12:01, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Very good point. Thanks for pointing that out. Will seriously consider making a point of that in the article. Thanks again Xiaodai 16:04, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * You need to point out then that x ≠ 0 if you do this. 0^0 is not defined. Dysprosia 22:18, 3 Mar 2005 (UTC)

-

One?
My mum tells me that when she did mathematics, 1 was considered a prime number. Was it? Is counting 1 as a non-prime more useful? Is her memory just at fault? *g* r3m0t 11:27, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * She may be might right, but that was long time ago. Now, one is not consider a prime. Xiaodai 15:00, 23 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * ...so why is one not considred a prime? I see the question being asked but I don't see it answered anywhere in the text. 209.67.181.254 (talk) 00:44, 3 May 2008 (UTC)

 * It is not considered a prime because it is more useful to do so. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic would have to be changed to say "every number can be expressed as a unique product of non-unitary primes" (where by non-unitary primes, I mean what we call a prime today), and the phrase "prime number" occurs much more often in mathematics than "prime number or 1". --Taejo (talk) 14:36, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

 * One need not express the fundamental theorem of arithmetic in an English syntax at all, as it is rather more cumbersome to translate into other languages, in comparison to pure mathematical expressions. I'm not very good at this, but let's give it a crack. If we express "primeness" as being a feature of Diophantine inequations, then it becomes a simple matter of what inequations are satisfied by what numbers. If x/y = n, then x cannot be prime. Working from this definition, it can be easily shown that both 0 and 1 are prime numbers, and that all the numbers commonly considered prime satisfy these inequations as well. As must be necessary, non-primes do not satisfy these inequations. That is, ({Diophantine}, n≠1) x/y≠n, where n is any number (except one), and x is the proposed prime. (If I haven't fully defined all the conditions, I apologize, but it's been awhile since I've worked on this.) --TheLastWordSword --208.83.126.102 (talk) 19:26, 27 October 2010 (UTC) EDIT: A second point is that the Sieve of Eratosthenes is not a mathematical proof of any sort, merely a rather rough algorithm. --208.83.126.102 (talk) 19:35, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

 * My instincts were correct, anyway. The proper expression is ({Diophantine} n{not-equal}x) x/y(not-equal)n, where y{not-equal}1 is had freely. --208.83.126.102 (talk) 19:50, 28 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I can also prove Euclid's Fifth Postulate, through RAA. ;) --208.83.126.102 (talk) 19:38, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

One chapter done
I consider this chapter done (a first draft at least)! I guess it's appropriate at this time to... clap. Thanks to all those who contributed to this 22 page beast! It was hard work. Xiaodai

 * *claps vigorously* By the way, you know you can just sign by typing ~ ? r3m0t 23:43, 4 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for that i didn't know. Xiaodai 07:57, 5 Jan 2004 (UTC)

For problem 11(b), what exactly is your notation? Where you have $$\sqrt{-1}\equiv \frac{p-1}{2}!$$, you don't say what it's equivalent to. (There's no (mod n) clause.) Furthermore, should the "p=1 (mod 4)" equation be written as an equivalence instead?

I'm not entirely sure about these, so I didn't make the edit. Can someone confirm or deny? Grendelkhan 17:16, 9 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the question. The editing is done. Where obvious I sometimes do use the two notations interchangably. But I'll change it in this case. Xiaodai 23:20, 9 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I do believe factorization is spelled wrong throughout the document.... Someone may like to fix that.

 * It's not "wrong". Some people spell it with an s and some with a z - they are variants, not misspellings. Dysprosia 04:59, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

It might be a temporary thing, but there appears to be a bug in the formula rendering - the example for marking 5 as a prime in the "Finding primes" section does not appear to render. I found that removing the terminating // on the last line of the matrix definition causes the matrix to render correctly again - however (bizarrely) it causes a visible rendering error (in preview mode at least) when applied to any of the other matrixes. Waveform 01:04, 30 May 2004 (UTC)

For the life of me, I can't figure out the fifth modulo 11 problem. I don't see how adding or subtracting 11 is ever going to get me a multiple of i. Infact, after the 5th question, the page starts to become a giant nonsequiter for me (I'm sure the page is correct, it's just not clear to me). The question is unclear -- I'm not sure if it means find x if (x mod 11)^2 = -2 or if x^2 mod 11 = -2.

 * I don't like the notation in the question. My interpretation of it is that it is asking you for all the numbers modulo 11, that when you square it, you get -2 = 9 (mod 11). So, x^2 = 9 normally you have 3 as a solution. But, 11 mod 11 is zero, so conceivably, 11+3 will also be a solution too, since we're basically "adding zero". So 3+11 = 14 = 3 (mod 11), and you can consider -3 = 8 to be a solution too (since (-3)^2 = 9 normally).

Then in the division example it says x=3/5. Ok, sure. Then x = 3 * (1/5). Alright, still with you. Then x = 3 * 3. Uh, where the hell did that come from? 3*3 = 9. 3/5 = 0.6. Then, to really confuse the hell out of me, 3 * 3 becomes 2!

 * Again, the notation (I've complained about it before, above). You can't really divide when talking about modular arithmetic because you can't always do it, and you don't get fractions. The multiplicative inverse of 5 mod 7 is the number you multiply 5 by modulo 7 to get 1. 3 * 5 = 1 (mod 7), so you can write "1/5" (which should really be written as 5-1) as 3. The rest should then be clear: get back to me if it isn't.

But I'm confused even before that. 1/5 = 0.2. 1/5 mod 7 is still 0.2. Why are we doing this funky stuff with x in the first place?

 * See above. 1/5 is supposed to be the multiplicative inverse, not a fraction. We only work with numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} modulo 5, we don't have fractions or decimals or whatever. If we want to "divide" numbers, we look for numbers we multiply to get 1 (like if we had real numbers, 1/5 is supposed to be the number we multiply 5 by to get 1, modulo 7, 3 is supposed to be the number we multiply 5 by to get 1).

Can someone please clarify here or in the module itself what is going on? I can get a 4 on my AP calc examination but this makes no sense to me ;)

dataangel

 * As I mentioned, get back to me if anything I told you still doesn't make sense. Dysprosia 10:25, 13 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * It seems that my notation (or my uni lecturer's notation) have confused quite a lot of ppl. Just think of "1/5" as the number when multiplied by 5 will give 1, dont think of it as 0.2. I know that "1/5" will be confusing to those with prior exposure to higher mathematics but this book is for high school student and so i want to do it in notations familiar to them. Maybe i should clarify it in the book. Xiaodai 14:18, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I know you want to use notation familiar to high school students, but you really need to use a different notation. The two operations aren't the same, and you're going to confuse people more if you do, even that high schooler above. But it's up to you. Dysprosia 23:52, 14 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I think you can effectively use the "1/5" notation. What's wrong with thinking it is 0.2?  What does 0.2 mean anyway?  It only ever means 2/10 which makes just as much sense in modulo 11 arithmetic as it does in the rationals.  You can "divide" in prime modulos because they are fields.  The important thing to recognize (and communicate) is that the canonical form for all numbers in "modulo 11" arithmetic comes from the list {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.  You get a lot of leeway for students to play around with the algebra and still get sensible answers, they just have to do the algebra correctly.

 * By the way, I have always liked the analogy of "clock" arithmetic as a way of explaining all the funny bits of Z12. So image a clock with only 11 hours on the face (strange day!). How many hours would you have to wait from "midnight" before the clock showed 2 o'clock?  There are lots of equivalent answers.  Now DIVIDE that many hours into 10 equal pieces. You get lots of different numerical answers for "how long", but they are all equivalent to 9 (mod 11).  Which only means that if you work a 9 hour shift 5 times in a row starting at midnight, the clock will read 1.  But if you work a 2/10 hour (do I dare call it 12 minute?) shift 5 times in a row starting at midnight the clock will still read 1. beej 13:51, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

5^99 mod 11? I'm probably not thinking through this properly/missing something (it's been a while for me since I did any of this stuff), but isn't that a little difficult to do, even with something like Euler's theorem for help? Dysprosia 12:40, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I guess the question is a bit tricky. Just note that the inverse of 3 is 4. Xiaodai 07:55, 24 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I think what students are supposed to see is that 5 is a generator, just like all the other elements in modulo 11 arithmetic. If you can find which exponent i make 5i = 1, then you can do normal arithmetic on the exponent.  In this case 510 = 1, so you figure 599 = 510 * 9 + 9= (510)9 * 59 = (1)9 * 59.

beej 13:51, 20 May 2005 (UTC)

Is the new project a good challenge or what? Need opinions. Xiaodai 10:59, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

hello everyone just reading through. the discription of what the modular arithmatic is was a little confusing so I fixed it up a bit but the rest of the article is a bit hard to fallow through the modular arithmatic section. I'm not exactly sure what the whole division and inversion section is saying. the whole section on modular arthmetic brings up some un answered questions. is there a real number version of modular arthimetic or is there only integers in modular arthimetic. from there I kind of get lost. good article though I like what I've read so far. --Stranger104 08:41, 16 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Revision 1
This chapter is the first chapter to be written. The material, despite others and my best effoects, remain somewhat chaotic and lacking focus. I have moved the much disputed (and confusing) part about division and inverses to Further Modular Arithmetic where it will received a rigorous treatment. I have also tried to replace the somehwhat colloquiall language/tone with a formal one in most parts. Removal of the personality section on Arnold Ross has been agonised over many times, but the final decision is to remove it. Xiaodai 07:21, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

Reorganised a bit, rewrote the inverses section after feedback receive, hope it's not as confusing as before, and that we won't get into arguments about technicalities this time. Xiaodai 08:05, 12 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Update*

what a pretentious and patronising piece of junk this is. Zhuo Jia Dai 12:08, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Largest prime
It will always change, so a date should be specified (as of ...)--Billymac00 (discuss • contribs) 02:14, 26 September 2014 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Naming conventions

Because Wikibooks encompasses many books, pages such as "Table of Contents" may often result where it is unclear which book it may belong to. Thus, to help distinguish a page belonging to one book from a page belonging to another book, a series of naming conventions must be used.

Existing wikibooks that do not follow these conventions are highly recommended to move their pages appropriately so that they conform to these conventions.

Naming conventions for new books
By convention, each module is associated with a book. The associated book forms the first part of the module's title (for example, Cookbook:Rice is part of Cookbook). The books are thus arranged in a hierarchical manner.

Currently, only two sets of conventions are permitted for new books, and it is suggested that a book be conformant solely to one of the two. It is permissible, but not recommended, for a book to mix the two conventions.

General guidelines

 * Do not abbreviate the name of the book in the title - For example, modules that are part of How To Build A Computer should always begin with "How To Build A Computer", and never in an abbreviated form therein, such as "HTBAC".
 * Use descriptive titles throughout - Just because a page is solely within the scope of a book does not mean that titles can be generic beyond the first level. It is recommended that titles at all levels should give a good hint to the content of the module.

The subpage convention
The subpage convention is recommended for new books.

The subpage convention, where titles are given as, takes advantage of the subpage feature of MediaWiki to automatically create a hierarchical structure. Thus, a page in a book's hierarchy will automatically be linked back to the book's main page (using tags like "" ). This is handy for any book that has a linear or tree-like structure with a narrow, well-defined scope.

Examples of books using the subpage convention:
 * Wikijunior Big Cats
 * Wikijunior South America

The namespace convention
The namespace convention, where titles are given as, has its titles made in the similar of the namespaces found in MediaWiki, with parts of titles being delimited by a colon. This is best suited for books with a more general graph-like structure, or if the book covers a wider and less well-defined scope (for example, Cookbook). However, back-links to the book's main page is not provided by default, and must be written manually to each page. This, of course, allows for flexibility as to how these back-links are created and written.

Note that Wikibooks reserves the use of "WB" for its shortcuts, "Transwiki" for Wikimedia's transwiki conventions, and the use of any module titled "bookshelf" for general book organization.

Examples of books using the namespace convention:
 * Cookbook
 * Programming
 * Wikiversity

Naming conventions for existing books
In general, the naming conventions of a book should be enforced over the entire book, and new additions to a book must follow existing book conventions. If a book does not strictly conform to either of the two conventions above, it is advised that they should be made conformant to one of the two above. Naming conventions that have been previously considered acceptable but have fallen in disuse include:

 * The hyphen convention:
 * The disambiguation convention:, named for the convention used in Wikipedia for its disambiguation pages
 * , where there is no mention of the book name
 * , where there is no mention of the book name
 * , where there is no mention of the book name

Naming conventions for templates, categories, images, and other media
For each book with the title Book Title, the template subspace Template:Book Title and category subspace Category:Book Title is reserved for internal use by a book (for example, Category:Wikibooks Pokédex:Normal Pokémon is an category internal to Wikibooks Pokédex). All other templates and categories are reserved for either the Wikibooks proper, usage across multiple books, or future books.

It is recommended, but not a requirement, that images, and other media be named as per the module naming conventions. As such, these pages should follow the conventions of their associated book. The requirement for these pages to conform to naming conventions is less strict compared to modules as they often reside in the background.

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da:Wikibooks:Navngivning es:Wikibooks:Convenciones nombrando artículos fr:Wikilivres:Règles de nommage pt:Wikibooks:Nomenclaturas

title: Wikibooks:Naming conventions


text:
Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Hydrolysis

Water can pull a halide off of an alkane and leave a hydroxyl group in its place. Water can ...


text:
User talk:BrokenUnity

Your system of organizing book names looks good, but don't you think you should have suiggested it first, then gone ahead after some discussion? Or did I miss the discussion somewhere? - 24.94.82.245 01:38, 25 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Hmm, what did I do?!?!?! I can't remember what I did in 03... --BrokenUnity 19:04, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

Ok, I remember now. I don't think I did discuss it, so sorry if it annoyed anyone. I guess the whole thing is somewhat irrelevant now anyway. --BrokenUnity 19:14, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:BrokenUnity


text:
Spanish/Exercises/Greetings

^Lesson 1^

Matching Sentences
Match the sentences/questions (1 to 5) to their corresponding responses (a to e).

Soluciones a los ejercicios Solutions to exercices

^Lesson1^

title: Spanish/Exercises/Greetings


text:
User:Robbyjo

My name is Roby. I am from Indonesia. I can speak several languages: Indonesian, English, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, Javanese. I understand a bit Portuguese (mostly due to my Spanish), Japanese, and French.

I'm very excited on this Wikibooks project.

Edit: As you probably noticed, I don't contribute to Indonesian Wikibooks anymore since Dec 2003. Too many vandals. If they think they know Indonesian enough, they can finish what I left off.

title: User:Robbyjo


text:
Indonesian/Lessons/Introducing

^ Indonesian ^ | << Lesson 6: Particles  | Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself | Lesson 8: My Family >>

Dialog (Dialogue)
KERRY: Hai! Nama saya KERRY. Siapa namamu?

AUDRIE: Hai KERRY! Nama saya AUDRIE. Salam kenal.

KERRY: Salam kenal juga.

AUDRIE: Apa kabar KERRY?

KERRY: Baik-baik, Anda?

AUDRIE: Baik-baik juga.

KERRY: Anda tinggal di mana?

AUDRIE: Di GADING NIAS. Anda?

KERRY: Saya juga!

AUDRIE: Permisi, saya harus pulang ke rumah.

KERRY: Baik, baik, hati-hati AUDRIE!

AUDRIE: Haha terima kasih KERRY.

KERRY: Selamat tinggal!

AUDRIE: Selamat tinggal!

Terjemahannya (translation):

KERRY: Hi! My name is KERRY. What's your name?

AUDRIE: Hi, KERRY! My name is AUDRIE. Nice to meet you.

KERRY: Nice to meet you too.

AUDRIE: How are you KERRY?

KERRY: Good, and you?

AUDRIE: Also Good.

KERRY: Where do you live?

AUDRIE: In GADING NIAS, you?

KERRY: Me too!

AUDRIE: Sorry, I've got to go home.

KERRY: "Okay", be careful AUDRIE!

AUDRIE: Haha thank you KERRY.

KERRY: Goodbye!

AUDRIE: Goodbye!

Catatan (Note)
This dialogue illustrates typical informal introductions. Note here that the dialog use "nama saya" to mean to "my name" and "namamu" to mean to "your name". You can use the phrase "namaku" as well to mean "my name".

To refresh our memory, note that the informal possessive pronouns are -ku, -mu, and -nya, for first, second, and third singular person. For more review, you can click here. The noun "nama" is the root of "namaku" and "namamu"; and the suffixes -ku and -mu adding the possessive information.

Certainly, you can substitute "namamu" with "nama Anda" for more formal situations.

The phrase "salam kenal" roughly means "nice to meet you". Note that unlike English, normally Indonesians don't say anything after the introduction and then carry on with the conversation. So, this phrase is not often used in introductions. It's up to you.

The word "juga" means too.

The word "pergi" and "pulang" both can be translated as "to go" in English. Only "pulang" is strongly associated with home. "pulang" means "to go home". "pergi" has always been used to point out where would you go to, anywhere else but your own house.

Dialog (Dialogue)
KERRY: Selamat pagi, Pak! Perkenalkan, nama saya KERRY.

Pak WAKI: Oh! Selamat pagi, KERRY! Nama saya WAKI. Apa kabar?

KERRY: Baik-baik. Terima kasih.

Terjemahannya (translation):

KERRY: Good morning, Sir! Let me introduce myself, my name is KERRY.

Mr. WAKI: Oh! Good morning, KERRY! My name is WAKI. How are you?

KERRY: Good. Thank you.

Catatan (Note)
This is a formal introduction, in casual situation.

The word "kenal" means "to know someone". In this dialog, we use the inflected form "perkenalkan", which in this dialog context means "let me introduce myself". It is actually the command form of "memperkenalkan", which means "to introduce". Don't worry about how the words are composed. This time, you can just consider it as a single word.

The phrase "apa kabar" means "how are you". As we've already read from lesson 1, it literally means "what news".

The phrase "terima kasih" means "thank you". Actually, it literally means "receive love".

Dialog (Dialogue)
KERRY: AUDRIE, perkenalkan, ini Pak WAKI.

AUDRIE: Pak WAKI, nama saya AUDRIE.

Pak WAKI: Halo, AUDRIE! Salam kenal.

Terjemahannya (translation):

KERRY: AUDRIE, let me introduce you, this is Mr. WAKI.

AUDRIE: Mr. WAKI, my name is AUDRIE.

Mr. WAKI: Hello, AUDRIE! Nice to meet you.

Catatan (Note)
This dialogue is to introduce someone to someone else. You should introduce the older person to the younger one as a rule of courtesy, as demonstrated in the dialogue. The dialogue assumes that Mr. Waki is older than Audrie. The younger person must then respond by addressing the older one also for courtesy. You can follow it by stating your name again, like the example above. Or, you can just say "Hai, Pak Waki!" instead.

If both people are roughly of the same age, you can choose either one.

Note the usage of the word "perkenalkan". It is appropriate for both introducing yourself and introducing someone else.

^ Indonesian ^ | << Lesson 6: Particles  | Lesson 7: Introducing Yourself | Lesson 8: My Family >>

Enseignement de l'indonésien/Leçons/Se présenter

title: Indonesian/Lessons/Introducing


text:
Geometry/Parallelograms

Parallelograms
A parallelogram is a geometric figure with two pairs of parallel sides. Parallelograms are a special type of quadrilateral. The opposite sides are equal in length and the opposite angles are also equal. The area is equal to the product of any side and the distance between that side and the line containing the opposite side.

Properties of Parallelograms
The following properties are common to all parallelograms (parallelogram, rhombus, rectangle, square)
 * both pairs of opposite sides are parallel
 * both pairs of opposite sides are congruent
 * both pairs of opposite angles are congruent
 * the diagonals bisect each other
 * consecutive angles are supplementary

Rhombus

 * A rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent sides.
 * The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
 * Each diagonal of a rhombus bisects two angles the rhombus.
 * A rhombus may or may not be a square.

Square

 * A square is a parallelogram with four right angles and four congruent sides.
 * A square is both a rectangle and a rhombus and inherits all of their properties.

title: Geometry/Parallelograms


text:
User talk:Robbyjo

Robbyjo - Your English is very good, but there are minor grammatical errors. I would not mind gently editing your stuff if you will not be offended. The errors do lend a certain charm to the writing, which adds to the authenticity of the language lesson, but you may be interested in not having them in there. Just let me know. The Indonesian book looks great, and I enjoyed reading the "Why learn Indonesian" article. I used to speak (barely) Gilbertese (language of Kiribati), which has similar roots to Indonesian, and your points about simplicity and tense, etc. brought back memories of my learning Gilbertese. - Marsh 08:43, 25 Oct 2003 (UTC)

Hi Marsh -- Sure you can edit this Indonesian book if you like. Thanks. I am sort of having a login problem so that I couldn't continue with the writing. I already set cookies and stuff and it said login successful. However, when I load some pages, it would immediately switch me to "not logged in" again. This doesn't happen with the wikipedia.org, though. Roby

 * Hi, Roby. Something like this happened to me once.  Are you logging in from http://textbooks.wikipedia.org?  If so, try logging in from http://www.wikibooks.org instead and report to the Staff lounge.  -- Kowey 13:36, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Hi, Kowey, thanks a lot. I'm able to log in to wikibooks.org. --Roby Joehanes 21:56, 22 Nov 2003 (UTC)

- Hi Roby, I just wanted to point out that the Indonesian wikipedia has been up and running (with the new software) too for some time, if you are interested in contributing. The interface is still in English, but we'll be improving these soon enough. We currently have one active user (not me since I don't speak the language), but maybe you would like to join in? -- Kowey 23:28, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure thing, Kowey. I hope that I have enough time to get to it... Roby Joehanes 12:46, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Lessons
Is there a chance of the rest of the lessons being completed soon? I would appreciate this alot and I'm hoping you'll get around to doing it because it seems the book hasn't been edited for some time.

The book is great, thanks so much for it.

My name is Terry, and I would also love for someone (Robbyjo??) to finish the rest of the sections. It was a great help to me, and I look forward to it's completion. Great job guys!!!

I don't know, but some people modify the book the way I don't want. Some changes are okay, but some others are not. I refuse to work further on this wikibook. (robbyjo)

 * That is too bad, the current lessons have been a great help for me. Tijmen 18:04, 13 December 2005 (UTC)

Slang Language
Hi Roby! I started Wikipedia entry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_slang_language I hope you can also contribute to it, and perhaps, add Slang Language part into your wikibook.

Sorry to hear you don't do indon book anymore
Who was vandelising?!?? Maybee if you are working on it you should say in big letters "I am doing this book, anybody else wait til I am done, then make your contribution" I personally wouldn't have known you didn't want any help.

Not that I want to be pushy, just giving you my perspective.

Copyright problem with Image:Indonesian-foto.ogg
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– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:39, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Robbyjo


text:
General Biology

Contents

 * /Getting Started/

 * Cells

 * /Genetics/

 * /Classification of Living Things/

 * /Evolution/

 * /Tissues and Systems/

 * /Additional material/
 * /Gallery of Biologists/
 * /Glossary/
 * /Authors/

External resources

 * Biology article on Wikipedia
 * EvoWiki wiki website devoted to biology and evolution
 * wepapers Biology notes, courses and presentations
 * Alphabetical list - Biosites.org

Biologia general 普通生物学

title: General Biology


text:
Talk:United States Government/Colonial Government in America

I'm interested in finding the tax rates imposed by Great Britain on the states. I will come back when I have more information, but am interested in what everyone else can find.

This page implies the colonists were united in their opposition to Great Britain, which was hardly the case. Its hard to fix without making things too confusing. There must be a term for the non-loyalists that could replace 'colonists'.

Americans is a great term.

-

What about replacing the word colonist with settler?

The United States didn't exist under Great Britain, silly. Refer to them as the 13 colonies. This page needs to be moved. --Jiang 04:00, 20 Jan 2004 (UTC)


text:
Puzzles/Easy Sequence 1/Solution

< Back to Problems

They are ascending powers of 2:

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 ...

Note : 2 raise power 0 (i.e 2^0) equals 1

title: Puzzles/Easy Sequence 1/Solution


text:
Puzzles/Easy Sequence 2/Solution

Add 1 2 3 4... OR x(x-1)/2+1 :

1 2 4 7 11 16 22 29 ...

$$a_n = a_{n-2} + a_{n-1} + 1$$:

1 2 4 7 12 20 33 ...

Add the three previous numbers:

1 2 4 7 13 24 44 ...

The numbers with an odd number of ones in their binary representation:

1 2 4 7 8 11 13 ... or 1 10 100 111 1000 1011 1101 ...

A formula for the $$n$$th number is: $$a_0 = 1$$, $$a_{2n} = a_n + 2n$$, $$a_{2n+1} = 6n + 3 - a_n $$.

title: Puzzles/Easy Sequence 2/Solution


text:
Biochemistry/DNA and RNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the information storage molecules and working templates for the construction of proteins. Every living cell and virus encodes its genetic information using either DNA or RNA. It is a true marvel of evolution that the vast amount of information needed to produce a human being can fit inside cells.

Friedrich Miescher first isolated DNA and RNA from used surgical bandages in 1869. A series of experiments done by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty in 1944 defined DNA as the genetic information. They injected virulent encapsulated bacteria into a mouse. As it a result, it died. On the contrary, nonvirulent nonencapsulated bacteria did not kill the mouse. Also, heating the virulent encapsulated bacteria and injecting did not kill the mouse either. The surprise lied in mixing the heat-killed virulent encapsulated bacteria with nonvirulent nonencapsulated bacteria did kill the mouse. Avery's group kept isolating factors until they discovered what killed the mouse, which was the DNA. In conclusion, the nonpathogenic bacteria was made pathogenic by DNA transfer from a pathogenic stain. A.D. Hershey and Martha Chase's work in 1952 reconfirmed that DNA is the carrier of genetic information. Hershey and Chase's group conducted an experiment involving two phages. One of the phages was radioactively labeled with heavy phosphorus to highlight the DNA and heavy sulfur to highlight the protein. The two phages inserted their "genetic material" into the bacterial cell. Afterwards, these cells were "blended" to remove the phage heads. The resulting radioactively-labeled heavy phosphorus was found in the cell. This experiment showed that DNA alone was sufficient to make new viruses, and therefore, defined as the genetic information. Rosalind Franklin, Chargaff, and other chemists provided information that led to the discovery of DNA as well. Franklin provided crystallographic data that implied a helical structure. Chargaff's rule said that the adenine content was equal to the thymine content and cytosine was equal to guanine. Also the aromaticity of the electron-rich purine and pyrimidine rings allowed for tautomer shifts between the keto and enol form. The keto tautomer (lactam) dominated at physiological pH. Garnering all this information, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered the structure of DNA (double-helix) in 1953.

Structure of DNA and RNA
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of a pentose sugar (2-deoxyribose for DNA and ribose for RNA), a phosphate group ($$H_3PO_4$$), and a nitrogen-containing base. There are five nitrogen bases - adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine and uracil. Individual nucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds to form polynucleotides.

DNA exists as a double helix of two (2) strands of polynucleotides. According to the principle of complementarity nucleotides A (adenine) bases are bound with a hydrogen bridge to the T (thymine) or U (uracil in case of RNA) on the other thread and similarly C (cytosine) bind themselves to G (guanine). This principle allows for DNA and RNA replication and for limited possibilities of repairing the genetic information when one of the threads gets damaged.

Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA is the permanent genetic information storage medium, found in the nucleus of most cells of most living organisms. RNA is, in the case of eukaryotes, the medium that transfers the genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm where proteins are synthesized. The most basic structural difference between a DNA molecule and an RNA molecule is that DNA lacks an hydroxyl group at its 2' carbon while RNA has an hydroxyl group at its 2' carbon.

There are three major types of RNA:
 * messenger RNA (mRNA) - temporarily created RNA used for transferring the information from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm where it is "read," or translated, and a protein is synthesized.Each gene produce a separate mRNA molecule when a certain protein is needed in the cell. In addition, the size of an mRNA depends on the number of nucletides in that particular gene.

Each tRNA contains an "anticodon" which is a series of 3 bases that complements 3 bases on mRNA.
 * transfer RNA (tRNA) - Is the smallest of the RNA molecules and it is associated with the ribosome and delivers an amino acid to be attached to the growing protein. Only the tRna can translate the genetic information into amino acid for proteins.

 * ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - a major constituent of the ribosome with both structural and catalytic properties.

Additionally, by 2005, other types of RNA, such as siRNA (small, interfering RNA) and miRNA have been characterized.

DNA structure is typically a double stranded molecule with long chain of nucleotides, while RNA is a single stranded molecule    " in most biological roles" and it has shorter chain of nucleotide. Deoxyribose sugar in DNA is less reactive because of the carbon- hydrogen bonds. DNA has small grooves to prevent the enzymes to attack DNA. on the other hand, RNA contain ribose sugar which is more reactive because of the carbon-hydroxyl bonds. RNA not stable in its alkaline conditions.RNA has larger grooves than that of DNA, which makes RNA easier to be attacked by enzymes. DNA has a unique features because of its helix geometry which is in B-form. DNA is protected completely by the body in which the body destroys any enzymes that cleave DNA. In contrast the helix geometry of RNA is in the A- form; RNA can be broken down and reused. RNA is more resistance to be damage by Ultra- violet rays, while DNA can be damaged if exposed to Ultra-violet rays. DNA can be found in nucleus, while RNA can be found in nucleus and cytoplasm. The bases of DNA are A,T,C,and G, DNA is a long polymer with phosphate and deoxyribose backbone. In contrast, RNA bases are A,U, C,and G, RNA backbone contain ribose and phosphate. The job of DNA on the cell is to store and transmit genetic information. RNA job is to transfer the genetic codes that are needed for the creation of proteins from the nucleus to the ribosome, this process prevents the DNA from leaving the nucleus, so DNA stays safe.

Plasmid
Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome can be use in laboratory to manipulate genes. Plasmids can carry almost any gene and they can passed it on from one generation of bacteria to the next generation, therefore plasmids are key tools for “gene cloning” which is the production of multiple identical copies of a gene carrying piece of DNA

=DNA Replication ;Semi-conservative replication= In the process of DNA replication, as cells divide, copies of DNA must be produced in order to transfer the genetic information. In DNA replication, the strands in the original DNA separate, and then each of the parent strands make copies by synthesizing complementary strands. Enzyme called helicase will start The process of  replication  by  catalyzing the unwinding of protein of the double helix. This enzyme can break  the H bonds between the complementary bases. These single strands now act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. The energy for the reaction can be provided when a nucleoside triphosphate bonds to a sugar (at the end of a growing strand), and 2 phosphate group are cleaved. Then a T in the template forms H bond with an A in ATP, and a G on the template forms H bond with CTP. After the entire double helix of the parent DNA is copied, the new DNA molecule will form. The new DNA molecule is consist of one strand from the parent (original) DNA and one strand from the daughter strand( newly synthesized strand). This process is called "semi-conservative replication".

Recombination
Recombination refers to  ways in which DNA modification leads to  distinct gene expressions and functions. Deletions, insertions and substitutions are the most useful changes implemented for the synthesis of new genes. Recombination techniques and recombinant DNA technologies  has made possible  the modification and  creation of new genes  for specific  proposes. These techniques helps clone, amplified and introduce new DNA  into suitable cells  for replication. Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase play a  vital  role in the production of recombinant DNA. Vectors are useful for cloning. Plasmids or viral DNA (lambda Phage) used to  introduced a  DNA sequence into a  cell is refer as  vector.

The semi-conservative hypothesis was confirmed by both Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl in 1958. The parent DNA was labeled with "heavy nitrogen," the radioisotope of fifteen. This radioactive nitrogen was made through growing E. coli with ammonium chloride (also with "heavy nitrogen") environment. Directly after the labeling of "heavy nitrogen" to the parent DNA strand, it was transferred to a medium with only regular nitrogen (isotope of fourteen). The proposed question was "What is the distribution between the two nitrogens in the DNA molecules after successive rounds of replication?" Using density-gradient equilibrium sedimentation, this question was answered. In this centrifugation, similar densities were grouped together in the tube. Afterwards, an absorbance was applied with ultra-violet light to determine the density bands of all the different kinds of DNA in the solution. After one generation, a unique single density band was shown. It was not exactly the band of heavy nitrogen nor the regular band of regular nitrogen, but rather halfway between the two. This proved that DNA was not conservative but semi-conservative due to this nitrogen hybrid. One generation after this one, there were two nitrogen-14 molecules and two hybrid nitrogen molecules. The probability and statistics of this second generation reassures the semi-conservative hypothesis.

As DNA strands can combine and form molecules, it can also be melted, resulting in separation or denaturation. It is important to note that the heat from the melting process does not disrupt the DNA structure, but rather DNA helicase takes energy from the heat, separating the DNA strands. The denaturation process occurs at about ninety-four degrees Fahrenheit where the double strands are converted to single stands. Absorbance readings were taken to reconfirm the denaturation process. When the DNA molecule is in its double-stranded form, it absorbs less UV light. In its single-stranded form, it absorbs more UV light because the single strand is more exposed than its double-strand counterpart. This is known as the hypochromic effect. In a PCR, polymerase chain reaction, it utilizes this denaturation capability in its primary step. Afterwards, it is then annealed at fifty to sixty degrees Fahrenheit. In this step, this is where the primers bind to their corresponding flanking DNA base sequence. In the last step, DNA polymerization, it requires a few ingredients: heat-resistant DNA polymerase, magnesium ion, buffer, and corresponding nucleotides. The DNA polymerase requires heat resistance because throughout the entire process, it undergoes a constant temperatures changes. The magnesium stabilizes the phosphate backbone. The buffer prevents drastic changes in pH, because if the pH lies near the extremes on the scale, it may denature the DNA so drastically that it will not recombine. This final step of DNA polymerization happens at the "melting temperature." The melting temperature is the temperature at which half of the DNA is single-stranded and the other half is double-stranded. At this optimal temperature of seventy-two degrees Fahrenheit, the DNA is amplified with its respective primers, replicating at an exponential rate.

=DNA manipulation: human's effort to desire DNA and "read" DNA=

Restriction endonucleases
What's endonuclease?--Endonucleases are enzymes that can recognize specific base sequences in double-helical DNA and cleave, at specific places, both strands of that duplex. Many prokaryotes contain restriction enzymes. Biologically, they cleave foreign DNA molecules. Because the sites recognized by its own restriction enzymes are metylated, the cells' own DNA are not cleaved. One striking properties of endonucleases is that they recognize DNA cleavage sites by "two-fold symmetry". In another word, within the cleavage site domain (usually 4 to 8 base pair), there exists a center, around which the cleavage site rotate 180 degree, the whole cleavage site would be indistinguishable. The following graph shows an example of how endonuclease recognize cleavage site by symmetry..After cleavage from several different endonulcease, a DNA sample would be sliced into many different duplex fragments, which are then separated by electrophoresis. The restriction fragments are then denatured to form single stranded DNA, which are then transferred to a nitrocellulose sheet, where they are exposed to a 32P-labeled single-stranded DNA probe. The single-stranded DNA are then hybridized by the radio active complementary strand. These duplex are then examined by autoradiography, which reveals the sequence of the DNA. This technique is named Southern plot, after Edwin South, who invented the technique. The following image shows the steps for creating a southern plot.

DNA sequencing
DNA subunits are dGMP, dAMP, dCMP and dTMP. In a DNA molecule, these subunits are connected in a way that their phosphate on 5 prime carbon are bonded to another subunit's hydroxy group on 3 prime carbon. If there is no hydroxy group on 3 prime carbon, then the DNA polymeration will be terminated. Utilizing this idea, subunit analogies were invented, ddGMP, ddAMP, ddCMP and ddTMP. These analogies have the same structure as their parent molecule except that they have hydrogen on 3 prime carbon instead of hydroxyl group. In practice, target DNA template is put into four polymeration environments, dNTP+ddGMP or ddAMP or ddCMP or ddTMP, respectively.. Statically, fragments with different length terminated at base, G, A, C, T will be formed, respectively. Then these fragments will be separated by electrophoresis, which will tell the sequence of the target DNA.

DNA synthesis
Although nature synthesize DNA from 5 prime carbon to 3 prime carbon, human synthesize DNA from 3 prime carbon to 5 prime carbon. The following monomer is commercially available for each of the base and is used as basic building block for DNA synthesis. It starts with the subunit with the first base bonded to resin by the 3 prime hydroxyl group. The second monomer with its own 5 hydroxyl protected by DMT (protecting group) was activated on its 3 prime phosphate, which is attached to the 5 prime hydroxyl group by nucleophilic substitution. Then the phosphite is oxidized by iodine to yield phosphate. Then DMT is removed to make the 5 prime hydroxyl available for the incoming of the third monomer. The graphical representation is shown below.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
It is used for amplification of DNA. It includes three stages: DNA denaturation, oligonucleotide annealing, and DNA polymerization. In each cycle, the DNA duplex is denatured at first, then the primers for both strands (forward and reverse) bind to the desired sites and at last both strands polymerize to form the desired sequence. What needed in PCR are the DNA containing the desired sequence, primers for both strands, heat resistant DNA polymerase, dNTP and constantly changing temperature. The following image shows the detailed steps in PCR.

=RNA Editing=

Introduction
Adenosine deaminases (ADAR) are mRNA editing enzymes that alternate a double stranded RNA sequence by tuning it. When tuning the mRNA, ADARs retype the nucleotides of the mRNA at certain, specific points they wish to change. Because ADARs can change the sequence of mRNA, they can create or remove a splice site, delete or alter the meaning of a codon, and finally change the sequence of the RNA altogether. ADAR plays a vital part in editing mRNA and modulating the mRNA translational activity and is mainly found in the nervous system and is important in regulating the nervous systems. Lacking the ADAR gene is very detrimental to health.

Function
RNA splicing and RNA editing are very similar to one another. RNA splicing is more of a cut, copy, and past process while RNA editing is an alteration of one or more nucleotides. There are mainly two types of ADAR that alternate the sequence of a single nucleotide. The first type of ADAR retypes cytidine nucleotides into uridine nucleotides while a second type of ADAR retypes adenosine into inosine. mRNA consisting of many inosine nucleotides in its sequence is known to be very abundant in the nucleus and only mRNAs that leave the nucleus can be translated. In this case, ADAR is modulating the translational activities of mRNAs. In modulating the translational activities of the specified mRNA, it is also modulating the abundance of the certain proteins that are expressed in the edited mRNA. Also, increasing inosine can stabilize the structure of mRNA. Hence, ADAR can function as an mRNA stabilizer too. ADARs target the coding sequence, introns, and 5’ and 3’ untranslated reigions (UTR). ADAR targets the coding sequence by changing the nucleotide which then changes the geometry of the protein. Change in the geometry of the protein may yield to higher protein-protein affinity interaction. This high protein-protein affinity can improve biological reactions by facilitating those reactions. Alternation of the non-coding sites such as introns, 5’, and 3’ UTR is still unknown. The only thing that is known is that alternating the sequence within these sites can create new splice sites.

Importance of ADAR
Adar is mainly found in the nervous system because it plays a very important role in regulating the nervous system. One of Adars’ primary functions is its regulation of the nervous system. Adar regulates the nervous system by editing the glutamate receptors’ mRNA. These glutamate receptors construct the glutamate-gated ion channels which are important in transferring electrical signals between neurons. When ADARs edit gluR mRNA, they change the calcium permeability of these glutamate channels. They can either lower the calcium permeability for certain glutamate channel or increase calcium permeability for other glutamate channels. Regulation of calcium permeability is important to proper neurotransmission between neurons.

Disease connecting to ADAR
Adenosine deaminase Deficiency (ADD) is caused by the lack of ADAR gene. Hence ADARs editing is important for survival especially for human. Without ADAR, the body can not break down the toxin deoxyadenosine. The accumulation of this toxin destroys the immune cells making its host vulnerable to infection from bacteria and viruses. Seizures can also be caused by ADAR. Unedited version of gluR mRNA strongly causes seizures. When a seizure happens, the body mechanism increases the level of ADAR activity to edit gluR mRNA to prevent future seizures.

DNA Replication:Initiation
There are multiple mechanisms that have been proposed for the melting of the DNA strand and the subsequent unwinding of the double helix during the initiation process of DNA replication.

Two recently proposed models are E1 and LTag. These two models function differently to attain the same overall goal of melting the DNA double helix due to differences in their overall structure.

E1 model: In the E1 hexamer, there are six ß-hairpins in the central channel of the protein. They are arranged in a staircase-like structure. Two adjacent E1 trimers assemble at the origin point to melt the double-stranded DNA. A ring shaped E1 hexamer is then formed around the melted single-stranded DNA and the DNA is then pumped through the ring hexamer to from a fork that allows for the replication of the DNA.

Ltag: The channel diameters of these hexamers vary between 13-17 angstroms. The hexamer responsible for melting has an assortment of planar ß-hairpins in the narrow channel. Two of these hexamers surround the origin point of the double-stranded DNA and squeeze the area together. This causes the melting of the dsDNA by forcing the breakage of base pairing. The two single-stranded DNA strands are then pumped into a larger channeland finally out through two separate Zn-domains. This allows for the replication of the DNA.

The two mechanisms here are built solely on the structural knowledge of the proteins involved in the process and as such more experimental support is needed to confirm.

There are not an excessive amount of helicases. Currently, work is being done in discerning the more simple helicases, and trying to find the different mechanisms that they may have. While there are some similarities, for example helicases all seem to have a hexameric structure, there are also differences as well in their structures that contribute greatly to the differences in their mechanisms.

-This article refers to a recently published article in Curr Opin Struct Biol. published 2010, Sep. 24.: "Origin DNA melting and unwinding in DNA replication" by Gai et al.

title: Biochemistry/DNA and RNA


text:
User:Paullusmagnus~enwikibooks

Paul Stansifer

See en:User:Paullusmagnus

Installing Linux (outline)
Intro
 * Oftentimes, installing Linux is hard because you want to keep you data/OS
 * If not, (new computer, don't care about old OS + data backup), it's easier.
 * Depending on what hardware the computer has and your experience level, the ease of installation varies greatly

Do you want to install Linux?

 * Software
 * (usually) compatible and equivalent for most purposes, and (almost always) free (table of equivalents) (include narrower, deeper list)
 * Performance
 * Good idea!
 * Price
 * Not free but close
 * Ease-of-use
 * mixed ... getting better
 * Stability
 * Good ... unless you get so hooked you start using nightly builds and unstable releases

Which of these goals apply?
 * keeping data
 * ...without restoring a backup
 * coexistence with another OS
 * sharing data with that OS
 * both ways?

Can it be done?

 * Low-end systems are almost always fine (unless you have a 286 lying around)
 * Can you backup? (do you need to?)
 * Does the hardware work? (see )

Trying Linux

 * Floppy distros
 * Knoppix/Gnoppix
 * Very useful later on as well; if it provides an Internet connection while you're trying to set up the main one, it can save you a great deal of trouble.
 * Running Linux from another OS's partition.

Choosing a Linux
(or do you want a BSD instead?)
 * Desktop environment (GNOME/KDE/blackbox/wm/console)

 * Distros: ease-of-use vs. power, package management. A visit to http://www.distrowatch.com/ should be mandantory.
 * Debian
 * Don't use the stable release (as of 2004, it is over three years old)! (unstable is better)
 * For a quick&easy install, get Knoppix 3.3 or later and install that.
 * Otherwise, be sure to have an Internet connection and be prepared to learn a lot.

Stuff you should learn

 * Basic command line manipulation
 * Text editor: vi/EMACS
 * Recompiling the kernel (not that hard, may be necessary).
 * Using Lynx

Getting Linux

 * Download
 * CD
 * Spare partition
 * Network install
 * CD
 * Floppies
 * Spare partition
 * Buy a CD/DVD
 * price/donations
 * Buy a computer with Linux on it
 * Skip to Using Linux

Dual-booting

 * Nodestructive repartitioning
 * defragment first!
 * FAT - FIPS
 * NTFS - ntfsresize
 * Backup and reinstall
 * writable CD/DVD
 * network
 * tape

(Re)partitioning

 * unnessecary sometimes, with FAT partitions
 * but you probably want to do it anyways
 * what partions you'll need to make
 * ext3? ReiserFS? XFS?
 * how much space per partition

Installing

 * You ought to already know enough about the hardware at this point.
 * This has become a lot easier.
 * But, know about your hardware, and be sure to have Internet access, in case something doesn't work.

After the install

 * Data transfer/conversion
 * Configuration
 * security
 * environment
 * Proceed to Using Linux

Computer Graphics: 3D
Because computers are millions of times as fast at arithmetic than humans, they can be used to generate the 2-dimensional view of a 3-dimensional scene algorithmically.

Raytracing describes the process of simulating the straight lines that light follows as it bounces off objects into the viewer's eye. Because determining the path of millions of photons is incredibly difficult, backwards raytracing traces the path from the eye to the object to the light source, so only one ray needs to be sent out per pixel in the finished product.

Here, the Persistance of Vision Raytracer, or POV-Ray, will be used to demonstrate raytracing for the following reasons: It may be downloaded from http://www.povray.org for Linux, Microsoft Windows, or MacOS. The help files are extensive and can serve as indrotuction to ray-tracing on their own.
 * It is free software, and availible on virtually all platforms, so it is accessible to everyone.
 * Scenes are defined by means of text files, so examples are easy to follow and the underlying aspects of raytracing are more evident.
 * The scene files are also modular as in a programming language, so it is easy to build off the work of others.
 *  [plus, the author hasn't used anything else]

Sanity check
We will now render the original computer graphics cliché: a mirrored sphere hovering over a checkered plane. Enter the following text into "lesson01-test.pov" (Windows users can enter it into POV-Ray for Windows's internal text editor and save it as this when prompted)

/*Test scene*/ global_settings{ assumed_gamma 1.0 //make sure that this looks the same on all monitors }
 * 1) version 3.5; //this code will work in POV-Ray version 3.5

background{ color rgb <0,0,1> } //Objects plane{ y, 0 /*normal vector, position along that vector*/ texture{ pigment{ checker color rgb <0,1,0> /*green*/ color rgb <1,1,1> /*white*/ }   } } sphere{ <0,2,0>, 1 /*location, radius*/ texture{ pigment{ color rgb <0,0,0> }      finish{ reflection{0.9} ambient 0.0 specular 0.5 }   } } //light light_source{ <0,0,0> /*location*/ color rgb <1,1,1> /*colored white*/ } //camera camera{ location <-4,2.5,0> look_at <0,2,0> } What's antialiasing?

The pixels on your computer screen are large enough for you to see individually. Since the real world isn't made up of tiny squares like pictures on a computer screen are, diagonal lines and curves tend to come out looking jagged. Antialiasing counteracts this by making pixels that cover an edge border an average of the two colors. This looks better, but takes more time, as multiple rays must be sent out per pixel. Render this with the command line parameters "+W320 +H240 +A0.3 +FN" to output a PNG file called "lesson01-test.png" that is 320x240 pixels and is antialiased. If it goes too slowly, use "-A" instead of "+A0.3" next time to turn off antialiasing. If you can see the preview window and don't want to save the image file, next time, use "-F" instead of "+FN".

If all goes well, you will see a mirrored sphere hovering over a green and white checkered floor against a blue sky.

POV-Ray's syntax
Programmers will feel right at home with POV-Ray's syntax, because it is inspired by the C programming language. Whitespace and ends of lines are ignored (camera{location<-4,2.5,0> look_at<0,2,0>} is perfectly legal), comments surrounded by <tt> /*...*/</tt> are ignored, as are comments coming after <tt>//</tt> on a line. The scene file should consist of sequence of "scene items" (their order doesn't matter), where scene items are usually the camera, lights, and objects.

A page about setting up POV-Ray belongs here.

How to use objects
There are two objects in the test scene, the plane and the sphere. Let's look at the sphere. sphere{ <0,2,0>, 1 /*location, radius*/ texture{ pigment{ color rgb <0,0,0> }        finish{ reflection{0.9} ambient 0.0 specular 0.5 }     }   } Change the <tt><0,2,0></tt> to <tt><0,0,0></tt> and rerender. What happens?

[....]

Objects
Objects are made of primitives, simple and not-so-simple constructs like "plane", "sphere", "isosurface". They can be combined by means of Constructive Solid Geometry or CSG. CSG works by adding and subtracting primitives and is very useful for the creation of objects with a large number of simple surfaces, such as floppy disks and furniture.

POV-Ray primitives are seperated into categories:

 * finite solid primitives :These are most like real objects. The simple finite solid primitives include <tt>box, sphere, cone, cylinder, lathe, torus,</tt> and <tt>text</tt>.
 * finite patch primitives :These don't have any thickness. They are <tt>polygon, disc, triangle,</tt> and <tt>bicubic_patch.</tt>  Triangles can be efficiently grouped in very large numbers with <tt>mesh</tt> and <tt>mesh2</tt>.  Usually, this is used for files imported from other formats.
 * infinite solid primitives :<tt>plane</tt> is the only common one, the others create surfaces defined by polynomial equations
 * special math objects :<tt>parametric</tt> and <tt>isosurface</tt> can be used to mathematically define complex surfaces.

The CSG operations are
 * <tt>union</tt>/<tt>merge</tt> :Combine multiple objects into one. <tt>merge</tt> removes internal surfaces for use in, for example, glass.
 * <tt>difference</tt> :Cut out the shape of one object from another.
 * <tt>intersection</tt> :Remove all the shape that isn't in both (all) objects.

The <tt>inverse</tt> keyword turns an object inside-out. The difference is not visible with a plain object (because objects consist only of their surfaces and the surface is in the same place), but is very useful in CSG. <tt>intersection{object{A} object{B}}</tt> is the same as <tt>difference{object{A} object{B inverse}}</tt>. (The <tt>object{}</tt> syntax will be explained later).

For example, here is a coffee cup scene. Try this out in "<tt>lesson02-csg.pov</tt>"

#version 3.5; background{color rgb <0,0,1>} /*objects*/ plane{ y, 0 pigment{checker color rgb <0,1,0> color rgb <1,1,1>}} union{ difference{ cylinder{ <0,0,0>, <0,2,0>, 1 /*bottom, top, radius of cylinder*/ pigment{ color rgb <1,0,0> //red }        }         cylinder{ <0,.1,0>,           <0,2.0001,0> /*results are unpredictable when this is <0,2,0> because it creates "coincident surfaces"*/ 0.9           pigment{ color rgb <0,1,0> //green }        }      }      torus{ .5, .15        rotate x*90 translate x*1.5+y*1 pigment{ color rgb <0,0,1> //blue }     }      translate z*1 }  /*light*/ light_source{<2,5,-4> /*location*/ color rgb <1,1,1> /*colored white*/} /*camera*/ camera{location <0,3.5,-4> look_at <0,2,0> right x*image_width/image_height } Notice that the parts that we are not currently concerned with have been compressed onto their own lines.

Standard practice
But you've been leaving "<tt>texture</tt>" out!

<tt>texture</tt> blocks can contain <tt>pigment</tt>, <tt>normal</tt>, and <tt>finish</tt> blocks for objects with complicated surfaces. It becomes inconvenient to write "<tt>texture{ pigment{ color rgb <0,1,0> }}</tt>" if a pigment is all that's needed, so POV-Ray allows you to leave that. "<tt>texture</tt>" should be used if more than one of the above blocks are included, or if that object has layered textures (more on them later).

As in programming, POV-Ray files can become unreadable and hard to modify if not written well. The code structure is hiearchial — you could have a <tt>sphere</tt> which contains a <tt>texture</tt> block, which contains a <tt>pigment</tt> block, which contains a <tt>color_map</tt> block, for example. The general rule is that each level of hiearchy is indented one level further than the previous:

sphere{ <0,1,0>, .5  texture{ pigment{ /*don't worry about the unusualness of this section for now*/ bozo scale .4 color_map{ [0.0 color rgb <1.0,0.4,0.4>] [1.0 color rgb <0.1,0.4,0.9>] }      }       finish{ specular 1.0 diffuse 0.4} } } Notice that the rule was violated in the above example - the <tt>finish</tt> block was squished onto one line. Well, this <tt>finish</tt> statement us very short (they almost always are), and one can save space and make the code more legible by violating the rule for simple statements, especially those deep in the hiearchy.

Colors
How does one represent colors in text? Simple names like "red" and "magenta" aren't good enough for duplicating that <font style="background-color:#F5E3E9;">subtle purple-pinkish color on the main page. Any color can be described as a combination of red, green and blue because of the way the human eye works. POV-Ray represents colors as vectors of numbers between 0 and 1. <tt>color rgb <1.0, 0.4, 0.4></tt> is a red color with extra green and blue added — this makes it a light-red color.

Sometimes, a partially-transparent color is needed, like for defining colored cellophane. In this case something like <tt>color rgbft <0.5, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6> </tt> would be used, adding two numbers to describe the transparencey. But good-looking transparent objects require more than that, so we'll save that for later.

Needed/needs consideration

 * standardized code formats
 * should we introduce so many things at once? (copy&pasting text files could be annoying, so maybe we should keep the number of things introduced low)
 * how about a .zip or .tar.bz2 with all the files needed: one download, and instructions are of the form "open Chapter07/specular.pov"?
 * standard sidebars? ("what's antialiasing?" "why'd <tt>texture</tt> disappear?" "How do I do this?")

title: User:Paullusmagnus~enwikibooks