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United Nations History/Dag Hammarskjöld

Who was he?
Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld (July 29, 1905 – September 18, 1961) was a Swedish diplomat and the second Secretary-General of the United Nations. He served from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961 under mysterious circumstances. The exact cause of his death has never been conclusively determined. He is the only person to have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize posthumously.

As Secretary General
When Trygve Lie resigned from his post as UN Secretary General in 1953, the Security Council decided to recommend Hammarskjöld to the post. It came as a surprise to him. He was selected on March 31 with the majority of 10 out of eleven states. The UN General Assembly elected him in the April 7–10 session, by 57 votes out of 60. In 1957, he was re-elected.

Hammarskjöld started his term by establishing his own secretariat of 4,000 administrators. He set up regulations that defined their responsibilities. He insisted that the secretary-general be able to take emergency action without the prior approval of either the Security Council or General Assembly.

Relations Abroad
During his term, Hammarskjöld tried to soothe relations between Israel and the Arab states. In 1955, he went to mainland China to negotiate the release of 15 US pilots who had served in the Korean War and been captured by the Chinese. In 1956, he established the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF). In 1957, he intervened in the Suez Crisis.

Death
In September 1961, Hammarskjöld found out about the fighting between non-combatant UN forces and Katanga troops of Moise Tshombe. He was en route to negotiate a cease-fire on the night of September 17-18 when his DC-6B plane (SE-BDY) crashed near Ndola, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). The crew had filed no flight plan (for security reasons), and a decoy aircraft went (via a different route) ahead of Hammarskjöld's aircraft. He and fifteen others perished.

On August 19, 1998, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, chairman of South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), stated that recently-uncovered letters had implicated British MI5, American CIA and South African intelligence services in the crash. One TRC letter said that a bomb in the aircraft's wheel-bay was set to detonate when the wheels came down for landing. Tutu said that the veracity of the letters was unclear; the British Foreign Office suggested that they may have been created as Soviet misinformation.

On July 29, 2005, 100 years after Hammarskjöld's birth, the Norwegian Major General, Bjørn Egge, gave an interview to the newspaper Aftenposten on the events surrounding his death. According to Egge, who was the first UN officer to see the body, Hammarskjöld had a hole in his forehead, and this hole was subsequently airbrushed from photos taken of the body. It appeared to Egge that Hammarskjöld had been thrown from the plane, and grass and leaves in his hands might indicate that he survived the crash, and had tried to scramble away from the wreckage. Egge does not claim directly that the wound was a gunshot wound, and his statement does not align with Archbishop Tutu's information or with the findings of the official inquiry. In an interview on March 24, 2007 on the Norwegian TV channel NRK, an anonymous retired mercenary claimed to have shared a room with an unnamed South African mercenary who claimed to have shot Hammarskjöld. The alleged killer was claimed to have died in the late 1990s.

Hammarskjöld is still the only U.N. Secretary-General to die in office.

title: United Nations History/Dag Hammarskjöld


text:
United Nations History/Boutros Boutros-Ghali

Boutros Boutros-Ghali
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Arabic: بطرس بطرس غالي, Coptic: Bουτρος Βουτρος-Γαλι) (November 14, 1922 – February 16, 2016) was an Egyptian diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996.

Nagorno-Karabakh War
The Nagorno-Karabakh War refers to the armed conflict that took place from February 1988 to May 1994, in the small ethnic enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan, between the predominantly ethnic Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by the Republic of Armenia against the Republic of Azerbaijan. As the war progressed, Armenia and Azerbaijan, both former Soviet Republics, became enveloped in a protracted, undeclared war in the mountainous heights of Karabakh as Azerbaijan attempted to curb a secessionist movement in Nagorno-Karabakh. The enclave's parliament had voted in favor of uniting itself with Armenia and a referendum was held with the vast majority of the Karabakh population voting in favor of independence. The demand to unify with Armenia, which proliferated in the late 1980s, began in a relatively peaceful manner; however, in the following months, as the Soviet Union's disintegration neared, it gradually grew into an increasingly violent conflict between the two ethnic groups, resulting in claims of ethnic cleansing by all sides.

Security Council Resolutions
Four UN Security Council Resolutions have been passed during the Nagorno-Karabakh war.

Works
Boutros-Ghali has published two memoirs:

 * Egypt's road to Jerusalem (1997), about the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.
 * Unvanquished: A U.S.-U.N. Saga (1999), about his time as Secretary-General at the UN.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
United Nations History/Trygve Lie

Who was he?
Trygve Halvdan Lie (July 16, 1896 – December 30, 1968) was a Norwegian politician. From 1946 to 1952 he was the first elected Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Early life
Lie was born in Oslo (then Kristiania) on 16 July 1896. Lie's father, Martin, left the family to work as a carpenter in the United States and his mother, Hulda, ran a boarding house. Lie joined the Labour Party in 1911 and was named as the party's national secretary soon after receiving his law degree from the University of Oslo in 1919. He married Hjørdis Jørgensen in 1921; the couple had three daughters, Sissel, Guri, and Mette.

Legal Work
He worked as a legal consultant from 1922 and was subsequently elected to the Storting (Norway's Parliament). He was appointed Minister of Justice when a Labour Party government was formed by Johan Nygaardsvold in 1935. Lie was later named Minister of Trade and Industries and Minister of Supply and Shipping.

Trygve Lie and Trotsky
An early admirer of the October Revolution in Russia, Lie once met Vladimir Lenin and gave permission for Leon Trotsky to settle in Norway after he was exiled from the Soviet Union. It has been rumored that Lie succumbed to Joseph Stalin's wishes to have Trotsky placed under house arrest, though historians can neither confirm nor fully deny this. Lie later ordered Trotsky to leave Norway when Trotsky violated his promise to refrain from political activity.

Count Folke Bernadotte
United Nations Security Council Resolution 72, adopted on August 11, 1949, after receiving a report by the Acting United Nations Mediator in Palestine on the completion of his responsibilities the UN decided to pay tribute to the late Count Folke Bernadotte, the then current Acting Mediator Dr. Ralph J. Bunche and the Belgian, French, Swedish and American officers who served on the staff and as military observers in Palestine.

Folke Bernadotte, Count of Wisborg (2 January 1895 – 17 September 1948), was a Swedish diplomat noted for his negotiation of the release of about 15,000 prisoners from German concentration camps during World War II. In 1945, he received a German surrender offer from Heinrich Himmler, though the offer was ultimately rejected.

After the war, Bernadotte was unanimously chosen by the victorious powers to be the United Nations Security Council mediator in the Arab-Israeli conflict of 1947-1948. He was assassinated in Jerusalem in 1948 by members of the underground Zionist group Lehi while pursuing his official duties.

Text of Resolution
The Security Council,

Having taken note of the report of the Acting United Nations Mediator in Palestine, submitted upon the completion of his responsibilities,

 * 1) Desires to pay tribute to the qualities of patience, perseverance and devotion to the ideal of international peace of the late Count Folke Bernadotte, who stabilized the situation in Palestine and who, together with ten members of his staff, gave his life in the service of the United Nations;
 * 2) Desires to express its deep appreciation of the qualities of tact, understanding, perseverance and devotion to duty of Dr. Ralph J. Bunche, Acting United Nations Mediator in Palestine, who has brought to a successful conclusion the negotiation of armistice agreements between Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria on the one hand and Israel on the other;
 * 3) Desires also to associate in this expression of appreciation the members of the staff of the United Nations mission in Palestine, including both the members of the United Nations Secretariat and the Belgian, French, Swedish and United States officers who served on the staff and as military observers in Palestine.

title: United Nations History/Trygve Lie


text:
United Nations History/Gladwyn Jebb

Gladwyn Jebb
Hubert Miles Gladwyn Jebb, 1st Baron Gladwyn, GCMG, GCVO, CB, known as Gladwyn Jebb (April 25, 1900 – October 24, 1996), was a prominent British civil servant, diplomat and politician as well as the first Acting Secretary-General of the United Nations.

Diplomatic Service
Entering the Diplomatic Service, in 1924, Jebb's career included: served in Tehran [Iran], Rome [Italy], and the Foreign Office; Private Secretary to Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State, 1929-31; Private Secretary to Permanent Under-Secretary of State, 1937-40; appointed to Ministry of Economic Warfare with temporary rank of Assistant Under-Secretary, August 1940; Acting Counsellor in Foreign Office, 1941; Head of Reconstruction Department, 1942; Counsellor, 1943, in that capacity attended the Conferences of Quebec [Canada], Cairo [Egypt], Tehran, Dumbarton Oaks [United States], Yalta [Soviet Union], San Francisco and Potsdam [Germany]; Executive Secretary of Preparatory Commission of the United Nations (August 1945) with temp. rank of Minister; Acting Secretary-General of UN, February 1946; Deputy to Foreign Secretary on Conference of Foreign Ministers, March 1946; Assistant Under-Secretary of State and United Nations Adviser, 1946-47; UK representative on Brussels Treaty Permanent Commission with personal rank of Ambassador, April 1948; Deputy Under-Secretary, 1949-50; Permanent Representative of the UK to the United Nations, 1950-54; British Ambassador to France, 1954-60, retired; Deputy Leader of Liberal Party in House of Lords, and Liberal Spokesman on foreign affairs and defence, 1965-88; Member, European Parliament, 1973-76 (Vice President, Political Committee); contested (L) Suffolk, European Parliament, 1979.

Association with Churchill
Gladwyn Jebb was at Munich with Chamberlain, at Yalta and Potsdam with Churchill. His contribution to the establishment of the United Nations and NATO was sufficient on its own to have made him a major figure of the twentieth century. He was Britain's representative at the UN during the Korean War, our ambassador in Paris during the Suez crisis and he played a crucial part in Britain's first attempt to join the Common Market, famously vetoed by de Gaulle.

Establishing the UN
The first meetings of the United Nations were held in London, before its move to New York. The first session of the General Assembly was held in Central Hall Westminster on 10 January 1946. With British diplomat Gladwyn Jebb (later Lord Gladwyn) acting as Secretary-General the United Nations was duly inaugurated, and the first General Assembly President and Secretary-General elected. One week later the Security Council met for the first time, in Church House, Westminster, with the Soviet presence in Iran immediately on the agenda. In 1947 two dedicated divisions were set up within the Foreign Office to handle United Nations issues, covering political and economic aspects respectively.

title: United Nations History/Gladwyn Jebb


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United Nations History/UN Formed

Term used
United States president Franklin D. Roosevelt first suggested using the name United Nations to refer to the wartime Allies. Roosevelt suggested the term to United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill ,who cited Byron's use of the phrase "united nations" in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, which referred to the Allies at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. Franklin Delano Roosevelt adopted the name and the first official use of the term occurred on January 1, 1942 with the Declaration by the United Nations.

During subsequent phases of World War II, the Allies used the term "United Nations" to refer to their alliance.

Formation
On January 1, 1942, representatives of 26 nations at war with the Axis powers met in Washington to sign the Declaration of the United Nations endorsing the Atlantic Charter, pledging to use their full resources against the Axis and agreeing not to make a separate peace. At the Quebec Conference in August 1943, Secretary of State Cordell Hull and British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden agreed to draft a declaration that included a call for "a general international organization, based on the principle sovereign equality of all nations." An agreed declaration was issued after a Foreign Ministers Conference in Moscow in October 1943. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt met with Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in Tehran, Iran, in November 1943, he proposed an international organization comprising an assembly of all member states and a 10-member executive committee to discuss social and economic issues. The United States, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and China would enforce peace as "the four policemen." Meanwhile Allied representatives founded a set of task-oriented organizations: the Food and Agricultural Organization (May 1943), the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (November 1943), the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (April 1944), the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank (July 1944), and the International Civil Aviation Organization (November 1944).

Dumbarton Oaks Draft
U.S., British, Soviet, and Chinese representatives met at Dumbarton Oaks in Washington in August and September 1944 to draft the charter of a postwar international organization based on the principle of collective security. They recommended a General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council consisting of the Big Four plus six members chosen by the Assembly. Voting procedures and the veto power of permanent members of the Security Council were finalized at the Yalta Conference in 1945 when Roosevelt and Stalin agreed that the veto would not prevent discussions by the Security Council. Roosevelt agreed to General Assembly membership for Ukraine and Byelorussia while reserving the right, which was never exercised, to seek two more votes for the United States.

Meeting in San Francisco
Representatives of 50 nations met in San Francisco April-June 1945 to complete the Charter of the United Nations. In addition to the General Assembly of all member states and a Security Council of 5 permanent and 6 non-permanent members, the Charter provided for an 18-member Economic and Social Council, an International Court of Justice, a Trusteeship Council to oversee certain colonial territories, and a Secretariat under a Secretary General. The Roosevelt administration strove to avoid Woodrow Wilson's mistakes in selling the League of Nations to the Senate. It sought bipartisan support and in September 1943 the Republican Party endorsed U.S. participation in a postwar international organization, after which both houses of Congress overwhelmingly endorsed participation. Roosevelt also sought to convince the public that an international organization was the best means to prevent future wars. The Senate approved the UN Charter on July 28, 1945, by a vote of 89 to 2. The United Nations came into existence on October 24, 1945, after 29 nations had ratified the Charter.

title: United Nations History/UN Formed


text: User talk:203.81.161.154

title: User talk:203.81.161.154


text:
United Nations History/League Formed

Description
The League of Nations was an international organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920. The League's goals included disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes between countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving global welfare. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years.

James Eric Drummond
James Eric Drummond, 16th Earl of Perth, KCMG, CB (August 17, 1876 – December 15, 1951) was a Scottish representative peer, a British diplomat and the first general secretary of the League of Nations.

Half brother of the 15th Earl of Perth, Drummond was born in North Yorkshire, England. He was educated at Eton and began his Foreign Office career in 1900. In 1906, he became private secretary to Lord Edmund Petty-FitzMaurice, the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. In 1908 and again from 1910 to 1911, he was précis writer for Sir Edward Grey, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.

Joseph Louis Anne Avenol
Joseph Louis Anne Avenol (June 9, 1879, Melle, Deux-Sèvres, France—September 2, 1952, Duillier, Vaud, Switzerland) was a French diplomat. He served as the second general secretary of the League of Nations, from July 3, 1933 to August 31, 1940. He was preceded by Sir Eric Drummond of the United Kingdom, who was general secretary between 1920 and 1933, and he was succeeded by the Irish diplomat Seán Lester, who was general secretary between 1940 and 1946, when the League was dissolved.

Avenol was sent to the League of Nations from the French Treasury Department in 1922 to handle the League's finances. He was under secretary-general in 1933, when Eric Drummond resigned. He became secretary-general because the first secretary-general had been British and there had been a private agreement at Versailles that the next would be French. Avenol was accused of using the League as an extension of the French Foreign Office in its policy of appeasement of Germany and Italy. In fact, as he showed after the German occupation of Paris, he was a supporter of Hitler, Mussolini and Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy régime.

Seán Lester
Seán Lester (September 28, 1888, Carrickfergus, County Antrim, Ireland – June 13, 1959, Galway, Ireland) was an Irish diplomat and the final Secretary General of the League of Nations, from August 31, 1940 to April 18, 1946.

Lester was both an Ulster Protestant and an Irish nationalist. He was born in County Antrim, the son of a grocer. Despite the fact that the town of Carrickfergus, where he was born and raised, was strongly Unionist, he joined the Gaelic League as a youth, and was won over to the cause of Irish nationalism. As a young man he joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood. He was working as a journalist for the North Down Herald and a number of other northern papers, before moving to Dublin, where he found a job with the Freeman's Journal. There, by 1919, he had risen to news editor.

After the War of Independence, a number of his friends joined the new government of the Irish Free State. Lester was offered, and accepted, a position as Director of Publicity.

title: United Nations History/League Formed


text:
United Nations History/Order Visualized

Explanation of the Term
The term "new world order" has been used to refer to a new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and the balance of power. The first usages of the term surrounded Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points and call for a League of Nations following the devastation of World War I. The phrase was used sparingly at the end of the Second World War when describing the plans for the United Nations and Bretton Woods system, in part because of the negative association to the failed League of Nations the phrase would bring. In retrospect however, many commentators have applied the term retroactively to the order put in place by the WWII victors as a "new world order."

Uses of the Term
The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and George H.W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that they hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide-ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's vision was, in comparison, much more circumscribed and pragmatic, perhaps even instrumental at times, and closely linked to the Gulf War. Perhaps not surprisingly, the perception of what the new world order entailed in the press and in the public imagination far outstripped what either Gorbachev or Bush had outlined, and was characterized by nearly comprehensive optimism. Historians will look back and say this was no ordinary time but a defining moment: an unprecedented period of global change, and a time when one chapter ended and another began.

Global Banking Crisis
The scale and the speed of the global banking crisis has at times been almost overwhelming, and I know that in countries everywhere people who rely on their banks for savings have been feeling powerless and afraid. But it is when times become harder and challenges greater that across the world countries must show vision, leadership and courage – and, while we can do a great deal nationally, we can do even more working together internationally.

So now is the time for leaders of every country in the world to work together to agree the action that will see us through the current crisis and ensure we come out stronger. And there is no international partnership in recent history that has served the world better than the special relationship between Britain and the United States.

It is a relationship that has endured and flourished because it is based not simply on our shared history but on the enduring values that bind us together – our countries founded upon liberty, our histories forged through democracy and an unshakeable belief in the power of enterprise and opportunity.

But if it reflects our values and our histories, this special relationship is also a partnership of purpose, renewed by every generation to reflect the challenges we face. In the 1940s it found its full force defeating fascism and building the postwar international order; in the cold war era we fought the growth of nuclear weapons and when the Berlin Wall fell we saw the end of communism. In this new century, since the horrors visited on America in 2001, we have worked in partnership to defeat terrorism.

Now, in this generation, we must renew our work together once again. A new set of challenges faces the whole world, which summons forth the need for a partnership of purpose that must involve the whole world. Rebuilding global financial stability is a global challenge that needs global solutions. However, financial instability is but one of the challenges that globalisation brings. Our task in working together is to secure a high-growth, low-carbon recovery by taking seriously the global challenge of climate change. And our efforts must be to work for a more stable world where we defeat not only global terrorism but global poverty, hunger and disease.

Globalisation has brought great advances, lifting millions out of poverty as they reap the benefits of economic growth and trade. But it has also brought new insecurities, as this – the first truly global financial crisis – underlines. Globalisation is not an option, it is a fact, so the question is whether we manage it well or badly.

Mirror in Star Wars
The Star Wars story has had, without a question, the greatest impact on popular culture of any movie in world history. We will now explore why it has resonated so strongly with so many people across generations.

At last, the mainstream media is picking up on something we've been talking about for years. The plot lines of George Lucas' six Star Wars films mirror, in many respects, the activities of western governments.

George Lucas, the creator of the Star Wars saga, has said over and over again that he simply plays on subconscious archetypal symbols that evoke primeval fears and passions. Lucas has also stated on many occasions that he draws from historical examples of imperial leaders' lust for war and total power. Lucas has said that that is why his films have such a powerful effect of people. Deep down, everyone knows that the greatest threat to life and liberty isn't the average criminal on the street, but the monolithic, all-powerful state. The human desire to resist tyranny is one of the strongest drives we have and Lucas plays upon that instinct masterfully. While premiering his film, Star Wars: Revenge of the Sith, at the Cannes Film Festival George Lucas was asked if his new film was a social commentary on George Bush and the Iraq invasion (which even our own government admits is part of America's new "kindly, helpful and loving" imperialism).

How can they not ask this when Darth Vader says to his former teacher Obi-Wan Kenobi, "if you're not with me, then you're my enemy." Remember that Lord Bush, after the 9/11 attacks said, "either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists."

Transformation into Dictatorship
Lucas responded to the reporters by saying that the original Star Wars was developed in the early post-Veitnam War era shortly after Richard Nixon left office amidst a Byzantine scandal.

He continued by saying, "The issue was, how does a democracy turn itself into a dictatorship...When I wrote it, Iraq (the U.S.-led war) didn't exist.. but the parallels of what we did in Vietnam and Iraq are un believable ...I didn't think it was going to get this close." This story deals not only with parallels between Star Wars Episode III and the Iraq invasion, it also details the psychology of government-sponsored terrorism as a tool of empire, and real secret societies like the Order of Death that Darth Vader and the Sith are based on.

Most young people have been fed a false political paradigm and so are bored with history and world events. When they learn the true nature of the global controllers in a Star Wars context we know they will join the real rebellion. Learn who the real dark lords are in Martial Law. Speaking about present day America he said, "I hope this doesn't come true in our country."

There are thousands of examples of classical despotism being practiced in the US and worldwide today. Here are just a couple:

- Our new Attorney General, Alberto Gonzales, in published memos told the President and military leaders that US forces could interrogate detainees to death. If the detainees died while being tortured, the military's actions would be legal as long as they hadn't killed them on purpose. The document contained examples of how to strap someone down to a table and lower them into "liquid effluent" until they began to pass out.

Gonzales had the nerve to say that President Bush is the law and that he can break any Federal or international law that he wishes because he is the President. Gonzalez openly defended his view in front of a Senate panel that still confirmed him to be Attorney General.

Remember Hans Solo in the Empire Strikes Back strapped down in a torture chair as Darth Vader administers electric shocks. According the Alberto Gonzales' logic this is good. Vader works for the Emperor and the Emperor is the law.

The Attorney General's dark views are shared by the rest of the White House. They believe that they are above the law. Coupled with the exploding American police state, this reality is the text book manifestation of dictatorship.

Combine this open demonstration of dictatorship with 63 countries on a White House invasion hit-list and tyrannical empire is the only term that fits.

-Under section 802 of the USA Patriot Act, misdemeanor non-terror related crimes are listed as terrorism. Citizens are stripped of their most basic Constitutional rights that were held sacred in the old Republic.

-George Bush has set up a draconian Department of Homeland Security, giving FEMA the power to engage in mass arrests.

-Last year, the outgoing head of CENTCOM, General Tommy Franks, told the press that if America was attacked again the Constitution would be set aside in favor of a military form of government.

-The Federal government is dismantling the last vestiges of States' rights with its new Federally-standardized National ID Card that has been integrated with thousands of private databases to track and trace our every action.

title: United Nations History/Order Visualized


text:
United Nations History/Global Government

What is it?
World government is the concept of a political body that would make, interpret and enforce international law. Inherent to the concept of a world government is the idea that nations would be required to pool or surrender (depending on point of view) sovereignty over some areas. In effect, a world government would add another level of administration above the existing national governments or provide coordination over areas national governments are not capable of adequately addressing as independent polities. The authority granted this level and how it relates to national governments and/or citizens is debated by both adherents and opponents to world government.

According to Some
Some people see international institutions (such as the International Criminal Court, United Nations and International Monetary Fund) and various supranational and continental unions (such as European Union, South American Union and Asian Union) as the beginning elements of a world government system. An organization comprised of legislators from various nations known as Parliamentarians for Global Action have promoted ideas of democratic global governance, though such promotion has varied in its scope and intensity during the organization's history.

The Book
One World is a travelogue written by Wendell Willkie and originally published in 1943. It is a document of his world travels and meetings with many of the then-Allies heads of state as well as ordinary citizens and soldiers in locales such as El Alamein, Russia, and Iran. Willkie also discusses the need for some sort of World government.

Especially emphasized is the position of China in the world after the war; involved in a civil war between Nationalists and Communists, Willkie prophesies that whichever power achieves victory will make China a force to be reckoned with. It is the duty of the United Nations (the Allies, not the organization) to make sure that power is not only friendly to American and other Allied interests, but also that it is powerful enough to help the Chinese, the world's most populated nation.

One World was highly popular in its time and sold millions of copies. It spent four months weeks atop the New York Times bestseller list beginning in May 1943. The United States of Africa is a name sometimes given to one version of the possible future unification of Africa as a national and sovereign federation of states similar in formation to the United States of America, mirroring the idea of the United States of Europe. The idea has recently been advanced by Libyan leader, and newly elected chairman of the African Union, Muammar al-Gaddafi, at a 2000 summit in Lomé, Togo (and again in June 2007 and February 2009), and by Alpha Oumar Konare, chairperson of the African Commission, on the occasion of the commemoration of the Africa Day, on May 25, 2006.

United States of Africa
The phrase "United States of Africa", was mentioned first by Marcus Garvey in his poem 'Hail, United States of Africa' in 1924. Garvey's ideas deeply influenced the birth of the Pan-Africanist movement which culminated in 1945 with the Fifth Pan African Congress in Manchester, United Kingdom, attended by W.E.B. Du Bois, Patrice Lumumba, George Padmore, Jomo Kenyatta and Kwame Nkrumah. Later, Nkrumah and Haile Selassie (among many others) took the idea forward to form the Organisation of African Unity, the forerunner of today's African Union.


text: Category:Book:United Nations History

title: Category:Book:United Nations History


text:
Talk:United Nations History

skeletal novel completed by 69.51.160.106 (talk) 14:48, 18 March 2008 (UTC), now the meat can be put on the bones.--69.51.160.106 (talk) 14:48, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:United Nations History


text:
User talk:Switney

Welcome!
Welcome, !

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:56, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Switney


text:
User talk:Jtneill

Welcome, !

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:57, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

Outdoor education

 * Thanks Mike, I've started expanding Outdoor education. Appreciate any pointers. Sincerely, James

Heh... you're everywhere these days! In my experience, trying to set a TOC in advance can be a good way to organize your thoughts, but when it comes to creating content I tend to just start or edit a page on whatever subject I was thinking of that day, and use the categories to keep it all together (you can always go back and make a TOC using the category lists later). I'm certainly interested in the subject, so feel free to bounce ideas off of me if you need to. -- SB_Johnny | PA! 15:56, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Wikiworld
I've nominated this for speedy deletion for two reasons. I didn't delete it outright because I wanted to give you a chance to keep a copy of the wikitext if you wanted to put it over at Wikisource (don't forget to clarify the licensing!).
 * 1) The licensing is questionable; we'd need specific permission information forwarded to OTRS to accept this work
 * 2) As a previously-published work, it belongs at Wikisource anyways

By the way, Outdoor Education is looking much better. If you have any specific questions, you know where to find me. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:29, 20 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Hello over here too! I see you're still doing excellent work on content. I have been making an effort to contribute content recently, though mostly at Commons (surprisingly). Anyways, just a "hello" — Mike.lifeguard | talk 19:44, 12 September 2008 (UTC)

Pace of Completion of Chapters of the Motivation and Emotion Textbook
Hi James,

To the extent that you are relying on me to help maintain the pace of development of the chapters of the textbook on Motivation and Emotions, please be advised that I am working into a high-impedance obstacle course on the English Wikiversity.

As you may know, Adam has range-blocked some 70,000 IPv4 addresses in six domains in three states, plus the entire IPv6 network, worldwide.

As a result, I am spending more time in a state of Frustration and Perplexity instead of a state of Flow and Satisfaction when it comes to contributing content to the Motivation and Emotions Textbook.

If your objective is to minimize time to completion, you might want to consider removing some of the roadblocks.

If your objective is to ensure that we thoroughly explore the affective emotional experience of being maximally impeded in a learning objective, then you can encourage and enable Adam to continue playing the role of antagonist and foil in the remarkable exercise in applied dramaturgy.

Either way works for me, since I have dual objectives of publishing the results of studies into cognition, affect, and learning as well as gaining more first-hand experience of the process of wrestling with seemingly intractable problems in the learning process itself.

Moulton (talk) 10:46, 19 August 2010 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jtneill


text: User talk:24.238.66.55

title: User talk:24.238.66.55


text: Category:Book:History of Spain

title: Category:Book:History of Spain


text:
Zulu/Exercise/Lesson 4

Welcome to the exercises related to Lesson 4.

Click "▼" to check your answers.

How long have you been working for?
How would you respond to: (Assume for these questions that your name is Lebohang Ndlovu and that you're a student in Pretoria in your 3rd year. But you come from Johannesburg. You are 22 years old. Your mother is a cook. Your brother is teacher. You have two friends called Sipho and Mfanafuthi. Sipho stays in Cape Town.)

Do you know...
Translate the following Zulu sentences into English:

Translate the following English sentences into Zulu:

Odd one out:

Dialogue
Try translating the following dialogue:

Next step

 * If you would like, review this lesson: Lesson 4
 * Otherwise, continue to the next lesson: Lesson 5

title: Zulu/Exercise/Lesson 4


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History of Spain

 * 1) /Ancient Spain/ - The arrival of Cro-Magnons to Augustus' conquest of Hispania (35,000 BCE - 17 BCE)
 * 2) /Roman Spain/ - The Roman conquest to the creation of an independent Gothic kingdom (17 BCE - 475 CE)
 * 3) /Visigoths/ - The rise and fall of Rome's most powerful successor state (475 - 711)
 * 4) /Spain Divided/ - The invasion of the Moors to the ascension of Charles I (711 - 1516)
 * 5) /Habsburg Spain/ - The ascension of Charles I to the end of the Habsburg dynasty (1516 - 1700)
 * 6) /Bourbon Spain/ - The death of Charles II to the invasion of Napoleon (1700 - 1808)
 * 7) /Napoleonic Wars/ - The rise and fall of the House of Bonaparte (1808 - 1814)
 * 8) /First Restoration/ - The Bourbon Restoration to the Spanish Revolution (1814 - 1868)
 * 9) /First Republic/ - The abdication of Isabella II to the ascension of Alfonso XII (1868 - 1874)
 * 10) /Second Restoration/ - Alfonso XII and Alfonso XIII (1874 - 1931)
 * 11) /Second Republic/ - The 1931 Constitution to the end of the Civil War (1931 - 1939)
 * 12) /Francoism/ - The dictatorship under Franco (1939 - 1975)
 * 13) /Third Republic/ - The death of Franco to the present day (1975 - 2024)

Historia de España

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User talk:74.62.215.125

Join Us!
--Webaware talk 23:30, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

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Talk:Linux Guide/Software equivalents

The list under the Windows column seems to leave out a large amount of free software, like Firefox, that also runs in Windows. The page introduction says it is a list of "commonly used proprietary software and their open source equivalents" but is is broken down by operating system. Either the table should be a list of oss software vs commercial, or it should be a list by OS. Right now it is jumbled and does not fully represent the software landscape.
 * Agreed - this should present separate tables for Windows and Mac which list platform-specific applications and their equivalents on linux. In addition, cross-platform software should be listed. — Mike.lifeguard | talk 20:57, 1 January 2010 (UTC)

I'm not sure if I'm editing this right, I'm new to editing Wikipedia articles but I feel that the attitude of "necessary" AV software should be changed. Just because it's not needed doesn't mean that it shouldn't be used. Just my two cents. : ) March 8, 2010, 8:45 EST

title: Talk:Linux Guide/Software equivalents


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Talk:World History/Middle Eastern Empires

this is hard to read. the "what of" phrases are awkward. the other thing is that there is little formatting, and it is hard to skip from section to section because a lot of sentences to not indicate the subject as such.

alot of this sounds like its directly pasted out of a another book

Sadly I must delete most this as it seems to be plagiarism


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User talk:Tiicoo

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User talk:Cparker

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User:Penubag/sandbox

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Prealgebra for Two-Year Colleges/Workbook AIE/Proportional reasoning

The material below was taken from. It needs to be put into workbook form.

Proportional Reasoning

Proportionality is a mathematical relation between two quantities. Proportional reasoning is one of the skills a child acquires when progressing from the stage of concrete operations to the stage of formal operations according to Piaget's theory of intellectual development.

What is Proportionality?
“In mathematics and in physics, proportionality is a mathematical relation between two quantities.” There are two different views of this “mathematical relation”; one is based on ratios and the other is based on functions.

An Arithmetic Viewpoint
In many school books proportionality is expressed as an equality of two ratios:
 * $$\frac{a}{b} = \frac{c}{d}$$

Given the values of any three of the terms, it is possible to solve for the fourth term. Once a student has mastered this arithmetic skill, one is tempted to think the student understands proportional reasoning. However, experimental evidence indicates that may not be the case.

A Functional Viewpoint
A scientist has a much different view of proportionality. Given the following equation for the force of gravity (according to Newton)
 * $$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}$$

the scientist would say that the force of gravity between two masses is directly proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two masses. From this perspective proportionality is a functional relationship between variables in a mathematical equation.

Proportional Reasoning and Intellectual Development
In Piaget’s model of intellectual development, the fourth and final stage is the formal operational stage. In the classic book “The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence” by Jean Piaget and Barbel Inhelder formal operational reasoning takes many forms, including propositional reasoning, deductive logic, separation and control of variables, combinatorial reasoning, and propositional reasoning. Robert Karplus, a world-renowned science educator in the 1960s and 1970s, investigated all these forms of reasoning in adolescents and adults, but he is perhaps best know for his study of proportional reasoning.

Problem Statement
Here is a picture of Mr. Tall and Mr. Short.

Mr. Short is six paper clips in height. If he is measured in large buttons he is four large buttons in height.

Mr. Tall is similar to Mr. Short but is six large buttons in height.

Predict the height of Mr. Tall if you could measure him in paper clips. Explain your response.

Typical Solutions
Multiplicative Reasoning 1: “He is nine paper clips tall. Each button is equal to one and a half paper clips. If he is six buttons tall you multiply six time one and a half to get nine paper clips.”

Multiplicative Reasoning 2: “Mr. Tall is 1 ½ times as high as Mr. Short. Since Mr. Short is 6 clips high, Mr. Tall must be 6 * 1 ½ =  9 clips high.”

Multiplicative Reasoning using addition: “For every two buttons there are three paper clips. Mr. Tall is 2 buttons taller than Mr. Short so he must be 3 paper clips taller. 6 + 3 = 9 paper clips.”

Additive Reasoning 1: “Mr. Tall is 8 paper clips high. Mr. Short is 4 large buttons high and 6 paper clips high. So the buttons are 2 less than the paper clips. Since Mr. Tall and Mr. Short are similar, and Mr. Tall is 6 buttons high, he must be 8 paper clips high.”

Additive Reasoning 2: “Mr. Tall is two more buttons taller than Mr. Short so he will also be two more paper clips taller than Mr. Short resulting in 8 paper clips.”

Estimate: “Nine, I figured he would be a bit taller.”

Haphazard: “Since Mr. Tall is 2 more buttons than Mr. Short, I took the 6 paper clips and multiplied by 2 to get 12 paper clips.”

For the adolescent or adult who has not attained formal operational reasoning yet, the additive solution is by far the most common. It is a consistent, logical strategy, albeit incorrect, and for the values involved in the problem it produces a believable answer. This does not appear to be a problem with arithmetic skills, rather it is the application of an incorrect strategy.

Inverse Proportion
Comparable reasoning patterns exist for inverse proportion. Consider a container of colored liquid inside a right triangle where the triangle can be tilted and the water levels on the left and right side can be measured on a built-in scale. We call this a “water triangle.”

Problem Statement and Typical Solutions
Rotate your water triangle until you get a measurement of 4 units on the left side and 6 units on the right side.

Suppose the triangle is tilted even more until the water level on the right side is at 8 units. Predict what the water level in units will be on the left side.

Someone with knowledge about the area of triangles might reason: “Initially the area of the water forming the triangle is 12 since ½ * 4 * 6 = 12. The amount of water doesn’t change so the area won’t change. So the answer is 3 because ½ * 3 * 8 = 12.”

A correct multiplicative answer is relatively rare. By far the most common answer is something like: “2 units because the water level on the right side increased by two units so the water level on the left side must decrease by two units and 4 – 2 = 2.” Less frequently the reason for two units is: “Before there is a total of 10 units because 4 + 6 = 10. The total number of units must stay the same so the answer is 2 because 2 + 8 = 10.”

So again we see individuals who are not at the formal operational level apply an additive strategy to solve an inverse proportion rather than a multiplicative strategy. And, like the direct proportion, this incorrect strategy appears to be logical to the individual and appears to give a reasonable answer. Students are very surprised when they actually carry out the experiment and tilt the triangle to find the answer is 3 and not 2 as they so confidently predicted.

Viewing These Strategies as Functional Relations
Let T be the height of Mr. Tall and S be the height of Mr. Short, then the correct multiplicative strategy can be expressed as T/S = 3/2; this is a constant ratio relation. The incorrect additive strategy can be expressed as T – S = 2; this is a constant difference relation. Here is the graph for these two equations. For the numeric values involved in the problem statement, these graphs are “similar” and it is easy to see why individuals consider their incorrect answers perfectly reasonable.

Now consider our inverse proportion using the “water triangle.” Let L be the height of the water on the left side and R be the height of the water on the right side, then the correct multiplicative strategy can be expressed as  L * R = 24; this is a constant product relation. The incorrect additive strategy can be expressed as L + R = 10; this is a constant sum relation. Here is the graph for these two equations. For the numeric values involved in the problem statement, these graphs are “similar” and it is easy to see why individuals consider their incorrect answers perfectly reasonable.

Teaching for Proportional Reasoning
As any experienced teacher will attest, it is not sufficient to simply tell a student his/her answer is incorrect and then instruct the student to use the correct solution. The incorrect strategy has not been “unwired in the brain” and would re-emerge after the current lesson has been completed.

Also the additive strategies noted above cannot simply be labeled as “incorrect” since they do correctly match other real world situations. For example, consider the following problem:

On Independence Day this year Mr. Tall was 6 years old and Mr. Short was 4 years old. On a future Independence Day Mr. Short is 6 years old. How old will Mr. Tall be on that Independence Day?

Similarly the constant sum relation can be correct for some situations. Consider the following problem.

There are four beavers on the left side of a river and six beavers on the right side of the river. At a later time with the same group of beavers there are eight beavers on the right side of the river. How many beavers will there be on the left side?

So there are situations where the additive relations (constant difference and constant sum) are correct and other situations where the multiplicative relations (constant ratio and constant product) are correct.

Use of Hands-On Activities and Karplus’ Learning Cycle
It is critically important that students on their own recognize that their current mode of reasoning, say that it is additive, is inappropriate for a multiplicative problem they are trying to solve. Robert Karplus developed a model of learning he called the learning cycle that facilitates the acquisition of new reasoning skills.

1) The first phase is one of exploration in which students learn through their own actions and reactions with minimal guidance. The learning environment has to be carefully designed to focus student’s attention on the relevant issues.  Learners may experience some cognitive dissonance if they discover their pre-existing strategy does not match observed results.  This may lead to questions that they cannot answer with their present ideas or reasoning patterns.

2) In the second phase the concept is introduced and explained. Here the teacher is more active, and learning is achieved by explanation.

3) Finally, in the third phase, the concept is applied to new situations and its range of applicability is extended. Learning is achieved by repetition and practice so that new ideas and ways of thinking have time to stabilize.

Hands-on activities are extremely useful in the learning cycle. After making predictions about the height of Mr. Tall in paper clips, the measuring tools can be introduced and the students can test their strategies. For the student using a constant difference relation, actual measurement will show that Mr. Tall is actually nine paper clips high and this will set up some cognitive dissonance.

The same is true for the inverse relations. Here is a picture of two students working with the “water triangle.” Given the problem noted above, most students predict the water level on the left side will drop to two units when the water triangle is tilted. When they carry out the experiment and see that the answer is 3 units, this establishes some cognitive dissonance. This is a prime time for the teacher to move the lesson into the second stage of the learning cycle.

It is important that the students not over apply the multiplicative strategies they learn. Therefore some of the hands-on activities might not be based on a multiplicative relation. Here is a picture of two students working with an apparatus where the constant sum relation is correct.

It is not always possible or feasible to put carefully designed hands-on activities into the hands of students. Also, older audiences do not always react well to using hands-on experimentation. However, it is often possible to introduce cognitive dissonance through thought experiments.

Determining a Correct Relation Based on Thought Experiments
In all the experiments noted above there are two variables whose values change based on a fixed relation. Consider the following problem that is similar to the Mr. Tall and Mr. Short problem.

Here is a photograph of a father and a daughter. In this picture the daughter is 4 cm high and the father is 6 cm high. They decided to enlarge the picture and in the bigger picture the daughter is 6 cm high. How high is the father in the larger picture?

A very common answer for an individual using an additive relation is 8 cm because the father is always 2 cm higher than his daughter. So now ask this student the following question:

Suppose they made a very small version of the original picture and in this small picture the father is 2 cm high. How high will the daughter be in this small picture?

The student quickly realizes that the strategy “the father is always 2 cm higher than his daughter” is not correct. This can also be achieved by exploring the other extreme where the original picture is blown up to poster size and the daughter is 100 cm high. How high will the father be in this poster? A student answering 102 cm realizes that the father and daughter are almost the same height which cannot be right. Once cognitive dissonance is present, the teacher can introduce the correct relation, constant ratio.

The student can also be encouraged to conduct their own thought experiments, such as “what if the height of the daughter doubles in an enlargement, what will happen to the height of the father?” Most students, including those still at the concrete operational stage, will quickly answer that the father’s height must also double. The abstract thought experiment is: “Suppose that one of the variables is doubled in value, how will the other variable change?” If the answer is “double”, then this may be a constant ratio problem. But if the answer is not double, such as for the age problem with Mr. Tall and Mr. Short given above, then it is not a constant ratio problem.

For inverse relations, such as the “water triangle”, limiting cases can also introduce cognitive dissonance. For example, given the initial conditions with the water level on the left at 4 units and the water level on the right at 6 units, ask what the water level on the left would be if the triangle is tilted until the water level on the right is 10 units. Students will abandon the additive strategy at this point realizing that 0 cannot be the correct answer. A thought experiment can be performed for inverse relations. If one variable doubles in value, what happens to the other variable? If the answer is ½ then this might be a constant product relation (that is, an inverse proportion).

Plotting the values of variables can also be a valuable tool for identifying whether two variables are directly proportional or not. If they are directly proportional, then the values should be on a straight line and that line should intersect the origin.

Expanding Functional Reasoning
The four functional relations noted above, constant sum, constant difference, constant product, and constant ratio, are based on the four arithmetic operations students are most familiar with, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Most relations in the real world do not fall into one of these categories. However, if students learn simple techniques such as thought experiments and plotting graphs, they will be able to apply these techniques to more complex situations.

Again, consider Newton’s equation for the force of gravity:
 * $$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}$$

If a student understands the functional relation between the variables, then he/she should be able to answer the following thought experiments.

What would happen to the force of gravitational attraction if:
 * one of the masses is doubled?
 * one mass doubled and the other mass halved?
 * both masses doubled?
 * both masses halved?
 * the distance between the masses doubled?
 * the distance between the masses halved?

A final word of caution: thought experiments must be confirmed by experimental results. Consider the following variables: the mass of an object and the velocity with which it falls to the earth. Many children and adults when asked to perform a thought experiment might say that when the mass is doubled then the object will fall twice as fast. However, experimental results do not back up this “logical” thought experiment. So it is always essential that theoretical results agree with experimental data.


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User talk:Penubag/sig

--[[user:penubag|penubag ]]''' ([[w:user talk:penubag|talk]]; [[w:user:penubag|w]])

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Talk:How To Become A Good Student/Chapter 1 - Motivation

Old comments from original page - Eagerness
I would like to edit this wikibook, as its purpose seems rather benevolent. However, I CANNOT deal with the author's incorrect usage of English THROUGHOUT the sparse chapters. "Badness" "eagered" and various other English side deficencies make me think this book should be heavily re-edited before reintroduction into public domain on wikibooks.

 * Then just jump in and fix it. Just be gentle and polite as you do it.  And please sign your contributions to these talk pages by adding --~ at the end.

I think "Motivation" would be a better title for this chapter. Editing now.--Aleron235 02:29, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

A Big Thanks To The Contributing Users
Hello! I'm the leader author of this Wikibook. If you have any queries, please you are free to ask me. I would like to give a very special thanks to the user Aleron235 for contributing his efforts to edit this chapter of this Wikibook. Have a good day! --Mastermind 007 11:40, 22 January 2006 (UTC)

Well, that's All
Hello! This is a message to Aleron235 that I think that's enough we need for "Motivation" because as a book for students, I want it to be small but able-to-be-understood. I think I shall put "100%" for the development stages because it's all complete and it looks 100% to me as well. Although, if you want to add more, then you can do it anytime you want. Have a good day! --Mastermind 007 11:50, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

Quote?
How does the included quote relate to becoming a good student? I can't understand what the deep meaning to it is other than "I'm British and I hate the EU". I'm going to remove it...70.171.11.153 19:09, 27 August 2006 (UTC)


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How To Become A Good Student/Chapter 1 - Motivation

Motivation Is the Basic Step
It has been said that to get the required performance out of an individual, you must first discover what motivates them. Motivation drives individuals to act. Why do you watch television instead of reading a book? Why drive one block when you can walk? The answers to these questions vary from individual to individual—and all are correct. They reveal each person's motivation for handling the specific situations mentioned.

How does this relate to being a good student? Simple. You must look within yourself to discover a reason for becoming a better student. Nobody will provide you the answer. It is an individual decision that must be made. Once you discover your motivation, you will have taken the first step.

Hope to obtain motivation
Motivating yourself to be motivated will motivate you. That seems a little redundant, but you must start somewhere. A belief that you have what it takes will pep you up and propel you. From the first step to the next and so on, always taking a pride in the few steps climbed will motivate and lead you further and further.

Force yourself to concentrate
Concentration plays a big role in motivation. It will be discussed in the next chapter.

Make good deeds a part of your routine
It can be like quitting smoking, or volunteering at a nursing home. Doing something good for yourself or others will help you be motivated. The most important part of motivation is FOCUS. You have to stay focused. Understand why you are at that college, and not on the beach surfing or skiing. You want to be that "Doctor", "Engineer" or whatever. The point here is to get that piece of paper that says "You're what you really want to be".

Relaxation
Relaxation seems like the opposite of what you need to do to be motivated, but this is untrue. Being relaxed makes it easy to become motivated without being stressed out. Think of your relaxation in terms of a health bar in a video game: if it gets too low, you are in danger of dying (meaning being too stressed out, causing you to lose motivation).

Curiosity
Some people naturally have a thirst for knowledge. They may enjoy reading random articles on Wikipedia in their spare time, or reading books, or doing projects. Try to take these practices and apply them to your studies.

Do what you like
You don't need to motivate yourself to do something you really like. You don't have to motivate yourself to eat that chocolate bar when you are on a diet. Therefore, try to study things you like as much as possible, or at least try to make it interesting for yourself. You may also try to read some self-help books; these are encouraging tools to motivate yourself.

Losing Your Motivation
Most people have been in a situation where they would have worked, studied, or read a book, but they do not want to do it under certain circumstances. Imagine, for example, that you are writing an essay for a contest. You like to write essays, and you are interested in the topic. But then you learn that the contest is actually rejecting most of the entries without reading them. There is a good chance that they won't read yours. This might kill your motivation.

The sad part of it is that the process of writing is the most beneficial part of the essay contest. If you won, you would get an award, but you would not be any better a writer than if you lost. Writing the essay, showing it to your peers, teachers and parents, and polishing it, are the important activities. It is through writing that you become a better writer.

Unfortunately, in our example, you have been subjected to injustice, and that can occupy your mind and block you from writing. Many other influences can affect your motivation.

Your Teacher Dislikes You
It is hard not to get the feeling that you are doing your school work to impress your teacher. There is no way that you can always write an essay that every teacher will love.

Instead of impressing your teacher, try to write solid essays. Try to define "quality" as something that is not dependent on the teacher. Set a goal for yourself to write an essay of the highest "quality" that you are capable of, and then when you are done, discuss with your peers, parents and teachers what you did.

This discussion with your teacher will show the teacher that you are really serious about what you are doing, and you will probably gain higher marks. More importantly, you will satisfy your own desire to do worthwhile work. Each time you write, refine your definition of "quality" so you have a new goal.

The Subject Is Boring
Your teacher has given you an assignment: plot 10 representative points on standard graph paper for 20 different mathematical equations. Draw a "fit" line for each one. Make sure the graphs are properly labeled.

Even if you are a math wizard, assignments like this can be boring. The repetitiveness may really bother you. It could be hard to see the "real-world" purpose of the assignment. You might suspect that the teacher assigned the project because it is an easy way to separate "workers" from "slackers" to assign grades.

The first thing you should do is catch up on all your other homework. Tell someone that you are leaving this assignment for later because you don't want it to ruin your motivation. Ask that person to make sure you do the assignment before it's due.

When it comes time to do the boring work, you should be able to hammer through it with the expectation of great relief when you're done. Then, write an article in the school newspaper or a letter to your congressman about how you dislike these assignments.

You Are In Over Your Head
Sometimes you will get stuck while you are working on a tough assignment in a challenging class. It is very important to let someone know that you may be in over your head. You may feel a desire to do something easy and fun, like play a video game or watch TV, instead of working on the assignment and reminding yourself that you are not up to the task.

Ideally, you will not be given an assignment you are truly incapable of finishing. If you do not have a breakthrough in a reasonable amount of time, you need to alert the teacher that you are going to fail. A decent teacher will help you work through your mental blockage. If you are a university student, you may need tutoring or you may want to "audit" the class one time through before you take it for real.

If you are in high school, you might need to stay after school or find a suitable tutor. Perhaps you should step down a level and take the weight off of your shoulders. Advanced classes make school interesting for people who would be bored by a slower pace. If you are in over your head, you need to slow down and really learn it.

In any event, you will cause much greater damage to yourself if you fail a class or get a low grade. The American GPA system is unforgiving. You cannot gain points like you lose points. Nobody cares about valiant, failing efforts at tough classes. If you are in over your head in high school, find shallower water by changing your level. In university, get out of the pool by dropping the class.

Loss and Illness
There is no insurance against loss and illness in the school system. If someone close to you dies or you get meningitis, you will probably lose your motivation, and it may happen at a bad time. You will probably not learn the material and you will not do well on exams. Ask someone to begin to negotiate an escape strategy for you.

In high school, you may want to repeat a year. They will discourage it, but it is your prerogative and they are obliged to school you until you are 21. In college, find out if they can cancel your grades for the semester. Bad grades are hard to explain away, but canceled grades are easily explained by naming the event that caused you to cancel them. They also do not affect the all-important GPA.


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User talk:Varns

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Image:Krishna nambur.jpg is missing license or source information

 * NB: you can use images directly from the Wiki Commons, and there are already several images of Krishna there.

Image:Brindavanbig.jpg is missing license or source information

 * You might want to check out what is already available on Commons.

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text: User talk:58.26.52.2

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Talk:Hindi Lessons/Lesson 0

Untitled
mara naam narender singh rawat hai(In Hindi)

My name is narender singh rawat (In English)

title: Talk:Hindi Lessons/Lesson 0


text: User talk:208.19.14.146

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text: User talk:24.39.224.194

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User:P Cole

Proposal for Wikibook

Sucessful School Readiness for All ChildrenBold text'''

Introduction by Michael Conn-Powers Chapters 1. Physical Well-Being and Motor Development 2. Social Emotional Development 3. Language Development 4. Approaches to Learning 5. Congnition and General Knowledge 6. Getting a Good Start with Infants and Toddlers 7. Ready Families 8. Ready Schools

Tools to be included: School Readiness Practices Checklist

title: User:P Cole


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User:Sathish121

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title: User:Sathish121


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Talk:Outdoor Education

Welcome
This is the discussion page. Any question, comment, etc. related to the outdoor education wikibook can be added here. These pages will become archived with the book, as part of the record of its creation. It is also a kind of community-place. In general, it is good wikitequette to sign any contributions with four tildas ~. This will leave your 'signature' (which can edit in your preferences). Jtneill (talk) 15:26, 19 March 2008 (UTC)

Hello Im new to wiki editing (long time reader) and im interested in contributing to this page. I think i have a pretty unique perspective on outdoor education and would love to try share/gain some knowledge using this book. Im just wondering why there seems to be a lack of discussion online about the topic and good sources of free infomation. 1.Am I just looking in the wrong places? 2.Why in a industry that has been talking about communication and collaboration for 20 years not jumped on the wiki bandwagon already? Any feedback from ANYONE out there would be welcome thanks! Takeelos (talk) 08:51, 5 October 2010 (UTC)

Virtual Book Fairs
Bookworm believe that good literature has the power to provoke thought, spark imagination, and shape character. It reinforces the concepts essential to civilized society: courage, compassion, integrity, goodness, and gratitude. Books bring these gifts to life, helping children develop inner resources that can be drawn upon throughout their lives.

Bookworm include onsite book fairs online book fairs, educational game fairs, educational game flyer program,, summer reading program,, teacher wishlist programs, and other special events such as author signings, book clubs, and book giveaways to classrooms and/or libraries.

http://www.bookwormcentral.com/images/ProductImages/9780312369811.jpg

title: Talk:Outdoor Education


text: User talk:59.183.148.148

title: User talk:59.183.148.148


text: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Pashto

title: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Pashto


text: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/General Physics


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Proteomics/Protein - Protein Interactions/Cross-linking

This Section:

Introduction
Cross-links are ionic or covalent bonds that form between two polymer chains. In the context of biological science, cross-linking generally refers to a molecular reaction that joins two molecular units in order to study their interactions.

In the process of studying protein-protein interactions, the technique of cross-linking has proven to be very important in obtaining information about the structure and function of proteins. Cross-linking also helps elucidate vital information about protein interactions in receptors, signaling cascades, and multiprotein complexes. The information obtained from cross-linking experiments is powerful because it provides a higher resolution of the structural data; to the point of mapping protein-protein interactions to specific amino acids or domains. The most important advantage of cross-linking is that it allows for noncovalent protein-protein interactions, those that are transient or dependent on specific physiological conditions, to be captured in long term covalent complexes that maintain the information even through further processing, including purification, enrichment, and analysis.

Bifunctional cross-linking
Bifunctional cross-linking reagents contain two reactive groups, thus creating a way to covalently link two target groups. These target groups can be on the same protein, or on different proteins. The usual target for these reagents are nucleophilic side chains like tyrosine or cysteine.

Homobifunctional Cross-Linking
In homobifunctional cross-linking reagents both reactive groups are the same. The majority of homobifunctional cross-linking reagents create intramolecular crosslinks.

Heterobifunctional Cross-Linking
In heterobifunctional cross-linking reagents the reactive groups are different. This allows for intermolecular crosslinks. Possessing different reactive groups allows the crosslinker to make conjugations between specific functional groups on different molecules and help minimize self-conjugation.

Oxidative Cross-Linking
Oxidative cross-linking, introduced by Brown et al, is highly specific. The process is mediated by a Ni(II)-peptide reagent [N(II)-NH2-Gly-Gly-His-COOH] and the presence of a peracid such as magnesium monoperoxyphthalic acid or oxone. The initiation of the mechanism involves the oxidation of the Ni(II) to Ni(III) by the peracid, which creates a high valent oxo species. In turn, the species can then strip an electron from aromatic amino acid side chains, like a tyrosine residue. This radical cation can then, through electrophilic attack, covalently couple to a nearby tyrosine or cysteine. Finally, a hydrogen atom is abstracted by an unknown species. The final product is a cross-linked protein complex. To see the mechanism, as first described, in its entirety see Brown et al.

This cross-linking method is advantageous in that through an affinity cross-linking strategy the Ni(II)-peptide can be selectively delivered to a protein and activated at a desired time by the addition of the peracid. In turn, this reaction may be highly localized and avoids modifications to unrelated proteins making data interpretation less complicated.

Photoreactive crosslinking
Cross-linking is a useful tool in the study of protein-protein reactions, but the nature of most cross-linking methods prevents their use in live cells. Recently, the use of photo-reactive amino acid analogs to create cross-links between interacting proteins has allowed scientists to study protein complexes in-vivo. Analogs of leucine and methionine, both featuring photosensitive diazirine rings, are fed to growing cells. These analogs are incorporated into proteins and create cross-links between interacting proteins when exposed to ultraviolet light.

Photo-sensitizers, like naturally occurring riboflavin, undergo photo-excitation with exposure to light, transferring energy to reactions. The photo-excited molecules are generally very reactive as well, frequently binding readily to nearby compounds. This property has been used in new clinical treatments of keratonconus, a degenerative disorder of the cornea. A solution of riboflavin is added to the eye and activated with UV light. The reactive riboflavin creates new cross-linking bonds across the cornea, restoring some of its mechanical strength.

The amino acid analogs used to analyze protein-protein interactions take advantage of the reactivity of photo-excited molecules. The analogs are identical to the natural amino acids, except for a photosensitive diazirine ring. When exposed to UV light, the nitrogen is released and a reactive carbene is formed. The activated carbene has a very short half-life, so reactions must occur with groups in a very close proximity. In a protein complex, the carbenes will react with nearby groups to form stable cross-links that “freeze” the complex in its current position, allowing scientists to analyze the protein-protein interactions within the complex.

Cells are grown in a medium featuring these analogs, with the cells including them into proteins during synthesis where the corresponding natural amino acids would normally occur. Three amino acid analogs were created. Photo-leucine and photo-methionine were produced in large amounts, while photo-isoleucine was produced in almost 20-fold less amounts.

The exciting thing about these amino acids analogs is their lack of toxicity. Studies have shown that the photo-amino acids are incorporated well into the cells, and growing cells in a medium lacking natural leucine and methionine, but with plentiful amounts of their photo-analogs, slows the growth only slightly but the viability of the cells is unchanged. Also, photo-activation of the cells does not affect viability. This allows these amino acid analogs to be used in growing cells to study protein-protein interactions in-vivo, with minimal effect on the cell.

Photo-excitable diazirine has been incorporated into sugars to analyze membrane reactions. Monosaccharides with diazirine are incorporated in cell surfaces, excited with ultraviolet light, then analyzed as part of glycoprotein complexes within the membrane. These photo-sugars are metabolically incorporated into the cell’s glycoproteins and can trap interations between glycoproteins. Because of diazirine’s small size, the functionality of the glycoproteins is relatively unaffected.


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User talk:Vladisdead~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Vladisdead. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Vladisdead~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:52, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

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text: User talk:Drcj81

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