text:
Talk:Toyota Prius/FAQ

EV Mod
Should we have a disclaimer on mods such as the EV mod? (May void warranty, etc) Also, the entire section should be fleshed out more with information on when it is possible to use EV mode and when it is appropriate to. I don't have one, but if nobody else expands that I will try. - FourOhFour 18:18, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

Sure! NuShrike 22:04, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Wow. I sort of forgot about this comment... I'll look into the EV button and try to add some more info on it when I get a chance. FourOhFour 00:23, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

Purchasing Tools
71.224.246.98, can you please explain why you've been commenting out entire sections of the lower part of the page that does not include Purchasing Tools, for the second time? NuShrike 23:03, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

Well Kiloran, you've sorta explained your edits on the page instead of coming here. But still, if editing to offline the calculators, please be exact with your commenting and not include everything else. NuShrike 22:27, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

-- Actually, I only became aware of discussion section through your history comment. This page is my only experience with wiki so I'm not particularly expert. I thought I had limited my commenting to the Purchasing Tools section, of which the calculators were the sole contents. My appologies if my edits inadvertantly affected other sections. -K

PHEV
I would create a book about Toyota Prius PHEV conversion. How to convert a Prius into a PHEV Prius. --193.145.201.52 10:27, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Fuel
When I saw the text under "Fuel", I just couldn't ignore some serious factual errors:

1) Avgas is not kerosene; it is gasoline, and there are several varieties (80, 100, 100LL, etc.). If avgas WERE kerosene, my airplane would not fly and I would be very unhappy. Jet fuel (JET-A, JP4, etc.) is essentially kerosene, although it's not a good idea to fill your jet aircraft with commercial kerosene, for a variety of reasons.

2) The sentence on high-performance engines was out of place and factually inaccurate. In internal-combustion engines, power is produced by the thermal expansion of gases heated by the combustion of fuel. Generally speaking, burning more fuel (or burning it hotter) produces more power. Large-displacement engines burn more fuel and high-compression engines burn it hotter (and require fuel with a high antiknock index to ensure the ignition spark results in deflagration rather than detonation). At any rate, the discourse really doesn't belong in an article on the Prius.

3) The term "octane" historically refers to how well a fuel resists autoignition while being compressed, as compared to a mixture of iso-octane and heptane. Fuel that resists autoignition as well as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane is rated "90 octane". Unfortunately, there are in use several different systems for determining octane equivalencies, meaning the same fuel can have many numerically different ratings.

4) Aviation fuel is rated using the Motor Octane Number (MON) system, as is automobile gasoline in many countries. MON is a component--along with the Research Octane Number (RON) of the AntiKnock Index (AKI) commonly seen on gas pumps in the United States. Therefore, the statement that avgas is rated using a different system is incorrect.

UncleBubba (talk) 16:47, 23 January 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Toyota Prius/FAQ


text:
Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Glossary

Comment
Added a few simple definitions, just to get it started. --BCalchet 18:25, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Glossary


text:
Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Crucio

"Bellatrix Lestrange, one of Lord Voldemorte's Death Eaters used this curse on Neville Longbottom's parents before killing them." Huh? His parents are not dead. People should READ the books before writing about them!!! Boothcat4320 19:04, 4 November 2005 (UTC)


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/index

This section will explain how to deform your mesh using the armature.

There are two ways to tell Blender which vertex will go with which bone: Vertex group, and Envelope.

There is also a tool useful when animating which is part of the mesh object: the Shape key, to create a preset deformation. For example: deform the face to look like a smile.

 * Connection between Armature and Mesh
 * Envelope
 * Vertex Groups & Weight Paint
 * Shape Key


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Piezoelectric Transducers

=Introduction=

Piezoelectricity from the Greek word "piezo" means pressure electricity. Certain crystalline substances generate electric charges under mechanical stress and conversely experience a mechanical strain in the presence of an electric field. The piezoelectric effect describes a situation where the transducing material senses input mechanical vibrations and produces a charge at the frequency of the vibration. An AC voltage causes the piezoelectric material to vibrate in an oscillatory fashion at the same frequency as the input current.

Quartz is the best known single crystal material with piezoelectric properties. Strong piezoelectric effects can be induced in materials with an ABO3, Perovskite crystalline structure. 'A' denotes a large divalent metal ion such as lead and 'B' denotes a smaller tetravalent ion such as titanium or zirconium.

For any crystal to exhibit the piezoelectric effect, its structure must have no center of symmetry. Either a tensile or compressive stress applied to the crystal alters the separation between positive and negative charge sights in the cell causing a net polarization at the surface of the crystal. The polarization varies directly with the applied stress and is direction dependent so that compressive and tensile stresses will result in electric fields of opposite voltages.

=Vibrations & Displacements=

Piezoelectric ceramics have non-centrosymmetric unit cells below the Curie temperature and centrosymmetric unit cells above the Curie temperature. Non-centrosymmetric structures provide a net electric dipole moment. The dipoles are randomly oriented until a strong DC electric field is applied causing permanent polarization and thus piezoelectric properties.

A polarized ceramic may be subjected to stress causing the crystal lattice to distort changing the total dipole moment of the ceramic. The change in dipole moment due to an applied stress causes a net electric field which varies linearly with stress.

=Dynamic Performance=

The dynamic performance of a piezoelectric material relates to how it behaves under alternating stresses near the mechanical resonance. The parallel combination of C2 with L1, C1, and R1 in the equivalent circuit below control the transducers reactance which is a function of frequency.

Frequency Response
The graph below shows the impedance of a piezoelectric transducer as a function of frequency. The minimum value at fm corresponds to the resonance while the maximum value at fn corresponds to anti-resonance.

=Resonant Devices=

Non resonant devices may be modeled by a capacitor representing the capacitance of the piezoelectric with an impedance modeling the mechanically vibrating system as a shunt in the circuit. The impedance may be modeled as a capacitor in the non-resonant case which allows the circuit to reduce to a single capacitor replacing the parallel combination.

For resonant devices the impedance becomes a resistance or static capacitance at resonance. This is an undesirable effect. In mechanically driven systems this effect acts as a load on the transducer and decreases the electrical output. In electrically driven systems this effect shunts the driver requiring a larger input current. The adverse effect of the static capacitance experienced at resonant operation may be counteracted by using a shunt or series inductor resonating with the static capacitance at the operating frequency.

=Applications=

Mechanical Measurement
Because of the dielectric leakage current of piezoelectrics they are poorly suited for applications where force or pressure have a slow rate of change. They are, however, very well suited for highly dynamic measurements that might be needed in blast gauges and accelerometers.

Ultrasonic
High intensity ultrasound applications utilize half wavelength transducers with resonant frequencies between 18 kHz and 45 kHz. Large blocks of transducer material is needed to generate high intensities which makes manufacturing difficult and is economically impractical. Also, since half wavelength transducers have the highest stress amplitude in the center, the end sections act as inert masses. The end sections are often replaced with metal plates possessing a much higher mechanical quality factor; giving the composite transducer a higher mechanical quality factor than a single-piece transducer.

The overall electro-acoustic efficiency is:

Qm0 = unloaded mechanical quality factor QE = electric quality factor QL = quality factor due to the acoustic load alone

The second term on the right hand side is the dielectric loss and the third term is the mechanical loss.

Efficiency is maximized when:

then:

The maximum ultrasonic efficiency is described by:

Applications of ultrasonic transducers include: Welding of plastics Atomization of liquids Ultrasonic drilling Ultrasonic cleaning Ultrasound Non destructive testing etc.

=More Information and Source of Information= MorganElectroCeramics Resources for Piezoelectric Transducers


text: User talk:61.246.47.138

title: User talk:61.246.47.138


text:
User talk:Baldwin

Copyright problem with Image:EA1.jpg
--Derbeth 20:46, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

 * If you are author of this image, you can just paste PD-self. Was my previous message somewhat complicated or too long for you? --Derbeth talk 22:23, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Baldwin


text: User talk:80.108.72.245

title: User talk:80.108.72.245


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Theorems

= Theorems =

A theorem is a formula for which a zero-premise derivation has been provided. We will keep a numbered list of proved theorems. In the derivations that follow, we will continue our informal convention of adding a formula to the annotations of assumptions, in particular the formula we hope to derive by means of the newly started subderivation.

An example
You may remember from Constructing a Complex Derivation that we had to employ a silly trick to copy a formula into the proper subderivation (Lines 16 and 17). We can prove a theorem that will help us avoid such obnoxiousness.

 * $$\mathbf{T1.} \quad \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

Derivations can be abbreviated by allowing a line to be entered whose formula is a substitution instance of a previously proved theorem. The annotation will be 'Tn' where n is the number of the theorem. Although we won't require it officially, we will also show the substitution, if any, in the annotation (see Line 3 in the derivation below). The proof of the next theorem will use T1.

 * $$\mathbf{T2.} \quad \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Justification: Converting to unabbreviated derivation
We need to justify using theorems in derivations in this way. To do that, we show how to produce a correct, unabbreviated derivation of T2, one without citing the theorem we used in its abbreviated proof.

Observe that when we entered Line 3 into our derivation of T2, we substituted $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ in T1. Suppose you were to apply the same substitution on each line of our proof for T1. You would then end up with the following equally correct derivation.

Suppose now you were to replace Line 3 of our proof for T2 with this derivation. You would need to adjust the line numbers so that you would have only one line per line number. You would also need to adjust the annotations so the line numbers they would continue to refer correctly. But, with these adjustments, you would end up with the following correct unabbreviated derivation of T2.

Thus we see that entering a previously proved theorem into a derivation is simply an abbreviation for including that theorem's proof into a derivation. The instructions above for unabbreviating a derivation could be made more general and more rigorous, but we will leave them in this informal state. Having instructions for generating a correct unabbreviated derivation justifies entering previously proved theorems into derivations.

Additional theorems
Additional theorems will be introduced over the next two modules.

title: Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Theorems


text: User talk:203.199.115.222

title: User talk:203.199.115.222


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Goals

= Goals =

Sentential logic
Sentential logic attempts to capture certain logical features of natural languages. In particular, it covers truth-functional connections for sentences. Its formal language specifically recognizes the sentential connections

 * It is not the case that _____
 * _____ and _____
 * Either _____ or _____
 * _____ or _____ (or both)
 * if _____, then _____
 * _____ if and only if _____

The blanks are to be filled with statements that can be true or false. For example, "it is raining today" or "it will snow tomorrow". Whether the final sentence is true or false is entirely determined on whether the filled statements are true or false. For example, if it is raining today, but it will not snow tomorrow, then it is true to say that "Either it is raining today or it will snow tomorrow". On the other hand, it is false to say "it is raining today and it will snow tomorrow", since it won't snow tomorrow.

"Whether a statement is true or false" is called the truth value in logician slang. Thus "Either it is raining today or it is not raining today" has a truth value of true and "it is raining today and it is not raining today" has truth value of false.

Note that the above listed sentential connections do not include all possible truth value combinations. For example, there is no connection that is true when both sub-statements are true, both sub-statements are false or the first sub-statement is true while the other is false, and that is false else. However, you can combine the above connections together to build any truth combination of any number of sub-statements.

Issues
Already we have tacitly taken a position in ongoing controversy. Some questions already raised by the seemingly innocuous beginning above are listed.

 * Should we admit into our logic only sentences that are true or false? Multi-valued logics admit a greater range of sentences.

 * Are the connections listed above truly truth functional? Should we admit connections that are not truth functional sentences into our logic?

 * What should logic take as its truth-bearers (objects that are true or false)? The two leading contenders today are sentences and propositions.

 * Sentences. These consist of a string of words and perhaps punctuation.  The sentence 'The cat is on the mat' consists of six elements: 'the', 'cat', 'is', 'on', another 'the', and 'mat'.

 * Propositions. These are the meanings of sentences.  They are what is expressed by a sentence or what someone says when he utters a sentence.  The proposition that the cat is on the mat consists of three elements: a cat, a mat, and the on-ness relation.

 * Elsewhere in Wikibooks and Wikipedia, you will see the name 'Propositional Logic' (or rather 'Propositional Calculus', see below) and the treatment of propositions much more often than you will see the name 'Sentential Logic' and the treatment of sentences. Our choice here represents the contributor's view as to which position is more popular among current logicians and what you are most likely to see in standard textbooks on the subject.  Considerations as to whether the popular view is actually correct are not taken up here.

 * Some authors will use talk about statements instead of sentences. Most (but not all) such authors you are likely to encounter take statements to be a subset of sentences, namely those sentences that are either true or false. This use of 'statement' does not represent a third position in the controversy, but rather places such authors in the sentences camp.  (However, other—particularly older—uses of 'statement' may well place its authors in a third camp.)

Sometimes you will see 'calculus' rather than 'logic' such as in 'Sentential Calculus' or 'Propositional Calculus' as opposed to 'Sentential Logic' or 'Propositional Logic'. While the choice between 'sentential' and 'propositional' is substantive and philosophical, the choice between 'logic' and 'calculus' is merely stylistic.

title: Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Goals


text: User talk:68.52.20.59

title: User talk:68.52.20.59


text: Wikijunior talk:Ancient Civilizations/Arabian


text:
Formal Logic/Preliminaries

Preliminaries

 * 1) Preliminaries

title: Formal Logic/Preliminaries


text:
UNIX Computing Security

UNIX Computing Security describes the practical security aspects of UNIX and UNIX-like systems, and how the available defenses can be applied to restrict unauthorized access or use of a system. This book is intended for readers familiar with the basics of UNIX.

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Principles and policies/
 * /Access authorization/
 * /UNIX filesystem/
 * /Securing accounts/
 * /System processes/
 * /Distributed environments/
 * /Remote access/
 * /Log files and auditing/
 * /Physical security/
 * /Data security/
 * /Attacks and exploits/
 * /Incident response/
 * /Security patching/
 * /Useful tools/
 * /References/
 * /Auditing Guidelines/

title: UNIX Computing Security


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Microphone Technique

General Technique

 * 1) A microphone should be used whose frequency response will suit the frequency range of the voice or instrument being recorded.
 * 2) Vary microphone positions and distances until you achieve the monitored sound that you desire.
 * 3) In the case of poor room acoustics, place the microphone very close to the loudest part of the instrument being recorded or isolate the instrument.
 * 4) Personal taste is the most important component of microphone technique.  Whatever sounds right to you, is right.

Close Miking
When miking at a distance of 1 inch to about 3 feet from the sound source, it is considered close miking. This technique generally provides a tight, present sound quality and does an effective job of isolating the signal and excluding other sounds in the acoustic environment.

Leakage
Leakage occurs when the signal is not properly isolated and the microphone picks up another nearby instrument. This can make the mixdown process difficult if there are multiple voices on one track. Use the following methods to prevent leakage:

 * Place the microphones closer to the instruments.
 * Move the instruments farther apart.
 * Put some sort of acoustic barrier between the instruments.
 * Use directional microphones.

3 to 1 Rule
The 3:1 distance rule is a general rule of thumb for close miking. To prevent phase anomalies and leakage, the microphones should be placed at least three times as far from each other as the distance between the instrument and the microphone.

Distant Miking
Distant miking refers to the placement of microphones at a distance of 3 feet or more from the sound source. This technique allows the full range and balance of the instrument to develop and it captures the room sound. This tends to add a live, open feeling to the recorded sound, but careful consideration needs to be given to the acoustic environment.

Accent Miking
Accent miking is a technique used for solo passages when miking an ensemble. A soloist needs to stand out from an ensemble, but placing a microphone too close will sound unnaturally present compared the distant miking technique used with the rest of the ensemble. Therefore, the microphone should be placed just close enough to the soloist that the signal can be mixed effectively without sounding completely excluded from the ensemble.

Ambient Miking
Ambient miking is placing the microphones at such a distance that the room sound is more prominent than the direct signal. This technique is used to capture audience sound or the natural reverberation of a room or concert hall.

Stereo
Stereo miking is simply using two microphones to obtain a stereo left-right image of the sound. A simple method is the use of a spaced pair, which is placing two identical microphones several feet apart and using the difference in time and amplitude to create the image. Great care should be taken in the method as phase anomalies can occur due to the signal delay. This risk of phase anomaly can be reduced by using the X/Y method, where the two microphones are placed with the grills as close together as possible without touching. There should be an angle of 90 to 135 degrees between the mics. This technique uses only amplitude, not time, to create the image, so the chance of phase discrepancies is unlikely.

Surround
To take advantage of 5.1 sound or some other surround setup, microphones may be placed to capture the surround sound of a room. This technique essentially stems from stereo technique with the addition of more microphones. Because every acoustic environment is different, it is difficult to define a general rule for surround miking, so placement becomes dependent on experimentation. Careful attention must be paid to the distance between microphones and potential phase anomalies.

Amplifiers
When miking an amplifier, such as for electric guitars, the mic should be placed 2 to 12 inches from the speaker. Exact placement becomes more critical at a distance of less than 4 inches. A brighter sound is achieved when the mic faces directly into the center of the speaker cone and a more mellow sound is produced when placed slightly off-center. Placing off-center also reduces amplifier noise.

Brass Instruments
High sound-pressure levels are produced by brass instruments due to the directional characteristics of mid to mid-high frequencies. Therefore, for brass instruments such as trumpets, trombones, and tubas, microphones should face slightly off of the bell's center at a distance of one foot or more to prevent overloading from windblasts.

Guitars
Technique for acoustic guitars is dependent on the desired sound. Placing a microphone close to the sound hole will achieve the highest output possible, but the sound may be bottom-heavy because of how the sound hole resonates at low frequencies. Placing the mic slightly off-center at 6 to 12 inches from the hole will provide a more balanced pickup. Placing the mic closer to the bridge with the same working distance will ensure that the full range of the instrument is captured.

Some people prefer to use a contact microphone, attached (usually) by a fairly weak temporary adhesive, however this will give a rather different sound to a conventional microphone. The primary advantage is that the contact microphone performance is unchanged as the guitar is moved around during a performance, whereas with a conventional microphone on a stand, the distance between microphone and guitar would be subject to continual variation. Placement of a contact microphone can be adjusted by trial and error to get a variety of sounds. The same technique works quite well on other stringed instruments such as violins.

Pianos
Ideally, microphones would be placed 4 to 6 feet from the piano to allow the full range of the instrument to develop before it is captured. This isn't always possible due to room noise, so the next best option is to place the microphone just inside the open lid. This applies to both grand and upright pianos.

Percussion
One overhead microphone can be used for a drum set, although two are preferable. If possible, each component of the drum set should be miked individually at a distance of 1 to 2 inches as if they were their own instrument. This also applies to other drums such as congas and bongos. For large, tuned instruments such as xylophones, multiple mics can be used as long as they are spaced according to the 3:1 rule.

Voice
Standard technique is to put the microphone directly in front of the vocalist's mouth, although placing slightly off-center can alleviate harsh consonant sounds (such as "p") and prevent overloading due to excessive dynamic range. Several sources also recommend placing the microphone slightly above the mouth.

Woodwinds
A general rule for woodwinds is to place the microphone around the middle of the instrument at a distance of 6 inches to 2 feet. The microphone should be tilted slightly towards the bell or sound hole, but not directly in front of it.

Sound Propagation
It is important to understand how sound propagates due to the nature of the acoustic environment so that microphone technique can be adjusted accordingly. There are four basic ways that this occurs:

Reflection
Sound waves are reflected by surfaces if the object is as large as the wavelength of the sound. It is the cause of echo (simple delay), reverberation (many reflections cause the sound to continue after the source has stopped), and standing waves (the distance between two parallel walls is such that the original and reflected waves in phase reinforce one another).

Absorption
Sound waves are absorbed by materials rather than reflected. This can have both positive and negative effects depending on whether you desire to reduce reverberation or retain a live sound.

Diffraction
Objects that may be between sound sources and microphones must be considered due to diffraction. Sound will be stopped by obstacles that are larger than its wavelength. Therefore, higher frequencies will be blocked more easily that lower frequencies.

Refraction
Sound waves bend as they pass through mediums with varying density. Wind or temperature changes can cause sound to seem like it is literally moving in a different direction than expected.


text:
Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Derived Inference Rules

= Derived Inference Rules =

This page introduces the notion of a derived inference rule and provides a few such rules.

The basics
Now we can carry the abbreviation a step further. A derived inference rule is an inference rule not given to us as part of the derivation system but which constitutes an abbreviation using a previously proved theorem. In particular, suppose we have proved a particular theorem. In this theorem, uniformly replace each sentence letter with a distinct Greek letter. Suppose the result has the following form.

 * $$\varphi_1 \land \varphi_2 \land\ ...\,\land\ \varphi_n \rightarrow \psi\,\!$$.

[Comment: This and what follows seems to me to be potentially confusing to students. The intention stated in earlier sections to avoid metatheory creates a problem here as one needs to know about the Deduction Theorem for this to make more sense.]

We may then introduce a derived inference rule having the form

 * $$\varphi_1\,\!$$
 * $$\varphi_2\,\!$$
 * $$\ \vdots$$
 * $$\underline{\varphi_n}\,\!$$
 * $$\psi\,\!$$

An application of the derived rule can be eliminated by replacing it with

 * 1) the previously proved theorem,
 * 2) repeated applications of Conjunction Introduction (KI) to build up the theorem's antecedent, and
 * 3) an application of Conditional Elimination (CE) to obtain the theorem's consequent.

The previously proved theorem can then be eliminated as described above. That would leave you with an unabbreviated derivation.

Removing abbreviations from a derivation is not desirable, of course, because it makes the derivation more complicated and harder to read, but the fact that a derivation could be unabbreviated justifies the use of abbreviations, so that we can employ abbreviations in the first place.

Repetition
Our first derived inference rule will be based on T1, which is

 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

Replace the sentence letters with Greek letters, and we get:

 * $$\varphi \rightarrow \varphi\,\!$$

We now generate the derived inference rule:

 * Repetition (R)
 * $$\underline{\varphi}\,\!$$
 * $$\varphi\,\!$$

Now we can show how this rule could have simplified our proof of T2.

While this is only one line shorter than our original proof of T2, it is less obnoxious. We can use an inference rule instead of a silly trick. As a result, the derivation is easier to read and understand (not to mention easier to produce).

Double negation rules
The next two theorems—and the derived rules based on them—exploit the equivalence between a doubly negated formula and the unnegated formula.

Double Negation Introduction

 * $$\mathbf{T3.} \quad \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

T3 justifies the following rule.

 * Double Negation Introduction (DNI)
 * $$\underline{\varphi \quad}\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \lnot \varphi\,\!$$

Double Negation Elimination

 * $$\mathbf{T4.} \quad \lnot \lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

T4 justifies the following rule.

 * Double Negation Elimination (DNE)
 * $$\underline{\lnot \lnot \varphi}\,\!$$
 * $$\varphi\,\!$$

Contradiction

 * $$\mathbf{T5.} \quad \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

Our next rule is based on T5.

 * Contradiction (Contradiction)
 * $$\varphi\,\!$$
 * $$\underline{\lnot \varphi}\,\!$$
 * $$\psi\,\!$$

This rule is occasionally useful when you have derived a contradiction but the discharge rule you want is not NI or NE. This then avoids a completely trivial subderivation. The rule of Contradiction will be used in the proof of the next theorem.

Conditional Addition

 * $$\mathbf{T6.} \quad \lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

On the basis of T2 and T6, we introduce the following derived rule.

 * Conditional Addition, Form I (CAdd)
 * $$\underline{\psi \quad \quad \quad}\,\!$$
 * $$(\varphi \rightarrow \psi)\,\!$$

 * Conditional Addition, Form II (CAdd)
 * $$\underline{\lnot \psi \quad \quad \ }\,\!$$
 * $$(\psi \rightarrow \varphi)\,\!$$

The name 'Conditional Addition' is not in common use. It is based on the traditional name for Disjunction Introduction, namely 'Addition'. This rule does not provide a general means of introducing a conditional. This is because the antecedent line you would need is not always derivable. However, when the antecedent line just happens to be easily available, then applying this rule is simpler than producing the subderivation needed for a Conditional Introduction.

Modus Tollens

 * $$\mathbf{T7.} \quad (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

Now we use T7 to justify the following rule.

 * Modus Tollens (MT)
 * $$(\varphi \rightarrow \psi)\,\!$$
 * $$\underline{\lnot \psi \quad \quad \ }\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \varphi\,\!$$

Modus Tollens is also sometimes known as 'Denying the Consequent'. Note that the following is not an instance of Modus Tollens, at least as defined above.

 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\underline{\mathrm{Q} \quad \quad \quad \quad}\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$

The premise lines of Modus Tollens are a conditional and the negation of its consequent. The premise lines of this inference are a conditional and the opposite of its consequent, but not the negation of its consequent. The desired inference here needs to be derived as below.

Of course, it is possible to prove as a theorem:

 * $$(\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \land \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\ .\,\!$$

Then you can add a new inference rule—or, more likely, a new form of Modus Tollens—on the basis of this theorem. However, we won't do that here.

Additional theorems
The derived rules given so far are quite useful for eliminating frequently used bits of obnoxiousness in our derivations. They will help to make your derivations easier to generate and also more readable. However, because they are indeed derived rules, they are not strictly required but rather are theoretically dispensable.

A number of other theorems and derived rules could usefully be added. We list here some useful theorems but leave their proofs and the definition of their associated derived inference rules to the reader. If you construct many derivations, you may want to maintain your own personal list that you find useful.

Theorems with biconditionals

 * $$\mathbf{T8.} \quad (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land \lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T9.} \quad (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T10.} \quad \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T11.} \quad \lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Theorems with negations

 * $$\mathbf{T12.} \quad \lnot (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T13.} \quad \lnot (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T14.} \quad \lnot (\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathbf{T15.} \quad \lnot (\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$


text:
UNIX Computing Security/References

Here are some useful references you can peruse for more in-depth information about UNIX computing security.

Books

 * William R. Cheswick, Steven M. Bellovin, and Aviel D. Rubin, Firewalls and Internet Security: Repelling the Wily Hacker, 2nd edition, 2003, Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-63466-X.

 * Chris Wong, HP-UX 11i Security, 2002, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-033062-0.

 * Hames Turnbull, Hardening Linux, 2005, Apress, ISBN 1590594444.

 * Simson Garfinkel and Gene Spafford, Practical Unix and Internet Security, 2nd Edition, 1996, O'Reilly & Associates, ISBN 1565921488.

Articles

 * Daniel Farmer and Eugene H. Spafford, "The Cops Security Checker System", Purdue University Technical Report CSD-TR-993, 1991.

title: UNIX Computing Security/References


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Amodif

How to tell Blender: "use this armature to deform this mesh"

The Armature Modifier
Blender now has a Modifier stack (Editbutton, F9KEY). As such, we should use it over existing methods to pair mesh and armature, as the modifier stack is optimised and simple to use. Note: You don't need to parent the mesh to the Armature anymore. The only case you could need to do this would be animating the Armature object itself. Then the mesh should also follow the armature. In this case select mesh, then armature, and do CTRL-PKEY --> Object.

The clean way to do so is to go in the Editbutton window (F9KEY) and press "Add modifier" in the Modifier panel, then select "armature" in the dropdown menu. Then you'll get a new modifier "Armature" like the previous picture. Change the OB: field to the name of the armature object that should control the mesh. This step is very important! Without the armature object being defined, Blender won't know how to modify the mesh since there may be multiple armatures within your world. To limit the effect of the modifier, you can enter the name of a vertex group in the VGroup: field. This will minimize unwanted distortions in very dense meshes. There are also fields to enable/disable the modifier when rendering, enable/disable when working to only move the armature (could get handy with massive character), and when editing (that's very handy, you can edit the topology while it's deformed). There are also two toggles to tell Blender what it should use to deform: Vertex Groups and/or Envelopes. You may have noticed these options are repeated also in the Editbutton --> Armature panel, but as the tooltip says: these two are used when you use virtual modifier (the old way) to keep compatibility with old files.

Parenting the mesh to the "armature" will create an old-way link, still visible in the modifier stack, but not very useful. The first entry with the "make real" button is what appends if you do a CTRL-PKEY to "armature". You should not use that kind of connection when you see that. Press "make real" to get a working modifier.

The Old Way
This way is not recommended but can still be useful. When doing CTRL-PKEY to "armature", you will get a menu like this:

 * Don't Create Groups will just create a virtual modifier so you can deform the mesh (the "make real" button)
 * Name Groups is almost useless now as blender will create a group for you when you do weight painting.
 * Create From Closest Bones is a function to remember when you want to bake all your envelopes to vertex groups.

Tip: Bake envelope to vertex groups
The workflow is very simple. When you are done with the envelope's tweaking and you have gotten the best out of it, delete the Armature modifier and parent the mesh to the armature. To parent it, go to object mode, first select the mesh and then the armature, then press CTRL-PKEY. Select Create From Closest Bones.

Do ALT-PKEY and redo the Armature modifier. Now all the envelope influence are converted to Vertex Groups. This way you can further tweak influence zone using Weight paint. More info in the following pages.


text:
Bartending/Introduction

Welcome to the Bartending Wikibook.

Before we progress, we first look at exactly who a bartender is and what he does.

A bartender is someone who serves drinks behind a bar in a bar, pub, tavern or similar establishment. This usually includes alcoholic beverages of some kind, such as beer (both draught and bottled), wine and/or cocktails, as well as soft drinks or other non-alcoholic beverages.

In addition to their core beverage-serving responsibility, bartenders also:
 * take payment from customers (and sometimes the waiters or waitresses);
 * maintain the liquor, garnishes, glassware, and other supplies or inventory for the bar;
 * serve food to customers sitting at the bar.

In establishments where cocktails are served, bartenders are expected to be able to mix hundreds to thousands of different drinks.

Bartenders also usually serve as the public image of the bar they tend, contributing to as well as reflecting the atmosphere of the bar. In establishments focused more on food, this can mean the bartender is all but invisible. On the other extreme, some establishments make the bartender part of the entertainment, expecting him perhaps to engage in flair bartending or other forms of entertainment such as those exemplified in films such as Cocktail or Coyote Ugly. Some bars might be known for bartenders which serve the drinks and otherwise let a patron alone, while others want their bartenders to be good listeners and offer counselling (or a "shoulder to cry on") as required. Good bartenders help provide a steady clientèle by remembering the favoured drinks of regulars, having recommendations on hand for local night life beyond the bar, or other unofficial duties. They are sometimes called upon for answers to a wide variety of questions on topics such as sports trivia, directions or the marital status of other patrons.

In regions where tipping is the norm, bartenders depend on tips for most of their income. In those establishments where minors are allowed within the bar area, bartenders are also usually responsible for confirming that customers are of the legal drinking age before serving them alcohol.

United States
In some states, bartenders are required to obtain certification as a condition of employment.

The Better Bureau Bartending Schools has State information regarding alcohol server laws.

The Bureau of Labour Statistics (BLS) provides extensive detail on the typical job requirements faced by bartenders in the United States, as well as employments and earning statistics by those so employed. For example, a November 2004 (unemployed) BLS study determined that Montana is the only US state where over 1% of the state's workforce is employed as a bartender.

The following is the job description for bartenders used by the BLS:

 * Bartenders fill drink orders either taken directly from patrons at the bar or through waiters and waitresses who place drink orders for dining room customers. Bartenders check identification of customers seated at the bar, to ensure they meet the minimum age requirement for the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products. They prepare mixed drinks, serve bottled or draught beer, and pour wine or other beverages. Bartenders must know a wide range of drink recipes and be able to mix drinks accurately, quickly, and without waste. Besides mixing and serving drinks, bartenders stock and prepare garnishes for drinks; maintain an adequate supply of ice, glasses, and other bar supplies; and keep the bar area clean for customers. They also may collect payment, operate the cash register, wash glassware and utensils, and serve food to customers seated at the bar. Bartenders usually are responsible for ordering and maintaining an inventory of liquor, mixes, and other bar supplies.

 * The majority of bartenders directly serve and interact with patrons. Bartenders should be friendly and enjoy talking with customers. Bartenders at service bars, on the other hand, have less contact with customers. They work in small bars often located off the kitchen in restaurants, hotels, and clubs where only waiters and waitresses place drink orders. Some establishments, especially larger, higher volume ones, use equipment that automatically measures, pours and mixes drinks at the push of a button. Bartenders who use this equipment, however, still must work quickly to handle a large volume of drink orders and be familiar with the ingredients for special drink requests. Much of a bartender's work still must be done by hand to fill each individual order.

Aim of this Wikibook
This Wikibook seeks to teach you the essential theoretical knowledge you need as a barkeeper, whether you wish to do this as an amateur or as a professional. Then you will be ready to practice the art for real.

Quotations about Bartending
Here are some quotations related to bartending. These quotations are from or to bartenders; from bartending books; or about bartending in general.

 * It took thousands, nay, millions of years for humankind to evolve to the point where its opposable thumbs allowed the species to finally achieve success in its tumultuous struggle to twist open a beer.

 * --Opening sentence to The Official Harvard Student Agencies Bartending Course, 3rd Edition, ISBN 0-312-25286-2

 * To my mother, who could use a drink for having been blessed with me.
 * --Dedication to Bartender's Black Book, 7th Edition, ISBN 1-891-26775-2

 * Time to slip out of these wet clothes and into a dry Martini.
 * --Mae West

 * A good writer is not necessarily a good book critic. No more so than a good drunk is automatically a good bartender.
 * --Jim Bishop

 * In Nevada, for a time, the lawyer, the editor, the banker, the chief desperado, the chief gambler, and the saloon-keeper occupied the same level of society, and it was the highest'
 * --Mark Twain, Roughing it, 1872

title: Bartending/Introduction


text:
Talk:Ada Programming/Tasking

Task states
I would like to illustrate this page with a task states diagram, but I am not sure if I have depicted all the possible transitions. For example, is it possible to transit from a state different to running to terminated? ManuelGR 22:28, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I would suggest to raise the question on comp.lang.ada. If fact: I might do that. - Nice picture!! --Krischik T 07:30, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

From c.l.a
Not_Yet_Activated |                  | Activate v       .- Activating. |         |          |        |          | Begin    | |         V          | Unhandled Abort +-- Active ---+ Exception |         |          |        |          | End      | v         v          | Abnormal  Completed <' |         |        |          | Terminate Abort |         v   or   `---> Terminated End of Redezvous

--Krischik T 09:47, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks, now we can set a footer saying the diagram has been certified by the language lawers :) I will update the image and insert it to the page as soon as I can. ManuelGR 21:26, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ada Programming/Tasking


text:
Bartending/Work/Responsibilities and duties

Work Responsibilities and Duties Intro.
As stated before, a bartender is not a simple autonomous drink mixer; he/she is the most important figure in the establishment. He/she must make patrons of the establishment feel welcome, secure, and relaxed. To the patrons of a bar, the bartender is a very powerful figure. Bartenders must keep their work area clean. Counter tops and tables must be cleaned with disinfectant, soap and water. Outside furniture must also be wiped at the start of the day. Refer to your opening/shift change/closing checklist ensuring ALL duties are complete. Make sure people drink responsibly.

Bartending is providing excellent service to guest that enters the bar. A good bartender is one who is always ready to greet a guest, accommodate to their needs and serve them with respect and professionalism. When providing service to a patron the bartender should always maintain a cheerful and kind attitude, being able to quickly take a guest's order, prepare the order and complete the transaction in a timing manner that's precise. Approach the guest as they enter the entry to your establishment and greet with a smile. Always acknowledge a guest if you are busy with another order or guest. Let them know, "you'll be right with them". Also, bus tables, bar tops and wipe down at all times during the shift. There should be no empty bottles/glasses etc.. left on tables or counters for an extended period. Wash dishes as you go, do not let them stack up as it looks dirty and unorganized.

A bar can go from slow to a bustling, jam-packed, out-of-control place in only the blink of an eye. The way of reducing this potentially dangerous situation is to have a set procedure of service behind your bar. Situations that cause a lot of grief among patrons, especially those who have been consuming alcohol, can cause conflicts between patrons, or even worse bar staff, and should be avoided at all cost!

 * 1) Greet your guest(s) and prepare them to order
 * 2) Offer service
 * 3) Prepare order(s)
 * 4) Complete transaction
 * 5) Check back on customer in a timely manner
 * 6) Say farewell to customer.

If these steps are consistently applied whilst behind the bar, your daily work becomes much more manageable, and your work shifts can be a much more productive time (remember, bartenders are still there to make money!). Make your guests feel comfortable in the same way you would make an old friend feel welcomed at home. Smile when they arrive and make sure they know that you will be with them when you can. The overall focus is to make guests feel welcomed and happy as well as you appearing to give them all your attention. Once the guest is obviously ready to order, smile and ask what he, she, or the group, would like to drink.

Here the skill of the bartender is often put to the test. Many people will deliberately try to overload the bartender by requesting a drink that the customer thinks the bartender has never heard of. In this instance it is best for a bartender to happily declare that the drink shall be made if the customer is glad make it. The bartender also must be avoid under-pouring and over-pouring.

All beverages should be created in the most orderly fashion with a focus on cleanliness, precision, and presentation. If at any point the bartender runs into difficulty it is best for him or her to acknowledge the problem and attempt again. If the customer is unhappy with the result, the bartender should smilingly offer to remake the cocktail to the patron's specifications free of charge, given the ingredients are not exceptional in cost or r

We offer cash, credit card or open up a bar tab (this is when bartender holds customers card under register ). Once the guest makes their order the bartender shall ask if the guest would like to pay cash, card or open a bar tab. If they are paying by credit card you must physically get the credit card and hold it for payment. If they are paying cash collect the cash when you serve the drinks and put the change on the bar with the ticket. Everyone must Ring up the order so there is a record of the order. Once the order is rung up, then the bartender shall make the drinks. Upon serving the drinks the bartender shall put the charge in front of the guest at the bar (rocks glass can be used for this). Every guest who is at the bar shall have either a ticket or cash in front of them at all times. Do not make a drink with out a ticket.

The bartender needs to understand it is their responsibility to obtain payment on all charges and the burden lies on the bartender to make certain that all patrons are cognizant of the nature of a tab and that they are obligated to pay said tab at the agreed upon time.

Checking on the customer is a tenet of bartender success. Many customers will require more than one instance of service and every good bartender knows this. Most bartenders use a "rounds" approach where they keep mental track of the succession of patrons they have served, and repeat that sequence in their follow-up.

The most useful technique is to simply look at the glasses on the bar. The patron with the least in his or her glass will probably require service first. Using this method requires more responsibility on the bartender on how ever the drunkenness should be avoided at any honorable it is one of the most important parts of being a bartender as well. Just as every patron should be acknowledged on arrival, they should be acknowledged upon departure. The enthusiasm of the farewell should be independent of any tip amount left by the patron as the best patrons will know how to tip in a respectable manner and there is sufficient time during a bartender's shift to treat special customers or "regulars".

The most successful bartenders learn the names of all of their patrons and are certain to use them when said patrons leave.

A sincere "thank you" is required on patron departure along with an indication that he or she is always welcome to come again.

Never display money to a well-tipping patron. The customer knows how much money was left as a tip. To wave cash before a person is classless and beneath good bartender.

Things a bartender needs
There are many things a bartender needs. These include personality traits and skills as well as physical objects like a bottle opener.

Bottle opener
A heavy bottle opener under the bar is a good thing to have. These bolt against the bar and allow the bartender to leverage the length of the bottle against the cap. Aside from this, a portable one may be kept on hand; don't use a light one, they can break or snap the bottle neck off. Most bartenders favor a heavy steel "speed opener" about 7 inches long. These openers allow quick, sure opening of bottles and the additional leverage helps cut down on soreness during long busy shifts.

Pens
You'll need pens to write up tabs, bills, phone numbers, phone orders, and the like. Ball point pens are best; gel pens that simply pour ink through a thin tube look very nice, but they can pool ink and leave trailing lines. You could enhance the display of the bar by keeping a novelty mug with writing utensils in it. It also might be a good idea to have a decorative tip jar, such as an oversized snifter, or ornate (but not expensive) vase close to these pens.

Rags or Towels
You'll need a rag or bar towel to wipe down the bar and clean and polish glass. As a rule of thumb it is always a good idea to have a generous supply of these on hand, as the busier the bar gets, the more mess the people will make. A dry towel should be kept close at hand (often placed in a back pocket, or hung from the belt). The wet towels should be used to wipe down areas to prevent sugar in drinks from sticking, subsequently drying with the dry towel.

Seltzer water
Bartenders need to clean things. Sticky speedpours, dirty glasses, etc.. While all glasses and utensils need proper cleaning, there are many cleaning uses for carbonated water. Speedpours, spoons that you used to mix something or spoon syrup are all candidates for seltzer water cleaning; just soak them in the stuff, especially sticky speedpours. Besides cleaning, seltzer water is an important component of some drinks.

Personality
A good bartender personality must be positive, welcoming, knowledgeable and just fun to be around! But also be strict if people get out of hand. You must be able to diffuse a negative situation and handle situations or people in a proper, peaceful and respectful manner. You must be able to tell a person "No" and cut them off if they have had too much to drink. You also must be respectful of other bartenders while they are working. It is important that the bartenders are on the same "team". The bartender working is the person in charge of the bar during that time, unless the Bar Manager is on duty.

Knowledge
Bartenders need knowledge of a wide range of subjects, from sports to relationships to the local town. Travelers may ask general questions about Brazoria county, out of town contractors may ask about other things to do in the area , etc.. You should also know the fastest route to a near bus station or airport, police station, or hospital; where other bars or clubs are, especially if you're not in a club where patrons can dance; and where the social elites hang out.

Sense of humor
A bartender needs a good sense of humour. Your customers will often need cheering up, or have funny stories at which you have to laugh. A good trait in a friend is a sense of humour; and a bartender's number one job is to be a friend to his patrons.

You should also always have a good joke or two. nobody wants to know your dirty laundry or your heart broken because your boy friend cheated on you or that youre broke and need to make lots of tips, or hear you complain about your job. Your here to work and make them feel welcome not feed them with any drama or things that are happening in the establishment.

Time-Management Skills
Just like any other service-oriented job, a good bartender has to make the best use of their time. It may be a slow hour between rushes - make sure your back-up well and bottle reach-in is stocked, your garnishes are ready for the next rush, your ice tubs are full, and your glassware is cleaned and racked (even if - no, ESPECIALLY if - you have a barback working with you!). Oh yeah - don't forget to wipe down your bar, backbar, and worktrough under the bar once in a while. The cat who taught me told me, "If you're not always moving, doing at least 2 things at once, you're forgetting something". There is always something that can be cleaned or done. Check your checklist etc. Use dead time to clean wipe down areas. Maintain the business at all times. Make sure to utilize the Communication Log after completing tasks to ensure that the next person doesn't do the same thing. The Communication Log is a great tool for you and for the business. It assists in communicating things in between meetings. The Communication Log should be read at the beginning of each shift, from the date of your last shift to current. The Communication Log should be written in during or at the end of each shift.

Drinking Behind the Bar
A difficult subject which requires a direct conversation with bar owners and managers. A bartender must balance the need to maintain a `professional image' and be in full control of their facilities with their obligations to appear fun-loving, and sell alcohol. There will not be any tolerance when it comes to drinking during or after your shift.

Legal Obligations

 * Do not serve those who are already under the influence of alcohol
 * This obligation needs flexible interpretation, but if someone has clearly had too much to drink, then you are legally obliged to refuse to serve them
 * NEVER be afraid to refuse service. You may be saving yourself, the license owner, and the bar owner serious (and possibly legal) headaches.  Trust your gut - if something doesn't seem right - likely it's not.
 * Ensure that those you are serving are of legal drinking age
 * If you are unsure of someone's age, always ask for appropriate ID
 * You can be given a heavy personal fine for serving alcohol to minors
 * Know your state's alcohol laws. Each state differs considerably. Something that's allowed in one may be prohibited in the other - criminally so.

Final words
Enjoy your work and remember that "Happier customers can lead to healthier business."


text:
Macroeconomics

This textbook concerns the wonderful world of macroeconomics, or economics on a very large scale, concerning national and international systems. It serves as an introduction to macroeconomics, and is primarily aimed at students in their final few years of secondary education, though it could also be used by interested students younger or older than that. See Intermediate Macroeconomic Theory for learning more advanced macroeconomics.

Knowledge of microeconomics would be useful and preferred, but grasping overall concepts does not require an in depth previous knowledge. See Principles of Economics for a brief introduction to both microeconomics and macroeconomics and Principles of Microeconomics for learning introductory microeconomics.

It is worth remembering that this textbook can be edited at any time, with the link at the top of this page. This is both good and bad - you yourself, having spotted a mistake or having noticed a poor definition, can correct it and should feel free to do so. The bad side is that anyone can edit it, so content may be inaccurate while the wikibook is in its infancy!

Proposed change
Advanced topics
 * 1) /Economics/ - Introduction to economics
 * 2) /Market Economics/ - Basics of market economics, resources, and production possibilities
 * 3) /Supply and Demand/ - Supply and Demand for single products
 * 4) /Measuring Domestic Output/ - Gross Domestic Product and other indicators
 * 5) /Open Economies/ - International trade
 * 6) /Business Cycle/ - Basics of unemployment, inflation, and economic growth
 * 7) /Aggregate Expenditures/ - Consumption, Investment, Government spending, and Exports
 * 8) /Aggregate Supply and Demand/ - Basics of how an entire economy functions
 * 9) /Fiscal Policy/
 * 10) /Money/ - How money is created and why it works
 * 11) /Monetary Policy/
 * 12) /Government Finances/
 * 1) /Math Review/
 * 2) /Keynesian Demand-side Economics and Multipliers/
 * 3) /Optimal Growth/
 * 4) /Harrod-Johnson Diagram/

Useful background reading
The following links will lead you to Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia similar in style to this site. The information in these articles may go above and beyond that which you need to know for this book, though they will undoubtedly prove useful to refer back to from time to time, and are good portals to more relevant articles.

 * Economics
 * Supply and Demand
 * List of economists
 * List of economics topics
 * Category:Economics

For contributors
Any and all corrections, additions, alterations etc. are always welcome! If you wish some credit for your work, stick your name below :

マクロ経済学 거시경제학

title: Macroeconomics


text:
User:JMRyan/Test2

Modus Tollens

 * $$\mathbf{T7.} \quad (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

Now we use T7 to justify the following rule.

 * Modus Tollens (MT)
 * $$(\varphi \rightarrow \psi)\,\!$$
 * $$\underline{\lnot \psi \quad \quad \ }\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \varphi\,\!$$

Modus Tollens is also sometimes known as 'Denying the Consequent'. Note that the following is not an instance of Modus Tollens, at least as defined above.

 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\underline{\mathrm{Q} \quad \quad \quad \quad}\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$

The premise lines of Modus Tollens are a conditional and the negation of its consequent. The premise lines of this inference are a conditional and the opposite of its consequent, but not the negation of its consequent. The desired inference here needs to be derived as below.

Of course, it is possible to prove as a theorem:

 * $$(\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \land \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}\ .\,\!$$

Then you can add a new inference rule—or, more likeley, a new form of Modus Tollens—on the basis of this theorem. However, we won't do that here.

title: User:JMRyan/Test2


text:
User:JMRyan/Test1

Header
Stuff yeilds: Stuff Stuff yeilds: Stuff yeilds: yeilds: $$\phi\,\!$$ $$\psi\,\!$$

Stages

 * Red: [[image:Solid_red.png]]
 * Yellow:
 * Green: [[image:green.png]]

title: User:JMRyan/Test1


text:
User:JMRyan/Test3

Start of Predicate Logic A Sub-Book of Formal Logic

Places to go
 * Forward to the first page of Predicate Logic.

 * Backward to the last page of Sentential Logic.

 * Further back to the first page of Sentential Logic.

title: User:JMRyan/Test3


text:
Persian/Lesson 1

In this lesson, you will learn basic greetings, the first nine Persian letters, connecting letters, and unwritten vowels.

Dialogue: ‹salâm!›
Shirin sees her friend Arash in passing and greets him:
 * The dialogues in lessons 1 through 3 are shown in UniPers, a system of writing the Persian language in the Latin alphabet. In later lessons, the native Persian script is shown along with a transcription.

 * }

Explanation
 * Arash and Shirin are using a casual style of speech typically among friends. Later lessons will use various styles of speech, including some for more formal situations.

Vocabulary

The Persian Alphabet
The Persian language has six vowel sounds and twenty-three consonant sounds. Old Persian was written using its own cuneiform alphabet. Other scripts were used in later stages of the language, and eventually the Arabic alphabet was adopted. The sounds of Persian are different from Arabic, though, so four letters were added for Persian sounds that do not exist in Arabic (, , , and ), and letters for several foreign Arabic sounds are pronounced like their closest Persian approximation.

Thus, the twenty-nine sounds of Persian are written in the Perso-Arabic script, which has thirty-two letters and is called, named after its first two letters (similar to "ABCs" in English). It is a cursive script, written from right to left like Arabic, opposite of the English direction. The letters are presented in the first four lessons of this book, followed by a summary of the whole alphabet in the "Alphabet summary" section of Lesson 4.

ا ‹alef›
The first letter in Persian is.

At the beginning of a word (on the right side), alef has two forms. The form on the far right here with the madde (the small "hat" on top: آ ) is written as a tall, vertical stroke from top to bottom followed by the madde on top written from right to left as a straight ( - ) or curved ( ~ ) line. This form represents a doubled alef ( اا ). It is pronounced with the long vowel sound /ɒː/ (IPA), transcribed here as ‹â›. That is, it has a long duration and is produced with rounded lips and the tongue low and far back in the mouth, like a slow version of the vowel in the Queen's English pronunciation of hot, American English caught, or South African English park. When the first letter of a word is alef without a "hat" ( ا ), it is read as a short vowel: ‹a› (IPA: /æ/) as in  a t, ‹e› (/e/) as in  e nd or ‹o› (/o/) as in  o pen, as will be seen in later examples.

When alef appears later in a word (after the first letter), it is always written without the "hat" ( ا  ) and it always represents long ‹â›.

ب ‹be›, پ ‹pe›, ت ‹te›, ث ‹se›
After alef ( ا ), the next four Persian letters, shown on the right, are all written similarly but with varying dots.

Persian letters have names that begin with the sound they make, so these four letters make the sounds ‹b›, ‹p›, ‹t›, and ‹s›.

 The second Persian letter is. It represents the /b/ sound. Its name sounds like a quick pronunciation of the English word “bay”.

The Persian word is shown on the right. In this word, the initial alef is written with a “hat” ( آ ), so it is read as long ‹â›. Persian is written from right to left and positioned on and around a horizontal baseline that is typically not visible on the page. The swooping stroke of ب is written from right to left and sits on that baseline, as does آ. The dot is below the baseline and, like the dot in the English cursive letter i, it is written after the connected strokes in the word.

As shown on the right, the swooping stroke of each ب connects with the following ا to spell, an informal word for “father”, similar to the English words “dad” and “daddy”. The other letters in this section are like ب in that each has a swooping stroke that sits on the baseline and connects with the following letter, and each has one or more dots that are written after all of the connected strokes of the word.

Note that the alefs in بابا are not at the beginning of the word, so they represent long ‹â› and are not written with a “hat”.

The third Persian letter is. It is pronounced as /p/ and its name sounds like a quick pronunciation of the English word “pay”. Its swooping stroke is written from right to left like the other letters of this group, then after the rest of the connected strokes of the word are written, the three dots of پ are written below the baseline.

پ followed by ا spells the word.

The letter is pronounced like /t/ and is written with two dots above the swooping line. Its name rhymes with the other letters in this section.

ت followed by ا spells the word.

The letter is one of three separate Persian letters for the /s/ sound, since that is the Persian approximation of the letter's Arabic sound [θ]. In Persian, its name sounds like an abbreviated version of the English word “say”. It is used mainly in words of Arabic origin and is not a very common letter in Persian.

As shown on the right, ث appears twice in the word.

Note the difference between a hatless initial alef pronounced as short ‹a› and an alef in the middle of a word, pronounced as long ‹â›.

ج ‹jim›, چ ‹ce›, ح ‹he›, خ ‹xe›
The next four Persian letters, shown on the right, are all written similarly but with varying dots.

The letter is transcribed as ‹j› and pronounced as [d͡ʒ] (i.e. like the English letter j in jump). The top stroke is written first from left to right above the baseline, followed by the lower hook extending counterclockwise below the baseline. The dot is written later, after any other connected strokes in the word.

ج followed by ا spells the word. This example shows that the shape of this letter changes when another letter follows it. The top stroke is still written from left to right, but a simple right-to-left stroke along the baseline replaces the hook when another letter follows. The other letters in this section change shape similarly when another letter follows.

When a ج follows a connecting letter, as in or, the top stroke is still written before the tail (or the following connecting stroke, as the case may be).

The letter is transcribed in UniPers as ‹c› and pronounced as [t͡ʃ] (i.e., like ch in English church).

The letter is pronounced as /h/. Its name sounds like a quick version of the English word “hay” (that is, it does not sound like the English word “he”).

ح followed by ب spells the word.

The letter  is pronounced like the IPA sound [x] (like the Spanish letter j or the German ch), transcribed in UniPers as ‹x›.

خ followed by ا and ج spells the word. Like the previous few letters, the tail of خ is not written when another letter follows it.

Exercises

 * Decide whether the ‹alef› in the following words stands for (short) ‹a› or (long) ‹â›. You do not need to be able to read the whole word at this stage.

 * }

 * What are the names of and sounds represented by the following letters?

 * }

 * }

 * Read these words by breaking them down into their component parts.

 * }

 * Use the following phrases in a short dialogue:
 * ‹salâm.›
 * ‹tow cetori?›
 * ‹man xubam, mersi›.
 * }
 * ‹man xubam, mersi›.
 * }

Review
In this lesson, you learned some greetings, the first nine letters of the Persian Alphabet, and how to spell several words with those letters from right to left. You also learned that short vowels are usually not written, and that many letters change their shape depending on whether they connect with letters before or after them.

title: Persian/Lesson 1


text: Template:High School Mathematics Extensions/Further Modular Arithmetic/TOC


text:
Talk:UNIX Computing Security

I had intended to eventually write some security stuff into Guide to UNIX, but I might put it in this book instead. I do wonder what the current plans are. Some created a page UNIX Computing Security:References. Does that mean that this book uses colon convention? The slash convention "UNIX Computing Security/References" automatically generates upward links, but both conventions are acceptable. --Kernigh 00:52, 5 November 2005 (UTC)
 * My feeling is that security information would still be quite appropriate for the general UNIX books. I was going to aim this at a more hard-core security audience focusing on all the nitty-gritty details, &c. So, ultimately, how to take a UNIX system and harden it down to meet government security ratings. On the sub-page conventions, I saw both types in use so I wasn't sure about which way to go. I'd be fine with using the slash notation instead. Thanks. :) — RJHall 17:56, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

If you want to be really meaningful, to really educate people, then you might want to put Unix security in the context of theoretical security. Meaning, capabilities-based systems like EROS. Basically, at every turn you'd have to show how the security problem wouldn't have been a problem at all if it weren't for Unix's choosing the ACL route or would have been trivially resolved or how meeting certain govermental standards would have been deemed utterly impossible from a capabilities' point of view and they would never have been attempted (and how from a theoretical point of view it IS in fact impossible ...).

Estimated probability you'll take this advice: 1%. 24.200.176.92 22:03, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Even in a theorecal and acedemic sense, capabilities-based systems like EROS are not really better than ACL-based systems. They simply use an alternate representation of the security matrix. Either way you do things, you need ACTORS*OBJECTS*OPERATIONS bits of data. Both systems can support this. Since actors are normally not persistent and objects normally are, the ACL method is superior. Persistent actors will give you trouble when you decide to do an OS upgrade. Then, leaving theory behind, we get to the matter of compatibility... ouch. AlbertCahalan 03:52, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Probability correct, at least for me. I wanted to focus more on real-world applicable solutions than on more abstract security theory. :) — RJHall 20:05, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

DOS (denial-of-service)
A few tips at http://cr.yp.to/docs/resources.html describe how to deal with DOS (denial-of-service) attacks. Which chapter here describes how to respond to DOS attacks?

 * I just added in a chapter titled "Attacks and Exploits" to cover DoS, buffer overflow, &c. Will that work? Thanks. — RJHall 23:14, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:UNIX Computing Security


text:
Category:Subject:Operating systems

cs:Kategorie:Operační systémy de:Regal:EDV fr:Catégorie:Système d'exploitation ka:კატეგორია:ოპერაციული სისტემები ko:분류:운영 체제 pt:Categoria:Sistemas operacionais ru:Категория:Операционные системы

title: Category:Subject:Operating systems


text:
Talk:Guide to Unix/BSD/OpenBSD

Discussion
In the next box is the original content of this page, from User:nmontague at 1 February 2005. --Kernigh 02:50, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

This is currently a placeholder for a set of books I intend to get working on after completing a couple books I am contributing to.

First will be As a Firewall, from there  As a Webserver,  As a Mailserver,  As an Internal Multiserver and then  As a DNS Server.

Each of these would cover some history on the protocols involved and talk about the specifics of setup, management and maintenance. As an Internal Multiserver would cover sftp, scp, samba, dhcp and anything else handy for a machine on the inside of a home or office network.

If I really get ambitious after all this I will do a To Learn Unix book as well, which will cover shells, user administration and the like.

As a desktop
I think that I will start Using OpenBSD/As a Desktop if I have time. --Kernigh 01:22, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I am also working on using OpenBSD as desktop. User:CFeyecare/sandbox --CFeyecare (talk) 20:22, 17 October 2008 (UTC)

 * I finish most of the article and I started the page. The only part I had trouble with was remembering the part about starting gdm on bootup. Even then it was only the specifics, you can still get the general idea. -- CFeyecare   Talk!   18:47, 31 October 2008 (UTC)
 * It is completed screenshots and everything. -- CFeyecare   Talk!   03:12, 3 November 2008 (UTC)

As a firewall
Now I am working on 'OpenBSD as a firewall'. User:CFeyecare/sandbox/2.-- CFeyecare   Talk! 03:11, 3 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Just about done with the article. -- CFeyecare   Talk!   00:29, 10 November 2008 (UTC)

As a web server
I am not quite sure how much I can say that is specific to OpenBSD: ./apache & ./mysql & -- CFeyecare   Talk! 18:42, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guide to Unix/BSD/OpenBSD


text:
Template:Computer bookshelf list

[ Edit this list] The following is a list of all computer-related bookshelves:
 * The computer science bookshelf contains books on computer science (e.g. algorithms).
 * The computer software bookshelf contains books about software and operating systems (e.g. OpenOffice, Linux).
 * The programming languages bookshelf contain books about programming languages (e.g. C++, PHP)
 * The domain-specific languages bookshelf contains books about document programming languages (e.g. LaTeX, XML).
 * The information technology bookshelf contains books about hardware, certification, and history and development of information technologies.
 * The electronic games bookshelf contains books about computer games.

title: Template:Computer bookshelf list


text: Template:Wikijunior:New Book Description


text:
Macroeconomics/Economics

Economics
Every day, billions of dollars of shares change hands on stock exchanges worldwide. The United States alone produces $34.5 trillion worth of output daily. The social science economics concerns the use of scarce resources to maximize satisfaction of unlimited wants.

What is scarcity? Scarcity, also known as the basic economic problem, is a law of nature. All resources, even those which seem to be in complete abundance (such as water), are scarce. The principle of scarcity operates on two assumptions:

 * Natural resources are finite and extinguishable
 * Seemingly limitless resources are hampered by our inability to utilize them

Because of scarcity, every person, business, and government in the world must make choices concerning the use of limited resources. However, we have limitless wants since we will always demand more gold, oil, or water. Economics deals with how to use these resources to make maximum efficient use to satisfy the maximum number of these wants.

Assessing scarcity
The choices people make when addressing scarcity are known as opportunity costs. An opportunity cost is the next best alternative that could have been chosen. Suppose that Company A makes 10,000 pillows per day and 4,000 mattresses. Company A decides to make another 1,000 mattresses per day. However, it is forced to cease production of 2,000 pillows. The opportunity cost of producing 1,000 extra mattresses per day was 2,000 pillows per day. If you choose to go to your college's football game and could have been doing laundry instead, then that task is the opportunity cost of your attending the football game.

Opportunity costs are an important part of economics that require further inspection. Suppose that instead of producing 1,000 mattresses per day Company A could also choose to produce 3,000 blankets for the same lost production of 2,000 pillows. What is the opportunity cost of producing the 3,000 blankets? It is still 2,000 pillows. It is not 2,000 pillows and the 1,000 mattresses which Company A could have produced. Opportunity costs are thought of only as the single next-best alternative. The economic perspective focuses on the marginal analysis, or only the immediate effects, of the costs.

Marginal analysis
Marginal analysis underlies much of economic thought. Governments and businesses usually make decisions based on the marginal cost and marginal benefit. Marginal analysis deals heavily with utility, or the satisfaction received from use of something. Suppose you choose to buy a sports car from Company B. Company B offers several options packages for that sports car. The packages include: an upgraded radio; the radio and a navigation system; the radio, navigation system, and heated seats. If you choose to buy the radio and navigation system package over simply the upgraded radio, your marginal cost is the extra dollar value you must pay. Your marginal benefit is the utility you derive from having the navigation system. If you decide the utility, and therefore the marginal benefit, is greater than the cost of the radio, and therefore the marginal cost, you should buy the radio. If not, you should choose the less expensive package instead.

Economics evaluates mostly the marginal costs and benefits because the entire picture is often irreducibly complex or irrelevant. You will later learn that in the short run a tradeoff (opportunity cost) exists between unemployment and inflation. When one is low the other is high. In the long run, however, there is no tradeoff between unemployment and inflation because unemployment will return to a natural level. Despite this, a problem exists: the long run may well be ten to fifteen years. Therefore, governments cannot simply afford to do nothing because they are confident unemployment will return to its natural level. Instead, they use the short run model to decide what to do and evaluate the actual change which will affect people in the immediate time period.

Ceteris paribus
This idea leads into another basic tenet of economics. In any economic analysis, we usually assume that everything outside of the problem at hand remains constant. For instance, some variables in our unemployment and inflation model will actually erase the tradeoff. This happened in the 1980s and 1990s in the United States, where there was low unemployment and low inflation at the same time. However, for the most part the model is almost always correct. Thus, for the purposes of examining those two variables, economists usually assume that all of the other possible variables affecting those remain the same. Economists call this ceteris paribus or the other things being equal assumption. When considering economics, it is helpful to first evaluate only two variables, and then to examine the effects of other upon the model.

Methodology
As a science, economics follows the scientific method. Hypothesis are developed from observations, and are tested to ensure validity (usually in economics this simply involves more observation). For results to be valid, a hypothesis must be able to predict an outcome more than once.

Economists are usually involved in theoretical economics and use their observation of facts to interpret them in a meaningful way. They use cause and effect relationship to establish economic theories or principles. Over time, a theory or principle may become accepted as universally true, at which point it becomes a law. A law is generally always considered to be true. A caveat to all of this is that all economic theories, principles, and laws are generalizations or abstractions. They simplify the actual picture, even more so because of ceteris paribus. A law, though almost always true, may prove false under special circumstances. Like other social sciences, economics cannot apply universal rules because humans sometimes act irrationally.

Positive and normative economics
The act of establishing cause and effect relationships to create theories is known as positive economics. Once positive economics establishes the rules, normative economics seeks to apply it. Sometimes economists refer to this as policy economics. Thus, they act to apply economic theories to policy. This is where economists usually differ with each other. Almost all economists, and virtually all capitalists, accept economic laws as true; however, it is their interpretation of what to do about them that brings them into conflict. The chapters on Fiscal and Monetary policy provide examples of the competing points of view.

Macroeconomics
Economics is divided into two portions: macroeconomics and microeconomics. This text deals with macroeconomics, the study of an economy as an aggregate, or as a whole. Macroeconomics deals with problems exclusively at a very large scale, usually the national level. Economics concerns itself with several basic goals. These can only be met at the macroeconomic level. They will be discussed in the chapter concerning the market economy.

Cautions
Karl Marx, who wrote The Communist Manifesto, stated that history is the sum of economic factors. Largely, this is the case. As such, economics is a much more controversial field than most people think. This is because economics effects everyone equally, personally, and intimately. Economics is the only science which touches us in a way we can relate to every day. There are a few problems which people may fall victim to when assessing economics. These include biases, "loaded terminology", and jargon. A few are more serious and harder to spot.

The Broken Window Fallacy
The following is an excerpt from Henry Hazlitt's Economics in One Lesson :

''A young hoodlum, say, heaves a brick through the window of a baker’s shop. The shopkeeper runs out furious, but the boy is gone. A crowd gathers, and begins to stare with quiet satisfaction at the gaping hole in the window and the shattered glass over the bread and pies. After a while the crowd feels the need for philosophic reflection. And several of its members are almost certain to remind each other or the baker that, after all, the misfortune has its bright side. It will make business for some glazier. As they begin to think of this they elaborate upon it. How much does a new plate glass window cost? Two hundred and fifty dollars? That will be quite a sum. After all, if windows were never broken, what would happen to the glass business? Then, of course, the thing is endless. The glazier will have $250 more to spend with other merchants, and these in turn will have $250 more to spend with still other merchants, and so ad infinitum. The smashed window will go on providing money and employment in ever-widening circles. The logical conclusion from all this would be, if the crowd drew it, that the little hoodlum who threw the brick, far from being a public menace, was a public benefactor.''

''Now let us take another look. The crowd is at least right in its first conclusion. This little act of vandalism will in the first instance mean more business for some glazier. The glazier will be no more unhappy to learn of the incident than an undertaker to learn of a death. But the shopkeeper will be out $250 that he was planning to spend for a new suit. Because he has had to replace a window, he will have to go without the suit (or some equivalent need or luxury). Instead of having a window and $250 he now has merely a window. Or, as he was planning to buy the suit that very afternoon, instead of having both a window and a suit he must be content with the window and no suit. If we think of him as a part of the community, the community has lost a new suit that might otherwise have come into being, and is just that much poorer.''

''The glazier’s gain of business, in short, is merely the tailor’s loss of business. No new “employment” has been added. The people in the crowd were thinking only of two parties to the transaction, the baker and the glazier. They had forgotten the potential third party involved, the tailor. They forgot him precisely because he will not now enter the scene. They will see the new window in the next day or two. They will never see the extra suit, precisely because it will never be made. They see only what is immediately visible to the eye.''

Post Hoc fallacy
The post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy is the most common fallacy and the easiest to fall victim to. In this fallacy, people assume that because Event A precedes Event B, Event A is necessarily the cause of Event B. However, this is easily disproven. If you go to jail and get raped, you cannot assume that you got raped because you went to jail.

Correlation
Correlation does not prove causation. Often studies will attempt to prove any number of things by showing that when people did something, something else happened to them. However, this proves nothing. For instance, you cannot assume that because 90% of people who took the SAT applied to college that taking the SAT caused people to attend college. More likely, it is the other way around.

Fallacy of composition
The fallacy of composition shows that just because something is true for an individual unit, it does not mean that it is true for the aggregate. For example, if you leave a sporting event a few minutes early because there will be traffic at the end, you cannot assume that everyone should leave a few minutes early. This will simply cause traffic a few minutes earlier. More often this fallacy involves applying microeconomic principles on the macroeconomic scale.

title: Macroeconomics/Economics


text: Template:Macroeconomics/bar

title: Template:Macroeconomics/bar


text:
Template talk:Guide to Schools/School outline

name change to come
I intend to change the name here to "template:special boarding school outline" when I have the time to line up all links correctly. Frog One 03:52, 5 November 2005 (UTC)


text:
Talk:The Computer Revolution/Timeline

The history could read:

 * MS sells first inherently security flawed "os" to the public.
 * MS hits corporate milestone of 9,999 outstanding cases of copyright infringement.
 * MS is subpoenoed to divulge os source code.
 * MS is held liable for ......

This module, in a word, is total fecies. It supports the exceedingly biased and distorted delusion that the computer revolution is something that happened because of business activity and investment. It DID NOT. The computer revolution was due entirely to the government, especially the military, and quasi-governmental organizations (fat monopolies) like Xerox, IBM and Bell Labs.

Microsoft in particular did absolutely nothing that any other company wouldn't have been willing and eager to do at the same time, at a lower cost both monetary and social. I'm referring there to its rapacious business practices such as using NDAs to hide blackmail from government. Microsoft is the mafia of the computer revolution and Bill Gates its Al Capone. 24.200.176.92 08:37, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I think your arguments are just propaganda. Microsoft has brought computers to everyone's house (imagine housewives using HP-UX or something) and, no matter anyone loves it or not, is a part of computer history. No matter that "anyone could do it better". Noone was able to compete with Microsoft so, apart from morality, this company should be mentioned. --Derbeth 08:52, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

Apple did that. Learn something other than propaganda and sucking at big corporations' teats, why don't you?

And the reason why "nobody was able to compete with Microsoft" is because they managed to rip off IBM and then proceeded to rip off every other hardware manufacturer under the sun.

And yeah, Microsoft should be mentioned. The form of that mention is what's at stake. The, quite typical, kowtowing to power you've just engaged in is exactly what I find disgusting. 24.200.176.92 09:01, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Apple did what, brought a computer into every home? Apple has done many things, but it has never held and maintained a majority share in the home computer market for any amount of time. Microsoft, whether you love it or hate it (and i get the vague idea that you hate it, for some reason) has made a number of good business moves in it's time, is good to it's investors, and has advanced the entire computer industry, either directly or indirectly. Windows may be an "inferior" OS according to you, but current versions of windows are fully backwards compatable all the way down to version 3.1 (Linux versions arent even all compatable cross-distro), and it has a commanding market share that it uses to provide standards for the entire industry. On top of all that, we can't even write what you want to write, because it isnt NPOV, and therefore would violate policy. sorry. --Whiteknight T C E 15:09, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

 * This is just ridiculous. Yes, Apple would be more of a candidate for "brought computers to the home", because with their Apple and Apple II computers they actually had affordable hardware that people could buy and take home, while at the same time Microsoft was just providing programming languages. But what is really amusing is your skewed world-view. Regurgitating some stuff that you have probably heard about Microsoft sometime from somebody somewhere... name one example where Microsoft broke the law, or some morality standard that all other companies upheld (Apple Inc. in particular, which was based on copying and imitating (even literally stealing (physical stuff) from others) from hour one, which you would know if you knew more about Apple than just propaganda). They were shrewd businessmen, no doubt, but anyone whose company is still around today was. They didn't deceive IBM, they just knew how to get a good deal. And they didn't screw IBM over, IBM messed things up for themselves. Also, they have a long history of doing that, time and time again. But what do I even bother, you're probably also the guy who added the release of the iPad as an entry to a timeline called "The Computer Revolution"... and the mere fact that you put OS in quotation marks up there shows how little you know, or care, about facts. But what never ceases to amuse me is how Apple fanboy's love to pretend being the edgy underground outsiders who stick it to the establishment (i.e. Microsoft), when in fact not only is Apple just as big and just as much part of the establishment, but more importantly their past and current practices give them absolutely no moral highground to look down from. 188.155.201.69 (talk) 19:27, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

Colour Coding
We need to find a way to colour code entries based on whether they're hardware, system software or internet related, that way people can keep track of the threads in history and see how they interleave. 24.200.176.92 08:05, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

Well, I've coded them. Now I need to create a style sheet. 24.200.176.92 23:51, 8 November 2005 (UTC)

To Add

 * the history of CPU chipmakers; the death of alternatives to x86 (death of SPARC, death of ARM, death of AlphaPC)
 * Microsoft's vicious predatory practices and criminal activities
 * early history of Mosaic, how it was ripped off from academia

 * Yeah, about #2: we can write about how microsoft's business dealings got it to where it is today, but the second we start talking about "The evil corporate beast that devors other companies, and destroys hope", we violate NPOV. If this issue gets you too charged up to contribute in a manner in accordance to wikibooks policy, i suggest you spend your time working on another book. --Whiteknight T C E 15:11, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

Warning
I just wanted to let the authors of this page know that wikibooks has basically entered a phase of clamping down on policy violations, and a number of books are going to be deleted off the site in the near future. This book is not a textbook, and will probably never be anything more then a timeline. It therefore is a policy violation, and will be subject to speedy delete. If there is a suitable place to merge this book, i recommend that it be done quickly. This book very well could land on the chopping block, and soon. --Whiteknight T C E 12:31, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

 * See Votes_for_deletion --Krischik T 15:58, 15 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Instead of a time-line, how about someone writes an History of Computers book instead? Maybe talk about early machines used as computers like the ones Pascal invented, etc? The ones used to do calculations. Early computers used in the military. The migration from mechanical to electronic computers. The founding of IBM, etc. Major inventions that revolutionalized computers like the vaccum tube, transistor, microchip, etc. --Orion Blastar 21:54, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

Duplication with Wikipedia
Everyone look at w:Category:Computing timelines. I am surprised that Wikipedia has more than I expect from an encyclopedia... --Kernigh 02:35, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Computer Revolution/Timeline


text:
Spanish/Adjectives

The Spanish language uses adjectives in a similar way to English and most other Indo-European languages. Spanish adjectives usually go after the noun they modify, and they agree with what they refer to in terms of both number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine). Spanish adjectives are very similar to nouns, and often interchangeable with them. A bare adjective can take an article and be used in the same place as a noun (where English would require nominalization using the pronoun one(s)). For example:
 * El rojo va aquí/acá, ¿no? = "The red one goes here, doesn't it?"
 * Hay que tirar las estropeadas = "We have to throw away the broken ones."

Agreement
Adjectives in Spanish can mostly be divided into two large groups: those that can be found in the dictionary ending in o, and the others. The former typically agree for number and gender; the latter typically agree just for number. Here are some examples: Frío means "cold". This is the dictionary form, and it corresponds to the masculine singular form. When it agrees with a feminine noun, it becomes fría. When it agrees with a plural noun, it becomes fríos. When it agrees with a noun which is both feminine and plural, it becomes frías. Here is a list of a few common adjectives in their four forms:

 * Frío = "cold"; → frío, fría, fríos, frías
 * Pequeño = "small"; → pequeño, pequeña, pequeños, pequeñas
 * Rojo = "red"; → rojo, roja, rojos, rojas
 * Here are a few common adjectives that agree only in number:
 * Caliente = "hot" → caliente, caliente, calientes, calientes
 * Formal = "formal" → formal, formal, formales, formales
 * Verde = "green" → verde, verde, verdes, verdes

The division into these two groups is a generalisation however. There are many examples such as the adjective español itself which does not end in o but nevertheless adds an a for the feminine and has four forms (español, española, españoles, españolas). There are also adjectives that do not agree at all (generally words borrowed from other languages, such as the French beige (also Hispanicised to beis)).

The superlative
Instead of putting muy, "very" before an adjective, one can use a special form called the superlative to intensify an idea. This consists of the suffix -ísimo.

Regular forms

 * muy rápido → rapidísimo
 * muy guapas → guapísimas
 * muy rica → riquísima
 * muy lento → lentísimo
 * muy duro → durísimo

Irregular forms

 * muy antiguo → antiquísimo
 * muy cursi → cursilísimo
 * muy inferior → ínfimo
 * muy joven → jovencísimo
 * muy superior → supremo
 * muy bueno → óptimo
 * muy malo → pésimo
 * muy grande → máximo1
 * muy pequeño → mínimo1

1These two forms keep the original meaning of the superlative: not "very" but "the most".

Forms that are irregular in high literary style, and regular normally

 * muy amigo → amicísimo / amiguísimo
 * muy áspero → aspérrimo / asperísimo
 * muy benévolo → benevolentísimo / not used
 * muy célebre → celebérrimo / not used
 * muy cruel → crudelísimo / cruelísimo
 * muy fácil → facílimo / facilísimo
 * muy fiel → fidelísimo / fielísimo
 * muy frío → frigidísimo / friísimo
 * muy íntegro → integérrimo / integrísimo
 * muy libre → libérrimo / librísimo (familiar)
 * muy magnífico → magnificentísimo / not used
 * muy mísero → misérrimo / not used
 * muy munífico → munificentísimo / not used
 * muy pobre → paupérrimo / pobrísimo
 * muy sabio → sapientísimo / not used
 * muy sagrado → sacratísimo / not used

Forms that are not felt a superlative anymore

 * muy agrio ("very bitter") → acérrimo ("strong, zealous, fanatic")

Applying -ísimo to nouns is not frequent, but there is the famous case of Generalísimo. As in English and other languages influenced by it, a teenspeak superlative can be formed by the prefix super-, or sometimes hiper-, ultra-, re- or requete-. They can also be written as adverbs separate from the word.

 * Superlargo or súper largo = "super-long", "way long"
 * Requeteguay = "totally cool"

title: Spanish/Adjectives


text: User talk:202.138.112.252

title: User talk:202.138.112.252