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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/Under-performing Schools

Most Americans are armchair critics of our education system and are quick to point out the decline in the quality of education for our nation's children. Wouldn’t it be nice if they stopped complaining and became proactive for the benefit of the students? Who is responsible for the quality of education for our nation’s youth? Yes, the accountability lies partially with teachers and schools. Our education system is certainly far from perfect and we need to personally evaluate our respective state education policies. However the state of our country’s academic achievement is “due more to the conditions of students’ lives outside of school than it is to what takes place within school walls.”(Steinberg, 1996). A large portion of the accountability should be placed on us, the citizens. If our students are failing, it is a reflection of our actions or inactions. The education system that our children have is the one that we have given them. Let us look at the possible causes of under-performance in our schools and how we as a society can contribute to finding a solution.

Acknowledge the Problem
The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) gives us a report card on our nation’s educational status. Of the tested fourth grade students in 2005, only 35% were found to be proficient in math, and 30% were proficient in reading (School Matters, 2005). The Kansas Action for Children has come up with six basic red flag conditions to identify students with high risk for underachievement. They are:
 * The head of the household is a high school drop-out
 * The children have no health insurance
 * The family lives in poverty
 * Only one parent lives in the home
 * Neither parent works full time
 * The family receives welfare benefits

A large portion of failure among students is attributed to their personal attitudes toward the importance of academic success, peer opinions toward academic priorities, media influences, and time spent in leisure and other activities outside school (Steinberg, 1996). Academically many underachieving students credit their failures to causes other than a lack of hard work. Our graduates are among the least educated in the world (Steinberg, 1996).

Laurence Steinberg credits the biggest problem for children as being “the high prevalence of disengaged parents in contemporary America” in his book Beyond the Classroom. Steinberg goes on to say that “one in three parents is seriously disengaged” from their child’s educational performance and only one out of five parents attend school programs and functions on a regular basis (Steinberg, 1996). Parents must make education a priority not only to themselves, but instill an importance of educational success in our homes. “Students need to believe that their performance in school genuinely matters in order to do well in the classroom,” (Steinberg, 1996). We can also enforce good time management skills which will benefit our children not simply through school but as an essential asset in life (Friedman, 2005). We must become involved in our children’s lives, regardless of the demands on our own. Our children must be our top priority! Lack of parental involvement is a predictor for “drug and alcohol abuse, delinquency and violence, suicide, and sexual precocity.” (Steinberg, 1996). We must carefully guard our children’s activities, the amount of time they spend in leisure activities, the content of the media that they view, and even the quality of people surrounding them (Steinberg, 1996). “Nearly one-fifth of all students say they do not try as hard as they can in school because they are worried about what their friends might think.” (Steinberg, 1996).

Generate Interest
This information is intimidating to a society seeking to help. We must formulate a plan of action for helping our nation’s students. As a whole we need to become interested in the future of our schools and recognize ourselves as being accountable to our nation’s youth for enforcing a response proportionate to their need (Meier, 2004). Apathetic attitudes and ignorance must not be accepted. We must generate awareness and interest in the academic situation (Popham, 2004). We must ask ourselves a few key questions about our communities, such as how we should judge the condition of the schools closest to us, whether they are well maintained, if the areas they are in are high in crime or violence, what type of role models or mentors we think the children in our neighborhoods see, if the school is in a low income area, and how these factors contribute to an environment conducive to learning and social behaviors desirable for our youth (Eighmey). We need to evaluate our schools on the basis of where we live before we begin to assess how we can best help.

Becoming Informed
Evaluating our schools accurately requires that we ask the right people the right questions. We must dig for telling facts and not simply be satisfied with the “everything is fine” educational bureaucratic glaze (Popham, 2004). On a national and local level we can search for information on the schools near us and state wide through the local department of education website as well as other sites that gathers and publishes information from the various states. We can also contact our Representatives, local board of education, and even specific principals (Popham, 2004). A few of the questions we need answered are:
 * What tests are used in our state to satisfy the provisions of the NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act)?
 * Do they help our state’s teachers in their efforts to promote students’ progress?
 * How many content standards do our state’s NCLB tests attempt to assess?
 * What increase is required each year in the proportion of a school’s students who must score at a proficient-or-above level on our state’s NCLB- required tests?
 * What are our state’s academic achievement standards?
 * Does our state’s assessment test accurately represent the education our students are receiving? (Popham, 2004)

This last question is especially important. Schools where testing is not difficult enough will reflect inflated, unrealistic scores (Steinberg, 1996). The more dangerous alternative is that the state adopted achievement tests are too difficult and therefore create tendencies for teachers to teach the students just the sampling of information on the standardized testing instead of giving them a well rounded education (Popham, 2004).

Getting Involved
If we as individuals find the necessary answers to these questions and are dissatisfied with the results, then we are obligated to take action. We must speak out against faulty systems when educators cannot for fear of professional backlash (Meier, 2004). Those of us outside the schools can take action by supporting organizations of change like the Children’s Defense Fund (Steinberg, 1996), promoting awareness through local media (Karp,2003), telling other concerned citizens you know (Wood, 1992), and supporting media which promotes education and disassociates from poor role model images and messages of glorified violence (Steinberg, 1996).

As a community we need to welcome the opportunities to interact with schools, not view them as institutions to occupy children by contacting state and local policy makers, becoming a community activist, becoming a program, teacher, and child advocate, making sure we are voting and researching the history of candidates in relation to education issues (Karp, 2003), and supporting legislation to equalize the amount spent per student regardless of community incomes (Wood, 1992). We can volunteer at schools or seek to open free tutoring and assistance centers (Friedman, 2005). One wonderful example of community involvement in education is a church in Hampton, Virginia, called Six House. Six House runs a three-day-a-week after school homework club. Local citizens and high school students volunteer to work to help children. Businesses can help to support schools through training programs and donations. We must all try to play a part to create a community that nurtures education. As parents, or those who care for children, we bear a great responsibility for the performance level of our children. Parent involvement is essential for the success of a child’s academic career (Steinberg, 1996).

Conclusion
Clearly the responsibility of the state of our nation’s education belongs not simply to the teachers, administrators, and politicians, but to every citizen. If we become participants in education through the discovery of relevant facts, active as individuals doing our part, and a community seeking to take pride in our children, then we might say we have fulfilled our obligation to the students. We must provide our children with the opportunity to succeed by doing what we can as a society. It is then and only then that we can pretend to assign blame to teachers or programs. The actions that we take or choose to ignore will predict our path as a future nation. “Solving America’s achievement problem will require a national effort that involves not only schools, but parents, employers, the mass media, and ultimately students themselves.” (Steinberg 1996).

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/Outstanding Schools

How should society reward outstanding schools and teachers? Rewarding schools and teachers is absolutely important to ensure that students and teachers reach their maximum learning limits. Victor Lavy a professor for economics states “improve the current education system by clarifying teacher goals and by attracting and retaining the most productive teachers.” In the United States most college graduates with a master degree do not pursue teaching because pay is not high enough. Many graduates with the same degree make more money. Is money the only motivating factor for schools systems and teachers? It is debatable and unfortunately there is no simple solution. Teaching is one of the most valuable professions for a society and it is a shame that we do not have “brightest” teaching our children. As a teacher states from Florida “Money shouldn’t be the only reason why your in it, the time is not equal to the money received” (Freeman, 2006) I think teachers need to be rewarded yearly with rewards for achievements made throughout the year. Research indicates that reward systems can be counter active and create bad morale (Dee & Keys 2004). All teacher unions look down upon performance based pay. The main reason is because it is very hard and expensive to accurately evaluate student teacher progress (Lavy, 2007). Throughout the research it was very difficult to find information on rewarding schools and teachers. I find this hard to believe but maybe because it is not done enough. Currently teachers are rewarded by their years of service and education.

Performance-based Pay
Performance based pay is a way to reward teachers individually and/or as a team for different goals that are set forth. Research varies when it comes down on what should be done to reward schools. It seems the operative word is performance. “What type of performance is the school system looking for?” Performance based pay can be many things to include “… attendance, grade retention, drop out rates, or performance based on tests.”(Lavy 2007)  There is indication in the research that teachers do not want to be rated in this way.

Some teachers fear that the impact of socio-economic status on test scores will prevent them from getting a bonus. There was a study done in 1946, 1981 and 1995 that opposes the concern of money. When teachers were asked what motivates them the reply was “interesting work” and not “money” (Diamantes 2004)  Performance based pay only pays for improvements and nothing “below threshold performance”  (Lavy, 2007)  In other studies performance based pay is also called merit pay (Dee & Keys, 2004). “Merit based pay which is defined broadly here as any systems of teachers’ compensation that explicitly reward better performance, has been perceived as a potential remedy for the flaws of the single salary system” (Dee& Keys 2004) These pay systems do not last long mainly because of the opposition of them. “…failure of merit pay is mainly due to teacher and union oppositions”(Dee & Keys 2004) In Dee and Key’s research it states students with merit pay teachers should have higher gain scores. However again there is criticism that this will make teachers not work together as a team and not share ideas. Education Commissioner John Wynn states “As it is with any other profession, compensation for teachers should be based in part, on their results, talent and expertise.” (Freeman 2006) Private schools are 35% more likely to use merit reward systems where public schools use a merit systems only 5% of the time. (Lavy, 2007) Lavy implies that this is because public schools have to prove their scores because students have to pay to go there. In public schools it is different because where you live is usually where you go to school there is not too much choice involved.

Evaluation Processes
The biggest problem with rewards and incentives for teachers is the evaluation process. In Tennessee they launched a “Career Ladder Program”. In this program the teachers' pay was based on different criteria. The “program blended salary rewards with professional responsibilities” (Dee & Keys, 2004). It was geared toward increasing employee morale in that it did not place a cap on the amount of rewards that could be given out (Dee & Keys, 2004). This makes it so all teachers are striving to do better and meet current goals. This is not a program that is geared to the top 1% or one teacher of the year. The only problem was that the principal was responsible for ensuring that the teachers got certification according to the state board and they only had a few hours of training on evaluating the teachers (Dee & Keys,2004). Due to evaluation being subject the teachers argued that there is room for bias. Another problem with incentive-based programs is that there are so many goals in education. Not just in academics but drop-out rates, violence, and so on. It is very hard to get all parties to agree on goals (Lavy, 2007). The evaluation process is extremely difficult to do well because all things must be considered.

Rewards Based on Experience and Training
The current reward for teaching now is years of service and the amount of education that the teacher has. Rewards now include a small annual increase for each year of service. I do mean small. Mostly they pay you a little more for what type of degree you have bachelors, master doctorate. Dee & Keys states that “… the ‘single salary approach’ was widely adopted in the first half of the century, partly as a response of capriciousness and out right discrimination that had existed under more discretionary forms of compensation. It is very hard to reward teachers because of the continued pattern that was started with equal rights and equal pay. Unfortunately in research voters are not giving raises to teachers due to low over all academic performance on standardized tests (Lavy, 2007). It is believed that voters would vote in favor for incentive money for schools and teachers that are performing above average (Lavy, 2007).

Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to reward teachers. Hopefully one day all teachers, administrators, school systems, and voters will come up with an amiable solution. Unfortunately teachers and school systems are stuck with minimal rewards. Society needs to take a more active approach in increasing rewards. Public schools need qualified teachers and this is directly related to the reward system. There has got to be a better equation for Performance based pay. The pay should be calculated by many factors including individual goals. Hopefully everyone will take the time an evaluate what is most important. The United States needs to step it up a notch and put education first with funding. Rewards are important to recruiting qualified staff for schools.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability/NCLB Savior

Education is a vital tool for success in this country for today’s generation. There can be no growth or expansion unless society as a whole becomes more educated and better trained. In the past it was acceptable to graduate high school and find a job, but now that will not get you very far in life. Children today have to be better, brighter, and more knowledgeable than ever before if they hope to make it into college and make something of themselves in the world. Due to these high stakes for the growing youth in America, the nation had to develop a strategy to guarantee success. This is where No Child Left Behind entered the picture. The schools around the country were not meeting the standards and expectations set for them in order for children to have the most beneficial opportunities. Teachers and other school staff did not have the qualifications, skills, or concern to help the students get the best out of the public school system. After seeing these results and having great concern about the future of children, the national government decided to step in and make a difference. With their guidance and enthusiasm, NCLB has made great strides in raising the bar of education in this great nation. Now teachers must be highly qualified in order to give students the best instruction for learning. This law also made schools and states more accountable for education and performance. Throughout the regulations of this education safeguard, parents are more involved, technology is better incorporated into the learning process, and all minority and disabled students are taught with higher skills and importance.

Highly Qualified Teachers
Education growth and development has made teacher qualifications a high concern of schools across the nation. These professionals need the experience, knowledge, and skills to lead the younger generation on the pathway to education. With this in mind, NCLB targeted teachers to make sure they met the necessary requirements. To be deemed highly qualified, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree, certification or licensure from the state, and show mastery of the subjects they teach (NCLB Flexibility, 2004). All teachers were required to maintain the highly qualified status by the 2005-2006 school year. It is important that teachers become highly qualified in each subject they teach. Due to the demand for teachers, the Education Department has made flexibilities to give teachers considered qualified in one subject time to receive that qualification in other subjects. This is an important flexibility for teachers that are teaching many subjects. Another key alternative for current teachers is the HOUSSE (High, Objective, Uniform State Standard of Evaluation) evaluation process. This allows teachers to prove their mastery of the subject or subjects they teach without having to return to school (NCLB Flexibility, 2004). It is also now important to properly train teachers who were entering the schools so they can provide the best education to students. This law also targeted teacher recruitment so that school officials could hire the most skilled person for the job. With qualified teachers in the smaller classrooms, students would be able to learn more information and meet state requirements (Whitehouse, n.d.).

Accountability
Schools and states are now being held accountable for children learning the necessary material. The schools must measure each student’s annual yearly progress, AYP, in math and reading. Each student must also test proficient on state tests by the 2013-2014 school term. Then the school must keep the parents informed about how it is performing. Each child should be meeting the AYP goal for the year in at least a proficient score or the school is not doing its job. The school is also responsible for letting parents know when a person that is not a highly qualified teacher is instructing their child. The major accountability test for each school is the standardized tests. If schools are unable to pass these tests with the children scoring proficient then that school is not meeting its obligations. With the schools being held more accountable, they are making greater efforts to teach children. Not surprisingly, it is working. Everyone is getting involved and trying to overcome any obstacle in the path of education. NCLB has set the margins of excellence and it is making sure that all schools can meet these requirements. This is a positive effect for every parent because then the children will be getting the best education possible (No Child Left behind Act: Wikipedia, n.d.).

Parental Involvement
Getting parents involved with the school is a major goal of the NCLB. It is important for parents to understand how the schools should be performing. Then they must make every effort to evaluate the education their child is getting compared to the set standards. NCLB has many refreshing ideas about getting parents involved. Some of these rules include annual meetings with parents, notifying parents of teachers that are not certified as highly qualified, and distributing an annual report card on how the school is performing. Still, it is the schools responsibility to inform parents on how their child is progressing and what they can do to help. The most important aspect of this parental involvement occurs when a school is not performing to meet standards. Then the school must notify the parents with options of transferring to other schools that are performing up to standards. The child is also eligible for free tutoring. Overall this should be a relationship of constant communication between the parents and the school. The parents need to know how the child is performing, as well as how the school is meeting its requirements. It is the parents’ obligation to make sure their child is receiving an appropriate education and it is the schools responsibility to provide this useful information to the parent (NCLB Rules, 2007).

Incorporating Technology into Education
Another major goal of NCLB is to incorporate technology into learning. This would enhance the educational opportunity of the child. There are many schools that do not use technology when teaching. The students are missing out on learning about tools they will use in the future, and it is putting them further behind after they exit the public school. Technology is also a useful tool to get children interested in what they are learning. This is why the government finds it so important to use technology when teaching. By incorporating this technology, students are learning the necessary material while becoming familiar with devices they will use later in life. This is also a way for schools to receive more money. A school can receive extra funding for new devices. This will help the schools that do not have enough money to purchase computers and other materials. Some teachers are finding this new incorporation useful because it reduces the paperwork and makes lessons more flexible (Whitehouse, n.d.).

Minority and Disabled Students
NCLB has made great strides in increasing the educational benefit of minority and disabled students. Before, these students did not get the attention or recognition they deserved. Many schools would not focus on these groups because they were not the majority of students. Through NCLB, these groups are getting greater attention. This act has shifted the attention to minimizing the gaps in performance between groups based on class or race. Every student has the same expectations and requirements whether they are black, white, rich, or poor. This has made schools focus on groups, such as Latinos or low-income students, that were previously forgotten due to status or financial label (No Child Left Behind Act: Wikipedia, n.d.). These groups are now receiving their appropriate education. Disabled students were also ignored in the past. There were no high expectations of these students so many schools shifted attention away to the larger groups. NCLB changed all of this by requiring disabled students to also meet strict requirements of AYP. This forced schools and teachers to refocus attention to these students so they could pass state tests. This gave disabled students a better chance of learning in the general education classroom and becoming productive members of their school and society (Nagle, Yunker, & Malmgren, 2006).

Limited English Proficiency Students
“All limited English proficient students will become proficient in English and reach high academic standards, at a minimum attaining proficiency or better in reading/language arts and mathematics”(ED.gov). The Virginia Board of Education adopted English Language Proficiency Standards of Learning in November 2002. “Section 1111 (b)(7) of the NCLB Act requires each state to ensure that all school divisions, will provide for an annual assessment of English language proficiency of all LEP students”(ED.gov).The assessment measures an individual’s oral language, reading, and writing skills in English. A LEP student who is at the lowest levels of achievement in the grades third through eighth has the option of taking the state test as proxy for the English/reading Standards of Learning test with up to three years. Whereas the students who maintain the higher levels of proficiency take the regular Standards of Learning tests. Through this testing, LEP students will get a chance to achieve at their very highest upbringing. The No Child Left Behind Act does not penalize for their level, instead each child gets a chance.

Conclusion
Although NCLB may have caused drastic changes in school across the country, it was a positive effect for the children. Without this legislation, many children would have continued to receive an inadequate education and could have suffered later on through life. Through NCLB, all students are given the same chance to succeed and it is the schools responsibility to help. They must make sure that all students are making progress and achieving set goals every year during their education. It also requires schools to keep parents involved so they know how their child is performing. Through the requirements of highly qualified teachers and the use of technology, students are now receiving one of the best educations this country has every seen. There may be a few dilemmas along the road to success, but overall NCLB has helped to make the state and schools accountable for what the students do. Through this, each child is making great strides and has the best opportunities set on the road ahead. This is not only making the nation’s schools a better place to learn, but is creating knowledgeable students who will one day make this country a better place to live.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback/Effective Assessments

When you think of the term “assessment” you probably immediately think “test.” While testing is an important part of effective assessment, there are several other key components.

In order for students to succeed both the students and the schools must receive the right resources and be held to the appropriate standards. While these guidelines may seem to be little more than common sense, they are not always so simple to implement. The American Educational Research Association outlined the following three criteria necessary for an effective assessment program:

 * 1) The assessment and accountability program should provide a good target for student and school effort.
 * 2) The assessment and accountability program should be symmetrical.
 * 3) The assessment and accountability program should be fair.

Providing a Good Target
Standards that are well planned and evenly applied are the first step. These standards should include a broad curriculum. Students should be proficient in foundation skills (like multiplication tables or verb declension). Students however should also be able to use ideas they are taught to solve problems and communicate those ideas to others. In other words, “Assessment tasks assess the capacity to analyze and synthesis new information and concepts rather than simply recall information previously presented.” (CSHE, 2002) When setting appropriate targets there are several factors to consider, including:

 * 1) A range of subjects should be tested.
 * 2) The whole school should accept appropriate responsibility for students’ success or failure.
 * 3) A good assessment program focuses attention on the domain of content desired, as opposed to the specific sample tested.
 * 4) Hold schools and students accountable require specifying standards for performance.
 * 5) The goal is to set rewards and sanctions that are sufficient to focus attention on desired content and increase effort. (Porter, 2004)

Being Symmetrical
For those of you who took geometry a life time ago, symmetrical means to be equal on each side. When applied to an educational assessment program that means that both the students and the schools are equally held responsible in obtaining goals. Questions that must be asked when creating a symmetrical program include:

 * 1) To what degree will teachers at untested grades share the responsibility for student’s success/failure in high stakes testing?
 * 2) How much are the schools, teachers, and students held responsible for their own performance?
 * 3) Are the students and teachers held to same set of data for their evaluations? (Porter 2004)

It is important that the notion of equal responsibility should not end within the schools. If the state holds the schools to a standard, the state should also be accountable in helping the schools meet that standard. Alexander Astin highlights this concept in his article “9 Principles of Assessing Student Learning” stating, “Assessment alone changes very little. . . . The push to improve educational performance is a visible and primary goal of leadership; improving the quality of [education] is central to the institution’s planning, budgeting and personnel decisions.

Fairness in Assessment
This concept of fairness goes hand in hand with the previous idea of equal responsibility. “The key ideas behind a fair assessment and accountability program are opportunity to learn, adequate resources, and the reliability and validity of measures on which inferences are made.” (Heubert & Hauser 1999) In other words, if a school is going to hold a student to a standard, the school must adequately teach that standard. Likewise if a state is going to hold the schools accountable, then the state must provide the proper funds and resources needed.

But holding each level accountable is one thing, knowing where to start that accountability is something quite different. Can you hold the student accountable before they receive instruction? Do you hold the school accountable once the standards are set? Or should there be a more gradual implementation of standards and accountability? One solution is to first hold the schools accountable for a period of time before the students (Foster, 2004) Of course there is much more than simply creating the standards in achieving academic success. The standards must be taught, both efficiently and effectively. To that a school must have “qualified staff, instructional materials including technology, high-quality teacher professional development and reasonable class sizes.” (Foster, 2000)

But how do high-stakes testing factor into fairness in assessment? Fairness would indicate that no single test would determine the academic future of a student. The student must be given multiple tests and multiple opportunities to prove that he/she is proficient. This may create a “bias of success” (Foster, 2004) because it increases the likelihood that a student will succeed. Fairness in assessment supports such a positive leaning bias.

Effective Assessment in the Classroom
The previous sections have concentrated on assessment applied across a school system. However assessment for that system begins in singular classrooms. How can effective assessment be applied in those individual classrooms? Again, there are three basic principles to take into account.

 * 1) Create Unambiguous Expectations. Students will do better when they understand what is expected of them. Assignment should be clearly defined and pertain to the lectures and resources they are provided. They should also receive feedback, explanation of their grades, and suggestions for improvement.
 * 2) Create Authentic Tasks. Students will do better when they are given assignments that call upon skills that will be valuable in real-life situations.
 * 3) Give Choice and Flexibility. Students will work harder if they believe they have a voice in their given assignments. Providing a choice of assignment and different ways to complete those assignments but the responsibility of the students to highlight their individual skills. (Assessing Student Learning)

Other Principles To Consider

 * 1) Standards First, Then Testing. Policy makers and educators need to use a progression that begins with setting goals and ends with assessment. Then we can use tests that measure our progress.
 * 2) Tests Measure Educational Progress--They Don't Create It. Tests do not make better students; good schools and good teachers do!
 * 3) No Single Test Does Everything--The Importance of Multiple Measures. No one test can show whether all standards are being met, nor can it show everything we need to know about one student's progress.
 * 4) The Importance of Valid, Fair, and Reliable Assessments. All tests should be created and published using standards developed by the American Educational Research Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education. When creating tests, fairness, validity, reliability, and technical strengths should be reviewed (McGraw-Hill).

Conclusion
Effective assessment is a set of rules, tools, regulations and resources designed to help both students and schools meet the standards necessary to succeed. Effective Assessment both begins and ends with that standard. The schools must create and then teach that standard. Students must learn and apply that standard. When the standard is met, the bar should be raised higher.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback/Feedback Skills

“What is your problem? Don’t you listen to anything I say?” Not very encouraging or motivating is it? Think about it. What if you were the student who just finished an assignment that you had worked very hard on and this was the response that you received from your teacher? More than likely, you would not be motivated to try to do a better job or even want to do an assignment for that teacher again. We, as teachers, need to be mindful of what we say and how we say it. People of all ages need feedback on what they do and how they do it. There are different ways and types of feedback that can be given. How feedback is given has a huge impact on a student and his/her motivation to learn.

What is Feedback?
Feedback, according to Dictionary.com, is “knowledge of the results of any behavior considered as influencing or modifying further performance.” Feedback can come from a teacher, the learner him/herself, or from parents, other adults or peers. Feedback should make reference to the quality of the work and how to improve it. If the feedback is given correctly it will let the student know what he/she needs to improve on and what he/she did correctly. There is positive and negative feedback. This article will focus on positive feedback.

Students' Needs are Different
The role of teachers has changed in the last few years. Teachers need to encourage students to want to learn and to help students develop appropriate learning techniques. The intent of a teacher should be to help the students cultivate the tools and strategies to be better able to learn and be responsible for their own learning. Teachers should strive to keep students motivated by varying feedback and giving the appropriate feedback. Students have different needs and learning styles and because of this a teacher’s first priority should be to build a relationship with each child. This is necessary so that the teacher will know how each student is motivated to learn and how he/she can give the correct feedback to help each child.

Some students are intrinsically motivated and they learn simply for the love of learning without obvious external incentives or rewards. Offering a reward sometimes suggests to an intrinsically motivated student that the activity is not worth doing the task for its own sake. A teacher needs to be careful with how he/she uses feedback with this type of student so the student will be continue to be intrinsically motivated  Extrinsically motivated students are motivated to learn because of the reward one receives after doing a task.

Encouragement is Important
Praise is perhaps the most widely used form of adult attention in classrooms. Critics claim that statements of praise may have detrimental effects when they express the teachers’ approval or admiration, provide general commendations on the value of achievements, or set up comparisons between children. These forms of evaluative praise are thought to focus on children’s approval from others, on extrinsic rather than intrinsic rewards and on competition about achievement, rather than on personal development and the value of the activity itself. Frequent use of evaluative praise is said to work against the generally accepted educational goals of fostering positive self concept, self-reliance, and internal motivation. Research does not support the claim that traditional praise reduces internal motivation. On the contrary, a recent study revealed that verbal praise increases children’s intrinsic motivation, measured both by the time they spend on a task and their favorable attitude about the task. Instead of using evaluative praise, a teacher could use effective praise which focuses on the effort and/or specific attributes of the work completed. Encouragement should be specific, focus on improvement of process and effort, be sincere, and avoid comparisons to other students. (Slaby, pgs. 64-65). Non-verbal forms of attention include positive gestures (thumbs up, okay sign), laughing together, showing interest, winking, or clapping. If a student gets informational feedback and has a pleasant experience they will want to continue the task or behavior.

Positive feedback is important to learner morale (confidence pleasure), which itself can be a powerful determinant of the learning outcome (Draper 2005). Good feedback tells a student what was “right”, what was “wrong”, and how to right the wrongs without “wronging the rights”. The first two should always be present and the third should be used when a teacher feels it is appropriate. The teacher might want to let the student try and figure something out before giving corrective feedback (Isaacs, from Draper 2005).

Recognition invites repetition. Children crave to be noticed and recognized. Behavior that gets a teacher’s focus, attention, and energy is what will grow and flourish. When teachers notice good work and skills, students will repeat this behavior. Teachers should use language with students to help them develop positive attitudes about themselves and their potential. With positive feedback a teacher can help students achieve the following: persist at tasks even when they become challenging, learn to carry out a task to completion, feel confident and competent, and feel hopeful about themselves, their potential, and the future (Bilmes, pg. 30 and 158).

Timeliness should be considered when giving feedback. This will vary because of the student and the assignment. Immediate feedback is important, it lets the student know about their work right away and what they need to do if anything; and also it keeps them on track and motivated to continue. Sometimes feedback may need to be delayed a little to promote thought (Draper 2005).

Other Sources of Feedback
Parents and other adults affect students learning also. Discuss ways of encouragement and feedback with parents so that everyone will be on the same page. Have both parents involved if possible. “Children are more likely to be motivated to achieve if they get the same clear and positive message about school effort and expectations from both parents” (Rimm).

Peers can give each other feedback also. Teachers should instruct the students in the proper way to give feedback to avoid possible hurt feelings and so that the feedback is helpful. Feedback coming from a peer sometimes is more effective then coming from the teacher. Students should also be taught to evaluate themselves (Rimm). When a student succeeds in self-correction, it makes them feel good about themselves and motivates them to keep continue the task.

Conclusion
Feedback is an important component of teaching. Feedback is an art acquired over time and is loosely based on intuition. We, as teachers, need to work on giving appropriate feedback. We need to be conscious of what we say and how it comes across to students. Teachers should take the time as ask students about the quality of the feedback they are receiving and if the students understand the feedback. Feedback should identify what has been done well, what needs improvement, and should give appropriate guidelines on how to make improvements. Praise and encouragement need to be appropriate. It is the quality of feedback rather than the quantity. It should be about helping students “learn” more effectively rather than just rushing through an assignment. Feedback can be as easy as saying, “you did a good job”. This can make a child feel confident and motivated. It will also make the teacher feel good because they will know that they have inspired someone. Remembering those five little words can make a difference in the life of many students.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback/Group Work

When putting students into groups you may hear comments like, “Why do I have to be in Johnnie’s group?” or “It isn’t fair to be in a group with Johnnie because he doesn’t do anything to help the group.” These concerns can be multiplied when students will receive a grade for their group work. This article will look at several approaches to assessing group work that hopefully can be utilized to overcome student objections about working in groups.

The dictionary defines collaboration as working together, especially in a joint intellectual effort. Although many studies show the benefits of utilizing group work in the classroom, such as the increased learning and student involvement that can result, it can be difficult or confusing to determine how group work should be graded or assessed. The main reason it can be difficult is just the shear fact that the grading process involves joint effort, that of more than one student. Another reason this can be complicated is because there are several ways to form groups which may have different purposes and outcomes. There are also many questions to consider. How can we be fair to both the individual group members and also to recognize the group itself as a member? How should we deal with those students who refuse to participate or leave most of the work and input to the other team members? What is really being graded – aptitude, achievement, potential, or effort? (Kochis) Let’s look at the issues involving assessing group work and provide some possible approaches for assessment.

There are five main methods of assessing group work. They are:
 * Individual assessment
 * Assessment by the teacher
 * Group assessment
 * Self assessment
 * Peer assessment

Each method has benefits and downfalls. One thing to consider when deciding how to assess group work, is the purpose of the group work itself. Will the group be creating a project together, will they work as a group but still create individual work, or will the members only be involved in student-led discussion? These factors contribute to the assessment that is chosen.

Individual Assessment
Individual assessment can be easily utilized when a group is formed to brainstorm ideas and to discuss topics, but each member will still be creating their own product. The students may be required to submit a paper or a project based on the group’s ideas as well as their own. However, this type of assessment fails to take into account any of the group dynamics or to distinguish between those who participated in the group’s learning and those who did not. Another method of applying individual assessment works well when contracting is applied to a group project that can be easily broken down into distinct areas.

Assessment by Teacher
Assigning individual grades based on teacher observation is also difficult because a teacher is not an actual member of the group and cannot know what is going on in all groups all the time. It also tends to be an advantage to those members who are more dominant and vocal, even though their contributions may not be the most beneficial. If online discussion boards are used, it is much easier for the instructor to check in on the group discussion to see who is participating and who is not. However, a group grade given by a teacher can be based on more than observation. The team members could be required to keep a journal or a log to track the group’s activities which the teacher could assess. (Young) Also, you could require individual assignments such as worksheets, web references, or discussion questions, to be completed at certain times that would be shared with the group. A written assignment could be required at the end of group work from each member describing what they felt they learned and how they incorporated what they learned from each group member into their final project. (Using the Forums) A project exam question could also be utilized to ensure that those who contributed most to the project would be best suited to answer the question well. Then, these students would be individually rewarded by an increased test score. (Young)

Another issue to consider here is whether attendance should be part of the grade when involving group work. Since students in groups are actively engaged in creating the knowledge they will gain from the course, it is important that they are present. Group work is dependent on interaction. If a group member is absent, he cannot contribute to discussion or participate in the groups activities. Because of this, most instructors assign from 5% to 15% of a grade based on attendance. (Petrulis)

Group Assessment
Assigning a collective grade also fails to take account of group dynamics and fails to distinguish between individual members’ efforts and contributions. (Sullivan) Using this method, each member of the group would receive the same grade. Conflicts can often arise when this grading method is used alone. Highly motivated students often resent being grouped with less committed peers. (Petrulis) You may begin hearing comments like “______ didn’t do any work on the project. It isn’t fair that he should get our grade when we did all the work.” (Arango) One solution to this problem may be to apply the “Share-Out” System.

Self & Peer Evaluation
The last two methods of group assessment are unique because they do not involve the instructor assigning a grade at all. With self assessment and peer assessment, the group members themselves provide information that determines their grades. Self assessment requires students to make judgments about their own work or their performance on a team. With peer assessment, students are asked to comment on or judge the performance of other group members. Peer assessment is usually done anonymously to avoid potential conflicts and to allow the students to feel they can be honest in their evaluations. (Blease, 2006) Surprisingly, students often grade themselves more harshly than their teachers might, and are also reassuringly honest when completing peer evaluations. (How should I grade group work?)Asking students to evaluate their own performance can help them develop insights into their learning and help them see the value of collaboration. (Petrulis) It also validates individual effort, self-reflection and growth, and encourages students to engage more fully. (Sullivan)

Asking students to grade themselves or their peers can be problematic because many students have not been taught how to do this. They may give very general responses or give inflated or uncritical results. (Sullivan) Therefore, self evaluation should be more than the submission of a simple mark. It should require the student to grade himself on various scales related to individual responsibilities, group participation, etc. The students should also be required to give evidence and rationale for the grades to encourage honest reflection. Some sample questions could be “Did you uphold your responsibilities to the group? If not, what prevented you from doing so? Describe the most interesting, creative, or risky parts of the group for you. What can you take with you form experiences in this class to group work in other environments? Have your attitudes, roles, or skills changed through being part of your group in this class? If so, how?” (How should I grade group work?, Petrulis, Sullivan)

Some of the potential benefits of self and peer assessment are:
 * Increased student ownership of learning.
 * Provides increased incentive of team working – when grades are involved, students are far less likely to dismiss group work or become hostile toward group activities.
 * Encourages active participation in the learning process by making assessment a shared activity.
 * Promotes reflection and hence, potentially deeper understanding. As students become more conscious of the practice of group interaction, they also assume more control and responsibility for their successes and failures of their experiences.
 * Increases opportunities for the teacher to monitor progress.
 * Increases opportunity for the teacher to identify potential conflicts.

Because each method of assessment has advantages and disadvantages, perhaps the best approach is to use a combination of methods to assign grades. One suggestion might be to weight the assessment as follows: 20% individual assessment (based on an individual essay or exam question), 20% teacher assessment (based on observation, attendance, and group journals), 20% group assessment (based on final project), 20% self assessment, and 20% peer evaluations. A combination approach also allows for more assurance that both the individual’s contributions and the group’s contributions will be accounted for. This can help alleviate student fears of being paired with less motivated students and losing control of their grades, and at the same time increase the motivation to work in a group setting.

Although there are difficulties with determining grading methods in group settings, instructors have developed productive ways to approach grading and also to allow students to become part of the teaching process.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback/Peer Evaluation

In 2002 Kristja J. Falvo, a mother of three, sued the Owasso Independent School District in Oklahoma claiming that peer grading embarrasses her children as well as violates the Family Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) after learning that some teachers were allowing the students to grade each others work and call the grades out loud.

FERPA is a twenty six year old law that prohibits schools from disclosing a student’s educational record to any third party without parental consent. Falvo considered allowing the students to know the grades of others a violation of the privacy act. The Supreme Court, in a unanimous decision, ruled that the common practice of peer evaluation does not violate the federal law. However, school districts may still decide to ban peer grading from their schools. (Simpson) Each school district would probably want to evaluate the pros and cons of peer grading before coming to a final decision.

Pros Regarding Peer Evaluation
There are many arguments supporting peer grading, not only for the student, but for the teacher as well. Many studies have been done to draw the following conclusions.

Student Advantages
Peer evaluation helps student in a variety of ways. It helps to sharpen their critical skills as well as their social responsibility. They are able to gain insight into some of the difficulties teachers come across when grading. Realizing what goes into the grading and evaluating process will help many students to understand and appreciate the grades that they have received as well as the people that gave them those grades. (Wilson) Also, the practice of peer evaluation supports involvement of both right and left brains through personal application of knowledge. Not only do student get to exercise their own knowledge on a certain topic but as they review another person’s work or performance, they are forced to look at certain material through the eyes of another person as well. (McLeod)

According to Hoyt Wilson, peer rating have been found to be valid evaluators of student performance. This is an advantage to both the student doing evaluating and the student being evaluated. After children observe peer responses, whether to an assignment or to their behavior in class, there is a natural tendency for them to determine why such reactions occur. In some cases, this could help student be able to realize their weak points and work on fixing them.

Teacher Advantages
Peer evaluation promotes a feeling of team learning between teachers and students. As the teacher is able to connect with the students on this level, it gives him or her a chance to 1. encourage students to contribute openly, 2. encourage sharing materials and resources, 3. promote expressing acceptance and support during interactions, and 4. point out rejecting and non supportive behaviors that hinder peer evaluation. (Ornstein) All of these lessons in peer evaluation go beyond the classroom and can help the students in group situations for the rest of their lives. Without the atmosphere that peer evaluation creates, the students would not be as receptive to these concepts.

Cons Regarding Peer Evaluation
Although many of the arguments in support of peer evaluation make it seem like a great addition to class work, there are still many people who believe that it is negative in the classroom for both students and teachers.

Student Disadvantages
For the student being evaluated there is, according to some, obvious disadvantages. For example, studies show that even if the peer evaluation is planned and controlled by the teacher, social relations will play a part. (Sengupta) Basically, students are more likely to give their friends a better grade than they deserve or give a worse grade to someone that they don’t like. Also, many students have complained about tough grading and unfair scores.

Some also argue that the whole peer evaluation process is a waste of time. Many students are busier figuring out easy ways to complete the evaluation sheet than evaluating the text. Also, even if an evaluator thoroughly read or evaluated a student’s performance, the person being evaluated will be selective when considering suggestions from peers. They usually rely on their own knowledge instead. (Sengupta) This defeats the purpose of the evaluation because the student is not going to notice the same things wrong with his or her assignment that a second party will notice; such as misspellings and grammar errors.

Teacher Disadvantages
In the past, by allowing students to grade one another’s assignments, there have been cases of plagiarism and copying. (McLeod) This is more concerned with grading assignments than evaluating performance, but it is still an issue for many teachers.

Also, students are not always trustworthy of their peers. If a suggestion is given by a fellow student, it will probably be disregarded. However, if the same suggestion is given by the teacher, the student will take it into account. (Sengupta) This causes a problem for the teacher because it makes it that much harder to push the behaviors that make the peer evaluation process successful.

Bias
Bias both occurs with the student and the teacher however it is particularly crucial when it comes time to peer evaluation and grading. First off evaluation and grading are two different things. A bias is much more damaging when grading is occurring. It is hard enough for teachers who have been trained for years to avoid bias, teaching students to put aside their own bias and differences when grading is much more difficult. A student could not like a fellow classmate and grade them poorly. A teacher must closely supervise peer editing to make sure it is a fair experience.

Conclusion
Looking at both the pros and cons of peer evaluation and grading in the classroom makes it easy to understand why there are people both supporting and rejecting it. However, just reading through the data will not help anyone come to a certain conclusion. The age and maturity of the children, the experience of the teacher, as well as the subject matter are all to be taken into consideration. Peer evaluation is a process in which trial and error is the only way to determine if it will work in a particular school district, or even a particular classroom.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Multiculturalism/Gender Issues

Students learn differently. That is plain. No one child learns the same way. Classrooms must be as diverse in technique as they are in population. A teacher must accommodate various needs and intricacies. They must allot time for independent study as well as collaborative group work. They need to cater to the visual learner and the auditory pupil; and they most certainly should be able to manage an array of behavioral situations. Unfortunately, there is not a single fail-safe method or any one best-technique to employ across the board in classrooms. For many teachers, the sticking point to a successful classroom is the latter. One cannot teach if the environment is not conducive to learning. So, what can be done to limit distraction and optimize instructional time?

Adolescent psychology is associated with the notable changes in the behavior and characteristics of adolescents, cognitive, emotional and attitudinal changes take place during this period, which can be a cause of conflict on one hand and positive personality development on the other. Due to the adolescents' experiencing various cognitive and physical changes, it is frequently notable that they start giving more importance to their friends, their peer group, and less to their parents/guardians, due to the aggregated influence of whom they might go on to indulge in activities not deemed as socially acceptable, although this may be more of a social phenomenon than a psychological one.

Gender as a Factor
Ask any secondary teacher and they will tell you that a major factor in classroom behavior is male-female interaction. This is social as well as academic; and can be both positive and negative. To begin, let it be known that prior to the 20th Century classrooms were typically segregated by gender. This is due to post schooling societal roles. That is, schools geared their students towards their social sector—females for the home and males for the work force. There was simply no professional mobility for females and so they ‘needed’ different training than their male counterparts. It was only in the 21st Century that gender segregated classrooms began to combine. This, however, was due to deficiencies in educational funding not academic reform. It seems that prior to the 20th Century the interest of the students was the focus. It was understood that different populations needed different instruction. There was no misconception that all students could be lumped into one classroom and be successful. Unfortunately, like too often happens, economic interest took precedence over student interest. (Datnow, 2001).

Hormonal Havoc
There is no doubt that gender roles have transformed in the past 100 years. The professional sector is wide open for women and it is not uncommon for men to stay home. Thus, the need is less post-education and more immediate. As researcher, Heather Blair (1999), points out, “Adolescence is a critical time for the construction of gender identity, and often academic success can be jeopardized. [For example,] it is at this point where many girls begin to lose confidence in themselves as learners…and begin to question their own knowledge and authority” (p. 6). This is no secret. Adolescence is an awkward point in anyone’s life. One’s self image begins to develop. One’s sexuality emerges and hormones surge. Males and females often spend more time examining each other than they do their classwork or homework. What would happen if this factor were eliminated? Females could focus on their study rather than impressing the boy next to them and vice versa. As a middle school teacher, I have witnessed acting out on behalf of both genders in order to impress the opposite sex. It is like witnessing an awkward ritual; and it can lead to momentous disruption in instruction and learning.

Learning According to Gender
As if adolescence was not a big enough obstacle for teachers, they must also navigate the different academic needs of both genders. Educators must acknowledge the fact that the brain develops differently in either sex. For girls, the area of the brain used for language development forms before the area used for geometry and spatial relations; in boys, it is the other way around. Hence the stereotype that males are more skilled in math and sciences and lack in language skills. In a sense, this lends adolescent females to being more susceptible to emotions as the area of the brain used for language development is also used for processing emotions. In boys, this may not be true. One could suggest that the brain is just wired differently. For many boys, it is extremely difficult to articulate how they “feel”.

Some research also suggests that girls hear better. The hearing of a teenage girl is thought to be seven times more acute than that of a teenage boy. This may contribute to how males and females respond different to instruction and verbal interaction. Also, girls and boys respond differently to stress. This is true not only in the human species but in most mammals. It has been found that some stress can enhance learning in males but hinder it in females (Sax, 2006).

According To Boy Brains, Girl Brains, An Article by Tyre, Peg in the Newsweek Magazine Moat Schools Are Girl Friendly, because the teachers, who are mostly women, teach the way they learn. So naturally a lot of things going on in the classroom, boys will not immediately be attracted to. A Whopping 70% of students who are diagnosed with learning disabilities are Male. Even 80% of High School Drop Outs Are Male. Shocking, Yet True. Also Less Than 45% of College Students Are Male. According To Gurian, To Change the Educational Gap, teachers should start changing their teaching techniques. Also they should take in consideration lighting classrooms more brightly for boys and speaking to them loudly, since research shows males don't see or hear as well as females. Boys are more-visual learners, so teachers should illustrate a story before writing it and use an overhead projector to practice reading and writing. As A Result of Changes presented by Gurian, Over 185 Public Schools Offer some form of single-sex education courses. To some experts, Gurian's approach is not only wrong but dangerous. Some say his curriculum is part of a long history of pseudoscience aimed at denying equal opportunities in education. For much of the 19th century, educators, backed by prominent scientists, cautioned that women were neurologically unable to withstand the rigors of higher education. A Professor at American University, Davis Sadker, Says, While it's true that brain scans show differences between boys and girls,, no one is exactly sure what those differences mean. According to Sadker, Differences between boys and girls are dwarfed by brain differences within each gender. Sadker States, if you want to make schools a better place, you have to strive to see kids as individuals. References: Tyre, P. (2005). Boy Brains, Girl Brains. Newsweek, 146(12), 59. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Granted research is ever changing, however, the proof is in the numbers. According to the Virginia Department of Education, in 2002 the pass rate for the Virginia Standards of Learning test is as follows:

These numbers are consistent across the board. These gaps in achievement rates are constant since 1998. Thus, there is a clear trend that goes beyond any one teacher or school but is inherent in the educational needs of either gender. This kind of data lends itself to the extremely controversial topic of gender segregated classrooms.

Advocates
Groups are emerging who feel that both genders would benefit from having separate learning environments. One particular researcher has listed the goals for both female and male students in their article, “Single-Sex Classrooms”. On the part of the girls, the author lists increased confidence and self image, improved capability in math, science, technology and typically “male” subjects as goals. Safety and freedom from harassment and bullying are also listed as objectives. Finally, parents and educators hope to see an increase in focus on schoolwork. For boys, the desire is to increase literacy focus and skills. Also, there is a desire to improve the male view of education and the role they see it playing in their future. For many boys their deficiencies in literacy are causing them to fail out as these skills are the foundation for most core subjects. Several districts across the coutry are launching pilot programs for single gender classrooms. These districts show that the female population is making gains in areas previously dominated by male students. (Blair, Heather) Because researchers can pinpoint deficiencies that seem to be gender wide, it is thought that separate classrooms would provide opportunity to remedy these shortcomings. Greater focus can be paid to methods that work best for certain groups of students.

“If you don’t understand those differences and you teach boys and girls as if they were the same, the end result is a kindergarten classroom where the boys tell you drawing is for girls and a middle school classroom where girls tell you computers are for boys,” said Sax, one of the nation’s leading proponents of single-sex education. “If you don’t understand gender differences, you end up furthering gender stereotypes” (MSNBC NEWS). This article was chosen because it further explains why students benefit from single-sex classrooms. While opposers think that this is just discrimination in the classroom, this quotation from MSNBC states that these classrooms are not formed to discriminate but to enhance each student’s learning experience. If students are taught the same information, just in a way that they can better understand, this creates higher test scores and confidence in the student. This is not to be a competition among the sexes, but a learning tool to give each student, boy or girl, the most efficient learning experience possible. If creating a single-sex classroom will help accomplish that, then by all means it is worth a try. The teacher from this article explicitly states how it is easier for him to come to class better prepared specifically for “them”, meaning his all boys’ math class. The material is specifically geared towards everyone in the classroom, but just because the instruction may be different in a single-sex classroom, the goal for every student to succeed remains the same.

Opponents
As stated previously, single-gender classrooms are extremely controversial. Many in the education field feel as though research presented on behalf of single-gender classrooms is too new and often biased. Many educators feel like smaller class sizes would be of greater benefit to students and teachers. In this situation, individualized instruction is easier to give regardless of gender or student population. Logically, this makes the most sense. Fewer students mean fewer needs and more time. Moreover, researchers worry that segregating students by gender would only promote gender bias and stereotypes. Generally speaking, research shows that small coed rooms are ‘happier’ places. (Datnow, 2001)

Splitting students by gender may be beneficial to the students, however what if is not? Categorizing males as one thing and females as another, when it comes to education, makes no logical sense. We should be focusing on other ways to improve the students’ educational background. For instance, why break the students up by gender shouldn’t we be focusing on splitting them up by learning styles? Like stated in Beloit Daily News, boys do not necessarily learn better while standing up while females preferred sitting.

There are some potential unintended consequences that will be faced by teachers, parents and students. One of the consequences that these students would face is the socialization skills of boys in girls. If the boys and girls are separated, they will be less likely to play with one another during recess or associate with each other during lunch. Girls are more likely than boys to engage in social alienation in which they exclude others from their social groups and make use of negative gossip about others (Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Ferguson, & Gariepy, 1989; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Exposure to these different behaviors and interaction styles may promote the development of different skills, behaviors, and learning styles (Huston & Carpenter,1985; Leaper, 1994; Maccoby, 1990; Thorne & Luria, 1986) (Martin and Fabes 433). These students will not want to associate with one another and will only make friends with their gender. Same gender classrooms face the issue of stereotyping. Gender stereotyping, harassment and other problems common in co-educational schools do not necessarily disappear in single-sex schools, according to a major California study of the nation's largest experiment in public single-sex education. In some cases stereotyping gets worse. This can be bad for the students because it gives them views about students that are not always true.

Conclusion
Theories in education come and go in waves. For better or worse, education is subject to trends. It is impossible to say if one way is the best way. There are too many variables to be conclusive. Demographics in students population is a huge variable. Not all students come from the same economic, social, or cultural background. Also, not all teachers are qualified in the same areas, have the same strengths and weaknesses, or share the same beliefs. Education is subject to individualized methods and practices. It is not an exact science. One must pinpoint the variable of most impact. Is it economic background, ethnicity, or gender as some believe? If gender is in fact the greatest factor in behavior and learning than single-gender classrooms may well be the answer.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers/Class Size

Pupil-Teacher ratio and class size are two terms that educators often use as synonyms. Other researchers prefer to distinguish between the two illustrating vast differences in data conclusions. “Pupil teacher ratio is the number of students at a site divided by the number of teachers, staff, and/or adults at the site. The divisor used in determining pupil-teacher ratio varies according to different definitions. […] Class size is the number of students regularly in a teachers room” (a helpful link about student-teacher ratio). For the purpose of this paper and the information within, the definition of the pupil-teacher ratio will the number of students in a given classroom divided by the number of teachers in a given classroom, making the definition synonymous with class size.

The Importance of a Smaller Class Size
Through studies, statistics, and meta-analyses, it seems convincing that a smaller teacher to student ratio is beneficial. With a smaller class size the teacher can develop a relationship with each of the students paying them individual attention and treating them as equals. With smaller classes the teacher will have to spend less time on gaining control in the classroom (NEA: Class Size). This is extremely important in the public school system today because teachers must focus on meeting their requirements with SOLs. With this extra time the instructor could introduce new and exciting material that not only relates to the class requirement, but is also fresh and enjoyable for the students. Fewer students per teacher would make students feel safer socially and physically (NEA: Class Size). Public schools have grown enormous because of our country’s exponential population growth and sometimes crowded hallways can be intimidating. In a smaller classroom these students might feel at ease because of the familiarity of their classmates. This comfort might also encourage students who are more reserved during class to participate during lessons without suffering the pressure of classmates. Finally, a class with fewer students would give teachers fewer overall students and would allow for the chance of developing a relationship with the students’ parents. In this scenario contact between teachers and parents would be less tense and it would eliminate the need for parent-teacher conferences. This would also give the chance for teachers to update parents on the positive things their kids are doing rather than only notifying them about the negative behavior.

Past Research on Class Size
The issue of pupil to student ratio has become extremely important during the Twentieth Century because of the increased social value of education. During the Twentieth Century education has been much more accessible because of public school funding and has grown significantly because of immigration, integration, and the astounding growth in population. Although the issue has become more important in recent times the idea was explored as far back as the late 1800s when J.M. Rice began a study of the topic (Porwoll). “In a 1902 study, Rice concluded that there was no relationship between class size and student achievement” (Molnar). Since then there have been other studies that have shown far different results. In the 1950s Howard Blake did a study with conclusions showing that 16 out of 22 students responded positively to learning in a smaller class (Molnar).

Project STAR
Project STAR (Student/Teacher Achievement Ratio) was a study conducted in Tennessee in reference to class sizes and how they affect the success of students. The project began in 1985 as Kindergarteners were randomly selected and were placed in classes of about fifteen to represent a small class size, and about 22 to represent a regular class size. The study was concluded in 1989 when the students finished the Third Grade, however, the results persisted.

“By the end of the third grade, students in Project STAR who had been randomly assigned to small classes outperformed their counterparts by an average of 4.6 months of schooling in reading, 4.7 months of schooling in word study skills, and 2.8 months of schooling in math. One year after the end of Project STAR, a follow-up study showed that fourth grade students who had formerly been in the small classes showed more initiative, participated more willingly, showed greater effort, and were more engaged in class and school activities than their counterparts who had been assigned to regular size classes during the Project STAR study”. The effects of the small class instruction continued through middle and high school illustrating that the effected student could read at more than one grade level above their opposing group.

As the young adults entered high school they continued to retain results from their Kindergarten to Third grade education. The students instructed in the smaller class were more likely to be enrolled in advanced classes, “graduate on time (72 percent of students, versus 66 percent from regular classes),” and graduate with an honors designation (NEA: Class Size).

National Education Association (NEA)
“The National Education Association (NEA), the nation's largest professional employee organization, is committed to advancing the cause of public education” (NEA: About NEA). They support the reduction of class sizes and based on research funded by the Association, they recommend that the class size be 15 students and even smaller class sizes for students requiring extraordinary needs. The NEA currently supports almost 50 bills in Congress and have funded educational research like Project STAR.

Economic Impact of Smaller Class Size
Like all things, the benefits of smaller Student-Teacher Ratios cost extra money. With smaller class sizes, the demand for more teachers is inevitable and there along with the need of more classrooms in which they can teach. “The United States began the decade of the 1980s with elementary and secondary school budget of about one-hundred fifty billion dollars or about seven-hundred fifty dollars for every person in the country” (School Class Size). The money for public schools is allocated by the State Government’s budget which has not yet found extra for this proposal. Project STAR alone cost twelve million dollars and the average teacher income for the 2004-2005 school year was almost fifty thousand dollars. Because of this budget problem the only alternative for small class instruction is home schooling or private schooling. Private schools have fewer enrolled students in general and frequently the class sizes are below fifteen from pre-school through high school.

Conclusion
Small class instruction has proven to be successful and educators must strive to lower class sizes. If this was accomplished qualified teachers could instruct in a smaller setting developing the students as individuals and continuing their success. Fewer students in each class would make schools safer, more intimate and more concentrated.

Often students feel neglected when they are not able to receive attention from their teacher. If students are feeling “not good enough” to accomplish certain tasks even though they are fully capable of doing so, it will drastically affect their grades and motivation to learn. This is when the teacher has to come back into play and make sure each student is getting the attention that is necessary. Clearly every student is different and some students do not want to be bothered with the teacher and others love to constantly have the teacher helping them. If there are too many students in a classroom it is almost impossible for one teacher to make sure every student is satisfied and understanding his or her way of teaching. Which is why the NEA is correct in supporting fewer students per classroom, to keep the learning on an uphill climb.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships/Communication

It is hard to believe that in today’s world we have a breakdown in communication on any level. We have the ability to be connected with each other 24 hours a day seven days a week. Cell phones, pagers, and Internet are all devices we use on a daily basis to stay connected, so it is not surprising that  the communications between the families and the schools the children attend are in sync more than ever. There is a real effort to include families into the school environment, and in some ways the programs the schools have for our children could not take place without the effort of the parents and guardians. Communication with our children's teachers is right at our fingertips, but without getting the information out to parents on how to access this information, it is a resource that is wasted.

Staying in Touch
It is important for those parents who may not be able to take time out of their busy lives to volunteer within the school to be able to communicate with the teachers and have information on what is going on in their children lives as well. This has become extremely easy with the introduction of technology into our everyday lives. Teachers are just a mouse click away. Parents are able to email directly to their child's teacher any time day or night, schools have direct voice mailbox for parents to leave messages for the teacher, and the use of cell phones for immediate contact. No longer do we have to hear about a situation after the fact, but we now have the ability to know immediately. As your child becomes older, they are less likely to bring home the everyday paper that has been graded. The days of parents unaware of their child's progress until report cards is in the past. Now, parents are able to access their child's grades using the Internet. Parents are able to see what is going on within the school on Internet based School Web Sites and even have homework and daily announcements sent right to their home computers or hand-held devices. Staying in touch with your children’s teacher and school has never been as easy or more accessible. Technology is not the only answer to keeping the communication lines only, School Systems across the nation are setting days on their yearly calendars for personal conferences. Our school system here in Virginia Beach, has devoted several days of teacher-parent conferences staggered throughout the year. This is where the teacher and parent can meet during the day, at a time convenient for both parties. The meeting is spent discussing the progress the child is making. They can talk of strategies and the teachers can give parents advice on what they need to work on at home in order to assist the student in making sure they stay up to date with their studies. This allows the parents to meet the teacher and put a face and personality with a name. The teacher in return is able to speak directly to the parent and form a relationship. It gives the link needed to help the child succeed, as one principal of a school said, “In order to run an effective school, there has to be that link between the home and the school. If you don’t have that link, you’re spinning your wheels. You never make a dent in education unless the parents are involved.” (2007, The Record) Gone are the days of putting your child on the bus and seeing them when they arrive home at the end of the day. Today’s schools encourage parents to become a familiar face inside the school.

One problem however is the fact that not all parents have access to email, don't have cell phone or pagers and a lot of single parents work hours that make it almost impossible to come in for a conference unless it is planned well in advance. One way to overcome this is through SchoolCall. This system makes it simple for schools to report student absences to parents automatically, set up web interfaces that allow teachers to set up call groups, and even voicemail for faculty. This system should be taken a step further to allow calls to a teachers room to be forwarded to their home. This would allow parents who can't call during school hours to contact the teacher without the teacher's home phone number. Often these are the ones, single parents working crazy hours who need to be able to get in contact with teachers and can't always rely on the child to bring messages home, who need this access. While email and cell phones are great, they don't work for everyone and we as teachers need to be aware of this and find ways around this problem.

Getting Involved
Statistics show that there is a “positive and convincing relationship between family involvement and benefits for students, including improved academic achievement.” (Henderson and Mapp 2002). When it has been shown to improve test scores with increased parental involvement schools, school boards and states have come up with ways to make sure that the parents have an opportunity to play a role in their child's education. It is no longer just the teacher’s job to make sure your child is learning we are now in an age where the parent’s role has become increasingly important in the type of education your child is receiving.

There are several major groups that play a large part in bridging the communication gap between parents and their children’s school. The PTA has become a powerhouse for all individual schools over the past several years. The PTA (Parent Teacher Association) is an organization on the front line of any school when it comes to parent participation. It organizes volunteers who are responsible for in school and after-school programs that have branched out from carnivals and field days to educational programs such as math and science night. In December 2003, a campaign was designed to “increase awareness of critical benefits of parental involvement and to provide parents with practical, easy ways to help their children succeed in school and in life.” (pta.org) This advertising campaign is a tool that is used to inform parents that it is vital to become involved in their children's education. Directed by actor James Woods, the ad states that you must “Know what really matters, know about your kid’s school, and know about your kid” (pta.org) it follows with a phone number and web site that you could use to find your schools information on its PTA organization. One example of how far the PTA has come over the years is the Reflections Contest held every year. The Reflections Contest is run by local PTA volunteers within each school, which bring together teachers and parents to entice students to enter into a contest displaying their talents in many categories such as music, art, poetry and drama. Winners are judged and chosen on a local, state and then national level and each year the students are able to compete to come up with the theme for the following year. This is a great way families can become involved, work with and begin the process of communicating with the teachers and the school.

Another organization is the School Planning Council. This is made up of Administration, Teachers and Parents who meet together at the beginning of every school year to go over the curriculum. This is a very important organization that allows parents to have a voice in what their child is learning. The opportunity to participate on the Council is offered to every parent of the school their child attends. This is another bridge to enable parents to become involved with their children's education.

Open Door Policy
Today’s school has a variety of volunteer positions that enable parents to become a part of the school day. This has come into play on a major scale with the “No Child Left Behind Act of 2001” (NCLB) Title I of NCLB (Section 1118) “outline requirements for schools, districts, and cites to create partnerships between parents and schools. Under NCLB, schools are required to provide opportunities for parent involvement” (Vaden-Kiernan 2002-03) Teachers want you to come into the class and volunteer, they encourage parents to come in and help with all of the day to day activities and schools have begun opening their doors. Parents can come into the class and help out with tasks that take up teacher’s instruction time. For example, parents can help the teacher with copying papers, filing, and grading so that the instructional time for teachers will not be cut short with non-teaching tasks and enables the teacher to concentrate on teaching. Principals play a vital role in allowing open door policies within the schools so that parent involvement is able to happen. Principals give the face to the school as a friendly family environment. If a parent feels wanted, it is more likely that they will want to return to that environment. And studies showed that it is possible that “higher parent involvement encourages schools to communicate better with parents.” (Vaden-Kiernan 2002-03)

Conclusion
Today’s school systems are finding a variety of ways to improve communication between parents and their schools. Schools are improving parental information of how their child develops. Schools are giving information pertaining to the developmental processes and the expectations of the child, according to grade level, through literature available to all parents. Schools are keeping lines of communication open. They are making teachers available and more accessible along with incorporating technology, which enables easier access for parents to communicate with their schools and encouraging parent involvement with an abundance of programs for parents to become involved. Every child benefits when there is an established and comfortable line of communication between parents and the school.

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