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Radiation Oncology/Retinoblastoma

Epidemiology

 * Most common primary ocular malignancy of childhood; ~4% of pediatric malignancies
 * Incidence 1/20,000
 * ~250 cases per year in USA
 * Higher rates in developing countries
 * Bilateral disease 20-30%
 * 10% patients have family history; 90% are sporadic (of these 20-30% are bilateral, and therefore heritable)
 * Overall 40% have hereditary retinoblastoma, 60% have sporadic type
 * Average age at diagnosis 1 year for bilateral; 2 years for unilateral
 * Uncommonly, patients with bilateral retinoblastoma can also develop a midline neuroblastic tumor. The syndrome is called "trilateral retinoblastoma" (75% of the third tumors are pineoblastoma)
 * Heritable form transmitted in autosomal dominant fashion
 * Clinical presentation
 * Leukocoria (white reflection in the pupil): initially inconstant, visible at certain angles/light conditions, may be seen on flash photography
 * Strabismus
 * Also iris rubeosis, hypopyon, hyphema, orbital cellulitis, and exophthalmia
 * Some children may have no symptoms

Diagnosis

 * Awake examination with attention to visual acuity, extraocular movement, pupillary examination, slit-lamp examination, and indirect ophthalmoscopy
 * Ocular fundus examination under general anesthesia: white tumor with angiomatous dilation of the vessels
 * Unilateral or bilateral nature of the lesions
 * Number of tumors
 * Location in the retina (posterior pole, anterior retina), and anatomica relations with optic disc and macula
 * Tumor size (diameter, thickness)
 * Subretinal fluid and tumor seeds
 * Vitreous seeding (localized vs diffuse)
 * Ocular ultrasound: On A-mode shows very intense reflections from calcium deposits. On B-mode shows a heterogenous acoustic solidity with highly reflective intrinsic echoes within the tumor and attenuation of orbital pattern
 * Differential diagnosis includes Coats' disease, retinal detachment, retinopathy of prematurity, persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous
 * MRI: assessment of local extension to optic nerve, anterior chamber, and orbital fat. Slightly hyperintense on T1, hypointense on T2. Also to rule out trilateral retinoblastoma
 * CT: intraocular mass with a higher density than the vitreous body, calcified in 90% of cases and moderately enhanced after iodine contrast agent injection. However, should be minimized due to ionizing exposure, particularly in heritable cases
 * If patients needs enucleation, consider systemic staging with CSF cytology, bone marrow cytology, and spinal axis MRI
 * Genetic testing should be considered

Pathology

 * First disease for which genetic etiology was demonstrated (Knudson, 1971 - two hit hypothesis)
 * Rb gene located on 13q14 is part of G1/S checkpoint. It is also required for appropriate exit from the cell cycle of retinal progenitor cells and for rod development
 * >900 mutations of Rb gene have been reported, many in areas of binding domain with E2F
 * However, other molecular events are also necessary for tumorigenesis; n-myc is amplified in ~10%
 * Given higher prevalence in developing countries, HPV (Human Papilloma Virus, via E7) may play a role
 * Neuroepithelial origin
 * Tumor cells form Flexner-Wintersteiner rosettes

Staging

 * Historically, retinoblastoma was separated into intraocular and extraocular disease
 * Intraocular retinoblastoma was classified using the Reese-Ellsworth staging, which was based on the likelihood of preserving the eye after EBRT. However, it does not have good predictive power in strategies involving initial chemotherapy
 * International Classification System was developed in 2003 to predict outcomes in response to chemotherapy and focal consolidative therapy, and is used in COG protocols

Reese Ellsworth Staging
 * Stage Ia - solitary, <4 disc diameters, at or behind equator
 * Stage Ib - multiple, <4 disc diameters, at or behind equator
 * Stage IIa - solitary, 4-10 disc diameters, at or behind equator
 * Stage IIb - multiple, 4-10 disc diameters, at or behind equator
 * Stage IIIa - anterior to equator
 * Stage IIIb - solitary tumor >10 disc diameters, behind equator
 * Stage IVa - multiple tumors, some >10 disc diameters
 * Stage IVb - anterior to ora serrata (serrated jct. between retina & ciliary body)
 * Stage Va - massive tumor, > 50% retina
 * Stage Vb - vitreos seeding

International Classification System

Treatment

 * For small localized tumors, enucleation or EBRT were used historically. EBRT use declined recently due to significant late toxicity and risk of second tumors. There is now increasing use chemotherapy and focal therapies such as thermotherapy, photocoagulation, cryotherapy, and plaque brachytherapy
 * For extensive unilateral lesions, enucleation or definitive radiation are the main approaches
 * Indications for adjuvant treatment after enucleation are somewhat controversial, but may include optic nerve involvement posterior to the lamina cribrosa as an independent finding; posterior uveal invasion (includes choroidal invasion); any degree of concomitant choroid and optic nerve involvement; tumor involving the optic nerve posterior to the lamina cribrosa (passage through sclera) as an independent finding; scleral invasion; anterior chamber seeding; ciliary body infiltration; iris infiltration
 * COG has an ongoing study of adjuvant carboplatin, etoposide, and vincristine x 6 cycles in patients considered at "high risk" after enucleation (ARET0332) for the following high-risk criteria:
 * Massive choroid replacement defined as posterior uveal invasion grades IIC and IID
 * Any posterior uveal involvement with any optic nerve involvement (optic nerve head, prelamina and post lamina cribrosa (Note: both posterior uveal involvement AND optic nerve involvement are required)
 * For bilateral disease, conservative approaches have been suggested, but depend on size, number, and location of lesions
 * Chemoreduction, with enucleation of the "worse" eye and focal therapy of the "better" eye can be considered
 * Patients with extraocular retinoblastoma have a poor prognosis, although high-dose chemo with stem cell rescue is being explored by COG
 * Treatment Guideline based on UCSF Protocol (PMID 19477707, 2009)
 * Group A: Focal therapy only (laser, cryotherapy, hyperthermia, brachytherapy)
 * Group B: Vincristine + carboplatin up to 6 cycles; focal therapy with 2-6 cycles
 * Group C: Vincristine + carboplatin + etoposide up to 6 cycles; focal therapy
 * Group D: Same as C. EBRT
 * Group E: Enucleation. Prophylactic 3-agent chemotherapy

External Beam Radiation Therapy

 * Historically used as a treatment alternative to avoid enucleation in select patients
 * Target was entire retina, up to ora serrata anteriorly
 * Initially, "D-shaped" field was used
 * Alternatively, a wedge pair with anterior and lateral fields could be used
 * To obtain better sparing of lens, anterior lens block could be added
 * Local control rates were >75% for early lesions
 * However, long-term toxicity was significant. In particular, stunted growth of orbital bone and poor long term cosmetic outcome became a problem
 * Orbital bone growth centers are located along the sutures, frontozygomatic in lateral wall, frontomaxillary in the medial wall, and zygomatic-maxillary in the orbital floor
 * Also, for patients with hereditary retinoblastoma, risk of second malignancy has been reported as high as 51% at 50 years
 * Efforts are now under way to avoid EBRT in the primary treatment setting, and use it for salvage only
 * Two dosimetric studies have shown that proton therapy may be dosimetrically superior to photon EBRT in settings where focal therapies are not appropriate

 * MSKCC, 1996 (1979-84) - PMID 8641925 -- "External beam radiation therapy and retinoblastoma: long-term results in the comparison of two techniques." Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996; 35(1):45-51
 * 123 pts, 1979-91, tx'd w/ primary EBRT (larger fx size, 2.5 Gy, used b/f 1984), range of xrt 38-50 Gy
 * Series compared a modified lateral beam technique to an anterior lens sparing technique; local control for Group I-III tumors appeared to be improved w/ modified lateral beam (84% vs 38% at 5 yrs)
 * Hahnemann, 1996 (1980-1991) - PMID 8641908 -- "External beam radiation for retinoblastoma: results, patterns of failure, and a proposal for treatment guidelines." Int J Radiat Oncol, Biol, Phys.  1996; 35(1):125-32
 * 27 pts, 34 eyes, RE Groups I-V tx'd w/ definitive EBRT (median 45 Gy)
 * Local control 78.5% in RE Groups I-II, 20% in RE III-V; EBRT did NOT appear to prevent new tumors in clinically uninvolved retina.
 * St. Jude's, 1969 PMID 5822720 Cassady, Ellsworth et al.  "Radiation therapy in retinoblastoma. An analysis of 230 cases."  Radiology.  1969; 93(2):405-9
 * 230 pts, largest US series of retinoblastoma pts treated w/ EBRT. 3.3-4.0 Gy delivered 3x per week.
 * Local control 73% in RE Groups I-II, 20% in RE III-V.
 * No significant difference in local tumor control when doses of 32.5-35 Gy compared to 40-45 Gy.

Plaque Brachytherapy

 * Plaque brachytherapy introduced in 1931 with radon seeds
 * I-125 used commonly in the U.S., Ru-106 in Europe
 * For Ru-106 plaques, tumors should be <5 mm deep due to steeper dose fall-off

Iodine-125
 * Thomas Jefferson
 * Salvage; 2006 (1994-2005) PMID 16949158 -- "Iodine 125 plaque radiotherapy as salvage treatment for retinoblastoma recurrence after chemoreduction in 84 tumors." (Shields CL, Ophthalmology. 2006 Nov;113(11):2087-92. Epub 2006 Sep 1.)
 * Retrospective. 84 tumors in 71 eyes in 64 patients, solid recurrences after chemoreduction (vincristine, etoposide, carboplatin x6 cycles + thermotherapy or cryotherapy). I-125 plaque, dose 40 Gy to tumor surface + 2 mm margin. Mean thickness 4 mm. Mean foveola dose 45 Gy, optic disc 22 Gy. Prior EBRT in 30%. Median F/U 4 years
 * Outcome: Local control after chemoreduction 95%, after chemoreduction + EBRT 100%
 * Toxicity: Proliferative retinopathy 17%, maculopathy 24%, cataract chemoreduction 19% vs chemoreduction + EBRT 42%, iris neovascularization 8%
 * Conclusion: I-125 plaque BT offers excellent tumor control; complications should be anticipated
 * 2001 (1976-1999) PMID 11713089 -- "Plaque radiotherapy for retinoblastoma: long-term tumor control and treatment complications in 208 tumors."  Ophthalmology.  2001; 108(11):2116-21.
 * Retrospective. 141 children managed w/ plaque brachy; 71% received prior therapy (chemo, EBRT, cryotherapy, photocoagulation, etc); 35% s/p prior tx failure
 * Outcome: 5-year local control 79%, if primary therapy 88%
 * Toxicity: 27% non-proliferative retinopathy, 15% proliferative retinopathy, 31% cataracts, 0% scleral necrosis at 5 yrs
 * Conclusion: Good tumor control, particularly for those that fail prior therapy

 * University of Cape Town; 2002 PMID 12459368. "Postenucleation orbits in retinoblastoma: treatment with 125I brachytherapy."  Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 54(5):1446-54
 * 57 cases b/w 1983-2000, treated w/ post enucleation brachy; 34 Gy (w/ 30 cases also receiving chemo); 21 cases w/ +margins, extrascleral tumor or mets

Ruthenium-106
 * Lausanne, Switzerland; 2008 (1992-2006) PMID 18207660 -- "(106)Ruthenium brachytherapy for retinoblastoma." (Abouzeid H, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Jul 1;71(3):821-8. Epub 2008 Jan 22.)
 * Retrospective. 39 children, 41 eyes, 63 tumors. First line treatment 5%, second-line 21%, salvage 74%. Plaque diameter >= 2 mm than tumor diameter, margin 1 mm to tumor height for sclera. Prescription dose target 50 Gy at apex. Minimum F/U 1 year
 * Outcome: 1-year tumor control 73%. Recurrence 12% if 1st/2nd line, and 32% if salvage. Eye retention 76% (though 3/10 removed eyes for different tumor than the one treated)
 * Toxicity: Retinal detachments 17%, proliferative retinopathy 2%, cataract 10%
 * Conclusion: Ru-106 brachytherapy effective

Proton Therapy

 * Paul Scherrer Institut; 2008 PMID 18290958 -- "New developments in external beam radiotherapy for retinoblastoma: from lens to normal tissue-sparing techniques." (Munier FL, Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2008 Jan-Feb;36(1):78-89.)
 * Case report of 6 patients, and literature review

 * MD Anderson; 2005 PMID 16168831 -- "Treatment planning with protons for pediatric retinoblastoma, medulloblastoma, and pelvic sarcoma: how do protons compare with other conformal techniques?" (Lee CT, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Oct 1;63(2):362-72.)
 * Treatment planning. 8 patients (3 Rb, 2 MB, 3 pelvic sarcoma), retrospective DVH comparison of 3D-CRT, electrons, IMRT, protons
 * Retinoblastoma : Protons best coverage combined with most orbital bone sparing (>5 Gy protons 10%, electrons 25%, 3D lateral beam 41%, 3D anterolateral beam with lens block 51%, 3D anterolateral beam without lens block 65%, IMRT 69%). Single appositional electron field next best technique. 3D-CRT techniques significantly inferior
 * Medulloblastoma: Protons least dose to cochlea, hypothalamus/pituitary. IMRT second best for posterior fossa. For craniospinal, 3D electrons better than 3D photons
 * Pelvic sarcoma: Protons superior for ovary dose
 * Conclusion: Protons superior, both for target coverage and for normal structure sparing

 * Harvard
 * 2006 Abstract Link -- "The Use of Gantry Decreases Normal Tissue Exposure in Proton Beam Radiotherapy of Intraocular Retinoblastoma" (Ciralsky JB, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006;47: E-Abstract 2815.)
 * Case report. Historically treated 35 patients using lateral beam. First 2 patients treated with gantry using anterolateral oblique beam.
 * 2005 PMID 15667981 -- "Proton radiation therapy for retinoblastoma: comparison of various intraocular tumor locations and beam arrangements." (Krengli M, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Feb 1;61(2):583-93.)
 * Treatment planning. Different retinoblastoma tumor locations (posterior-central, nasal, temporal), different eye positions (straight, intrarotated, extrarotated), different beam arrangements (lateral, anterolateral oblique, anteromedial oblique)
 * Conclusion: Homogenous target coverage, true lens sparing. Doses to orbit structures minimized depending on tumor location

Secondary Malignancies after RT

 * New York Hospital PMID 9544627 "Second nonocular tumors in survivors of bilateral retinoblastoma: a possible age effect on radiation-related risk." Ophthalmology. 1998;105(4):573-9
 * Retrospective review of 816 pts w/ bilateral retinoblastoma in NY area.
 * 2nd malignancies more common if pts tx'd w/ EBRT before age 12 mo's.
 * NCI Analysis; 1997 (1914-1984) PMID 9333268 "Cancer incidence after retinoblastoma. Radiation dose and sarcoma risk." (Wong FL, JAMA. 1997 Oct 15;278(15):1262-7.)
 * Cohort study, NY and MA hospitals. 1604 cases of retinoblastoma, survived >1 year. 961 hereditary
 * 2nd cancer incidence at 50 years: if germline mutation 51% (RR 30), if sporadic 5% (not elevated)
 * Sarcoma risk: related to dose; threshold 5 Gy, 11x increase at 60+ Gy
 * Conclusion: Genetic predisposition substantial impact on risk of subsequent cancers

Trilateral Retinoblastoma

 * Sao Paulo; 2007 (Brazil)(1986-2003) PMID 16572402 -- "Trilateral retinoblastoma." (Antoneli CB, Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2007 Mar;48(3):306-10.)
 * Retrospective. 470 children with Rb, 4 with pineoblastoma (2/4 with family history). 3 had bilateral disease
 * Outcome: All died within 12 months
 * Conclusion: New therapeutic approaches needed

Review

 * UCSF; 2009 PMID 19477707 -- "Frontiers in the Management of Retinoblastoma." (Lin P, Am J Ophthalmol. 2009 May 23.)

title: Radiation Oncology/Retinoblastoma


text:
Talk:Autistic Survival Guide/Social Interaction Guidelines

welcome to add comments
Anyone is welcome to add comments or their views on this discussion page Logictheo 23:35, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Questions and Conversation factoids
I hope the changes I've made are liked. I thought that the Questions and Conversations pages would make better sense as one chapter, since asking questions are part of having a conversation. I've copied the contents of the Questions into this one and redirected that page to this one, so people can still find it. There is a page named "Visualising social interaction", so I renamed this page as "Understanding social interaction", to be a second part to that chapter. This is much in the same way as "Ways to maintain self esteem" is a second part of "Ways to build self esteem". I've also updated the page where this is included from, to reflect these changes. --dark lama  14:10, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Please don't change the layout of the book. The questions section is easily one of the most important parts of the book and should go up front because it doesn't discuss conversation at all. CrazyEddy 15:13, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * How are (asking) questions, and knowing how to do so effectively to get the answers you want, not part of a conversation? I would agree that questions are one of the most important parts of some conversations. Even my question is proof that questions are part of a conversation. Saying "its not discussing conversation at all", makes no sense to me. --dark lama  17:43, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

 * The conversation section applies to non-autistic social conversation, whereas the questions section deals with actually retrieving needed factual information that can't be found anywhere else and that non-autistic people learn instinctively. The kind of information contained in this book but which isn't in there. CrazyEddy 03:06, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Surely the conversation section is (or should be) about social conversations between autistics and non-autistics, in order to help autistics deal with conversing with non-autistics? Rather then just how non-autistics converse. --dark lama  01:13, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

 * It's a minor distinction really, but one well made. The book isn't really about how to do anything.  The opening half of the book just talks about how the non-autistic world works, so theoretically it can be used for both things.  In reality, you have to actually get onto the "non-autistic wavelength" to be able to connect with any non-autistic person.  Once that's achieved, it may be possible to negotiate other communication styles, but in general, they use the same communication style for everybody.  CrazyEddy 11:56, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Reciprocal disclosure
"There are very good reasons for everyone to be careful about how deep they go into any given relationship. The deeper they go, the more compatible they need to be for the relationship to remain positive, and the harder it can be emotionally to remain in, or end, a negative relationship; therefore the more they need to be sure of being compatible."

This is my understanding, anyway; but since I'm on the spectrum myself, it needs verification. Seahen 00:11, 27 May 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Autistic Survival Guide/Social Interaction Guidelines

This chapter is an extension of the Conversation section of Marc's book. It is drawn in part from articles posted on wrongplanet.net, as well as from personal discussions between individuals. The (alpha) and (beta) tags next to each section's title indicate the state of development that they're in, given that it seems to me to be an extremely important part of the book.

Defining conversation
There have been many, MANY books written about conversation, but most of them rely on knowing a few basic ideas. Wiktionary defines conversation as "expression and exchange of individual ideas through talking with other people". It is similar to speech and discourse in that ideas usually generate new ideas in other people. However, conversation is different from speech and discourse in that those new ideas can be communicated back immediately.

When people meet to hold a conversation, they usually want those ideas exchanged as fully as possible. When ideas are being exchanged as fully as possible, they usually also want those ideas exchanged as quickly as possible. When ideas aren't being exchanged properly, there are many potential remedies that basically involve the listener getting the speaker to repeat, restate, and/or give up communicating the idea.

Conversations between people
A conversation between people who want to meet each other for the first time on agreeable terms usually follows a particular protocol. The interaction takes the form of questions and statements designed to elicit responses from—but while not offending or embarrassing—the other person. Such a conversation usually starts with greetings and small talk, during which both parties thresh out each other's disposition regarding certain things such as: If someone asks how you are, they may not actually want to know the true or literal answer. This is called a phatic expression, and its purpose is to indicate a willingness to establish or continue a social relationship. A short answer is always best, and if you're trying to make a good impression, an answer that indicates a positive and confident mood such as "fine", "doing great", or just "good" is best. It may sometimes be acceptable or appropriate to give a short, one-sentence answer that communicates a "status report" for something you were talking to the person about before. In all cases, remember to follow up with a similar greeting if you haven't already.
 * How willing the person is to talk with the other;
 * What kind of threats the person could represent;
 * The person's place in any relevant pecking order;
 * What kind of mood the person is in;
 * What kind of person they are generally;
 * What the person's pet areas of interest might be;
 * How much of the information that was gleaned from any previous encounters still applies.

If, on the other hand, you don't want to interact with people who introduce themselves to you, the most effective way to get rid of them is to AVOID using the most direct method, and to instead use the least offensive way of communicating that with them you can find. This way, you won't get a reputation for being brash and bad mannered. If this doesn't work, it's okay to use more direct methods, such as avoiding eye contact.

The key thing to look for in responses is whether the person has positive or negative reactions during introductions or when a subject has been brought up—reading responses incorrectly can lead to misjudging people, and responding inappropriately can lead to being misjudged. Failure to respond can lead to people being scared off. People with negative outlooks and body language are usually avoided, and may in fact be trying to be avoided. People with unconfident or inconsistent body language are also often avoided. The best way to deal with this by far is to just "be" the emotion you want to be.

Based on each person's responses and body language, the conversation then gravitates back and forth between areas of common interest and small talk. It is important for both to try to develop an understanding of what the other person is thinking and feeling while talking—this is rapport. In general, it is best to stay away from negative and contentious things unless the other person displays an interest in debating them constructively. Any time during the conversation, participants may switch to another topic, switch back to small talk, or use a distraction to pull out of the conversation. Note that it is acceptable to tell white lies to end a conversation when no other distractions are available, but avoid obvious lies.

It is much more important for the person starting the conversation to follow the protocols closely than for the other person to do so. It is also worth noting that autistic individuals often end up in passionate conflicts with each other caused by a failure to understand the other's disposition. In this context, small talk is actually quite a neat and useful trick.

Approaching people
Approaching others is probably the most difficult part of any successful conversation. If you have absolutely no ability to start conversations, it is a good idea to observe how others introduce themselves to you to get a feel for how it is done before embarking on the mission of learning this skill yourself. In fact, it's a good idea to have practised your other conversation skills first with people who introduce themselves to you. However, avoid trying to learn things from how other people greet (and interact with) each other unless you know about their relevant backgrounds and their relationship to each other. Friends greet each other in different ways from strangers, and greeting strangers like friends is quite a dangerous thing.

In order to better understand how people perceive you, pay particular attention to the subjects people raise when talking to you. They may have something to do with the current environment or situation, or perhaps they are trying to confirm things about the impression they have of you. If different people keep raising the same subjects, it may be due to your image or appearance. I realised once that people kept raising the subjects of consumerism, biking and heavy metal. And when I thought about it, it clicked that I am quite a big man, with a long beard and hair who wears a biker jacket and no jewellery. People were thinking I might be a biker or a hippy. I didn't like the biker image, so I stopped wearing the jacket. Also pay attention to the care with which people approach you.

It is quite important to be in a happy, comfortable, confident mood when meeting strangers. If you are going to go somewhere to meet strangers, try to prepare yourself beforehand by thinking about things that make you happy. It is also important to have practised voice tones prior to attempting a conversation—telling someone their fly is open at maximum volume is not a good idea.

Some conversation starters are also known as "icebreakers" or "openers", and they are specifically designed to build a conversation from scratch. The best icebreakers are "closed questions" about the situation or something good you notice about the person followed up by "open questions". In the end, don't feel bad if your efforts to start conversations fail. Most first-conversations between strangers don't turn into extended ones.

Questions
Questions are an integral part of social interaction, and they serve a variety of purposes. Questions are what enable autistic people to survive in this world, and knowing how to find the information you need while weeding out the unimportant stuff is likely to be one of your best survival skills. It is necessary to understand that you as an autistic person are very probably unique as a person; with your own goals, features, flaws, needs and perception(s) of life. You are probably the one who is most willing and able to find out what you need to know to achieve something. Use your own judgement here—this guide cannot tell you exactly what to ask, but asking questions from people you know and trust is probably a good start.

Types of questions

 * Personal: asking a person to reveal something about themselves, or their "subjective" opinion about something; no particular answer is correct, and not answering is also an option.
 * Leading: asking in such a way as to lead a person to answer a particular way; often, but not always, forms of manipulation.
 * Rhetorical: a question that is not supposed to be answered; often designed to get people to think about the answer rather than to respond directly.
 * Open: type used in conversation that allows the person being asked to talk for as much as they want for a reply.
 * Closed: type used in conversation and that requires short clarifying answers; often a good "listening tool".
 * Queries: requests for objective or definitive information. Still, the answers you get may be neither objective nor definitive. The best way to deal with this is to query again for more specific answers. This method is not unlike dealing with Google.

Getting useful information from people

 * If the person you're seeking information from has bad experiences answering your questions then they may avoid doing so.
 * If the person you ask questions of sees that you don't take answers to heart, they may put less effort into their answers.
 * Questions usually have assumptions, and if they don't, then they often SEEM to have assumptions.
 * These assumptions are statements that can often be more offensive than when they are stated outright.
 * Example of a question with an assumption: "Why is X stupid?" assumes that X is stupid and rules out an answer that may explain X.
 * Example of a question that seems to have one: "How do you talk to people?" is too broad a question, probably leading to the assumption that it's a personal question.  That is, "how do YOU talk to people?"
 * The best questions are almost certainly the ones that assume nothing but that the answers to former questions are true.
 * Starting a "questioning session" with the assumption that the former rule is correct leaves us no option but to ask a question with no assumptions.
 * Examples of such a question: "Is it fair to say that ... (any given statement)?"
 * NEVER ask a question that you aren't prepared for an honest answer to, and if you aren't prepared for the answer you get, never over-react.
 * Bear in mind that "knowledge is power" and asking certain questions MAY reveal gaps in your understanding that other people MAY be able to exploit.
 * I find it's usually easier to find the information I seek by staying focused on acquiring it in a form I understand. This is an art in itself.
 * It is usually OK to ask a few questions you already know the answer to test the person's answering abilities, so long as you don't ask them for the purpose of "showing them up".

Debate
Questions are so powerful that people have had to come up with some ingenious defenses against them. These defenses involve never answering the questions properly, or otherwise dissuading people from asking or pursuing them. Examples of defensive responses to questioning include the following: "Debate framing" is a particularly nasty form of manipulation described in the book Don't Think of an Elephant. The idea is to change the context of a debate so as to make it favourable to one side. Some examples of this follow:
 * "I am asking the questions here [not you]."
 * Framing the attacks of September 11, 2001 as an act of war rather than a crime; in this context, justice, rule of law, and due process did not apply as they would if it were simply a crime, thereby giving the Bush administration an excuse to launch wars on those they wanted to.
 * Defining the measure of a person's worth as how well they obey orders in school and in the workplace, despite any other qualities they may have.

Rapport and friendship

 * Rapport is NOT something you have when you "get" someone or consistently understand their behaviour, or when you think the other person gets you, but when the other person also shares the same feeling. Your mirror neurons are capable of misguiding you.
 * Friends share rapport, but rapport is not about friendship.
 * One definition of Rapport is "a feeling of mutual understanding or trust and agreement between people".
 * Rapport may be when both people "get" each other or share a sense of "connection".
 * Rapport between two people develops over time as they gradually learn more about each other and develop trust and appreciation for each other's worth. This is particularly true for friendship.
 * THEORY: Mirror Neurons WORK in autistic spectrum people the same way they do in non-autistic people, but the psychological effects are quite different due to the NUMBER of people those mirror neurons work for. It is possible that they work just like a neurotypical person's does, but only when dealing with Autistic spectrum people (and then only when the two people are thinking the same). Because AS people usually lack the ability to unconsciously conform, their thinking is much less likely to be the same as someone they're talking to.

Reciprocal disclosure
During a conversation, people will often take turns trading personal information in the hopes of learning more about each other and developing some rapport. One person may elicit information from another either by asking direct questions or by disclosing personal information in the hopes of getting the other person to disclose similar information. The latter case is often used when a question may be considered too personal to ask directly. Disclosing something else or changing the subject is quite acceptable.

It's important to know how much information to share. Disclosing too little information make you seem withdrawn, unwilling to talk, or simply unwilling to disclose a particular piece of information. On the other hand, disclosing too much information may cause others to perceive you as:

 * Too trusting, and perhaps even a potential victim;
 * Untrustworthy, and unable keep secrets well (particularly if you disclose information about other people);
 * Dangerous or ditsy, depending on the nature or relevance of the information disclosed (particularly if other relevant pieces of information haven't already been disclosed);
 * Aloof, distracted, or detached from the flow of the conversation;
 * Needy, clingy, or childish.

People will have expectations about how far they want to take any relationship that develops, and also how quickly. Those expectations will change as the conversation develops, and it is a bad idea to try to push this process further than the other person wants to take it. There are very good reasons for everyone to be careful about how deep they go into any given relationship. The deeper they go, the more compatible they need to be for the relationship to remain positive, and the harder it can be emotionally to remain in, or end, a negative relationship; therefore the more they need to be sure of being compatible. In fact, an ability to know when to stop going deeper is probably one of the best survival techniques.

Understanding reciprocal disclosure can greatly enhance your social capacity, and the mystique created by knowing and obeying these rules can boost your charisma.

A 'Persona' is Socially Savvy
A persona is a social mask. You create it out of your strengths and wear it in public. When you 'get to know' a stranger, what you reveal sends a message. If you want to pursue a friendship, the conversation move toward what you have in common. If you dislike them you do not discuss commonalities with them. This allows two people to avoid humiliation from social rejection. there was no rejection. just a lack of common interests. Do not create a complex or fraudulent persona. You want to be consistent and comfortable in different situations. Your social mask will be awkward initially. Pay attention to the way people react to you. When you become familiar with your persona, you'll relax into the role. The top 'likeable' characteristics are cheer, calm, competence, cooperation and confidence. People do not want smart friends. They want kind and mellow friends.

Words are huge and concrete to me. Words are neither huge nor concrete in actuality. People use words as tools to accomplish a task. They tell outrageous stories for entertainment. The meaning is clear in the eyes of the speaker. The meaning cannot be found in the words. Most people do not think an untrue statement is a lie. They have a point. Fairy Tales are all lies in a story of profound truth. Society is a big picture. you lose friends by focusing on details. Make friends with an entire person. The good and the bad exist in everyone.

Small talk is unimportant. You need a response when someone asks you about yourself. Come up with a three sentence description that makes you sound superb. Be truthful and promote yourself shamelessly. Your interest is not acceptable to discuss in a social situation. Keep behind your persona around strangers. Talk about pastries and the weather while making eye contact. The eyes will let you know if someone can be trusted. Sometimes they are honest, but not often. This does not means they are bad or untrustworthy. They don't care about the words.

People are all different. People who like each other become more and more alike by spending time together. Don't rush or push people. We are very intense. This scares people. Be very gentle and calm and your focus will be welcome instead of intrusive. Practice, practice, practice.

Visualising social interaction
It would be silly to say that any one way to visualise social interaction can be 100% effective or appropriate at all times. In fact, non-autistic people seem to approximate everything at best. It is worth noting, though, that visual thinking is an autistic strong point, and it is very likely that a visualised understanding of social interaction is going to be the most effective.

 * Marc Segar talks about "plot" and "detail" in his book, but leaves it to the imagination as to what the exact differences are. One can only speculate, but my understanding is this:
 * "Plot" is exactly like the plot in a movie or TV show. The sequence of events is more important than the exact details about the events themselves.
 * The information gleaned from observing the events and their sequence goes towards building a picture of the situation an observer is currently in. This is "situational awareness".
 * This situational awareness is related to self interest in the non-autistic mind and provides the observer with information about threats and opportunities in the social environment.
 * Also, the information gleaned from observing what other people do goes towards building a picture of "who they are". This may be what Marc Segar was talking about when he talks about "slates" and keeping them clean.
 * This picture of "plot" vs "detail" is incomplete if one does not understand the forces driving non-autistic people, but this is beyond the scope of "plot".
 * There is another possible way to think about plot vs detail:
 * People who are not experts at something need to consciously think about doing it until they become experts. This is a rather "static" way of thinking.
 * People who are experts at something know their field so well that they base their real time actions on their detailed understanding rather than conscious thought. This is a much more "dynamic" way of thinking.
 * conscious thought tends to get in the way of doing something efficiently even for experts, however using conscious thought is usually necessary when fixing mistakes.
 * It may be the case that non-autistic peoples fluid behaviour in social situations is based on this kind of expert understanding, however the fact that they have no conscious technical understanding of what they're doing DOES lead them to make mistakes that are difficult to fix.
 * If this particular interpretation of "plot vs detail" is correct, it is incomplete without knowing what non-autistic people are experts at.
 * If this particular interpretation of "plot vs detail" is correct then autistic spectrum people prefer to keep learning rather than actually being experts on anything.
 * The single best way I have found to keep a grip of what's going on is by applying the second commandment, "You Must Love Your Neighbour As Yourself".
 * One translation of this rule reads "Do Unto Others As You Would Have Others Do Unto You".
 * Another plausible translation could read "Don't Do Unto Others As You Would Not Have Others Do Unto You".
 * The pagan tenet "anything which causes no harm is probably OK" seems to approximate this rule, as does Plato's conclusions about justice in Platos Republica.
 * Most people seem to try to follow this rule even when they don't know about it, and those that aren't, try to appear as if they are.
 * Nobody ever succeeds in following it 100%, however, honest people will usually try to fix their mistakes when they realise them, and they usually try to do so according to this rule.
 * By working out all of the things a person is doing to other people that they would accept other people doing to them, it is possible to "zone in" on acceptable behaviour.
 * By working out all of the things a person is doing to other people that they would not have the other person do to them, it is possible to work out whether someone is being malicious or not, and even the nature of that malice.
 * In the case of conflict, it is often possible to perform this "calculation" for every deed involved and come up with extremely equitable resolutions based on the things that people should be doing, before other people even realise there's a problem.
 * It is often possible to figure out if someone is trying to deceive or manipulate you by working out whether the person is willing to do themselves what they are trying to convince you to do. Asking detailed questions can reveal the deceit.
 * People who clearly have no interest in following this rule are usually well worth avoiding.
 * The second commandment is not a bad rule to live by either, but it doesn't work perfectly if you don't know what's important to other people.
 * Even so, if you wish to question or challenge people on the basis that they have broken this rule, then you pretty much need to be obeying it yourself. Otherwise you can be seen as a hypocrite.
 * It is fair to say that everybody has their own personal preferences about how they like to be treated, and it would therefore be breaking the rule to not treat other people according to those preferences once you learn about them.
 * On the other hand, using your own preferences when you don't know the other persons, as the rule would at first suggest can be a good starting point for people you don't know. Beware though that you may not know whether you like to be treated a particular way by strangers until you experience it.
 * It is possible to take this rule way too far and end up never doing anything for yourself the way Jesus or Socrates might.
 * Many of the laws of physics seem to apply in the average social interaction:
 * For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. EVERYTHING that happens has meaning.
 * Plot vs Detail may also refer to a scale, as in Tactical vs Strategic. Plot may refer to the general overall thing (like a Strategy in a war) and Detail would be the close-up pieces (like Tactics in warfare/battles)


text:
User:Liki~enwikibooks

I like to read

title: User:Liki~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:212.165.168.138

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 11:37, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:212.165.168.138


text:
BlitzMax/Modules/Vertex/BNetEx

BNetEx is a network module made by Vertex. It's Open Source, object-oriented and supports both TCP and UDP.

New versions are announced in this thread:

=Data Structures=

GetHostIP
Signature GetHostIP:Int(HostName:String)

Returns the IP address of the given host

Example int_ip:Int = TNetwork.GetHostIP("www.blitzbasic.com") Print TNetwork.StringIP(int_ip)

GetHostIPs
Signature GetHostIPs:Int[](HostName:String)

A host may have several addresses at once which can be found out by this function

Example Local int_ip:Int[] = TNetwork.GetHostIPs("www.google.com") For Local i:Int = EachIn int_ip Print TNetwork.StringIP(i) Next

GetHostName
Signature GetHostName:String(HostIp:Int)

Returns a given host's name

Example Print "The local PC's name is: " + TNetwork.getHostName(TNetwork.IntIP("127.0.0.1"))

StringIP
Signature StringIP:String(IP:Int)

Converts an integer IP into a string IP (also known as "dotted IP")

Example int_ip:Int = TNetwork.GetHostIP("www.blitzbasic.com") Print TNetwork.StringIP(int_ip)

IntIP
Signature IntIP:Int(IP:String)

Converts a string IP into an integer IP

Example Print "The local PC's name is: " + TNetwork.getHostName(TNetwork.IntIP("127.0.0.1"))

TNetStream
TNetStream extends TStream, therefore the usual write/read operations may be used on it. It contains all methods that can be used regardless of the protocol being used (TCP/UDP)

title: BlitzMax/Modules/Vertex/BNetEx


text:
User talk:172.203.175.201

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:07, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:172.203.175.201


text:
BlitzMax/Modules/Math/Math

=Functions=

IsNan
''Function IsNan( x:Double )

Description: Check if a value is NAN

Returns: True if x is 'not a number' (e.g.: Sqr(-1))

Example: Local a:Float = Sqr(-1)

Local b:Int = IsNan(a)	'b will equal True in this example, because the square root of -1 is 'not a number'

IsInf
''Function IsInf( x:Double )

Description: Check if a value is infinite (e.g.: 1.0/0.0)

Returns: True if x is infinite

Example: Local a:Float = 1.0 / 0.0

Local b:Int = IsInf(a)	'b will equal True in this example, because 1.0 divided by 0.0 is infinite

Sqr
''Function Sqr:Double( x:Double )

Description: Square root of x

Example: Local a:Int = 4 Local b:Int = Sqr(a)

Sin
''Function Sin:Double( x:Double )

Description: Sine of x degrees

Cos
''Function Cos:Double( x:Double )

Description: Cosine of x degrees

Tan
''Function Tan:Double( x:Double )

Description: Tangent of x degrees

ASin
''Function ASin:Double( x:Double )

Description: Inverse Sine of x

Comments: The inverse sine can determine the remaining angles of a right triangle when the lengths of the sides are known. For instance, an angle may be calculated using the length of the opposite side and the hypotenuse.

Example: Local alpha:Double = ASin(length_opposite / length_hypotenuse)

ACos
''Function ACos:Double( x:Double )

Description: Inverse Cosine of x

Comments: The inverse cosine can determine the remaining angles of a right triangle when the lengths of the sides are known. For instance, an angle may be calculated using the length of the adjacent side and the hypotenuse.

Example: Local alpha:Double = ACos(length_adjacent / length_hypotenuse)

ATan
''Function ATan:Double( x:Double )

Description: Inverse Tangent of x

Comments: The inverse tangent can determine the remaining angles of a right triangle when the lengths of the sides are known. For instance, an angle may be calculated using the length of the opposite side and the adjacent side.

Example: Local alpha:Double = ATan(length_opposite / length_adjacent)

ATan2
''Function ATan2:Double( y:Double,x:Double )

Description: Inverse Tangent of two variables x, y

Comments: ATan2 is similar to ATan. However, it makes use of the two arguments signs to determine the angle of a imaginary vector (x,y) relatively to the x-axis (counterclockwise). This is very useful, for example in determining the direction from one point to another.

Example: Local ax:Float = -1, ay:Float =- 2	'Point A Local bx:Float = 3, by:Float = 2	'Point B

'Notice how the variables we are using are Float's, BlitzMax will automatically 'convert them into Double's when we call ATan2 Local angle:Float = ATan2(by - ay, bx - ax)	'Angle from A to B

Sinh
''Function Sinh:Double( x:Double )

Description: Hyperbolic sine of x

Cosh
''Function Cosh:Double( x:Double )

Description: Hyperbolic cosine of x

Tanh
''Function Tanh:Double( x:Double )

Description: Hyperbolic tangent of x

Exp
''Function Exp:Double( x:Double )

Description: Exponential function

Log
''Function Log:Double( x:Double )

Description: Natural logarithm

Log10
''Function Log10:Double( x:Double )

Description: Base 10 logarithm

Ceil
''Function Ceil:Double( x:Double )

Description: Smallest integral value not less than x

Floor
''Function Floor:Double( x:Double )

Description: Largest integral value not greater than x

Comments: Ceil will round a variable up, whereas Floor will round it down.

Example: Local a:Float = 3.5

Local round_up:Float = Ceil(a)		'Becomes 4.0 Local round_down:Float = Floor(a)	'Becomes 3.0

title: BlitzMax/Modules/Math/Math


text:
Stress-related Disorders

 Stress

A psychological process initiated by events that threaten, harm or challenge an organism or that exceed available coping resources. Stress is characterized by psychological responses that are directed towards adaptation.

The wear and tear on the body in response to stressful agents. Selye called such agents stressors and said they could be physical, physiological, psychological or sociocultural." The principles of management are the same as for the chronic ulcer.”

Table of contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Anxiety Reduction/
 * A Technique for Promoting the Relaxation Response
 * /Clinical Stress/
 * /Surgical Stress/
 * /Defenses/

title: Stress-related Disorders


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Surgical Procedures/Abdominal Surgery

Laprotomy:
 * Operation by which abdominal cavity is opened.
 * A large incision is through the abdominal wall, made to operate on or view the abdominal contents.

Types of Laprotomy

 * 1) Therapeutic Laprotomy:
 * 2) *Is performed to inspect abdominal cavity.
 * 3) *	Is performed to manipulate with internal organs.
 * 4) Diagnostic Laprotomy:
 * 5) *Is performed to establish final diagnosis.
 * 6) *Is performed to surgically excise pathological formation.
 * 7) **E.g usually tumors.
 * 8) Probatoric Laprotomy:

Incisions
1.	Vertical Incisions. a)	Medial Incision: o	Commonest incision due to: 	Wide incision which gives more 	Is performed in: •	White line of Abdomen. •	Lateral to Umbilicus. o	Is performed not to disturb Round Ligament of Liver. Depending on the relation with Umbilicus, vertical incisions are known as: 	Superior Medial Incision. 	Inferior middle Medial Incision.

title: Surgical Procedures/Abdominal Surgery


text:
Wikijunior:Human Body/Muscles

Muscles are the organs that make us move. All our movements from running, jumping, to blinking and smiling are made by our muscles. Muscles are everywhere. They can be tiny as in the ear or huge like leg muscles. Although no muscle is directly visible you can watch many of them in action in the mirror, when you flex your muscles.

What does a muscle look like?
A muscle is usually a long round organ. The color is red. A muscle is flexible and shortens and thickens during a contraction. The figure on the right shows a series of magnifications of a muscle. You can see that a muscle is a collection of fibres or strings, each of which is capable of contraction. The added force of these fibers is the strength of the muscle.

What are the parts of a muscle?
A muscle has two ends each of which attach to some other organ, usually a bone. These connectors are called tendons.

What is the function of a muscle?
Without muscles, we can not survive. Muscles produce almost all movements in our body. We need healthy muscles to be able to walk, move, and even smile. The human body has about 620 muscles that it uses for its movement. In addition there are many more that work automatically. The muscles in our heart move blood around the body, the chest muscles help us breathe and the stomach muscles help us digest food.

How does a muscle interact with other parts of the body?
Muscles connect with all of the other parts of the body. Muscles in the heart pump blood throughout the body. The diaphragm is a large muscle that allows us to breathe. Muscles from our mouth to our stomach and beyond help us swallow food and move it through the digestive system. Even our eyes have muscles that let us look around and see our surroundings. The muscles do movement by becoming shorter and pulling the bones to which they are attached.

How can you keep your muscles healthy?
Our muscles are kept healthy through regular exercise. Eating properly and especially including a quality protein source in your diet will help keep your muscles healthy.

title: Wikijunior:Human Body/Muscles


text:
Cookbook talk:Broccoflower

Removed bit from article which belongs here
"Actually, I believe that broccoflower and romanesco broccoli are two different things. According to the website http://www.fourmilab.ch/images/Romanesco/, broccoflower is "a cross of broccoli and cauliflower which superficially resembles Romanesco but lacks its near perfect self-similar fractal form" (see parenthetical insert at end of second paragraph under the section entitled "The Unclassifiable Romanesco" - 71.231.151.125"

Jessicapierce 15:50, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Broccoflower


text:
Wikijunior:Human Body/Digestive System

Our bodies need food to live and grow. Digestion is the process of taking the food and drink we eat and getting it ready for all the parts of the body to use. The digestive system breaks down food and carries it to all parts of the body.

What does the digestive system look like?
The digestive system looks like a long, connected set of tubes and organs. It is about 10 meters long. It starts with the mouth. The esophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth to the stomach, which is within the rib cage. The stomach is a muscular bag-like structure and forms a J-shaped pouch and is located under the rib cage.

The stomach connects to the small intestine. This is a long skinny tube that is about 7 meters long and winds forth and back within the abdominal cavity. This then connects to the large intestine which is larger in diameter and much shorter. The large intestine becomes the rectum and ends at the anus.

The liver and the pancreas are glands that produce fluids that help with digestion – similar to the saliva produced in the mouth. This whole system includes tubes and all organs and glands from the alimentary canal where the digestion takes place.

What are the parts of the digestive system?
The digestive system starts with the mouth, where food and water enter our body. In our mouth, our teeth and tongue do part of the work of breaking food down into smaller pieces. Saliva contains the enzyme called salivary amylase or Ptyalin which converts the starch of food into maltose which is a complex sugar.

After we chew and swallow food, it goes down a tube called the esophagus. This tube goes from the mouth to the  stomach by the movement of peristalsis, a rhythmic contraction, and expansion.

In the stomach, food is broken down more. The stomach has gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and mucus. Hydrochloric acid makes the food acidic, kills the germs, and activates the pepsin. Pepsin digests the proteins. Mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of HCl and pepsin. After this happens, the food is passed on to the  small intestine.

The small intestine is a very long twisting tube. This is where most digestion happens; here, food mixes with succus entericus (intestinal juice) secreted by the small intestine, trypsin (which digests protein), lipase (which digests lipids) secreted by the pancreas, and bile juice secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, which makes the food alkaline and emulsifies (breaks down) fats.

These chemicals break the food down so it can be absorbed into the blood. The small intestine is lined with villi and blood vessels that absorb the nutrients from food. smash

Whatever is left over goes on to the  large intestine where more villi absorb water. From there, the waste finally passes out of the body through the anus. The anal sphincter controls the process of defecation.

What is the function of the digestive system?
The job of the digestive system is to take the food we eat and make it usable for our bodies. The digestive system breaks down the food so our body can use it. It also separates out waste products that the body cannot use. The food ingested is broken down separately- proteins into amino acids, carbohydrates into glucose and lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

How does the digestive system interact with other parts of the body?
The digestive system works with the circulatory system to get nutrients to all the parts of our body. After food is broken down and reaches the  small intestine, blood vessels absorb the nutrients. The blood then carries the nutrients to cells all over the body.

How can you keep your digestive system healthy?
l;A big part of keeping your digestive system healthy is eating healthy food. Try not to eat too much or too little. Make sure to chew your food well. It is also good to include fiber in your diet. Fiber is found in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Eating yogurt can also add healthy bacteria to your body. Don't eat lots of "junk food." This includes foods that are high in sugar or fat. If certain foods often make your stomach hurt or cause digestive problems, try eliminating them from your diet.

Lastly, make sure to drink plenty of water. If you live somewhere where the water is not treated, make sure the water is boiled first this will kill most bacteria in the water and make it safer to drink. You should also distill water and use a filter system if the water is not treated.

title: Wikijunior:Human Body/Digestive System


text:
Template:Latin/Exercise

EXERCISE • •

SOLUTION • •

To use

 * Example:

title: Template:Latin/Exercise


text: Latin/Lesson 1-Nominative/Exercise 1

title: Latin/Lesson 1-Nominative/Exercise 1


text:
Surgical Procedures/Plastic Surgery

Plastic surgery

Introduction
A surgical treatment which is performed by authorized specialist. Generally the term plastic refers to the molding and reshaping of body tissues: Generally during Plastic Surgery:
 * Basic goal of plastic surgery is to treat surgically by:
 * Correction of disfigurement.
 * Restoration of impaired function.
 * Improvement of physical appearance.
 * Bone.
 * Fat.
 * Muscle.
 * Cartilage.
 * Skin.
 * Tissue may be moved to fill a depression, to cover a wound, or to improve appearance.
 * Tissue may be completely removed to alter the contours of a feature.

Cosmetic surgery and Plastic Surgery
Cosmetic surgery: Surgery performed solely to improve appearance in otherwise healthy persons. Plastic Surgery: Surgery performed solely to improve health in otherwise unhealthy person.

Benefits of plastic Surgery

 * The correction of a perceived physical imperfection.
 * Psychological benefits.

Common procedures
In plastic surgery the transfer of skin tissue (skin grafting) is one of the most common procedures. (Traditionally in surgery “Graft” is a piece of living tissue, organ, etc., transplanted surgically)

Grafts

 * Autografts: Skin grafts taken from the recipient.
 * If absent or deficient of natural tissue, alternatives can be:
 * Cultured Sheets of epithelial cells in vitro.
 * Synthetic compounds (i.e. silicone).
 * Allografts: Skin grafts taken from a donor of the same species.
 * Xenografts: Skin grafts taken from a donor of a different species.

Micro Surgery
Extremely fine needles and sutures make it possible to rejoin small blood vessels and other minute structures under an operating microscope.

Common types and indications for plastic surgery

 * 1) Reconstructive plastic surgery (treatment of defects resulting from trauma or disease).
 * 2) Constructive plastic surgery (treatment of innate/inborn defects).
 * 3) Anaplastic surgery (treatment of disfunction of appearance).

Reconstructive Plastic surgery
It is performed:
 * 1) To correct severe functional impairments caused by:
 * 2) *Burns.
 * 3) *Traumatic injuries.
 * 4) To correct acquired or congenital abnormalities, such as:
 * 5) *Cleft lip.
 * 6) *Cleft palate.
 * 7) *Facial bone fractures.
 * 8) *Tumours.
 * 9) To compensate for tisue removed in:
 * 10) *Cancer or other surgery.
 * 11) **i.e Mastectomy.

Techniques used in plastic surgery
Among the techniques which are commonly used in plastic surgery are:
 * Incision.
 * Excision.
 * Chemosurgery.
 * Electrosurgery.
 * Laser surgery.
 * Dermabrasion.
 * Liposuction.

Prognosis in plastic surgery
Usually, the good results are expected if plastic surgery is performed by:
 * Careful planning of incisions so that they fall in the line of natural skin folds or lines.
 * Appropriate choice of wound closure.
 * Use of best available suture materials.
 * Early removal of exposed sutures so that the wound is held closed by buried sutures.

title: Surgical Procedures/Plastic Surgery


text:
Cookbook talk:Dal

Spice preparation needs elaboration
Although cooks with South Asian backgrounds hardly need instruction in preparing spices by frying, roasting, and grinding them, this is where people from other backgrounds fall down. Either we throw in spices which haven't been properly prepared, or we resort to "curry powder".

It would be extremely helpful if an accomplished cook who has lived overseas and experienced our bungled attempts with their cuisine would contribute a tutorial. LADave 18:19, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Dal


text:
IB Mathematics SL/Matrices

= Topic 4: Matrices =

Introduction
The numbers in the matrix are called entries or elements

The order of a matrix defines its shape. For example, 2×1 matrix. First digit defines number of rows, second digit defines number of columns.

Matrices of order n×1 with just one column, are called column matrices:

For example: $$ \begin{bmatrix} 1 \\    5  \\    6   \end{bmatrix} $$

Matrices of order 1×n with just one row, are called row matrices

For example: $$ \begin{bmatrix} 1 &5 &6 \\  \end{bmatrix} $$

A zero matrix is a matrix with all entries equal to zero.

For example: $$ \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 \\   0 & 0 \\    0 & 0  \end{bmatrix} $$

An identity matrix is a square matrix with entries of 1 on the leading diagonal (from top left to bottom right) and entries of zero everywhere else.

For example: $$ \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\   0 & 1 & 0 \\    0 & 0 & 1  \end{bmatrix} $$

Adding and subtracting matrices
Two or more matrices of identical dimensions $$m$$ and $$n$$ can be added. Given m-by-n matrices A and B, their sum A + B is the m-by-n matrix computed by adding corresponding elements For example:

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 2 \\   1 & 0 & 0 \\    1 & 2 & 2  \end{bmatrix} + \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 5 \\   7 & 5 & 0 \\    2 & 1 & 1  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1+0 & 3+0 & 2+5 \\   1+7 & 0+5 & 0+0 \\    1+2 & 2+1 & 2+1  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 7 \\   8 & 5 & 0 \\    3 & 3 & 3  \end{bmatrix} $$

Multiplying a matrix by a number
To multiply a matrix by a number, multiply every element by the number. For example:

 * $$2 \cdot

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 8 & -3 \\   4 & -2 & 5  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 2 \cdot 1 & 2\cdot 8 & 2\cdot -3 \\ 2\cdot 4 & 2\cdot -2 & 2\cdot 5 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 16 & -6 \\   8 & -4 & 10  \end{bmatrix} $$

Matrix multiplication
In order for matrix multiplication to occur, the number of columns in the first matrix must equal the number of rows in the second matrix. Consider Matrix A and B below:

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 \\   2 & -1 & 1 \\  \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 1 \\   2 & -1 \\    3 & 1  \end{bmatrix} $$

Thus, the 2x3 and 3x2 matrices can be multiplied either way in this example. For this example, a 2x2 matrices will result. Note that if the 3x2 was multiplied by the 2x3, a 3x3 matrice would result. Proceed by multiplying the 1st row of Matrix A with the first column of Matrix B and summing the results. This will be your first element of the 2x2. Multiply the first row of Matrix A with the second column of Matrix B. This will be the element in the first row and second column of the resulting 2x2 matrix. This process is shown below.

Continuing with Matrix A and B from above

\begin{bmatrix} 1 & 3 & 1 \\   2 & -1 & 1 \\  \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 1 \\   2 & -1 \\    3 & 1  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1+6+3 & 1+-3+1 \\   2+-2+3 & 2+1+1 \\  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 10 & -1 \\   3 & 4 \\  \end{bmatrix} $$ note that matrix multiplication is not commutative. so MxN is not equal to NxM

The 2x3 matrix is the most complex hand calculation the IBO will require on any examination, with subsequent matrices (3x3, 3x4, 4x4) being done through use of a GDC.

2×2 matrices
Similar to the process shown above, only simpler. A 2x2 multiplied by a 2x2 will always yield a 2x2 matrix. Consider Matrix A and B below:

\begin{bmatrix} 4 & 2 \\   -1 & 8 \\  \end{bmatrix} \cdot \begin{bmatrix} -1 & 3 \\   2 & 0 \\  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -4+4 & 12+0 \\   1+16 & -3+0 \\  \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 12 \\   17 & -3 \\  \end{bmatrix} $$

3×3 matrices
It is not advised by the IBO for SL students to calculate by hand 3x3 matrices, as it is merely a complex extension of multiplying 2x2 matrices. Instead, the IBO recommends the use of a GDC (Graphing Display Calculator), and the Matrix function on it.

title: IB Mathematics SL/Matrices


text:
Wikibooks:Blatant Vandal Blocking Policy

Blatant vandal accounts or IPs shall be indefinitely blocked on sight, without warning or notes on the user talk page. By blatant vandal we mean those who add obviously offensive materials and/or images to pre-existing Wikibooks modules and/or new pages.

In the case of accounts, checkuser shall be used in all cases of such vandalism, and if no good faith edits are found corresponding to any related IP addresses, those IPs shall also be blocked indefinitely. Administrators should monitor Category:Requests for unblock in order to prevent any unintentional harm.


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Wikibooks talk:Blatant Vandal Blocking Policy

I think we need to be specific about what blatant vandalism is. We should alter the text to include those who "use racist, homophobic, sexist language" and "those who blank pages or move important Wikibooks pages without reason". —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Xania (talk • contribs) 21:01, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

 * To add to this (tho I agree with within focus ). Vandal accounts (page move, profanity, racism, attack etc) should be indef blocked - no question (tho some do not).  However an IP without a fair bit of research really should not be - static, dynamic, open proxy etc etc - not an easy call (obviously repeat vandalism from an IP is another matter) -- Herby  talk thyme 09:21, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Votes

 * - sorry but you have no idea if they are shared IPs without some work -- Herby talk thyme 20:19, 5 May 2007 (UTC)
 * - I'm not interested in partial policies, and a more refined approach to this needs to be taken. This should be addressed at the full blocking policy. -within focus 01:57, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
 * - I agree this needs a much tighter definition of what we mean by blatant vandalism. Someone might be tempted on their first test to enter a obscenity as childish graffiti.  An indefinite block in this case seems extreme. --AdRiley 11:23, 10 May 2007 (UTC)


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User:Scoop0901

Who is Scoop0901?
Scoop0901 is the online moniker for Dave Jackson. He is a former reporter and editor for weekly and daily newspapers, having spent more than 20 years in print media.

The early days of computing
After having spent the late 1970's playing with various models of the TRS-80 (having started out with a TRS-80 Model 1 in 1979), Scoop found that computers were tools that could make his life much easier. In the early days, they saved him a lot of time by not having to retype manuscripts he sold.

The early days of DTP
By the late 1980's and early 1990's, Scoop was busy trying to push newspapers into the electronic era. Instead of relying on the newsroom's "morgue" -- it's library of clippings of every story printed in each edition of the paper -- he was pushing for electronic databases for articles and photos. Scanned images, the captions, cutlines, photographer's credit, and other information could be stored much easier on servers than in cabinets. It was cheaper, overall, saving it as electrons, and you didn't have to worry about negatives being warped, storing actual photos, or someone finding the exact photo you want when on deadline. Instead, everything was a few clicks away.

The mid-1990's
Scoop0901 left the corporate world in 1995, heading out to full-time freelance writing, editing, design, and other related work. He's helped more than a dozen individuals and companies launch new publications, both magazines and newspapers. He's provided guidance on formats, design, software, hardware, employees, networking, telecommuting, databases, and other key issues.

Other accomplishments
Scoop has been involved with launching four publications, from the earliest planning stages until well after actual launch. Three of the publications are now over a decade old; one publication folded after six years due to a decline in advertising.

Scoop in the 21st Century
The end of the 20th century brought about the final days of the dot-com boom, but also brought about cheaper prices for computers, storage, and other electronic gadgets and gizmos.

A master of PageMaker, QuarkXPress, and InDesign, Scoop busys himself with a variety of projects: still writing, shooting pix, and doing desktop publishing (DTP), he also designs stylesheets for several outlets that are moving to DTP for production, as well as provides a variety of services to various outlets and organizations. Those services include editing, writing, design/layout, and creating Web-friendly (small) PDF files for Website readers.

Fire At Will
Scoop also continues to write for his own pleasure. He has several blogs, including a few under his own name. They are:

Scoop's Views
Scoop's Views is where Scoop writes about anything that strikes his fancy. He writes freely, firing shots at any target in the news.

The Sleep Blog
The Sleep Blog is where Scoop writes about anything related to sleep and sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea, narcolepsy, restless legs syndrome (RLS), and others. Sadly, too many people -- physicians, other health care providers, and companies, are in business for the almighty dollar, not really for "helping others," as the saying goes. This is where Scoop shows what should be considered the baseline acceptable standard. Anything less is unacceptable, and anything more is, well, a bonus.

From being a hack to being a sleep activist ...
On January 1, 2000, while in an ICU room at a Philadelphia hospital, Scoop was diagnosed with severe obstructive sleep apnea, among a host of other serious health issues. The physicians -- read that closely, as it is plural: physicians -- told him he had been suffering undiagnosed sleep apnea, most likely, for many years. After investigative work on his own health, he found there were tattle-tale signs of apnea going back to childhood, likely to birth. He is still fighting to obtain his medical records from birth.

Since being diagnosed, Scoop has devoted a fair portion of his time toward sleep advocacy. He's been involved with running Awake In Philly, a community education and support group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for people with sleep disorders, as well as those who are impacted by sleep disorders, as family members, friends, employers, and co-workers. He serves on the board for Awake In America, a national non-profit (501c3) organization focused on sleep and sleep disorders, and he does a lot of other outreach, education, and support, including working as a moderator of several sleep-related email discussion lists, including CPAPusers and Apnea Kinksters, the latter being a group for anyone over the age of 18 who is involved in a relationship, and has concerns or issues they need addressed in a mature, adult manner.

Helping Others
With Awake In America, Scoop spearheaded efforts to launch the xPAP Donation and Relief Program, which is designed to assist individuals in getting CPAP or bi-level (commonly referred to as BiPAP, which is a trademark of Respironics, Inc., for a specific line of machine) machines, as well as accessories. A few months later, he spearheaded efforts to launch a Sleep Study Relief Program.

In addition to helping with the relief program, Scoop also works to find corporate sponsors for Awake In America, as well as individual sponsors. Anyone may contribute to Awake In America's mission via its online donation page.

title: User:Scoop0901


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General Anatomy/Gastrointestinal System/Small Intestine

In biology the small intestine is the part of the gastrointestinal tract (gut) between the stomach and the large intestine and includes the duodenum, jejunum, and the ileum. It is where the vast majority of digestion takes place.

Size and sections In humans over 5 years old it is approximately 7 m (21 ft) long and can vary from 4–7 m (13.12-22.97 ft).

It is divided into three structural parts:

 * duodenum 25 cm (9.84 in) in length
 * jejunum 2.5 m (8.2 ft)
 * ileum 3.5 m (11.5 ft)

Although the small intestine is much longer than the large intestine (typically 4-5 times longer), it is referred to as such due to its comparatively smaller diameter. On average, the diameter of the small intestine of an adult human measures approximately 2.5–3 cm, and the large intestine measures about 7.6 cm in diameter.


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The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/52

= Text & Translation =

= External Links =

 * Catullus 52 A Translation of Catullus 52
 * Catullus 52 Another Translation of Catullus 52


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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Swahili

What Countries Did They Live In?
Around the first century AD, Arab and Persian traders began visiting the east coast of Africa in modern Somalia and south to Mozambique. This portion of the African coast was valuable land and many Muslim and Bantu speaking people settled there. The Swahili civilization has its roots in ancient Bantu Africans. The Swahili civilization went as far south as Kilwa, Zanzibar. Important Swahili cities include Mogadishu, Barawa, Mombasa (Kenya), Gedi, Pate, Malindi, Zanzibar, Kilwa, and Sofala in the far south.

What did their buildings look like?
They had greatly crafted wooden doors for houses. These doors are displayed on the beach as a sign of wealth.

What did they wear?
Men wore kiokis (a cloth tied around the waist), and kanzus (white tops reaching below the knee) over their kioki. Women wore buibui (a black garment that covered their whole body except their eyes and hands) when they went out, but at home they dressed lightly.

What did their writing look like?
Their writing was formed from hieroglyphics.

What did they believe?
In the main, the Swahili people are Muslims or followers of Islam. The religion of Islam is based on the surrender to God who is One. Allah is the Arabic name for God. Islam considers itself to be a message of the universal truth for God's unity. The prophets, especially Abraham, taught and shared with others this message of God's Oneness. Islam recognizes other prophets including Moses, Christ, and the last prophet, Muhammad.

When did their civilization exist?
Around the first century AD Bantu Africans were living on the east coast of Africa. Arab merchants and traders came to the east coast of Africa to trade and settle. These people and the Bantu Africans formed the Swahili civilization. The Swahili civilization expanded on the east coast of Africa through the fifteenth century. The civilization began to decline in the sixteenth century when Portuguese trade led to the Swahili centers of trade falling to ruin.


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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/What is a Civilization?

A civilization is a singular culture shared by a significant large group of people who live and work co-operatively, a society. The word civilization comes from the Latin civilis, meaning civil, related to the Latin civis, meaning citizen, and civitas, meaning city or city-state, and that also somehow defines the size of the society. City-states are the precursors of nations. A civilizational culture implies the passing on of knowledge across several generations, a lingering cultural footprint and fair dissemination. Minor cultures often vanish without leaving relevant historic evidence and fail to be recognized as proper civilizations.

Civilization are defined by their individual culture, even if derivative. All of a civilization usually shares common characteristics, but some emerge from conquest or the decline of preceding ones, making them more closely related. There is also a relation to time, geography and terrain, how much contact one civilization has with another limits their cultural influence on each-other.

Civilizations evolved from the concept of city state, the aggregation of several city states into specific regions of the world that shared a stable food supply and a form of government as to creates distinct social structures that implement a range of common techniques for stabilizing their way of life. Civilization seems only to be possible with advanced practice of agriculture (for example crop rotation, understanding of seasons, basic irrigation), complex trade is also present in all civilizations (normally the use of some form of basic currency, like salt, shells or metal that permits trade at a distance and long term contracts, and with this the ability to plan ahead for food and energy), a code of rules (a form of legal system, the social enforced stratification and the recognition of property and land rights is also present) this allows them to settle and live in towns and cities in some organized way. A majority shared religious system is also characteristic.

Civilizations are usually also characterized by an intricate social hierarchy, commonly structured according to specific skills such as farming, trading, or defending their settlements and ultimately the ruler and ruled. Older civilizations were usually headed by a powerful leader, a king, queen, emperor, or empress at the top, supported by tributes (taxes) and allegiance (obedience due to honor, family ties, duty and self interest) by a noble or ruling class who maintained and controlled a military forces and the land. These nobles often could, in the name of the leader, discipline the ordinary people on the land administered by they: artisans who made things, peasants who worked their land, merchants who traded things, and so on.

Civilizations are not only found in the past. Today we can say that we are heading toward a global civilization. That means we are starting to share the same culture all over the world. If we look into the last century, we can clearly identify some distinctions.

2


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Algebra/Quadratic Equation

Derivation
The solutions to the general-form quadratic function $$ax^2+bx+c=0$$ can be given by a simple equation called the quadratic equation. To solve this equation, recall the completed square form of the quadratic equation derived in the previous section:
 * $$y=a\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2+c-\frac{b^2}{4a}$$

In this case, $$ y = 0 $$ since we're looking for the root of this function. To solve, first subtract c and divide by a:
 * $$\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2=\frac{b^2}{4a^2}-\frac{c}{a}$$

Take the (plus and minus) square root of both sides to obtain:
 * $$x+\frac{b}{2a}=\pm\sqrt{\frac{b^2}{4a^2}-\frac{c}{a}}$$

Subtracting $$\frac{b}{2a}$$ from both sides:
 * $$x=-\frac{b}{2a}\pm\sqrt{\frac{b^2}{4a^2}-\frac{c}{a}}$$

This is the solution but it's in an inconvenient form. Let's rationalize the denominator of the square root:
 * $$\sqrt{\frac{b^2}{4a^2}-\frac{c}{a}}=\sqrt{\frac{b^2-4ac}{4a^2}}=\frac{\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2|a|}=\pm\frac{\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}$$

Now, adding the fractions, the final version of the quadratic formula is:

$$x=\frac{-b\pm\sqrt{b^2-4ac}}{2a}$$

This formula is very useful, and it is suggested that the students memorize it as soon as they can.

Discriminant
The part under the radical sign, $${b^2-4ac}$$, is called the discriminant, $$\Delta$$. The value of the discriminant tells us some useful information about the roots.
 * If $$\Delta>0$$, there are two unique real solutions.
 * If $$\Delta=0$$, there is one unique real solution.
 * If $$\Delta<0$$, there are two unique, conjugate imaginary solutions.
 * If $$\Delta$$ is a perfect square then the two solutions are rational, otherwise they are irrational conjugates.

Word Problems
Need to pull word problems from http://teachers.yale.edu/curriculum/search/viewer.php?id=initiative_07.06.12_u&skin=h

title: Algebra/Quadratic Equation


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Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Game Engine Basics

If you don't see the Actor button, resize the Logic windows.


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Talk:Understanding C++

Initial thoughts and ideas
Writing a technical book is a little like writing a computer program of comparable length; while it is a given that the details must be present and correct, the key is in having a clear vision for the structure and spirit of the work.

It might be possible to enumerate certain properties of the style of writing planned for this book, beyond the regular standards for all Wikibooks. Some debate on this is likely, but consensus should be very possible.

Let's start the ball rolling:
 * The book has a target audience. The suggestion on the table is that this is people new to programming.
 * The book has an area of focus. This may be only standard C++, or may cover some other areas.  It will be helpful to at least include some basic material on how to compile simple programs, but that quickly turns into a large area to cover.  It may be appropriate to have one chapter (or even two smaller chapters), possibly as an appendix (or appendices) to cover issues of compiling and linking code in the most common development environments (Unix-like and Visual Studio, maybe).
 * We might cover the productivity/clarity/correctness benefits of using C++ as a high-level language while also covering its low-level features for completeness. Before writing starts in earnest, it would be good to have agreement on how to combine the two, and in particular on whether the early chapters should cover one or both approaches.
 * While a book on C++09 would be great, Wikibooks discourages documentation of moving targets, so our focus will be C++98 aka C++03.
 * This book may or may not choose to cover/use some of TR1; one issue is that good support is not widely available, which is a barrier to those learning it.
 * Some coding conventions would be useful for examples, just as for a software project. Many styles are in use, and many thousands of hours have been spent debating them.

(To be continued.)

 * Yes I agree the focus of this book is for C++03, when C++09 has become accepted as a standard (eg no longer a moving target), this book can be updated to reflect any changes to that standard. I think TR1, probably should be covered. IIRC TR1, only includes additional libraries, which could be covered in its own chapter or chapters.

 * The target audience includes not only people new to programming, but people who have some experience with whatever they are going to use to do the programming on. Such as experience using Windows, Linux, MacOS, the embedded environment of their choice, etc. The focus is on Standard C++ and common programming constructs like linked lists, hash tables, trees, etc which are always portable and which programmers are expected to know how to do. There is additionally a prerequisite that people have read a book or some other material on how to install a C++ compiler or IDE and have read how to use it. I was thinking of maybe including links to such material in /Further Reading. This may include links to other Wikibooks, which cover the subject. There are other books which also do not include information on compiling a C++ program, such as "The C++ Programming Language" by Bjarne Stroustrup. There are so many compilers and other tools that its a big enough subject to be its own book. I do know and understand that it can be a tricky dependency, but it has been pulled off before. My thoughts are, this book shouldn't focus on or concern itself with what environment the readers may be using. Part of my plan for the Introduction chapter was to include some information that answers the questions of what programs are needed to write and compile a C++ program, but without mentioning a specific compiler. Maybe could include a link to the further reading page with a suggestion to check that page out for a list of tools for various environments?

 * I'm not sure whether this book should require a specific coding convention. I can understand however requiring all examples use a monospace font though.

 * I was hoping that part of the goal of this book would be to teach Standard C++ without any bias or favoritism to certain aspects of C++ and in a simple manner. For example, I was thinking this book could avoid discussion of high-level vs low-level languages, because I don't think its needed in order to understand C++ and where exactly C++ or certain aspects of C++ fits into that, I think is a moving target. So the first thing I think thats needed is to provide some way to help writers to avoid thinking of C++ in that was, so this book isn't written in that way and help get writers thinking in the way that will be a benefit to this book. For example instead of thinking of and trying to answer "how do I separate variables from..." instead thinking of and answering "Whats all involved in using and manipulating variables and how can I explain most of it in one chapter". I was thinking of creating some type of "what you will learn" or "what you will know" template to include in all chapters to aid both readers and writers. I think instead of agreeing how to combine them, it would be far better to maybe agree to whats needed to cover for example variables completely, how much to cover in a single chapter and what to cover in more detail later on.

 * To get some of my ideas down:
 * variables - basic types, structs, classes, unions, new, delete. explaining the relationship between the basic types and creating more complex types using structs, classes and unions. explain pointers and references in terms of how they relate to any types. cover the operators using to change the value of variables. Maybe not explain every detail of structs, classes and unions in this chapter, just enough to grasp that more complex types can be created and how. Covering all the details in a later chapter. Use string and other types found in the standard library. This chapter would also cover type casting and type conversion.
 * program flow - explain, if, for, while, do, exceptions and goto. explain the basics of exceptions, how to catch them. save throwing exceptions for a later chapter.
 * functions - declaring, creating and calling them. talk about function overloading, mention member functions and the minor distinctions.
 * user defined types, cover all the details of unions, structs and classes thats not already been covered, including operator overloading, the relationship between new and the constructor, between delete and the destructor, inheritance and polymorphisms. This might also be the chapter to discuss, linked lists, trees and hash tables. This chapter will also explain how to provide custom type casting through operator overloading.
 * templates - explain what they are, how they can be used for generic programming, use types from the standard library that make use of templates, and discuss improving on the linked lists, trees and tables from the previous chapter so they can be used for all sorts of types through the use of templates.
 * optimization techniques - different ways to speed up a program, such as creating an object which allocates more memory then it needs at first. Keeping everything in the realm or portability, which means things readers can do by hand.
 * debugging techniques - different ways to debug a program by hand. also must remain portable.
 * the standard library - split up by types and/or other means to cover every detail of the library.
 * possibly other techniques may be covered.
 * limit discussion on how manipulating data is stored, as to avoid making assumptions. not all computers store data in memory, not all computers use binary, See Ternary logic and Ternary computer for examples. The only assumption that can be made is the right thing will get done according to what the rules of C++ say. IIRC even the C++ standard avoids making that assumption, so this book should avoid it as well.

Thats all I can think of for now. --dark lama  13:45, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * In my opinion, ducking the high vs low-level issue is impossible. The first way people see to store a string value in a variable is going to have to make one choice or the other.  We can try to present all approaches in parallel, but that just makes for a confusing multiplicity of complex choices for beginners.  Maybe it's the terminology that's a problem.  Should we show people the short (programmer-time efficient) ways, the built-in (less programmer-efficient but more basic/primitive) ways, both?  There are so many choices in C++ programming, that to avoid "bias" is to avoid providing useful information.  As I mentioned before... I also think it's not possible even if we tried. -- James Dennett 22:07, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm suggesting explaining both in the same chapter, but not in parallel. Using a top-down approach, a summary of all possible approaches followed by each individual approach in detail may be possible. Bias can also prevent providing useful information or cause information to be provided incorrectly. By bias I'm thinking of things which I think are covered by NPOV to avoid anyways. I use to read some C++ newsgroups (and C ones for that mater). There were often inexperienced people who seemed to have been easily influenced by opinions that were passed off as facts in bad books. I would like to have readers come away from this book, well informed and able to make their own opinions. For example a common occurrence was the opinion that if it works in the compiler they are using it should work in any compiler and if it doesn't, must mean something is broken with the compiler and not their programming. Another common one involved goto being slower or that goto should be avoided. --dark lama  00:57, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Just a simple thing: I think we might be in agreement that both primitive and higher-level approaches should be presented rather than presenting an incomplete view. The more interesting questions are about emphasis and order of presentation.  A chapter which shows how to implement (say) string handling could start from std::string, and then derive a "String" class from the ground up, but doing so would require teaching use of classes, pointers, memory management, RAII, operator overloading and more.  Which is all very well -- but puts a lot of "details" up front rather than looking earlier at achieving results in the problem domains rather than the solution domain (C++).  I'd like a reader who's familiar with the whole book to be able to write a String class, but I'd hate for them to have to understand how to do that before they can write a simple, robust program to ask for a user's name and write  .  In a nutshell, the "high-level or low-level first" amounts to "focus on the problem domain or the solution domain" question.  The more you focus on one, the less you focus on the other.  There's no "neutral" position, no objective choice of where on the continuum to stand.  Many positions are defensible.  -- James Dennett 01:54, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

 * If i may interject, there is a difference between simply presenting the C++ language, and making your target audience "understand" it. Since the title of this book is "Understanding C++", it seems to me that the focus should be on the latter. We should strive to present all information in multiple ways, to help all audiences understand it, and to reinforce that understanding. Instead of selecting which way to present the material, we really need to look for a standardized way to present all methods of presentation. --Whiteknight (talk) 01:13, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Can you give an example of what you mean? I'm not understanding what your trying to suggest/propose. --dark lama  01:21, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

Coding Conventions
I don't suggest that the book should try to promote a coding style to its readers, only that the style of any examples should be consistent. It's very jarring/distracting to readers to have to read code in different styles, just as it is suboptimal when a C++ project of significant size uses too much of a mix of styles. My personal preference might be to blend in with the standard library, though one might find merit in doing the exact opposite! -- James Dennett 21:57, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * For clarity, are you saying all examples used in this book should use a consistent style, or that the style used within one example should be consistent? --dark lama  22:09, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm advocating that all examples in the book should be written in the same style. That's certainly the case for all printed C++ books I've seen.  Not sure I'd go as far as van der Linden in using names of fruits for all variables, but consistency here avoids distraction and confusion, IMO.  To be clearer: the "style" should apply only to trivial matters of convention such as layout and naming, I'm certainly not saying that only one "paradigm" should be presented.  Keeping the naming and layout the same allows the more interesting elements of the code to stand out. -- James Dennett 00:19, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I would not have a problem with that, but I think it may become unrealistic when more people are contributing to the book, as people will generally prefer to use the style that they are most use to. I also believe readers might benefit some from seeing different coding styles. I was going to cover that some in the instruction chapter too. Comparing coding styles to writing styles. I'm indifferent to whether or not to stick to only one style or to allow multiple styles to be used, my only preference is sticking to a single style within an example. --dark lama  01:12, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

C++ Compilers/IDEs
My suggestion to include an appendix on using simple tools is based on the fact that this seems to be the single biggest sticking point for those trying to learn C++ from online resources (I've been reading the newsgroups for longer than I care to remember). I agree that it's good to keep the focus of the book away from platform-specific issues, but this is one place I'd make an exception. Obviously I'd be willing to do much of the work of writing a suitable appendix. While no book is an island, it's preferable for a Wikibook to be reasonably self-contained. (We can debate the "reasonably" there ad infinitum.) -- James Dennett 21:57, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Understanding C++


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Talk:A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Microsoft Windows

good god, wheres vista?

 * Forget Vista, where's Win8?


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Linguistics/Evolutionary Linguistics

Glottogeny is the origin of language in the human species.

Language in Animals
While some people have suggested that animals use language, this is generally not accepted among linguists. Animals, including most higher primates, are known to have semantics, that is sounds that correspond to arbitrary meanings and some animals. Additional some parrots studied are known to have dialects, where the "words" they use differ among regional groups, and new members must learn them. There is also the possibility that some species, such as prairie dogs which may form simple sentences with nouns and adjectives. However, there are no species apart from humans known to use recursion, which is considered by linguists of the Chomskyan school of linguists the defining feature of human language.

Hockett's Design Features
According to Hockett, there are several design features possessed by human languages, but not animal languages, including the following:

 * Reflexivity: We can use language to talk about language, e.g. Don't use a preposition at the end of a sentence!
 * Displacement: We can talk about events spatially and temporally distant from us, e.g. I saw a strange guy in the pub yesterday.
 * Arbitrariness: There is little connection between signifier and signified. For example, the word moon is completely random; the moon does not make a 'moo' sound like a cow or otherwise exhibit features that would justify the use of moon as a sign.
 * Productivity (or creativity in Chomskyan linguistics): There is a limitless number of potential utterances in the language. The car ate the marshmallow-hating helicopter, for example, is a sentence that nobody has seen before, but any speaker of English can understand it.
 * Cultural transmission: Culture is passed on from mother to child by language acquisition. This culture is not innate, unlike animal language. Cows are biologically designed to go moo, and pigs to go oink; there is no culture transmission there.
 * Duality: Human language has two distinct levels, the sound and the meaning. Sounds are limited but meaning is not. We can play with the sounds in our language to produce different meanings. Consider the minimal pair made and paid. Made is broken down to the phonemes /m/, /eɪ/ and /d/, and we can swap /m/ for /p/ to produce a word with a different meaning altogether. However, animals do not have this two-level distinction. A pig may say oink, a word that means 'I'm starving', but it cannot reformulate the sounds to produce a different utterance, say, roink, replacing the glottal stop /ʔ/ at the beginning with /ɹ/. The signifier and the signified are processed on the same level, rather than two different levels.

Theories
A theory of the linguistic origins must take into account the complexity of human language. Steven Pinker argues in his book The Language Instinct that human language is like an elephant's trunk--a very complex system in which the intermediaries have been lost, but nonetheless not a hopeless problem, if we can work out the stages of language development.

title: Linguistics/Evolutionary Linguistics