text:
Arabic/Noun cases

Noun Cases exist in Arabic. This allows words to be moved around far more freely than English allows. So why would a language allow such movement of words? Well stylistic reasons of course. A person composing the sentence in their head might put the most important info at the beginning. It's all about style. Think about the following sentences: The dog jumped over the house. Jumped the dog over the house. Over the house, jumped the dog.

Notice that the first of those three sentences sounds like completely regular English. Now the other sentences have the words switched around, It doesn't sound like completely regular English, it sounds poetic, in a strange sort of way (It also sounds wrong). Now in Arabic this is done more often than English, because of habit. Arabic also does this (moves words around, keeping same meaning) more often than English because it can afford to without confusing Arabs, or changing the meaning. So how can Arabic do something with words in a sentence that English cannot, simple: noun cases.

Other languages are known for noun-cases, but Arabic uses them in the simplest way. Arabic noun-cases are indicated by vowels Dammah, fatHah, kasrah, and their doubled counterparts (collectively called "tanween"). These marks go at the end of a noun, and are rarely indicated in writing (except for the Quran, and children's books).

Even though Arabic allows more free word order, It is not completely free. There are limits and there is a default way words go in sentences. Most deviation happens in poetry.

What is important is to learn how to recognize noun cases to help get the meaning of the sentence.

Nominative- ُ   ٌ Accusative-       َ   ً Genitive-ِ     ٍ

title: Arabic/Noun cases


text:
PSP Programming/CYGWIN

CYGWIN
This wikibook assumes that you run a UNIX-like operating system. If your computer runs Windows, you will need to use Cygwin.

CygWin is essentially a UNIX Like Operating Environment. That is, CygWin is a Linux Emulator for windows boxes. CygWin loads a Linux environment into memory on your Windows PC. This allows you to run Native Linux Applications on a windows box. At first, this whole CygWin thing sounds very intimidating. However, setting up and using CygWin is a very simple process.

Here is what is necessary for installing CYGWIN on your windows box:

 * Download the install file from the CygWin website.
 * After CygWin has finished downloading, open up the executable by double clicking on it with your left mouse button.
 * A splash screen greets you.
 * Click next.
 * You are presented with a prompt which asks what you want to do.
 * Select the default option of Install from Internet
 * Select the next button
 * You are prompted to specify where on your Hard Disk Drive you want to install the CygWin Operating System Environment.
 * If it is not specified as such, change the install directory to "C:\cygwin"
 * Here, C: is the letter that designates your Local Hard Disk Drive
 * Leave the other options set to their Default Values
 * Select the next button
 * Next, you are prompted to specify where to save the installation files
 * Specify a location on your Hard Disk Drive where you can find them in the future
 * You will probably want to delete them after the installation process is completed
 * Select the Next button
 * The next screen will prompt you to specify your network settings
 * If you do not use a proxy, just click next on this screen
 * If you encounter problems at this point, try letting the installer use use Internet Explorer's settings
 * Provided that no problems are encountered, you will be presented with a list of servers from which to download the installation files for CygWin
 * Select a download site and then select the next button
 * The installer will download the package list necessary for setting up CygWin
 * Once the download is completed, select the view option at the top of the dialogue box to view the available packages that can be installed.
 * You will need the following packages:
 * autoconf2.59 (or greater)
 * automake1.9
 * bash
 * bison
 * coreutils
 * diff
 * diffutils
 * flex
 * gcc
 * gcc-core
 * gcc-g++
 * grep
 * gzip
 * make
 * patch
 * patchutils
 * subversion
 * tar
 * wget
 * Select the packages by clicking where it says skip
 * Skip should change to a version number for the latest package that is available.
 * Do not worry if other packages are selected
 * Packages that are required by CygWin and by the other packages that you have selected are automatically set to be install
 * When you are finished making the selections of packages, select the next button
 * CygWin will now begin to download and install the selected packages
 * This download and install process will usually take a very long time to complete
 * After the install has finished, you will have a UNIX Like Operating System ready to run on your windows box

This completes the procedure necessary for installing the CygWin Operating System Environment. Armed with a UNIX Like emulator on your windows box, you are ready to install the ToolChain. This process is discussed in the next sectionl.

PSP ToolChain
In this section of Getting Started--The PlayStation Portable Laboratory, I will explain the procedure necessary for installing the PlayStation Portable ToolChain. First, though, let me tell you a little about the ToolChain. You see, Sony Developers use special libraries and header files for creating their PSP Programs, Applications, and Emulators. This collection of libraries and header files are called a ToolChain. The Sony ToolChain is an official product of Sony Corporation, and it is licensed only for use by those who can afford the massively expensive licensing fee. That means that most of us cannot afford to use the official product. Fortunately for us, though, many | HACKERS have done what they do best and created their own version of the PSP ToolChain. That is the one that I use, since it is GPL and Open Source compliant FREE Software.

So, how do we install the GPL Open Source compliant FREE PSP ToolChain that these HACKERS have created? The process is actually quite simple. To install the PSP ToolChain, you will want to use your CygWin System. What follows is a short explanation of how to set up the PSP ToolChain in your CygWin Operating System Environment.

First, it is necessary to start up the CYGWIN System. From the Windows START Menu, choose CygWin → CygWin Bash Shell. Otherwise, choose run → "C:/cygwin/cygwin.bat". A Command Line will be provided in a DOS Shell Window. This is the command line from which you will execute most of the commands and programs that you use in CygWin. On the command line, you should see something along the lines of 'yourusername@yourcomputername ~', which identifies the user account that is being used and the computer upon which the CygWin Operating System Environment is currently running.

OK, now that you have started your CygWin Operating System Environment and verified that it is working, it is time to shut it down. Either click the red [X] Box in the upper right hand corner of the DOS Shell Window, or type 'exit' and press the or key on your computer's keyboard. It might seem somewhat foolish to start and then stop the CygWin Operating System Environment without actually doing anything with it, but it is a necessary step. It verifies that everything has been installed up to this point.

The second step in the PSP ToolChain installation process is to download the latest version of the ToolChain. Use | GOOGLE or | SourceForge or a similar search engine to locate the FREE OpenSource GPL version of the PSP ToolChain. Download it to your computer's HDD.

Once the PSP ToolChain has been downloaded to your machine, you will need to extract the compressed files. Use an extractor such as WinAce or Winrar to extract the file contents of the PSP ToolChain archive. Place the extracted file in the 'C:/cygwin/home/user' Directory. In this case, 'user' is your own username [the user account that you saw when you had the CygWin Operating System Environment open a few moments before. See? I told you that it was a necessary step to start and then stop the CygWin System before you get to this part. Doing so allows you to know where the files need to be put.

In many cases, it is necessary to customize the PSP ToolChain's configuration so that it can work with CygWin. Why? Most of the reverse engineering and ToolChain creation happened in Linux. Since CygWin is not a true Linux Operating System it has a few quirks that must be dealt with. For instance, rather than the gmake parser that was used by the majority of the OpenSource FREE GPL PSP ToolChain Development Croo, the CygWin Operating System Environment uses the 'make' parser when  compiling a set of C or C++ programming scripts. To accommodate this, do the following:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: PSP Programming/CYGWIN


text: User talk:137.132.3.6

title: User talk:137.132.3.6


text: User talk:68.104.34.227

title: User talk:68.104.34.227


text: User talk:210.11.188.17

title: User talk:210.11.188.17


text:
User talk:86.130.115.133

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:86.130.115.133


text: User talk:129.63.172.30

title: User talk:129.63.172.30


text: User talk:63.235.189.239

title: User talk:63.235.189.239


text: User talk:68.124.166.218

title: User talk:68.124.166.218


text: User talk:64.217.216.187

title: User talk:64.217.216.187


text:
Rueda de Casino/No Me Gusta

The caller is fed up of repeating this move, but is repeating it anyway.

It can also be used as another name for dame.

title: Rueda de Casino/No Me Gusta


text:
Rueda de Casino/Dame Dos

When the caller calls dame dos, the leaders all change partners, but miss one out.

An easy way of doing this is to follow the leader in front, watching his back. If he misses the call, or doesn't know what dame dos is, then that way you shouldn't bump into him.

title: Rueda de Casino/Dame Dos


text:
Rueda de Casino/Dame Tres

This is like dame dos, but instead of missing out one partner, the leader misses out two. The same technique is used for this as for dame dos.

Note: This move can be dangerous, be careful.

title: Rueda de Casino/Dame Tres


text:
Talk:Optics/Light

This page has been proposed for speedy deletion with only the comment "nonsense" as justification. Once this book gets developed this will be a resonable page to have. The page topic is completely valid.

title: Talk:Optics/Light


text:
Talk:Latin/Lesson 1-Subjunctive

An exhortation, if you will.
If you google up "latin subjunctives," the first entry points to Wikibooks Latin, and the second to this page. Needless to say, this is shamefully inadequate coverage of the subjunctive. I made the edits from October 4th in the history, but it's clear that that's far from enough. It also should probably be better organized. Maybe split up subjunctive form and subjunctive uses?

Point is, if this is topping the Google ranks, then it had better live up to it. Or else people aren't going to be getting very lucky. 4.156.117.143 04:49, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

Have any of you learned subjunctives before doing active and passive verbs? I certainly haven't. The chapter order here makes no sense.

Also, how did it go from the version of this page in May to what it was a few days ago? When/why did that happen?

And where do we go over the uses of the subjunctive? Hortatory, indirect commands, jussive, c-clauses, quominus clauses, etc? I thought I saw a page for that earlier, but now I can't find it. 216.20.1.213 11:27, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

Moods
I reverted the edit which said Latin has 5 moods. I may be wrong. As far as I know there are 3 moods (indicative, imperative and subjunctive) but some might claims that the infinitive, gerund, participle, gerundive and supine are moods also. If there's a Latin expert who knows better then please go ahead and correct it.--ЗAНИA talk 23:09, 16 November 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Latin/Lesson 1-Subjunctive


text:
Cookbook:Chicken and Andouille Sausage Gumbo

| North American Cuisines

Chicken and andouille sausage gumbo is a soup or stew which is is prepared using roux.

Ingredients

 * about 2 lbs (1 kg) chicken breasts
 * 1 cup (240 ml) canola oil
 * 1 cup (240 g) all-purpose flour
 * 2 bell peppers, chopped into ¼-inch pieces
 * 1 large onion, chopped into ¼-inch pieces
 * 4 stalks of celery, chopped into ¼-inch pieces
 * Chicken stock or equivalent
 * about ½ lb (¼ kg) Andouille sausage or other spicy sausage
 * Cayenne pepper to taste
 * Salt to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Brown outside of chicken breasts in small amount of oil then set aside.
 * 2) Make a roux from the flour in a large saucepan.
 * 3) Add peppers, onions, and celery to roux. Cook until softened.
 * 4) Slowly stir in water, and bring to a simmer.
 * 5) Cut up browned chicken breasts, add to gumbo, and cook until done.
 * 6) Slice up sausage and add ½ hour after the chicken.
 * 7) Season to taste with cayenne and salt.
 * 8) Serve in a bowl with a little rice and green onions on top.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Hot sauce can be added to taste.
 * Filé may be added to thicken individual servings as served.
 * Home-made chicken stock is preferable to store-bought.
 * Gumbo will be better if left over night and eaten the next day.


text:
User:KHatcher

Kathryn Hatcher served on the University of Georgia faculty (1978-2006) at the Institute of Ecology in Athens, Georgia USA, and previously worked for State of Maryland DNR Water Resources Administration (1974-78). She graduated from Georgia Tech (BCE, 1972) and MIT (SMCE, 1974).

Useful links

 * Using MLA Style to Cite and Document (Internet) Sources
 * Example of using footnotes

Worth Re-reading

 * Donella Meadows article, from Creative Learning Exchange.

title: User:KHatcher


text:
Wikijunior talk:New Title Suggestions

What to do now?
Where to we go from here? I would like to start a new "Wikijunior" book by November 1st, but I don't want to run roughshod over anybody else right now, nor show "favoritism" to any particular book suggestion. The point here is that we want to have an orderly process of new Wikibooks coming "on-line" so that we don't overwhelm ourselves with so much work that we can't get it all done, but at the same time try to expand the community so people with diverse interests may want to participate.

Ultimately, I would like to do something like the current "Book of the Month" voting process, where we can vote on what the next title for Wikijunior should be. Any other thoughts? --Rob Horning 14:51, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, voting is a good idea. We're all more likely to contribute to books we've voted for. After all, you wouldn't vote for it unless you thought it was interesting or doable. But based on the current amount of participants, I don't think having a monthly vote would be a good idea. Maybe more like three our four months would be a good time to vote. That seems to be how long it takes for a Wikijunior book to get off the ground. If more regular participants show up, then one to two months.--Shanel 23:19, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * How about quarterly votes for now? That way we can try to "publish" about 4 Wikijunior books per year.  With the current level of participation with the Wikijunior books, I think that may be possible, particularly if we start to get some publicity from some of the existing Wikijunior books, and that means we have already some "in the pipeline" that are ready to go as well.  If support is strong, we can scale back the time between votes, but it may mean that we have higher quality books anyway if we keep the number down.  I just want to make some way for new titles to be suggested and to keep the process moving.  Being totally stagnant with no new titles is going way too far.  --Rob Horning 22:00, 6 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Quarterly votes sound good. I think one of the reasons we don't have alot of partcipants is because we've had the same three topics up for about a year. (Ancient Civilizations doesn't count :)) And really, most people are turned off by the fact that there's nothing much left to write. Fact-checking and copy editing, how exciting! But still, having new topics will hopfully encourage more long-term participation in Wikijunior.--Shanel 04:27, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

Wikijunior:New Book of the Quarter
I just added this page to help decide what new project we should start. In some ways, I would like this to be a vote that ends on December 1st rather than January 1st, but simple calendar quarters that end in January, April, July, and October do make sense and are fairly standard. Feel free to change the rules or anything about this page as well. I'm just trying to __BE BOLD__ and get something accomplished. --Rob Horning 08:25, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

New Category Suggestion
I am putting this on the discussion page instead of the New Title page because it is for a new category to list on the main page, instead of a single new book. I suggest we add a Unit Study or Lesson Plan category. I have been spending quite a bit of time proofreading the Solar System book this week in some attempt to get the "almost done" books all the way to "finished". The teacher in me cannot help writing a lesson plan in my head that uses this book as the main source as I go along. I realize that lesson plans require a bit more knowledge on how to actually teach children than writing the text does, but it would be an excellent resource to add anyway. Both companion lesson plans to the existing Wikijunior canon and stand-alone unit studies could be listed in the category. Starchildmom 22:30, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

Unfinished Book Proposals
I have created a section for suggested book titles that lack enough information to be included in the voting, that are unfinished, that do not have any registered users listed as interested participants. I would also like to include a section for withdrawn proposals (There is one.) I would also like to list all the non-cannonical books under Unfinished Book Proposals (if they are not already listed.) I have also created an "Adopted Wikijunior Titles" section. I think Breaking it up like this makes it a lot more manageable. --Xixtas 03:08, 26 September 2006 (UTC)

Naming Consistency and Sort Order
I think that all the suggested book titles should leave off the "Wikijunior" at the front. So instead of Wikijunior Bugs I would favor Bugs. Also, I think each section should be in alphabetical order.

Archival and Rework
I have changed this page up quite a bit. If anyone hates it, feel free to revert. I have archived off the old book suggestions and changed the template for new suggestions. My intent is to create new book suggestions based on the books that got more than two votes last quarter and the books that have already been started, but never received book of the quarter. The reason that I have done this is because I would like us to generally have a higher quality of book suggestions and a lower quantity. -- xixtas talk 02:32, 3 April 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:New Title Suggestions


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/The Desktop

=Introduction= If you think the Mac desktop looks good enough to eat, you're not alone. The Mac desktop is arguably the prettiest in the business, with translucent accents and candy-colored graphics. But what do the things on desktop actually do? This chapter explains the two main elements, the Dock and the Menu Bar, in full detail.

=The Dock=

The ribbon of icons at the bottom of the screen is called the “Dock”. It combines many of the elements found in other operating systems into one compact little bar. Let's take a look at what the Dock can do and how it can do it.

If you look carefully at the Dock, you’ll see it’s cut in two by a thin, dark line. Each side of the Dock does very different things.

The Left Side
We’ll start by looking at the left side. All of the icons in the left side of the Dock are for various applications (programs). You can do two things with these icons:

 * Launch Applications - If you click on an unopened application’s icon, that application will launch (open) right then and there. The icon will bounce as the application launches.

 * Switch Between Open Applications - If an application is already open (indicated by a tiny black triangle under the icon or a blue dot), clicking its icon will "switch" to that application (bring its windows out in front of all others).

Of course, you get to pick which applications appear on your Dock. Apple starts you out with a few it thinks you’ll like, but you're encouraged to pick your own. Let’s say you’re a frequent user of Adobe Photoshop. Rather then root through your Applications folder every time you need to open Photoshop, you can put its icon on your Dock, so you can open it with just one click.

How does one go about doing this? To add an application’s icon to the Dock, you simply drag it out of your Applications folder and drop it over the Dock where you want it to appear. The icons already in the Dock even scoot out of the way to make room! The application is still in the Applications folder as always, but now also appears in the Dock for quick access.

To remove an application that you don’t want on your Dock anymore, simply drag its icon outside of the Dock and drop it anywhere, and it will evaporate in a puff of cartoon smoke (remember that the real Application is unaffected). You can also reorganize icons already in the Dock by dragging them horizontally. This doesn't work if an application is running, which we'll get to later.

It's also important to know that whenever you open an application that’s not usually in the Dock, its icon appears in the Dock temporarily. When you quit the application, the icon automatically disappears. This is the single most confusing thing about the Dock. Why does Mac OS X do this? Remember that the left side of the Dock not only lets you launch applications, but also switch between ones that are already opened. If you can't switch between every open application, regardless of whether they're used enough to warrant a permanent spot in the Dock or not, then the Dock fails as a good application switcher. While this is a bit difficult to understand, think about it carefully until you see how it makes sense.

The Right Side
Having discussed the left side of the Dock, it's time to look at the right side. The right side has absolutely nothing to do with switching or launching applications; its duties are much less important. It has four tricks up its sleeve:

 * The Trash - The right side of the Dock has a little trash can icon glued into it. Covered fully in Chapter 3, this icon is used to delete files on your Mac.

 * Files - Just like the left side of the Dock lets you keep your favorite programs handy, the right side is the perfect place to park your favorite files and folders. You can drag files in and out just like you would an application in the left side of the Dock. To open a file or folder in the Dock, simply click on it.

 * Links - In addition to files, the right side of the Dock can keep links to your favorite websites handy. Adding a link is as simple as dragging it into the right side. To remove a link, which looks like a circular springboard bearing an "@" sign, simply drag it out.

 * Windows - When you minimize a window, a little thumbnail appears in the right side of the Dock. Minimizing is explained in the next chapter.

Customizing the Dock
Now you understand the Dock’s many abilities. But as if choosing which icons go in your Dock isn’t enough, you can even modify the appearance of the Dock itself! If you want really fine-grained control over the Dock, you’ll need to delve into something called System Preferences, detailed later on in its own chapter. But many tweaks can be performed right from the Desktop.

A majority of the Dock controls on your Desktop reside in the " > Dock" menu up in the Menu Bar. These include:

 * Turn Magnification On - When you select this, your Dock responds with a neat “bulge” effect as you move your cursor over it. You’ll either love it or hate it. If this option is already active, it's replaced with “Turn Magnification Off”, which, as you might guess, turns the effect off.

 * Turn Hiding On - If you have a small monitor, you’ll love this feature. It makes the Dock disappear completely unless you let your cursor rest right next to the edge of your screen where your Dock is. The Dock will then temporarily pop out so you can work with it. If this option is already active, it's replaced with “Turn Hiding Off”. You can also toggle this option on and off using ⌘⌥D.

 * Position on Left, Position On Bottom, Position on Right - These three options let you select where on the screen the Dock appears. A checkmark appears next to the currently selected one. Most people leave their Dock on the bottom, but some people prefer their Dock on the side.

 * Dock Preferences - A handy shortcut to Dock Preferences (part of System Preferences).

But there's one option you can't adjust in the " > Dock" menu, and it's possibly the most important. If you would like to adjust the size of the Dock, click and drag the thin dividing line in the Dock up (to enlarge) or down (to shrink).

=The Menu Bar= The thin, white, strip running across the top of the screen is called the "Menu Bar". It's a very important part of Mac OS X indeed. It contains a large number of commands and options, organized into "menus". Read on to learn more.

Using Menus
If you've used a computer before, you'll know that menus are lists of items (usually commands or options) which the user can choose from, just like a menu at a restaurant is a list of meals which a customer can choose from. Menus are found in many different places in Mac OS X, but by far the most popular place is in the Menu Bar.

The Menu Bar is a unique Mac OS X feature. In other operating systems, every window has its own menu bar. This causes a lot of unsightly clutter and wasted space, since you can only use one window's menu bar at a time anyway. So Apple designers gave the Mac one big Menu Bar at the very top of the screen. Depending on what window you are working with, different menus appear in the Menu Bar, alongside certain menus that appear no matter what you are currently doing.

Each menu in the Menu Bar is identified by a word or symbol. These are called "titles". The title of the menu in Fig. 3 is "Finder". Click on a menu's title, and the menu appears directly underneath, somewhat like a pull-down window shade. The menu will stay open until you a) choose a command by clicking on it, or b) close the menu by clicking elsewhere. If one menu is already open, you can switch to another menu simply by rolling your mouse over any other menu's title.

If a command in a menu can be activated using a keyboard shortcut (or "keystroke"), then the keystroke appears to the right of the command itself. As you can see, the keystroke for activating the command "Hide Finder" in the menu shown in Fig. 3 is "⌘H".

A few more menu tips, in no particular order:
 * Commands that open dialog boxes or sheets always end with an elipsis (...).
 * Some menus are hierarchal; that is, a menu can be nested inside another menu. These nested menus are called "sub-menus", and are marked by small arrows.
 * Some commands found in menus toggle on or off when you choose them. A checkmark next to the command's name indicates that it is "on".
 * If a command is not applicable at the moment, it appears dimmed. If all commands in a menu are not applicable, the menu's title appears dimmed, but you can still open the menu to take a peek at what it contains.
 * Sometimes (but rarely), a few commands in a menu change slightly when you hold down a modifier key. For instance, the "Minimize" command in most applications' "Window" menu turns into a "Minimize All" command when you hold down the Option key.
 * If a menu is too large to see all at one time, arrows appear at the top and bottom. Roll over an arrow, and the menu will "scroll" through the available options.

The Menu Bar from Left to Right
Now that you know how to operate menus in the Menu Bar, we'll go across the Menu Bar from left to right and look at each menu you'll see.

The  Menu
At the far left side of the menu bar is the  menu, which is represented by a blue Apple logo. It contains twelve items relevant to the entire Mac environment, and is always visible. The commands within let you turn off or restart your computer, log out, tweak some settings, update your software, etc. Here's a complete list:

 * About This Mac - This opens a dialog box with a few bits of information about your Mac. The dialog box also has a button that opens System Profiler, a utility that can tell you the exact specifications of your Mac.
 * Software Update - A link to Software Update, a dialog box which, oddly enough, is for updating your Mac’s software.
 * Mac OS X Software - Takes you to a special page on Apple’s website expressly for downloading Mac software, most of which is free.
 * System Preferences - Opens System Preferences, (See Chapter 7).
 * Dock - A menu within a menu. This was discussed when we talked about the Dock, earlier in this Chapter.
 * Location - This is used in networking. (See Chapter 9).
 * Recent Items - A list of recently used files and applications.
 * Force Quit - If an application is misbehaving and refuses to quit, you can "Force Quit" it to pull the plug on it and let it die. Choosing this command opens a small force quit dialog box, which presents a list of running applications. Choose the one you want to force quit and press the pulsating blue "Force Quit" button to finalize your decision. When you're finished, close the dialog box and get on with your life. This is a safe procedure, and it won't affect Mac OS X as a whole or any other applications you have running.

 * Sleep, Restart, Shut Down - These are pretty self-explanatory. They make your Mac sleep, restart, or shut down.
 * Log Out [Your Name Here] - If you have multiple accounts on your Mac (See Chapter 8), you can log out and let someone else onto your Mac with this command.

The Application Menu
To the right of the  menu is the Application menu. This menu's title is the same as the name of the application you are currently using. For example, if you're using iTunes, the menu is called “iTunes". The menu contains commands relevant to the application itself: you can find information about it, quit it, hide it, and adjust its preferences.

Other Menus
Next to the Application menu are a few other menus containing commands for application you're currently using. While every app uses a different set of menus, there are some menus used often throghout most programs. This section lists the six most commonly used menus (from left to right in the most common order) and the kind of commands you're most likely to find in them.

File Menu
The File menu contains commands pertaining to an individual file that you're working on. You'll find commands related to creating new files and opening, closing, saving, and printing ones that are currently open.

Edit Menu
The Edit menu contains commands pertaining to an application's data, and the clipboard. You can use the edit menu to:

 * Undo and Redo actions you perform
 * Select All of a window or text field's contents
 * Insert special characters such as é,æ,€, and ⌘
 * Manipulate the contents of the clipboard, which helps you move content between windows and applications.
 * Cut - Removes the selected data and puts it in the clipboard, overwriting whatever was on the clipboard before.
 * Copy - Makes a duplicate of the selected data and stores it in the clipboard, overwriting whatever was on the clipboard before.
 * Paste - Inserts the contents of the clipboard into where you are currently working. The contents of the clipboard remain, so you can paste the same thing multiple times.
 * Paste and Match Style - Found in some text-editing applications, the Paste and Match style command pastes the text and adjusts its style to match the style of the surrounding text.
 * Delete - Deletes whatever is selected (the contents of the Clipboard are unaffected).

Format Menu
Text-editing apps often include this menu for adjusting the formatting (appearance) of text. However, this menu is often changed beyond recognition in non-Apple applications, which insist on using their own set of commands in totally different places. The Apple-sanctioned commands for this menu are:

 * Format selected text with different fonts, sizes, colors, and effects
 * Copy the style of one block of text and "paste" (apply) the exact same styling to another block
 * Adjust alignment and the window's ruler (if the window indeed has one)
 * Copy the ruler (alignment settings) of one block of text and paste it to another

View Menu
The View menu contains commands that let you choose what you see on your screen and how you see it.

Applications that use menus not described in this chapter always stick them here, between the View menu and the Window menu.

Window Menu
This menu contains commands for managing all of an application's open windows (windows are explained in more detail in the next chapter). You can:

 * Minimize and Zoom windows
 * Bring all of an application's windows to the front of the stack, with or without arranging them for easy access

The window menu also contains a complete list of windows for the current application. Choosing a window brings it out in front of all others. The frontmost window is marked with a check, minimized windows are marked with a diamond, and windows containing unsaved changes are marked with a circular dot.

Help Menu
The Help Menu contains commands for opening the help system for the current Application.

The Gap
This white space separates everything explained above from everything explained below.

The Menu Bar Extras
The menus on the right side of the menu bar look a little bit different, since they consist not only of words but of symbols. These are called “Menu Bar Extras”. Menu Bar Extras are always in your menu bar, and let you do things like change your computer's sound volume, see the time, view your laptop’s battery life, etc. Coverage for them is scattered throughout this Wikibook.

The Spotlight Menu
Finally, at the far right of the menu bar, is the Spotlight menu, which looks like a little white magnifying glass in a blue circle. It lets you use Spotlight search technology, a new feature in Tiger, and is covered in the next chapter. Next Chapter ->

Navigation
Previous Page : Introduction Next Page : A Quick Look Under the Hood

title: Mac OS X Tiger/The Desktop


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/Appendix A

NOTE: The "Command" key is also known as the Apple key.

At Startup

 * Force Mac OS X Startup - "X" during startup (when MacOS 9 is also installed)
 * Bypass primary startup - "Delete-Option-Command-Shift" during startup
 * Startup from Optical Drive (CD/DVD) - "C" during startup
 * Netboot - "N" during startup
 * Safe boot mode - "Shift" during startup
 * Single User mode - "Command-S" during startup
 * Verbose mode - "Command-V" during startup
 * Open Firmware - "Command-Option-O-F" during startup
 * Startup Manager - "Option" during startup
 * Reset Parameter Ram - "Command-Option-P-R" during startup
 * Eject CD - Hold down mouse button at startup
 * Target Disk mode - "T" during startup

At Login

 * Disable login items - "Shift"

Screenshots

 * Take Picture of Entire Screen - '"Command-Shift-3"
 * Take Picture of Selection - "Command-Shift-4" provides a selection tool. Click and drag to select any area of the screen.
 * Take Picture of Object/Window - "Command-Shift-4, Space" changes your cursor into a camera. Click a window or menu to take a picture of it.

Holding Control while using any of the above three commands places the screenshot on the clipboard instead of as a file on the desktop.

Most Applications

 * Hide Current Application - "Command-H"
 * Hide All Other Applications - "Command-Shift-H"
 * Toggle Dock Hiding - "Command-Option-D"
 * Minimize Current Window to Dock - "Command-M"
 * Minimize All Windows in Current Application to Dock - "Command-Option-M"
 * Bring Next Window in Current Application to Front - "Command-`"
 * Bring Previous Window in Current Application to Front - "Command-Shift-`"
 * Preferences - "Command-, (comma) "
 * Create new Document - "Command-N"
 * Save Current Document - "Command-S"
 * Save Current Document As - "Command-Shift-S"
 * Close Current Window - "Command-W"
 * Print Current Document - "Command-P"
 * Page Setup - "Command-Shift-P"
 * Undo - "Command-Z"
 * Cut - "Command-X"
 * Copy - "Command-C"
 * Paste - "Command-V"
 * Help - "Command-?"

Most Dialogs

 * Cancel - "Escape", "Command-."
 * Default Button - "Enter"
 * Selected Button (highlight around button) - "Space"

Finder

 * New Folder - "Command-shift-N"
 * Duplicate (File/Folder) - "Command-D"
 * Make alias - "Command-L"
 * Show Original of alias File/Folder - "Command-R"
 * New Window -" Command-N"
 * Get Info (File/Folder) - "Command-I"
 * Home Folder - "Command-shift-H"
 * Applications Folder - "Command-shift-A"
 * Utilities Folder - "Command-shift-U"
 * Icon view - "Command-1"
 * List view - "Command-2"
 * Column view - "Command-3"
 * Open Spotlight - "Command-Space"
 * "Command-Del" - moves selected item(s) to Trash
 * "Command-Up Arrow" - opens parent directory
 * "Command-Down Arrow" - open Highlighted icon - [same as double clicking on selected icon]
 * "Command-space" - show Spotlight search field
 * "Command-A" - Select All
 * "Command-C" - Copy selected
 * "Command-D" - Duplicate seleced item(s)
 * "Command-F" - open Find
 * "Command-H" - hide Finder
 * "Command-I" - Get Info on selected
 * "Command-J" - toggle Show View Options window
 * "Command-K" - open Connect to Server dialog
 * "Command-M" - minimize active Window - [same shortcut works in most apps]
 * "Command-N" - open New Window - [same shortcut works in most apps]
 * "Command-O" in Finder - open Selection - [same as double clicking on selected item(s)]
 * "Command-O' in Other Apps - open File
 * "Command-R" - selects Original when an Alias is selected
 * "Command-V" - Paste - [depending on what you have copied depends on how it works]
 * "Command-W" - close active Window - [same shortcut works in most apps]
 * "Command-X" - Cut
 * "Command-Z" - toggles between Undo/Redo last change
 * "Command-L" - make Alias to selected item(s)
 * "Command-Option-space" - show Spotlight window
 * "Command-space" - show Spotlight menu
 * "Command-Shift-upArrow" - when a finder Window is active, makes the Desktop active
 * "Command-Shift-delete" - empty Trash, with Confirmation Dialog
 * "Command-Shift-A" - go to Applications folder
 * "Command-Shift-C" - go to Computer Folder
 * "Command-Shift-D" - open Desktop Folder - [does not work for me under 10.4.3 - it is documented in Apple's Help]
 * "Command-Shift-G" - open Go To Folder dialogue box - allows you to type in a path
 * "Command-Shift-H" - go to Home Folder
 * "Command-Shift-I" - open iDisk or opens dialog - part of Apple's dotMac/.mac service
 * "Command-Shift-J" - launch JavaBrowser
 * "Command-Shift-K" - open Network Browser - [seems buggy under 10.4.3 - a window must be open, nothing shows up]
 * "Command-Shift-N" - create New Folder

 * "Command-Shift-Q" - log out
 * "Command-Shift-U" - open Utilities Folder
 * "Command-Shift-O" - open
 * "Command-Shift-T" - Add to Favorites
 * "Command-Shift-Option-delete" - delete Trash, without Confirmation Dialog

Safari

 * Previous page - "Command-["
 * Next page - "Command-]"
 * Zoom in - "Command-+ (plus)"
 * Zoom out - "Command-- (hyphen)"
 * Hide toolbar - "Command-|"
 * Hide bookmarks bar - "Command-Shift-B"
 * Show Tab bar - "Command-Shift-T"
 * Show Status bar - "Command-/"
 * Stop (loading page) - "Command-."
 * Add bookmark - "Command-D"
 * Add bookmark to menu - "Command-Shift-D"
 * Mail contents of this page - "Command-I"
 * Mail link to this page - "Command-Shift-I"
 * Block Pop-ups - "Command-K"
 * Goto address bar - "Command-L"
 * Reload Current Page - "Command-R"
 * New Tab - "Command-T"
 * Close Tab/Window - "Command-W"
 * Goto first 9 bookmarks on bookmarks bar - "Command-1-9"
 * Next Tab - "Command-shift-[ (left sq. bracket) "
 * Previous Tab - "Command-shift-] (right sq. bracket)"
 * Autofill form - "Command-Shift-A"
 * Home - "Command-shift-H"
 * Actual size - "Command-Option-0"
 * Show top sites - "Command-Option-1"
 * Show all history - "Command-Option-2"
 * Show all activity - "Command-Option-A"
 * Show all bookmarks - "Command-Option-B"
 * Empty cache - "Command-Option-E"
 * Block pop-up windows - "Command-Option-K"
 * Downloads - "Command-Option-L"
 * Search results snapback - "Command-Option-S"
 * Show source - "Command-Option-U"

Develop menu keys (activated from advanced options)
 * Show Error Console - "Command-Option-C"
 * Show web inspector - "Command-Option-I"
 * Start profiling javascript "Command-Shift-Option-P"

Mail

 * New Message - "Command - N"
 * Reply - "Command - R"
 * Forward - "Command - Shift - F"
 * Send - "Command - Shift - D"
 * Search mail - "Command - Option - F"
 * Go to Inbox - "Command - 1"
 * Go to Drafts - "Command - 3"
 * Go to Sent - "Command - 4"
 * Go to Trash - "Command - 5"
 * Scroll messages - "up/down arrows" (toggle between message and mailbox scroll with "tab")
 * Scroll within mail - "page up/down"
 * Go to top of message list - "Command-Shift-Home"
 * go to bottom of message list - "Command-Shift-End"

Dashboard

 * Display removal handle for a widget - "Option" and mouse over the top-left-hand corner
 * Refresh/reload widget - "Command - R"
 * Reveal/hide the widget bar - "Command -= (equal sign) "

Services
Note: These shortcuts can be overridden by the current application, or other services using the same shortcut.

 * "Command-Shift-8" - Get Result of AppleScript
 * "Command-Shift-B" - Send File to Bluetooth Device…
 * "Command-Shift-F" - Spotlight
 * "Command-Shift-J" - View in JavaBrowser
 * "Command-Shift-L" - Search with Google
 * "Command-Shift-Y" - Make New Sticky Note

title: Mac OS X Tiger/Appendix A


text:
Talk:Electronics/History/Chapter 1

In my opinion, a paragraph on infrasound doesn't belong in a section on electronics.

title: Talk:Electronics/History/Chapter 1


text: User:ParallaxTZ

title: User:ParallaxTZ


text:
Python Programming/Standard Library

The Python Standard Library is a collection of script modules accessible to a Python program to simplify the programming process and removing the need to rewrite commonly used commands. They can be used by 'calling/importing' them at the beginning of a script.

A list of the Standard Library modules can be found at http://www.python.org/doc/.

The following are among the most important:
 * time
 * sys
 * os
 * math
 * random
 * pickle
 * urllib
 * re
 * cgi
 * socket

Python/Bibliotecas padrão

title: Python Programming/Standard Library


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Time-Domain Solutions

d'Alembert Solutions
In 1747, Jean Le Rond d'Alembert published a solution to the one-dimensional wave equation.

The general solution, now known as the d'Alembert method, can be found by introducing two new variables:

$$\xi=ct-x\,$$ and $$\eta=ct+x\,$$

and then applying the chain rule to the general form of the wave equation.

From this, the solution can be written in the form:

$$y(\xi,\eta)= f(\xi)+g(\eta)\,=f(x+ct)+g(x-ct)$$

where f and g are arbitrary functions, that represent two waves traveling in opposing directions.

A more detailed look into the proof of the d'Alembert solution can be found [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/dAlembertsSolution.html here. ]

Example of Time Domain Solution
If f(ct-x) is plotted vs. x for two instants in time, the two waves are the same shape but the second displaced by a distance of c(t2-t1) to the right.

The two arbitrary functions could be determined from initial conditions or boundary values.

Back to Main page


text: Template:User pd

title: Template:User pd


text:
Cookbook:Basic Bread Dough

| Bread

This recipe makes a little more dough than enough for a 1-pound loaf of bread. It is intended to be kneaded in a bread machine, and baked in an oven.

Procedure

 * 1) Add ingredients to a 2-pound capacity bread machine in the order listed, select dough cycle, and press start.
 * 2) Remove when cycle is complete.
 * 3) Preheat oven to 400 °F (200 °C)
 * 4) When dough is finished, form into desired shape on a floured surface, and place on baking sheet or pizza stone.
 * 5) Bake until lightly brown and firm. Cooking time will vary with altitude (20–40 minutes).
 * 6) Cool and enjoy.

Variations

 * To make a twist loaf, roll dough into a cylindrical shape with your hands, but make one end of the cylinder thicker than the other. Then divide the cylinder with a knife down the center of the thicker end, creating a ring with a protruding cylinder. Braid and bake.
 * Brush loaf with an eggwash (1 egg + a scant amount of water) or egg white, melted margarine or butter, or olive oil for a crisper crust.
 * Sprinkle brushed loaf with minced garlic, chopped herbs, ground spices, grated cheese, ground pepper and/or kosher salt for flavor.
 * Toss or roll into a flat disc and top with tomato sauce, olive oil, chopped meat, vegetables and/or grated cheeses to create a pizza (bake until cheese is melted).

title: Cookbook:Basic Bread Dough


text: User talk:81.111.211.36

title: User talk:81.111.211.36


text: User talk:213.7.160.175

title: User talk:213.7.160.175


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Akkadians

Who were they?
The earliest Akkadians were Semitic nomads. Semitic means their language was partly Asian and partly African. They were called nomads because they traveled from place to place. They were hunter-gatherers, picking fruits and berries and hunting game for food. Their dwellings were made of animal skins supported by wooden poles. Homes were temporary, easily put up and taken down. They left behind no written records or art.

The Akkadian tribes migrated to northern Mesopotamia in search of fertile land. They made permanent homes and built towns there. In the south were the Sumerian people who had lived there for 1000 years. When the Akkadians moved south, they conquered the Sumerians. Their power grew under King Sargon. He united northern and southern Mesopotamia to create a powerful empire. The Akkadian and Sumerian people lived together peacefully for many years.

The Akkadian Empire began about 2300 years before the Christian era (BCE). It lasted about 200 years. Its end was blamed on a terrible drought. People had no food or water and rebelled against their leaders. Unrest weakened the empire. Enemies took advantage of the turmoil and invaded. The Gutians destroyed the capital city of Akkad. No remains were ever found.

Where did they live?
Akkadians may have originated in areas of the Near East and southeast of Europe. They migrated to northern Mesopotamia, settling between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. They found good soil for growing crops. The land was called the Fertile Crescent.

Mesopotamia means “the land between the rivers.” The Tigris River comes from the Taurus Mountains and flows about 2000 miles to the Persian Gulf. The Euphrates River comes from the Caucasus Mountains. It flows about 1700 miles to join the Tigris River at the Persian Gulf. In between the rivers is the Fertile Crescent.

In ancient times, many kinds of wildlife lived in the mountains that surrounded the Fertile Crescent. Whenever the rivers flooded, rich soil flowed onto the plains. It fertilized the crops and vegetation. There were good pastures for the animals. Bullrushes and licorice plants lived on the riverbanks. Willows, poplars and other kinds of trees thrived.

Government
Sargon united Akkadia and Sumer into one empire under his rule. He made himself king and made Akkad his capital. His empire controlled a vast area of the Middle East. A strong effective government was essential.

Sargon devised a system of individual city-states. He created a network of trusted officials and administrators to rule them. The system was called a bureaucracy. It enforced laws and collected taxes, so the government ran smoothly.

Sargon made Akkadian the official language of the empire. He established a library and designed a calendar. He created a postal system to deliver messages over long distances. Messages were written on clay tablets. Tablets were placed in special clay envelopes. The envelopes were sealed using a small cylinder-seal (kunukku). Various materials were used to make the cylinder-seals, including seashells, crystal, marble, and limestone. Unique images were carved into a cylinder by a sealcutter (purkullu). When a letter was written and ready to send the writer placed it in a soft clay envelope. A cylinder-seal was rolled over the opening to seal it. The message could not be read without breaking the seal.

Sargon improved roads and canals. He built new ones to accommodate growing trade routes. Trading vessels came from far-away places. They brought metal ores, lumber, and building stone to trade for Akkadian farm products, wool, and textiles.

Sargon expanded his empire throughout Mesopotamia. He was the first king to have a standing army of trained soldiers. They had advanced weapons such as powerful bows and bronze-tipped arrows. Sargon’s army captured many cities and placed them under Akkadian control. He destroyed their protective walls so they could not rebel against their captors. The important cities of Elam, Elba, and Mari were captured one after another. Elam controlled strategic trade routes and timber supplies. Mari was the center of bronze refining (smelting) and iron working. Ebla controlled the Euphrates River.

What did their buildings look like?
Remains of Akkadian buildings are buried under artificial mounds. Over centuries, new buildings have been built on top of old ones. Layers of remains have created the mounds seen in the Middle East today. Archeologists carefully excavate (remove) each layer to find the oldest at the bottom of a mound. Such excavations are called “tells.” Tell Bazi is an ancient settlement along the Euphrates River where archeologists are working today.

The Temple of Innana was in the ancient city Uruk. Innana was the patron goddess of Sargon. People believed Innana lived in her temple. It had a small area with a shrine. Only a few priests could fit inside. Around the temple were buildings with kitchens and breweries. People worked in the buildings to make food and clothing for the goddess. There were workshops for potters, weavers, and craftsmen. Orchards, gardens, fields, and pastures surrounded the buildings.

Temples were the center of city life. Wealthy homes were nearest the center. They were made of sun-dried bricks. The bricks were whitewashed to guard against the sun’s heat. The rooms were arranged around a central courtyard. There was only one exterior door, usually painted red to keep out evil spirits.

Bricks were made by mixing straw with clay from the riverbank. The mixture was packed into brick-shaped molds and placed on the ground to bake in the sun. Oven-baked bricks were more expensive to make, but hey were better able to withstand moisture and heat. Oven-baked bricks were mostly used for temples and homes of royalty.

Houses of poorer people were constructed from tall marsh plants and reeds. They were tightly bundled and placed into holes in the ground to make walls. Bundles were bent over to form archways. The roof was made with reed mats. A hanging mat served as a door.

A ziggaurat (ziqqurat) was a massive and important religious structure. It was a four-sided pyramid made of mudbrick. There was a temple at the top. Unlike a pyramid, it did not have smooth sides. Instead, there were tiers or steps for workmen to climb and make repairs. There was a broad winding stairway to the top. The temple had an altar and a statue of the god. The Great Ziggurat at Ur is a famous ziggurat in Mesopotamia. It is 150 feet wide, 210 feet long and over 100 feet high. It has been restored so people can visit.

What did they wear?
Akkadian fabrics and clothing styles were similar to those of the Sumerians. Priests, royalty, and wealthy people wore garments made with fine, high-quality fabric, such as linen. Workers wore clothing made of coarser cloth.

Akkadian clothing is shown in ancient Mesopotamian sculpture, art, and artifacts. Men often wore a loincloth around the hips. Knee-length skirts had either fringe or a rolled edge at the bottom. Long toga-like robes had a cloth draped over the left shoulder. This style was called “over the heart.” Decorations included tassels, ribbons, and embroidery.

Some people wore felt garments. Felt was made by applying heat and moisture to raw wool. The wool was then rubbed to bind the fibers together and make it strong. The work was done in felting workshops by “felters”. Akkadians bred special wooly sheep for making their woolen fabrics.

Akkadian women wore fringed dresses and capes. Accessories like headbands and jewelry were made of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, and carnelian. Lapis lazuli is a deep-blue gemstone; carnelian is brownish red. The goddess Inanna and Princess Enheduanna wore long dresses with rows of fringe all around from top to bottom.

Military clothing is depicted on the Naram-Sin Victory Stele. The king wears a short skirt and sandals, with a horned helmet. Soldiers wear helmets and skirted garments, short in front and slit up the side.

What did they eat?
Akkadians had a wide variety of available food since they lived in the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia. Fertile means the soil produced an abundance of crops; crescent refers to the shape of the area. Water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers frequently flooded the land. Agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent because soil was rich and water plentiful.

Akkadians ate fish, duck, geese, deer, and small game, such as rabbits. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle for meat and dairy products. They grew chickpeas, wheat, millet, and barley. Wild cereals grew near the rivers. Garlic, onions, and cucumbers grew in the shade of the palm trees. An ancient tablet shows a recipe for stew made of goat, garlic, onions, and sour milk.

Sesame (šamaššammu) and olive oils were used for cooking. Orchards provided fruit for red wine and syrup. There were pomegranate, apple, and pistachio groves throughout the Fertile Crescent. Date palms were common in the south. Dates were eaten either fresh or dried. They provided vital sugars and vitamins. Wine was made from dates or grapes. Beer (šikaru) was brewed from barley or wheat. It was often served as part of a meal because it provided nutrients.

There were 2 kinds of farming in the Akkadian Empire, rain-fed in the north and irrigation in the south. In the north, enough rain fell to water crops regularly. In the south rainfall was irregular. During dry periods, farmers needed a supply of water for their fields. They devised an irrigation system to control flooding and water the crops. They dug canals and built levees. Levees were dams made of dirt. They had a steep bank on the riverside and a gentle slope on the land side. Levees prevented too much water from getting into the fields. Holes were made in the soil and levee walls to let just enough water in. Buckets of water were sometimes carried from canals and poured on the crops.

Farmers used oxen to work the fields. They may have had wooden plows to make rows for planting seeds. Crops matured in late spring and early summer, when weather was hot and dry. Crops were harvested using simple hand-held tools such as sickles. For threshing, farmers used a long-handled club called a flail. The harvested grain was dried and placed on the floor. Farmers beat the grain with the flail to separate the seeds from the stem.

What did their writing look like?
Akkadian was the official language of the entire empire. The spoken language was written in cuneiform script. Cuneiform was the earliest writing system in the world. A writing system is used to communicate by sight something that is spoken. The first cuneiform characters were straight lines and curved lines joined together. These were called pictographs or word-signs. They showed things seen in life, such as kings, battles, and people. Later, phonograms or word-ideas developed to represent abstract ideas, such as honor, bravery, or love.

Cuneiform means “wedge-shaped”. Scribes used a stylus to make lines and wedges in soft clay. A stylus was often made of reed. It had a sharp triangular tip. Clay tablets were white, light brown, or gray. The tablets were baked in the sun to harden them. Sun-dried tablets were fragile, but they could be reused. Soaking in water, removed the writing and made the clay soft enough to be written on again. Oven-dried tablets were harder and stronger but could not be reused. The first libraries were collections of documents written on durable, oven-dried clay tablets.

Both speech and writing could be used to convey information. Speech could not be saved for the future, but writing could. Writing was a reliable way to create a permanent record that could be read by others. The writer and reader needed a shared understanding of what the cuneiform characters meant.

Priests were in charge of temple schools where boys were taught cuneiform writing. Scribes taught students to write cuneiform letters. Students learned about Akkadian gods and goddesses. They wrote the names of the gods using symbols and syllables. A star indicated the god was a divine being. Marks made after a star, represented syllables of the god’s name.

Small round tablets were used for lessons. The instructor made cuneiform letters on one side of the tablet. Students copied the letters on the opposite side. Students had to learn hundreds of signs and meanings. A single character could represent many words or sounds.

Very early writing was done by Akkadian merchants. It consisted of simple counting-marks next to a picture. Counting marks were cut into wood, stone, or clay. This practice began when people made permanent settlements and developed agriculture. As marketplaces grew, farm animals, grain, cloth and other items were exchanged. Cuneiform developed because buyers and sellers needed to improve their record-keeping.

What did they believe?
Akkadians believed in many gods. Their religion was known as polytheism. Religion influenced every part of Akkadian life. Gods controlled kings, warfare, laws, and events. People worshiped the gods and made offerings of gifts and food. Temples were the homes of the gods. Priests and priestesses were in charge of religious beliefs and ceremonies. They were astrologers who could read signs and omens. They could intercede with the gods on behalf of humans.

Akkadians believed in an afterlife in the land below the world, called the Great Below. They believed everyone journeyed to the Great Below after death. People were buried with food, water, and personal items. Royalty were sometimes buried with musical instruments so they could hear music on their journey.

People believed the gods caused all events. Gods could both help humans or harm them. Iskur the god of storm was both giver and destroyer. As giver, he provided rain for good harvests. As destroyer, he brought storms, darkness and death. Enlil was the powerful god of the wind. He provided a connection between heaven and earth. Ea, half-fish and half-goat, was the god of fresh water. He warned humanity to build an ark to save them from Enlil’s great flood.

Nergal, the god of war and plague, caused destruction, hunger, and disease. He was also a helper and protector of animals and crops. Nanna, god of the moon, guided hunter-gatherers in their search for food. He was the father of Inanna the goddess of love and war. Inanna was the patron goddess of King Sargon and the main deity of Akkad. The high priestess of Inanna’s temple was Sargon’s daughter. Her name was Enheduanna which meant “the holy sister of the proud heaven”. Enheduanna was the most famous priestess in the empire. She wrote songs of praise, prayers, poems, and music as offerings to the goddess Inanna.

Shamash, son of Nanna, was the sun god who governed the universe. Shamash, sat on a throne holding a staff and ring, symbols of righteousness and justice. He overpowered the evils of darkness. As Akkadians learned about agriculture, the sun became a more important part of their religion.

King Sargon’s grandson, Naram-Sin, became a great king. He was the first to claim status as a god. Under his rule, the empire reached its highest power and creativity. He was praised for being a great king, but he was also blamed for the collapse of the Akkadian Empire. People believed the gods became angry when Naram-Sin destroyed an important temple. They took revenge by cursing the Akkadians and sending enemy warriors to destroy Akkad. There are no historical records of these events. They were written later in a story called “The Curse of Agade”. The story was repeated many times, becoming a legend.

Historians believe the Akkadian Empire collapsed due to a catastrophic drought and widespread famine. Enemies took advantage of the turmoil and invaded the empire. One group, the Gudians, completely destroyed Akkad. The ruins of the city were never found.

Are some of them famous today?
Sargon the Great is remembered as the powerful king who founded the Akkadian Empire. His likeness appears in museums around the world. Princess Enheduanna, his daughter, was the most famous priestess of that time. Her poetry, songs, and hymns of praise for Innana, Queen of Heaven, are well known. They are in print today. Many books were written about her life. She is said to be the world’s first author.

There are many well-known people with Middle Eastern roots. Alia Martine Shawkat is a popular artist and actress appearing in many American films. Her father was born in Baghdad, Iraq. Kadim Al Sahir is a famous Iraqi singer, composer and songwriter. His work frequently features Iraqi folk instruments, rhythms and melodies. Nadia Murad Basee Taha is a human rights advocate. She helps women and children who have been hurt by violence. She works at the United Nations and is the first Iraqi to earn a Nobel Prize.

What is left of them today?
Many Akkadian art works, and artifacts have survived from ancient times. Small items like jewelry and cylinder seals are preserved in special collections. Tablets with cuneiform writing tell of Akkadian religion and ideas. Epic stories, myths, and proverbs have been passed down for study by modern scholars. Sculptures and plaques from Mesopotamia are on display in museums around the world.

A well-known sculpture called Akkadian Head of a King was made 4000 years ago. It is believed to be Sargon or his grandson Naram-Sin. The king’s power and dignity is expressed in this work. It was made using the lost wax method. The head was carved in wax. The wax was then covered with clay. The clay head was baked to harden the clay. The wax melted and dripped out through small holes, leaving a hollow mold of the head. Molten copper was poured into the mold. The copper hardened and the clay was broken away, leaving a fine sculpture of the king’s head. The artist made lines in the copper to indicate hair, beard, and mustache. The Head of a King is said to be a great masterpiece. It is on display in the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad.

Akkadian art celebrated the triumphs of their kings. They carved images in stone markers called steles to show important people and events. The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin shows the victorious king and his soldiers atop a high mountain. The stele celebrates the king’s victory over the Lullubi Mountain people. His horned helmet shows his god-like status. Engraved stars in the sky above the mountain represent gods. Naram-Sin stands victorious between the sky and the earth. Naram-Sin’s Victory Stele is displayed at the Louvre in Paris, France.

The Kings Lyre is a stringed musical instrument decorated with a golden bull’s head. It was found in the royal tombs at Ur in modern-day Iraq. A scene on the lyre shows the king listening to music as he travels through the underworld. “Ram in the Thicket” is also from the royal tombs at Ur. It is decorated with gold and lapis blue gemstones. The ram stands on its back legs to peer through branches of shrubs and small trees.

Many images of dogs appear in Akkadian art. The gods bestowed protective powers to their dog companions. The Limestone Dog of Gula, goddess of health appears on an ancient bas-relief sculpture. The images of Shamish the sun god and his dog are engraved on a cylinder seal.

A plaque from Sippar shows a striding man accompanied by a large dog. The man’s companion may be a Molossus dog, a breed that lived in Mesopotamia as far back as 5000 BC. They were one of the earliest domesticated animals. They were trained to protect people, villages, and animals. They were very large with thick, powerful bodies. They had folds of loose skin around the head and neck (dewlaps). Their dark color made them difficult to see at night. Modern-day Molossus dogs are said to be descended from this ancient breed. Some say the Molossus was the best guard dog in history.


text:
CRE Loaded Features/Configuration/My Store

= My Store =

You can set up many fundamental features in My Store.

Store Name
This is the name of the website as presented to the public. The shopper's web browser window displays on the title bar.

Store Owner
The name of the store owner. On the web page as the customer sees it this appears at xxx.

Store Logo
This is the logo that appears in the top left hand corner of all pages and on the customer receipts.

E-Mail Address
The main store's email address. On the web page as the customer sees it this appears at xxx.

E-Mail From
When you send an email to your customers this is the email address they will see that it is from. This is also the return email address will be this.

Country
This is the country in which the store is based. On the web page as the customer sees it this appears at xxx.

Zone
This is the zone in which the store is located within that country. xxx.

Expected Sort Order
CRE Loaded can sorts lists of products and other types of lists. You can choose whether they ascend (i.e. a, b, c, d or 1, 2, 3, 4) or descend (i.e. d, c, b, a or 4, 3, 2, 1) here.

Set this value to asc for an ascending order or desc for a descending order.

Expected Sort Field
CRE Loaded will sort this field.

You have two choices: date_expected and products_name. They are self explanatory.

Switch To Default Language Currency
If this is set to ... the default language currency is always used when a customer first arrives at your site.

Send Extra Order Emails To
When your customer makes an order, this option will allow you to specify which emails extra orders should be sent to.

Use Search-Engine Safe URLs (still in development)
Sites such as Google dislike the long database derived URLs that CRE Loaded uses. This option will attempt to disguise the URLs, so Google and others are more likely to link to your pages.

You should note that this feature is still in development. Do not use it unless you realise what you are doing.

Display Cart After Adding Product
Customers will see their shopping cart straight away after adding to it. The advantage is that customers are encouraged to purchase goods straight away and are less likely to wander-off. The disadvantage is that they are less likely to add more products to the cart. You may want to test market this feature in order to decide whether you want it on or off.

Allow Guest To Tell A Friend
Do you want to allow people who are not logged-in to tell a friend about one of your products? Absolutely yes!

Do you want to allow spam-bots which are not logged-in to send spam from your servers? Definitely not!

Be careful if you turn this option on. Seek help to keep it from being exploited.

Default Search Operator
When searching the store customers will often type more than one word into the search box. You can make the default search operator and or or as follows:

first search term and second search term

or

first search term or second search term

For instance if a customer searches for baking tray and the default search operator is set to and then all products which contain baking and tray will be included in the search. Similarly if this value is set to or then all products which contain baking or which contain tray will be included in the results list.

Store Address and Phone
Put your address and phone number here.

Show Category Counts
The server will count recursively how many products are in each category. This is displayed xxx.

Allow Category Descriptions
Turn this on to enable full text descriptions for categories.

Enable Admin Dhtml menu
Turn this on to enable drop-down menus in the admin section. They look pretty cool - but be careful as they don't always work on everybody's set up - the side menus will disappear and you won't be able to change it back if there is a problem.

Tax Decimal Places
This is the number of decimal places that are included in sales tax.

Show Featured Products on Main Page
If you want Featured products to be shown on the main page switch this value on.

Display Prices with Tax
You can either display the product with the price including tax, or the price excluding tax.

Welcome Gift Voucher Amount
When customers register for your store you can give them a fixed gift voucher.

Welcome Discount Coupon Code
Newly registered customers can be given a discount coupon here.

Category/Products Display Order
This is the order in which category/ products should be displayed.


text:
User talk:Mm35173~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 20:32, 4 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Please also check out the Cookbook policy page and the Cookbook talk pages.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mm35173. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mm35173~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:31, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mm35173~enwikibooks


text:
CRE Loaded Features/Configuration/Minimum Values

First Name
This is the minimum number of characters you allow a first name to have. A reasonable number is 2, any more and people called Jo cannot use your store!

Last Name
This is the minium number of characters that a last name (surname) can have - as with first name 2 is a reasonable number.

Date of Birth
This is the earliest date you allow people to use as their date of birth. Of course setting this date too late will mean you cannot benefit from the custom of "silver surfers".

E-Mail Address
This is the shortest number of characters you would like to allow in an email address.

Street Address
This is the shortest number of characters in the street address that you will allow a customer to have.

Company
This is the least number of characters that you will allow a company to register.

Post Code
This is the shorted number of characters to allow when a customer registers their post code.

City
This is the shortest number of letters that you will allow a customer's city to be.

State
This is the shortest number of letters that you will allow for a state.

Telephone Number
This is the shortest number of digits you will allow in the registering customer's telephone number.

Password
This is the shortest password that you will allow registered customers to have. Make this short enough for customers to remember and long enough so that you do not open security risks.

Credit Card Owner Name
This is the shortest number of letters you will allow in a credit card owner's name.

Credit Card Number
This is the shortest credit card number that you will allow.

Review Text
This is the shortest number of characters that you will allow when a customer makes a review.

Best Sellers
This is the shortest list of best sellers that you will display on your site.

Also Purchased
This is the shortest list of products that will be displayed in the customers who bought this also purchased part of the page when a customer is looking at the front page.

X-Sell
This is the minimum number of products to be displayed in the x-sell box.


text:
CRE Loaded Features/Configuration/Maximum Values

Address Book Entries
This is the maximum number of addresses that customers can keep in their accounts.

Search Results
This is the maximum number of search results to return - as many people rarely look beyond the first page of the search this option may save some of your server's power.

Page Links
This is the number of page links to display in xxx.

Special Products
The maximum number of products to display that are on special.

New Products Module
This is the maximum number of new products to display.

Products Expected
This is the maximum number of products expected to display in the products expected box.

Manufacturers List
If the number of manufacturers exceeds this number a drop down menu will be used instead of a list box.

Manufacturers Select Size
Set this option to 1 if you want a drop down.

Set this option to more than 1 if you want to have a list box.

Length of Manufacturers Name
Enter the maximum length of a manufacturer's name.

New Reviews
Limit the length of your customers' new reviews here in characters.

Selection of Random Reviews
You can alter the number of entries displayed when customers are presented with a random selection of reviews.

Selection of Random New Products
You can alter the number of entries displayed when customers are presented with a random selection of new products.

Selection of Products on Special
You can alter the number of entries displayed when customers are presented with a random selection of products on special.

Categories To List Per Row
You can choose number of categories per row customer is presented with a list of categories.

New Products Listing
The number of new products to list in the new products listing.

Best Sellers
Limit the number of products listed when the customer is presented with a list of best sellers.

Also Purchased
Limit the number of products in the list when the site recommends to an item's purchaser products that customers also purchased.

Customer Order History Box
You can control the number of orders in the order history box that is displayed.

Order History
Put the maximum number of orders that is displayed in order history.

Product Featured Maximum Display
The maximum number of featured products in the Product Featured box.

Product Featured Display Results
The maximum number results to display when the customer clicks on the Product Featured link.


text: Template:Circuit Theory/Stub

title: Template:Circuit Theory/Stub


text:
Circuit Theory/Variables and Units

Electric Charge (Coulombs)
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric Charge (symbol q) is measured in SI units called "Coulombs", which are abbreviated with the letter capital C.

We know that q=n*e, where n = number of electrons and e= 1.6*10−19. Hence n=1/e coulombs. A Coulomb is the total charge of 6.24150962915265×1018 electrons, thus a single electron has a charge of −1.602 × 10−19 C.

It is important to understand that this concept of "charge" is associated with static electricity. Charge, as a concept, has a physical boundary that is related to counting a group of electrons. "Flowing" electricity is an entirely different situation. "Charge" and electrons separate. Charge moves at the speed of light while electrons move at the speed of 1 meter/hour. Thus in most circuit analysis, "charge" is an abstract concept unrelated to energy or an electron and more related to the flow of information.

Electric charge is the subject of many fundamental laws, such as Coulomb's Law and Gauss' Law (static electricity) but is not used much in circuit theory.

Voltage (Volts)
Voltage is a measure of the work required to move a charge from one point to another in a electric field. Thus the unit "volt" is defined as a Joules (J) per Coulomb (C).

 * $$V = \frac{W}{q}$$

W represents work, q represents an amount of charge. Charge is a static electricity concept. The definition of a volt is shared between static and "flowing" electronics.

Voltage is sometimes called "electric potential", because voltage represents the a difference in Electro Motive Force (EMF) that can produce current in a circuit. More voltage means more potential for current. Voltage also can be called "Electric Pressure", although this is far less common.

Voltage is not measured in absolutes but in relative terms. The English language tradition obscures this. For example we say "What is the distance to New York?" Clearly implied is the relative distance from where we are standing to New York. But if we say "What is the voltage at ______?" What is the starting point?

Voltage is defined between two points. Voltage is relative to where 0 is defined. We say "The voltage from point A to B is 5 volts." It is important to understand EMF and voltage are two different things.

When the question is asked "What is the voltage at ______?", look for the ground symbol on a circuit diagram. Measure voltage from ground to _____. If the question is asked "What is the voltage from A to B?" then put the red probe on A and the black probe on B (not ground).

The absolute is referred to as "EMF" or Electro Motive Force. The difference between the two EMF's is a voltage.

Current (Amperes)
Current is a measurement of the flow of electricity. Current is measured in units called Amperes (or "Amps"). An ampere is "charge volume velocity" in the same way water current could be measured in "cubic feet of water per second." But current is a base SI unit, a fundamental dimension of reality like space, time and mass. A coulomb or charge is not. A coulomb is actually defined in terms of the ampere. "Charge or Coulomb" is a derived SI Unit. The coulomb is a fictitious entity left over from the one fluid /two fluid philosophies of the 18th century.

This course is about flowing electrical energy that is found in all modern electronics. Charge volume velocity (defined by current) is a useful concept, but understand it has no practical use in engineering. Do not think of current as a bundle electrons carrying energy through a wire. Special relativity and quantum mechanics concepts are necessary to understand how electrons move at 1 meter/hour through copper, yet electromagnetic energy moves at near the speed of light.

Amperes are abbreviated with an "A" (upper-case A), and the variable most often associated with current is the letter "i" (lower-case I). In terms of coulombs, an ampere is:

 * $$i = \frac{dq}{dt}$$

Because of the widespread use of complex numbers in Electrical Engineering, it is common for electrical engineering texts to use the letter "j" (lower-case J) as the imaginary number, instead of the "i" (lower-case I) commonly used in math texts. This wikibook will adopt the "j" as the imaginary number, to avoid confusion.

Energy and Power
Electrical theory is about energy storage and the flow of energy in circuits. Energy is chopped up arbitrarily into something that doesn't exist but can be counted called a coulomb. Energy per coulomb is voltage. The velocity of a coulomb is current. Multiplied together, the units are energy velocity or power ... and the unreal "coulomb" disappears.

Energy
Energy is measured most commonly in Joules, which are abbreviated with a "J" (upper-case J). The variable most commonly used with energy is "w" (lower-case W). The energy symbol is w which stands for work.

From a thermodynamics point of view, all energy consumed by a circuit is work ... all the heat is turned into work. Practically speaking, this can not be true. If it were true, computers would never consume any energy and never heat up.

The reason that all the energy going into a circuit and leaving a circuit is considered "work" is because from a thermodynamic point of view, electrical energy is ideal. All of it can be used. Ideally all of it can be turned into work. Most introduction to thermodynamics courses assume that electrical energy is completely organized (and has entropy of 0).

Power
A corollary to the concept of energy being work, is that all the energy/power of a circuit (ideally) can be accounted for. The sum of all the power entering and leaving a circuit should add up to zero. No energy should be accumulated (theoretically). Of course capacitors will charge up and may hold onto their energy when the circuit is turned off. Inductors will create a magnetic field containing energy that will instantly disappear back into the source through the switch that turns the circuit off.

This course uses what is called the "passive" sign convention for power. Energy put into a circuit by a power supply is negative, energy leaving a circuit is positive.

Power (the flow of energy) computations are an important part of this course. The symbol for power is w (for work) and the units are Watts or W.

title: Circuit Theory/Variables and Units


text:
Cookbook:Charoset

Charoset is a sweet mixture served during the Jewish celebration of Passover. Due to the extent of the Jewish diaspora, Jewish communities all over the world have derived their own variations of charoset. Common features include dried fruits and nuts, though the exact composition and texture varies.

title: Cookbook:Charoset


text: User talk:134.163.253.127

title: User talk:134.163.253.127


text: User talk:84.37.27.186

title: User talk:84.37.27.186


text: User talk:66.243.144.150

title: User talk:66.243.144.150


text: User talk:192.139.27.18

title: User talk:192.139.27.18


text: User talk:24.147.246.91

title: User talk:24.147.246.91


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Boundary Conditions and Forced Vibrations

Boundary Conditions
The functions representing the solutions to the wave equation previously discussed,

i.e.   $$y(x,t)= f(\xi)+g(\eta)\,$$ with $$\xi=ct-x\,$$ and $$\eta=ct+x\,$$

are dependent upon the boundary and initial conditions. If it is assumed that the wave is propagating through a string, the initial conditions are related to the specific disturbance in the string at t=0. These specific disturbances are determined by location and type of contact and can be anything from simple oscillations to violent impulses. The effects of boundary conditions are less subtle.

The most simple boundary conditions are the Fixed Support and Free End. In practice, the Free End boundary condition is rarely encountered since it is assumed there are no transverse forces holding the string (e.g. the string is simply floating).

For a Fixed Support
The overall displacement of the waves travelling in the string, at the support, must be zero. Denoting x=0 at the support, This requires:

$$y(0,t)= f(ct-0)+g(ct+0) = 0\,$$

Therefore, the total transverse displacement at x=0 is zero.

The sequence of wave reflection for incident, reflected and combined waves are illustrated below. Please note that the wave is traveling to the left (negative x direction) at the beginning. The reflected wave is ,of course, traveling to the right (positive x direction).

t=0

t=t1

t=t2

t=t3

For a Free Support
Unlike the Fixed Support boundary condition, the transverse displacement at the support does not need to be zero, but must require the sum of transverse forces to cancel. If it is assumed that the angle of displacement is small,

$$\sin(\theta)\approx\theta=\left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)\,$$

and so,

$$\sum F_{y} = T\sin(\theta)\approx T\left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)=0\,$$

But of course, the tension in the string, or T, will not be zero and this requires the slope at x=0 to be zero:

i.e. $$ \left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)=0\,$$

Again for free boundary, the sequence of wave reflection for incident, reflected and combined waves are illustrated below:

t=0

t=t1

t=t2

t=t3

Other Boundary Conditions
There are many other types of boundary conditions that do not fall into our simplified categories. As one would expect though, it isn't difficult to relate the characteristics of numerous "complex" systems to the basic boundary conditions. Typical or realistic boundary conditions include mass-loaded, resistance-loaded, damping-loaded, and impedance-loaded strings. For further information, see Kinsler, Fundamentals of Acoustics, pp 54–58.

Here is a website with nice movies of wave reflection at different BC's: Wave Reflection

Wave Properties
To begin with, a few definitions of useful variables will be discussed. These include; the wave number, phase speed, and wavelength characteristics of wave travelling through a string.

The speed that a wave propagates through a string is given in terms of the phase speed, typically in m/s, given by:

$$c = \sqrt{T/\rho_{L}}\,$$ where $$\rho_{L}\,$$ is the density per unit length of the string.

The wave number is used to reduce the transverse displacement equation to a simpler form and for simple harmonic motion, is multiplied by the lateral position. It is given by:

$$k=\left( \frac{\omega}{c} \right)\,$$ where $$\omega=2\pi f\,$$

Lastly, the wavelength is defined as:

$$\lambda=\left( \frac{2\pi}{k} \right)=\left( \frac{c}{f} \right)\,$$

and is defined as the distance between two points, usually peaks, of a periodic waveform.

These "wave properties" are of practical importance when calculating the solution of the wave equation for a number of different cases. As will be seen later, the wave number is used extensively to describe wave phenomenon graphically and quantitatively.

For further information: Wave Properties

Forced Vibrations
1.forced vibrations of infinite string suppose there is a string very long, at x=0 there is a force exerted on it.

F(t)=Fcos(wt)=Real{Fexp(jwt)}

use the boundary condition at x=0,

neglect the reflected wave

it is easy to get the wave form

where w is the angular velocity, k is the wave number.

according to the impedance definition

it represents the characteristic impedance of the string. obviously, it is purely resistive, which is like the resistance in the mechanical system.

The dissipated power

Note: along the string, all the variables propagate at same speed.

link title a useful link to show the time-space property of the wave.

Some interesting animations of the wave at different boundary conditions.

1.hard boundary (which is like a fixed end)

2.soft boundary (which is like a free end)

3.from low density to high density string

4.from high density to low density string

Back to Main page


text:
Cookbook talk:Fresh Mozzarella Bruschetta

In other words, uncooked pizza. AlbertCahalan 00:04, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

 * ikr 175.139.164.123 (discuss) 02:28, 16 March 2021 (UTC)


text:
Engineering Acoustics/Boundary Conditions and Wave Properties

Boundary Conditions
The functions representing the solutions to the wave equation previously discussed,

i.e.   $$y(x,t)= f(\xi)+g(\eta)\,$$ with $$\xi=ct-x\,$$ and $$\eta=ct+x\,$$

are dependent upon the boundary and initial conditions. If it is assumed that the wave is propagating through a string, the initial conditions are related to the specific disturbance in the string at t=0. These specific disturbances are determined by location and type of contact and can be anything from simple oscillations to violent impulses. The effects of boundary conditions are less subtle.

The most simple boundary conditions are the Fixed Support and Free End. In practice, the Free End boundary condition is rarely encountered since it is assumed there are no transverse forces holding the string (e.g. the string is simply floating).

- For a Fixed Support:

The overall displacement of the waves travelling in the string, at the support, must be zero. Denoting x=0 at the support, This requires:

$$y(0,t)= f(ct-0)+g(ct+0) = 0\,$$

Therefore, the total transverse displacement at x=0 is zero.

- For a Free Support:

Unlike the Fixed Support boundary condition, the transverse displacement at the support does not need to be zero, but must require the sum of transverse forces to cancel. If it is assumed that the angle of displacement is small,

$$\sin(\theta)\approx\theta=\left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)\,$$

and so,

$$\sum F_{y} = T\sin(\theta)\approx T\left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)=0\,$$

But of course, the tension in the string, or T, will not be zero and this requires the slope at x=0 to be zero:

i.e. $$ \left( \frac{\partial y}{\partial x} \right)=0\,$$

- Other Boundary Conditions:

There are many other types of boundary conditions that do not fall into our simplified categories. As one would expect though, it isn't difficult to relate the characteristics of numerous "complex" systems to the basic boundary conditions. Typical or realistic boundary conditions include mass-loaded, resistance-loaded, damping-loaded, and impedance-loaded strings. For further information, see Kinsler, Fundamentals of Acoustics, pp 54–58.

Wave Properties
To begin with, a few definitions of useful variables will be discussed. These include; the wave number, phase speed, and wavelength characteristics of wave travelling through a string.

The speed that a wave propagates through a string is given in terms of the phase speed, typically in m/s, given by:

$$c = \sqrt{T/\rho_{L}}\,$$ where $$\rho_{L}\,$$ is the density per unit length of the string.

The wave number is used to reduce the transverse displacement equation to a simpler form and for simple harmonic motion, is multiplied by the lateral position. It is given by:

$$k=\left( \frac{\omega}{c} \right)\,$$ where $$\omega=2\pi f\,$$

Lastly, the wavelength is defined as:

$$\lambda=\left( \frac{2\pi}{k} \right)=\left( \frac{c}{f} \right)\,$$

and is defined as the distance between two points, usually peaks, of a periodic waveform.

These "wave properties" are of practical importance when calculating the solution of the wave equation for a number of different cases. As will be seen later, the wave number is used extensively to describe wave phenomenon graphically and quantitatively.

For further information: Wave Properties

Back to Main page

Edited by: Mychal Spencer


text:
Training and Assessment

Please help to build this book by:

 * 1) Creating a new page for each unit (see the Australian National Training Information Service entry for each unit as a guide)
 * 2) Providing links to information and resources that will assist learning the unit
 * 3) Designing assignments for learners to prove competency in the unit.

When designing assignments, please try to design so that the learner's work can also be used as a resources to assist future learners in Wikiversity. For example, To document and prove competency in "this unit" please record an interview between yourself and a practising trainer and make the MP3 available on the Internet via a Universal Resource Locator (URL).

= Units =

The following groups of units have been based on the Australian National Training Information Service's training package TAA04 Training and Assessment as of October 2005. Proving competency in the following units can lead to a qualification to train and assess in an Australian Registered Training Organisation (RTO).

Assessment

 * Contribute to assessment
 * Plan and organise assessment
 * Assess competence
 * Develop assessment tools
 * Participate in assessment validation
 * Lead and coordinate assessment systems and services

Coordination, Management and Quality of Training and/or Assessment Services

 * Develop training and/or assessment organisational policies and procedures
 * Coordinate training and/or assessment arrangements for apprenticeships/traineeships
 * Lead and conduct training and/or assessment evaluations
 * Determine and manage scope of training and/or assessment services
 * Lead a team to foster innovation

Delivery and Facilitation

 * Provide training through instruction and demonstration of work skills
 * Plan and organise group-based delivery
 * Facilitate group-based learning
 * Facilitate individual learning
 * Facilitate work-based learning
 * Coordinate and facilitate distance-based learning
 * Facilitate e-learning
 * Facilitate action learning projects
 * Provide advanced facilitation to support learning
 * Lead and coordinate training services

Language, Literacy and Numeracy Practice

 * Address language, literacy and numeracy issues within learning and assessment practice

Learning Design

 * Use Training Packages to meet client needs
 * Design and develop learning programs
 * Design and develop learning strategies
 * Design and develop learning resources
 * Research and design e-learning resources
 * Develop and evaluate e-learning resources
 * Research and develop competency

Learning Environment

 * Work effectively in vocational education and training
 * Foster and promote an inclusive learning culture
 * Ensure a healthy and safe learning environment
 * Develop innovative ideas at work
 * Maintain and enhance professional practice

Training Advisory Services

 * Maintain information requirements of training and/or assessment organisations
 * Undertake organisational training needs analysis
 * Prepare a tender bid
 * Manage contracted work
 * Facilitate group processes

Imported Units

 * Participate in a quality audit
 * Develop teams and individuals
 * Analyse and present research information
 * Promote products and services
 * Build a virtual community
 * Ensure team effectiveness
 * Manage people
 * Manage industrial relations policies and processes
 * Prepare budgets and financial plans
 * Manage budgets and financial plans
 * Recruit, select and induct staff
 * Build client relationships
 * Evaluate marketing opportunities
 * Manage and monitor business or records systems
 * Provide careers guidance
 * Co-ordinate research and analysis

title: Training and Assessment


text:
Italian/Lessons/Lesson1

=Lesson One / Lezione uno=

Dialogue / Dialogo

 * Maria : Ciao, Giuseppe!  Come stai?.
 * Giuseppe : Ciao, Maria!  Sto bene, grazie mille.  E tu?.
 * Maria : Sto bene.  Ti presento Bianca..
 * Giuseppe : Buon giorno, Bianca..
 * Bianca : Salve, Giuseppe.  Come sta?.
 * Giuseppe : Sto bene, e Lei?.
 * Bianca : Sto bene.  Arrivederci..
 * Giuseppe : Ci vediamo!.
 * Maria : Ciao!.

Vocabulary / Vocabolario

 * (e.g. ti presento Bianca - This is Bianca)

Formal vs. Informal / Formale vs. informale
In Italian, there are two pronouns that mean you in the singular. One is informal, to be used with a person with whom you are familiar, and the other is formal, which is to be used with a person of a status superior to yours or with a person you have just met. The informal form is tu and the formal form is Lei (note that it is only capitalized here to distinguish between the word for 'she'). The plural of tu is 'voi', and the plural of Lei is Loro. Knowledge of the difference between these the formal and informal forms is important because they take different verb forms.

In addition, especially in the south of Italy, you can also use the second person plural ('voi') when addressing an older person to whom you wish to show respect.

Exercise One / Esercizio uno

 * 1) Signor Berti has just walked in.  He says buon giorno to you.  How do you ask him how he is? Come stai?
 * 2) Your friend has gotten a new haircut.  When telling them how much you like it, will you use the tu form or the Lei form? Tu
 * 3) It is your first day of school and your teacher asks how you are.  After responding, you wish to say 'and you?'.  Which pronoun do you use? Lei

Subject Pronouns and Essere / Pronomi personali soggetto e essere
Subject pronouns are used to show the subject of a sentence. In English subject pronouns are: I, you, he, she, it, we and they. Take a look at the following table which contains the corresponding pronouns in Italian.

Note that lei can mean either she or the formal, singular you, which is used both for masculine and feminine subjects. In written Italian Lei, written with a capital L, is used to represent a formal you. Note also that, unlike in English, io used for the first person in singular is not capitalized.

The verb Essere (and also stare) is an equivalent of the verb to be in English. It is very irregular; the conjugation for the present indicative tense follows:

The pronouns Lei and Loro take the same verb form as egli/ella and essi.

[Note] Subject pronouns (io, tu etc.) are not mandatory in Italian, especially spoken Italian. This is because the subject pronoun is implied by the form of the verb used, also known as its declension. Thus, while in English we would say "I am", in Italian we would normally just say sono rather than io sono. When an Italian speaker explicitly uses the subject pronoun, it is usually to place special emphasis or clarity on who the pronoun is referring to.

Exercise Two / Esercizio due

 * 1) How do you say you are (informal singular)? Tu sei.
 * 2) Come stai tu? - Is the pronoun formal or informal in this question? informal.
 * 3) When I say Lei è, am I talking about you (my close friend) or my teacher? my teacher.
 * 4) If you want to say Bob and I are, which verb form do you use? siamo
 * 5) Joan and Kim are good friends. Would they use tu or Lei when talking to each other? tu

How are you? / Come sta?

 * Remember, in Italian, you rarely express the subject pronoun unless you either want to stress the importance of the subject or you want to eliminate an ambiguity regarding the subject.

Italià/Lliçó1 Italiano/Lección1

title: Italian/Lessons/Lesson1