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Energy and Power: Production, Distribution, and Society/Distribution of Electric Energy

Generating Station
Basically this is a transformation at this station of one kind of energy (coal, gas, waterpower, nuclear energy, wind, solar energy, etc.) into electrical energy, often via steam. While the electricity fed into the grid (see below) is Alternating Current (AC), some of these sources of energy are used to charge batteries; all batteries supply only Direct Current (DC). Converters and inverters are available to change DC into AC, and rectifiers change AC into DC. Many industrial firms, also hospitals and other emergency operations have their own emergency generators that automatically switch themselves into the circuits if the normal electricity supply fails. These emergency generators usually are powered from petroleum based fuels. Also most cars include a small generator, called an alternator, that charges the car's battery and provides electrical power to the vehicle while the engine is running. The battery is disconnected from the generator while the engine is not running, or if otherwise the generated voltage is too low, such as, for example, when there is a breakage of the fan belt. In order to get a lot of energy into the power grid, a lot of energy is needed to drive the generators, and in case there is a disconnection of the generator from its load the input energy must be removed immediately, or else the generator would speed up more and more, and a lot of destruction would be the result.

To restore small generators to service they could be started up as motors, with the normal energy source supplying no energy at all at first, but then that energy is added slowly back to driving the generator normally. While power at the beginning is taken from the grid into the generator (actually it is a motor at that time), with the power flow then in the negative direction, the direction of power flow soon is reversed to normal. No synchronization is needed in that case.

In restoring large power generators a major problem could be the time taken for the heat source to reach normality. This can take days in case of nuclear plants.. In the meantime severe restrictions on electricity availability must be expected. That is why many firms have their own generators that are switched on automatically if there is a power failure.

See also AC and DC Generators and from Wikipedia see Power station '

Substations
Substations usually contain transformers in order to change voltage levels; they are connected to a "bus" via a circuit breaker.

What is a "bus"?
Think of an airport. There is a long corridor from which you can reach many platforms via doors. In a substation that long corridor is called a bus, and each door is a large circuit breaker connecting one or more transmission lines and/or one or more transformers and/or one or more generators or one or more loads (such as a distribution network of electric energy to users) to one or more busses, at one or more different voltages, in rare caes even at different frequencies.

What are circuit breakers doing in a substation?

 * The circuit breakers can be operated from the main switching console, or they can be operated automatically from a protection relay or some other protection device. This will ensure that in case of a local overload the circuit breaker(s) concerned will open immediately, thus disconnecting the circuit and stopping the current, which is higher than a given limit, from doing any damage, even from starting any fires. If the protection device discovers that the problem is outside the local area, then a time delay is activated to permit the problem area to do its switching first, however after that set time delay the relevant circuit breaker, as a backup, will be operated to switch off here if the problem still continues.
 * Other protection devices may be activated automatically if the voltage is not within a given set range, or "load shedding" could be activated in case of a local overload. This will switch off a predetermined portion of the distribution system, while leaving on only hospitals, security areas, and other high-priority loads.
 * A "reclosing feature" is usually also a part of the power system automation. It is an important feature to deal with very short local problems, such as lightning strikes, tree branches and/or other weather-related problems, even, perhaps, an animal causing a temporary short circuit. A reclosing of one or more circuit breakers may be activated immediately after a disconnection has occurred, but only once, and often at that time everything is back to normal; if not, then a second, permanent, disconnection is activated.
 * Some substations also include a synchronizer to ensure automatic synchronization before two circuits can be connected together. This happens in substations, for example, before generators can be connected to a bus that is connected to the grid and that synchronizer ensures the proper phase and voltage relation between the two circuits to be connected together. Because it takes a short time for a circuit breaker to actually effect the connection, that time delay must be taken into consideration by the synchronizer. The speed of a generator is related to the frequency of its output, and that speed is changed as required by the synchronizer to ensure both sides of the circuit breaker are at very nearly the same frequency, within set limits, before the "connect" signal is sent by the synchronizer to the circuit breaker.

Supervisory Control
This enables various operations to be carried out from a remote location, such as the operation of circuit breakers, the transmission to remotely located human operators of vital data from unmanned substations, such as voltage, current, power magnitude and power direction at various points of the substation. Even automatic synchronization can be effected remotely, if necessary, before two circuits are connected together by a circuit breaker at just the right time in the cycle.

See also from Wikipedia:Circuit breakers and Power outage

The grid
A transmission grid is a high-voltage network for long-distance electric power transmission; A distribution grid is a medium- and low-voltage network for local distribution of electric power to end-users;

Usually the grid contains many substations that are connected via transmission lines to one another. These substations contain protective equipment that in case of problems can automatically operate circuit breakers, disconnecting certain portions of the grid from the grid

.......... How transformers, located at generating stations and substations are used as a part of the grid:

See also more about Transformers

from Wikipedia: Power outage and grid input

Electricity distribution in buildings
See also from Wikipedia Electrical wiring and Extension cords and Metering

Wire Gauges
There are a number of gauges (a certain number assigned to that wire size), with wires and cables sold per that gauge number, not by its diameter. Different gauges exist. See also on Wikipedia more details about Wire gauges and about Power cables. See also, about gauges, for examples,
 * For example the Radio Engineer's Pocket Book by F.J.Camm, published by George Newnes Limited, London, lists on pages 79–32 that relationship between the gauge number and the actual diameters in inches as well as in millimeters for different gauges. On pages 77 to 78 is a list related to copper wire, giving the number according to the "Standard Wire Gauge" (SWG), the diameter of the wire in inches, its resistance in Ohms per yard, in Ohms per pound weight, the number of pounds per Ohm, per 1000 yards, yards per pound, and the number of turns per inch for coils, using different insulation materials: Enamel only, single silk, double silk, single cotton and double cotton.
 * For example the number 10 is assigned to its gauge by the American Wire Gauge (AWG) to a wire having 0.101 inches diameter (=2.565 milimeter), but that same number 10 is assigned under the British SWG label to a wire having a diameter of 0.128 inches.
 * http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Tables/wirega.html and
 * http://shopswarf.orcon.net.nz/wiregage.html

Fuses
A thin piece of wire can be connected in series with the load. The current flowing will heat that wire, and if the current is too high that wire will melt and therefore will disconnect the current flowing into the load. The maximum amount of current such a wire can carry without melting depends on the outside temperature and also to what extent the surrounding air will cool the wire, but wire supply companies have published tables showing the approximate maximum current a particular wire can be expected to carry without "burning out". Modern fuses have the fuse wire enclosed, and are sold with a specific Ampere rating.
 * For example the fuse wire table published by the London Electric Wire Company and Smiths, Limited (LewcoS) lists
 * for 1 Ampere: Copper: 0.0020 inches diameter, Aluminum/Aluminium: 0.0028, Tin: 0.0076, Allo-Tin and Lead: 0.0084
 * for 15 Ampere: 0.0124, 0.0164, 0.044, 0.048
 * for 60 Ampere: 0.032, 0.040, 0.110, 0.128

See also Fuses, also Fuses in Wikipedia.

Stranded Wire
When wires are bent often then they very likely will break eventually. If a power cable is going to be subject to movement, then usually Stranded Conductors are used, meaning that a bunch of wires are used in parallel, ensuring that if one of them breaks very little, if anything, will be affected by that single breakage. Cables should be regularly inspected to find such breakages, if any.
 * The LewcoS (The London Electric Wire Company and Smiths, Limited) wire tables provide multiplying constants for stranded circular conductors; their sectional area, weight and resistance.
 * For example, if there are 3 strands, then the diameter of the bunch as a whole is multiplied not by 3, but by only 2.155; the sectional area by 2.94118, the weight by 3.06000, and the resistance (reactance can be neglected at power frequencies) by 0.340000 of those of one of these wires (also called "strands") alone. Assuming we have a bunch of 3 wires, each with a diameter of 0.029 inches, and we want to know the combined area of 3 of these wires as a bunch, then we multiply the cross-sectional area of one of the wires having that diameter (0.0006605 square inches) by 2.94118 to get 0.001943 square inches for the bunch.
 * The multipliers are for DIAMETER, AREA, WEIGHT, RESISTANCE:
 * for 3 strands: 2.155, 2.94118, 3.06000, 0.34000
 * for 7........: 3.000, 6.88235, 7.12000, 0.145299
 * for 19.......: 5.000, 18.6471, 19.3600, 0.0536278
 * for 37.......: 7.000, 36.2941, 37.7200, 0.0275527
 * for 61.......: 9.000, 59.8235, 62.2000, 0.0167158
 * for 91.......:11.000, 89.2353, 92.8000, 0.0112063
 * for 127......:13.000, 124.529, 129.520, 0.00803023
 * for 169......:15.000, 165.706, 172.360, 0.00603479

Large diameter wires are also listed up to a carrying capacity of 648 Amperes, for 127-strands of 0.103 inch diameter stranded wire made of standard annealed copper.

Resistance Wire
The LewcoS Wire Tables provide data for 3 kinds of Resistance Wire: No.1 and No.2 Nickel Chrome, and also for Eureka resistance wire. These tables provide Gauge (SWG), diameter (inches and millimeters), the resistance in Ohms per 1000 yards while the wire temperature is 15.5 °C, 500 °C and 1000°Celsius. As current passes through/thru that wire it heats it, and the tables show the current in Amperes that will increase the wire's temperature by 100 °C, 500 °C and 1000°Celsius. The tables also show the weight of the wire in pounds (lbs) per 1000 yards.
 * For example: Many houses have a limit of 15 amperes on their room circuits, and we find in the tables that in order to obtain a temperature rise of about 1000 °C with about 14 Ampere flowing No.2 Nickel Chrome Resistance Wire should be used, having a diameter of 0.032 inches or 0.81 millimeters, which is gauge 21 (SWG). The resistance of that wire at 1000 °C is 2114 Ohms per 1000 yards. Given the applied voltage, and the required current, the required wire length can be calculated approximately. "Fine tuning" for each specific application may be advisable.

Wire for coils
The LewcoS wire tables provide also information on enamelled copper wire. Often close-wound coils with insulation coverings of enamel only, enamel plus single silk, enamel with ordinary single cotton, single silk only, double silk, ordinary single cotton and ordinary double cotton are used, and the number of turns per inch of coil length obtained are also listed.
 * For example about 26 turns per inch, side by side, are available if gauge No.20 (SWG) wire (0.036 inches diameter) is used with only enamel insulation on it.

See also From Wikipedia: Category:Cables and Category:Power cables and Ampacity and Flexible cables and Fuses and Power cables and Signal cables and Stranded wire and Wire

=See also= From Wikipedia:Circuit breakers and Electricity distribution and Mains/Line and Electric power transmission and Overload and Price of electricity


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Arimaa/Camel and Horse Attacks

Objectives and Risks
Camel and Horse Attacks are normally used as a counter-attack in response to an attack by the enemy Elephant on the opposite side of the board. Camel and Horse Attacks can also be used as part of a Double-Trap Attack.

'Note: For simplicity, many examples below will assume that the Gold player is attacking the c6 trap. Naturally, the same theories can apply equally to attacks on all 4 traps.'

Reasons to use a Camel and Horse Attack:
 * to generate a counter-attack against an enemy trap that is not defended by an Elephant or Camel
 * to take control of an enemy trap when the enemy elephant and camel are unable or unwilling to defend the trap (e.g. when the enemy camel has been taken hostage)
 * to create a goal threat
 * to distract the enemy Elephant
 * to complete a double-trap attack

Risks involved in a Camel and Horse Attack:
 * Either Horse or Camel can be taken hostage or trapped if the enemy Camel or Elephant approaches the trap.
 * Home traps may become weakened.

Ideal Placement of Pieces
The ideal placement of pieces will depend greatly upon the board situation. If the Silver Elephant is protecting a Camel hostage at f3, it may be advantageous for Gold to launch a Camel and Horse Attack against c6. In that case, the Gold Camel should be kept safe so that the Silver Elephant cannot escape the hostage situation at f3 by trapping the Gold Camel at c6. Ideally, the Horse and Camel should be placed on b6 and c7 and additional attacker(s) are often called up to secure and defend the trap. A third or fourth attacker not only assists in controlling the enemy trap but will also create greater difficulties for the Silver Elephant if it crosses the board to disrupt the attack. An attacker should never occupy d6 unless the f6 trap can be secured by friendly pieces or all the stronger enemy pieces can be kept away from the d6 square.

If the Gold Elephant is already attacking the f6 trap then the Gold Camel is normally best placed on the b6 square with the Horse on d6. This places attacking Camel as far as possible from the defending Elephant while still holding the ideal b6/d6 attacking formation. However, if the Silver Elephant is blockaded, or otherwise unable to reach the d6 square, then it may be preferable to centralize the Camel at d6 due to its greater strength.

During a middlegame or endgame in which the Camel and Horse are being used to facilitate a Rabbit advance, the Gold Camel is normally placed on the c7 square. From this square, the Camel may still maintain a safe distance from the Silver Elephant while also threatening enemy pieces participating in back rank goal defense.

Defensive Systems and Counter-Attacks
The easiest way to defend against a Camel and Horse Attack is to move a Camel or Elephant toward the same trap with the intention of taking a hostage. This is not always possible because the attacking player will normally attempt to seize a weak trap which cannot be easily defended by either the Camel or Elephant.

Camel and Horse Attacks are often intended as a counter-attack to offset/distract an enemy Elephant attack on the opposite wing. In these cases, it is recommended that the attacker bring at least three, preferably four, attackers so that the Silver Elephant cannot easily return to the home trap and capture the Gold Camel. It is not difficult for a defending Elephant to hold two attackers hostage while threatening to trap a third - hence, four attackers are often recommended. It is uncommon for an opposing Elephant to commence an attack on the opposite wing in response to a Camel and Horse Attack.

If the Gold player is contesting the f6 trap (with an Elephant and Horse Attack, for example), a second attack against the c6 trap could be devastating for Silver. Therefore, it is necessary for silver to either counter-attack with the Camel to preempt or prevent a Gold Camel and Horse Attack or, at the very least, to secure the b6 and c7 squares with strong pieces.

Ideas for Setup
For simultaneous attacks against both enemy traps during the opening phase, see the next chapter.

Balanced forces are important during the game both to launch, and defend against, a Camel and Horse Attack. As such, most players will setup an Elephant and Horse on one half of the board and a Camel and Horse on the other. Setting up and maintaining the Camel on the home rank middle is a good strategy to protect against a Camel-drag but is not ideal if the Camel wishes to participate on either side of a Camel and Horse Attack.

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Arimaa/Double-Trap Attacks

Objectives and Risks
The Double-Trap Attack is a highly aggressive attacking system in which the attacking player attempts to control both enemy traps in rapid succession.

'Note: For simplicity, many examples below will assume that the Gold player is attacking the c6-f6 traps. Naturally, the same theories can apply equally to Silver attacks.'

Reasons to use a Double-Trap Attack:
 * to control or contest all four traps simultaneously
 * to establish a large space and mobility advantage
 * to immobilize large numbers of enemy pieces on both sides of the board
 * to facilitate Rabbit advances on both wings simultaneously

Risks associated with a Double-Trap Attack:
 * The attack requires a commitment of all the strongest pieces - once the attack has begun there is often no turning back!
 * A failed attack will result in large material losses for the attacker.
 * The home traps will be severely weakened.
 * The goal defense will be compromised for the attacking player.

Defensive Systems and Counter-Attacks
A successful defense against a Double-Trap attack will often require hostages and frames on both wings and it is essential that the defending Elephant remain mobile. The defending Elephant should only become decentralized if necessary to trap an enemy piece or take the attacking Camel hostage.

Attacking Rabbits will be brought forward in swarms to unfreeze allied pieces and generate long-term goal threats across the board. They should be contained and frozen whenever possible, or pushed to the center where they can be used to blockade their stronger allies.

Counter-attacking with the Elephant, along with one or two supporting units, can distract the enemy attackers. In addition, an aggressive Double-Trap Attack will create a patchy goal defense that can be exploited with a counter-attack that includes at least one Rabbit. Unfortunately, it is difficult to create counter-threats when both home traps are under attack! If a counter-attack is not possible, the defender will have to methodically isolate and immobilize attackers while neutralizing the attacks on both wings. A successful defense will allow the defending player to realize large material gains before a counter-attack is even feasible.

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User talk:24.26.6.16

Welcome to Wikibooks! Your edit test (which created the "Sign Making (Graphic design)" page) was successful. However, now I have to mark that page for deletion because it contains no useful content.

If you want to continue testing Wikibooks, the correct place to go is the Sandbox. Edits to the sandbox do not harm any existing page at Wikibooks, and they do not create unnecessary new pages. Thanks. --Kernigh 23:54, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

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Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/How to Handle Job Interviews

I am 21 years old. I graduated from my third college course and still no job. Interviews come by the dozens but job offers are none! I am a Pharmacy Assistant Health Care Aide plus a medical transcriptionist, but after all the years in school and all the money spent on education, I am still unable to find work! Am I to live in poverty because people only see me at my worst?

Interviews for me are a horrid experience. I've had people pick up a newspaper and start reading it, waiting for me to get out of a block. All the interviewers act as if I'm wasting their time. It's more like they're wasting mine.

If people could only see me when I am fluent I'm sure I would have a job. On interviews I find myself apologizing for my speech…but why do I?

Is there anyone out there who is experiencing the same problems? I need help to cope.

—————

I am an embedded software engineer, and today I was faced with a situation that I have not ran into yet in my pursuit of employment. Like many of you I have had the phone hung up on me by recruiters, or they rudely and quickly end the phone conversation. I had a personal phone interview with Motorola. First, the interview was designed to be very high stress. Second, the questions were given to me in advance which only made the situation worse. Of course it being a phone interview made it worst. I was unable to form sentences and completely locked up on the interview and was eliminated from the running for this software engineering position. Can I do anything? According to the recruiter I'm a great fit for the position, god this frustrating.

—————

Graduate students in my stuttering class [surveyed employers, who] indicated that they would prefer to hire someone who was deaf or someone with moderate cerebral palsy rather than someone who stuttered. Interestingly, several of the employers who said they would not hire a stutterer had one or more stutterers already working for them.

When we probed to understand the WHY behind the employers' responses, we learned that essentially they thought they "understood" deafness and cerebral palsy, but stuttering was strange—and they assumed that persons who stutter were strange.

Ten months after completing a stuttering therapy program, 44% of stutterers had received a promotion. 40% had changed jobs, 36% reporting that the change was for the better. Combining these, about 60% had improved employment after stuttering therapy. The study also found that 88% of the stutterers had maintained their fluency.

Their employers reported a 20% improvement in "communication effectiveness" for the stutterers completing therapy.

Stutterers earn approximately $7200 less per year than non-stutterers. Two groups of 25 persons were examined. The groups were matched for age, sex, IQ, race, education, and socioeconomic background. The subjects were contacted ten years after graduating from college. They were asked a number of questions relating to levels of achievement. The difference did not appear to be the result of employer discrimination. Rather, the stutterers were reluctant to accept promotions that involved making presentations to groups of people:

I have refused (or went "kicking") different projects at my job, which may/may not lead to promotions. Most recently, I went kicking on co-facilitating a corporate-wide quality workshop initiative. My partner in facilitation, after much coaxing by me, took the majority of the speaking sections, while I became her assistant. (Please be aware that I have not discussed my disorder with my co-workers, I am a mild stutter that can usually "pass" for a fluent speaker.) I am now interested in changing careers and am looking for careers that focus on "behind the scenes" work…i.e., technical writing. I have considered such careers as Law, but have veered away from them.

Talk About Your Stuttering
Another interview lasted about two minutes. The interviewer (another personnel director—they seem to be the worst problem) found an excuse to say I was not qualified for the job—so good-bye. I protested, asked for the technical interview and was asked to leave. As his excuse was plainly made up—this was also probably a case of discrimination.

Begin the interview by talking about your stuttering. You may only get two minutes if you don't!

Take a copy of Stuttering: Answers for Employers by the Stuttering Foundation of America with you to the interview. You can download a PDF of the brochure from the web site at www.stutteringhelp.org.

Whether you're looking for a job or already have a job, talk about your stuttering. Many people feel uncomfortable talking to a person who stutters. Educate them about stuttering to make them feel comfortable.

Some people make incorrect assumptions about individuals who stutter. E.g., some people think that individuals who stutter are mentally retarded—even if you have a Ph.D.!

"Excellent communication skills" is the #1 qualification employers look for. Regardless of whether the help-wanted ad included this, say that you have excellent communication skills. Give concrete examples:

 If you're in a speech therapy program, discuss your progress and the techniques or strategies you use. If you learned nonavoidance skills in speech therapy, explain that although you stutter, you've overcome your fears of talking to strangers, etc. "I can say a phrase fluently if I say it a lot. In my last job, I pretty much said the same things to customers all day, and my speech was fine." This should be acceptable for retail jobs, etc. If you use an electronic anti-stuttering device, show it to the interviewer and explain how it works.

If the job requires making presentations, say that you can't say as much as non-stutterers so you prepare your remarks in advance and get right to the main points, unlike people who ramble on for half an hour.

Membership in Toastmasters proves that you have excellent communication skills. Toastmasters gives out lots of prizes, so mention if you won a blue ribbon for one of your speeches.

Communication is a two-way street. Say that you may not speak as well as other people, but you listen more carefully. Demonstrate that by not interrupting the interviewer, and by rephrasing and repeating back his questions. Ask the interviewer whether listening or speaking is more important in the job—they'll always say that listening is more important.

The interview for the job that I currently have was one of the few interviews in which I discussed in depth the nature of my stuttering problem. I spent about a half-hour discussing my speech, and I think that it was very helpful for the interviewer in understanding how well I could work around my handicap.

The Americans With Disabilities Act
In 1992, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) outlawed employment discrimination against individuals with disabilities. Speaking was defined as a "major life activity" that the inability to do is disabling.

The central point of the ADA is that individuals with a disability can ask their employer (or potential employer) for a reasonable accommodation. A reasonable accommodation is a change to the job that will enable the individual to do the job. E.g., a stutterer might ask that he not have to answer the telephone. Or he might ask that the employer buy an anti-stuttering telephone.

When an individual with a disability requests a reasonable accommodation, the employer must make the accommodation. The individual must make the request. If the individual doesn't make such a request, the employer is not obligated to suggest an accommodation, or to hire the individual.

Employers aren't allowed to ask employees (or potential employees) about disabilities. It is essential that stutterers talk to employers about their speech. In a job interview, say that you stutter. Then ask whether your speech will interfere with the job. If you don't ask, winning a lawsuit will be difficult or impossible.

If your employer (or potential employer) tells you that "good communication skills" are necessary for the job, talk about the specifics. As noted above, you can explain that you have excellent communication skills. You can also ask for reasonable accommodations as necessary.

Stutterers rarely talk to their employers about their speech. The few stutterers who've told me that they talked about their stuttering with their employer reported 100% successful results of the conversation. In every case, the employer wanted to help the stutterer, but didn't know what to do. Every request was a reasonable accommodation has been granted, as far as I've heard.

The 99% of stutterers who don't talk about their speech with their employers are treated badly, in one way or another. When they feel they've been discriminated against, they don't win ADA lawsuits because neither they nor their employer ever said anything about their speech.

For more information about the ADA, visit the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission website or http://www.justice.gov/disabilities.htm. If you need to hire an attorney experienced with discrimination against stutterers, call the National Stuttering Association.

The ADA does not apply to the federal government, including the military services. The ADA covers only employment discrimination. If you experience discrimination or harassment outside of work, you will have to rely on other federal or state laws.

Vocational Rehabilitation
If you're looking for a job, make an appointment with a vocational rehabilitation counselor. Look in your telephone directory's blue (government) pages under your state's department of labor (or department of education in some states).

Voc rehab counselors want you to succeed. They'll get you whatever therapy, devices, or job training you need. I've heard many good reports from stutterers about voc rehab counselors.

A stutterer complained that, after paying for stuttering therapy and an electronic device, the counselor also wanted to pay for his CPA certification. The stutterer insisted he would pay for his own certification.


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Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Other Fluency Disorders

See also:
 * Cluttering

 * Parkinson's speech

 * Essential tremor

 * Spasmodic dysphonia

 * Social anxiety

 * Broca's aphasia

Head injuries and strokes

Head injuries and strokes can cause repetitions, prolongations, and blocks - some cases being the result of Broca's aphasia, and others being an acquired disorder of neurogenically-based stuttering. Neurogenic stutterers lack the same types of struggle behavior, and the fears and anxieties of developmental stuttering.

Developmental stutterers can fluently speak certain memorized phrases, such as the "Pledge of Allegiance." Neurogenic stutterers are disfluent on everything. Developmental stutterers can speak fluently in certain (typically low-stress) situations. Neurogenic stutterers are disfluent everywhere.

Stuttering therapy techniques and devices help some individuals with neurogenic speech disorders, but don't help others. Because different people have different areas of their brains injured, a treatment that's effective for one person may not be effective for another person.

Psychogenic stuttering

Rarely, traumatic experiences caused an adult to stutter. Psychogenic stuttering typically involves rapid, effortless repetitions of initial sounds, without struggle behavior.


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Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/High School Science Projects

Altered Auditory Feedback

High school students can build an altered auditory feedback device for a science project. Several alternatives are also possible:

 Find a DAF kit by doing a websearch for "delay echo reverb kit." Find a FAF kit by doing a websearch for "voice changer kit." Or rewire a voice changer toy (about $20) to use headphones instead of a speaker. Find a MAF kit by doing a websearch for "function generator kit." MAF uses a 105 Hz sine wave. Guitar effects processors usually have both reverb (DAF) and frequency-shift (FAF) effects. Writing your own DAF software is easy. FAF software is harder, as it requires a fast Fourier transformation (FFT) for octave-scale FAF. DAF/FAF software can be downloaded for about $30 from http://www.artefactsoft.com. Set up a computer to measure and display your vocal amplitude and frequency. Use a Radio Shack multimeter with a frequency counter and computer output. With a microphone the total cost should be $100-150. Or look for audio recording software with frequency analysis.

You can do the following experiments on yourself, or find volunteer subjects in your stuttering support group. Ask your speech-language pathologist to help you find a support group, or call the National Stuttering Association at (800) 364-1677. Experiments to do:

 Tape record a stutterer's speech at fast and slow speaking rates, without the device; and then with DAF set at 50 ms, 100 ms, and 200 ms. Count the number of disfluencies per minute, and the number of syllables per minute. Graph the relationship between fluency and speaking rate.

Do you agree with speech-language pathologist Janice Costello-Ingham, Ph.D., that "the functional variable in regard to the reduction of stuttering is not DAF, but prolonged speech, and the latter can be produced without reliance on a DAF machine" or do you agree with speech-language pathologist Joseph Kalinowski, Ph.D., that "a slowed rate of speech is not a necessary antecedent for fluency improvement under conditions of altered auditory feedback." I.e., does DAF improve speech only when the stutterer talks slower, or does DAF improve speech at normal speaking rates?

Math and physics: measure and calibrate the delay control of a DAF device. You'll need a frequency generator, frequency counter, and a dual-trace oscilloscope. Feed a sine wave into the DAF device. Set up the oscilloscope to display the input and output of the DAF device. At what frequencies do the two waves match? Find at least three matching frequencies for each DAF setting. Divide one by the differences between the matching frequencies to get the delay length, in milliseconds. Explain why this works.

Use the DAF device on a person who does not stutter, at different delay settings. How is the DAF effect different on individuals who don't stutter, and persons who stutter?

Tape record a stutterer speaking (without DAF) for at least three minutes. Then have the person speak with DAF for ten minutes. Take off the device and record another three minutes of speech. Does DAF cause carryover fluency (after removing the device)?

Show how to use a vocal amplitude display to help you do gentle onsets. Show how vocal frequency is a surrogate for vocal fold tension, i.e., relaxed vocal folds produce a low vocal frequency, and tense vocal folds produce a high vocal frequency.

Find out if any of your relatives stutter. Draw a family tree showing your relationship to the person. Present evidence that stuttering has a genetic cause, and evidence that stuttering is not genetic.

Find a speech clinic that has a speech biofeedback system. Write a report about what the biofeedback system does.

Repeat Wendell Johnson's 1937 studies of adaptation and anticipation. These studies are described in A Handbook on Stuttering, by Oliver Bloodstein.

History

Write a report on the history of stuttering therapy, using Stuttering: The Search for a Cause and Cure by Oliver Bloodstein.

Write a report about a famous person who stutters.

Community

Interview a speech pathologist about the cause of and treatments for stuttering. Describe the techniques and goals of two therapies. Ask your school district if they have a speech pathologist specializing in stuttering, or call the Stuttering Foundation of America at (800) 992-9392 to find a stuttering specialist.

Help your school's speech pathologist organize a "Youth Day," with the help of Friends Who Stutter or the National Stuttering Association. This is a weekend workshop in which a childhood stuttering specialist trains school speech-language pathologists and parents to treat stuttering. At the same time, the children play speech therapy games and meet each other.

Observe a speech pathologist treating a preschool child who stutters. Write a report about this, answering these questions: What games did the speech pathologist play with the child? What was the purpose of the game? What did the speech pathologist talk about with the child's parents?

Interview a successful adult who stutters. This could be an accountant, a lawyer, or a teacher. You can find such a person by calling a local stuttering support group. Ask how stuttering affected the person's childhood and high school years; adult life; choice of career; and marriage or relationships. What stuttering therapy has the person had? How severely did the person stutter when he or she was younger? Are there situations in which he or she stutters more, or stutters less? Are there are speaking situations he or she fears or avoids because of stuttering?

Does another student have a disability? Compare yourself to a student with a physical disability, and to a student with a non-physical disability (e.g., mental, emotional, or learning disability). See The Disability Hierarchy.

References
 * 1) Costello-Ingham, J. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 18, 1993, page 30.
 * 2) Kalinowski, J. European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 31, 1996, page 259.


text:
Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Practice Word Lists

These 357 words include every combination of consonant and vowel in the English language.

Word List 1

able

baby

chainsaw

dateline famous

gatepost

halo jaywalk

cable

label

mailbag

nadir

pacer

rabies

saber

shapeless

table

they

vacant

weightless

whale

zany

Word List 2

abbey      (a monastery)

baboon

dancer

famine

gadget

hacksaw

jasmine

cabin

ladder

macro

knapsack

package

rabbit

saddle

shadow

tactile

than

thankful

vanish

wacky

Word List 3

achoo

baa

cha-cha

father

hah

calf

launch

macho

pasta

Word List 4

alarm

balloon

macaw

patrol

salon

taboo

Word List 5

eager

beachfront

cheap

dealer

feature

geese

healer

genius

kiwi

legion

meager

kneecap

peaceful

react

cease-fire

sheepdog

teak

thee

theme

V-eight

weasel

wheel

yeast

zeal

Word List 6

any

bedtime

checkbook

dentist

felon

guest

health

gentle

kettle

leather

meadow

nephew

peck

redwood

self-talk

shepherd

ten-speed

them

theft

vent

wealthy

whether

yell

zest

Word List 7

aisle

byte

child

diamond

fiber

guide

height

jive

cayenne

lion

micro

knife

pie

rhino

cyclist

shiner

thyme

thy

thigh

vibrant

wildcat

whitefish

yipe

xylan      (plant substance)

Word List 8

image

bemoan

chipmunk

divide

fishbowl

gift-wrap

hitchhike

ginger

kibbutz

lily

midcourse

nimble

picture

rebel

system

shiftless

ticket

this

thicket

vicar

wizard

whimsy

yip

zigzag

Word List 9

oaken

boastful

choke

domain

focus

ghost

hoagie      (sandwich)

joke

coleslaw

locust

motion

noble

pollster

romance

soapstone

chauffer

toaster

those

thole      (endure)

vogue

woven

yolk

zonal

Word List 10

otter

bobcat

chocolate

docile

foggy

goblin

hobby

jogger

cobbler

lobster

model

knockout

pocket

robin

soccer

shocker

toddler

volley

waffle

whopper

yacht

Word List 11

alder

bald

chalk

daughter

fallen

gauntlet

hallmark

jaunt

caller

laundry

mossy

gnaw

pause

raucous

salted

shawl

talking

thoughtful

vault

walker

yawn

Word List 12

oil

boil

choice

doily      (small napkin)

foible

goiter

hoist

join

coin

loin

moist

noise

poignant

royal

soil

toil

voice

yoicks      (cry to encourage foxhounds)

Word List 13

ouster

bough

chow

downbeat      (conductor's downstroke on first beat of a measure)

foul

gauss      (measure of magnetism)

hound

jounce      (bounce, jolt)

couch

loud

mountain

noun

pouch

round

sow

shout

tout      (extravagant praise)

thou

thousand

vouch

wound      (as in string, not as in injury)

yowl      (cry of distress)

zounds      (a mild oath)

Word List 14

oops      (mild surprise or apology)

boomer

chew

deuce

food

goober      (peanut)

hoop

juice

coolant

lunar

moon

nougat

poodle

rupee

sewage

shoe

tomb

woo

whoosh

U-boat

zoo

Word List 15

butte

deuce

feudal

gewgaw      (showy trifle, bauble)

hewn

coupon

mule

neutral

pewter

tuba

view

whew

Word List 16

oomph

butcher

football

good

hoof

cookbook

lookout

nook

pudding

roof

soot

shook

took

wolf

whoops

Word List 17

onion

bubble

chubby

doesn't

fungus

govern

hovel

judge

color

love

money

knuckle

pump

rough

someday

shutter

touchdown

thus

thumbnail

vulgar

once

what

youngster

 * Next chapter: Recommended Books

 * Back to Table of Contents


text:
Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Recommended Books

Fun With Fluency: Direct Therapy with the Young Child, by Patty Walton, MA-SLP, and Mary Wallace, MA-SLP (1998; ISBN 1883315395) is the best book I've read about treating children ages two to seven years old. It's all about direct stuttering therapy (as opposed to the old, ineffective indirect methods. A hierarchical progression of therapy begins with easy, stretchy speech; making direct requests for easy speech; modeling self-corrections; play speech games; contrast easy speech with hard speech; and embracing the speech villains.

Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis, by Richard Schmidt, Tim Lee (2005; ISBN 073604258X) will tell you more about stuttering therapy, especially fluency shaping therapy, than any other book—even though this book never mentions stuttering. This book is about how our brains learn and execute complex motor (muscle) skills. Fluent speech is our most complex motor skill. If the stuttering "experts" were to read this book, stuttering therapy would advance fifty years.

Stuttering: An Integrated Approach to Its Nature and Treatment, by Barry Guitar (1998). This is the best book I've read about stuttering. The first part of the book presents the essentials of stuttering research. The second part of the book differentiates stuttering modification therapy from fluency shaping therapy, and then shows how to integrate the two therapies. The writing is clear and understandable to undergraduate speech-language pathology students or even non-speech-language pathologists.

Smart Moves: Why Learning Is Not All in Your Head, by Carla Hannaford (1995; ISBN 0915556278) is yet another book that isn’t about stuttering. This book shows how (and why) to use cross-lateral exercises to enhance learning. When we learn one thing in one area of our brain, and learn something else in another area, sometimes the different areas of the brain fail to communi-cate and we don’t seem to have learned. This is clear with learning-disabled children who can learn numbers, learn the words for numbers, and learn pictures of a number of objects (e.g., 7, seven, and seven apples) but fail to connect these concepts. Cross-lateral exercises involve moving your left hand or foot to the right side of your body, and your right hand or foot to the left side of your body (crossing your midline). Such exercises require commu-nication between your brain’s left and right hemispheres and seem to enhance learning. Because stutterers have more activity in their right hemispheres during speech, when non-stutterers have more activity in their left hemispheres during speech, cross-lateral exercises might enhance stuttering therapy.

Stuttering: A Life Bound Up In Words, by Marty Jezer (1997). Jezer was a talented and entertaining writer, and author of biographies of Abbie Hoffman, Rachel Carson, and other books. This is Jezer's autobiography, and stuttering affected everything in his life. You learn much about stuttering and especially stuttering therapies, because Jezer went gone through just about every therapy program (and still stuttered).

Knotted Tongues, by Benson Bobrick (1996). Bobrick is a historian, and the bulk of the book is about historical and literary persons who stuttered. These include Moses, Charles I, Lewis Carroll, Henry James, W. Somerset Maugham, Winston Churchill, and Marilyn Monroe. Bobrick also covers the history of stuttering treatments. Knotted Tongues is written for non-professionals. The book also has a thirty-page overview of stuttering science, and a twenty-page overview of stuttering therapies.

The Mary Marony series of books, by Suzy Kline, portrays a seven-year-old girl who stutters. She is supported by her parents, speech pathologist, and teacher. In Mary Marony Hides Out (1996), Mary's favorite author comes to talk to her school. She is torn between her desire to talk to the author and her fear of speaking in the school assembly. When she gets up the courage to speak, a classmate makes fun of her, and Mary hides in the bathroom. The author stuttered growing up.

The Loop, by Nicholas Evans (1998; ISBN 0440224624) Like Evans' first novel The Horse Whisperer, this book is set in Montana. The central characters are a successful rancher and Luke, the rancher's 18-year-old son. Luke stutters, and the father punishes him as if stuttering were a character flaw. The other teenagers ridicule Luke. His speech-language pathologist (who uses stuttering modification therapy) is sincere but ineffective. Luke decides not to go to college because he's afraid to talk. He's happy alone in the mountains, watching his father's cattle. Or so his father thinks. Luke is actually watching a family of wolves. When his father wants to kill the wolves, Luke courageously stands up to his father.


text:
General Anatomy/Heart

Hypertension is "increasing in blood pressure". Physiologically (normally) in adult it is under 130/85 mmHg (read: one hundred thirty with eighty five millimeters of mercury column). First value refers to systolic pressure and the second refers to diastolic pressure. Normal blood pressure is defined as blood pressure that does not make any structural or functional modifications on target organs (eye, kidney, brain, heart and periferic vessels). These structural or functional modifications that appear on target organs in hypertension are referred vascular remodeling. Classification:
 * 1) Primary hypertension (multiple causes, or unknown etiology)
 * 2) Secondary hypertension (known cause)

title: General Anatomy/Heart


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts

Skill Level 1 Honors
 category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/ category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1 order=ascending namespace=0

Skill Level 2 Honors
 category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/ category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2 order=ascending namespace=0

Skill Level 3 Honors
 category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/ category=Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3 order=ascending namespace=0


text:
User:AER

It's a me, AER!
I use this name for Wolfenstien: ET, Quake 3, Quake 4, and Doom 3. In Warcraft 3 I am named urbanape. This is the same for Planetside, Medal of Honor Allied Assault (all expansions), Tribes 2, Diablo 2, Starcraft, and in Active Worlds I am a tourist, but named urbanape. Oh yea, and in Tribes 1 I am AER (I think... maybe...). My email is toxicitysystem@gmail.com, feel free to email me with questions about hacking any of the above games (I may have your answer), and anything at all about the following software: -Milkshape 3D -Adobe Photoshop -Wings 3D -Blender (I'm still a newb at this, but I can help other newbs with less experience at least) -Dev C++ (same with this) -GTK Radiant (or any other radiant AT ALL)

I am open for helping out any potential modmakers, by providing models for no cost at all, and I also don't require for you to even give me credit, I'm just happy for something to practice on.

title: User:AER


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Outdoor Industries

The Outdoor Industries category is called Primary Industries in the South Pacific Division.

Index of Honors by Skill Level
|


text:
Wings 3D/User Manual/User Interface/Context Sensitive Menus

Context Sensitive Menus
One of the great advantages of using Wings is its Context Sensitive Menus. With all the modeling tools specific to the current Selection mode just a mouse click away Wings has both a powerful and efficient work flow. Right-clicking anywhere in the Geometry Window will bring up a menu with all the tools and commands available for the current selection. Often this menu is referred to as the Right-Click Menu. There are six different selection modes and each has its own unique Right-Click Menu: No Current Selection, Vertex, Edge, Face, Object/Body and Lights. Right-clicking with any element of geometry selected will bring up the appropriate menu for the mode you are in. If nothing is selected right- clicking brings up the No Selection also referred to as the Primitives menu.

Selection Modes
In Wings3D the menu functions displayed are only those available to the current selection mode employed. After all, why display greyed out menu items that are unavailable to the user? Also note that a lot of operations with the same names should perform a similar operation in their respective modes. It is possible for the behavior of a given operation to vary (sometimes substantially) depending on what mode it occurs in.

Eg Using Face | Rotate will cause all selected, isolated faces to rotate about their own individual (local) axis, but converting the same selection to Vert mode will result in all selected verts rotating around a single common axis.

Create mode items (no current selection)
Selecting any of these creates a basic primitive in the geometry window:
 * Tetrahedron
 * Octahedron
 * Octotoad
 * Dodecahedron
 * Icosahedron
 * Cube
 * Cylinder
 * Cone
 * Sphere
 * Torus
 * Grid
 * Text
 * More
 * Torus Knot
 * Spiral
 * Spring
 * UV Torus
 * Lumpy Torus
 * Spiral Torus

Selecting any of these items creates a lighting reference which may be used for rendering:
 * Light
 * Infinite
 * Point
 * Spot
 * Ambient
 * Area

Selecting Material allows you to edit or create a new material. Selecting image allows you to import an image for later use within wings.

Vertex Mode Items (vertex selected)
Operations used to manipulate vertices:
 * Move
 * Rotate
 * Scale uniform
 * Scale radial
 * Extrude
 * Flatten
 * Intersect
 * Connect
 * Tighten
 * Bevel
 * Dissolve
 * Collapse
 * Deform
 * Vertex color
 * Bend
 * Bend Clamped
 * Shift

Edge mode items (edges selected)
Operations used to manipulate and modify edges:
 * Move
 * Rotate
 * Scale uniform
 * Scale axis
 * Scale radial
 * Slide
 * Extrude
 * Cut
 * Connect
 * Bevel
 * Dissolve
 * Collapse
 * Hardness
 * Loop cut
 * Vertex color
 * Intersect

Face mode items (faces selected)
Operations used to manipulate and modify faces:
 * Move
 * Rotate
 * Scale uniform
 * Scale axis
 * Scale radial
 * Extrude
 * Extrude region
 * Extract region
 * Flatten
 * Inset
 * Intrude
 * Bevel
 * Bridge
 * Bump
 * Lift
 * Put on
 * Mirror
 * Dissolve
 * Collapse
 * Smooth
 * Tesselate
 * Hide
 * Material
 * Vertex Color
 * UV Mapping

Object mode items (Object selected as whole)
Operations used to alter objects (other 3D applications may refer to this as body mode): --07:22, 4 January 2006 (UTC) pauljs75
 * Move
 * Rotate
 * Scale uniform
 * Scale axis
 * Scale radial
 * Flip
 * Invert
 * Tighten
 * Smooth
 * DS Subdivision *
 * Combine
 * Separate
 * Weld
 * Cleanup
 * Auto-smooth
 * Duplicate
 * Delete
 * Rename
 * Show All
 * Vertex Color Mode
 * Object to area light
 * Materials to colors
 * Vertex Color
 * UV Mapping


text:
Talk:Wings 3D/User Manual/User Interface/Context Sensitive Menus

I gave a general outline to get things started with context sensitive menus. Anyone who can improve upon it, add a better description regarding context sensitivity and the outline structure should feel free to do so. Also I think rather than describing every funtion outlined for a given mode, each should be provided with a link and its own page so that it can have its operation described in detail. (Axes, magnet moves, in reference to a point, etc.) It would get even more lengthy otherwise.

--07:31, 4 January 2006 (UTC) pauljs75 (one and the same as at Renderosity and Ezboard Wings3D forums)


text:
Talk:Embedded Systems/Particular Microprocessors

which microcontroller to choose
(Would this be good to put in the book?)

A couple of pages that compare various microprocessors:

 * I expect "APPLICATION NOTE 3221: Benchmarking the MAXQ Instruction-Set Architecture vs. RISC Competitors" to be biased in favor of the Maxim MAXQ, but it seems like a fairly neutral comparison of the Microchip PIC16 family, Atmel AVR family, and the TI MSP430.
 * PIC vs. MSP430 seems to come to the conclusion that, when very low power consumption is critical, the TI MSP430 is the way to go.

A few pointers to C for several microcontrollers:

 * The GCC toolchain for the Texas Instruments MSP430 MCUs http://mspgcc.sourceforge.net/
 * SDCC - Small Device C Compiler for the Intel 8051, Maxim 80DS390, Zilog Z80, Motorola 68HC08, Microchip PIC16, Microchip PIC18 http://sdcc.sourceforge.net/
 * WinAVR for the Atmel AVR (includes GNU GCC for C and C++) http://winavr.sourceforge.net/

A few pointers to Forth for several microcontrollers:

 * many Forth compilers for a wide variety of microprocessors http://www.taygeta.com/forth.html

 * I think all of these things are definately worth mentioning. It makes good sense that we compare/contrast the different microcontrollers, on the basis of their price, the available tools (hardware and software) for production, the differences in pin output (voltage levels, max current throughput, etc.). The current outline also doesn't have any information on Forth, which needs to change. I personally don't know a whole lot about the language, but i would be happy to contribute what i do know. -- 23:43, 4 January 2006 (UTC)
 * PS: Also, when comparing the microcontrollers, it would be a good idea to point out what formfactors they come in. For instance, the TI chips have certain benefits, but it can be difficult to find them in DIP packages. Likewise, PIC18 DIP chips are very long compared to other mid-range DIP chips. We can also discuss how to use other form factors for prototyping and hobby use. -- 23:46, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

I think the list 'which uC to choose' would be much better if compiled into table format, listing which features are available. Things aren't usually depending only on one feature. 193.229.211.1 09:32, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

"PIC vs. MSP430 seems to come to the conclusion that, when very low power consumption is critical, the TI MSP430 is the way to go." >> Well, I think that's not true. There are many application that uses an MSP430 because it is easier to programm as a PIC. The MSP430's von-Neumann Architekture makes it quite simple to acccess its memory. The orthogonal architecture makes it easy to program it in Assembler and allows the C compiler writers to do a good job...

Links broken

 * The links 4 and 5 to parallax.com are broken.

 * ✅. I fixed the link rot. --DavidCary (talk) 18:00, 24 January 2009 (UTC)


text:
Wings 3D/User Manual/User Interface/The Status Bar

The Status Bar
The Status Bar is just below the Toolbar in the Geometry Window.


text:
Talk:Wings 3D/User Manual/User Interface/General Overview

The screen shown on this page requires a special appearance plugin for the icon bar. The default appearance is line-drawn "pyramids". (At least it is for 0.98.31) Also note that the usual default mouse mode in Wings3D is Mirai mode, not Blender mode. This may lead to confusion elsewhere, and should not be the assumed operating mode. When tutorials are provided, it should be made clear what mode is used when explaining specific mouse operations. 08:48, 4 January 2006 (UTC) pauljs75

The new default appearance is the purplish-blue cubes, so screenshot is now correct.

Should the two notes at the beginning, talking about the Mirai camera mode being the standard, and that screenshots may not necessarily reflect the most up-to-date versions of Wings, be moved to another page, like an introduction? Otherwise, we should have these notes on every page, because they apply to every page.


text:
User:JMRyan/Shelf2

Bookshelf: bookshelf

title: User:JMRyan/Shelf2


text:
User:JMRyan/Shelf1

Bookshelf: bookshelf

title: User:JMRyan/Shelf1


text:
Wings 3D/Tutorials

Page added as a starting outline, if you can do better - go ahead and have at it. For those able to contribute, please do so and replace ??? with linked topic. Those of you seeking tutorials here, please be patient. You can still help by politely asking more experienced Wings3D users to contribute here.

Quick Start Guide For Beginners

 * /Introduction to Wings 3D/
 * The Wings 3D Interface
 * View Options
 * Selection Modes
 * Universal Operations (Scale, move)
 * Vertex Operations (Vertex deformations, vertex bevelling)
 * Edge Operations (Cut operations, edge bevelling)
 * Face Operations (Inset, extrude, intrude, bridge)
 * Object Operations (Boolean operations, grouping, splitting, welding)
 * Modelling with primitives
 * Extrusion Modelling
 * /Box Modelling/
 * Subdivision Modelling
 * Good modelling practice
 * Smooth: use it wisely
 * Adding color to your model
 * Using Materials
 * UV Mapping with AutoUV
 * Texturing
 * Texturing

Organic Modeling
Humanoid Figures:

Animal Figures:

Mythological Figures:

Plants:

Other:

Inorganic Modeling
Architecture:
 * Commercial:
 * Houses:
 * Medieval:
 * Industrial:
 * /Making pipe fittings with Wings/A different approach/
 * /More pipe joints/
 * Industrial:
 * /Making pipe fittings with Wings/A different approach/
 * /More pipe joints/

 * Other:

Vehicles:
 * Aircraft:
 * /Modeling a generic helicopter/
 * Modeling a Junkers F13 from plan drawings
 * /Modeling a 2 Blade Propeller/
 * Automobiles:
 * /Box modeling a car with all Quad topography/
 * Other wheeled vehicles:
 * Watercraft:
 * Spacecraft:
 * Misc.:
 * Spacecraft:
 * Misc.:
 * Misc.:
 * Misc.:

Weapons:
 * Primitive/Medieval:
 * Modern:
 * Sci-fi:
 * Sci-fi:
 * Sci-fi:

Tools/Appliances:
 * Antique:
 * Modern:
 * Futuristic/Sci-fi:
 * Futuristic/Sci-fi:
 * Futuristic/Sci-fi:

Other / techniques

 * PuzzledPaul's Magnets Tutorial
 * /Duplicating around a center/

title: Wings 3D/Tutorials


text:
Talk:Wings 3D/Tutorials

Added a basic draft layout to get things going. I might contribute later with a tutorial myself. If you can get the formatting better or come up with a better way of organizing things, please do so.

09:46, 4 January 2006 (UTC) pauljs75

Eh pls löscht ma den Müll wenn ihr nix gebacken bekommt is ja schlimm imma diese wnbs ich mein das is alles Server Auslastungen für eure Spinnerein und verstopft das Netz

title: Talk:Wings 3D/Tutorials


text:
User:JMRyan/Shelf templates

This page is in response to Staff lounge, from which the following is copied:

Is there any policy on this? If there isn't, could we create it? At least as a guideline? I think it'd be very helpful to have a link back to a book's bookshelf. --Dragontamer 03:32, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I've created two templates in my user space that can help with this. Both are intended to be used at the bottom of the page.
 * User:JMRyan/Shelf1 presumes that it will only be used on the main page of a book. It is called with  .  To specify, for example, the Humanities bookshelf, the Bookshelf_name parameter should be "Humanities", not "Wikibooks:Humanities" or "Wikibooks:Humanities bookshelf".
 * User:JMRyan/Shelf2 presumes that it will be used on every of a book. It is called with  where the second parameter is optional.
 * The idea here is to create a Template:Shelf page by copying one of these two templates. If we want recommend that the bookshelf be linked from every page of a book, then copy from User:JMRyan/Shelf2; if we want to recommend that the bookshelf be linked only from the main page of a book, then copy from User:JMRyan/Shelf1.  See User:JMRyan/Shelf templates for examples of use.  Please use User talk:JMRyan/Shelf templates for discussion and to make alternative suggestions.  --JMRyan 10:22, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

yields:

yields:

yields:

title: User:JMRyan/Shelf templates


text: Template:Guitar

title: Template:Guitar


text:
User talk:JMRyan/Shelf templates

Shelf templates
Use this page to discuss the proposed templates at User:JMRyan/Shelf1 and User:JMRyan/Shelf2 or alternatives to these. --JMRyan 10:26, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

 * User:JMRyan/Shelf1 seems interesting. I tried using it at NetHack and Guide to X11. Currently I put it at the top of each page.

 * I have almost no interest in User:JMRyan/Shelf2 because I usually have other methods of linking to the book. For example, NetHack/Introduction and General Advice uses slash convention, so Wikibooks makes an automatic "< NetHack" at the top.

 * For Guide to X11, I have a navigation template called Guide to X11:toc (now Guide to X11 --Kernigh 19:54, 29 January 2006 (UTC)) . I could try to add a link to that template, saying which bookshelf has the book. However, because only the book, not its chapters, is shelved, I prefer using something like User:JMRyan/Shelf1.

 * If we combine a shelf template with the User:ManuelGR/Centralized development status proposal, the combination would improve the shelving of books. --Kernigh 02:32, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Thank you for your interest. Issues raised:

 * 1) User:JMRyan/Shelf2.  This was intended to be useful only if internal pages (subpages, chapters, whatever you want to call them) were to be linked to the bookshelf.  However, I think I agree with you that it is better to link only the book's main or top page to the bookshelf, thus making only User:JMRyan/Shelf1 useful.
 * 2) Placement on a page.  The template was intended for the bottom of the page.  That is why I gave it the look and feel of the Categories listing instead of modeling the look of it after, for example, Template:Wikipedia.  The bookshelves serve a similar function to Categories (but using a different organizing principle), so I intended the bookshelf link to nestle with the category link.  The template does not have to be used that way, but that was what I had in mind when I created it.
 * 3) Combining with User:ManuelGR/Centralized development status proposal.  I'm not sure what you mean.  I can think of three things you might mean:
 * 4) Somehow combine his template and mine.  That does not seem likely to me since the template would not appear on the same pages.  User:ManuelGR's template would appear, for example, in a bookshelf while mine links to the bookshelf.
 * 5) Modify my template to work link his.  In particular, have a standardly named page something like book_name/Bookshelf and have Shelf1 pick up the bookshelf from there.  But if we only link to the bookshelf in on place (on the book's main page), that does not seem helpful.  User:ManuelGR's proposal is useful because the development rating might appear in several places.
 * 6) Simply add as a guideline or policy using my template plus User:ManuelGR's proposal.  Now that I have written all of this, I see that this is most likely what you really had in mind.  My best guess would be to have (1) User:ManuelGR's proposal be by policy, (2) Having a link to the bookshelf from the a book's main page be a policy, and (3) using my template to accomplish (2) be a guideline.

Thanks again for your interest. --JMRyan 09:05, 7 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:JMRyan/Shelf templates


text:
GCSE Science/Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

Like all living things, plants need food to live. This food is used for energy and to make new materials when plants grow. Plants are able to take two inorganic chemicals, carbon dioxide gas and water, to make an organic chemical, glucose. This simple food can be used as an energy source or converted into other useful organic molecules.

Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts: the proteins that participated in the reaction are located in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast.

Photosynthesis requires an input of energy. Plants have found a way to capture the energy from sunlight, using a pigment called chlorophyll. Once this light energy has been captured it can be used to create glucose, so converting the light energy into chemical energy. Oxygen gas is released as a waste chemical.

The formula for photosynthesis is:

 * 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
 * carbon dioxide + water  → glucose + oxygen

The reaction:
 * reduces production of NADPH
 * generates a proton gradient for the formation of ATP
 * produces oxygen

Photosystems
There are two kinds of photosystems in photosynthesis that are called Photosystem I (PsI) and Photosystem II (PsII). During PsI, a light absorbing pigment called chlorophyll which is a molecule that absorbs red light of 700 nanometer wavelength most efficiently, we normally called it P700. On the other hand, the pigment in PsII reaction center chlorophyll absorbs called P680 because it absorbs light at around 680 nanometers. The reason photosynthesis has two system is that one alone can't capture enough energy to power the carbon-fixation reactions and to supply the rest of the energy requirements of plant metabolism. The combinations of these systems can cause different mechanisms to change the light energy to chemical energy, therefore provide the maximum energy that plants require.

The process, however, starts with PsII, not PsI. The energy absorbed by a P680 molecule of chlorophyll in the reaction center of PsII first converts the molecule to its excited state and then raises the energy level of an electron, and then the electron lose from the molecule, electron transport system accepts the electron, and immediately moves it down the transport chain, losing some energy in each transfer. We can tell that when The P680 molecule losing an electron, is unstable. To make it become stable again, we need to draw another electron from water. The process and continue over and over.

ATP known as a energy resource, produced from the energy that lost during electron transfer. the molecule universally used by organisms as a quick energy source.

The energy that reaches the end of the electron transport chain is transferred to the P700 chlorophyll in the reaction center of PsI. As the above said, both photosystem are similar except PsI captures light energy at 700 nm.

'''

Cyclic Photophosphorylation
''' In the process between the photosystems discussed above, cyclic photophosphorylation occurs on the thylakoid membrane. During Cyclic Photophosphorylation the electrons are recycled. The excited electrons resulting from the absorption of light in PS I are received by the primary electron acceptor and then transferred to an electron transport chain(move from donor to acceptor). And then the electron return back to the reaction centre, repeat the process again. The electrons are using to translocate Protons which the ATPase uses to synthesise ATP. No reduction of NADP+ occurs in this process.

'''

Accessory pigments are able to funnel energy into reaction center
Chlorophyll A & B can absorb light and funnel the energy to reaction center. Robert Emerson and William Arnold did an experiment on Chlorella cells in 1932. The experiment implies that only 1 molecule of O2 was produced for 2500 chlorophyll molecules excited. Both additional chlorophylls A and B (A has methyl group and B has formyl group) are closely associated with reaction centers.

Limiting Factors
Photosynthesis requires the following 3 factors:

 * 1) Carbon dioxide
 * 2) Water
 * 3) Light

There are a 4 factors which affect the rate at which a plant can make glucose by photosynthesis.

 * 1) The Concentration of Carbon Dioxide
 * 2) The Light Intensity
 * 3) The Temperature
 * 4) Any factor that influences the production of chlorophyll, enzymes, or energy carriers(ATP and NADPH).

We can achieve a better rate of photosynthesis, if more CO2 is in the air, and if its content was less than the process needed, photosynthesis couldn't happen normally. It is hypothesized that global warming due to increased CO2 might increase plant growth.

Light intensity is another rate factor for photosynthesis. We can increase the light intensity in order to achieve more photosynthesis. But we need to know that where the plant has reached maximum photosynthesis levels, since any increase in light intensity will not affect the plant further.

Photosynthesis will occur faster in area with high temperature. But on the other hand, humidity can also affect the photosynthesis. When the air is saturated with water vapour, photosynthesis is limited. This is because at saturation levels, the air cannot absorb more moisture from the plants when they open the stoma to exchange gases.

The Structure of a leaf
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of plants. The leaves have many adaptations to make sure that as much photosynthesis goes on as possible. The more a plant can photosynthesize, the more food it can make and the faster it can grow.

 * 1) The leaf has a waxy cuticle to stop it from losing water and drying out.
 * 2) The epidermis is a protective layer of cells and contains no chloroplasts.
 * 3) The palisade layer contains the most chloroplasts as it is near the top of the leaf. The chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll.
 * 4) The palisade cells are arranged upright. This means the light has to pass through the cell lengthways and so increases the chance of light hitting a chloroplast and being absorbed.
 * 5) The spongy layer contains fewer chloroplasts, enough to catch what the palisade layer cannot absorb.
 * 6) The spongy layer has air spaces to make it easier for gases to circulate in the leaf.
 * 7) The vascular bundle provides the leaf with water via the xylem vessels. Food, such as sugar, made in the leaf is transported in the phloem vessels to the rest of the leaf.
 * 8) The stomata (stoma - singular) are tiny pores that allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf while oxygen leaves the leaf.
 * 9) Guard cells can open or close the stomatal pores to regulate how much gas can enter or leave the leaf. At night the pores close, opening in the daytime.

Respiration in plants
Respiration is the production of energy from glucose and oxygen with the release of carbon dioxide and water as waste products.Photo respiration occurs in many plants under sunlight. It differs from cellular respiration, which occurs in the mitochondria. The difference between photo respiration and cellular respiration is photo respiration does not release energy when it occurs. On the other hand, cellular respiration releases energy. The common part of both respiration is both of them absorb oxygen and release CO2. Photo respiration occurs at the same time with photosynthesis and uses some of the newly made carbohydrate for energy, thereby reducing the yield of photosynthesis to make it more efficiency.

The most important enzyme for the respiration is rubisco, it can make the respiration efficient. Because rubisco lacks the ability of reorganization, it accepts the O2 rather than CO2 and catalyzes a series of different reactions, resulting in carbon being released and energy being expended for no net energy gain.

Respiration:
 * C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy released

 * Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + Energy released

Photosynthesis:
 * 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

 * Carbon dioxide + water + Energy → Glucose + Oxygen

Plants use the energy from respiration to power the processes involved in growth.

Uses of glucose
The energy obtained from respiration is used to turn glucose into many other substances. Typical uses of glucose are:

 * Storage products

 * - glucose is used to make starch which can be converted back to glucose as required. Potatoes and rice are examples of parts of plants that contain starch.
 * - glucose is converted into lipids, especially in seeds. Sunflower oil and rapeseed oil, which are used in cooking, come from sunflower and oilseed rape seeds.

 * Structural products
 * - glucose is converted to cellulose to make cell walls.

 * Other products

 * - glucose and nitrates are used to make amino acids which are used to make proteins.
 * - glucose is also a basic raw material for making chlorophyll.
 * - glucose is used in respiration.

'''

The ability to convert light into chemical energy is ancient
''' The photosystems have common structure which implies a common evolutionary origin. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis became important approximately 2 billion years ago. Prior to this, green and purple sulfur bacteria existed which carried out anoxygenic reactions. And both of them are similar to oxygenic photosysthesis. And because no archaea was found in photosynthetic organism, concluded that photosynthesis did not evolve immediately at the origin of life.

title: GCSE Science/Photosynthesis


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GCSE Science/Breathing and Respiration

Breathing
'''Breathing is a physical process during which the oxygen rich air is drawn into the lungs and the carbon dioxide rich air is forced out from the lungs. It involves two steps, inhalation and exhalation.'''

Inhalation                                                                                Exhalation

i)Rib move upwards and outward.                                                                   i)Ribs move downwards and inward.

ii)Diaphragm is pushed downwards and flattens.                                           ii)Diaphragm moves upwards and becomes dome shaped.

iii)Volume of chest cavity increases.                                                              iii)Volume of chest cavity decreases.

iv)Lungs expand, air pressure becomes low.                                                  iv)Size of lungs reduces, air pressure becomes high.

v)Atmospheric air at a higher pressure rushes into the lungs.                       v)Air rushes out of the lungs as atmospheric air pressure is lower.

The zone of the body between the neck and the bottom of the ribs is known as the thorax'''. The major organs in the thorax are the heart, lungs and tongue. The lungs and associated airways allow us to breathe.''' In the head the airways consist of the mouth and nasal passages. Air and food has a common passage in the throat.

The airways from the neck into the lungs have the following divisions:

 * Larynx or voicebox. This is where there is speech and sound generation.
 * Trachea or windpipe.
 * Two tubes that are each known as a bronchus, plural bronchi.
 * Bronchioles which are subdivisions of each bronchus.
 * Alveoli which are sacks at the end of the airways that allow oxygenation of the blood.

The key features of breathing are that when we breathe in the intercostal muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm both contract; when we breathe out both of these muscles relax. When we breathe in the contraction of the intercostals pulls the sternum up and away from the body and the descent of the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. Notice that in the resting state (breathing out) the diaphragm bulges up under the lungs, the lungs themselves are slightly elastic and pull the diaphragm back to this position

The illustrations below are an anatomically correct portrayal of the appearance of the lungs in a human being. The lung tissue itself appears pink in non-smoking country people and almost black in smokers who live in cities.

Oxygenation of the blood
The two main functions of the lungs are to oxygenate the blood and to remove waste carbon dioxide.

The blood is oxygenated in the alveoli. The alveoli are thin walled and surrounded by capillaries. The blood enters the capillary network around the alveoli from the pulmonary artery and leaves the capillary network via the pulmonary vein.

Oxygen diffuses into the blood through the alveolar and capillary walls and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood. The alveoli have a surface area of about 70 square metres to make this gas exchange as fast as possible.

Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and can easily and reversibly form compounds such as carbonic acid and bicarbonates.

Oxygen does not dissolve much in water, to overcome this problem the oxygen in the blood is stored in red blood cells. These contain haemoglobin which can combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. The red blood cells contain the oxygen in the blood. The blood transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.

Oxy-haemoglobin is bright red and haemoglobin is dark red, this is why veins look dark and why all the diagrams show veins in blue and arteries in red. The exception is the pulmonary artery which carries dark red, de-oxygenated blood to the lungs and the pulmonary vein which carries bright red oxygenated blood away from the lungs.

The composition of exhaled air (air that is breathed out) is very different from the composition of inhaled air (air that is breathed in). Inhaled air has the same composition as normal air, it contains:

 * 78% nitrogen
 * 21% oxygen
 * 1% inert gas such as argon
 * 0.04% carbon dioxide
 * little water vapour

Exhaled air contains less oxygen and more carbon dioxide, it is also saturated with water vapour. Exhaled air contains:

 * 78% nitrogen
 * 16% oxygen
 * 1% inert gas such as argon
 * 4% carbon dioxide
 * saturated with water vapour

The difference between the amount of oxygen in inhaled and exhaled air is equal to the difference in the amount of carbon dioxide in exhaled and inhaled air.

The special adaptions of the alveoli for gas exchange are:

 * Thin walls
 * Huge surface area
 * Covered in capillaries to provide blood
 * A wet lining to dissolve gases

Aerobic respiration
Respiration is the process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose are converted into energy usable for life processes. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen to oxidise glucose and produce energy. The equation for the oxidation of glucose is:

 * C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy released

 * Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon dioxide + water + Energy released

In a fire there is a massive uncontrolled release of energy as light and heat. Respiration is a similar process but it occurs in gradual steps.

Most animals and plants use aerobic respiration as a primary source of energy.

glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + energy

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are cell organelles which float around in the cytoplasm and are found in both plant and animal cells. In cells, aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria. Here, the energy is made in the form of a compound called ATP. However, some of the energy made is lost as heat energy. The ATP drives chemical reactions and is used by the cells as a source of energy to do this.

Anaerobic respiration
When a person is doing very heavy exercise and the blood cannot supply enough oxygen another sort of respiration occurs. This converts glucose into energy without the need for oxygen and is known as anaerobic respiration. The reaction is:

 * Glucose → Energy released + lactic acid

Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic respiration. Unfortunately the insufficient blood supply that leads to anaerobic respiration also means that the lactic acid builds up in the muscles. High lactic acid concentrations are painful and felt as cramp. When exercise stops, the blood supply is able to provide enough oxygen to convert the lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water but this takes time and the muscle pain may continue after exercise until the lactic acid has been converted.

The amount of Oxygen required to oxidize lactic acid that accumulates on muscles due to an aerobic respiration is known as the oxygen debt. Carbon dioxide and lactic acid both cause increases in breathing rate and heart rate to allow the body to repay the oxygen debt. The oxygen debt is the reason why we continue to be out of breath even after exercise. If athletes are very fit their circulation can provide extra oxygen more rapidly and their recovery time, the time required to restore normal breathing and pulse, will be shorter than in people who are not fit.

Yeasts and anaerobic respiration
The direct conversion of glucose to energy without the use of oxygen occurs in many yeasts and fungi. The ethanol that is used in alcoholic drinks is a result of anaerobic respiration in yeast, the reaction is:

 * Glucose → Energy released + ethanol + carbon dioxide

Brewers use various types of brewers yeast to produce alcohol. In fizzy alcoholic drinks such as champagne the bottles are tightly stoppered to prevent the carbon dioxide from escaping.

title: GCSE Science/Breathing and Respiration


text:
GCSE Science/Atoms and Bonding

=Atoms= An atom (Greek language|Greek άτομον from ά: non and τομον: divisible) is a submicroscopic structure found in all ordinary matter. It is the smallest unit of an chemical element to retain all the chemical properties of that element. The word atom originally meant a smallest possible particle of matter. They thought that you couldn't divide the atom any further. Later, the objects that had been called atoms were found to be further divisible into smaller subatomic particles, but the word atom nonetheless continues to refer to them.

Most atoms are composed of three types of massive subatomic particles which govern their external properties:
 * electrons, which have a negative electric charge and are the least massive of the three;
 * protons, which have a positive electric charge and are about 1836 times more massive than electrons; and
 * neutrons, which have no electric charge and are about 1838 times more massive than electrons.

Together, protons and neutrons form the atomic nucleus of an atom, which is surrounded by the electrons.

Atoms can differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain. Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, but can differ in the number of neutrons, in which case they are called isotopes of that element. Atoms are electrostatically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus are less tightly bound to the atom and are relatively easily transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms. Atoms which have either given away or taken electrons from another atom are called ions. Particles in the nucleus also sometimes escape atoms, in a process known as radioactive decay.

Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of chemistry, and are conserved in chemical reactions. Atoms are able to chemically bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of water is a combination of two hydrogen and one oxygen atom.

=Bonding / Reactions=

Exothermic reactions
According to energy balance criteria, that is, chemical reaction equilibria criteria, any closed system will tend to minimize its free energy. Without any outside influence, any reaction mixture, too, will try to do the same. For many cases, an analysis of the enthalpy of the system will give a decent account of the energetics of the reaction mixture. The enthalpy of a reaction is calculated using standard reaction enthalpy|reaction enthalpies and the Hess' law of constant heat summation. Many of these enthalpies may be found in beginners' books on thermodynamics. For example, consider the combustion of Organic Chemistry/Alkanes and cycloalkanes/Alkanes/Methane|methane in oxygen:

 * CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

By calculating the amounts of energy required to break all the bonds on the left ("before") and right ("after") sides of the equation using collected data, it is possible to calculate the energy difference between the reactants and the products. This is referred to as ΔH, where Δ (Delta) means difference, and H stands for enthalpy, a measure of energy which is equal to the heat transferred at constant pressure. ΔH is usually given in units of Joule|kilojoules (kJ) or in Calorie|kilocalories (kcal).

If ΔH is negative for the reaction, then energy has been released often in the form of heat. This type of reaction is referred to as an exothermic reaction (literally, outside heat, or throwing off heat). An exothermic reaction is more favourable and thus more likely to occur. An example reaction is combustion, known from everyday experience, since burning gas in air produces heat.

Endothermic reactions
w:Image:Endothermic.png|400px|thumb|right|A sketch of an endothermic reaction

A reaction may have a positive ΔH. If a reaction has a positive ΔH, it consumes energy as the reaction moves towards completion. This type of reaction is called an endothermic reaction (literally, inside heat, or absorbing heat).

The above rule, "Exothermic reactions are favourable", is usually true. However, there may be situations where exothermic reactions may not be favourable. This happens when the stability obtained due to loss of enthalpy is off set by a corresponding decrease in entropy (a measure of disorder). The exact rule is that a reaction is favourable when the Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Gibbs free energy|Gibbs free energy of that reaction is negative where ΔG = ΔH − TΔS; ΔG being the change in Gibbs free energy, ΔH being the change in enthalpy, and ΔS is the change in entropy

A reaction is called spontaneous process|spontaneous if its thermodynamically favoured, by that meaning that it causes a net increase on entropy. Spontaneous reactions (in opposition to non-spontaneous reactions) do not need external perturbations (such as energy supplement) to happen. In a system at chemical equilibrium, it is expected to have larger concentrations of the substances formed by the spontaneous direction of the process.

Thus, in a global isolated system (which it strictly isn't, see entropy), spontaneous reactions may be understood to occur without Intelligence_%28trait%29|human interference. Most spontaneous reactions in this system are exothermic (such as rusting) or metamorphosis, thus increasing the global entropy, though photosynthesis is an important exception (in a global system).

title: GCSE Science/Atoms and Bonding


text:
User:Joerg Kurt Wegner

still really empty ;-)

title: User:Joerg Kurt Wegner


text:
User talk:Joerg Kurt Wegner

no discussions so far ;-)

title: User talk:Joerg Kurt Wegner


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User talk:TheCoffee

Ahem, if I may welcome myself...
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! TheCoffee 13:16, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:TheCoffee


text:
User:TheCoffee

Hi, I'm an administrator on the English Wikipedia, and a clueless but cautious n00b on Wikibooks.

title: User:TheCoffee


text:
SAT Study Guide/Part 3 - The Critical Reading Section/Sentence Completion

The object of the Sentence Completion section of the SAT is for the test-taker to complete the given sentence using context clues.

A sentence completion question may have one or more blanks, and five answers to choose from. For example:

Scotland is a nation in the north of the Island of Great Britain; it has a(n) _________ economy that distinguishes it from the rest of the United Kingdom.

 * A. dignified
 * B. self-sufficient
 * C. fancy
 * D. unique
 * E. complex

We can use context to help us select the correct answer. The blank is clearly describing Scotland's economy. From the rest of the sentence, we can determine that we know two things about Scotland - it's in the north of Great Britain and its economy distinguishes it somehow. So, the blank must relate to one of those things. The geographic location of Scotland is probably irrelevant when describing its economy, so the blank must mean something relating to 'distinguishing'.

While distinguished can sometimes relate to being (A) dignified, that is not how the word is being used in this context, and while (B), (C), and (E) may be true, only (D) unique means the same thing as being distinguished, i.e. standing out.

Therefore, the answer is D. unique.


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Dravidians

What country did they live in?
Dravidian refers to the speakers of the Dravidian languages in South Asia. There are around 220 million native speakers of Dravidian languages. Dravidian-speaking people are mostly found in southern India and Sri Lanka, with smaller groups in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

Although in modern times speakers of the various Dravidian languages have mainly occupied the southern portion of India, nothing definite is known about the ancient domain of the Dravidian parent speech. It is, however, a well-established and well-supported hypothesis that Dravidian speakers must have been widespread throughout India, including the northwest region.[6] Origins of Dravidian people are informed by various theories proposed by linguists, anthropologists, geneticist and historians.

Some linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the Indian subcontinent before a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early Indus Valley civilisation (Harappa and Mohenjo Daro) is often identified as having been Dravidian.[7] Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers such as Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.

What did their buildings look like?
Dravidian architecture was an architectural idiom that emerged in the Southern part of the Indian subcontinent or South India. It consists primarily of temples with pyramid shaped towers and are constructed of sandstone, soapstone or granite. Mentioned as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra, the majority of the existing structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Telangana, and Andhra pradesh.

What did they eat?
Rice is the staple diet, with fish being an integral component of coastal South Indian meals. Coconut is an important ingredient in Kerala and costal part of Karnataka of South India, whereas the cuisine in Andhra Pradesh is characterized by the delicious pickles, spicy aromatic curries and the generous use of chili powder. Dosa, Idli, Uttapam etc. are popular throughout the region. Coastal areas like the state of Kerala and the city of Mangalore are known for their seafood. South Indian coffee is generally quite robust, and coffee is a preferred drink throughout the Malabar region.Tamil Nadu is well known for its idli,dosai,pongal,sambhar,vadai which is the common breakfast in Tamil families.

What did they wear?
Traditionally, Dravidian men do not cover their upper body. Sometimes, in a formal situation, a piece of cloth may cover the upper body. Certain temples in South India, even today ban men from wearing upper-body garments when inside the temple. The lungi or mundu or panchey are worn by men. The lungi is draped over clockwise or counterclockwise and is tied at the back or fixed just along the waist line.

Women traditionally wear the sari while the men wear a type of sarong, which could be either a white dhoti or a colourful lungi with typical batik patterns. The sari, being an unstitched drape, enhances the shape of the wearer while only partially covering the midriff. In Indian philosophy, the navel of the Supreme Being is considered as the source of life and creativity.[1][2][3][5] Hence by tradition, the stomach and the navel is to be left unconcealed, though the philosophy behind the costume has largely been forgotten. Traditionally, South Indian men do not cover their upper body. Sometimes, in a formal situation, a piece of cloth may cover the upper body. Certain temples in South India even ban men from wearing upper-body garments when inside the temple.

What did they look like?
The Elamo-Dravidians are said to be Neolithic settlers from modern-day south western Iran. They are assumed to be darker skinned Caucasian people with slender body and built and copper skin tone. They are usually lumped with the Mediterranean race. They must have taken the route from the erstwhile Elam region via Balochistan to the Indus region around 8000 to 7000 B.C., where they are often credited to have built the famed Harappan civilization. They eventually mixed with the local Austro-Asiatic peoples, who were of Proto-Australoid and Paleo-Mongoloid stock. The admixture was liberal, steady and stabilised. As a result, most modern day Dravidians have clear and dominant Australoid features.

What did their writing look like?
The best-known Dravidian languages are Tamil (தமிழ்), Telugu (తెలుగు), Malayalam (മലയാളം), and Kannada (ಕನ್ನಡ). There are three subgroups within the Dravidian language family: North Dravidian, Central Dravidian, and South Dravidian, matching for the most part the corresponding regions in the Indian subcontinent.

Dravidian languages are spoken by more than 200 million people. They appear to be unrelated to languages of other known families like Indo-European.

Dravidian grammatical impact on the structure and syntax of Indo-Aryan languages is considered far greater than the Indo-Aryan grammatical impact on Dravidian. Some linguists explain this anomaly by arguing that Middle Indo-Aryan and New Indo-Aryan were built on a Dravidian substratum.[24] There are also hundreds of Dravidian loanwords in Indo-Aryan languages, and vice versa.

What is their history?
South India remains is in the Mesolithic until 2500 BCE. Microlith production is attested for the period 6000 to 3000 BCE. The Neolithic period lasts from 2500 BCE to 1000 BCE, followed by the Iron Age, characterized by megalithic burials.[1] Comparative excavations carried out in Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district and in Northern India have provided evidence of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture.[2] The Krishna Tungabhadra Valley[3] is also a place for Megalithic culture in South India.

The earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu[4] at around 1000 BC. Early epigraphic evidence begins to appear from about the 5th century BCE, in the form of Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, reflecting the southward spread of Buddhism.

Evidence in the forms of documents and inscriptions do not appear often in the history of ancient South India. Although there are signs that the history dates back to several centuries BCE, we only have any authentic archeological evidence from the early centuries of the common era.

During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE) the three Tamil dynasties of Chola, Chera and Pandya were running in the south, probably with late megalithic phase material culture. These areas (known as Tamilakam- "Land of Tamils"), while not part of Ashoka's empire, were in friendly terms with the Maurya Empire.

What is left of them today?
Dravidians have contributed in various fields of science, medicine and arts. Even today many scientific intellectuals from India trace their roots to ancient Dravidians.

This civilization gave the world the language with letters known as Tamil. Tamil is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world. 2,200-year-old Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found on Samanamalai It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past."

Kalaripayattu is an Indian martial art which originated in the west coast of the then Tamilakam, during the early 13th Century AD. It is considered to be one of the oldest fighting system in existence.

It is now practiced in Kerala, in contiguous parts of Tamil Nadu and among the Malayali community of Malaysia. It was originally practiced in northern and central parts of Kerala and the Tulunadu region of Karnataka.

It is claimed that learned warriors can disable or kill their opponents by merely touching the correct marmam (vital point). This is taught only to the most promising and level-headed persons, to discourage misuse of the technique. Marmashastram stresses on the knowledge of marmam and is also used for marma treatment (marmachikitsa). This system of marma treatment comes under siddha vaidhyam, attributed to the sage Agastya and his disciples.