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Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Quicksort

Iterative version
function QuickSort(Array, Left, Right) var L2, R2, PivotValue begin Stack.Push(Left, Right);      // pushes Left, and then Right, on to a stack while not Stack.Empty do begin Stack.Pop(Left, Right);   // pops 2 values, storing them in Right and then Left repeat PivotValue := Array[(Left + Right) div 2]; L2 := Left; R2 := Right; repeat while Array[L2] < PivotValue do // scan left partition L2 := L2 + 1; while Array[R2] > PivotValue do // scan right partition R2 := R2 - 1; if L2 <= R2 then begin if L2 != R2 then Swap(Array[L2], Array[R2]); // swaps the data at L2 and R2 L2 := L2 + 1; R2 := R2 - 1; end; until L2 >= R2; if R2 - Left > Right - L2 then // is left side piece larger? begin if Left < R2 then Stack.Push(Left, R2); Left := L2; end; else begin if L2 < Right then // if left side isn't, right side is larger Stack.Push(L2, Right); Right := R2; end; until Left >= Right; end; end;

ALGOL 68
Quick sort in ALGOL 68 using the PAR clause to break the job into multiple threads.

AppleScript
This is a basic implementation using C.A.R. Hoare's algorithm with pivot in middle (sometimes referred to as binary or dichotomic sort). The use of a script object to store the list makes this version about 10 times faster than previously proposed one (for a list of a 1000 strings). Also "left" and "right" are keywords, and may not always run as expected. Improvement can also be done depending on data to be sorted by choosing pivot randomly or by increasing their umbers.

This is a straightforward implementation. It is certainly possible to come up with a more efficient one, but it will probably not be as clear as this one:

ARM Assembly
This ARM RISC assembly language implementation for sorting an array of 32-bit integers demonstrates how well quicksort takes advantage of the register model and capabilities of a typical machine instruction set (note that this particular implementation does not meet standard calling conventions and may use more than O(log n) space):

The call produces 3 words of stack per recursive call and is able to take advantage of its knowledge of its own behavior. A more efficient implementation would sort small ranges by a more efficient method. If an implementation obeying standard calling conventions were needed, a simple wrapper could be written for the initial call to the above function that saves the appropriate registers.

AutoIt v3
This is a straightforward implementation based on the AppleScript example. It is certainly possible to come up with a more efficient one, but it will probably not be as clear as this one:

C
The implementation in the core implementations section is limited to arrays of integers. The following implementation works with any data type, given its size and a function that compares it. This is similar to what ISO/POSIX compliant C standard libraries provide:

Result: sorted_num_list={1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

Here's yet another version with various other improvements:

An alternate simple C quicksort. The first C implementation above does not sort the list properly if the initial input is a reverse sorted list, or any time in which the pivot turns out be the largest element in the list. Here is another sample quick sort implementation that does address these issues. Note that the swaps are done inline in this implementation. They may be replaced with a swap function as in the above examples.

This sorts an array of integers using quicksort with in-place partition.

The following sample of C code can be compiled to sort a vector of strings (defined as char *list[ ]), integers, doubles, etc. This piece of code implements a mixed iterative-recursive strategy that avoids out of stack risks even in worst case. It runs faster than the standard C lib function qsort, especially when used with partially sorted arrays (compiled with free Borland bcc32 and tested with 1 million strings vector).

Iterative Quicksort
Quicksort could also be implemented iteratively with the help of a little stack. Here a simple version with random selection of the pivot element:

The pseudorandom selection of the pivot element ensures efficient sorting in O(n log n) under all input conditions (increasing, decreasing order, equal elements). The size of the needed stack is smaller than 2·log2(n) entries (about 99.9% probability). If a limited stack overflows the sorting simply restarts.

C++
This is a generic, STL-based version of quicksort.

Note that this implementation uses last iterator content, and is not suitable for a std::[whatever]sort replacement as is.

Here's a shorter version than the one in the core implementations section which takes advantage of the standard library's partition function:

C#
The followings C# implementations uses the functional aspect of c#

Faster cause uses partition

The following example uses linq to filter the list

The following C# implementation uses a random pivot.

D
Based on the C code posted at rossetacode.org

Delphi
This example sorts strings using quicksort.

Note: This can be considered bad code, as it is very slow.

This implementation sorts an array of integers.

This slightly modified implementation sorts an array of records. This is approximately 8x quicker than the previous one. Note: this is QuickSort only, more speedup can be gain with handling trivial case (comparing two values), or implementing Bubble or Shell sort on small ranges.

Elixir
The following Elixir code sorts collections that implement the Enumerbale protocol of items of any type that can be compared using the < operator.

Erlang
The following Erlang code sorts lists of items of any type.

Haskell
The Haskell code in the core implementations section is almost self explanatory but can suffer from inefficiencies because it crawls through the list "rest" twice, once for each list comprehension. A smart implementation can perform optimizations to prevent this inefficiency, but these are not required by the language. The following implementation does not have the aforementioned inefficiency, as it uses a partition function that ensures that we only traverse `xs' once:

Another version:

An even shorter version:

A rather fast version which builds the list from the end, making the use of (++) ok, it only traverses the list of lower parts, prepending them to head of the higher and equal lists. One draw back is that it requires the whole list be sorted, it's not very good for laziness:

qsort xs = qsort' xs [] qsort' [] end = end qsort' (x:xs) end = qsort' lower (equal ++ qsort' higher end) where (lower, equal, higher) = partit x xs ([],[x],[]) partit s [] part = part partit s (x:xs) (l,e,h) |x < s = partit s xs (x:l, e, h)       |x > s = partit s xs (l, e, x:h) |otherwise = partit s xs (l, x:e, h)

J
The J example in the core implementations section is extremely terse and difficult to understand. This implementation, from the J Dictionary, is less obtuse:

sel=: adverb def 'x. # [' quicksort=: verb define if. 1 >: #y. do. y. else. (quicksort y. sel e=.y.{~?#y. end. )

Java
The following example uses the functional characteristics of Java 8

Here is a sample Java implementation that sorts an ArrayList of numbers.

The following Java implementation uses a randomly selected pivot. Analogously to the Erlang solution above, a user-supplied determines the partial ordering of array elements:

With the advent of J2SE 5.0 you can use parameterized types to avoid passing the  used above.

Another implementation.

Here is a sample that uses recursion, like the Groovy implementation:

JavaScript
Here is another JavaScript implementation using declarative programming that does not mutate the input.

Mathematica
Here's a functional-style implementation: Here's a test driver which should yield :

Perl
Or:

Or:

PHP
With array_filter and consecutive numerical keys

Here is an in-place algorythm that performs better than the implementations above. Of course in real life use sort PHP native function.

Prolog
The version in the core implementations section is concise and, because it uses tail recursion, efficient. Here's another version:

Python
Using list comprehensions:

With in place partitioning and random pivot selection:

The above takes longer than the in place sort below, which only swaps values above the pivot value to the left, with values below the pivot to the right, instead of the previous, which re-swaps already swapped under pivot values, which doubles the number of swaps.

However, both in-place sorts are slower than the memory consuming list comprehension version, which itself is 10 times slower than the in-built sorted function.

The version below doesn't avoid the bad sorted input problem, by choosing a random pivot element or median-of-three pivot element.

Ruby
Using Closures:

Using Closures but with a random pivot:

Scala
Or shorter version:

Scheme
This uses SRFI 1 and SRFI 8. It avoids redundantly traversing the list: it partitions it with the pivot in one traversal, not two, and it avoids copying entire lists to append them, by instead only adding elements on the front of the output list's tail.

Shell
While many of the other scripting languages (e.g. Perl, Python, Ruby) have a built-in library sort routine, POSIX shells generally do not.

The following was adapted from the Applescript code above and used in the bash debugger. It has been tested on bash, zsh, and the Korn shell.

Standard ML
The following example—though less general than the snippet in the core implementations section in that it does not accept a predicate argument—strives to more closely resemble the implementations in the other functional languages. The use of  in both examples enables the implementation to walk the list only once per call, thereby reducing the constant factor of the algorithm.

Replacing the predicate is trivial:

A cleaner version that sacrifices the efficiency of  and resembles the list-comprehension versions in other functional languages:

Visual Basic
Another implementation:

To generalize it, simply change types to Variant.

Zilog Z80000 Assembly
This implementation is in z80 assembly code. The processor is really ancient, and so it's basically a register-stack recursion juggling feat. More on it and the author's comments here. It takes the register pairs BC and HL which point to the start and end memory locations to the list of one-byte elements to be sorted. All registers are filled with "garbage" data in the process, so they need to be pushed to the stack to be saved. The script is about 44 bytes long, and does not have pivot-optimizing code.

TorqueScript
This is an implementation of Quicksort using script from the Torque game Builder (aka TorqueScript).

FORTRAN 90/95
This implementation of quicksort in FORTRAN 90/95 is non-recursive, and choose as pivot element the median of three (the first, last and middle element of the list). It also uses insertion sort to sort lists with less than 10 elements.

This implementation of Quicksort closely follows the one that can be found in the FORTRAN 90/95 GPL library AFNL.

Pascal
Another procedure with extracted partition function

Примеры реализации быстрой сортировки


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Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Selection sort

This article describes implementations of the selection sort sorting algorithm in a variety of real-world programming languages.

C
This is an implementation of the unstable variant:

This is an implementation of the stable variant:

Java
An iterative implementation:

A recursive implementation:

Ruby
Implementazioni di algoritmi/Selection sort

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Insertion sort

Ada
Sorts an array of integers.

C/C++
In C:

In C++:

In C++, half insertion sort:

C# 2.0
This example sorts a list of objects of any type T that implements IComparable. It demonstrates C# 2.0 generics and in particular the "where" clause.

Fortran 90/95
This implementation of Insertion sort follows closely the implementation that can be found in the GPL FORTRAN 90/95 GPL library AFNL.

Java
another general implements.

shorter version
The insert function is the same as above.

Pascal
Linked list version

Standard ML
fun insertsort [] = [] | insertsort (x::xs) = let fun insert (x:real, []) = [x] | insert (x:real, y::ys) = if x<=y then x::y::ys else y::insert(x, ys) in insert(x, insertsort xs) end;

shorter version
The insert function is the same as above.

Ruby
It sorts the original array.

Swift
In Swift:

NASM
C prototype is

Assembler routine is

VB
And here's something a little bit quicker.

Implementazioni di algoritmi/Insertion sort Примеры реализации сортировки вставками


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Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Heapsort

Basic heapsort
With an existing heap data structure, a basic heapsort is simple to implement.

Common Lisp
This is an almost direct translation of the heapsort pseudocode found at Wikipedia, taking a list of scalars as input.

In-place heapsort
The disadvantage of the basic method is its memory requirement; it requires both an array and a heap of size n.

If we realize that heaps can be stored as arrays, a solution presents itself: Store the heap in the same array as the unsorted/sorted elements.

C
This is a fast implementation of heapsort in C, adapted from Numerical Recipes in C but designed to be slightly more readable and to index from 0.

Ocaml
This implementation is in place and uses the imperative features of the language such as loops and mutable reference cells.

Example of use: # let a = [|4;45;67;4;2;2;3;4;6;8;9;9;7;5;4;32;3;4;5;6;6;4;3;2;3;5;7;8;9;8;7;6;54|] in heapsort a (Array.length a); a;; - : int array = [|2; 2; 2; 3; 3; 3; 3; 4; 4; 4; 4; 4; 4; 5; 5; 5; 6; 6; 6; 6; 7; 7; 7; 8; 8; 8; 9; 9; 9; 32; 45; 54; 67|]


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GTK+ By Example/Theming

About
The aim of this page is to provide a guide to creating and modifying themes for GTK+ on both Linux and Windows.

Description
Customising the look of GTK+ applications involves modifying RC files, usually called.

Explanation of GTKs rc files.
Some Gtk apps can have lots of rc files. Theses are initialization files and are usually modified from the application's preference dialog. GTKRC files are plain text files saved as "gtkrc" with no extension. For more information on the GTK+ rc file format visit http://library.gnome.org/devel/gtk-tutorial/stable/c2111.html This guide will concentrate on the one file that is used to adjust the look and feel of the application.

GTKRC'S
A GTK+ rc file can contain 4 main parts:
 * The Style Declaration – How an item will be drawn onscreen,
 * A Class Declaration – Assigns styles to a class,
 * A Widget Declaration – Assigns a style to a widget,
 * A Widget_class Declaration – Assigns a style to a particular widget by class name.

All GTK+ programs are made up of widgets and there are several attributes or flags that can be set for each widget:
 * fg – modifies the foreground of the widget,
 * bg – modifies the background of the widget,
 * base – the widget's Editable, Tree, or List background,
 * bg_pixmap – assigns an image to the background of the widget,
 * font – changes the font attributes.

And each of these can have several states:
 * [NORMAL] – The widgets normal state,
 * [PRELIGHT] – When a mouse cursor is hovering over a widget (this is used by buttons and their subclasses),
 * [ACTIVE] – For active widgets e.g. selected tab and scroll bars,
 * [INSENSITIVE] – A disabled widget,
 * [SELECTED] – Highlighted objects in a widget e.g. text.

The colors for these can be set using 1 of 3 different methods:
 * 1) A GTK+ string – This is a number between 0 and 1,
 * 2) Hexadecimal – The same as some website, values are set like this - #000000, and can be any value between 00 and ff,
 * 3) RGB – This is any number between 0 and 256 e.g. 256 256 256,

To adjust the properties of a widget you need to first define a style.

Style
A style declaration may look something like this:-

style "default" {    font = "-*-helvetica-medium-r-normal--*-120-*-*-*-*-*-*" fg[NORMAL] = "#000000" fg[PRELIGHT] = "#000000" fg[ACTIVE] = "#000000" fg[SELECTED] = "#000000" fg[INSENSITIVE] = "#999999" }

The first line is the style declaration, this line defines a new style and calls it default (of course this can be called anything you want). The following lines are the actual style. However for this to be applied it needs to be assigned to a GTK+ widget.

Gtk Widgets
There are many widgets in the GTK system but for the sake of the tutorial we will target the top most parent widget called - widget_class "GtkWindow", of which all other widgets will get their style from. To assign a style to a widget you would use: widget_class "GtkWindow" style "window" This instructs the widget called "GtkWindow" to use the style "window".

When the above code is copyed to a gtkrc file and accompinied with: widget_class "GtkWindow" style "default" and saved in the "theme" folder a difference should be noticed next time a GTKApplication is started or restarted.

Extending this to include images
To include images in a theme you would have to create the images and save them in the folder with the previously created gtkrc file. Once there you would edit the file to use the image.

style "Button" {    bg_pixmap[NORMAL] = "warning.xpm" }

this is an example of using images (please note you will need to create warning.xpm in GIMP for this to work.

title: GTK+ By Example/Theming


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Talk:GTK+ By Example/Theming

Gimp Specific
This tutorial needs to be applicable and feel applicable to someone wanting to quickly, learn or use styles. StephenG (talk) 02:41, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Style Cleanup
This page has some good information, but needs to be re-organized into a how not a what. StephenG (talk) 02:37, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

Wikipedia page history
* (cur) (last) 17:09, 13 April 2006 70.36.195.70 (→GTKRC'S) [rollback] [proxycheck] * (cur) (last) 18:21, 17 March 2006 CmdrObot (sp (2): an gtkrc→a gtkrc, modifing→modifying; capitalisation: english) * (cur) (last) 13:54, 26 January 2006 Somercet m (links) * (cur) (last) 03:24, 18 November 2005 Kesla m   * (cur) (last) 22:16, 10 November 2005 Curpsbot-unicodify m (1 link(s): %NN changed • 1 link(s): [_ ]+ → [ ]) * (cur) (last) 04:06, 25 September 2005 AJB2K3 (→Extending this to include images) * (cur) (last) 04:05, 25 September 2005 AJB2K3 (→Extending this to include images) * (cur) (last) 04:01, 25 September 2005 AJB2K3 (→Extending this to include images) * (cur) (last) 03:57, 25 September 2005 AJB2K3 * (cur) (last) 03:50, 25 September 2005 86.130.236.245 (→Gtk Widgets) * (cur) (last) 03:44, 25 September 2005 86.130.236.245 (→Gtk Widgets) * (cur) (last) 03:40, 25 September 2005 86.130.236.245 (→Style) * (cur) (last) 18:44, 22 September 2005 Zotel (Needs to be on wikibooks, not wikipedia...) * (cur) (last) 06:28, 22 September 2005 Pearle m (Changing < to ) * (cur) (last) 02:28, 22 September 2005 Kesla m (cleanup) * (cur) (last) 18:13, 28 August 2005 Reisio m (→About - LINUX -> Linux) * (cur) (last) 07:34, 31 July 2005 AJB2K3 (→Explanation of GIMP's rc files.) * (cur) (last) 07:30, 31 July 2005 AJB2K3 (→Gtk Widgets) * (cur) (last) 07:22, 30 July 2005 AJB2K3 (→Gtk Widgets) * (cur) (last) 05:13, 25 July 2005 212.222.128.20 * (cur) (last) 05:11, 25 July 2005 212.222.128.20 * (cur) (last) 08:46, 16 July 2005 AJB2K3 (Adding content.) * (cur) (last) 08:23, 16 July 2005 AJB2K3 (→Wiki's)   * (cur) (last) 08:18, 16 July 2005 AJB2K3 (initial start.)

title: Talk:GTK+ By Example/Theming


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Talk:Gujarati/How to use Unicode in creating Gujarati script

Untitled
* (cur) (last) 07:40, 29 November 2005 Ashibaka [rollback] [proxycheck] * (cur) (last) 07:10, 29 November 2005 Miljoshi (→Subpage for Gujarati script - How To: Use Unicode for creating Gujarati script)


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User:AndreniW

Hello,

My name is Andrew. I love technology.

For more information, see my Wikipedia user page.

title: User:AndreniW


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/ADRA/Literacy

1. Be at least in the 8th grade.
One must have a certain level of academic achievement and maturity before becoming a tutor, so this honor is reserved for those in 8th grade or above.

2. Describe the social conditions that make it more difficult for underprivileged children to achieve basic reading and math skills during elementary school.
Underprivileged children have several disadvantages that can affect their school work.
 * Poor nutrition: This affects overall health, cognitive abilities, school absenteeism, and may cause a child to become emotionally needy which leads to disruptive behavior.

 * Overcrowded Schools: Urban areas suffer from overcrowding in public schools. Teachers are forced to spend a great deal of their time administering discipline or working to keep the students safe from other students rather than in educating. These schools are usually underfunded as well, since most school funding comes from local sources, and these schools are located in places where funding is extremely difficult to come by. Thus, these schools are often poorly equipped.

 * Absent Parents: Many underprivileged children do not have the opportunity to spend much time with their parents, as their parents must spend a lot of time out of the home to earn enough money just to meet the basics. Children are thus often left to fend for themselves and do not benefit from parental guidance. These parents are often uneducated themselves, so even if they were able to stay home, they may not be equipped to help their children with their school work. The types of jobs available to the uneducated often require the parents to work odd hours, so when the children come home from school, the parents are at work. When the parents and children are home together, the parent is often exhausted to the point of collapse, or preoccupied with other problems (how to pay bills, deal with drug problems, etc.). Parents under such stress often become abusive. Two-parent families are rare in urban neighborhoods, so the child may have never lived with his or her father, and may have never even met him.

 * English as a Second Language: Many underprivileged children come from homes where English is not spoken, so they have to learn the language outside the home. They may not be accustomed to hearing English spoken with grammatical correctness. In many underprivileged homes, newspapers and books are rarely seen.

 * Living Conditions: Urban areas are very dense, with a lot of people crammed into a very small area. Large (or multiple) families are forced to live in two- or one-bedroom apartments, so there is not much room for privacy, or a quiet place to study. Noise from adjacent apartments easily transmits through the walls, so when there are no fights going on in the child's own home, there may be fights going on in an adjacent apartment. Conflict can be heard at all hours of the day and night.

 * Poor Self-Image: Children raised in the environment described here may have a very poor self-image. They are accustomed to failure and may have accepted it as their unavoidable destiny. They may not care if they fail and may take no pride in their work.

a. In-school, cross-age tutoring
In school programs are managed in a variety of ways. One common way is cross-age tutoring. In this case students, normally of a higher grade level, tutor other students in the areas where they need assistance. There are many advantages of this type of one on one peer tutoring: often the tutor has recently completed the same classes having a perspective on the unique issue a particular class presents, comradery can be formed quickly which often promotes the tutored to relax and lower their guard creating a better learning environment. Cross-age tutoring offers the tutor the opportunity to develop social skills and management skills not often developed in the school years of youth, giving the tutor an added benefit as well.

b. After-school or weekend program
This type of tutoring program is perhaps the most common. They are often organized by church-related groups or community organizations. Adventist Community Services (ACS) most often participates in after-school or weekend programs. These programs meet once or twice per week and make use of volunteer tutors.

c. Community homework center
Community homework centers are not common to most areas. These centers often operate in the inner city of metropolitan areas as a haven for students who would otherwise be distracted by the environment around them. Centers such as these are normally not-for-profit corporations that are open to all youth seeking a place of refuge to study and socialize, their continuance is dependent upon the generosity of the community and the dedication of what is often one or two full-time staff members. Peer tutoring and assistance from staff are available at these locations, and the staff often fill a parent-like role for students who are often neglected at home. In addition to a safe a proper place for study, such centers usually offer some recreation and community service opportunities to the youth who use them. These non-study activities help to develop social skills and skills in cooperation, self control, and problem solving as well as provide a special sense of accomplishment to youth who otherwise have no purpose in there lives.

4. Explain the difference between one-on-one tutoring and small-group classes, and list the pros and cons of each approach.
In a one-on-one tutoring session the tutor helps only one student at a time. In a small-group tutoring session, the tutor helps two or more (but not very many more) students at a time.

In a one-on-one tutoring session, the tutors attention is undivided, the student gets more tutoring time, instruction is tailored to the student, and it moves at the pace set by the student. In a group setting, the amount of time the tutor can spend per student is more limited, the tutor must balance the needs of all students, and some students may slip into a non-participatory role. However, students can benefit from the questions asked by other students - questions the student was afraid to ask, or questions that the student didn't think of. A wider variety of information is shared in a group setting.

5. List the basic functions included in the job description of the volunteer tutor in a community-based tutoring program.
The tutor must first work to establish a relationship with the child. It is very important to establish trust. Do not talk down to the child. Listen carefully to the child and try to figure out what he enjoys (this will help when selecting reading material later).

Next, the tutor should determine the child's reading level. This can be done by bringing several short books (or booklets) that you think might interest the child. Spread them out on the table and ask the child to select one and read it out loud to you. Then have him choose another. The child's reading level will be the most advanced book he can read comfortably. You may wish to allow the child to bring one of the books home to keep as his own.

As tutoring progresses, you will need to find creative ways to encourage the student to achieve his goals. When the child is discouraged, it will be up to you to cheer him on - but do not do the work for the student. Validate the child's feeling that he work he is struggling with may be difficult, but stress that the child is capable of doing it. Suggest alternative approaches to problem solving.

Finally, it is critical that the tutor become a reliable partner in the learning process. If you must miss a tutoring session, try to notify the child ahead of time. Do your best to keep appointments. Failure to do so will undermine your influence with the child and reinforce the child's concept that no one can be relied upon.

6. Describe the resources or tools that a volunteer tutor uses in a community-based tutoring program.
A variety of reading materials should be on hand for the child to take home. Include biographies, books on sports or hobbies, stories, magazines, comic books, and newspapers.

Workbooks filled with puzzles are also available, and many allow you to photocopy individual pages to hand out to the student.

Find ways that mathematics relate to real life and use those. Games such as monopoly require the ability to add and subtract, and at times do multiplication and comparison (such as when you draw a real estate tax card - pay $1500 or 10% of the value of all property owned).

You could also set up a store and use play money for "purchases". Allow the child to be either the store keeper or the customer.

Flash cards can also be very helpful.

Younger children need a frequent change of pace. If you can alternate between "quiet" activities and physical activities, you may find that the child is able to work out his energy and then stay better focussed.

A good library of reference materials is also most helpful, and would include dictionaries, a set of encyclopedias, an almanac, and a thesaurus.

Refreshments may also be useful, and you may be able to get local businesses to donate them for the tutoring program.

7. Complete at least ten tutoring sessions with a younger child.
Volunteer at a tutoring place or ask schools in your area if they know of anyone who would like a tutor. You may be required to go through some training before you can begin your work as a tutor. Treat this as a valuable learning experience (after all, if you are unwilling to learn, you are most likely not fit to teach!)

Be sure that you can commit to at least ten tutoring sessions. It is extremely unlikely that you will be able to accomplish anything meaningful with a child in fewer sessions. If you are not committed to tutoring at least ten sessions, it would be better for the child if you did not begin at all. Indeed, it would be morally reprehensible for you to engage otherwise. Remember that a lack of commitment can be damaging to a vulnerable child, so there is a lot more at stake than whether you earn this honor or not. A child's future may hang in the balance, so stick to it!


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Talk:Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Insertion sort

Transwiki from wikipedia:Insertion sort implementations
Some content transwikied to this page was originally at Insertion sort implementations.

Here is a copy of the page history: 19:22, 26 May 2006 213.199.128.152 07:14, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→ML - bold) 07:12, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→Haskell, shorter - explanation) 07:11, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→Haskell, shorter - overall structure, complete) 07:09, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→C# 2.0 - underline) 07:08, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→Common Lisp - underline) 07:05, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→Haskell, shorter) 07:04, 5 May 2006 132.231.54.1 (→Haskell, shorter) 00:57, 1 May 2006 BirgitteSB (Wikisource no langer accepts source code) 17:39, 5 March 2006 R. Koot (substituting core implementations) 14:51, 5 March 2006 Splash (replace afd with and  per afd) 08:41, 26 February 2006 Qwertyus m (→Haskell, shorter) 13:48, 24 February 2006 Donhalcon (listed for deletion) 03:17, 18 February 2006 ZeWrestler (→Additional implementations - added Common Lisp implementation) 08:03, 12 February 2006 212.242.32.26 (→Additional implementations) 08:01, 12 February 2006 212.242.32.26 (→Additional implementations) 07:58, 20 January 2006 204.4.130.140 (→Java) 07:57, 20 January 2006 204.4.130.140 (→Java) 19:34, 16 December 2005 Deco (Revert - that's a good addition, but the code is not available under a GFDL-compatible license; see talk page) 18:38, 16 December 2005 64.191.131.194 20:44, 11 December 2005 128.253.69.42 (→Java) 20:21, 8 December 2005 Deco m (→Java - Don't need to initialize j, fix indent) 19:50, 8 December 2005 24.81.68.41 21:39, 28 November 2005 Deco (→Core implementations - How to edit HTML comment) 21:33, 28 November 2005 Deco (Break into core implementations and additional implementations to share content with insertion sort) 00:37, 29 October 2005 RedWolf m (categories) 02:57, 6 October 2005 Grignaak m (Fixed the Java code ~) 22:53, 31 August 2005 65.190.142.219 (→Java) 17:01, 9 August 2005 Deco (→C# 2.0 - Intro) 17:00, 9 August 2005 Deco (Merge content from Insertion sort)

Here is a copy of the talk page:

Removed RealBASIC implementation
I removed an implementation in RealBASIC from a commonly-used library because its license is incompatible with the GPL. Its documentation states:

 * SortLibrary is free for your use in projects (I wouldn't mind a small mention in the about box) and open source, but it is not public domain. All code and documentation © 2001-2005 Charles Yeomans.

He never mentions an explicit license, and the above is so vague that it's impossible to establish whether it's suitable for this use. Try getting him to release it under the GFDL or a non-copyleft license like MIT/X11 or BSD, which are probably compatible. Deco 23:36, 16 December 2005 (UTC)

Articles for Deletion debate
This article was listed for transwikiing and deleting as a result of Articles for Deletion debate. The discussion can be found here. -Splash talk 18:52, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

~ Booya Bazooka 03:42, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

Removed C++ implementation
I removed an implementation in C++ because it was ridiculously badly written. It was thousands times slower than the C version just because the author abused the C++ features in a very evil way! In fact it was so bad, that I wouldn't be surprised if the author did that on purpose to "prove" that C++ programs must be ridiculously slow. Here goes the code as an example how to NOT write programs in C++. As a side note insertion sort has already been provided with the C++ standard library in the header file as std::__insertion_sort and ofcourse it is very fast. In fact it is most often even faster than the C version presented on the wiki page.

Sample timings for an x86, gcc 4.3.0 (-O3), win32 machine for a std::vector consisting of 10000 pseudo-random generated elements (from the range 0 - 9999):

bubble: 0.36s, C-style (wiki) insertion sort: 0.13s, std::__insertion_sort: 0.06s, the sort presented above: 267.13s(!?).

Anonymous83.24.205.241 (talk) 11:02, 11 May 2008 (UTC)

Removed C++ standard library usage example
I've decided to remove the stdlib example presented below, because it doesn't show the implementation of the algorithm. Instead I've put a note informing that such beast as std::__insertion_sort exists.

--Firkraag (talk) 13:25, 12 May 2008 (UTC)

C
The second for loop might be tricky: One can replace the inner block with: Same thing, but easy to take in I find. acagastya   ✍ Dicere Aliquid  🐾 15:10, 2 February 2016 (UTC)


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Art Tutorials/General Concepts/Composition

Composition in Art is a personal achievement of balance and design, leading the eye into the picture and back out again to the viewer. The line that leads the eye to the subject matter at hand, tells the story along it's path, side issues are displayed in lines that circle the subject, or lines that emanate from it. Patterns appear useful, to depict spaces into which additional subject matter is delineated. These patterns are formed by the three geometric symbols available to all in their simplest shapes, such as triangles, squares (rectangles) and circles. They take form as cones, cubes and balls, made visible by a light source and shadow, formed from an arrangement of the underlying shapes inherent in their disposition. This is where an understanding of perspective comes into play. Before getting technical, feel your subject out, for gesture, character, action and willingness of place of importance. Take yourself as being one of the characters, perhaps the main subject, whatever and whoever that may be, and imagine your place, your stance, your reason for being, and ask yourself, where would the next character be in relation to the one you are now representing, and so on and so on, until you have thought out your groupings. Now do the same with various objects and elements, that as props in a play, have meaning and significance and take their part in your picture. That will be all for starters, but what comes next is just as important and critical. Where is the light to come from, is it a bright day or a somber situation, is it evening or fog, is it a happy occasion, or is it raining and howling like the wind, is it a sad affair or one of humorous jest. The mood you wish to impart to your viewer, will set the tone and temper the colors you use, it is sometimes identified as local color, but it is whatever color you make it. You are the artist, it is your composition, you are the God of the canvas, or at least the extension of whatever God you believe in, when you set sail to paint up a storm. The rules are like guiding stars, leading the way, to assist you on your journey. Study the Masters, their enlightened moments, show their passion and discipline, at achieving their true aim, which is to capture your interest in their story, even though it is the story sometimes of others. May you meet your own maker, in those moments where, when you are working, you are here, but not here. That is the moment when as a craftsman, the love of art, reaches it's highest exaltation. Be exalted, be dedicated and be sincere and you are sure to find your own reward. Peace be with you my friends. Randy Ranson


text: User talk:204.8.195.146

title: User talk:204.8.195.146


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Gerris Manual

This book is a full reference manual for the Gerris Flow Solver. It contains both a step-by-step introduction to Gerris and in-depth examples of its application to solve complex problems.

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Object hierarchy/

title: Gerris Manual


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User talk:Hotmilkydrink

I recently made a change in the wiki book that was called Kings and Queens of England this was a clear mistake and a misrepresentation of the facts. I have changed this to Kings and Queens of the United Kingdom because since 1603 and the Union of the Scottish and English crowns, the Monarch has been at least the King/Queen of these two countries, not to mention Wales and Norhtern Ireland.

 * It's no mistake. I don't think anyone could realistic see Alfred the Great or William the Conqueror as Kings of the United Kingdom:) Although the term "Queen of England" is not formally used nowadays, many people the world over will still refer to Queen Elizabeth as the Queen of England, Jguk 09:15, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hotmilkydrink


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User:Thkruege

I lost my old login, which did not apply to our convention that we use our studip-login anyway, so i created a new one.

title: User:Thkruege


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User:Jkeyser

Hi there, I'm a student of the University of Osnabrück, Germany

title: User:Jkeyser


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User:Zaphodbeeblebroxsotherhead

Zaphodbeeblebroxsotherhead

I am an aeronautical engineer from the UK and I have a wide interest in the areas of science and computing; ranging from superstring theory to flight simulation and 3D graphics. My less academic interests include skiing, mountain biking and kung-fu.

Over time I have found Wiki to be most useful and interesting, I hope to contribute where my knowledge allows.

title: User:Zaphodbeeblebroxsotherhead


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User:Shefstudentboi~enwikibooks

Hello!

I'm a student at the University of Sheffield studying for a MEng degree in Biomaterial Science & Tissue Engineering. I'm interested in learning new languages and learning about the history and cultures of Asian countries.

title: User:Shefstudentboi~enwikibooks


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Cookbook talk:Beurre Blanc

I often choose to make my beurre blanc sauces with champagne rather than white wine.

Compared with Livre_de_cuisine/Beurre_blanc and Julia Child you are a bit stingy with the butter. I was wondering whether 10 - 12 ozs. was intended rather than 10 - 12 tablespoons. Anyway I adjusted it so that it is now the same as the recipe in Livre de cuisine which is about halfway between you (anonymous) and Julia. Mike Hayes (talk) 07:03, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Beurre Blanc


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Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Pigeonhole sort

All the examples currently on this page seem to be implementations of counting sort and not pigeonhole sort. Pigeonhole sort, when sorting a complex data structure with a key, keeps track of all the elements on a certain key (because equal elements are still distinct); rather than just keep a count like counting sort (which is only applicable to simple value types).

C99
Note that  and   could also easily be determined within the function.


text: Template:User blank-0

title: Template:User blank-0


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Talk:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Cross References

template for cross references:

awful lot of work, all those redirects. I think the title might be a bit too lengthy, we might want to consider to move the entire page to a shorter title. The captions look rather ugly


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Talk:US History/English Colonies

For the wording on Jamestown, I'm not sure how it should be phrased. I would say European instead of English, but then it would ignore the Viking settlement. For now I've changed it to first permanent European settlement, Viking one might not be considered permenant since it wasn't very long. --Mathwizard1232 20:59, 27 May 2006 (UTC)

Methodism
John and Charles Wesley are credited to creating Methodism in the 18th century. John Wesley was a cleric for the Church of England. He and his brother led groups of Christians throughout England, Ireland, and Scotland. These small groups came to form what is known as Methodism. Methodists focused on bible study and living a life free of amusement and luxury. They were called Methodists because of there methodistic habits to religion.

Methodism spread to America in the late 1760's. Philip Embury and Barabara Heck emigrated to New York to start a Methodist society. They were aided by Captain Webb from the British Army by starting a society in Philadelphia. Robert Strawbridge started his Methodist work in Maryland.

May I put it in the next chapter? Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 11:06, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

British Civil War?
Yea or nay? Its results are seen in Mass. & Maryland, but is so much space needed? Is it on The Test? Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 14:44, 26 April 2014 (UTC)

Why isn't there a link directly to the section on American religion?
Religion is important as motive for exploration as well as glue. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 19:18, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

Massachusetts Bay Colony section
I feel this section needs clarification & correction: 1) mention that these pilgrims came on the Mayflower; 2) that there were 101 passengers on board of which 41 of them signed the Mayflower Compact (which ought to have a link); and 3) that their original destination wasn't the Hudson River section near present day Long Island, but rather the colony of Virginia. Before making edits, figured best to discuss as there's likely someone who knows this subject much better than I.

title: Talk:US History/English Colonies


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hermes

Overview
Hermes is Percy Weasley's owl. Percy received Hermes as a gift in his fifth year (Harry's first year) for being made a prefect.

Philosopher's Stone
Hermes is mentioned in passing, as Ron mentions that he has to put up with Errol, who has grown rather old.

Chamber of Secrets
When Harry is staying at the Burrow just before school starts, Ron mentions that he had wanted to borrow Hermes to send some messages, but that Percy, who was staying shut up in his room all summer, would not loan him.

At the end of the book, we learn that Percy has been sending messages back and forth to Penelope Clearwater, his girlfriend, and that is why Hermes had been busy.

Order of the Phoenix
Hermes appears at the window of the Gryffindor common room late at night on the Saturday of the first week of school. He is carrying a letter from Percy directed at Ron, which Percy had wanted delivered separately from the regular mail. Hermes leaves immediately, not waiting for a reply. The letter, full of the sort of pontification that Percy is known for, only makes Ron angry, though Harry and Hermione find it rather amusing, particularly the parts where Percy warns Ron that Harry may be mentally unstable.


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Talk:GCSE Science/Electricity

Can this book be put into a PDF.

title: Talk:GCSE Science/Electricity


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Cookbook:Soji (Indian Wheat Pudding)

Ingredients

 * ½ cup (120 g) cashew nuts, broken
 * ½ cup (120 g) raisins
 * 4 pods cardamom
 * 3 tbsp cream of wheat
 * 3 tsp sugar
 * 1 pinch salt
 * 1 tbsp butter
 * 1 cup (240 ml) milk

Procedure

 * 1) Wash the cashews and raisins and keep them ready.
 * 2) Crush the cardamom pods to remove the contents and discard the husks. Pound the contents of the pods into a black powder, and mix with the cream of wheat.
 * 3) Add the sugar and salt to the cream of wheat and mix thoroughly.
 * 4) Melt the butter in a saucepan and gently fry the cream of wheat in it.
 * 5) Add the cashews and raisins to the saucepan and continue to fry until the cream of wheat is light brown.
 * 6) Add the milk to the saucepan and stir. The mixture will thicken and you will need to keep stirring to prevent it sticking to the bottom of the saucepan and burning.
 * 7) When the mixture solidifies, turn off the heat and take the saucepan off the heat.
 * 8) Serve hot.

title: Cookbook:Soji (Indian Wheat Pudding)


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Liberalism

This is a book that aims to include descriptions of the various sub-branches of liberalism.

There is a need for this book because:
 * 1) There is often confusion as to the definition and scope of liberalism;
 * 2) There is quite a lot of misunderstanding about the various forms of liberalism and how they are similar or different;
 * 3) While a lot of this information is available in Wikipedia and other similar sources, it tends to be bundled with a lot of other details, like history, political events and biographies, which makes it hard to read.

A Note on Different Meanings of Liberalism and Liberal
"Liberalism" can be understood in a number of ways. A "liberal" in North America could also be described as "left-leaning". However, in Continental Europe, the exact opposite is true - liberalism is right-wing. Even within North America, liberalism is not uniformly defined. Consider that in the United States, liberals are associated with the Democratic Party; conservatives with the Republican Party. In Canada, the Liberal Party of Canada is a centrist party, with the New Democratic Party generally perceived to be to the left of the Liberals.The world "liberal" itself can also be used in a colloquial sense, as is outlined in the table below.

Table of Contents

 * Classical Liberalism
 * Social Liberalism
 * Libertarianism
 * Moral Liberalism
 * Neoliberalism

We welcome the addition of other types of liberalism, if you are familiar with them!

title: Liberalism


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Talk:Flight Attendant Manual

Who is writing this book?
It seems to me that this module could be an eternal stub: is there enough information on this topic to constitute an entire book? Maybe this could be merged with another book. DettoAltrimenti 02:13, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

I think you're right. John Duncan 12:37, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

Self-promotion
User:68.216.29.69: Don't do it. A summary of hiring companies is not the place to argue why union or non-union is better and it's not the place to put shameless, self-promotion. You put that stuff on your own web page. You could, if you wanted, put a link to your hiring page where you can marinate the viewer in as much bathos as you want. John Duncan 12:36, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Flight Attendant Manual


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User talk:AmishThrasher~enwikibooks

History of Latin America
Hi. Are you planning on writing this book? --hagindaz 02:55, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

Hint
You should not format chapter titles as "Book title/Contents/Chapter title," but rather as "Book title/Chapter title." You can type ../Chapter title/ on the contents page of a book to link to a sister page instead of a subpage. Good luck on your book, hagindaz 03:06, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * It is also not a good idea to have the cover page of a book have a different title than the rest of the book. You may also want to develop your book on a single page first, then divide it into subpages if it gets to long. Thanks, hagindaz 03:08, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

Please do not copy encyclopedic content from Wikipedia
If you would like to write encyclopedic entries, please do so on Wikipedia. Wikibooks should be written in the format of textbooks. --hagindaz 03:12, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

Pictures
As you can see at the top of this page, "All unlicensed images uploaded to wikibooks before November 1, 2006 will soon be deleted." You have uploaded images and some of them are untagged. You can see them here. Please review them and add appropriate tags. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. --Think Fast 04:27, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called AmishThrasher. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name AmishThrasher~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:57, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:31, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:AmishThrasher~enwikibooks


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Latin-American History

Latin-American History

Chapters

 * /Introduction/
 * /Before European Contact/
 * /Spanish Colonial Era/

Central America

 * /Independence/
 * /The United Provinces of Central America/
 * /Greater Republic of Central America/
 * /20th century/

Learning More about Latin America

 * /Countries/
 * /Resources/
 * /Organizations/
 * /Courses/

Appendices

 * /Authors/

title: Latin-American History


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Latin-American History/Spanish Colonial Era

During Spanish rule, Latin America was parcelled out among four viceroyalties:

 * New Spain
 * Peru
 * New Granada
 * Rio del Plata

Central America was composed of six independent nations: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. After the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, most of the inhabitants of Central America shared a similar history. The exception was British Honduras, a sparsely populated area that was leased by the Spanish Crown to Great Britain for 150 years for the exploitation of certain natural dyes. Later, the region of Belize was claimed as a colony by the English Crown and to never go back to Spain or Guatemala, which claimed as its territory until the 1970s. British Honduras for the English and Belice for the Spaniards and Guatemalans gained its independence from Great Britain in 1981 having adopted the name "Belize" in 1973.

From the 16th century through 1821 Central America formed the Captaincy General of Guatemala, sometimes known also as the Kingdom of Guatemala, composed by the states of Chiapas (now part of Mexico), Guatemala (including present day Belize), El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Officially, the Captaincy was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and therefore under the rule of the Spanish viceroy in Mexico City. It was, however, administered not by the viceroy or his deputies, but by an independently appointed Captain General headquartered first in Antigua Guatemala and later in Guatemala City.


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Latin-American History/Independence

In 1821 a congress of Central American criollos declared their independence from Spain, effective on 15 September of that year. That date is still marked as the independence day by most Central American nations. The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathized with the rebels and it was decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government could be formed. Independence was short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcomed annexation by the Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on 5 January 1822. Central American liberals objected to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupied Guatemala City and quelled dissent. When Mexico became a republic the following year, it acknowledged Central America's right to determine its own destiny. On 1 July 1823, the congress of Central America declared absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, and a Republican system of government was established.

title: Latin-American History/Independence


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Talk:Ada Programming/Delimiters/&

Frenzy of Deletion Disrupts Semantic Levels
There used to be a page for Operators/&, too, if I remember correctly, even if it was a redirect. Having two roads leading to "&" is very appropriate for an Ada book, whichever form it will use for two roads. However, if my conclusions from reading about recent deletions are correct, User:Jguk has declared one road useless, and deleted references to the page. (Jon, since you write about kings and queens, you are probalby aware that not everyone is in a position do things to just about anything or anyone without stating justifications, in particular in a collaborative effort.)

The Ada term "&" does have two different meanings at two separate levels, in Ada. The distinction can be essential. I won't agree with User:Jguk's rash cleanups without someone taking care of a suitable replacement, or triggering a course of action. Readers will be lost, and readers is what wikibooks are about.

These are not useless redirects (or else see below) as

 * 1) of course the book teaches why there are two meanings, i.e. why we have both an operator and a delimiter, although both are written "&".
 * 2) Other modules have epxlicitly referred to these two different aspects of "&". After the deletions, they are partly disconnected.

It doesn't seem a good idea to arbitrarily delete things if you don't know the semantic implications of what you intend to delete.

If the wikibooks cleaning crew is unhappy with an apparent yet necessary redundancy (a redirect for now), maybe transcluding a common page in both a delimiter-aspect module and a operator-aspect module, will do.

ceterum censeo that authors might feel a need to delete thoughtless editing.

gb 03:08, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I think the admin thought the redirect was not intentional, but an outcome of a page move. Sure we can recreate the pages without further discussion. ManuelGR 20:20, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

 * OK, thanks. This also removes the neccessity of special &-case circuitry from ASnip. [User:Kellen]'s answer in the staff lounge WRT these redirects was affirmative, too. gb 01:40, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ada Programming/Delimiters/&


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Latin-American History/The United Provinces of Central America

Politics
Central American liberals had high hopes for the federal republic, which they believed would evolve into a modern, democratic nation, enriched by trade crossing through it between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. These aspirations are reflected in the emblems of the federal republic: The flag shows a white band between two blue stripes, representing the land between two oceans. The coat of arms shows five mountains (one for each state) between two oceans, surmounted by a Phrygian cap, the emblem of the French Revolution. In practice, however, the federation faced insurmountable problems. The liberal democratic project was strongly opposed by conservative factions allied with the Roman Catholic clergy and the wealthy landowners. Transportation and communication routes between the states were extremely deficient. The bulk of the population lacked any sense of commitment towards the broader federation. The federal bureaucracy in Guatemala City proved ineffectual. Wars soon broke out between various factions both in the federation and within individual states. The poverty and extreme political instability of the region prevented the construction of an inter-oceanic canal (see Nicaragua Canal and Panama Canal), from which Central America could have obtained considerable economic benefits.

Presidents
1823 – 1825 : José Cecilo del Valle 1825 – 1829 : Manuel José Arce 1829 – 1830 : José Francisco Barrundia (interim president after Arce's resignation) 1830 – 1839 : Francisco Morazán (continued as chief of state of the disintegrating republic until 1840)

Dissolution of the Union
The union dissolved in civil war between 1838 and 1840. Its disintegration began when Nicaragua separated from the federation on November 5, 1838, followed by Honduras and Costa Rica. The union effectively dissolved in 1840, by which time four of its five states had declared independence. The union was only officially ended upon El Salvador's self-proclamation of the establishment of an independent republic in February 1841.

Various attempts were made to reunite Central America in the 19th century, but none succeeded for any length of time: The first attempt was in 1842 by former President Morazán, who was quickly captured and executed. The abortive attempt aimed to restore the union as the Confederation of Central America and included El Salvador, Guatemala (which withdrew early), Honduras, and Nicaragua. This first attempt lasted until 1844.

A second attempt was made and lasted from October to November 1852 when El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua created a Federation of Central America (Federación de Centro América). Guatemalan President Justo Rufino Barrios attempted to reunite the nation by force of arms in the 1880s and was killed in the process like his 1842 predecessor. A third union of Honduras, Nicaragua, and El Salvador as the Greater Republic of Central America or "República Mayor de Centroamérica" lasted from 1896 to 1898.

The latest attempt occurred between June 1921 and January 1922 when El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras formed a (second) Federation of Central America. This second Federation was nearly moribund from the start having only a Provisional Federal Council made up of delegates from each state.

Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the sense of shared history and the hope for eventual reunification persist in the nations formerly in the union. In 1856–1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by U.S. adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).


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Talk:Movie Making Manual/Lighting

I'm about to start some filming, and I've never actually tried to light a set so I was hoping to find a page on Wikipedia for help. I think I found it here, but it's basically empty, so if anybody could add anything to this page, that'd be great. Thanks -Oliver

This page is pretty dated, talking about DV like it's the state of the art. How about an update talking about the newest state of the art, including HD camcorders, DSLR and RED formats?

title: Talk:Movie Making Manual/Lighting


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Latin-American History/Greater Republic of Central America

The United Provinces of Central America was a short-lived Latin American experiment in republican democracy. It lasted from July 1823 to approximately 1840. It was intended to be a federal republic modeled after the USA. The coat of arms on the nation's flag from 1823–1824 referred to the federation as the Provincias Unidas del Centro de América ("United Provinces of Central America") but its 1824 constitution, coat of arms and flag called it the "Federal Republic of Central America" (República Federal de Centroamérica / Centro América). It is also sometimes referred to in English as the "United States of Central America".

The republic consisted of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In the 1830s an additional state was added, Los Altos, with its capital in Quetzaltenango, occupying parts of what are now the western highlands of Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas. During the period of 1838–1840 the federation dissolved in civil war.


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Wikijunior:South America/Simón Bolívar

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Simón Bolivar was a leader in the South American struggle for independence. Bolivar was born to a prominent family of Basque origin in Caracas, Venezuela in 1783. He studied law in Madrid, returned to South America in 1809 and in the following year took part in a revolutionary uprising in Caracas. In the struggles of New Granada, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Peru for freedom from Spanish rule, he was the most outstanding General of the armies, being proclaimed The Liberator, and when in 1819, New Granada and Venezuela were consolidated into a republic under the name of Columbia, Bolivar was made president. In 1823, he became dictator of Peru, but he held the office only two years. The region of Alto (Upper) Peru took his name as Bolivia, yet its constitution, which he framed, excited in the minds of his enemies the fear that he wished to make himself perpetual dictator over Columbia, Bolivia, and Peru, and he lost some of his influence. He held the presidency of Columbia until a few months before his untimely death in 1830. He was an admirer of the American Revolution, but his vision of a similarly unified South America was never realized. Still, his was a great and noble endeavor: liberating and organizing the civil affairs of the many nations which today view him as their founding Father.

title: Wikijunior:South America/Simón Bolívar


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Talk:Fluid Mechanics/Dimensional Analysis

Will add modelling/scaling and dynamic similitude later.

Aznrocket 02:37, 29 May 2006 (UTC)


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Wikijunior:Languages/Pashto

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Pashto has been written in a variant of the Persian script (which in turn is a variant of Arabic script) since the late sixteenth century. Certain letters were modified to account for sounds specific to Pashto. Until the spelling system was standardized in the late eighteenth century, the representation of these consonants varied greatly. The Pashto alphabet, which has more vowel sounds than either Persian or Arabic, represents the vowels more extensively than either the Persian or the Arabic alphabets. With the adoption of Pashto as a national language of Afghanistan, some revisions of the spelling system have been made in the interest of clarity.

Pashto has a seven vowel system. There are retroflex consonants sounds pronounced with the tongue tip curled back--which were presumably borrowed from nearby Indo-Aryan languages. Unlike other Iranian languages, such as Persian, Pashto allows consonant clusters of two or three sounds at the beginning of a syllable.

How many people speak this language?
There are over 9 million speakers of Pashto in Afghanistan alone.

Where is this language spoken?
Pashto is one of the national languages of Afghanistan and widely spoken in Pakistan. Major Pashto speaking cities are Peshawar, Karachi, Dir, Swat, Mardan, Swabi, Dherai, Quetta, Kandahar (Qandahar), Kabul.

In Afghanistan, Pashto is the first language, the Persian dialect spoken natively in the north and west. Because of the political power of the Pashtuns, however, Pashto has been a required subject in Dari medium schools, and as an official language has been one of the languages of the government. For practical purposes, however, Pashto is the language of business and higher education, and so Persians learn Pashto.

Pashto is taught at very few universities in the United States and Canada. The most consistent program offered is at the Diplomatic Language Services in Arlington, Virginia

What is the history of this language?
Pashto is one of the East Iranian group of languages, which includes, for example, Ossete (North Ossetian, south Ossetian, Caucasus Soviet Socialist Republic) and Yaghnobi (Tajikistan). Some of the historians links it to

East Iranian and West Iranian (which includes Persian) are major sub-groups of the Iranian group of the Indo Iranian branch of the Indo European family of languages. Indo-Iranian languages are spoken in a wide area stretching from portions of eastern Turkey and eastern Iraq to western India. The other main division of Indo- Iranian, in addition to Iranian, is the Indo-Aryan languages, a group comprised of many languages of the Indian subcontinent.

There are two major dialects of Pashto: Western Pashto spoken in Afghanistan and in the capital, Kabul, and Eastern Pashto spoken in northeastern Pakistan also known as Yousafzai Pashto. Most speakers of Pashto speak these two dialects. Two other dialects are also distinguished: Southern Pashto, spoken in Baluchistan (western Pakistan and eastern Iran) and in Kandahar, Afghanistan.

The variation in spelling of the language's name (Pashto, Pukhto, etc.) stems from the different pronunciations in the various dialects of the second consonant in the word; for example, it is a retroflex [sh] in the Kandahari dialect, and a palatal fricative in the Kabuli dialect. The major dialect divisions themselves have numerous variants. In general, however, one speaker of Pashto readily understands another. The Central and Southern dialects are more divergent. The Kandahari dialect is reflected in the spelling system, and is considered by some to be the "standard" for that reason.

The first written records of Pashto are believed to date from the sixteenth century and consist of an account of Sheikh Mali's conquest of Swat. In the seventeenth century, Khushal Khan Khattak, considered the national poet of Afghanistan, was writing in Pashto. In this century, there has been a rapid expansion of writing in journalism and other modern genres which has forced innovation of the language and the creation of many new words.

Traces of the history of Pashto are present in its vocabulary. While the majority of words can be traced to Pashto's roots as member of the Eastern Iranian language branch, it has also borrowed words from adjacent languages for over two thousand years. The oldest borrowed words are from Greek, and date from the Greek occupation of Bactria in third century BC. There are also a few traces of contact with Zoroastrians and Buddhists. Starting in the Islamic period, Pashto borrowed many words from Arabic and Persian. Due to its close geographic proximity to languages of the Indian sub-continent, Pashto has borrowed words from Indian languages for centuries.

Pashto has long been recognized as an important language in Afghanistan. Classical Pashto was the object of study by British soldiers and administrators in the nineteenth century and the classical grammar in use today dates from that period.

In 1936, Pashto was made the national language of Afghanistan by royal decree. Today, Dari Persian and Pashto both are official national languages.

Early History of Pashto
According to G.P.Tate, the author of "The kingdom of Afghanistan"-the first to use Pashto for literary purposes was the famous Pir Roshan in the 7th century. His arch rival Akhund Derweza (1533-1638) was also compelled to use Pashto to arouse his followers against the Roshania movement. Apparently, both the giants exploited religious and mystic sentiments of their followers. The windfall of that movement was the freedom of Pashto prose from the influence of Arabic and Persian languages.

The most remarkable achievement of that era was the innovation by Pir Roshan that made the writing of Pashto easy. He realized that Pashto could not be written in Arabic script owing to some of its peculiar sounds. He therefore, invented 13 alphabets to represent those sounds. Some of these alphabets patched up vocal differences between the hard and soft dialects of Pashto as well.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Pashto has an extensive written tradition. There are a number of classic Pashtun poets, most notably Khoshal Khan Khattak. Modern Pashtun written literature has adapted those modern western literary forms, like the short story, that match forms from traditional Pashto oral literature. Pashtun folk literature is the most extensively developed in the region. Besides stories set to music, Pashtun has thousands of two and four line folk poems, traditionally composed by women. These reflect the day to day life and views of Pashtun women.

Khushal Khan Khattak came to be known "The father of Pashto". Apart from his unsurpassed works in verse and prose on various topics including hunting, falconry, medicine and religion, he compiled a deal of information on the history of Pashtoon.

Then comes Syed Rahmatullah alias Rahat Zakheli(1884-1963), the harbinger of modern Pashto prose. He introduced or revived almost every genre of the time in Pashto. He wrote the first imaginary novel, published in 1912 under the title of "Mah Rukh". His short story "Konda Jeenae" was published in the newspaper AFGHAN in 1917. It was the first but a perfect short story. He compiled history and grammar as well in Pashto.

In the political arena, Bacha Khan gave due attention to the renaissance of the Pashto language, literature and culture. He encouraged and sponsored Pashto poets and writers. Professor Hafiz Mohd Idrees wrote a novel "Peghla" which is considered the first comprehensive novel in Pashto. Said Rasul Rasa, Abdul Rahim Majzoob and Fazal Haq Shida modernized Pashto literature by introducing odes and some other genres of English literature. At this juncture, Pashto took a sharp turn to change its oriental style into a European style. Said Rasul Rasa was a good poet but he is best known for his five novels "Mafroor, Shamae, Khund Kushi, Maimunae and Maikhana".

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Pashto


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User:UNHchabo~enwikibooks

If you wish to contact me, please post a note at my Wikipedia talk page.

title: User:UNHchabo~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Gajjar Halwa (Carrot Pudding)

Ingredients

 * 2–3 large carrots
 * ½ cup (120 g) cashew nuts, broken
 * ½ cup (120 g) raisins, washed
 * 1 pinch salt
 * 2–3 teaspoons sugar
 * 4 pods cardamom
 * 1 pinch cinnamon powder
 * 1 tablespoon butter
 * 1 cup (240 ml) milk

Procedure

 * 1) Cut off the blemished ends of the carrots, wash them, and then peel them.
 * 2) Grate the carrots, and transfer the grated carrots into a saucepan.
 * 3) Add the cashews, raisins, salt, sugar, cardamom, cinnamon, butter, and milk.
 * 4) Heat the saucepan and bring the contents to a boil, while mixing.
 * 5) Cook until the milk has mostly evaporated.
 * 6) Serve with a sprinkling of cinnamon powder on top.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * When the milk is almost evaporated you can add 50–100g of khoya (dried milk solids) for a richer taste.

title: Cookbook:Gajjar Halwa (Carrot Pudding)


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Cookbook:Kuddi (Spiced Yogurt Sauce)

| Cuisine of India

Kuddi, also called kadhi, is a sort of gravy based on yogurt and chickpea flour. It can be served with pakora, rice, or roti.

Ingredients

 * ½ litre (1 pint) yoghurt
 * 1 teaspoon besan (Indian chickpea flour)
 * 2–3 teaspoons sugar
 * 1 pinch salt
 * 1-inch piece of fresh ginger, grated
 * 1 green chilli, chopped
 * 1 tablespoon butter
 * ½ teaspoon jeera seeds

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the yogurt, chickpea flour, sugar, salt, grated ginger, and chopped green chilli.
 * 2) Heat and bring to a boil with continuous stirring.
 * 3) Taste and add more sugar or salt as needed. It should be sour, salty, and sweet.
 * 4) Fry the jeera seeds in butter, and mix them into the kuddi.
 * 5) Serve.

title: Cookbook:Kuddi (Spiced Yogurt Sauce)


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Talk:German/Level V

Untitled
In the whole book you don't mention three of the most important cities of Germany: Frankfurt am Main (Frankfurt Rhein/Main); Hamburg; München (Munich) --> Frankfurt is the most important city of economic in Europe (without the British Isles)!, We have the 7th biggest airport in the world and within the next years it will grow a lot!... -->Munich has the original Oktoberfest which is celebrated all over the world today -->Hamburg has a very important harbour (Frankfurt has no real harbour but in Frankfurt we have more fresh fish every day than Hamburg, funny, isn't ist) There are much more things you don't mention in the book

Yes I realize that, however I have a plan, but currently it is under wraps, you'll just have to wait and see. -- Je suis 23:33, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level V


text:
D Programming/Expressions

new
The keyword new allocates the memory for an object and calls one of the constructors. class C{ } C c = new C; This allocates as many bytes, the class C needs for one instance. Then the standard constructor without arguments is called.

If the memory allocation fails, an OutofMemory Exception is thrown. The memory is allocated on the garbage collector heap.

A class can have multiple constructors with different argument lists. The matching constructor is chosen.

A class can have an own allocator and deallocator. If they exist, they are called instead of the gc allocator.

in
To do:

cast
To do:

assert
To do:

typeid
To do:

is
To do:

delete
To do:

title: D Programming/Expressions


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Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Mountains Out Of Molehills 2

How to Smooth?
How do I make the texture smooth? I can only generate polygon-looking molehills regardless of the settings in the Materials: Map To tab. What am I missing?

 * The second step of the tutorial (now) has the answer you're looking for. Also, please sign your comments with ~ when you're done so we know who's asking what. - Sendoshin (discuss • contribs) 19:39, 3 March 2011 (UTC)

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this module to Wikibooks. Tannersf 04:04, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Incomplete Instructions?
With Blender 2.41 on Ubuntu Dapper the result is a flat plane. Is this tutorial complete? Which version was it originally written for?

 * I think the above post [Great job!] was rediculous. Probably so intended.
 * Yes, this tutorial seems incomplete. Probably never finished, which is a shame.

 * I see a few people have had problems with getting just a flat plane. I (another noob :) ) too have had this problem, but then I discovered I accidently added a plane instead of a grid. Therefore, I had just the four corner vertices to displace, which means nothing happens at all (since the texture is scaled to the size of the object). As soon as I replaced the plane with a grid (delete the plane, add a grid, set smooth, apply the material to it) I got a wonderful bumpy surface :-)

 * In other words: read the tutorial carefully and make sure you add a GRID!

Misty Instructions
"By adding some Mist in the World buttons, adding a Cloud Texture to the World and make it blend from white to gray we could get something like this:" At this stage of the tutorial I cannot follow this kind of description. Please explain in more detail.

 * Yes, please elaborate how to get the effects. It was possible to add a cloud texture to the World, but this noob does not yet know how to "blend [it] from white to gray..." so my render shows the fog creeping over the hills as it does in the example.WindsorSpring (discuss • contribs) 16:24, 3 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Experimenting led to finding the "Mist" button on the "Mist/Stars/Physics" tab among the World buttons. Options in that tab, "Start," "Dist," "Height" and "Misi" give control of the effect.  Setting each around 0.3 to 0.4 gave results similar to the example.  We just have to figure how to word this seamlessly into the article.WindsorSpring (discuss • contribs) 16:59, 3 March 2011 (UTC)


text: Category:User csharp

title: Category:User csharp


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Basketball

Basketball is a sport enjoyed by millions of people around the world. Children and adults of many nations are fascinated by the high speed action and hype that surrounds the sport. It started in America, but has spread to other countries around the world who have shown us that everyone can compete. There are big players and small players, skinny and heavy players, and people of many nations playing.

If they can do it, so can you. Some players have even come to America to compete in the NBA (National Basketball Association). Some of these players are Dirk Nowitzki (Germany), Steve Nash (Canada), Yao Ming (China, figure 0.1), and Manu Ginobili (Argentina). So become part of the hype and learn the history, rules, and sport of basketball!!

American college basketball rules can be found at 2008 NCAA MEN’S AND WOMEN’S BASKETBALL RULES AND INTERPRETATIONS

Basic Play

Basketball's basic concept is easily understood. The objective is for your team of five put a basketball (figure 1.1) through a hoop (figure 1.2) on the opposite side of the court. While trying to score on this hoop you are also trying to defend your hoop on your side of the court (figure 1.3). You must dribble or pass (not walk with) the ball to your team mates to get down the court (see Skills chapter) and must try to put the ball in the basket before twenty-four seconds has passed.

If you don't the other team will receive the ball. You can refresh the twenty-four seconds if you miss the shot and your team gets the rebound. The missed shot must hit the rim to reset the twenty-four second shot clock. There are three types of shots you can make for points.

The first type is a two-point shot. If you shoot the ball inside the three point line, it is worth two points. The second type is a three-point shot, if you shoot beyond the three point line your team gets three points. The third type is a foul shot, if you are fouled when going up for a shot you shoot the number of free throws (from the free throw line) for the number of points you could have received if you made the shot.

For example, if you are shooting a three point shot and get fouled you get three shots from the foul line. If you were shooting a two point shot, you get two shots. If you go up for a shot, get fouled, and make the basket, you get the points regularly received for making the shot, plus one free throw. Free throws are worth one point each. If someone is fouled, the person who fouled them gets one more personal foul, and the team gets one more team foul. You are eliminated from the game when you have 6 fouls.

If you foul somebody when they are not shooting, it counts as one more personal and team foul. If your team commits more than three fouls, the person fouled gets to shoot two from the line. The game is played out in quarters (12 minutes each), and every quarter your number of team fouls goes back to zero. You also cannot go outside the court boundaries (yellow in the diagram), or the ball is given to the other team. Another general rule is once you go over center court, you cannot go back over (this is called over-and-back or a backcourt violation).

Do not stay in the box below the basket for more than three seconds, this is called three in the key and will result in your team giving the ball up. You must be past center court after eight seconds, or you will turn the ball over (these eight seconds are also counted on shot clock). Stepping out-of-bounds, backcourt violations, three in the key, and the ball being stolen (taken away from you by the other team) are all forms of turnovers (giving the other team the ball). When on defense, you cannot touch or hit another player (this will result in foul shots).

Be careful not to stay in the square below the basket for more than three seconds (not illustrated). This is called Defensive Three Seconds and will result in the other team shooting a free throw and receiving the ball. This is the basic way of playing basketball so make sure you know these rules. Some of the topics (such as free throws) will be covered more in depth later.

History
Now that you know a little bit about the game itself, you should hear the history of how the game came to be. What would you do if you had to invent an indoor game for the harsh New England winter? Dr. James Naismith (figure 2.1) was faced with this predicament when the Head of Physical Education told him to make a game for a class of eighteen men. The original game was a nine-on-nine version of basketball using peach baskets on sticks as hoops, and soccer balls as basketballs. Naismith's liked his game because it focused less on brute force and more on skill, so that anyone could have a chance and become good at it. He devised the following set of thirteen rules:

 * 1) The ball can be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.
 * 2) The ball can be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.
 * 3) A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it.
 * 4) The ball must be held in or between the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.
 * 5) No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping an opponent.
 * 6) A foul is striking at the ball with the fist.
 * 7) If a side makes three consecutive fouls it counts a goal for the opponents.
 * 8) A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the ground into the basket and stays there.
 * 9) When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it.
 * 10) The umpire shall be judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made.
 * 11) The referee shall be the judge of the ball and decide when it is in play in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time.
 * 12) The time shall be four 12-minute quarters with a five minute rest between.
 * 13) The side scoring the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner.

The first game was believed to have been played on December 21, 1891 in the Springfield, Massachusetts YMCA and the first official game was in the same place January 20, 1892. From humble beginnings in a YMCA gymnasium, the game has come to reach a huge audience of hundreds of millions of people.

Contributors

 * Witerhawk

title: Basketball


text:
User talk:Kato11921~enwikibooks

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title: User talk:Kato11921~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Basketball

Post questions or comments on the book here.

Hello.
Hello, I'm the writer of this writing this book. Please post any questions or comments. Thank you for reading.

Your Editor,

witerhawk

title: Talk:Basketball


text:
GCSE Science/The Heart

Blood
The blood transports food, proteins, blood cells, gases, water, minerals and waste products around the body.

Blood contains:

 * Plasma - a straw coloured liquid in which the blood cells are suspended and the other components of the blood are dissolved.
 * Red blood cells - these are red and doughnut shaped for a large surface area. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues as oxy-haemoglobin (the oxygenated form of haemoglobin). They do not have a cell nucleus.
 * White blood cells - these are colourless cells with a large cell nucleus. They defend the body against disease by engulfing micro-organisms (bacteria and viruses) and producing antitoxins and antibodies.
 * Platelets - these are fragments of cells and very small. They do not have a cell nucleus. They form blood clots at the site of injuries. Clots protect the body from further infection and blood loss.

Blood vessels
Blood flows from the arteries through the capillaries and into the veins.

Both arteries and veins have the following layers in their walls:

 * An inner endothelium or lining.
 * A layer of a special type of muscle called smooth muscle. The layer also contains numerous elastic fibres.
 * An outer fibrous layer.

Arteries have relatively thick walls compared many with veins. They also have a smaller bore or lumen.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They are only one cell thick. They allow the exchange of water, materials such as salts, food etc., gases and a small amount of white cells between the blood and the tissues.

The circulation of the blood
The circulation of the blood carries oxygen, water and nutrients to the body and carries away waste products and carbon dioxide.

The schematic diagram below shows how the blood flows around the body (a schematic diagram shows the principles of the circulation but is not anatomically accurate).

The circulation of the blood in mammals and birds is known as a double circulation. The right ventricle pumps blood through the lungs where it is oxygenated and the left ventricle pumps the oxygenated blood around the body.

You need to know the following names of arteries and veins:

 * Aorta - the big artery that comes out of the left ventricle.
 * Pulmonary artery - the big artery that comes out of the right ventricle.
 * Vena cava - this refers to the big vein that connects to the right atrium. It has two sections the superior vena cava that drains blood from the top part of the body and the "inferior" vena cava that drains blood from the body below the heart. To make the sections clear it is often said that there are two "vena cavae", the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. Either learn the names of the two sections or, when you draw the heart put the arrow to the vena cava as close to the heart as possible.
 * Pulmonary vein - the vein that is directly attached to the left atrium.

How the heart works
Due the continuous cardiac cycle which takes an approximate second, the heart is the fastest and the strongest muscle in the body. The strongest external muscle is the tongue, however the heart is much stronger.

The heart works in three stages:

 * 1) Blood flows into the atria.
 * 2) Both atria contract at the same time, forcing blood into the ventricles.
 * 3) Both ventricles contract at the same time, forcing blood through the pulmonary artery and aorta.

The heart valves ensure that the blood goes in the correct direction, they stop backflow. When the atria contract the valves between the atria and the ventricles open passively and the high pressure in the arteries keeps the valves between the ventricles and the arteries closed. When the ventricles contract the valves between the ventricles and the atria shut and the valves between the ventricles and the arteries open.

The net effect of the action of the heart is as follows. Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium and flows into the right ventricle where it is pumped through the lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated. It then flows into the left atrium and on into the left ventricle where it is pumped out at sufficient pressure to reach every part of the body. The atria have thin walls and act as reservoirs, the ventricles have thick, muscular walls and act as pumps. The valves in the heart prevent backflow.

title: GCSE Science/The Heart


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GCSE Science/The Nervous System

The nervous system
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and relay neurones (Central nervous system) and peripheral nervous system (sensory neurones and motor neurones). The nervous system lets the organism react to the environment and surroundings and coordinate their behaviour.

The senses
Sense organs contain receptors that are sensitive to stimuli. Typical stimuli are due to changes in chemical composition, mechanical effects, heat, sound and light. Stimuli are the changes that are detected. Receptors detect the change.

There are five sense organs that are studied at this stage, the nose, tongue, eyes, ears and skin.

The nose has smell receptors that are sensitive to a wide range of chemical stimuli. Much of what is called 'taste' is actually smell; the range of flavours in food is very limited if the nose is blocked.

The tongue has taste receptors that are sensitive to chemical stimuli. There are four basic tastes: bitter, salt, sweet and sour.

The eyes have receptors that are sensitive to light, the ears have receptors that are sensitive to sound and the skin has receptors that are sensitive to temperature, touch, pressure and stretch.

The eye

Light from the surroundings enters the eye through the pupil. It is focussed by the cornea and lens so that it forms an image on the retina. The cornea performs crude focussing and the lens performs active, fine focussing. The eye is filled with transparent liquid (the humours).

The iris controls the size of the pupil and so controls how much light gets into the eye. In bright light the circular muscles in the iris contract, this makes the pupil smaller and allows less light into the eye. In dim light the radial muscles contract, this makes the pupil larger and allows more light into the eye.

The lens changes shape to allow the eye to focus on things at various distances. The shape of the lens is changed by the action of the ciliary muscles. The ciliary muscles form a circle that is attached to the lens by the suspensory ligaments. To focus on distant objects the ciliary muscles relax which pulls the suspensory ligaments tight and makes the lens thinner. To focus on nearby objects the ciliary muscles contract which allows the suspensory ligaments to relax so that the lens forms a more spherical shape.

The retina contains cells that are sensitive to light. These cells are called rods and cones.

The rods are more sensitive than the cones but do not provide any colour information. In dim light our view of the world is largely provided by rods and appears as a black and white image.

There are three types of cone and these are each sensitive to different colours of light. The cones are especially densely packed in the part of the retina called the fovea; this dense packing means that the fovea is most sensitive to fine detail in the image.

The part of the eye where the optic nerve enters is called the blind spot. The blind spot does not contain any light receptors (it has no rods or cones).

Hearing
Sound is nothing more than vibrations in the air around us. The ears are the sensory organs that can distinguish both the pitch and loudness of those vibrations. Vibrations enter the ear through the auditory canal. The vibrations cause the tympanum, or eardrum, to vibrate. These vibrations are picked up by three tiny bones, commonly called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup. The last of these bones, the stirrup, transmits the vibrations to the oval window. Vibrations of the oval window create pressure waves in the fluid filled cochlea of the inner ear. The cochlea is lined with tiny hair cells that are pushed back and forth by these pressure waves. In response to these movements, the hair cells produce nerve impulses that are sent to the brain through the cochlear nerve.

Balance
Your ears contain structures that help your central nervous system maintain your balance. Withn the inner ear just above the cochlea are three tiny canals at right angles to each other. They are called semicircular canals because each forms a half circle. The semicircular canals and the two tiny sacs located behind them monitor the position of your body. The semicircular canals and the sacs are filled with fluid and lined with hair cells. At the head changes position, the fluid in the canals also changes position. This causes the hair on the hair cells to bend. This action, in turn, sends impulses to the brain that enable it to determine body motion and position.

Neurones
Neurones are cells that are specialised to transmit electrical impulses around the body. They consist of three principal components: the dendrites, the cell body and the axon. Each neurone has its own nucleus. (The US spelling of neurone is "neuron").

There are three types of neurone: sensory neurones, relay neurones and motor neurones.

Neurones connect to other neurones by means of synapses. Nerve impulses travel down the axon to one side of the synapse where the electrical signal causes chemicals to be released. These chemicals diffuse across the gap and generate an electrical impulse in the neurone on the other side of the synapse.

The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. It contains huge numbers of neurones that process data and provide output signals to effectors in the body.

The effectors are muscles and glands that respond to signals from the central nervous system. Muscles respond with movements and glands respond by secreting substances such as fluids and chemicals. Effectors produce a response to change.

Reflex arcs
The nervous system has many reflexes. These are automatic responses to stimuli. Very quick responses are managed by Reflex arcs. A reflex arc consists of the following components:

 * Stimulus
 * Receptor
 * Sensory neurone
 * Relay neurone
 * Motor neurone
 * Effector
 * Response

A typical reflex arc called the "pain reflex" is illustrated.

In the pain reflex the stimulus is mechanical damage, the receptor is a "pain receptor", the pain receptor generates an electrical impulse in a sensory neurone which creates an electrical impulse in a relay neurone, which in turn creates an electrical impulse in a motor neurone. The impulse in the motor neurone stimulates a muscle, which is an effector, and this creates movement away from the painful stimulus as a response.

Another reflex is the "patellar" or "knee jerk reflex" where a blow beneath the knee-cap makes the leg straighten. The contraction of the pupil in response to bright light is yet another reflex.

title: GCSE Science/The Nervous System


text:
Umbraco/Plugins And Extensions/TextGen Flat

Flat URL's for TextGen.aspx
An Umbraco plugin that allows use of /umraco/TextGen.aspx via flat URL's.

Install
The plugin can be downloaded from http://www.darren-ferguson.com/code-bank.aspx

 * Copy the DLL's to your Umbraco bin directory.

 * Add /TextGen to the key umbracoReservedPaths in web.config (this var is a comma delimited list).

 * Add the following three keys to your web.config

   You can configure debugging to be on or off as you wish. If the debug path is not found System.IO.Path.GetTempPath will be used.

To change the flat URL prefix to call TextGen.aspx with, substitutr /TextGen in steps 2 and three for a prefix of your own choice.

4. Add a httpModules section as a child of system.web as follows (append if you already have this section).

Usage
You can now generate an image using a flat url as follows:  The url segments of the parameter are the parameters to textgen.aspx. and are pretty much self explanatory.

support
Please mail me at df at darren hyphen ferguson dot com if you encounter any bugs or issues.