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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Sound

Sound is a very important component to multimedia presentations. It deserves as much attention and planning in its design as visual aspects do. In Flash, sound can be used as effects for buttons or commands to enhance the navigational experience of the presentation, and it can also be used as music or narration enhancing the background feel. In this chapter we will discuss the basics of importing sound into Flash, understanding sound on the timeline, and creating events and streaming audio.

 * /Importing/
 * /On the Timeline/
 * /Stream and Event/

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Cello Handbook/Left Hand Basics

For a cello player, basic left hand technique is the basic foundation of all playing. Correct left hand technique will facilitate intonation, and will allow you to play notes over the whole range of the cello.

The purpose of the fingers of the left hand is to hold down the string, changing the note you are playing by changing the length of the string that can vibrate. Therefore, when you press your finger down to play a note, make sure you are pressing the string down enough to prevent vibration. However, you do not need to press too hard; only enough to hold the string against the surface of the fingerboard.

When holding down a note, you should also try to keep as little of the finger in contact with the string as possible. This will create a sharper, less muddy tone. One way to accomplish this goal is to curve the fingers, and playing on the ends of finger instead of the pads, where there is less flesh between the surface and the bone.

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Introduction to Chemical Engineering Processes/Example: A simple system with recycle

First Step: Draw a Flowchart
A schematic is given in the problem statement but it is very incomplete, since it does not contain any of the design specifications (the efficiency of the settler, the solubility of soil in water, and the mass flow rates). Therefore, it is highly recommended that you draw your own picture even when one is provided for you. Make sure you label all of the streams, and the unknown concentrations.

Second Step: Degree of Freedom Analysis

 * Around the washer: 6 independent unknowns ($$x_{O1}, \dot{m}_2, x_{D2}, \dot{m}_3, x_{D3}, x_{O4}$$), three independent mass balances (ore, dirt, and water), and one solubility. The washer has 2 DOF.
 * Around the dryer: 2 independent unknowns ($$x_{O4}, \dot{m}_5$$) and two independent equations = 0 DOF.

 * Around the Settler:5 independent unknowns ($$\dot{m}_3, x_{D3}, \dot{m}_7, \dot{m}_8, x_{D8}$$), two mass balances (dirt and water), the solubility of saturated dirt, and one additional information (90% removal of dirt), leaving us with 1 DOF.
 * At the mixing point: We need to include this in order to calculate the total degrees of freedom for the process, since otherwise we're not counting m9 anywhere. 5 unknowns ($$\dot{m}_2, x_{D2}, \dot{m}_8, x_{D8}, \dot{m}_9$$) and 2 mass balances leaves us with 3 DOF.

Therefore, Overall = 3+2+1 - 6 intermediate variables (not including xO4 since that's going to the dryer) = 0

The problem is well-defined.

Devising a Plan
Recall that the idea is to look for a unit operation or some combination of them with 0 Degrees of Freedom, calculate those variables, and then recalculate the degrees of freedom until everything is accounted for.

From our initial analysis, the dryer had 0 DOF so we can calculate the two unknowns xO4 and m5. Now we can consider xO4 and m5 known and redo the degree of freedom analysis on the unit operations.

 * Around the washer: We only have 5 unknowns now ($$x_{O1}, \dot{m}_2, x_{D2}, \dot{m}_3, x_{D3} $$), but still only three equations and the solubility. 1 DOF.
 * Around the settler: Nothing has changed here since xO4 and m5 aren't connected to this operation.
 * Overall System: We have three unknowns ($$x_{O1}, \dot{m}_7, \dot{m}_9$$) since $$\dot{m}_5$$ is already determined, and we have three mass balances (ore, dirt, and water). Hence we have 0 DOF for the overall system.

Now we can say we know $$ x_{O1}, \dot{m}_7, $$ and $$ \dot{m}_9 $$.

 * Around the settler again: since we know m7 the settler now has 0 DOF and we can solve for $$ \dot{m}_3, x_{D3}, \dot{m}_8, $$ and $$ x_{D8} $$.

 * Around the washer again: Now we know m8 and xD8. How many balances can we write?

The washer therefore has 2 unknowns (m2, xD2) and 2 equations (the dirt and water balances) = 0 DOF

This final step can also be done by balances on the recombination point (as shown below). Once we have m2 and xD2 the system is completely determined.

Converting Units
The only given information in inconsistent units is the solubility, which is given as $$ 0.4 \frac{g \mbox{ dirt}}{cm^3 \mbox{ H}_2O } $$. However, since we know the density of water (or can look it up), we can convert this to $$ \frac{kg \mbox{ dirt}}{kg \mbox{ H}_2O } $$ as follows:

$$ 0.4 \frac{g \mbox{ dirt}}{cm^3 \mbox{ H}_2O} * 1 \frac{ cm^3 \mbox{ H}_2O}{g \mbox{ H}_2O} = 0.4 \frac{ g \mbox{ dirt}}{g \mbox{ H}_2O} = 0.4 \frac{ kg \mbox{ dirt}}{kg \mbox{ H}_2O} $$

Now that this information is in the same units as the mass flow rates we can proceed to the next step.

Carrying Out the Plan
First, do any two mass balances on the dryer. I choose total and ore balances. Remember that the third balance is not independent of the first two!

 * Overall Balance: $$ \dot{m}_4 = \dot{m}_5 + \dot{m}_6 $$
 * Ore Balance: $$ \dot{m}_4*x_{O4} = \dot{m}_5*x_{O5} + \dot{m}_6*x_{O6} $$

Substituting the known values:

 * Overall: $$ 3100 = \dot{m}_5 + 2900 $$
 * Ore: $$ x_{O4}*3100 = 1*2900 $$

Solving gives:

Now that we have finished the dryer we do the next step in our plan, which was the overall system balance:

 * Water Balance: $$ \dot{m}_9 = \dot{m}_5 $$
 * Ore Balance: $$ x_{O1}*\dot{m}_1 = \dot{m}_6 $$
 * Dirt Balance: $$ (1-x_{O1})*\dot{m}_1 = \dot{m}_7 $$

Next we move to the settler as planned, this one's a bit trickier since the solutions aren't immediately obvious but a system must be solved.

 * Overall Balance: $$ \dot{m}_3 = \dot{m}_7 + \dot{m}_8 $$
 * Dirt Balance: $$ \dot{m}_3*x_{D3} = \dot{m}_7*x_{D7} + \dot{m}_8*x_{D8} $$
 * Efficiency of Removal: $$ \dot{m}_7 = 0.9*\dot{m}_3*x_{D3} $$

Using the solubility is slightly tricky. You use it by noticing that the mass of dirt in stream 3 is proportional to the mass of water, and hence you can write that:

 * mass dirt in stream 3 = 0.4 * mass water in stream 3
 * Solubility: $$ \dot{m}_3*x_{D3} = 0.4*\dot{m}_3 * (1-x_{D3}) $$

Plugging in known values, the following system of equations is obtained:

 * $$ \dot{m}_3 = 100 + \dot{m}_8 $$
 * $$ \dot{m}_3*x_{D3} = 100 + \dot{m}_8*x_{D8} $$
 * $$ \dot{m}_3*x_{D3} = 111.11 $$
 * $$ \dot{m}_3*x_{D3} = 0.4*\dot{m}_3*(1-x_{D3}) $$

Solving these equations for the 4 unknowns, the solutions are:

Finally, we can go to the mixing point, and say:

 * Overall: $$ \dot{m}_8 + \dot{m}_9 = \dot{m}_2 $$
 * Dirt: $$ \dot{m}_8*x_{D8} = \dot{m}_2*x_{D2} $$

From which the final unknowns are obtained:

Since the problem was asking for $$ \dot{m}_2 $$, we are now finished.

Check your work
These values should be checked by making a new flowchart with the numerical values, and ensuring that the balances on the washer are satisfied. This is left as an exercise for the reader.


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User talk:172.213.241.27

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User talk:68.84.165.80

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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Sound/Importing

The first step to adding sound to Flash is importing a sound file. Flash can import many different sound file types including MP3, WAV, AIF, and QuickTime. Once imported these files will be compressed to .fla format in Flash before eventually becoming part of the final movie .swf file. Although Flash can import and convert these file formats, its often better to convert your sound to MP3 before importing it into Flash.

In Flash, the simplest way to import a sound file into your library is to access the file menu and choose import, then import to library. At this point the sound file is not a part of the timeline or the active layer of your presentation. It remains in the library until you assign it to a keyframe, as an instance of that sound or if it is used in ActionScript. Another method of importing sound files into Flash is by simply clicking and dragging the file from your desktop or file folder and placing it in the library or on the stage.

If you select the audio file in the library, you can click the play button located at the top of the window to sample the sound of the file.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Sound/Stream and Event

Adding Sound to a Button
One of the most common ways to incorporate sounds into an interactive movie or website is to attach a sound to a button. Typically sounds are applied to either rolling over or pressing down on a button. This can be done by adding a new layer to a button’s timeline. Then you would add the keyframes for the beginning and ending of the sound. After selecting the beginning keyframe, just drag the sound file from the library to the stage, and it will automatically appear in the timeline. You will have several editing capabilities available to you in the Property inspector, such as; Sync, Repeat, Effect, and Edit. These options will help you choose how you want your file to sound. One of the newest functions found in Flash 8 for managing sound files in your presentation is the Behaviors menu. This menu offers increased editing capabilities for loading and controlling sound files.

Under the sound option there are five different menu tools.

Load Sound from Library

Load streaming MP3 file

Play Sound

Stop all Sounds

Stop Sound

Event Sound Stop
If you need to stop an event sound you can do this a couple of different ways. The first method is done by creating a Stop sound on a keyframe in the main timeline of the presentation. Another option is creating a button, giving it an instance name, and then attaching a stop sound to its down state.

Streaming MP3
When you load a streaming MP3 the file will run directly from the Flash Player. When this occurs, MP3 files are accessed from a public web server rather than from the movie’s library. The file begins playback as soon as there is enough information buffered into the Flash Player. Another term for this kind of streaming is progressive download.

Since streaming MP3s begin to playback automatically you will need to utilize ActionScript in order to play and/or stop the


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Sound/On the Timeline

Background Sound
Another widely used option for adding sound to a Flash presentation is by adding continuous background music or narration. This sound file would be placed on its own layer in the timeline. You would just need to decide when you want the music to start and then place the file at that point on the timeline.

Another option is choosing Event from the Sync menu. This will play the sound in its entirety at the first frame of the timeline. Once added, your sound will be visible on the timeline in waveform. (see figure)

If you need to stop an event sound you can do this by placing an instance of the sound at the specific keyframe in which the sound should stop and select the Stop Sync option for the keyframe. This will also stop all instances of that particular sound.

In a Flash movie, several sound layers can be played by the Flash Player at one time. Flash acts like a sound mixer by mixing the sound layers as separate channels. It is important to keep this in mind when adding multiple sound layers, as this may greatly increase your file’s size and slow down the performance of your computer.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Tools/Rectangle and Oval

Using the oval tool creates perfectly smooth oval shapes that can be used in a variety of ways to produce and build on effects within the stage. To use the oval tool, you click and drag diagonally, moving the cursor around to test out the vertical and horizontal options of the shape. Creating a perfect circle is attained by holding down the shift key while moving the cursor to the desired size. The only unique effects used with the oval tool are fill and stroke effects. The rectangle tool automatically creates perfectly parallel rectangles using the same method as clicking and dragging cursor to desired size while having the rectangle tool selected. The shift key in this instance creates a perfect square. The same fill and stroke effects are also applied to the rectangle tool.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Tools/Pencil

This tool acts appropriately as a real pencil does with the control of a mouse or stylus with amenities including different line styles. Straightening allows many automatic shape, size, and form recognition, smoothing applies to rounded lines and the option of automatically joining end points, and drawing in ink allows the lines you draw no special effects, just appearing exactly how you draw them.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Tools/Brush

This tool allows for many different options graphically, offering the most variances and ways to manipulate your marks in the program. This tool creates marks using filled shapes which can be solid colors or gradients with the stroke not applying to this tool. There are five painting modes in this tool, which include normal, paint behind, paint fills, paint selection, and paint inside. The brush size and shape can be adjusted, with nine options for shape and the option to change the diameter of the brush, creating thicker or thinner lines.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Tools/Pen

The pen tool is used when you want to create complex paths to create shapes or forms within the stage. Easy to use, you move the cursor to your desired point and click to set a point. Adjusting the anchor points by clicking and dragging, you can change the shape or line of the path.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Dimensional Shadows

One limitation of the new Drop shadow filter is that it does not have a built-in skew setting. The workaround for creating a drop-shadow with more depth illustrates how you can use the Hide object option and the Transform panel to enhance shadows created with the Drop shadow filter. Here are the steps:

1. Place a Text fjeld, Movie Clip, or Button instance on the Stage.

2. Create a new layer below the original content layer: Click the Insert Layer icon in the Timeline (or choose Insert ~ Timeline ~ Layer from the application menu). Drag the new layer to reorder it below the original layer in the layer stack.

3. Copy the item from Step 1 to the new layer: Select the keyframe where the item exists and hold the Option key while dragging the keyframe content to the new layer, or select the item and use the copy command (Ctrl+C or W+Con Mac), then activate the new layer and use the Paste in Place command (Shift+Ctrl+V or Shift+W+Von Mac).

4. Lock the original content layer.

5. Select the duplicate item on the lower layer and use the Transform panel to apply a Horizontal stretch and skew.

6. Open the Filters panel or activate the Filters tab in the Property inspector.

7. Click the plus symbol and select Drop shadow from the filters list. In the Drop shadow settings, select the Hide object check box. Otherwise, the default settings are a good place to start.

8. The default settings can be modified to create a softer shadow. As an example, the shadow Color can be changed to medium gray (#666666), the Strength can be set to 50 percent, and the Quality can be set to Medium.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes

Applying Filters in Flash
Filters are a quick way to add some visual polish to your Flash designs. Instead of spending time editing shapes to make drop shadows of adjusting gradient fills to create bevels, you can apply live filters and use the pre-made settings to adjust the filter effect. These filters are rendered “on the fly” and do not create new symbols and add them to your Library. You can also always edit your content, even with the filter effect applied. You can also edit and control your filters with Actionscript, but there are some quick and easy ways to apply filters in the authoring environment without any code. Filters are rendered in real time as you create them, so what you see is what you will get in the final movie.

Blend Modes
Blend modes are a feature new to Flash 8. You may already be familiar with blend modes from using Photoshop or other image editing software. These blends are tools that render an image that is a mix of two overlapping images. With different types of blends, different pixel values will be generated. Blend modes can be applied to both Movie Clips and Button symbols using the Blend mode menu. This menu is located in the Properties panel. The blend image will affect any image underneath it, even if the images are on different layers.

Combining Filters
You can add multiple filters to one item and they will be rendered in the order they appear in the live list, from top to bottom. Changing the order of filters by dragging a filter name up or down in the live list will change the final result of the combined effect, but the settings for each filter will be preserved and editable.

If you have created a special combination of filters or found a custom filter setting that you would like to reuse, the Presets option makes it easy to save and access your own list of filter effects.

To save a filter setting or filter combo to the presets menu, follow these steps:

1. Select the item that has the filters and settings applied that you would like to save.

All filters in the live list for the selected item will be saved with the preset - including any filters that are toggled off. When the custom filter is applied from the Presets menu to another item, the settings will be identical.

2. In the Filters panel, click the plus icon (+) to invoke the filter menu, and from the Presets submenu, select Save As.

3. Enter a name for your custom filter settings or filter combo and click OK.

4. The named preset will be added to the bottom of the Presets submenu, along with any other saved Presets, and can be applied to other items.

After a Preset is applied to an item, the settings can be modified on that item without corrupting the saved Preset. Unfortunately, the Presets list doesn't have a centralized edit option, but you can select the Rename or Delete option from the Preset submenu to load your list of currently saved presets into dialog boxes that enable you to rename an item or remove an item from the list. If you'd like to share your filter presets with someone else, all you have to do is provide them with the XML file that is saved for each preset in theflashConfigurationfolder. The standard file paths saved filter presets are as follows:

 * Windows
 * C: \Documents and Settings\username\Local Setti ngs\Application Data\Macromedia\Flash 8\language\Configuration\Filters\filtername.xml

 * Macintosh
 * Macintosh HD/Users/username/Library/Application Support/Macromedia/Flash 8/language/Configuration/Filters/filtername.xml

Once the XML files are copied into the same location on someone else's computer, the presets will appear in her Presets menu when she starts flash 8. filter swapping is an easy way to share creative resources and to keep effects consistent for projects that rely on filters for a specific look.

Although you may occasionally find it helpful to combine filters, it is best to try and achieve the result you want by first adjusting the settings of a single filter and/or modifying the symbol instance using the Color Effect settings in the Properties panel or the Transform tools. As with any intensive effect rendered at run time, multiple filters will have a negative impact on the performance of the published flash movie.

Topics
The following areas are covered in further detail:
 * /Adding Filters/
 * /Saving Presets and Combining Filters/
 * /Blend Modes/
 * /Dimensional Shadows/
 * /Animating Filters with Motion Tweens/
 * /Custom Easing/
 * /Controlling Color/
 * /Adjusting Color Filters/
 * /Color Properties/
 * /Layering Graphics/
 * /Applying Compound Blend Modes/
 * /Creating an Animated Alpha Blend/


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Animating Filters with Motion Tweens

Adobe has done a great deal of engineering to make it as easy as possible to combine filters with motion tweens for animated effects. The result is a very intuitive system that works behind the scenes to support tweens while preserving editable filter settings.

Filters are not necessarily incompatible with shape tweens, but because filters can only be applied to symbols or text fields and shape tweens can only be applied to primitive shapes, filters and shape tweens never get a chance to work together. The only workaround for this rule is to create a shape tween inside of a Movie Clip and then apply a filter to the Movie Clip. In this case, the final visual result is a combination of a shape tween and a filter, but they remain on separate timelines. You can apply a filter to an item and then tween it, or you can select an item that has been tweened and add a filter to enhance the motion - in most cases, you'll get exactly the animated effect you were hoping for. The only time you'll need to know what is going on behind the scenes is when you don't get the result you want on the first try.

Here are some notes that should help you troubleshoot if things go wrong when you try to combine filters and Motion tweens:

+ Filters "stick" to symbol instances, so if you insert a keyframe (with the same content as the initial keyframe), and set up a Motion tween, the settings and the stacking order in the live list will automatically match in the first keyframe and the last keyframe of the tween.

+ If you add a filter to a symbol in one keyframe of a tween, Flash automatically adds a matching filter with all the settings adjusted to create "no effect" to the symbol in the other keyframe. This is also called a "dummy filter" because it will have no visible effect on the symbol, but it is required to support the tween.

+ If you remove a filter from a symbol in one keyframe of a tween, Flash automatically clears the matching filter from the other keyframe.

+ If you apply different filters (or different combinations of filters) on two different keyframes and then apply a tween, Flash will analyze the symbol with the most filters and apply dummy filters to the symbol in the other keyframe to support the tween. The visual difference between the two symbols will be interpolated in the span of the tween.

+ You can modify filter settings to create a visual change from the first keyframe to the last keyframe in a Motion tween. The differences will be tweened evenly across the span unless you use easing to adjust the interpolation.

+ The knockout and type of gradient (such as inner, outer, or full) filter settings will not interpolate properly as part of a tween if they are set differently on the beginning and end keyframes. If the filter options in the first keyframe and the end keyframe of a tween are inconsistent and cannot be interpolated properly, Flash will apply the options set in the first keyframe to the frames in the span of the tween.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Custom Easing

By default, the interpolation of any differences in filter settings from the first keyframe to the last keyframe will match the interpolation of the motion tween - that is, the filters will change at the same rate as any other characteristics of the item that have been modified to create animation in the tween. General Easing settings (adjusted in the Property inspector) will be applied equally to all changes in the characteristics of an item. As we described in the previous chapter, if you need more precise control over the interpolation of different aspects of a tween, you can use Custom Easing to set unique curves for Position, Rotation, Scale, Color, and/or Filters. To access Custom Easing controls, select the first keyframe in the motion tween, then click the Edit button to the right of the Easing controls in the Property inspector. The easing Property menu at the top of the dialog box enables you to load a unique interpolation curve for each of the various properties that can. be animated in a tween. You can set a unique curve to apply to all properties, or set unique curves for selected properties, leaving the default curve for others.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Controlling Color

The Adjust Color filter included in the Flash Filter panel loads a new set of controls for making color adjustment to Movie Clips, Button symbols, and text fields. The best way to explain these new controls is to compare them to standard Flash color settings. Some of these controls are unique and some replicate settings available in the Color Mixer panel (for primitive shapes and Drawing Objects) and/or in the Properties panel Color menu.

The controls enable various workflows for setting and adjusting color in the Flash authoring environment. In most cases, you will start with the Color Mixer panel (or Swatches panel) to choose and/or modify fill and stroke colors for initial primitive shapes or Drawing Objects. After the raw graphics are converted into reusable symbols, the Color controls available in the Property inspector and/or the Adjust Color filter can be applied to modify symbol instances without changing the original fill and stroke colors. The sliders and value fields for adjusting color with either of these options are easy to use and you will most likely achieve the result you want with just a little experimentation. However, there are important differences between the Color Properties settings and the new Adjust Color filter settings, and the interaction of, the different settings can become quite complex, To clarify the functions (and the advantages or limitations) of the various settings available with these two options, we have included a brief section for each.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Adjusting Color Filters

The most broadly useful tool introduced to Flash with the new filters feature is the Adjust Color filter.

Finally, you can make subtle adjustments (on an instance level) to Movie Clips, Button symbols, and text fields, without having to go back to the Color Mixer panel and change the stroke and fill colors of the original symbol. Unlike the Color control options in the Properties panel, the Adjust Color option in the Filters panel makes it easy to combine different types of color trans- formation without manually adjusting individual RGBvalues. By default, all settings are loaded as "neutral" - sliders are set to 0 so that no color transformation is visible on the selected item when the filter is first applied. Color transformations are applied for instant visual feedback as the slider controls or text values are adjusted. Filters apply on an instance level, and settings can be modified at any time by selecting an instance and choosing Adjust Color from the live filter list in the Filters panel. The following values can be applied individually or in combination to Movie Clips, Button symbols, and text fields:

Brightness: Alters the RGBvalues for the original color to make it appear lighter or darker without changing the hue. The range for filter Brightness is -100 to + 100. The default or no change value is O.The numeric value that appears in the Brightness field is added to the RGBvalues of the original color to create a new shade, within the minimum and maximum values of 0 and 255, respectively. For example, a red fill (255, 0, 0) set to +50 brightness will be transformed into light red (255, 50, 50). The same red fill (255, 0, 0) set to -50 brightness will be transformed into dark red (205, 0, 0). The results of adjusting Brightness in the Filters panel are different than the results of adjusting Brightness in the Properties panel.

Contrast: At the minimum contrast setting of -100, all RGBvalues are forced to 64,64, 64, making everything medium gray. The RGBvalues at the maximum contrast setting of 100 will vary depending on the original colors, but they will be forced closer to 0 or 255. The default or no change value is O.The greater the numeric difference between RGBvalues, the greater the amount of contrast. In visual terms, light colors get lighter and dark colors get darker as contrast is increased, whereas all colors are brought closer to medium gray as contrast is decreased.

Saturation: Saturation can also be thought of as the intensity or purity of color. At the minimum saturation setting of -100, the image will be rendered in grayscale with no color intensity-similar to the hues found closer to the bottom of the color selection field in the Color Mixer. At the maximum saturation setting of 100, the colors will be as intense or as close to pure color as possible-similar to the hues found closer to the top of the color selection field in the Color Mixer panel.

Hue: The Hue slider has a different range than the other Adjust Color filter sliders. To span the full range of the 360-degree color wheel, the slider values are from -180 to 180. The default or no change value is O. If you were looking at a real color wheel, reducing the hue value would be equivalent to moving counterclockwise around the wheel, while increasing the hue value would be equivalent to moving clockwise around the wheel. At either extreme ( - 180 or 180), the resulting color would be directly opposite the original color on the color wheel. The relationship of colors directly opposite on the color wheel is known as complementary.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Color Properties

The Color menu in the Property inspector provides some options for modifying the appearance of symbol instances without changing the original symbol stored in the Library. After a Color adjustment type is selected from the Color drop-down menu, the controls needed to apply the color adjustment appear in the Property inspector. By default, "neutral" settings (O-percent change) are loaded as a starting point. After the values for a property are modified, they will be stored and loaded as the default when you select another instance. The settings loaded in the Property inspector for the items in the Color menu are simple and intuitive and enable you to make basic color adjustments using familiar controls:

Brightness: The Brightness Color property has the same range as the Brightness slider in the Adjust Color filter (-100 to 100); however, as we described previously, the Brightness property creates more drastic color transformations because it is applied as a relative or percentage-based value. At the minimum Brightness setting (-100), all RGB values are forced to black (0,0,0), and at the maximum Brightness setting (100), all RGB values are forced to white (255,255,255).

Tint: The color theory definition of a tint is a color produced by adding white to a pure color. The Tint property in flash enables you to select any color (not just white) to "mix" with the original color. You can also select how much of the new color you want to mix with your original colors-from the lowest setting of 0 percent to the maximum setting of 100 percent. At the minimum setting, the original colors will be unchanged. At the maximum setting, the new tint color will completely replace all of the original colors. At the default setting of 50 percent, the rendered color values will be an even mix of the original colors and the selected tint color.

Alpha: This setting controls how opaque the selected instance will be. The values that control alpha are counter-intuitive (as they are in the Color Mixer). At the minimum alpha level of 0 percent, the item will be transparent. At the maximum alpha level of 100 percent, the item will be fully opaque or "solid."


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Layering Graphics

If you use Photoshop or other image editing applications, you may be familiar with using blend modes, although for many people this remains a somewhat mysterious tool. Blends are rendering tools that analyze the pixel values of overlapping images (the blend image and the underlying base images) to create a rendered image that is a mix of the two. The type of blend applied will determine the formula used to generate the pixel values in the combined image. Blend modes can be applied to Movie Clip and Button symbol instances in the authoring environment using the Blend mode menu in the Properties panel. The blend image will interact with any underlying images that it overlaps - even if they are not on the same layer.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Applying Compound Blend Modes

Alpha and Erase blends are a great complement to Flash's standard masking tools-which can be counter-intuitive at times. If you want to create a cutout in a shape using a traditional mask, you actually have to create a shape on a mask layer that covers all the areas except the area you wish to cut out. If you have been working in Flash for a while, this workflow is proba- bly second nature, but when it comes to more subtle mask effects, like gradients or irregular shapes, it can be a headache to have to reverse-engineer a mask graphic. With Alpha blends, what you see is what you get - or rather, what you don't see is what you won't get! The steps for creating a compound blend are as follows:

1. Create a Movie Clip with content that will function as the base image (or convert an existing graphic that you want to mask into a Movie Clip).

2. Open the Movie Clip in Edit mode to access the Movie Clip timeline: Double-click an instance on the Stage or the symbol name in the Library list.

3. Create a new layer on the Movie Clip timeline above the existing content that will be the base image for the Alpha or Erase blend. To protect the base image(s), you may want to lock all layers but the new layer.

4. In the new layer, create a graphic that will act as a mask- blend masks are the oppo- site of normal Flash layer masks in that the content in the Alpha or Erase blend symbol instance will define an area to make invisible in the base image rather than define an area to make visible.

5. Convert the content on the blend layer into a Movie Clip or Button symbol.

6. Select the symbol instance and position it on the Stage (still on the base image Movie Clip timeline) to overlap the base image so that it defines the area you want to Erase or Alpha out, then use the Blend menu in the Properties panel to apply an Alpha or Erase blend mode. The content of the blend image will disappear, but don't panic-continue to the next step to complete the compound blend.

7. Return to the Main Timeline: Double-click an empty area of the Stage or use the Scene button above the Timeline.

8. Select the parent symbol instance (that contains your base image and the currently invisible blend image), and use the Blend menu to apply a Layer blend. (If you opened the base symbol from the Library in Step 2, make sure you have an instance dragged onto the Stage on the Main Timeline so you can apply the Layer blend mode to the instance.)

9. Voila!You should see the content of your blend image punched out (Erase blend) or rubbed out (Alpha blend) of the base image-either the background color of the Flash movie or any underlying images on the Stage will be visible through the empty areas created in the base image.

In addition to supporting a more intuitive workflow for creating masks and enabling Alpha- based masks, compound blends can be used to create animated transition effects. Continue to the next section if you would like to try using an Alpha blend to create an animated color fade effect.


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Filters and Blend Modes/Creating an Animated Alpha Blend

The following example uses an animated Alpha blend to selectively fade out a black and white image to reveal a color image. The trick for this effect is to use two instances of the same color image, with the Adjust Color filter applied to make one instance a grayscale version. There are a lot of steps, but the final file structure is straightforward and the effect is pretty cool, so let's get started:

1. Open a new Flash document.

2. Import a color bitmap and convert it to a Movie Clip (or place an existing Movie Clip instance on the Stage - preferably one with bright colors).

3. Place two instances of the Movie Clip on the Stage so that they are layered and aligned- select both instances and use the Vertical Center and Horizontal Center align commands.

4. Select the topmost Movie Clip instance and use the Adjust Color filter to set the Saturation of the image to -IOO-this will drain the color out so that it looks grayscale.

5. With the grayscale Movie Clip instance still selected, use the Blend menu in the Properties panel to apply Layer blend mode. You won't see any visible change yet.

6. Double-click the grayscale Movie Clip instance to access the Movie Clip timeline in Edit mode.

7. Create a new layer at the top of the layer stack in the Movie Clip Timeline. Lock the other layer(s) with the bitmap or graphics you plan to use as a base image.

8. Select the Oval tool (0) in the Tools panel and set the Fill color to use a default radial gradient. Use the Color Mixer panel to apply 0 percent Alpha to the right color anchor. This should create a circular gradient fill that has a transparent center that fades out to black. Set the stroke color to None.

9. Click and drag on the Stage to create a circle that covers only a small area in the center of the original image-in our file, the circle image was 100 x 100 pixels.

10. Select the new circle and convert it into a Movie Clip named alpha circle.

11. Use the Blend menu in the Properties panel to apply Alpha blend mode to the alp ha c i r c 1e Movie Clip instance. The circle Movie Clip will disappear, but don't panic. As you can see by the filled keyframe on the layer, the content is still there and you can select it to see the selection outline for the invisible instance.

12. Double-click the alp hac i r c 1e instance to access the Movie Clip timeline and insert frames (F5) to extend the span of the circle graphic to frame 20. Convert frame 20 into a keyframe (F6).

13. Select the circle graphic in keyframe 20 and use the Transform panel to increase the size of the circle so that it is larger than the bitmap base image. We scaled the circle up to 400 x 400 pixels.

14. Select keyframe 1 (still in the alpha circle timeline), and apply a Motion tween to ani- mate the small circle scaling up to the size of the larger circle in frame 20.

15. In order to see the Alpha blend applied as a mask, you have to return to the Main Timeline (click the Scene button).

16. The grayscale bitmap image should now have an area in the center that is "erased" in a soft, gradient circle that allows some of the color image to show through.

17. The animated effect will only be visible in the published .swf file or the Test movie environment. Use Ctrl + Return or 3C + Return to test the file and preview the animation.

You can always go back inside the nested symbols to modify the level of alpha in the blend image or change the style of fill from a radial gradient to a linear gradient or even a solid fill (with alpha set to less than 100 percent). The level of masking will match the level of alpha in the contents of the Alpha blend symbol instance. Alpha blends can be used to mask any type of image-even bitmaps or primitive shapes. The only requirement is that the Alpha blend must be applied to a symbol instance and that symbol instance must be nested inside a Movie Clip with a Layer blend applied. This is just one way of using a blend mode to create an inter- esting visual effect. There are many other possibilities, and once you understand the workflow for applying basic and compound blends, the rest is just a matter of experimentation!


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Talk:Intermediate Algebra/Expressions and Formulas

Just a comment or two:

The Formula Practice problem 1 is badly worded. The wording says "... is the formula to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius or vice versa. What would the temperature in Fahrenheit if it was 25 Celsius Degrees?" Of course, the specific formula really only converts one way.. it needs to be rearranged to go vice versa. The wording of the example question is also a bit clumsy and is, I think, missing a "be".

I'd suggest: ".. is the formula to convert a temperature from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit. Using the formula, what would be the Fahrenheit equivalent of 25 degrees Celsius?"

JFMika

Lesson quiz, 2nd excercise: the question has at least 2 senses, but the answer provided is neither of the correct ones.


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Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p1

Introduction to Habermas's Writing Style
What philosophical theories have in common is "the intention of thinking being or the unity of the world by way of explicating reason's experience of itself."

The premise that reason can have experiences is not intuitively obvious. Nor is the premise that reason would be able to directly experience itself -- as distinct from, say, its interpretation of itself.

We set the tone, here, for a hard slog.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p1


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Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Publishing/SWF Files

An SWF file (or "swiff") is the resulting file created by flash after the movie is published through the Publish option under File>Publish. It is a vector-based file produced by Flash intended for small-scale production on the Internet. It stands for Small Web Format. A file of this format is called a Shockwave Flash Object. SWF is currently the dominant format for displaying animated vector graphics on the web.


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Cookbook:Figgie 'obbin (Cornish Raisin Pastry)

| Cuisine of the UK

Figgie 'obbin, also called figgie hobbin, is an old Cornish recipe. It is good served hot with clotted cream, burnt cream, or baked custard; or cold with tea or coffee or cocoa.

Ingredients

 * 2 parts by weight of self raising flour (or plain flour plus baking powder)
 * 2 parts by weight of raisins (and/or sultanas if desired)
 * 1 part by weight (i.e. half the weight of the flour in total) of a 50/50 mix of suet and other fat
 * Water or milk

Procedure

 * 1) Rub the suet, fat, and flour together.
 * 2) Mix in the raisins, and add enough water or milk to make a stiff dough.
 * 3) Roll out to about 1 inch thick. Press gently into a prepared shallow baking tin or dish.
 * 4) Bake in a hot oven for about 35–45 minutes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Currants and/or sultanas may be mixed with or substituted for raisins.
 * Vegetable suet, vegetable lard, or butter, can be used instead of beef or mutton suet and dripping; this will give a lighter cake.
 * Figgie/Fig/Figs are Cornish dialect words pertaining to raisins
 * From Perranporth W.I. in Cornish Recipes, Ancient & Modern, 22nd Edition, The Cornwall Federation of Women's Institutes 1965. First collected & published by Edith Martin, Tregavethan, Truro, 1929, for The Cornwall F. of W. I.


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User:Tompurl

Hi, my name is Tom Purl and I'm a technical analyst residing somewhere in sunny Illinois, USA. I like lots of things, including playing with computers, cooking and spending time with my family. When I grow up, I hope to be a Wikibook admin for the inevitable Vim wikibook :)

For more information about all things Tom, please visit my web site:

 * http://tompurl.com

title: User:Tompurl


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CCNA Certification/The OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model for short) is a layered, abstract description for communications and computer network protocol design, developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection initiative. It is also called the OSI seven layer model.

History
In 1977, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), began to develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite. OSI has two major components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer model), and a set of concrete protocols. The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale and not currently available online.

Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than the abstract model itself, documented in ISO 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality. Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities for use by the layer above it. Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a corresponding entity at the same layer in a remote host.

Layer 7: Application layer
The Application layer is the seventh level of the seven-layer OSI model. It interfaces directly to and performs common application services for the application processes; it also issues requests to the presentation layer.

The common application layer services provide semantic conversion between associated application processes. Note: Examples of common application services of general interest include the virtual file, virtual terminal, and job transfer and manipulation protocols.

The application layer of the TCP/IP models corresponds to a mixing of the application, presentation, and session layers in the OSI models.

The user always interacts with the application layer. This layer provides protocol and services for the user.

Layer 6: Presentation layer
The Presentation layer transforms data to provide a standard interface for the Application layer. [ MIME] encoding, data encryption and similar manipulation of the presentation is done at this layer to present the data as a service or protocol developer sees fit. Examples of this layer are converting an EBCDIC- text file to an ASCII-coded file, or serializing object and other data structures into and out of XML. http protocol works in the presentation layer.

Layer 5: Session layer
The Session layer controls the dialogues/connections (sessions) between computers. It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides for either full-duplex or half-duplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for "graceful close" of sessions, and also for session checkpointing and recovery.

In the TCP/IP model, "graceful close", and other connection related parts, are part of the Transport layer.

Layer 4: Transport layer
The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, thus relieving the upper layers from any concern while providing reliable data transfer. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail.

The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that converts messages into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP), etc.

Layer 3: Network layer
The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing functions, and might also perform segmentation/desegmentation, and report delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical.

The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as the actual Air Mail or Consolidated Carrier that transfers the mail from Point A to Point B. The network layer is responsible for getting the packets to the remote host.

Layer 2: Data Link layer
The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. The best known example of this is Ethernet. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point or packet-switched networks and Aloha for local area networks. On IEEE 802 local area networks, and some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI, this layer may be split into a Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. It arranges bits from physical layer into logical chunks of data, known as frames. The Data Link Layer's job is to move the data to the next hop.

This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is provided only among locally attached network nodes forming layer 2 domains for unicast or broadcast forwarding.

Layer 1: Physical layer
The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Ethernet hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus Adapters. The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:

 * Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
 * Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
 * Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer. Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-link layer. The same applies to other local-area networks, such as Token ring, Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI), and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

Interfaces
In addition to standards for individual protocols in transmission, there are also interface standards for different layers to talk to the ones above or below (usually operating-system–specific). For example, Microsoft Windows' Winsock, and Unix's Berkeley sockets and System V Transport Layer Interface, are interfaces between applications (layers 5 and above) and the transport (layer 4). Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) and Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) are interfaces between the media (layer 2) and the network protocol (layer 3).

title: CCNA Certification/The OSI Model


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Habermas Commentary/Discussions

In contemplating these discussions, note the possibility of adding commentary to an item by using the Discussion tab at the top of the screen.

Outline of TCA based on Brand's Force of Reason

Reason for Democracy: a succinct explication of how Habermas' approach to communicative action is the conceptual axis of his work, by Gary E. Davis.

Habermas, the Public Sphere, and Democracy: A Critical Intervention by Douglas Kellner.

title: Habermas Commentary/Discussions


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Habermas Commentary/Discussions/Brand Outline

Outline of Habermas’s Theory of Communicative Action, based upon an interpretation of A. Brand (1990), The Force of Reason: An Introduction to Habermas’ Theory of Communicative Action. Sydney: Allen & Unwin.

Introduction
Habermas believes that reason operates in history. As Hegel put it, “Reason rules the world.” But for Habermas, this does not mean that humans are determined by Absolute Spirit. Rather, it means people have a capacity for rationality. Rationality is inherent in language, and language is how “communicative” action takes places.

People begin by using sacred symbols in ritual ways. But social integration eventually becomes less a matter of sacred symbolism, and more a matter of communicative action. Passive subjugation to religious tradition becomes replaced with shared, rationally motivated understanding. This is the process of “rationalization.” Language is a key part of the process. Language pushes in the direction of shared understanding.

There is a collective learning process. Communicative rationality advances through that process. Ethical progress results. Law is the best example of that progress.

The Frankfurt School shared Weber’s pessimism about progress. Those thinkers erred in neglecting certain important aspects of rationality. This happened because they were too preoccupied with consciousness.

Progress is not inevitable. Communicative rationality is not guaranteed. It depends on historical chance. There is a difference between what could have happened (according to logic) and what actually happens (because of events).

Our world has experienced a loss of freedom and meaning. This is because western society has been experiencing two distinct rationalization processes. First is the Lifeworld process. A Lifeworld has social, cultural, and personal dimensions. The social dimension is the one we are talking about here. On the social level, the Lifeworld process refers to the complete set of human relations in society, which are organized by communicative action.

Society perpetuates itself in two ways. One is symbolic. Through language, society reproduces its symbols. This is what happens in the Lifeworld.

The other way in which society perpetuates itself is material. By setting up certain action-oriented subsystems – especially government and the capitalist market – society arranges for physical preservation. These subsystems are part of a larger System. The System is the second of the two rationalization processes mentioned above.

The rationalization that occurs in the System is rationalization of the Lifeworld. This occurs especially through law.

The capitalist market generates crises and social tensions. The System expands to counteract these crises and tensions. When it expands, the System damages the Lifeworld. It “colonizes” it.

At the point of damage, shared understanding is no longer occurring through language (particularly the language of law). Instead, it is happening through the action-oriented systems just mentioned, i.e., government and the market. The complexity of these systems frustrates the attempt to rely on language for shared understanding.

In government and the market, people and actions are held together, not by the quest for shared understanding through language, but rather through power and money. Capitalist markets expand in order to counteract the problems caused by capitalist exploitation.

The market expands into the Lifeworld’s sphere of symbolic (i.e., non-material) reproduction. This damages the Lifeworld by crippling its ability to maintain its integration through communicative action. Social pathology (e.g., loss of meaning) results.

This is not the only possible outcome. The System is not necessarily evil. It becomes dangerously bloated only when the Lifeworld ceases to control it. The Lifeworld fails to exercise that control when it loses its perspective on what is happening in the big picture. That loss of perspective occurs because society’s accumulated knowledge is not being effectively shared. That happens because knowledge becomes buried among the experts and is not broadly available. The result is fragmented consciousness.

People should take the position of participants – they should use communicative rationality – when trying to understand the Lifeworld. But they should take the position of outside observers – they should use functional rationality – when trying to understand the System. Critical theory seeks to reconstruct basic communication.

Transition from Previous Views
Horkheimer and Weber agreed that rationalization led to a loss of meaning and freedom. They said the decline in religion meant a decline in religion’s ability to hold society together. Science was not the answer: it could not explain the world’s existence, or how humanity fits into the grand scheme of things.

Lukács pointed out that, in capitalist production, social relations became more like the relations among things. People began to take mechanical, calculating attitudes toward themselves and one another. They used “identifying” thought; that is, they approached things from an instrumental perspective. Science was their guide in this; it was their ideology.

Positivism held that knowledge is a relation between an objectively known object and a knowing subject. The solitary, knowing subject’s relation to objects was to know them and to manipulate them. This was a philosophy of consciousness, in which the important relationship was the subject-object relationship, i.e., a focus upon the conscious manipulation of things.

Early critical theory failed because it adopted a basically positivist perspective. For example, Weber focused on the isolated actor. This approach is “goal-rational” rather than “communication-rational.” It reflects a flawed epistemology:  that is, it has a mistaken idea about what knowledge is and where it comes from.

Positivism ran into the problem that there are no theory-free observational statements. Even basic statements about objects rest upon assumptions and hypotheses. Basic statements make sense, not because they are foundational, but because the consensus of scientists is that they make sense.

Thus, philosophical reason leads us to see that these questions of truth arise from historical and sociological developments. In other words, reason is a result of sociohistorical processes; and yet, in saying so, philosophical reason is once again trying to pretend that it occupies an observational position above history and sociology.

Instead, Habermas suggests, reason is found in subject-subject relations, in which people achieve shared understanding of the meaning behind subject-object cognition and manipulation. This calls for an entirely different perspective.

A positivist might say that a focus on subject-subject relations would allow arbitrary issues, involving norms and values, to enter into the objective world of science. Habermas says there is no objective world of science as the positivist conceives it. Instead, what is happening is that norms and values (and inner states and feelings) are now seen to be within the realm of science too. The zone of rationality is far larger than we previously thought.

Animals have the ability to communicate and to convey facts. The human use of language goes beyond that. As soon as a person uses language, s/he implies that s/he is participating in a common human effort to achieve consensus. (Of course, consensus requires freedom to express one’s views.)

In the ideal speech situation, communication shows its full potential for rationality. An ideal speech situation can occur if everyone has a fair and equal chance to participate in discussion. Language contains a built-in orientation toward achieving ideal speech situations. This is ahistorical; it is there for people of all eras.

Action and Communicative Rationality
Shared understanding is achieved intersubjectively, i.e., among subjects. Upon achieving shared understanding, people can undertake coordinated action.

Action that focuses on achieving shared understanding is “communicative action.” By contrast, action that focuses on achieving success is “strategic” if it is oriented toward subjects, and “instrumental” if oriented toward objects. In communicative action, people exchange language (or nonverbal forms of expression) to persuade one another and reach understanding.

In the market and the government, action is coordinated strategically to achieve individuals’ complementary but egocentric goals. People might also pursue personal goals when they participate in communicative action; but those goals are pursued within the context of consensus.

Communication-rationality, on the large scale, entails the belief that everyone is getting a fair outcome. The market is not structured toward equality, however, but rather toward goal-rational activity that benefits oneself privately. The action decision rests upon material (i.e., empirical) influences – not on validity claims, expressed in language, that are capable of being critiqued.

There are three kinds of criticizable validity claims. Each refers to a separate world. Thus, in addition to its flawed epistemology (above), goal-rationality also has a flawed ontology (i.e., a mistaken understanding of reality).

Communication-rationality and goal-rationality agree that there are (1) truth claims, which refer to an objective world. But communication-rationality also says there are (2) normative claims, which refer to the social world, where interpersonal relationships are regulated, and (3) subjective claims, which refer to the individual’s personal experiences.

These three kinds of validity claims occupy separate ontological worlds, in the sense that they supply three different perspectives on the attempt to reach shared understanding regarding a situation. These three perspectives correspond to the grammatical third person (i.e., “he,” “she”, or “it” or, in the plural, “they”), second person (i.e., “you,” whether singular or plural), and first person (i.e., “I” or “we”). In other words, when we talk about “it,” we are speaking objectively, in a third-person perspective. When we talk about “you,” we are speaking normatively (e.g., “you should do that”). And when we talk about ourselves (“I”), we are speaking subjectively.

Chomsky invented a concept of “linguistic competence.” Linguistic competence means you have a limited number of words in a language, an ability to arrange those words in an unlimited number of ways, and an ability to decide whether each of those infinitely many sentences conforms to the rules of the language. Habermas invents “communicative competence” for a similar purpose: you have the ability to apply rules regarding the use of sentences in communication. We rely on those rules to figure out which world a statement is referring to.

There are two levels of communication: discourse (i.e., verbal discussion) and communicative action. Discourse is communication that tries to convert everything to verbal terms. Validity claims (regarding e.g., your subjective perspective) can be put forth on the level of action; but in theory those actions can also be explored verbally, and vice versa.

There is a difference between true consensus and forced or pretended consensus. Discourse can lead to true consensus. Getting there requires the availability of an ideal speech situation (above) that allows discussion as needed. These speech situations combine, over centuries, to create a situation where the structure of speech contains human rationality.

So we can describe communicative competence (above) as the ability to achieve rationality via language. It includes the ability to choose the right kind of discourse for a situation. We use theoretical discourse to discuss the objective world; we use practical discourse to discuss the normative, social world; and we use _____ discourse to discuss the subjective world.

In theoretical discourse, we talk about what is true. In practical discourse, we talk about what is right. In subjective discourse, we talk about ____.

Austin originated the idea of the speech act. You utter something. If your utterance states a meaningful proposition, then it is “locutionary.” But your utterance also typically performs an action:  it makes a promise, or expresses a feeling. Austin described this speech act, this performative aspect, as being “illocutionary.”

So language does a lot more than just make statements about the objective world as imagined by the positivist and the “philosophy of consciousness.” The speech act (i.e., the illocutionary part) provides the valuable service of indicating what kind of validity claim is being made. How should we interpret a statement? The speech act tells us whether the proposition pertains to the objective, normative, or subjective world.

Austin distinguished locutions and illocutions from perlocutions. You could say, “I will not go there.” That is a locution. You could rephrase it as, “I promise that I will not go there.” This is an illocution. But suppose you are lying. You will actually go there, despite your promise. You cannot say, “I am now deceiving you by promising I will not go there.” Doing so would defeat your purpose.

Unlike the locution and the illocution, this perlocution (i.e., saying you will not go there, when you plan to do so) consists, not of the actual verbal content of the statement, but rather of the effect that you intend to bring about (i.e., deception). In the perlocution, you have concealed your actual goal. To achieve shared understanding, you need illocutions. The existence of perlocutions shows that the speech acts belong to strategic, not communicative, action.

In genuine communicative action, illocutionary goals are the subject of open discussion, and they can change as participants keep reorienting themselves with respect to the validity claims that the other participants are making. But perlocutionary goals do not necessarily change as reason would dictate. The pursuit of concealed strategic goals depends – is parasitic – upon others’ use of language in communi¬cative action toward shared understanding.

In addition to communicative and strategic action, which are oriented socially (i.e., toward subjects), there is instrumental action, which is oriented toward objects. It can be assessed in terms of the efficiency of its intervention in the physical world. Thus communicative action is the only form, of the three, that is oriented toward shared understanding rather than toward achieving predetermined results.

Interpretive Understanding and the Lifeworld
Society is not just a large discussion. For one thing, many communications are nonverbal. More importantly, communication has the effect of coordinating action; it has implications for action. People understand the meaning of a claim presented in a speech act. They affirm or dissent. If they affirm, they act in response to socially imposed obligations. If they dissent, they may end the interaction, or may proceed with discussion that may result in one or more parties changing their positions.

We understand the claim presented in a speech act when we believe the speaker could present convincing reasons for that claim. Through this understanding, an illocution coordinates action. One kind of convincing reason is logical; another kind has official authorization (e.g., police). The thing that you understand may be the logic; or, in the latter case, you have a regulative speech act, and you are persuaded to do what the man says despite your lack of any knowledge that would explain his command.

“Constative” speech acts refer to the objective world. “Regulative” speech acts refer to the normative world. “Expressive” speech acts refer to the subjective world. If I say I hate chicken, I am expressing an internal, subjective state. Its truth can be tested by my behavior (e.g., I do not eat chicken).

An imperative (i.e., a command) is a matter of strategic, not communicative, action. To be communicative, there must be a presentation of a claim that could be defended with reasons, so that agreement may result.

Shared understanding is achieved through communicative action when all three worlds are involved in an interpersonal relation. On the objective level, there is a sharing of what is believed to be true knowledge about the world. On the normative level, the speaker has tried to perform a speech act that is appropriate for the situation. On the subjective level, the speaker generates trust by appearing to have stated his/her true belief or feeling. In this way, speech acts enhance interpersonal relations. They can also be challenged when one of these three aspects seems to be missing.

Communicative action that is oriented toward shared understanding tends to involve all three worlds. But it is possible to have relatively pure types of communicative action that consist primarily of speech acts oriented toward just one of the three worlds. Conversation consists primarily of constative speech acts; norm-regulated action consists primarily of regulative speech acts; and dramaturgical action consists primarily of expressive speech acts.

Each of these three kinds of action can be judged or challenged against the corresponding standard. The same is true of the fourth type of action, namely, teleological or goal-oriented (i.e., strategic or instrumental) action (i.e., goal-rationality). The standard for each is: teleological speech acts should be effective; constative speech acts should present valid claims to objective truth; norm-regulated acts should represent what is right; and dramaturgical acts should be sincere.

Verstehen (German for “understanding”) means, in this context, the social scientist’s achievement of interpretive understanding. Weber thought this precluded the making of judgments about what the scientist is observing. Habermas says the scientist cannot behave like a dispassionate external observer: s/he must adopt the viewpoint of participants and make the judgments they would make. This is the “performative” stance, or attitude.

The test of interpretive understanding is being able to anticipate the kinds of reasons a person would present, in support of a certain speech act. Reasons make sense only because of some standard of rationality, by which a reason is seen to be persuasive. To understand someone’s reasons, you have to evaluate them. If you want to evaluate them by their own standards, you have to adjust your sense of how their concept of rationality relates to yours. But in any case, the social scientist has to make judgments about what s/he is observing. This is the only way to determine how, or whether, the subject’s behavior was rational.

Rationality has a universal structure; it is not culture-bound – assuming, of course, that we are talking about rationality in connection with the four different kinds of action listed above, and are not limiting it solely to goal-rationality. Every culture has its objective, normative, and subjective claims to truth. Like the social scientist, the participant in a situation can theoretically switch to another (e.g., objective) level of discourse, though in practice the scientist may experience fewer constraints that would prevent him/her from doing so.

The Lifeworld is the huge collection of unstated, assumed ideas that everyone has. People in a culture share the same Lifeworld. This facilitates shared understanding about things in the objective, social, or subjective worlds. Communicative action occurs in, renews, and changes the Lifeworld.

You cannot become aware of your Lifeworld as a whole. Beyond the horizon you see is always another horizon. But you can become aware of parts of it when, for example, you are dealing with someone from another culture, who doesn’t have the same shared understanding.

The Lifeworld has three structural components: social, cultural, and personality. Thus, the Lifeworld concept is not just a theory of knowledge. It is a place where people develop and renew their social group memberships and personal identities. In the Lifeworld, communicative action facilitates mutual understanding, coordinated action, and socialization.

The relationship between the Lifeworld and the three formal (i.e., objective, social, or subjective) worlds is this: communicators achieve an understanding about something in their objective, social, or subjective worlds on the basis of their common Lifeworld. Hence, the Lifeworld is not the same as those three formal concepts.

The Lifeworld becomes rationalized. The result of the rationalization is that the elements of the Lifeworld become more sharply differentiated. As that occurs, interaction becomes more dependent on formation of consensus through rational argument.

There are three aspects of this rationalization. Structural differentiation is one. Structural differentiation means (1) institutional systems become increasingly disconnected from cultural worldviews; (2) inter¬personal relations become prominent in the relation between personality and society; and (3) individual activity becomes increasingly important to the renewal of tradition, in the relationship between culture and personality.

A second aspect of rationalization is differentiation between form and content in each element of the Lifeworld (i.e., culture, society, and personality). On the cultural level, direct involvement with the contents of traditions is replaced by abstract concepts. Much the same happens on the social level, as moral and legal principles become less concrete and more abstract. On the level of personality, cognitive structures become separated from concrete experience (e.g., a person learns math and can use it in many different jobs, in place of occupation-specific knowledge).

The third aspect of rationalization of the Lifeworld occurs in increased functional specification of processes by which culture, society, and personality are reproduced. Education of children becomes more refined and specialized; specific institutions and kinds of discourse are developed for dealing with various intellectual pursuits; specialized political institutions evolve.

Rationalization of the Lifeworld results in the conversion of its implicit worldviews into explicit terms. Everything becomes clarified and more subject to formulation and criticism. This results in what Weber described as loss of meaning and freedom. Weber said this results because goal-rationality becomes unduly prominent. Habermas replies that this explanation neglects the entirely distinct role that the System plays in the process.

Rationalization and the System
[to be continued]


text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Publishing/HTML Files

HTML, or HyperText Markup Language is the basis for most web pages on the internet now. Comprised of standard English as well as computer commands, it is commonly integrated with other elements for a more interactive experience for viewers, from Java to C++ and Flash components.

HTML is written in the form of labels (known as tags), created by greater-than signs (>) and less-than signs (<). HTML can also describe, to some degree, the appearance and semantics of a document, and can include embedded scripting language code which can affect the behavior of web browsers and other HTML processors.

HTML is also often used to refer to content of the MIME type text/html or even more broadly as a generic term for HTML whether in its XML-descended form (such as XHTML 1.0 and later) or its form descended directly from SGML (such as HTML 4.01 and earlier).

Markup is the term used to take ordinary text and adding extra symbols in in order to tell a browser how to display the text being viewed.


text:
CCNA Certification/Routing Protocols/RIP

= Routing Information Protocol =

Overview of RIP
Routing Information Protocol is a distance vector routing protocol. It transfers the complete routing table to all interfaces periodically and only uses hop count to determine the best path to a remote network.

Configuring RIP
RIP is relatively simple to configure. The following is an example of how to configure RIP on a router.

Enter router configuration mode.

router#conf t

Turn on the RIP protocol

router(config)#router rip

Assign which networks RIP will advertise (this also has the effect of selecting which interfaces RIP will be active on)

router(config)#network x.x.x.x

When using the network x.x.x.x expression x.x.x.x will be the subnet to advertise. As RIP is a classful routing protocol this will need to take the form of a standard Class A,B, or C address e.g. 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0 or 192.168.1.0.

Example
Configure RIP to advertise the subnets 192.168.1.0 and 192.168.5.0

router#conf t

router(config)#router rip

router(config)#network 192.168.1.0

router(config)#network 192.168.5.0

To turn off RIP

router#conf t

router(config)#no router rip


text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Publishing/Projectors

A projector in terms of Flash is a standalone executable file format that Flash can save a movie into in order to allow someone to view the movie without having a flash player or a Shockwave plugin previously installed.

The standalone Projector for PC comes with the normal .exe extension, while the Mac Projector published on PC comes with .hqx extension. HQX is not an executable file, it is a compressed file format (kind of like Mac's Zip file) which packs together the two file forks Mac files have: the Data fork and the Resource fork. The .hqx file will not open on a PC if you double-click on it (because it has to be decoded), and it will not work if you burn it like that on CD with PC.


text:
Cookbook:Corny Soufflé

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 package (16 ounces) frozen corn
 * 1 cup milk
 * 3 eggs
 * 2 tablespoons white granulated sugar
 * ⅛ teaspoon salt
 * 1 tablespoon butter, cut into 6 pieces

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 325°F.
 * 2) Put frozen corn, milk, eggs, sugar, and salt into a blender.
 * 3) Blend on medium until ingredients are mixed thoroughly.
 * 4) Pour into a medium-sized baking dish coated with cooking spray.
 * 5) Dot the top with butter pieces.
 * 6) Bake for 70 minutes.

title: Cookbook:Corny Soufflé


text:
CCNA Certification/Introduction

=Introduction=

CCNA certification is a cornerstone of many IT careers. This book is a comprehensive study guide for the CCNA Intro, CCNA ICND and CCNA Certification exams. Its target audience is a high school student, a first year community college or any adult wanting to understand networking better.

About This Book
This book is a free, living book on CCNA Certification that keeps up with the changes in the technology and certification. As a result, it's written as an in-progress WikiBooks collaboration. Anyone is free to add material or fix mistakes. To edit a page simply click the "edit this page" tab at the top. If you find that any of the material is unclear, please click the "discussion" tab at the top of the page and leave a note on that page indicating what is unclear.

You should be aware that, while this book's contributors will attempt to ensure the accuracy of all facts, there may be mistakes present.

About the Material
The CCNA Routing and Switching certification test can be taken in one of two ways:
 * You can take the Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1 exam (100-105 ICND1) and the Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 2 exam (200-105 ICND2).
 * You can take the combined Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices: Accelerated (200-125 CCNA).

These exams replaced the former CCNA exams (640-822, 640-816, and 640-801) in 2013.

The ICND1 exam tests for the ability to manage a small branch office network. The ICND2 exam tests for the ability to manage a small or middle-sized enterprise branch network. The combined CCNA tests all the material covered in the ICND1 and ICND2 exams. (For information about the exam and your options, see Appendix A.)

The contents of this book are split into two sections (ICND1 and ICND2) so those who are taking the individual tests can study for them separately. For those who are taking the combined CCNA exam, study both sections fully.

=CCNA Exam Topics=

The posted exam topics for all of CCNA certification exams are guidelines. Cisco makes the effort to keep the exam questions within the confines of the stated exam objectives.

ICND1 Exam Topics

Listed below is the exam topics for the ICND1 exam, Although Cisco’s posted exam topics are not numbered, Cisco Press numbers the exam topics for easier reference. The exam topics are as listed on the Cisco website (www.cisco.com/go/ccna). If Cisco does happen to add exam topics at a later date, go to www.ciscopress.com and download additional information about those newly added topics.

ICND1 Exam Topics

ICND2 Exam Topics

Perspectives on Networking
Ethernet networks use cards inside each computer. These cards have unique numeric addresses. Ethernet cables connect PCs to ethernet hubs; Hubs on the other hand repeat every signal received out on all their available ports. Cabling is typically run in a star configuration.

The following are basic terminology in the networking world:

 * Client/Server Networking: The term client/server refers to a model utilizing networked client and server computers and application software. Web, FTP, email, DNS and many other database applications are client-server systems.

 * Peer-to-Peer Networking: Peer to peer networks share responsibility for processing data among all of the connected devices. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer networking) differs from client-server networking in several respects.

 * Network Name: A network name is a string that computing devices use to identify a specific computer network. Network names are typically different from names of individual computers or the addresses computers use to identify each other.

 * Network Performance Measured: The performance or "speed" of a computer network is normally measured in units of bits per second (bps). This quantity can represent either an actual data rate or a theoretical limit to available network bandwidth. The related units of Kbps, Mbps, Gbps represent increasingly larger multiples of bps.

 * WWW: The term "WWW" (World Wide Web) refers to the open development phase of the Internet in the 1990s. The WWW comprises a global network of Web sites accessible on the Internet.

 * URL: URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) identify by name Web servers and individual Web pages stored on those servers, anywhere on the Internet.

 * URI: A URI (Uniform Resource Identifier) names both local and remote Internet resources similar to URLs.

title: CCNA Certification/Introduction


text:
Template:CCNA Certification

 CCNA Certification

Acknowledgements — Introduction — The OSI Model — Application Layer — Transport Layer — Network Layer — Addressing — Routing Protocols — Data Link Layer — Switching — Physical Layer — Router Operation — Advanced Addressing Topics — Advanced Routing Topics — Advanced Switching Topics — Security — WAN — Configuration — Conclusion — References — About the Exam — Cisco Router Commands — Quick Reference Sheet

title: Template:CCNA Certification


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Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p9

Objective Judgment
On page 9, Habermas says, "A judgment can be objective if it is undertaken on the basis of a transsubjective validity claim that has the same meaning for observers and nonparticipants as it has for the acting subject himself."

This sentence explains a part of the preceding sentence, which states, "An expression satisfies the precondition for rationality if and insofar as it embodies fallible knowledge and therewith has a relation to the objective world (that is, a relation to the facts) and is open to objective judgment." Habermas is defining the "objective judgment" term that appears in that preceding sentence. In that sense, the sentence under investigation indicates that, in order to be rational, an expression must be open to objective judgment -- must, in other words, be at least undertaken on the basis of a transsubjective validity claim that has the same meaning for observer and subject alike.

In that formulation, Habermas presents what seems to be a naïve assumption that a validity claim can typically have the same meaning for two people. Also, it is not yet clear what counts as a meaning. The sentence would seem to be stronger if it eliminated the reference to meaning -- if, for example, it said, "A judgment can be objective if it is undertaken on the basis of a validity claim advanced by observer and subject alike." This would resolve the second of my two objections.

As for what constitutes a "validity claim" within this viewpoint, Habermas provides the examples of truth (regarding his hypothetical person A, who expresses a belief) and efficiency (regarding his hypothetical person B, who takes an action). Validity in these regards is seen as a matter of degree: the more strongly one can defend the claim of truth or efficiency, the more rational the belief or action from which such claim arises.

The meaning of "transsubjective" appears to be provided by the reference to a validity claim that has the same meaning for multiple persons. In this interpretation, the adjective appears superfluous: a validity claim that has such shared meaning is ipso facto transsubjective. Or if there is a desire to retain the word, the sentence might be recast as: "A judgment can be objective if it is undertaken on the basis of a validity claim that is transsubjective -- that, in other words, is held by observer and subject alike."

"Undertaken" appears to lean toward the action taken by person B, rather than the statement made by person A. To accommodate both, the term might be altered to "held or undertaken." This phrasing would make clear that the focus of objectivity is upon the judgment, not upon the verb to which the judgment gives rise. Then again, trans-subjectivity is not possible until one does take an action that brings the matter to the attention of the observer or nonparticipant. In this light, the meaning of "judgment" appears to be bound up with the action in which it is manifested. For the speaker or actor, the belief or other action orientation was such as to prompt an actual expressive (or other) behavior; but by definition, this was not the case for the observer. This interpretation seems to underscore the difficulty of the idea expressed in the quoted sentence. I wonder, however, whether that expression is a mere straw man.

On p. 10, Habermas seems to emphasize that his problem with the sentence under examination is not so much the concepts of objectivity, meaning, and so forth that I have questioned, above. Rather, his primary concern seems to lie in the immediately preceding sentence (also quoted above), in which there is a reference not only to objective judgment, but also to "fallible knowledge."

That reference to "fallible" knowledge apparently invokes a falsificationist epistemology. In my impression, that sort of epistemology is dubious in at least the senses that (a) one cannot be certain what, exactly, has shown a given statement to be false and (b) it is not clear how this formulation would exclude, say, the position of a Christian fundamentalist who bases his/her actions upon his/her interpretation of revealed truth but readily admits that his interpretation of God"s intention is prone to error. These, however, do not appear to be Habermas"s criticisms of the "proposal to base the rationality of an expression on its criticizability" (p. 10). His view seems, rather, to be that rationality does include the concept provided in the initial quote (above), but it includes other things as well, to be explored in subsequent pages.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p9


text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Interface

At-a-glance, interface and setup of Flash seems to be somewhat intuitive and direct. The main interface is broken up into these major areas: at the top of the screen is the main menu where "File," "Edit," and other options are available. Right below that is the timeline window where frames and animations are worked out in. The left side is taken up by the toolbar. At the bottom is the property inspector, and to the right are the color and instance panels, and finally the "stage" panel is in the center, where all of the work takes place.

Here is a list of the specific areas of the interface that we will be going into:

 * 1) /Document Window/
 * 2) /Timeline Window/
 * 3) /Property Inspector/
 * 4) /Tool Bar/
 * 5) /Panels/


text:
User talk:61.68.138.1

Respect Copyrights
Thank you for your work on the Model Railroad honor. Please note that Wikibook policy prohibits the inclusion of copyrighted materials unless they are released under an acceptable license. Unfortunately, it appears that some of the material you added to the Model Railroad honor does not meet this criteria (follow the copyright link at the bottom of the pages at the Union Pacific website). If you could try again, this time using either your own words, material in the public domain (such as original works of the U.S government, or material from Wikipedia (and others), it would be greatly appreciated.

Thanks! -- Jim Thomas 04:45, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:61.68.138.1


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Hinkypunk

Overview
A Hinkypunk is a small, one legged creature that appears to be made out of smoke. It carries a lantern that is used to lure unsuspecting travelers into bogs.

Extended Description
The term is first introduced in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban. When Professor Snape substitutes for Professor Lupin in Defense Against the Dark Arts, he instructs the class to turn to the section on Werewolves; Hermione protests "We're due to start hinkypunks."

Later in the year Professor Lupin sets up an obstacle course for the third years' final exam. One of the obstacles is to "squish their way across a patch of marsh while ignoring misleading directions from a hinkypunk."


text:
User talk:166.121.36.12

Regarding edits made during March 6 2007
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 05:36, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:166.121.36.12


text:
IB English/Paper II

Return to IB English

Introduction
Paper 2 is the second part of the written examination for candidates taking the IB English A1 course. Using the Part 3 works the candidates have studied throughout the year, the candidates are required to write an essay based on a selection of prompts.

The time given to write the essay is 2 hours for Higher Level candidates and 1 hour, 30 minutes for Standard Level candidates.

The test itself is split into five categories:
 * Drama
 * Poetry
 * Prose: The Novel and Short Story
 * Prose: Other than the Novel and Short Story
 * General Questions on Literature

Each heading contains two questions, with the exception of the General Questions section which has four. For the most part, each prompt elicits a general response. However, the broad question base is deceiving, as writing a general response will not garner you that esteemed 7. Your best bet is to focus on providing as detailed a response as possible. The following are suggestions only:

 * Acquaint yourself with the key motifs, themes, symbols, and literary elements of the works you study
 * Utilize direct quotations from the text. (While you are not required to do so, it will show your dedication and complete understanding of the text, especially if the quotes are used as pillars for your arguments.)
 * Obtain viewpoints from professional sources during the school year, and refer to their research in your own paper. (Ex. Look up Dr. Mark Breitenberg, who writes on Macbeth)

How Many Works Should I Write About?
The paper requires the candidate to write on at least two works of literature (from two different authors) that have been studied, but it is not recommended to write about more than three, as the scope is too broad to incorporate a detailed discussion.

Also, the questions are intended to ensure that no "canned essay" can be used, that is, an essay a candidate has memorized before hand to fit the themes of essay. So, if you were planning on using this, you're out of luck.

Duration of Exam
The IB English Paper 2, (more formally known as English Language A1 Paper 2), is written in a 2 hour timeframe for HL (Higher Level) and in 90 minutes for SL (Standard Level). The questions on the test are broad and generalized (see above), and require you to use the novelists you have studied in your IB English course, or the texts in your "Prescribed Titles", that your school has selected. The questions often employ a generalized quotation, and then ask that you analyze your texts based on the themes presented in the quotation.

Length of Essay
Remember: Quality over Quantity. A short, concise and to-the-point essay will score higher than a long, rambling one which repeats itself.

The length of the essay should probably be around 1000 words by the end of the examination, and for a question such as the ones below, it is recommended to juxtapose at least 2 novels against each other, and examine this claim.

Examples of Typical Questions on The Paper

 * “Often enough the novelist favors certain characters, even waxing sentimental about them, and becomes annoyed with others, even feeling contemptuous of them: one way or another, the reader detects bias in the portrayal of the society. How far have you found your chosen novelists to be biased or unbiased in their presentation of their characters and what has been the resulting effect in each novel?"

 * "Authors favor certain characters, often portraying them in positive light, wherein others are portrayed contemptuously. How far have you found this to be true with your chosen novelists?"

 * Compare and contrast the authors' use of dreams, hopes or aspirations in two or three novels and/or short stories you have studied.

How would you answer the above? If you have time, try a mock final on your own, if your school doesn't already have them set up for you.

Marking
The examination is externally moderated, and is timed.

Results typically come out 2-3 months after your exams, often the date falls near July 5th for May testing and around January 5th for the November session.

title: IB English/Paper II


text:
User talk:Akademix

Feel free to leave a comment Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:30, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Akademix