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Logic for Computer Science/First-Order Logic

First-Order Logic
In propositional logic, we considered formulas made about atomic objects, which could only be either true or false. First-order logic, the topic of this chapter, builds upon propositional logic and allows you to look inside the objects discussed in formulas. We can provide this more refined level of granularity by discussing objects as elements of sets that can be larger than just the set $$\{0, 1\}$$, and also include arbitrarily complex relationships with each other.

We begin first by defining the syntax of first-order (FO) logic, and then give these structures meaning.

Syntax
The domain of discourse for first order logic is first-order structures or models. A first-order structure contains
 * 1) Relations,
 * 2) Functions, and
 * 3) Constants (functions of arity 0).

The vocabulary of first-order logic is
 * 1) a set of relation symbols with associated arities, and
 * 2) a set of function symbols with associated arities.

Here are some example first-order logic vocabularies:
 * 1) A graph
 * 2) * Relation Set = { $$V$$ : unary, $$E$$ : binary }
 * 3) * Function Set = { $$\mathit{next}$$ : unary }
 * 4) Arithmetic
 * 5) * Relation Set = { $$+$$ : ternary, $$\times$$ : ternary, $$\uparrow$$ : ternary, $$=$$ : binary, $$<$$ : binary}
 * 6) *Function Set = { $$\mathit{next}$$ : unary, $$0$$ : const }

Here, a graph is a set of vertices $$V$$ and a set of edges $$E$$. For the arithmetic set note that the use of $$+$$ and $$\times$$ is purely syntactic and we could have used the symbols "plus" and "times" instead. We haven't provided the symbols with any meaning yet.

A term denotes an element in the first-order structure. A term is used to refer to the elements in our domain of discourse. Here are the rules that describe what a term is: For example, if $$f$$ is a binary function and $$g$$ is a ternary function then the following are all terms: $$x, a, f(x, y), g(x, f(x, y), a)$$.
 * every variable is a term, where a variable is simply another set of symbols
 * every constant is a term
 * If $$t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k}$$ are terms, and $$f$$ is a $$k$$-ary function then $$f(t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k})$$ is a term.

An atomic formula is
 * $$R(t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k})$$,

where $$R$$ is a $$k$$-ary relation and $$t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k}$$ are terms. When viewing $$R$$ as a set, then this is just another way of saying that the tuple
 * $$(t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k})\in R$$.

A special relation $$=$$ means "equal" and cannot be interpreted otherwise. For example, $$t_{1} = t_{2}$$ stands for
 * $$=(t_{1}, t_{2})$$.

A first-order formula is an expression built using a given first-order vocabulary and variables and the symbols $$, \neg, \vee, \wedge, \rightarrow, \exists, \forall$$. The set of first-order formulas is the minimum set satisfying the following:
 * atomic formulas are first order formulas
 * If $$\phi$$ and $$\psi$$ are formulas and $$x$$ is a variable, then the following are also formulas:
 * 1) $$(\phi \vee \psi)$$
 * 2) $$(\phi \wedge \psi)$$
 * 3) $$(\neg \phi)$$
 * 4) $$(\phi \rightarrow \psi)$$
 * 5) $$(\exists x \phi)$$
 * 6) $$(\forall x \phi)$$

Semantics
A first-order structure over a given vocabulary consists of These components give meaning to the symbols.
 * 1) A domain, which is a set of elements (also known as a universe)
 * 2) A mapping associating to every $$k$$-ary relation symbol in the vocabulary a $$k$$-ary relation over the domain, and to every $$k$$-ary function symbol a $$k$$-ary function over the domain.

Example:
 * Relation Set = { $$+$$ : ternary, $$\times$$ : ternary, $$\uparrow$$ : ternary, $$=$$ : binary, $$<$$ : binary }
 * Function Set = { $$next$$ : unary, $$0$$ : const }

A first-order structure over this vocabulary is:
 * 1) Domain: the set of integers
 * 2) Mapping : $$+ \rightarrow$$ addition, $$\times \rightarrow$$ multiplication, $$\uparrow \rightarrow$$ exponentiation, $$< \rightarrow$$ ordering, $$\mathit{next} \rightarrow i+1$$

In this structure, the formula
 * $$\exists x \forall y \forall z[\times (y, z, x) \rightarrow ((y = 1) \vee (z = 1))]$$

expresses the statement "there exists a prime number" (the number 1 also satisfies this statement).

Note here that $$\times (y, z, x)$$ is equivalent to $$(x = y \times z)$$.

Scope of Quantifiers
In the formula $$(\forall x \phi)$$ or $$(\exists x \phi)$$, $$\phi$$ is referred to as the scope of quantification of the variable $$x$$. An occurrence of a variable in a formula is bound if it is in the scope of quantification of that variable, otherwise the occurrence is said to be free. You can consider a quantifier use as a variable declaration.

A sentence is a formula with no free variables (i.e., all variables are bound). A sentence is either true or false.

A formula with free variable(s) can be considered as describing the properties of the free variable(s). For example, $$\phi(x)$$ denotes a formula with $$x$$ occurring free and describes the properties of $$x$$.

If a sentence $$\phi$$ evaluates to true over a structure $$I$$, we say $$I$$ satisfies $$\phi$$ and denote this by $$I \models\phi$$.

 * $$I \models R(t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k})$$ iff $$(t_{1}, t_{2}, \ldots, t_{k}) \in I(R)$$, where $$I(R)$$ is the interpretation of $$R$$ by $$I$$.
 * $$I \models \phi \wedge \psi$$ iff $$I \models \phi$$ and $$I \models \psi$$. (Similar for $$\vee$$.)
 * $$I \models \neg \varphi$$ iff $$I \not\models \varphi$$.
 * $$I \models \exists x \phi(x)$$ if $$I \models \phi(x \leftarrow c)$$ for some $$c$$ in the domain.
 * $$I \models \forall x \phi(x)$$ if $$I \models \phi(x \leftarrow c)$$ for every $$c$$ in the domain.

Note: $$\phi(x \leftarrow c)$$ denotes the result of substituting $$c$$ for every free occurrence of $$x$$ in $$\phi$$. Substitution is covered further later in this chapter.

Axiomatic approach
The axioms are a set of sentences meant to distinguish "desired" models from others. But typically, also have "undesired" models, which are called non-standard models.

Examples: Consider the vocabulary $$(\mathit{next}, +, \times, \uparrow, 0, =, <)$$, where the symbols have the usual meaning (defined by FO sentences over this vocabulary). The standard interpretation for this set of axioms (see the end of this chapter) is the integers, but these are also satisfied by the set of integers modulo $$p$$. This possibility is ruled out by adding the following sentence to the axioms: $$\forall x (x < \mathit{next}(x))$$

Question: Can all non-standard models be axiomatized away? The answer is no. Consider the model shown in [TODO: import figure] for the vocabulary containing only $$0,<,\sigma$$ (all elements in the upper line are larger than those on the lower line).

There is no set of first-order sentences that can distinguish this model from the natural numbers. Intuitively, the reason is that we cannot "backtrack" arbitrarily (towards $$0$$) in a first-order sentence. A similar non-standard model can be obtained for the full vocabulary above.

Evaluating FO Sentences
Given a first-order structure $$I$$ and a FO sentence $$\phi$$, can we tell if $$I \models \phi$$?

This problem is decidable for finite structures. For example, suppose $$E$$ is a binary relation representing the edges of a graph, and the given sentence is
 * $$\exists x_{1} \exists x_{2} \exists x_{3}(E(x_{1}, x_{2}) \wedge E(x_{2}, x_{3}) \wedge E(x_{3}, x_{1}) \wedge x_{1} \neq x_{2} \wedge x_{2} \neq x_{3} \wedge x_{3} \neq x_{1} )$$.

We can evaluate the truth of this sentence by trying all possible values for $$x_{1}, x_{2}$$ and $$x_{3}$$. (Naive evaluation: "nested loop".) This is polynomial time (in domain size) but exponential in the size of the formula.

On infinite domains, we may or may not be able to evaluate the truth of a sentence. With the vocabulary $$(N, 0, \sigma, <, +)$$, where $$N$$ is the set of natural numbers, it is decidable if a sentence is true. (This is known as Presburger arithmetic.) However if we include multiplication, the truth of a sentence becomes undecidable.

A Deductive System for FO
A set $$\Delta$$ of FO sentences is
 * Satisfiable if there is some structure $$I$$ such that $$I \models \Delta$$
 * Unsatisfiable if it is not satisfiable
 * Valid if $$I \models \Delta$$ for all structure $$I$$

Given a set of FO sentences $$\Sigma$$ and a sentence $$\phi$$
 * $$\Sigma$$ entails $$\phi$$ (denoted $$\Sigma \models \phi$$), if every structure that satisfies $$\Sigma$$ also satisfies $$\phi$$.
 * $$\Sigma \models \phi$$ iff $$\Sigma \cup \{\neg \phi\}$$ is unsatisfiable.
 * If $$\Sigma$$ is finite then, $$\Sigma \models \phi$$ iff $$\neg \Sigma \lor \phi$$ is valid.
 * If a formula $$\phi$$ has free variables $$\vec{X} = (x_{1}, \ldots, x_{k})$$, $$\phi$$ is valid iff $$\forall \vec{X} \phi$$ is valid.

Axioms for Validity
The axioms for validity are from three categories:
 * 1) Axioms for boolean validity. These are inherited from propositional logic.
 * 2) Axioms for equality.
 * 3) Axioms for quantification.

Boolean Validity
Given a FO formula $$\varphi$$, a boolean form of $$\varphi$$ a propositional formula $$\psi$$ such that $$\varphi$$ is obtained from $$\psi$$ by replacing each propositional variable in $$\psi$$ by a subformula of $$\varphi$$.

The set of Boolean forms of $$\varphi$$ is denoted $$BF(\varphi)$$.

Examples:
 * For the FO formula $$\forall x P(x) \lor \neg \forall x P(x)$$, the boolean form is $$p \lor \neg p$$.
 * If $$\varphi \equiv \forall x G(x,y) \land \exists x G(x,y) \land (G(z,x) \lor \forall x G(x,y)) $$, then $$BF(\varphi) \equiv x_{1} \land x_{3} \land (x_{2} \lor x_{1}) $$ where $$x_1 = \forall x G(x,y), x_2 = G(z,x), x_3 = \exists x G(x,y)$$.

Claim: If $$\psi \in BF(\varphi)$$ and $$\psi$$ is valid, then $$\varphi$$ is valid.

Equality Axioms
Let $$t, t_{1}, \ldots, t_{k}, t'_{1}, \ldots, t'_{k}$$ be terms. The following are valid formulas.

 * $$t = t$$
 * $$(t_{1} = t'_{1} \land \cdots \land t_{k} = t'_{k}) \rightarrow (f(t_{1}, \ldots, t_{k}) = f(t'_{1}, \ldots, t'_{k}))$$, where $$f$$ is a $$k$$-ary function.
 * $$(t_{1} = t'_{1} \land \cdots \land t_{k} = t'_{k}) \rightarrow (R(t_{1}, \ldots, t_{k}) \rightarrow R(t'_{1}, \ldots, t'_{k}))$$, where $$R$$ is a $$k$$-ary relation.

Substitutions
Given a formula $$\varphi$$ in which variable $$x$$ occurs free (denoted by $$\varphi(x)$$) and a term $$t$$, we define the substitution of $$t$$ for $$x$$ in $$\varphi$$, denoted $$\varphi(x \leftarrow t)$$, as the formula that results from replacing every free occurrence of $$x$$ in $$\varphi$$ by $$t$$, subject to the constraint that $$t$$ contains no variable $$y$$ quantified in $$\varphi$$ such that $$x$$ occurs free within the scope of quantification of $$y$$. If $$x$$ does not occur free $$\varphi$$, then $$\varphi(x \leftarrow t)$$ is defined as $$\varphi$$.

Example: Let $$\varphi$$ be
 * $$((x = 1) \rightarrow \exists x (x = y))$$,

then
 * $$\varphi(x \leftarrow (y + 1))$$ is a valid substitution
 * $$\varphi(y \leftarrow (x + 1))$$ is not a valid substitution.

Quantification Axioms

 * 1) $$\forall x \varphi \rightarrow \varphi(x \leftarrow t)$$, where $$t$$ is a term and $$\varphi(x \leftarrow t)$$ is a valid substitution
 * 2) $$(\forall x (\varphi \rightarrow \psi)) \rightarrow ((\forall x \varphi) \rightarrow (\forall x \psi))$$
 * 3) $$\varphi \rightarrow \forall x \varphi$$
 * 4) $$\exists x \varphi \leftrightarrow \neg \forall x \neg \varphi$$

In summary, the axioms for validity are $${\mathbf {Ax}}$$:
 * 1) Axioms for boolean validity. These are inherited from propositional logic.
 * 2) Axioms for equality.
 * 3) Axioms for quantification.

Definition: A proof is a sequence $$\phi_{1}, \phi_{2}, \ldots, \phi_{k}$$ of FO sentences such that for each $$i \in \{1, \ldots, k\}$$ either $$\phi_{i} \in{\mathbf {Ax}}$$ or $$\exists j, k < i$$ such that $$\phi_{j} \equiv \psi$$ and $$\phi_{k} \equiv (\psi \rightarrow \phi_{i})$$.

Notation: If there is a proof of $$\phi$$ using $${\mathbf{Ax}}$$, we denote this fact by $$\vdash_{\mathbf {Ax}}\phi$$.

Fact (Soundness): If $$\vdash_{\mathbf {Ax}} \phi$$, then $$\phi$$ is valid.

Remark: The set of formulas which can be proven valid is recursively enumerable.

Example: Proof of the formula $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow (\forall x \phi \land \forall x \psi)$$

 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi)$$
 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow (\phi \land \psi) (x \leftarrow x)$$
 * $$\phi \land \psi$$
 * $$\phi$$
 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow \phi$$
 * $$\forall x (\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow \phi)$$
 * $$\forall x \forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow \forall x \phi$$
 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow \forall x \phi$$
 * $$\forall x \phi$$

The proof of $$\forall x \psi$$ is symmetrical.
 * $$\forall x \phi \land \forall x \psi$$
 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \rightarrow (\forall x \phi \land \forall x \psi)$$

Useful Equivalences

 * $$\forall x (\phi \land \psi) \leftrightarrow (\forall x \phi) \land (\forall x \psi)$$
 * $$\forall x (\phi \lor \psi) \not\leftrightarrow (\forall x \phi) \lor (\forall x \psi)$$ e.g. $$\phi(x) \approx$$ "x is even" and $$\psi(x)\approx$$ "x is odd"
 * $$\forall x (\phi(x) \lor \neg \phi(x)) \not\leftrightarrow (\forall x \phi(x) \lor \forall x \neg \phi(x))$$
 * $$\exists x (\phi \lor \psi) \leftrightarrow (\exists x \phi) \lor (\exists x \psi)$$
 * $$\neg \exists x \phi \leftrightarrow \forall x \neg \phi$$
 * $$\neg \forall x \phi \leftrightarrow \exists x \neg \phi$$

Prenex Normal Form
Claim: Every FO sentence is equivalent to a FO sentence of the form $$Q_{1} x_{1} \cdots Q_{k} x_{k} \phi$$, where $$Q_{i} \in \{\exists, \forall \}$$ and $$\phi$$ is quantifier free.

This is proved using the distributive properties of quantifiers. It may be necessary to rename variables, to avoid ambiguities. Although you can always move all quantifiers to the left, the resulting formula can actually be exponentially larger than the original one.

Example:
 * $$\phi \equiv \forall x (G(x,x) \land (\forall y G(x,y) \lor \exists y \neg G(y,y))) \land G(x,0)$$
 * $$\equiv (\forall x (G(x,x) \land (\forall y G(x,y) \lor \exists y \neg G(y,y)))) \land G(w,0)$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x (G(x,x) \land (\forall y G(x,y) \lor \exists y \neg G(y,y)) \land G(w,0))$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x (G(x,x) \land (\forall y G(x,y) \lor \exists z \neg G(z,z)) \land G(w,0))$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x (G(x,x) \land \forall y (G(x,y) \lor \exists z \neg G(z,z)) \land G(w,0))$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x \forall y (G(x,x) \land (G(x,y) \lor \exists z \neg G(z,z)) \land G(w,0))$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x \forall y (G(x,x) \land \exists z (G(x,y) \lor \neg G(z,z)) \land G(w,0))$$
 * $$\equiv\forall x \forall y \exists z (G(x,x) \land (G(x,y) \lor \neg G(z,z)) \land G(w,0))$$

Recall the Axiomatic Method

 * 1) Describe the desired model as closely as possible using a (possibly infinite but recursive) set $$\Delta$$ of axioms (FO sentences).

 * 1) Prove things using deduction.

Notation: We say $$\phi$$ is a valid consequence of $$\Delta$$ (denoted $$\Delta \models \phi$$), if every model satisfying $$\Delta$$ also satisfies $$\phi$$.

Fact: $$\Sigma \models \phi$$ iff $$\Sigma \cup \{\neg \phi\}$$ is unsatisfiable.

Aside: Nonlogical axioms for number theory
The following fourteen first-order axioms describe the properties of arithmetic and numbers, i.e. addition ($$+$$), multiplication ($$\times$$), exponentiation ($$\uparrow$$, equality ($$=$$), ordering ($$<$$), successor function ($$\sigma$$) and remainder (mod). This example shows the expressive power of first-order statements, which were originally hoped to provide a basis for the "one true mathematics."

Question: Why are they called "nonlogical" axioms?

 * NT1: $$\forall x(\sigma(x) \ne 0)$$
 * NT2: $$\forall x \forall y (\sigma(x) = \sigma(y) \rightarrow x=y)$$
 * NT3: $$\forall x (x=0 \vee \exists y \sigma(y) = x)$$
 * NT4: $$\forall x (x+0=x) $$
 * NT5: $$\forall x \forall y(x+\sigma(y) = \sigma(x+y)) $$
 * NT6: $$\forall x (x\times 0 = 0) $$
 * NT7: $$\forall x \forall y (x\times \sigma(y) = (x \times y ) + x) $$
 * NT8: $$\forall x ( x \uparrow 0 = \sigma(0)) $$
 * NT9: $$\forall x \forall y (x \uparrow \sigma(y) = (x \uparrow y ) \times x ) $$
 * NT10: $$\forall x (x<\sigma(x)) $$
 * NT11: $$\forall x \forall y ( x < y \rightarrow (\sigma (x)\le y)) $$
 * NT12: $$\forall x \forall y ( \neg (x<y) \leftrightarrow y \le x) $$
 * NT13: $$\forall x \forall y \forall z (((x<y) \wedge (y<z)) \rightarrow x<z) $$
 * NT14: $$\forall x \forall y \forall z \forall z' (mod(x,y,z)\wedge mod(x,y,z') \rightarrow z = z') $$


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User:Mason L.

[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Mason_L. My WikiBooks User Page] [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Mason_L. My WikiMedia Commons User Page] [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Mason_L. My WikiMedia Meta-Wiki User Page] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Mason_L. My WikiPedia User Page] [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Mason_L. My WikiVersity User Page]

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Mason L.


text:
Radiation Oncology/Colon/Randomized

Chemotherapy in Stage III

 * CALGB 89803 -- '''5-FU/LV vs. 5-FU/LV/IRI
 * Randomized. 1264 patients with completely resected Stage III colon CA. Treated with weekly bolus 5-FU/Leukovorin +/- irinotecan
 * 2007 PMID 17687149 -- "Irinotecan fluorouracil plus leucovorin is not superior to fluorouracil plus leucovorin alone as adjuvant treatment for stage III colon cancer: results of CALGB 89803." (Saltz LB, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Aug 10;25(23):3456-61.)
 * Outcome: No difference in DFS or OS
 * Toxicity: Significantly higher in 5-FU/LV/Irinotecan arm
 * Conclusion: Addition of irinotecan not beneficial in completely resected Stage III

Chemotherapy in Stage IV

 * GONO Trial -- FOLFOXIRI vs. FOLFOX
 * Randomized. 244 patients, unresectable metastatic CRC, no prior chemo for advanced disease. Treated with 1) FOLFOXIRI (irinotecan 165 mg/m2 day 1, oxaliplatin 85 mg/m2 day 1, leucovorin 200 mg/m2 day 1, fluorouracil 3,200 mg/m2 48-hour continuous infusion starting on day 1, every 2 weeks) vs. FOLFIRI (infusional fluorouracil, leucovorin, and irinotecan). Primary end-point response rate (RR)
 * 2007 PMID 17470860 -- "Phase III trial of infusional fluorouracil, leucovorin, oxaliplatin, and irinotecan (FOLFOXIRI) compared with infusional fluorouracil, leucovorin, and irinotecan (FOLFIRI) as first-line treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer: the Gruppo Oncologico Nord Ovest." (Falcone A, J Clin Oncol. 2007 May 1;25(13):1670-6.)
 * Toxicity: Grade 2-3 neurotoxicity 19% vs. 0% (SS), Grade 3-4 neutropenia (50% vs. 28%, SS)
 * Response rate: 66% vs. 41% (SS); better R0 secondary resection rate of mets
 * Outcome: median PFS 9.8 months vs. 6.9 months (SS); median OS 22.6 months vs. 16.7 months (SS)
 * Conclusion: FOLFOXIRI improves RR, PFS, and OS with manageable toxicity

title: Radiation Oncology/Colon/Randomized


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Ecology/Scientific Method Glossary

Introduction to the Scientific Method

In Ecology, as with many sciences a series of steps known as the scientific method are involved in trying to support or nullify a hypothesis.

There are two ways to support your hypothesis. The first way is by a weak inference, which is basically using one distinct hypothesis and trying to support that hypothesis through observation. The other way is by using strong inference. This method is regarded as having more credibility as it uses numerous hypotheses with a null hypothesis for each. Instead of trying to support one hypothesis as with a weak inference, the researcher tries to disprove numerous hypotheses through controlled experimentation to support a single hypothesis.

title: Ecology/Scientific Method Glossary


text:
Cookbook:Lemon Pickle II

| Cuisine of India

Lemon pickle is a traditional condiment used with Indian food. Many pickle recipes from India have oil to help preserve the pickle, but this recipe uses no oil.

Ingredients

 * 8 small or 4 large lemons
 * ½ cup salt
 * ¼–½ cup sugar
 * 4 small green chiles, finely chopped
 * 1 tablespoon yellow mustard seed
 * 1 tablespoon ground ginger
 * 1 teaspoon fenugreek seed
 * ¼ teaspoon turmeric powder
 * 1–2 star anise pods

Procedure

 * 1) Cut lemons into small pieces, and place in a bowl.
 * 2) Cover with salt and set aside for at least 4 hours (24 is better).
 * 3) Dry-roast the yellow mustard seeds, fenugreek seeds, star anise, and chopped chilis in a pan over high heat, shaking constantly—don't burn them!
 * 4) Strain the juice from the lemons into a small saucepan, add the turmeric, ginger and sugar, and simmer for 2–3 minutes until the sugar has dissolved. If there isn't enough juice, add 1–2 tablespoons water.
 * 5) Add the spices and sugar mixture to the bowl of lemons, and mix together well.
 * 6) Pack into a pint jar, pressing the pieces in if needed, to ensure that the liquid covers all the lemon pieces.
 * 7) Set aside to mature for 1 month.

Notes, tips and variations

 * If you don't have fresh chilis, add some dried chilis or chili powder. The pickle in the photo has three whole dried chilis in it.

title: Cookbook:Lemon Pickle II


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GarageBand/The Big Picture

It's important to understand how each iLife app fits in with the other five. After all, part of iLife's allure is that everything is tightly integrated.

GarageBand is in charge of:

 * Making songs and podcasts.
 * Scoring videos made in iMovie.

GarageBand provides:

 * iTunes with your own songs.
 * iWeb with your own podcasts.
 * iMovie with an application to score movies with.

GarageBand relies on:

 * iPhoto to provide photos for podcasts.
 * iMovie to provide movies for scoring.

title: GarageBand/The Big Picture


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GarageBand/History

GarageBand was developed by Apple under the direction of Gerhard Lengeling, formerly of the German company Emagic, makers of Logic Audio. (Emagic was acquired by Apple in July 2002.)

The application was announced during Steve Jobs's keynote speech at the Macworld Conference & Expo in San Francisco on 6 January 2004; musician John Mayer assisted with its demonstration.

GarageBand 2 was announced at the (2005) Macworld Conference & Expo on January 11, 2005. It shipped, as announced, around 22 January 2005. Major new features included the abilities to view and edit music in Musical Notation form, to record up to 8 tracks at once, to fix timing and pitch of recordings, to automate track pan position, master volume, and master pitch, to transpose both audio and MIDI, and to import MIDI files.

GarageBand 3, announced at 2006's Macworld Conference & Expo, includes a 'podcast studio', including the ability to use more than 200 effects and jingles, and integration with iChat for remote interviews.

The latest version of GarageBand is part of iLife '08. It incorporates the ability to separately record sections of a song such as bridges and chorus lines, support for automation of tempos and instruments, and a "Magic GarageBand" feature that includes a virtual jam session with a complete 3D view of the instruments.

title: GarageBand/History


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GarageBand/Introduction

Creating your own music can be very fun and also very gratifying. But until now, the technology to do so was either too simple or too expensive and complicated. GarageBand is the first music creation program that strikes the perfect balance between the two extremes, and it comes free with every new Mac that Apple ships.

Whether you are an experienced musician who wants to record themselves and digitally add a back-up band, or can't tell a clef from a key and are just trying to have fun, GarageBand will accommodate you, and this book will teach you how to get the most out of it.

title: GarageBand/Introduction


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Talk:Neapolitan/articles

Untitled
Hello! For the articulated propositions the golden rule is that in modern neapolitan these propositions don't exist. For example:  Vaco 'a posta a pavà 'e bullette (I go to Post Office to pay the bills) instead of Vaco â posta a pavà ê bullette.

title: Talk:Neapolitan/articles


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Talk:Neapolitan/prepositions

Untitled
Why is the grammar of the neapolitan always compared with the grammar of italian??? Italian and neapolitan are different languages. Imagine to explain the spanish grammar comparing it with french or italian. It will be borring for them that don't know these languages.
 * I think that the majority of people (admittedly not all) who are interested in Neapolitan have some acquaintance with Italian and it may be important to point out the differences where important. This is a case where I think it is important.  Articulated prepositions are integral to Italian, they aren't so much in Neapolitan and newer users may attempt erroneously to create them. I have seen other orthographies vis-á-vis the circumflexed vowels.  The circumflex indicates a drawn out vowel sound.  I have also seen it as á etc.. It is my understanding that the circumflex is used in books about Neapolitan.-E. abu Filumena 05:36, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Neapolitan/prepositions


text:
User:Anoopat

Hi I am Anoop

Wants to know the career growth and offerings after a graduation/post graduation

title: User:Anoopat


text: Category:Book:JLPT Guide

title: Category:Book:JLPT Guide


text:
User talk:Phoen~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- SB_Johnny | PA! 11:42, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Phoen. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Phoen~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:22, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Phoen~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Weblum

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- SB_Johnny | PA! 11:42, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Weblum


text:
Category:Book:SwisTrack/Components

A table with all components is available here.

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User:Ftmichael

I can be found at http://ftmichael.tashari.org/.

title: User:Ftmichael


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Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 8

Gregorovitch and the wands
Just as a reminder: We have to be very careful talking about why Voldy is looking for Gregorovitch. Although the reader doesn't yet know this, what Voldy wants specifically is the Elder Wand, which he is chasing back through the last person known to have had it: Gregorovitch. Harry doesn't find this out until March. Until we learn that the Hallows exist, we don't know that the Elder Wand exists either; and so we are working on the assumption that Voldy wants Gregorovitch to make him a wand. But we don't want to explicitly say this; as with Slughorn in the previous book, we should let the reader form their own, erroneous conclusion.

Note that I, at least, on hearing of the Hallows, thought that what Voldy was after was the Stone. Chazz (talk) 17:11, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

Luna and Barny Weasley
Why must people always found big hidden links and incredibly powerful secrets. There is not a clue in the all seven books that Luna Lovegood have any unexpected magical abilities. Is Ron secretly a cat animagus because he once won a Chess match against McGonagal enchanted pieces? Is Dudley the heir of Helga Huffulpuff because he let a CUP of tea beneath Harry's door in the second chapter? Harry have drink Polyjuice Potion and look has an hypothetical cousin Barny but he talks like Harry Potter (though with a different voice), he moves like Harry Potter... Luna clearly tell she recognises him from the way he act. The Death Eaters identify Harry between 7 decoys just because he act "Potter Style". Yes Luna is a little weird but if she succeed in Harry's indentification it's because, unlike other people, she's curious, open-minded and that she cares about people.

Melmoth (talk) 17:11, 25 September 2009 (UTC)
 * An interesting point. I think that it is a case of people seeing what they expect to see, perhaps. It's certainly true that Draco didn't identify Harry and Ron pretending to be Crabbe and Goyle; or, for that matter, Barty impersonating Moody. In those two cases, certainly it is possible that people saw who they expected to see, and in this case, "Barney Weasley" being a total unknown, they wouldn't have any expectations and would see what was actually there. Luna likely would recognize Harry because she is much more in this world than many others. If you don't mind, I will write that up. Chazz (talk) 21:20, 27 March 2010 (UTC)

Symbol of the Hallows
Should it be mentioned what the Hallows symbol is in the GP section? This would be a good place to talk about the Swastika allegory that is referenced loosely in the Questions section, too.


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Cookbook:Irish Fruit Cake

| Dessert | Cake

This is a variation of fruit cake that originated in Ireland.

Ingredients

 * 1 lb cake flour
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * ½ tsp baking powder
 * 3 eggs
 * 4 oz sultanas or golden raisins
 * 6 oz white granulated sugar
 * 6 oz butter
 * 2 oz citrus peel
 * 2 oz dried cherries

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat the oven to 350°F.
 * 2) Sift together flour, salt and baking powder.
 * 3) Cream together butter and sugar; this may take 5–10 minutes.
 * 4) Beat in eggs individually, incorporating each fully before adding the next.
 * 5) Fold in fruits then the dry mixture.
 * 6) Transfer batter to a greased and parchment-lined 8-inch cake pan.
 * 7) Bake on the center rack for 75–90 minutes. Check for doneness after 60 minutes.
 * 8) Let cake cool to room temperature in pan.
 * 9) Remove to a wire tray, cover with towel, and allow to sit until completely cool.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This particular version of the recipe does not include whiskey. If you were to add it, it would be added along with the butter and sugar. Approximately 1 quart should be used.
 * This recipe uses raisins and cherries but apples, strawberries, or raspberries can be substituted.

title: Cookbook:Irish Fruit Cake


text:
Talk:LaTeX/Bibliography Management

I don't understand nothing at all. THERE IS NO ONE USABLE SOURCE CODE ON HOW TO CREATE BIBLIOGRAPHY. What do I have to write in .tex and what to write in an outer .bib file. Please, write only ONE solution what is works. Just for the beginners.

there is no copyright notice on the source page, or am i missing it. 70.17.91.192 17:55, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't think we need it: all the authors are properly referenced in LaTeX/Authors. Alessio Damato 20:39, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

The biblatex package is a recent addition to the bibliography process that allows greater flexibility than standard bibtex. It might be worthwhile to write a section about this package.

We should mention  somewhere on this page. - This is there; but there is a contradiction between these instructions and the instructions on multiple references (possibly this is a fault with LaTeX and cannot be resolved here)

When introducing the natbib package, the bibliographystyle is mentioned. But this is a concept related to BibTeX, that come later in the page. This can be confusing for the reader.

Corrected Citavi entry. Citavi is straightforward commercial software (not free as claimed), which offers a size-limited version (100 entries) for free.

The paragraph describing the  command mentions that you can specify a different directory - $HOME/....  This will not work. The $ will be interpreted as the start of a math element.

Passages written in first person (plagiarism?)
There are multiple passages written in the first person referencing a "Tutorial". This seems as text was just copied from somewhere else. I propose to change the respecting sections. --2003:DC:5F1D:5C00:6EDD:81A6:AA94:832E (discuss) 21:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)

Bibliography styles: how to reduce vertical space between bibliography entries?
I wonder how to reduce the vertical space between bibtex entries - while I can reduce the linespace with the "setspace" packages (works fine) I don't manage to get more entries on a page... ? thanks for a hint, Bumbulski (talk) 19:07, 8 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Found it: the natbib style allows to define . Redefine with (0pt is no line space between items; here: have a bit of space):   Bumbulski (talk) 19:00, 9 September 2009 (UTC)

The LaTeX code is too small, I think it would be better to enlarge it

Explain natbib earlier
Shouldn't Natbib be explained earlier in this chapter than at the very end? Switching from plain BibTeX to Natbib is a pain, while setting Natbib to numeric mode is quite easy. Elsevier uses Natbib for all LaTeX journals... Qwertyus (talk) 21:35, 22 October 2010 (UTC)

Correcting "Add the Bibliography to the Table of Contents as numbered item"
If I'm not mistaken, the tips provided here add an extra blank page before the bibliography (at least in the report document type). The solution to remove it seems to be provided here: http://www.latex-community.org/forum/viewtopic.php?f=5&t=10573 Should this be mentioned? --192.54.144.229 (discuss) 09:42, 20 July 2011 (UTC)

Easiest way I've found to add bibliography to the TOC is:

This works because usually the bibsection is chapter* (which has no toc entry). You can also modify this to use addcontentsline after the \bibname which is a mix of my solution and the one already used on the page. --Ayrn (discuss • contribs) 10:37, 20 March 2012 (UTC)

The mention of VIM at the end
There is mention of compiling the latex document and aux file with bibtex through vim. Though this is good, it seems misplaced. There could be a section devoted to integrating latex into different editors. Also, you can get bibtex to process the file more simply by using the command...

!bibtex %<

Add BibLaTeX section?
Should BibLaTeX maybe be mentioned? Benregn (discuss • contribs) 18:53, 12 October 2011 (UTC)

Definitly! Especialy the Multiple Biliographies part is worth noting about it. Its so easy to do it with biblatex: That's it. --Wombalton (discuss • contribs) 22:15, 12 November 2013 (UTC) I just added a subsection on biblatex for printing multiple bibliographies: LaTeX/Bibliography_Management Bro4 (discuss • contribs) 01:50, 6 November 2014 (UTC)

May I suggest adding information on how to include the bibliography in the ToC? It would be helpful to add the following two lines:

To add the bibliography to the table of contents, add the option "heading=bibintoc" after \printbibliography: --AndyKB87 (discuss • contribs) 11:38, 28 January 2016 (UTC)
 * Isn't that feature already explained, though not 100 % the same way? --Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs) 15:23, 1 February 2016 (UTC)

Alphabeticising "von" names
The John von Neumann example is actually more complicated than discussed here. I don't know about JvN in particular, but often people with de Surname, von Surname and van Surname like it to appear as "(de|von|van) Surname, Firstname" BUT they want to be alphabeticised under the first letter of Surname (so, N for JvN), not under d for "de" or "v" for "(von|van)". This page doesn't seem to deal with this issue, and probably should. Likewise, examples for name postfixes that aren't part of the surname, like the researcher Hal Duamé III or Firstname Surname Jr. Thayvian (discuss • contribs) 02:10, 28 May 2012 (UTC)

Fields not displayed
I had a problem when copying-pasting templates from this article.

With the following template, the "year" filed was not displayed in my document.

But with this template, it was:

It seems to be linked to the position of the fields with "%". Can anybody confirm ? If this is the case it would have to be mentioned in the article.

 * Actually, it is mentioned in the article, before the start of the examples:
 * "Be careful if you copy the following templates, the % sign is not valid to comment out lines in bibtex files. If you want to comment out a line, you have to put it outside the entry."
 * In fact, if I try to compile these entries with the erroneus entries preceded by, bibtex just crashes. I think the examples should be reworked to make them copy-pastable, however it will take some time until I can get around to it. --Lpd-Lbr (discuss • contribs) 12:49, 4 February 2020 (UTC)
 * I replaced the  with   which went faster than i anticipated. --Lpd-Lbr (discuss • contribs) 13:08, 4 February 2020 (UTC)

Mention something about biber?
Biber is being used more frequently and recommended more often now (http://tex.stackexchange.com/questions/35233/bibtex-and-chicago-style-citations). Should this article be extended to have a quick blurb about biber?

thebibliography environment is not supported by texlipse
I took a decent while for me to figure this one out. That example at the top of the page does not work. An introductory example should be as accessible as possible, I think. At least we should warn texlipse users about this.130.234.207.147 (discuss) 14:10, 21 September 2013 (UTC)

Underscore
Maybe it should be mentioned somewhere that it is not a good idea to use the underscore character in your bibtexkey (as is written in "Getting current LaTeX document to use your .bib file"). Apparently Latex doesn't like it much when you \cite{bibtex_key}

131.180.138.34 (discuss) 10:56, 28 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Can you be more specific? Every single key in my main .bib has 1 or more underscores and it works fine, all I can find by googling is that starting a key with underscore is anissue. ChrisHodgesUK (discuss • contribs) 12:32, 28 November 2013 (UTC)

Merge
The page LaTeX/More Bibliographies is mostly redundent and far less complete than LaTeX/Bibliography Management. It should be merged into it. --Ambrevar (discuss • contribs) 09:00, 31 March 2014 (UTC)

Babelbib inconsistent name ordering
Maybe the section "Localizing bibliography appearance" should include a paragraph about how to customize how babelbib writes names in bibliography entries. Because the babelbib styles (e.g. babplain) writes the first author as "Lastname, Forename" and subsequent authors as "Forename Lastname" to emphasize its ordering by lastname. However there exists additional style variants suffixed with "-fl" (e.g. babplain-fl) or "-lf" to consistently writes names as respectively "Forename Lastname" or "Lastname, Forename".

See "4 Available bibliography styles" in the bablebib documentation (http://mirrors.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib/babelbib/babelbib.pdf) for more information. Johslarsen (discuss • contribs)

Usage of "?" rather than "%" for optional BibTeX fields
Right now, the BibTeX examples use  for optional fields. This causes errors when copy-pasting for people who haven't read the line regarding that they're being used only for indicating optional fields and not actual BibTeX syntax. I propose using  instead of   for optional fields instead, which will make the field be ignored (since there's no   field, for example, although that's a valid field name), kinda making it behave like a comment (although it does look more like an "optional field", compare with syntax such as Tcl documentation's   for optional parameters). --Cousteau (discuss • contribs) 16:30, 10 April 2015 (UTC)

 * Good and fair point, i'll work on that and mention a few things about leaving real comments in databases. -- Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs)

Complete rewrite, including ordering topics and incorporating biblatex properly
I think the page needs a rewrite. Parts of it are messy, many solutions and hacks are presented that emerged over the years. It is a bit cluttered. On the other hand, biblatex is merely mentioned, but right now, more and more people are using biblatex for their final reports. I suggest to explain the concept of citing in LaTeX in general, quickly explain differences (advantages and disadvantages) between the BibTeX-system and the biblatex-system and split everything following in two separate pages linked from here. That would also include merging material from LaTeX/More Bibliographies as already mentioned above by User:Ambrevar.

-- Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs)

 * Agreed, a reorganization/rewrite of the page is probably a good thing. The biblatex-section is for the moment wedged in between two topics really only concerned with the BibTeX-approach, so separating and promoting that more sounds good. --Torbjorn T.

"Entry type reference" and "field reference" links dead
The "entry type reference" and "field reference" links in LaTeX/Bibliography_Management are dead. --Waclawj (discuss • contribs) 18:12, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

Multiple citations
It says that

''When a sequence of multiple citations are needed, you should use a single  command. The citations are then separated by commas. Note that you must not use spaces between the citations. Here's an example:

The result will then be shown as citations inside the same brackets.''

but I don't think that method is compliant with the IEEE citation style.

 * IEEE uses another style, that is correct. --Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs) 09:19, 16 February 2016 (UTC)

standard fields and requirements
Currently a huge table tells about what fields are available and required, but no sane soul is using the standard styles anymore. Natbib provides bst-files with own fields, journals provide bst files with special fields, biblatex defines some other fields. I suggest to drop this huge lump of limited useful information and add a hint about the documentation of the current style/bst-file.--Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs) 15:12, 29 February 2016 (UTC)

 * I have decided to drop the field/entry tables for bibtex and biblatex as well as the complete Standard Templates section. Thoughts? Any objections? --Johannes Bo (discuss • contribs) 16:50, 10 March 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:LaTeX/Bibliography Management


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User:Mike.lifeguard/monobook.js

mw.loader.load('//meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Mike.lifeguard/remote.js&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); //importScript('MediaWiki:Gadget-morebits.js'); //importScript('User:Mike.lifeguard/TSdev.js'); //importScript('MediaWiki:Gadget-twinklespeedy.js');

//fixes 17240 by disabling dynamic CSS on history pages //removeHandler(window, 'load', histrowinit);

title: User:Mike.lifeguard/monobook.js


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User talk:70.17.91.192

Welcome!
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title: User talk:70.17.91.192


text:
User talk:Chemical Engineer

Hi Chemical Engineer, welcome to Wikibooks. I've seen your edits to the ICEP book and they are impressive! Are you currently in school or in the field?

It seems like you have a good handle on how the wiki works, here's some links that may help you in the future though:

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk to me) 19:34, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chemical Engineer


text:
Cookbook:Loco Moco (Rice with Egg and Hamburger)

| Cuisine of Hawaii

Ingredients

 * 2 eggs
 * 1 hamburger patty
 * ½–1 cup uncooked rice (per preference)
 * Gravy

Procedure

 * 1) Cook the eggs sunny side up.
 * 2) Cook the hamburger to your preference.
 * 3) Steam the rice, and heat up the gravy.
 * 4) Assemble the components in the following order:
 * 5) * Rice on bottom;
 * 6) * Hamburger on top of rice;
 * 7) * Eggs;
 * 8) * Gravy.


text:
User talk:Jennamr14

Welcome to Wikibooks, Jennamr14!  First steps tutorial Wikibooks is for freely-licensed collaboratively-developed textbooks. You don't need technical skills in order to contribute here. Be bold contributing and assume good faith about the intentions of others. Remember, this is a wiki, so you're allowed to change just about anything, and changes can be made easily. Come introduce yourself to everyone, and let us know what interests you.

If you're coming here from other Wikimedia projects, you should read our primer for Wikimedians to get quickly up-to-speed.  Getting help  Goodies, tips and tricks  Made a mistake? Thanks, Swift (talk) 14:58, 28 April 2009 (UTC) (P.S. Would you like to provide feedback on this message?)
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title: User talk:Jennamr14


text:
Subject:Engineering

de:Regal:Maschinenbau it:Ripiano:Ingegneria 工学 ml:വിഷയം:എഞ്ചിനീയറിംഗ്

title: Subject:Engineering


text: User:Idamargarita

title: User:Idamargarita


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User talk:Nruss006

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Derbeth talk 00:19, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nruss006


text:
User:Lucky7337/Page name

HEY!!! It's Lucky. That page I told you about.. well, here it is:

Most All Spices

Spices -  Serving Size

Arrowroot Powder -  1 Tablespoon

title: User:Lucky7337/Page name


text:
User talk:WongKaWing

Image copyright problem with Image:KM groupA1.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:KM groupA1.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:44, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:WongKaWing


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User talk:Groupb

Image copyright problem with Image:Introduction.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Introduction.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

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title: User talk:Groupb


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User talk:Lucky7337

Welcome message
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 01:45, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

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User talk:Km group3

Image copyright problem with Image:Typeofck.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Typeofck.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

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User talk:Karenleungks

Image copyright problem with Image:Ppt.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Ppt.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:46, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Karenleungks


text:
User talk:72.36.250.34

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits, such as those you made to Wikibooks talk:Good books/, are considered vandalism. If you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:13, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.36.250.34


text:
User talk:Snthinsan

This is a test page for Snea Thinsan

title: User talk:Snthinsan


text: Template:Ethnic group

title: Template:Ethnic group


text:
Past LSAT Explained/PrepTest 26

Back to Past LSAT Explained

Question 04
IDENTIFY This ia a flaw question. The keyword here is "questionable" in the question.

READ Politician P, as most politicians do, is attacking his opponent's claim. He states his oponent's claim in the first sentence and attacks it in the second sentence and argues that his opponent is "mistaken". His reasoning is that raising taxes upsets the taxpayers because of the loss of purchasing power and therefore, it is wrong.

ANALYZE His reasoning is that whatever makes people upset, it is wrong. It is a questionable logic because anything that lead to a number of people becoming upset is deemed "simple mistaken".

CHOOSE Let's go through the answer response one by one.

(A) Incorrect. P does not presupposes that the claim is wrong. P has a reason for it. Moreover, no "other unpopular views" is mentioned here. Raising tax may be a unpopular view but there is nothing else.

(B) Incorrect. There is no attack on character here. The politician only describes the effect of the claim that people would be upset.

(C) Correct. Right on target. P argues that raising tax (or the implementation of the claim) would lead to unhappiness (many taxpayers becoming upset).

(D) Incorrect. There is no irrelvant issue in the argument.

(E) Incorrect. P actually argues that the obligation does not exist. This choice is for the people who misread the question, thinking that the task is to find the flaw in the opponent's reasoning not Politician P's. Be careful.

Question 15
IDENTIFY This is a flaw question. READ The editorialist argues that if one is mature enough to handle the responsibilities, then we can give the person the privileges. Privileges entail responsibilities. Then the editorialists cite a scientific fact that people are physically mature by 17. ANALYZE He mistakenly equates physical maturity with all around maturity. Just because one is physically mature does not mean the person is capable in all regards. You can't run for U.S. president or the Senate when you are 18. You can't even buy alcohol legally in the States. CHOOSE (A) Incorrect. The argument does not assume what it sets out to prove. If this is the case, it would be a circular reasoning and easy to spot.

(B) Incorrect. The weakness is not in the small number of examples. The evidence the editorialist uses is pretty powerful. "Science has established" he says. He implies that there have been conclusive research findings to support this to be a generally accepted theory.

(C) Correct. You need to remember the definition of "equivocate" which is like beating around the bush. The editorialist confuses us by implying that physically maturity is all that is required for accepting adult's responsibilities, which isn't true. He is playing with the central concept of maturity.

(D) Incorrect. There is no authority here. He did not appeal to some eminent scientist. Even if there exists some goddess of science, she is not an inappropriate authority. She would be the authority. Therefore, this choice is clearly wrong.

(E) Incorrect. This is a side issue. The editorialist's argument is consistent with this choice since it could be true that most are mature by 17 while some are mature at 16. So this choice does not weaken the argument.

Question 16
IDENTIFY This is a parrell reasoning question. You might want to consider skipping if you are not very good at this type of questions or low on time.

READ Read carefully for the structure.

ANALYZE Use your logic game diagramming skill to briefly sketch the structure. All A -> commercial or critical All critical -> commercial All A -> commercial or commercial (substitute critical with commercial) All A -> commercial

CHOOSE (A) Incorrect. The word "Most" ruins it. The passage says "every new play". This choice is not a 100% foolproof logic because "most" opens a hole. (B) Incorrect. (C) Correct. (D) Incorrect. (E) Incorrect.

Question 21
IDENTIFY

This is a flaw question.

READ

Mr. Ziegler is on trial for shooting. His lawyer argues that his client is not guilty because he was insane when he fired the shot. The lawyer points out that the plaintiff did not prove (probably could not) that he was sane during the firing but only provided evidence that he is sane after the incident.

ANALYZE

The attonery does not see the link between the defendant's sanity after the crime and his mental state before the crime. If he is sane now, why wouldn't he be sane then? His sanity after the crime sugguests a strong probability that he was sane then.

CHOOSE

(A) Incorrect. We do not known Ziegler's professional qualification or educational background. The attorney does not raise this point.

(B) Incorrect. The lawyer does not conclude that there is a lack of evidence for his sanity- in fact, there is as the plaintiff submitted. The attorney does not provide any evidence against his sanity. He concludes that Ziegler is insane for lack of evidence in contrary.

(C) Incorrect. Ziegler's consulting firm may be worried about this point but this is not relevant.

(D) Incorrect. Moral responsibility is not an issue here. Legal culpability is. Moreover, this response does not address any flaw in the reasoning.

(E) Correct. Bingo. His sanity later indicates that he may be sane before.

Question 24
IDENTIFY

This is a disagreement question. As the passage above indicates Monica and Hector are arguing about something.

READ

Section IV Reading Comprehension
Passage I compulsory national service Passage II James Porter and African American Art Passage III Dolphin Passage IV Susan Staves VOCABULARY sift tangle dower jointure pin contrarieties

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title: Past LSAT Explained/PrepTest 26


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User talk:219.252.105.152

Also, please note that I've changed the page links on Past LSAT Explained to all be sub-pages of the one book. Webaware talk 07:33, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:219.252.105.152


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User talk:Wundermacht

Welcome message
G'day, welcome to Wikibooks. I've moved a couple of pages of the book Past LSAT Explained to make them sub-pages of that book. This helps keep pages of a book together. See below for more information...

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Webaware talk 07:36, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

Wikiversity
Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks, unfortunately though Wikiversity is no longer part of Wikibooks. If you are interested in writing lessons and not books then you should contribute to English Wikiversity. All Wikiversity pages are in the process of being imported there and deleted from here. You may wish to see if similar pages to Wikiversity-School_of_Law/1L_Guide/Writing_Competition and Wikiversity-School of Law/1L Guide/Wikiversity Law Review may already exist there. In there current form neither are appropriate for inclusion on Wikibooks, but are suitable for inclusion on Wikiversity. --dark lama  00:40, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wundermacht


text:
User talk:203.22.27.176

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Webaware talk 07:39, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.22.27.176


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Past LSAT Explained/Methodology

THINK LIKE THE TESTMAKERS The LSAT is a test of your way of thinking. It tests how well you think like the testmakers. Once you start to think like them, you can be thought as having the LSAT mind. Your preparation of the LSAT should therefore focus on learning to this way of thinking.

Logical Reasoning
This PrepTest explanation for Logical Reasoning sections follows a methodology called IRAC(pronounced EYE-rack) which stands for: Identify, Read, Analyze, and Choose. It is a step by step methodology for tackling LSAT questions.

Identify

The IRAC starts with quickly scanning the question. Most LSAT questions start with a brief passage or statement followed by a question. It is important to figure out exactly what the question is looking for. You may decide to skip the question if you are low on time or the question seems too difficult. You can choose to guess random.

Read

You need to move to the beginning of the passage and quickly and accurately work the passage. Underline, paraphrase and engage with the passage. Using symbols to mark the passage. Do not overanalyze or bring outside information or knowledge but stick to what's provided.

Analyze

Use your LSAT analytical skill. Apply the right analysis required by the question. You are not given credit for doing something else. Once you are done with analyzing the passage, move to each response.

Choose

Reading Comprehension
This PrepTest explanation for Reading Comprehension sections follows a methodology called BRIEF (you are essentially briefing the passage) which stands for: Break, Read, Internalize, Eliminate, Find. It is a step by step methodology for tackling LSAT questions.

Break

Go to the questions and figure out the key terms and words. You are essentially breaking the question. When you read, pay a special attention to those words and relationship.

Read

Scan quickly and visualize a chart in your brain.

Internalize

Digest what you read.

Eliminate

Do not look for the right answer. Look for the wrong one first.

Find

Mark your answer sheet and move on.

Analytical Reasoning
This PrepTest explanation for Analytical Reasoning sections follows a methodology called CASES which stands for: Chart, Analyze, S, Eliminate, Select. It is a step by step methodology for tackling LSAT questions.

Chart

Analyze

S Eliminate

Select

title: Past LSAT Explained/Methodology


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User:Wundermacht

 * Past LSAT Explained
 * Wikiversity-School of Law/1L Guide

title: User:Wundermacht


text:
User:Andresmh

I am a graduate student at the MIT Media Lab.

title: User:Andresmh


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Hawaii

 * Haupia
 * Loco Moco
 * Rumaki

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Hawaii


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Cookbook talk:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner

oh my God !!!! Parmesan cheese with a tomato sauce?!?!?!?! Only an American can do that !!!!!


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C Sharp Programming/Keywords/extern

The keyword indicates that the method being called exists in a DLL.

A tool called  can create a wrapper assembly that allows C# to interact with the DLL like it was a .NET assembly i.e. use constructors to instantiate it, call its methods.

Older DLLs will not work with this method. Instead, you have to explicitally tell the compiler what DLL to call, what method to call and what parameters to pass. Since parameter type is very important, you can also explicitly define what type the parameter should be passed to the method as.

Here is an example:

The tells the compiler which DLL to reference. Windows searches for files as defined by the PATH environment variable, and therefore will search those paths before failing.

The method is also static because the DLL may not understand how to be "created", as DLLs can be created in different languages. This allows the method to be called directly, instead of being instantiated and then used.

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/extern


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Cookbook:Apple with Mustard and Goat Cheese

Apple with Mustard and Goat Cheese is an eclectic yet easy-to-make appetizer. The unusual flavors and ingredient combinations makes this an excellent way to start a dinner party.

Ingredients

 * 2 Golden Delicious apples
 * Yellow prepared mustard
 * 1 oz crumbly, fresh goat cheese

Procedure

 * 1) Wash the apples and cut across (i.e. not from top to bottom) into slices ¼ inch thick. Preferably the apples should come from the refrigerator as the cold temperature will add to the contrast.
 * 2) Spread one side of the apple slices with yellow mustard.
 * 3) Crumble the goat cheese onto each slice.
 * 4) Serve immediately as is.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Golden delicious apples are preferable, but any sweet, crisp apple will do.
 * Add honey-roasted nuts of some kind along with the goat cheese for an interesting combination.
 * For a professional look, lay each slice of apple on lettuce or another type of garnish.


text:
User talk:125.253.33.204

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. --Jomegat 14:21, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:125.253.33.204


text:
User:Zachary/monobook.js

document.write(' ');

title: User:Zachary/monobook.js


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Cookbook:Egg Pie

| American cuisine | Southern U.S. cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Cheese

This is a good dish for breakfast, brunch, or late-night snack dish.

Ingredients

 * 2 strips bacon
 * 24 soda crackers (2-inch squares)
 * 6 large eggs
 * 1 cup milk
 * ⅛ teaspoon salt
 * 1 dash of pepper
 * ½ cup cheddar cheese, cut into small pieces.
 * Cooking spray
 * Jam or jelly (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (~175°C).
 * 2) Cut bacon into small pieces and sauté until brown.
 * 3) Crush crackers.
 * 4) Beat eggs in bowl.
 * 5) Add crackers, milk, salt, and pepper, then cheese to the eggs.
 * 6) Spray casserole dish with cooking spray.
 * 7) Pour mixture into casserole dish, and add bacon.
 * 8) Bake in preheated oven until a knife comes out clean when pie is tested.
 * 9) Cut in wedges and serve with jam.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can dice, shred, or just cut up the cheese; the smaller the pieces, the more evenly it will mix.

title: Cookbook:Egg Pie


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FOSS Open Content/Emergence of the Open Content Paradigm

In response to the excesses of copyright system, there has been a need for strong alternatives. The FOSS movement was perhaps one of the first to articulate such an alternative in a formal manner. While phrases such as "Free Software" and "copyleft" conjure up an image of alternatives to copyright, it is relevant to note that FOSS is not a model that abandons copyright. In fact, quite the opposite, it relies on copyright law, but users it creatively to articulate a positive, rather than a negative rights discourse. What does a positive rights framework mean? As we have seen, copyright has traditionally been an exclusive right that is granted to the owner of copyright to exploit his / her work.

Copyright is usually thought of as a bundle of rights that are available to the owner, and these are:

 * Reproduction rights: the right to reproduce copies of the work (for example, making copies of a book from a manuscript).
 * Adaptation rights: the right to produce derivative works based on the copyrighted work (for example, creating a film based on a book).
 * Distribution rights: the right to distribute copies of the work (for example, circulating the book in bookshops).
 * Performance rights: the right to perform the copyrighted work publicly, (for example, having a reading of the book or a dramatic performance of a play).
 * Display rights: the right to display the copyrighted work publicly (for example, showing a film or work of art).

Another important dimension is that there are no procedural requirements for obtaining copyright; it vests automatically with the creator the moment the work has been created and fixed in some tangible form. This can be a very serious problem. For instance, suppose that I have made a useful graphic file and posted it on the Internet. Even if I do not object to having the file downloaded and used for any purposes, such as including it in a teaching pack or on a homepage, the law of copyright is such that someone who uses the graphic without my permission would be infringing my copyright.

It may be that I choose not to prosecute them, but what has effectively happened is that the rule of exclusion has become the default rule in copyright. We have effectively moved away from a time when everything was presumed to be in the public domain unless otherwise stated, to a system where everything is presumed to be protected unless otherwise stated.

Licenses and the Control of Copyright
At this point, it is useful to return to the story of the extension of copyright law. Given the fact that copyright includes so many rights, it basically becomes impossible for any person to use another's work without running into the danger of being an "infringer." Thus, one needs to obtain a license from the owner of copyright to use any portion of the work. A license in copyright law is basically the grant of a right by the owner of copyright which allows the recipient of the license, the licensee, to exercise certain rights with respect to the copyright work. Without this license, any use not granted by copyright by default would be considered an infringement.

Derived from the Latin word licere, "to allow," license literally means "permission." Theoretically, a license can only permit things that copyright law places under the provision of the copyright owner and does not already permit by default. A license can thus only allow more, not less than, the default copyright regulations. FOSS and Open Content licenses, therefore, are licenses in the proper sense of the word. Proprietary software licenses, however, are even more restrictive than default copyright regulation.

How is it possible that such a "license" is not a permission, but imposes additional restrictions? The catch lies in the term "license agreement", which shifts the whole matter from copyright to contract law. By making users click on a box signifying their agreement to the terms of the license agreement, software vendors make you sigh a usage contract with them, thus circumventing even the scarce "fair use" liberties granted by copyright law (such as public lending of works in libraries).

As Pamela Samuelson notes:

''Software is not the first time that they have attempted to restrict user rights via a license, and even book publishers have attempted to do so. Book publishers and sound recording companies once tried to restrict what purchasers of their products could do with they by "licenses", but fortunately the courts didn't let them get away with it. (Take a look at an old Victoria recording jacket and you'll see that it purports to license use of the recording to one Victoria machien and to deny authority to retransfer one's copy of the recording.) One important case was Bobbs-Merrill vs Straus. Bobbs-Merrill sued Straus because he sold copies of bobbs-Merrill books in violation of a license restriction that conditioned the right to retransfer copies of the books on an agreement to charge at least US$1 per copy. The US Supreme Court treated the license restriction as ineffective as a matter of copyright policy. The Bobbs-Merrill decision contributed to the emergence of the "first sale" or "exhaustion of rights" doctrine in copyright law, under which publishers lose authority to control redistributions of copies of their works when, in commercial reality, the transaction is a sale. In the aftermath of this and similar cases, publishers and sound recording companies abandoned these overly restrictive practices.''

The GNU General Public License
It is within this highly rigid regime of copyright that the Free Software movement sought to make an intervention. As a result, it has become highly popular across the world, and has become an inspiration for similar licensing models beyond the world of software. While the traditional software license specifically denies certain rights, the GNU General Public License is a license that is designed to grant certain fundamental freedoms. These are:

 * Users should be allowed to run the software for any purpose.
 * Users should be able to closely examine and study the software and should be able to freely modify and improve it to better serve their needs.
 * Users should be able to give copies of the software to other people to whom the software will be useful.
 * Users should be able to freely distribute their improvements for the benefit of the broader public.

The Free Software model differs drastically from the "closed source" principles of licensing. Why then do we say that the GNU GPL model is based on an innovative use, rather than an abandonment of copyright? The Free Software model is predicated on ensuring that the fundamental freedoms are not taken away or removed from the public domain by anyone; thus, there is a condition attached to the use of Free Software.

The fundamental condition is that any person who uses Free Software to create a derivative work, or an adaptation of the software, must ensure that this software is also licensed on the same terms and conditions, namely under the GNU GPL. If the author of a piece of Free Software decided to relinquish his copyright, it would mean that someone could use his or her code and create a derivative work and then license it as a proprietary piece of code, therefore preventing others from making use of the software in a free manner.

Challenges to Copyright
What the Free Software movement did was to use copyright in an innovative manner to ensure access rather than restrict people's ability to use, distribute and modify code.

At the heart of the Free Software movement lies a radical reworking of the very idea of the user. While in the realm of proprietary software, the user was a passive consumer, the Free Software model is based on the idea of the user as producer - a user who has the ability to contribute to the existing work and simultaneously become a producer as well. Copying, cutting and pasting, changing things, applying filters, and so on are part of the basic language of digital media. The user-producer concept speaks to he digital experience and the freedoms that this digital culture allows for ordinary people to become artists and producers. This model fundamentally challenges the traditional assumptions of copyright law. It moves away from the romantic notion of authorship which saw cultural production as an isolated activity carried out by a solitary genius creating something out of nothing. Instead, it argues that the very essence of cultural production has been about learning by creatively using works that exist in the public domain. It also moves away from the mythical notion of the originality of the work to recognize the value that various users contribute through their modifications and adaptations to an existing work, thus placing a higher premium on collaborative rather than isolated production.

The Open Content model also brings into place a community of givers and receivers who see themselves as linked within chains of reciprocity. So, while the formal trappings of the exclusivity of property may not exist, this does not mean that the social norms and etiquette governing relationships of creation and use within Open Content communities do not exist. The gift economy may, therefore, be a useful way of characterizing relations in Open Content projects. The gift is a fascinating phenomenon marked by complex relationships of reciprocities, and the idea that there is no such thing as a free gift is true, though not in the monetary sense of the term. The giving and taking of a gift sets in chain a complex relationship of reciprocity, where a gift transaction is always incomplete until the person receiving the gift has also given the gift back. While the relationship of reciprocity may be between the gift giver and the gift taker, it is certainly not restricted only to them. The exchange of the gift actually brings into play an economy of circulation, which includes a wider network of participation by members of the community.

The Raqs Media Collective says that:

''The gift is something freely given, and taken, as in free code. Gift givers and gift takers are bound in networks of random or pre-meditated acts of symbolic exchange. The code begets the gift as the form of its own survival over time. In this way a gift is a quiet meme. Reciprocity begets reciprocity. The principle of the gift demands that the things being given be price-less, in other words so valuable as to be impossibe to quantify in terms of the possibilities of abstract generalized exchange.''

What was unique about the FOSS model was that it used the copyright regime for the first time to express this aspect of collaborative production, and also afford it protection to ensure that it remained within the public domain. Having gotten rid of the heavy burden of the myth of copyright, the challenge was then to translate the terms of the GNU GPL into other models of creative licensing would enable people to ct as collaborators / producers rather than merely as passive users, and also ensure that there is a rich public domain of materials that people can use and build on for the future.

rather than the 119-volume one]. † Number of encyclopedic articles.The Nationalencyklopedin contains a total of 356,000 entries. ‡ Kister, op. cit., p. 365. § Advertised as containing “over 63,000 articles, with 36,000-plus map locations and over 29,000 editor-approved website links.” The 2006 Premium CD-ROM had 68,000 articles.
 * Kenneth F. Kister, Kister's best encyclopedias: a comparative guide to general and specialized encyclopedias, (1994) p. 450. [Article count is for the 82-volume edition,
 * Includes 10,000 historical archives.

It is important to note that the Wikipedia has also answered one of the usual criticisms against Open Content projects, namely, the question of the reliability of the information of knowledge that is produced. The journal Nature compared science articles from Wikipedia to the gold standard of the Encyclopædia Britannica and concluded that "the difference in accuracy was not particularly great."

The Public Domain
We have been using the idea of the public domain. What exactly do we mean by that? For the purposes of understanding cultural production, the public domain could be understood as the body of works to which we have access to create newer works. Thus, while Shakespeare was a brilliant playwright, we should also remember the fact that he drew rather liberally from various sources, from history, mythology and the works of his peers, etc. as inspiration and as sources to modify. Similarly, even Walt Disney had a rich variety of sources from which he could draw from to make his cartoon versions of Fantasia, Steamboat Willie, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, etc. This public domain has also often been referred to through the metaphor of the "commons" - resources that are not divided into individual bits of property but rather are jointly held so that anyone may use them without special permission. Think of public streets, parks, waterways, outer space, and creative works in the public domain - all of these things are, in a way, sub-set of the commons.

Open/Collaborative Production and its Advantages
It is as a response to the shrinking of the public domain through stronger enforcement of copyright laws that the FOSS and Open Content movements have emerged. What are some of the benefits of licensing works on an Open Content model rather than relying on the traditional copyright model? There may be a number of reasons and advantages for wanting to do so.

 * For most artists, musicians or designers who are not already established, the easiest way to make a name for yourself is by ensuring that your work is sen by a large number of people, and by a wide range of audiences, as this helps to popularize your work, and establish your reputation. Open Content licenses enable your work to circulate in a much wider manner than if there were restrictions on the work. Apart from making you more visible, this model of distribution also enables you to obtain more shows, more work, sponsorship, etc. The English music group Thermal and a Quarter based in Bangalore, for instance, have made their albums available online for people to download, to enable their fans to listen to them and attend more of their shows.
 * Since the model of distribution relies, more often than not on a P2P system of sharing, it cuts out significant costs in terms of a middleman, an agent or a gallery who act as distributors. This is a system in which people can often contact the content creator directly rather than having to go through an institution of an individual who mediates on their behalf. Often creators who are struggling to establish themselves have no bargaining power with publishers, record companies, etc. since they do not have the ability to distribute on their own. The Open Content model, combined with the powers of the internet, is a great way for someone to establish themselves without having to rely on the big business model of authors and artists.
 * The value of value - added distribution: One of the major advantages of using an Open Content model arises when you are looking at the distribution process not merely as the distribution of a final end product but also as a way of harnessing extra support and labour in projects which require, for instance, value-added contributions. An instance of this is "Distributed Proofreading." Originally unaffiliated with Project Gutenberg, the site is devoted to proofing Project Gutenberg e-texts more efficiently by distributing the volunteer proofreading function in smaller and more information - rich modules.
 * More often than not, people do not create content only for monetary reasons. They do it to express themselves, to share their works, to get an idea across, etc. In such cases, by licensing the work through an Open Content license, you have the ability to reach out to a much larger group of people as people can freely use your work, and distribute your work without the fear of violating your copyright.
 * But leaving aside the romance of altruism, assuming that you do want to make money out of your work, it is important to remember that Free / Open Content is not inconsistent with the abiliy for you to charge for your work. The licensing model allows enough flexibility for you to determine the manner in which you will license the use of your work. For instance, while you may allow for academic uses and other not-for-profit use (or even charge for them), you could reserve the right to any commercial usage (such as distributing copies of a book for sale, or using a design on a t-shirt or website). Thus, you will still be able to charge for such usage.
 * There are also cases of relatively unknown part-time musicians such as Allan Vilhan from Slovakia, working under the name Cargo Cult, who made his group's music available online for free and receives donations from people who have enjoyed the music (this and many similar stories are available at the Creative Commons website, http://creativecommons.org).
 * The Internet model of distribution may seem like a disaster for large content companies or already-established artists (even that is contestable), but for emerging artists or creators who do not hve access to a great deal of capital investment, the Internet is truly a god-send in terms of its ability to reach out to a large number of people at a relatively low cost.
 * There have been some recent examples of how people make their works available for free online, and yet this has not affected their offline sales. Science fiction author Cory Doctorow took advantage of this trend when he released an online version of his book, Down and Out in the Magic Kingdom simultaneously with a print version of the book. The print version has done very well; in fact, it could even be argued that the print version has sold better as a result of the book having been distributed for free. This is very similar to allowing people to browse through a book in a shop before they decide whether they want to buy it.
 * More and more people are realizing the value of collaborative content creation. By making their works available not only to a larger community of users but also a larger community of creators, they also realize that there is a value that is added to their work. Most Open Content licenses demand a detailed recording of the process of authorship, and every use of your work is also at the same time a record of your authorship. There is therefore a very significant attempt to move away from the binaries of originals and copies, to the idea of a rescension, a version or a re-mix that is neither a copy nor an original but instead a work that builds on existing work and yet has an autonomy of its own.

 * Some people may want to use the open licenses model for distributing their content simply because they are tired of the monopoly of the content industry and the limitations of the system of copyright. Thus, the idea of being able to contribute to an intellectual commons may seem highly attractive. Some people may be attracted by the notion of others building upon their work, or by the prospect of contributing to an intellectual commons.
 * This idealism has not only inflicted young people who are used to an age of access, but even established stars like George Michael, who recently announced that he was not going to produce any commercial music in the future and that all of his music in the future will be available for free via the Internet.
 * Very often, we forget that a lot of content owners - especially those in the world of academia or artists who benefit from endorsement grants from public bodies - are actually producing intellectual property using public resources. In such case, it is important for us to start thinking in terms of "public intellectual property for public money."

[TOC]


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Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 11: Standardized and Other Formal Assessments/Understanding Test Results

In order to understand test results from standardized tests it is important to be familiar with a variety of terms and concepts that are fundamental to “measurement theory” - the academic study of measurement and assessment. Two major areas in measurement theory - reliability and validity were discussed in the previous chapter; in this chapter we focus on concepts and terms associated with test scores.

Frequency Distributions
A frequency distribution is a listing of the number of students who obtained each score on a test. If 31 students take a test, and the scores range from 11 to 30 then the frequency distribution might look like Table 11-2. We also show the same set of scores on a histogram or bar graph in Figure 11-5. The horizontal (or x axis) represents the score on the test and the vertical axis (y axis) represents the number or frequency of students. Plotting a frequency distribution helps us see what scores are typical and how much variability there are in the scores. We describe more precise ways of determining typical scores and variability next.

Central tendency and Variability
There are three common ways of measuring central tendency or which score(s) are typical. The mean is calculated by adding up all the scores and dividing by the number of scores. In the example 11-2 the mean is 24. The median is the “middle” score of the distribution – that is half of the scores are above the median and half are below. The median on the distribution is 23 because 15 scores are above 23 and 15 are below. The mode is the score that occurs most often. In Table 11-2 there are actually two modes 22 and 27 and so this distribution is described as bimodal. Calculating the mean, median and mode are important as each provides different information for teachers. The median represents the score of the “middle” students, with half scoring above and below, but does not tell us about the scores on the test that occurred most often. The mean is important for some statistical calculations but is highly influenced by a few extreme scores (called outliers) but the median is not. To illustrate this, imagine a test out of 20 points taken by 10 students, and most do very well but one student does very poorly. The scores might be 4, 18, 18, 19, 19, 19, 19, 19, 20, 20. The mean is 17.5 (170/10) but if the lowest score (4) is eliminated the mean is now is 1.5 points higher at 19 (171/9). However, in this example the median remains at 19 whether the lowest sore is included. When there are some extreme scores the median is often more useful for teachers in indicating the central tendency of the frequency distribution. The measures of central tendency help us summarize scores that are representative, but they do not tell us anything about how variable or how spread out are the scores. Figure 11-6 illustrates sets of scores from two different schools on the same test for 4th graders. Note that the mean for each is 40 but in school A the scores are much less spread out. A simple way to summarize variability is the range, which is the lowest score subtracted from the lowest score. In School A with low variability the range is (45 – 35) = 10; in the school B the range is (55 - 22) = 33. However, the range is only based on two scores in the distribution, the highest and lowest scores, and so does not represent variability in all the scores. The standard deviation is based on how much, on average, all the scores deviate from the mean. In the example in Figure 11-3 the standard deviations are 7.73 for School A and 2.01for School B. In Figure 11-7 we demonstrate how to calculate the standard deviation.

The Normal Distribution Knowing the standard deviation is particularly important when the distribution of the scores falls on a normal distribution. When a standardized test is administered to a very large number of students the distribution of scores is typically similar, with many students scoring close to the mean, and fewer scoring much higher or lower than the mean. When the distribution of scores looks like the bell shape shown Figure 11-8 it is called a normal distribution. In the diagram we did not draw in the scores of individual students as we did in Figure 11-6, because distributions typically only fall on a normal curve when there are a large number of students—too many to show individually. An ideal normal distribution is symmetric, and the mean, median and mode are all the same. Real sets of test scores only approximate the ideal normal distribution, so the mean, median, and mode usually differ at least slightly.

Normal curve distributions are very important in education and psychology because of the relationship between the mean, standard deviation, and percentiles. In all normal distributions 34% of the scores fall between the mean and one standard deviation of the mean. Intelligence tests often are constructed to have a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 and we illustrate that in figure 11-9. In this example, 34% of the scores are between 100 and 115 and as well, 34% of the scores lie between 85 and 100. This means that 68% of the scores are between -1 and +1 standard deviations of the mean (i.e. 85 and 115). Note that only 14% of the scores are between +1 and +2 standard deviations of the mean and only 2% fall above +2standard deviations of the mean.

In a normal distribution a student who scores the mean value is always in the 50th percentile because the mean and median are the same. A score of +1 standard deviation above the mean (e.g. 115 in the example above) is the 84th percentile (50% and 34% of the scores were below 115). In Figure 11-10 we represent the percentile equivalents to the normal curve and we also show standard scores.

Kinds of Test Scores
A standard score expresses performance on a test in terms of standard deviation units above of below the mean (Linn & Miller, 2005). There are a variety of standard scores:

Z-score
One type of standard score is a z-score, in which the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1. This means that a z-score tells us directly how many standard deviations the score is above or below the mean. For example, if a student receives a z score of 2 her score is two standard deviations above the mean or the 84th percentile. A student receiving a z score of -1.5 scored one and one half deviations below the mean. Any score from a normal distribution can be converted to a z score if the mean and standard deviation is known. The formula is

 * Z score = (Score – mean score)/(Standard deviation)

So if the score is 130, the mean is 100, and the standard deviation is 15, then the formula leads to this calculation:

 * Z = (130 – 100)/15 = 2

If you look at Figure 11-9, you can see that this is correct; a score of 130 is 2 standard deviations above the mean. So the z score is 2.

T score
A T-score, by definition, has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. This means that a T score of 70 is two standard deviations above the mean and so is equivalent to a z score of 2.

Stanines
Stanines (pronounced stay-nines) are often used for reporting students’ scores and is based on a standard nine point scale and with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2. They are only reported as whole numbers and Figure 11-10 shows their relation to the normal curve.

Grade Equivalent Scores
A grade equivalent score provides an estimate of test performance based on grade level and months of the school year (Popham, 2005, p. 288). A grade equivalent score of 3.7 means the performance is at that expected of a 3rd grade student in the 7th month of the school year. Grade equivalents provide a continuing range of grade levels and so can be considered developmental scores. Grade equivalent scores are popular and seem easy to understand however they are typically misunderstood. If, James, 4th-grade student, takes a reading test and the grade equivalent score is 6.0 this does not mean that James can do 6th-grade work. It means only that James performed on the 4th-grade test as a 6th-grade student is expected to. Testing publishers calculate grade equivalents by giving one test to several grade levels. For example, a test designed for 4th graders would also be given to 3rd and 5th graders. The resulting raw scores are plotted, and a "trend line" is established which is used to establish the grade equivalents. Note that in Figure 11-12, the trend line extends beyond the grades levels actually tested so a grade equivalent above 5.0 or below 3.0 is based solely on the estimated trend lines.

Grade equivalent scores also assume that the subject matter that is being tested is emphasized at each grade level to the same amount and that mastery of the content accumulates at a mostly constant rate (Popham, 2005). Many testing experts warn that grade equivalent scores should be interpreted with considerable skepticism and that parents often have serous misconceptions about grade equivalent scores. Parents of high achieving students may have an inflated sense of what their child’s levels of achievement.

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