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Animal Behavior/History

Prehistoric Period
Our early ancestors critically depended on a detailed understanding of animal behavior. Specifically, knowledge of habitat preference, movement patterns, and sensory biology of prey as well as predators were essential. Rock paintings, figurines, and carvings, depicting scenes from daily life and religious rituals, commonly feature detailed likenesses of many kinds of animals. Early forms of rock art emerged during the Paleolithic (200,000 BCE), however, the advent of modern man brought about extraordinary cave wall paintings (40,000 BCE) of animals, hunting scenes and other graphic illustrations of prehistoric life.

Holes in Neolithic skulls illustrate that patients dating back to such early times have been subjected to head surgery, presumably with the aim of curing headaches or mental disorders. Sumerian descriptions show the use of Opium, derived from poppy plants, to produce euphoriant effects.

Native American
A common theme contends that the world was populated by many peoples who were subsequently transformed into different kinds of animals. Thus all animals and humans share the presence of a soul. The close bond between them is shown in frequent rituals where the behavior of different animals is simulated. Imagery of animals is common. The Great Serpent Mound represents an effigy mound located on a plateau along Ohio Brush Creek in Adams County, Ohio. Conforming to the topography, the snake's head approaches a cliff point, the snake then winds back and forth for more than 200 meters and ends with a triple coiled tail.

Egyptian Mythology
Ancient Egyptian societies showed a keen interest in the temperaments and sensory abilities of different animals and ascribed them to individual deities.

Ancient Egyptians had a highly developed view of the afterlife with elaborate rituals for preparing the body and soul for a peaceful existence after death. Beliefs about the soul and its needs led to numerous ceremonies for the preservation of the body. The brain apparently was not considered an essential element for eternity, as it was treated with a distinct lack of dignity. It was often spooned into small pieces and removed through the nose, then unceremoniously discarded.

Ancient Greek Period
Plato held the notion that the human mind as an entity pre-existed somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body on earth. Hippocrates believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation but was also the seat of intelligence. Like many before and after him, Aristotle was intrigued by the natural world around him. He, however, stands out as a seminal thinker on a wide range of subjects as he was able to move beyond his substantial abilities at observation by forwarding daring hypotheses in order to categorize and make sense of what he saw. Aristotle provided the first written records of mutualistic ties between individuals, animal tool use, and brood parasitism. His views on human nature considered our behavior as constituting formed habits and a desire for happiness. With his proposed concept of a tabula rasa he forwarded the thesis that individuals are born with no innate or built-in mental content, in a word "blank", and that their entire resource of knowledge is built up gradually from their experiences and sensory perceptions of the outside world. Herophilus studied the nervous system and distinguished between sensory nerves and motor nerves. Erasistratus studied the brain and distinguished between the cerebrum and cerebellum.

Roman Empire
As a physician in a gladiator school, Galen gained a unique view of the behavioral deficits that resulted from acute head trauma. Not surprisingly he wrote extensively on the connection between paralysis and severance of the spinal cord. His many audacious operations, including brain and eye surgery, were not again used for almost two millennia.

Middle Ages
Naturalists and philosophers focused on classical texts and, in particular, on the Bible in Latin. Accepted were Aristotle's views on all matters of science, including psychology. As knowledge of Greek declined, the West found itself cut off from its Greek philosophical and scientific roots. General levels of literacy further decreased as learning became largely restricted to monastic and cathedral schools that were primarily aimed at training clergy. The Church exerted an overpowering role in philosophical thought and nontheological scholarship was rare. Despite this many influences on the study of behavior in later periods began to emerge.

Arabists
Arabian scholars describe cranial and spinal nerves, along with surgical procedures for neurological disorders.

Renaissance
The principal features of the Renaissance (14th-16th century) were the revival of learning based on classical sources and the broad advancements of science. It pioneered scientific study through deductive reasoning. René Descartes supplied a foundation for the pursuit of knowledge. He argues that he perceives his body through the use of the senses, which often proven unreliable. So he concludes that thinking is his essence as it is the only thing about him that cannot be doubted. Descartes defines "thought" as every activity of which a person is immediately conscious. In his Mind/body dualism he viewed the body as a machine that follows the laws of physics. In contrast, he regarded the mind (or soul) as a nonmaterial entity that is not subject to such physical constraints. The Cartesians (i.e., the followers of Descartes) aimed to explain behavior using simple, natural, and entirely mechanistic principles. In their view only humans were endowed with an ability to reason.
 * Unity of all sciences through deductive reasoning
 * Never accept anything as true that is not known clearly to be such
 * Divide problems into as many parts as possible, and proceed from the simplest to the hardest

With the advent of the scientific revolution, medieval worldviews steadily gave way to increasingly analytical methodologies and a weakening of vitalist traditions. Although medical thought continued to be guided by the occult, critical thinking began to chip away at the long-held notions based on Galen. Hippocrates' views are revived and Renaissance artists such as Leonardo da Vinci conducted detailed studies of human anatomy in order to better portray the human form. As Andreas Vesalius corrects Greek medical errors, he revolutionizes medicine. William Harvey applies scientific methodology to human physiology and solves the human circulatory system. Paracelsus rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine.

Enlightenment
Thinkers of the Age of Reason (18th century) perceive their efforts as bringing to an end previous periods of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny. John Locke's philosophy revives Aristiotles theory of a tabula rasa, where the (human) mind is at birth a "blank slate" without rules for processing data, and where data is added and rules for processing are formed solely by one's sensory experiences. The concept of a blank mind at birth emphasized the individual's freedom to author one's own human character. Moreover, as members of ones society will become what society make of them, it becomes essential to assure universal access to learning opportunities, medical care, and possibilities for personal development.

Evolution
In the second half of the 19th century the simple taxonomic classification of all life forms was supplanted by a growing focus on parsimonious and scientifically testable (phylegenetic) hypotheses that could explain the relatedness among groups of organisms. Studies of the fossil record, the geographic distribution of faunas, and the characteristics that linked the diversity of live, convinced a growing number of scientists that species indeed changed over time. Evolution became viewed as a branching process, whereby populations are altered over time and may specialize into separate branches, hybridize together, or terminate by extinction. However, the mechanism driving these changes remained unclear until the 1859 publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, which provided the theory of evolution with the likely mechanism of natural selection.

 * Charles Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) represents arguably among the most significant scientists of all time. He realized and presented compelling evidence for natural selection as the main mechanism by which all species of life have evolved over time from common ancestors. Evolution, as an explanation for the diversity of life, had emerged earlier and was generally accepted by most in his lifetime. His 1859 book On the Origin of Species established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature and this view emerged as the primary explanation in modern evolutionary theory. He also examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin suggested that all human characteristics are fundamentally inherited and all have been subject to evolution. Emotions may best be understood as consequences of adaptive reactions.
 * George John Romanes, a Canadian-born English evolutionary biologist and physiologist, laid the foundation for comparative psychology, postulating a similarity of cognitive processes and mechanisms between humans and animals.

Psychophysics
Psychophysicists, such as Gustav Theodor Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, aimed to relate matter to mind via a study of inner experiences or feelings towards defined physical stimuli. Psychophysicists explicitly rejected the concepts of vitalists, i.e. that the functions of a living organism are due to a vital principle distinct from physicochemical forces. The main focus lay on the way subjects perceive experimental stimuli that can be objectively measured, such as pure tones varying in intensity, or lights varying in luminance. A broad range of senses has been studied, including vision, hearing, touch (including skin and enteric perception), taste, smell, or the sense of time.

Psychoanalysis

 * Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. As a result of talking with his patients, he came to believe that psychopathologies stemmed from culturally unacceptable, thus repressed and unconscious, desires and fantasies of a sexual nature. Moreover he stressed the presumed value of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. The analyst's goal is thus aimed to discover connections among the unconscious components of patients' mental processes. This ought to help liberate the patient from unexamined or unconscious barriers of transference and resistance, that is, past patterns of relating that are no longer serviceable or that inhibit freedom.
 * Carl G. Jung's unique and broadly influential approach to psychology emphasized understanding the psyche through exploring the worlds of dreams, art, mythology, world religion and philosophy. Jung emphasized the importance of balance and harmony. He cautioned that modern humans rely too heavily on science and logic and would benefit from integrating spirituality and appreciation of the unconscious realm. His Collective unconscious refers to a human experience reservoir, a kind of knowledge, we are all born with but can never be directly conscious of. His Archetypes represent generic, idealized models of personalities with unlearned tendencies to experience things in a certain way.

Comparative Psychology and Behaviorism
This school of thought represents a movement in psychology that advocates the use of strict experimental procedures to study observable behaviors (or responses) in relation to environment (or stimuli). Behaviorists regard learning and environmental conditions as dominant over the effects of genetics and heredity. Concepts, such as learning or memory are explored using artificial tasks in strictly controlled environments (e.g., Skinner Box, Morris' water maze, Radial arm maze).

Comparative psychology viewed science less as a framework for explaining events but rather for predicting and controlling them. Adoption of the observational techniques that had proven useful in the study of the behavior of animals was viewed as the best way to advance the scientific study of human beings. The external environment represented the main determining influence on behavior and its manipulation held the most promise for improving the condition of human beings. The concept of a tabula rasa was revived.

A common tenet held that the complex phenomena of behavior could be explained by and reduced to clear, distinct, reflexive units of behavior.

William James described psychology as "the science of mental life." As a rigid application of the scientific method is only possible for learned behaviors, he felt that our studies should foremost focus on studying those.

Ivan P. Pavlov realized that behavior changes when an organism comes to associate one stimulus with another. Specifically, a reflexive or automatic response transfers from one stimulus to another - Classical Conditioning.

Edward L. Thorndike Using a Puzzle Box, he demonstrated that behaviors that are followed by a positive outcome are often repeated, while those followed by a negative outcome or none at all are extinguished (i.e., Operant Conditioning). He postulated the Law of effect where behavior changes when the results of an action proved of consequence (e.g. rewarding, noxious).

John B. Watson stimulus-response theory of psychology, emotional reactions are learned in much the same way as other skills

B.F. Skinner contends that nearly all behavior is shaped by complex patterns of reinforcement in a person's environment. Skinner Box: An animal placed inside the box is rewarded with a small bit of food each time it makes the desired response, such as pressing a lever or pecking a key. A device outside the box records the animal's responses.

Ethology
"When, as by a miracle, the lovely butterfly bursts from the chrysalis full-winged and perfect, ... it has, for the most part, nothing to learn, because its little life flows from its organization like melody from a music box"—Douglas A. Spalding, 1873

Ethology, the biological study of behavior under naturalistic conditions, emerged out of diverse roots by individuals largely trained in a zoological tradition. It aimed to provide a more comprehensive study of animal behavior than previously available. Where comparative psychology studies the behavior of animals in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology explores animal behavior in the context of animal anatomy and physiology. Ethologists specifically considered the significance of inherited elements of behavior alongside learned components. Influenced by evolutionary biologists such as Thomas Hunt Morgan and others, many aspects of behavior may indeed be accessible to selection. Charles Otis Whitman examined the importance of phylogeny to the origins of behavior. Oskar Heinroth rather focused on how the adaptive value of behavior may explain behavioral differences among taxa. Experiments, in which he raised young birds separate from other individuals of their own species, demonstrated that many species-specific behaviors were nonetheless present. Interest in genetically-programmed elements (instincts) were contrasted to those subject to learning (e.g., imprinting). Using a comparative approach ethologists are thus interested to search for the biological basis of behavior (including human behavior) by comparing specific activities to those of close relatives.

Karl von Frisch studied the senses of honey bees, identified their mechanisms of communication, and showed their sensitivity to ultraviolet and polarized light. He unlocked the basic secrets of the forager's waggle dance, research which continues to yield new insights to this day. Techniques developed by behaviorists, such as classical and operant conditioning, have proven valuable to ethologists. Animals trained to respond to a particular stimulus in the appropriate behavioral context can demonstrate their ability to discriminate between different types of stimulus. For example, von Frisch used classical conditioning to show that fish could hear, and bees were able to perceive colors.

Konrad Lorenz' work included studies of imprinting (i.e., the capacity to learn specific types of information at certain critical periods in development) and instinct (i.e., the capacity of an animal to complete a complex behavior in response to a first-time encounter with a given situation). Filial imprinting refers to the case where young of a species need to acquire the image of what their parents look like (e.g. ducks). Instinctive behavior can usually be elicited by a limited combination of complex environmental cues. Such a sign stimulus refers to a particular subset of features or qualities of a natural stimulus or from complex environmental cues that is sufficient to elicit a specific behavioral response. They noted that different individuals produce identical behavioral response to specific sign stimuli - Motor patterns (or Fixed Action Pattern, FAP). Once initiated, FAPs continue until completion. A releasing mechanism is a functionally organized, neural circuit that recognizes a specific releaser and produces the appropriate response. Due to their stereotype, behaviors can be cataloged in form of an Ethogram (i.e., a comprehensive compilation of the behavioral repertory of a species, a catalog of actions as complete and precise as possible). An internal factor that determines how likely an animal is to perform a behavior (i.e., Action-Specific Energy).

The causation of behavior is viewed in the context of a metaphor - the Psychohydraulic model. Action specific energy is akin to a liquid building up in a vessel. A high level of action specific energy results when a behavior has not been performed in some time. Pressure from the water pushes onto a piston which is also pulled by sign stimuli in the environment, represented by weights. As pressure mounts the piston finally opens a valve that allows water to flow out (representing the performance of the behavior) Example: An animal that has had a good meal will have a low drive to eat more (i.e., little water in the apparatus). As it goes for a while without eating, the drive (i.e., hunger) builds up. If food is then encountered, the animal will try to consume it. If no good food is encountered, less preferred items will be accepted. This model has faced much criticism as performance of many behaviors appear to increase the tendency to perform it again (i.e. aggression), rather than bring about a decrease.

Three Ethologists shared the 1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in recognition of their work over the previous 30 years as founders of the field of ethology.

 * Karl von Frisch social behavior of bees
 * Konrad Z. Lorenz studied the behavior of geese, ravens, and ducks
 * Niko Tinbergen behavioral studies of gulls and stickle backs. "Man likes to consider himself a rationale being; he not only fails to recognize his instincts, he even scoffs at instincts and considers them inferior. This attitude makes him fall victim to similarity between man and animals; he recognizes himself only too often in an animal. Also, he has rather a higher opinion of instincts; for instance, he recognizes that they are at the bottom of his subjective experiences. And he has doubts about the all-controlling power of reason, for he sees its limits too often."

Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral Genetics explores the hereditability of behavioral traits. More recently, this has given rise to a largely quantitative emphasis on using molecular genetic techniques in order to isolate individual genes that play a role in behavior, neural and behavioral pathologies, or individual human characteristics.

Each inherited feature of an organism is determined by a section of genetic code - a gene which represents the smallest hereditary unit. The genome refers to one individual's entire set of hereditary information and includes genes as well as non-coding sequences of DNA. The genomes for any two individuals, except for those of identical twins or cloned animals, are unique. Such differences (i.e., polymorphism) produce different versions of the same genes, called alleles. Despite these differences in genetic makeup, we also find major commonalities across much of the code shared by all forms of life. The specific genetic makeup of an individual is called its genotype. A trait refers to a specific characteristic or feature of an organism (although in psychology the term may be used to represent a component of personality). The term phenotype represents the specific manifestation of a trait or its physical appearance and constitution and refers to the actual state of that trait (e.g., the trait eye color has the phenotypes blue, brown and hazel). The individual's phenotype emerges as interaction of genetic information with environmental conditions.

Sir Francis Galton (February 16, 1822 – January 17, 1911), a younger relative of Charles Darwin, was an English explorer, geographer, and statistician. Intrigued by Darwin's concept of natural selection and with a keen interest in the breeding of domesticated animals, Galton explored variation in human populations and its implications. He became interested at first in the question of whether human ability was hereditary. He presented evidence for the inheritance of a range of abilities - "a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world". He also proposed adoption studies, including trans-racial adoption studies, to separate out the effects of heredity and environment. He was instrumental in the development of quantitative methods to test human intelligence, statistical correlation, fingerprint analysis. self-report questionnaires, and word-association studies. In a darker side, he became a vociferous proponent of eugenics where he proposed to improve the human race via selective breeding of those individuals who managed to score high marks on intelligence tests.
 * John Paul Scott - genetics of behavior by studying personality traits in breeds of dogs

Behavioral Ecology
"Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution ..."—Theodosius Dobzhansky

Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior. Primarily concerned with ultimate (evolutionary) consequences, researchers aim to identify phylogenetic contingencies within behavior (i.e., to what degree behavior is inherited from its ancestors) and to examine its functional significance (i.e., how the behavior impacts the bearers reproductive success). Behavioral ecologists contend that in order to minimize ad-hoc explanations arising from anecdotal observations a rigorous examination of the adaptive consequences of a behavior are essential. Specifically, it explores what a trait is good for in an evolutionary context.

Optimization theory is concerned with assessing the success of behavior. It attempts to identify those behavioral strategies that offer the highest return under a given set of conditions using a cost/benefit analysis. In this context success or fitness is judged by considering the number of offspring that the bearer of the behavior would contribute to the next generation relative to its suboptimal conspecifics. Optimization theory, such as optimal foraging theory, states that individuals ought to adopt strategies that allow it to consume the most energy while expending the least amount of energy. Evolutionary game theory asserts that the success of strategies should not only consider its inherent benefits, as the actual success depends on what other strategies exist in the population. An evolutionarily stable strategy is a strategy which when adopted by all members cannot be beaten out by any invading, mutant strategy.

 * John R. Krebs - acoustic communication in birds and crickets, optimal foraging theory
 * N. B. Davies - the economics of behavioral strategies

Sociobiology
Sociobiology aims to explain behavior in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours. Sociobiology is based on the idea that all animals, including humans, will tend to act in ways to improve their own reproductive success, and that this will result in social processes conducive to genetic fitness. For example, cultural practices and values related to sexuality are viewed as shaped by natural selection (e.g., societal rules for incest avoidance). The concept has been criticized for its reliance on innate predispositions over learning, and by the view that presents situations are not representative of historical conditions.

The selfish genes hypothesis states that the individual is not as important to the population as its genes. Kin selection refers to changes in gene frequency across generations when biological relatives influence the reproductive success of each other. Thus, a gene that prompts behavior which enhances the fitness of relatives but lowers that of the individual displaying the behavior, may nonetheless increase in frequency, as relatives often share the same genes. The enhanced fitness of relatives can at times more than compensate for the fitness loss incurred by the individuals displaying the behavior.

 * E.O. Wilson American entomologist, naturalist, and environmentalist.
 * William D. Hamilton British evolutionary biologist, considered one of the greatest evolutionary theorists of the 20th century. Hamilton became famous for his theoretical work on kin selection - Hamilton's rule.

Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology attempts to explain "useful" mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection.

Neuroscience
The last frontier of the biological sciences--their ultimate challenge--is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember.—Eric Kandel, 2000

In 1791, Luigi Galvani discovered that the muscles of dead frog's legs twitched when struck by an electric spark. According to popular version of the story, Galvani had been conducting experiments with static electricity by rubbing frog skin. Galvani's assistant touched an exposed sciatic nerve of the skinned frog carcass with a metal scalpel that had picked up a charge, they saw sparks and the dead frog's leg kicked as if in life. The observation made Galvani appreciate the relationship between electricity and muscle movement. Galvani's cousin. who engaged in a public demonstration of electrical stimulation of muscles on the body of an executed criminal, reputedly provided the inspiration for Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. With stimulation of the body's face, the jaws began to quiver, facial muscles were horribly contorted, an eye opened, the right hand was raised and clenched, and muscles in legs and thighs moved.

The late 19th century witnessed the rise of modern neuroscience. Hypotheses that distinct brain functions were contained within specific regions of the brain emerged with evidence from patients with epileptic seizures, head trauma, and stroke. Extensive characterizations of neurons throughout the brain led Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal to propose the neuron doctrine, i.e., that the function of the brain is a product of the electrical and chemical activity of individual neurons. Further support came from the discovery that muscles and neurons showed electrical excitability, which could be transferred onto neighboring cells. Electrical properties are assessed either by recording from an electrode placed into the lumen of a cell (intracellular) or from its surrounding vicinity (extracellular). Intracellular recording techniques aim to either measure the current needed to maintain a constant voltage (voltage clamp) or measure the voltage needed to keep the current constant (current clamp) across the cell membrane. Using such techniques, Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley identified the ionic mechanisms that underly the electrical properties of neurons in giant axons of squid. John Carew Eccles identified synapses as the sites of communication between neurons.

Generations of neuroscientists had perceived the brain as a rather passive, reactive organ whose functional capacities were maintained by a sustained flow of sensory input.

Neuroethology and Behavioral Neuroscience
"It is an urgent task of ethologists and neurophysiologists to join efforts in the training of ‘etho-physiologists'"—Tinbergen, 1951. The Study of Instinct

Neuroethology is a synthesis of neuroscience and the study of behavior that explores neural mechanisms of natural behavior. This is in contrast to other approaches to neuroscience that study the nervous system in isolation, or in the context of artificial conditions. The neuroethological approach stems from the idea that nervous systems have evolved to address problems of sensing and acting in certain environmental conditions. The functions of nervous systems, therefore, are best understood in the context of the problems they have evolved to solve.

Using physiological experiments, Erich von Holst showed that behaviors can be elicited experimentally even in the absence of any sensory input. In contrast to Sherrington's reflex theory, van Holst postulated that basic central nervous function required permanent production of endogenous inhibitory stimulation. Behavior emerged when inhibitory control was diminished. He also demonstrated that internal, autonomous, rhythmic behavior can be independent of environmental factors. By slicing a worm into separate segments, and attaching each segment to a sensitive voltmeter, he noticed distinct, consecutive deflections on the meter which demonstrated as a wave moving through the severed parts from the front to the end of the entire cut-up specimen at approximately the speed of a contraction wave of a wriggling earthworm.

Behavioral Neuroscience, a subdicipline of neuroscience, is largely concerned with the function of neural systems in generating behavior.

Mechanisms of sensory processing have utilized a variety of model systems, including the moth's acoustic startle response to bat sounds, jamming avoidance in electric fish, or sound localization in owls. A detailed understanding of the control and coordination of movement patters has emerged from investigations of food processing in lobsters, prey capture in frogs, or swimming in lampreys. Advances in our knowledge of the hormonal control of behavior have profited from work on the division of labor in bee colonies, behavioral changes due to molting in moths, and aggression in lizzards.

Sensory receptors and neurons exhibit functional tuning to a highly specific subset of stimulus conditions. For instance mechanoreceptors with sensory hairs detect air currents in crickets by transducing both direction and velocity of relevant stimulus energies. Directional tuning is determined by the preferred orientation of the hair's socket. Velocity tuning occurs when longer hairs respond to low wind velocities while shorter hairs need higher wind velocity to activate them. Each mechanoreceptor is innervated by a single sensory neuron and its directional tuning curve represents the cell's sensitivity to wind direction. Most substrates for sensory processing show a strict spatial organization - its topographic mapping. A system for extracting temporal information can be constructed via delay lines, a system which utilizes the fact that electrical conduction in neurons is not instantaneous; it is delayed depending on the length of the axon and other properties of the neuron (e.g. myelination). The resulting delays can be used for time sensitive calculations, such as calculation of inter-aural time differences in sound localization. A central pattern generator (CPG) is a network of neurons (or even a single neuron) which is able to exhibit rhythmic activity in the absence of sensory input.

 * Erich von Holst demonstrated that behaviors can be elicited experimentally even in the absence of any sensory input.
 * Eric Kandel observed synaptic changes in the Aplysia siphon-withdrawal reflex as a function of Hebbian learning.
 * Walter Heiligenberg developed one of the best neurologically understood behavioral patterns in vertebrate, the jamming avoidance response in the weakly electric fish Eigenmannia.

Modern Psychology and Linguistics
Incidental Learning: Children readily imitated behavior exhibited by other children and adults who are significant to them, especially when such behavior is reinforced. A primary rationale for Special Education Inclusion holds that children with special needs will model their behavior after that of nondisabled peers and thereby improve communication, motor, social and play skills.
 * Albert Bandura

Language Learning: Humans have an inborn capacity to extract word meanings, sentence structure, and grammatical rules from the complex stream of sounds they hear.
 * Noam Chomski

Human Universals: Cultural universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to all human cultures worldwide.
 * Steven Pinker

TED talks and more

 * Steven Pinker: Human nature and the blank slate (Feb 2003)

<<Return to Contents Page | <<Chapter 1

Comportament animal/Història

title: Animal Behavior/History


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Animal Behavior/Memory

Memory
Memory, in its broadest sense, refers to an individual's ability to retain learned information. The formation of memory traces is a complex task which all organisms appear to be able to do. Fundamentally, such an ability requires a series of distinct steps: Information must be encoded as meaningful associations are assessed, the resulting information must be recorded in some form, and the memory record must be retrieved when needed.

As humans exhibit little conscious awareness of mental processes, such as memory, these were long considered inaccessible to objective, scientific study. Inferences about the course of encoding, consolidation and storage of memory thus mostly rely on indirect methods such as testing for retrieval abilities.

Consolidation of memory appears to involve independent paths at different time frames. Such evidence derives from the existence of different critical time frames for its formation, and its susceptibility to disruption with different pharmacological tools.

Sensory Memory
Subjects are able to report great detail about a complex stimulus immediately following its presentation. This ability forms within a few tens of milliseconds and decays again rapidly within a few hundred milliseconds.

Short-term Memory
Short-term memory allows the recall of something from several seconds to as long as a minute. Its strength does appear to depend primarily on attention and not rehearsal. It is thus highly vulnerable to disruption when attention shifts elsewhere. The amount of information that can be held is on the order of 4-6 numbers. This amount can be boosted by grouping them into distinct chunks as for telephone numbers (e.g., 202-456-1414).

The ability to recall such information is contingent on transient patterns of neuronal activity in regions of the frontal and the parietal lobe.

Long-term Memory
This type of memory, lasting hours to months, critically depends on a transfer of the information from short term memory using repeated rehearsal.

The hippocampus appears to be an essential structure in such routing. Sleep is thought to improve the consolidation of information, possibly by hippocampal replaying of activity from the previous wake period. Electrical activation of hippocampal circuits reportedly are linked to feelings of Deja Vu.

Declarative Memory
Declarative memory refers to the ability to become conscious of, or declare, facts and experiences. It is also referred to as Explicit memory, when it involves direct recalling information that had been obtained from the external world. Representing knowledge of standard textbook material or events, it is best formed by actively recalling the material in spaced intervals. Compared to other forms or memory it is more volatile; more easily formed and more easily forgotten.

The primary neural basis appears to reside in the medial temporal lobe. Bilateral damage to this area results in anterograde amnesia, as in the famous case of the anonymous memory-impaired patient HM. A surgical procedure for epilepsy left him with damage to his brain in the medial temporal lobe on both sides. the hippocampal formation, parahippocampal gyrus, the entorhinal cortex, and the amygdala. He subsequently suffered from severe anterograde amnesia, where transfer of new events into long-term memory was impaired. He was unable to recall events once his attention had focused elsewhere.

Semantic Memory is the ability to consciously recall knowledge of facts that are independent of a specific time and place. medial temporal lobe, diencephalon

Episodic Memory refers to the ability to explicitly recall information about a specific event that has occurred at a specific time and place, medial temporal lobe, diencephalon

Nondeclarative Memory
Implicit memory, which does not need to involve conscious awareness in the act of recollection

Procedural Memory regards the learning of motor skills and habits. Formation requires repeated reinforcement, repetition and practice over many trials rather than recollection. Once formed it is less likely to be forgotten. It is also less easily transferred to related tasks than declarative learning

Striatum, basal ganglia, Deficits can be assessed using a serial reaction time (SRT) task, backwards reading, mirror drawing, probabilistic classification, artificial grammar learning, or prototype abstraction.

Motor Responses with Classical Conditioning, Cerebellum

Emotional Responses with Fear conditioning involves an organism's ability to acquire fear responses to a previously neutral stimulus. This occurs when it becomes paired with an aversive stimulus, such as a shock or loud noise. James Wattson's Little Albert experiment illustrated that children learned fear of objects when encounters with them where paired with loud noises.

Priming refers to a context-dependent activations of clusters of neocortical neurons. As they become more activated, they are more likely to come into consciousness.

Even reflex pathways are capable of surprising plasticity. For example, circuits that control motor patterns for walking will be subjected to optimization with sensory input.

Long-lasting Memory
months to lifetime

Case Studies
Patient HM suffered severe memory impairment following bilateral damage to his medial temporal lobes, hippocampal formation, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala. His short-term memory remained intact, he was able to largely recall past events, and his ability to learn new motor skills was not disrupted. However, he suffered from severe anterograde amnesia, i.e., the ability to commit new events to long-term memory.

Mechanisms
Memory mechanisms critically depend on changes in synaptic functioning. Hebb Synapses and their role in classical conditioning. If a synapse succeeds at driving a postsynaptic neuron above threshold, its subsequent effectiveness is strengthened.

Long-term potentiation is based on changes in neural signals which will potentiate a neural response for 1–2 weeks. potentiation involves increased release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.

Molecular changes at the synaptic level
During habituation, repeated stimulation of a sensory neuron leads to a smaller activation of the postsynaptic motor neuron. The primary cause for this is a progressive reduction of Ca++ inflow into the presynaptic terminal, decreased transmitter release, and a smaller activation of the postsynaptic target. In sensitization as a result of electrical head shock, release of serotonin activates second messenger systems and phosphorylation of key target molecules. Long-Term Memory depends on new protein synthesis and the formation of new synaptic connections.

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title: Animal Behavior/Memory


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 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:58, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Georgius1 VI.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Georgius1 VI.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 12:58, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Georgius VI.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Georgius VI.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 12:58, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Johnthomas. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Johnthomas~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:17, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Johnthomas~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Briand~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:23, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Briand. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Briand~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:00, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:42, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Briand~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Russian/Internet Resources

A good resource to use for like language learning courses include: [byki.com  phrasebase.com     livemocha.com]

Untitled
Please, add this useful site to the "Online Courses" section:

LearningRussian.Net -- lessons on grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation ( http://learningrussian.net )

I've recently put together a free website to help people learn Russian by listening to Russian speakers. It's probably most appropriate in the 'Phrasebook' section.

It's definitely a work-in-progress but in 6 months or so it should grow into a decent resource.

http://listen2russian.com/

Tag: Listen to common Russian phrases and words spoken by native Russians.

Sincerely,

Jonathon.

Website Manager

404
The link to the GWU online course is broken. I am not able to edit, but the updated URI is: http://www.gwu.edu/~slavic/golosa/ Phantummm (discuss • contribs) 18:14, 19 July 2013 (UTC)

The "A grammar book in Russian" link is dead. Would someone who can edit the page please fix/remove it. Thanks. --79.21.30.140 (talk) 06:21, 19 June 2009 (UTC)

New Resource
I would suggest this site to be added to the list: http://www.russian-flashcards.com/

Please add a very helpful site with lots if Russian video lessons
Please, add this useful site to the "Online Courses" section:

Russian-Plus.com - Russian video lessons, grammar, podcasts ( http://www.russian-plus.com )

Tag: Learn Russian Language online with video-audio lessons.

http://www.russian-plus.com

There are many useful Russian language lessons and Grammar lessons, regular Russian language podcasts and it get updated often

Thank you so much

Vyacheslav

Russian forum
The links for "Another Russian language forum" and "A third Russian language forum" are broken.

I suggest this forum of Russian language:

http://www.russianforfree.com/forum-of-russian-language.php

Suggestion: Russian Interlinear book
Hi. I would suggest adding a link to the Russian Interlinear book http://interlinearbooks.com/russian/ and some free Russian Interlinear stories on http://interlinearbooks.com/blog/category/russian/ - I think they can be highly relevant to Russian learners. Thanks!

title: Talk:Russian/Internet Resources


text:
User talk:203.214.7.43

Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is intended to be read without the need for external reference and requires content rather than external links particularly those which are for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links may include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that exist to attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page rather than re-adding it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikibooks. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 14:01, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.214.7.43


text:
User:A'trix

By far the greatest shock I have ever experinced was finding out that someone else goes by the name of Artrix. For this reason, I'm calling myself A'trix, the name I use when I fell it sounds more apropriot.

title: User:A'trix


text:
User talk:Bastzine

Bast magazine
Hi - Wikibooks is for text books not adverts so this has been deleted. Thanks

title: User talk:Bastzine


text:
User talk:Superjake2004~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 16:39, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Superjake2004. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Superjake2004~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:44, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:34, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Superjake2004~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Aiclass

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 17:01, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Deletions
Mark it for "deletion" - take a look at Template_messages/Deletion and it will get done, ask if you need help - regards -- Herby talk thyme 17:01, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aiclass


text:
Cookbook:Microwave Oven

| Kitchen appliances A microwave oven, sometimes simply referred to as a microwave, is a type of kitchen appliance that heats food using radio waves.

Mechanism
The radio waves (specifically, microwaves) emitted by a microwave oven cause water, fat, and sugar molecules in food to vibrate and produce heat inside the food itself. They most often deliver a maximum of between 600 and 1000 watts of energy, with adjustments for time duration and energy output. The energy is safely contained within the oven by a reflective metal box, and thin metallic films/meshes make see-through doors possible. Because of the nature of the microwaves, foods high in moisture as well as the outer regions of food exposed to the microwaves will both tend to heat faster.

Types

 * Solo microwave ovens: These have a single microwave function and are usually adjustable as to their output and timing. The most common items have a maximum output of between 600 and 750 watts. In addition to output the size of the microwave can be quoted as to its cubic capacity; a fairly large capacity is about 31 litres, but there are many smaller sizes, and a certain amount of the capacity is unavailable for cooking, it being taken up by the rotating turntable.
 * Combi microwave ovens: These combine a grilling or browning feature that can work alone or in combination with the normal microwave function. The feature can consist of direct heating elements or heated air jets.
 * Sensor microwave ovens: These can be basic or combi, and include automatic weighing of the food contents, so in conjunction with knowledge of the food type, taken from a selector dial, the cooking or thawing time can be worked out automatically.  The sensor technologies are still being developed and new ones appear from time to time.

Uses
Many cooks use microwave ovens to thaw, heat, and/or fully cook foods. In some respects, their scope is more limited than ovens that use direct heating (i.e. gas and electric ovens), but they are very useful for certain specific tasks. Some examples of these tasks include:

 * Heating of milk in baby bottles
 * Thawing and/or heating pre-cooked food
 * Thawing frozen ingredients before cooking
 * Popping popcorn
 * Softening butter

Tender, moist foods (e.g. ground meat, vegetables, and fruits) can be microwaved on high power. Tougher and lower-moisture foods like eggs, cheese, and solid meat should be microwaved on medium power for a longer period of time to avoid overcooking the outer layers of food.

Techniques
Because of the limitations of the waves themselves, microwave ovens work best on small amounts of high-moisture foods, but a variety of techniques can expand their range of uses.

Even heating
Because effective heating takes place only in the first 1–2 inches (~2.5–5 cm) of the food, foods should optimally be stirred partway through cooking to evenly distribute the heat throughout the food. Furthermore, both the generation of heat from residual vibration and the conduction of heat from the outer layers of food to the inner layers can continue after the oven is turned off; as such, a short rest period of a few minutes is recommended after removing food from a microwave oven.

Browning
Microwaves alone cannot properly brown food, so additional items are used to do so. To make food crisp on its surface, a special plate that is made hot by microwaves is used to hold the food: for example, for bacon, pizza, and to finish 'roast' potatoes. To attain browning of a more general kind (grilling), say for a gratin, the addition of direct heating elements or hot air jets can be used. For those foods that need continuous moisture while they cook, plastic steamers are used.

Containers
Metals in any amount reflect microwaves, so the containers used during cooking must be transparent to microwaves; that is they are made of materials free of significant traces of metal. Many existing glass and china kitchen items work well in microwave ovens, and some of these are marked as microwave safe. Heating a cup of water (to avoid overloading) along with a dish that is to be tested for suitability, will result in hot water and a cool dish if the item is useful for the microwave, but the dish will be hot if it is not. Note that containers for microwaves might still not survive air jets and grills, so care is needed in their use. A common lid for dishes is a pierced plastic film, some brands of which are more suitable for high temperatures than others.

Safety
Microwaving food is typically very safe, as long as certain precautions are followed. A high standard of safety is applied in the manufacture of most modern microwave ovens, ensuring negligible microwave leakage and that safety interlocks prevent the generation of microwaves whenever the door is opened. These safety features are tested for all new products, though there are rarely any compulsory tests for ovens after the point of sale.

Food safety
Cooking large pieces of raw meat, especially if they contain stuffing, is not recommended. Because the microwaves can only penetrate the outer layers of food, the inner layers of uncooked meat may not heat up enough to destroy disease-causing organisms before the outer layers are overcooked.

Additionally, it is not safe to cook any sealed or enclosed food in a microwave oven due to risk of explosions. Eggs in their shells should never be cooked in a microwave oven, and whole potatoes should always be pierced several times prior to heating.

Metal
Because metal reflects microwaves, placing metal in a running microwave oven can result in electrical sparks and arcing. This can damage the oven and is a fire hazard—never leave metal in a running microwave unattended.

title: Cookbook:Microwave Oven


text:
User:Alankroeger

Hi I created this wikibook account so I could help clean up some of the Amateur Radio materials here 73 KC2ORW Alankroeger 18:51, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Alankroeger


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Gibraltar

| Cuisine of the United Kingdom

Gibraltarian cuisine is the result of 300 years of British rule combined with the coming together of immigrants from a variety of Mediterranean countries. It is a combination of English, Scottish, Irish (from the different regiments stationed on the Rock during British rule), Maltese, Genoese (and other Italian), Menorcan, Moroccan and Spanish cuisines.

The result is a peculiar cuisine where some dishes are made as in the country of origin, whereas others have been adapted for various reasons. Some dishes were adapted because the ingredients were difficult to obtain during the many sieges the Rock has suffered, whereas others were adapted simply because the cooks were from a different country and were used to other ways of cooking. Whatever the reason, it has resulted in the dishes eaten there today.

It would not be uncommon to go to a Gibraltarian's house and be served pea soup (Irish) followed by a plate of Paella (Spanish) with perhaps some 'pinchitos' (Moroccan kebabs) on the side. Notwithstanding, there are also dishes that are now considered purely Gibraltarian and are hardly found anywhere else in the peculiar form eaten there.

Some examples of the cuisine of Gibraltar:
 * Calentita
 * Rosto
 * Minestra
 * Torta de Acelga
 * Rolitos
 * Panissa

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Gibraltar


text:
Cookbook:Calentita (Gibraltarian Chickpea Bread)

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

Calentita is the quintessential 'Yanito' dish. Every Gibraltarian knows how to cook calentita! Or so they should, as it is a matter of national pride.

It is believed this dish is based on the Genoese 'farinata' which is cooked thinner and often with toppings whereas calentita is cooked in a deeper pan and is never topped with anything but black pepper.

The name 'calentita' has a most interesting history. When Gibraltarian evacuees returned to Gibraltar after World War II many were forced to live in cramped and often inadequate housing. Not all homes had workable ovens and people cooked mainly Spanish-style stews (potajes) and similar dishes. However, the local bakeries took advantage of this and would use their ovens in slack periods to make calentita which was sold by street vendors (this had been the fashion before the war when almost no-one had an oven at home). The calentita would be baked in a large low pan (similar to a frying pan of diameter about 90 cm with two small grab handles) with a metal hinged lid. The vendor would then walk along the streets on the Rock shouting out his wares. His shout would be similar to this: 'La llevo caliente, calentita! Calentita, caliente!' A simple translation would be: 'Hot! Come and get it! I still have it hot!'. Caliente means hot and calentita is an endearing version of hot! Everyone would rush to him and buy a portion which was invariably about 8cm by 5cm and cost 6d (about 2 1/2p of today's money) and was served on a piece of greaseproof paper. The vendor would sprinkle ground pepper on it and off you went!

Procedure

 * 1) Mix chickpea flour, water, salt, and pepper in a bowl. Leave to stand, preferably overnight.
 * 2) Preheat oven to 175°C (350°F). Take a 9x6-inch (15x23 cm) tin or oven dish, and add enough oil to cover the bottom. Heat the pan in the oven.
 * 3) Spread hot oil up sides of tin with a pastry brush or by tilting. Stir batter, pour immediately into hot tin, and put back in oven for about 1 hour approximately or until set in the middle.
 * 4) Leave to stand for a while.


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Manufacturing/Bill of Materials

A bill of materials (BOM) lists the quantity of raw materials and parts that are required to manufacture a product. Often the BOM includes the quantity of operations (cutting, welding, machining, etc.) that is required as well. Each line on a BOM can itself be a BOM.

Normally an Engineering Change Order (ECO) is required to change a BOM. This keeps a complete track of the changes made to the BOM and may come with an effective date.

The BOM sub-module comes with a WHERE-USED functions that lets the user find out when a specific BOM is used in other products and BOMs.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Data Exchange
Bill of Materials does not exchange transactions with other modules.

Transactions
Manufacturing/Bill of Materials


text:
Cookbook:Rosto

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

Rosto is a dish is of Italian origin, and provides for two complete courses cooked in one pot without the need for an oven. Originally the pasta was served as a first course with the tomato sauce over it. This was followed by the sliced meat, usually a cheaper cut of pork instead of loin and a small piece at that, with the potatoes, carrots and mushrooms.

It is still extremely popular although many people nowadays also cook it with chicken thighs or even a piece of beef instead of the traditional pork.

Ingredients

 * 1 kg pork loin
 * 2 carrots
 * 4 potatoes, cut in quarters
 * 1 onion, chopped
 * ½ kg penne or macaroni pasta
 * ¼ kg mushrooms
 * ½ kg fresh tomatoes
 * 1 tin ‘tomate triturado’ (tomato paste, or three peeled, de-seeded and puréed tomatoes)
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * 1 garlic clove
 * Olive oil (for frying)
 * White wine
 * Sugar to taste
 * Grated cheese (Edam or Parmesan)

Procedure

 * 1) Fry crushed garlic clove and chopped onions until soft.
 * 2) Add tomatoes; fry for 5 minutes, then add pork loin and brown until sealed.
 * 3) Add tin of tomate triturado and a dash of white wine.
 * 4) Add potatoes and carrots, then cook until meat, potatoes and carrots are done.
 * 5) Add the mushrooms about 10 minutes before the end.
 * 6) Add salt, pepper and sugar to taste.
 * 7) Boil the macaroni until al dente.
 * 8) Remove the meat from the stew and slice.
 * 9) Serve meat, potatoes and pasta on same plate, pouring sauce over pasta and topping with grated cheese.

title: Cookbook:Rosto


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Manufacturing/Master Production Schedule

The Master Production Schedule represents the business's high-level decisions about what is to be produced during a given time period. It states what finished goods are to be produced by date and in what quantity. It is based on customer orders and forecasted demand over a planning interval (months or even years). The Master Production Schedule is used to drive the rest of the Manufacturing module.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Data Exchange
Master Production Schedule does not exchange transactions with other modules.

Transactions
Manufacturing/Master Production Schedule


text:
Cookbook:Minestra

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

Minestra is a typical Genoese dish, not to be confused with the Basque ‘menestra’ which is simply mixed boiled vegetables, or with Italian minestrone, a thick vegetable soup.

Ingredients

 * 2 courgettes, roughly diced
 * 1 aubergine, roughly diced
 * 1 large piece pumpkin, roughly diced
 * 1 onion, roughly diced
 * 1 kohlrabi (colinabo), roughly diced
 * 2 turnips, roughly diced
 * 1 UK pint (600 ml) vegetable stock
 * Olive oil
 * 1 head of garlic
 * Fresh basil
 * Dried kidney beans, soaked overnight
 * Fideua (spaghetti)
 * Salt
 * Pepper

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the courgettes, aubergines, pumpkin, onion, and kohlrabi in a large pot or pressure cooker. Add the vegetable stock and 1 tablespoon of olive oil. Bring to pressure and cook for 8–10 minutes, or simmer for 1 hour. Cool, then purée the whole thing.
 * 2) Place a large handful of basil leaves and about 6 cloves of garlic in a mortar and pound until roughly crushed and a gritty paste is achieved. Add to the pot, stir and season to taste.
 * 3) Meanwhile, boil the beans separately until soft, then add to purée mixture.
 * 4) Boil the pasta until al dente then add to mixture.
 * 5) Serve with grated Parmesan or hard Edam sprinkled over it.

Warnings

 * Dried kidney beans will cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea unless they have been boiled briskly (a slow cooker is not sufficient) for at least 20 minutes to destroy the very indigestible phytohaemagglutinin that they contain. They will then need another 60–90 minutes at a slow simmer to be tender. Tinned kidney beans are quite safe and do not need pre-cooking as their preparation involves sufficient heat to destroy the toxin.

title: Cookbook:Minestra


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Manufacturing/Advanced Planning and Scheduling

Advance Planning and Scheduling (APS) creates a detailed schedule of what is to be produced taking into account the capacity of the machines involved in the operations. It reviews inventory and issues planned purchases orders based on the lead times in the raw materials item records.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Transactions
Manufacturing/Advanced Planning and Scheduling


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Manufacturing/Shop Floor Control

Shop Floor Control implements the plan created by APS (Advance Planning and Scheduling). It issues work orders to individual work centers, requests raw materials from Inventory and, when the finished items are complete, issues stocking requests to Inventory for them. It records the actual time used to complete the tasks so accurate costing can be done, errors can be corrected and realistic standards maintained. Shop Floor Control feeds hours of operation for machines to Service Management so that maintenance can be scheduled.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Transactions
Manufacturing/Shop Floor Control


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Manufacturing/Quality

Delivering a quality product gives an enterprise a critical competitive edge. Quality helps users define quality standards, manages the physical testing of items, and issues Quality Alerts if standards are not adhered to. Quality is an integral part of ISO 9000 certification (ISO 9000 is a quality standard issued by the International Standards Organization).

 * Functions
 * Reports

Transactions
Manufacturing/Quality


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Sales Compensation

Sales compensation allows management to set sales compensation policies that reflect business objectives, calculate sales compensation based on information from Order Entry/Invoicing, and send it to Payroll for processing. Sales Compensation allows management to monitor the performance of sales staff and spot problems early. Commissions are calculated according to user-defined rules. They can be based on who sold the goods, when they were sold, how many were sold, and what types of goods were sold. A "draw" is a payment made in advance of an actual sale. Sales Compensation allows both recoverable and non-recoverable draws. Not every ERP package has a separate Sales Compensation module although all the large ones do.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Tables
Sales people are either employees handled through Payroll or contractors handled through Accounts Payable. Thus Sales Compensation share the Employee table with Payroll and the Supplier group of tables with Accounts Payable. The first table in Sales Compensation is the Salesperson table which contains one record for every salesperson. The second table is the Contract table which contains one record for every sales contract. The third table links Contracts with Inventory Items.

Data Exchange
Sales Compensation sends transactions to Payroll or Accounts Payable depending on the type of salesperson.

Transactions
Sales Compensation


text:
Cookbook:Goat Cheese Cakes

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine

These goat cheese cakes are a combination of soft cheeses and herbs, breaded, and fried.

Ingredients

 * 11 ounces goat cheese, room temperature
 * 1 package (5.2 ounces) Boursin brand cheese, room temperature
 * 4 ounces ricotta cheese, room temperature
 * 1 tablespoon butter
 * 1 tablespoon minced garlic
 * 1 tablespoon minced shallot
 * 1 tablespoon minced chives
 * 2 teaspoons minced fresh thyme
 * 2 teaspoons minced fresh basil
 * 2 teaspoons minced fresh tarragon
 * 1 cup flour, for dredging
 * 3 eggs, beaten lightly to make an egg wash
 * About 1 cup bread crumbs
 * 4 tablespoons olive oil

Procedure

 * 1) In a mixing bowl, combine goat cheese, Boursin and ricotta cheese. Set aside.
 * 2) Melt butter in a small saucepan over medium-low heat.
 * 3) Add the garlic, shallot, chives, thyme, basil and tarragon.
 * 4) Cook just until soft and fragrant, about 2 minutes.
 * 5) Fold herbs into cheese mixture.
 * 6) Cover and refrigerate until mixture is firm, at least 30 minutes.
 * 7) When cheese mixture is firm, divide it into 8 equal portions and form each portion into a cake about ¾-inch thick.
 * 8) Dredge each cake in flour, then shake off excess flour.
 * 9) Dip each cake in egg wash, then into breadcrumbs, covering well on both sides. Set on a wire rack.
 * 10) Heat oil in a large skillet or sauté pan over medium-high heat.
 * 11) Gently add cheese cakes and fry until golden on both sides, 1–2 minutes per side.
 * 12) Drain on a wire rack.

title: Cookbook:Goat Cheese Cakes


text:
User talk:Red dragon rock

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 20:54, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Naming
Please take a look at naming policy before creating more pages - thanks -- Herby talk thyme 20:54, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Cookbook:Cuisine of Gibraltar
G'day, and welcome to Wikibooks. I've taken the liberty of moving your Gibraltarian recipes into the Cookbook - go to Cookbook:Cuisine of Gibraltar and notice that the links all now have a Cookbook: prefix. Also, you might want to take a look at Cookbook:Policy, to get a feel for how we format recipes here. cheers, Webaware talk 00:09, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Another welcome
Hi - it's great to have some Gibraltarian recipes - the cuisine sounds like a fascinating blend of many influences. Don't worry too much about getting the formatting right, by the way, there's always someone here who will help out. Enthusiasm is much more important than following policy. Redlentil 21:14, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Red dragon rock


text:
Cookbook:Salade Frisee

| French cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 16 cups (loosely packed) frisee
 * About ½ cup Champagne Vinaigrette
 * 8 goat cheese cakes
 * Crumbled crisp bacon pieces, for garnish

Procedure

 * 1) In a large mixing bowl, toss frisee with the Champagne Vinaigrette.
 * 2) Divide salad among 8 salad plates.
 * 3) Top each salad with a goat cheese cake.
 * 4) Garnish with crumbled bacon.

title: Cookbook:Salade Frisee


text:
Cookbook:Pineapple Side Dish

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Hot pineapple side dish is a casserole of pineapple with cheese.

Ingredients

 * 1 can (20 ounces / 600 ml) pineapple chunks
 * ½ cup white granulated sugar
 * 3 tablespoons flour
 * ¼ cup butter, melted
 * 1½ cups shredded cheddar cheese, divided
 * ⅔ cup coarsely crushed saltines (14 crackers)

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (175˚C).
 * 2) Grease a 1½ quart (1½ liter) baking dish.
 * 3) Drain the pineapple, reserving ¼ cup juice; set aside.
 * 4) In a small bowl, combine sugar and flour.
 * 5) Add the butter and 1 cup cheese; mix well.
 * 6) Gently stir in pineapple.
 * 7) Pour into the prepared baking dish.
 * 8) Sprinkle crushed crackers on top; drizzle with reserved pineapple juice.
 * 9) Bake, uncovered, for 30–35 minutes or until bubbly around the edges.
 * 10) Remove from oven and sprinkle with remaining cheese.

title: Cookbook:Pineapple Side Dish


text:
ERP Internals/Modules/Workflow

Every enterprise had dozens of processes by which it fills customer orders, hires, pays, and terminates employees, orders and receives material, locates new business, and pays suppliers. Some common major processes are Order To Cash and Procure to Pay. The processes involve both employees and software and normally cross department boundaries. Workflow automates and regulates these processes via sets of procedural rules using e-mail to notify employees. With workflow, processes are simple, fast, and uniform as well as easy to change. Only large ERP packages have a Workflow module.

 * Functions
 * Reports

Data Exchange
Workflow does not exchange transactions with other modules.

Transactions
Workflow

title: ERP Internals/Modules/Workflow


text:
Cookbook:Nutty Buddy Chocolate Cookie Bars

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Ingredients

 * ¾ cups (1½ sticks) butter
 * 3 cups graham cracker crumbs
 * 2 cans (14 ounces) sweetened condensed milk
 * 3 cups (12 ounces) chocolate chips
 * 1 cup pecan pieces or chopped pecans
 * ⅓ cup sliced (not slivered) almonds

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat the oven to 350°F.
 * 2) Place butter in microwave-safe dish, cover with a paper towel and microwave on high, for about 45 seconds, or until melted. Remove carefully and stir to melt completely.
 * 3) Place the graham-cracker crumbs in a metal 13-by-9-inch baking pan.
 * 4) Pour melted butter over crumbs, and stir and fold until all the crumbs are moistened with the butter. Press crumbs firmly and evenly into the bottom of the pan.
 * 5) Pour the sweetened condensed milk over the crumb crust. Spread to the edges with the back of a spoon.
 * 6) Top evenly with chocolate chips, pecans, and almonds. Press down with a fork.
 * 7) Bake, uncovered, for 25–35 minutes or until bubbling slightly along the edges.
 * 8) Remove from oven and cool to room temperature.
 * 9) Refrigerate until firm for 1–2 hours before slicing.
 * 10) Store at room temperature, covered with foil.


text:
Cookbook:Torta de Acelga (Chard Pie)

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

Torta de acelga (chard pie) is believed to be based on a spinach pie eaten in parts of Italy and is also very similar to the Greek 'spanakopita'. A very similar pie is eaten in the Ligurian Region during Easter, called Torta Pascualina. This pie is traditionally eaten on Good Friday in Gibraltar.

Ingredients

 * 1 small package puff pastry
 * 6 bunches of acelga (chard)
 * 6 eggs
 * Breadcrumbs
 * Grated cheese
 * Parsley
 * 2 teaspoons minced garlic
 * Seasoning to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Remove the stems of the acelga (these stems will become useful for another recipe called Potaje de acelga).
 * 2) Wash the leaves very well to remove any grit or soil. Boil the acelga leaves, drain really well, and chop them. Fry them for a few minutes in hot olive oil then set aside.
 * 3) Roll out the pastry and lay on an oven-proof pie dish leaving sufficient pastry to close the pie later.
 * 4) Beat the eggs and add all the ingredients to make a nice filling.
 * 5) Add to the acelga and mix all together.
 * 6) Fill the pie dish with this “relleno” or filling and close the pie with the pastry.
 * 7) Bake in the oven at 150°C (300°F) for about 30 minutes or until the pie is nice and golden.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can boil the acelga the night before to save time.
 * You can make a pastry by mixing one glass each of olive oil and water then adding flour until a soft dough is achieved, but this dough won't be as flaky as puff pastry.

title: Cookbook:Torta de Acelga (Chard Pie)


text:
Cookbook:Rolitos (Gibraltarian Beef Rolls)

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

This meal is traditionally served with mashed potatoes. There is an alternative method made with a tomato sauce instead of brown gravy.

Ingredients

 * 8 slices thinly sliced veal
 * 4 slices of ham, cut in halves
 * 2 hard boiled eggs, cut into quarters
 * 8 olives (con morrones—stuffed with peppers), cut in halves
 * 1 crushed or chopped garlic clove
 * 1 chopped onion
 * 1 cup beef stock
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * Gravy powder (as required)

Procedure

 * 1) Lay out one slice of veal on worktop; place on it half a slice of ham, quarter egg and 2 olive halves.
 * 2) Carefully roll up the veal to make a package or roll with everything inside. Use two toothpicks to hold the roll together.
 * 3) Place rolls on a plate and store in a cool place or fridge.
 * 4) Fry garlic and onions until soft.
 * 5) Add stock and two teaspoons of gravy powder and bring to boil.
 * 6) Carefully place veal rolls into the boiling mixture, being careful not to break them up.
 * 7) Lower heat and simmer until done. If sauce is too thin add gravy powder till the right consistency is achieved.


text:
Cookbook:Deep Fried Chickpea Dough with Lemon (Panissa)

| Cuisine of Gibraltar

Panissa is a sort of Gibraltarian set pudding made with cooked chickpea flour. There is also an original Italian one, though what is referred to as panissa in Italy nowadays is more akin to the Gibraltarian calentita. According to the original contributor, their grandmother always used to make panissa on the same day she made Minestra as a light second course.

Ingredients

 * 500 g chickpea flour
 * 2 litres water
 * Olive oil for frying
 * Salt
 * Lemon juice
 * Minced parsley (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Stir the chickpea flour into the 2 litres of lightly salted water over a moderate flame.
 * 2) Stir the mixture steadily in the same direction with a wooden spoon until you obtain a soft, lump-free paste.
 * 3) When the paste begins to pull away from the sides of the pot, turn it out into oiled wooden moulds, or spread it out about ¼ inch (½ cm) high on your work surface. Alternatively, pour the mixture into saucers. Make sure to dust the surface with parsley beforehand if you're including it.
 * 4) Let the mixture cool and set.
 * 5) If you didn't use molds, cut the cooled mixture into 1 x 3-inch (3 x 7 cm) rectangles or into wedges.
 * 6) Fry the pieces in hot oil.


text:
Cookbook:Tuscan Soup (Meatless)

| Italian cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Soups

Ingredients

 * 1 small onion, chopped
 * 1 small carrot, sliced
 * 1 tablespoon olive oil
 * 2 cans (29 ounces) chicken broth
 * 1 cup water
 * ¼ teaspoon salt
 * ¼ teaspoon pepper
 * 1 can (15–16 ounces) kidney beans or great northern beans, rinsed and drained
 * ⅔ cup uncooked small spiral pasta
 * 3 cups thinly-sliced fresh escarole or spinach

Procedure

 * 1) In a 2-quart saucepan, sauté onion and carrot in oil until onion is tender.
 * 2) Add broth, water, salt and pepper; bring to a boil.
 * 3) Stir in beans and pasta; return to a boil.
 * 4) Reduce heat; cover and simmer for 15 minutes or until pasta and vegetables are tender, stirring occasionally.
 * 5) Add escarole or spinach and heat through.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * May substitute vegetable broth for chicken broth.

title: Cookbook:Tuscan Soup (Meatless)


text:
Cookbook:Indian Pudding

| North America | Native American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Ingredients

 * 1 quart milk
 * 1 cup cold water
 * 6 tablespoons cornmeal
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * 1 cup molasses
 * 1 teaspoon baking soda
 * 3 tablespoons brown sugar
 * ½ teaspoon nutmeg
 * 1 tablespoon ginger
 * ½ teaspoon cinnamon
 * 4 egg yolks, beaten
 * 4 egg whites, whipped to stiff peaks

Procedure

 * 1) Set aside ½ cup of the milk. Boil the remaining milk.
 * 2) Add cold water to cornmeal to wet it.
 * 3) Slowly pour the cornmeal mixture into the boiling milk. Add salt.
 * 4) Boil for 15 minutes, stirring constantly. If skin forms, remove it. Remove from heat, set aside.
 * 5) In a small bowl, mix molasses with baking soda, the ½ cup cold milk, and brown sugar.
 * 6) Add the spices and the beaten egg yolks to this mixture.
 * 7) Slowly pour the molasses mixture into the cornmeal mixture.
 * 8) Fold in the whipped egg whites.
 * 9) Grease or butter a baking dish, add the batter, and bake for 1 hour at 350°F.

title: Cookbook:Indian Pudding


text:
Talk:Algorithm Implementation/Sorting/Selection sort

I believe the C version of selection sort does not terminate. I checked it by compiling and running the program on an array of length 10 using the gcc compiler. Although this can easily be fixed by modifying the Java version into C code, I think it is still worth pointing out.

Java
The java example here is not selection sort, but non-smart bubble sort.


text:
Category:Gibraltarian recipes

Recipes from Gibraltar.

title: Category:Gibraltarian recipes


text:
Cookbook:Mozzarella Tuna Melts

| American cuisine | Midwestern U.S. cuisine

Ingredients

 * 1 can (6 ounces) water-packed tuna, drained and flaked
 * ¼ cup finely-chopped celery
 * ¼ cup finely-chopped onion
 * ¼ cup mayonnaise
 * 4 hamburger buns, split
 * 4 mozzarella cheese slices
 * 4 tomato slices
 * 4 lettuce leaves

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F.
 * 2) In a small bowl, combine tuna, celery, onion and mayonnaise.
 * 3) Spread on bottom of buns.
 * 4) Top tuna mixture with a slice of cheese and tomato.
 * 5) Place on an ungreased baking sheet.
 * 6) Bake for 12–15 minutes or until heated through and cheese is melted.
 * 7) Top each with a lettuce leaf; replace bun tops.

title: Cookbook:Mozzarella Tuna Melts


text:
Cookbook:Pastry Dough (recipe)

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Ingredients

 * 2¾ cups (350 g) flour
 * 1⅛ cups (2 sticks plus 2 tablespoons / 260 g) butter (see notes, below)
 * 1 cup plus 2 tablespoons (220 g) confectioner's sugar
 * 2 eggs
 * 1 egg yolk

Procedure

 * 1) With an electric stand mixer or hand-held mixer, mix flour, butter, and sugar until the mixture has the consistency of small peas.
 * 2) With the machine on low speed, add eggs and yolk, and mix just until well-incorporated, about 25 seconds.
 * 3) Wrap dough tightly in plastic wrap and chill for at least 30 minutes before rolling out.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * European-style butter, which has a higher fat content than American butter, is recommended.

title: Cookbook:Pastry Dough (recipe)


text:
Cookbook:Pumpkin Bread II

| American cuisine | Midwestern cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Holiday Recipes | Dessert

Ingredients

 * 4 eggs
 * 1 cups canola oil
 * 1 can (15 ounces) pumpkin purée
 * 3 cups white granulated sugar
 * 3½ cups flour
 * 1½ teaspoons baking soda
 * 2 teaspoons salt
 * 2 teaspoons ground allspice
 * 2 teaspoons ground cinnamon
 * 1½ teaspoons nutmeg
 * 2 tablespoon raw pumpkin seeds, for garnish

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 375°F.
 * 2) Butter and lightly flour 2 medium loaf pans (8 ½ by 4 ½ by 2 ½ inches).
 * 3) Using a stand mixer fitted with the paddle attachment, combine eggs, oil, pumpkin and sugar until smooth.
 * 4) In a separate bowl, combine the flour, soda, salt, allspice, cinnamon and nutmeg.
 * 5) With the machine on low speed, add the flour mixture to the pumpkin mixture in ¼-cup increments.
 * 6) Scrape down the side of the bowl and mix for another 30 seconds or so, until all ingredients are well-combined.
 * 7) Divide the mixture equally between the 2 loaf pans.
 * 8) Sprinkle the top of each loaf with 1 tablespoon pumpkin seeds.
 * 9) Bake 40–45 minutes until a tester inserted into the center of each loaf comes out clean.
 * 10) Allow loaves to cool in the pans for 5–10 minutes before unmolding, then allow loaves to cool on a wire rack to room temperature before cutting or wrapping.

title: Cookbook:Pumpkin Bread II


text:
User:Whoblah/Ruby/Math

Solutions to simple math problems using Ruby

 * 1) !/usr/bin/env ruby
 * 2) Area of a circle

def area_circle(radius) return Math::PI * (radius)**2 end

puts "What is the radius of the circle?" input = gets.chomp.to_f area = area_circle(input).to_f puts "The radius of the circle is #{input} units" puts "The area of the circle is #{area} square units"

 * 1) !/usr/bin/env ruby
 * 2) Area of an octagon

def area_octagon(radius) return 2 * (radius)**2 * Math::sqrt(2) end

puts "What is the radius of the octagon?" input = gets.chomp.to_f area = area_octagon(input).to_f puts "The radius of the octagon is {#input} units" puts "The area of the octagon is {#area} square units"

title: User:Whoblah/Ruby/Math


text:
Cookbook:Spicy Tomato Soup

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Soups

Ingredients

 * 4 cups diced tomatoes (canned is fine)
 * 4 cups heavy cream
 * 1 tsp sugar
 * ½ tsp ground white pepper
 * ¼ tsp salt
 * ¼ tsp granulated garlic
 * ⅛ tsp cayenne

Procedure

 * 1) In a blender or food processor, working in batches if necessary, puree tomatoes, cream, sugar, pepper, salt, garlic and cayenne.
 * 2) Transfer soup to a saucepan and bring to a boil over high heat.
 * 3) Reduce heat and simmer, stirring occasionally, until soup thickens, 20–30 minutes.
 * 4) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Try garnishing soup with cooked shrimp or slices of andouille sausage.

title: Cookbook:Spicy Tomato Soup


text:
8th Grade Science/Chapter 2: Inside the Atom

Everything in the world is made of atoms. But what are atoms and how were they discovered? Today, special microscopes help scientists see images created by atoms. It is amazing what scientists were able to discover about the makeup of matter before such microscopes were even thought of. In this chapter, you will learn about atoms and some of the people who discovered them.

Challenge
Have you ever had a wrapped birthday present that you couldn’t wait to open? What did you do to try to figure out what was in it? The atom is like that wrapped present. You want to investigate it, but you cannot see it easily.


text:
Cookbook:Tarte Tatin

| Cuisine of France | Vegetarian Cuisine | Dessert

Ingredients

 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * 4 tablespoons butter (see notes)
 * ¼ cup water
 * 5 Golden Delicious apples, peeled, cored and quartered
 * 1 pastry dough recipe

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 400°F.
 * 2) Place sugar, butter and water in a stovetop/oven-safe tarte dish over medium-high heat. Cook until mixture becomes golden brown and bubbly.
 * 3) Remove from heat and allow mixture to cool to room temperature in the tarte dish.
 * 4) When caramel mixture has cooled, arrange the apple quarters on their sides in the mixture.
 * 5) Roll the pastry dough out to a thickness of about ½ inch and a diameter large enough to cover the tarte dish.
 * 6) Place dough on top of the tarte, then trim and discard the edges.
 * 7) Bake tarte for 40 minutes.
 * 8) Allow to cool in the tarte dish for 15 minutes before inverting onto a serving platter.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * European-style butter, which has a higher fat content than American butter, is recommended. Most US supermarkets now stock at least one variety of European-style butter, Plugra being one of the most popular brands.

title: Cookbook:Tarte Tatin


text:
Cookbook talk:Deep Fried Chickpea Dough with Lemon (Panissa)

Lemon juice
The recipe mentions lemon juice, but not what to do with it. Does it go into the mix at the start, or is it drizzled over the finished product? Webaware talk 03:35, 21 January 2007 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Mr john~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mr john. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mr john~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mr john~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook talk:Cornbread II

Different page name?
Someone has listed this page for cookwork, reason: different page name? I disagree - what's wrong with having a second Corn Bread recipe called Corn Bread 2? Webaware talk 04:08, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Proposed merge
Thoughts on merging this with Cookbook:Cornbread? I think it could be included as a variation. -- Nostriker (discuss • contribs) 23:27, 20 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Cornbread II


text:
User talk:HighlandHarrier

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!

I noticed on the recent changes log that you uploaded Image:Dependency ratio.jpg. Thank you for your contributions! I want to suggest that you consider replacing the image with a textual solution. That way any editor can easily change and modify the text, whereas they would have to reupload the image with your current solution. You might consider either of these three options: or or $$Dependency\ ratio = \frac{(\%\ under\ 15)+(\%\ over\ 65)}{\%\ between\ 15\ and\ 64} \times 100$$ You can view them by editing a page, pasting them in, and clicking "preview." If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me on my talk page. Best wishes, Iamunknown 04:36, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

Additional note: I noticed that on the three US Government images that you uploaded, you did not provide a source as to where to find these images. In order to verify their copyright status (that they are indeed US Government images and thus in the public domain), you should provide a link to the website where you found them. Cheers, Iamunknown 04:38, 21 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:HighlandHarrier