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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Landscape Modeling II: Texture Stenciling

UPDATED FOR 2.7 USERS
This is a continuation of the previous tutorial, Landscape Modeling I: Basic Terrain. In this tutorial, we will make our terrain look even better by using some texture stenciling to add multiple textures where we want them in the landscape. This tutorial assumes that you have a basic understanding of how to use Blender (how to add/remove a mesh, how to change views, etc...)

Creating the Stencil
The landscape from the previous example looks pretty good, but the entire thing has the same texture, so it doesn't look very natural. Let's add some rocks to those hills. If we just add a second texture to our material, it will completely cover the previous one. What we want is to have the first texture only show in certain places and the second texture cover the rest. In order to do this we'll have to create a stencil, which is like a mask that determines where textures appear on the material. The stencil is a black and white image, similar to a heightmap, except the intensity of each pixel determines how much of the next texture will appear (black = 0%, white = 100%). I highly recommend viewing this tutorial for a more in depth description of how stencils work. If you think you have the gist, then continue on here. [Note: Link is broken now] We're going to create our own stencil to determine where we want rock in the landscape by "painting" on the object. *IMPORTANT* The next few steps will be performing temporary modifications to your scene, so be sure to save your file before you continue so that the changes will not be saved!! Also, if you have a subsurf modifier on the landscape, remove that at this time as it drastically slows down the following process. Noob Note: Vertex Paint mode is in the drop down menu that contains Object mode and Edit mode. Just select the object while in Object mode, click the drop down menu, and select Vertex Paint mode from the list.
 * Select the landscape object and switch from "edit mode" or "object mode" to "Vertex Paint mode". This is found in the Mode drop down menu, on the 3D View header.  This mode lets you paint the object, and thereby change the color value of each vertex.  When in Vertex Paint mode, you'll notice your object change color to a pixelated version of the texture that is applied to it.  This is because with that texture applied, each vertex will be drawn with the colors you see.

[Another newbie recommends: if you switch to the "object" buttons (f7) and turn on "Wire" under "Draw Extra" in the "Draw" panel/tab you should see a wireframe on top of the vertex colors you are painting, which makes it much easier to see where the hills are. Remember to switch this back off when you have finished painting.]
 * Switch to the Editing menu (F9) and you'll see a new tab called Paint. Notice the sliders labeled Opacity and Size.  Opacity determines how much to blend the selected color with the existing colors when you paint.  So 0.2 means that when you click, you'll get 20% of the selected color mixed with whatever is currently there.  Over on the right are different options to combine to colors.  We want to mix, so as we paint the colors will mix together and give us a nice smooth blend.  Size is the size of your cursor while painting, and thus how many vertices are affected.  Keep in mind that does not change as you zoom in and out, so a size of 10 can actually paint more pixels if you're zoomed way out than a size of 30 if you're zoomed way in.
 * Change the color to black and click the button that says Set VertCol (in 2.48 version, that button is below the color square and named 'SetVCol'). This will change the color of your entire object to black.  You'll notice that the object is not lit in Vertex Paint mode, so when the entire object is black it can be difficult to see where your hills are.  You'll have to move the camera around to see the shapes.
 * Now we're going to paint the places where we want rock to show through. Change the paint color to white.  It's less likely that grass will grow on steep slopes, so start painting the tops and edges of the steeper hills white by holding down LMB and dragging your mouse (think MSPaint).  If you didn't heed my earlier advice and still have a subsurf modifier in effect, the painting will be very choppy, so remove that now.
 * As you're painting, try to make some spots pure white by going over them again and again, but don't make any one area of white too large as this will make a huge area be all rock, and we're trying to blend two textures.
 * This process can just be trial and error getting the landscape painted the way you want. Once we apply our stencil later you may decide there's too much rock in one area, or not enough in another and go back and change it.  A few things to keep in mind:
 * 20% opacity means that most of the original texture (grass, in our case) will show through, so the rock won't be very noticeable if at all. You'll have to go over the same spots a few times to increase the intensity.
 * You don't want a dramatic change from grass to rock, so be sure to blend white areas with black. That's why we're using the 20% opacity instead of just bumping it up to 100%.
 * Make your patches random and spotty. This will end up creating a more realistic effect once we combine the textures.
 * Once you're done you should have something that looks like this. Notice the mixture of white and black in some places, how it doesn't just go from pure white to pure black as you move down the hills.  This will make a more natural blend and it will cause random rocky areas mixed in when the grass.  Now we need to turn this into our stencil.
 * Go to the overhead view (NUM7) and make the projection orthographic if it's not already (NUM5).
 * Zoom in/out (Mouse Wheel or NUM+/NUM-) until the plane almost occupies the entire window.
 * Move the 3D cursor and any lamps or cameras away so that they're not over the landscape and take a screenshot.
 * Open your favorite image editor (I'm a traditionalist, so I still like MSPaint), and cut out the image of landscape. This is now your stencil.  Save it under your favorite format.
 * Re-open the saved version of your landscape to undo the changes we made to create the stencil.

So why did we make our stencil this way? This allowed us to actually paint on our terrain so that we ensure we get the rock exactly where we want it. Using this method, you can customize your stencil to any object, as long as it has enough vertices. For example, if we just had a flat plane made of 4 vertices, this technique would not have worked because we could only paint the corners. That's why in the previous tutorial I recommended using a high (but not too high) number of vertices in your grid.

Applying the Stencil
So now we need to apply the stencil to the landscape to mix our grass and rock textures together.
 * Return to either Object Mode or Edit Mode (TAB), it doesn't matter which.
 * Go to the Texture menu (F6) and add two new textures in the material (you should already have the grass texture).
 * Make texture 2 (the first new one you added) an image and load your stencil from file. Do not repeat this in the x or y directions.  We want it to map to the entire object.
 * Make texture 3 an image and load your rock texture from file. This one you do want to repeat, just as you did the grass.
 * Now return to the Materials menu and select your stencil texture. It's a good idea to name your textures, materials, objectives, etc... so that they're easily identifiable.
 * With your stencil texture selected, switch to the tab labeled MapTo. Deselect Col (which maps the texture to the color), and select Stencil and No RGB.  Stencil will treat this image as a stencil, and No RGB treats it as a black and white image.  If you didn't select this second option your stencil wouldn't work.
 * In the preview tab you should notice your material change so that the grass and rock are now mixed. If you render, you'll see a much more realistic landscape than the one from the previous tutorial!

Noob Info: Be sure that for the rock - texture col is selectet because we want to color the landscape with the rock-texture! Otherwise it doesn´t work. Select Rock-Texture -> Map To -> col

Adding Snow
Since you already have some nice mountains, why not add some snow to them? Adding snow is easy. All you have to do is add a fourth texture AFTER all the others. Make this texture the same as your stencil. If you made your stencil properly, you should have some nice, snowcapped peaks. It's not much, but it's enough for a quick fix. If it isn't even, you probably didn't make your stencil properly (meaning pretty much all white on the peaks, and not much anywhere else). Of course, there are better ways to do this, ways I wouldn't know about; I discovered Blender merely three days before the time of writing. I leave it up to you to see the effect: I only have so much room and bandwidth for pictures!
 * Make sure you're in Shading (F5) > Texture Buttons (F6) > Textures.
 * Click on an empty panel beside Texture Type
 * Click on the little box to the left of Add New
 * Choose your stencil from the menu (hint: it helps if you name your textures)
 * Render and see the results.

This effect works by saturating the underlying color with white, depending on the amount of white in your stencil. A light gray will saturate it only a bit, whereas a bright, 100% white will cover it very clearly and efficiently. If you look closely, you'll see that the light gray on the stencil DOES make a difference, but it's not immediately visible and requires lots of fidgeting with the Render Preview and texture options. You might also try fiddling with the Stencil and NoRGB option, although it worked fine for me with both turned off (I use Blender 2.48a)

Some challenges:
 * Try to change the color of the snow. Hint: RGB
 * I've yet to do this, but try making snow out of a heightmap.

Multiple Stencils
Remember in the first tutorial when I said to leave part of the landscape flat, because I'd be using it later? Well it's time to use it. I want to eventually use the landscape as the backdrop for a military base, so let's texture the ground around where the base will go to give it a dirt ground and road leading to it. *IMPORTANT* Just as before, the next few steps will be performing temporary modifications to your scene, so be sure to save your file before you continue so that the changes will not be saved!!
 * Switch to the Vertex Paint mode in the mode menu on the 3D View header.
 * Go to an overhead view (NUM7) and make the projection orthographic (NUM5)
 * Once again, paint the entire object black by selecting the color black in the Paint tab and clicking on Set VertCol.
 * For the next few steps, you may need to TAB back and forth from Vertex Paint mode to Object mode to make sure you're painting in the correct area. Make the opacity of the painter 1.0 and the size 10 so that we can work very precisely.
 * Paint an area over the flat terrain in the shape of a generic military base, like you see here.
 * Reduce the opacity back down to 0.2 and increase the size to 20.
 * Paint the road leading away from the base. We've reduced the opacity and increased the size so that the road will blend more with the landscape around it instead of being more defined like our base.
 * Once you have your stencil looking the way you want, take a screen shot and save it. Then revert back to your previous environment (before you started painting on it).
 * Go to the Texture menu (F6) and add two new textures.
 * Load your stencil into the forth texture (the first new one), and the dirt image into the fifth texture. Once again, remember to set the x and y repeat for the dirt texture.
 * In the Materials menu (F5) select your new stencil and go to the MapTo tab. Deselect Col again, and select Stencil and No RGB.  Notice the new preview.
 * Wait a second, where's the dirt path?!? Here's the problem and the reason I've included this section: stencils are cumulative.  That is, the first stencil defines which portions of ALL successive textures will be drawn, including other stencils!  In order for our new dirt path to show up, we need to make sure it's part of the first stencil.
 * Open your first stencil (the one you used to add rocks to the hills) in your image editor and combine the new stencil with it. The result should appear somewhat like this.  Be sure that when you combine your dirt stencil with your rock stencil that the dirt stencil remains the same size and in the same place.  That is, you want the two to be perfectly aligned.
 * Reload your first stencil on your material, the one we used for the rocks. Now the preview should look the way we want it to, and if you render you will see your new dirt area on the flat part of the landscape.  You can add even more stencils the same way.  Here is how all of the textures blend together:

NOTE I had to replace the grass texture in the above image since I could not find the licensing information for it. I apologize for the inconsistencies in the diagram that result from this.

Well there you have it! This is a pretty useful method of texturing complex objects. Check out our new landscape and how it compares to the previous, boring, single-textured landscape!

Once again, if you have any issues with the tutorial, or feedback (positive or negative), drop it in the discussions.

For 2.7 blender users:
  first you add the material   leave the grass texture at the default   add the next two textures, the stencil and the rock, soil etc texture as stated in the above tutorial.   go to the stencil texture   in the influence panel, uncheck col   check 'RGB to intensity' button   check stencil   others everything as their default values are good </li> </ul> -For me, with settings above, the rock texture was not very visible. It may help to play around with the color intensity settings in the influence panel (increase in the rock texture, and decrease in the grass texture) -


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Java Persistence/Inheritance

Inheritance is a fundamental concept of object-oriented programming and Java. Relational databases have no concept of inheritance, so persisting inheritance in a database can be tricky. Because relational databases have no concept of inheritance, there is no standard way of implementing inheritance in database, so the hardest part of persisting inheritance is choosing how to represent the inheritance in the database.

JPA defines several inheritance mechanisms, mainly defined though the  annotation or the   element. There are three inheritance strategies defined from the  enum, ,   and.

Single table inheritance is the default, and table per class is an optional feature of the JPA spec, so not all providers may support it. JPA also defines a mapped superclass concept defined though the  annotation or the   element. A mapped superclass is not a persistent class, but allow common mappings to be defined for its subclasses.

Single Table Inheritance
Single table inheritance is the simplest and typically the best performing and best solution. In single table inheritance a single table is used to store all of the instances of the entire inheritance hierarchy. The table will have a column for every attribute of every class in the hierarchy. A discriminator column is used to determine which class the particular row belongs to, each class in the hierarchy defines its own unique discriminator value.

Example single table inheritance table in database
PROJECT (table)

No class discriminator column

 * If you are mapping to an existing database schema, your table may not have a class discriminator column. Some JPA providers do not require a class discriminator when using a joined inheritance strategy, so this may be one solution.  Otherwise you need some way to determine the class for a row.  Sometimes the inherited value can be computed from several columns, or there is an discriminator but not a one to one mapping from value to class.  Some JPA providers provide extended support for this.  Another option is to create a database view that manufactures the discriminator column, and then map your hierarchy to this view instead of the table.  In general the best solution is just to add a discriminator column to the table (truth be told, ALTER TABLE is your best friend in ORM).

 * TopLink / EclipseLink : Support computing the inheritance discriminator through Java code. This can be done through using a   and the  's  's   method.

 * Hibernate : This can be accomplished through using the Hibernate  annotation.  This allows database specific SQL or functions to be used to compute the discriminator value.

Non nullable attributes

 * Subclasses cannot define attributes as not allowing null, as the other subclasses must insert null into those columns. A workaround to this issue is instead of defining a not null constraint on the column, define a table constraint that check the discriminator value and the not nullable value.  In general the best solution is to just live without the constraint (odds are you have enough constraints in your life to deal with as it is).

Joined, Multiple Table Inheritance
Joined inheritance is the most logical inheritance solution because it mirrors the object model in the data model. In joined inheritance a table is defined for each class in the inheritance hierarchy to store only the local attributes of that class. Each table in the hierarchy must also store the object's id (primary key), which is only defined in the root class. All classes in the hierarchy must share the same id attribute. A discriminator column is used to determine which class the particular row belongs to, each class in the hierarchy defines its own unique discriminator value.

Some JPA providers support joined inheritance with or without a discriminator column, some required the discriminator column, and some do not support the discriminator column. So joined inheritance does not seem to be fully standardized yet.

 * Hibernate: A discriminator column on joined inheritance is supported but not required.

Example joined inheritance tables in database
PROJECT (table)

SMALLPROJECT (table)

LARGEPROJECT (table)

Poor query performance

 * The main disadvantage to the joined model is that to query any class join queries are required. Querying the root or branch classes is even more difficult as either multiple queries are required, or outer joins or unions are required.  One solution is to use single table inheritance instead, this is good if the classes have a lot in common, but if it is a big hierarchy and the subclasses have little in common this may not be desirable.  Another solution is to remove the inheritance and instead use a , but this means that you can no longer query or have relationships to the class.

 * The poorest performing queries will be those to the root or branch classes. Avoiding queries and relationships to the root and branch classes will help to alleviate this burden.  If you must query the root or branch classes there are two methods that JPA providers use, one is to outer join all of the subclass tables, the second is to first query the root table, then query only the required subclass table directly.  The first method has the advantage of only requiring one query, the second has the advantage of avoiding outer joins which typically have poor performance in databases.  You may wish to experiment with each to determine  which mechanism is more efficient in your application and see if your JPA provider supports that mechanism.  Typically the multiple query mechanism is more efficient, but this generally depends on the speed of your database connection.

 * TopLink / EclipseLink : Support both querying mechanisms. The multiple query mechanism is used by default.  Outer joins can be used instead through using a   and the  's  's   method.

Do not have/want a table for every subclass

 * Most inheritance hierarchies do not fit with either the joined or the single table inheritance strategy. Typically the desired strategy is somewhere in between, having joined tables in some subclasses and not in others.  Unfortunately JPA does not directly support this.  One workaround is to map your inheritance hierarchy as single table, but then add the additional tables in the subclasses, either through defining a   or   in each subclass as required.  Depending on your JPA provider, this may work (don't forget to sacrifice the chicken).  If it does not work, then you may need to use a JPA provider specific solution if one exists for your provider, otherwise live within the constraints of having either a single table or one per subclass.  You could also change your inheritance hierarchy so it matches your data model, so if the subclass does not have a table, then collapse its class into its superclass.

No class discriminator column

 * If you are mapping to an existing database schema, your table may not have a class discriminator column. Some JPA providers do not require a class discriminator when using a joined inheritance strategy, so this may be one solution.  Otherwise you need some way to determine the class for a row.  Sometimes the inherited value can be computed from several columns, or there is an discriminator but not a one to one mapping from value to class.  Some JPA providers provide extended support for this.  Another option is to create a database view that manufactures the discriminator column, and then map your hierarchy to this view instead of the table.

 * TopLink / EclipseLink : Support computing the inheritance discriminator through Java code. This can be done through using a   and the  's  's   method.

 * Hibernate : This can be accomplished through using the Hibernate  annotation.  This allows database specific SQL or functions to be used to compute the discriminator value.

=Advanced=

Table Per Class Inheritance
Table per class inheritance allows inheritance to be used in the object model, when it does not exist in the data model. In table per class inheritance a table is defined for each concrete class in the inheritance hierarchy to store all the attributes of that class and all of its superclasses. Be cautious using this strategy as it is optional in the JPA spec, and querying root or branch classes can be very difficult and inefficient.

Example table per class inheritance tables in database
SMALLPROJECT (table)

LARGEPROJECT (table)

Poor query performance

 * The main disadvantage to the table per class model is queries or relationships to the root or branch classes become expensive. Querying the root or branch classes require multiple queries, or unions.  One solution is to use single table inheritance instead, this is good if the classes have a lot in common, but if it is a big hierarchy and the subclasses have little in common this may not be desirable.  Another solution is to remove the table per class inheritance and instead use a , but this means that you can no longer query or have relationships to the class.

Issues with ordering and joins

 * Because table per class inheritance requires multiple queries, or unions, you cannot join to, fetch join, or traverse them in queries. Also when ordering is used the results will be ordered by class, then by the ordering.  These limitations depend on your JPA provider, some JPA provider may have other limitations, or not support table per class at all as it is optional in the JPA spec.

Mapped Superclasses
Mapped superclass inheritance allows inheritance to be used in the object model, when it does not exist in the data model. It is similar to table per class inheritance, but does not allow querying, persisting, or relationships to the superclass. Its main purpose is to allow mappings information to be inherited by its subclasses. The subclasses are responsible for defining the table, id and other information, and can modify any of the inherited mappings. A common usage of a mapped superclass is to define a common  for your application to define common behavior and mappings such as the id and version. A mapped superclass normally should be an abstract class. A mapped superclass is not an  but is instead defined through the   annotation or the   element.

Example mapped superclass tables in database
SMALLPROJECT (table)

LARGEPROJECT (table)

Cannot query, persist, or have relationships

 * The main disadvantage of mapped superclasses is that they cannot be queried or persisted. You also cannot have a relationship to a mapped superclass.  If you require any of these then you must use another inheritance model, such as table per class, which is virtually identical to a mapped superclass except it (may) not have these limitations.  Another alternative is to change your model such that your classes do not have relationships to the superclass, such as changing the relationship to a subclass, or removing the relationship and instead querying for its value by querying each possible subclass and collecting the results in Java.

Subclass does not want to inherit mappings

 * Sometimes you have a subclass that needs to be mapped differently than its parent, or is similar to its' parent but does not have one of the fields, or uses it very differently. Unfortunately it is very difficult not to inherit everything from your parent in JPA, you can override a mapping, but you cannot remove one, or change the type of mapping, or the target class.  If you define your mappings as properties (get methods), or through XML, you may be able to attempt to override or mark the inherited mapping as , this may work depending on your JPA provider (don't forget to sacrifice a chicken).

 * Another solution is to actually fix your inheritance in your object model. If you inherit   from   but don't want to inherit it, then remove it from , if the other subclasses need it, either add it to each, or create a   subclass of   that has the   and have the other subclasses extend this.

 * Some JPA providers may provide ways to be less stringent on inheritance.

 * TopLink / EclipseLink : Allow a subclass remove a mapping, redefine a mapping, or be entirely independent of its superclass. This can be done through using a   and removing the  's mapping, or adding a mapping with the same attribute name, or removing the.

/Mapping

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Java Persistence/Inheritance


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title: Template:User cs


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Category:User cs

de:Kategorie:User cs eo:kategorio:uzanto cs it:categoria:Utenti cs ja:カテゴリ:User cs tr:Kategori:Kullanıcı cs

title: Category:User cs


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User:Juan de Vojníkov

Something about me? I am graduate student of tropical and subtropical agriculture at the University of Life Sciences in Prague with a specialization on crop production. Originally coming from Wikipedia, which I started to modify in 2005. I’ve been mainly working on Czech Wikipedia and very rarely also on English and Spanish versions. From fall 2006 I am a member of wikiversity community.

Here on English Wikibooks I wanna create a text book of special crops and pomology (already on cs working on a textbook of Plant Tissue Culture) which can be used by students (crop science, pomology, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, etc.), as a data source on Wikiversity (see courses of pomology) or can help people in developing countries to get a free information. These tree areas forms my bit tree - tree subjects which are not in focus of my specialization, by which Ill be examinated from.

title: User:Juan de Vojníkov


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User:Whiteknight/Artificial Intelligence

This outline is designed to replace the current Artificial Intelligence book. That book may not need to be deleted, but it will need to be updated and reorganized. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 19:49, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

The Plan
The current Artificial Intelligence book is to sprawling and ambitious to make a good book. I propose we break it down into a series of sub books with a "portal" or subject page to keep track of them all. Some such books already exist, such as Expert Systems and Artificial Neural Networks. Additional books need to be created (eventually) to cover topics about propositional calculus, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms. These might be on the back-burner for a long time.

Artificial Intelligence

 * Note:This book is going to cover a short, high-level overview of the field of artificial intellegence, it's history, it's purview, and it's current state.

 * Introduction
 * History of AI
 * Definition of AI
 * Common Types of AI
 * Current State

Existing Pages

 * Artificial Intelligence
 * Artificial Intelligence/Preface
 * Artificial Intelligence Study Guide
 * Artificial Intelligence Study Guide/Artificial Intelligence
 * Artificial Intelligence Study Guide/General Remarks
 * Artificial Intelligence/1 - Bit Learner
 * Artificial Intelligence/Boolean Intelligence
 * Artificial Intelligence/Chronology
 * Artificial Intelligence/Definition

Artificial Neural Networks

 * Artificial Intelligence/Neural Networks/Introduction

Prepositional Calculus

 * Artificial Intelligence/Logic
 * Artificial Intelligence/Logic/Representation/Propositional calculus

Other Existing Pages
These pages here exist, but need to be evaluated and merged to some place more appropriate:

 * Computer Science:Artificial Intelligence
 * Artificial Intelligence/Circuit encoded in Java
 * Artificial Intelligence/My research results
 * Artificial Intelligence Study Guide/Symbolic Programming
 * Artificial Intelligence/Search/Heuristic search/Depth-first search
 * Artificial Intelligence/Search/Exhaustive search/Breadth-first search


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Talk:Pomology

Participants

 * 1) --Juan de Vojníkov 20:32, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

Possible structure

 * What is the differents between fruits and vegetables?
 * What is pomology?
 * History of pomology
 * Minimum from areas needed to understand pomology

 * The importance of fruits to different societies
 * The importance of fruits in alimentation
 * Fruit world market

 * Gene centers of the most important fruits
 * What is a cultivated variety
 * Fruit plant breeding
 * Ways of propagations
 * Grafting
 * Shapes of trees and shrubs
 * Ways of fruit cultivating (orchards, plantations, intercropping, agroforestry planting)

- list according world production
 * temperate zone fruits - give to each important fruit one chapter

 * subtropical fruits

 * tropical fruits

What to add in a chapter of one fruit

 * 1) English name and Scientific name
 * 2) Family name (in latin)
 * 3) Common names
 * 4) Origin and distribution
 * 5) Botanical characteristic
 * 6) Uses
 * 7) Agrotechnology
 * 8) Yields
 * 9) Fruit processing
 * 10) Distributing and marketing

 * 1) this plant breeding
 * 2) this plant in culture and religion
 * 3) alimentation purposes

title: Talk:Pomology


text:
Pomology

 Pomology

Contents

 * General part
 * 1) What is the difference between fruits and vegetables?
 * 2) What is pomology?
 * 3) History of pomology
 * 4) Minimum from areas needed to understand pomology
 * 5) The importance of fruits to different societies
 * 6) The importance of fruits in alimentation
 * 7) Fruit world market
 * 8) Gene centers of the most important fruits
 * 9) What is a cultivated variety
 * 10) Fruit plant breeding
 * 11) Ways of propagations
 * 12) Grafting
 * 13) Shapes of trees and shrubs
 * 14) Ways of fruit cultivating (orchards, plantations, intercropping, agroforestry planting)

 * Theoretical part
 * Fruits of the temperate zone
 * Fruits of the subtropics
 * Citruses
 * Fruits of the tropics
 * /Bananas/
 * /Pineapples/
 * /Papayas/

 * Practical examples

See also: Pomology Teaching Tools (a Wikiversity Project)

title: Pomology


text:
Corps-Style Marching/Technique/Commands

Although commands may slightly vary from one marching ensemble to the next, the commands are generally the same or are normally recognizable to those familiar with commands. There are standing, moving, and turning commands.

To the Ready
This command is meant to tell the group of marchers that they are about to be given commands, such as being called to attention. The person giving this command will say something along the lines of "Band, To the Ready" after which there should be silence and each marcher should prepare themselves for the commands which will follow soon after.

Parade Rest
Parade Rest is the stance in which the group of marchers stands with feet apart, hands at their sides, and heads usually toward the ground. This command is used just before calling the ensemble to attention or, alternatively, to call the ensemble out of attention. Usually, the individual giving commands will say "Band, Pa-rade Rest!" to give this command.

Attention
Attention is used to bring a group of marchers out of parade rest. This is a sharp movement and, when done correctly, is an eye-grabber for the audience. To call a group to attention, the person giving commands will usually say "Band, Ten Hut!" and as the marchers go into their attention stance 1 2 3  4 (feet together,head up, good posture) they will respond "Hut!"

Horns Up/Down
Command are given when the band is about to perform as in instruments mouthpiece are ready on the mouth. Usually given command is Horns-Up/Horns-Down during parade time. Command is excluded in a formation or ensemble as the Concert Master will be showing signals. The Drum Major will give the command: Band, Horns Up; the band will then respond with Check, Hit.

Right/Left Face
The command given to execute this move is either "Left face!" or "Left Hace!" (directions either being left or right as needed). Your response to their command will be "one, two", which will have to follow the tempo in which the command was given. On "one", you will pivot 90°, on your heel, with the foot corresponding to the command(if it was "right face", right foot, or left foot if it was "left face"). This step will leave you on the heel of one foot and the other on the ball of the foot, and both sets of toes facing in the direction to which you were commanded to turn. Now, on "two", your other foot(the one where you were left standing on the ball of the foot), will join your first foot and resume attention.

title: Corps-Style Marching/Technique/Commands


text:
User:Kevin Lakhani

Kevin Lakhani Wikimedia Commons User Page

title: User:Kevin Lakhani


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MediaWiki:Sitenotice

The Wikibooks community is developing a policy on the use of generative AI. Please review the draft policy and provide feedback on its talk page.

title: MediaWiki:Sitenotice


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Nervous System

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * the role of the nervous system in coordinating an animal’s response to the environment
 * that the nervous system gathers, sorts and stores information and initiates movement
 * the basic structure and functions of a neuron
 * the structure and function of a synapse and neurotransmitter chemicals
 * the nervous pathway known as a reflex with examples
 * that training can develop conditioned reflexes in animals
 * that the nervous system can be divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems
 * that the brain is surrounded by membranes called meninges
 * the basic parts of the brain and the function of the cerebral hemispheres, hypothalamus, pituitary, cerebellum and medulla oblongata
 * the structure and function of the spinal cord
 * that the peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves and the autonomic nervous system
 * that the autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic parts with different functions

Coordination
Animals must be able to sense and respond to the environment in which they live if they are to survive. They need to be able to sense the temperature of their surroundings, for example, so they can avoid the hot sun. They must also be able to identify food and escape predators.

The various systems and organs in the body must also be linked so they work together. For example, once a predator has identified suitable prey it has to catch it. This involves coordinating the contraction of the muscle so the predator can run, there must then be an increased blood supply to the muscles to provide them with oxygen and nutrients. At the same time the respiration rate must increase to supply the oxygen and remove the carbon dioxide produced as a result of this increased activity. Once the prey has been caught and eaten, the digestive system must be activated to digest it.

The adjustment of an animal’s response to changes in the environment and the complex linking of the various processes in the body that this response involves are called co-ordination. Two systems are involved in co-ordination in animals. These are the nervous and endocrine systems. The first operates via electrical impulses along nerve fibres and the second by releasing special chemicals or hormones into the bloodstream from glands.

Functions of the Nervous System
The nervous system has three basic functions:
 * 1. Sensory function - to sense changes (known as stimuli) both outside and within the body. For example the eyes sense changes in light and the ear responds to sound waves. Inside the body, stretch receptors in the stomach indicate when it is full and chemical receptors in the blood vessels monitor the acidity of the blood.

 * 2. Integrative function - processing the information received from the sense organs. The impulses from these organs are analysed and stored as memory. The many different impulses from different sources are sorted, synchronised and co-ordinated and the appropriate response initiated. The power to integrate, remember and apply experience gives higher animals much of their superiority.

 * 3. Motor function - The third function is the response to the stimuli that causes muscles to contract or glands to secrete.

All nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells or neurons. These transmit high-speed signals called nerve impulses. Nerve impulses can be thought of as being similar to an electric current.

The Neuron
Neurons are cells that have been adapted to carry nerve impulses. A typical neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus, one or more branching filaments called dendrites which conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body and one long fibre, an axon, that carries the impulses away from it. Many axons have a sheath of fatty material called myelin surrounding them. This speeds up the rate at which the nerve impulses travel along the nerve (see diagram 14.1).

Diagram 14.1 - A motor neuron

The cell body of neurons is usually located in the brain or spinal cord while the axon extends the whole distance to the organ that it supplies. The neuron carrying impulses from the spinal cord to the hind leg or tail of a horse, for example, can be several feet long. A nerve is a bundle of axons.

A sensory neuron is a nerve cell that transmits impulses from a sense receptor such as those in the eye or ear to the brain or spinal cord. A motor neuron is a nerve cell that transmits impulses from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland. A relay neuron connects sensory and motor neurons and is found in the brain or spinal cord (see diagrams 14.1 and 14.2).

Diagram 14.2 - The relationship between sensory, relay and motor neurons

Connections Between Neurons
The connection between adjacent neurons is called a synapse. The two nerve cells do not actually touch here for there is a microscopic space between them. The electrical impulse in the neurone before the synapse stimulates the production of chemicals called neurotransmitters (such as acetylcholine), which are secreted into the gap.

The neurotransmitter chemicals diffuse across the gap and when they contact the membrane of the next nerve cell they stimulate a new nervous impulse (see diagram 14.3). After the impulse has passed the chemical is destroyed and the synapse is ready to receive the next nerve impulse.

Diagram 14.3 - A nerve and magnification of a synapse

Reflexes
A reflex is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus. When you accidentally touch a hot object and automatically jerk your hand away, this is a reflex action. It happens without you having to think about it. Animals automatically blink when an object approaches the eye and cats twist their bodies in the air when falling so they land on their paws. (Please don’t test this one at home with your pet cat!).

Swallowing, sneezing, and the constriction of the pupil of the eye in bright light are also all reflex actions. Some other examples of reflex actions in animals can be shivering with cold and the opening of the mouth on hearing a sudden loud noise.

The path taken by the nerve impulses in a reflex is called a reflex arc. Most reflex arcs involve only three neurons (see diagram 14.4). The stimulus (a pin in the paw) stimulates the pain receptors of the skin, which initiate an impulse in a sensory neuron. This travels to the spinal cord where it passes, by means of a synapse, to a connecting neuron called the relay neuron situated in the spinal cord. The relay neuron in turn makes a synapse with one or more motor neurons that transmit the impulse to the muscles of the limb causing them to contract and remove the paw from the sharp object. Reflexes do not require involvement of the brain although you are aware of what is happening and can, in some instances, prevent them happening. Animals are born with their reflexes. You can think of them as being wired in.

Diagram 14.4 - A reflex arc

Conditioned Reflexes
In most reflexes the stimulus and response are related. For example the presence of food in the mouth causes the salivary glands to release saliva. However, it is possible to train animals (and humans) to respond to different and often quite irrelevant stimuli. This is called a conditioned reflex.

A Russian biologist called Pavlov carried out the classic experiment to demonstrate such a reflex when he conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell ringing. Almost every pet owner can identify reflexes they have conditioned in their animals. Perhaps you have trained your cat to associate food with the opening of the fridge door or accustomed your dog to the routines you go through before taking them for a walk.

Parts of the Nervous System
When we describe the nervous system of vertebrates we usually divide it into two parts (see diagram 14.5).
 * 1. The central nervous system (CNS) which consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 * 2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) which consists of the nerves that connect to the brain and spinal cord (cranial and spinal nerves) as well as the autonomic (or involuntary) nervous system.

Diagram 14.5 - The nervous system of a horse

The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a kind of ‘telephone exchange’ where a vast number of cross connections are made.

When you look at the brain or spinal cord some regions appear creamy white (white matter) and others appear grey (grey matter). White matter consists of masses of nerve axons and the grey matter consists of the cell bodies of the nerve cells. In the brain the grey matter is on the outside and in the spinal cord it is on the inside (see diagram 14.2).

The Brain
The major part of the brain lies protected within the sturdy “box” of skull called the cranium. Surrounding the fragile brain tissue (and spinal cord) are protective membranes called the meninges (see diagram 14.6), and a crystal-clear fluid called cerebrospinal fluid, which protects and nourishes the brain tissue. This fluid also fills four cavities or ventricles that lie within the brain.

Brain tissue is extremely active and, even when an animal is resting, it uses up to 20% of the oxygen taken into the body by the lungs. The carotid artery, a branch off the dorsal aorta, supplies it with the oxygen and nutrients it requires. Brain damage occurs if brain tissue is deprived of oxygen for only 4–8 minutes.

The brain consists of three major regions:
 * 1. the fore brain which includes the cerebral hemispheres, hypothalamus and pituitary gland;
 * 2. the hind brain or brain stem, contains the medulla oblongata and pons and
 * 3. the cerebellum or “little brain” (see diagram 14.6).

Diagram 14.6 - Longitudinal section through the brain of a dog

Mapping the brain
In humans and some animals the functions of the different regions of the cerebral cortex have been mapped (see diagram 14.7).

Diagram 14.7 - The functions of the regions of the human cerebral cortex

The Forebrain
The cerebral hemispheres are the masses of brain tissue that sit on the top of the brain. The surface is folded into ridges and furrows called sulci (singular sulcus). They make this part of the brain look rather like a very large walnut kernel. The two hemispheres are separated by a deep groove although they are connected internally by a thick bundle of nerve fibres. The outer layer of each hemisphere is called the cerebral cortex and this is where the main functions of the cerebral hemispheres are carried out.

The cerebral cortex is large and convoluted in mammals compared to other vertebrates and largest of all in humans because this is where the so-called “higher centres” concerned with memory, learning, reasoning and intelligence are situated.

Nerves from the eyes, ears, nose and skin bring sensory impulses to the cortex where they are interpreted. Appropriate voluntary movements are initiated here in the light of the memories of past events.

Different regions of the cortex are responsible for particular sensory and motor functions, e.g. vision, hearing, taste, smell, or moving the fore-limbs, hind-limbs or tail. For example, when a dog sniffs a scent, sensory impulses from the organ of smell in the nose pass via the olfactory (smelling) nerve to the olfactory centres of the cerebral hemispheres where the impulses are interpreted and co-ordinated.

In humans and some animals the functions of the different regions of the cerebral cortex have been mapped (see diagram 14.8).

Diagram 14.8 - The functions of the regions of the cerebral cortex

The hypothalamus is situated at the base of the brain and is connected by a “stalk” to the pituitary gland, the “master” hormone-producing gland (see chapter 16). The hypothalamus can be thought of as the bridge between the nervous and endocrine (hormone producing) systems. It produces some of the hormones that are released from the pituitary gland and controls the release of others from it.

It is also an important centre for controlling the internal environment of the animal and therefore maintaining homeostasis. For example, it helps regulate the movement of food through the gut and the temperature, blood pressure and concentration of the blood. It is also responsible for the feeling of being hungry or thirsty and it controls sleep patterns and sex drive.

The Hindbrain
The medulla oblongata is at the base of the brain and is a continuation of the spinal cord. It carries all signals between the spinal cord and the brain and contains centres that control vital body functions like the basic rhythm of breathing, the rate of the heartbeat and the activities of the gut. The medulla oblongata also co-ordinates swallowing, vomiting, coughing and sneezing.

The Cerebellum
The cerebellum (little brain) looks rather like a smaller version of the cerebral hemispheres attached to the back of the brain. It receives impulses from the organ of balance (vestibular organ) in the inner ear and from stretch receptors in the muscles and tendons. By co-ordinating these it regulates muscle contraction during walking and running and helps maintain the posture and balance of the animal. When the cerebellum malfunctions it causes a tremor and uncoordinated movement.

The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cable of nerve tissue that passes down the channel in the vertebrae from the hindbrain to the end of the tail. It becomes progressively smaller as paired spinal nerves pass out of the cord to parts of the body. Protective membranes or meninges cover the cord and these enclose cerebral spinal fluid (see diagram 14.9).

Diagram 14.9 - The spinal cord

If you cut across the spinal cord you can see that it consists of white matter on the outside and grey matter in the shape of an H or butterfly on the inside.

The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that are connected to the brain (cranial nerves), and nerves that are connected to the spinal cord (spinal nerves). The autonomic nervous system is also part of the peripheral nervous system.

Cranial Nerves
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves that come from the brain. Each passes through a hole in the cranium (brain case). The most important of these are the olfactory, optic, acoustic and vagus nerves.

The olfactory nerves - (smell) carry impulses from the olfactory organ of the nose to the brain.

The optic nerves - (sight) carry impulses from the retina of the eye to the brain.

The auditory (acoustic) nerves - (hearing) carry impulses from the cochlear of the inner ear to the brain.

The vagus nerve - controls the muscles that bring about swallowing. It also controls the muscles of the heart, airways, lungs, stomach and intestines (see diagram 14.5).

Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to sense organs, muscles and glands in the body. Pairs of spinal nerves leave the spinal cord and emerge between each pair of adjacent vertebrae (see diagram 14.9).

The sciatic nerve is the largest spinal nerve in the body (see diagram 14.5). It leaves the spinal cord as several nerves that join to form a flat band of nervous tissue. It passes down the thigh towards the hind leg where it gives off branches to the various muscles of this limb.

The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system controls internal body functions that are not under conscious control. For example when a prey animal is chased by a predator the autonomic nervous system automatically increases the rate of breathing and the heartbeat. It dilates the blood vessels that carry blood to the muscles, releases glucose from the liver, and makes other adjustments to provide for the sudden increase in activity. When the animal has escaped and is safe once again the nervous system slows down all these processes and resumes all the normal body activities like the digestion of food.

The nerves of the autonomic nervous system originate in the spinal cord and pass out between the vertebrae to serve the various organs (see diagram 14.10).There are two main parts to the autonomic nervous system—the sympathetic system and the parasympathetic system.

The sympathetic system stimulates the “flight, fright, fight” response that allows an animal to face up to an attacker or make a rapid departure. It increases the heart and respiratory rates, as well as the amount of blood flowing to the skeletal muscles while blood flow to less critical regions like the gut and skin is reduced. It also causes the pupils of the eyes to dilate. Note that the effects of the sympathetic system are similar to the effects of the hormone adrenaline (see Chapter 16).

The parasympathetic system does the opposite to the sympathetic system. It maintains the normal functions of the relaxed body. These are sometimes known as the “housekeeping” functions. It promotes effective digestion, stimulates defaecation and urination and maintains a regular heartbeat and rate of breathing.

Diagram 14.10 - The function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Summary

 * The neuron is the basic unit of the nervous system. It consists of a cell body with a nucleus, filaments known as dendrites and a long fibre known as the axon often surrounded by a myelin sheath.
 * A nerve is a bundle of axons.
 * Grey matter in the brain and spinal cord consists mainly of brain cells while white matter consists of masses of axons.
 * Nerve Impulses travel along axons.
 * Adjacent neurons connect with each other at synapses.
 * Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli. The path taken by nerve impulses involved in reflexes is a reflex arc. Most reflex arcs involve 3 neurons - a sensory neuron, a relay neuron and a motor neuron. A stimulus, a pin in the paw for example, initiates an impulse in the sensory neuron that passes via a synapse to the relay neuron situated in the spinal cord and then via another synapse to the motor neurone. This transmits the impulse to the muscle causing it to contract and remove the paw from the pin.
 * The nervous system is divided into 2 parts: the central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord and the peripheral nervous system consisting of nerves connected to the brain and spinal cord. The autonomic nervous system is considered to be part of the peripheral nervous system.
 * The brain consists of three major regions: 1. the fore brain which includes the cerebral hemispheres (or cerebrum), hypothalamus and pituitary gland; 2. the hindbrain or brain stem containing the medulla oblongata and 3. the cerebellum.
 * Protective membranes known as the meninges surround the brain and spinal cord.
 * There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that include the optic, olfactory, acoustic and vagus nerves.
 * The spinal cord is a cable of nerve tissue surrounded by meninges passing from the brain to the end of the tail. Spinal nerves emerge by a ventral and dorsal root between each vertebra and connect the spinal cord with organs and muscles.
 * The autonomic nervous system controls internal body functions not under conscious control. It is divided into 2 parts with 2 different functions: the sympathetic nervous system that is involved in the flight and fight response including increased heart rate, bronchial dilation, dilation of the pupil and decreased gut activity. The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with decreased heart rate, pupil constriction and increased gut activity.

Worksheet
Nervous System Worksheet

Test Yourself
1. Add the following labels to this diagram of a motor neuron.
 * cell body | nucleus | axon | dendrites | myelin sheath | muscle fibres

2. What is a synapse?

3. What is a reflex?

4. Rearrange the parts of a reflex arc given below in the order in which the nerve impulse travels from the sense organ to the muscle.
 * sense organ | relay neuron | motor neuron | sensory neuron | muscle fibres

5. Add the following labels to the diagram of the dog’s brain shown below.
 * cerebellum | cerebral hemisphere | cerebral cortex | pituitary gland | medulla oblongata

6. What is the function of the meninges that cover the brain and spinal cord

7. Give 3 effects of the action of the sympathetic nervous system.

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron Wikipedia. Lots of good information here but as usual a warning that there are terms and concepts that are beyond the scope of this course.  Also try ‘reflex action’ ; ‘autonomic nervous system’ ;
 * http://images.google.co.nz/imgres?imgurl=http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/brain-neuron.gif&imgrefurl=http://science.howstuffworks.com/brain1.htm&h=296&w=394&sz=17&hl=en&start=5&tbnid=LWLRI9lW_5PZhM:&tbnh=93&tbnw=124&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dneuron%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DN  How Stuff Works. This site is for the neuron but try ‘neuron types’, ‘brain parts’ and ‘balancing act’ too.
 * http://web.archive.org/web/20060821134839/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/flash/bireflexarc.swf Reflex Arc. Nice clear and simple animation of a reflex arc.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


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User talk:MrCass

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:53, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:MrCass


text:
Past LSAT Explained/Logical Reasoning

Point at Issue
the main point at issue is an issue in dispute is are committed to disagreeing about expresses a point of agreement

Assumption
Tests to Use

# Faslification Test

Negate the choice and see if the argument stands. If it collapses, the choice is among the assumptions that the argument depends.

# Main Point Test

If the choice is the conclusion or main point of the passage, it is necessarily not the assumption.

title: Past LSAT Explained/Logical Reasoning


text:
Past LSAT Explained/Reading Comprehension

/Reading List/

 * Which one of the following is the central topic of each passage?

 * Both passages explicitly mention which one of the following?

 * Which one of the following statements is most strongly supported by both passages?

 * Which one of the following most accurately describes the attitude expressed by the author of passage B toward the overall argument in passage A?

 * The relationship between passage A and passage B is most analogous to the relationship in which one of the following?


text:
Wikijunior:Visual Math/count up to 5 objects

1

1  2

1  2   3

1  2   3   4

1  2   3   4   5


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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/The Senses

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * that the general senses of touch, pressure, pain etc. are situated in the dermis of the skin and in the body
 * that the special senses include those of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance
 * the main structures of the eye and their functions
 * the route taken by light through the eye to the retina
 * the role of the rods and cones in the retina
 * the advantages of binocular vision
 * the main structures of the ear and their functions
 * the route taken by sound waves through the ear to the cochlea
 * the role of the vestibular organ (semicircular canals and otolith organ) in maintaining balance and posture

The sense organs
Sense organs allow animals to sense changes in the environment around them and in their bodies so that they can respond appropriately. They enable animals to avoid hostile environments, sense the presence of predators and find food.

Animals can sense a wide range of stimuli that includes, touch, pressure, pain, temperature, chemicals, light, sound, movement and position of the body. Some animals can sense electric and magnetic fields. All sense organs respond to stimuli by producing nerve impulses that travel to the brain via a sensory nerve. The impulses are then processed and interpreted in the brain as pain, sight, sound, taste etc.

The senses are often divided into two groups:
 * 1. The general senses of touch, pressure, pain and temperature that are distributed fairly evenly through the skin. Some are found in muscles and within joints.

 * 2. The special senses which include the senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing and balance. The special sense organs may be quite complex in structure.

Touch And Pressure
Within the dermis of the skin are numerous modified nerve endings that are sensitive to touch and pressure. The roots of hairs may also be well supplied with sensory receptors that inform the animal contact with an object (see diagram 15.1). Whiskers are specially modified hairs.

Pain
Receptors that sense pain are found in almost every tissue of the body. They tell the animal that tissues are dangerously hot, cold, compressed or stretched or that there is not enough blood flowing in them. The animal may then be able to respond and protect itself from further damage

Diagram 15.1 - The general senses in the skin

Temperature
Nerve endings in the skin respond to hot and cold stimuli (See diagram 15.1).

Awareness Of Limb Position
There are sense organs in the muscles, tendons and joints that send continuous impulses to the brain that tell it where each limb is. This information allows the animal to place its limbs accurately and know their exact position without having to watch them.

Smell
Animals use the sense of smell to locate food, mark their territory, identify their own offspring and the presence and sexual condition of a potential mate. The organ of smell (olfactory organ) is located in the nose and responds to chemicals in the air. It consists of modified nerve cells that have several tiny hairs on the surface. These emerge from the epithelium on the roof of the nose cavity into the mucus that lines it. As the animal breathes, chemicals in the air dissolve in the mucus. When the sense cell responds to a particular molecule, it fires an impulse that travels along the olfactory nerve to the brain where it is interpreted as an odour (see diagram 15.2).

Diagram 15.2 - The olfactory organ - the sense of smell

The olfactory sense in humans is rudimentary compared to that of many animals. Carnivores that hunt have a very highly developed sensitivity to scents. For example a polar bear can smell out a dead seal 20 km away and a bloodhound can distinguish between the trails of different people although it may sometimes be confused by the criss-crossing trail of identical twins.

Snakes and lizards detect odours by means of Jacobson’s organ. This is situated on the roof of the mouth and consists of pits containing sensory cells. When snakes flick out their forked tongues they are smelling the air by carrying the molecules in it to the Jacobson’s organ.

Taste
The sense of taste allows animals to detect and identify dissolved chemicals. In reptiles, birds, and mammals the taste receptors (taste buds) are found mainly to the upper surface of the tongue. They consist of pits containing sensory cells arranged rather like the segments of an orange (see diagram 15.3). Each receptor cell has a tiny “hair” that projects into the saliva to sense the chemicals dissolved in it.

Diagram 15.3. Taste buds on the tongue

The sense of taste is quite restricted. Humans can only distinguish four different tastes (sweet, sour, bitter and salt) and what we normally think of as taste is mainly the sense of smell. Food is quite tasteless when the nose is blocked and cats often refuse to eat when this happens.

Sight
The eyes are the organs of sight. They consist of spherical eyeballs situated in deep depressions in the skull called the orbits. They are attached to the wall of the orbit by six muscles, which move the eyeball. Upper and lower eyelids cover the eyes during sleep and protect them from foreign objects or too much light, and spread the tears over their surface.

The nictitating membrane or haw is a transparent sheet that moves sideways across the eye from the inner corner, cleansing and moistening the cornea without shutting out the light. It is found in birds, crocodiles, frogs and fish as well as marsupials like the kangaroo. It is rare in mammals but can be seen in cats and dogs by gently opening the eye when it is asleep. Eyelashes also protect the eyes from the sun and foreign objects.

Structure of the Eye
Lining the eyelids and covering the front of the eyeball is a thin epithelium called the conjunctiva. Conjunctivitis is inflammation of this membrane. Tear glands that open just under the top eyelid secrete a salty solution that keeps the exposed part of the eye moist, washes away dust and contains an enzyme that destroys bacteria.

The wall of the eyeball is composed of three layers (see diagram 15.4). From the outside these are the sclera, the choroid and the retina.

Diagram 15.4 - The structure of the eye

The sclera is a tough fibrous layer that protects the eyeball and gives it rigidity. At the front of the eye the sclera is visible as the “white” of the eye, which is modified as the transparent cornea through which the light rays have to pass to enter the eye. The cornea helps focus light that enters the eye.

The choroid lies beneath the sclera. It contains a network of blood vessels that supply the eye with oxygen and nutrients. Its inner surface is highly pigmented and absorbs stray light rays. In nocturnal animals like the cat and possum this highly pigmented layer reflects light as a means of conserving light. This is what makes them shine when caught in car headlights.

At the front of the eye the choroid becomes the iris. This is the coloured part of the eye that controls the amount of light entering the pupil of the eye. In dim light the pupil is wide open so as much light as possible enters while in bright light the pupils contract to protect the retina from damage by excess light.

The pupil in most animals is circular but in many nocturnal animals it is a slit that can close completely. This helps protect the extra-sensitive light sensing tissues of animals like the cat and possum from bright sunlight.

The inner layer lining the inside of the eye is the retina. This contains the light sensing cells called rods and cones (see diagram 15.5).

The rod cells are long and fat and are sensitive to dim light but cannot detect colour. They contain large amounts of a pigment that changes when exposed to light. This pigment comes from vitamin A found in carrots etc. A deficiency of this vitamin causes night blindness. So your mother was right when she told you to eat your carrots as they would help you see in the dark!

The cone cells provide colour vision and allow animals to see details. Most are found in the centre of the retina and they are most densely concentrated in a small area called the fovea. This is the area of sharpest vision, where the words you are reading at this moment are focussed on your retina.

Diagram 15.5 - A rod and cone from the retina

The nerve fibres from the cells of the retina join and leave the eye via the optic nerve. There are no rods or cones here and it is a blind spot. The optic nerve passes through the back of the orbit and enters the brain.

The lens is situated just behind the pupil and the iris. It is a crystalline structure with no blood vessels and is held in position by a ligament. This is attached to a muscle, which changes the shape of the lens so both near and distant objects can be focussed by the eye. This ability to change the focus of the lens is called accommodation. In many mammals the muscles that bring about accommodation are poorly developed, Rats, cows and dogs, for example, are thought to be unable to focus clearly on near objects.

In old age and certain diseases the lens may become cloudy resulting in blurred vision. This is called a cataract. Within the eyeball are two cavities, the anterior and posterior chambers, separated by the lens. They contain fluids, the aqueous and vitreous humours respectively, that maintain the shape of the eyeball and help press the retina firmly against the choroid so clear images are seen.

How The Eye Sees
Eyes work quite like a camera. Light rays from an object enter the eye and are focused on the retina (the “film”) at the back of the eye. The cornea, the lens and the fluid within the eye all help to focus the light. They do this by bending the light rays so that light from the object falls on the retina. This bending of light is called refraction. The light stimulates the light sensitive cells of the retina and nerve impulses are produced that pass down the optic nerve to the brain (see diagram 15.6).

Diagram 15.6 - How the light travels from the object to the retina of the eye

Colour Vision In Animals
As mentioned before, the retina has two different kinds of cells that are stimulated by light - 'rods' and 'cones'. In humans and higher primates like baboons and gorillas the rods function in dim light and do not perceive colour, while the cones are stimulated by bright light and perceive details and colour.

Other mammals have very few cones in their retinas and it is believed that they see no or only a limited range of colour. It is, of course, difficult to find out exactly what animals do see. It is thought that deer, rats, and rabbits and nocturnal animals like the cat are colour-blind, and dogs probably see green and blue. Some fish and most birds seem to have better colour vision than humans and they use colour, often very vivid ones, for recognizing each other as well as for courtship and protection.

Binocular Vision
Animals like cats that hunt have eyes placed on the front of the head in such a way that both eyes see the same wide area but from slightly different angles (see diagram 15.7). This is called binocularvision. Its main advantage is that it enables the animals to estimate the distance to the prey so they can chase it and pounce accurately.

Diagram 15.7 - Well developed binocular vision in predator animals like the cat

In contrast plant-eating prey animals like the rabbit and deer need to have a wide panoramic view so they can see predators approaching. They therefore have eyes placed on the side of the head, each with its own field of vision (see diagram 15.8). They have only a very small area of binocular vision in front of the head but are extremely sensitive to movement.

Diagram 15.8 - Panoramic monocular vision in prey animals like the rabbit

Hearing
Animals use the sense of hearing for many different purposes. It is used to sense danger and enemies, to detect prey, to identify prospective mates and to communicate within social groups. Some animals (e.g. most bats and dolphins) use sound to “see” by echolocation. By sending out a cry and interpreting the echo, they sense obstacles or potential prey.

Structure of the Ear
Most of the ear, the organ of hearing, is hidden from view within the bony skull. It consists of three main regions: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear (see diagram 15.9).

Diagram 15.9 - The ear

The outer ear consists of an ear canal leading inwards to a thin membrane known as the eardrumor tympanic membrane that stretches across the canal. Many animals have an external ear flap or pinna to collect and funnel the sound into the ear canal. The pinnae (plural of pinna) usually face forwards on the head but many animals can swivel them towards the source of the sound.

In dogs the ear canal is long and bent and often traps wax or provides an ideal habitat for mites, yeast and bacteria.

The middle ear consists of a cavity in the skull that is connected to the pharynx (throat) by a long narrow tube called the Eustachian tube. This links the middle ear to the outside air so that the air pressure on both sides of the eardrum can be kept the same. Everyone knows the uncomfortable feeling (and affected hearing) that occurs when you drive down a steep hill and the unequal air pressures on the two sides of the eardrum cause it to distort. The discomfort is relieved when you swallow because the Eustachian tubes open and the pressure on either side equalises.

Within the cavity of the middle ear are three of the smallest bones in the body, the auditory ossicles. They are known as the hammer, the anvil and the stirrup because of their resemblance to the shape of these objects. These tiny bones articulate (move against) each other and transfer the vibrations of the eardrum to the membrane covering the opening to the inner ear.

The inner ear is a complicated series of fluid-filled tubes imbedded in the bone of the skull. It consists of two main parts. These are the cochlea where sound waves are converted to nerve impulses and the vestibular organ that is associated with the sense of balance and has no role in hearing (see later).

The cochlea looks rather like a coiled up snail shell. Within it there are specialised cells with fine hairs on their surface that respond to the movement of the fluid within the cochlea by producing nervous impulses that travel to the brain along the auditory nerve.

How The Ear Hears
Sound waves can be thought of as vibrations in the air. They are collected by the ear pinna and pass down the ear canal where they cause the eardrum to vibrate. (An interesting fact is that when you are listening to someone speaking your eardrum vibrates at exactly the same rate as the vocal cords of the person speaking to you).

The vibration of the eardrum sets the three tiny bones in the middle ear moving against each other so that the vibration is transferred to the membrane covering the opening to the inner ear. As well as transferring the vibration, the tiny ear bones also amplify it. The three tiny bones are called the stirrup, anvil, and hammer. They were called such of their form. In the human ear this amplification is about 20 times while in desert-dwelling animals like the kangaroo rat it is 100 times. This acute hearing warns them of the approach of predators like owls and snakes, even in the dark.

The vibration causes waves in the fluid in the inner ear that pass down the cochlea. These waves stimulate the tiny hair cells to produce nerve impulses that travel via the auditory nerve to the cerebral cortex of the brain where they are interpreted as sound.

To summarise: The route sound waves take as they pass through the ear is: External ear | tympanic membrane | ear ossicles | inner ear |cochlear | hair cells

The hair cells generate a nerve impulse that travels down the auditory nerve to the brain.

Remember that sound waves do not pass along the Eustachian tube. Its function is to equalise the air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane.

Balance
The vestibular organ of the inner ear helps an animal maintain its posture and keep balanced by monitoring the movement and position of the head. It consists of two structures - the semicircular canals and the otolith organs.

The semicircular canals (see diagram 15.10) respond to movement of the body. They tell an animal whether it is moving up or down, left or right. They consist of three canals set in three different planes at right angles to each other so that movement in any direction can be registered. The canals contain fluid and sense cells with fine hairs that project into the fluid. When the head moves the fluid swirls in the canals and stimulates the hair cells. These send nerve impulses along the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum.

Note that the semicircular canals register acceleration and deceleration as well as changes in direction but do not respond to movement that is at a constant speed.

The otolith organs are sometimes known as gravity receptors. They tell you if your head is tilted or if you are standing on your head. They consist of bulges at the base of the semi circular canals that contain hair cells that are covered by a mass of jelly containing tiny pieces of chalk called otoliths (see diagram 15.10). When the head is tilted, or moved suddenly, the otoliths pull on the hair cells, which produce a nerve impulse. This travels down the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum. By coordinating the nerve impulses from the semicircular canals and otolith organs the cerebellum helps the animal keep its balance.

Diagram 15.10 - Otolith Organs

Summary

 * Receptors for touch, pressure, pain and temperature are found in the skin. Receptors in the muscles, tendons and joints inform the brain of limb position.
 * The olfactory organ in the nose responds to chemicals in the air i.e. smell.
 * Taste buds on the tongue respond to a limited range of chemicals dissolved in saliva.
 * The eyes are the organs of sight. Spherical eyeballs situated in orbits in the skull have walls composed of 3 layers.
 * The tough outer sclera protects and holds the shape of the eyeball. At the front it becomes visible as the white of the eye and the transparent cornea that allows light to enter the eye.
 * The middle layer is the choroid. In most animals it absorbs stray light rays but in nocturnal animal it is reflective to conserve light. At the front of the eye it becomes the iris with muscles to control the size of the pupil and hence the amount of light entering the eye.
 * The inner layer is the retina containing the light receptor cells: the rods for black and white vision in dim light and the cones for colour and detailed vision. Nerve impulses generated by these cells leave the eye for the brain via the optic nerve.
 * The lens (with the cornea) helps focus the light rays on the retina. Muscles alter the shape of the lens to allow near and far objects to be focussed.
 * Aqueous humour fills the space immediately behind the cornea and keeps it in shape and vitreous humour, a transparent jelly-like substance, fills the space behind the lens allowing light rays to pass through to the retina.
 * The ear is the organ of hearing and balance.
 * The external pinna helps funnel sound waves into the ear and locate the direction of the sound. The sound waves travel down the external ear canal to the eardrum or tympanic membrane causing it to vibrate. This vibration is transferred to the auditory ossicles of the middle ear which themselves transfer it to the inner ear. Here receptors in the cochlea respond by generating nerve impulses that travel to the brain via the auditory (acoustic) nerve.
 * The Eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the pharynx to equalise air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane.
 * The vestibular organ of the inner ear is concerned with maintaining balance and posture. It consists of the semicircular canals and the otolith organs.

Worksheet
Senses Worksheet

Test Yourself
1. Where are the organs that sense pain, pressure and temperature found? 2. Which sense organ responds to chemicals in the air?

3. Match the words in the list below with the following descriptions.
 * optic nerve | choroid | cornea | aqueous humor | retina | cones | iris | vitreous humour | sclera | lens

 * a) Focuses light rays on the retina.
 * b) Respond to colour and detail.
 * c) Outer coat of the eyeball.
 * d) Carries nerve impulses from the retina to the brain.
 * e) The chamber behind the lens is filled with this.
 * f) This layer of the eyeball reflects light in nocturnal animals like the cat.
 * g) This is the transparent window at the front of the eye.
 * h) This constricts in bright light to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
 * i) The light rays are focused on here by the lens and cornea.
 * j) The chamber in front of the lens is filled with this.

4. Add the following labels to the diagram of the ear below.
 * pinna | Eustachian tube | cochlea | tympanic membrane | external ear canal | ear ossicles | semicircular canals

5. What is the role of the Eustachian tube?

6. What do the ear ossicles do?

7. What is the role of the semicircular canals?

/Senses Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense Wikipedia.  The old faithful. You can explore here to your hearts desire. Try ‘eye’, ‘ear’, ‘taste’ etc. but also ‘equilibrioception’, and ‘echolocation’.
 * http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/smell/smell_ani_f5.swf BBC Science and Nature.  BBC animation of (human) olfactory organ and smelling.
 * http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/taste/taste_ani_f5.swf BBC Science. BBC animation of (human) taste buds and tasting.
 * http://web.archive.org/web/20071121213719/http://www.bishopstopford.com/faculties/science/arthur/Eye%20Drag%20%26%20Drop.swf Eye Diagram. A diagram of the eye to label and test your knowledge.
 * http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/hearing/hearing_animation.shtml BBC on Hearing. BBC animation of hearing. Well worth looking at.
 * http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=AP1502 Ear Animation. Another great animation of the ear and hearing.
 * http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/balance/balance_ani_f5.swf BBC Balance Animation. An animation of the action of the otolith organ (called macula in this animation)

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
BlitzMax/Language

This document describes the core BlitzMax programming language.

For users who already have BASIC programming experience, the BASIC compatibility section highlights the major differences between BlitzMax and other BASIC dialects.

For general command reference, please see the modules documentation.

Core Topics

 * Constants
 * Strings
 * Collections
 * Literals
 * Conditional Compiling
 * Project Management
 * Variables
 * Comments
 * Exceptions
 * Functions
 * Expressions
 * Slices
 * Debugging
 * Arrays
 * Modules
 * Data Types
 * Objects
 * BASIC Compatibility
 * Identifiers
 * Program Flow
 * User Defined Types

Advanced Topics

 * Interfacing with C
 * Memory Management
 * Pointers

title: BlitzMax/Language


text:
User talk:Lifang

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Good luck! --Panic 04:26, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Grant checklist.jpg
Please don't remove without replacing it with the appropriate license template. To do this, you must edit the description page directly; uploading a new version of the image and using the drop-down box to select the license will not work. A list of license templates is here. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:50, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lifang


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User talk:Orwell Mill~enwikibooks

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Good luck!

PS:If you need any help I can use Portuguese also... --Panic 04:35, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Orwell Mill. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Orwell Mill~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:35, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:20, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Orwell Mill~enwikibooks


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User talk:POpZ

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Good luck! --Panic 04:35, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:POpZ


text:
User talk:Jamesssss

hi jamessss, what was wrong here?

(cur | prev) 13:38, 29 October 2012 Jamesssss (discuss | contribs). . (39,450 bytes) (-146). . (Rejected the last text change (by 195.212.29.191) and restored revision 2360877 by 194.236.6.42) (undo) [automatically checked]

 * See, Talk:Java_Persistence/Identity_and_Sequencing - James (discuss • contribs) 14:39, 5 November 2012 (UTC)

Global account
Hi Jamesssss! As a Steward I'm involved in the upcoming unification of all accounts organized by the Wikimedia Foundation (see m:Single User Login finalisation announcement). By looking at your account, I realized that you don't have a global account yet. In order to secure your name, I recommend you to create such account on your own by submitting your password on Special:MergeAccount and unifying your local accounts. If you have any problems with doing that or further questions, please don't hesitate to contact me on my talk page. Cheers, DerHexer (discuss • contribs) 18:19, 14 January 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jamesssss


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User talk:Juan de Vojníkov

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Good luck! --Panic 04:36, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Juan de Vojníkov


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User talk:Obiesel

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title: User talk:Obiesel


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User talk:Onlyforoneday

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Good luck! --Panic 04:36, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Onlyforoneday


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User talk:Lokendrat2001

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title: User talk:Lokendrat2001


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User talk:Blueapples

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Good luck! --Panic 04:39, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Blueapples