text:
Cookbook:Shepherd's Pie I

| Cuisine of the United Kingdom

Cottage pie (beef), or shepherd's pie (lamb), is an Irish meat pie with a mashed potato top. It is traditionally made with leftover roast meat, but today it is more often made with fresh minced meat.

Ingredients

 * 30 g (1 oz) lard (optional)
 * 1 lb (450 g) minced or ground lamb or beef
 * 3 lb (1.3 kg) powdery old potatoes, such as King Edwards
 * 1 large or 2 small onions
 * 2 tbsp flour
 * 2 cups (300 ml) beef stock (alternatively, bouillon cubes can be used, or gravy powder, if the flour is omitted)
 * Cheese, grated (optional)
 * 1 handful of mixed vegetables such as sweetcorn or carrots (optional)
 * Mixed herbs
 * Milk
 * Butter

Procedure

 * 1) Heat oil in a pan and brown the lamb mince. Where lean meat is used, there may be no need to use additional oil.
 * 2) Finely chop the onion and lightly fry in a little butter with a small amount of salt until clear.
 * 3) Add the onions to the mince, mixed herbs, and some pepper.
 * 4) Sprinkle the flour over the mixture, stir, and cook for 3–4 minutes (if using gravy powder, omit this step).
 * 5) Cover with lamb or beef stock (or add water and beef bouillon/gravy powder) and simmer for 30 minutes.
 * 6) Test the savoury mince for seasoning. If gravy is not used, additional salt may be needed.
 * 7) Meanwhile:
 * 8) Peel, chop and boil the potatoes for 20 minutes until cooked.
 * 9) Once the meat is cooked, skim off the excess fat, then reduce the savoury mince until the liquid is level with the mince and onions.
 * 10) Drain the potatoes until completely dry. Mash until smooth and free of any lumps.
 * 11) Add butter to the mashed potato, taste and add seasoning as required.
 * 12) Slowly add milk whilst mashing until the mash is soft and creamy (heavy mash will not float properly on top of the mince).
 * 13) Put mince mixture in a shallow oven-proof dish.
 * 14) Layer the mash over the meat and brush the tops of the potatoes with melted butter.
 * 15) If desired, sprinkle the grated cheese on top of the mash.
 * 16) If cooking without cheese, rough up the surface of the mash by dragging a fork across it, as if ploughing a field.
 * 17) Bake in a hot oven for about 30–50 minutes until the top is golden brown.
 * 18) Serve with peas or beans, or other green vegetables.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The etymology of the name Shepherd's Pie is related to the shepherding of lambs, whereas Cottage Pie was used to describe the dish made with beef—a cheaper meat that was eaten by the poor who lived in cottages. The terms are often used interchangeably, regardless of meat, though most cookbooks will refer to "shepherd's pie" if made with lamb, and "cottage pie" if made with beef, or highlight the possible variations within a single recipe.
 * Adding the butter and milk to the potatoes before they are properly mashed is the best way to make lumpy mash.
 * Roughing up the surface of the mash makes the top crispier, by increasing the surface area and providing thin sections which dry out and crisp faster; compare roast potatoes.
 * Frying the meat in lard can improve the texture and consistency of the finished product, although this also has the effect of increasing drastically the saturated fat content.
 * As with many dishes based on minced meat, the mince can be cooked for much longer in the stock than specified, up to two hours. Some cooks prefer this as it gives longer for the flavour to develop. People often comment that shepherd's pie tastes better when reheated the day after for this reason! A quicker alternative is to add a splash of Cookbook:Worcestershire Sauce or Cookbook:Soy Sauce, both of which act as flavour enhancers.
 * For cottage pie, peas or small chopped carrots are often integrated into the mince during the reduction step.

title: Cookbook:Shepherd's Pie I


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Filter

Filter Modules

 * 1) HP/LP 1-Pole
 * 2) HP/LP 1-Pole FM
 * 3) Allpass 1-Pole
 * 4) Multi 2-Pole
 * 5) Multi 2-Pole FM
 * 6) Multi/Notch 2-Pole
 * 7) Multi/Notch 2-Pole FM
 * 8) Multi/LP 4-Pole
 * 9) Multi/LP 4-PoleFM
 * 10) Multi/HP 4-Pole
 * 11) Multi/HP 4-Pole FM
 * 12) Pro-52
 * 13) Ladder
 * 14) Ladder FM
 * 15) Peak EQ
 * 16) Peak EQ FM
 * 17) High Shelf EQ
 * 18) High Shelf EQ FM
 * 19) Low Shelf EQ
 * 20) Low Shelf EQ FM
 * 21) Differentiator
 * 22) Integrator

Filters in general

 * Filter design
 * Low-pass filter
 * High-pass filter
 * Band-pass filter
 * Introduction to Digital Filters a sample chapter from The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing by Steven W. Smith

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Reaktor/Modules/Filter


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Sampler

Sampling in general

 * Signal sampling
 * Sampling

title: Reaktor/Modules/Sampler


text:
Reaktor/Modules/LFO, Envelope

LFO, Envelope Modules

 * 1) LFO
 * 2) Slow Random
 * 3) H
 * 4) HR
 * 5) D
 * 6) DR
 * 7) DSR
 * 8) DBDR
 * 9) DBDSR
 * 10) AD
 * 11) AR
 * 12) ADR
 * 13) ADSR
 * 14) ADBDR
 * 15) ADBDSR
 * 16) AHDSR
 * 17) AHDBDR
 * 18) 4-Ramp
 * 19) 5-Ramp
 * 20) 6-Ramp

LFO, Envelope in general

 * Low frequency oscillation
 * ADSR envelope at Wikipedia

title: Reaktor/Modules/LFO, Envelope


text:
Reaktor/Modules/MIDI In

MIDI Modules

 * 1) Note Pitch
 * 2) Pitchbend
 * 3) Gate
 * 4) Single Trig. Gate
 * 5) Sel. Note Gate
 * 6) On Velocity
 * 7) Off Velocity
 * 8) Controller
 * 9) Ch. Aftertouch
 * 10) Poly AfterTouch
 * 11) Sel. Poly AT
 * 12) Program Change
 * 13) Start/Stop
 * 14) 1/96 Clock
 * 15) Sync Clock
 * 16) Song Position

MIDI in general

 * MIDI on Wikipedia

title: Reaktor/Modules/MIDI In


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Receive

Receive terminal for wireless connections with Send terminals.

The input signal of the selected Send terminal feeds the output of this Receive terminal. The labels of all Send terminals which are inside of the same instrument are shown in the list in the Properties. The Use column allows to set a selection that is displayed in the panel control. The entry in the State column shows if the signal type of the Send terminal is connectable with the signal type of this Receive terminal (Audio to Event is impossible).

The maximum number of Send modules in one macro is 128.

title: Reaktor/Modules/Receive


text:
User:Verdlanco

Please see my self-presentation in the Wikipedia.

title: User:Verdlanco


text:
IB Music

IB Music is organized into two major volumes: Music History and Music Theory. Preceding both is a short introduction to the study of music. You will need to be familiar with all of these sections to analyze a piece of music well.

Volumes

 * /Introduction/
 * /Music History/
 * /Music Theory/
 * /Prescribed Works-2014/
 * About the Exam
 * /Contributors/
 * /Listening Paper/

title: IB Music


text:
Cookbook:Hamburger

| Meat recipes

A hamburger is a variant on a sandwich involving a patty of ground meat, usually beef (known in the United Kingdom as a beefburger), or a vegetarian patty. A slice of cheese on the patty makes it a cheeseburger, a common variation in the United States.

Ingredients

 * 500 g (1.1 lb) minced / ground beef
 * Herbs and spices (optional; see suggestions)
 * Cheese (optional; see suggestions)
 * Vegetables (lettuce, sprouts, tomato, onion etc; optional)
 * 1 hamburger bun per burger

Procedure

 * 1) Shape the ground beef by hand into burger patties. You should get between 4–6 burgers from 500 g (1.1 lb) of beef.
 * 2) If adding optional ingredients, either season the outside or mix into the beef before forming the patties. Overworking the beef will result in mushy meat that won't stick together, so only mix the minimum necessary and do so by hand.
 * 3) Pan-fry or grill the patties for about 4–5 minutes on each side for burgers that aren't too thick. Ensure your burgers are fully cooked through before serving. If your burgers are quite thick or if you are unsure, you can cut one open to ensure the insides are browned. If the insides are red, there is a chance that the meat is not fully cooked. Alternately, you can insert a meat thermometer into the center of the burger, if the temperature reads less than 71°C (160°F), your burger is undercooked.
 * 4) Let the burger rest for several minutes before serving to let the juices cool down and not burst out at first bite.
 * 5) Serve each burger on a bun, optionally with relish, sliced pickles, ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard, ranch dressing, cheese, lettuce, tomatoes and/or onions.

Ingredients

 * You can add a pat of butter or some cheese to the center of each burger before cooking.
 * You can use almost any type of minced (ground) meat to make hamburgers, including pork, chicken, turkey, lamb, bison, venison, ostrich, or even a meat substitute such as Quorn. Some variations of hamburgers call for mixing different types of meat (e.g. ground beef and ground pork).
 * Optional additions to burger patties prior to cooking include: black pepper, chili, Worcestershire Sauce, soy sauce, basil, oregano and parsley, minced garlic or garlic powder, onion flakes or diced onion, mustard, olive oil, cheese, butter, hot sauce, kosher salt, bread crumbs, and crushed crackers.
 * Depending on the quality of your local beef, for example, you may wish to add some beef stock to improve the flavour. If you add any liquids, mix the ground beef well then squeeze out the extra juice when forming patties.

Technique

 * Do not over-mix the meat—the burger will be tough, dense, and dry. If you mix herbs or spices in, do so by hand and be sparing. You can season the outside of the patties.
 * Burgers can also be smoked on a grill. Smoked burgers will appear red and glazed on the outside, but browned on the inside. Smoking a burger before grilling it is an excellent way to seal in the flavorful juices.
 * Hand-made burger patties change shape during cooking, with the edges shrinking in toward the middle. This causes the burger to be more ball-shaped than originally formed. To circumvent this, press the raw patties down much thinner than you want the finished burger to be.
 * Let the meat get to room temperature before cooking. This will help the burgers cook evenly and fully.
 * Do not add salt until right before you start cooking the patty.
 * If your burgers fall apart, adding an egg yolk will help keep it together. Buying lean ground beef will also help, although if the meat is too lean the burger may be excessively dry. Not mixing the ground meat in the first place will also ensure the patty's integrity.

Libro di cucina/Ricette/Hamburger 햄버거 料理本/肉料理/ハンバーガー

title: Cookbook:Hamburger


text:
IB Music/Contributors

 * Splat - Started wikibook, wrote cover page, introduction, and began music history section.
 * jamesrp - Wrote details on external & internal assessment.
 * SeminoleBand - Fixed a few mistakes in the Listening Paper section as well as going more in depth about the Musical Investigation
 * Fubbs - Added examples to Musical Investigation

Back to IB Music

title: IB Music/Contributors


text:
Template:Audio

Media:

title: Template:Audio


text:
Introduction to Game Theory/Strategic games

Like most sciences, Game theory is an attempt to model the world in a useful and objective way. The simplest model, the strategic game, is often a suitable analog for an analysis. Strategic games have three components: a set of players, for each player a set of strategies, and additionally a payoff function indicating how desirable each game outcome is for the player. The players in the game are the same as the players in the strategic model. Each player plays the game based on the strategic preference of that particular player. By giving each player a strategy, we get the outcome of the game. In mathematical notation:

 * Players: $$\{1, 2, \dots N\}$$

 * Strategy sets: $$\{S_1, S_2, \dots S_N\}$$ where $$S_i$$ is the set of possible strategies for player i and we could denote a specific strategy in the set by $$s_i \in S_i$$

 * Payoffs: $$\{u_1(\cdot), u_2(\cdot), \dots u_n(\cdot)\}$$ where each function is defined over the whole outcome of the game (i.e. the chosen strategies for each player) $$u_i(s_1, s_2, \dots, s_N)$$


text:
IB Music/Introduction

Back to IB Music

Definition of Music
In order to properly study music, we must have a working definition of what music is. Defining music is more difficult than it sounds. One has to distinguish between the well-known music of Mozart, the random noise of traffic, and the bizarre styles of contemporary music that might combine traffic and Mozart!

A particularly good example of music that pushes the traditionally accepted boundary of music is 4’33" by John Cage. This piece consists of complete silence for four minutes and thirty-three seconds. The music of the piece is created by the audience in their shuffling, coughing, wondering what happened to the music, etc.

A definition of music is an individual definition, but it must discern between random street noise and contemporary music, or between the ordered music of Haydn and the ordered sound of a speech. One good definition that might serve as a starting point for the reader is:

Music is organized sound with musical intention.

First and foremost, music must have some sort of sound. Even in bizarre examples such as 4'33", there still is sound- it’s just not produced by the performer. This sound needs to have some sort of musical intention as well. A street corner produces noise, but there is no musical intention, so it is not music. The sound must also be organized in some manner. Otherwise, a composer could pronounce a street corner to be “music.” The composer must intervene at some point to control the sound. Though 4’33” is comprised of randomly produced sounds by the audience, Cage exerts his control over the sound by limiting it to four minutes and thirty-three seconds. Also, as obvious as it might seem, the intention needs to have a 'musical' intention, not just an intention. Otherwise, a speech, which is organized sound with intention, would be considered music as well. Sound can only be music if someone wants it to be music.

Elements of Sound
The reason we can have music is because sounds can be different. There are three characteristics of sound that differentiate one sound from the next. These are:

 * Pitch
 * Timbre
 * Dynamic

Pitch
Formally defined, pitch is the frequency of a sound wave. More loosely, it is the "highness" or "lowness" of a sound. This is what distinguishes an A from a B.

Timbre
Timbre is also called the “tone quality” or “tone color.” This is the characteristic of a sound that makes a piano sound different from a trumpet or violin, even when they all are playing at the same pitch.

Dynamic
The formal definition of a dynamic is the amplitude of a sound wave. Loosely, this is how loud the sound is.

Elements of Music
IB analyzes a piece of music using seven characteristics. These are:

 * Melody
 * Harmony
 * Rhythm
 * Form
 * Texture
 * Medium
 * Context

Melody
Melody is the most difficult of the characteristics to define. While there is no good formal definition of "melody," it is loosely, the “song of the song,” or the “hummable” part of a piece. A melody is comprised of multiple musical “sentences,” called phrases. These phrases are then made up of steps and leaps. Steps are short risings or fallings of the melody (e.g. an A to a B or an F to an E). Leaps are longer risings or fallings of the melody (e.g. an A to a C or an F to a D).

Harmony
Harmony is the chord structure of a piece that supports a melody. While a melody can stand on its own, harmonies cannot stand on their own- they are only support. At any given point, a harmony has varying degrees of consonance and dissonance. Dissonance is a stressful sound that feels a need to find resolution. Consonance is the resolution of the dissonance and therefore the release of stress.

Form
The form of a piece is the overall structure it takes. For example, a piece might take the most common, ternary, form (ABA). In this form, a section of music will be played and a different section will follow it. After the second section is played, the piece returns to the original section of music and plays it over again.

Texture
The texture of a piece refers to the layers of sound that are heard. There are three possible textures of a piece of music:

 * Monophonic
 * Homophonic
 * Polyphonic

Monophonic Texture
Monophonic texture is a single, unaccompanied melodic line.

Homophonic Texture
Homophonic texture is a single melodic line that is accompanied by a harmony.

Polyphonic Texture
Polyphonic texture are multiple melodic lines playing at the same time.

Some useful sites with short listening examples of the different types of textures http://gmajormusictheory.org/Listening/textures/textures.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/musicalelements/texturerev1.shtml

Medium
Medium refers to the instruments that play a piece of music. If the piece being analyzed is a symphony, then the medium will be an orchestra. If the piece being analyzed is a violin sonata, then the medium will be a violin and a piano. To analyze the medium of a piece, one needs to have a strong understanding of the various commonly used instruments. Instruments to know are as follows:

Orchestral Instruments

Strings

 * Violin
 * Viola
 * Violoncello (abbr. Cello)
 * Double Bass

Woodwind

 * Piccolo
 * Flute
 * Oboe
 * English Horn
 * Bb(most common)Clarinet
 * Bass Clarinet
 * Bassoon

Other, perhaps less used Woodwinds

 * (Contra) Bass Flute
 * Oboe d'Amore
 * Bass Oboe
 * Contrabassoon
 * Contrabass Clarinet
 * Several Different Keys of Clarinet

Brass

 * Cornet
 * Bugle
 * Trumpet
 * French Horn
 * Baritone
 * Euphonium
 * Trombone
 * Tuba
 * Sousaphone

Percussion

 * Snare Drum
 * Tympani
 * Bass Drum
 * Triangle
 * Chimes
 * Xylophone
 * Marimba
 * Glockenspiel

Other Commonly Used Instruments
Strings
 * Harp
 * Guitar
 * Lute
 * Harpsichord (Found in Baroque Music, predecessor to Piano)
 * Piano (sometimes considered percussion)

Woodwind
 * Saxophone (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Baritone, Bass, Double Bass, Contra Bass, Sub-Contra Bass)
 * Recorder

Context
The context of a piece of music refers to the general time period of the work and external influences on the piece of music. E.g. the composer’s life, musical styles of the time, instruments of the period, political happenings, etc. There are six major musical periods we will study. In chronological order, these are:

 * Medieval
 * Renaissance
 * Baroque
 * Classical
 * Romantic
 * 20th Century

These elements will be used throughout our study of music to analyze specific pieces. A good understanding of these elements aids one in writing the analysis essay because it provides a starting point for writing your essay.

Back to IB Music

title: IB Music/Introduction


text:
File:Mary Melody.JPG

Melody of Mary Had a Little Lamb

title: File:Mary Melody.JPG


text:
Introduction to Game Theory/Extensive games

<<Back to Introduction to Game Theory

To model games in which the players take turns the extensive form can be used.

We can define an extensive game as a tuple with four elements (P, S, F, U) where
 * P is a set of players.
 * S is a set of sequences (terminal histories) with the property that no sequence is the proper subhistory of any other sequence
 * F is a function (player function) that assigns a player to every move in a terminal history.
 * U is a set of preferences over the set of terminal histories for each player.

Example (The Entry game) An incumbent faces the possibility of entry by a challenger. This can be an animal competing for the right to mate, a firm entering a new market currently controled by a monopoly, or a politician competing for party backing. The challenger may choose enter or not. If he enters, the incumbent may either acquiesce or fight. For the challenger, he prefers to enter and have the incombent back down, and doesn't like to get into a fight. The incumbent prefers the challenger to stay out, and also doesn't like to fight.


text:
File:Mary Harmony.JPG

The melody and harmony of Mary Had a Little Lamb

title: File:Mary Harmony.JPG


text:
Talk:IB Music/Introduction

Improvements to be made: -Splat
 * Redraw the Mary Had a Little Lamb pictures so they are clearer
 * Add further analysis of those pictures (e.g. consonance and dissonance)

You may want to add a D.C. al Fine to the Bach minuet to really make it obvious it's ABA. Dysprosia 05:27, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Sure thing. Splat

title: Talk:IB Music/Introduction


text:
File:Polyphonic Bach Invention.JPG

A Public-Domain Excerpt of Bach's Invention 1

title: File:Polyphonic Bach Invention.JPG


text:
IB Music/Music History

The Western Music section of the IB Music History Volume is divided into chapters of the various periods of music. The Non-Western Music section is divided into chapters of the various regions of the world.

Useful links for IB music history http://www.ibcram.com/Music.php

Chapters

 * I. Medieval Period (450 - 1450)
 * II. The Renaissance (1450-1600)
 * III. The Baroque Period (1600-1750)
 * IV. The Classical Period (1750-1820)
 * V. The Romantic Period (1820-1900)
 * VI. The Twentieth Century (1900 - )

Chapters

 * I. Latin American Music
 * II. African Music
 * III. Indian Music
 * IV. Gamelan Music
 * V. Chinese Music
 * VI. Japanese Music
 * I. Celtic Music

title: IB Music/Music History


text:
User talk:Gkhan/Closest pair of points

Very nice... would you mind if I started editing your copy here? MShonle 04:02, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gkhan/Closest pair of points


text:
File:Algorithms-NetFlow2.png

a path taken over the top

title: File:Algorithms-NetFlow2.png


text:
Latin/Spoken

This chapter's purpose is to demonstrate hands-on spoken latin using dialogues, word lists, colloquial expressions and all that is needed to grasp spoken latin.

It is recommended that you cover all verb, adjective and noun endings and have read through the rest of the Latin book, or at least the revision pages, before you embark on this. Subjunctive, infinitive and indicative all need to be well understood in order to complete this course.

At the end of every exercise there will be a show-hide exercise and sometimes an English-Latin translation. There will often be referenced footnotes showing where there have been quotes from original Latin authors and tips to usage of sentences.

Introduction
Latin as a language was spoken from its earliest origins all through the middle ages to the renaissance and beyond by numerous students, scholars and the educated nobility. Like all spoken languages, Latin evolved in vocabulary and form. Often the vernacular languages influenced how Latin was spoken. While there were many attempts to stay true to Ciceronian form in speech and writing by scholars, most when they spoke the Latin tongue used forms and vocabulary often derived from their mother tongue which would have been incomprehensible to Classical speakers. Latin grammar has remained fixed and unchanged for centuries.

The two most controversial issues about the living use of Latin (living Latin) are pronunciation and the introduction of new words. Regarding modern vocabulary, many schools exist, and there is no consensus as yet. The Roman Catholic Church publishes a lexicon (Lexicon Recentis Latinitatis) with an exhaustive number of modern words translated into Latin; often this is done through cumbersome periphrases (e.g. a hippie is ‘osor conformitatis’) and other times by arbitrary coinage of new words.

Pronunciation
When speaking Latin, the choice is usually between ‘ecclesiastical’ pronunciation and ‘classical’ pronunciation.

The ‘ecclesiastical’ pronunciation nowadays usually refers to the Italian pronunciation of ecclesiastical or ‘Church’ Latin, which is still the official liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Desiring uniformity, this Italian pronunciation is often encouraged as the standard for Masses celebrated in the Latin language. It is however only one of many regional systems of pronunciation. An example of the Italian pronunciation can be found in this video.

‘Classical’ pronunciation, like the Italian pronunciation, offers consistency of sound across national borders. It also aims to be a scholarly reconstruction of how ancient Romans spoke, or at least educated speakers of the late Republican/early imperial period. It is described in books such as the paradigmatic Allen's Vox Latina. An example of classical Latin pronunciation can be found in this video.

The sound of the classical pronunciation, in particular the replacement of the ‘v’ sound with the ‘w’ sound, has been the subject of controversy. It is, however, the clear favorite of the ‘Living Latin’ movement, which has the fastest growing number of new speakers of the language.

Lessons

 * Basic conversations
 * Telling people where you're from and what language you speak

Revisions

 * /Revision 1/
 * /Revision 2/
 * /Revision 3/

Assessments
Latein/ Gesprochenes Latein
 * /Test 1/

title: Latin/Spoken


text:
Calculus/Contributing

Notes on contributing to the Calculus textbook. This is the Local manuals of style for the Calculus textbook.

Note to new contributors
The guidelines given below are intended to keep the organization and style of the book consistent, to reduce the need to rework edits, and to communicate best practices. It is not intended to be a barrier to contributions by would-be contributors. If you have something to contribute but don't have time to read up on all the guidelines given below, go ahead and make your contribution. Other experienced contributors can touch up your edits afterwards so that they conform to the guidelines.

Structure
The structure currently being implemented is as follows:
 * The book is divided into chapters and sections, with related sections grouped into supersections (e.g. Integration Techniques within the Integration chapter). These sections are listed on the main page.
 * Each section is assigned a section number.
 * "==" should be the highest level header used in any section. "=" is reserved for major divisions within the print version of the book.
 * Each page including exercises links to a corresponding page of solutions.
 * Pages of solutions are organized based on their corresponding page of exercises (exercises set one has a corresponding set one of solutions, etc.).

Conventions

 * Use templates to separate chapters and sections in the print version.
 * Section titles should use title casing while sub-section headers should use sentence casing. Named theorems should be capitalized (e.g. Mean Value Theorem).
 * All content pages and section pages should include the template at the top and bottom of the page. This template links to the previous and next section or content page. The order of pages defined by the links in the  template should agree with all tables of contents.
 * All content pages and section pages should include just below the bottom  template.
 * Whenever you want to refer to a section by its section number, use . Then any changes in the ordering of sections can be done easily by changing the  template.
 * Exercises are sequentially numbered within each section.
 * Solutions should be complete and logical. Particularly important steps should be noted and described in words as well as being shown symbolically. Naming Convention: Calculus/[Section-Name]/Solutions (ex. Calculus/Differentiation/Solutions)
 * Give each figure a figure number. Figure numbering restarts with each new section.
 * Use and  for inline math text that shouldn't be broken up across lines.
 * Link figure references in the text to the figure's file using Figure k.
 * Use "\left(" and "\right)" for parenthesis, "\left|" and "\right|" for absolute values, etc. This makes the LaTeX render better in many cases.
 * Use an invisible delimiter (i.e. "\.") with "\|_a^b" for evaluating the antiderivative of an definite integral. The invisible delimiter causes the size of the vertical bar to be sized according to the size of the expression being evaluated.
 * Use question-answer templates for exercises like this:
 * The noprint template prevents the answer from appearing with the exercise in the print version.
 * The noprint template prevents the answer from appearing with the exercise in the print version.

 * Solutions (as opposed to answers) go on the solutions page like this:
 * Bold the answer using either Answer or $$\mathbf{Answer}$$ so that people using the print version can quickly find the answer.
 * Bold the answer using either Answer or $$\mathbf{Answer}$$ so that people using the print version can quickly find the answer.

 * Prefer \frac{a}{b} to {a\over b}. Using consistent markup reduces the need to do multiple searches on different search terms if looking for a particular fraction.
 * Use a single space between sentences unless there is a specific reason to do otherwise. Extra whitespace is ignored anyway, so adding extra whitespace only adds to the size of the page without changing its appearance. If you need to add extra whitespace for layout, use "&nbsp;" (the html code for a space) within text or "\,", "\quad", or "\qquad" within tags for small, medium, and large spaces, respectively.

Templates
See /Templates for a list of all Calculus textbook templates.

produces this navigation box:

All Calculus content pages should include this at the top of the page and at the bottom just above the   template.

produces this navigation box:

All Calculus content pages should include this at the bottom of the page. This also adds the page to |the book category.

returns the section number for the Algebra section, i.e. . Use this template when you want to refer to a section by its section number. If you re-order the sections, edit the template to reflect the new ordering. That way all references in the book will be updated to return the correct section number.

produces a box for important text:

Use this to introduce significant new definitions and concepts. See Calculus/Limits, where the informal definition of a limit is inside such a box.

produces a stub notice, signifying that the given page or section is too short.

On inclusiveness vs. exclusiveness
An Extensions section is included for further topics. Any study beyond fairly basic calculus should be in this section. We should aim to include more than is necessary and ensure that our readers are aware of this. The book should be structured so that J. Random Student can find a rigorous course in the essentials of calculus but also include further study of the topic that readers can pick and choose topics from, as their interests warrant.

TODO

 * ADD MORE, ORGANIZE MORE.
 * Provide a more in-depth Precalculus section.
 * Create problem sets (preferably original, rigorous and realistic).
 * Create answer sets.

title: Calculus/Contributing


text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Kuiper Belt

Sources.
extends from Neptune's orbit [1]

to aproximately 3 billion km beyond it (to about 50 AU (~7.4 billion km - 30 AU ~4.5)) [1][30]

contains objects of icy material [30]

with organic compounds

What are they named after?
Orcus [50]

Charon [51]

Quaoar [52]

Varuna [53]

Ixion [54]

- Except for sources indicated below, the 2004-11-26t01:30z version of the English Wikipedia article was used. Please add better sources.

The fact that it was discovered at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii [0] might be used if we use the Kiki/Niki character:

[0] 2005-03-15t06:51z version of (15760) 1992 QB1.

[1] Arnett, Bill. The nine planets: a multimedia tour of the solar system. The Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud, paragraph 5. 2004-03-15 http://www.nineplanets.org/kboc.html as accessed on 2005-09-25.

[30] Jewitt, David. Kuiper belt, paragraph 1. http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb/kb.con.html as accessed on 2005-09-25.

[50] 2005-02-13t00:28z version of 90482 Orcus.

[51] 2005-02-15t01:55z version of Charon (moon), and the 2005-02-14t19:26z version of Charon (mythology).

[52] 2005-03-05t19:32z version of 50000 Quaoar.

[53] 2005-03-04t14:04z version of Varuna.

[54] 2005-03-18t22:51z version of Ixion.

it would appear that we have some more
what is the cut off point for this page and what are we going to do about UB313 ?

Edits not made because of proofreading restrictions.
I saw that astronomers is spelled astronmomers but I dare not correct for fear of being arrested by the bureaucracy that seems to rule this place. Has homeland security taken over wiki?

af:Gebruiker:Jcwf 152.1.193.141 20:17, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

 * If you can help, please do. We could certainly use the help!  I don't understand about bureaucracy, rule, FEMA, and this wikibook.  --SV Resolution 23:13, 24 September 2005 (UTC)

In the 1st paragraph I suggest we add "aproximately" to distance, and replace "lumps" ("objects"? or something simpler to understand?).— Jeandré,2005-09-25t12:25z

Charon in the belt
In the Pluto article they decided to make Pluto a planet so we probably shouldn't call it a Kuiper Belt object here for the purposes of internal consistancy.--Gbleem 19:20, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Pluto and its moons are KBOs and TNOs - I don't think this is disputed. Some agree with the IAU that it is a (major) planet also, some do not. I wonder how the translation/localizing of the articles will handle this, with non English versions maybe putting much less emphasis to the continued planet definition. — Jeandré, 2005-11-11t19:36z


text:
Talk:Computer Programming/Types

some languages
There are a lot of "some languages do this" and "most languages do that" statement which I found rather dry and theoretical. I have added some exampels for "this" and "that" and at least I have the feeling that the text is now more practical and lively.

--Krischik 10:40, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

more languages and types
There are languages for different purposes
 * higher math
 * business transactions
 * military
 * academia

They tend to have data types unheard of in other computing worlds. I added some data types from my world, and added to the lsits of languages that support what, but as a newbie, I can't figure out what I am doing wrong to cause extra line breaks within those language lists. AlMac 23:35, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

The article has become a mess
I have added some chapter heading to add structure but it is far from perfect. Please help sorting out the mess.

--Krischik T 08:44, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer Programming/Types


text:
Talk:Data Structures/Arrays

some languages
I repeat my statement fromt the types artile: Here too, there are a lot of "some languages do this" and "most languages do that" statement which I found rather dry and theoretical. Again I have added some exampels for "this" and "that" and at least I have the feeling that the text is now more practical and lively.

Only: I have no example for start index [1] can anybody help me out here?

--Krischik 10:41, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Structure of chapter and the book
Hi Krischik: I've noticed the change from integer indexes to any type of indexes. While it's correct that "arrays" can have different index types in high-level languages, I think the point here is to first begin with the absolute lowest-levels first.

In particular, I think the most elementary concepts are the node (e.g. the pair in Lisp, and a two element struct in C) and the integer indexed array. The concept of the node is really the idea of pointers with elements attached to them, and the concept of the array is a simple block of memory you access via offsets. The story I'd like to see this book tell is how, from these two ideas, you can build all other data structures. Thus, when we cover ballanced binary trees, we can mention that's how C++ implements associative arrays.

As for languages, I propose we stick to the pseudo code language and only in the node an array chapters do we show how the code would translate to equivalent C, Java, Scheme, and Python code. (Perhaps another chapter on structs could be covered, showing how to get the equivalent in Scheme.) The abstract ideas should be presented first, and then made concrete by presenting the different languages. (Note: asides and footnotes could still mention other languages, but I would want to resrict that only to widely used or historically important languages.)

So, the idea is that most of the book would be language independent except for the first two or three chapters, and then you'll see everything built up from what was presented before. This includes self-resizing arrays, associative arrays, hashtables, et cetera...

I'm eager to make the book structure changes as discussed on the main talk page as well, and I would like to know what you think.

more abstract
I do aggree with you on most points. Only I see the "low level" and "language independent" more abstract: The array consist of an index which is used to access elements.

Only actual languages restrict the kind of types which can be used as index type or element type - depending on the actual balance between flexibilty, savety and speed which is needed. Like most compiling languages need a discreed type as index type and an definite type as element type so that all elements kann be layed in one large area of memory.

As for languages: I am in favor of broadening the readers mind. Show that here is a live beyond C (no bound checks only int as index type) and Java (only primitives and pointers as element type, only int as index type).

--Krischik 11:07, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

beyond C and Java
To me, the life beyond C and Java is Scheme! It's probably the most important language that is radically different from the current fads. While I'd love to use, say, Smalltalk, instead of Python, that could lead the book to lose it's razor sharp focus. We can completely cover other array types, but I think we should wait until we've shown the user how to build them, first.

That is, we tell the story of the node and the array as if they "came from the heavens" as virtually all languages provide support for them. We then can discuss the concrete instantiations of these two items in the different langauges, and from then on, nothing will be from the heavens, but built-up from these simple concepts.

(So as not to get too much of a distracted reading style, we could include links at the end of chapters where we'd like to elaborate more, either links to the Ada programming book, or the wikipedia, or special end-note pages. Because this is a tutorial hitting only the main points, we should keep the side notes and distractions down. Otherwise, I'd probably go into a full-blown explaination of data structures in the Lambda Calculus, which is more suitable for the programming languages book.) MShonle 18:41, 27 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Maybe without implementation languages
Choosing the right implementation languages is diffcult indeed. Especialy here because the mainstream langugages have particulary bad array implementations (did you have a little peek at the Ada implementation). Maybe we should just explain the various features of arrays, give an overview which language implements which feature and the just link to Programming:C and Programming:Ada and so on for further reading.

The overview could be layed out as a table, then we can add as many languages as we like without causing distraction and no language advocate would feel left behind.

Of corse, you would have to first write Programming:Scheme:arrays ;-).

 * I don't think the Ada example is bad in this section (as long as it compiles). I think SMALL examples add some interest for more experienced readers. And small being 15 or fewer lines. Christopher.Reilly (discuss • contribs) 11:36, 17 June 2015 (UTC)

the data structure concepts are our foremost
Perhaps we differ on what we think this chapter should cover. I do not want to make an encyclopedic treatise on all of the usages of the word "array" and how this programming language or that programming language implements them differently.

To me, the purpose of the array chapter is to cover the concept of a single buffer of memory that is a table of homogenous entries, indexed with integer offsets. This is the most fundamental building block, next to the concept of the node. We need to cover the fundamentals well before we can speak of the even more advanced data-structures. (We can mention that some languages do bounds checks and others don't; and we can even mention slicing: but as an operation, not a programming language feature.)

I'm not opposed to the idea of linking to different articles, but that can lead to a very poor reading experience. I'd rather that links go only one level deep (as in the Computer science:Algorithms book), so that a student could print out each chapter and be sure they have everything they need (printing is still very common in the States).

I would like to cover that set of languages (C, Scheme, Java, and Python) in this chapter and the Node chapter in order to show how the pseudo-code language can be translated. Also, a secondary purpose is to convince the reader that isues like implementation language is not very signifigant when discussing data structures. If we present the concepts well enough they will see the forest instead of the trees.

-- MShonle 15:29, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Sticking with the traditional integer-indexed (from 0) notion of array as a address-accessible contiguous block of storage is hugely important if students will be able to use this section as part of their education about data structures (and algorithms). Languages that allow other data types as array indexes are (in my experience, at least) really implementing a dictionary/hash table lookup, putting a somewhat complicated layer of abstraction underneath the familiar syntax. (I should look into the implementation details some day, but I strongly suspect that PHP does not have classic arrays at all, just dictionaries.)

Including relevant information about the special "array" tricks and variations of real-life programming languages readers will be using is important, but I believe it is confusing to place those in the main body of what should properly be a description of the fundamental/classic array.

As an instructor, I would prefer to see a clear description of a traditional array first, with the implementation details for specific popular languages moved to a second section. Having encountered this discussion about a decade later, perhaps that will be my job ;-)

--Davidhbrown (discuss • contribs) 13:29, 16 July 2014 (UTC)

set of languages
If you fix a set of languages then there will allways be advocates for other languages - like me - knocking on your door. For example: as soon as you need any of the following in C "*", "&", malloc, free I show you that Ada can do without ;-).

Yes, Implementation language are not very signifigant when discussing data structures but they are when it comes down to actualy implementing them. So again: maybe we should live without and use only pseudo-code. Computer science:Algorithms certanly does - the Appendix is empty. Actualy there pseudo-code looks quite nice and understandable without a syntax guide. I am all in favor of using that and there way of using arrays (fixed bound  and variable bounds  ).

BTW: I know 3 of the suggested languages and I have 15 years experience in programming C and C++. I don't want the reader to belive that the criple C offers as an array is realy it.

--Krischik 17:51, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * OK, how about we this: We'll use only the pseduo-code as in the Algorithms book, and only for the Array and Node chapters will be include "deeper" links to cover the fundamental data structures in other languages (including Ada, if you'd like). We can speak of the "get-element" and "set-element" operations as being fundamental, and that the subscript "[]" notation is just a short-hand. (Which reminds me, perhaps getting the length of the array should be considered an operation.)

 * The reader won't be lead to believe that the too basic C arrays are it (i.e., you can't resize, and no bounds checks), because the rest of the book will fully cover the better data-structures.

 * BTW, now that you're active, take a look at my section proposal. If you're OK with it, I'll start making the changes, including chapter navigation and a "Why a Wikibook on Data Structures" message as in the Algorithms book. MShonle 18:41, 28 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * well do go ahead.

pseduo-code
You where asking about an operation for the lenght of an array. I have a proposal based on Ada's operatations on arrays:

 * 'First : index of first element
 * 'Last  : index on last element
 * 'Lenght : shorthand for ('Last - 'First + 1)
 * 'Range : shorthand for ['First .. 'Last]

For the pseduo-code we might drop the esoteric tic ' and use the well known dot. instead.

Example:

A : array [1 .. 10] for I := A.First to A.Last: repeat

or if you like functional syntax more then object.operation syntax:

A : array [1 .. 10] for I := First (A) to Last (A): repeat

Actualy: functional syntax reads more like natural english.

As a side note, the Ada equivalent is

for I in A'Range loop; end loop;

But I don't think this is very suitable for pseduo-code and therefore we could drop the 'Range operation alltogether.

Saying all that, Algorithms use a ISO-Pascal like syntax:

array a[1..n]

Which works perfectly well as well.

another side note: actualy in ISO-Pascal it would be something like this:

procedure X (A : array [n .. m : integer] of character)

 * I prefer the functional syntax because that will be the only choice we have for, say, queues and hashtables. I.e., we can have lookup and insert methods, so if our most fundamental data-structures are similar (except for using the subscript operator) then things would seem to mesh better.

 * I do like saying simply "array a" and "value" (with no type) when the types of the elements don't really matter. That way, the code could translate just as well to an untyped language, to a language with generics, or to a language where you have to commit to the type. (Generics would only clutter the code, however important they are to use in the real-world.) MShonle 17:24, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * I do agree here with you.

 * --Krischik 18:39, 29 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data Structures/Arrays


text:
Ada Programming/Types/array

An array is a collection of elements which can be accessed by one or more index values. In Ada any definite type is allowed as element and any discrete type, i.e. Range, Modular or Enumeration, can be used as an index.

Declaring arrays
Ada's arrays are quite powerful and so there are quite a few syntax variations, which are presented below.

Basic syntax
The basic form of an Ada array is:

(Index_Range) Element_Type

where Index_Range is a range of values within a discrete index type, and Element_Type is a definite subtype. The array consists of one element of "Element_Type" for each possible value in the given range. If you for example want to count how often a specific letter appears inside a text, you could use:

Character_Counter  (Character)  Natural;

Very often, the index does not have semantic contents by itself, it is just used a means to identify elements for instance in a list. Thus, as a general advice, do not use negative indices in these cases. It is also a good style when using numeric indices, to define them starting in 1 instead of 0, since it is more intuitive for humans and avoids off-by-one errors.

There are, however, cases, where negative indices make sense. So use indices adapted to the problem at hand. Imagine you are a chemist doing some experiments depending on the temperature:

Temperature  -10 .. +40;   Experiment   (Temperature )  Something;

With known subrange
Often you don't need an array of all possible values of the index type. In this case you can your index type to the actually needed range.

Index_Sub_Type Index_Type  First .. Last (Index_Sub_Type) Element_Type

Since this may involve a lot of typing and you may also run out of useful names for new subtypes, the array declaration allows for a shortcut:

(Index_Type First .. Last)  Element_Type

Since First and Last are expressions of Index_Type, a simpler form of the above is:

(First .. Last) Element_Type

Note that if First and Last are numeric literals, this implies the index type Integer.

If in the example above the character counter should only count upper case characters and discard all other characters, you can use the following array type:

Character_Counter  (Character  'A' .. 'Z')  Natural;

With unknown subrange
Sometimes the range actually needed is not known until runtime or you need objects of different lengths. In some languages you would resort to pointers to element types. Not with Ada. Here we have the box '<>', which allows us to declare indefinite arrays:

(Index_Type <>)  Element_Type;

When you declare objects of such a type, the bounds must of course be given and the object is constrained to them.

The predefined type String is such a type. It is defined as

String  (Positive  <>)  Character;

You define objects of such an unconstrained type in several ways (the extrapolation to other arrays than String should be obvious):

Text : String (10 .. 20); Input: String := Read_from_some_file;

(These declarations additionally define anonymous subtypes of String.) In the first example, the range of indices is explicitly given. In the second example, the range is implicitly defined from the initial expression, which here could be via a function reading data from some file. Both objects are constrained to their ranges, i.e. they cannot grow nor shrink.

With aliased elements
If you come from C/C++, you are probably used to the fact that every element of an array has an address. The C/C++ standards actually demand that.

In Ada, this is not true. Consider the following array:

Day_Of_Month  1 .. 31;  Day_Has_Appointment   (Day_Of_Month)  Boolean; (Day_Has_Appointment);

Since we have packed the array, the compiler will use as little storage as possible. And in most cases this will mean that 8 boolean values will fit into one byte.

So Ada knows about arrays where more than one element shares one address. So what if you need to address each single element. Just not using pragma Pack is not enough. If the CPU has very fast bit access, the compiler might pack the array without being told. You need to tell the compiler that you need to address each element via an access.

Day_Of_Month  1 .. 31;  Day_Has_Appointment   (Day_Of_Month)   Boolean;

Arrays with more than one dimension
Arrays can have more than one index. Consider the following 2-dimensional array:

Character_Display Positive  Positive    Character

This type permits declaring rectangular arrays of characters. Example:

Magic_Square Character_Display S A T O R      A R E P O       T E N E T       O P E R A       R O T A S

Or, stating some index values explicitly,

Magic_Square Character_Display1  5 1  5 1 S A T O R       2  A R E P O       3  T E N E T       4  O P E R A       5  R O T A S

The index values of the second dimension, those indexing the characters in each row, are in 1 5 here. By choosing a different second range, we could change these to be in 11 15:

Magic_Square Character_Display1  5 11  15 1 S A T O R        ...

By adding more dimensions to an array type, we could have squares, cubes (or « bricks »), etc., of homogenous data items.

Finally, an array of characters is a string (see Ada Programming/Strings). Therefore, Magic_Square may simply be declared like this:

Magic_Square Character_Display "SATOR" "AREPO" "TENET" "OPERA" "ROTAS"

Assignment
When accessing elements, the index is specified in parentheses. It is also possible to access slices in this way:

Vector_A (1 .. 3) := Vector_B (3 .. 5);

Note that the index range slides in this example: After the assignment, Vector_A (1) = Vector_B (3) and similarly for the other indices.

Also note that slice assignments are done in one go, not in a loop character by character, so that assignments with overlapping ranges work as expected:

Name: String (1 .. 13) := "Lady Ada    "; Name (6 .. 13) := Name (1 .. 8);

The result is "Lady Lady Ada" (and not "Lady Lady Lad").

Slicing
As has been shown above, in slice assignments index ranges slide. Also subtype conversions make index ranges slide:

Str_1_8 String (1 .. 8);

The result of Str_1_8 (Name (6 .. 13)) has the new bounds 1 and 8 and contents "Lady Ada" and is not a copy. This is the best way to change the bounds of an array or of parts thereof.

Concatenate
The operator "&" can be used to concatenate arrays:

Name := First_Name & ' ' & Last_Name;

In both cases, if the resulting array does not fit in the destination array, Constraint_Error is raised.

If you try to access an existing element by indexing outside the array bounds, Constraint_Error is raised (unless checks are suppressed).

Array Attributes
There are four Attributes which are important for arrays: ', ', ' and '. Lets look at them with an example. Say we have the following three strings:

Hello_World :  String := "Hello World!"; World       :  String := Hello_World (7 .. 11); Empty_String : String := "";

Then the four attributes will have the following values:

The example was chosen to show a few common beginner's mistakes:

 * 1) The assumption that strings begin with the index value 1 is wrong (cf. World'First = 7 on the second line).
 * 2) The assumption (which follows from the first one) that X'Length = X'Last is wrong.
 * 3) The assumption that X'Last >= X'First; this is not true for empty strings.

The index subtype of predefined type String is Positive, therefore excluding 0 or -17 etc. from the set of possible index values, by subtype constraint (of Positive). Also, 'A' or 2.17e+4 are excluded, since they are not of type Positive.

The attribute ' is a little special as it does not return a discrete value but an abstract description of the array. One might wonder what it is good for. The most common use is in the for loop on arrays. When looping over all elements of an array, you need not know the actual index range; by using the attribute, one of the most frequent errors, accessing elements out of the index range, can never occur:

I World' ... World (I)... ;

' can also be used in declaring a name for the index subtype:

Hello_World_Index Integer  Hello_World'Range;

The attribute can be convenient when programming index checks:

K World WorldK Substitute

Empty or Null Arrays
As you have seen in the section above, Ada allows for empty arrays. Any array whose last index value is lower than the first index value is empty. And — of course — you can have empty arrays of all sorts, not just String:

Some_Array  (Positive range <>)  Boolean; Empty_Some_Array : Some_Array (1 .. 0) := ( => False); Also_Empty: Some_Array (42 .. 10);

Note: If you give an initial expression to an empty array (which is a must for a constant), the expression in the aggregate will of course not be evaluated since there are no elements actually stored.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Types
 * Data Structures
 * Data Structures/Arrays

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Array

Programación en Ada/Tipos/Arrays

title: Ada Programming/Types/array


text:
Reaktor/Modules/In Port

The maximum number of In Ports in one design page is 40 (from Leviathan User's Guide and Event Logic tutorial v2.0, page 30)

Reasons for illegal connections (red cross on module's input port)

 * 1) Audio output can not be connected to Event input and vice versa. You can change Audio signal to Event with A to E module
 * 2) Polyphonic outputs cannot be connected to monophonic inputs. You can use ../Audio Voice Combiner/
 * 3) Polyphonic signals cannot be send between instruments. You can use ../Send/ and ../Receive/ instead, but it will cause 30 msec latency

title: Reaktor/Modules/In Port


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Out Port

The maximum number of Out Ports in one design page is 40.

From Leviathan User's Guide and Event Logic tutorial v2.0, page 30

title: Reaktor/Modules/Out Port


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Send

 * The maximum number of Send modules in one instrument 128. From Leviathan User's Guide and Event Logic tutorial v2.0, page 30
 * Send module can send audio and events within instument (not between different instruments). In comparison, the ../IC Send/ module can make cableless event connection within ensemble (i.e. between instruments)

title: Reaktor/Modules/Send


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Value

When an event arrives to the IN port (and only in such case), it is immediately changed to a value set by VAL port. It's a simple and very fast substitution of one value to another one.

title: Reaktor/Modules/Value


text:
Reaktor/Hosts/Ableton Live

Links

 * Ableton Live User Forums

Known integration problems

 * none?

title: Reaktor/Hosts/Ableton Live


text:
Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Authors

Hey, are we going to have a philosophy authors' Christmas party?

--publunch 16:55, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

so, this is all original material? not even starting w/ free stuff from elsewhere? if so, is that deliberate, or just what folks have felt like doing so far?

either way, good luck, and maybe i'll help out sometime when i'm (feeling) more learned. in the meanwhile, any suggestions on where to go for the basics? 08:11, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Authors


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Applied algebra for Reaktor users

What you should know
Algebra is by far the most important form of mathematics needed when it comes to working with Reaktor. Ideally one should have an understanding of high school algebra, along with at least some peripheral knowledge of trigonometry. One generally does not encounter circumstances in Reaktor where things such as the quadratic equation are needed, but generally speaking you should be comfortable with solving single variable linear equations (i.e. solving for x if: $$2x + 10 = 4x$$) and double variable linear equations (i.e. solving for y if: $$3y = 2x + 6y + 20$$). Polynomials with terms to powers greater than one are not encountered too often (i.e. $$y = x^{2} + 3x + 4$$), but you may encounter them when doing such things as shaping linear controller data into a curve.

Resources

 * http://www.mathleague.com/help/algebra/algebra.htm -- A basic introduction to algebra with a focus on turning sentences into equations (you can ignore the section on sequences)
 * http://www.ifigure.com/math/algebra/algebra.htm -- Contains several dozen useful web-based algebraic calculators

Scaling data from one range to another
$$f(x)=\frac{M' - m'}{M - m}\cdot (x - m)+m'$$
 * x = input
 * f(x) = output
 * m = min value of input
 * M = max value of input
 * m' = min value of output
 * M' = max value of output

As an example, say you have an LFO which is outputting in a range from -1 to 1. However, you want the LFO to be outputting in a range from 30 to 50. We can use the above formula to construct a function which transforms our input from the old range to the new range: We simply plug in our values and then simplify. NOTE: The dot ( $$\cdot$$ ) signifies multiplication. Subtracting a negative is the same as adding.
 * $$f(x)=\frac{(50) - (30)}{(1) - (-1)}\cdot (x - (-1))+(30)$$
 * $$f(x) = \frac{20}{1 + 1}\cdot (x + 1) + 30$$
 * $$f(x) = 10\cdot (x+1) + 30$$

Taking into account order of operations (from highest priority to lowest: parenthesis, exponents, multiplication and division, addition and subtraction), we see that we can transform our input via three easy steps:
 * 1) Add 1 to the input -- This shifts the range (-1..1) to (0..2).
 * 2) Multiply the result of that by 10 -- This scales the range of (0..2) to (0..20).
 * 3) Add 30 to the result of the multiplication -- This shifts the range of (0..20) to (30..50), our goal.

Here is one more example, where we transform our input with a range of -300 to 24 into data with a range of 100 to 10000. NOTE: We do not reduce the fraction because 9900 ÷ 324 produces a repeating decimal (30.55555...).
 * $$f(x)=\frac{(10000) - (100)}{(24) - (-300)}\cdot (x - (-300))+(100)$$
 * $$f(x)=\frac{9900}{324}\cdot (x + 300)+(100)$$

Hence we get the following steps:
 * 1) Divide 9900 by 324 -- This gives us 30.555555...
 * 2) Add 300 to the input -- This shifts the range (-300..24) to (0..324).
 * 3) Multiply the result of step 1 by the result of step 2 -- This scales the range (0..324) to (0..9900).
 * 4) Add 100 to the result of step 3 -- This shifts the range of (0..9900) to (100..10000), our goal.

As you can see, linearly scaling data is as simple as shift, scale, shift.

MIDI Pitch => Frequency (Hz)
$$f(x) = 440\cdot 2^{\frac{x-69}{12}}\approx440\cdot e^{0.057762265\cdot(x - 69)}$$
 * $$x$$ = pitch
 * $$f(x)$$ = frequency
 * $$e\approx2.71828183$$

Frequency (Hz) => MIDI Pitch
$$f(x) = 69+12\cdot\frac{\log\left(\frac{x}{440}\right)}{\log(2)}\approx\frac{\ln\left(\frac{x}{8.175798}\right)}{\ln1.0594633}$$
 * $$x$$ = frequency
 * $$f(x)$$ = pitch
 * $$\ln$$ = the natural log

How many times MIDI pitch A is slower than MIDI pitch B (A < B)
$$f(A,B)=2^{\frac{B-A}{12}}\approx e^{0.057762265\cdot(B-A)}$$
 * A = MIDI pitch A
 * B = MIDI pitch B
 * f(x) = output
 * $$e\approx 2.71828183$$


text:
Talk:Reaktor/Modules/Receive

I have changed " The maximum number of Send modules in one instrument is 128 " to " The maximum number of Send modules in one macro is 128 ". I have tested it with a macro and then duplicate it - no problem. Am i right? herw

Herw, you are correct, thaks for this update! Artur

title: Talk:Reaktor/Modules/Receive


text:
Reaktor/History

 * 1996: Generator 0.96 - modular synthesizer for the PC requiring a proprietary audio card for low-latency operation
 * 1998: Generator 1.5 - total redesign featuring hierarchical structures and support for any standard Windows soundcard
 * 1999: Generator/Transformator/Reaktor 2.0 - adds granular sampling, real-time display of envelopes and filters, and support for the Macintosh
 * 2000: Reaktor 2.3 - introduces the Premium Library and plug-in support for VST, VSTi, DirectConnect, MOTU, and DirectX formats
 * 2001: Reaktor 3.0 - redesigned audio engine, new graphic design, event and audio tables, XY control, new synthesis and sampling Modules
 * 2002: Reaktor 3.5 - improved sample handling, improved VST performance, integrated browser, total cross-platform compatibility
 * 2003: Reaktor 4.0 - many improvements, new features, lots of bugs
 * 2003-09: Reaktor 4.0.4 update
 * 2004-04: Reaktor 4.1.2 update
 * 2004-09: Reaktor 4.1.3 update
 * 2005-04: Reaktor 5.0 announcement
 * 2005-05-30: Reaktor 5.0 released. New features: core technology, skinable panel elements, new graphical modules, breaktpoint envelopes, improved RTAS support... full list

title: Reaktor/History


text:
User talk:Herw~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Herw. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Herw~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:13, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:02, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Herw~enwikibooks


text:
User:Artur Nowak

I used to live in Katowice, Poland, now I live in Wiesbaden, Germany. My main objective is to start the Reaktor Book. I'm using Reaktor since late 2002 still learning... with pleasure!

title: User:Artur Nowak


text:
Cookbook:Rice

 * This article is about Rice. You may be looking for Rice recipes.

Rice is the seed of a monocot plant, Oryza sativa. As a cereal grain, it's the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia, the Middle East, Latin America and the West Indies. It's one of the world's three most produced grains along with wheat and maize (corn).

Rice is consumed both with its bran coating and without. White rice, of which there are many types, is the generic name for bran-free rice. There are three types of rice with intact bran (whole-grain rice): wild rice, brown rice and the far less popular black rice. While biologists don't consider wild rice to be a true rice, it's a member of the same taxonomic family: poaceae; but a different genus: zizania.

Brown rice has a nutty taste and chewy texture. It's healthier than white rice because of its higher fiber content. White rice, however, has a much longer shelf life, cooks faster, and produces fluffier grains. White rice also has a high calorie content and thus is used daily in cultures with less availability to calorie rich foods. Wild rice has a hard, almost woody texture along with a nutty taste and has similar health benefits as brown rice. Also, wild rice has the lowest calorie content of all rices.

Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and sake. Though sake is not made from rice flour but rather the grain itself which is washed and steam cooked with yeast and Koji (rice cultivated with a mold known technically as aspergillus oryzae). Rice flour does not contain gluten and is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually one week to 30 days).

Through the look of a foodway, rice has been a staple food for many cultures around the globe. Japan, West Africa, and anywhere this grain grows you will see foodways develop around it. Foodways are structured beliefs and behaviors surrounding the production, distribution, and consumption of food. In Japan “rice is the main carbohydrate food in Japan, consumed with every meal. For the poor, it is the chief source of calories” (Inside Japan: Surprising Facts About Japanese Foodways).

This high of a consumption rate puts rice up there with fish in Japanese culture as a basis for food intake, demand, and production. The impact that foodways have on a culture are directly linked to economics in that culture. The demand for rice, for instance, in Japanese culture stimulates jobs to compensate the production needed to sustain a proper outtake of rice. Furthermore you can sell rice on a global scale to increase revenue for the economic system.

Types of rice
There are several types of rice:
 * Short-grain (white or brown)
 * Medium-grain (white or brown)
 * Long-grain (white or brown)
 * Chinese black rice
 * Par-boiled
 * Sticky (glutinous)
 * Converted (parboiled)
 * Red
 * Enriched
 * Instant (pre-cooked)
 * Maratelli

Cooking methods
There are several ways to cook rice:
 * boiling
 * microwave
 * electric rice cooker
 * rice cooker
 * pressure cooker
 * steaming

Rice recipes
Rice recipes have existed for millennia. Below are the some of the world's most famous:
 * arroz con pollo
 * Chinese-style fried rice
 * jambalaya
 * paella
 * pilau
 * rice and beans
 * rice milk
 * rice pudding
 * risotto
 * steamed rice
 * Handi Biryani (slow cooked rice with layers of vegetables)

title: Cookbook:Rice


text:
IB Music/Music History/Medieval Period

Back to IB Music History

Medieval Period 450 - 1450

Music of the Medieval Period was categorized into sacred and secular music. Sacred music was music that was used by the Roman Catholic Church and secular music was music that had no relation to the Church.

Gregorian Chant
Sacred music evolved from a form called the Gregorian chant. Gregorian chants were named after Pope Gregory I and they are the official pieces of the Catholic Church.

Characteristics of Gregorian chants

 * Melody - The melody of a Gregorian chant is very free-flowing. The chant moves up and down by steps and small leaps within a narrow range. Melodies are often melismatic- syllables are held out over multiple notes.
 * Harmony - Gregorian chants are monophonic in texture, so have no harmony. However, the use of drone (singing of the same note for an extended period of time usually in at least whole notes) was common.
 * Rhythm - Notes may be held for a duration of “short” or “long,” but no complex rhythms are used.
 * Form - Some Gregorian chants tend to be in ternary (ABA) form. A cantor begins the piece with an introductory solo, called an incipit. The choir then sings the piece and at the end the cantor concludes with his solo, which was often in a reduced dynamic level and featured a narrower range of pitches.
 * Timbre - Sung by all male choirs. However, sometimes they were written for women who were nuns of convents as a teaching device.
 * Texture - Gregorian chants are one of the few pieces of music that are entirely monophonic. There is only one melodic line in a Gregorian chant.
 * Context - Gregorian chants were used by the Church to aid prayers. Monks (and occasionally nuns in convents) would sing them. As well, as it was the official music of the Roman Catholic Church, all gregorian chants had only vocals as instrumentation was considered to be Pagan. This also caused all text to be written in Latin. All gregorian chant was passed down orally, as the use of sheet music was very uncommon. They were performed at the "office" and "mass" of religious ceremony.
 * Church Modes - These were the scales in which gregorian chants were sung. They were used in the middle ages until the Renaissance. Most folk music uses them, this can be seen in the example "What can we do with a drunken sailor." Church modes use 7 tones and the eighth tone duplicates the tonic an octave higher.

Significant Composers

 * Hildegard of Bingen - The first woman composer with a significant output of works.
 * Important works
 * O Successores
 * Most other composers are unknown since works were given to the Church.
 * Other works
 * Alleluia: Vidimus Stellam

Organum
The Gregorian chant began to evolve around 700. From 700 - 900, composers would write a line in parallel motion to the chant at a fixed interval of a fifth or a fourth above the original line. This technique evolved further from 900 - 1200. During this period, the upper line moved independently of the original chant. After 1100, upper lines even began gaining rhythmic independence.

A Gregorian chant to which additional lines were added is called organum. The original Gregorian chant on which the upper lines are based is called the cantus firmus. Between the lines they are intervals of fourths and fifths that move in contrary motion.

Two composers, Leonin and Perotin, were instrumental to the development of organum. Leonin was the director of music at the Notre Dame Cathedral and Perotin, his pupil, succeeded him. These two composers and their students are thus appropriately referred to as the School of Notre Dame.

Significant Composers

 * Leonin- He is the first known composer to use measured rhythm in his compositions.
 * Perotin- He is the first known composer to write three simultaneous, distinct lines.
 * Important works
 * Alleluia: Nativitas

Sacred music was primarily vocal. This was mostly due to the connection of instruments to pagan rituals. Nevertheless, instruments did become more important over the span of the Medieval Period. The most important instrument of sacred music in the Medieval Period is the organ. Early organs are not like modern organs; though they were loud, they were much more difficult to operate and required a great deal of physical strength.

Secular Music
Unlike sacred music, secular music had a more clearly defined beat and its texture was closer to homophony or polyphony. (It was not true homophony since chords were only implied). Like sacred music, the texture was primarily vocal, though it didn’t regard instruments with as much suspicion as the Church.

Troubadours & Trouvères
Much secular music during the Medieval Period was written by troubadours and troubavères. These were French nobles and they often wrote music to gain prestige.

Significant Composers

 * Guillaume IX, duke of Aquitaine
 * Chastelain di Couci
 * Beatriz de Dia (a woman troubadour)

Jongleurs
Jongleurs also composed and performed secular music. Jongleurs were wandering minstrels that would entertain towns with music, juggling, and drama. They had no civil rights but were important parts of society since they spread news from town to town. One form of music they played is the estampie. An estampie is a fast dance in triple meter.

Ars Nova
Around 1350, a new style of music called Ars Nova (New Art) emerged. Ars Nova includes both sacred and secular music, though secular music gained importance during this period.

Important characteristics of Ars Nova are:
 * Development of polyphony
 * Use of duple meter
 * Syncopation

Sacred Music
Ars Nova saw the appearance of a grand form for sacred music- the mass ordinary. The mass ordinary consists of five prayers set to music as five different movements. The prayers are:

 * Kyrie
 * Gloria
 * Credo
 * Sanctos
 * Agnus Dei

Secular Music
Because of diminishing influence of the Church, secular music became more prominent in the Ars Nova Period. Instruments were used more often, though the music was still primarily vocal. A new secular form of the Ars Nova period is the ballata. The ballata is a dance in the form of A BB AA. A ballata is also known as a falala for its use of this line throughout its pieces.

Significant Composers

 * Guillaume de Machaut
 * Important works
 * Notre Dame Mass - This is the first known polyphonic mass.
 * Francesco Landini
 * Important works
 * Ecco la Primavera - This is an example of an Ars Nova ballata.

Instruments of the Period

 * Organ
 * Pipe
 * Rebec
 * Psaltery
 * Fiddle
 * Lute
 * Sackbut
 * Shawm

Back to IB Music History

title: IB Music/Music History/Medieval Period


text:
Talk:Reaktor

I think the real knowledge should be filtered out of the whole topic on User Forum. Sometimes it's just three sentences, not need to go thought the whole discussion and analyse it to find the essence. Tha't the whole point of Wiki stuff, that somebody is doing this work for others... Artur Nowak

OK, this is very good idea anyway!
After few thoughts I agree, this is a good way for picking the valuable threads from user forum. At least we know where it is and can quickly find it. Maybe in the future somebody (one of the discussion participants) will make a nice article based on the discussion and summarize it in few sentences. Anyway, I think the idea of linkin threads for user forum is very good! Artur Nowak

links
BTW the link to 'mathematics and music' is great or cool or whatever Herwig Kraß (herw)

Yes Herw, I was amazed by this book too. The beauty of wiki is, that anybody an add links, like this one, I just found it someday, bookmarked it, and now others can make use of it. Add your favourite resources too, for you they are obvious, but others may not know it! Artur Nowak 15:41, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)~

Rationalisation
Some of the stuff is very peripheral to the whole reaktor thing, if we can sideline some of the stuff that's just general audio, or move it somewhere else and focus on things that are directly releated to Reaktor I'm up for writing a fair bit to get this going ... thoughts?

I'm not sure that soundcards is directly relevant :) It's going to be a bit epic if tghat kind of thing needs covering !

Reaktor:Basics
someone seems to have misplaced this article, but it belongs here. Please add a link on the main page of this wikibook. DettoAltrimenti 20:59, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

Missing introduction in using Reaktor
Hello,

It is a very good idea to write this book. Thank you! But it is not understandable for beginners. Please could anybody add basic informations for people who never used such a software? Further for a book it is very scattered and devided into too many pages. You never know, when you have read the whole book and you loose very easy the correct succession. Therefor it should contain a page navigator with things as "next page" and "previous page". -- 84.132.112.97 15:05, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Reaktor


text:
User:SEXman

Sex Man uses the internet.

title: User:SEXman


text:
Quechua

Quechua (Runasimi) is an American aborigen language native to South America and related to Aymará, both members of the Quechumaran linguistic stock. It was the official language of the Tawantinsuyu (Inca Empire), and today is spoken in various dialects by some 8 to 13 million people throughout South America. The language's dominion spans the entire South American continent starting as far north as southern Colombia and Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina and northern Chile. The dialect as it is spoken in Colombia and Ecuador is known as Quichua (Runashimi), and because of its frequent unintelligibility with the main branch of the language, it borders on being classed as separate. Despite this, all dialects are nonetheless considered a single tongue, consequently making it the most widely spoken of all South America languages in the Americas.

The language was extended beyond the limits of the empire by the Catholic Church, which chose it to preach to Indians in the Andes area. It has, along with Spanish and Aymará, the status of an official language in both Peru and Bolivia. Before the arrival of the Spaniards and the introduction of the Latin alphabet, Quechua had no written alphabet. It did have a system of accountance with khipu-strings.

Quechua is a very regular language, but a large number of infixes and suffixes change both the overall significance of words and their subtle shades of meaning, allowing great expressiveness. It includes grammatical features such as bipersonal conjugation and conjugation dependent on mental state and veracity of knowledge, spatial and temporal relationships, and many cultural factors.

A number of Quechua loanwords have entered English via Spanish, including coca, condor, guano, gaucho, jerky, inca, llama, pampa, and potato. The word lagniappe comes from the Quechua word nyap ("something extra") with the article la in front of it, la ñapa, in Spanish.

Introduction

 * /Pronunciation/

A1 lessons

 * Lesson 1
 * Exercise 1
 * Answers to exercise 1

A2 lessons

 * Lesson
 * Exercises
 * Answers to exercises

Wordlist

 * English to Quechua word list

Useful sites

 * Quechua Wiktionary
 * Quechua Wikipedia
 * Disputed Issues in Quechua
 * Quechua Alphabets: Which is Right?

Quechua Quechua

title: Quechua


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology

Overview
IB Cultural Anthropology is divided into several volumes. These in turn are divided into chapters that you can read and study for the IB exam. A review of the IB Cultural Anthropology Course is provided under the Course volume. Ethnographic examples will be added into the text as necessary, but it is highly recommended that you read as many ethnographies before the test as possible (at least five). This text will help you review several ethnographies in the Ethnographies volume. A description of the IB test itself and strategies for taking it is provided under the Exam volume.

Volumes

 * /The Course/
 * /The Ethnographies/
 * /The Exam/
 * /Contributors/

title: IB Cultural Anthropology


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology

This chapter attempts to explain the general structure, methods and goals of the discipline of anthropology and cultural anthropology.

Sections

 * Fields of Anthropology
 * Fieldwork
 * Collecting Data
 * Analyzation of Data
 * Paradigm of Anthropology


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology/Fields of Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humans. There are four major subdivisions of this discipline: physical anthropology, linguistic anthropology, archaeology, and cultural anthropology. This course will concentrate on cultural anthropology.

Physical Anthropology
Physical Anthropology is the study of the connection between human physiology and culture. It seeks to explain human variation and evolution in biological terms. For example, why do the Netsilik Eskimos tend to be short and stout, whereas the Nuer and Afar of Ethiopia are generally tall and slim?

Within physical anthropology are several subfields such as forensic anthropology, paleoanthropology, and primate anthropology. Forensic anthropology is concerned with studying the remains of humans for legal purposes. Paleoanthropology is the study of human evolution. Primatology is the study of non-human primates in order to find connections between these species and humans that help understand the evolution of Homo sapiens. Behaviors and physical features found in both human and non-human primates sometimes point to ancient traits held by a shared ancestor more than six million years ago.

Linguistic Anthropology
This is the study of the connection between human language and culture. It seeks to explain why a culture communicates the way it does. For example, why do the Yanomamo not have a word for “thank you” in their language?

Linguistic anthropology also has several subfields, some of which being sociolinguistics and historical linguistics.

Archaeology
This is the study of extinct human cultures by excavating their remains.

Certain subfields of archaeology cross over with other disciplines. For example, paleoanthropology is both a subfield of archaeology and physical anthropology. It is actually a part of a more general subfield of archaeology- prehistoric archaeology. Other subfields of archaeology include classical archaeology and modern archaeology. Classical archaeology is the study of past cultures with a written history (the Greeks, for example). Modern archaeology is the study of modern cultures through excavations. Modern archaeologists might, for example, conduct excavations in city dumps to understand American culture in the 1950s.

Cultural Anthropology
This course will spend most of its time on this subfield of anthropology. This is the study of the cultures of present-day groups.

Like the other three, this subfield has its own subfields. Some of these include applied anthropology, medical anthropology, ethnology, and ethnography.

Applied Anthropology
Applied anthropology is the use of the knowledge of the culture of a group to ease interaction between that group and a group with a different culture. 50% of all anthropologists are applied anthropologists. They are used by the UN, corporations, and other organizations. It’s the most profitable field of anthropology, with many jobs in the six-figure range.

Medical Anthropology
Medical anthropology is a branch of applied anthropology. It is the joint use of both a group’s culture and Western medicine to treat illnesses in developing nations. Knowledge of the local culture can be very important. The Trobrianders, for example, believe in witchcraft. If you are sick, then someone has used witchcraft to make you sick. Thus, saying that a previously sick person made someone sick is accusing them of witchcraft. Needless to say, the consequences of that accusation can be severe!

Ethnology and Ethnography
Ethnology is the comparative study of multiple cultures. Ethnography is a detailed study of a single culture.

Back to The Nature of Anthropology/


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology/Fieldwork

So what is the goal of cultural anthropology? We are attempting to perform a holistic study of culture. How is this accomplished? Fieldwork.

Prior to modern anthropology, anthropologists did not come in contact with the cultures they studied. Instead, they relied on reports from explorers and missionaries. One of the first modern anthropologists, Edward Tylor, instead said to “go look.” But fieldwork is more than just observation of a culture. Mere observation is not science- there is no hypothesis, no test of any theories, and no practical use for the information. One must formulate a hypothesis about human behavior. One then tests this hypothesis in the field.

This is not to say that observation is unimportant. On the contrary, if there is no data to support one’s hypothesis, then one’s hypothesis is not scientific either.

One first must collect data about the culture. One must go into the field and live with the group for at least 18 months in order to gain an adequate understanding of the culture. This is called fieldwork.

There are many practical issues in fieldwork:
 * Choosing a site - What sort of culture do you want to study? (European, African, Asian etc).
 * What sort of climate do you want to work in? (The Netsilik might not be good if you don’t like the cold.)
 * Is this group representative of the culture? Food, shelter, clothing, cleanliness, etc. Where and how does one go to the bathroom?
 * Medical issues- You won’t be immune to the local diseases, get your vaccines in good time and remember some need boosting when you get back home.
 * Pragmatic- Do men need a beard? (For the Tiwi, men do.) Respect of others way of life in most cases guarantees you the information you're after.

Back to The Nature of Anthropology


text:
Quechua/Pronunciation

This Module is part of the Quechua wikibook

Because Quechua was only recently transcribed into a Latin alphabet, it does not suffer from non-phonetic spellings like English; instead, what you see is what you say. In this course we will use the Quechua writing system as approved by the Peruvian government in 1985.

Vowels
There are only three vowel phonemes in Quechua: /i/ (front close unrounded), /a/ (central open unrounded), /u/ (back close rounded), forming a triangular system with two degrees of openness (open and close). In contrast, Spanish has a 5-vowel triangular system (i, e, a, o, u), with three degrees of openness (open, mid and close).

Note this means that e and o are phonemic in Spanish but not in Quechua where they are merely allophonic variants of /i/ and /u/; this is because those vowels contrast and distinguish words in Spanish, so in Spanish it makes sense to spell them differently, but this is not true for Quechua, where the choice of [i]/[e] and of [u]/[o] is determined purely by the phonetic environment in which the phonemes /i/ and /u/ appear and not by meaning.

Strange as it may seem to Westerners to have so few vowels and to not distinguish e and o as independent vowels, Quechua vowel system is far from rare or unique, as several other languages from different parts of the world, such as Classical Arabic and Inuktitut, feature analogous 3-vowel systems.

Consonants
Most Quechuan consonants are similar to their English counterparts, however some people may have trouble with glottal stops.

For loanwords, Quechua can use b,c (as in jam), d, f, g, x (as in khan) and z (as in throw).

title: Quechua/Pronunciation


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology/Collecting Data

After one has chosen a site and culture to study, one must collect data and write a good, clean description of the culture. There are several ways to collect data about a culture:
 * Participant observation
 * Interviews
 * Focus groups
 * Surveys.

Participant Observation
Participant observation is by far the most important technique to collect data, and indeed it is fundamental to modern anthropology. Participant observation underlies many of the other techniques of gathering data. Participant observation is what its name implies- learning about a culture by observing and interacting with it. For example, one might observe members of a group eating food a certain way. You then imitate this to see if it provokes a positive response (since you would now be eating food correctly). Through this method, you have learned more of how members of that culture eat.

Interviews
Interviews are a more structured form of participant observation. One learns of the culture by questioning informants. An anthropologist will have a key informant who is responsible for most of the information the anthropologist learns. There are two different types of interviews- structured and unstructured. If an anthropologist asks every informant the same question, the interview is structured. In unstructured interviews (the more common of the two), the anthropologist may begin with the same question, but will let the conversation take its course, so the topic can end up at any aspect of the culture.

Focus Groups & Surveys
Focus groups and surveys are rarer in anthropology. Focus groups are rather like structured interviews, but instead of a one-on-one conversation with the anthropologist, the focus group consists of six to eight people. Surveys are the rarest form of data collection in anthropology because it requires that the studied people be literate.

Security
While collecting data, one must take copious notes, but also must remember to take ethics into account. One might need to use false names or code one’s data some other way. For political and social reasons, anthropology has lots of unpublished data. Whatever technique you use, make sure you are aware you are using it!

Culture Shock
Fieldwork is not easy. When you first live with a new culture, you know nothing of that culture and must adjust. People tend to think you are stupid because you don’t know the basic skills people of that culture know- how to build boats, houses, etc. This inability to perform the proper actions and predict the actions of others creates a rather unpleasant feeling called culture shock. Culture shock lasts for several months, but disappears after you begin to understand the culture better.

Back to The Nature of Anthropology


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology/Analyzation of Data

The Purpose of Analysis
After collecting data, one would need to organize it into a logical form. One collects so much data in the field that without organization, the notes become virtually worthless. But organization is just the first step of analysis.

For example, one could take notes on North American marriage patterns. After organizing the data, one could list:

 * Dating
 * Courtship
 * Betrothal
 * Wedding
 * Divorce

This has no analyzation, however. One would need to examine the rights and duties bestowed upon a husband and wife when they become married. In many cultures there is compensation to the woman’s family for the loss of the woman’s labor. After divorce, what can one infer from the custody rights awarded? One would need to formulate a hypothesis as to why North American marriage patterns take this form as opposed to marriage patterns of other cultures of the world.

Steps Toward Analyzing Data
In order to make a strong argument for one’s hypothesis, one needs to properly analyze the data. This in turn needs a proper interpretation, which requires a proper selection of the data. Raw field notes are far too numerous and disordered to be simply typed up and published. Most of the observations one makes are irrelevant towards one’s hypothesis and can be ignored.

After carefully selecting data, one must interpret it correctly. This analyzation is the link between one’s data and one’s hypothesis and it is called the warrant.

Concepts for Analyzation
There are several concepts one must understand to correctly analyze data. These are:

 * Ethnocentrism
 * Naïve Realism
 * Culture Bound
 * Cultural Relativity
 * Emic & Etic
 * Models of Thought vs. Models of Action

Ethnocentrism
One attempts to avoid ethnocentrism as much as possible in anthropology. This is the belief that one’s culture is superior to that of others. An ethnocentric anthropologist will judge other cultures by his or her own cultural standards. There are, however, several positives to ethnocentrism. A list of some pros and cons:

Pros
 * Everyone is slightly ethnocentric. Recognition of one’s ethnocentrism allows one to recognize one’s biases as well.
 * Ethnocentrism allows one to pinpoint what makes one feel positively about one’s own culture and facilitates comparison between one’s own culture and another.
 * Ethnocentrism allows for strong group ties.
 * Ethnocentrism allows for social integration
 * Ultimately, ethnocentrism leads to a stronger sense of unity than patriotism.

Cons
 * Might cause one to misinterpret another culture.
 * Can lead to cultural evangelism.
 * A culture can become militaristic in its spread of its culture.
 * Cultures can become blinded by their own self-righteousness.
 * Ethnocentrism rationalizes detrimental programs.
 * Creates social problems
 * Genocide is a result of ethnocentrism
 * A slight problem with genocide is that it ends up creating more cultural unity in the oppressed group than before!
 * Ethnocentrism can give rise to war.
 * These wars are largely ineffective because culture is not a commodity for export.

Naïve Realism
This is rather the opposite of ethnocentrism. If one is naïvely realistic, then one paints a romanticized picture of a culture and finds the culture to be superior to one’s own. One must be careful to not see something that appears similar to one’s own culture and therefore assume that the something is exactly like it is in one’s own culture.

An example of naïve realism is that the life of a cowboy was just riding into the sunset and playing cards in saloons. One ignores the dangers a cowboy faced- disease, stampedes, etc.

Culture Bound
This is a state of being unable to observe and study a culture from the culture’s point of view. Anthropologists want to avoid this as much as possible as well- cultures must be evaluated in their own terms.

Cultural Relativity
This is the opposite of culture bound. Cultural relativity is the ability to judge a culture based on itself. The thesis behind it is:

All cultures are unique and can be evaluated only through their own standards.

The logical corollary to this thesis is that all cultures are equal. Each custom is valid for the culture that uses it. Thus, one must suspend judgments of other cultures. Anthropologists strive to be as cultural relative as possible.

Just as there are positives to ethnocentrisms, however, there are problems with cultural relativity. These will be listed briefly here:

 * Value-free research is ideal, but impossible.
 * It’s hard to find universal values.
 * Just about the only one is that involuntary starvation is bad.
 * If one takes cultural relativity too far, then one falls into an “anything goes” mindset.
 * The Holocaust was valid in the Nazi culture, but that does not mean we must approve of it.

In using cultural relativity, one must remember that understanding does not necessarily imply acceptance.

Emic & Etic
Cultural relativity leads directly to the concepts of emic and etic. Analysis of data can be done from two different perspectives. The emic perspective is that of the native or "insider," and the etic is that of the foreigner or "outsider." Observations made from an emic perspective usually consist of qualitative data and are relevant to only the study of that one particular culture. Observations made from an etic perspective usually consist of quantitative data that can be compared to other cultures. Both emic and etic observations must be made for an anthropologist to wholly study the culture.

Models of Thought vs. Models of Action
The necessity for both emic and etic observations is demonstrated by the difference between models of thought and models of action. Models of thought and models of action are also known as ideal and real behavior. Emic observations often lead to models of thought- what a person should do in a specific situation. Etic observations often lead to models of action- what person actually does in that situation.

An example of ideal vs. real behavior is traffic lights. Most people, when asked what one should do when the light turns yellow will say that it is warning you that the light will turn red soon, so you should slow down. If one actually stands at a street corner and observes traffic when the light turns yellow, one will notice that people speed up instead of slow down! Slowing down is the ideal behavior in that situation, though speeding up, what actually happens, is the real behavior.

A theory of culture must include both models of thought and models of action, since culture is the product of both actions and the thoughts that lead to those actions.

Back to The Nature of Anthropology


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Nature of Anthropology/Paradigm of Anthropology

Definition
All disciplines have assumptions. Empirical sciences are data-based and assume that theories can be formulated to explain that data. Empirical sciences also assume that data is neutral- which it is not. A paradigm is a result of these assumptions- it is the existing beliefs, practices, and general perspective of a discipline. The paradigm of a discipline is expressed through various products of the discipline such as laws, theories, generalizations, methods of collecting data, and methods of evaluating data.

Paradigm Shift
Findings that do not fit within the existing paradigm may cause a paradigm shift may occur. This happened with Einstein’s theory of relativity. It was previously believed that time was constant throughout the universe. Einstein showed that it was not, so the paradigm shifted- now the belief is that time is a dimension like space.

The Paradigm of Cultural Anthropology

 * Anthropology is comparative.
 * It is comparative synchronically and diachronically.
 * Ethnography is the short term goal of data. Ethnology is the long term goal.
 * Anthropology and culture are holistic.
 * A change of one small aspect of a culture will ripple through to the rest of the culture.
 * Multiple systems and processes for an action.
 * E.g. there are many reasons why different people don’t do the same action of smoking- health, affordability, cosmetic reasons, etc.
 * Emic & Etic
 * To wholly understand a culture, it must be observed through both an emic and etic perspective.
 * Case studies must be made using participant observation.

Back to The Nature of Anthropology


text:
IB Cultural Anthropology/The Ethnographies

An ethnography is a detailed study of a single culture. This volume contains several summaries of ethnographies of various cultures.

Introduction

 * How to Read an Ethnography

Ethnographies

 * Mbuti Pygmies
 * Tiwi
 * Toraja
 * Traveller-Gypsies
 * Trobrianders
 * Urban Poor of Puerto Rico
 * Yanomami