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Klingon

This Wikibook teaches the reader to speak the Klingon Language. It supplies a fast yet complete method of learning tlhIngan Hol, by providing auditory aid and structured information for fast absorption by the reader.

This Wikibook presents a structure which conveys basic Klingon language first; then moves into example usage and extended vocabulary. Some chapters consist entirely of Klingon, with the occasional annotation introducing a new word; these chapters present the reader with a straight-forward exercise to reinforce their interpretive Klingon language skills.

Sound clips of Klingon speech provide the reader with an auditory aid; some of the Klingon-only chapters supply complete recordings of entire sections. Readers will benefit greatly by reading these sections aloud and using the recordings to check their pronunciation.

Lessons

 * Why learn Klingon?
 * Lesson 1: Pronunciation
 * Lesson 2: Some basic phrases
 * Lesson 3: Simple Sentences

Table of Contents

 * Introductory Klingon
 * Why learn Klingon?
 * Pronunciation
 * Sounds of Klingon
 * My first Klingon
 * Grammar
 * Pronouns
 * Plurals
 * Questions
 * Discrete Facts
 * Numbers
 * Time

 * Appendix
 * Sound Clips
 * English Dictionary of Klingon Words

title: Klingon


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Art Tutorials/Preface

Preface
The Art Tutorials Wikibook is designed to provide a variety of educational tutorials covering a variety of art subjects ranging from techniques to lighting, from how to train your eye to how to choose supplies.

Contributing
This book is in its infancy stage so feel free to contribute. If you are contributing, please follow the / convention for naming subpages instead of the : method. This will keep everything nice and organized.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Art Tutorials/Preface


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File:Piano keys.gif

larger, and gif-ed

title: File:Piano keys.gif


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Cookbook:Tofu Scramble I

Ingredients

 * Olive or vegetable oil (or veggie butter)
 * ⅓ block soft tofu, drained for 15 minutes
 * ½ small onion, diced
 * 1 clove garlic, minced
 * 1 sun-dried tomato, diced
 * 1 small handful fresh flat-leaf spinach
 * 2 dashes red pepper flakes
 * 2 dashes ground turmeric or curry powder
 * 1 pinch flavored salt
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * 1–3 ea. flour tortillas, or vegan bread (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Heat about 1–2 tablespoons (15–30 g) oil in a saucepan. Add onion, garlic, and sun-dried tomato to pan, then cook until soft and golden.
 * 2) While that is cooking, mash tofu until it gets an even scrambled texture, and add seasonings as specified or to taste. Mix it all in until evenly distributed.
 * 3) When onion mix is cooked, add tofu and spinach. Heat through until spinach is soft and wilted looking.
 * 4) Serve with tortillas like a breakfast burrito or in bread like a breakfast sandwich.

title: Cookbook:Tofu Scramble I


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Talk:Klingon

Copyrighted material
Make sure that "all contributions to Wikibooks are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation License.) For this project it is doubly so because almost all of the material is copyrighted by Paramount Pictures and Michael Okrand.  Make sure that anything that is added to this project meets all of the standards, and try to avoid "fair-use" material unless you are absolutely sure that it is legal.

That said, this is a neat language, and I think it is possible to write an original language guide for the "Warrior's Tongue". Good luck, and I hope that this turns into something more than a simple stub. --Rob Horning 00:40, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

Flesh this out
This Wikibook should really be fleshed out. The interesting thing about the Klingon language is it's structured differently than other languages. The way the human mind works is complex, but a lot of it involves piping through the language center; this makes Klingon extremely interesting.

Consider a room for a moment, an empty room with the following shape:

Black a-b |            | Black |             | Red c-d        Black

Each corner has a compartment to hide an object in. Hide food in it; spin a person around; and then have them find the object. You'll get varied results:

 * 1) A normal person can find the food easily
 * 2) A young child with workable language skills can find the food easily
 * 3) A young child without developed language skills can find the food 50% of the time
 * 4) A rat can find the food 50% of the time
 * 5) A normal person with developed language skills can find the food 50% of the time if he is busy holding a conversation while the food is being hidden

You may ask why (1) and (2) find the food easily but (3), (4), and (5) can only get it half the time. It turns out that the room has two main properties, that being color and geometry. You have four corners in the room based on this:

 * Red/Black Corners (2)
 * Black on the left (b)
 * Black on the right (d)
 * Black/Black Corners (2)
 * Short wall on the left (a)
 * Short wall on the right (c)

Let's try to deinterlace these into solid categories geometry and color.

 * Geometry
 * Short wall on the left (a, d)
 * Short wall on the right (b, c)
 * Color
 * Red/Black (b, d)
 * Black/Black (a,c)

Considering either of these, we can identify any pair of corners; but we can't identify any corner uniquely. We have to actually combine color and geometry; notice each set in Color shares one and only one item with each set in Geometry.

It turns out that while the language center is occupied, humans can't connect Color and Geometry to form a complete identifier. This experiment was conducted and documented by Hermer-Vazquez, L., E. S. Spelke, and A. S. Katsnelson, 1999, "Sources of flexibility in human cognition: Dual-task studies of space and language," Cognitive Psychology, 39(1): 3-36.

More interesting is that a young child or an animal without language skills is incapable of doing it; this indicates that the language center doesn't just function as an extra blob of processing power, but an actual structured processing center that functions based on the language (or lack thereof) it is processing.

In other words, the structure and grammar of a language influence how the brain processes information. This in turn means that your choice of language affects exactly how you solve a problem. This is the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

So there you have it. Mr. Whorf, fire.

--Bluefoxicy 18:37, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

Audio
Someone should record some audio of Klingon for helping to instruct people how to speak it. It'd be a lot easier than trying to figure out pronunciation keys, since most lay-people don't quite get it. --Bluefoxicy 18:37, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

E-Prime
Nice to see a book aiming to write in e-prime but there are many cases where this isn't done... in 'Why Learn Klingon' you say "you're wondering" which is clearly a violation of the rules of e-prime. :) Xania 23:40, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Nice to see someone who notices ;) I'll clean that up as I go.  I've mostly spent my time working on the English Dictionary of Klingon Words, and will clean up the other stuff before I go on to grammar. --Bluefoxicy 17:32, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Words
Just begging with Klingon, and I've seen the term petaQ also spelt p'tahk, at least, I think its the same, they seem to pronounce the same and they have the same meaning. Is this a common type of discrepancy? I would add some form of sig, but I lack an account.

 * Oh dear, that comment was added almost a year ago, but I'll answer it anyway for anyone who might stumble across this: petaQ is the spelling of the word in Klingon, and p'tahk is the English version that approximates the sounds of petaQ. This is similar to the difference between bat'leth and batlh'letlh, the former is the English version, the latter official tlhIngan Hol. --Bozwaldo (talk) 05:04, 16 May 2009 (UTC)

Updating
Seeing as this book hasn't been updated since the original Kahless was emperor ;-), I've been going around adding modules, fixing errors, etc. --Bozwaldo (talk) 19:29, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

So please help, if you can. :) --Bozwaldo (talk) 19:30, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

Another thing: I'm thinking that a Sentence of the Week in Klingon could be maintained, as learning Klingon is so much easier when one has context clues to go on. :) Thoughts? -- Bozwaldo (talk) 22:37, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

Titles
As the Esperanto wikibook has the title of each section in Esperanto and English, I'm planning on doing the same (with Klingon) for each title in this book. --Bozwaldo (talk) 21:55, 18 May 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Klingon


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Gothic/Articles

<< Gothic

Gothic has no indefinite article ("a" or "an").

The definite article ("the") is in the Gothic Bible replaced by the demonstrative pronoun, therefore, the definite articles aren't really definite articles but demonstrative pronouns, research however shows that there are not a lot of cases in which the Greek definite article is translated in Gothic. The demonstrative pronoun has a different form for each of the four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive and dative), the three genders (feminine, masculine and neuter), and for singular and plural.

title: Gothic/Articles


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Wikijunior:New Title Policy

The Wikijunior community has adopted some restrictions on what titles can be created within Wikijunior.

Suggesting a title
To suggest a title, visit the New Title Suggestions page and add the title to a list of proposed Wikijunior books. Regular Wikijunior contributors will be able to view this title and make suggestions.

Please try to follow the format when suggesting a new title. Include a list of possible articles that would be within the book. Talk about the audience and scope of the title. Provide a list of questions that will be addressed by the articles.

Voting on new titles
One way that new books are added to Wikijunior is that they have passed through the New Book Collaboration voting process. This process is designed to make sure that new books are launched regularly and that books have a high level of community support.

Other ways of adding books
Voting is not the only way to add a book to Wikijunior. In unusual circumstances when trying to meet a contractual obligation such as what has happened with the Beck Foundation when Wikijunior was started, specific book projects can be created by the community independently of the voting process.

If an individual author would like to start a new book on Wikijunior and is willing to contribute substantial content, the author can create the book, suggest it in New Title Suggestions, and add it to the list of all books.

Sometimes a suitable book with substantial appropriate content can be adopted by community consensus into the group of recognized Wikijunior titles without going through the New Book of the Quarter voting process.

Additional notes
This is a Wikijunior specific policy, and not something that pertains to Wikibooks in general. If in the future, there is increased activity on Wikijunior, this whole policy may be substantially revised or done away with, but for now this will give us a chance to gradually expand without being overwhelmed with a bunch of book stubs that don't go anywhere.

Adding a new Wikijunior book is not a huge thing. Even a brand-new contributors are encouraged to suggest a new title. If you want to write a book and are willing to put the hard work into developing substantial content yourself, we encourage you to do so. Have fun and enjoy working with Wikijunior. We are glad that you are here.

title: Wikijunior:New Title Policy


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Template:Authors

Authors
The following people are authors to this book:

You can verify who has contributed to this book by examining the history logs at Wikibooks (http://en.wikibooks.org/).

The above authors release their work under the following license:

Unless otherwise noted and source code usable in stand alone form have their own copyrights and different licenses (but compatible with the Copyleft nature of the work). Media may be under Fair use, that is not recognized in some jurisdictions. Source code or scripts not listing copyrights or license information shall be considered in the public domain.

title: Template:Authors


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Wikijunior talk:New Title Policy

I am creating this policy because I think the previous policy of not allowing any new Wikijunior books to be created is just too much over the top. If we want to gradually add new Wikijunior books, there should be some sort of process of allowing it to happen. This is hopefully a compromise between allowing any title to be created (like Wikibooks in general) and not allowing anything at all to be added. --Rob Horning 01:30, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

Personally, I think that we should admit one book from every category at a time. I'm good at writing science-kinda stuff, and I'm disappointed when the latest one to work on is about language. --Sam T. Jazzhands 19:12, 14 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm trying to gague participation levels for these new Wikijunior projects. Wikijunior Elements only lost by a single vote during the last round, and indeed was declared the winner by one user.  And the previous book was about Dinosaurs... which is a science related book.  The whole point of doing this is to keep from overwhelming Wikijunior proofreaders and to try and raise the bar for the quality of the material being produced.  So far, some incredibly outstanding content has developed.  This is also an experiment to see if a slow growth approach really does improve the quality of the material being written, or if instead we should have a free-for-all write anything and everything, with stubs everywhere.  I would like to move this to a new Wikijunior book every month, but I would like to see a user base large enough to support that many new books coming out all of the time.  As it is, we are barely able to keep up with even producing a good Wikijunior book once every three months.  I hope that changes.  --Rob Horning 12:59, 15 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:New Title Policy


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Wikijunior:New Title Suggestions

Before adding any new Wikijunior book title suggestions, please read Wikijunior:New Title Policy.

The decision to determine which new Wikijunior project will be started is through the Wikijunior:New Book of the Quarter page. Please vote there for the project you would like to see started next. If you would like to pull a proposal out of the archive and suggest it again, please feel free to do so.

Please use the following template for adding new book title suggestions:

(Add suggested title)

 * Description:
 * Scope:
 * Purpose:
 * Narrative:
 * Audience:
 * Target Age:
 * Academic Prerequisites:
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Example Section 1
 * Example Section 2
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * Example Question 1
 * Example Question 2
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * User 1
 * User 2
 * Discussion

Adventures in Architecture

 * Description: A book about architecture, but more of an activity book than a textbook.
 * Scope: All aspects of architecture, from historical buildings, through build-it-yourself models, through learning to appreciate the architecture in your own hometown.
 * Purpose: To educate about architecture specifically, but more broadly to engage children in a creative learning process.
 * Narrative: As explained, this would not really be a narrative textbook, but the educational content would be provided primarily through activities. Of course background material will also be provided.
 * Audience: Inquisitive children, with some activities also involving their parents taking them to interesting places, and some activities involving games they can play with their friends.
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: None
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * What's a Pyramid good for?
 * All Roads lead to Rome
 * etc.
 * Standard Section Headings:
 * Build it! (building models)
 * Take a Hike! (outdoor excursions to look at local buildings)
 * What would you build? (creative thinking exercises)
 * Games (simple activities that can be done at any time)
 * Puzzle Tower (drawing puzzles inspired by architectural problems)
 * Notes: This was inspired by some of the educational books I appreciated most when I was younger. It is my hope that some of the other Wikijunior titles might in future also employ the 'creative' approach.
 * Interested Participants:
 * Pharos 05:52, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Discussion:

Electricity
Hello! In my humble opinion would this book describe too much for the intended audience with age 8 to 12. You have written almost all which someone can know about electricity. Most grown up people would not know how a motor works. Please cut it down a bit. To write a book for children, you have to make it interesting. Tell a story and talk about how the current in a bicycle dynamo gets into the lamp. --SvonHalenbach (talk) 14:22, 16 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Description: Explains electricity.
 * Scope: Discussion of the physics, history, applications, components, and modern significance of electricity and related subjects.
 * Purpose:
 * Narrative: Beginning with natural occurrences and the earliest applications of electricity and illustrating the growth of the significance of electricity by talking about the various things that electricity does.
 * Audience
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: None
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Electricity around us
 * Static
 * Lightning
 * Generation
 * Conduction
 * AC & DC
 * Batteries
 * Circuits
 * Lights
 * Buzzers
 * Switches
 * Fuses
 * Motors
 * From the power plant to you
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * What does it do?
 * When and how was it discovered?
 * How does it do it?
 * What are some specific examples?
 * Why is it important?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * Scienceman123
 * Discussion:

Svon: Horsefeathers. So WHAT if most adults don't know how a motor works (having taught University Physics, I can say unequivocally you are correct in this claim). One can teach a child not only how a motor works, but tie it to a key concept (electro-magnetism relationships) and teach them a crux detail (a commutator) and how to make a working motor using lacquered wire, a battery, a couple paper clips, and a magnet. Comprehensiveness (too many topics) may be a fault here, since a few electrical examples and a few *electronic* examples could introduce concepts adequately and guide the child to another lesson. But nothing about electricity or electronics (aside from safety) is out of the grasp of a child; just look at the way they devour statistics and names of sports stars and dinosaurs and geography. (PS: I am not the author of this suggestion) --67.60.92.8 (talk) 14:43, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

Evolution of Life

 * Description: Describes the processes of evolution.
 * Scope:
 * Purpose: To explain and describe theories about how life changes over time and demonstrate the effects of evolution on various species.
 * Narrative: Begins with the earliest life on earth and follows life as it evolves.
 * Audience: Kids interested in science and animals.
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: none
 * Organization
 * Special Section Titles:
 * Geologic Time Scale/Fossil Record
 * Formation of the Earth
 * Cambrian Explosion
 * From ape to man
 * Charles Darwin
 * Natural Selection
 * DNA and Mutations
 * Intelligent Design
 * Standard Section Titles
 * Amanita (Amanita Mushrooms)
 * Brachypelma (Tarantula)
 * Decapoda (Crabs)
 * Hominidae (Great Apes)
 * Mysticeti (Baleen Whales)
 * Pelecanidae (Pelicans)
 * Pteropodidae (Fruit Bats)
 * Semaeostomeae (Jellyfish)
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * Where is this group found?
 * What are some early examples?
 * What are some present day examples?
 * What vestigial characteristics are found in this group?
 * How is this group adapted to its environment?
 * How do members of this group vary?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * xixtas talk 03:27, 15 April 2007 (UTC)
 * teh1337
 * 208.108.145.30 (talk) 14:58, 13 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Qwertsy
 * Discussion

Famous Inventors

 * Description: Inventors of new technology that has changed our lives
 * Scope: Includes biography, how they made their discoveries, how the discoveries helped people and/or the world, what legacy they are remember for today.
 * Purpose: The purpose will be to reveal how the Scientific Method for experiments is used to discover and create inventions that have made life better for people.
 * Narrative: The famous inventors would reveal more of the stories behind the technology. The wikipedia entries for the inventors are too long and are not kid friendly.  This book needs to be concise and include pictures to aid comprehension. This would be an excellent supplement to the How Things Work  Wikijunior book.  They could crosslink to each other in order to find out more about either the inventor of the invention or the invention the inventor made.
 * Audience: Children interested in discovery and how things are invented.
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: none
 * Organization
 * Chapter Titles:
 * Section Titles:
 * Early Inventors
 * Galileo
 * Inventors in Communication
 * Alexander Graham Bell
 * Samuel Morse
 * Inventors in Transportation
 * Henry Ford
 * Wilber and Orville Wright
 * Inventors in Agriculture
 * George Washington Carver
 * Cyrus McCormick
 * Inventors in Everyday Uses
 * Thomas Edison
 * Benjamin Franklin
 * Lewis Howard Latimer
 * George Westinghouse
 * Inventors in Medicine
 * Madam Curie
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * When, Where, and to whom was he or she born?
 * What was his or her childhood like?
 * Why did this person become interested in science?
 * Where did this person go to school?
 * What problem did he or she uncover that needed solving?
 * What invention had already been tried that did not solve the problem, Why wasn't it working?
 * What did this person invent that solved the problem?
 * What does the invention do?
 * How has this invention changed people and the world?
 * What happened to this inventor in the end?

 * Notes: I teach this unit to my Third Graders each year. I have used Powerpoint presentations in the past but would like something my students can contribute to on a more permanent basis and build upon in succeeding years.
 * Interested Participants:
 * User 1--Jsigler (talk) 05:39, 6 March 2008 (UTC)
 * User 2
 * Discussion

Mathematics - Grade One

 * Description: Mathematic textbook for First Grade Students, generally compliant with the State of California Education standards.
 * Scope: Includes descriptions of problem solving techniques, examples and problems.
 * Purpose: Teach students to understand and use the concept of ones and tens in the place value number system. Teach students add and subtract small numbers, measure with simple units and locate objects in space. Teach them to describe data and analyze and solve simple problems.
 * Narrative:
 * Audience: 1st grade students
 * Target Age: 6-7
 * Academic Prerequisites: Knowledge of Kindergarten Math
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Number Sense
 * 1.0 Students understand and use numbers up to 100:
 * 1.1 Count, read, and write whole numbers to 100.
 * 1.2 Compare and order whole numbers to 100 by using the symbols for less than, equal to, or greater than (<, =, >).
 * 1.3 Represent equivalent forms of the same number through the use of physical models, diagrams, and number expressions (to 20) (e.g., 8 may be represented as 4 + 4, 5 + 3, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2, 10 -2, 11 -3).
 * 1.4 Count and group object in ones and tens (e.g., three groups of 10 and 4 equals 34, or 30 + 4).
 * 1.5 Identify and know the value of coins and show different combinations of coins that equal the same value.
 * 2.0 Students demonstrate the meaning of addition and subtraction and use these operations to solve problems:
 * 2.1 Know the addition facts (sums to 20) and the corresponding subtraction facts and commit them to memory.
 * 2.2 Use the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction to solve problems.
 * 2.3 Identify one more than, one less than, 10 more than, and 10 less than a given number.
 * 2.4 Count by 2s, 5s, and 10s to 100.
 * 2.5 Show the meaning of addition (putting together, increasing) and subtraction (taking away, comparing, finding the difference).
 * 2.6 Solve addition and subtraction problems with one-and two-digit numbers (e.g., 5 + 58 = __).
 * 2.7 Find the sum of three one-digit numbers.
 * 3.0 Students use estimation strategies in computation and problem solving that involve numbers that use the ones, tens, and hundreds places:
 * 3.1 Make reasonable estimates when comparing larger or smaller numbers.
 * Algebra and Functions
 * 1.0 Students use number sentences with operational symbols and expressions to solve problems:
 * 1.1 Write and solve number sentences from problem situations that express relationships involving addition and subtraction.
 * 1.2 Understand the meaning of the symbols +, -, =.
 * 1.3 Create problem situations that might lead to given number sentences involving addition and subtraction.
 * Measurement and Geometry
 * 1.0 Students use direct comparison and nonstandard units to describe the measurements of objects:
 * 1.1 Compare the length, weight, and volume of two or more objects by using direct comparison or a nonstandard unit.
 * 1.2 Tell time to the nearest half hour and relate time to events (e.g., before/after, shorter/longer).
 * 2.0 Students identify common geometric figures, classify them by common attributes, and describe their relative position or their location in space:
 * 2.1 Identify, describe, and compare triangles, rectangles, squares, and circles, including the faces of three-dimensional objects.
 * 2.2 Classify familiar plane and solid objects by common attributes, such as color, position, shape, size, roundness, or number of corners, and explain which attributes are being used for classification.
 * 2.3 Give and follow directions about location.
 * 2.4 Arrange and describe objects in space by proximity, position, and direction (e.g., near, far, below, above, up, down, behind, in front of, next to, left or right of).
 * Statistics, Data Analysis, and Probability
 * 1.0 Students organize, represent, and compare data by category on simple graphs and charts:
 * 1.1 Sort objects and data by common attributes and describe the categories.
 * 1.2 Represent and compare data (e.g., largest, smallest, most often, least often) by using pictures, bar graphs, tally charts, and picture graphs.
 * 2.0 Students sort objects and create and describe patterns by numbers, shapes, sizes, rhythms, or colors:
 * 2.1 Describe, extend, and explain ways to get to a next element in simple repeating patterns (e.g., rhythmic, numeric, color, and shape).
 * Mathematical Reasoning
 * 1.0 Students make decisions about how to set up a problem:
 * 1.1 Determine the approach, materials, and strategies to be used.
 * 1.2 Use tools, such as manipulatives or sketches, to model problems.
 * 2.0 Students solve problems and justify their reasoning:
 * 2.1 Explain the reasoning used and justify the procedures selected.
 * 2.2 Make precise calculations and check the validity of the results from the context of the problem.
 * 2.3 Students note connections between one problem and another.

 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * User 1
 * teh1337
 * Wes
 * Discussion

By the end of grade one, students understand and use the concept of ones and tens in the place value number system. Students add and subtract small numbers with ease. They measure with simple units and locate objects in space. They describe data and analyze and solve simple problems.

World War II

 * Description: Covers the history of the Second World War.
 * Scope:
 * Purpose:
 * Narrative:
 * Audience:
 * Target Age: 10-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: Basic understanding of politics and maturity to handle discussions of violence
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * The Start of World War II
 * The Allies
 * The Axis
 * Dunkerque
 * Battle of Britain
 * The Blitz
 * Pearl Harbor
 * Barbarossa - the German invasion of Russia
 * The War in the Pacific
 * The War in Africa
 * D-Day
 * The Holocaust
 * Atomic Bombs
 * Aftermath
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * Where did the event take place?
 * Who participated?
 * Why did the event take place?
 * What were the goals of the participants?
 * What happened during the event?
 * What were the costs of the event?
 * What was the outcome?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * Hagindaz 04:14, 7 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Kneiphof 21:42, 5 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Urbane User 16:16, 1 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Discussion

South America Relaunch

 * Description: To relaunch the South America book with new questions focusing on cultural aspects of the various countries.
 * Scope: Discuss various countries, their history, interesting places and culture.
 * Purpose: To show kids how people live in various places in South America, and how it is different or similar to the way they live.
 * Narrative:
 * Audience:
 * Target Age: 9-14
 * Academic Prerequisites: Basic understanding of Geography.
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Argentina
 * Bolivia
 * Brazil
 * Chile
 * Colombia
 * Ecuador
 * Falkland Islands
 * French Guiana
 * Guyana
 * Paraguay
 * Peru
 * Suriname
 * Uruguay
 * Venezuela
 * The Andes
 * The Amazon
 * The Incas
 * Simón Bolívar
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * What are %country's% national symbols?
 * What are some famous places in %country%?
 * What important events have happened in %country%?
 * What is the natural environment like in %country%?
 * What types of things are exported from %country%?
 * What is school like in %country%?
 * What is the food like in %country%?
 * What music is popular in %country%?
 * What sports are popular in %country%?
 * Who are some famous people from %country%?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * xixtas talk 04:14, 3 April 2007 (UTC)
 * User 2
 * Discussion

Colors
Although the idea seems to be very valid I worry whether such books should be considered in this voting system. Their simplicity would lead to few comprehensive books being tagged as official and therefore I would suggest if they could rather be created in another system, appropriate for quicker acceptance of such books. --82.10.198.113 19:00, 8 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Description: A mostly graphical exploration of colors. Instead of links, readers click on the color to go to a page containing objects of that color and simple text descriptions. See User:Whiteknight/Wikijunior:Colors for an example page.
 * Scope: Primary and secondary colors, black, grey, white.
 * Purpose: To teach young children about colors, to associate different objects with particular colors, and to introduce written words such as "Green" with images of green things.
 * Narrative: Very little narrative, no particular reading order.
 * Audience: Toddlers, children from birth to age 5.
 * Target Age: 0-5
 * Academic Prerequisites: none
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Red
 * Green
 * etc
 * Standard Section Headings: None, see example page.
 * Notes:
 * This will be a very simple book, graphically oriented, in a manner similar to Wikijunior:Animal Alphabet.
 * Interested Participants:
 * --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 01:40, 6 June 2007 (UTC)
 * -- xixtas talk 03:04, 7 June 2007 (UTC)
 * --Michael
 * Discussion

I had an idea for something like this a while back when I was trying to get colors across to my son. The particular problem this book addresses is the difficulty one-year-olds have with learning colors. The problem seems to be that there are a lot of different shades; you can point to two different red things, e.g. cherries and strawberries, and say they are both red... but it takes a long time for the child to get it because the thing you are pointing at are actually different colors. there are lots of kids books with objects and colors, but the problem is they are random objects - nobody ever says "look at that - it's a teddy-bear blue colour". I've not got just 'green' (duh), I've got bottle, olive, lime, pea, leaf, emerald, mint and fern-green -- and pictures of each item (e.g. bottle-green, http://imageafter.com/image.php?image=b19glass019.jpg) with a breakout box containing the color and a line to a point on the image where it actually is that color in the box. 63 colors in total! And I suppose you could follow up with color patterns. I was going to publish it hardcopy, but have never done a book before. My 5yo is happy with biscuit-brown and custard-yellow etc. Would this be along the lines you are thinking?

--Michael

Religions

 * Description: Inspired by Wikijunior:Languages, this book would be a kid-friendly repository of the world's religions.
 * Scope: Large world religions and their sects. If possible, topics on atheism and the like.
 * Purpose: To provide children with an easy to read and neutral place to learn about the many religions around them.
 * Narrative:
 * Audience: Children who are willing to learn about religions that they do not believe in, and learn it in a place where no religion is neither superior nor inferior to another.
 * Target Age: Ages 12 and up, given the rather serious subject matter..
 * Academic Prerequisites: Social studies, a general knowledge of world history and beliefs.
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Christianity
 * Christianity/Protestantism
 * Christianity/Protestantism/Lutheranism
 * Islam
 * Islam/Sunni Islam
 * etc.
 * Standard Section Headings:
 * What are the main beliefs of this religion/religious sect?
 * How many people practice this religion/religious sect?
 * Where is this religion/religious sect practiced?
 * What is the history of this religion/religious sect?
 * Are there any famous people who practice this religion/religious sect?
 * Notes: For this discussion, sect is defined as "a form of a religion". For example, Sunni Islam is a sect of Islam.

As this idea is in a very early stage, keep in mind that these specifics are volatile. Mouse is back 07:50, 1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Notes: Although I use monotheistic religions as examples, this book would encompass both mono- and poly-theistic religions.
 * Interested Participants:
 * Mouse is back 07:50, 1 January 2008 (UTC)
 * User 2
 * Discussion

A Series of Unfortunate Events

 * Description: It is about the adventures of three children, the Baudelaire orphans, after the death of their parents in a fire. The setting of the series is anachronistic, and throughout the series there are many literary and cultural allusions.
 * Scope: {none}
 * Purpose: To enjoy fictional stories, such as this.
 * Narrative: The story begins as the Baudelaire orphans get some bad news, and ends on an island only known as Olaf-Land
 * Audience: Youngsters that enjoy sad stories.
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites:
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Example Section 1
 * Example Section 2
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * Example Question 1
 * Example Question 2
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * User 1
 * User 2
 * Discussion
 * Is this fiction, because that would be outside the scope of Wikibooks. --Wes (talk) 01:06, 18 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Not to mention that sounds like a Copyright work Sfan00 IMG (talk) 16:17, 11 May 2009 (UTC)
 * That's because it is a copyrighted work. Kayau (talk) 11:59, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

What to do When Mommy Hurts You
Description: A book to help young children to understand and deal with subtle or overt abuse by their female care-givers, the book would also serve as a sourcebook for medico-legal professionals: * Scope: * Purpose: To help protect children from abuse by their mothers and female caregivers by giving them tools to describe their female care-giver's abuse. * Narrative: Your mother may have told you that the police or child protection services are trying to take you away from your mother, but that she will do anything to protect you. This may have happened several times, and your mother may have told you that if you say the right things, the won't be able to take you away from her. Your mother may say things like, "you don't want to be taken away from mommy, do you?" She may tell you never to talk about some of the things she has done to you, and she may apologize and promise that she won't do them again if you just lie. * Target Age: 8-12 * * Academic Prerequisites: None * Section Titles: * Example Section 1 Does your mother hurt you? * Example Section 2 Does your mother compare you to your father when she's angry? * Example Section 3 Does your mother try to make sure that you can't talk to your father or other close relatives? **User Children **User medico-legal professionals Female care-givers typically abuse children in largely invisible ways that may appear to a superficial observer as normal discipline or over-protectiveness. They succeed in their abuse due to the tremendous control that they have over the child. Frequently, even after abuse is conclusively proven, through photographs or videos, the child will deny that the abuse took place. This book would serve to empower children and help them to acknowledge the abuse in a safe, nurturing, way.
 * Audience:Pre and Intra-adolescent children who have been, or are suspected to have been abused by their female care-giver.
 * Organization
 * Interested Participants:
 * Discussion

I would suggest a different name. Red4tribe (talk) 23:06, 11 July 2008 (UTC)

American Founding Fathers

 * Description:A book to help children(paticulary Americans) understand the people who founded their country.
 * Scope: Topics on each of the Founding Fathers, such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, etc.
 * Purpose: To educate American children about the men who founded their nation.
 * Narrative:
 * Audience: Children interested in American History.
 * Target Age: 7-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: none
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * George Washington
 * John Adams
 * Standard Section Headings:
 * What did they do when they were young?
 * What important things did they do?
 * What did they do afterwards?
 * Do we honor them today?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * Red4tribe
 * User 2
 * Discussion

How to excel as a spell-bee

 * Description:
 * Scope: for kids under 12
 * Purpose: how to develop vocabulary
 * Narrative: how to prepare for a spell bee competition, study techniques
 * Audience:
 * Target Age: 5 till 12
 * Academic Prerequisites:
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Example Section 1
 * Example Section 2
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * what are the study techniques ?
 * what is the time frame [approx] required to prepare on a daily basis ?
 * what other factors must be taken into consideration ?
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * User 1
 * User 2
 * Discussion
 * But it doesn't sound right -- winning spelling bees give you no more than a little fame throughout the school. Maybe change it to how to handle vocabulary? Kayau (talk) 12:59, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

Maps - From A to B

 * Description: A book about simple map making, navigation and map-making.
 * Scope: A history of map-making and navigation, along with some practical hints on navigation and map making.
 * Purpose: To educate about map-making.
 * Narrative: The intention in this book is to try and use a similar style to that used by 'Ladybird' in the UK
 * Presentation/Layout: Ideally similar to Ladybird, within the limitations of wiki-markup.

 * Audience: Interested readers, as well as possibly 'youth groups' that do outdoor activity.
 * Target Age: 8-12
 * Academic Prerequisites: Some Basic geometry (angles,cricles, distance and area) assumed.

 * Intended Page Headings.
 * Introduction -
 * What is a Map?

 * History of map-making and Navigation
 * Early Maps
 * 'The Earth is Round!'
 * 'Across the Mighty Ocean Deep'
 * 'Organised Surveys'
 * 'Across the continent'
 * 'Into the Blue'
 * 'Beyond the frontier'

 * How to Navigate
 * Primitive
 * The Compass
 * Bearings
 * Scale
 * Referencing.
 * How high?
 * 'All At Sea'

 * Making a Map

 * Unsorted topics:
 * 'The Pattern of Travel'(Transport maps)
 * 'A to B...'               (Road classification)
 * 'Beneath your feet'       (Geological/ Mineral mapping)
 * 'Upon the field so brave.' (Military mapping)
 * 'Gales Expected...'       (Weather Charts)

 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:

 * Discussion

Types of Fiction

 * Description: Lets children understand different types of fiction
 * Scope: Any type of fiction
 * Purpose: Children may choose which types they are the most interested in.
 * Narrative:
 * Audience: Children interested in books
 * Target Age: 7-10
 * Academic Prerequisites: None
 * Organization
 * Section Titles:
 * Mystery / Detective
 * Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
 * Horror
 * Robert Louis Stevenson
 * Bram Stoker
 * Mary Shelley
 * Love
 * Jane Austen
 * Adventure
 * Jack London
 * Ernest Hemingway
 * Satire
 * Humour
 * Sci-fi
 * Jules Verne
 * H. G. Wells
 * Fantasy
 * Louis Carroll
 * Historical
 * Alexandre Dumas
 * Victor Hugo
 * Others
 * Bronte sisters
 * Charles Dickens
 * John Bunyan
 * James Joyce
 * Thomas Hardy
 * Standard Section Headings: (May take the form of a question.)
 * What is (genre)?
 * History of (genre)
 * Famous (genre) writers
 * Notes on reading the genre
 * Notes:
 * Interested Participants:
 * Kayau (talk)
 * Discussion:

title: Wikijunior:New Title Suggestions


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations

About the Wikijunior Ancient Civilizations

The target age of this title is 8–12 years old. Section titles will include major groups of people or substantial empires in ancient times. The print version will focus only on answering a specific series of questions about selected civilizations. There will be an introduction and a basic discussion of archaeology.

When working on this project, remember that it's aimed at children. Being understood is just as important as being accurate. Authors should concentrate on the most important concepts rather than getting wrapped up in every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work.

If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to this list: Wikijunior Ancient Civilizations Authors.

{| valign="top" width="100%" |
 * width="50%" bgcolor="#ffffec" style="border:1px solid #faf9b2;padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;" |

Contributing

 * /Authors/
 * /Contributing/
 * /Stub Template/

Special articles

 * /Introduction/
 * What is a Civilization?
 * Archeology
 * Pre-History

 * width="50%" bgcolor="#eeffee" style="border:1px solid #99ff99;padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;" |

Resources

 * }
 * }

{| align="center" width="100%"
 * valign="top" width="33%" |

Publishable articles

 * 1) Ancient Pueblo Peoples
 * 2) Assyrians
 * 3) Babylonians
 * 4) Chinese
 * 5) Egyptians
 * 6) Greeks
 * 7) Hebrews
 * 8) Minoans
 * 9) Mycenaeans
 * 10) Mound Builders (North America)
 * 11) Vikings/Norse (Scandinavians)
 * 12) Persians
 * 13) Romans
 * 14) Sumerians
 * 15) Carthaginians
 * valign="top" width="33%" |

Developing articles

 * 1) Arabian
 * 2) Aztecs
 * 3) Celts
 * 4) Incas
 * 5) Indus Valley
 * 6) Khmer
 * 7) /Kongo/
 * 8) Mayans
 * 9) Mongolians
 * 10) Phoenicians
 * 11) Korean
 * 12) Iroquois
 * 13) /Zulu/
 * valign="top" width="33%" |

Article stubs

 * 1) /Akkadians/
 * 2) /Aksum/
 * 3) /Atlanteans/
 * 4) /Dravidians/
 * 5) /Germanic peoples/
 * 6) /Goths/
 * 7) /Hittites/
 * 8) /Indian/
 * 9) /Illyria/
 * 10) /Japanese/
 * 11) /Kushites/
 * 12) /Mesopotamians/
 * 13) /Mixtec/
 * 14) /Moche/
 * 15) /Munhumutapa/
 * 16) /Nasca/
 * 17) /Olmec/
 * 18) /Saxons/
 * 19) /Scythians/
 * 20) /Sinhala/
 * 21) /Slavs/
 * 22) /Swahili/
 * 23) Thai/Siamese
 * 24) /Toltecs/
 * 25) Pacific Islanders
 * 26)  Magyar (Hungary)
 * 27) /Vedic/
 * 28) /Majapahit/
 * 29) /Sri Vijaya/
 * }

Please add additional civilizations to the "article stubs" list. Keep in mind this is a list of major groups of people or substantial empires in ancient times.

Wikijunior Alte Zivilisationen Wikichicos/Grandes Civilizaciones fr:Wikijunior:Les civilisations anciennes Wikijunior Muinaiset kulttuurit

title: Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Authors

If you wish to be formally listed as an author of Wikijunior Ancient Civilizations, please sign your name below.

According to the United States Code for registering a copyrighted work, you must include your nationality (what country you claim citizenship in) and the country you are currently residing in, if different. It is also suggested by the U.S. Copyright office to include the year you were born, for identification purposes. They also ask for the year of death, and if you know of a Wikibookian who has passed away, this would also be useful. How exactly we are going to collect this information for users and contributors of this Wikibooks is totally unknown, and is going to be an interesting little ride. Please add comments in the discussion page if you have any reservations about giving this information out. This is moving into new territory here, so we don't know exactly what is going to be required or if new policies should or ought to be developed.

Keep in mind, this information is needed only if you want to be credited formally as the author of this Wikibook and have your information correctly cited in any formal registration procedure for this Wikibook. Efforts to get this information put into the general user record of MediaWiki have met with huge resistance even on a voluntary basis, so this is the only forum for you to even put this sort of information out to the public. This information may also be needed for enforcement of copyright laws in the unfortunate situation where somebody copies this Wikibook contrary to the terms of the GFDL. An attempt to contact you would then be made to see if you would be willing to enforce your copyright for this Wikibook.

Anonymous authors include those who made edits without logging in as a user. While edits of this nature are appreciated, there is no way we can give attribution to any specific person unless they have created an account here.

Authors
Authors of this book include: and many anonymous Wikibook readers
 * 1) Robert Horning -- Logan, UT USA, 1965
 * 2) Geocachernemesis
 * 3) Shanel -- Shanel Kalicharan, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, 1988 (citizenship Trinidad and Tobago)
 * 4) Enaam Alnaggar -- USA, 1986
 * 5) Geni
 * 6) Adeep M -- Mumbai, India
 * 7) Bart Niday United States, 1992
 * 8) Nivritchari Dhaka, Bangladesh
 * 9) ImageObserver -- AKA Eugenia Kuznetsova, USA, 1965
 * 10) Ben Horowitz -- United States
 * 11) Tom Nundy- United Kingdom 1992
 * 12) Kenneth Sime California, United States
 * 13) Andrew Watt, b. Stamford, CT, 1970-"not dead yet" . United States. (Minoans, Sumerians)
 * 14) Randy Wilson -- United States
 * 15) Rose Mawhorter British Columbia, Canada, b1980
 * 16) Alakazam38, London, England. (Carthaginians; Chinese; Minoans; Phoenicians; Prehistory)
 * 17) Kayau, Hong Kong, China. B. 1997.
 * 18) Timpo British engineer/lawyer working in Madrid, Spain.
 * 19) Lalita1999 -- Madrid, Spain.


text:
Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Egyptians

What country did they live in?

Egypt is in northeastern Africa. The Ancient Egyptians lived along the River Nile, the "fertile river." This river flows from the central part of Africa. The Nile's water flows north and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. At the northern most part of the Nile, the Nile forms a delta. The delta is the wider, triangular mouth of river, where it leaves behind dirt and other sediment.

The Nile was very important to life in Egypt. Seasonal floods every year covered the land near the river with fresh silt, making the land very good for growing food. In order to grow more food, people built irrigation canals to move water from the river to nearby areas. The Sahara Desert makes up much of the surrounding area, so most people didn't travel very far from the Nile. The surrounding desert land made the rich soil of the Nile very important for growing crops.

Egyptian transportation systems included boats that traveled north and south along the river. Boats could easily travel north, with the current of the river, but they could go south easily as well. The winds along the river usually blew to the south, so the Egyptians would raise sails on their boats and head against the current with the help of the wind!

The Greek historian Herodotus traveled the river thousands of years after the Egyptians started their civilization. He is often quoted as saying that "Egypt is the gift of the Nile." This means that, without the Nile, civilization in Egypt would be impossible.

What did their buildings look like?

There were two types of buildings that the ancient Egyptians lived in. One was called the worker's home. The other was the town house, which was for wealthier people. Both types of houses were built from bricks. Stone was only used for building permanent structures, such as the Pyramids. The bricks were made from a mixture of mud, pebbles, and straw. The builders would pour the mixture into wooden frames and leave it in the sun to dry and harden. Buildings made from such bricks eventually crumbled, and new buildings were constructed right on top of the ruins. This led to the formation of tells or hills. Houses were often built along the Nile River, but they had to be high to avoid flooding.

A worker's home was usually one-story high and had up to four rooms. There was a yard and a kitchen in the back of the house, as well as two underground storage cellars. The roofs of the Egyptians houses were flat, and people spent much of their time there. Egyptian families slept, cooked, and ate their meals on the roof. It was a bit like having a living room, kitchen, dining room, and bedroom all up on the roof. The Egyptians did not have running water in their homes, but water could be taken from nearby wells. Workers' homes had very little furniture, including beds and storage chests for clothes.

The houses of the wealthy were much larger and up to three stories tall. Because the walls were much higher, they had to be supported by wooden beams. The walls of the first floor were sometimes made of stone for added strength. Different levels of the house served different purposes. The first floor was where business and work was conducted. The second and third floors were the living space for the family and had nicer furnishings. The roof was used for preparing and cooking meals that were then brought in by the servants. Wealthy homes had gardens, pools, and small shrines for worship. Some houses were decorated with tiled floors, barred windows, fancy staircases, and painted walls. The ceilings were high and held up with columns.

The pyramids were large stone structures built to house the bodies of the Egyptian rulers, or Pharaohs, after they died. The pyramids were built high, because it was believed to be the ruler's staircase to heaven. Although the most famous shape is the familiar three-dimensional triangle, pyramids were built in a variety of shapes. They were all built with the help of simple machines, including pulleys, inclined planes, and levers. The inside walls of the pyramids were decorated with hieroglyphics, the picture-based writing of the Egyptians. The tomb of the Pharaoh was located in a room deep in the heart of the pyramid, and was filled with gold, jewels, and other riches. It was also filled with other everyday objects that might be needed by the dead Pharaoh during his journey to the afterlife. This could include food, clothing, utensils, pottery, and furniture. Sometimes, even servants were sealed up in the tomb! Because of all the treasure inside the tomb, robbers sometimes broke into the pyramids, but their maze-like interior could cause them to get lost and die of starvation. Another defense against robbers were the curses written at the entrance of the pyramids. Most ancient Egyptians were very superstitious, and the curses were frightening enough to keep them away. Unfortunately, as centuries passed, thieves grew less afraid of the curses and managed to steal many of the ancient treasures that had been in the tombs for ages.

What did they eat?
The ancient Egyptians ate food that is not much different from what we eat today. Because the Nile River supplied them with a constant water source, the Egyptians were able to grow many different kinds of crops in their desert environment. Common crops included grains, vegetables, and fruit. It was expensive to raise animals. Therefore, most domestic animals were used as work animals rather than as food. Often, Egyptian families hunted wild animals to eat.

The Egyptians ate many different kinds of bread. The dough was made from grain, yeast, eggs, butter, salt, milk, and spices. In early times, it was cooked over an open fire. Later, pre-heated stone slabs were used. The bread could be plain or filled with beans, vegetables, or other ingredients. If sweet bread was desired, it would be flavored with honey, fruit, or dates. Honey was the main sweetener for the Egyptians, because they had not discovered sugar. They also believed that honey had healing properties.

Because the Nile provided lots of water, fruits and vegetables made up a large part of the Egyptian diet. Common vegetables included: cucumbers, onions, cabbage, garlic, radishes, leeks, and more. Green vegetables were often served with a dressing, usually made of vinegar and oil, not unlike the salad dressings we use today. Fruits like figs, pomegranates, dates, melons, and grapes were readily available. Wealthy people could import fruits like coconuts, apples, and peaches.

Fish was also a large part of their diet, although many rich people would not eat it. Fish was usually eaten fried, boiled, or roasted. It was also often sun-dried.

What did they wear?

Most Egyptians wore white tunics made of linen. Linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the heat. Linen is made from the flax plant. Plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Only the pharaohs or wealthy wore animal skins, from lions or leopards. Clothing made from animals was forbidden in temples and sanctuaries.

Men wore skirts or tunics to the knee. Women would cover their legs and often wore a simple dress called a kalasiris. While working, men wore loincloths, and women wore shorter skirts. Peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing. Slaves often worked naked. Wealthier people had pleats in their clothing, and some noblewomen wore beaded dresses.

Egyptians wore sandals made of palm fiber or braided papyrus for shoes. Most people went barefoot and carried their shoes, wearing them only when necessary. Women seldom wore shoes, because most of their work was indoors.

Royalty wore ceremonial clothes which were elaborately decorated with feathers and sequins. The Pharaoh's sandals and gloves were both highly ornamented.

Both men and women wore makeup. They also used a reddish dye called 'henna.' Unlike other ancient civilizations, the Egyptians were quite clean and washed and oiled themselves with scented oil before dressing. They used combs, razors, and tweezers as part of their hygiene routine. Men and women both wore wigs, which were changed every day and made from human hair or wool. Curled wigs were worn on special occasions.

Jewellery was a normal part of any Egyptian's outfit. All classes wore some type of jewelery made of either gold or colorful beads or stones. Lapis lazuli and turquoise were used to make necklaces. Earrings and rings made of clay were also worn as a fashion accessory.

What did they believe?
Ancient Egyptians, for most of their history, believed in many gods. Ra, the sun god, was one of the most important gods. Several of the gods were based on animals, or had animals as their symbols. One god was often shown as a jackal and another as a cow.

Often, there were myths told about these gods and goddesses that explained some of the major ideas in ancient Egypt. One famous myth involves Isis and Osiris. This story helped explain several of the most important beliefs, such as the belief in the afterlife.

Egyptians believed that after people died, they went to an afterlife, where they would continue their lives as they lived them on Earth. To do this successfully, however, they had to preserve everything that they had in life on Earth. This is the reason that Pharaohs were buried with everything that they owned. Pharaohs, and others who were rich enough, would have scenes of their life on Earth painted on the walls of their tombs, so that those same sorts of scenes could be relived in the afterlife. This is also why Egyptians believed in mummification: the body had to be preserved, so that the spirit, called the 'ka,' could return to the body after death.

Under the rule of one Pharaoh named Akhenaten, Egypt became monotheist, meaning that they believed in one god. During this time, they worshipped the god Aten, another sun god. Monotheism was never fully embraced by the people of Egypt, however, and after the Pharaoh's death, the Egyptian people went back to polytheism.

What did their writing look like?

The Egyptians had three types of writing. The first is called hieroglyphics. This was a kind of picture writing in which pictures and characters make up words. This can be very hard to read, because the words often run together, and the Egyptians didn’t use punctuation. Another form of writing is called “Hieratic.” This form is the same as hieroglyphics, but written very fast in a cursive style. Last came “Demotic,” which became popular during the time when Egypt was ruled by Pharaohs.

Egyptians could carve hieroglyphs into stone, mud brick, or papyrus (paper made by pounding the stems of a reed until they stick together). Egyptian writing was so difficult that only a very few people learned to read it. If these “scribes” worked very hard, they could become court officials or priests. After Christianity became the religion of the Roman Empire, knowledge of how to speak and write Ancient Egyptian disappeared. In the early 1800s, a large slab of stone with three different forms of writing on it was found. Because it was found near the town of Rosetta in the Egyptian delta, it was called the Rosetta Stone.

Several years later, a man named Jean-François Champollion discovered that one of the languages on the stone was a form of Greek that he knew how to read. The three languages were hieroglyphs, Demotic, and Greek. By gradually comparing common words between the Greek and Egyptian languages, he was able to get a basic understanding of how the ancient Egyptian language worked. However, it has taken the work of many other people to understand Egyptian writing. Even today, there are many signs and words we do not understand. People are still working to put together the puzzle of what all the symbols mean.

Are some of them famous even today?
Yes! King Tutankhamun, sometimes referred to as "King Tut" or "The Boy King", is one of the most well known ancient Egyptian kings in modern times. Interestingly, he was not considered to be very important in ancient times and was not recorded on most ancient king lists. However, the discovery of his tomb in 1922 made him a celebrity. While many tombs of the past were robbed, this tomb was left virtually undisturbed. Most of the items buried with Tutankhamun have been well preserved, including thousands of artefacts made from precious metals and rare stones. This is why he has become so popular in modern times. The discovery of this tomb has allowed historians and archaeologists to have a glimpse of what some of the more important kings may have had in their burial chambers before they were robbed.

Another king, called "Akheonaten" is also famous today. Akhenaten was Tutankhamun's father, and he tried to change the Egyptian religion from many gods to just one god called "Aten", who only the King could worship. This was a very big change for the people of Egypt and may have been unpopular. Akhenaten built a new city called Amarna, but when he died it was abandoned until it was discovered by archaeologists. They were able to see how Egyptians built their cities because it was so well preserved. Egyptologists and historians have argued for many years about why Akhenaten would change the religion that had flourished for thousands of years. Some believe he may have worshipped the "Aten" as his father, Amenhotep III, others think he wanted to make himself more powerful by only allowing the king to worship the god.

What is left of them today?
Even today Egypt is still a major country with a large population. Many modern Egyptians still live near the same land that their ancestors lived on thousands of years ago.

The ancient Egyptians wrote messages that they carved into the wall of many of their buildings, and most of the early work by Egyptologists was based on these writings. Moreover, thousands of papyrus scrolls -- on every aspect of life and many areas of knowledge -- have remained, many still untranslated, to this day. We have much of their art and jewellery as well. Many major pieces were recovered from King Tutankhamen's tomb, and from the tombs of many other Pharaohs. One of the more famous works is the bust of Neffertiti.

Many of the Ancient Egyptians' buildings, tombs and monuments survive, although most are in ruins. Still, there is much to be learned about Egyptian politics, history, religion, and scientific ideas.

Wikijunior Alte Zivilisationen/ Ägypter


text:
Talk:MATLAB Programming

Page Split
The split is done. Maybe time to clean up this talk page Agriculturist50 (discuss • contribs) 23:07, 23 January 2015 (UTC)

The opening page is too long and some of the ending sections would be considered advanced topics. I propose moving most of the Content below M-file programming into advanced topics. Excluded in the move would be Alternatives to MATLAB, the references section, and the links section.

If anyone wants to add a highly specific task, go to the advanced topics section. It will clog this book up if it is added at the main page Agriculturist50 (discuss • contribs) 15:38, 23 January 2015 (UTC)

Reorganizing
Reorganized for readability. There are multiple alternatives to MATLAB, so just created an entire section for alternatives. It does seem prudent to point out early a free alternative is available. Also found place for operators reference.

Much of what was on the intro page has been split to its own pages. Agriculturist50 (discuss • contribs) 20:35, 12 January 2015 (UTC)

Capitalization
The capitalization MATlab is very odd. The Mathworks web site uses MATLAB.

Template:Matlab CMD
I created this template for use in some books on the Engineering bookshelf. It's just a simple template (for now), that mentions when matlab has a certain feature. You type, and it produces the template at left. -- 22:36, 29 November 2005 (UTC)

more editing
I'm writing several Matlab scripts as part of my course, so I decided to contribute to this wikibook as I go along, since it seems to need a lot of work. This could help my coursemates - so they won't nag me too much asking for help in the problems =P. Any criticisms/assistance on my work would be most welcome. -Arthur

Organizing
This wikibook is getting a bit lengthy, is it possible to break this up into several pages like the other books? Like one section on Graphics, one section on functions, and so on.

Organizing
I've managed to get 'Graphics' into a separate page, although there are a few rough edges to iron out. I'll start moving other sections into their own pages soon, if someone could help me make it look better (seems i'm not doing a very good job, i'm just copying formatting code from other wikibooks) it would be appreciated of course. -Arthur

Organizing 3
File Naming Constraints: This is already under "Saving and Loading a MATLAB file" so I will work on removing the duplication under "examples", since it IMO makes more sense in the saving and loading section anyway. If you agree with me I'll put it up as a speedy delete.

Inserting Single Quotes: This, I think, along with the two NEWLINE topics, can be merged into a single topic, I'm not sure what I would title it though, maybe 'character tricks' or something like that?

A3392: I know you've been doing a lot on this book, so let me know if you disagree with any of the changes I make. Mattb112885 20:43, 31 August 2006 (UTC)

MATLAB, permissions and images
I've been in contact with representatives from The MathWorks about MATLAB. The MathWorks has an entire department dedicated to working with authors of MATLAB-related books. According to a representative from The MathWorks, If we would like to post screenshots of the MATLAB environment or images of MATLAB-generated graphics, we should email a copy of those images to The MathWorks in order to secure the correct permissions, and then we can upload the images here for use in our books. Essentially, by receiving explicit permission to use these images, we can upload screenshots of MATLAB without having to worry about Fair-Use problems.

To that end, I am going to create a Template for tagging MATLAB images that indicates the copyright status of those images, and other information. I am also going to create a category, Category:MATLAB Images that will contain a cannonical list of all images that were released for use in Wikibooks under this program.

For further information about this, please send me a message on my user talk page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 19:51, 12 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Category missingDoorknob747 (discuss • contribs) 19:49, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Octave *and* matlab programming
The title itself emphasizes only the proprietary (and expenseive) matlab application.

While it is written that Octave is nearly a clone, and that most would apply to both, I think it would make a lot of send that the title be changed to "Octave and matlab programming" that stresses the fact that one is very close to the other. For differences, eg. graphics, some could be done with matlab and other with octave. Some special inputs could also be written to help overcome the differences, eg. doing some graphics in octave with the add-on like octaviz or matplotlib that make it very similar and inteactive too. Thanks --npettiaux 07:54, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Though the two are very similar, I think the majority of people would be looking simply for MATLAB (just by virtue of the fact that more people use that than Octave in institutions etc.), and I think also that it would be easiest just to make a redirect from the "Octave programming" page to the MATLAB programming page to accommodate those who do happen to search for Octave. Actually, I'll do that after I post this. I do agree however that it would be useful to make note of some of the differences in the book. I myself am not familiar enough with Octave to know major differences between them but I think if you would like to write something about them they would surely have a welcomed place here. Mattb112885 15:57, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm in agreement with Mattb here, Octave is similar to Matlab, but it isn't perfect compatability. Matlab also has a number of features that arent supported in Octave, and if we want to be comprehensive, we will essentially end up writing two separate books on these two programs, with some overlap. Instead of redirecting Octave Programming to here, I would recommend, instead that we create a separate book for Octave. We can crosslink between the two books where needed. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 18:52, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

 * After discussion on the Octave-help mailing list, we considered that as Octave has been conceived as a MATLAB clone, most differences can be considered as bugs. Therefore, Octave programming is due to be identical and the best would propably be in a separate chapter explaining the differences and the comparison. Therefore, differences and comparison between MATLAB and Octave are presented in Comparison Octave / MATLAB. --npettiaux 15:07, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I hope you don't mind, i've renamed this page you created to be MATLAB Programming/Comparing Octave. The page that you had created wasn't technically "in" this book, and that causes some problems. Separate chapters would be a fine solution, and it would even be perfectly acceptable to use templates in the main body of the text to point out any incompatabilities as they arise (such as this template to the right). --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:13, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Thank you for your comment and correction and the inclusion of the page in the book. We shall work on them, and them delete the "octave wikibook" that has no need to remain. How can we use the nice template on the right to show the differences ? --npettiaux 15:18, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * If you want to delete the octave programming book, Im not sure if it would qualify as speedy (probably not since the original page had multiple authors), you can list it under votes for deletion and if you want to I can put the template on there. I doubt there'd be too much argument since its a lot of red links right now anyways. Nice template Whiteknight, I think that'll fit nicely. I'll change the format of the main page slightly to make it fit more with the rest of it (for example, moving the link from the title of the chapter to below it, since none of the other chapters is a link) but I think it's a good idea to have some pages about Octave, and just link to them in the template like Whiteknight proposes. Mattb112885 22:05, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Thanks to Whiteknight a quick template can be used for octave differences, defined in Template:MATLAB/Octave. you can insert this template into the book by typing:

Where " " will be an optional explanation that you can add for clarity. --npettiaux 23:10, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Struct arrays
There exists a red link for struct arrays already, was the module you created meant to be Octave-specific? If it is, I propose moving the link to the "octave" section.

If not we can put it where the redlink is now (AFAIK struct arrays have nothing to do with object-oriented programming) and change the references to Octave to references to MATLAB. I think that the book should be centered around MATLAB except for the sections that are specific to Octave. The book is MATLAB programming, and Octave is the clone of MATLAB, not the other way around. In addition all references already existing are references to MATLAB. Finally, I think there is already a note on the page that most statements about MATLAB are also true in Octave, and the differences can be noted explicitly with Whiteknight's template, so we might as well keep the references consistent within the whole book. Let me know what you think. Regards, Mattb112885 02:35, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

Statistics
Is it possible to include a Statistics chapter in this book? Albmont (talk) 19:15, 18 August 2008 (UTC)

Conditional Operators
There should be a section that contains a list of conditional operators in MATLAB for reference purposes.--99.16.58.18 (talk) 21:04, 25 April 2009 (UTC)

I/O
Where is the information on I/O? There is a chapter for usb and serial port I/O but no information about file I/O for things such as text files. Maybe it is there and I just can't find it. I suggest making it more obvious if it is there, and if it's not add some info about it. Rhollis7 (talk) 23:28, 18 October 2010 (UTC)

 * ✅. The MATLAB Programming section has a link to MATLAB Programming which seems to have all the info you need to read and write text files. Feel free to make that link more obvious. --DavidCary (discuss • contribs) 01:31, 18 November 2012 (UTC)

clear
I don't know if this is an old syntax, but it doesn't work on MATLAB 8.3. Instead, the documentation suggests clear var1 var2 which works.

=Old Comments=

Octave
no mention of GNU Octave? - Omegatron 02:44, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

Not sure what this is, but it was on intro page
This was on the intro page. Someone might have been trying to do something with it at one time, but did not clarify what.

clc; clear all; close all;

[filename, pathname] = uigetfile( {'*.jpg';'*.bmp'}); aa=imread([pathname,filename]); I=aa; bb=imresize(aa,[256 256]); imshow(bb);title('input image');

%%...............%%% RGB2Lab color conversion %%%.........

rgbimage=makecform('srgb2lab'); labimage=applycform(bb,rgbimage); figure, imshow(labimage);title('color conversion image');

%%..............%%% seperate L* a* b* color space %%%.........

L=im2double(labimage(:,:,1)); a=im2double(labimage(:,:,2)); b=im2double(labimage(:,:,3)); figure,imshow(L);title('L* image'); [h,w,o]=size(L);

%%..........%%% applying filter in L* color space %%%..........

for s=1:3 W(s)=h/2^s; for i=1:h for j=1:w p=(i-W(s)); q=(i+W(s)); r=(j-W(s)); t=(j+W(s)); if p<=0 p=1; end if q>256 q=256; end if r<=0 r=1; end if t>256 t=256; end m=p:q; n=r:t; %N(s)=W(s)*W(s); N(s)=size(m,2)*size(n,2); sum1=sum(sum(L(m,n))); V=1/N(s); A=V*sum1; B(i,j)=L(i,j)-A; end end %B=L-A; %figure,imshow(B); azx(:,:,s)=B; end

contrast_L=azx(:,:,1)+azx(:,:,2)+azx(:,:,3); figure,imshow(contrast_L),title('contrast map L* image');

%%..............%%% find inverse of a* %%%............

figure,imshow(a);title('a* image'); d=max(max(a)); yy=d-a; yy=(yy*5); figure,imshow(yy);title('inv a* image'); [h,w,o]=size(yy);

%%.............%%% applying filter in a* color space %%%........

for s=1:3 W(s)=h/2^s; for i=1:h for j=1:w p=(i-W(s)); q=(i+W(s)); r=(j-W(s)); t=(j+W(s)); if p<=0 p=1; end if q>256 q=256; end if r<=0 r=1; end if t>256 t=256; end m=p:q; n=r:t; %N(s)=W(s)*W(s); N(s)=size(m,2)*size(n,2); sum1=sum(sum(yy(m,n))); V=1/N(s); A=V*sum1; C(i,j)=yy(i,j)-A; end end %C=L-A; %figure,imshow(C); aza(:,:,s)=C; end

contrast_a=aza(:,:,1)+aza(:,:,2)+aza(:,:,3); figure,imshow(contrast_a),title('contrast map a* image');

%%.............%%% find final scaling contrast map %%%.......

Scaling_contrast=imadd(contrast_L,contrast_a); figure,imshow(Scaling_contrast),title('Scaling contrast map');

%%...........%%% gabor filter outputs %%%.......................

[gabor_timage,u,v,GT,filter]=final_gabor(aa);

%%..........%%% removing erythema & dark pixels %%%..........

ts=0.4;                                %% set threshold value R=Scaling_contrast; for i=1:h for j=1:w if Scaling_contrast(i,j)>=ts R(i,j)=1; else R(i,j)=0; end end end

figure,imshow(R);title('Removing erythema');

title: Talk:MATLAB Programming


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5

=Closed Game=

1...d5
With 1...d5, Black begins to fight for the center in the traditional fashion, by occupying it with pawns. 1...d5 opens a diagonal for the development of the light-squared black bishop, and it also discourages, though does not definitively prevent, an immediate 2. e4. If White plays e4 immediately, they initiate the Blackmar-Diemer gambit, which is considered dubious against best play.

Theory table
1. d4 d5

White's main options are now:

title: Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...d5


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...b5

= Polish Defence =

1...b5
With this move, black prevents white from playing c4 and prepares his queen's bishop to be fianchettoed. However, white can just play e4 and still occupy the center with pawns.

When contributing to this Wikibook, please follow the Conventions for organization.

Theory table
.

1.d4 b5

title: Chess Opening Theory/1. d4/1...b5


text:
User:Bron Donnelly

Well this is my first vist to wikibooks. I will be starting a wikibook soon at Magic Made Easy and Magic.

--Bron Donnelly 05:50, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Bron Donnelly


text:
Book of Magic

 Basic Magic

The Wikibook about magic tricks

This Wikibook provides a basic course of instruction in stage magic, close up magic and other forms of illusion.

Many of the principles behind an array of magical effects will be revealed here.

All experienced wikibookians who are disciplined magicians are encouraged to contribute to this book....please introduce yourself on the talk page!

Table of contents
/Psychology and Theory/

/Devices and Gimmicks/

/Card Magic/

/Coin Magic/

/Prop Magic/

/Mental Magic/

/Further Reading/

Taikuus

title: Book of Magic


text:
User talk:Bron Donnelly

This is my first WikiBook!

Bron Donnelly

Welcome
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Geo.T 06:09, 17 August 2005 (UTC)

Magic
Hello, Bron. I was wondering when will you finally atleast start your modules Magic Made Easy and Magic. There is also a School of Magic within the Wikiversity, so I believe you can contribute there, too. --Ђорђе Д. Божовић 14:19, 17 December 2005 (UTC)

Magic again
Hi, Bron. Happy New Year! At the School of Magic we need someone to be the teacher of the Ritual Magic, aka Spells. I believe you are a person who knows a lot about the practical usage of the Magic - how to perform a magical ritual, how to cast a spell, etc. So, it would be great if you join us! Wikiversity is a free, open-content wiki university, just like Wikipedia is a free encyclopaedia, and Wikibooks are open-content textbooks. Wikiversity is similar to Wikibooks, but still different, because Wikibooks are just simple textbooks, and Wikiversity is a community, a wiki, and there are courses given, not just textbooks. Best regards, --George D. Bozovic talk 23:12, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bron Donnelly


text:
Ordinary Differential Equations/Homogenous 2

Mechanical Vibrations
One place homogenous equations of constant coefficients are used is in mechanical vibrations. Lets imagine a mechanical system of a spring, a dampener, and a mass. The force on the string at any point is $$F=-kx$$ where k is the spring constant. The force on the dampener is $$F=-cv$$ where c is the damping constant. And of course, the net force is $$F=ma$$. That gives us a system where

$$ma=-cv-kx$$

Remember that $$v=x'$$ and $$a=x''$$. This gives us a differential equation of

$$mx''=-cx'-kx$$

$$mx''+cx'+kx=0$$

In the case where c=0, we have just a mass on a spring. In this case, we have $$x''+\frac{k}{m}x=0$$. Since k and m are both positive (by the laws of physics), the result is always a $$y=c_1cos(\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}x)+c_2sin(\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}x)$$. This makes sense from a physical perspective- a spring moving back and forth forms a periodic wave of frequency $$\frac{\sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}}{2 \pi}$$


text:
Ordinary Differential Equations/Homogenous 3

1) $$3y''+18y'-81y=0$$

2) $$y''+6y'+13y=0$$

3) $$y''+10y'+25y=0$$

4) $$y'+24y+218y''+838y'+1369y=0$$

5) $$y'-2y-15y'+36y=0$$

6) $$y'+5y-4y'-20y=0$$

7) $$y'+4y+y'-26y=0$$


text:
Ordinary Differential Equations/Non Homogenous 1

Higher Order Differential Equations

Non-Homogeneous Equations
A non-homogeneous equation of constant coefficients is an equation of the form

 * $$\frac{d^ny}{dx^n}+c_1\frac{d^{n-1}y}{dx^{n-1}}+\ldots+c_ny=f(x)$$

where ci are all constants and f(x) is not 0.

Complementary Function
Every non-homogeneous equation has a complementary function (CF), which can be found by replacing the f(x) with 0, and solving for the homogeneous solution. For example, the CF of

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}-3\frac{dy}{dx}+4y=\frac{2 \sin x}{x^2}$$

is the solution to the differential equation

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}-3\frac{dy}{dx}+4y=0$$

Superposition Principle
The superposition principle makes solving a non-homogeneous equation fairly simple. The final solution is the sum of the solutions to the complementary function, and the solution due to f(x), called the particular integral (PI). In other words,

 * General Solution = CF + PI

Method of Undetermined Coefficients
The method of undetermined coefficients is an easy shortcut to find the particular integral for some f(x). The method works only if a finite number of derivatives of f(x) eventually reduces to 0, or if the derivatives eventually fall into a pattern in a finite number of derivatives. If this is true, we then know part of the PI - the sum of all derivatives before we hit 0 (or all the derivatives in the pattern) multiplied by arbitrary constants. This is the trial PI. We can then plug our trial PI into the original equation to solve it fully.

As we will see, we may need to alter this trial PI depending on the CF. If the trial PI contains a term that is also present in the CF, then the PI will be absorbed by the arbitrary constant in the CF, and therefore we will not have a full solution to the problem.

f(x) = Constant
The simplest case is when f(x) is constant, for example

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+\frac{dy}{dx}-6y=3$$.

The solution to the CF is

 * $$y=Ae^{2x}+Be^{-3x}\,$$

We now need to find a trial PI. When we differentiate y=3, we get zero. Therefore, our trial PI is the sum of a functions of y before this, that is, 3 multiplied by an arbitrary constant, which gives another arbitrary constant, K.

We now set y equal to the PI and find the derivatives up to the order of the DE (here, the second).

 * $$y=K\,$$
 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=0$$
 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=0$$

We can now substitute these into the original DE:

 * $$0+0-6K=3\,$$
 * $$K=-\frac{1}{2}$$

By summing the CF and the PI, we can get the general solution to the DE:

 * $$y=Ae^{2x}+Be^{-3x}-\frac{1}{2}\,$$

f(x) = Polynomial
This is the general method which includes the above example. A polynomial of order n reduces to 0 in exactly n+1 derivatives (so 1 for a constant as above, three for a quadratic, and so on). So we know that our PI is

 * $$y=C_1x^n+C_2x^{n-1}+...+C_nx+C_{n+1}. \,$$

For an example, lets take

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+5\frac{dy}{dx}+6y=3x^4+7x^2.\,$$

First off, we know that our PI is

 * $$y=Ax^4+Bx^3+Cx^2+Dx+E.\,$$

In order to plug in, we need to calculate the first two derivatives of this:

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=4Ax^3+3Bx^2+2Cx+D$$
 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=12Ax^2+6Bx+2C\,$$

Plugging in we get:

 * $$12Ax^2+6Bx+2C+5(4Ax^3+3Bx^2+2Cx+D)+6(Ax^4+Bx^3+Cx^2+Dx+E)=3x^4+7x^2$$
 * $$6Ax^4+(6B+20A)x^3+(6C+15B+12A)x^2+(6D+10C+6B)x+6E+5D+2C=3x^4+7x^2$$

 * $$6A=3\,$$
 * $$6B+20A=0\,$$
 * $$6C+15B+12A=7\,$$
 * $$(6D+10C+6B)=0\,$$
 * $$6E+5D+2C=0\,$$

Solving gives us

 * $$A=\frac{1}{2}$$ $$B=\frac{-5}{3}$$ $$C=\frac{13}{3}$$ $$D=\frac{-50}{9}$$ $$E=\frac{86}{27}$$

So, our PI is

$$y=\frac{1}{2}x^4+\frac{-5}{3}x^3+\frac{13}{3}x^2+\frac{-50}{9}x+\frac{86}{27}$$

However, we need to get the complementary function as well. To get that, set f(x) to 0 and solve just like we did in the last section. For this equation, the roots are -3 and -2. So that makes our CF

$$y=Ae^{-3x}+Be^{-2x}\,$$

Summing gives us our general solution:

$$y=Ae^{-3x}+Be^{-2x}+\frac{1}{2}x^4-\frac{5}{3}x^3+\frac{13}{3}x^2-\frac{50}{9}x+\frac{86}{27}$$

f(x) = Power of e
Powers of e don't ever reduce to 0, but they do become a pattern. In fact it does so in only 1 differentiation, since it's its own derivative. So we know

$$y_p=Ke^{px}, \,$$

where K is our constant and p is the power of e givin in the original DE.

For example, consider

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+5\frac{dy}{dx}+6y=5e^{2x}+6e^{-7x}$$.

We make our trial PI

 * $$y_p=Ae^{2x}+Be^{-7x} \,$$.

Which then gives

 * $$\frac{dy}{dx}=2Ae^{2x}-7Be^{-7x} \,$$

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=4Ae^{2x}+49Be^{-7x}$$

Plugging in, we get

 * $$4Ae^{2x}+49Be^{-7x}+5\left(2Ae^{2x}-7Be^{-7x}\right)+6\left(Ae^{2x}+Be^{-7x}\right)\,$$
 * $$=5e^{2x}+6e^{-7x}\,$$

 * $$20Ae^{2x}+20Be^{-7x}=5e^{2x}+6e^{-7x}\,$$

 * $$A=\frac{1}{4}$$
 * $$B=\frac{3}{10}$$

 * $$y_p=\frac{1}{4}e^{2x}+\frac{3}{10}e^{-7x}$$

That's the particular integral. We found the CF earlier. So the general solution is

 * $$y=Ae^{-3x}+Be^{-2x}+\frac{1}{4}e^{2x}+\frac{3}{10}e^{-7x} \,$$

f(x) = Polynomial × Power of e
Polynomials multiplied by powers of e also form a loop, in n derivatives (where n is the highest power of x in the polynomial). So we know that our trial PI is

 * $$y_p=C_nx^ne^{px}+C_{n-1}x^{n-1}e^{px}+...+C_0e^{px},\,$$

where C is a constant and p is the power of e in the equation.

For example, lets try

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+5\frac{dy}{dx}+6y=3xe^{2x}$$

We can now set our PI to

 * $$y_p=Axe^{2x}+Be^{2x}\,$$.

 * $$\frac{dy_p}{dx}=2Axe^{2x}+Ae^{2x}+2Be^{2x}$$

 * $$\frac{d^2y_p}{dx^2}=4Axe^{2x}+4Ae^{2x}+4Be^{2x}$$

Plugging in, we get

 * $$4Axe^{2x}+4Ae^{2x}+4Be^{2x}+5(2Axe^{2x}+Ae^{2x}+2Be^{2x})+6(Axe^{2x}+Be^{2x})=3xe^{2x}\,$$

 * $$20A=3\,$$
 * $$9A+20B=0\,$$

 * $$A=\frac{3}{20}$$
 * $$B=\frac{-27}{400}$$

 * $$y_p=\frac{3}{20}xe^{2x}-\frac{27}{400}e^{2x}$$

Thats the particular solution. We found the homogeneous solution earlier. So the total solution is

$$y=Ae^{-3x}+Be^{-2x}+\frac{3}{20}xe^{2x}-\frac{27}{400}e^{2x}$$

f(x) = Trigonometric Functions
Trig functions don't reduce to 0 either. But they do have a loop of 2 derivatives - the derivative of sin x is cos x, and the derivative of cos x is -sin x. So we put our PI as

 * $$y_p=A \sin(px)+B \cos(px), \,$$

where C is a constant and p is the term inside the trig. function in the original DE.

For example, lets try

 * $$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}+5\frac{dy}{dx}+6y=\cos 3x.$$

We set our PI to

 * $$y_p=A \sin 3x+B \cos 3x \,$$

 * $$\frac{dy_p}{dx}=3 A \cos 3x- 3 B \sin 3x$$

 * $$\frac{d^2y_p}{dx^2}=-9A \sin 3x-9B \cos3x$$

Plugging in, we get

 * $$-9A \sin3x-9B \cos 3x +5 \left( 3A \cos 3x -3B \sin3x \right)\,$$
 * $$+6 \left(A \sin 3x +B \cos 3x \right)=\cos 3x \,$$

 * $$15A-3B=1\,$$
 * $$-3A-15B=0\,$$

 * $$A=\frac{5}{78}$$
 * $$B=\frac{-1}{78}$$

 * $$y_p=\frac{5}{78}\sin 3x-\frac{1}{78} \cos 3x$$

Thats the particular solution. We found the homogeneous solution earlier. So the total solution is

$$y=Ae^{-3x}+Be^{-2x}+\frac{5}{78}\sin 3x-\frac{1}{78} \cos 3x$$

f(x) = A Mixture
Not only are any of the above solvable by the method of undetermined coefficients, so is the sum of one or more of the above. This is because the sum of two things whose derivatives either go to 0 or loop must also have a derivative that goes to 0 or loops. The $$y_p$$ would be the sum of the individual $$y_p$$ functions.

If the Trial PI shares terms with the CF
When dealing with $$e^x$$, or sometimes with polynomials (if the homogeneous equation has roots of 0) as f(x), you may get the same term in both the trial PI and the CF. If this happens, the PI will be absorbed into the arbitrary constants of the CF, which will not result in a full solution. To overcome this, multiply the affected terms by x as many times as needed until it no longer appears in the CF.

As an example, let's take

 * $$\frac{d^3y}{dx^3}+\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=2x.$$

First, solve the homogeneous equation to get the CF.

 * $$\frac{d^3y}{dx^3}+\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=0.$$

The auxiliary polynomial is

 * $$m^3+m^2=0\,$$

Find the roots of the auxiliary polynomial. In this case, they are

 * $$m=0,\ 0,\ -1 \,$$

The CF is

 * $$y=Ae^{0x}+Bxe^{0x}+Ce^{-x}=A+Bx+Ce^{-x}\,$$

Now for the particular integral. Since f(x) is a polynomial of degree 1, we would normally use Ax+B. However, since both a term in x and a constant appear in the CF, we need to multiply by x² and use

 * $$y_p=Ax^3+Bx^2\,$$.

We solve this as we normally do for A and B.

 * $$\frac{dy_p}{dx}=3Ax^2+2Bx\,$$

 * $$\frac{d^2y_p}{dx^2}=6Ax+2B\,$$

 * $$\frac{d^3y_p}{dx^3}=6A$$

 * $$6A+6Ax+2B=2x\,$$

 * $$6A=2\,$$
 * $$6A+2B=0\,$$

 * $$A=\frac{1}{3}\,$$
 * $$B=-1\,$$

 * $$y_p=\frac{1}{3}x^3-x^2$$

So the total solution is

 * $$y=A+Bx+Ce^{-x}+\frac{1}{3}x^3-x^2$$

Variation of Parameters
Variation of parameters is a method for finding a particular solution to the equation $$y + p(x)y' + q(x)y = f(x)$$ if the general solution for the corresponding homogeneous equation $$y + p(x)y' + q(x)y = 0$$ is known. We will now derive this general method.

We already know the general solution of the homogenous equation: it is of the form $$c_1y_1 + c_2y_2$$. We will look for a particular solution of the non-homogenous equation of the form $$\psi = uy_1 + vy_2$$, with u and v functions of the independent variable x. Differentiating this we get

$$u'y_1+uy_1'+v'y_2+vy_2'\,$$

Now notice that there is currently only one condition on $$\psi$$, namely that $$\psi'' + p(x)\psi' + q(x)\psi = f(x)$$. We now impose another condition, that

$$u'y_1+v'y_2=0\,$$

This means that $$\psi''$$ will have no second derivatives of $$u$$ and $$v$$. Thus, these new parameters (hence the name "variation of parameters") will be the solutions to some first order differential equation, which can be solved. Let us finish the problem:

$$\psi = u'y_1' + uy_1 + v'y_2' + vy_2''\,$$

and

$$\psi'' + p(x)\psi' + q(x)\psi = f(x)\,$$

$$u'y_1' + v'y_2' + uy_1 + vy_2 + p(x)(uy_1' + vy_2') + q(x)(uy_1 + vy_2) = f(x)\,$$

$$u'y_1' + v'y_2' + u(y_1 + p(x)y_1' + q(x)y_1) + v(y_2 + p(x)y_2' + q(x)y_2) = f(x)\,$$

$$u'y_1' + v'y_2' = f(x)\,$$,

where the last step follows from the fact that $$y_1$$ and $$y_2$$ are solutions of the homogeneous equation.

Therefore, we have $$u'y_1 + v'y_2 = 0$$ and $$u'y_1' + v'y_2' = f(x)$$. Multiplying the first equation by $$y_2'$$ and the second by $$-y_2$$ and adding gives

$$u'y_1y_2' - u'y_1'y_2 = -f(x)y_2\,$$

$$u' = {-f(x)y_2 \over y_1y_2'-y_1'y_2}$$

A similar procedure gives

$$v' = {f(x)y_1 \over y_1y_2'-y_1'y_2}$$.

Now it is only necessary to evaluate these expressions and integrate them with respect to $$x$$ to get the functions $$u$$ and $$v$$, and then we have our particular solution $$\psi = uy_1 + vy_2$$. The general solution to the differential equation $$y'' + p(x)y' + q(x)y = f(x)\,$$ is therefore $$c_1y_1 + c_2y_2 + uy_1 + vy_2\,$$.

Note that the main difficulty with this method is that the integrals involved are often extremely complicated. If the integral does not work out well, it is best to use the method of undetermined coefficients instead.

The quantity that appears in the denominator of the expressions for $$u'$$ and $$v'$$ is called the Wronskian of $$y_1$$ and $$y_2$$.

Laplace Transforms
The Laplace transform is a very useful tool for solving nonhomogenous initial-value problems. It allows us to reduce the problem of solving the differential equation to that of solving an algebraic equation. We begin with some setup.

Definition of the Laplace Transform
The Laplace transform of $$f(t)\,$$ is defined as

$$F(s) = \int _0^\infty f(t)e^{-st}dt$$.

This can also be written as $$\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\}$$. When writing this on paper, you may write a cursive capital "L" and it will be generally understood. There is also an inverse Laplace transform $$\mathcal{L}^{-1}\{F(s)\} = f(t)$$, but calculating it requires an integration with respect to a complex variable. Luckily, it is frequently possible to find $$\mathcal{L}^{-1}\{F(s)\}$$ without resorting to this integration, using a variety of tricks which will be described later. However, it is first necessary to prove some facts about the Laplace transform.

Two Properties of the Laplace Transform
Property 1. The Laplace transform is a linear operator; that is, $$\mathcal{L}\{c_1f(t) + c_2g(t)\} = c_1\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} + c_2\mathcal{L}\{g(t)\}$$.
 * The proof of this property follows immediately from the definition of the Laplace transform and is left to the reader.

Property 2. If $$F(s) = \mathcal{L}\{f(t)\}$$, then $$\mathcal{L}\{f'(t)\} = sF(s) - f(0)$$
 * Proof:
 * $$\mathcal{L}\{f'(t)\} = \int _0^\infty f'(t)e^{-st}dt$$
 * $$= \lim_{C\to\infty} \left.e^{-st}f(t) \right| _0^C - \int _0^C -sf(t)e^{-st}dt$$ (integrating by parts)
 * $$= -f(0) + s \lim_{C\to\infty}\int _0^C f(t)e^{-st}dt$$
 * $$= s\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} - f(0)$$
 * $$= sF(s) - f(0)\,$$

It is property 2 that makes the Laplace transform a useful tool for solving differential equations. As a corollary of property 2, note that $$\mathcal{L}\{f''(t)\} = s^2F(s) - sf(0) - f'(0)$$.

Laplace Transforms of Simple Functions
$$\mathcal{L}\{1\} = {1 \over s}$$

$$\mathcal{L}\{e^{at}\} = {1 \over s-a}$$

$$\mathcal{L}\{\cos \omega t\} = {s \over s^2 + \omega^2}$$

$$\mathcal{L}\{\sin \omega t\} = {\omega \over s^2 + \omega^2}$$

The last two can be easily calculated using Euler's formula $$e^{i\omega t} = \cos \omega t + i \sin \omega t\,$$.

In order to find more Laplace transforms, in particular the transform of $$t^n$$, we will derive two more properties of the transform.

Two More Properties of the Laplace Transform
Property 3. If $$\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} = F(s)$$, then $$\mathcal{L}\{tf(t)\} = -F'(s)$$.

Property 4. If $$\mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} = F(s)$$, then $$\mathcal{L}\{e^{at}f(t)\} = F(s-a)$$.
 * The proofs are straightforward and are left to the reader.

Now we can easily see that $$\mathcal{L}\{t\} = \mathcal{L}\{(t)(1)\} = -{d \over dt}\mathcal{L}\{1\} = {1 \over s^2}$$ . Applying Property 3 multiple times, we can find that $$\mathcal{L}\{t^n\} = {n! \over s^{n+1}}$$. At last we are ready to solve a differential equation using Laplace transforms.

Using Laplace Transforms to Solve Non-Homogeneous Initial-Value Problems
In general, we solve a second-order linear non-homogeneous initial-value problem as follows: First, we take the Laplace transform of both sides. This immediately reduces the differential equation to an algebraic one. We then solve for $$F(s)$$. Finally, we take the inverse transform of both sides to find $$y$$.

Let's begin by using this technique to solve the problem

 * $$y'' - 4y' + 3y = e^{-t}; y(0) = 0, y'(0) = 1\,$$.

We begin by taking the Laplace transform of both sides and using property 1 (linearity):

 * $$s^2F(s) - sy(0) - y'(0) - 4[sF(s) - y(0)] + 3F(s) = {1 \over s+1}$$

 * $$(s^2-4s+3)F(s) - 1 = {1 \over s+1}$$ (using the initial conditions)

Now we isolate $$F(s)$$:

 * $$F(s) = {1 \over (s-3)(s-1)} + {1 \over (s-3)(s-1)(s+1)}$$

Here we have factored $$s^2 - 4s + 3$$ in preparation for the next step. We now attempt to take the inverse transform of both sides; in order to do this, we will have to break down the right hand side into partial fractions.

 * $$F(s) = {A \over (s-3)} + {B \over (s-1)} + {C \over (s-3)} + {D \over (s+1)} + {E \over (s-1)}$$

The first two fractions imply that $$A(s-1) + B(s-3) = 1\,$$. Setting $$s=3$$ gives $$A = {1 \over 2}$$, while setting $$s=1$$ gives $$B = -{1 \over 2}$$. The other three fractions similarly give $$C = D = {1 \over 8}$$ and $$E = -{1 \over 4}$$. Therefore:

 * $$F(s) = {1 \over 2(s-3)} - {1 \over 2(s-1)} + {1 \over 8(s-3)} + {1 \over 8(s+1)} - {1 \over 4(s-1)}$$
 * $$= {5 \over 8(s-3)} - {3 \over 4(s-1)} + {1 \over 8(s+1)}$$
 * $$= {5 \over 8}\mathcal{L}\{e^{3t}\} - {3 \over 4}\mathcal{L}\{e^t\} + {1 \over 8}\mathcal{L}\{e^{-t}\}$$

And finally we can take the inverse transform (by inspection, of course) to get

$$y = {5 \over 8}e^{3t} - {3 \over 4}e^t + {1 \over 8}e^{-t}$$.

The convolution is a method of combining two functions to yield a third function. The convolution has applications in probability, statistics, and many other fields because it represents the "overlap" between the functions. We are not concerned with this property here; for us the convolution is useful as a quick method for calculating inverse Laplace transforms.

Definition. The convolution $$(f*g)(t)\,$$ is defined as $$\int_0^t f(u)g(t-u)du$$.

The convolution has several useful properties, which are stated below:

Property 1. $$((f*g)*h)(t) = (f*(g*h))(t)\,$$ (Associativity)

Property 2. $$(f*g)(t) = (g*f)(t)\,$$ (Commutativity)

Property 3. $$(f*(g+h))(t) = (f*g)(t) + (f*h)(t)\,$$ (Distribution over addition)

We now prove the result that makes the convolution useful for calculating inverse Laplace transforms.

Theorem. $$\mathcal{L}\{(f*g)(t)\} = \mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} \cdot \mathcal{L}\{g(t)\}$$

 * Proof:
 * $$\mathcal{L}\{(f*g)(t)\}$$
 * $$=\int_0^\infty (f*g)(t)e^{-st}dt$$
 * $$=\int_0^\infty \left[\int_0^t f(u)g(t-u)du \right]e^{-st}dt$$
 * $$=\int_0^\infty \int_0^t e^{-st}f(u)g(t-u)du\,dt$$
 * $$=\int_0^\infty \int_u^\infty e^{-st}f(u)g(t-u)dt\,du$$ (changing order of integration)
 * $$=\int_0^\infty f(u)\left[ \int_u^\infty e^{-st}g(t-u)dt\right]du$$

 * Now let $$v=t-u$$.

 * $$=\int_0^\infty f(u) \left[ \int_0^\infty e^{-s(u+v)}g(v)dv\right]du$$
 * $$=\int_0^\infty e^{-su}f(u)\left[\int_0^\infty e^{-sv}g(v)dv\right]du$$
 * $$= \mathcal{L}\{f(t)\} \cdot \mathcal{L}\{g(t)\}$$

Let's solve another differential equation:

$$y'' + y = \sin t\, ; y(0) = 0, y'(0) = 0$$

Taking Laplace transforms of both sides gives

 * $$s^2F(s) + F(s) = {1 \over s^2 + 1}$$
 * $$F(s) = {1 \over (s^2 + 1)^2}$$

We now have to find $$\mathcal{L}^{-1}\lbrace F(s)\rbrace$$. To do this, we notice that $${1 \over (s^2 + 1)^2} = [\mathcal{L}\{\sin t\}]^2$$, so $$F(s) = \mathcal{L}\{ \sin t * \sin t \}$$ by the Theorem above. Thus, the solution to our differential equation is the convolution of sine with itself. We proceed to calculate this:

 * $$\sin t * \sin t\,$$
 * $$= \int_0^t \sin(u) \sin(t-u)du$$
 * $$= \int_0^t {\cos(2u-t) - \cos(t) \over 2}du$$
 * $$= {1 \over 2} \sin t - {1 \over 2} t \cos t$$

Therefore, the solution to the original equation is

$$y = {1 \over 2} \sin t - {1 \over 2} t \cos t$$.

–


text:
Talk:Cantonese/Lesson 1

Untitled
I am a native speaker of Cantonese. I feel a bit strange about the sentence "我既名系大伟". It's OK if the sentence is said by a child, but a little stupid for an adult(有D傻). Maybe it's affected the the English sentence "my name is ...". I suggest just using "我叫..." or "我系..." instead.

--Cameron Wong 17:20, 17 Aug 2005(UTC+8)

Why don't you correct it yourself then? You can't for some reason, I guess? I'll try.

Nowadays, 乜嘢 is pronounced as one sound mae. I'm not sure if the phonetics are correct, so, I'm posting it here. -- H  A YSON1991  04:01, 23 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cantonese/Lesson 1


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Import and Render a SolidWorks Model/vrmlbatch.py

""" Registration info for Blender menus: Name: 'VRML batch loader' Blender: 237  Group: 'Import'  Tooltip: 'Loads all .wrl files from a user defined folder'  """ #-- #-- # #-- import Blender import sys import os print "loading script" filename = "" def f(name): # file selector callback global filename filename = name path = Blender.sys.dirname(filename) ext = '.wrl' print "Searching " + path for filename in os.listdir(path): if filename.endswith(ext): #check to make sure its a wrl file Blender.Load(path + "/" + filename) print "finished" Blender.Window.FileSelector(f, "Open files in this dir")
 * 1) !BPY
 * 1) Author Ewout                                     - Version 1.0 -  5 Aug 05
 * 2) Using Blender file dialog: b2b revision by Ewout - Version 1.1 - 16 Aug 05
 * 1) The purpose of this script is to automatically load wrl (VRML) files,
 * 2) saved out from Solidworks assemblies as individual part files, from a
 * 3) source folder.When finished loading save as .blend before continuing.
 * 1) Depending on the source of the VRML files, you may have some empty files,
 * 2) which results in a message from blender: "ERROR: Found no data"
 * 3) just keep your mouse moving and ignore this message :o)
 * 1) Copyright 2005. Not for resale.