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World History/The Russian Revolution

Background
At the turn of the century in 1900 the inexorable slide towards revolution in Russia was already taking place. Russia's economy had started on a rocky road toward capitalism. Though large growth had occurred, it was not sufficiently large enough to advance a nation the size of Russia.

The Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (1900-1903)
Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, more commonly known by his pseudonym V. I. Lenin, was born into a well-to-do Russian family in Sambirsk, Russia. His elder brother, Alexandar Ulyanov, was executed in May 1887 for an assassination plot against Czar Alexander III. Vladimir was arrested for revolutionary activity that same year, and expelled from Kazan University where he had been studying law. Rather than become a lawyer, Lenin became a Marxist and an advocate of violent revolution against the Czars. In December 1895, he was arrested by the Okrhana and deported to Siberia. He married Nadezdha Krupskaya in July 1889. When his exile ended in 1900, he left Russia and helped to form the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) among Russian emigrants in Switzerland and started publishing the party newspaper Iskra (The Spark). In 1903, Lenin caused the split of the party into a Bolshevik (Majoritarian) and Menshevik (Minoritarian) factions, which eventually became permanent

The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
The Russian Empire, under the Czars, had advanced over the largest territory since the Mongol Empire, encompassing all of modern Russia, Poland, Finland, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Mongolia. Still, the Czars hungered for more. Under Czar Nicholas II, Russia attempted to expand its influence by occupying the northeastern Chinese province of Manchuria and then turned its greedy eyes toward Korea. However, the Japanese, whose army and navy had been modernized to Western standards, was already in possession of the peninsula. Japan struck first. Its forces quickly routed the Russians, who had hoped to turn an easy victory in the war into a counter-revolutionary propaganda coup. The Russian's Baltic Fleet was sent all the way to the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan, only to have all eight battleships destroyed by the Japanese navy in a pitched battle. The war was concluded with a humiliating peace on September 5, 1905, even as Russia was experiencing its Revolution of 1905.

Turmoil and Conflict in Russia (1905-1914)
Lenin's Bolsheviks were one of several political parties that developed in Russia during this period. In addition to the Bolsheviks, there were the Social-Revolutionaries, Constitutional-Democrats (Kadets), and Social-Democrats. In Russia, the situation vacillated throughout the period between bad and worse. Peter Stolypin, as Minister of Internal Affairs, acted to try and salvage the situation. A reformist conservative, Stolypin saw the necessity of agrarian reform and attempted to help the peasants situation. In the Czar's court however, people came to see him as a self-interested politician who was gradually losing Nicholas II's favor. In September 1911, he was assassinated by a Socialist-Revolutionary. Very probably, this was the nail that sealed the Czar's coffin, though it wasn't yet apparent.

Lenin's own party was only slightly active during this time. Lenin himself returned to Russia in 1905, but then had to flee yet again when the Okrhana was able to reassert its control. Within Russia, the Bolsheviks operated a newspaper called Pravda (The Truth), which was too much about theory for the tastes of most ordinary Russians. Lenin also was presented with the problem that Marxism traditionally involved a period of capitalist development before socialism and then communism could be achieved. Lenin tried to convince his colleagues that a single stage, violent revolution, could send the country immediately to the socialist stage of development and completely sidestep the so-called "bourgeois-democratic" revolutionary stage.

In 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated while taking a parade route through the Bosian provincial capital of Sarajev by a Serbian nationalist. Austria, which produced a set of demands to which Serbia would have to reject, then invaded Serbia before the answer had even arrived. Russia immediately mobilized to help its ally, Serbia. However, because the Russian generals insisted that they had to mobilize all of their troops as their plan called for, troops began to appear on the Russian-German border in Poland. Germany of course told the Russians to stop, but they continued anyway, provoking a German declaration of war. France then declared war on Germany. Germany decided it would be a good idea to invade through neutral Belgium, provoking a British declaration of war against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and later the Ottoman Empire). Russia simply wasn't ready for a war of such a magnitude. The Russian industrial economy could not stomach the demands put upon it by the war effort. Prices began to rise, as the Russians suffered severe setbacks on the front. Soldiers began to desert. The situation was becoming desperate.

The slide to revolution (1914 - February 1917)
The Russians were faced with an impossible situation in the east in 1914. They were expected to defend and attack both the powerful German Reich and the strong Austro-Hungarian Empire. They had the strength to do neither. At the Battle of Tanneburg, 100,000 Russians became prisoners of war and the Germans swept through Poland. At the beginning of the war, however, there was strong support for the war within Russia, as within the other major combatants. However, this turn of events would later turn the people vehemently against the war, which nobody expected to be so bloody or to drag on for four years.

The war situation was acceptable at first. Adequate supplies were available to the troops, however, the urban store houses started to run out of food. Nicholas II's government introduced price controls on grain and other foodstuffs. Rationing quickly became the norm. The thing that really triggered the economic collapse however, was the transportation network, which was woefully inadequate. While the existence of east-west railroads was sufficient, the north-south links were broken and disjointed. Shortages of supplies caused industries to suffer, which caused banks to tighten credit. Each industry aggravated each other's problems. The Czar also continued to repress liberties and freedoms, especially in the Fourth Duma (remember that he had already dismissed it three times).

The situation comes to an abrupt head in February 1917, as strikes broke out on the 22nd at a main armaments plant. Women textile workers began to strike. By the 24th, a city-wide strike had swept the capital city of Petrograd (changed from St. Petersburg to sound less German). Nicholas II took counsel with his advisors, and was told that the situation was untenable.

The February Revolution (February - October 1917)
On March 2, the Czar abdicated while traveling by train from the front to Petrograd. Russia literally became a republic overnight. Several prominent Duma members immediately formed a committee to govern the country, which became known as the Provisional Government. The head was to be the Prince Lvov, a relative of the outgoing Czar. The cabinet announced a series of radical social reforms: freedom of speech, faith, assembly, and press. They promised elections for a Constituent Assembly (parliament) by all adults over twenty-one years of age, including women. However, the Provisional Government decided, perhaps fatally, that they would continue the war, which many Russians had already begun to oppose. The Provisional Government should have realized that there was no real hope for governing the country and improving the situation without ending the war. As it was, their insistence on fighting the war immediately made the Provisional Government unpopular. By that time, large-scale mass desertions were occurring on the front and the war was probably untenable for any regime.

The October Revolution (October - November 1917)
The October Revolution dated to October 25, 1917 (November 7), also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was the second phase of the overall Russian Revolution of 1917, after the February Revolution of the same year. The October Revolution overthrew the Russian Provisional Government and gave the power to the Soviets dominated by Bolsheviks.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
This was a treaty that prematurely pulled Russia out of WWI before the war had ended. It had harsh economic consequences on Russia and made it ineligible for post-war war talks and treaties.

The Russian Civil War (1918-1921)
A civil war fought between the 'Whites' and the 'Reds'. The Whites were against communism and were either capitalists or monarchists. They were also aided by some Western nations who saw them as a way of preventing mass growth of communism in Russia. The reds were pro-communist and fought to establish a permanent communist government, they were called the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks won the Russian Civil War.

The New Economic Policy (1921-1924)
Lenin's economic policy that was implemented after the failure of "war communism". It allowed limited private ownership of certain businesses and industries and went against the principles of pure communism. Yet, it improved the nation's economic condition and stabilized industry.

The new economic policy could be said to have been the introduction of capitalism back into the economy.

This plan was introduced as an emergency plan to help the Bolsheviks win the civil war. The peasants benefited immensely from the new economic policy and food distribution improved. It also gave people the chance to vote.

Lenin's Legacy
Lenin died on January 21, 1924, aged 53. In the four days that the he lay in state, more than 900,000 mourners viewed his body.

Winston Churchill, who encouraged British intervention against the Russian Revolution, in league with the White Movement, to destroy the Bolsheviks and Bolshevism, said:

He alone could have found the way back to the causeway... The Russian people were left floundering in the bog. Their worst misfortune was his birth... their next worst his death.”

title: World History/The Russian Revolution


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Japanese/Grammar

Word order
Japanese is a SOV (Subject-Object-Verb) language. English is typically SVO (Subject-Verb-Object). In Japanese, the verb always appears at the end of clauses and sentences. Japanese parts of speech are usually marked with words called "particles" that follow the word they modify. These particles identify the word's or phrase's function in the sentence—for example, topic, subject, direct/indirect object, location of action, etc.

Japanese is flexible in terms of word-order due to use of particles. Sentences, however, generally have the following structure:
 * Sentence Topic, Time, Location, Subject, Indirect Object, Direct Object, Verb.

Context sensitivity
Japanese is highly context-sensitive. Words or phrases obvious to both the speaker and listener are often omitted. It could be considered a "minimalist" language. For example, the statement: "I'm going to watch a movie." could be translated as 「映画を見る. 」 (eiga o miru.); literally, "Movie watch." [I] is implied, as it is the speaker who is making the statement. Depending on the context, however, this phrase could also be translated as "s/he is going to watch a movie", "we will watch a movie", etc.

Japanese has many levels of formality and depends not only on what is said, but also on who is saying it and to whom. The language is socially striated to the point that different forms of speech exist for men and women.

Parts of speech
Japanese parts of speech, although no more complicated than those of other languages, do not fit well into typical labels such as verb, noun, and adjective. Keep that in mind over the course of your studies.

Nouns
Nouns in Japanese are fairly immutable. They do not take definite or indefinite articles, gender, and do not change for number.

Although there is no true plural in Japanese, a small number of nouns may take one of several collective suffixes.
 * Tanaka-san (Mr. Tanaka), Tanaka-san-tachi (Mr. Tanaka and his group)

Certain nouns may take a prefix in polite speech. Most often, native Japanese words (和語) are preceded by "o-" ("お"), and Sino-Japanese words (漢語) are preceded with "go-" ("ご"). Both are readings of the kanji "御". Though primarily used for adding politeness or distance, some words more commonly appear with the prefix than others, and in some cases, never appear without it (e.g., お茶 [ocha], "green tea").

Many nouns may be converted into verbs simply by affixing 「する」 (suru) to the end.
 * "benkyō" is a noun meaning "study/studies" while "benkyō-suru"  is the verb "to study".

Nouns may also function as adjectives when the particle の (no) or な ("na") is appended.
 * "ki" (木) means "wood" with "ki no tatemono" (の) meaning "wooden building".

Pronouns
Unlike many other languages, Japanese has no true pronouns; since words that are clear from context are usually elided, there is less need for them. In general, natural-sounding Japanese tends to avoid the use of nouns that refer to people except when explicitly needed. This is often a point of confusion for beginners. Pronominals are not grammatically distinct from ordinary nominals: notably, they may take adjectives, which pronouns cannot.
 * "watashi", "boku", "ore", "watakushi" all mean "I"; and "anata", "kimi" mean "you"

Na-adjectives
A Na-adjective is a nominal that often precedes a copula (such as 'na'). Due to the common occurrence of na-adjectives, many Japanese dictionaries write nominals with the 'na' included. Na-adjectives are generally adjectival in meaning, as most cannot exist in context without a previously denoted subject; however, one might simply say "げんき　な (genki na)" to describe a subject that is understood within the current conversation's context (this situation is limited to casual or somewhat informal conversation; using full sentences is almost always necessary when speaking to anyone of higher status). Examples of na-adjectives: "heta na:" unskilled, bad at; "genki na:" healthy, energetic; "orijinaru na:" original

Verbs
Verbs are where most of the action in Japanese sentences takes place. They are the primary means for controlling levels of politeness in speech,…

Japanese verbs inflect directly for tense, negation, mood, aspect, politeness, and honorific speech.

Unlike English, conjugation of Japanese verbs is extremely regular, with few exceptions. The system takes some getting used to, but once the kana have been learned, a uniform pattern emerges. Verbs are placed into one of three groups: 五段 (godan, aka Type I), 一段 (ichidan, aka Type II), and 不規則 (fukisoku, irregular).

Only two verbs are generally considered irregular in the modern language, 来る (kuru, to come) and する (suru, to do). Despite being such, even they are somewhat regular in their irregularity.

I-adjectives
These inflect for tense, politeness, and honorific speech as well (although not aspect or mood, as they are all stative verbs); an -i adjective will always end in -ai, -ī, -ui, or -oi. (Note that there are also stative -u verbs.)
 * "utsukushī": beautiful; "ī": good; "sugoi": amazing; "ureshī": happy

The copula
Although the copula is not strictly a verb, most of its forms derive from "de aru", but inflects somewhat irregularly. It retains an "attributive form", na, used to modify the noun it stands before: however, this form is almost exclusively used after na-adjectives.

Other
Particles: Also called postpositions or joshi, particles show the case of nouns in Japanese: that is, they mark nouns as being the subject, object, indirect object, etc. (English typically uses word order or prepositions for the same effect.) Particles follow the noun they modify.
 * wa (は): topic
 * ga (が): subject
 * o (を): direct object
 * no (の): possession, apposition
 * ni (に): indirect object, direction "to", location of existence, etc.
 * kara (から): direction "from"
 * made (まで): "until", "as far as"
 * de (で): means, location of an action

Some particles are used after sentences instead:
 * ka (か): question marker
 * yo (よ): marker for giving new information or showing emphasis or certainty
 * ne (ね): marker for seeking agreement
 * tte (って): informal quotation marker

Adverbs: Adverbs typically modify the entire sentence, although most Japanese quantifiers (including numbers) are actually adverbs, rather than adjectives as in English.
 * aikawarazu as always;
 * sukoshi (少し) a little, few
 * mō sugu soon, before long;
 * sō thus, so

Conjunctions: Japanese conjunctions typically either apply to nominals (like English "except") or to predicates (like English "when"), not both (like English "and").
 * mata wa or (n.);
 * soshite (そして) and then, and also (pr.);
 * ga but (pr.)

Interjections: Common to every language.
 * wā! "wow!"
 * are? "huh?", "wha?"
 * ē to "um, er"
 * anō "um"

Sentence examples
[You're] late.
 * [It] is pretty.

 * This is a book.

 * Mt. Fuji is beautiful.

 * It's not very cold today. / Today isn't very cold.

 * [I] gazed out at the ocean.

 * [Her] mother went to the store.

 * Summer has come.

/Grammar

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Japanese/Grammar


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User talk:Gmagno

¡Bienvenido! :) A ver si este curso conseguimos mover esto un poco ;) -- 4lex 08:07, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Para empezar: ¿qué te parece la división preliminar de disciplinas de la química que he hecho? Si algo no te convence, lo mueves de sitio o lo reestructuras, ¿vale? Y ¿tienes alguna sugerencia para el plan de trabajo? Lo que he puesto es lo que mejor me pareció, pero un solo cerebro piensa muy mal... Si tienes otras ideas, refléjalas en la página. Si lo que hay te parece bien, pues nos podemos poner a hacerlo. También podemos coger ideas de aquí (o cambiar lo que hay, si tenemos otras ideas). -- 4lex 08:39, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Wikilibros y Wikiversidad
Veo que ya has empezado, gracias y enhorabuena por tu trabajo :) Tengo una sugerencia: ¿qué te parece si reservamos la wikiversidad para docencia y organización, y ponemos el material tipo libro en wikibooks? No sé si compartes mi visión, pero me imagino a la wikiversidad como un gran centro docente, abierto y libre, donde los profesores y los alumnos se ponen en contacto y trabajan (quizá incluso investigan, en el futuro...), la wikipedia y el wikcionario como obras de consulta colosales a los que referirse en caso de dudas y para dar los primeros pasos, y wikilibros como la gran biblioteca de libros de texto. En esa visión, el material "real" debiera ir a wikibooks, y en wikiversidad se dejarían sólo programas, guías de estudio... ¿Qué opinas tú? -- Alex, desde un navegador que no acepta cookies.

Atrayendo a más gente
Coincido contigo: no se hace una universidad (ni siquiera un departamento) entre tres personas. Está claro que el trabajo que estamos haciendo (o el que vamos a hacer) es de estímulo: mostrar con el ejemplo que es factible hacer algo así. Comenzando wikilibros, estructurando los recursos disponibles en la wikipedia, preparando guías de estudio, proponiendo cursos, aunque al principio no se apunte nadie... A medida que la wikipedia gana popularidad, se hace más fácil que más y más gente se interese por los "otros" proyectos wikimedia. Si conseguimos que este proyecto tenga un aspecto lo bastante prometedor, la gente acudirá. En ese momento, esto dejará de ser un mini-proyecto de un pequeño grupo de compañeros, y pasará a ser un verdadero proyecto de comunidad, como la wikipedia, donde los colaboradores se cuentan al menos por centenares, cuando no por miles. -- 4lex 21:39, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Hola Gmagno, podrías, por favor identificar la procedencia de la imagen "Alquimista" http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Image:Alquimista.jpeg y su licencia. Estoy migrando la Wikiversidad al nuevo dominio y no puedo llevarme la imagen si no sé con certeza que posee una licencia libre. Gracias --Javier Carro 20:39, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Hola Gmagno, te comento que el Departamento de Química se encuentra ya en el dominio http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikiversidad:Portada

Respecto a la imagen, no la he llevado al otro dominio, pero, si no cumple los criterios de licencias lo mejor sería solicitar a un administrador que la borre. Saludos. --Javier Carro 09:25, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gmagno


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Ada Programming/Operators

Standard operators
Ada allows operator overloading for all standard operators and so the following summaries can only describe the suggested standard operations for each operator. It is quite possible to misuse any standard operator to perform something unusual.

Each operator is either a keyword or a delimiter—hence all operator pages are redirects to the appropriate keyword or delimiter.

Operators have arguments which in the RM are called Left and Right for binary operators, Right for unary operators (indicating the position with respect to the operator symbol).

The list is sorted from lowest precedence to highest precedence.

Logical operators

 * and : and $$x \land y$$, (also keyword and)
 * or : or $$x \lor y$$, (also keyword or)
 * xor : exclusive or $$(x \land \bar{y}) \lor (\bar{x} \land y)$$, (also keyword xor)

Relational operators

 * /= : Not Equal $$x \ne y$$, (also special character /=)
 * = : Equal $$x = y$$, (also special character =)
 * < : Less than $$x : Greater than ($$x > y$$), (also special character >)
 * >= : Greater than or equal to ($$x \ge y$$), (also special character >=)

Binary adding operators

 * + : Add $$x + y$$, (also special character +)
 * - : Subtract $$x - y$$, (also special character -)
 * & : Concatenate, $$x$$ & $$ y$$, (also special character &)

Unary adding operators

 * + : Plus sign $$+x$$, (also special character +)
 * - : Minus sign $$-x$$, (also special character -)

Multiplying operator

 * * : Multiply, $$x \times y$$, (also special character *)
 * / : Divide $$x / y$$, (also special character /)
 * mod : modulus (also keyword mod)
 * rem : remainder (also keyword rem)

Highest precedence operator

 * ** : Power $$x^y$$, (also special character **)
 * not : logical not $$\lnot x$$, (also keyword not)
 * abs : absolute value $$|x|$$ (also keyword abs)

Short-circuit control forms
These are not operators and thus cannot be overloaded.

 * and then : e.g.
 * or else : e.g.

Membership tests
The Membership Tests also cannot be overloaded because they are not operators.

 * in : element of, $$var \in type$$, e.g. , (also keyword )
 * not in : not element of, $$var \notin type$$, e.g. , (also keywords  )

Range membership test
Today  Tuesday .. Thursday ...

Subtype membership test
Is_Non_Negative := X Natural;

Class membership test
Object Circle';

Range membership test
Today  Tuesday .. Thursday ...

Choice list membership test
Ada 2012 extended the membership tests to include the union (short-circuit or) of several range or value choices.

Today Monday .. Wednesday | Friday ...

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Operators

Programación en Ada/Operadores

title: Ada Programming/Operators


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Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/A More Formal Approach to Sentential Logic

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > A More Formal Approach to Sentential Logic

Our truth table analysis has revealed something interesting about the logical connectives. In particular, that they behave in some ways like + and. on ordinary numbers. Our journey into the world of abstraction has dealt some dividends, so now we shall go a little bit further down the path of abstraction.

What we are going to do is to define the propositional calculus as a formal language, rather like a computer programming language. We will use English, together with one or two Greek letters, to define and talk about the formal language of propositional calculus. Thus English is the metalanguage, and propositional calculus is the object language.

Well-Formed Formulae
We have introduced logical formulae. Some strings of logical symbols make sense and some do not; ' p ∨ ' is nonsense as it wants something after the connective. The ones that do make sense are called well formed formulas or wffs for short. We can introduce some rules for distinguishing wffs from gobbledegook:

 * Any sentence letter is a wff.

 * So far we have been using p, q and r as sentence letters. In reality, there is an infinite supply of them. We could write p1, p2, p3, and so forth, but we shall stay with p, q, and r.

 * If φ is a wff, then ¬ φ is a wff.

 * If φ and ψ are wffs, then (φ ∧ ψ), (φ ∨ ψ), (φ → ψ) and (φ ↔ ψ)are wffs.

 * In our formal treatment we always write the brackets.

 * Closure Clause: Nothing else is a wff.

This rules out nonsense strings. Note that, though the rules are to distinguish that which could be meaningful from that which is not, the rules are purely syntactic.

The other thing to note is that the rules have inverses, which is handy for deciding whether something that has already been written is a wff or not. We just apply these inverse rules until either we are left with nothing or get stuck. So we have an effective procedure for generating wffs, and an effective procedure for deciding whether a string is a wff.

We now introduce some rules of inference for propositional calculus. In some ways these rules are unnecessary, as we could take truth tables as as fundamental and prove the following rules using truth tables. However, when we get to predicate calculus, we won't have truth tables to help us, and will have to rely entirely on rules of inference.

Rules of Inference
We now introduce some rules of inference for propositional calculus. In some ways these rules are unnecessary, as we could take truth tables as as fundamental and prove the following rules using truth tables. However, when we get to predicate calculus, we won't have truth tables to help us, and will have to rely entirely on rules of inference.

 * Double Negative Elimination: From the wff ¬ ¬ φ, we may infer φ.
 * Conjunction Introduction: From any wff φ and any wff ψ, we may infer ( φ ∧ ψ ).
 * Conjunction Elimination: From any wff ( φ ∧ ψ ), we may infer φ and ψ
 * Disjunction Introduction: From any wff φ, we may infer (φ ∨ ψ) and (ψ ∨ φ), where ψ is any wff.
 * Disjunction Elimination: From wffs of the form ( φ ∨ ψ ), ( φ → χ ), and ( ψ → χ ), we may infer χ.
 * Bi conditional Introduction: From wffs of the form ( φ → ψ ) and ( ψ → φ ), we may infer ( φ ↔ ψ ).
 * Bi conditional Elimination: From the wff ( φ ↔ ψ ), we may infer ( φ → ψ ) and ( ψ → φ ).
 * Modus Ponens: From wffs of the form φ and ( φ → ψ ), we may infer ψ.
 * Conditional Proof: If ψ can be derived while assuming the hypothesis φ, we may infer ( φ → ψ ).
 * Reductio ad Absurdum: If we can derive both ψ and ¬ ψ while assuming the hypothesis φ, we may infer ¬ φ.

Interdefinability of operators
It is possible to define some logic operators in terms of others. For example, the truth table for the formula (φ → ψ) is equal to that of ¬(φ ∧ ¬ψ), so we might want to consider (φ → ψ) nothing more than an abbreviated notation for ¬(φ ∧ ¬ψ).

The interesting point here is that all logic operators in propositional calculus can be expressed in terms of ¬ and ∧. This fact allows us to express the rules for well-formed formulae in a very simple way:

 * If φ is a wff, then ¬ φ is a wff.
 * If φ and ψ are wffs, then (φ ∧ ψ) is a wff.
 * Nothing else is a well formed formula.

We can then define the other operators in terms of these two:

 * (φ → ψ) is, by definition, ¬(φ ∧ ¬ψ).
 * (φ ↔ ψ) is, by definition, (φ → ψ) ∧ (ψ → φ).
 * (φ ∨ ψ) is, by definition, ¬(¬φ ∧ ¬ψ).

If we take into account these definitions (three additional rules), it may seem that we have not gained much by reducing the number of primitive operators. However, when the system of propositional calculus is considered as a whole (as, for example, when we are studying the properties of the system) it is useful to have a description of the system in terms of a very small number of rules. In cases like this we are not interested in particular formulae, so we can drop the additional rules which define the other operators.

It is also possible to prove that all logical operators can be defined in terms of ¬ and ∨.


text:
Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/A More Formal Approach to Sentential Logic

The list of rules of inference has been pasted from the wikipedia propositional calculus page.


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User:Koos Jol

This useraccount is mostly to make interlanguagelinks to the Dutch wikibooks. Better leave a message there.

Hello people,

My name is Koos Jol and I live in Lisserbroek, a village in the Netherlands.

I'm student Civil Engineering at the TU Delft (Netherlands) and I'm interested in the Tour de France

I'm also active on the Dutch Wikibooks and the Dutch Wikipedia.

When you want to leave me a message, you have more change to reach me when you leave that message on my Dutch discussionpage.

de:Benutzer:Firefox es:Usuario:Firefox fr:Utilisateur:Koos Jol nl:Gebruiker:Koos Jol pl:Wikipedysta:Koos Jol pt:Usuário:Koos Jol sv:Användare:Firefox

title: User:Koos Jol


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Wikibooks talk:Programming languages bookshelf

This is an index to Wikibooks articles, not a book about about programming languages. The format should support multiple entries for every language. There's no point to write encyclopedia-style articles about every language on Wikibooks. The articles on Wikipedia are more mature and should be linked to.

Programming:C plus plus
Initially there used to be one page Programming:C plus plus. Then I thought it'd be nice to split into modules similar to Programming:C and started many modules including Programming:C plus plus Hello world (the rest can be got by successively clicking the next link in the previous module). User:Panic2k4 was of the opinion that the entire book should be in a single module, at least for now, and started contributing heavily to Programming:C plus plus, incl. content from some (not all) of the "Programming:C plus plus *" pages. Since I was opposed to this, and Panic didn't want to argue with me, he started a *shudder* fork at Programming: C -/- -/-, and replaced the link to Programming:C plus plus on this bookshelf with a link to Programming: C -/- -/-. -- Paddu 09:30, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Multiple entries for C++
I reformatted the C++ entry to include both books and a Wikipedia article. There are dozens of about C++ in every book store. There is no reason to have just one book on Wikibooks.
 * It depends on what you mean. There is certainly room for several C++ books that have different goals/scopes on WikiBooks. For example, we'd all be happy to see a complete beginners guide to C++, an advanced software engineering guide with C++, and a complete C++ language reference, and so on. But it's very, very damaging to a creative, collaborative project to have two books with the same goal competing with each other. Would-be contributors might be scared off, thinking that if they spent time contributing to one book it might be wasted. I would even say there is room for C++ books on the same ability level, that cover the same topics to be included, provided that they take radically different philosophies: such as one book that teaches OO concepts first, while another teaches procedural programming first. But they cannot be forks of one another. Perhaps it's best to think of WikiBooks as a publisher, instead of a bookstore. MShonle 22:23, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

Object-oriented/Imperative Hybrid
Having moved the categorised list from Programming:List of languages I have noticed that the largest category is not mentioned. I mean the Object-oriented/Imperative Hybrids. So should they not get their own group?

 * Disadvantage : The Object-oriented catecory becomes very small - there are only a very few true and only OO languages around. Users looking for OO might be disappointed.

 * Advantage : The currently most important languages group becomes an exposed position. [UNSIGNED]

I think the term "hybrid" to describe languages has been steadily going out of style. It would probably be best to just have: When creating a categorization of languages, it seems like it would be a failure to have the largest category essentially the same as "Miscellaneous". I would not have categories for DbC. Perhaps I would put the web languages under domain-specific, or into their own category, "web programming" (similarly with database languages).
 * functional,
 * procedural,
 * logical,
 * object-oriented,
 * mathematical/scientific,
 * domain-specific, and
 * scripting.

A re-org should happen to make this all cleaner. MShonle 22:32, 8 September 2005 (UTC)

General policy for programming language books
Is this the best place to discuss general policy for programming language books ?

In particular, is there a policy that covers statements such as:

"C# is ... is a complete, robust programming language without the limitations that make Java strictly a niche or toy language." -- Programming:C sharp

This seems needlessly inflammatory.

All programming languages are niche languages.

In particular, C# works on less than 10 percent of all the CPUs manufactured in 2003. "Less than 10% of all the CPUs sold in the world are 32-bit or more." -- w:microprocessor.

--DavidCary 11:06, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

C# works on more like 90% of systems, if you don't include embedded (Palm) handhelds/smartphones, previous game consoles, and pre-OSX machines, C# has standardization through EMCA, it's .NET components such as WinForms which are the platform-specific issue, Mono implements most through GTK# and Cocoa#. I agree it's not NPOV, and in a big part platform specific for full functionality, however speaking, the integration and machine compilable ability might be an advantage. I have to disagree with the 10% part are 32-bit part, everything since 1997 are 32-bit, even ARM. Mono has only been ported to SPARC and PowerPC though, and is not 64-bit capable afaik, only .NET on Windows is. To each his own on which platform is more of a toy, though in truth on desktops .NET has a larger install base than Java.

--James C 1:33, 18 Nov 2007 (UTC)

NPOV
Well the above statement clearly violates the NPOV (Neutral Point of View) and needs to be removed.

Apart from that: There is no place to discuss the advantages/disadvantages of languages - there will always be a flame war.

There is a cross language chapter in Computer_programming.

--Krischik 08:11, 10 Jun 2005 (UTC)

There should be a place to discuss advantages and disadvantages but it has to be remembered that what is an advantage and what is a disadvantage depends on the context. Each statement that language X is better than language Y needs to state the situation in which the advantage exists. For instance the oft touted superiority of Fortran over, say VB6, for numerical calculations is irrelevant if the task at hand is string processing. It is the total performance of code written for a specific purpose that counts and this is a matter of immense importance and surely need not generate a flame war. Whether such a discussion belongs on Wikibooks is another question. kwhitefoot 18:00:51, 2005-09-06 (UTC)

Meta-languages_bookshelf vs. Programming languages bookshelf
I see that PostScript has been moved to the Meta-languages_bookshelf. Why? I thought we kept all w:Turing-complete languages (such as PostScript), on the Programming languages bookshelf, and put non-Turing-complete languges (such as XML) on the Meta-languages_bookshelf. --DavidCary 09:24, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * PostScript is w:Turing-complete? If so in a more theoretical way (you could write a Speadsheed using PostScript) or in a practical way (you would write a Speadsheed using PostScript). --Krischik 08:09, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Turing-complete means "theoretical". Every turing-complete language could theoretically replace any other turing-complete language.  However, every language is optimized for a particular range of tasks and designs.  You could write a spreadsheet in PS, but it'd be better to use a language more suited for that. --Randal L. Schwartz 13:07, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

Why are these languages called Meta languages? Meta usually means about or concerning as in metadata on web pages, it is data that says something about data. And as for Postscript, there are plenty of tasks that Postscript is suitable for but they tend to belong to the domain of typesetting so why change the name from Domain Specific, which is clear and unambiguous, to Meta-languages which isn't. kwhitefoot 17:53:09, 2005-09-06 (UTC)

Object Orientated?
In the bookshelf area, object oriented is refered to as object orientated (east facing). I did not see a way to edit this title. Am I missing something?

Christine Frayda 23:24, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Fixed. The thing to do is click the tab to edit the page and then scroll down until you see the list of templates used (right at the the bottom).  Click the relevant template and edit that.  In standard British English non-technical uses orientated is the usual form but jargon uses prefer oriented.  It has nothing to do with east facing but rather it is related to orientation.  See http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutgrammar/oriented?view=uk.  kwhitefoot 07:02:12, 2005-09-06 (UTC)

Objective-C
Objective-C is listed under the Macintosh-specific section. I do not think it should be there; although it is predominantly used with Cocoa, it was not introduced on the Mac, and compilers, runtimes, and kits are available for a great many platforms.

other wiki
Many languages already have a dedicated wiki. If there is a Wikibook for that language, please link to that remote wiki in the "For further reading" section of its Wikibook.

But what about languages that don't already have a Wikibook (such as Lua)? For the convenience of people looking for information on such languages, I'm going to stick links to their remote wiki here on the programming languages bookshelf. OK? --DavidCary 21:23, 29 December 2005 (UTC)

API Specific Books
I've noticed that there isn't a bookshelf/subsection for API specific books. What about Direct X, Open GL, Win32, Linux, ect programming books?

Also, many API's are often language specific, or have a specific set of libraries for a programming language. So finding exactly where they should go will be quite a trick.

naming convention for books on the Programming languages bookshelf
Are there any special conventions for naming and organizing programming-related books that go beyond the regular Naming conventions ? In particular, it seems that many early wikibooks began with the "Programming:" pseudo-namespace, but that no longer seems to be popular for newer books. (I suspect this may have already been discussed to death -- please give me a link to that discussion.) --DavidCary 12:54, 14 September 2006 (UTC)

In particular, which name is the best -- Programming:Java, Java Programming, or Java? --DavidCary 01:22, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

 * From what I can see, either Java Programming or Java work (although the former seems quite popular). Programming:Java is right out.  I tend to prefer things like Java or Haskell myself. -- Kowey 16:46, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Source Tags?
The page mentions source-tags. Where can I find information on how to use them? (Or could someone explain shortly?) Otus 15:58, 5 June 2007 (UTC)

 * You can find information on the syntax highlighting extension here, which uses   to format programming code with language-specific syntax hightlighting. Webaware talk 01:33, 7 June 2007 (UTC)

free compilers
The majority of languages on our bookshelf are mentioned in the "Catalog of Free Compilers and Interpreters".

I'm thinking about going through each book on the programming languages bookshelf, and add a link to the appropriate section of that catalog.

Is this a bad idea? If so, please tell me now before I waste too much time on this project. --DavidCary 07:26, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

 * If you do so, be sure to include it in the right place for each book. If your not sure of where such a link should go in a book, I would suggest not doing it for that book or only suggest that a link to be added on the book discussion page. Otherwise it may just end up being removed. --dark lama  12:50, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

book listings
php does support object oriented programming, yet it is not placed under the object oriented category. maybe someone could do this?

 * Basic object orientation has been part of PHP since PHP3. Tinned Tuna (talk) 15:29, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

Visual Basic?
Why does the table of contents list # 1.5 PHP – Visual Basic .NET when the last alphabetical entry is XForms? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Anon1171 (discuss • contribs) 2008-03-04T00:53:36

 * Thanks, now fixed. Webaware talk 14:27, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

ColdFusion link missing?
Oh master of this index page... Can you please add in the link to this page: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:ColdFusion

Cobol
I think that list misses Cobol

New Scheme book
I've recently been working on a new book to cover the Scheme programming language, since there was no book on it. It is in need of expansion, clean up, and so on. I don't think it's ready for this bookshelf yet, but I think it's worth having some other people look at it with me. Stylistically and structurally it draws heavily from the C Programming book. Tinned Tuna (talk) 15:33, 7 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Scheme Programming


text:
Japanese/Kana chart

The grayed kana are no longer applicable in standard Japanese, but still may be encountered within certain contexts, for example older names and works of fiction.

title: Japanese/Kana chart


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Logic/Nand and Nor

Introduction to Philosophy > Logic > Nand and Nor

Our connectives ¬, ∧, ∨, →, fit easily with our every day way of reasoning about things. For the reductionists out there, it turns out that we can get a single connective to do all the work of our familiar connectives. Indeed there are two ways we can do this.

The first way is using joint denial, known in electronics circles as nand. Its truth table is as follows:

A B Output 0 0   1  0 1    1  1 0    1  1 1    0

We can see that ¬p is the same as p nand p. etc. ...

The other candidate is alternative denial or nor.

Electronics people like nand and nor. I think it is because it gives them a one-size-fits-all chip, which they can connect up how they like to get the other connectives.

Is there are an advanced civilization on some distant planet that does all its reasoning using nand or nor? If so, would cause and effect ever have become a big issue for them?


text:
User talk:Elf

Hello Elf, and Welcome to Wikibooks! As a long time Wikipedian, you probibly don't need the really easy stuff explained to you, so I'll just remind you that there are a few areas where our policies and guidelines differ from the 'pedia. If you've got any questions, feel free to drop by the Staff lounge where someone will help you, eventually (we're a little bit slower around here, recently someone requested adminship and no one responded in over a week!).

Most importantly, have fun. Gentgeen 13:31, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elf


text:
Talk:Intelligence Intensification/Introduction

This was added to the book, I moved it to the discussion (--DanielJanzon 14:56, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)):

Cut the Crap: Example; (above paragraph without crap)

Book will contain zero extra wordage

Information will be compact, concise, to - point.

 * Of course there is an weighing between compactness and readability. My point was rather that the book should not contain "affirmations that these techniques will work even for you and so on" and "No unscientific testimonials". I believe that a book written like above would not be very valuable. Unfortunately a lot of rambling has been introduced in the book. Maybe in a couple of years the book will be better.

PsychoNautica
hello, I am interested in, and an expert on, the Topic of "Psychonautics." (And by this, I do not mean merely the drug using justification)

I may be interested in adding to your book, it certainly sounds like the direction i have thought of taking.

The Title of the book has some distinct advantages and disadvantages over the standard Title for the science as I understand it.

cons;
 * Sounds a little new agey
 * is two words long

Pros reader.
 * may have a better ability to communicate content to the average
 * Doesn't carry with it the luggage of habit justifying drug users.

Here is my table of contents for a Psychonautics text.

1. The Tao of Self 2. The Tao of Malkut/Tiferet 3. Inwer Cosm 4. Grounding and Centering 5. Cleansing and Purifying 6. Representational Schema 7. Ritual 8. Full Stop 9. Beta States 10. Alpha States 11. Delta States 12. Somnambulistic Trance (Hypnogogia) 13 Lucid Visualization 14. Dreams 15. Tarota Labrys 16. Theta States 17. Shamanic Music 18. The Aspects of Self 19. The Psychonauts Key 20. The Tree of Life 21 Behavior and State 22. Creating State Specific Social Contracts 23. Contact Improv 24. Totemism 25. Satyrian Psychonautica 26. Dragon Psychonautica 27. Faery Psychonautica 28. Imp Psychonautica 29. The ALLY and the FORCE 30. Entheogenic Protocols 31. Meditative Breathe 32. Meditative Movement 33. Meditative Thought 34. The Force of Atttention 35. Tribalism 36. Brain region, Function, and State 37. Psychonautic Atlas A. Psychonaut Reports B. Shaman Reports C. Mage Reports D. Schematization of Experiences

Index Glossary

and, here is my table of contents for a psychology text which would be a necessary prequel.

PSYCHOLOGY;

A. Table of Contents B. Foreward C. Prologue D. Introduction

1. The Nueron 2. Brain Regions 3. Internal Dialogue(s) 4. Instinct 5. Social Influences 6. Brain Chemistry 7. Brain regions and Mind 8. Ego Psychology 9. Id Psychology 10. Mammalian Psychology 11. Reptilian Psychology 12. Social Psychology 13. Paradigm Psychology 14. Emotional Psychology 15. Child Psychology 16. Adult Psychology 17. Parental Psychology 18. Pack Psychology 19. Personal Space Management 20. Behavior output Psychology 21. Reflexive Psychology 22. Muggle Psychology 23. Mage Psychology 24. Totalitarian/Fascist/Corporate/Republican Psychology 25. Herd Psychology 26. Logic, Reason,...Geek Psychology

27.Index of Brain Areas 28. Topological Index 29. Glossary

and, metaphysics;

METAPHYSICS;

A. Table of Contents B. Foreward C. Prologue D.Introduction

1. The Chakras 2. The Nadis 3. The Flowpaths 4. The Aural Shells 5. The Attental Body 6. The Animative Body 7. The Circulative Body 8. Prana 9. Qi, Chi 10. Thought 11. Spirit 12. Geomancy 13. Biomagnetics 14. Nueromuscular electricity 15. Causal Forces 16. Ether 17. Consciousness 18. Will 19. Chotdals+ ThraoChotdals (Ether Tubes) 20. Karma 21. Quantum Mechanics 22 "Random Chance" 23. the Tree of Life 24. Levels of Reality 25. The TAO in and of ALL Things

26. Index of Subtle Anatomy Charts 27. Index of Hyperelative Morphogenics 28. Index 29. Glossary

Prometheuspan 03:14, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

let me know if you think these topics could fit into your effort here.

Hiatus Maximus
This baby hasn't been touched in 12 (holy cow) years. Is anybody still on this project, or paying attention to it?

2601:680:CB80:5E00:99A6:BCDC:CF5A:FBC5 (discuss) 15:47, 13 May 2020 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Multilingual statistics

2003 Statistics

 * July 2004: 1
 * September 2003: around 500
 * December 2004: 1,000

Total Growth 2004-05

 * February 2004: around 2,500
 * April 2004: around 3,000
 * May 2004: around 4,000
 * July 2004: around 4,500

Ranks
The 20 largest Wikibooks (December 22, 2004):

 * 1) English (5552)
 * Deutsch (German) (1062)
 * Français (French) (439)
 * Español (Spanish) (265)
 * Português (Portuguese) (199)
 * Polska (Polish) (166)
 * 日本語 (Japanese) (142)
 * עברית (Hebrew) (100)
 * Nederlands (Dutch) (91)
 * Русский (Russian) (83)
 * Svenska (Swedish) (65)
 * Italiano (Italian) (55)
 * 中文 (Chinese) (45)
 * Česká (Czech) (43)
 * Suomi (Finnish) (38)
 * Dansk (Danish) (28)
 * Eesti (Estonian) (28)
 * فارسی (Persian) (21)
 * Български (Bulgarian) (15)
 * Română (Romanian) (13)

title: Wikibooks:Multilingual statistics


text:
User:Sma/Lista del Vocabulario

This is my list for ALL the vocabulary I learn and will learn during the whole translation practice course at wikiversity...

#1 4.11.04
Lección Uno User:Sma/Prácticas de traducción

llegar a ser - to become es elegido - is elected 1 de enero - January 1 el trigésimo séptimo presidente - the 37th president la presidenta - the female president la Confederación Suiza - Swiss El Tribunal Supremo de Estados Unidos - The Supreme Court of the United States of America la decisión - the decision permitir - to allow la extensión - the extension (Aus-/Erweitung) la condición - the condition volver a hacer algo - to do something again vuelve a llover - it rains again yo te permito - I allow you se te permite - you are allowed se vuelve a permitir - he is allowed again uso de ordenadores - the use of computers El Departamento de Defensa - the Department of Homeland Security (USA)
 * uh, I'm not sure how I slipped this one. "Defensa" is "Defense" (like in bombing foreign countries). "Homeland Security" would be something like "Seguridad Interior", but don't take my word for it, as I'm unsure about the official name.

empezar - to start, to begin choca contra un muro - crashes into a wall 10 heridos - 10 (people) injured ningún fallecido - no dead (people) La crisis - the crisis las críticas - the criticism (die Kritiken) deseos de la mayoría de sus propios electorados - the wishes of the majority of their own electorates (Wähler(schaft))
 * electores=Wähler, electorado=Wählerschaft , "electorados" is very seldomly right

líder(es) - leader mostrar - to show
 * mostrar: yo muestro, tú muestras, él muestra, nosotros mostramos, vosotros mostráis, ellos muestran

apoyo - support

#2 6.11.04
Lección Dos User:Sma/Prácticas de traducción

El transbordador - the space shuttle desintegrarse - zerfallen, sich auflösen yo me desintegro, tú te desintegras, él se desintegra, nosotros nos desintegramos, vosotros os desintegráis, ellos se desintegran

en la reentrada en la atmósfera - when reentering the athmosphere durante - while

morir - to die yo muero; tu mueres; el, ella muere; nosotros morimos; vosotros morís; ellos, ellas mueren

 * I told you the verbs would be a much bigger problem than accentuation ;)

iban - 3.Person Plural Simple Past ->ir (va) es asesinado - is killed, (assassinated) (Attentat) sobre - about se dirige a - goes to, heads to Sudáfrica - South Africa preguntar - to ask la guerra - the war occurir - to occur (to happen, passieren)
 * it's defective, I can't at present think of any sense outside 3rd person, as in "ocurre que tengo prisa", or "ha ocurrido un terrible accidente", or "estas cosas ocurren"

ok, but what is a defective verb? a verb that does not have all persons??
 * "yo ocurro" can only make sense if spoken by a abstract being, like an earthquake. You can construct every person (tú ocurres, él ocurre, nosotros ocurrimos, vosotros ocurrís, ellos ocurren), but it makes not a lot of sense to put an effort in learning them, as the probability of encountering them is extremely low.

tener lugar - to take place comerciante - business man públicamente, en público - (in) public (öffentlich) trás - after lealista, communista, reformista, egoista - adjectves with no gender a + el - al de + el -> del enfermedad inusualmente contagiosa - unusual highly contagious disease será - he,she,it will (future of es) para esto objetivo - por esta causa

voy a comer porque tengo hambre - I will eat because I am hungry voy a preparar un bocadillo para comérmelo - I will make a sandwich "to eat" voy a preparar un bocadillo para la merienda - I will make a sandwich for the picnic voy a preparar un bocadillo para Juan - I will make a sandwic for Juan voy al trabajo por la autopista - I drive on the highway on my way to my work voy al trabajo para ganar dinero - I go to work (in order) to gain money voy al trabajo porque es mi obligación - I go to work because it is my obligation trabajo por comida - I work for the food trabajo para comer - I work to eat trabajo para el gobierno - I work for the government (I am occupied/working in the government) dos por tres, seis - 2 times 3 is 6 seis dulces para tres amigos, dos para cada uno - six sweets on 3 friends, 2 for each one

por mí podemos hacer lo que queráis: me da igual - we can do whatever you like, I don't care
 * here, "por mí" is a kind of a contraction for "por lo que a mí respecta" meaning "as far as I'm concerned"

para mí que su compleaños es hoy, pero no estoy seguro de recordarlo bien - I think today is his birthday, but I'm not sure, I recall it correctly

title: User:Sma/Lista del Vocabulario


text:
World History/Prologue

For the Readers
There are several things that should be noted. First, you may want to just learn history and if so, still consider reading this page, as it will cover a great number of frequently asked questions and provide a good basis for the study of history. Secondly, is the standard on which this project was and is being developed. The AP World History Standard provides an outline of history as well as stipulations concerning the structure of any such project. As such, the text should be sufficient, if one knew most of it, to provide the reader with a strong possibility of getting at least a 3 on his or her AP World History Exam. However, the addition of sections relating to the writing of historical essays is not included. Multiple-choice type tests are planned for each section dealing with the kinds of analytical and "big-picture" questions likely to appear on an AP World History Exam. So without further ado, let the quest for knowledge begin!

Structure
The structure of this project is meant to divide the scope of world history into manageable chunks. However, the number of chapters may expand in the future. In addition to the chapters, some special sections exist to make history more interesting.

 * [[Image:Bulbgraph.png|20px]] This image denotes a section of special interest which would be nice to delve deeper into.  It's probably something you're already familiar with, like the pyramids in Egypt.
 * [[Image:Lautsprecher3.png|15px]] This image indicates a first-person narrative or commentary that we have.  It puts issues in some context, and helps you understand how the people actually felt.
 * [[Image:Open_book_01.svg|20px]] This image shows a link to a non-fiction text on an event or period by an author who says it particularly well, such as Spielvogel might.  Might also contain essays written by contributors on possible points of interest.

The Big Picture
We define history as the study of the past. In order to study the past it is imperative to keep the big picture in mind. Don't let one thing completely capture your focus, for example, try not to become overly euro-centric. This will hurt your viewpoint and contaminate your understanding of history. Since one of our primary concerns was keeping the text in manageable portions, we couldn't put everything in so the layout of this text doesn't help to keep the big picture in mind. So, what can you do to keep the big picture in mind? Start with these tips:
 * Note the dates, don't just read them. They will tell you what cultures existed at the same time.  Then comparing cultures will become much easier.
 * Make sure to know events outside of the Western Hemisphere. Try to become interested in civilizations, events or movements which occurred outside of Europe and the United States.  Then you'll at least know something that doesn't have Western culture stamped all over it.
 * Note the changes in a time period not only in a culture or civilization, but across the world as a whole. How did things change and how did they stay the same?

Important Terms
A few important terms will appear every now and then that you should know. Instead of going alphabetically, these are listed in sets of like terms.

 * Writing systems
 * Pictogram- The simplest form of writing, consists of picture symbols representing a word or phrase.
 * Ideogram- A symbol that depicts a thing or an idea, without expressing sound, e.g. @ or &.
 * Phonetic alphabet- A phonetic alphabet consists of a finite set of letters with each representing a sound.
 * Languages
 * Indo-European- Comprises the languages of Europe, and much of Iran, Pakistan and the Indian sub-continent.
 * Romance- Languages that are derived from Latin e.g. Spanish, Romanian
 * Germanic- Languages based on languages that developed near modern-day Germany, examples include German, English, and Dutch
 * Balto-Slavic- The languages of Eastern Europe and Russia that share Slavic sounds. Examples are Russian, Ukrainian, and Polish.
 * Albanian- A language that is spoken in Albania as well as Kosovo and far northwestern Greece.
 * Greek- The language of the Greeks
 * Uralic- A language group comprising of over 38 languages that are predominantly based in northern Eurasia. They include Hungarian ("Magyarian"), Finnish and Estonian.
 * Altaic- A controversial language grouping that is not accepted by all historical linguists
 * Turkish, Tatar, Azerbaijani, borrows from both Western and Eastern (primarily Arabic) sources
 * Culture words
 * Occidental- Another name for Western culture
 * Oriental- Another name for Eastern culture
 * Region words
 * Turkey (the nation today)
 * Asia Minor- What the Romans called this peninsula, used commonly in Roman times and the Middle Ages
 * Anatolia- What the Greeks called it, used predominantly in ancient times
 * Mesoamerica- Meaning middle-America, consisting of the Panama isthmus north to the area of Mexico just south of the Yucatán peninsula
 * Latin America- Central and South American nations, called because Spanish and Portuguese languages are heavily based on Latin
 * West Indies- A region of the Caribbean that includes Islands and the surrounding waters
 * East Indies- The groups of islands located in the Pacific Ocean in the southeast Asia region including Indonesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, and others.

Dates
The AP World History Standard has adopted the date system of using the terms C.E. for Common Era and B.C.E. for Before Common Era, which are respectively identical to the terms A.D. (anno domini, Latin for "In the year of our Lord") and B.C. (before Christ). In addition, if dates are given as "800 A.D" or "1950 B.C." then they are often a guess or approximation. These dates are almost universally preceded by the words "about" or "around", or "circa".

Also, the Julian calendar was in use throughout the Western world for much of history, until it was discovered that it had become over a week inaccurate. So, we switched to Gregorian calendar to correct the problem. Actually, in Russia it wasn't even introduced until Lenin took power; the October Revolution actually happened in November on the Gregorian calendar. So dates in the chapter The Russian Revolution might be a bit hazy before 1918.

For the "Historians"
Some people might question our setup, layout, or the choice of included facts or they might find something wrong or in dispute. Great, we welcome suggestions and comments. And there's a place for it, on the World History discussion page. As for factual inaccuracies, etc., put them on the offending page's talk page, and we'll get to it as soon as we can (or see it). However, don't just criticize us, it's not constructive, and we don't care how you'd do it all that much, and this is the way we did it. So please don't just say the whole thing's stupid and we don't know what we're talking about. We'll probably have a few choice words to say back to you. Or maybe we'll just openly laugh and make fun of you. Either way you lose, and we win. So follow our Golden Rule, assume good faith and play nice. And now, on to World History...

The AP World History Exam
Advanced Placement World History is a course offered by many high schools within the United States of America. The curriculum and course structure are determined by the College Board, a non-profit organization which develops all Advanced Placement (AP) exams. The course structure is in the area marked AP World History Standard.

The AP World History exam is comprised of 4 parts- 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. Refer to the AP World History Exam Format for this information. The multiple choice section will be graded by computer and the free- response questions will be graded by various teachers. The grade of the multiple choice section and the free response sections will be weighted and combined to give you an AP Exam score of 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5

1A- Multiple Choice
The multiple choice section consists of similarly themed questions that will appear in sets of 2-5. These questions may be accompanied by primary or secondary sources, images, graphs, or maps. You will have 55 minutes to complete 55 questions. This will account for 40% of your exam score.

Note: As of the 2011 exam, no points are deducted for incorrect answers.

Strategies for this section:
 * Be definite- if you feel that an answer is wrong, assume it is and move on with the other answers: remember, your first, gut instinct is often correct.
 * Don't change answers often. Unless you come across information elsewhere in the test that indicates you were wrong in choosing your original answer, your first reaction is more likely to be correct than that given at second thought (such as in the previous strategy's situation).
 * Oftentimes there will be 2 answer choices that can be eliminated immediately leaving you will 2 possible choice, and thus a 50/50 chance.
 * Many answers are logical, and can be deduced even without prior knowledge the question's topic. Remember that the College Board exam writers want to write as logical a test as possible, it's in their natures to craft questions that may be guessed by attentive students.
 * Be mindful of your time. You may not finish all the questions.  Hopefully your proctor will provide you with time updates, or better yet, a stop clock which lists remaining time.  Don't spend too much time on a single question (a trite strategy, but still true).

1B- Short Answer
The short answer section consists of questions that will be answered by writing a paragraph. These will be accompanied by texts, images, graphs or maps. You will have 50 minutes to answer 4 questions. This will account for 20% of your exam score.

Strategies for this section:
 * Keep track of time- you want to finish all the questions before going back and revising them
 * Take a minute to plan your answers- if you write you answer without planning it, you might have to go back and revise it which will waste your time

2A- Document Based
The document based section consists of questions that will be answered by analyzing written texts, graphs or pictures. You will have 55 minutes (includes a 15-minute reading period) to answer 1 question. This will account for 25% of your exam score.

Strategies for this section:
 * Plan your essay- you don't want to waste more time by going back to revise it
 * Use evidence from the media given to you (texts, graphs, pictures) to support your answer

2B- Long Essay
The long essay section consists of two questions. In this section you will have to pick one of these questions to answer and develop an argument using historical evidence. You will have 35 minutes to answer 1 question. This will account for 15% of your exam score.

Strategies for this section:
 * Plan your essay- this strategy is useful for all questions that include writing a response
 * Have a topic sentence and stay focused on it- don't stray off topic
 * Back up your topic sentence with historical evidence and specific events- e.g. supporting how government support of religion can help social order with the Hindu caste system and dharma
 * Elaborate on evidence- when giving evidence say why it supports your thesis

Resources
Below are some resources that you can use to learn more about how the test is formatted, graded or take. There are also some links to some helpful resources that you can use to practice.

Learn more about the exam
Course details

Exam details

Exam Details PDF

Practice
Exam practice

title: World History/Prologue


text:
World History/Golden Rule

<< World History

The Golden Rule of the World History is to assume good faith on the part of all contributors and to be kind to all those who participate or have constructive criticism; it really is helpful.

title: World History/Golden Rule


text:
World History/Authors

All Power to the Supreme People's Soviet of the World History Project!, namely, the "Staff" :).

"Staff"-ers
Red4tribe is a contributor, and a mapmaker. He is currently leading the cleanup and expansion of this project.

Naryathegreat|(talk)- Naryathegreat is one and the same on Wikibooks and Wikipedia.

Alsocal is a contributor and proofreader.

Constantijn is a contributor and essayist.

A.Cython is a contributor and proofreader.

Sutherland4l is a contributor and editor.

We are currently in need of:

Regular contributors Proofreaders/Peer Reviewers Map makers Essayists

If you would like to become a member of the team (other than as a normal contributor) and listed here, contact a team member.

title: World History/Authors


text:
User:Naryathegreat~enwikibooks

Welcome to my page. I'm not new to wikis or to this format (I am one and the same as Naryathegreat on Wikipedia).

My main area of work will be and is here: World History

I'm proud to say I've turned it from neglect onto the road to speedy recovery and eventual presentation as a complete and featured Wikibook.

Test of new signature.--Naryathegreat|(talk) 02:40, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * What is the current status of World History?? It looks like an interesting (and huge!) project.  Buddpaul 02:44, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Naryathegreat~enwikibooks


text:
Windows XP/Security Software

Antivirus
The cyberworld is full of threats to computer security. Among the most common are computer viruses.

Broadly speaking, a computer virus is a program that when executed attempts to "infect" other programs by modifying them (embedding a copy of themselves in the code) or by changing their execution path system-wise (so that a request to run program X causes the viral code to be executed too). Usually it stays active in memory, infecting programs run by the user.

Being self-replicating is damaging enough (they tend to clog the system's resources) but since virus writers are mostly malicious, they often include a payload - a damaging action triggered by an event the coder decided upon. The payload may cause data loss, damage to Windows' integrity and/or leakage of valuable information (passwords, email addresses, credit card numbers).

An active antivirus is a necessity when connected to the Internet, since some modern viruses (in the like of Sasser, MyDoom, etc.) try to exploit known security flaws (hopefully patched with a Windows security update... eventually) to remotely infect a computer without any user interaction.

Windows XP does not include built in antivirus functionality, but many products, free and commercial, exist to protect your computer in real time. Here is a short list of software that does the job.

 * AVG™ Antivirus (Commercial product but includes free version)
 * Clamwin Free Antivirus (GNU GPL - opensource project)
 * Comodo Antivirus (Commercial product by Comodo, offers free version)
 * avast! Antivirus (Commercial product by Alvil Software, offers free "Home" edition)
 * Avira Antivirus (Commercial product by Avira, offers free "Personal" version)
 * Has an incremental update feature, ideal for slow Internet dialup connections

 * Norton™ Antivirus (Commercial product)
 * Bundled on many OEM PCs. A rather heavyweight suite of programs.

 * Trend Micro™ Antivirus (Commercial product)

Trend Micro™ also offers a free web-based scan.

Keep in mind however that all antivirus products essentially do a best-effort attempt to recognize and remove "code patterns" in an executable that resemble known viruses (some also use heuristics and behavioral analysis to guess if viral activity is taking place). Therefore:
 * The viral definitions must be updated regularly for the software to remain effective
 * They cannot detect all possible viruses, so always use caution with unknown executables (consider the circumstances: e.g. if emailed to you from someone you know ask the sender anyway before opening them)

For more information on the various Antivirus products, and for test results by independent bodies, visit: AV-Comparatives and/or AV-Test. Also check the Sunbelt blog periodically, where clearly summarized results from AV-Test.org are published regularly.

Firewall
A firewall basically monitors and filters network activity directed to and from your computer. It is first of all a security concept which involves a security policy, software and/or hardware components.

 * By filtering Ping ICMP requests from the Internet (that mean "Is anybody there?") your computer will stay silent and hidden from hackers.
 * Malformed messages may cause undesirable behavior if, as usual, there are known glitches in the software to exploit.

The main feature of the personal firewalls (e.g. Norton, McAfee etc.) is to block open ports so that they cannot be accessed from the Internet. This allows you to deny suspicious requests. The (very basic) Windows XP firewall does this too, and versions after the Service Pack 2 update should be sufficient to protect most home users with basic needs.

Since software firewalls also check outbound traffic, they should in theory prevent Trojan horse programs that have breached the system from sending data to their creator. Unfortunately certain advanced malware is capable once in control of disabling specific firewalls (and antiviruses).

A hardware firewall is a physical device that interfaces two network segments. Most routers have one built-in that is sufficient for most home networks when used in conjunction with a good software firewall. If you need better security a dedicated firewall can be used (like Cisco Pix if the budget allows it) or for instance a Linux-based firewall system run on a older computer (e.g. IP-Cop).

Most hardware firewalls also support VPN (Virtual Private Network) connections and are capable of NAT (Network Address Translation), a feature that hides the real IP addresses of your network's computers from the outside world.

Some personal firewall programs (software firewalls):
 * Comodo Firewall (Free. Commercial Pro-Plus version also available)
 * Comodo's firewall has come to be regarded as one of the best free firewalls available by many experts. Having said that, it is more suitable for advanced users as it is highly configurable and produces more frequent warnings - which requires more decision-making by the user than other firewalls. Also included with the comodo firewall are a Host Intrusion Prevention System (HIPS) and a feature called "Clean PC Mode", which profiles a new PC and its applications and registers the existing applications as safe. From then on, only applications that are specifically allowed by the user, or those listed on Comodo's white-list of trusted applications are allowed to be installed on the PC.

 * Zone Alarm (Free. Commercial "Pro" version also available)
 * The Zone Alarm firewall is relatively easy to use, but it has become slightly bloated over time with tutorials, wizards, et cetera. It is an improvement over the Windows XP firewall though. Update: The Zone Alarm firewall now comes bundled with the Ask toolbar. This toolbar has been rumored to border on spyware, and is produced by InterActiveCorp (IAC), which is a company with a dubious past. Although the former is open to debate, the option to install the ask toolbar is pre-checked during the installation of Zone Alarm, which in any case renders the ask toolbar foistware in many security analysts' view.

Unfortunately, these personal firewalls implement some features in a highly ineffective way (e.g. "stealthed ports") and some other security measures employed by them can be avoided quite easily, like ZoneAlarm's privacy protection.

Anti-Spyware
The term spyware refers to a relatively new breed of malicious software (that first came under scrutiny around 1999) that focuses on stealing personal information and valuable data for unsavory purposes like identity theft. (Adware is a slightly tamer version of spyware that tracks your web surfing and sends you targeted advertisement, usually in the form of popup windows.)

Spyware typically installs on a computer without the user's informed consent, either bundled with another program or by exploiting one of the many bugs of Microsoft's Internet Explorer (the mammoth web browser bundled with Windows) to perform a "drive-by download" on visiting a specially crafted web page.

Antiviruses and firewalls have a hard time with these programs. Once compromised the computer may be instructed to download more spyware. The user will then experience massive slowdowns and system instability.

To cut a long story short, prevention is the best strategy. The point is to try reducing your computer's "window of exposure." A passable, free solution could consist in the following programs that complement each other:

 * Ad-Aware (Commercial, free "Personal" edition)
 * Can fix most spyware issues. To enable preemptive blocking you would have to buy the payed-for version.

 * Spybot S&D (Free program distributed under a "Dedication License")
 * Slightly glitchy. Detects known malware using heuristics. It has several features (mostly accessible in "Advanced mode"). Useful ones are the 'Immunize' function, the download-blocker BHO, and a blacklist of "bad" URLs that can be added to your HOSTS file.

Note: to minimize the hassle of updating you can insert the following commands into a batch file (.bat or .cmd extension) (replace %SBPATH% with the installation path):

@echo off CD %SBPATH% SpybotSD.exe /taskbarhide /autoupdate /autoimmunize /autoclose

Consider also trying Microsoft's Windows Defender (freely downloadable if you use a "genuine copy" of Windows).

If you discover that you are heavily infected (with "advanced spyware" that self-repairs and/or kills known anti-spyware products), also consider if making a backup of your files, erasing your hard drive and reinstalling a clean version of Windows would be less time-consuming than trying to recover a completely compromised system.

Rogue Applications
There are many rogue security applications that exist for Windows XP. Rogue security applications are programs that pretend to clean and protect computers from malware, but the program itself is actually malicious. Visit Wikipedia's Rogue Software Article for more information on rogue applications. For a frequently updated list of rogue programs, visit: Spywarewarrior and Wikipedia's list of fake anti-spyware programs. As a general rule, stick to well-known and trusted security applications such as the ones mentioned in this wikibook.

title: Windows XP/Security Software


text:
Cookbook talk:Vegetarian Soft Tacos

Taco isn't Mexican
Taco is an American food, more specifically a Tex-Mex border food. If we are going to call this a Mexican recipie we should at least have the decency to call it Tortilla (the Mexican word/food most analagous to the American concept of a "soft taco"). Grimm 02:26, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Vegetarian Soft Tacos


text:
Cookbook:Pork Gyoza

| East Asian Cuisines | Japanese Cuisine | Chinese Cuisine

Gyoza are the Japanese variation of Chinese potsticker dumplings (guotie). They consist of a thin flour dumpling skin that is filled, pleated, and pan-fried. The contrast between filling and crispy exterior is a very pleasing sensation and, like many dishes, it can be melded to incorporate almost any flavour.

Dumplings

 * ½ lb ground pork
 * 1–3 tsp prepared mustard
 * 1–2 tbsp soy sauce
 * 1–2 tbsp each of minced green onion, bell pepper, and/or chili
 * At least 50 round wonton wrappers or other round dumpling skins (see note below)

Dipping Sauces

 * Soy sauce and honey (mix to taste)
 * Black bean paste
 * Peanut sauce
 * Plum sauce
 * Black vinegar and shredded ginger
 * Soy sauce with some rice wine vinegar

Assembly

 * 1) Combine the pork, mustard, soy sauce, and vegetables with clean hands.
 * 2) Get out your dumpling skins, and cover them with a damp tea-towel or paper towel to prevent them from drying out.
 * 3) Place about ½–1 tsp filling in the center of each dumpling wrapper.
 * 4) Dampen the edge of half the dumpling wrapper. Fold the wrapper in half, enclosing the filling, so the wet and dry edges meet. Crimp the edges to ensure a tight seal.
 * 5) Either proceed directly to the cooking stage, or freeze the dumplings and store frozen for up to six months.

Cooking

 * 1) Heat a heavy frying pan (not non-stick) over medium to medium-high heat.
 * 2) Brush the pan lightly with vegetable oil. Add 8–10 dumplings, making sure not to crowd the pan.
 * 3) Let these dumplings cook without touching them for at least 2 minutes. They will sizzle and pop, but do not touch them until they have stuck to the pan (usually about 2 minutes).
 * 4) When they have browned on the bottom (watch the edges near where the dumpling touches the pan) check for sticking.
 * 5) When the dumplings have stuck to the pan, pour about ⅓ cup of stock, broth, or water into the pan to a depth of about ⅛–¼ inch. Cover with a tight lid.
 * 6) Cook until all the liquid has been converted to steam (about 2 minutes). This is one of the more difficult parts of this process. You may have to adjust the amount of liquid used based on the liquid and your pan)
 * 7) Carefully remove the dumplings from the pan. Serve while hot with dipping sauces.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The primary difference between packaged gyôza skins and packaged wonton skins is shape—round for gyôza skins, square for wonton skins. Whichever one you use is a matter of preference. If both are available, try both and decide which you prefer. You can also make these skins yourself, but it is a time-consuming process and the dough has to be rolled quite thin.
 * You can vary the filling ingredients to suit your taste. Pork plays well with others. Keep in mind that a filling that is too wet may expand too much during cooking and cause the dumpling to split open, while a filling that is too dry will become drier during cooking. Any filling should easily maintain its shape if moulded into smaller balls.

ru:Рецепт:Цзяоцзы

title: Cookbook:Pork Gyoza


text:
Ada Programming/Installing

Ada compilers are available from several vendors, on a variety of host and target platforms. The Ada Resource Association maintains a list of available compilers.

Below is an alphabetical list of available compilers with additional comments.

AdaMagic from SofCheck
SofCheck used to produce an Ada 95 front-end that can be plugged into a code generating back-end to produce a full compiler. This front-end is offered for licensing to compiler vendors.

Based on this front-end, SofCheck used to offer:

 * AdaMagic, an Ada-to-C/C++ translator
 * AppletMagic, an Ada-to-Java bytecode compiler

SofCheck has merged with AdaCore under the AdaCore name, leaving no visible trace of AdaMagic offering on AdaCore website.

However, MapuSoft is now licensed to resell AdaMagic. They renamed it to "Ada-to-C/C++ changer". New name sounds like fake. Almost no Ada developer heard of MapuSoft. MapuSoft is never seen making Ada libraries, commercial or FLOSS. They are never seen at Ada conferences. Yet this is a real stuff, a validated Ada compiler that knows lots of tricks required to work on top of C/C++ compilers. E.g. it contains a proven knowledge of handling integer overflow with a special "-1" case.

Thanks to MapuSoft, AdaMagic really became available to developers. Get AppCOE, but not Win64 one, install it. In the MapuSoft/AppCOE_x32/Tools/Ada there will be AdaMagic. AdaMagic is known to support Win64, but AppCOE for Win64 is known to contain no AdaMagic at all.

Using AdaMagic from command line is badly supported in AppCOE, but possible. Set up ADA_MAGIC environment variable, edit Tools/Ada/{linux|windows}/SITE/rts_path to point to real path, edit SITE/config to get rid of unsupported C compiler keys, and compile via e.g.

Commercial; proprietary.

AdaMULTI from Green Hills Software
Green Hills Software sells development environments for multiple languages and multiple targets (including DSPs), primarily to embedded software developers.

GHS claims to make great efforts to ensure that their compilers produce the most efficient code and often cites the EEMBC benchmark results as evidence, since many of the results published by chip manufacturers use GHS compilers to show their silicon in the best light, although these benchmarks are not Ada specific.

GHS has no publicly announced plans to support the two most recent Ada standards (2005 and 2012) but they do continue to actively market and develop their existing Ada products.

DEC Ada from HP
DEC Ada was an Ada 83 compiler for OpenVMS. While “DEC Ada” is probably the name most users know, the compiler has also been called “HP Ada”, "VAX Ada", and "Compaq Ada".

 * Ada for OpenVMS Alpha Installation Guide (PDF)
 * Ada for OpenVMS VAX Installation Guide (PDF)

GNAT, the GNU Ada Compiler from AdaCore and the Free Software Foundation
GNAT is the free GNU Ada compiler, which is part of the GNU Compiler Collection. It is the only Ada compiler that supports all of the optional annexes of the language standard. The original authors formed the company AdaCore to offer professional support, consulting, training and custom development services. It is thus possible to obtain GNAT from many different sources, detailed below.

GNAT is always licensed under the terms of the GNU General Public License.

However, the run-time library uses either the GPL, or the GNAT Modified GPL, depending on where you obtain it.

Several optional add-ons are available from various places:

 * ASIS, the Ada Semantic Interface Specification, is a library that allows Ada programs to examine and manipulate other Ada programs.
 * FLORIST is a library that provides a POSIX programming interface to the operating system.
 * GDB, the GNU Debugger, with Ada extensions.
 * GLADE implements Annex E, the Distributed Systems Annex. With it, one can write distributed programs in Ada, where partitions of the program running on different computers communicate over the network with one another and with shared objects.
 * GPS, the GNAT Programming Studio, is a full-featured integrated development environment, written in Ada. It allows you to code in Ada, C and C++.

Many Free Software libraries are also available.

GNAT GPL (or Community) Edition
As of may 2022, AdaCore no longer supports GNAT GPL. It has been replaced with Alire, a package manager for Ada sources, which also provides toolchains. The following is no longer relevant for post May 2022 users.

This is a source and binary release from AdaCore, intended for use by Free Software developers only. If you want to distribute your binary programs linked with the GPL run-time library, then you must do so under terms compatible with the GNU General Public License.

As of GNAT GPL Edition 2013:

GNAT Modified GPL releases
With these releases of GNAT, you can distribute your programs in binary form under licensing terms of your own choosing; you are not bound by the GPL.

GNAT 3.15p
This is the last public release of GNAT from AdaCore that uses the GNAT Modified General Public License.

GNAT 3.15p has passed the Ada Conformity Assessment Test Suite (ACATS). It was released in October 2002.

The binary distribution from AdaCore also contains an Ada-aware version of the GNU Debugger (GDB), and a graphical front-end to GDB called the GNU Visual Debugger (GVD).

GNAT Pro
GNAT Pro is the professional version of GNAT, offered as a subscription package by AdaCore. The package also includes professional consulting, training and maintenance services. AdaCore can provide custom versions of the compiler for native or cross development. For more information, see http://www.adacore.com/.

GCC
GNAT has been part of the Free Software Foundation's GCC since October 2001. The Free Software Foundation does not distribute binaries, only sources. Its licensing of the run-time library for Ada (and other languages) allows the development of proprietary software without necessarily imposing the terms of the GPL.

Most GNU/Linux distributions and several distributions for other platforms include prebuilt binaries; see below.

For technical reasons, we recommend against using the Ada compilers included in GCC 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 4.0. Instead, we recommend using GCC 3.4, 4.1 or later, or one of the releases from AdaCore (3.15p, GPL Edition or Pro).

Since October 2003, AdaCore merge most of their changes from GNAT Pro into GCC during Stage 1; this happens once for each major release. Since GCC 3.4, AdaCore has gradually added support for revised language standards, first Ada 2005 and now Ada 2012.

GCC version 4.4 switched to version 3 of the GNU General Public License and grants a Runtime Library Exception similar in spirit to the GNAT Modified General Public License used in all previous versions. This Runtime Library Exception applies to run-time libraries for all languages, not just Ada.

As of GCC 4.7, released on 2012-03-22:

The GNU Ada Project
The GNU Ada Project provides source and binary packages of various GNAT versions for several operating systems, and, importantly, the scripts used to create the packages. This may be helpful if you plan to port the compiler to another platform or create a cross-compiler; there are instructions for building your own GNAT compiler for GNU/Linux and Mac OS X users.

Both GPL and GMGPL or GCC Runtime Library Exception versions of GNAT are available.

A# (A-Sharp, a.k.a. Ada for .NET)
This compiler is historical as it has now been merged into GNAT GPL Edition and GNAT Pro.

A# is a port of Ada to the |Microsoft .NET Platform. A# was originally developed at the Department of Computer Science at the United States Air Force Academy which distribute A# as a service to the Ada community under the terms of the GNU general public license. A# integrates well with Microsoft Visual Studio 2005, AdaGIDE and the RAPID open-source GUI Design tool. As of 2006-06-06:

GNAT for AVR microcontrollers
Rolf Ebert and others provide a version of GNAT configured as a cross-compiler to various AVR microcontrollers, as well as an experimental Ada run-time library suitable for use on the microcontrollers. As of Version 1.1.0 (2010-02-25):

GNAT for LEON
The Real-Time Research Group of the Technical University of Madrid (UPM, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid) wrote a Ravenscar-compliant real-time kernel for execution on LEON processors and a modified run-time library. They also provide a GNAT cross-compiler. As of version 2.0.1:

GNAT for Macintosh (Mac OS X)
GNAT for Macintosh provides both FSF (GMGPL) and AdaCore (GPL) versions of GNAT with Xcode and Carbon integration and bindings.

Note that this site was last updated for GCC 4.3 and Mac OS X Leopard (both PowerPC and Intel-based). Aside from the work on integration with Apple’s Carbon graphical user interface and with Xcode 3.1 it may be preferable to see above.

There is also support at MacPorts; the last update (at 25 Nov 2011) was for GCC 4.4.2.

Prebuilt packages as part of larger distributions
Many distributions contain prebuilt binaries of GCC or various public releases of GNAT from AdaCore. Quality varies widely between distributions. The list of distributions below is in alphabetical oder. (Please keep it that way.)

AIDE (for Microsoft Windows)
AIDE — Ada Instant Development Environment is a complete one-click, just-works Ada distribution for Windows, consisting of GNAT, comprehensive documentation, tools and libraries. All are precompiled, and source code is also available. The installation procedure is particularly easy (just unzip to default c:\aide and run). AIDE is intended for beginners and teachers, but can also be used by advanced users.

Cygwin (for Microsoft Windows)
Cygwin, the Linux-like environment for Windows, also contains a version of the GNAT compiler. The Cygwin version of GNAT is older than the MinGW version and does not support DLLs and Multi-Threading (as of 11.2004).

Debian (GNU/Linux and GNU/kFreeBSD)
There is a Debian Policy for Ada which tries to make Debian the best Ada development and deployment platform. The development platform includes the compiler and many libraries, pre-packaged and integrated so as to be easy to use in any program. The deployment platform is the renowned stable distribution, which is suitable for mission-critical workloads and enjoys long life cycles, typically 3 to 4 years. Because Debian is a binary distribution, it is possible to deploy non-free, binary-only programs on it while enjoying all the benefits of a stable platform. Compiler choices are conservative for this reason, and the Policy mandates that all Ada programs and libraries be compiled with the same version of GNAT. This makes it possible to use all libraries in the same program. Debian separates run-time libraries from development packages, so that end users do not have to install the development system just to run a program.

The GNU Ada compiler can be installed on a Debian system with this command:

aptitude install gnat

This will also give you a list of related packages, which are likely to be useful for an Ada programmer.

Debian is unique in that it also allows programmers to use some of GNAT's internal components by means of two libraries: Debian packages make use of these libraries.
 * libgnatvsn (licensed under GNAT-Modified GPL) and
 * libgnatprj (the project manager, licensed under pure GPL).

In the table below, the information about the future Debian 8.0 Jessie is accurate as of October 2014 and will change.

The ADT plugin for Eclipse (see section ObjectAda from Aonix) can be used with GNAT as packaged for Debian Etch. Specify "/usr" as the toolchain path.

DJGPP (for MS-DOS)
DJGPP has GNAT as part of their GCC distribution.

DJGPP is a port of a comprehensive collection of GNU utilities to MS-DOS with 32-bit extensions, and is actively supported (as of 1.2005). It includes the whole GCC compiler collection, that now includes Ada. See the DJGPP website for installation instructions.

DJGPP programs run also in a DOS command box in Windows, as well as in native MS-DOS systems.

FreeBSD and DragonFly
FreeBSD's ports collection has an Ada framework with an expanding set of software packages. The Framework is currently built by FSF GCC 6.3.1, although FSF GCC 5.4 can optionally be used instead. The AdaCore GPL compilers are not present. There are several reasons for this, not the least of which is the addition maintenance of multiple compilers is significant. There are no non-GCC based Ada compilers represented in ports either.

While FreeBSD does have a snapshot that goes with each release, the ports are updating in a rolling fashion continuously, and the vast majority of users prefer the "head" of ports which has the latest packages.

There are two ways to install the software. The quickest and easiest way is to install prebuilt binaries using the command "pkg install ". For example, to install the GNAT Programming Studio and all of its dependencies including the GNAT compiler, all you need is one command:

pkg install gps-ide

If a specific package is not available, or the user just prefers to build from source (this can take a long time), then a typical command would be:

cd /usr/ports/devel/gps && make install clean

As with the binary installation, if any dependencies are missing they will be built first, also from source.

Available software as of 8 February 2017

Gentoo GNU/Linux
The GNU Ada compiler can be installed on a Gentoo system using emerge:

emerge dev-lang/gnat

In contrast to Debian, Gentoo is primarily a source distribution, so many packages are available only in source form, and require the user to recompile them (using emerge).

Also in contrast to Debian, Gentoo supports several versions of GNAT in parallel on the same system. Be careful, because not all add-ons and libraries are available with all versions of GNAT.

Mandriva Linux
The GNU Ada compiler can be installed on a Mandriva system with this command:

urpmi gnat

MinGW (for Microsoft Windows)
MinGW — Minimalist GNU for Windows contains a version of the GNAT compiler.

The current version of MinGW (5.1.6) contains gcc-4.5.0. This includes a fully functional GNAT compiler. If the automatic downloader does not work correctly you can download the compiler directly: pick gcc-4.5.0-1 from MinGW/BaseSystem/GCC/Version4/

old instructions
The following list should help you with the installation. (I may have forgotten something — but this is wiki, just add to the list)

 * 1) Install MinGW-3.1.0-1.exe
 * 2) extract binutils-2.15.91-20040904-1.tar.gz
 * 3) extract mingw-runtime-3.5.tar.gz
 * 4) extract gcc-core-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz
 * 5) extract gcc-ada-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz
 * 6) extract gcc-g++-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz (Optional)
 * 7) extract gcc-g77-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz (Optional)
 * 8) extract gcc-java-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz (Optional)
 * 9) extract gcc-objc-3.4.2-20040916-1.tar.gz (Optional)
 * 10) extract w32api-3.1.tar.gz
 * 11) Install mingw32-make-3.80.0-3.exe (Optional)
 * 12) Install gdb-5.2.1-1.exe (Optional)
 * 13) Install MSYS-1.0.10.exe (Optional)
 * 14) Install msysDTK-1.0.1.exe (Optional)
 * 15) extract msys-automake-1.8.2.tar.bz2 (Optional)
 * 16) extract msys-autoconf-2.59.tar.bz2 (Optional)
 * 17) extract msys-libtool-1.5.tar.bz2 (Optional)

I have made good experience in using D:\MinGW as target directory for all installations and extractions.

Also noteworthy is that the Windows version for GNAT from Libre is also based on MinGW.

In gcc-3.4.2-release_notes.txt from MinGW site reads: ''please check that the files in the /lib/gcc/mingw32/3.4.2/adainclude and adalib directories are flagged as read-only. This attribute is necessary to prevent them from being deleted when using gnatclean to clean a project.''

So be sure to do this.

OpenCSW (for Solaris on SPARC and x86)
OpenCSW has binary packages of GCC 3.4.6 and 4.6.2 with Ada support. The package names are gcc3ada and gcc4ada respectively.

pkgsrc: NetBSD, DragonFly, FreeBSD and Solaris
The pkgsrc portable package file system has a small Ada framework. It is based on FSF GCC 5.4 currently and the FSF GCC 6.2 is available as well. The AdaCore GPL versions are not present, nor are non-GCC based compilers.

The pkgsrc system is released in quarterly branches, which are normally recommended. However, a user could also choose the "head" which would the very latest package versions. The pkgsrc system supports 21 platforms, but for Ada this is potentially limited to 5 due to the bootstrap compiler requirement: NetBSD, DragonFly, SunOS (Solaris/Illumos), OpenBSD/MirBSD, and FreeBSD.

There are two ways to install the software. The quickest and easiest way is to install prebuilt binaries using the command "pkg_add ". For example, to install the GNAT Programming Studio and all of its dependencies including the GNAT compiler, all you need is one command:

pkg_add gps

If a specific package is not available, or the user just prefers to build from source (this can take a long time), then a typical command would be:

cd /usr/pkg/devel/gps && bmake install

As with the binary installation, if any dependencies are missing they will be built first, also from source.

Available software as of 14 December 2016

SuSE Linux
All versions of SuSE Linux have a GNAT compiler included. SuSE versions 9.2 and higher also contains ASIS, Florist and GLADE libraries. The following two packages are needed:

gnat gnat-runtime

For SuSE version 12.1, the compiler is in the package gcc46-ada libada46

For 64 bit system you will need the 32 bit compatibility packages as well:

gnat-32bit gnat-runtime-32bit

Ubuntu
Ubuntu (and derivatives like Kubuntu, Xubuntu...) is a Debian-based Linux distribution, thus the installation process described above can be used. Graphical package managers like Synaptic or Adept can also be employed to select the Ada packages.

ICC from Irvine Compiler Corporation
Irvine Compiler Corporation provides native and cross compilers for various platforms. The compiler and run-time system support development of certified, safety-critical software.

Commercial, proprietary. No-cost evaluation is possible on request. Royalty-free redistribution of the run-time system is allowed.

Janus/Ada 83 and 95 from RR Software
RR Software offers native compilers for MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows and various Unix and Unix-like systems, and a library for Windows GUI programming called CLAW. There are academic, personal and professional editions, as well as support options.

Janus/Ada 95 supports subset of Ada 2007 and Ada 2012 features.

Commercial but relatively cheap; proprietary.

MAXAda from Concurrent
Concurrent offers MAXAda, an Ada 95 compiler for Linux/Xeon and PowerPC platforms, and Ada bindings to POSIX and X/Motif.

Commercial, proprietary.

ObjectAda from PTC (formerly Aonix/Atego)
PTC offers ObjectAda native (Windows, some flavors of Unix, and Linux) and cross (PPC, Intel, VxWorks, and ERC32) compilers.

Limited support of Ada 2012 is available.

Commercial, proprietary.

PowerAda from OC Systems
OC Systems offers Ada compilers and bindings to POSIX and X-11:
 * PowerAda, an Ada 95 compiler for Linux and AIX,
 * LegacyAda/390, an Ada 83 compiler for IBM System 370 and 390 mainframes

Commercial, proprietary.

ApexAda from PTC (formerly IBM Rational)
PTC ApexAda for native and embedded development.

Commercial, proprietary.

SCORE from DDC-I
DDC-I offers its SCORE cross-compilers for embedded development. SCORE stands for Safety-Critical, Object-oriented, Real-time Embedded.

Commercial, proprietary.

TADS from Tartan
Tartan offers the Tartan Ada Development System (TADS), with cross-compilers for some digital signal processors.

Commercial, proprietary.

XD Ada from DXC
XD Ada is an Ada 83 cross-compiler for embedded development. Hosts include VAX, Alpha and Integrity Servers running OpenVMS. Targets include Motorola 68000 and MIL-STD-1750A processors.

Commercial, proprietary.

XGC Ada from XGC Software
XGC compilers are GCC with custom run-time libraries suitable for avionics and space applications. The run-time kernels are very small and do not support exception propagation (i.e. you can handle an exception only in the subprogram that raised it).

Commercial but some versions are also offered as free downloads. Free Software.

title: Ada Programming/Installing


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