text:
Celestia/FAQs

What is Celestia?
Celestia is a freely-distributed, multi-platform, open source software package that provides photo-realistic, real-time, three-dimensional viewing of the solar system, the galaxy and the universe. It has proved a valuable tool for astronomy education, and is used in homes, schools, museums and planetariums around the world. Versions are available for Windows, Macintosh (MacOS X) and Linux computers.

Where can I get more information about Celestia?
The  Celestia Website  has some additional information about Celestia.

The Celestia Forum  is a good place to look for or ask for additional information. You'll find lots of friendly people there.

The Celestia Motherlode has many Celestia resources. (Unavailable 2020-11-18)

Where can I get the most recent version of Celestia?
You can download the latest version of Celestia (v1.6.1) from SourceForge.

Prerelease versions are announced in the Celestia Web Forum in its Users Forum.

What changes have been made to Celestia since the last version?
The developers maintain a list of all new functionality and bug fixes in the Celestia ChangeLog, which is located at SourceForge (most recent changes listed at bottom).

Celestia crashes, what it draws is messed up or it's extremely slow. What can I do?
Celestia makes use of the most advanced features of OpenGL that your computer's graphics driver claims to support. Many older OpenGL implementations have serious bugs. Here are some options for improving Celestia's display, with the most likely ones first:
 * 1) Make sure full hardware acceleration is enabled in your display properties.
 * 2) Upgrade to the most recent drivers for your graphics card. Download them for free from the Web site of the manufacturer of your card, not from Microsoft.

Nvidia drivers can be downloaded from http://www.nvidia.com/content/drivers/drivers.asp

ATI drivers can be downloaded from http://ati.amd.com/support/driver.html

Notes:
 * 1) Graphics chipsets integrated into laptop systems usually require drivers provided by the manufacturer of the laptop itself. Too often proprietary "glue chips" prevent the chip vendor's drivers from working properly.
 * 2) Reduce or disable hardware acceleration to verify that the problem is hardware related.

Square Stars
Intel graphics chipsets and drivers have had this problem for many years. The only fix is to type Ctrl-S several times while running Celestia. That'll select other "Star Styles", one of which might be drawn better.

Windows 7, 8, 8.1 or 10
Update your computer's graphics drivers. Follow the instructions on the Web site of the manufacturer of your graphics hardware.

Windows XP

 * 1) Whenever you upgrade Microsoft's DirectX software, you must upgrade or reinstall the graphics hardware manufacturer's graphics drivers afterward. Installing DirectX installs Microsoft's copies of the drivers, which usually are several generations old.
 * 2) To disable hardware acceleration under Windows, open the "Display Properties" window. Select the "Settings/Advanced/Troubleshoot" tab. (not the "Troubleshoot..." button). Move the "Hardware acceleration" slider all the way to the left. Click on the "OK" buttons to change the settings in use. This will cause Windows to use Microsoft's Generic OpenGL v1.1 library, which is limited, but seems to have relatively few bugs. It does everything in software, works on 2D displays, and is quite slow.
 * 3) Driver Upgrade Procedure
 * 4)  download driver installation program
 * 5) use the Control Panel / Add or Remove Programs menu to delete the current graphics drivers.
 * 6) Reboot
 * 7) Cancel out of XP's offer to install new drivers.
 * 8) Run the Installation program for the new drivers.
 * 9) Reboot
 * 10) Configure desktop resolution and other desirable features.

 * The two reboots are essential in order to cause the old low-level drivers to be deleted. Without those reboots, the old low-level drivers will not be deleted and the new installation will not work properly, although it may not generate any error messages.

MacOS X
For Apple PPC and Intel computers running MacOS X, you must upgrade to the most recent version of the operating system. Updated drivers usually are not available separately.

Apple's OpenGL on MacOS X often has serious bugs which sometimes are not fixed in the most recent release of MacOS. You must report those problems to Apple, otherwise they will not get fixed.

Linux
For computers running Linux, you usually can download the drivers for free from the Web site of the manufacturer of your graphics card.

ATI's fglrx drivers for Linux often have serious bugs. Try to use the driver shipped with the most recent version of Xorg's X server software.

Celestia draws the Moon in shades of purple, blue and red. Why is it doing that and what can I do?
Your graphics chipset and its drivers aren't drawing bumpmaps and normalmaps properly: their OpenGL routine "GL_ARB_vertex_program" is defective. (This is often seen with the newer Intel graphics chips.) Assuming you've already installed the most recent drivers, IgnoreGLExtensions [ "GL_ARB_vertex_program" ]
 * 1) Download and install a different version of Celestia. The program is frequently revised.
 * 2) Turn off some of Celestia's advanced display features.
 * 3) Type a [Ctrl-V] several times to select "Basic" or "Multitexture" render paths instead of the OpenGL Vertex programs. This disables the use of vertex and shading programs temporarily. If this does improve things after you've followed the previous suggestions, then you need to do the next step:
 * 4) Tell Celestia to ignore specific features that your OpenGL library claims (falsely) to support. To do this, edit celestia.cfg. Remove the # that's in front of the line
 * Celestia's Help menu lists all of the routines in your system's OpenGL library. Add equivalent Ignore lines for other suspicious routines.

Addendum provided Tech Sgt. Chen:

Shut down all background programs on your system before running Celestia (i.e., antivirus software, multimedia software such as REAL Player, Musicmatch, etc.) Graphics programs are notorious for consuming system resources and even the best of graphics cards are better off without competing for those resources.

Celestia still crashes, draws funny stuff or is extremely slow. What can I do?
Report the exact circumstances and details of your hardware and software in the "Celestia Bugs" section of the "Celestia forum". Celestia runs on many different hardware and software configurations. It is not appropriate to ask people to guess what you have. For example:

Problem: Celestia crashes when I look at Saturn with Ring Shadows enabled System: 256MB 1GHz Pentium 4, Windows 98 2nd ed Graphics: 128MB Radeon 9700, Catalyst 3.2, OpenGL v1.3.9088 Program: Celestia v1.3.0

Hopefully you know the System information. If you're running Windows, System details usually are available in the Control Panel's System Properties menu.

Some of the Graphics information can be found in Celestia's Help menu. If you're running Windows, more details can be found in the Control Panel's Display Properties menu.

Where can I get another version of Celestia that might work better?
Older versions of Celestia are available on SourceForge v1.2.4 is extremely robust, but does not include many recent features.

Visit the "Celestia Forum" and ask for help if you are having problems with Celestia v1.6.1.

I want to see all possible Celestia eye candy. What kind of graphics card should I get?
As of 2017, you can get whatever graphics card you like. More memory will allow more and higher resolution objects to be viewed, but the most advanced features of Celestia use only the features provided by OpenGL v2.0. All modern graphics hardware, including Intel's embedded graphics support OpenGL v3 or later. The current version of the Mesa software graphics library also provides OpenGL v3.

Sometimes a screenshot captured in Celestia will have multiple boxes around it, as if Multiview was on. How can I get rid of it?
To make a good clean screenshot image, press [Ctrl + D] before you capture the image. This cancels Multiview.

(provided by ElPelado)

I can't turn off the Red/Green diamond in the center of the selected planets.
You are seeing a Mark. Disable Marks by pressing Ctrl+k (the "Control" key and the "k" key). Marks also can be turned on and off in the "Render/View Options..." menu of Celestia v1.3.1 pre3 and later.

(provided by ElPelado)

I want to write some scripts for Celestia. How can I do it?
Briefly:
 * Celestia includes a very simple scripting language of its own which understands commands like "go here, look there, set flag, display text". These commands should go into a file with the filetype .CEL

 * Celestia also includes Lua, a sophisticated, general-purpose scripting language. Scripts written in that language should be put into a file with the filetype .CELX

For more information see Celestia/Scripting

Why are my favorite stars not in Celestia?

 * Celestia v1.6.1 includes only stars that had their distances measured by the Hipparcos satellite. Hipparcos was not used to measure the distances to many dim, variable or close double stars. Someone may have created an Add-on that includes your stars, though. Or consider creating the necessary STC file yourself and contributing it.

 * Celestia v1.6.1 also includes all of the stars within 20 LY of the Sun, as well as about 200 double stars. (There are actually many more double stars than that, but relatively few have had their orbital parameters accurately measured.)

The Sun and the Moon are much too small in Celestia. What's wrong?
Their diameters are exactly right. As seen from the earth, they both are about a half-degree across. Celestia's default window is about 45 degrees across, so the Sun and Moon are about 1% of that. They are drawn only 10 pixels wide if your screen is 1024x768.

Remember that your computer screen is only about 10-20 degrees wide in your own field of view. Celestia's 45 degree field provides a "wide angle" view of the sky. This makes objects look smaller than you might expect.

The apparent large size of the Sun and Moon as we see them in the sky is a psychological illusion. There are several different explanations for this. If you take a picture of the moon with a camera lens that has the same field of view as Celestia, you may be surprised at the small size of its image.

At least one book has been written about this effect: The Mystery of the Moon Illusion: Exploring Size Perception, by Helen Ross and Cornelis Plug. Review of their book

A simple experiment was suggested by "HarrieS", a guest on the Celestia forum:

 * Here is something you might try: a finger at arm's length is about two degrees wide for most people. That means that you can fit four moons side by side. Go outside and check it. Now have a direct look at your finger indoors. Can you still believe that four moons will fit on it?

And Dalle of the Forum wrote

 * But if your head is positioned e.g. 70 cm away from your e.g. 17" monitor, which measures 32 cm across (at least mine does), then the effective field of view looking at the Celestia sky "through" your monitor screen is 2*arctan((32/2)/70)) ~ 26 °. Hence, if you decrease the Celestia field-of-view to 26° you may get a more accurate appearence of what you would see looking out the window.

Celestia's galaxies are ugly, dim, grey blobs. How can I get colorful galaxies that look like the real things?
The real things are dim, grey blobs. Your eyes are not sensitive to color at the very low light levels emitted by distant galaxies.

Many of the colorful pictures you're used to seeing are enhanced by long exposures on sensitive color film. Others are imaginative "false color" combinations of narrow-band CCD images designed to make visible the specific features of interest to the investigators. The colors of those pictures aren't realistic at all.

You can add a colorful object to Celestia by creating a 3DS model with appropriate images as surface textures. Define it as a Nebula in a DSC file. Use the Search command in the Celestia "Development" and "Add-On" forums to find examples.

Why are there no stars beyond about 16,000 light years? Why are there no stars in distant galaxies?
Hipparcos could only measure parallax to a value of about 1 milli-arc-second. For details, please read the thread Celestia currently has technical limitations which prevent it from drawing stars beyond a distance of about 13 million LY from the sun.

On the second page of the thread mentioned above, Chris wrote about some of the tradeoffs in the current version of Celestia.

Sometimes the planets and moons are way far away from where their orbits are drawn. Why?
To draw the orbits, Celestia only calculates 100 or so precise locations and then draws straight lines between them. If the orbiting body doesn't happen to be close to one of those 100 points, then it won't be very close to the line, either. The position of the orbiting body is calculated very accurately. The lines aren't.

Celestia only calculates a few points around the orbit in order to minimize the amount of computation needed between frames. The more calculations are required, the slower the frame rate is. You can specify the number of segments in an orbit track. Use your favorite text editor to modify the file celestia.cfg. Change the line

OrbitPathSamplePoints 100 Increase 100 to 500 or larger.

Why does the illumination level in Celestia not fall off the farther from the Sun I go - surely it should be very dark by the time I get to Pluto?
The human eye can adapt to a very wide range of illuminations, so it wouldn't be as dark out there as you think - about the level of moderate indoor lighting, in which you can see very well. At the other end of the scale, your computer monitor is physically incapable of generating the brightness of illumination that pertains on the inner planets. Fortunately it doesn't need to, since all that would happen would be that your pupils would constrict to reduce the incoming light to a more comfortable level.

So in summary -
 * 1) There's no way Celestia can display "realistic" brightnesses on your computer screen; but
 * 2) such "realism" is unnecessary because your eyes merely adapt to compensate.

(Provided by Grant Hutchison)

When I try to capture a picture or movie, the image is stretched out of proportion.
(Thanks to DaveMc for these tips!) Here are three things you can try...
 * 1) Check the OpenGL anti-aliasing setting of your graphics card. If it is on, try turning it off, or setting it to another option. This seems unrelated to the anti-aliasing setting inside of Celestia.
 * 2) Set your graphics card OpenGL options to "default".
 * 3) Get the most recent drivers for your graphics card.

(Provided by Don G.)

How can I make Celestia work like a planetarium? I want to see how the sky should look from my backyard.
If you're running Celestia v1.3.0 or later
 * 1) Select the body from which to observe; e.g. type H then 3 to select Earth,
 * 2) Use the GoTo menu to specify your Longitude and Latitude and GoTo there (lat & long are entered in decimal format - there are websites that convert to/from degrees/minute/seconds format, such as this one,)
 * 3) Type y = Sync Orbit (this locks you into position above the location you set),
 * 4) Type (Windows:Ctrl-G) (Linux:Alt-S) = Goto Surface,
 * 5) Type (Windows:Ctrl-F) (Linux:Alt-F) = change Arrow keys to AltAzimuth mode (this keeps the horizon level when panning left & right),
 * 6) Use the arrow keys to look toward the sky, you can adjust the field of view (FOV - how much sky you see at once) with the , & . keys.

Celestia provides a Horizontal (alt-az) coordinate system display which can be selected in its Render menu. Also, typing a ; will turn on the equatorial coordinate system display. There are some scripts which add alt-az display, such as Planetarium.

Why can't I see Mir or Galileo? I know they're defined in Celestia.
Set Celestia's simulation time to be when the spacecraft was in orbit. Celestia does not display spacecraft if they are not in orbit at the time of the simulation.

For example, Mir was launched on February 20, 1986, and reentered the Earth's atmosphere on March 23, 2001, at 05:55 GMT. Celestia will show Mir only if you set the time to be somewhere between those two dates.

This is controlled by Beginning and Ending directives in the definition of Mir in solarsys.ssc. If you remove those statements, Celestia will always draw Mir in orbit.

Addendum provided Tech Sgt. Chen:

Mir, along with certain other spacecraft models, were modeled within an historical time frame and can only be viewed between the mission start and end dates. You can override ending dates by opening the solarsys.ssc or other specific craft related .SSC files and placing a pound sign (#) in front of the ending date string. Then save the new setting. This way you can always view your installed Space Crafts. Consequently, removing the pound sign will return the craft to its natural time frame.

Positions on Mars are on the opposite side of the planet or bumps seem to be half a world away from the mountains or it's dark where it should be daylight. Why????
You have a misaligned map.

Celestia requires that all maps have 0 degrees of longitude in the center, with 180 degrees of longitude at the edges. All of the surface texture image maps of all of the moons and planets that come with Celestia have this alignment.

In contrast, many maps of Mars have been created with 0 degrees of longitude at the left and right edges, and with 180 degrees of longitude in the center.

Using a map with 0 at the edge would cause the symptoms you describe. You need to cut the map in half and exchange the halves or you need to find a map that's properly aligned.

My planet's rings are drawn as a featureless oval. It used to work. What's wrong?
You need to use a smaller ring image, one that is no wider than your graphic card's OpenGL texture buffer.

To see how large your OpenGL texture buffer is, use Celestia's menu Help "OpenGL Info". Near the beginning it has a line that starts with "Max texture size:"

Older versions of Celestia scaled down large ring texture images so they'd fit into the smaller texture buffer of your OpenGL graphics driver. Celestia v1.3.1 and later no longer do that.

Some older cards, like 3dfx Voodoos, only have a 256 byte buffer. Modern cards have a 2K or 4K buffer. Microsoft's software version of OpenGL only has a 1K buffer.

Celestia's orbit for the ISS is out of date. How can I get a better one?
The orbit of the International Space Station changes continuously in ways that are almost impossible to predict due to things like atmospheric drag, light pressure, cargo ship docking, etc. If you want an accurate orbit, you'll have to update it on a daily basis.

ISS TLEs (Two Line Elements) are posted to the AMSAT SAREX mailing list regularly by "Dave Larsen PhD".

Current values are also available at http://heavens-above.com/orbit.aspx?satid=25544

Here are the ISS TLE orbital parameters for August 16th, 2004:

ISS 1 25544U 98067A  04229.23839543  .00019757  00000-0  15906-3 0  4532 2 25544 51.6323  19.1941 0005251 117.9988 304.8582 15.70921896327755

and here are the corresponding values for September 30, 2017:

1 25544U 98067A  17273.74686146  .00016717  00000-0  10270-3 0  9043 2 25544 51.6413 232.1027 0004759 326.7128  33.3724 15.54058911 38162

Epoch (UTC): 	30 September 2017 17:55:28 Eccentricity: 	0.0004759 inclination: 	51.6413° perigee height: 	401 km   apogee height: 	408 km    right ascension of ascending node: 	232.1027° argument of perigee: 	326.7128° revolutions per day: 	15.54058911 mean anomaly at epoch: 	33.3724° orbit number at epoch: 	38162

Grant Hutchison has provided a spreadsheet to convert TLEs into Celestia SSCs

Also, don't forget that Celestia models the shape of the Earth using a spheroid. The actual shape of our planet is much more complicated. As a result, a view from the Earth's surface in Celestia is not accurate enough to show the correct path across the sky of satellites in low Earth orbit like the ISS. Another issue is that Celestia v1.5.1 and earlier use a fixed rotation speed for the Earth. Since the Earth's rotation is variable, the surface of Celestia's Earth is displaced from where it should be. Celestia v1.6.1 uses a more accurate variable rotation speed. In other words, you can't use Celestia to find out where to look in the sky to see the ISS.

I have a previous version of Celestia with tons of addons, custom textures, etc. How can I update to the latest version without having to reinstall all of those addons, textures, etc?
You can have more than one copy of Celestia on your system at the same time.

Rename the directory (folder) where you have Celestia now, maybe to Celestia131.

Verify that things still work: Double-click on the icon for Celestia131\Celestia.exe and look around in your universe.

Install the new copy of Celestia and tell it to use the directory Celestia. It'll create the folder again and install itself there.

Move your Addons at leisure.

Cel:// URLs run the copy of Celestia that is in the folder named Celestia. If you want to change back to using your old Celestia that way, just rename the directories again: rename Celestia to be Celestia132 and rename Celestia131 to be Celestia.

A description of how to organize your Addons so they can be moved easily.

I've compared the Celestia texture for Venus/Ida/Miranda with one I've found in a book or on the Web, and Celestia's map is upside down. What's going on?
Many sources for planetary maps (such as the USGS) use a mapping convention called "ecliptic north" - the north pole of any planet or asteroid is defined as being whichever rotational pole points north of the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun). Each planet or asteroid can then be classified as a "direct" rotator, if it rotates in the same direction as the Earth when observed from above its north pole (i.e. counterclockwise); or as a "retrograde" rotator, if it rotates in the opposite direction.

But Celestia uses an equally valid mapping convention called "rotational north" - north is defined as being the pole around which the planet appears to rotate counterclockwise, irrespective of that pole's orientation relative to the ecliptic.

For direct rotators, this difference is irrelevant - "north" turns out to be the same direction in both mapping conventions. But for retrograde rotators, Celestia's north pole corresponds to ecliptic south - so you will find many maps of retrograde rotators like Venus, Ida and the moons of Uranus that appear to be upside down relative to those in Celestia. If you want to convert such maps for use in Celestia, you'll have to turn them through 180 degrees.

(Provided by Grant Hutchison)

What if I have more questions?
If you have a question about Celestia that is not answered above or elsewhere in this WikiBook, please ask your question in the Celestia Web Forum, not here. There are many experts reading the Forum, but very few knowledgeable people read the WikiBook. If a question is asked more than once or twice in the Forum, it'll be added to this FAQ.

title: Celestia/FAQs


text:
Perl Programming/User input-output

Input/output, or IO, is an all-encompassing term that describes the way your program interacts with the user. IO comes in two forms, or stream types: the program's stimuli are collectively referred to as input, while the medium that the program uses to communicate back, write logs, play sounds, etc. is known as output. Both types of streams can be redirected either at a lower level than Perl, as is the case when done through the operating system by the shell; or, in Perl itself, as is the case when you reopen the file handles associated with the stream.

Output
You have already learned how to output with the print statement. A simple reference is provided:

What this print statement is actually doing is printing to STDOUT, which stands for standard output. Standard output is the default destination for all output. If you wish to print anywhere else you must be explicit. We will revisit this later.

Input
As you may have imagined, it's very hard to write a good program without any type of input; here is an example program to teach you these concepts:

Standard input is usually the keyboard though this can be changed at a lower level than your program. For now we will assume it isn't changed. However, this might not be an assumption you wish to make in production code.

=Unit exercise=
 * Write a program that prompts the user for a number and then returns the number multiplied by four (or any other number).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Perl Programming/User input-output


text:
User talk:65.10.61.177

Please stop adding copyrighted content here or you will blocked. Yann 23:14, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.10.61.177


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Wikijunior:South America/South America

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Welcome to South America, the fourth largest continent on Earth. South America has 14 different countries in it and over 355 million people! The South Americans are famous for their parties, their music, their dances, and their food. The two major languages spoken in South America are Portuguese and Spanish, although French, English and Dutch are also spoken, as well as a variety of indigenous languages. If there are any words in this book you don't understand you can look them up in the glossary.

Where in the world is South America?
To the north of South America lies the Caribbean and Central America, to the east lies the Atlantic Ocean, and past that Africa, to the south lies the coldest continent, Antarctica, and to the west lies the Pacific ocean, and past that Australia, Oceania, and Asia.

Where are these languages spoken?

 * English: ,
 * Spanish:, , , , , , , ,
 * Portuguese:, (note: these islands speak a Portuguese creole)
 * Dutch: ,
 * French: (French Guiana)
 * Quechua:, , , , ,
 * Aimara:, , ,
 * Guaraní:, , ,

Wikichicos/América del Sur/América del Sur Wikijunior Sudamerica/Sudamerica

title: Wikijunior:South America/South America


text:
Wikijunior:South America/Argentina

Argentina is the second largest country in South America and the eighth largest in the world. It is located between the Andes mountains on one side and the Atlantic Ocean on the other. Argentina and Chile occupy the most southern part of all South America. The country also borders Bolivia, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay. Its capital city is Buenos Aires, inside the estuary of Rio de la Plata (Silver River).

What are Argentina's national symbols?

Argentina's official language is Spanish and its national bird is the Hornero. The National Holiday is Revolution Day, which is on May 25th.

The Plains of Pampas
The Pampa (meaning 'plain' in the Native American Quechua language) is a fertile plain around Buenos Aires in Argentina. It is made up of most of Buenos Aires, La Pampa and Santa Fe provinces and also has parts of Córdoba province as well. Parts of the plain extend into the countries of Uruguay and Brazil.

Plants are very simple in this area. They are mostly grasses and low plants, often growing quickly if water is close. Only these small plants grow, as many fires happen on the plain, destroying any other larger plants. Because of these low plants, much of the area is used for feeding cattle or for growing soybeans.

This kind of plain is also called a prairie in North America, a steppe in Europe and Asia, and a veld in South Africa.

The Plateau of Patagonia
A marvelous book about Patagonia is titled "IN PATAGONIA" by Bruce Chatwin which tells the story of Chatwin's journey through the entire length of the region during the 1970s.

What important events have happened in Argentina?
The word Argentina means silver in Latin. The country was named after silver because, when shipwrecked Spaniards washed up on Argentina's shore, the indigenous Americans brought them gifts made out of silver.

The rule of Spain
Before the European invasion of the Americas, Argentina was rather sparsely populated. Different Native American tribes lived in small villages, and Argentina bordered the Inca empire, but large parts of the country had few inhabitants. The Spanish arrived in 1502 on a voyage of Amerigo Vespucci, the mapmaker that America was named after. Buenos Aires became a Spanish colony in 1580, and was originally a part of greater Peru. It became an important port after 1776 (with the foundation of the "Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata"), exporting leather and other goods.

Spain lost control of the region when France defeated Spain in the Napoleonic Wars, and the colonists there became somewhat independent. They even prevented several attempted British takeovers in the early 1800s. On July 9, 1816, Argentina officially declared its independence.

Independence
Unfortunately, the new country's first leaders started a civil war that would last several decades. This resulted in a period of anarchy until Juan Manuel de Rosas unified most of the country under the rule of Buenos Aires. He was a tyrant who killed his opponents and anyone who disagreed with him. He attempted to take over Paraguay and Uruguay, and generally developed bad relations with his neighbors. He was overthrown in 1852 with the support of Uruguay and Brazil, and Argentina got its first constitution.

At this time, most people considered "Argentinians" were ethnically Spanish, with Native Americans still thought of as a menace. The country's economy was based on raising animals. Soon Great Britain became more and more involved with Argentina's economy and politics, and Argentina moved towards being a modern country.

The Modern World
In the late 1800s, new farming techniques helped improve the lives of Argentinians, and investment by Britain and others helped provide economic wealth. Immigrants came to Argentina from all over Europe, and better roads and railroads were built. The War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay was bloody and expensive, but Argentina soon recovered and gained new prosperity, mainly due to trade with Europe. Buenos Aires became known as the Paris of the Americas.

What are Argentina's people like?
About 41.45 million people live in Argentina. They have backgrounds from many other countries and origins. Almost 88 % of the population comes from Italian or Spanish roots, and Argentinians come from many other countries as well. Fifty six percent of the Argentinians have native roots (different kinds of hybridization); only 2 or 3 % of Argentinians are Pure Native American.

In Argentina, you can often find the influences of many different cultures. Pizza and pasta from Italy are very popular here, but so is native maize and pumpkin. Many Jewish sweets and German dishes are also thought of as part of Argentinian food. Tango originated in Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Uruguay), and is very popular throughout Argentina, though many different musical styles are enjoyed. Argentina is more of a melting pot of various cultures than any other South American country.

Despite all this, nearly everyone in Argentina speaks Spanish, the official language, and most Argentinians are Roman Catholic. About 1 million people a year convert to different religions however.

What sports are popular in Argentina?
Although its national sport is Pato Pato, Soccer remains the most popular sport in Argentina. The Argentine Soccer team has won three World Cups, Lionel Messi and Diego Armando Maradona, two of its players, are famous all over the world. Other popular sports include Tennis, Rugby, Polo, Basketball and Boxing.

Who are some famous people from Argentina?
Messi and Di Maria. Wikichicos/América del Sur/Argentina

title: Wikijunior:South America/Argentina


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Wikijunior:South America/Bolivia

Bolivia is a landlocked country in the center of South America. It is bordered by ../Brazil/ to the north and east, ../Paraguay/ and ../Argentina/ to the south, and ../Chile/ and ../Peru/ to the west. Its capital is La Paz. At 11,740 ft (3,580 m) above sea level, it is the highest capital in the world. Bolivia is named after Simon Bolivar, one of the greatest South American generals.

Geography of Bolivia
The west of Bolivia is covered by the Andes mountain range. The Andes is divided in two branches. The Altiplano is a large plateau which is in the west of the country between the two branches of the Altiplano. The west also contains the largest salt flats on earth, Salar de Uyuni. There is also the largest lake commercially available for transport, Lake Titicaca, which was historically important to the indigenous people and now is an important tourist location. The highest peak in Bolivia is also a volcano, and its name is Nevado del Sajama.

History of Bolivia
Divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican.

There are six places in Bolivia declared World Heritage for their contributions to world history. Two of them specifically acknowledge indigenous or native cultures: Tiwanaku, which was an archaeological site particularly well known for pre-Columbian pottery and also Chiquitos which the Spanish Conquistadors found after looking at Indian doors and is well known for music.

History
In 1531 Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro entered Bolivia. Within two years they controlled the territory known as Alto Peru. In 1544 silver was discovered at Potosi. Native and African slaves were forced to work the silver mines and enriched Spain for over the next 200 years. The slaves were encouraged to chew on coca leaves which became a part of the native culture.

In 1548 La Paz was founded as Nuestra Señora de La Paz (Our Lady of Peace). It became the capital in 1898. Bolivia won its independence from Spain in 1825. The first elected president was General Simon Bolivar, who had led the Bolivian forces in defeating the Spanish. The following year Antonio José de Sucre drew up Bolivia's constitution, and the country received its name. In 1828 Sucre was forced to resign, and since then Bolivia has been ruled for the most part by a succession of military dictators.

For over 350 years Bolivia's western boundary extended to the Pacific Ocean. But following a war with Chile in 1883, Bolivia lost its Pacific coastal area thereby becoming landlocked. In subsequent wars with Brazil (1903) and Paraguay (1935), Bolivia lost land in the east including rubber plantations, but came just short of losing important oil and natural gas resources.

In the 1890s mining corporations interested in Bolivia's tin began to control the country. In 1952 the government was taken over by a revolutionary party, the MNR, which seized the mines, taking them over to be owned by the government. The MNR also divided the estates of the wealthy landowners into smaller farms for their former tenants and peasants, who previously worked the land but didn't own it.

In 1964 the army took over the government of Bolivia. Since then Bolivia has had a string of generals as presidents, most of them in office for less than a full term.

In 1982 Siles Zuazo became Bolivia's first democratic, civilian president in over 40 years. Currently the President is Evo Morales, elected 2006.

People of Bolivia
There are nearly ten million people in Bolivia. Half to nearly two-thirds of people in Bolivia belong to indigenous cultures, which is relatively unusual for a South American country. Over two hundred different languages are spoken by at least as many native nations. Many of those are close to becoming extinct. The largest indigenous group is the Quechua with two and a half million people. There are also the Aymara, and two smaller groups known as the Guaraní and the Chiquitano. There are also many Europeans, Asians and people from other ethnic groups.

If you were a Bolivian man, you could expect to live until you were 62 and if you were a Bolivian woman, you could expect to live to be 68. You would also be expected to give birth to three children, but many children attend school for a year or less.

Much of Bolivia is in poverty, and many people work on farms, while cities continue to grow due to former peasant trying to find a livelihood there. Eighty-seven percent of Bolivians can read and write.

The three official languages are Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara.

There are at least four large cities which are growing rapidly : La Paz, El Alto, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz.

What types of things are exported?
Soy products, zinc, natural gas, and tin.

What is the food like?
It is the most well known food in all Spanish speaking countries. Delicacies include fruits from the forest with honey. The food in the north is spicy and full of flavor. Saltenas, a juicy chicken or beef empanada is one of the most famous worldwide foods.

What sports are popular?
Soccer is the most popular sport in the country. Volleyball, Tennis, Horseback riding, Automobile Racing, and Basketball are also popular.

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Wikijunior:South America/Chile

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Chile is a long, thin country running down the southwest side of South America. The country runs in the shape of a snake between the Andes mountains and the Pacific Ocean. It borders ../Argentina/, ../Bolivia/, and ../Peru/.

History of Chile
People first came to the area now called Chile around ten thousand years ago. They may have descendants of the first Native Americans who came from Asia during the Ice Age, but some people think that their ancestors "island-hopped" across the Pacific. The area was good for fishing and offered decent opportunities for hunting and agriculture, but it was separated from the rest of South America by the Andes mountains, and so it was not as widely inhabited as other parts of the continent.

No one knows for sure why the place was called "Chile". Some people think it is a variation on the name of an ancient Indian chief called Tili. Others think it may be a word in an Indian language for "the place where the land ends", "snow", or the sound of a bird's call. No matter where the name came from, the Spanish soldiers who invaded the land in the 16th century said that the people there called themselves "men of Chile".

The Spanish, searching for gold, reported that hundreds of thousands of people lived in the area. Although they never did find any gold or silver in the region, they admired the agricultural possibilities of the area and governed it as a part of the colony they called the Viceroyalty of Peru. The native peoples were not happy about being taken over, and there were frequent uprisings and rebellions. When slavery was outlawed in 1683, the situation improved and revolts became less common.

In 1810, the Chilean people declared they were an independent country, and not under Spanish control. Spain disagreed, and war broke out. But seven years later Chile was recognized as its own country. Still, little changed for the average Chilean. The country was still run by wealthy landowners, and the average citizen had few rights. In the late 19th century, a democracy was set up, but the leaders in parliament were concerned primarily with protecting the land-owners at the expense of the working class. As poor Chileans became more politically powerful and organized, they were able to elect a leftist president in 1920 who tried to change the laws to benefit the working class. Some were promoting communism, and conservatives in the country were alarmed. So in 1924, a general took over the country by force, leading to a violent and unstable period.

When democracy was finally restored, the people voted in governments which kept the country relatively stable for many decades. Liberal parties appealed to people by promoting programs to feed the poor and provide housing and education. Conservative parties appealed to people by securing better relationships with the United States and loans from American banks. It was a healthy democracy.

In 1970, a man named Salvador Allende was elected. As a leftist, he was very popular for his programs for the poor and working class. But as part of these programs, he took over foreign mines and banks in the country, which angered foreign investors. Actions that the United States took in retaliation hurt the country economically. In 1973, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) engineered a coup that led to Allende's death and put Augusto Pinochet, a military dictator, in power.

Pinochet greatly improved relations with the United States and the economy, but took away many rights of Chileans. Thousands of people were executed, imprisoned, or tortured for their political views. Many Chileans see this as a dark time in history. When Pinochet stepped down after losing an election, democracy happily returned to the country, and Chile has had an improved human rights situation since that time.

Chile's Geography
Chile is long and thin, giving it a ribbon-like shape. It is 4,300 kilometers long and its width averages 175 kilometers. Chile is almost double the size of California.

As a result of Chile's shape, climate varies throughout the country. Chile is dry in the north and cool and damp in the south. Chile's terrain also varies.

The north is made up of desert. This Northern Desert region extends from the Peruvian border in north to the Aconcagua River north of Valparaiso. There is hardly any rainfall which means that there is almost no plant life. The land is barren and remote which means that it is free from air pollution and bright artificial lights. As a result, it is a great place to study the stars and planets -- in fact Northern Chile is the location for the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory where astronomers do just that. In this region you'll find one of the driest spots on Earth, the Atacama desert. The Atacama desert is so dry that a 1971 rainfall was the first precipitation recorded in the desert town of Calama in 400 years.

Southern Chile is icy and has a windswept coast. In the south, there are snow-capped volcanoes, thick forests, glaciers and lakes.

Chile has a rugged coastline.

Chile's eastern border is home to the Andes mountains. The Andes extend along Chile's border with Argentina and Bolivia.

Between the Andes and the lower mountains of Chile's west coast, you'll find the Central Valley. This is a mild, fertile region. Several rivers run through this region which is considered to be the heartland of Chile and the center of its population. The Central Valley is also where most of the farms and factories are. The Central Valley is made up of orchards, vineyards, pastures and croplands.

Santiago is the capital of Chile. Other major cities in Chile include: Concepcion-Talcahuano, Vina del Mar-Valparaiso, Antofagasta and Temuco.

Chile's People
Chile is home to 16.4 million people. 6 million Chileans live in Santiago. Men are expected to live to age 75 and women to age 81. Most people in Chile speak Spanish. Christianity is the major religion in Chile. 69.9% of Chileans are Roman Catholic and 15% are Protestant.

About three quarters of Chileans are mestizos, people of mixed Spanish and Indian heritage. About a fifth of Chileans are of European descent, mostly Spanish or British. About three percent come from unmixed Indian ancestry. Just a few thousand people are of African origin, or Zambo—people of mixed Indian and African heritage.

de:Wikijunior Südamerika: Südamerikanische Länder: Chile Wikichicos/América del Sur/Chile

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Wikijunior:South America/Colombia

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Colombia is a country in the northwest of South America. It is home to forty-eight million people. This includes nine million or more people living in the capital Bogota D.C. (Bogota Distrito Capital = Capital District of Bogota). Nearly three-quarters of the Colombian people live in cities, as compared to under two-thirds at the year 1955.

Of the people, 1.4% are indigenous Amerindians. They live in the eastern lands and around the country. A third have less than 15 years of age, two-thirds are aged between 15 and 64 years, and five percent have more than 64 years. The average Colombian man today has an expected life 67 years; the average Colombian woman today has an expected life 76 years. For each 1000 Colombians, 22 babies are born each year, and 5 people die each year.

Most Colombians live in western Colombia in the valleys and basins of the Andes Mountains.

Culture of Colombia
Colombians are generally close to their families, especially because of the Catholic faith of most Colombians. Many families are extended as well as nuclear. Godparents (padrinos) are particularly important. They give money and help the family of the child in his or her upbringing.

Many women in Colombia are working outside the home, and are professionals and in high positions in government, education, etc.

What are Colombia's national symbols?
The flag of Colombia has yellow, blue and red stripes. The yellow is wider than the other two and represents the native gold, blue indicates two oceans and red represents the blood spent in the struggle for independence from Spain.

The Coat of Arms of Colombia contains a shield with numerous symbols. Perched on top of the shield is a condor holding olives. The national flag is draped on each side of the shield. On the shield itself, there are ships, a Phrygian cap, a pomegranate and two horns of plenty containing fruit and gold and silver coins.

What are some famous places in Colombia?
Bogotá is the capital of Colombia, as well as the county's largest city with more than eight million inhabitants. The first European settlement was in 1538, but it was a population center for the native Muiscas long before that. Bogotá is the business hub of the nation and is home to Colombia's stock market. It also has many schools, Universities, and colleges.

What important events have happened in Colombia?
There were two main groups living in Colombia before Spanish Colonization. They were the Carib and the Chibcha. A Chibchan tribe called the Muisca lived in the region where Bogota is now. The Muisca traded salt, emeralds, beans, maize and other crops with other tribes.

The first permanent Spanish settlement, at Santa Marta, was founded in 1525. In 1549, Santa Fe de Bogota became the capital of New Granada. New Grenada was what the Spanish called the area that is now Colombia.

In 1819, forces led by Simon Bolivar won Colombia’s independence. At first, Colombia, Venezeula, Panama and some other nearby areas were all part of a country called Gran Colombia (Greater Colombia). Venezuela and Ecuador split off from Colombia first. Later Panama revolted, and gained its independence.

In the last forty years of the twentieth century, there was civil war in Colombia. This war continues today. The main combatants are the Colombian military, independent private armies (called paramilitaries), and two different rebel groups. The Colombian government is working to disarm the paramilitary and disarm or defeat the rebels.

What is the natural environment like in Colombia?
Colombia is very close to the equator and parts of the country are very hot. The country also has many high mountains and the higher the altitude the cooler the climate. Colombia has less than 1% of the world's area, but 10% of the species in the world can be found there. There is a wide variety of birds there too. Almost 15% of the world's species of birds are found in Colombia.

What types of things are exported from Colombia?
Colombia exports oil and petroleum products. Colombia is also renowned all over the world for its coffee. The coffee is mainly grown in volcanic soil on plantations in the Andes mountains. Colombia has many delicious native fruits that it sells. Colombia produces tropical fruit juices and concentrates. Cut flowers are another product that Colombia is famous for, they are sold to the rest of the world. Colombia is also famous for their roses. They ship roses all across the world for countries to sell.

What is school like in Colombia?
Most Colombian kids go to primary school between the ages of 6 and 11. Primary schooling is paid for by the government and mandatory for all kids. Still, some kids in this age group do not go to school, especially in rural areas. School is conducted in Spanish. There is often Catholic religious instruction as well as instruction in mathematics, science, reading, and writing.

In rural areas there may be many different ages in the same classroom. Because many of the students in rural areas are poor some must frequently miss school so they can work. Some rural Colombian schools are "New Schools". They provide guidebooks that allow students to work self-directed at their own pace with assistance from an instructor and other students. Students of all ages will sit at a large table each working on a different course of study from their guidebooks.

Only half of Colombian kids continue their education into secondary school. Secondary school starts at age 11 and continues for six years. Unlike some other countries, there is no vocational training in secondary school. Colombia has twenty-four public Universities, so there are opportunities for good students to pursue higher education.

What is the food like in Colombia?
Colombians eat a wide variety of meats, vegetables, and fruits. The biggest meal of the day happens at midday. One very common dish is called Ajiaco. It is a type of chicken soup. It typically contains chicken, corn, potatoes, sour cream, capers, and avocado. Bandeja paisa is a dish from a mountainous region named Antioquia. This dish typically has many different types of foods and large portions, it is served on large trays. Typically, bandeja paisa includes beans, rice, ground meat, spicy sausage, fried egg, corn cakes(arepas) and pork skin(chicharon). It is usually accompanied by avocado, and tomato.

What music is popular in Colombia?
A unique musical style in Colombia is called cumbia. It comes from Ghana, Africa, and is a combination of folk and dance. Many working people enjoy it. The costumes associated with cumbia are colourful.

In the north part of Colombia, vallenato is played. Vallenato is a musical genre characterized by instruments like accordion, guacharaca, etc. Big vallenato singers are: Diomedes Diaz, Los Hermanos Zuletas, Los Betos, Ivan Villazon, El Binomio de oro, etc. Today, there are a lot of new and great vallenato singers.

Champeta is another type of music develop in the Atlantic Coast, especially in Cartagena. At the beginning it was rejected because it was considered not appropriate, since the singers came from low-status families, the content in it was not appropriate and its dancing was very sensual. Today is well recognized and played in most of Colombian cities.

What sports are popular in Colombia?
Some of the national sports include soccer, tennis, baseball, and bicycle racing, and also competitive skating. The indigenous people contributed the ancient game TEJO! to Colombia. The players use a heavy metal disk and throw it at a distance to a triangular piece of paper (usually pink) filled with gunpowder, and Boom! The aim of the game is to cause many explosions for your throw.

Who are some famous people from Colombia?
The famous novel writer: "Gabriel Garcia Márquez", is a national from this country. The international pop music star Shakira is also from Colombia. A famous Colombian painter named Fernando Botero is noted for his portraits. In the portraits, his subjects look very fat. The actor and comedian John Leguizamo was born in Colombia before immigrating to the United States. Also the famous singer Shakira was born in Colombia.

Wikichicos/América del Sur/Colombia

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Wikijunior:South America/Ecuador

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Ecuador is one of the smaller countries in South America. It is located in the northwest region of South America, south of ../Colombia/ and north of ../Peru/.

Ecuador is named because it sits along the equator. Ecuador's western border is the Pacific Ocean. The two biggest cities in Ecuador are the capital, Quito, and the port of Guayaquil.

National Symbols

Spanish is the official language of Ecuador. The Coat of arms is a national symbol of Ecuador. You can see it in center of the flag to the right.

What is the country's history?
Before the Spanish came to South America, Ecuador was part of the Inca Empire. The Spanish conquered the area in 1534. Ecuador became independent from Spain in 1822, but was part of a country called Gran Colombia until 1830. The Gran Colombia was composed of Colombia, ../Venezuela/, Ecuador, and Panama. During that time the province of Panama belonged to Colombia which is why it became part of the Gran Colombia.

What is the country's geography?
Ecuador can be divided into 4 main regions: Coast (Costa), Highlands (Sierra), the East (Oriente), and the archipelago (island group) of Galápagos. The population of Ecuador is 11.5 million.

In Ecuador, the roses are extremely beautiful. Thousand of flower farms plant and export various kinds of roses to EU, US, Russia, Hong Kong, Japan.

What are the people like?
The main languages in Ecuador are Spanish and Quechua. Spanish is spoken by most people, not only in cities, but also in rural areas. Quechua is a language that was brought to the region by the Incas about half a millennium ago, and it is spoken by their descendants. Most Quechua speakers in Ecuador live in the Sierra or in the Oriente. Though many Quechua speakers are bilingual, there are some Quechua speakers who don't speak Spanish, especially in areas far away from larger cities.

There are also several important ethnic groups, like Zapara, Tsáchila, Chachi, Cofan, Hoao, Cayapa, Awa, Shuar, Achuar, Siona, Secoya, afro-Ecuadorian and Montubio; most of them speak their own language.

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Wikijunior:South America/French Guiana

Part of Wikijunior South America project French Guiana is an overseas department of France, on the northern coast of South America. Like metropolitan France, its currency is the euro.

History
French Guiana was originally inhabited by a number of American peoples. It was settled by the French in the 17th century. A border dispute with Brazil occurred in the late 19th century over a large area of the jungle. This dispute caused the French Guiana to be an independent state until it could be resolved. In 1946, French Guiana became an overseas department of France. In the 1970s Hmong refugees came from Laos and settled in. In the 1970s and 1980s there became an increase of French people moving to settle in the area.

Geography
The French Guiana area is tropical and is usually hot and humid with a total area of 91,000 km2. There is little seasonal temperature difference with dry summers and rainy winters. French Guiana's population is around 209,000, most of whom live along the coastal region. Much of French Guiana is a national park.

Important sites

 * Guiana Space Centre – an important ESA spaceport.
 * Guiana Amazonian Park – the largest park and rainforest in the EU.

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Wikijunior:South America/Guyana

Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is the only country of the Commonwealth of Nations on the mainland of South America. It is bordered to the east by Suriname, to the south and southwest by Brazil and to the west by Venezuela. It is the fourth-smallest country on the mainland of South America (after Suriname, French Guiana, and Uruguay).

Geography
Guyana can be divided into four natural regions: a narrow and fertile marshy plain along the Atlantic (low coastal plain) coast where most of the population lives, then a white sand belt more inland (hilly sand and clay region), containing most of Guyana's mineral deposits, the dense rainforests (Forested Highland Region) across the middle of the country, the grassy flat savannah in the south and finally the larger interior highlands (interior savannah) made up of mountains that gradually rise to the Brazilian border.

There are many rivers in the country, the three main ones being the Essequibo, the Demerara, and the Berbice.The local climate is tropical and generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds along the coast. There are two rainy seasons, the first from May to mid-August, the second from mid-November to mid-January.

Guyana has one of the largest unspoiled rain forests in South America. It covers much of the land area and is the habitat of many animals.

The People
English is the official language of Guyana and used, for example, in its schools. There are other languages spoken as well such as Portuguese and Spanish.

The most popular religions in Guyana include Christianity, Hinduism, and Muslim faiths.

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Wikijunior:South America/Paraguay

Itaipu: the largest hydro- electric power plant in the world
Paraguay shares with Brazil the largest hydroelectric power plant in the world, Itaipu. Itaipu is an indigenous name for "the stone that sings", because of the sound that the water produces when it hits the stones of that region, formed by huge cascades of Paraná river. The hydroelectric plant of Itaipu is so impressive that it was even called one of the seven wonders of modern world!

Also, one must take into account the huge amount of money that was stolen by Stroessner government (most of the richest families in Paraguay—partners of Stroessners' business—owe their richness to the Itaipú Golden Era) and the environmental impact that resulted from such a construction. Many species that existed only in Paraguay cannot longer be taken into account in existing species.

Today, with the biggest hydroelectric power plant in the world, Paraguay still has a steel factory running on wood as fuel, and the electric train in Asuncion (capital city) is only a nostalgic remembrance. Diesel fumes pervade the country and ash and smoke are the constant ingredients of the electric carnival.

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Paraguay is one of only two countries in South America that don't have beaches. It's landlocked by other countries. But nature seems to compensate Paraguay for the missing ocean access: there are many rivers. The most important river is the Rio Paraguay, used mainly for transportation. An other river, the Rio Paraná, is used for electric energy production.

The Chaco plains
The Chaco--also known as the "Gran Chaco"-- is a vast plain extending from northern Paraguay to areas of Argentina and Bolivia. This area is essentially dry grassland with occasional dense semi-tropical jungles. This is one of the hottest places in South America. What makes this area special is that the animals and plants have been preserved as they were before it became inhabited by humans. It is one of the few places in the Americas where people have not interfered much with the environment.

Guarani people
Paraguay has a population around 6,670,000. Despite of having Spanish as its official language, the majority of Paraguayan people speak the Guaraní language. The Guaraní are a native group of South America, like the Incas or the Comanches of North America.

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Wikijunior:South America/Peru

Part of Wikijunior South America project Welcome to Peru! Peru is the third largest country in South America. Peru is located on the western edge of South America, with The Andes mountains running through it. The Andes cause many of the cities of Peru to be located on the Western side, including the capital, Lima.

Peru's History
Peru was at one time the center of the Incan Empire. The old capital of the Incas, Cuzco, meaning navel of the world, was located in the Andes mountains in the southeastern part of the country. The Spanish under the conquistador Pizarro conquered the native Andean culture in 1533 and the country became a part of the Spanish Empire in 1542. Peru was liberated from the rule of Spain by the famous South American general José de San Martin in 1821.

The Andes and Machu Picchu
The Andes take up much of Peru, dividing the country into three sections. The Andes are a constantly changing mountain range, so they are prone to earthquakes, landslides, and flash floods. The Andes, though, are also filled with great beauty, such as the great Incan city of the clouds, Machu Picchu, which is a major tourist destination, and the huge Lake Titicaca. Near Huancayo lies Nevado Misti, a 18,500 foot peak, from which emerges a stream that is considered the source of the Amazon, the world's largest river. It flows eastward, joining other rivers, themselves flowing north and east until the Maranon and Ucayali, two great rivers of lowland Amazonia, meet to form the Amazon River itself.

The Coastline
The Pacific Ocean is cold along the coast of Peru and the winds do not pick up much moisture from it, so the land next to coast of Peru is a very dry place. The southern coast region is part of the Atacama desert, which also extends into Chile. The Atacama desert is known as the driest place in the world.

Although little grows naturally in this region of Peru, the people of Peru have long been using irrigation to farm. As a result, most of Peru's large population centers border this desert.

The Amazon Jungle
The eastern part of the country is covered with dense vegetation, and its most important exports are jungle products, consisting of rubber, cinchona, dye stuffs, medicinal drugs and in the cultivated portions, coca, which is raised in large quantities.

Lima - The Capital City
Lima or the City of the Kings (Cuidad de los Reyes) was founded by Francisco Pizarro in 1535. The Cathedral of Lima contains the tomb of Pizarro. Callao, located 7 miles west of Lima, is the port of the capital city and contains one of the finest harbors on the Pacific Ocean.

Arequipa - The White City
The historic old city is located on the Chili river in the mountains of southern Peru and was founded by Garci de Carbajal under the direction of Pizarro in 1540. An imposing feature of the city is the Cathedral San Francisco de Arequipa. The name white city comes from the white volcanic rock called sillar, available nearby, which was used as building blocks in the construction of the city.

Peru's Culture
Wikichicos/América del Sur/Perú

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Wikijunior:South America/Suriname

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Suriname (officially the Republic of Suriname (Dutch: Republiek Suriname)), is the smallest and least populated country in South America (French Guiana is smaller but is not a country).

What is Suriname's History like?
Native Americans first moved to Suriname in 3000 BC. The largest tribes were the Arawaks, a nomadic coastal tribe that lived from hunting and fishing, and the Caribs. Other smaller tribes lived further into the country, in the rainforest.

The first Europeans who came to Suriname were Dutch traders who visited the area along with other parts of the South America's coast. In 1630, and again in 1651, the English tried to settle the area. But the two English settlements were conquered by the Dutch in the 1660s.

What is Suriname's Geography like?
Suriname is the smallest country in mainland South America.

What are Suriname's people like?
Suriname consists of Javanese who first arrived in that country during the Dutch colonial period. Indians settled in that area as laborers in a plantation and they were borrowed from the neighboring country Guyana which at that time was a British colony. African slaves were also brought to Suriname and formed a new group of people called Maroon. Several Chinese entered the country as well.

title: Wikijunior:South America/Suriname


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Wikijunior:South America/Uruguay

Part of Wikijunior South America project

Uruguay is a country in the southeast of South America and at the Atlantic coast.

Early in Uruguay's history, Brazil tried to annex Uruguay. Instead, Uruguay became an independent country.

title: Wikijunior:South America/Uruguay


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Wikijunior:South America/Venezuela

Part of Wikijunior South America project Venezuela is the northernmost country of South America. The north of Venezuela is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. The name Venezuela ("Little Venice") is from the explorer Amerigo Vespuccio. He saw stilt houses on Lake Maracaibo; those houses reminded him of the city of Venice in Europe.

In relation to other countries in South America, it is bordered by ../Colombia/ to the west and ../Guyana/ to the east. On the south-east is ../Brazil/. Of the three countries which border Venezuela, the longest border is with Brazil: 2,200 kilometres. The border with Columbia is slightly smaller: 2,050 km. The border with Guyana is much smaller at: 743 kilometres. In relation to the world, Venezuela is almost twice as large as the American state of California.

Geography
Because Venezuela is close (eight degrees north) to the equator, it is mostly tropical, however, Venezuela also has a desert region, open plains and even tall mountains with snow on them. Venezuela has highlands in the middle of the country, and many waterfalls like the Angel Falls.

The weather is as varied as the geography of this land. Venezuela has beautiful hot humid coasts, the Andes mountains begin their journey down South America in Venezuela and are an area of rich agriculture and tourist industry. The mountains are obviously cool compared to the plains (Los Llanos) below where cattle ranches thrive. The highest mountain is Pico Bolivar at 5007 metres. The other mountain range in the south-east is the Guiana Highlands. Parts of the Amazon jungle are in Venezuelan territory. The beautiful ancient formation of La Gran Sabana of Arthur Conan Doyle's Lost World is an amazing territory of table top mountains. The plains where these mountains lie have sheer drops of kilometers into the amazon jungle which are breathtaking.

One of Venezuela's major rivers is the Orinoco River. Just over a third of Venezuela is forests and woodland, and a fifth is used as farmland. Just under half the land is used for where people live and work. Venezuela is one of the richest countries in South America for mineral resources, gold and diamonds in particular. Also there are many oil wells, where petroleum and gas come out. Much of Venezuela is irrigated which means water can spread. Venezuela tends to have floods, rock slides and mudslides, as well as droughts. In many of Venezuela's cities especially along the heavily polluted Caribbean coast, there is pollution from the sewers, oil and water. In the past Venezuelan forests and soil have been used a great deal, so there is deforestation and soil degradation.

History of Venezuela
Before the first Spanish settlement in 1522, the indigenous people were living near the Orinoco river and the Andean mountain range. In the middle of the 1500s, gold was discovered, which led to the indigenous people (and Africans who were imported to Venezuela) becoming slaves. The Europeans also raised livestock on the plains. During the 18th century the land was passed under the responsibility of New Granada, after having been owned by two viceroyalties. Venezuela declared independence from Spain in 1811, but for eight years until 1819 there was a war. Venezuela, with other nations close to it, was part of Gran Colombia until 1830. Oil became an important part of Venezuela's economy in the 20th century, and is still its main source of income. Venezuela in the 20th Century has been largely influenced by oil policy, from the early century dictatorships to the latter half century democracies, to today's government. The current president is Hugo Chávez Frías.

People of Venezuela
There are twenty-six million people in Venezuela. Ninety-five percent live north of the Orinoco River. Half of the population is mestizo (of mixed European and Indian ancestry); about 41% - 45% of Venezuelans are of European lineage, and 8% have mainly African ancestry. The native Indian population is statistically small. Historical ethnic backgrounds include indigenous, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German and African.

One third of the Venezuelan people are under 15, two thirds are between 16 and 64 and four percent are over 64. For every 1000 people, every year 21 infants are born and 4 of them die. If you are a Venezuelan man you can expect to live up until you are 70 and if you are a woman you can expect to live up to 76.

The official language is Spanish. Other languages include the native languages of Venezuelan Indians. Ninety-one percent of people are able to read and write by the time they are 15 years old.

Eighteen percent of Venezuelans are unemployed, and most of those who are employed work in the informal economy. Two thirds of Venezuelans who work do so in the service sector, nearly a quarter work in industry and a fifth work in agriculture. An important industry for Venezuelans is oil, where the country is a net exporter, even though only one percent work in the oil industry.

Many of the people of Venezuela enjoy baseball, soccer and music. Many Venezuelan players are playing in the Major Baseball League of America and Venezuelan music and dancing is distinctive. Music is varied and reflects the mixed rich cultural heritage of the country, typical music include black drums from the coasts, Gaitas from Zulia, LLanera from the plains, as well as many modern movements of rock, pop, salsa, meringue,etc. The national dance is joropo from the Llanos area. Edgar Ojeda is a particularly famous musician who works with children and has written much about music.

Venezuela is also known for its participation in beauty contests, which are widely shown on television. One Miss Universe, Irene Saez, selected in 1981, become mayor and governor and ran for president in 1998.

title: Wikijunior:South America/Venezuela


text:
Wikijunior:South America/The Andes

Part of Wikijunior South America project

What is the history?
The Andes were formed through a process called plate tectonics. The formation of the Andes began in the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks

What is the Geography?
The Andes form the longest mountain range in the world. The Andes mountain range is the highest mountain range outside Asia. It is more than 5,000 miles (8,000 kilometers) long. The Andes go through seven South American countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia,Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. The Andes range has many active volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, one of the highest active volcanoes in the world.

The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm. The climate is known to change drastically. Rainforests exist just miles away from the snow covered peak, Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas.

title: Wikijunior:South America/The Andes


text:
Wikijunior:South America/The Amazon

Part of Wikijunior South America project

The Amazon River is the second longest and the biggest river on Earth. It carries more than 8 times as much water as the second biggest river. The Amazon is also the widest river on Earth, at times six miles wide. A full 20 percent of the water that pours out of the planet's rivers into the oceans comes from the Amazon. The main Amazon River is 6,387 km (3,980 miles). It collects water from thousands of smaller rivers.

Thousands of kinds of fish and turtles live in the Amazon River, including Piranha. The Boto, a kind of freshwater dolphin, also lives in the Amazon River. The Anaconda, the world's largest snake, lives there too.

A Spanish explorer named Francisco de Orellana gave the river its name. He was the first European to travel the length of the river. While exploring the river he encountered a tribe of fierce women. They reminded him of a story from ancient Greece about warrior women named "Amazons". Because of this, he named the river Amazon.

The Amazon Basin is the land covered by the Amazon River. The Amazon Basin is 6,915,000 km2 (2,670,000 mi2). It is bigger than many countries. The land it covers includes parts of Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, and Ecuador.

In the Amazon Basin there is also the Amazon Rain-forest. The Amazon Rain-forest is the biggest rain-forest in the world. It covers 5.5 million km2, almost half of all rain-forests in the world. Lots of animals and plants can only be found in the Amazon Rain-forest. In some places, the vegetation in the rain-forest is so dense that sunlight can't reach the ground.

The people who live along the Amazon have used the river for agriculture and transportation for thousands of years.

title: Wikijunior:South America/The Amazon


text:
Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Moon

Tides and Moon Phases
I think the Moon is a special case and you need to mention its effects on the Earth - tides. You also need to explain full moons and half moons etc. because kids will want to understand that phenomena. :81.155.252.32 22:39, 15 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * That's a good idea. Theresa knott 23:44, 15 Nov 2004 (UTC)

How about a couple questions like: Why does the moon change it's appearance? Why does the sun appear to rise over the eastern horizon and set over the western horizon? --Jsigler (talk) 19:11, 4 August 2008 (UTC)

Another comment
Just to have it said: Today's version of "how much would I weigh on ..." is total rubbish. Be consisent with the other articles! The way you explain it, there'd only be the need for one general "how much would I weigh on ..." section at the very beginning of the whole topic. That is of course right in every sense, but since the question itself is rather wishy washy I suggest to handle it the way it was done in the other articles and re-revert to my version! Kilogram _is_ an acceptable unit btw.! Or should we rather call Newtons into play?

 * Those kilograms are acceptable units of mass, and no longer acceptable units of force. They do not change depending on your location.  It is improper for you to give the impression that they do.  There are no kilograms force in the modern metric system, the International System of Units (SI).

 * Note that kilograms, not newtons (lowercase), are the proper units SI for your weight in the doctor's office (the terminology used in these articles even before my edits), or any time we weigh ourselves for purposes of fitness and health, in the medical sciences and in sports.  Metric1000 13:52, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Lunnik or Lunik or Luna
I'm interested in this spelling as everything I have seen spells the Soviet lunar spacecraft as Lunik or more usually Luna. Evil Monkey 00:48, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC)

 * Be bold! Please, look it up, put the correct spelling in, use a citation to back up your fact-checking (see section on fact-checking in proofreading plan. Thanks!  -- SV Resolution 18:19, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

Tides
This page does an ok job of explaing tides, but not why there are two high tides/day (instead of one). I'm wondering if a graphic along the lines of this would be too complicated for this audience? See --Duk 17:48, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I think your image would take a lot of words to explain. And we are already WAY over our word limit for this book.  If we had a book just about the moon, or just about physical oceanography, I think it would fit.  But I don't think we are going to get that specialized in a series of 48-page booklets for 8-11 year olds.  --SV Resolution 18:11, 26 September 2005 (UTC)
 * OK, I made some diagrams for Tide and agree they are probably too much for this audience.--Duk 05:32, 27 September 2005 (UTC)

to-scale diagram
In addition to the , it would be nice to show a picture that not only shows the true relative sizes of Earth and Luna, but also the distance between them -- something like
 * en:Image:Earth-Moon.jpg or
 * http://david.carybros.com/mirror/image/toscale.gif (see http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/moon_ap_per.html for details)

 * This looks great - please insert it into the article!
 * Thanks, David Kernow 16:31, 24 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Moon


text:
User:Marius~enwikibooks

Sono lo stesso Marius di Wikipedia.

title: User:Marius~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Yann

Deletion?
I've just come back to my wikibook, The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish and I see that the title page is up for deletion, suggested by you. Yes, I realize that someone has marred my title page. This ok, it will be cleaned soon. Consider The Wrong Way to Learn Spanish active again.

Moonlightembrace 06:45, 4 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Junk
I guess you refer for the Circus and Brothel stuff. I beg excuses. I got a good laugh at the page, which I hope will end up in an equivalent of the BJAODN of the wikipedia, and, as I did look for the reference, and it was indeed real, I couldn't resist linking it. I will go on with my serious work at the Wikiversidad :) By the way, I hope we will go soon to es.wikibooks. -- 4lex 09:30, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I have just asked for it to the admins in es.wikibooks . I hope the spanish Wikiversidad will move to es.wikibooks soon enough (in a matter of days-weeks). -- 4lex 09:40, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Programming:C plus plus
Hi Yann, saw that you were an administrator active currently (i.e. with an entry in Special:Recent changes. I'd like an independent person set right the mess in Programming:C plus plus and Programming: C -/- -/- and their talk pages/give at least guidance.

These pages contain related talk:
 * Talk:Programming:C plus plus
 * Talk:Programming:C plus plus/archive1
 * Talk:Programming:C plus plus/single page
 * Talk:Programming: C -/- -/-
 * Talk:Programming: C -/- -/- (Archive)
 * User talk:Panic2k4
 * User talk:Dysprosia
 * Staff lounge
 * Staff lounge

I had earlier asked User:Dysprosia to help. But I'd like other wikibookians also to help. The traffic to Staff lounge seems too low to be helpful. -- Paddu 16:09, 18 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Chinese spams
Talk moved to Staff_lounge. Please answer there. Yann 08:43, 20 Nov 2004 (UTC)

whoops
Hi,

I think it's useless to put comments on anonymous users' pages like User:220.58.70.54. AT least it should be on the talk page. ;o) Yann 16:18, 2 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Fixed. It's useful because when they log in again from the same IP (this happens with maybe half of them) they'll see that they have messages that say "WE KNOW THAT YOU ARE TESTING IN MODULES YOU ARE NOT INVISIBLE" and will not feel like testing in modules anymore :-) - Omegatron 20:34, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

LPIC
Yann,

I just saw that some 6 months ago you posted on User_talk:minderaser interest in helping w/ LPI Linux Certification. I'm sorry it's taken me so long to respond...I've been w/out a 'net connection all this time :-(. The answer, though, is an emphatic YES!!.

Contact me on your talk page here, User_talk:minderaser, or email/AIM (preferred -- info is at User:minderaser)

minderaser 23:27, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Yann,

Whoa! I hadn't realized that you'd upload so much!! When I did my above post I had only looked at the main contents page and saw lots of red (undone) links and assumed nothing (or very little) was added. Only when I looked at LPIC1_Exam_101 and tried to discover why none of the items in Topic 101 were linking at all did I discover how much material you had posted.

Anyway, I still hope to hear from you!

minderaser 01:17, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Your De-Adminship
Hello. I would like to inform you that you will have your sysop rights removed here on 1 Nov 2006 due to inactivity. If you would like to discuss the matter, please see WB:RFA. You can re-apply for adminship at a later date if you wish. Thanks. -within focus 21:32, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yann


text:
Ruby Programming/Syntax/Lexicology

Identifiers
An identifier is a name used to identify a variable, method, or class.

As with most languages, valid identifiers consist of alphanumeric characters (A-Za-z0-9) and underscores (_), but may not begin with a digit (0-9). Additionally, identifiers that are method names may end with a question mark (?), exclamation point (!), or equal sign (=).

There are no arbitrary restrictions to the length of an identifier (i.e. it may be as long as you like, limited only by your computer's memory). Finally, there are reserved words which may not be used as identifiers.

Examples: foobar ruby_is_simple

Comments
Line comments run from a bare '#' character to the end of the line. Code commenting and documentation is best implemented with Ruby Embedded Documentation. http://www.ruby-doc.org/docs/ProgrammingRuby/html/rdtool.html

Examples: print "Hello" # this line prints "Hello"
 * 1) this line does nothing;

Embedded Documentation
Example: =begin Everything between a line beginning with `=begin' down to one beginning with `=end' will be skipped by the interpreter. These reserved words must begin in column 1. =end

Reserved Words
The following words are reserved in Ruby: __FILE__ and    def       end     in      or      self   unless __LINE__ begin  defined? ensure module  redo    super  until BEGIN    break  do        false   next    rescue  then   when END      case   else      for     nil     retry   true   while alias    class  elsif     if      not     return  undef  yield

You can find some examples of using them here.

Expressions
Example: true (1 + 2) * 3 foo if test then okay else not_good end All variables, literals, control structures, etcetera are expressions. Using these together is called a program. You can divide expressions with newlines or semicolons — however, a newline with a preceding backslash (\) is continued to the following line.

Since in Ruby control structures are expressions as well, one can do the following: The above equivalent in a language such as C would generate a syntax error since control structures are not expressions in the C language.

|

title: Ruby Programming/Syntax/Lexicology


text:
Ruby Programming/Syntax

 * Syntax
 * Lexicology
 * Identifiers
 * Comments
 * Embedded Documentation
 * Reserved Words
 * Expressions
 * Variables and Constants
 * Local Variables
 * Instance Variables
 * Class Variables
 * Global Variables
 * Constants
 * Pseudo Variables
 * Pre-defined Variables
 * Literals
 * Numerics
 * Strings
 * Interpolation
 * Backslash Notation
 * The % Notation
 * Command Expansion
 * Regular Expressions
 * Arrays
 * Hashes
 * Ranges
 * Symbols
 * Operators
 * Assignment
 * Self Assignment
 * Multiple Assignment
 * Conditional Assignment
 * Scope
 *
 *
 *
 * Control Structures
 * Conditional Branches
 *
 * modifier
 *
 * modifier
 *
 * Loops
 *
 * modifier
 *
 * modifier
 *
 * ...
 *
 *
 *
 *
 * Exception Handling
 *
 *
 * modifier
 * Miscellanea
 *
 * Method Calls
 *
 * Iterators
 *
 * Classes
 * Class Definition
 * Instance Variables
 * Class Variables
 * Class Methods
 * Instantiation
 * Declaring Visibility
 * Private
 * Public
 * Protected
 * Instance Variables
 * Inheritance
 * Mixing in Modules
 * Ruby Class Meta-Model

title: Ruby Programming/Syntax


text:
Modern History

Introduction

 * /Front Cover/
 * /Introduction/
 * /World in 1783/

The engines of change

 * /The abolition of slavery/
 * /The agricultural and industrial revolutions/
 * /Global commerce, competition and empire/
 * /Trade unionism, socialism and marxism/

19th century

 * /Independence in the Americas/
 * /Queen Victoria/
 * /Benjamin Disraeli/
 * /Taiping Rebellion/ - Taiping Rebellion
 * /Napoleon Bonaparte/
 * /Schrammel accordion/
 * /American Civil War/
 * /Franco-Prussian War/ - Franco-Prussian War
 * /Opium Wars/ - Wikipedia
 * Need chapters that include topics:
 * the Suez canal
 * Perry goes to Japan
 * the settlement of Liberia and the decline of African slavery outside Africa
 * the construction of Railroads
 * /First Sino-Japanese War/

20th century

 * /World at the Turn of the Century/
 * /End of Imperial China/
 * /Russo-Japanese War/
 * /First World War/
 * /Russian Revolution/(Wikipedia)
 * /Rise of Fascism, Socialism and Communism/
 * /Great Depression/
 * /Second Sino-Japanese War/
 * /Spanish Civil War/ (Wikipedia)
 * /Greco-Turkish War/(Wikipedia)
 * /Second World War/
 * /J.R.R. Tolkien/(Wikipedia)
 * /Partition of India/
 * /Beginning of the Cold War/
 * The Cold War
 * Cold War (notes)
 * /Decolonisation/
 * /Korean War/
 * /Space Exploration/
 * /Sino-Soviet Split/
 * /Earl Lincoln Poole/
 * /Vietnam War/
 * /War over Kashmir and Bangladesh/
 * /Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan/
 * /Fall of the Soviet Union/
 * /Gulf War/
 * /End of Apartheid/
 * /Dawn of the Computer Age/
 * /World at the end of the 20th Century/
 * /Need a section on Nazi Germany/

21st Century

 * /World at the Turn of the Millenium/
 * /Wikipedia/
 * /East Timor/
 * /Bush's Administration/
 * /Beaconsfield mine collapse/

Major People
The major people in this time frame are:
 * 1) Queen Victoria
 * 2) Benjamin Disraeli
 * 3) Mahatma Gandhi
 * 4) Benito Mussolini
 * 5) Mao Zedong
 * 6) Adolf Hitler
 * 7) Jawahar Lal Nehru
 * 8) Deng Xiaoping
 * 9) George W. Bush
 * 10) The Human Race

Authors

 * 1) Kernigh
 * 2) Dr. C.J. (international relations articles-Cold War, First World War, American Civil War, Cuban Missle Crisis)
 * 3) Other and anonymous contributors

Storia moderna

title: Modern History


text:
Modern History/Second World War

The Second World War (or World War II) was the costliest war in history in terms of lives lost. Over fifty million people died either in direct combat, raids or civilian extermination. The war was fought between the 'Allies' (The British Commonwealth, the United States, China, the Soviet Union (post-1941) and the governments-in-exile of most of the European countries), and the 'Axis' (Germany, Italy, Japan and the Soviet Union (pre-1941).

In the beginning, most of the fighting was in Europe, but with the attack on Pearl Harbour, combat moved extensively to the Pacific.

The World at the end of the First World War

 * information about the Versailles Treaty, German resentment and such in here*
 * US repudiation of the Treaty of Guarantee
 * League of Nations
 * 1920 - US isolationism - repudiation of League of Nations
 * Anglo-US naval disarmament
 * US insistence on the end of the Anglo-Japanese treaties

The Great Depression
Main Article: The Great Depression

 * Withdrawal of US bank loans to Germany
 * 2.3m unemployed Germans

The Rise of Fascism, Socialism and Communism
Main Article: The Rise of Fascism, Socialism and Communism

Isolationist US military planning

 * War plans black and red.

Invasion of Abyssinia

 * failure of the League of Nations
 * the realignment of Italy, a guarantor of Versailles, with Germany

breaking of the Versailles Treaty

 * invasion of Austria, Sudetenland etc
 * Appeasement

Spanish Civil War
Main Article: Modern History/Spanish Civil War

Beginning of Hostilities

 * The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact - Germany secures its eastern frontier
 * Poland (invaded by Germany and the USSR), Finland (invaded by USSR), France (invaded by Germany), Dunkirk, the Blitzkrieg*

British Commonwealth fights alone

 * June 22nd 1940(fall of France) - June 21 1941 (Invasion of USSR by Germany)
 * The battle of Britain
 * supply of Germany by USSR
 * supply of British by USA
 * Indecision of USA
 * Atlantic convoys and the Battle of the Atlantic
 * The war against Japan by China and the British Empire

The German invasion of the Soviet Union
On June 22, 1941, over 3 million Axis soldiers marched into the Soviet Union. The army was comprised mainly of Germans, but also included smaller numbers of Italians, Romanians, Hungarians, and Bulgarians.

Within weeks, the Red Army was in shambles. Most of the air force was destroyed, and the Wehrmacht was approaching Moscow with lightning speed.

The Ukrainian and Belorussian people, tired of living under Soviet Russian domination, ran happily towards the approaching army. Of course, these people were killed, as part of Hitler's plan to colonize the Ukraine with families of SS soldiers and their families.

The Italian invasion of North Africa and The Afrika Korps
After Hitler`s successful blitzkrieg into Poland and France which resulted in the Third Reich becoming dominant in Europe, Mussolini felt unsatisfied because he himself didn't gain any significant victories or territories. Mussolini planned to occupy Egypt from his colony in Libya. He hope to get a quick victory that would boost Italian army morale for the Greece campaign.
 * Rommel and the Afrika Korps here*

Before World War II, the main Italian strategies were defensive, because Libya had a dangerous position with two fronts, The Anglo-Egyptian border in the east and the French colony of Tunisia in the west. But, after France's defeat at the hand of Nazi Germany, Vichy France was no longer a threat to Libya from the west and so Mussolini asked his Generals to attack the British across the Egyptian border. But Italian troops lacked experience and preparation and the campaign went wrong for Mussolini. After capturing Mensah Matruh, the Italian offensive halted. The British used tactical superiority to launch a counter attack, not only to recapture their lost territory but also to thrust deep into Italian territory. Almost all the Italian attacking force was killed or captured, leading to General Graziani resigning from his position in Africa. Mussolini replaced him with General Gariboldi, who took command of all remaining Italian forces. Hitler, who didn't want Mussolini to lose in Africa, send Erwin Rommel to assist the Italians with only a single motorised battalion at the beginning. Rommel's army in Africa was known as the Deutsche Afrika Korps (German Africa Corps.)

The British General Wavell preferred not to continue advancing into Italian territory because of 2 factors. The first was the long supply line for the British, making it difficult to organize, and the second was Churchill's decision to transfer some of the British army in Egypt to Greece in order to help Greece to defend itself from the Nazis advancing army. Wavell thought conservatively that both the British and Italian-German didn't have enough forces to launch more offensive campaigns, and so did General Gariboldi and OKW (Ober Komando Wehrmacht). But,Rommel thought progressively, he decided that this was a great chance to attack the unprepared British, although he didn't have enough support because Hitler could only give him one more battalion. Rommel grouped his Italian-German armoured division together so he could used it effectively. On the other side, Wavell`s tanks were scattered amongst the infantry. Although the armies' numbers were equally matched, Rommel's tactics made the Deutsche Afrika Korps win over the British Desert Rats. The British were forced to withdraw and fell back to Egypt, apart from the Tobruk garrison, which was surrounded and placed under siege.

Beginning of war in the Pacific

 * Pearl Harbour, Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, etc*

The turning of the Tide

 * El Alamein and the North Africa campaign resulting in 300,000 axis troops lost or taken prisoner
 * Stalingrad with 500,000 axis troops lost or taken prisoner
 * Kursk, Moscow and so on*

Middle Europe

 * Sicily, and so on*

The Beginning of the End

 * New Guinea, Normandy*

The Last Resistance

 * Midway, Battle of the Bulge
 * Burma and the victories of the Indian army Japanese lose half their force in SE Asia c.200,000

End of the European War

 * Battle of Berlin*

End of the Pacific War
The European war had ended - but the World War had not. The fight in the Pacific proved to be getting as tougher than ever, and so it was decided that the United States would use atomic bombs to end the war. [insert more text]
 * Hiroshima, Nagasaki*

The World at the end of the Second World War
World War 2 led to a fundamental shift in power. The European powers were devastated and ceased to be major world powers. This left the USA and the greatly expanded Soviet Block as the pre-eminent world powers.

The end of World War 2 saw the recovery of a war-torn Europe under the Marshall Plan which provided financial aid to countries devastated by the war, the expansion of the communist Soviet Block led to the beginning of superpower hostilities between the Soviet Union and NATO in what was to become the Cold War. In America, following the death of President Roosevelt, the newly elected Harry S. Truman sought a much stricter role in the containment of the sudden rapid spread of Communism. In response to the rigged democratic elections in Eastern Europe by the Soviet Red Army and communist officials, and the newly made "sphere of Soviet influence" Truman announced the Truman Doctrine which stated that any country perceived to be under threat from internal or external Communist governments, would be entitled to receive financial and military assistance.

Notable examples of intervention against communism include the British military and US financial intervention in the Greek Civil War (1946 - 1949) where communists and royalists fought for power, the Korean War in which communist forces battled against a UN force led by the USA and the Vietnam War where communist Vietnamese nationalists fought successively against the post war British occupation forces, the French and the USA eventually emerging victorious in the 1970s.

The Soviet occupation resulted in a divided Europe including a divided Germany where communist states were on the Eastern side, behind guarded borders what were commonly referred to in the West as the "Iron Curtain", and democratic states on the Western side. The liberation of Eastern Europe from the Soviet Block was not achieved until the 1990s.

title: Modern History/Second World War


text:
Cookbook:Coconut Chutney (South Indian)

| Cuisine of India | Side Dishes

Coconut Chutney is served as a side dish for a lot of Indian snacks and breakfast items. It can be mild to extra hot depending on the individual preference. This recipe is from South India.

Base

 * 1½ Tbsp channa dal
 * 1 cup finely-grated fresh coconut
 * 6–8 green hot chile peppers
 * ½ tsp tamarind paste
 * 1 Tbsp chopped cilantro
 * 1 tsp ginger paste
 * Salt to taste

Seasoning

 * ½ tsp oil
 * ½ tsp mustard seed
 * 3-4 curry leaves, chopped
 * ¼ tsp asafoetida

Procedure

 * 1) Dry roast the channa dal until browned. Allow it to cool.
 * 2) Grind the roasated dal, coconut, chiles, tamarind paste, cilantro, ginger paste, and salt in a blender with as little water as possible. For best results the final consistency must be somewhere between a coarse and smooth paste.
 * 3) For seasoning, heat the oil in a small ladle. Add the mustard seeds to hot oil, and allow them to crackle. When the crackling starts subsiding, add the asafoetida and the curry leaves, and stir for a few seconds.
 * 4) Add the seasoning mixture to the chutney, and mix well.

title: Cookbook:Coconut Chutney (South Indian)


text:
Cookbook talk:Coconut Chutney (South Indian)

History from en:wikipedia, article since deleted.

 * 05:58, 30 Oct 2004 Poccil
 * 04:03, 16 Aug 2004 Nunh-huh
 * 23:35, 14 Aug 2004 Ianb (vfd - recipie)
 * 17:22, 14 Aug 2004 CrazyHorse

-- Francs2000 13:13, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Modern History

The major problem that I can see in the development of this Wikibook is that, while there are large, ready entries at Wikipedia, we're looking for a textbook-style thing not an encyclopedia entry. While the information will largely be similar in context, we should try not to just direct copy-paste or direct link to Wikipedia articles. Wikipedia is our encyclopedia, lets make Wikibooks our textbook. --DorianGray 13:14, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I have a cunning plan...
Okay, bear with me here. I believe this is an ideal topic for the creation of a Wikireader document (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiReader). I may well start one up, and see how it fares. Let's face it, an enormous amount of effort has gone into Wikipedia, and we should use its resources as much as possible. Interested? --Mark Lewis 19:43, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

November 15, 2005
I have been planning to expand Modern History. Unlike World History, this book would not be constrained by AP requirements; it would be able to go into more detail about the last few centuries. Very recent events (like US in Iraq, 2003) would remain excluded from this book.

I would start by writing stub chapters. Each stub chapter would provide a very short narrative and link to some Wikipedia articles. This would accomplish having a chronological narrative. Then I would continue by adding other features, like listing important persons and providing review questions.

My contributions will be slow. (I am busy with Guide to UNIX.) This is a wiki, though, so other users are welcome to start work now! --Kernigh 22:01, 15 November 2005 (UTC)

Useful link
For this and other sections of Wikibooks - the Internet Modern History Sourcebook at []

Jackiespeel 18:19, 16 January 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Modern History


text:
Talk:Latin/Lesson 8-Imperfect and Future

Untitled
If you already have an understanding of 4 conjugations, this page's presentation beyond the 1st and 2nd conjugation imperfects may confuse you. It certainly will not help a Latin student that does not understand advanced grammar. (Our contributor laid out a unique teaching methedology, which I agree with, and will try to see to its completion, but right now it would only confuse and not teach.)

Terms necessary to define (which are not defined) are: (Could these two be part of the natural variations in the future?)
 * long I conjugation (ambigious--could refer to either 4th conjugation or prounciation--I really don't know.)
 * short I conjugation-- probably refers to 3rd and 4th -io that does not have a macron over the i, which isn't really a rule that can be derrived or explained easily in this chapter because that is a function of the rhythmical stresses (or accent) of the word.
 * consonatic conjugation (part of the 'i-stem' rule--yet to be defined.)

It's probably much much simpler than this, but without explanation, I'm a little lost.

User:Smkatz 14:07, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I decided to remove this paragraph, until the page is corrected. Implying that the -e- change happens in the imperfect seems factually incorrect.

However, eventually you'll have to add an e before the ba (as in capi-ebam (which means I captured or I caught)) (Wikipedians are not presently agreed on a common translation.) But this is only necessary in the long I-conjugation [fourth--as in venire?], the short I-conjugation and the consonantic conjugation (also called the io rule--a variation that happens in the future with 3rd (and 4th?) conjugation verbs).

Smkatz 14:19, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)