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Talk:Human Physiology/Nutrition

General discussion on level of appropriate detail
Can we have a table on micronutrients? That would totally fit in and be easily read. Dannette? Can you do that?

K who took out all of the info I spent all day putting in on micronutrients see this is why I hate this stuff.

The parts cut out are pasted back here.

Dont we neeed this to be a little hard I mean it is a phys class.

The only reason why those things were moved was because we were repeating ourselves so many times.. we had vitamins listed 3 times. The deleted parts are pasted down below.. so they can be brought back to fit in what is already there. Sorry I did that.. really thought it was for the best. ;-)

 * I agree that there was a repeat of information. We need to come up with a nicely organized way to present the information. Deciding what is an appropriate level of detail is always tough. We want enough information so people learn new things and are challenged, but we don't want to drown the reader in detail. For vitamins and minerals, what types of information do we want to include--the actions of the micronutrient in the body, good sources of the micronutrient in foods, disease conditions that result from lack of the micronutrient? Is it best in a table or a list? I appreciate the work everyone is doing. Sorry for the frustrations, but I think this is a valuable process. Provophys 03:55, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

 * which type of drought are we talking about? 41.116.155.172 (discuss) 20:57, 17 April 2023 (UTC)
 * you can give me a deep information 41.116.155.172 (discuss) 20:58, 17 April 2023 (UTC)

Thank you that helps to know how much detail we should go into.

PLEASE VOTE: Do we want these tables?
I took these tables out of the protein section (from the old chapter portion). I moved them here, for now, and you can vote to keep them or not. To vote, just put four tildas (the squiggle thing next to the "1" that looks like ~). When you put four in a row, it signs your login name and puts a date stamp, like this: Provophys 20:00, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

So, edit this paragraph and vote under either heading (put comments if you like). When there are five votes in either category a decision will be made.

Delete the table--we don't want it in this chapter
I'm voting for removal.Provophys 20:00, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

There is too much info on the table and they just take up too much space. I vote for cutting them way, way down. Or somehow summarizing the info in a more useful form.never2late 01:32, 5 April 2007 (UTC) Like how about the letter abbreviation, the name and the remarks???never2late 01:33, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Keep the table--it is important information for the nutrition chapter
I like the tables- but I think they could be edited down some (or redone) to make them more student friendly Stephanie greenwood 21:24, 4 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Really it is a question of whether or not to include information on every single amino acid. If yes, then what information is most important. Provophys 04:02, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Brianna made a new vitamin table and I inserted it for her- I think that it looks much better and accomplishes what we need- if it's not what we want then we can take it out Stephanie greenwood 02:48, 5 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I think the vitamin table looks good. The only issue I have is that others cannot edit any of the text (since it is included as an image). The formatting commands are tricky for a table, but if you want to send me the table as a Word file I can format it as a wikitable, which could then be editable by all. Provophys 03:25, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

So we added in new tables on vitamins and minerals- I think that they are much better! I also think that the part on the vitamin table with the problems associated with too much or too little vitamins is important- we are trying to become nurses after all and may see some of this Stephanie greenwood 15:35, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

Here is the table
Note: The pKa values of amino acids are typically slightly different when the amino acid is inside a protein. Protein pKa calculations are sometimes used to calculate the change in the pKa value of an amino acid in this situation.

Note: The Stop Codon is not an amino acid, but is included for completeness.

= Old Chapter: Feel free to use info from here if you want to =

I decided to move the old chapter here to clean things up on the module page. Feel free to take any of this information and move it up to the new chapter (this will all be deleted in a few days). Note: I removed many of the subheadings because the chapter table of contents was so huge and messy.

In 2004 Morgan Spurlock made the documentary film Super Size Me that chronicled his adventures in poor nutrition. In the film Morgan Spurlock ate three meals a day at McDonalds and quit exercising to see what effects would ensue. As you can guess, the results from his “McDiet” were nearly catastrophic. During his 30 day experiment he consumed an average of 5,000 calories per day. As a result, he gained 25 pounds (from 185lbs to 210lbs), experienced mood swings, sexual dysfunction, heart palpitations, and nearly experienced liver failure.

In this chapter we will be discussing various aspects of nutrition and relating back to some of the effects that Morgan Spurlock experienced during the filming of Super Size Me.

What is Nutrition?
Nutrition is a science which studies the relationship between diet and states of health and disease. Nutrition is also the study of foods and beverages that nourish the human body on the cellular level. Dieticians are health professionals who are specialized in this area of expertise. They are also the only highly trained health professionals able to provide safe, evidence-based and accurate dietary advice and interventions.

Between the extremes of optimal health and death from starvation or malnutrition, there is an array of disease states that can be caused or alleviated by changes in diet. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative impacts on health, which may lead to diseases such as scurvy, obesity or osteoporosis, as well as psychological and behavioral problems. Moreover, excessive ingestion of elements that have no apparent role in health, (e.g. lead, mercury, PCBs, dioxins), may incur toxic and potentially lethal effects, depending on the dose. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.

Where did it all start?
Humans are believed by scientists to have evolved as omnivorous hunter-gatherers over the past 250,000 years. Early diets were primarily vegetarian with infrequent game meats and fish where available.

 * c. 475 BC: Anaxagoras states that food is absorbed by the human body and therefore contained "homeomerics" (generative components), thereby deducing the existence of nutrients.
 * c. 400 BC: Hippocrates says, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food."
 * The first recorded nutritional experiment is found in the Bible's Book of Daniel. Daniel and his friends were captured by the king of Babylon during an invasion of Israel. Selected as court servants, they were to share in the king's fine foods and wine. But they objected, preferring vegetables (pulses) and water in accordance with their Jewish dietary restrictions. The king's chief steward reluctantly agreed to a trial. Daniel and his friends received their diet for 10 days and were then compared to the king’s men. Appearing healthier, they were allowed to continue with their diet.
 * 1500s: Scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci compared metabolism to a burning candle.
 * 1747: Dr. James Lind, a physician in the British navy, performed the first scientific nutrition experiment, discovering that lime juice saved sailors who had been at sea for years from scurvy, a deadly and painful bleeding disorder. The discovery was ignored for forty years, after which British sailors became known as "limeys." The essential vitamin C within lime juice would not be recognized by scientists until the 1930s.
 * 1770: Antoine Lavoisier, the "Father of Nutrition and Chemistry" discovered the details of metabolism, demonstrating that the oxidation of food is the source of body heat.
 * 1790: George Fordyce recognized calcium necessary for fowl survival.

Nutrition and health
Ill health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, producing either an excess or deficiency, which in turn affects body functions cumulatively. Moreover, because most nutrients are, in some way or another, involved in cell-to-cell signaling (e.g. as building block or part of a hormone or signaling 'cascades'), deficiency or excess of various nutrients affects hormonal function indirectly. Thus, because they largely regulate the expression of genes, hormones represent a link between nutrition and how our genes are expressed, i.e. our phenotype. The strength and nature of this link are continually under investigation, but observations especially in recent years have demonstrated a pivotal role for nutrition in hormonal activity and function and therefore in health.

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 * Essential Amino Acids, these are amino acids that can not be made by the human body, these include these 9:
 * Histidine
 * Isoleucine
 * Leucine
 * Lysine
 * Methionine
 * Phenylalanine
 * Threonine
 * Tryptophan
 * Valine
 * You can remember these in this “Hey It's Like Lovely Material Please Touch The Velvet”.

 * Nonessential amino acids, these include these 11:
 * Alanine
 * Arginine
 * Aspartic acid
 * Cysteine
 * Cystine
 * Glutamic acid
 * Glutamine
 * Glycine
 * Proline
 * Serine
 * Tryosine

Amino acids are water soluble and travel via the portal vein and then to the liver, primarily three amino acids are in the blood circulation on an average 20% of amino acids we consume go on anabolic reactions, and about 57% go towards catabolic reactions such as (gluconeogenesis) it is triggered by high levels of glucogon that is produced it the pancreas to stimulate the production of glucose in the liver. The other 23% are circulating as free amino acids. The liver is the primary regulator of amino acid conversions so transamination and deamination in order to in the addition to make new amino acids and proteins will be controlled by the liver. One unique thing about branched chain amino acids Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine is that these because of their branched chain structure are the only amino acids that can be metabolized by the muscle. This occurs in only certain circumstances and can provide the muscles with energy during starvation. The liver during starvation has to provide for every cell in the body whereas, the muscle does not have to share with the rest of the body. In the case of starvation the liver is providing for energy and the body is trying to conserve it's energy use, in this time the muscles will take over and use the three branching chain essential amino acids, these are Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine. The muscle breaks these down only for a short period of time to help with conservation of energy.

Dietary Proteins Dietary proteins fall into two categories; complete proteins and incomplete proteins. Complete proteins include ample amounts of all essential amino acids. Examples of complete proteins include meat, fish, poultry, cheese, eggs, and milk. Incomplete proteins contain some but not all of the essential amino acids required by the human body. Examples of incomplete proteins include legumes, and leafy green vegetables.

Vitamins Mineral and/or vitamin (tocotrienol and tocopherol) deficiency or excess may yield symptoms of diminishing health such as goiter, scurvy, osteoporosis, weak immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.

In humans, there are thirteen vitamins, divided into two groups, the four fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and the nine water-soluble vitamins (eight B vitamins and vitamin C).

Fatty acids In addition to sufficient intake, an appropriate balance of essential fatty acids - omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids - has been discovered to be crucial for maintaining health. Both of these unique "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins which function as hormones. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (which can be made in the body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or taken in through marine food sources), serves as building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g. weakly-inflammation PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA are made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which partly explains the importance of omega-3/omega-6 balance for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people generally consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils that have reduced amounts of essential fatty acids along with an excessive amount of omega-6 relative to omega-3.

The rate of conversions of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the respective prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 made from AA toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 made from DGLA. Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). Because different types and amounts of food eaten/absorbed affect insulin, glucagon and other hormones to varying degrees, not only the amount of omega-3 versus omega-6 eaten but also the general composition of the diet therefore determine health implications in relation to essential fatty acids, inflammation (e.g. immune function) and mitosis (i.e. cell division). Chemically, fatty acids can be described as long-chain monocarboxylic acids and have a general structure of CH3(CH2)nCOOH. The length of the chain usually ranges from 12 to 24, always with an even number of carbons. When the carbon chain contains no double bonds, it is called saturated. If it contains one or more such bonds, it is unsaturated. The presence of double bonds generally reduces the melting point of fatty acids. Furthermore, unsaturated fatty acids can occur either in cis or trans geometric isomers. In most naturally occurring fatty acids, the double bonds are in the cis configuration.

Glycerides Glycerides are lipids possessing a glycerol core structure with one or more fatty acyl groups, which are fatty acid-derived chains attached to the glycerol backbone by ester linkages. Glycerides with three acyl groups (triglycerides or neutral fats) are the main storage form of fat in animals and plants An important type of glyceride-based molecule found in biological membranes, such as the cell's plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles, are the phosphoglycerides or glycerophospholipids. These are phospholipids that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid-derived "tails" by ester or, more rarely, ether linkages and to one "head" group by a phosphate ester linkage. The head groups of the phospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine (lecithin), phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylinositol. These phospholipids are subject to a variety of reactions in the cell: for instance, polar head groups or fatty acid tails can be released from specific phospholipids through enzyme-catalyze hydrolysis to generate second messengers involved in signal transduction. In the case of phosphatidylinositol, the head group can be enzymatically modified by the addition of one to three phosphate molecules, and this constitutes another mechanism of cell signaling. While phospholipids are the major component of biological membranes, other non-glyceride lipid components like sphingolipids and sterols (such as cholesterol in animal cell membranes) are also found in biological membranes.

A biological membrane is a form of lipid bilayer, as is a liposome. Formation of lipid bilayers is a spontaneous process when the glycerophospholipids described above are placed in water. In an aqueous milieu, the polar heads of lipids tend to orient toward the polar, aqueous environment, while the hydrophobic tails tend to minimize their contact with water. The nonpolar tails of lipids (U) tend to cluster together, forming a lipid bilayer (1) or a micelle (2). The polar heads (P) face the aqueous environment. Micelles form when single-tailed amphiphilic lipids are placed in a polar milieu, while lipid bilayers form when two-tailed phospholipids are placed in a polar environment (Fig. 2). Micelles are "monolayer" spheres and can only reach a certain size, whereas bilayers can be considerably larger. They can also form tubules. Bilayers that fold back upon themselves form a hollow sphere, enclosing a separate aqueous compartment, which is the basis of biological membranes.

Micelles and bilayers separate out from the polar milieu by a process known as the "hydrophobic effect." When dissolving a nonpolar substance in a polar environment, the polar molecules (i.e. water in an aqueous solution) become more ordered around the dissolved nonpolar substance, since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the nonpolar molecule. Therefore, in an aqueous environment, the polar water molecules form an ordered "clathrate" cage around the dissolved nonpolar molecule. However, when the nonpolar molecules separate out from the polar liquid, the entropy (state of disorder) of the polar molecules in the liquid increases. This is essentially a form of phase separation, similar to the spontaneous separation of oil and water into two separate phases when one puts them together.

Self-organization of lipids. A lipid bilayer is shown on the left and a micelle on the right. The self-organization depends on the concentration of the lipid present in solution. Below the critical micelle concentration, the lipids form a single layer on the liquid surface and are dispersed in solution. At the first critical micelle concentration (CMC-I), the lipids organize in spherical micelles, at the second critical micelle concentration (CMC-II) into elongated pipes, and at the lamellar point (LM or CMC-III) into stacked lamellae of pipes. The CMC depends on the chemical composition, mainly on the ratio of the head area and the tail length.

Lipids Lipids play diverse and important roles in nutrition and health. Many lipids are absolutely essential for life. However, there is also considerable awareness that abnormal levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol (in hypercholesterolemia) and, more recently, trans fatty acids, are risk factors for heart disease and other diseases

Sugars

Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is one of the most important carbohydrates. The cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration. The natural form (D-glucose) is also referred to as dextrose, especially in the food industry. This article deals with the D-form of glucose (The mirror-image of the molecule is called L-glucose. Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in biology. Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, providing 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) of food energy per gram. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. starch) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through glycolysis and later in the reactions of the Citric acid cycle (TCAC), glucose is oxidized to eventually form CO2 and water, yielding energy, mostly in the form of ATP. The insulin reaction, and other mechanisms, regulate the concentration of glucose in the blood. A high fasting blood sugar level is an indication of prediabetic and diabetic conditions.

All major dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine the oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the entrecotes by SLC5A1 and later across their basal membrane by SLC2A2. Some of glucose goes directly to fuel brain cells and erythrocytes, while the rest makes its way to the liver and muscles, where it is stored as glycogen, and to fat cells, where it is stored as fat. Glycogen is the body's auxiliary energy source, tapped and converted back into glucose when there is need for energy. Glycogen is a polysaccharide that is the principal storage form of glucose (Glc) in animal and human cells. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol in many cell types. Hepatocytes (liver cells) have the highest concentration of it - up to 8% of the fresh weight in well fed state, or 100–120 g in an adult - giving liver a distinctive, "starchy" taste. In the muscles, glycogen is found in a much lower concentration (1% of the muscle mass), but the total amount exceeds that in liver. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and white blood cells. Function and regulation of liver glycogen As a carbohydrate meal is eaten and digested, blood glucose levels rise, and the pancreas secretes insulin. Glucose from the portal vein enters the liver cells (hepatocytes). Insulin acts on the hepatocytes to stimulate the action of several enzymes, including glycogen synthase. Glucose molecules are added to the chains of glycogen as long as both insulin and glucose remain plentiful. In this postprandial or "fed" state, the liver takes in more glucose from the blood than it releases.

After a meal has been digested and glucose levels begin to fall, insulin secretion is reduced, and glycogen synthesis stops. About four hours after a meal, glycogen begins to be broken down to be converted again to glucose. Glycogen phosphorylase is the primary enzyme of glycogen breakdown. For the next 8–12 hours, glucose derived from liver glycogen will be the primary source of blood glucose to be used by the rest of the body for fuel.

Sodium For most people it is recommended that they get between 500mg and 2400mg of sodium daily. Food Pyramid

Food can be a medicine or a death sentence
While exercise is very important to good health, to get into optimal shape a proper nutrition regimen must be maintained. As the old cliché goes, "You are what you eat" more specifically, your body is fueled by what you eat, and your body is built and repaired by the macronutrients you eat. Like any responsible car owner knows, if you put dirty lead-based fuel into your car or build it with bad parts it runs less smoothly, and the car is more prone to failure than if you use unleaded fuel or good parts. This is a great analogy to the human body, if you eat dirty foods, your body will not perform as well as it could and it will be prone to illness and injury.

The human body is designed, or has evolved to run well on certain fuels. Unfortunately, McDonald's French fries are not it. When considering the environment which our ancestors lived in, it is easy to see what types of foods our bodies are meant to be fed. For example, the carbohydrates that they ate were mostly berries, nuts, beans and legumes. All of these are very high in fiber and low in sugars. In contrast, the typical western diet is low in fiber and high in sugars. Low-fiber diet is believed to cause many health problems, including chronic constipation, hiatal hernias, intestinal infections, colon cancer, and digestion problems. High sugar diets are believed to be the leading cause of adult onset diabetes as well as obesity. These problems are almost entirely absent in "hunting and gathering" cultures that eat much like our ancestors ate.

Like a car, the human body needs many things to run well. The engine in the car needs to have clean oil, it lubricates the engine and allows it to use fuel more efficiently. In the human body, water does much the same thing. Adequate water intake (hydration) is vital for the human body to use its fuel. For all useful purposes, hydration specifically refers to drinking water and no other liquid. Other liquids contain impurities that can interfere with water intake, they can also be consumed, but drinking water alone is vital. A good rule of thumb in water consumption is to have 1 cup of water per 15 lbs of body weight. The water intake should also be spread throughout the day, and is easy to attain if you drink a glass or two of water with every meal.

Nutrition and sports
Nutrition is very important for improving sports performance. Contrary to popular belief, athletes need only slightly more protein than an average person. These needs are easily met by a balanced diet, and the recommended daily servings are generous enough to meet these needs. Additional protein intake is broken-down to be used as energy or stored as fat. Excess protein consumption can lead to acidification of the blood and kidney problems and should be avoided.

 * Aerobic and anaerobic exercises: Endurance, strength and sprint athletes have different needs. Endurance athletes may require an increased caloric intake.

 * Hydration: Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to good performance. While drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration hinders an athlete’s ability. It is recommended that an athlete drink about 400-600mL 2-3 hours before activity, during exercise he or she should drink 150-350mL every 15 to 20 minutes and after exercise that he or she replace sweat loss by drinking 450-675 mL for every .5 Kg body weight loss during activity. Studies have shown that an athlete that drinks before they feel thirsty stays cooler and performs better than one who drinks on thirst cues. Sports drinks are not necessary unless endurance-type sports are performed.

The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which is stored in muscle as glycogen- a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. When glycogen is not present in muscles, the muscle cells perform anaerobic respiration producing lactic acid, which is responsible for fatigue and burning sensation, and post exercise stiffness in muscles. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes to replace glycogen by consuming a diet high in carbohydrates. Meeting energy needs can help improve performance during the sport, as well as improve overall strength and endurance.

 * Recovery Period: Meeting energy needs is a top priority for any athlete. Studies have shown that consuming carbohydrates in the period of 30 minutes immediately after termination of the activity improves and speeds up recovery period.

Eating Disorders
Malnutrition Malnutrition is a state in which body functions or development suffers due to inadequate or unbalanced food intake. A malnourished person may suffer from starvation or undernutrition which is when an individual lack's food and thus does not obtain sufficient nutrients or energy to sustain proper growth, body functioning, and development.

Starvation is a severe reduction in vitamins, nutrients, and energy intake, and is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation (in excess of 1-2 months) causes permanent organ damage and will eventually result in death.

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, more than 25,000 people die of starvation every day, more than 800 million people are chronically undernourished. On average, every five seconds a child dies from starvation.

Malnutrition is an imbalanced nutrient and or energy intake, regardless of of appearance one can be malnutrition on the fact that they over eat but the food they are consuming is lacking vitamins and minerals needed.

Marasmus is malnutrition caused by a lack of energy referring to Kcalorie intake, this kind of malnutrition the appearance is that of skin and bone.

Kwashiorkor is malnutrition caused by lack of protein, hence, in this kind of malnutrition appearance is a swollen big belly due to inadequate albumin production in the liver, albumin is a protein.

Symptoms

Starved individuals lose substantial fat and muscle mass as the body breaks down these tissues for energy. Catabolysis is the process (medical condition) of a body breaking down the muscles and other tissues in a body in order to keep vital processes such as nervous system and heart muscle working. Catabolysis will not begin until there are no usable sources of energy coming into the body. Catabolysis will break down muscle tissue before it breaks down fat.

Vitamin deficiency is common, often resulting in anemia, beriberi, pellagra, and scurvy. These diseases collectively may cause diarrhea, skin rashes, edema, and heart failure. Individuals are often irritable,fatigue, and lethargic as a result.

Effects Physical

 * Decreased resting metabolic rate (RMR)
 * Drop in sex hormones
 * Decreased sexual interest
 * Amenorrhoea (no menses)
 * Lanugo (growth of insulating hair)
 * Bone loss
 * Constipation and gastrointestinal upset
 * Sleep disorder
 * Muscle weakness
 * Hypothermia
 * Loss of lean body mass
 * Changes in brain chemistry regulating appetite and food cravings

Behavioral
 * Preoccupation with food - collecting recipes
 * Unusual eating habits
 * Increased consumption of fluids
 * Increased use of spices
 * Loss of the body's natural mechanisms for regulating hunger and fullness
 * Less pickiness about tastes
 * Binge eating

Cognitive
 * Decreased concentration
 * Poor judgment
 * Apathy

Emotional and social
 * Depression
 * Anxiety
 * Sandy behavior
 * Lability (constantly changing moods)
 * Psychotic episodes
 * Personality changes
 * Social withdrawal

Treatment

Starvation is usually treated by slowly increasing food intake until no nutrient deficiencies remain. By this time, the diet of a recovering individual should consist of 5,000 calories and twice the Recommended Dietary Allowance of nutrients. Starvation is a result of malnutrition.

Protein Deficiency There are many people that are undernourished and take in too little protein. Adults may suffer from weight loss, weakness, impaired immunity, and other symptoms. This lack of protein can be divesting to infants and children. Chronic protein deficiency in children can lead to Kwashiorkor. The results is a swollen abdomen due to edema (fluid retention) because there are too few proteins in the child's blood plasma. This imbalance causes water to leave the bloodstream and collect in tissue spaces. Affected children are sickly and susceptible to infection. Impaired brain development often leads to permanent mental retardation.

Marasmus We have all seen the gruesome photographs of skeletal children in drought-ridden African countries or elsewhere. These children are affected with Marasmus which affect young children who lack protein and food calories. It is very common in bottle-fed infants from poor families where the parents try to stretch out their supply by watering down the formula and robbing it of most of its nutrients, giving the child mostly water. Symptoms include weight loss, muscle wasting, and retarded growth and mental development. Some effects of Marasmus and Kwashiorkor can be reversed if the child's diet is improved before the damage is too severe. However the affected child will likely function at abnormally low levels both physiologically and intellectually.

Obesity Obesity In Morgan Spurlock's film Super Size Me he discusses how obesity became an epidemic in the United States. Morgan Spurlock states that 400,000 people will die this year as a result of obesity and that obesity has become the second leading cause of preventable death in the United States behind smoking. Super Size Me points out that 25% of our population will eat at least one meal from a fast food restaurant in any given day. While his views are viewed as controversial by some, there is no denying that fast food has significantly contributed to the obesity crisis that the United States now faces.

Body Mass Index(BMI) is a major guideline that doctors and dietitians both use to determined obesity. In its simplest form it involves dividing the subject's weight in kilograms by the square of his/her height in meters (BMI = kg / m2) and then comparing it to a chart of numbers that correspond to the person’s gender. This approach can show inaccuracies in that it does not take into account the persons age, muscle mass or other unique criteria that a trained professional can use to define an obese person.

The current definitions commonly in use establish the following values, agreed in 1997 and published in 2003:

 * A BMI less than 18.5 is underweight
 * A BMI of 18.5 - 24.9 is normal weight
 * A BMI of 25.0 - 29.9 is overweight
 * A BMI of 30.0 - 39.9 is obese
 * A BMI of 40.0 or higher is severely (or morbidly) obese

Causative factors

When food energy intake exceeds energy expenditure, fat cells (and to a lesser extent muscle and liver cells) throughout the body take in the energy and store it as fat. In its simplest conception, therefore, obesity is only made possible when the lifetime energy intake exceeds lifetime energy expenditure by more than it does for individuals of "normal weight".

In all individuals, the excess energy utilized to generate fat reserves is minute relative to the total number of calories consumed. This means that very fine perturbations in the energy balance can lead to large fluctuations in weight over time. To illustrate, an obese 40 year old who carries 100 lb of adipose tissue has only consumed about 25 more calories per day than he has burned on average - or the equivalent of an apple every three days. In comparison a very lean 40-year-old who carries only 15 lb of body fat will have exceeded his daily energy expenditure by about four calories a day - the equivalent of an apple every 18 days.

Some causes of obesity are bases on genetics. This principle is common with some native American cultures. There is a starvation gene in them that is not seen usually in European descendants. This is were the body has the ability be super efficient at metabolizing food. This causes a the body to increase the stores of glycogen and adipose tissue. In early hunter and gatherer days this was a very desirable feature in that it was easier to go without food for long periods of time. The gene is not as desirable in today’s world because of the super efficient way food is produced and delivered. Allowing the person have a readily stable supply of food without the need to expend a lot of energy to obtain it. Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer). Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.

The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between obesity and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in obese individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes).

Obesity can unfavorably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores. In addition, reduced leptin signaling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.

There is debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors -- e.g. intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals -- contribute to the development of insulin- and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain 'homeostasis', the recent explosive introduction of high Glycemic Index- and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

Antioxidants are another recent discovery. As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g. mutation causing) compounds known as radical oxygen species or free radicals form as a result. For normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds, some produced by the body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C in most animals) and those that the body cannot produce may only be obtained through the diet through direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network, e.g. vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself, and so on. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

Side Effects of Obesity Sexual dysfunction

In Morgan Spurlock's film Super Size Me one of the affects of his McDonalds diet was Sexual Dysfunction. In this section we will examine a University Of Naples study and what physiological effects obesity has on the reproductive system.

One factor that is thought to lead to sexual dysfunction is low self-esteem about body image. While the physiological effects that one’s self image does have an impact on sexual performance there is also evidence that erectile dysfunction may be physiologically related to obesity. According to emaxhealth.com, experts speculate that 90 percent of erectile dysfunction is physical in origin, not psychological. Emaxhealth.com sites a two-year study conducted at the Second University of Naples, Italy.

In the University of Naples study 55 men were closely supervised by medical professionals and counseled on diet, fitness and personal behavioral. This group met with a personal trainer at regular intervals and every member of this group lost weight. The control group of 55 men in the University of Napals study just got general information about exercise and healthy dietary choices during visits every other month during the two-year study period. The weight loss results in this group were not statistically significant. The first group that lost weight experienced various health and sexual function improvements. In fact, by the time they'd achieved a weight loss of just 10 percent, erectile dysfunction was completely alleviated for one out of three men in that group. In the second group only three of the men had recovered normal erectile function.  Liver Failure  One of the most surprising results of Morgan Spurlock's McDiet experiment was the damage that was done to his liver. In his documentary he went to three different doctors who were all amazed that the liver could be so negatively affected from a short term fast food binge. The liver is amazing in that it can regenerate itself, however obesity can put a major strain on this vital organ.

A liver condition that many obese people experience is non alcoholic fatty liver disease. Non alcoholic fatty liver disease can appear in the form of a fatty liver (accumulation of fat in the liver, also known as steatosis), to non alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH, fat in the liver causing liver inflammation), to cirrhosis (irreversible, advanced scarring of the liver as a result of chronic inflammation of the liver). All of the stages of non alcoholic fatty liver disease are now believed to be due to insulin resistance, a condition closely associated with obesity.

Heart Disease

Therapy

The mainstay of treatment for obesity is an energy-limited diet and increased exercise. In studies, diet and exercise programs have consistently produced an average weight loss of approximately 8% of total body mass on average (excluding study drop-outs). While not all dieters will be satisfied with this outcome, studies have shown that a loss of as little as 5% of body mass can create enormous health benefits.

A more intractable therapeutic problem appears to be weight loss maintenance. Of dieters who manage to lose 10% or more of their body mass in studies, 80-95% will regain that weight within two to five years. It appears that the homeostatic mechanisms regulating body weight are very robust (see leptin, for example), and vigorously defend against weight loss. Much important research is now being devoted to determining what factors can improve the currently dismal weight loss maintenance rates.

Recent scientific research has cast some doubt over whether or not dieting actually improves health, with some studies indicating that dieting may in fact be more detrimental than remaining overweight.

In a clinical practice guideline by the American College of Physicians the following three recommendations were made for obese people to achieve weight loss.

Counseling on diet and exercise People with a BMI of over 30 should be counseled on diet, exercise and other relevant behavioral interventions, and set a realistic goal for weight loss. If these goals are not achieved, Pharmacotherapy and bariatric surgery may be an option. Pharmacotherapy The patient needs to be informed of the possibility of side-effects and the unavailability of long-term safety and efficacy data. Drug therapy may consist of sibutramine, orlistat, phentermine, diethylpropion, fluoxetine, and bupropion. For more severe cases of obesity, stronger drugs such as amphetamine and methamphetamine may be used on a selective basis. Evidence is not sufficient to recommend sertraline, topiramate, or zonisamide. In patients with BMI > 40 who fail to achieve their weight loss goals (with or without medication) and who develop obesity-related complications, referral for bariatric surgery may be indicated. Medication most commonly prescribed for diet/exercise-resistant obesity is orlistat (Xenical®, which reduces intestinal fat absorption by inhibiting pancreatic lipase) and sibutramine (Reductil®, Meridia®, an anorectic). In the presence of diabetes mellitus, there is evidence that the anti-diabetic drug metformin (Glucophage®) can assist in weight loss — rather than sulfonylurea derivatives and insulin, which often lead to further weight gain. The thiazolidinediones (rosiglitazone or pioglitazone) can cause slight weight gain, but decrease the "pathologic" form of abdominal fat, and are therefore often used in obese diabetics. Bariatric surgery Bariatric surgery entails modifying the stomach and or intestines to help the patient with extreme obesity. Those requiring bariatric surgery should be referred to high-volume referral centers, as the evidence suggests that surgeons who frequently perform these procedures have fewer complications. Increasingly, bariatric surgery is being used to combat obesity. The most common weight loss surgery in Europe and Australia is the use of a adjustable gastric band where a silicone ring is placed around the top of the stomach to help restrict the amount of food eaten in a sitting. This surgery has been FDA approved in the United States since 2001 but has been being used in other parts of the world since the early 1990s. It is considered the safest and least invasive of the available weight loss surgeries such as Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RNY), biliopancreatic diversion, and stomach stapling (also known as vertical banded gastroplasty, VBG). Unlike those more invasive techniques the band surgery does not cut into or reroute the digestive tract and is completely reversible. Removing the implant returns the stomach to its pre-surgical norm. All of these surgeries can be done laparoscopically. The more invasive of the surgeries usually bypass or remove some portion of the patient's intestines which causes malabsorption and dumping. All of these surgeries come with risk to the patient. For instance a recent study by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Service showed a 40% complication rate within 180 days of bariatric surgery. Moreover these surgeries do not guarantee either successful weight loss or reduced morbidity and mortality. Patients are also required to make lifelong changes to their diet if they are to keep the lost weight off in the long term. Therefore, as with any major surgery, patients need to carefully evaluate the long term ramifications of their choice.

In Morgan Spurlock's Super Size Me a section of the movie covered the gastric bypass surgery of an obese man. The surgery appeared to go well and nine months later the man had been able to loose 100 lbs. Bulimia Nervosa

Bulimia nervosa, more commonly known as bulimia, is an eating disorder. It is a psychological condition in which the subject engages in recurrent binge eating followed by an intentional purging. This purging is done in order to compensate for the excessive intake of the food and to prevent weight gain. Purging typically takes the form of:

vomiting inappropriate use of laxatives, enemas, diuretics or other medication excessive exercising fasting DSM-IV criteria The following six criteria should be met for a patient to be diagnosed with bulimia1 2:

The patient feels incapable of controlling the urge to binge, even during the binge itself, and consumes a larger amount of food than a person would normally consume at one sitting. The patient purges him or herself of the recent intake, resorting to vomiting, laxatives, diuretics, exercising, etc. The patient engages in such behavior at least twice per week for three months. The patient is focused upon body image and desperate desire to appear thin. The patient does not meet the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. (Some anorexics may demonstrate bulimic behaviors in their illness: binge-eating and purging themselves of food on a regular or infrequent basis at certain times during the course of their disease. Alternatively, some individuals might switch from having anorexia to having bulimia. The mortality rate for anorexics who practice bulimic behaviors is twice that of anorexics who do not. The patient is of normal weight or overweight. Please note that, in general, diagnostic criteria are considered a guide. A legitimate clinical diagnosis can be made when the majority of the criteria are met.

edit History of bulimia nervosa Bulimia nervosa was first described by Professor Gerald Russell in 1979 whilst he worked at the Royal Free Hospital, London. Bulimia nervosa has been recognized as an autonomous eating disorder by the American Psychiatric Association since 1980. The word “bulimia” is Latin, getting its roots from the Greek word “bulimia” which directly translates to mean “extreme hunger”.

Causes Bulimia is often less about food, and more to do with deep psychological issues and profound feelings of lack of control. Binge/purge episodes can be severe, sometimes involving rapid and out of control feeding that can stop when the sufferers "are interrupted by another person or when their stomach hurts from over-extension. This cycle may be repeated several times a week or, in serious cases, several times a day." Sufferers can often "use the destructive eating pattern to gain control over their lives".

Genetic factors Research done in 2003, shows a link to the development of bulimia nervosa with an area on the 10p chromosome. This evidence further supports the belief that the susceptibility of developing an eating disorder (specifically bulimia) is strongly linked to genetic components 8. Familial links include a history of obesity, substance abuse, and depressive disorder. Twin studies also strongly support this genetic factor. While both genetics and unique environments contributed to the development of the disorder, twin studies indicate a slightly stronger effect from the genetic predisposition than from environmental circumstances. Significant rates of sexual assault and violence also indicate a possible correlation between victimization and the development of bulimia. Chemically, low levels of serotonin contribute to the continuation of the bulimic cycle; whether it is contributing to or arising from the nutritional deficiency and vomiting is still undetermined. The protein leptin decreases hunger levels in a person, and is often blocked in patients with bulimia, causing abnormal levels of hunger. Due to the binging and purging cycle the stomach is frequently stretched to an enlarged state, and over the progression of time, becomes permanently enlarged, making it necessary for more food to be in the person’s stomach to reach a level of satisfaction. This is a primary cause of the need for a bulimic to gradually increase the caloric size of their binges, as the original quantities no longer satisfy their enlarged stomach.

Environmental factors Rates of bulimia are much more prevalent in western civilizations, to the point that the disorder is almost non-existent in eastern cultures. As western civilization is becoming a more prominent figure in other cultures, through movies and television primarily, we are seeing a dramatic increase in the incidence of eating disorders in these cultures. The disorder is also much more prevalent in the Caucasian race, though as media influences have become stronger, the disorder is becoming a rising problem in the African American and Hispanic communities. Women are also 90% of patients who suffer from this disorder. Females involved in activities that put an extreme emphasis on thinness and body type (such as gymnastics, dance and cheerleading) are at the greatest risk for the development of eating disorders.

Patterns of bulimic cycles The frequency of bulimic cycles will vary from person to person. Some will suffer from an episode every few months while others who are more severely ill may binge and purge several times a day. Some people may vomit automatically after they have eaten any food. Others will eat socially but may be bulimic in private. Some people do not regard their illness as a problem, while others despise and fear the vicious and uncontrollable cycle they are in.

Subtypes of bulimia The specific subtypes differ in the way the bulimic relieves him or herself of the binge. Purging type - The purging type uses self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or ipecac, as a mean of rapidly extricating the contents for their body. This type generally is more commonly found, and can use one or more of the above methods on a regular basis 12.

Non-Purging Type - This type of bulimic is very rarely found (only approximately 6%-8%), as it is a less effective means of ridding the body of such a large number of calories. This type of bulimic engages in excessive exercise or fasting following a binge in order to counteract the large amount of calories previously ingested. This is frequently observed in purging type bulimics as well, however this method is not their primary form of weight control following a binge 13. edit Consequences of bulimia nervosa Malnutrition Dehydration Electrolyte imbalance Hyponatremia Vitamin and mineral deficiencies Teeth erosion and cavities, gum disease Sialadenosis (salivary gland swelling) Potential for gastric rupture during periods of bingeing Esophageal reflux Irritation, inflammation, and possible rupture of the esophagus Laxative dependence Peptic ulcers and pancreatitis Emetic toxicity due to ipecac abuse Swelling of the face and cheeks Callused or bruised fingers Dry or brittle skin, hair, and nails, or hair loss Lanugo Edema Muscle atrophy Decreased/increased bowel activity Digestive problems that may be triggered, including Celiac, Crohn's Disease Low blood pressure, hypotension Orthostatic hypotension High blood pressure, hypertension Iron deficiency, anemia Hormonal imbalances A case of the television show "Untold Stories of The ER", airing on TLC in Canada, a young girl with a severe case of Bulimia nervosa managed to get her gag reflex suppressed, resulting in her using forks to induce vomiting, which ultimately got stuck very deep in her esophagus, and was almost in her stomach. She is lucky, as she escaped with no damage, but her parents found out and she had to be treated accordingly. Hyperactivity Depression Insomnia Amenorrhea Infertility Polycystic Ovary Syndrome High risk pregnancy, miscarriage, still-born babies Diabetes Elevated blood sugar or hyperglycemia Ketoacidosis Osteoporosis Arthritis Weakness and fatigue Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Cancer of the throat or voice box Liver failure Kidney infection and failure Heart failure, heart arrhythmia, angina Seizure Paralysis Potentially death caused by heart attack or heart failure; lung collapse; internal bleeding, stroke, kidney failure, liver failure; pancreatitis, gastric rupture, perforated ulcer, depression and suicide. edit Diagnosis As mentioned earlier, all six of the criteria listed in the DSM are required for a classic diagnosis of bulimia nervosa. However, these symptoms are often difficult to spot, especially since, unlike anorexia nervosa, in order to be classified as bulimic the person must be of normal or higher weight. Likewise, the person is less likely to drop a significant amount of weight on a continual basis as does the anorectic, making the physical symptoms less noticeable, despite the fact that internal bodily functions are suffering. Because this disorder carries a great deal of shame, the bulimic will desperately try to hide their symptoms from family and friends. This disorder is more likely to span over a lifetime unnoticed, causing a great deal of isolation and stress for the suffering individual. Despite the frequent lack of obvious physical symptoms, bulimia nervosa has proven to be fatal, as malnutrition takes a serious toll on every organ in your body. If any of the symptoms above are noticed one should consult with a doctor or psychologist for further assistance.

Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa is an illness that usually occurs in adolescent girls, but it can also occur in adolescent boys, and adult women and men. People with anorexia are obsessed with being thin. They lose a lot of weight and are terrified of gaining weight. The believe they need to lose weight even though they are very thin or emaciated. Anorexia isn't just a problem with food or weight. It's an attempt to use food and weight to deal with emotional problems. What is the difference between anorexia and bulimia? People with anorexia starve themselves. People with bulimia eat huge amounts of food, but they throw up soon after eating, or take laxatives or diuretics (water pills) to keep from gaining weight. People with bulimia don't usually lose as much weight as people with anorexia.

Why do people get anorexia? The reason some people get anorexia isn't known. People with anorexia may believe they would be happier and more successful if they were thin. They want everything in their lives to be perfect. People who have this disorder are usually good students. They are involved in many school and community activities. They blame themselves if they don't get perfect grades, or if other things in life are not perfect and use anorexia as a way to deal or gain control. Chronic and excessively forceful holding of the belly tightly flat often accomompanies this disorder; it is part of being thin. This inhibits abdominal breathing, causing increased chest breathing - which is more ineffecient and stress inducing. If the chest is also held rigidly lifted or otherwise held immobile (often due to issues related to self-image and the developing breasts) breathing becomes problematic, as likewise digestion of food (including normal appetite), which depends on an activated parasympathetic nervous system (which includes relaxed effortless breathing). Ineffecient or labored breathing is often associated with sympathetic activation. What is the treatment for anorexia? Treatment of anorexia is difficult, because people with anorexia believe there is little or nothing wrong with their weight, they may know they are too thin but believe it is okay for them. Patients in the early stages of anorexia (less than 6 months or with just a small amount of weight loss) may be successfully treated without having to be admitted to the hospital. But for successful treatment, patients must want to change and must have family and friends to help them. People with more serious anorexia need care in the hospital, usually in a special unit for people with anorexia and bulimia. Treatment involves more than changing the person's eating habits. Anorexic patients often need counseling for a year or more so they can work on changing the feelings that are causing their eating problems. These feelings may be about their weight, their family problems or their problems with self-esteem. Some anorexic patients are helped by taking medicine that makes them feel less depressed or better in their daily lives. These medicines are prescribed by a doctor and are used along with counseling.

Weight loss
Low Carb Diets Programs such as the South Beach, Atkins and Zone diets, are claimed to work because they reduce insulin levels, which in turn causes the body to burn its fat for energy. As a process, these kinds of diets have been in and out of fashion since the Banting diet appeared in the 19th century. But long before modern scientific invention, anecdotal and holistic prescriptions, containing passages about limiting certain foods, including foods of mostly carbohydrates, have appeared throughout history. Although strong evidence suggests, and general agreement claims, that low carb diets can help achieve weight loss, some have been controversial among nutritionists, and their relative safety has been challenged.

Arguments for low-carbohydrate diets The evolutionary argument Some advocates of low carb diets argue that the Paleolithic diet did not include grains, starches, and refined sugar, and that the human body has not evolved significantly since the time of the Neolithic Revolution, implying that their consumption should still be avoided today and causes undesired and largely unknown effects. Specifically, it is argued that they cause the body to produce excess amounts of the hormone insulin, which tells the body to store rather than burn fat, hence causing obesity and its complications (heart disease, cancer, Type 2 diabetes). They claim that humans evolved to eat a diet which consisted mainly of meat and that the current "epidemic" of obesity is due to the popular assumption, reinforced by the food industry and the new field of dietary medicine, that the low-fat approach is healthier.

Supporters claim the exclusive focus on reducing fat is oversimplified, and that low-fat diets are not automatically healthy ones. They claim that the western world is not suffering from a collective failure of will to exercise, but has been encouraged to eat more carbohydrates, which in turn stimulate appetite and more eating.

The recent rise in western obesity rates has coincided with a widespread belief in low-fat, high-carbohydrate as a healthy way of eating. By contrast traditional, high-fat French cooking has led to a much lower incidence of obesity, morbid obesity and chronic heart disease than the high-sugar American diet, despite overall energy intake and exercise levels being the same.

Favorable studies Advocates point to scientific trials demonstrating the efficacy and safety of low carb diets. Several independent clinical trials have shown that low carb diets can be successfully used to lose weight. These trials found that, in the short term, risk factors for heart disease and Type 2 diabetes — such as blood serum cholesterol and insulin levels — tended to improve in spite of increased consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol. The trials were of short duration, and were not able to assess the long-term health effects of the diet.

A study conducted in 1965 at the Oakland (California) Naval Hospital used a diet of 1000 calories per day, high in fat and limiting carbohydrates to 10 grams (40 calories) daily. Over a ten-day period, subjects on this diet lost more body fat than did a group who fasted completely. (Benoit et. al. 1965). Some advocates of low-carbohydrate diets have termed this the metabolic advantage of such diets.

Major research can be found at http://www.nutritionj.com/content/3/1/9

Arguments against low-carbohydrate diets In 2004, a Canadian court ruled that foods sold in Canada could not be marketed with reduced or eliminated carbohydrate content as a selling point because carbohydrates were determined not to be a health risk, and that existing "low carb" and "no carb" packaging would have to be phased out by 2006. This is not an argument against low carb diets, but is instead marketing regulatory action intended to avoid abuses.

Side effects Critics contend that low carbohydrate diets are not without harmful side effects. The lowered intake of dietary fiber that often accompanies dramatically reduced carbohydrate intake can result in constipation if not supplemented. For example, this has been a criticism of the Induction stage of the Atkins diet (note that today the Atkins diet is more clear about recommending a fiber supplement during Induction).

Replacement of calories from carbohydrates with meat may result in high consumption of saturated fat and cholesterol, which many authorities believe will increase the risk of heart disease. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that the kidneys can become overworked and that a related change in blood acidity can lead to bone loss, but trials testing the hypothesis have found no evidence of kidney damage or loss of bone.

Cutting out carbohydrates means missing out on vital nutrients from healthy carbohydrate foods which should be part of any well-balanced diet, especially those from fruits, vegetables and whole grains. If you’re considering a low-carb diet for weight loss, remember to count your calories and make sure you get enough nutrients

title: Talk:Human Physiology/Nutrition


text:
Java Programming/Threads and Runnables

CPUs for any computer are designed to execute one task at any given time, yet we run multiple applications side-by-side and everything works in perfect congruence. It's not just because CPUs are extremely fast in performing calculations, it's because CPUs use a clever device of dividing their time amongst various tasks. Each application or task that is invoked on a computer gets associated with the CPU in the form of a process. A CPU therefore manages various processes, and jumps back and forth amongst each process giving it a fraction of its time and processing capability. This happens so fast that to a normal computer user it presents with the illusion of processes being run simultaneously. This capability of the CPU to divide its time amongst processes is called multitasking.

So, if we run a Java application on a computer, we are effectively creating a process with the CPU that gets a fraction of the CPU's time. In Java parlance, this main process gets called the daemon process or the daemon thread. But, Java goes one step further. It allows programmers to divide this daemon thread into several multiple threads which get executed simultaneously (much like a CPU) hence providing a Java application with a finer multitasking capability called multithreading.

In this section, we will take a look at what threads are and how multithreading is implemented within a Java program to make it appear congruent and effectively fast to respond.

Threads
In light of the above discussion, a thread is the smallest unit of processing that can be scheduled by an operating system. Therefore, using threads, a programmer can effectively create two or more tasks that run at the same time. The first call-to-action is to implement a set of tasks that a particular thread would execute. To do so, we require the creation of a  process.

Creating a Runnable process block
A  process block is a simple class that implements a   method. Within the  method is the actual task that needs to be executed by a running thread. By implementing a class with the interface, we ensure that the class holds a   method. Consider the following program:

In the above code, we create a class called  and implement the   interface to ensure that we have a   method in the class declaration.

We then declare the rest of the logic for the class. For the constructor, we take a  parameter that would serve as the name of the class. Then, we initialize the class member variable  with a random number between   and. To ensure the initialization of a random number, we use the  class in the   package.

The actual task that would be executed per this runnable block is presented within the  method. To keep safe from exceptions occurring because of the concurrent programming, we wrap the code within this method with a  block. The executing task actually consists of just three statements. The first outputs the provided name for the Runnable process, and the last reports that the thread has executed. Perhaps the most intriguing part of the code is the second statement:.

This statement allows the thread executing the current runnable block to halt its execution for the given amount of time. This time is presented in milliseconds. But for our convenience, this time would be the random number generated in the constructor and can be anywhere between  and   milliseconds. We will explore this in a later section. Creating a  process block is just the beginning. No code is actually executed. To do so, we would require the creation of threads that would then individually execute this task.

Creating threads
Once we have a  process block, we can create various threads that can then execute the logic encased within such blocks. Multithreading capabilities in Java are utilized and manipulated using the class. A  object therefore holds all the necessary logic and devices to create truly multithreaded programs. Consider the following program:

Creating threads is as simple as the above program suggests. You just have to create an object of the  class and pass a reference to a   process object. In the case above, we present the  constructor with the class object for the   class that we created in code listing 1. But for each object, we give a different name (i.e.,  and , etc.) to differentiate between the three   objects. The above example only declares  objects and hasn't yet started them for execution.

Starting threads
Now, that we know how to effectively create a  process block and a   object that executes it, we need to understand how to start the created   objects. This couldn't be simpler. For this process, we will be calling the  method on the   objects and voilà, our threads will begin executing their individual process tasks.

The above code will start all three declared threads. This way, all three threads will begin their execution one-by-one. However, this being concurrent programming and us having declared random times for the halting of the execution, the outputs for every one of us would differ. Following is the output we received when we executed the above program.

It should be noted that the execution of the  didn't occur in the desired order. Instead of the order – –, the threads executed in the order of  – –. The order in which the threads are executed is completely dependent on the operating system and may change for every execution of the program, thus making output of multithreaded application difficult to predict and control. Some people suggest that this is the major reason that adds to the complexity of multithreaded programming and its debugging. However, it should be observed that once the threads were put to sleep using the  function, the execution intervals and order can be predicted quite capably. The thread with the least amount of sleeping time was   with   milliseconds of sleep hence it got called first. Then  was called and finally   was called.

Manipulating threads
It can be said that the execution order of the threads was manipulated to some degree using the  method. The  class has such static methods that can arguably affect the execution order and manipulation of threads. Below are some useful static methods in the  class. These methods when called will only affect the currently running threads.

Synchronization
Given below is an example of creating and running multiple threads that behave in a synchronous manner such that when one thread is using a particular resource, the others wait until the resource has been released. We will talk more about this in later sections.

Where are threads used?
Threads are used intensively in applications that require a considerable amount of CPU usage. For operations that are time-consuming and intensive, it is usually advised to use threads. An example of such an application would be a typical video game. At any given time, a video game involves various characters, objects in the surroundings and other such nuances that needs to be dealt with simultaneously. Dealing with each element or object within the game requires a fair amount of threads to monitor every object.

For example, take this screen-shot of a role-playing strategy game on the right. Here the game visuals depict various in-game characters moving about on the screen. Now imagine processing the movements, direction and behaviors of each of the characters visible on screen. It would certainly take a lot of time moving each character one-by-one if this were to be done one task after another. However if fundamentals of multi-threading are employed, each character would move in a synchronous manner with respect to others.

Threads are not only used heavily in video games, their use is common in everything from simple browser applications to complex operating systems and networking applications. Today it often goes beyond the simple preference of the developer but into the need to maximize the usefulness of contemporaneous hardware that is predicated in heavy multitasking.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Java Programming/Threads and Runnables


text:
Talk:Human Physiology/The endocrine system

HELP: As you can see I have made a mess!! I tryed to put the section on Adrenal Glands together a littel bit better and when I went to save the page I relized all I had done was make a mess. I still have all the infromation I just cant get these box's to go away if anyone could help me please!!!!

jan semester
Hi I was wondering how everyone feels about this chapter and what we should work on the most.--Danseyffert 05:22, 7 April 2007 (UTC)

What are your thoughts for organization?
Are you going to organize this chapter on a gland-by-gland basis? Or do you have some other ideas? I imagine you will have a pretty big section on the pituitary gland as the "master gland," since it influences so many of our other endocrine glands.

I am looking forward to seeing this take shape! Provophys 19:28, 21 July 2006 (UTC)

plagiarism
can we just use some of your notes from the handouts without citing? I am getting really nervous about plagiarism especially with your name right on top.

 * You can use material from the class notes freely. The only concern about plagiarism with that is that the notes are based on the book, and the book is copyrighted. The notes do NOT quote directly from the book, so I think they are okay. . . but the general organization is the same as the book. Keep in mind that there is nothing about physiology that is not PUBLIC knowledge. No textbook has a copyright on the knowledge. Essentially they have a copyright on the organization of the words on the page (and the images). Remember that you can borrow from Wikipedia freely, since that is free and open (no copyrights at all), just like Wikibooks is. (I guess there is the risk that someone who wrote a Wikipedia article was plagiarizing, . . . hopefully not! I think that as we move through the entire process of writing this book that we will change things more and more to be our own work and not copy/paste.

Tables A table may be an easy way to sum up various glands and the hormones they produce; Hypothalamus, Pituitary and other glands. I did not see anything like that on wikipedia commons so you may have to create one of your own. I was working on one for my chapter and here is how I made it. I created a book in Excel and then copied the table to my clipboard. Then I pasted it into a photo editing program and saved it as a .jpg file that I uploaded onto wikipedia commons. It sounds like a lot of work but is really not that bad. If you need help I am more than willing to help you. Here is an example for you.

I was doing research on puberty and found out that the release of GnRH from the hypothalamus is caused by brain functions that are not yet understood. While the gonads do provide a negative feedback function it may be worth noting that it is not fully understood what turns GnRH on during puberty.

Adrenal Glands In this section you correctly state that estrogen and progesterone are produced in the adrenal glands. You may want to modify your statement though because the majority of the hormones produced are androgens, and only small amounts of estrogen and progesterone are produced in the adrenal glands. I did see that you talked about what estrogen and progesterone do in your female sex organ section. Feel free to link to our page (Chapt 18) if you want to use some of our information.

The significance of iodine It might help if you expand on the goiter portion of this section and mention that iodine is needed to produces thyroxine T3, which acts as negative feedback on the hypothalamus. Without iodine there is no negative feedback, and the hypothalamus secretes excessive TRH causing the anterior pituitary to secrete TSH which in turn causes the thyroid to grow causing a goiter. OK, that sentence needs work but I hope the idea is somewhat clear. It would also be cool to have a picture of a goiter, although I was not able to find one at Wikipedia commons. (Maybe try Merlot?)

Images
I noticed that this section is a little bit sparce on images, so i took the liberty of finding a few for you:

If you need any help with these, or any other images, let me know. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 23:24, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

Human Physiology/The_endocrine_system
The section on The pancreas contains lots of duplicate text and ideas. I removed some obvious duplicates, and reformatted some of it so it doesnt look like a big "wall of text". I could remove more of the duplicate text, but that would involve a massive rewrite of the section, and I think you guys would prefer to have control of the content on this page. Specifically, points about alpha cells producing insulin, while beta cells produce glycogen are mentioned several times, the fact that the pancreas is both exocrine and endocrine is mentioned several times, and the fact that insulin and glycogen counteract each other is mentioned 3 or 4 times. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 23:29, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

gluconeogenesis
Nov 12 2006 The section on the adrenal gland states that cortisol enhances conversion of fat and protein into glucose. I believe that only protein (actually, certain amino acids from protein) can be made into glucose. This little detail is one of the banes of modern existence - anything can be (and frequently is) made into fat, but fat cannot be made back into glucose. And, we have to have glucose for the brain under most conditions. So if you try to lose weight by starving yourself, your body will chew up your muscles and feed them to your brain, instead of just using up the fat you are trying to get rid of.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
The English grammar used in this "endocrine system" is very poor if not horrible, like in all of the written systems

Hello....Is there an editor or corrector in the room?

nerves and endocrine glands
How our nervous system and endocrine system coordinate?? Kumarsanusaloi (discuss • contribs) 20:05, 3 February 2016 (UTC)


text:
Template:Java Programming/Applets

 * Overview
 * User Interface
 * Event Listeners
 * Graphics and Media

title: Template:Java Programming/Applets


text:
Java Programming/Applets/Overview

A Java applet is an applet delivered in the form of Java bytecode. Java applets can run in a Web browser using a Java Virtual Machine (JVM), or in Oracle's AppletViewer, a stand alone tool to test applets. Java applets were introduced in the first version of the Java language in 1995. Java applets are usually written in the Java programming language but they can also be written in other languages that compile to Java bytecode such as Jython.

Applets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by HTML. Since Java's bytecode is platform independent, Java applets can be executed by browsers for many platforms, including Windows, Unix, Mac OS and Linux. There are open source tools like applet2app which can be used to convert an applet to a stand alone Java application/windows executable. This has the advantage of running a Java applet in off-line mode without the need for Internet browser software.

The Java applet is less and less used. In 2018, you can use it only from Microsoft Edge's "Compatibility mode" and Firefox Extended Support Release. You'd rather use JavaScript when it is possible.

First applet
The two things you must at least create is an HTML page and a Java class. It can be done on a local folder, no need to run a server but it will be harder to understand what is local, what is remote. The HTML page has to call the Java class using the  markup:

Save this file on a folder. As the  markup is calling a Java class called , our class should be called  :

Save this file and compile the class on the same folder. Now let's open the web page on a browser: We clearly see that "Hello, world!" is not rendered the same way as the rest of the page.

HTML code

 * See also applet markup.

To embed an applet in a HTML page, you have to insert a  markup. This markup can have several attributes:

The attributes with * are mandatory.

There have been some discussions about the usage of  tag but it still can be used for beginning and also would work in the real world as well.

Java source code
Applets are not constructed in the same way as other classes or main programs. The entry point is different and the main class should extend the  class. The  class has four methods that can be called by the browser and you can redefine:

The four first methods define the lifecycle of an applet. At least  or   must be redefined. The HTML applet tag can be embedded in the applet source code to allow the applet to be run directly by a simple applet viewer, without the need for an .html file. Typically, the applet tag immediately follows the import statements. It must be enclosed by  comments:

title: Java Programming/Applets/Overview


text:
Java Programming/Applets/User Interface

The main difference between an applet and a regular command-line executed program is that applets allow for extensible Graphical User Interfaces (GUI).

Since applets provide for the ability to create complex GUI, it is important for developers to know how to create such programs.

Applying styles and adding content
In Java applets, graphical portions are initialized and added in two different areas. While objects are initialized in the main class, they are added to the layout of the applet in the  method. This is done using the syntax of  . A typical  method looks something like this:

The different aspects of this method will be covered below.

Button
Lots of applets use buttons. There are only a few ways to have contact between the applet and the user, and the use of buttons is one of those ways. Buttons are created the same way as most other Java applet objects:

When initializing a button, it is necessary to define what text will appear on that button in the given parameter. In this example, the button is initialized with the word "Submit" printed on it. Adding the button to the actual layout is done in the  method, as described above.

Allowing buttons to carry out tasks or utilize a user's input is a bit more complicated. These functions require an, and will be discussed in ActionListener section.

Label
Labels are areas in applets that contain text which can not be edited by the user. This is usually ideal for descriptions (i.e. "Insert name:"). Labels are initialized and added to applet layouts in the same way as buttons. Also, like buttons, the text inside labels must be identified at initialization. If, however, the label will receive its text as the cause of a later function and should start off blank, no text should be placed between the quotation marks.

TextField
TextFields are areas in applets that allow users to insert text. The two parameters, which are optional, for TextFields can set predefined text in the field or set the number of columns allowed in the TextField. Here are a few examples:

Font
Using stylish fonts in your Java applets may be necessary to help keep your Java applets attractive. The  allows for either the font used throughout the applet to be defined or for one element's font to be set at a time.

The syntax for setting a font is  .

To make every font in the applet plain, size 24 Times New Roman, the following code should be used:

It is not necessary to initialize the font and set the font through two different lines of code.

However, to make the font of element  plain, size 24 Times New Roman, and element   italicized, size 28 Times New Roman, the following code should be used:

To set the color of the fonts used in an applet, the   method is used. This method already includes some predefined colors which can be used by calling, for example,. Here are all of the predefined colors: To create a custom color, the RGB values of the color can be passed in as the color parameter. For example, if red were not a predefined color, one could use  to define red.

Just as font styles, font colors can be applied to separate elements. The syntax follows the same pattern:.

Layout
Layouts are what make applets visible. Without a layout, nothing would display. There are five different types of layouts to choose from — some are very simple while others are complex.

Flow Layout
This layout places components left to right, using as much space as is needed. The Flow Layout is the default layout for applets and, therefore, does not need to be set. However, for clarity, one can specify the applet layout as a Flow Layout by placing this line of code at the top of the  method:

The added components to the layout that follow will be placed on screen in order of which they are added.

Assuming that these variables are defined the same as above, these lines of code will create the layout of an applet that is composed of a label, a text field, and a button. They will all appear on one line if the window permits. By changing the width of window, the Flow Layout will contract and expand the components accordingly.

Grid Layout
This layout arranges components in the form of the table (grid). The number of rows and columns in the grid is specified in the constructor. The other two parameters, if present, specify vertical and horizontal padding between components.

The items have been displayed in this order:

We see that the layout has been configured to fill the grid left-to-right and then top-to-bottom and that the two last columns have been ignored (they don't even exist). They have been ignored because there are not enough items to fill them and the number of rows is prior to the number of columns. This means that when you specify a number of rows that is not zero, the number of columns is simply ignored. You should specify zero rows in order that the number of columns is taken into account.

A grid layout creates cells with equal sizes. So it can be used not only to display items as a grid but also to display two items with the same width or height.

Border Layout
This layout places one big component in the center and up till four components at the edges. When adding to the container with this layout, you need to specify the location as the second parameter like  for the center or one of the world directions for the edge (  points to the top edge).

If you have two components, it is not the same to put the first in the north and the second to the center as to put the first in the center and the second to the south. In the first case, the layout will calculate the size of the component and the second component will have all the space left. In the second case, it is the opposite.

Card Layout
The card layout displays only one item at a time and is only interesting with interactivity. The other items are stored in a stack and the displayed item is one of the items of the stack. The name of the card layout is a reference to a playing card deck where you can see the card at the top of the stack and you can put a card on the top. The difference in the card layout is that the items in the stack keeps their order. When you use this layout, you must use this method to add items to the container, i.e. the applet:

The card layout has several methods to change the currently displayed item:

Panel
The main benefit of the layouts is that you can combine them one into another and you can do that with a panel. A panel is a component that has other components inside. A panel can then be added to the top component (frame or applet) or to another panel and be placed itself as defined by layout and constraints of this parent component. It has its own layout and is normally used to place a group of related components like buttons, for instance:

Question 9.5: We want to create a basic FTP (File Transfer Protocol) software which looks like this: {| style="margin: auto; border: outset 1px grey; width: 300px;"
 * colspan="2"|Application name
 * colspan="2"|
 * colspan="2"|

 * style="width: 50%;"|
 * style="width: 50%;"|
 * colspan="2"|Status bar
 * }
 * colspan="2"|Status bar
 * }

On the top, it should display the name of the software. Under the name, it should display tool buttons that are displayed from the left to the right and the sequence of buttons is wrapped if it reaches the right border. Under the buttons, it should display two lists of files. The widths of these two lists should be the same and they should use all the width of the application. Under these two lists, it should display a status bar.

Create this display on an applet.

First, we have to analyze the display. We have four separate areas of components: So we have to first separate these areas and then we will split these areas into components.
 * The name area
 * The tool area
 * The folder area
 * The status area

 * 1) The totality of the components is put in a border layout so that we have three vertical areas of elements.
 * 2) The area in the north is the area of the title.
 * 3) The area in the center contains the buttons and the folders and will be split later.
 * 4) The area in the south is the area of the status bar.
 * 5) The area in the center is now split with a border layout into a button area in the center and a folder area in the south.
 * 6) The button area is then split with a flow layout.
 * 7) The folder area is now split with a grid layout.

We use a grid layout to display the folders to have the same width between the two components. We can't use a grid layout to separate the name, the buttons, the folders and the status bar as these areas have not the same height. The buttons must be at the center of the border layout as the number of row of buttons would be badly calculated and the last rows of buttons would not appear.

title: Java Programming/Applets/User Interface


text:
Learning Theories/Print version

|

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

= Contents = If you have saved this file to your computer, click on a link in the contents to go to that section.

 * Theories
 * Behavioralist · Constructivist · Post-Modern · Adult Learning

 * Organizational Learning
 * Contributions by Discipline · Triggers · Influencing Factors · Agents · Processes · Interorganizational · Practice

 * Knowledge Management
 * Challenges · Processes · Leadership · Change
 * References · GNU Free Documentation License

= Theories =

= Behavioralist =

= Constructivist =

= Post-Modern =

= Adult Learning =

= Organizational Learning = = Contributions by Discipline =

= Triggers =

= Influencing Factors =

= Agents =

= Processes =

= Interorganizational =

= Practice =

= Knowledge Management = = Challenges =

= Processes =

= Leadership =

= Change =

= References =

= GNU Free Documentation License =

title: Learning Theories/Print version


text: Category:Book:Learning Theories

title: Category:Book:Learning Theories


text:
Template:Learning Theories/Navigation

Type   at the bottom of each page in the book.

This template adds pages to :

title: Template:Learning Theories/Navigation


text:
Jeep Liberty/Lockers/Detroit Locker

The Detroit Locker 187C-179A is an automatic locker for the Chrysler 8.25" 29 spline axle. It works in the rear of 2002-2007 Jeep Libertys, but is incompatible with Dana 35C rear axle found in some 2002 Jeep Libertys and might be incompatible with ESP system found in all 2006-2007 Jeep Libertys.  Its 100% locking carrier replaces the stock carrier.  Ring & pinion gear set up is required.

title: Jeep Liberty/Lockers/Detroit Locker