text:
Novial/Hound Lesson 3

Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 - Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

Li Legende
''The first occurrence of each new word is highlighted in blue (in the text title also). Click on the word to jump down to its translation. Then click the back key on your keyboard or the "Back" button on your browser to return to the text.''

”Ma me did kreda ke vu volid konsulta me pri kelkum moderni e praktikal.”

”Tre moderni. Tre praktikal, importanti kose kel on mus solu in duanti-quar hores. Ma li manuskrite es kurti e relate proximim al probleme. Dunke me sal lekte lu a vus.“

Holmes apoyad retro in sen stule e klosad sen okules. Doktoro Mortimer turnad li manuskrite vers li lume e lekted disi stranji, oldi naratione:

”On ha dikte multi diferanti rakontes pri li origine del Hunde del Baskervilles. Ankore pro ke Hugo Baskerville es men ansestre e pro ke me lernad li rakonte fro men patro e lo fro sen patro, me nun skripte te kel me kreda verim ha eventa. Lerna dunke fro ti rakonte e sorga non liberisa tal mali pasiones, kel porta sufro a nusen familie.

”Ye li tempe del sivili milite li proprietere de dis estate esed Hugo Baskerville, kel esed verim sovaji, sindeal viro. Hugo did ama li filia de farmere, kel proprietad lande proxim li estate de Baskerville. Ma li bon yuna evitad lo, pro ke la timad lon mal nome.”

Vocabulary

 * ama – (to) love
 * ankore – yet, still
 * ansestre – ancestor
 * apoya – (to) lean
 * diferant(i)  – different
 * dunke – therefore, so, consequently
 * estate – estate
 * eventa – to happen
 * evita – (to) avoid
 * farmere – farmer
 * filia – daughter
 * fro – from
 * hore – hour
 * important(i)  – important
 * kel – which, who, that, what (see)
 * kelkum – something
 * klosa – (to) close
 * komensa – (to) begin
 * konsulta – (to) consult
 * kreda – (to) believe
 * kurti – short
 * lande – land, country
 * lekte – (to) read
 * lerna – (to) learn
 * liberisa – (to) free, liberate
 * lume – light
 * milite – war
 * moderni – modern, new
 * multi – many, much
 * mus – must, have to (auxiliary verb)
 * naratione – narration, story
 * nome – name
 * nun – now
 * okule – eye
 * on – one, people, we, you, they
 * origine – origin
 * pasione – passion
 * patro – father
 * porta – (to) carry
 * pri – about, concerning
 * pro ke – because
 * proprieta – (to) own
 * proprietere – owner, proprieter
 * proxim – close to
 * proximim – closely
 * rakonte – story
 * relate – (to) relate to
 * retro – back, backwards
 * sal – will, shall  (future auxiliary verb)
 * sindeal(i)  – godless
 * sivil(i)  – civil
 * skripte – (to) write
 * solu – (to) solve
 * sorga – (to) take care of, look after, take pains with
 * sovaji – savage, wild
 * stranji – strange
 * stule – chair
 * sufro – suffering
 * tal(i)  – such a, of that kind
 * te kel – that which, what
 * tempe – time
 * ti (-e, -o, -a, -u)  – that  (see Grammar Notes)
 * tima – (to) fear
 * tre – very (much)
 * turna – (to) turn
 * verim – truly
 * vers – towards
 * viro – man
 * voli – (to) want
 * yun(i)  – young
 * yuna – young woman, girl

Relative Pronouns
The relative pronoun in English takes several forms (who, whom, which, that). In Novial one word, kel, can serve for all of these:
 * evita pasiones, kel porta sufro  – avoid passions which (that) bring suffering
 * li yuna, kel me ama, es bel – the young woman, whom (that) I love, is beautiful
 * me donad lu al proprietere, kel es oldi viro  – I gave it to the owner who is an old man
 * li stule, sur kel me sida, es grandi  – the chair, on which I sit, is big

The English possessive (whose) is translated as kelen or de kel:
 * li farmere, kelen filia me ama, es oldi viro  – the farmer, whose daughter I love, is an old man
 * li farmere, li filia de kel me ama, es oldi viro  – the farmer, the daughter of whom I love, is an old man

If necessary in order to avoid ambiguity the endings -o, -a, -u may be used to indicate sex or lack of sex and -s may be used to indicate a plural:
 * li filia del doktoro, kela me ha renkontra, es inteligenti – the daughter of the doctor, whom I have met, is intelligent  (I met the daughter not the doctor)
 * tima li ansestres e li pasiones, kelus pove ankore veni a vu – fear the ancestors and the passions, which can yet come to you  (the passions can come not the ancestors)

Verbs – Future Tense
The future tense is formed by placing the auxiliary verb sal in front of the present tense of the verb:
 * me sal evita tal stranji viros  – I shall avoid such strange men

Adverbs from Adjectives
An adjective may be converted to a corresponding adverb by adding -m after the final -i:
 * diferanti  – different
 * diferantim  – differently
 * proximi  – close
 * proximim  – closely

(Note that proximi without the -i is proxim, a preposition meaning close to (something).)

This and That – Pronouns from Adjectives
As we have already seen with personal pronouns and nouns with natural sex differences, Novial has convenient endings to distinguish sexless things, male, female and male or female. The demonstrative adjectives ti (that) and disi (this) use the same endings to provide the corresponding pronouns with such distinctions. Remember that adjectives themselves (here ti and disi) do not change form or agree with their noun. However, the derived pronouns have alternative endings to indicate sex and number:

 * ti kose – that thing
 * tu – that (one)  (sexless thing)
 * te – that one (male or female)
 * ta – that one (female)
 * to – that one (male)
 * tus – those (ones)  (sexless things)
 * tes – those (male or female or a mixture of both)
 * tas – those (female)
 * tos – those (male)

 * disi kose – this thing
 * disu – this (one)  (sexless thing)
 * dise – this one (male or female)
 * disa – this one (female)
 * diso – this one (male)
 * disus – these (sexless things)
 * dises – these (male or female or a mixture of both)
 * disas – these (female)
 * disos – these (male)

As with the third person pronouns, le and les, it is convenient to use te, tes and dise, dises to indicate either sexless things or persons or a mixture of both without being specific.

Pronouns may be formed from other adjectives in the same way:

 * yuni filia – young daughter
 * yuna – young woman (also young female of animals)
 * yuni filio – young son
 * yuno – young man (also young male of animals)
 * yuni home – young person
 * yune – a youth
 * yunes – youths, young ones
 * yunu – young thing

Verbal Suffixes -ISA and -IFIKA
The suffixes –isa and –ifika are used to make verbs meaning to make, make into or render. For example:

 * liberi – liberisa (free – liberate, make free, free)
 * real – realisa (real – make real, realize)

 * kurti – kurtifika (short – shorten, make short)
 * veri – verifika (true – verify)

Verbs meaning to provide with, cover with are made with –isa (but not with –ifika):

 * alkohole – alkoholisa (alcohol – alcoholize)
 * lume – lumisa (light – light (up))

Substantival Suffix -ERE
The person who performs an action is formed from a verb with the suffix –ere.

 * proprieta – proprietere (to own – owner, proprietor)
 * fuma – fumere (to smoke – smoker)
 * visita – visitere (to visit – visitor)

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 - Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

title: Novial/Hound Lesson 3


text:
Novial/Hound Lesson 4

Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

Li Kaptate
''The first occurrence of each new word is highlighted in blue (in the text title also). Click on the word to jump down to its translation. Then click the back key on your keyboard or the "Back" button on your browser to return to the text.''

Li manuskrite kontinua:

”Eventad ke ye un yule disi minim honorabli Hugo kun sink o six ek sen otiosi kompanes vadad al ferme por aracha li yuna durant ke lan patro e fratros esed for. Kand les had porta la al kastelete, les klefad la in li maxim superi chambre, durant ke Hugo e sen amikes sidad por drinka multi alkohole, kom les did ye omni vespre.

”Li yuna timad li klamado e malediktiones kel venid ek subu. Finalim pro timo la fad tu kel min bravi home vud tima e la klimad subu per hedre kel kreskad an li sudi mure. Tand la fugad tra li agres a hem. Kelkitem plu tardim Hugo livad sen gastes por porta manjaje e drinke a sen kaptate. Tand lo devenid tam irati kam diable e hastad subu per li eskalere, saltad a sur li table e dikted ke on deved senda li hundes vers la. Hugo kursed ek li hause klamant al serveres ke les sadla sen maxim bon kavala e ke les lasa li hundes eku. Lo donad nase-tuke del yuna al hundes e sub lume del lune departad tra li agres. Dek-tri ek lon kompanes prendad sen kavales e probad seku Hugo e li hundes."

Vocabulary

 * a hem – (to) home, homewards
 * a sur – onto (Literally: to on)
 * agre – field
 * alkohole – alcohol
 * an – at, on  (next to or contiguous with something)
 * aracha – snatch away, pull out
 * bravi – brave
 * departa – (to) depart
 * deve – ought, should (auxiliary verb)
 * deveni – (to) become
 * diable – devil
 * drinka – (to) drink
 * drinke – drink
 * eku – out, outwards
 * eskalere – stairs
 * ferme – farm
 * finalim – finally
 * for – away
 * fratro – brother
 * fuga – (to) flee
 * gaste – guest
 * had – had (pluperfect auxiliary verb)
 * hasta – (to) rush, hurry
 * hedre – ivy
 * heme – home
 * honorabli – honourable
 * irati – angry
 * kam – as, than  (after a comparative)
 * kaptate – captive, prisoner
 * kastelete – manor house, chateau, small castle
 * kavala – mare
 * kavale – horse
 * kelkitem – sometime, sometimes
 * klamado – shouting
 * klamant(i) – shouting
 * klefa – (to) lock
 * klima – (to) climb
 * kompane – companion, mate
 * kontinua – (to) continue
 * kreska – (to) grow
 * kun – with
 * kurse – (to) run
 * lasa – let, allow
 * liva – (to) leave
 * lune – moon
 * manjaje – food
 * maxim bon – best(superlative)
 * min – less (comparative)
 * minim – least  (superlative)
 * mure – wall
 * nase-tuke – handkerchief
 * o – or
 * omni – all, every
 * otiosi – idle, unoccupied
 * patro – father
 * per – by, by means of, with
 * plu – more (comparative)
 * plu tardim – later (adverb)
 * por – for, for the sake of, in order to
 * prenda – (to) take
 * proba – (to) try, attempt
 * sadla – (to) saddle
 * salta – (to) jump
 * seku – (to) follow
 * senda – (to) send
 * servere – servant
 * sub – below, under
 * subu – downwards, down
 * sudi – southern, south
 * superi – upper
 * table – table
 * tam – as  (comparative)
 * tam…kam… – as…as…  (comparative)
 * tand – then, at that time
 * tardim – late (adverb)
 * timo – fear
 * tra – through
 * vada – (to) go
 * vespre – evening
 * yule – Christmas

Pluperfect Tense
The pluperfect tense is formed by placing the auxiliary verb had in front of the present tense of the verb:
 * lo had salta a sur li table – he had jumped onto the table

Prepositions and Adverbs from Prepositions
Adverbs are formed from prepositions by adding -u as seen in these examlpes:

he sat near the door and his daughter sat nearby (= near him)
 * lo non es inu – he is not in
 * prou (= pro tu)  – therefore, on account of that
 * anteu (= ante tu)  – formerly, before that
 * durantu – during that time, meanwhile
 * li hundes kursed eku – the dogs ran out (of somewhere)
 * exeptu (=exept tu)  – with that exception
 * lo sidad proxim li porte, e lon filia sidad proximu (= proxim lo)  –
 * lo vadad subu – he went down(wards)
 * les es kunu noktim e jornim – they are together night and day

Prepositions before the Infinitive
English phrases such as without going, before seeing etc. are translated with the appropriate preposition followed by the infinitive (same as the present tense):

me had departa ante vida la – I had left before seeing her

nus vadad por vida la – we went (in order) to see her

Infinitive Clauses
The following examples show this English construction and how it can be translated:

 * me voli ke vu veni – I want you to come (Literally:  I want that you come)

Use a preposition with a definite literal meaning if it makes sense:
 * la sendad li serveres por porta manjaje – she sent the servants to bring food

Another way to express the infinitive clause is seen in the second of these examples: or:
 * les varta ke me ariva – they wait for me to arrive (Literally: they wait for that I arrive)
 * les varta men arivo – they wait for my arrival

Where arivo is the verbal noun (arrival or arriving) derived from the verb ariva. (This will be covered thoroughly in lesson 6)

However, the following is grammatically identical and may be used:
 * me voli vun venio – I want you to come (Literally: I want your coming).

Comparative and Superlative
Adjectives and adverbs are compared as follows:

 * plu bon kam – better than
 * tam bon kam – as good as
 * min bon kam – less good than
 * maxim bon ek – best (out) of
 * minim bon ek – least good (out) of

 * la es li maxim grandi – she is the biggest
 * la es plu grandi kam me – she is bigger than I (am)
 * la es tam grandi kam me – she as big as I (am)
 * la es min grandi kam me – she is less big than I (am)
 * la es li minim grandi – she is the least big

Kam is used in making comparisons, even where English does not use than:
 * lo kurse maxim bonim ek les – he runs best out of them
 * lo kurse plu bonim kam me – he runs better than I
 * lo kurse tam bonim kam me – he runs as well as I
 * lo kurse min bonim kam me – he runs less well than I
 * lo kurse minim bonim ek nus – he runs least well out of us
 * me prefera disu kam tu – I prefer this to that

Translate as good as possible and similar phrases like this:
 * maxim bon posibli

____________________________________________________________________________________ Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Novial/Hound Lesson 4


text:
Cookbook:Aesthetics

Eating is not just a necessary daily routine but a very sensual activity and a feast for the senses. When eating, all senses are activated at once: Your nose is exposed to the delicious smell; your fingers may feel the form and the texture of the food; your eyes cherish the arrangement and the colors of the various ingredients; your ears catch the sound of your biting into the food; and most importantly, your tongue experiences the main part – the taste. This page explores some basic ideas for enhancing the enjoyment of your other senses.

Sight
The appearance of food can be a major contribution to enjoyment. Arrange the food on the plate with the same care you would use in creating a work of art - balancing colors and forms in a harmonious arrangement. To show off the food and put everyone at ease about cleanliness, use bright white (or natural) lighting with pure white dishes and clear glasses.

Taste
The tongue recognises five basic flavors: salty, sweet, savoury, bitter and sour. One of the keys to a successful meal is to balance these, both within individual dishes and across different courses. It is usual to ready the palate with a cleansing neutral dish such as a consommé. Finish a formal meal with a sweet dessert, which customarily marks the psychological end of the event.

Smell
The most important sense in preparing and cooking food is the sense of smell. It adds subtlety to the experience, which the tongue itself cannot recognise. The smell of food being prepared is one of the greatest stimulators of appetite.

Sound
Think about the acoustic environment. Many meals in big restaurants are ruined because their surroundings are just too noisy. A shared meal should encourage conversation, and too much background noise can ruin that. If you're going to have background music, match the mood to the food.

Touch
Touch might be better described as "texture". The crumb of a baked good can be coarse or fine, the texture of one cut of meat may tend to be more tender or tough than another, and a family may prefer creamy smooth mashed potatoes or may enjoy them more with some lumps left in. The purpose of many techniques in cookery and baking is to allow the cook to control the texture of the finished product.

Temperature
The temperature at which a food is served can affect the way it is experienced. Generally, sweet foods can be served cold (like ice cream), while for more subtle and aromatic foods a warmer temperature releases more of the flavor.

title: Cookbook:Aesthetics


text:
Cookbook:A Nice Cup of Tea

| Beverages | Cuisine of the United Kingdom

A nice cup of tea is the usual answer in Britain and Ireland to any everyday problem. Nothing is so bad that a nice cup of tea with a friend or family member can't make it better.

Ingredients

 * 32 fl oz (1 L) hot water
 * 3–5 measures of loose tea leaves or 3–5 tea bags
 * Sweetener, such as sugar or honey, to taste
 * Milk or lemon juice to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Pour freshly-drawn water into a tea kettle, and heat it to your desired temperature. An electric kettle is fast and convenient.
 * 2) Pour some hot tap water into your teapot and let stand for about several seconds to a minute to pre-warm it. Alternately, you can swish some of the hotter boiling water from your kettle around in the teapot for a few seconds. Pour out this water before adding the tea to the teapot.
 * 3) If using loose tea, place it into an infuser, then into the teapot. If using teabags, place them into the teapot.
 * 4) When the water reaches the preferred temperature, pour it from the tea kettle into the teapot. As you pour, try to avoid pouring directly onto the tea (especially important for green and white teas) to avoid scalding the leaves.
 * 5) Allow the tea to infuse quietly (i.e. do not stir the teapot or "dunk the teabag"). Agitating the tea releases more of the bitter compounds and degrades the taste. Watch the time to avoid over-infusion, and remove the infuser or tea bag when the time is up.
 * 6) Pour tea into your cup(s). Add sweetener and milk or lemon to taste.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can also prepare a single cup of tea at once by placing a single measure of tea directly into the serving cup.
 * Commonly one-half to one tea measure (or rounded teaspoon if you do not have a tea measure) is added per desired cup of tea. Some people add an extra measure "for the pot" (e.g., if 4 cups of tea are desired, 5 measures of tea would be used. It really is a matter of personal preference.)
 * Remember that the tannins in tea stain, so it is advisable to pour the tea over a non-staining surface, wipe up any spills quickly, and not leave tea standing in a teapot for long periods of time.
 * Never combine milk and lemon in the same cup of tea or the milk will curdle into lumps.
 * If you are using an infuser, be sure it is closed tightly so the tea does not spill into the pot. Rinse the tea-filled infuser briefly under cool tap water to wash away tiny flakes that would otherwise drift into the teapot.
 * If using a filter basket infuser, do not overfill the basket (refer to the instructions that came with your basket). The brief rinse is usually not necessary unless the basket's mesh is quite porous.
 * Simply dropping loose tea into the teapot is also an option, though you may want to strain the tea as you pour it into the cups.
 * See the page on tea for additional considerations.

title: Cookbook:A Nice Cup of Tea


text:
User:Gentgeen/sandbox

{|cellspacing=3
 * -valign="top"
 * width="50%" bgcolor="#f0f0ff" style="border-style:solid;border-width:1px;padding:1em;padding-top:0;"|

Featured Recipe
S'mores are a traditional American campfire treat, prepared over an open fire. They are basicly a dessert sandwich made with graham crackers, chocolate, and toasted marshmallows. S'mores may be prepared at home by toasting the marshmallow over a gas range using a skewer, or preassembled in the microwave. Many s'more eaters specifically eschew this practice, so as to make the cooking and eating of s'mores more of a special treat for camping. More Recipes...
 * }

{|cellspacing=3
 * -valign="top"
 * width="50%" bgcolor="#f0f0ff" style="border-style:solid;border-width:1px;padding:1em;padding-top:0;"|

Featured Recipe
S'mores are a traditional American campfire treat, prepared over an open fire. They are basicly a dessert sandwich made with graham crackers, chocolate, and toasted marshmallows. S'mores may be prepared at home by toasting the marshmallow over a gas range using a skewer, or preassembled in the microwave. Many s'more eaters specifically eschew this practice, so as to make the cooking and eating of s'mores more of a special treat for camping. More Recipes...
 * }

linking games

 * User:Gentgeen/monobook.css
 * User:Gentgeen/Monobook.css

 * Wikijunior Solar System/Glossary
 * Wikijunior Solar System/glossary

 * Wikijunior Solar System/Glossary
 * Wikijunior Solar System/glossary

 * glossary

 * /monobook.css

title: User:Gentgeen/sandbox


text:
Wikibooks talk:Hierarchy naming scheme

Pre-vote / Final-vote
With the amount of options open I think we need some Pre-vote process on all options before we know which open will be presented to the final vote.

--Krischik 12:33, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)
My preferences are for

1.6 "Real" Namepaces then sub-pages.

2.2 While I am in favor of flat in textbooks one need deeper hierarchies i.E. in reference sections: Programming:Ada:Keywords:and and Programming:Ada:Operators:and.

3.1 least surprise.

4.1 "move" is easy but not that easy.

 * I don't want to step on your toe, but the separation between the two "and" examples looks very constructed: The first code example (A>10 and A<20) is even the same on both pages. A flat structure (i.e. ) with links from both Programming:Ada:Keywords and Programming:Ada:Operators might be easier to maintain. --Andreas 20:57, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I use links to the reference tables in source code examples (see Programming:Ada:Subtypes - and therefore I need both pages for keywords which are also operators. But perhaps #REDIRECT for one of the two duplicates might be the better option - since every operator is either a keyword or a special character - but that is something to decide with the other Programming:Ada authors. My point here is more general: reference tables might need a deeper hierarchy. --Krischik 09:20, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * The best way of doing it is saying "Ada keywords" and "Ada operators". Natural, and keeps the hierachy flat. Dysprosia 22:29, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I find it helpful to know that typing i.E. http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Ada:Types:range into the browser will give me a description of - in this vase - range types. helps a lot on answering newbie question on news:comp.lang.ada. --Krischik 09:20, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't think we need to put flat vs. deep structure into policy, but allow each book to decide what is good for its own needs. Just for reference, however, the largest wikibooks (Cookbook) uses a flat naming scheme, and we haven't had any problems with it yet. Gentgeen 22:34, 13 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * @Dys: It seems like traditionally all programming languages have been going into "Programming:", but if we really consider a radical new start, then the structure in consideration for new books might really be: "Ada", "Ada/operators", "Ada/keywords", "Ada/and", etc. (no sub-sub-page, and forget about namespaces at all, have simple books that can be moved around and between bookshelves arbitrarily).
 * @Gent: I think we should put flat (if voted for) into policy, similar like subpages are disabled on Wikipedia (there even by software!). Sometimes people have to be forced to keeping things simple. It is very tempting to organize material (that one does not have yet) into sub-sub-sub structures, but it seems, the most successful and most collaborative wikibooks are those of a very simple and flat structure.
 * @Krischik: The structure that you present in your book, and the structure how pages are saved in Wikibooks don't have to be the same: All pages of a book can live in a flat hierarchy (in fact, in real books, they do, on pages numbered 1, 2, 3, ...), still your content, your glossary, reference sections, etc. might all provide a very different structure. (I think this is a critical point that should also be communicated to new wikibook authors). --Andreas 00:00, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * This is indeed true for Ada as well. It's just the keyword/operator/attribute/etc. pp. reference tables which have depper hirachies. The actual tutorial pages have only one level. --Krischik 09:20, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Advice for novices
It seems the discussion fell asleep again. What shall I do in cases like Wikibooks:Staff_lounge#Module-izing:_Request_for_Advice, where a user asks how best to organize a book? I would like to give simple advice, but telling everybody they can either use ":" or "/" and linking to this discussion page might not be the best. I want to propose the following: I guess there is not much point in this vote, since ":" or "/" is a matter of taste and there are many books that do it one way and many that do it the other way. I don't want to interfere with excellent books that use ":" (like Cookbook, etc.), but my personal impression is that using "/" is the simplest for beginning Wikibook users. May I therefore ask, if anybody opposes to the idea of recommending new users the "/" subpage delimiter as the way to organize things? A fairly recent example is for example Hamster Care, that does not use any navigational templates but just the automatic link back to the book page. I would suggest the following: What do you think about this? --Andreas 10:30, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Double policy: ":" and "/" are both fine.
 * New books by novices: Recommend "/" because it provides the basic navigation "for free".

 * I am all in favor: Clear instructions for new books - and sub-pages do have added value.. --Krischik 14:11, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * A happy user by clear instructions: User_talk:Ojmorales0002 :-) --Andreas 15:47, 18 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Another successful conversion: Talk:How To Build A Computer#Organizing the book --Andreas 09:20, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I changed Outdoor Survival by myself (no naming conventions before) --Andreas 19:20, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Another conversion from 1-page to subpages: Talk:CPAM with TWW --Andreas 19:20, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Is there some "Wikibooks Workspace" or "Wikibooks Community Portal" where such information could go to? Sorry that things seem to change so fast now, but in the case of The Golden Bough I had to be quick (the user already added over 50 chapters, and changing all "tgbChapter1" now would be much more work). Also, it seems there is a strong need for clear directions and hints, otherwise why else would all these people be so happy in quickly following my advice? I hope nobody feels overrun... --Andreas 19:20, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I have no problem with recommending subpages to newbies, as long as that doesn't represent a policy of using subpages in general. I'd love to see real namespaces with independent logos, recentchanges and other utility pages, etc, but I have no problem with subpages at least until that kind of functionality is available. TUF-KAT 22:49, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with you about the double policy, Andreas. I think we should hightlight these two alternatives in Naming conventions over the others. ManuelGR 23:41, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I updated Naming conventions. Have a look and edit if necessary. --Andreas 11:13, 23 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Hierarchy naming scheme


text:
Template:Calculus/Limits and their Properties/TOC

 * Limits and their Properties
 * 1 - 2 - 3 - 4
 * Review - Problem Set - Solutions


text:
Talk:Hindi/Vocabulary

Untitled
where

title: Talk:Hindi/Vocabulary


text:
User:OMouse

OMouse aka OptiKal Mouse aka OM only recently discovered the joys of wikipedia and wikibooks.

Programming Languages

 * Visual Basic
 * C/C++
 * Java

Blog: OMLife

title: User:OMouse


text:
Abstract Algebra/Equivalence relations and congruence classes

We often wish to describe how two mathematical entities within a set are related. For example, if we were to look at the set of all people on Earth, we could define "is a child of" as a relationship. Similarly, the $$\ge$$ operator defines a relation on the set of integers. A binary relation, hereafter referred to simply as a relation, is a binary proposition defined on any selection of the elements of two sets.

Formally, a relation is any arbitrary subset of the Cartesian product between two sets $$X$$ and $$Y$$ so that, for a relation $$R$$, $$R \subseteq X \times Y$$. In this case, $$X$$ is referred to as the domain of the relation and $$Y$$ is referred to as its codomain. If an ordered pair $$(x, y)$$ is an element of $$R$$ (where, by the definition of $$R$$, $$x \in X$$ and $$y \in Y$$), then we say that $$x$$ is related to $$y$$ by $$R$$. We will use $$R(x)$$ to denote the set
 * $$\{y \in Y:(x, y) \in R\}$$.

In other words, $$R(x)$$ is used to denote the set of all elements in the codomain of $$R$$ to which some $$x$$ in the domain is related.

Equivalence relations
To denote that two elements $$x$$ and $$y$$ are related for a relation $$R$$ which is a subset of some Cartesian product $$X \times X$$, we will use an infix operator. We write $$x \sim y$$ for some $$x,y\in X$$ and $$(x, y) \in R$$.

There are very many types of relations. Indeed, further inspection of our earlier examples reveals that the two relations are quite different. In the case of the "is a child of" relationship, we observe that there are some people A,B where neither A is a child of B, nor B is a child of A. In the case of the $$\ge$$ operator, we know that for any two integers $$m,n\in Z$$ exactly one of $$m\ge n$$ or $$n> m$$ is true. In order to learn about relations, we must look at a smaller class of relations.

In particular, we care about the following properties of relations:

 * Reflexivity: A relation $$R \subseteq X \times X$$ is reflexive if $$a \sim a$$ for all $$a\in X$$.
 * Symmetry: A relation $$R \subseteq X \times X$$ is symmetric if $${a \sim b} \implies {b \sim a}$$ for all $$a,b \in X$$.
 * Transitivity: A relation $$R \subseteq X \times X$$ is transitive if $${ {a \sim b} \wedge {b \sim c} } \implies { a \sim c }$$ for all $$a,b,c \in X$$.

One should note that in all three of these properties, we quantify across all elements of the set $$X$$.

Any relation $$R \subseteq X \times X$$ which exhibits the properties of reflexivity, symmetry and transitivity is called an equivalence relation on $$X$$. Two elements related by an equivalence relation are called equivalent under the equivalence relation. We write $$a \sim_R b$$ to denote that $$a$$ and $$b$$ are equivalent under $$R$$. If only one equivalence relation is under consideration, we can instead write simply $$a \sim b$$. As a notational convenience, we can simply say that $$\sim$$ is an equivalence relation on a set $$X$$ and let the rest be implied.

Example: For a fixed integer $$p$$, we define a relation $$\sim_p$$ on the set of integers such that $$a \sim_p b$$ if and only if $$a-b = k p$$ for some $$k \in Z$$. Prove that this defines an equivalence relation on the set of integers.

Proof:
 * Reflexivity: For any $$a\in X$$, it follows immediately that $$a-a=0=0 p$$, and thus $$a \sim_p a$$ for all $$a\in G$$.
 * Symmetry: For any $$a,b \in X$$, assume that $$a \sim_p b$$. It must then be the case that $$a-b=k p$$ for some integer $$k$$, and $$b-a=(-k) p$$.  Since $$k$$ is an integer, $$-k$$ must also be an integer.  Thus, $${a \sim_p b }\implies {b \sim_p a}$$ for all $$a,b\in G$$.
 * Transitivity: For any $$a,b,c\in X$$, assume that $$a \sim_p b$$ and $$b \sim_p c$$. Then $$a-b=k_1 p$$ and $$b-c=k_2 p$$ for some integers $$k_1,k_2$$.  By adding these two equalities together, we get $${(a-b)+(b-c)=(k_1 p) + (k_2 p)} \Leftrightarrow {a-c = (k_1 + k_2) p}$$, and thus $$a \sim_p c$$.

Q.E.D.

Remark. In elementary number theory we denote this relation $$ a \equiv b (\text{mod } p)$$ and say a is equivalent to b modulo p.

Equivalence classes
Let $$\sim$$ be an equivalence relation on $$X$$. Then, for any element $$a\in X$$ we define the equivalence class of $$a$$ as the subset $$\left[ a \right]\subseteq X$$ given by

 * $$\left[ a \right] = \left \{ b \in X | a \sim b \right \}$$

Theorem: $$b \in \left[ a \right] \implies \left[ b \right] = \left[ a \right]$$

Proof: Assume $$b \in \left[ a \right]$$. Then by definition, $$a \sim b$$.
 * We first prove that $$\left[b\right] \subseteq \left[a\right]$$. Let $$p$$ be an arbitrary element of $$\left[ b \right]$$. Then $$p\sim b$$ by definition of the equivalence class, and $$p\sim a$$ by transitivity of equivalence relations. Thus, $${p\in\left[b\right]}\implies {p\in\left[a\right]}$$ and $$\left[b\right] \subseteq \left[a\right]$$.
 * We now prove that $$\left[a\right] \subseteq \left[b\right]$$ Let $$q$$ be an arbitrary element of $$\left[ a \right]$$. Then, by definition $$q\sim a$$.  By transitivity, $$q\sim b$$, so $$q\in\left[ b\right]$$.  Thus, $${q\in\left[a\right]}\implies {q\in\left[b\right]}$$ and $$\left[a\right] \subseteq \left[b\right]$$.

As $$\left[a\right] \subseteq \left[b\right]$$ and as $$\left[b\right] \subseteq \left[a\right]$$, we have $$\left[ b \right] = \left[ a \right]$$.

Q.E.D.

Partitions of a set
A partition of a set $$X$$ is a disjoint family of sets $$X_i$$, $$i\in I$$, such that $$\bigcup_{i\in I} X_i = X$$.

Theorem: An equivalence relation $$\sim$$ on $$X$$ induces a unique partition of $$X$$, and likewise, a partition induces a unique equivalence relation on $$X$$, such that these are equivalent.

Proof: (Equivalence relation induces Partition): Let $$P$$ be the set of equivalence classes of $$\sim$$. Then, since $$a\in [a]$$ for each $$a\in X$$, $$\cup P = X$$. Furthermore, by the above theorem, this union is disjoint. Thus the set of equivalence relations of $$\sim$$ is a partition of $$X$$.

(Partition induces Equivalence relation): Let $$X_i\,,\,i\in I$$ be a partition of $$X$$. Then, define $$\sim$$ on $$X$$ such that $$a\sim b$$ if and only if both $$a$$ and $$b$$ are elements of the same $$X_i$$ for some $$i\in I$$. Reflexivity and symmetry of $$\sim$$ is immediate. For transitivity, if $$a,b\in X_i$$ and $$b,c\in X_i$$ for the same $$i\in I$$, we necessarily have $$a,c\in X_i$$, and transitivity follows. Thus, $$\sim$$ is an equivalence relation with $$X_i\,,\, i\in I$$ as the equivalence classes.

Lastly obtaining a partition $$P$$ from $$\sim$$ on $$X$$ and then obtaining an equivalence equation from $$P$$ obviously returns $$\sim$$ again, so $$\sim$$ and $$P$$ are equivalent structures.

Q.E.D.

Quotients
Let $$\sim$$ be an equivalence relation on a set $$X$$. Then, define the set $$X/\sim$$ as the set of all equivalence classes of $$X$$. In order to say anything interesting about this construction we need more theory yet to be developed. However, this is one of the most important constructions we have, and one that will be given much attention throughout the book.


text:
Autonomous Technology-Assisted Language Learning/References

Note: Only the first mention of an author as a first author is linked to additional information about the author.

A - B - C - D - E - F

 * Ausubel, D. A. (1963). Cognitive structure and the facilitation of meaningful verbal learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 14, 217-221.
 * Brown, J. Marvin, & Palmer, Adrian S. (1988). The listening approach: Methods and materials for applying Krashen's Input Hypothesis. New York: Longman. ISBN 0-58290-720-9
 * Cummins, J. (1998). e-Lective Language Learning: Design of a Computer-Assisted Text-Based ESL/EFL Learning System. TESOL Quarterly, Spring. html
 * Cziko, G. A. (2004). Electronic tandem language learning (eTandem): A third approach to second language learning for the 21st century. CALICO Journal, 22(1), 25-39.
 * Cziko, G. A.,& Linn, N.-H.J. (1984). The construction and analyses of short scales of language proficiency:  Classical psychometric, latent trait, and nonparametric approaches.  TESOL Quarterly, 18(4), 627-647.
 * Cziko, G. A., & Park, S. (2003). Internet audio communication for second language learning: A comparative review of six programs. Language Learning and Technology, 7(1), 15-27. pdf html
 * Egbert, J. (2003). A study of flow theory in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal,87(4), 499-518.
 * Ellis, N. C. (2002). Frequency effects in language processing: A review with implications for theories of implicit and explicit language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24(2), 141-188. pdf
 * Farley, A. P. (2005). Structured input: Grammar instruction for the acquisition-oriented classroom. Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07288-724-9

G - H - I - J - K - L

 * Gass, Susan. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
 * Gregg, K. R. (1984). Krashen's monitor and Occam's razor. Applied Linguistics, 5, 79-100.
 * Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning'. Oxford, Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08025-338-5
 * Krashen, Stephen D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford, Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-13710-047-7
 * Krashen, Stephen D. (1985). The input hypothesis. London, Longman. ISBN 1564920895
 * Krashen, S. D. (1992). Under what conditions, if any, should formal grammar instruction take place? TESOL Quarterly,, 26, 409-411.
 * Krashen, Stpehen D. (1994). The effect of formal gramar teaching: Still peripheral. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 722-725.
 * Krashen, Stephen D. (1997). Foreign language education: The easy way. Culver City, CA, Language Education Associates. ISBN 0-96528-083-7
 * Krashen, Stephen D. (2000). What does it take to acquire language? ESL Magazine, 3(3): 22-23. [html]
 * Krashen, Stephen D. (2004, November 13). Applying the comprehension hypothesis: Some suggestions Presented at 13th International Symposium and Book Fair on Language Teaching (English Teachers Association of the Republic of China), Taipei, Taiwan. [pdf]

M - N - O - P - Q - R

 * Prasada, S., S. Pinker, et al. (1990, November). Some evidence that irregular forms are retrieved form memory but regular forms are rule-governed. Paper presented at the 31st meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans, LA.
 * Robb, Tom (2004). Moodle: A virtual learning environment for the rest of us. TESL-EJ, 8(2). [http] ISSN 1072-4303

S - T - U - V - W - X - Y - Z

 * Seidenberg, M. and M. Bruck (1990, November). Consistency effects in the generation of past-tense morphology. Paper presented at the 31st meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans, LA.
 * Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 64–88). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52162-551-3
 * Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-67457-628-4
 * White, L. (1987). Against comprehensible input: The input hypothesis and the development of second language competence. Applied Linguistics, 8, 95-110. abstract
 * Wong, W. (2005). Input enhancement: From theory and research to the classroom. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07288-725-7
 * Wong, W. & VanPatten, B. (2003). The Evidence is IN: Drills are OUT. Foreign Language Annals, 36(3), 403-423. html


text: Template:Voter's Guide/US

title: Template:Voter's Guide/US


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 11

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 11


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 12

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 12


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 13

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 13


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 14

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 14


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 15

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 15


text: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 16

title: Japanese/Kanji/Lesson 16


text:
Accountancy/Templates

allows people to create a version of an accountancy text in a different currency with a single edit.

Journal templates
Simple bookkeeping journal

An empty journal just takes the journal name and page number

A journal with entries takes the journal name, page number and the entries. All fields of a bookkeeping entry are optional. cr is short for credit account and dr is short for debit account.

This is the result:

The templates are:

 * bookkeeping journal - basically the table with the column headers and captain Name Journal - Page n.
 * bookkeeping entry - passed as the parameter to bookkeeping journal, any number of them can be passed. Takes date, day, description, post, dr and cr. All parameters are optional and leave an empty column when not set. "dr" and "cr" are short for debit and credit entry respectively.

title: Accountancy/Templates


text:
Talk:General Anatomy

Hi DCB, welcome to Wikibooks - it's great that you are looking to develop something to help teach a course - I was wondering whether you have considered Wikiversity at all? Wikiversity is dedicated to developing course and teaching materials, although at the moment it is in something of a transitionary phase towards it's own wiki-entity, rather than a subentity of Wikibooks. I've been trying to piece together a course on anatomy for the School of Medicine, although this may be more appropriately called 'gross anatomy' (I'm no anatomist or doctor). Failing that, there's a text book in (very) preliminary development at Human Anatomy. Whether these match your course below, I'm not sure. Regardless, I would love to help with anything you may need. Anyway - welcome to Wikibooks, and I hope you enjoy your stay =) Lor 02:12, 11 December 2005 (UTC)

Chemical level
atoms bonding chemical reactions macromolecules

Cellular level
Structures plasma membrane nucleus nucleolus DNA chromosomes ribosomes rough endoplasmic reticulum smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus centrioles cytoskeleton Functions controlled chemical environment DNA -> RNA -> protein rER -> Golgi -> vesicular system

Tissue level
Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Nervous tissue

Organ level
Organs are made of tissues that are together doing a phisiological function,and they make organ systems.

Organ system level
How many organ systems are there? 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, do they really exist?

Playing to see if this could work for a course I teach ~DCB --68.238.131.7 08:50, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)

What is this page anyway?
I'm trying to figure out just what this page really is about. Is it a bookshelf? Is it a part of Wikiversity? Does it intend to become a Wikibook? Is it a test page for Human Anatomy?

I'm marking this for deletion simply because it is a bunch of stubs that don't really make sense. If there is a consistant theme for this content, please follow the Naming Policy when you add content here, and try to clean this up. --Rob Horning 18:40, 25 March 2006 (UTC)

Project on the move
Hello, I'm studying medicine, I think I'll get this project going, it would be a great help for me and my fellow students. I'll ask from assistants from histology and anatomy willing to help me in editing and making the proper terminology as simple as possible. I'll try structurize the wiki page first. Anatomy shouldn't include histological terms or explanations. Histology is dealing with the cellular structure and microscopic study/description of the cell, so those shouldn't be included.

I'll be back! --www.doc 20:44, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

Merger with Human Anatomy
It has been suggested that this book be merged with Human Anatomy. I realize that these two are distinct subjects, but at the moment we don't have enough information in either book, and there is currently no information in this book that can't be merged into the Human Anatomy book without edit. We can discuss here, if no concensus is reached (or, more likely, if nobody voices any opinions whatsoever), the issue can be dropped. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:32, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

 * IMHO, I don't think that one book should redirect to the other, because that will lead to readers being sent to material that they have no interest in, which should be avoided, and will lead to questions about the merged book's scope. --hagindaz 01:22, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with the merger. Any non-human anatomy can be placed into a seperate subject.

 * Although currently the content in here seems to be strictly human anatomy, I think merging should be done carefully and from Anatomy into Human Anatomy. The Anatomy book should be left with general information on Anatomy which is not specific to Human Anatomy. I will be working on the Human Anatomy book and will appreciate any help, even if it is just copy and pasting info from this book into the appropriate section of that one. Thanks! DavidMendoza (talk) 19:24, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

Orphaned pages
Found two orphans during my regular check: Anatomy/Gastrointestinal System and Anatomy/Pulmonary System. They should probably be linked on the index but I'll leave it up to someone involved with the module to place them correctly.

Merge discussion
I suggest that Digestive system parts be merged to this book. Any thoughts? -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 12:13, 25 February 2021 (UTC)
 * The books are obviously related to each other. Minorax (discuss • contribs) 23:03, 25 February 2021 (UTC)
 * as proposer. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 23:12, 25 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I’m creating my own book.65.31.10.98 (discuss) 15:15, 27 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm sorry, but there simply isn't enough there for a standalone book. -- Jules (Mrjulesd) 21:30, 1 March 2021 (UTC)
 * You cannot edit the page title and I am not done yet. --65.31.10.98 (discuss) 00:34, 3 March 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:General Anatomy


text:
Talk:Cryptography/Public Key Overview

This is the double lock principle, but it is not not Public Cryptography as both key are secret. In public cryptography one key is public, the other is secret. Nobody knowing the public key, is able to decipher a message encrypted with a public key. Only the secret key is able to decipher a message encrypted with a public key.

So someone (Alice) is able to send securely an encrypted data to Bob, if Bob had made his key public.

Bob is able to prove that he owns a secret key only by providing:
 * a plain text
 * the same text crypted with the secret key
 * the public key corresponding to the secret key.

Something similar to the double lock principle is Merkle's puzzle, which is the ancestor of the Diffie-hellman key exchange, which is itself a close cousin to RSA public key system.

title: Talk:Cryptography/Public Key Overview


text:
Ada Programming/Keywords/xor

Boolean operator
X : Boolean := A = 10 B = 10;

Boolean operator on arrays
The xor operation is applied to each boolean inside the array.

Day_Of_Month  1 .. 31;             Month_Array   (Day_Of_Month)  Boolean; X : Month_Array := Function_1; Y : Month_Array := Function_2; Z : Month_Array := X Y;

Bitwise operator
The operator xor could be used with modular types and also with boolean arrays to perform bitwise operations.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords
 * Ada Programming/Operators

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|Xor

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/xor


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Constant

Constant is really just a number that does not change, it can be of any value and is used for various calculations within Reaktor

title: Reaktor/Modules/Constant


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Add

This module is used to add signals and numbers together within Reaktor

title: Reaktor/Modules/Add


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Modulo, x%y

Modulo is a mathmatic operation. -taken from the NI Reaktor user forum: http://www.nativeinstruments.de/index.php?forum_us -

The Div output is the integer part of the division, the Mod output is the remainder from the division. The mod output will always be in the range 0...[b-1] The div output will always be Int(a/b) (where "int" mean "drop any fraction - DON"T ROUND)

16 div 3 = 5 16 mod 3 = 1

8 div 5 = 1 8 mod 5 = 3

9 div 5 = 1 9 mod 5 = 4

10 div 5 = 2 10 mod 5 = 0

5 div 8 = 0 5 mod 8 = 5

title: Reaktor/Modules/Modulo, x%y


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Rectify

This signal means that any number within "||" will be positive. Example: 3-4 = -1
 * 3-4| = 1

 * -x| = x

title: Reaktor/Modules/Rectify


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Power, x^y

< Reaktor/Modules/Math

x^y = x in y-th power. This is how you calculate normal numbers:

1^3 = 1*1*1 = 1, 2^3 = 2*2*2 = 8, 3^3 = 3*3*3 = 27,

1^2 = 1*1 = 1, 2^2 = 2*2 = 4,

or when x^y, you multiply x y-times with x.

title: Reaktor/Modules/Power, x^y


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Logic AND

When input signal in A and B is <=0 (less or equal to 0) then the signal is false, but when bigger then 0 then true.. The output of this module is only true when both A and B are true. Not inverts the output.

title: Reaktor/Modules/Logic AND


text:
Talk:General Biology/Gallery of Biologists

Just a note - there a truly humongous list of biologists at [w:List_of_biologists], but alas, I am not a biologist so would not be able to pick out the most significant ones! However, it would make the job much easier for someone who does know what they're talking about! Ta, --Mark Lewis 18:19, 14 Mar 2005 (UTC)


text:
User:Lawman~enwikibooks

Just young kid in New Jersey, intrested in intellectaul things.

title: User:Lawman~enwikibooks


text: Talk:General Biology/Classification of Living Things/Eukaryotes/Animals/Phyla


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Variables

Real variables are the letters A through Z, plus θ (Greek lowercase theta). They act just like regular numbers stored in the calculator.

title: Programming HP Calculators/Variables


text:
User talk:WoWo

Hey
Did you get to hear or see what the vandals did on the main Wikiversity page? If not, check the page history, it was terrible. User:Lawman was the first to witness the effect. The admins should better consult him for the investigation. How dishonorable the act is? I appeal to all noble people who are beyond such barbaric acts to be vigilant throughout Wikiversity. User:Humble Guy

Wikiversity
I saw your name on the Wikiversity participant's list, you may be very experienced in mathematics already, but I'm trying out instructing a Calculus course if you're interested, go to Wikiveristy, check out the mathematics department, pure mathematics, and in the course list is included Calculus. Fephisto 22:49, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:WoWo


text:
User talk:Walden~enwikibooks

Hey
Did you get to hear or see what the vandals did on the main Wikiversity page? If not, check the page history, it was terrible. User:Lawman was the first to witness the effect. The admins should better consult him for the investigation. How dishonorable the act is? I appeal to all noble people who are beyond such barbaric acts to be vigilant throughout Wikiversity. User:Humble Guy

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Walden. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Walden~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Walden~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:68.19.3.183

Hey
Why did you do it?

title: User talk:68.19.3.183


text:
Talk:High School Mathematics Extensions/Supplementary/Partial Fractions

Repeated Factors?
Should the discussion include what happens when there is a repeated factor in the denominator, like
 * $$\frac{4x-1}{(x+2)^2 (x-1)}$$? --Jwwalker 04:35, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm now writing this part, thank you for bringing it into attention. --Lemontea 12:59, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Divison by zero
'2. General method' proposes an exercise do determine p, such that (3p - 21) / ((p - 5)p - 14) is equal to 1 / 3

I've solved the exercise with methods that I knew and the method being taught to me finding 7 as the possible solution

however, p = 7 results 0 / 0 = 1 / 3 for the initial equation, which is a paradoxical equation

I've assumed this was a typo, in wich we're supossed to solve (3p - 21) / ((p - 5)(p - 14)) = 1 / 3, however this leads to p² - 28p + 133 = 0, which does not have whole solutions

I suppose this exercise is meant to have whole solutions. So i've found an similar equation to be solved:

(3p - 21) / ((p - 19)p + 84) = 1 / 3

writing the first part as a sum of fractions results in 0 / (p - 7) + 3 / (p - 12) = 1 / 3, which I believe is a necessary step for the exercise. This results in p = 21, which does not create a paradox for the original equation

the other path that leads to to p² - 28p + 147 = 0 also lists p = 7 as a possible solution, however this is not valid as it also leads to 0 / 0 = 1 / 3 Slidey-0766 (discuss • contribs) 17:52, 9 February 2024 (UTC)


text:
User:Blastu

Minor editing

title: User:Blastu


text:
User:Gcziko

Gary Cziko's website

title: User:Gcziko


text:
Template:Ada/Keywords

Keywords

title: Template:Ada/Keywords


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Substract

You can subtract signals or numbers in Reaktor with this module. subtraktion: $$2-1=1$$

title: Reaktor/Modules/Substract


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Square Root

Square root is the invert function of power. Example: $$	\sqrt{16}\ = 4, 4^2 = 16, \sqrt{16}\ = 16^{1/2} $$ , where $$ \sqrt{4^2}\ = 4$$ So in general: $$ \sqrt{x}\ = x^{1/2}, \sqrt[n]{x^n}=x $$

title: Reaktor/Modules/Square Root


text:
Mirad

 * Mirad ( aka Unilingua ) is an artificially constructed auxiliary language (conlang) developed and published by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff as a serious medium for easy and logical international communication. Mirad is categorized by constructed language aficionados as philosophical because its vocabulary is mapped letter-by-letter to a semantic ontology or thesaurus. Also, the wordstock of Mirad is considered a priori, that is, there is no deliberate association with words or roots in existing natural languages.  The vocabulary is "from scratch", yet based on internal lexical and semantic rules that help the learner to construct and deconstruct derivations logically, mnemonically, and consistently.

 * The author claims in his book Unilingua -- Langue universelle auxiliaire that this language is well-suited for universal, logical communication because it is based on principles already exploited globally by sciences like mathematics and chemistry where symbolic formulas are constructed in accordance with strict rules and a limited sequence of symbols understood by all practitioners.

 * Mirad is constructed on the following principles:
 * Every vowel has numeric, vectorial, scalar, or semantic value.
 * Every consonant is semantically taxonomic.
 * Word derivation is systematic, consistent, analogical, and mnemonic.
 * Words are as ontologically unambiguous as possible.
 * Words are as short and as easy to pronounce as possible.
 * Inflection and derivation of words is regular and predictable.

Contents

 * /Orthography and Pronunciation/
 * /Word-building/
 * /Word Families/
 * /Grammar/
 * Lessons in Mirad Conversation
 * /Sample Texts/

title: Mirad


text:
Talk:History of Christianity

Can we use Schaff as a foundation? http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/About.htm -Mydotnet 21:52, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Isn't Schaff in the public domain? I'd think you could copy and paste.

title: Talk:History of Christianity


text:
Cookbook:Beer

| Leavening Agent

Beer is an alcoholic beverage typically made from fermented cereal grains.

Production
To brew beer, one or more cereal grains are malted to convert the starch and proteins to sugars and other nutrients that will support yeast growth. The malted grain is cooked, and the extracted liquid is allowed to ferment using yeasts. Flavorings such as hops are often added during this process.

Barley, wheat, and corn are common grains used to make beer. Various other cereals may be used—such as rye, oats, and rice —and in some traditions, other starch-containing foods may be used, such as potato, cassava, and agave.

Characteristics
The exact combination of grains, yeasts, flavorings, and fermentation conditions used will impact the final characteristics of the beer.

Color
Beer typically ranges in color from a pale golden to a darker brown. The darkness of a beer is determined by how long the malted grains are roasted.

Flavor
The flavor profile of a given beer depends on a variety of factors, including the use of hops and other flavorings, the type of yeast used, the brewing temperature, and the grains used to make it. The addition of hops imparts a bitter flavor.

Alcohol content
Generally, beer has an alcohol content of 4–10%, with 4–6% being the most common.

Carbonation
All beer is carbonated either naturally or artificially. In natural carbonation, the beer is sealed in a container before the fermentation is finished. This forces the remaining carbon dioxide produced to dissolve into the liquid, where it will create bubbles after opening. In bottle-conditioned beer, fermentation is allowed to complete before bottling, but a little sugar is added to the bottle before sealing so that the remaining yeasts produce the requisite carbon dioxide for carbonation. Artificially carbonated beer has carbon dioxide pumped into the liquid after fermentation is complete.

Varieties
Beer can generally be characterized as an ale or a lager, though there are other varieties that don't fall into either of the two.

Ale
Ales are the oldest variety of beer, and they use a variety of yeast that ferments at the top of the beer. These yeasts can produce a variety of flavor compounds as a byproduct of fermentation, which gives more complex flavors to the final brew. Some common ales include the following:

 * Pale ale
 * Stout
 * Sour
 * Wheat beer

Lager
Unlike ales, lagers use bottom-fermenting yeast that collect at the bottom of the container. These yeasts are more tolerant of cooler temperatures than those used for ales, and they don't tend to produce many secondary flavors—as such, lagers are often called "clean" or "crisp". Some common ales include the following:

 * Pilsner

Other

 * Chicha
 * Kvass

Selection and storage
Beer should always be stored away from light and heat.

Use
In addition to its consumption as an alcoholic beverage, beer is frequently used as an ingredient in cooking. It has many uses, including as a leavening agent in batters for deep-fat fried foods and baked goods. Beer can add flavor and moisture, and it may also be used in stews and sauces.

Distilling beer produces whiskey.

title: Cookbook:Beer


text:
Horn/Repertoire/Etudes

Etude Collections

 * Kopprasch
 * Maxime-Alphonse
 * Pottag
 * Gallay

title: Horn/Repertoire/Etudes


text: Horn/Repertoire/Etudes/Kopprasch

title: Horn/Repertoire/Etudes/Kopprasch


text:
Horn/Repertoire/Etudes/Kopprasch/op6-1

1. Moderato

title: Horn/Repertoire/Etudes/Kopprasch/op6-1


text:
Template:Theorem and proof

Theorem

Proof

/Templates

title: Template:Theorem and proof


text:
Set Theory/Relations

Ordered pairs
To define relations on sets we must have a concept of an ordered pair, as opposed to the unordered pairs the axiom of pair gives. To have a rigorous definition of ordered pair, we aim to satisfy one important property, namely, for elements in a set a,b,c and d, $$(a,b)=(c,d) \iff a=c \ \wedge \ b=d$$.

As it stands, there are many ways to define an ordered pair to satisfy this property. A definition, then is $$(a,b)=\{\{a\},\{a,b\}\}$$. (This is simply a definition or a convention that can be useful for set theory.)

Relations
Using the definition of ordered pairs, we now introduce the notion of a binary relation. The Cartesian Product of two sets is $$A \times B = \{(a,b) \mid a \in A \wedge b \in B\}$$,

The simplest definition of a binary relation is a set of ordered pairs. More formally, a set $$\ R\ $$ is a relation if $$z \in R \rightarrow z=(x,y)$$ for some x,y. We can simplify the notation and write $$(x,y) \in R$$ or simply $$x R y$$.

We give a few useful definitions of sets used when speaking of relations.

 * The set A is the source and B is the target, with $$R \subset A \times B .$$
 * The domain of a relation R is defined as $$\mbox{dom}\ R = \{x \in A \mid \exists y, (x,y) \in R \}$$, or the set of initial members of ordered pairs contained in R.
 * The range of a relation R is defined as $$\mbox{ran}\ R = \{y \in B \mid \exists x, (x,y) \in R \}$$, or the set of all final members of ordered pairs contained in R.
 * The union of the domain and range, $$\mbox{field}\ R = \mbox{dom}\ R \cup \mbox{ran}\  R$$, is called the field of R.
 * A relation R is a relation on a set X if $$\mbox{field}\ R \subseteq X$$.
 * The converse or inverse of R is the set $$R^{T}=\{(y,x) \mid (x,y) \in R\}$$
 * The image of a set E under a relation R is defined as $$R[E] = \{y\in \mbox{ran}\ R \mid \exists x \in E, (x,y)\in R\}$$.
 * The preimage of a set F under a relation R is the image of F under RT or $$R^{T}[F] = \{x\in \mbox{dom}\ R \mid \exists y \in F, (x,y)\in R\}$$

The kinship relations uncle of and aunt of show that there are compositions of relations parent of and sibling of. Such compositions express relative multiplication:

We can compose two relations R and S to form one relation $$S \circ R =\{(x,z) \mid \exists y, (x,y) \in R \wedge (y,z) \in S\}$$. So $$x S \circ R z$$ means that there is some y such that $$xRy \wedge ySz$$.

Benchmark binary relations: The following properties may or may not hold for a relation R on a set X:
 * 1) The identity relation on A, $$I_A = \{(a,b) \mid a,b \in A, a=b\}$$
 * 2) The universal relation or the set where each element of A is related to every other element of A. Notation:, $$A \times A$$ is written $$A^2 .$$
 * R is reflexive if $$x R x$$ holds for all x in X.
 * R is symmetric if $$x R y$$ implies $$y R x$$ for all x and y in X.
 * R is antisymmetric if $$x R y$$ and $$y R x$$ together imply that $$x = y$$ for all x and y in X.
 * R is transitive if $$x R y$$ and $$y R z$$ together imply that $$x R z$$ holds for all x, y, and z in X.
 * R is total if the domain of R is A, the source
 * R is univalent if xRy and xRz imply y = z.
 * A relation that is both total and univalent is called a function.

Heterogeneous relations
When A and B are different sets, the relation is heterogeneous. Then relations on a single set A are called homogeneous relations.

Let U be a universe of discourse in a given context. By the power set axiom, there is a set of all the subsets of U called the power set of U written $$\mathcal{P}(U).$$

The set membership relation $$x \ \in \ A, \ \ A \subseteq U$$ is a frequently used heterogeneous relation where the domain is U and the range is $$\mathcal{P}(U) .$$

The converse of set membership is denoted by reflecting the membership glyph: $$A \ \ni \ x .$$

As an exercise, show that all relations from A to B are subsets of $$A \times B$$.

Definitions
A function may be defined as a particular type of relation. We define a partial function $$f: X \rightarrow Y$$ as some mapping from a set $$X$$ to another set $$Y$$ that assigns to each $$x \in X$$ no more than one $$y \in Y$$. Alternatively, f is a function if and only if $$f\circ f^{-1}\subseteq I_{Y}$$

If for each $$x \in X$$, $$f$$ assigns exactly one $$y \in Y$$, then $$f$$ is called a function. The following definitions are commonly used when discussing functions.

 * If $$f \subseteq X \times Y$$ and $$f$$ is a function, then we can denote this by writing $$f : X \to Y$$. The set $$X$$ is known as the domain and the set $$Y$$ is known as the codomain.
 * For a function $$f : X \to Y$$, the image of an element $$x \in X$$ is $$y \in Y$$ such that $$f(x)=y$$. Alternatively, we can say that $$y$$ is the value of $$f$$ evaluated at $$x$$.
 * For a function $$f : X \to Y$$, the image of a subset $$A$$ of $$X$$ is the set $$\{ y \in Y : f(x) = y \mbox{ for some } x \in A\}$$. This set is denoted by $$f(A)$$. Be careful not to confuse this with $$f(x)$$ for $$x \in X$$, which is an element of $$Y$$.
 * The range of a function $$f : X \to Y$$ is $$f(X)$$, or all of the values $$y \in Y$$ where we can find an $$x \in X$$ such that $$f(x)=y$$.
 * For a function $$f : X \to Y$$, the preimage of a subset $$B$$ of $$Y$$ is the set $$\{x \in X : f(x) \in B\}$$. This is denoted by $$f^{-1}(B)$$.

Properties of functions
A function $$f:X \rightarrow Y$$ is onto, or surjective, if for each $$y \in Y$$ exists $$x \in X$$ such that $$f(x) = y$$. It is easy to show that a function is surjective if and only if its codomain is equal to its range. It is one-to-one, or injective, if different elements of $$X$$ are mapped to different elements of $$Y$$, that is $$f(x)=f(y) \Rightarrow x=y$$. A function that is both injective and surjective is intuitively termed bijective.

Composition of functions
Given two functions $$f:X \rightarrow Y$$ and $$g:Y \rightarrow Z$$, we may be interested in first evaluating f at some $$x \in X$$ and then evaluating g at $$f(x)$$. To this end, we define the composition of these functions, written $$g \circ f$$, as

 * $$(g \circ f)(x) = g(f(x))$$

Note that the composition of these functions maps an element in $$X$$ to an element in $$Z$$, so we would write $$g \circ f : X \rightarrow Z$$.

Inverses of functions
If there exists a function $$g:Y \rightarrow X$$ such that for $$f:X \rightarrow Y$$, $$g \circ f = I_X$$, we call $$g$$ a left inverse of $$f$$. If a left inverse for $$f$$ exists, we say that $$f$$ is left invertible. Similarly, if there exists a function $$h:Y \rightarrow X$$ such that $$f \circ h = I_Y$$ then we call $$h$$ a right inverse of $$f$$. If such an $$h$$ exists, we say that $$f$$ is right invertible. If there exists an element which is both a left and right inverse of $$f$$, we say that such an element is the inverse of $$f$$ and denote it by $$f^{-1}$$. Be careful not to confuse this with the preimage of f; the preimage of f always exists while the inverse may not. Proof of the following theorems is left as an exercise to the reader.

Theorem: If a function has both a left inverse $$g$$ and a right inverse $$h$$, then $$g = h = f^{-1}$$.

Theorem: A function is invertible if and only if it is bijective.

title: Set Theory/Relations


text:
User talk:Paradigmbuff~enwikibooks

Hello, I noticed that you blanked Cookbook:Sesame Noodle Salad a day after you created it. Was this intentional, and if so, why did you blank it? Guanaco 00:21, 16 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Paradigmbuff. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Paradigmbuff~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:33, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paradigmbuff~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Set Theory/Cardinals

We should probably move the definitions of surjections, injections, and bijections to Set Theory:Relations —Siroxo

title: Talk:Set Theory/Cardinals


text: Physics Study Guide/Frictional coefficients


text:
Ecology/Ecosystems

<< Chapter 12 | Chapter 13 | Chapter 14 >>

Chapter 13. Ecosystems

An ecosystem can be described simply as the collection of all living and non-living components in a particular area. The living components of the environment are known as biotic factors. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and micro-organisms. The non-living components of the environment are known as abiotic factors. Abiotic factors include things such as rocks,water,soil,light,etc.

The idea of the ecosystem relates to the idea that all organisms in the environment are engaged in relationships with every other aspect (like resources and other organisms) in that environment. Ecosystems deal with energy and nutrient flow through a system/community. For example, a household or a university could be described as an ecosystem, and a city or a state could be described as a larger ecosystem.

While ecosystems may be bound and individually discussed, they do not exist independently, but interact in a complex web. The ecological relationships connecting all ecosystems make up the biosphere. Because virtually no surface on the Earth is free of human contact, all ecosystems can be accurately classified as human ecosystems.

Ecosystems vary in diversity. Some ecosystems may be very diverse with many plants and animals; whereas other ecosystems may be less diverse with fewer animals and plants. For example, tropical rain forests could be classified as an ecosystem that has high diversity; whereas temperate rain forests could be classified as an ecosystem that has lower diversity as compared to tropical rain forests.

Ecosystem Concept

 * Living organisms and their nonliving (abiotic) environment are inseparably interrelated and interact upon each other. Any area of nature that includes living organisms and non-living substances interacting to produce an exchange of materials between the living and non-living parts is an ecological system or ecosystem - E. P. Odum, 1959 (emphasis added)

Thus, a Field Mouse (say a Meadow vole, Microtus pennsylvanicus) in its burrow in the soil is interacting with the non-living elements of that burrow as it breathes, taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide1. But that activity is but a moment in time and cannot, by itself, define an ecosystem. The mouse must leave the burrow for food, interacting with plants. Plants themselves interact and exchange materials with the soil and the atmosphere and are dependent on radiation from the sun and the activity of earthworms and fungi in the soil. The latter, in turn, feed upon organic molecules left behind from the death of former living plants (and field mice). Thus, the "ecosystem" of our field mouse includes plants, and soil, and soil organisms—and of course other field mice to insure that mice will always be a part of that ecosystem. And perhaps present are Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), dependent upon trees for nesting and roosting and a stream for water (and fish as an alternative food), feeding upon Field mice, recycling those that are caught into baby Bald eagles and droppings that are food for the plants and earthworms. Already, the "area" of this ecosystem is at least as large as that required to support a population of Bald eagles.

It is the inclusion of all the interrelationships within a functional system that make the concept of ecosystem so broad. And the seemingly endless networks of links and interactions that give geographical breadth to an ecosystem. Of course, an ecologist could study just the organisms, activities, and biotic/abiotic interactions within the local "soil ecosystem", treating mouse and eagle excrement as we described the sun above: external, but providing important input of energy and material to the soil ecosystem. In a sense, this is what we mean by calling "ecosystem" a concept rather than just a place. We may conceive of, for the purpose of study, ecosystems over a wide range of sizes or scale, from an aquarium to an ocean, and lots of places in between. Essential are certain components that we alluded to in our description of parts of the ecosystem supporting habitat for the Field mouse, and these we will next explore in detail.

In attempting to understand any interactive, complex system, especially one as elaborate as even a simple ecosystem, it is helpful to break the system down into various component parts. By this mental process we can arrive at some understanding of the specific system and can make comparisons with other systems to further our understanding of ecosystems in general. An ecosystem consists of many component structures and these function together in various ways, suggesting an initial approach to describe any ecosystem is to consider separately its structural and functional aspects.

Basic Structural Components
Consider first an ecosystem from a structural perspective: an ecosystem consists of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components. Living components include populations of organisms and the living resources they use. Non-living components include non-living resources, such as space, and the non-living physical characteristics of habitats that differ by location, such as elevation, temperature, and humidity.

We know and can observe that the organisms living in almost any ecosystem are not all identical individuals, but can be categorized into species (discussed previously in Chapter 9); and each species has a unique set of morphological, physiological, and behavioral attributes (see Chapter 3) that will determine how each individual functions within the whole. The species present provide ways of considering their contribution to ecosystem structure. For examples: we could describe the number of species (species richness), or the number (or biomass) of individuals of each species (species diversity), or their distribution across the physical space of the ecosystem. These are a few ways an ecologist would approach describing ecosystem structure based upon the plants and animals (and others) present in it.

In addition to the organisms themselves, there are components utilized by the organisms that comprise the resources of the ecosystem. These are both biotic and abiotic, inorganic and organic, and are exchanged between organisms and between organisms and the environment (previously covered in part in Chapter 4). Resources are the materials cycled by the inhabitants of an ecosystem as they carry on with life processes. We say "cycled" because all living things have a finite existence, and the substances of their material composition remain after death to be utilized in other ways.

Finally, there are those factors that are the conditions under which the organisms live. The environment of a subarctic lake is vastly different from that of a forest in the wet tropics. But consider also that conditions within a pond (an aquatic environment) are very different from those just a few yards up from the shore (a terrestrial environment). While we might be describing mostly physical conditions, these need not be always abiotic. In many ecosystems there are organisms that provide or create the dominant physical structure of that ecosystem. Examples are a forest and a coral reef. In a forest ecosystem, the trees are both very prominent organisms and resources to many of the other species present; but they also have a substantial effect on the conditions—the microclimates—that prevail in the forest ecosystem by providing shade and physical structure for many other organisms that may not directly utilize the trees as a food resource.

It should be clear that when we speak of ecosystem structure, we are considering various aspects of an ecosystem from a perspective that need not—indeed does not—mesh exactly with other ways of categorizing ecosystem components. Consider the trees of a forest or the coral heads of a coral reef. Each is a living organism, a resource used by many other species, and a physical structure that determines the uniqueness of its particular ecosystem compared with the environment that would occupy the same space in the absence of either trees or corals. In describing ecosystem structure, we do not break down the components into divisions of abiotic vs. biotic, inorganic vs. organic, or by species. In the next section, we will consider components on the basis of their function in an ecosystem, creating yet another set of categories independent of the structural ones.

Characteristics of Ecosystems
The complexity of an ecosystem will increase as the species diversity present in the ecosystem increases. Ecosystems that are not species rich (barren ecosystems) may appear to be physically complex but are actually considered functionally complex.

Even if few species live in an environment, often because it is an unfavorable environments, that ecosystem can be still functionally complex if it include species with remarkable biochemical specializations that allow them to survive. For instance some archaea live in environments that are 113-176° F. and some organisms can get energy from inorganic chemical sources, such as bacteria that break down crude oil.

A healthy ecosystem will have high species diversity and is not likely to be damaged by human interactions, natural disasters, and climate changes. Every species within an ecosystem has a niche, the unique way that a given species uses its environment. New species are discovered every day and the roles they play in their environment to keep it healthy. This idea behind the species within the environment using their niches to keep it healthy can clearly be illustrated in a lake ecosystem. In a lake ecosystem, the sun hits the water and helps the algae grow. Algae use carbon dioxide and water to make sugars and oxygen. The oxygen is useful for any eukaryote organism and the sugars provide food for the algae or anything that eats the algae, such as microscopic organisms. Small fish eat the microscopic animals, absorb oxygen with their gills and expel carbon dioxide, which plants then use to grow. If the algae disappeared, everything else would be impacted. Microscopic animals wouldn't have enough food, fish wouldn't have enough oxygen and plants would lose some of the carbon dioxide they need to grow.

Soil is also an important part of an ecosystem. It provides important nutrients for the plants in an ecosystem. It helps anchor the plants to keep them in place. Soil absorbs and holds water for plants and animals to use and provides a home for lots of living organisms. The atmosphere provides oxygen and carbon dioxide for the plants and animals in an ecosystem. The atmosphere is also part of the water cycle. Without the interactions among organisms and elements in the atmosphere, there would be no life at all.

Basic Functional Components
We can recognize four functional components of an ecosystem: 1) abiotic factors, 2) producers, 3) consumers, and 4) decomposers. The latter three are living components, what Odum (1959) termed the three "functional kingdoms of nature", so important and universal is their presence in ecosystems.

Abiotic Factors
Abiotic factors can increase or decrease the amount of environmental stress on an ecosystem and therefore can also affect the stability of that ecosystem. We studied many of these in detail in (Chapter 4). Do not forget that physical (essentially geological) structure can influence ecological function: the nature of interactions of species in the sea can be very different from those in the atmosphere directly as a consequence of difference in physical properties of air and water.

The intertidal zone is the shore area that is submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide. It is rich in oxygen and nutrients and provides a home for many different species. The organisms that live in this area are constantly exposed to a high stress, less stable environment. However, they have adapted to huge daily changes in moisture, temperature, turbulence (from the water), and salinity. They have to be used to living in both wet and dry conditions continually. Water is a very powerful substance and the constant impact from the moving water can have drastic impacts on both living and non-living things. Intertidal organisms are forced to bury into the sand, hide under rocks and/or attach themselves to larger structures to avoid being carried away by the waves. Also, the constant flux of the environmental temperature is enough to make any creature uncomfortable. Since this area is exposed to both water and land, the organisms here must compete with predators that hunt at both areas.

Jungles or rainforests are an example of a low stress, more stable environment that are vital to maintaining the ecosystems of the earth. Unlike the intertidal zone, this environment has more subtle changes that occur at a much slower rate. Jungles are very stable environments that possess some 40% of all species. It is also a very diverse environment consisting of several layers of organisms using different parts of the ecosystem. As well as increasing biodiversity, jungles are beneficial to increasing our knowledge of medicinal plants and increasing oxygen output. Since the rainforest is literally a smörgåsbord a plants and animals, discoveries are continually made of the beneficial nature of these organisms.

Read: | Intertidal Zones

Food Webs
A food web is a series of interacting food chains. Food chains show the order in which animals consume food. Food chains and food webs are made up of Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers. Producers are Autotrophic Organisms. "Autotrophic" means self-nourishing. The most conspicuous group of autotrophs are the photolithoautotrophs, organisms such as algae and flowering plants that have cells containing chlorophyll and are thus capable of fixing light energy ("photo-") to build complex organic substances from simple inorganic substances ("litho-"). In the next chapter we are going to study the energetics of this process; now, we are mostly interested in how producers "create" organic matter utilizing energy and inorganic matter. The organic compounds that are created may be used structurally within the organism or may be latter broken down into inorganic matter and energy extracted by the process. Consumers are [| Heterotrophic Organisms], which are also termed macroconsumers. A simple definition of a heterotrophic organism is a species that is dependent on organic matter for food. Decomposers are heterotrophic organisms. These are also termed microconsumers, saprobes, or saprophytes. Decomposers are scavengers that break down dead plants and animals.

Decomposers are vital to the food web because they break down and recycle nutrients back into the soil. These nutrients are then used by producers to sustain life. Without the enzymes that decomposers provide to breakdown organic material into inorganic material, phosphorous(P) and nitrogen(N), Producers would eventually die out and the main part of food webs would cease to exist and therefore life would cease to exist. Decomposers recycle material but they do not recycle energy. Solar irradiation still provides the energy that drives the life cycle.

Decomposition is a natural process but decomposers speed up the process of decomposition. Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are three main types of decomposers. Bacteria make up about 90% of all microorganisms and are the most abundant of decomposers. They can eat anything from dead trees, dead animals and oil slicks on the surface of the ocean. Fungi and actinomycetes work on harder substances like cellulose, bark, paper and stems. These decomposers usually only work to a certain stage in decomposition then bacteria will finish the process, similar to primary and secondary succession.

A study conducted in a California river by Mary Power showed the impact that fish had on the river food wed. The main fish studied in the experiment were the steelhead and roach, these fish at a juvenile stage consume insects and fish fry, which consume chironomid larvae. These larvae reduce the algae biomass in the river. She found that when the larger adult fish species were absent, smaller more abundant predators thrived and decrease the chironomid larvae population significantly, which allowed the algae biomass to increase. This results in more cyanobacteria and diatoms to flourish on the algal turfs. This study showed a good example of how consumers and producers interact, and also showed that when one trophic level is disrupted it has a domino effect on the other trophic levels involved in the food web.

With Food Webs there are a few calculations that we can use to help us better understand the system. Chain Length is essentially the number of links between trophic levels. But when we calculate this we use the mean length. So to calculate Chain Length(CL) the equation is CL=(# of links/T-1) where T is equal to the number of trophic levels. We can also calculate link density(LD). LD=(# of Links/n) where n is the number of species in the web. And finally we can calculate Web Connectance(C). C=(actual links/potential links(N)) Where N=n(n-1)/2.

Food webs do pose some problems for ecological studies. Identifying trophic levels is very difficult in nature. Ecosystem boundaries are also tough to determine. Identifying all of the species in a community can be difficult. Quantifying and identifying the strengths of interactions is hard. In most cases it is very hard to determine what the eliminating nutrients are.

Biological Magnification
The focus of this chapter is trophic levels and nutrient transfer between trophic levels and the food webs. Not all transfers between trophic levels are positive. Biological Magnification is the tendency of pollutants to concentrate in successive trophic levels. The pollutants are usually toxic and cause death to the organism.

The first step in Biomagnification is when a producer takes up nutrients in the soil that it stores by accident as an essential nutrient. Producers will try to store massive amounts of nutrients, when "mistaken" nutrients are absorbed, i.e. DDT and Mercury, The concentration levels in the producers are greater than the levels in the surrounding environment. When the producer is eaten by the herbivore or omnivore the pollutants are transferred to the next trophic level. Since energy transfer between trophic levels is approximately ten percent, the next chain in the trophic level must try to consume large amounts of the previous trophic level to sustain life and the pollutant, once again, is concentrated in the next trophic level.

The pollutants, once absorbed, are stored in the bodies of the consumers. DDT and PCB's are fat soluble and when one trophic level is consumed by the other the fat moves from one consumer to the next. Water soluble pollutants usually cannot concentrate because they would easily dissolve in the organism. Polluted water leaves an organism rather easily whereas fat does not leave the body.

Three main criteria must be met for a pollutant to biomagnify:
 * 1) The pollutant must be long lived.
 * 2) The pollutant must be concentrated by the producers.
 * 3) The pollutant must be fat-soluble.

Guild
Species competing for the same resources in similar fashion are known as guilds. They are classified according to how they acquire their nutrients, their state of mobility, and their mode of feeding. Some examples of guilds are forbs, geophytes, graminoids, shrubs, trees and vines. A guild is much more stable than a single species, since more than one species can balance out the system. In a study of feeding patterns on polychaetes, Fauchald and Jumars (1979) utilized feeding guilds as a method of generalization and determining phylogenetic relationships, indeed claiming that guilds were very useful in summarizing data into patterns.

In a 2009 study, a guild approach was used to evaluate the roles of foraging habitats and exposure timing, as well as tropic position on Mercury (Hg) bioaccumulation. Five species of waterbirds forming three distinct foraging guilds in the San Francisco Bay (SFB) estuary were used in this investigation. Because estuarine waterbirds form well-documented, distinct guilds distinguished by their feeding method and habitat use and because the SFB estuary has a legacy of Hg contamination from historic mining in the Sierra Nevada Coast Mountain Range, Hg exposure was able to be evaluated on both large-scale foraging strategies (such as tropic position) occurring among guilds and small-scale strategies (such as foraging micro-habitats) that occur within guilds. As indicated by this study, SFB waterbirds accumulated alarming Hg concentrations. Concentrations that place them at considerable risk to deleterious reproductive effects. Such exposure was shown to vary as a function of micro-habitat, region, trophic level, and time spent in the estuary. These results have raised quite a bit of concern because the SFB estuary is among the most important sites for wintering, migrating, and breeding waterbird populations along the Pacific Flyaway.

Keystone Species
A keystone species is a species having a disproportionate effect on the ecosystem. They provide stability to an ecosystem. Normally they are not the dominant species but are required for a community to have stability. Many times, keystone species are predators that keep some type of herbivore from consuming all of the dominant plant species. One interesting aspect of keystone species is that, since they normally feed on predators that consume small numbers of prey, they can effectively control a system without actually needing to have a large population size.

J. Brown and E. Heske studied the effects of the removal of Dipodomys spp. (Kangaroo rats) from the Chihuahuan Desert shrub habitat in southeastern Arizona. Twelve years after the removal of three species of kangaroo rats, the controlled plots in the habitat went from shrubland to grassland. The density of perennial and annual grasses increased considerably, and other rodent species in the area colonized. These major changes in the ecosystem showed that the Dipodomys spp. have a significant effect on the diversity and biogeochemical processes, which led the researchers to believe that the kangaroo rats are a keystone species. Some other examples of keystone species would include Starfish, Sea Otters, Bears, Beavers and Domestic Cats.
 * Read: Keystone Species

All the examples of keystone species mentioned above are animals. However, this isn't always the case. Pinus chiapensis is an early successional, neotropical pine species found in warm, humid, mid-elevation Mesoamercian areas such as in the tropical montane areas of southern Mexico and western Guatemala. It has been discovered that forests dominated by P. chiapensis are the first to appear after disturbance, modifying drastically the environment by shading the forest floor, favoring soil development, increasing the rate of soil carbon sequestration, acidifying the soil, releasing nutrient cations by weathering the bed rock, and providing a source of food for birds and mammals. P. chiapensis trees inhibit their own development while facilitating the growth of broadleaved species typical of tropical montane cloud forests. Ultimately, P. chiapensisis a keystone species because of its crucial impacts in tropical montane cloud forest regeneration and its effect on ecosystem processes.

Hypotheses of Food Web Control
Each food web contains N numbers of trophic levels and with each number the cycle of dependence flip-flops according to the Oksanen's Model. There are two hypotheses involved in this model one is known as the Bottom-up Control hypothesis. The bottom-up control hypothesis states that both the top and the bottom trophic levels are controlled by resource limitations For example in a three tiered food web (three trophic levels), the bottom trophic level would contain a species of plants, which of course are dependent on the resources available to it. The next trophic level would be some species of herbivore, these herbivores are limited and controlled by a species of predator which is also the third trophic level. The predator or top trophic level is then limited by the plant resources keeping the herbivores alive and reproducing.

If we were to now add a trophic level, such as a secondary predator (the original predator being the primary predator), the cycle of dependence would then flip-flop, and the Top-bottom Control hypothesis would apply. The top-bottom control hypothesis states that the food web cycle is predator limited. We now have our plant species ==> the herbivore ==> the primary predator ==> and the secondary predator. The plants that were resource limited are now predator limited by the herbivores. The herbivores are now resource limited by the plants abundance. The primary predator is now limited by the secondary predator and the secondary predator is now limited by the resources of the primary predator, herbivore, and plants.

This cycle repeats itself and with each additional trophic level added, the limitation of the lower trophic levels changes from either resource limited or predator limited to the other. The relationships of two trophic levels when the bottom is resource limited and the top is predator limited gives a positive slope. The more of the lower trophic level the more there is of the upper trophic level. The inverse is true when the lower trophic level is predator limited and the upper trophic level is resource limited, it creates a negative slope the more are of the upper trophic level the less there will be of the lower trophic level.

For more detailed information on this trophic cascade idea and for examples read:Trophic cascade

title: Ecology/Ecosystems


text:
Radiation Oncology/Liver

Overview

Disease Information
 * Hepatocellular Carcinoma
 * Liver metastases
 * (Intrahepatic) Cholangiocarcinoma

Treatment
 * Proton Therapy

Normal tissue tolerance

RTOG Liver Trials

Review Articles

 * PMID 15143976 -- Radiotherapy of liver malignancies. From whole liver irradiation to stereotactic hypofractionated radiotherapy. (2004 Greco, Tumori. 2004 Jan-Feb;90(1):73-9.)
 * PMID 14648782 -- Conformal chemoradiation for primary and metastatic liver malignancies. (2003 Dawson, Semin Surg Oncol. 2003;21(4):249-55)

title: Radiation Oncology/Liver