text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/Credentialism

What is credentialism? According to a dictionary, credentialism is “excessive reliance on credentials, esp. academic degrees, in determining hiring or promotion policies. American Heritage Dictionary states that credentialism is “overemphasis on diplomas or degrees in giving jobs or conferring social status”. Because of NCLB requirement, the administrators of school systems have to follow the guideline and rely on applicant’s credentials when they hire him or her as a teacher. Teachers who do not meet this requirement have to work on this requirement. Did this impact the education? If it is so, how did this impact the education?

Advantages
To reform the school system and improve students performance in the nationwide, the federal government enacted the No Child Left Behiend Act of 2001(NCLB). This includes accountability for students performance, teacher quality, and information for parents.

Under the law, states have to ensure that all children are taught by effective teachers. The No Child Left Behind act of 2001 (NCLB) requires that (by the end of the 2006-7 school year) all teachers must be "highly qualified" as defined in the law. A highly qualified teacher is one who has (1) fulfilled the state's certification and licensing requirements, (2) obtained at least a bachelor’s degree, and (3) demonstrated subject matter expertise. The procedure for demonstrating subject matter knowledge depends on a teacher's tenure and level of instruction (Desimone, Laura M.; Smith, Thomas M.; Ueno, Koji, 2005).

This means that teachers who do not have enough credentials or degrees cannot have teaching jobs. Teachers who have not fulfilled the licensing requirements have to take classes for licensure and attend workshops. Teachers who have completed the requirements for this process express the differences. In the article of Michael N. Riley, teachers express these comments below.

performance of the students. (Riley, 2007)
 * A focus on making learning objectives much clearer and more specific.
 * A commitment to the learning of all kids and an accompanying and complementary willingness to measure effectiveness of instruction and the instructor by the success of each and every student.
 * A deeper understanding and more frequent use for formative assessment.
 * A practice of modifying instruction any time, even in the heart of a lesson, driven by the understanding and

Teachers who have content knowledge in the subject but do not know what to do in the classroom can learn so many strategies of how to deliver the lesson, assess student’s work and modify instructional strategies in the program of licensure. Teachers who meet requirements as being “highly qualified “ are more likely to use effective instruction than those who do not meet these requirements.

No Child Left Behind includes funds for the teacher and principal quality training and recruitment. The money is designed to help states and school districts improve teacher and principal quality and recruit quality staff. To make sure that more teachers get qualified, the Department of Education allocated $2.85 billion in 2002 and $2.93 billion in 2003 through Improving Teacher Quality state grants to help teachers become highly qualified if they are not already (Desimone, Smith, Ueno, 2005). According to Safier, teacher certification increase and greater increases in instructional expenditures are correlated with the increase of highly qualified teachers (Safier, 2007).

Disadvantages
Administrators of school systems are dealing with how to meet the staffing needs of schools with qualified teachers. Patricia C. Pratt-Cook, the human – resources director, in Memphis, Tenn., said she has sometimes had to rehire teachers who had not attained highly qualified status because she found no better candidates for their jobs (Keller, 2007).

Since the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) requires the highly qualified teachers for all students, this created the shortage of teachers in certain areas, such as special education, foreign languages, math and sciences. According to the article “Reducing the Special Education Teacher Shortage,” colleges and universities produce only half the number required to fill vacant positions (Medina, Peltier, Thornton, 2007). Because of insufficient  candidates, highly qualified special education teachers are not available for all classrooms.

In addition, NCLB requires that all children, including those with disabilities, are at proficient levels as measured by state academic assessments by the 2013-14 school year. This pressures many educators, and more special education teachers will request to transfer to regular education positions or leave the profession (Medina, Peltier, Thornton, 2007).

The problem of relying so much on credentialism is if the society emphasizes only credentials and degrees to hire somebody there is a chance to miss the certain value of characteristics for jobs such as experiences, devotion, and adaptability.

Many state-financed preschool programs require teachers to have four year degrees. Yet some researchers are skeptical about the link between teacher credentials in preschool and outcomes for children ( Jacobson, 2007). Some community colleges have good early childhood programs to become effective teachers for preschools. If some females who raised their children want to be preschool teachers but have to obtain four year degrees, this credentialism makes it hard for those people to teach preschools.

Conclusion
Credentialism really impacted the education in good and bad ways. The requirement of certain credentials for teaching ensure the teacher’s quality. Teachers who are highly qualified know about what effective ways to teach the subjects, which affects student’s achievement. In contrast, there are teacher shortages in some areas. Without sufficient amount of teachers, students cannot receive quality education. Policy makers and advocates have to consider what should be done to solve these problems.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal sample responses.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/Paraprofessionals

Paraprofessionals, sometimes called teachers' aides, are important to the educational system. From my experience, they are paramount in all classes, especially special education classes. I had the opportunity to volunteer at a preschool where I worked with paraprofessionals, teachers, and students. I decided to spend my time volunteering in a special needs classroom where there were 8 students, 2 paraprofessionals, and 1 teacher. All of the students needed and deserved special attention because they had special needs ranging from ADHD to autism. The paraprofessionals’ presence provided the extra attention that was needed. Without them in the classroom, the students would have been extremely hard to manage.

Paraprofessionals Defined
According to about.com, a paraprofessional is a special education worker who is not licensed to teach, but performs many duties both individually with the students and organizationally in the classroom (about.com). Paraprofessionals have been around for over 50 years. Throughout the years, they have performed simple tasks such as monitoring the lunchroom and monitoring playground time. Over the years, their duties have evolved. Para’s are now involved with instructing small groups in classrooms, helping the teacher modify lesson plans to meet the needs of individual students, and under the direction of the teacher, administer assessment activities to the students (Bartholomay 2001).

Paraprofessionals in Special Education Classes
Paraprofessionals work specifically with general education students until they reach first grade. There after, they mainly work with special education students (Goodman 2007). In the special education classes, each student has an IEP, Individual Education Program (Baumel 2007). Children get assessed for an IEP if the parent feels that their child requires special education. A multidisciplinary team evaluates the child and writes up the IEP, which is reviewed every year. The parent is active in the process of creating the document. The IEP document presents the levels of educational performance the child should achieve and the goals they should accomplish in that year (Baumel 2007). I recently interview a Pre-K special education teacher. She shared with me the IEP goals for her students and how the paraprofessional helps with the documentation of the goals. There are seven areas where the students must perform in order to meet the goals: gross motor fine motor, expressive language, receptive language, social/personal, self-help, sensorimotor/preacademic. In the preschool setting, the teacher and paraprofessional carefully observe each student and document when they reach their goal. Here are some tasks that the paraprofessional and teacher look for.

 * Gross motor: student can kick a ball four to six feet.
 * Fine motor: student can cut a five inch circle with assistance from the paraprofessional.
 * Expressive language: student can name pictures of objects seen in books.
 * Receptive language: student can follow two-step commands involving sequence.
 * Social/personal: student can play group games, like hide-and-seek, without constant adult supervision.
 * Self-help: student can button up coat.
 * Sensorimotor/pre-academic: student can label all primary colors. (Goodman 2007)

Training/Educational requirements
The training for paraprofessionals is mainly on-the-job. In some studies, paraprofessionals find a need for more training besides the basic on-the-job training and workshops. Training the paraprofessional’s places more obligations for the teachers because they have to supervise and mentor the paraprofessionals along with teaching the students (Bartholomay 2001).

Due to the implementation of No Child Left Behind Act, the educational requirements for paraprofessionals have changed. Previously, the main requirements were high school diploma, some college education, and/or an associate’s degree (Goodman 2007). Those requirements still apply, but now paraprofessionals are required to take the ParaPro test. The test is an assessment of math skills, writing skills and reading skills for prospective practicing paraprofessionals (ETS 2007).

Relationship between Teacher and Paraprofessional
It is important for the teacher to establish a good relationship with the paraprofessional early on. In the beginning of the year, it is best for the teacher to explain the role that the paraprofessional will have in the classroom. One of the most important things that the teacher has to explain to the paraprofessional is the limitations that they have with the parents. The policies for parent and paraprofessional interactions may be different in each school system, so it is extremely important that they are aware. In some case, the parent may ask the paraprofessional about their child’s performance in class. The first reaction would be to tell the parent about the child since they observe the child’s performance every day. If the policy of the school is that only the teacher disposes the information, the teacher has to provide the paraprofessional with the correct language to redirect the parent to the teacher. A good thing that the teacher can do with the paraprofessional is to have a weekly meeting. At this time, they can address any concerns or issues that may be present in the classroom. If any problem ever occurs between the paraprofessional and the teacher, it is important to discuss the issues privately. In doing so, the teacher does not lessen the paraprofessional’s effectiveness in the classroom (Hauge 2006).

Are Paraprofessionals Unappreciated?
Some paraprofessionals in some school districts feel unappreciated. Since they do not have to obtain a bachelor’s or master’s degree, some administrators see them easy to replace. Some things have been done to make the paraprofessional’s feel appreciated. In Texas, the state legislature declared that the second Wednesday in May is Paraprofessional Recognition Day (Williams 2003). The recognition is important because paraprofessionals need to know that they are important to the educational system and that they are valued.

Conclusion
For over the past 50 years, paraprofessionals have been an important asset to the educational system. Now their position requires more responsibilities and extra qualifications. The most important aspect of the paraprofessional’s job is to develop a good relationship with the teacher. Once a good relationship is developed, the teacher and paraprofessional can work in harmony and provide the students with a comfortable and secure environment. It is also important that the teachers and administrators appreciate the work that the paraprofessional does. When appreciation and respect are there, it establishes trust between the teacher and paraprofessional.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal sample responses.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Administration/Ethical Leadership

Ethical leadership in education is essential in order for principals and teachers to run effective schools. Principals must show ethical judgment in dealing with teachers as well as students. Teachers hold the responsibility of ethical judgment, not just to ensure their well-being, but also to act as an example to their students. Students learn many of their ethical values at school. It is important to understand the difference between ethics and the law. “Ethics refers to a system or code of morality embraced by a particular person or group” (Cooper, Ryan p.395). The law is defined as “a system of rules that governs the general conduct of a particular community’s citizens” (Cooper, Ryan p.395). While it is true that many laws are grounded in ethics, not all laws are ethical. An example is the segregation of schools in America before the Civil Rights movement. To make a school work, principals and teachers must work within the law, but they must also create a trusting working relationship with each other and their students through ethics.

Principals
Principals have a double responsibility of being leaders to teachers and students. Here are some examples of how principals should treat their teachers:
 * 1) Contracts are not broken unilaterally.
 * 2) Anonymous information is not used to injure others.
 * 3) One does not personally profit from the position held.
 * 4) Confidential materials are kept confidential.
 * 5) One does not use school employees and school materials for personal matters.
 * 6) Expense accounts are not falsified.
 * 7) School leaders tell the truth, have integrity, and adhere to the ethics of the profession (Phi Delta Kappa ’98).

All of these rights are things that teachers should be able to count on from their principals. However, that power must never be abused, a principal should never act as a dictator. The relationship between students and principals has always been a stressed one. Children tend to dread being sent to the principal’s office, because they have that air of authority. Principals have difficult jobs in that they are often the people parents complain to first and they have to report to the superintendent. Suppose you were a principal and one of your students had a problem with the way a teacher said something in class, they report it to their parents, and before you know it the superintendent is calling you on the phone demanding the dismissal of that teacher. The teacher has not had any kind of due process in this case. There are two kinds of due process “substantive due process, which has to do with the issue itself” and “the other, procedural due process, which concerns the fairness of the process followed” (Ryan, Cooper p.405). The teacher should have been given an investigation into the case before the superintendent called you. Do you have the gumption to tell your superior “no”? In short, principals must “work with employees who are more articulate now than ever in voicing their needs, with parents who wish to become more involved in the day-to-day operations of the schools, with legislators who desire to provide more detailed direction to schools regarding specific programs or activities, and with school boards feeling the pressure from all of the groups, who desire to ‘keep control’ or ‘manage’ the schools” (Phi Delta Kappa ’98).

Teachers
Teachers have a responsibility to act as an unbiased ethical example to their students. One way for teachers to start this is to decide on what ethical code of conduct to use in their classroom. This involves identifying several traits and attitudes they feel their students should follow, and then modeling these behaviors. One example is placing the student’s needs before their own, students seeing this may one day come to appreciate the effort (Killion, 2001). Teachers today are up against great ethical obstacles; a 2002 poll by the Josephson Institute of Ethics (a non-profit organization) discovered that 74% of 12,000 high school students admitted to cheating on a test the year before (Lehr, 2003). This being the case, it becomes imperative that teachers teach ethics to their students. Teachers are in a position of power, they have the authority to send students to the principal's office, decide grades, and have parent-teacher conferences. Everyone remembers at least one teacher in their grade school career they were afraid of. Teachers also must learn to regulate themselves so that they do not abuse their power. After all “stewardship asks leaders to acknowledge their own human faults and limitations rather than hiding behind their status and power” (Lashway, ‘97). The National Education Association (NEA) has a code of ethics that is used by the teaching profession as a whole. In it’s preamble it states that “The educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human being, recognizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to excellence, and the nurture of democratic principles” (Ryan, Cooper p.402). It then goes on to list two basic principles, a commitment to the student, and a commitment to the profession (Ryan, Cooper p.402) In a way, being a teacher is a bit like being a doctor, including the pledging of ethical treatment to those they serve. Ethical decisions will not always be cut and dry. “An ‘ethical dilemma’ is not a choice between right and wrong, but a choice between two rights” (Lashway, ’97). For example: Making a choice between two students who are both equally qualified to be on the debate team. Being a teacher requires the skills to make decisions that are not always easy. In addition to student responsibilities, teachers have their own code of conduct or responsibilities to adhere by which may include all or some of the following: instructing students by using guidelines of courses of study provided for the grade and subject matter taught, planning instructions in order to provide efficient teaching and learning, keeping accurate attendance on a daily basis, counseling students who have any problems or referring students to the principal if problems are severe, storing and using supplies and equipment properly, reporting any repairs to the office, attending faculty and staff meetings, sponsoring school or class clubs upon the request of the principal, using the cumulative records of each student to aid in understanding their progress to help them individually, evaluating the achievement of each student and recognizing development, understanding the school board’s policy, and fulfilling any duty assignments etc. These responsibilities should be performed every day during the school year by the teacher unless otherwise instructed. The student is always the top priority, and the teacher’s main responsibility (Teacher Responsibilities).

School Success
A successful school is one governed by ethics. It is not only a delicate balance of what is right and wrong, but of opinion and circumstance. Conveying this idea to employees, parents, and students has been the challenge of teachers and administrators since schools began. The “moral imperatives of the effective leader embody shared values, trust, honesty, fairness, equity, empowerment, human dignity, doing the right thing, rule of law, justice, and beneficence” (Phi Delta Kappa ’98). For any human being this list can be overwhelming, but for teachers and principals it is imperative that they live by it for the sake of each other and their students.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Administration/Legal Issues

In every school system in America there are legal issues that are presented. Each state has there own legal issues that they have as a guideline as to what is right and what is wrong. Also, they have to meet their state standards. There are certain laws that each school in the United States must abide by. Since my fellow classmates and I plan on becoming teachers I plan to focus on the information that will be the most important to us.

Zero Tolerance Policy
The zero-tolerance policy is a policy that every education system must follow. This term is used to describe misbehavior in the school system. The zero-tolerance is a policy of having no tolerance for transgressions: any infraction of existing laws and regulation, regardless of mistakes, ignorance, or even extenuating circumstances, will be met with full punishment. Examples, of this would be fighting and drugs. A student possessing or getting caught using drugs on school property governed by a zero-tolerance policy could immediately suffer the highest possible consequence for their actions. Many organizations avoid these policies because it binds those in authority to an action, regardless of circumstances. The policy must be written extremely explicitly or it may have negative consequences. The school may not make up rules as they go because it does not inform the students between right and wrong. In some jurisdictions, zero-tolerance policies have come into conflict with freedom of religion rules already in place allowing students to carry, for example, kirpans. Most policies were enacted after the shootings at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado. This act was put into place to give the students an opportunity to act like adults, but have discipline when necessary. Zero tolerance results in expulsion or suspension irrespective of any legitimate explanation. In many instances it also results in having the student arrested. In April 2003 the American Bar Associated Journal gathered some information about the effects of the zero tolerance policy. Nationwide, statistics gathered by the Justice Policy Institute and the U.S. Department of Education show that crime of all sorts is down at public schools since 1990- some studies say by as much as 30 percent. Less than 1 percent of all violent incidents involving adolescents occur on school grounds. Indeed, a child is three times more likely to be struck by lightening than to be killed violently at school. This policy is important to all members of the education system. It is the basic guidelines that we have to follow in order to know how to take control over a certain situation and what the punishment for that student will be.

No Child Left Behind Act
The No Child Left Behind Act is an act that is nationwide to help make sure that all students are getting the resources and material they need to be successful in the classroom. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, commonly known as NCLB, is a United States federal law that was passed in the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001 and signed on January 8, 2002, that reauthorized a number of federal programs aiming to improve the performance of U.S. primary and secondary schools by increasing the standards of accountability for states, school districts and schools, as well as providing parents more flexibility in choosing which schools their children will attend. It promoted an increased focus on reading and re-authorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. This act is one of the best things that the government inquired into the school system. The No Child Left Behind act requires that (by the end of the 2006-2007 school year) all teachers be “highly qualified” as defined in the law. A highly qualified teacher is one who has (1) fulfilled the state’s certification and licensing requirements, (2) obtained at least a bachelor’s degree, and (3) demonstrated subject matter expertise. The procedure for demonstrating subject matter knowledge depends on a teacher’s tenure and level of instruction. Elementary teachers must pass a state test demonstrating their subject knowledge and teaching skills in reading/language arts, writing, mathematics and other areas of basic elementary school curricula. Middle and high school teachers must demonstrate a high level of competency in each academic subject area they teach, such demonstration can occur either through passage of a rigorous state academic subject or successful completion of an undergraduate major, a graduate degree, coursework equivalent to an undergraduate major or an advanced certification or credentialing. These requirements have caused some difficulty in implementation especially for special education teachers and teachers in small rural schools who are often called upon to teach multiple grades and subjects. This act puts pressure on the teacher to make sure they are helping the students and giving them enough help when necessary. During the year the child will be watched and make sure they are getting the proper information. This act requires that the teachers send home progress reports and report cards, so the parents can watch the progress of their children. The progress of all students will be measured annually for math and reading in grades 3-8 and at least once during high school. This act makes sure that each child is educated to the best of their ability.

Americans With Disabilities Act
The act that helps students with disabilities and special education would be the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). President George H.W. Bush introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990. The ADA is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Disability is defined, as “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limit’s a major life activity.” The determination of whether any particular condition is considered a disability is made on a case-by-case basis. Certain specific conditions are excluded as disabilities, such as current substance abusers and transsexuality. The ADA is one of the best acts that could have been interpreted into the school system because it allows every individual the same opportunity whether they have a disability or not. These students are not treated equal and are able to go to regular classrooms with other students.

Religion
Throughout school many educators have been faced with the issues of religion. They had to face the fact of whether it could be taught in public schools or if the information they were providing their students had anything to do with religious views. It is stated that any school event is not allowed to have anything to do with religion associated with it. In many cases the Lemon Test is used to decide if the subject has religion in it. The Establishment Clause is a clause where the government cannot decide on one particular religion. A major question that is faced is whether or not students should be allowed to prayer during a school functioning. In its most recent consideration of prayer in the public schools, a 6-3 majority of the Supreme Court ruled in 2000 that student-led, prayers before football games violated the Establishment Clause. The Ninth Circuit, on two occasions, has found that school districts must necessarily refuse to allow students to deliver sectarian prayers or proselytizing speeches at graduation to avoid violating the Establishment Clause (Epley, B). Another problem that is discussed is the moment of silence. A sharply divided Supreme Court invalidated moments of silence for prayer more than 20 years ago, but the battles over moments of silence continue. The Fourth Circuit upheld a Virginia statute mandating a moment of silence in all classrooms during which “each pupil may, in the exercise of his or her individual choice, mediate, pray, or engage in any other silent activity which does not interfere with, distract, or impede other pupils in the like exercise of individual choice”(Epley, B). It is important to know that in Virginia Public Schools that each student is allowed to exercise freely during the moment of silent.

One of the biggest issues with religion that is being discussed in the school is the subject of Creationism/Intelligent Design. Control of the curriculum has often been a contentious issue, dating to the infamous Scopes Monkey Trial. The most recent decision involves an attempt by a Pennsylvania school district to mandate the teaching of Intelligent Design in high school biology. Intelligent Design is considered a theological argument. The Court concluded that the purpose of including Intelligent Design in the curriculum was to promote religion in public schools and that the policy failed both the Lemon Test and the Endorsement Test (Epley, B). In the United States there is not an official religion, so many parents do not want their children being taught Intelligent Design because some believe it goes against their religion.

Conclusion
The public schools have many policies that a teacher must abide by, but the ones presented here are the most important. We must use these policies when we are an educator to do our best and succeed at our career.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Administration/Financing

"Money doesn't grow on trees". That was the saying that most parents used when their child would ask them for money. If money did grow on trees, economic and educational resources would not be as scarce as they are now. Schools struggle everyday to find funds for their students. It becomes more difficult as technology and population begin to expand. One event that sparked the need for better resources and technology in schools was the launch of Sputnik. It established that the expectations that school improvement was tied to national political and economic goals(Everhart70). This goes back to the United States wanting to be the powerhouse over all the other countries. This placed stress on schools for their students to improve in technology and all around education. In order for this to occur, there was a higher demand for educational resources. The resources usually either come from the state or federal government. There are various ways schools can receive financial. The various strategies are spelled out throughout this section.

State Funding
The states provide some funding for public schools. They provide funding for the infrastructure and for academic resources. Most of a school's funding actually is generated from the state. There are various funding mechanisms that schools can use in order to gain more money for resources.

Grants
One funding mechanism is grants. The good thing about grants is that the money does not have to be repaid to the donor. The type of grants given differs from state to state. The categories consist of flat grants, equalizing grants, categorical grants, and full state funding(Sielke 654). While most might think that a huge percentage of their funds are allocated through grants, this is not the case.

Voter Approved Bond Issues
The vast majority of states rely on voter approved bond issues to fund some, if not all, of their infrastructure needs(Sielke 654). A lot of schools are in dire need of infrastructure funding. Some schools are dirty and unsafe for students. Students should not be forced to learn in an unhealthy environment. Who wants to wake up every morning knowing that they have to stay and learn in a run down school for at least six hours? Most would prefer not to suffer through that. Thus people would assume that the voter approved bond issues are a reliable source to receive funding aid from. However, there are a few problems with this financial source. The problem with these bond issues is that they are tied to property wealth. So basically, the rich just keep getting richer. The amount of property wealth limits the size of the bond issue and places a heavier burden on taxpayers in low wealth districts(Sielke 654.) The schools that are in low-income areas are the schools that need the most funds. Unfortunately, if they were to use this source, they would not receive nearly as much funds as another school may receive.

Federal Funding
The federal government also plays a role in school funding. Probably not a large of a role as the state, but it is beneficial. The federal government also offers grants to the schools. Federal competitive grants account for $100 Billion of the $400 Billion distributed in assistance programs annually(Gosmire 161). There is money out there for schools. They may have to search a little harder for the funds. Obviously, the federal government is not a large contributor. There is an extra $300 billion dollars that can be allocated to some schools. A person can never stress enough the importance for applying for grants.

Federal Impact Aid
The legislature for Federal Impact Aid was passed in 1950. It was originally intended for the sole purpose of providing financial relief to local school districts that were burdened by activities of the federal government (Zimmer,Buddin,Gill 939). This burden could contain a multitude of things. One main problem is the increase in population at a certain school. When there are more people, more resources are needed to accommodate them. Currently, the federal impact aid program provides $900 million per year in subsidies to approximately 1,400 local school districts which enroll 12 million eligible children (Zimmer et al.) If the government were to allocate the maximum funds the schools could receive, the monetary amount will be a lot higher. The government seems to always find a way to deprive funds from people who need it the most. They can spend billions of dollars on wars, but what about the youth. They are the key to the future. We want competent leaders in the future. The government should be more willing to give up the maximum amount of money. To determine how much money each school is allowed, the government has a funding formula. This formula creates the basic support payment that is partially distributed to the schools. The first part of the formula is the weighted adjustments for the federally-connected students. The federally-connected students are the students eligible for aid. Listed below are the federally-connected students and their weighted adjustments.

Children of military parents living on base=1.0

Children living on Native American Reservations=1.25

Children of federal civilian employees living on federal property=1.0

Children of military parents living off base=0.1

Children living in low-rent housing=0.1

Children of federal civilian employees not living on federal property=.05

To determine the basic support payment, they multiple the total number of students in each category by the weighted adjustment. For example, if there are 2000 students in a school who have military parents living on base, you would multiply 2000 times 1. Thus the school will receive $2000 for those students. They would do this for each category. The Federal Impact aid is good; however, it is still not enough money for the burden the school is taking. Just think about it, the most the government will give for one child is $1.25. Books cost a lot more than $1.25. They can come up with more funds from somewhere. But who can complain about getting free aid.

Conclusion
There are different sources where schools can receive funds from. The situation is still hard for schools. Most funding is not total funding. They could possibly give out more money, but for some odd reason they do not allocate the maximum amount of funds. The state provides the majority of the funds for the schools. Some of those funds come from grants and voter approved bonds. The federal government also has a small contribution to the national school system. They provide a few grants and federal impact aid. Unfortunately, we still need more money for school. Don't we wish money grew on trees.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Standards Movement

Changing Global Conditions
Traditionally, federal and state governments delegated their authority over public education to local school districts that ultimately placed it in the hands of text book publishers and teachers (Wixson et al. 70). However, after the Publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 the concern for public education came into the national spotlight. This document warned that our previous leadership in commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation was being surpassed by international competitors and that “knowledge, learning information, and skilled intelligence are the new raw materials of international commerce …” It also further suggested that the federal government should exert more control over education. This pushed business leaders, politicians, and educators alike into motion for educational reform. We are now forced not only to live up to our own national standards but we must also now live up to world standards set by competing countries. Electronic media, international trade agreements, and the increasing capability of third world countries to produce goods have forced the United States to rethink and redefine education (Rhoads et al., 1).

Equality in Education
Equality in the educational arena has also been another major force in the push for change. Traditionally school funding was provided largely from local property taxes, thus students living in economically disadvantaged localities had substantially fewer resources and ultimately an inadequate education as evidenced by what had been called the “achievement gap”. The National Assessment of Educational Progress noted a substantial gap between minority and white students in the 1970s, only to resurge in the 1990s. After years of legal battles during the 70's and 80's the responsibility of funding began to rely more heavily on the state (McClure 3-4).

The Standards Movement
Throughout the course of the 1980s, several reform efforts were implemented and as pointed out by Massell, imposed requirements with out specifying what exactly the content should consist of and proved to “‘lack the substantive grist necessary for meaningful school-based change’” (cited in Wixson et. al., 71). Also, with such a large buffet of curricula being served to American children these new policies, each individually designed for different sets of standards and objectives only added to the lack of coherence in our educational system. As a way to address these issues a more coherent and systematic policy began to emerge in the 1990’s. In an attempt to remedy the basic skills orientation that had plagued American schools for decades the new focus was on the ability to reason, problem solve, apply knowledge and increase competency in written and oral communication skills (Wixson et. al, 71-72). The new systematic reform effort saw teaching as the most direct route to changes in student learning, it was a means to provide top-down support for bottom-up instructional improvement in schools across the nation. To achieve this end the Consortium for Policy Research in Education recommended that this type of reform must include three integral components: (a) establishing challenging academic standards; (b)aligning policies such as testing, professional development and accountability; and (c) restructuring the governance system to delegate overtly to schools the responsibility for developing instructional approaches to meet the standards that the state will hold them accountable for (Wixson et. al., 71). This was the beginning of an effort by our Federal Government to align policy with results by implementing standards and annual assessments and then holding individual schools accountable for the results. NCEST or The National Council on Education Standards and Testing stated that, "'high national standards tied to assessments can create high expectations for all students and help to better target resources'" (cited in Wixson, et. al., 73).

Today the continuing Standards Movement still is a ways off, in 1996 Tommy Thompson, the Governor of Wisconsin, said that, "We might get national standards eventually. But the only way it's going to happen is bottom up, through coalitions of states “ (Frontline). Most school districts in the country today subscribe to a state standard which is a step in the right direction. Although some criticize the  corporate America is having too much of an influence on curriculum development (Frontline). Refreshing upon the changes happening lately speaking at a convention October 2001, Lou Gerstner said, "Let's not forget where things stood when we convened the 1996 Education Summit. It was a bad time for public education reform, bordering on fatalistic. And the debate over standards -- standards as the centerpiece of public school reform -- was being conducted with the decorum of a street fight." So education reform is taking a definite step in the right direction. Louis Gerstner, Chairman of IBM said it best, "The work of putting standards in place was difficult and often painful. Victory isn't 45 or 50 well-crafted documents that spell out what a high school diploma ought to stand for. The goal here -- our No. 1 national priority according to the American people -- is delivering radically improved student performance” (Frontline).

Goals 2000: Educate America Act
The result was The Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994 which “gave federal grants to state departments to develop state curriculum standards” and became the “basic building blocks” of the systematic reform (McClure 4). At the same time the Federal Government was also funding the private development of national standards, the idea was that both state and federal standards could be forged together and that once this was established all other areas of education could be redirected accordingly (Wixson et al., 74). Simultaneously, the reauthorization of The Elementary and Secondary Education Act was signed, which required states to develop and implement standards for all children in order to continue receiving Tile I funds. The Goals 2000 also established a new federal agency, The National Education Standards and Improvement Council (NESIC). This agency was designated to certify national content, performance, and opportunity-to-learn standards (Wixson, et al. 75). The Federal Government was moving toward a set of national standards by having NESIC approve or certify individual state standards and simultaneously funding the private development of standards, hoping to align them.

No Consensus
The effort to develop acceptable national standards served to be more challenging than anyone had anticipated. Educational experts and professionals alike had differing opinions about what the content standards should be and how they should be addressed. Such controversial disciplines as History and English Language Arts served to be the biggest barrier to consensus. Lynne Cheney charged that the national standards presented “‘the United States and its white, male-dominated power structure as an oppressive society that victimizes minorities and women’” (Diegmueller, cited in Rhoads, et.al., 6). Another controversial subject was English Language Arts, where again experts could not agree about what the standards should be and how the subject matter of reading, writing, speaking, and literature should be addressed. Other barriers included differing beliefs about the very nature and purpose of education. Some believed standards would be explicitly stated and reflected the belief that “essential skills and knowledge could be objectively identified, transmitted directly through teaching, and discretely tested”. Others believed that it was not so cut and dry, that essential skills and knowledge must be obtained through a more contextual and constructive environment and progress would be difficult to adequately assess through standardized tests (Wixson, et al.). Nevertheless the failure of these efforts resulted in a demise of the national standards movement and refocused the movement on standards being set by individual states. Also with this decline came the dissolution of NESIC replaced in 1998 by ACHIEVE, a nongovernmental agency designed to guide states on the creation and implementation of standards and assessments (Wixson, et al. 78).

No Child Left Behind
In 2002 president George Bush signed into law the most controversial and possibly the most detrimental bill thus far in the standards movement, No Child Left Behind (NCLB). It is another reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and requires states to develop minimum standards, give annual assessments and also demonstrate Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP). AYP is based on initial proficiency as determined by standardized assessments specifically in math and language arts and is expected to increase every year until 100% of students are proficient (Gunning, 10). In the Article How to Fix No Child Left Behind we are told that schools must do this or face a loss of federal funds which account for 9% of dollars spent in education. Also NCLB takes the Federal government “where it has never gone before: telling the states how to measure school success, specifying interventions for failure, mandating qualifications for teachers and even telling the nation how to teach reading” (Wallis and Steptoe, 2-3).

High Stakes Tests
This has brought us into the current state of education, which by most reviews is not any better than where we started. The attempt was to redirect our schools from the basic skills orientation towards a more cognitive and constructive based curriculum, secure a quality education for all students, and bring us up to par on an international scale. However, with the implementation of NCLB many educators have found themselves trapped in a vicious cycle which forces them to abandon creativity and higher order thinking in order to better prepare students for their annual assessment. One of the key aspects of NCLB and the standards movement was to align content and assessment, and a major bi-product of this movement is high stakes tests. High stakes test are exactly that, a test that determines some sort of outcome such as a school receiving needed funding or determining graduation eligibility. Annual Assessments or high-stakes tests in theory seem like a great idea. One would think that it would give educators and schools some incentive to raise student achievement in order to meet AYP and receive federal funds. However, in reality this is not the case. Schools all across the nation are participating in what may be called dumbing down the test. According to the article How to Fix No Child Left Behind an analysis conducted by the non-profit Thomas B. Fordham Foundation found that the quality of education standards which are detailed by grade and subject declined in 30 different states between 2000 and 2006 (Wallis and Steptoe, 6). So instead of raising the standards the states maneuver around this by simply lowering their standards to make it appear as if they are improving.

Back to Basics
The standards movement was also an attempt to get away from the basic skills curriculum, however, with only minimum standards being required and so much emphasis on the test the quality of American education is again being reduced, this time to drill like memorization skills. The teacher, whose job security lies virtually in whether or not their students meet AYP, tend to focus rather heavily on the test, former Senator Paul Wellstone of Minnesota says, “High-stakes testing is channeling teaching to the kind of rote memorization drill that isn’t education” (Jehelen 4). Indeed, this is not education. It has been said that memorization or to recall facts is the lowest level of thinking (Bloom, cited in Berube, 1). In addition to the fact that teachers place a heavy emphasis on teaching the test, NCLB only mandates that students be tested on math and reading, which again narrows the curriculum. According to the article How to Fix No Child Left Behind we learn that in a study conducted in over 300 school districts, 71% of local administrators admitted that they had cut short other areas in order to place more focus on math and reading and essentially the test.

No Equality
The movement was also supposed to secure equal standards and opportunities for all children including minorities, economically disadvantaged students, and even struggling and disabled students. In the early 90's NCEST reported that the intent of national standards was to raise the ceiling for students who are above average and to lift the floor for those who experience the least success (Wixson et al., 73). However, this too like most of the other aims of the standards movement has served to be a major disappointment. Vella Trader an elementary school teacher from Battle Creek, Michigan said that she had a student who was struggling and had attempted to enroll the child in Reading Recovery, however, the child was denied. The rationale given by the school was that only those students who are close to passing the state test would be helped. It was better to have a few students fail miserably than many fail by a small margin (rethinkingschools.org 2007). Another example of a similar practice is occurring in Philadelphia, P.A., where students from each grade level who are nither at the bottom or the top of their class are being singled out for intensive review. These students aren't in desperate need of help, but their passing test scores will put the school over the top for AYP. The underachieving students who may also be making progress are not recognized under NCLB because it does not show on the annual assessment. (Wallis and Steptoe, 1, How to Fix No Child Left Behind). Instead of focusing energy and resources on those students who need it the most, it is the students who will impact the test results who receive the extra help. NCLB does not seem to be enhancing equality in education at all, it actually seems to be having the opposite effect. Our focus in education is shifting from learning to passing the test.

Conclusion
In the past 40 years we have come full circle as we have tried to redefine and change the way in which we teach children in order to keep up with the changing demands of the global village. We not only lag behind our counterparts in academic ability but we are lagging behind in what Wallis and Steptoe call “21st century skills”. They say we are aiming too low, competency in math and reading are the meager minimum and that scientific and technical skills are also absolutely necessary but insufficient in the U.S. (2 How to Bring Our Schools Out of the 20th century). We must solve the problems with in our educational system or the U.S. is bound to be “left behind” in the global economy because we are shaping a whole generation of children who don't have the necessary skills to compete. Education is the foundation of our nation's prosperity and it should be first on the agenda of every politician and American Citizen.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal sample responses.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Vocational-Academic Learning

Basic skills, Thinking skills, and Personal qualities are the, “foundations,” deemed necessary for America’s youth to possess in order to be successful upon graduation from high school. “Look beyond your discipline and your classroom to the other courses your students take, to your community, and to the lives of your students outside school. Help your students connect what they learn in class to the world outside (Moore, 2003).” These foundations as identified in the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) report, and the five workplace competencies, together have to be developed on a daily basis in the classroom by integrating vocational and academic learning,

There are Five Competencies found in the SCANS Report:
 * 1) Resources: Identifies, organizes, plans, and allocates resources. Examples would include time, money, material and facilities, and human resources.
 * 2) Interpersonal: Works with others. Examples would include participating as a member of a team, teaching others new skills, serving clients/customers, exercising leadership, negotiating, and working with diversity.
 * 3) Information: Acquires and uses information. Examples would include acquiring and evaluating information, organizing and maintaining information, interpreting and communicating information, and using computers to process information.
 * 4) Systems: Understands complex inter-relationships. Examples would include understanding systems, monitoring and correcting performance, improving or designing systems.
 * 5) Technology: Works with a variety of technologies. Examples would include selecting technology, applying technology to a task, and maintaining and troubleshooting equipment.

The use of alternative assessments is a way for classroom teachers to link students’ academic needs/skills with real world experiences that are required to enter the workforce.

Basic Skills
Basic skills are defined as reading, writing, listening, speaking, and performing arithmetic/mathematical operations (SCANS report, 1992). Most curricula are designed to incorporate these basic skills in daily lessons. The challenge is for teachers to educate the students to take these basic skills and apply them to their real world experiences. This can be accomplished through hands on lessons and alternative assessments. Educators are almost forced to use traditional assessments and are unable to think and teach outside of the box, in order to prepare students for state examinations. Traditional assessments require students to regurgitate information that is memorized, as opposed to alternative assessments that allow the students to prove their knowledge using hands on methods. Integrating vocational education can only complete these basic skills. “The stock market game,” is an assessment that can be used in all subjects. Each course is able to make changes necessary for it to be relevant to its subject matter. History teachers are able to use the stock market game to show the affects of the great depression. A government teacher is able to show how policies and elections can affect how people respond to change. Students would be required to research stocks and give written reports explaining their results. Presentations are then prepared so that individuals are able to show successful and unsuccessful portfolios.

Thinking Skills
The scan’s report refers to thinking skills as the ability to think creatively, make decisions, solve problems, visualize, knows how to learn and reasons. The need for effective problem solving and higher level thinking skills is essential inside and outside the classroom. Fortner (2006) suggests that providing alternative assessments taps into higher level thinking and problem solving skills, invokes real-world applications, uses tasks that represent meaningful instructional activities and encourages students to continue learning beyond the scope of the assignment (include reference). “Sell my mobile,” is an assessment that will allow students to develop thinking skills while incorporating other foundation skills. Each student will have a snowmobile that they are required to sell in order to raise money for a down payment for a car. They are given a pre-determined monthly salary that will be factored in their decision making. Students are required to create flyers for advertisement that will be used to sell their snow mobile. Research will be required to determine the cost of snowmobiles, current car prices, insurance and interest rates. Calculating monthly expenses will determine the type of car the student will be able to afford. Decisions on the selling price and what is affordable will have to be made in order for the student to be successful on this assessment.

Personal Qualities
The display of responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty define personal qualities (SCANS,1992). In helping students develop personal quality, it is vital that teachers model good moral character. Focusing on such things as citizenship, responsibilities, and self-management can aid in developing these qualities. In today’s workforce employers seek individuals that are able to complete tasks with minimal supervision. Integrity and honesty are as important in the workplace as they are in the classroom. A student that “borrows,” his neighbors’ answers on a test only learns at an early age how to cheat and learns to use others trust in him against them. Managers would rather focus their attention on increasing profits and customer service instead of focusing on the cashier whose register seems to come up short often. Personal qualities are usually taking for granted, especially in a society where customer service is a thing of the past having minimal person to person contact. Creating a job list and assigning students tasks to complete in the classroom is a good way to teach responsibility and self-management. Creating a task that requires the work of multiple students creates the opportunity to develop sociability. Ensuring the task is complete to the teachers’ specifications creates integrity and honesty, while giving praise for a job well done builds self esteem. According to Vaughan (2007), it is the responsibility of the teacher to develop the whole child.

Conclusion
The standard curriculum is an excellent place to teach skills that will last a lifetime (SCANS) and help our students to become productive, well-adjusted members of society. SCANS skills are not only appropriate for workforce development, but they are also key factors for academic success in K-12 classrooms (Moore 2003). “Educators have to instill in students the perspective on results that the SCANS skills demand. If you do not, you will be failing your students and your community as they try to adjust to the next century. You, more than anyone, are responsible for helping our children develop the skills they need.” As quoted by the Secretary of labor in his 1992 SCANS report, it is believed that students are graduating from high school into a world they are not adequately prepared for. It is essential and necessary to integrate vocational and academic learning. Through this we are able to develop the, “foundation,” as identified by the SCANS report.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Lesson Planning

Teachers know that a curriculum guide is the most important document available to them and without one; it will be difficult to write lesson plans. Using a (curriculum) guide, teachers create effective lesson plans that are based on the state’s goals and objectives (what is intended that students learn) (Kizlik, 2007). Research indicates that all students benefit from and appreciate well-structured lessons. Lesson plans are written by teachers to help them structure the learning for themselves and for students (Kizlik, 2007). The lesson plan ensures that instruction is presented in a clear and logical sequence and tells everyone that a teacher is organized. Having clearly stated objectives and creative strategies in lesson plans can almost guarantee that students will not become bored since weak lesson plans can contribute to chaotic classroom environments. Planning lessons is a fundamental skill all teachers must develop and hone, although implementation of this skill does take some time. (Kizlik, 2007). It is therefore important that new teachers ask for help when they are having difficulty writing their plans. Furthermore, planning lessons are important because it focuses on the objectives and goals that you want to meet in your classroom. What concept or objective does a teacher need to focus on? What strategy should a teacher use in implementing the goal or concept? Lesson plans are important because it helps teachers decide what they need to accomplish in their classroom and how much time to allow for instruction.

Imagine, being hired as a new teacher, walking into your classroom for the first time with no guidance from the administration and no guide for your teaching curriculum. How intimidating! What do you teach, how do you teach it? This is not a nightmare. This is happening in many schools even today. This leads us to a very important tool for every new teacher, the curriculum guide. With the use of the curriculum guide you will be led down the path of your entire year. This guide will direct you to what your students will learn. This guide will help you build your lesson plans. Why do we need lesson plans? Why are they important? The following paragraphs will lay out basic tools for producing effective lesson plans and explain why these plans are so important to teacher and student success.

What is a Lesson?
In a classroom, a lesson focuses on the teaching and learning activities to be carried out during a specific period of time. A lesson plan is a logical arrangement of concepts/ideas or skills to be covered during the teaching and learning process.

Initially when a new teacher is hired they should receive a curriculum guide from the school administrator. This guide lays out the state standards. These standards are the base points from which lesson plans begin. They are also the goals you want to reach in your teaching. If your school does not have a curriculum guide seek out a fellow teacher as a mentor. It needs to be someone who is very willing to share their experience. Then follow the steps below starting with your state learning standards as your objectives.

Andrew Johnson, an assistant professor of Mankato State University in Minnesota specializes in teacher education and effectiveness. He has designed an outline for lesson planning. He has taken the infamous Madeline Hunter model and simplified it into five steps: 1. The objective: this is the standard from the curriculum guide, what you want the students to learn, keep them clear and simple. These can be used to build tests from.

2. The introduction: this links the new information to what the students already know, this should also include something to arouse student interest and curiosity, something to motivate learning. The more interesting the introduction, the more interested the students.

3. The input: easily lay out in outline form what exactly is to be taught. Step by step instructions that correspond to the objectives. This section can include prompts to remind oneself of visual aids to be used. This should also include questions that will test the students' comprehension.

4.The activity: this step involves action with the input. This is what the students are going to do with the new information, how they will apply what they have learned. Bloom's taxonomy divides verbs into six categories to develop activities on different levels

5. Closure and review (optional): this is used to reflect on the objectives that should have been learned and may also be a lead into the next lesson.

The review can be looked at two ways. It can be an optional review for the students of the information they received, or it can be used as the teacher’s review of the lesson. An effective teacher must take the time to review the lesson and take note of any changes, additions or adjustments that need to be made.These five simple steps explain how to build a lesson plan.

Why Do We Need Lesson Plans?
Effective lesson plans lead teachers through what they need to teach and inform students of what they are responsible for learning. If the lesson plan is effective, it will lay out the objectives of what is to be learned, the input of how it will be learned and the activity that will reinforce the learning. It is important that the activity corresponds with the objective so that it will help the students retain the information. Lessons need to make the students active learners. Teachers that go home at the end of the day exhausted are doing too much of the work and the students are not doing enough.

When a teacher takes the time to build an effective lesson plan, it allows for purposeful instruction. The teacher knows the goals and how to reach them. Through building lesson plans the teacher explores the curriculum and becomes well informed. When the teacher is well informed they are confident and comfortable about their instruction.

When the teacher has a plan it allows the students to spend time learning rather than wondering what they are going to learn. With an effective lesson plan, the teacher has planned activities that will reinforce the lesson. This keeps the students engaged and interested. Without well planned lessons, the students lose focus and interest. When the students lose interest, the classroom becomes chaotic. Nothing gets accomplished with chaos. An effective lesson plan helps with classroom management. When students are involved in learning, they don’t have time to misbehave. It is important to integrate technology into today’s classes. The students are interested in technology therefore they are interested in learning lessons through technology.

With all this, the important thing for all new teachers to remember is to take time to build effective lesson plans. The objectives are simply stated so the teacher knows what is to be taught and the students know what they are responsible for learning. The activities need to correspond with the objectives to make active learners retain information. With effective lesson plans both teachers and students know where they are going and what steps are going to take them there. This always makes for a successful trip.

Technologically Integrated Lesson Plans
One of the newest challenges facing teachers today, is not simply designing a lesson plan, but designing a lesson plan that effectively incorporates new technological standards into an already well-established curriculum. Many novice teachers are finding that they are not only new to the education field, but they are also somewhat pioneers in a rapidly evolving field. Researchers at the Project on the Next Generation of Teachers have found that the lack of support surrounding fledgling educators has led to a "revolving door" of new teachers who find that they were not nearly as satisfied with their chosen craft as they once believed they would be. So where can these new teachers turn for guidance? The researchers believe that the answer lies in reinforcing the support system on a local and individual school level which will require a great deal of reform. It is not a time for teachers to be resting on their proverbial laurals, but rather learning and devising new strategies that will ensure a successful future for educaters and students alike.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Instructional Methods

How do you feel when you are being taught material that you don't understand or should have knowledge of? You might feel unprepared, stupid, confused, scared, or anxious. Every student has felt this way at one moment. How can teachers help their students avoid these feelings? In order to ensure a child's success, teachers must construct an effective instructional method. Discovering students’ learning styles, using technology, placing students in small groups, creating a conducive learning environment, and establishing a positive teacher/student bond are examples of various ways that constitute an effective instructional method.

Discover Your Students' Learning Styles
It is essential for teachers to instruct according to their students’ learning styles. It is difficult to discover what works for different students. When the professor or teacher of a classroom choose a particular teaching style and it mismatches with the way the students learn it can cause serious downfalls. The first and most obvious downfall is that the student will lose interest quickly and become bored and inattentive. When a student is bored then they do not pay attention which is most likely to result in poor test grades. When students receive bad test grades it discourages them from even trying. When a student feels bad about him/herself then they might become disruptive in class. This will hurt the teacher and the students around. Other students will become distracted, and the teachers might get upset and feel hopeless if test scores decline. Teachers might even feel so discouraged that they will wonder if they are making a difference and if they chose the right profession to be in. The simple point here is students need to be taught in a manner that they are comfortable with. Just like anyone else when you are comfortable you tend to loosen up and be more willing to participate and retain information. When it comes to students it can be broken down into 2 categories. The first is the extraverted group. This group learns simply by explaining to other people. These students test their knowledge by explaining it to others. If they can explain it and teach it to someone else then they know for sure that they have the material strongly planted in their head. These students enjoy working in groups. Some recommendations are the thinking out loud paired problem solving method and the nominal group method. The other category is those students who are introverted. These students are what you know as students who see the “big picture.” They like to create frameworks in their minds and connect all the chunks of knowledge and relate it to each other. Recommendations for these students would be to do flow charts, compare and contrast tables, and concept maps.

To determine a visual learner, observe if they focus on you, rarely speak in class, pay close attention to details, or have problems with oral directions. Auditory learners are very talkative, good at memorizing, and could possibly be the class clown. To establish your kinesthetic learners, see if they have difficulty remaining stationary, may have ADD/ADHD, or like to touch things.

The best and most effective teaching method is to use all three styles. Charts, diagrams, worksheets, video clips, and illustrations should be used for visual learners. Auditory learners will need to explain what they heard, encourage them to read their material aloud, and allow group sessions so they can discuss the material with fellow students. Create an interactive moment for the kinesthetic learners. For instance, have some of your students work out problems on the board or create an environmental activity that requires hands-on application.

Use Technology
Some teachers do not use technology as fluently as they should. They express that it takes up too much of their time or that they don’t know how to effectively use it. Whatever the reason, technology MUST be used in the classroom. Technology “increases motivation, prepares students for the future, helps with complex tasks, and allows collaboration amongst peers.” Allow your students to create powerpoint presentations, use kidspiration, and show them video clips from unitedstreaming. Get your students out of the ‘traditional’ classroom. Let them interact and enjoy learning. An elementary teacher said, “I see more confidence in the kids here. . . I think it's not just computers, it's a multitude of things, but they can do things on the computers that most of their parents can't and that's very empowering and exciting for them. It's 'I can sit down and make this machine pretty much do what I want to,' and there's something about that that gives them an extra little boost of, 'Wow, I'm a pretty special person'.”

Of course there are challenges with integrating technology into classrooms- not enough computers, insufficient technical assistance, inadequate computers. Do not let those challenges inhibit your usage. Do as much as possible to ensure that students are being exposed to technology.

Place Students In Small Groups
Every classroom has introverts and extroverts. Some students like to socialize, while others prefer to keep to themselves. There are cliques and usually friends want to pair together. This can be a problem and they will not be focused in getting the work done. Most of the conversation will be unrelated matter. The teacher must make the groups; don’t allow students to make them. Assign students with people they don’t know and wouldn’t normally pair with. You may either switch group members or have the same group members the entire school year.

Place emphasis on working as a group. Often, students will be in groups, but it will be an individual activity. One student will be writing their own answers, another quiet and reserved, and the other dominating and doing all the work. This is not group work. To resolve this issue use cooperative learning, a type of learning that requires group members to work as a team. Each member is held accountable and must help each other to understand the material. The members must think about the issues, discuss and then work them out together. Below are some examples of cooperative learning activities.

Creating a Conducive Learning Environment
When you go in a classroom, you normally see 5-7 straight columns of desks, a couple of posters, borders along the chalkboard, and the teacher’s desk. This is the dreary, conventional classroom. Get your students out of that setting and in to something fun and remarkable. One way to start is by changing the desk arrangements. Depending on the room size, create a semi-circle or arrange the desks diagonally. Another idea is to create 4 small rows on each side of the room, create a walkway in the middle, and have the children face each other from the other side of the rooms. Try it! If you are concerned that there will be too much chaos, warn them of the consequences, but don’t be afraid to give it a try.

Allow your students to get involved. It is their learning environment as well. Let them give you ideas. Use bright colors, plants (fake/real), and a classroom pet(s). According to one website, “Good visual display can improve recall and attention by up to 80%” and “music can be used to improve recall as well as create the chosen learning environment.” Of course too many things can be a distraction, so know the limit. Attempt different ideas to see how it works, and if it doesn’t try another way.

Forming a Positive Teacher/Student Bond
It can be complicated when forming a bond with students- where to draw the line with leniency, amiability, and physical contact. Our youth need teachers that are patient, passionate about their profession, and willing to assist the student. Let your students know these things by showing with actions. If you notice that a student isn’t doing that well in the subject material, take the initiative to help. Some students are shy and afraid to get help. Suppose, you observe a student that is having a hard time outside of school, offer your assistance and advice. Show your students that you care about their education and their lives.

There will always be moments when teachers must discipline students. Do not chastise and berate your students. Discipline them gently, yet firmly. Also, try to access the problem after class and not during. It can cause a disruption to your class, but also embarrass your student. No one likes to be embarrassed. Treat your students how you wanted to be treated when you were a student.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal sample responses.


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Curriculum Design

In this article I am going to present factors that influence curriculum design. I believe that a good teacher will have a well designed curriculum. The teacher must always have an open mind and remember that all students are different and therefore they learn differently. The teacher should meet each child’s needs. It is in the teacher’s role that all curriculum development is focused. Not only does the teacher participate in developing new teaching-learning procedures but it is the teacher who is the principal consumer of innovations in the field of education (Koopman). Teachers all have different methods of getting the information across to the student but they must be smart in the way they go about helping their students reach their learning goals. Effective teachers do not treat all students the same. The teacher’s individual characteristics affect the way the curriculum is presented to the students. Some other factors that influence curriculum design are application of technology, student’s cultural background and socioeconomic status, social forces, and also classroom management. Individual teachers need to make decisions regarding curricular design at the classroom level given the unique characteristics of their students (Marzano). The term curriculum has been used for perhaps less than one hundred years. Every generation has been faced with problems of curriculum: (1) What content shall be included? (2) What will be envisioned as the function of the curriculum? (3) How will it be organized? (4) Where or when will it be introduced or stressed? (5) By what means will it be implemented? (6) What materials, sources of materials, and experiences will be acceptable? (7) What forces will be allowed to dominate? (Cook & Doll) Curriculum is also affected by historical precedents, which are more influential in some communities than others; by prevailing philosophical beliefs, the nature of the greatly expanding disciplines, the impact of social, political, and economic influences; by research in human growth and learning; and by the individual learner himself (Cook & Doll).

Teacher Characteristics
Let's begin by defining "curriculum". I define classroom curriculum design as the sequencing and pacing of content along with the experiences students have with that content (Marzano). An effective teacher and curriculum planner must understand some central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline he or she teaches and can also create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. The teacher must understand how children learn and develop and they should be able to support their intellectual, social, and personal development. A wise teacher uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage all diverse students’ development of problem solving, critical thinking, and performance skills. A positive thinking teacher will understand the importance of motivation and will pass their positive attitude onto the student’s in the classroom. Being a positive role model for students is so important. A teacher really must be a dynamic person who is always evaluating the effects of his or her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community).

Technology
Technology has come a long way since the days of hornbooks, quill pens, and creaky wooden desks (can you even call those things “technology”?) (Fredericks). Some teachers are fearful of their classroom computers simply because computers are a relatively new tool for classroom teachers. Technology is broad and expansive and it can help with curriculum design. Technology is simply just another tool for teachers. The best question a teacher could ask is “What tools will help me help my students?” It is all dependent upon the teacher if they choose to use technology as an instructional aid or not.

Student Background, Status, and Social Forces
All children come from different backgrounds and there is an increasing number of student’s that are from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Our multicultural society is a key factor that is taken into consideration for curriculum design. Some factors of diversity include religion, race, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, and also children with different kinds of disabilities. Curricular planners work to build an education that suits our multicultural society and that will help every child from every different background live, work, and go on to lead successful lives in our melting pot of a society. The role of schools in society and the purpose of the curriculum have been major, closely related, issues since schools were first established. Society’s expectations for its schools and schools’ response to society are both reflected in the school curriculum. Curriculum reflects a complex society, a society in which there is never perfect agreement on the characteristics of that society Orlosky & Smith). Some see the primary purpose of the curriculum is the acquisition of cognitive knowledge. Some others would consider it as a program for helping pupils develop humane and rational qualities. Curriculum is organized according to grade and age levels.

Classroom Management
Classroom management is about achieving order so productive learning can occur. The ultimate goal of classroom management is to promote learning. If learning is accomplished then the teacher is getting his or her curriculum across to the students. Effective teachers give students opportunities to make their own decisions. Good classrooms are not teacher-dependent environments but rather independent student learning arenas. Excellent instructional leaders provide students with multiple opportunities to make choices and accept consequences of those choices (Fredericks). Teachers who empower students in making decisions are facilitating independent and responsible learners. Establishing Routines for students provides them with a sense of responsibility and allows them to make decisions that are theirs rather than the teacher’s.

Conclusion
All educational personnel envision an ideal school. What is the aim of formal education? To prepare for complete living, many would say. The teacher would more than likely state that his or her objectives were to help the student learn or understand from day to day. In order to do this he or she will need instructional objectives that state what the student is expected to learn. Objectives are useful to the teacher as he or she tries to help the student understand what is to be learned. Without objectives there is no sense of direction for curriculum planning and design.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Talk:Japanese/Lessons/Na-adjectives

Practice Answers?
The answers should be available somewhere.

title: Talk:Japanese/Lessons/Na-adjectives


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships/Disconnect

Schools, teachers, parents and communities all need to work together for a child to be successful with their education. Parents are the foundation for a child’s success because all of their basic skills for learning are learned at home. When children are of school bearing age it is the responsibility of the teachers to teach them the standards of learning, but the learning does not stop there. Parents should be involved in a child’s education just as much as the teachers are. If parents need help with their children the community should provided after school programs and other activities to keep the children active. Schools, teachers, parents and the community all need each others support to in order for the system to work as a whole.

School Relationships
Teachers are responsible for maintaining a professional environment where students are comfortable. Their main responsibilities are to plan and execute lessons to their classroom while considering all individual needs. Within the teacher’s weekly lesson plans they should administer way of testing the students and keep record of the progress of each student individually. By keeping record and being observant of each student the teachers should know when to contact and talk to the parents to let them know that the child may need some extra assistance. Teachers should not wait until they notice that a child is struggling, teachers need to build a relationship with the parent so that they feel comfortable with approaching them with any questions they may have. Communication is said to be a key factor with maintaining a relationship between the parent and the teacher (Starr). Communication will help each student individually to satisfy each of their needs.

Communication should be used for positive reinforcement also. When a student has done well on an assignment or there has been improvement with a child’s grade the teacher should contact home to touch base with the parents. Some sort of communication should be set up between the teacher and parent whether it is email or by phone (Starr). Parents are there to pick up where the teacher has left off; they are there to strengthen their child’s education, and continue to reinforce their values while at home (Jordan). With no source of communication a parent will not know where and how to help their child. If the teachers follow up with all their responsibilities there should be no unanswered questions.

Parent Relationships
Parents must work together with school and communities to insure the education of their children. Parents play a big part in preparing their children to enter school grounds. Parents are student’s first teachers; they attempt to teach them right from wrong and how to communicate. A parent’s “involvement” with a student’s education is a very board and general statement. Parents are needed for homework help, parent-teacher conferences, and support for other activities that student may be involved in (Cotton). Parents need to be involved in their child’s life as a whole, not just when it is convenient for them. There are very simple ways for a parent to become involved with their child’s education. Most schools have a PTA, which is the National Parent Teacher Association. The PTA is an organization for teachers and other parents to communicate and decide on what opportunities and activities are best for students, while also providing simple skills for parents on how to get involved with their child’s education (PTA). The PTA makes a parent teacher relationship very easy to maintain. When parents feel the need to approach a teacher with a concern or a question they should approach them with an optimistic manner (Starr). Parents need to take into consideration that the teacher has other students too, not just their child. Parents should keep a positive attitude about their child’s education to create and maintain and successful parent/teacher relationship. These relationships between parents and teacher will set a foundation to the relationship that both will have with the community.

Community Relationships
The community plays an important role in a family’s involvement in schools. Communities should provide support for students, parents and teachers. Communities consist of a group of people that are different ages, ethnicities, educational backgrounds and income that share a common interest to better their environment. Partnerships between the school, parents, and community “can improve school programs and school climate, provide family services and support, increase parents' skills and leadership, connect families with others in the school and in the community, and help teachers with their work (Epstein).” Communities consist of many places where children can go for after school activities. A community is a place where students can experience actual life experiences. Parents depend on communities to provide extra curricular activities where a student can play sports or join clubs. Most of these activities are run by volunteers or employed workers of the community center. After school tutoring can also be found at some communities centers, all ways to better improve a student education. A mixture of programs creates opportunities for students to better their education, and learn about themselves and better their self-esteem (Jordan).

Communities also can provide programs and workshops for parents to learn and understand skills so that they know how to approach their children with school work, while also attempting to build the relationship between them. Some states are going as far as providing extra money if the relationship between communities and schools/parents are attempted to be built (Epstien). The opportunities are available; people need to take advantage of them to see results.

Conclusion
It is known that a connection between teachers, parents and the community is needed for a child to be successful with their education. Teachers must work with parents and the both must work with the community to ensure that students are being taken care of. The community must give back to schools and to the parents so that the cycle will continue to work and provide ample outcomes of success with students. Communication between all three is needed for things to be understood and expressed. No communication is creating a disconnection of the relationships that are there to be built and help children succeed in life.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal a sample response.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Create a Clayman

Create a Clayman
(under construction)

This Tutorial was made using Blender version 2.41

Upon completing this tutorial, you will have made something like this:

Completed Clayman Render

Making The Clayman
Upon start, delete the default cube (X-KEY) and switch to front view with NUM1. Now add a mesh plane and under The Edit Buttons Window, Mesh Tools Tab click the subdivide button. Now select the 3 vertices on the left and delete them. (B-KEY for Border Select Tool)

If you can't select the vertices then deselect the Limited Selection to Visible button.

Now select/deselect all vertices with A-KEY (we want them selected). In the Modifiers Tab in the Edit Buttons Window, Click Add Modifier > Mirror You should now see something like this.

Now select the 3 right vertices and extrude them on the X axis by movement of 1.0 units by pressing E-KEY (Extrude > Only Edges), X-KEY (to constrain it to the X axis) and holding CTRL to constrain it to simple movements. Do this twice.

Now extrude the legs by selecting the 3 bottom-right vertices and extruding them on the Z axis by 1 unit. Do this twice as well.

Now extrude the top of the clayman on the Z axis (in units of 1.0) 7 times so that it looks like this.

Now let's make the arms by extruding the 2 boxes that are 3 boxes down from the top. Let's extrude it on the X axis by 1 unit 4 times so that it looks like this.

Now comes the extrusion of the whole body. As you can see, we only have a flat shape of a rough "Block". so lets move our view around with the NUMPAD arrows and extrude it on the Y axis. Select all vertices with A-KEY. Extrude > Region on the Y axis until it reaches 2.0 units. After done correctly, it should look like this.

With the Clayman successfully extruded, its now time to add some definition to him by adding a subsurface modifier. In the Edit Buttons window, under Modifiers, click Add Modifier > Subsurf and set the Levels bar to 2. It should look somewhat like this.

Now, Select all vertices with A-KEY, and click the Set Smooth button in the Links and Materials tab. Let's get to shaping the Clayman.Using the Border Select Tool (press B to get the Border Select Tool), grab the according vertices to make a shape like this.

after that's done, select the head vertices and grab them on the Z axis and move them up by 0.2 to make it look like this.

Now select all vertices with A-KEY, and scale them down (S-KEY) on the Y axis until it reads 0.6000. And finally, select the underside of the foot (the vertices that make it up) and subdivide it to make it more flat on the bottom.

Adding Materials
Start by going to the Material Buttons window (F5) and Clicking on Add New, and going down to the collumn of 3 rectangles that have one gray one and two blank white ones. Click on the gray one and in the top-right corner of the pop-up window, you'll see a Hex Code. Click on the current hex code and type in this new hex code to get the right color: 73BCF7. Now hit F6 to go to the Texture buttons window and click on Add New. Change the Texture type to Stucci. Now you'll see a new tab appear. On it, for NoiseSize enter 0.150. Now go back to the Materials Buttons window. On the far right there will be three tabs in one. On the Map To tab, Deselect Col and select Nor. Now your example should look like this.

Inserting Armatures
Now lets move on to inserting armatures in our clayman. Lets start by going into object mode (alternate between Object and Edit mode with TAB) and adding an armature. Press Space > Add > Armature. It automatically puts you in Edit mode upon adding the object. Switch to Object mode and grab it along the Y axis by 1.0 units so that it's inside the clayman. Sure, you can't see it now, but turn on X-axis Mirror Edit and X-Ray in the Edit Buttons window.

Now switch back to edit mode, and select the top of the bone. Etrude it on the Z axis by 1.4 units two times so that the tip of the second extrude is right in the center of the two arms. Now extrude it on the X axis by 3.0 units, then grab the tip of it and move it on the Z axis by 0.1700 units. Now extrude it on the X axis by 2.0 units twice. And do the same to the other side. It should look like this.

Now let's extrude the neck. Extrude the top bone along the Z axis by 1.0 units to make a pretty good size neck. Then extrude it up on one side so that the position reads like so. If you can't get it exact then at least try to get it as closest to the number as you can.

Then do the same to the other side so that it looks like 2 antennas. Now let's extrude the hips and legs. Lets start by extruding the bottom bone by 2.0 units on the X axis and for the Z axis, -1.0 units. Then extrude the foot by -2.0 on the Z axis. And last, select a forearm bone (select a whole bone by clicking the middle of it) and in the Edit Buttons window, you'll see a tab called Armature Bones. Deselect the Con button in that tab, and do the same with the other forearm bone. This allows us to be able to move the forearm out, instead of having it locked to another bone.

Applying The Armature
Ok, now we're going to apply the armature to the mesh so that when we move the bones, the mesh moves along with them. Lets start by switching to object mode and selecting the clayman mesh, and under the Modifiers tab, click apply on the Mirror modifier. You may see a pop-up, just click OK. Not only have we just made room in the Modifiers tab, we applied the mirror modifier to the mesh, so now we will have to edit both sides if we want to change something. But worry not, we wont need to change anything from here on. With that new space in the modifiers tab, let's add an Armature modifier. You may see a line that says "OB:" type in the name of the Armature in here (the default name for an armature is "Armature" unless you have made more than one) also, deselect the Envelopes button,for we will not be using envelopes in this tutorial. Here is what you should have.

Now, select the Armature and press CTRL + TAB. If you already have a bone selected, it should be highlighted blue now. We have just switched to Pose Mode. Now, while in Pose Mode, select the clayman mesh (if you cant select it, zoom in closer to get some of the bones out of the way) and press CTRL + TAB on the clayman mesh. We have just entered Weight Paint Mode. This allows us to assign vertices to the bones so that the mesh moves with the bones. Let's start by setting up the weight painting. You should see a new tab called Paint in your Edit Buttons window. Adjust your settings so that they conform to this.

Start by selecting the top-right bone of the head and start weight painting the front and back (you'll have to switch your view so that you can see the back to get the painting in there) Weight Paint it according to this.

Now Weight Paint the Neck. (pictures not shown of back view, but be sure to get the back anyway)

Now the Shoulder.

Now the Forearm.

Now The Hand.

And after getting the other side of the body, let's get the upper chest.

Now the middle chest.

Now the lower chest.

Now for the hips.

Now the Feet.

After doing the other side of the leg, switch back to Object Mode with CTRL + TAB, and select the Armature. You should already be in Pose Mode with the Armature. Now select a bone and grab it to move it. if you have Weight painted correctly, the Clayman mesh should move with the bone. There's two tips to moving the bones around in Pose Mode.

1) In the Edit Buttons window, whether Automatic IK is turned on or not affects how the bones move.

2) Where your view is affects how the bones rotate. (unless you have it constrained to an axis)

If you find that a part of your clayman isn't moving, just switch back to Weight Paint mode for that bone and repaint it.


text:
GCSE Science/Analogue and digital signals

Signals can be transmitted as either analogue or digital signals.

Digital signals
Digital signals are now being increasingly used. They can take only two values:
 * On (1) ___---___
 * Off (0)_________

For instance when a CD is "burned", The information is quite literally burned into it with small holes representing ones and the spaces in between representing zeros (underscores or dashes)

Advantages of digital signals

 * There is less interference because noise is not recognised and amplified during transmission.
 * Multiple independent signals can easily be transferred over the same physical channel without crosstalk due to multiplexing.

Multiplexing
In multiplexing, data from multiple signals is split into small sections, optionally compressed, and then sent down a data line. The system cycles though each signal in turn, allowing data from all signals to be transferred over a single data path.