text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6

Caro-Kann Defence
The Caro-Kann is considered solid and safe with a better pawn structure (often leading to good endgames). However, White has many possible responses and may develop faster than Black. Out of the Semi-Open games, the opening is thought to be less dynamic than the Sicilian and the French.

In the traditional Open Game (1. e4 e5), many of the big threats that Black may face target the weak f7-square with White's bishop positioned on c4. And, Black often can consider this threat resolved if Black succeeds in pushing their queen pawn to d5. Thus, the idea of the Caro-Kann (as well as the French Defence) is to support a pushed queen pawn on d5 at the early stage in the opening. The Caro-Kann achieves this with 1...c6 (while the French does so via 1...e6).

In choosing the Caro-Kann, Black gives up the centre in exchange for easier development. Black often aims to let White's pawns overextend, or develop a poor structure, and take advantage in the endgame.

In contrast to the French, the queen's bishop is not blocked with a pawn on e6, but the c6-square is no longer available for the knight. Additionally, since White aims for a strong classical centre with two pawns on d4 and e4, here Black will try to attack that centre (specifically the d4-square) by pushing their c-file pawn to c5 (in both the Caro-Kann and the French). However, in contrast to the French, in the Caro-Kann Black has already moved their c-file pawn once to c6. Thus, Black is one tempo behind compared with the French since another push from c6 to c5 is required. (The French pushes to c5 in a single move.)

There are several moves that White can consider here: White's natural move is now /2. d4/ as nothing prevents them from building a strong center. This is the Main Line and is played in 3 out of every 4 Caro-Kann games. Usually Black would respond with 2...d5 with White having many different options to choose from. This line is the most studied and analysed.

Bobby Fischer sometimes played /2. Nf3/ followed by 3. Nc3. This line's popularity has plummeted since Fischer, though it may become popular again in the future. Usually White would also play 3.Nc3 as well and usually this transposed to the Two Knights variation.

The Two Knights Variation begins with /2. Nc3/ and usually continues with 2...d5 3.Nc3. Here White attempts to bring his knights outs first before committing the d-pawn. Usually, White will wait a little bit before placing the d pawn on d4 and sometimes just places it on the d3 square.

The English Variation also known as the Accelerated Panov Attack is White aggressive counter to the Caro-Kann and is played /2. c4/. This usually results in White and Black exchanging two pawns. In this line, White hopes to weaken Black's C and D file.

The Breyer Variation starts with /2. d3/. This move is fine while unambitious.

In almost all cases, whatever move White makes, Black will respond with 2...d5 and create a pawn chain into the center.

Statistics

 * Approximate chances
 * White win 33%, Draw 43%, Black win 24%.

 * Estimated next move popularity
 * d4 72%, Nf3 8%, Nc3 8%, c4 5%, d3 3%, f4 1%, Bc4 1%, other moves less than 0.5%.

Theory table
1. e4 c6

title: Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6


text:
Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Polynomials

Factor Theorem
User:thebhgg asks: I don't follow what is being said in the Factor Theorem section. Is the point to tell students that rational roots of polynomials must be of the form $$\frac{a_0}{a_n}$$? I don't see how that is a special case of the Remainder Theorem. If that is not the point, then when is it explained to students? It isn't an obvious fact, but it is used in this section without explanation.

If the point of the Factor Theorem is to say that if $$f(a)=0$$ i.e. you have found a root, then $$f(x)$$ can be divided evenly by $$x-a$$ (and vice versa), then that's what should be said.

Syllabus
The Factor and Remainder Theorems do not seem to actually be part of C1, or at least I can't find them there in the syllabus. --Aleksev 20:21, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

Yes, the Factor and Remainder Theorems are part of the C2 curriculum --Keytotime 13:46, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User:Thebhgg

The Big Hairy Goofy Guy: my nickname from college, and a useful handle, as it is rarely already taken :-)

title: User:Thebhgg


text:
User talk:Vedas~enwikibooks

Testing...[[''Link ti $$Insert non-formatted text here$$[[Media:

Example.ogg

]] tle''--Vedas 12:50, 5 December 2005 (UTC)Bold text]]

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title: User talk:Vedas~enwikibooks


text:
Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん

Botchan (坊っちゃん) by Natsume Soseki is one of the most popular novels in Japan. Most Japanese read it during their childhood. It is a story about morals.

Background
The story is based on Natsume's personal experience as a teacher being transferred to Matsuyama, which sets the stage for this novel. Natsume was born in Tokyo, and dwelling in Matsuyama was his first experience in other places. The novel describes his feelings during that experience, though occupational position of his own and the hero were widely different.

Main characters

 * Botchan: the hero of this novel. He is born in Tokyo, and has the spirit of an Edokko. He becomes a teacher of mathematics. He has common sense and a strong moral grounding.
 * Yamaarashi (Porcupine): A fellow teacher. Yamaarashi (Porcupine) is the nickname for a teacher by the name of Hotta, born in Aizu. Yamaarashi has a great, Samurai-like sense of justice.
 * Akashatsu (Redshirt): Another fellow teacher. He is the typical intellectual. He actually represents the continental European intellectual tradition, in its modern form, as it drifts towards collectivism (socialism and communism (thus the red shirt) and relativism/nihilism. He speaks of morals but is Machiavellian, and immoral. A scoundrel who for a short period of time was able to deceive even Botchan. The battle for the heart and mind of Botchan, between Yamaarashi and Akashatsu represents the tensions existing in Japan at the turn of last century. Soseki clearly rejects Akashatsu and thus the modern Continental intellectual traditions.
 * Nodaiko (The Clown): Art teacher. Nodaiko is a Tokyoite, like Botchan. He prides himself with his good taste, but follows others without much thought which earns him Botchan's contempt.
 * Uranari (The Pumpkin): Uranari is a very melancholic, but refined gentleman. Botchan looks up to him. Most agree that Uranari, or some combination of Uranari and Botchan, is Soseki's representation of himself.
 * Tanuki (The Badger): The principal of the school Botchan teaches at. He has a very indecisive nature.
 * Kiyo: Botchan's servant in Tokyo. Now an old woman, she used to take care of him when he was young. She also is a fallen aristocrat, dealing heroically with her new situation.

Supporting characters

 * Geisha: Woman entertainers. They often perform Japanese dances at banquets.
 * Students of this school: Botchan thinks they are devious and they often puzzle him.

Main place

 * School: the main stage of the novel.
 * Dogo Onsen: Hot spring that Botchan likes to go to. Now, thanks to the novel, the springs are known as a famous sightseeing spot throughout Japan.

Main themes of the novel

 * Botchan's observations and considerations about Matsuyama, on Shikoku, one of the four main islands of Japan. Botchan lives in Tokyo until he goes there. Tokyo is a modern city, but Matsuyama is not. So Botchan is surprised at the odd customs.
 * The battle for the heart and mind of Botchan between Yamaarashi and Akashatsu. Will Botchan's common sense and moral grounding become corrupted by Akashatsu, or will he team up with Yamaarashi to battle the increasing break from tradition and morals, for purely selfish gain, that Akashatsu represents.

Main scenes and events of the novel

 * Botchan goes to Matsuyama: Eight days after Botchan graduates college in Tokyo his principal calls him to his office and tells Botchan that a middle school in Shikoku needs a mathematics teacher. The salary is forty yen a month and Botchan couldn't think of anything else he could become other than a math teacher.
 * Botchan is disappointed in the place of his appointment.
 * Fishing: Botchan recognizes that Akashatsu is a crafty quack when he and Akashatsu go fishing together.
 * Locusts: The students tease Botchan by putting locusts in his bed.
 * Uranari's transfer: Akashatsu schemes to transfer Uranari to another school for Akashatsu's own profit by using his authority.
 * And the end of the novel: Revenge: Botchan and Yamaarashi get revenge on Akashatsu and Nodaiko. Botchan resigns his job and returns to Tokyo. He finds a job as a tramway engineer.

Chapters

 * Chapter 1
 * Chapter 2
 * Chapter 3
 * Chapter 4
 * Chapter 5
 * Chapter 6
 * Chapter 7
 * Chapter 8
 * Chapter 9
 * Chapter 10
 * Chapter 11

Public domain text, retrieved from the Aozora Bunko website.

title: Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん


text:
X86 Disassembly/Debugger Detectors

Detecting Debuggers
It may come as a surprise that a running program can actually detect the presence of an attached user-mode debugger. Also, there are methods available to detect kernel-mode debuggers, although the methods used depend in large part on which debugger is trying to be detected.

This subject is peripheral to the narrative of this book, and the section should be considered an optional one for most readers.

IsDebuggerPresent API
The Win32 API contains a function called "IsDebuggerPresent", which will return a boolean true if the program is being debugged. The following code snippet will detail a general usage of this function:

Of course, it is easy to spot uses of the IsDebuggerPresent function in the disassembled code, and a skilled reverser will simply patch the code to remove this line. For OllyDbg, there are many plugins available which hide the debugger from this and many other APIs.

PEB Debugger Check
The Process Environment Block stores the value that IsDebuggerPresent queries to determine its return value. To avoid suspicion, some programmers access the value directly from the PEB instead of calling the API function. The following code snippet shows how to access the value:

Kernel Mode Debugger Check
On Windows 32 and 64-bit Win <XP?, 7,8.1 and 10.

There is a structure called _KUSER_SHARED_DATA at offset 0x2D4 it contains the field named 'KdDebuggerEnabled' which is set to 0x03 if a KDM is active or 0x00 if not.

Base address of the structure is static (0x7FFE0000) across different Windows versions even < XP.

The field is updated constantly with the last 2 bits set to '11' by the kernel.

The following assembly instruction will work in both 32 and 64-bit applications:

This has quite a few advantages. Known Source of information.

Timeouts
Debuggers can put break points in the code, and can therefore stop program execution. A program can detect this, by monitoring the system clock. If too much time has elapsed between instructions, it can be determined that the program is being stopped and analyzed (although this is not always the case). If a program is taking too much time, the program can terminate.

Notice that on preemptive multithreading systems, such as modern Windows or Linux systems will switch away from your program to run other programs. This is called thread switching. If the system has many threads to run, or if some threads are hogging processor time, your program may detect a long delay and may falsely determine that the program is being debugged.

Detecting SoftICE
SoftICE is a local kernel debugger, and as such, it can't be detected as easily as a user-mode debugger can be. The IsDebuggerPresent API function will not detect the presence of SoftICE.

To detect SoftICE, there are a number of techniques that can be used:
 * 1) Search for the SoftICE install directory. If SoftICE is installed, the user is probably a hacker or a reverser.
 * 2) Detect the presence of int 1. SoftICE uses interrupt 1 to debug, so if interrupt 1 is installed, SoftICE is running.

Detecting OllyDbg
OllyDbg is a popular 32-bit usermode debugger. Unfortunately, the last few releases, including the latest version (v1.10) contain a vulnerability in the handling of the Win32 API function OutputDebugString. A programmer trying to prevent his program from being debugged by OllyDbg could exploit this vulnerability in order to make the debugger crash. The author has never released a fix, however there are unofficial versions and plugins available to protect OllyDbg from being exploited using this vulnerability.

title: X86 Disassembly/Debugger Detectors


text:
Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん/一

ので子供の時から損ばかりしている. 小学校に居る時分学校の二階から飛び降りて一週間ほどを抜かす事がある. なぜそんなをしたと聞く人があるかも知れぬ. 別段深い理由でもない. 新築の二階から首を出していたら、同級生の一人がに、いくら威張るも、そこから飛び降りる事は出来まい. 弱虫やーい. と囃すからである. に負ぶさって帰って来た時、おやじが大きなをして二階ぐらいから飛び降りて腰を抜かすがあるかとから、この次は抜かさずに飛んで見せますと答えた.

親類のものから西洋製のナイフをなを日に翳ざす、に見せていたら、一人が光る事は光るが切れそうもないと云った. 切れぬ事があるか、何でも切ってみせると受け合った. そんなら君の指を切ってみろと注文したから、何だ指ぐらいこの通りだと右の手の親指のをはすに切り込む. ナイフが小さいのと、親指の骨が堅いので、今だに親指は手に付いている. しかしは死ぬまで消えぬ.

 * (OggVorbis, 674KB)

庭を東へ二十歩に行きすと、南上がりにいささかばかりの菜園があって、にの木が一本立っている. これは命より大事な栗だ. 実の熟する時分は起き抜けにを出て落ちた奴を拾ってきて、学校で食う. 菜園の西側がという質屋の庭続きで、この質屋にいう十三四のが居た. 勘太郎は無論弱虫である. 弱虫のに四つ目垣を乗りこえて、栗をみにくる. ある日の夕方のにれて、とうとう勘太郎をまえてやった. その時勘太郎はげを失って、に飛びかかってきた. うは二つばかり年上である. 弱虫だが力は強い. の開いた頭を、こっちの胸へててぐいぐいしたに、勘太郎の頭がすべって、おれののの中にはいった. になって手が使えぬから、無暗に手をったら、袖の中にある勘太郎の頭が、右左へぐらぐらいた. しまいに苦しがって袖の中から、おれの二のへ食い付いた. 痛かったから勘太郎を垣根へ押しつけておいて、をかけて向うへしてやった. 山城屋の地面は菜園より六尺がた低い. 勘太郎は四つ目垣を半分して、自分の領分へに落ちて、ぐうと云った. 勘太郎が落ちるときに、おれの袷の片袖がもげて、急に手が自由になった. その晩母が山城屋にびに行ったついでに袷の片袖も取り返して来た.

この外いたずらは大分やった. 大工の兼公（かねこう）と肴屋（さかなや）の角（かく）をつれて、茂作（もさく）の人参畠（にんじんばたけ）をあらした事がある. 人参の芽が出揃（でそろ）わぬ処（ところ）へ藁（わら）が一面に敷（し）いてあったから、その上で三人が半日相撲（すもう）をとりつづけに取ったら、人参がみんな踏（ふ）みつぶされてしまった. 古川（ふるかわ）の持っている田圃（たんぼ）の井戸（いど）を埋（う）めて尻（しり）を持ち込まれた事もある. 太い孟宗（もうそう）の節を抜いて、深く埋めた中から水が湧（わ）き出て、そこいらの稲（いね）にみずがかかる仕掛（しかけ）であった. その時分はどんな仕掛か知らぬから、石や棒（ぼう）ちぎれをぎゅうぎゅう井戸の中へ挿（さ）し込んで、水が出なくなったのを見届けて、うちへ帰って飯を食っていたら、古川が真赤（まっか）になって怒鳴（どな）り込んで来た. たしか罰金（ばっきん）を出して済んだようである.

おやじはちっともおれを可愛（かわい）がってくれなかった. 母は兄ばかり贔屓（ひいき）にしていた. この兄はやに色が白くって、芝居（しばい）の真似（まね）をして女形（おんながた）になるのが好きだった. おれを見る度にこいつはどうせ碌（ろく）なものにはならないと、おやじが云った. 乱暴で乱暴で行く先が案じられると母が云った. なるほど碌なものにはならない. ご覧の通りの始末である. 行く先が案じられたのも無理はない. ただ懲役（ちょうえき）に行かないで生きているばかりである.

母が病気で死ぬ二三日（にさんち）前台所で宙返りをしてへっついの角で肋骨（あばらぼね）を撲（う）って大いに痛かった. 母が大層怒（おこ）って、お前のようなものの顔は見たくないと云うから、親類へ泊（とま）りに行っていた. するととうとう死んだと云う報知（しらせ）が来た. そう早く死ぬとは思わなかった. そんな大病なら、もう少し大人（おとな）しくすればよかったと思って帰って来た. そうしたら例の兄がおれを親不孝だ、おれのために、おっかさんが早く死んだんだと云った. 口惜（くや）しかったから、兄の横っ面を張って大変叱（しか）られた.

母が死んでからは、おやじと兄と三人で暮（くら）していた. おやじは何にもせぬ男で、人の顔さえ見れば貴様は駄目（だめ）だ駄目だと口癖のように云っていた. 何が駄目なんだか今に分らない. 妙（みょう）なおやじがあったもんだ. 兄は実業家になるとか云ってしきりに英語を勉強していた. 元来女のような性分で、ずるいから、仲がよくなかった. 十日に一遍（いっぺん）ぐらいの割で喧嘩（けんか）をしていた. ある時将棋（しょうぎ）をさしたら卑怯（ひきょう）な待駒（まちごま）をして、人が困ると嬉（うれ）しそうに冷やかした. あんまり腹が立ったから、手に在った飛車を眉間（みけん）へ擲（たた）きつけてやった. 眉間が割れて少々血が出た. 兄がおやじに言付（いつ）けた. おやじがおれを勘当（かんどう）すると言い出した.

その時はもう仕方がないと観念して先方の云う通り勘当されるつもりでいたら、十年来召し使っている清（きよ）という下女が、泣きながらおやじに詫（あや）まって、ようやくおやじの怒（いか）りが解けた. それにもかかわらずあまりおやじを怖（こわ）いとは思わなかった. かえってこの清と云う下女に気の毒であった. この下女はもと由緒（ゆいしょ）のあるものだったそうだが、瓦解（がかい）のときに零落（れいらく）して、つい奉公（ほうこう）までするようになったのだと聞いている. だから婆（ばあ）さんである. この婆さんがどういう因縁（いんえん）か、おれを非常に可愛がってくれた. 不思議なものである. 母も死ぬ三日前に愛想（あいそ）をつかした――おやじも年中持て余している――町内では乱暴者の悪太郎と爪弾（つまはじ）きをする――このおれを無暗に珍重（ちんちょう）してくれた. おれは到底（とうてい）人に好かれる性（たち）でないとあきらめていたから、他人から木の端（はし）のように取り扱（あつか）われるのは何とも思わない、かえってこの清のようにちやほやしてくれるのを不審（ふしん）に考えた. 清は時々台所で人の居ない時に「あなたは真（ま）っ直（すぐ）でよいご気性だ」と賞（ほ）める事が時々あった. しかしおれには清の云う意味が分からなかった. 好（い）い気性なら清以外のものも、もう少し善くしてくれるだろうと思った. 清がこんな事を云う度におれはお世辞は嫌（きら）いだと答えるのが常であった. すると婆さんはそれだから好いご気性ですと云っては、嬉しそうにおれの顔を眺（なが）めている. 自分の力でおれを製造して誇（ほこ）ってるように見える. 少々気味がわるかった.

母が死んでから清はいよいよおれを可愛がった. 時々は小供心になぜあんなに可愛がるのかと不審に思った. つまらない、廃（よ）せばいいのにと思った. 気の毒だと思った. それでも清は可愛がる. 折々は自分の小遣（こづか）いで金鍔（きんつば）や紅梅焼（こうばいやき）を買ってくれる. 寒い夜などはひそかに蕎麦粉（そばこ）を仕入れておいて、いつの間にか寝（ね）ている枕元（まくらもと）へ蕎麦湯を持って来てくれる. 時には鍋焼饂飩（なべやきうどん）さえ買ってくれた. ただ食い物ばかりではない. 靴足袋（くつたび）ももらった. 鉛筆（えんぴつ）も貰った、帳面も貰った. これはずっと後の事であるが金を三円ばかり貸してくれた事さえある. 何も貸せと云った訳ではない. 向うで部屋へ持って来てお小遣いがなくてお困りでしょう、お使いなさいと云ってくれたんだ. おれは無論入らないと云ったが、是非使えと云うから、借りておいた. 実は大変嬉しかった. その三円を蝦蟇口（がまぐち）へ入れて、懐（ふところ）へ入れたなり便所へ行ったら、すぽりと後架（こうか）の中へ落（おと）してしまった. 仕方がないから、のそのそ出てきて実はこれこれだと清に話したところが、清は早速竹の棒を捜（さが）して来て、取って上げますと云った. しばらくすると井戸端（いどばた）でざあざあ音がするから、出てみたら竹の先へ蝦蟇口の紐（ひも）を引き懸（か）けたのを水で洗っていた. それから口をあけて壱円札（いちえんさつ）を改めたら茶色になって模様が消えかかっていた. 清は火鉢で乾（かわ）かして、これでいいでしょうと出した. ちょっとかいでみて臭（くさ）いやと云ったら、それじゃお出しなさい、取り換（か）えて来て上げますからと、どこでどう胡魔化（ごまか）したか札の代りに銀貨を三円持って来た. この三円は何に使ったか忘れてしまった. 今に返すよと云ったぎり、返さない. 今となっては十倍にして返してやりたくても返せない.

清が物をくれる時には必ずおやじも兄も居ない時に限る. おれは何が嫌いだと云って人に隠れて自分だけ得をするほど嫌いな事はない. 兄とは無論仲がよくないけれども、兄に隠して清から菓子（かし）や色鉛筆を貰いたくはない. なぜ、おれ一人にくれて、兄さんには遣（や）らないのかと清に聞く事がある. すると清は澄（すま）したものでお兄様（あにいさま）はお父様（とうさま）が買ってお上げなさるから構いませんと云う. これは不公平である. おやじは頑固（がんこ）だけれども、そんな依怙贔負（えこひいき）はせぬ男だ. しかし清の眼から見るとそう見えるのだろう. 全く愛に溺（おぼ）れていたに違（ちが）いない. 元は身分のあるものでも教育のない婆さんだから仕方がない. 単にこればかりではない. 贔負目は恐ろしいものだ. 清はおれをもって将来立身出世して立派なものになると思い込んでいた. その癖勉強をする兄は色ばかり白くって、とても役には立たないと一人できめてしまった. こんな婆さんに逢（あ）っては叶（かな）わない. 自分の好きなものは必ずえらい人物になって、嫌いなひとはきっと落ち振れるものと信じている. おれはその時から別段何になると云う了見（りょうけん）もなかった. しかし清がなるなると云うものだから、やっぱり何かに成れるんだろうと思っていた. 今から考えると馬鹿馬鹿（ばかばか）しい. ある時などは清にどんなものになるだろうと聞いてみた事がある. ところが清にも別段の考えもなかったようだ. ただ手車（てぐるま）へ乗って、立派な玄関（げんかん）のある家をこしらえるに相違（そうい）ないと云った.

それから清はおれがうちでも持って独立したら、一所（いっしょ）になる気でいた. どうか置いて下さいと何遍も繰（く）り返して頼んだ. おれも何だかうちが持てるような気がして、うん置いてやると返事だけはしておいた. ところがこの女はなかなか想像の強い女で、あなたはどこがお好き、麹町（こうじまち）ですか麻布（あざぶ）ですか、お庭へぶらんこをおこしらえ遊ばせ、西洋間は一つでたくさんですなどと勝手な計画を独りで並（なら）べていた. その時は家なんか欲しくも何ともなかった. 西洋館も日本建（にほんだて）も全く不用であったから、そんなものは欲しくないと、いつでも清に答えた. すると、あなたは欲がすくなくって、心が奇麗だと云ってまた賞めた. 清は何と云っても賞めてくれる.

母が死んでから五六年の間はこの状態で暮していた. おやじには叱られる. 兄とは喧嘩をする. 清には菓子を貰う、時々賞められる. 別に望みもない. これでたくさんだと思っていた. ほかの小供も一概（いちがい）にこんなものだろうと思っていた. ただ清が何かにつけて、あなたはお可哀想（かわいそう）だ、不仕合（ふしあわせ）だと無暗に云うものだから、それじゃ可哀想で不仕合せなんだろうと思った. その外に苦になる事は少しもなかった. ただおやじが小遣いをくれないには閉口した.

母が死んでから六年目の正月におやじも卒中で亡くなった. その年の四月におれはある私立の中学校を卒業する. 六月に兄は商業学校を卒業した. 兄は何とか会社の九州の支店に口があって行（ゆ）かなければならん. おれは東京でまだ学問をしなければならない. 兄は家を売って財産を片付けて任地へ出立（しゅったつ）すると云い出した. おれはどうでもするがよかろうと返事をした. どうせ兄の厄介（やっかい）になる気はない. 世話をしてくれるにしたところで、喧嘩をするから、向うでも何とか云い出すに極（きま）っている. なまじい保護を受ければこそ、こんな兄に頭を下げなければならない. 牛乳配達をしても食ってられると覚悟（かくご）をした. 兄はそれから道具屋を呼んで来て、先祖代々の瓦落多（がらくた）を二束三文（にそくさんもん）に売った. 家屋敷（いえやしき）はある人の周旋（しゅうせん）である金満家に譲った. この方は大分金になったようだが、詳（くわ）しい事は一向知らぬ. おれは一ヶ月以前から、しばらく前途の方向のつくまで神田の小川町（おがわまち）へ下宿していた. 清は十何年居たうちが人手に渡（わた）るのを大いに残念がったが、自分のものでないから、仕様がなかった. あなたがもう少し年をとっていらっしゃれば、ここがご相続が出来ますものをとしきりに口説いていた. もう少し年をとって相続が出来るものなら、今でも相続が出来るはずだ. 婆さんは何（なんに）も知らないから年さえ取れば兄の家がもらえると信じている.

兄とおれはかように分れたが、困ったのは清の行く先である. 兄は無論連れて行ける身分でなし、清も兄の尻にくっ付いて九州下（くんだ）りまで出掛ける気は毛頭なし、と云ってこの時のおれは四畳半（よじょうはん）の安下宿に籠（こも）って、それすらもいざとなれば直ちに引き払（はら）わねばならぬ始末だ. どうする事も出来ん. 清に聞いてみた. どこかへ奉公でもする気かねと云ったらあなたがおうちを持って、奥（おく）さまをお貰いになるまでは、仕方がないから、甥（おい）の厄介になりましょうとようやく決心した返事をした. この甥は裁判所の書記でまず今日には差支（さしつか）えなく暮していたから、今までも清に来るなら来いと二三度勧めたのだが、清はたとい下女奉公はしても年来住み馴（な）れた家（うち）の方がいいと云って応じなかった. しかし今の場合知らぬ屋敷へ奉公易（ほうこうが）えをして入らぬ気兼（きがね）を仕直すより、甥の厄介になる方がましだと思ったのだろう. それにしても早くうちを持ての、妻（さい）を貰えの、来て世話をするのと云う. 親身（しんみ）の甥よりも他人のおれの方が好きなのだろう.

九州へ立つ二日前兄が下宿へ来て金を六百円出してこれを資本にして商買（しょうばい）をするなり、学資にして勉強をするなり、どうでも随意（ずいい）に使うがいい、その代りあとは構わないと云った. 兄にしては感心なやり方だ、何の六百円ぐらい貰わんでも困りはせんと思ったが、例に似ぬ淡泊（たんばく）な処置が気に入ったから、礼を云って貰っておいた. 兄はそれから五十円出してこれをついでに清に渡してくれと云ったから、異議なく引き受けた. 二日立って新橋の停車場（ていしゃば）で分れたぎり兄にはその後一遍も逢わない.

おれは六百円の使用法について寝ながら考えた. 商買をしたって面倒（めんど）くさくって旨（うま）く出来るものじゃなし、ことに六百円の金で商買らしい商買がやれる訳でもなかろう. よしやれるとしても、今のようじゃ人の前へ出て教育を受けたと威張れないからつまり損になるばかりだ. 資本などはどうでもいいから、これを学資にして勉強してやろう. 六百円を三に割って一年に二百円ずつ使えば三年間は勉強が出来る. 三年間一生懸命にやれば何か出来る. それからどこの学校へはいろうと考えたが、学問は生来（しょうらい）どれもこれも好きでない. ことに語学とか文学とか云うものは真平（まっぴら）ご免（めん）だ. 新体詩などと来ては二十行あるうちで一行も分らない. どうせ嫌いなものなら何をやっても同じ事だと思ったが、幸い物理学校の前を通り掛（かか）ったら生徒募集の広告が出ていたから、何も縁だと思って規則書をもらってすぐ入学の手続きをしてしまった. 今考えるとこれも親譲りの無鉄砲から起（おこ）った失策だ.

三年間まあ人並（ひとなみ）に勉強はしたが別段たちのいい方でもないから、席順はいつでも下から勘定（かんじょう）する方が便利であった. しかし不思議なもので、三年立ったらとうとう卒業してしまった. 自分でも可笑（おか）しいと思ったが苦情を云う訳もないから大人しく卒業しておいた.

卒業してから八日目に校長が呼びに来たから、何か用だろうと思って、出掛けて行ったら、四国辺のある中学校で数学の教師が入る. 月給は四十円だが、行ってはどうだという相談である. おれは三年間学問はしたが実を云うと教師になる気も、田舎（いなか）へ行く考えも何もなかった. もっとも教師以外に何をしようと云うあてもなかったから、この相談を受けた時、行きましょうと即席（そくせき）に返事をした. これも親譲りの無鉄砲が祟（たた）ったのである.

引き受けた以上は赴任（ふにん）せねばならぬ. この三年間は四畳半に蟄居（ちっきょ）して小言はただの一度も聞いた事がない. 喧嘩もせずに済んだ. おれの生涯のうちでは比較的呑気（ひかくてきのんき）な時節であった. しかしこうなると四畳半も引き払わなければならん. 生れてから東京以外に踏み出したのは、同級生と一所に鎌倉（かまくら）へ遠足した時ばかりである. 今度は鎌倉どころではない. 大変な遠くへ行かねばならぬ. 地図で見ると海浜で針の先ほど小さく見える. どうせ碌な所ではあるまい. どんな町で、どんな人が住んでるか分らん. 分らんでも困らない. 心配にはならぬ. ただ行くばかりである. もっとも少々面倒臭い.

家を畳（たた）んでからも清の所へは折々行った. 清の甥というのは存外結構な人である. おれが行（ゆ）くたびに、居（お）りさえすれば、何くれと款待（もて）なしてくれた. 清はおれを前へ置いて、いろいろおれの自慢（じまん）を甥に聞かせた. 今に学校を卒業すると麹町辺へ屋敷を買って役所へ通うのだなどと吹聴（ふいちょう）した事もある. 独りで極（き）めて一人（ひとり）で喋舌（しゃべ）るから、こっちは困（こ）まって顔を赤くした. それも一度や二度ではない. 折々おれが小さい時寝小便をした事まで持ち出すには閉口した. 甥は何と思って清の自慢を聞いていたか分らぬ. ただ清は昔風（むかしふう）の女だから、自分とおれの関係を封建（ほうけん）時代の主従（しゅじゅう）のように考えていた. 自分の主人なら甥のためにも主人に相違ないと合点（がてん）したものらしい. 甥こそいい面（つら）の皮だ.

いよいよ約束が極まって、もう立つと云う三日前に清を尋（たず）ねたら、北向きの三畳に風邪（かぜ）を引いて寝ていた. おれの来たのを見て起き直るが早いか、坊（ぼ）っちゃんいつ家（うち）をお持ちなさいますと聞いた. 卒業さえすれば金が自然とポッケットの中に湧いて来ると思っている. そんなにえらい人をつらまえて、まだ坊っちゃんと呼ぶのはいよいよ馬鹿気ている. おれは単簡に当分うちは持たない. 田舎へ行くんだと云ったら、非常に失望した容子（ようす）で、胡麻塩（ごましお）の鬢（びん）の乱れをしきりに撫（な）でた. あまり気の毒だから「行（ゆ）く事は行くがじき帰る. 来年の夏休みにはきっと帰る」と慰（なぐさ）めてやった. それでも妙な顔をしているから「何を見やげに買って来てやろう、何が欲しい」と聞いてみたら「越後（えちご）の笹飴（ささあめ）が食べたい」と云った. 越後の笹飴なんて聞いた事もない. 第一方角が違う. 「おれの行く田舎には笹飴はなさそうだ」と云って聞かしたら「そんなら、どっちの見当です」と聞き返した. 「西の方だよ」と云うと「箱根（はこね）のさきですか手前ですか」と問う. 随分持てあました.

出立の日には朝から来て、いろいろ世話をやいた. 来る途中（とちゅう）小間物屋で買って来た歯磨（はみがき）と楊子（ようじ）と手拭（てぬぐい）をズックの革鞄（かばん）に入れてくれた. そんな物は入らないと云ってもなかなか承知しない. 車を並べて停車場へ着いて、プラットフォームの上へ出た時、車へ乗り込んだおれの顔をじっと見て「もうお別れになるかも知れません. 随分ご機嫌（きげん）よう」と小さな声で云った. 目に涙（なみだ）が一杯（いっぱい）たまっている. おれは泣かなかった. しかしもう少しで泣くところであった. 汽車がよっぽど動き出してから、もう大丈夫（だいしょうぶ）だろうと思って、窓から首を出して、振り向いたら、やっぱり立っていた. 何だか大変小さく見えた.

title: Japanese/Reader/坊っちゃん/一


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Talk:Rhetoric and Composition/Collaborating

is this a new added topic? or is it just nobody started anything on it? what exactly do we want for this page? the idea of collaborating ideas or information or what? just wondering so i can start something on the topic

This page got added late. It's coming along, but still skeletal at this point. --Mattbarton.exe 20:01, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Does this page really still need the TODO about the bullet points? The majority have been taken out since the notice was put up, and it looks quite balanced now. MJKaye 15:31, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Matt's thoughts
First off, this section seems to really need some pictures. Surely there are some CC-licensed images out there of students working together, or perhaps some screenshots of collaborative software in action. I just wrote a chapter on collaborative writing technologies for Writing Spaces 2. See this link: http://www.parlorpress.com/writingspaces2 (sadly, the link to my chapter is broken ATM, but the one for the whole book is available). Maybe some of that could be integrated here? In any case, it seems like it'd be worthwhile mentioning collaborative software like Google Docs and wikis here.

The order also seems awry to me. It'd be good to put all the general advice about collaboration in one place. To be really thorough, we might also talk about collaboration at each stage of the writing process--so, how do you collaborate during research, and how is that different than collaborating during drafting or revising?

Finally, there are lots of good quotes (Lunsford and Ede come to mind) from very successful collaborative writers. It'd be good to see some of them here, at least to follow the pattern laid out in the other chapters. --Mattbarton.exe (talk) 22:26, 13 January 2011 (UTC)

Matt H's thoughts
As someone who knows very little about collaborative writing, I found the “What is Collaboration?” section simple and effective.

The “Communicating Away from Meetings” section seems outdated. It would be better if it mentioned other ways of communicating away from meetings, like on a D2L discussion list (or a general internet forum), via text message, twitter, blogs, etc.

I agree with Matt B.—some images would liven this page up.

--Matt.helm (discuss • contribs) 01:20, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

I edited each paragraph, outright deleting some words and lines, and merely moving some sentences and ideas to different paragraphs. It doesn't feel cohesive yet, and it's about three full pages, so I think I could still condense it quite a bit without losing too much meaning.--Matt.helm (discuss • contribs) 21:28, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

Faith's thoughts
As with other sections, I think what's needed is something that breaks up the text. Students don't "read" a text book, they scan it,searching for information that's valuable to them. Looking at a screen with paragraphs of information that run from the left the screen to the right of the screen is dull, certainly, but what's worse, the information becomes difficult to retain. Images will clearly help, but also text boxes (variously placed on the page) and more work with creative bullet points. I am sure there are many ways to get creative while allowing for ease of access.--SFaithL (discuss • contribs) 15:23, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Emily's Thoughts
I would agree with everything said before me.

Perhaps combining ideas, would it work to briefly introduce collaboration here while linking it to other sections that mention collaboration (research, peer review, etc)? --Emily.isackson (discuss • contribs) 20:32, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Karl's Thoughts
I agree with Matt about the pictures. They would liven up an otherwise deadly-dull page. These long blocks of text have me skimming and my retention level plummets. Bullet points might be a way to streamline yet make key information easier to retain.

Nick's thoughts
I agree with Dr. Barton's thoughts on adding a section that explains collaboration software. Starting out by exploring how Google products could assist a group throughout the composition process. You could also possibly just add a technology section to each section? I don't know which would be more effective. It is pretty important as we move further away from direct communication and more towards collaborative communication.


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User talk:192.206.243.9

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. -- LV (Dark Mark) 17:38, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:192.206.243.9


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Collaborating

What is Collaboration?
During your educational career, and later in your professional career, you will sometimes have to write with other people. Unfortunately, few students learn how to collaborate effectively since most school writing assignments are not collaborative. Outside the classroom, however, people often compose documents collaboratively (even though only a single author may receive credit for the piece). Newspaper reporters, novelists, and magazine writers collaborate extensively with their editors. Scholars collaborate with other scholars to review and add insight to each other's work. Business writers work closely with colleagues, administrators, and consultants to ensure that their work meets the relevant standards. Even poets meet to discuss their ideas and techniques. In short, all kinds of writers collaborate.

This chapter offers some strategies for successful collaboration. It also discusses some of the common pitfalls that can wreck an otherwise promising collaborative opportunity.

Advantages to Collaboration

Collaboration creates a thinking environment that produces thoroughly developed theses by opening discussion to include an awareness of opposing views and an access to diverse perspectives. No two people have the exact same backgrounds, skills, knowledge bases, or thought processes. When collaborating with your team members, you can compare notes, ask each other questions, and discover how each member can best contribute. For example, perhaps one of your team members has extensive computer skills, while another is especially artistic. While these skills might seem to have little in common, they may actually end up complementing each other, which should allow your team to create a better project than any one person could do alone.

Disadvantages to Collaboration
Not everyone loves the idea of group work. Collaboration can take more time than individual writing, since the team will often need to meet to discuss changes or additions. Sometimes the document can become disjointed, especially if the authors have not tried to match their style and tone. Team members can also get pigeonholed into certain roles when they could be helpful in multiple parts of the project. A more common problem is that some team members do more work than others; you may end up picking up the slack for less responsible classmates or colleagues. More than one collaboration has ended with one or more team members quitting in disgust.

Overcoming these Disadvantages

 * Meet early on in your project to decide its direction.
 * Devise a way to evenly split up the work between members.
 * Create a time line for when the various sections are due.
 * Set up meetings where members can gather and share progress or obstacles.
 * Meet near the end of the project to make revisions.

In order to have a successful meeting

 * Be sure to plan meetings as early as possible for scheduling purposes.
 * Create an outline for the meeting.
 * Review the outline with members before the actual meeting begins.
 * When critiquing a team member's work be diplomatic.
 * Smaller meetings with partial attendance can work well when warranted.

Setting an Agenda
One group member is usually responsible for organizing the agenda. It is important to note that the agenda describes the purpose of the meeting. Without it, members may become frustrated or question why they are at the meeting in the first place. The agenda organizer should give all members a copy of the agenda well before the actual meeting takes place. He or she may need to communicate with the other members to gather ideas for the agenda, which can be done via email before the meeting. Each group member might want to look over the assignment sheet and discuss possible items to add to the agenda. They will want to consider all the stages that need to be accomplished in order to complete the assignment. The person organizing the agenda will record the suggestions and create an agenda (or outline) which can be distributed to the members and used to guide the subsequent meetings. Including a time line can also help keep the group on task.

Posting the agenda

Your group will need to know what is on the agenda before the meeting. This should be updated at the end of the last meeting, and could be posted in a Google doc with the meeting minutes. To-do lists give each member something concrete to do, and creating relationships within those tasks based on your project gives your group a creative advantage.

Sample Agenda

Taking Minutes
It is important to keep a brief and accurate record of group meetings, with information such as:

 * Dates
 * Attendees
 * Discussion Points

At each group meeting, elect one member to record the discussion, or take the meeting minutes. The minutes should be a brief summary of the main points discussed, and will roughly follow the agenda format. A copy of the minutes should be distributed to each member within a day of the meeting. A record of decisions made and tasks assigned can prevent conflicts by keeping team members from playing "the blame game."

Recursive Minutes with Google Docs

For longer projects with continuous minutes to be tracked, project members can create a Google Doc that tracks what was discussed at meetings and the steps going forward. Setting up a document is easy--just start a document and include the information most pertinent to your project. The benefits of tracking minutes using Google Docs include:
 * Live meeting updates for members who are unable to attend.
 * Synchronous/asynchronous editing, comments, and suggestions for collaborative contribution.
 * Include to-do lists and keep members accountable for each other

Communicating Away from Meetings
As is often the case when working with multiple people, you may find it difficult to coordinate group meetings that fit well into every group member’s schedule. It is in times such as these when outside communication becomes crucial to whether a group succeeds or fails. When face-to-face meetings become impossible, you might find that there are other ways to communicate with your team members. E-mail allows you to quickly deliver the same message to multiple people, and the recipients can respond at their convenience. Communication via telephone may also work, but only if you have to call a small number of people or deliver a short message. Memos are quite similar to e-mail, but will require a greater effort on your part to send. A fax will also work to communicate information to other group members, assuming that they have a machine capable of receiving such messages. If needed, internet social media accounts may also be used in order to contact your group members that have prominent online presences. The final choice is ultimately up to you in deciding which form of communication will work best for the message you intend to send.

Using technology to communicate away from meetings

Using Google technologies allows groups a familiar and cohesive collaborative platform. Here are a few ways to use Google software in your collaborative project.

Google Drive

Using a cloud-based file storage system allows for groups to access and store files that are important to the project.

Strategies for Effective Collaboration
The two most important aspects of effective collaboration are discussion and planning.

If group members participate in active, open discussion, the group will be more likely to share a clear understanding of the assignment. The assignment may be divided up among the group members or all aspects of the assignment may be worked on collaboratively. Open discussion can also help an individual overcome obstacles. For many students, it is easier to tackle obstacles as a team than it is to do so alone.

It is very important to schedule group meetings when all members are able to attend. Committing to these scheduled times will help the group meet the required deadline in a timely manner. Although it is most useful to meet with the group in person, group meetings can also take place online when meeting in person is impossible.

 * Be honest about your abilities. If you know you aren't good at something specific, let your group members know. They'll respect you for your honesty.
 * Determine organizational roles: e.g coordinating meeting times and location, file distribution and organization, outside expenses. Ask for help if you are unsure of your role and how to do it well.
 * If you're unhappy with the way a project is going, say so. This is your grade and you have a right to let your instructor know when things aren't going the way you think they should.
 * When communicating in meetings, strive for solutions rather than highlighting the issues.
 * Respect your group members. Everyone has something unique to contribute to the project. Use others to help them with their duties in the project.
 * Have fun. Although it's homework, this is an opportunity to get to know new people.

An Example of Collaborative Work/Group Conferencing

Students are unsure of how to effectively edit each other’s work, and can easily become distracted. They need to carefully review their peers’ work in order to provide constructive criticism. Little productive work comes from group meetings. Many have created worksheets for students to follow, but these worksheets often invite brief and unhelpful comments. Students, however, can be taught how to do this well by having "group conferences."

The key to this is that the instructor or tutor has not read the papers. Because they don't know what the papers are about, how they are organized, how they support their arguments, or even what the purpose of the paper is, they can ask all kinds of probing questions that help the students to not only think critically about the papers they are working on, but also learn what kinds of questions make peer review effective.

If students go through this process with some guidance a couple times, their self-directed peer sessions should be more productive afterward. Students will learn to think critically about the writing of others as well as their own. Additionally, it is more productive and interesting for students because, unlike a regular one-on-one conference with an instructor, they get the input of multiple readers in an engaging and diverse learning opportunity.

title: Rhetoric and Composition/Collaborating


text: User talk:148.197.27.14

title: User talk:148.197.27.14


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Talk:Maple/Getting Started

Great tutorial, it saved my life.

Your best fan.

Adding parts in Getting Started
Hello to the person who edited the Maple wikibooks. I thought of making this section as a chapter where a newbee can understand how maple works (functions, semicolon, etc.), so i dont beleive that the text you added should be placed in the 1st chapter. Howver, i moved it another chapter where more advanced functionalities of Maple are shown. Thanks The Aanarchist Beggar

title: Talk:Maple/Getting Started


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User talk:81.7.64.173

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:81.7.64.173


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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Carthage

Carthage was a small nation, first only it was a city state, founded in 814 BC. It grew prosperous by all the trade that flowed through the tiny nation. However at around 146 BC, Carthage was conquered by Rome.

What country did they live in?
Carthage was located in northern Africa, in current day Tunisia. It was an imperial power that controlled at one point most of northern Africa and even had some colonies in preset day Spain. However they often fought with Rome for land in Sicily and Sardinia, islands near Italy. These fights were also known as the Punic Wars. Carthage was a country full of seafaring people, and they established settlements in western Africa and in the Mediterranean Sea, their fleet being the largest in the west Mediterranean.

What did their buildings look like?
The buildings in Carthage are similar to buildings in Greece and Rome. Major public buildings were made of stone and had large columns. Meanwhile common people lived in small houses made of brick or wood. We do not have Carthaginian buildings standing today because the Romans destroyed the city. We can guess at what they might have looked like by comparing Greek and Roman examples.

What did they eat?
The people of Carthage ate food similar to that of the people there today, like dates, figs, bread, and meat from sheep and cows. Carthage was also renowned for its fruits growing across the Mediterranean:they cultivated figs, mulberry, blackberries etc. Equally important were their vegetables and legumes, like bread and chickpeas

What did they wear?
For woman the chiton is a common sleeved tunic. It is two pieces of cloth which are sewn together, leaving room for the arms and head. Married woman wore a stola, which was a long, sleeveless tunic, which would be worn over the chiton. When going outdoors a palla could be worn over these garments. Woman of the upper class wore jewellery.

What did their writing look like?
The Phoenicians adopted an early Canaanite linear script in the Middle Bronze Age (2000-1500 BC). Over the centuries this evolved into numerous other scripts such as Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Greek. The Phoenician language evolved from the local dialects of the cities of Tyre and Sidon. The colonization of the Mediterranean spread the language as far West as North Africa and Southern Spain where it became known as Punic. This was adopted as the official language of the Carthaginian Empire.

What did they believe?
Most Carthagininan gods were inherited from the Phoenicians. They believed in a pantheon of gods, that included Baal Hammon, Astarte, Eshmun, and many more. Different Carthaginian centres had their own distinct pantheons. In Punic Sardinia, The god Sid was particularly associated with the island. At Maktar, to the southwest of Carthage, an important god was Hoter Miskar. The Egyptian deities Bes, Bastet, Isis, Osiris and Ra were also worshiped.

They had both part-time and full-time priests, the latter called khnm, led by high priests called rb khnm. Lower-ranking religious officials, attached to specific sanctuaries, included the "chief of the gatekeepers," people called "servants" or "slaves" of the sanctuary, and functioned as cooks, butchers, singers, and barbers.

What is their history?
Carthage was founded around 800 BC at what is now Tunisia. It was originally a part of the Phoenician Empire, which was based in Lebanon. When the empire was invaded, Carthage remained safe and became a powerful nation of its own. The skills of sailing and exploration that they had got from their Phoenician relatives helped them to trade and expand their lands. They settled in Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain and Portugal. Carthage was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean Sea.

Are some of them famous even today?

Hannibal is by far the most famous Carthaginian. He led an almost successful invasion on Rome, attacking them in Spain and Northern Italy, but eventually failed. Hannibal is often connected with elephants because he used elephants against Roman Troops, however most died while crossing the Alps on the way to Rome.

A famous Carthaginian from Roman mythology is Queen Dido. In the myth, she was the ruler of Carthage when Aeneas, a Trojan who had escaped from the Greek attack on Troy, landed in her kingdom. She loved Aeneas, but he needed to find Italy where he would found the empire of the future Romans. Dido killed herself when Aeneas left Carthage.

What is left of them today?
Being the bitter enemies of the Romans, having fought over Mediterranean power and over islands like Sicily for many decades, the Roman Empire sought to totally destroyed Carthage so as to eliminate its threat altogether. Carthaginian civilization therefore ended with its conquest by Rome in the Third Punic War, where it was eventually destroyed.

It is a common misconception that Rome sowed Carthage with salt after this final war. This is, however, a mere exaggeration showing their deep hatred; Appian, a Greek historian, tells us that the Romans colonised Carthage afterward. Emperor Augustus rebuilt it close to its original site 102 years after its destruction, and it became part of the Roman Empire.

Its archaeological site now lies in Tunis, the capital of Tunisia, in Africa.

Wikijunior Alte Zivilisationen/ Karthager


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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Sinhala

What country did they live in?
The Sinhala lived in Sri Lanka, an island in the Indian ocean just south of the Indian peninsula. The people are descendents of both the indigenous people who migrated from India and other migrants who have come from all over the world.

3rd century BC - World's largest brick structures at the time close to 400 feet in height. World's 2nd largest overall strutures at the time second only to pyramids.

Axially planned, brick court yard buildings with wooden and stone columns and clay tile roofs.

What did their buildings look like?
Those big builidings were in respect of Gautama Buddha who is the founder of Buddhism cause Sri Lanka is the only country practising Heenayana buddhism mainly differ in practising methods as well as some other rituals. During the kingdom of Anuradhapura time, those big mounaments were erected. A king named Dutugemunu was in back of building the great structure, called "stupa" in the name of Gautama Buddha.

What did they eat?
Mainly they ate rice and curry.

What did they wear?
Sinhala women wore a sort of blouse. They wore dhotis which were long cloths worn from their waist down. The men wore a sarong which was on the lower part of their body. The upper-class women covered everything. All the women were heavily bejewelled. Lower-class women wore a breast-band and the cloth cannot go below their knees. It was fashion for all women to wear a row of pearls on their breast. They wore bracelets and rings around their fingers and toes. They could have been made of glass. They wore earrings also.

What did they believe?
They are mainly Buddhists.

Most of the Sinhalese follow the Theravada school of Buddhism. In 1988 almost 93% of the Sinhalese speaking population in Sri Lanka were Buddhist. Buddhists include various religious elements from Hinduism in their religious practices and ancient traditions of godlings and demons, which are native to the island. Sinhalese Buddhists worship Hindu gods such as Vishnu, who has a special place in their religious practices, since he is entrusted with both protecting Buddhism in the island and the island itself. He is also recognised as bodhisattva, or "awakening being" to Sinhalese Buddhists.

There is also a significant Sinhalese Christian community, in the seafaring provinces of Sri Lanka. Christianity was brought to the Sinhalese by Portuguese, Dutch, and British missionary groups during their periods of rule. Sinhalese Christians mainly follow Roman Catholicism, followed by Protestantism. Their cultural centre is Negombo.

What did their writing look like?
The writing differed from time to time as any of the other scripts in Asia. The Sinhala script began as an offshoot from Brahmi and is found in the southern branch of this family, sharing a common root with scripts such as Malayalam, and Tamil. The writing system was originally used in inscriptions, the oldest ones dating from the 6th century BCE on pottery[, with lithic inscriptions dating from the second century B.C. By the ninth century C.E., literature written in Sinhala script had emerged and the script began to be used in other contexts. For instance, the Buddhist literature of the Theravada-Buddhists of Sri Lanka, written in Pali, used the Sinhala alphabet.

Today, the alphabet is used by about 16,000,000 people to write the Sinhalese language in very diverse contexts, such as newspapers, TV commercials, government announcements, graffiti, and schoolbooks.


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User talk:67.109.145.68

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. -- LV (Dark Mark) 19:50, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

You have been temporarily blocked from editing for vandalism of Wikibooks. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. --Derbeth talk 16:41, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:67.109.145.68


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User:Hydrargyrum

Please leave Wiktionary-specific comments on my Wikibooks talk page. I spend most of my time working on Wikipedia, and don't visit this page so often. If you need a rapid response, you can send me an email.

For information about me, see my Wikipedia User Page.

--QuicksilverT @ 19:55, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Hydrargyrum


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User talk:Hydrargyrum

 '''Please post new comments at the bottom of the page to avoid confusion, and make headings using two equal signs ( == ). I will try to respond soon as possible on your talk page. Thank you!''' I spend most of my time working on Wikipedia, so if you need a rapid response, you can send me an email.

title: User talk:Hydrargyrum


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A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Thermal physics

Thermal physics deals with the changes that occur in substances when there is a change in temperature.

Internal energy
When you heat up a material, it may change state. The molecules vibrate with a greater amplitude, and break apart from one another. The material has been supplied with energy and you can feel it getting hotter. The increased kinetic and potential (from their greater separation) energy of the particles is an increase in what we call internal energy. Internal energy is defined as:

The internal energy of a system is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and potential energies of its molecules.

Therefore, an increase in temperature for a material means an increase in its internal energy.

The thermodynamic temperature scale
The Celsius scale of temperature depends on the properties of water. 0 °C is the freezing point of water, and 100 °C is the boiling point of water. It is a relative scale, because it is relative to the freezing and boiling points of water. The thermodynamic scale of temperature (represented by the letter T), however, is an absolute scale of temperuture, and does not depend on the properties of any particular substance. It is also directly proportional to the amount of internal energy a substance possesses.

Absolute zero
This scale of temperature is defined in terms of internal energy, and is measured in kelvins (K). 0K is defined as the temperature at which a substance will have minimum internal energy, and is the lowest possible temperature. This temperature is known as absolute zero. It is at this point at which molecule stop vibrating and electrons stop spinning and orbiting.

Converting between K and °C
The divisions of the kelvin scale are identical to the divisions of the Celsius scale, so that an increase of 1 °C is equal to an increase of 1K.

 * $$\Delta\theta$$ K = $$\Delta\theta\;^\circ$$ C

This makes it simple to convert between the two, and if you know that absolute zero is -273.15 °C, you can simply use the formula:

 * $$\theta$$ K = $$(\theta + 273.15)\;^\circ$$ C

to convert between °C and K.

Heating up substances
When you apply heat to a substance, the temperature does not simply increase in a straight line. Some extra energy is required to break bonds between particles.

Energy and temperature changes
If we were to heat a block of ice at a steady rate and plot a graph of the temperature against time, we would get the following graph:

This shape is rather surprising. You would expect the line to increase in a straight line, with none of the breaks that you can see above. We should consider what is happening to the molecules of the water at each section of the graph to understand why this is so:

 * AB
 * The ice is below freezing point, but the temperature is increasing. The molecules are vibrating slowly, but begin to vibrate more.

 * BC
 * At 273K (0°C) the ice is at melting point. The bonds between molecules are being broken and molecules have greater potential energy. This is the Latent Heat of Fusion

 * CD
 * The water now increases in temperature towards boiling point. The molecules vibrate even more and move around rapidly as their kinetic energy increases.

 * DE
 * At 373K (100°C) the water is now at boiling point. Molecules completely break away from each other and their potential energy increases. DE is much larger than BC because ALL bonds need to be broken for a gas to form. (The Latent Heat of Vapourisation.)

 * EF
 * The water is now steam and the molecules are moving around much faster than before. Their kinetic energy continues to increase as energy is supplied.

At the sections BC and DE, where there is a change of state, the molecules do not increase in kinetic energy, but increase in potential energy. The heat energy being supplied does not change the temperature at these sections, but is instead used to break the bonds between molecules.

Specific heat capacity
Some materials will heat up quicker than others. For example, metals are good conductors of heat, and provided they are the same mass and that the energy is supplied at the same rate, copper will increase in temperature quicker than water.

The specific heat capacity can tell us how much energy is required to increase the temperature of a substance, and is defined as:

The specific heat capacity of a substance is numerically equal to the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of the substance by 1K (or by 1 °C).

This can be represented as:

$$c=\frac { Q }{ m\Delta t } $$

Or rewritten,

 * $$ { Q } = m c \Delta T$$

Where $${ Q }$$ is the energy supplied, $$m$$ is the mass of the substance, $$c$$ is the specific heat capacity, and $$\Delta T$$ is the change in temperature

Measuring the specific heat capacity
To find the specific heat capacity of something, we can control all of the possible variables and then use them to calculate it. From the equation above, we can see that $$c = \frac {Q}{m \Delta T}$$. This means that if we can supply a known amount of energy to a material of known mass, and measure the change in temperature, we can insert the values into the equation and obtain the specific heat capacity.

To supply a known amount of energy, we can use an electric heater. You may recall that electrical energy can be found by $$E = IVt$$, so by measuring the voltage, the current and the time that the circuit is switched on, we will have a value for the energy supplied to the material.

In the same time period that the circuit is switched on, we must take measurments for the change in temperature. An ordinary mercury thermometer may be used, although it is recommend to use a temperature sensor with a computer to make more precise and accurate measurements.

Once we have taken readings of the temperature and energy at regular intervals of time, we can plot a graph of $$Q$$ against $$\Delta T$$. We can calculate the gradient, making sure to use as much of the line in our calculation as possible, and divide it by the mass of the material to obtain the value of the materials specific heat capacity.

Specific latent heat
When you heat up a substance so that it changes state, the temperature stays the same during the change. Different substances will require more energy to change state than others. The specific latent heat will tell us how much energy a substance requires to change state and is defined as:

The specific latent heat of a substance is numerically equal to the energy that must be supplied to change the state of 1 kg of the substance without any change in temperature.

This can be written as the equation:

$${ l}=\frac { Q }{m} $$

Or, rewritten,

 * $$Q = m l$$

Where $$Q$$ is the energy supplied, $$m$$ is the mass of the substance, and $$L$$ is the specific latent heat.

The gas laws
There are four properties of a gas, that are related to each other. These properties are the pressure, the temperature, the volume and the mass of the gas, and these relationships are expressed as the gas laws.

Boyle's law
Boyle's law relates the pressure of a gas to its volume. Specifically, it states that: The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume, provided that the temperature remains constant.

This can be expressed as $$p \propto \frac{1}{V}$$ or $$pV = constant$$.

You can picture this at the molecular level, if you were to imagine the number of collisions the particles of a gas make with the container of a particular size, and then imagine the increased number of collisions when the container is reduced in size but the number of particles remain the same. This is observed as an increase in pressure of the gas.

Charles' law
Charles' law relates the volume of a gas with its temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale, and that: The volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is proportional to its temperature on the thermodynamic temperature scale.

This can be expressed as $$V \propto T$$ or $$\frac {V}{T} = constant$$.

It is a little more difficult to understand why this is the case, because a gas will always take up the entire volume of its container. If you think about how a particle behaves when it is heated up, it will vibrate more and cause an increase in pressure, or harder and faster collisions of the molecules against the container. However, since pressure is to be kept constant in this case, the volume of the container will need to increase. Therefore by increasing the temperature of the gas, we have increased its volume.

Pressure law
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to its thermodynamic temperature.

This can be expressed as $$p \propto T$$ or $$\frac {p}{T} = constant$$.

Equation for an Ideal Gas
$$pV = nRT$$

n is the number of moles of gas,

R is the Ideal Gas Constant, R ≈ 8.314 J/(mol･K)

T is the ABSOLUTE temperature in K,

p is the Pressure in Pa, or Nm−2,

V is the Volume in m3.

Properties of an Ideal Gas
1) Its particles should be monatomic

2) The particles are infinitely small

3) There are no interaction between the particles, hence all the energy is kinetic.


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Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Fossil History

Definitive timescales are in doubt and dispute. Further it is not relevant to learning process for the audience intended in this subject. Unsubstantiated conjecture should not be part of the learning process.

 * Excuse me, but can you be specific about what you think is in dispute? If you can provide scientific references contradicting anything here then it will certainly be taken into consideration.  — Laura Scudder | Talk 21:08, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Time scales are not unsubstantiated. Actual bone is left from many pleistocene mammals and that bone can be dated precisely with Carbon 14.  Older materials are dated using stratigraphic analysis.  The more precise way to categorize these fossil cats is to use "faunas" rather than periods.  The entire Earth did not change abruptly at the end of worldwide periods, rather it changed in individual fauna groups which do not neatly line up with periods.  Matter of factly, I used to be a taxonomist back in the way backs.  It is truly amazing what can be done using well-tested and carefully conducted techniques. John Burkitt 20:16, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes, but I get the feeling that our friend here doesn't understand this. — Laura Scudder | Talk 02:17, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

Carnivorous/Carnivore distinction
It is worth remembering that although meat-eating is a characteristic of all Carnivora (even the giant panda eats meat if it gets the chance), not all meat-eating mammals (insectivores, cetaceans, and great apes) are members of this order. I have tinkered with the introduction to exclude such creatures as shrews, chimpanzees, dolphins, and whales as Carnivora even if they are adept hunters. It's also worth remembering that many of the Carnivora are not cats even if they have some very cat-like (especially Big Cat) behavior. Who hasn't seen cat-like behavior and physique among dogs? ∼∼∼∼

Illustrations
I really like the idea of this as part of the Big Cats book. Unfortunately we're scant on illustrations. I added the cave lion painting, but the only other thing we have pictures of are saber-toothed tigers at Smilodon (couldn't find any usable flickr museum pictures). I rather like Image:Smilodon californicus.jpg, but if skeletons are judged inappropriate  Image:Smilodon.jpg could work. — Laura Scudder | Talk 21:06, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Laura, I have attempted to solve this problem, including providing one of my own pieces of art...Proailurus...and several photos. John Burkitt 15:21, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Nice illustration. So far as Egyptian cats we've also got  Image:Egypte louvre 058.jpg.  — Laura Scudder | Talk 15:55, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Fossil History


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User talk:Hacktivist~enwikibooks

hiii

Official welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 20:53, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Hacktivist~enwikibooks


text: User:Hacktivist~enwikibooks

title: User:Hacktivist~enwikibooks


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Rhetoric and Composition/Run-on sentence

 Editing symbols:  run-on  or  r-o  or  fs

What is a run-on sentence?
While a run-on sentence, also known as a fused sentence, might just seem to be the type of sentence that goes on and on without a clear point, the technical grammatical definition of a run-on sentence is one that fuses, or "runs together," two or more independent clauses (basically, clauses that express a complete thought and could stand on their own as full sentences) without punctuation to separate them. They may have nothing between them, or they may have a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, for, so yet) between them but not the comma that needs to accompany the coordinating conjunction when separating two independent clauses.

You can often find run-on sentences in your work by reading it aloud. The run-on sentences will trip you up: you'll want to pause or otherwise come to some sort of end when you hit the end of an independent clause, but a run-on, with its lack of punctuation, doesn't signal you to do that. Try reading the following examples of run-on sentences out loud, and notice where two clauses seem to collide:

Examples of run-on sentences

 * Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids there is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.
 * Many daycare centers have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.
 * Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once" the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Fixing run-on sentences
Once you find a run-on sentence and notice where the two independent clauses "collide," you can then decide on how best to separate the clauses:
 * You can make two complete sentences by inserting a period; this is the strongest level of separation.
 * You can use a semicolon between the two clauses if they are of equal importance, and you want your reader to consider the points together.
 * You can use a semicolon with a transition word to indicate a specific relation between the two clauses.
 * You can use a coordinating conjunction and a comma, also to indicate a relationship.
 * Or, you can add a word to one clause to make it dependent.

Examples of fixed run-on sentences
Notice how the sentences above have been punctuated in the following examples.

 * Every day, millions of children go to daycare with millions of other kids. There is no guarantee that none of them are harboring infectious conditions.
 * Many daycare centers have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious; however, enforcing those rules can be very difficult.
 * Many daycare centers have strict rules about sick children needing to stay away until they are no longer infectious, but enforcing those rules can be very difficult.
 * Daycare providers often undergo extreme pressure to accept a sick child "just this once" because the parent has no other care options and cannot miss work.

Learn more under "commas with two independent clauses" here.


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Missing comma after introductory element

 Editing symbol:  ^,  (insert comma)

When you begin a sentence with a word or group of words that provides some background, introductory, or otherwise preliminary information, put a comma between this word or phrase and the rest of your sentence. The comma here tells your reader to pause, take the background information into consideration, and get ready to move on to the main part of the sentence.

To help you recognize places in your sentences where you are missing commas after introductory clauses, read your writing out loud. Chances are good you'll naturally pause after introductory phrases. You can also check the beginning of each sentence to look for words or phrases that add information about time, place, or manner or for words that serve as transitions; these are all common introductory elements.

 EXAMPLES    Incorrect:  Before the budget passed several lawmakers filibustered to stop it.   Correct:  Before the budget passed, several lawmakers filibustered to stop it.

  Incorrect:  However supporters saw the legislation through.   Correct:  However, supporters saw the legislation through.

Learn more under "Commas after introductory elements" here.


text:
Wikijunior talk:South America/Colombia

Removed text
I removed the following text from the page and put it in the black box below. I was not able to understand the text, is it a reference to the civil war? I added some information about the civil war to a new History section. --Kernigh 22:14, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Colombian nationals are generally underestimated.

Sometimes understood as a genre directly involved with ilegal activities, colombian citizens must bare repeated shame.
 * Due to an important amount of information that has been around long enough, the country carries an u(necessary) but interesting burden, consisting mainly in prejudice towards it´s nationals.

title: Wikijunior talk:South America/Colombia


text: User talk:199.185.191.2

title: User talk:199.185.191.2


text:
Do-It-Yourself/Wine

Winemaking at home
Until the early 20th century, most wine drinkers produced their own wines at home out of necessity; the average bottle of commercial wine could cost up to a month's wages for a farmer or factory hand. As can be imagined, the quality of these homemade wines was uneven and the alcohol content sometimes greater than would be expected.

In the last thirty years, however, the task of home winemaking has become easier and results more predictable. Nearly every good-sized city in North America and Western Europe has at least one shop catering to home brewers and winemakers. Kits make it possible to produce decent table wine at a fraction of the cost of the cheapest wine in the liquor store.

Making wine at home isn't necessarily easy. There's a lot of work involved, especially in cleaning and sanitizing, but the sense of accomplishment the winemaker can get from producing 30 bottles of extremely drinkable white wine for less than $2 a bottle cannot be overstated.

Required equipment

Although one could theoretically make wine with nothing more than grapes, a big barrel and some young maidens to stomp the grapes, most winemakers find the following equipment necessary to produce decent wine on a predictable basis:
 * A 30-litre or larger food-grade plastic container (similar in shape to a garbage can) with a non-airtight lid and a mark at the 23-litre point
 * A 23-litre glass or food-grade plastic carboy (demijhon)
 * An airlock and bung (a rubber stopper with a hole in it) for the carboy
 * A hydrometer to check the specific gravity (sp. gr.) of the wine
 * A long, narrow tube or jar to hold the wine while you're checking its specific gravity (generally the tube the hydrometer comes in works fine)
 * A dairy thermometer
 * A long piece (at least 1.5m or five feet) of food-grade plastic tubing
 * A long spoon that can fit into the neck of the carboy and reach to the bottom
 * A wine thief to remove the developing wine from the carboy without having to tip it

It is essential that any plastic items that are in contact with the wine be made of food-grade plastic. Regular plastic will leach polymers into the wine, which will give it an odd plastic taste.

These items will last forever and most wine stores stock a reasonably priced starting kit. If you decide to brew beer as well, you can use most of this equipment, but you will need a separate 30-liter plastic container (the taste of the wine will remain in the plastic) and you should make sure your carboy is glass.

Ingredients
For every batch, you will also need the following:
 * Something to ferment. Generally, that means grape juice, but wine has been made from almost all fruits, especially crabapples and elderberries. Winemaking stores sell kits containing eight to thirteen liters of concentrated grape juice varieties such as Riesling, Merlot and Chardonnay. If you are not into a specific variety, you can use unpasteurized grape juice, but it tends to be more expensive and your results might not be as predictable.
 * Good quality water. Generally this means filtered water. Heavily chlorinated can skunk your wine.
 * Wine yeast. The type of yeast you use will affect the flavor of the finished wine. Bread yeast can be used in a pinch (say, if you're making wine behind enemy lines during a war), but generally if you're not in dire circumstances you want to use a wine yeast tailored for the type of grape or other fruit you're using.
 * Something to settle the wine. You can use sterilized bentonite, isinglass, or (in a pinch) egg whites. The first two are readily available at any winemaking store.
 * Something to stop fermentation. You can use a little pure ascorbic acid (Vitamin C, but do not use vitamin pills containing sugar or flavoring), or you can buy a packet of potassium sorbate at the wine store.
 * Bottles and corks. You can reuse bottles, and unless you are making champagne, it does not really matter what type of bottle you use as long as you get it clean. The best way to do this is to remove any residue in the bottles, soak them in water with strong detergent to remove the labels and the glue, wash them again in new water and detergent, rinse well, and sanitize. New bottles are also available at a reasonable price and can be reused indefinitely. You will need 30 bottles for a standard 23-liter recipe. Both natural and synthetic corks work well (although the natural is cheaper); you will need longer corks if you plan to keep the wine for longer than six months.
 * Sodium metabisulfite for sanitizing. Warning — Do NOT use this under any circumstance if you or anybody in your family has a sufite allergy or sensitivity. Use iodophor or bleach instead. You must sanitize if you do not want your wine to turn out as vinegar. Sodium metabisulfite is the most convenient form of sanitizing. If you must use iodophor, follow the instructions on the label and rinse well. If you use bleach, soak your items for 10 minutes in a 5% bleach dilution, and then rinse at least six times thoroughly. Sodium metabisulfite is perfectly safe for the average person, but it can cause a serious reaction in asthmatics, so heed the warning.
 * Detergent. Dish detergent is probably not strong enough. Wine stores sell strong, unscented detergents that do a better job at removing labels, old smells, etc.

Making the wine
The process of actually making the wine is simple but somewhat tedious. Kit wines must be prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions. Otherwise, the following are good rules:
 * Make sure the area in which you are making your wine is at a stable temperature below 23C or 75F. At higher temperatures, the chances of your wine turning into vinegar are increased. If you can control the temperature, it is better to maintain the fermentation around 21C or 70F to preserve aromas.
 * Clean and sanitize everything just before it touches the wine. That includes any funnels, cups, bowls and other items. If you have to use them on two consecutive days, clean and sanitize before every use. A good yeast will outgrow the odd bacterium that gets in, but the sloppier you are the more likely something like acetobacter is going to get in and turn your wine to vinegar.
 * If your kit contains bentonite, add to your fermentation vessel about four cups or 1 liter of warm water, gently stir the water and pour the bentonite at the top of and mix well. The bentonite is used as a clarifying agent to control the protein haze.
 * Pour your juice into the large high density food grade plastic container. A large glass or stainless steel container will offer better inert vessels. If you are using a concentrate, top up with filtered water to 23 liters. You want the finished product to be between 65 and 75 F or 18 to 23 C. Test with your sanitized dairy thermometer when you're up to 20 liters, and add hot or cold juice or water at the end to adjust the temperature.
 * Stir vigorously to mix the concentrate properly and add oxygen to help the yeast initial growth.
 * Add yeast. If the manufacturer is recommending re-hydrating first the yeast follow the manufacturer instructions. The container used will need to be cleaned, sanitized and then rinsed with clean water.
 * Check your specific gravity by putting the sanitized hydrometer right in the container. It should show a specific gravity of 1.010 or greater. If it is less, you probably want to add a bit of sugar syrup and stir, then check again. Remove the hydrometer. Write down your initial specific gravity and start date. For wine kits, it is common to see a specific gravity around 1.090 (around 12.5% of potential alcohol) or more.
 * Put the lid on. Cover the container with a big plastic sheet and tie it closed with some string or twine around the middle of the container.
 * In a day or two, your wine should be bubbling away. Soon after that the yeast will drop to the bottom of the container and you will not see it working, but it will still be fermenting.
 * After a week, clean and sanitize the carboy, the bung, the airlock and the plastic tubing. Siphon the wine into the carboy. Leave out as much of the sedimentation on the very bottom as you can. Attach the bung and the airlock, making sure to fill the airlock halfway with water.
 * Cover the carboy with a dark, clean, thin sheet if you are doing this in an area where light can get to it.
 * Wait ten days and check the specific gravity. The best way to do this is to use the wine thief to transfer a little wine from the carboy to the measuring tube (the one the hydrometer came in), then use the hydrometer to check the specific gravity. If you started out at 1.090, you are looking for a specific gravity of 0.998 or lower. Check this once a day until the specific gravity is the same on two separate days. A common way to determine the final alcohol level is by taking out the decimal dot and applying the following simple formula: Initial Specific Gravity minus Final Specific Gravity divided by 7.36 (i.e 1090-998/7.36=12.5%).
 * Remove the bung and airlock and add whatever you are using to stop fermentation and to encourage settling. Stir for five minutes straight. Make sure to stir up all the sedimentation on the bottom. Replace the bung and the airlock.
 * Fourteen days later, clean and sanitize your bottles and your tubing. Siphon the wine into the bottles and cork them. You can buy a corking machine, or you can rent or borrow one from your friendly wine store - many stores lend them free of charge to their customers. Most corks are sold pre-sanitized, but you can soak them in a sulfite solution if you cannot buy them already prepared.
 * Let the bottles sit upright for three days, then let them sit on their side for at least a month. If you have made red wine, you should leave it for a year. If you do hold wine for over six months, you may wish to add a bit of sulfite to prevent discoloration, unless, of course, someone in the house has sulfite allergy or sensitivity.

title: Do-It-Yourself/Wine


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title: User:Whiteknight/monobook.js


text:
Talk:COSTP World History Project/Civilizations of Ancient Times

60,000 years ago Cite sources?

Yes, please


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Sentence fragment

 Editing symbol: frag

'' Sentence fragments. Might sound good at first! More trustworthy. Because they're simple. Not trying to complicate things. Like when a sentence goes on and on. Making you lose track of the ideas. Not like straight talk. ''

We use fragments constantly when talking, emailing, IMing: They save time and space and sound "natural." Advertisements frequently use them to draw attention to key concepts. In academic writing, however, all but the most occasional use of fragments is considered inappropriate: too folksy, too speech-like and colloquial.

There are a number of grammar-technical ways to recognize fragments, but ''' the best way to find them in your writing is to read your work out loud. ''' Listen for any sentences that may end in a period or other end punctuation but seem to leave you hanging, as if you want to say, "Well ... ? Now what? Go on, finish it up!" The end punctuation may tell you to express "ending" (our voice usually falls when we're reading out loud and get to a period), but the thought won't be finished.

Try reading the following paragraph out loud and seeing if you can pick out the fragments -- that is, the sentences that seem to leave you hanging.

 *  Getting published is simultaneously one of the most exhilarating and taxing goals writers writers can set for themselves. Calling for equal parts patience and persistence. It is often a team effort among several players. Such as, the writer, perhaps an agent, friends and peers who will edit and respond to the work, and previously published writers who can provide advice. Another tension writers must negotiate when pursuing publication is audience appeal and personal integrity to one's work. What is often called "being true to oneself." Because getting published calls on writers to be flexible yet unique at the same time.

As you can see in the revised version below, fixing fragments is usually a matter of
 * hooking up the fragment to the sentence before or after it (whichever one it seems to relate to), often using a comma, colon, or em dash;
 * adding the missing actor (noun) or action (verb); or
 * fleshing out the thought to express what was previously not "spelled out."

 *  Getting published is simultaneously one of the most exhilarating and taxing goals writers writers can set for themselves, calling for equal parts patience and persistence. It is often a team effort among several players, such as the writer, perhaps an agent, friends and peers who will edit and respond to the work, and previously published writers who can provide advice. Another tension writers must negotiate when pursuing publication is audience appeal and personal integrity to one's work: what is often called "being true to oneself." Because getting published calls on writers to be flexible yet unique at the same time, it can be the most challenging yet most rewarding experience writers undertake.


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Lack of agreement between subject and verb

Subject agreement is that the agreement of subjects and verbs

Examples

 * Singular: The whale, which doesn’t mature sexually until six or seven years old and which has only one calf per year, is at risk for extinction because it reproduces so slowly.
 * Plural: During election season, several civic groups sponsor public debates in which candidates present their views and audience members ask questions.
 * Singular: Digging a few inches into the dunes, even at 750 feet above the valley floor, reveals wet sand.
 * Plural: The dunes comprise small rocks and dry, sandy soil that constantly form strange designs under the ever-present wind.

What is subject-verb agreement?
Subject-verb agreement is something most native speakers know pretty automatically, but we can make mistakes when writing, especially when several words separate a particular subject and verb. As you can see in the following examples, “of” phrases can be misleading, too. The trick is to find the “root” noun: the one actually performing the action of the verb. There are two easy ways to spot the subject of a sentence: 1) Find the verb and ask the question, "Who or what is performing this act?" 2) Cross out all prepositional phrases. These simply tasks should lead you right to the subject of the sentence.

Examples

 * Characteristics of the middle child often include an equitable temperament and high feelings of security and self-esteem.
 * The opportunity cost of loaning out the funds is usually reflected in the interest rate.
 * A certain percentage of the cars produced by major manufacturers meets stricter emission standards in order for the company to sell their products in regulated regions.

Other guidelines
Other guidelines for making subjects and verbs agree include:
 * Noncount nouns — those that don’t have a singular or plural form, such as furniture, baggage, poetry, melancholy — take a singular verb.
 * Two or more singular nouns joined by an “and” take a plural verb: A timely, relevant topic and an environment of trust produce a good class discussion.
 * When two nouns differing in number are joined by “or,” the verb should take the form of the noun closest to it: Most viewers of the painting assume that either the monkey’s antics or the handler’s chagrin causes the young men’s laughter.

If you struggle with problems in subject-verb agreement, leave time to edit your paper once through just for that error: go through each sentence, underlining each subject and verb pair and checking that they agree.


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Lack of agreement between noun and pronoun

 Editing symbols:  agr  or  n-p agr

Rules
Pronouns (words such as it, her, them, this, someone, who, him, they, themselves, herself, etc.) replace specific nouns (persons, places, or things) so you don't have to keep repeating them. Like subjects and verbs, pronouns and nouns need to agree in "number": in whether they are singular or plural. They also need to agree in gender: masculine, feminine, or inclusive (both).

Errors in noun-pronoun agreement usually simply result from writing quickly and not editing closely enough. Three specific instances, though, can cause problems:
 * 1) The nouns each, and one are all singular and take singular pronouns; either or neither is singular unless it specifically refers to plural alternatives.
 * 2) When using singular nouns that refer to both sexes or for which the gender is not known, use both masculine and feminine pronouns together (him or her, he or she, himself or herself, his or her) or rewrite the sentence to make the noun and the pronoun both plural. (If all of the members of a group are of one gender, it is acceptable to use the male or female pronoun, as in "Each member of the football team will take his gear onto the bus.")
 * 3) Some nouns can be either singular or plural: audience, group, team, unit, class, and others. Use a singular pronoun if the group is acting as a unit, as in "The audience expressed its appreciation with loud applause." Use a plural pronoun if the group is acting as individual members, as in "The team went their separate ways, some showering, some leaving the stadium, some drinking champagne, and some going home to sleep." [In the second example, it's a good idea to write "team members" to be clear.]
 * 4) The words "They" and "Their" are third-person plural personal pronouns in Modern English. The "singular" they and their is used as a gender-neutral singular rather than as a plural pronoun, but the correctness of this usage is disputed.

Examples

 * Every one of the studies indicated their its methodology.
 * Neither Jackson nor Juarez believed they he had been represented unfairly.
 * Each researcher included a control group with their his his or her test group.
 * By 1999, the lacrosse team had outgrown their its space.
 * Neither a crocodile nor a lion are is a suitable pet.
 * Either Ed or Bill are is a plumber.

But --

 * Neither crocodiles nor lions is are suitable pets.
 * Either Ed and Bill or Ted and Jeff is are plumbers.


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Missing or misplaced apostrophe

 Editing symbols:  ^'  (insert apostrophe) or  poss (make possessive)

For such a little piece of punctuation, the apostrophe is really noticeable when it’s used incorrectly. And, there seems to be a lot of confusion about how it’s used: a casual look at ads, signs, and other everyday writing reveals a wildly exotic sprinkling of apostrophes in all kinds of places. That’s why mastering the apostrophe's uses can really bolster your credibility in writing: so many people get it wrong!

The main thing to know is that ''' apostrophes’ primary jobs are to form possessives and to stand in for missing letters in a contraction. ' Apostrophes are only  very '' rarely used to form plurals.

Use possessive forms when you want to indicate ownership, or “belonging to.” ''' Possessives are almost always formed by adding an apostrophe and an “s” to the end of a noun (a person, place, or thing).  In contrast,  plurals ' are usually formed by adding an “s” or “es” to the end of a noun  without'' an apostrophe.

EXAMPLES '''Possessives use apostrophes. '  The amendment’s language clarifies the terms left undefined in the original law. ''  “language” belongs to “amendment”; “terms” is plural   A review of the month’s headlines reveals nine front-page pieces about the local school board election.  “headlines” belongs to “month”; “headlines” and “pieces” are plural  '' Sara Jones’ study of language use and class is considered a classic in the field. ''  “study” belongs to “Jones”; the apostrophe moves to the end because the noun ends in “s”

'''Plurals do not take apostrophes.   Three key ideas''' emerged in the introduction. The organization was restructured after decades of poor performance. All animals have an innate evolutionary drive to pass along genes to offspring.

'''But plurals that are also possessive do use apostrophes. Notice how the position of the apostrophe moves depending on whether the plural ends with “s” or not.   The book traces the Kennedys’''' influence on national politics. The library science degree offers a special emphasis in children’s literature. The board changes the policy after the stakeholders’ objections.

'''Apostrophes are also used to stand in for missing letters in a contraction. '''

EXAMPLES  The conclusion doesn’t [does not] follow from the evidence. Remove the test tubes from the sterilizer when the cycle’s [cycle is] finished. This committee will file a final report when we’re [we are] done with the applications.

'''Do not use an apostrophe to form the plurals of numbers or acronyms. '''

EXAMPLES 1980s eights three CEOs these JPEGs


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Unnecessary tense shift

 Editing symbols:  vt  (verb tense) or  shift

What is a tense shift?
Verbs are action words. “Tense” refers to the time when an action takes place: past, present, or future. Necessary tense shifts simply make it clear to your reader when actions have taken, are taking, or will take place. When you “shift tense unnecessarily,” however, it means you change the times when actions are taking place within a chunk of text in a way that doesn’t seem to make sense. Notice how the tense changes cause confusion in the following examples.

Examples of confusing tense shifts

 * In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning is that having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In November 2004, however, changes in the Council’s membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.
 * While St. Cloud struggles with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

The best way to find unnecessary tense shifts is to read a piece of writing through one time just looking for tense and asking yourself whether each verb tense accurately reflects the time period it took place, takes place, or will take place in. Start by using a highlighter to mark each verb, and then ask yourself if the “time” is correct for each one.

The correction:

 * In February 2003, the Sefton City Council passed an ordinance that limited the number of dogs city residents could keep on their property to three. Several residents objected and formally petitioned the council to repeal the ordinance, but the council upheld it. Their reasoning was that having more than three dogs creates potentially dangerous situations. In November 2004, however, changes in the Council’s membership resulted in the ordinance being repealed.

(No reason exists to believe that those who then thought that three or more dogs in a household created a dangerous situation have changed their minds or that dogs' behavior in a group of three or more has changed. The composition of the council had changed, and the composition of the city council having changed, the city council voted differently).

 * While St. Cloud struggled with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertook several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

if referring to a situation in the past -- or --

 * While St. Cloud struggles with keeping rental housing from dominating the housing market, other communities in central Minnesota undertake several initiatives to build more apartments and condominiums.

if referring to a current situation.


text:
Classical Nahuatl/Numbers

Note: It is counted in steps of 20, ordinal numbers have "ic" (=so that) in front of the numeral (in some dialects also "ipan")

back to nahuatl

title: Classical Nahuatl/Numbers


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Disruptive comma

 Editing symbols:  dc  or  no,

Disruptive commas are simply those that aren't needed -- those that "disrupt" the flow of the sentence. Here are some guidelines about places where you don't need to use commas.

 * Don't put a comma between a noun and the action it's doing, even when several words come between them.
 * Most organic compounds,  contain oxygen, nitrogen, and halogens.
 * In the Islamic bayaa ceremony, prominent citizens,  pledge allegiance to a newly elected leader.
 * A visit to The City Museum's exhibit on the origins of photography , provided an inspiring start to the class.

 * Don't put a comma before these words unless there is an independent clause on each side: and, or, but, for, so, nor, yet.
 * The town was first settled in 1865 ,  and incorporated in 1868.
 * The study sample was the correct size ,  but insufficiently diversified.
 * The Australian conductor Richard Bonynge was born in Sydney ,  and returned there after studying in London.

 * Don't put a comma before a list.
 * The neighborhood contains several examples of classic mid-century architecture, including ,  the Dean Martin, Frank Sinatra, and Kennedy homes.
 * The recommended treatment focuses on changes in diet, such as ,  increased fiber, less fat, and fewer processed foods.
 * The group of benefits considered standard is made up of ,  health insurance, disability insurance, and a retirement account.


text:
Handbook of Genetic Counseling/Friedreich Ataxia

Friedreich Ataxia

Contracting

 * Acknowledge prior contact
 * What do they know about Friedreich Ataxia?
 * Do they have any questions?

Etiology

 * Slowly progressive ataxia with onset usually during adolescence
 * Autosomal recessive inheritance
 * Majority of cases caused by mutations in X25/FRDA gene
 * Found on chromosome 9q13
 * <1% of patients who meet the clinical diagnostic criteria do not have an identifiable mutation in this gene
 * 96% of patients with FRDA1 are homozygous for a GAA expansion in the X25 gene
 * Normal alleles have 7-38 repeats
 * Premutation alleles have 34-60 repeats
 * Disease-causing alleles 66-1700 triplets
 * GAA repeat length is unstable during germ line transmission:
 * Maternal transmission gives both contractions and expansions
 * Paternal transmission usually contracts repeat size but premutation alleles may expand in size
 * Larger expansion size correlates with earlier onset of disease
 * X25 gene codes for a protein called frataxin
 * Found in inner mitochondrial membrane
 * Putative iron transporter to regulate mitochondrial iron content

Incidence and Carrier Frequency

 * Population frequency of 2-4 per 100,000
 * Carrier frequency is 1/60-1/100

Clinical Features

 * Obligatory diagnostic criteria:
 * Progressive ataxia of gait and limbs
 * Absent reflexes in legs
 * Dysarthria
 * Decrease in position sense and/or vibration in lower limbs
 * Muscle weakness
 * Motor nerve conduction velocity of >40 m/s with reduced or absent sensory nerve action potential
 * Additional findings:
 * Scoliosis
 * Pes cavus
 * Cardiomyopathy (66%)
 * Usually in later stages of disease but may precede ataxia
 * 2/3 of patients have abnormal EKG
 * Optic nerve atrophy (25%)
 * Sensorineural hearing loss (10%)
 * Diabetes mellitus (10%) or glucose intolerance (20%)

Natural history

 * Ataxia usually develops in childhood or early teens
 * Rate of progression is variable
 * Mean age of loss of ambulation is 25 years
 * Death usually occurs in 30's
 * Cardiomyopathy
 * Diabetes
 * Pneumonia due to dysphagia
 * 25% of patients have atypical findings
 * Late-onset FRDA (LOFA)
 * Approximately 15% of patients with FRDA
 * Age of onset greater than 25 years of age
 * Usually have repeat size smaller than 500
 * FRDA with retained reflexes (FARR)
 * 12% of patients with FRDA
 * Show brisk tendon reflexes for up to 10 years after disease onset
 * FRDA with slowly progressive disease
 * Disease progression slower in Acadian patients
 * Age on onset and neurological manifestations similar

Testing

 * Molecular genetic testing can be used to identify mutations in X25/FRDA
 * Shortest repeat length causing disease has not yet been determined for sure
 * <1% of patients who satisfy clinical diagnostic criteria have no identifiable mutation
 * Carrier testing
 * Can be offered if two disease-causing mutations are identified in proband
 * Alleles in premutation range may be transmitted unchanged or may expand
 * Prenatal testing
 * Clinically available for couples at 25% risk for having child with FRDA1 if both disease causing mutations are known
 * DNA from amniocentesis at 16-18 weeks or CVS at 10-12 weeks can be analyzed

Management

 * No therapy is known to stop, delay, or reverse disease progression
 * Future therapies may include:
 * Drug therapy
 * Gene therapy
 * Other pathophysiology-based treatments
 * Support
 * Psychological support
 * Prostheses, walking aids, and wheelchairs may help patients maintain an active lifestyle
 * Physical therapy
 * Speech therapy
 * Orthopedic intervention for scoliosis and foot deformities
 * Treatment of cardiac disease and diabetes

Differential Diagnosis

 * Demyelinating form of hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy type I (HMSNI or CMT1)
 * Childhood symptoms may be similar
 * Nerve conduction studies or DNA testing can determine definitively
 * Vitamin E deficiency
 * Should be considered in cases that don't show a GAA expansion
 * Fulfill diagnostic criteria for FRDA but often have titubation and hyperkinesia
 * Treated with Vitamin E supplements
 * Other early onset ataxias present with different clinical findings

Psychosocial Issues

 * Feelings of guilt, anxiety
 * Pregnancy issues: preimplantation genetic diagnosis, prenatal testing, possible pregnancy termination
 * Discussion with other family members about risk, inheritance
 * Disruption of work, school, social life for those affected

Resources

 * National Ataxia Foundation
 * Phone: 763-553-0020
 * Email: naf@ataxia.org

 * Muscular Dystrophy Association
 * Phone: 520-529-5300 or 8-572-1717
 * Email: mda@mdausa.org
 * Web: www.mdausa.org

 * International Network of Ataxia Friends (INTERNAF)
 * Web: internaf.org

Resources
Geneclinics. "Friedreich Ataxia" Web: www.geneclinics.org Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man. "Friedreich Ataxia" Web: www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov