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Managing Groups and Teams/Communication

Introduction
Communication is something we humans do extraordinarily well. Some cynics say that the primary purpose of language is to allow us to tell lies! Hopefully, this is a misconception - for good communication requires that the 'mental model' being transmitted by the originator and the experience of the person interpreting the received information be sufficiently similar. For example, a brain surgeon explaining a procedure to a patient would use more simple, precise, unequivocal 'mental models' than if she was presenting a paper to a seminar of specialist colleagues who each enjoyed comprehensive and independent checking, cross-checking capabilities. It is important, when communicating, to apply an adequately 'balanced' checking 'protocol.' Failure to do so is at our peril!

Miscommunication
On January 3 2006 at approximately 11:50 pm, major news networks reported that 12 of 13 miners trapped in the Sago Mine were alive. Families of the victims celebrated for three hours before mine company officials informed them that the report was wrong and 12 of the 13 miners were dead. The families would later report that a mine foreman, who had overheard the rescue team, had contacted the families with some initial but unverified information and the media picked the story up from the families. Reporters then 'verified' that information with other families and other news sources without realizing those 'cross-check' sources originated from the very same, single unverified source. They failed to 'dig down to the roots' of their story and relied instead on visible superficiality.

Beyond compounding the mental anguish of the families, many professional news media outlets appeared unprofessional and the mine company experienced a far worse public relations problem than if they had communicated clearly and quickly using more formal protocols. Unfortunately formal protocols involve verification, and this slower process can seem rather like censorship or deliberate information management to news gatherers. While most business communication issues don’t result in such dramatic public displays, 'quick and dirty' communications often prevent teams from functioning properly and cost companies uncountable billions of dollars. But so too does the over-cautious, 'need to know' secrecy beloved of military style organizations, who thereby miss many opportunities. The trick is to strike a balance, and that balance will change, depending on the sensitivity, importance and urgency of the message.

Unbalanced messages are likely to cause “communication breakdown” which can engender conflict. Over cautious protocol can prevent important information from reaching decision makers accurately and in time, while listening to messages with no verification protocol - rumors - can easily reduce the morale of team members. By understanding the causes of communication breakdown and effective techniques for group communication, team members can create a more productive working environment for themselves, and increase their effectiveness when dealing with outsiders such as customers or the wider public (or vice versa - as occurred at the Sago Mine 'information leak'). Effective communication techniques maximize team productivity and creativity while minimizing the chance of miscommunication. Just to make things even more complicated, deliberately 'unbalancing' messages to provoke miscommunication can be quite creative! Unbalanced - unverified messages are the essence of formal 'brain-storming' events, and also occurs routinely in gentle banter and ironic satire among colleagues. However, it can not be over-emphasized that these 'wrong protocol' techniques should only be used exceptionally as they require very careful management in a business environment!

Communication Breakdown
Communication breakdown can be the source or the result of conflict, but it is also important to recognize that a lack of conflict can also be a sign of communication breakdown. Inadequate training, apathy, misunderstandings, channel noise, differing backgrounds, or lack of respect can all be causes of communication breakdown. The results of communication issues include withholding information, loss of trust, reduced cooperation, reduced productivity, reduced creativity, reduced risk taking, personal attacks, sabotage, complaints, clique formation and team breakup or individual resignation. The North American Blackout of 2003 is an interesting example. One power plant failed to accurately communicate the status of their section of the power grid, causing more than one hundred power plants to go off line, forty million people to lose power, and an estimated six billion dollars in losses to businesses.It is caused by problems which occur daily which allows people to stop their communication.

A survey of 560 MBA students with work experience from across the USA helps to illustrate some of the problems that communication breakdown can cause. The table labeled "Hard Costs" shows the number of respondents that can recollect certain hard costs that were incurred due to communication breakdown. The table labeled "Soft Costs" shows the soft costs incurred (Gilsdorf 191-192). The soft costs may result in losses as high as or higher than hard costs, but they are difficult to quantify. As you can see, the effects of communication breakdown are far from trivial. The Society for Advancement of Consulting (SAC) has recently released an article stating that poor communication is more of a threat to the failure of a business than competition or the economy ("Communication Errors Undermining Business.").

There are many books written with psychological and linguistic perspectives on communication breakdown. “That’s Not What I Meant!” by Deborah Tannen explains how ambiguities in our speech can cause people to misinterpret what we intend to say. She also talks about how the majority of what we say isn’t in the actual words, but in the way they are said. This involves pacing, volume, expression of emotion (pitch, tone). There is a higher incidence of misinterpretation when communicating between cultures, due to differences in the norms of “meta messages” between cultures. Communication breakdown can also be manifested as politeness taken too far. Tannen talks about the “Two-edged Sword of Politeness” where, in the interest of maintaining relations with others, important things are not said. The motive here is to get along, but people often end up getting along worse when this is done. When communicating, we don’t always say what we mean due to what we think others might think of us. This is known as indirectness and is a type of self-defense mechanism. Communicating with others is far more complicated than simply turning an idea into words, saying it, and having it turned back into the same idea. All these complications are places where communication breakdown can occur, frustrating those involved.

Richard J. Mayer has a slightly different perspective on breakdown. He came up with the hypothesis that “Virtually all communication problems and conflicts between people, no matter how serious they appear, are due to an accumulation of un-confronted and unresolved minor issues, each of little or no apparent importance.” (Mayer 3). He studied hundreds of instances where communication breakdown had occurred to come up with this idea. Many of these minor issues are caused by the communication concepts mentioned earlier by Tannen. The new part of this perspective is that major problems are caused by an accumulation of minor issues. He suggests confronting these little issues every time they are encountered. He also proposes the idea that we are more skilled at being competitive than we are at being collaborative, which makes it difficult to work in effective teams.

A certain amount of communication conflict within a team is good. Both too little, as well as too much conflict is a type of communication breakdown. Too little communication conflict most likely means either that nobody cares very much or they are all brainwashed to think alike ('group-think'). Both of these factors mean the team is not being effective (Lemmex 2004). In an article about communication breakdown, Larry Lauer says that communication breakdown is inevitable due to the complex nature of human experience and thus interpretation, so the communications need to be reiterated back and forth until both the transmitter and all those receiving messages have a common and verifiable understanding. He suggests some ways to spot communication breakdown, and suggests we should look for 'activity plateaus' after a goal is met.

These plateaus often cause members to be more focused on their personal matters, and communication begins to slow down. Another sign is productivity falling off. A plateau might be due simply to members of a group who feel that their input isn’t much valued, and start to withdraw from the group activity. Executive isolation is another sign of communication breakdown. This is the process of a manager suffering from 'head in the office syndrome'. Effective communication is difficult. During times of stress, it is tempting to avoid conflict by spending less and less time with others, and not engaging in verifiable communication with them about the critical issues. Finally, either too few or too many comments, queries or complaints is likely be a sign of communication breakdown (Lauer 1994). It is all a matter of balance between 'foot in mouth' and 'paralysis by analysis'!

Communication breakdown is all around us, and is responsible for more problems than anyone takes the time to realize. Through the use of examples, survey results, and various perspectives on the inner workings and diagnosis of communication breakdown, we try to develop a better idea as to why we should want to avoid communication breakdown. The following sections will help you communicate effectively with others so that, together, you can plan and implement effective communication techniques and checking protocols within your group or team.

Effective communication within a team doesn’t happen by accident; instead, it requires planning and organization, and an effective team leader or facilitator. Planning for good communication in a meeting setting takes even more preparation. This section will discuss how leaders and facilitators can plan ahead for good communication.

Planning for Communication
In modern organizations, teams may be entirely virtual and never interact in person. This presents a unique set of communication challenges which are outside the scope of this paper, although certain techniques presented will work well for virtual teams.

Larson and LaFasto (1989, 55-57) consider an effective communication system to be one of the four necessary features of team structure. The communication system must focus on accessible information, utilize information from credible sources, provide opportunities for informal communication and have a way to document decisions in planning for communication. Leaders must take care to structure the team and interactions in such a way that these four elements are a part of the system. For existing teams, the team will probably already have procedures in place, whether or not conscious effort went into developing them. As groups work together, certain norms of behavior develop. Team leaders should be aware of this process and work to develop an effective set of norms from the beginning. Opportunity for informal communication needs to be deliberately coordinated, not left to chance. To enhance the likelihood of informal communication, a team leader will want to allow time at the beginning of the process for group members to get to know one another and interact informally. An offsite retreat or team activity will build personal relationships among members and facilitate communication down the road. The facilitator should continue to build in regular opportunities for informal discussion in ways that work with the team culture.

Another important technique in preparing for communication is to train group members in advance on communication techniques. A leader should train team members about group techniques for meeting facilitation and conflict resolution as well as individual skills such as listening, communicating criticism and mediation. This process facilitation can have positive effects on team accomplishment. (Wheelan 2005) Finally, good communication requires feedback among group members. The facilitator must build in ways for team members to provide one another evaluative information about their behavior. (Wheelan 2005)

Once general systems are in place for good communication, the team leader can focus on specific situations such as a team meeting. For teams working face to face, meetings are one of the most common ways groups communicate, so planning for effective communication at meetings is critical. Part of planning a meeting means having the logistics in place for success. The timing and location must be right and the technologies must be in place for effective communication. Logistics such as the time of day members are likely to be available to meet and at their best, a location that will minimize interruptions and technologies such as PowerPoint that provide visual aids are all important foundations for a successful meeting. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995) Even more importantly, the leader must be clear on the purpose of the meeting and make sure the right participants are involved. Then, he or she must plan the structure. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995)

To be most effective, a facilitator must explicitly determine the most appropriate meeting structure and procedures. Some of the basic procedural options include: “1) an agenda-guided discussion, 2) a problem- or item-list procedure, and 3) simplified parliamentary procedure.” (Stech/Ratliffe, 243) Extensive detail on each of these options can be found in the book, “Effective Group Communication” referenced at the end of the paper.  For most meetings, a detailed agenda, distributed in advance, is an effective way to help participants prepare for the meeting.  The agenda gives group members time to consider issues to be discussed so the group does not, “waste time discussing ill-conceived suggestions.” (Whetton and Cameron, 460) The group also needs to have a clear decision making format in place.  Communication structure options include: ordinary group discussion (the most common default), brainstorming and nominal group technique.  The appropriate choice depends on the group task. (Whetton and Cameron, 1995)  Effective implementation of these various communication strategies will be discussed in the next section. Beyond determining the structural format, a leader also needs to prepare by making sure the participants fully understand the purpose of the meeting and their role in the process. In many cases, particularly when there is a controversial item on the agenda, pre-meetings with specific participants are important. “…it is advisable to discuss the matter before the meeting with key opinion leaders. This polling of sentiment is useful for gauging how much time should be set aside for discussing an issue and how it should be presented to the group. In addition, if the chairperson can obtain the support of key group members before the meeting, it is less likely that a controversial issue will dominate the group discussion…” (Whetton and Cameron, 461)

Facilitators and leaders must plan for good communication. In general, investment in structure (including informal communication) and member training can set the stage to allow team members to communicate well. For a team meeting, more planning should be done including deciding on the meeting purpose, participants, structure, logistics and decision making process. Agendas and pre-meetings with individuals can help members prepare and ensure the group meeting moves smoothly.

Communication Tools
While planning for effective communication is key in order to achieve specific objectives, it is equally important to utilize tried and tested 'tools' that can facilitate 'live' real time communication between a transmitter and an audience.

First, some communication is what Eric Birne called 'parent to child'- the issuing of clear and unequivocal orders to make sure that tasks are completed quickly in what the authority figure thinks is the best way possible. Other times, we act more like adults, and hold discussions that require awareness, active listening, using names and making “I” statements. Appropriate body language, mirroring and eye contact can all help individuals to understand each other better. The first step in facilitating clear team communication is to be aware of who is in the group. Bringing the group together in a social setting allows team members to learn each other’s personalities, work situation, and personal background. This understanding prevents issues and differences from arising that could inhibit communication between team members. The next technique that can improve communication is the use of active listening skills. Active listening occurs when people really hear what the other person is saying and both paraphrase what was said and identify any nonverbal cues that a person may also be trying to express through body language.

Sometimes this means more than just identifying the concrete comments or suggestions that a person is making, but also addressing any underlying emotional issues that are also affecting what a person is trying to say (Thompson and Gooler, 1996). A simple way to help a person understand that you are actively listening is to use their name a few times during the course of a conversation. This helps a person to realize that you are focusing your attention on what they are saying, and really hearing their full meaning (Connolly and Syer, 1996). When you are the person who feels misunderstood or not heard, make sure to express your feelings through the use of “I” statements. Using “I” statements allows people to express themselves without putting others on the defensive. For example, instead of saying, “You are completely ignoring me,” phrasing that feeling as “I feel like I am not being heard by the group” allows others to realize how you are feeling without starting a conflict (Connolly and Syer, 1996). If a group is having trouble creating and communicating divergent ideas, one way to facilitate this process is through the Nominal Group Technique. This technique preempts conflict by allowing individuals to generate ideas individually and have everyone share their thoughts with the group. “The advantage of the nominal group technique is that it maximizes information gain, ensures a democratic representation of all members’ ideas…and avoids production blocking” (Thompson, 162). Ultimately, some conflict will arise. But through the use of the nominal group technique and the use of “I” statements, conflict may be productive in the generation of new ideas and not lead to permanent rifts between team members.

Though these tools for facilitating verbal communication are essential, the importance of understanding nonverbal cues cannot be underestimated. “The use of space, eye contact, body orientation, head movements and other behaviors are often used to transmit messages without the use of words” (Thompson and Gooler, 407). Regardless of what team members actually say, it is important to be aware of the nonverbal messages communicated through body language. Though a person may verbally agree, it may be clear that they are uncomfortable or dissatisfied with an idea or solution, and that needs to be addressed for good communication to be permanently achieved. In addition to being cognizant of others’ nonverbal cues, it is also important for team members to be aware of how their own nonverbal behavior is perceived. Team members should be very aware of eye contact. Maintaining eye contact with individuals who are communicating their ideas indicates interest (Connolly and Syer, 1996). Staring out the window or around the room is often perceived as boredom or disrespect. Another simple nonverbal technique to facilitate good communication is the act of mirroring. Mirroring involves mimicking others gestures and ideas. This is especially helpful for making outsiders feel comfortable sharing ideas. While mirroring may seem over the top, in fact, it “is a highly effective way of stating the obvious and raising awareness to allow change.” (Connolly and Syer, 210). While these tools can help to address the nonverbal aspects of communication, in the end team members must be aware of how they are expressing themselves both through what they say and what they don’t say.

While these general techniques are effective for most teams, individual team differences often arise with special needs. Though there are too many to enumerate in this paper, we would like to address two of the most common and difficult groupings that people encounter – diverse groups and groups with personality clashes. “There is a delicate balance in teams between appreciating individual differences and requiring unity” (Larson and LaFasto, 79). Finding the balance between creating cohesiveness and respecting differences is difficult, but can ultimately strengthen teams if it is leveraged properly through good communication. In today’s diverse, international work environment, people of differing work and cultural backgrounds are often working together on teams. Finding a way to communicate despite differences is not only necessary, but also needed in order to find the best solutions. “The belief is that diverse teams have a broader range of knowledge, skills, abilities, and experiences that can enhance the group’s ability to critically analyze problems and generate more creative solutions and ideas” (Thompson and Gooler, 397).

Common problems that occur in diverse groups include stereotyping, language barriers, and misunderstandings. For example, in the United States a thumbs up means okay, in Japan the same gesture means money, and in Iran it is an obscene gesture. (Henderson, 1994). Also, people from different cultures do not have the same shared history and stories that they can relate to when explaining issues. “When group members do not share common social signals, the development of group cohesiveness may be hindered and the team may have greater difficulty establishing a positive social climate” (Thompson and Gooler, 409). For this reason, it is particularly important that diverse teams have shared social team activities outside of the workplace so that they can not only get to know each other, but also have these shared stories to refer to when trying to communicate particular points. During team meetings, team members must take the time to pause and make sure that everyone is grasping the issues and solutions being discussed (Henderson, 1994). If the team rushes ahead without everyone on board, conflict will probably ensue at a later time. A degree of formality is also helpful in diverse team meetings. Using proper titles (and always pronouncing names correctly, of course) and avoiding slang may help people understand each other and not be inadvertently offended. In diverse teams, keeping an open mind and really hearing what other team members are trying to say must be made a priority in every meeting (Henderson, 1994). In general, in diverse groups it is better to use the Nominal Group Technique than devil’s advocate, which can cause the group to turn on one member, or simply create unproductive conflict that does not lead to the best solution. However, despite the extra effort that must be put into communication in diverse groups, the benefits often make the work worth it when highly effective, innovative solutions to problems are generated.

Another factor that plays a role in team communication is the differing personalities between team members. In fact, Weblin goes so far as to say that “personality may be described as the sum pattern of a person’s way of communicating – the total impression he makes on others” (quoted in Huseman, 1977: p. 417). Because of their varying personalities, members of teams receive, process, and act on information and situations differently. Differences can be helpful by bringing fresh perspectives and skill sets to the team, but can also create conflict if communication styles differ or are misunderstood. If team members understand their own personality tendencies as well as those of their teammates, the communication between members and therefore effectiveness of the team will improve drastically. It will also allow the team to emphasize and appreciate each member’s strengths. As Ruderman hypothesizes, “the level of team personality diversity will be positively and significantly related to team productivity, especially on problem solving teams” (1996, p. 79).

Personality Types
One of the most prevalently used personality assessment tools is the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This technique can prove to be a powerful tool in learning about your own personality as well as those of your teammates. Unfortunately, it is not especially 'scientific' and some less secure personalities may place too much faith in their 'type' so that it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. The assessment relies on a long and recursive series of questions, none of which have an 'obviously correct' answer, but all are rather ambiguous in nature.

This MBTI tool is just one of many which seeks to analyze and measure a person’s predisposed preferences about the world and other people. MBTI identifies people as points along four axes. These four dimensions thus produce 16 broad possible personality types and a range of 'shades' within each category. The first dimension refers to how a person prefers to be energized. An extrovert (E) mainly gains energy from interaction with others while an introvert generally (I) prefers being alone. The second dimension deals with how a person prefers to take in information from the external world. A sensing (S) person likes distinct facts and details while an intuitive (N) person prefers to see the big picture. The third dimension relates to how people usually make decisions. A thinking (T) person generally utilizes 'cold' logical thinking for their decisions while a feeling (F) person tends to make judgments based on personal and subjective values. The final dimension deals with an individual’s preference for their relationship with the external world. A perceptive (P) person with the perceives situations in an emotional, flexible and spontaneous way. A more judgmental (J) person prefers to live in planned and organized situations that is susceptible to analysis and synthesis (Bradley 1997: p. 341; Dent 2004: p. 67)

Understanding differing personality types in general can help the group communication and functional process. “The ideal team should be highly diversified in the talents and knowledge each member contributes, while maintaining open, non-threatening communication” (Bradley 1997: p. 338). Extroverts tend to open the lines of between group members, while introverts provide internal reflection of group discussions. Both are important functions of group communication. The sensing-intuition dimension can produce the greatest divisions in teams but both are absolutely necessary” (Lyman 1995: p. 58). Sensing types take in and bring up pertinent, concrete, and precise facts, and recognize the practical realities of the situation. On the other hand, intuitive types take in data as a whole, focusing on associations and relationships and seeing new possibilities and ideas. Thinking types present a logical analysis of the decision-making situation and therefore communicate in this way, while feeling individuals offer insights into how feelings of other group members might affect the situation.

Feelers may view thinkers as insensitive while thinkers might view feelers as touchy feely if each does not appreciate the others perspective. The planned and orderly approach of the judging type will typically help keep the team on schedule, while perceivers help

Conclusion
Utilizing a variety of these tools and techniques to facilitate effective communication is crucial in order to maximize team effectiveness. When communication structures and protocols are not in place, the communication breakdown is more probable than not. Fairly simple misunderstandings, if not detected, can impair, sometimes even devastate the productivity of a team. On the other hand, some misunderstandings can actually lead to creative leaps of the imagination, especially if the checks and balances we call 'protocol' are working properly. Careful planning for meetings with simple tools like the minutes of previous transactions and and not too flexible agendas can help in advance. During the encounter, attention to verbal and non-verbal communication, and understanding different participants’ backgrounds and communication styles can all help teams capture the productivity improvements associated with effective team operation. Ultimately, the increased productivity that results from developing a range of 'communications protocols' for different situations, circumstances and audiences is likely to be well worth the effort. The essence is in finding the right balance between spontaneity and carefully edited messages likely to be appropriate in each foreseeable situation.

title: Managing Groups and Teams/Communication


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Managing Groups and Teams/Question Page

This book is organized around questions related to topics on the management of groups and teams. In this page, we want to list questions that would be relevant to the topic, to eventually formulate answers for them and incorporate them into the main body of the book.

Feel free to add questions to this list, and to reorganize them or group them together if you see common threads. As the questions are refined, they will be easier to answer.

Commitment

 * How can different levels of commitment be avoided during the selection process?
 * Is it necessary for all team members to be equally committed to a project?
 * If large disparities exist, how can these be addressed?
 * How should the team deal with members who are not committed?
 * How should the team deal with members who have taken on more than their share?

Selection

 * How can teams change membership composition without disrupting the remaining members?
 * Are some personalities simply unsuited for teamwork?

Effective Use of Time and Resources

 * What should the team and its members do when the tasks seem to be a waste of time?
 * What should the team do when its mission and goals are ambiguous?
 * How can the team choose an effective course of action when there are varying opinions on what to do?
 * What can team members do when meetings are ineffective or confrontational?
 * When should team members be flexible and when should they stick to their guns?
 * How can team members choose effective task orders, assignments, etc.?
 * What are some hallmarks of ineffective plans and how can these be avoided?
 * What makes for effective time management?
 * How can delegation be used effectively?

Team Culture

 * How is team culture established?
 * How can remote and isolated team members become acculturated?
 * Is/should culture be established at the outset? Can culture be changed later on?

Social Graces

 * What are the key social graces all team members should have?
 * What social criteria are important when selecting members?
 * What can teams do when members lack proper social graces?

Knowledge Differences Among Team Members

 * How can teams deal with members who have different technical aptitudes?
 * What are the conflicting dynamics between older members who have experience, but may lack the technical knowledge of younger members?
 * Do varying levels of technical knowledge result in power inequalities?
 * How can members communicate effectively in light of knowledge asymmetries?
 * What can be done to avoid communication breakdowns?

Leadership

 * What should team members do if the leaders motivations are political and do not have the teams best interest at heart?
 * Should team members ask a leader to step down if they have lost confidence in him or her?
 * What should a leader do if team members are losing confidence in him or her?
 * How can leaders encourage healthy communication?
 * What should people do when their role changes from team member to team leader?
 * How can leaders remain objective? Should leaders always be objective?
 * Do different organizations require different leadership styles—eg. government, military, academia etc.?
 * In a leaderless team, how can one effectively assume the role of the leader?

Diversity in Teams

 * What cultural differences should team members be aware of?
 * How can team members ensure that cultural or political differences to not inhibit performance?

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Managing Groups and Teams/Question Page


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Talk:Managing Groups and Teams/Communication

I added our team's (team 2) question as the first challenge under chapter 2. I'm not sure if I did it correctly, so please provide input.

Thanks,

Dan

 * Dan - It looks fine to me. Your team is probably going to want to narrow the topics covered for this chapter, as your questions cover a lot of ground.  As you start to formulate the problem more clearly, you can change the first part of the chapter to reflect this, as opposed to just listing the questions. Beth

Hi all - I moved the material from the front page into the chapter to de-clutter the front page. All the information is still there. I would also recommend checking out the Big Five as another part of your conversation on personality, since it is a much more robust test than either of the other two frameworks (from a scientific point of view). A good place to start might be http://www.centacs.com/quickstart.htm#Background. You can also take the Big Five test at: http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/, http://www.od-online.com/app/profiler-intro.asp (Free, but for $14.95 they send some nifty stuff), and http://www.sunderland.ac.uk/tbc-scripts/big5/b52scrpt1.pl (Free, with interesting spelling since it is in the UK.) Gerardo.ok 21:13, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree with Gerardo - the Big Five is the most generally accepted scientific personality test. Prof B 23:36, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Another thought... Notice that there is a whole chapter devoted to personality in groups. You might want to make sure your chapter is going to be different enough if you just focus on personality. Gerardo.ok 22:04, 30 May 2006 (UTC)

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Civ/Civilization III/Forms of Government

There are six kinds of governments in Civ 3--anarchies, despotisms, monarchies, communisms, republics, and democracies.

Anarchy
An anarchy is basically a mass state of chaos in a nation. In Civilization, nothing can be created by your cities, and the economy infrastructure collapses, leaving you either in debt or losing gold. Many cities also fall into civil disorder. However, a state of anarchy is necessary for a change in government, and is only temporary. Anarchies usually only last 2 to 4 turns.

Despotism
A despotism is where a ruler has complete and utter control over all of his subjects and people, and may also be commonly known as a dictatorship or totalitarianism. A nation begins with this government at the start of the game. Gold is easily produced, but not in large quantities. It costs the lives of citizens to rush construction projects, which is an annoying aspect of a despotist government.

Monarchy
A monarchy is (obviously) a nation that is ruled by either a king, queen, or both a king and queen. Many of the troublesome aspects of a despotism no longer exist in a monarchy, and the economy is slightly boosted. The monarchy is a great mid-age government to play with.

Communism
A communism, also known as a socialism, is an ideal where everything and everybody is equal; nobody is more successful than each other. In a communism, all cities are equal; they are producing shields and commerce at the same amount, regardless of what resources appear around them. Communist governments do not receive the economic boost that democracies do. However, communisms would be the ideal modern government for those who love going to war.

Republic
The prelude to a democracy in Civilization III, a republic is a government where the people of the country chooses what the country does and where the country is headed economically, politically, and with war. The economic infrastructure is boosted in a republic, and more than a monarchy, as each person has all of their personal freedoms. However, should a country go to war, civil disorder might strike the nation's cities due to the war-weary protestors of your nation.

Democracy
In Civilization III a democratic government is literally just a republic with one difference: the people elect other people to decide what way the country will be headed. In a democracy, the economic infrastructure is amplified once again, and many Civ III players who become a democracy should be earning hundreds of gold per turn if they handle their nation correctly. A democratic nation should be the ideal choice for those who wish to build.


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Cell-Intrinsic Regulation of Axonal Morphogenesis by the Cdh1-APC Target SnoN

Serum response factor controls neuronal circuit assembly in the hippocampus

--JWSurf 00:18, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:PJC~enwikibooks


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Indonesian

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Indonesian (known locally as Bahasa Indonesia, literally the "Indonesian Language") uses the Roman alphabet, like English and German.

It is written mostly phonetically, with the exception of the letter 'e', which can be pronounced either hard or soft depending on the word. The hard 'e' is pronounced like 'eh'. Some dictionaries represent this by writing 'é'. The soft 'e' is like the English schwa sound, an unstressed sound, like the 'a' at the beginning of 'agree' or the 'o' at the beginning of 'other'.

The Indonesian language has a simple way to form words. There are base words (kata dasar) that can be used with prefixes (awalan) and suffixes (akhiran). To build your vocabulary, you only need to memorize the base word, and you can often make sense of the variations using the prefixes and suffixes.

This language has old spelling and new spelling. The table below shows the difference between old spelling and new spelling. Around 1947, the government changed ‹oe› to ‹u›. Then the government changed the other spellings again in 1972. Some of the old spellings do survive in proper names; for example, the name of the second president of Indonesia is still sometimes written Soeharto.

How many people speak this language?
Slightly less than 255 million people speak Bahasa Indonesia as a main language. However many Indonesians, especially those of the older generations, are not fluent in Indonesian.

The Indonesian language is based on the Malay language with many words added from English, Dutch, Arabians, Javanese, and many local languages of Indonesia such as Sundanese, Betawi, Minangkabau, etc.

Since becoming the official national language of Indonesia, the language has developed quickly with the addition of many English-based words.

Where is this language spoken?
Bahasa Indonesia is chiefly spoken in the Republic of Indonesia and East Timor, as well as minority populations around the world such as the Netherlands, Suriname, the Philippines, Australia, Saudi Arabia, New Caledonia, and the United States.

What is the history of this language?
Indonesian has been the official language of the country of Indonesia since its declaration of independence in 1945. However, it had been used for centuries by merchants and traders in Southeast Asia. During these times, the many islands of Indonesia all had different languages.

On 28 October 1928, a meeting of young Indonesian nationalists resulted in a declaration called Sumpah Pemuda (literally "Youth Pledge"). That declaration contains the pledge that "the sons and daughters of Indonesia, respect the language of unity, Indonesian." The standard Indonesian language was invented to be close to as many languages as possible, without making some people feel left out by choosing a language that wasn't theirs.

Even today, most people living in Indonesia do not speak Indonesian as their first language. Most often they have their own "indigenous language", so to speak, as the language they were born and grow up with. Rather, Indonesian are learned in schools or from TV shows, as a uniting language in which the various regions and cultures of Indonesia can speak together with.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Chairil Anwar (July 26, 1922 - April 28, 1949) was an Indonesian poet and member of the "1945 generation" of writers. Chairil was educated at Dutch schools, but dropped out at the age of 19. He moved to Jakarta and began to read western literature. Death became a theme of many of his poems. His collected poems were published as Deru Campur Debu [Roar Mixed with Dust] in 1949. He died on April 28, 1949. This day is celebrated as literature day in Indonesia.

Merari Siregar (July 13, 1896 - April 23, 1941) was an Indonesian writer. She completed her studies at a Kweekschool and in 1923 received a diploma as Handelscorrespondent Bond 'Federal Trade Correspondent' in Jakarta. She is especially known for Azab dan Sengsara ('Pain and Suffering') from 1920 about the problems of a forced marriage.

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?
Basic words:

Yes. Ya. (EEYU)

No.

Tidak. (TEE-duk)

Sorry.

Maaf. (MA-AF)

Thankyou

Terimakasih (ta-ree-maa-kaa-seeh)

Greetings & phrases:

Good morning.

Selamat pagi. (slum-mut PU-GEE)

Good night

Selamat malam. (slum-mut MU-LUM)

How are you?

Apa kabar? (A-pA KA-bar?)

My name is ______.

Nama saya ______ . (NUM-MU su-yu _____ .)

Where is the toilet?

Di mana toiletnya? (DEE mu-nu TOY-leht-nyu?)

Numbers:

0 : nol

1 : satu

2 : dua

3 : tiga

4 : empat

5 : lima

6 : enam

7 : tujuh

8 : delapan

9 : sembilan

10 : sepuluh

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Burung Kakatua is a children song in Indonesian language. This song is simple and has many rhymes.

The translation of that song is

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Indonesian


text:
Talk:Outdoor Survival/Fire

I Don't think think that taking the powder out of a bullet is safe. My uncle tried it, and the bullet exploded, missing his eye by a quarter of an inch. --68.192.76.88 01:56, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

Starting a fire with melted ice? I think someone is trying to be funny here...

title: Talk:Outdoor Survival/Fire


text:
User:Wavez

Yo, I'm wavez. I'm working on a rigging tutorial for blender, and you can find on me on freenode.net in almost all of the blender channels.

title: User:Wavez


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Shoe Repair

Sole
The bottom of a shoe, which supports the wearer's foot, is named the sole. It usually consists of several layers, and is usually a separate piece from the upper shoe (though not always, as in the case of wooden shoes).

Insole
The insole is the interior bottom of the shoe, which sits directly beneath the foot. Many shoes have removable and replaceable insoles, and extra insoles are often added for comfort or health reasons. (To control the shape, moisture, or smell of the shoe, for example.)

Mid-sole
The mid-sole is a layer situated between the in-sole and the out-sole, found in some shoes. Often it will provide cushioning and shape to the in-sole.

Outsole
The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the ground. The material of the outsole varies depending on the function, dressiness, and quality of the shoe, but is generally very durable material, since it experiences the most stress. Dressier shoes have leather outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes have outsoles made of natural rubber or a synthetic imitation. The outsole may comprise a single piece, or may comprise separate pieces of different materials. Often the heel of the sole is rubber for durability and traction, while the front is leather for style. Specialized shoes will often have distinct modifications on this design: athletic cleats have spikes embedded in the outsole to grip the ground.

Heel
Some shoes have a distinctive raised heel; often this is a separate piece from the outsole and can be replaced. Leather was used in the past, and is still used in some performance tennis shoes, but harder materials are usually more desirable. Plastic, rubber, or polymer materials are now also used. Fortified cork is sometimes used in heels or soles so the shoes are lightweight.

Vamp, or upper
Any shoe also has an upper part that separates the foot from the air, and helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip flops, this may be nothing more than a few straps for holding the sole in place under the foot. Closed footwear, such as boots, sneakers and most mens shoes, will usually have a more complex upper.

Laces
A shoelace is a long piece of string or cord that hold a shoe closed. Usually it is attached by being threaded through a series of small holes in the shoe, called eyelets. To aid this, many shoelaces are tipped with small solid plastic bits called aglets.

Tongue
In some shoes and boots the tongue is a flap-like, usually flexible, part that goes underneath the laces.

Hand-turned soles
This type of shoe is built inside-out using a form called a last. A last is a foot-shaped tool, traditionally made of wood. After the uppers are made and stitched together, they are removed from the last, turned right-side-out, and the sole is attached. The sole is of one piece - the topside of the sole serves as the insole, and the bottom side serves as the outsole.

Goodyear welt soles
In a shoe of this type, the uppers, insole, and midsole are stitched to the outsole. This is the most secure way to attach the sole. The insoles are built into the shoe rather than being inserted after the rest of the shoe has been made. The upper is drawn over the sole and held temporarily while a strip of leather (the welt) is stitched to the upper and inner sole. The sole is hand-stitched through the welt to complete the process. This construction allows multiple sole replacements, extending the life of the footwear.

Because the stitching of the outsole is done completely on the outside of the shoe, this type of sole is easiest to repair.

McKay sewed soles
Ten years after the invention of the sewing machine, Gordon McKay introduced a device for machine-stitching a shoe's upper to its sole. In this type of sole, the insole is attached to the upper while it is still on the last using tacks which are clinched over. The outsole is then sewn to the assembly by McKay's machine. The stitching appears on the inside of the shoe, as do the tacks. This type of construction was common for cheap, lightweight shoes.

Curved Needle Machine
The outsole is attached to the upper with a welt. The curve needle machine allows the soles to be stitched through the goodyear welt without the going through the upper so the shoes can be resoled many times without sewing through the uppers.

3. Properly wax the thread, and with two needles or waxed ends, mend a pair of shoes that have rips in them. Use the double-stitch method of sewing.
Shoe repair is best taught by an experienced cobbler. It is not really possible to learn this trade by reading a book - it has to be practiced, and to become proficient takes years. The best approach for meeting this requirement (as well as requirements 4 and 5) is to visit a shoe repair shop as described in requirement 8. Bring a pair of shoes that have rips in them so the cobbler can allow you to practice on your own shoes rather than on his customer's shoes.

Ripped shoes do not necessarily have tears in the canvas or leather, but may have a burst seam. Almost any pair of "throw-away" shoes you still have in your closet will work for this. Depending on the skill you are able to bring to bear on your first attempt, you may end up throwing them away anyhow. Remember that this is a learning process, and your goal is not necessarily to get a wearable pair of shoes out of your effort, but rather, a working knowledge of shoe repair techniques. If you fail on the left shoe, you may succeed on the right. Or you might go through more than one pair of shoes.

It may be possible to build your Pathfinder group's interest in this honor by showing them some shoe repair videos.

4. Satisfactorily half-sole a pair of shoes by nailing the soles on. Make sure the nails are of the proper length.
See requirements 3 and 8 for advice.

5. Fit and attach a pair of rubber heels.
See requirements 3 and 8 for advice. Here's another Youtube video from Upside Down Shoe Repair:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aoUKxBxLCpY

6. What kind of leather should be used in repairing the soles of shoes? How is such leather generally tanned?
Leather used in shoemaking is divided into two categories: upper leather, and sole leather. Upper leather is used for making the uppers, and is thinner, softer, and more pliable than sole leather. Sole leather is generally made from the hide of a fully-grown cow, taken from the thicker parts of the animal's skin. Upper leather is taken from calves, goats, and other smaller animals with thinner skin.

Back when this honor was originally written, leather was usually tanned by soaking it in a bath with tree bark (usually hemlock or oak). An astringent acid would leach out of the bark, and this acid is what would convert an animal skin into leather, in a process known as tanning.

Sole leather was most often tanned using oak bark. Oak-tanned leather has a light, creamy tan color. It is both firm and flexible.

7. Specify at least three factors that should be taken into account in the selection of shoes.
There are many factors to consider when selecting a pair of shoes, including, fit, comfort, function, quality, cost, and even moral considerations. When considering any of these factors, it is incumbent upon the Christian to practice good stewardship.

Fit and Comfort
Possibly the most important factor to consider when selecting a shoe is that it fits properly. Improperly fitted shoes can cause discomfort, soreness, or even injury. Shoes should be comfortable. It is irresponsible to sacrifice comfort for the sake of style, though there are exceptions to this (i.e., the shoe will not be worn for very long and the wearer has no other option, such as serving as the member of a wedding party).

You should have your feet measured every time you buy shoes if they are still growing. Even when they stop growing, it's still a good idea to have them measured occasionally, as their shape may change. There are two parameters that specify the shoe size: length, and width.

Length
Shoe size in the United States and Canada is based on the length of the last, measured in inches, multiplied by 3 and minus a constant. This constant differs for shoes intended for men, women and children.

 * $$\mbox{male shoe size} = 3*\mbox{last length}-22$$

Women's sizes are almost always determined with the "common" scale, in which women's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men's 10.5 is a women's 12).

In the less popular scale, known as the "standard" or "FIA" (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women's sizes are men's sizes plus 1 (so a men's 10.5 is a women's 11.5).

 * $$\mbox{female shoe size (common)} = 3*\mbox{last length}-20.5$$
 * $$\mbox{female shoe size (FIA)} = 3*\mbox{last length}-21$$

Children's sizes are equal to men's sizes plus 12.33. Thus girls' and boys' sizes do not differ, even though men's and women's do.

 * $$\mbox{child shoe size} = 3*\mbox{last length}-9.67$$

For the international market, the ISO 9407 standard is used for specifying shoe length.

Width
Some manufacturers offer shoes of different width for the same foot length. Such shoes are then also labelled according to the width or girth of the widest part of the foot (typically measured directly behind the toes with the subject standing on both feet and wearing socks or hose).

In the Mondopoint system, the shoe size label can state in addition to the length also the width of the mean foot for which the shoe is suitable, both measured in millimetres.

A number of other ad-hoc notations for width or girth are also used. Examples include (each starting with the narrowest width):

 * AAAA, AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE
 * 4A, 3A, 2A, A, B, C, D, E, 2E, 3E, 4E
 * N, R, W

None of these designations are formally standardized. The exact foot width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A-E width indicators used by some US and UK shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are 1/4 inch (6 mm) or 3/16 inch (5 mm).

Function
The next consideration when selecting a shoe is the activity to be performed when wearing the shoe. You would not wear high heels on a backpacking trip, nor would you wear flip-flops to a wedding. Different shoes have different purposes, though thankfully, some are multi-purpose. Here is a list of some of the types of shoes available:
 * Dress shoes
 * Casual shoes
 * Athletic shoes
 * Running shoes
 * Hiking boots
 * Climbing shoes
 * Paddling shoes
 * Work boots
 * Steel-toed boots
 * Snow boots
 * Golf shoes
 * Bowling shoes
 * Slippers

Quality
If your feet have stopped growing, it makes sense to buy the best quality shoes that you can afford. High quality shoes will not only last longer than cheap ones, they are less expensive in the long run because they will not have to be replaced as often. A low-quality shoe can also make your feet sore or even cause injury by not providing proper arch or ankle support.

If you are buying shoes for a person who is growing quickly, you should still seek a quality shoe, but at this point the goal is match the expected lifetime of the shoe to the amount of time it will fit.

Cost
Cost is also a very important consideration. Some shoes are very expensive, not because of their high quality, but because of the name attached to them. Though high quality shoes are usually more expensive than low-quality shoes, this does not mean that all high-priced shoes are also high-quality.

Moral considerations
In the late 1990's several shoe manufacturers found themselves embroiled in controversy after it was revealed that they were exploiting sweatshop labor in third-world countries. There are many people who boycott various corporations because of such practices, and there are many people who patronize companies that commit themselves to respecting human rights.

8. Spend a minimum of five hours observing shoe repair specialists at their work shop.
You should be able to find a shoe repair shop in the Yellow Pages (or other business directory) under "Shoe Repair." You can also try this web site http://www.vibram.us/repairconsumer/ by Vibram, a shoe repair supplier.

Shoe repair shops are often family-owned businesses, so the chances of speaking to the owner when you enter the store (or call on the phone) are pretty good. It would be better to approach the owner in person rather than calling, as that gives you a better opportunity to present yourself. Wear a class A uniform when you go there to ask permission to observe, and be ready to explain how many Pathfinders will be with you. Let the store owner select a time and date for the five-hour visit. The store owner may also be willing to instruct this honor, so it would be a good idea to make contact before you get started.

Your visit to the work shop will be a good opportunity to meet requirements 3, 4, and 5, but you should probably bring some shoes that need these repairs with you. The owner will certainly not want you experimenting on his customer's shoes! Offer to pay for any materials you use when repairing your shoes.

9. Write or tell the examiners the proper methods of cleaning and caring for shoes.
Keep your shoes looking their best by using a cedar shoe tree. These are foot-shaped blocks of cedar wood that fit inside the shoe. Cedar absorbs moisture and salt which can damage your shoes. Clean shoes right away when they become dirty. There are four basic steps in caring for smooth leather shoes: clean, condition, polish, and weatherproof. First you should lay some newspapers out on your work area and remove the laces from the shoes. Brush the dirt off with a soft brush, and then apply saddle soap or leather cleaner to the shoe with a soft cloth (you can use a shoe shine cloth or an old T-shirt). Work it in, and then start to shine the shoe. Once the shoe has been cleaned, you can apply a conditioner. You can buy cleaners with conditioners in them, but you'll get better results using a separate conditioner. The conditioner is worked into the leather just as the cleaner was, and it helps to moisturize the leather to prevent cracking. In dry climates, you may need to condition your shoes more often. Most of us are familiar with the liquid shoe polish products that come in a bottle with a brush built into the lid. These polishes work well enough, but the polish only barely penetrates the surface of the leather and has to be re-applied frequently. It is better to use a show paste, but best to use a shoe cream. Whichever you choose, you will have to match the color of the product to the color of the shoe. Test in an inconspicuous area to make sure that you have a good color match. Apply shoe cream with a soft cloth and rub it in well. Then let it dry thoroughly. Once dry, you can go over it again with a soft cloth to bring out the shine. If you are more interested in protecting the shoes than in making them look good, you can use beeswax to weatherproof them. Beeswax will change the look of the shoe, but it is most excellent for keeping the water out. This would be a good choice for work or hiking boots. For dress shoes, you will want to use a spray-on product which goes on invisibly. It will protect your shoes from incidental contact with water, but you should not rely on this stuff for wading through puddles.
 * Clean:
 * Condition:
 * Polish:
 * Weatherproof:


text:
User:Celtictool

Hello, I'm Celtictool from South Carolina, USA. I enjoy History. I plan to eaither major in History or Anthropology in College.

title: User:Celtictool


text:
User:MJBurrage

on Wikipedia

Contributions

 * Carbonara: Anglo-American recipe
 * Monopoly Stock Exchange: Stock table

Formula De
I had added a book on the rules of the board game Formula De. At a point where the book contained a table of contents, and the section on tournament rules was complete, the page was summarily deleted.

I still believe the text had as much educational value as any book here on any other game, and said section is not widely available. (It was only used at conventions, and is not included in the box, even though it was approved of by the games publisher.)

I am still trying to find out why it is not appropriate here, and/or where else in the wiki projects it should go. (I was told rules were not encyclopedic at Wikipedia, and that it was either original content and/or copyrighted at Wikisource.)

Note:
 * Under U.S. law, the rules of a game themselves cannot be copyrighted, they are in the public domain. Text descriptions of the rules long enough that they could be worded differently but still mean the same thing could be copyrighted.  (So someone could copyright their description of a rule, but not the rule itself, and if a rule is so simple that you can not tell one description from another, then neither may be copyrighted.)
 * The legal notes for all of this were posted by me in the deletion archive at Wikisource. Where their conclusion was that I could not post the rules—as they were printed at the Convention (copyright)—and that I could not re-word them (original writing).
 * I still believe they were mistaken on the copyright issue since the rules were too short to be easy to reword, and hence not copyrightable.

Released into public domain
I agree to release my text and image contributions, unless otherwise stated, into the public domain. Please be aware that other contributors might not do the same, so if you want to use my contributions under public domain terms, please check the multi-licensing guide.

title: User:MJBurrage


text:
Suomen kieli ulkomaalaisille/Sisältö/Suomen aakkoset

 * Note to editors and readers: Be careful when interpreting or adding to descriptions of pronunciations.  Pronunciation of English words varies from region to region in the world. An attempt has been made here to approximate to something that works in US and British English. Where there is a conflict, the more widely known US English has been followed. For instance in the specimen sentence "Adam Asks for Apple Advice". the a in "Asks" is a US or Northern British "Asks" which ryhmes with the A in "hat" rather than the Southern English RP "Asks" where the A rhymes with the A as in "Father".

The main letters of the Finnish Language are:

A D E G H I J K L M N O P R S T U V Y Ä Ö

The other letters you will find in a Finnish dictionary, if only to accommodate words of foreign origin, are the standard letters from the English alphabet missing in the above list:

B C F Q W X Z

Y is a vowel in Finnish, so in effect there are many more formally written vowels in Finnish and rather less formally written consonants.

Finnish is a very phonetic language, as every pronunciation has its own letter. That is to say that things are "pronounced exactly as they are written" so SAMPA and IPA notations of Finnish words are almost identical to the written language. However, do not take this too literally; there are certainly many details in speech that cannot be easily expressed in written language, and Finnish is no exception.

It is arguable that D is really a modified T - the sounds are very similar and D only ever appears when a letter T has been modified by the rules of Finnish consonant mutation to a D. For this reason, no native word in Finnish can ever begin with the letter D.

The glyphs 'ä' and 'ö' have been borrowed from Swedish, and even if their pronunciation is similar, their grammatical role is vastly different, as Finnish is not a Nordic language. They are independent letters and phonemes, not modified nor accented letters. Changing 'Ä' into 'A' or 'Ö' into 'O' is akin to changing 'O' into 'Q'.

This can be one of the most difficult thing for the English speaking learner of Finnish to grasp, so it is as well to be aware of it early on in learning.

 * Pronouncing Ä: "A fat pancake man sat on a cat."
 * If you got through that sentence you said "Ä" in native Finnish style five times in all the boldtext parts.

 * Pronouncing Ö: This is rather like the vowel sound in the English word "learn" (long) or as in the end of "water"(short). But it is rather more closed and does not include the r at the end.
 * Pronouncing Y. The best way to pronounce Y is to round your lips lightly as if to say "oo" as in shoo! but instead of pronouncing "oo" try to pronounce "ee" as in "fee" instead, still keeping your lips rounded. The resulting sound you make approximates to the Finnish Y sound.

All Finnish vowels are pronounced "short" unless the letter is shown doubled. All Finnish consonants are pronounced "short" unless the letter is doubled. The doubling of the letter does not mean that the consonant is sounded twice however. In the case of the letters n, l r and s, the consonant is sounded double length. In the case of the plosive consonants k, p, and t, the length of time holding the sound before releasing the plosive sound making the consonant sound is lengthened.

Kisat   The competitions

Kissat  The cats

The single s in Kisat is sounded shorter than the double ss in Kissat. However, it is not excessively long.

Mato    A Worm

Matto   A carpet

The word mato is pronounced ma-to whereas Matto is pronounced Mat-to. It is rather like trying to say the English words "Last Tuesday" and being careful to pronounce the t in last without sounding the t twice. In effect we create a long "stop" at the "t" to indicate both letters. Finnish does this all the time with the double plosive consonants KK, PP and TT.

Acknowledgment: This text is borrowed from another wikibook on Finnish. Note: It does not exist in the Finnish version of this book.


text:
Suomen kieli ulkomaalaisille/Sisältö/Objektin sijan valinta

The choice of case for the object in a sentence is one of the most challenging things for the foreigner to get right.

You can gain a thorough understanding of the rules by reading this section of the book.

The section is still in development so if you have any questions about this page, please click on the discussion tab and start discussing! Anyone can raise a question or answer it. Please correct any errors you find here.

What is the object in the sentence?
In grammar, the word object has a special meaning different from its general meaning. It does not mean "thing", but the element in the sentence that is referred or acted upon by the action of verb. It can also mean the outcome of the verb action.

Thus in the following sentences, the word "glass" is the object or part of an object phrase.

 * He picked up the glass.

 * He installed some new glass in the window.

 * The church contained a lot of painted glass.

But in the sentence "The glass fell to the floor", the word glass is the subject not the object, because it is performing the action of the verb. (There is no object in this sentence. "to the floor" is an adverbial phrase).

The object in a sentence is often a noun (as was the case with "glass" above), but it can also be a pronoun.
 * May I kiss you?
 * Give it to me!

It can also be a number or some other quantifier

 * Give me half a dozen

It can also be an adjective.

 * Do you want the red or the blue?

Make sure you understand these points before trying to continue with this chapter. This is important because Finnish marks the object with a case. But the correct case will depend on the circumstances.

Partitive and Accusative Object
The case of the Object is either Partitive or Accusative.

 * The object will be in the partitive if the process of the verb is what is important or if the action of the verb is non-final (i.e. there is no final outcome).

 * The object will be in the accusative if the outcome of the action in the verb is what is important or if the action of the verb is final or resultative (there is some definite final outcome).

These are general rules, but they may be modified slightly according to the detailed grammar rules. Some of these have to be applied absolutely, and some are subject to a degree of choice depending on what is needed to be conveyed. We will examine these exceptional rules later on.

Lets look at some examples.

The Partitive Object
In Finnish, if the object is only in part affected by the action of the verb (and often this refers to cases where the action of the verb does not complete) the case of the object is the Partitive.

Where the action is complete or planned to be completed for the whole object, the case form of the object is the Accusative.

 * Minä luen kirjaa I am reading a book
 * Here the verb lukea (to read) is in the present tense form luen (I read) or I am reading. But the object kirja (book) is in the partitive kirjaa. The reason for this is that the action is incomplete, as the book is only partly read.

But now look at the following sentence.

 * Minä luin kirjan I read the book
 * Here the verb is in the past tense and the whole book was read. The word kirjan is not in the partitive case but rather the accusative.

But if the book was only partly read...

 * Minä luin kirjaa I read some of the book
 * Finnish has no need for separate words expressing "some of" because the partitive case carries that meaning instead.

And just to round things off, consider the following

 * Minä luen kirjan. I will read the book
 * Here the object book is not in the partitive, so we know we are talking about the WHOLE book. But the verb is not in the past tense but the present. As Finnish has no future tense, the meaning is clearly one of intent to read the WHOLE book. Hence, the correct translation is "I will read the book".

If the object is actually a plural, then the form will be plural. Compare the following carefully. There are some replicate items with alternative interpretations. The meaning will often be clear from the context.

Partitive (Present/Future)

 * Minä luen kirjoja I will read some books (part of some unspoken about group of books, but I'm not saying if I will finish reading any of them)
 * Minä luen kirjoja ''I'm reading some books (part of some unspecified class of books)
 * Minä luen kirjoja ''I'm reading the books (the books we have speaking about, but I've not finished reading them)

Compare to the Accusative (in Present/Future)

 * Minä luen kirjat I will read the books (all of the books about which we may have been speaking)

Partitive (Imperfect)

 * Minä luin kirjoja I read some books (I read at least 2 books which I may or may not have finished reading. In the latter case I am stressing that activity of reading is what was important to me)

Compare to the Accusative (Imperfect)

 * Minä luin kirjat I read the books   (The definite books about which we may have been speaking, and I finished reading them all)

The Total Object (also known as the accusative)
If the case of the object is not Partitive it will be Accusative, which we can think of as being a "whole" or "total object" case. But it gets a little more complicated because Finnish has several accusative (whole or total object) forms.

 * the -N Accusative
 * this is morphologically identical to the genitive singular and is used for singular objects.

 * the -T Accustative
 * Nouns have a -T accusative form that is morphologically identical to the nominative plural and is used for plural objects.
 * Pronouns also have a -T accusative ending, even if the meaning is singular
 * Note however, that some pronoun forms have a nominative plural form that is not the same as the accusative.
 * E.g. Kuka? (who) has nominative plural ketkä but accusative kenet.

 * the Unmarked Accusative
 * This is morphologically identical to the nominative singular and applies to singular objects in clauses if the verb does not carry a personal ending. These situations are all passive verbal forms, with an infinitive, or in imperative construction. The infinitive case includes all "must do" phrases using "täytyy", "pitää" etc.
 * Note: Objects in ownership phrases using the adessive (-lla / -llä) plus "on" are also unmarked if the meaning is singular and none of the partitive rules apply (though some grammaticians would argue that the owned object is really a subject!).
 * However if the object (or subject if you are pedantic) in these sentences is plural, then the object will be in the -T accusative (or T-nominal for pedants!).

Partial objects
Rule: Partial objects take the partitive case

 * Otin makeisia. I took some sweets (candy) but not all of them.
 * makeisia is the partitive plural of makeinen, sweet or candy.

Uncountables or indefinite amounts
Rule: Uncountable objects are expressed in the partitive if the quantity is uncertain or not expressed or implied

 * Tarvitsemme juustoa
 * We need cheese
 * What makes an object countable? Cheese is only countable if we add some unit. So we can can say I'll have three hundred grams of cheese but just saying I'll have three cheeses is meaningless. Cheese is therefore uncountable.

But if the quantity is certain and a number is not used to express the quantity, then the object will not be partitive

 * tuo nuo juustot!
 * bring those cheeses!
 * that is, those cheeses, certain in quantity, about which we have been speaking

Enumerated objects other than one
Rule: Where objects are quantified by number, the object following the number is in the partitive SINGULAR but the number itself is in the unmarked accusative. This does not apply if the number is one or implies singularity.

 * Me ostimme neljä uutta talvirengasta We bought four new winter tyres (tires)
 * uusi talvirengas new winter tyre is put into the partitive SINGULAR uutta talvirengasta but the number four is is in the unmarked accusative singular (same as nominative singular).

but if the number is one...

 * Kuljettaja joutui vaihtamaan yhden renkaan The driver had to change one tyre (tire)
 * yksi rengas is put into the -N accusative yhden renkaan because the numner is "one".

See also Unmarked Accusative Rules for discussion regarding numbers.

On going action
Rule: If the action of the verb is still in progress, the object case will be partitive.
 * Hän on maalannut taloa He has been painting the house but its not yet finished
 * House, talo, is in the singular partitive form taloa.

Irresultative outcomes
'''Rule: If the action of the verb was in the past but did not completed or did not result in anything comclusive or final, the object affected by the verb will be partitive

 * Bob yritti korjata tilannetta Bob tried to correct the situation but he did not succeed
 * situation, tilanne, is in the partitive singular form, tilannetta.

Activity verbs (emphasis on the activity not the outcome)
Rule: Process and Activity verbs stressing the verb rather than outcome take partitive.

This is a general rule. Many verbs express actions that tend to be continuous or extend over time and by their very nature do not necessarily of themselves create an outcome, although an outcome may cause the process to stop. These verbs tend to take partitive objects where it is the process rather than the outcome is the main meaning behind the verb.

Verbs expressing emotions are often like this too.

 * Ajattelen sinua
 * I'm thinking about you

 * Odotan bussia
 * I'm waiting for the bus

 * Etsin töitä
 * I'm seeking work

 * Miten voimme auttaa sinua?
 * How can we help you?

 * Saako lapsille mainostaa roskaruokaa?
 * Can junk food be advertised to children?

 * Harrastan tanssia
 * I'm interested in dancing

 * Rakastan sinua
 * I love you

 * Ihailetko Annea?
 * Do you admire Anne?

Useful tip: Some good dictionaries will indicate the case government in one or both languages.
 * For instance
 * Harrastaa jtak. To be interested in
 * jtak. =abbreviation of jotakin, which is the word jokin in partitive case. Jokin in English means something
 * So its a good idea to learn the case government when you learn the verb (just as one might learn the gender of an object in French or Spanish).

The partitive rules above are rather dependent on choice of meaning. We can see that we can imply some meaning by selecting the partitive case where in English that meaning is conveyed fully only with extra words. The remaining rules are either general rules of thumb regarding language use connected with the partial/Total distinction, or absolute rules which must be followed.

Although we have discussed the partitive object generally above, there are some circumstances where the object is always in the partitive regardless of partial subject or partial outcome. These will be defined as absolute rules. We will now look at these rules.

Negation and partitive object
Rule: The object in a negative clause is always in the partitive

This is an Absolute Rule and is easy to remember. It has nothing to do with total or partial object.

 * Näetkö sinä Markun? En. En näe Markkua.
 * ''Do you see Markku? No. I can't see Markku.
 * The sentence "En näe Markkua" is negative in character. The object is therefore in the partitive case.

 * Etkö ymmärrä tätä tekstiä?
 * Don't you understand this text?

 * En ymmärrä mitään!
 * I don't understand anything!

 * Älä sulje ovea!
 * Don't close the door!
 * The negative word älä forces the word door into the partitive case.

Expressing simultaneous actions
'''Rule: If two things are happening at the same time, the objects will be in the partitive case. If they happen sequentially they will be in the accusative. ''' For example

 * Söin aamiaista ja luin lehteä.
 * I ate breakfast and read the paper (both at the same time)

 * Söin aamiaisen ja luin lehden
 * I ate breakfast and read the paper (but not at the same time)

 * Kulutetaanko objektin tarkoittama asia loppuun vai käytetäänkö sitä vain vähän?

 * Haluan käyttää teippiäsi? (teippiä otetaan vain vähän)
 * - vrt. Haluan käyttää teippisi? (teippi käytetään loppuun)

 * jokin pieni sana voi kertoa, että toiminta on meneillään/prosessi
 * esim. vielä, kauan, kuinka kauan, jatkuvasti, juuri, nyt

 * Luen vielä tätä kirjaa.
 * Kuinka kauan siivoat autotallia?

 * lukusana (nominatiivi) substantiivi (partitiivi)

 * Ostin hänelle neljä tulppaania.
 * - vrt. Ostan yhden kirjan. Ostetaan hänelle yksi kirja. (yksi on poikkeus ja taipuu sekä päätteellisessä, että päätteettömässä akkusatiivissa)

Abstract ideas
Rule: Abstract ideas are expressed in the partitive. This is a general rule.
 * Köyhät tarvitsevat myötätuntoamme
 * The poor need our sympathy
 * Sympathy is an abstract concept

The Accusative or Total Object Rules
It is essentially true that if the object is not going to be in the partitive, it will be in the accusative. The issue will then be which of the 3 forms of the accusative object will be adopted.

-N accusative Rules
The -N accusative is perhaps the most common form and can best be thought of as the default if the object does not meet the partitive rules, or the -T Accusative Rules or Unmarked Accusative Rules. If you apply all the other rules, you will never use the -N accusative incorrectly. (<< Those sound like famous last words! -Ed.).

The object will always be total, i.e. affecting the whole object or the verb has a conclusive outcome affecting the object (so the general partitive does not apply), will not be plural (so the -T rules does not apply), and none of the exceptional partitive rules apply (so it will not, for example be in a negative sentence), and none of the absolute Unmarked Accusative rules apply (e.g. the verb is not passive).

-T accusative rules
Rule 1: The -T accusative will be used where the object is plural and total (affecting the whole object or the verb has a conclusive outcome affecting the object), and where none of the exceptional partitive rules apply (e.g. it is not in a negative sentence)

 * Anna minulle työkalut Give me the tools (All the tools, not some of them)

Rule 2: Personal pronouns as Whole Object cases take the -T accusative ending, even if the pronoun is singular.

 * Hän pelasti meidät/minut! He saved us!!

Numbers
If a number is used to express quantity, the number itself will be in the Un-marked Accusative and the object following it will usually be in the partitive singular because of the usual number rules regarding partitive singular after numbers.

 * Söin kolme omenaa
 * I ate three apples
 * Kolme three is the object in this sentence and is in the umarked Accusative
 * omenaa apples is also an object but it is in the partitive SINGULAR
 * The meaning is 3 WHOLE items which are PART of a wider group of all apples.
 * The number is not really attributive because a number can stand for an object alone and will still be in this unmarked accusative form. For instance "K: Montako omenaa söit? V:söin kolme" ''Q: How many apples did you eat? A: I ate three"

But

 * Söin yhden omenan
 * I ate one apple
 * Yksi omena means one apple in nominative form but as the one apple was completely eaten and this was specified as one apple, we use the -N accusative to express this, i.e. yhden omenan. It matters not that this is just one apple of all the apples that could have been eaten (!!) and this is generally true when the number one is used. So here comes a new general rule.

 * General Rule: When using a number as part of an object phrase, the case of the number will always be the unmarked accusative (i.e. the same as the nominal or dictionary form) and the item following it will be partitive UNLESS the number is one, in which case both the number and the object will take the -N accusative EXCEPT in cases where the overriding Partitive Rules apply (e.g. for negative phrases) in which case both number and object will be in the partitive.

This covers the possible negative construction

 * en syönyt pääsiäismunaa koko pääsiäisenä

the Easter Egg

en syönyt pääsiäismunia koko pääsiäisenä

any Easter eggs

 * en syönyt yhtään pääsiäismunaa koko pääsiäisenä
 * I've not eaten a single easter egg over the whole of Easter
 * yhtään is, strictly speaking, adverbial rather than object, and means "at all", but its roots in the partitive form of one, yhtä is clearly visible. c.f. Mikä and ei mikään.

Passive verbs
Rule: If the verb is passive, then the total object will be in the Unmarked Accusative case if singular or the -T accusative if plural (i.e. the same as the equivalent nominal forms) unless an overriding partitive rule applies.

'''Ortodoksikirkko korjattiin kesällä. Kirkon lattiat korjataan myöhemmin'''. ''The orthodox church was repaired during the summer. The floors of the church will be repaired later.''
 * Orthodox church is in the Unmarked accusative singular (same as nominative form) and floors is expressed with the plural -T accusative (same as nominative plural).

In practise this is rather easy to remember as passive sentences have the object before the verb. It us rather more natural to regard the object as if it were a subject in the nominal case. Object case selection to nominative or accusative usually happens after the verb has been uttered (in SVO type sentences), so this does not arise in the case of passive sentences.

An on-going process will take the Partitive Object
When an activity is still ongoing the object will usually be in the partitive.

 * Luen kirjaani
 * I'm reading my book
 * Present tense, the activity is in progess

But if verb is in the present but the activity is not ongoing, but the object is in the accusative, the meaning of the verb is futuristic

 * Luen kirjani
 * I'll read my book
 * The possessive suffix amalgamates with the accusative -n. The verb meaning is in the future.

And this ongoing nature that is expressed by the partitive can even be used in the imperfect past tense.

 * Luin kirjaani
 * I was reading my book
 * This is a statement of fact about an ongoing activity that happened in the past. Because it was ongoing and not completed the object is in the partitive case.

And finally

 * Luin kirjani
 * I finished reading my book
 * Finnish expresses the finality of the reading by putting the case into the Accusative.

 * tekeminen on sen lopputulosta tärkeämpi tai se kuinka kauan jotain tehdään on tärkeämpää kuin valmiiksi saaminen

Resolving conflicting rules
In the case of commands it does rather depend on what the speaker is trying to convey. For instance, consider the following.

 * Auta vanhus bussiin. Help the senior onto the bus!
 * The verb auttaa (help) could be a continuous action that may or may not be resultative and will often be in the partitive. But the object in a command phrase takes the unmarked accusative because the completion of the action is what is important. So in this case it is the outcome that is important not the process. Getting the person onto the bus is what is important in this command and it must be completed. Hence in this case the object vanhus, senior citizen is in the accusative and not the partitive vanhusta.

Compare this with:
 * Odota iltaa! Wait (until the) evening''!
 * Here, the processes of the verb is what is important, not the outcome. Hence the object evening is is in the partitive.

A similar idea is seen in the following examples:
 * Luen joka aamu lehteä.
 * I read the newspaper every morning
 * Here its the process that is important not the outcome. The speaker is just expressing what he does habitually. The word 'newspaper' is therefore in the partitive case.

Consider the following:
 * Luen joka aamu lehden.
 * I make sure I read the newpaper every morning
 * The speaker has used the accusative case and not the partitive case. This means that its not the casual process of reading the paper that is being expressed (as in the previous example) but the actual meaningful activity of getting it read. So the outcome is what is being stressed and not the process. Hence the object case is not partitive but accusative. Hence the English translation is not word for word a translation from the Finnish.

n-päätteinen akkusatiivi, kun toiminnan tulos on tärkeä
Milloin pidämme tauon?

Haluan saada kirjan.

päätteetön akkusatiivi, jos tuloslauseessa on passiivi, imperatiivi tai yksipersoonainen verbi
Milloin seuraava tauko pidetään? (passiivi)

Sulkekaa ovi! (imperatiivi)

t-päätteinen akkusatiivi on tuloslauseen monikossa ja persoonapronomineilla (joilla on vain t-päätteinen akkusatiivi)
Nyt näette minut.

Pysäytä hänet!

Kenet sinä näit?

Luin eilen kaikki lehdet.

Ota kynät pois lattialta!

Jotkin verbit vaikuttavat toimintaverbeiltä, mutta ne ovat TULOSVERBEJÄ.
 * esim. nähdä, tuntea (joku), tavata, muistaa, unohtaa, kuulla, aloittaa, tarvita

 * Näen tytön kadulla.
 * Muistan eilisen tapauksen.
 * Tarvitsen kynän.
 * Joskus elollisen ja elottoman välillä on eroa.
 * Ymmärsin tekstin hyvin.
 * Ymmärsin häntä hyvin.

''Vertaa seuraavia verbejä toisiinsa. (tulos/prosessi)''

 * Muistan tapauksen.
 * Muistelen tapausta.

 * Katsoin elokuvan.
 * Katselin elokuvaa.

 * Kuulin ohjelman radiosta.
 * Kuuntelin ohjelmaa radiosta.

Object marking in English is rare
English, on the whole, does not specially mark the object in a sentence.

There is only one type of word in English that is always marked as an object and this is the personal pronoun. When a personal pronoun in English is the object in a sentence, it goes into a special form called the accusative.

 * John gave the book to me.  Me is the accusative form of I
 * John took him to Helsinki.  Him is the accusative form of He
 * John kissed her tenderly. Her is the accusative form of She
 * John took us back to Turku. Us is the accusative form of We
 * John loved them all. Them is the accusative form of They

But "you" and "it" are the same in both the nominative and accusative forms. So "you" and "it" is both the nominative and accusative forms.

So special object cases are not so unfamiliar to the English speaker, but it only happens in this rather special case.

Finnish on the other hand requires not only that the object is marked, but the form of the marking will vary according to some rather complex rules and there are several different forms of the object case depending on the circumstances. This is the tricky part.

In some clauses it is difficult to know what is an object and what is a subject
Consider for example an ownership phrase. Finnish does have a specific verb omistaa meaning to own but it is rarely used. Ownership is usually expressed differently.

Consider for example the following 3 examples

 * Minä omistan uuden talvitakin I own a new winter coat
 * Minulla on uusi talvitakki I've got a new winter coat or more literally At me is a new winter coat
 * Talvitakki on minun The winter coat is mine

In the first sentence we have a verb expressing ownership and it is a complete ownership. We have a personal pronoun minä which is the subject, a verb form omistan expressing ownership, and an object, uusi talvitakki which is transformed into the Genitive Accustive form uuden talvitakin because of the object rules which will be explained later. But in the second example, which is the more normal Finnish way of expressing posession, it is not so easy to identify whether a winter coat is the object or the subject. It certainly is an object in the English translation, but the Finnish construction is more or less At me is a new winter-jacket, so minulla here is adverbial (denoting "where at"), "on" is the verb expressing existence, but does this mean that talvi-takki is the subject or the object? The answer is, that Finnish grammaticians would regard talvitakki as the SUBJECT and therefore it is the SUBJECT rules rather than the OBJECT rules that apply.. This is why uusi talvitakki is in the nominative case in the second phrase but in the genetive accusative in the first.

Similarly in the third sentence, talvitakki is the subject not the object and and is therefore in the nominative case.

But don't worry too much if you don't understand this. Even Finns will argue the point amongst themselves, so you are not alone!

Word order in Finnish gives no clue as to what the object is
This is more of a problem when it comes to understanding Finnish. In English we usually know what the object by where it comes relative to the verb. In English the most common sequence, as in Finnish, is Subject-Verb-Object. This is also the case in Finnish, but it is less strictly adhered to than in English.

For example

 * The cat is chasing the mouse.

The Cat is the subject, chases is the verb, and the mouse the object. We only know this because in English, in sentences of this type, the subject comes first, then the verb, then the object. If we want to keep the same meaning in English but re-arrange the word order, we have to specially mark the object and do some complex somersaults with the verb to convey approximately the same meaning.

 * The mouse is being chased by the cat.

The different verb structure "is being chased" immediately marks the preceding noun the mouse as being the object rather than the subject in this sentence. The addition of the word "by" marks "the cat" as the subject.

In Finnish it is much easier to move the sequence, but because the object is marked, it always remains the object, so it just gives different shades of meaning.

The following examples will help to illustrate the point.

In the English sentence Marja loves Timo we know because of word order and standard construction that Marja is the subject doing the loving and Timo is the object of her love. If the phrase was reversed Timo loves Marja the roles of the people in the sentence is reversed and the whole meaning changes. This is not the case in Finnish because the subject is specially marked.

Lets look at the sentence in Finnish and see what happens.

 * 1. S-V-O   Marja rakastaa Timoa  Marja loves Timo ... a sheer statement of fact

 * 2. O-V-S   Timoa rakastaa Marja  Marja loves Timo ...  or better  "Timo is loved by Marja" and not some other woman

 * 3. O-S-V  Timoa Marja rakastaa  Marja loves Timo or better.. it's Timo that Marja loves (and not somebody else)

 * 4. V-S-O   Rakastaa Marja Timoa  Marja loves Timo ...... or better it's love that Marja has for Timo and not some other emotion or motive

S, V and O here refer to Subject, Verb and Object.

Notice that in all three Finnish sentence Timoa is the name Timo in the partitive case. The reason for this is that loving it is an irresultative action, but the key thing to note is that it marks Timo as being the subject of the sentence. Changing the word order does not radically change the meaning of the sentence in Finnish as it does in English but it does change the emphasis. So although the core meaning is the same, (i.e. Marja is doing the loving and Timo is being loved) the secondary message in each sentence is different.

Because Timo is in the partitive and Marja is in the nominative their roles in the sentence stay as object and subject regardless of word order. In Finnish, definiteness can often be conveyed by bringing that which is definite to the front of the sentence, whereas English does this with intonation to stress the point. But note the exception in example 2 above where the subject comes last. The equivalent stresss in English in this case would go on Marja, but note how the English words have to be radically altered to convey different shades of meaning!

If the point about definiteness still seems strange, perhaps you should consider this more familiar example:

Auto on kadulla The car is in the street

Kadulla on auto There is a car on the street

Definiteness and indefiniteness expressed in English is done by using the indefinite a or the definite article the. In Finnish it is often expressed by changing the word order (definite items at the front). But changing the word order makes it more difficult to spot which is the subject and which is the object.

Flowchart
Follow the chart to determine if the object is going to be partitive, accusative, nominative, or if the clause has an object at all. Indicators to look for are: ┌───────────────────────• 1. Negative Yes                      No  ↓                         ↓ 2. State of Being • Yes ──┐ No                       │ ↓                        ↓  ┌────────────────── Yes • 2. Partitive verb │                        No  ↓                         ↓ ┌────────────────── Yes • 3. Indefinite amount │                        No  ↓                         ↓ ┌────────────────── Yes • 4. Amount more than one │                        No  ↓                         ↓ ┌────────────────── Yes • 5. Fractional amount │                        No  ↓                         ↓ ┌────────────────── Yes • 6. Irresultative │                        No  │                         ↓ │                        7. Place of being • Yes ┐ │                        No                      │ │                        ↓                       │  │                         8. State of being •┐    │ │                        No                 │    │ │                        ↓                  ↓    │  │                         9. Imperative •────┐    │ │                        No                 │    │ │                        ↓                  ↓    │  │                         10. Necessity •────┐    │ │                        No                Yes   │ ┌─↓─────────┐     ┌────────↓────┐ ┌───────────↓┐ ┌─↓───────────────────────────┐ │ Partitive │      │ Accusative  │ │ Nominative │ │ Locative word not an object │ └───────────┘     └─────────────┘ └────────────┘ └─────────────────────────────┘
 * Negative clauses — "Minä en syö omenaa."
 * Partitive verbs — "Minä rakastan omenaa." Minä rakastan yhtä omenaa. Minä rakastan kahta omenaa.
 * Indefinite amounts — "Minä syön osan omenaa."
 * Definite amounts that are more than one — "Minä syön kaksi omenaa."
 * Definite amounts that are fractional — "Minä syön puoli omenaa."
 * Irresultative verbs — "Minä etsin omenaa."
 * Place of being clauses — "Minulla on omena."
 * State of being clauses — "Hedelmä on omena."
 * Imperative clauses — "Anna omena."
 * Necessity clauses — "Sinun täytyy antaa omena."
 * Conditional?
 * Passive?


text:
Category:Celery recipes

Recipes involving celery.

title: Category:Celery recipes


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User:Lachlan

Lachlan is an Australian high-school student with an interest in computer programming.

Books that I am working on include:

 * Distributed Systems (started by Matthew Wilson)

title: User:Lachlan


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Category:Plantain recipes

Recipes involving plaintains.

title: Category:Plantain recipes


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Category:Puerto Rican recipes

Recipes from Puerto Rico

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