text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/PDF

PDF stands for Portable Document Format. It is owned and sold by Adobe and the program that makes Adobe PDF's are acrobat writer and the writer reads and opens the files as well. If you do not wish to purchase the adobe acrobat writer you can just download the acrobat reader. Which is free. .pdf is the extension name of PDF documents. They have undoubdtedly solved numerous problems in the computer history. PDF files are a generic file which holds embedded fonts and shows the document on other screens exactly how the file was originally built and looks like. PDF files can be used if someone wants to combine excel reports to word files, to engineering cad pictures, to photoalbums, to printable files, etc.

PDF files have eased the problems faced by the printing industry because the issue of Pantone (spot) colours or font issues don't exist. An example problem illustrates the advantages of a PDF. For example a customer designs a file in Microsoft Word and uses the font Helvetica LT. to design the document. The customer wants 5000 copies printed of the word document that he'she digitally provides a printshop. If the print shop does not have the helvetica font in the system then Microsoft Word automatically substitutes the helvetica font with another font of its choice. Now because the properties of the font change, the formatting changes and the information goes off the page. Now supposing the font "helvetica" was a corporate font for brand identity purposes. The print shop could look at the file and say everything looks good without the knowledge of a font error and print 5000 sheets of paper in error.

What PDF does is that it retains the font that it was designed in, only when you import the PDF into another design software such as illustrator or Corel or Photoshop then these design software will tell you the font is missing and do you want the software to substitute. The print shop would have used the pdf and printed it, there would be no errors.

You are able to turn any sort of document or graphic that starts out as editable to a pdf. In Windows, you must install a pdf printer and then when you are ready to save the file as a pdf you simply press print as if you were going to print it. Instead of using an external printer you choose the pdf printer and print to that. It will then prompt you to rename that file and the destination of where you want to save it. The same is true with Mac OS, the only difference is that you do not have to install a pdf printer, instead you have an option at the bottom of saving any file that says pdf and then gives similar prompts to that in Windows.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/PDF Plugins

Two of the advanced plug-ins for Adobe Acrobat Reader are. These plugins used Adobe Acrobat allow you to make amendments to the PDF. These are more beneficial for Printing. For example. Suppose a graphic designer designed a flyer size 8.5 x 11 in Quark Express and the graphic designer is sending the file on behalf of the customer to get 2000 flyers printed. Suppose the printshop does not have the expensive quark express. If he makes a PDF and sends it to the printer then the printer has to print it single up on a sheet of 8.5 x 11. However it is cost beneficial if the 8.5x 11 flyer is printed 2 up on an 11 x 17 sheet. The Pdf designed 1 up on a sheet will not work and it has to duplicated on the file on a larger sheet. Adobe acrobat does not allow you the option of doing so but The quite imposing plug in for Acrobat Does. You can hit the step and repeat option and duplicate the page on a sheet. This plug in has been extremely effective for printing complex designs with links, exclusive fonts, bleeds, etc.
 * 1) Pit Stop
 * 2) Quite Imposing

Another benefit of this plug-in is booklet making. Booklet Making is a much more complex idea then most designers perceive. I understand this as I have done it manually as well. Quite imposing allows you to make a booklet out of single facing pages into a saddle stitched booklet or a perfect bound booklet. This feature saves time, money, and a lot of hassle. Pit Stop on the other hand allows you to change the information. It is intriguing how file designed in a software that you don't have can be manipulated in the PDF document. You can change features such as colour modes from CMYK to RGB, colour hues, saturation, editing text, etc. These plug-ins enhance the usage of PDF documents predominately benefiting the Printing and Publishing Industry in Information Technology.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
The Computer Revolution/Software/Graphics

Graphics
Graphics And Multimedia Concepts:

Graphics: Graphics on a computer are anything that is visually displayed. This could be a picture, video or anything being displayed on your computer that you can see. These graphical pictures are digital images, pictures created using software applications often called as 'Digital Imaging Software’s. This software’s are used for painting, drawing or image editing. An example for painting is MS paint where a user can create a painting using a pen tool. Example for drawing software is Adobe Illustrator where one can use vectors, layering and vector masks to draw. This is also used to create original art, logos, and business cards on a small scale. On a large scale it’s used by professionals to create corporate images, website graphics and etc. Finally an example of an image editing software is Adobe Photoshop. This is a very powerful tool used to edit images and is vastly used by photographers and graphic designers around the world. An interesting thing is, as you read this document, it’s the GUI - Graphical User Interface that makes it possible to see the graphical content on this page.

Multimedia: Multimedia refers to anything that has more than one type of media. Good example is video files, it contains audio and video. Common types of multimedia softwares are audio editing, video editing and DVD authoring softwares. In Audio/video editing software like movie, a user can edit or enhance the audio/video by adding various soundtracks and adding other video effects. Another type of example for multimedia software is iTunes or windows media player that can play multimedia content whether it’s audio or video, or both. Applications that are meant to burn an mp3 disc, or make a DVD, are also considered as multimedia software. Good example would be Nero burning tools. Multimedia has become a big part of our lives in today’s world. Not a day passes by where someone doesn't watch videos, listen to songs or look at other multimedia content. This has become the most essential part in the computer world as well a part of our daily routine.

Reference: Morely, Deborah, and Charles Parker. Understanding Computers Today and Tomorrow. Boston: Course Technology, 2011. Print.

Raster graphics
Raster graphics can be compared with vector graphics.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Graphics Software

Graphics Software
Graphics software, also called digital imaging software. This is used to create or modify images. Graphics software programs are commonly distinguished by whether they are primarily oriented toward painting, drawing, or image editing.

One of the most common painting programs in Microsoft Windows OS is the included Microsoft Paint. This is mostly used for creating and modifying simple images. Drawing programs also known as illustration programs are typically used to create vector graphics (mathematical formulas to represent image content instead of pixels). An image editing or photo editing program is a drawing or paint program that are specifically designed for touching up or modifying images (example: digital images and digital photos).

Animation Software

 * Illusion of Movement Animation Software is used frequently on websites to create the effect of movement.Unlike, video or computer generated animation which use a continuous stream of images to create moving images, animation software uses several images at one time to create what is truthfully the illusion of movement. Animation software is easy to use for beginners and pros, it allows designers of presentations and web pages the ability to create 3D animation graphics with the click of mouse. The software comes with extensive content galleries that are full of images that can be animated.

GIF Image
 * GIF One of the most popular animation formats is the Grafics Interchange Format (GIF). A palette of 256 colors can be use for each frame. GIF is commonly used by software engineers to give low resolution animated effects to web pages. Lossless data compression allows the gift format to compress files with out damaging visual quality, if the image does not exceed 256 colors. GIF is not suitable for high resolution images such as digital photos.

Adobe After Effects

Adobe After Effects is a very powerful editing tool used mostly in post-production by filmmakers. It is used for creating motion graphics and 2D animation. This software allows someone to create their own graphics and animation or alter the graphics that are already filmed in order to manipulate them into what they want. This software is very useful because it can be incorporated with other software like Flash, which allows you to use After Effects in other media beside just film.

 * PNG

This format (Portable Network Graphics) using the file extension .png. is the format specifically created in 1996 for Web page images in response to patent issues surrounding the GIF format. The PNG format uses lossless compression, similar to GIF, but it can compress more efficiently than the GIF format for nonphotographic images, which results slightly smaller file sizes. PNG images can use a specific color palette of 256 colors or less (like GIF images) or they can use true color - more than 16 million colors. PNG images can also be interlaced and transparent.

These images can be displayed virtually in all web browsers without a special plug-in. The file format and file size of an image can be changed using an image editing program which allows the image to be optimized for use on a web page.

Presentation Software

 * Power Point Microsoft PowerPoint allows the user to give text life as it appears on the screen. Text can appear in 3D, waves, one character at a time, fast or slow. These are just a few of effects the user can put to use. PowerPoint also has a selection of images (clip art) readily available which can be dragged and dropped right onto the slide. Larger images can also be taken from the web and inserted into a presentation. Images like a flag waving or sun rising are simple and easy to create.

GIS
GIS stands for Geographical Information System.
 * MapPoint

MapPoint is a useful tool for people finding locations on-line. MapPoint technology is used in our desktop products and the MapPoint Web Service. It is fast, accuracy and clear shows the locations which people are looking for. ---MapPoint in Business

The MapPoint System is an integrated set of products, servers, and services that helps businesses to improve their results by applying mapping and location. By enabling customers to locate and track key enterprise assets, as well as analyze geospatial data, the MapPoint System enables customers to increase revenue, reduce operational cost and complexity, and improve business decisions.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Increasing Design Speed

Increasing the speed of designing is not the best idea since excessive usage of the keyboard shortcuts leads to wrist injury and often being faster then the computer( if you are using a slow one i.e) Some examples of increasing the speed in Corel are mentioned below.
 * 1) Change the keyboard shortcut of "Wireframe view mode" to "Q" this is very important since selecting objects becomes very easier in wireframe mode then the enhanced mode. Moreover it helps you skim out the white objects that you can't really see but exist to do nothing but cause problems.
 * 2) Try to keep as much of artistic text as possible instead of paragraph text. This is because paragraph text is like mini-Microsoft Word. It has to dealt with carefully moreover the text frame can shorten hiding the text and cut out information moreover you could be accidentally selecting the frame of the text so many times in the course of design then actually needed.
 * 3) Change the shortcuts of alignment: C to center horizontally, E to center vertically, P to center to page R to align to the r and f to align to the left. This makes aligning everything exactly along something a character away.
 * 4) Make sure you are using the roller of the mouse for your zooming in and zooming out. It makes it so much easier to zoom into to amend details and then zoom out to the work area, etc.
 * 5) To duplicate things drag something and right click along with dragging it duplicates the object, holding CTRL will allow you drag along 90 degrees so you dont move the object either horizontally or vertically. After you duplicate the image using the right click hold CTRL and click "d". See what happens it duplicates something exactly along the displacement inch you displaced the original object from.
 * 6) Use the transformation toll to transform objects multiply by an exact measurement for example 0.25"
 * 7) Use CTRL A to select everything.
 * 8) Use find and replace to change a specific colour to something else.it saves a lot of time selecting multiple objects and replacing them multiple times.
 * 9) If a colour is used very frequently, add it to the common palette. It saves time selecting it through swatches every time


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Design Efficiency

Instructions on how to design computer graphics is an individualistic approach. Often Graphic Designers design in specific ways. However with my 4 year experience graphic designing, constituting 2.5 years corporate packages, 1.5 year animation and websites. I have trained several designers to increase speed and accuracy using specific tools, shortcuts and methodological process,some of my instructions are as follows: How to start without designing. The concept here is pre-design. Often designers complain of too much information, lack of pictures, lack of material, etc. the typical idea is laying out the format first that they have in mind and then placing all the information. I disagree to that ritual of design. I tend to do it the following way. This process saves tons of time to effectively manage your design project to finish it earlier then expected because you dont run into problems such as changing the format and design when you have to insert something new.
 * 1) Start the page with the exact size of page that has to be used. For example a tri-panel brochure with 3 folds. Hence guidelines at 3.67" and 7.4".
 * 2) The most important point. Throw in all the information that the customer wants, for example logo, contact information, slogan, pictures, text material, clip art if any (not recommended), etc. This information is unformatted it is just placed in the work area not in the actual document. nothing is aligned, re-sized, etc.
 * 3) This is the deciding factor. Decide on fonts, colours, the process of printing..which means questions like: can I make bleed the brochure? can I make it full colour, can I use spot colours? Can I make a solid colour background. This step is setting parameters for your design..these are usually customer restrains printing barriers, etc.
 * 4) Once after everything is placed the formatting is easier because you have all the information to play with and now formatting it the way you want to make it look beautiful is the glamour and fun of designing.
 * 5) Also, start with aspects easier and known, this fuels momentum in design.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Using Pictures

Using Pictures in computer graphics

Pictures in printed material and websites help to relate concepts and ideas to real life concepts. For example, if an investment company’s corporate brochure talks about financial life success from investing in RRSP’s or Mutual funds then a picture of a couple on a beach relaxing or a person professionally dressed throwing his briefcase in the air with happiness creates a more powerful impact of the concept the company wants to portray. One has to be careful though of the use of pictures. Although pictures have to generically formatted and cleaned up properly there are some things graphic designers get away with and some things they don’t. I will clearly list all the properties of the image that has to be surely understood.

 * 1) The size of the picture or bitmap or image should be at its required size be 72 DPI ONLY on the web. Because if the picture looks good on the screen it will work for the customer and designer. However, with reference to printing, the picture size provided to the graphic designer should be the original size with the original DPI. For example a picture which was shot at 640 x 800 pixels with the DPI at 300 or 600. Which means whatever originally it was shot at. This is because for graphic designers some times making signage or posters or using the picture as backgrounds the quality has to be its best. For If I am making the image from 300 DPI at 5” x”5” to 1.5”x 1.5” then because of resizing the image the DPI becomes for example 600 within 1.5” x 1.5”. I can change the DPI of this shrunk image from 600 back to 150DPI if I want but the control of the image quality ideal for printing or publishing is in the graphic designers hand.
 * 2) What image quality is ideal for printing? Depending on the size of the image I recommend at least 150 DPI. It is sometimes okay to get away with 72 DPI but those instances are rare. It only happens when the picture was originally very large and then reduced. There is no difference of images when they are printed between 600 or 300. A very slight difference but printing images at 600 DPI mean increasing Rasterizing and Image processing power by double.
 * 3) Also crop images well. Do not crop images to a grey background accidentally if the background to be printed on is white. The grey will show.
 * 4) Ensure the image is CMYK not RGB. Printing process will not do it RGB but CMYK and hence don’t be surprised if you beautiful deep RGB pictures turns out different when it is printed.

It’s important to know what formats are available when using images before choosing your image for print material or web page. Such as GIF which stands for Graphics Interchange Format, this formant more commonly use with non- photographical images such as logos.
 * 1) A GIF are always rectangular images, however using GIF allows you to make the background transparent. This is ideal for when you want images to show the background color. For example if your logo is A & F, with a GIF the A&F would be one color and you could have the background should through instead of having a white box around the logo.
 * 2) PGN is another format that can be used; it stands for Portable Network Graphics. PGN are also best used for non- photographical images. Both of these formats are limited to 256 colors. PGN have the ability to compress better than GIF this means you get a slightly smaller file size with PGN than you could get with GIF.
 * 3) JPEG format which stands for Joint Photographical Group this is used for photographs and non-photographical images that use more than 256 colors. It is important to know what the best format is for the type of web-page you are designing.

PNG
Portable Network Graphics (PNG) format was created in 1996. PNG uses loss-less compression, similar to GIF, but it can compress more efficiently than the GIF format. The result is slightly smaller file sizes. This format was usually created for use on web pages. PNGs can be displayed in all web browser without special plug-in (Understanding Computers 13th Edition).

 * The main goal is to select the one that gives you the smallest file size and the best quality at that size

Animation
When a series of images described above create movement, it is called animation. In order to ensure that images are grouped together and display in the correct order, a program called Java applet is used. The most common type of image used is a GIF image. When the images show movement, they are called Animated GIF's.

Another type of animation uses JavaScript and is known as Flash. These moving images are more complex than animated GIF's. Many internet games use Flash, as well as ribbons on web sites or navigation bars.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Soft Copy Proofs

Presenting Soft Copy Proofs

Presentation of art is very important. To all the graphic Designers reading, don’t just send customers or clients that you are billing by the hour just a pdf of how the business card looks. Some of the methods that I use of presenting proofs are listed below.

 * 1) If a customer wants some ideas or you notice that his previous design lacks a brand identity, corporate image and so forth, customers or clients could be educated or suggested. Hence never hesitate to suggest ideas to improve their existing art. What I do is instead of designing some thing the exact size I make the page bigger. And make red arrows to point outside the page where I add comments. If I make a change from what the customer desired I will state the reason behind the change and explain the customer what the other thing would do.
 * 2) In addition add the colors and fonts used in the bottom, this helps the customer to form his/her brand. For example if the client has to write a letter or make a quick proposal for their client then they can use the same colors and fonts the graphic designer used to create the identity in Microsoft Word ( assuming they have the fonts and similar colors). This helps to differentiate from other designers and gives the client something more then required a subliminal Corporate Identity.
 * 3) In addition, If you are creating a logo for your client, understand the meaning of shapes and ideas and underneath the logo write a short paragraph explain the reason behind the design of the logo, for example smooth curves along fonts and shapes suggest vulnerability, adaptability, solution oriented artistic approach to the corporate look, Example CNN logo incorporates flow of information smoothness, etc. Be wise to mention these details to the client so he/she understands that symbols and graphic creations hold more validity then its just appearance.
 * 4) Sending PDFs is important if you are asking the client to check out layout accuracy make sure you tell the client to print the pdf and check and make sure to uncheck “shrink large pages”
 * 5) Name pages, other then page 1 or page 2, for example front of brochure, back, show where the folds are or where the perfs are, make a legend or a key in the bottom.

All the details mentioned above don’t take more then 10 minutes, moreover you can make templates of business cards and brochures, etc to incorporate these additional details to save yourself time. It is these tiny details that distinguish your computer design to other designers and adds more credibility and understanding of the design work.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Print Merge

Print Merge – Variable Data Printing Using Corel

This option in Corel Draw allows you to save a lot of time and money It has revolutionized the printing and graphic arts industry. The prime application for variable data printing will be numbering or mail merge. Mail merge can be done using Microsoft word mail merge wizard using an excel sheet with the receivers addresses.

 * 1) Numbering, an example would be of tickets. Let us assume a customer wants to print tickets like the tickets sold by ticketmaster. They are about 1.5” x 8” with number on two sides of the ticket stub. One part that is torn away and given to the attendee and one for record. If this has to be manually numbered then it would take quite a while and a completely different process, but if the quantity was just 500 the customers pays a lot for numbering that doesn’t quite value the tickets since they will be thrown away anyway.
 * 2) First layout all the tickets on the page that have to be printed. Calculate the number of sheets required. Example 500 tickets 16 on a sheet and a total print of 32 sheets
 * 3) The way to do numbering on Corel is to click on print merge.>click new> add new enter values from 1-32 then 32-64 then 64-96 > click “ADD” keep adding all the way until your numbering sets will add to 16(number up on a sheet). Make sure “auto increment” is off then Click >next> You will see a spreadsheet that shows the records click next and save the .txt document in the same folder as the design file.
 * 4) No click on the pointer tool on the side and click where you want to place the numbering, which will be twice on the ticket, then click on the next set on the tool bar “32-42” and then add it on the ticket.
 * 5) After you have successfully added all the numbers DO NOT PRINT, first close down other programs as print merge takes a lot of virtual memory, clean the RIP or print queue or the printer and then click >Print Merge> NOT FILE> PRINT


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/First aid/Smoke fire

In a fire, a person is far more likely to die from smoke inhalation than from exposure to flames. There are two things to remember about smoke: it rises, and if you inhale enough of it, it will kill you. Therefore, if you find yourself in a smoke filled room, get down and crawl. If you can, cover your mouth and nose with a wet cloth to help filter the smoke and keep it from entering your lungs. If water is not available, use a dry cloth - it's better than nothing. Make your way to the door and if it is closed, feel it. If it is hot, do not open it, as this means there is fire on the other side. Try to find another way out such as a window or another exit.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/First aid/Signaling aircraft

Make a distress signal

Make a distress signal on the ground by piling rocks, branches, or other debris to form large letters spelling "S.O.S." This is the universally recognized signal for help. Try to use materials that contrast with the surrounding environment. In winter, you may be able to stomp an SOS into the snow. Make the letters read from east to west (or west to east) so that the shadows catch the letters better.

Light three fires

You may also light three fires to signal for help. Build them either in a line or in a triangle, and get them good and hot. When you see a rescue plane during daylight hours, add green plant matter to the flames. This should cause thick smoke. Be careful to not extinguish the fire by doing this.

Signaling mirror The emergency signaling mirror is approximately 3 by 5 inches and consists of an aluminized reflecting glass mirror, a back cover glass, and a sighting device. It is used to attract the attention of passing aircraft or ships by reflection, either in sunlight or in hazy weather. The reflections of this shatterproof mirror can be seen at a distance of 30 miles at an altitude of 10,000 feet. Though less effective, and with possible shorter range, mirror flashes can also be seen on cloudy days with limited visibility. To use the mirror, proceed as follows:

 * 1) Punch a cross-hole in its center.
 * 2) Hold the mirror about 3 inches in front of your face and sight through the cross at the ship or aircraft. The spot of light shining through the hole onto your face will be seen in the cross-hole.
 * 3) While keeping a sight on the ship or aircraft, adjust the mirror until the spot of light on your face disappears in the hole. The bright spot, seen through the sight, will then be aimed directly at the search ship or aircraft.

|


text:
Solar System/Print version

Solar System

Current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks at URL: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Solar_System

The whole text is available under GNU Free Documentation License.

=Solar System=

=The Sun=

=Mercury=

=Venus=

=Earth=

=Moon=

=Mars=

=Jupiter=

=Saturn=

=Uranus=

=Neptune=

=Pluto=

=Comets=

=Asteroids=

=Meteorites=

=GNU Free Documentation License=

title: Solar System/Print version


text:
Talk:Windows Registry Hacks

Start off getting late
I'm busy till Jan 2007 due to semester exams. Will start writing the book in Jan. -- seXie ♭♭c 08:23, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

Template
Please use the template to specify the values and data.

An example can help with the same

title: Talk:Windows Registry Hacks


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor

Reaktor as effects processor A Tutorial by David Coffin. Used with Author's permission. Tutorial was originally posted to Reaktor User Library, which also contains all described Reaktor instruments.

This tutorial is for beginners to Reaktor (R) and anyone else who wants to explore getting the most out of the vast number of existing R effects and routing components, without the need to build new effects processors. I'll be treating R as big box of stomp-box or rack-mounted processors, modulators and routing tools and describing how to patch, configure and control them in ways inspired by the best hardware effects. As you'll see, doing so in R is very often more flexible and more powerful than anything you could do with hardware. We'll be using R in standalone mode, but of course, any R effects can also be opened in VST and other plug-in hosts.

Contents

 * 1) Basics:
 * 2) The difference between effects and sound sources
 * 3) Processing options
 * 4) Reaktor objects: Ensembles, Instruments, Macros, Modules:
 * 5) Ensembles
 * 6) Instruments
 * 7) Macros
 * 8) Working with Reaktor objects:
 * 9) Extracting instruments from ensembles
 * 10) Turning Macros to instruments
 * 11) Hightlights of the properties window
 * 12) Combining and using effects:
 * 13) Signal routing: mono to stereo - stereo to mono
 * 14) Signal routing: parallel and serial
 * 15) Signal routing devices
 * 16) Matrices
 * 17) Scanners and distributors
 * 18) Parameter modulation
 * 19) LFOs — use waveforms to move parameters
 * 20) Scanned tables — draw your own waves
 * 21) An addendum on tables
 * 22) The paste-from-me instrument
 * 23) Making connections and matching values
 * 24) Snap management and controls
 * 25) Instrument hierarchy
 * 26) Precision snap morphing and randomizing
 * 27) Tips: adding level controls
 * 28) Recommended hardware
 * 29) Where to find Reaktor effects
 * 30) Acknowledgements...


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/The difference between effects and sound sources

The difference between effects and sound sources
Effects have audio inputs and outputs. Sound sources (synths, samplers, loopers, drum machines, etc.) only have audio outs. Effects are usually labeled as such in R library folders, the user library, and other online sources.

I've created an FX Favorites folder and made that a favorite in the Browser, so whenever I open a new effect and like it, I've got a place to save a copy of it, including any new snaps I've created for it, and any other changes I've made to the file. I usually use its original name, so I can track that down if necessary, perhaps with some additional info to distinguish it from the unchanged version.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Processing options

Processing options
To process live input, set your audio system (System?Audio + MIDI Settings) so you're getting meter movement on the Toolbar's Audio Input meters when you play, sing, or otherwise run audio into your computer's audio interface, then load an effect by opening an effect ensemble.

To process audio files, open Reaktor's Playerbox (Mac: Command F2—hold “f” key on Powerbooks/PC: Ctrl F2) and click the folder icon on it, which will open any .wav or .aif file, and give you transport and looping controls for playing the file thru any loaded effects ensemble; no additional wire connecting is required. You can access any other audio file in the same folder with the drop-down menu on the Playerbox, and the Playerbox stays loaded when you change to any other effect ensemble, even if it isn't visible (hit command/ctrl F2 again to see it).

To process other Reaktor ensembles/instruments, open the ensemble structure view (hit the toolbar Structure button, or use the contextual menu for the ensemble Ctrl-click [Mac], right-click [PC]) of a source ensemble and select, then delete, the wires from the source to the Audio Out module. Next, insert an effect instrument into the ensemble structure (using the contextual menu or by dragging it from the Browser), wire (or “patch”) the outputs of the source instrument into the inputs of the effect instrument by dragging from the instrument's Out ports to the effect's In ports, then connect the effect Outs to the Audio Out module.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Ensembles

Ensembles

Ensembles (R documents with suffix .ens) are at the top level of R and have the Reaktor icon in the Browser. Only one can be open at a time; you can't link them together. When you open an Ensemble, you'll see that it contains one or more instruments, plus the Audio In and Audio Out modules, which are only visible in the Ensemble - Structure view... and any ensemble that's currently open will close.

Ensembles can ONLY contain Instruments! All other objects must be inside instruments. To insert other object types into an ensemble, first open the structure of one of the instruments within it, then insert.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Instruments

Instruments

Instruments (R documents with suffix .ism) are the next level below ensembles, and have a keyboard Icon, both in the structure window and in the Browser. Multiple instruments can be open and linked together within an single ensemble. Instruments can be dragged from the Browser or opened from menus to insert them into the open structure window of any type of object that has a window, which includes Ensembles, other Instruments, and Macros.

Only Instruments and ensembles have snapshots, or presets, and every instrument within an ensemble has its own snapshot selector in the Panel view.

No matter where they are inserted, instruments always have their own panel in the panel view. The two instruments above are collapsed, and will expand to reveal their panel controls when either the View A or B button is selected. Once opened, you can unlock each panel to rearrange its controls as you prefer, and each view can hold a different arrangement of, and different selection of, all available controls. You can also open each instrument panel in its own window, in addition to the ensemble window.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Macros

Macros

Macros (documents with suffix .mdl) have an icon with three modules linked together, and are self-contained structures that hold other patched-together objects (including instruments, other macros, and modules), just like instruments.

The difference is that macros don't have their own snapshots or panels. They're designed to organize various parts of a complex instrument or ensemble into sub-devices, all of which will be controlled by a single snapshot taken by the containing instrument. An outline around a portion of the controls on a R panel tells you you're looking at a macro that's inside the structure of that instrument, if the panel designer chose to make the macro outline visible, using the Properties window described later in this tutorial.

Modules are R documents at the lowest level. They're the basic building blocks of all the other objects. Each module has its own unique icon, if there's room for an icon on it. Modules can't be opened and they don't have structure windows; they are configured using the properties window (Mac/PC: F4), as you'll see in the Properties portion of this tutorial. Reconfigured modules can only be saved by saving an object that contains them, not on their own, but once reconfigured, they can be copied and pasted.

All other R components can be opened and altered in a new structure window by double-clicking on them.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Extracting instruments from ensembles

Extracting instruments from ensembles
Most library effects are available as both ensembles and instruments in the library, which makes it easy to assemble your own choice of effects instruments into new multi-effect ensembles. But occasionally you'll come across an ensemble, perhaps in the User Library, that includes one or more new effects instruments that you'd like to borrow. Any instrument within any ensemble can be saved as a standalone instrument by opening its contextual menu, choosing “Save Instrument As... ”, giving it a new name and storing it in a new location, from which you can insert it into any open ensemble, using the browser or the ensemble's contextual menu.

I always add the .ism suffix when I save an instrument this way, and keep .ism's in their own folder within my FX-favorites folder. This isn't strictly necessary; only instruments will show up when you scan a folder of ensembles and instruments in order to insert an instrument into an ensemble structure window. But the Browser is easier to use when huge folders are organized into subfolders.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Turning Macros to instruments

Turning Macros to instruments
You can save a macro as an instrument by pasting it or its contents into an empty instrument, as shown below. It will then have its own snapshots and its own panel in panel view.

Your new instrument will appear in a new panel within the ensemble panel window, as shown above. Looks like the panel layout needs some work... Unlock the panel, fix it, lock it again, then save the instrument to a new location. You can repeat the process for any other macros in the same ensemble, or just close it without saving to leave the original unchanged.

You can also convert instruments to macros, by copying and pasting the contents of an instrument into an empty macro, which can be inserted into any instrument. The converted instrument's controls will then show up on any instrument panel that contains that macro, within an outline if desired, as in R4's Banaan Electrique, shown in the previous example, or in GeekFX from the R3 Premium Library, shown here. The converted instrument won't have its own snapshots or snapshot window, but its settings will be stored and recalled by the snapshots of the instrument that contains it.

I almost always prefer to build multi-effect structures from combined instruments instead of assembled macros, as shown below, so that each device in the structure has its own snapshots, controllable with ensemble-level “master” snapshots, and can open a saved snapshot bank from the same device used and tweeked in some other ensemble. This also allows me to take maximum advantage of snapshot morphing and linking, all of which I'll describe in the Snapshot-panel portion of this tutorial. If necessary, I deal with the screen sizes of large, multiple panels by collapsing the instruments as soon as I have a set of snaps I like for each one.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Hightlights of the properties window

Hightlights of the Properties window
Every Reaktor object has numerous properties, allowing you many different ways to configure the behaviour and appearance of everything you build or use. The following overview and few examples show several interesting properties from an effects-processing and parameter-control perspective. As you read further on in the other parts of this tutorial, you'll see how I've used all of these examples myself when creating the ensemble examples described and included. You may find it most useful to come back to this section for close reading after exploring them. Hit F4 (Mac/PC) to open the Properties window. When open, the Properties window is always on top, and its focus and contents change depending on what object is hi-lited in any panel or structure window (instrument, module, macro, panel control, table, etc.) It has 4 pages:

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Signal routing: mono to stereo - stereo to mono

Signal Routing: Mono to stereo/stereo to mono
Any audio output can be directly cabled to multiple inputs in any R structure, so it's not necessary to use a mixer or other device to split a mono audio signal to send it to both inputs of a stereo processor, or to send stereo or mono signals to multiple inputs. But when you want to combine stereo or multiple outs into a mono input, or multiple signals into a single stereo input pair, you need a mixer or a signal adder.

Mixers are available as instruments, complete with snapshots, found in various config-durations the Instrument library, and in souped-up versions in the User Library. You need a mixer only if you want level and other controls along with the mixing function. Remember that you can delete or disconnect any unwanted panel controls in the structure; disable, hide, or show different sets on the A and B views using the Properties window; or simply collapse the panel when you don't need to see or set the controls.

Adders (which are simply mixers with no controls and all channels set to 0dB when connected to audio signals) are modules; choose “Add” from the Math collection in the Module library. Unlike Mixer instruments, which can be inserted into ensemble structures, “Add” modules can only be inserted inside instrument and macro structures. Once inserted, you define the number of inputs your adder module has by opening the Properties window (F4-Mac/PC), clicking on the adder's label to focus the Properties window on it, selecting the Function page (click on the “gears” icon), then scrolling to or typing in the number you want in the “Min Num Port Groups” field.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Signal routing: parallel and serial

Signal routing: parallel and serial
A simple cabled patch between the ins and outs of any effects instruments puts them in a serial routing, like a daisy chain. Each effect is processed by the effects that come after it in the series chain.

If you split-cable your audio outs to each of the inputs of several unconnected effects instruments, then mix the outputs of each of these with an adder or mixer, you're putting them in a parallel routing, so each effect sounds by itself, unprocessed by the other effects, just mixed together. The sound will always be different than that of the same effects in series. Of course, you can combine these routing schemes within the same ensemble, as shown here.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Signal routing devices

Signal routing devices
Of course, there are devices you can use to create more flexible routings in Reaktor than the simple cabling schemes just described, so let's look at few. You'll find example ensembles using these devices in the downloads that accompany this tutorial.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Matrices

Matrices
Suppose you wanted to link several instruments together in every possible combination of serial and parallel routing, so you could quickly discover all the best combinations. This is easy to do with a mixing matrix, available in various sizes in the R4 Macro library. But hooking these up to get the results just described will take a little tweaking. The most basic way to use a matrix is to send a different source into each input and hook a different destination to each output, so that any source can feed any destination. This is how most modulation matrices work in R4 ensembles.

To make a matrix that sends a single input to all destinations in any order, you need to loop the output columns back into the input rows, taking care that you don't create feedback loops, unless that's what you want.

Here's a stereo, 3x3 mixing matrix made from the same 8x8 mixing matrix shown in the previous example that will give you all possible combinations of three different effects. Notice that a diagonal set of knobs has been muted and hidden to avoid feedback, and that alternate knobs have been muted and hidden within each junction of rows and columns that's needed to create a stereo path, so that each side of the stereo signal is sent to only one side of the output pair, and not equally to both sides.

Here's the finished matrix, with linked and hidden knobs, and a snap set that covers all of the most obvious routings, plus a few less obvious ones that include the output of a single processor, or the dry signal, along with a routed signal. Many more are possible.

An effects ensemble built around such a matrix can be easily played with all panels collapsed and only the matrix snap window visible.

8x8 is the largest prefab mixing matrix in the R4 library, perfect for a 7x7 mono matrix. But it would be easy to create a 7x7 stereo matrix by duplicating the mono version within the same instrument and sending one side of each stereo effect's inputs and outputs to each matrix. Corresponding knobs on each matrix panel could be linked for control by a single knob, and then the linked panel could be hidden. 5x5, 6x6 and even 9x9 matrices would simply require the deletion or addition of one or more of the macros that create the rows and columns within the original 8x8 macro.

The challenge, of course, is to come up with sets of effects that combine well when routed in all possible ways, or even in most of them. I start by looking for effects with very different, obvious, but somewhat transparent textural qualities, such as a filter, a delay, and a gate... or maybe a distortion, flanger, and comb-filter. Dense or subtle effects like reverbs, tremolos, bit crushers, panners and pitch shifters tend not to work so well, but try ‘em all, and don't forget that you can also patch global effects, like reverbs or compressors, after the output of the matrix; powerful (and potentially CPU-intensive!) stuff...

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Scanners and distributors

Scanners and distributors
Two other related modules also offer powerful and uncommon routing options: The Selector/Scanner and the Distributor/Panner. The Distributor allows you to sweep a send position along the inputs of a stack of parallel routings, so that at any given position you are selecting either a single input, or a crossfade between two adjacent inputs. It's as if you were walking down a corridor at night, pointing a flashlight at one wall which had equally spaced windows on it; your signal would be like the light coming from the windows. The Scanner does the same thing with a monitor position along a stacked set of outputs. You can choose either or both, depending on the sound you're after; distributing your inputs into a bank of delays, for instance, would let the feedback ring out after the input has moved on, while a scanner after the same delays would cut off the feedback tails when it moved.

Here's a simple example, using only delays, each with a distinctive texture.

Here's a slightly more complex version of the same basic idea. It adds several series routings to a basic stack of “in-scanned” effects, and several of the effects have envelop-follower inputs, so there's an envelop-follower instrument included, too (these were swiped from a powerful User-library effect: 4fx 004, by Self Oscillate—check it out... and thanks!).

The first effect chain is a filter feeding a 10-second stereo looping delay with MIDI foot-controlled feedback. With the scanner position at 0, and the feedback all the way up, you can record a loop, then play over it ad nauseam without adding to it, just by scanning to a higher position. Three very different effects (a ring-modded distortion plus a delay, a soft stereo echo, and Martin Brinkman's great Multiband Delay, a distinctive filtered multi-tap) provide a range of tones to crossfade between when soloing over the loop, which can be faded out with the feedback control. The whole thing's very seductive... and it's in the tutorial downloads.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Parameter modulation

Parameter modulation
Reaktor's modulation options are frankly mindblowing. There are virtually endless ways to make any knob or parameter automatically wiggle, sweep, jump, skitter and snap between any points in its range. And any modulator can itself be modulated, with exquisite visual feedback to help you fine-tune the results. The following examples are the “so-far-so-amazing!” results of my efforts to mimic modulation options I've enjoyed on sophistcated hardware processors... and Reaktor puts them all to shame. We'll look first at a few Reaktor modulators at work, then explore how to hook them—or any other modulation source—up for the most flexible, precise and easiest results.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/LFOs — use waveforms to move parameters

LFOs—Use waveforms to move parameters
A Low Frequency Oscillator is simply a wave-form generator whose waves are moving so slowly that they can be used as a modulation source, instead of so fast that they make a sound (and would be more useful as a sound source for a synth).

You can connect the output of any LFO available in Reaktor, either from the Macro or Module Libraries, or swiped from other instruments and ensembles, via MIDI, to any knob, slider, or other panel control and watch the control move, following the LFO's wave form, which can be one of several common types, including sine, triangle, pulse, random, and others.

The trick is to focus the movement exactly where you want it using the LFO's control settings, its properties and other modules which can change the values and shapes of the waves. Most LFOs are “bi-polar;” that is, their wave-forms travel equally far both above and below zero, creating both positive and negative values. Many knobs, etc., on the other hand, only go from zero to maximum. So, the first thing I set out to build was a Positive-only LFO.

Of course, I didn't have to build this from scratch; I just asked about it in the Reaktor forums, and many ideas and suggestions appeared over night (special thanks to Chris List and John Nowak). And, I later discovered that several LFOs with positive-only settings already exist for the taking... there's one in the Green Matrix synth, for example, which I've used here and included in the downloads; it's hooked up to the Position Slider in the InScanner instrument just described. Let's take a closer look.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Scanned tables — draw your own waves

Scanned tables — draw your own waves
Our next modulation tool expands the scope of the Positive-only LFO by allowing it to scan multiple wave-forms that you can draw yourself. You can also scan these wave-forms using a MIDI controller, such as a foot-pedal, or with an envelop follower, for totally sound-driven, customized modulations (many thanks to John Nowak, who built the tables!).

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/An addendum on tables

An addendum on tables
Here are a few table-related tips, plus a description of a new table-drawing instrument I've added to the pedal-driven tables ensemble; it allows you to create table curves using math modules, and it's sized to simplify copying and pasting from it into the pedal-driven tables.

The tips: A table has three modes: D (draw), S (select), and C (control). Change modes by clicking in the mode indicator box in the upper left hand of the table window, or by hitting the TAB key when the table is selected. D lets you draw in the table, S lets you select all or part by dragging in the table, and C locks the table so it can't be altered. To copy or paste from one table to another, or from one part of a table to another, both the source and the destination table or part must be selected. You can shift a selection vertically (scale it) by clicking and dragging up and down with the mouse when pressing Command (Mac) or Ctrl (PC), and shift horizontally (rotate it) by clicking and dragging right or left when pressing the Shift key.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/The paste-from-me instrument

The paste-from-me instrument
Thanks to some great suggestions from Herwig Krass in the Reaktor Creator's forum, I patched together a serviceable device for drawing mathematically derived shapes in a table—here it is:

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Making connections and matching values

Making connections and matching values
The modulators I've just demonstrated are already connected to their targets, either with a direct cable connection, or via MIDI using a Properties connection between instruments. Here are a few things to think about when you to connect them to other targets.

A cable can be a direct replacement for a panel control module (knob, slider, whatever), eliminating it, or it can be connected to a switch along with the panel control module, becoming a switchable alternative to it, so the control will not work when the modulator is switched on. A modulator can also be added to a panel control (as the Position slider is in the InScanner example), which can be an interesting variation in cases where the incoming values wrap around to the beginning of the range when they exceed the target's maximum. Both the InScanner position and the tables just demonstrated are set up this way in their respective Properties.

With a direct, cabled connection, you have to match the values coming out of your modulator to the value-range of the mod target, using the Range-value boxes on the Function page of the Properties window.

Check out the mods and targets in each of included examples via their Properties window's Function page. You'll see, for example, that since the InScan's Position range is 0 to 3, that's what the connected LFO is configured to send.

Since the LFO is bi-polar, its range was set from -3 to 3, which only becomes 0 to 3 when its Positive-only switch is activated. When Positive-only is off, the position slider stops responding whenever the LFO is putting out negative values. This can be a useful effect, creating alternating periods of movement and no movement, but it's nice to be able to switch it off.

Notice that the Pos knob that sets the amplitude range for the LFO also had to be set to max at 3.

Notice also that the same LFO driving the scan-position slider in the Table modulator instrument needed to be set from -127 to 127, since 0 to 127 is the range of its target... and its corresponding Range knob was set from 0 to 127.

On the other hand, when connecting a modulator via MIDI, the mod source acts just like a hardware controller that you'd connect using the MIDI-Learn function in the control's contextual menu or by setting a controller # on the Connections page of its Properties window.

As a result, the panel control will move in response to the modulator, which can be a helpful aid when adjusting the modulator. Another advantage of a wireless MIDI connection is that you don't have to build a path for a virtual cable; no extra in or out ports are needed, and you don't have to dig deep into a possibly complex structure to figure out where the cable should go.

Yet another advantage to a MIDI connection is that you don't have to match values between the MIDI controller and its target, which is ideal for multiple targets that have different ranges. But you do have to match the range of the MIDI controller to the modulator that's driving it, as I did with the controllers connected to the tables in that example. Once properly configured, these controllers will modulate the complete range of any target, regardless of its range settings, just like a hardware MIDI controller.

Finally, open the Envelop Follower in the table mod instrument and notice that to configure it to correctly drive the full range of the tables in that instrument, I had to change the constant within the follower's Order macro from 1, as shown here, to 127, along with the + and - maximums for its positive and negative meters.

Scratching your head over all this value matching? Well, the examples are all pre-configured, but perhaps you'll prefer the elegant, number-free and extremely powerful modulation options offered by R4's magnificent Snap-Morphing feature, which I'll describe next. But before you abandon modulators altogether, by all means check out one more modulator that I've included in the tutorial downloads, courtesy of its creator, Len Sasso, author of many Reaktor magazine articles, and the excellent Wizoo Guide to Reaktor 3 (here's hoping Len will update this useful book soon!). It's a fantastic mod matrix of the first type I described under Matrices.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Snap management and controls

Snap management and controls
The Snapshot window is definitely my favorite new feature in Reaktor 4. In addition to its welcome snap-organizing and -display features, it's also extremely powerful and flexible as a parameter modulator, via its Morphing and Randomizing features. Let's start with a few basics. When the Snapshot window is open (hit F6, or click on the camera icon in any panel header: ), you can change its focus to any existing instrument within the current ensemble by simply clicking anywhere on the desired instrument panel, or by using the drop-down menu in the window's upper-left corner to select the instrument you want. If you don't want the window's focus to change whenever you click outside it, click on the Link icon to un-hi-lite it when the focus is as you want it, and it will stay put.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Instrument hierarchy

Instrument hierarchy
To save the settings of multiple instruments with a single snap, you need to create a snapshot master. This can be either an instrument that contains the instruments you want it to be the master for, or it can be the ensemble itself... or both.

In the ensemble shown below, neither instrument can be the master for the ensemble, because they're both at the same level; one is not contained within the other, they're both simply contained within the ensemble. The ensemble can be the master, but not as it's configured here, simply because there is currently no ensemble header to provide a snapshot selector.

To create an ensemble header, simply open Properties (F4), go to the Appearance page, and focus it on the ensemble by clicking on the ensemble panel background. Hi-lite the “Visible in Main Panel” button, and the header will pop into view.

To make the ensemble the snapshot master for the instruments in the ensemble, focus the Properties on the header by selecting it, then switch to the Functions page, and hi-lite the “Snapshot Master for Plugin” button. Next, focus the same page on each instrument whose snaps you want to control with the Master, and turn on the “Store by Parent” and “Recall by Parent” buttons for each one.

Now you can see ensemble-level snapshots for our example ensemble, and that they are master snaps, both saving a new snap to each instrument snapshot bank when created, and recalling all those snaps when selected.

Interestingly, you can create nested instrument hierarchies with multiple snapshot masters within a single ensemble, as shown below. Each instrument at the ensemble level here is simply a container, holding two processing instruments within it. Only the Ensemble in this case has been designated as “Snapshot Master for Plugin” in its Properties. All the instruments are simply set up to store and recall “by Parent,” as just described, but selecting a snap in either “sub-master” container instrument will recall the same snap in each “child” instrument inside it. This demo ensemble is included in the tutorial downloads, so you can experiment with this snap-storing process.

Note that master snaps are inserted in “child” instrument banks in the same numbered slot as they have in the parent bank, bumping all existing snaps up a slot each time a new master snap is created.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Precision snap morphing and randomizing

Precision snap morphing and randomizing
You've no doubt already played with the cool snap-morphing feature in R4; you simply load a different snap from the same instrument into the Snap A and Snap B slots, and then move the slider and watch and listen as the panel controls (except the buttons and switches) move from their settings in one snap to their settings in the other. The rate of change can be timed, from 0.01 seconds to 10 seconds, using the Morph Time parameter, or it can be equal to the rate of the slider movement, if the Morph Time is set to 0. When set above 0, the rate applies to any movement of the slider, so that no matter how far you move the slider, it will still take the designated time for the affected parameters to morph from the starting position to the ending one.

The key point is that only those parameters that have different settings in Snap A and Snap B will change during a morph. Those that are the same, of course, won't change.

It follows, then, that to target any number of specific parameters for modulation (except buttons and switches), you simply store the snap you want to modulate into two snapshot slots, change to new values only those parameters you want to morph in one of the snaps and overwrite that snap, then assign these two snaps to the A and B slots. Morphing between them will affect only those parameters you changed. You can set the target parameters to their minimum values in either Snap and their maximum values in the other to morph across their full range, or confine their settings to whatever range(s) and directions you want.

If you morph a master snap when the snap window is focused on a Master instrument or ensemble, it will modulate the panel controls of all child instruments, so long as there is a different snap in the A and B slots of all their Snapshot windows. In fact, you can set up any pair of A and B snaps in each subordinate instrument; they don't have to be the same snaps chosen in the master instrument. (If you like your new settings, just store them as a new master snap.) When the Link icon is hi-lited, you can quickly switch the Snapshot window's focus by clicking on the target instruments, and thereby refocus the morphing function as well.

Randomizing just the parameters that are different in an A-B pair of snaps is the function of the RND Merge button on the Snapshot window, which makes it a very quick way to target specific parameters for randomization, compared to selecting all those parameters you don't want to randomize and random-isolating them in their Properties windows.

You can focus either randomizing function at both master instruments and child instruments, as just described for snap-morph focusing.

It's also easy to assign an external MIDI controller to the morphing slider, but not in the usual way, using a contextual menu and “MIDI Learn.” Instead, you have to open the Properties window for the ensemble, go to the Connections page and assign a “Morph Controller” number that matches the MIDI controller you want to use, using the value window, then turn the function on by hi-liting its button.

Of course, “MIDI In” must be activated, the desired device selected, and all channels set correctly, as usual... and you'll get the best results when the Morph Time is set to 0.

Naturally, it's also possible to assign an internal modulator, such as an LFO or envelop follower, to the morphing slider. I haven't been able to do this using the ensemble's Morph Controller number and an internal MIDI connection, as just described, but easy to do once you insert a snapshot module into your target instrument. There's macro version of this module in the tutorial downloads, and here it is in action:

(Almost all the same functions on the Snapshot window are also available as panel controls on the snapshot macro panel, but since they're just as easily accessed on the window itself, I've made only the slider visible in this example. )

It's hard to imagine an easier way to quickly target a variety of parameters, set their mod ranges and modulate them, than by automating a morphing slider like this. You can put a snap macro in at the master level (make it an instrument to put it in at the ensemble level) and then focus it where you want by setting A-B snaps for only those instruments you want to modulate.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Tips: adding level controls

Tips: Adding level controls
To make an effects routing more useable when processing external audio, you can add an audio-in level control. With a MIDI controller assigned to the panel control, you'll be able to externally adjust the send-level of your signal to the R effects chain. The controller becomes the virtual equivalent of a stereo or mono volume pedal patched in front of your effects hardware. One easy way to do this is to insert the 2x2 stereo mixer from the R4 instrument library into your ensemble, right after the Audio In module or anywhere else you want it, then either delete all unwanted mixer panel-control modules in the Mixer structure, or use the Properties window to disable and make invisible everything in the panel except two input channels and the master level control. You'll find an already trimmed-down copy in the downloads that accompany this tutorial.

To keep the effects output level from distorting the Audio Out module or the inputs of the next processor in the chain, you can add a limiter. A simple, CPU-efficient, stereo peak limiter is available as an instrument in the R4 library, and it can be inserted anywhere within or after a chain of other instruments, as often as needed.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Recommended hardware

Recommended hardware
An ideal live or studio setup for using R effects is to use a mixer to monitor and process your audio, treating R and your computer as a hardware effects unit patched into the mixer's effects sends. Using a mixer allows you to hear the R effects either by themselves or mixed with the external audio sources they're processing, so you can keep your effect ensembles as full-wet processors. I always bring the R/computer outs into their own pair(s) of mixer channels, rather than the mixer's effects returns, so the processed signal (and any R sound sources) can be further processed by hardware effects using the mixer's additional effect sends.

A tabletop or footpedal MIDI controller is a great addition to any R studio. As a guitar player, I prefer footpedals, and I want lots of continuous-controller pedals as well as switches, or inputs for hooking up additional pedals. I use a Roland FC-200, and it's ideal, offering six pedal inputs in addition to the included switches and pedal. Once your MIDI system is configured properly, it's wonderful to simply control/?-click on any R panel control, choose MIDI Learn from the contextual menu, wiggle the controller you want to use, and see the control move in response.

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Where to find Reaktor effects

Where to find Reaktor effects
Almost every R ensemble includes effects, either as part of the processing for a sound-making source, or by themselves. Besides the R3 and R4 libraries and the incredible User's library, there are several websites, either from individuals or groups, that offer free or inexpensive downloadable effects ensembles and instruments.

 * http://joeorgren.com/tech.htm
 * http://www.lost-online.com/
 * http://www.semaforte.com/reaktor/files.htm
 * http://www2.charlielamm.com/reaktor/download/index.
 * http://www.midiworld.org/AuReality/products/reaktor/reaktor.
 * http://www.swiftkick.com/
 * http://www.martin-brinkmann.de/ensembles.html
 * http://www.kvraudio.com/get/54.html

next page


text:
Reaktor/Tutorials/Reaktor as effects processor/Acknowledgements...

Acknowledgements... and a reminder
Many thanks, once again, to all those generous and creative souls who contributed to this tutorial effort, and to the many I haven't named who continue to help me see Reaktor's power and possibilities via the several Reaktor on-line forums (there are some good ones at Yahoo and K-V-R, as well as the ones at the NI site). Reaktor users have created an amazing community, and I urge all readers to join in.

Finally, please remember that because Reaktor is such a flexible, open-ended environment, there are certainly many alternative ways to do anything described in this tutorial, and many additional options I haven't even dreamed of. I've simply included here what I thought were the easiest ideas to implement, based on what I could imagine.

So, go boldly forth and invent new stuff... and I hope you'll share your discoveries with the rest of us!


text:
User:KFP

My user page is at the English Wikipedia.

title: User:KFP


text:
Korean/Adjectives

Adjectives come in two forms in Korean. In their main form, they are inflected like verbs (i.e. with honorifics, tense, and speech levels) and come at the end of their sentence or clause.

 * 붉다: "(to be) red"
 * 푸르다: "(to be) blue"
 * 크다: "(to be) big"
 * 작다: "(to be) small"

Adjectives also have an "attributive" form that ends in ㄴ (often 은). Grammatically, adjectives in this form are 관형사 ("determiners"), which always come before the noun they modify.

 * 붉은: "red"
 * 푸른: "blue"
 * 큰: "big"
 * 작은: "small"

Some abstract Korean nouns translate as adjectives:

 * 녹색: "(the color) green"

title: Korean/Adjectives


text:
User talk:Tim Henderson

=Welcome= Hi Tim,

I can't say how pleasing it is to have someone join in with this project! Let me know if I can help in any way: I've been here a little while and have found my feet, but wouldn't call myself an expert by any means. See you around!

Ewen

title: User talk:Tim Henderson


text:
User:The Halo~enwikibooks/Sig

Th ε Halo Θ

title: User:The Halo~enwikibooks/Sig


text:
Talk:Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry/Visualization

JMol
Cool images! Is there any way we can get Jmol working for this book? I'm not sure who to ask and I don't have the technical whatchamacallit. Ewen 17:04, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Ewen, I've considered it. There are a few issues. The main issue is that I believe it requires modifications to some permission stuff on the web server which may be beyond what anyone's allowed to do around here. Another problem is that the books are intended to be textbooks and while having interactive molecules would be fantastic, particularly for the stereochemistry stuff, there's no way to make them part of the printed text, so wherever they're used to demonstrate 3D, the text would need to be sufficiently complete with regular diagrams as well so that the JMol stuff could be excluded and it would be nice if they didn't crowd the page with the other diagrams.
 * What might be a workable solution is to set up separate pages which aren't part of the printed book, where users could go look at JMol examples. I'll talk to Whiteknight about it and see if it's feasible at all. -- Pete 18:38, 19 November 2006 (UTC)


text:
Hebrew/Archive/Vocabulary

This page is for all the vocabulary words. Please include links to lessons where the words are introduced (when possible).

a
-- apple Hebrew/Fruit -- apples Hebrew/Fruit

b
-- bad (inferior) gar-u-a Hebrew/Good and Bad -- banana Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2, Hebrew/Fruit -- book say-fer -- bread Hebrew/Food

c
-- cold kar Hebrew/Good and Bad -- cup se-fel  Hebrew/Drinks

d
-- daddy (singular, masculine, informal) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

-- daughter (singular, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

e
-- eggs Hebrew/Food -- evening Hebrew/Time

f
father (singular, masculine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- fruit payrot Hebrew/Fruit

g
-- (drinking) glass kos Hebrew/Drinks -- good tov Hebrew/Good&Bad

h
-- he hoo Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns -- Hebrew iv-reet

i
-- I anee Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns

l
-- letter Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 love (singular, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

m
-- milk Hebrew/Food, Hebrew/Drinks -- mommy (feminine, singular, familiar address)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- morning Hebrew/Time -- mother (feminine, singular  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3

n
-- name  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4

o
-- ok besedar Hebrew/Good and Bad -- orange tapuz Hebrew/Fruit

p
-- peace Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- policeman -- printers midpasot Hebrew/Nouns

q
Queen-מלכה-Malka

s
-- sabbath (feminine, singular)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3 -- she hee Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns

-- six Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 son (masculine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

t
-- them (masculine, plural)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3 -- they (plural, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

w
-- warm chaym Hebrew/Good and Bad -- water Hebrew/Food -- we a-nakh-nu Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns -- what Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- where ay-fO Hebrew/Places -- who mee  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet5 -- wine ya-yeen Hebrew/Drinks -- word Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4

y
-- you (singular, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- you (singular, masculine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- you (masculine, plural) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3 -- you (feminine, plural) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3

א
father (singular, masculine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- daddy (singular, masculine, informal) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 love (singular, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- where ay-fO Hebrew/Places -- mommy (feminine, singular, familiar address)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- mother (feminine, singular  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3  -- I anee Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns  -- we a-nakh-nu Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns  -- letter  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4  -- you (singular, feminine)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2  -- you (singular, masculine)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2  -- you (masculine, plural)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3  -- you (feminine, plural)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3

ב
son (masculine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- banana Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2 -- eggs Hebrew/Food -- ok b'sedar Hebrew/Good and Bad -- morning Hebrew/Time -- daughter (singular, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

ג
-- bad (inferior) gar-u-a Hebrew/Good and Bad

ה
-- she hee Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns -- he hoo Hebrew/Personal_Pronouns -- them (masculine, plural)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3 -- they (plural, feminine) Hebrew/Aleph-Bet2

ח
-- milk Hebrew/Food -- warm chaym Hebrew/Good and Bad

י
-- wine ya-yeen Hebrew/Drinks

כ
-- (drinking) glass kos Hebrew/Drinks

ל
-- bread Hebrew/Food

מ
-- printers midpasot Hebrew/Nouns -- what Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- word Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- who mee  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet5 -- water Hebrew/Food

ס
-- cup say-fel  Hebrew/Drinks -- book say-fer

ע
-- Hebrew -- evening

פ
-- fruit payrot Hebrew/Fruit

ק
-- cold kayr Hebrew/Good and Bad

ש
-- sabbath (feminine, singular)  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3 -- policeman -- peace Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- name  Hebrew/Aleph-Bet3, Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4 -- six Hebrew/Aleph-Bet4

ת
-- good tov Hebrew/Good&Bad -- apple Hebrew/Fruit -- apples Hebrew/Fruit -- orange tapuz Hebrew/Fruit

Vocabulary

title: Hebrew/Archive/Vocabulary


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C3/Integration

Integration of Natural Equations
In core three you will be required to know the formulae for integrating a function involving a natural equation. The formulae for the integration of $$\frac{1}{x}$$ is especially important because if you try to integrate it using the formulae that we learned in core two you will get a zero in the denominator. The formulae are:
 * $$ \int \operatorname{e}^{kx}\, dx = \frac{1}{k}\operatorname{e}^{kx} + c $$
 * $$ \int \frac{1}{x}\, dx = \ln \left|x\right| + c$$
 * The integral of an exponential function to any base is: $$\int\operatorname{a}^x\, dx = \frac{1}{\ln(\operatorname{a})}\operatorname{a}^x+C$$

Example
Integrate the following function $$4x^3 - \frac{1}{x} + 4\operatorname{e}^{4x}$$.

Using the formulae we get:

$$\int 4x^3 - \frac{1}{x} + 4\operatorname{e}^{4x}\, dx = x^4 - \ln\left|x\right| + \operatorname{e}^{4x} + c$$

Integration Involving Linear Substitution
Currently we can not integrate directly a composite function, if we need to integrate a composite function we need to perform a linear substitution. To integrate the complex function ''f[g(x)]', we need to use the following procedure.
 * 1) Set u = g(x)
 * 2) Find the derivative of u and solve for dx
 * 3) In the function replace g(x) with u and dx with the result obtained in step 2.
 * 4) Integrate the function with respect to u.
 * 5) Replace u with g(x).

Example
Integrate $$(12x + 9)^8$$.
 * 1) u = 12x + 9
 * 2) $$\frac{du}{dx} = 12$$ and $$dx = \frac{du}{12}$$
 * 3) $$\int u^8 \frac{du}{12}$$ which is equivalent to $$\frac{1}{12}\int u^8 du$$
 * 4) $$\frac{u^9}{108}$$
 * 5) $$\frac{(12x + 9)^9}{108} + C$$

Another more complex example:

Integrate $$ 3x(6x-2)^5 $$. $$\frac{1}{6}\int \frac{u^6}{2} du + \frac{1}{6} \int \frac{2u^5}{2}$$
 * 1) u = 6x - 2
 * 2) $$\frac{du}{dx} = 6 $$ and $$dx = \frac{du}{6}$$
 * 3) $$\int 3xu^5 \frac{du}{6}$$
 * 4) This time, however, we've got an x term left in the equation. We can't integrate with respect to u if an x is lurking around, so we have to get rid of it.
 * 5) If u = 6x - 2, then x = $$\frac{u+2}{6}$$
 * 6) Substitute this to the integral:
 * 7) $$\int 3(\frac{u+2}{6})u^5 \frac{du}{6}$$
 * 8) Multiply out and generally clean up the integral:
 * 9) $$\int (\frac{u+2}{2})u^5 \frac{du}{6}$$ = $$\frac{1}{6}\int (\frac{u^6+2u^5}{2}) du$$
 * 10) Split it into two and integrate:

$$= \frac{1}{6} (\frac{u^7}{14} + \frac{2u^6}{12}) + C$$

Volumes of Revolution
Integrals are used to find the volume of a shape that is created by rotating a line or set of lines around the x or y axis's. We can only revolve around an axis that is independent. This is also the way to prove the formulae for the volumes of such shapes as cones and spheres. The method that you will learn in this module is known as the disk method. The formulae are:
 * $$ V_x = \pi \int_{a}^{b} y^2\, dx$$
 * $$ V_y = \pi \int_{c}^{d} x^2\, dy$$

The procedure is:
 * 1) Square the function and integrate
 * 2) Input the highest value.
 * 3) Input the lower value.
 * 4) Subtract the result from the higher value from the result of the lower value. The answer has to be positive.
 * 5) If the curve is bounded by another curve do steps 1 to 5 and then subtract the lower curve from the higher curve. The a is the highest point at which the two curves meet and b is the lowest point at which the two curves meet.

Example One: Area between a Curve and an Axis
Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the line$$ y = \frac{2}{2x + 9}$$ around the x-axis and bounded by the line x = 6 and the y - axis.
 * 1) First we square the function and integrate
 * 2) $$\pi \int^6_0 \left(\frac{2}{2x + 9}\right)^2 \,dx$$
 * 3) $$\pi \int^6_0 \frac{4}{\left\{2x + 9\right\}^2} \,dx$$
 * 4) $$\pi\left [ \frac{-2}{2x + 9}\right]^6_0$$
 * 5) Then we input the highest value.
 * 6) $$\frac{-2}{2\times6 + 9} = \frac{-2}{21}$$
 * 7) Then we input the lowest value.
 * 8) $$\frac{-2}{2\times0 + 9} = \frac{-2}{9}$$
 * 9) Finally we subtract the result from the higher value from the result of the lower value. The answer has to be positive.
 * 10) $$\pi \left(\frac{-2}{21}- \frac{-2}{9}\right) = \frac{8}{63}\pi$$
 * 11) The area of the solid is $$\frac{8}{63}\pi$$.

Example Two: Area between Two Curves
Find the volume of the object bounded by the curves $$y = x^2\,$$ and $$y = \sqrt{x}$$ revolved around the x-axis.
 * 1) First we find where they are equal.
 * 2) $$x^2 = \sqrt{x}$$ x = 1 or 0
 * 3) Then we integrate the first function.
 * 4) $$\pi \int^1_0 x^4 \, dx$$
 * 5) $$\pi\left[\frac{x^5}{5}\right]^1_0$$
 * 6) Now we input the higher number.
 * 7) $$\frac{1^5}{5} = \frac{1}{5}$$
 * 8) Then we input the lower number.
 * 9) $$\frac{0^5}{5} = \frac{0}{5}$$
 * 10) We subtract and we get $$\frac{1\pi}{5}$$
 * 11) Now we need to do the same for the second curve.
 * 12) We integrate the second function.
 * 13) $$\pi\int^1_0 x \, dx$$
 * 14) $$\pi\left[\frac{x^2}{2}\right]^1_0$$
 * 15) Now we input the higher number.
 * 16) $$\frac{1^2}{2} = \frac{1}{2}$$
 * 17) Then we input the lower number.
 * 18) $$\frac{0^2}{2} = \frac{0}{2}$$
 * 19) We subtract and we get $$\frac{1\pi}{2}$$
 * 20) Finally we subtract the area the upper curve from the area of the lower curve
 * 21) $$\frac{1\pi}{2} - \frac{1\pi}{5} = \frac{3\pi}{10}$$
 * 22) The area of the solid bounded by the curves $$y = x^2\,$$ and $$y = \sqrt{x}$$ and rotated around the x-axis is $$\frac{3\pi}{10}$$

title: A-level Mathematics/OCR/C3/Integration


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Ecology

Inhabitants
What kinds of life can live in a fresh-water pond ecosystem? Consider these:

Can you think of others?

Habitats
There are four distinct habitats in a fresh-water pond ecosystem:

 * Surface film: The surface film is the top six inches of water on the pond's surface. This habitat is where many types of life exist, including mosquito larvae, air-breathing animals, and insects that can "walk" on the surface by exploiting its surface tension.  Life on the surface is not limited to the animal kingdom however.  You may also find floating plants and algae there.
 * Open water: fish, turtles, plankton, phytoplankton, crustaceans
 * Bottom: Animals that live in the mud on the bottom of a pond include crayfish, dragonfly nymphs, rotifers, and bacteria. These animals feed on dead organic matter that makes its way to the bottom.
 * Shore: On the shore of a pond you will find many plants. Some of these plants grow on the bank, others grow in the water, and still others grow in both places.  Some plants will have roots under the water, but stems, leaves, and flowers above the surface.  Others will grow completely under the water.

 * http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1992/5/92.05.07.x.html

2. Pick one mammal, bird, reptile, and amphibian from your home environment, and for each construct a diagram of its ecological pyramid.

An Ecological Pyramid (or Trophic pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. Biomass pyramids show the abundance or biomass of organisms at each trophic level, while productivity pyramids show the production or turn-over in biomass. Ecological Pyramids begin with producers on the bottom and proceed through the various trophic levels, the highest of which is on top.

3. Know the meaning of the following terms

 * a. Ecology: The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments.
 * b. Community: Refers to the organisms (plants and animals) in an ecosystem
 * c. Food chain: Describes the feeding relationships between species in an ecological community. They graphically represent the transfer of material and energy from one species to another within an ecosystem. Organisms are connected to the organisms they consume by arrows representing the direction of biomass transfer.
 * d. Commensalism: Describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped.
 * e. Ecological succession: A fundamental concept in ecology, refers to more-or-less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community.
 * f. Plankton: Plankton are any drifting organism that inhabits the water column of oceans, seas, and bodies of fresh water. They are widely considered to be some of the most important organisms on Earth, due to the food supply they provide to most aquatic life.
 * g. Conservation: The science of analyzing and protecting Earth's biological diversity. Conservation biology draws from the biological, physical and social sciences, economics, and the practice of natural-resource management.
 * h. Climax community: The term climax community is a largely obsolete ecological term for a biological community of plants and animals which, through the process of ecological succession - the development of vegetation in an area over time - has reached a steady state. Support among ecologists for the climax theory declined, because they found the theory with its many coined terms difficult to apply, because they were dissatisfied how it compared to observed individual organisms, and because better theories developed. Despite the overall abandonment of climax theory, during the 1990s use of climax concepts again became more popular among some theoretical ecologists. Many authors and nature-enthusiasts continue to use the term "climax" in a diluted form to refer to what might otherwise be called mature or old-growth communities.
 * i. Eutrophication: Eutrophication refers to an increase in the primary productivity of any ecosystem.  It is caused by the increase of chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus. It may occur on land or in water.  In aquatic environments, enhanced growth of choking aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton (that is, an algal bloom) disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems.
 * j. Biome: A biome is a major class of ecologically similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined based on factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and other factors like climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetinoc, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation.

==4. Make detailed field observations and a careful library book study of the habitat of some small animal in your own environment. Write a report of about 700 words, one-half from your field observations and one-half from your book study. == The choice of an animal to study is totally up to you. You may wish to choose one that you see a lot (which will provide ample opportunities for study), or you may choose a rare species (which may be more interesting). Make a list of species that interest you, then go to the library and find several books on each. Then look them over briefly to help narrow your choice. Finally, make field observations. Look over the Animal Tracking honor to help you find indicators of the species you are studying. Find out what the animal likes to eat and look for signs of its dinner. If you cannot find any sign of the creature you wish to study, you may wish to select a different one.

For your field study, take a camera, notepad, and pencil. Take copious notes of everything you see. When you are finished with your observations, start organizing your notes and combine them with the information you gathered from the library books to write your report.

5. Define an ecosystem and state what the basic biological and physical factors are that keep it a balanced system.

 * Ecosystem:An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms in an area functioning together with all the non-living physical factors of the environment.

Ecological balance has been defined as "A stable balance in the numbers of each species in an ecosystem." A healthy ecology is one that is in balance.

Biological Factors
Biological factors influence ecosystem viability; these factors are considered as either intraspecific and interspecific relations.

Intraspecific relations are those which are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of co-operation or competition, with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies.

Interspecific relations—interactions between different species—are numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental or neutral effect (for example, mutualism (relation ++) or competition (relation --). The most significant relation is the relation of predation (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the essential concepts in ecology of food chains (for example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger size). A high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey populations in that low availability of food and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of each, respectively. Selective hunting of species by humans which leads to population decline is one example of a high predator to prey ratio in action. Other interspecific relations include parasitism, infectious disease and competition for limiting resources, which can occur when two species share the same ecological niche.

Physical Factors
Physical factors are geological, geographical, hydrological and climatological parameters. Specific physical factors include:
 * Water, which is at the same time an essential element to life and a milieu
 * Air, which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide to living species and allows the dissemination of pollen and spores
 * Soil, at the same time source of nutriment and physical support
 * Soil pH, salinity, nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all influential
 * Temperature, which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for some species
 * Light, which provides energy to the ecosystem through photosynthesis
 * Natural disasters (volcanoes, floods, etc.) can also be considered physical factors

6. Investigate the disposal of trash in your community. How much is disposed per family per day? per week? per year? How better can it be taken care of?
Contact your local waste management authority to gather data for this requirement.

Collection methods vary widely between different countries and regions, and it would be impossible to describe them all. For example, in Australia most urban domestic households have a bin that is emptied weekly by the local council. In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Roosevelt Island has had this system since 1975. In Canadian urban centers curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people usually dispose of their waste at transfer stations. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.

Many areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system in place.

Disposal methods also vary widely. In Australia, the most common method of disposal of solid waste is in landfill sites, as it is a large country with a low-density population. By contrast, in Japan it is more common for waste to be incinerated, because the country is smaller and land is scarce.

==7. Check the daily paper for one month for the nearest large city for the air pollution level or air quality and plot on graph paper the results for the month. Find out what caused the peaks on your graph. == There are numerous weather sites on the Internet that post the Air Quality Index, (AQI). One such site is http://www.wunderground.com/

Another resource is the U.S. Environment Protection Agency (EPA), which plots the AQI for the United States and Canada at http://airnow.gov/

The EPA calculates the AQI for five major air pollutants regulated by the Clean Air Act: ground-level ozone, particle pollution (also known as particulate matter), carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.

 * Ozone: In the Earth's lower atmosphere, near ground level, ozone is formed when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources react chemically in the presence of sunlight. Ozone at ground level is a harmful air pollutant.
 * Particle pollution:There are both natural and human sources of atmospheric particulates. The biggest natural sources are dust, volcanoes, and forest fires. Sea spray is also a large source of particles though most of these fall back to the ocean close to where they were emitted. The biggest human sources of particles are combustion sources, mainly the burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines in automobiles and power plants, and wind blown dust from construction sites and other land areas where the water or vegetation has been removed. Some of these particles are emitted directly to the atmosphere (primary emissions) and some are emitted as gases and form particles in the atmosphere (secondary emissions).
 * Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide, with the chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It is the product of the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing compounds, notably in internal-combustion engines. It has significant fuel value, burning in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing carbon dioxide. Despite its serious toxicity, CO is extremely useful and underpins much modern technology, being a precursor to a myriad of useful — even life-saving — products. It consists of one carbon atom covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. It is a gas at room temperature.
 * Sulfur dioxide: Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum contain various amounts of sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.
 * Nitrogen dioxide: Nitrogen dioxide is toxic by inhalation. Symptoms of poisoning tend to appear several hours after one has inhaled a low but potentially fatal dose. Also, low concentrations (4 ppm) will anesthetize the nose, thus creating a potential for overexposure. Long-term exposure to NO2 at concentrations above 40–100 µg/m³ causes adverse health effects. The most important source of NO2 is internal combustion engines, which emit nitrogen oxides near people. A major industrial source is pulp mills.

8. List ten ways in which you might actively work to improve the environment in which you live. Put four of these into practice.
Here are a few.
 * 1) Reduce the amount of resources you consume.
 * 2) Reuse things you might otherwise throw away.
 * 3) Recycle as many things as you can.
 * 4) Reduce the amount of junk mail by getting your name off mailing lists.
 * 5) Compost your yard waste and kitchen scraps.
 * 6) Clean up a stream bank.
 * 7) Adopt a highway, park, or alley.
 * 8) Plant a tree.
 * 9) Grow a garden.
 * 10) Manage your lawn naturally (no fertilizer, pesticides, or weed killers).
 * 11) Choose native species over non-native ones for your landscaping needs.
 * 12) Use drought-resistant plants to reduce or eliminate watering.
 * 13) Walk instead of driving short distances.
 * 14) Ride a bicycle instead of driving moderate distances.
 * 15) Use Mass Transit if it is available to you.
 * 16) Combine trips so that when you must drive, you drive less.
 * 17) Drive a fuel-efficient vehicle.
 * 18) Slow down - don't speed, start slowly, and coast to stop lights.  Driving gently saves a lot of gas.
 * 19) Write letters to your elected representatives about environmental issues.
 * 20) Wear a sweater in the winter and turn down the thermostat.
 * 21) Eat organic foods which place a lighter burden on the environment.
 * 22) Go solar or use wind power.
 * 23) Take short showers instead of long ones or baths.
 * 24) Insulate your water heater.
 * 25) Install weather stripping on doors.