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Autonomous Technology-Assisted Language Learning/Output

Introduction
Note. This module was added on 2006/05/23. Originally, speaking and writing were included in the Interaction module, but there are aspects of speaking and writing that do not involve continuous or regular social interaction. So these "asocial" aspects of speaking and writing will be added here. Until removal of this note, readers should consult the Interaction module for additional information about and resources for speaking and writing.

One issue to be resolved is the overlap of resources and tools for improving writing and speaking with content of the Exercise and Coureware module of this wikibook. One possible solution is to consider here only resources and ideas related to actual acts of writing (including composing) and speaking (including audio recording of radio programs and podcasts). This would eliminate exercise and drill-type resources from this module. But it would include resources such as audio recording software (e.g., Audacity and GarageBand). Also, if this module is to be distinct from the Interaction module, it should deal with "asynchronous type" writing and speaking, not synchronous writing (e.g., text chat) and speaking which assumes that one is interacting in real time with someone else.

Add information about Swain's output hypothesis.

 * Swain, M. (1985) Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In Gass, S. and Madden, C. (Eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition, pp. 235–256. New York: Newbury House.
 * Swain, M. (1995) Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook, G. and Seidelhofer, B. (Eds.) Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics: Studies in Honor of H.G. Widdowson, pp. 125–144. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Also see Krashen's critique of the need for comprehensible output to acquire a second language.

Composition
Composing is a higher order cognitive skill than writing, and so deserves perhaps a separate section to deal with online resources and tools that help language learners understand content-genre considerations (that is, how various types of writing in different disciplines are organized into rhetorical structures), rhetorical effects (i.e., how writing is organized top-down as in a newspaper, or most-important-last as in an academic essay), literary genres (e.g., how haiku is structured vs. the sonnet), and the process approach to writing (see Bridgewater College OWL). This section might also include advice on brainstorming, peer editing in groups, KWL (Know-Want to Know-Learned; NEA), the I-search (Macrorie, 1998), WebQuests (B. Dodge, 2006), and other ways to organize research and the writing process at various age and ability levels. (Submitted by EH-S, 03 JUL 06)

 * Brainstorming
 * Template to use in brainstorming an essay (B. al-Othman, 2001)

 * Paragraph Structure
 * Constructing the Paragraph (E. Hanson-Smith, 2005)

Here L2 students and instructors can create a blog in French to practice writing and network with other French speakers. French writing advice
 * Building the Essay
 * Standard Academic Essay Outline Form (B. al-Othman, 2001)
 * Create a blog in French
 * Online, interactive grammar checker for English
 * Verb conjugator

These links advise L2 writers in the process, mechanics, and style of writing in French. Good advice for writers in any language! Here L2 students can follow directions on how to format their word processor (Microsoft Word in this example) to write a foreign language text.
 * Richmond University
 * Mechanics of writing in French
 * Writing help for all levels
 * French grammar checker for all levels
 * University of Cork's French Department wordprocessing suggestions

French transitions Click on "View Card List" to see a list of about 25 English transitions and their French translations.
 * French Transitions and Sentence Structures

Japanese
=
 * Bloguru a Japanese blog site.

Chinese
These webpages are useful for learners of Chinese. They provide how to write Chinese characters (esp. the order of strokes) as well as the pronunciation of those characters.

Sinophilia http://web.archive.org/web/19991008004214/http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Palace/1757/scrittura/scrittura2.htm

Bluetec http://www.bluetec.com.cn/asp/mymandarin/class_book.htm

Xie Tianwei http://www.csulb.edu/~txie/azi/page1.htm

Dragonwise: Chinese character Stroke order http://www.dragonwise.hku.hk/dragon2/schools/archives/stroke.php

Dragonwise: The origin of Chinese characters http://www.dragonwise.hku.hk/dragon2/schools/archives/morph.php

Multilingual

 * Machine translation: An unorthodox way of writing in a second language would be to write first in one's first language, then use a machine translator (such as Google's) for a "rough draft" translation and then fix it up using one's own L2 knowledge, grammar checkers and spell checkers.This could be something to try in class. google.com > language tools Try this from English to French
 * Word Processing: What about word processing spell and grammar checkers? If you have the U.S. version of MS-Word, what's involved in getting the spelling and/or grammar checker in another language. Also consider looking at Open Office's free write program (http://oo.org) to see what spelling and grammar checkers may be available in different languages. Gary Cziko 16:53, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Web-based word processing: Google Docs; Zoho; ThinkFree;
 * fuzzmail "Fuzzmail records the act of writing and lets you send it as an email. Dynamic changes, typoes, pauses and writeovers are captured and communicated. We created fuzzmail because we wanted a more emotionally expressive alternative to email, so that an emailed love letter does not have to look the same as a business letter." (from website). Fuzzmail may be useful for language teachers and students to investigate the process of writing.

English

 * Wikipedia article on Grammar checker. See External links at end of article for list of grammar checkers.
 * Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL). Here is the original website.
 * i-Write at Iowa State for ESL writing. Free registration here. Described in Hegelheimer, V., & Fisher, D. (2006). Grammar, writing, and technology: A sample technology-supported approach to teaching grammar and improving writing for ESL learners. CALICO Journal, 23(2), 257-279.

Dictionaries

 * see Input module

Grammar

 * Multiple Languages
 * English
 * Verbix Free Online Verb Conjugator
 * Portuguese
 * Open Office
 * FLiP Online
 * German
 * Canoo.net an free online German grammar book
 * Spanish
 * Spanish Grammar Guide
 * Herramientas Here you will find a variety of Spanish-English, English-Spanish translators in addition to a verb conjugator.

Spanish

 * Rhyme in Spanish This website gives instruction on how you can write your own poetry in Spanish and have it rhyme.

Spelling

 * Google's Gmail includes a multilingual spelling checker. The user can select the language or let the spelling checker decide which language is being written. This tool can be used for non-e-mail writing by pasting text into a Gmail compose windows, checking the spelling, and then copying and pasting it into another application.
 * Google Toolbar Spell Checker. The Google Toolbar for Firefox and Internet Explorer has a spelling checker for text entered in any web form. Works in 12 different European languages.
 * Spellink a free, online multilingual spell checker offered in English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Ukrainian
 * Lenguaje An online Spanish spell checker.

Translation

 * Free Translation Free online translator: Use with caution as rarely perfect, often bad.
 * Word Lingo Free Online Translator
 * Signum Online Language Tool Provides Translator, Dictionary, Thesarus, and Verb Conjugator for Spanish, English, and German
 * AltaVista Babel Fish Translation
 * Systran
 * Rikai geared toward learners of Japanese.
 * Yahoo! Japan translator For use translating between Japanese and English, Chinese (Mandarin), and Korean.
 * Multilingual Translator
 * Applied Language For use translating languages such as Spanish, French, Italian, and more.

Word processing
Many word processing programs provide writing tools of use to second language learners. These include spell checkers, grammar checkers and thesauruses.

 * A free online Grammar checker for English
 * Microsoft Word offers multilingual spell check, grammar check, and a thesaurus for free. Simply edit the preferences of spell check and select the alternative language(s) you would like to use. The computer will automatically detect the language you are writing in and use the tools accordingly.
 * Microsoft Word Microsoft Word provides a spell check for many different languages. Right click on a highlighted word and scroll to the language setting. You can also set a language as the default and with any new documents Word assumes you are writing in that language
 * Open Office's Writer program is a free, open-source word processing program that includes dictionaries for spell checking in multiple languages.
 * How to check spelling and grammar in another language in Word 2003 (Windows)
 * Ichitaro word processing program commonly used in Japan.

Speaking

 * Audio Recording: is another option for students to record themselves speaking without the use of a camera. I think this would be easier for beginners because one of the hardest parts about speaking in front of a video camera is actually seeing yourself speak what you actually look like (does that make sense)?  Anyway, this is a more private approach to practicing speaking.  The teacher could again track the students progress so that by the end of the semester they will have a record of all of the recordings they have done throughout the class.

Audio Recording

 * Odeo.com see http://studio.odeo.com/create for web-based recording
 * You must create an account (free) to record. Your computer must have a microphone, and it's best to use headphones when recording. When recording, leave the Odeo browser open for best results.
 * The default save setting on the drag-down menu "Place in" is called "Don't place in a podcast." This will only save your recording as an mp3. In order to save your recording as both a Odeo directory web link and an mp3, select your account name from the "Place in" menu. Click "Save," and your recording will be an mp3 and a view link. You can directly embed the mp3 and view link on the web or elsewhere. The view link leads your audience to your recording on Odeo.com, and they do not need an account to listen to it. The advantages of the view link is that listeners will also see any notes you made about the recording, the title, and any links, tags, or images you've added. You can also edit and update your account while maintaining the same view link/mp3 file.
 * When you playback your recording before saving, it may speed up unnaturally (for some reason, this only happens once in a while). This does not affect the recording itself once it is downloaded as an mp3 or on the view link.
 * GarageBand for Macintosh
 * Audacity (free) for Windows, Macintosh and Linux
 * Gabcast.com is a free service for recording by phone
 * Hipcast.com has a seven day free trial and lots of features
 * Gcast.com is another free service for phone recording*

This page is being temporarily used as a collection point for resources on writing and speaking to be eventually transferred to the main Output module. Gary Cziko 16:14, 27 September 2006 (UTC)
 * Audacity
 * GarageBand
 * Dialcasting
 * WavePad
 * Gmail with Google Talk. If a user has two Gmail accounts, both associated with Google Talk, it is possible to send voicemail from one account A to account B (and even have account B forward the message back to account A). In this way a learner could use Gmail + Google Talk as a recording facility, although it is limited in its functionality as it has no pause, edit or append functions.

Video recording

 * Videotape: At first this idea may seem a tad strange, however in an intensive spoken Spanish class I am currently enrolled in, this is an activity I have to do once a week. Basically, my teacher assigns one major topic and we have to speak about it for five minutes in the target language.   I never realized how I sounded when I spoke Spanish, heard first hand grammar mistakes I often make, or words that I use too much.  This activity can be geared towards ability level in that length of recording can vary along with degree of difficulty of the topic.  I would recommend this for intermediate learners who have a stronger background and more practice speaking the language.  Nevertheless, I think this is a great way for students to practice speaking and listening in their target language.


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Cookbook talk:Magic Brownies

magic borwnie's are great

Cook Time?
How long is "a long time" for cooking the marijuana in the butter?

3 1/2 Cups of weed!?!
I'm pretty sure 3 1/2 Cups of weed is a little bit of an overkill. Typically anything for than a quarter ounce per batch is the max you can actually get high off, the rest is just waste.

You must have eaten some of those brownies if you read that! It asks for 4 grams of it!

Warning
I have reverted a previous edit so that the warning about illegal possession of marijuana is again noted at the top of this recipe. I, personally, don't think it's needed but it was agreed during the recent Vote for Deletion that most people prefer some kind of warning at the top of the page. Xania talk 20:26, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

Who Put This Here?
Seriously, cannabis is illegal, there shouldn't be anything with drugs in it in this "cookbook" or whatever. Whoever made this page probably is in possession of special brownies if they know how to make them. 66.79.34.120 00:42, 5 April 2007 (UTC) My Wikipedia user name is Sherlock32.
 * Cannabis is not a "drug", its an herb. I know some people are upset by the plant's psychoactivity, but by using that same logic we'd have to get rid of all the recipes containing coffee, too. PurplePieman 03:31, 7 April 2007 (UTC)
 * It may be illegal in your country but it is legal in a few countries and Wikibooks is not censored. We have recipes which include alcohol in the Cookbook and that has a much more detremental effect on health and society. Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]]talk 22:24, 7 April 2007 (UTC)
 * "A chemical substance that affects the processes of the mind or body." - ignoring the other connotations of the word, Cannabis is still a drug. But yea, as stated above, it's only illegal in certain countries, and in my state of California it's no worse than running a stop sign. So no reason to get rid of this page.68.228.80.106 (talk) 04:08, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

Wikibooks is available worldwide, and as such should not be censored according to one countries POV. Alchohol consumption is illegal in some countries, yet alcohol is still on here. This should stay.
 * From "sherlock32"'s Wikipedia user page:

"I am also a strong advocate of keeping illegal drugs (including marijuana, the most popular illegal drug) illegal; I have never done drugs before, or even seen them in person, nor have my parents or my sister ever done illegal drugs. Anyone who does drugs is a f*cking idiot and a pretty lousy human being to me [...] What drugs are totally legal (alcohol, tobacco) are fine with me". Apart from that, the user claims to be liberally minded! Make of that what you will. 91.85.188.211 (talk) 14:56, 17 July 2009 (UTC) well, your logic is fundamentally flawed so therefore your argument also makes no sense. you said illegal drugs should stay illegal, yet alcohol and tabacoo, since they are already legal, can stay that way. thats an argument from authority. simply because the majority of people, or people in power, think a certain way about something does not make it correct. decisions about legality should be made from solid scientific evidence, not based upon the public's antiquated feelings about the subject. if you wish to argue cannibus be kept illegal and hope to have credibility with said argument, i suggest a different line of logic which addresses the real issue, what is it that makes one drug legal, and one drug not legal? it has truly been an exercise in arbitrary decision making up till this point. the science has clearly shown a higher rate of negative physical and mental effects from both alcohol and tobacco when compared to cannibus. this subject is a perfect example of how without logic and science involved in an issue, arguments degrade to the point of uninformed banter and over-opinionated, fact devoid ramblings. and to the point that oneself or ones family has not done drugs and therefore are better for it and therefore have a valid opinion in the matter is likened to a blind man arguing for the idea that braille should be printed on drive up tellers. it makes no sense, but if enough people blindly believe it, it will come to pass. informed decision making would either lead to weed being legalized or alcohol and tobacco being illegalized. there is no such uneven middle ground in a world of logic and reason. legalize it and keep this page up.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook talk:Magic Brownies


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Summary
Screenshot from 1Fh binary/hex editor program (freeware). (http://www.4neurons.com/1Fh/)

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User:JMRyan/New Page

{{delete|useless redirect--this is in my own user space.

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Esperanto/Quick and dirty guide

This quick guide will teach the basics of Esperanto grammar and vocabulary in two hours. As with any other language, you will need to practice, and this guide, as in its name, is quick and dirty. To really become fluent, extra vocabulary must be learnt. If you can memorize everything here, you will already have a better knowledge of Esperanto than of any language studied for two years at an average high school.

Esperanto is a language designed to be easy to learn and to speak. Esperanto is somewhat different than English, although many words in Esperanto have a similar equivalent in English or other language.

The alphabet
If the letters did not display correctly just now, you may wish to download some free Esperanto fonts from here. You saw that the alphabet does not include the letters: "q," "w," "x," or "y." The alphabet also includes the accented letters: "ĉ," "ĝ," "ĥ," "ĵ," "ŝ," "ŭ."

Why the need for extra letters?
L. L. Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, wanted to have a 1:1 letter-to-sound* correspondence, which would give learners the ability to correctly pronounce every new word they see written and to correctly write down every new word they hear, without ambiguity. (In English, spelling is very ambiguous. Only context can tell whether /tu/ should be spelled "two", "to" or "too", for example.) You will find that this lack of ambiguity makes the learning much easier.

*In terms of linguistics, this means a direct grapheme-phoneme correspondence.

Vowels and collation
As in english, "A", "E", "I", "O", and "U" are vowels and the rest are consonants. The letter "Ŭ" is neither a consonant nor a vowel, and mainly occurs after "A" or "E" to form a diphthong. Collation in Esperanto is the same as for English, except that the accented characters are counted as separate characters and collated after their non-accented versions. Collation is as shown in the table above.

Inputting characters
Because the Esperanto-specific letters can be a hassle to type if you do not want to use their Unicode values, Esperantists have found ways to replace them so that they can be typed using a normal keyboard without special software, or typed on a typewriter.

There are several ways of replacing them, the most common one being the X-system (X-sistemo), which consists of inserting an X after the unaccented letter. As an example: "ĉ" becomes ``cx``, "ĝ" becomes ``gx``, and so on. This looks weird at first, but it is unambiguous, because Esperanto does not use the letter X.

Some Esperantists prefer instead adding an H, as suggested by the inventor of the language (except for Ŭ, which would be left as a simple U). The H-system (H-sistemo) looks more natural, but is more ambiguous because the letter H is already used. In this wikibook, we will be using the unicode letters.

One example of a word that becomes ambiguous in meaning with the H-system is "puŝaŭto", a made-up (but nevertheless perfectly valid) word meaning "a car for pushing". However, in the H-system, this word is written as "pushauto", which could also be interpreted as "pushaŭto" (The S and H are pronounced separately here!), or "a skin full of pus".

Pronunciation
A sound makes up communication, and so it is very important to learn to be able to talk. Pronunciation can make the difference between saying "ten" and "is." Consult this page for audio samples, paying particular attention to the vowels and the Esperanto-specific letters.

Letters that sound differently from the English equivalent are pronounced as follows:

Stress
Esperanto was made to be easy and stress is no exception. Every word in Esperanto follows the next pattern, so the site from above also works well to practice listening for stress.

The stress in Esperanto is always on penultimate (second-to-last) syllable of a word, for example it's "Es·pe·rán·to" (Esperanto), "sa·lú·ton" (Hello), "ra·dí·o" (radio), "a·mí·ko" (friend), "á·mi" (to love), "res·pón·do" (response), etc.

Exercise:
 * Recognise the letter based on the pronunciation

Present tense
Present tense in Esperanto is used to talk about something that happens now or that happens regularly. As with stress in pronunciation, the pattern here has no exception. For present tense, the verb's root ends with the suffix "-as." Knowing this, you can start to introduce yourself:

''Saluton! Mi estas Judito kaj mi loĝas en Kanado.''
 * Translation: Hello! I am Judith and I live in Canada.

 * estas is from the verb esti, to be.
 * loĝas is from the verb loĝi, to live or reside (related to "lodge").

Infinitive verbs (to live, to breathe, etc.) end instead with "-i."

Pronouns
Understanding that "mi" meant "I" in the sentence above, here are some more pronouns used in Esperanto.

Note that “ci” is seldom used, and that some use “ri” unofficially as a gender neutral pronoun.

With these pronouns, you can talk about others as well:

''Ŝi estas Sara kaj li estas Marko. Ili venas el Britio kaj loĝas en Usono. Ili laboras kune.''

 * Translation: She is Sarah and he is Mark. They come from Britain and live in America. They work together.

Remember that most Esperantists nowadays use vi as both singular and plural.

Nouns
In any language, nouns are words that designate a person, place, thing, idea, or quality. Some examples of nouns in English are: "house," "friends," "cake," "John," "France," or "gardens." In Esperanto, all nouns end with the suffix "-o", or when the grammatical rules dictate it, with "-oj", "-on", or "-ojn". "Domo" (house), "amikoj" (friends), "kuko" (cake), "Johano" (John), "Francio" (France) and "ĝardenoj" (gardens) are the translations of the examples above, and all of them end with "o."

Nouns are made plural by adding "-j" after "o," and when they are direct objects (grammatically) have a "-n" at the end of the word.

Asking and answering questions
Sometimes you don't have anybody who could tell you who somebody is. Then you need to ask the people yourself. Here's a example question:

''Saluton! Kiu vi estas? El kie vi venas? Kie vi loĝas? Kiu ŝi estas?''
 * Translation: Hello! Who are you? Where are you from? Where do you live? Who is she?

In Esperanto, the word "do" does not appear, nor does the verb "is" change (am, are, is, …) In the example questions, the question words were either "kie" (where) or "kiu" (who). Now, let's use the question word "ĉu" ("whether") in this example:

''Ĉu vi laboras kune? Ĉu vi estas aŭskultantaj?''
 * Translation: Do you work together? Are you listening?

Here again, there is (no) difference between things that happen regularly or that are happening right now. As to whether question must be answered by a "yes" or "no," Esperanto uses "jes" for yes and "ne" for "no." You may also wish to be able to make a full answer sentence like "Mi ne loĝas en Kanado" (I don't live in Canada). This sentence works just like the sentence Mi loĝas en Kanado, which you learned before, except that the tiny word "ne" (not) is put in front of the verb. This is much easier than in English, because "ne" is used no matter whether or not the word was used in the English sentence.

Describing people and things
In order to describe people, you need more than just verbs (though verbs can get you very far in Esperanto). You need nouns, for instance. Nouns in Esperanto always have the ending -o so that you can recognise them easily. To make vocabulary even easier to learn, you can easily make a noun out of a verb, or vice versa, e. g. "laboro," "amo," or "respondi."

''Μarko estas usonano. Sara estas studento. Tiu estas viro. Li laboras kiel instruisto.''
 * Translation: Mark is an American. Sarah is a student. That is a man. He works as a teacher.

Note that Esperanto has no equivalent for "a" or "an", it is just omitted. The word for "the" is "la" - always! It does not change as in Spanish, Italian or French. To make good descriptions, you will also need adjectives. Adjectives in Esperanto end in "-a".

 * Ĉu mi estas dika?
 * Translation: Am I fat?
 * Ne, vi estas tre bela virino.
 * Translation: No, you are a very beautiful woman.
 * Tiu filmo estas interesa kaj bona
 * Translation: That film is interesting and good.

You can add -a to any word in order to convert it to an adjective. For example: "ina" for "female" from the suffix "-ino", the female marker; "fina" meaning "final", from "fino" meaning "end."

This is particularly helpful for personal pronouns: if you add -a to "mi" (I) for example, you get "mia" (my), which in grammatical terms is called the possessive pronoun (= pronoun used to show possession). So all possessive pronouns are incredibly easy to make and memorise in Esperanto: mia (my), cia (thy), lia (his), ŝia (her), ĝia (its), nia (our), via (your), ilia (their).

''Miĉjo estas mia frato. Nia patro nomiĝas Franko, kaj lia edzino, nia patrino, nomiĝas Heleno.''
 * Translation: Mike is my brother. Our father is named Frank, and his wife, our mother, is called Helen.

More interesting sentences
Now is the time to introduce more interesting sentences. For example:

Mi amas lin.
 * Translation: I love him.

Did you notice something strange? Suddenly, the word "li" (he) got an -n at the end. This -n ending marks that "li" is the one who is loved, not “mi”. In English, this is reflected by saying "I love him" instead of "I love he". This change in words allows you to re-arrange words as you like, for example you could say "Lin mi amas" (Him I love) or even "Lin amas mi" (Not a possible order in English!) in Esperanto without changing the meaning of the sentence. You can use any word order like "Mi lin amas", "Amas mi lin" or even "Amas lin mi". If however you add the -n to the word "mi" (I) instead, the sentence means "He loves me"—regardless of if the word order is "Li amas min", "Min amas li", or any permutation at all of the words "li", "amas", and "min". Thanks to the powerful N, Esperanto word order is incredibly flexible.

English has no rule which explains why "he" becomes "him", but "I" becomes "me", and "we" becomes "us", and so on. Students must learn each word by heart. It’s much easier in Esperanto: just add -n to the end of the word. This works not just for pronouns but also nouns and even adjectives! Example: "Mi amas mian amikon." (I love my friend). ''Side note: if you want to make sure that people understand that you are something other than platonic friends, then you can say "koramiko" instead of "amiko". The added "kor-" is the stem of "koro"(heart).''

Linguists say that this -n ending turns words into "the accusative case", or just "accusative", because if you say "I accuse him", you also use the accusative case for "him". The accusative case has a bad reputation of being hard to learn in German, Russian, and other languages, where you have several dozens of endings and changes to memorise, on top of the other cases that require yet more changes. Esperanto, however, knows only the accusative case, and memorizing how to use it is a breeze.

The accusative could also be used to inform people about the languages they could use to talk to you:

''Mia denaska lingvo estas la angla [lingvo]. Mi lernas Esperanton. Mi ankaŭ parolas la francan [lingvon].''
 * Translation: My native language is the English [language]. I learn Esperanto. I also speak the French [language].

Note that "Esperanton" and "francan"(from the adjective "franca" meaning French) acquired the -n ending because they are the objects of the sentences. The word "lingvo(n)" is omitted, but is assumed to be there. "Angla"(English) did not get this ending because it is used as a subject complement (or, simply put, is on one side of a "to be"): the subject, "my native language", is equated to "English", whereas in the following sentence "I" is not being equated to "Esperanto" or "French". Since Esperanto is a language without exceptions, you have to apply the -n in questions, too:

''Ĉu vi parolas la hispanan [lingvon]? Kiujn lingvojn vi parolas?''
 * Translation: Do you speak the Spanish [language]? Which languages do you speak?

How do you express that you don't love somebody but hate him? Most languages would now make you learn another verb and maybe some exceptions to go with it, but in Esperanto you just need to know that if you add mal- to any word, it becomes its opposite. Try it out:

''Mi malamas lin. Li estas mia malamiko. Li estas malinteresa, malbela, malbona homo.''
 * Translation: I hate him. He is my enemy. He is an uninteresting, ugly, evil person.

Talking about things you can do
In Esperanto, Ĉu vi parolas la hispanan? is ambiguous, it could mean Do you speak Spanish? or Are you speaking Spanish?. If you don't want to rely on context to make it clear and you want to know whether the person is able to speak the language of your choice, you have to phrase it Ĉu vi povas paroli la hispanan? (Can you speak Spanish?). The added "povas" means "can, be able to". It requires a slight change though: since the "speak" part is no longer about the present, it has reverted to the infinitive, the basic form of a verb, the one that you will also find in dictionaries. When several verbs work together, only the most important one of them, the highest-level one, may have the -as ending. This is reflected in English as well: compare Li rakontas historion (He is telling a story) to Li povas rakonti historion (He can tell a story). "is telling" is just the form for the present, whereas "tell" is more general. In a dictionary, you'd look for "tell" instead of "telling", too.

So if you want to look up an Esperanto verb or combine it with another verb like "povas", you first have to take off the -as and then add -i instead. Here are more examples using combined verbs:

Mi devas iri nun.
 * Translation: I must go now.

''Mi volas scii pli pri vi. Ĉu vi volas iri al la festo kun mi? Ĉu vi rajtas iri?''
 * Translation: I want to know more about you. Do you want to go to the party with me? Are you allowed to go?

Infinitives are also immensely helpful when talking about your hobbies. Of course you can make sentences like Mi ŝatas piedpilkon. (I like soccer.), but sentences like Mi ŝatas aŭskulti muzikon, rigardi la televidilon, skribi retpoŝton kaj ludi basketbalon. (I like listening to music, watching television, writing e-mail and playing basketball.) are so much more powerful.

Adjectives and adverbs
Adjectives are a part of speech used to describe a noun, such as "happy" or "tired." Nouns can also be made into adjectives by replacing "-o" with "-a", as every adjective ends that way, such as "feliĉa" (happy) and "laca" (tired) as written above. Adjectives can also be marked with "-j" and "-n", and if a noun is plural and/or accusative, the adjective must be plural and/or accusative as well. An example is "malfeliĉaj homoj", meaning "unhappy people," where the prefix "mal-" negates the adjective, so it means the opposite.

Adverbs, a part of speech used to describe verbs and adjectives, are formed like adjectives, but they end with "-e" instead of with "-a"; because "malfeliĉa" means "unhappy", "malfeliĉe" means "unhappily".

Numbers
Numbers work the same way as in English, but use prefixes. The number ten (10) is "dek" and can be combined with other numbers such as "dek unu" as eleven (11). To increase the tens place, add the digit before "dek," so "dudek" is twenty (20), and so on. Here is an example of the use of numbers in a Esperanto sentence:

Mi havas du krajonojn.
 * Translation: I have two pencils.

Three place values above the tens place are "cent" for hundreds, "mil" for thousands, and "miliono" for millions. By knowing the names of numbers, you can form cardinal numbers by adding "-a" to the end of the word, so "unu" (one) becomes "unua" (first).

title: Esperanto/Quick and dirty guide


text:
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title: User:Ingoolemo/standard.css


text:
User:Dcljr/Math

What is mathematics?

 * The study of quantity
 * Counting discrete things: how many?
 * Measuring on a continuum: how much?
 * The study of space
 * Physical space and geometrical objects
 * Directions and dimensions
 * Figures and their measurement
 * Perspective
 * Mathematical space
 * Coordinate systems
 * The study of structure
 * Patterns
 * Abstraction and formalism
 * Logical relationships
 * The study of change
 * Discrete change: arithmetic and algebra
 * Continuous change: functions and analysis

Arithmetic and number systems

 * Counting and natural numbers
 * Where does counting come from?
 * Can animals other than humans count?
 * Addition and whole numbers
 * Addition as accumulation
 * Reversing addition
 * The meaning of adding zero
 * Why numbers other than whole numbers are needed
 * Subtraction and negative numbers
 * Subtraction as the inverse of addition
 * Negative numbers
 * Subtraction as addition with negative numbers
 * Integers
 * Multiplication
 * Multiplication as repeated addition (or subtraction)
 * "Times"
 * Reversing multiplication
 * The meaning of multiplication by one
 * The meaning of multiplication by zero
 * Why numbers other than integers are needed
 * Division and rational numbers
 * Division as apportionment
 * Divisibility
 * Even and odd numbers
 * Prime and composite numbers
 * Division as the inverse of multiplication
 * The meaning of division by one
 * Rational numbers
 * Fractions
 * Decimals
 * Reciprocals
 * Division as multiplication by a rational number
 * Why is division by zero not allowed?
 * Digression: numerals and numeration systems
 * Numbers vs. numerals
 * Additive numeration systems
 * Egyptian numerals
 * Roman numerals
 * Multiplicative numeration systems
 * Chinese numerals
 * Ciphered numeration systems
 * Greek numerals
 * Positional numeration systems
 * Babylonian numerals
 * Aztec numerals
 * Hindu-Arabic numerals
 * Zero finally becomes a number
 * Exponentiation
 * Exponentiation as repeated multiplication (or division)
 * Terminology: power, base, exponent
 * Powers of 2 and 3
 * Squares and cubes
 * The meaning of a zero exponent
 * Powers of 10 and place value in our base-ten numeration system
 * Scientific notation
 * Reversing exponentiation in two different ways
 * Finding the right base
 * Finding the right exponent
 * Reciprocals as powers with negative exponents
 * Why numbers other than rational numbers are needed
 * Roots and irrational numbers
 * Roots as inverses of powers
 * Radical notation
 * Roots as powers with reciprocal exponents
 * Expressing powers with arbitrary rational exponents as roots
 * Why are there two ways of reversing exponentiation but not addition or multiplication?
 * Why are some roots irrational?
 * Proof that the square root of 2 is irrational
 * Proof that the square root of 3 is irrational
 * Why wouldn't the same argument prove that the square root of 4 is irrational?
 * Irrational numbers in radical form
 * Irrational numbers in decimal form
 * Square root of 2 in decimal form
 * Are all irrational numbers expressible using roots and/or rational exponents?
 * Are all irrational numbers expressible using decimal numbers?
 * Real numbers as all numbers with a decimal representation
 * Reals contain all rationals and all irrationals
 * Are there other types of numbers?
 * Rules of arithmetic
 * Adding and subtracting integers
 * Multiplying integers
 * Dividing integers
 * Long division
 * Divisibility rules
 * Factoring an integer
 * Prime factorization
 * Greatest common factor
 * Least common multiple
 * Order of operations
 * Simplifying arithmetic expressions
 * Reducing fractions
 * Multiplying and dividing fractions
 * Adding and subtracting fractions with the same denominator
 * Adding and subtracting fractions with different denominators
 * Least or lowest common denominator
 * Simplifying fractions containing other fractions
 * Adding and subtracting decimal numbers
 * Multiplying and dividing decimal numbers
 * Converting between fractions and decimals
 * Multiplying and dividing powers
 * Multiplication and division in scientific notation
 * Reducing radicals
 * Multiplying and dividing radicals
 * Counting revisited
 * How high can you count?
 * Infinity
 * Some strange properties of infinity
 * Are there more rational numbers than natural numbers?
 * Countability
 * Are there more irrational numbers than rational numbers?
 * Uncountability and Cantor's diagonal argument
 * Cardinality and orders of infinity
 * Continuum hypothesis
 * Sets and subsets
 * Power set
 * Transfinite numbers

Measurement and elementary geometry

 * Measurement
 * How measurement is different from counting
 * How measurement is related to counting
 * Units of measurement
 * Basics of Euclidean geometry
 * Two dimensions on a flat surface
 * Maps and compass directions (N, S, E, W)
 * Three dimensions of physical space
 * Why three dimensions?
 * Six cardinal directions
 * Up and down, forward and backward, left and right
 * Relationships between elementary geometrical objects and dimensions
 * Points on a line
 * Lines in a plane
 * Planes in space
 * More than three dimensions?
 * Euclidean geometry in two dimensions
 * Lines
 * Lines and line segments
 * Parallel and intersecting lines
 * Euclid's fifth postulate
 * Non-Euclidean geometries
 * Measuring lengths along a line
 * Lengths as multiples of a unit
 * Rational magnitudes
 * Are all lengths rational with respect to a given unit?
 * Angles
 * Opposite and adjacent angles
 * Right angles
 * Acute and obtuse angles
 * Complementary and supplementary angles
 * Relationship between angles when two parallel lines are cut by a transversal
 * Measuring angles
 * What unit should be used to measure angles?
 * Multiples and fractions of a right angle
 * Degrees
 * Why 360 degrees?
 * Are all angles rational?
 * Polygons
 * Triangles
 * Equilateral triangles
 * Isosceles triangles
 * Scalene triangles
 * Right triangles
 * Hypotenuse
 * Quadrilaterals
 * Squares
 * Rectangles
 * Parallelograms
 * Trapezoids
 * Convex and concave polygons
 * Regular polygons
 * Measuring polygons
 * Area
 * What unit should be used to measure area?
 * Area of a square
 * Relation to square numbers
 * Digression: other figurate numbers
 * Square root
 * Area of a rectangle
 * Area of a triangle
 * Area of a parallelogram
 * Area of a polygon
 * Are all areas rational?
 * Pythagorean theorem
 * Pythagorean triples
 * Not all lengths are rational!
 * Square root of two and the Pythagoreans
 * Perimeter
 * Perimeter of a triangle
 * Heron's formula for the area of a triangle
 * Perimeter of a general polygon
 * Circles
 * Center and radius of a circle
 * Diameter of a circle
 * Circumference of a circle
 * Measuring a non-linear length
 * Pi
 * Is pi a rational number?
 * How can pi be computed?
 * Method of exhaustion
 * The radius as a unit of angle measurement
 * Radians
 * Converting between degrees and radians
 * Not all angles are rational!
 * Area of a circle
 * Triangles revisited
 * The many "centers" of a triangle
 * Congruence of triangles
 * SSS, SAS, ASA, AAS
 * SSA and the ambiguous case
 * Euclidean geometry in three dimensions
 * Points, lines and planes in space
 * Parallel lines in space
 * Angles formed by intersecting lines in space
 * Skew lines
 * Parallel planes
 * Angles formed by intersecting planes
 * Solids
 * Faces, edges, and vertices
 * Pyramids
 * Prisms
 * Parallelepipeds
 * The five regular solids
 * Tetrahedron
 * Cube
 * Octahedron
 * Dodecahedron
 * Icosahedron
 * Why only five regular solids?
 * Other polyhedra
 * Polyhedron duals
 * Stellations
 * Measuring polyhedra
 * Volume
 * Volume of a cube
 * Relation to cubic numbers
 * Cube root
 * Volume of a parallelepiped
 * Volume of a prism
 * Volume of a pyramid
 * Volume of a general polyhedron
 * Surface area
 * Surface area of a polyhedron
 * Non-polyhedral solids
 * Cylinders and cones
 * Right circular cylinders
 * Cylindrical solids in general
 * Volume of a cylinder
 * Surface area of a cylinder
 * Conical solids in general
 * Volume of a cone
 * Surface area of a cone
 * Spheres
 * Center and radius of a sphere
 * Volume of a sphere
 * Surface area of a sphere
 * Solid angles
 * Mixing dimensions
 * Zero-dimensional points on a line
 * One-dimensional curves in a plane
 * Two-dimensional surfaces in space
 * The Möbius strip
 * One-dimensional curves on two-dimensional surfaces
 * Right circular cones revisited: conic sections
 * Parabolas
 * Ellipses
 * Hyperbolas
 * Degenerate conic sections
 * Higher dimensions
 * Visualizing higher dimensions in lower ones
 * Projections and shadows
 * Two-dimensional figures projected onto a one-dimensional line
 * Three-dimensional solids projected onto a two-dimensional plane
 * Flatland and the weirdness involved in crossing dimensions
 * Which way is the fourth dimension?
 * Time as the fourth dimension?
 * Relativity, spacetime, and Minkowski space
 * Real four-dimensional Euclidean space
 * Tesseracts and hypercubes
 * Measurement in higher dimensions

Elementary algebra

 * Variables and equations
 * Review of arithmetic from an algebraic perspective
 * Properties of equality
 * Properties of arithmetic operations
 * Commutativity
 * Associativity
 * Distributivity
 * Solving simple equations
 * Percent problems
 * Finding a certain percent of a given number
 * Finding what number is a certain percent of a given number
 * Finding what percent of one number another number is
 * Calculating percent growth and percent reduction
 * Some history and context
 * The origins of algebra
 * The origin of the word "algebra"
 * Some different meanings of the word "algebra"
 * Some different meanings of the word "algebraic"
 * Algebraic expressions
 * Monomials
 * Geometric interpretation of monomials
 * Binomials
 * Polynomials
 * Numerical interpretation of polynomials
 * Arithmetic with algebraic expressions
 * The algebra of monomials
 * Addition and subtraction of monomials
 * Combining like terms
 * Multiplication of monomials
 * Division of monomials
 * Powers of monomials
 * Roots of monomials
 * Rules of exponents and radicals revisited
 * Greatest common factor of monomials
 * Least common multiple of monomials
 * The algebra of polynomials
 * Addition and subtraction of polynomials
 * Multiplication of binomials
 * "FOILing"
 * Multiplication of polynomials
 * Multiplication of polynomials by distributing
 * Multiplication of polynomials by the table method
 * Factoring polynomials
 * Factoring out a common monomial
 * Factoring trinomials
 * Recognizing a perfect-square trinomial
 * Factoring a trinomial by guess-and-check
 * Factoring a trinomial by the "diamond method"
 * Factoring quadrinomials by grouping
 * Application of factoring: solving polynomial equations
 * Division of polynomials
 * Rational expressions
 * Polynomial long division
 * Synthetic division
 * Remainder theorem
 * Factoring polynomials of arbitrary degree
 * Rational zeros theorem
 * Powers of binomials
 * Pascal's triangle
 * The binomial theorem
 * How binomial coefficients are related to counting
 * Factorials
 * Permutations
 * Combinations
 * Powers of polynomials
 * Multinomial coefficients
 * The multinomial theorem
 * The algebra of rational expressions
 * Reducing rational expressions
 * Multiplying and dividing rational expressions
 * Adding and subtracting rational expressions
 * Simplifying rational expressions within other rational expressions
 * Digression: continued fractions
 * Solving rate and ratio problems
 * Distance-rate-time problems
 * Proportion problems
 * Similar triangles
 * Similar figures in general
 * Scaling and its effect on length, area, and volume
 * Work problems
 * Mixture problems

Algebra and geometry united

 * Linking geometry to arithmetic: the real number line
 * Zeno's paradox and the idea of the limit of a sequence (??)
 * Irrational numbers as limits of sequences of rational numbers (??)
 * The real number line
 * Coordinate systems
 * The Euclidean plane
 * Axes and coordinates
 * Characterizing a point in the plane
 * Midpoint and distance between two points in the plane
 * Euclidean space
 * Points in space
 * Midpoint and distance between two points in space
 * Are other two- and three-dimensional coordinate systems possible?
 * Can coordinate systems involve numbers that aren't real?
 * Relations and equations
 * Characterizing a line in the plane
 * Vertical and horizontal lines
 * The slope of a line
 * The equation of a line
 * Slope-intercept form
 * Point-slope form
 * Two-intercept form
 * General form
 * Characterizing a line in space
 * Characterizing a plane in space

Other stuff
To be merged and/or expanded upon.

?
 * Sequences and series
 * Arithmetic means and progressions
 * Geometric means and progressions
 * Sum of a finite arithmetic series
 * Sum of a finite geometric series
 * Sum of an infinite geometric series

?
 * Classical Euclidean geometry as the first formal mathematical system
 * Actual vs. idealized figures
 * Constructions using compass and straightedge
 * The five basic constructions
 * Derived constructions
 * Impossible constructions

?
 * Functions
 * Graphs

?
 * Solving equations containing two or more different variables

?
 * Inequalities
 * Solving inequalities in one variable
 * Solving inequalities in more than one variable

?
 * Logarithms and transcendental numbers
 * Powers vs. exponentials
 * Logarithms as inverses of exponentials
 * Transcendental and algebraic numbers

?
 * Fermat's Last Theorem

title: User:Dcljr/Math


text:
Magic: The Gathering/Mental Magic Format

Mental Magic, which many players have called the most skill-testing format in the game, is a variant in which each player may play cards in their hand not as they are named but as any card with the same mana cost, however each card name may only be used once per game. For example, a card costing UU could be played as Boomerang, Counterspell, or Mana Drain, regardless of the actual card that it is. However, once one of these spells has been named, no other card may be cast as that spell for the rest of the game. Cards can be named in other places than in hand, as well. For example, although a creature spell once cast will remain the same creature as long as it remains in play, cards in the graveyard can be named for flashback purposes. A popular play is to use a 3U spell to cast Inspiration, and then afterward to use the same 3U spell in the graveyard to cast Deep Analysis upon oneself. This gains the player a great deal of card advantage, which is almost always paramount in Mental Magic. "187" effects, namely creatures with a comes into play effect, are another popular trick to gain card advantage. After one player has gained a crushing amount of card advantage he/she usually attempts to finish his/her opponent with a creature that is difficult to kill, such as one that cannot be targeted, is indestructible, can phase out at will, etc.

Rather than traditional constructed or draft decks, Mental Magic is often just played from a 'stack' of cards, that may simply be random or designed for this purpose. The two players may therefore play from the same deck, which is composed entirely of spells. The spells may then be placed face down on the field as land. These lands, sometimes referred to as "Utopia," can tap to produce one mana of any color and have the basic supertype, although they do not count as having any particular land type. For instance, a Utopia land can produce white mana and cannot be destroyed by Wasteland, but does not enable your opponent's creatures with Plainswalk.

Mental Magic also has its own banned list, which is composed of every card on the Vintage banned and restricted list, as well as some additions of cards that are considered to be too powerful given the mechanics of the format. For example, Trade Routes, which enables players to return lands to his/her hands, is often banned due to the fact that these "lands" can now be played as new spells. Additionally, cards that enable players to search their library for cards (Survival of the Fittest, for example) are often banned as well.

There is no one set of rules for Mental Magic. Due to the fact that cards that are playable from the graveyard are almost always extremely powerful (Flashback; Squee, Goblin Nabob; Haakon, Stromgald Scourge; etc.), many players ban naming cards in a graveyard altogether. Also, there are many different interpretations of how "search" abilities like Ramosian Sergeant should be handled.


text:
User talk:24.184.122.186

Welcome to Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibooks and create an account. We hope you enjoy your time here on Wikibooks as a Wikibookian! -- LV (Dark Mark) 00:03, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.184.122.186


text:
User talk:62.84.13.11

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. -- LV (Dark Mark) 00:06, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:62.84.13.11


text:
User:Edmourao

My name is Edgard and I live in Divinópolis, in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. I graduated in Letters in 1980. I'm an English language teacher, a travel agent, an orchid grower and a photographer.

I subscribed for en.wikibooks.org on the 23rd of May 2006. I hope to contribute with this outstanding project.

Interests
I am interested in genealogy, art of bonsai, HTML language, cactus and succulent growing, orchidophily and orchidology, language study.

My pages

 * My Wikipedia page in English
 * My Wikipedia page in Portuguese
 * My Wiktionary page in Portuguese
 * My Wiktionary page in English
 * My Wikibooks page in Portuguese
 * My Wikispecies page
 * My Commons page

title: User:Edmourao


text: Template:User eo-1

title: Template:User eo-1


text:
Control Systems/State Machines

State Machines
Digital computers have a lot more power and flexibility to offer than processing simple difference equations like the kind that we have been looking at so far in our discrete cases. Computer systems are capable of handling much more complicated digital control tasks, and they are also capable of changing their algorithms in the middle of the processing time. For tasks like this, we will employ state-machines to allow us to dynamically control several aspects of a single problem with a single computer.

A state machine, in its simplest form, is a system that performs different actions, depending upon the state of the machine.

State Diagrams
A state diagram depicts the different states of a state machine, and it uses arrows to show which states can be reached, and what are the conditions for reaching them.

Example
Consider a common controls example of a movable cart that is attached to a horizontal pole. This cart, like the print-head on a printer, is free to travel back and forth across this pole at finite speeds. Dangling from the cart is a pendulum that is capable of freely spinning 360 degrees around its pivot point.

As the cart moves back and forth across the horizontal pole, the pendulum will swing side-to-side. In fact, if the cart moves quickly enough, and in the correct pattern, the pendulum will actually swing up over the top of the cart, and travel a full 360 degrees. The purpose of this contraption is to swing the pendulum upwards so that it is standing up vertically above the cart, and to balance it as such. There are then two distinct stages of operation for our control system:

 * 1) we must swing the pendulum from directly downward, to standing vertical
 * 2) we must balance the pendulum vertically

title: Control Systems/State Machines


text:
Cookbook talk:Japanese Red Bean Buns

This is partially imperial and partially metric. It cuold use some standardization.

Could also use more detailed filling instructions. It just cuts off with the dough & filling made, not the final product.

title: Cookbook talk:Japanese Red Bean Buns


text:
User talk:Sanj redfield

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
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 * Take a look at Naming policy
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 07:47, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sanj redfield


text:
Python Programming/Sockets

HTTP Client
Make a very simple HTTP client

NTP/Sockets
Connecting to and reading an NTP time server, returning the time as follows ntpps      picoseconds portion of time ntps       seconds portion of time ntpms      milliseconds portion of time ntpt       64-bit ntp time, seconds in upper 32-bits, picoseconds in lower 32-bits

<!-- Warning! This code is broken and must not be used! There are a number of problems with it: 1. It uses very ugly polling with sleep in between (not really a bug, just bad coding pattern), 2. It depends on recv to give all data sent with a single send at once, which is no guarantee that it will do (obvious and serious bug), 3. It blocks on connect (maybe a bug, maybe not, depends on the contract for the function opensocket). There are probably more problems with it (it usually is when you see bugs right away in code).

-->

title: Python Programming/Sockets


text:
Python Programming/Files

File I/O
Read entire file: In this case the "r" parameter means the file will be opened in read-only mode.

Read certain amount of bytes from a file:

When opening a file, one starts reading at the beginning of the file, if one would want more random access to the file, it is possible to use  to change the current position in a file and   to get to know the current position in the file. This is illustrated in the following example: Here a file is opened, twice ten bytes are read,  shows that the current offset is at position 20, now   is used to go back to position 10 (the same position where the second read was started) and ten bytes are read and printed again. And when no more operations on a file are needed the  function is used to close the file we opened.

Read one line at a time: In this case  will return an array containing the individual lines of the file as array entries. Reading a single line can be done using the  function which returns the current line as a string. This example will output an additional newline between the individual lines of the file, this is because one is read from the file and print introduces another newline.

Write to a file requires the second parameter of  to be "w", this will overwrite the existing contents of the file if it already exists when opening the file:

Append to a file requires the second parameter of  to be "a" (from append): Note that this does not add a line break between the existing file content and the string to be added.

Since Python 2.5, you can use with keyword to ensure the file handle is released as soon as possible and to make it exception-safe:

Or one line at a time:

Related to the with keywords is ../Context Managers/ chapter.

Links:
 * 7.5. The with statement, python.org
 * PEP 343 -- The "with" Statement, python.org

Testing Files
Determine whether path exists:

When working on systems such as Microsoft Windows™, the directory separators will conflict with the path string. To get around this, do the following:

A better way however is to use "raw", or :

But there are some other convenient functions in, where   only confirms whether or not path exists, there are functions which let you know if the path is a file, a directory, a mount point or a symlink. There is even a function  which reveals the true destination of a symlink:

Common File Operations
To copy or move a file, use the shutil library.

To perform a recursive copy it is possible to use, to perform a recursive remove it is possible to use

To remove an individual file there exists the  function in the os module:

Finding Files
Files can be found using glob:

The content of a directory can be listed using listdir:

Getting a list of all items in a directory, including the nested ones:

Above, root takes value of each directory in /user/Joe Hoe including /user/Joe Hoe itself, and directories and files are only those directly present in each root.

Getting a list of all files in a directory, including the nested ones, ending in .txt, using list comprehension:

Links:
 * glob, python.org
 * glob, Py 3, python.org
 * os.listdir, python.org
 * os.walk, python.org
 * os.path.join, python.org

Current Directory
Getting current working directory:

Changing current working directory:

title: Python Programming/Files


text:
User:Speedline1

hi

title: User:Speedline1


text:
User talk:Bulkingred

I have blocked you for a day because of your edit to WB:VFD. If you wish to come back later and constructively contribute to Wikibooks, you will be welcome - however, actions that disrupt the community will be met with a hard response, Jguk 12:36, 24 May 2006 (UTC)
 * blocked for 1 year for attempting rights fraud through meta. o  s  c  a  r  00:36, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bulkingred


text:
User:Rrenner

Richard Renner is an attorney with Tate & Renner of Dover, Ohio. His practice includes representation of environmental whistleblowers, Guatemalan immigrants, and a general practice of law.

Richard prepares a weekly synopsis of the NPR puzzle. To subscribe, send a blank email to: nprpuzzle-subscribe@igc.topica.com If you want to remove your address from the list, send a blank email from your account to: nprpuzzle-unsubscribe@igc.topica.com For more information about this list, and an archive of those distributed by Topica.com, visit:

Contributions to Wikipedia

 * Whistleblowers
 * New Philadelphia, Ohio (Demographics)
 * Dennison, Ohio
 * Aguacatán
 * Canillá
 * September 24, 2005 anti-war protest
 * Workplace Fairness
 * Mayan languages
 * Bob Ney's challengers
 * Sylvia Rimm
 * Torrington, Wyoming
 * Lingle, Wyoming
 * Drilling rig
 * Fair Labor Standards Act
 * Columbus, Ohio, Rally for Immigrants Rights 2006-03-26 now merged with 2006 U.S. immigrant rights protests
 * Michael B. Coleman
 * Wiktionary article on Ourouparia
 * Conotton Creek Trail
 * Zack Space
 * Boggle

title: User:Rrenner


text:
Talk:Introduction to Sociology/Sociological Theory

The Grand Theory
Social Phenomena Tengwang777 (discuss • contribs) 18:04, 25 October 2013 (UTC)

what is called Seeing and accepting facts as they are.

 * society is not necessarily made up of fixed facts.

split this article
I think this article should be split up into several, it's starting to get a bit intimidating. --Sanitized (talk) 17:33, 5 September 2009 (UTC)

Additions Needed
It seems to me that the following things need to be included in this chapter:

1. At least some minimal reference to all of the big 3 (Marx, Weber, Durkheim) - Specifically Marx and Weber are almost non-existent in this chapter, which is at best problematic. 2. Feminist Theory 3. Theories of Race 4. Queer Theory

I'm not suggesting that the last 3 need to be prominent, but by not even mentioning them, this text misses a good 30% of the theoretical work done in sociology.

This statement seems to me to be naive and wrong: "These theories are prominent because they are quite good at explaining social life." Perhaps it's because the theories APPEAR as quite good at explaining social life. They appear so because: --They way they offer a powerful coherent picture of the mechanisms governing social life --They fit reigning cultural prejudices and interests, particularly of the specialists concerned with elaborating a a social scientific perspective of our world. As should be readily evident, not all the theories can be "quite good at explaining social life" since they radically conflict with each other.


text:
User:Bill Alexander

Knowledge and Interests
I have a long time interest in chess. I don't play in tournaments any more, but I do compose chess endings. I had 4 published in Pal Benko's column Benko's Bafflers in Chess Life in 2005.

I am a Software Engineer by profession. In the early 70's, I worked in the chess program COKO III. At about the same time I created a program which would solve mates in 2 and 3, and used it to find cooks (second solutions) to published chess problems.

Contributions
I only include significant edits below.

Books Edited
Chess - numerous

title: User:Bill Alexander


text:
Talk:German/Level II

Lessons
There are some already completed lessons which seem to fit with this level at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/German:_Lesson_1 and continuing on.

 * No those lesson are just copies of Level 1, basically this lesson will be totally different. -- Je suis 20:29, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Could you change them to redirects to the actual lessons in order to avoid confusion? Turn any unused page on Special:Prefixindex/German into a redirect to the corect page please. --haginძaz 22:53, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

 * They don't seem like copies of Level 1. They all seem to dive into grammar a whole lot more than most of the lessons in Level 1. Also, the contents link at the top of the pages takes you to the (new) list of Level II lessons.  Should I just go ahead and start copying the uncategorized lessons to the blank Level II lessons and set their pages to redirect to the new place.

Lesson 8:
 * Ein Reise - That's wrong, it has to be "Eine Reise", because it is die Reise, it's female.
 * You can believe this, German is my Native language

Restart
I suggest to restore this version of the module in order to undo the changes planned (but never implemented) by User:German Men92. --Martin Kraus (talk) 23:41, 1 August 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level II


text:
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy/Distress Tolerance Skills/Willfulness

Willfulness does not accept reality as it is in the moment. Willfulness hopes that by denying reality reality will somehow change or that someone else will take the action to change reality in the desired direction. Willfulness refuses to tolerate unpleasant emotions and insists that whatever causes the unpleasant emotions shouldn't exist.


text:
User talk:Jacnoc

Jacnoc (Talk

title: User talk:Jacnoc


text:
Cookbook:Zucchini Bread

| Bread

Zucchini bread is a sweet fluffy cake or quick bread that has zucchini in it. It is delicious. There are many different ways of making it. Here is one. This recipe was derived from the lyrics of a song by a band called Chuga Chuga, from Michigan/Washington, DC, USA. They broke up in 2006.

Ingredients

 * 3 cups all-purpose flour
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 teaspoon baking soda
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder
 * 3 teaspoons ground cinnamon
 * 3 eggs
 * 1 cup vegetable oil
 * 2¼ cups white sugar
 * 3 teaspoons vanilla extract
 * 2 cups grated zucchini

Procedure

 * 1) Grease and flour two 8 x 4-inch loaf pans. Preheat oven to 325°F.
 * 2) Sift together flour, salt, baking powder, baking soda, and cinnamon in a bowl.
 * 3) Beat eggs, oil, vanilla, and sugar together in a large bowl.
 * 4) Add sifted ingredients to the creamed mixture, and beat well. Stir in zucchini until well combined.
 * 5) Pour batter into prepared pans.
 * 6) Bake for 40 minutes to 1 hour, or until tester inserted into the center comes out clean.
 * 7) Cool in pan for 20 minutes. Remove from pan and completely cool.

title: Cookbook:Zucchini Bread


text:
Cookbook talk:Spicy Australian Placenta

Why is this recipe here?

 * puke* --87.168.229.60 21:08, 26 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Seriously this is damn gross. Is this under some sort of new hideous cannibalism initiative?

title: Cookbook talk:Spicy Australian Placenta


text:
Template talk:Japanese/Janav

This template is to be used as follows:

...where OTHER TEMPLATE NAME can be one of, , , ,

title: Template talk:Japanese/Janav


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C4/Advanced Differentiation

In Core 4 we will discuss the derivatives of trigonometric functions, implicit differentiation and parametric differentiation.

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
In order to find the derivatives of any of the six trigonometric function you only need to know the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions. One important thing to note is that when working with derivatives your angles need to be in radians.
 * If $$y = \sin kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = k\cos kx$$.
 * If $$y = \cos kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = -k\sin kx$$.
 * If $$y = \tan kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = k\sec^2 kx$$.
 * If $$y = \operatorname{cosec}\ kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = -k\operatorname{cosec}\ kx\cot kx$$.
 * If $$y = \sec kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = k\tan kx\sec kx$$.
 * If $$y = \cot kx,\,$$ then $$\frac{dy}{dx} = -k\operatorname{cosec}^2\ kx$$.

Implicit Differentiation
In C3, we learned how to differentiate explicit equations in the form of y=f(x), immediately obtaining the result of dy/dx also as a function of x. In C4, although the techniques are still used, you will need to know how to differentiate implicit functions. That is to say, differentiate both sides of an equation f(x,y)=g(x,y).

With implicit differentiation, all of the normal rules apply - however, when differentiating a term in y with respect to x, the result must have an additional dy/dx term as a result of the chain rule:

$$\frac{d}{dx}(f(y))=f'(y)\cdot\frac{dy}{dx}$$

So, rules like the familiar "multiply by the power, reduce the power" still apply in essence, although the dy/dx must be included. When differentiating implicitly, one still differentiates each term in turn. For example, a question might ask you to differentiate both sides, with respect to x, of the equation:

$$\sec (y) + x^2 = 3x + 2y + 1\;$$

Differentiating each term with respect to x, we get:

$$\sec (y)tan(y)\cdot\frac{dy}{dx} + 2x = 3 + 2\cdot\frac{dy}{dx}$$

In general, a question will ask for a function of x and y which gives the gradient at a particular point. So, we need to rearrange the expression for dy/dx:

$$\sec (y)tan(y)\cdot\frac{dy}{dx}-2\cdot\frac{dy}{dx} = 3 - 2x$$

$$\frac{dy}{dx}(\sec(y)tan(y)-2) = 3 - 2x$$

$$\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{3-2x}{sec(y)tan(y)-2}

$$

From this point on, you may have to substitute values for x and y in order to compute the value of dy/dx at a particular location on the curve. Substitutions can be performed before rearrangement (to aid in factorisation) if the value is required, and not the expression. In some cases, a question may ask you to find the co-ordinates of points on the curve which satisfy a particular value of dy/dx. In this case, you will need to find the value of x where the differential equation is satisfied, or an equation that relates x and y, then substitute this into the original equation of the curve. This often results in multiple points which satisfy the given conditions.

Take (as a simple example) the curve:

$$x^3+y^3 = 5x\;$$

For which we are required by some arbitrary question to find the points at which dy/dx=0.

Although we could quite easily rearrange this to give an explicit function, for the case of demonstration, we will use implicit differentiation. Differentiating with respect to x yields:

$$3x^2 + 3y^2\frac{dy}{dx} = 5$$

$$\frac{dy}{dx}= \frac{5-3x^2}{3y^2} = 0$$

$$5-3x^2=0 \;$$

$$x = \pm\sqrt{\frac{5}{3}} \;$$

So, we simply substitute that value into the original implicit equation, and solve for y (twice). In some cases, you may find that x is a function of y given the conditions, and not simply a value. In this case, it is just a matter of solving a pair of simultaneous equations.

So what of the term 'xy'? Well, we simply apply the product rule:

$$(uv)'=vu'+uv'\;$$ where u and v are functions of x or y in this case.

$$(xy)'=y\cdot 1+x\cdot \frac{dy}{dx}$$

Similarly:

$$(x^2y)' = y\cdot 2x + x^2\cdot \frac{dy}{dx}$$

Related rates of change and differential equations
In this rather interesting topic, you will be looking at investigating how rates of change can affect one another, and how to write differential equations given a description of a situation. Again, C4 has merely found a way to complicate an otherwise easy process - the main difficulty is not concerned with mathematics as such. It is in deciphering a paragraph into a single line. Often, problems require knowledge of the use of the chain rule in differentiation.

For C4, we are mostly interested in:
 * Leaky tanks
 * Stains or other circular shapes

Let us imagine a situation in which there is a tank with volume, V. Its contents are leaking out at a rate proportional to the amount contained within the tank. So, we can write this as:

$$\frac{dV}{dt}=-kV$$

The negative sign being there because the tank is leaking. Next, let us say that in addition to this, there is the mandatory tap supplying the tank with fluid at a constant rate of 5$$m^3t^{-1}$$.

$$\frac{dV}{dt}= 5-kV$$

So what is the rate of change of height with respect to time? First, we need to examine the equation relating height to volume. Assuming that the tank is a cylinder of uniform cross section, we can say that:

$$V=\pi r^2h\;$$, where r is the radius of the tank at any point, and h is the height of the volume contained.

Differentiating with respect to h gives:

$$\frac{dV}{dh}=\pi r^2$$

$$\frac{dh}{dV}=\frac{1}{\pi r^2}$$

And so:

$$\frac{dh}{dt}=\frac{dh}{dV}\cdot\frac{dV}{dt}=\frac{1}{\pi r^2}(5-kV)$$

Where k is a constant of proportionality, usually to be figured out by a boundary condition.

Parametric differentiation
In parametric geometery, differentiation works as normal. One can either convert the curve into cartesian form, or use the result of the chain rule to find dy/dx:

$$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{dy}{dt}\div\frac{dx}{dt}$$


text:
User:Basenga

I'm a PhD student at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Currently residing in the flatlands of Illinois, I will soon be moving to the equally desolate albeit mountaineous lands of Los Alamos, NM.

Not scheduled to finish my Ph.D. Ever. I'm not going to lie to you and pretend I'll finish any time soon. I keep that for my girlfriend.

On a side note, I'm one of the co-founders of www.wikiscuba.com, which I maintain with Andy. My homepage there is User:Charles

In the wikibooks project, I'm only working on the LaTeX project.

title: User:Basenga


text:
User talk:Arunreginald

Javafied/Preface
Are you planning to expand this into a book? If the Javafied book project is no longer of interest to you, I suggest you add Javafied/Preface to the Java Programming book as a "history" appendix or a section of the introduction. Thanks, haginძaz 23:26, 24 May 2006 (UTC)

Use Talk page
Hi, You created a page for organization help in Java Programming, I suggest to use Talk pages for that. That's the standard way to add discussions, and new users probably won't find your newly created page. Ervinn 03:52, 5 November 2006 (UTC)

Images
As you can see at the top of this page, "All unlicensed images uploaded to wikibooks before November 1, 2006 will soon be deleted." You have uploaded images and some of them are untagged. You can see them here. Please review them and add appropriate tags. If you have any questions, feel free to ask me. --Think Fast 04:35, 13 November 2006 (UTC)

Screenshots
Please not that by defaults copyrights to software screenshots belong to software authors. Therefore you cannot tag screenshots as "PD-self". Use software-screenshot template for non-free programs instead. --Derbeth talk 09:45, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

Fair use images
Hi there. I notice that some of your images are tagged as fair use. Please read Media; you're required to provide a rationale for fair use on the image page. Please provide a quick reason why you must use a fair use image there underneath the license tag for each of your fair use images. Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 12:40, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

Image:Community Building on the Web (book).png is missing a fair use rationale

 * Sorry, I don't understand the rationale you've given for using this book. Why do you need to advertize this book? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:57, 12 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Mike, I am not advertising this book. Some subjects related to the book content are taken from the book and are then built upon. This book is very important when it comes to the subject at hand - Arunreginald (talk) 01:22, 14 March 2008 (UTC)
 * It definitely seems like you're advertising it. Why do you need to show the cover? How does doing so help the module? That is what you need to put in the rationale. Indeed, the rationale claims that the purpose is partially to "[direct] people to the book on the author's website." If you're simply referring to concepts that are introduced in that book then a simple mention of that in the text is plenty. Or add a footnote like "These concepts were discussed adequately in ____. Refer to P. p-q for an introduction." We need to try to keep fair use images to a minimum so our content is reusable. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 04:36, 14 March 2008 (UTC)
 * I understand your point. Thanks for clearing that up - Arunreginald (talk) 20:37, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

Java navigation
Greetings. I noticed that some of the Java Programming pages use the navigation template and some use the one in your user space:. Personally I very much prefer the latter one (although separate next_title and previous_title strings seem superfluous to me). I wonder what are your plans regarding these templates? Obviously one should be selected and used consistently. --ZeroOne (talk) 12:49, 22 March 2010 (UTC)
 * Merged. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 19:14, 6 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Arunreginald


text:
Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/C4/Advanced Differentiation

Erm. I started it off. Since we haven't actually done C4 (I've taught it to myself), some of it may only be partially correct. Oh...sorry, I didn't realise that most were taking OCR. I've written this with reference to Edexcel, but I will rewrite it to follow the OCR syllabus if no one else will.


text:
Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/C4

I started on the differentiation section (first contribution, woo). But I'm studying for the Edexcel syllabus. On top of that, I've learnt most of C4 myself, so no guarantees on reliability. I took a brief look at the OCR syllabus, and they seem more or less similar. However, since I haven't actually looked at any past exam-style questions from OCR papers, I have no idea what the specific requirements are, or what common problems with solving questions are.

title: Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/C4


text:
User:JohnTechnologist

Hi, I'm John. great to be here, telecommuting from OZ.

title: User:JohnTechnologist


text:
User talk:JohnTechnologist

feel free ...

title: User talk:JohnTechnologist


text:
Wikijunior talk:Languages/French

Hi. I'm a new user, so not sure if this is the right place to make notes. But I wanted to point out some corrections that need to be made to the map of where French is spoken. It looks like you've left out Rwanda and Burundi in Africa (both have French as an official languages, see CIA factbook: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/by.html, though I don't know how you have made the distinction between native and administrative territories.)  These are just the first changes I noticed right away. Will look more closely and see if there are other omissions. Sarah

Pronunciation
I feel on the computerised version, you should be able to click on the French words to hear them being pronounced, which would be very helpful for children.

Usage of the term 'America'
In a context referring to colonisation, it would be strongly preferable not to refer to present-day United States of America or Anglo-America simply as "America". One might argue that for children, one wishes to write as simply as possible, but this vague use may take its toll later (e.g. confusing readers into thinking that English is spoken on the whole continent). A native English speaker may please rectify the situation. 81.182.216.88 10:05, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Languages/French


text: Template:Physics bookshelf

title: Template:Physics bookshelf


text:
Template:Business bookshelf

Business and economics — B USINESS  — Marketing - Accounting - Taxation in the United Kingdom - Finance - Financial Derivatives - Personal Finance — M ANAGEMENT  — Business continuity planning - Managing Groups and Teams - Standard Grade Business Management - Management for IT Professionals — E CONOMICS  — Political Economy - Managerial Economics — C ERTIFICATIONS  — Project+

All Business and economics books...

title: Template:Business bookshelf


text:
User talk:Edutechnoslave

Technology department
The same is - of corse - true for new bookshelfs as well. Here too you have to create the bookshelf first, place books onto then and only then you can add a new link to the department page.

--Krischik T 09:57, 25 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Edutechnoslave


text:
Modern Greek/LegacyLesson 1b

Vowels
Greek has five vowel sounds, all vowels are pronounced nearer the English long rather than short: Throughout this book, tables highlighted in this color have (or will eventually have) audio recordings to go with them.

As you can see from these examples, many letters in the Greek alphabet look like their counterparts in English. There are multiple spellings for some of these sounds:

Consonants
The following letters sound like the English letters they resemble:

Note: If you're a native English speaker, try to pronounce a plain τ, that is without the "h" sound in the end.

Reading practice:

Most greek words have a stressed syllable which in words of more than one syllable is shown with an accent over the stressed vowel.

Vocabulary:

The following Greek consonants sound like familiar sounds from English, but look different from their English counterparts: The letter sigma, σ, is written as  ς at the end of a word. Some Greek speakers pronounce the sigma sound so that it sounds half-way between s and sh.

Vocabulary and reading practice:

The following Greek consonants have sounds not found in English:

Vocabulary and reading practice:

The following combinations of letters have sounds that have to be learned:

Vocabulary and reading practice:

One of the big obstacles for an English speaker trying to learn Greek is that so few common usage words are related to English ones (although an estimated 10% to 20% of the total English vocabulary has Greek roots, most of it though of scientific/technical nature). However, sometimes there is a relationship that would help you to remember the Greek word, but the relationship isn't obvious, as with ευχαριστώ and Eucharist. When this happens, we'll note it as in the example above, with ~. This may mean that the English word is derived from the Greek one, or merely that both the English word and the Greek one come from a common root.

Names of the letters:

title: Modern Greek/LegacyLesson 1b


text:
Multiseat Configuration/faketty

This article teaches how a Multiterminal with Faketty works, and how to do it. It uses the faketty module, developed by Aivils Stoss, and it doesn't use the evdev protocol or kernel patches. It is one of the most famous ways to make multiterminals.

Introduction
This text describes the necessary steps to configure a multiterminal system using the faketty module. The faketty is a kernel module, developed by Aivils Stoss, that associates system keyboards to device files named as /dev/fttyXX (where XX is a number that identifies the keyboard), which the X uses to read keyboard events. This module uses the same protocol that X usually uses to read events from the keyboard, that is, the TTY protocol, that dismisses the use of evdev. Another advantage of this method is that isn't necessary some patch to the kernel.

The disadvantages are that this solution needs that one kernel module had been compiled, and that this approach only works fine(stable) with few number of video cards combinations.

Operating System
Debian Sarge (you can use other GNU/Linux distribution too, with only minor changes)

Hardware used
Video Cards

 * 4 SiS 315 video cards (can be other cards too, but not all the cards are supported).

Keyboards and Mouses

 * 1 keyboard PS/2
 * 1 mouse PS/2
 * 3 keyboards USB
 * 3 mouses USB

Udev installation
It's necessary to install udev, that provides a dynamic and updated directory /dev in accordance with the connected devices:

apt-get install udev

The udev demands a kernel 2.6.12 or newer.

Compiling and loading the faketty module
Certify yourself that the headers of the kernel(in use) are installed. Case you use Debian, do the following command:

apt-get install linux-headers-$(uname -r)

The next step is compile the faketty module for your kernel. You can find the module source code here: http://www.ltn.lv/~aivils/files/faketty-0.05.tar.bz2

(Note: A new version of faketty is available at http://www.ltn.lv/~aivils/files/faketty-0.06.tar.bz2, try it if you run into any problems with the old one) Recent is this one http://www.ltn.lv/~aivils/files/faketty-2.6.30.tar.bz2. Fit under kernel > 2.6.23

Unpacks the file and execute the following command in the directory where the "Makefile" file is, to compile and install the module:

make && make install

To load the kernel module, execute the following command:

modprobe faketty

Making links to /dev/fttyXX files
It's necessary to verify the /proc/bus/input/devices file to know what ffty file each keyboard was associated. An example of /proc/bus/input/devices file is shown below:

I: Bus=0011 Vendor=0001 Product=0001 Version=ab41 N: Name="AT Translated Set 2 keyboard" P: Phys=isa0060/serio0/input0 H: Handlers=kbd event0 ftty1 B: EV=120013 B: KEY=4 2000000 3802078 f840d001 f2ffffdf ffefffff ffffffff fffffffe B: MSC=10 B: LED=7

I: Bus=0011 Vendor=0002 Product=0005 Version=0000 N: Name="ImPS/2 Generic Wheel Mouse" P: Phys=isa0060/serio1/input0 H: Handlers=mouse0 event1 B: EV=7 B: KEY=70000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B: REL=103

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=0a81 Product=0101 Version=0110 N: Name="CHESEN USB Keyboard" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-1/input0 H: Handlers=kbd event2 ftty2 B: EV=120003 B: KEY=10000 7 ff87207a c14057ff febeffdf ffefffff ffffffff fffffffe B: LED=7

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=0a81 Product=0101 Version=0110 N: Name="CHESEN USB Keyboard" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-1/input1 H: Handlers=kbd event3 ftty3 B: EV=3 B: KEY=1f 0 20000 3878 d801d101 1e0000 0 0 0

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=04fc Product=0013 Version=06b0 N: Name="USB OpticalWheel Mouse" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-2/input0 H: Handlers=mouse1 event4 B: EV=7 B: KEY=70000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B: REL=103

It's possible to note that there are three keyboards being shown, where the first is associated to the /dev/ftty1 file and the second to the /dev/ftty2 file. The keyboards for which attribute "P: Phys" ends with input1, on the contrary of input0, like the third keyboard of this file, should be reconsidered, because it refers to special keys and special functions of some keyboards.

Also is possible see, in the example file, the presence of two mouses, that are associated to the /dev/input/mouse0 and /dev/input/mouse1, respectively.

The X, when initialized, opens the /dev/ttyXX file to read keyboards events, where XX is the VT(Virtual Terminal) number that the X receives as parameter. Being not possible to solicit to X to open another file, it's necessary to make the /dev/ttyXX files to be links to the ftty files indicated in the /proc/bus/input/devices file. In the following example we have made 4 links, one to each keyboard, beginning by the /dev/tty50 file.

rm -f /dev/tty5[0-3] ln -s /dev/ftty1 /dev/tty50 ln -s /dev/ftty2 /dev/tty51 ln -s /dev/ftty3 /dev/tty52 ln -s /dev/ftty4 /dev/tty53

Driver installation to SiS video card
1. Add the following line to /etc/apt/sources.list file:

deb http://www.winischhofer.net/sis/debian/stable ./

2. Update the information for the system packages and install the x-driver-sis driver:

apt-get update apt-get install x-driver-sis

Hotplug
Install the hotplug package:

apt-get update apt-get install hotplug

XOrg server installation
The next step is install the XOrg server.

1. Do a backup and remove the /etc/init.d/xfree-common file. 2. Add the following lines to /etc/apt/sources.list file:

deb http://people.debian.org/~nobse/xorg-x11/ sarge main deb-src http://people.debian.org/~nobse/xorg-x11/ sarge main

3. Install the xserver-xorg package:

apt-get update apt-get install xserver-xorg apt-get upgrade

xorg.conf
This configuration will be used during the multiterminal running. In this file will be created additional sections in accordance with the number of terminals we're configuring. For each terminal, we'll create section for mouse, keyboard, video card, monitor, screen and layout. For example, in the case of a multiterminal with four terminals, the file will have four sections for mouse, four sections for keyboard, and thus for ahead.

The values suggested for “Identifier” at each section aren't mandatory. They can be modified, since that kept the coherence of names in all configuration.

The physical address(option “Dev Phys”) of each device can be obtained from /proc/bus/input/devices file, as seen previously.

Following, an example for each kind of section.

xorg.conf.probe
Beyond the xorg.conf default file, will be necessary to create one second configuration file, the xorg.conf.probe. During the use of multiterminal, we disable the interruptions at the 10 canal (IRQ 10) to prevent that VGA calls (and VESA VBE) of one card intervene others. However, with this calls disabled the secondary cards aren't initialized. To resolve this problem, during the system initialization process, the XOrg will be run with the xorg.conf.probe file. It will make one check (probe) for the presence of this cards, with the IRQ 10 active during the test, initializing it.

To create the xorg.conf.probe, take the xorg.conf as base, remove the sections relative to the primary video card (that is initialized for the BIOS when turning on the computer) and change the NoInt10 option to "No". Will be necessary only one layout, but including all secondary cards. As example, see above some stretchs of xorg.conf.probe file, devired from the xorg.conf:

To run the test (probe) is supplied the xorg-multiterminal file. It executes the X server int probeonly mode (only test the devices and finish), with xorg.conf.probe file. How explained above, this step initializes the secondary video cards. The content of file is:

file=/etc/X11/xorg.conf.probe

-f "file" && /usr/X11R6/bin/X -config "$file" -probeonly 2>/dev/null

Save it as one executable script and configure the initialization system to run it. In the case of Debian, the patch should be /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal, and exist two forms to configurate the system:

 * Through of update-rc.d command. This command functions in such a way to users of the system standard debian (sysv-rc) as to file-rc package users.

update-rc.d xorg-multiterminal start 70 S.

At a Debian system using a standard schema of initialization, creat a link:
 * Manually:

ln -s /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal /etc/rcS.d/S70xorg-multiterminal

At a Debian system with the file-rc package installed, add the following line in some place appropriate in the /etc/init.d/runlevel.conf file:

70       -        S        /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal

GDM
The last step is configure the login manager to initialize all X servers. We'll treat only the GDM. Another managers like the XDM and the KDM can be configurated by a similar process.

Is necessary to edit the “[servers]” section of /etc/gdm/gdm.conf file so that it contains multiplies input, like at following example to four terminals:

The server names are arbitrary, but is need to add one section for each server, with the contents below:

Observe that the four servers are using the 50, 51, 52 e 53 VT's, respectively. Thus, the X servers will use, to read keyboard events, the /dev/tty50, /dev/tty51, /dev/tty52 e /dev/tty53 files, that actually are links to /dev/fttyXX files, as we've had created previously.

Solving Problems
Problems in multiterminal initialization can be analyzed at /var/log/Xorg.*.log files. The X server of each terminal will create its proper log file.

title: Multiseat Configuration/faketty


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Multiseat Configuration/evdev

This page teaches how a Multiterminal with evdev works and how to do it. This method eliminates the use of kernel patch, and then, configures multiterminals using evdev protocol.

Operating System
Debian Sarge (but you can easily use other Linux distributions)

Hardware
Video Adapters:

 * 4 SiS graphic cards (you can also use other video-cards, but it doesn't always work with other combinations of cards)

Input devices:

 * 1 PS/2 keyboard
 * 1 PS/2 mouse
 * 3 USB keyboards
 * 3 USB mice

Make sure your kernel is compiled with the evdev module.

You also need to install udev, which provides a dynamic /dev directory refreshed with the currently available devices.

apt-get install udev

The udev system requires kernel 2.6.12 or higher.

Installing the SiS driver
1. Add this line to the file /etc/apt/sources.list:

http://www.winischhofer.net/sis/debian/stable ./

2. Update the package information database and install the x-driver-sis package:

apt-get update apt-get install x-driver-sis

Hotplug
Install the hotplug package:

apt-get update apt-get install hotplug

Input devices
Before proceeding, we need to make sure that the input devices (keyboards and mice) were properly detected. Read the contents of /proc/bus/input/devices, a file with details about devices detected by the kernel. A sample from this file is shown below. Only two fields are of interest to us: the device names, contained in lines beginning with “N: Name=”, and the physical address, shown in lines beginning with “P: Phys”.

I: Bus=0011 Vendor=0001 Product=0001 Version=ab41 N: Name="AT Translated Set 2 keyboard" P: Phys=isa0060/serio0/input0 H: Handlers=kbd event0 B: EV=120013 B: KEY=4 2000000 3802078 f840d001 f2ffffdf ffefffff ffffffff fffffffe B: MSC=10 B: LED=7

I: Bus=0011 Vendor=0002 Product=0005 Version=0000 N: Name="ImPS/2 Generic Wheel Mouse" P: Phys=isa0060/serio1/input0 H: Handlers=mouse0 event1 B: EV=7 B: KEY=70000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B: REL=103

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=0a81 Product=0101 Version=0110 N: Name="CHESEN USB Keyboard" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-1/input0 H: Handlers=kbd event2 B: EV=120003 B: KEY=10000 7 ff87207a c14057ff febeffdf ffefffff ffffffff fffffffe B: LED=7

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=0a81 Product=0101 Version=0110 N: Name="CHESEN USB Keyboard" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-1/input1 H: Handlers=kbd event3 B: EV=3 B: KEY=1f 0 20000 3878 d801d101 1e0000 0 0 0

I: Bus=0003 Vendor=04fc Product=0013 Version=06b0 N: Name="USB OpticalWheel Mouse" P: Phys=usb-0000:00:10.2-2/input0 H: Handlers=mouse1 event4 B: EV=7 B: KEY=70000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 B: REL=103

Note that the file seems to show the presence of three keyboards, even though on the measured system there are only two. The reason for the additional device is that many USB keyboards include special keys (such as multimedia control or Internet shortcut keys), which are detected by the kernel as belonging to a secondary keyboard. Secondary keyboards have a physical address ending in “input1”. We will deal only with the primary keyboards, the addresses of which end in “input0”. Therefore, the section about the secondary keyboard with the physical address “usb-0000:00:10.2-1/input1” will be ignored.

XOrg server
The next step is installing the XOrg server.

1. Backup and remove the file /etc/init.d/xfree-common. 2. Add the following lines to /etc/apt/sources.list:

deb http://people.debian.org/~nobse/xorg-x11/ sarge main deb-src http://people.debian.org/~nobse/xorg-x11/ sarge main

3. Install the xserver-xorg package:

apt-get update apt-get install xserver-xorg apt-get upgrade

xorg.conf
This configuration will be used when the multiterminal is running. The file will have additional sections according to the number of terminals. For each terminal, we'll create mouse, keyboard, graphics device, monitor, screen, and layout sections. For example, in a multiterminal with four terminals, the file will have four mouse sections, four keyboard sections, and so on.

The “Identifier” values are not mandatory. They may be changed to anything, as long as the names are consistent in the whole file.

The physical address (“Dev Phys” option) can be obtained from the file /proc/bus/input/devices, as explained before.

Below there's a sample for each kind of section.

xorg.conf.probe
Besides the standard xorg.conf we'll need another configuration file, xorg.conf.probe. While the multiterminal is running, we disable interruptions on channel 10 (IRQ 10) to avoid VGA (and VESA VBE) calls to a board interfering with the others. However, without these calls the secondary boards are not initialized. To solve this problem, during system startup the XOrg server will be run with the xorg.conf.probe file. It will probe for these cards with IRQ 10 calls active during the test, thus initializing them.

To create your xorg.conf.probe, take the xorg.conf as a base, remove the sections related to the primary graphic card (which is initialized by the BIOS when the computer turns on) and toggle all NoInt10 options to "No". A single layout will be enough, as long as it includes all secondary cards. To illustrate, below are some sections of the xorg.conf.probe file derived from the previous xorg.conf:

To run the probe we provide the xorg-multiterminal script. It runs the X server in probeonly mode (check for video adapters and exit), using the xorg.conf.probe as the configuration file. As explained before, this step initializates the secondary video cards. The file contents are:

file=/etc/X11/xorg.conf.probe

-f "$file" && /usr/X11R6/bin/X -config "$file" -probeonly 2>/dev/null

Save it with the executable bit set and configure the startup system to run the script. On Debian, the path should be /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal, and there are two ways of configuring the system:

 * Through the update-rc.d command. This works for both users of the default Debian init system (sysv-rc) and users of the file-rc package.

update-rc.d xorg-multiterminal start 70 S.

On a Debian system with the default init system, create a symbolic link:
 * Manually:

ln -s /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal /etc/rcS.d/S70xorg-multiterminal

On a Debian system with the file-rc package, add the following line in an appropriate place of the /etc/init.d/runlevel.conf file:

70       -        S        /etc/init.d/xorg-multiterminal

GDM
The last step is configuring the login manager to start all the X servers. We will configure only GDM. Other login managers such as XDM and KDM may be configured in a similar manner.

The “[servers]” section of the /etc/gdm/gdm.conf file should have multiple entries, as in the following four-terminal example:

The name of the servers are arbitrary. A section must be added for each one, with the content as shown below:

Troubleshooting
Problems when starting the multiterminal will be logged in the files /var/log/Xorg.*.log. Each terminal's X server will create its own log file.

title: Multiseat Configuration/evdev