text:
Google Services And Products/Search

Searching with Google
The most commonly used Google service or product is the search engine. To use simply do the following go to www.google.com or a local version of Google e.g. www.google.co.uk,type in a search query eg.wikibooks, press enter or click Google Search and wait for your search results page to load.

Search Results
After your search results page has loaded you will notice several things. The most important of these is the search results, listed down the page. For each result it shows the URL or Uniform Resource Locator, a snippet of the text of the page with your search terms in bold, a title for the web page

Search Operators

 * OR Google finds one of two or more search terms e.g. Services OR Products
 * "" Google Searches for the exact phrase eg. "Google Services and Products"
 * - Searches for things matching other search terms without a certain word e.g. -wikibooks
 * link: Shows links to a web page e.g. link:www.wikibooks.org
 * related: Shows related pages e.g. related:www.wikibooks.org
 * site: only searches within a given website eg.google site:en.wikibooks.org
 * intitle: searches within titles of web pages e.g. intitle:wikibooks
 * allintitle: like intitle: but restricts results to web pages that have all of the search terms in their title e.g. allintitle:wikibooks
 * inurl: searches within the urls of pages e.g. inurl:wikibooks
 * allinurl: like inurl: but restricts results to web pages that have all of the search terms in their url e.g. allinurl:wikibooks

title: Google Services And Products/Search


text:
User talk:Arsenalfan

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Also I noticed the Google Services And Products book you started. I had changed the name, to follow Wikibooks' naming conventions which you reversed. Pages in a book are suppose to be separated by "/" rather than ":". --dark lama  10:04, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Thanks for renaming my pages to follow the naming conventions.

Common phrases in various languages
I noticed a large number of subpage creations in the logs. Are you splitting content off onto subpages of this book? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 04:12, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Arsenalfan


text:
Eclipse/FAQ

Eclipse FAQ -- Frequently Asked Questions about the Eclipse technology.

 * 1) Buckminster
 * 2) buid.xml
 * 3) Classpath Checker
 * 4) DocBook
 * 5) JRE
 * 6) Logging
 * 7) manifest.mf
 * 8) Plugin Dependency Visualization
 * 9) plugin.xml
 * 10) Popup
 * 11) Xerces
 * 1) manifest.mf
 * 2) Plugin Dependency Visualization
 * 3) plugin.xml
 * 4) Popup
 * 5) Xerces
 * 1) Popup
 * 2) Xerces
 * 1) Xerces

Links

 * The Official Eclipse FAQs
 * eclipse.org/newsgroups—newsgroups
 * eclipse.org/articles—articles
 * eclipse.org/mail—lists
 * eclipse.org/community—community
 * eclipseZone.org

title: Eclipse/FAQ


text:
Eclipse/FAQ/buid.xml

Creating: MANIFEST.MF (right-click) > PDE Tools > Create Ant Build File

To prevent PDE from deleting your custom build.xml: MANIFEST.MF (left-click) > Build > Custom Build (check)

Executing:
 * build.xml (right-click) > Run Ant
 * (export the plug-in)
 * site.xml (left-click) > Build All


text:
User:Tdvorak/monobook.js

import_script('User:Whiteknight/google.js');

title: User:Tdvorak/monobook.js


text:
User:Moohasha

My name is David Mitchell and I'm a Software Engineer for Lockheed Martin in Fort Worth, TX. My group focuses on systems for unmanned vehicles, such as mission planning and collision avoidance.

I'm also working on my Masters degree in Computer Science Engineering at the University of Texas at Arlington where I have about 2 years left (slow going). My areas of interest are in artificial intelligence, robotics, and computer graphics. Eventually I would like to get a job in the computer game industry, either as a direct employee or doing contract work.

My beautiful wife of four years and I are expecting our first child, a boy, in March. We've decided on the name Daniel Patrick Mitchell for the little guy. We almost went with the middle name Q in tribute to the omnipotent thorn in Captain Picard's side, but we liked Patrick better.

Given the nature of my work and interests, most of my contributions will likely be computer related, specifically programming and graphics. I appreciate feedback on everything, so please let me know what you think (good or bad) either in the discussions on my articles or on my talk.

Articles
These are the articles I have written on wikibooks:
 * Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Landscape Modeling I: Basic Terrain
 * Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Landscape Modeling II: Texture Stenciling
 * Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Landscape Modeling III: Exporting as a Heightmap

title: User:Moohasha


text:
General Chemistry/Redox Reactions/Electrochemistry

Redox Reactions (review)
Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed.

This can be either a simple redox process such as the oxidation of carbon to yield carbon dioxide, or the reduction of carbon by hydrogen to yield methane (CH4), or it can be a complex process such as the oxidation of sugar in the human body through a series of very complex electron transfer processes.

The term redox comes from the two concepts of reduction and oxidation. It can be explained in simple terms:

 * Oxidation describes the loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
 * Reduction describes the gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion

However, these descriptions (though sufficient for many purposes) are not truly correct. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. In practice, the transfer of electrons will always cause a change in oxidation number, but there are many reactions which are classed as "redox" even though no electron transfer occurs noway (such as those involving covalent bonds).

Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the flow of electricity by chemical reactions. The electrons in a balanced half-reaction show the direct relationship between electricity and the specific redox reaction. Electrochemical reactions are either spontaneous, or nonspontaneous. A spontaneous redox reaction generates a voltage itself. A nonspontaneous redox reaction occurs when an external voltage is applied. The reactions that occur in an electric battery are electrochemical reactions.

Electrolysis
An electrolysis experiment forces a nonspontaneous chemical reaction to occur. This is achieved when two electrodes are submersed in an electrically conductive solution, and the electrical voltage applied to the two electrodes is increased until electrons flow. The electrode receiving the electrons, or where the reduction reactions occur, is called the cathode. The electrode which supplies the electrons, or where the oxidation reactions occur, is called the anode.

A molten salt is an example of something that may be electrolyzed because salts are composed of ions. When the salt is in its solid state, the ions are not able to freely move. However, when the salt is heated enough until it melts (making it a molten salt), the ions are free to move. This mobility of the ions in the molten salt makes the salt electrically conductive. In the electrolysis of a molten salt, for example melted $$NaCl$$, the cation of the salt (in this case $$Na^+$$) will be reduced at the cathode, and the anion of the salt (in this case $$Cl^-$$) will be oxidized at the anode:
 * Cathode reaction: +  →
 * Anode reaction: →  + 2

Aqueous solutions of salts can be electrolyzed as well because they are also electrically conductive. In aqueous solutions, there is an additional reaction possible at each the cathode and the anode:
 * Cathode: 2 + 2 → + 2 (reduction of water)
 * Anode: 2 → 4 + + 4 (oxidation of water)

With the addition of these two reactions, there are now two possible reactions at each electrode. At the cathode, either the reduction of the cation or the reduction of water will occur. At the anode, either the oxidation of the anion or the oxidation of water will occur. The following rules determine which reaction takes place at each electrode:
 * Cathode: If the cation is a very active metal, water will be reduced. Very active metals include, , , , , , , and . If the cation is an active or inactive metal, the cation will be reduced.
 * Anode: If the anion is a polyatomic ion, water will generally be oxidized. Specifically, sulfate, perchlorate, and nitrate ions are not oxidized; water will oxidize instead. Chloride, bromide, and iodide ions will be oxidized. If the anion in one salt is oxidized in an aqueous electrolysis, that same anion will also be oxidized in any other salt.

Galvanic Cells
The energy of a spontaneous redox reaction is captured using a galvanic cell. The following parts are necessary to make a galvanic cell: A galvanic cell is constructed as shown in the image to the right. The two half-reactions are separated into two half cells. All of the reactants in the oxidation half-reaction are placed in one half cell (the anode), and all the reactants of the reduction half-reaction are placed in the other half cell (the cathode). If the half-reaction contains a metal, the metal serves as the electrode for that half cell. Otherwise, an inert electrode made of platinum, silver, or gold is used. The electrodes are connected with a wire which allows the flow of electrons. The electrons always flow from the anode to the cathode. The half cells are connected by a salt bridge which allows the ions in the solution to move from one half cell to the other, so that the reaction can continue. Since the overall reaction is spontaneous, the flow of electrons will move spontaneously through the outer circuitry from which the energy can be extirpated. The energy harnessed is useful because it can be used to do work. For example, if an electrical component such as a light bulb is attached to the wire, it will receive power from the flowing electrons.
 * 1) Two half cells
 * 2) Two electrodes
 * 3) One electrically conductive wire
 * 4) One salt bridge
 * 5) One device, usually an ammeter or a voltmeter

Consistent results from a galvanic cell are dependent on three variables: pressure, temperature, and concentration. Thus, chemists defined a standard state for galvanic cells. The standard state for the galvanic cell is a pressure of 1.00 atmospheric pressure (atm) for all gases, a temperature of 298 kelvin (K) and concentrations of 1.00 molarity (M) for all soluble compounds, liquids, and solids.

Voltage
Voltage is a measure of spontaneity of redox reactions, and it can be measured by a voltmeter. If the voltage of a reaction is positive, the reaction occurs spontaneously, but when negative, it does not occur spontaneously.

To compute the voltage of a redox equation, split the equation into its oxidation component and reduction component. Then, look up the voltages of each component on a standard electrode potential table. This table will list the voltage for the reduction equation. The oxidation reaction's voltage is negative of the corresponding reduction equation's voltage. To find the equation's voltage, add the standard voltages for each half reaction. Chimica generale/Elettrochimica


text:
Talk:Data Coding Theory

I did my honours thesis on permutation codes, it would probably be pretty useful here, shall I contribute it?(Bengl 14:37, 2 October 2007 (UTC))

 * Yes, please do. --DavidCary (talk) 01:54, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I've actually talked to this user about it, and he seems to have disappeared before we finalized anything, or got his honours thesis donated. I'll try to contact him again. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 19:51, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Request for Inclusion of Page
A bit new to this subject. Just completing a page A_Basic_Convolutional_Coding_Example. I need some advice on which category to use for it. It is intended to give a non-mathematical view of hard decision coding. Any ideas??? Armchair (discuss • contribs) 16:19, 10 October 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data Coding Theory


text:
User:Bengl~enwikibooks

I'm the same as Bengl on English Wikipedia and English Wikinews, and Bengel on French Wikipedia.

Ideas
I'd like to see some kind of script that takes a wikibook and properly converts it to LaTeX. I'm sure such a script already exists, so could someone point me in the right direction?

title: User:Bengl~enwikibooks


text:
Java Persistence/Hibernate

Hibernate was an open source project developed by a team of Java software developers around the world led by Gavin King. JBoss, Inc. (now part of Red Hat) later hired the lead Hibernate developers and worked with them in supporting Hibernate.

The current version of Hibernate is Version 4.2.x. Hibernate provides both a proprietary POJO API, and JPA support.

/Persistence Products

title: Java Persistence/Hibernate


text:
User talk:Bengl~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

You did a thesis on permutation codes? What was the title? When did you graduate? It's an area where I have a certain research interest myself. As to contributing it, I think it most certainly would be valuable, although the book currently doesnt have enough basic information to support a high-level thesis. If you could maybe help write some of the supporting information too, then we would be in business. I would love to see your thesis too, if you can email me a copy. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 14:40, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Wow, this is a nice-looking report. I would definitely recommend you upload that to the book if you are willing and able. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:11, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Definitely do it. Feel free to add any pages that you want to add. We can always rearrange things later if we need to. Let me know if you need any help with this. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:24, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikibooks. I agree with Whiteknight: Be bold and contribute your information now. It's better to upload your large block of information now, and then later fill in the gaps in basic information leading up to it, rather than try to do it the other way around. Feel free to ask me for help, although you'll probably get a quicker response asking questions on the bulletin board --DavidCary 15:03, 5 December 2007 (UTC)

LaTeX converter
User:Hagindaz has created a java-based Wiki2LaTeX converter at: User:Hagindaz/Wiki2LaTeX. I've never tested it myself, and I think it might still be in beta testing. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:39, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

LaTeX converter
User:Hagindaz has created a java-based Wiki2LaTeX converter at: User:Hagindaz/Wiki2LaTeX. I've never tested it myself, and I think it might still be in beta testing. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:39, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

codes and communication
I am still interested in reading your thesis on permutation codes.

Would you be interested in reading and possibly editing the wikibooks clock and data recovery and Data Coding Theory? --DavidCary (talk) 00:48, 13 May 2008 (UTC)

I just downloaded your thesis from http://rapidshare.com/files/59765051/honoursproject1.pdf.html. Thank you for sharing it with me. I suspect it may be easier to incorporate this text into a wikibook by copying from the original source version (in TeX?) than copying from this PDF version.

Would you be willing to share that original source version with us?

I suspect that you have already figured out that the fancy equations in some books (such as Signals and Systems/Fourier Series) are stored in TeX to make them easy to edit, as explained in Help:Formula. --DavidCary (talk) 01:53, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

Wiki2latex
You can also take a look at this page of Google Code Projectsite. It is the code for mw:Extension:Wiki2LaTeX. Helder 17:18, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Bengl. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Bengl~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:02, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bengl~enwikibooks


text: User talk:204.8.12.2

title: User talk:204.8.12.2


text: User talk:193.220.46.130

title: User talk:193.220.46.130


text: User talk:198.20.32.253

title: User talk:198.20.32.253


text: User talk:70.60.18.74

title: User talk:70.60.18.74


text: User talk:212.135.1.53

title: User talk:212.135.1.53


text: User talk:207.74.25.36

title: User talk:207.74.25.36


text:
Common Lisp/External libraries/ASDF

ASDF
ASDF, short for "another system definition facility" simplifies the management of lisp systems. A system is analogous to a package or module from other programming language, and includes one or more files that are compiled and loaded to provide library objects and functions. Using ASDF, the lisp programmer can:

 * compile all files included in a system.
 * specify other asdf packages as dependencies.
 * load all of the files needed for a system.

ASDF has features in common with Ant for java, distutils for python, and cpan for perl. An additional package /ASDF-INSTALL/ can be used to download and install asdf asdf systems. Many lisp libraries are now distributed as ADSF systems, and ASDF is bundled with Allegro Common Lisp, SBCL, ECL, and OpenMCL.

Sections

 * /Installing ASDF/: for lisp implementations that do not include it.
 * /Configuring ASDF/: specifying the asdf respository.
 * /Using ASDF/: loading, compiling, and recompiling asdf systems.
 * /Definition Files/: creating your own systems.
 * /ASDF-INSTALL/: downloading and installing packages.
 * /Budden's infrequently asked questions/

title: Common Lisp/External libraries/ASDF


text:
Automobile Repair/Nissan/Maxima (4th Generation)/Replacing the engine thermostat

The Engine Thermostat controls how much coolant flows throw the engine. It should be replaced if the engine is consistently cold (if the thermostat is stuck open) or if the car is getting too hot or over heating (if the thermostat is stuck closed). Its a good idea to replace the thermostat at the same time your changing the coolant, because the coolant must be drained to do this.

Tools/Parts needed

 * Oil pan
 * A new engine thermostat
 * A new engine thermostat seal (optional)
 * Socket wrench set
 * A Phillips-head screw driver
 * A set of large pipe pliers (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) To start remove the engine coolant by removing the plastic Phillips-head screw from under the radiator, letting the coolant fall into the oil pan
 * 2) Now we have to make some room to work, remove the alarm horn and move it aside.
 * 3) Lower the belt adjustment bolt that is sticking put vertically next to the engine thermostat until it is out of the way.
 * 4) Loosen the bracket with the Phillips-head screw driver and pull it off.  If you are having trouble getting it off use a set of large pipe pliers to twist if off (being careful not to damage it).
 * 5) Now remove the three bolts holding engine thermostat with your Socket wrench and pull it away.
 * 6) Push the new one in to place with the seal on it and tighten the bolts.
 * 7) Reattach the hose and tighten with the Phillips-head screw driver.
 * 8) Rise the pulley adjustment bolt all the way and reattach the alarm horn
 * 9) Put the coolant back in the engine and your done.


text:
User:Ryanfrei

Hi. I'm Ryan Frei. I am a physics/chemistry grad student. I also speak Russian. I will probably contribute in all three of these areas, along with whatever random knowledge I've picked up in my life.

title: User:Ryanfrei


text:
User talk:Ryanfrei

Leave me a note.

title: User talk:Ryanfrei


text:
User:Lewbloch

Lew Bloch is a Java (JEE, JSF, Web services), C# and SQL (Microsoft, Oracle, Postgres, MySQL, Derby, Red Brick) developer and software architect. Enterprise and Web applications are a specialty.

Lew also is learning to play the fiddle.

title: User:Lewbloch


text:
Common Lisp/External libraries/ASDF/Installing ASDF

Is it installed for you?
Many lisp systems encoding SBCL, Allegro, OpenMCL and ECL are bundled with asdf. To test this, try entering the following into a lisp interpreter:

(require 'asdf)

If this succeeds, ASDF is installed and ready to go.

Downloading ASDF
If you have cvs installed, you can download asdf with the following commands. Press enter when prompted for a password.

cvs -d:pserver:anonymous@cclan.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/cclan login cvs -z3 -d:pserver:anonymous@cclan.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/cclan co -P asdf

Alternatively, you can just download asdf.lisp from http://cclan.cvs.sourceforge.net/cclan/asdf/

Under Debian Linux and related systems, you can install asdf with:

apt-get install cl-asdf

Loading ASDF
Save asdf.lisp and associated other files into a location of your choice. For example my lisp files are in my home directory at. If you install ASDF system wide it may be under.

Open the startup file for the lisp you are running. For clisp this will be. For cmucl try. Add the following line:

(load #p"/Path/to/asdf.lisp")

Replace  with the full path to the asdf.lisp file.

For example, if you've used cl-asdf package on Debian (or Ubuntu) GNU/Linux, the command will look like this: (load #p"/usr/share/common-lisp/source/cl-asdf/asdf.lisp")


text:
User talk:Lewbloch

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 18:21, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lewbloch


text:
User talk:69.51.160.104

-- Herby talk thyme 18:23, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.51.160.104


text:
Common Lisp/External libraries/ASDF/Configuring ASDF

Configuring ASDF
Most frequently, you will add settings for asdf to the configuration file for your lisp system. For example, sbcl uses  while cmucl uses. The most important setting is the central registry described below. Most of the other configuration settings are optional.

asdf:*central-registry*
The central-registry is a list of file directories that will be searched for system definition files and is the least you need to know about configuring ASDF. The safest way to modify asdf:*central-registry* is to use pushnew to push a new directory onto the list.

Automatically updating stale fasl files
From http://www.cliki.net/asdf

Alternative to symlinks, search directories recursively
The standard way of adding libraries to ASDF involves either: The following code snippit shows how to recursively search through subdirectories for asdf packages.
 * 1) Making a symbolic link for the   file in a directory listed in    or
 * 2) Adding directories to.

From http://www.cliki.net/asdf


text:
Talk:Miskito/Discussion

Untitled
Tinki nani for this course... It is pretty awesome! I am a language teacher myself, and am more than pleased with the quality and user-friendliness of the book. I am learning the Miskitu language basically on my own because my husband is Miskitu and I wanted to surprise him and his family (which I did, by the way). However, some audio for pronunciation and intonation is necessary... Are any such resources available?

First I would like to say tinki tara for making this website. I am also a Miskitu student living in Nicaragua. I noticed a few errors in your website. First of all. The word "tiara" refers to young females, for males it is "wahma". Also you can not say "Jan utla ra sa". When the word is possesive you have to change the word completely most of the time. In this case if it is first person possesive it changes to "waitla", second person "wamtla", third person "watla". So in this case it would be "Jan watla ra sa." But if you wanted to say houses in general then you would say "Utla nani ba".

Thank You!
I just returned from two weeks in Nicaragua where I was helping with the rebuilding of the Miskito village of Betania. I was very surprised to see a language course online in Miskito. The little bit I learned helped with the communication barrier and I made some Miskito friends for life! Thanks again. Teri H.

title: Talk:Miskito/Discussion


text:
Category:Book:World History

cs:Kategorie:Světové dějiny

title: Category:Book:World History


text:
New Zealand History/Mid to Late Twentieth Century

‹ Back to New Zealand in World War II

1947 - Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947
New Zealand gained total independence from Britain, through the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act of 1947. New Zealand today is an independent member of the British Commonwealth.

The British monarch is the constitutional head of state, although plays no part in the running of New Zealand. The Governor General, who is generally a New Zealander, represents the monarch in New Zealand's Parliament.

1953 - Tangiwai Rail Disaster
At 10:21pm on Christmas Eve 1953, a lahar from a nearby volcano knocked out the rail bridge over the Whangaehu River at Tangiwai, just before the Wellington–Auckland night express train was due to cross it. The train plunged into the flooded river at high speed, killing 151 of the 285 passengers on board. At the time it was the eighth biggest rail disaster the world had seen. The whole nation, with a population of just over 2 million were stunned. For his actions in attempting to stop the train by running along the line waving a torch, Arthur Cyril Ellis was awarded the George Medal, New Zealand's highest civilian award.

1967 - Introduction of a Decimal Currency
A decimal currency was introduced to New Zealand, replacing the old system of pounds, shillings and pence.

The first decimal coins were introduced on the 10th of July 1967.

1981 - Springboks Rugby Tour
With the controversial tour of New Zealand by the South African Springboks rugby team, many New Zealanders were unhappy because the South Africans were still involved in apartheid. The tour was approved by the New Zealand Rugby Football Union, and the Government didn't intervene because the Prime Minister, Robert Muldoon, had a policy that politics shouldn't interfere with sport.

The protests against the tour were some of the most violent in New Zealand history. Protesters filled the streets outside stadiums where games were being played, and successfully invaded the pitch at some games, stopping gameplay.

After the tour, the popularity of Rugby Union in New Zealand decreased until the All Blacks won the Rugby World Cup in 1987.

1985 - Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior
In 1985, The New Zealand Government funded the voyages of the Greenpeace 'Rainbow Warrior'. These voyages were designed to protest and prevent the French nuclear testing in the Mururoa Atoll. The French Government, in conjunction with the DGSE, planned to bomb the civilian vessel. Today, this action would be condemned as a Terrorist Attack or State Sponsored Terrorism. On 10th of July, 1985, French agents, using scuba equipment, began to plant the limpet mines on the hull of the civilian craft. The first bomb went off at 23:48. The crew of the Rainbow Warrior initially evacuated, but some of the crew returned to investigate the damage. Fernando Pereira, a photographer, was collecting photographic equipment at his cabin. Then, at around 23:51, the second bomb went off. The rapid flooding killed Fernando Pereira.

Initially, the French Government denied any involvement of the bombing. The French statement from the New Zealand embassy was "the French Government does not deal with its opponents in such ways". When tried, two of the French agents, Dominique Prieur and Alain Marfart, pleaded guilty of manslaughter and wilful damage. Their sentences were 10 years and 7 years respectively, but were transferred to the Hao Atoll, a French Base, to receive a lesser sentence.

Then they were released within less than two years.

1987 - Māori Language Act
The Maori language Act, signed in 1987, gave official legal status to to the Maori language (Te Reo Maori). This was in response to a revival in Maori culture in New Zealand, and the Waitangi Tribunal, which was called forth to make amends to the supposed breaches of the Treaty of Waitangi. This Tribunal found breaches on both the Crown and Maori sides, and large portions of land was returned to the various Maori iwi. This act also gave the privilege to New Zealand citizens to use Te Reo Maori in court.

Forward to Famous New Zealanders in the Twentieth Century ›


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Endocrine System

PREPARED BY ARNOLD WAMUKOTA, BUSIA

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * The characteristics of endocrine glands and hormones
 * The position of the main endocrine glands in the body
 * The relationship between the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus
 * The main hormones produced by the two parts of the pituitary gland and their effects on the body
 * The main hormones produced by the pineal, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands, the pancreas, ovary and testicle in regard to their effects on the body
 * What is meant by homeostasis and feedback control
 * The homeostatic mechanisms that allow an animal to control its body temperature, water balance, blood volume and acid/base balance

The Endocrine System
In order to survive, animals must constantly adapt to changes in the environment. The nervous and endocrine systems both work together to bring about this adaptation. In general the nervous system responds rapidly to short-term changes by sending electrical impulses along nerves and the endocrine system brings about longer-term adaptations by sending out chemical messengers called hormones into the blood stream. In general Endocrine system is represented by a set of heterogeneous structure and origin of formations capable of internal secretion, ie the release of biologically active substances (hormones) that flow directly into the bloodstream.

For example, think about what happens when a male and female cat meet under your bedroom window at night. The initial response of both cats may include spitting, fighting and spine tingling yowling - all brought about by the nervous system. Fear and stress then activates the adrenal glands to secrete the hormone adrenaline which increases the heart and respiratory rates. If mating occurs, other hormones stimulate the release of ova from the ovary of the female and a range of different hormones maintains pregnancy, delivery of the kittens and lactation.

PREPARED By ARNOLD WERANGAI

Evolution of endocrine systems

The most primitive endocrine systems seem to be those of the neurosecretory type, in which the nervous system either secretes neurohormones (hormones that act on, or are secreted by, nervous tissue) directly into the circulation or stores them in neurohemal organs (neurons whose endings directly contact blood vessels, allowing neurohormones to be secreted into the circulation), from which they are released in large amounts as needed. True endocrine glands probably evolved later in the evolutionary history of the animal kingdom as separate, hormone-secreting structures. Some of the cells of these endocrine glands are derived from nerve cells that migrated during the process of evolution from the nervous system to various locations in the body. These independent endocrine glands have been described only in arthropods (where neurohormones are still the dominant type of endocrine messenger) and in vertebrates (where they are best developed). It has become obvious that many of the hormones previously ascribed only to vertebrates are secreted by invertebrates as well (for example, the pancreatic hormone insulin). Likewise, many invertebrate hormones have been discovered in the tissues of vertebrates, including those of humans. Some of these molecules are even synthesized and employed as chemical regulators, similar to hormones in higher animals, by unicellular animals and plants. Thus, the history of endocrinologic regulators has ancient beginnings, and the major changes that took place during evolution would seem to centre around the uses to which these molecules were put.

Vertebrate endocrine systems

Vertebrates (phylum Vertebrata) are separable into at least seven discrete classes that represent evolutionary groupings of related animals with common features. The class Agnatha, or the jawless fishes, is the most primitive group. Class Chondrichthyes and class Osteichthyes are jawed fishes that had their origins, millions of years ago, with the Agnatha. The Chondrichthyes are the cartilaginous fishes, such as sharks and rays, while the Osteichthyes are the bony fishes. Familiar bony fishes such as goldfish, trout, and bass are members of the most advanced subgroup of bony fishes, the teleosts, which developed lungs and first invaded land. From the teleosts evolved the class Amphibia, which includes frogs and toads. The amphibians gave rise to the class Reptilia, which became more adapted to land and diverged along several evolutionary lines. Among the groups descending from the primitive reptiles were turtles, dinosaurs, crocodilians (alligators, crocodiles), snakes, and lizards. Birds (class Aves) and mammals (class Mammalia) later evolved from separate groups of reptiles. Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, collectively, are referred to as the tetrapod (four-footed) vertebrates. The human endocrine system is the product of millions of years of evolution. and it should not be surprising that the endocrine glands and associated hormones of the human endocrine system have their counterparts in the endocrine systems of more primitive vertebrates. By examining these animals it is possible to document the emergence of the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis, as well as many other endocrine glands, during the evolution of fishes that preceded the origin of terrestrial vertebrates.

The hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis

The hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axes of all vertebrates are similar. The hypothalamic neurosecretory system is poorly developed in the most primitive of the living Agnatha vertebrates, the hagfishes, but all of the basic rudiments are present in the closely related lampreys. In most of the more advanced jawed fishes there are several well-developed neurosecretory centres (nuclei) in the hypothalamus that produce neurohormones. These centers become more clearly defined and increase in the number of distinct nuclei as amphibians and reptiles are examined, and they are as extensive in birds as they are in mammals. Some of the same neurohormones that are found in humans have been identified in nonmammals, and these neurohormones produce similar effects on cells of the pituitary as described above for mammals. Two or more neurohormonal peptides with chemical and biologic properties similar to those of mammalian oxytocin and vasopressin are secreted by the vertebrate hypothalamus (except in Agnatha fishes, which produce only one). The oxytocin-like peptide is usually isotocin (most fishes) or mesotocin (amphibians, reptiles, and birds). The second peptide is arginine vasotocin, which is found in all nonmammalian vertebrates as well as in fetal mammals. Chemically, vasotocin is a hybrid of oxytocin and vasopressin, and it appears to have the biologic properties of both oxytocin (which stimulates contraction of muscles of the reproductive tract, thus playing a role in egg-laying or birth) and vasopressin (with either diuretic or antidiuretic properties). The functions of the oxytocin-like substances in non-mammals are unknown. The pituitary glands of all vertebrates produce essentially the same tropic hormones: thyrotropin (TSH), corticotropin (ACTH), melanotropin (MSH), prolactin (PRL), growth hormone (GH), and one or two gonadotropins (usually FSH-like and LH-like hormones). The production and release of these tropic hormones are controlled by neurohormones from the hypothalamus. The cells of teleost fishes, however, are innervated directly. Thus, these fishes may rely on neurohormones as well as neurotransmitters for stimulating or inhibiting the release of tropic hormones. Among the target organs that constitute the hypothalamic-pituitary-target organ axis are the thyroid, the adrenal glands, and the gonads. Their individual roles are discussed below.

The thyroid axis

Thyrotropin secreted by the pituitary stimulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones, which help to regulate development, growth, metabolism, and reproduction. In humans, these thyroid hormones are known as triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). The evolution of the thyroid gland is traceable in the evolutionary development of invertebrates to vertebrates. The thyroid gland evolved from an iodide-trapping, glycoprotein-secreting gland of the protochordates (all nonvertebrate members of the phylum Chordata). The ability of many invertebrates to concentrate iodide, an important ingredient in thyroid hormones, occurs generally over the surface of the body. In protochordates, this capacity to bind iodide to a glycoprotein and produce thyroid hormones became specialized in the endostyle, a gland located in the pharyngeal region of the head. When these iodinated proteins are swallowed and broken down by enzymes, the iodinated amino acids known as thyroid hormones are released. Larvae of primitive vertebrate lampreys also have an endostyle like that of the protochordates. When a lamprey larva undergoes metamorphosis into an adult lamprey, the endostyle breaks into fragments. The resulting clumps of endostyle cells differentiate into the separate follicles of the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormones actually direct metamorphosis in the larvae of lampreys, bony fishes, and amphibians. Thyroids of fishes consist of scattered follicles in the pharyngeal region. In tetrapods and a few fishes, the thyroid becomes encapsulated by a layer of connective tissue.

The adrenal axis

The adrenal axes in mammals and in nonmammals are not constructed along the same lines. In mammals the adrenal cortex is a separate structure that surrounds the internal adrenal medulla; the adrenal gland is located atop the kidneys. Because the cells of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla do not form separate structures in nonmammals as they do in mammals, they are often referred to in different terms; the cells that correspond to the adrenal cortex in mammals are called inter renal cells, and the cells that correspond to the adrenal medulla are called chromaffin cells. In primitive non mammals the adrenal glands are sometimes called inter renal glands. In fishes the interrenal and chromaffin cells often are embedded in the kidneys, whereas in amphibians they are distributed diffusely along the surface of the kidneys. Reptiles and birds have discrete adrenal glands, but the anatomical relationship is such that often the “cortex” and the “medulla” are not distinct units. Under the influence of pituitary adrenocorticotropin hormone, the interrenal cells produce steroids (usually corticosterone in tetrapods and cortisol in fishes) that influence sodium balance, water balance, and metabolism.

The gonadal axis

Gonadotropins secreted by the pituitary are basically LH-like and/or FSH-like in their actions on vertebrate gonads. In general, the FSH-like hormones promote development of eggs and sperm and the LH-like hormones cause ovulation and sperm release; both types of gonadotropins stimulate the secretion of the steroid hormones (androgens, estrogens, and, in some cases, progesterone) from the gonads. These steroids produce effects similar to those described for humans. For example, progesterone is essential for normal gestation in many fishes, amphibians, and reptiles in which the young develop in the reproductive tract of the mother and are delivered live. Androgens (sometimes testosterone, but often other steroids are more important) and estrogens (usually estradiol) influence male and female characteristics and behaviour.

Control of pigmentation

Melanotropin (melanocyte-stimulating hormone, or MSH) secreted by the pituitary regulates the star-shaped cells that contain large amounts of the dark pigment melanin (melanophores), especially in the skin of amphibians as well as in some fishes and reptiles. Apparently, light reflected from the surface stimulates photoreceptors, which send information to the brain and in turn to the hypothalamus. Pituitary melanotropin then causes the pigment in the melanophores to disperse and the skin to darken, sometimes quite dramatically. By releasing more or less melanotropin, an animal is able to adapt its colouring to its background.

Growth hormone and prolactin

The functions of growth hormone and prolactin secreted by the pituitary overlap considerably, although prolactin usually regulates water and salt balance, whereas growth hormone primarily influences protein metabolism and hence growth. Prolactin allows migratory fishes such as salmon to adapt from salt water to fresh water. In amphibians, prolactin has been described as a larval growth hormone, and it can also prevent metamorphosis of the larva into the adult. The water-seeking behaviour (so-called water drive) of adult amphibians often observed prior to breeding in ponds is also controlled by prolactin. The production of a protein-rich secretion by the skin of the discus fish (called “discus milk”) that is used to nourish young offspring is caused by a prolactin-like hormone. Similarly, prolactin stimulates secretions from the crop sac of pigeons (“pigeon” or “crop” milk), which are fed to newly hatched young. This action is reminiscent of prolactin’s actions on the mammary gland of nursing mammals. Prolactin also appears to be involved in the differentiation and function of many sex accessory structures in nonmammals, and in the stimulation of the mammalian prostate gland. For example, prolactin stimulates cloacal glands responsible for special reproductive secretions. Prolactin also influences external sexual characteristics such as nuptial pads (for clasping the female) and the height of the tail in male salamanders.

Other vertebrate endocrine glands

The pancreas

The pancreas in nonmammals is an endocrine gland that secretes insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Pancreatic polypeptide has been identified in birds and may occur in other groups as well. Insulin lowers blood sugar (hypoglycemia) in most vertebrates, although mammalian insulin is rather ineffective in reptiles and birds. Glucagon is a hyperglycemic hormone (it increases the level of sugar in the blood). In primitive fishes the cells responsible for secreting the pancreatic hormones are scattered within the wall of the intestine. There is a trend toward progressive clumping of cells in more evolutionarily advanced fishes, and in a few species the endocrine tissue forms only one or a few large islets. As a rule, most fishes lack a discrete pancreas, but all tetrapods have a fully formed exocrine and endocrine pancreas. The endocrine cells of all tetrapods are organized into distinct islets as described for humans, although the abundance of the different cell types often varies. For example, in reptiles and birds there is a predominance of glucagon-secreting cells and relatively few insulin-secreting cells.

Calcium-regulating hormones

Fishes have no parathyroid glands: these glands first appear in amphibians. Although the embryological origin of parathyroid glands of tetrapods is well known, their evolutionary origin is not. Parathyroid hormone raises blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia) in tetrapods. The absence in most fishes of cellular bone, which is the principal target for parathyroid hormone in tetrapods, is reflected by the absence of parathyroid glands. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds have paired pharyngeal ultimobranchial glands that secrete the hypocalcemic hormone calcitonin. The corpuscles of Stannius, unique glandular islets found only in the kidneys of bony fishes, secrete a peptide called hypocalcin. Fish calcitonins differ somewhat from the mammalian peptide hormone of the same name, and fish calcitonins have proved to be more potent and have a longer-lasting action in humans than human calcitonin itself. Consequently, synthetic fish calcitonin has been used to treat humans suffering from various disorders of bone, including Paget’s disease. The secretory cells of the ultimobranchial glands are derived from cells that migrated from the embryonic nervous system. During the development of a mammalian fetus, the ultimobranchial gland becomes incorporated into the developing thyroid gland as the “C cells” or “parafollicular cells.”

Gastrointestinal hormones

Little research has been done on gastrointestinal hormones in nonmammals, but there is good evidence for a gastrinlike mechanism that controls the secretion of stomach acids. Peptides similar to cholecystokinin are also present and can stimulate contractions of the gall bladder. The gall bladders of primitive fishes contract when treated with mammalian cholecystokinin.

Other mammalian-like endocrine systems

The renin-angiotensin system

The renin-angiotensin system in mammals is represented in nonmammals by the juxtaglomerular cells that secrete renin associated with the kidney. The macula densa that functions as a detector of sodium levels within the kidney tubules of tetrapods, however, has not been found in fishes.

The pineal complex

In fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, the pineal complex is better developed than in mammals. The nonmammalian pineal functions as both a photoreceptor organ and an endocrine source for melatonin. Effects of light on reproduction in fishes and tetrapods are mediated at least in part through the pineal, and it has been implicated in a number of daily and seasonal biorhythmic phenomena.

Prostaglandins

Many tissues of nonmammals produce prostaglandins that play important roles in reproduction similar to those discussed for humans and other mammals.

The liver

As in mammals, the liver of several nonmammalian species has been shown to produce somatomedin-like growth factors in response to stimulation by growth hormone. Similarly, there is evidence that prolactin stimulates the production of a related growth factor, which synergizes (cooperates) with prolactin on targets such as the pigeon crop sac.

Unique endocrine glands in fishes

In addition to the corpuscles of Stannius and the ultimobranchial glands, most fishes have a unique neurosecretory neurohemal organ, the urophysis, which is associated with the spinal cord at the base of the tail. Although the functions of this caudal (rear) neurosecretory system are not now understood, it is known to produce two peptides, urotensin I and urotensin II. Urotensin I is chemically related to a family of peptides that includes somatostatin; urotensin II is a member of the family of peptides that includes mammalian corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). There are no homologous structures to either the corpuscles of Stannius or the urophysis in amphibians, reptiles, or birds.

Invertebrate endocrine systems

Advances in the study of invertebrate endocrine systems have lagged behind those in vertebrate endocrinology, largely due to the problems associated with adapting investigative techniques that are appropriate for large vertebrate animals to small invertebrates. It also is difficult to maintain and study appropriately some invertebrates under laboratory conditions. Nevertheless, knowledge about these systems is accumulating rapidly. All phyla in the animal kingdom that have a nervous system also possess neurosecretory neurons. The results of studies on the distribution of neurosecretory neurons and ordinary epithelial endocrine cells imply that the neurohormones were the first hormonal regulators in animals. Neurohemal organs appear first in the more advanced invertebrates (such as mollusks and annelid worms), and endocrine epithelial glands occur only in the most advanced phyla (primarily Arthropoda and Chordata). Similarly, the peptide and steroid hormones found in vertebrates are also present in the nervous and endocrine systems of many invertebrate phyla. These hormones may perform similar functions in diverse animal groups. With more emphasis being placed on research in invertebrate systems, new neuropeptides are being discovered initially in these animals, and subsequently in vertebrates. The endocrine systems of some animal phyla have been studied in detail, but the endocrine systems of only a few species are well known. The following discussion summarizes the endocrine systems of five invertebrate phyla and the two invertebrate subphyla of the phylum Chordata, a phylum that also includes Vertebrata, a subphylum to which the backboned animals belong

Endocrine Glands And Hormones
Hormones are chemicals that are secreted by endocrine glands. Unlike exocrine glands (see chapter 5), endocrine glands have no ducts, but release their secretions directly into the blood system, which carries them throughout the body. However, hormones only affect the specific target organs that recognize them. For example, although it is carried to virtually every cell in the body, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), released from the anterior pituitary gland, only acts on the follicle cells of the ovaries causing them to develop.

A nerve impulse travels rapidly and produces an almost instantaneous response but one that lasts only briefly. In contrast, hormones act more slowly and their effects may be long lasting. Target cells respond to minute quantities of hormones and the concentration in the blood is always extremely low. However, target cells are sensitive to subtle changes in hormone concentration and the endocrine system regulates processes by changing the rate of hormone secretion.

The main endocrine glands in the body are the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands, the pancreas, ovaries and testes. Their positions in the body are shown in diagram 16.1.

Diagram 16.1 - The main endocrine organs of the body

The Pituitary Gland And Hypothalamus
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure that is attached by a stalk to the underside of the cerebrum of the brain (see diagram 16.2). It is often called the “master” endocrine gland because it controls many of the other endocrine glands in the body. However, we now know that the pituitary gland is itself controlled by the hypothalamus. This small but vital region of the brain lies just above the pituitary and provides the link between the nervous and endocrine systems. It controls the autonomic nervous system, produces a range of hormones and regulates the secretion of many others from the pituitary gland (see Chapter 7 for more information on the hypothalamus).

The pituitary gland is divided into two parts with different functions - the anterior and posterior pituitary (see diagram 16.3).

Diagram 16.2 - The position of the pituitary gland and hypothalamus

Diagram 16.3 - The anterior and posterior pituitary

The anterior pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate a wide range of activities in the body. These include:
 * 1. Growth hormone that stimulates body growth.
 * 2. Prolactin that initiates milk production.
 * 3. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) that stimulates the development of the follicles of the ovaries. These then secrete oestrogen (see chapter 6).
 * 4. melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) that causes darkening of skin by producing melanin
 * 5. lutenizing hormone (LH) that stimulates ovulation and production of progesterone and testosterone

The posterior pituitary gland
 * 1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), regulates water loss and increases blood pressure
 * 2. Oxytocin, milk "let down"

The Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is found deep within the brain (see diagram 16.4). It is sometimes known as the ‘third eye” as it responds to light and day length. It produces the hormone melatonin, which influences the development of sexual maturity and the seasonality of breeding and hibernation. Bright light inhibits melatonin secretion Low level of melatonin in bright light makes one feel good and this increases fertility. High level of melatonin in dim light makes an animal tired and depressed and therefore causes low fertility in animals.

Diagram 16.4 - The pineal gland

The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is situated in the neck, just in front of the windpipe or trachea (see diagram 16.5). It produces the hormone thyroxine, which influences the rate of growth and development of young animals. In mature animals it increases the rate of chemical reactions in the body.

Thyroxine consists of 60% iodine and too little in the diet can cause goitre, an enlargement of the thyroid gland. Many inland soils in New Zealand contain almost no iodine so goitre can be common in stock when iodine supplements are not given. To add to the problem, chemicals called goitrogens that occur naturally in plants like kale that belong to the cabbage family, can also cause goitre even when there is adequate iodine available.

Diagram 16.5 - The thyroid and parathyroid glands

The Parathyroid Glands
The parathyroid glands are also found in the neck just behind the thyroid glands (see diagram 16.5). They produce the hormone parathormone that regulates the amount of calcium in the blood and influences the excretion of phosphates in the urine.

The Adrenal Gland
The adrenal glands are situated on the cranial surface of the kidneys (see diagram 16.6). There are two parts to this endocrine gland, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.

Diagram 16.6 - The adrenal glands

The adrenal cortex produces several hormones. These include:
 * 1. Aldosterone that regulates the concentration of sodium and potassium in the blood by controlling the amounts that are secreted or reabsorbed in the kidney tubules.
 * 2. Cortisone and hydrocortisone (cortisol) that have complex effects on glucose, protein and fat metabolism. In general they increase metabolism. They are also often administered to animals to counteract allergies and for treating arthritic and rheumatic conditions. However, prolonged use should be avoided if possible as they can increase weight and reduce the ability to heal.
 * 3. Male and female sex hormones similar to those secreted by the ovaries and testes.

The hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex also play a part in “general adaptation syndrome” which occurs in situations of prolonged stress.

The adrenal medulla secretes adrenalin (also called epinephrine). Adrenalin is responsible for the so-called flight fight, fright response that prepares the animal for emergencies. Faced with a perilous situation the animal needs to either fight or make a rapid escape. To do either requires instant energy, particularly in the skeletal muscles. Adrenaline increases the amount of blood reaching them by causing their blood vessels to dilate and the heart to beat faster. An increased rate of breathing increases the amount of oxygen in the blood and glucose is released from the liver to provide the fuel for energy production. Sweating increases to keep the muscles cool and the pupils of the eye dilate so the animal has a wide field of view. Functions like digestion and urine production that are not critical to immediate survival slow down as blood vessels to these parts constrict.

Note that the effects of adrenalin are similar to those of the sympathetic nervous system. PREPARED BY ARNOLD WAMUKOTA

The Pancreas
In most animals the pancreas is an oblong, pinkish organ that lies in the first bend of the small intestine (see diagram 16.7). In rodents and rabbits, however, it is spread thinly through the mesentery and is sometimes difficult to see.

Diagram 16.7 - The pancreas

Most of the pancreas acts as an exocrine gland producing digestive enzymes that are secreted into the small intestine. The endocrine part of the organ consists of small clusters of cells (called Islets of Langerhans) that secrete the hormone insulin. This hormone regulates the amount of glucose in the blood by increasing the rate at which glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and the movement of glucose from the blood into cells.

In diabetes mellitus the pancreas produces insufficient insulin and glucose levels in the blood can increase to a dangerous level. A major symptom of this condition is glucose in the urine.

The Ovaries
A part of the reproductive system of all female vertebrates. Although not vital to individual survival, the ovary is vital to perpetuation of the species. The function of the ovary is to produce the female germ cells or ova, and in some species to elaborate hormones that assist in regulating the reproductive cycle.

The ovaries develop as bilateral structures in all vertebrates, but adult asymmetry is found in certain species of all vertebrates from the elasmobranchs to the mammals.

The ovary of all vertebrates functions in essentially the same manner. However, ovarian histology of the various groups differs considerably. Even such a fundamental element as the ovum exhibits differences in various groups. See Ovum

The mammalian ovary is attached to the dorsal body wall. The free surface of the ovary is covered by a modified peritoneum called the germinal epithelium. Just beneath the germinal epithelium is a layer of fibrous connective tissue. Most of the rest of the ovary is made up of a more cellular and more loosely arranged connective tissue (stroma) in which are embedded the germinal, endocrine, vascular, and nervous elements.

The most obvious ovarian structures are the follicles and the corpora lutea. The smallest, or primary, follicle consists of an oocyte surrounded by a layer of follicle (nurse) cells. Follicular growth results from an increase in oocyte size, multiplication of the follicle cells, and differentiation of the perifollicular stroma to form a fibrocellular envelope called the theca interna. Finally, a fluid-filled antrum develops in the granulosa layer, resulting in a vesicular follicle.

The cells of the theca intima hypertrophy during follicular growth and many capillaries invade the layer, thus forming the endocrine element that is thought to secrete estrogen. The other known endocrine structure is the corpus luteum, which is primarily the product of hypertrophy of the granulosa cells remaining after the follicular wall ruptures to release the ovum. Ingrowths of connective tissue from the theca interna deliver capillaries to vascularize the hypertrophied follicle cells of this new corpus luteum; progesterone is secreted here. PREPARED BY ARNOLD WAMUKOTA

The Testes
Sperm need temperatures between 2 and 10 degrees Centigrade lower and then the body temperature to develop. This is the reason why the testes are located in a bag of skin called the scrotal sacs (or scrotum) that hangs below the body and where the evaporation of secretions from special glands can further reduce the temperature. In many animals (including humans) the testes descend into the scrotal sacs at birth but in some animals they do not descend until sexual maturity and in others they only descend temporarily during the breeding season. A mature animal in which one or both testes have not descended is called a cryptorchid and is usually infertile.

The problem of keeping sperm at a low enough temperature is even greater in birds that have a higher body temperature than mammals. For this reason bird’s sperm are usually produced at night when the body temperature is lower and the sperm themselves are more resistant to heat.

The testes consist of a mass of coiled tubes (the seminiferous or sperm producing tubules) in which the sperm are formed by meiosis (see diagram 13.4). Cells lying between the seminiferous tubules produce the male sex hormone testosterone.

When the sperm are mature they accumulate in the collecting ducts and then pass to the epididymis before moving to the sperm duct or vas deferens. The two sperm ducts join the urethra just below the bladder, which passes through the penis and transports both sperm and urine.

Ejaculation discharges the semen from the erect penis. It is brought about by the contraction of the epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland and urethra. PREPARED BY ARNOLD WAMUKOTA

Summary

 * Hormones are chemicals that are released into the blood by endocrine glands i.e. Glands with no ducts. Hormones act on specific target organs that recognize them.
 * The main endocrine glands in the body are the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid and adrenal glands, the pancreas, ovaries and testes.
 * The hypothalamus is situated under the cerebrum of the brain. It produces or controls many of the hormones released by the pituitary gland lying adjacent to it.
 * The pituitary gland is divided into two parts: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary.
 * The anterior pituitary produces:
 * Growth hormone that stimulates body growth
 * Prolactin that initiates milk production
 * Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) that stimulates the development of ova
 * Luteinising hormone (LH) that stimulates the development of the corpus luteum
 * Plus several other hormones

 * The posterior pituitary releases:
 * Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) that regulates water loss and raises blood pressure
 * Oxytocin that stimulates milk “let down”.

 * The pineal gland in the brain produces melatonin that influences sexual development and breeding cycles.
 * The thyroid gland located in the neck, produces thyroxine, which influences the rate of growth and development of young animals. Thyroxine consists of 60% iodine. Lack of iodine leads to goitre.
 * The parathyroid glands situated adjacent to the thyroid glands in the neck produce parathormone that regulates blood calcium levels and the excretion of phosphates.
 * The adrenal gland located adjacent to the kidneys is divided into the outer cortex and the inner medulla.
 * The adrenal cortex produces:

 * Aldosterone that regulates the blood concentration of sodium and potassium
 * Cortisone and hydro-cortisone that affect glucose, protein and fat metabolism
 * Male and female sex hormones

 * The adrenal medulla produces adrenalin responsible for the flight, fright, fight response that prepares animals for emergencies.
 * The pancreas that lies in the first bend of the small intestine produces insulin that regulates blood glucose levels.
 * The ovaries are located in the lower abdomen produce 2 important sex hormones:

 * The follicle cells of the developing ova produce estrogen, which controls the development of the mammary glands and prepares the uterus for pregnancy.
 * The corpus luteum that develops in the empty follicle after ovulation produces progesterone. This hormone further prepares the uterus for pregnancy and maintains the pregnancy.

 * The testes produce testosterone that stimulates the development of the male reproductive system and sexual characteristics.

Homeostasis and Feedback Control
Animals can only survive if the environment within their bodies and their cells is kept constant and independent of the changing conditions in the external environment. As mentioned in module 1.6, the process by which this stability is maintained is called homeostasis. The body achieves this stability by constantly monitoring the internal conditions and if they deviate from the norm initiating processes that bring them back to it. This mechanism is called feedback control. For example, to maintain a constant body temperature the hypothalamus monitors the blood temperature and initiates processes that increase or decrease heat production by the body and loss from the skin so the optimum temperature is always maintained. The processes involved in the control of body temperature, water balance, blood loss and acid/base balance are summarized below.

1.	Temperature control
The biochemical and physiological processes in the cell are sensitive to temperature. The optimum body temperature is about 37 C [99 F] for mammals, and about 40 C [104 F] for birds. Biochemical processes in the cells, particularly in muscles and the liver, produce heat. The heat is distributed through the body by the blood and is lost mainly through the skin surface. The production of this heat and its loss through the skin is controlled by the hypothalamus in the brain which acts rather like a thermostat on an electric heater. .

(a) When the body temperature rises above the optimum, a decrease in temperature is achieved by:

 * Sweating and panting to increase heat loss by evaporation.

 * Expansion of the blood vessels near the skin surface so heat is lost to the air.

 * Reducing muscle exertion to the minimum.

(b) When the body temperature falls below the optimum, an increase in temperature can be achieved by:

 * Moving to a heat source e.g. in the sun, out of the wind.

 * Increasing muscular activity

 * Shivering

 * Making the hair stand on end by contraction of the hair erector muscles or fluffing of the feathers so there is an insulating layer of air around the body

 * Constricting the blood vessels near the skin surface so heat loss to the air is decreased

2.	Water balance
The concentration of the body fluids remains relatively constant irrespective of the diet or the quantity of water taken into the body by the animal. Water is lost from the body by many routes (see module 1.6) but the kidney is the main organ that influences the quantity that is lost. Again it is the hypothalamus that monitors the concentration of the blood and initiates the release of hormones from the posterior pituitary gland. These act on the kidney tubules to influence the amount of water (and sodium ions) absorbed from the fluid flowing along them.

(a) When the body fluids become too concentrated and the osmotic pressure too high, water retention in the kidney tubules can be achieved by:

 * An increased production of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) from the posterior pituitary gland, which causes more water to be reabsorbed from the kidney tubules.

 * A decreased blood pressure in the glomerulus of the kidney results in less fluid filtering through into the kidney tubules so less urine is produced.

(b) When the body fluids become too dilute and the osmotic pressure too low, water loss in the urine can be achieved by:

 * A decrease in the secretion of ADH, so less water is reabsorbed from the kidney tubules and more diluted urine is produced.

 * An increase in the blood pressure in the glomerulus so more fluid filters into the kidney tubule and more urine is produced.

 * An increase in sweating or panting that also increases the amount of water lost.

Another hormone, aldosterone, secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland, also affects water balance indirectly. It does this by increasing the absorption of sodium ions (Na-) from the kidney tubules. This increases water retention since it increases the osmotic pressure of the fluids around the tubules and water therefore flows out of them by osmosis.

3.	Maintenance of blood volume after moderate blood loss
Loss of blood or body fluids leads to decreased blood volume and hence decreased blood pressure. The result is that the blood system fails to deliver enough oxygen and nutrients to the cells, which stop functioning properly and may die. Cells of the brain are particularly vulnerable. This condition is known as shock.

If blood loss is not extreme, various mechanisms come into play to compensate and ensure permanent tissue damage does not occur. These mechanisms include:

 * Increased thirst and drinking increases blood volume.

 * Blood vessels in the skin and kidneys constrict to reduce the total volume of the blood system and hence retain blood pressure.

 * Heart rate increases. This also increases blood pressure.

 * Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the posterior pituitary gland. This increases water re-absorption in the collecting ducts of the kidney tubules so concentrated urine is produced and water loss is reduced. This helps maintain blood volume.

 * Loss of fluid causes an increase in osmotic pressure of the blood. Proteins, mainly albumin, released into the blood by the liver further increase the osmotic pressure causing fluid from the tissues to be drawn into the blood by osmosis. This increases blood volume.

 * Aldosterone, secreted by the adrenal cortex, increases the absorption of sodium ions (Na+) and water from the kidney tubules. This increases urine concentration and helps retain blood volume.

If blood or fluid loss is extreme and the blood volume falls by more than 15-25%, the above mechanisms are unable to compensate and the condition of the animal progressively deteriorates. The animal will die unless a vet administers fluid or blood.

4.	Acid/ base balance
Biochemical reactions within the body are very sensitive to even small changes in acidity or alkalinity (i.e. pH) and any departure from the narrow limits disrupts the functioning of the cells. It is therefore important that the blood contains balanced quantities of acids and bases.

The normal pH of blood is in the range 7.35 to 7.45 and there are a number of mechanisms that operate to maintain the pH in this range. Breathing is one of these mechanisms.

Much of the carbon dioxide produced by respiration in cells is carried in the blood as carbonic acid. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood increases the blood becomes more acidic and the pH decreases. This is called acidosis and when severe can cause coma and death. On the other hand, alkalosis (blood that is too alkaline) causes over stimulation of the nervous system and when severe can lead to convulsions and death.

(a) When vigorous activity generating large quantities of carbon dioxide causes the blood to becomes too acidic it can be counteracted in two ways:

 * By the rapid removal of carbon dioxide from the blood by deep, panting breaths

By the secretion of hydrogen ions (H+) into the urine by the kidney tubules.

(b) When over breathing or hyperventilation results in low levels of carbon dioxide in the blood and the blood is too alkaline, various mechanisms come into play to bring the pH back to within the normal range. These include:

 * A slower rate of breathing
 * A reduction in the amount of hydrogen ions (H+) secreted into the urine.

SUMMARY
Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant conditions within a cell or animal’s body despite changes in the external environment.

The body temperature of mammals and birds is maintained at an optimum level by a variety of heat regulation mechanisms. These include: blood vessels on the body surface,
 * Seeking out warm areas,
 * Adjusting activity levels,
 * Contraction of the erector muscles so hairs and feathers stand up to form an insulating layer,
 * Shivering,
 * Sweating and panting in dogs.

Animals maintain water balance by:
 * adjusting level of antidiuretic hormone(ADH)
 * adjusting level of aldosterone,
 * adjusting blood flow to the kidneys
 * adjusting the amount of water lost through sweating or panting.

Animals maintain blood volume after moderate blood loss by:
 * Drinking,
 * Constriction of blood vessels in the skin and kidneys,
 * increasing heart rate,
 * secretion of anti-diuretic hormone
 * secretion of aldosterone
 * drawing fluid from the tissues into the blood by increasing the osmotic pressure of the blood.

Animals maintain the acid/base balance or pH of the blood by:
 * Adjusting the rate of breathing and hence the amount of CO2 removed from the blood.
 * Adjusting the secretion of hydrogen ions into the urine.

Worksheet
Endocrine System Worksheet

Test Yourself
1. What is Homeostasis?

2. Give 2 examples of homeostasis

3. List 3 ways in which animals keep their body temperature constant when the weather is hot

4. How does the kidney compensate when an animal is deprived of water to drink

5. After moderate blood loss, several mechanisms come into play to increase blood pressure and make up blood volume. 3 of these mechanisms are:

6. Describe how panting helps to reduce the acidity of the blood

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * http://www.zerobio.com/drag_oa/endo.htm A drag and drop hormone and endocrine organ matching exercise.

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_system Wikipedia. Much, much more than you ever need to know about hormones and the endocrine system but with a bit of discipline you can glean lots of useful information from this site.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Hiking

For those in the South Pacific Division check your Division honour site to get your latest version of this honour. There also is a workbook you can download and for the teachers a teachers document. Hiking 1 & Hiking 2.

1. Explain and demonstrate the main points of good hiking practice, such as pacing, speed, resting, and etiquette.
Because hiking is a recreational experience, hikers expect it to be pleasant. Sometimes hikers can interfere with each other's enjoyment, or that of other users of the land, but they can minimize this interference by following good etiquette. For example:

 * When two groups of hikers meet on a steep trail, there may be contention for use of the trail. To avoid conflict, a custom has developed in some areas whereby the group moving uphill has the right-of-way. In other situations, the larger of the two groups will usually yield to the smaller.
 * Being forced to hike much faster or slower than one's natural pace can be annoying, and difficult to maintain consistently. More seriously, walking unnaturally fast dramatically increases fatigue and exhaustion, and may cause injury. If a group splits between fast and slow hikers, the slow hikers may be left behind or become lost. A common custom is to encourage the slowest hiker to hike in the lead and have everyone match that speed. Another custom is to have an experienced hiker sweep up the rear, to ensure that everyone in the group is safe and nobody straggles.
 * Hikers often enjoy the silence and solitude of their surroundings. Loud sounds, such as shouting or loud conversation, disrupt this enjoyment. Some hikers purposely avoid loud sounds, out of deference to other hikers. Staying quiet will also increase the likelihood of encountering wildlife. (This is a hazard if dangerous animals are present; see "Personal safety hazards".)
 * Hikers sometimes trespass onto private property from public land or rights of way (easements). Such trespass can alienate the property owners and (in countries where rights of way are not protected by law) close down hiking rights-of-way. To maximize hiking opportunities for everyone, most hikers will either stay on public land and easements, or solicit permission from property owners. Staying on well-marked trails avoids the possibility of trespass.
 * Tree branches or other vegetation often hang low across trails. A passing hiker may cause a tree branch to snap back in the face of a hiker behind. While it is courteous to warn following hikers if a branch is likely to snap back, it is every hiker's responsibility to allow enough space between himself and the hiker ahead to avoid the hazard.
 * When two groups of hikers meet, it is considered a common courtesy to exchange greetings (either verbal or physical (e.g. smiles and friendly nods)). To pass another group without such acknowledgement is seen as rude.
 * Memorize and practice the 7 Leave No Trace Principles:
 * Plan ahead and prepare.
 * Travel and camp on durable surfaces.
 * Dispose of waste properly.
 * Leave what you find.
 * Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire).
 * Respect wildlife.
 * Be considerate of other visitors.

Proper Footwear
The most important aspect of proper foot care for hiking is to have proper footwear. It is a good idea to wear two pairs of socks on a hike: a thin pair next to your skin, and a thick, padded pair over the thin pair. This arrangement will cause the socks to rub against one another instead of rubbing against your feet causing a blister. When shopping for hiking boots or shoes, wear the type of socks you intend to wear when you hike. You will likely need to buy hiking shoes or boots that are a little larger than your normal shoe size to accommodate the extra thickness of socks.

Hiking shoes should have good ankle support and should lace up tightly. Look for good tread on the soles and sturdy construction. You should wear new shoes for a couple of days of regular use before pressing them into service on a hike - this will break them in. New shoes are another common cause of blistering.

Dry Feet
Bring extra socks with you on a hike so that you can change them if they get wet. Hiking in wet feet will soften the skin and lead to blisters. It can also lead to fungus growth and immersion foot. Immersion foot occurs when feet are cold and damp while wearing constricting footwear. Unlike frostbite, immersion foot does not require freezing temperatures and can occur in temperatures up to 60° Fahrenheit (about 16° Celsius). Immersion foot can occur with as little as twelve hours' exposure. Affected feet become numb and then turn red or blue. As the condition worsens, they may swell. Advanced immersion foot often involves blisters and open sores, which lead to fungal infections; this is sometimes called jungle rot. If left untreated, immersion foot usually results in gangrene, which can require amputation. If immersion foot is treated properly, complete recovery is normal, though it is marked by severe short-term pain when feeling is returning. Like other cold injuries, immersion foot leaves sufferers more susceptible to it in the future.

Immersion foot is easily prevented by keeping the feet warm and dry, and changing socks frequently when the feet cannot be kept dry.

Nail Care
Before you set out on a hike, check that your toenails are properly trimmed. They should be trimmed straight across, such that they do not hang over the edge of the toe. Cutting them too short or in a curved shape can cause them to become ingrown. Ingrown toenails tend to cut into the toe at the edges of the nail, leading to infection and extreme discomfort.

Leaving your toenails too long can make them susceptible to breaking off, and that can force you to have to cut them too short - again leading to an ingrown nail. Also, long toenails will wear holes in socks more quickly than properly trimmed nails.

Blisters
Blisters on the feet and toes are caused by something repeatedly rubbing on them, such as a sock or an ill-fitting shoe. As soon as you detect soreness, you should stop and examine the foot. Reddened skin is the first sign that a blister may be forming. Covering the affected area with an adhesive bandage or even a small strip of duct tape will help prevent a blister from forming. If possible, cover the area with a donut-shaped moleskin before covering with a bandage. This will help alleviate pressure on the area.

If the blister has already formed, do not puncture it. Leave the skin covering the blister as intact as possible, as it provides a sterile environment underneath. If the blister is on a weight-bearing surface on the bottom of the foot and you must puncture it, use a sterile needle, and make as few punctures as possible - just enough to drain the liquid. Do not peel any skin off the blister. You can sterilize a needle or a pin by passing it through a flame.

Cleanness Wash the affected area as well as you can using purified water or a sterile wipe. Again, cover the blister with a donut-shaped moleskin, apply some antibiotic ointment, and cover with a bandage.

4. Make a list of needed gear for a long day hike in the wilderness and a short country hike.
For either hike, you should bring the following:
 * Water bottle
 * Water purification equipment
 * First aid kit
 * Blister kit may be part of the first aid kit):
 * Mole skin
 * Bandages
 * Needle or pin
 * Lighter
 * Antibiotic ointment
 * Antiseptic wipes
 * Extra socks
 * Extra shoe/boot laces
 * Flashlight (torch)
 * Compass
 * Map of the area
 * Guide book about the trail you are using
 * Day pack (a small backpack)
 * Hiking shoes or boots
 * Knife
 * Rope
 * Trail mix
 * Insect repellant

For a long day hike you will also need to plan on a meal or two. Select foods that are low-weight (you will have to carry it remember), high calorie, and easy to prepare (or require no preparation). If your food requires preparation, be sure to bring whatever you need to prepare it (such as a backpacking stove, a mess kit, and eating utensils).

Carry your trail mix where it is easily available for snacking as you walk.

5. List five safety and courtesy rules to be used in wilderness trail hiking and road hiking.
Wilderness Trail
 * 1) Do not destroy the flora or fauna.
 * 2) Finish what you start.
 * 3) Dispose of trash properly.  If no disposal facilities are available, pack out what you pack in.
 * 4) Follow and obey the leaders.
 * 5) Stay together with your group. Don't stray away
 * 1) Respect both public and private property
 * 2) Do not trespass.
 * 3) Have a good sense of humor.
 * 4) Help others with their necessities.
 * 5) Do not play games that can hurt others.

6. Explain the importance of drinking water and list three signs of contaminated water.

For good health and to avoid injury, it is important to stay hydrated. This is accomplished by drinking lots of water while hiking. Signs of dehydration include infrequent urination, strong-smelling urine, dark yellow urine, headaches, irritability, and lack of perspiration. You need to drink before you feel thirsty.

It is a good idea to bring a water filter or purification tablets with you on a hike so that you can refill your water containers at every opportunity. Note that water becomes more scarce as you go higher into the mountains, so if you are climbing a mountain trail, stock up on water whenever you see it.

Make sure you know how to use your filter and make sure it works before setting out on a trip. You do not want to discover that your filter is defective at a time when your health (and possibly your life) depends on its proper operation.

It is especially important to purify any water you collect on the trail before drinking it. Bacterial contamination cannot be reliably detected without lab equipment, so it is better to be safe than sorry. Purifying clean water will not hurt you. Even water that looks clean could be rife with harmful bacteria. Giardia is a very common parasite that will cause sickness in humans. Diarrhea and intestinal cramps are very real possibilities for those who do not heed these warnings.

Signs that water is contaminated include the following:
 * 1) Nothing living in the water: If you cannot find any signs of life in the water, it is very likely to be unfit for drinking. If plants and animals cannot live in the water, it may contain poisonous chemicals.
 * 2) Oil film on surface: Runoff from roadways can deposit petroleum-based oil in the water. If you see a rainbow slick on the surface, this is a sign of pollution.
 * 3) Foul Odor: Foul smelling water is sure to be foul tasting as well, but the damage caused by drinking it may well extend beyond the taste buds.

7. Explain the importance of proper eating while hiking.
Food is the body's fuel, and hiking is an activity that burns fuel like a Hummer. Hiking doubles your caloric burn rate, so you must compensate for this by doubling your caloric intake.

The most important nutrient for the hiker is water. The absolute minimum is two liters per day. It is far better to drink one liter per hour, especially if it is hot, or if the hiking is strenuous.

The remainder of the diet should be made up of 60% carbohydrates, 10-15% proteins, and 25-30% fats. For extended, long-distance hikes, it is important to be sure you get sufficient quantities of vitamins and minerals too.

Cold, Wet Weather
Keeping dry is not only important for comfort - in cold weather it is also essential to safety. Bring an extra set of clothing with you so that if you do get wet, you'll have something to change into. To stay dry, wear a water-proof outer layer. It is also essential to dress in layers and to vent your clothing to avoid sweating. Perspiration will soak your clothing just as quickly as precipitation.

Footwear should be as waterproof as possible and provide warmth. To avoid blisters, footwear also needs to be snug. Many hikers prefer mukluks for cold-weather hiking.

Hot, Wet Weather
As with cold, wet weather, you should bring an extra set of dry clothing for hot weather. Bring a poncho, or other waterproof outer layer to keep yourself dry. Waterproof hiking boots will help maintain dry feet.

9. Submit a written plan for a 10-mile (16.1 km) hike which includes: map route, clothing list, equipment list, and water and/or food.
This is an excellent activity for an AY Companion class, as they are required to plan a 10-mile (or half-day) hike. Pathfinders can work together or individually on this activity. Equipment should include the Ten Essentials:

 * 1) Map
 * 2) Compass (optionally supplemented with a GPS receiver)
 * 3) Sunglasses and sunscreen
 * 4) Extra food and water
 * 5) Extra clothes
 * 6) Headlamp/flashlight
 * 7) First aid kit
 * 8) Fire starter
 * 9) Matches
 * 10) Knife

A 10-mile hike should include one meal, and it should provide about 2000 calories. The meal can consist of the "main" portion which is eaten as a meal, as well as "trail food" which is eaten while walking. GORP (Good Old Raisins and Peanuts) is the classic hiking snack.

The description of the route can be simple, but it should be detailed enough so that others can retrace your steps. Leave the plan with someone who is not going with you in case there is an emergency and you are unable to return when planned. This information is essential to a rescue team should the services of one become necessary.

10. Use a topographical map and/or a road map in planning and doing one of the hikes in Requirement 11.
A topographic map shows the contours of the land. These tell the map reader where hills are, and how steep they are. They also show where you can expect to find water (which you will filter before drinking, right?) or interesting scenery (such as water falls and overlooks). A good topographical map will also show roads and trails - essential information for planning a hike! Many of the topographical maps made for hikers will also indicate distances between trail intersections for easy distance calculations (just add them up).

More details for reading a topographic map can be found in the answers to the Orienteering honor.

a. One five-mile (8 km) rural or town hike
A 5-mile hike can be done either in the morning or in the afternoon. It is an excellent Sabbath afternoon activity. One way to do this is to plan to hike around the neighborhood after church. If you schedule it to coincide with a church potluck you won't have to worry about feeding the troops. You will want to plan the route ahead of time though, and be sure it is at least five miles.

b. One five-mile ( 8 km) hike on a wilderness trail
Again, a five mile hike can be done in half a day, either in the morning or in the afternoon. However, unless your church is located near a wilderness trail, this will involve some travel to reach the trailhead. Your Pathfinders may be able to eat a sack lunch in the car either on the way there, or on the way back.

c. Two 10-mile (16.1 km) day hikes on different routes
A 10-mile hike will generally take all day, so plan to set out early in the morning and return in the evening. Everyone should bring a lunch.

d. One 15-mile (24.2 km) hike on a wilderness trail
Fifteen miles is a long hike, and should not be attempted in a single day except by people in excellent physical condition. If you can, plan an overnight hike, going at least 7.5 miles into the wilderness, and then hiking back out the next day. Note that this will meet a major requirement for the Backpacking and Pioneering honors.

e. Within a month of each hike, write a short report, giving dates, routes covered, weather, and any interesting things you saw.
This hiking record can be incorporated into the regular Pathfinder program so that any Pathfinder who has fully participated in club events will meet this requirement in a two-year period. Plan a 5-mile hike every fall - alternating every year between rural/town hikes and wilderness trail hikes. Have your Companion class plan a 10-mile hike each Spring. The 15-mile hike can be done every other year, perhaps during the summer. Plan an evaluation session during the meeting after each hike, and have each Pathfinder turn in the report.


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Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Completed Honors

Subtract 10 from the total listed here for a better count. This page counts regional variants of honors separately, such as the Computer Honor, which is counted twice; once for the GC, and again for the NAD.


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 2


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 1


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Skill Level 3


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Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/North American Division

This pages lists those honors which have been adopted by the North American Division (NAD), but not yet by the General Conference (GC). It also includes those honors whose requirements have been modified by the NAD.


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Outdoor Industries


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/General Conference


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User:ChazzJr

Hello, I'm Stephen. I'm Chazz' second son. I'm here to try and help with the Muggles' Guide. While I like to help my dad, I also have my own opinions about the books.

My sandbox: Here

title: User:ChazzJr


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Honors with Divisional Variants


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Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 34

I'm a bit curious how Colin Creevey got into hogwarts when all students are supposed to give a blood status, And he can't be half-blood, Cuz' he was attacked in harry's second year, Eh? ChazzJr 04:21, 3 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Things are a bit confusing with the Creevey brothers. Colin, who would be 6th year in DH, and Dennis, who would be 4th year, are brothers; the fact that there are two of them from the same family seems to indicate that there is wizard blood in their background. I'll have to check. I don't actually think that the Basilisk cares about Blood status. Sure, Colin was attacked, and Justin Finch-Fletchley, who was Muggle-born, and Hermione. But so was Penelope Clearwater, who very likely was at least half-blood, and Harry himself is half-blood as well and the Basilisk certainly attacked him. And when Colin was attacked, he was found by teachers and taken to the Hospital Wing by teachers, so it may be less common knowledge that Creevey was attacked... or at least, it might not seem as immediate. Chazz (talk) 19:49, 3 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Note the write-up on Colin's character page: Colin sneaked back in with the DA, he did not actually attend Hogwarts that year. JKR has said that he was Muggle-born, or at least could not prove Blood status. Chazz (talk) 19:43, 16 October 2009 (UTC)

Reason for Harry's death
Does not this analysis miss the vital reason for Harry to go to his death, whcih must be a real death- that he himself is a Horcrux?85.210.137.136 (discuss) 13:32, 17 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, but... we cover that more thoroughly elsewhere and don't need to rehash it here. Perhaps we should touch on it in the GP section, though... Chazz (talk) 22:05, 5 July 2012 (UTC)

Hiding his wand and cloak
As it is currently written the Greater Picture section says "Note that Harry carefully hides Draco Malfoy's captured wand under his shirt, along with the Invisibility Cloak. It is uncertain why he does this, if he was expecting to die". It then proceeds to offer possible explanations with the idea that Harry might have believed that there was still some secret part of Dumbledore's master plan that might somehow see him through the encounter with Voldemort alive. Yet it says in the book that Harry decides to hide the wand and cloak because he simply does not want to be tempted to fight back. This seems like a much simpler explanation. If he had even a small hope that he might somehow survive the encounter then I don't think he would have been able to truly become master of death. Would anyone else disagree? Yoduh99 (discuss • contribs) 17:46, 25 June 2015 (UTC)
 * A valid point. I'll check on that and add it to the write-up if the book is that explicit. Chazz (talk) 17:51, 25 June 2015 (UTC)


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text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/South Pacific Division/Island Ed.


text: Category:Book:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Honors with Region-dependent Answers