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History of Islam/Modern period/Albania

Albania
From 1925, the country was ruled by President Ahmet Zogu who, in 1928, declared himself King Zog I,meaning "bird",the first Albanian monarch since Gjergj Kastriot Skënderbej and adopting the title of Scanderbeg II. Afterwards he was also declared Field Marshal of the Royal Albanian Army on September 1, 1928. He proclaimed a constitutional monarchy similar to the contemporary regime in Italy.

During his reign he is said to have survived over 55 assassination attempts. One of these occurred in 1931 while Zog was visiting a Vienna opera house for a performance of Pagliacci. The attackers struck whilst Zog was getting into his car, and he survived by drawing his own pistol (which he always carried) and firing back at his would-be assassins. This is the only occasion in modern history when a Head of State has returned fire with potential assassins.

Styling himself a European king, he married Hungarian noblewoman Geraldine Apponyi de Nagy-Apponyi. His reign ended when Italian fascists invaded Albania in April 7, 1939. The communists took power after the Second World War. After the fall of the communist government, his son Leka, Crown Prince of Albania and the royal family returned to Albania on June 28, 2002.

Albania was one of the first countries occupied by the Axis Powers in World War II. Mussolini invaded and occupied Albania, while the world was focused on German military actions in Czechoslovakia and Poland. As Hitler began his aggressions, the Italian dictator set his eyes on Albania across the Adriatic from Italy. Despite some resistance, especially at Durrës, Italy invaded Albania on April 7, 1939 and took control of the country. On April 12, the Albanian parliament voted to unite the country with Italy. Victor Emmanuel III took the Albanian crown, and the Italians set up a fascist government under Shefqet Verlaci and soon absorbed Albania's military and diplomatic institutions. Mussolini, in October 1940, used his Albanian base to launch an attack on Greece. During WWII, Albanian nationalist groups, including communist partisans, fought against the Italians and subsequently the Germans. By October 1944 they had thrown the Germans out, the only East European nation to do so without the assistance of Soviet troops. The partially French-educated Enver Hoxha became the leader of the country by virtue of his position as secretary general of the Party of Labor (the Albanian Communist Party). The Communist Party was created on November 8, 1941 with the help of other Bolshevik Communist Parties.

Albania is unique in that it is the only European country occupied by the Nazis that ended World War II with a larger Jewish population than before the War. The Albanian response to the Holocaust is especially notable because it was Europe's only largely Muslim country. Even so only a Jewish family of six was deported and killed during the Nazi occupation of Albania.Not only did the Albanians protect their own Jews, but they provided refuge for Jews from neighboring countries. The Albanians refused to comply and hand over lists of Jews. Instead they provided the Jewish families with forged documents and helped them disperse in the Albanian population.

In February 1944, when the Nazis descended upon the mountain hiding place, not a single Jew fell into their hands. During the Holocaust, Albania was the only country in Europe that protected and sheltered its entire Jewish population, both native and foreign. There was no history of ideological anti-Semitism in Albania so it was unique in this regard.The small number of Jews in Albania also played a key role in the possibility to protect them all. During the Italian occupation, they were able to disperse and blend in with the general population. However, the role of the Albanian population as a whole in saving Jews is undeniable.

From 1944 to 1991, Albania became a People's Republic and was a one-party state in which Enver Hoxha ruled with an austere hand. In 1961, he broke with Albania’s closest ally, the Soviet Union, because he believed Khrushchev had abandoned the teachings of Stalin. Subsequently, Albania’s closest ally was the People’s Republic of China. However, when the PRC established diplomatic relations with the United States in 1978, Hoxha denounced the Chinese as well and decided to pursue a policy of self-reliance. The result was not only extreme isolation but also absolute financial ruin for Albania. An example of this may be drawn from the construction between 1974 and 1986 of approximately 700,000 reinforced concrete bunkers to defend against an anticipated multi-front attack. Upon Hoxha’s death in 1985, Ramiz Alia succeeded him as both party and state leader. Alia was Hoxha’s protégé, but was less repressive than the former leader and began to allow some reforms. This process was accelerated by news of the changes in other communist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. There are statistics which show that during this period about 6000 Albanian citizens were executed for political reasons.Despite this, the quality of life improved as both life expectancy and literacy showed large gains and economic growth continued until the mid 1970s.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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History of Islam/Modern period/Algeria

Algeria
On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830. In contrast to Morocco and Tunisia, the conquest of Algeria by the French was long and particularly violent since it resulted in the disappearance of about a third of the Algerian population. According to Olivier Le Cour Grandmaison, the French pursued a policy of extermination against the Algerians.

The French conquest of Algeria was slow due to intense resistance from such as Emir Abdelkader, Ahmed Bey and Fatma N'Soumer. Indeed the conquest was not technically complete until the early 1900s when the last Tuareg were conquered.

Meanwhile, however, the French made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the Fourth Republic in 1958. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy significant parts of Algeria's cities. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communally held land, and the application of modern agriculture techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Algeria's social fabric suffered during the occupation: literacy plummeted, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population.

Starting from the end of the nineteenth century, people of European descent in Algeria (or natives like Spanish people in Oran), as well as the native Algerian Jews (typically Sephardic in origin), became full French citizens. After Algeria's 1962 independence, they were called Pieds-Noirs. In contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) received neither French citizenship nor the right to vote.

In 1954, the National Liberation Front (FLN) launched the Algerian War of Independence which was a guerrilla campaign. By the end of the war, newly elected President Charles de Gaulle, understanding that the age of empire was ending, held a plebiscite, offering Algerians three options, resulting in an overwhelming vote for complete independence from the French Colonial Empire. Over one million people, 10% of the population, then fled the country for France in just a few months in mid-1962. These included most of the 1,025,000 Pieds-Noirs, as well as 81,000 Harkis (pro-French Algerians serving in the French Army).

As feared, there were widespread reprisals against those who remained in Algeria. It is estimated that somewhere between 50,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by lynch mobs in Algeria, sometimes in circumstances of extreme cruelty.

Algeria's first president was the FLN leader Ahmed Ben Bella. He was overthrown by his former ally and defence minister, Houari Boumédienne in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumédienne's government. However, Boumédienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the 1973 oil crisis. However, the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil which led to hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s.

In foreign policy, Algeria was a member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement. A dispute with Morocco over the Western Sahara nearly led to war. While Algeria shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring Morocco, the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other ever since Algeria's independence. This is for two reasons: Morocco's disputed claim to portions of western Algeria (which led to the Sand war in 1963), and Algeria's support for the Polisario, an armed group of Sahrawi refugees seeking independence for the Moroccan-ruled Western Sahara, which it hosts within its borders in the city of Tindouf.

Within Algeria, dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties, other than the FLN, was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976.

Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, Chadli Bendjedid, was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread.

The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased. New industries emerged, agricultural employment was substantially reduced. Education was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. There was a dramatic increase in the fertility rate to 7-8 children per mother.

Therefore by 1980, there was a very youthful population and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements; and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both groups protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in Autumn 1988 forced Bendjedid to concede the end of one-party rule. Elections were planned to happen in 1991. In December 1991, the Islamic Salvation Front won the first round of the country's first multi-party elections. The military then intervened and canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned all political parties based on religion (including the Islamic Salvation Front). The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent Algerian Civil War.

More than 160,000 people were killed between 17 January 1992 and June 2002. Most of the deaths were between militants and government troops, but a great number of civilians were also killed. The question of who was responsible for these deaths was controversial at the time amongst academic observers; many were claimed by the Armed Islamic Group. There can be no doubt however that the vast majority of this massacres were carried out by the Islamic Terrorist rather than the security services, or security services infiltration of the terrorist groups (see Algerian Civil War).

Elections resumed in 1995, and after 1998, the war waned. On 27 April 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, the current president, was elected.

By 2002, the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas.

The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive Kabyle protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in Kabylie. The government responded with concessions including naming of Tamazight (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.

Much of Algeria is now recovering and developing into an emerging economy. The high prices of oil and gas are being used by the new government to improve the country's infrastructure and especially improve industry and agricultural land. Recent overseas investment in Algeria has increased.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan
Following the politics of glasnost, initiated by the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union, starting with Nagorno-Karabakh, a region of Azerbaijan SSR. The disturbances in Azerbaijan, in response to Moscow's indifference to already heated conflict, resulted in calls for independence and secession from USSR, which subsequently culminated in the events of Black January in Baku. At this time, Ayaz Mutallibov was appointed as the First Secretary of the Azerbaijan Communist Party.

Later in 1990, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan SSR dropped the Soviet Socialist words from the title, adopted the Declaration of Sovereignty of Azerbaijan Republic, a constituent member of Soviet Union, and restored the modified flag of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as a state flag. In early 1991, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan established the institute of presidency, and Ayaz Mutallibov was elected as the first president by the Council. On September 8, 1991, Ayaz Mutallibov was elected as president in nationwide elections, in which he was the only running candidate.

On October 18, 1991, Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence, which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991, when Soviet Union was officially dissolved. The early years of independence were overshadowed by the Nagorno-Karabakh War with neighboring Armenia. By the end of hostilities in 1994, Azerbaijan lost control of up to 16% of its internationally recognized territory including Nagorno-Karabakh itself.[15][16] In 1993, democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel Suret Huseynov, which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev. In 1994, Suret Huseynov, by that time a prime minister, attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev, though failed, was arrested and charged with treason. In 1995, another coup attempt against Aliyev, by the commander of the military police, Rovshan Javadov, was averted resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan's military police.

Although during his presidency, Aliyev managed to cut down the country's unemployment, reined in the criminal groups, established the fundamental institutions of independent statehood, and brought stability, peace and major foreign investment, the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy. In October 1998, Aliyev was reelected for a second term. Despite the much improved economy, particularly with the exploitations of Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field, Aliyev's presidency became unpopular due to vote fraud, wide-spread corruption and objection to his autocratic regime. The same harsh criticism followed the elections of former Prime Minister Ilham Aliyev, the second leader of New Azerbaijan Party after the death of his father Heydar.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Bahrain

Bahrain
In the late eighteenth century, the al-Khalifa family invaded and captured the islands from their base in neighbouring Qatar. In order to secure Bahrain from returning to Iranian control, the Emirate entered into a treaty relationship with the United Kingdom and became a British protectorate. The population of the island at the time was estimated to be less than 10,000 persons.

Oil was discovered in 1932 and brought rapid modernization to Bahrain. Bahrain was the first place to find oil in the whole region. It also made relations with the United Kingdom closer, evidenced by the British moving more bases there. British influence would continue to grow as the country developed, culminating with the appointment of Charles Belgrave as an advisor; Belgrave established modern education systems in Bahrain.

After World War II, increasing anti-British sentiment spread throughout the Arab World and in Bahrain led to riots. The riots focused on the Jewish community which counted among its members distinguished writers and singers, accountants, engineers and middle managers working for the Oil Company, textile merchants with business all over the peninsula [Jews were not allowed to settle permanently in Saudi Arabia], and free professionals. Following the events of 1947, most of the members of Bahrain's Jewish community abandoned their properties and evacuated to Bombay and later settled in Palestine (later Israel - Tel Aviv's Pardes Chana neighborhood) and the United Kingdom. As of 2007 there were 36 Jews remaining in the country.

The issue of compensation was never settled. In 1960, the United Kingdom put Bahrain's future to international arbitration and requested that the United Nations Secretary-General take on this responsibility. In 1970, Iran laid claim to Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf islands. However, in an agreement with the United Kingdom it agreed to "not pursue" its claims on Bahrain if its other claims were realized. The following plebiscite saw Bahrainis confirm their independence from Britain and their Arab identity. Bahrain to this day remains a member of the Arab League and Gulf Cooperation Council.

The British withdrew from Bahrain on August 15, 1971, making Bahrain an independent emirate. The oil boom of the 1980s greatly benefited Bahrain, but its downturn was felt badly. However, the country had already begun to diversify its economy, and had benefited from the Lebanese civil war that began in the 1970s; Bahrain replaced Beirut as the Middle East's financial hub as Lebanon's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war.

After the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, Bahraini Shī'a fundamentalists in 1981 orchestrated a failed coup attempt under the auspices of a front organization, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain. The coup would have installed a Shī'a cleric exiled in Iran, Hujjatu l-Islām Hādī al-Mudarrisī, as supreme leader heading a theocratic government.

In 1994, a wave of rioting by disaffected Shīa Islamists was sparked by women's participation in a sporting event. The Kingdom was badly affected by sporadic violence during the mid-1990s in which over forty people were killed in violence between the government and Fundamentalists.

In March 1999, King Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah succeeded his father as head of state and instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote, and released all political prisoners. These moves were described by Amnesty International as representing an "historic period of human rights."The country was declared a kingdom in 2002. It formerly was considered an State and officially called a "Kingdom."

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History of Islam/Modern period/Bangladesh

Bangladesh
The borders of the region that constitutes present day Bangladesh were established in the 1947 Partition of India when the region became the eastern wing of newly formed Pakistan. The pairing, based on their common religion (Islam), proved geographically awkward since an expanse of foreign Indian territory, 1 600 km (1 000 mi) wide, separated the two wings. Subjected to political and linguistic discrimination as well as economic neglect at the hands of West Pakistan, the Bengalis of East Pakistan declared independence in 1971. After a civil war, with help from India and the USSR, Bangladesh was born. In spite of its liberation narrative, Bangladesh's development has since been marred by political turmoil, with fourteen different heads of government and at least four military coups.

Bangladesh is among the most densely populated countries in the world. The population is generally poor, rural and Muslim. Geographically the country straddles the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta and is subject to annual monsoon floods and cyclones. The government is a secular parliamentary democracy which has been suspended under emergency law since January 2007. Bangladesh is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, SAARC, BIMSTEC, the OIC and the D-8.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina
The 1990 parliamentary elections led to a national assembly dominated by three ethnically-based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenia's subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina and its three constituent peoples in an awkward position. A significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation (overwhelmingly favored among Serbs) or seek independence (overwhelmingly favored among Bosniaks and Croats). A declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia in February and March 1992 boycotted by the great majority of Bosnian Serbs. The turnout in the independence referendum was 63.7% and 99.4% voted for independence. The controversy lies in the fact that the referendum failed to surpass the constitutional two-third required majority. But Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence nevertheless Following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on April 6.

International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina increased diplomatic pressure for the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) to withdraw from the republic's territory which they officially did. However, in fact, the Bosnian Serb members of JNA simply changed insignia, formed the Army of Republika Srpska, and continued fighting. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers and various paramilitary forces from Serbia, and receiving extensive humanitarian, logistical and financial support from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control. By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by Republika Srpska. The ethnic cleansing and civil rights violations against non-serbs were rampant in these areas. Until today the DNA teams are still digging through the mass graves which were left as a result of the campaign. One single most prominent example is the Massacre of Srebrenica, ruled genocide by the Hague Tribunal. The third war party, Bosnian Muslims, also called Bosniaks, was supported financially or otherwise by some pro-Islamic countries in the Middle East and Asia.

In March 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the leaders of the republican government and Herzeg-Bosnia led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The signing of the Dayton Agreement in Dayton, Ohio by the presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Alija Izetbegović), Croatia (Franjo Tuđman), and Yugoslavia (Slobodan Milošević) brought a halt to the fighting, roughly establishing the basic structure of the present-day state. The number of identified victims is currently at 97,207 and the recent research estimates the total number to be less 110,000 killed (civilians and military) and 1.8 million displaced. This is being addressed by the International Commission on Missing Persons.

The Bosnian government charged Serbia of complicity in genocide in Bosnia during the war at the International Court of Justice (ICJ). In its verdict (2007), the Court found that Serbia had not committed or conspired to commit genocide. It also concluded that Serbia was not complicit in genocide. It also dismissed Bosnian claims that genocide has been committed on the whole territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It did, however, find that Serbia had violated the obligation under the Genocide Convention to prevent the specific instance of genocide that occurred at Srebrenica in 1995.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso
After a decade of intense rivalry and competition between the British and the French, waged through treaty making expeditions under military or civilian explorers, in 1896, the Mossi kingdom of Ouagadougou was defeated by French colonial forces and became a French protectorate. The western region, where a standoff against the forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated the situation, and the eastern region came under French occupation in 1897 following different campaigns. By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to Burkina Faso today was nominally conquered, although control of many parts remained precarious. The French and British convention of June 14, 1898, ended the scramble between the two colonial powers and basically traced the borders between them. On the French side a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about five years. In the 1904 large-scale reorganization of the French West African colonial empire, the now largely pacified territories of the Volta basin were integrated into the Upper-Senegal-Niger (Haut-Sénégal et Niger) colony of French West Africa (AOF). The colony had its capital in Bamako.

Draftees from the territory participated in the European fronts of First World War in the battalions of the Senegalese Infantry (Tirailleurs sénégalais). Between 1915 and 1916 the districts in the western part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering eastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most important armed oppositions to colonial government (known as the Volta-Bani War). The French government finally suppressed the movement, but only after suffering defeats and being forced to gather the largest expeditionary force of its colonial history up to then. Armed opposition also wrecked the Sahelian north, as the Tuareg and allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the government. Once the First World War was over, on March 1, 1919, fear of recurrence of armed uprising and economic considerations led the colonial government to separate the present territory of Burkina Faso from Haut Sénégal et Niger so as to intensify its administration. The new colony was named Haute Volta and François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling became its first governor. Hesling initiated an ambitious road making program and promoted cotton growing for export. The cotton policy, based on coercion, failed and revenue stagnated. The colony was dismantled on September 5, 1932, and its territory divided between Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Niger, the largest share with most of the population and the cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso passing to Côte d'Ivoire.

The decision was reversed during the intense anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of the Second World War and on September 4, 1947 Upper Volta was recreated in its 1932 boundaries. On December 11, 1958, it achieved self-government, and became a republic and member of the Franco-African Community (La Communauté Franco-Africaine). Full independence was attained in 1960. The country's first military coup occurred in 1966; which returned civilian rule in 1978. There was another coup, led by Saye Zerbo in 1980, which in turn was overthrown in 1982. A counter-coup was launched in 1983, which brought the charismatic Captain Thomas Sankara to leadership. In 1984 the revolutionary government changed the name of the country to Burkina Faso, its flag, and its national anthem. The current president is Blaise Compaoré, who came to power in 1987 after a coup d'état that killed Thomas Sankara.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Brunei

Brunei
In 1959, a new constitution was written declaring Brunei a self-governing state, while its foreign affairs, security, and defence remained the responsibility of the United Kingdom, now represented by a High Commissioner. An attempt in 1962 to introduce a partially elected legislative body with limited powers was abandoned after the opposition political party, Parti Rakyat Brunei, launched an armed uprising, which the government put down with the help of British forces. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the government also resisted pressures to join neighbouring Sabah and Sarawak in the newly formed Malaysia. The Sultan eventually decided that Brunei would remain a separate state.

In 1967, Omar Ali Saifuddin abdicated in favour of his eldest son, Hassanal Bolkiah, who became the 29th ruler. The former Sultan remained as Defence Minister and assumed the royal title Seri Begawan. In 1970, the national capital, Brunei Town, was renamed Bandar Seri Begawan in his honour. The Seri Begawan died in 1986.

On January 4, 1979, Brunei and the United Kingdom signed a new treaty of friendship and cooperation. On January 1, 1984, Brunei Darussalam became a fully independent state.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Chad

Chad
French colonial expansion led to the creation of the Territoire Militaire des Pays et Protectorats du Tchad in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony. French rule in Chad was characterized by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernization. The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labor and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the south was governed effectively; French presence in the north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect. After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the French National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on August 11, 1960 with the PPT's leader, François Tombalbaye, as its first president.

Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated interethnic tensions. In 1965 Muslims began a civil war. Tomalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975, but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions conquered the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power. The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war. Libya's adventure ended in a disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evinced a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.

Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence; an estimated 40,000 people were killed under his rule.The president favoured his own Daza ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.

Deby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and re-introduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later. Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties. In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Comoros

Comoros
France first established colonial rule in the Comoros in 1841. The first French colonists landed in Mayotte, and Andrian Tsouli, the Malagasy King of Mayotte, signed the Treaty of April 1841, which ceded the island to the French authorities. In 1886, Mohéli was placed under French protection by its Queen Salimba Mochimba. That same year, after consolidating his authority over all of Grand Comore, Sultan Said Ali agreed to French protection of his island, though he retained sovereignty until 1909. Also in 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Anjouan abdicated in favor of French rule. The Comoros (or Les Comores) was officially made a French colony in 1912, and the islands were placed under the administration of the French colonial governor general of Madagascar in 1914.

The Comoros served as a way station for merchants sailing to the Far East and India until the opening of the Suez Canal significantly reduced traffic passing through the Mozambique Channel. The only native commodities exported by the Comoros were coconuts. French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After its annexation, France converted Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. The other islands were soon transformed as well, and the major crops of ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, cocoa, and sisal were introduced.

Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. The deputies of Mayotte, which remained under French control, abstained. Referendums on all four of the islands excluding Mayotte showed strong support for independence. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the Comoros' independence on September 5, 1975 and became its first president.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Djibouti

Djibouti
The Republic of Djibouti gained its independence from the French on June 27, 1977. Djibouti is the successor to "French Somaliland" (later called the "French Territory of the Afars and Issas"), which was created in the first half of the nineteenth century as a result of French interest in the Horn of Africa. However, the history of Djibouti recorded in poetry and songs of its nomadic peoples, goes back thousands of years to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient Egypt, India, and China.Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the African continent to accept Islam. Djibouti is a Muslim country which regularly takes part in Islamic as well as Arab meetings.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Eritrea

Eritrea
Eritrea was consolidated into a colony by the Italian government on January 1, 1890. Upon Italy's losses in World War II, Eritrea was ruled as a British protectorate between 1941 and 1952. Following a UN plebiscite in 1950, a resolution 390 (V) was adopted to have Eritrea enter into a federation with Ethiopia in 1952. Emperor Haile Selassie I, nevertheless annexed Eritrea as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1961 sparking the 30-year war that lasted from 1961 to 1991. Following a UN supervised referendum called UNOVER Eritrea declared- and gained international recognition for its independence in 1993. Eritrea's constitution, adopted in 1997, stipulates that the state is a presidential republic with a unicameral parliamentary democracy. The constitution, however, has not yet been implemented fully due to, according to the government, the prevailing border conflict with Ethiopia which began in May 1998.

Eritrea is a multilingual and multicultural country with two dominant religions (Oriental Orthodox Christianity and Sunni Islam) and nine ethnic groups. The country has no official language, but it has two working language,Tigirnya and Arabic. Christian live in urban areas like Asmara and Muslims live in villages like Afabet and Nakfa. The two communities are smoothly connected by the ruling socialist party and its leftist ideology.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Egypt

Egypt
Following the completion of the Suez Canal by Ismail Pasha in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt and eventually they came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. The country also fell heavily into debt to European powers. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the United Kingdom seized control of Egypt's government in 1882. Nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued, however, until 1914. As a result of the declaration of war with the Ottoman Empire, Britain declared a protectorate over Egypt and deposed the Khedive Abbas II, replacing him with his uncle, Husayn Kamil, who was appointed Sultan.

Between 1882 and 1906, a local nationalist movement for independence was taking shape. The Dinshaway Incident prompted Egyptian opposition to take a stronger stand against British occupation and the first political parties were founded. After the first World War, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party led the Egyptian nationalist movement after gaining a majority at the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, Egypt witnessed its first modern revolution. Constant revolting by the Egyptian people throughout the country led Great Britain to issue a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922.

The new Egyptian government drafted and implemented a new constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Saad Zaghlul was popularly-elected as Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924, and in 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Continued instability in the government due to remaining British control and increasing political involvement by the king led to the ouster of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament in a military coup d'état known as the 1952 Revolution. The officers, known as the Free Officers Movement, forced King Farouk to abdicate in support of his son Fuad.

The Egyptian Republic was declared on 18 June 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 by Gamal Abdel Nasser – the real architect of the 1952 movement – and was later put under house arrest. Nasser assumed power as President and declared the full independence of Egypt from the United Kingdom on June 18, 1956. His nationalization of the Suez Canal on July 26, 1956 prompted the 1956 Suez Crisis. Three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Israel had invaded an occupied Sinai, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform policy, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike.

In 1973, Egypt, along with Syria, launched the October War, a surprise attack against the Israeli forces occupying the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights in an attempt to liberate the territory Israel had captured 6 years earlier. Both the US and the USSR intervened and a cease-fire was reached between both sides. Despite not being a complete military success, most historians agree that the October War presented Sadat with a political victory that would later allow him to pursue peace with Israel. In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel which led to the 1979 peace treaty in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat's initiative sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the Arab League, but was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians. Sadat was assassinated in Cairo by a fundamentalist military soldier in 1981 and was succeeded by the incumbent Hosni Mubarak. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change, popularly known as Kifaya, was launched to seek a return to democracy and greater civil liberties.

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History of Islam/Modern period/The Gambia

The Gambia
The Gambia became a British Crown Colony in 1889, divided for administrative purposes into the colony (city of Banjul and the surrounding area) and the protectorate (remainder of the territory). The Gambia received its own executive and legislative councils in 1901 and gradually progressed toward self-government. A 1906 ordinance abolished slavery.

During World War II, Gambian troops fought with the Allies in Burma. Banjul served as an air stop for the U.S. Army Air Corps and a port of call for Allied naval convoys. U. S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt stopped overnight in Banjul en route to and from the Casablanca Conference in 1943, marking the first visit to the African Continent by an American president while in office.

After World War II, the pace of constitutional reform increased. Following general elections in 1962, full internal self-governance was granted in the following year. The Gambia achieved independence on February 18, 1965 as a constitutional monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations. Shortly thereafter, the government held a referendum proposing that an elected president replace the Gambian Monarch (Queen Elizabeth II) as head of state. The referendum failed to receive the two-thirds majority required to amend the constitution, but the results won widespread attention abroad as testimony to The Gambia's observance of secret balloting, honest elections, and civil rights and liberties. On April 24, 1970, The Gambia became a republic within the Commonwealth, following a second referendum, with Prime Minister Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara, as head of state.

The Gambia was led by President Jawara, who was re-elected five times. The relative stability of the Jawara era was shattered first by a coup attempt in 1981. The coup was led by Kukoi Samba Sanyang, who, on two occasions, had unsuccessfully sought election to Parliament. After a week of violence which left several hundred people dead, Jawara, in London when the attack began, appealed to Senegal for help. Senegalese troops defeated the rebel force.

In the aftermath of the attempted coup, Senegal and The Gambia signed the 1982 Treaty of Confederation. The Senegambia Confederation came into existence; it aimed eventually to combine the armed forces of the two states and to unify their economies and currencies. The Gambia withdrew from the confederation in 1989.

In July 1994, the Armed Forces Provisional Ruling Council (AFPRC) seized power in a military coup d'état. The AFPRC deposed the Jawara government and banned opposition political activity. Lieutenant Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh, chairman of the AFPRC, became head of state. The AFPRC announced a transition plan for return to democratic civilian government. The Provisional Independent Electoral Commission (PIEC) was established in 1996 to conduct national elections. The PIEC was transformed to the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) in 1997 and became responsible for registration of voters and conduct of elections and referendums. In late 2001 and early 2002, The Gambia completed a full cycle of presidential, legislative, and local elections, which foreign observers deemed free, fair, and transparent, albeit with some shortcomings. President Yahya Jammeh, who was elected to continue in the position he had assumed during the coup, took the oath of office again on December 21, 2001. The APRC maintained its strong majority in the National Assembly, particularly after the main opposition United Democratic Party (UDP) boycotted the legislative elections


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History of Islam/Modern period/Guinea

Guinea
Guinea was created as a colony by France in 1890 with Noël Balley as the first governor. The capital Conakry was founded on Tombo Island in the same year. In 1895 the country was incorporated into French West Africa.

On 28 September 1958, under the direction of Charles de Gaulle, Metropolitan France held a referendum on a new constitution and the creation of the Fifth Republic. The colonies, except Algeria, were given the choice between immediate independence and retaining their colonial status. All colonies except Guinea opted for the latter. Thus, Guinea became the first French African colony to gain independence, at the cost of the immediate cessation of all French assistance.

After independence Guinea was governed by the dictator Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré pursued broadly socialist economic policies, suppressed opposition and free expression with little regard for human rights. Under his leadership, Guinea joined the Non-Aligned Movement and pursued close ties with the Eastern Bloc. After his death in 1984, Lansana Conté assumed power and immediately changed his predecessor's economic policies, but the government remained dictatorial. The first elections since independence were held in 1993, but the results and those of subsequent elections were disputed. Conté faces domestic criticism for the condition of the country's economy and for his heavy-handed approach to political opposition.

While on a visit to France with his family in 2005, Prime Minister François Fall resigned and sought asylum, citing corruption and increasing interference from the President, which he felt limited his effectiveness as the head of the government. Fall's successor, Cellou Dalein Diallo, was removed in April of 2006, and Conté failed to appoint a new one until the end of January 2007 after devastating nationwide strikes and mass demonstrations. During 2006, there were two nationwide strikes by government workers, during which 10 students were shot dead by the military; strikes were suspended when Conté agreed to more favorable wages to civil servants and a reduction of the cost of certain basic amenities (rice and oil).

At the beginning of 2007, citing the government's failure to honour the terms of previous agreements, trade unions called new strikes, protesting of rising costs of living, government corruption, and economic mismanagement. Lasting for more than 2 weeks, these strikes drew some of the largest demonstrations seen during Conté's tenure and resulted in some 60 deaths. Among the unions' demands was that the aging and ailing President name a consensus Prime Minister, to fill the post vacant since Diallo's removal, and relinquish to him certain presidential responsibilities. Conté reluctantly agreed to appoint a new prime minister and lower fuel and rice prices, and the strikes were subsequently suspended.

On 13 February 2007, upon the nomination of Eugene Camara to the post of Prime Minister, viewed as a close ally of Conté, violent demonstrations immediately broke out throughout the country. Strikes resumed, citing the President's failure to nominate a "consensus" prime minister as per the January 27th agreement. A state of martial law was declared after violent clashes with demonstrators, bringing the death toll since January to well over 100, and there were widespread reports of pillaging and rapes committed by men in military uniform. Government buildings and property owned by government officials throughout the country were looted and destroyed by angry mobs. Many feared Guinea to be on the verge of civil war as protesters from all parts of Guinea called for Conté's unequivocal resignation.

After diplomatic intervention from ECOWAS, neighboring heads of state, the EU, the UN, etc., Conté agreed to choose a new Prime Minister from a list of five candidates furnished by the labor unions and civic leaders. On February 26, Lansana Kouyaté, former Guinean ambassador to the UN, was nominated to the post. Strikes were called off, and the nomination was hailed by the strikers.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Indonesia

Indonesia
In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over these territories was tenuous; only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during WWII ended Dutch rule, and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointed president. The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian independence.

Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the Military, Islam, and the Communist Party of Indonesia. An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Between 500,000 and one million people were killed. The head of the military, General Suharto, out-manoeuvred the politically weakened Sukarno, and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration was supported by the US government, and encouraged foreign investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

In 1997 and 1998, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis.This increased popular discontent with the New Order and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year occupation, which was marked by international condemnation of repression and human rights abuses. The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation, has led to a strengthening of democratic processes, including a regional autonomy program, and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problems in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.


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History merge from Indonesia required. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:15, 2 November 2007 (UTC)


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History of Islam/Modern period/Pakistan

Pakistan
Pakistan is the sixth most populous country in the world and is the second most populous country with a Muslim majority. Its territory was a part of the pre-partitioned British India and has a long history of settlement and civilization including the Indus Valley Civilization.

A party by the name of Muslim League rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. On 29 December 1930, Allama Iqbal's presidential address called for an autonomous "state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims, within the body politic of India." Muhammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940 (popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution), which ultimately led to the formation of an independent Pakistan.

Pakistan was formed on 14 August 1947 with two Muslim-majority wings in the eastern and northwestern regions of the British Indian Empire, separated from the rest of the country with a Hindu majority, and comprising the provinces of Baluchistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh. The partition of the British Indian Empire resulted in communal riots across India and Pakistan—millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. Disputes arose over several princely states including Jammu and Kashmir whose ruler had acceded to India following an invasion by Pashtun warriors, leading to the First Kashmir War (1948) ending with Pakistan occupying roughly one-third of the state. From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a Dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations. The republic declared in 1956 was stalled by a coup d'etat by Ayub Khan (1958–69), who was president during a period of internal instability and a second war with India in 1965. His successor, Yahya Khan (1969–71) had to deal with the cyclone which caused 500,000 deaths in East Pakistan.Economic and political dissent in East Pakistan led to violent political repression and tensions escalating into civil war and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and ultimately the secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh.Civilian rule resumed from 1972 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, until he was deposed and later sentenced to death in 1979 by General Zia-ul-Haq, who became the country's third military president. Pakistan's secular policies were replaced by Zia's introduction of the Islamic Shariah legal code, which increased religious influences in the civil service and the military. With the death of General Zia in a plane crash in 1988, Benazir Bhutto, daughter of the late Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. Over the next decade, she alternated power with Nawaz Sharif, as the country's political and economic situation worsened. Pakistan sent 5,000 troops to the 1991 Gulf War as part of a US led coalition and specifically for the defence of Saudi Arabia. Military tensions in the Kargil conflict with India were followed by a Pakistani military coup d'état in 1999 in which General Pervez Musharraf assumed executive powers. In 2001, Musharraf named himself President after the forced resignation of Rafiq Tarar. After the 2002 parliamentary elections, Musharraf transferred executive powers to newly elected Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali, followed by a temporary period in office by Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain who inturn was succeeded in the 2004 Prime-Ministerial election by Shaukat Aziz.

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History of Islam/Modern period/Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia
In 1902 at the age of only 22, Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud conquered Riyadh, the Al-Saud dynasty's ancestral capital, from the rival Al-Rashid family. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, Al-Qatif, the rest of Nejd, and Hejaz between 1913 and 1926. On 8 January 1926 Abdul Aziz bin Saud became the King of Hejaz. On 29 January 1927 he took the title King of Nejd (his previous Nejdi title was Sultan). By the Treaty of Jedda, signed on 20 May 1927, the United Kingdom recognized the independence of Abdul Aziz's realm, then known as the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz. In 1932, the principal regions of Al-Hasa, Qatif, Nejd and Hejaz were unified to form the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Abdul Aziz's military and political successes were not mirrored economically until vast reserves of oil were discovered in March 1938. Development programmes, which were delayed due to the onset of the Second World War in 1939, began in earnest in 1946 and by 1949 production was in full swing. Oil has provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and a great deal of leverage in the international community.

Prior to his death in 1953 Abdul Aziz, aware of the difficulties facing other regional absolute rulers reliant on extended family networks, attempted to regulate the succession.

Saud succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1953. However, by the early 1960s the Kingdom was in jeopardy due to Saud's economic mismanagement and failure to deal effectively with a regional challenge from Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. As a consequence Saud was deposed in favour of Faisal in 1964.

Intra-family rivalry was one of the factors that led to the assassination of Faisal by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musa'id, in 1975. He was succeeded by King Khalid until 1982 and then by King Fahd. When Fahd died in 2005, his half-brother Abdullah ascended to the throne.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Nuclear capabilities

Nuclear capabilities
Pakistan started focusing on nuclear development in January 1972 under the leadership of Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program was in response to India's development of nuclear weapons. Bhutto called a meeting of senior scientists and engineers on January 20, 1972, at Multan. It was here that Bhutto rallied Pakistan's scientists to build the atomic bomb for national survival. At the Multan meeting, Bhutto also appointed a Pakistani nuclear engineer, Munir Ahmad Khan, as chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, who till then had been working as Director of Nuclear Power and Reactor Division at IAEA, in Vienna. This marked the beginning of Pakistan's pursuit of nuclear capability. Following India's surprise nuclear test, code named Smiling Buddha in 1974, the goal to develop nuclear weapons received considerable impetus.

Consequently, Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, a metallurgical engineer, working in a Dutch research firm used URENCO blueprints for designing the ultra centrifuges at Kahuta (near Islamabad) also joined Pakistan's nuclear weapons-grade Uranium enrichment program. The uranium enrichment program had been launched in 1974 by PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan as Project-706. AQ Khan joined the project in the spring of 1976 and was made Project-Director in July 1976 after taking over from Sultan Bashiruddin Mahmood. Although in 1983, A.Q.Khan was convicted of the theft of these blueprints, the conviction was overturned on some technicality.

A few weeks after India's Shakti (Power) operation (second nuclear test), on 28 May 1998, Pakistan detonated 5 nuclear devices in the Chagai Hills in the Chaghai district, Baluchistan. This operation was named Chagai-I by Pakistan. Pakistan's fissile material production takes place at Kahuta and Khushab/Jauharabad, where weapons-grade Plutonium is made; the latter, allegedly, with the assistance of Chinese-supplied technology.

The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) estimates that Pakistan has built 24-48 HEU-based nuclear warheads with HEU reserves for 30-52 additional warheads.[8][9] The US Navy Center for Contemporary Conflict estimates that Pakistan possesses between a low of 35 and a high of 95 nuclear warheads, with a median of 60.

The NRDC's and the Carnegie Foundation's estimates of approximately 50 weapons are from 2002-3 estimations. In 2000, US Military intelligence estimated that Pakistan's nuclear arsenal may be as large as 100 warheads.The actual size is hard for experts to gauge owing to the secrecy which surrounds the program in Pakistan.

The United States government responded to Pakistan's testing of nuclear weapons in 1998 with sanctions. Following the Gulf War, the United Nations put in place decade-long sanctions against the Government of Iraq with the stated purpose of preventing the government from developing weapons of mass destruction. The 2003 Invasion of Iraq was partly based on the idea that Iraq had developed, or was in the process of developing, weapons of mass destruction but the intelligence reports were later proven to be flawed.


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History merge from Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction and Muslim world required. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:19, 2 November 2007 (UTC)


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History of Islam/Modern period/Conflicts with Israel

Conflicts with Israel
Muslim world is subject to varying levels of hostility in the West due to the prolonged Arab-Israeli conflict and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Turkey was the first Muslim-majority state to recognize Israel, just one year after its founding, and they have the long shared close military and economic ties. Prior to the Iranian Revolution, Iran and Israel maintained a strong political friendship, however the current Iranian government is strongly anti-Israeli and has repeatedly called for Israel's destruction. Once at war, both Egypt and Jordan have established diplomatic relations and signed peace treaties with Israel, and attempts to resolve the conflict with Palestinians have produced a number of interim agreements. Nine non-Arab Muslim states maintain diplomatic ties with Israel, and since 1994, the Gulf states have lessened their enforcement of the Arab boycott, with Saudi Arabia even declaring its end in 2005, though it has yet to cancel its sanctions. States like Morocco that have large Jewish populations have generally better relations with Israel.


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History of Islam/Modern period/Recent history

Recent history
1979 was a critical year in the Muslim world's relationship with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, the government of Iran was overthrown in the Iranian Revolution, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan began.

Some of the events pivotal in the Muslim world's relationship with the outside world in the post-Soviet era were:

 * The Iran-Iraq War
 * The 1991 Persian Gulf War
 * The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan
 * The 2003 invasion of Iraq
 * The Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
 * The 2005 Prophet Muhammad cartoons controversy
 * The 2006 controversy over remarks quoted by Pope Benedict XVI
 * The ongoing Darfur conflict
 * The ongoing standoff with Iran over its Nuclear program
 * The ongoing Terrorism and Indian military actions against Kashmiri people
 * The ongoing Second Chechen War

The U.S.-led war on terrorism has been criticized as a war on Islam by majority Muslim countries.


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History merge from Muslim_world required. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:22, 2 November 2007 (UTC)


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History of Islam/Modern period/Political Fault Lines

Political Fault Lines
In Pakistan, a prominent U.S. ally, Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal - an Islamic political party - won local elections in two out of four of the country's provinces and became in mid-2003 the third largest party in the national parliament, their strongest showing up to that point. They had support from urban areas for the first time. See also: Politics of Pakistan

In Kuwait elections in July 2003 returned Islamic traditionalists and supporters of the royal family, while liberals suffered a severe defeat. See also: Elections in Kuwait

In Indonesia, the growth of various groups allied to those considered responsible for the Bali Bombing most of which have previously been invisible, has been marked.[citation needed]

In Iran in 1979, a popular revolution saw the exile of the Shah and the rule going to Ayatollah Khomeini, a cleric from the Shia school of thought. The country has what it claims is a theocratic democracy, and has kept the "revolution" as part of the state's survival and growth.


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History merge from Muslim world required. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:23, 2 November 2007 (UTC)


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User talk:GreenVoid

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! --Panic 18:32, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:GreenVoid


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User talk:202.63.173.110

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:58, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.63.173.110


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Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2007/October

Image backlog
So we now have 200-some images that are considered speedy-delete candidates since they've not had license information for so long. I've tried to weed out anything that can be tagged, the unused images, and a bunch that could be replaced with images from Commons. I've also fired off numerous emails to the uploaders. I imagine there might be some more that can be replaced with Commons images; I'll try to do that over the next 2-3 days.

Once that's done, would there be support for deleting all these images en masse (and potentially leaving the redlinks)? I think that may be the only realistic way to get rid of the backlog. I realize that most people here "aren't on a schedule" and that technically the backlog can sit there forever, but it really shouldn't. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 14:08, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * Support or not, it really is policy that the images be deleted. Beyond that, if there are potential copyright violations in that bunch, it's imperative that we do so. The most common concern is that people want all possible routes to be taken before a painful deletion. It sounds to me like you are investigating all these images properly, so i dont think that can be a concern. The question of what to do with the redlinks is, of course, a difficult one. My suggestion is to leave the redlinks, but to leave a message on each talk page mentioning that the image was deleted because it was not properly tagged. My bot could be modified to do this task, i'm sure yours could as well, Mike. I'm also sure that many other bots in existance could, and maybe we should ask at commons for a bot that could delete untagged images and leave appropriate talk-page warnings on the books (and possibly to the users who uploaded them as well). --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 14:17, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * By "en masse", I meant "all at once, in a single run, with no mercy or second thought." As opposed to a few people deleting a few here and there over the next few weeks. Both are technically fulfillments of the policy, so choosing one over the other is a matter for discussion.
 * I know AWB can handle the deletions, but how would you get around to putting a note on the talk pages where images were used? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:59, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * If we had a list of pages where the images were included it would be a trivial task. It's getting that list that's a problem. I wonder if a bot such as User:CommonsTicker could be modified for this kind of task. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:30, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

I'm going to delete the SD images, leaving redlinks, next weekend. If you're still trying to figure out a way to remove the redlinks and/or leave a message on the talk page(s) where the images are used, then I'd wait so the job could be done cleaner. Otherwise, I think it's high time they disappeared. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:48, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I really can't think of a good solution to the problem, and I've been unable to acquire any bot help for the purpose either. I say "go nuts!". Delete the images but leave the redlinks as an indication that an image "should go here". Maybe also keep a list of all deleted image names so that we can go back at a later date and add messages, if a tool for that can be found. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 13:44, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I just had a moment of panic. I was writing this, but I can't find where it says in our policy "images without license info for >7d will be deleted". Can someone point me to the exact line? Certainly it should be there somewhere - it has so much consensus that we do it all the time, uncontroversially. But apparently, I can't find it. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:04, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I think the seven day timeframe thats used is based on WB:DP. --dark lama  18:22, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Not objecting to deletion but automation is not required. I've just cleared a quarter of them & will finish the rest off tomorrow if they are still there. From a Commons perspective 200 images really isn't many at all, come to that I've probably hit 200 page deletions in a day here in the past -- Herby talk thyme 18:10, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Main Editor
Is there an assigned Main Editor for every Wikibook? If so how do you find out who is? _Yinyang | Jedi 13:35, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

 * No, there is nobody "assigned" to anything. You can determine for yourself if there are any active contributors in a book by checking the page history. If there are other people, you all work together on the book as equals. If there are no other people, then you are the "main editor" yourself (at least until other people join you). What book is this? --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 13:43, 1 October 2007 (UTC)

 * The Piano book. Thanks for your help _Yinyang | Jedi 12:49, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

Applying license info to images
See this note on my talk page. He tried to use the drop-down to add license info, and it didn't work. I had him go back and apply the template manually, and to do so in the future to be safe. Shouldn't that work though? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 17:52, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I've never heard of that problem before. I know that part of that upload page is handled by AJAX transactions, so maybe there is some kind of bug in that. In general, what he did should work, but there is no problem with doing it manually either. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 18:00, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

I just blocked this guy
This guy had added lots of copyrighted text. I warned him, and he did it again. This time, I blocked him for a week. Too bold? Not bold enough? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:31, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Copyvios are serious business. He was warned, there really isnt an excuse to either not see the warnings or to ignore them completely. I would try and get in touch with him on the talk page to work out the issue (and maybe unblock early). If he won't talk then maybe one week isnt long enough. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:02, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I've been looking through the diffs. What edits did you see that seemed to be copyvios? From the random sampling I saw, there wasnt anything too too suspicious. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:10, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * This should look familiar - it's 9th Grade Science. The Civil War/Introduction (deleted now) was taken from this. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:53, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I guess I didnt look at the right diffs. thanks. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:55, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

User:Mike's bot account
I've temporarily granted the bot flag to this account because mike is using it for a template substituting job that is flooding the RC list tonight. Any other bureaucrat should feel free to remove this flag if they feel it's inappropriate. I'll remove it myself after this task is complete and we can make a formal discussion of it on WB:RFA. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 01:24, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I will take this chance to call your attention to Bots proposed draft for a Wikibooks policy or guideline. Txs. --Panic 01:47, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

 * You don't need to call my attention to it, I wrote that draft. It's a good point though that in the absence of a formalized policy bureaucrats really do need to use their best judgement, and the cases aren't always clear cut. While this is certainly not a common occurance, the number and capabilities of bots have been steadily increasing, so maybe it's worth a second look. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 01:49, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

The task in question is not completed, but mike is taking a break from it for the night. I'm inclined to leave the bot flag active until the task is complete. I don't think there is a pressing need to revoke it only to give it again when he fires the bot back up later. Unnecessary clogging of the logs, I think. I've opening a request on RFA for a more permanent granting of the bot flag for this user since he's demonstrated a clear ability to flood the RC feed. I'll still remove the flag after this job is completed, assuming this bot nomination fails or is delayed. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:17, 4 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I'll be finishing the job tomorrow afternoon/night, so unless there's objection, I'll keep the flag for the 2nd half of the job. I'm substituting user talk templates. I am also planning to delete the images that are speedy deletes once I can get it to work. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 04:28, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Mike has reported to me that he's finished this task, and I've removed the flag. We can discuss the matter further at WB:AN. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 17:56, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Strange Edit
HERE. It's not exactly page blanking, all this user did was remove all the external links and add a little bit of text. I'm not necessarily inclined to revert it, but a "resources" page likely should have external links on it? The list of external links was very long, however, and maybe we need to ask if any of it was spam or not. What should I make of this? --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 12:12, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Ooops - I reverted it - unexplained (effective) blanking seemed bad but I cannot fault your logic on it, feel free to revert me -- Herby talk thyme 12:14, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * No sense. I was unsure about reverting it, I was certainly unsure about keeping it. This little "Ooops" might turn out to be the better action. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 12:26, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I just got done asking Herby on his talk page why he had reverted before I saw this. Personally I thought it might of been a good idea what that anonymous user did or was trying to do. No need to duplicate a list of resources, when that list is available on another website. --dark lama  12:32, 5 October 2007 (UTC)
 * All in all I agree with Darklama, think I'll go revert me (but feel free to change anything!) -- Herby talk thyme 12:42, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

Reclaim MiszaBot account
Hi. Can someone with the necessary powers please rename the account so I can claim it? It has been registered by a vandal and is now indef blocked. I'd like to set up a discussion archiving bot here per a request on my en.wiki talk page. Thanks! Миша 13 20:09, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

 * In order to start this process, please make an edit on your en.wikipedia userpage along the lines of "I requested a rename at en.wikibooks". I know there's some edits there already, but we like to see a specifically requested edit. Also, rename to what exactly? Thanks. -within focus 00:21, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * This is one confirmation, made in the thread where Whiteknight asked me to set up a bot. This is another, made earlier. Both confirm that this account is owned by enwiki.Misza13 and (the first one) that I request a rename. On enwiki, the account would probably get renamed to something like User:MiszaBot (usurped) - you can pick this idea if Wikibooks have no rename standards of their own.
 * On a side note, is there a centralised venue for requesting bot flags or should I request it here as well? Миша 13 10:57, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * You can request bot flags at WB:RFA. --dark lama  12:04, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * ✅. The user in question has been renamed to User:BLOCKED_VANDAL_001. I am creating the account for you, and will email you the account password at your en.wikipedia email address. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:40, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks. I have taken over the account and am now setting up the archiver. Миша 13 16:41, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

Closing vfd's
You can find the necessary stuff on mine & panic's pages. I closed a vfd as three were in favour of deleting and one against. Panic removed the impending doom tag which I consider wrong. I've reverted my closure and will again remove myself from community involvement here. There are far pleasanter more co-operative places for me to edit - I wish you well -- Herby talk thyme 16:49, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree with you in that I consider his actions wrong as well. I wish you wouldnt take his actions as proof that the entire wikibooks community is not cooperative. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 17:47, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Transwiki log
Do we really need this? It's not really used, and transwikis are logged automatically. The only use I can see is to log when stuff is moved out of Transwiki: to wherever (except people don't really do that either, and that is all logged automatically too). – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:50, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't think its needed either, except maybe when manually copying over something because import failed. Could be used in that way for keeping track of failed imports which may be able to be fixed at a later date. I think the idea was copied from Wikipedia at some point, but Wikipedia doesn't seem to do that any more, and I don't know of any other projects which bother with it. I would have no problems with having it deleting, marking it as obsolete (if people want it for historic reasons), or using it only for manually copied pages. --dark lama  17:13, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I suggest we not delete it for now. The old ones (which were copied) should really be properly imported at some point, and that's our only checklist. Maybe just protect it, then start removing ones we've checked out.
 * If import fails, just import the current revision (it always works for that). -- SB_Johnny | PA! 17:18, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm with Johnny, we do need to keep a record of failed transwikis so that we can go back and import the page histories later. We can delete this page once all the old log items are properly accounted for. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 17:45, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Help importing an image from Wikipedia
I'm trying to insert into a section of the organic chemistry book. It doesn't seem to be on Commons, only on WP, but it's GFDL licensed. Can someone please explain how to do this? Please reply on my talk page. Shalom 16:32, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * ✅ - the image is here. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:40, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

Two requests
As the title says, I need help on two different things (sorry if I'm putting this on the wrong page). First off, I would like it if the Dynamic Navigation Bars js (from Wikipedia) was included in MediaWiki:Common.js. The reason why will be explained in second request. My second request is for someone to import Template:Header Nav and Template:Footer Nav from StrategyWiki. These two templates make use of the js from my first request in the form of a show/hide link that shows or hides the book's table of contents. Granted, it needs some cleanup once it gets over here, but I can take care of that when it happens (I'd be removing the walkthrough link, removing the need for a parameter defining the main page of the book -- #titleparts is quite good at that -- and modifying a few other things in both the header/footer navs). If you have any questions, comments, concerns, please post them here so we may reach a consensus about these two (three if you consider both imports as separate things) items. Thank you. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 21:07, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * We already have our own version of this mechanism (if i correctly understand what you are asking for). The template to use is . You can see the results of this template on Calculus, for example. Is this what you are after? --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 21:18, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

 * We already have dynamic navigation, try . --dark lama  21:19, 11 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Awesome, didn't know about that! Thanks! --Skizzerz talk - contribs 21:30, 11 October 2007 (UTC)

nld images
is supposed to move images to WB:SD after 7 days. I don't think it's working properly. Image:Diversity.jpg is one such case. It has applied properly. It has been listed for over 7 days. Presumably on the 7th day, it switched categories. On the page, it's listed as being a speedy delete, but if you click on the category, it's not there. Not a single image is there. wtf!? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:25, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * This a problem with category caching, which can cause the category page not to updated for some time, while at other times, category pages seem to update immediately. --dark lama  18:39, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Hmmm. And purging the server cache doesn't fix it. Anything else we could do? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:41, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Not really. See 5382 and 5527 --dark lama  19:07, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

 * So the job queues get emptied on a rotating basis - will that fix it? Any idea how often we get this job queue emptied? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:46, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually what I was trying to point out with those two bugs, that categories don't get updated sometimes on a page if that category happens to have been added through a template, that a template used a lot can sometimes completely miss going through the job queue preventing the categories from being updated even if you purge the page and that there is nothing that can be done about it on our end, just have to wait for them to fix those bugs. I have no idea how often the job queue is emptied, but I've seen it empty today several times, hence the bugs. --dark lama  02:08, 13 October 2007 (UTC)

WB:VIP
I was told a long time ago that the shortcut WB:VIP would take me to the Vandalism In Progress page. It no longer seems to do that. If I happen to be chasing a vandal, where would I post that information? Chazz (talk) 15:57, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

 * You should post that information here now. --dark lama  16:00, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

 * The old "vandalism in progress" one appears to redirect here as DL says (personally I think a separate page would be more "immediate" but vandalism is not high here now (must be something to do with those open proxies ;)))-- Herby talk thyme 16:03, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Okay -- 205.120.101.109 was vandalizing the Muggles' Guide (Severus Snape). I put a warning up on the IP talk page and reverted his edits, and he seems to have stopped now... but he may start up again. I'll try to keep an eye on that. Chazz (talk) 16:12, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Changing the name of a Wikibook
Is there a way to change the name of http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Technology_Enhanced_Instruction? A better name would be Technology_to_Support_Student_Learning to be more student-focused. ..vt 12:54, 20 October 2007 (UTC)
 * There is a move tab at the top of the page. If you click it, and enter your new name for the page (Technology to Support Student Learning), and hit "move page", the page will get moved to the new location and the old location will be a redirect. If available, make sure the "move talk page too" box is checked. You'll also have to do the same to all the subpages. ie: move "Technology Enhanced Instruction/subpage" to "Technology to Support Student Learning/subpage" along with the associated talk page. Make sure you're entering only the new page name - not a URL (this has been a problem in the past).
 * Please make sure you have consensus with any other editors of the book before proceeding. Moving entire books can be disruptive. Your best course of action is to use at the top of the page to let people know what you want to do. If after a week, say, there is no objection on the talk page, then go ahead. As well, once you have discussed it with any other editors of the book, you can ask me to move the book for you; I have a bot which will make things go quicker. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 19:02, 20 October 2007 (UTC)

I'm the only author. I changed all the page names. Looks ok. Thanks for your help. --..vt 01:04, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

License compatibility
The Practice of Learning Theories contains content from, which has the following copyright notice: Contributions to http://wow-iu-uh.wikispaces.com are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 3.0 License. Portions not contributed by visitors are Copyright 2007 Tangient LLC. Is this GFDL-compatible except for "portions not contributed by visitors"? – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:24, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I'm not even sure if CC license material can be used under GFDL. CC licenses doesn't mention anything about allowing the inclusion of invariant sections which the GFDL does allow for example. Anyone who uses material from this website I think is suppose to have the right to include invariant sections, just isn't suppose to include invariant sections on Wikibooks. --dark lama  16:51, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Definitely incompatible. CC images can be included in GFDL documents as "aggregate works", but when the text is amended or changed here on wikibooks, it is under GFDL, and violates the CC license (in the sense that you couldn't then re-release it under CC). Unfortunately, that means that this is copyvio. -- SB_Johnny | PA! 18:02, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I've received an email from the project leader, apparently the wikispaces page is being written simultaneously by the same group as is writing it here. If they are indeed the same authors on that site as here, there is no problem with them releasing the material under as many different licenses as they want. I have encouraged them to post notices both here and there to prove that they are the original authors of both sites. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 21:23, 21 October 2007 (UTC)

Heads up
So far on all the projects I look at IP addresses are creating pages or making edits that just leave equfqho (single "word" only) on the page. So far with one exception they have all been open proxies, folks may want to keep an eye, cheers -- Herby talk thyme 14:28, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

User creation log
Spotted some very similar new usernames. They seem to be associated with 68.224.239.145. Perhaps something to watch. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:59, 29 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The IP is associated with lots of cross-wiki vandalism and (apparently) sockpuppetry. Will block at first sign of trouble. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 02:05, 29 October 2007 (UTC)

Difficulty finding informational pages
For some reason I had a lot of trouble finding the page What Is a WikiBook. I finally stumbled on a link to it when perusing the page about book donations.

Another page I managed to misplace is the one which lists newly started books. This is quite frustrating, as I suspect you can imagine. I finally found it at WB:SLN

Sorry, I'm not sure how to improve these pages' findability. An index of the WB: pages, maybe?

...Selden 19:14, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

 * We're trying to organize things better in a "help book" at Using Wikibooks. That book should contain most of the information that people would try to find. The book itself is relatively new and so might not be properly advertised. Maybe a link to it should be added to the welcome template for distributing to new users. WB:WIW is linked from many places, including the main page, so i'm surprised to hear that it isn't easily findable. Also, new books aren't "listed" anywhere. For a new book to appear in the new book list, you add the tag to it. Technological magic should do the rest. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 20:05, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I have actually updated the links in Template:Welcome, so hopefully there should be a little bit less confusion. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 20:16, 30 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The page Reading room/Assistance includes a block showing the newest books, created by invoking the template named "new". The page Community Portal includes a table titled Find a Book. That table includes a row titled "New Books". However, instead of telling how to find a newly created book, its links tell how to create a new book. It seems to me that it would be reasonable to have link in that table entry which points to a page which essentially includes only the "new" template, perhaps accompanied by a very small amount of text describing how books are added to the list. I'd do it myself except that I'm not sure how to properly configure such a meta-page's boilerplate and link to it. I've only worked on preexiting book pages and created pages for a preexisting book. I'm willing to be bold and try, but I'm reluctant to be reckless and destroy a page central to the site's operations ;) ...Selden 14:38, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

 * That's actually an easy fix, if I understand what exactly you are asking. I have added a link to "New books" to that table. It goes directly to the Template:New page, which already contains the list of new books and a short paragraph of instructions on how to add new books to the list. Those instructions might need to be clarified or expanded, but it's a start. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 14:55, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

 * That's exactly what I was thinking about. Thanks! ...Selden 15:52, 31 October 2007 (UTC)