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Radiation Oncology/CNS/Pineal

 Pineal Gland Tumors

Epidemiology

 * 1% adult CNS tumors
 * 5% pediatric CNS tumors
 * Three separate tumor types:
 * Pineal parenchyma tumors
 * Glial parenchyma tumors
 * Germ cell tumors
 * Dramatic variation geographically in distribution (germinoma ~50% in Japan, <30% in Europe)

Clinical Presentation

 * Determined by the spatial anatomy and direction of growth
 * Obstruction of aquaduct: hydrocephalus presenting as headaches, nausea, vomiting
 * Compromise of superior colliculus: vertical gaze palsy, pupillary and oculomotor nerve paresis (Parinaud syndrome)
 * Progressive growth: cranial nerve neuropathies, hypothalamic dysfunction
 * Metastatic disease rare, but leptomeningeal spread in ~20% pineoblastomas and ~10% germ cell tumors

Pineal Gland Histology

 * Principle cell in the pineal gland is the pinealocyte
 * Specialized neuron related to retinal cones & rods
 * Takes sympathetic input from retina via the suprachiasmatic nucleus
 * Converts the stimulation into hormonal output by producing melatonin, which impacts LH and FSH
 * Relationship between light-dark cycle, pineal gland, and circadian rhythm
 * Stain for neuron specific enolase (NSE) and Synaptophysin
 * Surrounding stroma is made of astrocytes
 * Stain for GFAP, S-100, and Vimentin
 * Germ cells are embryonal remnants, typically presenting in midline structures

Pathology

 * Germ cell tumors
 * Germinoma (30-40%)
 * Non-seminomatous germ cell tumor (10-20%)
 * Pineal parenchymal tumors (15-30%)
 * Pineocytoma (WHO Grade II):
 * Well-differentiated low grade tumor
 * Characteristic pineocytomatous rosettes
 * May have neuronal, astrocytic, or mixed (ganglioglioma) differentiation
 * Pineal parenchymal tumour of intermediate differentiation (WHO Grade III)
 * Intermediate grade tumor, between pineocytoma and pineoblastoma.
 * Reasonably rare, constituting only 10% of pineal parenchyma tumors
 * Pineoblastoma (WHO Grade IV):
 * Primitive high grade tumor
 * Believed to arise from an immature neural progenitor cells; may have pineal, neuronal, glial, or retinoblastic differentiation
 * May be part of bilateral retinoblastoma with pineoblastoma syndrome ("trilateral retinoblastoma syndrome"), and may be associated with the Rb mutation
 * Necrosis is common
 * Histologically indistinguishable from Supratentorial PNET and infratentorial PNET (medulloblastoma)
 * Similarly has a significant propensity for leptomeningeal spread
 * Papillary tumor of the pineal region (PTPR)
 * Rare, recently described entity
 * Histologically similar to ependymoma, and thought to arise from specialized ependymocytes
 * Glial tumors
 * Astrocytomas (10-30%)
 * Benign lesions
 * Pineal gland cysts, vascular malformations, vein of Galen aneurysms

Treatment Overview

 * Work-up includes MRI, CSF, serum markers for bHCG and AFP
 * Tissue diagnosis is critical, since management varies significantly based on pathology
 * Stereotactic pineal gland biopsy
 * Open surgery (typically not favored since only few tumors are amenable to complete resection, many are chemo-RT sensitive, and there is a real risk of worsening visual deficits)
 * CSF diversion may be necessary in patients symptomatic from obstructing hydrocephalus, although if open surgery is done, may not be necessary
 * Germ cell tumors are treated with definitive RT or chemo-RT as with other Germ cell tumors
 * Pineoblastoma is treated with surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy and craniospinal irradiation like other CNS PNETs). More detail below
 * to be continued ...

Pineocytoma

 * Most reports are small series; largest has 9 patients
 * Age difference: Pediatric pineocytomas behave more aggressively, with high rate of recurrence; adult cases appear more benign
 * Barrow Neurological Institute:
 * If symptomatic, attempt resection. Adjuvant GKS for subtotal resection
 * If small and asymptomatic, stereotactic biopsy, and primary GKS
 * Pittsburgh data suggests primary GKS as well
 * Mayo data suggests adjuvant RT for subtotal resection to 50-55 Gy

 * Barrow Neurological Institute; 2004 (Arizona)(1990-2003) PMID 15271241 -- "Diagnosis and management of pineocytomas." (Deshmukh VR, Neurosurgery. 2004 Aug;55(2):349-55; discussion 355-7.)
 * Retrospective. 9 patients. Mean age 44 years. Surgery: 3 GTR, 6 subtotal or bx. Adjuvant RT in 5/9 patients (n=2 IMRT 54/30, n=3 GKS)
 * Outcome: 4/9 local recurrences (3 clinical, 1 radiographic). Mean time to recurrence 3.5 years
 * Radiosurgery: all stable or decreased at 3 years
 * Treatment recommendations: If symptomatic, attempt resection. For subtotally resected, adjuvant GKS. For small asymptomatic tumors, stereotactic biopsy and primary GKS. Need close follow-up

 * Mayo; 1996 PMID 8952565 -- "Histologically confirmed pineal tumors and other germ cell tumors of the brain." (Schild SE, Cancer. 1996 Dec 15;78(12):2564-71.)
 * Retrospective. 135 patients with pineal tumors (pineoblastoma 15, intermediate/mixed PPT 6, pineocytoma 9). Median F/U 5.3 years
 * Outcome: 5-year OS pineocytoma 86%, intermediate/mixed PPT/pineoblastoma 49%
 * Predictor of survival: RT >50 Gy
 * Conclusion: Prognosis depends on tumor type; survival depends on dose of RT

 * University of Pennsylvania; 1987 (1975-1985) PMID 3815306 -- "Pineocytomas of childhood. A reappraisal of natural history and response to therapy." (D'Andrea AD, Cancer. 1987 Apr 1;59(7):1353-7.)
 * Retrospective. 4 children (11% of all pineal region tumors). Surgery + CSI+boost (n=3) or local RT (n=2) or chemo-RT (n=1).
 * Outcome: 4/6 recurrences, median 2 years after diagnosis. 3 leptomeningeal dissemination
 * Conclusion: Aggressive tumors in pediatric population; RT alone inadequate

Pineoblastoma

 * Pathology as above; histologically similar to other CNS PNETs. Many older trials grouped pineoblastoma together with supratentorial PNETs
 * Mainly occurs in young children (estimated 40-50% in age <1 year) . Children <3 years appear to have particularly aggressive disease, with frequent advanced presentation
 * Rare in adults (<10%), largest series is from Japan national Brain Tumor Registry spanning 30 years, with 34 patients
 * Strong tendency to invade surrounding tissue and disseminate through CSF
 * Typical approach is surgery, followed by chemotherapy and CSI
 * Older children can have a reasonable survival
 * Efforts to eliminate RT in young children have resulted in poor outcomes (POG, CCG, and German trials). However, long-term CSI toxicity is severe, so efforts are under way for dose intensification with stem cell transplant

Children
 * German HIT-SKK87, HIT 91, and HIT-SKK92 (1987-1992, 1992-1997)
 * Please see Supratentorial PNET for more detailed protocol information
 * Subset of 11 patients with PB. If <3 years, surgery + chemo with RT deferred until >3 years or progression (n=5). If >3 years, surgery + chemo + CSI (35.2/22 + 20/10 boost) +/- maintenance chemo (n=6)
 * 2007 PMID 16941074 -- "Childhood pineoblastoma: experiences from the prospective multicenter trials HIT-SKK87, HIT-SKK92 and HIT91." (Hinkes BG, J Neurooncol. 2007 Jan;81(2):217-23.)
 * Older children (>3): 5/6 alive with median OS/PFS 7.9 years after chemo and RT. All had M0 disease
 * Younger children (<3): 0/5 alive with median OS 0.9 years and PFS 0.6 years. All had M1 disease and/or postop residual disease. Response to chemo lower, only 1/5 received RT
 * Role of RT: all older children received it, and benefited (PR->CR or stayed in CR). One younger child received who, after progressing on chemo, and showed PR to it
 * Conclusion: Combined chemo and RT feasible and effective if >3 years. More intensified regimens necessary for <3 years
 * Subsequent HIT trial for young children with supratentorial PNET investigates short dose-intense induction, followed by high-dose chemo and CSI

 * CCG 921 (1986-1992)
 * Please see Supratentorial PNET for more detailed protocol information
 * Older children (>1.5 years) treated with surgery + CSI + chemo; infants (<1.5 years) treated with surgery + chemo (8-in-1) only
 * Pineal only; 1995 PMID 7751882 -- "Survival and prognostic factors following radiation and/or chemotherapy for primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the pineal region in infants and children: a report of the Childrens Cancer Group." (Jakacki RI, J Clin Oncol. 1995 Jun;13(6):1377-83.)
 * Pineoblastoma subset of 25 patients, 17 age >1.5, 8 infants
 * Infants: all infants developed progressive disease, median PFS 4 months
 * Older children: 3-year PFS 61% (better than ST-PNET, SS). After RT, 70% had residual pineal region mass, which persisted as long as 5 years before resolving
 * Conclusion: Chemo alone (8-in-1) ineffective for infants. CSI + chemo effective for older children
 * All ST-PNETs; 1995 PMID 7602359 -- "Prognostic factors and treatment results for supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors in children using radiation and chemotherapy: a Childrens Cancer Group randomized trial." (Cohen BH, J Clin Oncol. 1995 Jul;13(7):1687-96.)
 * ST-PNET subset of 55 patients, age >1.5 years.
 * Outcome: 3-year OS 57%, PFS 45%; pineal PNET better at 73% and 61% (SS); stage M0 PFS 50% vs. M+ 0%. No difference between chemo arms
 * Toxicity: 8-in-1 arm worse
 * Conclusion: No difference between chemo arms; M0 and pineal site better outcome

 * Baby POG I (1986-90)
 * Prospective. 198 children < 3 yrs (132 < 2 yrs, 66 age 2-3 yrs), bx proven malignant brain tumors (low-grade astro excluded), treated with maximal surgery, postop chemo (CTX/VCR followed by cis/etopo) for 2 yrs (if age < 2 at dx) or 1 yr (age 2-3) or until disease progression, followed by RT.
 * Histologies: medulloblastoma 31%, ependymoma 24%, PNET 18%, malignant glioma 9%, brain-stem glioma 7%, other 9%. 27% M+. GTR in 38% of cases.
 * RT for medullo, PNETs, anaplastic ependymoma, or subarachnoid seeding CSI 35.2 Gy + boost to primary to 54 Gy. RT for ependymoma, gliomas local to 54 Gy. If no residual disease after chemo, reduced RT to CSI 24 Gy and primary site 50 Gy. Infants <2 years 90% of dose
 * 1995 PMID 7753001 -- "Lack of efficacy of postoperative chemotherapy and delayed radiation in very young children with pineoblastoma. Pediatric Oncology Group." (Duffner PK, Med Pediatr Oncol. 1995 Jul;25(1):38-44.)
 * Subset of PB infants (age <3 years, but 8/11 <1 year). 11 patients. Partial surgical resection
 * Outcome: All children failed chemo, 9/11 in primary site, 8/11 had leptomeningeal progression at time of failure. All children died, survival 4-13 months
 * Conclusion: Chemo alone not effective

Adults
 * Japan; 2005 (1969-1998) PMID 15782004 -- "Management and survival of pineoblastoma: an analysis of 34 adults from the brain tumor registry of Japan." (Lee JY, Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 2005 Mar;45(3):132-41; discussion 141-2.)
 * Registry study. All patients registered in national Brain Tumor Registry of Japan reviewed. 34 adults, 22 male. Median age 35 years (16-66). Gross total resection 5/34. CSI 29/34 with median dose 50 Gy (30-70 Gy). Median F/U 1.7 years
 * Outcome: median OS 2.2 years.
 * Predictors: CSI >40 Gy and GTR improved survival
 * Conclusion: Poor prognosis in adults

 * UCSF; 1995 (1975-1992) PMID 7501100 -- "Pineoblastoma in adults." (Chang SM, Neurosurgery. 1995 Sep;37(3):383-90; discussion 390-1.)
 * Retrospective. 11 patients. Median age 36 years (17-59). All with symptomatic hydrocephalus. Gross total resection 1/11. CSI 10/11 (CSI 24-45 Gy with tumor boost to 54-59.4 Gy). 7/11 chemo
 * Outcome: M+ (5/10) median PFS 10 months, median OS 2.5 years; M0 (5/10) all alive at 2.2 years follow-up
 * Conclusion: M0 patients can do well after surgery + CSI, benefit of chemo unclear

SRS

 * Marseille; 2006 (France) PMID 16172830 -- "The role of Gamma Knife radiosurgery in the treatment of pineal parenchymal tumours." (Reyns N, Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2006 Jan;148(1):5-11; discussion 11.)
 * Retrospective. 13 patients (8 pineocytomas, 5 pineoblastomas). SRS alone in 6 cases, after surgery 3 cases, with chemo 3 cases, s/p EBRT 1 case. Mean marginal dose 15 Gy (11-20 Gy). Mean F/U 2.8 years
 * Outcome: pineocytoma 8/8 alive, pineoblastoma 2/5 alive
 * Toxicity: none major
 * Conclusion: SRS effective and safe for pineocytoma, should have a role in multimodality treatment for pineoblastoma

 * Pittsburgh; 2002 PMID 12234394 -- "The role of radiosurgery for the treatment of pineal parenchymal tumors." (Hasegawa T, Neurosurgery. 2002 Oct;51(4):880-9.)
 * Retrospective. 16 patients treated with SRS as primary or adjuvant. Pineocytoma (n=10), mixed tumor (n=2), pineoblastoma (n=4). Mean margin dose 15 Gy. Mean F/U 4.3 years
 * Outcome: 2-year OS 75%, 5-year OS 67%; LC rate 100%; 5/16 died, 4 secondary to leptomeningeal or extracranial spread
 * Conclusion: SRS valuable modality for pineocytomas; can be used as boost for malignant pineal tumors

 * Komaki; 2001 (Japan) PMID 11767295 -- "Stereotactic gamma radiosurgery for pineal and related tumors." (Kobayashi T, J Neurooncol. 2001 Sep;54(3):301-9.)
 * Retrospective. 30 patients with pineal (64%) and nearby tumors. Pineocytoma (n=3), pineoblastoma (n=2). Pineal RT mean marginal dose 15.7 Gy
 * Outcome: pineocytoma 2/3 CR, 1/3 PR, no progression at 22 months; pineoblastoma 1/2 PR, 1/2 PG
 * Conclusion: GKS is expected to be effective approach

Brachytherapy
Iodine-125
 * Budapest; 2006 PMID 17163340 -- "Review of radiosurgery of pineal parenchymal tumors. Long survival following 125-iodine brachytherapy of pineoblastomas in 2 cases." (Julow J, Minim Invasive Neurosurg. 2006 Oct;49(5):276-81.)
 * Case report. 2 patients. Follow-up 5.1 and 4.8 years
 * Outcome: shrinkage 73% and 77%, both negative on PET
 * Conclusion: Two successful treatments reported

Germ Cell Tumors

 * Please see the Germ cell page for further discussion

Papillary Tumor of the Pineal Region (PTPR)

 * Rare; 41 cases reported as of 2007
 * Mean age at presentation 31 years, with slight female predominance
 * Most common presenting symptom headache, secondary to obstructing hydrocephalus
 * Usually well-circumscribed, large lesions, sometimes with cystic component
 * Main histological feature is papillary architecture
 * Frequent local recurrences, but spinal dissemination rare (WHO Grade II or III)

 * WHO; 2007 PMID 17598824 -- "Papillary tumor of the pineal region and spindle cell oncocytoma of the pituitary: new tumor entities in the 2007 WHO Classification." (Roncaroli F, Brain Pathol. 2007 Jul;17(3):314-8.)
 * WHO Pathology codification

 * INSERM; 2006 PMID 17021405 -- "Prognosis and histopathologic features in papillary tumors of the pineal region: a retrospective multicenter study of 31 cases." (Fevre-Montange M, J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2006 Oct;65(10):1004-11.)
 * Retrospective. 31 patients. Median age 29 years. Gross total resection 21/31 patients. RT 15 patients.
 * Outcome: 5-year OS 73%, PFS 27%
 * Conclusion: Frequent local recurrences

 * Lyon; 2003 PMID 12657936 -- "Papillary tumor of the pineal region." (Jouvet A, Am J Surg Pathol. 2003 Apr;27(4):505-12.)
 * Initial pathology report. 6 cases

title: Radiation Oncology/CNS/Pineal


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Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/CellLab-TG

Cells and Microscope lab
I am hesitant even to write this lab, because it is so dependent on the materials available to the instructor. What should happen in this laboratory is the instructor should show cells to the students. One of the best places to get cells is any stagnant water, stream, or pond nearby which is likely to have microscopic protists in it.

Learn to identify the parts of the microscope and observe cells from as many of the kingdoms of life as you can.

Some easy cells to see include: Human cheek cells Onion cells Algae cells ( if the temperature is favorable).

Things to point out to students.
 * Bacterial cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, and size should be a clue used in kingdom identification.
 * Different cells have different appearances due to their functions.
 * Cells are three dimensional and you may need to focus up and down to really see the structure.

Students may be hesitant to draw, but insist that they draw what they see. Look out to make sure that the students do not try to copy an image from the textbook instead. The point is that they make their own observations without second guessing or fudging data. Get the students to label as much as they can, and to record the proper magnification.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User talk:72.10.104.97

--Jomegat 18:49, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

Warning message
Please note, if you continue to make unhelpful edits, you may be blocked. Urbane  (Talk)   (Contributions)  18:55, 2 November 2007 (UTC)

Warning message
Mattb112885 (talk to me) 21:35, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.10.104.97


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MINC/Tutorials/Programming02

The two MINC coordinate systems.
MINC has two coordinate systems: a voxel and a world coordinate system. Voxel coordinates are like arrays, with the origin fixed in one corner of the image and incrementing to the length - 1 of that dimension. World coordinates, on the other hand, reflect the position in real world units of each voxel. Within a particular space, such as Talairach space, each particular coordinate thus has a meaning and is often shared across volumes.

The previous example just obtained a voxel using voxel coordinates - below is the same code modified to obtain a voxel at the origin of the world coordinate system.

So far, so good - this is almost the same code as in the first example with the addition of some extra variables.

This is where the actual conversion happens, taken care of by the miconvert_world_to_voxel function. There are three arguments: the volume struct (initialized by miopen_volume), an array of doubles containing the world coordinates that are to be converted (initialized to be zeros across the board in the line above), and an array of doubles which will hold the corresponding voxel coordinates.

The rest of the code should once again seem fairly familiar. There is one slightly awkward cast in there, as miconvert_world_to_voxel assigns the converted voxel coordinates to an array of doubles, but miget_real_value needs an array of unsigned longs. We could do some real interpolation, but we'll be lazy and just cast the double back to the unsigned long.

title: MINC/Tutorials/Programming02


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User talk:216.8.168.219

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Urbane   (Talk)   (Contributions)  19:49, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.8.168.219


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User talk:71.10.253.173

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Urbane   (Talk)   (Contributions)  19:50, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:71.10.253.173


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User talk:71.244.138.46

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Urbane   (Talk)   (Contributions)  19:52, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:71.244.138.46


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Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Microscopes

=How do we see things that are very small?= In order to see things that are smaller than the eye can see, we use tools called microscopes. Light can be bent by pieces of glass called lenses, and this is how magnifying glasses are made that make images look bigger.

A magnifying glass is a simple microscope. If you place one magnifying glass over another one, you can make an image appear larger than it appears with only one magnifying glass. A microscope that uses two or more lenses to magnify an image is called a compound microscope.

Compound light microscopes
Biologists today have many types of microscopes that they use to observe cells, but the most commonly used is the compound light microscope. A compound light microscope uses light bent by glass lenses to magnify a thin sample of something. Living cells can be observed with a compound light microscope.

Electron microscope
An electron microscope can see objects smaller than cells such as details inside bacterial cells, and the structures of large proteins and viruses. Most samples must be killed (fixed) before they can be observed by an electron microscope. An electron microscope uses electrons instead of light to view an image. This gives an image with a higher resolution.

A transmission electron microscope shines electrons straight through a sample just as a compound light microscope shines light through a sample. A scanning electron microscope bounces electrons off of the surface of sample. Both types of microscope view the image projected on a surface like a television screen.

Proximity probe microscopes

A proximity probe microscope uses a very sharp probe that glides across the surface of a sample. The image is composited by a computer. Proximity probe microscopes vary by the type of probe, and by what it measures. Some proximity probe microscopes can detect individual atoms and molecules.

An atomic force microscope is a type of proximity probe microscope that moves across the surface of an object like a blind person reading in braille. It tilts up and down due to the atomic forces of the surface below, and this can be measured to make an image.


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User talk:205.175.121.106

I note that you have been editing the Muggles' Guide for some time now, and doing a decent job at that. Would you consider registering so that all your edits can be properly credited? Thank you. Chazz (talk) 21:40, 9 October 2007 (UTC)

Hi Chazz, it's me, PNW Raven!!!! Sorry, sometimes I get logged out without realizing it. I start editing away before notice I've been unintentionally booted out. PNW Raven

title: User talk:205.175.121.106


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Antiracist Activism for Teachers and Students

This book is intended for use in an undergraduate teacher education course that focuses on teaching and learning in multicultural ways. It contains an overview of the history of antiracist activism in the U.S. and information about who activists are and the type of work they do or have done. Sample curricula provide teachers with reliable lesson plans they can use in K-12 settings so that students will be able to learn about the activists and the projects with which they were involved. The book will also highlight the ways in which students have become involved in school and community projects that challenge the inequities they see. Contemporary student-generated social action projects originating in K-12 settings will also be explored.

Chapters

 * /What is Racism and Anti-Racism/ (include History of Anti-Racism)

Points to Consider for Teaching Anti-racism

 * Colorblind Racial Ideology (by Elaine, Denise, Charisse, Kate)
 * Media Literacy In Schools (by Emily And Lee Tae)
 * Anti-Racism in Early Childhood (by Bethany Uscilka, Sarah Solie, Caitlin Granahan)
 * A World of Difference: An Overview and Comparison

Analyzing Literature for Children and Adolescents

 * Children's Literature
 * Analyzing Language in Children's Literature (by Caroline Bauer, Alicia Bouchier, Consuelo Nelson & Jess Nollet)
 * Teaching Historical Literature from an Anti-racist Perspective
 * Selected Book Titles for Children

Anti-racism and the Arts

 * Artivism: An Exploration of Antiracist Activism through Arts
 * Movies from an Anti-Racist Perspective: Facilitating Discussion
 * Stand Up Speak Out: Anti-Racist Female Poets (by June Jordan & Lenelle Moïse)

Students Taking Action

 * Student Activism (by Madga, Emily, Rosie, Althea, Stephanie)
 * Students Who Take the Lead to Promote Antiracism

White Anti-racist Activists

 * Anti-racist Activists
 * White antiracist activists of western Massachusetts
 * Nationally Known White Anti-Racist Activists
 * How a White Ally Can Be A Role Model


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Category:Book:Field Guide/Birds - Eastern US and Canada

/Birds


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Thorfinn Rowle

Overview
Thorfinn Rowle is a large, blond man. He is a Death Eater.

Half-Blood Prince
When Harry follows Severus Snape, Draco Malfoy, Amycus and Alecto Carrow, and Fenrir Greyback down from the Astronomy Tower after the death of Albus Dumbledore, he finds a large, blond Death Eater in the hallway firing off curses indiscriminately. It seems that one of his curses was the cause of one of the two Death Eater casualties; he had tried to curse Remus Lupin and missed. At the word from Snape, he breaks off the fight and runs, along with the others; apparently he follows Snape, who is using various short cuts, because he is ahead of Harry when they reach the front door of the school, while the Carrows are behind Harry. As he escapes, the large blond Death Eater casts multiple curses at Hagrid, but they are apparently ineffective, he then resorts to setting Hagrid's hut on fire. He was then ordered by Snape to flee before the Ministry wizards arrived.

Deathly Hallows
When the two Death Eaters attack Ron and Hermione in the cafe on the Tottenham Court Road, Harry recalls that the "large blond" Death Eater was one of the ones at Hogwarts, and recognizes the other is Antonin Dolohov. Ron tells Harry that he thinks the large one's name is Thorfinn Rowle.

After the Trio have returned to Grimmauld Place, Harry has an episode where he sees into Lord Voldemort's mind. Thorfinn Rowle is being tortured for having let Ron and Hermione escape. Harry is sickened to find that Voldemort is ordering Draco Malfoy to do the actual torturing.

Rowle is one of the Death Eaters gathered around Voldemort in the clearing in the forest when Harry goes to meet Voldemort. When Hagrid tells Harry to run for it, Rowle is the Death Eater who silences him.

Strengths
Rowle appears to be a reasonably powerful wizard. When Death Eaters invaded Hogwarts at the end of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, he was shown causing fairly major damage, though admittedly it was rather random, often aimed at building features rather than defending wizards. He is described as being the "huge, blonde death eater" indicating that his well built and muscular. He has the Dark Mark on his inner forearm and is around 6ft3 tall.

Weaknesses
He is known to be careless, firing curses all over the place without consideration. This makes him dangerous to even his fellow Death Eaters.

Analysis
Out of the many Death Eaters we encounter during the course of the series, Rowle appears to be among the most dangerous. He has very little consideration for where his curses are going, firing them indiscriminately during battle; even being in his vicinity must be risky.

He also kills one of his own side - fellow Death Eater Gibbon - by mistake. He appears to show very little remorse for this, if indeed he was aware.


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User talk:Kport007

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Good luck! --Panic 00:11, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

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User talk:Timmccann

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 00:11, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problems with Image:E-rate eligibleservices connections.gif

 * Please make sure you provide source information along with license information. — Mike.lifeguard | talk 22:57, 19 November 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Timmccann


text:
User talk:He7d3r

__NOINDEX__Contact information: [ @pt.wikibooks]

title: User talk:He7d3r


text:
User talk:Kapilram

Please make sure you read our naming policy so you can name any new modules in compliance with it.

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:38, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kapilram


text:
User talk:Pchu

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:40, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pchu


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Selwyn

Overview
Selwyn (first name unknown) is a Death Eater.

Deathly Hallows
When Harry and Hagrid are escaping from Privet Drive, the pursuing Death Eaters determine that he is the real Harry Potter, out of the six sets of protector and Potter there. Having discovered this, Lord Voldemort gathers his Death Eaters and attacks Harry personally. Harry's wand destroys the wand Voldemort is using (which he had taken from Lucius Malfoy), so Voldemort demands a fresh wand from Selwyn. Before he can use it, though, Harry is through the protective spells surrounding Ted Tonks' house.

Hermione, in disguise as Mafalda Hopkirk in the Ministry, catches sight of the Locket Horcrux that Dolores Umbridge is wearing, and comments that it is lovely. Umbridge says that the S is for Selwyn, and she wears it because she is related to the Selwyn family, one of the last remaining bastions of pureblood wizardry.

When Xenophilius Lovegood, in hopes of winning his daughter's freedom, summons the Death Eaters, telling them that Harry is in his house, Selwyn is one of the two Death Eaters who respond to the summons. He seems annoyed at the summons, saying that this is the third time Xeno has called, and also because he had apparently tried to blow them up as they arrived. While he accuses Xeno of making things up again, he is also repeatedly jinxing him. Hermione engineers their escape by disapparating the Trio in midair as they fall through the hole she makes in the ceiling, allowing the Death Eaters to see her and Harry so that they know Xeno isn't lying this time, but hiding Ron as he is supposed to be ill with Spattergroit at The Burrow.

Relationships with Other Characters
Selwyn is a Death Eater and has a connection with Voldemort because of this. Dolores Umbridge claims a family connection, but there is no real evidence of this; it is, in fact, suggested that Umbridge is trying to manufacture evidence of a familial connection that does not exist.


text:
User talk:Mcavallaro

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:44, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mcavallaro


text:
Biology, Answering the Big Questions of Life/Cells and the Microscope

Focusing on a specimen takes time and patience. When done correctly, it can be a valuable tool to see things that are not possible to see with the naked eye. If you use the coarse-adjustment knob to focus on an object with the high-power objective lens you will encounter several problems. Since the coarse-adjustment knob is used to find the specimen, combining this with the high-power objective lens could cause you to move the stage too quickly and break the slide under the lens. It will all make it more difficult to find the specimen because the field of view is decreased the higher you go with the objective lenses.

=Cells and the Microscope=

All living organisms are made up of subunits called cells. Most cells are too small for the human eye to see, so we must use microscopes to see them.

The most common type of microscope used in biological labs is the compound light microscope. In this laboratory we will look at different types of cells under the light microscope.

In this laboratory we will learn to use the microscope. We will look at prepared slides and make "wet mounts". We will observe the differences in appearance between cells of different Kingdoms, and we will identify organelles visible with the light microscope.

GOALS
 * 1) Identify the parts of the compound light microscope.
 * 2) Learn to use the compound light microscope.
 * 3) Learn to make a wet mount.
 * 4) Draw and identify cells belonging to: Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, plants, and Animals.
 * 5) Learn to identify plant organelles in the microscope.
 * 6) Observe Osmosis in plant cells.

To Do:

A. Identify the parts of the microscope

B. Animal cells Follow instructions. Draw cheek cell / list total magnification on all drawings

C. Onion epidermis cells Prepare slide following instructions Draw cells

D. Cell Plasmolysis Draw plant cell before and after plasmolysis E. Observe cells from the different kingdoms Draw a cell of each type excluding archaea

USE OF THE MICROSCOPE
1. Moving and carrying Always carry the microscope by holding the arm with one hand while the other firmly supports the base. Do not tilt the microscope or the eyepieces may fall off and be damaged.

2. Cleaning Wipe the stage after each use with absorbent paper. Use ONLY Lens paper to clean the eyepiece, objective lenses, and condenser lens. Any other type of paper may make permanent scratches.

If you use immersion oil, always completely clean the oil from the lens before moving to a lower lens, or storing the microscope. Otherwise, you will make a big mess. Use only lens paper to clean the lens glass.

3.Binocular eyepieces Binocular eyepieces can be adjusted to each individuals eye distance. If the image is not a full circle, or there is more than one image, adjust the distance by pushing the eyepieces together or pulling apart.

4. Objective lenses Always start and end your microscope session by placing the lowest power objective lens in position. This will make it easier to prevent crashing the objective lens into the slide.

5. Coarse and fine adjustment The coarse adjustment knob should only be used with the lowest power objective lens. Once it is in focus, you will only need to use the fine focus. Using the coarse focus with higher lenses may result in crashing the lens into the slide.

6. Stage controls The slide is placed on the stage between clamps. The dial on the right side contains two sets of controls. One that moves the stage up and down, and one that moves the stage side to side. The image viewed through the eyepiece is often inverted, so you may need to move the slide left for the image to move right, or move the slide up for the image to move down.

7. The condenser The condenser is a lens that focuses the light on the stage. Always start by setting the condenser diaphragm to the smallest size possible and open it slowly until the slide is illuminated correctly. The condenser can help prevent the image from appearing washed out.

Directions for microscope use
1. Plug in and turn on the lamp. Turn the light to a medium high power.

2. Make sure that the lowest powered objective lens is down. Lower the stage to its lowest setting.

3. Position the slide in the clamps. Use the stage controls to make sure that the image is centered. It should be positioned below the objective and in the path of the light.

4. If a condenser is present, set the aperture dial on the lowest setting. (smallest opening).

5. Looking in the eyepiece, slowly move the coarse adjustment knob to find the specimen. If you are unsure that you are looking at the slide, move the slide from side to side. If the specimen is thick, begin by focusing on the side of the specimen and then moving the slide to the center.

6. Adjust the light for the best viewing using the condenser knob, and the light level controls.

7. To use a higher powered objective, click the new objective into position, and then refocus using the fine adjustment knobs. Always look when turning objectives to prevent crashing the lens into the slide.

8. When you are in focus, use the stage controls to scan the field and find a good example to observe.


text:
TI-Basic 89 Programming

This book is designed to give someone with no programming experience an insight into the TI-89's version of TI-Basic.

Section 1: Getting Started

 * 1) /Introduction/ - The point of this book
 * 2) /Book Conventions/ - How this book works
 * 3) /A Basic Program/ - A little glance into the future

title: TI-Basic 89 Programming


text:
African American Vernacular English

African American Vernacular English is a dialect or sociolect spoken in the United States. It is sometimes considered as a creole or sometimes even a separate language. It is spoken by many African Americans, European Americans, and even some Hispanics or Asians in the US are able to speak it. Another name for African American Vernacular English is Ebonics, AAVE, or Black American English.

AAVE has been spoken since the arrival of African slaves, it has used in the Hip-Hop culture. African American Vernacular English gets some of its grammar and words from many African words such as the Wolof word "Dig" which means understand. The Wolof word "Dig" derives from the Serer word "Ndigil" which means truth in the Serer language. Some of its grammar comes from Southern American English and Gullah. There is also Black American Language. Like AAVE, it has some differences from Standard English. The spelling of AAVE could be confusing, but it is a very easy to learn this creole, dialect, language, or sociolect.

Contents
Introduction
 * 1) About AAVE
 * 2) /Pronunciation/
 * 3) Why study AAVE?
 * 4) /Greetings/

/Grammar/
 * /Verbs/
 * Copula
 * Aspect
 * /Quoting/

Links
AAVE on Wikipedia

African American Portal

AAVE Tips

College page on AAVE

A collection of AAVE links

title: African American Vernacular English


text:
User:Jsalsman

James Salsman

Special:Emailuser/Jsalsman

title: User:Jsalsman


text:
User talk:Jsalsman

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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(This is not an automated message, I'll be watching during a time for any reply you make to it...)

I'm very sorry no one had welcomed you to the project before, it could have helped you understand better how thing work. In any case take a look into the information above and even if you first attempt is found lacking, do not put aside the project. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 19:32, 25 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Some Wikibookians that have works target in a RfD normally see it (and the comments), as personal critics. Making them extremely demoralizing in an environment that works based in a volunteering basis. Comments on RfD tend also to work as political displays and normal bad-wagoning, especially when adding nothing to the argumentation presented, it is not uncommon to see new Wikibookians taking actions on the RfD as a way to mark their presence on the project, other situations involve larger political stances where an issue is not clearly defined on the project (gay areas), an RfD can even be a covert attack but in any case we have also historically felt that there should be some restrains in using the RfD (this is way we do protect stubs and give to most projects a grace period). In any case most editors will not ever be involved in the political side of the Wikibooks project but that isn't to say that it doesn't exist, even if some of us see that RfD are a lousy way to go about it.
 * In any case I'm glad that you do not feel demoralized, and hope my actions helped to make clear that the RfD in not personal and why the proposal for deletion was raised. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 20:39, 25 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Well, thank you. I don't feel demoralized, but I do feel disappointed. I haven't seen much evidence, just subjective opinions which would tend to limit the scope in profoundly unhelpful ways. Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 21:13, 25 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Note that we delete collections of links even if not commercial oriented. I'm not arguing the validity of the links and again that isn't even the main issue. The RfD discussion isn't even a majority vote but an attempt to find a consensus, would you consider that facing so many opposing positions your view point maybe too inclusive in regards to what the policy defines, would you accommodate making any changes to the work so it conforms to the concerns expressed in this discussion ?
 * When I read in the policy "Wikibooks is not a soapbox, or a vehicle for propaganda and advertising." and "Most types of books, both fiction and non-fiction, are not allowed on Wikibooks, unless they are instructional." the first thing I get is that the latitude to what is possible to create here is very limited. Can you please state there what instructional value you project has ?
 * The Wikibooks policy is clear. If you are attempting to redefine the concept of textbook, that is not the forum for it. Policy change requires a policy discussion. Some of the comments already made it clear that the project can be classified as a book, so your use of links to amazon google books was considered valid, but not related to the argumentation presented for the deletion. I even explained how the project could be turned into acceptable material.
 * Please consider the fallowing. a) we are not out to prevent you from contributing to the project b) all efforts have been made to attempt to provide you with the information on how our policy explicitly puts the nominated work out of Wikibooks scope. c) why yours is the minority position ?
 * Take your time to reply I know that it can be exasperating interacting with so many people at the same time, there is no time pressure and any action can be reversed. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 25 July 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jsalsman


text:
Talk:MATLAB Programming/Phase Vocoder and Encoder

If you have questions, comments, deletion requests, cheques, or offers of employment, please contact me by email, Special:Emailuser/Jsalsman. Thank you. Jsalsman 03:57, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

Integrated into Wikibooks
Note this is now part of MATLAB Programming. Jsalsman 04:52, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

History from en.wp
* (cur) (last) 04:07, 10 October 2007 1of3 (Talk | contribs) (1,974 bytes) (→See also - wikibooks) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:58, 9 October 2007 141.3.74.36 (Talk) (1,924 bytes) (→See also - deleted lemma) (undo) * (cur) (last) 15:44, 2 June 2007 75.35.115.68 (Talk) (2,038 bytes) (explain subpage see-also for example code) (undo) * (cur) (last) 17:11, 27 May 2007 Nrcprm2026 (Talk | contribs) (2,016 bytes) (→See also - get example code out of userspace) (undo) * (cur) (last) 02:11, 25 April 2007 Nrcprm2026 (Talk | contribs) (2,018 bytes) (→External links - restub, +cat) (undo) * (cur) (last) 08:29, 8 April 2007 Nrcprm2026 (Talk | contribs) (→See also) (undo) * (cur) (last) 23:28, 14 February 2007 Yewlongbow (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 05:42, 25 November 2006 Alaibot (Talk | contribs) m (Robot: Automated text replacement (- +{uncategorizedstub|November 2006}})) (undo) * (cur) (last) 13:15, 8 November 2006 Bluebot (Talk | contribs) (tagging, added uncategorised tag) (undo) * (cur) (last) 22:06, 4 January 2006 Retodon8 (Talk | contribs) m (RVV by 193.145.56.194) (undo) * (cur) (last) 16:17, 20 December 2005 193.145.56.194 (Talk) (→See also) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:16, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (→External links) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:15, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (→External links) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:12, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (→External links) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:09, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:03, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 13:47, 19 October 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs) (cut and paste move) (undo) * (cur) (last) 03:48, 19 October 2005 Mnorris (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 03:47, 19 October 2005 Mnorris (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 14:08, 26 April 2005 Jshadias (Talk | contribs) (undo) * (cur) (last) 16:55, 26 January 2005 Omegatron (Talk | contribs)

This code has nothing to do with the phase vocoder
Hi there,

the basic principle of the phase vocoder is to determine phase relations between frames from the observed phase difference in adjacent frames. For this to work the encoder needs to store the observed phase difference. AS the encoder here is calculating only the amplitude spectrum and the phases/frequencies that are used are the nominal frequencies of the spectral bins and not the phases of the observed signal this code does not produce anything that remotely resembles even the very first algorithm proposed by Flanagan in 1966 see Phase vocoder even less the work by Laroche or the transient processing proposed by Roebel. This code should be removed because nearly all statements that are made are fundamentally wrong.

Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 13:01, 2 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Are there any reasons that maintaining phase coherence during resynthesis after time- and/or frequency-scale modification is not more central to the basic principle of the phase vocoder? That is precisely what the code here does.  Any means to maintain phase coherence during resynthesis after modification can not preserve most of the original phase information, and must discard all of it for heavily polyphonic sounds.  If you have counterexamples, please share them.  When the STFT bins and frames are small enough, what benefit is there in using any of the initial signal's phase information?
 * Instead of deleting the code in its entirety, why not provide an alternative improved implementation, and improve the specific statements you believe to be flawed? Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 14:16, 2 July 2011 (UTC)

Sorry, I'm afraid you misunderstand the terms "maintain phase coherence". maintain means" preserve as it was". In your code you throw away the phase during the analysis. Therefore, during synthesis you cannot maintain them! I already said so: please read the papers you mention. Notably the paper from Laroche. You will see all is about the phase relations as they are in the original sound. Constructing phases from amplitudes is a completley different story and has nothing to do with the phase vocoder. Here you construct phases from nominal bin frequencies. But in the real sounds phases are only weakly related to bin frequencies. If you want to keep the code, then either you have to rewrite it completely to make it reflect the phase vocoder, or you rename the section to not make people believe this has anything to do with the phase vocoder.

The first thing I would propose is that you remove all the comments about what your code does in the introduction. I can assure you that you are not having a single bit in your code that reflects the ideas of Laroche and you are even further away from the other paper. I am really sorry but if you have read these papers then you have misunderstood everything. Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 18:28, 2 July 2011 (UTC)

 * I'm willing to change as much commentary and code comments as we need to reach an agreement, but I'm reluctant to modify the actual code because it's been used successfully in audio editors for pitch modification and time scaling, and (along with a pitch tracker) a software autotune process. "Coherence" usually denotes self-consistency. In the resynthesis process, maintaining phase coherence is a very local task working horizontally across frames after selecting peaks vertically across bins, at least since Puckette's work.  If we accept that any phase vocoder will have to discard most if not all of the original signal's phase information when pitch- or time-scaling a signal as simple as a single human voice, then does it make any sense if "coherence" refers to preservation of the original signal's phase?  So, is it still appropriate to refer to the resynthesis portion as a phase vocoder?  Is there any reason to believe that preservation of any of the original signal's phase is an essential or necessary aspect of phase vocoders in general?  The fact that it must be discarded in many if not most cases leads me to the opposite conclusion.
 * Alternatively, if the code here was modified to record and start with the original signal's phases, would that satisfy your concerns?
 * I've changed the commentary about the 1999 and 2003 sources; please let me know what you think. Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 20:52, 2 July 2011 (UTC)
 * ...Another possibility might be to call this a "Phase-Locked Vocoder" after Puckette (1995) who pioneered the basic idea. Would that be preferable? Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 23:03, 2 July 2011 (UTC)

Your code indeed ensures phase coherence in some sense. Not in the phase vocoder sense though. Look for example into the paper from Puckette where he generates the synthesis spectrum Y(u_i, k). The phases are clearly derived from the input spectrum. Yours aren't. The most central idea of the phase vocoder is the equation w(k)=... on page 1 high in column 2 of the puckette paper. This equation was introduced by Flanagan when he established the term phase vocoder in 1966. See here for a very brief summary of what the basic phase vocoder principle is supposed to be. So as long as you don't use that equation you cannot call your code phase vocoder!

So what are you doing and why does it somehow work? As far as I understand your code you use the FFT maximum bins as estimate of the sinusoidal frequency and synthesize the phase according to this frequency assuming the sinusoid is stationary. For that you use an idea introduced by Miller Puckette in his 1995 paper. So this is a sort of a sinusoidal model that generates sinusoids directly in the spectral domain. It is very common for sinusoidal models to not respect phase relations in the original signal and to consider only phase coherence on the synthesis side. BTW, after having studied your code I come to the conclusion that it resembles the ideas presented in US patent 5401897!! But I think your implementation is making so many errors and approximations that nobody will consider this a copyright issue.

With respect to correctness. An example for a problem is the alternating phase principle that Puckette introduced. This is correct only if window size == fft size (variable N in the paper). In your code this relation is not ensured. There are other inconsistencies but I won't go any further here. If you would fix them all you would indeed have something useful.

>:Alternatively, if the code here was modified to record and start with the original signal's phases, would that satisfy your concerns?

No, this doesn't make much of a difference. See my comment on what is essential for a phase vocoder above. I suggest calling this code an (approximate) spectral domain analysis/resynthesis with an additive sinusoidal model.

Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 10:43, 3 July 2011 (UTC)

 * On one hand you say that deriving phases from the input spectrum is part of the most central idea of a phase vocoder, but on the other hand you say if I changed the code to use those input phases it wouldn't make much of a difference. I've had detailed discussions about this algorithm and its properties with engineers from CCRMA, where you cite that summary.  I propose that we try to get a third opinion about this from a DSP email list or similar. Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 19:50, 3 July 2011 (UTC)

You need to derive the phases over time from the input signal not only the start phase. If you want to you code to be an exemple of the phase vocoder  then you have to establish the bin frequency from the phase differences using the equation provided by Flanagan. This equation has been used in all the papers about the phase vocoder you have cited above and is the central idea of the phase vocoder. Now you have said first you don't want to change your code (because it worked here and there) and then that you may change the starting phase. But changing the starting phase only, does not introduce the principle idea of the phase vocoder into the implementation and is therefore not solving the issue. So please change the title and the first phrase of the wiki page.

Note that the fact that you discussed things with ccrma engineers does not qualify the code to be a phase vocoder example. Please provide a convincing argumentation why a phase vocoder code example should not use the fundamental phase vocoder equation. If you cannot provide it yourself then you may ask a third party to provide it. Once again, I am not claiming that your code does not work, but, I am claiming that it cannot be called phase vocoder.

Please don't remove the dispute indication because the dispute is not resolved! Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 07:14, 7 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Okay, how about renaming this "Phase-locked vocoder"? Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 17:34, 8 July 2011 (UTC)

If you look into the Phase-Locked vocoder from Puckette then you have only a part of it. I'd think you can say "Phase-Locked vocoder" if in the introduction you explain that this implementation is not exactly following the paper from Puckette but incorporates some of the central ideas. For further information reader should then look into the paper. Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 15:32, 9 July 2011 (UTC)

 * This algorithm is far more efficient than Puckette's or Dolson et al's. Perhaps it might be useful to provide a comparison table of execution times for resynthesis. Are there any reliable sources supporting your assertion that a phase vocoder must satisfy Flanagan's original equation? Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 17:31, 9 July 2011 (UTC)
 * How long do you need to find such reliable sources, if they exist, before the dispute can be considered resolved? Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 03:27, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

Is this a joke? Please read my posts above. All papers that you cite use this equation. The term phase vocoder has been introduced based on this equation. I've given you a link to the page of Julius smith from CCRMA, one of the major authorities for audio signal processing. If you understand what is written in all the references I have given then you have reliable sources. Your question seems to indicate that you don't understand what is written in the papers! Then please read Dolsons tutorial article in the computer music journal. It is written much less mathematically.

Please note that increased efficiency is no valid argument. And compared to the algorithm proposed by Dolson and Laroche I have strong doubts that your code is more efficient. You have to do a sort of all bins. This is most likely less efficient then what Dolson and Laroche have proposed. Anyway, by removing parts from an algorithm you can always make it more efficient. For example you can remove perceptual masking from MP3 compression, it becomes more efficient, but it wont work as good, and it should not be called MP3.

I won't discuss here anymore. If you don't understand the arguments I have given then I think the discussion is useless. I therefore I will then add an official deletion request to make other contributors aware of this wrong and misleading content. Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 17:20, 19 July 2011 (UTC)

 * Where has Julius Smith claimed that the algorithm described here doesn't conform to Flanagan's phase vocoder equation? If he has said or implied such a thing, he is mistaken. For example, consider low frequencies: any phase-locked vocoder satisfies Flanagan's equation at low enough frequencies even if it doesn't satisfy it at higher frequencies. Also, can you please explain what you mean about partial order alternatives to a full sort? I can't think of any partial orders which would be more useful than a full sort in the average case. Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 19:23, 23 July 2011 (UTC)

Ok, here we go. More discussion. The basic equation that Flanagan introduced is equation 10 in the ref given by Julius Smith. You don't have this equation. Smith writes that the phase vocoder is based on an analysis of instantaneous phases and a phase difference to frequency at different points of the text:

The digital computer made it possible for the phase vocoder to easily support phase modulation of the synthesis oscillators as well as implementing their amplitude envelopes. Thus, in addition to computing the instantaneous amplitude at the output of each (complex) band-pass filter, the instantaneous phase was also computed. (Phase could be converted to frequency by taking a time derivative.) ... The phase vocoder also relaxed the requirement of pitch-following (needed in the vocoder), because the phase modulation computed by the analysis stage automatically fine-tuned each sinusoidal component within its filter-bank channel.

Since Flanagans paper all papers about the phase vocoder use Flanagans eq. 10 in one form or another, notably all papers you have mentioned in your example. You don't use it. That's the problem. With respect to the equation that your code satisfies: You probably mean the eq 5 in Flanagan 1966. This equation is not specific for the phase vocoder, it's simply a sinusoidal model (See X. Serra paper on SMS). This is exactly what you do in your implementation: a sinusoidal model. Now the phase vocoder is a means to implement a sinusoidal model but not every implementation of a sinusoidal model should be called phase vocoder.

With respect to the sort. A standard phase vocoder algorithm does not require a sort it processes every bin independently of all the others. Dolson/Laroche don't even need to calculate phase for all bins, only for a small subset. That's why I don't think your implementation is efficient. Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 17:16, 27 July 2011 (UTC)

 * I admit I haven't cited Flanagan's paper or equation, and I agree it would be instructive to do so. If you have measurements of the efficiency of sorting bins by amplitude when deciding which order in which to propagate phases, please share them. If you wanted to only start propagating from the top-N amplitude bins, I think you would still need to perform a full sort, but it might be possible to optimize the inner loop of that sort. Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 19:03, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

If you want to know how to do a very efficient and rather high quality phase vocoder just read: Laroche and Dolson, "Improved Phase Vocoder Time-Scale Modification of Audio", IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio Processing, Vol 7, no 3, pages 323--332, 1999. You find a download ink of this paper in the reference section of the wikipedia entry for the phase vocoder. Raebolex (discuss • contribs) 20:10, 22 August 2011 (UTC)
 * I was corresponding with Dolson in 1999. The algorithm improvements described on page 7 of their paper is precisely what this MATLAB code does: "the new phase updating technique begins with a coarse peak-picking stage where vocoder channels are searched for local maxima." Jsalsman (discuss • contribs) 21:34, 26 September 2011 (UTC)


text:
Ecology/Island biogeography

<< Chapter 7 | Chapter 8 | Chapter 9 >>

Chapter 8. Island Biogeography and Habitat Fragmentation

Island Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the geographic location of a species. Island biogeography is the study of the species composition and species richness on islands. Island biogeography is a study aimed at establishing and explaining the factors that affect species diversity of a specific community. An island in this context, is not just a segment of land surrounded by water. It is any area of habitat surrounded by areas unsuitable for the species on the island. Other examples of "islands" include dung piles, game preserves, mountain tops, and lakes.

In 1967, ecologists Robert MacArthur and E.O. Wilson, coined the Theory of Island Biogeography. This theory attempted to predict the number of species that would exist on a newly created island. It also explained how distance and area combine to regulate the balance between immigration and extinction in an island population. Immigration is the appearance of a new species in a community. Extinction is then the disappearance of a species from a community. This relationship is known as "species turnover", states that the equilibrium value for the island is proportional to the number of immigrants that come to the island, and the loss of individuals due to emigration and extinction.

E.O. Wilson and R. MacArthur did several experiments and made several predictions about the Theory of Island Biogeography. Some of their predictions included (1)species richness tends toward an equilibrium value and (2) the equilibrium value is the result of immigration, but emigration and extinction may also occur.

The equilibrium value (equilibrium diversity value) of an island depends on the area of the island- the larger the area the more resources there are on the island. Smaller islands support smaller populations, and smaller populations are more likely to become extinct. Here is where the Target Effect comes in play. The Target Effect says that larger islands have higher immigration rates because they are a bigger target.

Three basic types of species-area relationships have been well defined and demonstrated through various experiments within the field of ecology: "type-1" investigates species richness vs. sample area in nested samples (within a defined habitat or region), "type-2" is defined by examining the total species richness vs. total area among habitats or regions differing in area, and "type-3" examines local species richness in a sample of defined size among habitats or regions differing in area.

Another factor that determines the equilibrium diversity value is the distance from the source as discussed below. For example, the immigration rate is higher at closer islands than on islands that are further away from the mainland. Here is where the Rescue Effect comes in mind. The rescue effect decreases the rate of extinction due to recolonization and immigration. Immigration is a major contributor due to increasing population size and the size of the genetic pool. These two factors can reduce the probability that any particular species will become extinct. Recolonization happens through two occurrences: Immigration and invasion; immigration is the arrival of a new species to an area, while invasion is the arrival of a species that already inhabits an area.

The last factor that contributes and/or determines the equilibrium diversity value is the species richness of the source. Species richness is the number of species in a community. Although islands are considered relatively new land, they can still have a great deal of diversity on them over a few years. This concept comes from the Time/Stability Hypothesis and to the Species-Area Effect which both say that the older the land is/the longer the land has been around, the more diversity and the more stable that land will contain. For example, islands may not be diverse right away because they have not been around long enough for species to migrate onto that particular land mass. The Species-Area Effect states that increased area results in increase species equilibrium. However, this relationship is not linear. The following equation describes this relationship: S=cAz, where S is the number of species, c is a constant, A is the area, and z is the slope of the line (varies).

Islands may be colonized several different ways:(1) by hitchhiking on other species, (2)flying, (3) rafting, (4) swimming, (5) wind, (6) and speciation. It takes time for the new islands to gain several different species of animals due to several different aspects, but given enough time the islands will obtain life on them and become more and more diverse.

Theory of Island Biogeography
The Theory of Island Biogeography is determined by two factors. The first is the effect of distance from the mainland. The mainland is where new immigrant species originally inhabited. The second is the effect of island size.

These two factors establish how many species an island can hold at equilibrium. The equilibrium species number is the species richness of an island at which immigration balances extinction and which remains roughly constant.

For some examples of island biogeography visit:Island Biogeography

In previous chapters numerous hypotheses have been explored concerning biodiversity. Productivity hypothesis and Rapoport's Rule are major players in the world of ecological biodiversity. These hypotheses have been measured on a continental scale and oceanic scale but how well can they explore the biodiversity of islands? Earlier in this chapter colonization of islands was explained with the effect of size and distance from the mainland. How is diversity affected by the species richness gradient for island geography? Do the same patterns, or lack of, follow islands as they extend from lower latitudes to higher latitudes?

In this section three sets of islands in varying latitudes will be examined. The tropical islands of Kiribati are situated 1o33' north of the equator. The Canary Islands in the North Atlantic are located 28o06' north of the equator and the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic at 51o40' south of the equator. The biodiversity explored included fauna and flora.

The islands of Kiribati are Gilbert Islands, Phoenix Islands and the Line Islands. Phoenix Islands will be used for this survey. The biodiversity of the islands include numerous fish, birds and wildlife. The Phoenix Islands are the third largest marine biodiversity in the world and in 2006 were protected by the Kiribata government. The island's land biodiversity is not equivalent to the biodiversity of a tropical forest but the diversity in the surrounding water is expansive. Coral Reefs and the distance from any populous country leave Phoenix Islands undisturbed by tourists. The Phoenix Islands are susceptible to periods of drought which affect the biodiversity of plants and animals. These islands sitting almost directly on the equator support Productivity hypothesis in the water but on land it is not supported due to erratic rainfall. The Canary Islands biodiversity are one of the most expansive in the temperate regions of the world. Scientists studying Canary Islands over the past decades have been discovering a new species or subspecies about every six days. The discovery of new species at this rate makes the Canary Islands an extraordinary example of biodiversity. Twenty-Eight degrees above the equator seems like the ideal place for biomass. The European Union removed internal border checkpoints about ten years ago. Invasive species (chapter 6) have started to take control since the removal of internal borders and have decreased native plant populations by an estimated fifty percent.

The Falkland Islands are the furthest away from the equator at fifty-one degrees south of the equator. The flora on the Falkland Islands are very limited and no trees grow naturally on the islands. The fauna is more diverse than the flora with over sixty types of birds breeding on the islands. Mammals on the island are also limited with three types of seals and smaller mammals and dolphins offshore. The Falkland Islands support the Productivity hypothesis. Moving farther away from the equator diversity is limited. Biodiversity seems to be the greatest not at the equator but approximately thirty degrees north and south of the equator.

Endemism

Endemism comes from the word endemic which means it is unique to its own place or region and not found naturally anywhere else. The place must be a discrete geographical unit, often an island or island group, but sometimes a country, habitat type, or other defined area or zone. Endemic regions often include large bodies of water, or mountain ranges but mostly islands due to their isolation. Older islands usually have a higher degree of endemism.

Endemic Species can often become endangered or extinct due to their limited habitats and vulnerability to the actions of humans, such as large scale logging and slash and burn techniques. Some ecosystems with high endemism include, the Hawaiian forests, the Fynbos in South Africa, and many other rainforests and dry forests.

Endemic species are also affected greatly by invasive or alien species. Such is the case for the Hawaiian tree snail. The Hawaiian tree snail's existence is being threatened by the loss of habitat via deforestation (an anthropogenic impact) and by the grazing of ungulates, predation by rats, and an intentionally introduced snail, Euglandina rosea.

Habitat Fragmentation
“[Habitat] fragmentation per se is a landscape-level phenomenon in which species that survive in habitat remnants are confronted with a modified environment of reduced area, increased isolation and novel ecological boundaries .” Habitat Fragmentation is one of the largest causes of species extinctions, along with invasive species. We know that an ecosystem requires land and resources to maintain its diversity, but how much is enough? And when an ecosystem becomes isolated, will the edges of that isolated area remain the same kind of ecosystem as the center?

These questions are studied and answers are inferred through the study of truly isolated habitats: islands. Islands have less diverse populations than large continents, especially those far from mainlands. Such islands have less opportunity for colonization. In order to apply what we know about islands to fragmented habitats, we must recognize colonization and extinction as constantly occurring within populations.

Anthropogenic or human-derived habitat modification is the largest cause of fragmentation. However, naturally fragmented systems are found all over the world. Habitat fragmentation often results in lack of food and other resources for species that need them. It also eliminates habitat for species that need large unbroken blocks of habitat, examples of species that have this problem as a result of fragmentation are bobcats and upland sandpipers. This results in a increased risk of death by predation because the animal might be forced to venture outside it's patch to find food in order to avoid starvation. Certain predators like raccoons, foxes, coyotes, house cats, and crows tend to increase in fragmented landscapes. This is due to them being highly adaptable and being able to take advantage of the resources available to them. high predation in small patches makes death by predation more common for certain species. This is one of the factors that is contributing to the decline of neotropic songbirds in eastern temperate forest.

Metapopulation Theory
Metapopulation Theory states that several distinct “Patches” are stabilized by their proximity to other patches. A Patch is an area inhabited or potentially inhabited by a member of a metapopulation. Patches are usually small areas of land that consist of small populations. The probability of species occurrence in patches is related to the following two factors: habitat destruction and fragmentation. Because the number of individuals in these patches is small, they can very easily become extinct. This results in demographic stochasticity, which are fluctuations in population size due to random demographic events. The rate at which re-colonization can occur is proportional to the distance between the patches. The further the distance between two patches, the longer it will take for the patch to become colonized again. When one patch has a jump in the number of individuals that inhabit it, the surrounding patches will also be stabilized by the immigration from the species rich patch. The change in a patches inhabitants can be determined by the equation (dp/dt) =mp (1-p)-µp; where P is fraction of colonized patches, M is the average recolonization rate, µ is the extinction rate, and 1-p is the uncolonized patches. The metapopulation is stable when the rate at which recolonization is equal the rate of extinction.

Read [Metapopulation]

Links to research: [Eichhornia paniculata] [Maculina arion (the Large Blue Butterfly)]

The classic concept of metapopulation was first mathematically formulated by R. Levin in 1969, but received minute attention until the 1990s when ecologists realized fragmentation of continuous populations into discrete subpopulations was occurring at a high rate.

title: Ecology/Island biogeography


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ICT for Disaster Management/ICT for Disaster Recovery

Disaster reconstruction has to start as soon as the initial disaster cleanup has taken place.This is a very complex endeavour, requiring a huge array of skill sets and a thorough knowledge of an ever-increasing variety of techniques and equipment. A range of software tools are being used for these purposes. Thus, while the role of ICT in the long-term disaster recovery process is not as apparent as it is in disaster warning, there is no doubt that ICT is being used widely to expedite these activities.

Specific Disaster Management Software
Different types of software tools are being used to gather, store and analyse data related to disasters, not only in post-disaster conditions, but also as a long-term measure to mitigate the risk of the disasters. One such approach is known as DesInventar. DesInventar is a methodical way to gather and store information about characteristics and effects of different types of disasters, particularly the ones not visible from global or national scales. This allows for the observation and analysis of accumulated data regarding these ‘invisible’ disasters at a global or national scale. The DesInventar system can also be used to simulate disasters and study their impact. For example, it is possible to trigger an earthquake in the virtual environment and analyse its impact on a geographical area ranging from a municipality to a group of countries.The system forecasts information on the possible loss of human lives, impact on the economy and damage to infrastructure, etc. DesInventar is also a tool that facilitates the analysis of disaster-related information for applications in planning, risk mitigation and disaster recovery purposes. It can be used not just by government agencies, but by NGOs as well in their disaster management work. The following are some case studies where DesInventar and similar software are being used in the disaster preparedness process.

Case Study 1: Latin America
This was the first time DesInventar was used in disaster preparedness activities.The project was initiated by the Network for Social Studies on Disaster Prevention in Latin America in 1994. National-level DesInventar disaster databases, with up to 30 years of data, have been developed to date in 17 countries in North and South America. Localized disasters with very limited direct impact (e.g. the destruction of a single house, or a household affected by the loss of their harvest as a result of a frost) are also covered. However, the focus was on major disasters that can affect a large number of people. The databases have been developed by national governments, international organizations, universities, scientific organizations and NGOs. Data is obtained from the media and government agencies, and existing databases. Once collected, data is verified nationally for consistency. Shared definitions are used for some key hazards, while for others, local specificity is more important. The challenge of uniformity between the databases remains, limiting the capacity for international comparisons.

Case Study 2: Orissa, India
In 2002, UNDP set up a database including an inventory of disaster events with a natural trigger for the state of Orissa in India. The aim of the project was to develop a tool to help decision makers prioritize expenditure in an objective manner. The Orissa project is to act as a pilot for the next stage, including replication in an additional four Indian states and integration into a national government of India integrated disaster resource network. The methodology was modified from the experience of the Latin America initiative.News media and government sources of information were used to build up the disaster events database. A historical database going back to 1970 has been collated and is being updated on a weekly basis.

Case Study 3: South Africa
The programme for Monitoring, Mapping and Analysis of Disaster Incidents in South Africa (MANDISA) is a core activity for the Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihoods Programme of the University of Cape Town. MANDISA was initiated as a pilot study in the Cape Town metropolitan area in the Western Province of South Africa from 1990 to 1999.The methodology was inspired by DesInventar but has been adapted for the South African context. MANDISA focuses on hazards relevant to South Africa, including large urban ‘non-drainage’ floods, wildfires and extreme wind events, as well as highly frequent ‘small’ and ‘medium’ fires. Socio-economic and environmental risk factors that affect disaster impact are included where possible, allowing the potential for tracking developmental conditions that prefigure disaster. While newspapers formed one source of information for tracking disaster events, the South African experience indicated that these provided limited insight into the highly recurrent relatively small events that occur in informal settlements. Such newspaper coverage reflected only 649 of the 12,300 total incidents tracked through a thorough review of 12 different data sources, including incident reports from Fire Services, Social Services, the South African Red Cross Society and disaster management agencies.

Other Software
Many other software applications, though they are not specifically meant for disaster management purposes, are being used by disaster management practitioners.The following are some examples.

Groove, http://www.groove.net
Groove was initially developed by a small technology start-up established by Ray Ozzie, creator of Lotus Notes and former CEO of Iris Associates. Groove has recently been acquired by Microsoft. On its most basic level, Groove is a desktop software designed to facilitate collaboration and communication among small groups. A key concept of the Groove paradigm is the shared workspace. A Groove user creates a workspace and then invites other people into it. Each person who responds to an invitation becomes a member of that workspace and is sent a copy of the workspace that is installed on his/her hard drive. All data is encrypted both on disk and over the network, with each workspace having a unique set of cryptographic keys. This local copy avoids the physical distance between the user and his/her data. In other words, a workspace is a private virtual location where members interact and collaborate. Once a workspace is established, Groove keeps all the copies synchronized via the Internet or the corporate network.When any one member makes a change to the space, that change is sent to all copies for update. If that member is offline at the time the change is made, the change is queued and synchronized to other workspace members when that member comes back on-line. Using the shared workspace, one or more members (peers) now have a context for collaboration. Groove is being used widely by disaster management practitioners. It has been used in Iraq, the Indian Ocean tsunami response and in other emergencies.

Voxiva, http://www.voxiva.net
Voxiva is another technology start-up with a specific philanthropic intent. It originally provided only reporting services, especially in the health sector, to governments in developing countries. Now, it targets NGOs as well as UN agencies. Voxiva offers an integrated monitoring and reporting function through an on-line platform. Another application meant to provide programme management in the field is currently being developed. Voxiva’s Pyramid Platform is designed to bring technology to the so-called ‘bottom of the pyramid’, such as rural and poor communities. By leveraging phones, mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), faxes and radios as well as the Internet, applications built and deployed on Voxiva’s multi-channel Pyramid Platform have much broader reach. Solutions built on the Pyramid Platform allow organizations to collect information from and communicate with distributed networks of people in a timely and systematic way.Voxiva also provides the tools to organize maps and analyse the data collected and make the right decisions.Voxiva systems are deployed to track diseases, monitor patients, report crime, and respond to disasters across Latin America, Africa, Asia and the US. Voxiva is currently being used by organizations such as the US Department of Defense, USAID, the Rwanda Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Health of Tamil Nadu (India), the International Rescue Committee and the Ministry of Health of Peru.

FACTS
The Food and Commodity Tracking System (FACTS) is an easy-to-use Internet-based application that is capable of managing multiple relief operations simultaneously. Mercy Corps, a humanitarian aid organization, based in Portland, USA has worked with Microsoft to develop this tracking system that can help humanitarian aid agencies deliver supplies in disaster situations. According to Microsoft, FACTS represents the first significant step towards creating a standard framework for improving humanitarian assistance on a global level. During crisis, coordinating and distributing the millions of metric tonnes of food and other commodities from donors is a challenge to even the most seasoned relief agencies. FACTS is an effort to address these challenges.The FACTS design team, which also includes the American Red Cross, Catholic Relief Services, Food Aid Management, Food for the Hungry International, Project Concern International and Save the Children, has worked to standardize logistics operations and to streamline reporting. This allows material aid programme managers to focus on the actual delivery of needed supplies while maintaining high standards of commodity tracking. Mercy Corps has already implemented FACTS pilot programmes in Indonesia and Kyrgyzstan. Three additional agencies are using FACTS in their Bolivia and Guatemala operations, and one agency soon plans to extend the solution to Ethiopia. Apart from these specific software applications, there are many international and regional organizations that use ICT effectively in the disaster management process. For example, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies has set up a secure extranet, FedNet, https://fednet.ifrc.org, to share multilingual information among its staff, national societies, field delegations, etc. Additionally, FedNet serves as an interactive forum for on-line collaboration.

Disaster Information Networks
National and regional networks are useful for effective information sharing and coordination. Here are two examples.

UNDP’s Tsunami Resources and Results Tracking System
The High Level Coordination Meeting hosted by the Asian Development Bank in March 2005 emphasized the need for more effective tracing of tsunami aid resources and project results. UNDP presented a package of capacity development support for aid coordination, including staff, training and a customized Development Assistance Database (DAD), to help align aid inflows with priority needs. The Government of Indonesia, Maldives, Sri Lanka and Thailand have, with UNDP support, established nationally-owned aid information management systems. A regional information portal and DAD system has been developed as a resource for coordination at the regional level.This brings together results and resource allocation data from each country and makes it available in one place at http://tsunamitracking.org. By accessing DAD, users can find out real-time information on who is doing what and where.The portal also provides access to various maps, reports, charts, documents and other information giving donors, implementers, governments and the general public better insight into funding flows and projects’ progress. A Private Sector DAD has also been developed to record private sector flows, particularly those from transnational firms that may not have reported their assistance to the individual government-owned systems in the tsunami-affected countries.

India Disaster Resource Network
The India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) is a web-enabled and GIS-based national database of resources essential for effective emergency response.The project, initiated by the Ministry of Home Affairs and UNDP, collects and stores information such as individual and organizational expertise, and details of equipment and supplies required during emergencies, available at government departments, military units, NGOs and private companies in different districts. Accessible from http://www.idrn.gov.in, this inventory is being used by disaster managers at the national, state and district levels to make informed decisions and mobilize resources quickly during emergencies.

GIS in Disaster Recovery
In addition to its usage during the prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response phases of disaster management, GIS can also play a role in disaster recovery, in both the immediate and long-term phases.

Immediate Aftermath
In the aftermath of any disaster, it is essential to restore vital services and systems. This may include providing temporary food, water and shelter to those who have lost homes in the disaster.Medical services are needed for those who are injured. GIS can play several roles in this process. It can identify the damage and begin to establish priorities for action (triage). GIS can also ensure uniformity in the distribution of supplies (medicine, food, water, clothing, etc.) to emergency distribution centres. They can be assigned in proper amounts based on the extent and type of damage in each area. Earth observation satellites could also be used in emergency situations where on-the-ground resources are often not available. Satellites can provide data rapidly when there are earthquakes, landslides, floods and other natural disasters that often prevent assessment by ground or aerial services.They also provide accurate global coverage and operability no matter what the weather or conditions are on the ground.They can also be used for a large number of activities during their lifetime.

Long Term
Long-term recovery is to restore all services to normal or better than they were prior to the disaster. It involves replacement of homes,water systems, streets, hospitals, bridges, schools, etc. and returning life to normal. This can take several years. GIS tools can be used to track the progress of these activities. It is also possible to prioritize restoration investments with the help of GIS. A GIS can ease the burden of accounting for recovery activities.


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A Textbook of Community Medicine

Contents

 * 1) /History of Medicine/
 * 2) /History of Community Medicine/
 * 3) /Medical Epidemiology/
 * 4) /Medical Sociology /
 * 5) /Medical Biostatistics/
 * 6) /Primary Health Care/

title: A Textbook of Community Medicine