text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Creating Pixar-looking eyes in Blender

Note: This tutorial uses the same modelling and texturing technique described in the well-known MAX tutorial by Adam Baroody (http://www.3dluvr.com/rogueldr/tutorials/eye/eyes.html). The sole purpose of my tutorial is to make this technique more popular among the Blender users by explaining how to achieve the same result with Blender.

The goal of this tutorial is to make a Pixar-looking eye. One of the main reasons that Pixar's characters really convey life is in their eyes. They have depth, you can see how the eye not only shines but it "collects" light. You may think that you can't achieve this effect without raytracing but you're wrong. The secret of this depth is in the modelling of the eye. Let's see how it works!

Parts of the Eye
In this picture you can see the "ingredients" of the eye model. The blue mesh at the left is the cornea. Its shape allows for a small spot of specular light to appear on it even if the light is in a far side position. The mesh next to it is the iris. Now notice how it's a bit concave. That's the tricky part - the shape of the iris allows for a wide soft specular light to appear at the opposite side of the lamp direction. This fakes refracted light from the cornea and makes the illusion of "collecting" light and creates depth. The next mesh is the eye pupil - a simple circle.The pupil size is the same size as the iris hole. You can position it close to the inner side of the iris. And finally - the eyeball. It's a simple sphere with a hole in it.

I won't go deep into modelling of each element - it uses Blender's subdivision surfaces and it's quite simple as you can see.

Materials
Now let's look at the materials.

Sclera
To make the eye white, press NUM3 to go into side view and add a UVsphere with 8 segments and 8 rings. To create the hole at the front of the eyeball, delete the 8 triangular faces that make up one end of the eyeball. Ctrl+Tab+3 to go into face select mode, B for border mode and select the middle 8 triangles as shown below, press Delete or the X button and LMB on Faces.

The resulting hole will be ringed by 8 vertices (which you could subsequently extrude and use to help you model the sections below - just a suggestion for those who feel capable)

The eye white has white color and high values for Spec and Hard (depends on the lighting), as well as a moderately high Ref value (0.700 - 0.800). Optionally you can use a reflection map to make it look more wet but I usually don't do this.

(Noob note: Using a Phong specular shader turned to work quite well.)

(User: Make sure shadow buttons are off or it will black out the iris. Spec and Hard are located in the Shaders tab.)

Iris

 * Loop select the opening of the eye (ALT+RMB click edge of opening).

 * Duplicate the loop (SHIFT+DKEY). Move the new loop away from the eye a bit perpendicular to the opening.

 * With the loop still selected, extrude (EKEY). Without moving the extrusion, press ENTER.

 * Resize by half (SKEY then .KEY then NUM5 then ENTER).

 * Move the inner loop back toward the eye a bit to form the concave shape.

 * Create a new material and create a new texture called iris. Then hit F6 or click the spotty square icon [[File:Blendertexture.png]] to open the texture panel, choose Image as the texture type and then press Load Image button and use the image below.

Here is the eye texture taken from the picture above:

Alternatively, you can create an image like this procedurally, using the technique described here.

All that is required now is a bit of tweaking of the texture size using the Xsize and Ysize values in the Map Input tab, and scaling the pupil hole size in Edit mode. Also please remember to change 'Projection' in the map input settings from 'flat' to 'cube'. You can tweak the RGB values and brightness/contrast of the image to achieve the appearance you want. Use a smaller value for Hard (about 50) otherwise you'll have a too shiny look instead of soft specular that fakes refracted light. The Spec value depends on the energy and distance of the light that illuminates it. Generally you'll need to take care that the refracted light on the iris should be no more than half as bright as the small specular spot on the cornea - otherwise you'll achieve the bad effect of two specular spots. Oh, another important thing - join the four meshes before tweaking the texture coordinates. Otherwise you'll have to do the job twice after you join them, because the texture space is changed. And activate shadeless button.

Pupil
The material for the pupil is a simple black color with the "shadeless" button on.

Cornea
The cornea uses a transparent material (alpha = 0.1) with Spec = .6, Hard = 255 and SpecTra = 1. "Ztransp" should also be turned on (found under Links and Pipelines tab). The cornea is simply a piece that fits exactly in the middle of the hole in the eye white. Make sure that the 'Traceable' button, under Render Pipeline, in the Links and Pipelines tab, is switched off. Noob note: It may be helpful to turn off Shadebuff since you don't generally want the cornea to cast a shadow.

Lighting
The lighting is simple - move the eye to a new layer, create a new lamp and make the lamp affect only this layer. Position the lamp at a good angle so you have a small shiny spot of specular light on one side of the iris and a soft spot of "refracted" light on the other side. You can use a backlight to prevent the eyeball from being too dark at the non-illuminated part.

To move the newly created lamp to a new layer, press SHIFT+M and select the second blue button and press OK. Note though that it is not mandatory to create a new layer; it's just meant to prevent cluttering in your main workspace. It's completely optional.

That's it! Now you're (almost) ready to start with character animation. You have a nice eye, now you only need a character for it!

Changing the Eye Color
You can change the color of the eye by either changing the cornea color, or by changing the iris color itself. Changing the cornea color might be like putting on colored contacts.

Changing the Cornea Color
To change the cornea color, do the following:

(and remember to smooth out everything by selecting the particular mesh going to edit buttons and clicking on set smooth)
 * 1) In the mesh which is used to create Cornea set the value of the alpha slider to 0.2 (or more if you desire)
 * 2) Change the color of the mesh to whatever color you like
 * 3) Turn off traceble [[Image:settings1.jpg]]
 * 4) Render!

Changing the Iris Color
To change the iris color you can either edit the iris image external from blender or you can modify the RGB values of the image when imported into Blender.

I don't know where is the "SpecTra" Value. I'm working on 2.46.
You can find "SpecTra" under "Mirror Transp"

My cornea isn't transparent. I don't know where Traceable is since I'm using 2.6x
This applies to 2.6. Something that doesn't seem to be mentioned in this tutorial (sorry if it is and I missed it) is the cornea's shadow settings. If it casts a shadow, it will block out everything inside the eye. So under the cornea's Material->Shadow settings uncheck the cast box. Another option is to leave the cast box in your cornea on, and change to shadow setting in your iris. Check the Receive Transparent, and that works just as well.

Useful Links

 * 1) Ira Krakow's Blender 2.49 Pixar Eye Tutorial
 * 2) For rigging an eyeball, (making it stay in one place while turning to look at something) and other eyeball stuff, you can visit this site. This tutorial assumes you already have the eyeball made above or one of your own. Click. 5jun2009, the PDF shows no rigging, only creating an eyeball. (May 10th 2011, the site no longer exists.)


text:
User:Genericdave~enwikibooks

I don't have anything to put here. If you would like to yell at me you can do so on my talk page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Genericdave~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Genericdave~enwikibooks

Yell at me here. I may or may not deserve it.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Genericdave. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Genericdave~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:13, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:00, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Genericdave~enwikibooks


text:
User:Blaite

de:Benutzer:Blaite fr:Utilisateur:Blaite

title: User:Blaite


text:
File:Gmail-filter-button.png

License
/Images

title: File:Gmail-filter-button.png


text:
Talk:Visual Basic/Built In String Functions

The StrComp function and Option Compare Text do the same job. As stated correctly they use a lexicographic comparison of text. But there are two options for StrComp, these being:

0 = vbBinaryCompare - Perform a binary comparison 1 = vbTextCompare - Perform a textual comparison

The vbTextCompare and Option Compare Text options are indentical. In English texts this comparison probably doesn't matter and indeed could be used for a case insensitive match. But in other languages, say for example Norwegian it does matter and double characters such as 'ae' may be treated differently.

If in doubt, use the relational operators as these do a direct comparison. Only use StrComp if you're interested in sorting in languages other than English.

 * Please include this in the page at the relevant place. Also it would be helpful to everyone if you were to create an account and sign your contributions with four tilde characters like this ~ .  Then each entry in the talk page gets the name (or pseudonym) and date and time.  Lastly, welcome to Visual Basic Classic.   --kwhitefoot 10:41, 16 October 2005 (UTC)


text:
User talk:85.100.230.97

Please stop. If you continue to use Wikibooks for advertising, you will be temporarily blocked from editing.

title: User talk:85.100.230.97


text:
File:Gmail-filters-options.png

License
/Images

title: File:Gmail-filters-options.png


text:
File:Gmail-filters-actions.png

License
/Images

title: File:Gmail-filters-actions.png


text: User talk:202.78.97.13

title: User talk:202.78.97.13


text:
User talk:128.61.68.95

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:128.61.68.95


text: User talk:65.27.231.186

title: User talk:65.27.231.186


text: User talk:24.66.94.141

title: User talk:24.66.94.141


text:
User talk:165.111.2.149

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:165.111.2.149


text: User talk:194.125.72.151

title: User talk:194.125.72.151


text: User talk:199.246.2.11

title: User talk:199.246.2.11


text: User talk:169.153.28.25

title: User talk:169.153.28.25


text:
Talk:Art History/Prehistoric Art

Third para
Begins "tada examples of Paleolithic (Old Stone Age)" I assume that's meant to be "Today examples..." but I'm not confident enough to correct it. Anyone know? --Bodnotbod 11:38, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Tada makes no sense. I changed the word back to "famous". Also I recreated the subheadings under Paleolithic Art.

Picture is huge
How did the picture get so big? I looked at it and it seems to have been done correctly.

For the love of god, fix it.

Plagiarism
The following paragraphs were removed because they are claimed to be plagiarism. See for the claim.

Paleolithic painters drew their images using chunks of red and yellow ocher. For painting, they ground these same ochers into powders they mixed with water before applying. Large flat stones served as palettes. The painters made brushes from reeds, bristles, or twigs, and may have used a blowpipe of reeds or hollow bones to spray pigments on out-of-reach surfaces. To illuminate their work, the painters used stone lamps filled with marrow or fat, perhaps with a wick of moss.

Perhaps the best-known Paleolithic cave is that at Lascaux, near Montignac, France. Many of the animals were created by outline alone, but others are represented using colored silhouettes. On the walls of the Lascaux cave one sees, side by side, the two basic approaches to drawing and painting found repreatedly in the history of art. Although most of the animals share a common ground line, some seem to float above the viewer's head. The painting has no setting, no background, no indication of place. The Paleolithic painter was concerned solely with representing the animals, not with locating them in a specific place.

Another feature of the Lascaux paintings deserves attention. The bulls there show a convention of representing horns that has been called twisted perspective, because the viewer sees the heads in profile but the horns from the front. Thus, the painter's approach is not strictly or consistently optical. Rather, the approach is descriptive of the fact that cattle have two horns. Two horns are part of the concept "bull." In strict optical-perspective profile, only one horn would be visible, but to paint the animal in that way would, as it were, amount to an incomplete definition of it.

liblamb 21:15, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

Venus vs Woman
Venus denotes the Roman goddess. This term makes the Woman figure that has appeared in so many other cultures appear roman centric. I recommend having it changed.

title: Talk:Art History/Prehistoric Art


text:
User:Bodnotbod

I probably won't look at this much. If you need me I'll be over at Wikipedia:User:Bodnotbod and Wikipedia:User talk:Bodnotbod.

title: User:Bodnotbod


text:
User talk:Cibu~enwikibooks

Copyright problem with Image:Malayalam-Mozhi-Lipi.png
--Derbeth 11:56, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cibu. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cibu~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:02, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:48, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cibu~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:WeirdHat

Copyright problem with Image:Pixareyes-Eye mesh.gif
--Derbeth 11:56, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:WeirdHat


text:
User talk:Clementyiawjintin

Copyright problem with Image:Winter.jpg
--Derbeth 12:04, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Clementyiawjintin


text:
User talk:Cleos

Copyright problem with Image:Byte228flip.png
--Derbeth 12:05, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Look at a recently uploaded file - f.e. Image:BasicFlowDiagram.png, it's a good example. You can click edit and see how the licence tag is placed in image description. You just put as it is.

When it comes to listing of images - no, your images must be available to anyone, for any purpose, including commercial. Wikibooks is open content project - we cannoc accept any restrictions to our materials. --Derbeth 00:07, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cleos


text:
User talk:Henrik~enwikibooks

Copyright problem with Image:Gmail-filters-actions.png
--Derbeth 12:10, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * One correction: images showing Gmail should be marked as screenshot not PD-self, because Google, not you, holds the copyright. Sorry I didn't said it before. --Derbeth 15:58, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

 * The tags is on now thanks for the requesting. --Henrik 19:03, 5 November 2005 (UTC +1)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Henrik. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Henrik~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:13, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:02, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Henrik~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Captain Obvious

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. (Donovan|Geocachernemesis|Interact) 02:51, 19 July 2005 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Pika fmash.jpg
--Derbeth 12:10, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Captain Obvious


text:
File:Gmail-search.png

License
/Images

title: File:Gmail-search.png


text:
Template:US Internet Law

Internet Law:

Table of Contents · Preface · Introduction · Defamation · Defamation - General · Section 230 · Copyright · Copyright - General · Secondary Liability · Fair Use · DMCA · DMCA Safe Harbor · DMCA Anti-Circumvention · Trademark · Domain Names · Content Regulation · Online Anonymity · Communications Decency Act · Online Contracts · The Hold Harmless Clause in User Agreements · Clickwrap Agreements · UCITA · Privacy · ECPA · SCA ·

title: Template:US Internet Law


text:
User:Jboprelinomu

Lojban person 2005

Brought to you by Lojban, the Logical Language.

title: User:Jboprelinomu


text:
US Internet Law/Introduction

This book deals with the subject of the law as it relates to the Internet in general and to various topics in particular. Most of the material will be oriented toward United States law as that is where most of the legal issues become raised, but where material is from other countries it will be identified.

Note that the protections granted by the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States are either unavailable or much weaker in other countries.

title: US Internet Law/Introduction


text:
US Internet Law/Defamation

Defamation is the making of a false statement about another which damages their reputation. The rules that apply in general to written publications and letters people have written would apply to material published on the Internet.

Note: For the purposes of this article, "John Johnson" is a fictional person used for the example here, and does not refer to anyone with the same name. (This is so that I don't get sued for libeling someone who just happens to have that name!)

Defamation can either be a statement which is spoken, in which case, it is slander. If the defamatory statement is in writing, it is libel. It has been held in one case that a spoken statement read from a writing also constituted libel.

Since almost all material on the Internet is written, most defamation claims regarding the Internet would constitute libel. A sound recording such as material in a podcast would probably constitute slander.

In order for an allegedly defamatory statement to be actionable at law, certain conditions must apply.

 * The statement must be untrue. Under U.S. law, a truthful statement is an absolute defense to a charge of defamation.  In the U.K., it is possible for certain truthful statements to still constitute libel.
 * The statement must not be privileged. If one repeats material from a police report, a court proceeding, or other public document, the statement, even if untrue, is priveleged and is not actionable.  Also, repeating a statement made by the subject of the statement is also priveleged, e.g. if John says in a flippant comment that he is a child molester ("I'm a child molester, yeah, right."), someone repeating that statement cannot be sued by John for saying it, since John himself is the source of the statement.  Also, certain laws specifically exclude liability for third-party comments posted on the Internet.
 * The statement must be in the nature of a fact, and not an opinion. If you say that someone is "the worst writer in the world" or is "a worthless human being," these are subjective statements of opinion and are not actionable. Publically calling someone a child molester, a homosexual, a bastard, or any other statement which can be proven, if the statement is false, is actionable as defamation.
 * The statement must be published. This means that someone other than the subject has to see the statement (and other than by the subject showing it to others.)  If you send a private e-mail to someone saying that they have AIDS, that is not actionable because it was not published.  If you send the e-mail to a mailing list or post it to a USENET news group, it is actionable if it is false.
 * The statement must in some way damage their reputation. A statement about someone that would tend to make people not want to associate with them ("Did you hear that John Johnson is a child molester"), accuses them of a crime ("I heard that John Johnson robbed a bank and killed a cop."), or accuses them of having a "loathsome disease" ("Did you know John Johnson has AIDS?") are examples of defamatory statements.  Calling someone a visitor from Mars or a space alien would not be defamatory since it does not in some way damage their reputation.
 * The person must be a private individual, or if a "public figure," the statement must either be made where the party who made it knew or should have known it was false ("Reckless disregard for the truth"), or was made with malice. Calling your next-door neighbor a crook is probably actionable; calling a politician who suddenly has a lot of money after being elected a crook is probably not.
 * The statement must be capable of being believed. For example, there was a famous case in which a magazine ran a clearly indicated parody advertisement, that claimed a well-known minister had sex with his mother in an outhouse. While the statement was false and would normally be defamatory, because it was admitted that no one could seriously believe the statement was true, it did not constitute libel.

title: US Internet Law/Defamation


text:
Canadian Trade-mark Law

This text is intended to provide an overview of the area of trade-mark law in Canada.

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Passing off/
 * /Trade-marks/
 * /Registrable Marks/
 * /Infringement/
 * /Renewal/
 * /Expungement/

title: Canadian Trade-mark Law


text:
US Internet Law/Trademark

A Trademark is a word, phrase, device, color or sound that specifically identifies certain goods or services to the exclusion of all others of the same or similar goods or services identified by the trademark. The Trademark Act of 1946 (the “Lanham Act”) (15 U.S.C. §§ 1051-1127) was enacted to ensure that consumers are able to rely on marks in exercising their preferences, by prohibiting competitors from using marks in a manner that confuses consumers about the source of a product or service. A trademark could be applied to
 * a brand of software used on or sold over the Internet, such as Apache for the web server or Linux for the operating system.
 * a particular service available over the Internet, such as the Yahoo web portal, the eBay resale service, or the Amazon book store.

title: US Internet Law/Trademark


text:
User:Henrik~enwikibooks

Hello my name is Henrik, and I live in denmark. I like the idea about open content books, so I spend some of my time writing Wikibooks.

Skills

 * The GIMP
 * HTML
 * JavaScript
 * DHTML
 * CSS
 * PHP
 * AJAX

Current Work

 * Gmail Wikibook, Writing, and cleaning artikles.
 * Valve STEAM, Writing, and front cover.(Not on Wikibooks yet)

Book Ideas

 * Valve STEAM, a Wikibook about using STEAM.
 * iTunes, a Wikibook about using iTunes.

Books i started

 * '''The Gmail Wikibook.

My Wikimedia Activity

 * English Wikibooks
 * Danish Wikipedia

Contact Me
Mail: Henrikb4@gmail.com

Discussion: My Talk

Links

 * FCKeditor is a online WYSIWYG program.
 * A List Apart is a website with lot of good design artikles.
 * Firefox a great browser.

title: User:Henrik~enwikibooks


text:
User:Nusquam~enwikibooks

 * ICQ: 86640990
 * MSN: nusquam@hotmail.com

title: User:Nusquam~enwikibooks


text:
Canadian Patent Law

This text is intended to provide a overview of the area of patent law in Canada.

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Patentable matter/
 * /Patent specifications/
 * /Novelty/
 * /Obviousness/
 * /Utility/
 * /Sufficiency/
 * /Infringement/

title: Canadian Patent Law


text:
Bookbinding/Japanese side stitch

Japanese Side stitch is a simple non-adhesive binding that is an excellent intro to bookbinding. Also known as Stab Binding, this traditional binding was practiced in China, Japan, and Korea. It has the advantage of being very cheap, as thread and paper are the only materials needed. A simple 4-hole stab binding can take about an hour from start to finish. This binding works well in these situations:
 * Sketch and art books
 * Scrapbooks
 * Notebooks
 * Small technical documents
 * Repairing a paperback
 * Non-permanent bindings

One of the downsides of the stab binding is the exposed thread on the book. The threads could snag on things and, if cut or torn, will cause the binding to fail completely.

To make smaller books, fold several sheets of paper carefully into halves or quarters, clamp the stack together and punch and bind it. Optionally, you can then slit the pages apart with a sharp knife afterwards, being careful not to cut the binding threads.

To bind a book using stab binding you will need:
 * 1) Paper or book to be repaired
 * 2) awl, or thin wire brads and a small hammer
 * 3) heavy thread, six times as long as the book's height
 * 4) needle
 * 5) pencil
 * 6) ruler

Binder clips are optional, but useful to keep the pages from shifting while you sew.

For a scrapbook or blank book, cut covers from card stock or a file folder.

Here's what you do:

1. Using a ruler, draw a line from the top to the bottom of the front cover, about 1/4 in from the spine. Make two marks on this line, one 1/4 in down from the top of the book, the other 1/4 in up from the bottom. Now divide the distance between these marks into thirds and mark the two middle points.

2. Even up the pages and clamp the book together with binder clips, or weight down the front edge to keep the pages from moving. Protect your work surface with a piece of scrap wood or an old phone book as you punch a hole at each of the marked points using the awl or wire brads.

Making these holes should not damage the text in the book. Most paperback books have an inner margin of 1/2 in to 3/4 in, leaving plenty of room for rebinding.

3. Thread the needle and tie the ends together with an overhand knot. Open the book a few pages and, next to the lower middle hole, push the needle through about twenty pages. You may need to use the awl to start the hole, but make sure you make it smaller than the knot or it will slip through. Pull the thread through until the knot is snug against the pages. Go back out to the front cover by pushing the needle up through the awl hole. This step anchors the thread.

4. Now sew the rest of the book as shown in the accompanying illustrations. Pull the thread tight each time you go through a hole or your binding will be loose.

Go around the spine and back up through the starting hole, then down through the other middle hole. Pull the thread tight after going through each hole.

Around the spine again, then up through the top hole.

Around the spine, then...

...around the top of the spine and up through the top hole again. Keep going, down through one middle hole, back up through the next, and down through the bottom hole. For holes that already have a loop of thread around the spine, you can just go to the next hole.

Around the spine again and...

...around the bottom of the spine and back through the bottom hole. Go up through the starting hole again.

To finish, tie off the thread so the binding won't come loose. Do this by slipping the needle under two of the top threads coming out of starting hole and back through the loop to form a tight knot.

Run the needle back down through the starting hole and cut the leftover thread flush with the back of the book.

After that, you have a completed book! If the pages of your book shifts more than you like, you can make sure to pull the thread tighter as you go. Slightly flexing the paper while you bind the book can also help take up some of the slack when it lays flat.

The great thing about stab binding is that it isn't required to have four holes. You can do any number of holes and can even create decorative patterns using the thread. Some patterns are even able to spell words along the spine!

title: Bookbinding/Japanese side stitch


text:
Guide to Unix/Explanations/Environment

Environment Variables
Every program inherits "environment variables" from the program that started it. This means that each program has the same environment variables as the program that started it. The environment of a program can change, in which case other programs later started by that program also have a changed environment.

The environment variable called SHELL contains the name of the default shell. (You might be running some other shell, but the default shell is always in "SHELL".) The "SHELL" environment variable is set during login and inherited by the shell. When we started the "printenv" program, it inherited the entire environment, including "SHELL", and showed "SHELL" to us.

Using printenv with no arguments gives the entire environment: $ printenv ... SHELL=/bin/bash ...

See ../../Environment Variables/ to learn about specific variables.

Process limits
Each process has limits on the following.

Limits are inherited from the parent process. The normal way to set limits is to change the limits of some shell, and then start the program from that shell. Each shell provides a different way to set limits: Bourne shell uses the ulimit command while C shell uses limit.

The following is the list of available limits, given with their C shell name ("Bourne shell option"). We need the name ("option") to show or change the limit in the C ("Bourne") shell.

* cputime ("-t SECONDS") * filesize ("-f BLOCKS") * datasize ("-n KILOBYTES") * stacksize ("-s KILOBYTES") * coredumpsize ("-c BLOCKS") can also accept "unlimited" instead of BLOCKS * memoryuse ("-m KILOBYTES") * memorylocked ("-l KILOBYTES") * maxproc ("-p COUNT") * openfiles ("-n COUNT")

Scenario: A program crashes with a message about "resource temporarily unavailable" or "too many open files".

Raise the limits in the shell from which you start the program. For example, to allow 512 open files per process:

Bourne shell $ ulimit -Sn 512

C shell $ limit openfiles 512

Shell Parameters
The shell's environment can be accessed through its parameters. There are three types of parameter:

 * named parameters
 * positional parameters
 * special parameters

Named parameters are known as environment variables. Some of these variables are initialised when the user logs in and which the shell uses to determines its behavior. The shell also maintains certain variables throughout the login session, some of which are defined by the shell and are given special meaning, while others can be user defined.

Positional parameters enable reference to arguments supplied to shell scripts. The shell communicates process information through special parameters. Special parameters can be accessed by the user, but unlike named and positional parameters, they can only be set by the shell itself.

Environment variables are named parameters. Variables are assigned using the command line statement in the form name=value. Variable names are alphanumeric strings, they can contain numeric characters or underscores but must begin with an alphabetic character. Four examples are presented below:

$ n=2 $ n2=4 $ N=3 $ MYNAME=alan $ greeting="hello world"

Note that Unix is case sensitive, so the variable "name" is not the same as "Name". A variable can be expanded (evaluated) by preceding the variable name with a $, for example: $ echo $greeting hello world

Variables can be concatenated: $ day=21 month=01 year=2006 $ echo $day$month$year 21012006

However, there can be problem with concatenating literals with variables, using variables for the day and month but hard-coding the year gives $ echo $day$month2006 05 The problem is that the shell cannot distinguish between the variable name month and the literal value 2006. It therefore tries to expand a variable with the variable name month2006, which is not set. This can be rectified by surrounding the variables names with braces {}, for example: $ echo ${day}${month}2006 05112006

Although the braces are not always necessary it is good practice to use them when evaluating variables.

Quoting
Consider the following example, where the variable expansion phrase is enclosed in double quotes:

$ echo "echo $greeting", displays $greeting echo hello world, displays hello world

Variables enclosed in double quotes are still expanded by the shell. To prevent expansion, variables should be enclosed in single quotes. To display the string "echo $greeting" verbatim, use the statement: $ echo ’echo $greeting’, displays $greeting echo $greeting, displays hello world

More Parameter Expansion
The shell supports quite sophisticated parameter expansion. The construct NAME-literal expands to the value of the parameter if it is set, otherwise it expands to literal value. For example:

$ echo ${OPSYS-unix} unix

The variable OPSYS has not been assigned a value so the result of the command is to echo the string "unix" to the screen. If the variable is assigned a value: $ OPSYS=Linux $ echo ${OPSYS-unix} Linux

If the variable is set to NULL, a blank link is displayed rather than the literal value: $ OPSYS="" $ echo ${OPSYS-unix} (blank line)

However, if we use name:-literal, the variable evaluates to the literal rather than its NULL value: $ echo ${OPSYS:-unix} unix

Using the construct name=literal the parameter is assigned the value of the literal if it has not been set. Suppose that the variable DAY has not been previously set:

$ echo $DAY (blank line)

then the command line below will assign the string "tuesday" to the variable DAY and echo it to screen: $ echo ${DAY=tuesday} tuesday

The variable DAY has now been set, so if the command line is repeated with a different literal value its value remains unchanged

$ echo ${DAY=wednesday} tuesday

If DAY is assigned a NULL value, the following parameter expansion results in a NULL value being returned:

$ DAY="" $ echo ${DAY=tuesday} (blank line)

An associated expansion construct is name-value, which only returns the literal if the parameter is unassigned, it returns the assigned value even if the value is NULL.

Using the expansion construct name:=literal the parameter is assigned the value of the literal if it has not been set. For example:

$ echo $DISTRO              # DISTRO not assigned echo ${DISTRO:=ubuntu} ubuntu

Also, the literal is assigned if the parameter is NULL, the expansion is therefore:

$ DISTRO="" $ echo ${DISTO:=ubuntu} ubuntu

If the parameter is set to a non-NULL value then the literal is not assigned:

$ echo ${DISTRO:=debian} ubuntu

The expansion construct name=value is similar to name:=value, however the literal is only assigned if the parameter was formerly unassigned. The literal is not assigned if the parameter value is NULL. Using the name:?messagestring construct, an error message can be displayed if parameter is unset or NULL:

$ echo ${DISTVER:?distribution version unknown} -bash: DISTVER: distribution version unknown $ DISTVER="" $ echo ${DISTVER:?distribution version unknown} -bash: DISTVER: distribution version unknown

The error message is not displayed if the parameter is assigned a non-NULL value: $ DISTVER="hoary hedgehog" $ echo ${DISTVER:?distribution version not set} hoary hedgehog

Likewise, there is an associated construct name?messagestring which returns the message string only if the parameter is unset. Parameters can be expanded to substrings of their value. The expansion constructs name%pattern and name%%pattern expand to the largest and smallest substrings to the left of the pattern respectively. For example, set the variable TIME:

$ TIME=10:29:39

The command line below displays only the hour value: $ echo the hours is ${TIME%%:*} the hours is 10

whereas the following the command line display the hours and minutes $ echo the hour and minutes are ${TIME%:*} the hour and minutes are 10:29 The constructs name#pattern and name##pattern expand to the largest and smallest substring to the right of the pattern respectively. So the command line below expands to the seconds: $ echo the seconds are ${TIME##*:} the seconds are 39

The minutes and seconds can be extracted with: $ echo the minutes and seconds are ${TIME#*:} the minutes and seconds are 29:39

The length of a string can be evaluated with the #name construct. For example: $ echo ${#TIME} 8

Arrays
Variables can be one-dimensional arrays and are referenced in the form name[index]. Arrays can be assigned using the name=(value1 value2 ... ) construct, so for example:

DATE=($(date))

$(command) expands to the result of command on the command line. So DATE is assigned output of the command date, where each space separated string is assigned to an element in the array. So if we only want the year, then we expand the sixth element of the array:

$ echo ${DATE[5]} 2006

We can change, say the time information with the assignment: DATE[3]=19:16:00 $ echo ${DATE[*]} Wed May 17 19:16:00 NZST 2006

If we need to count the number or assigned array elements, then we use the expression: $ echo ${#DATE[*]} 6

Positional Parameters
Positional parameters provide a means of accessing arguments to shell scripts. They are referenced by the numbers 1,2,3,... etc., where the numbers reflect the order in which the arguments appeared on the command line (from left to right). They cannot be assigned in the same way as named parameters, that is you cannot do this: 1=hello. Positional parameters are assigned when a shell script is invoked with command line arguments. They can, however, be assigned with the set command: $ set $(uname -rmv)

This causes the space separated strings from the output of uname -rmv to be assigned to the positional parameters. The statement below shows the values of all positional parameters that were assigned:

$ echo ${*} 2.6.14.4 #1 SMP Thu Dec 22 01:04:35 NZDT 2005 x86_64

And this statement gives the number of assigned positional parameters (equivalent to argc in C and C++): $ echo $# 10

If we specifically want the kernel version then we expand positional parameter 1: $ echo $1 2.6.14.4 Double digit positional parameters need to be enclosed in braces. So if we want the architecture of the machine, we cannot do this: $ echo $10 2.6.14.40 The expression above is expanded to positional parameter 1 followed by a literal 0. The correct way is: $ echo ${10} x86_64

Finally, positional parameter 0 is set to the name of the current process (equivalent to argv[0], which in this case should be the name of the shell command itself: $ echo $0 -bash

Special Parameters
Special parameters can be accessed by the user but can only be assigned (directly) by the shell - typically in response to some event. We have already encountered the parameters * and # which are set when a command is invoked with arguments (or the set command is used).

The ? parameter expands to the return code of the process that last exited. If we enclose a command line statement in brackets it is executed in a subshell. The command line below forks a new shell and immediately issues exit. The argument following exit is the value of the subshell’s return code (255 in this case):

$ (exit 255)

The return code of the child process can be accessed by the parent by the expansion of ?. If a process terminated normally then the return code is likely to be zero. If however, the process terminated due to some error condition, it is useful if process sets a non-zero return code so that the parent can determine the reason for the termination:

$ echo $? 255

The process ID of the shell is stored in $. The ps command shows that the process ID of my shell is 10005, which is what is given by the expansion of $:

$ ps | grep bash 10005 pts/77           00:00:00 bash $ echo $$ 10005

The ! parameter evaluates to the process ID of the last background process. To demonstrate, the statement below invokes the sleep command (which sleeps for 60 seconds) in the background:

$ sleep 60 & [1] 24835

The process ID of the background process is displayed on the screen (in this case 24835). Expansion of the ! parameter confirms this:

$ echo $! 24835

Exporting Parameters
Processes do not inherit environment variables from their parent unless the variables are exported. The command line below displays the process ID of the current process followed by the value of greeting (which was assigned earlier):

$ echo ${greeting?parameter not set} hello world

If we start a new shell and issue the command again we see that greeting is not set in the child process:

$ bash $ echo ${greeting?parameter not set} bash: greeting: parameter not set Terminate the current shell process and return to the parent, then export greeting:

$ exit $ export greeting You can confirm that a variable has the export attribute set by typing:

$ export | grep greeting declare -x greeting="hello world"

Now start a new shell again and evaluate greeting: $ bash $ echo ${greeting?parameter not set} hello world The new shell has inherited the variable greeting and can evaluate it. A variable retains its export attribute (until the shell is terminated) even if it is reassigned, but it can be removed using the typeset command:

$ typeset +x greeting $ export | grep greeting    # yields no result In Bash (and Kornshell, but not Bourne shell), a variable can be assigned and exported in one command line statement: $ export greeting="hi there" $ export | grep greeting declare -x greeting="hi there"

title: Guide to Unix/Explanations/Environment


text:
Celestia/Celx Scripting/Simple CELX Scripting

Read on to learn about simple CELX scripting...

If you have comments or questions, please put them on the Celx Questions and Answers page.

Introduction
This is a tutorial on simple CELX scripting. It is based on the philosophy that the best way to learn is by example, so there are lots of examples. Each example is usually a small step beyond the previous one, but understanding it may depend on any previous example, so make sure you understand each example completely before you go on to the next.

Getting Started
To get started, you should create a script file for testing purposes. You could call it "test.celx" or something similar. Be sure it has the ".celx" file type suffix so it will be recognized as a Celestia CELX script file. Then you should be able to just double-click on the file icon to cause Celestia to run the script. This is a lot faster than running the script from the Celestia menus. You can keep both Celestia and your text editor running; when you're ready to test your script just save your changes and double-click the file icon. The Celestia window should pop to the front and run your script. After you've observed the result you can return to the editor window to make further changes in the script. And don't overlook the fact that you can cut and paste code directly from the tutorial examples!

Starting Simple
Here's a simple CELX script:

When you run this script, the message "Hello, Universe!" will briefly appear in the lower left corner of the Celestia window. The script instructions here are very simple. First, we asked the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "flash" to display the message "Hello, Universe!". Then we asked the script to wait for 2 seconds (so we'd have time to see the message).

The format of our request to the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "flash" is basic to Lua. First we wrote the name of the object, in this case, "celestia". Then we wrote a colon to indicate that we were requesting the object to perform a function. Then we wrote the name of the function we want the object to perform, in this case, "flash". Finally, we wrote the parameters to the function, in this case the string "Hello, Universe!", enclosed in parentheses. (Note that we didn't use quotes around the name of the object or the function, just the parameter.) Other requests to objects to perform a function have a similar format.

Here's another example:

In this example we've made two requests to the object named "celestia". Both requests asked the object to perform the same function (the one named "flash"), but we specified different message strings as the parameter to the function in each, causing the object to evaluate the function differently in each case, displaying a different message.

A Simple Function
Now let's write our own function: In this example we defined our own "flash" function, to include the 2 second wait. Then we asked the script to perform our new function twice, using a different string each time.

Our new function is named "flash", but it's different from the function of that name which belongs to the object named "celestia". Instead, the new function belongs to our script. When we ask the script to perform our "flash" function, we don't need to write the name of an object or a colon. We just write the name of the function, followed by the parameter enclosed in parentheses.

But note that when we defined our new function, we did use the object name and colon, because there we do want to ask the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "flash".

The format of a function definition is another Lua basic. First we write the keyword. Then we write the name of the function, in this case "flash". Then we write the name of the parameter, enclosed in parentheses. In this case, the parameter is named "message". Then we write the sequence of instructions that the script will follow to perform the function. Finally, at the end of the function, we write the keyword. (Note that we didn't use quotes around the name of the function or its parameter. We only need quotes for literal strings, not for names.)

In this case, the instructions needed to perform our function are to ask the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "flash" using our function's parameter named "message" as the parameter to the object's function. Then we asked the script to wait for 2 seconds.

Note that first we defined our function, then we called it (twice). (When we say "called", we mean that we asked the script to perform the function.) When we defined the function, we named its parameter "message". And we referred to that name in the instructions we used to specify how the function will be performed. Then each time we called the function, we specified a particular string to be the "message" which the script used when performing the function.

But you can also uses names rather than actual strings in a function call, as in the following example In this example, we first gave the name "farewell" to the string "Goodbye, Universe!". Then we asked the script to perform our "flash" function using that name, rather than the string itself. The syntax of the instruction by which we gave the name to the string is another Lua basic. It consists of the name, in this case "farewell", followed by an equals sign (=) to indicate that we're assigning the name to what follows, followed by the actual string. The association of a name with a value in this way is called a variable assignment. The reason it's called a variable is that we can later assign the same name to a different value if we choose to. We can also assign a different name to the value. In that case, the value has more than one name. (The parameter name in our function definition is not a variable, strictly speaking, but works very much like one.)

By the way, there's another, slightly different format for function definitions, which we'll use in the next example: In the format we've used in this example, the name of the function doesn't come after the  keyword. Instead it comes first, followed by an equals sign (=). Next comes the  keyword, followed directly by parameter enclosed in parentheses. Then comes the sequence of instructions that define the function, ending with the  keyword. The only difference from the way we defined the function previously is the position of the function name, and the addition of the equals sign.

If this new format for a function definition looks a lot like a variable assignment, it's no coincidence: that's exactly what it is. We're simply giving a name to a function, just the way we gave a name to a string in the previous example. We will return to the very important implications of this fact later on. Note that it doesn't matter which format you use. Their meaning is identical.

From this point on, for the sake of brevity, our examples will assume that we've already defined our flash function as in one of the previous examples.

More Examples
Now let's try using another function provided by the object named "celestia": In this example, we asked the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "gettime", and we gave the name "time" to the result (a number) that the object returned to us. Then we asked script to perform our "flash" function, using the number named "time" as the "message" parameter.

No parameters were needed for the object named "celestia" to perform its function named "gettime", so the parentheses following the function name are empty.

The syntax of the instruction by which we gave the name to the result of this function request is another Lua basic. It consists of the name, in this case "time", followed by an equals sign (=) to indicate that we're assigning the name to what follows, followed by the request to the object to perform the function (and return its result).

When you run this script, you'll see a large number briefly displayed. This number is the current time setting in Celestia, expressed as a Julian date. (it's the number of days since the beginning of the Julian epoch).

In the next example, we'll make this clear:

More To Come...
WARNING: Construction area ahead! Proceed at your own risk!

In the next example, we'll convert this to a more recognizable form:

Fortunately, the  object has a function to help us do that:

In this example, we asked the  object to give us the time, then asked it to give us the result of converting that Julian date to a calendar date, and finally asked the script to use our "flash function" to display the part of the date that indicates the year.

To display the full date, we'll need to join the parts of the date for the year, month and day: The following additional examples await explanation. In the meantime, you're invited to see if you can figure them out on your own! In this example, we've defined a function to flash a message reporting the radius of a specified planet. Then we called the function twice, to display the radius of two different planets. This should all look familiar to you from previous examples. (In future examples, you should assume our flashRadius function is already defined.) In the next example, we'll do the same thing just a bit differently: This one is a little more fun:

back to Celestia/Celx_Scripting back to Celestia


text:
Use the Source/Divide and Conquer

There are many factions within the world of open source, these include the Free Software and the Open Source pundits, the GPL and the BSD supporters, the libertarians and the communists.

These factions all have different reasons for the things they do and the things they don't; for some it is a matter of what is a right and what is practical, for others it is being altruistic to all people and for others it is getting the most out of a situation.

Briefly we shall sum up these groups:

The Free Software Foundation/GNU movement is a socio-political group for whom non-Free software is a social problem and Free Software is the solution.

The Open Source Inititive is a development methodology, to them non-Open Source software is a sub-par solution.

The BSDers (gotta get a better title than that) are a volunteer altruist group who give their work away for everyone. So everyone can get better. To them non-BSD code is irrelevant, it can be used and can be learnt from, but does not involved them.

The GPLers (still going to need another name) are volunteers who seek to receive reimbursement for their contributions. Getting back what others make of their work. To them non-GPL code is code which will die, that without the GPL license to protect the code it will not be able to maintain its competitive edge against proprietary software.

Outside of these groups, most people view them singularly as either open source or free software, but within there is a fair bit of bitterness and conflict, because of the different reasons for their actions. They all hold different views on how things should be done. This creates an image of a discordant open source community, when, in fact, it is actually many smaller communities which have only loose ties to one another.

title: Use the Source/Divide and Conquer


text:
Lisp Programming/External Links

 * http://www.paulgraham.com/onlisp.html
 * http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/
 * http://www.schemers.org/
 * http://www.transys.us/lisp.htm

title: Lisp Programming/External Links


text: Template:Clearright

title: Template:Clearright


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Talk:Lisp Programming

I would begin explaining the lisp essential, the original ideas from McCarthy and the implementations. The diferences and approachs between schemme lisp, common lisp and emacs lisp is interesting also. The most interesting is explain the lisp primitives with case of use in the real life. This would be a interesting approach about a book of lisp.

We can drag and drop a lot of interesting text about introduction, history, etc. from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_programming_language.

title: Talk:Lisp Programming


text:
Talk:Celestia/Celx Scripting/Simple CELX Scripting

This page used to contain CelX questions and answers. They have been moved to the page Celx Questions and Answers

Please use this page only to discuss WikiBook editing issues.


text: Template:Commons

title: Template:Commons


text: Template:Wiktionary

title: Template:Wiktionary


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User talk:84.121.35.52

I see you made some templates linking to our sister projects. Could you add them to Template messages/Links? Otherwise noone will use them. --Derbeth 00:10, 16 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.121.35.52


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Writing in the Humanities

Introduction
Writing in the humanities includes posing questions dealing with human values. The ultimate goal in writing in the humanities is to explain/share the human experience, to use writing as a tool to reflect upon life, and to tell how life should, or should not, be lived. "Humanities" as a discipline includes not only literature, but also philosophy, ethics, performing arts, fine arts, history, aspects of anthropology and cultural studies, foreign languages, linguistics, jurisprudence, political science, and sociology. In a humanities class, you might be asked to attempt the analysis of a poem, a performance or a play, a painting, a film or even a musical performance.

There is often a difference in feel between writing in the Sciences and writing in the Humanities. Writing in the Sciences is often convergent (meaning oriented toward finding or articulating a specific answer to a specific question). Writing in the Humanities is often divergent (meaning oriented toward exploration of multiple answers to multiple questions).

Categories of Humanities Writing
Writing in the Humanities falls into three categories: theoretical writing, creative writing, and interpretive and analytical writing. Term papers and research papers are included in this discipline of writing when their topics pertain to the field of humanities.

Theoretical Writing
Theoretical writing involves writing on a topic from a theoretical perspective. In physics, for example, there is a theory on how the galaxy operates called the "string theory." A physics paper centered around the string theory would be considered a theoretical paper.

Creative Writing
Creative writing attempts to achieve, or create, an affect in the minds of the readers. The intended affect differs depending on the goals of the writer. The intention may be to expound on the grieving process (catharsis), or to make a person laugh or cry. The potential results are unlimited. Creative writing can also be used as an outlet for people to get their thoughts and feelings out and onto paper. Many people enjoy creative writing but prefer not to share it. Creative writing can take place in a variety of forms. Poems, short stories, novels, and even song lyrics are all examples of creative writing. Viewpoints regarding what exactly is encompassed under the term creative writing differ. To some, non-fiction can be considered creative writing because it is done from the author's point of view and may be written in an individual style that engages the reader. In fact, many universities offer courses in "Creative non-fiction." Others like to separate non-fiction from creative writing because it deals with details that actually took place, even if viewed subjectively. Regardless, the outlook of the writer is what matters, and whether something is considered creative writing or not is less important than producing a product that you can be proud of.

Narrator

A narrator is the voice or person who tells the story. One must never assume that a narrator of a story is related to the author in any way. Even if we, as an audience, are aware that the author of the story once had a similar experience to that of the narrator, we cannot make assumptions that there is any truth to the text. When writing or discussing criticism, the intent of the author is also off limits because regardless of the author intent, the value of a text is determined by reader response alone. An example of an author having a similar experience to the narrator of a story she'd written, is Charlotte Perkins Gilman's short story The Yellow Wallpaper. Because the author had released statements revealing that she'd had a smilar medical treatment in her life to the narrator of her story, we still cannot assume that the narrator and Gilman are one in the same person.

A First-Person narrator is when one person narrates the story. Thus, a reader will recognize a first-person narrator because the pro-nouns "I" and "my" will be used. Because the story is narrated by one person, we are limited to the thoughts and observations of that person. There are many reasons that an author may choose to use a first-person narrator, but the reason is mainly to demonstrate the changes within one particular character, and also to build suspense. For example, if an author were to suddenly switch a first-person novel to a third-person narrator, the "who-done-it" aspect of the story would be ruined because we would suddenly be able to dive into the minds of multiple characters.

There is also Third-person limited and Third-person omniscient. Third-person limited is when the narrator is limited to the thoughts of one particular character, but there is a little more freedom than with a first-person narrator because the narrator can more easily observe the behavior of others. Finally, a third-person omniscient narrator is when the lens of the storyteller is pulled back even further, but we are able to dive into the minds of any and all characters. Therefore, a third-person omniscient narrater is rather God-like in that it enables us to know absolutely anything and everything that is happening in the novel. This may sound like the most enjoyable way to compose, but as stated earlier, there are drawbacks to this kind of narrator in that it may be harder to create an element of surprise for the reader.

Literary Periods

Deconstructionism is an approach to literature which suggests that literary works do not yield a single, fixed meaning because we can never say what we truly mean in language.

Early Modern Era Period extending from about 1500 to 1800, marked by the advent of colonialism and capitalism.

Modernism Writing and art roughly made in at the start of WWI (1914) through the end of WWII (1945).

Postmodernism is a literary and artistic movement that flourished in the late twentieth century, partly in response to Modernism. A common theme in this kind of work is self-reflexiveness.

Interpretive Writing

 * An interpretation involves the discovery of meaning in a text (or film or painting, etc.) or the production of meaning in the process of reading a text. Therefore, interpretive writing must address many questions.  It tries to assist the reader in understanding specific events (literary, cultural, or otherwise) rather than just engaging in summary.  For example, a student writing an interpretive paper about a specific book may try to explain the author's attitudes or views on a specific subject matter.  The writer of the paper then uses the evidence found in that book to back up his or her claims.   A poor example of interpretive writing is a book report.  A good example of interpretive writing is a scholarly article about another text.

Writing might ask questions such as, "Why did these events happen?" or "What was the significance of these events to the author or main character?" as opposed to, "What happened" or "How did these events come about?" The former questions encourage writers to explore their own thoughts or to delve into the mind of the writer of the text, or even attempt to put himself in the shoes of the protagonist. The latter is less challenging, as the book or piece of literature will plainly lay this type of information out for the reader.

Analytical Writing

 * Analytical writing examines the components of a text. Writers of analytical essays or articles consider information, break it apart, and reconstruct it in order to describe the information so another reader can make sense of it.   Writers must make sense of a work before they can begin to describe its constituent parts.

 * Analytical writing focuses on the words "how" and "why." A writer often uses each of these two terms to give proof of their current analogies. By using these strong terms, a reader can feel that the writer is confident in their work and know "how" and "why" they should react.

 * Analytical writing happens in four steps. The first step is to clearly identify the problem, the question, or the issue.  The second step is to define the issue.  The third step is the actual analysis of the topic.  Finally, the fourth step defines the relationship between the issue and the analysis of that issue.

Analyzing and Interpreting Literature

 * There is a lot of overlap in the processes of analysis and interpretation, especially when writing about literature. Writing about literature (poems, short stories, plays, etcs) often involves making an argument that can be backed up with specific examples from the text.  When interpreting a poem the writer should expect that they will have to include specific references to the lines, words, or phrases to which they are referring.  A writer analyzing the main character in The Great Gatsby should include specific references that explain why they have reached a particular conclusion.

 * An essay dealing with literature should not be a summary of the text. It doesn't always hurt to give a few background examples, but the writer should focus on talking about the portions of the text that emphasize their points, not summarizing the entire piece for the reader.  If the reader isn't familiar with the primary text, they can go back and read it themselves.  The interpreter's job isn't to recap, but to make an argument, and hopefully provide some sort of illumination of the work.

 * A piece of literature should always be referred to in the present tense.

 * Take a look at this sample essay on the play A Midsummer Night's Dream

Here the writer has chosen to focus on one specific scene in the play, and how it fits their argument about the duality and conflict present within the play. Notice that throughout the entire essay there are numerous examples from within the text. Had the author not included these, or had they just summarized everything briefly, the essay wouldn't be as strong as it currently is. Here the reader can see exactly what lines make the writer think the way they do. Also, notice that the paper isn't a summary of what happens in the scene. When the writer gives details about what happens in the scene, it is because these details relate directly to the topic of their paper.

Research Papers and Term Papers
Term papers have a variety of elements that make them stand out from other papers. They carry three distinct characteristics. First, there is a large amount of research that goes into a term paper. The research contains various findings such as: facts, statistics, interviews, quotes, etc. Researching and gathering data must include understanding that information once it is compiled. The second characteristic is the amount of preparation it takes in gathering, compiling, analyzing, and sorting through everything in order to create a draft of your data. Finally, the third characteristic involves knowing the rules that must be followed when writing a specific term paper in the humanities discipline. These rules will generally be conveyed by your instructor.

Writing the research paper involves a bit of detective work. While there is much reading to be done on the chosen topic, reading is not the only pathway to gain information. As a writer in the humanities, you can also conduct interviews, surveys, polls, and observation clinics. You should research and discover as much information as you can about the given topic so you can form a coherent and valid opinion.

Elements of the Humanities Paper
Many styles of documentation are used when writing the humanities paper. Choosing the style depends on the subject being addressed in the paper and the style your instructor may prefer you use.

When it comes down to actually writing your paper, be sure to include the following elements: an introduction, a thesis statement, the body of the paper (which should include quotations, and, of course, the citations), and the conclusion.

Introduction
Like most papers and essays, an introduction is absolutely necessary when writing in the humanities. There can be some confusion as to which should come first; the introduction or the thesis statement. This decision could probably be clarified by asking your instructor. Many writers include the thesis statement in their introduction. Generally speaking, however, the introduction usually comes before the thesis statement.

The introduction should grab your reader and make them interested in continuing to read your paper. Ask a question, say something powerful, or say something controversial. Be specific, not vague. Say something interesting, not mundane. Relay something the reader may not know, not something that is public knowledge. The idea is to get the reader's attention, and keep it.

A good intro may go something like this:

After the introduction has been written, you can then go into your thesis statement. Many people regard the thesis statement as a continuation of the introduction, only in the next paragraph.

Thesis Statement
The thesis statement should come at the beginning of the paper. It will introduce the reader to the topic you intend to address, and gives them a hint of what to expect in the pages that follow. Thesis statements should avoid words and phrases such as, "In my opinion..." or "I think that..." Start your thesis by taking a stand immediately; be firm in your statement, but not pushy. You'll either be given your topic for your paper or you will choose it yourself. In either case, after the topic is chosen, write a thesis statement that clearly outlines the argument you intend to address in the paper. The thesis statement will be the center of your paper. It should address one main issue. Throughout the paper, whatever you write will be focused on the thesis statement. As your paper develops, you may find you will want to, or need to, revise your thesis statement to better outline your paper. As your paper evolves, so does your thesis. In other words, when writing your thesis statement, keep your paper in mind, and when writing your paper, keep your thesis statement in mind. Your paper will defend your thesis, so write your paper accordingly.

For example, if the topic is "Analyzing Mark Twain's 'Huckleberry Finn,'" your thesis statement might address the social implications or meanings behind the characters chosen for the story. Keeping the thesis statement in mind, you would then write your paper about the characters in the story. Let's say you are writing a philosophy paper. Your thesis statement might include two opposing arguments, with the hint that you intend to argue or prove one side of the argument. Many thesis statements are written in such a way as to try to prove an argument or point of view, but challenge yourself; make your thesis statement a statement of how you plan to disprove an argument. Maybe you want to attempt to show your readers why a specific point of view does not work.

Your thesis statement should address one main issue. It takes a point of view or an argument, and the paper is the development of this argument. If your thesis statement is too simple, obvious, or vague, then you need to work on it a little more. You should try to write it in a way that will catch your reader's attention, making it interesting and thought-provoking. It should be specific in nature, and address the theme of the entire paper. The thesis statement may be written to try to convince the reader of a specific issue or point of view. It may also address an issue to which there is no simple solution or easy answers; remember, make it thought-provoking. Many thesis statements invite the reader to disagree.

Don't be alarmed if you find yourself midway through your paper and wanting to change your thesis statement. This will happen. Sometimes a writer will start out thinking they know exactly the point they want to make in their paper, only to find halfway through that they've taken a slightly different direction. Don't be afraid to modify your thesis statement. But a word of caution; if you modify your thesis statement, be sure to double check your paper to ensure that it is supported by the thesis. If you have changed your thesis statement, it would be wise, even advisable, to have a third party read your paper to be sure that the paper supports the thesis and the revised thesis describes the paper.

Body
The "body" of your paper contains the evidence, analysis, and reasoning that support your thesis. Often the topic of the paper is divided into subtopics. Typically, each subtopic is discussed in a separate paragraph, but there is nothing wrong with continuing a subtopic throughout multiple paragraphs. It is good practice to begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the subject of the new paragraph and helps transition between paragraphs. A topic sentence will help keep you focused while writing the paragraph, and it will keep your reader focused while reading it.

Conclusion
The purpose of a conclusion is to "wrap up" the discussion of your paper. Especially if the paper is a long one, it is a good idea to "re-cap" the main ideas presented in your paper. If your paper is argumentative, you'd likely want to re-enforce the standpoint introduced in your thesis statement; however, rather than repeating your thesis, offer closing statements that make use of all the information you've presented to support your thesis. Try to "echo" your thesis so that your reader understands that you have fulfilled the "promise" a thesis statement implies, but give your reader a sense of closure rather than simply restating everything you said above just ending it.

Here are some strategies for closing your discussion:

After summing up your main points/thesis you might
 * Comment on the significance of the topic in general: why should your reader care?
 * Look to the future: Is there more work to be done on the topic?  Are there predictions you can make about your topic?
 * Ask something of your reader: Is there something your reader can do?  Should do?

Argumentative Research Papers
One of the main things that differentiates a college level research paper from research papers below the college level is they almost always will be argumentative; that is, they will be taking a stance. The research is then used to back up the argument of the writer, or to put their argument into context. Students new to college will often attempt to simply provide information that makes the research paper becoming stale and unnecessary. If all the paper is doing is repackaging old information, why not just go back to the original source? Papers that just provide information risk unintentional plagiarism. If none of the information provided contains your own insights, then failing to cite everything means that it is plagiarized. Yet, most students would be reluctant to cite the entirety of their paper.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism results from including non-trivial information (ideas, facts, etc) from another source without acknowledging its source. Plagiarism is one of the most serious offenses that can be committed in academia and it involves varying degrees. Plagiarism at its most blatant includes handing in an entire paper that is not one's own; it also includes failing to document one's sources. When writing a research paper, avoid unintentional plagiarism. Because almost no knowledge other than eye-witness accounts is truly original, be sure to find sources for all non-trivial information. Plagiarism can be grounds for failing a paper or the course as a whole.

Resources To Use
The humanities category offers many good sources from which to gather information. The Internet is quickly becoming an important source of information for humanities writing. There are many history sites, journalism and news sites, sites focusing on the history of film, sites dedicated to women's issues, and so on. More traditional physical resources include dictionaries, encyclopedias, biographies, indexes, abstracts, and periodicals, and our old friend, the library.

As you can see, there are many resources from which to choose when writing your paper. Start at the most basic level and progress from there. For example, if you are writing about a specific work of a famous author, the obvious place to begin is with a careful reading of the work in question. Once you are done, try to articulate what you know to be true, what you think is probably true, and what is open to question: that is, what you might need to find out. It is helpful to actually go through the physical process of writing out two or three key questions that you would like to focus on.

At that point, you may want begin your further researches with a search through an encyclopedia, or do an online search for available resources, including interviews. After you have found the information you need there, you might then search a through a card catalog in a library for specific books. You may find that while searching for one specific book you will stumble upon many other useful books on the same subject. You can then begin to look through book reviews for information on your subject. Book reviews can be especially informative in that they will often will identify important themes, raise new questions, and broaden your sense of what is at stake in the text. Next, you may want to try searching for articles in periodicals, and even abstracts of articles, which will provide a summary of the content of the potential article.


text:
User:AlbertCahalan/Garden

Wikimedia Garden Book making your land productive

planning
what to grow, layout, timing,

plants
date, coconut, and other palms, woody fruit trees, cucurbit (melon, squash, etc.), cruciform (broccoli, choy, cabbage), nightshade (tomato, potato, eggplant, chili), legume (bean, pea), onion (garlic, leek), carrot, pineapple, corn, herbs, berry bushes,

tools
rototiller, mulcher, hoe, trowel, round shovel, straight shovel, heavy rake, light rake, pitchfork, pruning shears, grass clippers, lopping shears, tree saw, chainsaw, bow saw, fruit picker, sprayer spreader, weed removal tool,

construction
raised beds, tomato cages, grape vine supports, cucurbit trellises, pea supports, cucurbit mounds, drip irrigation, drainage,

soil
normal (aerobic) composting, anaerobic composting, sandy soil, clay soil, acid soil, alkaline soil, salty soil, fertilizer (3 numbers, trace elements, salt, heavy metals), manure,

disease
fungal competition, cut with clean tools, then burn or trash, see also "bugs",

bugs
neem oil with sulfer, BT, UV light (tomato hornworms), UV reflection (bugs under the leaves), dragonflies, bats, wasps, lady bugs,

vermin
squirrels, birds, mice, moles, tortises, rabbits, deer, pigs, cats,

weeding
solarizing, biodegradable mulch, plastic mulch, herbicides, goats, hoe, root barriers,

places
indoors, north-eastern USA, south-eastern USA, central USA, south-western USA, north-western USA, Alaska, Hawaii, British Isles, New Zealand, India, western Australia, eastern Australia, central Australia, eastern Canada, western Canada, central Canada, hong kong, Caribbean,

starting
planting seeds, grafting, rooting, transplanting, saving seeds, cross-polination,

title: User:AlbertCahalan/Garden


text:
Cookbook:Waldorf Salad

| Side dishes

Waldorf salad was created by Oscar Tschirky in 1896 at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, New York, New York, in the United States of America.

Ingredients

 * 1 large Granny Smith apple
 * 1 large Red Delicious apple
 * 1 tablespoon of lemon juice
 * 80 g (⅓ cup or 3 oz) raisins
 * 80 g (⅓ cup or 3 oz) chopped walnuts
 * 80 g (⅓ cup or 3 oz) chopped celery
 * 2 tablespoons mayonnaise
 * 1 tablespoon white granulated sugar
 * 6 large leaves lettuce
 * 10 halved maraschino cherries

Procedure

 * 1) Slice the apples into wedges, and place in a bowl.
 * 2) Pour lemon juice on the apple wedges, and ensure a light coating to prevent browning.
 * 3) Plump the raisins by placing them in warm water for 5 minutes, then drain well.
 * 4) Mix celery, raisins, and walnuts into the bowl of apple wedges.
 * 5) Mix the mayonnaise and sugar together, then pour into the apple mixture, ensuring a light coating on all items.
 * 6) Chill for at least 30 minutes
 * 7) Place 3 lettuce leaves on a large plate and three on another, place half of the mixture on each set of leaves, and sprinkle 5 cherries on each salad.
 * 8) Serve

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Though the original salad only used apples, celery and mayonnaise; walnuts mixed in have become an integral part of the modern version of the salad and cherries are only used as a sweet addition to further the contrasts within the salad.
 * Instead of raisins, try using grapes to create the same sort of taste but more wholly and not as rich.

title: Cookbook:Waldorf Salad