text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets/Chapter 1

Synopsis
Harry has returned to the Dursleys for the summer holiday, and things are hardly going well. On Harry's birthday, Uncle Vernon berates and shouts at Harry during breakfast, triggered by Dudley commanding Harry to pass him the bacon. Harry retorts that Dudley forgot to say the magic word. Merely mentioning the word magic is enough to send Uncle Vernon into a towering rage.

Uncle Vernon launches into his plans for that evening, entertaining a prospective client, Mr. Mason. Harry's role is simple: he will remain in his room, making no noise, pretending not to be there.

While in the yard later that day, Harry, looking at the hedge, sees two large, green eyes staring back at him. Before he can investigate further, Dudley nastily reminds Harry it is his birthday and asks why all his "weird friends" have not bothered to send any cards or presents. In retaliation, Harry says he is trying to magically set the garden hedge on fire, though he privately remembers that underage wizards are forbidden to practice magic outside school. Dudley tattles to Aunt Petunia, and, as a punishment for mentioning magic, Harry must clean the house all day.

That evening, as Mr. and Mrs. Mason arrive, Harry is sent to his bedroom. Harry is shocked to find someone sitting on the bed.

Analysis
As will become the series' usual framework, the first chapter recaps the previous book, while the Dursleys, earlier called "the worst sort of Muggles" by Professor McGonagall, reinforce the contrast between Harry's magical world and his family's mundane Muggle household. Although Harry now has his own bedroom (Dudley's "spare" one) rather than sleeping in the cupboard under the stairs, his overall life has hardly improved. Here, we see how his enforced non-magical life causes him spiritual poverty and deprivation, as he endures the long weeks before he can return to school. He is still physically mistreated, being nearly starved while Dudley grows even fatter. The Dursleys, crueler than ever, make his life as miserable as they can away from Hogwarts, a place he not only loves, but one which represents a world where he is not only celebrated for his (unwanted) fame, but valued for his own self and individual talents. In the Wizarding world, he is among his own kind, and is not considered as a freak. However, once he returns to Privet Drive, his magical abilities again make him strange and abnormal to his family, and anything tying him to that world is forbidden or securely locked away. Even Hedwig must remain in her cage.

Harry has coped with his abusive treatment in various ways: by ignoring his family as they ignore him, and occasionally standing up for himself. A slight change in Harry's personality can be seen here, however. A year ago, his rebellions were limited to minor jabs at Dudley; he would never have deliberately provoked Vernon or Petunia, fearing reprisals. Now he deliberately taunts them. Harry's demeanor and self-confidence will continue to develop throughout the series, and his position within the household gradually changes as Harry becomes less passive-aggressive and more assertive in his self-defence. It is also gradually dawning on him that being a wizard makes him a powerful being that his family will eventually come to fear. Undermining all this right now is Harry's unhappy homelife being made even more glum when it seems his new-found Hogwarts friends have already abandoned him.

Another aspect of the Dursleys is exposed—they are scheming social climbers. Their ambitious plans for entertaining the Masons, as we, and Harry, see, are extremely sycophantic, and would irritate any person with even a near-average intelligence. One wonders how Vernon was ever able to earn a living, if this represents the quality of his sales pitch. This also indicates Vernon's shallow thought processes. Believing that he would like to be treated in such a condescending manner, he assumes Mr. Mason would prefer the same.

It is unknown yet who or what the green eyes belong to, but it is likely related to the Wizarding realm creeping into Harry's enforced Muggle confinement. Whether or not there is any imminent danger to Harry remains to be seen, though he is alert to that possibility.

Review

 * 1) Have Dudley, Uncle Vernon, and Aunt Petunia changed from the previous year? If so, how?
 * 2) Why is Harry's even mentioning the word "magic" sufficient reason for him to be punished?

Further Study

 * 1) Harry notices large, green eyes staring at him from the hedge. What or who might Harry think this could be?
 * 2) Why have Harry's friends not written and ignored his birthday?
 * 3) Now that Harry has completed his first year at Hogwarts, has his relationship with the Dursleys changed? If so, how? Explain how and why it might continue to change.

Greater Picture
The green eyes in the hedge belong to Dobby, a House-elf. Dobby, who is even now sitting on Harry's bed, will be an important character in this book and throughout the series.

This chapter focuses on the Dursleys, Harry's family that he must live with each summer. We see how they remain stolidly pinned to the fabric of everyday Muggle life, and are slaves to the impression they can make on their neighbours and associates. As the series progresses, we will see some positive character growth and change in cousin Dudley, as he eventually realizes there may be some good in magic, and even in Harry. Vernon and Petunia will remain stubbornly convinced that magic is an abomination, although, over time, we will see that their distaste becomes overwhelmed by fear. Petunia's hatred of the Wizarding world is actually motivated by jealousy and rejection, as revealed in the last book. Vernon likely became Petunia's husband because he was the least magical person she could find.

Connections

 * We learn much later why Harry had to return to the Dursleys every summer: the protection that had resulted from his mother dying for him would only remain in force as long as he had a home protected by his mother's blood, in this case Petunia. While this protection remains with Harry into the seventh book of the series, it is only in the fifth book that it is explained. And while the protection in question underpins the entire series, and is hinted at as early as the first chapter of the series, it is only in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that it is explicitly mentioned.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Chess/Playing The Game

Forced Draws?
In the section on the game ending, it appears to say that the game is drawn for insufficient material, 50 moves without a capture, etc. only if one of the players declares the game a draw. I was under the impression that this drew the game whether a player declared it drawn or not. Which is it? If the first one is correct, I'll leave it as it is, if the second version is correct I'll change the wording to be clearer.

Castling
As I am new here (although not new to Wikipedia) I'll post this on the talk page. I believe it is easier for students (new chess players) to learn and remember Castling if it is said somehow differently:
 * A player moves his rook to the first free square next to the king, and subsequently, on the same turn, move the king to the first free square next to the rook (both king and queenside).

I also made new pictures that show this, if you don't like that you may revert the previous versions. BTW great job for the chess manual, thumbs up, keep up the good work. --5ko 01:14, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

In chess you should move the piece you touch. If you move the rook first it is an ambigous move. You could mean to move the rook only and you could mean to castle. Therefore you should always move the king first, two places towards the rook. In that case it evident that your move could only be castling.
 * I think the original way is clearer. It's easier to remember that castling starts by the king moving two squares either left or right. Irrevenant 10:15, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

jkanters

the rules say castle early but everything is subject to change and debate (except moral relativism); castling early is not necessarily good move; there are games where you dont castle at all and still have good position when you want to usd the king for the endgame, by gaining tempo!!! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.139.205.107 (talk • contribs) 21:14, 23 January 2020 (UTC)

Regarding Kings
I've played a few casual games where we agreed that my opponent or I could move his/my King adajacent to my/his King if my/his King would place itself in check if it captured his/my King. Is this an exception to the "the Kings may not be adajacent to each other" rule? Or is our logic flawed?--SimRPGman 08:54, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

No it is never allowed for two kings to be adjacent. (In blitzchess it actually happens because of the hurry of the players and the first player to see it can take the others king)

jkanters

There's an error in diagram Chess_d44.png, showing a King's possible moves. The diagram shows d5 as an available move, but that square is covered by the Queen.

Suggestions on grammar
I suggest that instances of "he or she", "his or her", and "his" and "he" be replaced with "they/their" for more gender neutrality, as "he/she" excludes those who do not fall in the gender binary.

title: Talk:Chess/Playing The Game


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A-level Mathematics/OCR/C2/Trigonometric Functions

The Law of Cosines
Pythagoras theory only applies to right triangles, the law of cosines will apply to any triangle. When you have a right triangle it reduces to the same formula as given by Pythagoras theorem. For any triangle ABC with angle measurement $$\alpha$$, $$\beta$$, $$\gamma$$ and sides of length a,b,c.

$$a^2=b^2 + c^2 - 2bc \cos \alpha \,$$ $$b^2=a^2 + c^2 - 2ac \cos \beta \,$$ $$c^2=a^2 + b^2 - 2ab \cos \gamma \,$$

Example

What is the value of c when a = 4 cm, b = 8 cm, and $$\gamma$$ is equal to $$64^\circ$$. $$c^2=4^2 + 8^2 - 2 \times 4 \times 8 \cos 64^\circ \,$$

$$c^2 = 53\,$$

$$c \approx 7.28\ cm$$

The Law of Sines
For any triangle ABC with angle measurement $$\alpha$$, $$\beta$$, $$\gamma$$ and sides of length a,b,c.

$$\frac {a}{\sin \alpha} = \frac{b}{\sin \beta} = \frac {c}{\sin \gamma}$$

Example If Angle α is $$45^\circ$$, Angle β is $$24^\circ$$ and Side b is 3 cm, what is the length of side a?

$$\frac {a}{\sin 45^\circ} = \frac{3}{\sin 24^\circ}$$

$$a \times \sin 24^\circ = 3 \times \sin 45^\circ$$

$$a= \frac{3 \times \sin 45^\circ}{\sin 24^\circ} \approx 5.22\ \mbox{cm}$$

Area of a Triangle
For any triangle the area is one-half the product of two sides with the sine of the included angle. If the included angle is a right angle, then this reduces to the formula for the area of a right triangle, since $$\sin 90^\circ= 1$$

$$Area = \frac{1}{2}bc \sin \alpha \,$$

$$Area = \frac{1}{2}ac \sin \beta \,$$

$$Area = \frac{1}{2}ab \sin \gamma \,$$

Example:

What is the area of triangle when a = 4 cm, b = 8 cm, and $$\gamma$$ is equal to $$20^\circ$$.

$$Area = \frac{1}{2}\times 4 \times 8 \times \sin 20^\circ\, \approx 5.47\ \mbox{cm}^2$$

Pythagoras Identity
$$\sin ^2 \theta + \cos ^2 \theta = 1 \,$$

Proof:

We use the pythagorean theory:

$$a^2 + b^2 = c^2\,$$

Now we divide by $$c^2$$:

$$\frac {a^2}{c^2} + \frac {b^2}{c^2} = \frac {c^2}{c^2}\,$$

We get:

$$\frac {a^2}{c^2} + \frac {b^2}{c^2} = 1\,$$

We can write this as:

$$\sin ^2 \theta + \cos ^2 \theta = 1 \,$$

A good way to think of this of is $$opposite^2 + adjacent^2 = hypotenuse^2 = \frac{opposite^2}{hypotenuse^2} + \frac{adjacent^2}{hypotenuse^2} = 1$$

A Practical Example
Find all the values of x between 0 rad and 2π rad  that satisfy the relationship $$15\sin^2\left(x\right) = \cos\left(x\right) + 13$$.

Using the Pythagoras Identity we get:

$$15\left(1 - \cos^2\left(x\right)\right) = \cos\left(x\right) + 13$$

Now we can simplify:

$$15\cos^2\left(x\right) - \cos\left(x\right) - 2 = 0$$

It is more covinent to replace cos(x) with u:

$$15u^2 - u - 2 = 0\,$$

Then we factor the expression

$$\left(5u + 2\right)\left(3u - 1\right) = 0$$

$$\cos\left(x\right) = \frac{-2}{5}\ or\ \frac{1}{3}$$

In order to determine what x is we need to use $$\cos^{-1}\left(x\right)$$ on our calculators.

$$\cos^{-1}\left(\frac{-2}{5}\right) \approx 1.9823\ rad$$

$$\cos^{-1}\left(\frac{1}{3}\right) \approx 1.2310\ rad$$

But we need to remember that in the interval 2π the cosine function will have the same in 2π - x.

2π rad - 1.2310 rad = 5.0222 rad

2π rad - 1.9823 rad = 4.3009 rad

So the complete answer is 1.2310 rad, 1.9823 rad, 4.3009 rad, and 5.0222 rad.

Tangent Identity
$$\tan \theta = \frac{\sin \theta}{\cos \theta}$$

Proof:

$$\tan \theta = \frac{a}{b}$$

Then we can divide both the numerator and the denominator by c

$$\tan \theta = \frac {\frac {a}{c}}{ \frac {b}{c}}$$

We can write this as:

$$\tan \theta = \frac{\sin \theta}{\cos \theta}$$

Example
sin(x) = 4cos(x) solve for sin(x). All units are in radians.

We divide both sides by cos x and we get the identity

tan(x)=4

We use the $$tan^{-1}(x) $$ to get that x = 1.3258 rad.

Now we can solve for sin(x):

sin(x) = 4cos(1.3258 rad) = 4*.2425 rad = .9701 rad.

Matemática elementar/Trigonometria/Funções trigonométricas


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Digital Signal Processing/Discrete Operations

There are a number of different operations that can be performed on discrete data sets.

Arithmetic
Let's say that we have 2 data sets, A[n] and B[n]. We will define these two sets to have the following values:

A[n] = [W X& Y Z] B[n] = [I J& K L]

Arithmetic operations on discrete data sets are performed on an item-by-item basis. Here are some examples:

Addition
A[n] + B[n] = [(W+I) (X+J)& (Y+K) (Z+L)]

If the zero positions don't line up (like they conveniently do in our example), we need to manually line up the zero positions before we add.

Subtraction
A[n] - B[n] = [(W-I) (X-J)& (Y-K) (Z-L)]

Same as addition, only we subtract.

Multiplication
In this situation, we are using the "asterisk" (*) to denote multiplication. Realistically, we should use the "$$\times$$" symbol for multiplication. In later examples, we will use the asterisk for other operations.

A[n] * B[n] = [(W*I) (X*J)& (Y*K) (Z*L)]

Division
A[n] / B[n] = [(W/I) (X/J)& (Y/K) (Z/L)]

Even though we are using the square brackets for discrete data sets, they should NOT be confused with matrices. These are not matrices, and we do not perform matrix operations on these sets.

Time-Shifting
If we time-shift a discrete data set, we essentially are moving the zero-time reference point of the set. The zero point represents "now", creates the starting point of our view of the data, and the point's location is typically established by a need of the processing we're involved in.

Let's say we have the data set F[n] with the values:

F[n] = [1 2 3& 4 5 ]

Then we can shift this set backwards by 1 data point as such:

F[n-1] = [1 2& 3 4 5]

We can shift the data forward by 1 data point in a similar manner:

F[n+1] = [1 2 3 4& 5]

Discrete data values are time oriented. Values to the right of the zero point are called "future values", and values to the left are "past values". When the data set is populated on both sides of the zero reference, "future" and "past" are synthetic terms relative to the zero point "now", and don't refer to current physical time. In this context, the data values have already been collected and, as such, can only come from our past.

It is important to understand that a physically-realizable digital system that is still receiving data cannot perform operations on future values. It makes no sense to require a future value in order to make a calculation, because such systems are often getting input from a sensor in real-time, and future values simply don't exist.

Time Inversion
Let's say that we have the same data set, F[n]:

F[n] = [1 2 3& 4 5]

We can invert the data set as such:

F[-n] = [5 4 3& 2 1]

We keep the zero point in the same place, and we flip all the data items around. in essence, we are taking a mirror image of the data set, and the zero point is the mirror.

Convolution
Convolution is a much easier operation in the discrete time domain than in the continuous time domain. Let's say we have two data sets, A[n] and B[n]:

A[n] = [1& 0 1 2] B[n] = [2& 2 2 1]

We will denote convolution with the asterisk (*) in this section; it isn't "multiplication" here. Our convolution function is shown like this: Y[n] = A[n] * B[n] and it specifies that we will store our convolution values in the set named Y[n].

Convolution is performed by following a series of steps involving both sets of data points. First, we time invert one of the data sets. It doesn't matter which one, so we can pick the easiest choice:

A[n] = [1& 0 1 2] B[-n] = [1 2 2 2&]

Next, we line up the data vertically so that only one data item overlaps:

A[n] ->       [1& 0 1 2] B[-n] -> [1 2 2 2&]

Now, we are going to zero-pad both sets, making them equal length, putting zeros in open positions as needed:

A[n] -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n] -> [1 2 2 2& 0 0 0]

Now, we will multiply the contents of each column, and add them together:

A[n] -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n] -> [1 2 2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m] = $$1 \times 2$$

This gives us the first data point: Y[m] = [2].

Next, we need to time shift B[-n] forward in time by one point, and do the same process: multiply the columns, and add:

A[n]   -> [0 0 0 1& 0  1 2] B[-n-1] ->  [1 2 2  2& 0 0 0] Y[m+1] = $$1 \times 2$$

Repeat the "time shift, multiply, and add" steps until no more data points overlap.

A[n]   -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1  2] B[-n-2] ->    [1 2  2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m+2] = $$1 \times 2 + 1 \times 2$$

A[n]   -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n-3] ->      [1  2 2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m+3] = $$1 \times 1 + 1 \times 2 + 2 \times 2$$

A[n]   -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n-4] ->         [1 2 2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m+4] = $$1 \times 2 + 2 \times 2$$

A[n] -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n] ->           [1 2 2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m+5] = $$1 \times 1 + 2 \times 2$$

A[n]   -> [0 0 0 1& 0 1 2] B[-n+6] ->             [1 2 2 2& 0 0 0] Y[m+6] = $$1 \times 2$$

Now we have our full set of data points, Y[m]:

Y[m] = [2 2 4 7 6 5 2]

We have our values, but where do we put the zero point? It turns out that the zero point of the result occurs where the zero points of the two operands overlapped in our shift calculations. The result set becomes:

Y[n] = [2& 2 4 7 6 5 2]

It is important to note that the length of the result set is the sum of the lengths of the unpadded operands, minus 1. Or, if you prefer, the length of the result set is the same as either of the zero-padded sets (since they are equal length).

Discrete Operations in Matlab/Octave
These discrete operations can all be performed in Matlab, using special operators.

 * Division and Multiplication : Matlab is matrix-based, and therefore the normal multiplication and division operations will be the matrix operations, which are not what we want to do in DSP. To multiply items on a per-item basis, we need to prepend the operators with a period. For instance:

Y = X .* H %X times H  Y = X ./ H  %X divided by H

If we forget the period, Matlab will attempt a matrix operation, and will alert you that the dimensions of the matrixes are incompatible with the operator.

 * Convolution : The convolution operation can be performed with the conv command in Matlab. For instance, if we wanted to compute the convolution of X[n] and H[n], we would use the following Matlab code:

Y = conv(X, H);

or

Y = conv(H, X);

Difference Calculus
When working with discrete sets, you might wonder exactly how we would perform calculus in the discrete time domain. In fact, we should wonder if calculus as we know it is possible at all! It turns out that in the discrete time domain, we can use several techniques to approximate the calculus operations of differentiation and integration. We call these techniques Difference Calculus.

Derivatives
What is differentiation exactly? In the continuous time domain, the derivative of a function is the slope of the function at any given point in time. To find the derivative, then, of a discrete time signal, we need to find the slope of the discrete data set.

The data points in the discrete time domain can be treated as geometrical points, and we know that any two points define a unique line. We can then use the algebraic equation to solve for the slope, m, of the line:

 * $$m = \frac{\Delta f(t)}{\Delta t}$$

Now, in the discrete time domain, f(t) is sampled and replaced by F[n]. We also know that in discrete time, the difference in time between any two points is exactly 1 unit of time! With this mind, we can plug these values into our above equation:

 * $$m = \frac{\Delta F\left[n\right]}{1}$$

or simply:

 * $$m = F\left[n+1\right] - F\left[n\right]$$

We can then time-shift the entire equation one point to the left, so that our equation doesn't require any future values:

 * $$m = F\left[n\right] - F\left[n-1\right]$$

The derivative can be found by subtracting time-shifted (delayed) versions of the function from itself.

Difference Calculus Equations
Difference calculus equations are arithmetic equations, with a few key components. Let's take an example:

 * $$Y\left[n\right] = X\left[n\right] - 2X\left[n-1\right] + 5X\left[n-2\right]$$

We can see in this equation that X[n-1] has a coefficient of 2, and X[n-2] has a coefficient of 5. In difference Calculus, the coefficients are known as "tap weights". We will see why they are called tap weights in later chapters about digital filters.


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Russian/Lesson 4

Russian Mental Picture Dictionary
These memory aids aren't true! They're nonsense made up to help you remember the meanings of Russian words.

title: Russian/Lesson 4


text:
User:Athgorn~enwikibooks

I plan to work on stuff.

I'll probably add to the C/C++ section, as well as some stuff on java.

After that...Auto and motorcycle repair?

wait...was this suppose to be a book on me?

title: User:Athgorn~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Devanagari

Untitled
In Devanagari, the placement of consonants in alphabetical order are horizontally grouped vaguely in accordance with the body part where their sounds originate from.

The meaning of phrase I have italicised is not obvious.

Teaching Devanagari
I would really like to see lessons teaching how to read and write Devanagari step-by-step. It's too hard to learn from an overview of letters. Lack of examples is another problem, but even if there were examples afterwards the learning situation would be far from perfect because the student would still have to memorise all letters at once in order to be able to begin practising.

What I have found really useful when learning non-Latin alphabets is a "divide and conquer" method that introduces few letters at a time and offers example words for practise immediately after each letter / each set of letters. What's even better is if those example words are understandable without prior knowledge of the language, that is, international words. For example: names of countries, cities or famous people (if their name isn't spelled significantly different in Devanagari than in English), common personal names, Indian words that have entered English, English words that are used in Indian languages, words that both have derived from Greek or Latin... The advantage of using these words is that students will be able to quickly see their own progress and the whole learning process becomes as fascinating as solving a puzzle. See the "Read Write and Pronounce Greek" lessons in the Modern Greek Wikibook for an example, or this external page on Cyrillic.

If you'd like to try this approach for teaching how to write Devanagari, I'd be glad to help you, even though I don't know it yet (I'd learn it though and I have learned a variety of foreign alphabets already). Just create a big list of suitable words on a planning page like Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan, answer me here and I'll try to find an optimal order for letters.

Thanks for your efforts to teach a language that is hard to find in European schools!

Junesun 16:42, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

P.S.: If there's somebody generally unsure about how to create good language lessons, I really recommend reading the following two pages about it: Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks and Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks/Bite-sized language lessons.

Ligatures Chart
Isn't the section on ligatures a bit misleading? There is a chart showing, for example, 'kakAra + virAma + akAra = kakAra', which, if you stop to think about it, doesn't make much sense. A kAra includes the vocal 'a', and virAma is added to the sign to remove it and obtain a 'crude' consonant. The way it is now, it basically says '2 + -1 + 1 = 2'.

Please check this entry - पित (pati, husband) should this be spelled पति ? Thanks ....

Uh, the spelling for the word "pati, husband" is पित and not पति. Most of the words with "ि " were wrongly spelled so I corrected them, having nothing better to do.

The "ि " is called "hraswa E" or short E. The ि is placed before a consonant as in पित and not पति which is nonsensical and to a native speaker of Nepali, Hindi etc., a mistake made in primary school.

I'll include some examples.

क + ि  = िक

क +  ी = की

Some other mistakes that I found were to the tune of:

टिका which should have been िटका (tika)

ट + ि = िट

क + ा = का

Something like िका does not make sense.

If you want to write something that sounds like "ki-aa" you write िकआ. Please note that I made up this word.

Also, the above consonants, before the vowels are added to them are written with a small hyphen like mark under them like in क् called "halanta". I did not do so becuase I find it difficult to

type in Devnagari and the idea of copy pasting the little bugger every time came to my idea as I finish this paragraph.

Edit 1: There are other other mistakes like पति  at http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hindi:Family_relations which I'm convinced you enthusiasts will correct.

Edit 2: I find out lack of something called "rendering support" in my browser has been letting me down, displaying things like पति.

Short i (ि) and rendering support
Some browsers (including, in my experience, Firefox on Linux) lack rendering support and will in particular not display the devanagari short i correctly. This may lead contributors to mess up the text in good faith, thinking they are fixing it. I just reverted a series of such edits. If this: पण्डित reads like the word "pandit", then your browser renders Indic text correctly. Linzer 05:25, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

The word pati, husband, should be spelled as पति and NOT पित which would make it pit. (entry in the third paragraph below the ligatures chart).

title: Talk:Devanagari


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Internet Technologies/Embedded technologies

Embedded technologies
Embedded Technologies in the context of the internet are stand-alone programs and plugins that extend the normal functionality of a web page. Java, Shockwave Flashtm, audio and video players are all examples of embedded technologies that can assist creating a web site.


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Talk:Russian/Lesson 4

Order
Perhaps these should be sorted by part of speech and meaning, rather than alphabetically. Snargle 05:58, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

bad, bad idea
I was astonished to find such an alphabetical list of words titled as "lesson 4". That title gives the impression of a serious lesson to be used to seriously learn a language. I dont see this is the case with this article. I know it says "These memory aids aren't true! They're nonsense made up to help you remember the meanings of Russian words" but then the article should not be titled as "lesson 4" And actually I dont see the use of nonsense memory aids. There are two things about this list I would like to criticise.

1) I criticise aide memoire as used in this article. Let me tell you why by using an example:

Где;	 	Where;	G'dyeh;

Australians are always late. The Australian greeting "G'day" doesn't mean "Good day," it means "Where were you?"

The first line is alright. There you have the russian word, the translation and an attempt to write the soundprofile in english. It is the second line I dont think is suitable. I think it makes the process of learning a language more difficult than necessary. What do australians have to do with russian? What does "G`day" have to do with Где? These are associations you dont need because they are meaningless.

What in fact will happen if you use that method is remembering similar sounds as:

"Где=G`day"

Sorry to say this, but this association is wrong.

What you should remember is

"Где= where".

Nothing more and nothing less. You dont need australians to remember this. You can write and say "Где" three times, then you should have it stored in your memory. And if you really want to make sure that you remember Где you can construct a sentence of your own using that word. You might think this way of learning is old fashioned and boring, but it is working. And it leaves space for more important associations you will have to store in your memory later on.

Your associations with the word Где later on should be like this:

-"Где=where"

"when answering to a question containing Где, the 6th case is used"

-"куда=where to. that is motion towards thus the 4th case is used"

Any australians or "G`days" are only in the way, it is luggage you dont need.

2) My second point of criticism is the alphabetical order of this list. Do you only want to learn the order of letters in the russian alphabet then go ahead, its fine. Do you intend to learn the vocabulary (as i suppose was the intention of this list) then you should forget about alphabetical order and gather words in groups of topics. For example would one topic be titled "saying hello" and would contain Доброе утро (good morning), Добрый день (good afternoon) and Здравствуйте (be greeted). Your brain is better at storing vocabulary by topic than by alphabet.

I conclude that such an alphabetical list of words is a bad, bad idea when you are aiming at learning a language properly. so, could somebody rename this article and call it something like "a fake-lesson 4" or "funny list of words (not to be taken seriously)"? Please stop people from clogging their brains with australians and G`days. thank you.

 * Alphabetical lists of words are needed when you read or hear a word you don't know, and want to look it up. That's what Russian-English dictionaries are for. I agree that words are best learned in groups; that's why there's a page with all the colors, all the furniture words, etc. Ideally we'll have both subject groups and an alphabetical dictionary for all words.

 * Regarding "mental picture" memory association aids, that's how human brains work. We learn things by associating a new item with an item we already know. Native Russians try to teach Russian by associating words, e.g., the word for "stairway" contains the word for "forest" and literally means "forest of stairs." That works well if you knew the word for "forest." 3rd- and 4th-year students associate new Russian words with Russian words they already know. But if you're a 1st-year student and don't know the word for "forest," then thinking of a "forest of stairs" isn't going to help you remember "stairway." If you know Latin, French, and German (and English) you can associate many Russian words with words you know, because so much of Russian is borrowed from other languages. But if you only know English, then you're left associating Russian words with English words that sound like the Russian words. Sometimes the associations are straightforward, e.g., all Russian houses have big domes like you see on Russian churches, so the word for "house" sounds like "dome." But other associations are difficult. "Gde" sounds just like an English (actually, Australian) phrase we all know, but the meaning is entirely different.

 * Usually you can use the "mental picture" memory aid for a few weeks, and than you know the word and forget the mental picture. This technique is recommended by teachers of many foreign languages (e.g., the book "How To Learn Any Foreign Language" has a chapter about this). And a side benefit is that Russians love to hear Americans' "mental pictures." You can entertain a Russian friend by explaining that Russians never take their shirts off outdoors so they all have white bellies ("belly" means "white"), etc.--Thomas David Kehoe 18:06, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

Hm.
I see that whoever wrote the page has the annoying habit of some russian books to leave the two dots off of e.( like in the word for actor). This makes the pronounciation misleading.

Oh, and also, "zdrastvuj". Is I guess semi-formal. It's not as easy or carefree as "privet", yet not as formal as "zdravstvujte". Ladywater 06:43, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

Please mark the stress on those words!
Without the stress, I'm forced to look it up for every word, that would take forever!

title: Talk:Russian/Lesson 4


text:
RC Airplane

This is a work in progress, please contribute!

Building and flying radio controlled aircraft is a very satisfying hobby to pursue, but can be very complicated for a beginner. If you are serious about it, the best possible path to go down is to join a club and meet some experienced flyers who can help you.

Clubs
If you want to fly anything more than a small electric park flyer, it is almost essential that you join a club. The experienced hobbyists in a club generally extend a warm welcome to beginners, and make great efforts to help them learn about the models and equipment, and how best to install and set them up. They help newcomers avoid disappointment and painful and expensive mistakes. They generally offer first rate flying tuition at no expense beyond that of buying your R/C trainer and joining the club and your national organisation (see below).

Most clubs belong to a national body representing the hobby, so members are covered by insurance and safe flying conditions can be maintained. You can contact the following bodies for information on local clubs.
 * USA: Academy of Model Aeronautics
 * Canada: Model Aeronautics Association of Canada
 * UK: British Model Flying Association
 * New Zealand: New Zealand Model Aeronautical Association
 * Australia: Model Aeronautical Association of Australia

It's possible to learn to fly R/C planes without a club, but at the very least do find a friend to show you the ropes -- a little time spent in instruction can save hours of frustration. Flight simulators are becoming more and more popular amongst beginners. Those will be explained later in those lines.

General information

 * How a plane works
 * /RC electronics/
 * Remote Control Auto-pilot mechanism

Getting a plane

 * /Choosing a plane/
 * /Where to buy/

/Building/

 * /Building almost ready to fly kits/
 * /Building from a kit/
 * /Building from a plan/
 * /Building SPADs/
 * /Control surfaces and linkages/
 * /Propellers/
 * /Covering, painting and applying decals/
 * /Balancing the plane/

Flying

 * /Before you fly/
 * /Pre-flight checks/
 * /Basic controls/
 * /Basic maneuvers/
 * /Aerobatic maneuvers/
 * Gliders

title: RC Airplane


text:
Japanese/Grammar/Honorific prefixes

Meaning
お o- is an exalted prefix. It shows respect for the individual or object to whom it pertains. ご go- plays a similar role, being attached to a separate group of words as explained below. Both お o- and ご go- can be written as 御.

Translation
There is no equivalent in English. In translation it is either dropped, or (when appropriate) translated as your, etc.

Usage
お o- can be applied to nouns, na-adjectives, i-adjectives, and verbs.

Because お o is exalted, it is not used on or about the speaker. For example,

 * おですか. O-genki desu ka?

is the formal way of asking "How are you." The normal response is

 * です. Genki desu.

In the first example, person A is exalting person B by placing the exalted prefix お o- in front of the word genki, which refers to person B's health. In the response, person B omits the お o- prefix because he does not wish to exalt himself.

Note that お o- is usually only applied to words of Japanese origin, and most Sino-Japanese words take the honorific prefix go- instead, as in  master/husband. ( genki is a notable exception.)

Examples
Words that commonly use お o- or go- include:

Nouns

 * お o-cha "tea"
 * お o-mizu "water"
 * お o-shigoto "job"
 * お o-uchi "home"
 * お o-heya "room"
 * おさん otousan "father"
 * おさん okaasan "mother"
 * おさん oniisan "older brother"
 * おさん oneesan "older sister"
 * おさん ojiisan "grandfather"
 * おさん obaasan "grandmother"
 * おさん o-ko-san "child"
 * ご go-shujin "master/husband (of the person who is spoken to)"
 * ご go-han "meal or (cooked) rice"

Na-Adjectives

 * お o-genki "healthy"
 * お o-suki "liked"

I-Adjectives

 * お o-hayai "early"

Verbs

 * お o-hairi "Please enter."
 * お o-suwari "Please sit."

title: Japanese/Grammar/Honorific prefixes


text:
Talk:Using KDE

 * Please try to write the features and all others in one page so that we slow dialup users can safely save it and read afterwards
 * This book needs to revised heavily to cover both KDE 3.5.x and KDE 4.x

title: Talk:Using KDE


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4

Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4

This is the main line.

Theory table
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4

= Open Sicilian with 2...Nc6 = Here White is moving a piece that is already developed, so they are playing an opening move that does not help their development. They are capturing a pawn, however it is anticipated that Black can capture White's pawn when White played 3.d4. In return for neglecting development White is getting a centrally located knight, and Black neglected development when they made two moves with the same pawn.

A good point here is it is bad for Black to trade knights on d4, and it also bad for White to trade knights on c6. If Black plays 4. ... Nxd4 followed by 5. Qxd4 White will have better control of the center and Black cannot easily chase away the White queen because the Knight that was on b8 has been traded. Also if White plays 5.Nxc6 then black can play 5. ...bxc6 which will strengthen Black's center and prepares for the d7-d5 push.

Theory table
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6

=Sicilian - Accelerated Dragon= Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6

 * /5. c4/: Maroczy Bind
 * /5. Nc3/: Accelerated Dragon, Modern Variation
 * /5. Nxc6/: Accelerated Dragon, Exchange Variation

Theory table
'''1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4. Nxd4 g6'''


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4

= Sicilian Defence, Maróczy Bind = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4

 * /5...Nf6/: Maroczy Bind, 5...Nf6
 * /5...Bg7/: Maroczy Bind, 5...Bg7


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4/5...Bg7

= Sicilian Defence, Maroczy Bind = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4 Bg7

 * /6. Be3/: Maroczy Bind, 6.Be3


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4/5...Bg7/6. Be3

= Sicilian Defence, Maroczy Bind = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4 Bg7 6.Be3
 * /6...Nf6/:


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4/5...Bg7/6. Be3/6...Nf6

= Sicilian Defence, Maroczy Bind = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4 Bg7 6.Be3 Nf6
 * /7. Nc3/:


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4/5...Bg7/6. Be3/6...Nf6/7. Nc3

= Sicilian Defence, Maroczy Bind =

Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4 Bg7 6.Be3 Nf6 7.Nc3
 * /7...Ng4/: Breyer Variation


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...g6/5. c4/5...Bg7/6. Be3/6...Nf6/7. Nc3/7...Ng4

=Maroczy Bind, Breyer Variation= Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 g6 5.c4 Bg7 6.Be3 Nf6 7.Nc3 Ng4

This opening is ECO code B39.


text:
RC Airplane/Choosing a plane

Selecting the proper plane for a budget, experience and purpose can be key to enjoying the hobby. If you get the wrong thing, you will only end up with frustration and disappointment.

Ready to fly
Ready to fly (RTF) models are popular amongst park fliers. They come ready made, with all the electronics and radio equipment installed for you. All that needs to be done is charge up the batteries. Whilst they can be useful for learning the basics of how to fly, they can quickly become boring to the pilot as his/her skill progresses.

However, is worth watching out for cheap, mass produced, poorly constructed models.

Almost ready to fly
Almost ready to fly (ARTF) models have become very popular, especially for trainers. These come mostly built, and it is only a matter of assembling the major components (i.e. joining and attaching the wings and tail surfaces to the fuselage) and installing your radio equipment and engine.

Kit
Kits vary enormously in the demands that they make of the builder. Some require considerable expertise and investment of time, while others (like the recent breed of interlocking laser-cut kits) can be assembled as quickly as a simple jigsaw puzzle. The choice of materials is almost unlimited. Traditionally, kits mainly used balsa and a few plywood parts. Polystyrene foam then became common, as did countless combinations of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), expanded polypropylene (EPP), carbon fibre and other modern materials.

The assembly of kits requires an extensive range of adhesives, with cyanoacrylate being popular, as well as two-part epoxy, PVA and others.

Plan
Any type of model can be built from a plan. Plans can be highly detailed or basic in the extreme, requiring all different levels of experience. It is common for RC airplane magazines to include 'free' plans as a selling point, often on a monthly basis. Most larger publications in the hobby also maintain back catalogues of plans, which can be ordered by those who wish to build from them, or refer to them. Many plans are also available for free online, though quality is extremely variable. Hobbyists must also be aware that a significant number of plans available for download have been scanned and made available in breach of copyright.

SPAD
A relatively recent developement, SPAD stands for Simple Plastic Airplane Design. Whilst it is primarily a method of model airplane construction, SPAD is more of a design philosophy that goes like this:

"Spad is the simple concept of offering free plans and ideas for designing very cheap, great flying airplanes made from Coroplast, gutterpipe, aluminum, or anything else we can find that works! The Spad concept is also the world wide sharing of these ideas and most of all, having fun with our hobby!"

This is a quote from spadtothebone a vast resource of plans and information on spads.

SPAD is a reversal of the trend towards better looking, very complex and very delicate models. SPADs are often extremely ugly, built out of materials such as waste plastic, PVC downpipe, correx (or coroplast in the USA - more on this later) or aluminium channel. Although they may not look beautiful, they can be made to fly extremely well, and are unbelievably tough.

Electric or Glow (gas)
Years ago gas airplanes were the norm. Most fields which fly gas airplanes require membership and registration with the AMA. However, recently with the advent of LiPo batteries and brushless motors, electric parkflyers are becoming common place. Electric parkflyers can often be flown in local parks or fields and often are less expensive than a gas plane. When it comes to very large scale airplanes, gas is far more prevalent.

Powered flight
A simple, high winged trainer is the best thing to get if you are new to the hobby. ARTFs are very popular, since your trainer will probably suffer the odd bump.

Gliders
A large rudder/elevator soarer or simple aileron trainer are the best things to get. Almost indestructable expanded polypropylene (EPP) models have become very popular for learning.

Flying Wings
Flying wings (often referred to as Delta Wings due to their triangular shape) are generally more for experienced pilot who enjoy high speed flying. These airplanes are capable of very high speeds and are usually are more controllable in windy conditions. The motor is often a rear mounted (some gas models have a front propeller) high rpm motor which turns a relatively smaller propeller. Most of these have no landing gear and require special channel mixing of the ailerons/elevator.

Warbirds
This is the common term referring to WWII era aircraft. Most Warbirds are for experienced pilots who like scale detail. These planes are often quite fast and execute most aerobatic maneuvers gracefully.

3D
Very light, highly maneuverable aerobatic airplanes. These planes perform aerobatic maneuvers and flight patterns at minimal speeds. Some of these are even flown inside gymnasiums! Often made of flat, uncontoured Styrofoam these planes usually offer little or no scale detail. These are usually for experienced modelers, however the ParkZone Typhoon 3D and the Great Planes U-can-Do 3D offer intermediate pilots an entry level start into 3D.

Size
If you have joined a club and have tuition, a larger trainer is probably the best solution. They will be easier to see and fly slower, making learning that much easier. However, they will be more expensive and will guzzle more fuel or batteries.

If you do not wish to join a club, do not get a large plane. Large planes can be extremely dangerous! You are probably best off getting something similar to a park flyer. If your interest is sufficiently captured, you may well find your attitude to organized flying changes.

Other things to consider:
 * Will it fit in your car?
 * Do you have enough space to build it in?
 * Electric or gas?

title: RC Airplane/Choosing a plane


text:
RC Airplane/RC electronics

There are many electronic parts in modern RC systems. Although much simpler and cheaper than older equipment, it can be very confusing for a beginner.

Electronic components
Whether an RC plane is gas or electric powered or a glider, there are some common electrical components that are required to control them.

All planes

 * A transmitter (also called a radio or controller) is a handheld device with joysticks, switches and an antenna that communicates with the receiver in your plane, allowing you to control it.
 * A receiver receives the signal from the transmitter and translates this into positions for servos and electronic speed controllers.
 * Servos control the position of control surfaces and other things (such as throttle).

Gas powered and gliders

 * A battery (normally NiCad or NiMH) to operate servos and receiver.

Electric powered

 * A battery (normally NiCad, NiMH or LiPo) to operate servos, receiver and motor.
 * An ESC (electronic speed controller) for controlling the speed of the electric motor.

A More Detailed Explanation of Components
Transmitter

The Transmitter is the most visible part of the system - anyone who has seen a radio control model being flown or operated is familiar with the rectangular box with an antenna protruding from the top and the left and right control sticks or joysticks. Costs for transmitters and receiver sets start from as low as US $ 25 right up to hundreds of dollars for the more sophisticated models.

Receiver

The Receiver is a small electronic unit that is capable of receiving the signals given by the transmitter. The receiver will only act on signals sent to it by its transmitter, most modern systems are capable of being operated with many other systems in the same flying area without interfering with one another.

A search for "RC receiver" in a search engine will yield information and photos of RC receivers. An RC hobby store will usually display a wide variety of receivers as well as transmitters and other components.

The receiver will have out put terminals for sending the signals received to the servos -these are electronic components that convert the current sent by the receiver to an movement - to move a rudder, aileron or an elevator. A point to note is unlike the earlier systems or simpler toy RC systems, the current sent out by the receiver is proportional to the movement of the control sticks on the transmitter so finer control can be exercised, not simply 'all or nothing ' control of an elevator or other control surface. To use the example of a radio controlled toy car, where the front wheels can be steered full left or full right or straight ahead, proportional controls enable the wheels to be steered in degrees, either a small correction or a full turn to the left or right and anything in between.

Servos

A servo is a device for moving a part of the model. Usually servos operate the rudder and elevator on a three channel model and the aileron as well on a four channel model. The throttle may be operated by a servo or on electric models it may be operated by a speed controller called an 'electronic speed controller' that plugs into the receiver. It connects to the motor, enabling it to change thrust.

title: RC Airplane/RC electronics


text:
RC Airplane/Propellers

Most powered model-aircraft, including electric, internal-combustion, and rubber-band powered models, generate thrust by spinning an airscrew. The propeller is a type of airscrew and is by far the most commonly used device. The blades of the rotating propeller push against the atmosphere, and by Newton's Third Law, the air's reactionary force pushes the aircraft.

As in full-size planes, the propeller's dimensions and placement (along the fuselage or wings) are factored into the design. In general, a large diameter and low-pitch offers greater thrust at low airspeed, while a small diameter and higher-pitch sacrifices thrust for a higher maximum-airspeed. In RC aircraft, the builder can choose from a wide selection of propellers, to tailor the plane's airborne characteristics. A mismatched propeller will compromise the aircraft's airworthiness, and if too heavy, inflict undue mechanical wear on the powerplant. Scale RC aircraft propellers are usually specified as diameter × pitch, given in inches. For example, a 5x3 propeller has a diameter of 5 inches, and a pitch of 3 inches. The pitch is the distance that the propeller would advance if turned through one revolution in a solid medium. Additional parameters are the number of blades (2 and 3 are the most common).

There are two different methods to transfer rotational-energy from the powerplant to the propeller.
 * With the direct-drive method, the propeller is attached directly on the engine's spinning crankshaft (or motor-rotor.) This arrangement is optimum when the propeller and powerplant share overlapping regions of best efficiency (measured in RPM.)

 * With the reduction method, the crankshaft drives a simple transmission, which is usually a simple gearbox containing a pinion and spur gear. The transmission decreases the output RPM by the gear ratio (thereby also increasing output torque by approximately the same ratio). Reduction-drive is common on larger aircraft and aircraft with disproportionately large propellers. On such powerplant arrangements, the transmission serves to match the powerplant's and propeller's optimum operating RPM. Geared propellers were once used very commonly on electric motors, but with the advent of brushless motors are rarely seen.

In some designs of aircraft, the propeller is replaced by a ducted fan unit. In jet-powered or ducted fan scale aircraft, the engine is a single-piece assembly with no user-changeable parts. The turbine-wheel spins at extremely high speed (>150,000 RPM), limiting most adjustments to the original factory.

Ornithopters are aircraft that may have a similar physical shape to a plane, but do not use airscrews at all. In ornithopters, the reciprocating-motion of the wing structure imitates the flapping-wings of living birds, producing both thrust and lift.

Propeller selection
Differences in propellers can drastically change flight characteristics, even if nothing else on the craft changes. Changes in pitch or length can adjust thrust but will also adjust the amount of strain on the powerplant. A prop with more blades creates more thrust if the prop turns at the same speed.

Some tips for propeller selection:
 * If a plane's cowl is low to the ground during takeoff or landing (short or no landing gear), a shorter prop with more blades can replace a longer prop and provide equal thrust.
 * The more air the prop moves, the more thrust is provided. A prop with a steeper pitch and/or wider blade will displace more air at the same speed. The more air displaced in each rotation, the more responsive the craft is in regard to its relative weight. 3D flyers require more air displacement in order to support the weight of the craft. A narrow prop with high pitch that may be used for racing can displace a lot of air at high RPMs but may not create enough displacement per rotation to be used for a higher drag bi-plane of the same wingspan.
 * If a prop is too long and/or too heavy, it can create a gyro effect which will counteract yaw and pitch and make the craft less responsive. A little gyro effect can be beneficial for stability, so this needs to be determined on a craft by craft basis.

title: RC Airplane/Propellers


text:
RC Airplane/Control surfaces and linkages

Control surfaces are movable surfaces that control the airplane. These are connected to servos with linkages. Getting these made carefully and accurately is essential to the success of your model.

Types of control surface

 * Aileron - on the wings controlling roll.
 * Elevator - on the horizontal tail controlling pitch (up and down).
 * Rudder - on the vertical tail controlling yaw (left and right).
 * Flaps - on the wing, but change the wing camber to increase lift (and drag) for landing.
 * Canard - a horizontal surface at the front of the plane that controls pitch. Much less common than elevators, but does the same thing.

Some of them are assigned multiple names depending on how they are used.

 * Flaperon - combined ailerons and flaps.
 * Elevon - combined elevator and ailerons (as used on deltas and flying wings).
 * Ailevator - moving separate elevators (in a similar way to elevons) combined with normal ailerons.
 * Ruddervator - combined rudder and elevator (as used on a V-tail).

Construction
Control surfaces for RC planes can be made from many different materials such as balsa wood, plywood, foam, corrugated plastic and sheet plastic. The structures should be strong and lightweight and have at least a portion of the surface that is solid so that a control horn can be attached.

Hinging and movement
Control surface hinges can be made out of various materials. Larger planes use traditional style hinges made from combinations of nylon, metal, fiberglass and plastic. Very small or lightweight planes will often use nothing more than clear plastic tape (packing tape) that is stuck to both the control surface and the frame. This requires that the opposite side of the joining control surface edge be angled to allow movement in both directions. Midsized planes use smaller hinges similar to the ones use on larger planes, or will utilize CA hinges (flexible sheet plastic covered on both sides with meshy cyanoacrylate material to allow for glue wicking) that are simply inserted and glued into small slits in the joining edges.

Servo configuration
Because of the available space in larger planes in the wings and fuselage, servos are usually placed as close to the control surface as possible, which results in much better accuracy. It does not require much or any routing of control rods or lines through the fuselage.

Usually, lack of internal space in smaller planes often requires servos to be mounted in the main cavity or on the outside of the fuselage, requiring longer control rods and the necessity to route them through the covering of the plane, in some fashion. It is sometimes necessary to put servos as near the centre of gravity (C of G) as possible to balance the model correctly.

Control linkages and mechanics
Control linkages consist of levers, joints and other moving parts that allow a servo to move a control surface. There are hundreds of available options ranging from various materials, to different sizes and weights, depending on what is needed for operation and flight requirements. For a hobbyist building from scratch or from a kit, proper selection and assembly of these mechanical components can be a great challenge rewarding.

If you have bought an ARTF (almost ready to fly) model, it will be likely that control linkages are included with the kit. Be careful though, the linkages included with many ARTFs are terrible plastic moulded jobs, which have a tendency to pop open or break in flight! If need be, it might be worth browsing the shelves of your local model shop to find some better quality linkages.

Control arms and horns
Control arms are a type of lever attachment on a servo crankshaft. The attachment may have one or more arms to allow for multiple positions and control rods. Some attachments that have multiple positions are circular. It's the control arm that transfers leverage from the servo to the control rod.

A control horn is on the receiving end of the servo leverage, either being pushed or pulled. The control horn is simply a lever that is mounted onto a control surface, perpendicular to the edge of the control surface, that connects to the end of the control rod allowing the surface to pivot on a hinge point.

Control rods
Control rods or wires can be made from various material such as plastic, metal, carbon fiber and fiberglass. What is used is often determined by the size and desired weight of the plane, what is being controlled (aileron, retracts), and the appropriate linkage types. Control rods are often attached to the control horns and other levers by cles, ball joints, or other specialized adapters. Small craft and park flyers often use a simple z-bend (bend in the wire the shape of a "Z", all angles being 90 degrees) to attach to a control horn.

Assembly
Larger RC airplanes allow for a wide variety of options, materials and techniques when assembling control linkages. The larger and thicker control surfaces, potential flight weight and fuselage cavity size make it possible to not only choose from very strong, easy to work with materials, but they can also be obscured from sight with ease.

It is common on these larger planes, since more torque is required and faster speeds are reached to have control rods made from aluminum, carbon fiber or fiberglass. Linkages are often made by soldering, clevises, ball joints, or some combination thereof. Control horns are usually bolted straight through the control surface provided strength and durability. Larger planes will often have retractable landing gear connected to one or more servos using the same kinds of linkages and components.

Small planes and park flyers often have more restrictions. Materials must be lightweight (plastic, thin wire or cable, aluminum, fiberglass) and as small as possible. Small tube wire guides are often used to encase the flexible wire or cable to its control surface destination. There are many available fuselage opening components to allow the rods to neatly penetrate the covering and some can be made from household materials.


text:
RC Airplane/Covering, painting and applying decals

It is crucial for the plane to have a covering of some type in order to be able to fly, however, other visual details are simply for fun and for the joy and pride involved in the hobby.

Many hobbyists will not bother going beyond the basic covering required to fly the plane, for certain crafts. This is often because of the additional effort involved does not balance with the likelihood that the place will probably crash at some point and need repair. Very detailed exteriors are usually reserved for more experienced flyers and planes that are large enough to support the weight of all the extra trimmings, details, cockpit, paint and other non-crucial additions.

Tissue and dope
The oldest, and most common method of covering a model is to use tissue and a cellulose thinner to stiffen the tissue and make it waterproof. The tissue is usually shrunk using a light spray of water. The cellulose thinner 'dope' is then applied after the water dries. providing a drum-tight, stiff and light covering material. The tension of the material strengthens the structure.

Sheet Balsa
Sometimes a model is covered with sheet balsa and either painted or covered again with a covering film.

Foam Models
Foam models require no covering, and are sometimes painted with acrylic paints, and decorated with decals.

Iron On coverings
Most iron- on or glue - on coverings, or skins, will come with application instructions, although various experts have published works on how to master certain covering types, the most common being the plastic heat-shrink film. When done properly and with skill, it can give the most professional and authentic look, depending on what type of plane it is, as some full scale planes were originally covered in cloth other other materials.

Painting
One popular method of painting is to use the common model paints that are used for plastic model kits. A good spraying system is recommended for to save weight.

Applying decals
Decals can be purchased from hobby shops in various sizes. Alternatively modelers can create their own decals and transfer them to the model by printing on sticker paper. With the advent of affordable color printers this had become within the reach of almost every modeller.


text:
RC Airplane/Building

(Introduction)

Sanding
If a plane is properly put together, improper sanding of exterior surfaces will not affect flight much. However, it will greatly affect how sleek and refined the craft looks at completion. It is crucial to sand joining surfaces that will be adhered for a better bond, but superficial sanding can be done to any degree of desired perfection.

It helps to have adequate sanding tools and materials. For large surfaces, a large block sander is helpful to ensure that surfaces are flat and consistent. Often a hand planer help start off with a smooth surface. Small curves surfaces can be sanded with various hand or automatic tools, but a skilled hobbyist can often achieve the same or better results with just a piece of sandpaper. Glue joints should be smoothed out to prevent roughness showing through the plane's skin. Larger spurs or glue deposits can also be removed carefully with a hobby knife. Inspecting the plane from many angles and striving for symmetry, smoothness and consistency yields the best results.

Alignment and measurements
Each structural component of an RC plane is usually built separately, then assemble toward the end of construction. The final assembly of these structural parts is an extremely crucial step in making a flyable craft. A slant in the vertical stabilizer and rudder will make the craft turn more sharply to one side than the other. If the trailing edge of the wings are lower than expected, the plane will have more drag in normal flight and will stall more easily. If right and left wings are not mounted symmetrically, various things could occur, including: unwanted roll, drag to one side, turns too sharply on one side due to steep dihedral, etc... The side affects of improperly mounted components are numerous.

A hobbyist must use proper tools and patience when mounting components. Clamps, pins, tape, and even a very small drop of glue can aid in positioning parts before final adhesives are applied. Incidence meters, rulers, tape measures, levels, contractors triangles, protractors and just plain visual detection are important tools in finding structural nuances and imperfections. Components should be inspected and measured from all possible angles before final adhering.

title: RC Airplane/Building


text:
RC Airplane/Before you fly

Before attempting to fly, it is highly advisable to:

 * Have the model checked (and test flown) by an experienced pilot. It's hard enough to learn to fly a well set-up plane, but there are many simple mistakes that can make it much harder. RTF (ready to fly) planes attempt to address this but building and set-up skills greatly improve the satisfaction and enjoyment available from the hobby. If you join a club, this help is much easier to find.
 * Ensure that your field is large enough. This depends on your model but a football field is a good size for a park flyer.
 * Pick a calm day. Wind will make it much harder to control (especially for a small park flyer) and greatly increase the chance of an accident happening.
 * If you are flying outside a club, ensure you are not within a couple of mile or so of an existing club as your radio could well interfere with them and cause accidents. Likewise, their radios could cause interference with your model.
 * Ensure your field is empty. Dogs will chase your plane and other people may consider your plane more dangerous than you do.

title: RC Airplane/Before you fly


text:
User talk:N1person

Official (and slightly belated) welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 15:08, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

Wikijunior Europe
Thanks for your help with this project. I haven't had any time over the past month to improve this Wikijunior project so any addition are much appreciated! Xania talk 23:40, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

Talk:Arabic
Speak Arabic (fusha preferably) with a good accent? Want to help created some pronunciation audio files for us? Please drop in at the Arabic wikibook project. gren グレン 04:25, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:N1person


text:
User:Wykis~enwikibooks

Wykis on English Wikipedia

Wykis's Homepage - Free tutorials and code, anything to do with computers!

title: User:Wykis~enwikibooks


text:
Digital Signal Processing/Impulse Response

Let's say that we have the following block diagram:

h[n] is known as the 'Impulse Response of the digital system. We will talk about impulse responses here in this chapter.

Impulse Function
In digital circuits, we use a variant of the continuous-time delta function. This delta function (δ[n]) has a value of 1 at n = 0, and a value of 0 everywhere else.

δ[n] = [... 0 0 0 0 1& 0 0 0 0 ...]

If we set x[n] = δ[n], then the output y[n] will be the response of the system to an impulse, or simply, the "Impulse Response".

We can time-shift the impulse function as such:

δ[n-1] = [... 0 0 0 0& 1 0 0 0 0 ...] δ[n+1] = [... 0 0 0 0 1 0& 0 0 0 ...]

We can add time-shifted values of the impulse function to create an Impulse Train:

y[n] = δ[n] + δ[n-1] + δ[n-2] + [n-4] y[n] = [1& 1 1 0 1]

Impulse Response
If we have a difference equation relating y[n] to x[n], we can find the impulse response difference equation by replacing every y with an h, and every x with a δ:

y[n] = 2x[n] + 3x[n-1] + 4x[n-2] h[n] = 2δ[n] + 3δ[n-1] + 4δ[n-2]

And by plugging in successive values for n, we can calculate the impulse response to be:

h[n] = [2& 3 4]

Output
Now, let's say that we have a given impulse response, h[n], and we have a given input x[n] as such:

x[n] = [1& 0 1 2] h[n] = [2& 2 2 1]

We can calculate the output, y[n], as the convolution of those 2 quantities:

x[n]   ->       1& 0 1 2 h[-n]  ->       1  2 2 2& h[-n-3] -> 1 2 2 2&              -> y[m-3] = 2& h[-n-2] ->  1 2 2  2&            -> y[m-2] = 2 h[-n-1] ->    1 2  2 2&          -> y[m-1] = 4 h[-n]  ->       1  2 2 2&        -> y[m]   = 7 h[-n+1] ->         1 2 2 2&      -> y[m+1] = 6 h[-n+2] ->           1 2 2 2&    -> y[m+2] = 5 h[-n+3] ->             1 2 2 2&  -> y[m+3] = 2 y[n] = [2& 2 4 7 6 5 2]


text:
Political Economy

Political Economists are concerned with the allocation of scarce resources in a world of infinite wants and needs. To allocate these resources, politics are used within a state to provide for the people. Political economy is the study of the relationships between individuals and society, and more specifically, the relationships between citizens and states.

Political economy is a study of philosophy and ideology that studies the evolution of political and economic ideas. Political economy is a mixture of politics, economics, sociology, philosophy, and history, which all bring together evidence to the study of how humans exist within societies. Political economists study political ideology, economic structure, human interaction, human nature, and theories in philosophical thought. It is a study that studies not only the mechanics of a particular structure, but also the reasoning behind why various people with different beliefs consider a particular structure best.

The study of political economics can be split into two different sections, one which is Classical Political Economy and the other which is Modern Political Economy. The classical branch studies range from the conservative philosophers such as Machiavelli to liberals such as Adam Smith to the critiquers of liberalism such as Marx. The modern branch studies range from social liberals such as Keynes to modern political economists whose works deal with a multitude of issues including foreign trade and globalization.

Table of Contents

 * Chapters:
 * Political Economy/General
 * Political Economy/Classical Political Economy
 * Political Economy/Modern Political Economy

 * Note: The structure of the topics covered in this book is inspired by the lectures of Alan Karras and Dariush Zahedi, both professors at University of California, Berkeley.

How To Use This Book
The book is split into three sections; General, Classical Political Economy, and Modern Political Economy. The General chapter covers both classical and modern political economics and is a general reference guide for those who want a brief overview of the study of political economics. The two other chapters go into more detail of the material covered in the General chapter. They focus on pre-Enlightenment philosophy to Marx, and Keynes onward, respectively. Make sure you understand the three general ideologies of political economics before studying further. Always review the theories on this page to better understand the arguments of each one. It can be cumbersome to study many detailed arguments and facts without a short, coherent summary of the most important points. Therefore, learn the fundamental basics of the three theories of political economy first, and then try to understand how the theorists try to justify these views by assumptions, arguments, or facts.

There may be some terms that you are unfamiliar with. In that case, go to Wikipedia and learn the terms first, because this book uses them in a technical manner. You might have a casual understanding of some of the terms, but it is important that you study them carefully so you can differentiate between subtle arguments.

Right under many section headings are links to articles in Wikipedia. You are expected to study the article along with the section that follows. This will help you study better because the sections are written with the assumption that you have understood to some degree the facts in Wikipedia. The sections are generally arguments of theorists and you need background information from Wikipedia so you can understand the facts and assumptions in the rationalizations of these theories. In other words, the study of political economy requires basic knowledge of world history. The links take you to the short articles of the history topic in question which give you context to understand the origins of different theories of political economy.

Those of you who have a fair understanding of the three main political economic ideologies may strengthen your knowledge by contributing to the book. Do not hesitate to contact other editors to help you, and if you like, you can add the theories of various philosophers that are not currently covered in the book. One way of making sure you understand the material is by being able to explain it coherently to those who have not studied the material before.

Try to learn something from this book, and if nothing else, have fun reading it.

Theory
Modern political economists categorize theories under three general ideologies:
 * Liberalism: Wealth comes from ingenuity, labor and exchange. It is the result of the use of land and other natural resources, along with capital in the form of durable goods and labor.
 * Everyone can benefit from economics. Economics is not a zero sum game, but one that continually progresses with rising standards.
 * Individuals are unimportant, but the good of the community at large is the criterion for decision-making.
 * Individuals are generally virtuous even when given a fair amount of political and economic liberties.
 * Everyone can win, when the conditions are fair and favorable.
 * The accumulation of private property is good for society.
 * Equality of opportunity is important, inequality of possessions is less so.
 * The state supports the structure of civil society.
 * Therefore, the state should let individuals have freedom with the licence of not causing harm to others.
 * Marxism: Wealth comes from manual labor and exchange, not ingenuity and all individuals should benefit from economics. Inequality is inherently bad. Economics is regarded to be a zero sum game.
 * Profit in capitalism comes from surplus labor extracted from the worker. The worker must be producing more than he is paid by his employer, thus the surplus of his labor is stolen from him.
 * The private ownership of the means of production and wage labor will inherently breed inequality and leave some in society with immense wealth and many mired in poverty. The means of production should thus be collectively controlled.
 * Inequality is bad.
 * The modern capitalist state contradicts the needs of the majority of civil society and favors an elite.
 * Therefore, the state, or some other worker-controlled vehicle should mediate the distribution of wealth until the state is no longer needed.
 * Economic Nationalism: Wealth comes from the use of power, and the use of power facilitates the accumulation of wealth. Individuals should work to benefit the wealth and power of the state. Economics is considered a zero sum game.
 * The state is important.
 * Individuals are generally not virtuous. Instead, they are ignorant and confused, and cannot form a cohesive society without a strong state.
 * Not everyone can win.
 * The state's accumulation of public property is better for the society than the individual accumulation of private property is.
 * Inequality is a reality and sometimes important and necessary.
 * The state controls, permeates, and becomes one with the civil society.
 * Therefore, everything should be done to benefit the state.
 * Note: A zero sum game is a term for the idea that when one individual gains wealth, another individual must lose that same amount. In other words, there is a fixed amount of wealth that circulates in the world, and wealth cannot be created or destroyed, but can move.

The contents of this book covers these topics in greater detail, and you will learn how and why political economists have come up with different solutions to the question of how to distribute wealth and power among individuals and states.[ew]

A Word About Theories
Social science theories are just what they are: theories. The philosophers who came up with these theories believe in them based on a set of assumptions they derived from their observations, and they reached conclusions based on these assumptions. However, as the reality of the world is open to interpretation, each theory describes the world in its own unique way. No theories are wrong if they are supportable by facts and observations. These theories are just ways that thinkers have used to describe the world around them. Remember that you do not have to agree with a particular theory, but you must be able to understand all theories in order to make a conclusion about the world in which you live.

The best way to understand a particular ideology is to think as a philosopher would think. How would believers of a particular theory present a solution to a particular problem? Thinkers in different schools of thought come up with different answers because of the differences in their assumptions. Make sure you understand how different theorists think.

Most importantly, understand that these theories are constantly being altered, borrowed from, and in some cases, discredited completely. Theories are not rules to the world but rather ways to look at the world. A person can look at the world in different perspectives and can combine different assumptions of theories to describe it. No matter how different theories can be, they can almost always be combined because they are almost never mutually exclusive.

All of this makes the theories appear unimportant to the real world of political economics, but this is not true. However, there is a problem with theories that makes people treat them this way. Either they deal with a fraction of the full macroeconomy, in which case the assumption that all other aspects do not change is unacceptable.

This alternative is to use a full theory that simulates the behavior of the complete macroeconomy as a system. The results of this are usually so complicated that it is difficult to properly understand what is going on and where the forecast is leading. Never-the-less, such analysis should be able to tell governments what particular policies would do and to assist them in making the best decisions from the viewpoint of the community at large.

The answer to this is to start with a fully comprehensive yet simplified theory which deals with only the most basic yet significant parts of the system. This subject is not one where much research has been done although the writer below has in fact achieved a useful result. To see this kindly communicate with David Chester, chesterdh@hotmail.com

title: Political Economy


text:
Digital Signal Processing/Digital Systems

Systems Introduction
Digital systems can be conceptually very difficult to understand at first. Let's start out with a block diagram:

We have a digital system, h[n], that is going to alter the input (x[n]) in some way, and produce an output (y[n]). At each integer value for discrete time, n, we will feed 1 value of x[n] into the machine, turn the crank, and create 1 output value for y[n].

Basic Example
Let's say that h[n] is a multiplier circuit with a value of 5. Every input value is multiplied by 5, and that is the output. In other words, we can show our difference calculus equation as such:

 * $$y\left[n\right] = 5 x\left[n\right]$$

now, for each successive value for n, we can calculate our output value, y[n]. As an example, using the above difference equation, we can feed in an experimental input:

x[n] = [1 0 1 2]

And by multiplying each data item by 5, we get the following result:

y[n] = [5 0 5 10]

Properties of Digital systems
A loose definition of a causal system is a system in which the output does not change before the input. All real systems are causal, and it is impossible to create a system that is not causal.

Circuit Symbols

 * wires
 * pickoff nodes
 * adders
 * multipliers

Physically Realizeable Systems
There is a distinction to be made between systems which are possible mathematically, and systems that can be physically implemented in digital hardware. Some systems might look good on paper, but they are difficult, if not impossible, to actually build. One criterion we have already seen is that a physically realizable digital system must not rely on future values, only on past values. We will discuss other criteria in future chapters, as the concepts involved become more familiar.


text: User talk:213.255.101.153

title: User talk:213.255.101.153


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User talk:Lexiy

Blank pages
Stop creating blank pages. If you want to experiment, use Sandbox. --Derbeth talk 15:54, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

If you don't need a page, insert to mark it for deletion. --Derbeth talk 15:54, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lexiy


text:
User:Balajiviswanathan~enwikibooks

I'm a 22 year old Masters student in Computer Science at University of Maryland, Baltimore County. I studied my Bachelors in Computer Science and Engineering at Thiagarajar College of Engineering, India.

I love reading and writing and I took an active part in creating Wikipedia content creation since 2004.

Currently, I'm working on creating the book Towards A Better India.

title: User:Balajiviswanathan~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:80.55.208.2

Please stop. If you continue to blank pages, you will be blocked from editing.

title: User talk:80.55.208.2


text:
User talk:61.246.204.68

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:61.246.204.68


text: User talk:195.93.21.3

title: User talk:195.93.21.3


text:
Digital Signal Processing/Using MATLAB

Digital Signal Processing is a field of study that is a combination of both mathematical theory, and physical implementation. It makes no sense to consider a digital system without first asking "can this be constructed physically?" MATLAB is an excellent (although expensive) tool for simulating systems, and for creating the ever-valuable "proof of concept". This book will make several references to MATLAB, but don't get confused: This book will not teach how to program in MATLAB. If you would like to learn MATLAB, check out the book Programming:MATLAB.

Alternately, enterprising students might attempt to use GNU Octave, which is a free and Open Source alternative to MATLAB. Octave can be obtained from http://www.octave.org. It endeavors to be MATLAB-compatible and largely it is (a lot of MATLAB code can be run using Octave, and vice versa), though some functionality is missing. For more information on Octave, see the Wikibook Octave Programming. (There are other free alternatives to MATLAB, with varying degrees of code compatibility.)

title: Digital Signal Processing/Using MATLAB


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User talk:67.123.129.103

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title: User talk:67.123.129.103


text: User talk:145.53.63.171

title: User talk:145.53.63.171


text:
PHP Programming/Smarty templating system/Functions

 * Built-in functions
 * capture
 * config_load
 * foreach
 * foreachelse
 * if
 * elseif
 * else
 * include
 * include_php
 * insert
 * ldelim
 * rdelim
 * literal
 * |php
 * section
 * sectionelse
 * strip
 * Custom functions
 * assign
 * counter
 * cycle
 * debug
 * eval
 * fetch
 * html_checkboxes
 * html_image
 * html_options
 * html_radios
 * html_select_date
 * html_select_time
 * html_table
 * mailto
 * math
 * popup
 * popup_init
 * textformat


text:
User talk:86.132.198.8

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

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This IP is confirmed open proxy and has been banned for 1 year. --Derbeth talk 16:50, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:209.202.75.50


text:
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text:
RC Airplane/Aerobatic maneuvers

Loops

 * 1) Make your plane level
 * 2) Throttle right up
 * 3) Pull right back on your elevator stick (depending on what mode you are in, 1 or 2)
 * 4) When you begin to start your decent power down to quarter-throttle, still pulling back
 * 5) When level again, pull off the elevator stick and throttle back up

title: RC Airplane/Aerobatic maneuvers


text:
Talk:RC Airplane

Wikipedia article
A lot of the information here is moved from the wikipedia article. --Phatmonkey 18:01, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

External getting started guides
Here are a few "getting started" guides I have found:

 * http://www.rc-airplane-world.com/
 * http://www.gettingstartedinrc.com/
 * http://www.rchobbies.org/planes_getting_sarted.htm (yep, that's spelt right!)
 * http://www.rchobbies.org/planes_soaring.htm

Please add some more if you find any, they'll be useful for building this guide. --Phatmonkey 18:05, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:RC Airplane


text:
User:Mooquackwooftweetmeow~enwikibooks

Mooquackwooftweetmeow

title: User:Mooquackwooftweetmeow~enwikibooks


text:
Statics/Introduction

This Wikibook
This book was written at Wikibooks, a free online community where people write open-content textbooks. Any person with internet access is welcome to participate in the creation and improvement of this book. Because this book is continuously evolving, there are no finite "versions" or "editions" of this book. Permanent links to known good versions of the pages may be provided.

Introduction
Statics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the study of forces and the effect of forces on a non-deformable, or rigid, system when the system is in a state of equilibrium.

This course is a crucial prerequisite for later areas, such as Dynamics and Properties of Materials. It utilizes principles of physics and calculus. It is fundamental in many different branches of engineering, from mechanical to civil engineering, and the principles of equilibrium, moment of inertia, and center of gravity will be revisited in more advanced fields. It is because an understanding of these topics is so crucial that statics does not cover a wide range of topics. Every problem will deal with some combination of two equations: the net forces being equal to zero, and/or net moments being equal to zero.

Who is This Book For?
This book is for undergraduate students pursuing, or thinking about pursuing, a degree in engineering. As specified early, statics is needed in almost every field of engineering. It is not an introductory course, however. Statics does not attempt to reinvent the wheel, and is built firmly on the foundation of Physics. Newton's Laws are essential to statics. Mathematically, one should have a firm grip on vector algebra, though it is possible to solve many simple problems without the use of vectors. While it would benefit a student to understand calculus concepts, like the ability to calculate an area or a volume, most statics problems will involve simple geometries.

How is this book organized
This book is organized to introduce concepts that will be later used in Dynamics and Properties of Materials. As such, it will begin by reviewing over vector mathematics and then introducing simple concepts, like Newton's Second Law, and then increasing the ways with which those concepts work together. Mathematically, this will involve increasing the number of forces, increasing the number of dimensions, and then expanding particle equilibrium to Rigid Body Equilibrium and Structural Equilibrium.

Finally, we will go over Moments of Inertia and Center of Mass. These concepts will be critical in higher level disciplines and a firm understanding will allow you to analyze more complex problems when the concepts of stress, strain, and acceleration are introduced.

title: Statics/Introduction


text:
PHP Programming/Smarty templating system/Simple tutorial

If you have any problems, go to ask on IRC irc://irc.freenode.org/php or contact me. I haven't tested this script yet so you might find some small mistakes.
 * 1) Create a directory called Website, in your webserver.
 * 2) Copy Smarty's libs directory into it installation.
 * 3) Create a directory called compile.
 * 4) Create a directory called templates.
 * 5) In the Website directory, create a file called index.php and Web.class.php. Make sure that they are blank.
 * 6) Web.class.php should look like this:
 * 7) index.php should be this:
 * 8) Go to the templates directory
 * 9) Create a new file called index.tpl, make sure it's empty
 * 10) Create your own html design or anything and in the middle ( where you want the content to be ), write this:
 * 11) Create new MySQL table, with the following information:
 * 12) Modify your index.php and index.tpl as necessary ( notice the $db in index.php, change it to your settings!
 * 13) Now, using your MySQL Client (phpMyAdmin /MySQL or other tools), add new rows in your table, with content and its title. Try it with three at the start.
 * 14) Now, go to your directory Website through your Web Browser (you might need to upload it to your web server or set one up on your computer) ;)
 * 1) For the later versions of MySQL use the following code:


text:
User talk:Phatmonkey~enwikibooks

 * See also: Wikipedia:User talk:Phatmonkey

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Phatmonkey. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Phatmonkey~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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Cardiology and Cardiothoracic Surgery/Physical Examination of Cardiac Patients

Physical Examination
Physical examination of the cardiac patient, and the cardiac surgical patient, should include thorough evaluations of the cardiac, respiratory, and gastrointestinal systems. For the latter two processes, please consult the respective WikiBooks, Wikipedia pages, and medical texts.

THE CARDIOVASCULAR PHYSICAL EXAM
The cardiovascular physical exam consists, generally, of indirect arterial blood pressure measurement (in both arms and in at least one lower extremity), evaluation of central and peripheral arterial pulses, inspection of the patient, palpation of the precordium, and auscultation. Many clinicians and texts will begin the entire physical examination with inspection; others include arterial blood pressure measurement and pulse evaluation in the vital sign assessment, which is normally conducted prior to the physical examination.

Arterial Pulsation
During clinical examination, the arterial pulsations are normally measured with the patient supine (the head of the examination table should also be tilted upwards by 30-45 degrees) at the carotid arteries, the brachial, radial, and ulnar arteries, the femoral arteries, the popliteal arteries, the posterior tibial arteries, and the dorsalis pedis arteries. Care should be taken in palpation of confirmed stenosed carotid arteries.

The arterial pulse consists of the anacrotic limb (the rapid upstroke of pulsation,) and the relaxation phase, which often ends at an incisura (a small increase in arterial pressure due to increased retrograde resistance resulting from aortic valve closure.

Arterial Pressure
Arterial blood pressure is the measure of lateral force on the arterial walls during the cardiac cycle. The measurement is influenced by arterial end-diastolic volume, blood viscosity, left ventricular ejection velocity, and stroke volume. Note that these factors can also be represented as the mean arterial pressure (MAP) = Cardiac output (CO) X Total peripheral resistance (TPR). Cardiac output is equal to the heart rate multiplied by stroke volume in mL, and TPR is related to blood volume/rheologic properties and peripheral arterial/arteriolar tone. With aging, the mechanical properties of arterial walls change, becoming less compliant, and thus resulting in increased pressure per voxel of blood.

To be continued


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Introduction to Astrophysics/Light Stars

Birth
Once a protostar condenses to a sufficient density, hydrogen in its core begins to burn(fuse), and it becomes a main sequence star (on the main sequence on a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram)

Main Sequence
During the majority of a "light" stars life, the center of the star has a high enough temperature and pressure that hydrogen atoms fuse to form helium. This process releases a great deal of energy (hence the appeal of fusion for generating electricity on Earth), which further increases the temperature and pressure in the center of the star. Eventually, this energy will work its way out of to the edges of the star, and will escape as light or other electromagnetic energy.

Evolution
The star eventually runs out of hydrogen to "burn" in its center, and, if the temperature and pressure are high enough, helium will fuse into carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. CNO Cycle
 * The CNO Cycle is not the process of fusing helium into carbon, nitrogen and oxygen!!! The CNO cycle describes how hydrogen is fused to helium, using carbon as a sort of katalysator.

Death
When the star can no longer support fusion in its core, its internal energy source is depleted, and it will slowly cool to be a white dwarf. One famous example of a white dwarf is Sirius B, companion of Sirius. It is believed that Sirius B was more massive than Sirius itself. However, Sirius B now has as much mass as the Sun but is the size of Earth. Sirius B is very likely a new white dwarf, because it is one of the hottest known white dwarfs, with a surface temperature of about 26000 K. For comparison, the Sun's surface temperature is about 5770 K. In some other cases, the star will collapse and create an enormous explosion called supernova. Supernovae are extremely rare, for it only happens with a star at least 10 times bigger than our own ../Sun/.

A white dwarf is believed to maintain its existence by electron degeneracy pressure. Pauli's Exclusion Principle, which states that no two electrons can be in the exact same state, provides a degeneracy pressure, which keeps the star from collapsing under its own gravity. The critical mass for a white dwarf is about 1.4 × Msun. This is mass is known as the Chandrasekhar Limit, which no white dwarf can exceed.

$$M_{ch} = \left ({2 \over \mu_e}\right )^2 1.459M_{\bigodot}$$ Where $$ \mu_e$$ is the mean electron molecular weight.


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Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Questions using ka

In this unit, you will learn how to ask and answer yes/no questions.

Try It
Try to ask and answer the following questions using the vocabulary given. For questions, use 〜ですか. 〜 desu ka?, and for answers, use はい、〜です. hai, 〜 desu. If you are in a classroom, participate with your fellow students. If you are studying independently, converse with yourself. It may help to record yourself with a tape recorder, cell phone, computer, etc.

Ex: Are you well? Yes, I am.
 * ですか.
 * はい、です.

 * 1) Are you happy? Yes, I am.
 * 2) Are you sick? Yes, I am.
 * 3) Is she pretty? Yes, she is.
 * 4) Is he cheerful? Yes, he is.

 * 1) Are you students? Yes, we are.
 * 2) Is that rude? Yes, it is.

Understand
Duration: 3-5 minutes

Particles
Japanese particles (助詞 joshi) are a Japanese part of speech consisting of suffixes or short words which follow other words such as nouns, verbs and adjectives, to indicate a wide range of grammatical and discursive (communicative) functions. For instance, particles are used to indicate, or mark, the subject, direct object, and so on; in English, this task is normally performed by word order. Particles may also indicate the speaker's assertiveness, certitude, or other feelings. Note that a particle cannot exist by itself, it always follows another word or phrase.

Question Marker: か ka
One example of a particle is the question marker か ka, so-called because it is placed at the end of a phrase to indicate that that phrase is a question. Look at the following examples:

Because か ka always comes at the end of a sentence, it is called a sentence-final particle. You have already been exposed to another sentence-final particle (ね ne) in the first lesson. More details about this, as well as other examples of sentence-final particles, will be given in future lessons.

Discuss
Duration: 0-5 minutes

If in the classroom, use this time to discuss questions the students may have.

Please post any questions you have about the lesson here, and a contributor will answer.


text: User talk:210.212.127.8

title: User talk:210.212.127.8