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Wikijunior:Solar System/How the Solar System was born

Our solar system is part of an entity called our universe. There were many attempts made in the past to explain how our solar system and universe came into existence as we observe it today. Most scientists use the  Big Bang Theory, though some people have other theories.

Big Bang Theory
This theory is based around the idea that an enormous explosion occurred about 13.7 billion years ago. That is 13,700,000,000 years ago. This is three times the age of Earth! The Big Bang was not a usual explosion in space because space and time themselves were made in the explosion. This explosion caused the formation of the matter and energy in the universe. At first, the universe was very hot. The planets, stars and all other heavenly bodies formed starting some time after the Big Bang after the universe had cooled down.

The universe had been expanding and cooling since the Big Bang. Most galaxies are moving further away from our Milky Way galaxy. The exceptions are the few galaxies that are close enough to the Milky Way for gravity to overcome the universe's expansion.

Scientists can still see the faint light from when the universe was hot. Over time, the universe's expansion stretched out the light, turning it into weak microwave light. Scientists can detect this microwave light.

Solar System Formation
The solar system formed out of a big cloud of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago.

Stars and solar systems that are very similar to the Sun are now forming in the Eagle Nebula (also known as M16). While this is not a picture of our own sun, it can give you an idea of what our solar system looked like billions of years ago. These gas clouds that you see in this image were formed from earlier stars that exploded and left stuff behind.

Small finger-like parts of these clouds, especially at the "top" of the first column on the left, are the new stars that are forming. Astronomers who have been watching these stars form have seen changes happen in just a few years, which is a very rapid change for the life of a star. Over many millions and billions of years, these stars and any planets formed with them will look like our Solar System today.

What astronomers think happened after this initial period when the Sun was created from these huge gas clouds, there were many small and large rocks that gradually came together because of gravity and formed the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets that we know about today. Many of the craters which can be found on the Moon were made when these rocks came crashing on to the surface.

While the number of small rocks and other stuff from the early history of the solar system is now less than what it was like right after the Sun formed, the space between the planets still has many of these rocks, and they continue to form craters and even come into the Earth's atmosphere. When you see these rocks at night, they are known as either Shooting Stars or Meteorites. By watching these items come to the Earth, you are directly witnessing the process that created the Earth in the first place.


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Ada Programming/Keywords/new

In type derivation
Day_Of_Month  Integer  1 .. 31;

See Declaring new Types.

In type extension
Derived_Tagged_Type  Parent_Tagged_Type New_Data : Data; ;

See Ada Programming/Object Orientation.

In instantiation of generics
Day_Of_Month_IO Ada.Text_IO.Integer_IO (Day_Of_Month);

See Generics.

Allocator
Day_Of_Month_Access  Day_Of_Month; X : Day_Of_Month_Access := Day_Of_Month'(5);

See Creating object in a storage pool.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Keywords

Ada Reference Manual

Ada Quality and Style Guide

|New

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ada Programming/Keywords/new


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Talk:Prolog

resources: These texts may be copied to the wikibook literally
These two should be particularly useful for pages like the listing of built-in predicates
 * http://pauillac.inria.fr/~diaz/gnu-prolog/manual/index.html#copyright - The GNU Prolog Documentation, distributed under what seems to be the gfdl.
 * http://hcs.science.uva.nl/projects/SWI-Prolog/Manual/ - The SWI Prolog manual, the author has kindly given permission to use the texts

Codepedia
I, Bilderbikkel, would like to contribute with the CodePedia pages, www.codepedia.com/1/Prolog, that I've created. Can I assume other are able to distinguish Visual Prolog from other dialects (and perhaps label these)? What I really miss is File I/O, which I discuss (to the best of my humble knowledge) at www.codepedia.com/1/PrologFileIo. I hope I can add this section to the WikiPedia.
 * Unfortunately, CodePedia, doesn't seem to allow reproduction of its materials (even if you wrote them), so they can't be copied to wikibooks or wikipedia. You could check the two links above. They have pretty comprehensive sections on file I/O that can be copied. I wouldn't worry to much about things belonging to a dialect. The book is still in its infancy. Details can be smoothed out later. risk 01:10, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Naming policy
You might want to consider the WB:NP. You current naming convention is depreciated and has several disadvantages - like it has no navigational links. Also you worthy effort is neiter considered a book nor a section inside a book. See wikistats which implements an exstensive book and section detector.

--Krischik T 07:15, 11 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the note, it's been a while since I looked at this. I've been meaning to convert to the subpage naming system. I figure it should analogous to the Ada book; ditch the programming prefix and use slashes for subpages. I'd prefer the name Prolog, over Prolog Programming, though (especially since it's not unthinkable that non-programming topics will be discussed). If anybody has some time to kill, feel free to make this happen. risk 00:25, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

Adding Contents
These are topics to discuss (they may be covered already?).
 * Second order predicate calculus. Prolog is a language that implements First order predicate calculus. Is it possible to implement a Second order predicate calculus system? --Connection 09:55, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Prolog


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Talk:World History/Causes and course of the First World War

Despite this being the best page on here when I came--it still needs a thourough rewrite: the Eastern Front most certainly WAS NOT bogged down- it was the war's fluid front. Factual errors such as this cannot go ignored.--Naryathegreat 15:21, 24 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I'll be going through this page slowly as I have the time, but since I'm new, somebody should probably check to make sure my facts are right and that I've got the right style and wording for all of this.Alwyn 03:40, 5 October 2005 (UTC)

The Serbs agrred to all conditions. Where did you get your info?


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Robotics/Physical Construction/The Platform

Most robots need a framework of some sort to which the builder attaches the various components and subsystems that make the robot function. This framework is known as the platform.

A good platform has a few requirements:
 * It has to be light. Don't use steel unless you really need the extra strength. Plexiglass (or any other hard plastic) with an aluminum framework for strength can be sufficiently strong for most purposes. Don't forget about wood. Wood is strong, flexible and light.
 * It has to be easy to add new parts to it. By using one size of PCB you can drill holes ahead of time. And you'll be able to stack PCBs. If you're familiar with Meccano sets you know the advantage of using one standard hole size and spacing. Picking one for your robot can make adding parts very easy and fast, of course this is less efficient with space.
 * It has to be easy to remove parts of it: Make sure you can access any of its parts without having to take most of the robot apart. Especially batteries should be accessible.
 * It has to be in balance. The weight of the robot should be mostly within the figure formed by connecting the wheels of the robot (A triangle for 3 wheeled robots, a rectangle for 4 wheeled robots). Placing significant weight outside this figure makes it more easy for the robot to tip over. The center of gravity should also be as low as possible, otherwise the robot could tip over when turning too fast.
 * It has to have a size that's practical: Don't make it too small or you end up with insufficient space for all the features you had in mind. Don't make it too large either or you end up with a robot that can't maneuver without bumping in furniture and people. Or worse: can't get through a door post.
 * Avoid putting the wheels directly on the motors' axles. Use an axle and connect the motor to it with gears. For small robots this isn't important, but larger would displace the axle inside the motor and damage it.


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User:Marozols

Good:
 * Latex
 * Linear Algebra
 * This Quantum World
 * Special Relativity

Stub:
 * Graph Theory
 * Famous Theorems of Mathematics

title: User:Marozols


text:
Cryptography/Expectations of Normal Users

DRAFT:

''Cryptography affects us every day through a variety of subtle means. Cryptography protects our credit card number when it is sent over the phone lines, it protects your bank card pin from unauthorized access, and it keeps passwords safe from unauthorized access. As a society, we have become more dependent upon computers for our everyday lives. Right now, your health history, driving record, and financial information are probably computerized. The Internet is a fairly uncontrolled media, everything that is given access to the Internet is vulnerable to unauthorized access by hackers or other ne'er-do-wells, and therefore must be protected. ''

''You are probably already familiar with one form of protection, a password. It is a secret phrase that only you and the trusted party know. To authenticate yourself to the trusted party (the site with your information in the case of a bank or a doctors office), you give the password. It would not be very secure to have a list of passwords written on a sheet of paper by the counter (or just laying around in plaintext on a computer) in order to authenticate every client. The solution comes in the form of a cryptographic hash, typically Argon2. The trusted party stores a hash of your password instead of the plaintext version. If someone were to steal the hashed version of your password (assuming the office in question used salting and a secure hash algorithm) it would be nearly useless to them. When you give your password, the office would compute the hash of it and compare that hash to the hash they have on record. Since one of the properties of a hash is that it does not collide (that is for any given input there is one unique output which is not equal to any other input. Of course there is no fixed length hash which can completely comply with that requirement over an infinite length input; most passwords are between 8 and 14 characters therefore for our purposes MD5 will suffice) if the two hashes are identical, then the ciphertexts were identical, so the user is authenticated. This process goes on almost every time you enter a password on a computer (Which is why most of the time you are given the option to reset your password not retrieve it because Argon2 is a one-way hash. There are two-way cryptographic "hashes," but I will not discuss them here.).''

Even though we know that collisions theoretically exist, cryptographic hashes -- even MD5 -- are designed to make it infeasible to actually find a value that would produce the same hash value as your password.


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Horn

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) General Information
 * 3) *History
 * 4) *Acoustical Theory
 * 5) *Types of Horns and Mouthpieces
 * 6) *Notable Performers and Recording Artists
 * 7) *Fingering Chart
 * 8) Playing Technique
 * 9) *Posture and Use of Body
 * 10) *Right Hand Usage
 * 11) *Breathing and Moving Air
 * 12) *Embouchure and Facial Musculature
 * 13) *Articulating Notes
 * 14) *Playing Dynamics
 * 15) *Mutes
 * 16) *Reading Music
 * 17) *Transposing Music
 * 18) *Miscellaneous Techniques
 * 19) *Playing with Other Musicians
 * 20) /Repertoire/
 * 21) *Etudes
 * 22) *Music for Unaccompanied Horn
 * 23) *Music for Horn and Piano
 * 24) *Music for Horn and Vocals
 * 25) *Sonatas
 * 26) *Concertos
 * 27) *Music for Horn Ensembles
 * 28) *Music for Woodwind Quintets
 * 29) *Music for Brass Quintets
 * 30) *Chamber Music
 * 31) *Music for Multiple Horns and Orchestra
 * 32) *Orchestral Audition Excerpts
 * 33) /Glossary/
 * 34) Partial List of Authors

title: Horn


text:
Cookbook:Gelatine

Gelatine (also gelatin) is a clear, flavourless substance used as a stabiliser or thickener in many foods. It is derived from the breakdown of collagen from the skin, bones and connective tissues of animals after simmering for an extended period.

Recipes that are likely to use gelatine - especially commercially - are Trifles, Jelly (or Jello), Aspic, Marshmallows, Peeps, and Gummy, or Jelly, bears.

Although there is no vegetarian method of producing gelatin, several popular substitutes exist, such as agar.

title: Cookbook:Gelatine


text: Template:Wikijunior Article of the Month


text:
Biblical Studies/Old Testament Commentaries

5 Major
Genesis | Exodus | Leviticus | Numbers | Deuteronomy

12 Minor
Joshua | Judges | Ruth | 1 Samuel | 2 Samuel | 1 Kings | 2 Kings | 1 Chronicles | 2 Chronicles | Ezra | Nehemiah | Esther

Experiential
Job | Psalms | Proverbs | Ecclesiastes | Song of Solomon

5 Major
Isaiah | Jeremiah | Lamentations | Ezekiel | Daniel

12 Minor
Hosea | Joel | Amos | Obadiah | Jonah | Micah | Nahum | Habakkuk | Zephaniah | Haggai | Zechariah | Malachi

Deuterocanonical Books
Tobit | Judith | Additions to Esther | Wisdom of Solomon | Ecclesiasticus | Song of Three Young Men | Susanna | Bel and the Dragon | Baruch | Letter of Jeremiah | 1 Macabbees | 2 Macabbees


text:
Biblical Studies/New Testament Commentaries

Gospels and Acts
Matthew | Mark | Luke | John | /Acts/

Paul's Letters
/Romans/ | /1 Corinthians/ | /2 Corinthians/ | /Galatians/ | /Ephesians/ | /Philippians/ | /Colossians/ | /1 Thessalonians/ | /2 Thessalonians/ | /1 Timothy/ | /2 Timothy/ | /Titus/ | /Philemon/

Other Letters
/Hebrews/ | /James/ | /1 Peter/ | /2 Peter/ | /1 John/ | /2 John/ | /3 John/ | /Jude/

Prophetic Literature
/Revelation/

Other Commentaries
Greek Exegetical Notes on 1 Corinthians


text:
Reaktor

Reaktor is a proprietary software modular synthesiser and effects processor developed by Native Instruments. It allows musicians and engineers to design and build their own instruments, samplers, effects and sound design tools. Reaktor comes with a collection of predefined but editable instruments and effects, from emulations of classic synthesizers to futuristic sound design tools. In addition, more than 3000 free instruments can be downloaded from the growing User Library. About this book.

New

 * Reaktor as effects processor

Tutorials

 * Tip of the day
 * Tutorials

Reference

 * Module Reference - Information on individual modules
 * Panel, MIDI In, MIDI Out, Math, Signal Path, Oscillator, Sampler, Sequencer, LFO, Envelope, Filter, Delay, Audio Modifier, Event Processing, Auxiliary, Terminal

 * Synthesis
 * Subtractive, FM, Additive, Wavetable, Granular, Physical modelling

 * Core Technology - DSP Programming inside Reaktor
 * Reaktor as a plug-in in VST hosts
 * Cubase, Sonar, Live, Protools

Hardware

 * Hardware
 * Computers
 * Controllers
 * Soundcards

Ensembles

 * Best ensembles
 * Ensembles Dissected

Projects

 * Beat Mashery

Varia

 * History of Reaktor
 * Comparable Products
 * Reaktor 6 Wish List
 * Bands and Artists who use Reaktor
 * Varia - a collection of things that don't fit anywhere else yet
 * Links

Reaktor

title: Reaktor


text:
Political Economy/General

The study of Political Economy is the study of how individuals relate to the state, and in turn, how the states in the world relate to each other.

Introduction
Political economists are concerned with the allocation of scarce resources in a world of infinite wants and needs. In order to allocate these resources, politics are used within a state to provide for the people. Political economy is the study of the relationships between individuals and society, and more specifically, the relationships between citizens and states. Machiavelli can be considered one of the first political economists as his works provided a link between a ruler and the state along with the use of power in this relationship. Likewise, Thomas Hobbes argued for the power of a sovereign leader because of his assumption that human beings are naturally bad. In the Enlightenment, the view of the role of individuals changed. Individuals were seen as virtuous and rational, able to find a natural Truth within the world. John Locke and Adam Smith helped to provide the fundamental beliefs of liberalism, which is the belief that the state which governs least is the one which governs best. As capitalism flourished in industrial countries in Europe, problems began to emerge from the economic system. As a result, political economists such as Malthus, Hegel, and Marx critiqued capitalism in their works as they presented alternatives to liberalism.

In the 20th century, modern political economists have continued to write about the relationships between individual and the state. Keynes, for example, introduced the alternative liberal idea of the welfare state (which helps to guide and protect the interests of those who have been damaged by the inequalities of the free market).

In all of these examples, these writers have presented new ideas about the allocation of resources within a society in the context of the relationships between individuals and states.

What Political Economy Is
Political economy is a study of philosophy and ideology that studies the evolution of political and economic ideas. Political economy profits from the interdisciplinary application of approaches and concepts that originated in the study of politics, economics, sociology, philosophy, and history. It ultimately concerns itself with the relationship between individuals and the state, and what influences this relationship. Political economists concern themselves not only with mechanics of economics but also with the ideology that supports its translation into policy.

The study of political economy can be split into two different historical periods. The first is known as Political Economy/Classical Political Economy and the other which is Political Economy/Modern Political Economy.

Definitions

 * State: A state is a sovereign political institution which governs over civil society, which is made up of individuals. The political institution combined with its civil society can also be referred to as the state.
 * Civil society: This is an organized collection of individuals who participate in various groups which make up the society. The civil society is governed by the state, but is not a part of the political institution.
 * Power: Power, by the classical sociological definition, is the use or threat of force in order to influence other people's actions.
 * Sovereignty: This is the legitimate use of power in order to govern a body of individuals. An institution that is sovereign answers to no higher power and is therefore autonomous.
 * Individual: Individuals are people who live and function within civil society and are governed by the state. However, throughout history, who is regarded as an individual has been debated since different groups of people (and animals) have gained or lost rights that have been attributed to legitimate individuals.
 * Virtue: Virtue is the moral excellence of an individual. In other words, virtue is the measure of "goodness" in a person.
 * Private property: Private property has been defined in different ways across the theories, but it can be generalized; private property is property that individuals can appropriate for themselves, and which society and the state have sanctioned the individual's right to use it in whatever way he or she sees fit.
 * Capital: Capital is wealth used to make more wealth. It can be accumulated, spent, and exchanged. Its second definition is the money which is used as an input along with the means of production and labor for the goal of making profit.
 * Means of production: The means of production are those inputs that are not capital or labor. In other words, these are the technical tools used to produce commodities.
 * Labor: Labor is work produced by humans in order to change raw materials into commodities.
 * Commodity: A commodity is an end product, with the inputs of capital, labor, and means of production. Commodities are sold to consumers in order to satisfy their demands and to provide the producer with revenue (and hopefully profit).
 * Nation: A nation is a collection of individuals based on some sort of commonality, whether that be a common language, ethnicity, culture, or all of the above. A nation is different from a state because it does not necessarily have a formal political institution that governs the people that belong in it.
 * Mercantilism: Mercantilism is a political economic system based on the central belief that there is only a fixed amount of wealth in the world and that the state should take precedence over the individual in order to effectively maximize its wealth. The power of the state increases its wealth and vice versa.
 * Liberalism: Liberalism is a political economic system based on the central belief that wealth comes from labor and that there is a flexible amount of wealth in the world. The individual is virtuous and can govern himself even with a limited government.
 * Marxism: Marxism is a political economic system based on the central belief that wealth and private property is detrimental and at times dangerous for individuals. Marxists strive to control the factors of production in a socialist system in order to gain enough infrastructure to support a communist utopia, where private property and a government do not exist. Marxism is divided into two polar camps of thought; one which does not believe in the possibility of a Communist Utopia (as Marx never did) and another which believes that a classless society can be created not only in relation to the means of production but in inter-class relations as well. This divide is labeled as a schism between Marxists and Communists.
 * Monarchy: A system of government with a king or queen as the leader.
 * Democracy: A system of government wherein each individual of the society has a direct influence over the development of both domestic and foreign policy. Such a society has never been achieved as of yet; and in its place has existed a bureaucratic representative system of governing.
 * Socialism: A system of government where the state controls the factors of production with the goal that institutions will one day be able to support the communist utopia (and the elimination of both state and private property).
 * Polyarchy: The most widely embraced system of government in contemporary society, Polyarchy is a system in which a vast majority of citizens are ruled over by a small cadre of the obscenely wealthy in a system of representative democracy.

Classical Political Economics
Classical theories of political economics come from theorists ranging from philosophers of antiquity to Keynes.

History
During the middle ages, Europe mainly contained feudal social systems. During this time, there were no strong centralized powers and therefore, the large states that exist in modern Europe did not exist at this time.

Many places in Europe generally relied on the agrarian form of production. Serfs were bound to the land in order to work it to produce resources which would be exchanged with the lords for protection. Lords served kings and were loosely united under them in a feudal hierarchy.

Manufacturing and trade did occur, but in a very limited scale compared to later times. In some places, profit seeking was considered a sin. (Compare this with Asian societies in the 1700s or so when merchants were considered to be within the lowest social group based on the fact that they did not labor for their income.) The notions of wealth at the time was very different compared to more modern ideas of wealth such as the labor theory of value.

Soon after the middle ages from the 16th century onwards to around the 18th century, many European states adopted mercantilist economic systems. During this time, the society of the town grew into the emergence of civil society within states dominated by monarchy. Mercantilists generally believed that the distribution of wealth is a zero-sum game meaning that one economic actor must lose wealth if another gained because mercantilists believed that there is a fixed amount of wealth in the world that cannot be created or destroyed, but only exchanged. Because of this, states believed in the favorable balance of trade. Mercantilist states strived to have a higher rate of exports than imports in order to gain more wealth.

These mercantilists believed that value and wealth come ultimately from gold, that gold is pure liquid (the only form of exchange that can be used without converting to some other form of wealth), and that gold was the only form of exchange into which all other forms of exchange could be converted to. In other words, gold is what defines value itself. Therefore, in the struggle for more wealth, states attempted to export as much as possible and to mine the earth as much as possible to accumulate the greatest amount of gold.

Individuals worked for the interests and the wealth of the state since the state's wealth was considered to be the ultimate goal of economics. States sanctioned monopolies and tightly controlled the market by means of licenses and guilds. Individual companies were licensed by the state and smaller artisans worked under state-controlled guilds which controlled the apprenticeship and employment of workers as well as the quality and quantity of the resulting commodities.

Theory
Before the Enlightenment, most political economists vouched for a strong state, advocating the security of the state over the individual. Niccolò Machiavelli is one of the first of these writers with his work The Prince, which is a treatise telling the prince of a state what he or she should do in order to gain political power. One important passage in the book is as follows: "The prince must none the less make himself feared in such a way that, if he is not loved, at least he escapes being hated. For fear is quite compatible with an absence of hatred; and the prince can avoid hatred if he abstains from the property of his subjects and citizens and from their women." This is telling the prince to control the people either by having his subjects fear or love him, and can do so by avoiding hatred of him. To do this, he must not deal with other people's private property. This is a very important idea in the study of political economy because it is an early example of the assumption that private property can be accumulated and that the intervention into the accumulation of private property by individuals is very offensive.

Thomas Hobbes was another writer who believed in the strong state. He assumed that humans were naturally like animals, prone to hurting each other if there were no controls put into place. Therefore, he believed that a strong state with the power being granted to one Sovereign would be the best way to rule a group of people. The Sovereign should be the ultimate authority on matters of "right" and "wrong," and individuals could be sacrificed as necessary in order to keep the state (which protects the large part of the population) from falling. Hobbes stressed the importance of the state over individuals, since it was the individuals who grant the state power to rule over them. In other words, individuals create a state in order to limit the amount of violence that they have for each other by granting the state a monopoly on power and violence. Because the individuals give up their rights to kill, people are generally safer since people with violent tendencies give up their legal rights to kill, and can be killed by the state in order to protect the interests of the people.

Theory
Classical liberalism came from the philosophy of the Enlightenment of the 18th century. Liberals generally believe that individuals are virtuous people who can more or less govern themselves by a mixture of this virtue and by rationality (which also draws from the Enlightenment idea that there is a definite Truth in the world, and that Truth may be found by actively searching for it and by applying logic to facts). Since liberals believe that individuals are naturally virtuous, they can and should be able to govern themselves and to decide the paths of their own lives with as little government intervention as possible. Liberals are not anarchists because they do recognize that a state is important in order to control the people as a whole, but they do believe that the state which governs least is the one which governs best.

John Locke was an Enlightenment thinker who believed that people in a state of nature are generally virtuous. However, in order to protect property rights from those few deviants, a social contract devised by the public sanctioning rights and responsibilities to a governing state must be introduced to society. Locke's idea of "life, liberty, and property" directly influenced the thinkers who introduced independence in the United States, namely Thomas Jefferson who advocated "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."

Adam Smith was a Scottish philosopher who also believed that people are rational and virtuous enough to govern themselves. Also, he believed that individuals should have free control over their economic situation. Adam Smith wrote against mercantilism (state-sponsored monopoly system) and advocated a type of economic system known as capitalism. He believed that value did not come from gold, as was the belief at the time, but rather, that value came from labor. He argued that since individuals should have control over their economic lives and that value came from labor, that people should divide labor into different parts (specialization) in order to be more efficient in the free market, to open up a dynamic interaction between producers and consumers from competition that would regulate prices naturally (invisible hand).

Jeremy Bentham introduced the idea of utilitarianism. He believed that any action can be defined in two parts (cost and benefit). These two parts produce pain and pleasure in individuals. He thought that the cost and benefit of any action could be measured mathematically and the resulting measurement of utility could be used as a way to make economic or political decisions. He believed that the action which produced the greatest good for the greatest number of individuals is the best action to be taken in any decision.

Theory
Not everyone believed that liberalism was an answer to the problems of the world. Some thinkers believed that liberalism could never exist because of the lack of resources to support a liberal world while some thinkers believed that liberalism could never exist because of the lack of human virtue.

Thomas Malthus believed that the world's population and resources grew at different rates. He believed that the population growth rate was much faster than the resource growth rate which would cause a scarcity of resources for the given number of people. Therefore, with no active controls on population growth, the world would eventually destroy itself. Malthus' idea is a criticism of liberal ideas because his theory contradicted the idea of the virtuous individual. Left alone, individuals would overpopulate the earth, and the state needed to regulate unchecked human wants.

Thorstein Veblen was a thinker who challenged the idea of capitalism. He believed that in capitalist society, people accumulate property for the sole purpose of pecuniary emulation (the copying of spending patterns of the upper class) and conspicuous consumption (the buying of unnecessary goods in order to show off wealth to other people). He believed that liberalism encourages capitalism, which in turn encourages this sort of spending behavior, which is destructive to the society as a whole and to individuals in particular. He believed that allowing individuals too much economic freedom would cause them to act this way because of their inherent greed and desire to compete.

Theory
Karl Marx believed that the world consisted of a set pattern of history. He believed that history had a few important eras highlighting the different relationships between different sets of people. Inequality has been common to all these relationships. In ancient times, there were slaves and masters, where masters directly had control over slaves. This progressed to the feudal ages which supported the peasants and aristocrats. Eventually, this changed as well, with people from the peasant class and the aristocracy forming town dwellers who eventually became factory owners in the modern capitalist era. These factory owners employed factory workers who labored for the owners' profit. He called these modern factory owners capitalists and the class of capitalists the bourgeoisie. He called the workers proletarians and referred to their class as the proletariat.

In short, Marx believed that the world needed to complete a particular stage of history before moving on to the next stage. Therefore, feudalism was necessary for capitalism, and capitalism is necessary for the proposed next stage. Marx believed that inequality would become so widespread due to capitalism that the world would have to undergo a chaotic revolution due to his belief that the capitalist system could not support itself. He believed that there was a fixed amount of wealth in the world and that the capitalist system made capitalists accumulate private property to no end. He argued that the division of labor which is an important component of capitalism divides people into workers of different jobs; this categorization naturally led to inequality. After capitalism set up the necessary infrastructure, the world would move to socialism where the state would control individuals, destroying the division of labor to end inequality. After the world had stabilized, it would move to communism, where people no longer had a need to accumulate private property since everyone would in a sense become Renaissance men and women who would be bound by no one occupation. Anyone could work as they saw fit and provide for the rest of society. This is Marx's idea of the communist utopia.

Role Of Individuals
The idea of the individual and how the individual should be treated has changed throughout history. In the middle ages, the individual was servant to both lord as well as God. Individuals labored on the land in order to produce resources for the lords, who would then forward it to the kings, who were supposedly leaders chosen by God. The Catholic church ran in a rather hierarchical system with Jesus as the head and individuals making up the body.

Machiavelli wrote very little about the role of the individual, except that the prince should try by the use of power to get all the people within his principality to follow him. Individuals to Machiavelli were either servants or obstacles to the prince. Hobbes believed that humans are naturally violent and not virtuous. Therefore, in order to protect individuals and to limit violence, the rights to violence were given to the state in order for the state to mediate and control using this concentrated power. In other words, all individuals gave up their rights to kill for the state so that individuals would not have the power to do so, thus preventing violence and protecting a large number of people. However, Hobbes also believed that the state could use violence as necessary in order to prevent challenges to its authority or to prevent damages to society. Therefore, individuals should serve the state which would then protect them because individuals could not protect themselves in the state of nature.

Liberals such as Locke believed that individuals are generally virtuous. Therefore, they should be able to govern themselves because people can ultimately come to some sort of consensus. Locke was an Enlightenment philosopher and one important idea of the Enlightenment is that idea that there is an ultimate Truth, and that this Truth could be found using rationality. Therefore, with people's virtue and their ability to reason, they would be able to control and organize their lives largely independent from the intervention of the state. Smith believed that humans have the innate ability to truck, barter, and exchange, which are necessary skills required to participate in a free market. He argued that since people have these natural skills and are virtuous, they can engage in economic trade within the free market system with minimal limitations set up by the state.

Marxists believe that the ultimate goal is to free the individual from the state. All throughout history, people have been split into different classes due to inequality. These inequalities cause conflicts between individuals of different classes. He argued that under capitalism, this is no exception because the division of labor divides people into different jobs, continuing this inequality. The accumulation of private property and state intervention exacerbates this problem even further. He believed that the state needs to strictly control individuals until the society comes out of the capitalist system, and then it can move towards the communist utopia where individuals rule themselves without a state that caters to the interests of the wealthy specifically, but rather a vehicle that caters to the interests of the majority under strict Democratic control. Contrary to popular assumption Marx does not promote the dissolution of governing entities but rather to change them into entities of protection rather then exploitation. With this achieved that which was previously recognized as the State apparatus has been replaced with what is commonly referred to as a Workers State. Hence, it would be a misnomer for the new apparatus to be called a "State".

Role Of The State
The state is the institution that regulates the distribution of wealth and private property. Therefore, the role of the state was an important topic for those who were interested in how this distribution was to be handled. Also, throughout the history of the world, there had always been the question of how to protect and mediate the actions of individuals. It makes no sense for individuals to come together in a society unless there is some sort of coherence between the wants, needs, and abilities of those individuals. The state is the power that regulates these things.

The classical view of the state is the idea of an institution with sovereign power over its citizens. In other words, a state has power (which is the monopoly over force and violence) to make sure its citizens act within the bounds of the law. An institution is sovereign if it answers to no higher power.

In feudal times, Europe was split into kingdoms, which governed themselves by the word of the king (or what Machiavelli called the prince). Princes ruled their principalities based on inheritance or force and many claimed that they gained the right to rule by God's sanction. Kings gave power to their vassals (lords) to protect the kingdom in return for resources. The resources came from the lords' vassals (serfs) who worked the land and provided food for the kingdom in exchange for protection. Machiavelli believed that a prince should gain as much power as possible in order to control the population within the principality. He assumed that princes should win over their people by love if possible and force if necessary. Hobbes believed in the absolute power of a sovereign because he believed Athenian democracy was bound to fail. He argued that power should be spread out as little as possible because conflicts in power and sovereignty would bring conflicts among the population as well. He did not believe that a sovereign had to win over people if absolute power was taken for granted. In other words, if a sovereign has total power, then he does not need to use any other methods other than force to rule over the people. Since Hobbes believed that a state was the most important part of society (because it protected the individuals from eliminating each other and therefore preventing the destruction of society itself) he believed that individuals should give up their power in order for the state to regulate all aspects of personal lives if needs be in order to protect the majority of the people.

The liberals believed that the state which governs the least is the one which governs best. Since they believed that individuals have a good amount of virtue, they believed that states should exist to protect only the most fundamental rights since humans have the capacity to govern themselves in a fair manner. Locke believed that the state should be created to serve humans by protecting them from harm and to protect the private property they want to accumulate. Smith also argued for a limited state; he argued that the free market in a capitalist system would be enough to regulate most of the distribution of wealth within a population (though he did believe that a state was necessary to maintain infrastructure such as schools and certain forms of transportation).

Marx believed that the different structures of the state systems throughout history have allowed for inequality and class conflict. Therefore, he believed that the state would not be necessary after capitalism had been overthrown. He believed that the current state supports the capitalist system which perpetuates the exploitation of workers by their employers. He believed that a revolution by the proletariat was required in order to set up a new socialist government which would organize the necessary social and technical infrastructure built by capitalism to advance to the communist utopia. Therefore, even though he argued against the capitalist system, he believed that the capitalist state is a necessary institution before the creation of the socialist state and eventually the communist utopia can begin.

Private Property
The idea of private property is regarded differently by the various political economists. Private property had not been an important part of the law of the state before the time of Machiavelli. Machiavelli's writings was important because it acknowledged private property rights in a time when Europe's society was based on the agrarian form of production. Thomas Hobbes advocated a need for a sovereign with total power in order to create a society where people's lives would be protected so they could be allowed to accumulate property.

In the European mercantilist society, the idea of the accumulation of private property developed further. As people started to dwell in towns and cities, the protection of property within a space of denser population was needed, so the state intervened in the market as well as in the distribution of wealth. States sanctioned their own monopolies and granted licenses to guilds in order to control the means of production as well as the flow of capital. In feudal society, people did not accumulate private property because the resources that came out of the land by the labor of the serfs went to lords and kings, who provided protection. Now, the state sanctioned limited markets and controlled the means of production to provide a limited supply of commodities for individuals. Now, people could buy products that had been provided with the control of the government.

Liberals wanted even more for the individual. Locke argued that "life, liberty, and property" should be protected by the formation of states. He saw the individual as the most important actor within a society, and he believed that the state should serve the interests of the individual, which are "life, liberty, and property." Therefore, these three parts to life are the most important, worthy of the state's protection. Smith also believed that the accumulation of property is essentially good. Due to the desires of the people to accumulate certain commodities, they would regulate the free market with the invisible hand, thereby controlling production and consumption by just following their human desires.

Marxists see private ownership of the Means of Production as unnecessary once inequality has been destroyed. The accumulation of private property and capital is what drives capitalism. Since capitalists need to compete in order to keep making profits, they must choose to accumulate capital in order to live as capitalists (otherwise, they will end up as workers themselves). It is the desire for private property itself that drives the capitalist system, and therefore must be abolished in the communist utopia. Marx did not necessarily advocate the state to actively intervene in order to remove the private property, but he believed that individuals would naturally see private property as unnecessary once the division of labor (and therefore inequality) has been eliminated.

title: Political Economy/General


text:
Wikijunior talk:South America/South America

Anyone know how to get the images working? i got them from South America The bellman 00:41, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Continent?
America is a continent, South America is just part of it. At least that's how we learn it in Brazil. Is it taught differntly in other countries? 200.158.46.13 00:53, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * most of the world says that there are seven continents; Europe, Asia, Australia, Antarctica, Africa, South America, and North America. HOWEVER almost everyone in south and north america, says that there are only six continents. And since the name of this wikijuniour book is South America, i guess we have litle choice but to use the seven continents. Geologicaly, they are very different, and in a few bajillion years wont be touching each other. But really the whole continent idea is pretty stupid, since its a mashing together of geological boundries and political boundries (europe and asia are a good example) The bellman 01:08, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I put the following info box about continents into the article (after the first paragraph), but it was screwing up the contents, anyone who thinks they know how to put it in with out breaking everyting have a go. remember if you screw up, we can always revert. The bellman 01:31, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Continents
A continent is a large mass of land, sorounded by water. Some people think that there are seven continents, while others think there are only six, or even five. The seven basic continents are; Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America. However many people belive that North and South America are parts of one bigger continent called The Americas while others believe that Europe and Asia are actually just part of a bigger continent call Eurasia.

 * I'm in North America- I was always taught they were seperate continents. Didn't realize anyone else thought they weren't. 68.85.91.55 02:45, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC) and that would be me Lyellin 02:46, 25 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * do you live in Canada or the US? I'm preety sure the US teaches it as the americas, but canada because its part of the commonwealth might teach it as north and south. I dunno. Does anyone have any objections to it being written as two continents, with a clarification in the info box (if anyone manages to work out how to put the damn thing in with out fucking up the contents)? The bellman 00:20, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * I'm in the US, always taught them as being seperate. Clarification is fine, even good. You learn new things, good to teach the kids ;) 68.85.91.55 04:42, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)

translations
What do people think of the translations box? add in more english words if you think they are necessary, and ill try and fill in the translations. The bellman 01:11, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Yo y'all, i was just wondering if we should include french and dutch into the translation box. I know nothing of those languages, so someone else would have to do the translations. what do others think? The bellman 23:56, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

I have only studied Quechua 1 year, but I have learned different ways to say most of those things... I'm learning Qusqu dialect. These phrases must be from another, I don't doubt that they're correct. I'll add my versions, feel free to to remove if it is too confusing...but really my teacher never says several of these (she is a native speaker of course).

Europeans
The "Europeans" section states that Iberians were the first colonizers. This is not entirely true; the French first colonized French Guyana as early as 1604. Guyana was first colonized by the Dutch in 1616 (Essequibo), and then later the British; indeed it is one of the few pockets of non-iberian heritage, still speaking English. The French and Dutch both set up early colonies in Brazil, in 1555 and 1630 respectively, but failed. Suriname was first colonized by English, and then the Dutch. I think that covers about all of the non-Iberian early settlement. What do you think? --Dmcdevit 03:23, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The Incas are dead
In the part where we talk about the indigenous people, the Incas are mentioned as the most famous ones. In fact, "Inca" was the name given only to the rulers of the empire. This means that someone "plebeian" was not an Inca. Furthermore, the Incas are considered long dead, regardless of who you are referring to, royalty or not. I think we should either change the paragraph to be in the past tense or talk about the descendants of the Incas, but the latter I think would be too confusing for the kids. --Arca 23:01, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)


text:
C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Flow Control

Control flow statements
Usually a program is not a linear sequence of instructions. It may repeat code or take decisions for a given path-goal relation. Most programming languages have control flow statements (constructs) which provide some sort of control structures that serve to specify order to what has to be done to perform our program that allow variations in this sequential order:
 * statements may only be obeyed under certain conditions (conditionals),
 * statements may be obeyed repeatedly under certain conditions (loops),
 * a group of remote statements may be obeyed (subroutines).

 * Logical Expressions as conditions : Logical expressions can use logical operators in loops and conditional statements as part of the conditions to be met.

Exceptional and unstructured control flow
Some instructions have no particular structure but will have an exceptional usefulness in shaping how other control flow statements are structured, a special care must be taken to prevent unstructured and confusing programming.

break
A break will force the exiting of the present loop iteration into the next statement outside of the loop. It has no usefulness outside of a loop structure except for the switch control statement.

continue
The continue instruction is used inside loops where it will stop the current loop iteration, initiating the next one.

abort, exit and atexit
As we will see later the Standard C Library that is included in C++ also supplies some useful functions that can alter the flow control. Some will permit you to terminate the execution of a program, enabling you to set up a return value or initiate special tasks upon the termination request. You will have to jump ahead into the abort - exit - atexit sections for more information.

Conditionals
There is likely no meaningful program written in which a computer does not demonstrate basic decision-making skills based upon certain set conditions. It can actually be argued that there is no meaningful human activity in which no decision-making, instinctual or otherwise, takes place. For example, when driving a car and approaching a traffic light, one does not think, "I will continue driving through the intersection." Rather, one thinks, "I will stop if the light is red, go if the light is green, and if yellow go only if I am traveling at a certain speed a certain distance from the intersection." These kinds of processes can be simulated using conditionals.

A conditional is a statement that instructs the computer to execute a certain block of code or alter certain data only if a specific condition has been met.

The most common conditional is the if-else statement, with conditional expressions and switch-case statements typically used as more shorthanded methods.

if (Fork branching)
The if-statement allows one possible path choice depending on the specified conditions.

Syntax

Semantic

First, the condition is evaluated:
 * if condition is true, statement is executed before continuing with the body.
 * if condition is false, the program skips statement and continues with the rest of the program.

Example

Sometimes the program needs to choose one of two possible paths depending on a condition. For this we can use the if-else statement.

Here we display a message if the user is under 18. Otherwise, we let the user in. The if part is executed only if 'user_age' is less than 18. In other cases (when 'user_age' is greater than or equal to 18), the else part is executed.

if conditional statements may be chained together to make for more complex condition branching. In this example we expand the previous example by also checking if the user is above 64 and display another message if so.

switch (Multiple branching)
The switch statement branches based on specific integer values.

switch (integer expression) { case label1: statement(s) break; case label2: statement(s) break; /* ... */    default: statement(s) }

As you can see in the above scheme the case and default have a "break;" statement at the end of block. This expression will cause the program to exit from the switch, if break is not added the program will continue execute the code in other cases even when the integer expression is not equal to that case. This can be exploited in some cases as seen in the next example.

We want to separate an input from digit to other characters.

In this small piece of code for each digit below '9' it will propagate through the cases until it will reach case '9' and print "digit".

If not it will go straight to the default case there it will print "Non digit"

Loops (iterations)
A loop (also referred to as an iteration or repetition) is a sequence of statements which is specified once but which may be carried out several times in succession. The code "inside" the loop (the body of the loop) is obeyed a specified number of times, or once for each of a collection of items, or until some condition is met.

Iteration is the repetition of a process, typically within a computer program. Confusingly, it can be used both as a general term, synonymous with repetition, and to describe a specific form of repetition with a mutable state.

When used in the first sense, recursion is an example of iteration.

However, when used in the second (more restricted) sense, iteration describes the style of programming used in imperative programming languages. This contrasts with recursion, which has a more declarative approach.

Due to the nature of C++ there may lead to an even bigger problems when differentiating the use of the word, so to simplify things use "loops" to refer to simple recursions as described in this section and use iteration or iterator (the "one" that performs an iteration) to class iterator (or in relation to objects/classes) as used in the STL.

Sometimes it is desirable for a program to loop forever, or until an exceptional condition such as an error arises. For instance, an event-driven program may be intended to loop forever handling events as they occur, only stopping when the process is killed by the operator.
 * Infinite Loops

More often, an infinite loop is due to a programming error in a condition-controlled loop, wherein the loop condition is never changed within the loop.

Most programming languages have constructions for repeating a loop until some condition changes.
 * Condition-controlled loops

Condition-controlled loops are divided into two categories Preconditional or Entry-Condition that place the test at the start of the loop, and Postconditional or Exit-Condition iteration that have the test at the end of the loop. In the former case the body may be skipped completely, while in the latter case the body is always executed at least once.

In the condition controlled loops, the keywords break and continue take significance. The break keyword causes an exit from the loop, proceeding with the rest of the program. The continue keyword terminates the current iteration of the loop, the loop proceeds to the next iteration.

while (Preconditional loop)
Syntax

Semantic First, the condition is evaluated: Remark: statement can be a block of code { ... } with several instructions.
 * 1) if condition is true, statement is executed and condition is evaluated again.
 * 2) if condition is false continues with statement2

What makes 'while' statements different from the 'if' is the fact that once the body (referred to as statement above) is executed, it will go back to 'while' and check the condition again. If it is true, it is executed again. In fact, it will execute as many times as it has to until the expression is false.

Example 1

Execution The value of i is 0 The value of i is 1 The value of i is 2 The value of i is 3 The value of i is 4 The value of i is 5 The value of i is 6 The value of i is 7 The value of i is 8 The value of i is 9 The final value of i is 10

Example 2

Execution Type an integer from 0 to 20 : 30 ERROR - Type an integer from 0 to 20 : 40 ERROR - Type an integer from 0 to 20 : -6 ERROR - Type an integer from 0 to 20 : 14

do-while (Postconditional loop)
Syntax

Semantic
 * 1) statement(s) are executed.
 * 2) condition is evaluated.
 * 3) if condition is true goes to 1).
 * 4) if condition is false continues with statement2

The do - while loop is similar in syntax and purpose to the while loop. The construct moves the test that continues condition of the loop to the end of the code block so that the code block is executed at least once before any evaluation.

Example

Execution The value of i is 0 The value of i is 1 The value of i is 2 The value of i is 3 The value of i is 4 The value of i is 5 The value of i is 6 The value of i is 7 The value of i is 8 The value of i is 9 The final value of i is 10


text:
Guide to Unix/Commands/File Compression

gzip
gzip compresses files. Each single file is compressed into a single file. The compressed file consists of a GNU zip header and deflated data.

If given a file as an argument, gzip compresses the file, adds a ".gz" suffix, and deletes the original file. With no arguments, gzip compresses the standard input and writes the compressed file to standard output.

Some useful options are:

-c Write compressed file to stdout. Do not delete original file. -d Act like gunzip. -1 Performance: Use fast compression (somewhat bigger result) -9 Performance: Use best compression (somewhat slower)

Examples:

Compress the file named README. Creates README.gz and deletes README. $ gzip README

Compress the file called README. The standard output (which is the compressed file) is redirected by the shell to gzips/README.gz. Keeps README. $ gzip -c README > gzips/README.gz

Use gzip without arguments to compress README. $ < README gzip > gzips/README.gz

Links:
 * GNU Gzip, a manual, gnu.org

gunzip
gunzip uncompresses a file that was compressed with "gzip" or "compress". It tries to handle both the GNU zip format of gzip and the older Unix compress format. It does this by recognizing the extension (".gz" or ".Z" or several others) of a file.

Some useful options are:

-c Write uncompressed data to stdout. Do not delete original file.

Undo the effect of gzip README.gz by replacing the compressed version of the file with the original, uncompressed version. Creates <tt>README</tt> and deletes <tt>README.gz</tt>. $ gunzip README.gz

Write the uncompressed contents of <tt>README.gz</tt> to standard output. Pipe it into a pager for easy reading of a compressed file. $ gunzip -c README.gz | more

Another way to do that is: $ gunzip < README.gz | more

Some people name files <tt>package.tgz</tt> as short for <tt>package.tar.gz</tt>.

Links:
 * GNU Gzip, a manual, gnu.org

zcat
zcat is same thing as <tt>uncompress -c</tt>, though on many systems it is actually same as "gzcat" and <tt>gunzip -c</tt>.

Links:
 * zcat, opengroup.org
 * zcat, freebsd.org
 * GNU Gzip, a manual, gnu.org

gzcat
gzcat is same as <tt>gunzip -c</tt> which is <tt>gzip -dc</tt>.

tar
Archives without compression. Not covered by modern POSIX, which covers instead; yet, tar continues to be widely used. An archive contains one or more files or directories.

''Options to tar are confusing. Specify a mode every time.''

Modes:
 * -c create an archive (files to archive, archive from files)
 * -x extract an archive (archive to files, files from archive)
 * -t list an archive (lists the files in the archive)

Options:
 * -f FILE name of archive - must specify unless using tape drive for archive
 * -v      be verbose, list all files being archived/extracted
 * -p      preserve permissions and (if possible) user/group when extracting.
 * -z      create/extract archive with gzip/gunzip
 * -j      create/extract archive with bzip2/bunzip2
 * -J      create/extract archive with XZ

Examples:

Compress (gzip) and package (tar) the directory <tt>myfiles</tt> to create <tt>myfiles.tar.gz</tt>: $ tar -czvf myfiles.tar.gz myfiles

Uncompress (gzip) and unpack compressed package, extracting contents from <tt>myfiles</tt>: $ tar -xzvf myfiles.tar.gz

There are two different conventions concerning gzipped tarballs. One often encounters .tar.gz. The other popular choice is .tgz. Slackware packages use the latter convention.

If you have access to a tape device or other backup medium, then you can use it instead of an archive file. If the material to be archived exceeds the capacity of the backup medium, the program will prompt the user to insert a new tape or diskette.

Use the following command to back up the <tt>myfiles</tt> directory to floppies: $ tar -cvf /dev/fd0 myfiles

Restore that backup with: $ tar -xvf /dev/fd0

You can also specify standard input or output <tt>-f -</tt> instead of an archive file or device. It is possible to use copy between directories by piping two "tar" commands together. For example, suppose we have two directories, <tt>from-stuff</tt> and <tt>to-stuff</tt>

$ ls -F from-stuff/ to-stuff/

As described in Running Linux, one can mirror everything from <tt>from-stuff</tt> to <tt>to-stuff</tt> this way: $ '''tar cf -. | (cd ../to-stuff; tar xvf -)'''

Reference: Welsh, Matt, Matthias Kalle Dalheimer and Lar Kaufman (1999), Running Linux. Third edition, O'Reilly and Associates.

Links:
 * tar, The Single UNIX ® Specification, Version 2, 1997, opengroup.org
 * C.4 Utilities, opengroup.org - indicates tar as removed
 * tar man page, man.cat-v.org
 * tar, freebsd.org
 * GNU tar, a manual, gnu.org
 * , wikipedia.org

cpio
cpio is used for creating archives. When creating an archive, a list of files is fed to its standard-input (rather than specifying the files on the commandline). This file-list is typically created by ls, find or locate and then piped directly to cpio; but it can also first be filtered/edited with commands like *grep, sed, sort and others. A (pre-edited) list stored as a file can also be used, by using cat to feed the pipeline or simply by redirecting the shell's standard-input (<).

cpio works in one of three modes:
 * cpio -o - Copy-Out mode: Files are copied out from the filesystem to create an archive. Usually the archive is created by simply using the shell to redirect cpio's output to a file (with >).
 * cpio -i - Copy-In mode: Files from an existing archive are restored/extracted, and copied back in to the filesystem.
 * cpio -p - Pass-Through mode: cpio is used to copy files from one location in the directory-tree to another, without an actual archiving being made.

In addition comes:
 * cpio -t - List archive: The content of an archive is listed without extracting it.
 * cpio -tv - Here the verbose-option (-v) will cause a "long listing", with permissions, size and ownership.

Adding the verbose-option (-v) in Copy-In, Copy-Out and Pass-Through mode, will cause cpio to list the files as they're extracted/archived/copied.

Using ls to create an archive (verbosely) with all doc-files in the current directory: $ ls *.doc | cpio -ov > word-docs.cpio

Using find to create an archive with all txt-files in and below the current directory: $ '''find. -name "*.txt" | cpio -ov > text-files.cpio'''

Using find and fgrep to create an archive of just the txt-files containing the word wiki (any case): $ '''find. -name "*.txt" -exec fgrep -l -i "wiki" {} \; | cpio -ov > wiki.cpio''' For fgrep the option -i means "ignore case", and the option -l cause it to just list the filenames of files matching the pattern.

Using an existing list of files: $ cpio -ov < file-list.txt > archive.cpio

Using several list of files, but first after sort-ing and uniq-ing them: $ cat files1 files2 files3 | sort | uniq | cpio -ov > myfiles.cpio

To add more files, use the append-option (-A). Specify the file with the file-option (-F): $ cat files4 | cpio -ovA -F myfiles.cpio

To extract files (being verbose): $ cpio -iv < myfiles.cpio

cpio doesn't create directories by default, so use the option -d to make it.

To extract files, while creating directories as needed: $ cpio -ivd < myfiles.cpio

To list the content of an archive, short listing: $ cpio -t < myfiles.cpio

To list the content of an archive, long listing: $ cpio -tv < myfiles.cpio

Links:
 * cpio, The Single ... Specification, Version 2, 1997, opengroup.org
 * C.4 Utilities, opengroup.org
 * cpio man page, man.cat-v.org
 * GNU CPIO, a manual, gnu.org

pax
Provides archiving services like tar but with different command-line syntax; provides more archive formats than tar. Because pax does not assume the tape device, some prefer it to tar.

Archive formats to be supported at minimum per POSIX are cpio, pax, and ustar. The FreeBSD pax tool does not support the pax archive format; the pax format is supported by AIX and Solaris.

Although covered by POSIX, pax is usually not installed per default in Linux distributions; tar sees continued use instead. Even when installed as an additional package, pax for Linux does not support the POSIX-required pax archive format.

Links:
 * pax, opengroup.org
 * pax in The Single UNIX ® Specification, Version 2, 1997, opengroup.org
 * pax, freebsd.org
 * pax(1p), man7.org - from POSIX Programmer's Manual, not from actual Linux
 * pax, opensource.apple.com
 * pax for AIX 7.3, ibm.com
 * pax for Solaris 11.1, docs.oracle.com
 * pax, heirloom.sourceforge.net
 * paxutils, savannah.gnu.org - has no published releases; there is git repository
 * , wikipedia.org
 * Package: pax, packages.ubuntu.com
 * Package: pax, packages.debian.org
 * pax, pkgs.org
 * Pax-20201030, linuxfromscratch.org
 * pax lack of support for "pax" format fails LSB, 2009, bugs.launchpad.net/paxmirabilis
 * pax is not compliant with the latest version of POSIX yet, 2014, bugs.launchpad.net/ubuntu
 * mircpio in MirBSD, github.com

bzip2
bzip2 and bunzip2 are similar to "gzip"/"gunzip" but with a different compression method. Compression is generally better but slower than "gzip". Decompression is somewhat fast.

An option of -1 through -9 can be used to specify how good bzip2 should compress. The number tells how large "chunks" in steps of 100kB should compress at a time, so using <tt>bzip2 -5 foo.bar</tt> will compress foo.bar in chunks of 500kB each. Generally, larger chunks means better compression (but probably slower). Only undamaged "chunks" can be recovered with <tt>bzip2recover</tt> from a damaged bzip2-file, so if you've compressed 900kB chunks, you'll loose 900kB of your file if one chunk is damaged - but only 100kB if you used 100kB chunks (<tt>bzip2 -1</tt>). By default bzip2 uses 900kB chunks for best possible compression.

bzcat is same as <tt>bunzip2 -c</tt> which is <tt>bzip2 -dc</tt>.

Links:
 * bzip2, freebsd.org

zip
Adds files to a compressed zip archive. You can extract files from a zip archive using unzip. The zip format is a common archiving file format used on Microsoft Windows PCs. A zip archive has members compressed individually; imagine gzip of every file before tar-ing them, but with a different format.

Like for gzip the quality of the compression can be specified by giving a number between 1 and 9 as an option (e.g. <tt>zip -5</tt>). 1 is quickest, but gives a low-quality compression. 9 gives the highest quality of compression, but is slow. In addition 0 can be used (i.e. <tt>zip -0</tt>) to specify that the files should just be "stored" and not compressed (a compression of 0%), thus making it possible to use zip to make uncompressed archives.

Note that a zip-archive contains individualy compressed files collected into a single file. This is the opposite of how it's done for most other compressed Unix-archives (e.g. <tt>tar.gz</tt> and <tt>tar.bz2</tt>), where the files/directories are first collected into a single file -- an archive (e.g. cpio or tar), and then this single file is compressed (e.g. using gzip or bzip2).

Examples:
 * zip archive.zip file.txt
 * Adds the file to the archive. If the archive does not exist, creates it.
 * zip archive file.txt
 * As above; adds the .zip extension automatically, creating archive.zip.
 * cat filelist.txt | zip archive.zip -@
 * Adds the files listed in filelist.txt to the archive.
 * zip -0 archive.zip file.txt
 * Adds the file to the archive, making no compression, merely storing the file.
 * zip archive.zip file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt
 * Adds multiple files to the archive.
 * zip -r archive.zip.
 * Adds all files in the current directory and the sub-directories into the archive except for the archive itself, preserving the directory nesting information.
 * zip -r -j archive.zip.
 * As above, but without the directory nesting information. Thus, each file is tracked under its file name only in the archive.
 * zip -h2
 * Outputs extended help, longer than the -h one.

Links:
 * zip, freebsd.org
 * Info-ZIP, wikipedia.org
 * Zip (file format), wikipedia.org

unzip
Extracts files from zip archives. See also zip. You can get a Windows version of Info-ZIP unzip from GnuWin32. FreeBSD appears to be using a custom version of unzip, distinct from Info-ZIP yet largely compatible with it.

Examples:
 * unzip archive.zip
 * Extracts all files from the archive.
 * unzip archive.zip file.txt
 * Extracts a particular file from the archive.
 * unzip -l archive.zip
 * Lists files contained in the archive without extracting them.

Links:
 * unzip, freebsd.org
 * infozip, sourceforge.net
 * unzip.c as part of FreeBSD, github.com

compress
compress is a compressed file format that is popular on UNIX systems. Files compressed with compress will have a ".Z" extension appended to its name.

Links:
 * compress, opengroup.org
 * compress man page, man.cat-v.org
 * compress

uncompress
Extracts files from an archive created by compress.

Links:
 * uncompress, opengroup.org
 * compress, uncompress, zcat, man.cat-v.org
 * uncompress, freebsd.org
 * compress

unar
Extracts files from a variety of compression formats, including 7z (7-zip) and RAR. License: LGPL. A companion utility to show archive file listing is lsar.

Links:
 * unar, freebsd.org
 * unar, directory.fsf.org
 * unar, packages.debian.org
 * The Unarchiver, wikipedia.org

shar
A legacy tool and a file format to create self-extracting file archives, not covered by POSIX. The self-extracting archives are shell scripts.

Links:
 * shar, freebsd.org
 * GNU shar utilities, gnu.org
 * shar, manpages.ubuntu.com
 * , wikipedia.org

title: Guide to Unix/Commands/File Compression


text:
Talk:Ada Programming

= Archived Discussions =

 * /Archive 1 : Other Language Libraries, AI302, Added to bookshelf, mention tasking earlier?, Development stage, Sorting in category, Things to look out for
 * /Coding conventions : Coding conventions
 * /New Picture : New Picture
 * /New Name needed : New Name needed, Conversion to the new naming policy
 * /Archive 2 : Ada Programming/All_Chapters
 * /Archive 3 :
 * /Archive 4 :
 * /Archive 5 :

Ada Programming Ada Programming

= Current Discussions =

See also:
 * WikiProject Ada
 * Wikibooks talk:WikiProject Ada
 * Talk:Ada Programming/Contributing/Discussion

FAQ Section
Another good idea might be to start adding an FAQ section to the book for commonly encountered issues, possibly structured in a fashion reflecting the books original structure - --82.83.125.250 (talk) 23:08, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Note that there is already http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Category:Ada_Programming/FAQ

Related Links

 * http://www.adahome.com/FAQ/comp-lang-ada.html
 * http://www.adahome.com/FAQ/programming.html#title
 * http://www.uni-giessen.de/faq/archiv/comp-lang-ada.cla-faq1-2/
 * http://www.adapower.com/faq/
 * http://faqs.org/faqs/computer-lang/Ada/programming/part1/
 * http://www.adahome.com/FAQ/learning.html
 * http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~dale/ada/pitfalls/index.html
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/1996/10/xt96d10d.asp
 * http://www.adaic.com/standards/articles/ada05-faq.html
 * http://www.uni-giessen.de/faq/archiv/comp-lang-ada.cla-faq1-2
 * http://www.sigada.org/WG/asiswg/ASIS_FAQ.html

Resources
(Unsorted, needs to be further classified) Many of these links might be more relevant for the wikipedia entry about Ada?

Contains also some pointers: http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.ada/browse_thread/thread/9f24c9ad3717de45/45031c371e543412?hl=en#45031c371e543412

English

 * http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~dale/ada/ada_language_notes.pdf
 * http://docs.happycoders.org/orgadoc/dev/ada/book.pdf
 * http://www.rtems.org/onlinedocs/releases/rtemsdocs-4.6.5/share/rtems/pdf/ada_user.pdf
 * http://www.cs.york.ac.uk/ftpdir/reports/YCST-2003-10.pdf
 * http://ctp.di.fct.unl.pt/~pg/Presentations/Ada_1997_2.pdf
 * http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=290222
 * Guide for the Use of the Ada Programming Language in High Integrity Systems
 * Design for Safety
 * The Use of Computer in safety-critical applications
 * Handbook for Software in safety-critical Applications
 * Technical Reports
 * http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC22/WG9/HRG-High-Integrity-Ada.html
 * http://www.beesknees.freeserve.co.uk/articles/ada-vs-cpp.html
 * http://www.adaic.org/whyada/ada-vs-c.html
 * http://www.dwheeler.com/steelman/steeltab.htm
 * http://www.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/adabin/ausgabe?../asr/docum/various_articles/aic_news/+aic64.doc
 * Ada, a brief history

Blogs
 * http://www.archeia.com/home.html&tags=ada

German

 * http://www.informatik.uni-bremen.de/st/Lehre/Arte-fakt/Ada95.Buch.pdf
 * http://www.tfh-berlin.de/~grude/SkriptAda.pdf
 * http://i12www.ira.uka.de/~engelc/lehre/seminarSS07/folien/dees/ada_seminar_jonathan_dees.pdf
 * http://www.infosun.fim.uni-passau.de/cl/passau/sem-ws03/haller-vortrag.pdf
 * http://atknoll1.informatik.tu-muenchen.de:8080/tum6/lectures/courses/ss06/info2/documents/Documents/1154087054.18/Ada95_Tasking.pdf
 * http://www.ada-deutschland.de/AdaTourCD/AdaTourCD2004/dokumente/Books/Erfahrungen%20mit%20Ada.pdf
 * http://th.informatik.uni-mannheim.de/teach/SichSyst-04/
 * http://www.iste.uni-stuttgart.de/ps/Lehre/S_Graphen/schoenleber-f.pdf

Related reading

 * https://libre2.adacore.com/Software_Matters/
 * http://softwareblogs.intel.com/2007/03/05/a-farewell-to-jean/

Ada

 * Ada vs. C++
 * Translating C++ Software into Ada 95
 * The Ada95 philosophy
 * Ada:Dispelling the Myths
 * How Long Does It Take to Learn Ada?
 * Ada in the 21st Century
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/2006/08/0608FromThePublisher.html
 * http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~ndm/downloads/slides-ada_generics-07_mar_2007.pdf
 * Ada Syntax/Quick Reference Card
 * http://www.ddj.com/184409641

Comparisons

 * Ada to D
 * Comparison of Ada vs. C/C++ & Java
 * Realtime Programming Safety in Java and Ada

Ada 2005

 * http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?AD=1&ArticleID=11571
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/2006/08/0608Conn.html
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/2006/08/0608Brosgol.html
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/2006/08/0608Sanden.html
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/2006/08/0608Taft.html

Use and Users of Ada

 * http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~mfeldman/ada-project-summary.html
 * Ada Adoption Handbook
 * Debugging Ada

Mission Critical Systems

 * Ada and its use in mission critical systems

Misc

 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/frames.asp?uri=1998/12/vaughn.asp
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/frames.asp?uri=1997/06/databases.asp

 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/frames.asp?uri=1996/03/AnAdaFor.asp
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/frames.asp?uri=1997/12/pal.asp
 * http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/frames.asp?uri=1997/02/reuseada.asp
 * Ada use in Europe

 * http://www.slideshare.net/gneuromante/introduction-to-ada/
 * http://www.uni-kassel.de/~holler/ada/Ada_referat_export.pdf
 * http://creativekarma.com/ee.php/weblog/comments/object_orientation_in_ada_95/
 * http://www.embedded.com/columns/technicalinsights/192503587?_requestid=369902
 * http://www.applicationsoftwaredeveloper.com/features/june07/article2.html
 * http://www.cotsjournalonline.com/home/article.php?id=100687
 * http://www.esemagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=411&Itemid=2
 * http://creativekarma.com/ee.php/weblog/comments/a_java_developer_tries_some_ada_programming/
 * http://creativekarma.com/ee.php/weblog/comments/a_look_at_the_ada_language/
 * http://accu.org/index.php/journals/272
 * http://archive.adaic.com/pol-hist/history/holwg-93/holwg-93.htm
 * http://cs.fit.edu/~ryan/ada/programs/
 * http://www.ddj.com/184409641
 * http://www.ghs.com/download/whitepapers/ada_c++.pdf
 * http://www.adahome.com/Ammo/cpp2ada.html
 * http://www.adaic.com/docs/95style/html/contents.html
 * http://linuxgazette.net/issue81/adam2.html
 * http://codepoet.org/~markw/weber/ada/

Ada Tools

 * http://www.ddj.com/embedded/202802403

IDEs/open source

 * Gnat Programming Studio

Other discussion pages
These are open discussion pages about specific chapters:

Language Features
Before you introduce control structures, maybe we should learn how to declare and use variables and do some basic math. Then we can understand more interesting examples for the control structures section. --139.19.14.55 (discuss)

move or rename 'Other Language Libraries'
Before I added Ada Programming/Libraries/SAL, I looked thru the Ada Programming main page, looking for "External Libraries". I didn't see it; later I learned it was "Other Language Libraries".

I think the name "Other Language Libraries" is confusing; I took it to mean "libraries defined in the Ada standard that are not been discussed above".

I suggest moving that section to External Resources or External Links (another source of confusion!). Or at least renaming it to External Libraries. Stephen leake (discuss • contribs) 07:42, 4 May 2012 (UTC)

 * I agree entirely about the rename and so I have already edited the text in that way; but I'm not sure about the move, because it would unmatch the subpage structure since all these libraries (predefined and external) hang from Ada Programming/Libraries. Let's wait for a third opinion. -- ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 21:23, 9 May 2012 (UTC)

 * I Strongly agree. I suggest just dropping the word "Language", so that have we "Predefined Libraries" and "Other Libraries" in Ada_Programming/Libraries. What's a "language library", anyway? Dropping one noun also rids us of two of them in a row, and removes ambiguity of the adjectives' references. gb (discuss • contribs) 11:50, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

Broken external links in the book
In order to maintain the book with current external links, I have used the pywikipediaboot for finding broken links. This is the current list. If you know or can find a new working link for the information, please contribute by editing the page and then remove the line from this list so others know what work has been done and what is still pending.

 * Ada Programming links to http://www.praxis-his.com/sparkada/sparkbook.asp - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.dit.upm.es/ork/documents/adahis.pdf - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.ada-europe.org/journal.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.ada-europe.org/AUJ/ - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.cmis.brighton.ac.uk/~je/adacraft/ - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.adacore.com/home/ada_answers/lectures/ada_uk07/ - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.adaic.com/whyada/ada-vs-c/cada_art.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming links to http://www.adacore.com/home/ada_answers/lectures/ada_uk06 - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Ada 95 links to http://www.adaic.org/standards/95aarm/html/AA-TTL.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Ada 2005 links to http://www.adacore.com/wp-content/files/attachments/Ada_2005_and_GNAT.pdf - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Ada 2012 links to http://www2.adacore.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/03/Ada2012_Rational_Introducion.pdf - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Ada 2012 links to http://www2.adacore.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Ada2012_Rationale_Chp1_contracts_and_aspects.pdf - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Web/AWS links to http://libre.adacore.com/aws - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Web/AWS links to http://libre.adacore.com/aws - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://software.gsfc.nasa.gov/AssetsApproved/PA2.4.1.1.1.pdf - Socket Error: 'Nombre o servicio desconocido'.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://www.raincode.com/adaengine.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://www.raincode.com/adachecker.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Platform/Windows/Console links to http://lml.ls.fi.upm.es/ftp/lenguajes/ada/nt_console/nt_con03.zip - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gnat_ugn_unw/Predefined-Rules.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://www.dit.upm.es/ork/documents/adahis.pdf - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Database links to http://adaforge.qtada.com/cgi-bin/tracker.fcgi/matreshka/wiki - Socket Error: 'Nombre o servicio desconocido'.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Database links to http://coreland.ath.cx/code/sqlite3-ada - Socket Error: 'Nombre o servicio desconocido'.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Database links to http://framework.kow.com.br - Socket Error: 'Conexi\xc3\xb3n reinicializada por la m\xc3\xa1quina remota'.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/GUI/GtkAda links to http://libre.adacore.com/viewvc/trunk/GtkAda - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Installing links to http://es.znurt.org/dev-ada - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Keywords/for links to http://www.praxis-his.com/sparkada/sparkbook.asp - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Libraries/Distributed/PolyORB links to http://libre.adacore.com/cvsweb/polyorb - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas/Restrictions links to http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gnat_rm/Implementation-Defined-Restrictions.html - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Pragmas/Shared links to http://www.adaic.com/standards/95aarm/html/AA-C-6.html#I6739 - 404 Not Found.
 * Ada Programming/Coding standards links to http://www.adastat.com/ - Socket Error: 'Expir\xc3\xb3 el tiempo de conexi\xc3\xb3n'.
 * Ada Programming/Web 2.0 links to http://www.slideshare.net/group/ada-programming - 410 Gone.
 * Ada Programming/Tutorials links to http://library.n0i.net/programming/ada/ad_ada/ - Socket Error: 'Nombre o servicio desconocido'.
 * Ada Programming/Web 2.0 links to http://www.adacore.com/category/developers-center/gems/feed/ - 404 Not Found.

Readability: Law of Least Astonishment
Personally I think the reference to the Law of Least Astonishment is irrelevant, and that that so called "law" is stupid nonsense, so the reference is not necessary. The section explains that the Ada is designed so that the code should be self-explained, while the ridiculous "law" refers to a polity of "best to follow common assumptions of how things gonna work", which, if followed here, means that Ada would be a gullwing language of typeless anarchy and no clue. Luckily this isn't the case, so Ada is not a language of "least astonishment". Rursus (discuss • contribs) 08:25, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

Open source projects using Ada
This might be of interest to people looking to actually use Ada in actual applications
 * FlightGear is written in C/C++ and now also supports Ada

Pollen is using Ada
I am writing a Wikibook about a programming language I am creating. The wikibook is called The Pollen Programming Language. My programming language has an Ada runtime. There is a Wikipedia page marked for deletion about the Pollen programming language, so if you are interested in the benefits that my project may bring to the Ada community, please consider improving the wikipedia page and stating that you are against the deletion. M4t3uz (discuss • contribs) 00:33, 21 March 2023 (UTC)

PDF formatting
In the PDF I downloaded, page "1" should be relabeled page "x" and changed from a right-hand page to a left-hand page. Blank page "2" should be deleted, and page "3" should be page "1" with all subsequent pages renumbered. 伟思礼 (discuss • contribs) 20:00, 5 July 2023 (UTC)

Regarding number of pages of the book
Hi @Bentbracke,

> Reversed pagecount back to 200, since I clearly have no idea what a page really means in this context.

I guess that number came from what wikistats was counting at that time, but that site doesn't seem to be available any longer. I don't know which criteria it chose for the count, but it was probably a simple count of Wikibooks articles sharing a common prefix (Wikibooks didn't even have the concept of subpage we are using now, so several separators were used like ':' or ' - '). In any case, I think we could say the book has more than 600 pages, since this is what the Category:Book:Ada_Programming is saying. ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 18:56, 9 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Yeah, that page really confused me (Category:Book:Ada_Programming):
 * "Pages in category "Book:Ada Programming"
 * The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 633 total."
 * What does it mean if a page is part of the book but not part of the category "Book:Ada Programming"? Bentbracke (discuss • contribs) 15:32, 10 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Have you found any page on that situation? I think that could only happen if we forget to include the page in the category making use of the Template:BOOKCATEGORY. ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 21:31, 10 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Does the following then indicate that there 433 pages where that is the case?
 * The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 633 total. Bentbracke (discuss • contribs) 15:33, 11 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh, no, that is just pagination. It means that you see in the list the first 200 pages of a total of 633 pages in the category. If you press '(next page)' you get the next 200 pages. There are 3 lists of 200 pages and then a final list of the remaining 33 pages. ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 21:48, 11 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Ahhh, that makes much more sense :-)
 * Is there a way to get a list of those pages without the bookcategory? Bentbracke (discuss • contribs) 15:13, 12 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Yes, also there is this special page: https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:PrefixIndex?prefix=Ada+Programming%2F&namespace=0&hideredirects=1 and the API (only first 500) https://en.wikibooks.org/w/api.php?action=query&generator=allpages&gaplimit=500&gapfrom=Ada_Programming ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 16:40, 15 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Is that simply a list of all pages?
 * How do I identify which of these are missing the bookcategory? Bentbracke (discuss • contribs) 07:32, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ada Programming


text:
Cryptography/Key Lengths

Key Length
Key length is directly proportional to security. In modern cryptosystems, key length is measured in bits (e.g. AES uses 256-bit keys), and each bit of a key increases the difficulty of a brute-force attack exponentially. It is important to note that in addition to adding more security, each bit slows down the cryptosystem as well. Because of this, key length -- like all things security -- is a tradeoff. In this case between practicality and security.

Furthermore, different types of cryptosystems require vastly different key lengths to maintain security. For instance, modulo-based public key systems such as ../Diffie-Hellman/ and ../RSA/ require rather long keys (generally around 1,024 bits), whereas symmetric systems, both block and stream, are able to use shorter keys (generally around 256 bits). Furthermore, elliptic curve public key systems are capable of maintaining security at key lengths similar to those of symmetric systems. While most block ciphers will only use one key length, most public key systems can use any number of key lengths.

As an illustration of relying on different key lengths for the same level of security, modern implementations of public key systems (see ../GPG/ and ../PGP/) give the user a choice of keylengths. Usually ranging between 768 and 4,096 bits. These implementations use the public key system (generally either ../RSA/ or ../ElGamal/) to encrypt a randomly generated block-cipher key (128 to 256 bits) which was used to encrypt the actual message.

Entropy
Equal to the importance of key length is information entropy. Entropy, defined generally as "a measure of the disorder of a system", implies randomness. i.e. If all of the bits of a key are not securely generated and equally random (whether truly random or the result of a cryptographically secure PRNG operation), then the system lacks entropy and is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, if a 128-bit key has only 64 bits of entropy, then the effective length of the key is 64 bits. This can be seen in the ../DES/ algorithm. DES actually has a key length of 64 bits; however, the effective key length is 56 bits because 8 bits are used for parity.

Common Mistakes
The fundamental deficiency in advantages of long block cipher keys when compare it to short cipher keys could be in difficulties to screening physical random entropy in short digits. Perhaps we can't store screening mechanism of randomness in secret, so we can't get randomness of entropy 2^256 without energy, which will be liner to appropriate entropy. For example, typical mistake of random generator implementation is simple addiction of individual digits with probability 0.5. This generator could be easy broken by bruteforce by neighbor bits wave functions. In this point of view, using block ciphers with large amount of digits, for ex. 10^1024 and more have a practical sense.

Other typical mistake is using public key infrastructure to encrypt session keys, because in this key more preferable to use Diffie-Hellman algorithm. Using the Diffie-Hellman algorithm to create session keys gives "forward secrecy".

title: Cryptography/Key Lengths


text:
Reaktor/Modules

Groups of Reaktor Modules

 * Panel
 * MIDI In
 * MIDI Out
 * Math
 * Signal Path
 * Oscillator
 * Sampler
 * Sequencer
 * LFO, Envelope
 * Filter
 * Delay
 * Audio Modifier
 * Event Processing
 * Auxiliary
 * Terminal

title: Reaktor/Modules


text:
Cookbook:Roast Chicken on Salt

This is an old family recipe for chicken on salt from Russia.

Ingredients

 * 1 chicken, plucked and dressed
 * 1 lemon, quartered
 * 4 peeled cloves of garlic
 * Several sprigs of fresh rosemary
 * 1 kg salt

Procedure

 * 1) Stuff the chicken with the quartered lemon, garlic and rosemary.
 * 2) Bind the chicken ready for roasting.
 * 3) Fill a baking tray with the salt and place the chicken on top.
 * 4) Roast for 90 minutes at 190°C. The flesh should be moist and the skin crisp.

title: Cookbook:Roast Chicken on Salt


text:
Introduction to Game Theory

Game Theory might be better described as Strategy Theory, or Theory of Interactive Decision Making. A strategic situation involves two or more interacting players who make decisions while trying to anticipate the actions and reactions by others. Game theory studies the general principles that explain how people and organizations act in strategic situations.

Game theory studies strategy mainly through the analysis of different "games". A "game" in game theory is a fully explicit structure which characterizes each player's set of actions, payoffs and possible outcomes under given rules of playing. Given this conditions, rational players act in such a way, that they maximize the expected value of their von Neumann-Morgenstern Utility. Games provide a simplified world within which to study strategy (as opposed to the real world where complexities get in the way of developing general principles).

Table of Contents
1 Introduction to Game Theory
 * 1) /Overview/
 * 2) /Short history/
 * 3) /Theory of rational choice/

Part I - Games with Perfect Information
2 Nash Equilibrium
 * 1) Strategic games
 * 2) Example: Prisoner's Dilemma
 * 3) Matrix Notation In Game Theory - How To Set Out A Game
 * 4) Example: Battle of the sexes (a.k.a. Bach or Stravinsky?)
 * 5) Example: Matching Pennies
 * 6) /Nash equilibrium/
 * 7) Best response functions
 * 8) Cournot's model of oligopoly
 * 9) Bertrand's model of oligopoly
 * 10) Auctions
 * 11) Questions
 * 12) Sources

3 Mixed Strategy Equilibrium
 * 1) Randomization
 * 2) Mixed strategy Nash equilibrium
 * 3) Dominated actions
 * 4) /Dominant Strategies/
 * 5) Example: expert diagnosis
 * 6) Formation of beliefs

4 Extensive Games with Perfect Equilibrium
 * 1) Introduction to Extensive games
 * 2) Strategies and outcomes
 * 3) Nash equilibrium
 * 4) Subgame perfect equilibrium
 * 5) Stackelberg's model of duopoly
 * 6) Adding simultaneous moves
 * 7) Adding uncertainty

5 Coalitional Games

Part II - Games with Imperfect Information
6 Bayesian Games
 * 1) Motivational Examples
 * 2) Cournot's duopoly with imperfect information

7 Extensive Games with Imperfect Information
 * 1) Strategies
 * 2) Nash equilibrium
 * 3) Beliefs
 * 4) Signaling games

Part III - Real World Examples
8 TV Game Shows
 * 1) /Deal Or No Deal/

9 Politics
 * 1) /Mutually assured destruction/

title: Introduction to Game Theory


text:
User:Ahc~enwikibooks

I started working on both Wikipedia articles and Wikibooks on the fall of 2004. I take part in these projects primarily for three reasons. First to contribute what knowledge and editing skills that I have to the community at large. Second to learn, I always enjoy learning more about topics that I thought I knew a great deal about before. Third I have come to realize that these projects are a good way for me to keep my writing and editing skills fresh.

At the moment I'm working on a few different books here:
 * Open Source seems to be my main project
 * Freeware
 * Programming:PHP

I also keep an eye on several wikipedia articles.

title: User:Ahc~enwikibooks


text:
Introduction to Game Theory/Battle of the sexes

In this game the players want to cooperate with each other, but they disagree about the best outcome for the game.

Two friends want to meet but disagree on the venue. One prefers to watching boxing while the other prefers ballet. However, if they show up at different sites, they will be unhappy without the other. We can model this game as a two player strategic game:

The table clearly shows that the best choice for the two friends is to both play the same game since neither of them will be happy without the other. The only question left is which game to play.

This game is also known as Bach or Stravinsky. For a modern-day equivalent, let the two choices be the online multi-player game sites EverQuest and Starcraft.