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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Aksum

What country did they live in?
The Aksumites lived in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. The capital city of their kingdom, also called Aksum, was located in present-day northern Ethiopia.

At the height of their power, the Aksumite controlled parts of present-day Yemen and Saudi Arabia.

What did their buildings look like?
Excavations in Aksum revealed much about Askumite buildings. The central part of the town contained buildings that were square or rectangular. The homes were large, consisting of a lodge surrounded by four smaller buildings. The lodge was built on top of a pavilion, with a wide staircase leading to it. Less wealthy citizens lived in homes surrounding these buildings.

What did they eat?
They ate injera, a flatbread with meats and vegtables

What did their writing look like?
The Aksumite developed the Geez language which died out around 1000 AD, but it is stil used in the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox church as a lithurgical language. Some of the languages that are currently spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea, including Amharic, Tigre, and Tigrigna, developed from the Geez language.

Amharic and Tigrigna which are the national languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea respectively, used the adapted form of the Geez script.

The Geez script is a unique script, and is one of the few indigenous African alphabets still in use.

What did they believe?
The Aksumites were pagans until they officially became Christians during the 4th century AD under King Ezana.

Are some of them famous even today?
The legacy of the Aksumite live on through through their immense contribution to the Orthodox churches of Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Some of the Aksumites still remembered to this day include King Ezana and King Sayzana, King Kaleb, King Gebre Meskel, and the last king Dil Naod among others.

What is left of them today?
The Aksumites are famously remembered today for their giant oblisks which they used to mark their graves. The Aksumite obelisks which stand tall in the Ethiopian city of Askum, are UNESCO protected sites. The largest standing obelisk is 24m in height, and is the tallest standing human made structure made out of a single rock.

Though the Aksumite kingdom died off more than 1000 years ago, the legacy of the Aksumites still affects the psychic and way of life of most Ethiopians and Eritreans. For example, the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox churches were founded during the Aksumite era.

title: Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Aksum


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Dialectical Behavioral Therapy/Interpersonal Effectiveness Skills

 * Attending to Relationships
 * Balancing Priorities vs. Demands in Life and Relationships
 * Options for Intensity of Asking or Saying No, and Factors to Consider in Deciding
 * Objective Effectiveness
 * Relationship Effectiveness
 * Self-Respect Effectiveness

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Dialectical Behavioral Therapy/Interpersonal Effectiveness Skills/Attending to Relationships

You need to attend to relationships to keep them in balance, i.e. not blowing up or otherwise ending. Relationships need regular attention so that hurts and problems do not build up. Use interpersonal effectiveness skills to address problems and relieve hurts.

Most people end relationships prematurely – the relationship could have been saved by using skills. Usually, there is a problem that needs to be solved.

Resolve interpersonal conflicts before they get overwhelming. The ability to repair relationships is important, but promptly resolving interpersonal conflicts is even more important.

Some relationships cannot be salvaged. Ending hopeless relationships is difficult; the benefit is that you will not be burdened by a relationship that is not working or too stressful.


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Dialectical Behavioral Therapy/Interpersonal Effectiveness Skills/Balancing Priorities vs. Demands in Life and Relationships

Priorities are those things important to you; things that you want to do.

Demands are those things other people want you to do.

Most troubles with priorities and demands are due to your priorities competing with other’s demands. Thus, you feel conflicted.

You need effective interpersonal skills to maintain your own priorities and/or negotiate compromises.

Balancing priorities and demands is a necessary task for structuring one’s life so that you fulfill your goals but still have some time to help others. This is difficult for everyone.

If you feel overwhelmed & over-committed then you must focus on what is important. If overwhelmed, concentrate on what is important and put off low-priority demands. And ask others for help.

Learn how to say “no” when appropriate. Decline some of the less important demands and priorities.

Importance is relative. If you over-commit yourself in order to maintain approval from another person the relationship itself will be unfulfilling.

Feeling overwhelmed leads to blow-ups. Blow-ups result from priorities and demands not getting the attention that was expected. Just as a relationship may blow up if neglected, an individual may blow up if priorities and demands in life are not addressed.

Some people have the opposite problem of having too few demands and priorities. This is especially true for those who are single, living alone, or not working. In these cases, the task is to create structure and increase demands, e.g. helping others, rather than to decrease them. Interpersonal skills are likely to be needed here also.

What can you tolerate before you feel overwhelmed? This depends on many factors including energy level, amount of help & support, available time, how you feel, and attitude toward the task. People are different in how much they can tolerate.


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Arabic/Book/Layout

This is a place for putting a proposal for how the lessons should be set up. How the book should be split up (chapters, units), and what each part of the book will focus on. For example if the pronouns should be learnt before, learning any verbs, would be indicated by a proposal. The proposals can be simple, make sure they are clear.

I propose: that the fundamental, unit. The unit which teaches how to read Arabic, should be worked on the most. And at the same time, the planning of the book (what each chapter/unit will teach), and the sequence of the lesson, and what each lesson will teach should be figured out. Once what a lesson will teach is planned, a link to a page for the lesson should be added to the appropriate unit/chapter. In the page setup for that lesson information on what the lesson would teach should be added.

Hasan Aljudy: I propose that the book should emphasize on learning Arabic through the Arabic alphabet, and rely less and less on transliteration; if we must, then rely on (and provide) sound files(by your own voice, if you must). Readers should become accustomed to reading Arabic words; since unlike English, the pronunciation of most words in Arabic can be inferred from the letters and the Harakat. Once you get yourself acquainted with the rules, (i.e. knowing the differences between the Harakat and the actual vowel letters (alef, waw, ya'), etc.) inferring the pronunciation shouldn't be too hard.

I agree with your proposal, and propose that, the book should not use any transliteration past the 2nd Unit. Any transliteration past the 2nd Unit is not a necessity, transliteration past the 1st Unit will not be necessary either once the 1st Unit is finished. I still think that transliteration is extremely useful, but I do believe we should not rely on it. --TwoThirty 08:11, 31 March 2006 (UTC)

title: Arabic/Book/Layout


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Wikijunior talk:Ancient Civilizations/Aksum

Axum/Aksum
I found that it can also be spelled "Axum".

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axum and http://archaeology.about.com/od/aterms/g/aksum.htm

It's not very important, but is still a fact that should atleast be mentioned?


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Conlang/Intermediate/New Realms

Most conlangs are designed to be at least somewhat naturalistic as they are often inspired by natlangs or intended to be used by concultures. They usually use grammar, phonemes, etc. that could easily exist in natural languages of today. However, there certainly isn't a rule requiring would-be conlangers to limit themselves to established possibilities in natlangs.

Thinking outside the conlanging box is hardly a crime and there is much room for experimentation. Just as artists in music and painting have pushed the envelope with atonality and dadaism while being told that their works were not art by critics, you can buck the trends of conlanging and take it in bold new directions.

Here are a few ideas to ponder:

 * Study some linguistic writings on language universals and design your conlang to violate some of them.

 * Imagine a conlang that conflates nouns and verbs into one class. This has actually been attempted many times to varying extents, but it is certainly something rarely seen in natlangs. There's more about this in the Advanced level, at Noun-Verb distinction.

 * Most conlangs (and natlangs) have or are intended to have thousands of root words. Why not go the other way and try to minimize roots, perhaps to 50 or less? This is known as ; it has been attempted a few times but so far not very successfully. A related theoretical idea is, which claims it's possible, in theory, to build up all languages from a single relatively small set of semantic primes.

 * Consider new ways to inflect. Japanese inflects its verbs for the amount of deference between the speaker and listener. Perhaps a conlang could inflect verbs for something unusual like the color of the agent. A slightly more useful idea would be to inflect in relation to the speaker's attitude toward the verbal action. E.g. alistus ((I like the fact that) you exist), alistis ((I hate the fact that) you exist), alistes ((I am indifferent to the fact that) you exist), alistas ((I don't wish to indicate my attitude to the fact that) you exist). This parallels the "pejorative" noun inflections found in natlangs such as Spanish, or the subjunctive in French.

 * Most languages with genders or noun classes will inflect the third-person pronouns for gender; consider doing the same for first and/or second person pronouns.

 * There is also room for conlangs that use phonemes or phonemic distinctions that are not found in any natural language. More about this in the advanced phonetics chapter of this book.

title: Conlang/Intermediate/New Realms


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Arabic/Tasks

This page is for tasks that need to be done. If you find something that you think should be done, it should go here. Note, comments about what article should be written next, do not go here.

Rearrange links, so that the first page is more user-friendly, move links for authors to other page, and link that page to the main page.

title: Arabic/Tasks


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Cookbook:Deep Fried Chiles Filled with Chickpea Flour (Mirchi Bhajji)

| Indian Cuisine

Mirchi bhajji are fried stuffed peppers.

Ingredients

 * 11–17 long green peppers
 * 1½ cup (360 g) gram flour (besan)
 * 1 tbsp rice flour
 * 6–7 Indian green chiles, finely chopped
 * 1 tbsp coriander leaves finely chopped
 * 2 tbsp hot oil
 * Salt to taste
 * Oil to deep fry

Procedure

 * 1) Slit 5–10 of the peppers, preferably the longest and fattest.
 * 2) Mix salt and gram flour. Stuff the slit peppers with this mixture, and keep aside for 15–20 minutes.
 * 3) Heat oil in a pan over medium heat.
 * 4) Mix all other dry ingredients. Dip each green pepper into this mixture gently to coat it.
 * 5) Deep fry in heated oil until golden brown.
 * 6) Drain on kitchen paper to remove excess oil.
 * 7) Serve hot with chutney or ketchup.


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Cookbook talk:Deep Fried Chiles Filled with Chickpea Flour (Mirchi Bhajji)

This article was transwikied from Mirchi bhajji. —Cryptic (talk) 11:22, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

The history of the article there was:
 * 01:01, 8 September 2005 Splash (rm vfd tag, to be transwiki'd to Cookbook)
 * 14:20, 31 August 2005 Fvw (vfd)
 * 14:20, 31 August 2005 Fvw (vfd)
 * 04:18, 31 August 2005 Praveenkv
 * 04:17, 31 August 2005 Praveenkv

Cookwork
The ingredients and procedure are inconsistent. "Rye mix" does not appear in the ingredients, and the intended order of the procedure is confused. Kellen T 08:17, 18 September 2005 (UTC)


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Ada Programming/Algorithms/Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Introduction
The following subprograms are implementations of the Inventing an Algorithm examples.

To Lower
The Ada example code does not append to the array as the algorithms. Instead we create an empty array of the desired length and then replace the characters inside.

To_Lower (C : Character) Character Ada.Characters.Handling.To_Lower; -- tolower - translates all alphabetic, uppercase characters -- in str to lowercase To_Lower (Str : String) String Result : String (Str'); C  Str' Result (C) := To_Lower (Str (C)); ;      Result; To_Lower;

Would the append approach be impossible with Ada? No, but it would be significantly more complex and slower.

Equal Ignore Case
-- equal-ignore-case -- returns true if s or t are equal, -- ignoring case Equal_Ignore_Case (S   : String;      T    : String) Boolean O : Integer := S' - T'; T' /= S'          False;  --  if they aren't the same length, they -- aren't equal I  S'              To_Lower (S (I)) /= To_Lower (T (I + O)) False; ;         ;       ;       True; Equal_Ignore_Case;

|Chapter 1

title: Ada Programming/Algorithms/Chapter 1


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Consciousness Studies/Models Of Access Consciousness

There have been numerous attempts to model reflex and access consciousness. These models, being connectionist and information systems based, do not model phenomenal consciousness but are essential steps in understanding global brain function.

Neural networks
Neural networks achieve information processing by establishing connections between processing units in a system of processors that have similar characteristics. Neural networks are used for classifying data. The processing units serve the function of both filtering and storing information.

This is a stub and requires expansion

Classification of sensory stimuli
The path from transducers to a single neuron that responds to a single complex stimulus.

This is a stub and requires expansion

Classification of motor control
From premotor activity to skilled behaviour.

This is a stub and requires expansion

Olfaction: classification out of chaos?
This is a stub and requires expansion

Quantum information processing
This is a stub and needs expanding


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User talk:81.37.171.212

— Laura Scudder | Talk 16:14, 15 September 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.37.171.212


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Radiation Oncology/NSCLC/Miscellaneous

Role of Amifostine

 * RTOG 98-01 (1998-2002)
 * PMID 15800308, 2005 — "Randomized trial of amifostine in locally advanced non-small-cell lung cancer patients receiving chemotherapy and hyperfractionated radiation: radiation therapy oncology group trial 98-01." Movsas B et al. J Clin Oncol. 2005 Apr 1;23(10):2145-54.
 * 120 pts. Stage II-III NSCLC. Induction chemo and hyperfractionated RT with concurrent chemotherapy, randomized to +/- Amifostine.
 * Grade 3 esophagitis 30% (Amifostine) vs 34%, N.S. However, improved swallowing diary area under the curve suggests a possible benefit.

Gefitinib (Iressa)
Is an inhibitor of the tyrosine kinase domain of EGFR. EGFR is overexpressed in 40-80% of NSCLC.

 * Harvard, 2004 - PMID 15118073 — "Activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor underlying responsiveness of non-small-cell lung cancer to gefitinib." Lynch TJ et al. N Engl J Med. 2004 May 20;350(21):2129-39.
 * Most patients with NSCLC have no response to gefitinib, however about 10% show a rapid and dramatic response.
 * A subgroup of patients with NSCLC have specific mutations in the EGFR gene which correlate with response to gefinitib. The mutations lead to increased growth factor signaling
 * Conclusion: screening for EGFR mutations may enable selection of patients who will respond to treatment with gefitinib.

 * IDEAL (Iressa Dose Evaluation in Advanced Lung Cancer) trials
 * Previously treated NSCLC who failed 1-2 prior chemotherapy regimens.
 * IDEAL-1: PMID 12748244 — "Multi-institutional randomized phase II trial of gefitinib for previously treated patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (The IDEAL 1 Trial)" Fukuoka M et al. J Clin Oncol. 2003 Jun 15;21(12):2237-46.
 * IDEAL-2: PMID 14570950 — "Efficacy of gefitinib, an inhibitor of the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase, in symptomatic patients with non-small cell lung cancer: a randomized trial." Kris MG et al. JAMA. 2003 Oct 22;290(16):2149-58.
 * Both trials tested 250 mg vs 500 mg daily doses and showed no difference in efficacy but fewer side effects in the low dose arm.

Erlotinib (Tarceva)
Is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor.

 * NCI Canada Clinical Trials Group trial BR.21
 * PMID 16014882 — "Erlotinib in previously treated non-small-cell lung cancer." Shepherd FA et al. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jul 14;353(2):123-32.
 * 731 pts. Stage IIIB-IV who received 1-2 prior chemotherapy regimens. Randomized to erlotinib vs placebo.
 * Response rate 8.9%. PFS 2.2 vs 1.8 months (placebo), S.S. OS 6.7 vs 4.7 m (HR = 0.7).

 * TRIBUTE trial
 * PMID 16043829 — "TRIBUTE: A Phase III Trial of Erlotinib Hydrochloride (OSI-774) Combined With Carboplatin and Paclitaxel Chemotherapy in Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer." Herbst RS et al. J Clin Oncol. 2005 Sep 1;23(25):5892-9.p
 * 1059 pts. Stage IIIB/IV. Randomized. Received 6 cycles of carboplatin and paclitaxel, combined with erlotinib vs placebo.
 * No difference in OS or TTP. Pts who never smoked had improved OS with erlotinib, 22 vs 10 months.

Predictors of response:
 * PMID 16043828 — "Mutations in the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor and in KRAS Are Predictive and Prognostic Indicators in Patients With Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Treated With Chemotherapy Alone and in Combination With Erlotinib." Eberhard DA et al. J Clin Oncol. 2005 Sep 1;23(25):5900-9.
 * From TRIBUTE trial, treated with chemotherapy +/- erlotinib. EGFR mutations (in 13%) associated with improved survival in all arms. Among those receiving erlotinib, there is an improved response rate for those with EGFR mutations and a trend toward improved TTP but no difference in survival. K-RAS mutations (21%) associated with decreased TTP and survival.

title: Radiation Oncology/NSCLC/Miscellaneous


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Dialectical Behavioral Therapy/Borderline Personality Disorder

What is Borderline Personality Disorder? And, do I have to have this diagnosis to benefit from DBT?

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a label that mental health professionals use to describe the behavior of certain people who have serious problems in living. People with this diagnosis often experience stronger emotions than the average person, feel afraid or desperate more often, and frequently do impulsive things as a result. They may have problems getting and keeping good relationships because their feelings of anger or fear are so strong. People with BPD may think that others are trying to take advantage of them or have hurt feelings easily. Also, they may have feelings of emptiness or sadness inside that cause them to want to die or to find relief in self-harm. For some people with this diagnosis, these mood swings and the behaviors that come from them may make it impossible to live a good life.

Most people who have the diagnosis of BPD also have one or several other diagnoses. These often include a mood disorder (like, Bi-Polar Disorder or Depression), Attention Deficit Disorder, or others. Also, they may be on one, several, or no medications at all. There is no single medication that seems to be best for everyone with this disorder, and a wide variety of medications are prescribed. Sometimes people have to try out several different medications before they find the right single medication or combination that helps them the most. One rule that applies to almost everyone with BPD is that medication is not enough to help people get better and stay better. Therapy is also required in order to make satisfying and lasting life changes and to “get over” Borderline Personality Disorder.

/Biosocial Model/ of Borderline Personality Disorder


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Old English/Orthography

How to write Old English correctly
Technically speaking, Old English was historically written with laxer standards than in Modern English - the same word could often be written in several different ways; and spelling was heavily influenced by pronunciation. But, for the modern reader, who is accustomed to a uniform writing for his words (one word, one spelling), we will thus use a standard orthography here based on Early West Saxon (an early standard for Old English).

Consonants
There were 19 consonants in the Old English language: b c d f g h k l m n p r s t v ƿ x þ ð. Sometimes, you will see q and z in foreign words.

Vowels
There were 7 (sometimes 8) vowels in Old English: a æ, e, i, o, u, y, and sometimes œ (Northumbrian).

Sounds of Old English
The inventory of surface sounds (whether allophones or phonemes) of Old English is as shown below.

Consonants
1. The exact nature of Old English r is not known. It may have been an alveolar approximant, as in most Modern English accents, an alveolar flap , or an alveolar trill. In this article we will use the symbol indiscriminately to stand for this phoneme.

Consonant allophones
The sounds marked in parentheses in the table above are allophones:
 * is an allophone of occurring after  and when geminated
 * For example, senġan "to singe" is <  <
 * and bryċġ "bridge" is <  <  <
 * is an allophone of occurring before  and
 * For example, hring "ring" is ; did not occur alone word-finally in Old English as it does in Modern English.
 * are allophones of respectively, occurring between vowels or voiced consonants.
 * For example, stafas "letters" is <, smiþas "blacksmiths" is  < , and hūses "house (genitive)" is  <.
 * are allophones of occurring in coda position after front and back vowels respectively. The evidence for this is indirect, as it is not indicated in the orthography. Nevertheless, the fact that there was historically a fronting of  to  and of  to  after front vowels makes it very likely. Moreover, in late Middle English,  sometimes became  (e.g. tough, cough), but only after back vowels, never after front vowels. This is explained if we assume that the allophone  sometimes became  but the allophone  never did.
 * For example, cniht "boy" is, while ġeþōht "thought" is
 * The sequences /hƿ hl hn hr/ were realized as [ʍ l ̥ n ̥ r ̥].
 * is an allophone of occurring after a vowel or liquid. Historically,  is older, and originally appeared in word-initial position as well; for Proto-West Germanic (PWG) (and probably the earliest Old English), it makes more sense to say that  is an allophone of  after a nasal. But because  became  word-initially, it makes more sense to treat the stop as the basic form and the fricative as the allophonic variant.
 * For example, dagas "days" is and burgum "castles (dative)" is

Vowels
The front mid rounded vowels occur in some dialects of Old English, but not in the best attested Late West Saxon dialect. There is also historical evidence suggesting that short /e/ and /o/ were phonetically lower and/or more centralized (perhaps and ) than the corresponding long ones.

2. It is uncertain whether the diphthongs spelt ie/īe were pronounced  or. The fact that this diphthong was merged with in many dialects suggests the former.

Dialects
There were four main dialects in Old English: West Saxon, Anglian (consisting of Mercian and Northumbrian), and Kentish. West Saxon has the most documented evidence, which is why it is used here. But the other three dialects show some differences in spelling, grammar, and vocabulary which will be explored in the chapter on dialects.

title: Old English/Orthography


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Old English/Verbs

What is a verb? Verbs are a class of words. Verbs tell you what a person is doing in a sentence, or what they are. They are either action verbs (like Modern English "do" or "make" as in "I do this" or "He makes cars") or stative verbs (like Modern English "be" or "become" as in "I will be a dog" and "You become angry").

Verb Agreement
Verbs have to agree with the subject of the sentence in number (singular when the subject of the verb is just one, and plural when the subject of the verb is more than one), and person (I, you, he/she/it). This is sometimes the case even in Modern English, but more so for Old English. An example of how verbs change to agree for number and person in Modern English is when we add "-s" to third person singular verb, as in "He sings well"; but we don't add "-s" for anything else, including third person plural, for example "They sing well".

Look at this example of how an Old English changed depending on the person and number it is used with, compared with how it is done to a lesser extent in Modern English:

You can see that there are four different ways the word "gān" is changed for different people and numbers in Old English:
 * 1) First person singular (iċ gā - I go)
 * 2) Second person singular (þū gǣst - you alone go)
 * 3) Third person singular (hē/hēo/hit gǣþ - he/she/it goes)
 * 4) Plural (which is the same for all people) (ƿē/ġē/hīe gāþ - we/you all/they go).

Compare to Modern English, which is simpler and only has two forms:
 * 1) "Goes" (third person singular)
 * 2) "Go" (for everything else)

Example of a verb
Here is an example of the various parts of one Old English verb singan, "to sing".

Not every verb is conjugated exactly like this: this, as it happens, is a Class III strong verb, and verbs are conjugated differently according to their class. More details of how verbs are conjugated will be supplied later. First, we should look at what the various parts of the verb are for.

You may realize there is no present-continuous tense, this is because there was no present-continuous tense in Old English, instead they would have used the simple-present tense which on the graph is the Present-Indicative

The infinitives
What is the infinitive form? Recall how in Modern English, we add -s to a verb when we are talking about he, she, or it: "he loves", "she sings", "it brings". This form ending in -s in Modern English, is limited, or finite to third person singular (he, she, it, particular people, places, things, etc). The infinitive form of the verb, is not specific to any person (so to speak, it is "infinite" - "not finitely limited to any particular person"); however, it is only used in specific situations. Just as in Modern English, where "be" is the infinitive form of "be", you cannot just say "he be", you must say "he is". You only say "be" in specific circumstances, such as when it follows a helping verb like "should": "he should be". Likewise in Old English, the infinitive is only used in specific circumstances; but when it is used, it maybe used for any person.

In Modern English, we really have two infinitives, as exemplified by the phrases: "I can sing" and "I want to sing". The choice of which to use is dictated by the role that the infinitive plays in the sentence.

In the same way, Old English has two infinitives for each verb: in the case of "to sing" they would be singan and tō singenne. The choice of which to use essentially follows the same rules as in Modern English. The plain infinitive is used after modal verbs such as "can" or "may" or "shall". The "tō" infinitive is used:

 * After verbs which require an infinitive but which are not modal, as in hīe ƿilniaþ tō singenne ("They want to sing").

 * After an adjective, as in ic eom gearu tō singenne ("I am ready to sing").

 * To indicate purpose, as in þū ārise tō singenne ("You got up to sing").

The present participle
The present participle form (in our example singende) is the equivalent of the Modern English present participle (in this case, "singing") It could be used as an adjective to show that someone was doing something, or usually did something, for example se singenda man - "the singing man". However, it was only rarely used to show a continuous or currently happening action, for example, iċ eom singende þone sang ("I am singing the song"); it would be much more normal for an Anglo-Saxon to simply say iċ singe þone sang, using the present indicative.

The present and past indicative
Old English really only has two tenses: the present and the past (or preterite). Each of these tenses therefore has to play several roles.

So a statement using the present tense, such as iċ singe can mean: "I sing", or "I am singing", or "I will sing", or "I will be singing". (The use of the present for the future is still acceptable in Modern English: for example, it is perfectly OK to say: "I take my driving test on Tuesday.")

Meanwhile a statement using the preterite, such as iċ sang, can mean "I sang" or "I was singing" or "I have sung".

You might, then, consider the Old English language as being primitive and inexpressive by contrast with Modern English. However, this is not really the case. After all, in almost every other respect Old English has more grammar than Modern English, and yet we seem to get by: for example, in Modern English we have no grammatical distinction between the second person singular and plural, and yet this never seems to cause any confusion, because context is almost always sufficient to resolve any confusion that might arise, by using other words with the pronoun (and some dialects, particularly in Northern England, still use "thou" and its forms).

The imperative
The imperative in Old English is just like that in Modern English: it is used for giving commands, so sing in Old English means the same as "sing!" in Modern English. The only difference is that as with the other parts of the verb, the imperative in Old English is inflected according to number, so that if you wanted to tell more than one person to sing, you would say singaþ. Unlike in some other languages, the imperative form can be negated directly, by prefixing it with ne as you would to negate any other verb: ne singaþ! "don't sing!"

The first-person plural imperative is usually formed with uton and the infinitive: uton singan! "Let's sing!"

The subjunctive
Old English has present and past subjunctives. The subjunctive is used in Old English to describe hypothetical or counter-factual situations.

The true Old English subjunctive does not occur often in Modern English; but it is sometimes used where no other phrase will do. For example, the National Enquirer, not noted for the excessive formality of its grammar, has this to say in an item of gossip about Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie:

 * But the 48-year-old “Moneyball” star finally snapped when Angie, 37, insisted that he go to rehab to conquer his demons, insiders say.

There is really no substitute for "that he go". If we tried to substitute: "that he goes", then Ms. Jolie would be insisting that he does presently go to rehab, which he doesn't. If we tried to substitute: "that he went", then she'd be insisting that he used to go into rehab, which he didn't. If we substituted: "that he ought to go" or "that he should go", then this would say that she was insisting that this was the right thing for him to do, but not that she was insisting that he do it. Only the subjunctive form "that he go" properly expresses what Ms. Jolie was insisting; that she was presenting him with an ultimatum.

In Old English the usage is rather broader: it would include "that he ought to go", and "that he should go".

Here's another example of the true subjunctive in Modern English, in an article discussing the movie The Fly:

 * When David Cronenberg was hired as director, one condition was that he be able to extensively rewrite the script.

In this case, "that he was" would also be perfectly good Modern English.

We can see more uses of the subjunctive if we go back a few centuries, and look at Shakespeare or the King James Bible. For example, in Romeo and Juliet, Juliet exclaims:

 * If he be married, my grave is like to be my wedding bed.

Again, Juliet is discussing a hypothetical situation, so she uses the subjunctive. Nowadays, any English speaker would write: "If he is married".

In Modern English, then, we tend to use the subjunctive as the last resort. In Old English, however, the subjunctive is frequently used, and often mandatory. For example, consider the sentence:

 * ''Ġif messe-preost his āġen līf rīhtliċe fadie, þonne is rīht þæt his ƿurþscipe ƿexe."

If we translate this into Modern English, keeping the subjunctive mood, that would come out as:

 * "If a priest govern his own life rightly, it is right that his honor grow."

This seems strange and stilted in Modern English, and we would be more likely to drop all indication of the subjunctive and translate it into Modern English as follows:

 * "If a priest governs his own life rightly, it is right that his honor grows."

But if we tried to drop the subjunctive in the Old English, and rewrite the passage in the indicative, as:

 * ''Ġif messe-preost his āġen līf rīhtliċe fadaþ, þonne is rīht þæt his ƿurþscipe ƿexeþ."

... then this would not really be grammatical. We would use the indicative and say "fadaþ" and "ƿexeþ" if we wanted to assert of a particular priest that he is arranging his own life well, and that as a result his honor is growing. But instead the author wished to assert of a general and hypothetical priest that if he arranges his own life well, then his honor ought to grow as a consequence; therefore he had to use the subjunctive.

So we find, for example, subjunctive forms such as:

 * Ūs dafenaþ þæt ƿē ƿaċien.

This might be translated as "It is fitting that we be wakeful". We couldn't keep this meaning if we put it into the indicative and wrote:

 * Ūs dafenaþ þæt ƿē ƿaċiaþ.

... because if that was grammatical at all, it would mean "It is fitting that we are awake", which has a different meaning.

Past participle
The past participle works like the Modern English past participle, so that ġesungen just means "sung". As with the Modern English past participle, it can be used as an adjective, and it can also be used with the verb "to have" to form a perfect tense, as in Modern English "I have sung the song". However, in Old English the position of the past participle was flexible: it could go directly after the helping verb "habban" like in Modern English ("Iċ hæbbe ġesungen þā ƿord" - "I have sung the words"), or it could go right at the end of the clause like in Modern German ("Iċ hæbbe þā ƿord ġesungen" - literally "I have the words sung", more correctly "I have sung the words"). Placing the past participle right at the end of the clause, might be a way to draw attention to it, to emphasize it.

Verb Classes
There are several types of verbs in Old English, more than in Modern English, which has many weak (love/loved/loved), some strong (sing/sang/sung), and a few irregular verbs (be/was/been). Old English has four types of weak verbs, typically called Class 1a, Class 1b, Class 2, and Class 3. Strong verbs are typically arranged in seven classes, according to their vowel-changes (ablaut). All verbs do have the following in common: the infinitive ends in -an for nearly all verbs (a smaller portion end in -ian and -rian), the present participle ends in -ende (a smaller portion end in -iende), the present plural is always -aþ, and the inflected infinitive ends in -enne.

Weak Verbs
Weak verbs are often called regular verbs in most English texts, because they have a regular past tense in -ed, with very few exceptions. In Old English, these verbs were also the majority of verbs, most often derived from nouns, adjectives, and other verbs. While we can generalize across all classes, it will be easier to lay them out and allow the reader to see the similarities for themselves.

Weak Class 1 verbs
Class 1 weak verbs are traditionally divided into two subclasses.

In class 1a there are:

 * Verbs like fremman, where the stem has a short vowel followed by (in the infinitive) two consonants.
 * Verbs like nerian, where the stem has a short vowel followed by an r followed by (in the infinitive) an i.

In class 1b are verbs where the stem consists either of a long vowel followed by a single consonant, or a short vowel followed by two different consonants; both of these behave just the same.

In the table below, we give the complete conjugations of fremman and nerian, which are Class 1a verbs, and of hīeran, a Class 1b verb.

There is a clear pattern here. The suffixes of the same parts of the different verbs are very similar across all the verbs. What is more, we can observe that where forms of fremman have a double m, forms of nerian have an i, and forms of hīeran have a suffix beginning with a vowel. Conversely, with one exception, where forms of fremman have a single m, forms of nerian have no i, and the suffix of the corresponding form of hīeran is like the suffix for fremman and nerian except for lacking the first e in the suffix. The one exception is the past participle, where this rule fails more often than not.

In Class 1b verbs, where the -d- in the suffix in the past tense is jammed right up against the final consonant of the stem, certain changes occur to make the resulting word easier to pronounce. After an unvoiced consonant (c, f, h, p, s, t) the d will become a t; moreover, if the unvoiced consonant is a c, it will become an h; so we get iċ tǣċe ("I teach") but iċ tǣhte ("I taught").

Another rule is that when the formation of the past tense of a Class 1b verb would put a double d or a double t after another consonant, it contracts to a single d or t. So with the verb myntan ("to intend"), "I intended" is not iċ myntde, nor yet iċ myntte, but rather iċ mynte.

Irregular Class 1 verbs
There are some common verbs which inflect like Class 1 weak verbs; indeed, they are, technically, Class 1 weak verbs. However, there are changes in the stem between the present tense, infinitive, and present participle forms on the one hand, and the stem in the past and past participle forms on the other.

Some of these verbs survive into Modern English; for example "sell"/"sold" and "buy"/"bought". Some verbs adopted more regular endings later in English development, such as "work"/"worked" where the archaic participle "wrought" is used only in specific contexts as an adjective (as it "wrought iron"; "wright", as in "shipwright" is also related to this word). However, other participles were simply utilized as a new verb outright. For instance, "stretch"/"straighte" becomes "stretch"/"stretched" and "straighten"/"straightened" (with "straight" becoming an adjective).

Since these are still Class 1 weak verbs, it is sufficient to give only two forms of the verb; the rest can be figured out with reference to the table showing the Class 1 conjugation. In the table we given the infinitive and 1st person singular past indicative.

These verbs can be divided into three categories:

 * 1) Verbs ending in -ellan, whose preterite becomes -ealde. For example, sellan → sealde.
 * 2) Verbs ending in -eċċan, whose preterite becomes -eahte. For example, streċċan → streahte.
 * 3) Other verbs ending in -ċan or -ngan. These are less predictable, but the vowel usually changes to o, which is followed by ht: sēċan → sōhte. The vowel in the preterite stem is the same length as in the present stem, except in the verbs þyncan, and bringan, where the n disappears and lengthens the preceding vowel: þūhte, brōhte. Ƿyrċan is another oddity, with the preterite form ƿorhte (also found as ƿrohte, as in modern English wrought).

Weak Class 2 verbs
Class II weak verbs have an infinitive ending in -ian, with the exception of almost all verbs which end in -rian, which conjugate like the Class 1 weak verb nerian as discussed above.

Here is the complete conjugation of the Class 2 weak verb lufian, "to love".

This is very like the way Class 1 weak verbs work. Note that lufian loses its i in just those cases where fremman loses one of its ms, nerian loses its i, and hīeran has no e at the start of its suffix.

There are differences, though. In the second and third person singular present indicative the vowel in the suffix is an a, not an e. This means that the third person singular present indicative ends in -aþ, an ending which in every other conjugation is associated with the plural present indicative.

Note also the use of an o instead of an e in forming the past tense and past participle.

Weak Class 3 verbs
The third class of weak verbs contains only four verbs, but they are very common ones: habban, "to have"; libban, "to live"; seċġan, "to say"; and hyċġan, "to think". Each class 3 weak verb behaves oddly in its own particular way, and so it is probably best just to give each part of each verb.

For habban we can see that its first vowel is always æ except when the second vowel is a, in which case the first vowel will also be a.

Strong verbs
In strong verbs, the vowel in the stem of the verb changes according to person, tense, and mood; this change is known as ablaut or gradation. Relics of this system survive in Modern English in such variations as "sing", "sang", "sung" or "write", "wrote", "written".

Although strong verbs are fewer in number than weak verbs, they include some very common verbs, and so you will come across them often.

Example of a strong verb
Below is an example of all the parts of the strong verb "dūfan" ("to dive").

Gradation provides us with four variations on the vowel in the stem:

 * The infinitive vowel ū is used in the infinitives, present participle, present tense, and imperative.
 * The first preterite vowel ēa is used in the first and third person singular of the preterite.
 * The second preterite vowel u is used in all the other forms of the preterite: second person singular, plural, and subjunctive.
 * The past participle vowel o is used only in the past participle.

But the reader will notice that there are in fact five vowels appearing in the stem of the verb in this table: in the second and third person present indicative we have the vowel ȳ. This is not, technically, gradation, it is i-mutation: these parts of strong verbs undergo i-mutation whenever the vowel is one of the kind of vowel that undergoes i-mutation; this change is perfectly regular.

The seven classes of strong verbs
Strong verbs can be divided into classes according to the vowels in their ablaut systems. We can see relics of the classes in Modern English: write/wrote/written goes like drive/drove/driven; whereas sing/sang/sung goes like ring/rang/rung. These seven classes are standardized and come from Proto-Germanic; we divide a few of them further into subclasses for our own purposes.

In the table below we show the gradation series of the seven classes of strong verbs, using an example verb for each pattern. For each verb we give the infinitive, the third-person singular present, the first-person singular preterite, the plural preterite, and the past participle. Using these forms, all the other forms of the verb can be predicted.

The vowel in the infinitive and past participle of class VII verbs is highly variable; the subclasses are distinguished by their preterite forms. However, the vowel in the past participle will almost always be the same as the vowel in the infinitive for class VII verbs (ƿēpan being a notable exception, with its past participle (ġe)ƿōpen).

Some of these verbs exhibit consonant changes as well as vowel changes—notice, for instance, how the "n" in standan disappears in the preterite—but the vowel changes are what define the verb classes. Some of these consonant changes are discussed below.

Some strong verbs are irregular. For example, cuman is classified as a class IV verb, because it was a regular class IV verb in Proto-Germanic (*kwemaną), but it became irregular in Old English: cume, cymþ, c(ƿ)ōm, c(ƿ)ōmon, (ġe)cumen. Aside from the different vowels, however, it conjugates like any other strong verb. There are also a handful of verbs with contracted forms, with infinitives ending in -ēan, -ēon, or -ōn; more on those later.

What happened to Class III?
Class III verbs would originally have all conjugated the same way. However, the vowels in their stems then underwent changes according to the consonants adjacent to them.

Class IIIa represents the unaltered form of the verb.

In Class IIIb verbs, the vowel was followed by an h or r, and so underwent breaking to a diphthong in the infinitive and first preterite forms.

In Class IIIc verbs, breaking is caused in the first preterite by an l following the vowel.

In Class IIId, the vowel is preceded by ċ, ġ, or sċ, and undergoes what is known as palatal diphthongization.

In Class IIIe, the quality of the vowel was changed by being followed by a nasal consonant, that is m or n.

A further complication is that there are some Class IIIa verbs in which the vowel is followed by an r, and yet have not turned into Class IIIb verbs. An example is the verb berstan, meaning "to burst". What has happened here is that the word was originally brestan, then the sound changes occurred that produced class IIIb verbs, and then the word brestan underwent what is known as metathesis of r to produce berstan.

Stems ending in g
In the 2nd and 3rd person present singular indicative, the same cases in which i-mutation takes place, if the verb stem ends in g, this usually becomes an h. So for example in the verb belgan ("to be angry) we have þū bilhst and hē bilhþ.

Stems ending in s, t, or d
Also in the 2nd and 3rd person present singular indicative, certain changes take place to prevent awkwardness when the dental consonants in the suffix are stuck onto dental consonants at the end of the stem.

 * If the stem of the verb ends in s, then instead of the 2nd person ending in -sst, this becomes -st; and instead of the 3rd person ending in -sþ, this becomes -st.

 * If the stem of the verb ends in t, then instead of the 3rd person ending in -tþ, this becomes -tt.

 * If the stem of the verb ends in d, then instead of the 3rd person ending in -dþ, this becomes -tt, and instead of the 2nd person ending in -dst, this becomes -tst

Verner's law
There are certain consonants occurring at the end of the stem which change along with the vowel in gradation, having one consonant to go with the indicative and 1st preterite vowels, and another to go with the 2nd preterite and past participle vowels.

So for example the table below shows the conjugation of the Class II verb sēoþan ("to boil"). Note that apart from this change in the consonant, it is a perfectly ordinary Class II verb.

Contracted verbs
Where a verb stem originally ended in an h, various things happened. First, the h caused breaking, turning the vowel into a diphthong; then when the h came between two vowels, it disappeared, lengthening the vowel it comes after, and then the second vowel disappeared.

So, for example, the Class VI verb lēan ("to blame") would originally have been lahan. Breaking turned this into leahan; loss of h and lengthening of the vowel would give us lēaan, and loss of the vowel that came after the h gives us lēan. By contrast, in the 3rd person singular present indicative, there is no vowel after the h, so only the breaking will occur, and we get hē liehþ.

Such verbs will also undergo the Verner's Law variation of the consonant, so the h will only appear with the infinitive vowel and the 1st pret. vowel.

Putting all this together, here is the complete conjugation of the verb lēan.

Preterite-present verbs
In a preterite-present verb, the past (preterite) tense has taken on a present-tense meaning, and the verb has then acquired a weak past tense.

As an example, consider the verb ƿitan (to know). It is derived from what was once a perfectly ordinary verb meaning "to see" (cognate, as it happens, with the Latin verb "videre"). It is not hard to understand how the past tense could have taken on a present-tense meaning; if you saw something in the past, then you know about it in the present.

Hence we have forms such as iċ ƿāt ("I know") and ƿē ƿiton ("we know") which look like the past tense of a strong verb, specifically a class I strong verb, but which have a present-tense meaning. Then a weak past tense is formed with a dental suffix.

While the verb ƿitan has not survived into Modern English, a number of preterite-present verbs have, such as "can" and "shall"; it is because they are preterite-present verbs that the 3rd person present indicative is "he can" and "he shall" rather than "he cans" and "he shalls".

Preterite-present verbs can be learned with five principal parts; the rest of the forms can be predicted based on these. Old English has twelve of them, not counting compound forms:

 * To form the long infinitive, take the infinitive and replace the -an with -enne: tō āgenne
 * To form the indicative plural, take the infinitive and replace the -an with -on: āgon
 * As always, to form the subjunctive plural, add -n to the subjunctive singular: āgen
 * The preterite is conjugated as follows: iċ āhte, þū āhtest, hē āhte, ƿē āhton.
 * The past subjunctive uses the preterite stem and is conjugated as follows: iċ/þū/hē āhte, ƿē āhten.
 * The singular imperative is the same as the singular subjunctive: āge
 * For the plural imperative, take the singular imperative and replace the -e with -aþ: āgaþ
 * To form the past participle, take the infinitive and replace the -an with -en: āgen. The prefix ġe- may optionally be added as well, except in the case of ġemunan and ġenugan, which already have it.

Full conjugations for the preterite-present verbs are shown in the tables below. The only reason there are three tables is so that they fit on the page; there is no particular significance to a verb being in one table rather than another.

Some of the entries in the table are not actually attested in manuscripts, but are reconstructions of how the verb forms probably would have looked if they were.

Irregular Verbs
This class consists of four verbs which have little in common except that they are very difficult to classify. It is usual in any language that the most irregular verbs are also among the most common, and these are a case in point.

Bēon and ƿesan
There are two verbs in Old English for "to be", ƿesan, which is normally present or past tense, and bēon, which is normally future tense. The past tense uses forms from ƿesan, conjugating it as a Class V strong verb.

The verb bēon is also used to state timeless truths. For example, the poem known as Resignation ends with the lines:

 * Giet biþ þæt selast,        þonne mon him sylf ne mæg
 * ƿyrd onƿendan,        þæt he þonne ƿel þoliġe.

("Yet it is best, if a man cannot change his fate, that he bear it well.") Clearly the poet thinks that this is a general statement about the human condition, and so used biþ rather than is.

Dōn and gān
The verbs dōn ("to do") and gān (to go) don't inflect exactly the same, but there are certain similarities that justify putting them in the same table.

Ƿillan
Finally, the verb ƿillan, meaning "to want" or "to wish".

title: Old English/Verbs


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Beginning Tips

These are some basic tips that are often asked for in one form or another. Sometimes it is in reference to something completely different, but the basic methodology will work.

Starting with a box
Tutorials will often start with the default cube you see right after opening Blender. Here are two ways to reset the scene without quitting the application: Then, you will see a prompt box asking OK? under your mouse pointer. You can confirm that you want to erase your current scene by clicking Erase All (or move the mouse around to dismiss it).
 * Ctrl-X (while holding the Ctrl key, press the X key);
 * or select File -> New from the menu.

The cube is shown as a square in the 3D viewport. If you rotate the view while holding down MMB (middle mouse button), you'll see it is actually a cube. It is selected by default (pink outlines color). Also, you can hold down the Alt key and Left Click to simulate the Middle Mouse Button. Another way to do this for mice with only two buttons is by holding down both buttons at the same time. Navigating in 3D Space is assumed. Please see the excellent tutorials on Blender about User Interface Tutorial , The Blender Windows, and Navigating in 3D Space which are located on the Blender Quickstart page here: http://www.blender.org/education-help/quickstart/

Subdivision Surfaces
Subdivision surfaces, or subsurfing, is a common technique in 3D modeling. It uses a mathematical process of simulating a curved plane in space according to the placement of control points, or vertices. What this means is that you can create an object with a smooth surface that is easily controlled by relatively few vertices.

Adding a Subsurf modifier

First, select the cube by clicking RMB (right mouse button) on the cube in the 3D window (pink outlines indicate the selected objects). Now choose the Editing panel set in the "Buttons" (bottom) window:
 * click on the [[Image:Blenderediting.png]] icon in the panel list: [[File:Blender edit buttons.png]]
 * or press F9.

If you're not seeing a bunch of windows in the bottom view panel, such as Link and Materials, Mesh, Multires, Modifiers, Shapes, then there's a good chance you haven't got the cube itself selected or you are still in object mode.

In the Modifiers window, click on the Add Modifier button and select Subsurf. Click on the arrow to the right of Levels:1 to increase the subsurf level. With each increment the cube becomes more smooth, and more planes are added. Don't do the following, but if you were to hit apply, the original form of the cube becomes lost. If you don't apply the changes they remain on the cube as if it was a filter, of sorts.

In order to complete the rest of this tutorial successfully, it is vital that you do NOT click apply within the Subsurf modifier tab.

''Noobie asks: I did this, and I cannot change the "Level". Why not?'' Noobie2 responds: Make sure you didn't hit multitires by mistake. Noobie3 responds: Maybe you accidentally clicked something else. Noobie4 responds: Maybe you overlooked the level "gauge"

But I want a box!
Often, you will want to render with your model having some sort of subsurf turned on. Face it, most things in real life just do not have super sharp edges. Unless the object is a knife edge, an object in the real world will have some sort of softer edge on it. It is just this fact that is often overlooked by people starting out in 3D: computer geometry can sometimes look too perfect, resulting from impossibly sharp, clean, and well defined edges.

This effect can be fixed by telling Blender that we want our cube to retain more of its original shape. We'll do this using a tool called Edge Creasing. Each edge in a Blender model has a crease value associated with it, which is used to tell the Subsurf modifier how sharp we want that edge to be. By default, all edges have a crease of 0, which is why our cube has lost all its sharp edges.

Show subdivision surface's cage

Now, remember what we said about the Subsurf modifier remembering our original cube shape? Press TAB to go into edit mode and you'll see that the original cube has come back to haunt us as a wire frame around the smoothed cube. (unless you're using version 2.45 of Blender)

Before we fiddle with the creasing, set the Subsurf Levels up to "4" so you can see the effect more clearly.

Choose an edge to crease
Enter face mode by either:
 * Placing the cursor in the 3D View → changing to Edit Mode → CTRL+TAB → choosing Faces (or pressing 3KEY)
 * Changing to Edit Mode → clicking [[Image:Blenderface.png|Blender Face button]] (Face Mode Icon).

Select one of the faces of our wire cube with RMB by clicking near the dot in the centre of the face. You'll know when it's been selected because the other faces will change colour to grey, and the face you've selected will be highlighted.

Note that, although we are in Face mode, it is really the edges that we are creasing; selecting a face is just a quick way of selecting its four edges.

Crease selected edges
Now crease the edges of the selection by either:
 * Press SHIFT+E and slowly move the mouse observing the result of Crease operation on the selected face.
 * In the 3D Viewport's header select Mesh → Edges → Crease SubSurf.

Your mouse will be tied to the cube with a dotted line. Move it gently left and right to see the effect it has on the mesh. Mesh will change when pulling the dotted line on the opposite side of the creased face.

In the style of Blender, click LMB to apply the changes, or RMB to cancel creasing.

Finally build a real box
Either cancel the above edge crease, press Ctrl-Z to undo the last change, or start from scratch to get back to our simple subsurfed cube. (To get the same result as the picture on the right, set the subsurf to 3 or 4.) Then press the A key twice to select all faces. Crease them with SHIFT+E like before, until your cube looks like the image on the right.

Note By a Nooby: If you are looking for a bevel effect that doesn't require so many polygons, try (in Edit Mode) pressing the W key then selecting Bevel.

Click LMB to apply the changes then press TAB to cancel out of edit mode. Behold: your smooth cube.

When rendering:
 * Make sure you have set the "Renders Level" in the Subsurf Modifiers tab.
 * Also, double check that the "Enable modifier during rendering" toggle is on (dark) as it should be by default. It is the very small icon next to the Subsurf title button.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Beginning Tips


text:
Category:Books to be merged

__HIDDENCAT__ These are books that are suggested to be merged with another book.

Use page, page and page.

pt:Categoria:Módulos a sofrerem fusão

title: Category:Books to be merged


text:
User talk:GorgeUbuasha

ObjectAda
Thank you for your explanations on Ada Programming/Building. Would you also help us out to create an wikibook-ada-2_x_0/ObjectAda Directory? As the name suggest it should contain ObjectAda Project (GUI/IDE) files similar to the files found in wikibook-ada-2_x_0/GNAT.

--Krischik T 06:35, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

IDE project files seem to be rather binary. The UNIT.MAP and ADA.LIB files OTOH are rather self-explanatory, or at least they can be explained without too much effort.

(Updated, gb 22:43, 15 May 2006 (UTC))

scrap book
A appears?

TODO list
in Packages, remove the match function. It will interrupt understanding the parent/child relation.

in limited types, the solution provided by constructor functions is really based on in place initialization. The other constructs (aggregates of limited type and extended return statements) only help with this.

ASnip
I've contributed some new effort to the Ada Programming wikibook by writing some stubs for the missing pages for the Ada Standard Library units. I had an idea to develop some stubs as I explain here: https://github.com/reznikmm/adalib/issues/2

I've used a copy of your ASnip tool which I had in my hard-disk (ASnip-R1.1). I had to make some changes to compile it using GNAT GPL 2018 (the one I have currently installed) and to adapt it to new template syntax in the Ada Wikibook. I've seen that the link to the original home of the tool is broken and haven't found a new one. I can send you the patch, or even, if you prefer it, I can upload it to github or sourceforge in your original version and then commit my changes, in case you no longer want to spend time on it.

Best regards --ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 12:11, 29 March 2021 (UTC)

 * Hi. For you, or anyone reading this and looking for ASnip, I finally put it here: https://github.com/mgrojo/ASnip ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 19:33, 5 April 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:GorgeUbuasha


text:
User:GorgeUbuasha

Usage: mark a region, then command M-x Ada-to-WiKi. Modifies the current buffer by replacing the text in the region. Available as ada-to-wiki.el
 * An Emacs Lisp file, for transforming Ada programs to MediaWiKi. Eases writing code examples for the Ada_Programming book.

 * ASnip transforms to MediaWiKi Ada templates, too. It processes a character stream and is written in plain Ada 95.

Usage: $ asnip from Ada generate Wikibook [encoding ...]

Can be used with pipes, shell scripts, or from within editing programs like vi using the `!' command. Available as ASnip

title: User:GorgeUbuasha


text:
A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Motion in a circle

Motion in a circle is a very interesting concept, and not very complicated either. There are many lines (in the non literal sense) that can be drawn between circular motion and linear motion. In fact, as you progress, you will find circular motion much more convinient that linear motion, because of some basic properties, most importantly, that the angular motion, of a body is the same for all particles, though their velocities may change. However, this will be dealt in rotational mechanics, not here. Before reading this section, ensure that you have a thorough understanding of linear motion, vectors and differentiation.

Angular Variables
Similar to the variables, $$ \vec r, \vec s , \vec v , \vec a $$ found in linear motion, representing the position vector, displacement, velocity and acceleration respectively, we have a few terms in angular motion.

The first variable is $$\ \theta $$, which is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle. This can be compared with the position vector $$ \vec r $$ of linear motion. It is measured in radians, or rads.

The second variable is angular velocity, $$\ \vec \omega $$. Like velocity is the change in your position vector, or your displacement by time, t, $$\ \vec \omega $$ is the change in angle per unit time. It is measured in radians per second, rads/s. Also, it is not your displaced angle. If you cover 360 &deg, and full circle, in one second, it does not mean that your angular velocity is zero, but 2 &pi radians per second. Mathematically we have, $$\ \vec \omega = d \theta / dt $$

The third variable is angular acceleration, $$\ \vec \alpha $$. It is the change in angular velocity by time. It is measured in radians per second, $$rads/s^2$$. Mathematically, $$\ \vec \alpha = d \omega / dt $$

Notice that these quantities are not dependent on radius. All angular terms depend only on the axis of rotation, or the centre of the circle, a fact that makes circular motion useful.

Axial Vectors
It should be noted that these vectors are not normal vectors, but are axial vectors. Axial vectors are vectors along the axis. Rather that along the direction of motion, these angular variables are along the axis, in an upward direction or downward direction.

This concept is quite difficult to visualise. Imagine a rod, which is your axis of rotation, passing through a disc. If you try and spin the disc, the axis will start to rotate. As such, your axis does not possess a real velocity. It does not move at all.

Now if you put a small ring on the rod. It should be in contact, but not too tightly attached. If you spin the rod, the ring will start to move up, or down. This is due to a physical phenomenon, but for this purpose, ignore the dynamics of its motion, only consider that it is moving up, or down. Also notice, that generally, when you rotate it in anticlockwise direction, it moves  up . By this experiment, you can visualise how the axial vector operates.

By convention, an anticlockwise rotation the direction of the axial vector is taken as the positive upward vector on the axis, and vice versa for clockwise rotation. Another point to note is that though axial vectors can be resolved, to simulate a body rotating in two axes, it more often than not complicates the situation. There are also several technical complications if your two axes of rotation are not passing through the same point. This is a very complicated situation, and will not be discussed.

Using Angular Variables
Here are a few examples showing the usage of the angular variables we have just learnt.

Example 1
Suppose a body is rotating, such that it subtends an angle of 1200 &deg at the centre every minute. Find its angular velocity in S.I. units.

We know that angular velocity is the angle covered per unit time. Since it covers 1200 degrees per minute, with uniform angular velocity, we can say that it covers 20 degrees in one second. 20 degrees is $$ \pi / 9 $$ radians. So we get $$\ \vec \omega = \pi / 9 $$ rad/s.

Example 2
If a body's angular displacement increases by $$ \pi $$ per second, find its, angular velocity, and acceleration at some time, t.

It is clear that the angular velocity is not constant from this. The average angular velocity in the first second is $$ \pi $$ rads/s, in the second second, $$ 2\pi $$ rads/s, and in the third second $$ 3\pi $$ rads/ sec. You can observe that the angular velocity is the time, t into $$ \pi $$ radians per second. So, $$ \vec \omega = t \pi $$ rads/s.

We can also see that the angular acceleration is constant, and equal to $$ \pi $$ radians per second square. So, $$ \vec \alpha = \pi $$.

Equations of Motion
We now move onto a few equations, bearing striking resemblance to those of linear motion. The second example given above, is much better solved with these equations. All these equations are applicable only under constant angular acceleration.

  $$ \vec \omega = \vec \omega_0 + \vec \alpha t $$ This equation gives a relation between your angular velocity and time. $$ \vec \omega_0 $$ is the angular velocity initially.

$$ \theta = \theta_0 + \vec \omega_0 t + \frac{1}{2} \vec \alpha t^2 $$ This equation gives a relation between your angular displacement and time. $$ \theta_0 $$ is the initial angular displacement.

 $$ \omega^2 - \omega_0^2 = 2 \theta \alpha $$ This equation gives a relation between your angular velocity and angular displacement. Remember that the &omega is not a vector.

Example 3
If a body spins about an axis, accelerating at a rate of 4 rad/s^2, find
 * 1) the angular displacement after 5 seconds, and angular velocity at that time
 * 2) the angular displacement when it attains an angular velocity of 12 rad/s

 The time has been given. In the first part, we need a relation between &theta and time. This is the second equation. So, we have the equation identified, $$ \theta = \theta_0 + \vec \omega_0 t + \frac{1}{2} \vec \alpha t^2 $$. We also know the values of $$ \theta_0, \omega_0 and \alpha $$. Substituting, $$ \theta = 0 + 0*5 + \frac{1}{2} 4 5^2 = 2 \times 25 $$ $$ \theta = 50 $$ radians

The second part requires us to establish a relation between &omega and time. This is the first equation.

$$ \vec \omega = \vec \omega_0 + \vec \alpha t = 0 + 4 \times 5 = 20 $$ $$ \vec \omega = 20 $$ rads/s

 There are two methods to solve this equation. One is to find time through the first equation, and substitute it in the second, the other is to directly use the third equation. $$ \vec \omega = \vec \omega_0 + \vec \alpha t $$ $$ 12 = 0 + 4 \times t $$ or $$ t = 3 $$

Substituting in equation 2,

$$ \theta = 0 + 1/2 \times 4 \times 3^2 = 2 \times 9 = 18 $$

In the other method,

$$ 12^2 = 2\times \theta \times 4 $$ or $$ \theta = \frac {144}{2\times4} = 18 $$

One might ask why the first method was even considered. This is because, if the angular velocity was given, not your speed, the third equation would require us to first find the speed, i.e. magnitude, of the &omega, and we would proceed further. This too is not a serious impediment, and could be carried out. But if the angular velocity were asked, the third equation would not give us that. These are important things to be kept in mind, even if they are not applied often.

Angular Unit Vectors
For the sake of convenience, two different vectors are used in circular motion, radial vectors and tangential vectors. Rather than our usual $$ \hat i $$ and $$ \hat j $$ vectors used for components in the x-axis and y-axis, the radial vector, $$ \hat r $$ gives the outward component along the radial line. The tangential vector, $$ \hat \tau $$ gives the component along the tangent, anticlockwise being positive.

If the angle subtended at the centre is known, then it becomes quite easy to convert these vectors into normal x-axis and y-axis vectors, by trigonometry.


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Movie Making Manual/Submitting Music Videos

 * Submit a copy on DVD to the record label for them to view
 * For broadcast, the standard is DigiBeta. See the Movie Making Manual/Submitting to a broadcaster page for details of time codes, bars, tones etc.
 * More and more labels are putting their music videos on-line. See the Movie Making Manual/Sales and Exhibition/Putting Videos Online section.
 * You could also try to pursuade the label to put your video on any CD / DVD release. The guidelines for encoding a video for CD release are similar to the guidelines for putting a video online.

/Sales and exhibition /Music videos


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Moving the camera

Moving the camera can be one of the best ways to portray emotion within cinematography. Different styles can represent different emotions, for example:
 * A shaky camera could represent news footage or large movements
 * Large flyovers (Helicopter/Jib) may represent large distances or a higher angle - ie: looking down on your subject.

Preface: The operator is more important than the equipment
It's easy to think that buying or hiring expensive equipment will just yield great camera movements naturally; however, this isn't the case. When using specialized gear such as a Steadicam or any sort of airborne device, it is advised that an experienced operator is hired. Although it is possible to hire grip equipment for relatively little money, do not fall into the trap of using inexperienced operators as you'll make a better film if you keep your shots simple rather than use an inexperienced operator on an exotic bit of grip equipment.

Learning a piece of equipment without guidance can also be harmful to a production. Learning incorrectly is a good way to learn bad shortcuts and habits. It is also an extremely easy way to break expensive equipment such as a hib.

=Techniques and Equipment=

Handheld
Handheld camera movements can provide specific tones and emotions to a viewer. In found footage films such as Chronicle or Cloverfield, the shaky camera effect is used to represent a home video effect. A handheld and slightly shaking camera can give extra intensity to action sequences and can also give a documentary-drama-like feel to a movie.

There are several options for creating handheld camera movements, some of these include:
 * Using a shoulder or handheld rig.
 * Giving a camera to an actor while running or other moving shots.
 * Just going vanilla and holding the camera.
 * Adding a camera shake in post.

There are many pros and cons to using Shaky camera movements in a shot, a balance should be found between both.

Pros

 * Hide continuity errors
 * Adds to emotion and intensity of scene
 * Can add a certain "Believability" to a shot.

Cons

 * Prone to motion sickness.
 * Effects are harder to integrate.
 * Harder to hide crew and other equipment.

Dolly

A dolly is a filmmaking tool used generally to get moving shots along a 1 dimensional plane. For example, a shot moving down a hall or moving towards a subject may use a dolly. A dolly generally consists of a cart which will hold the camera and perhaps the camera operator and may run on a track. If the camera operator is on the cart, a grip may be needed to move the dolly. This person is rightfully named the "dolly grip".

There are many variants of a dolly, some of these include:
 * Circular Dolly - Circular track designed for Dolly cart.
 * Tripod Dolly - Designed to attach to the bottom of tripods.
 * Spider Dolly - Designed by Zach "Final Cut" King - Designs.
 * Pico Flex Table Dolly ® - A table dolly similar to the Spider Dolly.
 * Wheelchair - A wheelchair is a popular alternative they can be found cheap on auction sites.

Dollies are a popular alternative to a tripod as it can provide interesting shots and don't need specialised operators to run however the dolly and track can take time to set up and operators are needed to run the camera and cart.

Sliders are virtually a small dolly. They usually sit on a tripod and can be operated by a servo or manually. Sliders are generally used when a dolly isn't practical to set up or the shot doesn't need to move too much, for example; time lapses and shots of a smaller subject.

Jib / Crane
A Jib or Camera Crane is essentially a camera mounted on a crane arm. The crane arm is usually rested on a flat platform such as a tripod, but can is also found on dollies, vehicles and even a SteadiCam. Crane shots are often considered to add "production value" and are often used for establishing shot for this reason. At the base of the jib arm, weights provide a counter balance to the camera allowing the operator to create streamlined movements without exerting unnecessary force. At the base of the Jib arm the operator controls pan, tilt, zoom and focus. In his/her control panel the operator views the camera's digital output via a monitor - when shooting in film the monitor will show the image from the gate.

Jibs are often used in live television as they are versatile enough to cover a wide area with a single camera from a wide variety of depth and angle. The Director of Photography (DP) may employ the use of the jib to achieve smooth movements across crowds and/or stages. On smaller jibs, a pan/tilt head may be used and operated mechanically via metal wires. Focus is pulled via a wireless mechanism or smaller focal lengths with a larger f/stop may be used to increase Depth of Field.

In larger Camera Cranes, the head and arms may be operated via a joystick or programmed via a computer. Focus is also pulled the same way, but external field monitors will be connected either wirelessly or wired. Because of this, jibs are often expensive, the smaller amateur jibs starting from $500USD and the price only increase with the with the Hollywood jibs running in at many thousands of dollars.

Tripod Jib
A low-cost way to recreate small jib moves with a basic tripod is to fold down the front leg and push forward the camera and pan upwards. The camera altitude will drop, creating a jib movement forwards.

Other Stablisers
There are a few other stabilisers on the market, some of which use a counterbalance on the bottom.

SteadiCam and alike
The Steadicam was a big breakthrough in stabilisation for a cinematographer. It was developed in 1976 by Garret Brown and it used a counterbalance system at the bottom which was used to isolate operator inconsistencies. When using a vest, it can allow an operator to run through a set where the footage just seems to glide through.

List of SteadiCam alternatives

 * artemis by Sachtler | inventor and designer: Curt O. Schaller
 * FlyCam
 * Glidecam
 * Merlin (Gimbal Based)
 * SteadiCam

Tripod Alternatives
A low-cost way to stabilise camera movement is to use the basic tripod as a makeshift steadicam. Attach the camera to the tripod as usual, collapse and fold the legs together - (experiment with extending the legs a bit to increase stabilisation) and attach a small weight to the bottom of the legs. 2 or 3 pounds will be plenty as it doesn't need much. Some tripods are a bit heavier and may not require any additional weight at all. The idea here is to hold the rig so that the camera is above your hand and the weighted legs are far below. You want the camera to be able to swivel around freely. Loosening up all of the adjustment handles may help keep things a bit smoother.

Shoulder Rigs
Shoulder rigs are another stabilisation tool which generally rests on the shoulders of the camera operator. It allows an operator to get into the action with a degree of stability. It's not as smooth as Steadicam, but some would argue that it is more natural.

Suspension cables
Suspension cables are an interesting concept for faster moving action around a set area. They are mainly used in sporting arenas because all the cables can be attached onto supports. This makes it difficult to use in the field as supports have to be erected or attached to strong trees or structures.
 * SpiderCam ® - made by CCS in Austria by Jens Petersen.
 * SkyCam ®
 * CableCam ® - (LA)

Copters
Helicopters are a logical choice for aerial photography and videography as they aren't too hard to learn and can provide amazing imagery. Helicopters can be extremely hard to manoeuvre in windier weather and in tighter locations.

Quadcopters and copters with more rotors provide more stability and more lift to carry heavier equipment. These also make it easier to operate in less than better weather.

Helium balloon
One method of obtaining an aerial shot is tying your camera or a plate to a group of helium balloons, which then floats above the scene that is to be filmed. The disadvantage of this includes that the camera will often face the wrong way and that too many balloons may cause the camera to drift away with the wind.

Weather balloons can also be used as an alternative and space flight has been achieved with GPS being used to locate the camera after although stock footage can be used instead and is relatively cheap.

Stabilizers
In aircraft and other aerial shots, an external stabilizer might have to be used. This may include a Gyro or certain capsules that offer stability.

Motion Control
Motion control is when the camera movement is able to be exactly duplicated. Motion control is often used in shots in effect shots that need to align exactly or shots that are just too intricate to be completed manually. Motion control rigs are generally expensive and require specialists to program in movements and to make sure the rig functions correctly


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Movie Making Manual/Cameras and formats

=Introduction= This is an index page for different camera guides. For example, a comprehensive list of cameras and recording formats, mediums etc.

=Contents=

 * Table of Cameras - every camera from HDV cameras right up to the best money can buy, ordered by price. This table lists many of the important parameters of the cameras such as sensor resolution, dynamic range etc.

 * Table of Formats - a huge table listing all the details of almost every format from DV to 8k

 * Technical Qualities of the Capture Medium - a discussion of the parameters which define a camera like exposure latitude, signal to noise ratio and sensitivity.

 * Celluloid

 * Electronic Capture and Storage Formats - a discussion of the formats used for... you guessed it... electronic capture and storage from DV to the Dalsa Origin®. Please note that this category includes post-production formats.

 * Distribution Formats

 * The full, automated listing of every article in the "formats" category

/Formats /Cinematography

title: Movie Making Manual/Cameras and formats


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Filtration

=Polarisers=

Light moves through the air in waves. These waves actually have an orientation in space. They can move horizontally, or vertically or any angle in between. This angle is known as polarization.

For the most part polarization does not matter to a photographer, any polarization will expose the recording medium the same way, but when a polarizing filter is employed it allows one to select which polarization of light is allowed to enter the camera. The practical upshot of this is that a polarizer can:

 * Enhance saturation.
 * Remove reflections and glare.
 * "See through" humid air.

Linear vs Circular
Circular and linear polarizers for imaging applications are virtually the same in how they function in polarization effectiveness and image quality. After all, the circular polarizer is at its heart a linear polarizer to which has been added a clear retarder layer that makes it into a circular polarizer. The retarder does not degrade the image in any noticeable way.

General imaging rule of thumb...a linear polarizer has many applications but may not work best in all...a circular polarizer can be used in any application. When in doubt, go circular.

If your viewfinder has a partially silvered mirror or prism in it, it may be susceptible to being hard to see through with a linear pol. Check your manual for this equipment, as it may be an issue.

Shooting angles
The key issue you face is in panning with a polarizer in general, realizing that it doesn't matter whether it's circular or linear. The degree of polarization effect changes as you change your angular direction relative to the sun in the sky. So if you are panning to follow a plane as the angle changes the sky will go from lighter to darker and back again. This may (or may not) be visually objectionable. The way to minimize this is to try to set up your shots, as much as possible, so that the camera's viewing angle stays perpendicular to the line-of-sight of the sun in the sky. This will maximize the sky-darkening effect. If you find that your pan causes too much change in the sky, then turn the polarizer so that it isn't at maximum effectiveness so that the image will be improved but not be so dramatically different from where it isn't affected at all.

Note that either type of polarizer has no effect when aimed directly toward or away from the sun. And that you need a blue sky to start with...and that you want to be sure that the change in sky darkness is not causing your camera to change exposure as you pan...you will want to use the recommended filter factor for exposure compensation with a fixed iris if that is otherwise acceptable for your situation. Typical pols use a 1-2/3 stop increase.

=Links=
 * WikiPedia article on electrostatic Polarisation

/Cinematography


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Camera angles and composition

=Shot, Scene and Sequence=

Shot
A shot is the basic unit of a film and refers to one length of continuous (unedited) action.

While shooting, a shot is created when you turn the camera on (begin recording) and then turn it off. Often, a director will record multiple takes (attempts) of each shot in order to get one perfect take to be edited into the final film.

While editing, a shot refers to the action between two adjacent edit points.

A shot can be as short as a single frame of film (1/24th second) to many minutes long -- both extremes are uncommon. Action sequences tend to use many short-duration shots to increase the sense of excitement, while dramatic scenes tend to use longer-duration shots.

The components or elements of a shot can be divided into two categories: cinematography and mis-en-scene. Cinematography is the way the shot is recorded by the camera, including such factors as lens selection, focus setting, depth-of-field, zoom, camera movements, etc. Mis-en-scene refers to everything seen or heard within the shot: the performances, lighting, the set or environment, wardrobe, etc.

Scene
A scene is action that takes place at a certain place and time in the story. If a film starts with a conversation in the kitchen and then cuts to the subway, the kitchen is one scene and the subway is another. A scene can be composed of one shot or any number of shots. When shooting, a director will often record a master shot which captures the entire scene in a single shot, and then record additional shots (e.g., close-up's, cut-ins and cut-aways) to be edited into the scene.

Sequence
When a number of scenes can be considered as a unit where the action continues or progresses along each of the scenes, then it is considered a sequence.

Points of Confusion
Scene and shot are sometimes used interchangeably. This will mean that in the script, individual shots may be referred to as scenes. Production staff may refer to a single take as a shot but refer to the shot by its scene number. So don't be too confused when production staff flip back and forth when describing a scene or a shot.

=Types of Camera Angles=

Objective
As opposed to subjective, objective shots are not seen from anyone (or anything's) eyes, but rather from an 'observer's' point of view. This supposed observer is, as far as the narrative is concerned, not actually there; that is, the characters cannot see or interact with the camera. (It can therefore, for example, pass through the glass of a window without hindrance, though this would require special effects.) The majority of shots taken in film are objective.

Subjective
Subjective shots are taken from someone or something's point of view. It might, for example, display what one of the characters can see. Truly subjective (rather than Point of View) shots are rarely used, as they can be disorientating or alienating to the audience, especially if a character looks at or speaks to the camera. They are, therefore, generally only used when the effect it creates is explicitly desired.

A popular device in horror films is to use subjective shots from the monster or adversary's point of view. This makes it possible to let the audience know what the monster is doing, without revealing any information about the nature of the adversary, which heightens the tension.

A very good example of subjective shooting is in the film "Cloverfield" by J.J. Abrams. The entire film is shot from a subjective point of view, an observers video camera.

Point-of-view
Sometimes abbreviated to POV, a point-of-view shot is when the camera is positioned to record what a character in the film would be seeing from his perspective.

=Cutting= Cutting is another word for editing which means assembling the film from all of the raw footage shot during production. Aside from assembling shots into scenes, editing also includes significant audio work, including redubbing dialogue (when required), adding music and adding sound effects.

=Composition= Composition refers to the arrangement of visual elements within a shot. The three basic shot compositions in filmmaking are long-shot, medium-shot, and close-up.

The long-shot typically shows a significant amount of the setting or shooting environment. If the performers are seen in a long-shot, they are typically small within the frame.

The medium-shot is perhaps the most commonly used shot and typically includes one or two performers. Often, a medium shot of a single performer will show from their waist upward.

The close-up shows one particular detail, often a performers face, although it may show an object, like a clock. Whatever is shot, a close-up fills the screen with that image.

There are no strict dividing lines between these kinds of composition. The image to the right is just one example.

Composition in filmmaking has many elements in common with composition in painting and still photography -- line, tone, color, texture, shadow -- although cinematography is unique in that the composition may change during the shot. During the shot the camera may move, the lens may be adjusted, the performers may move -- all of which will change the composition of the shot. A performer, for example, might start in a medium shot, but then walk toward the camera, ending in a close-up.

=Continuity= Continuity is the characteristic of a scene whereby the action seems fluid and continuous, even though it is composed of a number of shots. There are many ways that continuity can be broken -- which can be noticeable and therefore distracting to an audience. For example, if the hero's clothes are dirty and bloody as he is walking through the doorway, but clean as he emerges from the building, that is a continuity error. Another kind of continuity error can be caused by poor editing. For example, a character might move to a chair and sit down in a long shot, and then we cut to a close-up and see the end of the character's sitting movement. Depending on how these two shots are edited, it will either look like a continuous motion (good continuity), or you might see repeated action or a gap in action (poor continuity). Many people enjoy picking out continuity errors in movies. See http://www.moviemistakes.com/

Continuity errors are often the result of cutting for performance, where the editor pieces together shots that form the desired feel of the scene with little or no attention paid to background objects or actions that cause the errors.

/Cinematography /Directing


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Aspect ratios

Please note that much of this content is present in WikiPedia and we should try to consolidate the two.

The aspect ratio of a screen is its width-to-height ratio. Aspect ratio is independent of screen size. A television screen 14 inches wide and 10.5 inches high has the same aspect ratio of a television screen 25 inches wide and 18.75 inches high. This aspect ratio is 4:3, or 1.33:1 (1.33 times as wide as it is high).

When referring to the aspect ratio you generally refer either to the terms “4 by 3” or “16 by 9” for television; for film you refer to the aspect ratio as the numerical term, eliminating the decimal point and the “:1.” Therefore, you would refer to 1.85:1 as simply ”one-eight-five.”

A topic related to aspect ratio is that of Pixel aspect ratio

Cinema and television screens have used a number of different aspect ratios over the years. The following are the common ratios in use today:

 * 1.33:1 aka 4:3. Standard for non-widescreen television.
 * 1.37:1 (aka “Academy Standard Flat”) This is the frame size of standard 35mm sound film when using 4 perferations. While no films are distributed in this format many projects are shot in 1.37:1 and matted (or cropped) horizontally to fit other aspect ratios.
 * 1.66:1 (aka "European widescreen") Matting the Academy Standard Flat on the top and bottom to achieve a wider aspect ratio derives this aspect ratio. Super 16mm is natively 1.66:1.
 * 1.77:1 (aka 16:9) This is the standard ratio for widescreen television and all HDTV formats.
 * 1.85:1 (aka "Academy Standard Flat Matted") This is one of two major projection formats in American cinema, derived from matting the Academy Standard Flat on the top and bottom to achieve a wider aspect ratio. This aspect ratio can be shot using a 3-perf 35mm camera without wasting any negative. 3-perf 1.85:1 is becoming very popular again in this age of the Digital intermediate.
 * 2.35:1 This is usually achieved by matting the 4-perf academy standard 35mm frame. But this wastes a lot of the negative so many people prefer to shoot using matted 3-perf or 2-perf (2-perf was once known as Techniscope).  2-perf uses the least film but it's also the rarest so it's tough to find the cameras and the telecine facilities.
 * 2.39:1 AKA Anamorphic. This is the widest format available for modern cinema. It uses standard 35mm sound film with the image squeezed horizontally using anamorphic lenses. When projected a special anamorphic lens unsqueezes the image. These anamorphic lenses have some disadvantages compared to normal lenses.

Wikipedia links

 * Cinemascope
 * Aspect Ratio (image)

/Cinematography /Editing


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Talk:Release Management

What I'm missing here is some information on timeschedules. We're currently in a semi large project that has realy got difficultly with release management. Currently it's still under development and we're scheduled to our first release on 01 jan 2006. The daily practice is to release new changes into production (after testing in a deployement environment). This causes a lot of restlessness in the Production Environment and Developers and End-Users aren't realy able to focus on the bugs that are in the programs. A weekly delivery (let's say on Friday's) would take down the stress a lot and give End-Users and Developers/Analists a more predictable view on the process. I believe the article needs some more juice on this subject. It would help me a lot at least!

itil release management
I'm sure there are some interesting models that could/should go into this wikibook: like itil releasemanagement and it's 5 phases.

collecting pages into a book
Would it make sense to collect Release Management, Collected Real-life Experiences, Transwiki:Career domains in computer science (each of them, at the moment, a single-page "book") into a single book? --DavidCary (talk) 05:03, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

IF we are going to have a discussion, first we must define our terms.
Primarily this article focuses on what I have always called Build Management, carried out by the Build Engineer. When I think of Release Management I am looking for the ITIL definition of the subject as they seem to have co-opted the term if they did not invent it. I have never heard the term used except by ITIL or those using their principles. If I were an expert on the subject, I would provide some text along those lines, but if I was an expert on the subject I would not be reading a WikiBook.

title: Talk:Release Management


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Engineering Acoustics/Application Websites

Engineering Acoustics Application Websites
General Acoustics

 * The Acoustical Society of America
 * General Concepts
 * Engineering Tool Box Calculators for any kind of situation in Acoustics

Earth Sciences

 * Oceanography
 * Products and Services for Oceanography Research
 * Surface Reverberation Experiment
 * EAI Products and Technology

Engineering

 * Architectural Acoustics and Lighting Definitions and Concepts
 * Room Acoustics Explanation
 * Vibration and Shock PDF
 * Acoustical Porous Material Recipes

Life Sciences

 * EAI Medical
 * Explanation of Bioacoustics
 * Bioacoustics on Fish
 * Pyschoacoustics and Music Perception PDF

Arts

 * Concert Hall Acoustics Good PDF
 * 5.1 Surround Sound Treatment Article
 * Studio Basics Article
 * Acoustic Artist Very interesting art
 * Guitar Acoustics
 * Music and Psychoacoustics

Back to the Main Page


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Talk:X86 Disassembly/Microsoft Windows

This artical could definately benefit from some images, especially diagrams of the Windows system architecture. --Whiteknight 22:36, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

Update by Hexed321 00:01, 28 June 2006 (UTC) : I've fixed several inaccuracies and added a little content. Most of this revolves around the functionality of the native API and how it works: for example, the NT and ZW calls are identical, stuff like that. I'm also wondering what the "greater purpose" of this page should / could / would be. 90% of it can be partitioned off into a section as "System Architecture". I'd also love to see some comments on RPC and COM or other products that Windows offers. They deserve a place on this page, because they're darn hard to comprehend without a proper reference to work with.

 * Yeah, there is alot more information that this book/page really should cover, and we just haven't had the time to add it. Let's definately add in some stuff about RPC and COM (although i don't think we need to go all nuts with COM+, DCOM, MTS, OLE, etc...) We can even section some of the material off into another page, if you think it's a good idea. If you don't want to do the dirtywork yourself, let me know what you want moved and where, and I will take care of it. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:40, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Actually, there is a section towards the end for COM. I also added in a heading for RPC, although I currently don't have any references on me that I can use to fill in that section. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:44, 28 June 2006 (UTC)

This article mentions nothing about DOS or the Disk Operating System which windows was based on for eg: DOS 6.22 & earlier versions.

title: Talk:X86 Disassembly/Microsoft Windows