text:
World Stamp Catalogue

Dünyanın poçt markalarının kataloqu • Catalogue des Timbres du Monde • Weltbriefmarkenkatalog • Wereld Postzegel Catalogus • Каталог почтовых марок мира • Catalogo dei francobolli mondiali

General information

 * Stamp Identifier
 * Descriptions
 * Stamp Inclusion Policy
 * Numbering System
 * /Common themes/
 * Stamp Valuation
 * Philatelic Topics

Geographical Indexes

 * /Africa/
 * /Antarctica/
 * /Asia/
 * /Caribbean/
 * /Central America/
 * /Europe/
 * /Middle East/
 * /North America/
 * /Oceania/
 * /South America/
 * /International Organizations/
 * /British Commonwealth/
 * United Nations
 * International Olympic Committee

Topical (or thematic) indexes

 * /Cars/
 * /Europe CEPT/ (European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations)
 * /Fantasy and Mythical Countries/
 * /Fauna/ (Animals)
 * /Flora/ (Plants including Flowers, etc.)
 * /Gandhi stamps/
 * /Ships/
 * /Space Exploration/
 * /Sports/
 * /Stamps on stamps/

Contributors and other special pages

 * /Contributors/,
 * /Requests/,
 * New Catalogue List template
 * Stamp template
 * A-Z Page Header template
 * Old template

Dünyanın poçt markalarının kataloqu

title: World Stamp Catalogue


text:
User:Timwi/monobook.js

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Timwi/monobook.js


text:
Principles of Sociology/Demography

Demography is the study of human populations. In the vast majority of cases, demographers rely on quantitative methods.

title: Principles of Sociology/Demography


text:
Entomology/Common insects

Introduction
There are about 27 orders of insects. With new genetic and other information, the arrangement and number of the orders has been changing and may continue to do so. In this brief guide, we're only going to cover a few of those more commonly important to humans.

In descending order of number of species, the orders of insects we will cover are:
 * 1) Coleoptera (Beetles, about 400,000 species)
 * 2) Lepidoptera (Butterflies and moths, about 150,000 species)
 * 3) Hymenoptera (Wasps, bees, and ants, about 130,000 species)
 * 4) Diptera (Flies, about 120,000 species)
 * 5) Hemiptera (true bugs, about 82,000 species)
 * 6) Orthoptera (Grasshopers, crickets, and mantids, about 20,500 species)
 * 7) Odonata (Dragonflies and damselflies, about 5,500 species)

Coccinella septempunctata
The seven-spotted ladybird (or ladybug) is a very common beetle found in both North America and Europe, and is an important predator of aphids.

Harmonia axyridis
The Asian lady beetle (or harlequin ladybird) is a species that is similar to C septempunctata. This species is also an important predator of aphids, however is causes more problems to humans, because they freqently overwinter in homes. The species is originally from East Asia, but was introduced to North America and Europe.

Papilio
The genus Papilio includes many species that are well-known around the world. Such species are charchterised by their "swallowtails" for which they are named.

Danaus plexippus
The Monarch butterfly is common in North America, as well as New Zealand and Australia. It is one of the few milkweed butterflies in North America. As larva, the monarch feeds on milkweed, which is poisonous. This poison persists in the monarch as an adult, which provides it protection from many predators. This is so successful, that Limenitis archippus (in the same family, but in a different subfamily) mimics the monarch so that it is not eaten by predators.

Vespula
Yellowjackets are wasps that can be found in both Europe and North America. There are two particular species: Vespula germanica and Vespula vulgaris. These are known as the German wasp and the common wasp, respectively. Yellowjackets are social insects— a queen builds a nest, usually of wood, and then lays eggs. When the eggs hatch, the larvae are carnivorous, and feed on other insects. Adult wasps feed on nectar. Though, often considered pests or harmful to humans, wasps are important predators of many other pests such as flies.

Apis
Honeybees are important plant pollinators.

Musca domestica
The housefly is very common, and frequently lives with humans. Flies, like butterflies, undergo complete metamorphosis. In their larval stage they are called maggots, in which they will feed on organic matter. After three instars, they become pupae, then emerge as adults. Like other insects, the purpose of the adult form is for mating— flies live only about one month after maturation. Flies have sponging mouth-parts. They can only consume liquids, but can also apply digestive fluids to solids, and then ingest them as fluids.

Culicidae
Mosquitos are known particularly for spreading disease. Mosquitos, like other flies, undergo compete metamorphosis. Eggs, larvae, and pupae develop in water, but the adult is terrestrial. The larvae also develop in three instars. The pupae then float to the surface of the body of water, so that the adults can emerge into the air.

Hemiptera
True bugs.

Orthoptera
Grasshopers, crickets, and mantids

Odonata
Dragonflies and Damselflies

title: Entomology/Common insects


text:
User talk:Nmontague

Image vandalism

 * Resolved, user blocked, and damage fixed. You did the right thing in reverting the pictures. You could have also uploaded a non-offensive image over the top of the offensive one. Thanks for helping to fight vandalism on Wikibooks.
 * PS: A better place to report the vandalism would have been the Staff lounge. Geo.T 01:04, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Use the Vandalism in progress page to report damage. Picking a random admin is a good idea only if you are fairly sure that they are currently logged in. People may sleep, go on vacation, get busy at work, study for exams, go to the hospital, lose electrical power... Edits to the Vandalism in progress page will be spotted either via watchlists or via somebody looking over the Special:Recentchanges page. AlbertCahalan 23:09, 28 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Sir Stinkalot has been blocked, and the image has been deleted. Thanks again for your quick action in fighting vandalism. Geo.T 07:46, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

cake category/page merge
Hi, I've removed the speedy from the cake page. Any sort of restructuring like this should be discussed on Talk:Cookbook at least to let others know what you're going to do. I tend to think that merging the two is the correct thing to do, but would like others input first. Also, we're going to be getting the DynamicPageList extension installed which will allow us, for example, to list the pages in Category:Cake on the Cookbook:Cake page, so this might be another resolution. Kellen T 20:23, 28 August 2005 (UTC)
 * It just doesn't make any sense to me to have a page with no purpose other than to point to another like that, it may as well be a REDIRECT at that point. Nmontague 20:31, 28 August 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree. I've added Talk:Cookbook. Kellen T 20:34, 28 August 2005 (UTC)

We should start doing this now that it's been posted on Talk:Cookbook for a while. Kellen T 19:01, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

yams
Ha. I mixed up the yam/sweet potato thing in the opposite direction. Thanks. Kellen T 03:11, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

units
On the Cookbook:Cherry Brownies page, is that 1.5 square inches or 1.5 inches squared?

 * 1.5 inches squared = 2.25 square inches (my guess)
 * 1.5 square inches = 1.22 square inches

Since 1 square inch is equal to 1 inch squared, I suggest using that.

Another unconfusing way is to specify both dimensions.

AlbertCahalan 01:40, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, I could just do it as per square, considering. Nmontague 01:54, 31 August 2005 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Namigration.png
--Derbeth 23:20, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Well, if you looked at my user page, you'd see it is public domain - like everything else I do here. Nmontague 14:51, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

I don't have time to look at every contributor's user page. This message is ment to remind you to tag your future images properly and to fix description pages of images you have uploaded previously. Images must have proper copyright tag and users should remember about it, without being corrected by sysops. --Derbeth 17:31, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nmontague


text:
Entomology/Other insects

Introduction
There are many kinds of insects that are not commonly seen in different parts of the world. Use the free Rove Pest Prediction Tool to see a basic display of which insects can be found throughout the U.S. during different months of the year.

Other Insects
This is an alphabetical list of currently recognized orders of insects.

 * Order: Blattodea - Cockroaches and termites
 * Order: Coleoptera - Beetles
 * Order: Dermaptera - Earwigs
 * Order: Diptera - Flies
 * Order: Embioptera - Web-spinners
 * Order: Ephemeroptera - Mayflies
 * Order: Hemiptera - True Bugs
 * Order: Hymenoptera - Bees, Wasps and Ants
 * Order: Lepidoptera - Butterflies and Moths
 * Order: Mantodea - Praying Mantids
 * Order: Mecoptera - Scorpionflies
 * Order: Megaloptera - Alderflies, Dobsonflies & Fishflies
 * Order: Microcoryphia - Archaeognatha
 * Order: Neuroptera - Lacewings, Antlions & Mantidflies
 * Order: Odonata - Dragonflies and Damselflies
 * Order: Orthoptera - Grasshoppers and Crickets
 * Order: Phasmatodea - Stick insects and Leaf insects
 * Order: Phthiraptera - Biting and Sucking lice
 * Order: Plecoptera - Stoneflies
 * Order: Psocoptera - Booklice and Barklice
 * Order: Raphidioptera - Snakeflies
 * Order: Siphonaptera - Fleas
 * Order: Strepsiptera - Strepsipterans
 * Order: Thysanoptera - Thrips
 * Order: Thysanura - Three-pronged bristletails
 * Order: Trichoptera - Caddisflies
 * Order: Zoraptera - Zorapterans

title: Entomology/Other insects


text:
Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/May 2005 voting

Voting is now officially over. Vote for the June 2005 collaboration here.

Voting rules
The following are the rules and conditions for voting for the Collaboration of the Month:

 * 1) Only registered users with 20 or more edits to their name may vote.
 * 2) You may vote under as many nominations as you wish, however, you may only vote for each book itself once.
 * 3) Sign your vote with a number sign and four tildes, #~, after the most previous vote under the book's nomination. Unsigned votes will be removed.
 * 4) Any nomination which receives 3 or more votes in one month will automatically be renominated the next month if it is not chosen.
 * 5) If you wish to include a short comment for your vote, then you may do so. Make sure that if you leave such a comment, that you are also voting for that page.
 * 6) Do not post objection votes as these will have no effect on the final tally.
 * 7) Voting will end at 00:00 UTC on the first day of each month. In essence, when a new month begins voting ends. Any votes added after this time will be discarded.
 * 8) The nomination with most votes will be chosen as the Collaboration of the Month. In case of a tie, the older Wikibook will be chosen.

World History (11)
I nominate this Wikibook because I think its the most important History topic, and information about history is readily available to most users.--Naryathegreat|(talk) 18:35, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Votes:
 * 1) See my nomination comment above.--Naryathegreat|(talk) 22:33, 17 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) I agree, this is a very important subject and most people can contribute something --Bobbyandck 08:26, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) I think a huge 'encyclopedic' work like this can play a great part in attracting more users to wikibooks. --risk 23:52, 20 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Grimm 02:19, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) Jshadias 06:08, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 6) Cnelson 23:59, 23 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 7) Mad Ant 11:42, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 8) Snargle 11:47, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC) Beekeeping sounds good too.
 * 9) --Constantijn 19:11, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 10) SamE 14:29, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 11) --Sterio 13:34, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Comments:

Puzzles (4)
This wikibook has been growing over time in an uncontrolled way. A collaboration on this book would first work out in a discussion how to best organize the book, and then take action. --Andreas 08:00, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Votes:
 * 1) Andreas 08:00, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) SamE 14:29, 26 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) Naryathegreat|(talk) 03:26, 29 Apr 2005 (UTC) - Interesting, possible useful if cleaned up.
 * 4) KelvSYC 06:28, 29 Apr 2005 (UTC) - Really needs cleanup - no one could ever find out that 4. or Solution is part of this wikibook....

Comments:

Open Culture (1)
This Wikibook is an explanation on what we all are participating to: Open Culture, It would be interesting to develop this Wikibook because it would explain to other people why we want to contribute to things like Wiki or Open Source. It gives us the possibility of understanding what we are doing. --Bobbyandck 08:33, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Votes:
 * 1) Bobbyandck 08:33, 19 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Comments:
 * Good project but the giudelines for this suggest that books have a fairly concrete structure already worked out. Grimm 02:23, 22 Apr 2005 (UTC)

FHSST_Physics (5)
This WikiBook is part of a project to provide educational materials in Africa where budgets do not extend to expensive royalty laden books. The book is very close to being finished and with a concerted effort from a community like the WikiBooks community it could be finished very quickly. It's a first step on the way to providing educational materials to all. Education is the only way to facilitate lasting peace and stability in developing/3rd world countries. Marknewlyn 03:13, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Votes:
 * 1) Help make a real lasting difference through education! Marknewlyn 03:13, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Moldi 05:36, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) Sarblyth 19:57, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 4) Grimm 01:00, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 5) Eyu100 14:36, 30 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Possible sockpuppet votes:
 * 1) HeikoStamer 06:38, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) Rianameyer 08:31, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) Vanessa 07:15, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Comments:
 * The three voters HeikoStamer, Vanessa, and Rianameyer don't show any user contribution other than the vote on this page. Although this is not part of the rules (yet?) I would suggest that these people make a couple of edits on a wikibook while logged in, before their votes can be counted. --Andreas 12:00, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree, in principle, with the concerns raised by Andreas. However, I would like to claim that these are somewhat unusual circumstances in that the voters are members of the FHSST project who have helped write the 375 page FHSST_Physics text that was uploaded to WikiBooks. Because the book was uploaded in an advanced state its edit history is external to WikiBooks but does exist. Irrespective of what happens with vote counting we are all working towards the same thing which is great and I am very glad that people like Andreas are concerned about what happens on WikiBooks and are on the lookout for problems :) Marknewlyn 19:54, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)
 * Agreed. These may or may not be sockpuppets, but we can't risk it.  Their votes are nullified.  I have not removed them per se, but moved them.--Naryathegreat|(talk) 03:22, 29 Apr 2005 (UTC)


text:
Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/May 2005

The Collaboration of the Month for May is World History.

World History spans the breadth of human history, from the earliest evolution to the outlook for the near future. It is currently run by a dedicated, though small, group of contributors known as the World History Project. The book is based on the AP World History standard by the College Board, a college entrance examination board in the United States. All users are asked to help contribute to this project over the course of the month. For resources, visit the information page.

Vote for June - Collaboration of the Month


text:
Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/April 2005

Wikibooks is currently developing a system for creating a Collaboration of the Month. We hope to develop a method of concentrated effort on projects. To learn more, and to vote for the first Collaboration of the Month, visit the information page.

Vote for May - Collaboration of the Month


text:
Talk:Hindi/Numbers

Untitled
Bold textItalic text--24.152.216.215 01:58, 31 March 2006 (UTC)Pronunciation of Cardinal Numbers in Hindi (1-51) 0 = shunyaa (zero)

1 ek     11 gyarah   21 ikees     31 ikttees    41 ikttalees

2 ddo    12 barah    22 baabees   32 baattees   42 byaalees

3 tteen  13 tterah   23 ttebees   33 ttettees   43 ttrattalees

4 char   14 chauddah 24 chaubees  34 chauttees  44 chaulees

5 paa.nch 15 pa.ndrah 25 pachchees 35 pai.nttees 45 pai.nttalees

6 chhe   16 solah    26 chhabees  36 chhattees  46 chhiyalees

7 saatt  17 sattrah  27 sattabees 37 sai.nttees 47 sai.nttalees

8 aath   18 athaarah 28 aathabees 38 aathattees 48 aathattalees

9 nau    19 unees    29 unattees  39 unttaalees 49 unchaass

10 das   20 bees     30 tees      40 chalees    50 pachaas

Pronunciation of Cardinal Numbers in Hindi (51 to 100)

51 ikaavan 61 ikasath    71 ikahattar   81 ikiyaasee  91 ikyanav

52 baavan  62 baasath    72 baahattar   82 biyaasee   92 biyaanave

53 ttrapan 63 ttrasath   73 ttehattar   83 ttiryaasee 93 ttiryaanave

54 chauvan 64 chausath   74 chauhattar  84 chauraasee 94 chauranave

55 pachpan 65 pai.nsath  75 pachahttar  85 pachaasee  95 pachaanave

56 chhapan 66 chhiyasath 76 chhiyahttar 86 chiyahsee  96 chiyahnave

57 sattavan 67 sattsath  77 sattahttar  87 sattaasee  97 sattaanave

58 aathavan 68 aathasath 78 aathahttar  88 aathaasee  98 aathaanave

59 unsath  69 unattar    79 unaasee     89 navaasee   99 ninyanave

60 saath   70 saattar    80 assee       90 nabe       100 sau

RAHUL MOURYA

title: Talk:Hindi/Numbers


text:
Talk:Linguistics/Introduction

Rosebushes
A small point of contention: In colloquial speech, is there really an extra syllable on rosebushes? Consider the word 'street.' S, T, and R are slurred together. Is it not similar with the SH and Z sounds in rosebushes? I don't really hear a vowel.

Is there a such thing as a half syllable?

I'm only an amateur linguist--very amateur--so I could certainly be wrong about this. Thoughts?

 * I'm British and in my dialect <rosebushes> is certainly 3 syllabled (roughly /ɹoʊzbʊʃɪz/). Perhaps you don't hear a seperate vowel because you pronounce a syllabic /z/. - Ingolemo

A syllable is a unit of pronunciation with one vowel sound, and hence, can't be divided. There are, however, short (pull) and long vowels (pool) and monophthongs (bit), dipfthongs (boy) and triphthongs (fire), where the quality of the vowel changes. As I understand it vowels can be longer and shorter, but it just isn't possible to have half a vowel.

Thanks
Thanks to whoever wrote this text! I start a linguistics program next week and have been trying to wrap my brain around many of the concepts addressed. Now I finally understand the difference between deep and surface structure.

Technology?
"You may think of language as a technology. Depending on how you define the word, this is either a metaphor, or it is literal truth. It is the artificial use of natural phenomena — sounds, gestures, appearances, textures — for the purpose of communication."

I've removed that paragraph because 1. It's confusing, 2. Language use is instinctual, not "artificial", 3. "textures" makes no sense here. Mo-Al (talk) 20:46, 3 August 2009 (UTC)

My comments
Going through this book as someone who has never studied linguistics and giving some suggestions. Here they are:

I think that two things could be done to improve this introduction. First of all, it is very long, and there was one picture (plus the one of the fork I just added), making it difficult to read. I suggest finding more images to illustrate the text and taking a hatchet to the text and only including what's absolutely necessary and tightening up what still remains after that. To that end, I think the "how do linguists study language" could be removed pretty much entirely, since it basically states what the whole description vs. prescription section says, but less specifically and less eloquently. I also think the case studies could be shortened. Also the whole asterisk thing should be explained all at once.

Second, this page is a bit of a hodgepodge of many things with no clear progression or organization. I think if we sit down and decide what needs to go into an intro of a linguistics text (what is vital that doesn't fit into one of the later chapters). If any of this can be allocated to later chapters, then that should be done, too. So, any thoughts on what should stay and what should go? Personally I think that the idea that linguistics is a descriptive field is vital, although we should take care not to bash prescriptivists ;) . Any other thoughts? DroEsperanto (talk) 01:37, 8 September 2009 (UTC)

 * I agree absolutely. At some point, I hope to do a full rewrite, unless someone else does it first. --Quintucket (discuss • contribs) 13:08, 30 December 2011 (UTC)

Who do you wanna look over the application
"Who do you wanna look over the application" is something I (person from New Jersey), would use in speech. Are there any examples that are more ubiquitous?--100.8.43.25 (discuss) 21:38, 12 August 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Linguistics/Introduction


text:
Cookbook:Ostrich

 * Adapted from the public domain USDA article FOCUS ON: Ratites (Emu, Ostrich, and Rhea).

Red meat is now on the "wing" into innovative restaurants and some meat markets. The latest in meat products is from the "ratite" family of flightless birds. It's lean and tastes like beef, but contains much less fat. In fact, ratite meat is even lower in calories than chicken and turkey.

What are Ratites?
Ratites are a family of flightless birds with small wings and flat breastbones. Ostrich, emu and rhea are members of this family. Ostrich is native to Africa; emu, to Australia; and rhea, to South America -- particularly the grasslands of Argentina.

When fully grown, ostriches -- the largest birds in the world -- stand about seven to eight-feet tall and can weigh 300 to 400 pounds; emu are about six feet tall and weigh 125 to 140 pounds. Adult rheas are about five feet tall and weigh 60 to 100 pounds. The birds are 95-percent usable as meat, feathers, oil and leather.

How are Ratites Raised?
Newly hatched chicks usually weigh about two pounds and are about 10 inches tall. Young ratites must be sheltered in a warm place for their first weeks of life. Adolescent and adult birds are allowed to roam freely in fenced pastures or pens. Ratites need daily exercise to avoid leg and digestive problems.

The closely woven wire fences must be 6 to 8-feet high because ratites can leap over a 5-foot fence. Ratites are fed on grain supplemented by pasture. Ostrich was the first ratite to be raised in the U.S. There are now about 1,000 ostrich growers in the U.S. raising about 100,000 birds. Emu are now raised in at least 43 states by about 10,000 families (3,000 are in Texas). The emu population is about a million. Rheas are the newest U.S. farm-raised ratite, but there are currently over 15,000 rheas in the United States.

Retail Cuts of Fresh Ratites
Ratite meat is sold as steaks, fillet, medallions (small coin-shaped pieces of meat), roasts and ground meat. The most tender meat comes from the thigh or "fan"; meat also comes from the drum and forequarter.

 * Are Ratites "Red" or "White" Meat?

Although ratites are poultry, the pH of their flesh is similar to beef. Therefore, they are classified as "red" meat. The raw meat is a very dark cherry red. After cooking, the meat looks like beef and the flavor is similar but a little sweeter.

What Cooking Methods Can Be Used?
The tenderness and texture of farmed ratite meat lends itself to light grilling, pan frying or roasting. However, because ratite meat is so low in fat, care must be taken not to overcook it. Especially when roasting ratite meat, it is important to provide ample stock and moisten it, because due to its leanness, it will otherwise become very dry and tough. As a rule of thumb, anything that works for lean venison should work for ratite meat too.

Since ratites are classified as red meats, steaks and roasts can be safely cooked to medium rare (145 °F) up to well done (160 °F); ground meat should be cooked to 160 °F.

What is the Cost Per Pound?
At this time, emu, ostrich and rhea meat are specialty items available in restaurants and some stores. The meat is more expensive than beef, pork, chicken and turkey. However, the price will become more reasonable as the quantity of this meat becomes more widely available.

title: Cookbook:Ostrich


text:
User talk:205.210.52.159

Would "panicy sheep" be better?

It is irrational to ignore the many double-blind government-sponsored studies that show MSG is harmless.

It is irrational to ignore the simple fact that some foods naturally contain up to 2% unbound glutamate, including 1.2% in the popular parmesan cheese. The maximum useful MSG doze is 0.8%, because anything more will max out your tase sensation. If added MSG is a problem, parmesan cheese is a worse problem.

title: User talk:205.210.52.159


text:
Visual Rhetoric/Mediums and Manifestations of Visual Rhetoric

This page will host information on the mediums and manifestations of visual rhetoric, as seen in printed art, film, television, etc...

Film
For any movie to be effective, the director must establish a connection between the characters and the audience. This connection can be created through any number of ways. For example, any junior athlete can feel a connection with the Mighty Ducks because they share common ambitions. Likewise, any audience member can feel a connection to Hannibal Lecter in Silence Of The Lambs, because either they admire his cunning or they detest his lifestyle, or a combination of the two. However, for a movie to truly captivate an audience, it must go beyond the acting and the writing. Each scene must put the audience in a very specific mindset, and this is where the combination of auditory and visual rhetoric comes into play.

It is important to remember that for the most part films are narratives. They depict the story of a character or a set of characters and use our cultural and social norms in order to make us feel a certain way about these characters. These narratives may become arguments such as the case in Oliver Stone’s JFK where the filmmaker argues that the assassination was a conspiracy. However, some film may simply “persuade” the audience to become involved with the characters and be entertained by the film (112). It is important to keep in mind that in most films the objective is to make money, there may not always be a defined argument, but the persuasion to spend money on the film is usually there.

When breaking down the rhetoric of a film or scene is it important to consider the “visual elements – camera movement, placement in the frame, color, spatial relationships among characters and between the viewer and the visual material, special visual effects, visual editing, and so on.” All of these elements make up the composition of the shot (115). This composition is then used by the viewer to make connections between themselves and the character.

In David Blakeseley’s essay "Defining Film Rhetoric", he discusses visual rhetoric in film as “…the study of symbolic inducement,” and using all available methods of sending messages to the audience (113). This is to say that it examines the connection that is (hopefully) created between the film and the audience. The connection is commonly referred to as audience identification.

So how does this all relate to identification with the characters and the movie? One theory is that identification occurs in the subconscious. This identification is prompted by various stimuli (visual or auditory) that occur in the conscious (117). This is to say that as we watch a movie we are consciously aware of dialogue between characters, their physical settings, and the music or sounds that accompany the scene. But then our subconscious takes these stimuli one step further, adding subconscious, emotional reactions to the stimuli. When we see a red rose, we consciously perceive it as just that, but subconsciously we add to it the connotation of love and romance, to give it deeper meaning. If romantic music is added to the visual then our emotional reaction to the scene becomes that much stronger.

In his directing, Alfred Hitchcock wanted to create identification between characters in addition to identification between the film and the audience. The musical elements of a film contribute to this identification as well, as the music sets an overall tone for not just a specific character, but for anyone in the scene. In Lost In Translation, a strong connection is developed between the two main characters, Bob Harris (Bill Murray) and Charlotte (Scarlett Johansson) develop a very romantic, but non-sexual relationship during their stay at the same hotel in Tokyo, Japan. The music that is played during their scenes together is not inherently romantic. There is no Marvin Gaye or Frank Sinatra on the soundtrack. Instead, the music is of a genre created just within the past few years. This music, labeled “Trip-Hop”, uses vocals and lyrics more as a supplement to the music, rather than a foregrounded message. The music production is deeply layered and mixes many different sounds in a non-intrusive manner.

The use of music as a supplemental rhetorical device to cinematic visual rhetoric is often times under-recognized, but is clearly an integral in late 20th and 21st century cinematography. Without it, scenes would not be as meaningful to our subconscious, which would decrease our ability to establish a connection with the film and its characters.

Works Cited - Blakesley, David. “Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock’s Vertigo.” Defining	Visual Rhetorics. Ed. Charles A. Hill and Marguerite Helmers. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. 112-117.

Lost In Translation. Dir. Sofia Coppola. Universal Studios, 2003.

Professional, The. Dir. Luc Besson. Columbia Pictures, 1994.

Advertising
Advertisements are more than celebrity endorsements, showing off products, interruptions in television programs, and pages in magazines. Advertisements surround us, whether or not we are aware of it and constantly attempt to persuade a target audience. Advertising is the most common manifestation of visual rhetoric and perhaps the most recognizable. Ever since the first advertisement in 1704, brands and companies have attempted to sell their ideas, products, and services to the public through various rhetorical strategies.

In order for an advertisement to be effective it is important for advertisers to know the needs, motivations, and lifestyles of the target audience prior to the creation of an ad. The purpose of an advertisement is to persuade consumers to buy a particular product or service offered by a brand. When advertisements are well-planned and developed, they are not thought of as advertisements, but yet a form of communication. “At its best, it’s memorable, fresh, entertaining, and epitomizes some of the best visual communication anywhere,” (Ryan and Conover 424).

The society we live in is very visually-inclined, meaning that individuals are drawn to images more than they are drawn to text. A visual message is more memorable than a verbal message because of its power of impact on an audience. Advertisers are aware of this and use it to their advantage by making the graphic element of advertisements the most predominant.

Advertisers use various appeals to convey certain messages, create an image that the target audience can identify with, and build a relationship with the desired consumers. One of the more dominant rhetorical devices in advertising is the appeal to gender roles. (See: Gender and Visual Rhetoric) The first example of gender-directed advertising occurred in 1911 with a Woodbury Soap advertisement in the Ladies' Home Journal. Advertising can also appeal to historical context, as was the case in 1942 when the War Advertising Agency was created to help gain public support for America's involvement in World War II.

In 1958, the National Association of Broadcasters banned the use of subliminal ads, messages which contain hidden messages that the audience would not consciously perceive, but would subconsciously absorb. A concept is central to an advertisement’s success. The advertised brand requests to the hired agency that a certain message and concept be portrayed through the advertisement to an audience. The advertisers manipulate various components to illustrate the underlying concept. Advertisers create and reinforce a brand’s concept through the theme of a brand, the message, the product, the color choices, layout design, and the graphic elements.

All advertisements contain the same elements: artwork, a headline, copy, and a logotype. The advertisers work hard to make sure all the components flow together and speak the same voice. Each element should reinforce and complement the others in order to create an effective advertisement that makes sense. The graphic component is often the dominant part of an advertisement because of its ability to persuade, inform, and entertain an audience. Advertisers use photographs to connect the advertisements to reality and to the audience; they also use graphics, artwork, and illustrations. In addition to the obvious visual components, advertisers also manipulate the headlines, logotypes, and copy to be visually appealing. Advertisers use specific typography, styles, and formats so that they are visually attractive and catch the audiences’ attention. Due to the limited time that advertisers have to capture and captivate the audiences’ attention, they make sure that every element is attractive and distinguishable.

Advertising has become a major part of our culture as we see it in various mediums. Advertisements can be seen on TV and before movies, in magazines and newspapers, outdoors on billboards, posters, and buses, on the internet, and more recently in product placements. A product placement does not follow the standard guidelines for ads because they do not overtly sell a product, however, they promote a product indirectly through making an appearance in media. A product placement can be something as simple as the mentioning of a particular brand or using the actual product and showing the brand’s logo.

Advertisements exemplify visual rhetoric because they encompass the components that make a text both visual and rhetorical through the design process and the purpose of the final product, to make someone think or act.

http://adage.com/century/timeline/index.html

Ryan, William, and Theodore Conover. Graphic Communications Today. 4th ed. USA: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2004.

Internet
"To be deeply literate in the digital world means being skilled at deciphering complex images and sounds as well as the syntactical subtleties of words. Above all, it means being at home in a shifting mix of words, images and sounds."

-Richard Lanham1

The Internet as a medium of visual rhetoric has some unique characteristics. On one hand, some rhetoricians believe it is a powerful tool of creation and publication but on the other hand, some rhetoricians are weary of its use and contend that the Internet and technology in general are not unbiased.

The line between verbal text and image seems to blur sometimes, such as in typography. Type faces, and graphics can easily manipulate the mood of an audience and ultimately have persuasive effects. The existence of visual rhetoric on the Internet is more complex than matters of aesthetics.

Theories of visual rhetoric can be seen as ways to filter information and determine credibility on the Internet. Alignment, position, spatial orientation and size are also elements of visual rhetoric.

Visual Literacy
The first graphical web browser, Mosaic, was introduced in 1992. Since then, the Internet has become one of the largest sources of multimodal texts in existence. Multimodal “texts,” or documents, are those that incorporate any combination of graphics, verbal text, animation and sound. This medium naturally lends itself to multimodal communication because, unlike printed material, “white space” is free. Text and image can easily be viewed on a single page.

Most visual rhetoric scholars have come to the conclusion that visual literacy is a matter of being able to read multimodal texts. These texts combine image and verbal text into a coherent whole, such as a news report on TV or a web page.2

The Internet also links thoughts and ideas through hypertext and hypermedia. Not only does this affect the way that an article might look, it has changed the way that people read. The idea behind hypertext, is that things that have already been written in one place need no be repeated. So a link leading to further information is created. 9

Impact on Academia
''“Electronic technology has prompted so hostile a response from the humanities establishment because it creates a different literacy from our customary print-based one. As we have seen, electronic ‘text’ mixes word, sound and image in new ways. It thus draws on different areas of the brain, and lays down different neural pathways within it. In so doing, it affects ‘the organization of humanistic knowledge’ at the most fundamental organic level.”''

-Richard Lanham

Richard Lanham, Barbara Stafford and others believe that this criticism of Internet content stems from an ancient source—authority of the printed word over other means of communication. “Computers are forcing the recognition that texts are not ‘higher,’ durable monuments to civilization compared to ‘lower,’ fleeting images,” says Stafford.3

Impact on Academia There has been a huge impact of academia due to the Internet. Students often times do all their research on-line. While the Internet can be a very helpful tool, the credibility of a site must be taken into account. For instance, if a student were to use a wiki site such as this on as a source the data may be changed later, and his source would be flawed. There is also no way to make sure these sites are completely correct.

Visual Conventions
The reality is that we are presently interacting with more information in our daily lives than ever before. “Information overload” can predictably be observed when college pages. In a short amount of time, the page must develop the ethos necessary to obtain more than just surface credibility. Authors must aim for earned credibility, but in order to do so, one must first obtain surface credibility. 4

Studies like the Stanford Web Credibility Studies, are much more far reaching than just developing aesthetically pleasing sites. It’s about making sites understandable and reducing the frustration of non-veteran surfers who just want to get some research done. Making the Internet more professional, useable, and universal can benefit more than just the corporate world. Right now, non-technical Internet use is blocked by issues such as browser compatibility, ridiculous numbers of plug-ins used to view certain file types, confusing navigation and error messages, just to name a few. Users who have been thwarted by these problems have a legitimate argument against Internet use—in many cases, little technological effort has been made to accommodate different audiences. In addition to these barriers, every time a hoax site5 is made or a misleading graphic is used to direct a person to an unwanted sales pitch, Internet credibility as a whole sustains damage in the public view. These are issues that can be addressed rhetorically, since they greatly effect the audience’s reception.

Simply identifying characteristics of information design is interesting, but not ultimately practical to the study of rhetoric, since this method separates the text from context, and the meaning from the making.6  These connections are crucial to a deep understanding of the intentionally persuasive aspects of images.

Visual conventions seem to be a viable solution to increasing the usability of the Internet. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia is an example of a healthy, thriving visual rhetoric community. Every entry in the Wikipedia is made by users by inserting information into a template. The template makes it easy for users and contributors to navigate, with tabs at the top for “Discussion,” “Edit this page” and “History” of the changes made to a particular article. It also aids navigation by making the search box and home page easily accessible from every article.

The site offers a full tutorial on the conventions of the Wikipedia for new contributors. This tutorial and other pages about how to edit the encyclopedia establish important rules which contribute to the credibility and usability of the site. Some examples of their established conventions include the wording of headings within the article, how to cite and link to sources, order of sections within the article, making an index (or the system can automatically make one) and how to include credentials, through use of the “Discussion,” “Edit this page” and “History” tabs. When a site looks professional, audiences are more likely to be receptive.

Every page of the Wikipedia is set up in the same way, making it extremely easy to use. The audience only has to learn one set of visual conventions to navigate any Media Wiki site.7  This kind of template has not hindered content diversity at all, since images, text, hypertext, sound clips and film clips can all be accommodated by the Media Wiki code. These sites also adhere to visual conventions that are already widely accepted such as placing legal and copyright information at the very bottom of the page, login links in the upper right corner, and a vertical bar containing frequently used links on the left side of the page.

One example of how visual conventions can be broken is selling ad space where the navigation bar at the left is expected to be. Sometimes this integration is done intentionally so that surfers will accidentally leave the site they’re trying to view. This creates frustration in the audience and causes the site’s credibility to decrease in the minds of these users. Since ads are the main source of revenue for many sites, leaving them off websites is not an option. Accepted visual conventions provide an easy solution to this problem. It is widely accepted for sites to have ads in a vertical column down the right side of the page, making it easy for audiences to anticipate where certain content should be. This is just one way to maintain the integrity and credibility of Internet content.

Conclusion
Some textual elements of a web page can be considered visual rhetoric. For example, just seeing contact information at the bottom of a page can increase surface credibility, without considering what the text actually says. Just its presence is a rhetorical element. According to Chaim Perelman, theories of visual rhetoric and the Internet are reflective of the “turn in rhetoric,” the modern approach encompassing all persuasive texts, not just arguments. He says, “New rhetoric, or dialectic, covers the whole range of discourse that aims at persuasion and conviction, whatever the audience addressed and whatever the subject matter.”8

Works Consulted and Footnotes
1 Lanham, Richard, from “Digital Literacy,” found in Visual Rhetoric in a Digital World, ed. Carolyn Handa (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004), 1.

2 Kress and Van Leeuwen, Reading Images:  the Grammar of Visual Design, (New York:  Routledge, 2003), 181.

3 Stafford, Barbara, “Visual Pragmatism for a Virtual World,” in Visual Rhetoric in a Digital World:  A Critical Sourcebook, ed. Carolyn Handa (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004), 210.

4 Fogg, B.J., Persuasive Technology (New York:  Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 2003), 163-177.

5 A hoax site is an illegal, illegitimate clone of a popular website used to direct surfer traffic to specific commercial sites. One example is the hoax site for the popular search engine, Google, that appeared in 2003. The user enters the URL www.google.com, but they are unknowingly re-directed to the hoax site.

6 Kostelnick, Charles, Shaping Information:  the Rhetoric of Visual Conventions (Carbondale:  Southern Illinois University Press, 2003), 2.

7  Media Wiki code is available through the GNU General Public License and is used in many sites such as www.sourcewatch.org, www.wikiquote.org and www.infoanarchy.org

8 Perelman, Chaim,  The Realm of Rhetoric, (Notre Dame:  University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), 5.

9 Stroupe, Craig,  Visualizing English: Recognizing the Hybrid Literacy of Visual and Verbal Authorship on the Web found in Visual Rhetoric in a Digital World, ed. Carolyn Handa (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004), 1.

Television
See: 3D and 2D Visual Persuasion

Architecture/Interior Design
At the beginning of the Industrial Age, skyscrapers were bold statements of engineering achievement and power. In the mid-20th century, Frank Lloyd Wright's residential architecture design was a statement of harmony between man and nature. Just like works of traditional art can be rhetorical statements, so too can architecture.

For the purpose of this introduction, I will focus on the rhetoric used in the design of a casino. When designing the floor plan of a casino, it is necessary to examine the location of every room, its purpose, and its connection (physical and otherwise) with other rooms or areas. The location of the gaming rooms, restaurants, restrooms, and other high-traffic areas can serve as a rhetorical device. For example, a much different outcome will be achieved by having bathrooms near every entrance than by having them located near gaming floors. This strategic placement of items can itself serve as a rhetorical device.

Surprisingly, the manipulation of natural light can also serve as a very strong rhetorical device. In casinos, natural light is purposefully blocked from coming into the building. This serves to allow gamblers to lose their sense of time, which will keep them inside the casino for longer periods of time.

Similar practices in rhetoric are used in exterior and interior design, not only in commercial properties, but also in residential and public buildings as well. Frank Lloyd Wright is recognized as the greatest American architect, and used rhetorical devices in designing his revolutionary buildings.

To read more on Frank Lloyd Wright, visit http://www.franklloydwright.org/index.cfm?section=research&action=theman


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Introduction to Art/Drawing I

Overview
Drawing can be loosely defined as mark-making on a flat surface. Usually, the mark-making device is a pencil and the flat surface is a sheet of paper, but many other combinations of tools and surfaces are possible. As such, sometimes it is hard to categorize a work as drawing as opposed to some other kind of art, such as painting, printmaking, digital media, or sculpture, which often incorporate mark making.

Learning to draw is considered fundamental to learning to produce other forms of visual art. Not only are the skills acquired through drawing useful, but a sketch is frequently the first step in producing new artwork. Drawing is also popular because the necessary materials are cheap and widely available and because the drawing process is fast, direct, and can be done almost anywhere. Drawing is also very revealing as to an artist's ability - his or her understanding of form, grasp of visual poetry, and artistic vision. Master drawings are exquisite, breathtaking, and tell us more about the mind of the artist than a highly polished, fully rendered painting.

Pencils
When most people think about drawing tools, they think of the ordinary "number two" pencil, most likely a yellow, hexagonal one, with a pink eraser on the end. Pencils come in many different styles, however.

The marking core of the pencil is called the "lead", although these days it doesn't contain any actual lead. Most pencils contain graphite -- a silvery-gray form of carbon — as their pigment, although other pigments such as charcoal or various colors are possible.

Graphite leads are rated in relative hardness. On one side of the scale is "9H", which is the hardest grade of pencil. On the other side of the scale is "9B", which is the softest ("blackest") grade of pencil. In the middle of the scale is the "HB" pencil, which corresponds to the standard "number two" pencil. The "F" grade of pencil is a bit harder than "HB". Hardness is not necessarily consistent between brands of pencils; experiment to find a hardness that you feel comfortable with.

Hard lead qualities:
 * Capable of very light strokes.
 * Stays sharp longer.
 * More likely to tear through paper.
 * Brittle -- tends to break under pressure.

Soft lead qualities:
 * Gives the darkest strokes.
 * Dulls quickly.
 * Soft -- tends to crumble under pressure.

Graphite is by nature somewhat brittle; care must be taken not to drop pencils or leads or the lead might break, even within a wood casing.

Pencil leads can be packaged in different ways. The typical packaging is in a wooden casing, which requires a pencil sharpener or a knife to expose the pencil lead for drawing. It is also possible to buy solid graphite sticks, usually wrapped in plastic, which can be used to make strong, bold marks on the page. Mechanical pencils use metal or plastic device instead of a casing, feeding out a thin lead. Lead holders can be thought of a hybrid between mechanical and traditional pencils, since they replace the wooden casing like mechanical pencils but also hold a lead of a thickness comparable to traditional pencils.

A property of mechanical pencils is that their thin leads produce a very even line, unlike thick-leaded pencils, which produce lines whose width varies slightly with pressure, allowing for more expressive linework. Another property of thick-leaded pencils is that they can be applied to the paper at a sharp angle to quickly apply graphite in a thick shading stroke. These properties tend to make mechanical pencils more desirable for precise drafting work and thick-leaded pencils more desirable for expressive drawing.

Colored pencils contain a pigment instead of graphite. The binding material of colored pencil leads varies among brands, leading to different degrees of waxiness or blendability. Watercolor pencils, a relatively recent development, use a water-soluble binding material which allows the artist to blend colors by brushing water over the artwork. A special variety of blue pencil -- "non-repro" blue -- does not photocopy well; comic book artists typically use these pencils to lay out their artwork before tracing over it with regular graphite pencils.

Charcoal and conté pencils are simply pencils that contain a charcoal or conté crayon core instead of a graphite one. See their respective sections below.

Grease pencils use a soft wax as a binding agent, wrapped in a rolled paper casing that is peeled away to expose the core. Since they use wax as a binding agent, these pencils are similar to crayons. They produce a bold, dark line which cannot be erased from paper. They can also produce a temporary line on smooth surfaces that can be wiped away with a solvent; this makes them useful for marking glass or plastic before cutting, for example.

Pencils with wooden casings can come in a variety of shapes, including round or hexagonal. Oblong or oval casings are also available, which some people find easier to hold and sketch with. On one hand, they offer both thick and thin surfaces for mark-making. On the other hand, they don't work in pencil sharpeners and must thus be sharpened with a knife.

For sharpening wood-cased pencils, a variety of mechanical solutions are available, from small, one-piece metal sharpeners, to hand-cranked sharpeners, to electric sharpeners. An alternative to mechanical sharpening is to whittle the wood casing away with a pocket knife; although this gives an irregular shape to the lead, it allows you to choose as sharp or wide an angle of lead as you want. Once the pencil is sharpened, some artists prefer to keep it sharp by shaping the point against a piece of scrap paper or sandpaper. Some art stores sell little pads of sandpaper for this purpose.

Charcoals
Charcoal is a popular artist's tool because it produces an inky, matte black and can be easily manipulated with the fingers or other smudge tool. Charcoal work tends to smear more easily than graphite work and usually requires a fixative (see below). Charcoal is also harder to erase than graphite

Artist's charcoal comes in a variety of forms. The most popular charcoal tools are compressed charcoal sticks. With charcoal sticks, the artist can produce both lines (with the tip) and areas of value (with the side). Charcoal-leaded pencils can also be purchased.

Vine charcoal is a piece of plant that has been turned to charcoal but has not been pulverized and compressed. Vine charcoal can be held like a pencil or broken and used like charcoal sticks. Since it has not been compressed, it tends to produce a lighter mark than compressed charcoal.

Some artists prefer to use charcoal powder applied directly to the art surface and manipulated with fingers or brush. Charcoal or graphite powder can also be placed in a small fabric bag which is then rubbed against the art surface; this produces a subtle shading effect that can be smoothly varied across the page.

Crayons

 * Conté
 * Cray-pas

Erasers

 * Simple rubber erasers ("Pink Pearl"-style)
 * gum (crumbly) erasers
 * plastic (white block or stick) erasers
 * kneaded ("Silly Putty"-like) erasers.

 * A note on using a large, clean brush to wipe away eraser crumbs instead of hands.

Smudging tools
Smudging tools are used to move pigment around on the drawing surface, blending or smearing it. The simplest smudging tool is the finger, although care should be used not to damage the artwork with the oils from hands. Cheap (lotion-free!) toilet paper, facial tissues, and Q-Tips can all be used as smudging tools.

Blending stumps (also known as "tortillons" or "smudge sticks") are lengths of tightly rolled paper that come to a point at one or both ends. Stumps are useful because they allow for precise blending, by using either the flat or tip of the point. After a stump has built up an amount of graphite or charcoal on its point, it can be used as a drawing tool in its own right; the light strokes it produces can be useful when first roughing out a piece.

Dip pens
Dip pens are pens with no internal ink reservoir; the ink is held in the nib at the tip of the pen, so the pen needs to be dipped in an external ink supply regularly to refresh the ink supply. Dip pens consist of a nib holder and a nib. Nibs wear out with time and need to be replaced. Different nibs produce different sizes and shapes of pen strokes. The "crow's quill" type of nib is frequently used in illustration, since the width of the line it produces can be varied by altering the pressure applied to the paper during the stroke.

Disposable and cartridge pens
Disposable pens come with an internal ink reservoir that is non-replaceable, while cartridge pens have a replaceable ink reservoir. Care must be taken in selecting pens for art-making, since many are intended for writing and do not use archival quality ink -- that is, the marks they produce may fade, change color, or alter the paper over time. Most technical pens are of archival quality.

Markers

 * pigment liner
 * water color
 * alcohol

Inks

 * Water based
 * Alcohol based
 * Indian/Chinese Ink

Paints

 * Water based
 * Acrylic
 * Oil
 * Encaustic

Papers

 * Newsprint
 * Vellum
 * Bristol board
 * Rag/cotton paper
 * Watercolor paper
 * Charcoal paper
 * Colored paper
 * Rice paper

Other drawing surfaces
Scratchboards, silverpoint, etc.

Other drawing supplies

 * Fixatives?
 * Rulers, triangles, templates, splines?

title: Introduction to Art/Drawing I


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Cookbook:Clam

| Seafood | Shellfish

Clams are are group of hinged shellfish.

Varieties
There are many varieties of clam distributed worldwide, and the available varieties will depend on what lives locally.

Hard-shell/Quahog
These clams are found on the east coast of North America and go by many names depending on their size. The smallest are littlenecks, followed by topnecks, cherrystones, and chowders. The flesh is white and mildly briny.

Surf
Also found in the Atlantic, these are yellow- to orange-fleshed clams. They tend to be chewier, and frying (e.g as clam strips) is a good option. They also tend to be processed for sale and are available canned.

Soft-shell
These Atlantic clams have brittle shells and never close completely. The flesh is tender, which makes them commonly consumed steamed.

Atlantic razor/jackknife
Atlantic razor or jackknife clams are long, thin, rectangular clams. The flesh is cream-colored and somewhat tough but flavorful, and they are often steamed.

Pacific razor
Somewhat wider and thicker than the Atlantic variety, these clams have white flesh and a delicate flavor.

Cockle
Though not technically clams, cockles look extremely similar and have a distribution across continents. They are treated pretty much the same as clams in most respects.

Manila/Asari
Manila clams are very popular in East Asia and the Pacific coast of North America, where they are commonly found. The shells are ridged, and they have a sweeter flavor compared to some other clam varieties.

Geoduck
Geoduck clams are very large, with long, wrinkled siphons, and they also do not close completely. The meat is tender and is often sliced thin and eaten raw.

Selection and storage
Since clams tend to accumulate toxins, it's best to either purchase from a reputable vendor or to gather them in locations designated as safe by the authorities.

When selecting whole clams, make sure to choose live ones. For hard-shell clams, the shells should be tightly closed or should close when you disturb them. For varieties of clam that never close completely, the tongue/siphon should move when disturbed. Clams that float in water are also dead. Discard and do not cook any dead clams. Live clams in their shells can be stored in the fridge for a day or two if kept in a damp towel or cloth bag. Never store them submerged or in a sealed container, as they will suffocate.

Shucked clams are also available, and they should smell fresh with no off ammonia or fishy odors. The meat should be plump and moist, with clear juices and no shell fragments. Store these in the fridge for up to a couple days. They can also be frozen in brine for a few months but can never be refrozen after thaw.

Cooked clam meat can be stored in the fridge, but it should not be frozen since this tends to give it a very tough texture.

Preparation
Because clams tend to accumulate sand and other grit inside their shells, it's generally a good idea to purge whole clams before cooking. To do this, submerge them in a gallon of water with ⅓ cup dissolved salt to mimic seawater for 30–60 minutes. Leave them undisturbed—they are sensitive to vibration—and they'll start to filter the water and eject their sand. Don't leave them submerged for longer than that without changing the water, since they'll use up the oxygen and suffocate.

If you are shucking hard-shell clams, freezing them for 15–20 minutes before letting them sit for a couple minutes at room temperature will help to relax their muscles. This will make it easier to insert a clam knife and twist the shell open. Make sure to reserve the flavorful clam juice when shucking if you want to use it in cooking.

Use
Clams are eaten worldwide and prepared in a variety of different ways. Some tender varieties may be eaten raw, either right out of their shells or as sashimi. When cooked in the shell, some varieties may be grilled, steamed, or tossed directly into soups/sauces—in these cases, the shells must be plucked from the dish and discarded. Shucked clam meat can also be cooked and incorporated into a variety of dishes. Fried and stuffed clams are eaten in the United States, along with clam chowder. Pasta alla vongole is an Italian dish of clams and pasta.

Overcooking clams will make the flesh tough and unappetizing. Ideally, cooking them quickly or over low heat is best. When cooking whole hard-shell clams, a good indicator of doneness is when the shell open up.

title: Cookbook:Clam


text:
Cookbook:Lobster

| Seafood

Lobsters are crustaceans related to shrimp, crab, crayfish, and krill.

In coastal areas close to where lobsters are caught, this seafood is not prohibitively expensive, and lobsters are often considered a summertime picnic treat. However, shipping costs for the living animals are high, so elsewhere lobsters are considered an elegant, formal, showy, and extravagant seafood. Shrimp may be considered a less expensive and difficult substitute.

When messy eating is acceptable, lobster is served in the shell. Tools, such as pliers and hammers, should be provided to open the brittle shells. For those who desire the distinctive taste of lobster without the mess, there are recipes for prepared lobster meat, such as Lobster Newberg.

Purchase an actively moving live lobster. Smaller lobsters are a better deal, but extravagant dining may demand the largest specimen available. Note: make sure to remove the rubber bands before placing the lobster in water. Otherwise, the rubber bands may leave a taste on the lobster.

How you proceed next depends on your stance regarding the ability of lobsters to feel pain. Many people believe it is more humane to kill the lobster before cooking it, while other people drop the live lobster directly into boiling water. If you fall into the former camp, these are the two usual methods:
 * Put the lobster in the freezer one to two hours before cooking. This will not kill the lobster, but will render it unconscious. It will die in the boiling water before it can fully reawaken.
 * Freeze the lobster for about fifteen minutes to slow down the lobster's nervous system. Place the lobster upside down on a cutting surface, then take a sharp knife and position it between the hindmost legs. Thrust firmly downward and slice through the body straight up to the head. Boil immediately.

Otherwise, you can place the lobster head first in a large pot of rapidly boiling (optionally salted) water, and allow the water to return to a boil. Boil for ten minutes for the first pound, and around 3 minutes for each additional pound. The lobster can be considered done when its antennae can be easily pulled from the body.

Most of the meat is in the tail and large claws. Additional meat can be found in the smaller legs and near where the legs join the body. The soft white deposits are coagulated protein.

Lobster is often dipped into melted butter or cocktail sauce. Lobster also goes well with lemon juice and with salt.

 * Side Notes:
 * The hissing sound while cooking the lobster is not the lobster screaming, but merely steam escaping the shell.
 * Some debate arises as to whether lobsters can feel any pain. A CBS news story  reported on a 2005 Norwegian study which concluded lobster brains are too small to experience pain. On the other hand, Business Insider  reported on a 2014 study from Queen's University in Belfast that indicates crustaceans such as lobsers and crabs are capable of experiencing pain.

title: Cookbook:Lobster


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Beekeeping/Tanzania Top Bar Hives

Tanzania Top Bar Hives are a style of top bar hive, which design is likely to have originated from  Tanzania. The Tanzania Top Bar Hive differentiates itself from the other common design of top bar hive, the Kenya Top Bar Hive, because it has non-slanted sides.

Non Sloped Side
Some beekeepers who use Top Bar Hives, claim they see no real difference in the functionality of the angled side walls of the hive. The only important point is the opening of the top bar hive in relation to the trough is not convex.

title: Beekeeping/Tanzania Top Bar Hives


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Cookbook:Squid

Squids are cephalopods, related to octopuses. The Italian word for squid, calamari, is often used to refer to squid in a food context. Calamari can be bought at any sea food corner shop or fresh sea food seller.

It is common to sell the mantle (the hollow, conical-shaped swimming organ) alone, fresh or frozen. Squid are typically white, at least by the time of sale. The swimming organ may be stuffed whole or sliced into rings. The tentacles and legs are also edible.

Ways to serve squid include:

 * Deep-fat fried in beer batter, plain batter or even crumbed (rings and legs)
 * Grilled with or without butter/oil
 * Stir-fried
 * In an Italian dish, braised with tomato sauce
 * Stuffed with vegetables or spices
 * Skewered with wood or bamboo and grilled over flames while brushed with teriyaki sauce

title: Cookbook:Squid


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Cookbook:Octopus

| Seafood

Octopuses are cephalopods, related to squid.

It is common to sell octopus whole, frozen into a solid chunk of ice or fresh. Small octopuses are sometimes served whole or as hand-like halves with about 4 tentacles. Large octopuses may be sliced thin for sushi. Live octopus is sometimes eaten for the thrill of having the suction cups grab at the eater's mouth.

Ways to serve octopus include:

 * Grilled
 * Deep-fat fried in batter
 * Stir-fried
 * In an Italian dish, braised with tomato sauce
 * Sushi
 * Barbecued (particularly in Australia)

title: Cookbook:Octopus


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Cookbook:Scallop

| Shellfish

Scallops are shellfish. Normally only a cylindrical part is sold, with the grain running along the axis. Scallops are available in two sizes. Bay scallops are about 1/4" to 5/8" in diameter, and 1/2" to 5/8" in length. Sea scallops are about 1" to 1.6" in diameter, and 1/2" to 5/8" in length. Scallops are usually sold as they thaw out from a frozen state; frosty ones are likely to be fresher. When cooking scallops, remember: Always cook scallops just below done so they don't end up like rubber bands when you eat them due to carry-over.

Bay scallops are commonly used in stir-fry. Sea scallops are commonly breaded and deep-fat fried. Both kinds are commonly fried in butter, perhaps with some herbs.

Recipes using scallops can be found in Category:Scallop recipes.

title: Cookbook:Scallop


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Cookbook:Rabbit

 * Adapted from the public domain USDA article Focus on Food Safety of Rabbit

Fresh or frozen, rabbit meat is sold all year round. It can be used in most of the ways in which chicken is used.

Rabbits sold for food in the USA are North American cottontails, crosses between New Zealand and Belgian varieties, Chinese rabbits, or Scottish hares. The meat is fine grained and mild flavored. Like other lean meat, poultry, and fish, rabbit meat is a good source of high quality protein. Because the meat is so lean, it is possible to develop a syndrome known as "rabbit starvation" if rabbit is used exclusively as a food over time. In practice, rabbit starvation is highly unlikely to occur in modern society given the amount of dietary fat consumed by the average person.

Types of Rabbit Commonly Available

 * Fryer or young rabbit — the terms "fryer" or "young rabbit" refer to a rabbit weighing not less than 1 ½ pounds and rarely more than 3 ½ pounds, and less than 12 weeks of age. The flesh is tender, fine grained, and a bright pearly pink color. These rabbits may be cooked in much the same way as young poultry.
 * Roaster or mature rabbit — the terms "roaster" or "mature rabbit" refer to a mature rabbit of any weight, but usually over 4 pounds and over 8 months of age. The flesh is firm and coarse grained, and the muscle fiber is slightly darker in color and less tender. The fat may be more creamy in color than that of a fryer or young rabbit. The meat of larger rabbits may be tougher so the best methods of cooking are braising or stewing.
 * Giblets--the liver and heart, see Organ Meat.
 * Wild rabbit Has a slightly more gamey taste and is therefore cooked using a few different ingredients and techniques from the farmed rabbits.

Inspection
In the United States, inspection of rabbit is voluntary. Under voluntary inspection, each rabbit and its internal organs are inspected for signs of disease. The "Inspected for Wholesomeness by USDA" mark of inspection ensures the rabbit is wholesome and free from disease. When a rabbit processor does not produce rabbit meat under FSIS voluntary inspection, they would be subject to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) inspection under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.

Some states, however, permit the sale of rabbit only if it is inspected under their laws.

The FDA has jurisdiction over the shipment of rabbit meat in interstate commerce.

Grades
Rabbit in the US may be graded under the voluntary rabbit grading program performed by the USDA's Agricultural Marketing Service. It provides a national grading service based on official U.S. classes, standards, and grades for poultry.

Rabbit may be graded only if it has been inspected and passed by the FSIS, or inspected and passed by any other inspection system which is acceptable to the USDA, such as state inspection.

Consumer grades for rabbits are U.S. Grade A, U.S. Grade B, and U.S. Grade C.

Safe Storage Times
Take rabbit home immediately from the grocer and refrigerate at or below 40 °F. Use it within 2 days or freeze at 0 ° F. If kept frozen continuously, it will be safe indefinitely; however, quality will diminish over time. It is safe to freeze rabbit in its original packaging or repackage it for freezing. For best quality, use frozen whole rabbit within a year; pieces within 9 months.

Safe Thawing
There are three ways to safely defrost rabbit: in the refrigerator, in cold water, or in the microwave oven. Never defrost at room temperature.

 * Refrigerator: It’s best to plan for slow, safe thawing in the refrigerator. Bone-in parts or whole rabbits may take a day or longer to thaw. Once thawed, rabbit may be stored in the refrigerator for 2 days before cooking. During this time, if you decide not to use the rabbit, you can safely refreeze it without cooking it.
 * Cold Water: To defrost rabbit in cold water, do not remove the packaging. Be sure the package is airtight or put it into a leak-proof bag. Submerge the rabbit in cold water, changing the water every 30 minutes so that it continues to thaw. Small packages may defrost in an hour or less; larger packages may take 2 to 3 hours. Plan to cook the rabbit immediately after thawing by the cold water method.
 * Microwave oven: When defrosting rabbit in the microwave oven, plan to cook it immediately after thawing because some of the areas of the food may become warm and begin to cook.

Safe Cooking

 * When roasting rabbit parts, set the oven temperature no lower than 325 °F. A 2-pound, cut-up rabbit should take approximately 1 hour to cook.
 * A whole, 2- to 2 1/2-pound rabbit should take about 1 to 1 1/2 hours to roast. Stuffing it will add approximately 1/2 hour to the cooking time.
 * Braising rabbit (cooking it in a small amount of liquid in a covered pan on the range or in the oven) also takes about 1 hour. Rabbit can be broiled about 15 minutes on each side.
 * For safety, USDA recommends cooking rabbit to an internal temperature of at least 160 °F. The use of a food thermometer is recommended to make sure that your rabbit is safe to eat.
 * It is safe to cook frozen rabbit in the oven or on the range or grill without defrosting it first, although the cooking time may be about 50% longer.
 * Do not cook frozen rabbit in a slow cooker; thaw first. Cut whole rabbits into smaller pieces so heat can penetrate the meat more quickly.

Safe Handling of Leftovers

 * Refrigerate leftovers within 2 hours after cooking. Use within 3 to 4 days or freeze.
 * Use frozen, cooked rabbit within 4 to 6 months for best quality.
 * Reheat leftovers to 165 °F.

Recipes

 * Rabbit recipes

External Recipe Links

 * Classic Baked Rabbit Recipe
 * Classic Rabbit Stewed In Cider
 * Classic Rabbit & Potato Pie

title: Cookbook:Rabbit


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title: Template:Naming convention


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Talk:Visual Rhetoric

4 blocks meaning finished article?
Hey I'm not a huge wikibookian but when I went to this page it said it had been finished, but then when you get there it says that links must be changed? Many people wishing to clear up articles may pass over this one, because it suggests that no work needs doing. Thanks

this book is under development
Thanks, this book is under development, so thanks for your feedback. We will take care of it.

title: Talk:Visual Rhetoric


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User:VanGore

my home is the German |Wikipedia

de:Benutzer:VanGore

title: User:VanGore


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Instructional Technology/Communications Theory

Elements of Communications Theory
Communications theory looks at how information is communicated from one place or person to another. This theory looks at the processes involved in transmitting information and how the methods of the transmission will affect the interpretation of the message.

One model of communication that we have is the transmission model of communications. It really is about passing information from one place to another or from one person to another. In this view, communication is how you get information from one place to another. An example of this model is the 1947 Shannon-Weaver general model of communication. The emphasis is on the transmission and reception of information. It proposes that communication is comprised of the following six elements:

 * 1) Sources of a Message
 * 2) Encoding of a Message
 * 3) Transmission of a Message
 * 4) Channels of Communication
 * 5) Receiving of a Message
 * 6) Decoding of a Message

Sources of a Message
All communication has a source. The source is responsible for sending messages; it always has a purpose for the message. It may be an individual, a group of individuals, or an organization. The thing about senders and receivers are all the complexities of what you think about the message being sent. The characteristics of the message (cultural background, experiential background, and the attitudes and aptitudes of the sender) all help you understand where the message is coming from.

Encoding of a Message
Information must be coded in such a way so it can be received. Encoding is the process of codifying the message to be sent. Most of our messages are put into words. Speaking face-to-face, we use rules of grammar to help us transfer our thoughts to another person or a group of people. However, more and more messages are being put into visuals. We can often represent our ideas without words, e.g. using facial expressions and gestures or by using pictures.

To help understand encoding, consider the way a telephone works. The source, usually a person, speaks into the phone. The phone acts as the encoder, converting the message into electrical signals which can be sent out over the telephone network.

Transmission of a Message
The message can be transmitted aurally, visually, textually, or by a combination of these mediums. You can decide what method to use, and this will have an impact on the message. The transmitter of a coded message may be speech, printed words, a picture. In the case of the telephone, the trasmitter is the electrical signal sent out by the phone and transmitted to the receiver through a series of electrical connections - a channel for this kind of information.

Channels of Communication
The channel is the vehicle of message transmission. There can be different types. There is the auditory channel for verbal information; and, a visual channel which uses symbols to convey a message and express ideas. Important issues to consider are how much information someone can handle in single or dual channels, [http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/media/mediarsrch.htm Moore, et. al], an important consideration for multimedia design.

Receiving of a Message
For communication to occur, there must be somewhere at the end of the channel to receive the message. And the receiver needs to be compatible with the channel and transmission for communication to occur. For example, a television signal won't work with a telephone receiver. In other words, the receiver is what takes in the message.

Decoding of a Message
While encoding is all about forming the message, decoding is about figuring out what it says. Of course, all messages are affected by a certain amount of noise. Noise is extraneous and distracting information that inferes with the process of communication. It is any kind of distraction to the receiver that interferes with the transmission of the message such as physical noise, emotions, and visual distractions. It is often thought of as a problem with transmission, e.g., electrical interference with a television signal; or, several people talking at once. However, there may be noise in the message itself.

Return to Bases of the Field.


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Visual Rhetoric/Gender and Visual Rhetoric

Introduction
Gendered images have been effective in perpetuating both the positive and negative connotations that we associate with gender. The history of promotional images, along with the visual rhetoric of advertising sheds light on how the constructs of masculinity and femininity contextualize fabrications of social role, power, status and sexual allure. Specifically, appeals of glamour and the usage of nature images powerfully contribute to the influx of image-based advertising based on gender identification. Additionally, childhood gender development contributes enormously to stereotypes regarding masculinity and femininity.

History of Gendered Images
Historically, the nudes of European oil paintings portray women and men differently, in specific roles and purposes. Traditionally, women have been seen and judged as sights, while men act as spectators. In other words, women appear while men act. John Berger suggests in his work, Ways of Seeing, that this affects relations between men and women and also the relations of women to themselves. The renowned painting of Adam and Eve was groundbreaking in introducing the concept of nakedness in regard to women being seen as submissive to men. “… the woman is blamed and is punished by being made subservient to the man. In relation to the woman, the man becomes the agent of God” (Berger 48). As paintings became more worldly and had fewer religious undertones, the common denominator remained women illustrated as being seen by a spectator. “She is not naked as she is; she is naked as the spectator sees her” (Berger 50).

The facial expressions of women in images also coincides with the notion that they submit to being surveyed. Berger suggests that in poses of women, a woman’s gaze and facial expression sells her femininity. Paintings and photographs often depict this by showing the woman looking over her shoulder at the viewer, rather than at the male shown in the painting or photograph.

While these attitudes and ideals regarding the portrayal of women are rampant in photographs and paintings, it has also seeped into popular culture, disseminating into various media, including current advertising, journalism and television.

Identification and Advertising
Identification fulfills an essential role as it allows advertisers to appeal to each viewer’s individuality. In the article, "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcock’s Vertigo," David Blakesley introduces the idea of identification as he describes the notion as longing to find similitude between ones self and a particular idea, picture, object, etc. He explains, “we pursue that identification as one way of expressing…pushed to its extreme, we desire to become the other, to inhabit that psychological and physical space, to take ownership of some kind, to walk in someone else’s shoes for awhile” (Blakesley 117). As a result of such desire for identification, women and men are often characterized in a generalized manner, only to appeal to their own gender-specific identify.

Diane S. Hope suggests, in her chapter "Gendered Environments: Gender and the Natural World in the Rhetoric of Advertising" from the book, Defining Visual Rhetorics, that advertising demonstrates and perpetuates gender-specific attributes of men and women in order to identify with their gender-specific audiences. Hope comments, “visual rhetoric depends on strategies of identification; advertising’s rhetoric is dominated by appeals to gender as the primary marker of consumer identity. Constructs of masculinity or femininity contextualize fantasies of social role, power, status, and security as well as sexual attractiveness” (155). Within the visual realm of advertising Hope observes how women are often depicted in a way that promotes beauty, fertility and sexuality while men possess more ‘masculine’ attributes. Contrary to feminine traits, masculine attributes include strength, adventurous nature, and physical prowess.

Although many of these characteristics and behavioral tendencies are thought to be innate, the advertising industry reintroduces and reiterates such gender roles as the norm. People become conditioned to believe that there are specific and isolated behavioral differences and attributes that define us either as men or women. Such differences have gone beyond the obvious physiological makeup that separates male from female.

Glamour
Societal roles based on one's gender are defined and controlled by culture and have been reiterated through visual means. See Visual Rhetoric/Cultural Theories of Visual Rhetoric. Such gender roles are especially evident within the visual realm of advertising. Advertisers use visual means to communicate to their viewers feminine and masculine ideals. These gendered ideals are closely linked to the concepts of envy and glamour. “Publicity persuades us of a transformation by showing us people who have apparently been transformed and are, as a result, enviable. The state of being envied is what constitutes glamour” (Berger 131). Predominantly, glamour is a tool used by advertisers and aimed at men and women in an effort to increase consumerism. The language of publicity harps upon the concept of a spectator-buyer imagining himself or herself transformed by a product, and thus an object of envy by others. People crave envy, and this advertising tactic is aimed at both men and women to create consumption of various products. Women are generally persuaded when glamour is presented as enhancing to their lives by making them more beautiful or desirable. Alternatively, men are influenced by ads that appeal to their desire to be in power and in control.

Childhood Gender Development
Advertisers create ‘gendered environments’ in everything from children’s toys to motor vehicles. For example, early on children are exposed to toy commercials that are set out to target a specific gender. As a result, society is conditioned to believe that dolls and houses are for little girls because they represent the idea that females are to be fertile and nurturing. Whereas little boys are conditioned to believe that they can only play with toys that will define their masculinity, such as cars and toy weapons. Hope says, “masculinized environments present a natural world made for conquest and control” (174). Much like the masculine ideal, toys for little boys often include cars, action figures, and sporting goods, all which fulfill the idea of a conquest. These items and the advertisements redefine the gender role ideal that men are active, strong, and courageous. On the other hand, little girls are raised to believe that their roles is to care for the family. Typically, little girls toys include baby dolls and play houses.

Since the idea of identification carries immense weight in the targeting of specific audiences, advertisers begin promoting the concept of gendered environments early on beginning with children's toys. However, as people grow older the gender roles are only made more evident and are further perpetuated in advertising that is targeted towards adults. For example, Hope discusses how the advertising of sport utility vehicles is a primary example of the gender role divide. She talks about how an SUV reiterates the idea that men are conquerors of territory and must have a powerful vehicle to traverse through their difficult journeys. She describes the more ‘masculine’ advertisements as a place where man can conquer land and explore the vast wilderness. She states, “the features of these advertisements emphasize a mythic world where men play [as] heroics and a vast environmental wilderness promises control and adventure” (161).

Nature images
Hope analyzes the characteristics of the specific visual environments that promote the sales of such masculine or feminine products. She concludes that advertisers use certain natural environments within a commercial or print ad in order to appeal to a specific gender. She observes in one advertisement how femininity is characterized using a picture of a waterfall. Hope explains that the waterfall acts as, “a sign of nature’s unending fertility…images are exotic and lush with icons of fertility and female sexuality” (157). In such advertisements women are one with nature. Advertisers also use specific natural environments to appeal to males. However, these images depict a sense of acquisition unseen in feminine advertisements. Hope suggests that for men "nature is the object of conquest or background for demonstrations of power." "... there are no environmental problems in this space or in the fertile seas of feminized lands, there is only opportunity to consume" (Hope 162). She observes in one advertisement how masculinity is distinguished using the image of "Marlboro Country". In Marlboro Country, men are free from responsibility and routine. In one particular ad, two cowboys are depicted riding wild horses. The mystical west is perceived as for "real" men (Hope 160). " . excepting the occasional cowboy or Indian, the space is there for urban man to play at adventure" (Hope 161).

Ultimately, Hope articulates, “advertising appropriates a rich visual history of nature images as sites of femininity and masculinity in order to sell commodities" (Hope 173). Through the use of visual rhetoric and the natural world, gender specific behaviors are promoted to appeal either to both genders.  The existence of gender roles and gender identity through images will continue to be present in the future of advertising.

Conclusion
Gendered images are omnipresent in modern society. Understanding the history of these images is important in understanding how they are capable of persuading us. Gendered images are considered rhetorical because they have a persuasive quality. It is important to remember that since birth, we have been conditioned to make the distinction between men and women, masculinity and femininity, and to recognize both the positive and negative aspects of


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CAWD

Computer-Assisted Writing Development

"I. EFL Writing Development in Virtual Environments"

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Virtual Environments
 * 3) Features of Interaction in Virtual Environments
 * 4) Conclusion
 * 5) Reference

title: CAWD


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User talk:Tookiebird

Allie Dunn

 * Undergraduate at James Madison University graduating in Dec. 2005
 * Media Arts and Design Major
 * Print Journalism concentration
 * Writing and Rhetoric minor

You can also view my portfolio online at http://peregrin.jmu.edu/~dunnal

title: User talk:Tookiebird


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Talk:PHP Programming/Classes

Class & Object
A class in PHP is a group of related functions, also known as an object. I have changed this because an object is not a class, its an instance of a class. So I changed it to A class in PHP is a group of related functions.--Seanor 16:20, 18 Apr 2005 (UTC)

PHP 5 vs. PHP 4
I'm a bit too new to all of this (php & wikipedia) to know for sure, but I believe the example is only good for PHP version 5. There are a lot of servers still running PHP 4. The difference, as I understand it, is that in PHP 4 you may not distinguish between public, private, and protected data. Perhaps someone with more knowledge/experience can shed some light on the subject. more information is available on php.net http://us3.php.net/manual/en/language.oop.php & http://us3.php.net/manual/en/language.oop5.php 12.35.126.146 20:07, 5 May 2006 (UTC)David H.

title: Talk:PHP Programming/Classes


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Investment Business Plan

Table of Contents

 * 1) Portfolio Philosophy
 * 2) Screening for Stocks
 * 3) Analysis of Stocks
 * 4) Maintaining a “Watch List” of Stocks
 * 5) Index Investments
 * 6) Portfolio Management
 * 7) References

title: Investment Business Plan


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Talk:Evolutionary Biology/Darwin's Life and Impact

I don't really know what this is but if is to talk about Darwins Theory then I would have to say that I think it is stupid and not true. Who would want to believe that we came from a monkey? I sure wouldn't.

split article into two
this write-up needs to be split into 2 parts- 1. darwin's life and 2. darwinism


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Visual Rhetoric/3D and 2D Visual Persuasion

While the sphere of visual rhetoric is still being explored, an aspect of it is often neglected. Much of the field’s focus is on the two-dimensional image. It is still a new area of study that is being analyzed. See Definitions of Visual Rhetoric for more. Whether it be a painting, a film, or a picture, all three are limited to the dimensions of height and length. Even though the third dimension is often neglected, it is still very important to understand its functions in visual rhetoric and the differences that arise when compared to two-dimensional objects. Perspective, modality, and composition or spatiality are three factors that need to be analyzed when discussing the two. Perspective deals with the angles that the audience can view the work. Modality relates to the realness of an image of an object and how much truth it portrays. For example, a picture has high modality when saturation, depth, brightness, etc., are at a level that gives the picture the highest level of realism (Kress and van Leeuwen 160-161). Composition and spatiality are how the artist uses the frame or space, respectively, to build persuasion.

As an observer, for the most part, a two-dimensional image is viewed from one perspective, straightforward. With no depth to the image, seeing it at an angle will not change the perspective of the composition. What can affect the persuasiveness of the image is the distance at which it is viewed. A prime example is Monet’s impressionistic paintings. Up close, the brush strokes seem blotchy; however, at a distance, the paintings appear to be a wonderful image of nature.

Unlike two-dimensional images, three-dimensional objects can be seen from multiple perspectives. We can walk around it and interact with its setting. The angle that we look at an object also has an effect on its persuasiveness. When something is placed at eye level, we see it with a sense of equality or welcoming. However, when it is placed above eye level and overlooks the audience, there is a sense of dominance and importance. For example, bronze and iron statues of significant individuals are always elevated to appear almost godlike.

Modality is another aspect that must be investigated when analyzing the two. Much praise is bestowed upon an artist when an image has high modality. Recreating an image that appears almost lifelike takes such skill and technique that few possess. Artists like Rembrandt are incredible and admired for that reason. The same goes for photography. While photography in itself is the replication of nature, it still is a task to make that image appear more vivid. Adjustments must be made to shutter speed, lenses, and the like. Saturating a picture can overly enhance its colors and make it too vivid. There is a fine balance to expressing the truth of an image.

The modality of three-dimensional objects is something that needs to be addressed with concern. Making an object with depth more vivid is unsettling. When something takes up space, it has an automatic sense of realness to it. Sculptures of humans for example, almost need an abstract quality to be seen with comfort. Wax museums are a great example. These are recreations of human beings to look as lifelike as possible. While it is amazing to see something fake look so real, having the facial features be so vivid, the audience gets a sense of being watched and anxiety when being around many of them. For this reason, they lose part of their persuasiveness of engaging the viewer by the created anxiety (Kress and van Leeuwen 243).

The added dimension of depth separates the two in the sense of composition and spatiality. The composition is the arrangement of the elements of an image within the frame. They direct the eye as to where to look and give the image meaning. More can be read about this in Rhetorical Vectors. I argue that three-dimensional objects do not have composition, as much as they do spatiality. How an image takes up space directs our eyes and gives it meaning. A great deal of the artist’s ability to persuade the audience with images is how to arrange the frame. Figure 2.21, ("Claire’s Knee," left), from Reading Images is a particular example. The photographer arranged the three individuals within the composition to give it more fluidity and more meaning.

Figure 8.13 ("Family Romance," right) from Reading Images illustrates the concept of spatiality in three-dimensional objects. It is an example of how an artist can utilize space has an added aspect to give meaning. The artist is not just arranging the images within a frame, but analyzing how to represent space as well. The family’s persuasiveness is the manipulation of the audience’s preconceptions of a family. Having each member be the same size gives the sculpture more meaning.

Other examples of spatiality exist in more practical settings. Much thought is put into the planning of interior design for buildings. In their article “Placing Visual Rhetoric: Finding Material Comfort in Wild Oats Market," Greg Dickinson and Casey Malone Maugh discuss the rhetoric in the design of Wild Oats Market organic food stores. The stores are designed and arrange to make the customers feel more at home and not aware of the feeling of impending globalization that is projected at other big chain groceries.   The spatial arrangement of specific objects gives the store more or persuasive nature.  With images, the composition is seen all at once.  However, in this sense, one has to interact with the “display” to perceive its persuasiveness.

There is still much to be explored in the realm of visual rhetoric. Books are written specifically about two-dimensional images; so the third dimension has much time before it is extensively analyzed. While some aspects like materials are similar between two-dimensional images and three-dimensional objects, several differences in regards to persuasiveness exist. The perspective, modality, and composition or spatiality are all used differently among the two. Images have the capability to be seen at once without having to move to different angles and are praised for their realism. Objects need to be interacted with from multiple perspectives and usually create apprehension with the viewer when it appears too real. The third dimension is something that needs to be explored because it is highly persuasive, and as observed with the Wild Oats Market example, we sometimes are not even aware of such rhetorical displays.


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