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Automobile Repair/Tire pressure

Proper tire inflation is very important. All tires should be inflated to the pressure recommended in the vehicles owner manual. Cars sold recently that meet U.S standards will have a notice, often on the driver's door frame but sometimes elsewhere, like in the glove compartment, showing what the front and rear pressures should be, and they should be listed in the owner's manual. This should be between the minimum and maximum pressure ratings listed on the sidewall of the tire. Improper inflation may result in poor/unsafe handling, blowouts, poor gas mileage or excessive tire wear. Contrary to some expectations, blowouts are much more frequently a result of underinflation than overinflation; as tire pressure lowers, the sidewalls of the tire flex more during rotation causing more heat, which builds up and damages the tire. In contrast, tires are manufactured with a substantial margin of safety for overinflation.

The manufacturer's suggestions are a good place to start, if it is intended to adjust pressures optimally. Historically American cars would usually have the specified tire pressure somewhat low, for a more "cushiony" ride, but this practice is reduced of late. If suggested pressures are not available, or if the vehicle is modified, Usenet quotes an algorithm from Oscar Pereda, an engineer for BFGoodrich, as a good starting point for pressure in pounds per square inch:
 * (Vehicle Weight in lb/100) psi + 2 psi at heavier end + 2 psi all around if suspension and alignment are stock.

If equipment is available to measure the temperature of the tire tread, they should be inflated so as to achieve even temperature distribution across the treads of all four tires; higher temperature in the center of the tread compared to the edges indicates overinflation, while the opposite indicates underinflation; higher temperatures at one end of the car similarly indicates that that end is overinflated with respect to the other end.

Tire pressures can then be altered to tune handling. If, after the pressure is set up, the car seems to lack adhesion at one end, then air can be added to the tires on that end (one or two pounds at a time) until balance seems to be achieved to suit the driver. As an example, in the rear-engined Chevrolet Corvair, the normal oversteering tendency of a rear-engined vehicle was combated by keeping front tire pressures down to twelve psi, which was safe because of the low weight the front tires carried on that car; if the front tire pressure was raised to what would be normal for a front-engined vehicle, the car would become dangerously unstable.

In the case of tires with very thick tread, such as aggressive mud or snow tires, the tendency described above to build up heat and deteriorate is that much greater, and therefore they should be inflated closer to the maximum pressure given on the sidewall, altered as necessary for safe handling, as described above.

The almost universal adoption of radial tires has made adhesion on wet pavement less of a problem; however, where bias-ply tires are still used, the speed at which "hydroplaning" occurs, i.e. the tire loses contact with the pavement and begins to slide on the film of water, can be easily calculated as the square root of the tire pressure, times ten psi. If high speed driving on wet pavement with bias-ply tires is contemplated, this is something that must be taken into account.

You will need a tire gauge. You can get a cheap pen style gauge for between $1 and $5 (USD) at a gas station or automotive shop.

To check the tire pressure, locate the valve stem, take the cap off it, and firmly push the gauge onto it, and then remove the gauge and check the reading. The gauge should only hiss briefly while pushing it onto the valve stem. If it hisses more, then you aren't pushing on it hard enough, and are not getting an accurate reading.

Spare tire
Proper inflation of the spare tire is also very important. All tires will lose some pressure over time, but since the spare tire is usually hidden from view, many people overlook it. If you don't check it regularly, your spare tire could go flat, and cause further problems when you have a tire failure.

The spare tire is often different than the regular tires. If the vehicle has a full-size spare, it's usually the same as the tires that were originally installed on the vehicle, which may differ from the tires currently installed. If it's a mini spare, the difference is obvious. So, make sure to check the pressure ratings on the sidewall of the tire to find the proper tire pressure.

If you don't already know how to access your spare tire, you should check your car's manual. There are too many different configurations to explain it in this book.

title: Automobile Repair/Tire pressure


text:
Orthopaedic Surgery/Fractures and Dislocations:Hand

Fifty years ago phalangeal fractures were treated according to "hearsay" or what recommendations were available in text books. There were few clinical studies to be found and conclusions from the first of these studies being retrospective with a heterogeneous collection of injuries had little power to illuminate an optimal course of treatment. The early studies by Moberg and Stener and by Watson-Jones concerned avulsion fractures to the interphalangeal joints and Mallet fractures respectively. Then as now we can sort these injuries pretty readily between good actors and bad actors. Experience in exam and interpretation of x-rays is required to distinguish the good actor from the bad. This distinction made early allows for appropriately minimalistic treatment (early motion) for the good actors and for the bad actors, surgical treatment that then allows for early motion or selective immobilization targeted to a specific structure e.g. central slip in an acute boutonierre. There is little sense in considering fractures and sprains separately as either can be a good or bad actor. (Lee 43-B (1), 1963).

Torn between assuming the best and fearing the worst, early treatment in inexperienced hands tends to lead to the muddled middle course of immobilization, then referral at or about 4 weeks when things proceed badly. Unfortunately at this point the problems related to immobilization and edema now maturing into fibrosis considerably compound the problem of management.

History helps in that the mechanism and events in the immediate aftermath of the injury are often telling. Patients tend to recall quite vividly the appauling sight of one of their fingers pointing hideously askew. The severe nature of the injury may not be quite so immediately apparent if the hand is first seen only after the initial reflexive effort to straighten the finger actually accomplishes substantial improvement. Eliciting the history as to the initial distorted appearance is helpful.

Inspection alone cannot reliably distinguish the good actor from the bad and an early quality x-ray with the beam properly centered on the injured area is critical to proper decision making. Noting the extent and location of swelling and of course any associated lacerations is essential.

Regarding the issue of closed vs open fractures there remain some common misconceptions. Subungual hematoma without displacement of the nail plate appears to have no increased risk of infection. Sterile decompression for subungual hematoma for pain relief or for hematoma greater than 50% of the length of the nail bed is recommended. If the nail plate is dislodged from the eponychial fold even partially there is likely a nail-bed laceration warranting repair, and the presence of a fracture of the underlying distal phalanx adds the risk of infection which warrants direct irrigation of the bone. In the absence of gross contamination, treatment within 24 hours for such an injury with provisional irrigation by the urgent-care physician appears to be both satisfactory and practically manageable in most practice settings.

A laceration overlying a joint where the mechanism does not suggest a penetrating trauma is usually an indication that the underlying fracture or the bone in the case of a dislocation, has penetrated the skin e.g. the open dorsal dislocation of the proximal interphalangeal joint. In this case the proper irrigation of the joint within 6 hours is the recommended treatment. Suitable exposure of the joint by the urgent-care physician usually cannot be reliably accomplished as surgical extension of the wound may be required or retraction of the flexor tendons and volar plate may be necessary to irrigate the joint.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques

 * 1) Foundations frost, soil types, insulation
 * 2) Walls load bearing, non-load bearing, curved
 * 3) Finishes clay plaster, cement render, lime based plaster, mechanical application
 * 4) Openings water proofing, tightness, design considerations, location, natural lighting
 * 5) Roofing green roofs, straw insulated, seashell insulated
 * 6) Non-residential Buildings
 * 7) Pushing the Limit arches, domes, stringless bales
 * 8) Building Services electrical cables, plumbing, heating and cooling

title: Straw Bale Construction/Techniques


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Foundations

Foundations
The first rule of building with straw is to keep it dry ("good hat and goot boots"). This includes the foundations. Moisture will eventually find its way into even the best wall so foundations must allow any moisture to drain away. An impermeable foundation will trap moisture near the straw and cause it to degrade quickly. Care should also be taken positioning membranes for the same reason.

One possible solution is building a stone, lime mortar and rubble infill foundation. Build it up above ground level to protect against rising damp and rain splash. Other alternatives include rubble piers, rammed earth depending on the site and the desired aesthetic.

Car tires have recently gained in popularity as a cheap but labour-intensive foundation material.

Concrete footing/foundations or thickened-edge-slab-on-grade foundations are another option. A building with concrete foundations is generally much easier to attain building approval for. While the most common solution, the cement used in concrete does require large amounts of energy for cement production. Concrete foundations contribute up to 70% of the ecological footprint of a straw bale house.

Toe up
To further prevent water damage, on top of the foundations one will generally find a toe up, a basis for the straw bale wall. It is made out of two parallel 5x10 (2x2") or 10x10cm (4x4") beams. These are spaced evenly slightly less than the width of one bale apart. This is important to avoid water getting into the bales. The space between the toeup beams is filled with somewhat water resistant insulation like perlite, sheep wool, crushed shells or alternatives less friendly to the environment.

Pier foundations with joists raised well above ground level are a relatively common option in Australia and Germany. Even if the piers are poured or pre-fab concrete a vast savings on concrete is made. This technique also has the added bonus of allowing the use of straw bales as underfloor insulation as they are raised well above grade.

Bales can also be stacked over stem walls with joisted floors.

With load-bearing straw-bale homes rubble trench foundations or Earthbag construction foundations are increasingly used, as an alternative to conventional footings. Some pioneer designers are even using rock-filled gabions or earth-filled "bastions" in lieu of concrete.

Underfloor insulation
The use of straw as underfloor insulation is usually discouraged because straw will rot and grow mold if it gets damp (>18% moisture content). Avoiding moisture is especially important in kitchens and bathrooms where flooding is possible due to plumbing leaks/broken washing machines/over flowing bath tubs etc.

A commonly used option for insulating joisted floors is sheep's wool.

A bed of shells has been used with much success in Denmark as a combined rubble bed and insulation. At a thickness of between 119.4 and 124.9mm conductivity is between 0.120 and 0.112 W/mK. Compared to industrial products (such as expanded ceramic or spun glass or rock) shells therefore provide good insulation as a nearly carbon neutral industrial waste product.

Another practical alternative for underfloor insulation is hempcrete, consisting of hemp fibers mixed with natural hydraulic lime. As this is a fairly lightweight mix, it can also be applied as roof or ceiling insulation.

Recycled foam glass is yet another option. It's cheap, insulating and hydrophobic: no capillary effect, and no loss of insulation value if placed in a high humidity environment.

One experimental building in Belgium tried to avoid moisture problems in a straw insulated floor with a clever foundation floor structure. From bottom to top: big stones, sand, strong plastic tarp, sand, recycled building bricks (spaced so air can flow between them), straw blocks, and rammed earth for the floor.

Heating
While thinking about the design of your foundations, or more specifically the foundation pad, this is the time to think about heating options. One of the options gaining popularity is in-floor radiant heating. You can read more about this in the section on building services under heating and cooling.

US specific
Foundations can still be a major cost as most building codes still require a footing of at least 12 inches or to the frost line, whichever is deeper. They then require that a pad be poured that is at least the width of the bales being used(possibly three inches less if you are going to use rigid insulation on the outside of the foundation) for at least 8 inches above final grade. This is the least restrictive code that has been written to date. If you are not being bound by code (rural area) you might be able to get away with using something much less energy intensive than concrete.

 * Note: Definitely check with the local code compliance or county property appraiser to get their input. Give them a bit of the information here and other places to warm them to the idea.  If you are going to be bound by code you need to know that and follow it.  Or alternatively, sell that piece of land and move elsewhere.

Further reading References
 * Jay H. Crandell, Design Guidelines for Frost Protected Shallow Foundations (2Mb PDF), 1994, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
 * Thermal insulation of mussell shells, three different densities (2001, Jørgen Munch-Andersen, Birte Møller Andersen and Danish Building and Urban Research.) These tests were to measure the conductivity of Mussel shells carried out in 2001 and can be downloaded in Danish from the Straw_Bale_Construction/Resources/Technical_Studies Technical studies section of this book. The shells were dried in a 60celcius oven before the tests. The tests were carried out following EN 822, 823 (1994) and ISO 8301 (1991). The margin of error is +-2%. There is an article about the tests in The Last Straw Journal (2005 Issue #52) Part of "Straw Bale Houses - design and material properties".


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Walls

Straw Bale Infill
The original "Nebraska" straw-bale building technique was one in which walls of straw-bales actually provided the support for the roof-structure above, so these are now referred to as load-bearing, and straw-bale homes of this style continue to be built and permitted.

An alternative method of construction uses a post and beam framing system to carry roof, wind and seismic loads. Once that structure is in place, the walls are then stuffed with straw bales for insulation. This type of structure is popular because it allows bale placement to be accomplished with the roof already in place, "in the dry", and can easily be demonstrated to conform to building codes, using conventional engineering techniques or a pre-engineered pole-structure design.

Some projects best lend themselves to a combination of both techniques, with load-bearing perimeter walls and pole or stick-frame support at the interior or ridge; this is termed a "hybrid" structural system.

The building code in the State of New Mexico (1994 ed.) required that all straw-bale homes there be built with rigid structural frames, while other state or regional building codes lack this restriction (see codes for California, Pima County Arizona, etc.) In other jurisdictions without specific "straw-bale codes", straw bale construction is often approved under the building code provisions for alternate methods and materials. Plans are commonly required to be stamped by a licenced structural engineer.

Field bales are often laid in stretcher bond like bricks. They are easily retied to make half or custom sized bales. They may also be easily "pinned" internally or on both surfaces (with bamboo, reed, rebar or wood).

Bale stacking is often done in community "bale raisings", where family and friends pitch in together to raise the walls in a weekend or two. Novice owner/builders and their friends can continue the work through lathing and plastering of the bales, giving the house their own special imprint, and achieving savings in construction costs, as well.

Load Bearing Walls
As in the original Nebraska straw bale homes, bales are so compact that they can successfully be used as the structure of the building itself. Strictly speaking it is the outer surface of the bales which provides most of the structure. This matrix of straw fibres on the surface of bales is locked together by the stucco of whatever plaster is being used. Much like the reinforcing bars set into concrete, but over the whole surface and pointing in all directions.

Wooden stakes are pounded vertically into the straw bales. They connect the layers of bales, adding stability to the wall. Popular choices are hazel and bamboo. Sometimes, metal rebar stakes are also used. Metal rebar should be avoided because temperature differences between the metal and the bales cause condensation inside the bales.

Vertical compression of the bales into one surface is just as important for stability. The most popular way to do this is to run plastic straps vertically around the bales, compressing them between the top plate and the bottom plate. This compression not only strengthens the structure. It also helps the load bearing wall settle much more quickly, enabling a quicker installation of windows for example.

The last and least effective option to reinforce (citation needed) is to "cage" the bales on one or both faces with pre-welded or woven mesh, to increase pre-stuccoed wall stability. Do avoid using metal mesh, as it can crack the surface render. This is both because of rust and temperature differences between the organic materials and the metal. These temperature differences also causes condensation inside the bales.

The finish you use also has a great effect on the structural integrity of the finished wall. See the section on finishes.

Curved Walls
"Curved walls are fun, pleasing to the eye, and create glorious light patterns. But they are deceptively time consuming! I can build three flat walls for the price of one curved wall. And it has all to do with the foundation, curbs, window bucks, window flashing, roof details." (Straw Bale contractor Frank Tettemer of Living Sol)

As the above quote points to, time, and details, are an important consideration when deciding if your building will have any curved walls. How will you put the gutter on, what about the roof structure, the foundation? Some people also find any aesthetic advantages outweighed by the problems of using the rounded shapes on the inside. So, what needs to be considered?

For gentle curves the bales can be laid against a wall and kicked, as you would if you were breaking a small branch. This can be done with bales laid flat or on edge. Of course it's best if the bales on all walls are lying the same way, but it's not a strict necessity. For larger walls flat bales would be more prudent, especially if the wall is bearing some weight.

Bales placed on edge (largest face outwards) can be shaped well before placing into the wall, and hold their shape well. (The insulation value is almost the same as for bales laid flat.) If the curve is very tight the exposed strings could be a problem. Any such problems are solved if you use some form of surface mesh on both sides of the wall (plastic or metal) which you tie to each other through the wall.

The round bale layout results in pie-shaped gaps between the bales. These are best filled with a mixture of clay and straw, the clay serving to hold the straw together. Mesh on the outside of the wall will add additional restraint to the tendency of the bales to "explode" outwards. (for discussion see John Swearingen).

An additional way to increase the strength of a curved wall is to add large horizontal straps to each row of bales on the outer face, fixing these to something stable. Curved walls are, by their geometry, inherently less prone to overturning than straight walls.

The composite of mesh (tension) and plaster (compression), along with the geometry of the wall, can result in a strong, stable building, if the continuity of the bale wall isn't broken by large openings.

References Example of a round building:
 * Swearingen, John., Archive of the Strawbale Construction Discussion List, accessed March 3rd, 2006.
 * Tettemer, Frank., Archive of the Strawbale Construction Discussion List, accessed March 3rd, 2006.

Structural Capabilities of Bale Walls
The bale assembly can do a number of things, depending upon the structural design of the building:

 * Hold itself up, be self-supporting and resist tipping.
 * Keep out the wind; inhibiting air/moisture infiltration.
 * Resist heat transfer (insulation)
 * Reduce water intrusion and migration, store and transfer moisture within the wall.
 * Keep the assembly from buckling, under a compressive load.
 * Keep the assembly from deflecting in a strong wind, when pushed from the sides or end.
 * Keep the assembly from bursting apart in an earthquake, when pushed and pulled from all directions.
 * Hold the plaster at least while it’s curing.
 * Keep the plaster from cracking after it’s cured, from shrinkage or movement.
 * Support the plaster skins from buckling.
 * Transfer and absorb loads to and from the plaster.
 * Support the roof load (compression).
 * Reduce damage or failure from high winds (ductility).
 * Reduce damage or failure from earthquakes (ductility).
 * Stop bullets and/or flying debris.


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Finishes

Finishes
Straw-bale walls are most typically plastered on the outside with lime, clay, or a cement and lime mix. Inside surfaces are typically lime, clay, plaster board (gypsum) or Structolite, a US Gypsum product that is formulated for thick applications (Wanek, Catherine). Structural analysis has shown that the straw-bale/stucco assembly behaves much like a sandwich panel, with the rigid stucco skins initially bearing most of the load and adding considerable strength to the wall.

An important consideration when choosing a finish is that the outside surface of the walls must be more permeable to moisture than the inside surface. Failing to follow this rule will result in moisture accumulating in the wall, which will eventually rot the bales, just as it would rot anything untreated. As two extreme examples, if you chose to finish the inside surface with cement plaster and seal it with acrylic or latex paint, then any moisture in the wall can effectively only move outwards (assuming that's not also painted). If you did the opposite and used natural finishes on the inside but painted the outside with plastic paint then you are trapping moisture into the walls and rotting is likely.

Cement/ sand stucco
Stucco for straw-bale walls can be cement/sand-based, although mixes containing earth or clay and/or with a high percentage of lime, replacing part or all of the cement are increasingly popular trends. (Advocates of sustainable construction are becoming increasingly concerned with the fact that for every ton of cement manufactured and used, another ton of climate-changing fossil CO2 is released into the atmosphere.) Avoid cement stucco on bale structures. Cement is not breathable. Humidity - the arch enemy of any straw bale construction- will accumulate inside bales covered in cement stucco.

Clay plaster
Clay plaster allow higher water vapour permeability through the walls than lime plaster, which in turn is much more than cement plasters. This means the right type of wall will dry quickly when wetted by rain and will effectively transfer any moisture which accumulates in the wall, whether from a leak or from normal day-to-day living (a significant amount).

Clay plasters are great regulators of the indoor climate, they 'breath', which means moisture is absorbed and released - it does not mean that air trickles through the wall. On the inside of a house this property makes it well suited to damp areas like kitchens and bathrooms, it will absorb periodic moisture and to some extent odour, and slowly release it again. Because clay plaster typically is quite thick it also serves to regulate temperature by warming and cooling quite slowly. On the outside of the house this effect can even mean that the clay will wick (pull) moisture out of the straw and release it to the exterior air (Wanek, Catherine)

 * Information about earth plaster systems for straw bale

Lime plaster
(This section needs improvement) Performs in a similar way to clay plaster.

Lime plasters consist of Lime, aggregate and other additives. Lime plasters are more resistant to weather, mold and impact than clay plasters, but are more time consuming and challenging to finish. A good compromise between breathability and water resistance, they are an ideal outside finish for a house, while clay plasters are more appropriate for the inside.

 * Interview with Andy deGruchy about lime
 * Lime plaster on straw bale

Tadelakt
This bright, waterproof lime plaster can be used on the inside of buildings and on the outside. It is the traditional coating of the palaces, hammams and bathrooms of the riads in Morocco. It is characteristically polished with a river stone and treated with a soft soap to acquire its final appearance. Tadelakt has a soft appearance with undulations due to the work of the stone; it is water-tight, which also makes it suitable for making bathtubs and washbasins and confers great decorative capacities. Tadelakt is generally produced with lime of the area of Marrakesh, but other types of lime can also be appropriate.

Further online reading remove this link when the information has been added to this page. --DuLithgow 22:24, 26 March 2006 (UTC)]
 * Nice pictures of Tadelakt
 * A very informative page about Tadelakt
 * Steps of the preparation of Tadelakt
 * Tadelakt - A world beyond tile...
 * [http://listserv.repp.org/pipermail/strawbale/2006-March/038980.html - Discussion on the REPP list,
 * Tadelakt and natural plasters

Floor finishes
Magnesite or magnesium oxychloride cement, patented in 1800's as Sorel's cement.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesite


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Openings

Openings
(Please help us write this section) This section could take as its starting point the discussion about waterproofing of window openings archived here: http://finance.groups.yahoo.com/group/GSBN-Greenbuilder/message/608


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Roofing

Overhangs
Straw bale walls need ample roof overhangs to protect them from humidity, much more so than more common construction techniques.

Hip roof
A | hip roof provides ample overhang on all sides of the construction. While the roof itself is more complex to build, it rests directly on the bond beam on top of the straw bale walls. This considerably simplifies and speeds up construction. No triangular areas have to be filled with straw bales.

An excellent place to help you calculate build your hip roof yourself is http://www.blocklayer.com/Roof/default.aspx.

Weight limitations
If you want to build a green or a similarly heavy roof on top of a load bearing straw bale constructions, make sure the walls can carry it. Have it calculated!

Ecological considerations
If your reason for choosing to build with straw bales includes an element of environmental concern then some options quickly become more attractive than others. In this context the main concerns are the embodied energy of the roofing system and the potential for reuse of the materials at a later stage. For example the production of new roofing tiles uses very large amounts of energy, which contributes to our burden on the environment. Clay/ terracotta tiles require large amounts of energy to bake. Concrete tiles must take the burden of the energy used in the extraction and heating of lime to make cement. On the other hand some types of roofing tiles can easily be removed and used again and again for several hundred years.

In many cases and depending on where you live, collecting rain water or minimising roof runoff can be important. If you are not collecting your roof water then a green or living roof can be an option. Who wouldn't like a roof garden?

Another direction for roofs in straw bale buildings is to make arches and vaults of straw bales so that they all press on each other giving a stable compressive structure just like the stone arches of ancient roman times. There is more about arches in the section on ../Pushing_the_Limit.

The most typical solution is a conventional roof structure attached to a load-distributing plate or beam running all the way along the top of the bale walls.

The Green Roof
(Please help write this section)

One advantage of green roofs is the stability they add to the temperature of the roof. Because of their size and mass they are slow to warm up and cool down. In places where there is a large temperature change from day to night this can be a great advantage.

The actual insulation value of a green roof (and here we're talking about not more than 30cm thick) is unclear. The presence or absence of water and roots makes such a large difference that it is hard to generalise. Naturally if the layer of soil is thick enough it will provide more insulation and a considerable amount of stability to the temperature.

Roof and Ceiling Insulation
One of the easiest and most effective places to add extra insulation is in the space between your ceiling and the roof. So don't overlook this important part of the overall design.

Conventional roof structures may be insulated with straw bales, taking advantage of their high insulation values and good acoustic properties. Other alternative insulation includes rice-hulls, cotton or wool batts, soy-based foam and recycled cellulose. According to comments on an unrecorded test by Tim Owen-Kennedy of Vital Systems rice hulls perform just as flame retardant as borate treated cellulose or better, without being treated. According to The Rice Hull House (Paul A. Olivier) from around 2004;

 * ...rice hulls are unique within nature. They contain approximately 20% opaline silica in combination with a large amount of the phenyl propanoid structural polymer called lignin. This abundant agricultural waste has all of the properties one could ever expect of some of the best insulating materials. Recent ASTM testing conducted R&D Services of Cookville, Tennessee, reveals that rice hulls do not flame or smolder very easily, they are highly resistant to moisture penetration and fungal decomposition, they do not transfer heat very well, they do not smell or emit gases, and they are not corrosive with respect to aluminum, copper or steel.

(The following quote from a reference in the same article needs to be followed up)
 * "Rice hull has a thermal conductivity of about 0.0359 W/(m.°C); the values compare well with the thermal conductivity of excellent insulating materials (Houston, 1972).” Juliano (1985), p, 696. The thermal conductivity of rice hull ash is reported to be 0.062 W.m-1.K-1. See UNIDO, p. 21. A more recent test done by R&D services of Cookville, Tennessee, indicates a 3.024 R-per-inch."

Many of these natural products have a very low impact on the environment and perform excellently, sometimes better than synthetic insulation like rock wool or fibre glass insulation.

If straw bales are used in the roof, their weight needs to be considered. Moisture is another consideration, and there is a fire risk if any loose straw is left exposed. Weight considerations are overcome by the fact that web-beams built to the height of the bales can easily bear their weight. To avoid moisture problems, it is important that the bales be treated just as walls are. They need to have good ventilation on the outer surface (a ventilation space) and should be coated with some plaster (typically clay or lime plaster) that can absorb, redistribute and release to the air any moisture. It cannot be overemphasised that no straw should be left exposed, plastering should be done in such a way that it acts as a suitable fire retardant.

Related Links

 * http://www.greenspec.co.uk/html/design/materials/pitchedroofs.html
 * "Pitched roofing materials compared" is part of the National Green Spec website for encouraging sustainable building practises.

 * http://www.greenroofs.org/
 * "In 1999, Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, a small network consisting of public and private organizations, was founded as a direct result of a research project on the benefits of green roofs and barriers to industry development entitled "Greenbacks from Green Roofs" prepared by Steven Peck, Monica Kuhn, Dr. Brad Bass and Chris Callaghan. Green Roofs for Healthy Cities - North America Inc. is now a rapidly growing not-for-profit industry association working to promote the industry throughout North America."

 * http://www.newbuilder.co.uk/archive/sustainable_roofing.asp
 * "Sustainable Roofing" is part of the website of The Green Building Press

To Do Read Green roofs, Green Roofs for Healthy Cities, Scandinavian Green Roof Institute and incorporate relevant material.

References

See the bibliography.


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Straw Bale Construction/Techniques/Pushing the Limit

Pushing the Limit
(Please help us write this section, you could use the following links to get started.)

Designing the catenary arch
A catenary shape helps you build the sturdiest vault construction.

The gravity approach
You will need:
 * a heavy rope at least as long as the circumference of your arch (thin metal wire rope would be ideal)
 * an even, rectangular wall at least as high and wide as the arch you want to build. Hint: you can make one out of plywood, pallets or anything you want.
 * screws and a screwdriver (or nails and a hammer)
 * a wide roll of paper
 * a spirit level
 * spray paint
 * tape
 * scaffolding

Instructions:
 * 1) If you haven't got the required wall, build one from lightweight materials. Just make sure it's perfectly vertical and level.
 * 2) Tape the paper to the wall. Hints: Vertical is easier. Have them overlap a few centimeters. Number the segments.
 * 3) Mark a level line on the paper a bit higher than the arch you want to build. Double check the line is level.
 * 4) Mark a second line on the paper exactly as far down as the height of the arch you want to build.
 * 5) Mark two points on the top line as far apart as the width of the arch you want to build.
 * 6) Fix the rope to one nail, as close to the paper as possible. Lower it from the other nail until it reaches the base line.
 * 7) Spray paint the rope. Hint: You may also want to quickly spray paint the overlap between paper rolls.

The mathematical approach
You will need: a computer, a pencil, some exact measuring skills, a roll of paper, a long measuring device, adhesive tape, a flat surface the size of your arc.

Instructions:
 * 1) Calculate the coordinates of your catenary. You can either use a catenary designer like https://github.com/ddjokic/pyCatenary-NoElast/blob/master/pycatenary.py or http://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~smann/catenary/, or use the cosh(x) function yourself.
 * 2) Tape the paper together to form a big paper surface that could cover the entire catenary's surface.
 * 3) Start out by setting out the triangle defined by the top and the two base points of the catenary.
 * 4) Precisely mark the coordinates of one point every 50 cm approximately. Keep in mind that the precision of this drawing is key to the stability of your vault, so take your time.

Building the formwork
You will need:
 * planks. They don't need to be thick, but they do need to be high. Recycled pallet planks are a perfect fit.
 * a saw. A circular saw will work best, but a hand saw will do.
 * nails and a hammer or (preferably) screws and an electric screwdriver
 * your catenary arch design
 * battens
 * straw bales (if available)

Let's start building the arches:
 * 1) Put the paper arch design on a flat and dry surface (the floor?).
 * 2) Put the planks on the inside of the arch design. You will have to saw the planks a bit for this, especially at the top.
 * 3) Put a second layer of planks on top of the first one. Screw them to the first layer. The idea is to have them overlap with the first layer to get some basic rigidity.
 * 4) Mark every 25cm on the outside of the arch. This is where the horizontal battens will link the three arches.
 * 5) Reinforce the arch by screwing two planks in an X shape to the inside of the arch. These should also make carrying the final formwork easier.
 * 6) Build three arches by repeating the above steps three times. The arches should be almost identical in shape.
 * 7) Measure the length of your bales.
 * 8) Space your three arches with a distance of one bale's length between each arch.
 * 9) Hint: In some cases it might be easy to: lay the first arch on a flat and dry surface, put bales on top as spacers (keep the length side vertical), lay the second arch on top of that, lay another row of bales, lay the third arch.
 * 10) Triple check the arches are all 100% level and perfectly aligned.
 * 11) Screw the battens to the three arches, removing any spacer bales as you proceed.

Domes
The following link can help: http://minke-strawbaledome.blogspot.com

In France, at least three "paligloo" straw/pallet domes have been built: http://paligloo.free.fr.


text:
Straw Bale Construction/Resources/Software

Useful Software
Thermal modeling Drawing
 * ESP-r "ESP-r is an integrated modelling tool for the simulation of the thermal, visual and acoustic performance of buildings and the assessment of the energy use and gaseous emissions associated with the environmental control systems and constructional materials. In undertaking its assessments, the system is equipped to model heat, air, moisture and electrical power flows at user determined resolution. The system is designed for the Unix operating system, with supported implementations for Solaris and Linux, and is made available at no cost under an Open Source licence." ESP-r is OpenSource free software and will run on Linux, OSX and Windows using Cygwin (for advanced nerds).
 * TRACE 700 "Trane's TRACE 700 software - the latest version of Trane Air Conditioning Economics - brings the algorithms recommended by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) to the familiar Windows operating environment. Use it to assess the energy and economic impacts of building-related selections such as architectural features, comfort-system design, HVAC equipment selections, operating schedules, and financial options." (Building Energy Software Tools Directory)
 * Energy 10 "ENERGY-10™ software analyzes—and illustrates—the energy and cost savings that can be achieved by applying up to a dozen sustainable design strategies. Hourly energy simulations quantify, assess, and clearly depict the benefits of: Daylighting, Passive solar heating and cooling, Natural ventilation, Well-insulated building envelopes, High-performance windows, High-performance lighting systems, High-performance mechanical equipment, And more...". ENERGY-10™ is commercial software. The program can be purchased cheaper at an educational rate, taking a coarse on line through the Solar Energy Institute could make it possible to get the educational rate.
 * HOT2000 "HOT2000TM is a low-rise residential energy analysis and design software. Up-to-date heat loss or gain and system performance models provide an accurate way of evaluating building designs. This evaluation takes into account the thermal effectiveness of the building and its components, the passive solar heating owing to the location of the building and the operation and performance of the building's ventilation, heating and cooling systems." (Free with registration)
 * QCad


text:
User:Gh0st

I'm an independent political scientist and theorist.

I'm currently on the faculty of the School of Political Science, so please enroll and get a real education.

title: User:Gh0st


text:
User:Ponyboy~enwikibooks

ponyboy habite à paris, est dixneuvièmiste et se spécialise en les rougon-macquart d'émile zola, et enseigne les langues et la littérature depuis 5 ans. il court, mé pas trop, et surtt après le bus le matin. il mange d'habitude 2 croissants par jour. il s'engage beaucoup dans le développement pédagogique et voilà pourquoi vous lisez ça.

title: User:Ponyboy~enwikibooks


text:
YafaRay

YafaRay is an open source ray tracing program available under the LGPL license. It supersedes YafaRay (Yet Another Free Raytracer). It enables the creation of images and animations to a photo-realistic quality.

Yafaray was developed in C++ and can be ported to a number of operating systems including Linux, Windows, and Mac OS.

It has a number of rendering features including: global illumination, skydome illumination, caustics, depth of field and blurry reflections.

Contents

 * /User Manual/
 * /Scenes with Explanations/
 * /How do I add my own scene?/
 * /Simple Preview/

title: YafaRay


text:
YafaRay/Scenes with Explanations

All the scenes are written in the xml format yafaray uses. Use the text editor of your own choice to, for instance, replace parts of your own scene with parts provided here.

How do I add my own scene? Your entry doesn't have to be perfect in any way. Other people can fill in the gaps.

 * Render settings
 * simple Preview
 * Area light
 * single Area light

title: YafaRay/Scenes with Explanations


text:
User:Sylfaen~enwikibooks

Sylfaen is in the process of beginning masters work in the field of Applied Linguistics.

title: User:Sylfaen~enwikibooks


text: YafaRay/Simple Preview

title: YafaRay/Simple Preview


text: Template:Mathematical Proof/symbol

title: Template:Mathematical Proof/symbol


text:
Canadian Property Law/Introduction

Introduction
In Canada there are two parallel legal regimes that apply to many areas of law. The most prevailent is the common law which is used in most provinces and territories to the exception of Quebec which is under the civil law system.

Meaning of property
Philosophically, "property" in law does not refer to a thing but to a relationship. The subject of property enjoys a "bundle of rights" over an object of property. The bundle of rights includes the right to use the object, the right to exclude others from using or enjoying the object, and the right to dispose of the object. An object in this sense need not be a physical thing. In the days of slavery, a slave was an object of property. In modern times, many abstract concepts (such as patents or copyrights) can be objects of property.

That having been said, the terms "property" and "object of property" are often used interchangeably in practice.

Common law
The common law practice of property is divided into two general type: Personal Property and Real Property. This is in practice almost identical to the distinction between movables and immovable land in civil code - see below. The distinction becomes extremely important when contracts or relationships in one place affect land in another. In those circumstances, the governing law that applies to the personal or movables is that of the contract or relationship. However that which applies to the land is that of the physical jurisdiction where the land is. This principle is "lex situs" or "law of the land". For instance, if someone dies without a will, the law in the location where the land is would apply. If they die with a will, its validity is assessed where the land is and its effects may be quite different than if the land was where they had lived or wrote the will.

Real vs. Personal Property
There are two categories of property in common law: Real property and Personal property. Real property is, essentially, the rights to land and the things that are attached to it. Personal property is, essentially, rights to any other possession.

Real property was, in English history, much more important than personal property. In the Middle Ages, when the economy relied almost exclusively on agriculture, land was the key to wealth. Therefore, the legal rules around real property developed into a much more complex state than personal property. Even though today, land is much less central to the economy, much Canadian real property law still obeys the complex English property rules of the Middle Ages. The terminology ("landlord", "title", "tenant", "right of entry and distress", "lex situs", "possession", etc.) is all directly descended from these rules with only refinements, not basic changes. See Canadian_Property_Law/Real_Property for the history, terminology and principles that apply.

Personal property, on the other hand, had relatively simple legal rules up until the 20th century, when personal property began to have a much greater value (things such as company shares, drug patents, and computer technology are all types of personal property). Therefore, the rules of personal property have become much more complex in recent decades, although they will seem much more modern than real property rules.

Civil law
Civil law property law derives mainly from the Civil Code of Quebec, and applies only to property in that province. Its inspiration comes from French civil law, but it varies in several important ways, and has gradually incorporated several important common law concepts. It has also from time to time influenced the evolution of common law in Canada, in at least two ways:
 * The role of the surveyor, quite different in civil law, is that of a mediator hired by two persons after one invokes the right of "le bornage" to force the other to arbitrate their shared boundary - this has led Canadian courts to rely more on surveyor testimony than the common law says they should.
 * The civil code principle of "interversion" crept into common law in Ontario as the "inconsistent use test" for a time but has now receded as it is generally understood as incompatible with common law in the stricter provinces. It has however been cited as a valid principle w.r.t. public or common land.

See Canadian_Property_Law/Real_Property for distinctions between common and civil code rules and roles regarding real property.

Similar to the "real" and "personal" division between types of property, civil law divides property into two types: movable and immovable. There is almost no distinction, except that some movables (like building supplies) are regarded as part of real property and not personal in the civil code. In practice there is only a single distinction between real "immovable" land & personal "movables", regardless of the system of law.

Return to Property Law

title: Canadian Property Law/Introduction


text:
YafaRay/How do I add my own scene?

If you think you have a useful/interesting scene you want to share with the rest of the world, just add it. On top of every Wikibooks page you should see a 'edit this page' link. Just click on it when you are in the 'YafaRay: Scenes with Explanations' page and give your scene an appropriate place/name. After you save the page (always preview it first, of course), you can click on your scene name and put your scene on the empty page you are linked to.

If you are not sure about anything, just look at how other pages are made.

title: YafaRay/How do I add my own scene?


text:
Mathematical Proof/Appendix/Symbols Used in this Book

This is a list of all the mathematical symbols used in this book.


text:
Non-nerd's Guide to Computers/hd

The Hard Drive (Talkin' 'Bout a Revolution)
The Hard Drive is the storage for your computer. In robot stories, the robot stores things in its "Memory Bank" which would probably be a hard drive. You can think of it as a filing cabinet, with files, programs, and other information. Hard drives are measured by the amount of bytes they can hold. A byte is equivalent to one character. If you need to store more data, there are external hard drives that plug into your computer, or are remotely accessible. For example, flash drives (sometimes referred to as thumb drives) plug into a computer’s USB port and can store data like pictures or music. This type of storage is small and portable, making it ideal for people who need to access the same information on different computers. Remote storage is another option for those who need to store data somewhere other than a hard drive. Cloud storage is a form of remote storage where users store information online using a website. Most cloud storage sources are password protected, which offers a level of security that doesn’t come with a flash drive.

title: Non-nerd's Guide to Computers/hd


text:
Talk:Forth

Capitalization
Originally it was always written as FORTH, although in every modern reference I've always seen it written Forth (and, seeing as it isn't an acronym, that seems proper). Whichever is chosen, this book should use it consistently. On the first page alone both are used with no explaination. Cat Parade 20:51, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Originally, all programming languages were spelled in all uppercase.
 * Capitalizing only the first letter is more popular these days, so I recommend we use "Forth".
 * There is a discussion of FORTH vs. Forth at Wikipedia:Talk:Forth (programming language), which parallels another long controversy over FORTRAN vs. Fortran at Wikipedia:Talk:Fortran. --DavidCary 04:54, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

Broken links
These links are broken:

 * http://retroforth.org/wiki/
 * http://quartus.net/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Main/

--Mortense (discuss • contribs) 15:06, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

Broken links
. I'm not sure but the links works well for me, I'll leave it to others to review the link. Maybe my ISP allows seeing mirrors or archived versions? I'm not sure and sorry for the undo but I'm really seeing a working site.--Cohaf (discuss • contribs) 05:39, 23 January 2019 (UTC)

Status
Hi, This is a valuable book but the most recent entry in History is 2019. Is anyone in 2024 interested?

Contents lists a Command Reference appendix. Good, but the page has not been initialized. Someone might have thought about format for the page already and I don't want to jump the gun. If someone initializes the page, I'm happy to work on it.

Thanks,     ... PeterEasthope (discuss • contribs) 18:18, 9 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Forth


text:
Template:Pousse-cafe glass

Pousse-café glass

This pages adds Category:Cocktails in a Pousse-café glass to a page and helps keep all the ingredient links pointing to the correct page.

title: Template:Pousse-cafe glass


text:
Template:Shot

shot

This pages adds Category:Shots to a page and helps keep all the ingredient links pointing to the correct page.

title: Template:Shot


text: Category:Shots

title: Category:Shots


text:
Biblical Studies/Bible Topics/Friendship

James 4:4 whosoever be a friend of this world is the enemy of God. 2 Corintians 6:14 Be not unequally together with unbeliever for what fellowship have righteousness with unrighteousness.


text:
French/Lessons/Alphabet

French is based on the Latin alphabet (also called the Roman alphabet), and there are 26 letters. Originally there were 25 letters, with 'W' being added by the mid-nineteenth century. Unlike the English, who call it a "double-u," the French use "double-v" and pronounce it doo-bluh-vay after the 'V' which is pronounced (vay). During the period from Old French to Modern French, the letter 'K' was added. These two letters are used mostly with adopted foreign words. The French alphabet used today is less than 200 years old.

The twenty-six letters are parted into :
 * 20 Consonants (Consonnes): B C D F G H J K L M N P Q R S T V W X Z
 * 6 Vowels (Voyelles): A E I O U Y

In addition, French uses several accents: grave accents (à, è, and ù) and acute accents (é). A circumflex applies to all vowels, except Y (considered as a vowel): â, ê, î, ô, û. A tréma (French for dieresis) is also applied: ë, ï, ü, ÿ. Two combined letters (called orthographic ligatures) are used: æ and œ. Finally, a cedilla is used on the c to make it sound like an English s: ç.

Final consonants
In French, certain consonants are silent when they are the final letter of a word. The letters p (as in coup (blow, shock) ), s (as in héros (hero) ), t (as in chat (cat) ), d (as in marchand (shopkeeper) ), and x (as in paresseux (lazy, sloth) ), are generally not pronounced at the end of a word. They are pronounced if there is an e letter after it (coupe (bowl, goblet), chatte (she-cat) , marchande (female shopkeeper) ).

Dental consonants
The letters d, l, n, s, t and z are pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth and the middle of the tongue against the roof of the mouth. In English, one would pronounce these letters with the tip of the tongue at the roof of one's mouth. It is very difficult to pronounce a word like voudrais properly with the d formed in the English manner.

b and p
Unlike English, when you pronounce the letters b and p in French, little to no air should come out of your mouth. In terms of phonetics, the difference in the French b and p and their English counterparts is one of aspiration. Fortunately, in English both aspirated and unaspirated variants (allophones) exist, but only in specific environments. If you're a native speaker, say the word pit and then the word spit out loud. Did you notice the extra puff of air in the first word that doesn't come with the second? The p in 'pit' is aspirated ; the p in 'spit' is not (like the p in any position in French).

q
The letter 'q' is always followed by a 'u'. There are only two exceptions, 'cinq' (five) and 'coq' (rooster).

r
A final 'r' after 'e' is generally mute, but it is pronounced on words of one syllable 'fer' (iron), 'mer' (sea) and 'hier' (yesterday).

Aspirated and non-aspirated h
In French, the letter h can be aspirated (h aspiré), or not aspirated (h non aspiré), depending on which language the word was borrowed from. The h is never pronounced, whether it is aspirated or not aspirated.

For example, the word héros has an aspirated h. When a definite article (le, la, l', les) is placed before it, the result is le héros, and both words must be pronounced separately. However, the feminine form of héros, héroïne is a non-aspirated h. Therefore, when you put a definite article in front of it, it becomes l'héroïne, and is pronounced as one word.

The only way to tell if the h at the beginning of a word is aspirated is to look it up in the dictionary. Some dictionaries will place an asterisk (*) in front of the entry word in the French-English H section if the h is aspirated. Other dictionaries will include it in the pronunciation guide after the key word by placing an apostrophe ( ' ) before the pronunciation. In short, the words must be memorized.

Here is a table of some basic h words that are aspirated and not aspirated:

The punctuation symbols in French operates very similarly to English with the same meaning. The only punctuation symbol not present in French would be the quotation marks; these are replaced by the guillemets shown in the table above. For speech in fiction, no quotation marks are used. The two stroke punctuation marks (such as ;, :, ?, !) may require a non-breaking space before or after the mark in question.

Five different kinds of accent marks are used in written French. In many cases, an accent changes the sound of the letter to which it is added. In others, the accent has no effect on pronunciation. Accents in French never indicate stress (which always falls on the last syllable). Accentuated letters are usually never followed by a double consonant (except châssis for instance); moreover on e accent becomes useless because a following double consonant changes its pronunciation (e.g.: jeter ([ə],throw) but je jette (pronounced è, I throw). The following table lists every French accent mark and the letters with which it can be combined:

Note that the letter ÿ is only used in very rare words, mostly old town names like L'Haÿ-Les-Roses, a Paris surburb or Aÿ in Champagne region. This letter is pronounced like ï.

Note also that as of the spelling reform of 1990, the diaresis indicating gu is not a digraph on words finishing in guë and is now placed on the u in standard (académie française) French: aigüe and not aiguë; cigüe and not ciguë; ambigüe and not ambiguë. Since this reform is relatively recent and mostly unknown to laypeople, the two spellings can be used interchangeably.

The acute accent is the most common accent used in written French. It is only used with the letter e and is always pronounced.

One use of the accent aigu is to form the past participle of regular -er verbs.

à and ù
In the case of the letters à and ù, the grave accent is used to graphically distinguish one word from another.

è
Unlike à and ù, è is not used to distinguish words from one another. The è is used for pronunciation. In careful speech, an unaccented e is pronounced like an a on the end of a word in English /ə/, as in "Angel a ", and in rapid speech is sometimes not pronounced at all. The è is pronounced like the letter e in pet.

This accent is often called a 'hat' in language and mathematics, and usually indicates the disappearance of the old-French s after the vowel wearing it (the hat) but this s can still be found in a noun or a verb of the same lexical family. Examples are: hospital --> hôpital but hospitalité, maistre --> maître, gâteau from old french gastel, ê is pronounced like è: Fenestre --> fenêtre but défenestrer, forest --> forêt but forestier.

Circumflex accent may be used to have closed-o (la Drôme (French department), un dôme... ô is pronounced [o] like in château, without this accent it would be said like the english word hot ; whereas this pronunciation is not really applied in the south of France.)

In the past participle of devoir (must), dû a circumflex accent is written to distinguish it from the article du.

According to the spelling reform of 1990 some circumflex accents are no longer compulsory (maître --> maitre, boîte --> boite...)

The cedilla is used only with the letter c, and is said to make the c soft, making it equivalent to the English and French s.

 * garçon

title: French/Lessons/Alphabet


text:
User:Scott98390

William "Scott" Baker
I am a developer using the Microsoft .NET Framework preparing for the Microsoft certification. The way I figure it, there can be no better way to learn new material than to write about it. I have to research it, study it and know it before I can sit down and churn out something that someone else can understand -- or at least that is my hope.

I am also an Aircraft Maintenance Technician for Delta Air Lines. But that's just my day job.

Hobbies

 * I am intrigued by how everything works.
 * I consider myself to be a "Maker" in the Make Magazine sort of way. I can improve something to the point that it doesn't work at all - just ask my wife.
 * I believe that open source books have the potential to be fantastic learning tools - imagine if everyone who really knew about a topic wrote the encyclopedia article for it.
 * I love to snowboard. I'm not very good at it, but I love it anyway.  I live in the Puget Sound area in a town called Bonney Lake - I'm an hour west of Crystal Mountain, but I much prefer the terrain and quality of snow (seems 'dryer' most of the time) at Stevens Pass, despite the longer drive.

title: User:Scott98390


text:
Bartending/Techniques

Pousse-café
Pour ingredients over the back of a spoon and let them flow down the side of a straight sided glass. A minimum of 3 ingredients are used in order of density to allow layers to form, for example a mix of Grenadine, Baileys and Amaretto. It is also referred to as layering.

Flair Bartending
Involves doing tricks while mixing cocktails which could include; pouring from heights, flipping bottles, juggling tools, etc.

title: Bartending/Techniques


text:
Template:Pousse-cafe

pousse-café

This pages adds Category:Cocktails made pousse-café to a page and helps keep all the links pointing to the correct page.

title: Template:Pousse-cafe


text:
Category:Book:French

es:Categoría:Francés fr:Catégorie:Français pt:Categoria:Francês zh:Category:法语

title: Category:Book:French


text:
Talk:Automobile Repair/Tire pressure

Yikes! DANGEROUS advice!

"All tires should be inflated to the same pressure"

No! Some vehicles require different front and rear pressures. The correct advice is: Check on the panel inside the drivers door where the pressure of the tires will be indicated. Sometimes the pressure on front and back tires will be different!

title: Talk:Automobile Repair/Tire pressure


text:
General Genetics/Splicing

Introns are intervening RNA sequences that do not code for proteins or serve other functions. They lie between coding regions of RNA known as exons. During eukaryotic mRNA processing, the introns are excised and exons are spliced together to form the mature mRNA transcript. One pre-mRNA can give rise to different mature mRNA transcripts through alternative or differential splicing, wherein the exons are spliced in different permutations.

How Self-Splicing led to the RNA World Hypothesis
In the protozoan Tetrahymena, a rare form of "self-splicing" takes place wherein no proteins are required. The RNA folds into a secondary structure which excises introns. This was discovered by Tom Cech, who won the Nobel Prize in 1989 for his discovery of catalytic RNA.

The discovery of catalytic RNA led to the RNA World Hypothesis, which postulated that earlier forms of life may have relied solely on RNA to store genetic information and catalyze chemical reactions. However, many scientists believe that RNA is too unstable (due to its highly reactive 2'-OH group) to reliably give rise to life.

The Lariat Model of Intron/Exon Splicing
Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) are formed from a combination of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and helper proteins. These join with other proteins to form a spliceosome assembly.

Pre-mRNA has guanine (G) nucleotides at the 5' side of its introns. Towards the middle of the intron is an adenine (A) nucleotide. The spliceosome will fold the intron such that the G and A are next to each other. The oxygen of the A's 2' hydroxyl group attacks the 5' phosphate of the G. The G detaches from the 3' end of the exon to form a loop with the A. The hydroxyl group at the 3' end of the newly-formed exon attacks the phosphate group at the beginning of the next exon. The intron lariat is completely excised from the mRNA.

title: General Genetics/Splicing


text:
IB Business Management

Business and Management is the rigorous and critical study of the ways in which individuals and groups interact in a dynamic business environment. It is an academic discipline that examines how business decisions are made and the impact of these decisions on internal and external environments. Business and Management provides students with the skills to make sense of the circumstances that drive change in an interdependent and multicultural world. Emphasis is placed on the ideals of international cooperation and responsive citizenship.

Aims
What are the aims of the IB Business and Management course?

 * To encourage a holistic view of the world of business
 * To enable candidates to develop the capacity to think critically
 * To enhance candidates’ ability to make decisions
 * To enable candidates to appreciate the pace, nature and significance of change
 * To provide a holistic background into the subject of business management

The Diploma Program for the Business Management course are found in six underlying concepts that encompass the whole syllabus:

• Change

• Culture

• Ethics

• Globalization

• Innovation

• Strategy

Hence the acronym of CUEGIS

CHANGE: Change is necessary within organizations to remain competitive. Success emerges from the ability to research and respond to signals in both internal and external environments.

CULTURE: Values, beliefs and norms of an organization, country or any social group that shapes the customs of people and how things get done. They affect decision making and strategy.

ETHICS: Socially accepted moral principles that guide decision making based on a personal or collective belief of what is right or wrong. These implications can be significant for internal and external stakeholders and the natural environment.

GLOBALIZATION: Internationalization  in the form of social, cultural, technological and economic forces influence business organizations, these in turn, shape these forces, providing increased levels of competition and global access to customers. Many businesses organizations operate across national boundaries.

INNOVATION: Improvements to ideas, generation of new ideas applied to businesses in the form of final products, services or processes. Gives businesses competitive advantage and can be applied to all aspects in an organization. A key challenge is bringing in the new and managing the process of improvement in a sustainable way.

STRATEGY: Long term planning that organization carry out in order to meet their vision-mission, to fulfill the needs and wants of all their stakeholders.

Strategy is about asking questions: what? Why? How? When? Where? and who?

GLOBALIZATION: Internationalization  in the form of social, cultural, technological and economic forces influence business organizations, these in turn, shape these forces, providing increased levels of competition and global access to customers. Many businesses organizations operate across national boundaries.

The Higher Level Course
The Higher Level course is designed for students who have a keen interest in the world around them and who want to undertake an in-depth study of Business and Management in order to develop sound skills of analysis and evaluation that they can apply to international real-world situations. No previous knowledge of Business and Management is presumed and therefore there are no special course requirements, although it is recommended that students will have achieved at least a grade C in Mathematics.

Topics
What topics will be studied and how will they be assessed?

The course involves a study of:

 * An Introduction to Organizations – including the need for business organizations, the different types of organizations and their objectives.
 * The External Environment – including different environments in which organisations operate.
 * Marketing – including marketing strategies to achieve organizational objectives and in response to the changing environment.
 * Human Resource Management – including the way people influence, and are influenced by, organizations in order to achieve organizational objectives.
 * Operations Management – including operation decision making, linking, in particular, with human resource management, quality assurance and customer care.
 * Accounting and Finance – including how organizations manage their finance and the strengths and limitations of the tools of financial analysis.

Examinations
You will be required to complete the following papers at the end of the two-year course and each paper covers the entire syllabus:

Paper 1
It is based on a pre-issued case study.
 * 1 compulsory question
 * 3 extended response questions of which two must be answered

Duration of Exam: 75 Minutes Sl; 135 Minutes HL

Paper 2
5 data response questions of which 3 must be answered

Duration of exam: 105 Minutes SL ; 135 Minutes HL

Internal Assessment
A Research Project based on real-world organisational issues or decision making. The project has a limit of 2000 words HL

Course Weighting

 * Paper 1 - 40%
 * Paper 2 - 35%
 * Internal Assessment - 25%

The Standard Level Course
The Standard Level course is designed for any students who have an interest in the world around them and who wish to develop skills of analysis and evaluation that they can apply to international real-world situations. No previous knowledge of Business and Management is presumed and therefore there are no special course requirements, although it is recommended that students will have achieved at least a grade C in Mathematics.

Topics
What topics will be studied and how will they be assessed?

The course involves a study of:

 * An Introduction to Organisations – including the need for organisations, the different types of organisations and their objectives and the different environments in which organisations operate.
 * Marketing – including marketing strategies to achieve organisational objectives and in response to the changing environment.
 * Human Resource Management – including the way people influence and are influenced by organisations in order to achieve organisational objectives.
 * Accounting and Finance – including how organisations manage their finance and the strengths and limitations of the tools of financial analysis.
 * Operations Management – including operation decision making, linking, in particular, with human resource management, quality assurance and customer care.

Paper 1

 * 2 of 3 structured questions, and 1 compulsory question, based on a pre-issued case study

Duration of Exam: 75 Minutes (SL)

Paper 2

 * 2 of 5 structured questions and 1 of 3 extended response questions based on two concepts.

Duration of Exam: 105 Minutes (SL)

Internal Assessment
A Written Commentary following the IBO Required Written Assignment Format, to be internally assessed by the teacher and externally moderated by the IBO.

The Research Project must be based on a research question which can be directly related to one of the topics or sub-topics of the Standard Level syllabus and must be a question regarding a real world problem involving any form of a business organization.

Total Length: 2,000 words max (Higher Level)

1,500 words max (Standard Level) If you go over the limits, there will be point penalties.

Course Weighting

 * Paper 1 - 35%
 * Paper 2 - 40%
 * Internal Assessment - 25%

=Higher Education= Why is IB Business and Management valuable for Higher Education?

Business and Management draws from such a varied range of sources that it is suitable for most occupations. It is widely accepted by universities for many diverse courses and employers recognise its strong practical respectability. Future careers may include management, retailing, marketing, sales, accountancy, research, the civil service and consultancy. This course will provide students with a wide range of transferable skills and can, therefore, be useful in many other subjects and careers

title: IB Business Management


text:
Java Programming/Spring framework

This is intended to be a short, simple tutorial on writing a Java application that uses the Spring framework. Please note, this tutorial is intended for those with a moderate amount of background with Java, and a basic working knowledge of XML.

For this tutorial, we will be making an application that reads short stories from a Spring bean configuration file. (For the sake of this example, these short stories are real short stories.) There will be three Java classes, and one Spring config file. So let's begin…

Step 1: Setting up your environment
Before we can directly make the files, we first need to setup Spring. I'm assuming you already have the latest version of Java installed. If not, you can download Java Development Kit here.

Spring recommends to use Maven or Gradle to set up your dependencies. If you don't have them installed or provided by your IDE such as Eclipse, you can find instruction how to use and download them here and here. Maven or Gradle will make sure that your dependencies, and those they depend upon are loaded in your project.

See section QuickStart in http://projects.spring.io/spring-framework/ on how to add spring dependencies to your project. Using maven you will need to provide a pom.xml file with the following content in the root of your project:

If you are using Maven make sure that you provide a pom.xml file which contains the following line.

From here on out, you can just copy and paste the text into the files for Steps 2, 3, and 4; skip the explanations; and run the program yourself. The explanations are only there to provide you with a background of the way Spring puts it all together. Ok, now on to the meat and potatoes,.

Step 2: Creating a Spring beans configuration file
Create a new XML file in the directory where you are planning to put your java files. Call it. Then copy and paste the text below into the file and save it:

Explanation
The first two lines are just standard XML declarations. Technically we don't really need them, but we'll put them in anyway. Next, you'll see the  tag, this is where all the Java beans go.

Below that you'll see. This will be a bean for our Java class,  in package. This class is simply a placeholder for the List where we will be holding our stories. Note the attributes of the bean element: there must always be a class attribute to represent the Java Class the bean is using. The id attribute is optional; it is used by the XMLBeanFactory class, to tell it what bean to get with the getBean method: ex. . If no ID attribute is provided, like with, the class name is used as if it were the id attribute. Think:. Also note a bean's id value must not have any spaces, ex. don't write.

Next we have. The property tag just specifies what property variable in the Java bean file we want to specify with a bean property. The  tag is used next to tell Spring that we're dealing with a List of things, not just one. Next we have, this tells Spring to return the   bean inside this List. In a different example, you might simply need a list of values like Strings. For a grocery list you might have something like, Either way your property is mapped to a LIST

For our   story, we have. Hopefully, nothing too surprising here. There are three properties of this bean,,  ,. These are again mapping to property variables: title, author, content in the Story class. Within each value we have: Hello World! , User:Hyad, This is a simple story.

This is a story about a man who said, "Hello, World."

See, now wasn't that simple. Since we are dealing with Strings, everything between the start and end value tags is converted into a String. Hence to add a newline, we must actually put text on separate lines without any indentation. Be aware that values don't have to be mapped to Strings, they can be primitives like int or char, or objects like Integer or Float. Spring automatically knows how to convert them.

We won't be covering the OnceUpon bean, it's essentially the same thing as  , only with different values. In fact, that is the main purpose for using Spring, storing different sets of values for a Java class as a bean instead of making a new class. Up next are the Java Bean classes themselves.

Step 3: Making JavaBean classes
There are two JavaBean classes:  and , both in the package. Copy and paste the following text into their respective classes.

Explanation
Not too complicated, right? These are JavaBeans; simple classes with getters and setters for property variables, and a constructor without any parameters. For a more in-depth discussion of JavaBeans visit JavaBeans. The setters, like, are what Spring uses to create the beans in the XmlBeanFactory. The setters must follow specific bean naming conventions. For example,  with a lowercase "t" won't work. However, as an example  with property name "URL" will work because the second letter "R" is also capitalized in addition to the first "U". Getters aren't actually used by Spring in this example, however StoryReader needs them as we'll see later on. In addition, we don't actually have to specify a no-argument constructor, we could just leave it out and the Java compiler will automatically put one in the class when it's compiled. However, writing a constructor with one or more arguments without a no-argument constructor would invalidate the class as a bean.

Step 4: A main method to put it all together
As we have before, copy and paste the text. And save your class as.

Explanation
Here is our main class,  in package. First we have to import two Spring classes, XmlBeanFactory and ClassPathResource. XmlBeanFactory is essentially a Java class representation of the Spring XML configuation file,. However, before we can get the XML file, we have to tell Spring to look in our class path for that file. That's where ClassPathResource comes in. It searchs the class path, which is where our .class files are stored, for the file specified in its constructor, story_configuration.xml. Any other class that implements the Resource interface may be used, such as. Therefore, we see  creates a new bean factory from.

The next line,, tells us which bean we want to get next. The  tells the bean factory to return an object corresponding to the bean with the id " ", since it is the class name. Since it is an Object, we have to cast it into a  class.

Next, we get the list of stories from the  class, and loop through them. Since this is a bean, the Stories are already there in the list, within the values already in the stories. All we have to do is print them out; which we do. Note:  is used to escape quotes within the String.

Step 5: Running your program
So now that we're done creating our classes and files, lets run the program! Fix any errors you get by making sure you copied everything correctly. When you run the main method of, your output should be as follows:

Mar 12, 2006 5:42:30 PM org.springframework.core.CollectionFactory INFO: JDK 1.4+ collections available Mar 12, 2006 5:42:30 PM org.springframework.beans.factory.xml.XmlBeanDefinitionReader loadBeanDefinitions INFO: Loading XML bean definitions from class path resource [story_configuration.xml] "Hello World!" by User:Hyad: This is a simple story. This is a story about a man who said, "Hello, World." See, now wasn't that simple.

"Once Upon a Time" by Rob Yates: Once upon a time there were some interesting things going on. The end.

The dates will obviously be different when you run it yourself. Also, the four lines that begin with either a date or the word "INFO" are printed to System.err and may be above, or below, or even in between the rest of the output. This is because some operating systems may print to System.out and System.err at different times. Check that your output matches the one shown, disregarding the dates and order of the four lines that Spring prints. Now, you have a fully functioning Spring application, but what next?

Things to remember
As I mentioned earlier, Spring performs automatic conversion of values to both primitives and Objects;,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , you name it. Also note that, which is simply a list of values, can be mapped to a List object, an Array object, or a primitive array (the two square brackets kind). There are even  and   tags which can be mapped to  s and  s, respectively. And at any point you can replace a value with a reference to a bean, like replace myValue with. This reference will return the corresponding JavaBean and Spring will store it as that variable.

In addition, Spring can also serve as a replacement for properties files. An advantage is that Spring is XML based, so any XML parser can read it. And multiple beans can be stored for the same class within the same file. However, you may also place beans across multiple files, and use  to "import" other beans, just like importing Java classes.

The last thing you may want to know is that Spring is most helpful when you use one bean to reference to other beans, classes, files, etc. You may have one bean contain a list of beans, which contain a list of beans, each of which contain another list of beans, … This way only the file name and location of most top level bean is "hard-coded" in the Java class, and everything else is specified by the XML configuration files.

Try it yourself
Here are a few tasks you might do to make your Spring application more robust. Do as many, or as little, as you like:
 * Separate the StoryList bean into another XML file, using  in your new file.
 * Add publication date to each of your stories. How will you store the date?
 * Make a separate class for the author. What attributes might an author have?
 * Put additional functionality into StoryList. How about a printStories method that can be called by StoryReader's main method?
 * Create a writer so all output will be written to a file. And store that file name as a bean.
 * Add more stories. (Mine suck, I know.)
 * Instead of stories, how about TV shows, or video games?
 * Change random code around until it breaks. Have fun! :)

About the author
I go by User:Hyad on Wikipedia and Wikibooks. Having been frustrated by other Spring tutorials that were too long, I decided after actually learning (and using) Spring at work that I would actually create my own. This tutorial came the closest to what I was looking for in a good tutorial, but it was a little too short. So I figured, why not give an example that could be used in the real world. And I figured Wikibooks would be the best place for it, considering if I put it on my website, 1. It would be too cumbersome to edit, and 2. Other people wouldn't be able to edit and update it easily. So drop me a line at my Wikipedia talk page and tell me what you think.

title: Java Programming/Spring framework


text:
Cookbook:Chicken Vindaloo

| Cuisine of India

Vindaloo is a hot and spicy dish from the Goa region of India. Its heavy use of vinegar and the traditional meat of pork are due to the Portuguese influence on the area. Vindaloo is a popular Indian restaurant meal, where it is often made with pork, beef, chicken, lamb, prawns, or vegetables such as mushrooms.

There are many variations of the vindaloo recipe. Some derivatives use potato, or vary the amounts and types of spices used. Goans scoff at the usage of any other main ingredient besides high fat content pork in vindaloo, because the flavor is very different when prepared with a main ingredient other than pork. Authentic Goan vindaloo is not a curry but more of a dry sauce-based dish, which tastes better as it ages. The authentic taste of vindaloo comes from a unique blend of the fat in the pork, the garlic, vinegar, jaggery and kashmiri chili (this specific spice is very flavorful but not too pungent).

Vindaloo is often served with rice, chappatis, naan bread, or a combination of these. It can also be served with assorted pickles, such as aubergine or lime pickle. Given the spicy nature of the dish, it goes particularly well with raita.

Ingredients

 * 3 chicken breast fillets
 * 2–3 large onions
 * 2 fresh chile peppers (any color)
 * 6 cloves of garlic (or 6 tsp minced)
 * 2 cm cube of fresh ginger
 * 1 tsp turmeric
 * 2 tbsp white wine vinegar
 * 1 tsp dried coriander powder
 * 1 tsp garam masala
 * ½ tsp cinnamon powder
 * 1½ tsp black peppercorns
 * 1 tsp black mustard seeds
 * ½ tsp rock salt
 * 1 tbsp chopped fresh coriander leaves
 * ½ cup water

Make the onion sauce

 * 1) Take a thick-based frying pan, and pour into it enough vegetable oil to cover the base, with a little excess. Heat on a stovetop.
 * 2) Slice the onions into fairly thin slivers. When the oil is very hot, add the onions.
 * 3) Turn the stove down to a low heat, so the onions just gently sauté. After around 3 minutes they should be starting to caramelize.
 * 4) Gradually turn up the heat and keep stirring the onions. You want them to brown quite heavily without burning.
 * 5) Add the white wine vinegar, it will sizzle, and after a while will evaporate. Keep stirring. Fry for several more minutes, until they are very brown, but not burnt.
 * 6) Remove the onions from the pan into a bowl, taking care to let as much oil as possible drip back into the pan. You should now have a bowl of nicely crisped fried onions.
 * 7) Add the onions to a blender or food processor. Add around 1 tablespoon of oil, and process for around a minute until you have a fairly thick, dark brown sauce. This is the basic onion sauce from which vindaloo is made. It's also the onion sauce that gives the vindaloo the majority of its 'hot' taste, as it builds up as you eat the dish.
 * 8) Remove sauce from blender and set aside.

Make the garlic/chili paste

 * 1) Coarsely chop the garlic cloves (and ginger if you're using it). De-seed the chili peppers and chop in the same way. Add the chopped garlic and chillies to the food processor.
 * 2) Blend the garlic and chillies until you have a fairly grainy (but liquid) sauce. For this I used an attachment on my blender which is intended to grind coffee beans. It has a much smaller container and so there's less waste.
 * 3) Add the turmeric, coriander powder, garam masala and cinnamon to the sauce. Stir it until it's well mixed, and set aside.
 * 4) Gently crush the black peppercorns in a mortar and pestle. Once coarse, add the mustard seed and rock salt. Continue blending until all the spices form a nice coarse powder.

Cook the paste and meat

 * 1) Pour a little oil into a saucepan. Add the spiced garlic and chili paste to the pan. It needs to be slightly floating on oil, not touching the bottom of the pan.
 * 2) When the sauce is quite hot and bubbling, add the chopped meat. Keep stirring so the meat absorbs the spice mix, until it is browned and mostly cooked.

Add onion sauce and simmer

 * 1) Now add the onion sauce to the pan. After stirring for 1 minute, add a little water and stir for another 2 minutes, then turn the heat to quite low. The sauce at this stage should be quite runny, and orange/tan in color. Remember a lot is going to evaporate off as it cooks.
 * 2) At this stage you can add some vegetables. Half a cup of frozen peas works well.
 * 3) Place a lid over the pan, and cook for around 30-40 minutes. Keep checking and stirring the pan every 5 or 10 minutes to make sure it doesn't stick or burn.The sauce will darken in color as it cooks.
 * 4) Towards the last 15 minutes of cooking time, boil 2 cups of pilau, or basmati rice in a pan.
 * 5) To serve- spoon the curry over the top of the rice. Sprinkle the chopped coriander leaves over the curry, and serve immediately.

Notes, tips and variations

 * Powdered or dried ingredients can be substituted for fresh, but at the expense of taste.
 * If you don't have fresh ginger use 2 cloves garlic + 1 tsp dried ginger powder.

Spicier variation
To cook a more intensely spiced but still field tested variation of this recipe consider the following modifications:
 * Double the amount of each of these ingredients:
 * chosen chilies (if you like very spicy curry)
 * garlic
 * ginger
 * turmeric
 * coriander
 * garam masala (if you like very spicy curry)
 * cinnamon
 * black pepper
 * black mustard seeds
 * coriander leaves
 * Cook the onion sauce mixture and the meat-and-paste mixture until they are very nearly burned (consider a non stick pan for this).

title: Cookbook:Chicken Vindaloo


text:
User:Roger McLassus~enwikibooks

...
de:Benutzer:Roger McLassus

title: User:Roger McLassus~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Roger McLassus~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Roger McLassus. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Roger McLassus~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:41, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:26, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Roger McLassus~enwikibooks


text:
Japanese Law and Government/Civil Law

Japanese civil law is generally governed by the Civil Code (民法 Minpō). The Civil Code is divided into five volumes:

 * 1) General Provisions
 * 2) Property
 * 3) Obligations
 * 4) Family
 * 5) Succession

Personhood
The Civil Code recognizes two types of "persons" (人 hito); natural persons (自然人 shizen-jin) and juristic or legal persons (法人 hōjin).

Minors and majority
Individuals acquire civil rights at birth (Article 3) and are considered to be competent as adults upon reaching the age of twenty (Article 4).

Minors must have the consent of their legal representative in order to engage in legal acts; any acts engaged in by minors without such consent are voidable but not automatically void. The legal representative may give prior consent for a minor to dispose of their property, in which case any such disposal is not voidable (Article 5).

Minors may also engage in business as adults with the consent of their legal representative (Article 6).

Competency
Adults with inhibited psychological competency may be protected under three different systems. These are instituted by a family court at the petition of the individual, their spouse, their immediate relative, their legal guardian/curator/assistant, the supervisor of their guardian/curator/assistant, or by a prosecutor. The family court may also rescind any of the systems upon petition of any such person. The three systems are mutually incompatible with each other; if a person moves from one status to another, their previous status must be canceled (Article 19).

 * Guardianship (後見 kōken) is employed when the adult in question has lost their ability to reason due to psychological disability. Once guardianship is instituted, the individual's legal acts are voidable, except for necessary acts in the course of their daily life (Article 9).
 * Curatorship (保佐 hosa) is a less severe form of guardianship for adults who have significantly reduced capacity to reason (Article 11). A person under curatorship needs consent of their curator to engage in certain acts listed below (Article 13). The family court may also give this consent where the curator denies consent and there is no risk of harm to the individual (Article 13.3). Any such acts without the curator's consent are voidable (Article 13.4).
 * Collection or use of principal
 * Lending or guaranteeing an obligation
 * Acquiring or disposing of real estate or other major assets
 * Litigation
 * Gifts, settlements or arbitration agreements
 * Accepting or waiving succession rights, or dividing estate property
 * Refusing or waiving gifts, or accepting gifts with appurtenant liabilities
 * Building, renovating, expanding or conducting major repairs on buildings
 * Leases beyond the maximum default term stipulated by law
 * Assistance (補助　hojo) is an even less severe system for adults who have reduced capacity to reason. The individual must consent to being placed under assistance (Article 15). The family court then designates acts for which the individual requires the assistant's consent (Article 17).

Counterparty rights
When a minor or otherwise competency-restricted individual becomes legally competent, any counterparty to a voidable act has the right to demand their acceptance of previously-voidable acts. If the individual remains incompetent, the counterparty may demand a similar acceptance by their guardian, curator or assistant. The demand must allow for a response period of no less than one month (Article 20).

A competency-restricted individual is also barred from voiding prior acts if they used fraudulent means to make their counterparty believe they were competent (Article 21).

Juristic or legal persons
For-profit corporations are the most common juristic persons; these are described in Japanese Commercial Law.

The Civil Code also establishes two types of juristic person that are formed for public purposes, such as education, arts, religion or charity. Such corporations must be granted a permit from a relevant government agency before they are legally established (Article 34). Their establishment must then be recorded within two weeks at the Legal Affairs Bureau having jurisdiction over the corporation's head office (Article 45).

Foreign juristic persons are not generally recognized in Japan, except for the following (Article 35):

 * Foreign countries
 * Foreign regional divisions
 * Foreign companies
 * Other foreign juristic persons recognized by a Japanese law or treaty

Associations
Associations (社団法人 shadan hōjin) are formed by members who execute articles of incorporation (定款 teikan).

Associations have a structure similar to business corporations. Their highest decision-making organ is a general meeting of members (社員総会 shain sōkai), which elects directors (理事 riji) to oversee the operations of the association. Associations may also have auditors (監事 kanji), although these are not required.

Foundations
Foundations (財団法人 zaidan hōjin) are formed by a donation of capital recorded in an act of donation (寄附行為 gifu kōi). Foundations always have directors and may have auditors, but they do not have a general meeting of members, as there are no members to form a general meeting.

Legal capacity
The director(s) of an association or foundation may act on behalf of the corporation with regard to any matters within its enumerated purposes. Directors may be personally liable for approving or executing acts outside the purpose of the corporation (Article 44).

民法

title: Japanese Law and Government/Civil Law


text:
User:Chachu207

Me
I live in Nottinghamshire, England, and am currently in Year 9 at a High School in the area. I am a self professed expert in the fields of defence, and policing. I have been working on several projects for major press and broadcasting companies, as an investigative journalist, covering areas such as the counter terrorist operation of the British Police, and the Nuclear Decommissioning of Russia's Northern Naval Fleet.

I am currently studying for my GCSE's, and as a result of that, have far too much homework, and spend too much time online. I enjoy programming, and do a bit of web design in my spare time. I also play alot of sports, such as tennis, cross country, orienteering, and badminton. If you really want to know, I am doing the following for GCSE:
 * French
 * German
 * Spanish
 * English Literature
 * English Language
 * Maths
 * History
 * Design Technology or Geography or Religious Studies (dont know)
 * Chemistry or Biology or Physics (dont know)
 * Chemistry or Biology or Physics (dont know)

I'd also like to take Physical Education and ICT, but my school doesnt offer those choices, so i'll just have to make do, or do them by distance learning, or some other way.

PS. I am heavily obsessed with userboxes, so watch out!

Things that Wikipedia could improve on

 * Instruction creep. The overly long instruction pages actually put me off from following accepted conventions. It just takes so long sometimes to find out how to do things correctly. Even though you sometimes see references to Instruction creep in those pages, they still keep growing. The results are that either (a) I go against the rules, or (b) I just don't bother fixing things that I know are wrong.
 * Vandalism. To be honest, I used to find it fun to hunt for and squash vandalism. It's great that the intelligent design of this project means it's usually as easy to undo vandalism as it is to do it in the first place. (If only physical vandalism in real life were as easy to rectify.) However, vandalism is now really annoying me; it's absurd that a large part of people's editing time is taken up with countering it. As maybe 99% of vandalism is from anonymous IP addresses, I now believe all posting should be from registered users. I think some of the proposals in anonymous users should not be allowed to edit are extreme: such proposals undermine the whole point of the project. Allowing people to remain anonymous behind a nickname is fine - in fact, absolutely necessary as many people may not wish to be publicly identified (I ceratinly don't). Generally I do like the approach of User:Anastrophe-wikipedia, though I don't see the necessity for even requiring an e-mail address. The basic principles should be:
 * New users must have a relatively pain-free experience—both in signing up, and in making initial postings.
 * A campaign of vandalism must be a painful experience for the vandal.

title: User:Chachu207


text:
User:Dumiac

See my Wikipedia account.

title: User:Dumiac