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Concepts of Computer Graphics/Photorealism/What Your Eyes See

Simply put, your eyes see light. That is, the only information your eyes receive about the world in order to construct an image in your head is the photons that have bounced off of objects near you and into your eyes. So constructing a photo-realistic image is (almost) all about simulating lighting. When there is no light, there are no photons to interact with your eyes, and so obviously, you don't see anything.

In everyday life, there are light sources all around us to provide light, from lamps in our houses or in the streets, to the sun during the day and the moon (or perhaps just the stars) at night. Every light source has characteristics that we are familiar with; for example, the sun is much brighter than most other light sources we experience, and has light of a particular color (white), and occupies a position in the sky at various parts of the day, and so forth.

A light source emits photons (and our eyes receive them) at an astronomical rate; the number is so huge that it is difficult to relate it to numbers in our everyday experience. Each photon a light source emits will travel in a straight line forever, until it interacts with some matter (as a matter of fact, the photons that enter your eyes when you look up at the stars at night are the same photons that left the stars millions of years before and have traveled across the universe in that time to enter your eye). When a photon does interact with matter, several things might happen.

In the simplest case, a photon strikes matter and reflects off. In this case, the photon will typically carry information about the color of the object it struck and continue on in the reflected direction. The specifics of the color can depend on the circumstance. For example, if a white light reflects off a brown table, the photons that reach your eye will carry information about the brown color of the table, not the white light. If a red light reflects off of a white table, it will probably carry some information about the original color of the light and reach your eye a shade of red.

However, the photon does not always reflect off. What a photon does when it interacts with matter depends on a great many optical properties of the matter. For example, surfaces can have varying degrees of reflectiveness, specularity, opacity, and surface smoothness (amongst others). Photons that strike very reflective surfaces are much more likely to reflect off in a predictable direction (the direction you would expect from looking at a mirror at an angle), but if they strike a non-reflective surface, they're much more likely to scatter in various directions, or simply be absorbed, so that the photon does not continue on any further from the surface. Similarly, a photon that strikes a particularly transparent surface might not bounce off, but instead continue onwards, potentially having been diverted to a slightly different course (this change in original heading is called refraction, and it is manifested, for example, by the distortion you see when you stick a pen into a glass of water).

You might look at the room you are sitting in, with all its finely detailed surfaces, and many intricate objects, and numerous light sources, and imagine all of the photons zipping around the room, bouncing off of objects, through objects, or getting absorbed, or perhaps bouncing off of objects numerous times, all before finally reaching your eyes. The final picture your brain processes is constructed from a huge number of photons, all of which have taken a potentially complex path in their journey from the light source to your eyes.

The problem becomes apparent. We cannot hope to ever, even with futuristic computers many years hence, hope to model all of these light interactions as individual photons leaving light sources and zipping around the scene before heading into our virtual camera lens. Instead, we must find more computationally tractable ways of approximating the situation we've described above. The most obvious technique for doing this is called raytracing.


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Rubik Puzzles

Who is Erno Rubik?
Erno Rubik is the inventor of the Rubik's cube and several other puzzles. The Rubik's cube is a permutation puzzle, just like many other puzzles in the Rubik brand.

What is a permutation puzzle?
A permutation puzzle is a type of puzzle in which parts are moved around the puzzle in a limited number of ways. Depending on the number of parts and the restrictions on movement, the puzzle has a number of possible configurations, or positions. The higher the number of possible positions, the more difficult it will be to solve the puzzle, in general.

One of the oldest and best-known permutation puzzles is the Towers of Hanoi, which consists of three sticks and seven tiles on one of the sticks, stacked in descending size. The second and third stick are left empty. It is the goal of the game to put all tiles on the third stick, moving one tile at a time, where a bigger tile can never be on top of a smaller tile. This takes 127 moves.

The Rubik's Cube has an astonishing number of 43 quintillion possible positions, one of which is the solved case.

Cubes

 * 2x2x2 (mini/pocket/junior/ice)
 * 3x3x3 (regular/magic)
 * 4x4x4 (revenge/master)
 * 5x5x5 (professor)

Cubes

 * 2x2x2 (mini)
 * 3x3x3 (regular)
 * 4x4x4 (revenge)
 * 5x5x5 (professor)

Speedsolving
By speedsolving is meant solving a scrambled cube in the fastest possible time (bringing it back to its initial, solved position).

More on this topic can be found at the [speedcubing] website.

Tuning
Tuning is the art of using tools and techniques to adjust the puzzle itself for the purpose of speedsolving. A puzzle can generally be tuned by and finally a common practice is restickering, which of course doesn't do much for the speed.
 * lubricating (lubing), often with silicon spray(not oil-based)
 * sanding
 * adjusting: some puzzles have adjustable screws
 * rebuilding: replacing original parts with (hopefully) better ones

Read more on [Ton's pages]

Creating puzzles
It's possible to create your own permutation puzzle. You could make a computer simulation of a known puzzle or invent a new computer permutation puzzle. Or you could create a real life puzzle. Most are made from plastic, and are hard to fabricate without specialized tools. It is noteworthy that the first Rubik's cube was actually made of wood! Many other puzzles were influenced by Erno Rubik's puzzles. Later, more puzzles were created1(6x6x6-11x11x11, 17x17x17, pyraminx, megaminx, gigaminx, teraminx, petaminx, examinx, square-1 cube, square-2 cube, super square-1 cube, flower cube, 3x3x5, and much more.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rubik Puzzles


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Concepts of Computer Graphics/Photorealism/The Idea Of Raytracing

As we saw in the previous chapter, it is impossible, practically speaking, to model the photons coming from light sources directly. There are simply too many photons necessary to generate all of the visual information we see, and most of the photons that leave a given light source probably do not even reach our eyes. When you add in the complexities of multiple light sources necessary to create a scene true to our experience, tracing each individual photon from the light source until it (potentially) reaches our virtual camera is simply not possible.

The approach we use instead is called raytracing. Raytracing is actually very simple conceptually, and makes our problem tractable. Here is the basic idea.

Our digital image is made up of a finite number of pixels. Since the pixels are the atomic element of the image, we are only concerned with what color each pixel should be. The idea of raytracing is to work backwards from the pixels of our virtual camera, going through each individual pixel and tracing an imaginary "ray" straight away from that pixel until we encounter an object (specifically, a particular point on that object).

Once we find the intersection point in space that the ray hit, we reason that the light that would have hit this pixel contains all of the information about the light that was striking the object at this point, plus the interaction with that object. Thus, we can start a new ray on this location of the object, and trace it backwards until we hit another object, and so on. Eventually, the ray must strike a light source. Once we have found this light source, we then know the color of the light that left this light source, and struck one object, bounced off, struck another, and so on all the way back to our camera's pixel. Thus, we now know what color to put in that pixel.


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Neapolitan/greetings

Ll'alleverènzia (greetings)
This is just the grammatical form of Neapolitan's greetings. Because, for their civility, Neapolitans are very friendly when they greet, so you will have a very long greet, for example:

"Uè Gennà, comme staje, 'a quantu tiempo ca nun ce sentimmo, tutto 'a posto, â casa tutt'a posto, mugliereta, mammeta, figlieta? Jammece 'a piglià nu cafè, però pav'io, nun mettere 'a mana ô portafoglio! Mamma e comme te sî fatto bello, ecc...." The greet can also last longer, because, as explained earlier, Neapolitans are very friendly people.

Napolitano/Saludos Napoletano/Saluti

title: Neapolitan/greetings


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Theatre and Acting/Focus Warmups

Why do Focus Warmups?
When performing or rehearsing it is vital to make sure that the actors are concentrated on the task. There are many exercises designed to help teamwork and concentration.

Twenty One
Notes Playing 21 is easy. However, a minimum of 2 people (however, more than this is highly suggested) is required to play. The ideal size for a group to play 21 depends on ability of participants however somewhere between 5 and 20 is a good size to play this game.

How To Play All participants stand in random distribution in the warmup space. Participants close their eyes. Then, randomly, someone must say the number 1. Another person must then say the number 2, and so forth until the number 21. However, should any two participants say a number at the same time, the group must start again at 1. Participants may not form an order in which to say numbers.

Extension When the number 21 has been reached, try timing the group to get faster and faster at reaching 21.

The Impulse Walk
How To Play All participants are to stand in a line with eyes closed. On impulse, they are to begin to walk, and as they do so, they can open their eyes. The aim of the game is to settle on a group "energy" which provokes a spontaneous impulse in all participants.

title: Theatre and Acting/Focus Warmups


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Mediastinal Masses

 * 1) State the anatomic boundaries of the anterior, middle, posterior and superior mediastinum
 * 2) Name the four most common causes of an anterior mediastinal mass and localize a mass to the anterior mediastinum on a radiograph, chest CT and chest MRI
 * 3) Name the three most common causes of a middle mediastinal mass and localize a mass in the middle mediastinum on a radiograph, chest CT and chest MRI
 * 4) Name the most common cause of a posterior mediastinal mass and localize a mass in the posterior mediastinum on a radiograph, chest CT and chest MRI
 * 5) Name two causes of a mass that straddles the thoracic inlet and localize a mass to the thoracic inlet on a radiograph, chest CT and chest MRI
 * 6) Identify normal vessels or vascular abnormality on chest CT and chest MRI that may mimic a solid mass
 * 7) Name five etiologies of bilateral hilar lymph node enlargement
 * 8) State the three most common locations (Garland's triad) for lymph node enlargement to occur in the chest of patients with sarcoidosis
 * 9) List the four most common etiologies of "egg-shell" calcified lymph nodes in the chest
 * 10) Recognize a cystic mass in the mediastinum and suggest the possible diagnosis of a bronchogenic, pericardial, thymic or esophageal duplication cyst


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Pulmonary Nodules

 * 1) State the definition of a solitary pulmonary nodule and a pulmonary mass
 * 2) Name the three most common causes of a solitary pulmonary nodule
 * 3) Name four important considerations in the evaluation of a solitary pulmonary nodule
 * 4) Name six causes of cavitary pulmonary nodules
 * 5) Name four causes of multiple pulmonary nodules
 * 6) State the indications for percutaneous biopsy of a solitary pulmonary nodule
 * 7) State the indications for percutaneous biopsy when there are multiple pulmonary nodules
 * 8) State the complications and the frequency with which complications occur due to percutaneous lung biopsy using CT or fluoroscopic guidance
 * 9) State the indications for chest tube placement as a treatment for pneumothorax related to percutaneous lung biopsy
 * 10) State the role of positron emission tomography (PET) in the evaluation of a solitary pulmonary nodule

Work up of new or enlarged solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) in Chest X-ray or SPN on CT
Perform a High Resolution CT-scan (HRCT) study

 * Benign calcification or shape: No further work-up is indicated.
 * Fat (with or without calcification) : No further work-up is indicated.
 * Indeterminate:
 * 4–10 mm: Follow up with CT volumetrics studies in 6, 12, and 24 months.
 * >10 mm:
 * ground glass opacity with or without a solid lesion: biopsy/resect
 * solid: CT with IV contrast, PET, or Biopsy
 * In contrast CT, malignant lesions show an increase of greater than 15H after contrast (98% sensitive for 6-30 mm nodules)
 * PET with Fluorine-18-labeled fleurodeoxyglucose is 97% sensitive, and 78% specific for nodules that are larger than 10 mm
 * if negative: follow up in 6, 12, and 24 months

Doubling time (volume) of less than one month or longer than two years suggest a benign lesion.


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Pulmonary Neoplasms

 * 1) Name the four major histologic types of bronchogenic carcinoma, and state the difference between non-small cell and small cell lung cancer
 * 2) Name the type of non-small cell lung cancer that most commonly cavitates
 * 3) Name the types of bronchogenic carcinoma that are usually central
 * 4) Describe the TNM classification for staging non-small cell lung cancer, including the components of each stage (I, II, III, IV, and substages), and the definition of each component (T1-4, N0-3, M0-1)
 * 5) State the staging of small cell lung cancer
 * 6) Name the four most common extrathoracic sites for non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer to metastasize
 * 7) State which stages of non-small cell lung cancer are potentially resectable
 * 8) Recognize abnormal contralateral mediastinal shift on a post-pneumonectomy chest radiograph and state five possible etiologies for the abnormal shift
 * 9) Name the most common location for adenoid cystic and carcinoid tumors to occur
 * 10) Suggest the possibility of radiation change as a cause of new apical opacification on a chest radiograph of a patient with evidence of mastectomy and/or axillary node dissection
 * 11) Describe the acute and chronic radiographic and CT appearance of radiation injury in the thorax (lung, pleura, pericardium, esophagus) and the temporal relationship to radiation therapy
 * 12) State the role of MR in lung cancer staging (e.g. chest wall invasion, superior sulcus or Pancoast tumor)
 * 13) State the role of positron emission tomography (PET) in lung cancer staging
 * 14) Describe the TNM classification for staging esophageal carcinoma, including the components of each stage (I, II, III, IV) and the definition of each component (T, N and M)
 * 15) State the role of imaging in the staging of esophageal carcinoma
 * 16) State which stages of esophageal carcinoma are potentially resectable
 * 17) State the classification of lymphoma, the role of imaging in the staging of lymphoma, and the typical and atypical manifestations of thoracic lymphoma
 * 18) Define primary pulmonary lymphoma
 * 19) Describe the typical chest radiograph and chest CT appearances of Kaposi sarcoma


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OCR A-Level Physics/The SI System of Units

SI units are used throughout science in many countries of the world. It was adopted in 1960 as the preferred variant of the metric system. The metric system itself dates back to the 1790.

Base units
There are seven base units, from which all other units are derived. Every other unit is either a combination of two or more base units, or a reciprocal of a base unit. Since 2019 all of the base units are defined with reference to measurable natural phenomena. Also, notice that the kilogram is the only base unit with a prefix. This is because the gram is too small for most practical applications.

Derived units
Most of the derived units are the base units divided or multiplied together. Some of them have special names. You can see how each unit relates to any other unit, and knowing the base units for a particular derived unit is useful when checking if your working is correct.

Note that "m/s", "m s-1", "m·s-1" and $$\frac{\mbox{m}}{\mbox{s}}$$ are all equivalent. The negative exponent form is generally preferred, for example "kg·m-1·s-2" is unambiguous. In contrast "kg/m/s2" is ambiguous -

is it $$\frac{(\frac {kg}{m})}{s^2}$$  or is it  $$\frac{kg}{(\frac{m}{s^2})}$$?

Symbols usually start with a lower case letter unless the unit was named after somebody - for example "newtons" (note lower case letter when writing in English about the units) were named after Sir Isaac Newton, "watts" after James Watt, "farads" after Michael Faraday and so on.

Prefixes
The SI units can have prefixes to make larger or smaller numbers more manageable. For example, visible light has a wavelength of roughly 0.0000005 m, but it is more commonly written as 500 nm. If you must specify a quantity like this in metres, you should write it in standard form. As given by the table below, 1 nm = 1×10-9 m. In standard form, the first number must be between 1 and 10. So to put 500 nm in standard form, you would divide the 500 by 100 to get 5, then multiply the factor by 100 (so that it's still the same number), getting 5×10-7 m. The power of 10 in this answer, i.e.,. -7, is called the exponent, or the order of magnitude of the quantity.

Homogenous equations
Equations must always have the same units on both sides, and if they don't, you have probably made a mistake. Once you have your answer, you can check that the units are correct by doing the equation again with only the units.

Example 1
For example, to find the velocity of a cyclist who moved 100 metres in 20 seconds, you have to use the formula
 * $$velocity = \frac {displacement}{time}$$

so your answer would be 100÷20 = 5 m·s-1.

This question has the units m ÷ s and should give an answer in m·s-1. Here, the equation was correct, and makes sense. In this case a middle-dot (·) has been inserted between the "m" and the "s" to show that this is metres per second, not milliseconds.

Often, however, it isn't that simple. If a car of mass 500 kg had an acceleration of 0.2 m·s-2, you could use Newton's second law
 * $$F=ma$$

to show that the force provided by the engines is 100 N. At first glance it would seem the equation is not homogeneous, since the equation uses the units (kg) × (m·s-2), which should give an answer in kg·m·s-2. If you look at the derived units table above, you can see that a newton is in fact equal to kg·m·s-2, and therefore the equation is correct.

Example 2
Using the same example as above, imagine that we are only given the mass of the car and the force exerted by the engine, and have been asked to find the acceleration of the car. Using
 * $$F=ma$$

again, we need to rearrange it for a. We do this  incorrectly  by setting
 * $$a=\frac {m}{F}$$.

By inserting the numbers, we get the answer a = 5 m·s-2. We already know that this is wrong from the example above, but by looking at the units, we can see why this is the case
 * $$ms^{-2}\ne\frac {kg}{kg\ ms^{-2}}$$.

The units are m-1·s2, when we were looking for m·s-2. The problem is the fact that "F=ma" was rearranged incorrectly. The correct formula was
 * $$a=\frac {F}{m}$$,

and using it will give the correct answer of 0.2 m·s-2. The units for the correct formula are
 * $$ms^{-2}=\frac {kg\ ms^{-2}}{kg}=ms^{-2}$$.


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Talk:Python Programming/Exceptions

There is no way exceptions should be used for GOTO style programming EVER ... That just smacks of increadiblly bad design ... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 213.86.142.250 (discuss • contribs) 10:05, 26 August 2005

I agree, but the example in the module isn't abusing exceptions as a GOTO statement :-) Thunderbolt16 19:47, 18 September 2005 (UTC)

Another vote for not using exceptions as GOTO statements. They are called exceptions for a reason. You should use if statements and check them correctly instead of arbitrarily running stuff. I haven't looked at how exceptions are actually handled in the python code but they are probably expensive as in other languages. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.4.57.161 (discuss • contribs) 23:37, 23 June 2006

Maybe someone could offer wisdom on how much to use exceptions in Python? In C++/Java they are generally used "in exceptional circumstances" and are quite expensive. Does their design in Python lead to more generous use such as filtering inputs in functions rather than returning a default or known error value? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.136.239.234 (discuss • contribs) 16:48, 8 October 2005

 * Actually, this style of programming is encouraged in Python, it's called "EAFP". I've removed the "dubious" tag.  --193.11.177.69 (talk) 22:41, 29 August 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Python Programming/Exceptions


text:
Talk:Principles of Finance

Why not use the Time value of money page from wikipedia? Any thoughts? It is very thorough. Added to the first paragraph because there is more to the time value of money than inflation. Robbimj 03:54, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

"Just what is finance? The ins and outs of it can be debated, scrutinized, revised, and trivialized ad nauseum."

Removed, because this is obvious. It does nothing to elaborate.

"But at its heart, finance is nothing more than the activity of matching those who have money to those who need or want it without having to earn it first."

This is pratical application of finance. The phrase "nothing more" is odd.

"The means are inumerable but all to the same end: personal gain by granting the use of one's money to another."

This is wrong. Governments, non-profits, NGOs engage in financial sphere activity as well. Not all financial activities result in personal gain.

"It is not actually requisite that money be the medium of finance. Laws very commonly permit the contribution of anything having some value as business investment, be it equipment, property, service, and so on."

Money is BY DEFINITION a medium of exchange. Investments and finance are related, but are not the same.

"The Time Value of Money is one of three fundamental ideas that shape finance. The primary problem behind the Time Value of Money is that of inflation.  When asked would you rather have $10 today or $10 next year, people would prefer to receive $10 right now instead of receiving $10 in the future, simply because the buying power that $10 affords a person today will be diminished by rising prices next year."

This is nonsensical. The idea of Time Value of Money has been around during the time Gold was used as currency, when inflation was much less of an issue. The Time Value of Money has to do with the rate of real return. Inflation is one aspect needed to be considered, but it is not the reason for the developement of the theory. The first sentence is correct. The rest is close to junk. ie; does Time Value of Money not work during the Great Depression? Have they forgotten it in Japan?

"Fundamental to all economic activity is rationality and self interest. People who are acting rationally act out of self-interest.  The difficulty in finance is that there is no apparent connection between simply allowing another person access to your money and anything that will benefit you personally for doing so."

The last line makes no sense just from reading it. A fundemental ASSUMPTION of some theories of economics is the rational individual; but this is a heavily debated topic within the field of economics.

"Third is the idea of risk. If one gives up control of one's money to another, there exists the possibility that one will never see it again.  In addition there is also the possibility that in attempt to serve another person, if that person is injured or somehow feels misled, one may find himself the target of a lawsuit."

This is NOT the most common risk. Even if one "keeps" the money, there exists a chance of loss. The lawsuit risks are not peculiar to finance and has nothing to do with finance per se. We arent talking about financial fraud or negligence here. Risk is MUCH broader and more complex than this.

"What motive, then, does one have not to spend all of one's money as soon as he receives it? The main motive is to increase one's future buying power beyond what one's own capabilities permit."

This is accurate, but only for PERSONAL finance. Also - what does "one's own capabilities" mean? If one can buy stock and the stock appreciates - does that not constitute "capability"? If not, then does this mean that since I do not know how to farm I am incapable of feeding myself?

"every financing activity for every venture falls into the category of either debt financing or equity financing."

This is true of modern financial practice. The words "every" is FAR too general - the reference to large business is mistaken (small businesses use it as well as governments, individuals and non-profits).

"Each category has slightly different balance of characteristics."

This does nothing to explain WHAT those differences are. Differences between debt financing, and even within debt financing, is a huge field of study.

"Higher return, of course, is a direct result of higher risk."

This is financial theory. The concept of risk vs. return needs to be explored further if you're going to make a statement like this.

Debt financing is the more strightforward of the two categories. In this mode money is borrowed for a business venture. The transaction has one borrower or debtor, and at least one lender or creditor. Forms of debt financing can include credit cards, mortgages, signature loans, bonds, IOUs, and HELOCs (Home Equity Lines of Credit) as examples.

The word "straightforward" implies a level of clarity on this issue that isnt there. There are many forms of debt financing. As for "business venture," governments are one of the major consumers of credit.

"With debt financing, the creditor's return is fixed and understandable. "

If by understandable you mean easier to predict than equity, I would agree. But the "real" return is potentially very mystifying. Dont know what to replace it with, but this isnt the best.

"Equity financing is where the far greater risk lies with the far greater return. The sky is the limit with both."

Maybe, before the advent of the Joint Stock Corporation. But - since that financial innovation (a topic that MUST be discussed in this "book") the risks have been limited to investments made. Personal liability was stripped out. Also - the "sky" is a very real place, the limit is, at it's extreme, the production possiblities frontier of the economy. This is what prevents housing bubbles (most recently) or internet stock bubbles (just a few years ago) from becoming the only things in the economy; real, physical reality tends to intervene.

"The return of equity financing is the claim on a business's profits. As long as the business is profitable your investment will provide a return indefinitely."

It's not just "profits" - it's ALL FUTURE POTENTIAL PROFITS that gives companies much of their value. This is why the "time value of money" concept is so important. A stock can be seen as all future potential profits of a company compressed into today and expressed in a price at a given exchange at a given time.

"Only the equity investor may decide when to withdraw his investment and thus relinquish his claim."

Take a look at revolutionary Russia, or Jews in Germany, or the too common notion of bankruptcy. This is decidedly NOT true.

"i.e. because most personal finance does not involve the debtor making a profit,"

This ISNT true. People leverage themselves all the time to make profit. It happens everyday (and happend quite a bit recently) when people borrowed money to buy home. They involved debt to try to make a profit.

"Creditors can sit back and expect their investment to come back to them or else go a get it back. But they can do nothing to push the business in any direction.  They can only wait."

This ISNT true. Creditors can sell default risk to others, manage it in some other ways like CDO and MBS. They can always stop lending them money, not rolling over the debt, etc.

"(subject to legal and ethical restrictions, of course)."

This isnt an article on financial ethics or financial law. It's about FINANCE.

Wow - this "book" needs a TON of work.

 * This book does need a lot of work. Slowly, but surely with everyone's help we can get this book off the ground. Also as with a regular wiki article, I think references should be made so that we don't run into some the problems highlighted above. --Glinos (talk) 16:44, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

So who created this page? What ideas do we want to put across? Obviously Wikipedia has quite a good page already. Can we expand this without duplicating? Finance on Wikipedia
 * The purposes and aims of wikipedia and wikibooks are not the same. Wikipedia is meant to be an overview of verifiable facts, but not exhaustive nor a teaching aid like a textbook. This is where this book needs to pickup. It should be a textbook that teaches these concepts in a some kind of logical order instead a just a web of ideas thrown about. --Glinos (talk) 16:44, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

Do we want to create a book or not?
This is as hell sure does not seem like a book, so who all would like to go in for a rewrite on this.

We need the following:

1) Table of Contents - to be updated as the book progresses. 2) A chapter by chapter progression 3) Where do we stop at - Finance is highly specialized, so we need to know where we stop. If we do provide an introduction to finance, we can cover the basic steps.
 * A name for the book - Yes, should it be Introduction to Finance? - this is PRIORITY

Who all are interested in developing this???

--Venky 06:42, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Changes made
I have added a To Do and a Contributors page. Kindly put in your additions to both the pages.

--Venky 06:46, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

One year later, I just re-wrote the Inroduction to the Time-Value of money and wrote also about the Discount Rate. --Alpapad (talk) 02:24, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Book name changed to Principles of Finance
Dear all, I have changed the title of the book to Principles of Finance.

--Venky 07:06, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

Examples
If any one continues to work on it I think that the big difference between this and wikipedia articles on the same subject is lots more examples should be included.

 * I agree, this shouldn't just be a smattering of facts. The intent of this book is to teach. If examples help teach the material better, then examples will be needed. --Glinos (talk) 16:32, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

Possible source of content
You may be interested in this transwiki. If you have another book in mind where the content may be useful, please leave a note on the relevant talk page. Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 04:55, 8 October 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Principles of Finance


text: Category:Subject:Chemistry

title: Category:Subject:Chemistry


text:
Cookbook talk:Tea Eggs

Tea eggs recipes almost always called for the eggs to be cracked after boiling in order that the brine would be able to penetrate into the surface of the egg.

title: Cookbook talk:Tea Eggs


text:
Cookbook:Welsh Rarebit

| Cuisine of the United Kingdom

There is no small amount of disagreement about what constitutes Welsh Rarebit. Many contend that it is just cheese on toast. At the other end of the spectrum are a variety of recipes in which the bread is steeped in beer or floated in soup.

It has been said that "Welsh rarebit" is a sort of post Act of Union joke, where Irish Rabbit is just bread, Welsh Rabbit is bread and cheese, Scottish Rabbit is bread and dripping and English Rabbit is actually rabbit. This, however, is a moderately uncontroversial recipe for Welsh Rarebit.

Ingredients

 * 2 tablespoons unsalted butter
 * 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
 * 1 teaspoon Dijon mustard
 * 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
 * 2 fl oz (60 ml) beer such as porter (Guinness will do)
 * 4 fl oz (120 ml) double cream
 * 6 oz (170 g) grated Cheddar cheese
 * 4 slices of toast

Procedure

 * 1) In a medium saucepan over low heat, melt the butter and whisk in the flour.
 * 2) Cook, whisking constantly for 2–3 minutes, being careful not to brown the flour.
 * 3) Whisk in mustard, Worcestershire sauce, salt, and pepper until smooth.
 * 4) Add beer and whisk to combine.
 * 5) Pour in cream and whisk until well combined and smooth.
 * 6) Gradually add cheese, stirring constantly, until cheese melts and sauce is smooth; this will take 4–5 minutes.
 * 7) Pour over toast and serve immediately.

title: Cookbook:Welsh Rarebit


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Chest Trauma

 * 1) Identify a widened mediastinum on a trauma radiograph and state the differential diagnosis (including aortic/arterial injury, venous injury, fracture of sternum or spine)
 * 2) Identify the indirect and direct signs of aortic injury on contrast-enhanced chest CT scan
 * 3) Identify and state the significance of chronic traumatic pseudoaneurysm on a chest radiograph, CT or MRI
 * 4) Identify fractured ribs, clavicle, spine and scapula on a chest radiograph or chest CT
 * 5) Name five common causes of abnormal lung opacity on a trauma radiograph or CT
 * 6) Identify an abnormally positioned diaphragm or loss of definition of a diaphragm on a trauma chest radiograph and suggest the diagnosis of a ruptured diaphragm
 * 7) Identify a pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum on a trauma chest radiograph
 * 8) Identify the fallen lung sign on a radiograph or chest CT scan and suggest the diagnosis of tracheobronchial tear
 * 9) Identify a cavitary lesion on a post-trauma radiograph or chest CT and suggest the diagnosis of laceration with pneumatocele formation, hematoma or abscess secondary to aspiration
 * 10) Name the three most common causes of pneumomediastinum in the setting of trauma
 * 11) Recognize and distinguish between pulmonary contusion, laceration and aspiration


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Chest Wall

Disorders of the Chest Wall

 * 1) Recognize and name four causes of a large unilateral pleural effusion on a radiograph or chest CT
 * 2) Recognize a pneumothorax on an upright and supine chest radiograph
 * 3) Recognize a pleural based mass with bone destruction or infiltration of the chest wall on a radiograph or chest CT and name four likely causes
 * 4) Recognize pleural calcification on a radiograph or chest CT and suggest the diagnosis of asbestos exposure (bilateral involvement ) or old TB or trauma (unilateral involvement)
 * 5) Recognize the typical chest radiographic appearances of pleural effusion, given differences in patient positioning
 * 6) Recognize apparent unilateral elevation of the diaphragm on a chest radiograph and suggest a specific etiology with supportive history and associated chest radiograph findings (e.g. subdiaphragmatic abscess after abdominal surgery, diaphragm rupture after trauma, and phrenic nerve involvement with lung cancer)
 * 7) Recognize a tension pneumothorax and understand the acute clinical implications
 * 8) Recognize diffuse pleural thickening, as seen in fibrothorax, malignant mesothelioma and pleural metastases
 * 9) State and recognize the radiographic and CT findings of malignant mesothelioma


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Pulmonary Infection

 * 1) Name the radiographic manifestations of primary pulmonary tuberculosis
 * 2) Name the three most common segmental sites of involvement for reactivation tuberculosis in the lung
 * 3) Define Ranke complex and Ghon lesion; recognize both on a radiograph and CT
 * 4) Name and describe the four types of pulmonary Aspergillus disease
 * 5) Identify an intracavitary fungus ball on chest radiography and chest CT
 * 6) State the radiographic appearances of Cytomegalovirus pneumonia
 * 7) Name the major categories of disease causing chest radiograph or chest CT abnormalities in the immunocompromised patient
 * 8) Other than bacterial infection, name 2 important infections and 2 important neoplasms to consider in patients with AIDS and chest radiograph or chest CT abnormalities
 * 9) Describe the chest radiograph and chest CT appearances of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
 * 10) Name the 4 most important etiologies of hilar and mediastinal adenopathy in patients with AIDS
 * 11) Describe the time course and chest radiographic appearance of a blood transfusion reaction
 * 12) State the radiographic appearances of mycoplasma pneumonia
 * 13) Describe the radiographic and CT appearance of a miliary pattern and provide a differential diagnosis
 * 14) Name the diagnostic considerations in a patient who presents with recurrent or persistent pneumonias
 * 15) Name the endemic mycoses, the specific geographic regions where they are found, and their radiographic manifestations
 * 16) State the most common pulmonary infections seen after solid-organ (i.e. liver, renal, cardiac) transplantation
 * 17) Describe the radiographic and CT findings of post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Unilateral Hyperlucent Lung

 * 1) Recognize a unilateral hyperlucent lung on a radiograph or chest CT
 * 2) Identify the common causes for unilateral hyperlucent lung on a chest radiograph
 * 3) Give an appropriate differential diagnosis when a hyperlucent lung is seen on a chest radiograph, and suggest a specific diagnosis when certain associated findings are seen (i.e. absence of a breast in a patient after mastectomy for breast cancer, absence of a pectoralis muscle in a patient with Poland's syndrome, unilateral bullous disease/emphysema, or air trapping on expiration in a patient with Swyer-James syndrome or an endobronchial foreign body)


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Congenital Lung Disease

 * 1) Name the components of the pulmonary venolobar syndrome
 * 2) Recognize venolobar syndrome on a frontal chest radiograph, chest CT and chest MRI, and explain the etiology of the retrosternal band of opacity seen on the lateral view
 * 3) Recognize a mass in the posterior segment of a lower lobe on a chest radiograph and chest, and suggest the possible diagnosis of pulmonary sequestration
 * 4) Explain the differences between intralobar and extralobar sequestration
 * 5) Recognize bronchial atresia on a radiograph and chest CT, and state the most common lobes of the lungs in which it occurs


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Pulmonary Vascular

 * 1) Recognize enlarged pulmonary arteries on a chest radiograph and distinguish them from enlarged hilar lymph nodes
 * 2) Recognize enlargement of the central pulmonary arteries with diminution of the peripheral pulmonary arteries as pulmonary arterial hypertension and suggest the possible diagnosis of primary pulmonary artery hypertension
 * 3) Name five of the most common causes of pulmonary artery hypertension
 * 4) Recognize lobar and segmental pulmonary emboli on chest CT and chest MRI (including MR angiography)
 * 5) Define the role of ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy, chest CT, chest MRI/MRA                          and lower extremity venous studies in the evaluation of a patient with suspected venous thromboembolic disease, including the advantages and limitations of each modality depending on patient presentation

Work up of suspected pulmonary embolism
Initial work up depends on the level of clinical suspicion
 * LOW
 * Check D-dimer. if D-dimer is negative, no additional work up is indicted. Otherwise, perform a CT angiography with or without CT venography

 * INTERMEDIATE
 * CT angiography with or without CT venography

 * HIGH
 * If inpatient, abnormal chesr x-ray findings, patient is older than 40 years, or patient has COPD, perform a CT angiography with or without CT venography
 * Otherwise, perform VQ scan
 * Normal VQ-scan: no additional work up is indicted
 * If VQ-scan is low-intermediate probability: CT angiography with or without CT venography
 * if VQ-scan has a high probability, a diagnosis of PE could be made

If CT angiography is positive, a diagnosis of PE could be made and treatment should be considered.

if CT angiography is negative, but there is high clinical suspicion or limited cardiopulmonary reserve, perform angiography. Otherwise, no additional work up is indicted.

c.f. http://www.aafp.org/afp/20040615/2829.html


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Diagnostic Radiology/Chest Imaging/Thoracic Great Vessels

 * 1) State the normal dimensions of the thoracic aorta
 * 2) Describe the classifications of aortic dissection (DeBakey I,II, III; Stanford A, B), and implications for classification on medical versus surgical management
 * 3) State and recognize the findings of, and distinguish between each of the following on CT and MR:
 * 4) aortic aneurysm
 * 5) aortic dissection
 * 6) aortic intramural hematoma
 * 7) penetrating atherosclerotic ulcer
 * 8) ulcerated plaque
 * 9) sinus of valsalva aneurysm
 * 10) subclavian or brachiocephalic artery aneurysm
 * 11) aortic coarctation
 * 12) aortic pseudocoarctation
 * 13) Recognize a right aortic arch and a double aortic arch on a radiograph, chest CT and chest MR
 * 14) State the significance of a right aortic arch with mirror image branching versus with an aberrant subclavian artery
 * 15) Recognize a cervical aortic arch on a radiograph and chest CT
 * 16) Recognize an aberrant subclavian artery on chest CT
 * 17) Recognize normal variants of aortic arch branching, including common origin of brachiocephalic and left common carotid arteries ("bovine arch"), separate origin of vertebral artery from arch
 * 18) Define the terms aneurysm and pseudoaneurysm
 * 19) State the common cardiac anomalies associated with aortic coarctation
 * 20) State and identify the findings seen in Takayasu's arteritis on chest CT and chest MR
 * 21) State the advantages and disadvantages of CT, MRI/MRA and transesophageal echocardiography in the evaluation of the thoracic aorta


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Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Expressibility

= Expressibility =

Formula truth tables
A formula with n sentence letters requires $$2^n\,\!$$ lines in its truth table. And, for a truth table of m lines, there are $$2^m\,\!$$ possible formulas. Thus, for a sentence of n letters, $$m = 2^n$$ and the number of possible formulas is $$2^{2^n}$$.

For example, there are four possible formulas of one sentence letter (requiring a two-line truth table) and 16 possible formulas of two sentence letters (requiring a four-line truth table). We illustrate this with the following tables. The numbered columns represent the different possibilities for the column of a main connective.

Column (iii) is the negation formula presented earlier.

Column (ii) represents the formula for disjunction, column (v) represents conditional, column (vii) represents biconditional, and column (viii) represents conjunction.

Expressing arbitrary formulas
The question arises whether we have enough connectives to represent all the formulas of any number of sentence letters. Remember that each row represents one valuation. We can express that valuation by conjoining sentence letters assigned True under that valuation and negations of sentence letters assigned false under that valuation. The four valuations of the second table above can be expressed as

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

Now we can express an arbitrary formula by disjoining the valuations under which the formula has the value true. For example, we can express column (x) with:

 * (1)     $$(\mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \lor (\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

You can confirm by completing the truth table that this produces the desired result. The formula is true when either (a) $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is true and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is false or (b) $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ is false and $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ is true. There is an easier way to express this same formula: $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$. Coming up with a simple way to express an arbitrary formula may require insight, but at least we have an automatic mechanism for finding some way to express it.

Now consider a second example. We want to express a formula of $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$, $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$, and $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$, and we want this to be true under (and only under) the following three valuations.

We can express the three conditions which yield true as

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{R}\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{R}\,\!$$
 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$

Now we need to say that either the first condition holds or that the second condition holds or that the third condition holds:

 * (2)     $$(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{R}) \lor (\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{R}) \lor (\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

You can verify by a truth table that it yields the desired result, that the formula is true in just the interpretation above.

This technique for expressing arbitrary formulas does not work for formulas evaluating to False in every interpretation. We need at least one interpretation yielding True in order to get the formula started. However, we can use any tautologically false formula to express such formulas. $$\mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$ will suffice.

Normal forms
A normal form provides a standardized rule of expression where any formula is equivalent to one which conforms to the rule. It will be useful in the following to define a literal as a sentence letter or its negation (e.g. $$\mathrm{P}$$, and $$\mathrm{Q}$$ as well as $$\neg \mathrm{P}$$, and $$\neg \mathrm{Q}$$).

Disjunctive normal form
We say a formula is in disjunctive normal form if it is a disjunction of conjunctions of literals. An example is $$(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \lor (\lnot \mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S}) $$. For the purpose of this definition we admit so called degenerate disjunctions and conjunctions of only one disjunct or conjunct. Thus we count $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ as being in disjunctive normal form because it is a degenerate (one-place) disjunction of a degenerate (one-place) conjunction. The degeneracy can be removed by converting it to the equivalent formula $$(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{P}) \lor (\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{P})\,\!$$. We also admit many-place disjunctions and conjunctions for the purposes of this definition, such as $$(\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{R}) \lor (\mathrm{S} \land \mathrm{R})$$. A method for finding the disjunctive normal form of a arbitrary formula is shown above.

Conjunctive normal form
There is another common normal form in sentential logic, namely conjunctive normal form. A formula is in conjunctive normal form if it is a conjunction of disjunctions of literals. An example is $$(\mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{R} \lor \mathrm{S}) $$. Again, we can express arbitrary formulas in conjunctive normal form. First, take the valuations for which the formula evaluates to False. For each such valuation, form a disjunction of sentence letters the valuation assigns False together with the negations of sentence letters the valuation assign true. For the valuation

 * $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$  :    False
 * $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$  :    True
 * $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$  :    False

we form the disjunction

 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q} \lor \lnot \mathrm{R}\,\!$$

The conjunctive normal form expression of an arbitrary formula is the conjunction of all such disjunctions matching the interpretations for which the formula evaluates to false. The conjunctive normal form equivalent of (1) above is

 * $$(\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

The conjunctive normal form equivalent of (2) above is

 * $$(\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q} \lor \lnot \mathrm{R}) \land

(\mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q} \lor \lnot \mathrm{R}) \land (\mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R}) \land (\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q} \lor \lnot \mathrm{R}) \land (\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R})$$

Interdefinability of connectives
Negation and conjunction are sufficient to express the other three connectives and indeed any arbitrary formula.

 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$    [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \land \lnot (\mathrm{Q} \land \lnot \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

Negation and disjunction are sufficient to express the other three connectives and indeed any arbitrary formula.

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}) \lor (\lnot \mathrm{P} \land \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$    [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\lnot \mathrm{P} \lor \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \lor \lnot (\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Negation and conditional are sufficient to express the other three connectives and indeed any arbitrary formula.

 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$
 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$    [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot ((\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \rightarrow \lnot (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P}))\,\!$$

Negation and biconditional are not sufficient to express the other three connectives.

Joint and alternative denials
We have seen that three pairs of connectives are each jointly sufficient to express any arbitrary formula. The question arises, is it possible to express any arbitrary formula with just one connective? The answer is yes, but not with any of our connectives. There are two possible binary connectives each of which, if added to $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$, would be sufficient.

Alternative denial
Alternative denial, sometimes called NAND. The usual symbol for this is called the Sheffer stroke, written as $$\mid$$ (some authors use ↑). Temporarily add the symbol $$\mid\,\!$$ to $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$ and let $$\mathfrak{v}[(\varphi \mid \psi)]\,\!$$ be True when at least one of $$\varphi\,\!$$ or $$\psi\,\!$$ is false. It has the truth table :

We now have the following equivalences.

 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{Q}) \mid (\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{P}) \mid (\mathrm{Q} \mid \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\mathrm{P} \mid (\mathrm{Q} \mid \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{Q}) \mid ((\mathrm{P} \mid \mathrm{P}) \mid (\mathrm{Q} \mid \mathrm{Q}))\,\!$$

Joint denial
Joint denial, sometimes called NOR. Temporarily add the symbol $$\downarrow\,\!$$ to $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$ and let $$\mathfrak{v}[(\varphi \downarrow \psi)]\,\!$$ be True when both $$\varphi\,\!$$ and $$\psi\,\!$$ are false. It has the truth table :

We now have the following equivalences.

 * $$\lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{P}) \downarrow (\mathrm{Q} \downarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$(\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{Q}) \downarrow (\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$((\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{Q}) \downarrow \mathrm{Q}) \downarrow ((\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{Q}) \downarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[Image:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$((\mathrm{P} \downarrow \mathrm{P}) \downarrow \mathrm{Q}) \downarrow (\mathrm{P} \downarrow (\mathrm{Q} \downarrow \mathrm{Q}))\,\!$$


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User talk:69.170.94.234

Blanking a page (Cookbook:Mung Sprouts Salad) is not an appropriate way to get it deleted (use like the one that was on the Cookbook:Simple Ayurvedic Sprout Salad module). Re-entering a recipe is also unnecessary. Just use the "move" tab (possibly only available if you have an actual user account). Learning these things will help reduce work for other contributors (like me). Kellen T 18:57, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.170.94.234


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Cookbook talk:Simple Ayurvedic Sprout Salad

I have verified this is not a recipes from the site listed, and thus is not a copyvio though it looks like it at first glance. Kellen T 20:32, 18 August 2005 (UTC)

All it may need is a little improvement --Lunar shadows 01:49, 4 September 2005 (UTC)


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High School Physics/Simple Oscillation

Simple Oscillation
For a simple oscillator consisting of a mass m to one end of a spring with a spring constant s, the restoring force, f, can be expressed by the equation $$\rm Force = \rm Spring ~ constant \times \rm displacement\,$$ where displacement is the displacement of the mass from its rest position. Substituting the expression for f into the linear momentum equation, $$f = ma = m{d^2x \over dt^2}\,$$ where a is the acceleration of the mass, we can get $$m\frac{d^2 x}{d t^2 }= -sx $$ or, $$\frac{d^2 x}{d t^2} + \frac{s}{m}x = 0$$ Note that $$\omega_0^2 = {s \over m}\,$$ To solve the equation, we can assume $$x(t)=A e^{\lambda t} \,$$

The general solution for this type of 'simple harmonic motion' is $$x=A\sin(wt+\phi)$$. Here, $$\phi$$ (the angle expressed in radians) is known as the phase of the simple harmonic motion.

title: High School Physics/Simple Oscillation


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Engineering Acoustics/Simple Oscillation

The Position Equation
This section shows how to form the equation describing the position of a mass on a spring.

For a simple oscillator consisting of a mass m attached to one end of a spring with a spring constant s, the restoring force, f, can be expressed by the equation $$f = -sx\,$$ where x is the displacement of the mass from its rest position. Substituting the expression for f into the linear momentum equation, $$f = ma = m{d^2x \over dt^2}\,$$ where a is the acceleration of the mass, we can get $$m\frac{d^2 x}{d t^2 }= -sx $$ or, $$\frac{d^2 x}{d t^2} + \frac{s}{m}x = 0$$ Note that the frequency of oscillation $$\omega_0$$ is given by $$\omega_0^2 = {s \over m}\,$$ To solve the equation, we can assume $$x(t)=A e^{\lambda t} \,$$ The force equation then becomes $$(\lambda^2+\omega_0^2)A e^{\lambda t} = 0,$$ Giving the equation $$\lambda^2+\omega_0^2 = 0,$$ Solving for $$\lambda$$ $$\lambda = \pm j\omega_0\,$$ This gives the equation of x to be $$x = C_1e^{j\omega_0 t}+C_2e^{-j\omega_0 t}\,$$ Note that $$j = (-1)^{1/2}\,$$ and that C1 and C2 are constants given by the initial conditions of the system

If the position of the mass at t = 0 is denoted as x0, then $$C_1 + C_2 = x_0\,$$ and if the velocity of the mass at t = 0 is denoted as u0, then $$-j(u_0/\omega_0) = C_1 - C_2\,$$ Solving the two boundary condition equations gives $$C_1 = \frac{1}{2}( x_0 - j( u_0 / \omega_0 ))$$

$$C_2 = \frac{1}{2}( x_0 + j( u_0 / \omega_0 ))$$

The position is then given by $$x(t) = x_0 cos(\omega_0 t) + (u_0 /\omega_0 )sin(\omega_0 t)\,$$

This equation can also be found by assuming that x is of the form $$x(t)=A_1 cos(\omega_0 t) + A_2 sin(\omega_0 t)\,$$ And by applying the same initial conditions, $$A_1 = x_0\,$$

$$A_2 = \frac{u_0}{\omega_0}\,$$

This gives rise to the same position equation $$x(t) = x_0 cos(\omega_0 t) + (u_0 /\omega_0 )sin(\omega_0 t)\,$$

Back to Main page

Alternate Position Equation Forms
If A1 and A2 are of the form $$A_1 = A cos( \phi)\,$$ $$A_2 = A sin( \phi)\,$$

Then the position equation can be written $$x(t) = Acos( \omega_0 t - \phi )\,$$

By applying the initial conditions (x(0)=x0, u(0)=u0) it is found that $$x_0 = A cos(\phi)\,$$

$$\frac{u_0}{\omega_0} = A sin(\phi)\,$$

If these two equations are squared and summed, then it is found that $$A = \sqrt{x_0^2 + (\frac{u_0}{\omega_0})^2}\,$$

And if the difference of the same two equations is found, the result is that $$\phi = tan^{-1}(\frac{u_0}{x_0 \omega_0})\,$$

The position equation can also be written as the Real part of the imaginary position equation $$\mathbf{Re} [x(t)] = x(t) = A cos(\omega_0 t - \phi)\,$$

Due to euler's rule (ejφ = cosφ + jsinφ), x(t) is of the form $$x(t) = A e^{j(\omega_0 t - \phi)}\,$$

Back to Main page


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User:Strongbad/North American Football/Glossary

This is a glossary explaining the jargon used in football.

See "visiting team."
 * away team

 * blitz

A blitz is a play where the defense brings up players away from the line of scrimmage in order to attack the quarterback. The idea behind blitzing is to force a bad pass or get a sack, where the quarterback is tackled before he lets go of the ball.

 * challenge

In some versions of football, including NFL football, a coach or an official from the booth can challenge the referee's call on the field, which is traditionally designated by the throwing of a red flag. During the challenge, the referee watches the replay for two minutes and either lets the call stand or overturns it. If a coach issues a challenge and the call stands, that coach's team loses a timeout, if one remains. A team gets a 15-yard penalty if its coach issues a challenge in the last two minutes of a half. A team can only call two challenges during one half. Although the referee's decision is up to him, he needs clear visual evidence to overturn a call. Nonetheless, the referee's call can make him seem biased, and he can lose credibility.

A conference is a set of teams in the same league. In the NFL, there are two conferences:the American Football Conference(AFC) and the National Football Conference(NFC). In the NCAA, there are many more.
 * conference

 * cornerback (CB)

Cornerbacks tend to start near the line of scrimmage and guard against passes to particular receivers, even though they can blitz the quarterback on particular plays.

 * defense

The meaning of defense is not clear cut. Some people may define it as the team that does not have possession of the ball, and others may define it as the team that does not start the play with possession of the ball. Still others may define it as the team with defensive players on the field. The first syllable is accented.

 * defensive back (DB)

A defensive back is a player whose main job is to block the pass. They tend to be smaller and faster than linebackers, and they are separated into cornerbacks and safeties.

 * defensive line

The defensive line normally consists of the biggest players on the defensive side of the ball. They start right in front of the offensive line, and their job is to stop running plays and put pressure on the quarterback.

Each down indicates how close a team is to losing the ball, and the offense has four downs to cross the first down marker and get a new first down. A down is lost after almost every play, but some penalties can cause the down to be repeated.
 * down

Each team has an end zone, which is the decorated 10-yard area on each end of the football field.
 * end zone

An extra point is like a field goal, but it is kicked right after a touchdown from a specified yard line near the opponents' end zone.
 * extra point

 * FD

"FD" is an abbreviation of "first down." See "down."

If a team attempts to kick the football through its opponents' crossbar, it is said to kick a field goal. The field goal is deemed to be "good" if the ball flies over the horizontal bar, and the kicking team receives three points and kicks off; otherwise, it is "no good."
 * field goal (FG)

If a defensive player pulls the ball from a player's hands, the fumble is said to be a forced fumble.
 * forced fumble

 * fullback (FB)

The fullback can run with the ball, but his primary job is to block for the halfback. He may get the ball if the team needs a few yards.

If a player has control of the ball and loses it before his knees hit the ground, the player is said to fumble and the ball can be claimed by any player on the field as long as it is in play.
 * fumble

 * halfback (HB)

The halfback is the running back who usually runs with the ball on running plays and tends to be smaller and faster than the fullback.

When a team hosts a game, it is said to have home field advantage.
 * home field advantage

The team that hosts the game is called the home team.
 * home team

If a defensive player catches the ball before his knees touch the ground, the ball is intercepted and the defense gains possession.
 * interception (INT)

 * kickoff

A kickoff occurs when a team must kick to another team. The kicking team generally must keep the ball from crossing the sidelines.

 * linebacker (LB)

The linebackers are behind the defensive line in defensive plays, and they tend to be smaller and faster than defensive linemen, but bigger and slower than defensive backs. They defend the run and the pass.

The NFL is the major professional football league in North America and arbiter of professional football as it is mainly known.
 * National Football League(NFL)

 * offense

Like "defense," the meaning of "offense" is not quite clear. The offense is either the team with possession of the ball, the team that starts off with the ball, or the team with offensive players on the field.

 * offensive line

The offensive line starts out at the line of scrimmage, with the center in the middle snapping the ball to the quarterback. It blocks defenders to keep them from tackling the running back and give the quarterback enough time to find an open receiver and throw an accurate pass.

 * onside kick

If a team kicks the football to the side in order to get the ball back, the kick is known as an onside kick. It is possible for the receiving team to tell when an onside kick is being performed because the kicking team will line up mostly on one side of the field.

The playoffs are a tournament designed to have the teams with the best seasons compete(for more details, check out the football season chapter).Although it is a single elimination tournament, it is not a pure bracket system in the NFL because twelve teams compete.
 * playoffs

See "extra point."
 * point after touchdown(PAT)

 * possession

The team that has control of the ball is said to have possession of the ball. This team, outside a safety, is the only team able to score.

If the offense kicks the ball to the defense in a situation where the offense has the option to go for it, the kick is known as a punt.
 * punt

The quarterback is the leader of the offense and normally starts behind the center. For more information about offensive positions, go to the appropriate chapter.
 * quarterback (QB)

 * referee

The referee is one of the officials. He is the highest arbiter of calls on the field.

 * running back (RB)

A running back is a person who normally carries the ball for yardage on running plays. This is either a halfback or fullback.

 * squib kick

A squib kick is a kick where the ball flies lower than usual. It is likely to be a compromise between the onside and standard kicks.

The Super Bowl is the championship game in the NFL playoffs. In the Super Bowl, one team is the AFC champion and one team is the NFC champion.
 * Super Bowl

 * tailback

See "halfback."

 * tight end

Tight ends are players that begin plays on either side of the defensive line. They can block or catch passes.

If the ball falls into a team's end zone and bounces without being caught, a member of that team touches the end zone with the ball without first being outside the end zone, or an intercepting player is tackled before being outside his end zone, it is said to be a touchback and that team starts from its own 20 yard line. In college football, if a pylon (the short red sticks at the corners of the end zone) is touched with the football, that end zone's team gets a touchback.
 * touchback

If a member of one team catches or carries the ball in the opponents' end zone without being called out of bounds, the team with the ball scores a touchdown, which is worth six points, and an opportunity to score more points in an extra point or two point conversion.
 * touchdown (TD)

After a touchdown, the scoring team may attempt a two point conversion, where the offense gets one play to reach the opponents' end zone from a specified yard line, normally the 2 or 3 yard line. If the defense gains possession, what happens varies from game to game. In some games(including NFL games), the attempt is "no good" if a defensive player obtains possession of the ball. In others, the defense can return the ball to the far end zone for two points.
 * two point conversion

 * visiting team

The team that does not host the game is called the visiting or away team.

 * wide receiver (WR)

The wide receivers may be the most important players on the offense except for the quarterback. They usually catch the ball on passing plays, but they may also try to lure cornerbacks and safeties away from the line of scrimmage on run plays. Receivers are getting taller in pro football, so cornerbacks are having a harder time stopping the pass.

A wild card team is one of the two teams in an NFL conference with the best standings that are not champions of their divisions.
 * wild card team

In Wild Card Weekend, each wild card team plays against a division champion, and the champion hosts the game.
 * Wild Card Weekend

 * wingback

See "halfback."


text:
Beginning Mathematics/Algebra

Arithmetic is the study and use of numbers and their relationships, whilst Algebra uses letters as a preliminary substitute for numbers.

Unknown numbers are often given the letters x, y and z, while the temporary substitutes for known numbers may be a, A, b, B, c, A1, FF, etc. Algebra also comes up with various simplifications.

An example
How to calculate wages to be paid:
 * Employee A worked 50 hours at 10 per hour, total is 50 times 10 = 500
 * Employee B worked 45 hours at 10 per hour, total is 45 times 10 = 450, etc. - That is arithmetic.

In algebraic terms, this same table could be express as such: Let h = the number of hours worked, and r = the rate of pay per hour.
 * Then t = the total to be paid = h times r
 * Note that this covers the calculation for ALL employees, just substitute the correct numbers for each of the letters, as the case may be.
 * For Employee A: h = 50, r = 10, and t = h times r, therefore t= 500
 * For Employee B: h = 45, r = 10, and t = h times r, therefore t = 450

Closure
Closure is a term which describes a relationship between an operation and a set. A set is said to be closed under a certain operation if any application of the given operation applied between members of the set yields another member of the set.

Examples

 * The set of integers is closed under addition, multiplication, and subtraction, but not division and exponentiation.
 * The set of complex numbers is closed under addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and division.
 * The set of odd integers is not closed under addition.

Modular Arithmetic
Modular arithmetic acts like regular arithmetic, except that it is dealing only with remainders with respect to a certain number. We call the number the modulus and refer to arithmetic modulo the given number.

Example

 * $$Z_4$$ is the set of integers modulo 4. The elements of $$Z_4$$ are $$\{0,1,2,3\}$$

Groups
A group is an ordered pair $$(G,\cdot)$$ where G is a set closed under the operation $$\cdot$$. The integers modulo any integer form a group.

title: Beginning Mathematics/Algebra


text:
Operating System Design/Desktop environment

In computing, the term is used figuratively. Many graphical user interfaces (GUI) use a desktop metaphor. It consists of the screen contents "below" any windows, hence what is on the screen before any windows are opened, and what reappears when windows are closed. It usually shows icons for programs, documents or folders and possibly an image as wallpaper.


text:
Cookbook:Rice with Tofu and Nuts

| Vegan Cuisine

This recipe serves 1 person as a main dish and 2 people as a side dish.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup (120 g) Basmati rice
 * 1 cup (240 g) diced firm tofu
 * 2 tbsp olive oil
 * 2 tbsp blanched slivered almonds
 * 2 tbsp chopped cashews
 * 1 tbsp raisins
 * 1 bay leaf
 * 4 peppercorns
 * 1-inch piece cinnamon stick
 * 2 whole cloves
 * 2 cups (480 ml) water
 * Salt to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Wash the rice with several changes of cold water. Drain.
 * 2) Add the water, bay leaf, peppercorns, cinnamon, cloves and salt and bring to a boil.
 * 3) Reduce heat to medium low and cook covered for about 12 minutes until all the water has evaporated and the rice grains are tender yet separate.
 * 4) Heat the oil in a pan.
 * 5) Add the tofu and shallow-fry until for a few minutes on each side.
 * 6) Scoop out of the oil and set aside.
 * 7) To the same oil, add the nuts and the raisins and shallow-fry until the nuts are golden brown and the raisins have plumped up.
 * 8) Remove from heat.
 * 9) Turn the rice into a serving bowl and fluff gently with a fork.
 * 10) Fold in the tofu and the nuts gently and mix well.
 * 11) Serve hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The whole spices are intended to be discarded, not eaten.

title: Cookbook:Rice with Tofu and Nuts


text:
User:Smartsmith~enwikibooks

Hi I am Smartsmith, I am a native speaker of Sinhalese and Bahasa Indonesia because of my mixed heritage but I suck at speaking them. Nowadays I speak mainly English and also learn Malay(Bahasa Melayu). I also learn Chinese as a Third Language.I have been using Wikipedia for about 2 years mainly for research in my studies. I became a member in early 2005. I am currently studying in the Gifted Education Programme in Singapore). I am keen in Biology therefore I am interested in Sci-Fi movies. So far I have contributed more than 100 times to wikipedia articles mostly editing the same page a few times. I also like LIVESTRONG headbands(the first wikipedia article which I created)now it is on the end of this page as the original page was deleted. I have also created the Pear Garden page about the Pear Garden opera troupe, which was formed during the Tang Dynasty. I also contributed the book '1984' by George Orwell, in wikibooks but i contributed the first chapter without creating an account so it shows my IP adress.

title: User:Smartsmith~enwikibooks


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Peskipiksi Pesternomi

Overview
Peskipiksi Pesternomi is not a real spell.

Extended Description
This spell appears to be Gilderoy Lockhart's attempt at a spell to disperse the Cornish Pixies he released in one of his Defence Against the Dark Arts classes, but it didn't work, and it might even have further irritated the pixies in question. The immediate result seems to have been that one of the pixies grabbed Lockhart's wand and threw it out the window.

Analysis
The spell incantation seems to be based on the English phrase "Pesky pixie, pester no me". As most real spells seem to have incantations that derive from Latin words, the fact that this one is based on an English phrase makes it immediately suspect.

Given the nature of his actual magical expertise, which we discover late in the books, it is uncertain whether Lockhart had ever really tried to use this spell. Equally, it is uncertain whether he created this spell himself, or was given it by someone who didn't completely trust him. We see throughout the book that the teachers at Hogwarts seem to have a very low opinion of Lockhart's magical skill.

The purpose of this spell seems to be purely to point up Lockhart's incompetence.

Questions

 * 1) What is the effect of this spell?


text:
User talk:Espo111~enwikibooks

Please do not remove information from Wikibooks, it is considered to be vandalism (Under the GFDL, you do not own derivative works (where as little as one character has been changed), so you are not permitted to remove them). You have been blocked from editing for 24 hours, and if you continue, then you will be blocked from editing for longer. Geo.T 02:52, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Espo111. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Espo111~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:11, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:56, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Espo111~enwikibooks


text:
User:Robert Horning/Whole Book

=Solar System=

=Mercury=

=Venus=

=Moon=

=Mars=

=Jupiter=

=Saturn=

=Uranus=

=Neptune=

=Pluto=

title: User:Robert Horning/Whole Book


text:
Talk:The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish/Archive

I have returned
I have returned from my holidays. Moonlightembrace 17:54, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Spider
One problem: araña is spider. Arachna isn't a word según la RAE.

This is definitely the case, and I have tried to correct it as best I can, but I would suggest using a different word to introduce the concept--Squeakfox 22:51, 22 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Lol, yeah, my girlfriend corrected me on araña. What would you suggest? Moonlightembrace 17:50, 25 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Structure
I'm changing the structure a bit, and creating a new Book, Book X, which can be used with or without the public domain books. Comments on the structure can be placed here.

Random Comments
I'm truely flattered with all this response. I abandoned the project, but now, thanks to you, I'm back. -ME

Sounds like a good project. I'm not advanced or beginner, but I'll watch the page and maybe help out. -user unknown

I'm another with mid-level Spanish, and therefore not good as a helper for this. It sounds like a great way to slowly get immersed in Spanish. -Maya

I suggest that another book rather than Peter Pan be chosen, as it is not public domain in Great Britain. —Wereon 13:06, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I wasn't aware of Peter Pan not being public domain in Britain. We can always use another Oz book or something else. We will find something when we cross that bridge.

________

count me in as one of the unwashed non-speakers willing to peruse and comment!

I'll be glad to peruse and comment as well if it means I don't have to wash. Learning Spanish the wrong way is a worthy endeavor. Paul Donnelly

This sounds like a great project. I would like to know who started it? Also, I would gladly read it. Michael Ellerbeck

I started it, and abandoned it. My bad. I'm back - ME (moonlight embrace)

I'm in :o) I have little to no Spanish, and it looks like a muy fantastic way to aprendar. unclekensson

I'm Spanish but i don't understand a lot how to collaborate. If you want help, click me (here's the link to catalan wikipedia user where I am):

http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuari_Discussi%C3%B3:Barcelona

(barcelona user)


text:
Spanish/The Wrong Way To Learn Spanish/Dictionary

This is a mnemonic dictionary. Every word has its pronunciation, meaning, and a little sentence to help you remember the word and its meaning.

A mnemonic phrase is worthless without the right connections for your memory, the BEST way to remember what an orange is in Spanish is to get an orange, feel it's peel, smell the skin, listen to the sound when you cut through the peel, feel the resistance give way as the knife penetrates, take in that bright, vibrant, orange color of the flesh, taste the sweet tangy juices, smell the juices, feel rippled, slippery skin all the while connecting the essence of an orange to how Spanish expresses it: naranja

The WORST way is to memorize a rhyme connecting a pun on the color orange to the fruit orange. Three unrelated steps: reading a rhyme (something processed in a totally different part of the brain,) the color orange, and then an actual orange. It might work to get an "A" on a test, but you will have a stutter when you are in Mexico.

Used correctly, a mnemonic phrase is somewhere in between the two extremes of true understanding and rote memorization. With enough practice, especially in an immersion environment, the brain will make the direct connection to naranja circumventing the mnemonic phrase, but never like our "first" language.

In the bullet points under word definitions, leading letters of the Spanish word are italicized, and the English definition is bolded.

A
abajo (ah-ba-ho) - down, downstairs, below [something]

 * Imagine throwing down a bad cup of joe.
 * Baja California is the area "below" California en inglés.

acostarse (a-co-star-say) - v. to put oneself to bed. ( Irregular verb: when conjugated the first "o" is replaced with "ue.")

 * Imagine for a costar to say "Put oneself (your arse) to bed."

alguno (al-goon-oh) - pron. some, someone

 * By the algebra of some, someone is uno.

año (an-yo) - m. year

 * annual organization

aquel (ah-kale) - that (over there)

 * Raquel is that lady over there.

azul (ah-sool) - blue

 * Azure literally means bright blue en inglés.

B
bailar (bay-lar) - to dance
 * Imagine it is time to dance around a bale of hay.
 * Lyrics of La Bamba start with "Para bailar la bamba"

baile (bī-lay) - m. dance
 * A popular type of performance dance is the ballet.

bonito (boh-nee-toh) a. pretty (masculine)

 * That guy Bo is so pretty and I think that's neato.

C
caballero (cah-bah-yer-oh) - Depending on the country, this means "cowboy" or (less common) "gentleman".

 * Imagine a well dressed gentleman cowboy in a cab.

cada (ca-da) - each, every

 * Each and every case, directly approached, should be more than pro forma.

cartera (kahr-teh-rah) n. - wallet, purse

 * You should get a cartier purse / wallet!

cepillarse (cep-ill-arse) - to brush oneself. E.g., cepillarse los dientes means to brush your teeth.

 * Imagine it takes a caterpillar to brush onself, e.g., your teeth.

cerrar (seh-rrahr) - to close

 * Someone needs to tell Sarah R. to close her mouth 😡

cierto (see-air-toe) - adj. certain, sure, true

 * Of course I'm cierto of my spelling, señor!

correr (core-air) - v. to run, or go fast

 * Imagine that to run, or go fast your core will not get enough air.

creer (cr-ear) - v. to think, to believe

 * Picture a monk yelling "Forget your career! To think, to believe in the Lord is not optional!"

 * Being credulous means to believe too easily, en inglés.

cuaderno (Kwan-dare-no) - m. notebook

 * A notebook is a quadrangle (four-sided figure).

cuando (cwan-do) - conj. when

 * Consider update and time of.

D
daiquirí - m. daiquiri, a cocktail of rum, lemon, and sugar
 * Be sure to enjoy a cocktail of rum, lemon, and sugar when visiting namesake Daiquirí, a port city in eastern Cuba.

dar (dar) - v. to give

 * Darwin may not have meant to give God a size down.

deber (day-ver) - v. should, ought to; to owe

 * Debt encouraged by righteousness.

decir (day-seer) - v. to tell, say

 * "Declare IRA!", enthusiastic nest egg incubators may declaim.

dejar (day-har) - v. to let, leave (rhetorically).

 * Do enough, just, and retire.

despertarse (dais-per-tar-say) - v. to wake up. ( Irregular verb: when conjugated the first "e" is replaced with "ie".)

 * Dreaming that pirates are killing you, you're desperate to wake your arse up.

descansar (dees-cahn-sar) - v. to rest
 * Descansar (to rest) your disconsolation, may be to disassociate and dissolve it in sleep's soothing salve.

dolor (doe-lor) - m. pain.

 * The indolent or lazy avoid pain of exertion.

E
echar (eh-char) - v. to throw, to pour

 * Escucha! I hear charcoal thrown.

encontrar (en-cone-trar) - v. to find

 * To find something is to it encounter.

enseñar (ehn-seh-nyahr) - v. to teach

 * When you are taught, your knowledge ascends.

F
fábrica (FAH-bree-kah) - factory

 * A factory fabricates.

fácil (FAH-seel) - easy

 * It'd be facile to suggest that this nonsense facilitates Spanish.

G
gana (gah-nah) - f. desire

 * I'm gonna (gana) wish absence didn't multiply desire.

gato (gah-toe) - m. cat

 * A stray cat struts with gaps betwixt toes.

gente (hen-tay) - people

 * ladies and gentlemen

H
haber (ah-ver) - v. to have

 * to have, bear.

hacer (ha-ser) - v. to do, make

 * Hackers do, do, ... make.

habitación (ah-bee-tah-see-own) - living space

 * A habitation is a living space en inglés.

hablar ('ah-blar) - v. to speak, to talk

 * bla, bla: to speak or talk much while saying little.

hay (ay) - there is (are)

 * Make hay while there is sunshine.

I
idioma (Ee-dee-OH-ma) - language

 * "thousands of idioms, occurring frequently in all languages." -- Wikipedia

ir (ear) - v. to go

 * To go irretrievably off course to save round trip fare, of course.

L
labios (LA-bee-ohs) - lips

 * Labia ornaments English with Latin (lips).

león (ley-own) - lion

 * Leo 's symbol is a lion.

levantar (leh-bahn-tahr) - v. to raise, to lift up

 * When you levitate, you are raised up off the ground

llamar (ya-mar) - v. to call, name

 * Listen, Lamar – manage a ring!

llegar (yay-gar) - v. to arrive

 * Land lightly, egress, and row.

llevar (yay-var) - v. to take, carry.

 * Lift, leave, evade arrest.

lugar (loo-gar) - n. place, position

 * Location using ground-assisted radar.

M
mayor (ma-your) - adj. larger, older, main

 * The mayor may have won mainly by dint of being larger and older.

mariposa - butterfly

 * Marie inventively poses a butterfly pin.

mismo (mees-moe) - adj. same

She misses Moe the same.

N
nacer (nah-sair) - v. to be born

 * A renaissance certainly means to be reborn.

nuestro (new-aye-stro) - our

 * Our notre dame, their nuestra señora, are of dedications made.

P
parecer (par-ay-ser) - v. to seem, look like

 * Apparently, not certainly, parecer means apparently.

pez (pais) - m. fish

 * Pisces is symbolized by a fish.

poder (poe-dair) - v. to be able to, can

 * To be able to self-fulfill prophecy is potent derivation.

poner (poe-nair) - v. to put on, get (+ adj.)

 * Put it on, Erwin.

primavera (preem-a-ver-a) - f. spring

 * Primera verde, "first green", is a description of spring.

probar (proh-bahr) - v. to try, to try on, to test

 * You have to try the new pro bar!

Q
quedar (kay-dar) - v. to stay, remain

 * Quiescence under every directional arrangement.

querer (kay-air) - v. to want, love

 * You do want to love a queerer one...?

R
ratón (ra-tone) - m. mouse

 * A mouse looks like an old rat once did.

S
saber (sah-bear) - v. to know

 * To know proper social conduct is to have savoir faire ("know how to do"), the savvy savant demonstrated with his saber.

sacar (sa-car) - v. to take out
 * The sacked and newly retired were given more stuff: sacs, to take it all out.

seguir (say-goo-ear) - v. to follow

 * Segue is irreducibly both noun and verb meaning to follow in time, en inglés.

según (say-goon) - prep. as; according to

 * according to several grunts [insert gif]

sentarse (sent-ar-say) - v. to seat yourself. ( Irregular verb: when conjugated the first "e" is replaced with "ie.")

 * To seat yourself be sent, arse-first, to seat.

ser (sair) - v. to be (permanent condition / essential character)

 * Song title "Que Será Será" literally means "whatever will be, will be".
 * Serves as

sobre (so-bray) - prep. on top of, over, about

 * Superimposed or based ‘round, enveloping.

T
tal (tal) - adj. such

 * Such talisman, much luck.

talla (tah-yah) - size

 * Yes, a size tall is a lot larger than small.

tanto (tawn-toe) - adv. so much, so many

 * Tantalizing oh so many, so much.

tener (ten-air) - v. to have

 * To be tenacious is to have drive and persistence.

trabajo (tra-ba-hoe) m. work, job, effort

 * Travail borne at job.

U
último (OO-tea-mo) - last

 * Penultimate means next to last en inglés.

V
vacío (bah-SEE-oh) - m. empty

 * Vacuum meaning empty of even gas.

ver (vair) - v. to see

 * She averred to have seen it, verily.

vez (bais) - f., time (as in number of times), instance

 * Visitations enumerated zealously.

Y
ya (ya) - adv. already; still

 * Yesterday accomplished.

Z
zorro (zorro) - m. fox

 * Imagine a fox in a Zorro mask.


text:
Template:Education bookshelf

Education G ENERAL T OPICS  - Contemporary Educational Psychology - USMLE Step One Review - Instructional Technology - Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education - Design and Analysis of Advanced Instructional Technologies - Blended Learning in K-12 - Classroom Behavior Management - Technologies for Rural Development ([ edit template]) All Education books...

title: Template:Education bookshelf


text:
Talk:IB Mathematics HL - Topic 1 - Core: Algebra

2,4,6,8,10___


text:
Template:Engineering bookshelf

Engineering G ENERAL  - Control Systems - Statics — A ERONAUTICS  - Jet Propulsion — A STRONAUTICS  - Space Transport and Engineering Methods — A UTOMOTIVE  - Automotive Systems - Electric Vehicle Conversion - Nissan 240SX Performance Modification

— C IVIL E NGINEERING  - House Construction - Soil mechanics - Structural Engineering - Transportation engineering

— M ATERIALS S CIENCE  - Introduction to Materials Science — M ECHANICAL E NGINEERING  - Engineering Acoustics - Solid Mechanics - Engineering Thermodynamics - Fluid Mechanics - Heat Transfer - Engineering Mechanics — E LECTRICAL E NGINEERING  - Circuit Theory - Communication Systems - Digital Circuits - Digital Signal Processing - Embedded Systems - Signals and Systems — E LECTRONIC E NGINEERING  - Circuit Idea - Electronics - Semiconductors — G EOTECHNICAL E NGINEERING  - Geographic Information Systems — M ICRO- and N ANOTECHNOLOGY  - Nanotechnology - Microtechnology All Engineering books...

title: Template:Engineering bookshelf


text:
Talk:A-level Mathematics/OCR/C2/Sequences and Series

Well currently i am just about to start my own exams, most of which are major pieces so my time is severly restricted; I understand what binomal coefficent is but i just dont have the time to fill it in. Also this page needs some examples.--Mitchc 06:43, 27 August 2005 (UTC)


text:
Template:Law bookshelf

Law ' — ' – Property Law —  – Evidence – Constitutional law – Copyright law – Criminal Law – Trade-mark law —  – Criminal Law – Contract Law – Equity and Trusts – Property Law – Tort Law —  – Law and Government —  – Company Law – Database Law – Taxation —  – Civil Procedure – Criminal Law – Copyright Law – Corporate Law – Income Tax – Patent Law – Torts Casebook – Trademark Law —  – European Union Law —  – International Law in the United States – Internet Governance – Private International Law (edit template) All Law books...

title: Template:Law bookshelf


text:
User talk:Ayurbalance

Kellen T 08:03, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Please also check out the Cookbook policy page and the Cookbook talk pages.

title: User talk:Ayurbalance


text:
A-level Biology

This is another of the series of A-level wikibooks. This book is based on the OCR and AQA A-Level Biology specifications, but is not endorsed by either exam board. It should be useful as a revision guide or to find alternative explanations to the ones in your textbook.

This book assumes that you have completed GCSE science. If there are problems with this book, in clarity or a conflict with the syllabus, please feel free to post on the discussion page or to edit it. Useful Assessment Statements for AS&A2 Biology can be found in the IB Biology page.

AS

 * /Biology Foundation/
 * /Human Health and Disease/
 * /Transport/

A2

 * /Central Concepts/

A2 (optional modules)

 * /Application of Genetics/
 * /Environmental Biology/
 * /Growth, Development and Reproduction/
 * /Microbiology and Biotechnology/
 * /Mammalian Physiology and Behavior/

AS

 * Unit 1 (BIOL1)
 * /Disease and Immunology/
 * /The Digestive System/
 * /Cells/
 * /The Respiratory System/
 * /The Circulatory System/
 * Unit 2 (BIOL2)
 * /Variation/
 * /DNA and Genetics/
 * /Variation in Biochemistry and Cells/
 * /The Cell Cycle and Differentiation/
 * /Exchange and Transport Systems/
 * /Classification/
 * /Antibiotic Resistance/
 * /Biodiversity/
 * Unit 3 (BIOL3)

A2

 * Unit 4 (BIOL4)
 * Unit 5 (BIOL5)
 * Unit 6 (BIOL6)

Biologia dla liceum/Okładka

title: A-level Biology


text:
Zoph/Requirements

Zoph is being developed on Linux, but it should be able to run on any OS that can run Apache, MySQL and PHP. Users have reported successful installations on MacOSX, several BSD flavours and even Windows.

Zoph requires the following:
 * Apache 2.2 or 2.4
 * PHP 7.1 or 7.2
 * MariaDB 10.1 or MySQL 5.6 or 5.7
 * ImageMagick 6.9

Other versions may work as well, see below for more details. How to install these applications and get them to work together is depending on your OS and distribution. Check the documentation of the application and/or your distribution for details.

Apache

 * Current versions of Zoph are developed on Apache 2.4.x

PHP
Current versions of Zoph are developed on PHP 7.2
 * PHP 5.5 and older are no longer supported
 * PHP 5.6 and 7.0 should still work, but it is recommended to update to 7.1 or 7.2

Required features

 * The following features (extensions) to PHP are required for Zoph. Not all distributions automatically install all of them.
 * session
 * pcre
 * gd2
 * exif
 * xml
 * pear (if you want to use the e-mail features)
 * FileInfo

php.ini settings
Settings you may need to change in php.ini:

max_input_time
This is the time Zoph is allowed by PHP to spend waiting for the file to be uploaded. Depending on the size of your files and the speed of your server's connection, 30 seconds (the default) is usually enough to process single images, if you are uploading zip or tar files, you may want to increase this to 60 or 120 seconds.

max_execution_time
This is the time Zoph is allowed by PHP to run. Depending on the speed of your webserver, Zoph could spend quite a lot of time resizing an image. 30 seconds may not be enough, especially if you have a camera with a lot of megapixels.

memory_limit
This is the amount of memory PHP allows Zoph to use. Especially if you have large images, the default (8 or 16 Megabyte) may not be enough. If you have sufficient memory in your server, setting it to 128M is perfectly safe.

 * If you are using the web importer you may need to increase the max_execution_time, upload_max_filesize, post_max_size and <tt>max_input_time</tt> in <tt>php.ini</tt>.
 * If you are using the watermarking feature, you probably need to increase the <tt>memory_limit</tt> setting. Please note that enabling this function uses a rather large amount of memory on the webserver. PHP by default allows a script to use a maximum of 8MB memory. You should probably increase this by changing <tt>memory_limit</tt> in php.ini. A rough estimation of how much memory it will use is 6 times the number of megapixels in your camera. For example, if you have a 5 megapixel camera, change the line in <tt>php.ini</tt> to <tt>memory_limit=30M</tt>
 * The e-mail photo feature may require increasing the <tt>memory_limit</tt> setting. Since Zoph needs to convert the photo into Base64 encoding for mail, it requires quite a large amount of memory if you try to send full size images and you may need to adjust <tt>memory_limit</tt> in php.ini, you should give it at least about 4 times the size of your largest image.

MySQL

 * Current versions are developed with MariaDB 10.x
 * MySQL or MariaDB 5.6 or 5.7 should also work
 * MySQL 5.0 to 5.5 may still work but are no longer supported.

ImageMagick

 * Current Zoph versions have been tested against ImageMagick 6.9.x

Browser
In order to be able to use Zoph, you will need a browser.
 * Zoph is being developed and thoroughly tested a with recent Firefox build
 * Zoph should work with all recent browser versions.
 * Please report a bug if it doesn't.
 * Older versions usually work, but layout may not be 100% ok.
 * Some features require Javascript support
 * Most of Zoph should work when Javascript is turned off in the browser, but this is decreasing, Javascript is required for more and more functions!

title: Zoph/Requirements


text:
Zoph/Configuration/config.inc.php

Debugging
An extensive explanation of Zoph's logging system can be found in Logging in Zoph 0.8.1 and later.

Resized image generation
Zoph automatically creates thumbnails and medium-sized ('mid') images during import. To influence this process, you can edit the following parameters:

Database configuration
Before 0.8.2, the database settings were set in config.inc.php (for the web interface) and .zophrc (CLI interface), as of Zoph 0.8.2, these settings are all made in zoph.ini.


text: Template:Zoph/Config

title: Template:Zoph/Config


text:
Ada Programming/Delimiters/double dot

The delimiter .. is used to specify ranges in any scalar type.

For example:

Count  0 .. Max_Count;
 * In numeric type definitions:

Week_Day Day_Name  Monday .. Friday;
 * In subtype definitions:

Vector_A : Vector (0 .. 31);
 * In variable declarations:

X Y .. Y + Epsilon;
 * In membership tests:

Day Day_Name  Monday .. Thursday ;
 * In for loops:

Vector_A (Vector_A' .. Vector_A' + Vector_B' - 1) := Vector_B;
 * In arrays:

Usage notes
When a whole type range will be specified, it is better to use the attribute.

For example, instead of using:

Day  Day_Name' .. Day_Name' ; it is better to use:

Day Day_Name' ;

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Delimiters
 * Ada Programming/Attributes/'Range

Ada Reference Manual

|..

title: Ada Programming/Delimiters/double dot


text: Template:Wikipedia category

title: Template:Wikipedia category


text:
Cookbook:Doubles (Trinidadian Bread with Curried Chickpeas)

| Cuisine | Caribbean cuisines | Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago

Procedure

 * 1) In large bowl combine flour, salt, turmeric, cumin, sugar and yeast.
 * 2) Add enough lukewarm water to make a soft dough. Mix well, cover and let rise 2 hours.
 * 3) Boil soaked chickpeas in salted water until tender. Drain well.
 * 4) Heat oil in a heavy skillet, add garlic, onion, and curry powder mixed with ¼ cup (60 ml) water; sauté for a few minutes.
 * 5) Add chickpeas, stir to coat well and cook for 5 minutes. Add 1 cup water, cumin, salt and pepper.
 * 6) Cover, lower heat and simmer until peas are soft; add more water if necessary. When chickpeas are finished they should be soft and moist; adjust seasoning.
 * 7) Punch down dough and allow to relax for 15 minutes.
 * 8) To shape bara, take about 1 tablespoon of dough, pat with both hands to flatten to a circle 4–5 inches in diameter; use water to moisten palms of hands.
 * 9) Fry a few baras at a time in hot oil; turn once and drain on kitchen paper.
 * 10) Make a sandwich by placing 2 tablespoons of cooked chickpeas between 2 baras.
 * 11) Add pepper sauce and mango chutney to taste.


text:
Talk:Japanese/Grammar/Sentence ending particles

Untitled
Need to indicate which verb forms can precede which particles. - ToothingLummox 13:55, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

 * the problem is, learners do not know the verb forms yet... --lastguru 14:12, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

Some notes for my edit: - Marsian / talk 15:24:38, 2005-08-27 (UTC)
 * 1) たなかさん は せんせい だ ね: "...だよね？" is natural in this case.
 * 2) だいじょうぶ だなあ: It's strange. だいじょうぶさ or だいじょうぶだよ is okay.
 * 3) ぜ - ...with people whose social status is below the speaker's: No. You can use it to your friend as 「早く行こうぜ」
 * 4) わ - used only by women: No. A man usually say as 「わかった、じゃ3時に行くわ」. It's true that men don't use "わよ".

 * Doesn't わ usage by men vary a lot depending on the region? -ToothingLummox 15:36, 27 August 2005 (UTC)

 * Er... hmm... yeah. Or, at least, originally. It seems the usage originally from Kansai or western Japan. However, thanks to the TV, I feel not a small number of people(men and women) almost everywhere in Japan occasionally use "わ" of this kind ...but imagining about the number of the people who use it daily and the frequency it is used, appearently the main region is Kansai or western Japanese... Well, it's my mistake to erase the notice. Thanks for your edit, ToothingLummox. - Marsian / talk 17:18:49, 2005-08-27 (UTC)