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Latin/Appendix E

Latin

This page provides a list of Latin phrases and their English translations.

This page is copied from the Wikipedia article List of Latin phrases. Check that page to see the latest changes to this page.

A

 * A pedibus usque ad caput
 * "From feet to head."

 * Ab urbe condita or Anno urbis conditae, abbreviated A.U.C.
 * "from the founding of the city" (of Rome); 753 B.C., according to Livy's count; used as a reference point by the Romans for establishing dates, as we use A.D. today.

 * A bene placito
 * "at your pleasure"

 * Ad Calendas Graecas
 * "To the Greek Kalends", i.e. "to a date that does not (or will not) exist" (Emperor Augustus, in Suetonius, in the sense of "never" - Kalends were part of the Roman calendar, not of the Greek, so it is used of a false or unlikely promise)

 * Ad captandum vulgus
 * "To appeal to the crowd" -- often used of politicians who make false or insincere promises appealing to popular interest.

 * Ad hoc
 * "For a particular purpose (improvised, made up in an instant)"

 * Ad hominem
 * "To the man", meaning 1) an argument designed to appeal to personal interest rather than objective fact; 2) an argument criticizing one's opponent rather than his ideas.

 * Ad interim
 * "in the meantime", as in the term "chargé d'affaires ad interim" for a diplomatic officer who acts in place of an ambassador

 * Ad infinitum
 * "to infinity", going on forever

 * Ad libitum (ad lib)
 * "Freely; at ease", just ramble

 * Ad majorem Dei gloriam
 * "to the greater glory of God"

 * Ad multos annos
 * "To many years!", i.e. "Many happy returns!"

 * Ad nauseam
 * "to the point of nausea"

 * Ad valorem
 * "by the value", e.g. ad valorem tax

 * Adde parvum parvo manus acervus erit.
 * "Add little to little and there will be a big pile." Ovid

 * Alea iacta est
 * "The die is cast" (Julius Caesar in Suetonius uses it as an imperative "Alea jacta esto": "Let the die be cast")

 * Alma mater
 * "nourishing mother" - used for the university one has attended

 * Alter ego
 * "Another self" - usually refers to a pseudonym but can refer to another person.

 * A mari usque ad mare
 * "From sea to sea" - motto of Canada

 * Amicus curiae
 * 'Friend of the court" (adviser), a person who can obtain or grant access to the favour of powerful people (like Romana curia). In current US legal usage, a brief submitted to the court by a third party.

 * Ante litteram
 * "before the letter", a qualifier for an expression when applied to something that existed before the expression itself was introduced or became common. For example, one could say that Alan Turing was a computer scientist ante litteram, since the profession of "computer scientist" was not recognised in Turing's day.

 * Ars gratia artis
 * "Art for art's sake" (motto of MGM)

 * Ars longa, vita brevis
 * "Art is long, life is short". This is the Latin translation by Horace of a phrase from Hippocrates, and is often used out of context. The art referred to in the original aphorism was the craft of medicine, which took a lifetime to acquire.

 * Aurea mediocritas
 * "Golden Mean" (in Horace, Odi, an ethical goal)

 * Ave atque vale
 * "Hail and farewell!"

B

 * Bona fide
 * "In good faith"

C

 * Cacoethes scribendi
 * "An insatiable urge to write." From Juvenal

 * Carpe diem
 * "Seize the day" (Horace to Leuconoe: carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero, reap the day, believing as little as possible in the morrow)

 * Casus belli
 * "an event that causes or justifies war"

 * Caveat emptor
 * "Let the buyer beware", i.e. the onus of responsibility is on the purchaser of goods.

 * Cave canem
 * "Beware of the dog"

 * Ceteris paribus :
 * "All other things being equal"

 * Christus Rex :
 * "Christ the King"

 * Circa
 * "About, approximately, around", e.g. of a date: "Jesus Christ was actually born circa 6 B.C."

 * Cogito ergo sum
 * "I think, therefore I am" (René Descartes)

 * Compos mentis
 * "Of sound mind" (sometimes used rather humorously)

 * Conditio sine qua non
 * "Condition without which not", or "indispensable condition".

 * Corpus delicti
 * "body of the crime" - something that proves a crime

 * Cui bono
 * "Whom does it benefit?" - a maxim sometimes used in the detection of crime.

 * Cui prodest
 * "Whom does it benefit?" (short form for cui prodest scelus, is fecit in Seneca's Medea - the murderer is the one who gains by the murder)

 * Cum grano salis
 * "With a grain of salt" (just a bit of wise attention)

 * Curriculum vitae
 * "course of life" - a résumé

D

 * Damnant quod non intellegunt
 * "They condemn what they do not understand."

 * De facto
 * "in fact", "in practice"

 * De gustibus non disputandum est
 * "there is no disputing matters of taste"

 * De jure
 * "by law"

 * De minimis non curat praetor (or rex or lex)
 * "The authority" (or "king", or "law") "does not care about trivial things"

 * De novo
 * "Anew"

 * Deus ex machina
 * "A contrived or artificial solution" (literally, "a god from a machine"). Refers to the practice in Greek drama of letting Zeus resolve awkward plots when a mechanical device would lower an actor playing Zeus onto the stage near the end of a play, as though he were descending from Olympus.)

 * Deus vult!
 * "God wills it!" (Slogan of the Crusades)

 * Divide et impera
 * "Divide and govern", attributed to Philip II of Macedonia and meaning that if you encourage rivalries and jealousies among your people, you will rule them more easily

 * Dominus Illuminatio Mea
 * "The Lord is my light" (the motto of Oxford University).

 * Dum spiro, spero
 * "As long as I breathe, I hope" (also "When I die, I hope" - spiro means also 'I breathe the last breath')

 * Dura lex, sed lex
 * "The law is harsh, but it is the law"

E

 * E pluribus unum
 * "From many, one" - the motto of the USA.

 * Ecce homo
 * "Behold the man!" -- in the Gospel of John these words are spoken by Pilate as he presents Christ crowned with thorns to the crowd.

 * Emeritus
 * "Honorary; by merit"

 * Esto perpetua
 * "Let it be everlasting" -- used by the historian Fra Paolo Sarpi of his native Venice.

 * Et alii
 * "And others", often written et al. (Alii strictly means "male others", but is also used for groups of men and women; et aliae is used when the "others" are all female.)

 * Et cetera
 * "And the other ones", also abbreviated as 'etc.' (nowadays used for "and the rest")

 * Et in Arcadia ego
 * "I, also, am in Arcadia" (See memento mori)

 * Ex animo
 * "From the heart" (sincerely)

 * Ex ante
 * "Before the event, beforehand" (economics: based on prior assumptions)

 * Ex Cathedra
 * "From the chair" -- a phrase applied to the Pope when he is speaking infallibly and, by extension, to others who speak with supreme authority or arrogance.

 * Excelsior
 * "Ever upward"

 * Exempli gratia
 * "For the sake of example", also abbreviated as 'e.g.'

 * Exeunt
 * See exit.

 * Ex hypothesi
 * "from the hypothesis" (i.e. the one under consideration)

 * Exit
 * "he / she leaves;" Exeunt omnes: they all leave

 * Ex libris...
 * "From the books (library) of..."

 * Ex nihilo nihil fit
 * "Nothing comes from nothing" - you need to work for something

 * Ex officio
 * "From the office" - when someone holds one position by virtue of holding another, e.g. the U.S. vice president is ex officio president of the Senate

 * Ex post facto
 * "After the fact" (also post facto)

 * Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus
 * "Outside the Church [there is] No Salvation" -- a phrase of much disputed significance in Roman Catholic theology.

F

 * Fiat justitia (et ruat cælum)
 * "Let justice be done (though the heavens fall)"

 * Fidei Defensor
 * "Defender of the Faith" -- a title given to Henry VIII of England by Pope Leo X before Henry became an heresiarch.

 * Fons et origo
 * "The wellspring and origin"

G

 * Genius loci
 * "the spirit of the place"

 * Gloria in excelsis Deo
 * "glory to God in the highest"

H

 * Habeas corpus
 * "You must have the body", i.e. you must justify an imprisonment. (From the Writ to bring a prisoner to court - Charles II of England, Habeas corpus Act - 1679)

 * Habemus papam
 * "We have a pope" - used at the announcement of a new pope (see conclave)

 * Hic jacet...
 * "Here lies...." -- written on gravestones or tombs.

 * Honoris causa (h.c.)
 * as in "doctorate h.c.", an honorary degree

 * Horribile dictu
 * "Horrible to tell"

I

 * Imperium in imperio
 * "An empire within an empire," i.e. a fifth column, a group of people within an nation's territory who owe allegiance to some other leader.

 * In absentia
 * "in the absence" (of a defendant in court)

 * Infinitus est numerus stultorum
 * "Infinite is the number of fools" Ecclesiastes 1:15 (Vulgate)

 * In flagrante delicto
 * "In flaming crime," i.e. "red-handed" -nowadays used when you are in found in a compromising situation with a sexual partner

 * In memoriam
 * "In memory of"

 * In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas
 * "In necessary things unity, in doubtful things liberty, in all things charity" -- a theological phrase often misattributed to St Augustine.

 * In situ
 * "In place"; in the original location and environment.

 * In toto
 * "In total" (altogether)

 * In vino veritas
 * "Drink brings out the truth" (literally, "in wine, truth")

 * Incredibile dictu
 * "Incredible to say"

 * Ipso facto
 * "By the fact itself"

 * Iunctis viribus
 * "By united efforts"

 * Ius primae noctis
 * "Right of the first night" - droit de seigneur

L

 * Labor omnia vincit
 * "Labor conquers all"

 * Lapsus calami
 * "A slip of the pen"

 * Lapsus linguae
 * "A slip of the tongue"

 * Lapsus memoriae
 * "Memory lapse"

 * lorem ipsum
 * A fragment of Latin from Cicero, used as filler by copy editors.

M

 * Magna cum laude
 * "With great honor"

 * Magnum opus
 * "Masterpiece" (great work); also ironically.

 * Mala fide
 * "In bad faith" -- aomething which is done fraudulently.

 * Malum in se
 * "Wrong in itself" a crime that is inherently wrong, as opposed to malum prohibitum.

 * Malum prohibitum
 * "A prohibited wrong" a crime that society decides is wrong for some reason, not inherently evil.

 * Mea (maxima) culpa
 * "By my own (very great) fault" -- used in Christian prayers and confession.

 * Memento mori
 * "Remember that you will die."

 * Mirabile dictu
 * "Wonderful to tell"

 * Modus operandi
 * "way of working" - usually used to describe a criminal's methods, often abbreviated M.O.

 * Modus vivendi
 * "way of life" - an accommodation between disagreeing parties

 * Multum in parvo
 * "Much in little" -- e.g. "Latin phrases are often multum in parvo, because they convey much in few words."

 * Mutatis mutandis
 * "The necessary changes having been made."

N

 * Nemo me impune lacessit
 * "No-one provokes me with impunity" -- a famous Scottish motto.

 * Nolens (aut) volens
 * "Willing or not"

 * Noli me tangere
 * "Touch me not" -- according to the Gospel of John, this was said by Christ to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection.

 * Non compos mentis or Non compos sui
 * "Of unsound mind"

 * Non sequitur
 * Statement that doesn't follow logic (Literally, "It does not follow.")

 * Non serviam
 * "I will not serve"

 * Nosce te ipsum
 * "Know thyself"

 * Nota bene
 * "note it well" - an important note

O

 * Oderint dum metuant
 * "Let them hate, so long as they fear." Attributed by Seneca to the playwright Lucius Accius, and said to be a favourite saying of Caligula's.

 * Odi et amo
 * "I hate (her), and I love (her)." From Catullus

 * Odium theologicum
 * "Theological hatred" -- a special name for the hatred generated in theological disputes.

 * Ora et labora
 * "Pray and work" - Benedictine motto

P

 * Pacta sunt servanda
 * "agreements must be honoured"

 * Parens patriae
 * "Parent of the country"

 * Pari passu
 * "With equal step" - moving together

 * Parturiunt montes, nascetur ridiculus mus
 * A line from Horace: "The mountains are in labour, and a ridiculous mouse shall be born" (i.e. much ado about nothing).

 * pater familias
 * "father of the family"

 * Pax tecum
 * "Peace be with you (singular)"

 * Pax vobiscum
 * "Peace be with you (plural)"

 * Per annum
 * "Per year"

 * Per ardua ad astra or Per aspera ad astra
 * "Through hardship to the stars," motto of the Royal Air Force.

 * Per caput, per capita
 * "Per person" (literally, "by head(s)")

 * Per se
 * "By or in itself, without referring to anything else, intrinsically", see for instance negligence per se

 * Perpetuum mobile
 * something in perpetual motion

 * Petitio principii
 * "begging the question"

 * Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
 * "After this, therefore because of this" (a fallacy).

 * Post mortem
 * "after death"

 * Primum non nocere
 * "First, do no harm"

 * Principiis obsta
 * "Resist the beginnings"

 * Pro bono publico
 * "For the public good" - a lawyer's work is said to be pro bono if he does not charge for it.

 * Pro rata
 * "For the rate" (per hour for example)

 * Pro tempore
 * "For the time being"

 * Persona non grata
 * "Person not wanted"

 * Pulvis et umbra sumus
 * "We are dust and shadow" --- from Horace

Q

 * Quære
 * "(You might) ask. . ." Used to introduce questions, usually rhetorical or tangential questions.

 * Quid pro quo
 * "A thing for a thing", i.e. a favor for a favor.

 * Quidnunc? or Quid nunc?
 * "What now?" As a noun, a quidnunc is a busybody or a gossip.

 * Quis custodiet ipsos custodies?
 * A line from Juvenal: "Who will watch the watchmen?"

 * Quieta non movere
 * "Don't move settled things", or: "Don't rock the boat."

 * Quod erat demonstrandum, abbreviated as Q.E.D.
 * "that which was to be demonstrated." This abbreviation is often written at the bottom of a completed proof.

 * Quo vadis
 * "Where are you going?" (according to Christian legend, St. Peter meeting Jesus on the Appian way in Rome asks: "Quo vadis, Domine?", or "Where goest thou, Lord?")

R

 * Rara avis
 * "A rare bird", i.e. an extraodinary or unusual thing (from Juvenal's Satires: rara avis in terris nigroque simillima cycno, "a rare bird on the earth, and very like a black swan".)

 * Regnat populus
 * "Let the People rule"

 * Requiescat in pace (RIP)
 * "Rest in peace"

 * Res ipsa loquitur
 * "the thing speaks for itself;" a phrase from the common law of torts that refers to situations when it's assumed that a person's injury was caused by the negligent action of another party because the accident was the sort that wouldn't occur unless someone was negligent.

 * Risus abundat in ore stultorum
 * "Abundant laughs in the mouth of the foolish" - too much hilarity means foolishness

 * Rosa rubicundior, lilio candidior, omnibus formosior, semper in te glorior
 * "Redder than the rose, whiter than the lilies, fairer than everything, I will always glory in thee."

S

 * Salus populi suprema lex esto
 * "Let the good of the people be the supreme law"

 * Salva veritate
 * "With truth preserved"

 * Sapere aude
 * "Dare to be wise"

 * Semper fidelis
 * "Always faithful"

 * Semper paratus
 * "Always prepared"

 * Sic
 * "Thus", "just so". Used to state that quoted material appears exactly that way in the source, usually despite errors of spelling, grammar, usage, or fact.

 * Sic semper tyrannis
 * "Thus always to tyrants" -- Motto of the American state of Virginia and said to have been shouted by John Wilkes Booth after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.

 * Sic transit gloria mundi
 * "Thus passes the glory of the world"

 * SPQR or Senatus Populusque Romanus
 * "The Senate and the People of Rome" -- "SPQR" was carried on battle standards by the Legions.

 * Status quo
 * "Existing state of affairs" (from "statu quo ante", prior or current situation)

 * Sub iudice (or Sub judice)
 * "under a judge", i.e. a case that cannot be publicly discussed until it is finished.

 * Sub poena
 * "under penalty", i.e. on pain of punishment

 * Sub rosa
 * "under the rose," secretly (a rose was placed above a door to indicate that what was said in the room beyond was not to be repeated outside)

 * sui generis
 * literally meaning of its own gender/genus

 * Summa cum laude
 * "With the highest honor"

 * Summum bonum
 * "The supreme good"

 * Sutor, ne ultra crepidam
 * "Cobbler, no further than (your competence on) the sandal" -- It is said that Greek painter Apelles was one day painting a warrior but he was uncertain on how to render his sandals (crepida). He asked the advice of a cobbler (sutor), but after a time the cobbler started offering advice on other parts of the painting and was rebuked by Apelles with this phrase (but in Greek).

T

 * Tabula rasa
 * "A scraped slate" (Romans used to write on wax tablets, easy to erase).

 * Terra firma
 * "Solid ground"

 * Terra incognita
 * "Unknown land"

 * Tu autem
 * "You, also." (See memento mori)

U

 * Ubi mel ibi apes
 * "Where honey, there bees", i.e., if you want support, you must offer something in return.

 * Ubi revera or Ubi re vera
 * "When, in reality..."

 * Ultima ratio
 * "last reason" - the last resort

 * Urbi et orbi
 * "to the city [Rome] and to the globe" - a blessing of the pope

V

 * Vade mecum
 * "Come with me." A vade-mecum is an item one carries around, especially a handbook.

 * Veni, vidi, vici
 * "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Julius Cesar describing his campaign in De Bello Gallico)

 * Via
 * "By way of"

 * Via media
 * "Middle path", often used of the Church of England, which was said to be a via media between the errors of Roman Catholicism and extreme Protestantism.

 * Vice versa
 * "A reverse of order or meaning"

 * Vivat, crescat, floreat!
 * "May he/she/it live, grow, and flourish!"

 * Vivat Rex!/Vivat Regina!
 * "Long live the King!/Long live the Queen!"

 * Volenti non fit iniuria.
 * "A person who consents does not suffer injustice."

from Wikipedia, the Free encyclopedia.

^ Latin ^

title: Latin/Appendix E


text:
Latin/Lesson 5-Accusative

Grammar: The Accusative
As you learned in the last lesson, the verb 'esse' (to be) usually takes the nominative case, because then the word after it is a complement. Most other verbs take the 'accusative' case.

In a sentence, the accusative is the "what" - in English grammar, this is known as the direct object.

For example: The girl sells the box.

What did the girl sell? The box. Thus, box is the direct object, and when we translate it into Latin:

Cistam, then, is in the accusative, because it is the direct object.

Again, when an adjective describes a noun in the accusative case, the adjective must agree in number, case, and gender.

Because Latin uses cases to mark the subject and the object of a sentence, word order does not matter. Consider:

Examples of Adjectives Agreeing with the Nominative and Accusative Case
Bonus, a first and second declension adjective, is masculine, nominative, and singular to agree with puer, the word it is describing.

Ferocem, a third declension adjective, is masculine, accusative, and singular to agree with canem. Canem is accusative because it is the object of amat.

Here is an example of plural adjectives:

The words bonus and ferocem become boni and feroces to agree with the plurals pueri and canes.

However, if a girl (puella) happened to love that boy:

Bonus must become bona in order to modify puella, which is feminine.

Finally, if the girl isn't good, but rather wild:

Even though puella is first declension, ferox remains third declension. In the same way, a good lion would be bonus leo.

Exercise 2
Determine whether the adjective agrees with the substantive in all three categories: case, gender, number.

 * * Nota bene: Poeta (meaning poet) is a masculine noun, even though it ends in -a.

Grammar: The Use of the Accusative
The newly introduced verbs, ama-t, curri-t, and porta-t take the accusative as the 'object'. Unless specified, any verb you look up in the dictionary will take the accusative, not the nominative. This means that they are transitive verbs, verbs that happen to someone or something, e.g.:

I heal you. (acc.) You make my day. (acc.) She hit your arm. (acc.)

In the examples above, the bold words are the subject of the sentence clause. Because something happens "to" them, they can't be in nominative.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Latin/Lesson 5-Accusative


text:
English in Use/Nouns

 * This page is written in English, and therefore needs to be translated at a later date to other languages for it to become more useful.

A noun, or noun substantive, is a part of speech (a word or phrase) which functions as the head of a noun phrase. The word "noun" derives from the Latin nomen meaning "name", and a traditional definition of nouns is that they are only those expressions that refer to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, or idea. They serve as the subject or object of a verb and as the governed term of a preposition, and can co-occur with articles and attributive adjectives.

There are different groups of nouns:

 * Common nouns—"chair",
 * Proper nouns—"Fred",
 * Abstract nouns—"love",
 * Collective nouns—"gaggle",
 * Compound nouns—"butterfly",
 * Verbal nouns—"triumphing".

Each of these different groups of nouns have different properties, each making them different in how we use them.

Thus, nouns are names of objects, places, people and things. They are used with adjectives to describe something, and with verbs to show an action.

Concrete nouns
Concrete nouns are proper nouns and common nouns.

Proper nouns
Proper nouns are the names of people, places, groups or dates: as, Adam, Boston, the Hudson, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps. They almost always have a capital letter as their first letter. Example:

 * "Timmy is not someone to be toyed with."No one likes to hear other people boast their talents.

Common nouns
Common nouns are the names of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things: as, beast, bird, fish, insect, creatures, persons, children. They often refer to objects or things which we can see, touch and feel, like the word chair. Example:

 * "I sat at the table."

Individual nouns
Their refer to only one thing of the same kind, for eg: man, player, cow, chicken, minister.

Collective nouns
Collective nouns are the names of a groups of objects or many individuals together: as, council, meeting, committee, flock. Example:

 * "They are a group."

Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns are the names of some particular qualities considered apart from its substance: as, goodness, hardness, pride, frailty. They are often names of the things that we cannot touch or see, but are there all the same. Example:

 * "I think I've fallen in love!"

Verbal nouns
Verbal nouns or participial nouns are the names of some actions, or states of being; and are formed from a verb, like a participle, but employed as a noun: as,

 * "The triumphing of the wicked is short."—Job, XX, 5.

Sui generis
A thing sui generis, (i.e., of its own peculiar kind,) is something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a species, but as a sort by itself, without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing: as, galvanism, music, geometry.

Adjectives made nouns

 * "The Ancient of days did sit."—Bible.
 * "Of the ancients."—Swift.
 * "For such impertinents."—Steele.
 * "He is an ignorant in it."—Id.
 * "In the luxuriance of an unbounded picturesque."—Jamieson.
 * "A source of the sublime;"—Burke.
 * "The vast immense of space:"—Murray.
 * "There is none his like."—Job, XLI, 33.
 * "A little more than a little, is by much too much."—Shakespeare.
 * "And gladly make much of that entertainment."—Sidney.
 * "A covetous man makes the most of what he has."—L'Estrange.
 * "It has done enough for me."—Pope.
 * "He had enough to do."—Bacon.
 * "All withers here; who most possess, are losers by their gain, stung by full proof, that bad at best, life's idle all is vain."—Young.
 * "Nor grudge I you the much the Grecians give, nor murmuring take the little I receive."—Dryden.

Pronouns made nouns

 * "A love of seeing the what and how of all about him."—Story's Life of Flaxman: Pioneer, Vol. i, p. 133.
 * "The nameless he, whose nod is Nature's birth."—Young, Night iv.
 * "I was wont to load my she with knacks."—Shak. Winter's Tale.
 * "Or any he, the proudest of your sort."—Shak.
 * "I am the happiest she in Kent."—Steele.
 * "The shes of Italy."—Shak.
 * "The hes in birds."—Bacon.
 * "We should soon have as many hes and shes as the French."—Cobbet's E. Gram., Para. 42.
 * "If, for instance, we call a nation a she, or the sun a he."—Ib., Para. 198.
 * "When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer."—Ib., Para. 196.
 * "Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their whos and their whiches."—Spect: Ash's Gr., p. 131.
 * "Such mortal drugs I have; but Mantua's law is death to any he that utters them."—Shak.

Verbs made nouns

 * "Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric."—Cowper.
 * "A may-be of mercy is sufficient."—Bridge.
 * "Which cuts are reckoned among the fractures."—Wiseman.
 * "The officer erred in granting a permit."
 * "Feel darts and charms, attracts and flames."—Hudibras.
 * "You may know by the falling off of the come, or sprout."—Mortimer.
 * "And you have talked of sallies and retires."—Shak.
 * "For all that else did come, were sure to fail; yet would he further none, but for avail."—Spenser.

Participles made nouns (gerunds)

 * "For the producing of real happiness."—Crabb.
 * "For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will arise."—Bible.
 * "Surely the churning of milk brings forth butter, and the wringing of the nose brings forth blood; so the forcing of wrath brings forth strife."—Prov., xxx, 33.
 * "Reading, writing, and ciphering, are indispensable to civilized man."
 * "Hence was invented the distinction between doing and permitting."—Calvin's Inst., p. 131.
 * "Knowledge of the past comes next."—Hermes, p. 113.
 * "I am my beloved's, and his desire is toward me."—Sol. Song, vii, 10.
 * "Here's—a simple coming-in for one man."—Shak.
 * "What are your rents? What are your comings-in? O Ceremony, show me but your worth."—Id.

Adverbs made nouns

 * "In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how of things."—L'Estrange.
 * "If a point or now were extended, each of them would contain within itself infinite other points or nows."—Hermes, p. 101.
 * "The why is plain as way to parish church."—Shak.
 * "It is heaven itself that points out an hereafter."—Addison.
 * "The dread of a hereafter."—Fuller.
 * "The murmur of the deep amen."—Sir W. Scott.
 * "For their whereabouts lies in a mystery."—Book of Thoughts, p. 14. Better.
 * "Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind; you lose here, a better where to find."—Shak.

Conjunctions made nouns

 * "The if, which is here employed, converts the sentence into a supposition."—Blair's Rhet.
 * "Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue is in if."—Shak.
 * "So his lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone, decisive and clear, without one if or but—that whenever the nose put his spectacles on, by daylight or candlelight—eyes should be shut."—Cowper.

Prepositions made nouns

 * "O, not like me; for mine's beyond beyond."—Shakspeare: Cymb., iii, 2.
 * "I.e., her longing is further than beyond; beyond anything that desire can be said to be beyond."—Singer's Notes.
 * "You whirled them to the back of beyont to look at the auld Roman camp."—Antiquary, i. 37.

Interjections or phrases made nouns

 * "Come away from all the lo-heres! and lo-theres!"—Sermon.
 * "Will cuts him short with a 'What then?'"—Sermon.
 * "With hark and whoop, and wild halloo."—Scott.
 * "And made a pish at chance and sufferance."—Shak.
 * "A single look more marks the internal wo, than all the windings of the lengthened oh."—Lloyd.

Inflections of Nouns
Nouns have modifications of genders, numbers, and cases.

Genders
Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in regard to sex.

There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter:

 * 1) The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the male kind: as, man, father, king.
 * 2) The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or animals of the female kind: as, woman, mother, queen.
 * 3) The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female: as, pen, ink, paper.

Hence, names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine; and names of things inanimate, literally, neuter.

 * Masculine nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is changed to ess: as,

 * Hunter, huntress; prince, princess; lion, lioness.

 * In some instances the syllable ess is simply added: as,

 * Accuser, accuseress; advocate, advocatess; archer, archeress; author, authoress; avenger, avengeress; barber, barberess; baron, baroness; canon, canoness; cit, cittess; coheir, coheiress; count, countess; deacon, deaconess; demon, demoness; diviner, divineress; doctor, doctoress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; guardian, guardianess; Hebrew, Hebrewess; heir, heiress; herd, herdess; hermit, hermitess; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess; Jew, Jewess; mayor, mayoress; Moabite, Moabitess; monarch, monarchess; pape, papess; or, pope, popess; patron, patroness; peer, peeress; poet, poetess; priest, priestess; prior, prioress; prophet, prophetess; regent, regentess; saint, saintess; shepherd, shepherdess; soldier, soldieress; tailor, tailoress; viscount, viscountess; warrior, warrioress.

 * In other instances, the termination is changed, and there is no increase of syllables: as,

 * Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; adulator, adulatress; adulterer, adulteress; adventurer, adventuress; advoutrer, advoutress; ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress; or, anachoret, anachoress; arbiter, arbitress; auditor, auditress; benefactor, benefactress; caterer, cateress; chanter, chantress; cloisterer, cloisteress; commander, commandress; conductor, conductress; creator, creatress; demander, demandress; detractor, detractress; eagle, eagless; editor, editress; elector, electress; emperor, emperess, or empress; emulator, emulatress; enchanter, enchantress; exactor, exactress; fautor, fautress; fornicator, fornicatress; fosterer, fosteress, or fostress; founder, foundress; governor, governess; huckster, huckstress; or, hucksterer, hucksteress; idolater, idolatress; inhabiter, inhabitress; instructor, instructress; inventor, inventress; launderer, launderess, or laundress; minister, ministress; monitor, monitress; murderer, murderess; negro, negress; offender, offendress; ogre, ogress; porter, portress; progenitor, progenitress; protector, protectress; proprietor, proprietress; pythonist, pythoness; seamster, seamstress; solicitor, solicitress; songster, songstress; sorcerer, sorceress; suitor, suitress; tiger, tigress; traitor, traitress; victor, victress; votary, votaress.

 * In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing or to rix; but some of these have also the regular form, which ought to be preferred: as,

 * Adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator, arbitratrix; coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress, or competitrix; creditor, creditrix; director, directress, or directrix; executor, executress, or executrix; inheritor, inheritress, or inheritrix; mediator, mediatress, or mediatrix; orator, oratress, or oratrix; rector, rectress, or rectrix; spectator, spectatress, or spectatrix; testator, testatrix; tutor, tutoress, or tutress, or tutrix; deserter, desertress, or desertrice, or desertrix.

 * The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex is chiefly made by the termination:

 * Amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain, chambermaid; duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody, or goodwife; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis, marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer, sewster; sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower, widow.

Numbers
Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish unity and plurality.

There are two numbers; the singular and the plural.

The singular number is that which denotes but one: as,

 * "The boy learns."

The plural number is that which denotes more than one: as,

 * "The boys learn."
 * Plurals in meaning and form:

 * Analects, annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bowels, breeches, calends, cates, chops, clothes, compasses, crants, eaves, embers, estovers, forceps, giblets, goggles, greaves, hards or hurds, hemorrhoids, ides, matins, nippers, nones, obsequies, orgies, piles, pincers or pinchers, pliers, reins, scissors, shears, skittles, snuffers, spectacles, teens, tongs, trowsers, tweezers, umbles, vespers, victuals.

 * Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives:

 * Acoustics, aeronautics, analytics, bitters, catoptrics, commons, conics, credentials, delicates, dioptrics, economics, ethics, extraordinaries, filings, fives, freshes, glanders, gnomonics, goods, hermeneutics, hustings, hydrodynamics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, hysterics, inwards, leavings, magnetics, mathematics, measles, mechanics, mnemonics, merils, metaphysics, middlings, movables, mumps, nuptials, optics, phonics, phonetics, physics, pneumatics, poetics, politics, riches, rickets, settlings, shatters, skimmings, spherics, staggers, statics, statistics, stays, strangles, sundries, sweepings, tactics, thanks, tidings, trappings, vives, vitals, wages, withers, yellows.

 * Plurals by composition:

 * Backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms, headquarters, hotcockles, spatterdashes, self-affairs. To these may be added the Latin words, aborigines, antipodes, antes, antoeci, amphiscii, anthropophagi, antiscii, ascii, literati, fauces, regalia, and credenda, with the Italian vermicelli, and the French belles-lettres and entremets.

Regular plurals
The plural form is usually represented orthographically by adding s to the singular form. The phonetic form of the plural morpheme is by default. When the preceding sound is a voiceless consonant, it is pronounced. Examples: boy makes boys; girl, girls; chair, chairs; cat, cats.

Where a noun ends in a sibilant sound, the plural is formed by adding es (pronounced ), which is spelled es if the word does not already end with e: glass makes glasses; dish, dishes; witch, witches; phase, phases; judge, judges.

Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plurals by adding es (pronounced ): hero makes heroes; potato, potatoes; volcano, volcanoes.

Nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant drop the y and add ies (pronounced ): cherry makes cherries; lady, ladies.

Proper nouns (particularly those for people or places) ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly: Harry makes Harrys; Germany, Germanys.

This does not apply to words that are merely capitalised common nouns: as, P&O Ferries.

A few common nouns ending in a y preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly: henry makes henrys; zloty, zlotys.

Words ending in ey form their plurals regularly, in order to avoid the unpleasant-appearing vowel sequence eie: monkey, monkeys.

Almost-regular plurals
Many nouns of Italian or Spanish origin are exceptions to the oes rule: canto makes cantos; piano, pianos; portico, porticos; quarto, quartos; solo, solos.

Many nouns ending in a voiceless fricative mutate that sound to a voiced fricative before adding the plural ending. In the case of changing to  the mutation is indicated in the orthography as well: calf makes calves; bath, baths; mouth, mouths; house, houses.

Some retain the voiceless consonant: proof makes proofs; moth, moths; place, places; dwarf, dwarfs or dwarves; hoof, hoofs or hooves; staff, staffs or staves; turf, turfs or turves; roof, roofs or rooves.

Irregular plurals
There are many other less regular ways of forming plurals. While they may seem quirky, they usually stem from older forms of English or from foreign borrowings.

Irregular Germanic plurals
The plural of a few Germanic nouns can also be formed from the singular by adding n or en, stemming from the obsolete weak declension: ox makes oxen; child, children.

The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the singular, in a process called umlaut (these are sometimes called mutated plurals): foot makes feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth; woman, women.

Some nouns have singular and plural alike, although they are sometimes seen as regular plurals: as, aircraft, sheep, deer, fish, cod, trout, head, cannon.

Generally, plurals refer to several species or kinds of animal, while the unmarked plural is used to describe multiple individual animals; one would say the classification of fishes, but five fish in an aquarium.

Irregular plurals of foreign origin
Such nouns often retain their original plurals. In some cases both forms are still vying: for a librarian, the plural of appendix is appendices; for physicians, the plural of appendix is appendixes. A radio engineer works with antennas and an entomologist deals with antennae. The "correct" form is the one that sounds better in context. Correctly formed Latin plurals are the most acceptable, in academic and scientific contexts. In common usage, plurals with s are sometimes preferred.

 * Final a becomes ae (also æ) or just adds s:

 * Formula makes formulae, lamina, laminae; macula, maculae; minutia, minutiae; nebula, nebulae; siliqua, siliqiuae; dogma, dogmas or dogmata; exanthema, exanthemas or exanthemata; miasm or miasma, miasms or miasmata; stigma, stigmas or stigmata.

 * Saliva and scoria have no occasion for the plural.

 * Final ex or ix becomes ices (pronounced or ) or just adds es. Of nouns in x, there are few, if any, which ought not to form the plural regularly, when used as English words; though the Latins changed x to ces, and ex to ices, making the i sometimes long and sometimes short: as,

 * Apex, apices, for apexes; appendix, appendices, for appendixes; calix, calices, for calixes; calx, calces, for calxes; calyx, calyces, for calyxes; caudex, caudices, for caudexes; cicatrix, cicatrices, for cicatrixes; helix, helices, for helixes; index, indices, for indexes; matrix, matrices, for matrixes; quincunx, quincunces, for quincunxes; radix, radices, for radixes; varix, varices, for varixes; vertex, vertices, for vertexes; vortex, vortices, for vortexes.

 * Some Greek words in x change that letter to ges: as, larynx, larynges, for larinxes; phalanx, phalanges, for phalanxes. Billet-doux, from the French, is billets-doux in the plural.

 * Final is becomes es (pronounced . Of nouns in is, some are regular: as, trellis, trellises: so, annolis, butteris, caddis, dervis, iris, marquis, metropolis, portcullis, proboscis.

 * Some seem to have no need of the plural: as, ambergris, aqua-fortis, arthritis, brewis, crasis, elephantiasis, genesis, orris, siriasis, tennis.

 * But most nouns of this ending follow the Greek or Latin form, which simply changes is to es: as, amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis, analyses; antithesis, antitheses; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; diaeresis, diaereses; diesis, dieses; ellipsis, ellipses; emphasis, emphases; fascis, fasces; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; oasis, oases; parenthesis, parentheses; phasis, phases; praxis, praxes; synopsis, synopses; synthesis, syntheses; syrtis, syrtes; thesis, theses.

 * In some, however, the original plural is not so formed; but is made by changing is to ides: as, aphis, aphides; apsis, apsides; ascaris, ascarides; bolis, bolides; cantharis, cantharides; chrysalis, chrysalides; ephemeris, ephemerides; epidermis, epidermides.

 * So iris and proboscis, which we make regular; and perhaps some of the foregoing may be made so too.

 * Final ies remains unchanged: as, series, species.
 * Final on becomes a. Of nouns in on, derived from Greek, the greater part always form the plural regularly: as, etymons, gnomons, ichneumons, myrmidons, phlegmons, trigons, tetragons, pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, enneagons, decagons, hendecagons, dodecagons, polygons.

 * So trihedrons, tetrahedrons, pentahedrons, etc., though some say, these last may end in dra.

 * For a few words of this class, however, there are double plurals in use; as, automata or atomatons, criteria or criterions, parhelia or parhelions; and the plural of phenomenon appears to be always phenomena.

 * The plural of legumen is legumens or legumina; of stamen, stamens or stamina: of cherub, cherubs or cherubim; of seraph, seraphs or seraphim; of beau, beaus or beaux; of bandit, bandits or banditti.

 * Final um becomes a or just adds s: as, addendum makes addenda, medium makes media or mediums. Of nouns in um, some have no need of the plural: as,

 * Bdellium, decorum, elysium, equilibrium, guaiacum, laudanum, odium, opium, petroleum, serum, viaticum. Some form it regularly; as, asylums, compendiums, craniums, emporiums, encomiums, forums, frustums, lustrums, mausoleums, museums, pendulums, nostrums, rostrums, residuums, vacuums. Others take either the English or the Latin plural; as, desideratums or desiderata, mediums or media, menstruums or menstrua, memorandums or memoranda, spectrums or spectra, speculums or specula, stratums or strata, succedaneums or succedanea, trapeziums or trapezia, vinculums or vincula. A few seem to have the Latin plural only: as, arcanum, arcana; datum, data; effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; scholium, scholia.

 * Final us becomes i (second declension), era, ora (third declension), or just adds es (especially in fourth declension, where it would otherwise be the same as the singular): as, alumnus makes alumni, viscus viscera, corpus corpora, prospectus prospectuses.

 * But such as have properly become English words, may form the plural regularly in es; as, chorus, choruses: so, apparatus, bolus, callus, circus, fetus, focus, fucus, fungus, hiatus, ignoramus, impetus, incubus, isthmus, nautilus, nucleus, prospectus, rebus, sinus, surplus.

 * Radius makes radii or radiuses. Genius has genii, for imaginary spirits, and geniuses, for men of wit. Genus, a sort, becomes genera in Latin, and genuses in English. Denarius makes denarii or denariuses.

 * Of nouns in us, a few have no plural: as, asparagus, calamus, mucus.

 * Some have only the Latin plural, which usually changes us to i: as, alumnus, alumni; androgynus, androgyni; calculus, calculi; dracunculus, dracunculi; echinus, echini; magus, magi.

 * Final us in nouns of Greek origin "properly" add es. These words are also heard with the Latin i instead, which is sometimes considered "over-correct", but this is so common as to be acceptable in most circumstances, even technical ones: cactus makes cactuses or cacti; hippopotamus, hippopotamuses or hippopotami, octopus, octopuses, octopi, or octopodes; platypus, platypuses, rhinoceros, rhinoceroses or rhinoceri, uterus, uteruses or uteri.

 * Final as in one case of a noun of Greek origin changes to antes: Atlas makes Atlantes; atles, atlases.
 * Final ma in nouns of Greek origin add ta: stigma makes stigmata; stoma, stomata; zeugma, zeugmata.

 * Though some take s more commonly: schema makes schemata or schemas; dogma, dogmata or dogmas; lemma, lemmata or lemmas.

 * Some nouns of French origin add x: beau makes beaux; chateau, chateaux; bureau, bureaus or bureaux.
 * Nouns from Slavic languages: kniazhestvo makes kniazhestvos or kniazhestva; kobzar, kobzars or kobzari, oblast, oblasts or oblasti.
 * Nouns of Hebrew language origin add im, ot (generally m/f), or just s: cherub makes cherubim or cherubs; seraph, seraphim or seraphs; matzoh, matzot or matzos.

 * The Hebrew plurals cherubim and seraphim, being sometimes mistaken for singulars, other plurals have been formed from them.

 * Some nouns of Japanese origin have no plural and do not change: as, samurai, otaku.

 * However, other nouns such as kimonos, futons and tsunamis are more often seen with a regular English plural.

 * In New Zealand English, nouns of Maori origin can either take an s or have no separate plural form: as, waka makes waka; marae, marae; kohwai, kohwai or kohwais; tui, tuis or tui, kiwi, kiwi or kiwis.
 * Nouns from languages that have donated few words to English, and that are spoken by relatively few English-speakers, generally form plurals as if they were native English words: canoe makes canoes; kayak, kayaks; igloo, igloos; kangoroo, kangoroos; sauna, saunas; cwm, cwms; pizza, pizzas; kindergarten, kindergartens.

 * In Canada and Alaska, some words borrowed from Inuktitut retain traditional plurals: Inuk makes Inuit; inukshuk, inukshuit.

 * Some words of foreign origin are much better known in the plural. In common usage, the proper plural is considered the singular form. Back-formation has usually resulted in a regularized plural: candelabra makes candelabras; data, data; agenda, agendas or agendae; graffiti, graffiti; insignia, insignias; algae, algae or algaes; opera, operas; viscera, viscera; panini, paninis; phalanx, phalanges; magazine, magazines.

Cases
Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of nouns or pronouns to other words.

There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

The nominative case
The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb: as,

 * "The boy runs;"
 * "I run."

The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before it: as,

 * "The boy runs."
 * Who runs? "The boy."

Boy is therefore here a noun in the nominative case, or nominative.

For example:
 * I eat an orange.
 * I buy a chocolate.
 * I love my family.
 * I love yellow.

The possessive case
The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: as,

 * "My hat;"
 * "The boy's hat."

Boy is here a noun in the possessive case, or possessive.

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the plural, when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, singular, boy's; plural, boys'; sounded alike, but written differently.

The objective case
The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually tells the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as,

 * "I know the boy, having seen him at school; and he knows me."

The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers to whom or what after it: as,

 * "I know the boy."
 * I know whom? "The boy."

Boy is therefore here a noun in the objective case, or objective.

The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence, or by their simple dependence according to the sense.

For example:
 * I am playing with my football.
 * I take her bag.
 * Anoud's room is dirty.

The declension of nouns
The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and cases. Thus: Sing. Nom. friend,   Plur. Nom. friends, Poss. friend's,       Poss. friends', Obj. friend;         Obj. friends.

Sing. Nom. man,      Plur. Nom. men, Poss. man's,          Poss. men's,     Obj. man;            Obj. men.

Sing. Nom. fox,      Plur. Nom. foxes, Poss. fox's,          Poss. foxes', Obj. fox;            Obj. foxes.

Sing. Nom. fly,      Plur. Nom. flies, Poss. fly's,          Poss. flies', Obj. fly;            Obj. flies.

A short syntax
The subject must be in the nominative case, as "You say it."

The subject is placed before the attribute, as "Peace dawned on his mind," except the following cases: a question, as "How many loaves have you?" imperative mood, as "Go you," strong feeling, as "May she be happy!" a supposition, as "Were it true," neither or nor, as "Neither shall you touch it," emphasis, as "Here am I," no regimen, as "Echo the mountains round," dialogue, as "My name is Hassan," and the adverb there, as "There lived a man."

A noun in apposition is put in the same case as the noun it explains, as "But he, our gracious master, knows us."

A possessive is governed by the name of the thing possessed, as "Man's life."

A possessive comes immediately before the governing noun, as "Nature's peace," except the following cases: an intervening adjective, as "Flora's earliest smells," affirmation or denial, as "The book is not John's," a possessive without sign, as "Brother Absalom's house," or "David and Jonathan's friendship."

The predicate is governed by attribute in objective case, as "I found her."

A noun or a pronoun put after a non-transitive verb or participle, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing, as "The child was named John."

The case of absolute noun or pronoun depends on no other word, as "Your fathers, where are they?"

title: English in Use/Nouns


text:
Organic Chemistry/Analytical techniques

 * 1) Elemental analysis
 * 2) Chromatography
 * 3) Spectroscopy

title: Organic Chemistry/Analytical techniques


text:
Organic Chemistry/Analytical techniques/Elemental analysis

Elemental analysis is the process for determining the partial or complete chemical formula for a substance. Most commonly, it involves the complete combustion in air or oxygen of the substance and then quantifying the amount of elemental oxides produced. In the case of organic compounds, the carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and the hydrogen to water. From these, the percent carbon and percent hydrogen in the substance can be found and compared with a proposed chemical formula for the substance at hand.

Element test: Put a small amount of the solid into a small piece of Na metal then roll it around the solid, followed by introduction into a fusion tube. The tube is heated with a gentle flame at a slow rate (in order not to evaporate N2 present in solid) then strong heating till the bottom of the tube become red hot. The tube is then put in a beaker containing a minimal amount of water then heated, cooled, filtered and the filtrate divided into three parts.

1. Test for nitrogen : The filtrate and ferrous sulfate are boiled and cooled and dilute sulfuric acid is added. If green or blue color occurs the solid contain nitrogen.

The chemistry behind what happened: Na+C+N --> NaCN FeSO4+NaCN gives Fe[CN]2 Fe[CN]2+4NaCN give the complex Na4[Fe(CN)6] ferrous oxidizes to ferric by the acid so 3Na4[Fe(CN)6]+4Fe3+ --> Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3

2. Test for sulfur : The filtrate is exposed to dilute acetic acid and lead acetate, yielding a brown or black precipitate.

The chemistry behind what happened: Na+S --> Na2S Na2S +Pb(CH3CO2H)2 yields lead sulfide, a black precipitate.

or: The filtrate and sodium nitro prusside yield a violet color

Na2S+Na2[Fe(CN)5NO] --> Na4[Fe(CN)5NOS] = violet color

3. Test for chlorine :

a) In the absence of N or S: The filtrate is exposed to dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate. Formation of a white precipitate suggests the presence of chlorine.

b) In the presence of N and/or S :

The filtrate is exposed to dilute sulfuric acid then boiled to 1/3 initial volume and cooled. Formation of a white precipitate after the addition of dilute nitric acid and silver nitrate suggests the presence of chlorine.

Equations:

NaCN+AgNO3 --> AgCN white ppt Na2S+AgNO3 gives Ag2S black ppt '''In the presence of N or S these two precipitates may interfere with the white colour of the result of the chlorine test. Therefore dilute sulfuric acid is added because in the presence of N or S''': Na2S+ dilute H2SO4 gives H2S gas NaCN+ dilulte H2SO4 gives HCN gas

There is no interference with the white colour expected from the chlorine test in solid.


text:
Organic Chemistry/Analytical techniques/Chromatography

Chromatography involves the physical separation of a mixture of compounds. Chromatography can be used as a purification method but also sees wide use for the identification of compounds based on their chromatographic behavior.

=Theory=

There are many variations of chromatography, but all involve the dissolution of an analyte into a fluid known as the mobile phase and the passage of this fluid solution across a stationary phase, often a solid or liquid-coated solid.

As the mobile phase comes into contact with the stationary phase, some of the analyte molecules dissolve or adsorb onto the mobile phase. The more the molecules of that substance are retained, the slower their progress through the chromatographic apparatus. Different substances will then move through at different rates, ideally resulting in distinctly identifiable retention times for each substance.

Commonly used chromatographic techniques are identified through the nature of the stationary and mobile phases used, the method for passing the mobile phase through the apparatus, and how separated components are identified.

=Paper chromatography=

In paper chromatography the stationary phase is a specialized paper made to absorb water to a high level. The mobile phase is usually water or a concentrated salt solution. Paper chromatography has many uses in forensic chemistry due to it's simplicity and availability. However, paper chromatography is limited by the characteristics that only water soluble components can be separated and inaccuracy in RF values. This makes paper chromatography mostly useful to distinguish the differences between two residues rather than their similarities.

=Thin layer chromatography=

In thin layer chromatography (TLC) a plastic or glass plate is coated with the stationary phase, often alumina, silica, or alkylated silica. The analyte is dissolved in a quick-drying solvent and spotted near the bottom of the plate. The edge of the plate beneath the spot or spots is then dipped and left in a solution of the mobile phase, either an organic solvent or aqueous solution (depending on the nature of the analyte and stationary phase). Capillary action is then allowed to draw the solvent front through the spotted analyte, carrying with it and in the process separating out the analyte's components.

=Gas chromatography=

In gas chromatography (GC) the analyte and mobile phase must both be gases or be readily introduced into the gas phase by heating. The mobile phase gas must be inert and not reacting with the sample to be analysed. Examples of inert gases are helium and nitrogen gas; while not as inert as helium and nitrogen, hydrogen may also be used.

The gases are passed through a long, narrow (and most often, coiled) tube either packed with a porous stationary phase or whose inner walls are coated with a stationary phase, and the analyte components are detected as they emerge from the far end of the tube. The tube is commonly known as GC column.

Often a time-varying temperature gradient, from lower temperature to higher temperature, is applied to the tube. This first allows the analyte components to partition into the stationary phase and then, as the temperature rises, to differentially force them back into the mobile phase.

Common detectors for gas chromatography are flame ionization detector (FID), electron capture detector (ECD) and mass spectrometry (MS). Different types of sample analysis would require the use of a different type of detectors.

=Column chromatography=

Column chromatography, like gas chromatography, uses a tube packed with a stationary phase, but the mobile phase is a liquid instead of a gas (It is sometimes known as liquid chromatography or LC). Instead of temperature gradients, a gradient in the composition of the liquid phase can be used to separate components.

Column chromatography can be performed on larger molecules which may not be readily introduced into the gas phase. On the other hand, because of the increased viscosity of liquids compared with gases, liquid chromatography can be a more ponderous process. HPLC (variously high-pressure liquid chromatography or high-performance liquid chromatography) speeds the process and improves its selectivity and sensitivity to a significant degree by forcing the mobile phase through the chromatographic column with high-pressure pumps.

=Detection methods=

The root of the word chromatography, chroma (Greek khrōma, color) and grafein is "to write", indicates that the separated components in some forms of the technique can be identified by their color alone. But chromatography has now long been performed on colorless compounds that can be identified in other ways.

Analyte components on thin-layer chromatography plates are often identified under ultraviolet light, or by chemical staining in, for example, an iodine chamber or potassium permanganate. Gas chromatographic analytes are detected by changes in the ionization levels of a flame at the output end of the column or by changes in the electrical conductivity of the gas mixture at the end of the column. Liquid chromatography fractions are often analyzed through spectrophotometric techniques, notably UV-visible spectroscopy. When separation with GC or LC is performed in tandem with mass spectrometry (the "hyphenated" techniques of GC-MS and LC-MS), masses of individual fractions are rapidly determined. These methods are frequently employed in analytical and forensic science.


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Botany/Introduction Botany

<< Contents Page | Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 >>|

Chapter 1. Introduction to Botany

Botany as a Science
Botany is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of plants. Traditionally, botanists studied all organisms that were not generally regarded as animal. However, advances in our knowledge about the myriad forms of life, especially microbes (viruses and bacteria), have led to spinning off from Botany the specialized field called Microbiology. Still, the microbes are usually covered in introductory Botany courses, although their status as neither animal nor plant is firmly established.

Plants are living entities, and material presented within Biology will have relevance here, most particularly at the cellular and subcellular levels of organization (Chapter 2). Both plants and animals deal with the same problems of maintaining life on planet Earth — their approaches seem quite different, but the end result is the same: continued existence in an organized state, as part of a universe whose tendency is towards greater disorganization. Back on Earth, however, it is a fact that microbes, plants, and animals comprise a very interdependent system. We divide them apart, because our minds work best that way. We categorize and learn common features or properties of the categories. This approach is neither right nor wrong, but is clearly efficient for our minds. Nonetheless, it is desirable to regularly step back and realize that the boundaries between categories are often just constructs, and exceptions to our categories usually abound.

It was alluded to in the opening definition that Botany is a science. Just what makes Botany, or anything else a science? It is important to acquire a grasp of the fundamentals of science itself to fully appreciate both how botanical knowledge was gained as well as how it can be used. It usually becomes uninteresting to acquire facts simply for the sake of knowing. Humans do not just appreciate mountains because they are there, they climb them because they are there!

Living Systems
Biology is defined as the study of life, and Botany is that discipline within Biology concerned with the study of living organisms called plants and with certain other living things that have been traditionally studied with plants i.e. Fungi and Algae.

Defining 'Plant'
Like many words in common usage that apply to biological entities or concepts, the term plant is more difficult to define than might be at first obvious. Although botanists describe a Kingdom Plantae, the boundaries defining members of Plantae are more inclusive than our common concept of a "plant". We are tempted to regard plant as meaning a multicellular, eukaryotic organism that generally does not have sensory organs or voluntary motion and has, when complete, a root, stem, and leaves. However, botanically only vascular plants have a root, stem, and leaves, and even some vascular plants, such as certain carnivorous plants and duckweed, fall afoul of that definition. But to be fair, the vascular plants are the plants we tend to encounter every day and that most people would readily regard as "plants".

A more significant point of departure between Plantae and plants occurs among the seaweeds. Technically, only a relatively minor group of seaweeds (the chlorophytes or green algae) are members of the Kingdom Plantae. The majority of seaweeds, like the kelps (very large brown algae from the Order Laminariales), despite a superficial appearance of such, lack true stems, leaves, roots, and any kind of vascular systems as found in higher plants. Thus, the kelps are not Plantae; but are they plants? Certainly if we regard the green algae as plants, it is difficult to exclude the more prominent red and brown algae of our coastal waters.

Another, much broader definition for plant is that it refers to any organism that is photoautotrophic—produces its own food from raw inorganic materials and sunlight. This is not an unreasonable definition, and is one that focuses on the role plants typically play in an ecosystem. However, there are photoautotrophs among the Prokaryotes, specifically photoautotrophic bacteria and cyanophytes. The latter are sometimes called (for good reasons) blue-green algae. Then there arises the problem that many people would consider that a mushroom is a plant; a mushroom is the fruiting body of a fungus (Kingdom Fungi) and not photoautotrophic at all, but saprophytic. However, there are more than a few species of flowering plants, fungi, and bacteria that are not autotrophic, but parasitic.

We cannot hope to offer a firm answer. The list of characteristics that separate the Plantae from the other biological kingdoms provides at least a technical definition, but realize it is only a technical definition. The problem this lack of precision or agreement in the definition of "plant" presents is one of understanding statements, often encountered in Wikipedia (and other) articles, of the sort: ...xylem is one of the two transport tissues of plants. In general it cannot be assumed this means all plants, algae through flowering plants. It very probably does not include fungi or bacteria. Indeed, it is usually safest to assume the discussion is about vascular plants (essentially the ferns, conifers, flowering plants, and a few others; see discussion below on "General Terminology") unless stated differently (e.g., ...in vascular and non-vascular plants this is such and such).

Plants as Organisms
The distinction between life and non-life is not as easily made as you might think. There exist intracellular "parasites" that are progressively less alive in terms of being metabolically active.

Plants and their Uses
There can be no disputing the fundamental significance of plants to the ecology of our planet. Photosynthetic plants utilize energy arriving from the sun to create complex organic molecules from inorganic substances, and by this process contribute oxygen to the atmosphere. Advanced animal life is very much dependent upon this source of oxygen, as well as the organic molecules that form the basis of nearly every food web on the planet. However, humans utilize plants in many ways, especially as sources of pleasure, food, and material for shelter, clothing, and more. Consider here the role plants play in our everyday lives and in our economy.

Introduction to Plant Classification
At the beginning of this chapter it was suggested that each of us categorizes information we encounter on a daily basis. Our minds seem to want to find relationships between facts and observations, to erect mental bins in which to place new items with previous "facts". This natural human process is the basis for prejudice, in as much as "facts" categorized together can become strongly associated. But these are personal constructs. In order for scientists of many races, speaking many languages, and coming from all manner of backgrounds and experiences to work productively together to solve common problems, the objects with which they work must be classified within a universally accepted framework.

The classification of living things is called systematics, or taxonomy, and ideally should reflect the evolutionary history (phylogeny) of the different organisms.

Taxonomy arranges organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks clues to their relationships. The dominant system of Scientific Classification is called Linnaean taxonomy, and includes classification ranks as well as an organism naming convention called binomial nomenclature.

Traditionally, all living things were divided into five kingdoms:

 * Monera — Protista — Fungi — Plantae — Animalia

However, this five-kingdom system has been replaced by Carl Woese's three-domain system, which focuses on phylogenic roots and comparison of DNA structures. The older approach utilized visual observation as the basis of classification. The three domains reflect whether cells have nuclei (eukaryotic) or not (prokaryotic), as well as differences in cell membranes and cell walls.

 * Archaea — Eubacteria — Eukaryota

Recall (and review as necessary) how these groupings relate to the sequence of events in the evolutionary history of life as summarized in Timeline of Evolution. You will return to the subject of Scientific Classification to consider in much more detail the groups of organisms studied in Botany, beginning with Chapter 7. First, however, we shall turn our attention to the structure and function of cells and eventually to gain an understanding of plant structure (plant anatomy) and function (plant physiology).

General Terminology
In Section II of this text we will delve much deeper into "plant" systematics. But you should be aware of some general terms related to classificatory schemes that are used regularly in discussing plants. You have probably encountered these terms many times, although may not be aware of their exact definitions. For example, much of the material in Section I of this textbook is biased towards flowering plants. That is, much of the descriptive material here as well as at Wikipedia refers specifically to these. Flowering plants are angiosperms; plants that have flowers and produce seeds, and comprise the majority of the plants we would normally encounter in say a nursery if not on the street, field, or empty lot. Seed-bearing plants include both the angiosperms and the gymnosperms, the latter now treated as a modern group called conifers. The conifers are also common plants, especially in higher latitudes, but bear cones instead of flowers. Both conifers and flowering plants develop vascular tissues internally that conduct fluids (especially water) throughout the plant. Included in the vascular plants are ferns. Ferns have vascular tissue, but reproduce by spores. They do not produce seeds and do not bear flowers.

title: Botany/Introduction Botany


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Botany/Plant cells

<< Contents Page | << Chapter 1 | Chapter 2 | Chapter 3 >>|

Chapter 2. Plant Cells

Introduction
A cell is a very basic structure of all living systems, consisting of protoplasm within a containing cell membrane. Only entities such as viruses— on the boundary between non-living chemicals and living systems—lack cells or basic cell structure. All plants, including very simple plants called algae, and all animals are made up of cells, and these are organized in various ways to create structure and function in an organism. Biologists recognize two basic types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are structurally more simple. They are found only in single-celled and some simple, multicellular organisms (all bacteria and some algae, which all belong to Bacteria and Archaea domains). Eukaryotic cells are found in most algae, all higher plants, fungi, and animals (Eukarya domain). Thus, differences between these two cell types are critical to how an organism is classified, and an important consideration in the evolutionary sequence of life on the planet Earth.

Plant Cell Structure

Nearly all cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye. As always there are some exceptions, but generally magnification is required to detect a cellular structure. In plants, a good hand-lens or loupe (see photo at right) will sometimes suffice, but in working with cells or observing how cells are organized to form tissues and structures, a high power microscope is used.

 * Read about Cells ~ You may wish to follow some or all links to "Main articles" as these provide detail that may interest you; or you might return to explore further should questions arise later in the course.
 * Read Plant cells and, at minimum, articles at the following links (but ignore, for now, the topic of Plant Cell Types ):
 * Cell Wall
 * Protoplasm and cytoplasm
 * Vacuole
 * Ergastic substances
 * Plastids
 * Chloroplasts

 * Also note that the textbook, Cell Biology, is available at WikiBooks and can be used as a more detailed reference. You should read the Introductory Chapter (all subsections) at this time.

Questions:
 * 1) Can you think of reasons why macroscopic organisms are multicellular? (Macroscopic means large, in the sense of "not microscopic")

Basic Cell Function
You should, by now, have a general appreciation for the complexity of cellular structure. Improvements in microscopy, especially development of the Electron microscope, have revealed that cells are not merely membranous sacks containing fluid of gel-like consistency. The degree of organization of the cytoplasm into organelles and their membranes should have you convinced that much (perhaps most) of what is really going on around you on this planet is occurring at a scale that is simply inaccessible to your eyes. And while you cannot be expected to directly observe chemical reactions at a molecular scale, contemplate that you cannot, even with powerful optics, directly observe most of the structure where these reactions are somehow controlled to produce outcomes favorable to life—indeed, are life. Hopefully, as you acquire knowledge and become a biologist—a botanist—you will learn to recognize the relevant phenomena by their macroscopic expressions (that which you can readily observe with the unaided eye).

To appreciate basic cell function, it is necessary to first list the processes or outcomes that cells must accomplish to further existence. More specialized functions will be discussed under plant cell structure, as our interest must eventually focus on plants. For now, recall that in your reading you have already encountered these several basic abilities of cells:

 * Metabolism involves taking in of raw material to use in building up cell components and breaking down of other molecules to provide energy for various growth processes; byproducts may be released.
 * Protein biosynthesis by transcription of DNA to RNA and then translation to protein, used in growth or released for use elsewhere by the organism.
 * Reproduction by cell division.

Now explore each in turn. Think initially of a single-celled organism with no special abilities, only a "will" to stay alive and perpetuate itself. Remember, the environment will not be kind. The cell must grow and reproduce to counter the tendency of outside forces to breakdown molecular structure and destroy life. Then consider the situation where a cell is part of a multicellular organism, and may be performing more limited and specialized functions.

 * Read Cell metabolism ( Follow links and read at least these articles ):
 * Metabolic pathway ( Links need not be followed )
 * Cell respiration ( Follows all links )

 * Read Protein biosynthesis ( Follow links as necessary to understand process and terminology; Also included is: )
 * Gene expression
 * Read Cell reproduction ( The following links are included: )
 * Mitosis
 * Cell cycle

Questions:
 * 1) Have you been able to discern a relationship between genes and basic cell function? If so, is this also a basic cell function, and where do we list it?

Plant Cell Specializations
We will learn about the cells of algae and other organisms (e.g., bacteria and fungi) traditionally covered within Botany in later chapters on those organisms (Chapters 5 - 7). Here, we concentrate on the cells of plants.

The simplest type of plant cell is called a parenchyma cell and most of the basic metabolic and reproductive processes of the plant occur in these cells. A term for parenchyma cells with chloroplasts, is chlorenchyma cells. Other plant cell types that we shall be considering are:

 * Collenchyma ~ living cells with thickened walls for increased support
 * Sclerenchyma ~ lignified dead cells forming fibers for increased support
 * Epidermal ~ surface covering
 * Cork
 * Xylem tracheid ~ single long (up to 1 mm) thin cells for transporting water and support
 * Xylem vessel ~ cells form individual elements in an even longer (up to 1 meter in extreme cases) tube for transporting water
 * Meristematic cells ~ growth

 * Read Parenchyma cell

Laboratory Exercises for Chapter 2 >> Discussion of questions for Chapter 2 >>>

Energy
How does plant cells get its energy? It gets its energy nutrients. With those nutrients, they gather the energy through sunlight. They use photosynthesis to convert materials into energy for the plants to power its cells.
 * Photosynthesis. Read more here about it.

title: Botany/Plant cells


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Botany/Plant structure

<< Contents Page | << Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 >>|

Chapter 4. Plant Vegetative Organs

The parrot's feather, an aquatic plant (Myriophyllum aquaticum) Click to [[Media:Parrotfeather.jpg| enlarge]] picture

Introduction
As was noted in the previous chapter, most plant cells are specialized to a greater or lesser degree, and arranged together in tissues. A tissue can be simple or complex depending upon whether it is composed of one or more than one type of cell. Tissues are further arranged or combined into organs that carry out life functions of the organism. Plant organs include the leaf, stem, root, and reproductive structures. The first three are sometimes called the vegetative organs and are the subject of exploration in this chapter. Reproductive organs will be covered in Chapter 5.

The relationships of the organs within a plant body to each other remains an unsettled subject within plant morphology. The fundamental question is whether these are truly different structures, or just modifications of one basic structure (Eames, 1936; Esau, 1965). The plant body is an integrated, functional unit, so the division of a plant into organs is largely conceptual, providing a convenient way of approaching plant form and function. A boundary between stem and leaf is particularly difficult to make, so botanists sometimes use the word shoot to refer to the stem and its appendages (Esau, 1965).

The Leaf
The plant leaf is an organ whose shape promotes efficient gathering of light for photosynthesis. The form of the leaf must also be balanced against the fact that most of the loss of water a plant might suffer is going to occur at its leaves (transpiration). Leaves are extremely variable in terms of their size, shape, and adornments (such as small hairs on the face of the leaf).

Although the leaves of most plants carry out the same basic functions, there is nonetheless an amazing variety of leaf sizes, shapes, margin types, forms of attachment, ornamentation (hairs), and color. Examine the Leaves (forms) page to learn the extensive terminology used to describe this variation. Consider that there are functional reasons for the modifications from a "basic" type.

The Stem
The stem arises during development of the embryo as part of the hypocotyl-root axis, at the upper end of which are one or more cotyledons and the shoot primordium.

 * Read: Stem

The Root
The root is the (typically) underground part of the plant axis specialized for both anchoring the plant and absorbing water and minerals. Basically, there are two types of roots normally spotted for plants grown on ground namely : taproot and fibrous root

 * Read: Root ( Follow any links for terms you do not understand and to gain a complete picture of root structural variation )

 * Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each (at a minimum) of the following terms: adventitious roots, endodermis, epidermis, gravitropism, root cap, root hair, stele, taproot.

Most of the material you have read discusses the root organ as found in the angiosperms (flowering plants). However, among the vascular plants, only Psilotales lack such an organ, having instead rhizomes that bear hair-like absorbing structures called rhizoids (Eames, 1936 in Esau, 1965).

Questions:

4-1. At this point the conceptual differences between cell types, tissues, organs, and organisms may be somewhat confusing. Using the leaf as an example, describe this structure in a way that considers the cell types, tissues, and organs for that part of the leaf where photosynthesis is concentrated.

 * Laboratory Exercises for Chapter 4 >>
 * Discussion of questions for Chapter 4 >>>

title: Botany/Plant structure


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GCSE Science/Circuits

GCSE Science/Electricity

You've probably done quite a lot of work in basic electrical circuits in lower school, but we will revise them here so don't worry if you've forgotten them.

Before we start you need to know a whole host of circuit symbols.

Q1)See how many of the following you can name:

You should already know about half of them. For the others see here. You need to learn all these symbols by heart, but don't worry about that just yet. It's much easier to learn the symbols if you know what the components actually do, and we will be looking at that later on.

What is a circuit?
A circuit is a loop in which electricity can flow. Consider a simple circuit with a cell, a switch and a bulb. The current flows from the cell, via the closed switch to the bulb. The bulb lights because the electricity carries energy. But even after the bulb there current still needs to go around the rest of the loop back to the cell. If there is a break anywhere in the loop, the bulb will not light. This is a concept that is not all that difficult, yet most people do not understand it.

Ask a selection of adults you know and many will say: "Electricity flows from the cell to the bulb, where it gets used up"

Q2) What is wrong with the above statement?

Q3) Look at the selection of circuits below. What is wrong with each of them?

What we have been looking at so far has been largely revision. You should already be familiar with what a circuit is and how it works. Let's now go on to some more advanced work.

<< Electrolysis | Current, voltage resistance and Ohm's law

title: GCSE Science/Circuits


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Botany/Contributors

Contributors
While Wikibooks offers somewhat clearer opportunities for "authorship" than Wikipedia, there remains the fact that anything put here is really just a contribution, and everyone who furthers the effort is a contributor. In this respect there are no "authors". If you are interested in developing a particular subject within the field of botany as part of this textbook, please start the module and link it here. We will work out the chapter arrangement after you get started. Of course, you can also just expand on an existing chapter.

 * Eric Guinther is a biologist and environmental consultant living in Kane'ohe, Hawai'i. He envisioned this particular textbook "project" and developed the approach of creating a textbook around articles found in Wikipedia. By then working specifically on those articles referred to, the quality and quantity of the Study Guide to the Science of Botany was gradually enhanced. These efforts were done with the steady help of numerous talented contributors at Wikipedia who, collectively, would have no interest in working on a textbook project per se.  Ultimately, the user of the guide benefits from the textbook's approach: 1) by having more control over the depth into any subtopic pursued and 2) being limited in that pursuit only by that considerable information available at Wikipedia and other linked websites.

 * Ransom Akinlade is a final year student of the department of Botany, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife. He developed a keen interest in this project and he regularly contributes to the articles foi=und therein.

 * Other anonymous Wikibook contributors (see individual page histories).

 * Numerous other Wikipedia contributors.

<<Return to Contents Page

title: Botany/Contributors


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User:CyberMaus

I started over at en: where my intro is. A short while later, I became intrigued by simple english. Now I've found another area that grabbed me by the scruff of the neck - the Cookbook project.

title: User:CyberMaus


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Cookbook talk:Eating for Health

IMO there are no "food enemies" as such. Those listed are essential to health. Even LDL, the "bad" cholesterol, is essential to certain metabolic functions. It causes problems when the level is too high or the ratio of LDL to HDL is too high even when the overall cholesterol level is "acceptable". Perhaps it should be emphasized that any nutrient taken in excess is bad. Even vitamins are toxic or have unpleasant side effects when taken in large amounts. CyberMaus 20:55, 8 Sep 2003 (UTC)
 * I agree. A book on healthy eating should concentrate on good and bad diet, not good and bad foods Theresa knott

Charred meat?
Can the carcinogenic (free radicals?) effect of eating charred/browned meat be countered by ingesting antioxidants (such as tea) ?

Charred/browned meat is yummy and it would be a shame to avoid it unnecessarilly Irrevenant 21:48, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

 * It seems so... but ingesting the antioxidants and skipping the charred meat would be even better. AlbertCahalan 20:14, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, I would hate to have to give up seared or browned meats. I don't think the carcinogens produced during normal cooking are significant enough to warrant total removal from one's diet. 64.238.163.200 21:33, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

e coli
I am skeptical of the statements made here about organic foods, e-coli and irradiation. I have read reports that ecoli on uncertified organic farms are higher than on commercial farms, but that on certified farms this level is only somewhat higher than commercial farms (characterized by the staff conducting the study as "not significant"). Even so, this does not directly lead to the conclusion that it is "important" for these organic foods to be irradiated. Irradiation has also been accused of negative side effects (though it does have the approval of the FDA). Futhermore, the danger from ecoli is much higher from meat products, but the current wording singles out organic produce. I do think a general-purpose e-coli warning is probably appropriate... but this is not it. Kellen T 23:33, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

 * I got rid of it, even though I mostly agree with it. It didn't fit well. The 600 degree claim was misleading, because there is no single temperature at which bacteria suddenly all die. As far as food dangers go, bacteria are severely underestimated by most people, but e coli isn't anywhere near being the main danger. (my father is a food microbiologist with his doctorate, so you can be sure I've had far more education about the matter than would be normal) The danger from meat products would be much higher if people treated meat and vegetables the same. Few people eat raw meat though, so vegetables are quite dangerous in actual use. The main danger with meat is that some idiots will handle cooked meat with the same dishes that were used to handle it when raw. Many people are also careless about faucet handles. People don't even think about vegetable contamination. They eat raw vegetables, sometimes without even a rinse. AlbertCahalan 21:41, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Food irradiation is an excellent process. It is always used on spices. On other foods it is not used, because bomb-driven hysteria resulted in a mandatory label that looks rather scary. Spices are exempt from the labeling requirement. The dangerous chemical changes caused by food irradiation are the same as those caused by cooking; one can not eliminate all risk. We cook food. Sometimes cooking is far worse than irradiation. Failure to irradiate and/or cook food can hurt you too, via mold toxins for example, so you have to pick your poison. AlbertCahalan 21:41, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

The article states lettuce as being nutritionally worthless
Researching this I discovered that according to www.nutritiondata.com iceberg lettuce actually receives a score of 4.9/5 nutritional rating, therefore, being one of the more nutritional foods available.

MSG Instead of Salt?
Whilst adding salt to food is definitely not very healthy, using MSG as a substitute doesn't seem like a very good idea, considering its bad reputation for destroying neurons in the brain.

 * Of course salt is healthy just as long as you don't eat too much, it, like every edible substance has some stuff that the body needs, and table saly has what I think is called iodine. Stating otherwise is blatant and enthusiastic asshattery, douchebaggery, and POVism. This is the kind of thing a former MSG enthusiast would say.

Healthful?
Is there some specific reason not to use "healthy"?
 * Ditto. --Swift (talk) 00:24, 6 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Technically healthful is correct usage, but in everyday English, healthy means the same thing.

Deep Fried Mars Bars
This cookbook links to the recipe for Deep Fried Mars Bars 4 times. I have been dieting for some time and I remember when I first started reading about junk food and then getting a very horrble feeling in my entire being untill I ate what I had read about. Therefore this is a horrible cookbook that needs to be altered. --203.118.177.19 07:07, 3 November 2007 (UTC)

Most of this information is worthless
Whoever said that MSG destroys neurons is a crazy freak. People complain about Chinese food 'cause it has MSG, but there's more MSG in an Italian meal than a fast-food Chinese, and people don't complain about Italian food syndrome. Plus, whoever wrote this says we should boil meat? What kind of lunatic boils a steak? This article is worthless.

carrots
if you eat too many carrots your skin will turn orange. just look at a former WWII RAF pilot and you'll see. lol i was kidding no i wasn't.

Well carrots are very very healthy but I hate carrots and nuts because I'm allergic and someone else in the world is also allergic to them so don't tell us that we should eat them to be healthy Lorraine Lorreta (discuss • contribs) 05:50, 30 May 2020 (UTC)

Olive oil junk science
Olive oil is not harmful when heated, for crying out loud. That's one of the more ridiculous myths out there. Some sources: http://scienceornot.net/2012/09/15/is-it-safe-to-cook-with-olive-oil/ and http://healthimpactnews.com/2014/myth-buster-olive-oil-is-one-of-the-safest-oils-for-frying-and-cooking/

title: Cookbook talk:Eating for Health


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GCSE Science/Circuits answers

Did you get many right? You should already know, cell, battery, bulb, switch and resistor. You will have to learn the others as well before the exam.

<<Back

title: GCSE Science/Circuits answers


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Botany/Plant reproduction

<< Contents Page | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 | Chapter 6 >>

Chapter 5. Plant Reproduction

Vegetative Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction is a type of asexual reproduction—other terms that apply are vegetative propagation, clonal growth, or vegetative multiplication. Vegetative growth is enlargement of the individual plant; vegetative reproduction is any process that results in new plant "individuals" without production of seeds (see The Seed below) or spores. It is both a natural process in many, many species as well as one utilized or encouraged by horticulturists and farmers to obtain quantities of economically valuable plants. In this respect, it is a form of cloning that has been carried out by humankind for thousands of years and by "plants" for hundreds of millions of years.

 * Read Vegetative Reproduction ( Follow all links )

The Flower
The flower is the reproductive organ of plants classified as angiosperms—that is, the flowering plants comprising the Division Magnoliophyta. All plants have the means and corresponding structures for reproducing sexually, and these other cases will be explored in later chapters. However, because flowering plants are the most conspicuous plants in almost all terrestrial environments, we justifiably devote this chapter to the flowering plants alone. You will learn how other plant groups (and non-plant groups, such as fungi) reproduce sexually in Section II of The Guide.

The basic function of a flower is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction. Seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary method in most plants by which individuals of the species are dispersed across the landscape. Actual dispersal is, in most species, a function of the fruit: structural parts that typically surround the seed. But the seed contains the germ of life of the next generation.

 * Read Plant sexuality ( Follow links you find interesting, concentrating on acquiring a grasp of the terminology )
 * Read The Flower ( Follow links you find interesting, but at minimum read each of the following articles )
 * Read calyx - the sepals
 * Read corolla - the petals
 * Read androecium - the stamens
 * Read gynoecium - the pistil(s)
 * Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each of the following terms: androecium, anthesis, calyx, carpel, corolla, gynoecium, inferior ovary, nectary, perigynous, petal, pistil, pollen, sepal, stamen, superior ovary, syncarpous.

 * Read Inflorescence
 * Be sure to read about and understand the meaning of each of the following terms: bract, inflorescence, panicle, raceme, spadix, spikelet.

Questions

 * 1) Do you think the flower structure is in any way responsible for the considerable success of flowering plants in populating the earth?

The Seed and Germination
the primary purpose of the seed is one of preserving the continuity of life—starting a new generation in a new physical location. For large plants (shrubs and trees), this can be especially important because successful germination and growth close to the parent may be difficult or impossible; the established plant monopolizes light and water resources in its immediate vicinity. Seeds can also serve the function of overwintering or surviving harsh conditions. The entire generation—every individual—may die in the Fall or the dry season. In many annual species, only the seed exists during unfavorable dry or cold conditions.

 * The Seed ( Follow all links on anatomy and function )
 * Read Germination

The Fruit
The fruit is the actual agent of dispersal in most flowering plants.
 * The Fruit

 * Laboratory Exercises (flowers) for Chapter 5 >>
 * Laboratory Exercises (seeds) for Chapter 5 >>
 * Discussion of questions for Chapter 5 >>

title: Botany/Plant reproduction