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Cookbook:Basic Scrambled Eggs

Ingredients

 * 3 eggs
 * 2–3 tbsp milk (optional)
 * 2 tbsp butter
 * ¼ tsp salt (or to taste)
 * ⅛ tsp black pepper (or to taste)

Procedure

 * 1) Crack eggs into a measuring cup.
 * 2) Add the milk (if desired) and salt.
 * 3) Using a whisk or fork, beat the mixture until foamy.
 * 4) Melt butter in a frying pan on medium heat
 * 5) Pour eggs into frying pan.
 * 6) Stir mixture to break up the egg as it cooks and allow more liquid to touch the hot pan. Stirring rapidly will create small curds, while slower stirring will create larger curds.
 * 7) Cook until just before you feel that they are done, since the eggs will continue to cook after being removed from the pan. The eggs are done when the sheen disappears; stop cooking just before this happens.
 * 8) Transfer to a plate. Season with black pepper (black pepper will burn and become bitter if seasoned before cooking).
 * 9) Eat as is or with ketchup (tomato sauce), salsa, and/or butter on toast.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For a low-sodium version, omit salt and use unsalted butter.
 * Grated cheddar cheese can be added into the mixture or on top of the cooked eggs.
 * Sour cream may be used in place of milk for a creamier and richer version.
 * Cook ⅓ cup (25 g / 0.88 oz) of crumbled cooked meats (like bacon or sausage) or chopped vegetables (like mushrooms or bell pepper) for a couple of minutes before adding the egg mixture. See also Southwestern Scramble.

title: Cookbook:Basic Scrambled Eggs


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Japanese/Vocabulary/Animals

Insects
Japonés/Vocabulario/Animales Japonais/Vocabulaire/Animaux

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Animals


text:
User:Biggins

My User pages: Meta | Wikipedia | Wikisource | Wiktionary | Wikiquote | Wikibooks

title: User:Biggins


text:
Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Primates/Modern

The Classification System
In order to understand the exact place of humanity among the animals, it is helpful to describe the system used by biologists to classify living things. The basic system was devised by 18th-century Swedish naturalist Carl von Linné.

The purpose of the Linnean system was simply to create order in the great mass of confusing biological data that had accumulated by that time. Von Linné classified living things on the basis of overall similarities into small groups or species. On the basis of homologies, groups of like species are organized into larger, more inclusive groups, called genera.

Through careful comparison and analysis, von Linné and those who have come after him have been able to classify specific animals into a series of larger and more inclusive groups up to the largest and most inclusive of all, the animal kingdom.

The Primate Order
Primates are only one of several mammalian orders, such as rodents, carnivores, and ungulates.

As such, primates share a number of features with other mammals:
 * mammals are intelligent animals
 * in most species, the young are born live, the egg being retained within the womb of the female until it achieves an advanced state of growth
 * once born, the young are nourished by their mothers
 * mammals have a constant body temperature, an efficient respiratory system featuring a separation between the nasal and mouth cavities, an efficient four-chambered heart that prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood, among other characteristics
 * the skeleton of most mammals is simplified compared to that of most reptiles, in that it has fewer bones. For example, the lower jaw consists of a single bone, rather than several.

Species
In modern evolutionary biology, the term species is usually defined as a population or group of organisms that look more or less alike and that is potentially capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring. Practically speaking, individuals are usually assigned to a species based on their appearance, but it is their ability to interbreed that ultimately validates (or invalidates) the assignment. Thus, no matter how similar two populations may look, if they are incapable of interbreeding, they must be assigned to different species.

Populations within a species that are quite capable of interbreeding but may not regularly do so are called subspecies. Evolutionary theory suggests that species evolve from these populations or subspecies through the accumulation of differences in the gene pools of the separated groups.

Primate Characteristics
Although living primates are a varied group of animals, they do have a number of features in common. These features are displayed in varying degrees by the different kinds of primates: in some they are barely detectable, while in others they are greatly elaborated.

All are useful in one way or another to arboreal (or tree-dwelling) animals, although they are not essential to life in trees.

Primate Sense Organs
The primates' adaptation to their way of life in the trees coincided with changes in the form and function of their sensory apparatus: the senses of sight and touch became highly developed, and the sense of smell declined.

Catching insects in trees, as the early primates did and as many still do, demands quickness of movement and the ability to land in the right place without falling. Thus, they had to be adept at judging depth, direction, distance and the relationship of objects in space.

Primates' sense of touch also became highly developed as a result of arboreal living. An effective feeling and grasping mechanism was useful to them in grabbing their insect prey, and by preventing them from falling and tumbling while moving through the trees.

The Primate Brain
By far the most outstanding characteristic in primate evolution has been the enlargement of the brain among members of the order. Primate brains tend to be large, heavy in proportion to body weight, and very complex.

Reasons for this important change in brain size are many:
 * Prior to 65 Myrs ago, mammals seem to have been nocturnal in their habits; after 65 million years ago, primates began to carry out their activities in the daylight hours. As a consequence, the sense of vision took on greater importance, and so visual acuity was favored by natural selection.
 * another hypothesis involves the use of the hand as a tactile organ to replace the teeth and jaws. The hands assumed some of the grasping, tearing and dividing functions of the snout, again requiring development of the brain centers for more complete coordination.
 * The enlarged cortex not only provided the primates with a greater degree of efficiency in the daily struggle for survival but also gave them the basis for more sophisticated cerebration or thought. The ability to think probably played a decisive role in the evolution of the primates from which human beings emerged.

Primate Teeth
Although they have added other things than insects to their diets, primates have retained less specialized teeth than other mammals.

The evolutionary trend for primate dentition has generally been toward economy, with fewer, smaller, more efficient teeth doing more work.
 * Our own 32 teeth are fewer in number than those of some, and more generalized than most, primates.

Primate Skeleton
A number of factors are responsible for the shape of the primate skull as compared with those of most other mammals: changes in dentition, changes in the sensory organs of sight and smell, and increase in brain size. As a result, primates have more a humanlike face than other mammals.

The upper body is shaped such as to allow greater maneuverability of the arms, permitting them to swing sideways and outward from the trunk of the body.

The structural characteristics of the primate foot and hand make grasping possible; the digits are extremely flexible, the big toe is fully opposable to the other digits in most species, and the thumb is opposable to the other digits to varying degrees. The flexible, unspecialized primate hand was to prove a valuable asset for future evolution of this group. It allowed early hominines to manufacture and utilize tools and thus embark on the new and unique evolutionary pathway that led to the revolutionary ability to adapt through culture.

Prosimians
The most primitive of the primates are represented by the various prosimians, including the lemurs and the lorises, which are more similar anatomically to earlier mammalian ancestors than are other primates (monkeys, apes, humans). They tend to exhibit certain more ancestral features, such as a more pronounced reliance on olfaction (sense of smell). Their greater olfactory capabilities are reflected in the presence of a moist, fleshy pad at the end of the nose and in a relatively long snout.

Lemurs and lorises represent the same general adaptive level. Both groups exhibit good grasping and climbing abilities and a fairly well developed visual apparatus, although their vision is not completely stereoscopic, and color vision may not be as well developed as in anthropoids.

Lemurs
At present, lemurs are found only on the island of Madagascar and adjacent islands off the east coast of Africa.

As the only natural nonhuman primates on this island, they diversified into numerous and varied ecological niches without competition from monkeys and apes. Thus, the 52 surviving species on Madagascar represent an evolutionary pattern that has vanished elsewhere.

Lemurs range in size from 5 inches to a little over two feet. While the larger lemurs are diurnal and exploit a wide variety of dietary items (leaves, fruits, buds, bark), the smaller forms (mouse and dwarf lemurs) are nocturnal and insectivorous.

Lemurs display considerable variation regarding numerous other aspects of behavior. While many are primarily arboreal, others (e.g. ring-tailed lemur) are more terrestrial. Some arboreal species are quadrupeds, and others are vertical clingers and leapers.

Lorises
Lorises are similar in appearance to lemurs, but were able to survive in mainland areas by adopting a nocturnal activity pattern at a time when most other prosimians became extinct. Thus, they were (and are still) able to avoid competition with more recently evolved primates (diurnal monkeys).

There are five loris species, all of which are found in tropical forest and woodland habitats of India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and Africa.

Locomotion in lorises is a slow, cautious climbing form of quadrupedalism, and flexible hip joints permit suspension by hind limbs while the hands are used in feeding. Some lorises are almost entirely insectivorous; others supplement their diet with various combinations of fruits, leaves, gums, etc.

Tarsiers
There are seven recognized species, all restricted to island areas in Southeast Asia. They inhabit a wide range of forest types, from tropical forest to backyard gardens.

They are nocturnal insectivores, leaping onto prey from lower branches and shrubs. They appear to form stable pair bonds, and the basic tarsier social unit is a mated pair and their young offspring.

Tarsiers present a complex blend of characteristics not seen in other primates. They are unique in that their enormous eyes, which dominate much of the face, are immobile within their sockets. To compensate for this inability to move the eyes, tarsiers are able to rotate their heads 180º, like owls.

Simians
Although there is much variation among simians (also called anthropoids), there are certain features that, when taken together, distinguish them as a group from prosimians (and other mammals)
 * generally larger body size
 * larger brain
 * reduced reliance on the sense of smell
 * increased reliance on vision, with forward-facing eyes placed at the front of the face
 * greater degree of color vision
 * back of eye socket formed by a bony plate
 * blood supply to brain different from that of prosimians
 * fusion of two sides of mandible at midline to form one bone
 * less specialized dentition
 * differences with regard to female internal reproductive anatomy
 * longer gestation and maturation periods
 * increased parental care
 * more mutual grooming

Monkeys
Approximately 70 percent of all primates (about 240 species) are monkeys, although it is frequently impossible to give precise numbers of species because the taxonomic status of some primates remains in doubt and there are constantly new discoveries.

Monkeys are divided into two groups (New World and Old World) separated by geographical area as well as by several million years of separate evolutionary history.

New World monkeys exhibit a wide range of size, diet, and ecological adaptation. In size, they vary from tiny marmosets and tamarins to the 9 kg howler monkey. Almost all are exclusively arboreal; most are diurnal. Although confined to trees, New World monkeys can be found in a wide range of arboreal environments throughout most forested areas in Southern Mexico and Central and South America. One of the characteristics distinguishing New World monkeys from Old World is the shape of their nose: they have broad noses with outward-facing nostrils.

Old World monkeys display much more morphological and behavioral diversity than New World monkeys. Except for humans, they are the most widely distributed of all living primates. They are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, ranging from tropical jungle habitats to semiarid desert and even to seasonally snow-covered areas in northern Japan. Most are quadrupedal and primarily arboreal.

Apes and humans
This group is made up of several families:
 * Hylobatidae (gibbons and siamangs)
 * Hominidae (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans)

They differ from monkeys in numerous ways:
 * generally larger body size, except for gibbons and siamangs
 * absence of a tail
 * shortened trunk
 * differences in position and musculature of the shoulder joint (adapted for suspensory locomotion)
 * more complex behavior
 * more complex brain and enhanced cognitive abilities
 * increased period of infant development and dependency.

Orangutans
Found today only in heavily forested areas on the Indonesian islands of Borneo and Sumatra, orangutans are slow, cautious climbers whose locomotor behavior can best be described as "four-handed", a tendency to use all four limbs for grasping and support. Although they are almost completely arboreal, they do sometimes travel quadrupedally on ground. They are very large animals with pronounced sexual dimorphism: males weigh over 90 kg while females are usually less than 45 kg.

Gorillas
The largest of all living primates, gorillas are today confined to forested areas of western and equatorial Africa. There are four generally recognized subspecies: Western Lowland Gorilla, Cross River Gorilla, Eastern Lowland Gorilla, and Mountain Gorilla. Gorillas exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. Because of their weight, adult gorillas, especially males, are primarily terrestrial and adopt a semiquadrupedal (knuckle-walking) posture on the ground. All gorillas are almost exclusively vegetarian.

Common Chimpanzees
The best-known of all nonhuman primates, Common Chimpanzees are found in equatorial Africa. In many ways, they are structurally similar to gorillas, with corresponding limb proportions and upper body shape, because of their similar locomotion when on the ground (quadrupedal knuckle-walking). However, chimps spend more time in trees; when on the ground, they frequently walk bipedally for short distances when carrying food or other objects.

They are highly excitable, active and noisy. Common Chimpanzee social behavior is complex, and individuals form lifelong attachments with friends and relatives. They live in large, fluid communities of as many as 50 individuals or more. At the core of a community is a group of bonded males. They act as a group to defend their territory and are highly intolerant of unfamiliar chimps, especially nongroup males.

Bonobos
Found only in an area south of the Zaire River in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bonobos (also called Pygmy Chimpanzees) have a strong resemblance to Common Chimpanzees, but are somewhat smaller. Yet they exhibit several anatomical and behavioral differences. Physically, they have a more linear body build, longer legs relative to the arms, a relatively smaller head, and a dark face from birth. Bonobos are more arboreal than Common Chimpanzees, and they appear to be less excitable and aggressive.

Like Common Chimpanzees, Bonobos live in geographically based, fluid communities, and they exploit many of the same foods, including occasional meat derived from killing small mammals. But they are not centered around a group of closely bonded males. Instead, male-female bonding is more important than in Common Chimpanzees.


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Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Primates/Humans

 * 1) What are the implications of the shared characteristics between humans and the other primates?
 * 2) Why do anthropologists study the social behavior of monkeys and apes?

Information about primate behavior and ecology plays an integral role in the story of human evolution.

 * 1) Humans are primates, and the first members of the human species were probably more similar to living nonhuman primates than to any other animals on earth. Thus, by studying living primates we can learn something about the lives of our ancestors.
 * 2) Humans are closely related to primates and similar to them in many ways. If we understand how evolution has shaped the behavior of animals so much like ourselves, we may have greater insights about the way evolution has shaped our own behavior and the behavior of our ancestors.

Primate social behavior
Over the past four decades, primatologists have made prolonged close-range observations of monkeys and apes in their natural habitats, and we are discovering much about social organization, learning ability, and communication among our closest relatives (chimpanzees, and gorillas) in the animal kingdom.

In particular, we are finding that a number of behavioral traits that we used to think of as distinctively human are found to one degree or another among other primates, reminding us that many of the differences between us and them are differences of degree, rather than kind.

The Group
Primates are social animals, living and travelling in groups that vary in size from species to species. In most species, females and their offspring constitute core of social system.

Among chimps, the largest organizational unit is the community, composed of 50 or more individuals. Rarely however are all these animals together at a single time. Instead they are usually ranging singly or in small subgroups consisting of adult males together, females with their young, or males and females together with their young. In the course of their travels, subgroups may join forces and forage together, but sooner or later these will break up into smaller units.

Dominance
Many primate societies are organized into dominance hierarchies, that impose some degree of order with groups by establishing parameters of individual behavior.

Although aggression is frequently a means of increasing one's status, dominance usually serves to reduce the amount of actual physical violence. Not only are lower-ranking animals unlikely to attack or even threaten a higher-ranking one, but dominant animals are also frequently able to exert control simply by making a threatening gesture.

Individual rank or status may be measured by access to resources, including food items and mating partners.

An individual's rank is not permanent and changes throughout life. It is influenced by many factors, including sex, age, level of aggression, amount of time spent in the group, intelligence, etc.

In species organized into groups containing a number of females associated with one or several adult males, the males are generally dominant to females. Within such groups, males and females have separate hierarchies, although very high ranking females can dominate the lowest-ranking males (particularly young ones).

Yet many exceptions to this pattern of male dominance:
 * Among many lemur species, females are the dominant sex
 * Among species that form monogamous pairs (e.g., indris, gibbons), males and females are codominant

Aggression
Within primate societies, there is an interplay between affiliative behaviors that promote group cohesion and aggressive behaviors that can lead to group disruption. Conflict within a group frequently develops out of competition for resources, including mating partners and food items. Instead of actual attacks or fighting, most intragroup aggression occurs in the form of various signals and displays, frequently within the context of dominance hierarchy. Majority of such situations are resolved through various submissive and appeasement behaviors.

But conflict is not always resolved peacefully.
 * High-ranking female macaques frequently intimidate, harass, and even attack lower-ranking females, particularly to restrict their access to food
 * Competition between males for mates frequently results in injury and occasionally in death
 * Aggressive encounters occur between groups as well as within groups
 * Aggression occurs in the defense of territories

Individual interaction
To minimize actual violence and to defuse potentially dangerous situations, there is an array of affiliative, or friendly, behaviors that serve to reinforce bonds between individuals and enhance group stability. Common affiliative behaviors include reconciliation, consolation, and simple interactions between friends and relatives.

Most such behaviors involve various forms of physical contact including touching, hand holding, hugging, and, among chimpanzees, kissing. In fact, physical contact is one of the most important factors in primate development and is crucial in promoting peaceful relationships in many primate social groups.

One of the most notable primate activities is grooming, the ritual cleaning of another animal's coat to remove parasites, shreds of grass or other matter. Among bonobos and chimps, grooming is a gesture of friendliness, submission, appeasement or closeness.

The mother-infant bond is the strongest and most long-lasting in the group. It may last for many years; commonly for the lifetime of the mother.

Play
Frequent play activity among primate infants and juveniles is a means of learning about the environment, testing strength, and generally learning how to behave as adults. For example, Chimpanzee infants mimic the food-getting activities of their mothers, "attack" dozing adults, and "harass" adolescents.

Communication
Primates, like many animals, vocalize. They have a great range of calls that are often used together with movements of the face or body to convey a message.

Observers have not yet established the meaning of all the sounds, but a good number have been distinguished, such as warning calls, threat calls, defense calls, and gathering calls. Much of the communication takes place by the use of specific gestures and postures.

Home range
Primates usually move about within circumscribed areas, or home ranges, which are of varying sizes, depending on the size of the group and on ecological factors, such as availability of food. Home ranges are often moved seasonally. The distance traveled by a group in a day varies, but may include many miles.

Within this home range is a portion known as the core area, which contains the highest concentration of predictable resources (water, food) and where the group is most frequently found (with resting places and sleeping trees).

The core area can also be said to be a group's territory, and it is this portion of the home range that is usually defended against intrusion by others:
 * Gorillas do not defend their home ranges against incursions of others of their kind
 * Chimps, by contrast, have been observed patrolling their territories to ward off potential trespassers

Among primates in general, the clearest territoriality appears in forest species, rather than in those that are terrestrial in their habits.

Tool use
A tool may be defined as an object used to facilitate some task or activity. A distinction must be made between simple tool use and tool making, which involves deliberate modification of some material for its intended use.

In the wild, gorillas do not make or use tools in any significant way, but chimpanzees do. Chimps modify objects to make them suitable for particular purposes. They can also pick up and even prepare objects for future use at some other location, and they can use objects as tools to solve new and novel problems.

Examples:
 * use of stalks of grass to collect termites
 * use of leaves as wipes or sponges to get water out of a hollow to drink
 * use of rocks as hammers and anvils to open palm nuts and hard fruits

Primates and human evolution
Studies of monkeys and apes living today [especially those most closely related to humans: gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees] provide essential clues in the reconstruction of adaptations and behavior patterns involved in the emergence of our earliest ancestors.

These practices have several implications:
 * Chimpanzees can be engaged in activities that prepare them for a future (not immediate) task at a somewhat distant location. These actions imply planning and forethought
 * Attention to the shape and size of the raw material indicates that chimpanzee toolmakers have a preconceived idea of what the finished product needs to be in order to be useful

To produce a tool, even a simple tool, based on a concept is an extremely complex behavior. Scientists previously believed that such behavior was the exclusive domain of humans, but now we must question this very basic assumption.

At the same time, we must be careful about how we reconstruct this development. Primates have changed in various ways from earlier times, and undoubtedly certain forms of behavior that they now exhibit were not found among their ancestors.

Also it is important to remember that present-day primate behavior shows considerable variation, not just from one species to another, but also from one population to another within a single species.

Primate fossils
The study of early primate fossils tells us something we can use to interpret the evolution of the entire primate line, including ourselves. It gives us a better understanding of the physical forces that caused these primitive creatures to evolve into today's primates.

Ultimately, the study of these ancient ancestors gives us a fuller knowledge of the processes through which insect-eating, small-brained animals evolved into a toolmaker and thinker that is recognizably human.

Rise of the primates
For animals that have often lived where conditions for fossilization are generally poor, we do have a surprisingly large number of primate fossils. Some are relatively complete skeletons, while most are teeth and jaw fragments.

Primates arose as part of a great adaptive radiation that began more than 100 million years after the appearance of the first mammals. The reason for this late diversification of mammals was that most ecological niches that they have since occupied were either preempted by reptiles or were nonexistent until the flowering plants became widespread beginning about 65 million years ago.

By 65 million years ago, primates were probably beginning to diverge from other mammalian lineages (such as those which later led to rodents, bats and carnivores). For the period between 65-55 Myrs ago (Paleocene), it is extremely difficult to identify the earliest members of the primate order:
 * available fossil material is scarce
 * first primates were not easily distinguished from other early (generalized) mammals

Eocene primates
First fossil forms that are clearly identifiable as primates appeared during Eocene (55-34 million years ago). From this period have been recovered a wide variety of primates, which can all be called prosimians. Lemur-like adapids were common in the Eocene, as were species of tarsier-like primates.

These first primates were insect eaters and their characteristics developed as an adaptation to the initial tree-dwelling environment:
 * larger, rounder braincases
 * nails instead of claws
 * eyes that are rotated forward, allowing overlapping fields of perception and thus binocular vision
 * presence of opposable large toe

This time period exhibited the widest geographical distribution and broadest adaptive radiation ever displayed by prosimians. In recent years, numerous finds of Late Eocene (36-34 Myrs ago) suggest that members of the adapid family were the most likely candidates as ancestors of early anthropoids.

Oligocene primates
The center of action for primate evolution after Eocene is confined largely to Old World. Only on the continents of Africa and Eurasia can we trace the evolutionary development of apes and hominids due to crucial geological events; particularly continental drift.

During the Oligocene (34-23 Myrs ago), a great deal of diversification among primates occurred. The vast majority of Old World primate fossils for this period comes from just one locality: the Fayum area of Egypt. From Fayum, 21 different species have been identified.

Apidium

 * Most abundant of all Oligocene forms
 * This animal was about size of squirrel
 * Teeth suggest diet composed of fruits and probably seeds
 * Preserved remains of the limbs indicate that this creature was a small arboreal quadruped, adept at leaping and springing

Propliopithecus

 * Morphologically, quite primitive
 * Not showing particular derived tendencies in any direction
 * Small to medium in size
 * Likely fruit eaters

Aegyptopithecus

 * Largest of Fayum anthropoids, roughly the size of modern howler (13 to 18 pounds)
 * Primitive skull, which is small and resembles the one of a monkey in some details
 * From analysis of limb proportions and muscle insertions, Aegyptopithecus was a short-limbed, heavily muscled, slow-moving arboreal quadruped
 * This form of primates important because, better than any other fossil primate, it bridges the gap between the Eocene prosimians and the Miocene hominoids.

Miocene Primates
A great abundance of hominoid fossil material has been found in the Old World from the Miocene (23-7 million years ago).

Based on size, these fossils can be divided into two major subgroupings: small-bodied and large-bodied hominoids.
 * Small-bodied varieties comprise gibbon and siamang
 * Large-bodied hominoids are Pongo (orangutan), Gorilla, Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) and Homo. These four forms can then be subdivided into two major subgroups: Asian large-bodied (orangutans) and African large-bodied (gorillas, chimpanzees and humans).

The remarkable evolutionary success represented by the adaptive radiation of large-bodied hominoids is shown in its geographical range from Africa to Eurasia. Large-bodied hominoids first evolved in Africa around 23 million years ago. Then they migrated into Eurasia,	dispersed rapidly and diversified into a variety of species. After 14 million years ago, we have evidence of widely distributed hominoids in many parts of Asia and Europe. The separation of the Asian large-bodied hominoid line from the African stock (leading ultimately to gorillas, chimps and humans) thus would have occurred at about that time.

African Forms

 * A wealth of early hominoid fossils has come from deep and rich stratigraphic layers of Kenya and Uganda
 * These diverse forms are presently classified into at least 23 species of hominoids
 * Best samples and thus best known forms are those of genus Proconsul
 * Environmental niches were quite varied: some species were apparently confined to dense rain forests, others potentially exploited more open woodlands
 * Considerable diversity of locomotor behaviors: some were at least partially terrestrial - on the ground, some may have even occasionally adopted a bipedal position
 * Most forms were probably fruit eaters, some may also have included considerable amounts of leaves in their diet

European Forms

 * Very few fossils have been discovered
 * Most researchers would place these forms into the genus Dryopithecus
 * Evolutionary relationship with other hominoids is both difficult and controversial at this point.

South/Southwest Asian Forms

 * Remains have been found in Turkey, India and Pakistan
 * Attributed to genus Sivapithecus
 * Probably good-sized hominoid (70-150 pounds), that inhabited a mostly arboreal niche
 * Facial remains have concave profiles and projecting incisors, which bear striking similarities with the orangutan
 * Other traits are distinctively unlike an orangutan. For example, the forelimb suggests a unique mixture of traits, indicating probably some mode of arboreal quadrupedalism but with no suspensory component.

Miocene apes and Human Origin
The large-bodied African hominoids appeared by 16 million years ago and were widespread even as recently as 8 million years ago.

Based on fossils of teeth and jaws, it was easy to postulate some sort of relationship between them and humans. A number of features: position of incisors, reduced canines, thick enamel of the molars, and shape of tooth row, seemed to point in a somewhat human direction.

Although the African hominoids display a number of features from which hominine characteristics may be derived, and some may occasionally have walked bipedally, they were much too apelike to be considered hominines.

Nevertheless, existing evidence allows the hypothesis that apes and humans separated from a common evolutionary line sometime during the Late Miocene and some fossils, particularly the African hominoids, do possess traits associated with humans.

Not all African apes evolved into hominines. Those that remained in the forests and woodlands continued to develop as arboreal apes, although ultimately some of them took up a more terrestrial life. These are the bonobos, chimpanzees and gorillas, who have changed far more from the ancestral condition than have the still arboreal orangutans.

Summary

 * When did the first primates appear, and what were they like?
 * The earliest primates had developed by 60 million years ago and were small, arboreal insect eaters. Their initial adaptation to life in trees set the stage for the	subsequent appearance of other primate models.

 * When did the first monkeys and apes appear, and what were they like?
 * By the Late Eocene (about 37 Myrs ago), monkeys and apes about the size of modern house cats were living in Africa. By about 20 million years ago, they had proliferated and soon spread over many parts of the Old World. Some forms remained relatively small, while others became quite large, some even larger than present-day gorillas.

 * When did group of primates give rise to the human line of evolution?
 * Present evidence suggests that our own ancestors are to be found among the African large-bodied hominoids, which were widespread between approximately 17 and 8 million years ago. Some of these ape-like primates lived in situations in which the right kind of selective pressure existed to transform them into primitive hominines.


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User talk:Ricardo Stuven

Hola Ricardo, Bienvenido al curso de traducción de la Wikiversidad. Yo también soy un "alumno" de vez en cuando. Te recomiendo que le dejes un comentario a TUF-KAT en su página de discusión con los enlaces a los artículos que has traducido para comentarle si podría corregir tus aportaciones. De todas formas, también puedes consultar el historial de los artículos que has traducido y observar si alguien ha hecho alguna modificación. Te recomiendo paciencia, algunas veces una corrección puede ser en seguida, y otras puede durar varios días, aunque normalmente no suele tardar mucho. --Javier Carro 09:28, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Prácticas de traducción
Hola. Me acabo de apuntar como profesor-científico al curso de traducción. ¿Tienes interés en practicar traducción al inglés o al castellano? Si tienes interés en traducir artículos científicos al castellano, puedo supervisarlo. Y, si no sabes por dónde empezar, puedo hacerte algunas sugerencias :) -- 4lex 17:10, 3 Nov 2004 (UTC)

''Hola, disculpa la demora en contestar. Me interesaría traducir del castellano al inglés con supervisión. Gracias ---Ricardo Stuven'' 20 Dec 2004

title: User talk:Ricardo Stuven


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Cookbook talk:Italian Pasta

merged to Cookbook talk:Pasta

title: Cookbook talk:Italian Pasta


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User:Cynix

Freedom.

http://cynix.org/

title: User:Cynix


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European History/Renaissance Europe

The Italian Renaissance of the 13th and 14th centuries spread through the rest of Europe, representing a time when Europe sought knowledge from the ancient world and moved out of the Dark Ages. A renewed interest in science and experimentation, and a focus on the importance of living well in the present as opposed to the afterlife as promoted by the Church. The Renaissance brought on an explosion in art, poetry, and architecture. New techniques and styles developed as these art forms moved away from the colder and darker styles of the Middle Ages. This period, in this view, represents Europe emerging from a long period of backwardness and the rise of trade and exploration. The Italian Renaissance is often labeled as the beginning of the "modern" epoch.

However, it is important to recognize the countless modern institutions that did have their roots in the Middle Ages, such as nation-states, parliaments, limited government, bureaucracies, and regulation of goods and services.

Origins
In the wake of the Black Death, which decreased in incidence in 1351, faith in the power and significance of the church declined. The multitude of deaths (approximately 25-30 million between 1347 and 1351) signaled the need for a revival in art, education, and society in general. A large decrease in workers led to demands for higher wages, and thus uprisings were staged in several countries throughout Europe, particularly Germany, France, and Italy.

The Renaissance began in northern Italy in the early 1300s. Although it was not inevitable, several factors—nationalism (due to an increased pride in the days of early Rome), the Crusades, revival of trade—helped to bring about reform. Throughout Italy (Florence, Genoa, Rome, Naples, and Milan in particular) scholars revived their studies of early Greek and Latin literature, derived from archived manuscripts. Upon examining these early works, they realized that culture was essential to living a meaningful life, and education (especially history) was important in understanding both the world of yesterday and contemporary times, as well as gaining insight into the future. Thus, Italian scholars called for a 'Renaissance' (French for rebirth) in European education and culture.

Florentine Social Divisions
The denizens of Florence fell into one of four main social classes. These included the grandi (the great), the rulers of the city; the popolo grosso (big people), the capitalist merchants (these challenged the grandi for power); the smaller businesspeople, and the popolo minuto (little people), the lower economic classes, such as the paupers, who, despite constituting a third of the Florentine population, had no wealth at all.

This division of society was prone to conflict, and eventually resulted in the successful Ciompi Revolt of 1378. The Ciompi Revolt was that of the poor, who revolted because of the constant feuds between the grandi and the popolo grosso, the anarchy from the Black Death, and the collapse of banks, which made the popolo minuto even poorer. After a while, the Ciompi Revolt led to a four-year reign by the popolo minuto until Cosimo de’ Medici came into power in 1434 and restored the stability of Florence.

The Household
The plague resulted in more favorable working positions for women, although the overall participation of women in public life varied with class as well as region. Married couples worked together frequently, and most men and women remarried quickly if their spouse died.

Women's Education
Prior to the Protestant Reformation, Catholic convents were the primary mode of education for unmarried women. The focus of studies at these institutions was religion and spirituality. As Catholicism declined, women had to find new venues of learning, especially in Protestant countries. Many wrote and studied from their homes. When women were able to receive formal education, it was often not for the sake of their own intellectual development; rather, it was so that they were better able to educate their children.

The Querelle de Femmes, or the Woman Question, was the debate surrounding the intellectual equality of women and men. Some believed that women’s secondary status was a direct result of their lack of access to education and opportunity. However, others believed that women were inherently inferior to their male counterparts. They justified these beliefs with the claims that men were physically stronger than women, God created Adam first, and Eve ate the apple that led to humanity’s banishment from the Garden of Eden. Also, during the Scientific Revolution, inaccurate portrayals of female anatomy were used to justify claims of male intellectual superiority.

This topic would continue to be debated into the eighteenth century. Even as they preached the virtue of equality, the views of Enlightenment thinkers on the rights of women often diverged. One such philosopher, François Poullain de la Barre, wrote, “It would be a pleasant thing indeed to see a lady serve as a professor… or playing the part of an attorney… or leading an army… or speaking before states and princes as the head of an embassy.” He also believed that “the mind has no sex,” meaning that men and women shared the same intellectual capabilities. However, thinkers such as Rousseau disagreed, insisting that women were, by nature, less rational than men. This is striking because many of the people who conceived of and developed modern ideas of equality and freedom were, in fact, not advocates of equality for all, but only for a select group of the population.

Witch Trials
Though the European witch trials began in the early sixteenth century and gained traction throughout the Protestant Reformation, the religious ideas utilized during the trials had been seen much earlier. In 1374, Pope Gregory XI declared that demons aided the practice of magic; 100 years later, Pope Innocent VIII published Desiring with the Greatest Ardour, which condemned witchcraft. By 1517, the beginning of the Reformation, witchcraft was widely condemned by the Catholic Church. Starting in 1560, the trials spread throughout Europe. Economists Peter Leeson and Jacob Russ argue that the Protestants used the witch trials as a form of coercion because Catholics and Protestants both wanted to convert Europeans to their religions. The regions with the highest concentrations of the trials were also populated by Protestants. Germany, the birthplace of the religion, had 40% of the witch trials. Protestantism also spread to Switzerland, France, England, and the Netherlands, and these regions contained 35% of the trials. Meanwhile, Catholic nations—Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Ireland—contained only six percent.

In addition to the religious dimension, the European witch hunts of the early modern era were also gendered. The witch hunts in Europe targeted independent women. Overall, eighty percent of all accused were women, and, in Russia specifically, ninety to ninety-five percent of the accused were women. In contrast, witch hunters were disproportionately male. Most accusations were against independent women, often older widows, who lacked the support of a husband or family. Witch hunts also targeted gender non-conforming women and others who lived outside the social norms. Women who gathered in groups were viewed as a threat to authorities. The process of finding and executing witches was known as gender cleansing. According to Heinrich Kramer’s Malleus Maleficarum - Hammer of Witches, published in 1487, women were inclined towards satan by nature. This sentiment was widely used as justification for the witch hunts and executions. The religious scriptures followed by witch-hunting groups also deemed the female body impure and vulnerable to evil. Many of the accused were tortured into false confessions. In Europe, hangmen would carry out the torture and inspect the accused for physical signs of witchcraft. In her book Caliban and the Witch, Silvia Federici writes, “It is generally agreed that the witch-hunt aimed at destroying the control that women had exercised over their reproductive function and served to pave the way for the development of a more oppressive patriarchal regime” (Federici 14).

Underclass
At the beginning of the Renaissance, the boundary between the poor and criminals was very thin. Larger cities frequently had problems with organized gangs. The so-called "decent society" treated the marginal elements of society with great suspicion and hatred. Women were featured prominently in the underclass, and many poor women found prostitution their only option.

Hard Times for Business
The Hundred Years' War resulted in the various governments in Europe borrowing a great deal of money that they could not pay back. Thus, merchants were less likely to take risks, and instead invested in government bonds. The result of this was an overall decrease in trade.

The Birth of Humanism

At the time, Italy was the center of culture in Europe. Middle class writers were supported by noble patronage, and as a result, during the beginning of the Renaissance literature blossomed alongside classic revival. This resulted in the rise of humanism, an intellectual movement that advocated the study of history and literature as the chief means of identifying with the glories of the ancient world. Humanism advocated classical learning and active participation of the individual in civic affairs.

Renaissance scholars advocated the concept of "returning to the sources," attempting to reconcile the disciplines of the Christian faith with ancient learning. In addition, the concept of civic humanism arose, which advocated participation in government. Civilization was inspired by the writings of Roman emperors, and by the end of the 1400s intellectuals had a command of the Latin language.

In the 1440s, Johannes Gutenberg created a printing press with movable type. This revolution in communication greatly assisted in the spread of Renaissance ideals throughout Europe, allowing the ideas to be printed for mass circulation, for the first time in history. Gutenberg was the first European ever to create a printing press with a movable type, though the Chinese had long before innovated this technology.

The Renaissance conception of life and man's role on earth was more secular than in the past, but in no way was it nonreligious. It was now believed that God holds people above everything else, and that the greatest thing about being human is the human's free will to choose. People were celebrated, as Renaissance scholars argued that men are made in God's image, and that we should celebrate our God-given talents and abilities. People believed that life on Earth was intrinsically valuable, and that citizens should strive to be the best that they can. The emphasis of the Renaissance was on the individual rather than the collective.

Italian Humanists
Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) was an Italian scholar, poet, and early humanist. In his sonnets, he created the image of real people with personality, debunking the typical Medieval conceptions and stereotypes of people.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375) wrote The Decameron, a short story about the lives of people living during the Black Death. The book focused on people's responses to the plague rather than God's wrath. In this sense, the book was not about religion, but rather about people, a relatively new concept at the time.

Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) was an Italian Renaissance humanist philosopher and scholar. He authored the "Oration on the Dignity of Man," which has become known as the "Manifesto of the Renaissance." In this, he explained that man has unlimited potential, and with his free will can be anything he wants to be. He argued that man should make use of his abilities and not waste them. Finally, he explained that people should live their life with virtue, or the quality of being a man - shaping their own destiny, using all of their opportunities, and working aggressively through life.

Northern Humanists
Sir Thomas More was an English lawyer, writer, and politician. He was a devout Catholic who wrote Utopia, a novel that depicted Christian Humanist ideals producing an ideal fictional society. In his utopia, there was no crime, poverty, nor war. Much of the novel is a conversation that criticizes European practices, especially capital punishment.

Desiderius Erasmus was a Dutch humanist and theologian. He was also a Catholic. In his Handbook of a Christian Knight, he argued that through education, society can be reformed in the pious Christian model. He believed faith, good works, and charity were the core Christian values, and that elaborate ceremonies were superfluous. In his The Praise of Folly, Erasmus claimed that the true Christian table of virtues, namely modesty, humility, and simplicity, had been replaced by a different, perverted value system of opulence, power, wealth, and so on.

Arts
Renaissance art tended to focus on the human body with accurate proportions, and the most common subjects of art were religion, mythology, portraits, and the use of classical (Greco-Roman) subjects. Artisans of the Renaissance used oil paint to add shadow and light, and the use of the vanishing point in art became prominent during this time.

Artists of the Renaissance depended on patronage, or financial support from the wealthy.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
Leonardo da Vinci of Florence was known as one of the great masters of the High Renaissance, as a result of his innovations in both art and science. Leonardo is often viewed as the archetype of the "Renaissance Man" or "polymath" because of his expertise and interest in many different areas, including art, science, music, mechanics, architecture and the arts of war and philosophy.

Leonardo is best known for his paintings, the most famous of which are The Last Supper and The Mona Lisa. There remain about fifteen paintings attributed reliably to Leonardo, and many others to his pupils and imitators. He also left several important drawings of which the "Vitruvian Man" is the most famous and probably the most reproduced drawing in the world. Leonardo left many note books of studies of many subjects, often profusely illustrated. Much of his work was intended for publication but only a small percentage of his work was published, relating to art and mathematics.

In science, Leonardo practised meticulous observation and documentation. He dissected thirty corpses in order to study human anatomy and produced detailed drawings of the human skeletal, muscular, and internal organ systems including human fetuses. He made discoveries in anatomy, meteorology and geology, hydraulics, and aerodynamics. This led to his devising of many ingenious plans, including an underwater diving suit and non-functioning flying machines. He also sketched plans for elaborate killing machines. Many of these projects have proved impossible to create. On the other hand, he successfully built a mechanical lion that walked, roared and opened its chest to produce a bunch of flowers.

Michelangelo (1475–1564)

Michelangelo was one of the most prominent and important artists of the Renaissance, supported by the Medici family of Florence. Michelangelo's monumental sculpture of David preparing to kill the giant Goliath with his rock and sling is the perfect confirmation of the return to a humanistic appreciation of physical beauty from the austere medieval conception of emaciated, self-flagellated saints. Michelangelo also adorned the ceiling of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel with his "Creation of Adam" and other scenes and painted the Last Judgment on one wall of the Sistine Chapel in present day Vatican City.

Raphael (1483-1520)
Raphael was a famous painter and architect during the Renaissance.

Some of Raphael's famous paintings include The School Of Athens, The Nymph Galatea, and Portrait of Pope Leo X with two Cardinals.

The Prince
The Prince, a political treatise by the Florentine writer Niccolò Machiavelli (1464–1527), was an essential work of the Renaissance. For the first time, politics was presented as an objective science. Machiavelli recorded successful rulers and then drew conclusions without judgments. In other words, Machiavelli's politics were divorced from morality and religion.

Machiavelli's research showed that a successful leader of a nation acted in a number of ways:

 * His power should be held as more important than ethics and morals.
 * It is better to be feared, not loved, but he should never be hated.
 * His advisers should be truthful and loyal, he should avoid flatterers, and he should select old and experienced advisers because they lack ambition to attempt to steal his power.
 * He should be both the lion (brave) and the fox (cunning).
 * He should break treaties and promises when it benefits him and he should assume everyone else will do the same.

Northern Renaissance vs. Italian Renaissance
The Southern Renaissance in Italy occurred earlier, from about 1300 to 1600, while the Northern Renaissance occurred later, ending in about 1630. The Southern Renaissance emphasized pagan and Greco-Roman ideals, and as a result was considerably more secular, while the Northern Renaissance advocated "Christian" humanism, or humility, tolerance, focus on the individual, and the importance of earnest life on earth. While the Southern Renaissance emphasized art and culture, the Northern Renaissance emphasized the sciences and new technology. This failed to occur in the south primarily because the Roman Catholic Church stunted learning and the sciences. While the Northern Renaissance was religiously diverse, with the rise of Protestantism and a great deal of religious division, the Southern Renaissance was entirely Roman Catholic. The Southern Renaissance saw far fewer universities, while the Northern Renaissance saw more universities and education. Also, Northern Renaissance humanists pushed for social reform based on Christian ideals.

The New Monarchies
With the Renaissance came the rise of new monarchs. These new monarchs were kings who took responsibility for the welfare of all of society. They centralized power and consolidated authority - the kings now controlled tariffs, taxes, the army, many aspects of religion, and the laws and judiciary.

In the way of the rise of new monarchs stood the church and nobles, who feared losing their power to the king. In addition, these new monarchs needed money, and they needed to establish a competent military rather than mercenaries.

The middle class allied themselves with the new monarchs. The monarchs desired their support because their money came from trade, and this trade provided a great source of taxable revenue. The middle class supported the monarchs because they received the elimination of local tariffs, as well as peace and stability.

France
From the tenth century onwards France had been governed by the Capetian dynasty. Although the family ruled over what might be, in theory, considered the most powerful country in Europe, the French monarchs had little control over their vassals, and many parts of France functioned as though they were independent states. The most powerful vassals of the French kings were the Plantagenet dynasty of England, who, through their Angevin ancestry, ruled large parts of western France. The ensuing conflicts, known as the Hundred Years War, helped to solidify the power of the French monarchs over their country.

In France, the Valois dynasty came to the throne in 1328.

Charles VII expelled the English and lowered the church's power under the state in 1422.

Louis XI expanded the French state, laying the foundations for absolutism, in 1461.

England
Edward IV began the restoration of royal authority, but the strengthening of the crown gained momentum only after the Tudor family came to power.

Henry VII manipulated the Parliament to make it a tool of the king. He created the Royal court and the Star Chamber, in which royalty had the power to torture while questioning; this legal system allowed the king to limit the power of the aristocracy. He also promoted trade in order to gain the support of the middle class.

His son, Henry VIII, took this process still further when, as a result of his desire to have a male heir, he founded the Anglican Church in England and broke away from the Catholic Church (this was also known as the reformation) After Henry married Catherine of Aragon, she failed to produce a male heir, and Henry desired to divorce her in order to marry a new lady, Anne Boleyn, who he hoped would be able to produce a son. The Catholic Church strictly prohibited divorce, however, and Henry found that the only way to sever his marriage was to separate from the Pope's jurisdiction. As a result, he withdrew England from the Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England, and in the First Act of Supremacy he established the monarch of England as the head of the Church.

Spain
With the success of the Spanish reconquista, Spain expelled the Jews and Muslims. The marriage of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic monarchs (Spanish:Los Reyes Católicos), was the final element which unified Spain. They revived the Spanish Inquisition to remove the last of the Jews.

Holy Roman Empire
In the Holy Roman Empire, which occupied Austria and Bohemia, the Hapsburg Dynasty began. The Empire expanded its territory, acquiring Burgundy and attempting to unite Germany. The emperor's son married the daughter of the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella; their son, Charles V, became heir to Spain, Austria, and Burgundy.

Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were Muslims from Asia Minor who gradually conquered the old Byzantine Empire, completed in 1453 with the fall of Constantinople (renamed to Istanbul).

The Rise of Court Life
New monarchs began to utilize the court during this time to increase their power by setting themselves apart from the lay people and by allowing the king to control the nobles. The court became the center of politics and religion in their respective nations.

Nobles were required to live in the courts, and were as a result under constant watch by the king. Thus, the most important function of the court was that it allowed the king to control the nobles and prevent coup. In addition, however, the courts served an important social function, as the king's social circle was the nobles, and the court allowed him to interact with them.

Court life was incredibly lavish, with events including hunting, mock battles, balls, parties, dances, celebratory dinners, gambling, and general socialization. The middle class loved this, and frequently copied the behaviors of the nobility from the courts.

title: European History/Renaissance Europe


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Talk:Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 3

Untitled
The scholarly uses are rarely seen in modern literature and are only seen in very old books. I think it's ok to ignore them altogether. Maybe they will disappear.

 * I'll agree to that. In my second year and never heard of or used them. Introduce them later when they have a chance of being useful instead of just intimidating clutter. - Everlong 03:30, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The scholarly uses are rarely seen in modern literature and are only seen in very old books. I think it's ok to ignore them altogether. Maybe they will disappear.

 * I'll agree to that. In my second year and never heard of or used them. Introduce them later when they have a chance of being useful instead of just intimidating clutter. - Everlong 03:30, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Clarification please
The text reads: The Zhe/Zháo particle is another particle that you'll frequently encounter in the course of your Chinese studies

Which is the Zhe/Zháo particle in chinese characters? Is it 著? Why does it have two pinyin equivalents? What is the rule to determine its placement in a sentence?

Please keep in mind the outlook of the neophyte reader. Many thanks for your splendid efforts!

--Philopedia 23:22, 21 December 2005 (UTC)

I agree that the pace of the whole book needs to be slowed considerably.86.137.109.142 11:13, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

the word pronounced as 着 is much more common as 'zhe' rather than 'zhao2'. The word ‘到’ should be introduced before the word 着 as most people think of the word '到', which is more 'direct' in a sense, rather than the word '着' in the case of '我拿到(so-and-so)了！’ rather than '我拿着(so-and-so)了！‘ --chinzh

title: Talk:Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 3


text:
Talk:Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 4

Untitled
你的妈很大: this doesn't make sense. 你妈身材高大: you mother is big. 你妈岁数很大: you mother is very senior in age.

很 means very.

A really nice page
Can I just say that, as someone who has been self-studying as a hobby for a while, and actually bought some textbooks, nowhere else have I been able to find word order in simple, clear terms. This was immensely helpful. Thank you! --Poisonous (talk) 11:29, 10 January 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chinese (Mandarin)/Lesson 4


text:
Cookbook:Swedish Meatballs I

| Meat Recipes | Cuisine of Sweden

Ingredients

 * 200–300 ml (¾–1¼ cups) liquid, such as water, milk or cream
 * 50 ml (¼ cup) dried bread crumbs
 * 250 g (9 oz) ground beef
 * 250 g (9 oz) ground pork
 * 1 egg
 * 1 small onion, finely chopped or grated
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * Butter for frying

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the liquid and bread crumbs in a bowl, and let it sit for 7–8 minutes.
 * 2) Mix in the ground beef, ground pork, egg, onion, salt, and pepper.
 * 3) Shape the mixture into round meatballs, approximately 2–3 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter.
 * 4) Pan fry the meatballs on medium heat in a frying pan with butter for approximately 3–5 minutes. Fry them on all sides until they are brown and not pink in the middle. Shaking the pan occasionally will help the meatballs cook evenly.
 * 5) Serve them with mashed potatoes with a veal based brown sauce made with cream and lingonberry preserve or cranberry preserve.

title: Cookbook:Swedish Meatballs I


text:
Puzzles/Analogies

The word analogy itself coming from Greek words;ana- "upon, according to" and logos -"word","speech" Hence, it is a type of linguistic skills of grouping the words into their own groups.

The analogy puzzles are used to identify the relationship between a pair of words.

The format of analogies (in puzzles) are usually as followed: 1. [A] is to [B] as [C] is to [D] 2. [A]:[B] :: [C]:[D]

Usually, only the first pair of words are provided [A] and [B] (at times [C] are also provided) and the subject must correlate [C] relationship to [D]

For example: (1) carrot:vegetable :: banana: _____________

As we can see, in the first pair of words, the word carrot are grouped into vegetable category, hence the word bananas in a way should be categorized into fruits category

(2) angry is to happy as fast is to ____________

The word angry are opposite to word happy, the second pair of word, the word opposite of fast is slow

title: Puzzles/Analogies


text:
Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Origin

Beginning of the 20th Century
In 1891, Eugene Dubois discovers remains of hominid fossils (which he will call Pithecanthropus) on the island of Java, in southeast Asia. The two main consequences of this discovery:
 * stimulated research for a "missing link" in our origins
 * oriented research interest toward southeast Asia as possible cradle of humanity

Yet, in South Africa, 1924, Raymond Dart accidentally discovered the remains of child (at Taung) during exploitation of a quarry and publishes them in 1925 as a new species - Australopithecus africanus (which means "African southern ape"). Dart, a British-trained anatomist, was appointed in 1922 professor of anatomy at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa. Through this discovery, Dart:
 * documented the ancient age of hominids in Africa and
 * questioned the SE Asian origin of hominids, arguing for a possible African origin.

Nevertheless, Raymond Dart's ideas were not accepted by the scientific community at the time because:
 * major discoveries carried out in Europe (such as Gibraltar, and the Neander Valley in Germany) and Asia (Java) and
 * remains of this species were the only ones found and did not seem to fit in phylogenetic tree of our origins and
 * ultimately considered simply as a fossil ape.

It took almost 20 years before Dart's ideas could be accepted, due to notable new discoveries:
 * in 1938, identification of a second species of Australopithecine, also in South Africa: Paranthropus (Australopithecus) robustus. Robert Broom collected at Kromdraai Cave the remains of a skull and teeth,
 * in 1947, other remains of Australopithecus africanus found at Sterkfontein and Makapansgat, and
 * in 1948, other remains of Paranthropus robustus found at Swartkrans, also by R. Broom.

1950s - 1970s
During the first half of the 20th century, most discoveries essential for paleoanthropology and human evolution were done in South Africa.

After World War II, research centered in East Africa. The couple Mary and Louis Leakey discovered a major site at Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania:

 * many seasons of excavations at this site - discovery of many layers (called beds), with essential collection of faunal remains and stone tools, and several hominid species identified for the first time there;
 * In 1959, discovery in Bed I of hominid remains (OH5), named Zinjanthropus (Australopithecus) boisei;
 * L. Leakey first considered this hominid as the author of stone tools, until he found (in 1964) other hominid fossils in the same Bed I, which he attributed to different species - Homo habilis (OH7).

Another major discovery of paleoanthropological interest comes from the Omo Valley in Ethiopia:
 * from 1967 to 1976, nine field seasons were carried out;
 * In 1967, discovery of hominid fossils attributed to new species - Australopithecus aethiopicus
 * 217 specimens of hominid fossils attributed to five hominid species: A. afarensis, A. aethiopicus, A. boisei, H. rudolfensis, H. erectus, dated to between 3.3 and 1 Million years ago.

Also in 1967, Richard Leakey starts survey and excavation on the east shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), at a location called Koobi Fora:
 * research carried out between 1967 and 1975
 * very rich collection of fossils identified, attributed to A. afarensis and A. boisei

In 1972, a French-American expedition led by Donald Johanson and Yves Coppens focuses on a new locality (Hadar region) in the Awash Valley (Ethiopia):
 * research carried out between 1972-1976
 * in 1973, discovery of most complete skeleton to date, named Lucy, attributed (in 1978 only) to A. afarensis
 * more than 300 hominid individuals were recovered
 * discoveries allow for a detailed analysis of locomotion and bipedalism among early hominids

From 1976 to 1979, Mary Leakey carries out research at site of Laetoli, in Tanzania:
 * In 1976, she discovers animal footprints preserved in tuff (volcanic ash), dated to 3.7 million years ago (MYA).
 * In 1978-1979, discovery of site with three series of hominid (australopithecine) footprints, confirming evidence of bipedalism.

South Africa
Four australopithecine foot bones dated at around 3.5 million years were found at Sterkfontein in 1994 by Ronald Clarke:
 * oldest hominid fossils yet found in South Africa
 * They seem to be adapted to bipedalism, but have an intriguing mixture of ape and human features

Since then, eight more foot and leg bones have been found from the same individual, who has been nicknamed "Little Foot".

Eastern Africa
Recent discovery of new A. boisei skull is:
 * one of the most complete known, and the first known with an associated cranium and lower jaw;
 * It also has a surprising amount of variability from other A. boisei skulls, which may have implications for how hominid fossils are classified.

Recent research suggests that the some australopithecines were capable of a precision grip, like that of humans but unlike apes, which would have meant they were capable of making stone tools.

The oldest known stone tools have been found in Ethiopia in sediments dated at between 2.5 million and 2.6 million years old. The makers are unknown, but may be either early Homo or A. garhi

A main question is, how have these species come to exist in the geographical areas so far apart from one another?

Chad
A partial jaw found in Chad (Central Africa) greatly extends the geographical range in which australopithecines are known to have lived. The specimen (nicknamed Abel) has been attributed to a new species - Australopithecus bahrelghazali.

In June 2002, publication of major discovery of earliest hominid known: Sahelanthropus tchadensis (nickname: "Toumai").


text:
Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Bones

Skull
Cranium: The skull minus the lower jaw bone.

Brow, Supraorbital Ridges: Bony protrusions above eye sockets.

Endocranial Volume: The volume of a skull's brain cavity.

Foramen Magnum: The hole in the skull through which the spinal cord passes.
 * In apes, it is towards the back of the skull, because of their quadrupedal posture
 * In humans it is at the bottom of the skull, because the head of bipeds is balanced on top of a vertical column.

Sagittal Crest: A bony ridge that runs along the upper, outer center line of the skull to which chewing muscles attach.

Subnasal Prognathism: Occurs when front of the face below the nose is pushed out.

Temporalis Muscles: The muscles that close the jaw.

Teeth
Canines, Molars: Teeth size can help define species. Dental Arcade: The rows of teeth in the upper and lower jaws. Diastema: Functional gaps between teeth.
 * Gorillas eat lots of foliage; therefore they need very large molars, they also have pronounced canines.
 * Humans are omnivorous and have smaller more generalized molars, and reduced canines.
 * Chimpanzees have a narrow, U-shaped dental arcade
 * Modern humans have a wider, parabolic dental arcade
 * The dental arcade of Australopithecus afarensis has an intermediate V shape
 * In the chimpanzee's jaw, the gap between the	canine and the neighboring incisor, which provides a space for the opposing canine when the animal's mouth is closed
 * Modern humans have small canines and no diastema.

Bipedalism
Fossil pelvic and leg bones, body proportions, and footprints all read "bipeds." The fossil bones are not identical to modern humans, but were likely functionally equivalent and a marked departure from those of quadrupedal chimpanzees.

Australopithecine fossils possess various components of the bipedal complex which can be compared to those of chimpanzees and humans:
 * A diagnostic feature of bipedal locomotion is	a shortened and broadened ilium (or large pelvic bone); the australopithecine ilium is shorter than that of apes, and it is slightly curved; this shape suggests that the gluteal muscles were in a position to rotate and support the body during bipedal walking
 * In modern humans, the head of the femur (or thigh bone) is robust, indicating increased stability at this joint for greater load bearing
 * In humans, the femur angles inward from the hip to the knee joint, so that the lower limbs stand close to the body's midline. The line of gravity and weight are carried on the outside of the knee joint; in contrast, the chimpanzee femur articulates at the hip, then continues in a straight line downward to the knee joint
 * The morphology of the australopithecine femur is distinct and suggests a slightly different function for the hip and knee joints. The femoral shaft is angled more than that of a chimpanzee and indicates that the knees and feet were well planted under the body
 * In modern humans, the lower limbs bear all the body weight and perform all locomotor functions. Consequently, the hip, knee and ankle joint are all large with less mobility than their counterparts in chimpanzees. In australopithecines, the joints remain relatively small. In part, this might be due to smaller body size. It may also be due to a unique early hominid form of bipedal locomotion that differed somewhat from that of later hominids.

Thus human bodies were redesigned by natural selection for walking in an upright position for longer distances over uneven terrain. This is potentially in response to a changing African landscape with fewer trees and more open savannas.

Brain Size
Bipedal locomotion became established in the earliest stages of the hominid lineage, about 7 million years ago, whereas brain expansion came later. Early hominids had brains slightly larger than those of apes, but fossil hominids with significantly increased cranial capacities did not appear until about 2 million years ago.

Brain size remains near 450 cubic centimetres (cc) for robust australopithecines until almost 1.5 million years ago. At the same time, fossils assigned to Homo exceed 500 cc and reach almost 900 cc.

What might account for this later and rapid expansion of hominid brain size? One explanation is called the "radiator theory": a new means for cooling this vital heat-generating organ, namely a new pattern of cerebral blood circulation, would be responsible for brain expansion in hominids. Gravitational forces on blood draining from the brain differ in quadrupedal animals versus bipedal animals: when humans stand bipedally, most blood drains into veins at the back of the neck, a network of small veins that form a complex system around the spinal column.

The two different drainage patterns might reflect two systems of cooling brains in early hominids. Active brains and bodies generate a lot of metabolic heat. The brain is a hot organ, but must maintain a fairly rigid temperature range to keep it functioning properly and to prevent permanent damage.

Savanna-dwelling hominids with this network of veins had a way to cool a bigger brain, allowing the "engine" to expand, contributing to hominid flexibility in moving into new habitats and in being active under a wide range of climatic conditions.

Free Hands
Unlike other primates, hominids no longer use their hands in locomotion or bearing weight or swinging through the trees. The chimpanzee's hand and foot are similar in size and length, reflecting the hand's use for bearing weight in knuckle walking. The human hand is shorter than the foot, with straighter phalanges. Fossil hand bones two million to three million years old reveal this shift in specialization of the hand from locomotion to manipulation.

Chimpanzee hands are a compromise. They must be relatively immobile in bearing weight during knuckle walking, but dexterous for using tools. Human hands are capable of power and precision grips but more importantly are uniquely suited for fine manipulation and coordination.

Tool Use
Fossil hand bones show greater potential for evidence of tool use. Although no stone tools are recognizable in an archaeological context until 2.5 million years ago, we can infer nevertheless their existence for the earliest stage of human evolution. The tradition of making and using tools almost certainly goes back much earlier to a period of utilizing unmodified stones and tools mainly of organic, perishable materials (wood or leaves) that would not be preserved in the fossil record.

How can we tell a hominid-made artifact from a stone generated by natural processes? First, the manufacturing process of hitting one stone with another to form a sharp cutting edge leaves a characteristic mark where the flake has been removed. Second, the raw material for the tools often comes from some distance away and indicates transport to the site by hominids.

Modification of rocks into predetermined shapes was a technological breakthrough. Possession of such tools opened up new possibilities in foraging: for example, the ability to crack open long bones and get at the marrow, to dig, and to sharpen or shape wooden implements.

Even before the fossil record of tools around 2.5 Myrs, australopithecine brains were larger than chimpanzee brains, suggesting increased motor skills and problem solving. All lines of evidence point to the importance of skilled making and using of tools in human evolution.

Summary
In this chapter, we learned the following:

1. Humans clearly depart from apes in several significant areas of anatomy, which stem from adaptation:
 * bipedalism
 * dentition (tooth size and shape)
 * free hands
 * brain size

2. For most of human evolution, cultural evolution played a fairly minor role. If we look back at the time of most australopithecines, it is obvious that culture had little or no influence on the lives of these creatures, who were constrained and directed by the same evolutionary pressures as the other organisms with which they shared their ecosystem. So, for most of the time during which hominids have existed, human evolution was no different from that of other organisms.

3. Nevertheless once our ancestors began to develop a dependence on culture for survival, then a new layer was added to human evolution. Sherwood Washburn suggested that the unique interplay of cultural change and biological change could account for why humans have become so different. According to him, as culture became more advantageous for the survival of our ancestors, natural selection favoured the genes responsible for such behaviour. These genes that improved our capacity for culture would have had an adaptive advantage. We can add that not only the genes but also anatomical changes made the transformations more advantageous. The ultimate result of the interplay between genes and culture was a significant acceleration of human evolution around 2.6 million to 2.5 million years ago.

title: Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Bones


text:
High School Mathematics Extensions/Logic/Problem Set/Solutions

Logic Problem Set Exercises
1.
 * $$x'\Rightarrow y' = x + y'$$
 * $$y\Rightarrow x = y' + x = x + y'$$
 * Thus the statements are the same

2.
 * $$(x \Leftrightarrow y) \Rightarrow z = $$
 * $$(x \Leftrightarrow y)' + z = $$
 * $$(x' + y)' + z = $$
 * $$xy' + z$$

3.
 * a. $$(\forall x)(x^2 = 9 \Rightarrow x^2 - 6x - 3 = 0) $$
 * x2 = 9 means that x can be 3
 * 32 - 6*3 - 3 = 0 is false
 * Thus the sentence is false
 * b.$$(\exists x)((x^2 = 9) \times (x^2 - 6x - 3 = 0))$$
 * For this equation to be false we need an x so that x2=9 and x2 - 6x - 3 = 0 are both false.
 * The values of x for which x2=9 is true are x=3 and x=-3
 * The values of x for which x2 - 6x - 3 = 0 is true are $$x=2\sqrt{3}+3 \mbox{ and }x=-2\sqrt{3}+3$$
 * Since none of the values for x are the same there exist no numbers at all for which the statement is true.

4. (This solution is due to Tom Lam). Let (x+y)w+z = a NAND b, where a and b can either be one of x,y,w,z or another NAND operator.

$$(x+y)w+z=(ab)'$$

$$(x+y)w+z=a'+b'$$

Therefore $$a=[(x+y)w]'$$ and $$b=z'$$, both need further NAND operators. Let a = c NAND d, and let b = e NAND f.

$$(x+y)w+z={(cd)'}^{'}+{(ef)'}^{'}$$

$$(x+y)w+z=cd+ef$$

Therefore d=w, e=f=z,c=x+y.Let c = g NAND h.

$$x+y=(gh)'$$

$$x+y=g'+h'$$

Now g=x' and h=y', we still need more NAND operators. Let g = i NAND j and let h = k NAND l.

$$(ij)'=x'$$ $$x=ij$$ $$(kl)'=y'$$ $$kl=y$$

Therefore i=j=x and k=l=y.

Now substitute all the variables back, you should get: (x+y)w+z={[(x NAND x) NAND (y NAND y)] NAND w} NAND (z NAND z)

Alternatively Each of AND, OR and NOT can be expressed in terms of NAND only. And therefore any boolean expression can be written down entirely in terms of NAND. This property is called the universality of NAND. Remember x NAND y = (xy)'

Firstly,
 * NOT x = x' = x'x' = (xx)' = x NAND x

also,
 * x OR y = x + y = (x'y')' = (x NAND x) NAND (y NAND y)

and
 * x AND y = xy = (xy)' ' = (x NAND y) NAND (x NAND y)

Now
 * (x + y)w = ((x NAND x) NAND (y NAND y)) NAND w

and so
 * (x + y)w + z = ((((x NAND x) NAND (y NAND y)) NAND w) NAND (((x NAND x) NAND (y NAND y)) NAND w)) NAND (z NAND z)


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Deontology

< Introduction to Philosophy

Deontology is a set of moral theories which place themselves opposite consequentialism. While consequentialism determines right actions from good ends, deontology asserts that the end and the means by which it is arrived upon are intrinsically linked. A good end will come about as a result of good or right means.

The most famous of deontologists is Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804). His categorical imperative (divided into three formulations) determines a set of universal principles by which right action can be judged. The name "deontology" comes from the Greek "deon" which means "duty." Kant's goal in formulating deontology was to establish an ethical system that does not depend on anyone's subjective experience; rather, the good or evil of an action can be entirely determined by irrefutable logic. Thus, ethically correct behavior would be a duty whose truth no one could deny, just as no one can reasonably deny that two plus two makes four.

Kant's categorical imperative tells us how logic can determine whether an action is right or wrong. It revolves around the idea of the maxim that cannot be made universal without defeating itself. A classic example is the statement, "I choose to lie about my car so that I will not be punished for arriving late at work." This may work for one individual, but if everyone adopted this principle (if lying were universalized), they would cancel out the concept of promising. In a world where lying was normal behavior, no one would believe anything they were told. This is the first formulation of the categorical imperative, that any action whose maxim logically defeats itself when universalized cannot be a moral action.

John Rawls is a deontologist as well. His book, A Theory of Justice establishes that a system of wealth redistribution ought to be created such that it abides by a specific set of moral rules.

Another way of looking at deontology is that it is opposed teleological theories such as consequentialism. In this sense Deontology is concerned with finding the right actions that one should perform to produce the 'good', while teleology is concerned with isolating the meaning of the 'good' and then stating that a right action is one which will produce said good. Thus as well as formulating his categorial imperative Kant also states that one is acting morally when one performs one's duty to fulfill the categorical imperative.

title: Introduction to Philosophy/Deontology


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Organic Chemistry/Carboxylic acids

A carboxylic acid is characterized by the presence of the carboxyl group -COOH. The chemical reactivity of carboxylic acids is dominated by the very positive carbon, and the resonance stabilization that is possible should the group lose a proton. These two factors contribute both to acidity and to the group's dominant chemical reaction: nucleophilic substitution.

=Preparation= 1) from alkenes       R-CH=CHR + KMnO4 + OH- + Heat> 2RCOOH 2) from ROH RCH2OH + OXIDIZING AGENT > RCOOH

Aliphatic carboxylic acids are formed from primary alcohols or aldehydes by reflux with potassium dichromate (VI) acidified with sulphuric acid.

3) from toluene etc.       toluene + KMnO4 > benzoic acid

Alkyl benzenes (methyl benzene, ethyl benzene, etc) react with potassium manganate (VII) to form benzoic acid. All alkyl benzenes give the same product, because all but one alkyl carbon is lost.

No acidification is needed. The reaction is refluxed and generates KOH. The benzoic acid is worked up by adding a proton source (such as HCl).

4) from methyl ketones       RCOCH3 + NaOH + I-I > RCOO- + CHI3 5) from Grignard reagents RMgX + O=C=O > RCOOMgX RCOOMgX + HOH > RCOOH + MgX(OH)

=Properties=

Nomenclature
The systematic IUPAC nomenclature for carboxylic acids requires the longest carbon chain of the molecule to be identified and the -e of alkane name to be replaced with -oic acid.

The traditional names of many carboxylic acids are still in common use.

The systematic approach for naming dicarboxylic acids (alkanes with carboxylic acids on either end) is the same as for carboxylic acids, except that the suffix is -dioic acid. Common name Nomenclature of dicarboxylic acids is aided by the acronym OMSGAP (Om's Gap), where each letter stands for the first letter of the first seven names for each dicarboxylic acid, starting from the simplest.

Acidity
Most carboxylic acids are weak acids. To quantify the acidities we need to know the pKa values: The pH above which the acids start showing mostly acidic behaviour: Ethanoic acid: 4.8 Phenol:          10.0 Ethanol:         15.9 Water:           15.7

Data from CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics, 64th edition, 1984 D-167-8 Except http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trifluoroacetic_acid

Clearly, the carboxylic acids are remarkably acidic for organic molecules. Somehow, the release of the H+ ion is favoured by the structure. Two arguments: The O-H bond is polarised by the removal of electrons to the carbonyl oxygen. The ion is stabilised by resonance: the carbonyl oxygen can accept the charge from the other oxygen. The acid strength of carboxylic acid are strongly modulated by the moiety attached to the carboxyl. Electron-donor moiety decrease the acid strength, whereas strong electron-withdrawing groups increase it.

=Reactions=

Acid Chloride Formation
Carboxylic acids are converted to acid chlorides by a range of reagents: SOCl2, PCl5 or PCl3 are the usual reagents. Other products are HCl & SO2, HCl & POCl3 and H3PO3 respectively. The conditions must be dry, as water will hydrolyse the acid chloride in a vigorous reaction. Hydrolysis forms the original carboxylic acid.

CH3COOH + SOCl2 → CH3COCl + HCl + SO2

C6H5COOH + PCl5 → C6H5COCl + HCl + POCl3

3 CH3CH2COOH + PCl3 → 3 CH3CH2COCl + H3PO3

Esterification
Alcohols will react with acid chlorides or carboxylic acids to form esters. This reaction is catalyzed by acidic or basic conditions. See alcohol notes.

C6H5COCl + CH3CH2OH → C6H5COOCH2CH3 + HCl

With carboxylic acids, the condensation reaction is an unfavourable equilibrium, promoted by using non-aqueous solvent (if any) and a dehydrating agent such as sulfuric acid (non-nucleophilic), catalyzing the reaction).

CH3COOH + CH3CH2CH2OH = CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 + H2O

Reversing the reaction is simply a matter of refluxing the ester with plenty of aqueous acid. This hydrolysis produces the carboxylic acid and the alcohol.

C6H5COOCH3 + H2O → C6H5COOH + CH3OH

Alternatively, the reflux is done with aqueous alkali. The salt of the carboxylic acid is produced. This latter process is called 'saponification' because when fats are hydrolysed in this way, their salts are useful as soap.

Anhydrides
See acid anhydride.

Amides
Conceptually, an amide is formed by reacting an acid (an electrophile) with an amine compound (a nucleophile), releasing water.

RCOOH + H2NR' → RCONHR' + H2O

However, the acid-base reaction is much faster, which yields the non-electrophilic carboxylate and the non-nucleophilic ammonium, and no further reaction takes place.

RCOOH + H2NR' → RCOO- + H3NR'+

To get around this, a variety of coupling reagents have been developed that first react with the acid or carboxylate to form an active acyl compound, which is basic enough to deprotonate an ammonium and electrophilic enough to react with the free base of the amine. A common coupling agent is dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, or DCC, which is very toxic.

Acid Decarboxylation
On heating with sodalime (NaOH/CaO solid mix) carboxylic acids lose their –COOH group and produce a small alkane plus sodium carbonate:

CH3CH2COOH + 2 NaOH →CH3CH3 + Na2CO3 + H2O

Note how a carbon is lost from the main chain. The product of the reaction may be easier to identify than the original acid, helping us to find the structure.

Ethanoic anhydride
Industrially, ethanoic anhydride is used as a less costly and reactive alternative to ethanoyl chloride. It forms esters and can be hydrolysed in very similar ways, but yields a second ethanoic acid molecule, not HCl The structure is formed from two ethanoic acid molecules…

Polyester
Polyester can be made by reacting a diol (ethane-1,2-diol) with a dicarboxylic acids (benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid). n HO-CH2CH2-OH + n HOOC-C6H4-COOH → (-O-CH2CH2-O-OC-C6H4-CO-)n + n H2O Polyester makes reasonable fibres, it is quite inflexible so it does not crease easily; but for clothing it is usually combined with cotton for comfort. The plastic is not light-sensitive, so it is often used for net curtains. Film, bottles and other moulded products are made from polyester.

Distinguishing carboxylic acids from phenols
Although carboxylic acids are acidic, they can be distinguished from phenol because: Only carboxylic acids will react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form CO2

2 CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

C6H5COOH + NaHCO3 → C6H5COONa + H2O + CO2

Some phenols react with FeCl3 solution, giving a characteristic purple colour.

Note: Click on the following icon to go back to the contents page.

title: Organic Chemistry/Carboxylic acids


text:
Talk:High School Mathematics Extensions/Primes/Solutions

In the Division and Inverses section exercise 3 I don't know how to explain properly that 5n can never be divided by 3 without using the gcd. I hope somebody else can find a good explanation for this.Mmartin

 * Actually it can be done. 1/3 = 3-1 = 4, as 3 * 4 = 12 = 1. Xiaodai 00:13, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * But shouldn't it be 3-1 instead of 1\3. Because If I just calculate the value the outcome is 190904339063484856909638312798434267580915957296383567154407501220703125/3 which can't be reduced modulo because it's not a whole number. Mmartin 08:04, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I think you may have been confused. as you know 1/3 does not exist mod n, only 0,1,2,3...,n-1 does, 1/3 It is used to denote 3-1 (the inverse of 3). We can't really do that ("190904339063484856909638312798434267580915957296383567154407501220703125/3") because we are in mod modular arithmetic and when we make the jump to real number arithmetic, we can't just carry the 1/3 across. Xiaodai 11:58, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I understand that but you said in the text "From now on, we will use x-1 to denote the inverse of x if it exists." And I am still used to the fact that you can't really do division in modular arithmetic which was taught to me in a cryptography class. Although the inverse of a number exists as long as gcd(number,modulo)=1. Mmartin 13:54, 22 Aug 2004 (UTC)


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User:Raymond XYZ

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I am a professional freelance technical writer. Many of my assignments involve non-technical subjects. In my spare time, I lead book discussion groups.

I was born in 1945, and I am married to someone who is so incredible that I have to pinch myself to see if I am dreaming. She is a project manager at a U.S. Government agency. We have five children and seven grandchildren, and we live in the suburbs of Washington.

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title: User:Raymond XYZ


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User talk:Raymond XYZ

Hi! I'm really interested in collaboration, brainstorming, and development of consensus as a way of working. Please leave a note here for me so that we can talk. Raymond XYZ

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User:Nelson castaneda

La Informatica esta definida como,Conjunto de conocimientos Científicos y Técnicos que hacen posible el Tratamiento Automático de la Información por medio de Ordenadores.En mi opinion la informatica no es solo programar, ni tampco una subdisiplina.La profesion de la informatica contiene mucha teoria matematica y  similitudes con la ingenieria  de sistemas pero no es lo mismo.

[[]]

title: User:Nelson castaneda