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Beekeeping/Recipes for the Bees

Occasionally it becomes necessary to supplement a colony’s diet. This may be due to lack of food stores, to encourage a particular behavior, or to medicate the entire hive. The following are recipes that are considered to be bee safe. Each of these recipes may be of benefit when supplied at the correct time.

Honey
Despite the fact that on first observation it would seem obviously correct, honey is not the best feed for bees. Honey is in essence bee food that has been processed so that it won't spoil. When given the chance, bees prefer to eat nectar. When honey is used as a feed, or within one of the following recipes, be sure to know the source. If at all possible only re-feed honey to the same hive it was harvested from. Never use store-bought honey. Store-bought honey may contain AFB (American Foul Brood) or other such spores, which are perfectly safe for human consumption but can be deadly to bees.

Sugar Syrup
One of the reasons to keep bees is because you can harvest the honey that they create. After a honey harvest, it may be necessary to supply bees with an artificial honey replacement or with a source of artificial nectar, in order to prevent starvation. At other times when real nectar may be scarce or unavailable, artificial nectar can be used to encourage the drawing of comb or to aid in the rearing of brood.

This does not mean that it is appropriate to take all of the bees’ honey. After all, the bees did work rather hard for it. Bees should always have excess honey in storage.

When using sugar, only use white cane sugar. Don't use raw sugar, brown sugar or molasses as they contain impurities that may harm the bees or may be difficult for the bees to digest. If using powdered sugar instead of standard crystallized cane sugar, be sure to check the ingredients list as some powdered sugar contains anti-caking agents that might be harmful to bees. Although the following recipes call for ingredients by weight, volume is a close enough approximation as the bees don't particularly care about the specifics of sugar concentration.

1:1 Syrup
1:1, or One-to-One syrup can be used for supplemental spring feeding and encourage the drawing of comb.

 * 1 part (by weight) sugar
 * 1 part (by weight) water

1:1 syrup can be made by dissolving one pound of sugar into one pint of water. Simply stir sugar into room temperature water until all the sugar has dissolved to produce the desired quantity. The dissolving process will be sped up with hotter water, just be sure not to boil the sugar solution.

Some beekeepers suggest that you bring the water to a rolling boil in a covered pot to kill fungus and bacteria then remove from heat and stir in the raw sugar using a spoon that has also been sterilized in boiling water. Put the cover back on the pot and let cool to room temperature before feeding to the bees. The sterile sugar solution will stay clean and clear for up to two weeks using this method. One volume of water plus one volume of sugar when prepared equals roughly 1.5 volumes of syrup. Weight of water = 8.34 lbs(#) per gallon 1/2 gal = 4.14#  1qt = 2.09#  1pt = 1.04# & 1 cup = .52# of water.

One 2-liter bottle of water plus one cup of water plus 5 pounds of sugar yields just under two 2-liter bottles of "close enough" 1:1 Syrup

2:1 Syrup
2:1, or Two-to-One syrup can be used for fall feeding after the last honey harvest, or if the bees do not have a sufficiently large store of honey.

 * 2 parts (by weight) sugar
 * 1 part (by weight) water

The two parts sugar will not dissolve in room temperature water. Because of this mixing difficulty it is advisable to mix the sugar into near-boiling water. The best way to do this is to bring the water to a rolling boil in a covered pot and then remove from heat and stir in the raw sugar using a spoon that has also been sterilized in the boiling water. Do not return the pot to heat and allow the sugar mixture to boil, as this will give the chance for some of the sugars to caramelize, creating a partially indigestible and possibly even toxic solution as far as the bees are concerned. Be sure to let the solution thoroughly cool before feeding it to the bees. It was once common practice to add cream of tartar (tartaric acid) to 2:1 syrup to prevent re-crystallization of the sugars, however this is not recommended, as it is believed to shorten the life spans of the bees that consume it. Alternatively, one could add a very small amount of vitamin C as the acid (ascorbic acid) to adjust pH to 4.5 to impede crystallisation, as an antioxidant and general tonic.

For those without a scale, an easy recipe is 5 parts granulated sugar and 2 parts water by VOLUME. Sugar is somewhere between 170 and 200 grams/cup (depends on the reference), , and water is 240 grams/cup ,. So, for example, 5 cups of granulated sugar is 850-1000 grams, and 2 cups of water is 480 grams , which is close to 2:1. Picking 2:1 is a totally arbitrary ratio and is only a convenient, simple ratio for the bee keeper to think about for feeding bees late in the season.

2:1 syrup results in a final volume of syrup approximately double that of the liquid - e.g. 2kg of sugar in 1 litre of water will create 2 litres of syrup. This is due to the dissolved volume of sugar being less than in its crystalline form.

1:2 Syrup
1:2, or One-to-Two syrup can be used to stimulate brood rearing by simulating a nectar flow.

 * 1 part (by weight) sugar
 * 2 parts (by weight) water

Simply mix the sugar with room temperature water and feed the bees.

High Fructose Corn Syrup
(Phys.org) —A team of entomologists from the University of Illinois has found a possible link between the practice of feeding commercial honeybees high-fructose corn syrup and the collapse of honeybee colonies around the world. The team outlines their research and findings in a paper they've had published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Read more at: http://phys.org/news/2013-04-high-fructose-corn-syrup-tied-worldwide.html#jCp

It is not uncommon for a beekeeper with many hives and little time to use high fructose corn syrup in place of 2:1 syrup, however this method is not cost effective or practical for small-scale beekeepers. When purchasing high fructose corn syrup not specifically packaged as bee feed, be sure to check the list of ingredients. Many suppliers often add extra ingredients that may not be desired when feeding bees.

A few websites referring to the danger of feeding honeybees high fructose corn syrup, since overheating it during manufacture turns some of it into a compound toxic to honeybees:

 * http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090826110118.htm

Does this mean that high fructose should be sold only if it is already labelled with how much of that compound it contains?

Bee Candy
Occasionally it is not advised to feed bees syrup. For example, over winter any liquid syrup that contains higher levels of water than stored honey runs the risk of fermenting, spoiling the stores, and risking dysentery and associated diseases for the bees. Sometimes when emergency feeding it is best to use a dry or semi-moist food, other times bee candy is used as it is less messy than feeding syrup. Even though bee candy may be convenient to use as feed, it is not recommended as a complete substitution to syrup.

Un-prepared Sugar
The simplest bee candy is crystallized cane sugar. Pure sugar, while easy to handle, is generally only fed during dire emergencies, and bees sometimes will carry it out of the hive rather than consume it. A simple method of making Simple Sugar more useful is to make a candy shim with it. First build a shim out of 3"x 1" lumber and Staple 1/2" wire fabric on one side, this will be the bottom of the shim. Next, in a large bowl, add 5 pounds of white cane sugar, to that add 1/4th cup of Honey-B-Healthy plus about 2 to 3 drops of food grade red or white thyme essential oil, add to dry sugar and mix just until the sugar is all moist. Lay 1 layer of paper inside the shim on top of the wire fabric and then set a small water glass in the middle of the shim and add the damp sugar. press the sugar down to form a tight cake and remove the glass. Let the sugar dry. It will be like a giant sugar cube when it's dry. set it on top of the brood under the inner cover and finally punch a few holes in the paper, not too many but enough so the bees can get to the sugar. This shim has several advantages over just adding dry sugar on a piece of paper on top of the brood. One major advantage is the dried block absorbs the moisture and softens the block at night, then as soon as the sun comes up and starts to warm the inside of the hive the sugar block starts to dry. Another advantage is the essential oils act like a tonic to help make your bee's healthier to live through the winter. This system has become my go to for weak or late colonies.

Fondant Bee Candy
Fondant bee candy can be fed directly to the bees once cooled. It is also common to use this recipe in small quantities to plug the hole on a Queen Cage.

 * 4 parts (by volume) white sugar
 * 4 parts (by volume) 2:1 Syrup or High Fructose Corn Syrup
 * 3 parts (by volume) water

Boil water and slowly add the syrup and sugar until dissolved. Continue heating until the mixture reaches 238°F (114°C). Allow the solution to cool (without mixing)until it is slightly warm to the touch, and begin to mix and aerate the solution, the color should lighten. Pour into shallow dishes or mold and save for later use.

Quick Candy
In a pinch quick candy can be used in place of  Fondant Bee Candy, it is easier to prepare, but may not be as easily workable.

 * 1 part (by volume) confectioner’s sugar
 * 1 part (by volume) 1:2 Syrup or High Fructose Corn Syrup or  Clean Honey

Simply knead the two ingredients together like bread dough until completely integrated.

NOTE* Confectioner’s sugar may contain corn starch - use a blender to make powdered sugar from granulated crystals for use in the bee hive.

Pollen Substitute
Occasionally there is a shortage of pollen, or perhaps you simply desire to promote the raising of brood. Pollen substitutes can be used in such situations; however, despite its name, pollen substitutes are no real substitute for genuine fresh pollen.

Dry Pollen Substitute
Dry pollen substitute can be placed directly into the hive or used in bird feeders to attract local bees.

 * 3 parts (by weight) Soy Flour (expeller-processed soybean flour)
 * 1 part (by weight) Brewers Yeast
 * 1 part (by weight) Nonfat Dry Milk (Not instant milk)

Simply integrate the powders together and use. Occasionally bees may refuse to eat pollen substitute, most often when fresh pollen is available. It is, however, possible to trick bees to take the substitute when necessary by integrating a small amount of Vitamin C into the mixture. Often 1 teaspoon per 5 cups can be added. If a powdered form is not available, it is possible to crush a Vitamin C tablet for integration.

Pollen Patty
To make a pollen patty, bind the Dry Pollen Substitute with enough 2:1 Syrup to make a putty or dough like consistency.

Grease Patties
Grease Patties containing both wintergreen oil or tea tree oil and mineral salt appear to have an effect on varroa mites and tracheal mites. These effects can be seen when brood is present, and has a devastating effect on mites when brood is not present. However, grease patties with essential oils should not be used during time of honey collection for human consumption. During this time, grease patties without essential oils can be used to a lesser effect. For any noticeable effect, a grease patty of some form should be used at all times. Replace any consumed patties.

Simple Grease Patty

 * 1 part (by volume) solid vegetable shorting (such as Crisco)
 * 2 parts (by volume) white sugar

Mix sugar and shortening until well combined. Split into approximately quarter cup (~6 centiliters) portions and store excess in the freezer sandwiched between sheets of wax paper.

Grease Patty With Mineral Salt

 * 2 lbs solid vegetable shorting (such as Crisco)
 * 3 lbs white sugar
 * 1 lb 1:2 Syrup or High Fructose Corn Syrup or  Clean Honey
 * 1/3 cup pulverized mineral salt (~1/5lb Depending on mineral content)

Prepare the same as you would a simple grease patty recipe.

Grease Patty With Mineral Salt and Essential Oils

 * 2 lbs solid vegetable shorting (such as Crisco)
 * 3 lbs white sugar
 * 1 lb 1:2 Syrup or High Fructose Corn Syrup or  Clean Honey
 * 1/3 cup pulverized mineral salt (~1/5lb Depending on mineral content)
 * 3 table spoons wintergreen oil

Prepare the same as you would a simple grease patty recipe. Remember to wear gloves when handling wintergreen oil.

Extender Patty
If a grease patty contains terramycin, it is called an extender patty, and was once considered one of the best ways to control AFB. As resistance has been noted with this form of application it is no longer recommended. For your information, the recipe is here. lb powdered sugar lb solid vegetable shortening (such as Crisco) 2 tablespoons Terramycin TM-25

This patty was used to eliminate three weekly dustings of powdered Terramycin. The danger is that keeping a low level of TM in the hive leads to resistance.

Other
The following recipes simply do not fit in to any of the previous categories, this however does not mean that they are any less useful.

General Purpose Essential Oil Mixture
A commercial, general purpose essential oil product for bees that is similar to the following recipe claims many benefits, but many of those claims have yet to be proven. The following recipe may work about as well as that product. It has been known to occasionally cause Robbing behavior due to its great appeal to bees.

 * 5 cups water
 * 2 1/2 pounds of sugar
 * 1/8 teaspoon lecithin granules (used as an emulsifier)
 * 15 drops spearmint oil
 * 15 drops lemongrass oil

Bring the water to a boil and integrate the sugar until dissolved. Once the sugar is dissolved remove the mixture from the heat and quickly add the lecithin and the essential oils. Stir until everything is evenly distributed. This solution should have a strong scent and not be left open around bees. Cool before using.

Smokeless Smoke
A solution of general purpose essential oil mixture and  1:1 syrup can be mixed and used in a standard spray or misting bottle. This solution reportedly has varied effects depending on the specific history of the hive. Because of differences between each hive it, is best to try a ten to one [1:10?] mixture of essential oil mixture to syrup and vary the ratio as necessary. Have your smoker readily available during your first few trials in case the bees don't react to the solution.

Essential Oil Scent Masking Syrup
Nearly any essential oil can be mixed with a 1:1 syrup solution to mask an undesired scent in the hive. Among other uses, a masking syrup can be used during queen introduction or when joining two hives. Simply add the desired amount of oils to the syrup. The stronger the scent, the better it will serve to mask other scents, though be frugal as essential oils have a strong smell.

One of the more common oils to use is peppermint oil, but be sure not to use banana oil.

Scent Masking Syrup
An inexpensive scent masking syrup can be used similarly as the recipe for essential oil scent masking syrup. Simply prepare a 1:1 syrup and one or two crushed peppermint candies for every two cups of prepared solution. Load the solution into a spray bottle and use as needed.

title: Beekeeping/Recipes for the Bees


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See JeffAMcGee on the wikipædia.

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Haskell/Lists II

Earlier, we learned that Haskell builds lists via the cons operator  and the empty list. We saw how we can work on lists bit by bit using a combination of recursion and pattern matching. In this chapter and the next, we will consider more in-depth techniques for list processing and discover some new notation. We will get our first taste of Haskell features like infinite lists, list comprehensions, and higher-order functions.

Rebuilding lists
Here's a function that doubles every element from a list of integers:

Here, the base case is the empty list which evaluates to an empty list. In the recursive case, doubleList builds up a new list by using. The first element of this new list is twice the head of the argument, and we obtain the rest of the result by recursively calling doubleList on the tail of the argument. When the tail gets to an empty list, the base case will be invoked and recursion will stop.

Let's study the evaluation of an example expression:

We can work it out longhand by substituting the argument into the function definition, just like schoolbook algebra:

Thus, we rebuilt the original list replacing every element by its double.

In this longhand evaluation exercise, the moment at which we choose to evaluate the multiplications does not affect the result. We could just as well have evaluated the doublings immediately after each recursive call of doubleList.

Haskell uses this flexibility on evaluation order in some important ways. As a pure functional programming language, the compiler makes most of the decisions about when to actually evaluate things. As a lazy language, Haskell usually defers evaluation until a final value is needed (which may sometimes never occur). From the programmer's point of view, evaluation order rarely matters.

Generalizing
To triple each element in a list, we could follow the same strategy as with :

But we don't want to write a new list-multiplying function for every different multiplier (such as multiplying the elements of a list by 4, 8, 17 etc.). So, let's make a general function to allow multiplication by any number. Our new function will take two arguments: the multiplicand as well as a list of s to multiply:

This example deploys  as a "don't care" pattern. The multiplicand is not used for the base case, so we ignore that argument instead of giving it a name (like,  , or  ).

We can test  to see that it works as expected:

Generalizing even further
In this chapter, we started with a function constrained to multiplying the elements by. Then, we recognized that we could avoid hard-coding a new function for each multiplicand by making  to easily use any. Now, what if we wanted a different operator such as addition or to compute the square of each element?

We can generalize still further using a key functionality of Haskell. However, because the solution can seem surprising, we will approach it in a somewhat roundabout way. Consider the type signature of :

The first thing to know is that the  arrow in type signatures is right associative. That means we can read this signature as:

How should we understand that? It tells us that  is a function that takes one   argument and evaluates to another function. The function thus returned, then, takes a list of s and returns another list of  s.

Consider our old  function redefined in terms of  :

Writing this way, we can clearly cancel out the `xs`:

This definition style (with no argument variables) is called point-free style. Our definition now says that applying only one argument to  doesn't fail to evaluate, rather it gives us a more specific function of type   instead of finishing with a final   value.

We now see that functions in Haskell behave much like any other value. Functions can return other functions, and functions can stand alone as objects without mentioning their arguments. Functions seem almost like normal constants. Can we use functions themselves as arguments even? Yes, and that's the key to the next step in generalizing. We need a function that takes any other appropriate function and applies the given function to the elements of a list:

With, we can take any   function and apply it to the elements of a list of  s. We can thus use this generalized function to redefine  :

That uses the  function with a single initial argument to create a new function which is ready to take one more argument (which, in this use case, will come from the numbers in a given list).

Currying
If all this abstraction confuses you, consider a concrete example: When we multiply 5 * 7 in Haskell, the  function doesn't just take two arguments at once, it actually first takes the 5 and returns a new 5* function; and that new function then takes a second argument and multiplies that by 5. So, for our example, we then give the 7 as an argument to the 5* function, and that returns us our final evaluated number (35).

So, all functions in Haskell really take only one argument. However, when we know how many intermediate functions we will generate to reach a final result, we can treat functions as if they take many arguments. The number of arguments we generally talk about functions taking is actually the number of one-argument functions we get between the first argument and a final, non-functional result value.

The process of creating intermediate functions when feeding arguments into a complex function is called currying (named after Haskell Curry, also the namesake of the Haskell programming language).

The function
While  has type , the definition itself contains nothing specific to integers. To use the same logic with other types of lists, we could define versions such as,   and so on. They would all have the same definition but different type signatures. We can avoid all that redundancy with the final step in generalizing: making a fully polymorphic version with signature. Prelude already has this function, and it is called :

With, we can effortlessly implement functions as different as...

... and...

is the general solution for applying a function to each and every element of a list. Our original  problem was simply a specific version of. Functions like  which take other functions as arguments are called higher-order functions. We will learn about more higher-order functions for list processing in the next chapter.

Tips and Tricks
A few miscellaneous notes about lists in Haskell:

Dot Dot Notation
Haskell has a convenient shorthand for writing ordered lists of regularly-spaced integers. Some examples to illustrate it:

The same notation works with characters and even with floating point numbers. Unfortunately, floating-point numbers are problematic due to rounding errors. Try this:

Infinite Lists
Thanks to lazy evaluation, Haskell lists can be infinite. For example, the following generates the infinite list of integers starting with 1:

(If you try this in GHCi, remember you can stop an evaluation with Ctrl-c).

The same effect could be achieved with a recursive function:

Infinite lists are useful in practice because Haskell's lazy evaluation never actually evaluates more than it needs at any given moment. In most cases, we can treat an infinite list like an ordinary one. The program will only go into an infinite loop when evaluation requires all the values in the list. So, we can't sort or print an infinite list, but:

will define "evens" to be the infinite list [2,4,6,8..], and we can then pass "evens" into other functions that only need to evaluate part of the list for their final result. Haskell will know to only use the portion of the infinite list needed in the end.

Compared to hard-coding a long finite list, it's often more convenient to define an infinite list and then take the first few items. An infinite list can also be a handy alternative to the traditional endless loop at the top level of an interactive program.

A note about and
Given the choice of using either the  pattern or  /  to split lists, pattern matching is almost always preferable. It may be tempting to use  and   due to simplicity and terseness, but it is too easy to forget that they fail on empty lists (and runtime crashes are never good). We do have a Prelude function,, which returns   for empty lists and   otherwise, so that provides a sane way of checking for empty lists without pattern matching; but matching an empty list tends to be cleaner and clearer than the corresponding if-then-else expression using.

title: Haskell/Lists II


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User talk:220.101.165.152

Pre-Columbian is named after Christopher Columbus, so the spelling was correct..

title: User talk:220.101.165.152


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Cookbook:Karelian Pasties (Karjalanpiirakat)

| Cuisine of Finland

Karelian pasties (Karjalanpiirakat in Finnish) are traditional pasties from North Karelia, Finland. Today they are eaten throughout Finland. According to the traditional recipe, the pasties are made from a thin rye crust with a filling of rice. Butter, often mixed with boiled egg (munavoi), is spread over the hot pasties before eating.

There are also versions with carrot or potato filling.

Filling

 * 500 ml boiling water
 * 300 ml short-grain white rice
 * 900 ml milk
 * 1½ tsp salt

Crust

 * 200 ml cold water
 * 1½ tsp salt
 * 350 ml rye flour
 * 150 ml wheat flour

Moistening

 * 100 ml milk
 * 50 g butter

Egg-butter spread (munavoi)

 * 50 g butter, softened
 * 2 hard-boiled eggs, chopped
 * ¼ tsp salt (optional)
 * ½ can (125 g) cottage cheese (optional)

Filling

 * 1) Mix the rice into the boiling water. Boil until the water has saturated the rice.
 * 2) Add the milk, and stir the filling for a few minutes. Reduce heat and agitate the porridge. Cook for about 40 minutes. Stir the porridge every now and then. When the porridge is ready, it will seem thick.
 * 3) Mix in the salt, and cool the porridge.

Crust

 * 1) Mix the flours and salt into the cold water.
 * 2) Knead the dough until smooth and pliable.
 * 3) Shape the dough into a block, and divide it into about twenty pieces.
 * 4) Roll the pieces into balls, flatten them into small discs, and cover them with plastic.
 * 5) Roll out the discs into thin circles, approximately 17 cm in diameter.

Baking

 * 1) Spread some of the rice filling in an oblong shape on each dough circle.
 * 2) Crimp the edges together with your fingers to make a crust.
 * 3) Bake the pasties at about 250–300°C for about 15 minutes, until the crust is browned.

Finishing

 * 1) Heat the butter and milk together until the butter is melted.
 * 2) Brush the pasties with hot milk and butter.
 * 3) Lay the pasties on each other and rest them under a towel and baking paper.
 * 4) Beat together the munavoi ingredients, and use it as butter on the pasties.


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Movie Making Manual/Selling Online

Marketing your movie on-line is very much like marketing any product anywhere. It will always be easier and less expensive to market a product that meets the needs of a specific group. If you feel that everyone will want or need your product, you will show a profit sooner if you market to specific segments individually rather than attempt to capture the entire market at one time. By addressing a specific segment of the purchasing group you will be able to tailor your web site to the needs of that buyer more effectively. Single men and women may both need your product but express their concerns or needs in a different manner. Attempting to meet the needs of both will dilute the essential message necessary to show the buyer you understand their problem (escape boredom, need to know) and this product will solve it for them.

Fill a Need
Perhaps the most essential step to moving your movies online is to establish a target audience for your product. For this to come across effectively, you first must establish what you intend your product to do. For example, you may wish your product to:

 * Tell a story
 * Entertain the consumer
 * Inform the consumer

Once you have the purpose in mind, you must next select the target audience you wish to embrace.

Identify the Target Audience
Now you must design your site to fulfill the expectations of the target audience for your product. Some of these audiences include, but are not solely limited to:

 * Adults
 * Children
 * Men
 * Women
 * Professionals
 * Particular age groups
 * Particular ethnic groups

Understanding your audience's expectations is one key to creating a friendly and effective sales environment for your site.

Product Form, Delivery, and Price
Today's distribution media and channels are ultimately limited only by your own imagination. You may choose to distribute your film by using:

 * DVD
 * VHS (or other format cassettes, though VHS is the standard)
 * Video CD
 * Direct Download
 * Online (streaming) Media

You may distribute your film through:

 * Your own web site (though this is known to meet with limited success)
 * Distributors (Amazon, Barnes & Noble , and similar resellers)
 * Other storefronts, as a "special deal" with other products (a romantic movie could be sold at an online or bricks-and-mortar flower shop)

Be sure to set a price appropriate to both the distribution medium and channel.

Manufacture and Delivery
Now that you have a target audience and distribution channels in place, you must decide how to handle the manufacture and delivery of your final product. Some options include:

 * Buy and warehouse stock (though this can be costly)
 * Keep a small inventory on hand with rapid re-order ability
 * Burn or reproduce as needed

Collecting Payments
There are several methods of accepting payment via the Internet, but perhaps the best is to choose a "shopping cart" service that accepts as many forms of payment as possible. Among these should be:

 * Credit card orders (American Express, Visa, MasterCard, Discover)
 * PayPal
 * Check and/or money orders
 * Cash and/or wire transfers

Advertising
Once your site is fully operational, you will want to make your product as visible to as many different entities as possible. To achieve this, you should:

 * Exchange links with as many acceptable sites as possible
 * Hand out promotional flyers with your site's address in a prominent position (top-center works best)
 * Watch for news stories that allow you to offer information and earn referrals where you may mention your site
 * Get T-shirts printed to advertise your site - have your friends wear them in public when acceptable
 * Attend and speak at events of interest to your target audience

Wrapping It All Up
Now that your site is functional and your advertising machine is in full-gear, all you need to do now is to establish and maintain a valid accounting system and prepare for your next movie!

/Sales and exhibition

title: Movie Making Manual/Selling Online


text:
Talk:Linear Algebra/Matrices

Shouldn't this article include how to solve a set of equations by means of the determinant?

If nobody comments, I might just dig out my mathematics textbooks and add this anyway. -Erik

It would be nice if you defined Rn.

title: Talk:Linear Algebra/Matrices


text:
User talk:Asbestos~enwikibooks

Feel free to leave me a message here, but to be sure that I see it please copy it to (or notify me at) my Wikipedia talk page. — Asbestos 17:02, 10 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Asbestos. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Asbestos~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:59, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:35, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

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text:
Use the Source/Theft or Copying

Theft - The crime of taking someone else's property without consent, so as to deny the owner their property.

Copyright Infringement - The unauthorized use of copyrighted material in a manner that violates one of the copyright owner's exclusive rights.

Corporations and special interest groups working for corporations have for years been fighting the online duplication of digital media by calling it stealing, yet stealing requires the deprivation of property, while duplication is only violation of a copyright holder's rights.

Get into the Betamax case a little, mention the levy on recordable media in Canada - harddrives, flash, CDs and DVDs, compare the situation in Canada to the United States of America, discuss the content providers push in Canada to change the system to one more similar to the United States of America and talk about how code lines up in all this.

title: Use the Source/Theft or Copying


text:
Use the Source/In the Beginning

The first completely free BSD was 386BSD, at times called, "Jolix," due to its development by former Berkeley students William Jolitz and Lynne Jolitz. This lead to immediate issues, due to the Jolitzes' control over the system, as conflicts between outside developers and users and the duo as to how the system should be developed, and to what end.

After the release of 386BSD 0.1 in July of 1992 bug fixes and enhancements to the newly created operating system began to build up into significant code contributions, which had to be maintained outside the 386BSD repository. This lead to the developers working on these patches releasing them as an unofficial patchkit, and, as Jolitzes and patchkit maintainers had difficulty working together, these outside developers founded the FreeBSD project in 1993 to continue their work without having to depend on the Jolitzes. At the same time, another group of people were becoming frustrated with 386BSD development, and of the work done by the patchkit developers, and so began their own project.

NetBSD was originally derived from the 4.3BSD release from the Computer Systems Research Group of the University of California, Berkeley, via the Networking/2 and 386BSD releases. The project began as a result of frustration within the 386BSD developer community with the pace and direction of the operating system's development. The four founders of the NetBSD project, Chris Demetriou, Theo de Raadt, Adam Glass and Charles Hannum, felt that a more open development model would be beneficial to the project; one which was centered on portable, clean, correct code. Their aim was to produce a unified, multi-platform, production-quality, BSD-based operating system. The name, "NetBSD," was suggested by de Raadt, based on the importance and growth of networks such as the Internet at that time, and distributed, collaborative nature of its development.

The NetBSD source code repository was established on March 21, 1993 and the first official release, NetBSD 0.8, was made in April, 1993. This was derived from 386BSD 0.1 plus the version 0.2.2 unofficial patchkit, with several programs from the Net/2 release missing from 386BSD re-integrated, and various other improvements. The first multi-platform release, NetBSD 1.0, was made in October 1994. Later the same year, for disputed reasons, one of the founders, Theo de Raadt, was forced out of the project. He later founded a new project, OpenBSD, from a forked version of NetBSD 1.0 near the end of 1995.

FreeBSD - tell about how they started just to try improving the BSD release from the University of California Berkley

NetBSD - tell about how the project started based on a dislike of the system being used at the time by the FreeBSD people and the difference in the direction they started in

OpenBSD - tell about the project's founding through a developer conflict, Theo's interest in debugging and securing code

GNU - tell about the founding of the FSF, talk about the lisp and MIT stuff Richard Stallman went through

Linux - tell about a student wanting a Minix kernel

Apache - tell about the starting of a patchy webserver

Keep all these direct and to the point, this is to be the shortest chapter. Try to list the most accurate founding dates as possible.

Talk about networking basics, ARPANET and TCP/IP.

title: Use the Source/In the Beginning


text:
Talk:Polish/Feminine noun declension

Untitled
Hey the page is very informative, concise, clear and encouraging :), keep the great job, and here's just an idea for the declensions patterns:

except for fem. nouns in -sc, the following are universal, also for nouns like 'mezczyzna':

CASE   SG ENDING      PL ENDING Nom       -a            * Gen       -i or -y**    - with stem o-ó Dat       *             -om Acc       -ę (pron. e)  * Ins       -ą (pron. om) -ami Loc       *             -ach

Now, * stands for the following rule: If plural ends in -y then Dat and Loc take -ie plus softening where applies (kobiety, kobiecie, kobiecie). If plural ends in -i then Dat and Loc take -e plus softening where applies (rzeki, rzece, rzece) If plural ends in -e then Dat and Loc take -i or -y** as in Gen (ulice, ulicy, ulicy).

In other words, Dat sg and Loc sg follow the Nom pl.

Now, ** the -i or -y also depends regularly on the preceding consonant, can't recount now which ones.. however, most foreigners pronounce y as i anyway, and are perfectly understood, so it should hardly matter.

yours, Konrad Jaglak

title: Talk:Polish/Feminine noun declension


text:
Horn/Introduction

The Horn WikiBook was begun on November 24, 2004. It is continuously updated by several authors and is never considered fully complete. The purpose of this book is to inform the reader as to what the horn is, how to make music with it, and provide relevant musical literature.

Per the GNU Free Documentation License, you may freely distribute and reproduce this book. Should this book be copied across the Internet or printed to hardcopy, the authors would appreciate the following:
 * Mentioning Wikibooks as the source
 * A functioning link back to this book (for printed versions: listing the authors)
 * A statement that the text is available under the GNU Free Documentation License
 * A machine-readable version (only required for printed versions if making more than 100 copies)

We hope you enjoy learning about the greatest instrument of them all. Please add to and modify the contents of this book.

title: Horn/Introduction


text:
Horn/Technique/Miscellaneous

Inexpensive stopped muting
Many horn players own stopping mutes for when the music calls for them. If ever you are playing stopped passages, these come in handy. However, mutes can be expensive. A similar device can be created inexpensively.

Materials:
 * a styrofoam cup
 * a pencil or pen
 * a straw (optional)
 * a pair of scissors (optional)

 * 1) Puncture the bottom of the cup with the pen or pencil.
 * 2) Optionally, insert the straw into the hole. Cutting the length of the straw with scissors to desired length is recommended.
 * 3) Move the straw in and out of the cup while the "mute" is in the horn and you are playing. Tune the mute by adjusting the straw with an electronic tuner.

This is not a perfect substitute for a real stopping mute, but works when in a pinch.

Water emptying
As a consequence of a hornist blowing warm, moist air through metal pipes, a great deal of water condenses and comes together in liquid form inside the instrument. When too much water has condensed, airflow is obstructed and one can hear unmusical flops and pops while playing. The water must then be removed.

Hornists usually use gravity to their advantage when removing water. Often, the horn can be rotated so that the water can pour out of the lead pipe.

While every horn is different, there is one trick for emptying water out of the valve slides that is universal across all horns.
 * 1) Hold the horn so that the bell is above everything else and the valves are pointed straight to the ground.
 * 2) Depress all three valves. Hold it this way for at least two seconds.
 * 3) Lift off the first two valves while keeping the third down.
 * 4) Rotate the horn back to its normal position and keep rotating until the valves are no longer parallel to the ground.
 * 5) Remove the third-valve pipes. All the water was moved into these pipes and can be dumped quickly.

An Easy High C
This works on most horns:
 * 1) Play a C in the treble staff, using the F side of the horn.
 * 2) Press the first valve lever partially down.
 * 3) Continue to push it further down until the note jumps up an octave on its own.

While learning this one, remember that your lips are not buzzing the high C, they are buzzing the C in the staff the whole time.

Whistle Through Your Horn
This one is quite useless:

 * 1) Remove the tubing from one of your tuning slides.
 * 2) Push down the valves in such a way that the airstream would go through the tubing you removed.
 * 3) With your mouth in the mouthpiece, form an embouchure that is like whistling and also is like a recorder's mouthpiece.
 * 4) Blow lightly.

title: Horn/Technique/Miscellaneous


text:
Haskell/A Miscellany of Types

So far the only basic types we have looked at are Integers and Lists, although passing mention was made of strings and characters. This section will cover the major basic types.

An important thing to understand about the built-in types of Haskell is that they are not particularly special. From the compiler's point of view they are special because processors have special operations to do things like integer addition, but from the programmer's point of view they are just ordinary types with ordinary functions that follow exactly the same rules as any other type. Hence this section contains very little in the way of explanation on how you use these types or what the rules are, because for the most part you already know it: if it works for integers then it works for strings, booleans and floats.

Integers
Haskell has two types for integer numbers: Int and Integer.

"Integer" is an arbitrary precision type: it will hold any number no matter how big, up to the limit of your machine's memory. That is why "factorial 1000" gives you the right answer. This means you never have arithmetic overflows. On the other hand it also means your arithmetic is relatively slow. Lisp users may recognise the "bignum" type here.

"Int" is the more common 32 or 64 bit integer. Implementations vary, although it is guaranteed to be at least 30 bits.

Reals
Haskell also has two types for floating point: Float and Double. These behave like the corresponding types in C.

Arithmetic operators
All the usual operators are there, along with some extras.

 * Aside: Haskell numeric types are tied together in a complicated hierarchy of classes, which will be described later. The purpose of this page is to give you enough to do ordinary arithmetic without tripping over the type system.

There are three "raise to the power" operators which work differently and take different argument types.

 * ** : Takes two floating point numbers and uses logarithms to compute the power.
 * ^^ : Takes a fractional number (i.e. a floating point or a ratio, of which more later) and raises it to a positive or negative integer power.
 * ^ : Takes any numerical type and raises it to a positive integer power.

Conversion from an integer type (Int or Integer) to anything else is done by "fromIntegral". The target type is inferred automatically. So for example:

n :: Integer n = 6 x :: Float x = fromIntegral n m :: Int m = 7 y :: Double y = fromIntegral m

will define x to be 6.0 and y to be 7.0.

Division of integers is a little complicated. If you use the ordinary "/" operator on integers then you will get an error message (although the expression "4/3" does work because Haskell helpfully promotes literal integers to floats where necessary). Instead integer division is done using a collection of named operators.

Haskell has a neat trick with operators: you can take any function that takes two arguments and use it like an operator by enclosing the name in back-ticks. So the following two lines mean exactly the same:

d = 7 `div` 3 d = div 7 3

With that in mind, here are the integer division operators:

 * quot : Returns the quotient of the two numbers. This is the result of division which is then truncated towards zero.
 * rem : Returns the remainder from the quotient.
 * div : Similar to "quot", but is rounded down towards minus infinity.
 * mod : Returns the modulus of the two numbers. This is similar to the remainder, but has different rules when "div" returns a negative number.

Provided y is not negative then the following two equations will always hold:

(x `quot` y)*y + (x `rem` y) == x (x `div` y)*y + (x `mod` y) == x

Just as you can convert a function with two arguments into an operator, you can convert an operator into a function with two arguments: just put it in parentheses. So the following two lines mean the same thing:

(+) 3 4 3 + 4

This can also be done with any "incomplete" operator application:

(3+) 4 (+4) 3 -- not 3 (+4)

Booleans
Haskell has a boolean type Bool, with two values: True and False. There are also two operators defined on the Bool type: && and ||.

Numbers, characters and strings can be compared using the usual comparison operators to produce a Bool value:

 * == : Equal.
 * /= : Not equal.
 * <tt><=</tt> : Less than or equal.
 * <tt>>=</tt> : Greater than or equal.
 * <tt><</tt> : Less than.
 * <tt>></tt> : Greater than.

(When you learn about type classes, note that the equality operators (<tt>==</tt>, <tt>/=</tt>) are part of the type class <tt>Eq</tt>, and the comparison operators (<tt><=</tt>, <tt>>=</tt>, <tt><</tt>, <tt>></tt>) are part of the type class <tt>Ord</tt>.)

Haskell has an "if-then-else" clause, but because Haskell is a functional language it is more akin to the "? :" operator of C: rather than "doing" either the "then" clause or the "else" clause, the whole expression evaluates to one of them. For example, the factorial function could be written

factorial n = if n <= 0 then 1 else n * factorial (n-1)

The syntax of an <tt>if</tt> expression is:

if then <true-value> else <false-value>

If the condition is True then the result of the "if" is the true-value, otherwise it is the false-value.

/Not in book

title: Haskell/A Miscellany of Types


text:
Horn/General

"French" horn?
The International Horn Society recommended in 1971 that the instrument be recognized in English simply as "the horn". No other language includes a nationalistic reference for the name of the instrument. Here are a few examples of the name of the instrument in other languages:
 * French: Cor d'harmonie
 * Spanish, Italian: Trompa, Corno
 * German: Horn
 * Hebrew: Keren Yaar
 * Mandarin: Yuan Hao

Terminology

 * Mouthpiece: A detachable piece of metal which comes in contact with the player's lips. A large number of different mouthpieces can be bought, each with a unique rim width, cup diameter, cup width and bore size. Mouthpieces can be made to be silver- or gold-plated. Typically, silver is for firm, dry contact and gold is for loose, wet contact.
 * Lead-pipe: The pipe of which air enters from the mouthpiece and flows toward the main tuning slide.
 * Valves: Keys which can be depressed to change the total length of the instrument.
 * Pinky-ring: The curved piece of metal which the pinky-finger is placed in to help hold up the instrument. (Note: Some horn players have modified their horns and replaced the pinky-ring with another device that puts less stress on the pinky, allowing the rest of the hand to be more flexible)
 * Bell: The large opening of which the right-hand is placed in and sound emerges from.

title: Horn/General


text: Horn/Technique

title: Horn/Technique


text:
Beekeeping/Phobias

The Beekeeper's Perspective
One reason why more people do not engage in the hobby and profession of beekeeping is that bees are frightening, or may seem so. A small proportion of the population will have a specific phobia, which may or may not have developed after a specific traumatic experience (or lack of experience/opportunity to engage with bees in the natural environment), but will almost certainly have had its onset in childhood. Interestingly, many people are able to adapt their phobic reactions in the presence of children, because it is well-known children can exhibit fear after seeing a display from their elders. The peak ages for developing phobias are 2-6 and the early teenage years. This is when people are making career decisions and developing other aspects of their identity. A simple phobia may influence work in the field, as in those who want to be doctors or veterinarians but cannot stand blood. Some beekeepers treat their bees like their children, and very often may not appear to be sympathetic and understanding to phobic reactions. They may believe their bees can't possibly hurt anyone, having thought it through rationally with their experience. It is important not to exclude the possibility that some beekeepers may also have a current phobia, or have successfully overcome their phobia.

The Phobic's Perspective
(This is a first-person description of common fears that a person exposed to bees could have, and is thus hypothetical. Keep in mind that many fears have not a specific trigger.) Bees are dangerous. Their sting could kill me and I might have an allergic reaction. I might avoid everything to do with bees-in an extreme circumstance I will avoid consuming Manuka honey, even though I know it is good for my sore throat and general functioning. I have terrible pictures in my mind-indeed everything I see, hear, taste, smell and touch which reminds me of bees creates a reaction in my nervous system, which makes me want to die. I even avoid gardens and flowers, and try to buy dull flowers for my garden. The flowers don't get pollinated, so I have a really shocking garden as the flowers didn't grow. I just can't get over the sight of my cousin being stung by a bee. She was four. She was defenseless.

The medical perspective
Psychologists and psychiatrists usually take care of phobias. Two treatments, both relatively brief, are effective for phobias. These include the guiding principles of desensitization and exposure. Beekeepers in particular should be aware that exposure is seldom good without desensitization, and normally specific goals are in mind before this process is applied. Family and friends are usually good at accommodating anxiety-producing situations, unless they seriously interfere with life. Phobias are usually best dealt with when the person is calm, and indirect, neutral surroundings are generally used in the first stage. For example, somebody who has a mild to moderate bee phobia could be encouraged by her therapist to read this Wikibook, knowing that the bees are treated in a caring and sensitive manner. Therapy focuses on modifying cognitions (thinking - for example: Bees are dangerous all the time, in all circumstances) and affective reaction (emotion - for example: I just can't get over the sight of my cousin...She was defenseless), to see whether they are rational or not (obviously, the effect on the garden may not be entirely rational, but the possibility of the allergic reaction may be). The fear of bees is called apiphobia. You as a beekeeper are entitled to ask for a medical certificate, and simple information may be released if the phobic consents. If a friend or relative has this phobia, tread especially carefully. Make sure your bees are well controlled. Many phobias are worse in a crowd, reflecting the fact that bees and humans are social animals. The first principle of the beekeeper may be akin with the one of the doctor: "First do no harm". If you can assure the phobic you are doing no harm in your livelihood, you will significantly reduce her fear and anxiety. Often people who used to be afraid of bees are your greatest converts and assets, and it is important to keep their concerns in mind, so your hive is a safe and happy place to be.

title: Beekeeping/Phobias


text:
Beekeeping/Varieties of Honey

There exist greater than 300 different distinct types of honey. Flavor, aroma and color of a honey can differ substantially based on the flowers that nectar was collected from. Honey flavors range from slight hints of sweetness to great bounds of distinct flavor, its flavors similarly can run the gambit of being a clear as water to a deep dark brown. There exist as many flavors of honey in the world as exists combinations of blossoms in bloom at the same time. The following is simply a sampling of some of the more popular or more common honey varieties. If you wish to obtain one or more of these varieties of honey the National Honey Board provides a free of charge listings of distributors for many varieties.

Alfalfa
Alfalfa honey has a sweet mild flavor with a scent similar to bees wax. The honey ranges from a near clear to a light amber color. Alfalfa is an important honey crop in the western United States.

Apple Blossom
Apple blossom honey is a light golden in color and may have a hint of apple in scent. Apple blossoms are an important source of honey during the spring in the northern and central US.

Dandelion
Often considered a weed plant, the dandelion is one of the first nectar sources available to the bees during the new spring. The honey created from this flower reportedly has a strong taste and an unmistakable flowery scent.

Fire Weed
Fireweed produces a honey that is nearly crystal clear. It’s the combination of its sweet and mild flavor alongside its color makes it a popular variety.

Manuka
Found only in New Zealand’s coastal areas, Manuka produces nectar that is turned to honey that reportedly has more medical uses than most honeys. Manuka honey is noted for treatment of a sore throat and aiding in the healing of wounds.

Orange Blossom
A popular honey variety that is harvested in Florida, Texas, California and Arizona with in the US. Orange blossom honey is an light amber with a distinctive flavor and the scent of an orange blossom. Other than United States, Orange Blossom Honey from Pakistan, is also very popular for its citrus taste.

White Dutch Clover
This stemless flower producer is one of the leading honey crops in the US. The honey produced from the White Dutch Clover has a sweet flowery flavor and a pleasant mild taste.

Wildflower
Wildflower honey is created from nonspecific nectar sources. It is made during a time and area when multiple varieties of nectar bearing flowers are in bloom. Depending on the time of year and the location gathered, wildflower honey can be drastically different in flavor color and aroma.

title: Beekeeping/Varieties of Honey


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Talk:Beekeeping/Varieties of Honey

I would love to be able to display a picture of each blossom type described, and possibly a container of each type of honey to show color variances. Unfortunately, I don’t have a freely available source to many of these desired pictures and the Wiki Commons seems a bit dry of what I need. Robert Engelhardt

title: Talk:Beekeeping/Varieties of Honey


text:
Korean/Lesson I9

 * Kindergarten     유치원 (yu chi won)
 * Elementary school 초등학교 (cho deng hak gyo)
 * Middle school 중 학 교 (jung hak gyo)
 * High school  고등학교  (go deng hak gyo)
 * University   대 학교 (dae hak gyo)
 * Graduate School 대 학원 (dae hak won)
 * After-school institute, providing instruction on a particular subject   학원 (hak won)

 * Major        전 공    (jeon gong)
 * Minor        부 전 공 (bu jeon gong)
 * Study        공 부    (gong bu)
 * Dorm         기 숙 사 (gi suk sa)
 * School       학 교    (hak gyo)
 * College      대 학    (dae hak)
 * Philosophy   철 학    (cheol hak)

<>

title: Korean/Lesson I9


text:
User talk:WhisperToMe

Bartending book
Please put the alcoholic drinks into the Bartending book. There must be millions of cocktails, many of which have troublesome names like "Apricot Pie". (I sure expect a fruit-filled pastry for that)

Feel free to add notes on other bartending stuff too, like dealing with customers that get violent.

title: User talk:WhisperToMe


text:
Thai

Learning Thai (เรียนภาษาไทย)
Thai (ภาษาไทย-phāːsǎːthāi) is official language of Thailand.

Like Chinese and some other Asian languages, spoken Thai is a tonal language. That means that by changing the tone of a spoken word you can change its meaning. This can be confusing for people whose first language is non-tonal, like the European languages. The written Thai word however, is not so confusing because words with different tones are spelled differently. Though like English, it is possible for words with the same tone but different meanings, to be spelled differently too ('feet' and 'feat')

Example of some Thai words highlighting the different tones.

The following table is comparing Chinese with Thai about their tones. Note that pronunciation key is adapted form English alphabets with IPA tone markers for Thai. It is not same as pinyin tone marker at all. Many Thai phrasebooks use pronunciation key without tone marker, even though Thai is tonal language. If you want to speak Thai correctly, you have to study its tone, otherwise Thai people will have trouble understanding what you say.

Basic Thai phrases for greetings
Basic Thai greetings are hands down the most important of phrases visitors will want to memorise before journeying to the Land of Smiles. Speaking of smiles, those who can say these words are almost guaranteed to receive a smile in return to everyone they greet with them. The small effort it takes from travellers to memorise basic greetings goes a long way in the eyes of the locals in Thailand. Here are some of the most basic of phrases worth remembering. Note: When speaking with a Thai person you should use the polite endings ครับ/krup (men) and ค่ะ/ka (women) at the end of your statements and questions. The usage of these words depends on age, status and relationship, however. With some phrases you will use these endings at all time. Below, you will see them included in sentences would be considered rude/abnormal to not use them.

-Hello (all day) = Sawatdii krup/ka

-How are you? = Sabaaidii mai?

-I’m fine = Sabaaidii

-I’m not well = Mai sabaii

-I come from (America) = Pom/Di-Chan maa jaak (ameerigaa)

-What country are you from? = Kun maa jaak bprateet arai?

-Thank you = Khop kun krup/ka

-Sorry = Khaw Tote

-No problem = Mai bpenrai

-Goodbye = Jer gan / la gawn

-Can you speak English? = Kun pood paasaa anggrit dai mai

-What is your name? = Kun chuu arai?

-My name is __ = Pŏm / Chán chuu __.

Lessons

 * /Tone/
 * /Alphabet/

Modules
Although this Wikibook is still in its early stages of development, hopefully you will find it useful nevertheless. If you can, please help improve these articles, or add new ones.
 * /Adding vocabulary with word association/ - using mnemonics to improve your vocabulary.
 * /Writing lessons plan/ - includes a list of words that sound similar to English.
 * /Common phrases/
 * /Colors/
 * /Core vocabulary/

title: Thai


text:
User:Nsh/Wiki Science

This userspace subpage a placeholder for my opinions on Wiki Science. As I am able to build theory around and from these subjective opinions, I will move stuff out of here and onto the Wiki Science namespace. Content here I believe is correct, but I haven't put it into the Wiki Science: NPoV grammar of english yet.

Important theoretical constructs in my (gestalt of) theory(s) of Wiki Science

 * 1)  Wiki Science: NPoV grammar
 * 2) More coming.

title: User:Nsh/Wiki Science


text:
Systems Theory/Goal Seeking (Intrinsic & Extrinsic)

Goal Seeking
Control systems or Cybernetics are characterized by the fact that they have goals: states of affairs that they try to achieve and maintain, in spite of obstacles or perturbations

Control systems are combinations of components (electrical, mechanical, thermal, or hydraulic) that act together to maintain actual system performance close to a specified set of performance specifications. Open-loop control systems (e.g. alarm clocks) are those in which the output has no effect on the input. Closed-loop control systems (e.g. automotive cruise-control systems) are those in which the output has an effect on the input in such a way as to maintain the specified output value. A closed-loop system must include some way to measure its output to sense changes so that corrective action can be taken. The speed with which a simple closed-loop control system moves to correct its output is described by its natural frequency and damping ratio. A system with a small damping ratio is characterized by overshooting the desired output before settling down. Systems with larger damping ratios do not overshoot the desired output, but respond more slowly.

Mechanistic World View
In the mechanistic world view, there is no place for goal-directedness or purpose. All mechanical processes are determined by their cause, which lies in the past. A goal, on the other hand, is something that determines a process, yet lies in the future.

The thesis that natural processes are determined by their future purpose is called teleology. It is closely associated with vitalism, the belief that life is animated by a vital force outside the material realm. Our mind is not a goalless mechanism; it is constantly planning ahead, solving problems, trying to achieve goals. How can we understand such goal-directedness without recourse to the doctrine of teleology?

Cybernetics
Probably the most important innovation of cybernetics is its explanation of goal-directedness. An autonomous system, such as a person or an organism, can be characterized by the fact that it pursues its own goals, resisting obstructions from the environment that would make it deviate from its preferred state of affairs. Thus, goal-directedness implies regulation of or control over distractions.

A good example is a room in which the temperature is controlled by a thermostat. The setting of the thermostat determines the desired temperature or goal state. Perturbations may be caused by changes in the outside temperature, opening of windows or doors, drafts, etc. The task of the thermostat is to minimize the effects of such influences, and thus to keep the temperature as much as possible constant with respect to the specified temperature.

Survival
On the most fundamental level, the goal of an autopoietic or autonomous system is survival, that is, maintenance of its essential organization. This goal has been built into all living organisms by natural selection: those that were not focused on survival have simply been eliminated. In addition to this main goal, the system will have various subsidiary goals, such as keeping warm or finding food, that indirectly contribute to its survival. Artificial systems, such as automatic pilots and thermostats, are not autonomous: their primary goals are constructed in them by their designers. They are allopoietic: which means their function is to produce something other ("allo") than themselves.

Goals as States
Goal-directedness can be defined most simply as suppression of deviations from an invariant goal state. In that respect, a goal is similar to a stable equilibrium, to which the system returns after any disruptions. Both goal-directedness and stability are characterized by equifinality: different initial states lead to the same final state, implying the destruction of variety. What distinguishes them is that a stable system automatically returns to its equilibrium state, without performing any work or effort. But a goal-directed system must actively engage to achieve and maintain its goal, which would not be equilibrium otherwise. Control may appear essentially conservative, resisting all departures from a preferred state. But the net effect can be very progressive or dynamic, depending on the complexity of the goal. For example, if the goal is defined as the rate of increase of some quantity, or the distance relative to a moving target, then suppressing deviation from the goal implies constant change. A simple example is a heat-seeking head in a Stinger missile attempting to reach a fast moving enemy jet, cruise missile or helicopter.

A system's "goal" can also be a range of acceptable states, similar to an attractor. The dimensions defining these states are called the essential variables, and they must be kept within a limited range compatible with the survival of the system. For example, a person's body temperature must be kept within a range of approximately 35-40 degrees C. Even more generally, the goal can be seen as a gradient, or "fitness" function, defined on state space, which defines the degree of "preference" or "value" of one state relative to another one. In the latter case, the problem of control becomes one of on-going optimization or maximization of fitness.

Reference

 * Heylighen F. & Joslyn C. (2001): "Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics", in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science & Technology, Vol. 4 (3rd ed.), (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170
 * http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery?method=4&dsid=2040&dekey=controlsy&gwp=8&curtab=2040_1
 * http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/GOAL.html

Wiki-Resources

 * Control Systems


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Futurology

If you could see your future, would you try to make it better? If you were a Soviet in 1980 and you knew that spiraling debt would destroy your country, would you do something to stop it? If you were a German in 1933 and knew that the Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State would lead to a world war, tens of millions of deaths, and the leveling of your nation, would you oppose it?

Its safe to assume that we would all say yes to these questions. Our only excuse in letting these patterns reoccur is a claim that we can't see the future with any degree of certainty, but is this claim true? Couldn't the Soviets have deduced their overwhelmingly probable financial failure based on a combination of proven economic and socio-political models? Couldn't the Germans have deduced from history that support of absolute power always leads to failure? Why would the Germans have supported a document that circumvented their basic human rights when they had hundreds of examples throughout history that such documents are always eventually used for tyranny and oppression? How could Soviets have possibly thought that the government could endlessly support citizens who took more than they gave to the collective without going bankrupt? On top of that, how did they expect their government to survive financially while maintaining a horrendously expensive and unwinnable war in the Middle East? How could they have not seen the future when it was so evident? What good is history if we cannot learn from its mistakes and plot a better course for the future? These are some of the questions that futurology attempts to illuminate.

Futurology also uses aspects of multiple disciplines to anticipate forces of nature and predict how we will react to those forces. In our fight for survival against natural threats, our ability to plan for a future that has no historic precedent gives us an advantage over other life-forms on this planet, including those that were extinguished eons ago. For instance, taking into consideration various aspects of weather forecasting, mathematical probability, economics, and hydraulic engineering, a futurologist could predict that the New Orleans foundation code requiring only seven days of submersion allowance would not be economically sound. This would be based on the likelihood of a category-five hurricane, the engineered strength of the dikes in the face of such a hurricane, the amount of seawater likely to breach the dikes, how long it would take get rid of the water, and how much it would cost to replace the foundations of those structures that were underground for more than seven days. A hundred years ago, foundations in New Orleans were built so that they could withstand being submerged for weeks without losing structural integrity. The building costs associated with that level of stability came to be considered overkill, not because the likelihood of level-five hurricanes diminished, but because of one additional futurology consideration: a hundred years ago, the federal government would never have paid for the rebuilding of New Orleans. Even though Hurricane Katrina was entirely a force of nature, a futurologist must also take into consideration socio-political trends and the needs of his client. In externalizing costs associated with long-term risks, futurologists have become invaluable resources for shaping corporate-sponsored government legislation.

Methods of quantifying the effectiveness of corporate futurologists have become a complex science in itself, one that seeks to objectively define the difference between fantasy, science fiction, and science. This textbook explores those differences and enables society to use the power of strategic forecasting for more than corporate and political gain.

Part I

 * 1) Introduction to Futurology In a nutshell
 * 2) The differences between science, science fiction, and fantasy Star Trek vs. the singularity
 * 3) Definition of time Can we really know what time is?
 * 4) Obstacles to conventional scientific means Being our own temporal police
 * 5) Free Will Being your own man.
 * 6) Methods and proofs Using principles of quantum probability to objectify the future
 * 7) Unconventional Means of Predicting the Future the Pseudoscience Approach to Futurology

Part II

 * 1) Building principles and axioms based on past futurology successes Can we use the "self-evident" "truths" about human nature that founded successful nations as forecasting agents, or were these assumptions just dumb luck?"
 * 2) Predicting which political ideologies, species traits, and commercial paradigms will be most fit to survive Using the Darwinism method of futurology
 * 3) Proofing dystopia and utopia Can modern methods of futurology prove or disprove the conjectures of Saint Thomas More, Hitler, etc.?
 * 4) US Presidential Election 2008: Who Will Win? Can we tell at this point in time who will be the next Mr. President?
 * 5) Cosmological forecasting At its largest scale, can futurology help humanity plan our potential in the universe, venture to other suns, and avoid the fate of the dinosaurs?

Additional reading

 * Norbert Wiener, "Kybernetik. Regelung und Nachrichtenübertragung im Lebewesen und in der Maschine", Düsseldorf (Econ-Verlag) 1992.
 * Claude E. Shannon u. Warren Weaver, "The Mathematical Theory of Communication", Urbana/Ill. (University of Illinois Press) 1949.
 * James W. Carey, "A cultural approach to communication", Communication 1 (2), 1975.
 * Daniel Bell, "Die nachindustrielle Gesellschaft", Frankfurt a.M. (Campus) 1989.
 * Walt W. Rostow, "The Stages of Economic Growth. A Non-Communist Manifesto", Cambridge 1960.
 * Nicholas Negroponte, "Total digital. Die Welt zwischen 0 und 1 oder Die Zukunft der Kommunikation", München (Bertelsmann) 1995.
 * Zbigniew Brzezinski, "Between Two Ages. America's Role in the Technotronic Era", New York (Viking Press) 1969.
 * Joseph S. Nye u. William A. Owens, "America's Information Edge", Foreign Affairs 75 (2), 1996.

Wikibooks resources

 * Systems Theory
 * Future
 * Choosing The Right File Format talks a lot about "future proofing", which requires some consideration of likely future events.

Футурология

title: Futurology


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Cookbook:Condensed Milk

| Dairy

Condensed milk refers to milk that has had a portion of the water removed to concentrate it.

Characteristics
Condensed milk may be made from any type of milk or non-dairy milk, though special care may need to be taken when concentrating non-dairy versions. It is typically richer than fresh milk from the concentrated fat and protein, and it may have sugar added. Condensed milk often has a nutty cooked flavor and tan color as a result of Maillard reactions during the concentration process.

Evaporated milk
Also called unsweetened condensed milk, evaporated milk is fresh milk concentrated by the removal of about 50–60% of the original water content. It is typically sold in cans or small cartons. It varies from 0.5% fat to 8% fat, depending on whether whole milk or skim milk was used to make it.

Sweetened condensed milk
Sweetened condensed milk is similar to evaporated milk, with 60% of the water removed, but it contains a high added sugar content (about 40–50% of the final product). This makes it much thicker and sweeter than evaporated milk.

Selection and storage
Due to overlap and cultural differences, the terminology can be somewhat confusing. Many recipes that call for condensed milk may actually mean sweetened condensed milk—be sure to verify which version is called for by a given recipe. Avoid any condensed milk with a bad smell or curdled appearance.

Since they tend to be sterilized and sealed for sale, both evaporated and sweetened condensed milks should last for years at standard room temperature conditions. Once opened, evaporated milk must be refrigerated for up to a couple weeks. On the other hand, the high sugar concentration in sweetened condensed milk means it can last for several days at room temperature after opening.

Use
Condensed milk has various applications in the kitchen. Evaporated milk can be reconstituted with water to approximate regular milk, but it can also be used in both savory and sweet dishes. The higher protein and fat content will create a richer final product than with regular milk, and it also contributes greater complexity of flavor. Sweetened condensed milk isn't typically used in savory preparations, but it features widely in confections, custards, frozen desserts, and beverages.

Substitution
Evaporated and sweetened condensed milks are not directly interchangeable. However, evaporated milk can be turned into sweetened condensed milk by cooking with sugar.

title: Cookbook:Condensed Milk


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GENtle/Setup

Installation
On Windows, run the file GENtleSetup.exe. It will set up GENtle in a directory of your choice, and also prepare for a clean deinstallation.

Databases
There are two types of databases supported by GENtle: File-based (sqlite) and MySQL. By default, a file-based database local.db is set up in the installation directory of GENtle. You can (and should, if access limitations prevent you from working with local.db) create new databases and share them with other users of GENtle in your work group (if you want to).

Database management can be found through the menu "Tools/Manage database", under the tab "Databases".
 * A quirk:
 * 1. Be careful of using the local db for any real development. I strongly advise that you never put anything into local. That db is in the Gentle program's directory and if, say, you need to reinstall GENtle, or you get a new laptop, you may clobber it. And if someone else takes over after that, you can lose it also. I have seen other strange behavior where local.db gets lost, but can't tie it down for a bug report.
 * 2. GENtle copies blank.db and local.db in [your-username]/AppData/Local/VirtualStore/Program Files (x86)/GENtle It then maintains them. The live local.db is the one in AppData/Local/VirtualStore/Program Files (x86)/GENtle. So, you can delete the one in C:/Program Files (x86)/GENtle and you won't lose it. (This is probably why Magnus did it this way. He was trying to prevent data loss.) But, if you switch computers, this one can get lost.
 * So the first thing you should do for serious work is to make a new db of your own and set it as your default db. And monitor local regularly for stuff accidentally getting into local. The symptoms of a problem are that a project can't find parts of a project.

File-based databases
You can add an existing or create a new database via the appropriate buttons. Select the database name and location in the following file dialog.

MySQL databases
These work similar to the file databases, but require more parameters. Also, a MySQL server has to be installed prior to MySQL database creation. Contact your local system administrator about this.

Creating a new MySQL database might require more MySQL privileges than actually using the created database. Thus, after creation, one might want to remove the database entry via the "Remove" button (the database will continue to exist), and add it again with different MySQL privileges.

title: GENtle/Setup


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User talk:Sanat

I left a comment at Talk:The Complete Programming FAQ. --Andreas 13:15, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sanat


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User talk:201.8.4.183

you thing what? - Omegatron 13:21, 11 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:201.8.4.183


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Cookbook:Mustard

Mustard or prepared mustard refers to a condiment made from mustard seeds. It is used for its pungent flavor.

Prepared mustard
Prepared mustard can be found in multiple variations around the world, and usually consist of ground seeds combined with vinegar and water, as well as some other ingredients. The most notable prepared mustards today come from traditions in China, France, the United Kingdom, Germany, the United States.

 * Chinese hot mustard is often little more than the combination of pulverized brown mustard seeds and cold water. The characteristic sharp, stinging flavor of the mustard comes from a chemical reaction resulting from putting the seed with cold water.

 * French and English mustards typically are among the most potent of the more complex prepared mustards. As early as the 1700s in France, mustard seeds were ground (with or without their hulls) and combined into a thick sauce, and produced commercially.  Dijon mustard, the best known of the French mustards, uses brown mustard seeds in varying strengths.  It has become common especially in the United States in recent years to combine Dijon mustard with honey for sauces and salad dressings.  English mustard, also popularized in its dry form, most commonly uses a combination of white and brown mustard seeds, and has potency often compared to horseradish.

 * German mustard receives similar preparation techniques, but is often milder due to the addition of sugar. Many varieties of German mustard, as in some French varieties, are so-called stone-ground mustards, with coarsely ground mustard seeds incorporated into the mixture.  This as well as varying additional spices in the recipe such as cracked peppercorns can give some German mustards a differently strong flavor than those from other sources.  The stone-ground mustards are also similar to Creole mustard found in Louisiana and other parts of the United States.

 * Yellow mustard first became common in the mid-1800s, using mostly white mustard seeds and given a heightened yellow color from the addition of turmeric. Yellow mustard is widely used on hamburgers and hot dogs (or frankfurters) especially in the United States, and is a common condiment for other sandwiches and mixed salads (such as potato salad and tuna salad).

Dijon mustard is a prepared mustard made from husked black or brown mustard seeds, where black seeds are usually considered the strongest and most flavorful. Originally Dijon mustard was blended with verjuice, but today's Dijon mustard is usually blended with wine or vinegar. Additionally salt and other spices are added to lend it a special spicy flavor. True Dijon mustard is actually pale yellow and not brown. It comes in many additional flavored varieties but also ranges from mild in flavor to the very hot.

Historians are not in agreement as to who actually created the original Dijon mustard recipe, but most do tend to agree that the recipe first appeared in Dijon, France; hence the name Dijon mustard.

title: Cookbook:Mustard


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User:Kmg90

GTA FAN HERE

title: User:Kmg90


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Systems Theory/Transformation Processes

Transformation Processes
Transformation processes can be described as some change in behavior which is intended to alter the desired outcome. Individuals can go through a transformation process that deals with their intellect as well as their overall persona. Organizations can also go through transformation processes. Usually, organizations will have a change in goal or organizational mission that will trigger for a transformation process to occur, whether it is to have a major down-sizing or to implement new policies and procedures that directly affect the collective behavior of the organization as a whole. The research involving transformation processes to date explore different models to use for the most efficient processes to take place. For instance, Creative Dimensions in Management (CDM), a consulting firm, presented corporate transformation processes based on one-on-one mentoring to a succession of UK banking organizations in the late 80s and 90s. Models drawn from Comprehensive Family Therapy and Progressive Abreactive Regression (PAR) tries to predict a persons attempt to significantly change their performance, they are likely to follow a zig-zag path to growth, alternatively progressing and regressing as in the following diagram:

Concluding the study by CDM suggested that, “''The key to managing these regressions lies in increased self-awareness. As the growth goal increases, awareness and self-consciousness must deepen in order to manage the regressive trends that occur. These trends include moving beyond one's illusions about oneself and one's potential; moving beyond the defenses that protect the self from the anxieties of growth; examining and resolving the ambivalence that prevents a total commitment to achieving one's vision; embracing fears and terrors associated with failure and success including shame and abandonment; and, ultimately, discovering one's will - an energy source that can fuel the activation and achievement of any vision''.”

Continuous Transformations
Another realm often researched is socio-ecological systems which are often described by ''society-environment relations which are relevant for sustainable development within a certain problem area. Problem areas may be the supply of human needs, economic sectors, geographic regions etc.'' Energy, substance flows, technical structures, institutions, and ideas influence the transformation process that is involved in these socio-ecological systems. It is also discovered that this type of system is continuously undergoing transformations due to its underlined nature. The following chart depicts the study of this system and how it relates to transformation processes: Further research of this realm suggests, “The challenge of sustainable transformation is to understand the complex interactions which underlie the dynamics of structural change, to assess and evaluate the impacts of specific paths of transformation, and to shape transformation processes in order bring about desired outcomes “

Sustainable Transformation
3 specific features of Sustainable Transformation:
 * 1. Uncertainty about system behavior, because of non-predictability of complex interactions underlying transformation processes.
 * 2. Divergent social goals and differing evaluations of the impact of transformation, with social values being endogenous to the transformation process.
 * 3.  Distribution of control capacities among a broad range of social actors with   specific interests and resources to influence transformation paths.

title: Systems Theory/Transformation Processes


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/HD Links

http://www.hdforindies.com/

/Post-production /Cinematography


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Cookbook:Fried Shrimp

Fried shrimp are shrimp that are covered in batter and then deep-fat fried.

 * Southern Fried Shrimp use a batter that includes some cornmeal. These are often sold partially cooked and frozen, to be finished in an oven.
 * Chinese Fried Shrimp use a batter that puffs up a lot. These are commonly served at westernized Chinese restaraunts in the USA.
 * Tempura shrimp use a batter that is somewhat thin and often flakey. Tempura shrimp are a Japanese food commonly served on top of white rice or floating and soggy in a bowl of udon or soba.

title: Cookbook:Fried Shrimp


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Cookbook:Fiddlehead

Fiddleheads, also known as fiddle greens, are the coiled growing tips of ostrich ferns. They are more often available in spring.

The flavor is unique and vegetative, being somewhat like asparagus, green beans and artichokes. The texture is pleasantly chewy. Fiddleheads are reputed to be a good source of vitamins A and C. Fiddleheads are also rich in vitamin K, important to note for people taking bloodthinners.

Preparation is simple. The ferns should be rinsed and the stem ends trimmed before steaming, simmering or sautéing. They also can be pickled, but should not be eaten raw. Fiddleheads contain an unknown toxin that causes severe stomach upset bordering on food poisoning. Always blanch, boil, or steam before eating.

Fiddleheads should be eaten soon after purchase, although they may be stored for a few days, tightly wrapped, in the refrigerator, if need be. They can also be stored in water in the fridge for up to a week if you change the water every two days.

Most of the greens sold as fiddleheads are immature ostrich ferns (Matteuccia struthiopteris) of northeastern North America, which are safe for most people to eat. However, if wild-gathered, care should be taken to ensure that the fiddleheads are ostrich ferns. Cinnamon ferns (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum) and interrupted ferns (Osmunda claytoniana) are often mistaken for ostrich ferns, though easy to tell apart if one knows what to look for. Ostrich fiddleheads are not covered with wool and have a groove running up the stem. Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) is considered carcinogenic. Fiddleheads must be broken off with the flick of the wrist and never cut, as cutting prevents the plant from regenerating.

In preparation for eating, the fiddleheads must be cleaned of their brown-colored silk, which resembles the inside skin of a roasted peanut, but is not tasty. This is most easily accomplished with the aid of a garden hose, and some sort of screening device.

Blanching the fiddleheads is a must if they are to be frozen (which the recommended way of storing them, for up to eighteen months) and is also preferable if they are to be eaten immediately. This removes the bitterness from the plant, which can cause stomach upset for some. Blanching is done is by bringing the cleaned fiddleheads just to a boil in a large pot of water, and then immediately rinsing them and disposing of the water. One will notice that the water has turned black.

After the rinse, either return them to the pot (with fresh water) to resume cooking, or plunge them in ice cold water to stop the internal cooking process, and then place them in freezer bags, and then into the freezer.

Cooked fiddleheads are done when they have lost their crunchiness, but not become soggy. This is al dente cooking. Served with real butter, and salt, some people also like to add a little cider vinegar. Their subtle flavor interpolates between sweet, mild asparagus and an un-bitter version of cooked baby spinach.

Fiddlehead recipes include

 * Fiddlehead-Portobello Linguine

title: Cookbook:Fiddlehead


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Cookbook:Honey Taffy

| Confections

This recipe entails a good workout with the reward of unmistakably honey-flavored candies. This recipe can be completed by a single chef, but is much more fun with the help of friends and family.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (450 g / 16 oz) white granulated sugar
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 2 tablespoons cornstarch
 * 1 cup (325 g / 11.5 oz) liquid honey (any variety)
 * ¾ cup (185 ml / 6.3 oz) water
 * 2 tablespoons butter

Procedure

 * 1) In a 3–4-quart (2.8–3.8 L) heavy-bottomed saucepan, combine the sugar, salt, and cornstarch until uniform.
 * 2) Using a wooden or metal spoon, stir in the honey and the water. Place the saucepan over medium-high heat and continually stir until all the sugar dissolves.
 * 3) Continue to stir the mixture until the mixture begins to boil. Once boiling begins, let the solution cook undisturbed until it reaches 270°F/132°C also known as the soft crack stage. Add the butter.
 * 4) Remove the hot mixture from heat and pour onto a greased, lipped cookie sheet, a greased marble slab, or a silicone mat, such as a Silpat.
 * 5) When taffy is cool enough to handle with greased cleaned hands, gather the taffy and continually stretch, fold and recombine it until it lightens in color and gains a satiny gloss. This step is best accomplished with a friend and requires 10–15 minutes of continuous pulling.
 * 6) Once taffy has been properly pulled, roll into ½-inch ropes and cut into 1 in long pieces with a knife or greased scissors. Once all the taffy is cut, wrap in small squares of waxed paper and twist the ends.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Be extremely careful around the boiling syrup, as it gets extremely hot and sticks like tar.
 * Use a wooden or metal spoon for this recipe, as most plastic spoons will melt or deform. A wooden spoon is best because a metal spoon will get very hot in the sugar syrup.
 * You can add extra flavoring or coloring to the taffy if you mix it in at the same time as the butter.
 * If you don’t like honey, or don’t want to use a lot of it, you can substitute corn syrup for equal parts of the missing honey.
 * If you want some extra reward for extra effort, try making two batches with different colors and/or flavors at once, and twisting or braiding the taffy ropes before cutting to make interesting combinations.
 * If you don't have cornstarch, you can use 1 tsp of vinegar instead to help prevent recrystallization.

title: Cookbook:Honey Taffy


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Computer Animation

Many people are interested in the field of computer animation. Some see animations on the web, such as the excellent political satires on jibjab.com, and wonder how they could create their own. Others with an interest in film wonder if this new field could help their own amateur film-making efforts (even if they don't expect to be able to create The Incredibles on their home PC).

''The field is attractive as a hobby to many creative amateurs, however it can quickly become discouraging due to the relative scarcity of introductory material, and the steep learning curve. This wikibook is intended to act as a gathering point for information on the subject currently scattered around wikipedia.''

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Computer Generated Imagery/
 * Some background and history.
 * 1) /What You Should Know About Copyright/
 * Why copyright is an important consideration before you start.
 * 1) /Getting Started/
 * Equipment and software.
 * 1) /Types Of Animation/
 * File type rather than genre.

title: Computer Animation


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Computer Animation/Computer Generated Imagery

Computer Generated Imagery
Computer-generated imagery (CGI) is the application of the field of computer graphics (or more specifically 3D computer graphics) to special effects. CGI is used in movies, television programs and commercials, and in printed media. Real-time computer graphics, such as those in video games, are rarely referred to as CGI.

CGI is used because it is often cheaper than physical methods, such as constructing elaborate miniatures for effects shots or hiring a great deal of extras for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other method. It can also allow a single artist to produce content without the use of actors or other contributors to the project.

2D CGI was first used in movies in 1973's Westworld, though the first use of 3D imagery was in its sequel, Futureworld (1976), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then University of Utah graduate students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. The first two films to make heavy investments in CGI, Tron (1982) and The Last Starfighter (1984), were commercial failures, causing most directors to relegate CGI to images that were supposed to look like they were created by a computer. Photorealistic CGI did not win over the motion picture industry until 1989, when The Abyss won the Academy Award for Visual Effects. Industrial Light and Magic produced photorealistic CGI visual effects, including a seawater creature lovingly dubbed the water weenie, for the film.

2D CGI increasingly appeared in "traditional" animated films, where it supplemented the use of hand-illustrated cels. Its uses ranged from digital tweening motion between frames, to eye-catching quasi-3D effects such as the ballroom scene in Beauty and the Beast.

In 1995, the first fully computer-generated feature film, Pixar's Toy Story, was a resounding commercial success. Additional digital animation studios such as Blue Sky Studios (Fox) and Pacific Data Images (Dreamworks SKG) went into production, and existing animation companies such as Disney began to make a transition from traditional animation to CGI.

Between 1995 and 2005 the average effects budget for a wide-release feature film skyrocketed from $5 million to $40 million. According to one studio executive, as of 2005, more than half of feature films have significant effects.

In the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery became the dominant form of special effects. The technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles that were nearly indistinguishable from the actors they replaced. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes. The timeline of CGI in movies shows a detailed list of pioneering uses of computer-generated imagery in film and television.

CGI for films is usually rendered at about 1.4–6 megapixels. Toy Story, for example, was rendered at 1536 × 922. The time to render one frame is typically around 2–3 hours, with ten times that for the most complex scenes. This time hasn't changed much in the last decade, as image quality progressed at the same rate as improvements in hardware.

Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, attended each year by tens of thousands of computer professionals.

Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies. This art form is called machinima.