text:
Canadian History/The Wildlife of the Lands

The geography of Canada is an diverse as the cultures that now exist in it. From the rainforests in British Columbia to the tundra in the Northwest Territories to the Bay of Fundy in New Brunswick.

Appalachian Region
Today some of the best and most extensive broad-leaved deciduous forests in the world still flourish in the Appalachians. To the north are the conifers (red spruce and balsam fir, which grow at the highest elevations) and the northern hardwoods: sugar maple, buckeye, beech, ash, birch, and red and white oak. The western slopes of the Great Smokies, with their abundant rainfall, produce trees that have reached record maximum height and diameter. Among these are the yellow poplar, buckeye, eastern Canadian hemlock, and chestnut oak.

The Appalachian forest is a highly complex interdependent system. It forms one of the great floral provinces of the Earth. There are the trees that bear luxuriant bloom, such as serviceberry, redbud, hawthorn, yellow poplar, dogwood, locust, sourwood, and many others. Among the numerous shrubs with particularly showy flowers are the rhododendron, azalea, and mountain laurel. Certain summits of the southern Appalachians are called heath balds—open meadows or grasslands interspersed with thick growths of heath.

Ferns, mosses, and mushrooms of many species also are part of the complex Appalachian plant life.

Bison, elk, and wolves, used to be common in the Appalachian, but now they, like caribou and moose, are mostly found in the northernmost corners of the region. Scattered through other areas are the black bear, white-tailed deer, wild boar, fox, raccoon, beaver, and numerous other small animals.

= Coastal Plains =

The Atlantic coastal plains support a diverse waterfowl community including dabbling, diving, and sea ducks as well as geese. Key species include black duck, blue-winged teal and common eider. Millions of seabirds also use this area throughout the year and an estimated 4.8 million shorebirds travel through the Atlantic Provinces every fall.

Many plants inhabit the sandy areas. These plants are small, slow-growing, and adapted to living in areas where many other plants cannot survive. The conditions where they grow are low in nutrients, and subject to disturbance by the wind, waves, and changing water levels. They do not compete well with other more aggressive plants and therefore can not establish in undisturbed, fertile areas. An example of a habitat where Coastal Plain Flora could thrive is an exposed, gently sloping, sandy or gravel lake shores. Pine forests cover the land.

= Great Lakes =

The Great Lakes region are filled with birds amphibians and mammals. Black bears, moose, Canadian lynx, bobcats and timber wolves roam the Northwoods of Lake Superior and northern Lake Michigan and Huron. The small pockets of deciduous forests ringing the lower Great Lakes are inhabited by white-tailed deer, eastern chipmunks, red squirrels, cardinals, wood thrush and screech owl. Throughout the region, migrating waterfowl, song birds, sandpipers and plovers rest and refuel along the region’s streams, rivers and wetlands, and various types of frogs and salamanders crowd in the wetlands. This biodiversity is set in an diverse range of ecosystems, including deep and shallow aquatic systems, wetlands, streams and rivers, tall-grass prairies, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, boreal forests, cliff faces and beaches.

= St.Lawrence Lowlands =

Although the vegetation is typified by a broadleaf forest of sugar maple, American beech, basswood, white oak, red oak, shagbark hickory, black walnut and butternut, farm fields and man-altered sites are the norm today. Wildlife that thrives in this zone today must be able to take advantage of agricultural crops and suburban habitats. Many common species, such as white-tailed deer, grey squirrel, coyote, starling, house sparrow and ringbilled gull, are recent arrivals to this region. Reptiles include several endangered species (eastern spiny soft-shelled turtle, Blanding's turtle, box turtle, and fox snake, among others) and eastern Canada's only lizard, the five-lined skink. The climax forest in the deciduous forest zone is dominated by sugar maple and American beech, with hemlock dominant on shady north-facing slopes. White pine, red pine and red oak dominate the dry ridge tops.

In the mixed wood forest zone, undisturbed sites consist of sugar maple, yellow birch, eastern hemlock and white pine. Boreal species such as white spruce, black spruce and balsam fir dominate in cool, damp habitats. Moose and wolf, snowshoe hare, martin, spruce grouse and other boreal species intermix with species more typical of southern areas such as the cardinal, white-tailed deer and raccoon.

= Interior Plains =

Trees and shrubs are most commonly found in the eastern region. Trees found in the Prairies include white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, tamarack, water birch, Bebb willow, peachleaf willow, wolf willow, lodgepole pine, box elder, choke cherry, black cottonwood, eastern cottonwood, bur oak, trembling aspen, and balsam poplar. Just a few of the other plants that grow here are spear grass, wheat, blue grama grass, sagebrush, yellow cactus, prickly pear, buckbrush, chokecherry, Saskatoon berry bush, alkali grass, wild barley, red sampire, sea blite, Parry oat grass, June grass, yellow bean, sticky geranium, bedstraw, chickweed, needle grass, thread grass, snowberry, American silverberry, rose, silverberry, dryland sedge, black hawthorn, greasewood, plains larkspur, death camas, wild lupine, smooth aster, prairie sedge, and cattail.The only large carnivore in the Prairies is the black bear.

Large herbivores include whitetail deer (a recent invader), mule deer, pronghorn antelope, elk, and moose. Small carnivores include coyote, badger, red fox, longtail weasel, mink, river otter, black-footed ferret, and striped skunk. Rodents are numerous, such as the black-tailed prairie dog,white-tailed jack rabbit, snowshoe hare, Richardson’s ground squirrel, Franklin’s ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, least chipmunk, northern pocket gopher,olive-backed pocket mouse, Ord's kangaroo rat, white-footed mouse and beaver.

Some of the birds of prey are the ferruginous hawk, red-tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, burrowing owl, northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, and turkey vulture. Songbirds include black-billed magpie, northern oriole, Audubon’s warbler, grasshopper sparrow, lark sparrow, ruby-throated hummingbird, cedar waxwing, lark bunting,chestnut-collared longspur, and black-billed cuckoo. Birds of the forest that are found here include ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, sage grouse, northern flicker, downywoodpecker, red-headed woodpecker, and western meadowlark. Some of the waterfowl found here are the American avocet, great blue heron, snow goose, Canada goose,northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead, western grebe, lesser scaup, ring-necked duck, canvasback, Eskimo curlew, piping plover, and whooping crane.

Among the amphibians that can be found here are the northern leopard frog, striped chorus frog, plains spadefoot, American toad, great plains toad, and tiger salamander.

The area has several species of snakes and lizards, including the plains garter snake, gopher snake, western rattlesnake, western terrestrial garter snake, short-horned lizard, and prairie skink.

Predatory fish in the Prairie waterways include northern pike, carp, and sauger. They prey on such fish as the lake whitefish, goldeye, lake chub, brassy minnow, emerald shiner and yellow perch.

Just a few of the insects are the German cockroach, boreal spittlebug, silver-spotted skipper, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, eastern black swallowtail, migratory grasshopper, and pallid-winged grasshopper.

Three of the mollusc species in the Prairies are the valve snail, umbilicate promenetus, and globular pea clam.

= Canadian Shield =

The Boreal Shield
Trees to the north are coniferous, but broadleaf trees appear further south and trees normally found in much warmer climates, such as the yellow birch and sugar maple, can be found in the south of the ecozone. Bogs and other wetlands, cover one-fifth of the land. Tree species that can be found here include the white spruce, black spruce, balsam fir, tamarac, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white pine, red pine, jack pine, eastern white pine, red maple, mountain maple, eastern red cedar, eastern hemlock, black ash, speckled alder, pin cherry, and paper birchwhite birch. Some of the other plants that grow here are shrubs, like sphagnum moss, willow, alder, Labrador tea, blueberry, bog rosemary, feathermoss, cottongrass, sedges, kalmia heath, high bush cranberry, baneberry, wild sarsaparilla, bunchberry, shield fern, goldenrod, water lilies and cattails.

Some of the characteristic large herbivores of the region include woodland caribou, barren-ground caribou, white-tailed deer, and moose. The larger carnivores in the Boreal Shield are the black bear, lynx, bobcat, and wolf. Small herbivores and herbivores include raccoon, striped skunk, eastern chipmunk, beaver, muskrat, snowshoe hare, red-backed vole, red squirrel, least chipmunk, porcupine, woodchuck, southern bog lemming and arctic hare. They are in turn preyed upon such smaller carnivores as the marten, short-tailed weasel, fisher, ermine, mink, river otter, coyote, and red fox.

Aquatic mammals found off of the eastern coast of the ecozone include grey seal, harp seal, hooded seal, ringed seal, sperm whale, orca, Atlantic pilot whale, fin whale, blue whale, northern right whale, bowhead whale,and humpback whale.

Birds of prey in this ecozone include the boreal owl, great horned owl, hawk owl, bald eagle, red-tailed hawk, turkey vulture, and broad-winged hawk. The yellow rumped warbler, blue jay, evening grosbeak, gray jay, common nighthawk, raven, mourning dove, cardinal, wood thrush, rock ptarmigen, willow ptarmigan and white-throated sparrow are just a few of the songbirds found here. The forests hold such species as spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, and the pileated woodpecker. Spring brings large flocks of waterbirds to nest and breed in the wetlands or just to feed for the rest of their migration further north. They include the common loon, sandhill cranes, hooded merganser, American black duck, wood duck, Canada goose, great blue heron, ring-necked duck, and bufflehead. Shorebirds and seabirds found off the eastern coast include the herring gull, double-crested cormorant, and Atlantic puffin, along with various murre, eider, tern and pelican species. Many species of reptiles and amphibians live in the Boreal Shield. Some of the frogs and toads include the spring peeper, wood frog, mink frog, and northern leopard frog. Yellow-spotted salamanders, blue-spotted salamanders, eastern redback salamanders, and eastern newts can be found in moist areas. The common snapping turtle and painted turtle are two of the turtle species that live in the ecozone. Two types of garter snake, the maritime garter snake and common gartern snake, as well as the redbelly snake, make their home here.

Predatory fish in the ecozone include the lake sturgeon, brook trout, lake trout, northern pike, muskellunge, largemouth bass, sauger, and walleye. Some of the fish that they prey upon include cisco, (lake herring), blackfin cisco, lake whitefish, rainbow smelt, lake chub, golden shiner, and yellow perch. Anadramous fish, which live in the ocean but enter freshwater to spawn, include the silver lamprey, northern brook lamprey, American brook lamprey, sea lamprey, alewife and Atlantic salmon.

The valve snail, ordinary spire snail, eastern elliptio, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam are just a few of the mollusc species in the Boreal Shield.

Insects are common in the Boreal Shield; some of the species include the German cockroach, red turpentine beetle, boreal spittlebug, spring azure, American copper, monarch butterfly, mourning cloak, and bush katydid.

Taiga shield
A patchwork of wetlands, meadows, and shrublands covers this area. The northern edge of the ecozone is delineated by the tree line, and it is north of this that the more typical arctic tundra begins.

Trees in the Taiga Shield include black spruce, jack pine, green alder, paper birch, willow, tamarack, white spruce, balsam fir, trembling aspen, balsam poplar, white birch, and dwarf birch.

Other plants in the area include ericaceous shrubs, cottongrass, lichen, moss, sedge, sphagnum moss, Labrador tea, feathermoss, northern Labrador tea, yellow pond lily, cattail, water parsnip, water smartweed, water horsetail, water arum, marsh five-finger, ground juniper, kinnikinick, lichens, goldenrod, grass of Parnassus, shrubby cinqfoil, sweet gale, northern comandra, wild rose, wood horsetail, wild chives, twinflower, feathermoss, soapberry, cupidberry, crowberry, bearberry, high-bush cranberry, fireweed, fire snag, rock harlequin, fragrant shield fern, creeping juniper, prickly saxifrage, mountain cranberry, and gooseberry. About fifty species of mammals are found in the Taiga Shield, including the large herbivores barren-ground caribou, woodland caribou, and moose. Wolves, black and grizzly bears and the lynx are the larger predators. Smaller predators include the coyote, red and arctic fox, muskrat, wolverine, weasel, mink, marten, otter, and least weasel. The smaller herbivores include the snowshoe hare, beaver, brown lemming, red-backed vole, northern red-backed vole, and red squirrel.

Spring migration brings a multitude of bird species through this region, including various ducks, geese, loons and swans. Some stay, but others continue north to the arctic to breed. Representative birds of prey are the osprey and bald eagle. Shorebirds and seabirds found here include northern phalarope, Bonaparte’s gull, arctic tern, greater scaup, mew gull, Characteristic waterfowl are the arctic, pacific, and red-throated loons, red-breasted merganser, and the green-winged teal. Forest birds in the ecozone include northern shrike, tree sparrow, gray-cheeked thrush, raven, red-breasted merganser, red-winged blackbird, yellow warbler, common redpoll, white-crowned sparrow, flicker, and yellow-rumped warbler. Two representative ground-dwelling birds are the spruce grouse and willow ptarmigan.

Three species of amphibians, the mink frog, wood frog, and blue-spotted salamander live here, but there are no reptiles.

The American copper butterfly is found here, as are the molluscs muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam. Those are the animals.

= Intermountain Region =

The Canadian Intermountain is a landscape of varying elevation and climate that has resulted in a tremendous diversity of habitat types, including desert, grasslands, shrub-steppe, riparian, wetlands, dry and moist coniferous forests, and alpine tundra. Since there are enormous variations in climate and vegetation, there are many different kinds of animals, ones that can survive in dry, desert areas, others that can live in wet, rain forests and other that habituate high mountain altitudes. The alpine tundra is too harsh for trees, yet plants and animals nestle near the ground. Although harsh in climate, there are hot springs occasionally dotting the mountains. In the subalpine area, trees are small and stunted, mostly fire and cold tolerant conifers. The bent and gnarled bodies of spruce and fir trees tell the story of hard summers and harder winters near the mountain tops. There are forests of both coniferous and deciduous trees thriving in the moderate climate. Trees such as Douglas fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, yellow cedar, white spruce, lodgepole and Ponderosa pine, birch grow in great variety because of the long growing seasons and temperate climate.

The region hosts a diverse range of wildlife: over 1,500 species of native vascular plants, 373 bird species, 43 species of native freshwater fish, 29 species of amphibians and reptiles and 94 species of native terrestrial mammals. As many as 24 waterfowl species occur here, totalling an estimated 1.6 million breeding birds. The region is frequented by 198 types of landbirds, 17 waterbird species and 18 breeding shorebird species.

= Western Cordillera =

Plants in the ecozone are as varied as the landforms they grow on. Vegetation that may be common in one area are often completely absent from another. Trees in the area include Engelmann spruce, alpine fir, interior Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, western white pine, Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine, trembling aspen, western hemlock, Rocky Mountain red cedar, balsam poplar, paper birch, black spruce, white spruce, and western larch. Some of the other species found here are sagebrush, rabbitbrush, antelope-bush, mountain avens, bunchgrass, pine grass, and bluebunch wheat grass.

The large herbivores include caribou, mule deer, white-tailed deer, moose, mountain goat, California bighorn sheep, and American elk. The large carnivores are the black bear, grizzly bear, wolf, lynx, bobcat, and cougar. Some of the small herbivores here are hoary marmot, yellowbelly marmot, Columbian ground squirrel, beaver, golden-mantled squirrel, yellow pine chipmunk, redtail chipmunk, beaver, northern bog lemming, and pika. Small carnivores that are found here include coyote, red fox, marten, wolverine, muskrat, badger, marten, mink, pallid bat, and striped skunk.

Birds of prey such as northern saw-whet owl, short-eared owl, long-eared owl, burrowing owl, cooper's hawk, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, northern goshawk, and turkey vulture are found here. The shorebirds and seabirds of the area include long-billed curlew, spotted sandpiper, American bittern, common snipe, killdeer, and black tern. Songbirds of the Montane Cordillera include Steller’s jay, black-billed magpie, sage thrasher, white-throated swift, red-winged blackbird, cedar waxwing, cassin's finch, house finch, purple finch, brown creeper, and American dipper. Waterfowl that are found here include sandhill crane, northern pintail, blue-winged teal, mallard, gadwall, redhead, ring-necked duck, canvasback, and Canada goose. The birds of the forest include blue grouse, sharp-tailed grouse, spruce grouse, chukar, California quail, Lewis' woodpecker, and downy woodpecker.

Some of the characteristic frogs and toads of the area are the wood frog, spotted frog, and western toad. One of the salamander species present here is the long-toed salamander. Snakes found in the region include rubber boa, common garter snake, racer, western rattlesnake, night snake, and western terrestrial garter snake. One of the lizards found here is the western skink.

Fish species that live in the ecozone include lake whitefish, chiselmouth, lake chub, peamouth, leopard dace, and redside shiner. White sturgeon and sockeye salmon both come to freshwater to spawn.

Molluscs found here include pig-toe, western-river pearl mussel, western floater, and arctic-alpine fingernail clam.

A few of the insects that live here are red turpentine beetle, boreal spittlebug, spring azure, mourning cloak, and migratory grasshopper.

= Arctic Region =

Arctic Cordillera
Not much can grow in the harsh conditions, where killing frosts can come at any time during the year and even soil is rare. Three-quarters of the land here is bare rock; and even lichen have a hard time to grow. Trees here are barely recognizable, always stunted versions of themselves. Plants that do grow here are usually tiny species that often grow in thick insulating mats to protect themselves from the cold or are covered in thick hairs that help to insulate and to protect them from the bitter wind.

Some of the plant species found are arctic black spruce, arctic willow, cottongrass, kobresia, moss species, wood rush, wire rush, purple saxifrage, Dryas species, sedges, Diapensia, arctic poppy, mountain avens, mountain sorrel, river beauty, moss campion, bilberry, and arctic white heather.

The conditions here are far too harsh for reptiles and amphibians to survive, and insects are also rare here.

Muskoxen and barren-ground caribou are the only large herbivores in this ecosystem, while polar bears and the arctic wolf are the only large carnivores to be found here. Smaller herbivores include the arctic hare and the collared lemming. Arctic foxes and ermines are some of the smaller carnivores found here. Marine mammals include narwhals, beluga whales, walrus, and ringed and bearded seals.

The furry-legged rock ptarmigan is a common bird in this desolate place. Characteristic birds of prey include the gyrfalcon and snowy owl. Some of the more common shore- and seabirds are the thick-billed murre, black-legged kittiwake, ruddy turnstone, red knot, black guillemot, common ringed plover, little ringed plover and northern fulmar. Songbirds found in the Arctic Cordillera include the hoary redpoll, common redpoll, snow bunting, and lapland longspur. The snow goose, common and king eider, and red-throated loon are some species of waterfowl that live here.

Northern Arctic
The entirety of the Northern Arctic lies above the tree line, so no full-sized tree species can be found here. Very few plant species can survive in these conditions. Plants are generally stunted and become more so to the north.

Some plants found here include purple saxifrage, mountain avens, arctic poppy, arctic willow, Dryas species, kobresia, sedges, cottongrass, moss, dwarf birch, northern Labrador tea, Vaccinium species, alder, alpine foxtail, wood rush, wire rush, moss campions, white arctic heather, arctic bladder campion, yellow oxytrope, mastodon flower, arctic lousewort, mountain sorrel, pygmy buttercup, river beauty, chickweed.

Only about twenty mammal species live here. The largest are the carnivorous polar bear, and arctic wolf and the herbivourous barren-land caribou and muskox. The smaller carnivores found here include arctic fox, ermine, and wolverine, while smaller herbivores include the snowshoe hare, arctic hare, brown lemming and collared lemming. Aquatic mammals that live in the waters off the coast include walrus, ringed seals, bearded seals, beluga, narwhal, and various other whales.

Most of the bird species migrate to the Northern Arctic in spring to mate, leaving in fall. Birds of prey that can be found in the northern arctic include gyrfalcon, rough-legged hawk, and snowy owl. Waterfowl include snow goose, brant, Canada goose, eider, oldsquaw duck, red-throated loon, arctic loon and king eider. Shorebirds and seabirds include the red phalarope, parasitic jaeger, red knot, dunlin, long-tailed jaeger, northern fulmar, glaucous gull, white-rumped sandpiper, black-bellied plover, and ruddy turnstone. Some forest birds of the ecozone are the willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan, hoary redpoll, snow bunting, lapland longspur, and horned lark.

No reptiles or amphibians can survive the conditions here.

Southern Arctic
The southern edge of the Southern Arctic is the tree line, a transition zone north of which no full-sized trees are found. Anything north of the tree line is defined as the arctic. The low temperatures, low precipitation, and high winds in most of the ecozone encourages low plants. Stunted forms of tree species such as dwarf birch, alder, arctic willow, white spruce, black spruce, tamarack, least willow, net-veined willow and blue-green willow grow here.

Other plant species that grow in the Southern Arctic include the heath, lichen, northern Labrador tea, Dryas, sedge species, sphagnum moss, cottongrass, ericaceous shrubs, Vaccinium, fragrant shield fern, shrub birch, crowberry, bearberry, moss campion, blueberry, mountain cranberry, cloudberry, and alpine club moss.

North of the tree line, life becomes difficult for animals as well as plants. Most impressive of the animals here is the caribou and their massive migrations. Many birds also migrate, though they fly over the ecozone as much as land in it.

Larger carnivores in the Southern Arctic include the grizzly bear, black bear and polar bear as well as wolves. The most common large herbivores are barren-ground caribou, woodland caribou, moose, and muskox. Smaller carnivores, such as the red fox, arctic fox, lynx, coyote, weasels, wolverine and ermine prey on smaller herbivores, which include the arctic ground squirrel, brown lemming, snowshoe hare, arctic hare masked shrew, tundra redbacked vole, and beaver. Aquatic mammals include walruses, various seals, belugas, and narwhals.

Many birds migrate here in the spring to breed, but spend the long cold winters further south. Many others pass over the Southern Arctic during their migrations to breed still further north. Four characteristic birds of prey include the snowy owl, gyrfalcon, osprey, and rough-legged hawk. Waterfowl that can be found here include Canada goose, yellow-billed loon, arctic loon, red-throated loon, tundra swan, whistling swan, snow goose, oldsquaw duck and sea ducks. Some common shorebirds and seabirds in the Southern Arctic are the semi-palmated plover, red-necked phalarope, lapland longspur, parasitic jaeger, and semi-palmated plover. Songbirds also live here, including the snow bunting, raven, American tree sparrow, and hoary redpoll. Willow ptarmigan, rock ptarmigan and spruce grouse are a few of the ground-dwelling birds.

This ecozone is too harsh for either reptiles or amphibians to live in.

Three species of molluscs that live in the Southern Arctic are the muskeg stagnicola, arctic-alpine fingernail clam, and globular pea clam.

= Sources =

 * http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/30353/Appalachian-Mountains/41382/Plant-and-animal-life
 * http://www.ducks.ca/conserve/priorities/atlantic.html
 * http://www.greatlakesforever.org/html/lakesinlife/wildlife.html
 * http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/v-g/nation/nation76_e.asp
 * http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090205214504AAkP6MH
 * http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&sub=artic_basics_ecozones&lang=En
 * http://www.cijv.ca/wildlife.htm
 * http://canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/english/ecozones/montanecordillera/montanecordillera.htm


text:
Canadian History/Second World War

For Canada the Second World War began on September 10th, 1939, 9 days after Poland was attacked by Nazi Germany and 7 days after the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Canadian History/Second World War


text:
Talk:History of Islam/Modern period

modern Islam isnt just about warfare! there are plenty of other things going on as well that simply dont get enough news time in western nations.

title: Talk:History of Islam/Modern period


text:
User talk:Patrick Star

This account has been permanently blocked from editing Wikibooks because it has been used only for the purpose of vandalising Wikibooks pages. Xania talk 21:29, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Patrick Star


text:
Surgical Procedures/Abdominal Surgery/Cholecystectomy

 Cholecystectomy

 * A common Operative Treatment for cholecystitis and cholelithiasis where Gallbladder(GB) is removed by surgical method.

 * Commonest choices for removal of gallbladder are:
 * Making small wound/s in the abdomen:
 * e.g. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
 * Making comparatively big wound in the abdomen:
 * e.g. Open Cholecystectomy.

 NB ! They both have indications and contraindications.

Methods

 * /Open/
 * /Lap/


text:
User talk:Sandy Cheeks~enwikibooks

I have blocked you because I think that you are a sockpuppet of another vandal that was recently blocked. If this is not the case, you can use an unblock template here, and explain your reasons why you believe that you should be unblocked. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 21:55, 23 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Evidently, it is someone pretending to be Sandy and Patrick. I took the role playing too far. —Sandy Cheeks 18:00, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sandy Cheeks. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sandy Cheeks~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:27, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sandy Cheeks~enwikibooks


text:
Surgical Procedures/Abdominal Surgery/Cholecystectomy/Open

Introduction:

 * Cholecystectomy performd by Open method.

Indication:

 * If laparoscopic cholecystectomy is contraindicated
 * Intra operative conversion during laparoscopic cholecystectomy
 * Gallbladder carcinoma
 * Cholecystitis
 * Cholelithiasis
 * ?Biliary dyskinesia.

Contraindication:

 * Contraindicated if laparascopic cholecystectomy is indicated and can be performed.

Advantages:

 * Better exposure during surgery
 * Less risk of wound infection
 * Less days off work

Disadvantages:

 * Larger incision is made and leaves large scar.
 * Longer hospital stay
 * ≥ 5 days.
 * Longer recovery time.
 * Post-operative pain.

PreOperative management:

 * Glucose Drink 150mg/Day x 3 days.
 * If NPO:
 * 5% Dextrose I.V.
 * PreOP. BroadSpectrum Antibiots.
 * Preop Investigations:
 * Oral Cholangiogram.
 * If Charcot's Triad present:
 * I.V cholangiography.

Anaesthesia
(Anaesthesia will not be mentioned here.)
 * Commonly:
 * Endotracheal Sedation.

Incision.
Types of Incision:
 * Upper Right SubCostal Incision.
 * Kocher's Incision.
 * Modified Kocher's Incision.
 * Transverse Incision.

Mop placement

 * 2 wet mops are placed.
 * One Wet Mop is placed to displace the duodenum, the transverse colon and coils of small intestine.
 * Second Wet Mop is placed slightly to the left of the Common Bile Duct (CBD) to displace the stomach to the left.

Step III
(After 2 wet mop placement.)

Exposure of GallBladder:
Exposure of GallBladder is done by:
 * Retraction of liver.
 * Inferior surface of the right lobe of the liver is retracted upwards by the most appropriate retractor available.
 * e.g Deaver's retractor or most commonly the harrington retractor (aka the sweetheart).

Removal of GallBladder.
2 common methods for removal of GB:

Duct first method:

 * Cystic Duct and Artery are dissected first and divided, after which GallBladder is removed.
 * Indication:
 * Indicated if no presence of adhesions or exudates in CBD, CHD, CD.
 * Contraindication:
 * Contraindicated in the presence of adhesions or exudates in CBD, CHD, CD.
 * Advantages:
 * Less chance to injure:
 * CBD.
 * Right Heptic Artery.
 * Disadvantages:

Fundus First method:

 * Dissection is started from Fundus of the GallBladder and gradually proceeded towards the Cystic Duct, which is divided last of all.
 * Indication:
 * Indicated in the presence of adhesions or exudates in CBD, CHD, CD.
 * Contraindication:
 * Contraindicated in no presence of adhesions or exudates in CBD, CHD, CD due to disadvantages.
 * Advantages:
 * Gallbladder can be removed in the presence of adhesions or exudates in CBD, CHD, CD.
 * Disadvantages:
 * More chance to injure:
 * CBD.
 * Right Heptic Artery.


text:
Radiation Oncology/Prostate/Cryotherapy

Cryotherapy (Cryosurgery)

RT vs Cryotherapy

 * University of Calgary (1997-2003) -- EBRT vs Cryotherapy
 * Randomized. Trial closed prematurely due to slowing patient accrual. 244 patients of 480 planned, localized prostate cancer (T2-T3N0, PSA <=20 ng/ml, volume <=60 ml), PLND if GS 8+. Excluded clinically bulky patients. Neoadjuvant ADT 3 or 6 months. Arm 1) EBRT (median dose 68 Gy, max 73.5 Gy) using 4F box vs Arm 2) cryoablation using argon/helium and 2 freeze/thaw cycles. Early cryotherapy failures (within 6 months) were not scored as protocol failure, and underwent salvage cryotherapy. QoL assessment. Primary endpoint was failure rate at 3 years
 * 2010 PMID 19937954 -- "A Randomized Trial of External Beam Radiotherapy Versus Cryoablation in Patients With Localized Prostate Cancer" (Donnelly BJ, Cancer. 2010 Jan 15;116(2):323-30. Published Online: 24 Nov 2009) Median F/U of surviving patients 8.3 years
 * Outcome: 3-year failure rate (using nadir+2) cryo 17% vs. EBRT 13% (NS); 5-year rate 25% vs. 25% (NS); 7-year rate 27% vs. 32% (NS); 5-year DSS 96% vs. 96% (NS); 5-year OS 90% vs 88% (NS). Biopsy (+) cryo 8% vs EBRT 29%
 * Toxicity: GI Grade 3-4 cryo 3% vs. EBRT 7%; GU Grade 3-4 cryo 9% vs. EBRT 6%; intercourse 4% vs. 26%
 * Conclusion: Essentially no difference, but with long-term follow up, trend favors cryotherapy
 * Editorial (Lee WR, Duke) PMID 19924796: Noninferiority design, 10% margin, concern about patients with early failure and salvage cryotherapy with 6 months as "nonfailure". Overall, cryotherapy not likely to be a lot worse than EBRT
 * 2009 PMID 19691092 -- "A randomized trial of external beam radiotherapy versus cryoablation in patients with localized prostate cancer: quality of life outcomes." (Robinson JW, Cancer. 2009 Oct 15;115(20):4695-704.)
 * Outcome: Cryotherapy more acute GU dysfunction (SS), no difference in late GU dysfunction. Cryotherapy worse sexual function at 3 months (SS) and 3 years (SS)
 * Conclusion: No long term QoL difference, except worse sexual function after cryoablation
 * Comment: low RT dose

 * University of Western Ontario -- EBRT vs cryotherapy
 * Randomized. Trial stopped prematurely due to slow accrual. 64 of planned 150 patients, cT2c-T3b. Neoadjuvant ADT for 6 months. Arm 1) EBRT vs. Arm 2) cryotherapy
 * 2008 PMID 17579613 -- "Randomized trial comparing cryoablation and external beam radiotherapy for T2C-T3B prostate cancer." (Chin JL, Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2008;11(1):40-5. Epub 2007 Jun 19.)
 * Outcome: Treatment failure EBRT 45% vs. cryotherapy 64%. 4-year bPFS 47% vs. 13%. Mean bPFS 41 months vs 28 months. No difference in DSS and OS
 * Toxicity: Serious complications uncommon; EBRT more frequent GI toxicity
 * Conclusion: Low numbers, but cryotherapy is suboptimal primary therapy for locally advanced prostate cancer

Cryotherapy for salvage after RT
See Radiation_Oncology/Prostate/Recurrence_after_RT

Salvage RT after cryotherapy

 * Allegheny General (Pittsburgh) (1990-99)
 * 49 pts treated for isolated local recurrence after cryotherapy (rising PSA or positive biopsy; negative metastatic workup). 88% had high risk disease initially (PSA>10,G>=7,or >=T2b).
 * RT was 3D-CRT in 45 of 49 pts, 64.8 Gy (median dose) to the P+SV.
 * PMID 11068312, 2000 — "Salvage radiotherapy for prostate cancer recurrence after cryosurgical ablation." Burton S et al. Urology. 2000 Nov 1;56(5):833-8.
 * Median f/u 32 m. Biochemical control in 61%; associated with higher RT dose (> 64 Gy), lower pre-RT PSA.
 * No grade 3-4 acute GI or GU toxicity. 1 pt with urethral stricture. No pts with urinary incontinence.

title: Radiation Oncology/Prostate/Cryotherapy


text:
User talk:66.212.210.212

Xania talk 23:57, 23 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.212.210.212


text:
User talk:68.80.131.170

Regarding edits made during April 24 2007
Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 00:35, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 00:36, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

 * [[Image:Stop hand.svg|left|30px]]

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.  Az1568(Talk) 00:37, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

You have been blocked from editing Wikibooks  as a result of your .  Please note that page blanking, addition of random text or spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy are considered vandalism. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. Az1568(Talk) 00:39, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.80.131.170


text:
User talk:Ssandidge

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 01:01, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ssandidge


text:
User talk:209.92.135.84

Regarding edits made during April 24 2007
This message is regarding the article Mac OS X Tiger. Your change was determined to be unhelpful, and has been removed. Please use the sandbox for any tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 02:57, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:209.92.135.84


text:
User talk:Dr. K~enwikibooks

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

wikipedia block
It was a duck block. But I've replied at w:user talk:Dr. DbK with one request that should be easy enough. Sorry for the inconvenience. — coe l acan — 03:48, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

 * I know and I would have put in one of those, as I tried to do, and the emails don't get through. I am going to talk to the server admins, try to get any address from @wikimedia.org and @wikipedia.org unblocked. In the meantime I will work here. -Dr. K 15:56, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

IP Address
76.16.189.192 15:59, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Dr. K. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Dr. K~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:10, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:54, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dr. K~enwikibooks


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/bdo

Use
This reverses the text that is embedded in it. Used when dealing with other languages that write from right to left. For example Arabic.

Example
This will return the text backwards. e.g. (.sdrawkcab eb lliw txet sihT)

dir
Either choose "ltr" for left to right or "rtl" for right to left. This declares what direction the text goes.

More info
A link to a page with more info, then the name of the site the info came from (i.e. W3Schools).

title: HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/bdo


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/select

Use
This builds a List Box. Used for selecting a value from a list. This is to be used in relation with the option tag.

name
Name of the value in the form.

class
Associated CSS classes.

dir
The direction of the text. You can choose from "ltr" (left to right) or "rtl" (right to left).

disabled
Locks in the control so the user cannot modify the value in the list box.

id
A string that is in the webpage.

lang
The ISO language code that you want to use for the tag.

multiple
Allows the value tag to allow multiple selections.

size
The size of the list box. It is measured in either rows or as a percentage on the screen.

style
CSS commands.

tabindex
The order of the controls received by the form.

title
The title of the tag.

Standard attributes

 * name

More info
A link to a page with more info, then the name of the site the info came from (i.e. W3Schools).


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/option

Use
Used in relation to the select tag. It defines the options in the list box that should have been declared.

value
The value of the option that has been selected. It is then sent to the form.

class
Associated CSS classes.

dir
The direction of the text. The user has the choice of "rtl" (right to left) or "ltr" (left to right).

disabled
Locks the values away from the user. The user cannot modify the value within the tag.

id
A string that will be in the webpage.

lang
The ISO language code that the user wants to use for the tag.

selected
Defines the list item as the default selected.

style
CSS style command within the tag.

title
The title of the tag.

Standard attributes

 * value

More info
A link to a page with more info, then the name of the site the info came from (i.e. W3Schools).


text:
Physics Study Guide/Circular Motion

Speed and frequency

Uniform circular motion assumes that an object is moving (1) in circular motion, and (2) at constant speed $$v$$; then

$$T=\frac{2\pi r}{v}$$

where $$r$$ is the radius of the circular path, and $$T$$ is the time period for one revolution.

Any object travelling on a circle will return to its original starting point in the period of one revolution, $$T$$. At this point the object has travelled a distance $$2\pi r$$. If $$T$$ is the time that it takes to travel distance $$2\pi r$$ then the object's speed is

$$v=\frac{2\pi r}{T}=2\pi rf$$

where $$f=\frac1T$$

Angular frequency
Uniform circular motion can be explicitly described in terms of polar coordinates through angular frequency, $$\omega$$ :

$$\omega=\frac{d\theta}{dt}$$

where $$\theta$$ is the angular coordinate of the object (see the diagram on the right-hand side for reference).

Since the speed in uniform circular motion is constant, it follows that

$$\omega=\frac{\Delta\theta}{\Delta t}$$

From that fact, a number of useful relations follow:

$$\omega=\frac{2\pi}{T}=2\pi f=\frac{v}{r}$$

The equations that relate how $$\theta$$ changes with time are analogous to those of linear motion at constant speed. In particular,

$$\theta=\theta_0+\omega t$$

The angle at $$t=0$$, $$\theta_0$$, is commonly referred to as phase.

Velocity, centripetal acceleration and force
The position of an object in a plane can be converted from polar to cartesian coordinates through the equations

$$\begin{align}x&=r\cos(\theta)\\y&=r\sin(\theta)\end{align}$$

Expressing $$\theta$$ as a function of time gives equations for the cartesian coordinates as a function of time in uniform circular motion:

$$\begin{align}x&=r\cos(\theta_0+\omega t)\\y&=r\sin(\theta_0+\omega t)\end{align}$$

Differentiation with respect to time gives the components of the velocity vector:

$$\begin{align}v_x&=\omega r(-\sin(\omega t))=-v\sin(\omega t)\\v_y&=\omega r\cos(\omega t)=v\cos(\omega t)\end{align}$$

Velocity in circular motion is a vector tangential to the trajectory of the object. Furthermore, even though the speed is constant the velocity vector changes direction over time. Further differentiation leads to the components of the acceleration (which are just the rate of change of the velocity components):

$$\begin{align}a_x&=-\omega^2r\cos(\omega t)\\a_y&=-\omega^2r\sin(\omega t)\end{align}$$

The acceleration vector is perpendicular to the velocity and oriented towards the centre of the circular trajectory. For that reason, acceleration in circular motion is referred to as centripetal acceleration.

The absolute value of centripetal acceleration may be readily obtained by

$$\begin{align} a_c&=\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2}=\sqrt{(\omega^2r)^2\big(\cos^2(\omega t)+\sin^2(\omega t)\big)}\\&=\omega^2r=\frac{v^2}{r} \end{align}$$ For centripetal acceleration, and therefore circular motion, to be maintained a centripetal force must act on the object. From Newton's Second Law it follows directly that the force will be given by

$$\vec{F_c}=m\vec{a_c}$$

the components being

$$\begin{align}F_x&=-m\omega^2r\cos(\omega t)\\F_y&=-m\omega^2r\sin(\omega t)\end{align}$$

and the absolute value

$$F_c=m\omega^2r=m\frac{v^2}{r}$$

title: Physics Study Guide/Circular Motion


text:
User talk:Pdelong

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 08:12, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pdelong


text:
User talk:Tbone762

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to look at the Wikibooks Cookbook. Webaware talk 09:32, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tbone762


text:
LaTeX/Letters

Sometimes the mundane things are the most painful. However, it doesn't have to be that way because of evolved, user-friendly templates. Thankfully, LaTeX allows for very quick letter writing, with little hassle.

The letter class
To write letters use the standard document class letter.

You can write multiple letters in one LaTeX file - start each one with and end with. You can leave recipient blank. Each letter consists of four parts.
 * 1) Opening (like  or ).
 * 2) Main body (written as usual in LaTeX). If you want the same body in all the letters, you may want to consider putting the entire body in a new command like  and then using  in all the letters.
 * 3) Closing (like ).
 * LaTeX will leave some space after closing for your hand-written signature; then it will put your name and surname, if you have declared them.
 * 1) Additional elements: post scripta, carbon copy and list of enclosures.

If you want your name, address and telephone number to appear in the letter, you have to declare them first signature, address and telephone.

The output letter will look like this:

Here is the example's code:

To move the closing and signature parts to the left, insert the following before :

The amount of space to the left can be adjusted by increasing the 0pt.

Using the package
The package provides customization to the  command, allowing the user to print on any of an assortment of labels or envelope sizes. For example, beginning your LaTeX file the following way produces a document which includes the letter and a business-size (#10) envelope on the following page.

Refer to the envlab user guide for more information about this capable package. Note that the package has issues displaying characters outside the base ASCII character set, see this bug report for more information.

Using the package
Here is a relatively simple envelope which uses the package which is used because it vastly simplifies the task of rearranging things on the page (and the page itself).

Printing
The above will certainly take care of the spacing but the actual printing is between you and your printer. One user reports that printing envelopes created with is relatively painless. If you use the package, you may find the following commands useful for printing the envelope.

$ pdflatex envelope.tex $ pdf2ps envelope.pdf $ lpr -o landscape envelope.ps

Alternatively, you can use the latex dvi output driver.

In the first line, dvips command converts the .dvi file produced by latex into a .ps (PostScript) file. In the second line, the PostScript file is sent to the printer. $ latex envelope.tex && dvips -t unknown -T 9.5in,4.125in envelope.dvi $ lpr -o landscape envelope.ps

It is reported that pdflatex creates the right page size but not dvips despite what it says in the manual. It will never work though unless your printer settings are adjusted to the correct page style. These settings depend on the printer filter you are using and in CUPS might be available on the lpr command line.

Windowed envelopes
An alternative to separately printing addresses on envelopes is to use the letter class from the KOMA package. It supports additional features like folding marks and the correct address placement for windowed envelopes. Using the document class from the KOMA package the example letter code is:

The output is generated via $ pdflatex koma_env

Folding the print of the resulting file koma_env.pdf according the folding marks it can be placed into standardized windowed envelopes DIN C6/5, DL, C4, C5 or C6.

In addition to the default, the KOMA-package includes predefined format definitions for different standardized Swiss and Japanese letter formats.

title: LaTeX/Letters


text:
User talk:194.80.21.10

Block Notice
You cannot edit for 6 months due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. Jomegat (discuss • contribs) 14:27, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:194.80.21.10


text:
User:Programmer8~enwikibooks

hello, i am programmer8

title: User:Programmer8~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:142.68.18.180

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 12:47, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:142.68.18.180


text:
User talk:Programmer8~enwikibooks

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:50, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Also
Do you want me to delete the mispelt one (talk & user page). If you are going to use this account it may be best if I block the misnamed one so that the confusion doesn't arise again? Regards -- Herby talk thyme 12:50, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Programmer8. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Programmer8~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:37, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:23, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Programmer8~enwikibooks


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Guide to the Wheel of Time

Guide_to_the_Wheel_of_Time
Has been marked for speedy deletion from the sole author. Still a lot of pages from so I did not want to go ahead without a 2nt opinion. --Krischik T 09:37, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * : As above --Krischik T 09:37, 10 April 2007 (UTC)
 * puzzled me too - looking here tho it could well be effectively a copyvio issue that has been picked up from elsewhere and the user has decided to mark them as speedy rather than deal with the copyvio. So my second opinion is delete and I think I will make a start (not planning to do all of them tho!) -- Herby  talk thyme 11:56, 10 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Started (& going to have a break now!). I guess the only minor point is the pages created by an IP but I'm guessing that it is still a copyvio and probably a "forgot to sign in" one -- Herby  talk thyme 12:16, 10 April 2007 (UTC)
 * Did about 30, still lots more left. Need to get back to work, though. -- xixtas talk 14:46, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Comment - Hah! They totally used the Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter book layout and just inserted their book name! -within focus 02:36, 11 April 2007 (UTC)


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Other Topics/The New Media Player

Adobe Media Player
Adobe Systems Inc. has released its new Adobe Media Player and has double use across the techy world. It allows users to playback video content when either online or offline. A preview example of the new player was at the NAB 2007 show, exhibitors were able to witness how the newest media player gives more personal video experiences to users while offering content publishers new abilities "to distribute, track, and build businesses around their media assets." The unveiling of Adobe’s Media Player and its offline multimedia playback versatility has seen amazing reviews by analists and system administrators as technologocal breakthrough, especially since no media players (read: Windows Media Player, Apple Quicktime, and RealPlayer) currently allow for user download, and integration between playback systems. Control is something that media companies desire the most. They are even leery about the release on the web. Adobe Media Player users will be able download it for free, thus gaining access to enhanced Flash playback, download and view content offline, full-screen resolution, viewer ratings and favorite feature that downloads the newest episodes of a user’s favorite Television shows or even podcasts. It will also be able to give users the ability to use the Web’s most popular video formats without browser limitations. Major technological deals are expected in the following months. The beta download of Adobe’s Media Player is scheduled later this year. A free download will come before the close of 2007.


text:
User talk:205.124.116.3

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:18, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:205.124.116.3


text:
Video Production/Lesson Encoding Video for the Internet

Video Encoding
This is the key point of Internet distribution. Once your positive content is encoded it can be copied and distributed all over the world without limits. You can be the person to set that video free! We look at how to use a Mac and Microsoft to encode Video for the Internet and DVD's using Free Software. If someone wants to bring a linux computer that can capture Video, get in contact, and we can have a go at that too afterwards. This is a key workshop for putting video online in any format even youtube!

Setup
Minimum - One Windows PC, One Mac with OSX 10.3.9 or later, Camera for capturing.

Intro
Look at You Tube, and Archive.org and Democracy player.

Different ways of encoding Video:

 * For immediate viewing [ aka streaming ] - see You Tube
 * For download. This can be used for screening from a laptop, putting onto DVD, or as a podcast. - See Archive.org and Democrasy player

Demo Democrasy Player and the Democrasy Now programme. The story behind the station and the technology used for podcasting.

Capturing Video, Converting from a DVD or File, or Exporting from a Video project
There are 3 main ways you will probably have video that needs encoding

 * On a tape: You will need to "capture" the file to the computer's hard disk
 * On a DVD or digital file - you will need to convert it to a suitable file format to put up online
 * As a video project you are editing, you'll have to export the file from the Video editing program.

Aims and background info
To capture video from a video tape to a hard disk. Normally this would be as a DV file. "DV" stands for Digital Video, and is a way of compressing the video into a file. DV files are high quality and very large, taking up a lot of room on your hard drive. They are normally used for editing. We are going to use them as a source file for video encoding. It is best if the original file is as high quality and as compatible as possible. DV files are both high quality and very compatible.

On PCs, DV files are usually "avi" files which have a ".avi" extension. On Macs, DV files are usually "mov" files, with a ".mov" extension (and sometimes a ".dv" extension).

Windows Capturing and saving as DV file from tape / Premiere Project
Free Software - Stoik Video Capture http://www.videohelp.com/tools/Stoik_Video_Capture - Download Stoik

Premiere Pro [paying software]

Saving as a DV avi http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Video_producion/save_dvavi_from_premiere_pro

Capturing from tape / Saving to Dv file Mac
You would normally do this with iMovie or Final Cut Pro More detailed help with screenshots to come

Saving to Dv file Mac from Final Cut Pro
This guide is aimed at those using PAL Video. As such you should have Default PAL setting for your FCP project.

To set this up: File > Audio / Video Settings >

Your Sequence Preset should be DV PAL 48 kHz And Capture Preset should also be DV PAL 48 kHz

Then when you export your project, the default settings will be correct.

File > Export > Quicktime movie

Give the file a .mov extension

Summary and Background Info
There are many formats in which you may wish to make your video available. For this lesson we are going to concentrate on two types:

 * flv - flash compatible format for streaming
 * xvid / mpg4 / mpeg for preview/ full screen sharing

We assume that you have a DV file of the video you want to encode. If not, look elsewhere on this page for how to create a DV file from Tape or your video project.

Windows Encoding with Super
Where to download and help / guides http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Video#SuPer_-_Free_Software_encoder

Using FFmpegx to change a DV file to mp4 or flv
We are going to create a flv file and a mp4 file from the DV .mov file exported from FCP

There are guides for using ffmpegx here

http://web.archive.org/20030604081134/homepage.mac.com/major4/

More to come...

Aims and background info
Encoding a file ready for the internet from a dvd used to be so much hard work. There were about 4 different programs needed to do it. Now the process is getting easier with some tools that use free software command line tools and give you one front end [gui] to make using them easier.

For this lesson we are going to make a xvid in Gordian Knot and an mp4 in Handbrake. These are aimed at creating a file of screening quality.

Windows: Auto Gordian Knot
Tutorial on Installing and using Auto GK

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tutorial_on_using_auto_gordian_knot

Mac: Handbrake
Although there is a newer version these help files concentrate on Handbrake 0.7 as it can be used by more operating systems i.e. 10.3.9 and up.

Download Handbrake 0.7.1 : http://handbrake.m0k.org/?page_id=8

Tutorials for using Hanbrake 0.7

http://www.freesmug.org/tutorial/handbrake/ For Ipod: http://howto.diveintomark.org/ipod-dvd-ripping-guide/


text:
User talk:81.1.103.176

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:39, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.1.103.176


text:
User talk:209.7.121.128

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:54, 24 April 2007 (UTC) '''We are doing a project on Passive transportation!!!!!!!! We are doing this as a part of cell transportation triathlon'''

title: User talk:209.7.121.128


text:
User talk:206.45.104.20

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 16:49, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:206.45.104.20


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Other Topics/The NAB Experience

The NAB Experience
Here is a place where students can comment on the NAB experience they had in the Spring of 2007.

Jonathan's Reflections
Well, I have had a few days to think about and process all of the amazing content we as a class got to experience at the NAB conference in Las Vegas. It was in one word, breathtaking. As you walked into the doors of the conference, it was a smack in the face of all media companies, tools, systems, and software that you could imagine. If there was one word that could describe the goal of many of the companies there it would be integration. Everything was adaptable to different software and worked parallel with that software. It was almost overwhelming. Much of the innovations started in the software category. Something quite amazing was a new plug in for the Final Cut Studio 3 called color. It made color correction a thing of the past, now you can virtually paint on your work and make it crisp and clear. As far as equipment goes, the newest and well simply worldchanging piece of equipment was the Red Camera. It records digital footage in 4k lines of resolution. And the most impressive thing about it is its price. starting at under $20,000, it's affordable! Peter Jackson shot a short film with it; using it only for 2 days of shooting. I had the opportunity to view the film, and the picture quality is the best I have ever seen. Another important aspect of the camera is the digitizing stage. Recording in what they call Raw Red. The compression for the footage is remarkable. I got to see the newest technologies and experience something that I will never forget. I am definitely going back.

Alyssa's Reflections
The NAB is a multi-media experience like nothing else in the world. It is where all the best in the business get together for one week and show their latest and greatest technologies. I was amazed at all the knowledge in one place. The learning experience is unlike anything I could have ever got in school. I learned more in four days than I could of in four weeks of class at school. I went from booth to booth talking to the experts about their specialty in multi-media. My favorite booth was the Adobe booth. One Adobe design expert took 45 minutes and showed me how all their new Adobe suite CS3 is all integrated together. He explained it in such an easy fashion, I learned stuff about programs that I even have on my computer, which I never knew about. Even when I went to a booth about surge protectors, the guy that worked there explained to me why surge protectors are needed and how they work. The people at the booths, for the most part, were so nice and explained their equipment very thoroughly. On Tuesday for lunch we shared a table with two guys from the Panasonic booths and they shared with us what they did. One of the guys was an independent film producer from LA and the other was a commercial producer from Phoenix. Where else do you get to sit down and talk with film producers from LA, then the NAB? On Wednesday for lunch we sat with three guys that run their own equipment rental company out of Atlanta, and they shared with us some of their expertise. So, despite the horrible perversion that Las Vegas represents, the show itself was a very worthwhile experience. I learned so much about multi-media and got to meet so many cool people.


text:
User:Spxza

-nt-

title: User:Spxza


text:
User talk:63.97.17.234

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Jomegat 18:37, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:63.97.17.234


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Chemical Ideas

Chemical Ideas is one of the two textbooks that were designed to be an integral part of the Salters Advanced Chemistry course. It is published by Heinemann. Chemical Ideas contains the theoretical component of the course. Its counterpart, Chemical Storylines, focuses more on the history, applications and importance of various aspects of chemistry.

A sortable table of contents for Chemical Ideas is available here.

= Chapters in Chemical Ideas =

Chapter 1: Measuring amounts of substance

 * Section 1.1: Amount of substance (AS)
 * Section 1.2: Balanced equations (AS)
 * Section 1.3: Using equations to work out reacting masses (AS)
 * Section 1.4: Calculations involving gases (AS)
 * Section 1.5: Concentrations of solutions (AS)

Chapter 2: Atomic structure

 * Section 2.1: A simple model of the atom (AS)
 * Section 2.2: Nuclear reactions (AS)
 * Section 2.3: Electronic structure: shells (AS)
 * Section 2.4: Electronic structure: sub-shells and orbitals (AS)

Chapter 3: Bonding, shapes and sizes

 * Section 3.1: Chemical bonding (AS)
 * Section 3.2: The size of ions (A2)
 * Section 3.3: The shapes of molecules (AS)
 * Section 3.4: Structural isomerism (AS)
 * Section 3.5: Geometric isomerism (AS)
 * Section 3.6: Optical isomerism (A2)

Chapter 4: Energy changes and chemical reactions

 * Section 4.1: Energy in, energy out (AS)
 * Section 4.2: Where does the energy come from? (AS)
 * Section 4.3: Entropy and the direction of change (AS)
 * Section 4.4: Energy, entropy and equilibrium (A2)
 * Section 4.5: Energy changes in solution (A2)
 * Section 4.6: Born-Haber cycles (A2)

Chapter 5: Structure and properties

 * Section 5.1: Ions in solids and solutions (AS)
 * Section 5.2: Molecules and networks (AS)
 * Section 5.3: Forces between molecules: temporary and permanent dipoles (AS)
 * Section 5.4: Forces between molecules: hydrogen bonding (AS)
 * Section 5.5: The structure and properties of polymers (Part 1:AS, Part 2: A2)
 * Section 5.6: Bonding, structure and properties: a summary (A2)

Chapter 6: Radiation and matter

 * Section 6.1: Light and electrons (AS)
 * Section 6.2: What happens when radiation interacts with matter? (AS)
 * Section 6.3: Radiation and radicals (AS)
 * Section 6.4: Infrared spectroscopy (AS)
 * Section 6.5: Mass spectrometry (AS)
 * Section 6.6: Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (A2)
 * Section 6.7: Where does colour come from? (A2)
 * Section 6.8: Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy (A2)
 * Section 6.9: Chemistry of colour (A2)

Chapter 7: Equilibrium in chemistry

 * Section 7.1: Chemical equilibrium (AS)
 * Section 7.2: Equilibria and concentrations (A2)
 * Section 7.3: Equilibria and partial pressures (A2)
 * Section 7.4: Partition equilibrium (A2)
 * Section 7.5: Ion exchange (A2)
 * Section 7.6: Chromatography (A2)
 * Section 7.7: Solubility equilibria (A2)

Chapter 8: Acids and bases

 * Section 8.1: Acid-base reactions (AS)
 * Section 8.2: Weak acids and pH (A2)
 * Section 8.3: Buffer solutions (A2)

Chapter 9: Redox

 * Section 9.1: Oxidation and reduction (AS)
 * Section 9.2: Redox reactions and electrode potentials (A2)
 * Section 9.3: Predicting the direction of redox reactions (A2)
 * Section 9.4: The effect of complexing on redox reactions (A2)

Chapter 10: Rates of reactions

 * Section 10.1: Factors affecting reaction rates (AS)
 * Section 10.2: The effect of temperature on rate (AS)
 * Section 10.3: The effect of concentration on rate (A2)
 * Section 10.4: What is a catalyst? (AS)
 * Section 10.5: How do catalysts work? (AS)

Chapter 11: The Periodic Table

 * Section 11.1: Periodicity (AS)
 * Section 11.2: The s block: Groups 1 and 2 (AS)
 * Section 11.3: The p block: nitrogen and Group 5 (A2)
 * Section 11.4: The p-block: Group 7 (AS)
 * Section 11.5: The d block: characteristics of transition metals (A2)
 * Section 11.5: The d block: complex formation (A2)

Chapter 12: Organic chemistry: frameworks

 * Section 12.1: Alkanes (AS)
 * Section 12.2: Alkenes (AS)
 * Section 12.3: Arenes (A2)
 * Section 12.4: Reactions of arenes (A2)

Chapter 13: Organic chemistry: modifiers

 * Section 13.1: Halogenoalkanes (AS)
 * Section 13.2: Alcohols and ethers (AS)
 * Section 13.3: Carboxylic acids and their derivatives (AS)
 * Section 13.4: The −OH group in alcohols, phenols and acids (A2)
 * Section 13.5: Esters (A2)
 * Section 13.6: Oils and fats (A2)
 * Section 13.7: Aldehydes and ketones (AS)
 * Section 13.8: Amines and amides (A2)
 * Section 13.9: Amino acids (A2)
 * Section 13.10: Azo compounds (A2)

Chapter 14: Organic synthesis

 * Section 14.1: Planning a synthesis (A2)
 * Section 14.2: A summary of organic reactions (A2)

Chapter 15: Managing a chemical process

 * Section 15.1: The operation of a chemical manufacturing process (A2)
 * Section 15.2: Feedstocks (A2)
 * Section 15.3: The best conditions for the process (A2)
 * Section 15.4: Costs (A2)


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Molecular geometry

The shapes of molecules is the title of Section 3.3 in Chemical Ideas and it covers the topic of molecular geometry.

Tetrahedra
You have probably come across tetrahedra before in maths, although you most likely called them triangle-based pyramids. Tetrahedra have four vertices (corners), four faces and six edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle.

The tetrahedron is one of the most important shapes in chemistry because a very great many molecules contain them. Tetrahedral molecules don't actually contain little pyramids. What they do contain is a central atom bonded to four other atoms. The four atoms surrounding the central atom occupy positions that you can imagine as the vertices of a tetrahedron.

In the image gallery below, the central atom is coloured magenta and the surrounding atoms are coloured white.

The angle between any two bonds in a tetrahedral molecule is approximately 109.5°. The tetrahedral angle can be calculated as accurately as required because it is equal to cos−1(–⅓).

Octahedra
You may or may not have met an octahedron before. Octahedra have six vertices (corners), eight faces and twelve edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle.

Octahedra are very important in chemistry because many transition metal-based molecules are octahedral.

Molecular geometry and lone pairs
You can use the so-called AXE method to calculate the shape of a molecule. It is based on molecules that have a central atom, which we label A. Atoms or groups bonded to A are labelled X.  Lone pairs are labelled E.  A molecule with three lone pairs and two atoms/groups bonded to it would be denoted AX2E3. The table below shows how X and E and molecular shape are related.

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) is used to predict the shape of a molecule once X and E are known. This sounds more complicated than it is. You consider any X's and E's to be regions of charge that position themselves as far apart from each other as possible, in order to minimize the forces of electrostatic repulsion between each other.


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Complexes

A complex is a compound in which a central metal atom is surrounded ligands that form dative covalent bonds with it. Complexes are discussed in Chemical Ideas Section 11.6: The d block: complex formation.

Why are transition metal complexes usually coloured?
You might like to look at the spectroscopy page to remind yourself of how and why light interacts with electrons in molecules. You could also have a look at the atomic orbitals page to see what shape d orbitals are.

Partially-filled d orbitals split by ligands
In a nutshell, transition metal complexes are coloured because their central transition metal atoms have a partially-filled d subshell that is split by the surrounding ligands. Partially-filled means at least one d orbital is half-filled or empty and at least one d orbital is half-filled or full, i.e. that the d subshell contains between 1 and 9 electrons. Split means that the within the d subshell, there are now different energy levels, whereas without the ligands, the five d orbitals that make up the d subshell all have the same energy.

This is really a university-level topic
For the purpose of exams, students of Salters A-Level Chemistry are not required to understand how or why ligands cause the d subshell to split, just that it happens. Students who go on to study chemistry at university will learn about the interactions between metal atoms and ion with ligands in much greater detail, where they will encounter crystal field theory (electrostatic effects of ligands on d orbitals) and ligand field theory (covalent bonding of ligands to metal atoms and ions).

Ligands split d orbitals
A complex needs ligands to be coloured. Without ligands, all five d orbitals are equal in energy (degenerate is a word often used here — it simply means of the same energy). When ligands are present, some of the d orbitals become higher in energy than before, and some become lower. This happens because some of the d orbitals are nearer the ligands than others so they experience more repulsion from the ligand electrons and thus have a higher energy.

An empty d shell cannot absorb visible photons
A coloured complex needs partially-filled d orbitals. Empty d orbitals cannot produce colour because they lack electrons. Electrons are needed to move from a lower-energy d orbital to a higher-energy d-orbital by absorbing a photon of visible light. Complexes of Sc3+ are colourless because Sc3+ (electron configuration: [Ar]3s23d0) has empty d orbitals.

The same is also true of all elements that come before Ti in the periodic table — none of these have any electrons in their d orbitals. For instance, K has d orbitals but they are unoccupied and as such, complexes of K cannot absorb photons promoting a d electron from a d orbital to a higher energy one, since K doesn't have any d electrons.

A full d shell cannot absorb visible photons
If a complex has an empty d shell, there are no electrons to move. If a complex has a full d shell, there are no vacancies in any d orbitals for an electron to move into. Complexes of Zn2+ and Cu+ (electron configuration: [Ar]3s23d10) are colourless because the d orbitals of Zn2+ and Cu+ are full.

How do ligands split d orbitals?
We noted above that the presence of ligands around a transition metal atom or ion splits the five d orbitals into two groups, one group higher in energy and one group lower in energy than they were before the ligands arrived. Chemical Ideas p. 271 offers a short and sweet explanation which is ideal for revision and exams. This section attempts to present a deeper explanation. It is more detailed than the Salters Advanced Chemistry specification requires, but this may be exactly what you want to know if you're interested.

Ligand electrons repel d electrons
Ligands have lone pairs of electrons that they use to bond to transition metal atoms or ions. The presence of these ligand electrons repels the transition metal's electrons in its d orbitals. The metal d electrons can't go anywhere to avoid the repulsion, so the only effect is that their energy increases.

Ligands affect different d orbitals differently
Ligands do not affect each of the five d orbitals to the same extent. A d orbital that brings its electrons close to the ligands will increase a great deal in energy. A d orbital occupies space away from the ligands will increase in energy a little, but not as much. As you can probably imagine, the exact positioning of the ligands determines which d orbitals they will affect the most.

Splitting in octahedral complexes

In an octahedral complex, the dz² and dx²−y² orbitals are increased in energy the most. We refer to the dz² and dx²−y² orbitals collectively as the eg d orbitals.

The images below illustrate the orbitals dz² (left) and dx²−y² (right) and their positioning within an octahedral complex. The central transition metal atom or ion is grey, the six ligands are red and the orbitals are yellow.

Let us continue to consider an octahedral complex. The remaining d orbitals, dxy, dxz and dyz see their energy increase to a lesser extent. We refer to the dxy, dxz and dyz orbitals collectively as the t2g d orbitals.

The images below illustrate these three orbitals in relation to the central metal atom and ligands in an octahedral complex. Compare these images of the t2g orbitals with those of the eg above. You may be able to see that the t2g orbitals are, on average, further away from the ligands than the eg orbitals. This is the reason for splitting.

Splitting in tetrahedral complexes

In a tetrahedral complex, the dxy, dxz and dyz orbitals are increased in energy the most. We refer to the dxy, dxz and dyz orbitals collectively as the t2 d orbitals.

The remaining d orbitals, dz² and dx²−y², see their energy increase to a lesser extent. We refer to the dz² and dx²−y² orbitals collectively as the e d orbitals.

eg and t2g
You should know the labels eg and t2g; they are mathematical constructs derived from group theory. Chemists later borrowed the labels as they refer to the molecular symmetry and are useful for determining behavior, orbital splitting, and properties of molecules.


text: A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Substances


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Functional groups

Organic compounds are best thought of as relatively unreactive hydrocarbon skeletons decorated by functional groups — groups of atoms that undergo characteristic reactions. Compounds containing two or more different functional groups are described as polyfunctional.

Cyclic compounds and intramolecular reactions
Exam questions often ask you to identify a functional group that forms part of a ring. Here are some examples:

If a cyclic compound contains a ring with less than six members (i.e. three, four or five membered rings), the ring will be under strain and functional groups that make up part of the ring will often be much more reactive than they would in a straight-chain compound. For example, amides are normally very unreactive, but the amide group in a β-lactam ring is relatively easily hydrolysed because the four-membered ring is very strained and hydrolysis converts the ring to a straight chain, relieving the strain.

Cyclic compounds are often formed by intramolecular reactions, meaning reactions in which different parts of the same molecule react with each other.

For instance, if a molecule contains both an alcohol part (hydroxyl group) and a carboxylic acid part (carboxyl group), the two groups can react to form an ester. The reaction is identical in all respects to normal esterification (acid + alcohol → ester + water), except that the acid and alcohol are not two separate molecules but two different ends of the same molecule.

Intramolecular reactions are usually much faster than intermolecular reactions, because the reacting groups are tethered together and are thus much more likely to collide.


text:
User talk:155.98.115.48

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Jomegat 20:37, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:155.98.115.48


text:
User:NKUplayer23~enwikibooks

I am looking for a college to apply to. Any ideas?

title: User:NKUplayer23~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:66.82.9.48

Your recent (amusing) edit has been reverted. Please take care not to add incorrect information to Wikibooks. Xania talk 20:53, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.82.9.48


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Periodic table

Radioactivity
 * elements with solid borders have stable isotopes
 * elements with dashed borders have only radioactive naturally occurring isotopes
 * elements with dotted borders do not occur naturally
 * elements without borders are too radioactive to have been discovered yet


text:
Microprocessor Design/Sockets and interfacing

Form Factors

A matter that is peripheral to the subject of microprocessor design, but not wholely unrelated is the subject of form factors, sockets, and interfacing. When it comes to microprocessors and microcontrollers there is no standard size or shape, no standard connectors, etc. An Intel Pentium chip cannot plug into the same socket as an AMD Athlon chip, even though they are both IA32 chips, and both of them can run the same software. The size, shape, number of connectors and orientation of the connectors are known collectively as the form factor of the chip. Each separate form factor requires a specific interface for the chip to connect to called a socket.


text:
Template:Goodbook/Control Systems

This template belongs to the Control Systems wikibook.

title: Template:Goodbook/Control Systems


text:
User talk:209.121.66.51

Xania talk 22:09, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:209.121.66.51


text:
User talk:68.219.149.185

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 22:11, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.219.149.185


text:
User talk:142.32.208.238

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 22:14, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:142.32.208.238


text:
MediaWiki:Ipbreason-dropdown

 * Common block reasons
 * spamming or other inappropriate promotion
 * open proxy or zombie (more info)
 * trolling
 * abusing multiple accounts or sockpuppetry
 * removing content from pages
 * inappropriate username
 * intimidation/harassment
 * cross-wiki issues
 * long-term abuse
 * Vandalism reasons
 * vandalism
 * Repeatedly creating nonsensical pages
 * pagemove vandal
 * Offensive, racist or homophobic vandalism

title: MediaWiki:Ipbreason-dropdown


text:
Talk:Nissan 240SX Performance Modification/KA24DE and KA24E/Supercharging

removed:

"Superchargers fail in comparison compared to turbos. The best turbo company is HKS."

This is not relevant info on supercharging your 240sx.


text:
User:Bacon~enwikibooks

I am a UK student studying Computer Science at the University Of Warwick.

title: User:Bacon~enwikibooks