text:
Surgical Procedures/Acid Base Disorder

Information http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Medical_disclaimer

Acid Base Disorder
In general : H+ = 24 × PCO2/HCO3– (Usually in clinical practice, H+ concentration is expressed as pH.)
 * Normal pH = 7.35–7.45.
 * Acidemia = pH < 7.35.
 * Alkalemia = pH > 7.45.
 * PaCO2 (Arterial CO2 concentration normal = 35–45 mm Hg).
 * HCO3– (Serum electrolytes normal = 22–31 mmol/liter).

Acidosis-Alkalosis

 * Acidosis is a process that causes the accumulation of acid.
 * Alkalosis is a process that causes the accumulation of alkali.

Respiratory Acidosis-Alkalosis
Disorders that initially alter arterial PCO2 (arterial CO2 concentration) are termed respiratory acidosis-alkalosis.

Metabolic Acidosis-Alkalosis
Disorders initially affecting HCO3– (serum electrolytes) concentration are termed metabolic acidosis-alkalosis.

Causes

 * 1) Chloride-responsive.
 * 2) *The most common causes in the surgical practice include:
 * 3) **Diuretic therapy (e.g., contraction alkalosis).
 * 4) **Acid loss through GI secretions (e.g., nasogastric suctioning, vomiting).
 * 5) **Exogenous administration of HCO3– or HCO3– precursors (e.g., citrate in blood).
 * 6) Chloride-unresponsive metabolic alkalosis is comparatively less common and includes:
 * 7) *Hyperaldosteronism
 * 8) *Marked hypokalemia
 * 9) *Renal failure
 * 10) *Renal tubular Cl– wasting (Bartter’s syndrome)
 * 11) *Oedematous states.

Diagnosis:
Measurement of urinary chloride concentration.

 * Suggestive causes of the metabolic alkalosis if Urine Cl– concentration is <15 mmol/liter:
 * vomiting.
 * nasogastric suctioning.
 * postdiuretic administration.
 * posthypercapnia.
 * Sughgestive causes of the metabolic alkalosis if Urine Cl– concentration is > 20 mmol/liter:
 * Mineralocorticoid excess.
 * Alkali loading.
 * Concurrent diuretic administration
 * Presence of severe hypokalemia.

Treatment principles in metabolic alkalosis:
Goal of Treatments can be:
 * 1) Removing and identifying underlying causes, Discontinuing exogenous alkali, repairing Cl–, K+, and volume deficits.
 * 2) Correction of volume deficits (can be used 0.9% NaCl) and hypokalemia.
 * 3) H2-receptor antagonists or other acid-suppressing medications can be used after vomiting or nasogastric suctioning.
 * 4) If Edemea:
 * 5) *Acetazolamide (5 mg/kg/day IV or PO) can be used.
 * 6) **Eases fluid mobilization while decreasing renal HCO3– reabsorption.
 * 7) **Tolerance to this diuretic may develop after 2–3 days.
 * 8) Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) can be used in severe alkalemia (HCO3– >40 mmol/liter; rate not exceeding 5 ml/minute).
 * 9) *Approximately one-half of the calculated volume of NH4Cl is usually administered and the acid-base status and Cl– concentration is usually rechecked to determine the need of further treatment.
 * 10) *Hepatic failure is contraindication for NH4Cl.
 * 11) HCl more rapidly corrects metabolic alkalosis.
 * 12) Dialysis:
 * 13) *Can be considered in the volume-overloaded situation with renal failure and intractable metabolic alkalosis.

Estimation of the amount of H+ requirement
The amount of H+ to administer may be estimated by the following equation: H+(mmol) = 0.5 × wt (kg) × [103 – serum Cl– (mmol/liter)]

Estimation of the amount of NH4Cl requirement:
Can be estimated by the following equation: NH4Cl (mmol) = 0.2 × wt (kg) × [103 – serum Cl– (mmol/liter)]

Metabolic Acidosis
(Low pH with low CO2 content)
 * Reduction in plasma Bicarbonate and a consequence rise in H+.
 * PaCO2 is reduced secondarily by Hyperventilation, which mitigates the rise in H+.

Causes
Metabolic Acidosis is caused if:
 * Accumulation of nonvolatile acids.
 * Reduction of renal acid excretion.
 * Loss of alkali.

Mnemonics
MUD PILES

1.	Methyl Alcohol. 2.	Uremia. 3.	Diabetic Ketoacidosis 4.	Para-Aldehyde poisoning. 5.	Ischemia. 6.	Lactic acidosis. 7.	Ethylene Glycol Alcohol ingestion. 8.	Salicylic Poisoning.

Other commonest causes are:

 * Addition of excessive acids to plasma.
 * Ketoacidosis, Lacticacidosis.
 * Methanol, ethylene glycol and salicylic poisoning.
 * Failure to excrete acid:
 * Chronic Renal Failure.
 * Acute Renal Failure etc
 * Loss of Bicarbonate (base):
 * From G.I.T:
 * Diarrhea.
 * Fistulae.
 * In Urine:
 * Proximal renal tubular acidosis.
 * Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.

Clinical Feature

 * 1) Usually in severe cases Kussmaul's respiration can be present.
 * 2) When H+ >70 mmol/L; then,
 * 3) *Cardiac-Out-Put falls.
 * 4) *Blood pressure decreases.
 * 5) *Frequnet confusion.
 * 6) *Drowsiness.

Diagnostic Classsification (Anion Gap)
Anion gap (AG: normal, 3–11 mmol/liter) AG (mmol/liter) = Na+ (mmol/liter) – [Cl– (mmol/liter) + HCO3– (mmol/liter)]

It is useful diagnostically to classify metabolic acidosis into:

 * 1) Increased AG metabolic acidosis.
 * 2) Normal AG metabolic acidosis.

Increased anion gap Metabolic Acidosis:

 * 1) Increased acid production:
 * 2) Ketoacidosis
 * 3) Diabetic
 * 4) Alcoholic
 * 5) Starvation
 * 6) Lactic acidosis
 * 7) Toxic ingestion:
 * 8) Salicylates.
 * 9) Ethylene glycol.
 * 10) Methanol.
 * 11) Renal failure.

Normal anion gap (hyperchloremic) Metabolic Acidosis:

 * 1) Renal tubular dysfunction
 * 2) Renal tubular acidosis.
 * 3) Hypoaldosteronism.
 * 4) Potassium-sparing diuretics.
 * 5) Loss of alkali.
 * 6) Diarrhea.
 * 7) Ureterosigmoidostomy.
 * 8) Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors.
 * 9) Administration of HCl (ammonium chloride, cationic amino acids).

Management/Treatment of metabolic acidosis:

 * Directed primarily towards the underlying cause of the acid-base disturbance.
 * Bicarbonate therapy is considered when there is moderate to severe metabolic acidosis, depending on the etiology.

The HCO3– deficit (mmol/liter) can be estimated by the following equation:
 * 1) Infusion of NaHCO3, stoped when H+ is normol.
 * 2) Monitoring H+ and HCO3-
 * 3) Treatment of underlying causes.

HCO3– deficit (mmol/liter) = Body weight (kg) × 0.4 × [desired HCO3– (mmol/liter) – measured HCO3– (mmol/liter)]

(This equation serves only as a rough estimate .)

The goal of HCO3–

 * To raise the arterial blood pH to 7.00 or the HDRO3– concentration to 10 mmol/liter.
 * Risks of bicarbonate therapy:
 * Hypernatremia.
 * Hypercapnia.
 * Cerebrospinal fluid acidosis.
 * Overshoot alkalosis.

Serial arterial blood gases and serum electrolytes should be obtained to assess the response to HCO3– therapy.

Rate of HCO3– replacement:

 * In nonurgent situations:
 * Continuous intravenous infusion over 4–8 hours (50-ml ampule of 8.4% NaHCO3 solution provides 50 mmol of HCO3–) can be added to 1 liter of D5W or 0.45% NaCl.
 * In urgent situation:
 * Deficit can be administered as a bolus over several minutes.

title: Surgical Procedures/Acid Base Disorder


text:
Horticulture/Podophyllum

Podophyllum is a genus of six species of herbaceous perennial plants in the family ../Berberidaceae/, native to eastern Asia (five species) and eastern North America (one species). They are woodland plants, typically growing in colonies derived from a single root.

Description
The stems grow to 30–40 cm tall, with palmately lobed umbrella-like leaves up to 20–40 cm diameter with 3–9 shallowly to deeply cut lobes. The plants produce several stems from a creeping underground rhizome; some stems bear a single leaf and do not produce any flower or fruit, while flowering stems produce a pair or more leaves with 1–8 flowers in the axil between the apical leaves. The flowers are white, yellow or red, 2–6 cm diameter with 6–9 petals, and mature into a green, yellow or red fleshy fruit 2–5 cm long.

Species

 * ../Podophyllum aurantiocaule/. Southwest China (Yunnan).
 * ../Podophyllum delavayi/. Southwest China.
 * ../Podophyllum hexandrum/. Western China, Himalaya.
 * ../Podophyllum peltatum/ - Mayapple. Eastern North America.
 * ../Podophyllum pleianthum/. Central and southeast China.
 * ../Podophyllum versipelle/. China, Tibet.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Horticulture/Podophyllum


text:
User:Yasya/How a to write a good book for children?

This is our first book. Over the next few years we will be finished our wonderful book. In this book we will be teaching young people how to write a very professional book. Our steps will be something like:

 * Use dictionaries
 * Use pictures
 * Use easy words that children could understand
 * Use childrens experiences
 * Don't use very small font; use large font

Note: This page will be added to ever more in the near future


text:
User talk:69.76.219.210

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:23, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.76.219.210


text:
User talk:Mahagaja

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page, and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 15:32, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Cornmeal or cornstarch?
G'day Angr, on Cookbook:Keralan vegetable stew you added the optional ingredient "corn flour". This is an ambiguous term, which can mean either cornmeal or cornstarch - which did you mean? Webaware talk 15:35, 4 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I didn't add it, I just fixed the formatting. It was added by User:Anushasekar as his only edit here. Angr 17:06, 5 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Sorry, my mistake. Given the unlikely return of the editor, and the use of this as a thickener, I'm going to make it "cornstarch". cheers, Webaware talk 01:46, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

What is a textbook?
I replied on Staff lounge/Project Chat but I thought I'd copy it here in case.

This is explained in detail in What is Wikibooks?. As long as your book isn't just reference material (I'm thinking of a Bescherelle), it sounds good to me. If you still have questions, don't hesitate to ask.  – Mike.lifeguard | talk 19:28, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mahagaja


text:
User:Opiaterein

commons | Wiktionary
 * ast
 * ca
 * en
 * fr
 * hu
 * lt
 * pt
 * ro
 * rup
 * sl
 * Wikipedia
 * en
 * es
 * ro
 * simple

Reading list

 * Modern Greek
 * Romanian/Table of Contents
 * Spanish/Contents
 * Portuguese/Contents
 * Dutch/Contents
 * Irish

title: User:Opiaterein


text: Category:Book:Astrodynamics

title: Category:Book:Astrodynamics


text:
BlitzMax

This book is meant to be a reference for the BASIC dialect BlitzMax, published by Blitz Research Ltd.

History
BlitzMax is a BASIC dialect, and the latest Blitz language by Blitz Research Limited. It is the first to run on multiple operating systems; it runs on Mac OS, Linux and Microsoft Windows. The language is converted to assembler, then assembled - allowing it to be somewhat platform agnostic. From a gaming standpoint this is possible because, unlike earlier versions, BlitzMax can use OpenGL for rendering.

Other major changes from earlier Blitz products are its object-oriented and modular nature.

Compilation
BlitzMax code is first converted to a low level assembler format, which is then assembled into object code for the target platform. BlitzMax is capable of compiling for Windows, Linux and Mac OS.

Individual files can be linked together through the Import command, thus allowing complex linking structures that can include not only other BlitzMax files (.BMX), but also C source as well as other languages (particularly ObjectiveC on Mac OS).

Modules
Modules provide the runtime functionality of BlitzMax. They are stored in the mod directory inside the BlitzMax directory, and accessed via the Import and Framework commands. They can include both native BlitzMax code, and code in C or assembler formats.

title: BlitzMax


text:
BlitzMax/Modules/Data structures/Linked lists

A linked list allows you to efficiently add and remove objects to and from a collection of objects.

To create a linked list, use the CreateList function.

Add objects to a linked list using ListAddFirst or ListAddLast. Both functions return a link object which can be used to later remove the object with the RemoveLink function. You can also remove objects with the ListRemove function. However this is not as efficient as using RemoveLink because the list must first be searched for the object to be removed.

To visit all the objects in a linked list, you can use an EachIn loop.

=Lists versus Arrays= It is important to keep in mind that index-based access in a linked list is relatively slow. For each item that you wish to index, the linked list must iterate through its internal links until it finds the requested index, whereas an array can directly access any value at any position.

"So why use linked lists at all?" you might ask. Inserting a value into the middle of an array is an "expensive" operation, you must move all items after the insert position down in the array by one, then insert the new value in the space created. In a linked list, you must simply redirect the pointers between links and you have instantly inserted a value in the middle of the list.

It is generally best to use a linked list when you need to make many changes to data and an array when you need to frequently access data at random. If you need to make many insertions and deletions to an array you can convert it to a list with ListFromArray and then convert the edited list back to an array with ListToArray.

=Types=

TLink
Link Object used by TList

 * Value
 * NextLink
 * PrevLink
 * Remove

TLink: Methods
Method Value:Object

Description: Returns the Object associated with this Link.

Example: ' value.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local link:TLink = list.FindLink("Item 2")

Print String(link.Value)

Method NextLink:TLink

Description: Returns the next link in the List.

Example: ' nextlink.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local link:TLink = list.FindLink("Item 2")

Print String(link.NextLink.Value)

Method PrevLink:TLink

Description: Returns the previous link in the List.

Example: ' prevlink.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local link:TLink = list.FindLink("Item 2")

Print String(link.PrevLink.Value)

Method Remove

Description: Removes the link from the List.

TListEnum
Enumerator Object use by TList in order to implement Eachin support.

TList
Linked List

 * Clear
 * IsEmpty
 * Contains
 * AddFirst
 * AddLast
 * First
 * Last
 * RemoveFirst
 * RemoveLast
 * FirstLink
 * LastLink
 * InsertBeforeLink
 * InsertAfterLink
 * FindLink
 * ValueAtIndex
 * Count
 * Remove
 * Swap
 * Copy
 * Reverse
 * Reversed
 * Sort
 * ToArray

 * FromArray

TList: Methods
Method Clear

Description: Clear a linked list

Information: Removes all objects from list.

Method IsEmpty

Description: Check if list is empty

Returns: True if list is empty, else false

Method Contains( value:Object )

Description: Check if list contains a value

Returns: True if list contains value, else false

Method AddFirst:TLink( value:Object )

Description: Add an object to the start of the list

Returns: A link object

Method AddLast:TLink( value:Object )

Description: Add an object to the end of the list

Returns: A link object

Method First:Object

Description: Returns the first object in the list

Information: Returns Null if the list is empty.

Example: ' first.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Print String(list.First)

Method Last:Object

Description: Returns the last object in the list

Information: Returns Null if the list is empty.

Example: ' last.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Print String(list.Last)

Method RemoveFirst:Object

Description: Removes and returns the first object in the list.

Information: Returns Null if the list is empty.

Example: ' removefirst.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

list.RemoveFirst

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

Method RemoveLast:Object

Description: Removes and returns the last object in the list.

Information: Returns Null if the list is empty.

Example: ' removelast.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

list.RemoveLast

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

Method FirstLink:TLink

Description: Returns the first link the list or null if the list is empty.

Example: ' firstlink.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local link:TLink = list.FirstLink

Print String(link.Value)

Method LastLink:TLink

Description: Returns the last link the list or null if the list is empty.

Example: ' lastlink.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local link:TLink = list.LastLink

Print String(link.Value)

Method InsertBeforeLink:TLink( value:Object,succ:TLink )

Description: Inserts an object before the specified list link.

Comment: This method does not check if the given link is Null (can cause compiler errors).

Method InsertAfterLink:TLink( value:Object,pred:TLink )

Description: Inserts an object after the specified list link.

Comment: This method does not check if the given link is Null (can cause compiler errors).

Example: ' insertafterlink.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3") list.AddLast("Item 4")

list.Remove("Item 3") Local link:TLink = list.FindLink("Item 2") If link <> Null Then list.InsertAfterLink("New Item 3!", link)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

Method FindLink:TLink( value:Object )

Description: Returns the first link in the list with the given value, or null if none found.

Method ValueAtIndex:Object( index )

Description: Returns the value of the link at the given index.

Information: Throws an exception if the index is out of range (must be 0..list.Count-1 inclusive).

Example: ' valueatindex.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Print String(list.ValueAtIndex(1))

Method Count

Description: Count list length

Returns: The numbers of objects in list.

Method Remove( value:Object )

Description: Remove an object from a linked list

Information: Remove scans a list for the specified value and removes its link.

Method Swap( list:TList )

Description: Swap contents with the list specified.

Method Copy:TList

Description: Creates an identical copy of the list.

Example: ' copy.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local clone:TList = list.Copy

Local item:Object For item = EachIn clone Print String(item) Next

Method Reverse

Description: Reverse the order of the list.

Method Reversed:TList

Description: Creates a new list that is the reversed version of this list.

Example: ' reversed.bmx

Local list:TList = New TList

list.AddLast("Item 1") list.AddLast("Item 2") list.AddLast("Item 3")

Local reversed:TList = list.Reversed

Local item:Object For item = EachIn reversed Print String(item) Next

Method Sort( ascending=True,compareFunc( o1:Object,o2:Object )=CompareObjects )

Description: Sort a list in either ascending (default) or descending order.

Information: User types should implement a Compare method in order to be sorted.

Method ToArray:Object[]

Description: convert a list to an array

Returns: An array of objects

TList: Functions
Function FromArray:TList( arr:Object[] )

Description: Create a list from an array

Returns: A new linked list

=Functions=

CreateList
Function CreateList:TList

Description: Create a linked list

Returns: A new linked list object

Example: ' createlist.bmx

' create a list to hold some objects

list:TList=CreateList

' add some string objects to the list

ListAddLast list,"one" ListAddLast list,"two" ListAddLast list,"three"

' enumerate all the strings in the list

For a$=EachIn list Print a$ Next

ClearList
Function ClearList( list:TList )

Description: Clear a linked list

Information: Removes all objects from list.

Example: ' clearlist.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddFirst(list, "Item 1") ListAddFirst(list, "Item 2")

ClearList(list)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

CountList
Function CountList( list:TList )

Description: Count list length

Returns: The numbers of objects in list.

Comment: Keep in mind that this function iterates through every object in the list which can be slow when calling it often or when list is big.

Example: ' countlist.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddFirst(list, "Item 1") ListAddFirst(list, "Item 2")

Print CountList(list)

ListIsEmpty
Function ListIsEmpty( list:TList )

Description: Check if list is empty

Returns: True if list is empty, else false

Example: ' listisempty.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

Print ListIsEmpty(list)

ListAddFirst(list, "Item 1")

Print ListIsEmpty(list)

ListContains
Function ListContains( list:TList,value:Object )

Description: Check if list contains a value

Returns: True if list contains value, else false

Example: ' listcontains.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2")

Print ListContains(list, "Item 2") Print ListContains(list, "Item 3")

SortList
Function SortList( list:TList,ascending=True,compareFunc( o1:Object,o2:Object )

Description: Sort a list

Comment: The optional ascending and compareFunc allow the default sorting method to be altered.

Example: ' sortlist.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 3") ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 4") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2")

SortList(list)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

ListFromArray
Function ListFromArray:TList( arr:Object[] )

Description: Create a list from an array

Returns: A new linked list

Example: ' listfromarray.bmx

Local array:String[] = ["Item 1", "Item 2", "Item 3"]

Local list:TList = ListFromArray(array)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

ListToArray
Function ListToArray:Object[]( list:TList )

Description: convert a list to an array

Returns: An array of objects

Example: ' listtoarray.bmx

Local array:Object[] Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2") ListAddLast(list, "Item 3")

array = ListToArray(list)

Local index:Int For index = 0 To array.Length - 1 Print String(array[index]) Next

SwapLists
Function SwapLists( list_x:TList,list_y:TList )

Description: Swap the contents of 2 lists

Example: ' swaplists.bmx

Local list:TList = ListFromArray(["Item 1", "Item 2", "Item 3"]) Local list2:TList = ListFromArray(["Item A", "Item B", "Item C"])

SwapLists(list, list2)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

For item = EachIn list2 Print String(item) Next

ReverseList
Function ReverseList( list:TList )

Description: Reverse the order of elements of a list

Example: ' reverselist.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2") ListAddLast(list, "Item 3")

ReverseList(list)

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

ListFindLink
Function ListFindLink:TLink( list:TList,value:Object )

Description: Find a link in a list

Returns: The link containting value

Comment: Returns Null if no value found.

ListAddLast
Function ListAddLast:TLink( list:TList,value:Object )

Description: Add an object to a linked list

Returns: A link object

Example: ' listaddlast.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2")

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

ListAddFirst
Function ListAddFirst:TLink( list:TList,value:Object )

Description: Add an object to a linked list

Returns: A link object

Example: ' listaddfirst.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddFirst(list, "Item 1") ListAddFirst(list, "Item 2")

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

ListRemove
Function ListRemove( list:TList,value:Object )

Description: Remove an object from a linked list

Information: ListRemove scans a list for the specified value and removes its link.

Comment: This only removes the first instance of the value.

Example: ' listremove.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2") ListAddLast(list, "Item 3") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2")

ListRemove(list, "Item 2") ' remove an object

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next

RemoveLink
Function RemoveLink( link:TLink )

Description: Remove an object from a linked list

Information: RemoveLink is more efficient than ListRemove.

Example: ' removelink.bmx

Local list:TList = CreateList

ListAddLast(list, "Item 1") ListAddLast(list, "Item 2") ListAddLast(list, "Item 3")

Local link:TLink = ListFindLink(list, "Item 2") ' find a link If link <> Null Then RemoveLink(link) ' remove it

Local item:Object For item = EachIn list Print String(item) Next


text:
Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Knowing/Action Research

Teachers constantly test and adapt their teaching methods to ensure the best learning environment for their students because teachers know that not all accepted methods work for all students. After all, most educational research is conducted not in an actual classroom but in a controlled environment, yielding results that only theoretically work in a classroom. Teachers who want to prove what methods work with their current group of students can conduct research in their own classroom, referred to as classroom action research.

Conducting Classroom Action Research
Classroom action research is most often conducted collaboratively, but can also be used by individual teachers to answer a pressing question about learning in their classroom. Classroom action research can focus on an individual student, a group of students, or two or more classes. Educators pose a question and look for the answer within their classroom or their team, gathering data as they teach; in other words, action research is research that actively takes place in the classroom. When performing action research, “…the researcher wants to try out a theory with practitioners in real life situations, gain feedback from this experience, modify the theory as a result of this feedback, and try it again” (Avison et al, 1999, p.95).

Analyzing Data
Analysis of data will usually combine both qualitative (e.g. classroom discussions or student surveys) and quantitative (e.g. test scores or student averages) measures. Classroom action research can be instituted for as little as one semester or can take place over the course of an entire school year. Because the researcher is also the teacher and not an outsider collecting data for publication, findings from data analysis can be used immediately to share with other professionals and to decide what course of action to take in the classroom regarding the issue studied. In this way, classroom action research provides teachers an outlet to share common concerns and solutions to real classroom problems and helps to eliminate isolation that is common among teachers. Furthermore, classroom action research offers the teacher-researcher insight into what teachers know about how and what their students are learning in their classrooms.

Supporting the Research
Many writers supporting classroom action research (e.g. Mettetal, 2002-2003; Johnson, 1993; Rinaldo, 2005) encourage teachers to participate in action research by equating the processes involved with action research to the behaviors of naturally gifted teachers because “…on a daily basis teachers design and implement a plan of action, observe and analyze outcomes, and modify plans to better meet the needs of students” (Anderson). Formally writing down these things essentially transforms good teachers' methods into research. Most research writers agree that successful research follows a set of clearly articulated steps that are easily manageable with other daily duties, even for the beginning teacher:

Overall, supporters for classroom action research want teachers to realize that teachers have the power to develop and implement best practices in their classrooms simply by turning their lessons or procedures into research and place importance on classroom action research as vital to educational reform. Supporters further argue that a teacher’s observations are more valuable than an outside researcher’s, given teachers’ real-life experience in the classroom, and subsequently hope in the future to see more teachers and schools involved in action research. (Mettetal, 2002-2003; Johnson, 1993; Rinaldo, 2005)

Questioning the Research
While supporters of classroom action research make some convincing arguments, those with doubts raise some interesting questions regarding the validity and ethics of classroom action research. Skeptics view the role of teacher-researcher as poorly defined in the absence of clearly stated guidelines for carrying out action research and argue for the creation of ethical and procedural standards specifically related to classroom action research. (Avison et al, 1999, pp.96-97; Bournot-Trites and Belanger, 2005, pp.197-215)

Standards and Ethical Policies
Most research standards and ethical policies are designed for medical experimentation and, therefore, do not readily apply to educational research. Bournot-Trites and Belanger argue that some modern day ethical principles designed for medical research are important to classroom action research. (2005, p.199) For instance, the Nuremberg Code, developed as a response to the inhumane practices of Nazi medical researchers and the basis for modern research ethics, dictates that a research subject must give voluntary consent upon being informed of the experimental procedures. However, classroom action research holds no standard for free and informed consent. Without free and informed consent from both students and parents, Bournot-Trites and Belanger worry that students’ rights, including ownership of intellectual property (i.e. written work) and entitlement to best possible instruction, could be overlooked. (2005, pp. 204-210)

Guidelines
Additionally, some researchers (Avison et al, 1999, pp.96-97; Bournot-Trites and Belanger, 2005, pp.197-215) believe that procedural guidelines must be established for classroom action research to be considered credible. The purpose of guidelines or standards for any documented undertaking is to quantify the quality of information being communicated. In other words, guidelines or standards allow us to judge the validity of one person’s research compared to another. In order “…for novice researchers and practitioners to understand and engage in action research studies in terms of design, process, presentation, and criteria for evaluation,” (Avison et al, 1999, p.96) guidelines must be developed. Moreover, these writers believe that with these necessary improvements action research could be a valuable tool that could improve education. (Avison et al, 1999, p.96)

Conclusion
In spite of their differences both supporters of action research and those doubtful of the current state of action research share the belief that classroom action research, when done properly, can make a difference in education. Teachers must weigh the benefits and consequences of conducting research in their classroom, not only the ethics and credibility of action research but also their ability as a professional to balance those two roles of researcher and educator. Although the practices of action research and a skilled teacher’s daily routine of observing, reflecting, and adapting material are similar, the ease with which a teacher can perform the additional task of consistently recording the data from these routine practices relies on solid time-management and multi-tasking skills. Poorly planned and executed classroom action research can jeopardize a student’s education, and teachers must remain cognizant of their duty to provide the best possible instruction for their students.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Technology/PowerPoint

If you want your class to stay awake, take note: the bar has been permanently raised with the new technologies in computer-based presentation design. Forget the overheads and slides. Attracted by the same slick interface and easy learning curve that drew the corporate types, educators and students are employing the presentation software in classrooms in ever-increasing numbers. For some teachers, the computerized slide-show format is deposing the black/whiteboard.

It’s especially good for the visual learner; but while it's relatively easy to learn the basics of the program, it's not always obvious to teachers how to turn a PowerPoint presentation into a useful learning experience.

Unfortunately, good software alone does not make for good presentation design. In fact, quite the opposite! As computer-based presentation design has become more the norm, classrooms are being overwhelmed with productions that seem to use every feature and font that the teacher (or student) can find. You may think your presentation is great and the class is with you as they politely nod their heads, smile, and take notes, but beware: the emperor believed that only a "fool" couldn't see his beautiful new clothes!

One of the criticisms that's been raised about PowerPoint is that it can give the illusion of coherence and content when there really isn't very much coherence or content. Jamie McKenzie, a former school superintendent and editor of the education website From Now On, uses the term "PowerPointlessness" to illustrate the drawbacks of the program.

Too many flying letters, animations and sound effects without seeing much original thought or analysis can be a real issue. In many cases, the medium shoves the message aside. Too many people forget that they are making a presentation first and that PowerPoint is just their assistant. Resist the temptation to make a PowerPoint presentation that uses sounds, colors, pictures, and actions that do nothing to get the message across and do everything to distract the students from the message that you are trying to deliver.

A quick Web search for PowerPoint lesson plans reveals a wealth of sites offering archives of presentations in subjects ranging from art to world history. Individual projects include such subjects as how to dissect a fish, perform the Heimlich maneuver or solve a long equation.

PowerPoint works well in the classroom in a number of ways.
 * Present information or instruction to an entire class.
 * Create graphically enhanced information and instructions for the learning centers.
 * Create tutorials, reviews, or quizzes for individual students.
 * Display student work and curriculum materials or accompany teacher presentations at parent open houses or technology fairs. You can set PowerPoint presentations to run automatically during such events, providing a slide show of classroom activities and events as parents tour your classroom or school.

PowerPoint and the Student
"It's a neat tool, but it should be thought of as a supplement rather than as a way of providing your basic research," said McKenzie, who believes the program is often overused in student projects. (McKenzie, 2000) Teachers shouldn't allow a slide presentation to take the place of writing assignments. Students should use technology and things like PowerPoint to summarize their points and put their thoughts in order, but they still must have the experience of actual writing.

Intent on producing students with strong reading, writing and thinking skills, teachers should be on the lookout for thin quality of the student work, with an emphasis upon flash and special effects rather than content and thought. We must focus on student outcomes worth achieving, upon value added rather than glitz, glimmer and gimmicks.

Linear vs. Non-Linear
PowerPoint can be a very effective and valuable tool, but it can also serve as a downfall in the classroom. There are two main differences in PowerPoint presentations: linear and non-linear. Linear is the most common type of PowerPoint used by educators today. The presentation is slide after slide that is watched by the student while the teacher lectures in the background. The other type is non-linear presentations. As defined by Guides and tutorials.com “they engage the user by allowing him/her to control how the presentation is viewed and in what order.” Students are able to move around the presentation in any order which enables them to refer back to previous pages or jump around to retrieve the slides as needed. Many teachers add hyper links to allow the student to retrieve vital relevant information that has been posted online. There are many advantages of using Power Points within the classroom when used appropriately.

Organizing Your Presentation

 * Engage and inform
 * Think concepts, not just facts and figures
 * The Joy of Six
 * Six points per slide maximum
 * Six words per point
 * Phrases, not sentences

Decide what the message of your presentation will be and be familiar enough with it so that you could talk about the subject even without the PowerPoint presentation. Suppose there was no projector or the bulb burned out. If you can’t carry on, it’s probably either because you weren’t familiar enough with your topic or your presentation was loaded with a lot of useless and uninteresting facts that would bore your students to death anyway. Presentations should flow like conversation, not be a never ending list of useless or uninteresting facts. You might as well stand up in front of your class and read your grocery list. As you talk to your class, your presentation should just highlight points. Those points should follow the Joy of Six Guidelines. To keep your slides uncluttered and more importantly, to make it more likely that your class will remember/write down things, try to limit your slides to six points per slide and no more than six words per point; and phrases are easier to read and remember than sentences. You’ll be speaking the sentences.

Consider Your Audience (Class or co-workers)

 * Give them what they are expecting
 * Give them what they need
 * Don’t insult them by reading
 * Involve them & ask questions
 * Use the B key where appropriate

Begin by asking a few questions to get an idea of the class expectations and experience. Then gear your presentation toward the bulk of the class, but make sure to give enough background to help those who need it, but not so much as to lose a large part of the class. For older students, one of the most deadly mistakes you can make is to read your presentation. The middle and high school students shouldn’t need you for that. And use the B key where appropriate in PowerPoint. What does the B key do? Very simply, it turns the screen black. There will be times in your lecture/presentation that you want the class to focus on you and forget the slides. Hit the B and the screen will turn Black. Hit it again and it will come Back.

Color & Layout

 * One background color
 * Use contrasting but complementary colors
 * Stay consistent with fonts and colors
 * Don’t clutter
 * Balance your slides

There are some simple design considerations that you should follow. You do want to use contrasting colors that work well together. Your words will be sending one message and your color choice another. Pick a background and stick with it. Constant changes cause your students to pay attention to the changes not the message. The same thing is true of your fonts, their color and size. Keep them consistent. If you change them, people will be watching to see what font you come up with next instead of listening to your message. Keep your slide balanced and remember the Joy of Six.

Multimedia

 * Use graphics to enhance or emphasize
 * Sound effects should be appropriate
 * Sound clips should be short
 * Avoid constant movement

Once again, when it comes to multimedia, anything you use should enhance or emphasize your message. Using cute pictures, video, or sounds without thinking about how they will help you get your message across may result in your students remembering the cute picture, but forgetting what you were trying to say. People like to use animations, because they are fun to watch. However, do you really want your students watching animations on your slide or listening to what you are saying?

As The Old Saying Goes, Practice Makes Perfect

 * Script the lecture
 * Use the notes area and print them out
 * Practice paraphrasing
 * Watch for like, ahh, umm, ya know
 * Be aware of time

A great slide presentation without a well-prepared lecture is like a great recipe in the hands of a poor cook. The final product may be edible, but it’s not going to be a meal you will remember or want to have again. We all have speech habits that we don’t notice, but our students will pick up on quickly. If you are in the habit of pausing and saying things such as ahh or umm, or worse yet, ya know, people will begin to focus on that instead of your words.

Benefits
The comparative politics courses of the university of North Carolina did a study of PowerPoint usage in the classroom. They found that is was more of a benefit then a hindrance. Surveys administered to gauge student reaction to the PowerPoint presentation show that students perceive increased retention, grasp of material, organization, and enjoyment. PowerPoint also has a low learning curve, allowing busy instructors to integrate the software in their teaching without extensive retraining.

Avoid PowerPoint Poisoning

 * Prepare the presentation before PowerPoint
 * Know and consider your audience
 * Think of PowerPoint as your assistant
 * Deliver your material in an interesting way
 * Be prepared

So to wrap it up, you should prepare your lecture before firing up your software. Have enough information available so that you can provide your class with what it needs. Choose your design and layout so that it is consistent and doesn’t take away from your message. Remember that the technology is your assistant and should help you, not take over the show. Tell a story, involve the students, use humor, be engaging, but stay on track with your lecture. Talk WITH your students not AT them. Be well prepared when you make your presentation.

Conclusion
Remember, as a teacher, to focus on teaching, learning and thinking. Remember the equipment/software is nothing much more than a set of new tools to support questioning, exploring and creating. It’s all about showing students how to make sense of their worlds, preparing them to think and read deeply and well. Our purpose should be literacy — not illiteracy or e-literacy.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Theory

The state of American public education today can often be viewed as outdated and ineffective. As the world around us continues to evolve and advance, our education system also needs to advance. While innovation has become decentralized from the United States, fantastic marvels in technology, transportation, energy, and other fields continue to emerge. Why then are we not seeing such strides and innovation in our education system? More importantly, what does a lackluster system for educating our youth mean for the security of all Americans?

Many of these questions and more are answered with the insight of Dr. Dwight Allen and Dr. William H. Cosby, Jr. In their co-authored book, “American Schools: The 100 Billion Dollar Challenge”, they tackle the problems of an outdated education system and propose reforms necessary to bring innovation into our classroom. Together they have produced a plan for our government to invest $100 billion a year to begin a “bold, unprecedented journey to redefine education, its structures, its goals, and its staff.” (Allen/Cosby, 10)

National Commitment
Dr. Allen and Dr. Cosby’s theory of change begins with national commitment. If we are to safeguard our security, Americans must be willing to focus our efforts on a strong foundation in education. Our country has had the drive to invest enormous amounts of resources into science and technology because they are worthwhile investments that typically pay for themselves. (Brody) The American education system needs the type of funding and support from the federal government that is given to other programs, projects, and security costs. We must recognize that national security does not simply include the collaboration of intelligence, communication, and the military. Our other vital source of national security is America’s youth, who turn knowledge into innovation, innovation into productivity, and productivity into economic growth and prosperity. (Brody) The first step to making innovative changes in education is to rekindle the American drive and commitment we had in order to put a man on the moon and focus those efforts into educational research and leadership. (Allen/Cosby, 15)

NESA
At the forefront of change, Allen and Cosby have proposed the establishment of the National Experimental School Administration (NESA). The administration would consist of a network of experimental schools that allow for research. These schools are established voluntarily by local school systems and will become a large-scale laboratory for new ideas. A laboratory on the scale of an entire school would allow for more control in a research setting and as a result produce more credible innovations. An idea that becomes successful in an experimental school can then be adopted by regular public schools. (Allen/Cosby, 114-117) These schools, serving as large research centers, would also foster new talent and leadership in education.

Leadership
“One of the biggest problems in American education today is ‘safe’ leadership.” (Allen/Cosby, 7) Allen and Cosby refer to a lackluster pool of teachers who still support outdated methods because they are “safe”. In order to harvest the innovation our education system needs, we require not only more educational leaders but effective ones that are willing to move beyond the “safe”. These educational entrepreneurs will help to break established outdated ideas and practices. (Hess) Through national support, NESA research, and our very own innovative leaders, we can begin to redefine education in America.

Example Areas of Suggested Reform
Allen and Cosby point out many areas in which we need educational changes, including the following:

 * Produce More Prepared Teachers – This begins with the way in which we train and educate our new teachers. Often you hear about the poor quality of teachers in a school or the high rate at which teachers are leaving the profession.  Allen and Cosby suggest that the year or less of classroom practice attached to a liberal arts degree is simply not enough.  Among their ideas, teachers could join the ranks of other professions such as medical doctors, who spend extra time in residency practicing before becoming licensed.  Teachers could then ease their way into the classroom over time with increasing responsibility. (Allen/Cosby, 86-87) Potential programs within NESA would provide for an ideal training ground for new teachers.
 * Increase Classroom Resources and Technology – Effective use of technology has the ability to transform boring lesson plans into an interactive, engaging new discovery of information for children. As our society becomes more electronic and technology driven, many schools and children are left behind in a new information age. (O’Conner)  If America has the courage to commit to the $100 billion challenge, half of the funding will be allocated towards spending for technology purposes. (Allen/Cosby, 111-112)
 * Continuous Professional Training – With society growing and changing at such a rapid pace, it is imperative that teachers too continue to develop and change. This involves continuous training and education beyond the one day workshops.  Allen and Cosby suggest that teachers should be in lifelong training.  This involves continuously updating plans, procedures, and knowledge of technology. A veteran teacher of 29 years, Kathleen Baker says, “She feels like she's just getting a handle on the job.” (Blanchard)  Experimental schools could help provide programs that would work to help keep teachers as learners. (Allen/Cosby, 108)

Conclusion
Allen and Cosby’s theory of change involves recognizing that society is not only changing, but changing at ever increasing rates. We have not reached a point where we can sit back and feel satisfied that we are doing our best. In fact, we will never reach that point because change is always going to be necessary. However, many changes are going to require a large amount of resources and work to bring us “back up to speed.” Some of these resources can only be supplied by the federal government, and thus Allen and Cosby have made a proposal for $100 billion to serve as the backbone for change. Other resources can only be supplied by the innovation produced from human ingenuity and hard work. NESA and the development of educational entrepreneurs can help provide a network of resources for research and training.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Special Needs/Deaf

Over the past twenty years, there have been many laws that have led to changes in the mainstream classrooms of our public schools. With these changes, we have seen many cultural integrations taking place. One such integration is that we now see more and more deaf students in the mainstream classroom. A group that was once clustered in their own “world” at separate schools has now begun to make an impact on both the students and teachers in the mainstream schools. This has created new challenges for all involved. Teachers and students both are faced with the impact of the changing climate of the classroom. Some of these impacts will affect the language, learning process and communication. The mainstream classroom must be able to integrate changes needed for all students to be successful. In order for that to take place, it is important to understand the impact of deaf students on the mainstream classroom.

"Enrollment of deaf students (or other students with special needs) in local public schools is alternately known as mainstreaming or inclusion. Mainstreaming often involves deaf children attending special, 'segregated' classes in addition to classes that include hearing peers. It also frequently includes the availability of a resource room and specially trained teachers or aides. Inclusion, in contrast, entails deaf students receiving all instruction and support services within their regular classroom" (Marschark).

It is important to be able to distinguish the two as to know what setting is being discussed. For purposes of this article the focus will be on mainstream setting regardless of which term is used.

Language Issues with Deaf Mainstreamed Students
When a teacher sees an interpreter walk into the classroom, the main assumption might be that the interpreter is a qualified and skilled sign language interpreter and that the deaf students that utilize the interpreter will be given equal access to the classroom communication with no language issues present. But among deaf educators, there is notice that educational interpreting does not meet the language needs of the deaf students. This is especially true the higher the education level that is examined. Nationally, there is a need for qualified interpreters, and due to the shortage of such professionals, many deaf students struggle both academically and with communication (Marschark).

Many deaf students do depend on an interpreter to provide their communication. A teacher has to wonder if this "secondhand" information is as reliable as when it was first given. An interpreter must first listen for the information given, process it, and then sign it. In this process, there is not a straight "English to English" interpretation. Instead there is an "English to American Sign Language (ASL)" interpretation process occurring. "Like the words of other languages, ASL signs express meanings, not English words. A single ASL sign can express an entire sentence that requires three words or more in English." (Perlmutter).

Not only because of a shortage of qualified interpreters but also because of the sheer complexity of the process, many interpreters may indeed fall short of the need of both the deaf student and teacher. Even a qualified interpreter will begin to lose accuracy during longer exchanges of information. An interpreter must also understand the information being presented themselves in order to effectively interpret. This is true especially in cases of higher education where an interpreter may not be as proficient in certain academic areas for which he or she is responsible as the primary communicator. How does this impact instruction for all in the classroom? If the instructor is not made aware of the situation by either the student or interpreter, it may just cause the deaf student to perform poorly. The teacher may mistakenly attribute the poor performance to having a hearing loss. On the other hand, if the teacher is made aware, there may be other methods used. The teacher may need to slow down the exchange of information to all students or the teacher may have to “segment” information so that the deaf students have the same access as the hearing students. This can pose difficulties with respect to time restraints that are often present in mainstream classrooms. Also, other students may not understand why the teacher is changing the structure of the teachings. There has to be a way to delicately balance the new mainstream classroom so that very little disruption is felt by all students.

Language is something that long ago seemed like such a barrier. As our country has diversified in its population, we see that it is a gap that is much easier to bridge than previously thought as more and more people enter our country that may not yet have command of the English language. Yet, they are still able to thrive and communicate effectively. This is also the case with deaf students. If the student has the necessary qualified interpreter relaying the information presented, and the two of them work closely with the teacher, language will be less of a barrier. There will need to be changes made from all parties, but the outcome of a good, equal education is well worth the effort.

Deaf Students and the Learning Process
"Active Learning has long been considered a proven method in improving attention, motivation and retention of concepts taught in class. This is especially true for Deaf students and students with limited language proficiency because it facilitates the development of conceptual knowledge and acquisition of language through engaging in an activity. Engaging the students in the learning process during classroom instruction also enables the teacher to monitor student achievement and helps to keep the students focused and on task" (Burik).

A major problem for general educators, it is often to involve deaf students in the actual learning process. Many times, if a teacher has asked a question, the hearing students are prepared to answer the question even before the interpreter has relayed it to the deaf student. How do we bridge this time gap? If the teacher is unaware that this is a problem, they may just think that the deaf student is not engaged in the activity. How can this problem be solved? Teachers could tell all students to wait a minute before raising hands to respond. This would allow the deaf student to receive the message, internalize it, and be able to have an equal chance at responding to the question. Another method could be to give all students dry erase boards to write down their answers on with a pause before all students show their answers to the teacher. Another method could be to put the assignment on the web for students to answer there to submit. There are several alternate methods that can be used.

Many times in the learning process, hearing students give wrong answers. The deaf student may be unaware of this for a few reasons. One may be that the interpreter has so much “correct” information to interpret they do not have time to include misinformation. Another reason that is closely related is that the interpreter may not want to include the wrong answers as to avoid confusion for the deaf student. Imagine the process of relaying correct information, interjecting wrong answers, and then trying to explain what was just signed was not correct information. Now imagine that as this is happening, conversation is continuing that is expected to be interpreted as well. Interpreters have to make decisions in situations like these of what is important and what can be reasonably omitted (remember it would all be signed if time allowed). With the deaf student unaware that it is all right to give a wrong answer, they may feel less inclined to be a part of the learning process in fear that they may not give the correct answer and feel less than adequate. The interpreter, teacher, and student should come up with a system to let the deaf student know when others are not correct, hopefully the deaf student will then be more inclined to participate when they are unsure of their answers. With preparation, the process will be much easier.

It takes time for the interpretation process. Many times deaf students are unable to be part of the learning process due to lack of time or just bad timing. Other times, the deaf student may be afraid of having the wrong answer so they do not participate. By making a few changes, all members of the classroom can be actively involved in the learning process.

Communication Issues with Deaf Students
"One way of viewing the communication experiences that deaf students face in the mainstream setting is in terms of their own perceptions about their ease or difficulty in communicating" (Stinson). “These perceptions deal with communication with hearing peers, with instructors, and also with deaf peers” (Stinson).

Communication is crucial for success in the mainstream classroom. It is very important for the deaf students to be able to communicate effectively with the teacher. Sometimes, the deaf student is unclear when an appropriate time would be to ask a question because the interpreter does not give these cues to the deaf student. Many times when the communication is about to take place, the teacher is unsure of procedure. The teacher may wonder if it is more appropriate to look at the student or the interpreter. The deaf student may wonder if the interpreter is clearly conveying their message to the teacher. All parties involved may be wondering if anything is getting “lost” in translation. It is important for the deaf student to let the teacher know they look at them and not the interpreter. The teacher should also be made aware that even though the deaf person will want to keep eye contact, they will need to look away to receive the signed message from the interpreter. Also, the deaf student may watch the mouth of the interpreter as to make sure the interpreter indeed understands the communication from the deaf person.

Communication between the deaf and hearing students may be equally frustrating. If the students are asked to work in groups to share ideas, will the interpreter be able to keep up with everyone interjecting opinions and ideas at the same time? What communication will the deaf person "miss"? Will the deaf person have time to interject at appropriate times with the delay in the exchange of information? A plan should be implemented ahead of time. The group with the deaf student can have a more structured sharing of ideas, taking turns in order to be understood by all. The group can also implement a "reflective" moment so that if the deaf person wants to comment they will have the time needed.

With little time to "prep" the hearing students for this situation, the deaf student, interpreter, and teacher should come up with a strategy ahead of time in order to avoid as many communication issues as possible. Planning is the key to successful communication.

Conclusion
With the ever-changing climate of the mainstream classroom, it is important to expect change. The inclusion of deaf students is no exception. All parties must work hard and understand there will be language issues that need to be handled, that the deaf students must be included in the learning process, and that communication issues are expected.

"Mainstreamed adults were usually 'alone' in their school and did not have others who shared their stories. Describing educational experiences to family members, colleagues, or spouses either do not occur or perhaps, fall on ears that cannot fathom the experience of education in isolation" (http://deafness.about.com/od/historicprogress/fr/alonemainstream.htm).

Essay Question
In your opinion, with all of the accommodations needed, do you think deaf students should be in the mainstream classroom? Why or why not?


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Acknowledgment/Multiple Perspectives

Webster’s New World Dictionary defines perspective as being “a specific point of view in understanding or judging things or events.” Synonyms for perspective include perception, viewpoint, standpoint, point of view, and outlook.

What does perspective have to do with effective teaching? Without consideration of the various perspectives students may have, a teacher will be greatly disadvantaged. It’s important to understand a student’s perspective, or the way they learn, in order to most effectively teach them and empower them to learn on their own.

This article will examine learning styles and why it’s important to recognize differences among students. There are numerous learning style theories; this paper will focus on two of the most well known.

What are Learning Styles?
In basic terminology, learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning. It is not what a person learns, but how a person learns. Learning style can be described as the different ways in which children and adults think and learn. Everyone has a preferred and consistent set of approaches to learning. (Ron)

Why Are Learning Styles Important?
Each child's brain processes information differently, resulting in different ways of learning and acquiring knowledge. A teacher must be aware of the various perspectives, or learning styles, their students have in order to develop effective teaching strategies and lesson plans. No matter which learning style theory a teacher follows, the important thing is to recognize that there are differences among children and that one teaching method may not successfully reach all students. Teachers must employ a variety of strategies to ensure that all student perspectives are accommodated for. As Judith Reiff, explains “An understanding about individual differences and learning styles will provide teachers with the theory and knowledge upon which to base decisions. If teachers can determine why a student responds in a certain way, then they can make more intelligent decisions.” Teachers can not be expected to have a different lesson plan for every child’s preferred learning style. However, their lessons can reflect an understanding of individual differences by incorporating a variety of styles.

In addition, teachers can talk to students about their preferred learning methods and encourage them to be aware of the different learning styles that their classmates may have. This can help students understand how they learn and also make them aware of the teacher’s different instructional methods, some of which may be geared more to other students than to them, and vice versa.

However, a student’s awareness of their preferred learning style shouldn’t keep them from working to acquire those styles which they do not yet possess. Students can often develop the ability to adapt to other learning styles. Although there are characteristics of learning style that are quite stable in students across different learning tasks and contexts, there can still be variation in the same learner. (Smith,Dalton)

Dunn & Dunn Theory
The Dunn and Dunn Model, developed by Dr. Rita Dunn in 1967, has a great deal of history and research behind it. According to Dunn, learning style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, absorb and retain new and difficult information or skills.

The Dunn model identifies three learning styles:

Auditory learners prefer to use their voices and ears to learn. They remember what they hear and what they themselves say aloud. They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say. They seem to thrive on working and talking with others. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.

Visual learners prefer to process information by seeing it. They like to receive information from pictures, graphs and visual media. These learners frequently close their eyes to reassemble a picture of what they are trying to remember. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

Tactile/Kinesthetic learners want to be as active as they can. They tend to learn better when they have the opportunity to touch or manipulate in some way. Role play, field trips, and movement activities can accommodate kinesthetic learners. These students may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. (Wallace)

Gardner Multiple Intelligence Theory
Howard Gardner identified seven distinct intelligences. According to Gardner, his theory "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways." He argues that "students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means." (Lane)

Gardner's seven learning styles:

Bodily-Kinesthetic learners like physical movement, making things and touching. They learn well when involved in physical activity, hands-on learning and in forms of expression like dance, mime, drama, or role playing.

Interpersonal learners engage in verbal and nonverbal communication with others. They learn best when working cooperatively in groups, reacting to others' moods and feelings, and understanding the perspective of others.

Intrapersonal learners focus on situations that require them to reflect upon themselves. They like higher-order thinking and reasoning, self-reflection, spirituality, and the awareness and expression of feelings. They learn best through independent study and introspection.

Linguistic learners relate to language in both its written and spoken form. They have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They learn best through poetry, reading, playing word games, storytelling, abstract reasoning, metaphors, similes, etc.

Logical-mathematical learners focus on different types of reasoning, calculating and logic. They think conceptually and like to make observations, draw conclusions, make judgments, formulate hypotheses and experiment.

Musical learners have the capacity to recognize rhythm and tone patterns, and have sensitivity to sounds from the human voice and musical instruments. They like to interact with music and can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics or tapping out a tune.

Visual-Spatial learners think in terms of physical space and like to deal with visualization and imagery. They learn well through painting, drawing, sculpture, designs, doing puzzles, and text with charts and graphs.

Myers-Briggs Theory
The Myers-Briggs Theory has evolved from the work of Carl Jung in the 1940s. It tests 4 areas and puts you into one of two categories. At the end of the test you are given a letter acronym that describes your learning style. This description can help you to understand yourself and how you learn best. Knowing about the different learning styles will help you to effectively teach students with differing learning styles from your own.
 * Extroversion versus Introversion: Extraverted people tend to have high energy and cherish interaction. They like to be involved with many types of relationships and are always building new ones.  Introverted people are the interactors.  They rarely start the interaction and are generally "on-the-fly thinkers." (Brightman)
 * Sensing versus Intuition: Sensing people are usually detail oriented and very trustworthy. They want the basic facts needed to accomplish a task.  Intuitive people usually work within patterns and relationships.  They like to look at the "big picture" (Brightman).
 * Thinking versus Feeling: Thinkers tend to value fairness and make decisions impersonally based on facts. Feelers value harmony and focus their lives of human values (Brightman).
 * Judging versus Perceptive: Judging people are decisive and take action quickly. They are focused on completing the task at hand.  They "plan their work and work their plan."  Perceptive people are curious and adaptable.  They are spontaneous and believe that "deadlines are meant to be stretched" (Brightman).

Putting Learning Style Theory to Work in the Classroom
When developing lesson plans and teaching strategies, teachers must keep in mind the varying learning styles of their students and how they can best incorporate methods that appeal to all students. Since each student may have several different learning styles that work best for them, it’s important to provide a variety of activities. In that way, teachers can help to develop other learning styles in their students.

Learning styles can be used both to teach and reinforce concepts. Teachers can use one approach to teach a concept, and then use a different approach to reinforce it. For example, teachers might use a linguistic approach, such as a story, to teach the idea of an animal community, and then have students draw a picture that reflects that concept in art.

Research shows that the highest achieving students tend to be the ones who learn most easily by listening or by reading, thus they are typically auditory or visual. (Wallace) In addition, research shows that many students who are not doing well in school are tactile or kinesthetic learners. Hard to reach and hard to teach students are more successful when taught with different teaching strategies representing the differing learning styles. (Reiff)

Conclusion
A basic understanding of learning styles is important for all teachers to enable them to tailor lesson plans, teaching strategies and methods to meet the needs of all students. Teachers can experiment with various strategies to determine which best meets the learning style needs of students.

However, it’s important to keep in mind that students should not be labeled according to their learning style since this can change, and the student can adapt to different styles simply by being exposed to them. If teachers allow students to develop their preferences and style by exposing them to different styles, they will be able to engage in a wider set of learning experiences. (Smith,Dalton)

There are probably as many ways to "teach" as there are to learn. Perhaps the most important thing is to be aware that people do not all see the world in the same way. (Ron) The challenge for teachers is to provide for all types of learning style in a balanced way during class. By doing this, teachers can help improve the learning outcomes of all students.

Multiple Choice Questions
Click to reveal the answer.

Essay Question
Click to reveal sample responses.


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction

Table of Contents

 * /Foreword/
 * /Note to Contributors/
 * /Web 2.0/
 * Curriculum, Textbook, and Pedagogy: What should students learn today?  Content and format of the textbook?  Instruction models that address digital natives' learning styles?
 * /Social Software/
 * /The Teacher as Learner and the Learner as Teacher/
 * /Wikis in the Classroom/
 * /Reform Proposals/
 * /Isolation/
 * /Searchology/
 * /Accountability/
 * Curriculum adaptation, student creativity and assessment realignment: What knowledge and skills should be assessed?  How to conduct assessment with technology integration?
 * /Credibility/
 * /Curriculum and instruction reform: Making America competitive in a "flat" world/
 * /Final Assignment Links/
 * /Other Issues Worth Investigating/


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Foreword

During the summer of 2007, this book will be written and edited by graduate students attending a course at Old Dominion University. Thanks for your contributions.


text:
Talk:TI-Basic 84 Programming

Are Draw Instructions Part of the Programming Language?
Firstly, it seems that Draw Instructions are a separate entity from TI-BASIC. They are given a different section in the official TI-83 manual (not sure about other manuals), and are accessed through a different menu. In addition, the draw instructions are not defined in full, only the ClrDraw instructions. The others should be at lest given a mention, and possibly even explained in full. Redsoxcool (talk) 22:03, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

New Info
This section will stay, but the material will come and go.

Moved conventions to TI-Basic Programming/Authors/Conventions.

TI-Basic Programming will be the bridge between the two versions, containing information on both books, but not including it. This discussion will stay, only because it's so much easier to communicate. In addition, perhaps we will add other pages to TI-Basic Programming, but for now, I don't know.

Syntaxs/Outputs/Examples all use TIB instead of bcode now! see the Conventions Page to see how!. --Jimmyatic 23:16, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Geared towards older versions?
It appears that this book is geared towards older versions of TI-BASIC (namely, the 83/83+ genre). I was wondering how I should go about adding in stuff about later versions (I'm quite adept at the 89), so should I create separate modules for already existing content, make separate sections in existing modules, or something else? If you could get back to me on this somewhat quickly, I'd appreciate it so I can start writing ^_^ --Skizzerz 23:40, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Older versions, not necessarily (seeing how the TI-84 Plus isn't really that old), and I also believe that the TI-Basic for the TI-83 plus/TI-84 are the most common (though I only base this on experience). However, I really do believe that TI-Basic 89 would be very beneficial to Wikibooks, even though I am a TI-Basic 84 programmer.  We could do either what you said, TI-Basic 83 Programming & TI-Basic 89 Programming or, to combine it into one book of TI-Basic, then like you said sub-modules for both 83 and 89.  I think the first option would be the easiest.

 * In addition, since they are both TI-Basic, perhaps they should have the same basic layout/syntaxes. If you think they should as well, perhaps we can work out some basics on this discussion.  As for making new pages, if you agree with me on the first option, go ahead and start making TI-Basic 89 Programming and such pages.  When I get back to making major changes to TI-Basic Programming, I’ll make the changes to make it a standard page describing TI-Basic & Provide links to TI-Basic 84 Programming and TI-Basic 89 Programming.

 * Sorry for the length. If you don't agree, merely respond on what you don't and I should reply faster now that I know people are actually active here once again.  Hope this helps!
 * --Jimmyatic 20:37, 8 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Cool, I'll get to work on that then :) --Skizzerz talk - contribs 01:33, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Should we talk format/organization? I think it would be a good idea to stick to a similar format. --Jimmyatic 15:59, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

Format
The current format is basically introduce the command under the catagory (ie prompt is the command under the input page), give the keys to press to reach the command (see input page for example), explain the command, give the syntax, then give examples and output if needed. Like I said, for examples see the input/output pages. This is the format thus far established, but no one has opposed me yet. Thoughts on the subject?

Links
Links to subpages are currently using the template TI-Basic/CLink (Chapter links). the syntax is {dogs who wants

Bolded New Words
So far, everyone has stuck to the if it's a variable then it's in italics, and the if it's optional it's in square brackets, and that's good. What does everyone think of bolding the new functions/commands in the examples for the new functions/commands. As an example, the ifs in the examples for if would be bolded. Thoughts?--Jimmyatic 22:24, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Navigation
I went ahead and finished the template TIB. Now just add and it will automattically add  Put the navigation you want to show up at TI-Basic 89 Programming/Navigation Include, or just click the edit me link. So just put that at the top of each page, or where you think it would be best. As for the title of the navigation, I don't know if we need anything else other than Table of Contents, but if you think of something else, feel free... Should make our lives easier now...I'm gone for the weekend --Jimmyatic 21:59, 12 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Table of Contents should be fine, but there cannot be headings on the Navigation Include sub-page. It screws up the section numbering of the page it gets included in, so use Section name  instead. Other than that, it looks good. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:23, 13 October 2007 (UTC)
 * There's nothing I can do about that - it's automattically done in the navigation template - I'll see if I can find a way around that!--Jimmyatic 01:07, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Now the question is where on each page to put it...Where does it look best? Bottom, top? --Jimmyatic 01:19, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I'm thinking bottom would be best, because you'd want to be able to jump elsewhere after you finish reading the current page. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:41, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

Functions vs Commands
Would If be considered a function or a command. I automatically assumed command, but is it a function. And if and if is a function, then everything is a function isn't it? I only ask because I've been using command for Disp and Text, practically everything, but would function be better? I considered functions to be like sin, cos, abs, and such. What about the rest of you? --Jimmyatic 01:35, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * I consider a function something requiring parenthesis (and any passed parameters inside said parenthesis), like cos(#), and a command being something that doesn't, just needing a space to separate any passed parameters, like If test. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:40, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * But then what about Text and Disp, they both output things to the screen, but one just doesn't require parentheses. That's where the line goes blurry because I consider both commands, though by the previous definition, Text would be a function...--Jimmyatic 22:11, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Not owning an 83/84 (yet - need to get one soon because my 89 is disallowed on the ACT >_<), I have no idea what Text does on it. Could you enlighten me? (By the way, I'm leaning towards function, but I don't know exactly WHAT it does. If it just output to the screen like Disp, then there really would be no point to it). --Skizzerz talk - contribs 13:45, 19 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Text outputs to the graphing screen (smaller text, can have graphs showing) instead of the homescreen. My argument is what is the true difference between a command and a function, Disp displays different things and it takes arguments, but why isn't it a function.  Parenthesis alone can't decide it.  Your output takes arguments (the same as Ti84) but yours doesn't have Parenthesis.  But they do the same thing (I think).  Mine shouldn't be a function just because it has.
 * Yeah, output is only slightly different on the 89, in the fact that it puts it on the I/O screen (which the 84 and such don't have) and that it's passed parameters are in pixels, not characters. I do agree that it is more of a command than a function. Therefore, I'm proposing we take the "easy" way out:
 * A Command is something that you are telling the calculator to do, such as Disp and Text.
 * A Function is something that modifies the parameters passed into it in some way, such as cos and string (pretty much anything that can be represented in function-notation, even if it can't really be graphed as a function, e.g. string(x)="x").
 * How's that as a decent distinguishing point between the two? --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:15, 21 October 2007 (UTC)
 * even further: A function returns a value? I think that works for the most part... --Jimmyatic 20:10, 24 October 2007 (UTC)
 * even further: A function returns a value based off the parameters passed into it in some way/shape/form (that way things like getMode for the 89, which returns a list of what all the modes are set to, would be classified as a command and not a function). --Skizzerz talk - contribs 22:43, 24 October 2007 (UTC)
 * but would that be a command -- is it really something you're telling the calculator to do?(using the previous definition of telling the calc....)?--Jimmyatic 01:07, 30 October 2007 (UTC)

I'd consider it telling the calc something to do, since you're telling it to fetch the mode settings and display them to you in list format. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 22:12, 30 October 2007 (UTC)
 * The problem I have with that with that is that it returns a value. Are there any other comands that you return a value? --Jimmyatic 13:42, 5 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, if you read my description carefully, I said functions return a value based off the parameters passed into it. Since it's output is independent of whatever arguments you attempt to pass into it, it would not fit in the definition of a function. Of course, if this is really a problem, we can just define it on a book-by-book basis (since we're both editing different books anyway, we can get away with it). --Skizzerz talk - contribs 21:10, 6 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Okay, fine I'll give. Functions must have parameters and the return value must be something based on those parameters. But just for clarification, when you say "it's output is indepedent...", you are referring to it's return value, correct?  Sorry to have dragged this on for so long. --Jimmyatic 13:52, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, I was referring to it's return value (what it outputs to the screen). --Skizzerz talk - contribs 22:30, 7 November 2007 (UTC)
 * It outputs something to the screen? Oh, I always assumed you meant return as in sin(25) returns a value and then you can use this to do calculations and such, not directly outputting it to the screen.  In that case I would have easily accepted it for a command --Jimmyatic 04:07, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Templates
Notice the change of the syntax of exceptions! not this is an exception but and now it will put up to ?five? stars depending how many levels you go: This affects syntax, output and example.
 * this is an exception
 * this is an exception
 * this is an another exception

Bcode
Currently to use syntax, output and example, we use bcode:command, but soon it will be modified to be used as TIB|Syntax. Do you think that's a good idea? Easier for us... No one else uses bcode, I would do the replacement within the current chapters. --Jimmyatic 01:47, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Um, it'd be less confusing as TIB/Syntax, that way we would have separate templates instead of needing to use #ifeq to distinguish between what is wanted. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 20:40, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Would it be more convincing if I say I hate back slashes - oh so ugly. Oh well!--Jimmyatic 22:35, 18 October 2007 (UTC)
 * They aren't back slashes, they're forward slashes. It's how things are sub-paged are mediawiki... using a pipe character defines separate parameters, so many parser functions would then have to be used... --Skizzerz talk - contribs 13:42, 19 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Yeah I know the rules, I just don't like what they look like. That's fine, I was just being facetious.  --Jimmyatic 20:06, 19 October 2007 (UTC)

TI-89 Stuff
Input before prompt. You mentioned that input accepts a string first which allows it to not display "?:" but you didn't say where the ?: came from - you mention input before prompt. Should prompt be put first because it's a more simple way to input variables. And seeing as how we have pretty much declared that a function is something that should return a value, it should be conditional commands, conditionals, or some other witty phrase for conditional statements rather than 'Conditional Functions'. The TI84 version is the same way, but he created it before I had a chance to correct/change it.--Jimmyatic 01:14, 30 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Conditionals works fine for me. And input is more commonly used than prompt, which is why I listed input first. As for where the ? came from, I am unsure of what you mean by this. --Skizzerz talk - contribs 22:10, 30 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Nevermind, I must have read it wrong the first time. Sorry

TI-89 Programming/Input
It's not my call, but should there be a seperate section for functions in TI-89 Programming, perhaps explaining what functions are, how they're used, and how they're different from programs. Additionally, it seems a bit out of place to have functions in with input (it doesn't actually input anything, variables/values are more or less passed are they not?).

But then again, I don't know exactly how functions/programs work in TI-89 Basic, so maybe it's over my head in this case... --Jimmyatic (talk) 19:30, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:TI-Basic 84 Programming