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User talk:207.63.100.162

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User talk:Borderwave2~enwikibooks

Image:Xc boys superhero spirit.jpg
Why do you suppose this image is fair use? Generally, fair use means using an image for educational purpose (showing something). I think this does not apply here. Furthermore, you did not specify the source of the image. Apart from this, image is not used. --Derbeth talk 14:52, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Borderwave2~enwikibooks


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A-level Physics/Forces, Fields and Energy/Radioactivity

When atoms are unstable, they will try to make themselves stable again. One way that they do this is by giving off matter and energy known as radiation. A material with unstable atoms is said to be radioactive.

Types of radiation
There are 3 different types of ionising radiation, simply called α (alpha), β (beta) and γ (gamma), each with their own properties.

α-particles

An alpha particle is basically a helium nucleus. The table below shows its properties:

β-particles

A beta particle is an electron. The table below shows its properties:

γ-rays

A gamma ray is an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength of around $$3 \times 10^{-15}m$$. The table below shows its properties:

Ionisation
α, β and γ radiation are all forms of ionising radiation and they affect the matter that they pass through. They can cause atoms to become ionised by colliding into, or passing closely to them. The atoms have their electrons pushed or pulled by the radiation and become ions, hence the name ionisation.

α particles

α particles are the most strongly ionising because they have the greatest mass and charge, and have the lowest velocity. This means that they affect the most amount of atoms and affect each atom stronger than the other types of radiation.

β particles

β particles are the second most strongly ionising because they are lighter, faster and have a smaller charge then α particles.

γ rays

γ rays are the least ionising of the 3, since they have no charge.

Penetration
Radiation can pass through different materials, though each type of radiation has its own penetration power.

α radiation

α radiation can be easily absorbed by a sheet of paper or by human skin. This is because it is highly ionising and easily gives its kinetic energy to surrounding atoms and therefore cannot penetrate far into matter.

β radiation

β radiation is less ionising, which makes it more penetrating than α radiation. It needs a denser material such as aluminium to completely absorb it.

γ radiation

γ radiation is the most pentrating and several metres of concrete or a few centimeters of lead are required to completely absorb it. Again, this is related to its strength of ionisation.

Nuclear equations
Just like other nuclear processes, radiation emissions can be represented by balanced nuclear equations. An alpha particle has a symbol of $$\ ^4_2$$He and a beta particle has a symbol of $$\ ^0_{-1}$$e. These can easily be used in equations where radiation is emitted. Gamma photons do not have any effect on the equations since they have no mass and no charge.

Electric and magnetic fields
Because of their different charges and masses, each type of radiation behaves differently in electric and magnetic fields. The behaviour of positive and negative particles moving in electric and magnetic fields have already been discussed earlier. Be especially careful using the left hand rule for β particles in a magnetic field because, as you may recall, the current is in the opposite direction to the movement of an electron. Gamma rays are not affected by either types of field and will continue in a straight line.

The hazards of ionising radiation
Radiation is dangerous and steps must be taken to ensure that we are exposed to as little radiation as possible. We will have a look at these dangers and see how we can minimize the damage to ourselves and the environment.

Effects on living organisms
Since radiation is ionising, it can alter the atoms that make up our own cells. There are two main ways that our cells can become damaged by radiation:

 * Exposure to intense radiation can kill cells, causing tissue damage known as radiation burn. This same principle is used to kill microbes from food or on medical equipment.
 * DNA can be altered by an ionisation, causing the cell to no longer function correctly. The radiation may affect the DNA directly, or break up a water molecule which will then react with the DNA. The cell may divide uncontrollably, forming a tumour. Also, if the radiation affects an egg or sperm cell, there will be mutations passed on to the next generation.

Alpha particles are the most dangerous to cells, but fortunately our skin is sufficient to prevent them from entering our bodies.

Handling radioactive materials safely
Since radiation is very hazardous, radioactive materials must be handled, stored and disposed of in a safe manner.

To handle radioactive materials, they must not come into contact with the skin, and must be handled in a glove box or with tongs. Care must be taken to not inhale radioactive gas.

To store radioactive materials you can use lead-lined containers, since lead absorbs all of the different types of radiation. This is also true for materials that emit α radiation, since most α emitting materials will also emit γ radiation.

Radioactive materials can be disposed of by diluting the radioactive substance with a large amount of non-radioactive material. They can also be disposed of by containment, which involves storing the radioactive material until it has dropped to a safe level of radioactivity.

Radioactive decay
As radioactive materials emit radiation, the number of stable nuclei increase, and the number of unstable nuclei decrease. The substance is said to decay because it decreases in mass as particles and energy is given off.

Spontaneous radiation emission
If we were to observe a single nucleus of an unstable atom, we would eventually see it decay. We won't be able to predict how long it would take for it to decay, and there is no way to tell if it is about to decay or not. It will be undecayed at one moment, and an instant later, it would have decayed. It is a spontaneous action. This is very strange to the way things are on the macroscopic level that we are used to, where we can see gradual changes or the build up to an event.

Also, each atoms nucleus decays independently of any neighbouring atoms, because if you recall the relative distances and sizes of subatomic particles, there is an enormous amount of empty space between the nucleus and its orbiting electrons, which means that one nucleus cannot affect another.

Since we cannot predict when a nucleus will decay, we have to find an average over a period of time.

The decay constant
The decay constant is the probability that a particular nucleus will decay per unit time, and is denoted by the symbol λ. It can be found for a particular sample by measuring how many nuclei decay for a given length of time. So, if in a sample with 10,000 nuclei, 1000 were to decay in an hour, the probability of one particular nucleus decaying within an hour is 0.1, because only 10% of the nuclei decayed.

The decay constant has the units $$s^{-1}$$ in the SI system, but $$h^{-1}$$, or even $$day^{-1}$$ may be used. In the example above, the decay constant, λ, is equal to 0.1$$h^{-1}$$.

Activity and count rate
The activity of a radioactive substance is the number of nuclei that decay in a unit of time, or the rate of decay. Activity is measured in decays per second, and one decay per second is called one becquerel.

If you know the decay constant of a particular substance, and the number of undecayed nuclei it has, you can find the activity for that material using the formula:

 * $$A=\lambda N$$

where A is the activity, λ is the decay constant, and N is the number of undecayed nuclei.

As you can see, this would take us back to how we originally found the decay constant, and so you can how the two are related.

When you are obtaining the activity of a sample with an experiment, you will hardly ever detect all of the radiation emitted. Some will be emitted where there are no detectors. The count rate, R, is the measurement from the experiment, which will be less than the activity of the sample. A can be calculated from R if you know the efficiency of the measuring device.

Exponential decay
As a radioactive substance decays, the number of undecayed nuclei will decrease. Since there are less radioactive particles in the substance, the rate of radioactive particles emitted will decrease. A graph of the amount of substance against time will show an exponential curve, where the curve continually gets less steep as the rate of decay decreases.

Calculating decay
The number of undecayed nuclei can be calculated with the following formula:

 * $$N = N_0e^{-\lambda t}$$

Where, $$N_0$$ is the number of undecayed at the start, $$\lambda$$ is the decay constant, $$t$$ is the time in seconds, and $$e$$, is the exponential function.

Similarly, the count rate and activity can be found from the following equations:

 * $$R = R_0e^{-\lambda t}$$

 * $$A = A_0e^{-\lambda t}$$

Half-life
The half life of a substance is the mean length of time it takes for half of its radioactive material to decay. If you look at the graph, you can see that the time on the horizontal axis for the number of undecayed nuclei to half is the same as the time for it to decrease from 50% to 25%, and from 25% to 12.5%.

Half life is written as $$t_{ \frac {1}{2}}$$, and is usually measured in seconds, but for materials that are more stable, it is common to state the half life in hours, days, or even years.

If you consider that a substance with a short half life must decay quickly, and therefore must have a high decay constant, and that a substance with a long half life will have a low decay constant, you can relate the two using the equation:

 * $$\lambda t_{ \frac {1}{2}} = \ln 2 \approx 0.693$$

This is useful if you are only given either the half life or the decay constant and asked to find the other, as you can rearrange the equation to find the unknown value.


text:
Category:Book:Japanese/Templates

Templates for the Japanese language wikibook.

When adding a template to a category, don't forget to wrap the category link with "noinclude" tab: SORTKEY Otherwise, the pages that include the template will also be categorised.

If the template name starts with, you can categorize it with BookCat.

title: Category:Book:Japanese/Templates


text:
Talk:European History/World War I

The rise and fall of Nationalism is so impressive that I continue to research what difference Nationalism could have made if applied without religion and race as a demorilizing basis for Nationalism. To me without Nationalistic values, countries will implode over time and just like Rome and currently the moral decay within the US, there is a lack of guidence and resolve within the country to stay loyal to your country.

Nationalism can work and should be a main focus of country education and direction.

 * Nationalism causes violence and economic differences. Making a distinction between "us" and "them" always leads to segregation, persecution and sometimes genocide. I don't see why powerful countries should survive in modern days either; if the economic differences in the world can be resolved, powerful states will only cause problems. In fact, some aspects of current powerful states (specially the US federal state) are a great obstacle for the general development of humanity.

 * About this page of the book, I wanted to suggest a change of the names "March Revolution" and "November Revolution" to the more common February and October Revolutions respectively.--200.82.110.124 23:59, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

In this passage: "Vladimir Lenin realized that the time had come to seize the revolution. He authored the "April Theses," in which he promised peace with the Central Powers, redistribution of the land, transfer of the factories to the owners, and the recognition of the Soviets as the supreme power in Russia. In this sense, the November Revolution was led by Lenin rather than being an overall coup by the workers, and thus the November revolution cannot be dubbed a true Marxist revolution." Shouldn't it read "transfer of the factories to the workers?"

Russia
Pre-war material on Russia moved to the previous chapter, on Empire, where it is a better fit. 62.25.106.209 (talk) 12:20, 9 June 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:European History/World War I


text:
User talk:Cybertaur1~enwikibooks

Image:Ti-83.jpg
You uploaded this file but you did not specify it source and licence. As for me, it looks like copyrighted work. If it is used for promotional purpose by its manufacturer, it's possible to tag it by fair use template. Otherwise, it should be removed from Wikibooks. --Derbeth talk 15:54, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Because you deliberately ignored my warning, I suppose you violated copyrights uploading this image to Wikibooks. I will delete it soon without further notice. --Derbeth talk 10:20, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cybertaur1. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cybertaur1~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:07, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

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text: User talk:160.36.120.172

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User talk:219.93.174.103

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User talk:84.235.174.186

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User talk:70.249.209.184

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Georgia Water/Policy/Issues/Instream Flow

Rights of Instream Flow Users in Georgia

Description of the issue
When streams are used for water supply, water must taken (withdrawn) from the stream, thereby leaving less water in the stream to provide for the instream flow uses. The instream flow uses include the following (each will be linked to page describing that instream use in Georgia):

 * /Aquatic habitat maintenance/
 * /Fishing/
 * /Subsistence fishing/
 * /Commercial fishing/
 * /Sport fishing/

 * /Recreation/
 * /Boating/
 * /Swimming/
 * Outdoor (trails, picnic, camping)

 * /Spiritual/
 * Aesthetic (e.g. lake view lots)
 * Hydropower (run-of-the-river type)
 * /Navigation/
 * /Wastewater dilution/

When water is withdrawn from a river, but only partially returned (usually as treated wastewater), the downstream flow is reduced by an amount called the "consumptive use" (withdrawal amount minus the returned amount). The reduction in streamflow will affect all of the instream flow users below the withdrawal point, with impacts to individual users ranging from insignificant to major, according to the type of stream user and the amount and timing of the streamflow reduction.

Definition: The instream flow users are those who use the stream without withdrawing water from the stream.

Policy Issue: The policy issue for the State is: What are the rights of the instream flow users? What policy should the State have for allowing an increased consumptive water withdrawal from a stream, with the corresponding reduction in the instream flow which impacts all the existing (and future) instream flow users?

Georgia's present policy on instream flow
Georgia's present policy on instream flow, called the "interim minimum stream flow protection policy", was adopted by the Georgia Board of Natural Resources effective April 1, 2001.

Basically, the policy reserves a minimum streamflow for use by all instream flow users. The Georgia EPD implements the policy by requiring applicants for new (filed after March 30, 2001) non-farm water withdrawal permits to at all times "pass the lesser of the monthly 7Q10 or the inflow at the withdrawal point" (and in some cases, plus a non-depletable flow -- an amount sufficient to serve the pre-existing permitted downstream withdrawal uses). The monthly 7Q10 streamflow is a drought streamflow statistic "that reflects the lowest seven-day running average of a stream's flow for each calendar month with a recurrence frequency of once in ten years." | p.28

The policy for limiting streamflow withdrawals, in order to protect the reserved instream flow, applies only to surface water allocation water requests made after March 30, 2001 by non-farm applicants on rivers which are not highly influenced by a federal reservoir. The policy does not limit the withdrawals of the following: (a) small withdrawers (each less than 100,000 gallons per day), (b) "reasonable use" for agricultural water users, (c) any agricultural water use for capacity in place by 1988, whether reasonable or not, and (d) any water withdrawals used to pay off revenue certificates or general obligation bonds from 1977 or prior. It is possible for these types of unrestricted water withdrawals to completely drain the streamflow during a drought.

Alternative 1 - (name of policy here)

 * Advantages -
 * Disadvantages -

Alternative 2 - (name of policy here)

 * Advantages -
 * Disadvantages -


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Template:Free screenshot

This adds media to Category:Wikibooks free screenshots.

title: Template:Free screenshot


text:
A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Mac OS

'''THIS ARTICLE IS QUITE OUTDATED. PLEASE HELP MODERNIZE IT'''

Classic Mac OS
Mac OS was introduced in 1984, after the Apple Lisa project. The earlier OSs were very simple and used a monochrome color scheme.

Macintoshes have built in speakers. When one is turned on, a chime sounds, indicating successful hardware detection. The loading of these early OSs involve several grey screens, depending on the type of hardware installed. The first thing to appear is a movable mouse arrow. Common error messages include a Question Mark on top of either a folder or a diskette. Occasionally startup errors occur, some of which can be resolved by themselves. An example is a question mark appears on a folder for several seconds, alternating with the Finder logo and finishing with the Finder Logo. Another grey screen appears with a successful startup message. The successful startup message is called "Happy Mac", which is a picture of an 1984-era Macintosh with a smiley face on its display screen. A system failure can present "Sad Mac". These images later evolved into iPods, such as the "Sad iPod" image. Sad Mac can also be accompanied with sound effects, such as glass shattering or a car crashing.

The fact that the Mac OS has the mouse arrow loading first, instead of last, means that the Mac OS is more GUI-oriented and does not include a command line interface.

The Operating System loads, usually with a seamless transition to the desktop by gradually loading parts of the desktop. It begins with a Splash Screen, main extensions loading, and then the Menu Bar loads. The installed extensions load, often taking over one minute to load depending on the number of extensions, and then the desktop icons and any application switchers load.

The first Mac OSs, or Systems, were very basic and had very little release numbers. 1.0 jumped directly to 2.0 for example. Also there isn't any multitasking available on very early Mac OSs.

System 7 was the first OS with noticeable improvements. OS 8 included more improvements.

Software that can be installed on these OSs include many games and After Dark screen saver packages.

The last version of OS 9, and the last version to use the original Mac OS source code, is 9.2.2. You can see that it contains an early version of the Aqua and Brushed Metal color schemes. Additionally, iTunes, QuickTime, Sherlock 2, and a few other applications use a brushed metal appearance similar to OS X.

Also with Mac OS, a monochrome Pinwheel mouse cursor is used to indicate that the system was busy. It would occasionally be shared with the mouse arrow cursor. Other busy cursors is a monochrome watch that usually does not have its needles, or "hands", move. Occasionally the minute hand moves. Another icon (not a cursor) is a circle with two monochrome arrows rotating clockwise. This resembles the rotating Lou Scheimer-Norm Prescott production logo. In OS X, Two of these busy signals would be updated. The monochrome pinwheel was replaced with a color one, and used more often instead of the watch. The pinwheel would not be shared with the mouse arrow cursor. The two arrows was replaced with several lines arranged in a circle. The watch was not updated and only appears occasionally.

9.2.2 and earlier are not supported by Apple, Inc. Software Update will not function. Additionally, there isn't any Yahoo Messenger that will function on 9.2.2 and earlier. Podcasting is impossible with 9.2.2. Many applications are only released as Disk Images or .dmg files which are not read by 9.2.2 and earlier. 9.2.2 and earlier can not mount any case sensitive volumes. Mac OS 9.2.2 CAN load most graphic images such as JPEG, and can also open up .sit, .iso, .smi, and .bin files.

Mac OS X server was released before 9.2.2, and the rest of the operating systems transitioned to the NeXTstep OS-like OS X.

Aftermarket Software for Classic Mac OS
The Mac OS before OS X is still compatible with most new technologies with the use of aftermarket software. A dock can be added with an extension called "A-Dock". Documents can be saved in Rich Text Format with iText. Internet browsing can be accomplished with "Clasilla", an updated Mozilla browser.

Performance with this software:

The Classic Mac OS versions use a spring-loaded Finder. The Dock resembles OS X's dock with the exception of A-Dock being spring loaded.

iText can save files with RTF formats, making the documents compatible with OS X's TextEdit.

Navigating is stable with the exception of scrolling (toggling the scroll bars can cause the entire operating system to crash, and instead users have to use the Page Up and Page Down keys) There is a "Use Style: None" option to disable style sheets. Page loads are slower compared with OS X browsers.

Mac OS 9.2.2 is the last Mac OS to use the original source code (OS X is similar to the NeXTstep operating system) "After Dark" screen savers are not officially supported on 9.2.2 but an application has been released to use most of the After Dark screen savers.

9.2.2 also has some compatibility with hardware that was made after its release. This includes USB storage devices, and wide screen LCD monitors.

Mac OS X
Mac OS X ("ten") is the current version of the proprietary OS made by Apple Computer. It is largely based on the NeXT operating system and the Macintosh System Software. Apple also produces Mac OS X Server, which is geared towards high-end computing needs, such as clustering and remote management of individual CPUs. Apple promotes Mac OS X as being more user-friendly than its competitors' operating systems with a powerful UNIX foundation. Mac OS X has been 64-bit compatible since version 10.3, allowing it to run on the G5 processor.

Backwards compatibility with Mac OS 9 and earlier was maintained by using the "Classic" and "Carbon" environments. Carbon is a cleaned-up version of the old Mac API, designed to run well on MacOS X. Classic is the new term for the old Mac API, cruftyness and all. Classic apps suffer from some limitations, in much the same way that old Windows 3.1 apps suffer in the WoW environment of Windows.

Older Macintosh technologies, such as QuickTime and Keychain, were incorporated into the design of OS X with other predominantly NeXT technologies, such as the Dock and its kernel. Although the Macintosh System Software is proprietary in origin, NeXT's operating system was developed from Open Source BSD. Much of the Darwin kernel can be traced back to NeXT. Darwin remains publicly available: As a PowerPC binary, an Intel-x86 binary, and as source code (Binary versions are available for major revisions, such as 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, etc.). Many of the graphics routines stem from the Macintosh QuickDraw graphics routines, which were updated and renamed "Quartz" in Mac OS X 10.2 (a.k.a. "Jaguar").

Recent versions of computers running Mac OS X include "iApps", such as iTunes (jukebox software), and iLife applications, including iPhoto (a picture organizing application), iMovie (a non-linear video editor), etc. Remember: most of these applications do not come as part of the operating system, but rather are pre-installed.

At its launch, Mac OS X was criticized by many users as being more NeXT-like than Mac-like. It was also criticized due to its heavy memory requirement (128 megabytes), narrow scope of supported processors (PowerPC 604, G3, and G4), size on hard disk (approximately 2 gigabytes), and its relatively drastic user interface change from Mac OS 9 to Mac OS X, leaving many users feeling unfamiliar with the operating system. There were also minor complaints, such as the disappearance of the "Happy Mac" (an icon displayed on the screen at startup to indicate a successful self-test result). Also hampering support for Mac OS X was a lack of "Carbonized" software, such as Microsoft's Office software suite, and Adobe's Photoshop image editing program.

The Microsoft Windows GUI (Graphical User Interface) and the Aqua window manager of Mac OS X differ cosmetically, but both use the same desktop paradigm. The main differences are in widget, icon, and menu bar placement. The menu bar placement is reportedly in conformance with Fitt's Law for interface design. Among Apple's distinguishing interface design features is its one-button mouse and command key. While Microsoft Windows expects the use of a two-button mouse (and on some Linux and Unix OSs, three), Apple has used a one-button mouse since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984, and uses the control key on the keyboard as a click-modifier (called "control-click"), analogous to the Microsoft Windows "right-click". However, Apple does make a multi-button mouse called the Mighty Mouse which is available separately, and third party multi-button USB mice can also be used. Finally, the command key is dedicated to the purpose of selecting menu items by its keyboard-based equivalent.

 * Interesting side note: The command key symbol, represented by Unicode glyph U+2318, means "place of interest". It was intended to be the only marking on the command key.  However, it was decided that the Apple logo should also be on the key, in order to maintain backwards compatibility with the Apple II line of 8-bit computers.
 * Side note: Recently, Apple decided to make its multibutton mouse, the above mentioned Mighty Mouse, the standard mouse for its iMacs.

From January 10, 2006 to August 7, 2006, Apple transitioned from PowerPC to Intel processors. PowerPC chips had been in use from OS 7 to 10. Jobs stated the transition was enacted because of IBM's failure to develop the PowerPC chip as rapidly as Apple has hoped. Furthermore, Intel chips offered higher performance per watt, and had cooler operation - essential for laptop production. Some software will only work on PowerPC or Intel architecture, even though it runs under the same system. However, most updated software is now available in a Universal version - with binaries for both PowerPC and Intel Macs. Universal software will work on both PowerPC and Intel Macs that meet basic system requirements.

 * Side note: Support for older (pre Mac OS X) software under the "Classic" environment is not provided on Intel-based Macintosh computers. "Classic" was supported by the Motorola 68LC040 emulator built into the PowerPC chip.

From OS 10.6 and above, the Mac OS X disables any possibility of it being on a system with a PPC processor and can only run on Intel processors.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/vg

What Are Vertex Groups?
Vertex groups are very useful. You can use a vertex group to:
 * Group vertices together while you model (keep a selection and come back to it later).
 * Define which vertices softbody simulation affects.
 * Define which vertices emit particles.
 * Define which part of a mesh will follow a specific bone.

Vertex groups are specific to the Mesh object and can be modified in Editmode.

If you have vertices assigned to multiple groups (for example, in a character you may have some vertices in the "upper arm" vertex group that are also in the "lower arm" vertex group), you can assign weights to those vertices to specify how much relative influence the different groups have. A weight can range from 0 to 1 and is assigned when you create the group. Let's take a peek at the GUI of vertex groups in the Editbutton(F9KEY):

From top down:
 * The dropdown menu lets you select an existing vertex group or rename the current one.
 * The weight numfield lets you choose the weight value assigned when you add vertices.
 * You can add a new group or delete the current one.
 * Assign or remove selected vertices to/from current group.
 * Select/deselect all vertices in current group.

Weight Paint
As mentioned above, you may often find that you have some vertices that are assigned to more than one vertex group. By assigning weights, you can specify the relative influence each of the vertex groups have. You have two options to assign weights: 1) manually selecting each vertex and typing in a weight value, or 2) use weight painting to - you guessed it - paint weights.

Weight painting lets you paint weight values on the mesh like you were painting on a wall with a can of spray paint. It is a Mode of the 3Dview and is accessible in the 3Dview's header in the dropdown menu with Objectmode, Editmode and such. A hotkey is also available: CTRL-TABKEY.

In Weightpaint Mode, the first thing you'll notice is the blue color of the mesh. Blender provides an easy way to quickly visualise the weight value of each vertex. This is the color spectrum used:

When you are in Weightpaint mode you can paint all over the mesh as if it was a solid object on your desk. The paint only works on vertices so don't try to paint in the middle of an edge or a face, it will never work. To help you in your task there is a new panel in Editbutton:

 * The weight slider is just the same thing as the weight numfield we saw earlier in the vertex groups button. It's just easier to work with. It's simply the weight you want to apply to the vertices. In painting terms, think of this as the color.
 * The buttons from 0 to 1 are shortcuts for weight value, to speed up the workflow.
 * The opacity slider (and shortcuts) tell Blender what is the percent of the weight value you want to apply in one shot. If you set opacity and weight to 1 the vertex will turn red instantly. In painting terms, think of this as the pressure.
 * "All faces" tells Blender if you want to paint on all faces in the mesh or just the visible one.
 * "Vertex Dist" tells blender to use vertex distance instead of faces. When active, the painting will only check if the vertex is in the brush, then apply a weight value. If it's off, all vertices part of the faces in the brush will receive weight value. Turning on Vertex Dist can give good results when you have a lot of polys in your mesh.
 * "Normals" will apply vertex normals before painting. This means Blender will take consideration of the direction the vertex is pointing when painting: the more it's facing away from view, the less it will receive value.
 * "Spray" really makes it like spraying paint. Without it, a single click will only paint one value. With Spray on, each time you move the mouse a paint shot will be added. To get a good effect, use a small opacity value so the weight will increase slowly.
 * "X-mirror" will tell Blender to apply the weight paint on the other group if there is one. Like Hand.L --> Hand.R. If you paint the group hand.L and there is a hand.R the paint will be copied over. For this to work your groups must be created, the name of the groups have to follow name's convention (left right) and both side of the mesh need to be identical.
 * "Wire toggle" toggles the visibility of wire while painting. Useful to find where the vertices are (activate the edit mode option "Draw all edges" to see even better).
 * "Mix"/"Add"/"Sub"/"Mul"/"Filter" is how you want to apply the paint based on what is already there. Mixing will do a mean from brute weight value and current weight value, "Add"/"Sub" will directly add or subtract value, "Mul" will multiply (exponential painting) and "Filter" will paint based on alpha value.

Vertex Groups and Armatures
So what use are vertex groups in rigging? You can specify what vertices will move when a bone moves. When you want to paint a mesh for an armature, do the following:
 * Make sure the Mesh has an Armature modifier.
 * Select the armature and enable Armature Posemode (CTRL-TABKEY).
 * Select the mesh and enter Weightpaint mode (CTRL-TABKEY). (Question: if we're in Pose Mode for the Armature, how are we supposed to select the mesh?  Ans: right click on it.)
 * Select the bone you want to paint for with RMB.
 * Paint the parts you want that bone to affect.

You'll notice that, if there is no group created when you first paint, Blender will create a group for you, and give it the same name as the selected bone. This is important, because when the "Vert. Groups" toggle is on in the Armature modifier, Blender will try to match bones with Vertex Groups based on the same names.

What happens when we try to blend groups together? See this simple example of 2 bones trying to bend a tube:

The Groups are painted so the body of each bone is in red and the zone between the two bones are gradually going from 1 to 0. This will bend nicely. If, for a special reason, you want a side to react differently, you can always move the bone while painting and try the new modification you just did. By the way, having Subsurf on while painting can be very cpu expensive. It's a good idea to turn it off.

Using Weight Painting with Armatures
Armatures are used for many purposes, but one common use is to deform a mesh with an armature. This example will demonstrate how weight painting can improve armature-deformed meshes.

In this example, we have two objects; each has an armature modifier applied. The one on the left is going to be the "before" and the one on the right will be the "after".

For the object on the left, take a look at the vertex groups as initially assigned (from left to right: Bone1, Bone2, Bone3, and Bone4). These same vertex groups were assigned for the object on the right:

Important: A bone in an armature will only act upon those vertices that are in a vertex group with exactly the same name as the bone.

 * In Blender 2.37 and previous, this was the ONLY way to get a bone to deform a mesh.
 * In Blender 2.40 and on, selecting the "Envelope" button in the armature modifier will allow bones to deform even if you haven't assigned any vertex groups yet.

If you enter Weight Paint mode (CTRL-TAB with object selected) right after assigning the vertex groups, you can see that the vertex groups as assigned all have a weight of 1.0:

OK: both objects have vertex groups assigned and they have armature modifiers. Let's grab a bone (select the Armature, CTRL-TAB to enter Pose Mode, select Bone4, GKEY to grab, and move) to deform the mesh. We haven't made the objects different from each other, so after moving their armatures in the same way. . there's still no difference. That's good.


text:
A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Unix

UNIX® is a registered trademark of The Open Group in the United States and other countries.

Linux is the leading UNIX clone.


text:
A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Control Program for Microcomputers

An old operating system created during the late 1970s. CP/M or Control Program for Microcomputers ran on 8 bit microprocessors such as the Intel 8080 or Zilog Z80. Typically these had 4 to 64 kilobytes of RAM and speeds of up to 10 MHz. It was rare for a disk from one CP/M computer to be properly read by a computer from a different company, but was still considered a kind of loose "standard". It faded from popular use by 1985, overtaken by MS-DOS and the Mac OS.


text:
Social Ballroom Dancing/Cha Cha Cha

The Cha Cha Cha is a popular social dance characterized by the "cha-cha-cha" rhythm during the 'chassé' (side-close-side step). Although originally called the Cha Cha Cha it is now commonly referred to simply as the Cha Cha.

History
The name of this dance is said to arise from the sound of sandals slapping against the floor in the cha cha chassé.

The Cha Cha is a true Latin dance, which originated in Cuba where it evolved from the danzon, an older form of Cuban dance. The primary difference in Cha Cha is the addition of a triple step that replaces the slow step in Mambo/Rumba. Cha Cha became a popular social ballroom dance in the United States in the early 1950's.

Presently there are two flavors of Cha Cha, differing by the place of the cha cha cha with respect to the musical bar.
 * Ballroom Cha Cha and street Cha Cha in Cuba count  "two-three-chachacha"
 * Country/western Cha-cha-cha and Latin street Cha-cha-cha in many places other than Cuba count "one-two-chachacha" or "chachacha-three-four".

Cha Cha is either danced to authentic Latin music, or more contemporary Latin Pop or Latin Rock. The music is energetic and with a steady 4/4 beat.

See Cha-cha-cha article for the history of the music.

Tone of the Dance
The cha cha is a lively, sassy, groovy dance.

Let Go
Most Cha Cha steps are danced in one of two holds, closed and open.

In closed hold the man places his right hand on the woman's left shoulder blade while she lightly rests her hand on his right arm. He then holds her right hand with his left at eye level.

In open hold the man holds the woman's left hand in his right and her right hand in his left, at about waist height.

Steps
Many institutions (such as the IDTA) have strictly defined names for some steps. This is less important for social dancing and many studios have developed their own names. Therefore the names below may be very different than those you are used to.

Footwork
Steps in all directions should be taken first with the ball of the foot in contact with the floor, and then with the heel lowering when the weight is fully transferred. When weight is released from a foot, the heel should release first, allowing the toe to maintain contact with the floor. Feet should be placed a comfortable distance from the base (i.e. below the hips), not too close as a full movement cannot be developed, and not too large as this makes it difficult to keep up with the music.

Legs
In general, the basic technique taught to beginners is to keep the supporting leg straight. A more advanced dancer however might like to try to keep both legs as straight as possible throughout the dance. As with all Latin dances, knees and thighs should pass one another quite tightly, and though feet should be turned out, this should not be to the extent of exposing the inner thigh. If the inner thigh is exposed the legs can bow, and an undesirable gap between legs is often visible, breaking the line from head to toe.

Hips
For a cha cha, hips should move smoothly. In American Rhythm style, hip movement is achieved through the alternate bending and straightening action of the knees. In International Latin style, the weighted leg should be straight. The free leg will bend, allowing the hips to naturally settle into the direction of the weighted leg. As a step is taken, a free leg will straighten the instant before it receives weight. It should then remain straight until it is completely free of weight again.

In general, hips should not rise or fall, but stay on approximately the same horizontal level. The bottom half of the body (i.e. navel down) should be isolated from the chest and shoulders, which should remain primarily still.

Timing
International Ballroom dancing usually begins with a prep step on count 1, break on count 2 and cha cha cha on 4 and 1. Beginners often have a difficult time hearing the latter rhythm or adding in the prep step. Breaking on counts one and two followed by the cha cha cha on counts 3 and 4 is often more natural for some people and is perfectly acceptable for Country Western, social, and beginning dancers.

title: Social Ballroom Dancing/Cha Cha Cha


text:
Novial/Hound Appendix 1

Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 – Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 – Lesson 6 – Lesson 7 -

Prefixes – Suffixes

Prefixes
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 – Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 – Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

title: Novial/Hound Appendix 1


text:
A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/OS slash 2

OS/2 is an operating system from IBM and Microsoft, that was intended as the successor to MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows.

OS/2 1.0
The first version of OS/2 uses a command line interface similar to that of MS-DOS. Unlike MS-DOS, it uses a protected mode kernel and dynamic linking and supports multitasking of native OS/2 applications, which use the same "New Executable" as 16-bit Windows applications, although the two APIs are incompatible. It also can run a single MS-DOS application at a time. This involves forcing the processor back into real mode.

OS/2 1.1, OS/2 1.2, OS/2 1.3
OS/2 1.1 added the Presentation Manager, a graphical user interface visually similar to Windows 2.0. Presentation Manager also expanded the OS/2 API.

OS/2 1.2 added the High Performance File System (HPFS), which allows filenames up to 255 characters and eliminated several other filename restrictions of the older File Allocation Table (FAT) file system. OS/2 1.2 also updated the appearance of Presentation Manager, creating the visual style more commonly associated with the later, more popular Windows 3.0. OS/2 1.3 is a bug-fix release.


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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape

Shape Key?
Shape keys are modifications of the original mesh that you can animate and mix with each other. Previously called Relative Vertex Keys (RVK), one of their major uses is to create facial expressions.

The idea behind Shape keys is simple. The basic, undeformed mesh you start with is the "Basis" shape. You can add a variety of different versions of this shape and store each one as a Shape Key for use in an animation (other software sometimes refers to these as "morph targets"). You can't add or delete vertices as Shape Keys only store the positions of vertices and not the creation/deletion of them.

Ok, to start out, take a plane. I'll add a new shape to it and move a vertex away:

When I play with the influence, this key has over the basic shape, the result will be as follows (0.5 in this example):

If I play with the slider from 0 to 1, Blender will gradually apply the Key 1 shape with a constantly varying amount of deformation. So from 0 to 1, it will slide from the basis shape to the Key 1 shape. The movement of the vertices is linear from start position to end position and you can even set an influence greater than 1 or lower than 0 and Blender will extrapolate the movements of the vertices relative to the basis shape (marked as a dotted line above). This feature allows you to set general shapes such as a smile and then exaggerate the shape without needing to remake it.

Shape Keys step-by-step
Here's a hand-held walk-through of how shape keys are used.

Start with the default cube or a more interesting mesh of your choice.

1: Select your object in Object mode. Go to F9 Editing window. Find and select the "Shapes" panel. Press the "Add Shape key" button. This adds a key called "Basis" and this stores the "basic" mesh in its undeformed state. Make sure the "Relative" button is pressed (should be default).

2: Press the "Add Shape key" button again. It now says "Key 1" and you have a slider and some other settings. Go into Edit Mode, grab a vertex and move it. Exit Edit Mode. The mesh returns to normal but you've just added a real Shape key and Blender has stored it.

3: Repeat step 2 for as many different shapes as you like. You can rename the keys to whatever you want. Normally you create each new shape by first selecting the "Basis" key but if you select an existing key from the list and immediately press "Add Shape Key" then enter Edit Mode, the mesh will already be deformed. This is useful for making similar but unique keys.

Using Shape Keys
1: Starting on frame 1, select each key one by one from the pop-up list (or go to the Action Window, press the sliders button and select the Keys from the list there) and click on the slider and move the slider forward then back to zero. Sometimes just clicking on the slider at the zero point is enough to set the key.

2: Move forward ten frames, select Key 1 from the list and move the slider to 1.00. You'll see your object deform. Move more frames and slide another key. And so on and so on. You can move them forwards and/or backwards as you move through the frames and they'll just add together if they have to. Each time you move the slider, you set a keyframe for that Shape Key.

Setting Shape Keys

IMPORTANT NOTE:
You should add shape keys to a finished mesh. Don't work on a mirrored mesh or a partially finished model. Adding geometry (vertices, faces, loops, joining etc...) can result in the loss of the shape keys or to unpredicatable results. Not always, but probably when you least expect it. There are scripts available to make some of these things possible.

That's the basics. Note that shapes will constantly transform between keys so if you set a key at frame 1 to zero and at frame 10 you set the slider to 1 then at frame 5 the slider will be at 0.5 - which you may or may not want. If you want it to hold shape for a while before changing (e.g. staying at zero until frame 7), you'll need to set a key at the beginning and end of the time frame you want it to stay the same (So you would set it a zero at the start, then zero again at frame 7 then to one at frame 10). You can also edit the IPO curves (use Shapes pop-up) to really mess with the transformations.


text:
Numerical Methods/Interpolation

= Interpolation =

Polynomial Interpolation
Interpolation is way of extending discrete data points to a function. If the given data points are in $$\mathbf{R}^{2}$$ then polynomial interpolation is common. The main idea behind polynomial interpolation is that given n+1 discrete data points there exits a unique polynomial of order n that fits those data points. A polynomial of lower order is not generally possible and a polynomial of higher order is not unique. If the polynomial $$p(x)$$ is defined as
 * $$p(x)=a_{n}x^{n}+a_{n-1}x^{n-1}+\ldots+a_{1}x+a_{0}$$

then the unknown coefficients can be solved for with the system
 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

x_0^n & x_0^{n-1} & x_0^{n-2} & \ldots & x_0 & 1 \\ x_1^n & x_1^{n-1} & x_1^{n-2} & \ldots & x_1 & 1 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots & \vdots \\ x_n^n & x_n^{n-1} & x_n^{n-2} & \ldots & x_n & 1 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} a_n \\ a_{n-1} \\ \vdots \\ a_0 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} y_0 \\ y_1 \\ \vdots \\ y_n \end{bmatrix}. $$ where $$x_{0}\ldots x_{n}$$ are the given data points. The matrix in the system is known as the Vandermonde matrix. Assume all of the data points are distinct the Vandermonde matrix is nonsingular and therefore the system can be uniquely solved.

If the number of data points being interpolated on becomes large the degree of the polynomial will become large which may result in oscillations between data points and an increase in error. For large numbers of data points alternative methods are suggested.

Radial Basis Functions
A common problem in science and engineering is that of multivariate interpolation of a function f whose values are known only on a finite set of points. Therefore let $$ \Omega\subset\mathbf{R}^{d} $$ be an open bounded domain. Given a set of distinct points X and real numbers, the task is to construct a function $$ s:\mathbf{R}^{d}\rightarrow\mathbf{R} $$ that satisfies the interpolation conditions

 * $$ s(x_{i}) = f_{i} $$

In the last decades, the approach of radial basis function interpolation became increasingly popular for problems in which the points in X are irregularly distributed in space. In its basic form, radial basis function interpolation chooses a fixed function $$ \phi:\mathbf{R_{+}}\rightarrow\mathbf{R} $$ and defines an interpolant by $$ \phi $$ where the coefficients $$c_{i}$$ are real numbers, for $$\|\cdot\|$$ one chooses usually the euclidian norm, and $$\phi$$ is a radial basis function.

We see that the approximating function s is a linear combination of radially symmetric functions, each centered on a definite point $$x_i$$. The points $$x_i$$ often called the centers or collocation points of the RBF interpolant. This approach goes back to Hardy, who used as early as 1971 the multi-quadric RBF to reconstruct geographical surfaces from a set of scattered measurements. Note also that the centers $$ x_{i} $$ can be located at arbitrary points in the domain, and do not require a grid. For certain RBF exponential convergence has been shown. Radial basis functions were successfully applied to problems as diverse as computer graphics, neural networks, for the solution of differential equations via collocation methods and many other problems.

Other popular choices for $$ \phi $$ comprise the Gaussian function and the so called thin plate splines, invented by Duchon in the 1970s. Thin plate splines result from the solution of a variational problem. The advantage of the thin plate splines is that their conditioning is invariant under scalings. Another class of functions are Wendland's compactly supported RBF, which are relevant because they lead to a sparse interpolation matrix, and thus the resulting linear system can be solved efficiently. However, the conditioning of the problem gets worse with the number of centers. When interpolating with RBF of global support, the matrix A usually becomes ill-conditioned with an increasing number of centers. Gaussians, multi-quadrics and inverse multi-quadrics are infinitely smooth and involve a scale- or shape parameter, $$ \epsilon $$ > 0. \ref{fig:var-eps2} for the Gaussian RBF with different values of $$ \epsilon $$. Decreasing $$ \epsilon $$ tends to flatten the basis function. For a given function, the quality of approximation may strongly depend on this parameter. In particular, increasing $$ \epsilon $$ has the effect of better conditioning (the separation distance $$q_{X}:= min\,\,\Vert x_{j}-x_{k}\Vert$$ of the scaled points increases).

Solving the interpolation problem results in the linear system of equations
 * $$ A c = f $$

with $$ a_{ij}=\phi(\| x_{i}-x_{j}\|), c=(c_{j})_{j=1,...,N}, f=(f_{j})_{j=1,...,N}. $$ . Because only the distance between the points appears in A, the effort to solve the system is independent of the spatial dimension, which becomes important especially when interpolating in higher dimensions. Franke posed in 1982 the question whether the matrix A is nonsingular and thus a unique interpolant is guaranteed to exist for any choice of f. A few years later, this conjecture was proven true for a number of useful RBF independently by results of Micchelli and Madych and Nelson. The only requirement is that there are at least two centers and that all centers are distinct. An exception are the thin plate splines, for which the matrix A can be singular for nontrivial distributions of points. For example, if the points $$ x_{2},...,x_{n} $$ are distributed on the unit sphere around the center $$ x_{1} $$, then the first row and column consists of zeros. A remedy for this problem is to add to the interpolant a polynomial p of degree $$m\geq1$$, so that the interpolant becomes

s(x)=\sum_{j=1}^{N}c_{i}\phi(\| x-x_{j}\|)+p(x)$$

and to require that the node points are unisolvent (for $$ \Pi_{d}^{m} $$), that means every polynomial $$ p \in \Pi_{d}^{m} $$ is determined by its values on X. $$ p \in \Pi_{d}^{m} $$ denotes the space of all polynomials in n variables up to degree m and the $$p_{k}$$ are the standard basis polynomials for this space. A point set is unisolvent for $$\Pi_{0}^{d}$$ if all points are distinct, unisolvent for $$\Pi_{1}^{d}$$ of not all points are arranged on one line.

The interpolation conditions are now

\sum_{j=1}^{N}c_{j}\phi(\Vert x_{i}-x_{j}\Vert)+\sum_{j=1}^{l}d_{j}p_{j}(x_{i})=f_{i},\qquad i=1,...,N$$

Because the interpolation conditions result in N equations in N + l unknowns, the system is under-determined. Therefore, extra side conditions are imposed, which represent the property of polynomial reproduction. This means that if the data comes from a polynomial $$p\in\mathcal{P}_{m}^{d}$$, i.e. $$f_{i}=p(x_{i})$$, then, the interpolant s must coincide with p. These conditions amount to

 * $$\sum_{j=1}^{l}d_{j}p_{j}(x_{i})=0,\quad1\leq i\leq l.$$

To find c and d, we need to solve the linear systems

 * $$A\, c+P\, d=f,\qquad P^{T}c=0,$$

where $$P_{ij}=p_{j}(x_{i})$$ and A is defined as above. The equations may be summarized as

The system has a unique solution, if the function $$\phi$$ belongs to the following class of functions.

Definition A continuous function $$\Phi:\mathbf{R}^{d}\rightarrow\mathbf{R}$$ is said to be ''conditionally positive definite'' of order m, shortly $$\Phi\in CPDm$$ if for every set $$X=\{ x_{1},...,x_{N}\}\subset\Omega$$ of distinct points and for every set of complex values $$\{ c_{1},...,c_{N}\}$$ for which

 * $$P\,\, c=\sum_{j=1}^{N}c_{j}p(x_{j})=0\qquad for\, all\, p\in\Pi_{m}^{d}$$

the quadratic form

 * $$c\,\, A\,\, c^{T}=\sum_{j=1}^{N}\sum_{k=1}^{N}c_{j}c_{k}\Phi(x_{j}-x_{k})\geq0$$

is positive. If, additionally $$c\,\, A\,\, c^{T}=0$$ implies $$c=0$$, then $$\phi$$ is said to be strictly CPD of order m. For $$m=0$$, $$\Phi$$ is said to be positive definite.

A radial basis function $$\phi(\| x-y\|)=\Phi(x-y)$$ is called conditionally positive definite if the corresponding multivariate function $$\Phi$$ is conditionally positive definite.

If a function is positive definite, then also the corresponding interpolation matrix is positive definite. TPS and MQ are conditionally positive definite functions, Gau, IMQ and Wen are positive definite functions.

Beside the proof of the problem to be well posed, a proof of the convergence is necessary. However, the convergence is guaranteed for most RBF only for global interpolation on infinite square grids. For the thin plate splines, also convergence proofs for local interpolation are known.

The Generalized Hermite Interpolation Problem
The interpolation problem can also be expressed in terms of point evaluations i.e. applications of the Dirac delta functionals acting on the function f. If $$\mathcal{S}$$ is a vector space then the Dirac delta functional $$\delta_{x}$$ corresponding to x is defined by

 * $$\delta_{x}(f)=f(x),\quad f\in\mathcal{S}$$

The data is generated via

 * $$f_{j}=\int f(x)\delta(x-x_{j})dx$$

As before, let $$\{ x_{1},...,x_{N}\}$$ be the centers. More generally, the data can be generated by any set of linear functionals $$\lambda_{1},...,\lambda_{N}$$ acting on some function f. The distributions need to be independent in order to avoid redundant data. The $$\lambda_{i}$$ are not restricted to point evaluations, but can be arbitrary linear functionals including differentiations and difference operators. This problem includes Hermite functions and $$\mathcal{E}'$$ the set of all distributions of compact support. To a distribution $$\lambda\in\mathcal{E}'$$ corresponds a linear functional, which is acting on $$f\in\mathcal{E}$$ via the convolution of distributions. It can be written as

 * $$(\lambda,f)=\int(\lambda*f)(x)dx=\int f(y)\lambda(x-y)dy$$

Now, the task is to interpolate given the data, $$f_{i}=(\lambda_{i},f)$$

such that $$s=\Phi*\lambda+p$$ satisfies

 * $$(\lambda_{i},s)=f_{i},\quad for\,\, i=1,...,N$$

Here, the interpolant is of the form

 * $$s(x)=\sum_{j=1}^{N}c_{j}\lambda_{j}^{y}\phi(\Vert x-y\Vert)+p(x)$$

where, the $$c_{j}$$'s are suitable real coefficients, and $$\lambda_{j}^{y}$$ indicates that $$\lambda$$ is acting on the $$\phi$$ viewed as a function of the argument |y.''

 * $$\sum_{j=1}^{N}\lambda_{j}(p)\phi_{j}(x)=\lambda(p),\quad for\, all\, p\in\mathcal{P}_{m}^{d}$$

The entries of the interpolation matrix $$A=(a)_{ij}$$ in \ref{eq:rbf-lgs} are now given by

 * $$a_{ij}=\lambda^{x}\lambda^{y}\phi(\Vert x-y\Vert)$$

If the number of linear functionals equals the number of centers and if $$\phi$$ belongs to the class of conditionally positive definite functions, then a unique solution does exist.

title: Numerical Methods/Interpolation


text:
Talk:Botany/Mycology

Probably something really important is how hyphae grow. I have a limited discussion in the wiki article Hypha. Something like that but comparing the growth of hyphae in basidiomyces, ascomycota, oomycetes and zygomycota to the growth of yeast cells probably belongs here, and something more in depth belongs in the hypha article.
 * Yes, it would be a needed addition here - marsh 18:49, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Botany/Mycology


text:
User:Dmharvey~enwikibooks

My main user page is at w:User:Dmharvey.

This project looks interesting so I thought I'd reserve a page.

title: User:Dmharvey~enwikibooks


text:
User:HorsePunchKid/monobook.css

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Talk:Astrodynamics/Fundamental Laws

Derivations
Shouldn't this start off with the more general case (3D, no assumptions about relative size of M1 and M2, etc), and then from that, drive the 2-body relative motion equation. Rather than just say "The polar equation for the body's motion is...". --D'Arby 22:31, 13 November 2005 (UTC)
 * The text should definitely build from a case with no relative size assumptions, but we could go back even further depending on the scope we want for the book. Perhaps it would be best to first define the scope. --Zephram Stark 17:33, 19 April 2006 (UTC)

Reorganization
The information in this chapter is presented in an odd way. The discussion starts with Newton, moves to Kepler, then back to Newton. The information should be presented chronologically starting with Kepler's laws then moving on to Newton's (especially since Kepler's laws are pretty much directly responsible for Newton's publication of the Principia). I will start working on this after I finish some work on the coordinate systems chapter. Jaxcp3 (discuss • contribs) 16:18, 17 July 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Astrodynamics/Fundamental Laws


text:
User talk:24.90.68.86

Please do not restore deleted content. If these cases repeat, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:24.90.68.86


text:
Talk:Astrodynamics

Kepler's Laws
I don't like starting off by saying what Kepler's Laws are "caused by". That material should be presented after Keplers laws have been derived from Newton's laws. Maybe in an aside "Kepler's Laws Revisited" or something like that. If we're going to start off with Kepler's laws, some statement needs to be made that they were empirically determined. --D'Arby 23:09, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Naming policy
We need to decide which pages belong to this Astrodynamics book, and rename those pages to start with "Astrodynamics/" in their name, so that there is no confusion. --Kernigh 01:56, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Looking through the TOC, I dont think there are any naming convention problems with this book anymore. I have removed the tag. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 18:29, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Derivative notation?
I already posted this in the Motion Constants chapter, but I figured I should mention it again on the main discussion page:

Is there any particular reason why the "prime" notation is being used instead of "dot" notation for derivatives, i.e. $$r'$$ as opposed to $$\dot{r}$$?

Dot notation (aka Newton notation) is generally used for time derivatives and it is consistently used in probably all of the texts I have on the topic of this book (Bate,Mueller&White, etc). It is also slightly more aesthetic, but that is just my opinion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notation_for_differentiation

Jaxcp3 (discuss • contribs) 21:23, 3 July 2013 (UTC)

Structure of the book.
I have noticed that this book is not really worked and it's structure is a bit messy. I wanted to discuss a possible structure to the book.

I think the best way to structure this is to build it from basic laws and mathematical shapes then adding new information as we go on. So, it feels less overwhelming and more like a like building blocks. Then at the end of each section repeating the key information in a sort of reference manual type of way (not the teaching but referencing part so we have both).

Please state if anyone has other ideas, agrees or disagrees with my ideas.

Introduction

 * 1) Fundamental laws - discussing the law - adding their derivation (from the motion constants)
 * 2) Fundamental laws - moving newtons laws of motion and gravity to the start
 * 3) Fundamental laws - adding a section to the discussion of physical phenomena that can occur and specifying where they will be discussed (gravity including a bit with relativity, adding aerodynamic drag, solar radiation, ect)
 * 4) Fundamental laws -  adding a section about ellipses and their mathematical properties and nature
 * 5) Removing "the earth" and putting it's content else where ideally under planet which could list key properties
 * 6) Fundamental laws - adding a section about angular momentum conservation and explain what it is.
 * 7) Time - adding key time frames such as the Gregorian and the time at which the J2000 reference frame was defined at
 * 8) Coordinate Systems - expanding on earth centred and fixed, adding J200 frame and the ICRF, adding geographical (geocentric and geodetic)
 * 9) Planets - adding the main description of planets, such as their standard gravitational parameter, J2 perturbation, and mentioning some key data between ideal and real life.
 * 10) possibly adding a topic about constellation of satellites.

Therefore the introduction would look something like this

 * 1) Fundamental law and physical phenomena
 * 2) Time systems
 * 3) Coordinate systems and reference frames
 * 4) Planets
 * 5) Satellite constellations

Basic orbits

 * 1) N-body problem - I would prefer this to start with an idealised 2 body problem mentioning how it works then going to a N body
 * 2) N-body problem - adding the special cases where the N body problem (like 3 body) has stable systems
 * 3) I would rearrange the motion constants with orbital basics
 * 4) Orbit basics - I would add the simplest known orbit a circular orbit, how circular motion and Newtons law of gravity come together to give this orbit. Also we can show the speed required to travel at the surface if we needed to be in orbit and how the planets rotational speed at the same point is different.
 * 5) Orbit basics - introduction to the elliptical orbit based on a simple ellipse and then applying the basic physical laws and the equations derived in the N-Body problem, Which is a perfect time to introduce 2D Keplerian orbital elements and their anomaly angles.
 * 6) At this point combine the Keplerian elements and frame with the orbital basics to demonstrate the 3D planes
 * 7) Orbit basics - Introduction of the vis viva equations now after we explained the elliptical orbit and Keplerian elements. (or maybe just before we introduce the Keplerian elements)
 * 8) Orbit basics - introduction to the parabolic and hyperbolic equations.
 * 9) Now introducing more of the constants and energy and mathematics to the concepts shown and discussed.
 * 10) I would remove the orbital determination from this section (and possibly make it into it's own section as it can be quite larger with errors and optimization methods). Also move it after we have covered positions and velocities.

Therefore the basic orbits section would look like this:

 * 1) N body
 * 2) Orbital basics
 * 3) Motion constants

The rest

I partly feel like section 3 is also basic and should be added into section 2 as sub categories. but I may be wrong.

Orbital manuvers can be added into section 3 (inclination change, apogee change, also Hohmann and bi-elliptical orbits can be added) All of these under impulsive and then maybe adding finite burns.

I'm fine with the perturbations but adding a introduction to it like what was discussed in the introduction section (solar radiation, J2, ect)

I feel trajectories should be split up. a interplanetary trajectory can easily include Lambert's problem, finite burns, Hohmann transfer, beta hyper planes, optimal control such as direct transcripts and Hamiltonians) easily a book on their own about each topic.

Anyone have any opinions and ideas about this. (also sorry for the spelling mistakes it's quite late) W.Kalin (discuss • contribs) 22:33, 18 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I agree with this proposal. Although this book has a coherent structure, it is not good enough for such a complicated topic ALazyEditor (discuss • contribs) 07:03, 14 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Astrodynamics


text:
Template:Jones bookbinding/copyright

Copyright © 1995 Douglas W. Jones; This work may be transmitted or stored in electronic form on any computer attached to the Internet or World Wide Web so long as this notice is included in the copy. Individuals may make single copies for their own use. All other rights are reserved. /Templates

title: Template:Jones bookbinding/copyright


text:
Template:Jones bookbinding/permission

From a 2005 email to polyparadigm:

"I [...] grant you (by this E-mail) permission to quote freely from my work, with appropriate citation, any text or figures you find useful. By your quote with my permission, I understand that those parts of my work that you find useful will come under the GFDL as a result of inclusion in your work." /Templates

title: Template:Jones bookbinding/permission


text:
Template:Jones bookbinding

This work includes text or images adapted with permission from Bookbinding: A Tutorial © 1995 by Douglas W. Jones, who has agreed to this use under the terms of the GFDL. /Templates

title: Template:Jones bookbinding


text:
User:Samiam~enwikibooks

My name is Sam Trenholme and I am Samboy on Wikipedia (SamIam, alas, was taken there).

title: User:Samiam~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Spanish/Gender of nouns

Untitled
Hmmm...my obversation with Spanish is that, while not as common as boy-words (masculine words), feminine words are quite common, e.g: La mesa (table), la computadora (computer), la silla (chair), la taza (mug), la escuela (school), la noche (night), la verdad (truth), la foto (short for fotografía) (photograph)  Samiam 00:30, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spanish/Gender of nouns


text:
Bookbinding/Plane

Rather than using a guillotine to cut a books pages all at once, a plane can be constructed to slice pages a few at a time, with many cuts all on the same plane. Douglas Jones described making such a plane from a wood chisel:

I attached the chisel to my plowing jig with a pair of countersunk wood screws that grasped the narrowest part of the shank of the chisel between the handle and flat part of the blade. Most of the flat part of the blade is countersunk into the body of the jig in a slot I cut with the same chisel. The final adjustment of the blade height is critical. I do this by trial and error, adding scraps of paper behind the chisel blade or shank, as needed, to bring the flat of the blade exactly into the plane of the bottom of the jig.

In retrospect, I should have made one jaw of the clamp about twice as thick as the other, because by the time I've plowed off half the pages, the far end of the jig holding the chisel falls off the jaw of the clamp and it's a bit harder to keep the cutting edge of the chisel exactly on the plane I'm trying to follow. The problem isn't serious enough to make me go back and make a new clamp, though.

It is crucial that your chisel be very sharp, and there must be no bevel at all on the flat side of the blade! Careless sharpening will frequently put a slight bevel on the flat side, and this will make your plowing ride up as you work across the book instead of allowing you to hold to the plane established by the jaws of your book clamp.

The plowing jig against the spine of the book.
 * H: The chisel handle
 * C: The two clamp jaws
 * J: The hardwood jig holding the chisel.

title: Bookbinding/Plane


text:
Cookbook:Idiyappam (South Indian Rice Noodles)

| Cuisine of India

Idiyappam (rice noodles) is a South Indian food, usually served for breakfast.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup raw (i.e. not roasted) rice flour
 * 1 cup water (hot water preferred by some)
 * ½ cup grated coconut
 * 1 tsp ghee
 * Salt to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Mix rice flour with hot water and salt.
 * 2) Knead it into a smooth dough.
 * 3) Press the dough through an idiyappam presser or sieve onto banana leaves on which a little grated coconut has been sprinkled. Alternatively, press it directly onto an idli pan without banana leaves.
 * 4) Steam for 5–10 minutes. Some people add a little grated coconut on top before steaming.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Idiyappams may be served with egg curry or brown chickpea (kadala) curry. In some places it is eaten dipped in fresh coconut milk mixed with sugar.


text:
Cookbook talk:Idiyappam (South Indian Rice Noodles)

Idiyappam authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Idiyappam =
 * 2005-11-13 21:52:38 User:Francs2000 (subst:afd)
 * 2005-11-13 19:44:44 User:Harikw
 * 2005-11-13 19:43:51 User:Harikw
 * 2005-11-13 19:43:04 User:Harikw
 * 2005-11-13 19:41:57 User:Harikw
 * 2005-11-13 19:41:02 User:Harikw (Created By Hari)


text: User talk:59.93.102.237

title: User talk:59.93.102.237


text: User:Bluefoxicy

title: User:Bluefoxicy


text:
Bartending/Techniques/Stirred cocktails

Stirred cocktails are drinks such as Martinis, Manhattans, and Gimlets. They are stronger than highballs and typically are 4 oz. (120 mL) of liquid.

Stirred cocktails can be served straight up, without ice; or on the rocks, with ice. In either case, the drink is mixed with ice and then strained; drinks on the rocks are strained into a glass with fresh ice. Stirred cocktails should be strained into a glass with a stem so that they keep cold longer, especially when served straight-up; a cocktail glass is exactly this.

Making a stirred cocktail
To prepare a stirred, follow the below directions.

 * Fill a 12 oz. (350 mL) shaker glass two-thirds full with ice.
 * Add ingredients from smallest to largest amount, so that if you pour in too much you don't have to discard a whole drink.
 * Stir very well.
 * Strain the drink into a serving glass. For drinks on the rocks, strain into a glass with fresh ice; for drinks straight up, strain into an empty glass.
 * Garnish as necessary.

You can add the smallest ingredient before the ice; this is recommended for drinks such as Martinis, where you have to add a very small amount of dry vermouth.

Stirred cocktails can also be prepared as shaken cocktails in many cases; this may mix the drink better, but it may also make it cloudy. Shaking can also chip or break up the ice, increasing the water content of a drink. Stirred drinks should be stirred unless the patron requests it be shaken. As a rule of thumb, drinks made entirely of clear ingredients should be stirred, while drinks containing other ingredients such as fruit juice or egg white should be shaken.

Martinis

 * Martini
 * Dry Martini
 * Extra Dry Martini
 * Gibson
 * Vodka Martini
 * Tequini Martini
 * Black Martini
 * Chocolate Martini
 * Cosmopolitan
 * French Martini
 * Saketini

title: Bartending/Techniques/Stirred cocktails


text:
User talk:24.16.156.119

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal.

Good luck! Guanaco 03:21, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.16.156.119


text:
User:Cryo~enwikibooks

About Me:
I’ve been told I'm an old soul, but I don’t believe in soul. So I guess I'm wise. 21 years old, and I'm an inventor, animator, artists, musician, composer, writer, philosopher, and an outlet of useless information. I know a little bit about almost everything. but im an animator by trade.

portfolio:

im going to contribute to this site in as many ways as i can.

title: User:Cryo~enwikibooks


text:
Novial/Wizard of Oz 1

Novial home

Kontenaje - Chapitre 1 - Chapitre 2

Chapitre Un

Li Siklone

Dorothy habitad mid li grandi stepes de Kansas, che Onklo Henry, kel esed farmere, e Tanta Em, kel esed li marita del farmere. Lesen hause esed mikri, pro ke li ligne por konstrukta lu had mus bli porta per veture trans multi mailes. Esed quar mures, planche e tekte, kel fad un chambre; e disi chambre kontenad rustosi aspektenti forne, armore por li plates, table, tri o quar stules, e li lites.

Onklo Henry e Tanta Em haved grandi lite in un angule, e Dorothy haved mikri lite in altri angule. Esed totim nuli mansarde, e nuli kelere – exept mikri true fosat in li tere, nomat siklone-kelere, vor li familie poved vada tikas ke un de ti grandi tordo-ventes did eventa, sat fortosi por destrukte irgi strukture in sen vie. On arivad a lu per trape mid li planche, fro kel skale dukted subu en li mikri, sinlumosi true.

Kand Dorothy stead in li porte e regardad sirku, la poved vida nulu exept li grandi, grisi stepe an chaki latere. Nek arbre ni hause rupted li larji extensione de plani lande kel arivad al borde del siele ye omni direktiones. Li sune had baka li plugat lande en grisi mase, kun mikri krakos kursent tra lu. Even li gasone non esed verdi, pro ke li sune had brula li kulmines del longi folies til ke lus esed li sami, grisi kolore kel blid vida omnilok. Unfoy li hause had es piktet, ma li sune desligad li farbe e li pluves lavad lu for, e nun li hause esed matud e grisi kom omni altru.

Kand Tanta Em venid habita dar la esed yuni, beleti marita. Li sune e vente had chanja anke la. Lus had prenda li sintile ek lan okules e livad lus sobre griseso; lus had prenda li redeso fro lan vanges e labies, e lus anke esed grisi. Kand Dorothy, kel esed orfane, unesmim venid a la, Tanta Em had es talim alarmat per li pueren rido ke la kriad e presed sen manu a sur sen kordie kand unque Dorothyn gayi voise arivad a lan oreles; e la ankore regardad li mikri puera surprisatim pro ke la poved trova irgu pri kel ye rida.

Onklo Henry nulitem ridad. Lo laborad multim fro matine til nokte e non savad te kel joyo esed. Lo esed grisi anke, fro sen longi barbe til sen rudi butes, e lo aspektad severi e soleni, e rarim parlad.

Esed Toto kel kausad Dorothy rida, e salvad la fro deveno tam grisi kam lan sirkumdantus. Toto non esed grisi; lo esed mikri, nigri hunde, kun longi, silkatri piles e mikri, nigri okules kel brilietad gayim an chaki latere de lon komiki, mikri nase. Toto ludad durant li toti jorne, e Dorothy ludad kun lo, e amad lo karim.

Disdi, tamen, les non ludad. Onklo Henry sidad sur li porte-stone e regardad pavoretosim li siele, kel esed ankore plu grisi kam ordinarim. Dorothy stead in li porte kun Toto in sen brases, e regardad anke li siele. Tanta Em esed lavant li plates.

Ek li ferni norde les audid basi ululo del vente, e Onkla Henry e Dorothy poved vida vor li longi gasone ondad devan li venienti sturme. Nun venid akuti siflo in li aere fro li sude, e kand les turnad sen okules vers ti direktione les vidad ruges in li gasone venient anke fro ti direktione.

Subitim Onklo Henry steeskad.

“Siklone veni, Em,“ lo vokad a sen marita. ”Me vada sorga li animales.” Tand lo kursed vers li hangares vor li boves e kavales esed tenat.

Tanta Em haltad sen laboro e venid al porte. Un regardesko montrad a la li tre proximi danjere.

”Rapidim, Dorothy!”, la klamad.”Kurse al kelere!”

Toto saltad ek Dorothyn brases e kashad se sub li lite, e li puera komensad riprenda lo. Tanta Em, tre pavorosi, jetad aperti li trape in li planche e klimad subu per li skale en li mikri, deslumosi true. Dorothy kaptad Toto finalim e komensad seku sen tanta. Kand la esed mi-trans li chambre venid grandi kriacho fro li vente, e li hause tremblad talim multim ke la perdad sen stea-povo e sideskad subitim a sur li planche.

Tand stranju eventad.

Li hause rotad rapidim dufoy o trifoy e lentim levad se tra li aere. Dorothy sentid quasi la vadad supru in balone.

Li nordi e sudi ventes renkontrad mutu vor li hause stead, e fad lu li exakti sentre del siklone. Mid siklone li aere es generalim tranquili, ma li grandi presione del vente an chaki latere levad lu sempre plu alti, til ke lu esed al maxim alti kulmine del siklone; e dar lu restad e blid porta for tra multi mailes tam fasilim kam on vud pove porta plume.

Esed tre deslumosi, e li vente kriachad sirk la, ma Dorothy trovad ke la voyajad kelkigrad fasilim. After li unesmi poki jirationes, e altrfoy kand li hause pentad multim, la sentid quasi la blid bersa dolsim, kom bebe in berse.

Toto non prisad lu. Lo kursed sirk li chambre, nun dislok, nun tilok, aboyant lautim; ma Dorothy sidad totim tranquili sur li planche e vartad por vida tu kel saled eventa.

Unfoy Toto vadad tro proxim li averti trape, e falad inu; e unesmim li mikri puera pensad ke la had perda lo. Ma bald la vidad un ek lon oreles saliant tra li true, pro ke li forti presione del aere suportad lo talim ke lo non poved fala. La reptad til li true, kaptad Toto per li orele, e tirad lo retro en li chambre, aftru klosant li trape por ke nuli plusi aksidentes vud pove eventa.

Hore after hore pasad for, e lentim Dorothy venkad sen timo; ma la sentid totim solitari, e li vente kriachad talim lautim omnilok sirk la ke la preske devenid surdi. Komensim la questionad se ob la saled bli rupte en pieses kand li hause saled fala ri; ma durant ke li hores pasad e nulu hororisiv eventad, la haltad pavoreta e desised varta kalmim e vida tu kel li future saled porta. Finalim la reptad super li baskulanti planche til sen lite, e lieskad sur lu; e Toto sekud e lieskad apud la.

Malgre li baskulo del hause e li kriacho del vente, Dorothy bald klosad sen okules e dormieskad profundim.

title: Novial/Wizard of Oz 1


text:
Clarinet

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) General Information
 * 3) History
 * 4) Clarinet Basics
 * 5) /Building tone, rhythm, and improve playing style/
 * 6) Tone
 * 7) Airflow
 * 8) Embouchure
 * 9) Creating Good Tone Quality
 * 10) Tonguing
 * 11) Technique
 * 12) Fingering
 * 13) Fingering Chart
 * 14) Crossing the 'Break'
 * 15) Intermediate
 * 16) Double Tonguing
 * 17) Vibrato
 * 18) Reed Adjustments
 * 19) Equipment
 * 20) Reed
 * 21) Mouthpiece
 * 22) Clarinet Models
 * 23) Other Equipment
 * 24) Clarinet Repertoire
 * 25) Bibliography

Кларинет

title: Clarinet


text:
Talk:Guide to Unix

Origins
I had maintained this list at User:Kernigh, but I am moving it here. I have been contributing to Guide to UNIX from early October to middle November. It has grown to 34 modules partly because I merged several Wikibooks modules together to form this book. These were:
 * Guide to UNIX (30 July 2005 revision)
 * BSD, a small stub
 * Linux, mostly a list of other Wikibooks and external links
 * File Compression, a module abandoned by Linux Guide
 * possibly Linux commands

Note that Linux no longer redirects to Guide to UNIX/Linux; it now points to Computing bookshelf. You can look at Linux (22 September 2005 revision) to see that page before I changed it. --Kernigh 04:19, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Redirects
I moved several of the Guide to UNIX chapters. For reference, here is a list of redirects which I created because of page renames. In many cases, this is the only page to link to the redirects. --Kernigh 04:19, 14 November 2005 (UTC)
 * BSD
 * BSD bookshelf
 * File Compression (see Talk:Linux Guide)
 * moved to Explanations tree
 * Guide to UNIX/Becoming Root
 * Guide to UNIX/Connecting to Remote Unix
 * Guide to UNIX/Environment
 * Guide to UNIX/Filesystems and Swap
 * Guide to UNIX/Finding Additional Help
 * Guide to UNIX/Installing Packages
 * Guide to UNIX/Shell Prompt
 * changed to slash convention
 * Guide to UNIX commands
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Devices
 * Guide to UNIX commands: File analysing
 * Guide to UNIX commands: File system utilities
 * Guide to UNIX commands: File viewing
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Finding files
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Getting Help
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Kernel commands
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Multi-user commands
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Process management
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Self information
 * Guide to UNIX commands: System Information
 * Guide to UNIX files
 * merged into one page
 * Guide to UNIX/Commands/Information
 * Guide to UNIX/Commands/Utilities
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Information
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Misc
 * Guide to UNIX commands: Utilities

comparison between Unix, Unix, and non-Unix
comparison between Unix, Unix, and non-Unix does not really make sense. What is meant by that? comparison between Unix, Linux & BSD, and non-Unix or comparison between Unix, Unix-like, and non-Unix? --Dietmar Lettau 03:33, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

Guide to Unix Navigation Template
I propose changing the current template to the one that I made:

General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License

 * Or with out the javascript:

General: Introduction | Explanations | Why Unix-like Platforms: Linux | BSD Quick Reference: Commands | Environment Variables | Files | License

-- CFeyecare   Talk! 01:25, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guide to Unix


text:
TI-Basic Z80 Programming/List of Commands

CTL
Control; this menu contains the instructions dealing with controlling the program's flow.
 * 1) /If/
 * 2) /Then/
 * 3) /Else/
 * 4) /For/
 * 5) /While/
 * 6) /Repeat/
 * 7) /End/
 * 8) /Pause/
 * 9) /Lbl/
 * 10) /Goto/
 * 11) /IS/
 * 12) /DS/
 * 13) /Menu/
 * 14) prgm
 * 15) /Return/
 * 16) /Stop/
 * 17) /DelVar/
 * 18) /GraphStyle/

I/O
Input/Output; this menu contains the instructions dealing with the input and output of data.
 * 1) /Input/
 * 2) /Prompt/
 * 3) /Disp/
 * 4) /DispGraph/
 * 5) /DispTable/
 * 6) /Output/
 * 7) getKey
 * 8) /ClrHome/
 * 9) /ClrTable/
 * 10) /GetCalc/
 * 11) /Get/
 * 12) /Send/

EXEC
The contents of this menu vary by calculator; they contain every program residing in RAM (or ARC).

Archived programs cannot be used, or unarchived from within a program.

DRAW

 * 1) /ClrDraw/
 * 2) /Line/
 * 3) /Horizontal/
 * 4) /Vertical/
 * 5) /Tangent/
 * 6) /DrawF/
 * 7) /Shade/
 * 8) /DrawInv/
 * 9) /Circle/
 * 10) /Text/
 * 11) /Pen/

POINTS

 * 1) /Pt-On/
 * 2) /Pt-Off/
 * 3) /Pt-Change/
 * 4) /Pxl-On/
 * 5) /Pxl-Off/
 * 6) /Pxl-Change/
 * 7) /Pxl-Test/

STO

 * 1) /StorePic/
 * 2) /RecallPic/
 * 3) /StoreGDB/
 * 4) /RecallGDB/

Memory

 * 1) /Archive/
 * 2) /UnArchive/

Previous: ../Programming Games/

Next: Appendix B: Catalog


text:
User:Banno

See you at w:user:Banno

title: User:Banno


text:
User talk:201.8.211.103

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:201.8.211.103


text:
User talk:Mr. Elam

Copyright problem with Image:Clarinet diagram.jpg
--Derbeth talk 10:19, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

 * You have been warned on the upload page that images without license and source information will be deleted. Images you uploaded seem to be copyrighted and as such should be immediately deleted from Wikibooks. If they are available under free license, write it on image description page. You can use free images from Wikimedia Commons instead (they need not to be uploaded here - you can use them now). --Derbeth talk 09:20, 17 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I see you keep uploading images improperly despite my warnings and warning at Upload file page. Compare your work to Image:Wizoz house.jpg - this is how an image description should look like. I'm talking seriously: if you keep uploading images with unknown source and copyright, possible violating copyright and law, I will block you temporarily from editing Wikibooks. If you have any questions, post them on my talk page. --Derbeth talk 18:54, 17 November 2005 (UTC)
 * You marked Image:Embouchure clarinet.jpg as public domain. Are you the author of this image? If so, it's better to use PD-self instead (make situation clear). --Derbeth talk 23:43, 17 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mr. Elam


text:
Algebra/Square Root is Positive

Square Root Is Not Negative
We often say that $$\sqrt{x}$$ is the positive number, which when squared is equal to $$x$$. If $$x>0$$ this is perfectly correct, but if $$x = 0$$ then $$\sqrt{x} = \sqrt{0} = 0 $$ which is not positive. So to be technically correct (which is part of the fun of math) we should say that $$\sqrt{x}$$ is the non-negative number, which when squared is equal to $$x$$.

If it is needed to express that a square root may be both positive and negative, you will see $$\plusmn \sqrt{x}$$.

title: Algebra/Square Root is Positive


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Talk:Using an Abacus/Basics

Thought the page could use an example picture of an abacus. Feel free to neaten it up, I'm not exactly sure how to do that. --Sorobanman 11:13, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Maybe one can get pictures examples
Recently I've translated from Spanish to Portuguese the book Manual del ábaco Soroban by Fernando Tejón ([] ). It's under Creative Commons ([]) and has used images made from a freeware abacus-emulator. Maybe one can get the same. What do you think about this? Retornaire, Wikipedia-editor in PT and EO 200.223.135.166 21:01, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Using an Abacus/Basics


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Embedded Systems/Common RTOS

This chapter will discuss some particular RTOS implementations. We may use some technical terms described in the ../Real-Time Operating Systems/ chapter.

Requested RTOS
Use this page to request or suggest a new chapter about a new RTOS.

Add new RTOS's here before adding them to the main page. Do not list an RTOS on the main page if you do not intend on writing a chapter for it yourself. There are far too many different RTOS's in this world to list every instance on the main table of contents, and expect other users to fill in the blanks. Many RTOS are designed for a particular purpose, and few are common enough that other contributors can be expected to have some experience with them.

 * µC/OS-III
 * INTEGRITY
 * velOSity
 * u-velOSity
 * QNX (Operating System Design/Case Studies/QNX)
 * VxWorks
 * LynxOS
 * FreeRTOS . In particular there is a port of FreeRTOS as an Arduino library ; more generally FreeRTOS has been ported to many processors, including the ARM and the AVR.
 * eCos
 * ST OS20
 * FreeOSEK
 * DSPnano
 * Unison
 * Atomthreads
 * BeRTOS
 * ERIKA Enterprise
 * OPENRTOS
 * SAFERTOS
 * PikeOS® is a hard real-time operating system (RTOS) : PikeOS combines a real-time operating system (RTOS) with a virtualization platform and Eclipse-based integrated development environment (IDE) for embedded systems.
 * RTEMS for Embedded Software Developers
 * KRNL - an open source realtime kernel (KRNL) for the Arduino platform.
 * Everyman Kernel - a well-documented simple hard-real-time kernel released under the 2-clause FreeBSD license.

Many embedded systems have no "operating system" other than a Forth or BASIC interpreter.

Common embedded operating systems
In this book, we discuss these operating systems commonly used in embedded systems:

 * Palm OS ( Programming for Palm OS )
 * Windows CE
 * MS-DOS or DOS Clones
 * Linux, including RTLinux and MontaVista Linux and Unison OS

For further reading
A variety of embedded systems and RTOS are based on Linux—see Embedded Systems/Linux for details.

 * Embedded Control Systems Design/Operating systems
 * Wikipedia: LynxOS: A POSIX® general-purpose, feature-rich, multi-core hard real-time real time RTOS.
 * Wikipedia: LynxOS-178: A native POSIX® hard real-time partitioning operating system developed and certified to FAA DO-178C DAL A safety standards.
 * Wikipedia:INTEGRITY: A small, message passing, hard real-time micro kernel with memory protection designed for safety critical and high security devices.
 * Contiki: a small, open source, operating system developed for use on a number of smallish systems ranging from 8-bit computers to embedded microcontrollers.
 * Wikipedia: eCos (embedded Configurable operating system): an open source, royalty-free, real-time operating system intended for embedded systems and applications. ... eCos was designed for devices with memory footprints in the tens to hundreds of kilobytes, or with real-time requirements.
 * DSP/BIOS: a royalty-free real-time multi-tasking kernel (mini-operating-system) created by Texas Instruments.
 * QNX
 * VxWorks: A small footprint, scalable, high-performance RTOS
 * Windows CE
 * Palm OS
 * "pico]OS" has been ported to the Atmel AVR, the ARM, and the 80x86
 * OSEK is not an OS, but an open standard for automotive real-time operating systems.
 * MaRTE OS - Minimal Real-Time Operating System for Embedded Applications ''(Is this related to MARTE ?)
 * TinyOS is an open-source operating system designed for wireless embedded sensor networks ("networked sensors").
 * ChibiOS/RT is an open-source real-time operating system that supports LPC214x, AT91SAM7X, STM32F103x and ATmega processors.
 * Fusion RTOS is a license-free embedded operating system that supports ARM, Analog Devices Blackfin, Motorola StarCore and Motorola DSP 56800E.
 * FreeRTOS is an open-source embedded operating system kernel that supports ARM, Atmel AVR, AVR32, HCS12, MicroBlaze, MSP430, PIC18, dsPIC, Renesas H8/S, x86, 8052 processors. FreeRTOS can be configured for both preemptive or cooperative operation. FreeRTOS and OPENRTOS share the same code base, SAFERTOS shares the same functional model.
 * RTEMS for Embedded Software Developers ( RTEMS) (Real-Time Executive for Multiprocessor Systems) is a free open source real-time operating system (RTOS) designed for embedded systems.
 * MicroC/OS-II is an embedded RTOS intended for safety critical embedded systems such as aviation, medical systems and nuclear installations; it supports a wide variety of embedded processors.
 * "The Real-time Operating system Nucleus" TRON Project
 * DSPnano RTOS Ultra Tiny Embedded Linux and POSIX compatible RTOS for 8/16 Bit MCUs with Dual Licensing. Free open source versions and commercially supported versions for MCUs, DSCs and DSPs.
 * Unison RTOS Ultra Tiny Embedded Linux and POSIX compatible RTOS for 32 Bit MCUs with Dual Licensing. Free open source versions and commercially supported versions for MCUs, DSCs and DSPs.
 * BeRTOS is a real time open source operating system supplied with drivers and libraries designed for the rapid development of embedded software. It supports ARM, Atmel AVR, AVR32, BeRTOS can be configured for both preemptive or cooperative operation. Perfect for building commercial applications with no license costs nor royalties.
 * NuttX is a BSD licensed real-time embedded operating system that supports various ARM (including Cortex-M3), Intel 8052, Intel x86, Freescale M68HC12, Atmel AVR32, Hitachi SuperH and Zilog Z80 systems
 * Ethernut is a modular, open source, real time operating system for embedded platforms, the principal operating system of the Ethernut board. It is easily configurable and optimized to run on 8 and 32 bit microcontrollers.
 * ERIKA Enterprise is an open-source implementation of the OSEK/VDX API. ERIKA Enterprise includes also RT-Druid, which is a development environment distributed as a set of Eclipse plugins.
 * Threadx is a small, fast, SIL 4 and ASIL D safety certified embedded operating system that supports ARC, ARM, PowerPC, RISC-V, Renesas RX/SH/V85x, MIPS, and Xtensa embedded processors.

title: Embedded Systems/Common RTOS