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User:Brim/stuff

Stuff to add:
 * Chamberlain prodedure
 * ACOSOG Z0050 (PET for Lung ca)
 * cyrotherapy - Jewel THompson effect, Argon
 * ICRU publications 38/50/62
 * Prostate MRI: T2 best for visualizing prostate gland, T1 for showing post-bx hemorrhage, can use T1 or T2 for LN
 * American Urologic Association (AUA) stage for prostate
 * [training.seer.cancer.gov/ss]
 * MRI: Choline/Creatinine ratio versus Citrate. In cancer, citrate is lowered, and choline/creat is increased
 * MRI: diffusion coefficient decreased in tumor
 * Prostate: T3, include all SV in PTV
 * Prostate: RTOG P-0126, 79.2 Gy vs 70.2, Int Risk
 * Prostate: ext/int iliac LN. common iliac uncommon. presarcal uncommon.
 * Look up: Radiol 211: 815-828, 1991 - cross sectional nodal anatomy
 * ASTRO 2004: LN relationship to vessels (prostate)
 * Prostate "standard" pelvic field: up to L4/L5
 * Treatment planning: EUD (equivalent uniform dose), TCP/NTCP (biological cost function), Lyman - sigmoid curve
 * Treatment planning: score, uncomplicated tumor control S=T(1-P1)*(1-P2)
 * Langer et al, Kallman et al.
 * EUD: Niemierco and Mohan
 * EUD=[volume*dose^a]^(1/a)... where a=exponent. if a>>0, EUD trends toward max dose.  if a<<0 trends toward min dose
 * inverse planning algorithms:
 * exhausive search, 1960s
 * simulated annealing (Kirkpatrick 1983, Gemen 1984, Aarts 1985, Webb 1989)
 * filtered backprojection - based on inverse CT technique, Fourier transform. but often gives negative doses which aren't possible
 * L.Xing, Med PHys 25, 1845-49 - iterative method
 * genetic algorithms
 * GIST - KIT tyrosine kinase receptor, binds growth factor
 * SARCOMA:
 * Rosenberg 1982, NCI - amp vs surg/xrt
 * Pisters, MSKCC, JCO 1996 - surg vs surg/xrt
 * Yang, NCI, 1998
 * O'Sullivan NCIC, Lancet 2002 - pre-op vs post-op
 * LR/OS/Regional/Distant control - same for pre/post-op (already metastatic?). post-op has worse grade 3/4 fibrosis (36% vs 23% for preop)
 * fractures 10% at 60-66 Gy (postop) vs 2% for preop 50 Gy
 * preop more wound complications
 * tumor cells >1cm from tumor in 1/3 of cases -- need for large margins
 * HODGKIN LYMPHOMA (correct name)
 * Rye 1966, WHO 2001 (added lymphocyte rich classical HL)
 * use ABVD chemo + IF-XRT 30-36 Gy
 * early stage: extended field + ABVD - high risk of 2nd malignancy, but good cause-specific survival (overall survival is less)
 * Milan 1990-1996, EFRT v IFRT (30-36 Gy) x 4 cycles chemo
 * EORTC H8F
 * Engent JCo 21: 3601, 2003
 * new std of care is short course chemo + IF-RT
 * MALT LYMPHOMA (stomach) - treated like low grade
 * stomach 18 Gy AP/PA, boost obliques to 36 Gy off kidneys
 * new disease - described in 1980s
 * 1/3 have diffuse disease (Stage III-IV)
 * if treat H.pylori may regress. response can take 6 months. assay C-14 urea breath test to follow response, not antibodies
 * Tsang, PMH, JCO 2003, 21:4157
 * 100% control w XRT

 * BURKITT'S LYMHOMA
 * "starry sky"
 * BCL-2 negative usually
 * CNS: RTOG 95-08
 * defn of "conformity index" (by Paddick)
 * GK: trigeminal neuralgia, 75 Gy
 * RPA classification for GBM, Curran 1993 - I to VI
 * RPA for mets
 * RTOG 93-05 - GBM... RT+BCNU vs GK then RT+BCNU
 * RTOG 80-07: neutrons for GBM

NEED TO FIX:
 * At RTOG page, 78-03 and 76-15 have same PMID. Which is correct? RTOG 76-15 need ref.

Miscellaneous info
Wikibook stats: http://wikistics.falsikon.de/latest/wikibooks/en (found here)

title: User:Brim/stuff


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Canadian History/First Settlers

‹ Back to the Introduction

The Coming of the First Settlers As there are no written records maintained from the era prior to the coming of Europeans to North America, there is no exact information on how the people now referred to as First Nations came to the continent. There have been theories proposed to explain the coming of the people, with one being generally accepted as the most plausible; the Landbridge Theory.

During the most recent of the Ice Ages large portions of the northern hemisphere were coated in ice. This ice covered much of what is now Canada. As all of this ice was formed the water levels around the world lowered, causing land masses previously inaccessible to become available. One such landmass was located where the Bering Strait is today: Beringia which formed a link between what is now Siberia and Alaska. This newly formed landmass is estimated to have been 1000 kilometres wide and 90 kilometres long (the modern distance between the two continents).

With the increasing cold, plant life in the northern lands was dwindling and causing an exodus of wildlife. Animals began roaming farther in search for sustenance. As the people of the time were dependent on both, they were forced to follow or die. Those that moved across Beringia were a nomadic people which followed their prey into the previously untapped lands which now include Alberta and parts of the Yukon and British Columbia. This migration of people happened some time between 100,000 and 30,000 years ago.

About 17,000 years ago the temperatures in North America began to increase once more, and the ice, which is thought to have been upwards of 3 kilometres thick in locations over the Rocky Mountains and Hudson's Bay, began to melt off. With the receding of the ice at the end of this time, the scars in the land carved by the coming of the glaciers and their movement were filled with the water produced by the melting. This is used to explain the creation of what is now the Great Lakes of Ontario and the myriad of other small bodies of water through Canada.

Beringia, the Bering Strait landbridge, ceased to exist approximately 10,000 years ago with the rising of water levels.

A secondary theory that is accepted to a lesser degree is the Watercraft Theory, which states that Asian people could have created rafts in order to travel on the ice-free Pacific Ocean into what is now California.

The reason that these two theories are accepted over theories of Africans moving to South America and then into North America is the links between Asian and North American species and the physical resemblances between Asians and Native Americans. All three of these theories of American infusion have since been correlated via genetic sampling, as well as archaeological evidence. Genetically, Native North Americans are almost entirely Asian in origin, while Native South Americans are largely African in origin. The archaeological evidence is illustrated by technological jumps reached by the North American tribes and nations via the Pacific at various times.

Forward to the Land Prior to the Europeans ›

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Canadian History/First Settlers


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Canadian History/Viking Contact

‹ Back to North America before Europeans

The Viking Landings, talk about Red and Eriksson, the Scandinavian colonization of Iceland, Greenland and temporarily of Vinland.

Mention the historical notes of white skinned natives in Labrador and Newfoundland, also the proposed reasons for the colony's failure.

Leif Ericsson
Christopher Columbus was not the first European to discover North America. Nearly five hundred years early, Leif Ericsson or “Leif the Lucky” heard of a mysterious land to the west. He set off in search of this place and discovered the land he called Vinland. This expedition is documented in two sagas: Grœnlendinga saga and Eiríks saga rauða. They describe Erikson establishing a Norse settlement in Vinland.

Leif Eriksson grew up with his father’s adventuresome spirit and urge to travel bred within him. When he was only 13 years old, Leif’s father, Erik the Red, was banished from Iceland and so the family voyaged to Greenland. It was then that Leif first learned how to man a ship. At the age of 24, he captained his first expedition – a trip to bring gifts for King Olav in Norway. Leif came back Christian and restless for another voyage.

In an attempt to prove claims of land to the west, Leif Eriksson set off on his second expedition. Bjarni Herljulfsson, a Norse trader, had been blown far off course during his last voyage and described seeing a lush, forested land. Leif Eriksson was enticed by these tales and bought Bjarni’s ship. With a crew of 34, he sailed for 600 miles before landing on a flat, glacier covered area. Leif named it Helluland after the flat rocks. The barren place (now thought to be Baffin Island) was disappointing and he left in search of a more fertile land. Leif travelled south and came to a wooded territory with white beaches. He named it Markland or Woodland. Yet, this too did not match Bjarni’s descriptions and he sailed on once more.

Leif and his crew journeyed for two days and arrived at another land, which is now believed to be somewhere near Newfoundland. According to the Grœnlendinga saga, the salmon were bigger than they had ever seen, there were abundant pastures for cattle, and rich forests grew. One of the crew members went missing while exploring the area and came back babbling about a patch of grapes. For this reason, Leif named it Vinland (Wineland). He built at least one permanent settlement and stayed in Vinland for the winter. The next spring, Leif and his crew returned to Greenland. There are no records stating that Leif Eriksson ever came back to Vinland.

title: Canadian History/Viking Contact


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Cookbook:Cornstarch

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal | Corn

Cornstarch, sometimes confusingly called "cornflour", is a pure starch made from corn. It is not to be confused with cornmeal or corn flour proper.

Production
Cornstarch production begins with the soaking of corn kernels to soften them before grinding them to a wet slurry. It is then sieved to remove large fibrous particles, then centrifuging it to separate out the pure starch. Once separated, the starch is dried to a powder.

Characteristics
Like other pure starches, cornstarch is a fine white powder, with somewhat of a squeaky texture when rubbed. When mixed into liquid and heated, cornstarch adds a glossy appearance and thickens the liquid, setting it even more once cooled. Compared to wheat flour, cornstarch has twice the thickening power with a less-noticeable flavor, making it popular in cooking. However, cornstarch-thickened liquids will thin again if exposed to prolonged heat or stirred too vigorously,  and freezing will cause the mixture to break and weep. To avoid these issues, some professionals will use "waxy" cornstarch, which is both derived from a special variety of corn and modified to be more heat- and cold-stable.

Selection and storage
Cornstarch is quite shelf-stable. As long as it is kept segregated from moisture in an airtight container, it will keep on the order of months to years.

Use
Like other starches, cornstarch is primarily used for its shortening, thickening, and drying powers. For example, it may be added to baked goods to interfere with gluten formation and tenderize the final product, and it can also help retain water in cookies to make them chewy instead of crispy. Cornstarch can also be applied to wet items, drying them off so that batter will stick—this is commonly done for deep-fat frying. It thickens liquids into sauces, makes custards more heat-stable, and stabilizes a variety of fillings.

To use cornstarch for thickening liquids, as with sauces and custards, the best method is to suspend the starch in a cool liquid before mixing it with a warm-to-hot liquid —this prevents undesirable clumping. The mixture is then gently heated up to a brief simmer to activate the thickening process, followed by removal from the heat to prevent subsequent breakdown and thinning.

Note that mixtures thickened with cornstarch will gradually break down and thin over the course of several days, and they should not be vigorously stirred, reheated, or frozen.

Substitution
When a recipe uses cornstarch to thicken liquid or absorb moisture, another starch or a gelling agent such as xanthan gum, pectin, agar, or gelatine can be an effective substitute (though not one-to-one). When a recipe uses cornstarch to make a crisp coating, you can often substitute cornmeal, some variety of flour, or another starch.

title: Cookbook:Cornstarch


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Cookbook:Cornmeal

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal | Corn

Cornmeal is coarsely ground dried corn. It is not to be confused with cornstarch or corn flour.

Characteristics
All cornmeal is made from corn—usually dent corn, and sometimes flint corn or other varieties. Compared to corn flour, which is powdery, cornmeal is gritty or grainy, though it does range in grind size from fine to coarse. In addition to grind size, cornmeal can be either whole-grain (made from the entire kernel) or degerminated, where the germ and bran are removed. The most common colors are white and yellow, but specialty cornmeal can be made from colorful corn varieties as well, including purple and red.

Grits and polenta
Both grits and polenta are dishes of cooked cornmeal, and the terms are then sometimes back-applied to refer to the cornmeal used to make the dishes. Usually, they indicate a coarse grind, with polenta usually yellow and grits either white or yellow. Grits can also be made from hominy, in which case they are appropriately referred to as hominy grits. Polenta is sometimes made from flint corn, which gives it a more toothsome texture.

Selection and storage
Cornmeal is quite shelf-stable at room temperature, especially if it has been degerminated to reduce the fat content and is stored in an airtight container. However, if you want to prolong the shelf life to years, it's best to store it in the freezer.

Use
Cornmeal has a variety of applications, ranging from flavor to structure and texture. It is commonly used to keep baked goods—usually pizza or bread—from sticking to the baking surface. Cornmeal can be applied to wet items, drying them off so that batter will stick. This is commonly done for deep-fat frying. When a recipe uses cornmeal in this way, you can often substitute flour or cornstarch. Cornmeal is also an essential ingredient for corn bread and corn muffins, and it makes up staple porridges across cultures.

Substitution
Different varieties of cornmeal can sometimes be substituted for each other, though you should be mindful of the slight changes that will occur to the final dish. If you substitute coarsely ground cornmeal for a fine grind, note that the texture will be grittier and more toothsome. On the other hand, using a fine grind gives a more homogeneous texture that can verge on pasty if incorrectly implemented.

title: Cookbook:Cornmeal


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Cookbook:Corn Flour

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal | Corn

Corn flours are a group of products made by very finely grinding corn. It should not be confused with cornstarch, which sometimes goes by the same name.

Characteristics
All corn flours are primarily characterized by their fine grind, which is what differentiates them from corn meals. While cornmeal is coarse and gritty, corn flour is a smooth powder.

Corn flour
Basic corn flour is make by very finely grinding raw dried corn.  It is typically a whole grain product, containing bran, germ, and endosperm. It is typically pale yellow in color and made from dent corn, but other specialty varieties can be made from different colors of corn. The flavor is sweet and somewhat nutty.

Masarepa
Unlike basic corn flour, masarepa is ground corn that has been cooked into a dough and subsequently dried and ground to a powder again. The flavor is mild and starchy.

Masa harina
Masa harina is made from hominy (i.e. nixtamalized) corn that is ground to a flour. The nixtamalization process alters the flavor, making it tangier, and it produces a different texture when mixed with water.

Selection and storage
Corn flour can be kept at room temperature in an airtight container for a long time. However, if it's a whole-grain variety, it's best to store it in the freezer to prevent it from going rancid as quickly.

Use
Masa harina is usually used to make tortillas, empanadas, tamales, pupusas, and more. Masarepa has some overlap with masa harina, being used to make arepas and tamales as well. However, the two bind water slightly differently, which can give a different texture to a dough. Basic corn flour doesn't have strong binding properties, which generally makes it better for coatings or as a flavor/texture additive to baked goods.

Substitution
Different kinds of corn flour can sometimes be substituted for each other in small quantities, if their inherent properties are not key to the dish. However, you probably don't want to use basic corn flour as a replacement for masa harina in tortillas, for example, since it will affect the texture and nutrient availability.

title: Cookbook:Corn Flour


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Cookbook:Corn

Corn or maize is a grain from North and Central America.

Characteristics
An "ear" of corn takes the form of a central core or "cob", with rows of kernels along the outside, covered in a layer of silky strands and all enclosed in several layers of leafy husk. The color of the kernels ranges from white to yellow, red, or blue/purple, depending on the variety. The kernels range from starchy to sweet, depending on the desired use.

Corn is either eaten as a vegetable when fresh or dried and processed to a variety of corn products, including corn meal, flour, starch, oil, and syrup. When nixtamalized with alkali, corn is turned to hominy, which changes the flavor and makes its protein and vitamin content more available. It also allows the corn to be transformed into a cohesive dough.

Varieties
A few broad varieties of corn exist, largely used for different purposes:

 * Flint corn: small and starchy kernels, with tough exteriors; usually dried and ground or turned into popcorn
 * Dent/field corn: large and starchy kernels with a characteristic divot in them; usually dried and ground or processed into corn syrup
 * Sweet corn: soft and sweet kernels; used fresh as a vegetable
 * Baby corn: sweet corn picked when very immature and tender; eaten whole, cob and all
 * Flour corn: large cobs and starchy kernels with a thin exterior; usually ground to flour

Selection and storage
When selecting fresh corn, look for green husks with no browning, sliminess, or mold. The silk will have some browning at the top, but it should not be excessive or decaying. The kernels should be plump and juicy. Avoid husked corn if you can. The corn can be stored for a few days in the fridge, but its sweetness will decrease as you let it sit, and it's best fresh. Frozen and canned sweetcorn is also available.

Preparation
Usually, the first step when working with whole sweet corn is to peel off the husk and break off the remnant of the stem at the bottom of the cob. The corn silk then needs to be removed, which can be done by rubbing with a brush, towel, or hand to dislodge. The cob can then be cooked on the cob, or you can use a knife to cut the kernels off the cob and work with them separately.

Use
Corn can be served fresh as a vegetable, or used as a grain. Sweet corn can be quickly cooked by steaming, boiling, grilling, or roasting before eating on its own. Individual kernels may also be incorporated into other dishes, such as salads, succotash, and baked goods. Dried corn kernels can be cooked like other dried grains, and other downstream corn products have myriad uses.

title: Cookbook:Corn


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General Chemistry/Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics

 * 1) Introduction [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 2) Enthalpy [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 3) Entropy [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 4) The First Law of Thermodynamics [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 5) The Second Law of Thermodynamics [[File:100 percent.svg]]
 * 6) Free Energy [[Image:75%.svg]]

title: General Chemistry/Thermodynamics


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User:Xgamer4~enwikibooks

Ummmmm.... I'm in 9th grade and like experimenting with Lucid Dreaming. I have a personality that makes me do something, then when I get bored of it do something else, rinse and repeat. SO I tend to be on when I'm interesting in LDing again.

title: User:Xgamer4~enwikibooks


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Cookbook:Corn Oil

| Basic foodstuffs | Oil

Corn oil is oil produced from corn. Some kinds of corn have more oil than the type normally sold to consumers.

Corn oil has a medium-high smoke point, which makes it a good choice for most high-temperature frying. Corn oil is composed of polyunsaturated fat, which is considered reasonably good for human health. Corn oil is typically an inexpensive oil.

title: Cookbook:Corn Oil


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Cookbook:Puliyodarai (South Indian Tamarind Rice)

| Indian Cuisine

Puliyodarai, is a speciality of the South Indian coastal state of Tamil Nadu.

Also see Cookbook:Pulihora.

Garnishing powder

 * 1 tbsp split peas
 * 1 tbsp coriander seeds
 * ½ tsp fenugreek seeds
 * 2–3 dry red chillies

Puliyodarai

 * 4 cups cooked white rice
 * Vegetable oil
 * 2 tsp mustard seeds
 * 3 tbsp gingely (sesame) oil ("Til" oil in Hindi, "Nallennai" in Tamil)
 * 2 tbsp split peas
 * 2 tbsp groundnuts (peanuts)
 * ½ tsp asafoetida (heengh in Hindi, perungayum in Tamil)
 * 3–4 dry red chillies
 * 4–5 curry leaves
 * 1.5 tbsp tamarind concentrate
 * 1 tsp turmeric powder
 * ¾ tbsp salt

Garnishing Powder

 * 1) Dry roast all ingredients in a pan without oil until deep brown.
 * 2) Grind to a fine powder after the mix cools down.

Puliyodarai

 * 1) Heat the oil in a pan.
 * 2) Add groundnuts and split-peas, and fry until golden brown.
 * 3) Add mustard seeds, asafoetida and red-chillies (broken into pieces). Wait until the mustard seeds splutter, then remove pan from stove.
 * 4) Mix rice, salt, turmeric powder and tamarind concentrate. Add a little oil to the raw rice before cooking it. This gives it a better texture.
 * 5) Add the garnishing powder and curry leaves and mix well.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve with yogurt/curd.
 * Garnishing powder can be prepared ahead of time and can be stored for up to 2 months (no refrigeration needed).
 * Vary amount of salt/spices as needed.
 * 1 tsp sesame can be powdered and added for more taste.
 * A pinch of jaggery can be added


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Cookbook:Mung Bean

The mung bean, also moong, is a small green legume particularly associated with Asian cuisine.

Uses and Derivatives
South Asian cuisines use mung beans both whole and split. When split and skinless, the bean is often referred to as moong dal. Mung beans can be sprouted into bean sprouts. They can also be refined into mung bean flour/starch. This starch can be used to make a type of vermicelli called bean threads. with both being used commonly in South-East Asian cuisines.

Recipes using mung beans

 * Mung Beans and Brown Rice
 * Pulse Chutney
 * Khara pongal
 * Khichdi
 * Sweet pongal
 * Tadka dhal

title: Cookbook:Mung Bean


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Cookbook:Lima Bean

The lima bean, also known as the chad bean or butter bean, is a large disk-shaped bean used in succotash. Lima beans originated in Peru and have been grown there since 6000 B.C. The name comes from the capital city of Peru, Lima. Lima beans are almost always called "butter beans" in the southern part of the United States, even in markets and restaurants.

Lima beans come in three main varieties:

 * Large lima beans are green or speckled. The speckled kind have a creamy texture and a strong earthy flavor, unlike the pale green ones.
 * Small lima beans are also called sieva beans, Carolina bean, civet, seewee, and sivvy. Most small limas are pale green. They are less starchy than the larger varieties.
 * Dwarf lima beans, also known as butter peas, are white and speckled and the least starchy of the limas.

Fresh lima beans are difficult to find in the United States, but can occasionally be found at farmers' markets. It is easier to find lima beans in the southern United States than anywhere else in the country. Most lima beans are dried, canned, or frozen.

Preparation
Fresh lima beans need to be shelled before they are eaten. Shelling can be a little tricky, especially with larger beans. Beans are easier to handle if they are tender and have full pods. One method used for larger beans is to simply cut open the pod with scissors and remove the beans by hand. To remove the beans from smaller limas, pull off the string along the seam, and press the two sides open to pop the beans out. Rinse canned limas before using them to reduce their gas-promoting properties.

Lima beans should never be eaten raw (see warning below). The most common methods of preparation are boiling and microwaving. Only a small amount of water needs to be used for either method. Dry lima beans require soaking before cooking.

Warning
Do not eat lima beans raw. When eaten raw, lima beans produce the poison cyanide.

title: Cookbook:Lima Bean


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Cookbook:Lentil

The Lentil is a small legume shaped like a lens. It is commonly used in soup, often in combination with barley or rice.

Lentils are used throughout the Mediterranean regions and the Middle East, and are popular in India, where they are cooked to a purée.

A variety of lentils exist with colors that range from yellow to red-orange to green, brown or even black. There are both large and small-seeded varieties. Lentils are generally sold as dry seeds.

Lentils have been part of the human diet since the aceramic Neolithic period.

In Indian and other South Asian cuisines, the English word lentil is applied to many different legumes including lentils, beans and peas. Although sometimes used whole, they are more often used split and hulled (skin removed), in which case they are called dal or dhal. Stripped of their outer skin, split lentils are usually bright yellow, orange, green or brown in color. The thick, often spicy stew prepared from lentil and other dals is also known as dal.

Recipes using brown lentils:
 * Indian Beans
 * Lentil Rice Loaf
 * Mejadra
 * Mjeddrah

Recipes using Masoor dal (split red lentils):
 * Khichdi
 * Lentil soup
 * Tadkal

title: Cookbook:Lentil


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Cookbook:Black Bean

The black bean (also called the black turtle bean) is a variety of bean, and it is particularly associated with Cuban cuisine. Black beans are typically served with rice, and require soaking before cooking.

title: Cookbook:Black Bean


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Cookbook:Bean Sprout

| Legume

The bean sprout is a very young sprouted bean plant, harvested prior to the development of leaves. It is similar to but not the same as microgreens.

Characteristics
Bean sprouts tend to be white to pale yellow in color, with very small little leaves. They are long and crunchy, with a very high water content. Overall, they have an extremely mild, if ever-so-slightly bitter flavor, and they tend to take on the characteristics of the dish they're included in. Care should be taken not to overcook them, as they become translucent, brown, and limp.

Varieties
Technically, bean sprouts can be made from any dried, nontoxic pulses; however, certain varieties are more common:

 * Mung bean sprouts: some of the more popular and commonly available bean sprouts; long and tubular.
 * Soy bean sprouts: similar in appearance to mung bean sprouts, but larger.
 * Alfalfa sprouts: thinner and more threadlike, somewhat similar to microgreens; not as thick and "juicy" as the above.

Production
Bean sprouts are fairly easy to produce at home from dried pulses, since all that is required is germinating the plants and letting them form shoots. They should be soaked for 8–12 hours in cool water, drained, and placed in a perforated container in the dark and at room temperature. Repeat the washing/draining daily until you have sprouts.

Selection and storage
When purchasing bean sprouts, you should only buy those that are crisp and pale. Discard any sprouts that are limp, slimy, or that smell bad.

Bean sprouts should be eaten fresh, and they have a short shelf life. Once you have mature sprouts, they should be kept dry in an airtight container in the fridge —do not wash them until immediately prior to using them. After washing bean sprouts prior to use, discard any that are not crisp and white, then dry them well before using in cooking.

Use
Bean sprouts are particularly associated with Chinese cuisine, and with east Asian cuisine in general. Bean sprouts are often added to stir-fry, where they add a crunchy texture. They should be added near the end, because they are very easy to overcook.

title: Cookbook:Bean Sprout


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Talk:Polish/Polish pronunciation

Untitled
It would be great to an in-page media player, like this plugin. Currently, it's hard to see the text of the examples and the audio examples.

This section on pronounciation isn't particularly helpful for native english speakers (presumably that majority of readers). Need more examples of the usage in words. For example the vowel "i". The pronounciation can short or long, "like" vs "little". I'm guessing that it's more like a short "ee" as in "beet"? Bwood 03:52, 6 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Completely agree. We need more examples, and clearer examples.  For instance, the very first vowel in the list "a" has no notes or English examples at all in the chart.  Is it pronounced like "a" in "hat", or "a" in "car", or "a" in "cake"?
 * Notes are given for the consonent "r", but they are ambiguous: "Rolled r. r is also acceptable."  Well, which is it?  A "rolled r" sounds very differnt from "r" in English.
 * And again, for "w" -- "Pronounced like v. Before voiceless consonants, it may be pronounced as f."  OK, fine.  But how do I know which consonants are "voiceless" in Polish, if I'm not a native speaker?  None are listed, nor are any word examples given.74.92.174.105 (discuss) 02:01, 6 March 2013 (UTC)

Not like in "like", i is short vowel similar to ee in feet. In Polish aren't differences between short and long vowels, but diffrences was some hundreds years ago and now in Polish language is o (old short /o/) and ó (old long /o/, now /oo/).

in like i is pronunce as aj in Polish.

Nie tak jak w like, i jest krótką samogłoską podobną do ee w feet. W polskim nie ma różnic między krótkimi i długimi samogloskami, ale różnice były kilka setek lat temu i teraz w języku polskim jest o (stare krótkie /o/) i ó (stare długie /o/, teraz /u/).

w like i jest wymawiane jak aj w polskim.

Come on!! "ci" does NOT sound like "chea" in "cheap". Not at all! It sounds rather like three sounds "tsi" pronounced all together. It's of course very difficult for a forigner but that's the way we pronouce "ci". Otherwise I'll sound awfully strange, weird.

Another mistake! "ź" sounds like "z" and "i" pronounced together!! Never like "j'y" in French "j'y vais"!

Sorry but you're wrong on both counts. I'm a native Polish speaker who learned English (Canadian-English) at an early age. tsi is not even close to Polish ci. After i, c is pronounced like a soft ch. "chea" in "cheap" is a pretty good example. And ź sounds like zi pronounced together only from the point of view of a native Polish speaker. However, we're aiming this guide at people who are just learning Polish. Being Canadian I have studied French for a few years in school and j'y seems like an ok example to me, but my French is not that great so I'd welcome input from someone who's fluent in it.

Another mistake is suggesting "nail polish" for pronuncisation of "o". In American English, that "o" sounds close to an "a". A better example would be an "o" as in "blog". I assume the writer of this guide studied British English.

Encoding
It would be a great help if it could be indicated somewhere what encoding (UTF-8, Central European (DOS), Baltic (Windows)) should be used to display this and other guides to pronunciation. And also a list of what browsers reproduce the text correctly.

--194.74.152.66 (talk) 11:03, 3 June 2008 (UTC) Paul Redfern

 * I don't understand. UTF-8 is used on all pages on Wikipedia, Wikibooks etc. There is nothing special to this page in terms of character encoding. Furthermore, I don't think that a program which does not handle UTF-8 encoding on this page should be called "browser". All modern browsers have to be able to display contents here. --Derbeth talk 22:52, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

 * All browsers may have the ability to display these characters, provided they are properly set up to do so. I've viewed Wikipedia with many different "modern browsers" that rendered phonetic characters as with question marks ( ???? ) or small hollow boxes (▫▫▫▫).  Don't just assume that everyone who views the page is seeing the same thing you happen to be seeing, with your setup.
 * I don't see anything wrong with giving some indication of the encoding at the top of any page that makes heavy use of characters other than basic, generic ASCII.74.92.174.105 (discuss) 02:01, 6 March 2013 (UTC)

One note - rz is not always pronounced ʐ (Hard zh). There are some words that have r and z sounds pronounced separately. Marznąć - to feel cold, zamarzać - to freeze, obmierzły - foul, ugly are examples of this. All of them come from stem mróz - frost.

There is a mistake in the special letters table (letter ś/si) - "gęsi" is pronounced like "gęśi", not like "gęśe".

pronounciation of special and compound letters
I can't agree that 'si' is pronounced same like 'ś'. That 'i' is really audible (also in rest of that compositions: 'ć'/'ci', 'ń'/'ni' etc.). compare 'ś'/'si' words "śnieg" and "siniak", in both cases 'ś'/'si' is followed by 'n', but sound differs (in second case there is obvious 'i' sound). Also in article is example with "gęsi". Its funny cos if you pronouce it like article says, it sounds like singular ("gęsi" is plural form of "gęś"). With other letters is same problem.

what about
 * psz prz pr brz rż rżn grzm grd sk skr skrz szk szkl szkł źr hrz chrz kł kl ks kszt krz krzt szcz czk ts trz dw dr drw drzw drz dz dzw drż dż dżdż bj ćp ćm ść św śp żn żń żm zm mż żb ...  and perhaps 2x more consonant clusters .. spł wpł zł łz

title: Talk:Polish/Polish pronunciation


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Australia

| Pacific cuisines Warning: Australia uses a metric tablespoon defined to be 20 mL, while many other countries use a tablespoon that is approximately 15 mL. An Australian tablespoon contains 4 teaspoons, not 3. Australian recipes might use this, and might also use normal-sized tablespoons due to foreign influence. Be wary.

Some Australian recipes:

 * Vegemite Sandwich
 * Anzac biscuits
 * Lamingtons
 * Carpetbag Steak
 * Damper
 * Drover's Damper
 * Pie Floater
 * Sausage Sizzle

Disputed Recipes

 * Pavlova - Whether this dish originated in Australia or New Zealand is a controversial subject. Some suggest it may not have originated in either country.

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Australia


text:
User:Lynchdavid

http://www.geocities.com/lynchdavid

http://www.orkut.com/

title: User:Lynchdavid


text:
User:Ludraman~enwikibooks

Ludraman: Irish wiki contributor.

m:User:Ludraman -- w:User:Ludraman -- w:ga:User:Ludraman

/sandbox

title: User:Ludraman~enwikibooks


text:
User:Ludraman~enwikibooks/sandbox

Cookbook:Chocolate Fort Cake

title: User:Ludraman~enwikibooks/sandbox


text:
User:ZeroOne

My user page at the English Wikipedia.

title: User:ZeroOne


text:
Computers for Beginners/Multimedia

Introduction to Multimedia
Multimedia is a process of putting many media together. Even people who have never used a computer before have encountered images, music, videos and games. Some of this media is highly similar to their non-computer form, and others are highly unique. Multimedia files, like other files, are stored on the computer and cannot do anything by themselves. They need programmes to open them, and programmers, designers and you to edit them.

Games
A game, on the other hand, is an executable file or an application. This means that it is usually (on Windows) an .exe, .com, or .bat file. Games come from the manufacturer. Some operating system versions, like Windows 3.1, had games that come on floppy disks or CD-ROMS. Many of those games were created in Visual Basic or other programming languages or game engines. Many games can also be downloaded from the Internet and are often played there.

Games in the computer world are often as variable as those in the non-computer world. Many games have systems of artificial intelligence to make them more interesting. Many games get much harder as the player goes on, and some users like to cheat or modify the game. There are two sorts of modifications: cosmetic and fundamental.

Playing Games
In most games, it is a case of installing and loading the particular game from the Setup file. The Setup file will ask you where to save the game. It will either have its own folder, or be installed in Program Files. Program Files is slightly easier, and having games on the desktop is easiest of all.

Before playing the game, you might like to read the Terms of Service and disclaimers. Most game developers and publishers who release games on a commercial basis are very strict on this. With shareware and freeware, it is desirable, though not required, to acknowledge the developer by paying a nominal amount of money or sending them a postcard.

If your game happens to be limited to a certain amount of play, like 10 days or 28 days, respect that and delete it when you've got your use out of it. Some games will have a limited amount of plays, rather than time.

Wikipedia has a list of freeware games and some links to shareware outlets, which will cover a wide range of the twenty-five year history of personal computing. Each archive has its own procedures and rules, such as limits on how much a user can download at a time. Games are considered to be a relatively heavy use of bandwidth, so use common sense and discretion in regard to where and when you load them on your Internet Service Provider.

In the end, it's all an issue of personal preference-what educates and entertains you. Many successful games immerse their users into another world where they can learn computer-and other-skills.

Games also use images, sounds and often videos-either pre-recorded, or in real time.

Making and Modifying Games
As you become more experienced and confident at a particular game (or game principles in general), you might like to know how to modify your favourite game. Many platform-type games, for instance, have various modifications, like how many or how few obstacles are present in a particular level. Text-based adventure games can be modified by changing the foreground and background colours, changing the grammar of commands or by unlocking a certain cheat. Often a user can find extra information in the manual or on a website about the game. Often, too, other people who play games like to share their modifications in public. Thus we have skins (clothes) from the Sims and Sims 2. Simulation games, like the ones from Maxis/Electronic Arts, are often customisable across a wide range of functions.

The simplest way to modify a game is if the developer puts in an editor with the game. This is common with puzzle games, where users like to create their own levels. The editor runs more or less separately from gameplay, so you can load, save and modify features of the game to your heart's content. A useful thing which editors can do is test your created scenarios to see whether and how they are feasible in the context of the game. It might be fun to make the player-character invincible, as can happen in Pacman, and in some roleplaying games. Conversely, the player character can be put in extreme situations like heat, cold, gravity and natural disasters. It is not just the players and their capacities which can be modified; non-playing characters and the environment can be modified too.

The second easiest way to modify a game is to go to the game's menu and look for preferences or options. Each game, and each game-playing experience, is different!

How do you actually create a game? Programmes like Klik & Play (available in a free version on the Internet, but you might like to ask your computer shop to order it) or a graphic user interface engine would make programming easier. They generally create genre-games. Many fan-games-often very sophisticated-have been created through a Klik & Play interface or similar.

A presentation programme like PowerPoint or Impress (part of the OpenOffice.org suite) might be another option which does not involve buying specialist software. These programmes offer 'click on me' interaction and forms. Something of the same kind of idea was available on almost every Macintosh in the form of HyperCard Player. Windows has similar applications like SuperCard and ToolBook. It is worthwhile to spend a few hours with tutorials. If you want your game to have splash screens and animations, spend time in your graphics programme and then use a client-side language like Flash. If you want to create a hypertext game, then HTML is a good choice. Perl and Python make clean code.

Again, if you can't see and preview what the game is doing, it is not likely to be very successful. Get some of your family members to be beta testers or at least to look at your proposed concept. It can be good to get it on paper, like a storyboard, before putting it to Flash.

It's true that with making a game, you need first to try and then to try again. You might also like to read books on these concepts and techniques to bolster your own practice, and also theses. One example of a good book is Chris Crawford's The Art of Computer Game Design, and a thesis which describes the processes a class of gifted Queensland students used to create a transgressive computer game for the education market is Doing Serious Work of Just Playing: Computer Games in Subject English by Donna Lynette McGrath of the Queensland University of Technology. Chapter Four is especially relevant, as well as the appendices and tables. Both sources introduce the idea of a strong narrative or story to a game.

Wikipedia also has many links to tools that will help us make and modify games. Type in particular concepts or genres into your search engine, or bookmark relevant sites in open directories and archives.

Another good way to program a game is to use a Logo-type piece of software. This is particularly used in educational settings, and has a moderate balance between graphics and instructions with a learning curve similar but slightly more difficult than KlikPlay.

If you're really ambitious, you can use 3D or Virtual Reality. However, please remember these games need graphics cards and are not available to the majority. The same is true of games like Active Worlds and Second Life. Much graphic fun can be created with sprites. Create squares, circles and isometric images first!

Images
Looking at pictures is fun. They spice up time at the computer and make boring text fresh and exciting. But before you view pictures, you should know what you're looking at.

Compressed Formats
jpg or jpeg - Most realistic photos are in this format. Almost every digital camera uses the jpeg format for their pictures. It has great compression and supports enough colors to suit most people's needs. The only draw back is that it uses lossy compression, which means that pictures saved in jpeg loose quality. Line art looks really bad in jpeg, but there are other formats for that.

gif - An easy and common format for creating animated images on web site. Commonly, used for advertisements. It only supports 256 different colors in any given image, thus it often looks grainy. Gif images have a lossless compression, so pictures saved in this format do not lose quality unless they have more than 256 colors.

png - Another popular image type on the Internet. It was created to be an open source replacement for gif's, but it doesn't support animation. This format like jpeg's allows for enough colors to create a realistic photo.

mng - An image format that has potential, but isn't used frequently. Mng has a lot in common with png and is made by most of the same people. The advantage of mng is that it also supports animation like gif's.

Uncompressed Formats
Images that aren't compressed get really big. The most popular format is bmp.

Vector
Every picture format described so far are raster. This means that they are drawn using different colored dots, or pixels.

Vector images are different because they are drawn with mathematical or vector images. For example, a circle is described using a mathematical equation instead of a whole bunch of dots that are placed to look like a circle. Because of this, you can zoom in forever and the vector circle would not lose quality. Most clip art is some sort of vector format. The main one is that if there was a circle, diagonal line, or something similar, one could zoom in forever and the picture wouldn't

Here are some popular vector formats:

swf - A proprietary format used by Macromedia Flash. Most animated movies on the internet use the swf.

svg - A basic and widely used format. It's not used for animations with sound.

Popular image viewing software
Some of the popular image viewers are:

Google Picasa
This viewer has a good user interface and is easy to use. Besides being free of cost, it provides good basic image editing features also.

Windows Media Player
This comes in built with all Microsoft Windows OS. Although not so rich as the Google Picasa, it is a good alternative.

Music
Music is a great way to change the mood while working on the computer. With music on your computer, you can make customize CDs, create your own jukebox, and listen to a wide variety of radio stations from all around the world.

Lossy Formats
Lossy compress music, discarding data in order to compress the file to something much smaller than lossless compression and the original PCM stream. The resulting file will sound inferior to the original. Lossy formats can be compressed to varying sizes, with smaller file sized having lower quality.
 * MP3 -The most popular lossy compression format, and the one that is synonymous with digital music. It is supported by all major DAPs and multimedia players.
 * OGG Vorbis - A higher quality codec than MP3, it is also free, but with limted support from DAPs. It is supported by the Rio Karma and most iRiver DAPs.
 * WMA -
 * AAC - The format used by iTunes, but with FairPlay DRM. The iPod is the only major DAP to support it.
 * Real Audio -

Uncompressed Formats
Uncompressed formats store music in the PCM format, the same used by the Red Book audio CD format. For 2 Channel, 44.1 kHz 16 bit audio, this takes up 1378Kbp/s compared to 192Kbp/s for lossy formats like MP3.

AIFF -

WAV -

Lossless Compressed Formats
Lossless compression shrinks a music file, without a loss of any sound, and can be decompressed back into the original file. However, at around 75% of the original file, they take up more room than lossy compression formats.

FLAC - A patent free format by the Xiph.org Foundation, who made Ogg Vorbis.

Apple Lossless (MP4) -

Shorten (SHN) - A lossless file format written by Tony Robinson.

Windows Media Audio 9 Lossless (WMA) -

Listening
There is a wide variety of audio players available for free off of the Internet. They usually support Audio CDs and MP3s. Often they also support proprietary formats as well.

iTunes - Apple's popular audio player which supports listening to CDs, converting audio CDs into a jukebox, making custom CDs, downloading songs off of Apple's iTune store, and listening to streaming radio stations. iTunes also supports listening to music off other computers running iTunes through a local area network (LAN) and uploading songs to popular MP3 players including Apple's iPod.

Musicmatch - Musicmatch similar audio CD features as iTunes. Plus, it has its own Music store. One unique feature it supports is the ability to stream any song in the Musicmatch library for a monthly fee.

RealPlayer -

Winamp - Compared to the jukebox style music players, Winamp's GUI is simple and takes up very little screen space.

Windows Media Player -

Media Types
A media type is how one would store video if they wanted to share it with other people. For example, a DVD is what most new movies are stored on.

DVD-Video - The popular format that replaced VHS as the standard for hollywood production movies. This standard is only produced by manufactures of large movie companies. Home users can not produce this format of video. Video is encoded in MPEG2. Audio can be encoded in PCM, MPEG2 Audio, Dolby Digital, and DTS. However, the DVD spec requires that a DVD contain a PCM or Dolby Digital sound track. Up to 8 audio channels may be used.

DVD-R and DVD+R - A popular format for home made DVD movies. These disc play in most standalone DVD players. These disc can be single layer or dual layer. The single layer are relatively inexpensive and can hold 4.7 GB. The dual layer are very expensive and can hold roughly twice the information.

DVD-RW and DVD+RW - A similar format to DVD-R and DVD+R expect it is rewritable.

DVD-RAM - A format that requires a special drive and isn't real popular. It can support single layer 4.7 GB disc and 9.4 dual layer disc. Like DVD-RW and DVD+RW, it is rewriteable.

VCD - A low quality video disc contraining 1374Mb/s MPEG1 video, the same bitrate as audio CDs. VCDs can be burned onto regular CD-Rs and CD-RWs with a CD burner.

SVCD - Similar to VCD but with slightly higher quality at the cost of not being able to store as much video.

File Types and Codecs
A file type is the video itself. For example, if someone had a .mpg file on their computer, that would be the file type. When they put in on a DVD-R disk, they are using DVD-R as the media type.

Uncompressed video is very large. Because of that, many compression formats have been developed. Every file type here is a compressed format. Better yet, every file type here uses lossy compression. This means that in order to make the file smaller, quality is lost. Because of this, it is not a good idea to convert from one format to another because more quality will be lost.

Codecs
MPEG-1: Used for Video CDs, and also sometimes for online video. The quality is generally less than that of VHS. Includes the MP3 standard. Stored in a MPEG file.

MPEG-2: Used on DVD and in another form for SVCD. When used on a standard DVD, it offers great picture quality and supports widescreen. When used on SVCD, it is not as good but is certainly better than VCD. Unfortunately, SVCD will only fit around 40 minutes of video on a CD, VCD will fit an hour. Stored in a MPEG file.

Windows Media Video (WMV): Microsoft's proprietary format. It can do anything from low resolution video for dial up internet users to High Definition video to view on an HD TV. files can be burnt to CD and DVD or output to any number of devices. It is also useful for Media Centre PCs. Stored in a .wmv.

RealVideo: Developed by Real Networks. A popular codec in the earlier days of internet when bandwidth was scarce. Now less popular because the required player adds all kinds of unnecessary extras, and monitors usage behavior.

Sorenson 3: A popular codec used by Apple's QuickTime. Many of the Movie trailers found on the web use this codec.

Cinepak: A very early codec used by Apple's QuickTime.

MPEG4: The latest MPEG codec can be used for internet and on disc like WMV.

DivX & Xvid: Types of MPEG 4. Usually stored in an AVI or OGM file.

File Types
A player that can play a certain file type will not be able to play that type of file with a codec it can not play.

AVI: Used with many different codecs. Can also store uncompressed video. Uses the .avi extension.

OGM: A file format similar to AVI supporting soft subtitles. Uses the .ogm extension.

MPEG: A file format used to store various versions of the MPEG codec. Uses the .mpeg or .mpg extension.

QuickTime: Strickly speaking QuickTime is not a codec, but a file format, API set, and media player developed by Apple. It supports many popular codecs. Some of the more popular include Cinepack, Sorenson 3, and MPEG-4 Video. QuickTime also supports a plug-in architecture that allows other popular codecs such as MPEG 2 and DivX to be added by the user. Uses the .mov extension. And one more product developed by Apple. That is iTune. Used for Downloading MP3 Musics from Various sites. it can easily access to Download Musics Easily.

Watching
Media Player Classic -

QuickTime -

RealPlayer -

VLC media player (VLC) - A free cross-platform multimedia player than plays almost anything you give it, including DVDs.

Windows Media Player -

title: Computers for Beginners/Multimedia


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/Distributed

The following Libraries help you in Distributed programming:

 * GLADE : A full implementation of the Ada Annex E: Distributed Systems
 * PolyORB : A CORBA and Annex E: Distributed Systems implementation.
 * Matreshka : An implementation of SOAP and WS-Security (Simple Object Access Protocol)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries
 * Programming:CORBA

Ada Reference Manual

|Database

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/Distributed


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/Database

The following libraries help you in Database programming:

|Database

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/Database


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/Web

The following libraries help you in Internet or Web programming:

 * AdaCL, Ada Class Library : Powerful CGI implementation.
 * XML/Ada : XML and Unicode support.
 * AWS : A full-featured Web-Server.
 * Matreshka : Web Services, JSON, FastCGI, XML, Unicode and localization support.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

Ada Reference Manual
—does not apply—

|Web

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/Web


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/Container

The following Libraries help you store and manage objects inside container classes:

 * Ada.Containers: The standard container library, included in the language since Ada 2005 and updated for Ada 2012 and 2022.
 * Booch Components: The most complete of all container class libraries (at least when used with AdaCL, Ada Class Library).
 * AdaCL, Ada Class Library: A Booch Components extension pack for storing indefinite objects.
 * Charles: Build on the C++ STL and therefore very easy to learn for C++ developers.
 * AI302: Proof of concept for Ada.Containers
 * Stephe's Ada Library: Dynamic arrays, lists, trees

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

Ada Reference Manual

|Container

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/Container


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/MultiPurpose

 * AdaCL, Ada Class Library : Filtering of text files, string tools, process control, command line parsing, CGI, garbage collector, components.
 * Matreshka : Core components for information system development: Unicode support (case conversions and folding, collation, normalization); regular expression engine; XML processor; FastCGI, SQL database access.
 * paraffin: "A suite of Ada 2005 generics to facilitate iterative and recursive parallelism". Features include load-balancing and monitoring of stacks.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/MultiPurpose


text:
Ada Programming/Platform/Windows

The following Libraries and Tools help you when you target the MS-Windows Platform.

 * GNAVI : Visual RAD (Rapid application development) Development environment including: GWindows, a Win32 binding, and GNATCOM, a binding to COM/DCOM/ActiveX.
 * CLAW : Another Win32 binding that works with any Ada 95 compiler. An introductory edition is available free of charge for non-commercial use.
 * /Console/ : Libraries for console I/O.
 * /Visual C++ - GNAT interface/ : Guide for calling Ada functions from C++ using GNAT and Visual C++.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

|Windows

title: Ada Programming/Platform/Windows


text:
Ada Programming/Platform/VM

The following tools help you when you target a virtual machine.

 * Java : Programming Ada 95 for Java's JVM (JGnat, AppletMagic)
 * .NET : Programming Ada for the .NET Platform (GNAT Pro .NET, A#)

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

Ada Reference Manual
—does not apply—

|Virtual Machine

title: Ada Programming/Platform/VM


text:
Ada Programming/Platform/Linux

The following libraries help you when you target the Linux Platform.

 * Florist : POSIX.5 binding. It will let you perform Linux system calls in the POSIX subset.
 * Ncurses : text terminal library.
 * Texttools : ncurses-based library for the Linux console.
 * GtkAda : GUI library (actually multiplatform).

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

Ada Reference Manual
—does not apply—

External resources

 * The Big Online Book of Linux Ada Programming
 * Ada in Debian GNU/Linux, slides suitable for a 50minute presentation, by Ludovic Brenta.

|Linux

title: Ada Programming/Platform/Linux


text:
User:Felixpetrar~enwikibooks

Few words about me
Born in 1975.

I am living in Baia Mare, Romania.

My primary language is Romanian. I am able to read French and Italian because they are Romanic languages and I am able to understand Latin too. Now, I am learning Chinese. I knew Greek and German but I didn't practice them for a long time so...

My profession is physician but I am also interested in anthropology+paleoanthropology, ethnomusicology, history, arts (dance, music, painting, photography, etc.), psychology+psychiatry, etc. etc.

Some interesting links (for me)

 * Searching engines:
 * Google

 * Poetry:
 * Simply:
 * Some Romanian poetry
 * Romanian lyrics - good and bad
 * Wordtechcommunications
 * Japan:
 * toyomasu
 * ahapoetry
 * the art of haiku
 * China:
 * Chinese_poetry 和 List_of_Chinese_language_poets
 * 完成许多中国诗人的汇集
 * Tao De Jing - Lao Zi
 * 许多中国诗人的汇集
 * 某一中国诗歌... 唯一英文译文
 * idem
 * Chinese poetry database
 * 这个网站 和
 * http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/chinese_poetry.html
 * Anthropology
 * The American Anthropological Association Homepage - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world.
 * Ju/'hoansi - about "Bushmen"
 * Andamanese - about Andamanese
 * Joshua Project - Statistics, maps&charts of people groups, language groups and religions. Although I don't like the aim of this site (their logo is: "Go therefore, and make disciples of all the nations" - Jesus - AD33...), the information inside is useful.
 * Rosetta Project - All language archive
 * Languages:
 * Wordtheque - samples of literature in various languages.
 * Ethnologue - the most comprehensive existing language inventory, along with the Linguasphere Register
 * Computer-coding the IPA
 * Painting:
 * Carol Gerten-Jackson
 * Nicolas Pioch
 * Photography:
 * Eric Boutilier-Brown
 * Science:
 * Sciam
 * News:
 * Euractiv
 * Revista de informare pentru medici
 * Music:
 * Contemplator
 * African music encyclopedia
 * History:
 * Dubious historical resources
 * Herodotus vs Thucydides - (useful bibliography)
 * History Channel - games
 * Magazine:
 * Boheme
 * Humour:
 * Atomicfilms

Notepad

 * Before throwing a stone in a dog, ask who's dog is.
 * Amor fictus et fugiendus.

title: User:Felixpetrar~enwikibooks


text:
Macroeconomics/Monetary Policy

Monetary policy concerns three main methods of government intervention in an economy. These are changes in the money supply, the rate of interest and the exchange rate, and are covered in more detail below. They are grouped like this as they directly affect aggregate demand (but also indirectly affect supply in a variety of ways).

Money Supply
This does exactly what it says on the tin! A government can increase the money supply by printing money or providing incentives for banks to increase the lending of money (not changing interest rates). This results in an increase in the amount of disposable income people will have to spend on goods and services. This shifts aggregate demand, as  AD = C + I + G + (X - M) , with consumer spending represented by 'C'.

Consequences of changing the Money Supply

 * Since increasing the money supply can affect AD, then ceteris paribus (cp.) inflation in prices will result at the same time as an increase in output, as can be shown on any demand and supply diagram. A central bank must decide whether the benefits of demand-side economic growth outweigh the costs of potential demand-pull inflation.
 * This resultant inflation could cause the currency to depreciate against others, as fewer goods and services can be bought for the same nominal amount of money. This means that the exchange rate is lower, increasing the price of imports and increasing the competitiveness of exports with their associated effects on the economy!

Interest Rates
This is the major method of monetary policy used today, although this was not always the case. The rate of interest is a return on savings set by the national bank, meaning that if an individual saves a sum of money in a bank, they will receive a rate of interest similar to that set by the central bank. Because of this, a change in the rate of interest will result several macroeconomic effects. A rise in interest rates will: The major purpose of a rise in interest rates is to 'cool down' an economy that is overheating ie. to reduce inflationary pressure due to high aggregate demand and no complementary increase in long run aggregate supply.
 * reduce consumption and investment, and consequently AD. This is due to the fact that individuals and firms will be more inclined to save wages and profits than invest or spend them, as the return on saving per year is greater
 * raise the cost of borrowing from banks, as the rate of interest on repayments is greater. This could further reduce spending and investment
 * encourage foreign investment in domestic institutions and firms to increase, as a high rate of return on savings is attractive. High demand for the currency will raise its value (like any other product). This would lead to an increase in the price of exports and a fall in the price of imports, resulting in an increase in imports and fall in exports as they are less competitive globally. This would lead to a fall in AD ( X - M )

The exact opposite applies to a fall in interest rates. A cut in interest rates is often used to aid economic recovery and boost consumer demand, make exports more competitive, and encourage capital investment by firms.

title: Macroeconomics/Monetary Policy


text:
Talk:Music Theory/Atonal

1. I have removed the following section: "Following this, there was a reaction against what was seen as excessive systematisation of music, with a number of composers (foremost among them John Cage and the New York School) choosing to write music (known as 'aleatoric music') containing far greater elements of chance. Following this, in the 1970s musical minimalism (as developed by Steve Reich, Terry Riley and Philip Glass, among others) again attacked serialism (and atonality with it) as being too incomprehensible, suggesting a return to a static form of tonality based on repetition. The last 25 years have, in general, followed the same pattern of 'reaction' and 'counter-reaction': while some composers (such as David Del Tredici) have re-embraced tonality completely, others have moved towards music of ever-increasing complexity and difficulty (most notably Brian Ferneyhough and other New Complexity composers)."

2. Cage's music is not a reaction against atonality, and his contributions/innovations really have nothing to do with this topic. (See below, point 6, right after point 5 "this page is hopelessly confused.")

3. Except for the mention of Del Tredici, the passage above has nothing to do with atonality. If you want to write a history of the reactions against atonality (not serialism), then write about the neo-Romantics (like Del Tredici, but more importantly John Corigliano and John Adams). And quit being so white-centric -- why aren't we writing about atonalists Cecil Taylor and Ornette Coleman, and the jazz musicians who "reacted" against them? -- this history plays out among African-American composers in countless ways that were actually more widely appreciated by the public.

4. It's true that minimalists rebel against serialism but they don't do it by writing music that is any more tonal or any less atonal-- minimalism generally does nothing more to clarify dissonance/consonance relationships than serialism does. You can write a tonal serial piece, and you can write an atonal minimalist piece. The conflict between serialists/pointillists and minimalists simply has nothing to do with atonality; it is a conflict about the pace at which information unfolds, and the prioritization of one kind of information over another.

5. This page is hopelessly confused.

6. John Cage was not opposed to the systemization of music, and chance operations are not "less systematic" than serial operations; in fact, Cage embraced systems more fully than most serial composers, since he used them as a deliberate and rigorous way of distancing musical outcomes from composer control. That ability to separate the composer from the work was a matter of spiritual importance to Cage, and systematization was a deeply important aspect of it. Both Cage's experimentation with aleatoric processes, and the "total serial"/"integral serial" crowd are examples of high modernism, which in general abandons of historical notions of aesthetics or creative language, and favors empirical and experimental approaches to discovering a kind of musical future; the one is no way a reaction against the other.

7. Serialism as a topic needs to be treated separately from atonality; it is just one technique by which composers ensure some kind of structural unity without privileging one note or another. Berg and Schuller and others have elaborately written "tonal" serial works.

8. Grammar/logic: you cannot "assimilate" a language. In the sense being invoked here, it is an intransitive verb; you don't do it "to" a language or culture -- you just do it as a being and doing involves adaptation and accommodation and compromise as part of its intransitive process. (And when it is a transitive verb--a later sense of the word, I think--it has to be done by a culture TO a people, not the other way around. As in "the U.S. assimilated many immigrant cultures in the 19th century.")

Assimilation is the process of adjusting to a norm, adapting the values (and sometimes the language) of a dominant culture. It implies undermining the power of your native culture. It's a silly verb to associate with the idea of acquiring a comprehension of a language or growing accustomed to it.

'''Some people claim atonal music is not music in the same way some claim abstract art is not art. '''

 * What about music from the movie "Star Wars" (1977) ? That was atonal music. Felix Petrar

 * It is? I've never seen anything about that music being atonal.
 * I agree. As far as I can tell it's quite tonal. Was there a specific piece of music that struck you as being atonal? A.C.
 * Overall, the music is tonal, but if you limit the meaning of tonal to its technical definition- that is, as every note fitting into tonality in a 17th century way - very little music is "tonal" as such. For practicality's sake, the layman term tonality refers to music following key structurs, maintaining the primacy of the V-I, etc. I would consider most film music to be more influenced by romanticism than classical music, and so it is not TECHNICALLY tonal. 68.37.236.200 (talk) 05:02, 25 December 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Music Theory/Atonal


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User:E=MC^2~enwikibooks

I am user E=MC^2 on Wikipedia, and user E=MC^2 on meta.

title: User:E=MC^2~enwikibooks


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Fortran/Fortran variables

Introduction
In programming, a variable is a container for data that the program can change. You typically declare variables before you use them to provide information on what kind of data they should store. However, Fortran allows variables to be created implicitly. Absent an  statement, undeclared variables and arguments beginning with  /  through  /  (the "in" group) will be , and all other undeclared variables and arguments will be.

Many consider using variables without declaring them bad practice. If you want to be forced to declare variables, code  first.

General Examples
Examples of usual variables are listed below The following does exactly the same thing, but in the shorter, more archaic form: If memory layout counts to you, note that m(1,1) is followed in memory by m(2,1), and not by m(1,2).

A variable can be set by placing it before an equal sign, which is followed by the value to which it is set. Given the declarations above, the following assignments are possible:

A variable can appear on both sides of an assignment. The right hand side is evaluated first, and the variable is then assigned to that value:

Variables can be converted from one type to another, but unlike in C++ or Java where you would typecast the variable, in Fortran you use the intrinsic procedures: Again, the same thing in the simpler, archaic form:

Declaration
One can declare arrays using two different notations. The following example illustrates the notations for arrays of  type and of length 5. For multidimensional arrays one needs to specify the length of each dimension. The following example highlights the case of a 5x6 integer matrix aka a two-dimensional array of length (5,6). (Again, showing both notations.)

Initialization
To initialize arrays with actual values one has multiple options: set specific elements, specific ranges, or the whole array. To set multidimensional arrays one need to make use of, and   commands. Fortran uses column-major ordering such that the upper example produces a often confusing matrix. For a row-major ordering one can use the following example which highlights the use of the order argument to specify along which dimension to sort first.

title: Fortran/Fortran variables


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User:Haunti

This is me.

title: User:Haunti


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Fortran/Fortran simple input and output

C.  PROGRAM TO EVALUATE SUM OF FINITE SERIES WRITE(*,*)`ENTER THE VALUE OF X'    READ(*,*)X WRITE(*,*)'ENTER THE VALUE OF N'    READ(*,*)N SUM=0.0 DO 10I=1,N TERM=((-1)**I)*(X**(I*0.5))/I*(I+1))    SUM=SUM+TERM

10 CONTINUE WRITE (*,*)`SUM OF SERIES'=,SUM PAUSE STOP END

Default output
A Fortran program reads from standard input or from a file using the read statement, and it can write to standard output using the print statement. With the write statement one can write to standard output or to a file. Before writing to a file, the file must be opened and assigned a unit number with which the programmer may reference the file. If one wishes to use the write statement to write a statement to the default output, the syntax is write(*,*). It is used as follows:

This code writes "Hello World!" to the default output (usually standard output, the screen), similar to if one had used the  statement.

File output
As a demonstration of file output, the following program reads two integers from the keyboard and writes them and their product to an output file:

The file "results.txt" will contain these lines:

The product of 2 and 3 is 6

Each print or write statement on a new line by default starts printing on a new line. For example:

Prints, to standard output:

Hello World!

If one had put "Hello World!" in one print statement, the text "Hello World!" would have appeared on one line.

Fortran/Podstawowe wejście i wyjście

title: Fortran/Fortran simple input and output


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User:K12u

This account is obsolete.

title: User:K12u


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Talk:Introduction to Canadian Law

It would be useful to define the terms in "The Hierarchy of Authority/ Sources of Law", such as what is meant by Doctrine.

title: Talk:Introduction to Canadian Law


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Fortran/Hello world

Simple Fortran program
Below is a simple Fortran program. You can paste this into a text editor (such as Emacs or Vim). Source code must be in a plain text file, so don't use a word processor (such as Microsoft Word), because its native format is usually not plain text, or otherwise contains special formatting data. Give the file a name such as hello.f90. The filename extension .f90 is conventionally used for modern Fortran source code. Other common Fortran file extensions are .f, .FOR, .for, .f77, .f90 and .f95, which can denote the use of old or specific Fortran standards. You may also use .F, .fpp and .FPP for files that support Preprocessing.

Because Fortran is case insensitive, one could just as easily write the first 'hello' program as:

The only case sensitive part of this program is what contained in the quotation marks of the print statement. ("Hello World!")

Unix
There are several Fortran compilers available for Unix. Among the most popular are:

Once the program is compiled and linked, you may execute it:
 * GNU Fortran compiler from the GCC, which is a fork of G95. Invocation: Note: the GNU Fortran compiler uses the FORTRAN 77 standard by default, so the input file must have the .f90 (or of later standard) suffix, so that the compiler can guess the desired standard automatically. Alternatively you can supply the  option with the usual .f suffix to enable free-form format instead of the fixed-form format used by the FORTRAN 77 standard.
 * Fortran 95 optimizing compiler from Oracle Solaris Studio. Invocation:

Windows
On Windows, you will need to install a compiler. You may also want to install an IDE for that compiler, which acts as an editor and allows you to compile the program more easily.

When you have a compiler, open a command prompt (MS-DOS prompt). This looks like or something similar. At the prompt, you need to move into the folder containing the .f90 file. Then, to compile, type This assumes the compiler is called "f95". The Intel compiler is typically "ifort". You may need to specify where this is, for example if it's in Program Files\Compiler, use:

Alternatively, you could install a text editor with support for Fortran compilers. Such as SciTE The above commands produce an executable called hello.exe - to run this, just type at the command prompt

OpenVMS
On VMS you will need the DEC Fortran90 compiler installed and licenses loaded. This is available as part of the hobbyist project. These commands work for Fortran on both Alpha and VAX.

To compile, type the following at the DCL prompt:

To link the file to the Run-Time Lib (RTL) type the following:

To Run the executable image, type the following:

Enjoy all that VMS and Fortran offers.

title: Fortran/Hello world


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Fortran/Program flow control

If-then(-else) conditional
Conditional execution is done using the,   and   statements in the following construct:

You may have as many  statements as you desire.

The following operators can be used when making expressions: Note: The Fortran standard mandates  and   cannot be used with logicals but some compilers will not enforce the standard

To check more than one statement, use parentheses.

The following program generates a random number between 0 and 1 and tests if it is between 0 and 0.3, 0.3 and 0.6, or between 0.6 and 1.0.

There are two interesting archaic forms of : In the first form, things are pretty straightforward. In the second form, the arithmetic expression is evaluated. If the expression evaluates to a negative number, then execution continues at the first line number. If the expression evaluates to zero, then execution continues at the second line number. Otherwise, execution continues at the third line number.

case (switch)

 * select case(...) case (...); ... end select

If an if block consists of repeated tests on a single variable, it may be possible to replace it with a select case construct. For example, the code can be replaced by Fortran does not need a break statement.

Loops

 * do i=1,10 ... end do

To iterate, Fortran has a do loop. The following loop prints the squares of the integers from 1 to 10:

One can exit a loop early using exit, as shown in the code below, which prints the squares of integers until one of the squares exceeds 25.

Loops can be nested. The following code prints powers 2 through 4 of the integers from 1 to 10 In an archaic form of, a line number on which the loop(s) end is used. Here's the same loop, explicitly stating that label  is the last line of each loop: If using the archaic form, the loop must not end on an  or   statement. You may use a  statement as an anchor for a the   label.

There is also an optional increment argument when declaring a do loop. The following will count up by two's. 2, 4, 6, ...

Arguments to the do loop don't have to be numbers, they can be any integer that is defined elsewhere in the program. first, last, and increment can be any variable name.

Simple statements
will jump to the specified statement number.

will stop with the specified condition code or exit code. may be coded without an argument. Note that on many systems,  is still a failure. Also note that pre-Fortran 2008, the condition code must be a constant expression and not a variable.

will leave a loop.

can be used to end an archaic  loop when it would otherwise end on an.

will transfer the control of the program to the next  statement.

leaves a subroutine or function.

title: Fortran/Program flow control


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User:Iain McCoy

I mainly edit The_Unicyclopedia

You can contact me on msn messenger at buzgub@hotmail.com or email at myfirstname @ mysurname.id.au

title: User:Iain McCoy


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Cookbook:Lemon Juice

| Fruit

Lemon juice is squeezed from a lemon. Before cutting the lemon, roll it back and forth between the hands, to break up the membranes containing the juice. Then cut the lemon, and squeeze each half into a clean bowl.

title: Cookbook:Lemon Juice


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User talk:Chrisjrn

 * Help the A+ project. --Cyberman 04:08, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)
 * Don't know a whole heap about it - why should I? --Noogz 09:36, 7 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Help the A Neutral Look on OS's project. I'm sure you have a LOT of good information on Debian you can provide. It's a little sparse, I'd be adding more on that soon... but it'd be nice if you'd give it a shot.--Hyperlink 20:42, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Organizing wikibooks
Hi Noogz, I noticed that you started to spread the word about splitting up books. If you do so, don`t forget to provide a link to a recent discussion and recently converted book, like How To Build A Computer, and the advice giving there: Talk:How To Build A Computer. There are many ways of splitting up books wrongly, and it is much harder to move all pages once the book has been split. (Not all new users might know about subpages via "/".) Also, please point to Hierarchy naming scheme. I welcome your initiatives. --Andreas 08:13, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Thanks... I'll keep that in mind :) --Noogz 23:02, 21 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Monitor NPOV dispute
Currently me and AlbertCahalan are in a dispute over the monitor buying section of How To Build A Computer. I would really like it if you looked at the article, it's revisions, and the argument on the talk page, and if you would give us your comments. TIA. Reub2000 22:33, 14 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Article: How_To_Build_A_Computer/Choosing_the_parts

title: User talk:Chrisjrn


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Programming Languages/Concurrent Languages

Concurrent programming is a computer programming technique that provides for the execution of operations concurrently - either within a single computer, or across a number of systems. In the latter case, the term distributed computing is used. Multiprocessor machines achieve better performance by taking advantage of this kind of programming.

Concurrent programming is now the only way to make a CPU-intensive program run twice as fast. (Historically another popular approach was to wait a couple of years for a CPU with twice the clock speed to show up, but that trend ended around 2003).

In parallel programming, single tasks are split into a number of subtasks that can be computed relatively independently and then aggregated to form a single coherent solution. Parallel programming is most effective for tasks that can easily broken down into independent tasks such as purely mathematical problems, e.g., factorisation.

One way to achieve parallel programming is through distributed computing, which is a method of information processing in which work is performed by separate computers linked through a communications network.

Mutual Exclusion

 * Definition
 * Formally defined and solved by E.W. Dijkstra in 1965 [D65].

 * We have a collection of processes that alternate repeatedly between two sections of code: non-critical section and critical section(CS). The problem is to provide a synchronisation algorithm in the form of a trying and an exit protocol to be executed, respectively, immediately before and after the CS:

 * non-critical section
 * trying protocol
 * critical section
 * exit protocol

 * , so that the following properties hold:

 * Mutual Exclusion
 * No two processes are in their CS at the same time.
 * Lockout-freedom
 * If a process enter the trying protocol, then it eventually enters the CS.
 * Absence of unnecessary delay:
 * A process attempting to enter its critical section is prevented from doing so only by another process that is executing its critical section or by other processes attempting to enter their critical sections.
 * Bounded exit
 * If a process enters the exit protocol, then it enter the non-critical section within a bounded number of its own steps.

Solutions of Mutual Exclusion

 * According to [Y03], there are thousands of solutions of mutual exclusion, some invented by clever experts, some found by brute force approaches with a computer.

 * Here are some famous ones:

 * Dijkstra's algorithm
 * The first try.
 * According to [K66][D67], this algorithm allows for the possibility that an individual computer, when contending for access, might have to wait indefinitely.

For ease of understanding, we begin with 2 processes with a modified version of the original bakery algorithm:
 * Lamport's bakery algorithm
 * For 2 processes

 * Informal proof
 * Suppose p0 is attempting to enter its critical section while p1 is in its non-critical section. Then, p0 gains access because turn1 is 0;
 * Suppose p0 is attempting to enter its critical section while p1 is in its critical section. Then, p0 will busy wait because turn 1 is not 0 and turn0 was set to be greater than turn1. When p1 finishes its critical section, it sets turn1 to 0. There are two subcases. In each case, p0 will enter its critical section.
 * If p1 is executing in its non-critical section when p0 tests turn1(i.e., turn1 is 0), then p0 will enter its critical section.
 * On the other hand, p1 might finish its non-critical section and set turn1 to turn0+1 as part of its entry protocol. When p0 retests this condition, it will find it false because turn1 is greater than turn0. So, p0 will enter its critical section.
 * Suppose that p0 and p1 begin execution of their entry protocols at about the same time and each completes their first assignment statement; so, each turn variable is 1. Suppose further that, say, p0 completes its second assignment statement and evaluates its condition before p1 executes its second assignment statement; so, turn0 is 2 and turn1 is 1. Then p0 will wait while p1 continues to execute and sets turn1 to 3. Note how one process setting its turn variable to 1 forces the other process to wait until the first process has finished picking its value for the turn variable.
 * Suppose p0 and p1 are as in the previous case. They complete their first assignment statements, which set each turn variable to 1. Suppose now that execution of the second assignment statement is interleaved at the machine instruction level. Then the following execution ordering can occur:
 * p0 reads turn1's value (1);
 * p1 reads turn0's value (1);
 * p0 adds 1 and stores the result (2) into turn0;
 * p1 adds 1 and stores the result (2) into turn1;
 * Although the turn variables have equal values. p1 will defer to p0 because its condition uses >= whereas p0's uses >.
 * Why underline codes?
 * The necessity of underline codes might not be obvious.
 * See UCDAVIS: Bakery Algorithm for an in-depth discussion.
 * For N processes

 * In the pseudocode there is a comparison of the form:
 * which is equivalent to:

 * Why call it the bakery algorithm?
 * Lamport envisioned a bakery with a numbering machine at its entrance. So each customer is given a unique number. Numbers increase by one as customers enter the store. A global counter displays the number of the customer that is currently being served. All other customers must wait in a queue until the baker finishes serving the current customer and the next number is displayed. When done shopping, the customer loses its number and it can then do whatever it wants, except that it cannot shop without getting a new number.

Concurrent programming in specific languages

 * Tasks in Ada
 * Threads in Java
 * Threads in C++


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Computer Programming/Imperative programming

In computer science, imperative programming, as opposed to declarative programming, is a programming paradigm that describes computation in terms of a program state and statements that change the program state. In much the same way as the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands to take action, imperative programs are a sequence of commands for the computer to perform. The hardware implementation of almost all computers is imperative; nearly all computer hardware is designed to execute machine code, which is native to the computer, written in the imperative style. From this low-level perspective, the program state is defined by the contents of memory, and the statements are instructions in the native machine language of the computer. Higher-level imperative languages use variables and more complex statements, but still follow the same paradigm. Recipes and process checklists, while not computer programs, are also familiar concepts that are similar in style to imperative programming; each step is an instruction, and the physical world holds the state. Since the basic ideas of imperative programming are both conceptually familiar and directly embodied in the hardware, most computer languages are in the imperative style.

Full description at Imperative programming


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Learning the vi Editor/Vi clones

The following editors are derived from or share the spirit of the original vi editor, coupled to an easier to learn user interface:

 * ../Vim/
 * Basic navigation
 * Modes
 * Tips and Tricks
 * Useful things for programmers to know
 * Enhancing Vim
 * VimL Script language
 * ../vile/
 * ../vipe/
 * ../BusyBox vi/

title: Learning the vi Editor/Vi clones


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Talk:Swedish/Lesson 4

This is not good. Teaching slangs words for father and mother in an introductory course of Swedish. // Wellp

 * At least Farsa and Morsa is commonly used. Farsgubben is hardly common, I would even say it is slightly humerous. - (Tobberoth 17:35, 5 April 2007 (UTC))

 * Yeah, I started laughing when I read farsgubben. //Spoon

title: Talk:Swedish/Lesson 4


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SPM/Contrasts

If you want activated regions only, then you should apply a t-test (F tests find differences in 'any' direction while t-tests distinguish between directions).

There are some predefined contrasts in SPM when you estimate a model (e.g. the "effects of interest" f-contrast). If you hadn't defined your control (or baseline) task then it would find areas activated for stimulus A and also areas activated for stimulus B.

title: SPM/Contrasts


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Cell Biology/Cell types/Plant cells

Cell_biology | Types of cells

<< Eukaryotes | Unique Properties of Plant Cells

Plant Cells have a number of important differences compared to their animal counterparts. The major ones are the Chloroplasts, Cell walls and Vacuoles. Unlike animal cells, plant cells do not have centrioles.

Chloroplasts
The chloroplasts are an organelle similar to the mitochondria in that they are self reproducing and they are the energy factories of the cell.they are near the large center vacuole. There most of the similarities ends. Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun and convert it into ATP and sugar. In this way the cell can support itself without food.

Vacuoles
Plants often have large structures containing water surrounded by a membrane in the center of their cells. These are vacuoles and act as a store of water and food (in seeds), a place to dump wastes and a structural support for the cell to maintain turgor. When the plant loses water the vacuoles quickly lose their water, and when plants have a lot of water the vacuoles fill up. In mature plants there is usually one large vacuole in the centre of the cell.

Cell walls
Plant cells are not flaccid like animal cells and have a rigid cell wall around them made of fibrils of cellulose embedded in a matrix of several other kinds of polymers such as pectin and lignin. The cellulose molecules are linear and provide the perfect shape for intermolecular hydrogen bonding to produce long, stiff fibrils. It is the cell wall that is primarily responsible for ensuring the cell does not burst in hypotonic surroundings.

title: Cell Biology/Cell types/Plant cells


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Cookbook:Grits with Cheese

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal | Corn

Commercially produced grits are coarsely ground hominy (corn, treated with lye). Corn masa is similar, but more finely ground. Traditional grits are stone-ground maize (corn) that has been sifted to isolate the middle-sized granules, coarser than the product used in baking as corn meal.

Grits are a common breakfast food in the southern USA. They are often served much like oatmeal or as a side dish with fried or scrambled eggs. Unlike oatmeal, grits are often topped with cheese. Another recipe can be found at Cookbook:Hominy Grits.

Ingredients

 * 4 cups water
 * 1 cup grits
 * ½–1 tsp salt
 * Black pepper to taste
 * Butter or margarine
 * Grated cheddar cheese

Procedure

 * 1) Bring the water to a boil in a 1–2 quart saucepan.
 * 2) Add the grits, stirring constantly.
 * 3) Reduce heat to low, stirring occasionally until until grits begin to thicken.
 * 4) Cover and continue to cook on low heat for about 5–6 minutes. Stir occasionally to avoid sticking. If the grits become too thick, stir in a small amount of water.
 * 5) Adjust the seasoning before serving, adding black pepper to taste.
 * 6) Serve with a pat of margarine, butter, or grated cheese on top.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The recipe above may be used to prepare stone-ground grits, but cooking time must be increased to at least 25 minutes. Some cooks prefer a longer cooking time—approximately 45–50 minutes. If the grits become too thick or begin to stick, stir in ⅛–¼ cup boiling water.
 * Many Southerners prefer to substitute milk for 1–2 cups of the water, especially if the grits are to be served as part of a main dish, such as shrimp and grits.

title: Cookbook:Grits with Cheese


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Cookbook:Hominy

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal | Corn

Hominy, also known as nixtamal, is corn treated with an alkaline solution.

Characteristics
To nixtamalize it, the corn is soaked a solution of water and lye or lime before undergoing several rinses, a process that removes the hard outer hull/germ and causes several other key changes. Nutritionally, this makes the protein more digestible and makes essential nutrient niacin more bioavailable. It also causes the kernel to expand significantly and makes the texture somewhat chewier. The flavor is less sweet than unprocessed corn, with an "earthy" or "nutty" flavor. After nixtamalization, the hominy may be dried again.

Hominy is commonly available in both white yellow varieties.

Selection and storage
Whole hominy is usually sold either dried or canned in liquid. The canned hominy may be used as-is, while the dried hominy needs to be soaked and simmered like pulses do. Both canned and dried varieties have a very long shelf life.

Use
Hominy has several uses, primarily in its area of traditional use, such as Mexico and the American Southwest. Whole, it is included in menudo, pozole, hominy bread, hominy chili, casseroles, and fried dishes. It can also be ground to make grits or masa harina.

Substitution
In many cases, hominy can be safely replaced with untreated corn. However, note that the texture will be fairly different.

title: Cookbook:Hominy


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Movie Making Manual/Setting up a production company

=Why bother setting up a production company?=

One company per project
''As a disclaimer, the legal information provided in this section should not be taken as 100% true and is merely sourced from some second-hand knowledge and my experience. You should ALWAYS contact a business lawyer to confirm legalities, especially in the formation of partnerships and companies in the name of business.''

Some people suggest that you should setup one company per project - specifically an LLC. An LLC has advantages over a corporation for many reasons that work towards streamlining (ie no shareholder meeting, simple operating agreements instead of strict rules and guidelines, etc) the business process; in other words, decisions can be made quickly without chain-of-command consultation. From the Wikipedia Entry on LLCs:
 * 'One reason that businesses choose to be organized as an LLC is to avoid "double taxation." A traditional corporation is taxed on its income, and then when the profits are distributed to the owners of the corporation (i.e., the shareholders), then those dividends are also taxed. With an LLC, income of the LLC is not taxed, but each owner of the LLC (i.e., each member) is taxed based on its pro rata allocable portion of the LLC's taxable income, regardless of whether any distributions to the members are made. This single level of taxation can lead to significant savings over the corporate form. Similarly, under some circumstances, members of an LLC may deduct losses of the LLC on their personal tax returns.'

By creating an LLC under ownership of a corporation or a single proprietor, not only are rights more easily transferred (ie if rights belonging to an owner is sold to a separate owner), but in terms of profits and losses, if a film bombs (ie fails or results in more expenses than profits), it may be written as a tax writeoff, as losses can be deducted in the United States. However, as with any incorporating action, there are a series of legalities that follows that may be undesirable, of which I don't know the exact specifics.

Before incorporating under an LLC, please contact a lawyer or legal consultant, especially one that is trained in business-related law. Incorporation is no simple matter and comes with its own pitfalls, as deceptively simple as the forms may be.

=Choosing a name for your production company=

UK
1) Check with the names database at companies house: http://wck2.companieshouse.gov.uk

2) Check to see if your name is already used on a website: Use this page for .uk domains: http://www.nominet.org.uk/  (use the search on the bottom left)

3) Check with companies house to make sure you're not using any banned words or phrases.

=Registering your production company=

UK
A solicitor will charge around £200 to set-up a limited company; by following the guide below you can do it yourself for just over £40. That said, this is not legal advice, and if you have any doubts or queries you should contact a solicitor, accountant, and/or Companies House.

 * 1) Download form 10 and form 12 from the Companies’ House website. Download form 10cs if you have more than two directors. Download or order the relevant guidance notes which includes Company Formation - code GBF1, Company Names - code GBF2, Business Names - code GBF3, Director’s and Secretaries Guide - code GBA1
 * 2) Fill in the forms on your computer and print out. Get the company directors and secretary to sign form 10 (and 10cs if necessary).
 * 3) Buy a copy of Memorandums and Articles for company formation, for about £6 from a legal stationer such as Oyez. Oyez is based in London, but can mail the Articles if you purchase them via 0870 7377370 or at www.oyezformslink.co.uk.
 * 4) Fill in the Memorandums and Articles and get all directors and the company secretary to sign it with a witness (the witness can be anyone).
 * 5) Take form 12 to a solicitor and sign it in front of them. Get their signature on the form. Most solicitors charge £7 or so per signature. Photocopy each form for your records.
 * 6) Post form 10, form 10cs (if used), form 12 and the Memorandum and Articles, with a cheque for £20 to Companies House. This is supposed to take 5-6 working days to process upon receipt.

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