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User:Chaus004

Service Learning By: Chara Hausler

What is Service learning?
Service learning is a way of learning that connects education with heartfelt community service. The goal of service learning is that students learn their course material, strengthen their skills, while developing ethics and values as they help out their community. Children learn to apply critical thinking and problem-solving skills to concerns such as hunger, pollution, and diversity, by experiencing a commitment to doing meaningful and authentic work. This is a great way for children to learn because it gives the children a sense of empowerment in doing work that needs to be done and a getting a feel of the real world by providing help to others. The students get a feel of empowerment by taking charge and learning leadership and are given choices on what to do to solve the issues of the community. This not only teaches students to solve problems, but it boosts their confidence in their role as leaders and their ability to change the world. Service-learning is education in action." — Sen. John Glenn

Why do we use Service Learning, and how does it benefit the students?
By committing students to projects of the community they feel "they are useful members of the community who can identify problems, propose solutions, and act independently in implementing solutions."(Berman xxiii) Students gain self respect as they develop the real-life skills of being at the job on time, having good attendance, and the doing the work that they have promised to do. As students stumble upon mistakes, they discover that these are opportunities for problem solving and the students will generally apply the golden rule as they stick together through their work. Also, because service projects are done together and with others in a community, students improve their communication and cooperation skills with each other.Because the learning is done in a real-world environment, the student's brains construct meaning from the learning that they engage in and remember it because they have experienced the issues. According to "Service Learning" by Sally Berman "the brain learns best when feelings are in balance and students feel happy, trusted, included, empowered, independent and capable as they do the service learning projects." These emotions trigger a part of the brain to produce a variety of hormones that researchers believe to stimulate memory, so that positive emotions that the students feel result in more learning and is remembered longer. Therefore, service learning is a good way to come about teaching students because it gives the students some control over what projects they choose helping them to become motivated to learn.

When is it best to start service learning?
Service learning is a K-12 educational system, but is best to start students in service learning in elementary school so they can start gaining a sense of responsility young. As students get older statistically more them drop out by the age sixteen, but researchers have seen less students dropping out when service learning is involved in their education. Kate Thomsen says in her book "Service Learning K-8", that kids begin "dropping out because of boredom, academic failure, and some because of little support from their families," but teachers have seen less of a drop out rate by starting the children in community service when they are in elementary school because they understand that they are needed to help others.

How does Service Learning Work?
There is no set way to structure a succesful service learning project, but there are a few elements to keep in mind. The first element is selecting the need for service. Before doing any planning the teachers and the students should take into consideration a community that needs assitance, the approprite projects that need to be done and the interest that students have in the projects. Next students and teachers should find a community partner. "When students are involved in contacting potential partners, participating in interviews, setting up schedules and agendas, and discussing responsibilities, they learn more about decision making, problem solving and cooperative action." (Thomsen 9) The third element the teacher should take into consideration is how is this project educational? What lesson can I teach my students? The last elements are managing the project by planning together and documenting their actions and learning through reflections, possibly in journals.

Some examples of Service Learning Projects
A few projects that children have participated in are operation smile. This is where children simply donate money to the school to send to hospitals or even other countries to help children who have a funny lip. Another project that children can help out the community is The Hygiene Tree. Children buy the supplies to make the tree, buy the products to put in the tree and then send the tree to the proper agency. Going out into the community is not uncommon either. For example soup kitchens for the homeless, cleaning up trash in a neighborhood, visiting the elderly in a nursing home, or even setting up like a play event for kids of a community for a day. A big community project that teachers like to give their students is tutoring. According to Robert Schoenfeld, "Peer-to-peer mentoring and tutoring; once a week have older students meet one-on-one with younger students to help them with reading, writing, mathematics, and other subjects," is a good way to get students working with each other.

Essay question
Do you think Service Learning is good for children to stay active and healthy? Depending on what type of community service project, I think that service learning is a great way for children nowadays to stay active. It is a good way to get children out of their house and away from technology for a day. It keeps them active because there are community service projects that are specifically designed for health. For example a walk-a-thon for breast cancer or a march of dimes…etc. Service Learning is good for kids to stay healthy mentally as well. They get to know the feeling of being selfless and humble by giving up a day or more of their lives to help other people. Instead of staring at a video game all day or just sitting in a classroom, getting the students outdoors and helping the environment and other people benefits them health-wise rather than hurts them.

Application questions
1. What does service learning teach students? a. leadership b. cooperation skills c. problem-solving skills d. all of the above 2. What grade is best to start service learning? a. 12 b. 1 c. 6 d. 9 3. Why do most kids "drop out" of school? a. academic failure b. lack of support from parents c. boredom d. all of the above 4. What should teachers do first before planning a project? a. select a need for service b. find a community c. set students up in groups d. none of the above 5. Why does Service Learning benefit students? a. it helps motivate the students to learn b. they can interact with other students c. they gain self respect d. only a and b e. a,b and c

Application Answers 1.d 2.b 3.d 4.a 5.e

Conclusion
Overall, I believe that service learning benefits students more than hurts them. They get the chance to learn new activities that could familiarize them with the real world. It prepares them for their future and they learn to support themselves and each other. It teaches children to cooperate with each other and motivates them to learn. This is one example of how teachers can be hands on with their students and not have them staring at a computer screen all day, which is also good because it can get them outside and staying active while helping others.

title: User:Chaus004


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Esperanto/Introduction

What is Esperanto?
There are as many answers to this question as there are Esperantists! Esperanto could refer to one of many different, though related ideas; there is of course the language, which is in itself very unusual for reasons described below; but there is also the culture which has grown up around and influenced the language in the 20th and 21st centuries, and the movement that L. L. Zamenhof was originally trying to spark, that of an international auxiliary language — a language that everyone on Earth could speak, so as to ease communications.

Unfortunately, the Esperanto movement has not succeeded to the degree Zamenhof hoped. But it certainly helps to explain aspects of the language and culture. Esperanto the language was designed for facilitating communication, and so it has a 100% regular grammar (see "Characteristics", below); in fact, it has been estimated that one Esperanto root can convey roughly the meaning of 10 words in English!

Esperanto, the culture of Esperantists, has a philosophical bent because of the philosophy behind Zamenhof's invention, that leans towards universal understanding and world peace. Esperantists, as a whole, tend to rank on the moderate-to-liberal spectrum politically, although there is a vocal minority who still cling to an idealistic notion of "world peace." Prejudice and racism against other people is almost entirely absent — both because of the clarity of communication which Esperanto offers between Esperantists, and because those who gravitate towards learning Esperanto are usually not very prejudiced in the first place: Would it make sense to learn a language meant for communication between all peoples except [insert ethnic/religious/etc. group here]?

This book attempts primarily to address the language, but here and there you are bound to find shoutouts to all three definitions.

Origins
The basic rules and words of Esperanto were proposed by L. L. Zamenhof at the end of the 19th century. Within a few years, people started learning it and formed a worldwide community. Since then, Esperanto has been in use just like any other language. Although new words are added when required, the structure of Esperanto is to remain, unchanging, forever, as published in L.L. Zamenhof's Fundamento de Esperanto.

Characteristics
Esperanto has a very regular structure. Words are often formed by running other words together, so there are fewer words that must be learned. The language is highly phonetic; you can determine the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa.

Most Esperanto words are similar to Latin, Germanic and Slavic words. However, Esperanto is not just a mixture of those languages, but also an original language. In several respects, the structure of Esperanto is actually more similar to non-European languages than to European ones.

Why should I learn Esperanto?
Esperanto is most useful for neutral communication. This means that Esperanto does not favour a certain people or culture, and promotes an atmosphere of equal rights, tolerance and true internationalism. This can be seen in Esperanto conferences, books, magazines, music, the Internet, and even in private and family life.

Young people especially can have very meaningful experiences using Esperanto: by staying as a guest in private homes abroad and making direct contact with their cultures, having fun at international festivals, gaining knowledge and skills at seminars, coming in contact with several foreign languages and learning more about them, and eventually actively working with TEJO and gaining valuable experience.

Esperanto is also an excellent way to introduce children to foreign languages. Since Esperanto comes from many languages, the rules are simple and few, conjugation is almost non-existent, and there are no exceptions to be memorized, it can serve as a starting point for young students to pursue other foreign languages. After having mastered Esperanto, learning French, Spanish, Italian, or countless other languages becomes much less intimidating.

What can I do with Esperanto?
There are many ways to use Esperanto. Imagine backpacking across the world. With the Pasporta Servo, you can stay with locals all around the world (over 1350 homes in 89 countries) who host other Esperanto speakers for free. The hosts get the pleasure of meeting people from around the world, and travellers get free lodging.

There is an Esperanto event happening, somewhere around the world, every day of the year and they are more than just people speaking Esperanto. During the day you will find everything from interesting lectures to massage classes. The night comes alive with drinking and dancing. The Universala Kongreso draws anywhere from 2000-3000 people. The largest annual youth gatherings are for anyone under 30 and are attended by 200-400 participants. Whether you are looking to get to know people from around the world or are interested in an international romance, these conferences are a great place to meet others.

You can also use Esperanto right from the comfort of your home computer to enrich the way you experience the Internet. You can use fora, discussion lists and chatrooms to hear the local point of view. Read the deep thoughts and everyday experiences of people living in exotic countries in their web logs. Downloading MP3 files is a different experience in Esperanto due to the vast number of cultures creating Esperanto music. Whatever your interests you will find something for you in Esperanto.

History of Esperanto
As a constructed language, Esperanto's history is both short and well-known. Esperanto was invented in the 1880s by L.L. Zamenhof. The first grammar of the language was published in 1887.

Language Evolution
A declaration endorsed by the Esperanto movement in 1905 limits changes to Esperanto principle. That declaration stated, amongst other things, that the basis of the language should remain Fundamento de Esperanto ("Foundation of Esperanto", a work by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it. The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style.

Zamenhof's approach is why Esperanto is uniquely strong among constructed languages. More generally, there are five primary reasons for its strength:
 * 1) Re-thinking it all: Zamenhof started developing his constructed language early, and he had done an enormous amount of work by the time he left for university. When he returned home in 1881, as the legend goes, he found that his father had burned all his notes and work. Thus Zamenhof was forced to begin again, but this time he had the advantage of all that he had learned in his first attempt. He commented later in a letter to N. Borovko, "I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that the language was already completely ready."
 * 2) Tapping innate structures: Zamenhof based his language on a regularized version of natural languages, rather than building a totally novel and abstract structure (an approach used by some others). Not only are the word roots generally from natural languages, the overall structure mimics natural languages. This approach means that Esperanto can exploit desirable features from naturally evolved languages.
 * 3) Delay before publication: When Zamenhof was ready to publish his language, the Czarist censors would not allow it. Stymied, he spent his time in translating works (such as parts of the Bible and Shakespeare) into Esperanto. This enforced delay led to continuing refinement and improvement before the language was presented to the world.
 * 4) Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists: Developers of constructed languages are usually extremely possessive of their brain-children and reject any attempt by others to contribute or have a significant role in the development of the language. Zamenhof declared that "Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists" and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the development and creation.
 * 5) Stability: Constructed languages are often destroyed by continual tinkering, with the constant changes making the language impossible to learn and use. Zamenhof, in contrast, published his Fundamento de Esperanto and established it as an unchanging foundation. This gave Esperanto a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages possess by virtue of their great body of literature and speakers. Thus one could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot.

However, modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the Fundamento. The translation given for "I like this one", in the phrases below offers a significant example. According to the Fundamento, Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun would in fact have meant "I esteem this one". The traditional usage would instead have been Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi (literally, "this one is pleasing to me"), which, although it differs from the English phrasing in "I like this one", more closely reflects the phrasing in several other languages (e.g. French celui-ci me plaît, Spanish éste me gusta, Russian это мне нравится [eto mnye nravitsya], German Dieses gefällt mir).

Other changes from traditional Esperanto have affected the names of countries, whose endings have changed from -ujo to -io. Also, women's names ending in -a (e.g. Maria) are now recognized although this is strictly an adjectival ending, whereas previously purists would have insisted on the noun ending -o (e.g. Mario).

In addition to these, Esperantists have formed many words to express concepts which have arisen more recently, but where possible these have indeed conformed to the existing style of the language. For example, "computer" is komputilo, (adding the suffix -il- meaning a tool to the root of the verb komputi, 'to compute'). Eŭro is another good example: even though the currency is called euro in all the European Community's official languages which use a Latin script, in Esperanto Eŭro was chosen because it better fits the phonology of the language.

Not all changes meet ready acceptance, however. For example, the neologism ĉipa meaning "cheap" has appeared as an alternative to the more verbose malmultekosta, but remains in minority usage.

Who is this book for?
This book is for everyone who wishes to learn, and become an esperantist, or learn about the language that is Esperanto. This book would also be suitable to someone who is just starting to learn Esperanto and is looking for an introduction.

How to study Esperanto
Aside from this book, there are many ways to learn Esperanto:

Courses and books
They exist in most countries and in many languages. Because Esperanto is easy to learn compared to other languages, you can also learn it with a book or online.

Contact
You might be able to find a group or association in your city or country (addresses and other contact information can be found at Esperanto.net)

Dialogs and texts
Throughout the book you will find several dialogs and texts in Esperanto, usually accompanied by a vocabulary list of new terms that you should learn. You should memorize the terms, and read over the text and/or dialog until you understand it. However, don't "over-analyze" the text, especially if you are a beginning esperantist.

Exercises
There will usually be at least one exercise per chapter. Follow the instructions to complete the exercise, and then check your work.

A word of advice
The most important thing is that you keep with it. If you take several minutes to practice Esperanto each day, you will learn much better than if you go through several chapters in one evening and don't use Esperanto at all for the rest of the week.

To begin, read the pronunciation guide or, continue directly to lesson 1 below.

Bonan ŝancon!

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Esperanto/Introduction


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Talk:Software Engineers Handbook/Operating Systems/Unix

It's important to realize that not all flavors of UNIX are created equal. Major flavors include AIX, HP-UX, Solaris, IRIX, and more. They typically correspond to the hardware they are used on, AIX on IBM RS6000, etc. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix

The practical fallout is that the "end user" will probably have a very similar experience across platforms. Programs appear to be similar, and the CDE front-end is pretty ubiquitous. A programmer or system administrator, however, will have very different experiences between the different systems.


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Talk:X86 Assembly/MMX

"MM7 MM6 MM5 MM4 MM3 MM2 MM1 MM0 These registers correspond to to same numbered FPU registers on the FPU stack." The x86/Floating Point page doesn't appear to list what the FPU registers are.

Rewrote example program
I rewrote the example program to provide a program which 1) is a complete program and 2) will work with a compiler suite available to (nearly) all -- only exotic or very old operating systems such as Plan 9 will require a new program.

title: Talk:X86 Assembly/MMX


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User talk:Karastar16

Someone deleted my page, I had everything except my conclusion done at 9:00, and someone deleted it and said "sorry karastar.."

title: User talk:Karastar16


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Esperanto/School

Complex Tenses
So far, we have covered how to form infinitives, the three simple tenses, commands, and conditionals. We will now cover how to use participles to create more complex tenses.

By combining a participle with a form of the verb "esti" ("to be"), you can create a verb combining two tenses. Look at the chart below.

You will notice that many of these combinations have awkward English translations. Though all of these combinations are acceptable Esperanto, a rewording would be appropriate when translating them into English.

Remember that the three simple tenses should be used whenever possible. These combinations should only be used when the alternative would cause ambiguity.

Lernejo (School)
Finding a Teacher / Trovi Instruiston
 * Niĉjo: Saluton, kie estas Sinjoro Mikelo? Li estas mia instruisto hodiaŭ.
 * Petro: Li estas en la Orienta Alo. Vi devas hasti!
 * Niĉjo: Bone. Kion instruas Sinjoro Mikelo?
 * Petro: Li instruas sciencon. Li estas agrabla, vi ŝatos lin.
 * Niĉjo: Dankon… ĝis!

The suffix -isto
The suffix, as in , denotes profession. To teach is instrui, a teacher is instruisto. Dento is a tooth, is a dentist.

title: Esperanto/School


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Radiation Oncology/Chordoma

Epidemiology

 * Arise from embryonic notochordal remnants along neuraxis, which in adults are primarily located at skull base and in sacrum
 * Rare tumor; US incidence 0.08/100,00
 * Represents 6% of skull base tumors; but 2-4% of primary bone neoplasms
 * Median age is 60 (though in blacks age 27)
 * More common in males (incidence 0.10/100,000) than females (0.06/100,000)
 * Predominately in whites (91%), rare in blacks (2%)
 * Characterized by slow growth, with local destruction of bone and extension into adjacent soft tissues. Typically have an indolent course with multiple local recurrences
 * As many as 30-40% may metastasize, but typically toward the end of disease course

 * NCI/SEER; 2001 PMID 11227920 -- "Chordoma: incidence and survival patterns in the United States, 1973-1995." (McMaster ML, Cancer Causes Control. 2001 Jan;12(1):1-11.)
 * SEER database. 400 cases, microscopically confirmed chordoma.
 * Epidemiology: Incidence 0.08/100,000; more common in males (0.10) than females (0.06); more common in whites (91%). Youngest age quartile cranial presentation (54%) vs. oldest age quartile sacral presentation (41%)
 * Treatment: Surgery alone 48%, surgery + EBRT 38%, RT only 14%. Sacral lesions more likely RT alone (32% vs. 11%)
 * Outcome: median OS 6.3 years; 5-year OS 68%, 10-year OS 40%

Anatomy

 * In adults, remnants of notochord are present as the nucleus pulposus of the intravertebral discs, and distribution of tumors matches distribution of the remnants
 * ~35% in sphenooccipital region (almost always involving clivus)
 * 15-30% in vertebral column
 * 30-50% in sacrococcygeal region

 * NCI/SEER; 2001 (1973-1995) PMID 11227920 -- "Chordoma: incidence and survival patterns in the United States, 1973-1995." (McMaster ML, Cancer Causes Control. 2001 Jan;12(1):1-11.)
 * SEER database. 400 cases, microscopically confirmed.
 * Outcome: Cranial 32%, spinal 33%, sacral 29%

 * Mayo Clinic; 1973 (1910-1971) PMID 4722921 -- "Chordomas and cartilaginous tumors at the skull base." (Heffelfinger MJ, Cancer. 1973 Aug;32(2):410-20.)
 * Retrospective. 155 chordomas. 49% sacro-coccygeal, 36% spheno-occipital, 15% vertebral column. Presentation, pathology, and outcomes reviewed

Presenting Symptoms

 * Location-dependent
 * Combination of pain, weakness, sensory abnormalities, motor abnormalities and bowel/bladder dysfunction
 * Pain onset typically insidious; median duration 14 months (4-24 months) in one study
 * Sacral:
 * Tumors can grow to a large size
 * Primary presenting complaint is lower back / sciatic pain, and constipation
 * Mobile spine:
 * Neurologic deficit more common than in sacrum, approaching 50%
 * Airway obstruction or dysphagia in cervical spine
 * Skull base:
 * May be intracranial or extracranial, with mass effect symptoms depending on location
 * Headaches and/or facial pain are common
 * Pituitary insufficiency, hemianopsia/diplopia, cranial nerve deficits, nasal stuffiness.

Histologic Subtypes

 * Conventional
 * Chondroid
 * Better prognosis
 * Subtype with predilection for skull base location
 * Dedifferentiated

 * Memorial Sloan Kettering; 2008 PMID 18641983 -- "Chordoma and chondrosarcoma gene profile: implications for immunotherapy." (Schwab JH, Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2008 Jul 19. [Epub ahead of print])
 * Affymetrix gene expression profiles, 6 chordoma and 14 chondrosarcoma. Validation by qPCR and IHC
 * Outcome: Both show overexpression of extracellular matrix genes compared to other sarcoma types. Chordoma selective expression of T Brachyury and CD24; chondrosarcoma Type IX and XI collagen. HMW-MAA expressed in chordoma 62%, chondrosarcoma 48%
 * Conclusion: Similar gene profile of upgregulated ECE matrix genes

Treatment Overview

 * Maximal resection followed by proton beam irradiation.
 * Overall survival is dependent upon local control of disease. Prognostic factor for local control of disease is amount of residual tumor after original surgery (<25cc residual tumor is better).
 * Clear margins are achieved in <50% of skull base chordomas.
 * Doses of 70 CGE necessary for control of residual disease.

Surgery

 * Most important prognostic factor is en bloc resection with negative surgical margins
 * Technically, this may be achieved in ~50% of patients, and leads to 70% long-term control rate
 * Extensive infiltrating disease at presentation
 * Nearby critical structures, resulting in severe morbidity from radical approaches
 * Primary operation is critical, as reoperation has significantly lower rates of technical success
 * Subtotal resection results in ~70% recurrence rate

Skull Base

 * Hannover; 2007 (Germany) PMID 17695386 -- "Chordomas of the skull base: surgical management and outcome." (Samii A, J Neurosurg. 2007 Aug;107(2):319-24.)
 * Retrospective. 49 patients. Transethmoidal approach 36%, pterional 23%, retrosigmoid 23%.
 * Outcome: GTR 49%, subtotal resection 51%. Initial surgery GTR 78%. 5-year OS 65%, 10-year OS 39%
 * Toxicity: New neurological deficit 12%
 * Conclusion: Chordoma cannot be regarded as surgically curable tumors, given the 5- and 10-year OS

 * University of Washington; 2006 (1988-2004) PMID 16883163 -- "Patient outcome at long-term follow-up after aggressive microsurgical resection of cranial base chordomas." (Tzortzidis F, Neurosurgery. 2006 Aug;59(2):230-7; discussion 230-7.)
 * Retrospective. 74 patients, aggressive microsurgical resection of cranial base chordomas, 121 procedures. Primary operation 63%, re-operation 37%. Mean F/U 8 years
 * Outcome: Gross total resection 72%, subtotal resection 28%. During F/U, NED 32%, alive with disease 50%, died of disease 15%, died of complications 3%. 10-year RFS 31% (primary surgery 42% vs reoperation 26%, SS)
 * Conclusion: Aggressive microsurgical resection can be followed by long-term tumor free survival, with good functional outcome

Mobile Spine Chordoma

 * Bologna; 2006 PMID 16481964 -- "Chordoma of the mobile spine: fifty years of experience." (Boriani S, Spine. 2006 Feb 15;31(4):493-503.)
 * Retrospective. 52 chordomas of mobile spine, 37 cases 1991-2002.
 * Outcome: Post-op mortality 8%. If en bloc resection, 67% (12/18) without relapse at median F/U 8 years, 100% of relapses (6/6) had prior inadequate resections. All others (RT alone, surgery with SM+, or surgery with SM+ and adjuvant RT) had recurrences <2 years. Intralesional excsion + RT high rate of recurrence 75%
 * Conclusion: The only protocol associated with continuously disease-free survival is margin-free en bloc resection

Sacral Chordoma

 * Mayo Clinic; 2005 (1980-2001) PMID 16203885 -- "Operative management of sacral chordoma." (Fuchs B, J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005 Oct;87(10):2211-6.)
 * Retrospective. 52 patients with sacro-coccygeal chordoma. Posterior approach 42%, combined anteroposterior approach 58%. Wide surgical margin 40%. Median F/U 7.8 years
 * Outcome: LR 44%; RFS 5-years 59%, 10-years 46%. OS 5-years 74%, 10-years 52%, 15-years 47%. Wide surgical margin most important predictor for survival (100%)
 * Conclusion: Wide surgical margin most important predictor of survival and local recurrence

 * Goteborg; 2000 (Sweden)(1968-1998) PMID 10813725 -- "Prognostic factors in chordoma of the sacrum and mobile spine: a study of 39 patients." (Bergh P, Cancer. 2000 May 1;88(9):2122-34.)
 * Retrospective. 39 patients with chordoma, 30 sacral and 9 vertebral. Modern surgical techniques. Mean F/U 8.1 years
 * Outcome: wide SM 59%. LR 44%, DM 28%. 5-year OS 84%, 10-year OS 64%
 * Conclusion: Improved local control and survival with new surgical techniques

 * MD Anderson; 1999 (1954-1994) PMID 9894966 -- "Sacral chordoma: 40-year experience at a major cancer center." (York JE, Neurosurgery. 1999 Jan;44(1):74-9; discussion 79-80.)
 * Retrospective. 27 patients with sacral chordoma. 26/27 pain, 17/27 autonomic dysfunction. Single operation 44%, two surgeries 33%, multiple surgeries 22%. RT used in 19% of operations
 * Outcome: median OS 7.4 years. Recurrence in 70% of surgeries. Median DFS radical surgery 2.3 years vs. subtotal surgery 8 months (SS). If subtotal resection, adjuvant RT 2.1 years vs. no RT 8 months (SS)
 * Conclusion: Frequent recurrences. Radical resection leads to improved DFS; adjuvant RT after subtotal resection also leads to improved DFS

Conventional

 * Princess Margaret; 1996 (1958-1992) PMID 8961370 -- "Chordoma: long-term follow-up after radical photon irradiation." (Catton C, Radiother Oncol. 1996 Oct;41(1):67-72.)
 * Retrospective. 48 patients with chordoma (sacrum 48%, 42%, mobile spine 10%) referred for consideration, 44 post-op with gross residual disease, 4 microscopic residual disease. RT 26 patients 50/25, 8 patients hyperfractionated 40/44 @ 1 Gy/fx TID, 3 referred for charged particles. 67% patient symptomatic (neurological or pain)
 * Outcome: median OS 5.2 years, median TTP 2.9 years. 5-year PFS 23%, 10-year PFS 15%. 1/23 complete response, but good palliation in 85%. No difference between median dose 40 Gy and 60 Gy groups. Median OS after re-treatment 1.5 years. Dead of disease 78%, alive with disease 17%, NED 5%
 * Conclusion: Overt residual chordoma rarely cured with conventional EBRT, but treatment does provide useful and prolonged palliation. Suitable patients should be referred for stereotactic photon or particle beam therapy

Proton Beam Therapy

 * Orsay; 2008 (France)(1996-2006) PMID 18440726 -- "Proton therapy in pediatric skull base and cervical canal low-grade bone malignancies." (Habrand JL, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Jul 1;71(3):672-5. Epub 2008 Apr 25.)
 * Retrospective. 30 children with chordoma (n=26), chondrosarcoma (n=3), and chondroma (n=1). Location in skull base (n=13), skull base with extension to cervical canal (n=12), or cervical canal (n=1). Median age 13.5 years. Surgery followed by photon/proton therapy. Mean total dose 68.4 CGE (54.6-71); mean photon dose 37.4 Gy (30.6-45), mean proton dose 32.1 CGE (20-70.2). F/U 2.2 years
 * Outcome: Local control chordoma 21/26 (81%), chondrosarcoma 3/3 (100%), chondroma 1/1 (100%). 5-year PFS chordoma 77%, chondrosarcoma 100%
 * Toxicity: Grade 3 auditory toxicty 1 patient, Grade 2 pituitary failure 7 patients
 * Conclusion: Well tolerated, excellent local control

 * Institut Curie; 2005 (1992-2002) PMID 16227160 -- "Chordomas of the base of the skull and upper cervical spine. One hundred patients irradiated by a 3D conformal technique combining photon and proton beams." Noel G et al.  Acta Oncol. 2005;44(7):700-8.
 * Retrospective. 100 patients w/ skull base or upper cervical spine chordoma tx'd w/ proton/photon therapy. Median total dose to tumor 67 CGE.
 * 2 yr local control rate 86.3%, 4 yr local control rate 53.8%.
 * Multivariate analysis showed minimal dose to tumor <56 CGE and failure to encompass 95% tumor w/ 95% isodose line were independent factors for local control.

 * Harvard/Loma Linda; 2002 (1992-1999) PMID 11958897 -- "Proton radiotherapy in management of pediatric base of skull tumors." (Hug EB, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002 Mar 15;52(4):1017-24.)
 * Retrospective. 29 patients. Chordoma (n=10), chondrosarcoma (n=3), rhabdomyosarcoma (n=4), other sarcomas (n=3), giant cell tumors (n=6), angiofibromas (n=2), chondroblastoma (n=1). Dose 45 - 78.6 CGE in standard fractions. Mean F/U 3.3 years
 * Outcome: Malignant tumors - LC 75% (chordoma 60%, chondrosarcoma 100%, rhabdo 100%, other sarcomas 66%), 5-year OS 56%. Benign tumors - LC 8/9, 5-year OS 100%
 * Toxicity: Severe late in 7% (motor weakness, sensory deficits)
 * Conclusion: Proton RT after major skull base surgery can offer considerable tumor control and survival

 * Loma Linda; 1999 (1992-98) - PMID 10470818 -- "Proton radiation therapy for chordomas and chondrosarcomas of the skull base." Hug EB et al. J Neurosurg. 1999 Sep;91(3):432-9.
 * Retrospective. 33 chordoma pts (and 25 chondrosarcomas) tx'd w/ proton beam irradiation after maximal surgery. Dose range of 64.8-79.2 CGE.
 * 5yr OS for chondrosarcoma was 79%. 5yr local control for chondrosarcoma was 76%.
 * Control rates were influenced by brainstem involvement and tumor volume.
 * Chordoma with worse outcomes than chondrosarcoma.

 * MGH; 1995 (1975-93) - PMID 7558946 -- "Radiation therapy for chordomas of the base of skull and cervical spine: patterns of failure and outcome after relapse." Fagundes MA et al.  Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995 Oct 15;33(3):579-84.
 * 63 pts w/ treatment failure who were tx'd at MGH w/ surgery + combined photon/proton RT to median dose of 70 CGE (66.6-77.4).
 * 95% of these pts had local failure as element of their disease failure; 78% had local failure as site of first failure.

Carbon Ion Radiotherapy

 * Nagoya; 2011 (1990-2007) PMID 20400242 -- "Clinical outcome of sacral chordoma with carbon ion radiotherapy compared with surgery." (Nishida Y, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011 Jan 1;79(1):110-6. Epub 2010 Apr 17.)
 * Retrospective. 17 patients, primary sacral chordoma, treated with surgery (n=10) or carbon ion RT (n=7). Median dose GyE 70.4. Median F/U surgery 6.3 years, RT 4.1 years
 * Outcome: 5-year LRFS surgery 62% vs RT 100%, DSS 86% vs 53%. Functional outcome surgery 55% vs RT 75%
 * Toxicity: Urinary-anorectal function worse in 60% of surgery patients, unchanged in RT patients.
 * Conclusion: Carbon ion RT results in high local control and preservation of function compared with surgery

 * Heidelberg, Germany, 2007 (1998-2005) - PMID 17363188 -- "Effectiveness of carbon ion radiotherapy in the treatment of skull-base chordomas." Schulz-Ertner D et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Jun 1;68(2):449-57.
 * 96 pts w/ skull base chordoma tx'd w/ carbon ion radiotherapy. All pts had gross residual tumor.  Median total dose of 60 CGE (range 60-70).  20 fx over 3 wks.
 * 80.6% local control at 3 yrs, 70% local control at 5 yrs.
 * 91.8% OS at 3 yrs, 88.5% OS at 5 yrs.

Temporal Lobe Damage

 * MGH, 1998 (1984-93) - PMID 9588918 -- "Temporal lobe (TL) damage following surgery and high-dose photon and proton irradiation in 96 patients affected by chordomas and chondrosarcomas of the base of the skull." Santoni R et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998 Apr 1;41(1):59-68.
 * 99 pts w/ chordoma or chondrosarcoma of skull base tx'd w/ photon/proton radiotherapy.
 * 10 pts developed temporal lobe damage w/ 8 pts having moderate to severe symptoms.
 * Actuarial temporal lobe damage rate was 7.6% at 2 yrs, 13.2% at 5 yrs.

Visual Complications

 * Liverpool; 2003 (UK) PMID 12724692 -- "Visual complications of proton beam therapy for clival chordoma." (Bowyer J, Eye. 2003 Apr;17(3):318-23.)
 * Case report. 4 patients referred for post-op proton therapy.
 * Outcome: Bilateral visual loss in 2/4 (50%) patients at 1 and 2 years post proton therapy
 * Conclusion: Proton beam therapy not innocuous

Review
Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment/Edition 4/Foundations Table of Contents/Chapter 9/9.4.3/Read more about the benefits of school/community partnerships from teachers and administration at QLMS!
 * Milan; 2006 (Italy) PMID 17545801 -- "Chordoma." (Casali PG, Curr Opin Oncol. 2007 Jul;19(4):367-70.)

title: Radiation Oncology/Chordoma


text:
User:Kande024

Introduction
Principals have many different roles, and today's principals are trying to fulfill them without stepping on any toes. The job of a 21st century administrator is a difficult one with all the rules and regulations that are now in place for special education students, for example the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendment. Special education as well as building administrators play in important role in all aspects development and implementation of programs for all students with disabilities. Administrators are involved for the beginning with the identification and eligibility process all the way through to the development and implementation of all programs and materials available to their students.

Roles of a Special Education Administrator
"Special education administrators oversee school district special education programs. They assist with program administration, ensure the quality of special education services, and work with teachers and parents in the education process.(Special Education Administrator)" Special education administrators also determine educational standards and goals for special education programs, Ensure that those programs comply with federal, state, and local laws, and provide parents with regular reports on their child's progress.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
IDEA was implemented in 2004 with its main goals being: "To ensure that children with disabilities have a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) available to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living. To ensure that the rights of children with disabilities and their parents are protected. To assist states, localities, educational service agencies and Federal agencies in providing for the education of all children with disabilities. To assist states in the implementation of a statewide, comprehensive, coordinated, multi-disciplinary, interagency system of early intervention services for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families. To ensure that educators and parents have the necessary tools to improve educational results for children with disabilities. To assess and ensure the effectiveness of efforts to educate children with disabilities. (Purposes)"

To ensure that these goals are being met principals are keeping a close watch. Administrators are required to be present during Individual Education Plan (IEP) meetings, sign off on each child's IEP, and sign off on all child study and eligibility matters.

Individual Education Plans
IEPs are designed with children in mind. They take into account both the child's strengths and weaknesses and provide appropriate solutions in order to help a child succeed. In developing an IEP the schools IEP committee and the child's parents decide the best services for the child. In the meeting the child's regular education teacher, a special education teacher, the child's parents or guardian, an administrator and the child if he or she is within the age of majority are present. As a parent "specific timelines ensure that the development of an IEP moves from referral to providing services as quickly as possible. (What are your legal rights?)" This time is within 60 days from time of referral to eligibility meeting. IEPs are written within 30 calendar day of the eligibility date. An IEP must be updated each year. It is a right of the students and families that "schools must have procedures for maintaining confidentiality of school records. Parents have the right to see all records relating to the testing, placement, and teaching of their child. (Woolfolk, 123)"

Due Process
Included in IDEA is a way of litigating conflict between Parents and schools, which is called due process. Due Process consists of a formal hearing, where both the school and the parents are able to present their case in front of a judge. However, these cases can be brought up by either the school if they believe the child needs services and the parent is in disagreement or by the parent if the school refuses the parents request for a specific service. For example, if a parent requests a personal assistant for a student and the IEP committee decides that the service is not appropriate, the parent can then request a due process hearing. On the other hand, in the case of a student who is recommended to a placement in an alternative setting due to a discipline issue, the parents may disagree with a placement. If the school feels strongly enough that the student is a danger, or their behavior warrants the more restrictive environment the school system also has the right to further the case in due process.

Quiz Questions:
1. What does IEP stand for? a. Instructional Evaluation Process b. Individual Education Plan c. Institutional Educational Program

2. In what year was IDEA founded? a. 2005 b. 1999 c. 2004 d. 1996

3. Which is NOT a role of the administrator? a. Sign an IEP b. Comply with all laws c. Be present at an IEP meeting d. Buy the student lunch

4. Who can bring a case to due process? a. only a parent b. a special education teacher c. a regular education teacher d. the school or a parent e. both b and c

5. Whose best interests are in mind when drafting an IEP? a. the regular education teachers b. the parents c. the administrations d. the students

Answers 1. b 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. d

Explain the two ways a case can be brought to due process and how it is resolved.

A case can be brought to due process by either the parent or the school. If a parent disagrees with a placement of a student they can ultimately bring the school to due process, or a school could bring a parent to due process if they refuse to sign and IEP due to a disagreement. A judge presides over the hearing and makes the final decision.

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User talk:Uchal001

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User talk:Khami013

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User talk:Mglas003

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User talk:Jgreg011

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Copyright problem with Image:Smallclass.jpg

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User talk:Ccrai008

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User talk:Rstev011

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User talk:Jsyke008

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User talk:Bcann003

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User talk:Cbrow085

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User talk:Smiri001

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Hey! I'm from Northern Virginia too! I grew up in Woodbridge, but I also lived in Arlington for a while. We definitely grew up on the same music too! I love the Beatles, and Unplugged is my favorite Clapton album. My friends and I are really close too. They are my support while I'm down here at school. I like your philosophy a lot, you can tell you really care about children and teaching them music. Jsalz002 (talk) 04:03, 2 February 2009 (UTC)

Hello Sean,

My name is Sharonda and I lived in Richmond since I was 9 years old. I also love music and feel that it should have a place in everyone's life. Music can make any subjuct fun and more interesting, and as a history major I need all the fun little trick I can think of.

I think your teaching philosophy is dead on. Every child can be taught and I believe it is the job of the educator to figure out how to get through to each and every one of them. After reading your profile I belive that you have a good mind set on what and how you plan on on teaching and I hope that you find success in the future in all that you do. Snich011 (talk) 19:49, 22 February 2009 (UTC)

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User talk:Haleydsullivan

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User talk:AmyClinton

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User talk:Cjern001

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User talk:Lwood024

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User talk:Ywebb001

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Copyright problem with Image:Classroom 2.jpg
Yes this picture as well as the classroom.jpeg are all from wikimedia. This whole wikibook process is new to me and I want to follow the guide lines and I want my project to be great. Please know that this is not intentional and now I am requesting help. On my article I have a link to view a clip from Fredom Writers via YouTube, I would like a picture to go above the link so that there is not just a link. Do you have any other suggestions? Please Advise.Ywebb001 17:14, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

Image:Wikipicture.jpg
Is this image from Commons? If so, there's no need to upload a local copy. All WMF projects can use Commons images as if they were local. Just use the same to insert a picture. If it's local, fine. If it's on Commons, it'll work exactly the same. We try to avoid having local duplicates of Commons images; if the image is from Commons, please let me know. Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 13:39, 24 September 2007 (UT

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User talk:Goodin4

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User talk:Jkrze001

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User talk:Ckeit002

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Image:Mo.JPG is appear to be a copyright violation
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User talk:JW2007UK

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Iranian History/The Great Game

The 'Great Game' is the term used to refer to the antagonism that pervailed between Russia and the United Kingdom who competed with each other for control of the Central Asian tract comprising Afghanistan,Iran and Turkestan and the cold war like atmosphere which prevailed between the two powers specifically between the Russo-Persian Treaty of 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Victorian England and Tsarist Russia vied with each other for control of this tract and adopted tactics of occasional coercion as well as threat to consolidate their supremacy and solidify their authority over the so-called buffer states of Afghanistan and Iran.

Fateh Ali Shah Qajar 1797-1834
When Agha Mohammad Khan was assassinated at Shusha in the year 1797, the throne was left vacant and a civil war followed. According to accounts, just before his death, Agha Mohammed Khan had nominated his nephew Baba Khan as his successor.

title: Iranian History/The Great Game


text:
Cookbook talk:Traditional Tuna Casserole

My observations: --67.185.172.158 05:36, 23 September 2007 (UTC)
 * The recipe doesn't specify how large "a can of peas" or "a can of mushrooms" is. I used about a cup of mixed frozen peas and carrots, and about half a cup of fresh sliced white mushrooms.
 * Cooking at 375F for 50 minutes was long enough to get the noodles to "al dente".
 * There's not quite enough liquid in the recipe if you drain the tuna. I'd suggest increasing the milk to 3/8 cup, or adding a quarter-cup of water.  You could also use the water the tuna's packed in, but that would probably give things an incredible fishy flavor.
 * Shredded mozzerella cheese works just as well as sliced cheese.


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/The Skeleton

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * the functions of the skeleton
 * the basic structure of a vertebrae and the regions of the vertebral column
 * the general structure of the skull
 * the difference between ‘true ribs’ and ‘floating ribs
 * the main bones of the fore and hind limbs, and their girdles and be able to identify them in a live cat, dog, or rabbit

Fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals are called vertebrates, a name that comes from the bony column of vertebrae (the spine) that supports the body and head. The rest of the skeleton of all these animals (except the fish) also has the same basic design with a skull that houses and protects the brain and sense organs and ribs that protect the heart and lungs and, in mammals, make breathing possible. Each of the four limbs is made to the same basic pattern. It is joined to the spine by means of a flat, broad bone called a girdle and consists of one long upper bone, two long lower bones, several smaller bones in the wrist or ankle and five digits (see diagrams 6.1 18,19 and 20).

Diagram 6.1 - The mammalian skeleton

The Vertebral Column
The vertebral column consists of a series of bones called vertebrae linked together to form a flexible column with the skull at one end and the tail at the other. Each vertebra consists of a ring of bone with spines (spinous process) protruding dorsally from it. The spinal cord passes through the hole in the middle and muscles attach to the spines making movement of the body possible (see diagram 6.2).

Diagram 6.2 - Cross section of a lumbar vertebrae

The shape and size of the vertebrae of mammals vary from the neck to the tail. In the neck there are cervical vertebrae with the two top ones, the atlas and axis, being specialized to support the head and allow it to nod “Yes” and shake “No”. Thoracic vertebrae in the chest region have special surfaces against which the ribs move during breathing. Grazing animals like cows and giraffes that have to support weighty heads on long necks have extra large spines on their cervical and thoracic vertebrae for muscles to attach to. Lumbar vertebrae in the loin region are usually large strong vertebrae with prominent spines for the attachment of the large muscles of the lower back. The sacral vertebrae are usually fused into one solid bone called the sacrum that sits within the pelvic girdle. Finally there are a variable number of small bones in the tail called the coccygeal vertebrae (see diagram 6.3).

Diagram 6.3 - The regions of the vertebral column dik

The Skull
The skull of mammals consists of 30 separate bones that grow together during development to form a solid case protecting the brain and sense organs. The “box “enclosing and protecting the brain is called the cranium (see diagram 6.4). The bony wall of the cranium encloses the middle and inner ears, protects the organs of smell in the nasal cavity and the eyes in sockets known as orbits. The teeth are inserted into the upper and lower jaws (see Chapter 5 for more on teeth) The lower jaw is known as the mandible. It forms a joint with the skull moved by strong muscles that allow an animal to chew. At the front of the skull is the nasal cavity, separated from the mouth by a plate of bone called the palate. Behind the nasal cavity and connecting with it are the sinuses. These are air spaces in the bones of the skull which help keep the skull as light as possible. At the base of the cranium is the foramen magnum, translated as “big hole”, through which the spinal cord passes. On either side of this are two small, smooth rounded knobs or condyles that articulate (move against) the first or Atlas vertebra.

Diagram 6.4 - A dog’s skull

The Rib
Paired ribs are attached to each thoracic vertebra against which they move in breathing. Each rib is attached ventrally either to the sternum or to the rib in front by cartilage to form the rib cage that protects the heart and lungs. In dogs one pair of ribs is not attached ventrally at all. They are called floating ribs (see diagram 6.5). Birds have a large expanded sternum called the keel to which the flight muscles (the ‘breast” meat of a roast chicken) are attached.

Diagram 6.5 - The rib

The Forelimb
The forelimb consists of: Humerus, radius and ulna, carpals, metacarpals, digits or phalanges (see diagram 6.6). The top of the humerus moves against (articulates with) the scapula at the shoulder joint. By changing the number, size and shape of the various bones, fore limbs have evolved to fit different ways of life. They have become wings for flying in birds and bats, flippers for swimming in whales, seals and porpoises, fast and efficient limbs for running in horses and arms and hands for holding and manipulating in primates (see diagram 6.8).

Diagram 6.6 - Forelimb of a dog

Diagram 6.7. Hindlimb of a dog

Diagram 6.8 - Various vertebrate limbs

Diagram 6.9 - Forelimb of a horse

In the horse and other equines, the third toe is the only toe remaining on the front and real limbs. Each toe is made up of a proximal phalange, a middle phalange, and distal phalange (and some small bones often referred to as sesamoids. In this image, the proximal phalange is labeled P3 and the distal phalange is labeled hoof. (which is more properly the name of the keratin covering that we see in the living animal).

The legs of the horse are highly adapted to give it great galloping speed over long distances. The bones of the lower leg and foot are greatly elongated and the hooves are actually the tips of the third fingers and toes, the other digits having been lost or reduced (see diagram 6.9).

The Hind Limb
The hind limbs have a similar basic pattern to the forelimb. They consist of: femur, tibia and fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, digits or phalanges (see diagram 6.7). The top of the femur moves against (articulates with) the pelvis at the hip joint.

The Girdles
The girdles pass on the “push” produced by the limbs to the body. The shoulder girdle or scapula is a triangle of bone surrounded by the muscles of the back but not connected directly to the spine (see diagram 6.1). This arrangement helps it to cushion the body when landing after a leap and gives the forelimbs the flexibility to manipulate food or strike at prey. Animals that use their forelimbs for grasping, burrowing or climbing have a well-developed clavicle or collar bone. This connects the shoulder girdle to the sternum. Animals like sheep, horses and cows that use their forelimbs only for supporting the body and locomotion have no clavicle. The pelvic girdle or hipbone attaches the sacrum and the hind legs. It transmits the force of the leg-thrust in walking or jumping directly to the spine (see diagram 6.10).

Diagram 6.10 - The pelvic girdle

Categories Of Bones
People who study skeletons place the different bones of the skeleton into groups according to their shape or the way in which they develop. Thus we have long bones like the femur, radius and finger bones, short bones like the ones of the wrist and ankle, irregular bones like the vertebrae and flat bones like the shoulder blade and bones of the skull. Finally there are bones that develop in tissue separated from the main skeleton. These include sesamoid bones which include bones like the patella or kneecap that develop in tendons and visceral bones that develop in the soft tissue of the penis of the dog and the cow’s heart.

Bird anatomy by Dr.Ankit Kumar Birman

Bird Skeletons
Although the skeleton of birds is made up of the same bones as that of mammals, many are highly adapted for flight. The most noticeable difference is that the bones of the forelimbs are elongated to act as wings. The large flight muscles make up as much as 1/5th of the body weight and are attached to an extension of the sternum called the keel. The vertebrae of the lower back are fused to provide the rigidity needed to produce flying movements. There are also many adaptations to reduce the weight of the skeleton. For instance birds have a beak rather than teeth and many of the bones are hollow (see diagram 6.11).

Diagram 6.11 - A bird’s skeleton

The Structure Of Long Bones
A long bone consists of a central portion or shaft and two ends called epiphyses (see diagram 6.12). Long bones move against or articulate with other bones at joints and their ends have flattened surfaces and rounded protuberances (condyles) to make this possible. If you carefully examine a long bone you may also see raised or rough surfaces. This is where the muscles that move the bones are attached. You will also see holes (a hole is called a foramen) in the bone. Blood vessels and nerves pass into the bone through these. You may also be able to see a fine line at each end of the bone. This is called the growth plate or epiphyseal line and marks the place where increase in length of the bone occurred (see diagram 6.16).

Diagram 6.12 - A femur

6.13 - A longitudinal section through a long bone

If you cut a long bone lengthways you will see it consists of a hollow cylinder (see diagram 6.13). The outer shell is covered by a tough fibrous sheath to which the tendons are attached. Under this is a layer of hard, dense compact bone (see below). This gives the bone its strength. The central cavity contains fatty yellow marrow, an important energy store for the body, and the ends are made from honeycomb-like bony material called spongy bone (see box below). Spongy bone contains red marrow where red blood cells are made.

Compact Bone
Compact bone is not the lifeless material it may appear at first glance. It is a living dynamic tissue with blood vessels, nerves and living cells that continually rebuild and reshape the bone structure as a result of the stresses, bends and breaks it experiences. Compact bone is composed of microscopic hollow cylinders that run parallel to each other along the length of the bone. Each of these cylinders is called a Haversian system. Blood vessels and nerves run along the central canal of each Haversian system. Each system consists of concentric rings of bone material (the matrix) with minute spaces in it that hold the bone cells. The hard matrix contains crystals of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and magnesium salts with collagen fibres that make the bone stronger and somewhat flexible. Tiny canals connect the cells with each other and their blood supply (see diagram 6.14).

Diagram 6.14 - Haversian systems of compact bone

Spongy Bone
Spongy bone gives bones lightness with strength. It consists of an irregular lattice that looks just like an old fashioned loofah sponge (see diagram 6.15). It is found on the ends of long bones and makes up most of the bone tissue of the limb girdles, ribs, sternum, vertebrae and skull. The spaces contain red marrow, which is where red blood cells are made and stored.

Diagram 6.15 - Spongy bone

Bone Growth
The skeleton starts off in the foetus as either cartilage or fibrous connective tissue. Before birth and, sometimes for years after it, the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone. The long bones increase in length at the ends at an area known as the epiphyseal plate where new cartilage is laid down and then gradually converted to bone. When an animal is mature, bone growth ceases and the epiphyseal plate converts into a fine epiphyseal line

Diagram 6.16 - A growing bone

Broken Bones
A fracture or break dramatically demonstrates the dynamic nature of bone. Soon after the break occurs blood pours into the site and cartilage is deposited. This starts to connect the broken ends together. Later spongy bone replaces the cartilage, which is itself replaced by compact bone. Partial healing to the point where some weight can be put on the bone can take place in 6 weeks but complete healing may take 3–4 months.

Joints
Joints are the structures in the skeleton where 2 or more bones meet. There are several different types of joints. Some are immovable once the animal has reached maturity. Examples of these are those between the bones of the skull and the midline joint of the pelvic girdle. Some are slightly moveable like the joints between the vertebrae but most joints allow free movement and have a typical structure with a fluid filled cavity separating the articulating surfaces (surfaces that move against each other) of the two bones. This kind of joint is called a synovial joint (see diagram 6.17). The joint is held together by bundles of white fibrous tissue called ligaments and a fibrous capsule encloses the joint. The inner layers of this capsule secrete the synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant. The articulating surfaces of the bones are covered with cartilage that also reduces friction and some joints, e.g. the knee, have a pad of cartilage between the surfaces that articulate with each other.

The shape of the articulating bones in a joint and the arrangement of ligaments determine the kind of movement made by the joint. Some joints only allow a to and from ‘gliding movement e.g. between the ankle and wrist bones; the joints at the elbow, knee and fingers are hinge joints and allow movement in two dimensions and the axis vertebra pivots' on the atlas vertebra. Ball and socket joints, like those at the shoulder and hip, allow the greatest range of movement.

Diagram 6.17 - A synovial joint

Common Names Of Joints
Some joints in animals are given common names that tend to be confusing. For example:
 * The joint between the femur and the tibia on the hind leg is our knee but the stifle in animals.
 * Our ankle joint (between the tarsals and metatarsals) is the hock in animals
 * Our knuckle joint (between the metacarpals or metatarsals and the phalanges) is the fetlock in the horse.
 * The “knee” on the horse is equivalent to our wrist (ie on the front limb between the radius and metacarpals) see diagrams 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.17 and 6.18.

Diagram 6.18 - The names of common joints of a horse

Diagarm 6.19 - The names of common joints of a dog

Locomotion
Different animals place different parts of the foot or forelimb on the ground when walking or running.

Humans and bears put the whole surface of the foot on the ground when they walk. This is known as plantigrade locomotion. Dogs and cats walk on their toes (digitigrade locomotion) while horses and pigs walk on their “toenails” or hoofs. This is called unguligrade locomotion (see diagram 6.20).
 * Plantigrade locomotion (on the “palms of the hand) as in humans and bears
 * Digitigrade locomotion (on the “fingers”) as in cats and dogs
 * Unguligrade locomotion (on the “fingernails”) as in horses

Diagram 6.20 - Locomotion

Summary

 * The skeleton maintains the shape of the body, protects internal organs and makes locomotion possible.
 * The vertebrae support the body and protect the spinal cord. They consist of: cervical vertebrae in the neck, thoracic vertebrae in the chest region which articulate with the ribs, lumbar vertebrae in the loin region, sacral vertebrae fused to the pelvis to form the sacrum and tail or coccygeal vertebrae.
 * The skull protects the brain and sense organs. The cranium forms a solid box enclosing the brain. The mandible forms the jaw.
 * The forelimb consists of the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges. It moves against or articulates with the scapula at the shoulder joint.
 * The hindlimb consists of the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and digits. It moves against or articulates with the pelvis at the hip joint.
 * Bones articulate against each other at joints.
 * Compact bone in the shaft of long bones gives them their strength. Spongy bone at the ends reduces weight. Bone growth occurs at the growth plate.

Worksheet
Use the Skeleton Worksheet to learn the main parts of the skeleton.

Test Yourself
1. Name the bones which move against (articulate with)...
 * a) the humerus
 * b) the thoracic vertebrae
 * c) the pelvis

2. Name the bones in the forelimb

3. Where is the patella found?

4. Where are the following joints located?
 * a) The stifle joint:
 * b) The hock joint
 * c) The hip joint:

5. Attach the following labels to the diagram of the long bone shown below.
 * a) compact bone
 * b) spongy bone
 * c) growth plate
 * d) fibrous sheath
 * e) red marrow
 * f) blood vessel

6. Attach the following labels to the diagram of a joint shown below
 * a) bone
 * b) articular cartilage
 * c) joint cavity
 * d) capsule
 * e) ligament
 * f) synovial fluid.

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites
A good diagram of the bird skeleton.
 * http://www.infovisual.info/02/056_en.html Bird skeleton

A great introduction to the mammalian skeleton. A little above the level required but it has so much interesting information it's worth reading it.
 * http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/skeleton.html Earth life

Test yourself on the names of the bones of the (human) skeleton.
 * http://www.klbschool.org.uk/interactive/science/skeleton.htm The human skeleton

Quite a good article on the different kinds of joints with diagrams.
 * http://www.shockfamily.net/skeleton/JOINTS.HTML The joints

Wikipedia is disappointing where the skeleton is concerned. Most articles stick entirely to the human skeleton or have far too much detail. However this one on compact and spongy bone and the growth of bone is quite good although still much above the level required.
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone Wikipedia

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Muscles

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * The structure of smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscle and where they are found.
 * What the insertion and origin of a muscle is.
 * What flexion and extension of a muscle means.
 * That muscles usually operate as antagonistic pairs.
 * What tendons attach muscles to bones.

Muscles
Muscles make up the bulk of an animal’s body and account for about half its weight. The meat on the chop or roast is muscle and is composed mainly of protein. The cells that make up muscle tissue are elongated and able to contract to a half or even a third of their length when at rest. There are three different kinds of muscle based on appearance and function: smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscle.

Types of Muscle
Smooth or Involuntary muscle carries out the unconscious routine tasks of the body such as moving food down the digestive system, keeping the eyes in focus and adjusting the diameter of blood vessels. The individual cells are spindle-shaped, being fatter in the middle and tapering off towards the ends with a nucleus in the centre of the cell. They are usually found in sheets and are stimulated by the non-conscious or autonomic nervous system as well as by hormones (see Chapter 3).
 * Smooth muscle

Cardiac muscle is only found in the wall of the heart. It is composed of branching fibres that form a three-dimensional network. When examined under the microscope, a central nucleus and faint stripes or striations can be seen in the cells. Cardiac muscle cells contract spontaneously and rhythmically without outside stimulation, but the sinoatrial node (natural pacemaker) coordinates the heart beat. Nerves and hormones modify this rhythm (see Chapter 3).
 * Cardiac muscle

Skeletal muscle is the muscle that is attached to and moves the skeleton, and is under voluntary control. It is composed of elongated cells or fibres lying parallel to each other. Each cell is unusual in that it has several nuclei and when examined under the microscope appears striped or striated. This appearance gives the muscle its names of striped or striated muscle. Each cell of striated muscle contains hundreds, or even thousands, of microscopic fibres each one with its own striped appearance. The stripes are formed by two different sorts of protein that slide over each other making the cell contract (see diagram 7.1).
 * Skeletal muscle

Diagram 7.1 - A striped muscle cell

Muscle contraction
Muscle contraction requires energy and muscle cells have numerous mitochondria. However, only about 15% of the energy released by the mitochondria is used to fuel muscle contraction. The rest is released as heat. This is why exercise increases body temperature and makes animals sweat or pant to rid themselves of this heat as part of thermoregulation.

What we refer to as a muscle is made up of groups of muscle fibers surrounded by connective tissue. The connective tissue sheaths join together at the ends of the muscle to form tough white bands of fiber called tendons. These attach the muscles to the bones. Tendons are similar in structure to the ligaments that attach bones together across a joint (see diagrams 7.2a and b).

Diagram 7.2 a and b - The structure of a muscle

Remember:

Tendons Tie muscles to bones
 * and

Ligaments Link bones at joints

Structure of a muscle
A single muscle is fat in the middle and tapers towards the ends. The middle part, which gets fatter when the muscle contracts, is called the belly of the muscle. If you contract your biceps muscle in your upper arm you may feel it getting fatter in the middle. You may also notice that the biceps is attached at its top end to bones in your shoulder while at the bottom it is attached to bones in your lower arm. Notice that the bones at only one end move when you contract the biceps. This end of the muscle is called the insertion. The other end of the muscle, the origin, is attached to the bone that moves the least (see diagram 7.3).

Diagram 7.3 - Antagonistic muscles, flexion and extension

Antagonistic muscles
Skeletal muscles usually work in pairs. When one contracts the other relaxes and vice versa. Pairs of muscles that work like this are called antagonistic muscles. For example the muscles in the upper forearm are the biceps and triceps (see diagram 7.3). Together they bend the elbow. When the biceps contracts (and the triceps relaxes) the lower forearm is raised and the angle of the joint is reduced. This kind of movement is called flexion. When the triceps is contracted (and the biceps relaxes), the angle of the elbow increases. The term for this movement is extension.

When you or animals contract skeletal muscle it is a voluntary action. For example, you make a conscious decision to walk across the room, raise the spoon to your mouth, or smile. There is however, another way in which contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton happens that is not under voluntary control. This is during a reflex action, such as jerking your hand away from the hot stove you have touched by accident. This is called a reflex arc and will be described in detail in chapter 14-15.

Summary

 * There are three different kinds of muscle tissue: smooth muscle in the walls of the gut and blood
 * vessels; cardiac muscle in the heart and skeletal muscle attached to the skeleton.

 * Tendons attach skeletal muscles to the skeleton.
 * Ligaments link bones together at a joint.
 * Skeletal muscles work in pairs known as antagonistic pairs. As one contracts the other in the
 * pair relaxes.

 * Flexion is the movement that reduces the angle of a joint. Extension increases the angle
 * of a joint.

Test Yourself
1. What kind of muscle tissue:
 * a) moves bones
 * b) makes the heart pump blood:
 * c) pushes food along the intestine:
 * d) makes your mouth form a smile:
 * e) makes the hair stand up when cold:
 * f) makes the diaphragm contract for breathing in:

2. What structure connects a muscle to a bone?

3. What is the insertion of a muscle?

4. Which muscle is antagonistic to the biceps?

5. Name 3 other antagonistic pairs and tell what they do.

6. When you bend your knee what movement are you making?

7. When you straighten your ankle joint what movement happens?

8. What organelles provide the energy that muscles need?

9. State the difference between a tendon and a ligament.

10.In the section "Skeletal Muscle" there are 2 proteins mentioned. Name these proteins, state their size difference, and tell what they actually do to help produce movement.

Website
Description of the three types of muscles and how skeletal muscles work.
 * http://health.howstuffworks.com/muscle.htm How muscles work

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
Perl Programming/Editors and IDEs

Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)
If you feel up to it, you may want to try using an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE is a program that provides a workspace for writing and debugging programs. Some programmers find they are more productive with the assistance of an IDE. Using an IDE can also eliminate some of the pain of the command prompt, especially when one lacks experience with the established tools.

This book will make no assumptions about the IDE you are using beyond the capabilities of a basic text editor.

title: Perl Programming/Editors and IDEs


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Design Hard Disk Layout

Detailed Objectives
(LPIC-1 Version 5.0)

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to design a disk partitioning scheme for a Linux system.

Key knowledge area(s):
 * Allocate filesystems and swap space to separate partitions or disks.
 * Tailor the design to the intended use of the system.
 * Ensure the  partition conforms to the hardware requirements for booting.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
 * (root) filesystem
 * filesystem
 * filesystem
 * filesystem
 * EFI System Partition (ESP)
 * swap space
 * mount points
 * partitions

Filesystems
A filesystem is simply a way of organizing data in computer-accessible form on the hard disk or other media. Different filesystems have different organizing structures to determine where the data and indexing information will be stored. Some popular filesystems include: ext2     one of the oldest and most universally supported filesystems on Linux, Unix, and BSD operating systems ext3     an extended version of ext2 which overcomes some limitations and adds journaling ext4     fourth extended filesystem - it is a journaling file system for Linux, developed as the successor to ext3. btrfs reiserfs an enhanced journaling filesystem written by Hans Reiser and extended by the open source community since his incarceration jfs xfs fat or  vfat      the file allocation table-based filesystem used by MS-DOS and Windows 9x NTFS     A more advanced (than fat) filesystem used by Windows NT, 2000, XP and Vista

Partitions
When doing an installation there is normally a minimum disk configuration of two partitions that needs to be created:

 * / (root): directory that contains the Linux distribution.
 * Swap space: partition that allows a kernel to run more processes than can normally fit into RAM.

If multiple disks are available it is good practice to also have the /usr and /home directories on different partitions. Each partition will contain a filesystem type and can be mounted on the active system in the filesystem global tree. To print the active mounted filesystems, use mount.

$ mount dev/hda3 on / type reiserfs (rw) proc on /proc type proc (rw) devpts on /dev/pts type devpts (rw) /dev/hda1 on /boot type ext2 (rw) shmfs on /dev/shm type shm (rw) usbdevfs on /proc/bus/usb type usbdevfs (rw)

The swap partition doesn't need a file system. It will be accessed in raw mode by the kernel with no filesystem system calls as overhead.

Disk speed issues
Before deciding on your partitioning scheme, you really need to know exactly what sort of applications you will be running.
 * Mail Server
 * Web Server
 * Graphical X-Windows based applications
 * And more

If your system has multiple disks, use the fastest one to store most of your data.

 * / Contains most of the system utilities and doesn't get used much. These can be shipped off to the slowest disk.
 * /var/log contains a lot of logging information. Best on a fast disk.
 * /usr is typically on a separate partition anyway and if you have a lot of clients starting lots of X applications, use a fast disk.

Examples of system applications:

For e-mail serving, Sendmail writes to two main locations: mail queue, usually /var/spool/mqueue and /var/spool/mail as well as other locations. Apache uses several different files, two log files per site hosted for logging and access to the actual pages. Apache spends quite a bit of time writing to log files in /var/log (or where configured to do so).

Virtual memory (Swap)
When you set up a new system, swap should be twice your actual RAM. This is not always sensible in real-world scenarios, however it is a traditional guideline and a conservative answer to give in an exam. swapon is used to enable specified devices/partitions designated for swapping. On the contrary, swapoff is used to disable a specified device/partition of swapping. Both commands can take the -a option, which iterates all swap devices found in /proc/swaps or /etc/fstab.

Information on the swap partition can be displayed with swapon.

swapon -s # Display the active partition

To get information on the usage of virtual memory, use vmstat.

$ vmstat -n 1 procs                     memory    swap          io     system         cpu r b  w   swpd   free   buff  cache  si  so    bi    bo   in    cs  us  sy  id 5  0  1    184   3228  37684  92828   0   0    37    19  124   228   3   0  97 1 0  0    184   3476  37684  92596   0   0     0     0  102   368   0   0 100 2  0  0    184   3476  37684  92596   0   0     0     0  101   328   0   0 100 R:processes waiting for run time. b: processes in uninterruptable sleep. w: processes swapped out. swpd: virtual memory used (kB). free: Idle memory (kB). buff: Memory used as buffers (kB). si: Memory swapped in from disk (kB/s). so: Memory swapped to disk (kB/s). bi: Blocks received from a block device (blocks/s). bo: Blocks sent to a block device (blocks/s). in: The number of interrupts per second. cs: The number of context switches per second. us: user time sy: system time id: idle time

Exercises

 * Exercises results

 * 1) Open two terminals: In one terminal display periodically the virtual memory usage. In the second terminal disable the virtual memory and re-enable it. Notify the changes in the first terminal.
 * 2) What is the disk layout of your system and how many disks do you have?
 * 3) How many swap space can you use?


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Install A Boot Manager

Detailed Objective
(LPIC-1 Version 5.0)

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to select, install and configure a boot manager.

Key knowledge area(s):
 * Providing alternative boot locations and backup boot options.
 * Install and configure a boot loader such as GRUB Legacy.
 * Perform basic configuration changes for GRUB 2.
 * Interact with the boot loader.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:
 * ,  and
 * MBR
 * MBR
 * MBR

Boot managers
A boot loader is installed in the MBR (Master Boot Record). When a system starts, it loads what is in the MBR to RAM. Under Linux there are two main boot loaders:
 * Lilo: LInux LOader.
 * Grub: GRand Unified Boot Loader.

A boot loader allows you to select the image that you would like to boot from. A system can contain multiple images (operating systems).

A boot loader allows you to interactively run commands and pass parameters to the image that you will boot. The initrd is the driver that will be used to build a filesystem on RAM to mount other filesystems and execute programs.

GRUB is today's default boot loader for many distributions. When installing Windows with Linux, install Windows first and Linux second, because Windows overwrites the MBR without asking.

LILO vs. GRUB
Both are used to load an image from a disk to RAM. GRUB has the following advantages to LILO:
 * More pre-OS commands.
 * Supports images stored beyond the 1024 BIOS cylinder limitation.
 * Can access its configuration file through the filesystem.

When using LILO, each time you add a new image or change an image a new LILO needs to be installed in the MBR.
 * LILO keeps its boot information in the MBR
 * GRUB keeps its boot information in the filesystem (menu.lst).
 * LILO also has a configuration file /etc/lilo.conf.

To install GRUB on the MBR, use grub-install. The command setup will override the MBR.

To install LILO on the MBR, use lilo. The lilo will use the /etc/lilo.conf file to know what to write into the MBR.

Example of /etc/lilo.conf:

boot = /dev/hda # LILO installation target: MBR vga = normal # (normal, extended, or ask) read-only # Mount the root file systems read-only image=/boot/vmlinuz # Image to load label=linux  # Label to display root=/dev/hda1 # Root partition for the kernel initrd=/boot/initrd # Ramdisk other=/dev/hda3 label=windows image=/boot/memtest.bin label=memtest86
 * 1) LILO global section
 * 1) LILO Linux section
 * 1) LILO DOS/Windows section
 * 1) LILO memtest section

Example of menu.lst (GRUB configuration file):

timeout 10 # Boot the default kernel after 10 seconds default 0 # Default kernel title GNU/Linux # Title root (hd0,1) # /dev/hda2 root filesystem kernel /boot/vmlinuz root=/dev/hda2 read-only initrd /boot/initrd boot title Winblows root (hd0,2) # /dev/hda3 makeactive chainloader+1
 * 1) GRUB default values
 * 1) Grub for Linux section 0
 * 1) Kernel and parameters to pass to the kernel
 * 1) Grub for DOS/Windows section

GRUB Resources
* GRUB Manual * GRUB homepage * Grub wiki * Linux+Win+Grub HowTo * Linux Recovery and Boot Disk Creation with Grub. * Win32 Grub * Booting with GRUB * WinGRUB * GRUB Installer for Windows * GRUB for DOS - Bridging DOS/Windows to Unix/Linux

Exercises

 * Exercises results

1) Install Grub on a floppy disk and try to boot your image manually:

mkfs -t ext2 /dev/fd0 mount /dev/fd0 /mnt mkdir -p /mnt/boot/grub cp /boot/grub/stage* /mnt/boot/grub/ cp /boot/grub/e2fs-stage1_5 /mnt/boot/grub/ touch /mnt/boot/grub umount /mnt grub root (fd0) setup (fd0) quit

Now reboot with the floppy and from the prompt select the kernel on the hard disk.

root (hd0,1) kernel /boot/vmlinuz root=/dev/hda2 read-only initrd /boot/initrd boot

2) Create /boot/grub/menu.lst file and install Grub on your hard drive with the grub utility.

3) Install back lilo. Change the linux label of the default kernel image to SuSE in /etc/lilo.conf and re-install the lilo program in the MBR.


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Make & Install Programs From Source

Detailed Objective (206.1)
(LPIC-2 Version 4.5)

Weight: 2

Description: Candidates should be able to build and install an executable program from source. This objective includes being able to unpack a file of sources.

Key Knowledge Areas:
 * Unpack source code using common compression and archive utilities.
 * Understand basics of invoking make to compile programs.
 * Apply parameters to a configure script.
 * Know where sources are stored by default.

Terms and Utilities:

Source files
An archive is a collection of related files stored in one file. The command that allows you to store files and subtree directories in one file is tar.

tar function & options files

Common functions: -c: Create a new tar file. -t: Tell the contents of a tar file. -x: Extract the contents of a tar file.

Common options: -f file: Specify the name of the tar file.

Examples:

tar cvf mybackup.tar ~ tar cvf usr.tar /usr tar tvf mybackup.tar tar xvf mybackup.tar

It is good practice to use the .tar extension for all files archived with tar.

File compression
Compression saves space for storage and file transfer. There are multiple utilities to do compression:

 * compress, uncompress # Old Unix compression algorithm
 * gzip, gunzip # Most common use
 * bzip2, bunzip2 # Best compression algorithm

Once an archive has been created, it can be compressed. Examples:

$ ls -l backup.tar -rw-r--r-- 1 rarrigon users 22773760 nov 10 11:07 backup.tar

$ gzip -v backup.tar backup.tar: 53.8% -- replaced with backup.tar.gz

$ ls -l backup.tar.gz -rw-r--r-- 1 rarrigon users 10507393 nov 10 11:07 backup.tar.gz

gunzip backup.tar.gz $ bzip2 -v backup.tar backup.tar: 2.260:1,  3.540 bits/byte, 55.75% saved, 22773760 in, 10077846 out.

Files archiving and compression
When archiving files and subdirectories it is possible to package and compress them in one command. Examples:

tar cvzf backup.tgz ~ # Backup of home with gzip tar cvjf backup.tbz ~ # Backup of home with bzip2 tar xvzf backup.tgz # Extract and gunzip backup.tgz tar xvjf backup.tbz # Extract and bunzip2 backup.tbz

By default tar uses a relative path but with the -P option it is possible to save files with an absolute path. Files in this mode will always be extracted at the same location. For compressing and archiving in one line $ tar cvf -. | gzip > target.tar.gz

For unzipping a compressed archive: $ gunzip -c file_name.tar.gz |tar xvf -

GNU tool chain
Under Linux all the sources can be built with the standard GNU tool chain. make Utility to maintain group of programs. Use the rules defined in Makefile. Many compressed or archived packages once installed will have information files (README, INSTALL) that should explain how it should be built and installed. The files Makefile.in and configure.in are the basic files that will be used to generate a final Makefile. The configured file in general scans the system and will build a final Makefile.
 * gcc ANSI C Compiler
 * g++ C++ Compiler

Exercises

 * Exercises results

 * 1) Do an archive of the /bin and the /sbin directories. With which compression utilities do you get the smallest file size? Use -v to get in percentage the size file reduction.
 * 2) Install the file /usr/src/packages/SOURCES/grub-09.tar.bz2 in /tmp and by reading INSTALL and README build the sources.
 * 3) Find the way to uncompress a .deb an a .rpm  archive, what is in ?
 * 4) In on command line, compress a new file and uncompress this new file somewhere else.


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Manage Shared Libraries

Detailed Objective
(LPIC-1 Version 5.0)

Weight: 1

Description: Candidates should be able to determine the shared libraries that executable programs depend on and install them when necessary.

Key knowledge areas:
 * Identify shared libraries.
 * Identify the typical locations of system libraries.
 * Load shared libraries.

The following is a partial list of the used files, terms and utilities:

Shared libraries
A library is a set of functions that programs can use to implement their functionalities. When building (linking) a program, those libraries can be statically or dynamically linked to an executable. Static link means that the final program will contain the library function within its file. (lib.a) Dynamic link means that the needed libraries would need to be loaded into RAM when the program needs to be executed. (lib.so)

The default directories for all the standard libraries are:
 * /lib: Used mainly by /bin programs.
 * /usr/lib: Used mainly by /usr/bin programs.

The file /etc/ld.so.conf is used by the system to specify other library locations. To build a cache file used by the runtime loader of all the available libraries, use ldconfig. The file /etc/ld.so.cache will be generated.

Library dependencies
To print shared programs or library dependencies, use ldd.

ldd [-vdr] program|library

Example:

$ ldd -d -v /bin/cp libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x40027000) /lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x40000000) Version information: /bin/cp: libc.so.6 (GLIBC_2.1.3) => /lib/libc.so.6 libc.so.6 (GLIBC_2.1) => /lib/libc.so.6 libc.so.6 (GLIBC_2.2) => /lib/libc.so.6 libc.so.6 (GLIBC_2.0) => /lib/libc.so.6 /lib/libc.so.6: ld-linux.so.2 (GLIBC_2.1.1) => /lib/ldlinux.so.2 ld-linux.so.2 (GLIBC_2.2.3) => /lib/ldlinux.so.2 ld-linux.so.2 (GLIBC_2.1) => /lib/ldlinux.so.2 ld-linux.so.2 (GLIBC_2.2) => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 ld-linux.so.2 (GLIBC_2.0) => /lib/ld-linux.so.2

Runtime loader
The runtime loader ld.so finds the needed library of a program and will load them into RAM. The search order of ld.so is:
 * LD_LIBRARY_PATH
 * The cache file /etc/ld.so.cache
 * The default directories /lib and /usr/lib.

Exercises

 * Exercises results


text: Talk:Miskito/Lexicon

title: Talk:Miskito/Lexicon


text:
Talk:Perl Programming/User input-output

=Diamond operator= The diamond operator is specific to reading in the files from @ARGS and is largely just used for batch processing. As far as I know,  is not the diamond operator, but rather just a FileHandle dereference. EvanCarroll 09:05, 23 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perl Programming/User input-output