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Tactical Combat

This book will delineate the attributes of Tactical Combat and focus on a field proven methodology which effectively responds to the needs of terror interdiction teams and operators combating 4th Generation Warfare entities and tactics. The general underlying principle of this protocol involves the integration of the three combat sciences fundamental to Special Tactics expertise: Team Assault, Combat Marksmanship, and Tactical Close-Quarters Combat. Integration is vital to developing a non-contradictory, non eclectic system of propagation and an exacting methodology for implementation. The key to successful transformation on the Tactical Level lies in the up-grading of combat systems through the propagation of Special Tactics training throughout. These written contents serve as an essential introductory guide to Special Tactics Simultaneous Combat and are part of authorized training materials relevant to Tactical Force Response for Police and military use.

The author, American, Chief Tactical Instructor Chris Mar, spent 23 years training international SWAT, Special MP and Counterterrorist Instructors Teams. He is the founding Chief Instructor of Taiwan Special Tactics Police, the original developer of Simultaneous Combat biomechanics, the founder of APA Tactical Force Response, and the only person to receive official certification as Chief Instructor of Tactical Close Combat, for the top echelon of Special Police and Antiterrorist Instructors on both sides of the Taiwan Strait.

= Tactical Combat/Evolvement of Tactical Combat = Next-generation warfare involves a sociological and a technological transformation of tactical combat. In the widest sense, modern global conflict is asymmetric, involving both state centric forces and non-state-centric combatants whose actions appear casuistically inspired and self-enacting but where seemingly random and source-less acts of terror are actually part of highly organized strategies systematically put to use by those collaborating under the framework of a violent ideology. The objective is to induce public terror as an act of war. Already the 4th Generation model has relevance with the use of passenger aircraft against business landmarks and non combatants, again with the planting of high-explosives in Bali and the well-organized use of synchronized units armed with conventional assault rifles and hand grenades to terrorize, kill and take hostages in Mumbai. Each time the attacks are upon major populated densities by different factions, without any consideration to convention and espouse a single radical ideology. As devastating as each of these examples are, there is a very real threat of the use of greater technological force with more powerful weapons, especially biological, within the next five years.

The countering tactics based on rapid deployment and force projection have had initial militarily success, but as the post-conflict operations takes place, the real battle begins. It is not difficult to assume that this is the actual strategic operation in effect. The two apparent dangers of invading a foreign territory are the cost of supporting such a force and the morality of prolonging dominance over local authority and security. These are circumstances which a smaller decentralized guerilla force would author and take advantage of. At the same time some units are having more success with the adapting to local community infrastructure and cultural traditions while counter insurgency (silent use) force response is at times put to use to surgically remove insurgent fighters. These actions are representative of those transformations by which generational qualitative shifts occur; Sociological and Technological paradigm shifts become the defining focal point of two different models of warfare.

Sociological Paradigm Shifts of Tactical Combat
The establishing of the initiating period of the First Generation definition is from materials by the Military Academy at Sandhurst. The 4th Generational Model as described directly below is by a team of American analysts, including William S Lind.

First generation Warfare starts with the Napoleonic State and military fighting paradigm of that era. Smoothbore muskets and linear firing lines, columns and massive armies at the onset were the main instruments of military projection. The use of Linear Tactics revolutionized the battlefield and the adherence to Drill and Ceremony created a successful elaboration of military power. Significantly, those forces which did not employ these methods in combat were defeated.

Second Generation Warfare marks a qualitative shift by the advent of enhanced firepower and communications abilities and the Tactical use of Fire and Movement with reliance on indirect fire are characteristics of Second Generation Warfare. Though 2GW is a vast departure from its predecessor, both 1GW and 2GW are examples of Attrition Warfare

Third Generation Warfare brought to warfare a new paradigm by the use of Blitzkrieg and through the success of Russian Operations over the more heavily industrialized nations by the systemization of Maneuver Warfare encompassed by a non-linear tactical combat format and mindset. The inclusion of infiltration tactics used to bypass a direct clash with enemy lines 3GW characteristics are applicable to counter-ambush and counterattack.

Fourth Generation Warfare is apparently what we are faced with in today’s volatile circumstances. The characteristics are the decentralization of warfare; non-state centric small groups who are unable to withstand larger forces firepower rely upon terror operations, and anonymity.

Technological Paradigm Shifts of Tactical Combat
Some essential information of this Generational model summary are referenced from papers prepared for The Federalist Patriot by a retired U.S. Army Counterintelligence Agent.

First Generation Warfare - As there were over a thousand years of well known tactician and war scholars before Napoleon First Generation Warfare by technological shifts describes the use of force in conflict in historical phases.
 * PHASE ONE- began in primitive combat along the lines of race and ethnicity being fought by groups of individuals who for reasons of safety and survival would clash and inflict total defeat or annihilation. Characteristics of 1st Gen Phase 1 war was the ability to use hardened weapons and use tools to produce some sort of wall for home or community defense and armor for ones own protection, perhaps over 1500-2000 years BC
 * PHASE TWO- is when teamwork in military force was utilized with a hierarchy of command, subjugation rather than annihilation and simple formational maneuvers to flank and frontally assault. This is Siege Warfare. This period may be for over 3500-4000 years of history.
 * PHASE THREE- is the advent of HUMINT (Human Intelligence – spy network, reconnaissance, surveillance and the start of Tactical Warfare utilizing deception, ruse, decoy, feint, fraud and display as tactical tools.

Second Generation Warfare is when gunpowder became fully exploited in military conflict, This is when castles began to become obsolete, but all the lessons of First Gen War were succinct and communications by pigeon, flags, smoke, signals and trumpets the addition of combat aggregators such as logistics, fire support, counterintelligence, mechanized transport and mobilized weaponry

Third Generation Warfare – Began with the ability to use airpower and Chemical, biological, toxic warfare as well as the ability to formulate advanced planning, strategies, contingency planning, modern armor vehicles (tanks)telegraph and telephone, speeding up the ability to communicate and disseminate information. These technologies were truly paradigmatic anomalies in comparison to earlier generations. WWI through WWII

Fourth Generation Warfare began in 1945 with the use of Nuclear Weapons and the return to total devastation as an option for victory over military constituents but as well there was a belief to spare civilian populations not supporting a war effort and a respect for the neutrality of some countries exempting them from the belligerence of either faction.

Fifth Generation Warfare comes about us not through a war of terror, as this is not particularly new. Rather the use of the internet and the control of the scale of force; scalability, which is akin to a programmer wiping out an entire national energy network yet being able to pinpoint the delivery and effectiveness as well as the degree and magnitude of its effect in time and valuations. The use of information and media, the electronic lased mapped fields of battle through HUD in helmets interconnected by military networks and the concept that the flow of data and information is not bound by borders. The exploitation of media and the self-enactment of fully empowered individuals with enough resources to cause ultimate devastation to civilization is the characteristic of Fifth generation Warfare.

Delineating the current Generational Model of Tactical Combat
It is often said that state-centric elements comprise the larger force however this is not necessarily an accurate assumption. Many small groups synchronizing tactical combat actions interconnect through networks which cover extensive areas. Realistically, an effective war-fighting force which is immediately deployable to the active battlefield is not entirely dependent upon the total number of combatants of either faction operating within a Tactical locality. The magnitude of scalability also includes access to the battle region by air, ground (including subterranean) and naval support. Counter-measures such as obstructions, traps, explosives and impassable terrain coupled with effective tactics, may serve to limit the extent of force projection aggregation and augmentation. Ultimately, as is the case in Afghanistan, smaller specialized forces have greater mobility and flexibility. Lo-tech and hi-tech remote controlled devices are widely used by both sides and incursive elements remain wholly-dependent on the supply of munitions. As with any foreign operation, success must be measured in terms of sustainability and successful completion of mission objectives.

Guerilla Warfare-like tactics are commonly put to use both offensively and defensively or because strategic consideration need to employ clandestine actions to resolve circumstances in order to take or retain the initiative. This is both a solution to fighting an overwhelming opponent as well as fighting in a foreign territory.

A sovereign state is an entity with its own territories and a government  as accepted by the majority of its permeant population, with the ability of the government  to engage in international relations. and the capability to defend against aggressors. The action to wage lethal conflict against another state is necessarily the act of using tactical level elements to quell domestic terror capitalized by foreign influences or to attack foreign terrorists outside of its borders. Terrorism is the use violent force and destruction  to coerce or threaten the state or its citizens strictly  to cause panic and instability so the will of the people is overthrown. . War should only be waged against terrorism and not for subscription to a perceived threat or some act which has not yet occurred but if it did would create an application of deadly violent solutions, such as the claimed internal police actions conducted as an invasion of Ukraine by Russia  as instigated by its dictator/president.

An armed invasion of a sovereign territory is to conduct war to overthrow and to steal resources and assets. belonging to an entity recognized by the integrity of a national identity through the structure of its government that supports and is supported by its permeant citizens and any direct action which results in the proven targeting of essential civilian structures such as hospitals, churches, nuclear powered energy generating facilities or that result in the death or kidnapping of civilian workers and families is a criminal enterprise and a war crime. Therefore international terrorists and war criminals are the same.

'''The all essential and fundamental justification to conduct armed incursion as a defensive act of national security must be in response  to any Tactical strike against non-combatants that exploits civilian targets which have no military affiliation. Operations of this nature conducted on foreign soil are widely recognized as war crimes. State to state terrorism is the deployment of military resources to invade another country without the reasonable declaration of war.'''

The ultimate objective of warfare technology is either to leave nothing remaining or create a better environment for recovery. In order to conserve resources and preserve the infrastructure, total responsibility must be taken to observe consequences which are consistent to system conservation. Modern technology can provide unprecedented accuracy and penetrating devastation but realizing the survival of the infrastructure is vitally important to enduring peace

Sociological and technological transformations are already present in every theater of operations, from village to forest to city, now becoming apparent to the individual soldier or police officer, that what was once highly specialized and belonging to elite units has become the necessary evolution at the tactical level and the result of the special operatives training, whose original purpose was always an upgrade all tactical combat as a whole and individually per agent. Modern guerilla tactics attempt to exploit the weaknesses of larger conventional military organizations. Tactical Force Response relies on experience, superior tactics, deep infiltration, the support and the acknowledgement of the community. While the greatest thinking soldiers and war-fighters set the standard of modern combat, in reality a new dimension of sophistication is available and suitable to the technological 21st Century forces upholding security, utilizing Biomechanical Combat Kinematics, which allows intelligential tactics to become second nature as a instantaneous and spontaneous thought into action process. The goal orientation of Simultaneous Methodology is through a process of clear mental acuity forming empathic sensitivity awareness in order to use Simultaneous counter-attack. The 4 Criteria of 1) Kinetic Objectives, 2), Critical Processing of Intervals 3) Mental Envisagement and 4) Simultaneity

Simultaneous Combat within Maneuver Warfare
In warfare where taking control over physical areas must precede any policing efforts or crime fighting, it is found that physical control and Force Projection represents to citizens who reside in taken territory a form of repressive occupation which is ultimately counter-productive to any follow-on efforts to establish law and order. The only way to form a lasting cooperation with a local community is to have won their trust and intelligent recognition of common goals. Without the hearts and minds, and especially in less developed areas, what ultimately transpires is a decentralized insurgency fought by guerilla fighters who are tactically adept and native to the region. No matter what energies are expended to using superior technological maneuvers to decapitate the support and command of the resisting forces it is now known that because each small group is its own Center of Gravity and the only way to defeat highly adaptive decentralized fighters is through specialized tactics implemented by special operations to each important locality. One methodology most effective to present day combat is clandestine, horizontal command-structured, specialists skilled in Combined Operations Simultaneous Close Combat, fluent in the language and indistinguishable from local culture of the target area. What this describes is Simultaneous Combat within Maneuver Warfare where each operator has the skillset and has the ability to decide his own action. He must be an exceptionally mature individual, integral to the detachment, and an expert team player. Simultaneous Combat protocolcalls for stealth deploy and surgical elimination of targets without the support or command component. Simultaneous Combat is based on technical proficiency throughout the complete range of combat skills made contextually consistent through Simultaneous methodology. Training includes increasing the awareness level for clarity and sensitivity awareness, being able to scientifically understand instantaneous response, delivery of kinetic force within the simultaneous exchange.

Common Grounds of Military and Law Enforcement Special Tactics
Now in today’s realm the methodological gap between military operations in urban areas and special response law enforcement narrows to the point where the only discernable tactical differences exist in specific tasking and within the requirements of lethality. The inherent relationship between specialized teams of Military, Military Police and Law Enforcement exists for several reasons. Primarily, as the asymmetric battlefield encompasses non-military localities, urban warfare and terrorism are both types of incursive military projection; consequently tactical combat and policing actions share stringent rules and conduct codes concerning non-uniformed constituents. Also homeland security incident management and intelligence sharing protocol necessitates a homogenous infrastructure to interface national defense elements and local police services. Hasty reaction to an amorphous antagonist and the over-reliance of military doctrine as a valid domestic SOP to protect the public can create contradictory protocol.

Defining Victory
There are three major changes which must be realized in response to “New-generation” conflict. The first is the need to understand the system of thought or the contextual characteristics of the opposing forces rather than the content of battle tactics through the conduct of war-fighters.

Secondly, any conflict can be fought and won without physical confrontation, e.g. by influence or bribery. Battles can be won by indirect means, through usurpation or the stealth extermination of key individuals.

Thirdly, though conventional doctrine delineates warfare at three levels; Strategic, Operational or Tactical, in reality today’s battlefield extends into communities with businesses and residences which means victory is not the completion of the physical battle but where post-conflict operations including changes to political and military leadership have the moral support of the local community.

= Tactical Combat/The Tactical Level =

Tactical Combat in its doctrine level definition is the offensive action taken upon the determination of a Level Three Threat. A Level Three threat is the highest and most dangerous threat as according to its ability to conduct combat operations and the scope of its intelligence gathering applicability. A Level Three threat implies an active multiple service combined-arms force capable of causing severe disruption of strategic objectives or destruction vital to friendly interests. However, law enforcement deparments and agencies now include tactical combat teams which respond to any act of extreme violence.

The Tactical Combat mission is always a derivative action which is in context to the Operational process. This relationship does not preclude independent planning or mission command especially in single, limited duration interdiction or operations involving unconventional incursion.

Tactical primarily denotes a level of warfare. As well it is one of four levels of warfare planning. These levels are strategic, operational, tactical and technical which are differentiated according to the size of Force commitment and as a diverse hierarchy of command. In the context of these structural functions, the Strategic involves the overall Theater of War which may be an international region where the decision process, authorizations, policy and delineations impacts more than one Theater of Operation. A Theater of Operation is that subdivision which focuses on one major threat for which it conducts military operations and the administration of all combat personnel, support and logistics which can sustain the size of the forces and fires accordingly and as long as munitions are available.

Tactical Movement is initiated whenever forward reconnaissance is required. Every move order requires an authorization and will include a detailing of important parameters and specifications as per the requirements according to the time, size and destination. The primary responsibility of the tactical component is to defend itself during the course of the observations so that crucial intelligence is retained thoroughly and can be deciphered in its entirety. Tactical movement is critical as it returns intelligence, and shows the range of mobility and likely résistance, as well as probing potential weaknesses of defenses, detection systems, but most importantly it represents the ability to take the strategic initiative into new areas of operation.

Tactical Deployment during Force Projection
Tactical deployment involves tactical elements, procedures and countermeasures as part of the Response or Deterrence component during Force Projection Operations. Force Projection is a show of aggressive force against an immediate threat and the steps taken in post conflict operations. Force Projection is a total crisis management solution which begins with crisis-action planning, training, anticipatory intelligence and pre-deployment preparations. The actual Operations begin with mobilization and the formulation of an operational concept which will determine the type of combat force, battle preparations, mission logistics and engineering requirements. The sequence of Force Projection Operations is mobilization, pre-deployment, deployment, Entry ops, Combat, Conflict Termination, Post-conflict, Redeployment and Demobilization. The entire infrastructure is physically dependent upon two critical Tactical components; the integrity of the Force Protection Systems and the completion of combat engineering tasks.

Special Tactics
Special Tactics is the appurtenance of advanced combat resources and capabilities specific to the rapid deployment of special objectives task-oriented multi-role fighting teams. The three most important characteristics of the fighters are 1) the degree of experience, 2) the level of maturity to take decisive action and effectuate self-enacted creativity and 3) knowledge of the regional area, the culture, language, terrain, sociology and psychology.

Special Combat Ops are vastly different than Special Tactics Responders. Specialized military teams prepare battlefields, use stealthy and clandestine measures to insert Combat Controllers, exploit sophisticated deception tactics, Para rescue, and include combat weather personnel. Functions include austere airfield and assault zone reconnaissance, surveillance, rear area infiltration, exfiltration, psy ops, assist combat engineers for obstructions placement, and terminal control. The objective is to gather intelligence, and deploy into inaccessible areas. Special Operations can impact every aspect in a Theater of Operations. Special Tactics Police and First Responders assist to contain and to provide fire support, sharpshooters and assault teams in hostage rescue, structure and barricade clearing, tactical riot and snatch extraction, to provide or assist in close protection, and to breach or use dynamic entry formations. The Objective is control the tactical environment and to save lives through precision formations and extreme efficiency of close combat.

Force Protection
It is important to understand the critical role of Force Protection which specifically involves the defense and security ascertainment of Tactical operators and the envelope of operations within the reach of the Force itself. Protection of the Force is a policing action necessary to ensure the security of the base of operations and includes meticulous security posts and patrols, aggressive intelligence gathering activities, intensive detection, provide vital fire to protect lives, maintain the integrity of security processes by deadly preemption, provide rapid humanitarian response, make difficult and dangerous rescue, and facilitate defense engineering.

Combat Engineers
Combat Engineers will analyze the terrain’s ability to facilitate the flow of mechanized support and communications and a geological threshold for clearance, coverage, weight bearing and wind conditions can be factored in. Engineering controls road construction, blockade placement, obstacle and traps clearing and positioning. The securing or regaining control of any area previously lost may reveal important facts which will be taken into account for damage control planning, establishing transport routes for infiltration and viable exits as well as providing critical keys for locating traps and preventing ambush, greatly assisting the set up area defenses, protection of munitions, developing deception operations to coincide with other actions. Determining likely Courses of Action involves intelligence preparation and planning, maneuver control and sustainability. Analysis of positions relative to the technical character of the terrain, personnel and weapons systems, logistical support and time-frame of mission duration are essential in developing a synchronization matrix. Ultimately the depth of reconnaissance and preparation of intelligence depends on the reliability of the sources which include remote sensors, satellite, friendly observers, and first-hand studies by special exploratory units who have a high level of expertise in weaponry, tactics, stealth, special transport, EW, and Close Quarters skills. The effectiveness of the planning and the time to initiate specific actions are most heavily reliant on accurate intelligence.

Post conflict
As warfare closes, the capabilities of military Special Ops and Law Enforcement Special Response Units become mutually supportive, especially as many missions involve clearing built-up urban areas, and providing Combined Operations support and training for friendly enforcement units, extractions and tactical snatch in hostile areas as well as tactical riot formations, and crowd control tactics which may or may not be within the perimeters of the secure zone.

Integration of Protocol
Tactical Combat concerns the effective integration of the three combat sciences fundamental to expertise in Special Tactics: Team Assault, Combat Marksmanship, and Tactical Close-Quarters Combat. Propagation is the training of an administrative core and Implementation is the field use of the operational methodology.

The National Security Bureau Directive
In the early 1980's Lt Gen Wego Chiang, Secretary General of Taiwan's National Security Bureau in conjunction with Minister of the Interior, Wu Poh-hsiung, issues a national directive calling for the creation of National Special Tactics Units to combat heavily armed, organized crime. ROC Marine Corp Chief of Staff Maj. General Lo Chang accepting the position of National Police Commissioner, formalizes three criteria which guides the selection and implementation process of special tactical combat protocol:

1. The combat protocol must be exclusive to Special Tactics use. Its training and methodologies are classified and unavailable to the general public

2.The selection system must use real-time rigorous testing and meet the highest international standards. The approval process must be free of influence peddling

3. The training methodology must be non-contradictory to law enforcement purposes of interdiction. The training must tightly integrate close quarters extraction, combat marksmanship and assault team tactics.

The Selection
After the comprehensive examination of over 300 systems and instructors, the National Police Administration Special Training Division picks the APA Tactical simultaneous counter attack terror interdiction methodology of high-speed extraction, tactical riot, close security and advanced Maneuver Warfare as the official Tactical CQC protocol.

In the following months Chief Instructor Chris Mar finalizes APA field documentation and multi-media training support materials with Group Commander Jerry Chen and 15 APA Assistant Instructors. The APA Instruction Team conduct the first 10 week 350 National Police Instructors to form the foundation for APA Tactical CQC Long Term Training regimen.

After the first group of National Police Instructors complete special tactics training, exemplary active -duty officers from various departments form the First Division SWAT Teams and complete 8 weeks of intensive training. Courses include APA-CQC, Combat Marksmanship, Combat Assault team, Advanced Criminology, structure clearing, dynamic entry, combat stress marksmanship, tactical rappel, and advanced high speed vehicle control.

The Role of Special Tactics Force Response
Tactical Combat is an engagement of battle which can fall outside of conventional circumstances because of the unorthodox nature innate to foreign regions where incursion and interdiction can reverse roles and will have enormous affect on the methods used for disruption. This involves actions or capabilities which fall outside the parameters for standard forces or services, compelling the incorporation of tactics which are specialized to the exact on-going conditions especially to access advantageous positions. At sometime the strategic objectives will come second to the need to survive the fight.

Special Tactics Teams around the world are borne from necessity wrought by the nature of Tactical Combat. Prior to the inception of Special Operations or SWAT type teams’ only regularly trained units were available to respond to all circumstances of force and violence. In cases of unusual or extreme behavior such as heavily armed barricaded subjects, overwhelming force in numbers was thought to be the most effective way to successfully establish control; however it became clear that small numbers of organized teams with adequate firepower and strategic positions could control a combat zone against much larger groups. In an urban environment involving response from law enforcement, persons in the act of crime could easily predict the coming response level and prepare ambush as well as counterattack. Other essential aspects of Tactical Combat include the role of infiltration, rescue, extraction teams, observation, controller, tactical riot, target snatch, and close security among other specializations involving volatile human conflict.

The success of the missions depend greatly on extensive planning as well as expertise in demolitions, camouflage, capability to move quickly without sound, systematically clear structures, natural and man-made, with equipment suitable to meet the most hazardous conditions and having a concise knowledge of defensive tactics. A common issue for tactical war-fighters is the need for independent logistics support for short range conflict. A common characteristic is having extraordinaire stamina especially in severe climates. They are expert with ballistics, silent communication, synchronization of formations, horizontal thinking, and deadly expertise in close-quarters combat and deadly accurate marksmanship.

The most important outcome of building SWAT, Counterterrorist, Special Response, and Rapid Deployment Teams is the creation of a system of administration and a propagation protocol to accomplish the rapid advancement of skills and technologies throughout the general Forces. Team members train tactical support teams and many are qualified as instructors. Members are allocated into operational detachment size units or teams as according to the scope and objectives of the mission as well as by individual expertise and the integrated function of each unit. The teams are highly trained, physically adept, mentally unified and technologically sophisticated in battle tactic capabilities which include logistical effectivity, advanced personal weaponry and fighting skills. The need to implement units capable of undertaking Tactical Combat missions including operations in hostile, denied, or politically sensitive environments, for counter proliferation, or when there is the clear indication of armed hostile threat and high risk conditions requiring the rapid deployment of Special Response, Internal Security, or Special Operation Teams for Non-conventional Assisted Recovery or in order to bring the threat and tactical environment under control. Special Tactical Forces are specifically trained for operations which fall outside of the scope of capabilities or requirements for conventional forces. The strategic requirement concerning the Force Protection and Deployment may be against an entity with mass destruction capabilities, including Explosive and Incendiary Devices, Biologic Agents, Chemical Toxins, and Radioactive Material, may require low visibility, clandestine, or covert capabilities in isolated circumstances and areas independent of conventional support. Tactical Teams specialize in the interdiction of violent conflict and antagonism by barricaded subjects, Extraction, Close Protection and Securing Control over the target area; or threat of large scale destruction and exploitation of terror.

Objectives
While the job of the Tactical Team is invariably to obtain the highest probability of bringing the immediate Tactical Environment under total control the First priority will be the isolation of the constituents. Units entering into the area of concern will establish a command center and a simulation site as close to the actual situation as possible. Each team will: i.  Identify and assess the site terrain and targets, ii. Gain advantageous pre-entry positions, iii. Establish a perimeter which encompasses the target area. iv. Open lines of communication for combat control. v.  Hostage Rescue will set up negotiation as well as a secure tactical line.

Combat Controller
An essential element of Military Special Tactical Combat is the Combat Controller who is first deployed into restricted environments to assess and establish a drop, landing or extraction zone for forward area activities. Each Combat Controller is a certified Air Traffic Controller capable of handling military operations air support and the dynamic conditions of battlefield air traffic. Undergoing the most intensive physical and technical training available, Combat Controllers are expert with small arms, intelligence gathering, technical terrain surveying, limited weather observations and specialized demolition for clearing obstructions and hazards from potential runways and landing zones.

Threat and Risk Assessment
The following list outlines the Planning, Organization, Staffing, Implementation and Control stages of Threat and Risk Assessment.

1. Vulnerability Assessment and Threat Detection 2. Monitoring and Occurrence Prediction 3. Protection and Mitigation 4. Information Assurance 5. Risk Management 6. Contingency Planning 7. Attack Modeling

Real-time intelligence is the one of the most challenging aspects of Tactical Combat. The accuracy and clarity of Surveillance, Exploratory and Observation directly impacts the effectivity of analysis and ultimate decision making. Securing the Base of Operations by way of intrusion detection is possible through a wide array of advanced electronic equipment and innovative usage. Systems include: i.   Field radar, Motion Detection, ii. Thermal imaging, Video Monitoring iii. Optic cable inspection, Vision Enhancement, iv. IR Bounce Listening, Decibel Metering v.   Long Range Surveillance, Stealth Recon vi. Decoy, Trapping, Lure vii. Biometrics, Encrypting, Code and Signals viii. Electronic Interception, Scanning, EW, ECM ix. Penetration Methodologies, Services Denial

Defining Task and Target
Ultimately tactical missions involve limited range rapid incursion into targeted areas by specialized technical teams to secure classified matter from prolonged possession by undesirable elements, where to apprehend means to take into custody. Custody does not necessitate removal. Securing implies taking control with force protection with or without capture. Capture means to take a person by force. Capture is always part of apprehension but to apprehend does not always include force. A. Secure includes: a) Rescue - to save from danger   b) Extract - to move from unsecured conditions to an area of safety c) Remove - to physically take away   d) Destroy - to cause demolishment e) Apprehend - to take into custody   f) Coerce - to use threat or force to cause g) Interrogate - to pose questions to transmit   h) Conceal - hiding from discovery B. Matter implies a) Entities - one or more of that which exists    b) Materials - tangible substances c) Equipment - objects of use    d) Information - cognizant data e) Sites - designated location C. Elements' means    a) Forces - composite groups b) Person(s) - self and other people   c) Areas - positional locale d) Conditions - state of circumstances    e) Actions - activities of process

The Primary Objective
Tactical Combat Teams Special Operations often involve, as a primary objective, the saving of lives or extracting targeted individuals. In this use, extraction is the process of removing constituents from a targeted site when it is considered imperative that they be immediately relocated out of a hostile environment and taken to a Secured Area under friendly control. Extraction may imply the rescuing of entities from grave danger or immediate conditions that they are incapable of surviving within. Both Extraction and Rescue may be for unsuspecting and/or unwilling persons and involve rapid deployment, dynamic defense of the moving tactical envelope and high-speed extrication by a Special Force Protection Team.

Unit differentiation
Where there are many strata of national and local level defense or security, from Department of Defense military systems and Federal Agencies to local Law Enforcement police units, a tactical team generally indicates the smallest operationally functional unit of trained individuals grouped into the following unit designation: 1. A Detachment (3 to 5 men) is known as a Fire Team (a 4 man unit). 2. A Squad comprises of 3 Fire Teams (12-15 people) & a Team Leader 3. A Platoon is made of 3 Squads and a Platoon Leader. There are 3 Fire Teams within a Squad of 12 to 15 operators which includes one Team Leader (Staff Sergeant Level) and 3-4 Squads per Platoon with a Platoon Leader (Lieutenant or Instructor in rank).

Behavioral Distinction
Tactical implies the implementation of evolved and intelligent behavior made second nature versus hyper-conditioning of reflex and intuitive behavior. The training and thinking processes are brought together under a fundamental tactical plan or approach, where the objectives of the solitary combatant and his equipment are applied according to the needs and initiatives of the strategic overview.

SEMANTICS
To delineate contextual terminology, the term “Combat”, as in Combat Sciences, refers to technologies and systems specific to the Tactical Infrastructure in Force Protection, Bio-kinematics Analytic Targeting, Binary Bio-Dynamic Common Denominators, and Field Protocol, and “Battle” is the active physical involution of force on force confrontation where, if not contained and/or resolved, has immediate potential to escalate and spill-over into adjunctive areas.

INFRASTRUCTURE
A Unified Tactical Infrastructure is accomplished by the integration of the three primary combat systems; Team Assault, Combat Marksmanship and Close Quarters Combat. The employment of Tactical Combat functionality, while inseparable as the deterrent to antagonism and coercion, is exclusive to the conditions and standards of judicious Law Enforcement and rules of Military Engagement. As well, the technical training methodology and systems of knowledge are exclusive to a very limited quantity and special selection of members of constabulary and national security services, not for reasons of exclusivity, imposition of limitations for inclusion or restrictive confidentiality within the force services, but because of the sophistication and advanced learning requirements of these specific sciences taking into consideration the extremely limited quantity of qualified instructors in proportion to the total number of members in active service. Ideally all personnel of the services should understand and physically train in the manner of Special Operatives, because the higher the level of skill throughout, the greater the ability to effectively engage in wider theatres of operation and the greater the spectrum of tasks that can be accommodated.

Chief Tactical Instructor Chris Mar
Specialized Law Enforcement and Special Military Background Summary

Chief Instructor Chris Mar is the founder of APA, the foremost developer of Simultaneous CQC and founding Tactical Chief Instructor and Executive Administrator of the Combined Operations Rescue and Extraction Group. He received the Distinguished Service Medal in 1985, led 60 Special Operatives in the first public demonstration of APA Simultaneos Combat, with a team of 15 SWAT Instructors won the 1989 World Martial Arts Team Champions, was Private Instructor of King Hassan II of Morocco, and in 1994 developed the SPC Tactical Riot and CQC systems.

APA is a Simultaneous Counterattack Close Combat protocol developed In-house exclusively for Rapid Reaction units and SWAT teams. APA is contiguous to Maneuver Warfare Tactics and is a field-proven Simultaneous Close-Quarters Combat methodology effective for Special Missions Teams whose focus is Terror Interdiction, Rescue and Extraction.

Tactical Groups •Chief Instructor – SPG – PLAAPF Special Armed Ops Forces Antiterrorist Instrs GRP •Chief Instructor – Taiwan - ROCNPA SWAT Teams Nat'l Tactical •Chief Instructor - Tactical CQC - Nat'l Police Chief Instrs Long Term Training •Chief Instructor - Special Operations Police Force, NPA •Chief Instructor - Taipei County Rapid Deployment Emergency Response Force •Chief Instructor - SWAT Tactical Riot •Chief Instructor - Tactical Baton National Instructors Training Program •Chief Instructor - NPA Tactical Control Systems SpecTac Teams ResQ & Extraction •Chief Instructor - SWAT Executive Security Government VIP Close Protection International Groups •Chief Instructor - Tactical Baton - Saudi Arabia Spec Forces Officers Team •Chief Instructor - Tactical CQC Malawi Special Royal Guards •Chief Instructor - Tactical Riot Jordanian Specialized Task Force Tactical Combat Systems Founded .APA-ANTAGONIST PERPETRATED AGGRESSION .APA-CQC/SWAT-TACTICAL CLOSE QUARTERS COMBAT .SPC/SPG-COUNTERTERROR RESPONSE SYSTEMS .COMBINED OPERATIONS RESCUE AND EXTRACTION .CLOSE PROTECTION SECURITY .SIMULTANEOUS COUNTER-ATTACK METHODOLOGY * •Protestor Disentanglement, •SWAT Handcuff and Search Protocol •Antiterrorist Joint Command •Executive Protection •Close Security •National Police Agency Combined Fighting Systems •Police Practical Defense and Arrest Skills

APA
APA - Antagonist Perpetrated Aggression, APA Tactical Tactical Training System is a proven special force response system which effectively unifies the tactical infrastructure through a national ministry level administration and proliferation process. The emphasis of the systemization is the implementation of Combined Operations Rescue and Extraction and Rapid Reaction Deployment antiterrorist technologies. This Combat Training involves 1) Specialized Combat Marksmanship under conditions of physical and psychological stress, Team Assault formations for search, traversing, clearing, dynamic entry, and ambush 3) Close-Quarters Combat for rescue, extraction, arrest, tactical riot, multiple adjunctive angles, alternative weapons, simultaneous counter-attack and high risk protection. The process of tactical unification is developed through total skill integration and field protocol using four essential elements for analysis and training. These are; 1. Kinetic Objectives - Bio-Kinematics response and Force Compliance 2. Mental Visualization - Dynamic elements and Targeting Criticality 3. Simultaneous Interaction - Bio-mechanics, Preparation, Spontaneity 4. Precedence before Priority - Weapons Selection, First Strike Initiate

URBAN AND BUILT-UP AREA GROUND CONTROL
99% of all tactical deployment calls for teams to dynamically close distances to the target or targets in order to bring the environment and its constituents under total control. Multiple Interlocking procedures are used to move into entry position for penetration or creating optimal conditions.

The principles of Dynamic Force Confrontation are the culmination of the strategic insight, knowledge, experience and effectiveness of Command HQ and the tactical acuity of Field Commanders in battle.

1. The 5 Elements of Strategy a. Initiative - opportunity through proactive b. Depth – expedite with significant impetus and gain c. Synchronization - the accuracy of linking events in concurrence d. Agility – effective operability in a wide range of dynamic conditions e. versatility - the diversity of useful elements 2. 5 Factors to Reconcile a. Terrain means the geophysical condition of the tactical environment b. Intelligence is the gathering of information and observation c. Tactics means the approach of methodology in the objective d. Weaponry is the weapons available e. Mass infers the focus of forces 3. Tactical Operations Threat Assessment a. Lethality (Technical) - the applicable deadly force b. Reliability (Tactical) - the effective degree of dependability c. Availability (Operational) - the scope of accessibility d. Sustainability (Strategic) - the duration of operability

SUMMARY
Tactical Combat force engagement conditions and response methodology are specific to special force protection solutions prepared in strategic battle planning which integrates logistical effectiveness, high-speed mobility and sophisticated weapons support.

Rapidly deployable by nature, elite teams’ common objective is the interdiction of terrorism, hostile subterfuge and open confrontation of both domestic and foreign origin.

Procedural emphasis is placed on the complete integration of tactical protocol into a unified system comprising of three essential combat sciences; Team Assault, Close Quarters Combat and Combat Marksmanship.

The Tactical Environment
A tactical environment is the envelope of containment which is continually minimized through the progressive accumulated isolation of the target subject by a proactive force delegation whose activities are based upon a strategic model. Tactical Response is called for when there is imminent threat to safety by an overpowering antagonist.

Perceived Threat
Perceived threat includes throng turbulence, urban guerrilla combatants and barricaded subjects where conditions may require hostage rescue, selective extraction, exploratory recon, surveillance and VIP Protection.

Operational Intelligence and Situational Awareness are important in the most effective preparation of force protection however superior tactics and weaponry are most essential in obtaining the highest probability of total control over the tactical environment and its constituents.

APA Tactical - Antagonist Perpetrated Aggression
Integration of Special Tactics Combat Protocol Advanced Methodologies for Simultaneous Counter Attack APA–Tactical CQC is the only proven tactical close-quarters-combat system which uses total simultaneous attack and counter during physical interaction. APA provides a non-eclectic and unique Force Response Solution for the full spectrum of conditions facing Special Response Teams in the field. This Tactical Combat System was developed from the ground up under the auspices of Interior Ministry and National Security Bureau efforts to combat increasing threat from armed organized crime. The principle of the training process was to integrate the tactical systems under one unified methodology using force components ideal and specific in use by Rapid Deployment Special Weapons and mobile police networked teams. This included terror interdiction, high-level protection, rescue and extraction and tactical riot. The propagation of the system was nation-wide as well as interfaced with international tactical and emergency deployment forces cooperating in multi-agency operations and cross training programs. The founder of this system is American Chief Tactical Instructor Chris Mar. CERTIFIED by multiple international Military and Law Enforcement agencies involved with Tactical Support and Counterterrorist Response, APA Tactical CQC is documented tried and true, serving 20 years with elite teams live in the field. ACCESS is limited to SWAT, Hostage Rescue, and Rapid Reaction Deployment whose functions focus on Terror Interdiction, Hostage Rescue, Extraction, Team Assault, Tactical Riot and VIP Security. APA Tactical Protocol seamlessly integrates with on-going tactical processes, law enforcement policy and field procedures. This is inclusive of specialized arrest processes, tactical riot formation, and VIP security within the Tactical Close Quarters Combat system.

In the first year
The first group of 300 National Police Instructors underwent 10 weeks of special tactics training which included 120 hours of APA, 80 hours of Combat Marksmanship and 100 hours of Assault Team Dynamics, inclusive of specialized structure clearing, dynamic entry, stress marksmanship, tactical rappel, and advanced high speed vehicle control. Immediately thereafter, exemplary officers from various departments became the First Division of Special Tactics Teams and successfully completed 8 weeks of 12 hours per day, 6 days per week intensive training.

SYSTEM PROPAGATION PRIORITIES
1. To Provide Documentation,– Full disclosure SOP, on-location Digital Video Learning, Field Guides, Course Materials, Training Equipment. 2. To Facilitate Certification – Establish Course duration and Certification Requirements. 3. To Exhibit and Present – for Heads-of—State, Testing and Reviews, Live Fire Off-Range, Force Extraction, and Tactical Riot Systems. All instructors are Active Tactical Team and expert marksman, combat experienced. Training Duration 120 hours - Agency Instructor Level, Senior Tactical Commander 100 hours- Active Tactical, First Responder 80 hours - Back-up and Support, Riot Forces, Operations Support

APA remains the exclusive National SWAT and Spec Ops Presentation method since 1984. APA-CQC has been taught to elite SPG (Special Police Group), antiterrorist instructors, SWAT, Spec Ops, Special Forces, Royal Guard and other tactical teams.

NON-ESCALATION POLICY
There are 5 levels of Escalation; Passive, Resistance, Hostile Confrontation, Armed Insurgence, Wide Ranging Destructive Energy Within densely populated areas there is a high probability of multiple antagonist confrontation occurrences. Regardless of the circumstances, it is essential that the actions taken by law enforcement to contain do not instead create spill-over or escalation. During operations, the policy of avoiding, if at all possible, dispersed deterrents, lethal or un-natural force, including firearms, tear gas, stun devices, rubber bullets, electricity or chemicals other than marking dyes must be observed. Inappropriate or over approximation of response will result in Accidental Violence.

ORGANIZATION STAGE
Establish a training team of qualified instructors for certification to instruct the CQC tactical training system. Note that while in-keeping with the state-of-the-technology and current international standards in use by SWAT and Rapid Reaction Forces the solution for crisis management is unique to every country. It is highly preferable to create multi-media training materials on-base. To unify the applied training requires the total integration of appropriate close quarters combat into a single all inclusive and consistent logic, specific and exclusive for use by tactical and spec ops only. The training is high speed, intensively demanding and specializes in the total tactical environment of arrest and extraction.

INTENT OF APA
APA is a tactical force response and force protection system based on Simultaneous Counterattack. The ultimate goal aside from situational control is to facilitate rescue and expedite extraction. As such, the mode of deployment for exploration, surveillance, observation or exploitation would be stealth. Stealth applies to Information Systems and any radiating source of energy. In this mode the only reason for confrontation is not to gain or protect ground, but rather when confrontation is unavoidable according to the following three conditions: 1. If safe passage is denied and to hold is untenable 2. In order to avoid over-whelming counter-force 3. When the need to rescue or extract outweighs the danger in doing so.

APA Tactical Combat is not only tactical systems integration; it involves the interpersonal and intra-personal thought process of the individual. To be Inspired, Precise and Decisive means to have the capability to source the creative intelligence from within in order to observe, analyze and act with precision and finality.

APA TACTICAL SYSTEM NOTES
APA Front Plane transfer, Event Horizons and Worm Holes are Special-Relativistic phenomena of Simultaneous construct. These are coherent particle states approaching infinity. Simultaneity is accessible through the ability to recognize the envelope by the state of mind while physically externalizing the bio-mechanical principles of Simultaneous Methodologies accordingly. The simultaneous duality is an essential characteristic for real-time transverse into a simultaneous envelope. The APA bio-mechanical performance criterion of simultaneity in juxtaposition with spontaneous intelligential objectivity embodies the psycho-physiological 5-dimensional-state where integrated consciousness-awareness is capable of overcoming pre-conception and automatic reflex instinct and then replacing the non-productive values with optimal sophisticated solutions which must be simultaneous to be effective. Objectivity is paramount to truth which is the integral state of being to simultaneity. TRUTH IS A FINITE SEQUENCE OF SIMULTANEOUSLY TRANSITIONAL EVENTS WHICH NEITHER THE OBSERVOR NOR PERSPECTIVE AFFECTS. This precludes the observer's influence.

APA has only two interaction modes. System Propagation concerns inter-relaying integration protocol of the training processes and System Implementation is the execution of operating methodology. For example Full-stop, half-step and full-step represent motion components and the sequential processing of transitions for training only - propagation, and the diametric equal of propagation is Implementation which is carried forth by Stop- Attack, Progressive SMAP and Attack to Control, which are the inherent APA phases stop, attack, control.

"Simultaneous activity is not Rapid-Occurring Motion" means Simultaneous Combat precludes Assorted Movement with a high Rate of Change; Simultaneous Interchange is the instantaneous transfer of energy during the physical transition which occurs on the Front Plane which is a singularity (one pulse) rather than a combination or eclectic body of partials.

Full stop is not Frame-by-Frame Stop motion step sequences which are the captured momentary extracts in arbitrarily sliced singular equal intervals whose sum total is an exponent of semi-cycle of fluid motion.

APA Angle Set Propagation is by Full Stop - (Single skills consciousness), Half Step - (Flow process by transitions) and a total Dedicated Angle is a Full Step. The Half-Step is a process to integrate the transitions rather than combine Full-Stops into a sequence. It is the critical process-within-the-process which contains command positions, focus of targeting, perspectives, moving state of dynamics, and is rooted in Simultaneous Multiple Action Process (SMAP).

Implementation (execution of the methodology) concerns terrain, concealment, deception, flanking, counter-counter and resolutions in the following sequence:
 * 1) Search for Opportunity through positional escalation (Closing to Entering)
 * 2) Alternative Facilitation through angle attrition (Pain trigger, resistance reduction, and control manipulation)
 * 3) Stop (Arresting momentum), Attack (Reduce Resistance) and Control (by extraction) are either part of momentary closure or a complete and final resolution.

Do not assume or presume "the Observer" is one person. It is third party inclusive. Therefore mutual cognition refers to all the constituents, which does not necessarily mean that, aside from the APA Applicator, anyone within the envelope, (observer, cause-state or effect-state participant) understands what is transpiring, only that there is a cognition (perception through effect) and not always recognition (acknowledgement by intellect) to the fact. The APA Applicator will definitely have cognizance even though it should be unconsciously competent.

title: Tactical Combat


text:
User talk:90.195.117.118

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:90.195.117.118


text:
Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Small bowel

Small Bowel
 * Also please see Toxicity/Pelvis

Acute GI toxicity
Roeske JC, Mundt AJ et al. Radiother Oncol (2003)
 * Keep V45 <= 250 cc

 * North Central Cancer Treatment Group, 2007 PMID 17401014 -- "Patient assessment of bowel function during and after pelvic radiotherapy: results of a prospective phase III North Central Cancer Treatment Group clinical trial." (Haddock MG, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Apr 1;25(10):1255-9.)
 * Prospective. Data gathered as part of randomized trial evaluating sucralfate.
 * Bowel movements: increased up to week 4, then slowly decreased. At baseline: median 1 BM. At 1 year: median 2 BMs
 * Normalized symptoms: at 1 year: frequency, nocturnal BM, cramping, bleeding
 * Persistent symptoms at 1 year: urgency, clustering, incontinence

title: Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Small bowel


text:
Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Bone marrow

See also: Radiation Oncology/IMRT/Pelvis
 * Also please see Toxicity/Pelvis

Bone marrow distribution
Distribution of Bone Marrow

 * 1961: (London) - PMID 13726497 — "The distribution of active bone marrow in the adult." Ellis RE et al. Phys Med Biol. 1961 Jan;5:255-8.
 * By weighing cadaveric bones.

Cervical Cancer

 * UC San Diego
 * 2011 PMID 20400238 -- "Normal tissue complication probability modeling of acute hematologic toxicity in cervical cancer patients treated with chemoradiotherapy." (Rose BS, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2011 Mar 1;79(3):800-7. Epub 2010 Apr 17.)
 * Retrospective. 81 patients treated with concurrent chemo-RT for cervical cancer. DVHs of bone marrow in pelvic field evaluated
 * Outcome: V10 <95% and V20 <76% correlated with lower acute G3+ hematologic toxicity. V10 (25% vs 69%, SS) and V20 (22% vs 58%, SS)
 * Conclusion: Acute hematologic toxicity increases with increasing pelvic bone marrow volume irradiated

title: Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Bone marrow


text:
User talk:85.235.240.58

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title: User talk:85.235.240.58


text:
Transwiki:Leech

Leeches are annelids comprising the subclass Hirudinea. There are fresh water, terrestrial and marine leeches. Like their near relatives, the Oligochaeta, they share the presence of a clitellum. Like earthworms, leeches are hermaphrodites. The medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis, which is native to Europe, and its congeners have been used for clinical bloodletting for thousands of years.

All leech species are carnivorous. Some are predatory, feeding on a variety of invertebrates such as worms, snails, insect larvae, crustaceans, while a very few are haemophagic parasitic blood-sucking leeches, feeding on the blood of vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles, waterfowl, fishes, and mammals (including humans). The most important predators on leeches are fishes, aquatic insects, crayfishes and other leeches specialized for predation on leeches.

Haemophagic leeches attach to their hosts and remain there until they become full, at which point they fall off to digest. Leeches' bodies are composed of 34 segments. They all have an anterior (oral) sucker formed from the first six segments of their body, which is used to connect to a host for feeding, and are known to release an anaesthetic to remain unnoticed by the host. They use a combination of mucus and suction (caused by concentric muscles in those six segments) to stay attached and secrete an anti-clotting enzyme into the host's blood stream.

Some species of leech will nurture their young, providing food, transport, and protection, which is unusual behavior in an invertebrate.

Origin
The leeches are presumed to have evolved from the Oligochaeta, most of which feed on detritus. However, some species in the Lumbriculidae are predaceous and have similar adaptations to the leeches.

Taxonomy
True leeches, of the subclass Euhirudinea, with both anterior and posterior suckers, are divided into two groups:

 * 1) Rhynchobdellae: "jawless" leeches, armed with a muscular straw-like proboscis puncturing organ in a retractable sheath. The Rhychobdellae consist of two families: The Glossiphoniidae (flattened leeches with a poorly defined anterior sucker) and the Piscicolidae (have cylindrical bodies and a usually well-marked, bell-shaped, anterior sucker). The Glossiphoniidae live in fresh-water habitats; the Pisciolidae are found in sea-water habitats.
 * 2) Arhychobdellids: Leeches which lack a proboscis and which may or may not have jaws armed with teeth. Arhychobdellids are divided into two orders: Gnathobdellae and Pharyngobdellae
 * 3) Gnathobdellae: In this order of "jawed" leeches, armed with teeth, is found the quintessential leech: the European medical (bloodsucking) leech, Hirudo medicinalis. It has a tripartite jaw filled with hundreds of tiny sharp teeth. The incision mark left on the skin by the European medical leech is an inverted Y inside a circle: the insignia of Mercedes Benz. Within this order, the family Hirudidae is characterized by aquatic leeches and the family Haemadipsidae by terrestrial leeches.
 * 4) Pharyngobdellae: These so called worm-leeches consist of freshwater or amphibious leeches that have lost the ability to penetrate a host's tissue and suck blood. They are carnivorous and equipped with a relatively large, toothless, mouth to ingest worms or insect larvae, which are swallowed whole.

The Pharyngobdellae have six to eight pairs of eyes, as compared with five pairs in gnathobdelliform leeches, and include three related families. The Erpobdellidae are some species from freshwater habitats.

Use of Hirudo medicinalis in medicine
thumb|Medicinal leeches on the animal market in Istanbul The leech has long been used in medicine, although today its use is mainly limited to limb reattachment procedures instead of the wide-ranging medical use of the past. The word leech either comes directly from or was influenced by the Old English word for "physician",, which is related to Old High German lāhhi and Old Irish liaig.

Leech saliva contains a number of compounds which assist in its feeding. An anaesthetic limits the sensations felt by the host (and thus reduces the chance of the host trying to detach the leech). A vasodilator causes the blood vessels near the leech to become dilated, and thus provide the leech with a better supply.

Lastly, the leech saliva contains a peptide called hirudin, which is a highly effective anticoagulant. The leech needs this to prevent blood clots (which would block its feeding) from forming in the wound created by its mouthparts. These properties are difficult to achieve using other medical techniques, and it is for this reason that leeches have come back into clinical practice in the last 25 years. The small amounts of hirudin present in leeches makes it unsuitable to be harvested for more general medical use, so hirudin (or related chemicals) have been synthesised using recombinant-DNA technology.

Bdellatomy is the practice of cutting the leech open slightly while it is sucking blood to let the blood in it out, so, thinking that it is not full yet, the leech continues to bite instead of detaching itself. This practice was first recorded in 1868 by Daily News.

The anatomy of medicinal leeches
The anatomy of medicinal leeches may look simple, but more details are found beyond the macro level. Externally, medicinal leeches tend to have a brown and red striped design on an olive colored background. These organisms have two suckers, one at each end, called the anterior and posterior sucker. The posterior is mainly used for leverage while the anterior sucker, consisting of the jaw and teeth, is where the feeding takes place. Medicinal leeches have three jaws that look like little saws, and on them are about 100 sharp teeth used to incise the host.

Reproduction
Leeches are hermaphrodites, meaning they are organisms that have both female, ovary, and male, testes, sexual reproductive organs.

Nutrition of leeches
Starting from the anterior sucker is the jaw, the Pharynx which extends to the crop, which leads to the Intestinum, where it ends at the posterior sucker. The crop is a type of stomach that works like an expandable storage compartment. The crop allows a leech to store blood up to five times its body size; because of this ability to hold blood without the blood decaying, due to bacteria living inside the crop, medicinal leeches only need to feed two times a year.

It was long thought that bacteria in the gut carried on digestion for the leech instead of endogenous enzymes which are very low or absent in the intestine. Relatively recently it has been discovered that, ALL leeches and leech species studied do produce endogenous intestinal exopeptidases which can unlink free terminal-end amino acids, one amino acid monomer at a time, from a gradually unwinding and degrading protein polymer. However, unzipping of the protein can start from either the amino (tail) or carboxyl (head) terminal-end of the protein molecule. It just so happens that the leech exopeptidase (arylamidases), possibly aided by proteases from endosymbiotic bacteria in the intestine, starts from the tail or amino protein, free-end, slowly but progressively removing many hundreds of individual terminal amino acids for resynthesis into proteins that constitute the leech. Since leeches lack endopeptidases, the mechanism of protein digestion can not follow the same sequence as it would in all other animals where exopeptidases act sequentially on peptides produced by the action of endopeptidases. Exopeptidases are especially prominent in our common North American worm-leech Erpobdella punctata. This evolutionary choice of exopeptic digestion in Hirudinea distinguishes these carnivorous clitellates from Oligochaeta. Deficiency of digestive enzymes (except exopeptidases) but more importantly deficiency of vitamins, B complex for example, in leeches is compensated for by enzymes and vitamins produced by endosymbiotic microflora. In Hrudo medicinalis these supplementary factors are produced by an obligatory symbiotic relationship with a single bacterium species, Aeromonas hydrophila, which maintains itself in pure culture by secreting an antibiotic known to medicine since the 19th century, well before Fleming's 1929 discovery of penicillin. Non-bloodsucking leeches such as E.punctata are host to three bacterial symbionts, Pseudomonas sp, Aeromonas sp, and Klebsiella sp (a slime producer). The bacteria are passed from parent to offspring in the cocoon as it is formed.

The effects of leech bites
thumb|275px|A Borneo leech. Note how the leech curls and fattens as it fills with blood

A Leech attaches itself when it bites, and it will stay attached until it has had its fill of blood. Due to an anticoagulant (hirudin) that leeches secrete, bites may bleed more than a normal wound after the leech is removed. The effect of the anticoagulant will wear off several hours after the leech is removed and the wound is cleaned. The amount of blood loss from a leech bite is more of a nuisance than a danger for humans.

Leech bites tend to itch while healing, but this is normal. Itching is not reason for alarm, although the wound should be watched to ensure it is healing and to make sure there are no signs of infection.

Leeches do carry parasites in their digestive tract, but these cannot survive in humans and do not pose a threat. If the wound is cleaned, there is no more risk of infection than any other small wound. The wound should not be scratched as this may complicate healing and introduce other infections.

Removal and Treatment
Many people believe that it is best not to remove a leech but to wait for the leech to have its fill and detach itself. This does prevent the risk of additional damage or complications from removal, but concerns about leaving portions of the leeches sucker attached to the wound are exaggerated. It is generally considered preferable to remove the leech promptly.

Leeches should not be removed by burning or applying harsh agents such as salt. This may damage the bite further and cause additional pain. Most importantly, damaging the leech may cause it to regurgitate stomach bacteria that may lead to infection of the wound.

--Basic Instructions for Proper Removal and Treatment--
 * 1) Do not attempt to crush or burn the leech. Do not squeeze the leech and attempt to pull it off.
 * 2) Find the oral sucker. This is the sucker at the small end of the leech.
 * 3) Place your fingernail next to the sucker. Push towards the bite.  Attempt to push the sucker to the side, away from the skin.
 * 4) Once the oral sucker is detached, quickly detach the sucker at the other end of the leech (the large end of the leech). This can be done by flicking the leech or by pushing the underside the leech and up against the sucker.
 * 5) Clean the wound to prevent infection, to remove detached sucker parts, and to remove the anticoagulant that the leech has secreted.
 * 6) The wound may bleed for several hours but then should begin to heal normally.
 * 7) Keep the wound clean and dry.
 * 8) Allergic reactions can occur to leech bites. If there are signs of a severe reaction, seek medical help.
 * 9) Monitor the wound for infection, and contact a doctor if the wound becomes infected.

An alternate removal procedure is to apply a heat rub. Leeches have an adverse reaction to the menthol contained in heat rubs and will detach quickly upon contact with the substance.

In the game Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, the protagonist, can also burn the leech with a lit cigar or cigarette to make it cringe and fall off, although this technique is not recommended, since it irritates the leech and causes it to regurgitate. The stomach contents of leeches are prone to cause infection or other ailments.

Prevention
There is no guaranteed method of preventing leech bites in leech-infested areas. The most reliable method is to cover exposed skin. The effect of insect repellents is disputed, but it is generally accepted that strong (maximum strength or tropical) insect repellents do help prevent bites.

Leech socks can be helpful in preventing bites when the full body will not be at risk of contact with leeches. Leech socks are pulled over the wearer’s trousers to prevent leeches reaching the exposed skin of the legs and attaching there or climbing towards the torso. The socks are generally a light color that also makes it easier to spot leeches climbing up from the feet and looking for skin to attach to.

There are many home remedies to help prevent leech bites. Many people have a great deal of faith in these methods, but none of them has been proven to have much or any effect. Home remedies include: a dried residue of bath soap, pastes of salt or baking soda, citrus juice, and eucalyptus oil. Diluted Calcium hydroxide may also be used as a repellent, but may be damaging or irritating to the skin.

title: Transwiki:Leech


text:
The Computer Revolution/Peripherals/Printers

A bit of history
In 1938, Chester Carlson invented a dry printing process called electrophotography commonly called a Xerox, the foundation technology for laser printers to come. For years, nobody seemed to pay any interest to Carlson's invention. From 1939 to 1944 Carlson was turned down by more than 20 companies. Finally, in 1947 the inventor managed to facilitate a deal with a small, completely unknown photo-paper company Haloid (later renamed Xerox), giving them the right to develop a xerographic machine. In 1959, twenty years after Carlson invented xerography, the first Xerox office copier 914 was presented to the public.

In 1953, the first high-speed printer was developed by Remington-Rand.

According to Xerox, the original laser printer called EARS was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center beginning in 1969 and completed in November, 1971. Xerox Engineer, Gary Starkweather adapted Xerox copier technology adding a laser beam to it to come up with the laser printer.

According to IBM, "the very first IBM 3800 was installed in the central accounting office at F. W. Woolworth’s North American data center in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1976." The IBM 3800 Printing System was the industry’s first high-speed, laser printer. A laser printer that operated at speeds of more than 100 impressions-per-minute. It was the first printer to combine laser technology and electrophotography according to IBM.

In 1992, Hewlett-Packard released the popular LaserJet 4, the first 600 by 600 dots per inch resolution laser printer.

In 1962 Chuck Winston's electrostatic deflected droplets single nozzle inkjet patent 3,060,429 issued. This inkjet printer did not show up commercially until 1966 when AT&T's Long Lines Project 176 produced and delivered the Inktronic 100 WPM TTY printer. The wax ink had to be heated to achieve proper viscosity for jetting. It printed on paper but produced characters that lay on the paper. The paper could be heated to make the wax ink soak into the paper and make it impossible to see. This would have been considered early 3D printing if the concept of graphics or relief characters was imagined. This same technology tested Braille character printing but the wax separated from surface too easily.

In 1971 Johannes F Gottwald Liquid Metal Recorder using a low melting temperature alloy and magnetic deflected droplets single nozzle inkjet patent US3596285 issued. This inkjet patent was never commercially produced but it did prove actual metal characters were printed on a metal substrate and fell of onto the table. This was the first time liquid metal was jetted and it could be recognized as an example of the first 3D metal ink printing. The metal printed characters were intended to be used for displaying stock market data. One unique feature of this technology was the characters could be put back into the heated ink reservoir and melted for printing again.

In 1972 Steve Zoltan's Drop-On-Demand single nozzle inkjet patent 3,683,212 was issued. This allowed single drop ejection instead of the earlier continuous stream nozzles. This glass nozzle technology was installed on a Quip Inkjet facsimile printer at Exxon Office Systems in 1979 and then inspired the improved Teflon molded nozzle material use in Howtek, Inc., Pixelmaster full color Thermoplastic ink printer product introduced in 1986. It used 32 single nozzles in a rotary printhead and printed on standard office paper sheet. Accidental printing on paper multiple times produced raised characters. These raised print characters were jokingly named 'alphabet soup' and had been seen at Exxon Office Systems years before. The idea of using raised print technology was introduced at Howtek, Inc., by another inventor, Al Hock and it lead to but didn't produce a 3D patent idea until Richard R. Helinski 1992 patent US5136515A, Method and Means for Constructing Three-Dimensional Articles by Particle deposition. A company named C.A.D.-Cast, Inc., renamed to Visual Impact Corporation in New Hampshire was formed in 1989 to show "the Sculptor" idea but it dissolved in 1995. There is a video of this 3D printing technology at the 3dinkjetmuseum.com The Helinski patent was finally licensed to Sanders Prototype, Inc. and then later sold to 3D Systems, Inc. Single jet nozzle technology is poorly understood and not well known in the 3D Printing industry today. Inkjet printing has a rich history and there are a number of controversy's that could be discussed here.

Printing technology
Printers are routinely classified by the underlying print technology they employ; numerous such technologies have been developed over the years.

The choice of print engine has a substantial effect on what jobs a printer is suitable for, as different technologies are capable of different levels of image/text quality, print speed, low cost, noise; in addition, some technologies are inappropriate for certain types of physical media (such as carbon paper or transparencies).

Another aspect of printer technology that is often forgotten is resistance to alteration: liquid ink such as from an inkjet head or fabric ribbon becomes absorbed by the paper fibers, so documents printed with a liquid ink sublimation printer are more difficult to alter than documents printed with toner or solid inks, which do not penetrate below the paper surface.

Checks should either be printed with liquid ink or on special "check paper with toner anchorage". For similar reasons carbon film ribbons for IBM Selectric typewriters bore labels warning against using them to type negotiable instruments such as checks. The machine-readable lower portion of a check, however, must be printed using MICR toner or ink. Banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly.

Speed
Print speed is how long it will take a document to print. It is usually measured as pages printed per minute (ppm). There are many factors that can depend on how long it takes for something to print. Some factors are selected print resolutions and the content being printed. For example, to print color documents takes longer than printing black-and-white pages. Also, printing images take longer than just printing a document with words. The average printer prints about 15 to 35 pages per minute and a photocopier prints about 40 to 100 ppm. When you are choosing a printer you really need to consider the speed that it prints at because you need one that will suite your use. For example, for a business you would want fast speeds but for personal use it depends on you.

Choosing the correct "paper"
It is important to use the adequate paper with the type of printer you are using. If you are using a laser printer, you want to use paper called laser paper, this way you will get the best possible quality out of your printer. Use toner efficiently. Likewise, if you are using an ink jet printer, you want to use ink jet paper. This paper is treated so that the ink stays on the surface, that way your ink should last longer than if you were just using regular copied paper. When using large format printers, be sure to select the right paper settings for the paper you are using. This will give you the best quality in your print, and use your ink more efficiently.

Dot-matrix printer
The dot matrix printer, also known as a dot character printer, forms each character as a group of small dots, using a group of wires located in the printing element. It is usually used these days to print multipart forms (like carbon copies) and address labels. The tractor and sprocket mechanism in these types of printers can handle thicker media better than laser and ink jet printers.

The dot matrix printer uses one or two columns of dot hammers that move across the paper. The hammers hit the ribbon into the paper which causes the ink to be deposited, similarly to a typewriter. The more hammers in the printer the higher the resolution of the resulting image. Though those wishing to have any sort of resolution with anything other than text would do better to use one of the other varieties of printer since Dot matrix printers can be as expensive but not as multifunctional than the inkjet or laser printers. Another big disadvantage is the noise factor output of the dot matrix printers.

Since Inkjet and laser printers are quite fast with the printing, the print speeds are based on ppg (pages per minute), which is usually indicated on the specifications. Dot matrix printers are different in that the speed of the printer itself is based on cps (characters per second) and varies between 50 to 500 cps depending on the resolution desired. Dot matrix printers are able to print a few pages per minute but will not equal to the amount of pages that an inkjet and laser printers can print.

Ink jet Printers

 * Ink

The ink used in Ink jet printers may be in a liquid or solid form. The most common ink comes in small cartridges which are compatible for your printer. However the cartridges do vary, depending on your printer the manufacturer will designate a brand for your printer and continue on to explain the reason for purchasing a new cartridge. But not all cartridges need to be discarded, with a growing number of purchased ink jet printers across the world. People are turning to a more inexpensive way of refilling their ink. Through cartridges which are refillable and even in some cases, are permanently installed. These new techniques of refilling your printer have proven to be less expensive than purchasing a brand new cartridge and allow the same quality of printing. Although in some cases manufacturers have warned against this, since it could void your warranty. Solid inks must be melted to reach the liquid state. Wax was the ink of choice in the Inktronic printer manufactured in mid 1960's by AT&T, Teletype, Corp. A metal alloy ink composed of Bismuth, Tin, Lead and either Cadmium or Indium was later used in the Liquid Metal Recorder in 1971 also from AT&T, Teletype. Hot melt inks were used in the Howtek, Inc Pixelmaster and produced the first color images and text on plain paper in the mid 1980's. This same solid thermoplastic ink became the ink for the first production 3D inkjet printer manufactured by Sanders Prototype, Inc, Modelmaker 6 Pro in 1994 by mixing yellow and cyan inks to produce the popular green 3D color. This 3D Inkjet printer also used wax inks as easily removable support structures for it's 3D models.

 * Print

Inkjet printers work in a sense that the printer distributes hundreds of thousands of ink droplets onto your paper or into your 3D model, eventually forming an image with high quality or a model with high precision. Each droplet comes from a nozzle (a printer can contain from one to many hundred nozzles) and is then sprayed down onto the page or model. An early drawback of this system, was that the ink is still wet when document is fed out and if touched immediately the ink swill smear blemishing the image. Faster drying inks and quick cooling solid inks rely on time delays to compensate for this problem.

 * Quality and the right inkjet printer

Inkjet printers are the basic standard of quality, depending on what type of inkjet printer and purpose you’ll use your printer for. If the printer is used for office use then a multi-functional printer is capable of scanning and faxing, which should yield a good quality for printing. But if you’re a photographer and print high quality photos, than a snapshot printer is more practical, since it’s specially designed to print out high quality photos with good saturation of color. For the best quality relating to printing graphics or high quality text then a laser printer is the best candidate. However, laser printers do not incorporate the use of inkjet technology and are more expensive.

Inkjet became popular in 3D printers used by jewelry manufacturers in the 1990's because wax carvers were hard to find or were unreliable at times and couldn't produce exact replica's of a design. The precise placement of measured size drops that could print each 3D model exactly as designed and could be investment cast was cost priced perfectly. The 3D Inkjet technology eliminated the wax carver, automated the jewelry business and was right for a small mom and pop shop. The owner operator only had to learn CAD because the finished 3D models fit exactly into the work flow of investment casting. The 3D Inkjet printer was not always reliable but was serviceable by the shop owner who couldn't live without it. Customers could see the wax model and request design changes before the finished model was cast in some cases with gems in place. The price of finished jewelry allowed the jeweler to own a 3D printer and make a good profit.

Laser Printer
A laser printer is a type of computer printer that quickly produces high quality text and graphics on plain paper; compare with other type of printers, such as impact printers. The first laser printer was called EARS, was developed by Xerox and was completed in November 1971. Laser printers can mix text and graphics, including different fonts, character sizes, and images. The laser printer uses drum and laser technology: the laser shoots shapes and letters onto the drum, from these images created from the lasers, the drum has knowledge of where to pick up the black powder, other wise known as toner. The light produced by the laser changes the electrical charge of the drum temporarily. Toner is used by laser printers rather than liquid ink. After the drum has picked up the powder it is applied to the paper still in a powder form. The final step of laser printing is the heat and pressure applied to the paper. By heating the paper the powder melts into an ink making permanent impressions on the paper in the form the laser mapped out. Advantages of laser printers over inkjet printers include faster print speed, no smearing, higher resolution,and lower cost. The resolution of laser printers ranges from 300dpi to 1200dpi which allows the resolution to be one of the major advantages of the laser printer. The low cost is only true for monochrome laser printers, those only using black toner, but when purchasing a laser printer with multiple toner ability the cost tends to skyrocket drastically. In terms of graphics and the laser jet printer, the quality is good but the amount of memory required by the printer is very large and without a high memory printer the graphics will lack quality. The speed of laser printer ranges from 4-20 pages per minute, with the average being on the lower end at 6 pages per minute

Laser printers have so many different components that a huge problem becomes the paper jams. The computer within tells you through a series of screens where the paper jam is or if the toner is low. It can also tell you what color is low, paper is low if it's time to do maintenance. You can report a problem via the printers computer.

Most laser printers use high quality slightly heavy paper in order to produce high quality printing. Printers can now hole punch, tri-fold and staple. Printers come with scanners. You can chose to scan to your desktop or an email address.

3D printer
A 3D printer, unlike a normal 2D printer that prints on paper, prints a slice or cross-section of a CAD designed 3D model one layer at a time on a surface using molten plastic or other materials. This process adds the material until the 3D version is formed. Another name for this process is called Additive Manufacturing. There are a number of technologies that can produce 3D models. One technology is "fused deposition modeling (FDM)". This type of 3D printing is normally used when a prototype of a new product is under development or for creating a 3D version of an architectural vision. This process is extremely easy compared to cutting boards and gluing them together to create a small model of a building. More advanced 3D printers are able to use different colors and different materials and in larger sizes. Some only print in one color and the output would then have to be painted. This process is not fast for mass production yet since individual models are printed in layers. But it is so advanced that if you have interlocking parts in a output you desire and still want it to be functional, it can print that. An example could be a wrench with a tightening grip. A link is provided for the process and the output of a 3D printer that is producing this type of wrench. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmDz7Q9_h6c

UV printer
Xerox is working on an inkless printer which will use a special reusable paper coated with a few micrometres of UV light sensitive chemicals. The printer will use a special UV light bar which will be able to write and erase the paper. As of early 2007 this technology is still in development and the text on the printed pages can only last between 16–24 hours before fading.

Barcode Label and Postage Printers -

Barcode printers enable businesses and other organizations to print custom barcode on price tags, shipping labels, and other documents for identification or pricing purposes. Most barcode printers can print labels in a variety of barcode standards such as RFID tags embedded in labels. There are other types of labels for examples envelopes, packages, file folders use regular label printers and that can be printed from personal computers. There is also another type of printers that can be use for postage printers and that can print electronic postage also called e-stamps. E-stamps are valid postage stamps that can be printed once a postage allotment has been purchased via the Internet or from e-stamp services from a vendor. Postage values can be deducted from your allotment as you print the e-stamps. Some e-stamps allow stamps to be printed directly onto shipping labels and envelopes using laser or ink-jet printers.

Photo printer
A photo printer is colored printers that are designed to print photographs. Photo printers allow you to plug the camera directly into the printer so that you are able to print right from your camera; no downloading necessary! Using photo printers allows you to still make any necessary changes needed. Choosing pictures sizes, editing, and cropping are all some of the changes that can still be made. Printing your photos through your house saves a lot of money for you.

Photo printers mean you can finally produce true photo quality, you can print your precious memories with confidence. You can't distinguish their output from photos that were printed from film in the conventional process. There are essentially three categories of photo printers and they are ink jet photo printers, second is dedicated photo printers and lastly is the professional photo printers.

 * Inkjet photo printers

These offer at least one photo feature but can also function as all-purpose printers. They print from business applications reasonably well, though often at a very slow pace. This is the category to consider if you want a single, all- purpose printer. You should also consider it if you want a second printer just for photos.

 * Dedicated photo printers

These are typically limited to printing on special-purpose—usually glossy—paper. They may also print only on relatively small paper sizes, often 4 by 6 inches. To date, you can find these in both ink jet and thermal-dye varieties.

 * Professional photo printers

These printers may also be dedicated photo printers, but their key characteristic is that they offer at least tabloid-size output (11 by 17 inches). Some can print photos at much larger sizes.


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text:
Cookbook:Tuna Casserole

Ingredients

 * 3 cans of tuna in water
 * 1 can each of cream of celery soup, cream of chicken soup, and cream of mushroom soup (substitute cream of potato if you don't like mushrooms)
 * 1 bag of frozen vegetables (peas, carrots, and corn)
 * 1 large bag of egg noodles
 * 1 can of fried onion rings, 1 packet potato chips, or 1 small packet corn flakes

Procedure

 * 1) Cook egg noodles as directed on package. While boiling water, preheat oven to 400°F.
 * 2) Drain egg noodles. Mix together all ingredients except fried onion rings. Put in a casserole dish or a 9 x 13 x 2-inch pan. Bake for 20 minutes.
 * 3) Sprinkle fried onion topping on top of baked casserole. Bake for an additional 3 minutes, or until fried onion is slightly brown.
 * 4) Let cool for 5 minutes and serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can substitute any of the cream soups with the flavor of your choice.
 * You can sprinkle with Old Bay or any other seafood seasoning for added taste.

title: Cookbook:Tuna Casserole