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PSP Programming

Welcome to the fascinating and often rewarding world of PlayStation Portable Programming. This set of Learning Modules will provide you with the basic knowledge necessary to apprehend, acquire, install, and configure a PlayStation Portable Programming Laboratory from which all sorts of useful and entertaining tools, utilities, programs, games, and other forms of interactive media can be produced by you. I hope that this learning experience is both enjoyable and enlightening for you.

For new PSP programmers, try Python: It's a good place to start. However, the recommended language for PSP homebrew is C, since the firmware, homebrew, and most games use C as their native language, and it allows deeper memory management (which, given that you have only 32MB/64MB available, you really need to do it).

Intro

 * /Introduction/
 * PSP hardware

Setting Up

 * Setting up a tool-chain
 * /MinPSPW/
 * /CYGWIN/
 * /Linux/

Programming for the PSP (C Language)

 * /Creating Makefiles/
 * Creating the common Callback
 * Your first PSP program
 * Button Input
 * Images
 * Sound
 * File Management

Examples

 * Making a start menu

Programming for the PSP (Python Language)

 * /Python/

Programming for the PSP (Lua Language)

 * /Lua/

Related Wikibooks

 * PSP Homebrew Wikibook
 * C Programming, the language that many (most?) people use for PSP programming
 * MIPS Assembly, the language that some people use for parts of their PSP programs

title: PSP Programming


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User:Matzman~enwikibooks

Post-Doc in structural biology with background in protein design. I believe in free knowledge and I am interested in contributing in scientific topics related to biochemistry and inorganic chemistry.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Matzman~enwikibooks


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PSP Programming/Introduction

Introduction
A short introduction as to the subject of this wikibook.

The PSP
Sony's PSP (official acronym for PlayStation Portable) is a powerful handheld console. To read more about the hardware capabilities of the PSP, you should go to the next page.

Homebrew
Homebrew are applications which run on a system that wasn't designed to let the user program for it. What this means is that even though Sony did not plan to let users develop applications for the PSP, some people managed to find a way around which led to a toolchain which anybody can use to program for the PSP.

Why program on the PSP
There are several reasons a person might want to program for the PSP. First of all, the PSP is a handheld multimedia system, not just designed for games. Another reason is because it has been homebrew capable for quite a while, and thus has quite a community following because of that. Yet another reason, is because one might want to expand their knowledge to other platforms which might have their own limitations which the developer must program around.

Requirements
In order to program for the PSP you will of course need a PSP. How else would you look at your progress? Your PSP should also be homebrew capable, and you will also need to have a memory card from which you can run your programs. Aside from the material possessions which you will need, you also need to have acquired some knowledge of general programming in the 'C' language. Although this wikibook won't assume you are an expert in 'C' or 'C++', it won't go out of its way to explain to you the fundamentals of programming.

title: PSP Programming/Introduction


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...d6/3. d4/3...cxd4

= Open Sicilian = Black captures White's d-pawn with cxd4 to reduce White's control of the centre, expecting the pawn to be recaptured.

White usually plays /4. Nxd4/ so that the knight may subsequently move to b3 to assist in the defence of their king following queenside castling. A knight on d4 also eyes the f5 square and once the king is safe on the queenside can support the advance of a barrage of pawns at Black's castled position.

After /4. Qxd4/ the White queen, while nicely centralised, is liable to be kicked around by Black and forced to retreat while the f3 knight is blocking the f-pawn from advancing to support a kingside attack. Provided Black avoids a transposition to the Rossolimo variation, White can have trouble activating their king's bishop after Qxd4. In general, though Qxd4 is solid enough, Nxd4 injects more life into the position, which 1. e4 players tend to be happy about.

Also in keeping with the position is the gambit /4. c3/, usually transposing into the Morra Gambit. White obtains a lead in development and aims to fully open the c-file to counter Black's influence thereof.

Theory table
.

'''1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 d6 3. d4 cxd4'''


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Cellular Automata/Fluid Dynamics

The basic idea of simulating fluid dynamics with cellular automata is implementing particle dynamics as cellular automata rules and fluid dynamics would emerge as mean properties of

Differential equation model for incompressible fluids
We are interested in the flow velocity $$u$$ that is defined by two differential equations
 * Navier-Stokes equation
 * $$ \frac{\partial u}{\partial t} + (u \nabla) u = - \nabla P + \nu \nabla^2 u $$

 * continuity equation
 * $$ \nabla\cdot u = 0 $$

$$P=p/\rho_0$$ is the kinematic pressure, $$p$$ is the pressure, $$\rho_0$$ constant mass density and $$\nu$$ is the kinematic share viscosity.

title: Cellular Automata/Fluid Dynamics


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Basic Computing Using Windows/Appendices/Switching the Control Panel to Classic View

First click on the Start button on the lower left corner, then click on Control Panel on the right-hand side of the menu that pops up (if using the Classic Start Menu layout, click on Settings and then on Control Panel). When the window opens click on Switch to Classic View in the left column of the same window.


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Movie Making Manual/Effects/Slow Motion

Slow motion is the process of remapping time in film. Slow motion is generally used in dramatic or action scenes in Movies or Science and Nature shows on TV.

The Thinking
No matter whether you are shooting slow motion or faking slow motion, some mathematics is first required to calculate the frame rate needed. First, you need to choose the frame rate you are displaying in. For this example, we will choose 25fps. Then you want to to estimate the time of the event, and the time you want the event to be displayed for.

For example: Then,
 * Projection rate is 25fps.
 * Event is 5 seconds long.
 * Event will be on screen for 20 seconds.

$$\frac{Screen Time}{Event Length}*Projection Rate=Shooting Frame Rate$$

Plugging this in, we get:

$$\frac{20}{5}*25=100 fps$$

We can see that the frame rate we need to shoot at to meet our requirements is 100 FPS'. From this, the footage can be slowed down, slow motion is achieved.

This equation can also be used for calculating the interval between frames when shooting a time lapse.

Shooting Slow Motion
Shooting slow motion is generally the easiest method to accomplishing slow motion as little to no processing work is needed, however, this is usually the most expensive. Expensive cameras are generally required to shoot higher frame rates as cheaper consumer cameras do not have this capability. Film is still a common option for some as it doesn't require large memory cards however film needs to be reloaded. Some of these digital cameras include;
 * Arri Alexa & Amira (200fps @ 2K)
 * Red Epic (Up to 300fps @ 2K)
 * Vision Research Phantom (Up to 1,052fps @ 1920x1080 OR 4,410fps @ 256x256)
 * Slit Camera (Up to 1 trillion fps)

Light is another problem when shooting Ultra Slow Motion as higher shutter speeds are needed. If shooting at 1000fps, a minimum shutter speed would have to be 1/1000th, however 1/2000th is more ideal. For this reason, expensive lighting may be needed to light a scene. Ordinary house lights are not advised as the refresh rates may cause flickering during a video, A diffuser can lessen this effect, but a constant source like sunlight is preferred.

Don't be tricked into thinking higher frame rates are better, if the resolution of each frame is four megapixels at record rates of 1000 frames per second, after one second, you wil have 300mb+ and 40 seconds of data for a lossy compression. For this reason, larger and faster recording devices are needed which cost more money. This is extremely important when shooting at higher resolutions, larger colour spaces and faster frame rates. This is another reason why film is preferred when shooting slow motion.

'''NB: A slit camera is an expensive piece of science equipment used for medical imaging but has recently been modified to capture photons. For this reason, it is impracticable for movies.'''

Interpolation
Interpolation is the process of letting the computer draw in extra frames to smooth out video footage. Interpolation has other uses other than slow motion, these include Matrix Bullet Time, animations and can help remove drop frames.

When preparing to interpolate footage, it is helpful to remove motion blur by using higher shutter speeds and provide contrast between the background and subject. This means to film against plain backgrounds rather than complex patterns.

Even though you might follow all of these steps, warping may still appear, which can wreck your footage however if it does work, it is a cheap way to create that slow motion effect.

Software that supports Interpolation;
 * Twixtor (Plugin)
 * After Effects (Frame blending)

Fake Slow Motion
Fake Slow motion is the acting slow instead of actually filming in slow motion. This cuts out a lot of movements that can be accomplished through slow motion like jumping, but it is the cheapest way to get a slow motion effect with no budget. Avoid shooting with naturally moving objects such as fans, trees or near a road, these can ruin the effect and make your footage look amateurish.

title: Movie Making Manual/Effects/Slow Motion


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/VariCam

Links

 * Panasonic VariCam specs on Panasonic.com

/Cameras


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DChip/Example Method Description

Example method description using dChip

Array normalization, expression value calculation and clustering analysis were performed using DNA-Chip Analyzer (www.dchip.org; Li & Wong 2001a). The Invariant Set Normalization method (Li & Wong 2001b) was used to normalize arrays at probe cell level to make them comparable, and the model-based method (Li & Wong 2001b) was used for probe-selection and computing expression values. These expression levels were attached with standard errors as measurement accuracy, which were subsequently used to compute 90% confidence intervals of fold changes in two-sample or two-group comparisons (Li & Wong 2001b). The lower confidence bounds of fold changes were conservative estimate of the real fold changes. Genes with increased or decreased expression after treatments by more than 2 fold (lower confidence bound) were selected for further study.

Hierarchical clustering analysis (Eisen et al. 1998) is used to group genes with same expression pattern. A genes is selected for clustering if (1) its expression values in the 20 samples has coefficient of variation (standard deviation / mean) between 0.5 to 10 (2) it is called “Present” by MAS5 (or GCOS or dChip) software in more than 5 samples. Then the expression values for a gene across the 20 samples are standardized to have mean 0 and standard deviation 1 by linear transformation, and the distance between two genes is defined as 1 - r where r is the standard correlation coefficient between the 20 standardize values of two genes. Two genes with the closest distance are first merged into a super-gene and connected by branches with length representing their distance, and are deleted for future merging. The expression level of the newly formed super-gene is the average of standardized expression levels of the two genes (average-linkage) for each sample. Then the next pair of genes (super-genes) with the smallest distance are chosen to merge and the process is repeated until all genes are merged into one cluster. The dendrogram in Figure ? illustrates the final clustering tree, where genes close to each other have high similarity in their standardized expression values across the 20 samples.

title: DChip/Example Method Description


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DChip/Design Experiments

Randomize samples
To minimize experimental variation, it is desirable to have the same person perform all the experiments in the same microarray core facility. However if an experiment involves many samples we have to do them on different days. Arrays generated at different days may have “batch difference”, since different reagents are used to amplify and label the samples. This may be detected by unsupervised clustering. Although “Array list file” can be used to alleviate the situation, it is better to consider such effects before doing experiment. For example, if an experiment compares two conditions with multiple samples in each condition, it is less desirable to have all samples of condition A amplified and hybridized in one day, and all samples of condition B done in another day. In such case even if batch effects happen, we cannot tell since they are mixed with real biological variations that we are interested in. Thus it is more reasonable to consider a balanced design where samples of all conditions are randomly distributed into different sample amplification and hybridization days.

Replicate samples
Another way to reduce the experimental variation is to have replicate samples. If variations are introduced in an unbiased manner in the experimental or analysis steps after the replication point, averaging the final expression values can better estimate the “expression level” at the replication point (variance of the average is inversely proportional to the number of replicates). Replicates can be done from early point to late point following this rough scale: different individuals (cell line strains), independently grown cell lines (pure strain animals), different tissue sample from the same individual, split tissue samples, split mRNA, split IVT, and scanning one array multiple times. We have observed that replicates at split-IVT level usually agree well in terms of expression values and cluster very tightly. Therefore such replications may not help us to better estimate and reduce the variation introduced before the IVT-splitting point.

The practical choice of the point of replication should suit experimental purpose. For example, when an investigator only has very small amount of RNA, the choices are using double-round amplification (which may have 5' bias) or pooling RNA from different animals in the same litter. Pooling more samples is good as long as the gene expression variation among the pooled animals is expected to be smaller than the gene expression difference among the studied biological conditions, but this choice may be more expensive. Even when the sample amount is enough, the choice exists between whether to process the sample of each animal and hybridize it to a different array, or pool the sample of different animals first and then split the pooled samples into several aliquots, and do IVT and hybridization separately into replicate arrays. This situation is more complex and the answer is probably dependent on specific experiment (the number of replicates, what point to replicate and pool, and the variation of genes at these points).

title: DChip/Design Experiments


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/AG-HVX200

The Panasonic HVX-200 is a low-cost professional fixed lens HD camera released in December 2005 (NTSC) and April 2006 (PAL).

Features

 * Variable frame rates and resolutions, including (in the NTSC version):
 * 1080: 60i, 30p
 * 720: 60p, 48p, 36p, 32p, 30p, 26p, 24p, 22p, 20p, 18p, 12p
 * 480: 60i, 30p, 24p

 * Professional/Robust format (DVCPRO-HD)
 * Tapeless recording (P2 memory cards)
 * Professional Audio (48 kHz 16-bit 4-channel PCM audio, 2xXLR)

Competitors
In the field of semiprofessional HDTV cameras, the main competitors of the HVX200 (all of which use the HDV format) are (as of January 2006):
 * Sony HVR-Z1
 * Canon XL H1
 * JVC HD100

Films made with the HVX200

 * /American Standard/ (2007)
 * /Cloverfield/ (2008)

Tips and tricks

 * Additional framerates: How to add 720p 2,3,4,6,8,10,14,16,23,27,28,34,38,40,42,44,46,50,52,54,56,58 fps: info
 * Flipping the internal LCD screen (for use with 35 mm adapters): info

Links

 * Specs on the Panasonic.com website

 * Focus Enhancment's press-release about a FireStore direct-to-disk system for the HVX200

 * Panasonic Pressroom AG-HVX200 FAQ

/Cameras


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DChip/Classify Genes

Classify genes by annotation terms

After a list of genes is obtained by “Compare samples” or “Filter genes”, we can use the “Tools/Classify Genes” dialog to classify these genes into different groups according to GeneOntology or other annotational terms. Gene groups have header lines such as “Found 15 GeneOntology 'response to external stimulus' genes in a 120-group (all: 1068/7734, PValue: 0.661181)”. The p-values are calculated in the same way as for the significant gene clusters. Here 120 is the number of genes having GeneOntology annotation in the input gene list, thus may be fewer than the actual number of genes in the list. Note that at "Tools/Classify genes", the whole gene list is considered to assess the significant enrichment; while at clustering, every gene clusters with at least 4 annotated genes is considered. Thus the former gives fewer significant gene groups than the latter.

Significant p-values as defined in the “Tools/Options/Clustering” dialog are suffixed by stars (“***”) in the output file. Also one may check the “Only report significant results” box to output only gene groups with significant p-values. The additional data columns such as expression values or fold changes of the “gene list file” will be copied into the output “classified file”.

To prevent multiple probe sets for the same gene from biasing the result of the functional significance computation, it is best to check “Analysis/Open group/Options/Analysis/Mask redundant probe sets” to exclude the redundant probe sets (identified by LocusLink ID) from a gene list. This can also be done at “Tools/Options/Analysis/Mask redundant probe sets”, but redoing “Analysis/Open group” is desired since the array background information on gene annotation is computed after reading in the “gene information file”.

title: DChip/Classify Genes


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Cellular Automata/Excitable media

An introduction to excitable media
Excitable media are nonlinear dynamic systems known for exhibiting complex behavior that can be observed as pattern formation. They are usually defined by a reaction-diffusion differential equation.

 * $$ u_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D \nabla^2 u(\mathbf{r},t) + f(u(\mathbf{r},t)) $$

The diffusion part provides stability and propagation of information, the reactive part provides interesting local dynamics.

A common example of excitable media are prey-predator systems. Such systems are described by a system of differential equations, one function for each of the observed protagonists.

 * $$ u_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D_u \nabla^2 u(\mathbf{r},t) + f(u,v) $$
 * $$ v_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D_v \nabla^2 v(\mathbf{r},t) + g(u,v) $$

We will discuss two different approaches to modeling excitable media. Discretization of differential equations and modeling with cellular automata.

Boundary conditions
There are different ways to define boundary conditions for the reaction-diffusion equation.

The value of the function at the boundary is given explicitly $$u(\mathbf{r_0},t)$$.
 * Dirichlet boundary conditions

If the initial condition $$u(x,0)$$ is supposed to be periodic in space, cyclic boundary conditions can be used.
 * Cyclic boundaries

If zero-flux is expected at the boundary than the component of the functions first derivative normal to the boundary is zero $$ \vec{n}\cdot \nabla{u}=0 $$ at the boundary. This can be achieved by reflecting function values from the inside over the boundary to the outside.
 * Zero-flux boundary conditions

Discretization of differential equations using the explicit FTCS method
The traditional method to simulate excitable media is discretization and numerical computation of the governing PDE. First the FTCS (forward-time centered-space method) discretization method is presented. Explicit methods are the simplest and the equations are similar to a cellular automaton, but are inadequate because of stability and convergence problems.

Single PDE
We will first observe a single PDE describing a single function.

 * $$ u_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D \nabla^2 u(\mathbf{r},t) + f(u(\mathbf{r},t)) $$

One-dimensional problem
In the one dimensional case the space vector becomes a single variable $$\mathbf{r}=x$$. The nabla operator becomes $$\nabla^2=\frac{\partial^2}{\partial{x^2}}$$.

 * $$ \frac{ \partial u(x,t) }{ \partial t } = D \frac{ \partial^2 u(x,t) }{ \partial x^2 } + f(u(x,t)) $$

The partial differential equation is discretized.

 * $$ \frac{ u(x,t+\Delta{t}) - u(x,t) }{ \Delta{t} } = $$
 * $$\quad D \frac{ u(x+\Delta{x},t)-2u(x,t)+u(x-\Delta{x},t) }{ \Delta{x}^2 } $$
 * $$\quad + f(u(x,t)) $$

Each finite element at time $$t+\Delta{t}$$ is calculated from three neighboring elements at time $$t$$ (see figure at the right).

 * $$ u(x,t+\Delta{t}) = u(x,t) + \, $$
 * $$\quad + d( u(x+\Delta x,t)-2u(x,t)+u(x-\Delta x,t) ) $$
 * $$\quad + \Delta{t} f(u(x,t)) $$

where the diffusion number is

 * $$ d = D \frac{ \Delta{t} }{ \Delta{x}^2 } $$

 * Stability

The FTCS method is stable if

 * $$ d \leq 1/2 $$

 * Boundary conditions

For periodic boundaries present values at the left boundary $$x=0$$ can be used to compute the future values at the right boundary $$x=L_x$$ and the other way round.

 * $$ u(0,t+\Delta{t}) = u(0,t) + d( u(0+\Delta x,t)-2u(0,t)+u(L_x,t) ) + \Delta{t} f(u(0,t)) \, $$
 * $$ u(L_x,t+\Delta{t}) = u(L_x,t) + d( u(0,t)-2u(L_x,t)+u(L_x-\Delta x,t) ) + \Delta{t} f(u(L_x,t)) \, $$

If there is zero-flux $$\nabla u(0,t)=0$$ at the boundaries than values outside the boundary are reflections of values inside $$u(0+\Delta x,t)=u(0-\Delta x,t)$$.

 * $$ u(0,t+\Delta{t}) = u(0,t) + 2d( u(0+\Delta x,t)-u(0,t) ) + \Delta{t} f(u(0,t)) \, $$
 * $$ u(L_x,t+\Delta{t}) = u(L_x,t) + 2d( u(L_x,t)+u(L_x-\Delta x,t) ) + \Delta{t} f(u(L_x,t)) \, $$

Two-dimensional problem
In the two-dimensional case, the space vector becomes a variable pair $$\mathbf{r}=[x,y]$$. The nabla operator becomes $$\nabla^2=\frac{\partial^2}{\partial{x^2}}+\frac{\partial^2}{\partial{y^2}}$$.

 * $$ \frac{ \partial u(x,y,t) }{ \partial t } = D \left( \frac{ \partial^2 u(x,y,t) }{ \partial x^2 } + \frac{ \partial^2 u(x,y,t) }{ \partial y^2 } \right) + f(u(x,y,t)) $$

The partial differential equation is discretized using the forward-time centered-space method.

 * $$\frac{ u(x,y,t+\Delta{t}) - u(x,y,t) }{ \Delta{t} } = $$
 * $$\quad = D \frac{ u(x+\Delta{x},y,t)-2u(x,y,t)+u(x-\Delta{x},y,t) }{ \Delta{x}^2 } + $$
 * $$\quad + D \frac{ u(x,y+\Delta{y},t)-2u(x,y,t)+u(x,y-\Delta{y},t) }{ \Delta{y}^2 } + $$
 * $$\quad + f(u(x,y,t)) $$

Each finite element at time $$t+\Delta{t}$$ is calculated from five neighboring elements at time $$t$$ (see figure at the right).

 * $$ u(x,y,t+\Delta{t}) = u(x,t) + \, $$
 * $$\quad + d_x( u(x+\Delta{x},y,t)-2u(x,y,t)+u(x-\Delta{x},y,t) ) + $$
 * $$\quad + d_y( u(x,y+\Delta{y},t)-2u(x,y,t)+u(x,y-\Delta{y},t) ) + $$
 * $$\quad + \Delta{t} f(u(x,y,t)) $$

where the diffusion numbers are

 * $$ d_x=D\frac{\Delta{t}}{\Delta{x}^2} \quad d_y=D\frac{\Delta{t}}{\Delta{y}^2} $$

 * Stability

The FTCS method is stable if

 * $$ d_x \leq 1/2 $$ and $$ d_y \leq 1/2 $$

 * Boundary conditions

The same ideas as in the one dimensional case can be used for two dimensions.

System of PDE
A system of PDE describes two functions that interact with each other (prey-predator).

 * $$ u_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D_u \nabla^2 u(\mathbf{r},t) + f(u,v) $$
 * $$ v_t(\mathbf{r},t) = D_v \nabla^2 v(\mathbf{r},t) + g(u,v) $$

The interaction is local, which means, the dispersion part can be computed separately for each equation, and than the reaction part is added to the result.

title: Cellular Automata/Excitable media


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PSP Programming/Hardware Description

Building The Monster
The mad scientists at SONY have done it again. They have created a whole new niche within the economy. A new breed of educated professional consumer--the Prosumer--has been invented. Prosumers are Tech Savy and know what bells and whistles they need and want on their personal hardware. They also work hard and play hard. They are on the go most of the time, and so they need a personal entertainment device which can go with them. Hence the invention of the PSP.

Giving The Monster A Face
PSP is the shorthand for SONY PSP which is the shortened version of the registered, trademarked, copyrighted, and licensed SONY product known as the PlayStation Portable. The PlayStation Portable is a cool little handheld personal entertainment device. With a PSP, the user can enjoy movies, music, games, slide shows, and even web browsing and live chat experiences. At around $200.00 per unit, the PSP is a fairly affordable piece of personal hardware. The device currently comes in three flavors, Glossy Black, Bright White and Barbie Pink. The first two flavors are equally attractive to users, and the third is on 'special offer'.

Giving The Monster A Body
The PlayStation Portable uses UMD formatted Micro DVD storage media. It also has a Memory Stick Slot that accepts Memory Stick DUO storage media. The PSP has a USB interface and a WLAN node. The PSP has an integrated LCD viewscreen. The viewscreen is 4.3" in size and has a 480X272 pixel resolution. It also has two small speakers and a stereo headphone jack.  The stereo headphone jack which comes with a PSP is specially designed to interface as a remote control for audio and video playback on the unit.

The PlayStation Portable uses an optical media disk with a 60 mm diameter. This UMD is capable of storing up to 1.8 GB of data or 80 to 140 minutes of audiovideo.

The Sony Memory Stick DUO and SanDisk Memory Stick Media currently range in storage capacity from 32 MB to 32.0 GB. There will probably be large increases in the mass storage capacity of these little sticks in the near future.

Giving The Monster A Heart
The PlayStation Portable uses a MIPS R4000 Core which consists of an integrated CPU and  FPU and Coprocessing  Vector Unit. The Coprocessor assists with complex vector and matrix math operations. The entire core unit is called by the name of Allegrex CPU. The CPU clock can be throttled from 1 MHz to 333 MHz, but 222 MHz is the SONY Mandated limit for software flow, to ensure smooth running of programs created by Developers. This 222 MHz limit also ensures expanded battery pack life which means longer lasting user experience per single battery pack charge up.

The PSP also contains a dedicated MPU chip. The Media Processing Unit is capable of decoding MP3, ATRAC3, and h.264 signal files, allowing robust hardware side audio stereo pseudo surround sound capability. The PSP uses a dedicated GPU chip to produce lighting, skinning, subdivision, pixel operations, and additional graphic display functions.

There are 2 MB of Video RAM on board the PlayStation Portable. The PlayStation Portable comes equipped with 32 MB of general RAM as well. The 32 MB RAM is divided up into 8 MB of  KERNEL Space, and 24 MB of  Application Space.

Giving The Monster A Mind
Game, Video, Emulator, or Application programs may be loaded into the 24 MB Application Space RAM. Special OS Calls and KERNEL Configuration information may be loaded into the KERNEL Space at start up of a particular game, video, emulator, or application program, but in general this is a discouraged behavior. Manipulating KERNEL Space has accounted for many pieces of hardware becoming big boat anchors. Why take a chance with your own hardware? Leave the KERNEL Space alone as much as possible.

Training The Monster
Based on the information provided in this module, you have learned that the PlayStation Portable is one of SONY Corporation's jewels. It shines as a very useable little toy which has some serious workplace potential. All we have to do is tame this beast and it will begin to do what we want it to do. That is the whole idea behind the PSP Development Culture.

I am glad that you have joined me in working toward making the PSP the best darned little toy tool  video game console  DVD player 'THINGIE' in the world.

Have a tremendous amount of fun!

title: PSP Programming/Hardware Description


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Talk:Chess/Notating The Game

This page doesn't give a complete information. It only describe some notation of some move, but that isn't enougth to be able to note all the move of a game. It is also confusing by presenting to different notation in a incomplete matter. You should at least add the notation of move where to piece can go to the same place and the switch of king and rook.

I am editing the page to note in the move 30. by white the convention for notating "check", since that is a checking move. I am also noting that capture in algebraic notation is sometimes denoted with a colon. --DSYoungEsq 17:15, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

The term cordinate notation can be confusing. I propose it be changed to long-algebraic notation. What is now algebraic notation can be called short-algebraic notaion.--Tm chk 01:35, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

== ICCF Notation One variant of this for internal chess engine use numbers the squares from 1 thru 71 skipping multiples of 9 so that the bishops' squares end up odd/even.--Billymac00 19:44, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

En passant notation
The page says that "e.p." denotes an en passant capture if there is ambiguity. Does this mean that an en passant capture is usually recorded in the same way as a simple capture? 142.161.73.123 21:20, 17 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, it does. Read the text. --Whoop whoop pull up Bitching Betty 15:07, 12 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Sorry to contradict you, but if you were right it would never be noted as there is no situation where adding « e.p. » would resolve any ambiguity, unless there was a notation mistake.
 * Actually, there is not even a single situation where indicating a capture would helps to solve an ambiguity, and this explains why the notation of regular captures with “×”, en passant with “e.p.” or even checks with “+” are all optionnals. They are nevertheless noted by most players, because it adds clarity and can often helps to resolve notations errors, especially when both players are in time troubles.
 * There is never ambiguities with the pawns, as the only possible ambiguity is when 2 identical pieces can move to the same square. Personnaly, in such a situation I simply use the long notation for that single move because it is less subject to notation error (in time presure, people often only notate the column when they should have noted the row). Not stricly conform, but I know of no arbiter that will refuse it (there is even a number of exceptionnal situations where it is the only non-ambiguous notation — in practive I’ve seen it only with 3 queens, and it is unrealistic that it ever happened with 3 bishops or 4 rooks in a serious game).
 * Disclaimer: I am a certified arbiter and have read hundreds pages of rules and comments about interpretation of FIDE’s tournament rules.
 * Have a nice day,
 * — 184.163.78.39 (discuss) 10:47, 14 June 2017 (UTC)
 * Disclaimer: I am a certified arbiter and have read hundreds pages of rules and comments about interpretation of FIDE’s tournament rules.
 * Have a nice day,
 * — 184.163.78.39 (discuss) 10:47, 14 June 2017 (UTC)

ICCF Notation
How exactly are castling, check, and checkmate recorded in ICCF numerical notation? Examples please. --Whoop whoop pull up Bitching Betty 15:12, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

 * ICCF numeric notation does not give them any significants. The start and end positions are simply recorded. ICCF only gives significants to pawn promotion in which a 5th digit is added which indicates the rank to which the pawn is promoted. --dark lama  16:00, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

 * (editconflict with Darklama) Yep, that's what I was going to say. Check and checkmate symbols are not essential to recording a move, and usually omitted in ICCF, which tries to be the most "basic" possible notation. However, I did add some examples and explanations to the page just to make all that clear. Tempodivalse 16:10, 12 January 2011 (UTC)

Descriptive notation
There is a page for algebraic notation. Should there be one for descriptive notation? --Whoop whoop pull up Bitching Betty 21:30, 30 April 2011 (UTC)
 * For now, unless the descriptive description section became much larger, there is no real need for a separate page. But perhaps that section didn't existed at all when you made your comment, and it certainly should be more complete.  I also note that the claim that people « will run into quite frequently is descriptive notation » is not that true anymore,
 * A more important remark, is that only some “recently” written books in descriptive notation used the symbol “N” to notate Knights: “Kt” or even “S” (for Springer in German) was by far more common because the abreviation “N” didn’t existed, or at least it wasn’t popular at all). Also, AFAIK the symbol O-O for castling never existed in descriptive (it was simply spelled out with an abreviation like roq.) It certainly should be more complete and give examples like P-QKt8=Q and explain some of the mains tricks to avoid ambiguities (or at the very least how to resolve them).
 * — 184.163.78.39 (discuss) 10:47, 14 June 2017 (UTC)
 * — 184.163.78.39 (discuss) 10:47, 14 June 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Chess/Notating The Game


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User:Achgro~enwikibooks

See http://fun.wikicities.com/wiki/Benutzer:Achim for my user-profile.

title: User:Achgro~enwikibooks


text: User talk:212.205.247.77

title: User talk:212.205.247.77


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...d6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4

= Open Sicilian =

White's knight removes Black's d-pawn, freeing their f-pawn to advance, and radiates power in all directions from its central post.

The resulting exchanges have left White with a semi-open d-file and Black with a semi-open c-file. White has also swapped a central pawn for a wing pawn. According to Fred Reinfeld, if a center (d- or e-) pawn is worth about $1.00, a bishop's (c- or f-) pawn is worth about $0.90. Therefore, Black has, in effect, swapped a dollar for a dollar, but kept the ten cents as change! Fortunately, to compensate for this, White has a marked spatial advantage in the center, plus a small lead in development. Using their open d-file, White will attempt to pressure Black's d6-point. In some lines, Black voluntarily makes this pawn on d6 backward with the advance ...e7-e5 in exchange for dynamic play in the center and queenside. While it is true that Black does not always achieve this play in the center, they almost always get queenside play rolling with ...a7-a6 and ...b7-b5. If White castles queenside, these pawns will be a dangerous attacking force. However, if White castles kingside, the danger posed by these pawns is significantly less, although they are still part of a positional plan to expand on the queenside.

White has a pawn on the fourth rank. Nominally, it gains space, and many battles have been fought over whether this space advantage is relevant. However, in many variations of the Sicilian (particularly the Najdorf Variation), the e-pawn becomes a target. This can also be seen in the natural development of Black's pieces: ...b7-b5, ...Ng8-f6, and sometimes ...Nb8-d7-c5. When the neighboring pawn on f2 advances to the fourth rank, White gains more space on the kingside, getting good chances for attack there. In all, this adds up to a very sharp game, which is why the Sicilian Defence is the most popular opening today.

Theory table
.

'''1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 d6 3. d4 cxd4 4. Nxd4'''


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X86 Disassembly/The Stack

The Stack
Generally speaking, a stack is a data structure that stores data values contiguously in memory. Unlike an array, however, you access (read or write) data only at the "top" of the stack. To read from the stack is said "to pop" and to write to the stack is said "to push". A stack is also known as a LIFO queue (Last In First Out) since values are popped from the stack in the reverse order that they are pushed onto it (think of how you pile up plates on a table). Popped data disappears from the stack.

All x86 architectures use a stack as a temporary storage area in RAM that allows the processor to quickly store and retrieve data in memory. The current top of the stack is pointed to by the esp register. The stack "grows" downward, from high to low memory addresses, so values recently pushed onto the stack are located in memory addresses above the esp pointer. No register specifically points to the bottom of the stack, although most operating systems monitor the stack bounds to detect both "underflow" (popping an empty stack) and "overflow" (pushing too much information on the stack) conditions.

When a value is popped off the stack, the value remains sitting in memory until overwritten. However, you should never rely on the content of memory addresses below esp, because other functions may overwrite these values without your knowledge.

Users of Windows ME, 98, 95, 3.1 (and earlier) may fondly remember the infamous "Blue Screen of Death" -- that was sometimes caused by a stack overflow exception. This occurs when too much data is written to the stack, and the stack "grows" beyond its limits. Modern operating systems use better bounds-checking and error recovery to reduce the occurrence of stack overflows, and to maintain system stability after one has occurred.

Push and Pop
The following lines of ASM code are basically equivalent:

but the single command actually performs much faster than the alternative. It can be visualized that the stack grows from right to left, and esp decreases as the stack grows in size.

ESP In Action
Let's say we want to quickly discard 3 items we pushed earlier onto the stack, without saving the values (in other words "clean" the stack). The following works (note that it overwrites the eax register):

However there is a faster method, that also does not affect any register but the stack pointer. We can simply perform some basic arithmetic on esp to make the pointer go "above" the data items, so they cannot be read anymore, and can be overwritten with the next round of push commands.

Likewise, if we want to reserve room on the stack for an item bigger than a DWORD, we can use a subtraction to artificially move esp forward. We can then access our reserved memory directly as a memory pointer, or we can access it indirectly as an offset value from esp itself.

Say we wanted to create an array of byte values on the stack, 100 items long. We want to store the pointer to the base of this array in edi. How do we do it? Here is an example:

To destroy that array, we simply write the instruction

Reading Without Popping
To read values on the stack without popping them off the stack, esp can be used with an offset. For instance, to read the 3 DWORD values from the top of the stack into eax (but without using a pop instruction), we would use the instructions:

Remember, since esp moves downward as the stack grows, data on the stack can be accessed with a positive offset. A negative offset should never be used because data "above" the stack cannot be counted on to stay the way you left it. The operation of reading from the stack without popping is often referred to as "peeking", but since this isn't the official term for it this wikibook won't use it.

Data Allocation
There are two areas in the computer memory where a program can store data. The first, the one that we have been talking about, is the stack. It is a linear LIFO buffer that allows fast allocations and deallocations, but has a limited size. The heap is typically a non-linear data storage area, typically implemented using linked lists, binary trees, or other more exotic methods. Heaps are slightly more difficult to interface with and to maintain than a stack, and allocations/deallocations are performed more slowly. However, heaps can grow as the data grows, and new heaps can be allocated when data quantities become too large.

As we shall see, explicitly declared variables are allocated on the stack. Stack variables are finite in number, and have a definite size. Heap variables can be variable in number and in size. We will discuss these topics in more detail later.

title: X86 Disassembly/The Stack


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pl:Szablon:cc-by-sa.2.5

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User talk:Jtwdog~enwikibooks

Copyright problem with Image:Nested.png
--Derbeth 19:29, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

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text: User talk:171.64.53.11

title: User talk:171.64.53.11


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Talk:Biological Psychology

Does anyone have this book? I need to get ahold of the list of sources from Chapter 9. Please post to this discussion if you have this!

Thanks! This comment was left by 15.235.153.98 on 29 Sep 2005. Dilaudid 08:22, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

 * The contents have been copied from Kalat: Biological Psychology. Copyright infringement?

 * Some reading on wakefulness and sleep: A. Culebras: Clinical handbook of sleep disorders (1996), W.C. Dement: The sleepwatchers (1992), W.H. Moorcroft: Sleep, dreaming, & sleep disorders: An introduction (1993), R. Refinetti: Circadian physiology (2000), J. Winson: Thea meaning of dreams. Scientific American (1999 Nov). Also . Hope it helps. Dilaudid 08:22, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Biological Psychology


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Rhetoric and Composition/Active and Passive Voice

Disclaimer: In everyday writing, the active voice is used to concisely and forcibly describe people's actions. The passive voice also has important rhetoric uses in everyday writing. It is more common in formal writing that tries to be less personal. The terms "active" and "passive voice" and their significance to good writing are explained in the article below.

Voice in English Writing
Languages have different levels of formality that vary with the purpose, the audience, and the situation. Generally, written English is more formal than spoken English because the person has more time to think about what to say. Formal writing uses fewer personal pronouns and less colloquial language, or slang. Another important difference is the use of grammatical voice.

"Voice" has two meanings in writing. "Voice" can be defined as "how the writer's personality and attitude toward the topic are revealed to the audience." Voice, in this definition, is what makes one writer sound different from another. "Voice" is also a grammatical term; for clarity, it may be referred to as "grammatical voice." There are two voices discussed in this section: the active voice and the passive voice. 🦕

Active and Passive Voice Sentences
Most English sentences are written with active, passive, or neuter verbs, such as "to be" verbs. The active and passive voices are the two main voices in English, but some sentences may also be considered to be in the middle or mediopassive voice. Voice is the relationship between the subject and the verb in a clause or the transfer of action.

Example: The student finished the exercise.
 * In the active voice, the subject performs the action. The subject of an active-voice construction is known as an agent.  A clause with an active, transitive verb will be in the form of subject-verb-object.

 * In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. The subject of a passive-voice construction is known as a patient.  An active voice clause can be passivized, or recast in the passive voice (for example, to increase formality), by making the object of the active clause the subject of the passive clause.  "The exercise" is the object in the sentence above.  The verb will be "was finished."  For a passive verb, the tense and subject-verb agreement are always shown through the auxiliary verb "to be."  The main verb is always the past participle.  The subject of the active voice sentence can be included in a prepositional phrase with "by."

Example: The exercise was finished by the student.

Intransitive verbs can be used in the passive voice when a prepositional phrase is included.

Intransitive verbs without prepositional phrases cannot be passivized. There is no word to become the subject of the sentence.

Active voice: Millions of people lived.

Passive voice: ? was lived.

Linking verbs (such as being verbs) are intransitive verbs that can never be used in the passive voice. They do not show action and are thus neither active nor passive. They are called neuter verbs.

Use of the Passive Voice
Converting an active-voice clause to a passive-voice clause may not change technical meaning, but can be done for altered formality or emphasis as well as change the connotation of the text. Linguistic studies have found high percentages of passive verbs in formal writing. The passive voice can emphasize an agent, a patient, or an adverb. It can be used for narrative flow and continuity in conversations.

Emphasizing the agent: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.

The passive voice emphasizes Shakespeare by putting his name at the end, the most emphatic part of a sentence. Emphasizing the patient: Jamey was fascinated by Language Arts.

The passive-voice construction emphasizes Jamey more effectively than the active-voice equivalent "Language Arts fascinated Jamey."

Emphasizing the adverb: That is strictly prohibited.

Because a passive verb consists of two words, an adverb becomes emphatic when placed between "to be" and the past participle.

The passive voice can be used to eliminate first- and second-pronouns in formal writing.

Active voice: I hope that....

Passive voice: It is hoped that....

In formal writing, the writer may want to alternate between sentences in the first person and passive sentences in which the pronoun is implied to prevent the monotony caused by starting too many sentences with "I."

Research studies are described in the passive voice. Research is intended to be objective, without the biases of the researchers conducting the experiments. An experiment should be the same no matter who performs it.

Active voice: I collected samples from the subjects.

Passive voice: Samples were collected from the subjects.

A sentence in the imperative mood can be rewritten in the passive voice to make it more formal or less harsh.

Active voice: Do not smoke.

Passive voice: Smoking is prohibited.

Active voice: Avoid contractions in formal writing.

Passive voice: Contractions should be avoided in formal writing.

The examples above for first- and second-person pronouns make use of the institutional passive, which omits the agent. In writing and speech, almost eighty-five percent of passive sentences are in the institutional passive.

The Structural Difference
The difference between active and passive is in how many noun phrases in the sentence that are not introduced with the use of a preposition. Compare the following sentences: I dropped the ball. The ball was dropped by me.

The man offered the butler a reward. The Butler was offered a reward by the man.

 * In the active voice, the sentence has between two and three noun phrases that do not require a prepositional phrase. These are called the subject, the direct object and the indirect object.
 * I dropped the ball. ("I" is the subject. "The ball" is the direct object.)
 * The man offered the butler a reward. ("The man" is the subject. "The butler" is the indirect object and "a reward" is the direct object.)
 * The man offered a reward to the butler. ("The man" is still the subject.  "A reward" is still the direct object, but "the butler" is now part of a prepositional phrase and is no longer an indirect object.)

 * In the passive voice, the sentence has one fewer noun phrase than the corresponding active. The subject is removed and can appear only in an optional prepositional phrase. The object is promoted to subject. For ditransitive verbs, the direct or indirect object can become the subject.

 * The ball was dropped by me. ("The ball" is now the subject. "Me" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.)
 * The Butler was offered a reward by the man. ("The butler" is now the subject. There is only one object: "a reward." "The man" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.)
 * A reward was offered to the butler by the man. ("A reward" is now the subject.  "The butler" is not considered an indirect object because it is part of a prepositional phrase.  "The man" shows up in an optional "by"-phrase.)

Without a change in meaning, using the active or passive voice can emphasize different noun phrases in the examples above. By using the passive voice, the writer can take away emphasis from the perpetrator of the action and place it instead on the receiver of the action. In this way, focus is placed mostly on the action.


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Formal Logic/Sentential Logic/Substitution and Interchange

= Substitution and Interchange =

This page will use the notions of occurrence and subformula introduced at the Additional terminology section of Formal Syntax. These notions have been little used if at all since then, so you might want to review them.

Tautological forms
We have introduced a number of tautologies, one example being

 * (1)   $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Use the metavariables $$\psi

$$ and $$\varphi$$ to replace $$\mathrm{Q}$$ and $$\mathrm{R}$$ in (1). This produces the form

 * (2)   $$\psi \rightarrow (\varphi \rightarrow \psi)\,\!$$

As it turns out, any formula matching this form is a tautology. Thus, for example, let $$\psi = \mathrm{R}\land \mathrm{S}$$ and $$\varphi = \mathrm{P}\lor \mathrm{Q}$$. Then,

 * (3)   $$\mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S})\,\!$$

is a tautology. This process can be generalized to all tautologies: for any tautology, find its explicit form by replacing each sentence letters with distinct metavariables (written as Greek letters, as shown in (2)). We can call this a tautological form, which is a metalogical expression rather than a formula. Any instance of this tautological form is a tautology.

Substitution instances
The preceding illustrated how we can generate new tautologies from old ones via tautological forms. Here, we will show how to generate tautologies without resorting to tautological forms. To do this, we define a substitution instance of a formula. Any substitution instance of a tautology is also a tautology.

First, we define the simple substitution instance of a formula for a sentence letter. Let $$\varphi\,\!$$ and $$\psi\,\!$$ be formulae and $$\pi\,\!$$ be a sentence letter. The simple substitution instance $$\varphi[\pi / \psi]\,\!$$ is the result of replacing every occurrence of $$\pi\,\!$$ in $$\varphi\,\!$$ with an occurrence of $$\psi\,\!$$. A substitution instance of formulae for a sentence letters is the result of a chain of simple substitution instances. In particular, a chain of zero simple substitutions instances starting from $$\varphi\,\!$$ is a substitution instance and indeed is just $$\varphi\,\!$$ itself. Thus, any formula is a substitution instance of itself.

It turns out that if $$\varphi\,\!$$ is a tautology, then so is any simple substitution instance $$\varphi[\pi / \psi]\,\!$$. If we start with a tautology and generate a chain of simple substitution instances, then every formula in the chain is also a tautology. Thus any (not necessarily simple) substitution instance of a tautology is also a tautology.

Substitution examples
Consider (1) again. We substitute $$\mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S}\,\!$$ for every occurrence of $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ in (1). This gives us the following simple substitution instance of (1):

 * (4)   $$\mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S})\,\!$$

In this, we substitute $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$. That gives us (3) as a simple substitution instance of (4). Since (3) is the result of a chain of two simple substitution instances, it is a (non-simple) substitution instance of (1) Since (1) is a tautology, so is (3). We can express the chain of substitutions as

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})[\mathrm{Q} / \mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S}][\mathrm{P} / \mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}]\,\!$$

Take another example, also starting from (1). We want to obtain

 * (5)   $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

Our first attempt might be to substitute $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$,

 * (6)   $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

This is indeed a tautology, but it is not the one we wanted. Instead, we substitute $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ in (1), obtaining

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{R} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

Now substitute $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ obtaining

 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\mathrm{R} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

Finally, substituting $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{R}\,\!$$ gets us the result we wanted, namely (5). Since (1) is a tautology, so is (5). We can express the chain of substitutions as

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})[\mathrm{P} / \mathrm{R}][\mathrm{Q} / \mathrm{P}][\mathrm{R} / \mathrm{Q}]\!$$

Simultaneous substitutions
We can compress a chain of simple substitutions into a single complex substitution. Let $$\varphi\,\!$$, $$\psi_1\,\!$$, $$\psi_2\,\!$$, ... be formulae; let $$\pi_1\,\!$$, $$\pi_2\,\!$$, ... be sentence letters. We define a simultaneous substitution instance of formulas for sentence letters $$\varphi[\pi_1 / \psi_1,\ \pi_2 / \psi_2,\ ...]\,\!$$ be the result of starting with $$\varphi\,\!$$ and simultaneously replacing $$\pi_1\,\!$$ with $$\psi_1\,\!$$, $$\pi_2\,\!$$ with $$\psi_2\,\!$$, .... We can regenerate our examples.

The previously generated formula (3) is

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})[\mathrm{P} / \mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}, \mathrm{Q} / \mathrm{R} \land \mathrm{S}]\,\!$$

Similarly, (5) is

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})[\mathrm{P} / \mathrm{Q},\ \mathrm{Q} / \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$

Finally (6) is

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q})[\mathrm{Q} / \mathrm{P}]\,\!$$

When we get to predicate logic, simultaneous substitution instances will not be available. That is why we defined substitution instance by reference to a chain of simple substitution instances rather than as a simultaneous substitution instance.

Interchange of equivalent subformulae
We previously saw the following equivalence at Properties of Sentential Connectives:

 * (7)   $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$    EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

You then might expect the following equivalence:

 * $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$   EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \lnot (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

This expectation is correct; the two formulae are equivalent. Let $$\varphi\,\!$$ and $$\psi\,\!$$ be equivalent formulae. Let $$\chi_1\,\!$$ be a formula in which $$\varphi\,\!$$ occurs as a subformula. Finally, let $$\chi_2\,\!$$ be the result of replacing in $$\chi\,\!$$ at least one (not necessarily all) occurrences of $$\varphi\,\!$$ with $$\psi\,\!$$. Then $$\chi_1\,\!$$ and $$\chi_2\,\!$$ are equivalent. This replacement is called an interchange.

For a second example, suppose we want to generate the equivalence

 * (8)   $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$    EquivalenceSign.png    $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \lnot (\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

We note the following equivalence:

 * (9)   $$\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$    EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \lnot (\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

These two formulae can be confirmed to be equivalent either by truth table or, more easily, by substituting $$\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$ for $$\mathrm{P}\,\!$$ in both formulae of (7).

This substitution does indeed establish (9) as an equivalence. We already noted that $$\varphi\,\!$$ and $$\psi\,\!$$ are equivalent if and only if $$\varphi \leftrightarrow \psi\,\!$$ is a tautology. Based on (7), we get the tautology

 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \lnot \lnot \mathrm{P}\,\!$$

Our substitution then yields

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R} \leftrightarrow \lnot \lnot (\mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

which is also a tautology. The corresponding equivalence is then (9).

Based on (9), we can now replace the consequent of $$\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q} \land \mathrm{R}\,\!$$ with its equivalent. This generates the desired equivalence, namely (8).

Every formula equivalent to a tautology is also a tautology. Thus an interchange of equivalent subformulae within a tautology results in a tautology. For example, we can use the substitution instance of (7):

 * $$\mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \lnot \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

together with the tautology previously seen at Properties of Sentential Connectives:

 * $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \lor (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

to obtain

 * $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \lnot \mathrm{Q}) \lor (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R})\,\!$$

as a new tautology.

Interchange example
As an example, we will use the interdefinability of connectives to express

 * (10)   $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R}\,\!$$

using only conditionals and negations.

Based on

 * $$\mathrm{P} \lor \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$

we get the substitution instance

 * $$\mathrm{Q} \lor \mathrm{R}\,\!$$   EquivalenceSign.png    $$\lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}\,\!$$

which in turn allows us to replace the appropriate subformula in (10) to get:

 * (11)   $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}\,\!$$

The equivalence

 * $$\mathrm{P} \leftrightarrow \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$ EquivalenceSign.png $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \mathrm{Q}) \land (\mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

together with the appropriate substitution gives us

 * (12)   $$(\mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R})) \land ((\lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}) \rightarrow \mathrm{P})\,\!$$

as equivalent to (11).

Finally, applying

 * $$\mathrm{P} \land \mathrm{Q}\,\!$$   [[File:EquivalenceSign.png]]    $$\lnot (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow \lnot \mathrm{Q})\,\!$$

together with the appropriate substitution, yields our final result:

 * $$\lnot (\mathrm{P} \rightarrow (\lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}) \rightarrow \lnot ((\lnot \mathrm{Q} \rightarrow \mathrm{R}) \rightarrow \mathrm{P}))\,\!$$

Summary
This page has presented two claims.

 * A substitution instance of a tautology is also a tautology.

 * Given a formula, the result of interchanging a subformula with an equivalent is a formula equivalent to the given formula.

These claims are not trivial observations or the result of a simple truth table. They are substantial claims that need proof. Proofs are available in a number of standard metalogic textbooks, but are not presented here.


text: User talk:198.204.133.208

title: User talk:198.204.133.208


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Neuroscience

Neuroscience is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. Such studies may include the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous system. Traditionally it is seen as a branch of biological sciences. It can involve convergence of interest from many allied disciplines, including psychology, computer science, statistics, physics, and medicine. The scope of neuroscience has now broadened to include any systematic scientific experimental and theoretical investigation of the central and peripheral nervous system of biological organisms. The methodologies employed by neuroscientists have been enormously expanded, from biochemical and genetic analysis of dynamics of individual nerve cells and their molecular constituents to imaging gross representations of perceptual and motor tasks in the brain. Neuroscience is at the frontier of investigation of the brain and mind. The study of the brain is becoming the cornerstone in understanding how we perceive and interact with the external world and, in particular, how human experience and human biology influence each other.

 * Search in this book
 * Wikimedia Commons Neuroscience with files for this book
 * How you can help contribute!
 * List of contributors
 * Fundamentals of Neuroscience- related Wikiversity course

Contents

 * /Preface/
 * Cellular Neurobiology
 * /Neuroanatomy/
 * /Developmental Neurobiology/
 * /The Senses/
 * Neurophysiology (Electrophysiology)
 * /Neuropsychology/
 * /Neuropsychiatry/
 * /Cognitive Neuroscience/
 * /Computational Neurobiology/
 * /Neurobiology of Disease/
 * /Sleep/
 * /Glossary/

title: Neuroscience


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Neuroscience/Cognitive Neuroscience

Spatial Cognition

 * Neglect

Learning and Memory

 * Cortical Networks Underlying Memory

Motivation

 * Neuroscience of Motivation

Visual Neuroscience

 * Face Processing

Emotion

 * Cortical Networks Underlying Emotion

Misc

 * Reading List

title: Neuroscience/Cognitive Neuroscience


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Neuroscience/Cognitive Neuroscience/Reading List

In the emerging field of Cognitive Neuroscience there are number of real pioneers. I would propose a bibliography here to start the readers on the right track to exploring the new frontiers of the mind-brain interface science.

Reading list: 1. Wet Mind.. The New Cognitive Neuroscience by                Stephen M. Kosslyn and Oliver Koenig .. Free Press paperback --4.62.127.83 19:30, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)RFORD  2-03-05 Oxnard Calif USA

2. Methods in Mind By Carl Senior, Tamara Russell & Michael Gazzaniga (2006). The MIT Press, USA 3. Are You a Machine?: The Brain, the Mind, And What It Means to Be Human By Eliezer Sternberg (2006).


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Neuroscience/Neuroanatomy

Introduction
The human nervous system (or neurological system) has been called by some the most integrated and complex system on earth. It is a massively complicated tangle of nerves, ganglia, and fluids, all playing massively important roles in the execution of normal, day to day activities that many of us take entirely for granted. Even such mundane tasks as typing on a keyboard require a massive coordinating effort on the part of the nervous system. Your eyes must see the screen, your brain must know what you want to type, and you must be able to move your fingers in a coordinated enough fashion to allow you to type with any speed at all. So, as you can see, just typing requires the use and integration of millions of small, vital parts to allow this relatively simple action to transpire.

The nervous system is basically made up of cells, just like all other living organisms. The cells of the brain can be separated into two main categories: primary cells and support cells. Primary cells receive stimuli, transfer stimuli, interpret stimuli, and decide upon an appropriate response. This is a laborious, energy consuming process, and primary cells require massive amounts of nourishment per day. As such, the nervous system absorbs 40% of the body's daily food requirements, making it the most energy consumptive system in the human body, in proportion to it's relatively small size. This being the case, support cells play the vital role of feeding the energy hungry primary cells, as well as anchoring them into place, building extra mechanisms for the transfer of stimuli, and destroying necrotic (dead) materials.

The most basic divisions of the nervous system are the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System. These two divisions have a highly complementary relationship, as the PNS receives information from many parts of the environment, and the CNS is responsible for both interpreting the information and determining a response. The response is then referred back to the PNS, and passed along to effectors, or organs that perform an action in response to a stimulus. If a stimulus/response sequence is particularly emotional or frightening, then it may be stored away by the CNS as a memory, or a series of synaptic connections that, when activated, cause information to be 'played back' in the mind's eye.

Central Nervous System
The Central Nervous System, or CNS, is the control and co-ordination section of the Nervous System comprised of the brain, brainstem and spinal cord. Its main functions are the reception of stimuli from the PNS, the integration and interpretation of received (afferent) stimuli, and the subsequent sending of (efferent) stimuli to effectors (glands and muscles) around the body. The brain controls "lower", unconscious activities such as heartbeat, respiration, and digestion - these are known as autonomic functions. The brain also controls "higher" order, conscious activities, such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. The human brain is more capable of these higher order activities than any other species' brain, largely due to the effects of cephalization.

Regions and Organization

 * /The Brain/
 * /The Spinal Cord/

Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System, or PNS, is the sensory reception and transferal section of the Nervous System, comprised of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and various other afferent and efferent nerves that both relay information from sensory organs to the brain, and then relay a response back to effector organs.

The PNS can be subdivided into several sections. The first two divisions are the somatic and autonomic divisions. The somatic division is responsible for conscious manipulation of skeletal muscles, excluding reflexes. It controls actions that that we consciously decide to perform, such as reaching for an object or kicking a ball. The autonomic division is responsible for muscle control that we are not necessarily aware of, and have no conscious control over, such as heart beat, breathing, blinking, digestion movements and the changes in diameter of the body's blood vessels.

The autonomic division can be further subdivided into two more divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division controls things like the fight or flight response to danger, and only kicks in when extreme danger is sensed. It is primarily influenced by certain hormones like epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, which cause a spike in blood glucose and blood pressure. When the sympathetic division takes control, we feel a corresponding adrenaline rush. The parasympathetic division controls non-survival mechanisms like digestion. The parasympathetic division is in control most of the time, but when danger is sensed, blood is drained from the parasympathetic and sent to the muscles to allow us to either fight for our lives or run like mad. One division cannot work at the same time as the other, as you can tell when you run from a fright. During the time of fear, you don't realize that you may be hungry, cold, tired or thirsty, as these are mechanisms under the jurisdiction of the parasympathetic division.

The Special Senses
The special senses are the six senses that humans use in their major day-to-day activities. They are the most important senses to us, in terms of how many cells and how much energy is devoted to each.
 * /Sight/
 * /Taste/
 * /Hearing/
 * /Smell/
 * /Touch/
 * /Orientation/

Other Senses

 * /Pain/
 * /Sixth Sense?/

Resources
Glossary

To download all hyperlinks to the ten modules in PDF, first download this MS Word document: http://rapidshare.com/files/258565159/direct_links_to_neuromanual_PDF_modules_on_rapidshare.doc ... Then copy & paste all ten links one at a time in your browser's address bar.
 * 1) Surviving Clinical Neuroanatomy - an unauthorized illustrated clinical guidebook for medical students - by Henry David Nava Dimaano, MD, FPOA (UP Psych '89 - '94 / UP Medicine Class '99)

title: Neuroscience/Neuroanatomy


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Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology

Cellular Neurobiology is the study of the brain from a cellular perspective; that is, a study of the properties of cells in the brain, and how cells interact and communicate. The interaction of these cells mediates identifiable functions of different systems in the brain, and the goal of the cellular perspective of neuroscience is to understand these interactions. Specific applications of cellular neuroscience include the mechanisms that produce the symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's or Alzheimer's.

Topics

 * 1) /Cells of the Brain/
 * 2) /Neuronal Membrane/
 * 3) /Action Potentials/
 * 4) /Synapses/
 * 5) /Neurotransmitters/
 * 6) /Nervous System Structure/
 * 7) /Somatic Sensory System/

title: Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology


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How to Pass a Course/If you must cram

Cramming for a test
Cramming is the worst way to study, and you are unlikely to retain anything you read during cramming very far beyond the actual exam. That being said, sometimes cramming is the only option for a time-constrained student, or one that has spent insufficient time with the material during the semester. It can be also quite useful if you simply don't understand the material that well.

The following technique has been used by the author in many technical and mathematical classes. Some parts may also be useful in other classes, but some/most parts will obviously not apply.

 * Step 1: Go over every homework assignment that was given during the course of the class, even review the assignments you failed to complete. You should complete EVERY problem up to the point where the remainder is "busy work"; where that point is is up to you. Repeat this step until you can figure out the right technique to solve a problem without getting bogged down in pondering. The point here is NOT to memorize the homework problems, it is to ensure you can solve them without hesitation. While most exam problems are far beyond the level of homework problems, most exam questions can be broken down into chunks that will resemble homework. You need to be able to recognize the chunks and solve them quickly, or you will never finish.

 * Step 2: Many professors will have previous exams on file in the library. You should go through a similar process as you did in Step 1. In this step, it is not out of the question for you to encounter problems were you just don't understand how the solution was achieved. Fear not, and consult Steps 4 and 5.

 * Step 3: Some kind of professors will even hand out suggested study questions prior to the exam. This is a gift, as the professor could not supply you with a clearer hint as to what he/she expects you to know. You should go over these in the same manner as Steps 1 and 2.

 * Step 4: Many classes will have review sessions prior to the exam. (At the author's school, they were required to be held.) This is an excellent opportunity to have questions about the more difficult problems answered. If you still do not understand a professor's explanation for the solution to a problem (or if you don't think you could replicate it on the fly during an exam), simply copy the solution down verbatim and proceed to Step 5.

 * Step 5: Many kind of professors will let students take notecards/sheets into the exam. The intent of your professors is to let you write down long formulas ahead of time so you don't have to engage in rote memorization of several pages of nasty formulas. (Naturally, you should go ahead and put these on your formula sheet.) At this point, you have already learned all you are going to learn, your focus now is on passing the exam. To that end, take the solutions to problems you didn't understand from Steps 1 to 3, use a scanner or copy machine to reduce them down to the smallest legible size, and simply staple or tape them to your "formula" sheet/card. You would be shocked to realize how often those problem will appear on the exam, with only minor variations. If you are allowed a calculator on your test (only if it applies), go on to Step 6.

 * Step 6: If you're using a standard scientific calculator, learn all the functions ahead of time. If your calculator runs on batteries, make sure they will last you through the exam. There's not much else to put here, since your calculator probably cannot be programmed. If you're using a graphing calculator, proceed to Step 7.

 * Step 7: If you're using a graphing calculator, and your course becomes noticeably easier with it (a fact that can only be noticed if you're reasonable competent with your calculator), you should spend some time making/finding small programs to make your computing time shorter on the exam. With adequate practice, you should be able to let the calculator know your requirement in a very short period of time. In my engineering experience, the ratio of input time to calculator processing time should ideally be around 3:10, but ratios up to 1:2 are acceptable. Finding programs for your calculator should ideally be done ahead of time, but even if that is not possible, Google is your friend. There are also some major sites dedicated to popular calculators like the Ti-89. Make sure your programs work under strained conditions, as troubleshooting is not to be done on the exam. If your program doesn't work on the exam, do not waste more than three attempts on it; proceed, instead, to work out the problem with hand.

title: How to Pass a Course/If you must cram


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Cookbook:Chicken Tikka

| Meat recipes | Cuisine of India

Chicken tikka is a chicken dish originating in the Punjab region of the Indian Subcontinent made by baking chicken which has been marinated in spices and yoghurt. It should not be confused with Chicken Tikka Masala (of which it is an ingredient). It is traditionally cooked on skewers in a tandoor and is usually boneless. It is tasty when served with yellow rice and a spicy salad.

Ingredients

 * 675 g (1.5 lb) skinless and boneless chicken breast, diced into cubes
 * 1 tbsp mustard seed oil (see notes)
 * 50 ml (2 fl oz) milk
 * 150 ml (5 fl oz) natural yoghurt
 * 2 tbsp lemon juice
 * 1 tbsp tomato paste
 * 2 tbsp chopped fresh cilantro (coriander leaves)
 * 4 large cloves of garlic, finely chopped
 * 1–4 chopped fresh red chillis (depending on strength of the chillis and the desired strength of the marinade)
 * 2 tsp paprika
 * 2 tsp garam masala
 * 1 tsp cumin powder
 * ½ tsp turmeric
 * 1 tsp salt (use rock salt for best results)

Procedure

 * 1) Add all of the ingredients except the chicken to a non-metallic mixing bowl, and mix well.
 * 2) Add the chicken and mix until fully coated.
 * 3) Ideally, the chicken should now be left in a refrigerator to marinate for at least 24 hours. It may not be safe to leave chicken which has previously been frozen for longer than 24 hours, but fresh chicken should be left to marinate for 48 hours for best results. If you do not wish to leave the chicken to marinate, simply continue to the next step.
 * 4) For best results, place on skewers and cook in a tandoor or ceramic pot oven. The chicken can also be cooked on skewers under a medium grill for 5–8 minutes on each side or barbecued (cooking times depend on the temperature of the barbecue). Always ensure the chicken is cooked throughout before serving. It should come apart easily when pressed down with the side of a fork.
 * 5) Serve with naan, with rice or use in a Chicken Tikka Masala.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Mustard seed oil is considered unfit for human consumption in many parts of the world and is therefore not readily available. A poor alternative can be made by crackling 1 tsp of mustard seeds in approximately 2 tbs of very hot vegetable or olive oil. Allow to cool then use in place of mustard seed oil.
 * It is possible to make a tikka with almost any meat, the most commonly used other than chicken being lamb and mutton.
 * Tikka can be served either as main meal or as an appetiser.
 * Powdered or dried ingredients can be substituted for fresh, but at the expense of taste.
 * Some people prefer to make tikka with meat on-the-bone for improved flavour.

title: Cookbook:Chicken Tikka


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Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala

| Meat recipes | Cuisine of the United Kingdom

Chicken tikka masala is a dish based on chunks of Indian-style roasted chicken (Chicken Tikka) cooked in a tomato curry sauce, originating in Britain but intentionally recalling Indian dishes. There is no standard recipe for chicken tikka masala; a survey found that, of 48 different recipes, the only common ingredient was chicken. The sauce usually includes tomato and either cream or coconut cream and various spices.

Ingredients

 * 675 g (1.5 lb) cooked Chicken Tikka
 * 2 tbsp mustard seed oil (see notes)
 * 4 large cloves of garlic, finely chopped
 * 200 g (7 oz) onions, finely chopped (optional)
 * 1 tin (28 oz) plum tomatoes, chopped
 * 1–4 chopped fresh green chiles (depending on strength of the chiles and the desired strength of the sauce)
 * 2 tbsp chopped fresh cilantro (coriander leaves)
 * 50 ml (4 fl oz) single cream
 * 1 tbsp malt vinegar or tamarind extract
 * 2 tbsp curry paste
 * 2 tbs p tandoori masala paste
 * 1 tbs p tomato paste
 * 1 tbs p garam masala

Procedure

 * 1) Heat the oil in a wok or large frying pan.
 * 2) Add the garlic and onions and stir-fry until browned.
 * 3) Add the curry pastes and mix well, adding a little water or yogurt.
 * 4) Add the cooked chicken tikka, and stir-fry for two minutes to heat through.
 * 5) Add the tomatoes, vinegar, tomato paste, and chilies and simmer for five minutes. Add more extra water if needed.
 * 6) Add the cream, garam masala, and chopped cilantro and simmer for a few times.
 * 7) Garnish with fresh coriander and serve with Naan, rice coloured yellow with turmeric, onion bahjis and/or a glass of white wine.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Mustard seed oil is considered inappropriate for human consumption in many parts of the world and is therefore not always available. A poor alternative can be made by crackling ½ tsp of mustard seeds in approximately 2 tbsp of very hot vegetable or olive oil. Allow to cool, then use in place of mustard seed oil.
 * Powdered or concentrated ingredients can be substituted for fresh ones but at the amount of taste.

title: Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala


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Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Authors

I don't believe the information on nationality etc is needed and we shouldn't be asking people for personal details that are not covered by the Privacy policy. Angela 00:56, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

The page says "if you want to be formally recognised as an author, please sign below and add information".

What does "formally" mean here ?
 * Does that mean that if I participated to the project, I can be recognised as an author ONLY if I provide all this information, or will not be recognised as an author at all ? In this case, is not that infringing my own rights as an author ? According to the GFDL, my participation should be recognised...
 * Or does that mean I will be under another list of author (the minor anonymous ones ?)

I do not understand what "formally" is. Anthere

 * The information is required if we want to preserve the copyright on this information and wish to legally enforce the copyright for any of this content. Otherwise, this can only be considered public domain works and we might as well get rid of the copyright and license disclaimer, suggesting that all of the information is anonymous contributions.  The "formal listing" as an author is therefore required legally, and the privacy policy much therefore be amended to reflect this fact.

 * BTW, this is not a violation of the privacy policy because first of all this information is voluntarily requested, not required for participation. In addition, it goes beyond merely what is listed for your formal user account and adds information not found on either your user page (generally) or in your user record.

 * Simply put, if you want to be included as an author of the Wikijunior Big Cats book, put your name in the list. If you don't, take it out.  It is that simple.  In your case Anthere, your public information is plastered around Wikimedia projects simply because of your position on the board, and you have made some edits to this Wikibook as well.  We were trying to give credit where credit is due, and collecting public information we already knew about authors that are already listed in the history section of this Wikibook.  If you don't want that connection to any information, it would be advised to log out from your user account and perhaps log into an IP anonymizer as well (mentioned in the privacy policy).  If you don't want to be listed as an author, feel free to remove your name from the list.  I won't put it back.  --Rob Horning 10:26, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

Now, sorry, but this is NOT the answer I am looking for. Robert, please try to see a little wider than just me. When I ask the question, I ask it for all editors, not for ME. Afaik, I did not write anything on any wikijunior. So have no reason to be put there. However, I am interested in the whole notion of what you suggest. In short, you suggest that all wikimedia projects are public domain, unless authors give their real name, place of living and year of birth. If so, that means that basically the GFDL and us using it is plain crap. So, I would like a clarification of the implications of this. Myself and thousand of editors are participating under pseudonyms to several projects and we consider we do it under GFDL. If the new recommendation is to give all personal information OR participate anonymously, then I would like to know more about it. But I do not think what you are doing is correct. So please, explain why what has been considered crediting for more than 4 years would not be valid any more now. 83.205.176.35

 * This is more like the Emporer's New Clothes: Nobody has take this issue seriously before hand.  Yes, I am suggesting that if you use a psuedonym and not your real name that you will be unable to enforce the GFDL, and in effect that the GFDL will become meaningless.  At least if you use a psuedonym with no connection to your real name and other identification information that marks you as a unique individual.  That makes the contributions anonymous and essentially in the public domain instead.  What I am asking for is that if you are interested in providing public information about yourself and claiming copyright privileges on your contributions, that you should do so and provide the necessary information that is required to make a formal copyright registration.  I'm also suggesting that the current MediaWiki software has a serious shortcomming right now because the page credits service is "turned off" for each page, and the only way to find out who actually made a contribution is to tediously go through each and every edit and mark down unique contributors by hand.  These features are in the software, but not available on Wikibooks at the moment due to a decision on the part of the developers presumably for performance reasons but the whole debate is IMHO uncertain and rather arbitrary.  I did try to explain that we are collecting this information on a voluntary basis, and I don't ever want that to change.  --Rob Horning 03:49, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Is registration neccessary?
I emailed juriwiki about whether copyright registration was necessary since I saw no reason to be attempting to do this. Michael Snow's reply is below (he gave me permission to add this here since he doesn't have an account on this wiki himself). Angela 17:09, 30 September 2005 (UTC)

 * No, registration is not necessary. It's required in order to file suit for infringement, and registration in advance protects the ability to claim statutory damages and attorney's fees (actual damages are not affected).

 * However, since Wikimedia doesn't generally own copyright to much of anything, it's really up to the contributors. I suppose if some author wants to pursue registration, they're welcome to do so, but it's of their own initiative and there's no need for us to assist or get involved in it. And other authors aren't required to participate in the process if they don't want to.

 * --Michael Snow

title: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Authors


text: User talk:70.23.116.37

title: User talk:70.23.116.37


text: User talk:195.225.176.35

title: User talk:195.225.176.35


text: User talk:134.121.164.18

title: User talk:134.121.164.18


text: Template:No thanks

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User:MathMan64~enwikibooks/Arithmetic/Notation

= Notation =

Place value
The place value notational system, uses values for each digit that are multiples of ten.

Whole numbers
For whole numbers, the digit on the right is the ones. Moving to the left, the value of each place increases by multiplying ten: the tens place, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions, etc.

Examples

In 4932
 * 2 is in the ones place.
 * 3 is in the tens place.
 * 9 is in the hundreds place.
 * 4 is in the thousands place.

Each group of three digits is separated off by commas, and contains a ones, a tens and a hundreds place. The group on the right has no additional name. The next group to the left is the thousands group, and each place in that group ends with the word thousands. The group to the left of thousands is millions.

In 24,685,000
 * There are zeros in the ones, tens, and hundreds places.
 * 5 is in the thousands place.
 * 8 is in the ten thousands place.
 * 6 is in the hundred thousands place.
 * 4 is in the millions place.
 * 2 is in the ten millions place.

To the left of millions is billions, then trillions, and quadrillions. (This is the usage in the USA and most English speaking countries. Parts of Europe use a slightly different system for the names of the places larger than hundred millions.)

In 4,720,000,000,000
 * There are zeros in the ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions, ten millions, hundred millions, and billions places.
 * 2 is in the ten billions place.
 * 7 is in the hundred billions place.
 * 4 is in the trillions place.

Decimals
For indicating places smaller than one, a dot or decimal point is put to the right of the ones place. Each place to the right is decreased by dividing by ten. Assigning place values to the digits on the right of the decimal point starts next to the decimal point with tenths and moves to the right with each place value name. The place on the right of the tenths is the hundredths, then thousandths, ten thousandths, etc.

Notice that each decimal place value name is similar to a whole number place name, except that these decimal names all end in ths.

Also notice that there is no place on the right of the decimal point that is similar to the ones place just to the left of the decimal point. The ones place and the decimal point are the middle of this system.

Examples

In 0.5931
 * 5 is in the tenths place.
 * 9 is in the hundredths place.
 * 3 is in the thousandths place.
 * 1 is in the ten thousandths place.

Numbers with no whole number part are often written with a zero in the ones place. This is done to make the decimal point easier to see. The zero is not required, however.

In .000049
 * There are zeros in the tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and ten thousandths places.
 * 4 is in the hundred thousandths place.
 * 9 is in the millionths place.

No commas are used to help determine the groups on the right of the decimal point. This is because the first group has only 2 digits.

In 0.000000073
 * There are zeros in the tenths, hundredths, thousandths, ten thousandths, hundred thousandths, millionths, and ten millionths places.
 * 7 is in the hundred millionths place.
 * 3 is in the billionths place.

To determine the place values for numbers with digits on both sides of the decimal point, start in the middle (at the decimal point) and work in both directions.

In 281.906
 * 1 is in the ones place..
 * 8 is in the tens place..
 * 2 is in the hundreds place..
 * 9 is in the tenths place..
 * 0 is in the hundredths place..
 * 6 is in the thousandths place..

In 58.0317
 * 8 is in the ones place...
 * 5 is in the tens place...
 * 0 is in the tenths place...
 * 3 is in the hundredths place...
 * 1 is in the thousandths place...
 * 7 is in the ten thousandths place...

Word Names
Word names are used to write or say numbers.

Whole Numbers
A three digit whole number is written with the hundreds digit spelled out, followed by the word hundred. If the tens digit is from 2 through 9, the appropriate tens word is next. These tens words end with ty, such as twenty and ninety. After the tens word, the ones digit is spelled out. However, if the tens digit is one, it is combined with the ones digit in a teen word, such as thirteen, or a variant such as eleven and twelve. If any of the digits is zero, nothing is written for it.

Examples

 * 285 is written two hundred eighty five.
 * The word name for 402 is four hundred two.
 * The word name for 560 is five hundred sixty.
 * The word name for 85 is eighty five.
 * The word name for 417 is four hundred seventeen.
 * The word name for 6 is six.
 * The word name for 0 zero.

For larger whole numbers, the digits in each three digit group are written as they would be, if they were alone. This is followed by the group name. If an entire group is made up of zeros, nothing is written for it.

Examples

 * 482,912 is written four hundred eighty two thousand, nine hundred twelve.
 * The word name for 3,060,200 is three million, sixty thousand, two hundred.
 * The word name for 14,700,000,000 is fourteen billion, seven hundred million..
 * The word name for 811,001 is eight hundred eleven thousand, one..

Decimals
For decimal numbers, the digits to the right of the decimal point are written as if there were no decimal point. This is followed by the place value name of the furthest right digit. (These place values all end in ths.)

Examples

 * 0.925 is written nine hundred twenty five thousandths.
 * The word name for 0.30704 is thirty thousand, seven hundred four hundred-thousandths.
 * The word name for 0.06 is six hundredths.
 * The word name for 0.1 is one tenth.

Mixed Decimals
The word names for numbers with digits on both sides of the decimal point have four parts.
 * 1) Write the digits on the left of the decimal point, as a whole number.
 * 2) Write the word and to represent the decimal point.
 * 3) Write the digits on the right of the decimal point, as a whole number.
 * 4) Write the place value name of the furthest right digit.

The word and is only used to represent the decimal point; it is never used in the word name of a whole number.

Examples .
 * 4.9 is written four and nine tenths.
 * The word name for 267.158 is two hundred sixty seven and one hundred fifty eight thousandths.
 * The word name for 3,000,000.000004 is 3million and 4 millionths.
 * The word name for 12.9067 is twelve and 9 thousand sixty seven ten-thousandths.
 * The word name for 5609.11 is five thousand,six hundred nine and eleven hundredt.hs


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User talk:MathMan64~enwikibooks/Arithmetic/Notation

The User talk:MathMan64/Arithmetic/Factoring page is done for now.


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