text:
IB Biology/Nerves, Muscles and Movement

Nerves
Outline the general organization of the human nervous system including the CNS and the PNS
 * The brain, or central nervous system (CNS), is connected by the spinal cord to the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 * The peripheral nervous system is divided into two categories:
 * Sensory input (afferent division) - senses external and internal environmental conditions.
 * Motor output (efferent division): Self explanatory.
 * Somatic nervous system - conscious, controlled response
 * Autonomic nervous system - functions automatically.
 * Parasympathetic division - relaxed state.
 * Sympathetic division - excited state.

The nervous system is divided into two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The organs of the CNS, the brain and the spinal cord, are located within and protected by, respectively, the skull and the vertebral column. The PNS is composed of nerves that branch from the CNS and connect the CNS to the rest of the body. The CNS receives impulses from the nerves of the PNS and interprets them, and transmits the corresponding signals back to the origin through the PNS, thus controlling the functions of the entire body.

Draw the structure of a motor neuron

'''Define resting potential and action potential"

Resting potential is the membrane potential energy of a neuron membrane when not conducting an impulse. The charge of a membrane during resting potential is -70 mV, which means that the charge within the cell membrane is relatively negative to the outside charge.

Action potential is the state of the cell membrane while conducting an impulse, meaning the rapid depolarization and repolarization of the cell membrane. The charge on the membrane typically reaches up to +40 mV, meaning the i'''nside of the cell is positively charged relative to the outside. '''

Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron (axon).

In resting neurons, there exists an imbalance of ions inside and outside of the cell membranes. The important ions are K+ (potassium) and Na+ (sodium). K+ is more concentrated inside the cell and therefore tends to diffuse out of the cell. It is this diffusion that causes the charge potential across the plasma membrane (in resting neurons it is about -70 mV). Na+ is more concentrated outside of the cell and thus tends to diffuse into the cell, but at a very slow rate due to the low permeability of the plasma membrane to Na+. Sodium-potassium pumps embedded in the plasma membrane work against both ions' diffusion gradients in order to preserve the gradients and the membrane potential. When a graded nerve impulse traveling from a dendrite reaches threshold potential (usually about 15 to 20 mV more positive than resting potential) and comes to the axon hillock, it triggers an action potential. Action potentials are non-graded events, meaning the amplitude of the potential remains more or less constant in all situations. When threshold potential is reached, voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels at the axon hillock are stimulated. The sodium channels each have two gates, a fast-acting activation gate and a slow-acting inactivation gate. Normally the activation gate is closed and the inactivation gate is open. However, since it takes BOTH gates to be open for Na+ to freely move through the channel, normally these sodium channels are closed. The potassium channels have only one gate, which is slow acting and is normally closed. The voltage stimulus from the threshold potential cause all gates to reverse their position; if they were closed, they open, and if they were open, they close. The fast-acting sodium activation gates are the first to respond, opening and allowing Na+ to diffuse freely into the neuron. This large, rapid influx of Na+ causes the charge potential across the plasma membrane to become positive. This is called depolarization. Most neurons will depolarize up to +40 mV, and it is this depolarization that leads to the action potential, or nerve impulse. By the time the voltage peaks, sufficient time has passed for the inactivation gates to close, preventing further Na+ from entering the cell. At the same time, the potassium gates finally open, which cause K+ ions to rapidly diffuse out of the neuron along the charge gradient, increasing its negativity. This is the repolarization phase. The channel gates eventually return to their resting positions, but the slow-acting potassium gates take longer to close, which cause an excess of K+ to diffuse out of the cell, resulting in a temporary hyperpolarization, or undershoot (membrane potential drops below resting potential). For a brief period following repolarization, both the sodium activation and inactivation gates remain closed, since the inactivation gates are slow-acting and take time to return to their open resting position. During this time, called the refractory period, this particular region of the neuron is incapable of depolarization. Once the sodium inactivation gates are open again, the region will again be able to depolarize.

As the axon hillock of the neuron depolarizes, it stimulates the next region of the axon to depolarize since the membrane potential goes beyond threshold potential during depolarization to the action potential. In this manner, action potentials are triggered repeatedly, each time in successive regions further and further down the axon. Action potentials only travel in one direction; this is achieved through the effects of the refractory period. The regions immediately behind the location of an action potential cannot be stimulated to depolarize because they themselves have just recently depolarized and repolarized and cannot do so again until the refractory period has passed.

Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

Synapses are the locations where a neuron communicates with either another neuron or another type of cell, such as a muscle cell. The cell from which the nerve signal originates is the presynaptic cell and the cell receiving the signal is the postsynaptic cell. There are two types of synapses, electrical and chemical. Electrical synapses contain gap junctions that link the two cells and allow action potentials to travel between the two cells uninterrupted. Much more common are chemical synapses, which contain a narrow gap, called the synaptic cleft, separating the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. Action potentials cannot directly jump the gap, and instead the cells must rely on chemical signals to propagate the nerve impulse.

As an action potential reaches the end of an axon and the synaptic terminal, it depolarizes the presynaptic membrane. Here, voltage-gated calcium channels open and allow Ca2+ ions to diffuse into the neuron. The sudden increase in Ca2+ concentration causes synaptic vessels, filled with neurotransmitters, to fuse with the plasma membrane and release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters can be any number of chemicals, including acetylcholine (ACh), norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. These chemicals, once released, quickly diffuse across the synaptic cleft and reach the postsynaptic membrane. On the postsynaptic membrane are numerous specialized receptor proteins, which bind to specific neurotransmitters and open specific ion channels. Depending on the neurotransmitter that was received, ion channels may open up to let Na+, K+, Cl-, or other ions to diffuse in or out of the cell. Depending on which channels were opened, the postsynaptic membrane will either depolarize or hyperpolarize. Depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP), and hyperpolarization is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). EPSPs make it easier for the postsynaptic cell to generate an action potential while IPSPs make it harder. The effects of EPSPs and IPSPs are cumulative, meaning that the effects of multiple EPSPs, IPSPs, or a combination of the two, will stack, a phenomenon known as summation. Summations can either be spatial, meaning the potentials overlap spatially (e.g. they are close together on the neuron), temporal, meaning the potentials overlap in time (e.g. multiple potentials within a very short period of time), or both. Back at the synaptic cleft, the neurotransmitters that were released quickly disappear, either by simple diffusion or by enzymatic breakdown, such as when cholinesterase breaks down ACh. If the cleft has not been cleaned by the time the next action potential reaches the synapse, the neurotransmitters released by the potential will not be able to bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and the effects of the signal will not be propagated to the postsynaptic cell.

Muscles and Movement
Outline the great diversity of locomotion in the animal kingdom as exemplified by the movement in an earthworm, swimming in a bony fish, flying in a bird, and walking in an arthropod.

An earthworm slides forward by contracting and expanding alternate segments of its body. A bony fish beat tail from side to side creating a forward motion. It controls it buoyancy using an air bladder that grows or shrinks in size to force the fish up or down in the water. A bird flaps its wings up and down to create an upward force. Once the bird is in the air, it glides using air currents, occasionally flapping its wings to maintain its altitude. Arthropods extend and flex muscle segments in it legs to move forward.

Describe the roles of nerves, muscles and bones in producing movement or locomotion.

Bones provide the frame that holds up muscles. Signals are sent from the locomotion center of the brain (medulla) along nerves which synapse with certain muscles. This synapse causes myosin and actin filaments to slide over each other, causing the muscle to contract and resulting in locomotion.

Draw a diagram of the human elbow joint.

Outline the functions of the main structures in the human elbow joint.

 * bicep - flexor muscle, used to bend arm at the elbow
 * humerus bone - provides firm anchor for muscles
 * triceps - extensor muscle, used to straighten the arm
 * synovial fluid - lubricates the joint to reduce friction
 * capsule - seals the joint
 * tendon - attaches muscle to bone
 * radius - upper bone in forearm, transmits forces from bicep through forearm
 * ulna - lower bone in forearm, transmits forces from triceps through the forearm
 * ligament - tough cords of tissue, links bone to bone, prevents dislocation of the joint
 * cartilage - a layer of smooth and tough tissue that covers the ends of the bone where bones meet to reduce friction

Draw the structure of skeletal muscle fibers as seen in an electron micrograph.

Explain how skeletal muscles contracts by the sliding of filaments.

Using ATP, actin and myosin filaments slide over each other, causing sarcomeres in the myofibrils to become shorter, ultimately creating a contraction in skeletal muscles.

 * Myosin forms a bridge with binding sites on actin filaments
 * ATP binds with myosin heads causing them to break the cross bridge by detaching from the binding site
 * ATP loses a phosphate molecule, releasing energy, leaving ADP + P+ and changing the angle of the myosin head. This is known as a cocked myosin head.
 * The angled head attaches to a new binding site on actin that are further back in the line of actin binding sites
 * ADP + P+ is released, causing the heads push filaments inwards toward the sarcomere, resulting in a sliding of myosin and actin filaments over one another.

title: IB Biology/Nerves, Muscles and Movement


text:
IB Biology/Genetics,pt2

Meiosis
Describe the behavior of chromosomes in the phases of meiosis.
 * Meiosis 1:
 * Prophase I - homologous chromosomes are paired up tightly into tetrads, then crossing over, the exchange of genetic material between the DNA in these tetrads occurs, forming a chiasmata, an x-shaped structure.
 * Metaphase I - paired chromosomes line up along the equator of a cell, the metaphase plate as the spindle microtubulue apparatus pulls them.
 * Anaphase I - The spindle microtubules pull homologous chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell, causing them to separate.
 * Telophase I - The spindle microtubule apparatus begins to disappear/disintegreate, the nucleus membrane reforms around chromosomes
 * Cytokenesis I - The cell divides along the equator, creating 2 haploid daughter cells

A brief period of Interphase usually occurs between Meisois I and II, in which the cell grows, and DNA is replicated to prepare for meiosis.

 * Meiosis 2:
 * Prophase II - sister chromatids pair up and attach to the spindle microtubule apparatus.
 * Metaphase II - sister chromatids line up at equator of cell due to the movement of the spindle microtubule apparatus.
 * Anaphase II - sister chromatids separate as spindle fibers pull them in opposite directions.
 * Telophase II - sister chromatids are on opposite sides of cell, spindle fibers disappear.
 * Cytokenesis II - cell divides along the equator, nuclei begin to reform, creating 4 daughter haploid cells.

Outline the processes of crossing over and the formation of chiasmata.

During Prophase 1, homologous chromosomes are paired up very closely, creating a tetrad. Then crossing over occurs, in which genetic information in the form of DNA is exchanged between the homologous chromosomes of the tetrad. The site where crossing over occurs is called a chiasmata, and it is an x-shaped structure.

Explain how meiosis results in an effectively infinite genetic variety of gametes through crossing over in prophase I and random orientation in metaphase I.

If a homologous pair is denoted as having chromosomes A and B paired together, random orientation during Metaphase I means that in any one cell after Meiosis I, the cell could have either chromosome A or B, creating a random orientation of chromosomes in haploid cells that leads to genetic variability. Added to this is the effect of crossing over during Prophase I, meaning that chromosomes could have any combination of chromosomes A or B, creating an almost infinite genetic variability.

Define recombination

The process by which progeny derive a combination of genes different from that of either parent is known as recombination.

State Mendel's law of independent assortment

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment states that "Allele pairs separate independently of each other during the formation of gametes."

Explain the relationship between Mendel's law of independent assortment and Meiosis

The separation of the allele pairs occurs during meiosis. Meiosis is the process whereby gametes are produced. o   Each homologous pair of chromosomes (bivalents) carries a selection of genes different than other bivalents. o   Each pair of alleles segregates into gametes independently of the other alleles located on different chromosomes. o   If crossing over occurs (in prophase 1) pairs of alleles may segregate independently of other pairs of alleles on the same chromosome.

Dihybrid crosses
Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.

In a test cross between diyhibrid, unlinked autosomal genes AaBb and AaBb:

Phenotypic ratio - 9 dominant for both traits A and B, 3 dominant for A, 3 dominant for B, 1 recessive for both

Genotypic ratio -
 * Trait A - 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa (3 dominant, 1 recessive)
 * Trait B - 1 BB : 2 Bb : 1 bb (3 dominant, 1 recessive)

Identify which offspring in dyhybrid crosses are recombinants.

In a test cross between AaBb and aabb:

Normal cross - AaBb (48%) or aabb (48%)

Crossing over - Aabb (2%) of aaBb (2%)
 * There is a 4% cross over rate (4 centimorgans)

Outline the use of the chi-squared test in analyzing monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using given values.

Autosomal Gene Linkage
State the difference between autosomes and sex chromosomes.

Sex chromosomes determine the gender of the organism, while autosomes do not.

Explain how crossing over in prophase I (between non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair) can result in an exchange of alleles.

Crossing over involves homologous chromosomes exchange "slices" of their own DNA with the non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair. Thus, this results in an exchange of alleles as the alleles from one chromatid are being exchanged with the alleles on a non-sister chromatid.

Define linkage group

A group of gene loci known to be linked; a chromosome. There are as many linkage groups as there are homologous pairs of chromosomes.

Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes.

When crossing two linked genes such as an organism with the genes AABB with another organism with the genes aabb, the resulting F1 generation offspring can only have the genes AaBb. Furthermore, the F2 generation offspring will have the genes in a 9:3:3:1 ratio.

Identify which of the offspring in such dihybrid crosses are the recombinants.

The offspring that have traits different from the parents are recombinants. More specifically, the offspring that possess a wholly unique genotype, different from that of both of their parents, is a recombinant.

Polygenic inheritance
Define polygenic inheritance

Polygenic inheritance - More than one particular gene codes for the inheritance of a specific trait. (Not to be confused with pleiotropy, where one gene controls several traits.)

'''Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two examples. One example must be human skin color.'''

These are very important examples to remember:

Skin colour in humans

The colour of human skin depends on the amount of the black pigment melanin in it. At least four and possible more genes are involved, each with alleles that promote melanin production and alleles that do not. There is a wide range of possible genotypes with anything from no alleles promoting melanin to many. Environmental factors can also lead to the increased production of melanin (eg. sun tanning).

Grain colour in wheat Wheat grains vary from white to dark red, depending upon the amount of a red pigment they contain. Three genes control the colour. Each gene has two alleles, one that causes pigment production and one that does not.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: IB Biology/Genetics,pt2


text:
Classical Mechanics/Newtonian Physics

Newton's three laws of motion are the basis of classical mechanics, so they are presented here for review and completeness.

The First Law: Uniform Motion

 * An object in an inertial frame of reference having uniform, linear motion will remain that way unless acted upon by a net force.

or, ''Newton's First law may also be stated as : "In an inertial frame, if a body is at rest or in uniform motion, then it will continue to do so unless it is acted upon by an external force." Please note that the first law is a "fundamental law of nature". As such, it is not derivable from other laws, e.g. by putting F=0 in 2nd Law, and hence getting a=0, one can not say that the first law can be "mathematically" derived from 2nd Law. This is because the 2nd Law is applicable ONLY in inertial frames for which the first law gives a characterization. Hence, an inertial reference frame is one in which the motion is self sustaining, that is, an object in a state of rest or uniform linear motion will remain in that state forever unless acted upon by any external agency. Once, you have identified your inertial frame, it's only then that you can sensibly talk about the second law.

Note that an object at rest is a special case in an inertial frame of an object in uniform, linear motion, that being a object with zero velocity.

The Second Law: Force and Momentum

 * The rate of change of momentum of an object is equal to the net force applied on it.

Mathematically stated, the second law reads

 * $$ \textbf{F} = \frac{d\textbf{p}}{dt} = \frac{d(m\textbf{v})}{dt}$$,

where

 * $$\textbf{F}$$ ||is (net) force
 * $$\textbf{p}$$ || is momentum
 * $$m \,$$ ||is mass
 * $$\textbf{v}$$ ||is velocity
 * $$t \,$$ ||is time
 * }
 * $$\textbf{v}$$ ||is velocity
 * $$t \,$$ ||is time
 * }
 * }

In many problems in mechanics mass is constant, in which case the law can be restated in its best known form,

 * $$ \textbf{F} = \frac{d(m\textbf{v})}{dt} = m \frac{d \textbf{v} }{dt} = m \textbf{a}$$

where $$\textbf{a}$$ is acceleration.

The Third Law: Action and Reaction

 * For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 * All forces occur in pairs equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

Suppose we have bodies A and B, Mathematically stated, the third law reads

 * $$ \textbf{F}_{AB} = -\textbf{F}_{BA} $$,

where

 * $$\textbf{F}_{AB}$$||is the force exerted by A upon B
 * $$\textbf{F}_{BA}$$||is the force exerted by B upon A
 * }
 * }

Newton's third law is also known as the Weak Law of Action and Reaction. This is to distinguish it from the Strong Law of Action and Reaction, which has the additional requirement that the forces also be central, meaning that they act upon each other along the line joining them The differences between the Weak and Strong laws are illustrated below.

The electrostatic force and the gravity are examples of forces which obey the Strong Law; in fact, most forces do. A rock resting on a table pushes down on the table due to gravity, so the table also pushes back up, and both forces are aligned. However, there exist important exceptions, such as the magnetic force.

Validity of Newton's Laws
Newton's laws are valid only under certain conditions.
 * In general, the distances with which one works must be much greater than the size of atoms and molecules. If this is untrue, then quantum mechanics must be used in place of classical mechanics.
 * In general, the speeds which one works with must be much less than the speed of light. If this untrue, then relativistic mechanics must be used in place of classical mechanics.
 * Even when the above are true, Newton's laws are only valid with respect to inertial frames of reference.

Broadly speaking, a frame of reference is a standard against which velocity and acceleration and so forth are measured. For example, the speed of a car is usually measured with respect to the surface of the Earth. An inertial frame of reference, in particular, is a frame of reference which is not accelerating (it is not orbiting, rotating, or speeding up). For example, Newton's laws do not apply if the frame of reference considered is an accelerating train; and for that matter, neither is the Earth an inertial frame of reference.

Conversely, it is possible to define an inertial frame of reference as being a frame of reference in which Newton's first and second laws apply.

title: Classical Mechanics/Newtonian Physics


text: User:Fasten/Meta-schoolbook Writer's Guide


text:
User:Chuck SMITH

I am the founder of the Esperanto Wikipedia. Please visit my user pages on the English and Esperanto Wikipedias for more information about me.

title: User:Chuck SMITH


text: The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/112/112A


text:
User talk:212.138.113.8

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 10:53, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:212.138.113.8


text:
Talk:English

Introduction to changes being made
The following books will form Wikibook's English book:

1) English in Use (previously known as "English")

2) English for Beginners (previously known as "English as an Additional Language")

3) English for B2 Students (currently under development in my userspace)

4) FCE English

5) Teaching English (previously known as "Teaching English as an Additional Language")

6) Business English

The idea of this revamp is to combine all of the present "English" books into one book with sections for each area. At present it is impossible for those wishing to learn some basic English to actually find the correct book. I also think that each book should have a more specific target audience.

Book 1) is intended for native speakers as a grammar reference. It would also be suitable for advanced learners of English (levels C1 and C2).

Book 2) is intended for elementary learners of English (non-natives). It should be targetted towards levels A1 and A2.

Book 3) is intended for intermediate students at levels B1 and B2.

Book 4) is intended for B2 level students preparing for the University of Cambridge FCE examination.

Book 5) is intended for teachers who teach English as a foreign language. This book will mainly focus on teaching practice and theory and not on specific grammar.

Book 6) is intended for business students (level B1 and B2 maybe) who need English for specific purposes like meetings and telephoning.

Explanation of Levels
These levels correspond to the European Framework for Languages.

A1 students are those who are able to say simple sentences about themselves and complete some forms requiring information.

A2 students have usually studied English for at least a year and have a passing knowledge of tenses and can produce short sentences about themselves.

B1 students are able to have conversations about simple topics but make still make frequent mistakes.

B2 students have usually studied English for at least 3-4 years. They are starting to master English grammar and their vocabulary is substantial.

C1 students are advanced and have usually studied English for more than 5 years. Often their level of English is better than native speakers and they can converse about any topic.

C2 students may still make the occasional mistake but their English is very advanced and they can listen or read any kind of material and produce writing about any topic. Generally a C2 student has a knowledge of the English language greater than that of most native speakers.

Other possibilities
It would be nice to incorporate some audio and possibly video files in the English books. This is one area where we are lacking when compared to other language text books on Wikibooks. Some tests will be needed for each book and we should work to ensure that material isn't duplicated - vocabulary pages can be repeated, for instance, for different areas.

Any other ideas
''Please list any other ideas or suggestions that you have for the redevelopment of the Wikibook's English module.

Language course on Wikibooks?
After having created several courses on Wikibooks myself, I have come to the conclusion that it is not a suitable format.

First of all, it is not possible to create interactive exercises (and hence a lot of courses completely lack exercises). Second, inclusion of multimedia content of any kind is difficult. There are also materials that could be used under an educational license (such as songs) that can't be used in Wikibooks because that would require putting them under a Creative Commons license. Third, the structure of a wiki is such that everybody occasionally contributes something and eventually loses interest. Since language-teaching books need to have a well-thought out plan and methodology and each lesson has to build on the others, a course written by random occasional contributors will be a mess. See any language-teaching Wikibook of your choice for confirmation of this fact. In order to make a good course, careful planning and a dedicated team who will stay together is absolutely necessary.

This is why I have ultimately decided to create my new language course using Wiki-like collaboration but among a small dedicated team and outside of Wikibooks. It is a free English course for anybody, particularly targetting the need for good English lessons by the underprivileged around the world. Please have a look at this project description and maybe join the effort.

Thank you!

Junesun 20:31, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * The folks involved with Wikiversity are dealing with similar challenges. It's possible to describe a plan and methodology on talk pages, to allow other editors to revise and improve the plan, and to allow yet others to pick up after contributors leave.  The lifetime of a wiki project can easily outlast the duration of an individual's contributions.  Rodasmith 21:55, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Then why doesn't it? Also, why don't plans or methodology discussions commonly exist? And why don't people actually adhere to those plans if they do exist? Three problems: lack of people, ego and incapability. There are too few people on Wikibooks who will contribute. If they do, their egos don't allow them to pick up where others left off, so they either re-arrange or re-write everything or continue in a completely different vein (see for example the Chinese course, where each lesson uses a completely different approach and is in no way related to the previous ones). Lastly, many people writing lessons here are complete amateurs who don't even take the time to read a very basic introduction to course-writing because they are so enthousiastic about proving their knowledge to everybody. Junesun 09:46, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I suspect the lack of awareness of a plan causes behavior (edits that stray from the plan) that you mistakenly interpret as ego and incapability. Rodasmith 16:32, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

 * There are some serious issues with some language books on Wikibooks but there are also some good examples. The Spanish book comes to mind although even that has room for much improvement.  The best thing about Wikibooks is that books can always be improved and no book is ever finished - it can always be expanded.  I hope some of these comments aren't in reference to my changes to the English book.  I am not responsible for much of this book but I want to make it easier for people to use and easier for people to make better (even editors would have had trouble finding all the relevent parts).  The book that I'm mainly working on is English for B2 students which has barely been started.  It's roughly based on popular printed course books like English File and Language to Go (short and snappy lessons with a range of skills practiced).  My hope is to design a book with a proper target audience (B2 students), a range of media (reading texts, listening scripts, pronunciation practice and practice exercises), tests and stimulating graphics.  The problems with obtaining songs, reading texts, etc. are a big problem though so any help with finding free sources would be appreciated. Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]]talk 20:21, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I didn't mean either of you with my comments. You two obviously take great care in preparing lessons. The problem is more the general Wikibooks crowd, who learned something for a couple years in High School and now believe they can write lessons for it. Even an atom scientist might not be able to write a good physics course because it takes much more than simple knowledge of the subject, such as a talent for explaining things, an understanding of didactics and knowledge of the underlying principles of any course, especially that lessons need to build one on the other like a house that you can't start building from the roof, and you can't teach or assume things for which there is no fundament yet. I am keenly feeling the lack of this very understanding in most of the courses. Not to mention that some people just aren't able to spot an advanced grammar part when they use it, e. g. writing "The weather is very nice here. The sun is shining and the sky is clear. If it hadn't rained last night, we would be able to have a picknick" in an early lesson on the weather. There are also issues of having no goal, overwhelming learners, confusing a grammar or a phrase book for a course, and so on.
 * I wouldn't say it's good that Wikibooks are never finished. This means that there will never be a point at which a student can study a Wikibook and be confident that he will reach the pronounced goal. Commercial courses are much more reliable even if just for the fact that companies review their materials and may be facing a lot of refund requests and a loss of reputation if their books don't keep what they promise.
 * Junesun 16:36, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

PDF Version
Can somebody please create a PDF version of this article
 * I intend to create one eventually but unfortunately I don't think any of the present content is 'finished'. Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]]talk 19:49, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

Exercises
I have just greatly improved the section on exercises in Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks and also added a few more thoughts on lesson planning and the learning curve. I believe you may find this useful when deciding on which exercises to offer in the English lessons, if only for the fact that I listed many different kinds of exercises and what their particularly advantage is. Only having the same kind of exercise all the time becomes boring, yet you must also ensure that there are always enough exercises and that they do the job of re-inforcing everything that was taught. It's hard to think of all the possibilities when you don't have a list of options, so I created one. Hope this helps. Junesun 17:01, 23 May 2007 (UTC)

La Lingua Franca -> The International Language
Thank you to whoever reverted the change of the subtitle from 'The Lingua Franca' back to 'The International Language'. I don't like the use of the phrase lingua franca because it suggests that this language is more perfect or better than others and as a learner of other languages I know that's not the case. Additionally the use of an Italian phrase which tries to suggest that it is the most important language seems a bit ironic.--ЗAНИA talk 22:12, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Splitting again
I have split again the bundle of books under the prefix "English/" into their component books and pages. The book titles should not carry the name of their larger topic. To find out about various books on the topic, the user can use a category--Category:English language, a bookshelf--Languages bookshelf, or this page as a kind of disambiguation page--English. Merging material from several books into one book takes more than prefixing all the pages of the books with "English/". Now that the books are separated, they can again be managed, overviewed, and expanded individually, based on their individual style of the organization of their content, their focus, their choice of pictures, and their completeness. --Dan Polansky (talk) 12:44, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Excellent! I totally agree. Joining these books into one wasn't a very good idea and - worse - the task was never really finished. Thanks for taking the burden to split the books again! --Martin Kraus (talk) 12:01, 9 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Well screw you all then. Honestly.  Just undo all the work previously done, reproduce it, extend it but for what exactly?--ЗAНИA [[Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg|15px]]talk 22:27, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

 * I am not sure that I understand your question. I am not sure what to answer to this, other than what I have written in the first paragraph under this heading. Books in Wikibooks should not be prefixed by their subject. When there are several wikibooks on English, they should not be prefixed by "English/". Instead, they should carry their own titles in their names, as they currently do:
 * English for B2 Students
 * English Grammar 2
 * IFTC Jump into English Textbook - Teacher's Manual
 * etc., from Subject:English language
 * That is, their names should not be:
 * English/English for B2 Students
 * English/English Grammar 2
 * English/IFTC Jump into English Textbook - Teacher's Manual
 * It should be clear to a casual reader how many wikibooks there are. No one should end up under the wrong impression that there is one book on English, when in fact there are several. --Dan Polansky (talk) 08:28, 27 April 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:English


text:
User talk:172.206.219.218

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 11:59, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:172.206.219.218


text:
User:Gardnervh/monobook.js

document.write(' ');

title: User:Gardnervh/monobook.js


text:
Talk:A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Elements from the Sea

Extraction of metals
Metals are vital to our everyday life. There are 4 main processes involved with extracting metals:

Mining

The metal must first be mined. This is often done on a huge scale. The world's largest mine (Kennecott Copper Mine) is located in Salt Lake City, Utah, and provides over 15% of the US's copper needs.

Concentration

The rock is first ground to a powder. Next, it undergoes a process known as froth floatation:

 * First, the powder is covered in a chemical called a collector, which binds only to the mineral grains - the useful part. This makes them water-repellent.
 * Next, Air and detergent is blown in, creating a froth. Rememeber that the mineral is covered in a water repelling chemical which means it becomes concentrated in the froth and can easily be removed.
 * Finally, these mineral grains go to the smelter which is the next step. The unwanted slurry goes to the tailings pond and hopefully, disposed of with consideration to the enviroment.

Smelting

In flash smelting, the previously concentrated minerals are passed down a reaction shaft, with a potent mixture of silica and oxygen-enriched air. A highly exothermic reaction takes place.

Sulphur dioxide is produced which is toxic and reacts with water in clouds to form acid rain. This is converted to sulphuric acid to reduce the amount of SO2 that is emitted.

Electrolytic refining (electrolysis)


text:
Automobile Repair/Jeep/Jeep Wrangler

History The YJ Wrangler gave way to the TJ for the 1997 model year (note that there was no 1996 model year; the 1997 TJ was released in Spring 1996). Some updated features include: Coil-spring suspension (based on that of the Jeep Grand Cherokee) providing better ride and handling, and a return to the CJ's iconic round headlamps. The engine is the same 4.0L AMC Straight-6 used in the Cherokee and Grand Cherokee. A 2.5L AMC 150 Inline-4 motor was available on entry-level models until 2003 when the 2.4L DOHC Neon 4-cylinder engine replaced it. This model of the Jeep was the first Wrangler to have airbags. The TJ's coil-springs were questioned upon its introduction.

Other changes included; 1999: Additions of a (larger, standard) 19 gallon fuel tank, and rotary climate controls (replacing sliding levers). 2000: Child seat tethers added to the rear seat, and the 6-cylinder engine earned modifications aimed at smoother operation. The Sport's standard AM/FM radio added a cassette player, and the Sahara exchanged a cassette player for a CD player. The optional tilt steering wheel in SE and Sport was now the same leather-covered unit that was standard in Sahara. 2001: Got standard intermittent windshield wipers, a revised center console, an optional subwoofer, and a plastic instead of metal Add-a-Trunk storage compartment. 2002: The new X model joined the lineup for 2004. Sport, Rubicon, and X also get a standard CD player this year. 2003: The AMC 2.5 engine is replaced with a dual-overhead-cam 2.4 liter shared with Jeep's Liberty SUV. This new engine makes 147 hp. The 6-cylinder is unchanged, but optional on both engines is a new 4-speed automatic transmission. Also redesigned front seats, LATCH-type rear child-seat anchors, and an available rearview mirror with temperature and compass display. 2004: Tilt steering wheel became standard on the Wrangler. 2005: The availability of a 6-speed manual transmission.

title: Automobile Repair/Jeep/Jeep Wrangler


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/The Steel Story

The Steel Story is the ninth unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * SS1 What is steel?
 * SS2 How is steel made?
 * SS3 Rusting
 * SS4 Recycling steel
 * SS5 A closer look at the elements in steel
 * SS6 Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 2.4 Electronic structure: sub-shells and orbitals (revision)
 * 6.1 Light and electrons (revision)
 * 6.7 Where does colour come from?
 * 9.1 Oxidation and reduction (revision)
 * 9.2 Redox reactions and electrode potentials
 * 9.3 Predicting the direction of redox reactions
 * 11.5 The d block: characteristics of transition elements
 * 10.5 How do catalysts work? (revision)
 * 11.6 The d block: complex formation

Activities

 * SS1.1 How much manganese is there in a paper clip?
 * SS1.2 A redox titration
 * SS2.1 Why is blast furnace iron so impure?
 * SS2.2 What changes occur during steelmaking?
 * SS2.3 Getting the ‘heat balance’ right (Optional extension)
 * SS2.4 How much aluminium do we need to add? (Optional extension)
 * SS2.5 Which is the right steel for the job? (Optional extension)
 * SS3.1 A simple redox reaction
 * SS3.2 Simple electrochemical cells
 * SS3.3 More electrochemical cells
 * SS3.4 How does steel rust?
 * SS3.5 Understanding redox reactions
 * SS5.1 Investigating the oxidation states of vanadium
 * SS5.2 How do transition metal ions act as catalysts?
 * SS5.3 Looking at some transition metal complexes
 * SS6 Check your notes on The Steel Story


text:
User talk:75.167.38.214

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 16:42, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:75.167.38.214


text:
User talk:68.145.124.36

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 17:29, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.145.124.36


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/S.P.E.W.

Overview
S.P.E.W., or the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare, was founded by Hermione Granger during her fourth year at Hogwarts to promote liberation and rights for House Elves, an enslaved caste who appear happy. Hermione believes all Elves should be freed and instead receive wages, pensions, sick leave, and other benefits that a normal worker earns. Ron and Harry are reluctantly recruited into helping promote her cause.

Event Details
The groundwork for this organization is laid in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, when Hermione is at the Quidditch World Cup. There, she meets Winky, a House-elf who, despite her fear of heights, has been sent to the Top Box to hold a seat there for her Master, Bartemius Crouch. Winky is plainly terrified at being so high in the air, and Hermione is scandalized, first that she could be so casually forced to do something that is so against her wishes, and second, that having demanded this service from Winky, Mr. Crouch doesn't even appear in the Top Box during the game to make use of the service he has demanded of her. She is further dismayed when Mr. Crouch dismisses Winky for the apparently trivial error of having the wand that had cast the Dark Mark into the sky.

At the Arrival Feast at Hogwarts, Nearly Headless Nick mentions that there had nearly been no feast at all. Upset at not being invited to the feast, Peeves had been wreaking destruction in the kitchens and had badly upset the House Elves. Hermione is upset at the news that the dinner had been prepared by "slave labour", and refuses to eat any more of it, despite being tempted by Ron.

The following day, Hermione eats breakfast hurriedly, saying that there are better ways to fight this than simply abstaining from eating, and departs for the library. Over the next few days, she spends a lot of time in the library, eventually returning with a stack of pamphlets, buttons, and a donations box. She explains the Society for the Promotion of Elfish Welfare to a bemused Ron and Harry, saying that when they two join, the society will have three members. Ron protests that the House-Elves are happy as they are, but eventually joins.

Over the next while, we are told that Hermione is often to be seen shaking her donations box under people's noses in the Common Room, without much apparent success. At one point, she takes her donations box and tries to convince Hagrid to join. He listens to her sales pitch, but gently declines, saying that things are more complex than Hermione, who is yet young, understands, and that the elves are happier as they are.

At one point, Harry and Ron become estranged, and Hermione asks Harry to go to Hogsmeade with her on a Hogsmeade weekend. Harry, after directly asking if she is hoping to end his and Ron's estrangement, agrees to go but only under his Invisibility Cloak. Sitting in the Three Broomsticks apparently by herself, Hermione says she feels foolish, but luckily she has brought some S.P.E.W. business along with her that she can spread out over the table.

Later in the same book, Hermione innocently asks Fred and George where they had got a supply of pastries that they had brought up to a Gryffindor party. Fred starts to tell her where the kitchen is, but then stops, asking her if she is trying to start a House-Elf rebellion. Picking up on this, Ron starts referring to S.P.E.W. as the "House-Elf Liberation Front." Apparently, what Fred has revealed is enough, because shortly after this, Hermione leads Harry and Ron to the kitchens, where they find that the Hogwarts House-Elves now include both Dobby and Winky. Dobby explains that as a Free Elf, he now looks for payment, and this has made it extremely difficult for him to find work, but that Professor Dumbledore has hired both him and Winky. Harry can't help but notice that the other House Elves look disconcerted, and seem to keep their distance from Dobby and Winky. As they leave the kitchens, Hermione says that seeing how happy Dobby is can only have a good effect on the other House Elves, when they see how well Dobby has taken to being free. Harry privately thinks that the counter-example provided by the equally free, listless, drunken, wailing Winky is likely more powerful.

During Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione tries to set Hogwarts' elves free by hiding hats and socks under crumpled parchment and the like, to force the elves to take the clothes and free themselves. However, this backfires when all the Hogwarts elves (save Dobby, who is already free) refuse to clean the Gryffindor Tower because "they finds them insulting, sir," as Dobby says to Harry. While Hermione's efforts here are clearly related to the reasons for S.P.E.W.'s existence, whether this is done under the auspices of S.P.E.W. is not explicitly stated.

Although we can safely guess that S.P.E.W. and the rights of House-Elves remain in Hermione's thoughts, the organization itself is not mentioned in later books.

Notable Consequences
It is only because of her efforts to free the house elves from what she sees as slavery that Hermione becomes interested in the Hogwarts kitchens. It is because she reaches the kitchens that we discover that both Dobby and Winky are now at Hogwarts. Winky will give us some clues to the nature of the hidden danger at Hogwarts, while Dobby will later provide Harry with information that he will need for the Second Task and, in a later book, for the establishment of Dumbledore's Army.

Hermione's championing the rights of all magical creatures will, according to the author, form a significant part of her career after she leaves Hogwarts.

Analysis
It is surprisingly muddy thinking on Hermione's part to think that the elf hats she hides around the Gryffindor common room will have any effect. We have learned that a House-Elf can be freed if given clothes by his or her master, but Hermione is not their master, and so accepting clothes from her will not free the elves. Hermione should have been able to predict that the elves would not be freed by her gift. Their reaction, finding the hats insulting, is unsurprising, though not for this reason; the reaction of the elves in the kitchen during the conversation about Dobby's and Winky's freedom is very much more telling. The House Elves seem to actually fear freedom, and with good reason, as neither Dobby nor Winky was able to find work as a Free Elf, and as they are not maltreated at Hogwarts, none of the House Elves there sees freedom as being worth the loss of security. Hermione would have been able to see this, were she not blinded by her own certainty.

The reaction of the House-elves to the idea of freedom appears to depend on the conditions of their servitude. While Dobby clearly welcomes his freedom, this is almost certainly due to his earlier home life, suffering torture at the hands of the Malfoy family. Winky, on the other hand, vastly preferred her life as a slave in the Crouch household to the uncertainty of life as a free Elf. It is safe to assume that Winky's situation was more comfortable than Dobby's, despite the events at the Quidditch World Cup. We can safely assume that with Dumbledore at its head, Hogwarts is a secure and just place for House-elves to work, which would explain the general satisfaction of the kitchen staff with their indentured positions. More analysis of this may be found in the article on house elves.

Hermione championing rights for House-elves (that they actually do not want) formally begins in Chapter 14 of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. Although S.P.E.W. becomes a smaller subplot in later books, Hermione continues to believe, quite correctly, that House-elves are a slave caste and should be freed. However, Hermione does not yet realize that freedom comes with a price, and it must be carefully orchestrated if elves are to survive and thrive without discrimination or retribution within the wizarding world. Simply turning loose what most wizards consider to be inferior beings (even more so than other non-human magical folk) would create great hardship, just as it did for Dobby and Winky, who were unable to find work until Dumbledore offered them paid employment at Hogwarts. Few wizards would be as generous as he, knowing that a free elf has the option to leave at any time if he or she feels maltreated; possibly, in fact, it would only be a place with as large an elf population as Hogwarts that would not be incapacitated by the sudden departure of a House Elf. It would take a huge effort to realign the general wizarding population's thinking to accept House-elves as free agents. Hermione would do well to study how emancipated Muggle slaves fared following the American Civil War in the mid-1860s. Although former slaves were now free U.S. citizens, they struggled against severe discrimination, hatred, violence, and poverty while attempting to assimilate into a white-dominated, patriarchal society, all while lacking (and being denied) adequate education, jobs, and other opportunities needed to fend for themselves. As in the Wizard world, it was more than one race that was discriminated against: Irish, Asians, Italians, and Gypsies, among others, were routinely denied equal opportunities based solely on their ethnicity. However, much like some non-human magical folk in Wizarding society (goblins and centaurs, for instance), these particular ethnic groups were never enslaved and they had functioned within their own countries as free citizens and with at least some education. Also, immigrants were often able to establish their own small, protective communities while gradually integrating themselves into American culture, whereas freed slaves created a sudden and rather chaotic influx into a new social order in which there was little management or oversight and which often resulted in abuse and exploitation. Over a century later, these struggles still exist to some extent and are likely similar to what House-elves would experience.

Hagrid's refusal to join S.P.E.W. is interesting for two reasons. First, Hagrid shows that many wizards do not believe House-elves are mistreated and generally are happy with their lot in life; as we see in the Hogwarts kitchens, this is the case, at least at Hogwarts, if not in the Malfoy family. And secondly, Hagrid says that it is in House-elves nature to serve wizards. This could imply that House-elves may have freely entered into servitude, but at some point in history, wizards may have gained an advantage that allowed them to turn elves into slaves. This may have been achieved through selective breeding and magical mind manipulation. House-elves seem genuinely happiest when they have masters to serve, which apparently confirms what Hagrid is saying here. It is debatable then as to how well House-elves could, or would, adapt to sudden and unexpected new-found freedom.

Visiting the kitchen provides Hermione a reality check when she witnesses first-hand just how truly satisfied House-elves are with their indentured lives, at least those at Hogwarts. They are quite literally "happy slaves" who believe their only purpose in life is to freely serve wizards, and they are unwilling to change. The only exceptions are Dobby and Winky, who the other House-elves disdain for being paid workers. While Dobby is proud to be a free agent, Winky is ashamed; as a result, she has become a sad, pathetic alcoholic, still pining for her former master, Mr. Crouch, who cruelly and unjustly fired her. And though Dobby and Winky are no longer slaves, their freedom created great hardship, as there are few opportunities available for masterless House-elves. Dobby, by his own report, spent a year-and-a-half seeking work; and while Dobby is resourceful and adaptable, Winky likely would never have sought other employment, and, without Dobby's help, probably would have suffered a miserable demise. Only Dumbledore's kindness has saved them both.

The later name "House-Elf Liberation Front" may be a nod by the author to the famous "People's Front of Judaea" by fellow-Britons Monty Python.

Greater Picture
We will never know whether Ron's sudden interest in the welfare of the House Elves in the kitchens in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is real or calculated. Hermione's concern about the House Elves is quite clear to everyone by this point, and presumably Ron could have been simply playing on that concern when he suggests warning the Elves about the upcoming battle, but if so, it was rather an odd time to be expressing that concern. We, like Hermione, believe that this is an expression of something that Ron is concerned about, and it does seem to win Hermione's heart.

In a post-publication interview, the author has stated that between the Last Battle and the Epilogue "Nineteen Years Later" in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Hermione starts her dream to help all house-elves by working at the Ministry Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures, where she begins to correct the culture with its shades of wizard superiority over, and in-built prejudice against, non-Human magical creatures.


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/What's in a Medicine?

What's in a Medicine? is the sixth unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * WM1 The development of modern ideas about medicines
 * WM2 Medicines from nature
 * WM3 Identifying the active chemical from willow bark
 * WM4 Instrumental analysis
 * WM5 The synthesis of salicylic acid and aspirin
 * WM6 Delivering the product
 * WM7 The miraculous medicine
 * WM8 Development and safety testing of medicines
 * WM9 Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 2.1 A simple model of the atom (revision)
 * 3.5 Geometric isomerism (revision)
 * 6.4 Infrared spectroscopy
 * 6.5 Mass spectrometry
 * 13.2 Alcohols and ethers (revision)
 * 13.3 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives
 * 13.4 The –OH group in alcohols, phenols and acids
 * 13.5 (part b) Esters

Activities

 * WM1 The origins and development of the modern pharmaceutical industry
 * WM2 Extraction of salicylic acid
 * WM3 Investigating the chemistry of the –OH group in various environments
 * WM4 Interpretation of the mass spectrum of salicylic acid
 * WM5.1 A preparation of aspirin
 * WM5.2 Using spectroscopy
 * WM6 An aspirin assay
 * WM8 Which product should a pharmaceutical company develop?
 * WM9 Check your notes on What’s in a Medicine?


text:
English for B2 Students/Unit 10

= You mustn't smoke in here =

Aim of this lesson: Introduce and practice modals of deduction and use some language related to hotels and other accommodation.

Sally is a tourist and she's visiting Dublin for a few days. She has just arrived at the Victoria Hotel.

Dialogue
([[Media:B2 unit10.ogg|listen]])

Grammar Focus - Modals of Obligation

Modals of obligation are used to talk about permission and prohibition.

Speaking about Rules
Work with a partner if possible to answer these questions.
 * 1) Does your workplace or school have many rules? What mustn't you do?
 * 2) Can you think of any rules in your local café or shop? What things must or mustn't you do?
 * 3) In some countries like Australia you have to vote in elections.  Do you think this is a good idea?

Exercises
Try these questions to see if you can use modal verbs correctly. The answers can be found here.

Complete the following sentences using the correct modal verb:

 * 1) I'm very sorry but you mustn't / don't have to smoke here.
 * 2) Sir, you have to / must leave your passport at the reception.
 * 3) My doctor says that I shouldn't / should smoke.
 * 4) The bus was cancelled so we had to / must take a taxi.
 * 5) I mustn't / don't have to go to work on Saturday because the office is closed.

Grammar Reference
For further information about the use of modals of obligation see Modal Verb on Wikipedia.

title: English for B2 Students/Unit 10


text:
Template:English for B2 Students/Lessons

 English for B2 students • Aims • Unit 1 • Unit 2 • Unit 3 • Unit 4 • Unit 5 • Unit 6 • Test 1 • Unit 7 • Unit 8 • Unit 9 • Unit 10 • Unit 11 • Unit 12 • Test 2


text:
AP Biology/Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the naming system by which all organisms are classified. As there are millions of species on earth, this naming system allows scientists to give each species a unique name. Binomial nomenclature, or naming using two names, was developed by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735. This consists of the genus followed by the species (Homo sapiens is human, for example).

Classification
Complete classification of an organism involves seven names, proceeding in this order:
 * Kingdom
 * Phylum
 * Class
 * Order
 * Family
 * Genus
 * Species

Kingdoms
There are five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. All organisms are classified into one of these five kingdoms, except for viruses.

Monera
Monera consists of organisms composed of prokaryotic cells. This kingdom contains only two phyla:
 * ''Schizopyta" - bacteria(Archaebacteria and Eubacteria)
 * Cyanophyta - blue-green algae

Protista
Protista consists of the eukaryotic cellular organisms that cannot be classified into any of the other eukaryotic kingdoms. There are animal-like protists (Protazoa), plant-like protists (Algae), and fungi-like protists.

Fungi
Fungi consists of multicellular eukaryotes that absorb their energy and reproduce asexually through spores. There are two phyla in the Fungi kingdom: Myxomycophyta (slime molds) and Eumycophyta (true fungi: molds, yeast, mushrooms, etc.).

Plantae
Plantae consists of multicellular plants. Major phyla of this kingdom are:
 * Chlorophyta - green algae
 * Bryophyta - mosses, liverworts, hornworts
 * Pterophyta - ferns
 * Coniferophyta - conifers
 * Anthophyta - flowering plants

Animalia
Animalia consists of multicellular animals. Major phyla of this kingdom are:

 * Porifera - sponges
 * Chordata - vertebrates
 * Cnidaria
 * Platyhelminthes
 * Nematoda
 * Annelida
 * Mollusca
 * Arthropoda
 * Echinodermata

title: AP Biology/Taxonomy


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User talk:Puellamala

Catullus
Hello there Catherine! Yes I welcome any help at all, as you can see its a lot of work for one person! A latin teacher? Well thats great, I'm just a student myself so it would be good to have some authority on the subject here.

If you familiarise yourself with what I'm aiming for by looking at two model examples:

 * Poem 51
 * Poem 7

Also have a look at various codes and formats that I'm using, be sure to read my User page to find out what needs doing, and to read the Instructions at the beginning of the Textbook. I assume as you are "wiki-mad" that you are familiar with the more basic types of formatting?

And also, how did you find this? As far as I know this is not on any bookshelf so were you searching specifically?

And I hope to see you contributing sometime soon! :D Btw, do you use MSN? If so, we can talk there. Thanks again for taking an interest. Alakazam38 19:01, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Some Instructions
Sorry, I misinterpreted wiki-stupid, as being obsessed with wiki, so I assumed you knew most format. Here are some basic ones for you:

text = text

text = text

text = text

*text =

 * text

If you click on edit page ^^ up there, you can observe the code of a page and work out how to show something that you can see the page has:

Here are some more advanced ones for you:

enclosing a page title in two pairs of square brackets creates a link

User:Alakazam38 = User:Alakazam38

Placing a straight line after this and writing something else changes what the link appears as:

Click here = Click here

=

=

=

Model Examples:

Here is a model example of a page.

As is the way we format obscene poems here.

I hope all this is useful. Obviously you won't have to use the more advanced ones very much, but the Linking is a good one to learn.

The different amounts of dashes ['] are helpful though, as you can emphasise different text.

One more thing

If you'd like the numbers of lines in Catullus poems that haven't been written up yet, I've got his full works in books. So feel free to ask, and I'll get back quickly.

Might I ask your current country of residence? Then I'll know roughly when you might be online. I'm in England. :D

Oh, and if you want to sign your name on my talk page after a comment its four tildes ~ which makes this! Hope to see you much more active in the summer. :D Alakazam38 16:02, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

Claim your Credit! :D

 * Write a bit about yourself in the authors section! :D Alakazam38 19:10, 14 May 2007 (UTC)

New Team Member!
 Al ak  az  am  |  Talk  11:41, 19 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I'd like to inform you that User:Medellia has just joined this project. He is a Latin language specialist, as well as learning at least 5 other languages. His main work will be on "WikTionarying" vocab.

Sorry for the delay
Hey Catherine, good to see you back.

Of course you may start on 36 and 40, since I haven't studied them myself in such great detail - I assume you are a uni prof/lecturer? I can see that the notes already made are of very high standard - I'll just go and tidy up here and there. Keep up the good work! Any help you can enrol from your students would be a fantastic addition. :D

I'm in Kent, about 30 miles away from London.

A couple of points:

All these questions will make for a better and critically analytical study of Catullus' work.
 * Try not to include too many links to Wikipedia - on WikiBook's own policy it does reccommend that the books should contain all relevant detail. This stops distractions for the reader. Instead, try to explain within that sentence, or if it is assumed to be knowledge to the audience leave it as normal text.
 * You don't need to capitalise vocabulary - and as for the wikitionary links - not all of them have that exact word, so I'll go through and ammend those.
 * Try to give a little more detail when commenting on the value of lines - what effect does this add to the poem? how does it fit in with other Catullan themes? what is Catullus trying to get us, the reader to feel?

Other than that, it's great.

 Al ak  az  am  |  Talk  19:52, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Puellamala


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Equilibrium constants

Mathematical definition of an equilibrium constant
For a reversible reaction,

$$ a\mbox{A} + b\mbox{B} \rightleftharpoons c\mbox{C} + d\mbox{D} \,\!$$

the equilibrium constant K is defined as

$$ K = \frac{ [\mbox{C}]^c [\mbox{D}]^d }{ [\mbox{A}]^a [\mbox{B}]^b } $$

where [X] denotes the concentration of chemical species X.

For example, for the Haber process reaction,

$$ \mbox{N}_2(\mbox{g}) + 3\mbox{H}_2(\mbox{g}) \rightleftharpoons 2\mbox{NH}_3 (\mbox{g}) \,\!$$

the equilibrium constant can be calculated by

$$ K = \frac{ [\mbox{NH}_3 (\mbox{g})]^2 }{ [\mbox{N}_2(\mbox{g})] [\mbox{H}_2(\mbox{g})]^3 } $$


text:
Finite Model Theory

Finite Model Theory (FMT) is a subarea of Model Theory (MT). MT is the branch of mathematical logic which deals with the relation between a formal language (syntax) and its interpretations (semantics). FMT is a restriction of MT to finite structures, such as finite graphs or strings. Since many central theorems of MT do not hold when restricted to finite structures, FMT is quite different from MT in methods and application areas. FMT has become an "unusually effective" instrument in computer science, for example in database theory, model checking or for gaining new perspectives on computational complexity.

The three main areas of FMT are presented here: Expressive Power of Languages, Descriptive Complexity, and Random Structures. But first the results fundamental for all areas are introduced on the level of first order languages.

Basics
Why? (Motivation)

What is it? (Definition and Background)

Why is it special? (... compared to 'common' Model Theory)

What is it about? (Typical Logics and Structures studied)

What is required? (Preliminaries)

What to start with? (Basic Concepts)

Ehrenfeucht-Fraisse-Games for FO
The Problem (Expressibility of Properties)

The Idea I (Fraisse's Theorem)

The Idea II (Ehrenfeucht's Games)

The Tool (Ehrenfeucht-Fraisse-Method)

Some Utilities (Localities)

Some Solutions (for some Structures)

Complexity?

Expressive Power of Languages
Typical problem: Given a finite graph, can the property of being an acyclic be expressed in a first order language?

title: Finite Model Theory


text:
User talk:145.53.90.124

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 19:27, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:145.53.90.124


text:
User talk:Mugaba Kwame Kelsire

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks. Unfortunately I have blocked your account from editing for a period of one week because of a series of messages you sent to user talk pages on this project. Wikibooks should not be used for these purposes. After the block has finished you may return and contribute to the Wikibooks project but further messages like today will result in a longer block.

Xania talk 19:37, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mugaba Kwame Kelsire


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User talk:West Brom 4ever~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. West Brom 4ever 19:39, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Thanks for welcome :)
- :) --Millosh 18:26, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called West Brom 4ever. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name West Brom 4ever~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:West Brom 4ever~enwikibooks


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A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Designer Polymers

Designer Polymers is the seventh unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * DP1 Designer polymers
 * DP2 The invention of nylon
 * DP3 Polyesters: from clothes to bottles
 * DP4 Kevlar
 * DP5 Taking temperature into account
 * DP6 Poly(ethene) by design
 * DP7 Throwing it away... or not?
 * DP8 Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 5.4 Forces between molecules: hydrogen bonding (revision)
 * 5.5 The structure and properties of polymers
 * 13.3 Carboxylic acids and their derivatives (revision)
 * 13.4a,b The –OH group in alcohols, phenols and acids (revision)
 * 13.5 Esters (part revision)
 * 13.8 Amines and amides

Activities

 * DP2.1 Making nylon
 * DP2.2 Taking nylon apart
 * DP4 Comparing models of nylon–6,6 and Kevlar
 * DP5 Bubble gum - or bubble glass?
 * DP8 Check your notes on Designer Polymers


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User talk:TheDoctor~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Xania talk 19:50, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called TheDoctor. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name TheDoctor~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:47, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:35, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:TheDoctor~enwikibooks


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User talk:72.154.202.66

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 19:55, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.154.202.66


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The Poetry of Gaius Valerius Catullus/Bibliography

Internet References

 * Rudy Negenborn's Site - With Alternate Translations of Catullus In 35 Different Languages.
 * Vroma.Org - More Interpretations of Catullus.
 * Johnston, W.M. Jr, "Cornelius Nepos' Place in the LiteraryMovements of the First Century B.C."

Written References

 * Balme, Maurice and Morwood, James, Oxford Latin Reader (1997)
 * Bender, Henry and Forsyth, Phyllis, Catullus Advanced Placement Edition Student Text (2000)
 * Fordyce, C.J. Catullus: a commentary (Oxford 1961)
 * Merrill, E.T. Catullus (Boston 1893). Available online here
 * Quinn, Kenneth, Catullus: the poems (1970) ''
 * Rauk, J. "Time and History in Catullus 1", in CW 90 (1997) pp 319-332.
 * Smith, W. and Lockwood, J. Latin to English Dictionary (Chambers-Murray, 2007)


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Wikibooks talk:Business bookshelf

Handbook of Management Scales
You may want to add the book here. 78.53.41.251 (talk) 12:05, 24 January 2010 (UTC)

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English for B2 Students/Unit 5

= I'm going to Athens in the summer =

Aim of this lesson: Learn the various ways to talk about the future in English.

Chloe and Michael are students at university in Manchester. They're talking about their plans for the weekend and the summer.

Dialogue
([[Media:B2 unit5.ogg|listen]])

Grammar Focus - Future Forms
There are many ways to talk about the future in English.

 * Generally going to and present continuous are interchangeable but if you use present continuous you must say when the event is happening.
 * Present simple is not commonly used in English to talk about the future except in cases like school subjects, cinema times, and train and bus times.
 * In spoken English the phrase 'going to' is normally contracted and pronounced as 'gonna'.

Speaking about the future
''Work with a partner, if you can, and ask/answer these questions. If you're on your own you should think about these questions and write your answers instead.''

 * What are you doing at the weekend?
 * If the weather's hot tomorrow, what will you do?
 * Who do you think will win the next World Cup?
 * Are you going on holiday this summer?
 * If a friend needs money, will you lend them some?

Exercises
Try these questions to see if you can use future forms correctly. The answers can be found here.

Complete the following sentences using the correct future form:

 * 1) I've just been to the travel agents, on Saturday I'll go / I'm going to London.
 * 2) According to the timetable, the next bus will arrive / arrives at 10:05.
 * 3) I think that Manchester United will win / are going to win the match.
 * 4) It's getting very cold.  Will you / Are you going to close the window?
 * 5) On Sunday I will visit / am going to visit my grandmother.

Grammar Reference
For further information about future forms see ../Tenses and Forms/.

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First Aid/Head-to-toe

The purpose of a secondary assessment (composed of a head-to-toe, history and vitals) is to continually monitor the victim’s condition and find any non-life-threatening conditions requiring treatment. A secondary assessment should be done for any victim requiring ambulance intervention, or if there is a concern that the victim’s condition may deteriorate. In some cases, you may want to do a shortened secondary survey - use your best judgment.

Who is this for?
The Head-to-toe assessment is a technique used by lay rescuers, first responders, and ambulance personnel to identify an injury or illness or determine the extent of an injury or illness.

It is used on victims who meet the following criteria:
 * Victim of trauma injuries (except minor injuries affecting peripheral areas, such as a skinned knee or paper cut)
 * Unconscious victims
 * Victims with very reduced level of consciousness

If a victim is found unconscious, and no history is available, you should initially assume that the unconsciousness is caused by trauma, and where possible immobilize the spine, until you can establish an alternative cause.

The secondary assessment should be performed on all the victims meeting the criteria (especially trauma) regardless of gender of rescuer or victim. However, you should be sensitive to gender issues here (as with all aspects of first aid), and if performing a full body check on a member of the opposite sex, it is advisable to ensure there is an observer present, for your own protection. In an emergency however, victim care always takes priority.

Priority of ABCs
The head-to-toe should be completed after the primary survey, so you are already confident in the victim having a patent airway, and satisfactory breathing and circulation.

You should always make ABCs a priority when dealing with victims who are appropriate for a secondary survey. In the case of trauma victims, where the victim is conscious and able to talk, keep talking to them throughout. This not only acts to reassure them and inform them what you're doing, but will assure you that they have a patent airway and are breathing.

For unconscious victims, if you are on your own, check the ABCs between checking every body area, or if you are with another competent person, make sure they check ABCs continuously whilst you perform the survey.

Remember that if the person is unconscious and if you know or suspect it to be a trauma injury (evidence of blood, fall etc.) then you MUST treat it as a potential spinal injury in the first instance. This is because in trauma, any blow to the head sufficient to cause unconsciousness is also sufficient to cause spinal injury. In this case immobilization of the head, neck and spine takes priority over the secondary survey. If you have a second rescuer or bystander, then have them immobilize while you perform the head-to-toe.

Send someone to call 911 or the designated emergency number and obtain an AED and first aid kit.

 * Ensure that the person is face-up on a firm, flat surfaces such as the floor or ground.
 * Begin CPR (starting with compressions) or use an AED if one is immediately available if you are trained in giving CPR and using an AED.
 * Continue administering CPR until the person exhibits signs of life, such as breathing, an AED becomes available, or EMS or trained medical responders arrive on the scene.

Note: End CPR if the scene becomes unsafe or you cannot continue due to exhaustion.

What is being looked for?
The head-to-toe is a detailed examination where you should look for abnormality. This can take the form of asymmetry; deformity; bruising; point tenderness (wincing or guarding - don't necessarily expect them to tell you); minor bleeding; and medic alert bracelets, anklets, or necklaces.

It is important to remember that some people naturally have unusual body conformation, so be sensitive about this, but don't be afraid to ask the conscious victim or relatives if this is normal for them. It is always worth looking for symmetry - if it is the same both sides, the chances are, it's normal.

The six areas
Divide the body into 6 areas; after you examine each area, you reassess ABCs.
 * Head and neck - The head and neck are important areas to assess, and you should take time and care to look for any potential problems.
 * Head - Using both hands (with gloves on), gently run your hands across the skull, pressing in gently but firmly, starting at the forehead and working around to the back of the head. Feel for indentations, look for blood or fluid and watch the victim for signs of discomfort.  If it is a trauma injury, check both ears and nose for signs of blood or CSF (cerebral spinal fluid).
 * Neck - The neck is an important area. Start at the sides of the neck and gently press in.  Watch carefully for signs of pain.  Move around until you reach the spine, moving as far down the neck as possible without moving them, if they are on their back.  If there is pain, tenderness or deformity here, then you should stop the survey and immediately immobilize the neck, placing one hand on each side of the head, with the thumb around the ear.  This is most comfortable done from 'above' with the victim lying supine on their back, although you should support the victim in the position you find them.  If there is room, you can also lie on your front, with your elbows on the floor to support the head.  If there are two people, one should immobilize the head, whilst the other continues the survey.  If there is only one person, immobilize the head and wait for help.
 * Shoulders, chest and back - This area of the body contains many of the vital organs, such as the heart and lungs, so it is important to look for damage which could indicate internal injury.
 * Shoulders - You should try and expose the shoulders if possible, looking for obvious deformity, especially around the collar bones. You can try pressing along the line of the collar bone, watching for deformity or pain.  You should then place a hand on each shoulder, and gently push down, looking to ensure that one side does not move more than the other.
 * Chest - The chest is ideally done exposed, although you should be aware of the sensitivity of females to this, and if you are able to keep breasts covered, it is advisable to do so. You should be looking for sections of the chest which are out of line with the rest of it, or which are moving differently to the rest of the chest whilst breathing.  You should also look for obvious wounds.  You can then gently press on the chest.  The best way to do this is to imagine the chest divided in to four quarters running neck to stomach.  You should place one hand (balled as a fist works well here, to avoid concerns over excess touching) and press down one on the left and one on the right in each quarter (avoiding breasts if applicable).  You are watching for one side moving differently to the other, or for pain being caused.
 * Back - If the victim is lying on their side, or front, you can also feel down their spine. If they are lying on their back, then skip this part of the check, and leave it for the ambulance crew.
 * Arms and hands - Run both your hands down one arm at a time, looking for deformity or pain.
 * Abdomen - The abdomen contains the remainder of the body's critical organs, such as the intestines, so it should be checked for potential damage. The abdomen is mostly done by gentle pushing, using the flat of your hands.  Again, use symmetry, and push both sides simultaneously.  Check if the abdomen feels hard (called 'boarded') or for pain caused by the palpation.
 * Pelvis - The pelvis (hips) is a large bone, with potential for a fair amount of damage.  The main diagnostic test to place a hand on each hip and first gently compress the hips together with both hands (there should be very little movement, and little to no pain).  If the patient has moderate to severe pain when the hips are compressed, or the hips move when compressed, do not rock the hips from side to side. If there is no pain or movement, gently push down on the hips in a "rocking" motion to see if there is any movement.
 * Legs and feet - As with arms, use both hands at the same time, running them down the inside and outside of each leg simultaneously (avoiding the groin area on the inside). You should also look for any shortening or rotation of one leg compared to the other.  Finally, you take each foot, check that it has normal motility (can be moved normally) and has no obvious injuries.

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First Aid/History

History
Taking a victim history is a crucial step. If an ambulance needs to be called and the victim is conscious, taking a history before the victim's condition worsens will assist the responding paramedics and the emergency department to better help the victim and be aware of medical conditions the victim is suffering from.

Some common things to ask for in a history are can be remembered using the acronym SAMPLE:

 * Signs / Symptoms
 * What is the problem?

 * Allergies
 * Are you allergic to anything?

 * Medications
 * Do you take any medications?

 * Past medical history
 * Do you have any medical conditions (angina, high blood pressure, diabetes…)?
 * Have you been in the hospital before?
 * Are you currently under the care of a physician for anything?

 * Last oral intake
 * When did you last eat and drink?

 * Events (leading to illness or injury)
 * Do you remember what happened?
 * What were you doing when this happened?

The acronym OPQRST can help you remember what questions to ask about pain.

 * Pain assessment
 * Onset (when did it start?)
 * Provokes (what makes it feel better/worse?)
 * Quality of pain (sharp/dull, squeezing…)
 * Radiating pain? (does it spread anywhere?)
 * Severity of pain (on a scale from 1 to 10)
 * Timing (Constant? For how long?)

 * Important Information
 * Name, date of birth, age, sex, address…

 * Next of Kin
 * Is there anyone you would like contacted?

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First Aid/Internal Bleeding

Introduction
Internal bleeding is bleeding which occurs inside the body. Sometimes the blood will leak from inside the body through natural openings. Other times the blood stays inside the body, causing pain and shock, even though you cannot see the blood loss.

Causes
Internal bleeding can be caused numerous ways. Any time someone could have internal bleeding, you will do no harm by treating them for internal bleeding, but not treating the victim could lead to death.

Some causes include:
 * Falls
 * Car Accidents
 * Motorcycle Accidents
 * Pedestrians Struck by a Vehicle
 * Gun Shot Wounds
 * Injuries from Explosions
 * Impaled Objects
 * Stab Wounds
 * Surgery

Recognition
A person may be bleeding internally if one of these things happens:
 * Blood comes out of the nose or mouth (occurs from severe head trauma)
 * Blood or clear fluid comes out of the ear (occurs from severe head trauma)
 * Blood is in the stool
 * Blood is in the urine
 * Bright red blood, or blood like 'coffee-grounds', is in the vomit
 * Blood comes from a woman's vagina (birth canal) after an injury or during pregnancy
 * Bruising over the abdominal or chest area
 * Pain over vital organs
 * Fractured femur

But remember, a person may be bleeding inside the body, even though you cannot see the bleeding. If you see the signs of shock and no apparent injuries, always suspect internal bleeding. Check the skin color changes. In cases of internal bleeding the skin may become pale and cold, and cyanosis may be present.

Treatment
As with any victim, before treating, put on disposable gloves and take other necessary body substance isolation precautions.
 * Check the victim's ABCs.
 * If the victim has ABC complications, treat those first - ABCs always take priority.
 * Call an ambulance.
 * Treat for shock.
 * Assist the victim into the most comfortable position.
 * Monitor ABCs and vitals until the ambulance arrives.

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First Aid/Stroke & TIA

A stroke is an acute loss of or impairment to brain functionality caused by local insufficient circulation in the affected brain region. This leads to oxygen starvation to that part of the brain and, if prolonged, in consequence brain cells die.

Description
A fair understanding of the condition will aid your learning. Technically, a stroke is pretty similar to the previously discussed heart attack and angina, sometimes a stroke is even called a brain attack, yet the brain is an even more delicate and complex structure.

There are two causes, both of which occurring in a blood vessel of the brain: The actual cause is irrelevant to us, but will determine clinical care and long-term treatment.
 * An ischaemic stroke is caused by a small blockage of a blood vessel of the brain. The blockage is usually caused by a small blood clot, although incursions such as air bubbles can have the same effect.
 * A hemorrhagic stroke occurs in the case of a rupture of a blood vessel. The walls of bloods vessels may be thinner at some point and especially in combination with high blood pressure, this may be the site of a rupture.

Furthermore, we distinguish between a Historically, both were defined simply by the duration of the symptoms. If the symptoms passed in the 24 hours past onset, the condition was called a TIA, otherwise a CVA. Today, the differentiation is based on time and detectable tissue damage, but the details are still up for debate.
 * CVA, cerebro-vascular accident (sometimes also just called a stroke or major stroke) and a
 * TIA, transient ischaemic attack (sometimes called mini stroke).

Obviously, for the purposes of first aid, a stroke must be treated in the same way regardless of its classification. Waiting for hours for symptoms to pass in order to tell a CVA and TIA apart would not meet the purposes of first aid, nor do we have the diagnostic tools (such as fMRI) available.

Recognition
The deficit of oxygen can cause an acute loss of functions related to the area of the brain affected. An asymptomatic stroke is termed silent stroke, yet still involves tissue loss.

The key recognition signs for a stroke can be remembered with the acronym FAST. It stands for and is assessed by the following indication:
 * Facial weakness?
 * Can the person smile correctly? Observe if one side of the face droops.

 * Arm weakness?
 * Can the person raise both arms and hold them parallel without one drifting? If they squeeze your hands can they exert equal force?

 * Speech problems?
 * Can the person articulate clearly and repeat a simple sentence correctly?

 * Time!
 * Call the local EMS phone number or take the patient to the hospital immediately. If witnessed, record the time of onset of symptoms.

The victim may also experience additional symptoms, which on their own typically do not indicate a stroke. These include:
 * sudden blurred, dim or patchy vision
 * sudden dizziness
 * sudden, severe, unusual headache

General considerations
A great deal of the brain is (predominantly) organized contralaterally. This means processing stimuli from and controlling movement for the left half of the body happens in right side of the brain, and vice versa.

If the patient’s left facial muscles are not stimulated to the full extent (drooping smile), if the patient is not able to exert about the same force with their left hand, we can infer a deficit in the right part of the brain.

Conscious victim

 * 1) Every second counts. Call for an ambulance.
 * 2) Reassure the victim.
 * 3) Encourage and facilitate the victim to move in to a position of comfort if possible. If they have significant paralysis, they may be unable to move themselves, so you should make them as comfortable as possible where they are. If possible, incline them to the, with regard to visible/external symptoms, unaffected side (if there is one), as this will help you relieve some symptoms such as a feeling of floating.
 * 4) Take vitals, history and regular observations.

Unconscious victim
The victim In theses cases, treat first what kills first:
 * may lose consciousness after you have established a suspected stroke, or
 * an eyewitness accompanying the victim reports a sudden lateralized deficit in their walking abilities, which eventually caused them to fall to a particular side, and lose consciousness.
 * Assess the victim’s ABCs (attempt CPR if not breathing).
 * Additionally, assist the victim into the recovery position on their (with regard to visible/external symptoms) unaffected side. Due to the contralateral organization of the forebrain as explained above, we have reason to think the stroke occurred on the respective side. In this position gravity may assist blood to reach the injured side of the brain, which is then below the unaffected side of the brain. Moreover, bleeding (if any) may drain out the auditory canal.

Prognosis
When reassuring the victim, have a realistic picture of the condition in mind. Unfortunately, most patients will have significant impairments afterwards. A FAST response is key to mitigate effects, yet some causes of stroke are particularly fatal.

The human brain is quite flexible. The function of brain cells that have died may be taken over by nearby living brain cells, but this requires a long process of learning, rehabilitation, and will never have same quality as the original cells, since these were highly-specialized and optimized for their task. This ability of the brain, called neuroplasticity, however, decreases with advanced age.

A stroke may also be the turning point of a patient’s habits. They will be put on a treatment plan, for example in order to manage excessive blood pressure, thus reducing their general risks. However, refrain from making accusations: “You have been smoking too much (tobacco).” or similar will not be appreciated.

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User talk:Kwaime Kazuh Nuwala

You have been permanently blocked from editing Wikibooks because of a series of spam posted on user talk pages and policy pages. Xania talk 21:16, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kwaime Kazuh Nuwala