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Sufism

Mystical system also known as tassawuf. Most people are familiar with the whirling dervishes of Turkey. Stemming from an Islamic lineage, with influences from Judaism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Sufism influenced the development of Sikhism and the Bahá'í religion. It encouraged the transfer of knowledge from Greek to Arabic development and is influential in architecture such as the Taj Mahal, pioneering the use of coffee, the concept of zero in mathematics, scientific methodology, gardening, medicine, craft, literature and depth psychology. As it becomes better known by Westerners its influential and highly developed researches are gaining widespread acclaim and adoption.

= Sufism =

The diversity of Islamic sects including Sunni, Shi'i, Wahabi, Ismailism, and so on find common ground in opposing or integrating with Sufism (dependent on prevailing political, religious and other influences). This is a reflection of their prevailing interest.

Sufism is based on these rules:

 * Shariat
 * First of all strictly follow the Islamic rules(sharia).

 * Tareekat
 * After following Sharia, one will be start learning Tareekat (Islamic Spiritualism) under a spiritual teacher (Shaikh or Peer)

 * Ma'arifat
 * After practicing Tarakiat, one will get the real understanding of the Spiritualism by his own experience and it is called Ma'arifat.

 * Haqeeqat
 * And after all this, finally he finds the real truth(Haqeeat) about ALLAH.

The purpose of Sufism is to purify the inner or spirit to highest maximum level and prepare yourself to be very close to God (Allah).

According to sufi system, one has to select a spiritual teacher called Shaikh or Peer who will lead and guide him throughout all the way. The student is called "Salik" (The Learner or The Seeker of True Path").

Selecting the Shaikh or peer is called "Bait". One first has to check the character of the Shaikh or Peer that he is truly following Sharia or not. A man not following Islamic sharia cannot be a true Shaikh.

Then Shaikh judges the spiritual level the salik and advise him Azkar(Kalima, Darood, Quranic Verses etc) to recite for a specific number of time daily. These Azkar include the praise of ALLAH and thus have effect of "Noor"(Holy Light). The repetitions of these Azkar and strictly following Islamic sharia collects more and more Noor into the heart(Qulb) of salik and purifies his spirit(Rooh). During the recitation of Azkar, salik has to pay full attention to ALLAH, and thus to reach a state where he will be able to ignore everything except ALLAH. This concentration to ALLAH is also practiced during five prayers(Salat or Namaz). This also fulfills the Hadith of Prophet Muhammad, according to that "Offer the Prayer in a way like you are looking at ALLAH, or if not possible then at least in a way like ALLAH is looking at you".

Increase in the concentration raises the spiritual level of the Salik and he starts observing the things that others do not even feel. This strengthens his believe in ALLAH takes him more and more closer to ALLAH.

= Main Schools =

Azeemi
The Azeemia Sufi order was founded in Pakistan in 1960 by Qalander BaBa Auliya, strengthened & currently headed by Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi. In order to meet the demands of present times a system, which could fulfill the spiritual needs of man of the modern era in a scientific way, was needed. Silsela-e-Azeemia has been founded for the very purpose of fulfillment of man's spiritual needs of this era. Rising above the orthodox, conventional and traditional ways of spiritual education modern techniques have been formulated to pace up with the modern era of sciences. Because of unorthodox approach and modern ideology this 'Silsila' is spreading rapidly the world over.

Cognizer of Allah, Proclaimer of Reality, Knower of the Secrets of Spacelessness, Possessor of Insinuated knowledge, Master of the Invisible Controls, Founder Leader of Silsila-e-Azeemia, Hassan Ukhra Muhammad Azeem Burkhiya, His Divine Grace Qalander Baba Auliya founded this Silsila after having its approval from the Islamic prophet Muhammad in July 1960. The name of the 'silsila' (the spiritual order) goes after the name of its founder.

Silsila-e-Azeemia encompasses both the spiritual sections viz. Spiritual Association (sulook) and the Raptness (juzb). His Divine Grace Qalander Baba Auliya has been benefited from twenty-one salasil and enjoys the very special distinction of being the Khanwada (to whom the thinking pattern of the founder leader of a silsila is transferred) of eleven salasil. Discipleship of the traditional style and orthodox manner is not there in this silsila. No particular dress or typical appearance is suggested here. Only sincere interest and devotion for spirituality is the basic criteria for ones association with the silsila. Disciples in this silsila are called friends. Instead of austere and rigorous rituals simple brief and easy-to-perform lessons and exercises have been introduced. Basis of the education is that worshipping style and method which was exercised by the Muhammad in the cave of Hira for a long time. Practice of this exercise of meditation helps the spiritual associate to start his journey in the spiritual realm.

More one advances on these paths more enlightened is one's thinking. Wakefulness starts prevailing upon one's unconscious and the sight becomes strong enough to penetrate the realities of the mysteries. And he becomes a man with cognition rather than a staunch worshipper with a temper. Since the founder leader of the silsila was in a very prominent position of the spiritual administration and enjoyed a high rank of Qalanderiyat therefore Silsila-e-Azeemia also has the shades of Qalanderiyat.

People from various schools of thoughts, for instance Shias, Sunnies, Deubandies, Barailvies used to visit him to pay him the tributes he deserved. People associated with different silsilas also called upon him to quench their thirst for spirituality. Whosoever had a chance to be with him for a while was benefited by the grace of Allah, the most High. Lucky was he who could attract the benevolent attention of His Divine Grace Qalander Baba Auliya. Those who had an opportunity of having an association with him were fortunate to be bestowed with a changed thinking approach, which eventually enabled them to cognize the ultimate reality.

The Eternal Being for spreading light creates people whose mission is to preach about the instability of this material world. They become instrumental in introducing the Lord Creator and teach to have an established relationship with Him.

Gist of the teachings of His Divine Grace Qalander Baba Auliya is that man has not been created to remain in pursuit of livelihood only or for earning bread to eat and to wear clothes but the first and foremost purpose of his creation is that he should recognize his own self and have an intimate introduction with his Benefactor, Muhammad because of whose blessings we are fortunate enough and deviation from whose teachings have made us the most unfortunate and degraded nation of all.

At present 78 Muraqba Halls (Centers of Spiritual learning) in Pakistan and abroad, i.e. in U.K., U.S.A.,Canada, Norway, Holland, Denmark and U.A.E. etc. are operating to serve the creatures of Allah, the Almighty.

About seven thousand letters seeking solutions for problems and difficulties are replied from Markazi Muraqba Hall, Karachi as a free service. Besides this the monthly Roohani Digest, Karachi, Qalandar Shaoor Magazine and Roohani Digest International, London; the organs of silsila offer and suggest remedies of complicated diseases, mental ailments, psychological problems by prescribing Certain Appellations of Allah, Quranic Verses and or methods of chromo-therapy.

Gonabadi Order
The Nimatullahi Sultan Ali Shahi Gonabadi Order The largest Mystical order in Iran.

Oveyssi
Directs the truth seeker to find truth within. Everybody can (and should) experience the truth, and that is the only way to know. It is then practical path. One needs somebody who has walked the walk and knows the road, who knows the way, and dangers. The line of teachers go back to Oveys al-Gharani from Yemen, a companion and receiver of truth directly from prophet Muhammad, even though he never met Him in person, Prophet used to say : ""I smell Rahman (GOD) from Yemen"" and "" His name is Oveys, Follow him step by step, for he is the rescuer of my nation (omma)"". For more info on Maktab Tarighat Oveyssi Shahmaghsoudi School of Islamic Sufism, visit: http://www.mtoshahmaghsoudi.org

Chishti Order
The high status accorded women and the respect and welcome of people following religions other than Islam enabled this school to flourish in multi-cultural India in particular during the Moghul Empire. Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti was the most popular saint of this order who migrated to India from Arabia on an instruction from Prophet Muhammad. Lakhs of people followed him and this sufi order spread across India This sect believes in Wahdat-Ul-Wajood, i.e Everything in existence is due to the existence of Allah, & Allah is present in everything".

For more information on the Chishti order see the University of Georgia website.

Naqshibandiya, Naqshbandi, Rabbani Way
The Naqshbandi Sufi Order has many branches all tracing their lineage back to Shah Naqshbandi. Depending upon the specific linage the related orders profess a wide range of ideologies. One of the largest branches established by Shaykh Nazim Al-Haqqani and carried on by Shaykh Muhammad Adil is located in Lefke Cyprus where hundreds of thousands, of mostly converts to Islam, have visited over the many years. The Naqshbandi order led by Shaykh Muhammad Adil is a very moderate group that welcomes persons of all faiths. What is unique about this order is they never charge anyone to visit. The branch in the United States of America following this order among other locations is the Healing Hearts Sufi Dargah in Norwich, Connecticut.

Kalandar
Associated with wandering minstrels. This is actually a level of sufism that is achieved by first strictly following the sharia(rules of Islam) and then learning the spiritualism(Roohaniat) under the orders of a teacher(Shaikh or Peer) who has already reached a good level.

Shatiriya
The fast way similar to tantra in some aspects.

Hamidiya
This sect is one of the branches of two famous sects of sufism namely Quadri and Chishti Iftekhari. This was led by His Holiness Sayyed Akbar Ali Shah --> Sayyed Mohd. Iftikhar Ali Shah --> Syed Moinullha Hussaini Saha - Syed Mohammed WaliAllah Hussaini Sha - Sayyed Noorullah Husaini Shah --> Sayyed Faridullah Husaini Shah (-->and Hamid Ali Shah . After this the disciples of Hamid Ali Shah ( still follow his path and teachings which is common even today like Khatm-e-Khwajgan which is recited weekly. After Hamid Ali Shah left this world Khwaja Haamid ali Shah Sahab (rehmatullah Alihi) took over the responsiblities of spreading & propogating the teachings of his Peer. Ghulam Ali Shah was nominated as Sajjadah Nasheen to handle & accomplish all the duties of Dargah Hamid Ali Shah located at Moti Karanja Aurangabad. Sajjadah Ghulam Ali Shah Sahab has published one book named Fahem-wa-Amal which is a complete composition and collection of the teachings of Hamid Ali Shah. Till today one can feel the pureness and greatness of the teachings of Hamid Ali Shah which is kept alive by Khwaja Haamid Ali Shah Sahab (rehmatullah Alihi). During the life of Khwaja Haamid Ali Shah Sahab (rehmatullah alihi), millions of people came & joined Khankaah on the hands of Khwaja Haamid Ali Shah (rehmatullah alihi) many of which include Hindu community people also. Khwaja Sahab

Khwaja Haamid Ali Shah Sahab is said to be shadow of his Peer-O-Murshid Hamid Ali Shah since Haamid Ali Shah has truly and faithfully followed teachings and has made a great effort in making more disciples & turning peoples towards right path of Sufism which is said to be Rooh of Islam. Haamid Ali Shah Sahab says He has never turned his back to his Peer's teachings since he was 23 of age. haamid Ali Shah remains on a continuous tour through out India especially Maharashtra, to make people understand teachings of his Peer-O-Murshid. He has never been seen resting at one place Aurangabad Sharif which is his native. says "I am greatfull to my lord my peer that he has given me this opportunity to serve peoples with his teachings". He also thanks to Sajjadah Ghulam Ali Shah Sahab for his support through out in spreading teachings. According to Haamid Ali Shah Sahab, he is born on this earth only to service & please his Peer-O-Murshid by spreading truth of Islam via Sufism.

These teachings are called Tareeqat since the tareeqah(method)of knowing God is followed in sequence & in chain from Peer to Peer till Ali & then finally Muhammad. This teaching is also termed as ILM-E-SEENA(knowledge of heart) which is the knowledge that is transfered from Seena to Seena(heart to heart) from Prophet Muhammad to our Peer-o-Murshid. Tareeqat is therefore based on Tasawwuf. Tasawwuf is nothing but condition of heart. It is recommended to follow tareeqat after completing shariyat. Shariyat is knowledge of Halaal & Haraam (do's & don'ts). It shows us the way how to behave & how to appear in society as a muslim ummath. It is based on 5 pillars of Islam namely-->namaz, roza, Hajj, zakath & jehaad. Tareeqath is knowledge of what should be our attitude towards these 5 prayers & what should be the condition of our heart while praying. Ma'arifat: After combining both in right proportion & manner one achieves & attains a position called Ma'arifat. The one who attains Ma'arifat is called Aarif meaning the one who has known Allah. Haqeeqat When Aarif can hold himself firmly on this position then there itself his soul gets enlightened with Haqeeqat. It is again a top level of Ma'arifat where there is no hijaab(wall or hurdle) between Aarif & Allah. All these levels are followed in chain & fall one after other.

Shariyat is said to be the body & tareeqt, ma'aarifat, haqiqat are said to be its soul. Body is useless without soul & soul cannot do anything without its body. So both are interdependent & holds great importance with each other. Shariyat is for oneself for our own on how to behave & how to live, what to do & what not to do. Shariyat is for knowing our limits or knowing our self, Tariqat is to follow Peer & know Peer in order to attain his spirit, Ma'rifat is to know Muhammad & attain his love then Haqiqat is to know Allah Almighty & to attain his knowledge & meet him.

Therefore a Mureed has to be complete & true in Shariyaat then only he can achieve levels falling after it. Our Dada Peer Sayyed Iftekhar Ali Shah has said & which is very famous in sufis that "Jiski Shariyat me baal barabar kami reh gayi to uski Tariqat me baal barabar gunjaish nahi hai" These teachings were said to be taught by Prophet Muhammad to his Sahabas. Just think seriously on this: Today why Ummath is on decline & is defeated every where in world though we are very large in number, Why? Answer is that we have divided ourselves because our groups follow either only Shariyath or Tareeqat alone. The group who emphasis on Shariyat is empty from its soul i.e Tareeqath & another group which follows Tareeqath has no relation with Shariyat. Therefore both groups live & end their lives meaning less. This is where Shaitaan (Satan) wins & we help him win by dividing ourselves & by not following true islam which is still present & alive with Sufi's, Sahib-e-dil, Buzurgaan-e-deen in khankaah-e-Aluliya. Where they are taught lessons of Love & how to defeat Shaiytan by defeating our evil will. Sahabas use to hold great love for their Peer-o-Murshid Muhammad & so they use to follow each & every task with out any delay & problem. Today ummath lacks the spirit of Love & therefore every where Ummath is declining in faith & spirit. Ummath has to therefore follow the path of Sahabees & have to become Mureed to attain the faith in true sense. One needs somebody who has walked the walk and knows the road, who knows the way, and dangers, the rehbar rehnuma i.e. Peer-o-Murshid.Since the time Ummath has stopped becoming disciples of Peer-o-Murshid they got divided & Shaitan has got chance to play around with them. Peer-o-Murshid Haamid Ali Shah Sahab says "Shaitan lets momin do every good work but never let him become a Mureed because he knows if he becomes Mureed then he will be safe from Shaitan's hands". Muslims have been divided just because they dont have a common faith because they dont have common teacher i.e. they don't follow a common path by becoming Mureed. Ghaus-e-Azam had said that "jiska koi Peer nahi uska Peer Shaitan hai". Today we can see truth of his sayings. The Islam that we understand is not islam as our thought capacity is very limited & we tend to perceive as per our boundaries with help of what ever we read or hear. It is here where we get targeted by Shaitan. We need to follow the path & walk on the path where Murshid has walked & has seen all the ups & downs & dangers. It is called Tariqat. Shaitan has wrongly spread the thought that Followers of Peeri Mureedi are (Ma'azAllah)doing shirks & they are bending in front of Gair Allah. This is where he (shaitan)has succeeded in dividing us in name of Shirk. Shirk is the one which he did by denying Allah & not doing Sajdah to Adam (A.S). He now wants all of Muslims to fall prey to same mistake. He made a mistake by Defining Adam Gair Allah i.e. different from Allah, where as none of the existence in this world or universe is different from Allah. Every thing exist just because of Allah rabbul Izzat. Other form of weapon of Shaitan is Bida'at. Bida'at means new invention or new methodology. Sufis are not at all doing any Bida'at rather they are following the same old method which Muhammad has directed us to & has verily said "My Sahabas are like stars, follow them if you want to walk in right direction". Sahabas followed Their Peer-o-Murshid Muhammad, then Tab'aeen followed Sahabas, Tabe Taba'een followed Taba'eens, Auliya follow Tabe Taba'eens & so on till my Peer-o-Murshid Haamid Ali Shah Sahab. Therefore Peeri Mureedi is actually following the path of Sahabas which is obeying Rasool Allah (SAW). Ummath is no where now because they are not obeying Rasool (SAW). One can never attain the wisdom of Sahabas untill & unless he follows his Peer. Therefore it is mandatory for one to become Mureed (desciple)to become a Momin the way Rasool Allah (SAW) wants us to be. Earlier some 200 years ago every Muslim use to become disciple (Mureed) of Peer & it was taken as a very compulsory to have Peer-o-Murshid else that man was not treated as a good Muslim in community even if he use to follow all rules of Shariyat. This was because every one was worried as per the saying of Gaus-e-Azam & didn’t wanted to be disciple of Shaitan. This air of shirk & Bid'aat has polluted the true & very pure Islamic concept of soul purification & thus has stopped Muslims from becoming true Momin. Sayyed Akbar Ali Shah traveled from Shahjahan pur to Hyderabad in search of Peer & finally reached khankah of Sayyed Shah Shajaul Haqqani. Similarly Sayyed Iftekhar Ali Shah spent 12 years in Ajmer at Dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty as he was keen on becoming mureed of Khwaja sahab. He use to sweep the floor of dargah & mosque & lighten the candles. This he did for 12 years & finally one day he saw Khawaja Ajmeri in his dreams saying "go to Hyderabad & become mureed of Sayyed Akbar Ali Shah" He insisted i want to bcome your Mureed, Khwaja sahab replied " Akbar Ali is me & i am Akbar Ali. Go & become his desciple." Iftekhar Ali Saha then travelled to Hydrabad & he was welcomed by Akbar Ali Shah as he was also intimated by Khwaja Ajmeri about arival of Iftikhar. Iftikhar Ali Shah when became mureed he then gained great name & fame among suifs & is still remembered by his mystical poetries & ashars where he has defined his travel of within himself & then reaching his spirit in Diwan-e-Watan. Watan was his takhallus(token name). One of his famous ashar from his poem: Mai jab hi tak tha ke teri jalwa peerai naa thi. Jo namud-e-Haq se mitt jata hai wo batill hu mai. Meaning: I was there in side my body till time there was no sign of my Peer, I am that falsehood which vanishes with birth of truth. Murid is false hood & Peer is truth. If we will read biography of other Auliya's we will come to know that every one had Murshid & they had tried hard to find them in their life. They were all eager to adopt path of Tassawwuf & walk the way of Suluk.

Tasawwuf is the core of eiman (true faith) and not something extra. Suluk is the essence of that iman which every Muslim claims to have, on condition that he experiences the sweetness of it in his heart. This same Shari’ah which was taught to us by the Messenger of Allah is actually suluk and tariqah, on condition that the effect moves from the body parts on to the heart and ‘amal becomes the result of the heart being attached to it.

A sick person doesn’t feel hungry at all. He forces himself to eat because of the doctor’s instructions, also that his body can develop strength to fight the sickness. Another person who is healthy eats because he desires and enjoys food. Both are eating to live and both are benefiting from the food. On the surface there seems to be no difference between the two, but in reality there is a great difference. The sick person has to subject his nature (force himself) to consume food while the healthy person subjects the food to his nature (tab’iyyah).

By this example understand the difference between a person who makes ‘ibadah but has to force himself and the sahib al-nisbah wali (perfect and perfected saint) who makes the same ‘ibadah due to the desire and longing of his heart.

If the doctor did not force the sick person to eat, he would not have eaten and not felt any guilt, remorse and grief. Although the result of not eating will have its detrimental effects later but presently he is happy to leave food. On the other hand, the healthy person, if he doesn’t eat, suffers immediately, becomes weak and will be unable to do anything until and unless he eats.

'''This perfect health is called tariqah, which the heart acquires. The spiritual food is called Shari’ah which one should be truly desirous of and be able to sacrifice for it.'''

Yes, initially one has to apply force and pressure. Later it will develop into this stage insha’Allah where one enjoys being nurtured by the Shari’ah.

The heart is like a mirror, which reflects the tajalliyah (divine lustres). For this to happen, the heart has to be cleansed and polished. This clean and polished condition has to be maintained through mujahadah (constant effort and sacrifice) that will keep away the darkness of sin and evil character. When the dust, grime and rust are removed, then this person is now constantly engaged in dhikr and fikr and is constantly attentive towards Allah Most High. The result of this attentiveness is the reflection on the mirror (the heart) is formed. The joy and pleasure of this condition is beyond words. When this mirror gains light from the Giver of Light (Allah Most High) then it lights up the world. This is the same light that emanated from the noble heart of the Messenger of Allah which lit up the world. This light from his noble heart spread to others who had purified their hearts. They in turn spread it to others. This light of guidance taken from the light of Nubuwwah (Prophethood) is found in every era and is still present although fourteen hundred years have passed.

The carriers of this light are the Awliya (the friends of Allah), and there have been and there are still hundreds of them. From among this illuminated, fortunate, blessed and pristine (in our times) "Gulam ali Shah Sahab" May Allah raise us with them on the Day of Judgment. Amin Ya Rabb al-’Alamin.

None of the Auliya Allah is without Murshid because this is the only way to gain Ma'arifat & Haqiqat of Allah Subhanhuta'aala.

Quaddiri
A system derived by & from His Holyness Abdul Qadir Jilani & his disciples. They believe " Wahdat-UL-Shahud, i.e Everything in existence is due to the presence of Allah & everything gives shadat of Allah's Existence".

Rufi
= Philosophy =

Universal suffrage and inspired and exhalted love. A stress on ascetic practices such as night vigils, fasting and zhikr (prayer repetitions). Important ideas are kismet (fate) and baraka (spiritual grace or power). Great emphasis is placed on the tariqa (circle) of the teachers influence. By alignment with a tradition or path, the qualities and transmissions associated with a particular methodology develop. Students travel through different stations (phases) during which qualities are stabilised. Conditions of ecstasy and sobriety alternate and are eventually superseded. Some groups such as the kalandars are renowned for inducing altered states of consciousness.

= Hagiography =

Al Ghazzali One of the great 'Hakim' of Islam and also a reknowned mystic

The Persian Rumi

Your heart may have a thousand locks;

do not fear: search for the shop of Love.

Love will unlock your heart.

Rumi

The Spaniard Ibn-Arabi

Nasrudin Mythical, fun teaching tool, also known as Hodja

Nasrudin sat on a river bank

when someone shouted to him from the other bank: "Hey! how do I get across?"

"You are across!" Nasrudin shouted back.

The poet Attar

famous for the 'Conference (or parliament) of the Birds'

With your whole heart and soul,

seek to regain Reality,

nay seek for Reality within your own heart,

for Reality, in truth, is hidden within you.

Attar

Dance
Sufism practice may include the performance of a prayer dance, in a circle wearing big frocks and their traditional caps on their head, through which they commune with Allah.

Western Developments
The first noticeable development of Sufi ideology came from the Persian religion of Zoroasta and the mystical teachings of the Jews and the Christians. This ideology of SUFISM was totally changed when it was blended with Greek ideas and the obvious major heritage and lineage of the Hadith and Koran. Much cross-cultural integration of Sufism came from the French and Spanish colonies of the Islamic empires.

title: Sufism


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User talk:Mhwombat

Hello Mhw, and welcome to Wikibooks. You might want to visit Textbook planning and the first few sections of the Staff lounge, to get a sense of how books are put together. You can also leave questions for me on my talk page. Sj 09:47, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Dia dhuit MHwombat. I left a remark on Talk:Irish. Le do thoil, answer

title: User talk:Mhwombat


text:
User:Hfgong

Haifeng's User Page
Try Math Formula: $$\sum_i^ni^2=\frac{n(n+1)}{2}$$ My Draft

title: User:Hfgong


text:
User:62.233.214.86

62.233.214.86

title: User:62.233.214.86


text:
User:Hfgong/Manifold Learning

Draft page of Hfgong

Preface
Two main framework:
 * Global framework: MDS, Isomap
 * Local framework: LLE, Laplace Eigenmap, Hessian Eigenmap, etc.

Manifold
Summary. A manifold is a space that is locally like $$\reals^n$$, however lacking a preferred system of coordinates. Furthermore, a manifold can have global topological properties, such as non-contractible Curve, that distinguish it from the topologically trivial $$\reals^n$$.

Standard Definition. An $$n$$-dimensional topological manifold $$M$$ is a second countable, Hausdorff topological space (For connected manifolds, the assumption that $$M$$ is second-countable is logically equivalent to $$M$$ being paracompact, or equivalently to $$M$$ being metrizable. The topological hypotheses in the definition of a manifold are needed to exclude certain counter-intuitive pathologies. Standard illustrations of these pathologies are given by the long line (lack of paracompactness) and the forked line (points cannot be separated). These pathologies are fully described in Spivak.) that is locally homeomorphic to open subsets of $$\reals^n$$.

A differential manifold is a topological manifold with some additional structure information. A chart, also known as a system of coordinates, is a continuous injection from an open subset of $$M$$ to $$\reals^n$$. Let $$\alpha: U_\alpha \rightarrow \reals^n,$$ and $$\beta:U_\beta\rightarrow\reals^n$$ be two charts with overlapping domains. The continuous injection
 * $$\beta\circ\alpha^{-1}: \alpha(U_\alpha\cap

U_\beta)\rightarrow\reals^n$$ is called a \emph{transition function}, and also called a \emph{a change of coordinates}. An atlas $$\mathcal A$$ is a collection of charts $$\alpha:U_\alpha\rightarrow\reals^n$$ whose domains cover $$M$$, i.e.
 * $$M = \bigcup_{\alpha} U_\alpha.$$

Note that each transition function is really just $$n$$ real-valued functions of $$n$$ real variables, and so we can ask whether these are continuously differentiable. The atlas $$\mathcal A$$ defines a differential structure on $$M$$, if every transition functions corresponding to $$\mathcal A$$ is continuously differentiable.

More generally, for $$k=1,2,\ldots,\infty,\omega$$, the atlas $$\mathcal A$$ is said to define a $$\mathcal C^k$$ differential structure, and $$M$$ is said to be of class $$\mathcal C^k$$, if all the transition functions are $$k$$-times continuously differentiable, or real analytic in the case of $$\mathcal C^\omega$$. Two differential structures of class $$\mathcal{C^k}$$ on $$M$$ are said to be isomorphic if the union of the corresponding atlases is also a $$\mathcal C^k$$ atlas, i.e. if all the new transition functions arising from the merger of the two atlases remain of class $$\mathcal C^k$$. More generally, two $$\mathcal C^k$$ manifolds $$M$$ and $$N$$ are said to be diffeomorphic, i.e. have equivalent differential structure, if there exists a homeomorphism $$\phi:M\to N$$ such that the atlas of $$M$$ is equivalent to the atlas obtained as $$\phi$$-pullbacks of charts on $$N$$.

The atlas allows us to define differentiable mappings to and from a manifold. Let
 * $$f:U\rightarrow\reals,\quad U\subset M$$

be a continuous function. For each $$\alpha\in \mathcal A$$ we define
 * $$f_\alpha: V \rightarrow \reals,\quad V\subset\reals^n,$$

called the representation of $$f$$ relative to chart $$\alpha$$, as the suitably restricted composition
 * $$f_\alpha = f\circ \alpha^{-1}.$$

We judge $$f$$ to be differentiable if all the representations $$f_\alpha$$ are differentiable. A path
 * $$\gamma: I\rightarrow M,\quad I\subset\reals$$

is judged to be differentiable, if for all differentiable functions $$f$$, the suitably restricted composition $$f\circ\gamma$$ is a differentiable function from $$\reals$$ to $$\reals$$. Finally, given manifolds $$M, N$$, we judge a continuous mapping $$\phi:M\rightarrow N$$ between them to be differentiable if for all differentiable functions $$f$$ on $$N$$, the suitably restricted composition $$f\circ\phi$$ is a differentiable function on $$M$$.

Isomap
Basic idea: replace Euclidean distance with geodesic distance in MDS 1. Construct neighborhood graph 2. Compute shortest paths (geodesic distance) $$\delta_{ij}$$ This can be done using Dijkstra algorithm 3. Construct d-dimensional embedding This can be done using classical MDS algorithm Minimize the stress:
 * $$E(Y)=\sum_{i0, \sum_j{W_{ij}}=1$$

Construct d-dimensional embedding
Reconstruction Error:

\Phi (Y)=\sum_{i}\left\vert y_{i}-\sum_{j}W_{ij}Y_{j}\right\vert ^{2} $$

with constrain:

\sum_{i}Y_{i} = 0 $$
 * $$\frac{1}{N}\sum_{i}Y_{i}Y_{i}^{\top } = I

$$ LLE Website: []

Hessian Eigenmap
1. Identify neighbors 2. Obtain tangent coordinates 3. Develop quadratic form 4. Find approximate null space 5. Find basis for null space $$\mathcal{H}$$

Charting/co-ordination
Find low-dimensional local neighbourhoods on the manifold, then mix the neighbourhoods while trying to minimize distortion.

Optimization Issues in Manifold Learning

 * 1) Optimization on Stiefel and Grassmann Manifold
 * 2) Convert to Eigenvalue Problems

Kernel in Manifold Learning
Kernel View of Manifold Learning Kernel Matrix for Nonlinear Dimension Reduction

title: User:Hfgong/Manifold Learning


text:
Curl

Curl is a language for creating web documents with almost any sort of content, from simple formatted text to complex interactive applets. The goal of Curl is to provide a smoother transition between formatting and programming.

Curl, the programming language, is often confused with cURL. The cURL open source download utility is a completely different and independent project.

History
Curl (programming language) is a web content language from the DARPA project at MIT which resulted in the WWW organization (w3c.org).

Curl was spun off by MIT as a corporation but is now owned by SCSK Corporation with home pages at Curl.com (http://www.curl.com) and at http://www.curlap.com

Features
Curl is a hybrid functional language supporting declarative layout (as in HTML), styling as in CSS, scripting (as in JavaScript/ECMAScript), and is object-oriented (as in C++/Java/Smalltalk but also has multiple inheritance) and yet is also multi-paradigm (classes are optional) and permits anonymous procedures (closures, as in Smalltalk, JavaScript, Ruby and Groovy); it also has macros as in other functional languages. Curl shares the feature of LISP, Scheme and Rebol being homoiconic: Curl can itself be consumed by Curl as structured data or as functions and other declarations.

Without some historical context, Curl might look like an integration of Java, HTML, JavaScript and flash to create a simple language suitable for next generation on line client sided computing.

 * Free for non commercial usage
 * Support for real time ray tracing and quaternion functions
 * Very simple, comparable to text editing HTML, unlike Lisp and 'C' (dependent on skill level of user)
 * Script is compiled on the user/client side
 * Multi-paradigm web-content language with classes, functional programming and declarative features resulting in a language comparable to combined JavaScript+CSS+HTML+Java
 * Fast client-side computing with client-side persistent data
 * Accessible to beginners yet capable of advanced programming and linking to other languages

Curl is named after a pair of curly braces these. . . {}

It is a programming language designed for such things as

 * web applications with a desktop application-style GUI
 * client side (that means your computer) processing
 * occasionally-connected computing
 * asynchronous-http request processing
 * client-side data persistence (such as configuration options and bread-crumbs)

Curl has some similarities with Java and JavaScript but is expression-based like Icon or Rebol. Curl applets can serve as a replacement for HTML web pages. Curl applets can also be embedded. Curl could be viewed as HTML+CSS+JavaScript+Java - but all rolled into one language and combined in a unified environment with a multi-paradigm semantics including the Declarative, Procedural and Object-Oriented.

HTML (the text file web page language which browsers obtain from servers to display most pages on the web) can be comprised of JavaScript, CSS, Flash, scriptlets, XML among other elements. Curl was designed to be one language equivalent to all of the former. It can provide rich Internet application (RIA) with AJAX and live in an SOA (Curl comes with a SOAP API.)

Curl can display as well as Adobe Acrobat PDF (increasingly being used) and of course is dynamic and interactive and is an alternative to ADOBE Flex(FLASH + ActionScript), Microsoft Silverlight or SUN JavaFX.

Curl is a mature web content platform now available as Curl6 (but known internally as Curl7.) Curl is used in both Japan and Korea and announced a re-launch in North America in 2007 but it does require a browser plugin, the SURGE RTE (Runtime Engine) and had license restrictions.

In 2008, internet users may have become more accustomed to web browser plugins than they were in 2001 when Curl Corporation formed.

Curl content requires Curl software in order to be displayed. Just as HTML pages need a browser or PDF files need the Acrobat plug-in, Curl applets need the Curl Surge Plug-in and Runtime Environment. Once you have the plug-in you can load Curl load pages from web servers rather as you would load HTML pages and using the same HTTP protocol (in IE7, running at the WinInet level.)

The nearest equivalents may be Zope, .NET, Java or Javascript.

please add your contributions

Here is how : Help:Editing

Table of contents

 * Examples
 * /Example 1/
 * /Example 2/
 * /Example 3/
 * /Example 4/
 * /Example 5/
 * /Example 6/
 * /Setting up/
 * /Version numbers/
 * /Linux support/
 * /The IDE/
 * /Interviews/
 * /External links/

title: Curl


text:
User:Spoom

Uberm00.net, my website. Not a lot on there right now, but there are some links to my current projects, like iBoard and Rantyblog.

I'm mostly working on the PHP Wikibook.

title: User:Spoom


text:
User talk:Hfgong

Welcome to Wikibooks. I'd like to ask you why you moved your user page (User:Hfgong) into a new pseudonamespace called "Draft:"? This can cause problems for people trying to leave you notes, as user pages should be in the "User:" namespace. More information about this can be found in Help:Pages. In a little bit I'm going to move the page back to the User namespace, unless there's a good reason it shouldn't be there.

Have a good day, Gentgeen 18:03, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Thank you for your attention
I am a newbie, I just want to save a draft version of my article.

 * That's no problem. Normally, drafts of modules that we don't think are ready to "go live" are saved as subpages of our personal userpage. For exapmle, WikiDraft:Hfgong could be saved at /Manifold Learning (which creates a page entitled User:Hfgong/Manifold Learning).  When you think it is ready for publication, you can then move it to its final location using the move tab at the top of the screen, and then possilby request that the resulting redirect from the subpage be deleted at votes for deletion.

 * Another place were experimentation is encouraged is the Sandbox, although the sandbox is commonly edited by many people, so changes made there are likely to be edited over quickly. I hope you enjoy editing here at wikibooks, and if you have any questions, feel free to ask me at my talk page or ask the general community at the staff lounge.

 * Gentgeen 11:51, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * PS, to sign comments in talk pages, use the tilde (~). Three tildes  signs your name, and four tildes ( ~ ) signs and includes a date and time stamp (that is what I did above). Gentgeen

I See
That's great. Thank you again! Hfgong 05:30, 7 Sep 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hfgong


text:
C++ Programming/Idioms

Handling self-assignment in an assignment operator
T::operator= that handles the case where the LHS and the RHS refer to the same object.

T& operator= (const T& that) {    if (this == &that) return *this; // handle assignment here return *this; }

Notes:
 * Keep in mind the differences between identity (the LHS and the RHS are the same object) and equality (the LHS and the RHS have the same value). T::operator= has to protect itself against identity since then, the code for assigning can conveniently and safely assume that the LHS and the RHS refer to different objects.
 * There are other techniques that are superior but not applicable in all situations. For example, if all the members of the class T (say, mem1, mem2, ..., memN) provide a swap function, one could use the following code instead:

T& operator= (T that) {    // that is constructed by the copy constructor mem1.swap (that.mem1); mem2.swap (that.mem2); ...    memN.swap (that.memN); // now what were originally this->mem1, this->mem2, etc. get // destroyed when that gets destroyed, and that.mem1, etc. are // retained in *this return *this; }

Pointer To Implementation (pImpl)
The "pointer to implementation" (pImpl) idiom, also called the "opaque pointer" idiom, is a method of providing data and thus further implementation abstraction for Classes.

In C++ you have to declare member variables within the class definition which is then public and that this is necessary so that an appropriate memory space is allocated means that abstraction of implementation is not possible in "all" classes.

However, at the cost of an extra pointer dereference and function call, you can have this level of abstraction through the Pointer to Implementation.

class Book { public: void print; private: std::string m_Contents; }

So somebody who works with the Book class only really needs to know about print, but what happens if you wish to add more detail to your book class.

class Book { public: void print; private: std::string m_Contents; std::string m_Title; }

Now all the users of book have to recompile because the object they know about got bigger, yet they still only call print.

pImpl would implement the following pattern so that this would not be a problem.

/* public.h */ class Book { public: Book; ~Book; void print; private: class BookImpl; BookImpl* const m_p; }

and in a separate 'internal' header /* private.h */ class Book::BookImpl { public: void print; private: std::string m_Contents; std::string m_Title; }
 * 1) include "public.h"
 * 2) include

The body of the Book class then would look something like

Book::Book: m_p(new BookImpl) { } Book::~Book {  delete m_p; } void Book::print {  m_p->print; } /* then BookImpl functions */ void Book::BookImpl::print {  std::cout << "print from BookImpl" << std::endl; }

then invoked from a main function:

int main {  Book b;   b.print; }

You could also use std::unique_ptr or equivalent to manage the internal pointer.

title: C++ Programming/Idioms


text:
User:Pieter

Please, contact me here.

title: User:Pieter


text:
TeX/relax

Synopsis
\relax

Description
Donald Knuth describes this as telling TeX to "do nothing." This seems like a pointless control sequence at first thought. However, some control sequences act on tokens that follow it, and \relax tells TeX to stop accepting new tokens for this control sequence. This is sometimes necessary to resolve otherwise ambiguous expressions.

Examples
The following piece of code looks just fine, but... \begin{tabular}{ll} Number & Text \\ [a] & lorem ipsum \\ [b] & lorem ipsum \\ \end{tabular}

... TeX throws an Error "! Missing number, treated as zero. a". TeX just ignores the end-of-line and reads the tokens "\\[a]" as \\[length]. To stop TeX reading into such things just tell it to \relax \begin{tabular}{ll} Number & Text \\ \relax [a] & lorem ipsum \\ \relax [b] & lorem ipsum \\ \end{tabular}

so TeX (and you) keep it cool.

Exercises
de:LaTeX-Wörterbuch:_TeX_Primitiven:_\relax

title: TeX/relax


text:
User talk:Spoom

Hello Spoom, and welcome to Wikibooks! You might want to visit Textbook planning and the first few sections of the Staff lounge, to get a sense of how books are built. You can also leave questions for me on my talk page. Sj 23:00, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the welcome :^) Spoom 21:00, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

PHP Wikibook
Just thought I would stop by at say, your php wikibook rocks! --Terrible Tim 20:33, 12 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Spoom


text:
User talk:Paddu

Greetings Paddu, and welcome to Wikibooks. You can visit Textbook planning and the first few sections of the Staff lounge, to get a sense of how books are built. You are also welcome to leave questions for me on my talk page. Sj 23:00, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

*grave voice* There's something important I'de like to talk to you about. Have a seat.

You recently added all the "unsung heroes" to the list of wikibookians? This appears to be a mistake. Specifically, they are no longer unsung.

We take mistakes very seriously here at... Wikibooks, you understand that? You clearly ought to have written "unsung" and then immediately have edited the page to remove the "unsung".

Those who make mistakea, as you have, are traditionally forced to sit and eat... pear soup. Have fun. I will be back soon to make sure you finish your bowl, and be sure not to wander out into the rest of Wikibooks! I am Watching you. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 06:23, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't know about pear soup, but eating is something I really hate. I'm already forced to eat daily (if not by my mom, by the urge to survive until I could contribute more to the 'pedia and the 'books). Couldn't you have thought of some less cruel punishment? Boo, hoo! :-( -- Paddu 14:16, 20 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * ...I have tangerine soup. It's being voted at the moment whether it should be an official punishment, but... fine. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 19:55, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC) PS You're very lucky. There is in fact a rule saying that after lodging an informal appeal you may edit, but that is an archaic law spanning 4 centuries. Smart-ass.the

 * I hope User:80.185.161.162 got the same punishment for this. I strongly believe in equality, esp. w.r.t. punishments. -- Paddu 22:12, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * As strange as is the case mostly in meat-space, I had to get rid of my punishment so I could repent for my sins & undo the damage. -- Paddu 22:20, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * PS: Yes, I'm a smart-ass. See how I got a time-independent link to my "undoing", without a "diff=0" that'd change when the current version changes?

Paddu: for what reason do you ask me to wait before editing the C++ wikibook? (Also, feel free to contact me via e-mail; jdennett@ should reach me.

I'm completely lost too. An internal fork is wholly undesirable, and it just makes a mess of the contributions. What I would do (I doubt this would carry water, given the circumstances) would be basically to start over, possibly moving the stuff we have currently to talk or subpages and reconstructing the book with structure in mind, since everything appears to be a bit of an amorphous mess. I'll be somewhat busy until the end of the week, but I can try and help out after this if need be. Dysprosia 05:40, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

C++ copyright issues
If there are sections of Wikipedia articles in that page, and no credit is given, then yes, those are copyright violations. I'm not familiar with the book, or the subject, really, so if you can document a few sections of the article that are copied from Wikipedia, that'd be good. Gentgeen 21:58, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Moved from Panic's talkpage...
OK, now that you've read all my messages here, please look at the replies in Talk:Programming:C plus plus if you've not already done so & if you care for my opinion. Thanks! -- Paddu 16:09, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

We are talking books (not articles or encyclopedic descriptions), there can and I hope there will be many more books about C++ and there may already exist other books on the same subject on wikibooks, I do agree that forking was not good but as you requested me to leave and you were first contributing to it, I did respect your creative control, (I really don't have the time to continue arguing with you on every point) you argue more on mood points that you do contribute any content, I have now stopped contributing (directly to C Plus Plus) your are free to revert it to my first contribution as was indicated on the talk page if you wish... --Panic 22:38, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * No creative control, or whatever is tolerated here. Everyone is allowed to edit everything. I didn't ask you to leave. You could either impose your ideas elsewhere or use wikibooks as per the wiki way, so you've a choice. You shouldn't impose your ideas on wikibooks. Note that I'm more worried about your spoiling talk pages and making my comments & suggestions less visible than yours, than about your forking and other alterations to the article. The article would survive much longer than your wikilife so I don't bother about it (for now at least), but your removal/relocation of my comments affects the reachability of my ideas. -- Paddu 07:43, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

C++
Hi Paddu, I moved the C++ page because -/- is not + sign. Notice there's a module "Visual C (plus plus)". I think it's logical to follow such convention, when a symbol can't be used then sound out the symbol. -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 11:54, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * There's a Programming:C plus plus for a long time now. This one is just a "rival" fork started by User:Panic2k4. Ideally we ought to consolidate everything into one page & then delete other forks. But until then having more pages is counter-productive. -- Paddu 12:00, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * I see your point. I hope an admin will be able to merge the pages and delete any duplicates. I know this has been mentioned but please think of a way to divide the main page into chapters in separate pages. If your team can come up with a chapters structure, then the book will be more functional. The main page is overcluttered. Thanks -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 13:01, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah of course I meant to say page/group of pages. I'm in favour of multiple-pages. But when talking about forks I tend to call the group of pages a page. I hope I haven't made this mistake in many places, or people might think I'm in favour of single page! -- Paddu 14:30, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmm, my fault for not sticking to the topic of the "Talk page" issue. On that issue, there shouldn't be a replicated talk page on another module page. -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 15:24, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Hi Paddu, I'm just letting you know before I save the edit for "C plus plus" page that I'm trying out the convention used by Lucid Dreaming where it lists the contents of module pages like the Table of Contents you'd find in a book. The purpose of this is also to try and get Panic2k4 to see that dividing the main page into separate pages is aesthetically pleasing, unburdens the page size and load time, and that it's possible to display everything on the main page (contents listing not actual contents) -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 22:39, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

NOTE
Ive replied--Panic 19:04, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC) Ive replied--Panic 23:46, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)--Panic 19:04, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Are you sure? C++ could use the help
You wrote elsewhere "I don't think I can find enough time and patience to work on the C++ wikibook," and I have to respect that decision (after all, I've walked away once, and nearly twice). However: some of us would appreciate your help if you have nay time, even if it's only to offer opinions or edit things you dislike rather than contributing significant new material. I don't know for how long I'll have time to contribute to the C++ Programming book again, but for now I have time, and I'm feeling optimistic that we can make it a good deal better in a relatively short period of time. It's your call, nobody's under any obligation to help here, but some people are more useful than others. -- James Dennett 08:44, 14 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I replied to invitations to come back posted at w:User talk:Paddu at User talk:SB_Johnny. If you'd like my opinions on specific issues, you can point me to those and I'll be glad to help.
 * One opinion I would like to offer is that I think we should start with C++-style arrays/lists using STL classes and talk about C-style arrays and pointers at a later "advanced" stage of the book (I'm not sure how that is arranged now). I also noticed that in the TOC, unions appear before classes, whereas I'd consider unions too as an "advanced" topic since initially while learning classes, etc. one shouldn't be worried about memory layout, etc.
 * Thanks! -- 18:35, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Fair enough; I agree that I'd like to present C++ in more of a "top-down" approach, and have discussed this with User::Darklama. This includes, for example, presenting RAII and the standard containers classes in the memory management chapter before giving details of new/delete/malloc/free etc, and preferring to use std::string before talking about raw arrays.  There are concerns that it's a lot of work to adjust material and presentation order to suit that, but frankly I'm prepared to put in work if we can make a good, top-down book, but not much if it's going to be a traditional bottom-up, "C++ as C with extras" text.  (You might note that there are two TOCs now, linking to the same underlying material; a kind of mini-fork of contents tables, which hopefully might be resolved eventually.)  Anyway, thanks for your response. -- James Dennett 19:40, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

 * I've replied to your note on my talk page; I agree on preferring to make namespace use more explicit. -- James Dennett 20:49, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

Issues
It has been 2 years, so your issues with copyright violations may have resolved itself, through many changed. C++ Programming/Authors acknowledges that some work was taken from Wikipedia and other sources. As far as Ownership issues are concerned there is attempt to address that issue now. I've added a section to What is Wikibooks/Unstable about ownership if you wish to read it and provide constructive critisism on it. Failing that there is also text that appears below the edit box when editing a page that has been present for a long time:

Please note that all contributions to Wikibooks are considered to be released under the GNU Free Documentation Licence (see Wikibooks:Copyrights for details). If you don't want your writing to be edited mercilessly and redistributed at will, then don't submit it here. You are also promising us that you wrote this yourself, or copied it from a public domain or similar free resource. DO NOT SUBMIT COPYRIGHTED WORK WITHOUT PERMISSION!

Any other issues, you wish to discuss? --dark lama  21:09, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

/comments_on_Panic2k4
On User:Paddu/comments on Panic2k4 I notice your talking about mapping between old names and to their new name. I'm not sure what your asking be done. Are you asking that links in the archives be updated to reflect their current page names? The page that you mention was deleted could be merged into the current Variables page and thus restore your contributions and everyone else who contributed to that page before it was copied pasted. Which I think would be the right thing to do. What do you think about that? --dark lama  22:21, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

I don't think it will be necessary for you to leave Wikibooks again. While Panic may make threats, I would point out that is one of the problems that other people are having with him as well, not just you. I think its pretty safe to say his threats are empty threats and any attempt on his part to carry out his threats and control the situation will only reafferm what people have been saying. I would like to suggest you not let his words effect what you do and just focus on what you came here to do. Personally I think his behavior even within this process can and perhaps should be used as additional examples of his dealings with other people if not already noticed by the person responsible for making the decision.--dark lama  21:28, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

I would also urge you to consider not leaving Wikibooks. Panic threatened to make the page messy; if he does, like darklama said, it will confirm at least some of the accusations that people have made. I think it was highly inappropriate of him to make vague threats on that page. Your help on the C++ Wikibooks is valuable — User:Iamunknown 01:40, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

Page restored
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/C%2B%2B_Programming/Variables_and_Expressions

-- SB_Johnny | talk 00:51, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

Wikibooks talk:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Plaintiff Charges
I would like to ask you politely to perhaps move that portion of what you wrote to the main "project" side of this page instead. You brought up several key points that certainly have expressed some concerns and problems in your dealing with Panic, and I think it is reasonable to make them a part of this record.

As far as Panic's remarks, go ahead and cull them from your remarks as they were really more objections about the process you used than anything directly said. --Rob Horning 11:36, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

Sitting on Recent Changes
I guess my comment would be that you should remove anything you do not approve of that is yours. If I can help let me know - regards -- Herby talk thyme 08:39, 13 January 2007 (UTC)

Forking proposal
I noticed you had taken part in the policy discussion about forking, and wonder if you might weigh in at Forking proposal, which is about the technical side of making good forks. -- SB_Johnny | talk 13:36, 15 January 2007 (UTC)

Arbitration Decision
I have stepped in to deliver a decision for the arbitration which I believe has gone on long enough. Please see my decision page and write on my talk page if you have a response. Thanks. -within focus 23:02, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paddu


text:
User:Omegatron/sandbox

en:User:Omegatron en:User:Omegatron en:Wikipedia:test en:Wikipedia:test test en:test ant en:ant

title: User:Omegatron/sandbox


text:
User:Omegatron/sandbox2

test test test again

test

fgfdgdsgfds fdsa

fdsa

title: User:Omegatron/sandbox2


text:
Cookbook:Veal with Lima Beans

Veal with large lima beans (mish qingjji me barbunja) is an Albanian dish.

Ingredients

 * 1½ lb veal shoulder, cut into 1-inch cubes
 * 1 ounce butter
 * 1 large onion, grated
 * Salt and pepper, to taste
 * 1 can (8 ounces) diced tomatoes
 * 1 ½ lb of large lima beans

Procedure

 * 1) Wash the meat thoroughly with cold water, drain, and place in a pot together with butter and onions. Stir-fry over medium-high heat for a few minutes.
 * 2) Add enough water to cover the meat. Add salt, pepper, and 2–3 tablespoons of the tomatoes. Cover the pot and let the meat boil.
 * 3) In the meantime, cut the ends off the lima beans and clean them well (you also cut them in half if you desire). Add the beans to the meat after it has been boiling for several minutes. Also add water until everything in the pot is covered.
 * 4) When the beans are done boiling, add the rest of the tomatoes. Then let the stew boil for a few more minutes so that the liquid can thicken.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Please note that tomatoes should not be added all at once in the beginning since they don't allow the lima beans to boil at the right pace. If you would rather use fresh tomatoes, when you add the beans, add whole tomatoes instead of cut ones.

title: Cookbook:Veal with Lima Beans


text:
User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch1

I will never press the unwatch button on this article.

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The Watchlist Gnome business plan:

Step 1: Steal articles.

Step 2: ???

Step 3: Profit.

test

fdas

i think i got it!

title: User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch1


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User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch2

I will never press the unwatch button on this article.

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title: User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch2


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User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch3

I will never press the unwatch button on this article.

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title: User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch3


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User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch4

I will never press the unwatch button on this article.

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title: User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch4


text:
User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch5

I will never press the unwatch button on this article.

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title: User:Omegatron/sandbox/watch5


text:
Cookbook:Pizza Dough

A simple pizza recipe; works well for thin crusts.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup lukewarm (about 100°F or 38°C) water
 * 2 cups all-purpose flour
 * ⅛ oz yeast
 * 1 tbsp white granulated sugar
 * 1 pinch salt
 * Vegetable, corn, or canola oil
 * Cornmeal

Procedure

 * 1) Mix water, yeast, flour, and salt in a large mixing bowl. If the batter is thin and runny like pancake batter, knead in a little more flour to get a sticky dough. If you can touch the batter with your finger and not stick to it, that's too dry, so knead in a little water.
 * 2) Set the mixing bowl so it is sitting in warm water, or place on top of a warm oven. Let rise for 20–30 minutes. Don't worry if it only rises 10% or 20%—it'll still work.
 * 3) Grease a baking sheet with some oil, then sprinkle cornmeal on the oil. Use you fingers to press the dough out until it is about ¼ inch thick all over, with the edges ½ inch thick. Sprinkle flour on top of the dough so it doesn't stick to your hands.
 * 4) Top dough with pizza toppings as desired—see pizza article.
 * 5) Bake at 425°F for about 15–20 minutes. Rotate every 5 minutes and move to upper or lower shelves as necessary. After 10 minutes slide a large knife under the crust. If it is dark brown, move it to a higher shelf so it doesn't burn while the top finishes cooking. If it is white or light tan, move to lower shelf so you get a crispy crust before the cheese starts turning brown on top.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * On your first try, try just one or two pizzas. Then you can adjust it next time as necessary.
 * The dough rises to become about 50% larger, so use a big bowl.
 * Note that the flour used must be at least 60–70% all-purpose white flour. The dough will be heavy and won't rise as much if the proportion of other flours is too large.
 * Try adding sesame seeds, oregano, or basil to the dough.

Troubleshooting

 * If the crust isn't done in the middle, you may have the dough too thick.
 * If the crust burned on the bottom, you either had it too close to the bottom of the oven or didn't move it to a higher shelf in time. Some stoves are hotter than the thermostat, so try a lower temperature next time.
 * Water from fresh tomatoes, pineapples, and onions, can seep into the crust, so take it easy on those.
 * If the pizza is too greasy, reduce the amount of oil in the pan. It should be a thin film, but it doesn't need to pool on the surface. Some toppings (pepperoni, sausage, even cheese) will release grease into the pizzas; try smaller pieces.
 * If the vegetables are overdone (e.g., dried up mushrooms, bitter peppers, soggy onion), try topping the pizza halfway through the baking time so they still have a little texture left. Some vegetables, especially broccoli, work better when protected by a coating of oil.
 * If the cheese is brown and dried out on top, the pizza was cooked too close to top element in oven; never use top shelf.
 * If the crust is not very light, use less whole wheat flour or cornmeal in the batter.

Livre_de_cuisine/Pâte_à_pizza

title: Cookbook:Pizza Dough


text: Talk:Scouting/BSA/Backpacking Merit Badge


text:
Cookbook:Classic Vanilla Milkshake

| Beverages | Dessert

Milkshakes are beverages made by blending cream and milk with other ingredients added for color and flavor.

Ingredients

 * 2 cups (480 ml) vanilla ice cream
 * 1 cup (240 ml) whole milk
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) half & half
 * 2 ½ tablespoons (35 g) sugar
 * ⅛ teaspoon vanilla extract

Procedure

 * 1) Pour the milk, ice cream, and half & half in a blender and partially blend.
 * 2) Add the sugar and flavoring, and blend until thoroughly mixed.

title: Cookbook:Classic Vanilla Milkshake


text:
User talk:DX~enwikibooks

Your vandalism has been removed. If you do it again, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. If you don't want to be blocked, then I suggest you refrain from vandalism. Thanks Dysprosia 06:31, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Special:Contributions/DX. Dysprosia 06:34, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Don't vandalize, and I won't be hating. Dysprosia 06:38, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called DX. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name DX~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:07, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:DX~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Puzzles/Geometric Puzzles/Matchsticks/Solution

Im assuming this means to form a tetrahedron with the four sticks right? 24.187.18.164 07:05, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)


text:
User:CopyBot~enwikibooks

CopyBot is a computer program, that automatically copies pages from en to de. For more infos (in german) see http://de.wikibooks.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Benutzer:CopyBot.

title: User:CopyBot~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Computer Hardware

鼠 says: there's nothing in here about ribbon cables.....

The assumption that a Computer == IA32 PC is a bit strange. Maybe generalize it a bit? Or else a general description of a Von Neumann computer architecture and then other sections which show how this is implemented in different designs?

Please note also that you can make computers which are radically different from the Von Neumann architecture. Thinking Machines Connection Machine comes to mind. At least point out what you mean with computer in this book.

Duplicating Wikipedia information?
I've checked in a few updates to this book recently but it strikes me that a lot of this information is already in the Wikipedia. Are there any policies on pulling stuff in from Wikipedia? Obviously it's OK licensing-wise but could make maintenance somewhat tricky, since there'll be two copies of the information... Any thoughts / suggestions?

Target audience ?
Are we simply describing what all these components *do*, for the target audience of people who considering buying system A vs. system B and need help decoding the specifications ?

Or are we going to go on and describe how to install/replace these components, for the target audience of people who are considering upgrading their computer, and perhaps building an entire system from scratch ?

-- DavidCary 21:08, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Suggestion
Hi,

I've a suggestion on how to improve this page. I remember my computer hardware course at EPFL 5 years ago. Although the material was a bit old (678k oriented), the general layout was very good, beginning by a very general description speaking about CPU, Memory, IO and their connecting buses. I suggest doing something like this for this page. The IA32 oriented part could be a section.

Another question not really connected to this, but is there any kind of support for vector graphic in wikipedia's based wikis? It would be cool to be able to put svg graphics for schematic. It would also be cool to have a standard graphic line.

Steph

--Nct 09:03, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, SVG is supported. See XML - Managing Data Exchange/SVG for lots of examples of svg images on a wikibook page. --DavidCary (talk) 02:12, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

Updated Connectors
220.101.28.25 (talk) 13:02, 7 October 2009 (UTC)
 * 'Internal Connectors' relating to SATA drive data and power cables
 * Motherboard power connectors ie ATX +12v, PCIE connectors etc.

RAM
This info. "RAM is needed because hard drives are too slow to operate with the speed of a microprocessor." Does not seem correct. RAM is required to hold programs and data for the CPU to access it. HDD is for 'permanent' storage, not for working with data or executing programs.

The data in the RAM is being constantly changed, such as screen displays. I don't see how it would be possible to operate directly from the hard drive. It would NEVER be fast enough as the data has to go though several(?) interfaces & cables.

Remember a HDD is a mechanical device. CPU are running at billions of operations per second. Even a Solid State (Flash RAM) Hard Drive possibly couldn't keep up. AND Flash RAM has a limited number of Read/ Write cyles. (Less than a HDD?)

You can run a computer without a HDD. But NOT without RAM. Person who wrote this may be being confused by use of HDD for virtual 'memory'? 220.101.28.25 (talk) 14:20, 7 October 2009 (UTC)

Book merge
I plan to merge this book with sections of How_To_Assemble_A_Desktop_PC. This book does not have any relevance anymore, its purpose taken over by the other book.--Leaderboard 18:25, 15 January 2015 (UTC)

 * Quick glance - I don't see anything that stands out as needing to be merged. Only thing that isn't in the other book is AGP, PCI, ISA cards, and that would likely be plopped in the archive section (or under a new appendix.) The appendix A also appears to have all relevant stuff in the other book, or otherwise be placed into a legacy section too. I think it's safe to do a redirect. --69.165.153.247 (discuss) 19:42, 5 October 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Computer Hardware


text:
Cookbook talk:Brown Sugar

This module was the featured ingredient on the main Cookbook page from August 12, 2004 - September 6, 2004. Gentgeen 12:38, 6 Sep 2004 (UTC)

I moved Brown Sugar module to Brown sugar. I'm sorry if that's inconvenient for anyone, but I was trying to rationalise it with the main Sweeteners page. Cheers, Donovan. 11:30, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * That messed up the Sugar page. The duplication is stupid anyway. I'll get the individual sugars off of the Sweeteners page, and obviously restore this. In general, the Cookbook frequently suffers from such duplication. Just a few weeks ago I sorted out the differences between the Fish page and the Seafood page, removing a list of fish from the Seafood page to prevent future problems. AlbertCahalan 17:11, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Brown Sugar


text:
PHP Programming/SQL Injection Attacks

The Problem
Consider the following SQL query in PHP:

$result=mysql_query('SELECT * FROM users WHERE username="'.$_GET['username'].'"');

The query selects all rows from the users table where the username is equal to the one put in the query string. If you look carefully, you'll realise that the statement is vulnerable to SQL Injection - quotes in  are not escaped, and thus will be concatenated as part of the statement, which can allow malicious behaviour.

Consider what would happen if  was the following:   (a double-quote, followed by a textual " OR 1 OR username = " followed by another double-quote). When concatenated into the original expression, you have a query that looks like this:. The seemingly redundant  part added is to ensure that the SQL statement evaluates without error. Otherwise, a hanging double quote would be left at the end of the statement.

This selects all rows from the users table.

Input Validation
Never trust user provided data, process this data only after validation; as a rule, this is done by pattern matching. In the example below, the username is restricted to alphanumerical chars plus underscore and to a length between eight and 20 chars - modify as needed.

For increased security, you might want to abort the script's execution replacing  by   or.

This issue still applies when using checkboxes, radio buttons, select lists, etc. Any browser request(even ) can be replicated through telnet, duplicate sites, javascript, or code (even PHP), so always be cautious of any restrictions set on client-side code.

Escaping Values
PHP provides you with a function to deal with user input in MySQL, and that is. This script escapes all potentially dangerous characters in the string provided and returns the escaped string such that it may be safe to put into a MySQL query. However, if you do not sanitize input prior to passing it to  function you still may have SQL injection vectors. For example;  would not protect against an SQL injection vector such as the following:

If  contained   then the resulting query would be:

which is a valid SQL injection vector.

(The original function,, did not take the current character set in account for escaping the string, nor accepted the connection argument. It is deprecated since PHP 4.3.0.)

For example, consider one of the examples above:

$result=mysqli_query($link, 'SELECT * FROM users WHERE username="'.$_GET['username'].'"');

This could be escaped as follows:

$result=mysqli_query($link, 'SELECT * FROM users WHERE username="'.mysqli_real_escape_string($_GET['username']).'"');

This way, if the user tried to inject another statement such as a, it would harmlessly be interpreted as part of the WHERE clause parameter as expected:

SELECT * FROM `users` WHERE username = '\';DELETE FROM `forum` WHERE title != \''

The backslashes added by  make MySQL interpret them as actual single quote characters rather than as part of the SQL statement.

Note that MySQL does not allow stacking of queries so the  attack would not work anyway

Parameterized Statements
The PEAR's DB package provides a prepare/execute mechanism to do parameterized statements.

The query method, also do the same as prepare/execute,

The prepare/execute will automatically call  as discussed in the above section.

In PHP version 5 and MySQL version 4.1 and above, it is also possible to use prepared statements through  extension. Example :

Similarly, you could use the built-in PDO Class in PHP5.

For More Information

 * PHP Manual: SQL Injection
 * How to prevent SQL Injection Attacks
 * Preventing SQL Injection in PHP MySQL Insert and Update Queries
 * Preventing SQL Injection in PHP MySQL Select Queries

title: PHP Programming/SQL Injection Attacks


text:
Cryptography/Scytale

The Scytale cipher is a type of transposition cipher used since the 7th century BCE. The first recorded use of the scytale cipher was by the Spartans and the ancient Greeks who used it to transport battle information between generals.

Encryption Using the Scytale
The scytale encryption system relies on rods of wood with equal radiuses. The system is a symmetric key system where the radius of the rod is the key.

After establishing keys a messenger winds a strip of leather around the rod. Then he writes the message going across the rod, so that when he unwinds the leather the letters have been jumbled in a meaningless fashion.

Example: Suppose the rod allows you to write 4 letters around it in one circle and 5 letters down the side. Clear text: "Help me I am under attack" To encrypt one simply writes across the leather...

_____________________________________________________________    |  |   |   |   |   |   |     |  | H | E | L | P | M | |__| E | I | A | M | U |__ | N | D | E | R | A | | | T | T | A | C | K | | |  |   |   |   |   |  | ______________________________________________________________

so the cipher text becomes, "HENTEIDTLAEAPMRCMUAK" after unwinding.

Decryption Using the Scytale
To decrypt all you must do is wrap the leather strip around the rod and read across. Example: ciphertext: "HENTEIDTLAEAPMRCMUAK" Every fourth letter will appear on the same line so the cipher text becomes HELPM...return to the beginning once you reach the end and skip used letters. ...EIAMUNDERATTACK. Insert spaces and the plain text returns, "Help me I am under attack"

title: Cryptography/Scytale


text:
Cookbook:Cucumber and Buttermilk Soup

| Soup

A cold tangy soup, refreshing and unique.

Ingredients

 * 5 hot house cucumbers
 * 4 cups scallions
 * 6 cups buttermilk
 * 1 cup cream
 * 2 tbsp tarragon
 * 2 tbsp lemon juice
 * 1 tbsp sugar
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Peel cucumbers.
 * 2) Dice into ¼-inch dice.
 * 3) Finely chop scallions.
 * 4) Mix everything together.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Dill can be substituted for tarragon.

title: Cookbook:Cucumber and Buttermilk Soup


text:
Cookbook:Stuffed Courgette

Ingredients

 * 2 large courgettes (zucchini)
 * 1 large onion
 * Garlic
 * Olive oil
 * 1 large green bell pepper
 * 2 large tomatoes
 * Herbs
 * 4 oz cooked brown rice
 * Mustard
 * Seasoning
 * Cheddar cheese

Preparation

 * 1) Slice courgettes in half lengthways, and scoop or cut out middles; reserve middles.
 * 2) Chop onion and garlic, and sauté for a few minutes in olive oil.
 * 3) Chop pepper, tomatoes, and herbs. Add to pan together with courgette middles.
 * 4) Add rice, mustard, and seasoning to taste. Cook for 5 minutes and drain off any extra liquid.
 * 5) Stuff the 4 courgette halves with the cooked mixture, and sprinkle grated cheese on top.
 * 6) Bake in medium-hot oven for 20 minutes.
 * 7) Serve with green salad.

title: Cookbook:Stuffed Courgette


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Thailand

| Southeast Asian cuisines

Recipes

 * Khai Luk Khoei - Deep fried hard boiled eggs with a tamarind sauce.
 * Chuu Chee Fish - Whole fish in chuu chee curry sauce with lime leaves. Very tasty.
 * Pad Thai - A signature fried noodle dish of Thailand.
 * Tom Yum Gai - Chicken and mushroom hot and sour soup.
 * Mee Krob - Fried noodles
 * Khaeng Keaw Wan - Coconut soup with green curry and sliced meat.
 * Pad Kaprow Kai - Fried minced meat with garlic, basil and chillies.
 * Tom Kha Kai (Tom Kha Gai) - Coconut soup and chicken, mushrooms, and coriander.
 * Khao Pad Gai - Thai-style fried rice with chicken.
 * Tod Mun Plaa - Thai fish cakes
 * Thong Yib - Thai dessert

Livre de cuisine/Recettes de cuisine thaïlandaise

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Thailand


text:
PHP Programming/The switch Structure

How they work
Here's an example of a simple game where a user enters a $user_command and different functions are run as a result:

Clearly, there's a lot of repeated code here. The switch case structure allows you to avoid this redundant code. It allows programmers to repeatedly compare the value of a certain variable to a list of possible values and execute code based on the result. This is the syntax for a switch case statement, compared to the same code written using if statements:

The switch case style will save you from retyping $firstvariable, and make your code look cleaner (especially, if that code is a long chain of simple if statements). Returning to our zorkmid sample program, we have:

Syntax
In this example, $var is the first variable to be compared. This variable is then compared against each case statement from the top down, until it finds a match. At that point, the code will execute until a break statement is reached (that will allow you to leave the case statement entirely).

Important warning about using switch case statements
Don't forget to use break when you mean break! If you forget, you might run functions you don't intend to. However, there are circumstances where leaving breaks out can be useful. Consider this example:

This kind of coding is sometimes frowned upon, since it's not always as clear to see what the code is meant to do. Also, consider commenting case statements that aren't supposed to have a break; statement before the next case, so when others look at your code, they know not to add a break. In such a case, it is good programming practice to add comments to breakless cases so that it is clear that the break has been omitted deliberately:

For more information

 * PHP Manual: SWITCH Control Structure

title: PHP Programming/The switch Structure


text:
Introduction to Astrophysics/Sun

The Sun is an ordinary star that was born out of a cloud of matter called the primordial nebula 4½ thousand million years ago (4.5 billion years), along with the eight known planets in our corner of space called the Solar System. The Sun is mainly composed of hydrogen, a much smaller amount of helium together with other chemical elements. It is a globe of intensely hot plasma, 1,391,785,000 km in diameter, more than a million times bigger than our Earth. It shines through an atomic process called nuclear-fusion: four bits of hydrogen join to four bits of helium; the Sun gives off heat and light, and loses solid material into space. This all happens every second and our Sun loses 4 million tonnes of matter during that brief time. The Sun's centre has a temperature of 15 million degrees centigrade, cooling to 6 thousand degrees at its gaseous surface. Our Sun is not motionless in space; in fact, it has two kinds of motion. One is a seemingly straight-line motion in the direction of the constellation Hercules at the rate of about 12 Km per second. But since the Sun is a part of the Milky Way system, and since our Milky Way galaxy rotates slowly around its own centre, the Sun also moves at the rate of 175 Km per second as part of the rotating Milky Way system.

Our Sun is one star in 100,000 million, which goes to make up our galaxy, the Milky Way. Some stars are small and dim while others are super-giants by comparison. Our Milky Way is shaped like two fried eggs back to back and is a noticeable spiral formation of stars. In terms of size, our galaxy is huge, at the speed of light of 300,000 km a second it takes 4.2 years to travel to Earth from our nearest star - Proxima Centauri. On this scale it takes a single pulse of light 100,000 years to travel across the length of our galaxy from end to end.

As the Sun ages, it gradually expands and cools; although; prior to that period, the Sun will "burn" helium or other even heavier elements as the core of the Sun reaches higher and higher temperatures and densities. As a result of the Sun's increased temperature life on Earth will cease. The extreme heat generated will be catastrophic for Earth: the oceans will boil away and life as we know it will end. Long before the Sun reaches the Red Giant phase, the surface of the Earth will literally be molten as the temperature of the Sun increases. It is estimated that the Sun's brilliancy will increase by 10% over the next 1.1 billion years or more, and in about 6.5 billion years, our aging star will have doubled its present luminosity.

Eight billion years from now, when the Sun does reach the Red Giant phase, the Sun's radius will extend beyond the present orbit of Venus, causing the total destruction of Earth.

Our own Sun will continue to shine for generations to come, until its supply of hydrogen fuel is used up, and then its central regions will shrink as different fusion reactions compensate. The Sun will then expand into a huge red-giant star eating up all of the planets from Mercury to Mars (Earth included), and vaporising the atmospheres of the remaining gas giant planets until these too are destroyed. Fortunately by this time our human race will have become technically advanced, so we will have set off on journeys to find safe havens on other planets among the stars - Star Trek style.

The sun’s brilliant surface layer is called the photosphere (which means the ‘sphere-of-light’). Incorrect observation of the Sun causes blindness because of the tremendous amount of visible and invisible light coming off of its surface.

Sunspots are appropriately named. They appear as spots on the disk of the Sun. A sunspot will have a very dark central region known as the umbra. It is often surrounded by a less dark halo known as the penumbra.

The umbra is dark because it is cooler (around 3,500°C) than the surrounding sunspace (around 5,500°C). They appear move across the Sun as the Sun spins on its axis. Because the Sun is gaseous in nature and behaves like a fluid it does not spin as a rigid body. A spot near the equator will take about 25 days to complete one rotation. A spot near a pole, if there were ever one there, will take over a month to make the trip. Collections of sunspot sketches over a period of several years reveal the 11-year cycle of sunspots. Over that period the numbers of spots goes from a maximum to a minimum and back.

There also appears to be a relationship with the size and number of sunspots and Earth’s weather. During the Maunder minimum 1645–1715 there were no observable sunspots and Britain plunged into a mini ice age. However in recent years 2003–2004 there have been large sunspot numbers with some unusually large sunspots. This has coincided with hot summers and is believed to be one of the causes for global warming.

In addition to heat and light, the Sun also generates solar wind, a stream of ionized particles that radiates outward through the solar system at high speeds. One of the effects of solar wind is that it forces the tails of comets to point away from the Sun.

The solar wind also interacts with the Earth's magnetic field, causing the aurora and other phenomena. Solar flares — eruptions — of hydrogen gas on the surface of the Sun can also cause disturbances in the Earth's magnetic field.

The chromosphere is above the photosphere. Solar energy passes through this region on its way out from the centre of the Sun.

Faculae and flares arise in the chromosphere. Faculae are bright luminous hydrogen clouds, which form above regions where sunspots are about to form. Flares are bright filaments of hot gas emerging from sunspot regions.

Sunspots are dark depressions on the photosphere with a typical temperature of 4,000°C. In 1998, scientists observed for the first time solar flares producing seismic waves in the Sun's interior that resemble those created by earthquakes. They observed a flare-generated solar quake equivalent to an 11.3 magnitude earthquake. It contained about 40,000 times the energy released in the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake.

The corona is the outer part of the Sun's atmosphere. It is in this region that prominences appear. Prominences are immense clouds of glowing gas that erupt from the upper chromosphere. The outer region of the corona stretches far into space and consists of particles travelling slowly away from the Sun. The corona can only be seen during total solar eclipses.

Eclipses occur when the Sun, Earth and Moon line up. They are rare because the Moon usually passes above or below the imaginary line connecting Earth and the Sun. In a solar eclipse the Moon passes directly in front of the Sun. This can only happen when the phase of the Moon is "new." That occurs because for Earth-based observers, the far side of the Moon is illuminated while the side facing Earth is in darkness. The Moon like any sphere, casts a shadow. A solar eclipse occurs when that shadow sweeps across Earth. The black cone is called the umbra. An observer anywhere inside that region is completely in shade. None of the Sun is visible from there.

Surrounding the umbra is the penumbra. An observer there will see some, but not all, of the Sun. Outside of these regions all of the Sun is visible. Note that the tip of the umbra barely touches Earth. At the current time the position of the Moon relative to the Sun is such that the Moon, which is 1/400 as large as the Sun, is 400 times closer! This means that the two objects appear to be the same size in the sky. Only observers at the tip of the umbral cone will see a total solar eclipse. A large number of observers across the globe will see a partial solar eclipse if they are in the penumbra. An annular eclipse is a special partial solar eclipse. Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is an ellipse, not a circle, the Moon's distance from Earth varies. When the Moon is far from Earth it appears slightly smaller in the sky. (Earth's orbit around the Sun is also an ellipse, and during January, Earth is at its closest point to the Sun. The Sun's size is slightly larger than during the rest of the year.) With a "small" Moon and a "large" Sun the Moon will not completely block out the Sun. The umbra does not touch Earth. An observer would have to be above the surface of Earth to see a total eclipse. For individuals in just the right location, the Sun appears as a ring (annulus) around the silhouetted Moon.

In a lunar eclipse the Moon moves into Earth's shadow. They can only occur when the moon is "full." Observers on the night side of Earth see the Moon take on a reddish hue as it moves into Earth's umbra. If the entire disk of the Moon moves into the umbra it is a total lunar eclipse. If only a portion does, then it is a partial lunar eclipse.

Penumbral lunar eclipses are very difficult to detect because the Moon dims only slightly while moving through that region. Lunar eclipses are more common than solar eclipses. Total eclipses of the Sun and Moon are partial before and after totality.

Moving away from the sun at the centre of our solar system we arrive at the closest planet, Mercury, while there are eight known planets altogether including Earth. A planet is a sizeable body that orbits around a star. A planet also has no light of its own and therefore is only visible by reflecting starlight, in our case sunlight off its surface.

title: Introduction to Astrophysics/Sun


text:
Talk:Introduction to Astrophysics/Sun

My name is Patrick Fleckney and I am a science correspondent for a national newspaper. I welcome feedback about this topic either on my talk page or by e-mail richard_pearson2@yahoo.co.uk

Merge
How about merging with The_Sun_%28Astronomy%29 --SV Resolution 13:37, 23 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Introduction to Astrophysics/Sun


text:
Prolog/Rules

This section deals with rules, a general way to state when a predicate is true.

Rules
So far we haven't really been doing any programming, just defining objects and their properties. The first step to programming in prolog is the use of rules. With rules we state that a predicate is true, provided that other predicates are true. A rule looks like this:

a :- b, c, d.

This says that a is true, if b, c and d are true. If we have the following database,

a :- b, c, d. b. c. d :- e. e.

, and we were to ask Prolog if a is true, ?- a. Prolog would take the query (or goal) a and from that generate the sub-goals b, c and d. It can see that b and c are true, directly, as they are stated as facts, but d is only true if e is true, which leads to another sub-goal, e. Since e is also a fact, prolog will answer yes.

Rules with Variables
We can use predicates with terms as well.

car(corvette) :- haswheels(corvette), haswindows(corvette).

states that a corvette is a car if it has wheels and windows. This isn't a very useful statement, as we could also simply state that a corvette is a car with car(corvette).

We can however use variables in rules. This way we can state, for instance that anything is a car provided that it has wheels and windows:

car(A) :- haswheels(A), haswindows(A). haswheels(corvette). haswindows(corvette).

The first line states that for car(A) to be true, haswheels(A) and haswindows(A) need to be true. If prolog is asked whether a corvette is a car with

?- car(corvette).

it will bind A to corvette, and get the sub-goals haswheels(corvette) and haswindows(corvette). If it can prove both these goals (which it can), then car(corvette) must be true. When using variables in a program it's important to note that a variable doesn't mean anything beyond the sentence it's in. If two sentences use the variable A, it's not the same variable. For example:

bird(A) :- hasfeathers(A). dog(A) :- barks(A).

The A in the first line simply shows that the term of the predicate bird needs to be the same as the term of the predicate hasfeathers, it has nothing to do with the A in the second line.

Now we can return to our original program and add some rules. human(david). human(john). human(suzie). human(eliza). man(david). man(john). woman(suzie). woman(eliza). parent(david, john). parent(john, eliza). parent(suzie, eliza). father(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y), man(X). mother(X,Y) :- parent(X,Y), woman(X).

We can ask prolog who is the father of eliza: ?- father(X, eliza). X = john ; No

Or to list all fathers in the database and their respective children:

?- father(Father, Child). Father = david Child = john ; Father = john Child = eliza ; No

Examples
?- mother(Mother,Child). Mother = suzie Child = eliza ; No

Exercises
If you've used any other programming language, you may be familiar with recursion, which refers to a function calling itself. Prolog is particularly well suited for recursion, although in our case, it will be a predicate referring to itself, rather than a function. Go to the next section to see how and why this is done.

Prolog/Regras

title: Prolog/Rules