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Wikijunior:Kings and Queens of England/The Hanoverians

George I (1714-1727)
George I was born in Hanover, Germany on 28 May 1660. He was the eldest son of Ernst August, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, a German prince, and of his wife, Sophia. He was Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg from 23 January 1698, and King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 1 August 1714, until his death on 11 June 1727. He was also a Prince Elector of the Holy Roman Empire. George I was the first Hanoverian monarch of Great Britain and Ireland, but was not a fluent speaker of English. He spoke his native German, and was ridiculed for this by his British subjects. During his reign, the powers of the monarchy reduced as the modern Cabinet system of government developed. During the later years of George's reign, the real power was held by Sir Robert Walpole, who is now generally thought of as being Britain's first prime minister.

Marriage and children
In 1682, George married his first cousin, Princess Sophia of Celle. They had two children, George and Sophia Dorothea. The couple soon split up, with George preferring to be with his mistress, with whom he had at least three illegitimate children. George's marriage to Sophia was later dissolved.

Reign
George I was active in directing British foreign policy during his early years. In 1717, he contributed to the creation of the Triple Alliance, an anti-Spanish league composed of Great Britain, France and the United Provinces of the Netherlands. In 1718, the Holy Roman Empire was added to the body, which became known as the Quadruple Alliance. The subsequent War of the Quadruple Alliance involved the same issue as the War of the Spanish Succession. The Treaty of Utrecht had allowed Philip, the grandson of Louis XIV, to succeed to the Spanish Throne on the condition that he gave up his rights to succeed to the French Throne. However, when Louis XIV died, Philip tried to take the Crown of France. But Philip's armies fared poorly, and the Spanish and French Thrones remained separate.

In 1719 came the South Sea Bubble. It happened when the South Sea Company proposed to convert £30,981,712 of the British national debt. At the time, government bonds were extremely difficult to trade due to unrealistic restrictions; for example, it was not permitted to redeem certain bonds unless the original debtor was still alive. Each bond represented a very large sum, and could not be divided and sold. Thus, the South Sea Company sought to convert high-interest, untradeable bonds to low-interest, easily-tradeable ones. The Company bribed ministers to help them. Company prices rose rapidly. Shares which cost £128 in January 1720 were valued at £550 when Parliament accepted the scheme in May. The price reached £1000 by August. Uncontrolled selling, however, caused the stock to plummet to £150 by the end of September. Many people were completely ruined.

The economic crisis, known as the South Sea Bubble, made George I and his ministers extremely unpopular. One of the responsible ministers died, and the other resigned in 1721, which allowed the rise of Sir Robert Walpole. Walpole became George's primary minister, although the title "Prime Minister" was not formally applied to him. Officially, he was only the First Lord of the Treasury. His management of the South Sea crisis helped avoid a dispute between the King and the House of Commons over responsibility for the affair. Walpole strengthened his influence in the House of Commons through bribery.

Walpole became extremely powerful. He, not the King, truly controlled the government. Walpole was allowed to choose and remove all ministers, and George I merely rubber-stamped his decisions. George I did not even attend meetings of the Cabinet. George I only exercised substantial influence with respect to British foreign policy.

Death and legacy
George, although increasingly reliant on Sir Robert Walpole, could still have removed his ministers at will. Walpole was actually afraid of being removed towards the end of George I's reign, but such fears were put to an end when George I died in Osnabrück from a stroke on 11 June 1727. George was on his sixth trip to his native Hanover, where he was buried in Chapel Schloss Herrenhausen. George I's son succeeded him, becoming George II.

George I was extremely unpopular in Great Britain, especially due to his supposed inability to speak English; recent research, however, reveals that such an inability may not have existed later in his reign. His treatment of his wife, Sophia, was not well received. The British perceived him as too German, and despised his succession of German mistresses.

George II (1727-1760)
George II was born at Schloss Herrenhausen, Hanover on 10 November 1683. He was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Prince-Elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death on 25 October 1760. He was the second British monarch of the House of Hanover, and the last British monarch to personally lead his troops into battle (at Dettingen in 1743). He was also the last British monarch to have been born outside of Great Britain. George II was famous for his numerous conflicts with his father and afterwards with his son. His relationship with his wife was much better, despite his numerous mistresses. George II exercised little control over policy during his early reign, the government instead being controlled by Great Britain's first (unofficial) "Prime Minister", Sir Robert Walpole.

Reign
It was widely believed that George would dismiss Sir Robert Walpole, but in the event retained him. Against Walpole's advice, George II once again entered into war with Spain in 1739 (the War of Jenkins' Ear). The entire continent of Europe was plunged into war upon the death of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI in 1740. At dispute was the right of his daughter, Maria Theresa, to succeed to his Austrian territories. George II's war with Spain quickly became part of the War of the Austrian Succession.

Accused of rigging an election, Walpole retired in 1742 after over twenty years in office. He was replaced by Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington. Lord Wilmington, however, was a figurehead as actual power was held by Lord Carteret. When Lord Wilmington died in 1743, Henry Pelham took his place.

George II's French opponents in the War encouraged rebellion by the Jacobites. The Jacobites were the supporters of the Roman Catholic James II, who had been deposed in 1689 and replaced not by his Catholic son, but by his Protestant daughter. James II's son, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender") had attempted two prior rebellions. The Old Pretender's son, Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charlie"), however, led a much stronger rebellion on his father's behalf in 1745, which almost dethroned George II.

Bonnie Prince Charlie landed in Scotland in July 1745. Many Scotsmen were loyal to his cause, and he defeated British forces in September. He then tried to enter England, where even Roman Catholics seemed hostile to the invasion. The French king, Louis XV, had promised to send twelve thousand soldiers to aid the rebellion, but did not deliver. A British army under the Duke of Cumberland, meanwhile, drove the Jacobites back into Scotland. On 16 April 1746, Bonnie Prince Charlie faced the Duke of Cumberland in the Battle of Culloden, the last battle ever fought in Great Britain. The Jacobites were beaten heavily. Bonnie Prince Charlie escaped to France, but many of his Scottish supporters were caught and executed. The War of the Austrian Succession finally ended in 1748, with Maria Theresa being recognised as Archduchess of Austria.

For the remainder of his life, George did not take any active interest in politics or war. During his last years, the Industrial Revolution began, and British dominance in India increased with the victories of Robert Clive at the Battle of Arcot and the Battle of Plassey.

Death
George II died on 25 October 1760 whilst using his toilet. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. George had married Caroline of Ansbach in 1705. Their first son was Frederick, Prince of Wales who was born on 1 February 1707, but Frederick died before his father in 1751, and so it was Frederick's son George who became the next king. They also had two other sons and five daughters. He was succeeded by his grandson, who became George III.

George III (1760-1820)
George III was born at Norfolk House in London on 4 June 1738. He was the son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the grandson of George II. George's mother was Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. He was King of Great Britain and Ireland from 25 October 1760 to 1 January 1801, and then King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death on 29 January 1820. He was also the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, and Elector (and later King) of Hanover. George was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but the first to be born in Britain and use English as his first language.

During George III's reign, Britain lost many of its colonies in North America, which became the United States. Later in his reign George III suffered from mental illness. In 1811, this led to George's eldest son, who was also named George, taking over ruling the country as Prince Regent. Upon the king's death, he succeeded his father as George IV. George III has been nicknamed Farmer George, for "his plain, homely, thrifty manners and tastes" and because of his passionate interest in agriculture.

Marriage and children
After George became king, there a search throughout Europe for a suitable wife for him. On 8 September 1761 the King married Princess Sophia Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. A fortnight later, both were crowned at Westminster Abbey. The couple enjoyed a happy marriage and George never took a mistress. They had nine sons and six daughters. Two of their sons became Kings of the United Kingdom; another became King of Hanover; a daughter became Queen of Württemberg.

Conflict in North America
In 1763, the British government under George III issued a Royal Proclamation to limit the westward expansion of the American colonies. The Proclamation's goal was to force colonists to negotiate with the Native Americans for the lawful purchase of land. The idea was to reduce frontier warfare over land conflicts. The Proclamation was very unpopular with the American. The American colonists paid little tax, which made it difficult for the Crown to pay for military activity, such as defending the American colonies from being attacked by the natives. So, after George Grenville became Prime Minister, he introduced the Stamp Act 1765, which levied a stamp duty on all printed paper in the British colonies in North America. Grenville attempted to reduce George's power, so George replaced him with the 2nd Marquess of Rockingham in 1765.

Lord Rockingham got rid of Grenville's unpopular Stamp Act, but was replaced in 1766 by William Pitt, whom George made Earl of Chatham. Earl Chatham proved to be pro-American. George III, however, decided that the chief duty of the colonists was to submit to him and to Great Britain. Earl Chatham fell ill 1767, which led to his being replaced, and by 1770 the Tory Lord North was in government.

Lord North was chiefly concerned with the American Revolution. The Americans grew increasingly hostile to British attempts to levy taxes in the colonies. In the Boston Tea Party in 1773, a mob threw 342 crates of tea into Boston Harbour as a political protest, costing over $1 million. In response, Lord North introduced laws which shut down the Port of Boston and elections in the Colony of Massachusetts Bay were suspended.

War broke out in America in 1775. On 4 July 1776, the colonies declared their independence from the Crown. On the same day, George III wrote "Nothing Important Happened Today" in his diary. In 1783, defeated, the United Kingdom signed the Treaty of Paris recognizing the United States.

George's first major episode of madness
When North finally resigned, William Pitt took his place. During Pitt's ministry, George III was extremely popular. The public supported the exploratory voyages to the Pacific Ocean that he sanctioned. George also aided the Royal Academy with large grants from his private funds. The British people admired their King for remaining faithful to his wife, unlike the two previous Hanoverian monarchs. Great advances were made in fields such as in science and industry.

George III's health, however, was in a poor condition. He suffered from mental illness. The King had previously suffered a brief episode of the disease in 1765, but a longer episode began in 1788. In February 1789, the Regency Bill, authorising the Prince of Wales to act as Prince Regent, was introduced and passed in the House of Commons. But before the House of Lords could pass the bill, George III recovered from his illness and resumed full control of government.

Napoleonic Wars
After George recovered from his illness, his popularity greatly increased. The French Revolution, which saw the overthrow of the French monarchy, worried many British landowners. France declared war on Great Britain in 1793 and George soon represented the British resistance. George allowed Pitt to increase taxes and raise armies in the war attempt. Great Britain was well-prepared, but France was stronger. The First Coalition, which included Austria, Prussia and Spain, was defeated in 1798. The Second Coalition, which included Austria, Russia and the Ottoman Empire, was defeated in 1800. Only Great Britain was left fighting Napoleon Bonaparte, the military dictator of France.

Soon after 1800, a brief lull in fighting allowed Pitt to concentrate on Ireland, where there had been an uprising in 1798. Parliament passed the Act of Union 1800, which, on 1 January 1801, united Great Britain and Ireland into a single nation, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1802, Pitt's successor, Henry Addington made peace with France in 1802.

In 1803, the two nations once again declared war on each other, and soon after, Pitt returned. Pitt tried to form a coalition with Austria, Russia and Sweden. The Third Coalition met the same fate as the First and Second Coalitions, and collapsed in 1805. It looked as though Napoleon would invade, until Vice-Admiral Nelson won his famous naval victory at the Battle of Trafalgar. Pitt died in 1806.

Later years and death
In 1810, George III became dangerously ill. By 1811, George III had become permanently insane and was locked away at Windsor Castle until his death. Sometimes speaking for many hours without pause, he claimed to talk to angels and once greeted an oak tree as King Frederick William III of Prussia. Parliament then passed the Regency Act 1811. The Prince of Wales acted as Regent for the remainder of George III's life.

Lord Liverpool became the leader of the government in 1812. He oversaw British victory in the Napoleonic Wars. Meanwhile, George's health deteriorated. Over the Christmas of 1819, he suffered a further bout of madness and spoke nonsense for 58 hours, then sank into a coma. On 29 January 1820, he died, blind, deaf and insane, at Windsor Castle. George III had lived for over 81 years and reigned for more than 59 years. George III was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor. George was followed by his eldest son, the Prince Regent, who became George IV.

George IV (1820-1830)
George IV was born in St James's Palace on 12 August 1762. George was the eldest son of George III and Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He was king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Hanover from 29 January 1820 until his death on 26 June 1830. He had earlier served as Prince Regent when his father, George III, went insane. The Regency, which is the name given to this period, started in 1811 and ended with George III's death in 1820. It was marked by victory in the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. George was a stubborn monarch, often interfered in politics. For most of George's regency and reign, Lord Liverpool controlled the government as Prime Minister. George is often remembered largely for the extravagant lifestyle that he maintained as prince and monarch. He had a poor relationship with both his father and his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, whom he did not allow to attend his coronation. He was a patron of new forms of leisured style and taste, and was responsible for the building of the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.

Early life
As a child George was a talented student, quickly learning to speak not only English but also French, German and Italian. The Prince of Wales turned 21 in 1783, when he obtained a grant of £60,000 from Parliament and an annual income of £50,000 from his father. He then established his residence in Carlton House, where he lived an extravagant life.

Marriage and children
Soon after he reached the age of 21, the Prince of Wales fell in love with a Roman Catholic, Maria Anne Fitzherbert. A marriage between the two was banned by the Act of Settlement 1701, which says that those who marry Roman Catholics cannot become king. In addition, the Royal Marriages Act 1772 meant that the Prince of Wales could not marry without the consent of the King, which would have never been granted in this case. However, the couple did go through a marriage ceremony on 15 December 1785. Legally the union was void, as the King's assent was never requested. However, Mrs Fitzherbert believed that she was the Prince of Wales's canonical and true wife, holding the law of the Church to be superior to the law of the State. For political reasons, the union remained secret and Mrs Fitzherbert promised not to publish any evidence relating to it.

By 1787, George was in debt because of his exorbitant lifestyle. His father refused to help him, amd Parliament had to bail him out. His debts continued to mount, and his father refused to help him unless he married his cousin, Caroline of Brunswick. In 1795, George and Caroline married. The marriage was a disaster though, with both hating each other. The two were formally separated after the birth of their only child, Princess Charlotte, in 1796. George remained attached to Mrs Fitzherbert for the rest of his life, although there were some times when they were apart. George also fathered numerous illegitimate children.

Meanwhile, the problem of George's debts, which were £660,000 in 1796, was solved (at least temporarily) by Parliament. Being unwilling to make an outright grant to relieve these debts, it provided him an additional sum of £65,000 per annum. In 1803, a further £60,000 was added, and George's debts were finally paid.

Regency
As we saw earlier, in late 1810, George III became ill again, and in 1811 the Regency Act was passed, which made Prince George regent. At this time Catholic Emancipation was at the top of the political agenda. Catholic Emancipation was the project to relieve Roman Catholics of various political disabilities. The Tories, who were in government, opposed it, whilst the Whigs supported it. George was expected to support the Whigs, but instead left the Tories in office. In 1812, when the Tory prime minister, Spencer Perceval, was assassinated, he appointed another Tory, Lord Liverpool to carry on the government. The Tories also sought to continue the war against the powerful and aggressive Emperor of France, Napoleon I. With the aid of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria and other countries, the United Kingdom defeated Napoleon in 1814. Napoleon made a return in 1815, but was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the Duke of Wellington.

During this period George as Regent took an active interest in matters of style and taste, and his associates such as the dandy Beau Brummell and the architect John Nash created the Regency style. In London Nash designed the Regency terraces of Regent's Park and Regent Street. George took up the new idea of the seaside spa and had the Brighton Pavilion developed as a fantastical seaside palace, adapted by Nash in the "Indian Gothic" style inspired loosely by the Taj Mahal, with extravagant "Indian" and "Chinese" interiors.

Reign
When George III died in 1820, the Prince Regent became King George IV, with no real change in his powers. By this time he was obese and also showed some signs of the disease that had affected his father. George's wife, from whom he had separated many years before, tried to return for her husband's coronation. However, George IV refused to recognise Caroline as Queen. The King wanted a divorce, but his advisors said that the king's own adultery might also be made public if he did. George tried to get an Act of Parliament to annul the marriage, but the bill proved extremely unpopular, and was withdrawn from Parliament. George IV decided, nonetheless, to exclude his wife from his coronation at Westminster Abbey on 19 July 1821. Caroline died soon afterwards, on 7 August of the same year.

George's coronation was a magnificent and expensive affair, costing about £943,000. The coronation was a popular event. Many across the nation bought souvenirs that bore copies of the coronation portrait. In 1822 the King visited Edinburgh for "one and twenty daft days". His visit to Scotland was the first by a reigning monarch since Charles II went there in 1650.

George IV spent most of his reign at Windsor Castle, but he continued to interfere in politics, particularly to try to prevent Catholic Emancipation. It was only in 1829 that the then prime minister, the Duke of Wellington, successfully passed a Catholic Relief Bill.

Death and legacy
George IV died in 1830 and was buried in Windsor Castle. As his daughter and his eldest brother had died before him, he was succeeded his brother, William, Duke of Clarence.

William IV (1830-1837)
William IV was born at Buckingham Palace, which was then known as Buckingham House, on 21 August 1765. He was the son of George III and Queen Charlotte. He had two elder brothers, George and Frederick, and was not expected to inherit the Crown. He was King of the United Kingdom and of Hanover from 26 June 1830 until his death on 20 June 1837. His reign was one of several reforms. The poor law was updated, municipal government was made democratic, child labour was restricted and slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire. Also the Reform Act of 1832 refashioned the British electoral system. William did not meddle in politics as much as either his brother or his father, though he did prove to be the last monarch to appoint a Prime Minister contrary to the will of Parliament, which he did in 1834.

Early life
At the age of thirteen, he joined the Royal Navy as a midshipman, and was present at the Battle of Cape St Vincent in 1780. He served in New York during the American War of Independence. He became a lieutenant in 1785 and a captain the following year. In 1786, he was stationed in the West Indies. William sought to be made a Duke like his elder brothers, and to receive a similar Parliamentary grant, but his father was reluctant. To put pressure on him, William threatened to run for the House of Commons for the constituency of Totnes in Devon. Defeated, George III made him Duke of Clarence and St Andrews in 1789.

The newly created Duke ended his active service in the Royal Navy in 1790. He was promoted to Rear-Admiral upon retirement. When the United Kingdom declared war on France in 1793, he was eager to serve his country, but was not put in command of a ship, but instead he spent time in the House of Lords. There he spoke in favour of slavery (which, although it had virtually died out in the United Kingdom, still existed in the British colonies), and he used his experience in the West Indies to defend his positions.

After he left the Royal Navy, William had a long affair with an Irish actress, Dorothea Bland, better known by her stage name, Mrs Jordan. From 1791, the couple had at least ten illegitimate children. The affair would last for twenty years before ending in 1811 for political reasons. The same year, William was appointed Admiral of the Fleet. On 13 July 1818, he married Princess Adelaide, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, a woman half his age. William only had two short-lived children by his wife.

In 1827, George IV appointed William to the office of Lord High Admiral, which had been in commission (that is, exercised by a board rather than by a single individual) since 1709. While in office, Clarence attempted to take independent control of naval affairs, although the law required him to act, under most circumstances, on the advice of at least two members of his Council. The King requested his resignation in 1828.

The Reform Crisis
When George IV died in 1830, William became king. He was aged 64, which makes him the oldest man ever to assume the throne. In contrast to George IV, who tended to spend most of his time in Windsor Castle, William was known, especially early in his reign, to walk, unaccompanied, through London or Brighton. Until the Reform Crisis, he was very popular among the people.

At the beginning of William IV's reign, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington was Prime Minister. During the general election of 1830, however, Wellington's Tories lost to the Whig Party under Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey. When he became Prime Minister, Lord Grey immediately announced that he would try to reform an electoral system that had seen few changes since the 15th century. The existing system had many problems great. For example, large towns such as Manchester and Birmingham elected no members, whilst minuscule boroughs such as Old Sarum (with seven voters) elected two members of Parliament each. Often, the small boroughs, also known as rotten boroughs and pocket boroughs, were "owned" by great aristocrats, whose "nominees" would invariably be elected by the constituents.

William IV played an important role in the Reform Crisis. When the House of Commons defeated the First Reform Bill in 1831, Lord Grey wanted to call a new general election. At first, William hesitated to exercise the power to dissolve Parliament, but after the Opposition annoyed him, he personally went to the House of Lords and dissolved Parliament. This forced a new election for the House of Commons, which Grey won, but the House of Lords continued to oppose the Reform Bill. This led to several "Reform Riots". The nation saw a political crisis greater than any since the Glorious Revolution in 1688.

Grey re-introduced the Bill. It passed easily in the House of Commons, but was once again faced with difficulties in the House of Lords. Bowing to popular pressure, the Lords did not reject the bill outright, but instead changed its basic character through amendments. Grey did not like this so he suggested that the King "swamp" the House of Lords by creating a sufficient number of new peers to ensure the passage of the Reform Bill. When William IV refused, as he did not want a permanently expanded Peerage, Grey and his fellow ministers resigned. The King tried to get the Duke of Wellington as prime minister again, but first heard of an official resolution of the House of Commons requesting Grey's return. After this the King agreed to reappoint Grey, and also agreed to create new peers if the House of Lords continued to pose difficulties. With this threat in place, the House of Lords agreed to pass the Reform Act 1832. Parliament went on to make other reforms, including the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire and the restriction of child labour.

Death
William IV died in 1837 in Windsor Castle, where he was buried. As he had no living legitimate issue, the Crown of the United Kingdom passed to his eighteen-year-old niece, HRH Princess Victoria of Kent. Under what is known as Salic Law, a woman could not rule Hanover, so the Hanoverian Crown went to William IV's brother, HRH Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland.

Victoria (1837-1901)
Victoria was born on 24 May 1819. She was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 and Empress of India from 1 January 1877 until her death on 22 January 1901. Her reign lasted more than sixty-three years. The reign of Victoria was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. The Victorian Era was at the height of the Industrial Revolution, a period of significant social, economic and technological change in the United Kingdom. In that period the United Kingdom became the largest superpower the world had ever seen. Victoria was the last monarch of the House of Hanover, as her son and successor belonged to House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Early life
Victoria's father, the Duke of Kent and Strathearn, was the fourth son of King George III. The Duke of Kent and Strathearn, like many other sons of George III, did not marry during his youth. At the age of fifty the Duke of Kent and Strathearn married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. Victoria, the only child of the couple, was born in Kensington Palace. Although christened Alexandrina Victoria, was called Drina within the family.

Victoria's father died of pneumonia eight months after she was born. Her grandfather, George III, died blind and insane less than a week later. Victoria's uncle inherited the Crown, becoming King George IV. Though she occupied a high position in the line of succession, Victoria was taught only German, the first language of both her mother and her governess, during her early years. After reaching the age of three, however, she was schooled in English. She eventually learned to speak Italian, Greek, Latin and French. When Victoria was eleven years old, her uncle, King George IV, died childless, leaving the throne to his brother, who became King William IV. As the new king had no living legitimate children, the young Princess Victoria became the heir to the throne.

Marriage and children
Princess Victoria met her future husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, when she was sixteen years old. Prince Albert was Victoria's first cousin, his father being the brother of her mother. William IV disapproved of the match, but he did not stop the couple. The Queen married Prince Albert on 10 February 1840. Prince Albert was commonly known as the Prince Consort, though he did not formally obtain the title until 1857. The first child of the royal couple, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. They had eight more children during what was a very happy marriage.

Early Victorian politics
In the 1840s, the prime minister, Robert Peel, faced a crisis involving the abolition of the Corn Laws, which imposed import duty on grain. Many Tories (by then known also Conservatives) were opposed to the abolition, but some Tories (the "Peelites") and most Whigs supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the Corn Laws did get abolished. He was replaced by the Whig Lord John Russell. Russell's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.

In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight that over four years cost the lives of over one million Irish people and saw the emigration of another million. This disaster is now known as the Irish Potato Famine. In 1851, the Great Exhibition of 1851 was held. Organised by Prince Albert, the exhibition was officially opened by the Queen on 1 May. It proved an incredible success, with its profits being used to start up the Victoria and Albert Museum.

The United Kingdom join the Crimean War in 1854, on the side of the Ottoman Empire and against Russia. It was after this war that Victoria instituted the Victoria Cross, an award for valour.

Widowhood
The Prince Consort died in 1861. Victoria, who was devoted to him, went into a semi-permanent state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot inside London. Afterwards Victoria had a small number of male favourites. These include a Scottish manservant, John Brown. Some even suggest that she secretly married him. Victoria's isolation reduced her popularity, and even encouraged the growth of the republican movement. Although she did perform her official duties, she did not actively participate in the government, remaining secluded in her royal residences.

Meanwhile, one of the most important pieces of legislation of the nineteenth century, the Reform Act 1867, was passed by Parliament. Lord Palmerston was opposed to electoral reform, but he died in 1865. The new prime minister was Lord Russell, and was in turn followed by Lord Derby, during whose premiership the Reform Act was passed.

Gladstone and Disraeli
In 1868, the Conservative Benjamin Disraeli became prime minister. In time he became Victoria's favourite prime minister. However, he was soon replaced by William Gladstone. Gladstone was famously at odds with both Victoria and Disraeli during his political career. She once remarked that she felt he addressed her as though she were a public meeting. It was during Gladstone's ministry, in the early 1870s, that the Queen began to gradually emerge from a state of perpetual mourning and isolation. With the encouragement of her family, she became more active.

In 1876 Parliament gave the Queen the additional title "Empress of India". Disraeli's period as prime minister ended in 1880 when the Liberals won a general election, and Gladstone became prime minister again.

Victoria's battles with Gladstone continued during her later years. She was forced to accept his proposed electoral reforms, including the Representation of the People Act 1884, which considerably increased the electorate. Gladstone's government fell in 1885, to be replaced by the ministry of a Conservative, Lord Salisbury. Gladstone returned to power in 1886, and he introduced the Irish Home Rule Bill, which sought to create a separate Irish parliament. Victoria was opposed to the bill, which she believed would undermine the British Empire. When the bill was rejected by the House of Commons, Gladstone resigned, allowing Victoria to re-appoint Lord Salisbury as prime minister.

Later years
1887 saw Victoria's Golden Jubilee. She had a banquet, to which fifty European kings and princes were invited. The day after there was a large procession through London that was supported by many wellwishers.

Gladstone became prime minister again in 1892. After the last of his Irish Home Rule Bills was defeated, he retired in 1894, to be replaced by the Lord Rosebery. Lord Rosebery was succeeded in 1895 by Lord Salisbury, who served for the rest of Victoria's reign.

On 22 September 1896, she became the longest-reigning monarch in British history. At the Queen's request, all special public celebrations of the event were delayed until 1897, the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. The Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, proposed that the Jubilee be made a festival of the British Empire. Thus, the Prime Ministers of all the self-governing colonies were invited along with their families. The procession, in which the Queen participated, included troops from each British colony and dependency, together with soldiers sent by Indian Princes and Chiefs (who were subordinate to Victoria, the Empress of India). The Diamond Jubilee celebration was an occasion marked by great outpourings of affection for the Queen, who was by then confined to a wheelchair.

During Victoria's last years, the United Kingdom was involved in the Second Boer War, which received the enthusiastic support of the Queen. Her last ceremonial public function came in 1899, when she laid the foundation stone for new buildings of the South Kensington Museum, which became known as the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Assassination attempts
Throughout her reign, there were a number of attempts on Victoria's life. During Victoria's first pregnancy, eighteen-year old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate the Queen whilst she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert in London. Oxford fired twice, but both bullets missed. He was tried for high treason, but was acquitted on the grounds of insanity. Three attempts to assassinate the Queen occurred in 1842. In 1849, an unemployed Irishman tried to alarm the Queen by firing a powder-filled pistol as her carriage passed along Constitution Hill, London. In 1850, the Queen was injured when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-Army officer. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, she was struck by a cane, which crushed her bonnet and bruised her. In 1872, when Victoria was getting off a carriage, a seventeen-year old Irishman rushed towards her with an (unloaded) pistol in one hand and a petition to free Irish prisoners in the other. Then in 1882 a Scottish madman fired a bullet towards the Queen, who was seated in her carriage, but missed. Finally, at the time of her Golden Jubilee in 1887, there was a plan by Irish terrorists to blow up Westminster Abbey while the Queen attended a service of thanksgiving. This assassination attempt was discovered and became known as The Jubilee Plot.

Death
Victoria's death was to be a peaceful and natural one. Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent Christmas in Osborne House (which Prince Albert had designed himself) on the Isle of Wight. She died there on 22 January 1901, aged 81, having reigned for sixty-three years, seven months and two days. She was buried in the Frogmore Mausoleum beside her husband. Victoria was succeeded by her eldest son, the Prince of Wales, who reigned as King Edward VII. Victoria's death brought an end to the rule of the House of Hanover in the United Kingdom. King Edward VII, like his father Prince Albert, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
QBasic/Graphics

What QBasic can do with Graphics
QBasic is not graphically very capable but many good programs can be created with it. Commands like PSET, CIRCLE, LINE, etc., are used to draw graphics in QBasic. Good examples of graphical programs created using QBasic are SYMMETRIC ICON and SYMMETRIC FRACTALS.

Functions
Screen will let you set how it will be used. Text Graphics, both, and the Size of the surface you are working with. Screen 0 .. means Text Only. Screen 12 .. means 64 X 480 X 16 Colors & Text.

PSET
The PSET command lets the programmer display pixels on the screen. Before you type the command in, you must make sure that a SCREEN command is in. Look at this example: SCREEN 13 PSET (1,1), 43 This command will display one yellow pixel at the coordinates 1, 1. The coordinates are X and Y coordinates, like any other mathematical situation. So the PSET command has to have this layout to function properly: PSET ([X coordinate], [Y coordinate]), [Colour of Pixel] Remember that X coordinates are those that go left to right on the screen and Y coordinates are those that go Up to Down on the screen.

LINE
LINE BF] [,style%] STEP         Specifies that coordinates are relative to the current graphics cursor position. (x1!,y1!),   The screen coordinates of the start of the line and of    (x2!,y2!)     the end of the line. color%       A color attribute that sets the color of the line or                    rectangle. The available color attributes depend on your graphics adapter and the screen mode set by the most recent SCREEN statement. B            Draws a rectangle instead of a line. BF           Draws a filled box. style%       A 16-bit value whose bits set whether or not pixels are drawn. Use to draw dashed or dotted lines.

This simple program displays a line: Screen 13 LINE (160,10)-(100,50),13

CIRCLE
CIRCLE (100, 100), 25, 4,0,3.14 This displays a circle at the coordinates. The layout of the function is as follows: CIRCLE ([X Coordinate], [Y Coordinate]), [Radius], [Colour Number],[Start Angle],[Finish Angle] Remember to put a SCREEN command at the front.

PAINT
To use PAINT, there must be a SCREEN command declared. The command has coordinates that tells QBasic where to start. The color number specifies the color to paint with, and the bordercolor tells the PAINT command that it should not paint further when it encounters a pixel of that color. In almost all cases, you will need to use the bordercolor parameter, simply because without it, PAINT will cover the entire screen. PAINT ([X Coordinate],[Y Coordinate]), [Color Number], [Border Color]1,2,3,4,5,5

DRAW
ToDo

Making An Image Using the DATA command
Graphics using this command can either be made by using a Graphics Editor or by using the DATA command Manually. The DATA command is a way of inputting information into QBasic and being read by the READ command. Remember that the DATA command cannot be used in subroutines or functions. Look at this example: SCREEN 7 FOR y = 1 TO 10 FOR x = 1 TO 10 READ z PSET (x, y), z NEXT NEXT DATA 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 00, 04 DATA 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04, 04 The FOR commands declare the amount of pixels there are to be read. On this particular program, there are pixels of 10 by 10 (100) so we put: FOR x = 1 TO 10 FOR y = 1 TO 10 We have now declared the x and y planes. You can change these values if you want a smaller or bigger picture Bitmap. The READ command reads the DATA commands and declares the information gathered as z. READ z The PSET reads the planes and the DATA read and a bitmap. PSET (x, y), z It works like the first example on this page, except it is reading more than one pixels

title: QBasic/Graphics


text:
Umbraco/Create xslt exstension like umbraco.Library in C

Create a new xslt extension like umbraco.library in C#.

Sometimes you need more functionality in your xslt, and most of the time umbraco.Library is enough. But what do you do if that isn’t enough?

There are 2 ways to create your own functions

1. Inline code. 2. xslt extension

My opinions.

Inline code. Inline code get my xslt look messy, and are difficult to reuse, but works fine if you only need a single function. More info about inline code can be found here

xslt extension. xslt extension on the other hand looks much cleaner, and is easy to re/use again.

Step by Step Ill go through it step by step

1. Create a class library, in my case “ronnie.library”. 2. Create your class/es that you need. In my case “dateMethods.cs” 3. Create the methods you need (remember the methods have to be public and static) e.g.    public static int ugeNummer(DateTime dato) {  string res; res = Microsoft.VisualBasic.DateAndTime.DatePart(Microsoft.VisualBasic.DateInterval.WeekOfYear, dato,         Microsoft.VisualBasic.FirstDayOfWeek.Monday, Microsoft.VisualBasic.FirstWeekOfYear.System).ToString; return Int32.Parse(res); } 4. When you are done creating the methods, build and copy the dll in my case “ronnie.library.dll” into the bin folder.

5. Now you just have to register your xslt extension, and this is done in xsltExtensions.xml (placed in the config folder).

6. Open the file and add the following line. Note that starting with Umbraco 4.5, /bin/ is not needed anymore!

 * Assembly : here you type where you have placed your dll file, (without the .dll extension)
 * type : ".NET_namespace.ClassName” Here you have to write the namespace followed by a dot and the class you want to use.
 * alias : This is your xmlns like umbraco.Library, call it what you like. In my case CoolDateMethods

7. Last but not least you have to remember to add the xmlns in your xslt document; this is done like this: xmlns:CoolDateMethods ="urn:CoolDateMethods" exclude-result-prefixes="msxml umbraco.library CoolDateMethods

Now you should be ready to use your new xslt extension. Hope this quick’n dirty article was informative for you.

//Ronnie


text:
User talk:Ronnie H Hegelund

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
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 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 09:37, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ronnie H Hegelund


text:
User talk:202.147.104.210

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:202.147.104.210


text:
Umbraco/Plugins And Extensions/Foldout Menu

Foldout Menu
From http://www.rtk-cv.dk/projects/umbraco-cms.aspx you can download a foldout menu

The readme

1. Copy tree.js into your root dir

2. Copy minus.gif and plus.gif into /images/

3. Go to Umbraco developer section and create a macro and xslt node.

4. Paste in the Menu.xslt code into your new xslt node

5. Insert the macro in your template and it should work

end of readme

Note. Inside the xslt You need to change 1045 to your the topnode id? The node id is where the Menu should start. You can find the ID, by holding the mouse over the node in umbraco, and looking in your browsers status-line. You should see javascript:openContent(1045), where 1045 is the node-id. You can also look it up in your database, in the table cmsDocument

Also to include the tree.js file to your. and at last add a doc.gif file to images


text:
A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Practical Systems Development

CPT3 as is the course reference is a practical based project, normally based upon a database of some description but a pure-coding or part-coding, part-database project are also acceptable. This is examined in the summer of the first year of study.


text:
Ancient History/Indian subcontinent/Introduction

according to a British Historian of India

"We have been told through Indian as well as foreign literary sources that in ancient times, commodities like sugar, palm oil, coconut oil, cotton cloth, clarified butter, cast iron, tin sheets, copper vessels, dyes and pigments like cinnabar (ochre), indigo and lac, perfumes like sandalwood oil, musk tamarind, costus, macir, camphor, and even crude glass crockery were being exported from India."(The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - Travels and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant in the First Century, Translated from the Greek and Annoted by Wilfred H. Schoff, Longmans Green and Co. New York, 1912)

These items are not gifts of nature, their manufacture involves processing to effect chemical changes in their properties notably in the case of sugar, glass, metals and perfumes. Thus some kind of chemical engineering must have existed in India in those times i.e. about 2000 to 2500 years ago. Along with this chemical processing, some physical apparatus would have been used. This presumes the existence of at least a rudimentary knowledge that in today's terminology would be called 'mechanical engineering'.

The earliest recorded use of copperware in India was around 3000 B.C. The findings at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa bear this out. The earliest documented observation of smelting of metals in India is by Greek Historians in the 4th Century B.C. No doubt, the chemical and mechanical engineering would have been very rudimentary by today's standards but nevertheless it would have been chemical and mechanical engineering of some standard as is evident from the following references about the quality of Indian products in foreign literature of those times.

When referring to India, the author of the Greek text Periplus, which is dated around the 1st century A.D. has said, "There is a river near it called the Ganges" .... "On its bank is a market town which has the same name as the river, Ganges. Through this place are brought malabathrum and Gangetic spikenard and pearls and muslins of the finest sorts, which are called Gangetic. It is said that there are gold mines near these places, and there is a gold coin which is called caltis. And just opposite this river there is an island in the ocean, the last part of the inhabited world towards the east, under the rising sun itself, it is called Chryse; and it has the best tortoise-shell of all the places on the Erythrean Sea"2

The Periplus further states that "Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred stadia, and is of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea." ... "They send large ships to these market towns on account of the great quantity and bulk of pepper and malabathrum. There are imported here, in the first place, a great quantity of coin; topaz, thin clothing," "fine linen, antimony, coral, crude glass, copper,tin, lead; wine, not much, but as much as at Barygaza; realgar and orpiment; and wheat enough for sailors," "There is exported pepper which is produced in quantity only in one region near these markets, a district called Cottonara.

Besides this there are exported great quantities of fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth, spikenard from the Ganges, malabathrum from the places in the interior,transparent stones of all kinds, diamonds and sapphires"3

This mirrorwork dates back to to the12th Century A.D. But smelting of metals and derivation of alloys was done since 3000 B.C. in ancient India

About other commodities the Periplus says, "The voyage to all these far-side market towns is made from Egypt about the month of July, that is Epiphi. And ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across the sea, from Ariaca and Barygaza, bringing to these far-side market-towns the products" "wheat, rice, clarified butter, sesame oil, cotton cloth (the monache and the sagmatogene), and gridles, and honey from the reed called Sacchari." 4

Thus we see that in a rambling manner, the Periplus refers to the "muslins of the finest sorts," "fine pearls, ivory, silk cloth" "crude glass", "coins", etc.'., apart from many other commodities that were exported from India. Other western historians, and traveller-adventurers like Megasthanes, Strabo, Ptolemy, Fa Hien, Huen Tsang, Pliny, Marco Polo, Al Beruni, Ibn Batuta, etc., have also enumerated the various commodities that were produced and exported by India.

The following is a list of various commodities that were exported from India in ancient times. The present day English names of most of these commodities have originated from Sanskrit. This list has been compiled from references to India made by Western, Chinese and Arab historians in ancient and medieval ages. (LIst to be included shortly)

We shall now have a detailed look at some of these products which were imported from ancient India. We will begin with Perfumes.

THE DISTILLATION OF PERFUMES

The distillation of scents, perfumes and fragrant liquids and ointments was one area where the knowledge of chemistry was applied in India since ancient times. In fact the very word 'scent' which is of unexplained origin according to the Oxford Dictionary, is possibly derived from the Sanskrit term Sugandha which literally means 'good or aromatic paste'. This word could have been transmitted to European languages through the Greek langua which has borrowed (and lent) many wor from Sanskrit. Other instances of such transmission are the English words li 'cotton' which is derived from the Sanskrit Karpasa or the word 'sugar' derived frc the Sanskrit Sharkara, etc. Many present day perfumes had existed

India since ancient times and perhaps had originated here. In ancient times perfumes and fragrant ointments were of two typ viz., Teertha (liquids) and Gandha (slurries or ointments). During the coronation Kings or durlng any auspicious occasion person was sprinkled with aromatic oils. Fragrant ointments based on sandalwood were applied during ceremonial bathing. Even today during some festivals like Diwali aromatic slurries and pastes are prepared out of a powder called Sugandhi. Utne and are used during the ceremonial bath which is taken during that festival. Even in other religious rites, Sandalwood, Ochre and Camphor are traditionally used by Hindus.

SANDALWOOD: Since very early times Sandalwood and Sandalwood oil were items of export. The Greek text of the 1st century A.D., Periplus mentions sandalwood as one of the items being imported from India. The word Sandal (wood) is derived from the Latin terms Santalum Album or Santalacae. These terms used by the Romans to describe sandalwood were, according to the Oxford Dictionary, derived from the Sanskrit term Chandana, for sandalwood.

The Sandalwood tree is native to India and is found mainly in South-western India in t he state of Karnataka. Sandalwood has been a known item of export from India since ancient times. Authors of Sanskrit texts on botany which in Sanskrit is called Vanaspati-Shastra had classified Sandalwood into three types viz. white sandalwood Shrikanda (which perhaps is an abbreviation of the term Shewta-Chandana ), the second is yellow sandalwood or Pitta-Chandana and the last is red sandalwood or RaktaChandana

The reference to Sandalwood in the Periplus is perhaps the earliest available western reference to Sandalwood. It has been mentioned in later times by Comas Indiwpleustes in the 6th century A.D. as Tzandana and thereafter it is frequently referred to by Arab traders. Oil was also extracted from Sandalwood. This oil which was a thick but refined liquid was extracted in specially constructed oil mills called Teyl-Peshani and Teylena-Lip. The oil extracted from these mills was a thick, dark yellow liquid. Along with Sandalwood, the Sandalwood oil was also an item of export from India during ancient times. Sandalwood oil was mainly bought by the Romans between the 1st and 3rd centuries A.D.

MUSK: Musk is also a fragrant substance which is secreted in the gland by a male musk-deer. Musk is redish-brown in colour and is used as a base for perfumes and also as an ingredient for soaps to give it a musky smell. In Sanskrit, Musk is known as Muska which means the scortum i.e. the pouch of skin containing the testicles of the deer. The English term Musk originates from the Sanskrit term Muska according to the Oxford Dictionary.

The Sanskrit word Muska is perhaps derived from the words Maunsa or Masa which means 'flesh'. In Sanskrit, other words used for musk are Kasturi, Kastutrika and Mruga-Nabhi. The last term literally means 'a deer's navel'.

TAMARIND: Tamarind is a fruit whose acid pulp is used in the making of cooling or medicinal drinks. The English word Tamarind is derived from the Latin term 'Tamarindus Indica' which is derived from the Arabic term Tamr-Hindi which means 'Dates from India'. The Arabs were familiar with only one form of fruit i.e. Dates, which grow in the desert. Thus when they came across another fruit which they could use in the making of cool refreshing drinks they named it 'Dates from India' Tamr-Hindi; after the country from where they had obtained the fruit. In Sanskrit, Tamarind is called Chincha and Amlica. The latter term is derived from the word Amlica which means acidic. This name is given to Tamarind due to the acidic odour and juice that it has. This fruit was an item of export from India since ancient times. The fact that it originated in India is evident from the name Tamr-Hindi which the Arabs gave it.

CAMPHOR: Camphor is a whitish translucent crystalline volatile substance with aromatic smell and bitter taste. It is also used in pharmacy as a medicinal drug. The word camphor is derived from the Latin word 'Camphora' which comes from the Arabic term Kafur, which ultimately originated from the Sanskrit term Karpuram, according to the Oxford Dictionary.

The Sanskrit words for Camphor, apart from Karpuram are Hima-Valuka which literally means 'Snow-sand' and Chandraka which means 'like a moon' perhaps because it is whitish and translucent. Camphor was also an item exported from India since ancient times. The Camphor that was exported was not in its natural form but it was refined and cut into strips and square pieces before being loaded for export. That it was mainly obtained from India is established by the fact that the name chosen for this commodity was the corrupted version of the original Sanskrit term. Even today Camphor is used by devout Hindus as an incense during prayer.

SPIKENARD: Spikenard was a costly aromatic ointment extracted since ancient times from an Indian plant known in Sanskrit as Nardostachys Jatamansi which perhaps means 'the braid of hair (Jataa) of (Narada). The English word Spikenard is derived from the Greek term Nardostakhus and the Latin term Spica Nardi; both the terms are derived from the Sanskrit term Nardostachys Jatamansi. This plant has purplish-yellow flower heads and is very rarely found. Its smell is quite pleasing and hence it had been in great demand since ancient times.

In Sanskrit, other terms used to refer to this plant are, Jatila which means 'difficult', Tapasvini which literally means 'concentration and devotion'. These words used to describe Spikenard indicate that it was very difficult to obtain and cultivate this plant. In India this herb was available only in the Himalayas. Spikenard, which is aromatic and bitter, yields on distillation a pleasant smelling oil.

In India, it had been used since ancient times as an aromatic adjunct in the preparation of medicinal oils and was popularly believed to increase th growth and blackness of hair. The Roman historian Pliny observes the Spikenard was considered very precious i Rome and it was stored in alabaster boxes by persons of eminence.

Another aromatic herb exported from ar cient India was the Nard. It is a root of th ginger-grass found in western Punjab an Baluchistan. The Nard is found in semi-aril areas and it seems to have been found by Alexander in Gedrosia (Baluchistan) when hi army unknowingly trampled the plant whil on march and this resulted in a sweet pel fume which we are told "was diffused fa and wide over the land by the trampling". The Nard is known in Latin as Cymbopogon Jwarancusa the word Cusa is perhaps de rived from the Sanskrit word Kusha fo grass. The use of the word grass to refer tz Nard is perhaps because of its being confused by the Romans with other aromatic grasses like lemon grass, gingergrass, citronella, etc., which also yield aromatic oils.

COSTUS: Costus is the root of the plans Saussurea Lappa, a tall perennial plant growing on the open slopes of the vale or Kashmir and other high valleys of that region. The plant is found at elevations ol 8000 to 13000 feet. It was used by the Romans as a culinary spice as also as a perfume.

This root was dug up and cut into small pieces and shipped to Rome and China. The root is generally of the size of a finger wit' a yellowish woody part and a whitish barl It is said that Seleucus Callinicus had ot tained Costus from India and sent it as gift to the Milesians.6 The Romans also re ferred to costus as radix, the root as distirguished from Nard which was called folio the leaf. The price of Costus in Rome is stated by Pliny to have been 5 denarii per pound.

India still exports Costus and today the collection of Costus is a state monopoly. In Kashmir the product is used by shawl merchants to protect their fabrics from moths. The Indian origin of Costus is evident from the fact that the word is derived from the Sanskrit term Kustha which means 'that which stands in the earth'. This word was perhaps used as Costus was a root.

MACIR:

Macir is mentioned by Dioscorides as an aromatic bark. Pliny says that it was brought from India. He describes it as a red bark growing upon a large root, which bears the name Macir from the tree that produced it. He prescribed a mixture of this bark with honey as a cure for dysentery. The word Macir is today neither found in the English nor the Sanskrit Dictionaries but it has been mentioned in the Periplus on pages 80 and 81.

-The word Macir has been said to have been derived from the Sanskrit word Makara which in India was said to have been used in ancient times as a traditional Ayurvedic remedy for dysentery. Macir seems to have been the root-bark of the tree Holarrhena Antidysentrica which according to the notes appended to the Periplus was found throughout India and Burma in the lower Himalayas up to 3500 feet.

Both the bark and seed of this tree were among the most important medicines in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. According to the notes to the Periplus. "This tree found by the Portuguese was called 'Herba malabarica owing to its great merit in the treatment of dysentery they having found it on the Malabar coast. The preparation, generally in the form of a solid or liquid extract, or of a decoction, is astringent, anti-dysenteric an anthelmintic. The seeds yield a fixed oil, and the wood ash is used in dyeing." Thus this commodity which was exported from India in early times had multiple uses.


text:
Modern History/Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan

The Soviet Union dispatched forces to defend the communist government in Afghanistan. However, the mujaheddin, with foreign support from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States, fought against the Soviets. Osama bin Laden was part of a group of Arabs in the Afghan resistance.


text:
QBasic/Arrays and Types

Built-in Types
QBasic has five built-in types: INTEGER (%), LONG(&) integer, SINGLE(!) float, DOUBLE(#) float and STRING($). QB64 has two more built-in types: _INTEGER64 (&&) and _FLOAT (##)

Implicit declaration is by adding the type character to the end of the variable name (%, &, !, #, $, &&, ##). See QBasic/Basic math for more.

Explict declaration is by using the DIM statement before first use: If you do not use either implicit or explicit declaration, QBASIC interpreter assumes SINGLE type.

User-defined type
A user defined type allows you to create your own data structures. Please note that custom types are similar to arrays.

You can then declare variables under this type, and access them:

This above example shows how a custom type can be used for maintaining data, say on a player who plays a game.

Array
An array is a collection of values stored in a single variable. A STRING is an array of characters (so, for example, char$(1) means 1st character in string char$). Arrays of numbers should be defined using the DIM instruction (unless you DIM them, they are limited to 10 elements on each dimension).

By default, arrays in QBasic are static in size and cannot be changed later in the program. Code that will set up this type of array is as follows:

TYPE can be any of the built in QBasic (INTEGER, LONG, SINGLE, DOUBLE, STRING) or user-defined type. If this is not specified, the array takes the Type defined by the variable name suffix - INTEGER (%), LONG(&) integer, SINGLE(!) float, DOUBLE(#), STRING($) - or INTEGER if none.

WARNING: If your data Type is string, DIM string(10) defines a SINGLE string of 10 characters, NOT 10 strings of arbitary length ! (10 strings of up to 128 chars each would be defined as DIM string(10,128)

By issuing the Meta Command '$DYNAMIC at the beginning of your program you can cause your arrays to be dynamic:

This is now perfectly legal code.

To free up space occupied by an array, use the ERASE statement.

Multidimensional array
An array isn't restricted to one dimension - it's possible to declare an array to accept two parameters in order to represent a grid of values.

You cannot use the REDIM statement to change the number of dimensions on the array, even with dynamic allocation.

Non-zero base
In most languages, arrays start at the value 0, and count up. In basic, it's possible to index arrays so that they start at any value, and finish at any other value.

You can change the default lower bound with the OPTION BASE statement.

title: QBasic/Arrays and Types


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Parser 3 4

Following the preprocessor initialization, function is invoked. This function uses the standard lex/bison tools to parse the file.


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Parser 4 1

Parser is implemented manually in file c_parser.c. Compared to earlier releases of GCC, the new parser generates a lower level AST. There were special tree codes for loops, for example FOR_STMT denoted a for loop. In this release the loops are represented as conditional statements and gotos, that is trees of codes COND_EXPR, LABEL_EXPR, and GOTO_EXPR. This probably means that it is impossible to raise AST representation to original source code.


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Additional Representations 4 1

Figure 2 shows additional representations of GCC 4.1.

Because of the differences in languages, the format of the generated ASTs is slightly different for each language. The next step after AST generation is the unification step in which the AST tree is converted into a unified form called generic. After this, the middle end part of the compiler takes control. First, the tree is converted into another representation called GIMPLE. In this form, each expression contains no more than three operands, all control flow constructs are represented as combinations of conditional statements and goto operators, arguments of a function call can only be variables, etc. Figure 2 illustrates the differences between a tree in generic form and a tree in GIMPLE form. GIMPLE is a convenient representations for optimizing the source code.

After GIMPLE, the source code is converted into the static single assignment (SSA) representation. The central idea of this form is the fact that each variable is assigned to only once, but can be used at the right hand side of an expression many times. Every time the same variable of a tree in the GIMPLE form is reassigned, the compiler creates a new version of that variable and stores the new value into it. When the same variable is assigned to in both branches of a conditional expression, one needs to merge the two possible values of the variable into a single variable. This operation is denoted as PHI function in the SSA form.

The SSA form is also used for optimizations. GCC performs more than 20 different optimizations on SSA trees. After the SSA optimization pass, the tree is converted back to the GIMPLE form.


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Additional Representations 3 4

Does GCC 3.4 have additional representations?


text: User:Penguins Are Animals 5327

title: User:Penguins Are Animals 5327


text:
User talk:Sny2600

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 * The copyright holder can also release his work into the public domain, see here for images released into the public domain.
 * Images from certain sources are automatically release into the Public Domain. This is true for most governments like the federal United States government. However not all governments release their work into the public domain, such as the UK government .  Non-free licence governments are listed here.

For any other sources of for more information see Image copyright tags. Please remember that if you don't tag your images, they will be deleted.

 * P.S. If you have uploaded other images without including copyright tags, please go back and tag them.  Also, please tag all images that you upload in the future.

If you have any questions, just leave a message on my talk page. Thanks again. Derbeth talk 19:18, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sny2600


text:
User talk:195.56.167.29

Please do not paste text from other websites here. Thanks. --Derbeth talk 19:36, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:195.56.167.29


text:
User talk:172.141.46.44

Wise Children
Hello. I noticed that you are creating a study guide for Wise Children, but you are creating more than one copy of the guide.

Because this is a wiki, other users will be editing and improving your guide, or so everyone hopes. Thus, I deleted the extra copies, leaving one copy at Wise Children. Please use that copy instead of creating more copies of it on this wiki.

Note that the Naming policy requires all modules of you study guide to begin with "Wise Children/", for example Wise Children/Allusions to Shakespeare. This is to separate the modules of each Wikibook from each other Wikibook. That is why I moved the modules, and you cannot find them under names such as "List of Allusions to Shakespeare". (As an aside, if you register an account, then you will also get a "move" button to move pages.)

If you have more questions, you could ask me at User talk:Kernigh, or post on the Staff lounge. Thanks, --Kernigh 19:45, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:172.141.46.44


text:
Talk:Esperanto/Appendix/Abbreviations

Examples and Notes
We could use some examples of some of these abbreviations in use. Some could also use some notes for clarification (like that AM refers to the time). --Indiana (talk) 18:56, 6 February 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Esperanto/Appendix/Abbreviations


text:
User talk:70.30.83.105

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:70.30.83.105


text:
D Programming/Quick Reference Card

Program Structure/Functions

 *  void main{}: minimal main routine
 *  int main( char [][] aArgs){ return 0;} : main routine with arguments

 *  /* */ :  block comments
 *  /+ +/ :  nesting block comments
 *  // :     line comments

title: D Programming/Quick Reference Card


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Key Quotes

Quotations by theme
Because you are not allowed to take the book into the exam, it is important that you learn some key quotes. Here are some of the most important ones.

Shakespeare

 * "Shakespeare was a kind of god for him"
 * "Birnam wood is creeping up on Dunsinane"
 * "Perhaps Shakespeare had eaten such a soup!"
 * "Here she is in drag as, famously, Hamlet"
 * "Off with it! You only lent it to me! Nothing was mine, not ever!"
 * "Replicas of Anne Hathaway’s cottage"
 * "Shakespeare, to whom our family owed so much"
 * "Cry God for England, Harry and St George"
 * "Shakespeare, on the note, said, “Have a heart”"
 * "What You Will" - subtitle for the Twelfth Night
 * "Rivers of tears. Tempests of applause"
 * "Water, water everywhere did he think it was the bloody tempest!"

Youth and age

 * "So well connected. So legitimate. Oh sod it all. So young"
 * "Pungent smell of old ladies"
 * "Our father had aged more evidently than his brother"
 * "Our old age, the fourth guest at the table"
 * "Deceptions of memory"
 * "Legs, the last thing to go"
 * "Old Melchior did something pathetic, he tried to wave the cameras away"
 * "I knew in my water…"
 * "Boy and girl, a new thing in our family"
 * "Old age was creeping up behind him" (Melchior)
 * "...geriatric chorine..."

Paternity/Absent Fathers

 * "My lovely daughters, all four of you"
 * "Father is a hypothesis but mother is a fact"
 * "It is a characteristic of human beings that if they haven’t got a family of their own, they will invent one"
 * "It is a wise child that knows it's own father"
 * "Were both of us mothers and both of us fathers…they’ll be wise children alright."
 * “That man is….your father!” her revelation didn’t have the force it might have had.
 * The jury is still out on the question of her boy’s paternity (lady M)
 * "A father is a movable feast"

Illegitimacy

 * "We never felt quite so illegitimate in all our lives"
 * "Welcome to the wrong side of the tracks"
 * "His eyes skidded over us"
 * "And the unrighteous prospered"
 * "So well connected. So legitimate. Oh sod it all. So young."
 * "It is a characteristic of human beings that if they haven’t got a family of their own, they will invent one."
 * "Which mother? Pretty kitty? Grandma?"
 * "Us. Unkissed, unwelcome, worse than unacknowledged"
 * "The jury is still out on the question of her boy’s paternity (lady M)
 * "outside the magic circle of our desire"
 * "It's a wise child that knows its own father... But wiser yet the father who knows his own child."
 * "e's not your father"
 * "there was sod all romantic about our illegitimacy"
 * "By blows"
 * "...children on the wrong side of the blanket..."
 * "...left hand children..."

Fate

 * "Fate continued to deal kindly with Melchior
 * "The destination of Melchior had been prepared for him since birth
 * "He was doomed to wear the pasteboard crown
 * "We were doomed to dance and sing
 * "The bastard side of Old Father Thames (Page 1)

Fantasy/Carnivalesque

 * "The carnival’s got to stop sometime
 * "Less of a man, more of a travelling carnival
 * "What a joy it is to dance and sing!"

Magic realism

 * "As if inhabited by hands"
 * "It made a noise in his belly like barrels rolling around in a cellar"
 * "French knickers doing the can-can with the frilly petticoats"
 * "Perhaps he slipped us one in each pocket of his jacket"
 * "And then hup! He did a backflip out of the window, saving us."
 * "The naked pillows huddled like a corpse"
 * "The bulb flickered on and off"
 * "They let the wind in when they opened the door"
 * "Stopped short at ten years old, never to go again, like grandfathers clock"
 * "And this time got it right, straight on the nosey!"
 * "In on the wind that came with Perry blew dozens and dozens of butterflies..."
 * "Not bad for a centenarian at all, at all."

Nora/Dora
"Hello let me introduce myself I'm Dora Chance".
 * "But if I told you that, I’d be lying"
 * "What a joy it is to dance and sing"
 * "Nora was soon in love again"
 * "As soon as they started to call me Nora, I found that I could kiss the boys"
 * "I've got a tale and a half to tell"
 * "We were going exclusively for Lady’s A’s sake"
 * "It is a characteristic of human beings that if they haven’t got a family of their own, they will invent one"
 * "All of a sudden, I was feeling chipper"
 * "Searching for the lost limb…Nora…the best part of me"
 * "She used Shalimar, me, Mitsouko"
 * "Identical we may be, but symmetrical, never"
 * "Our careers went down the toilet with the profession itself"
 * "He loved us both but I was the one he talked to."
 * "Vulgar as hell"
 * "It was all too literal for me"
 * "Drunk in charge of a narrative"
 * "You never forget the first time. Ill never forget the last time either"
 * "Drunk in charge of a baby carriage"
 * "Lo how the mighty have fallen"
 * "Couple of batty old tarts with their eyes glued on their own ghosts."
 * "Treacherous, lecherous chorus girl."

Perry
"Nora fluxy me constipated"
 * "The carnival’s got to stop sometime"
 * "Less of a man, more of a travelling carnival"
 * "Not bad for a centenarian"
 * "One doesn’t marry a man like that"
 * "He deflated"
 * "He’d brought me on a pilgrimage"
 * "It made a noise in his belly like barrels rolling around in a cellar"
 * "Bigger than ever and brown as a berry from the Brazilian sun"
 * "Where he loved, he never altered, nor saw any alteration"
 * "Magician, producer, explorer, seducer, rich man, poor man, but never beggar man or thief"
 * "Birnam wood is creeping up on Dunsinane"
 * "He was the size of a warehouse, no bigger, the size of a tower block"
 * "It was his name on the cheques"
 * "Oooh, wasn’t he a handsome young man"
 * "Size of a polar bear"
 * "Huge but dapper"
 * "Peregrine swept us up into his arms"
 * "He looked as big as the burning house"
 * "Another fad. Like movies. Like oil. Like espionage"
 * "He was not the love of my life, but all the loves of my life at once"
 * "Did I see the soul of the one I loved when I saw Perry, not his body?"
 * "He doubled up as sugar daddy"

Melchior

 * "Knicker-shifting, undo your brassiere from the back of the gallery eyes "
 * "His eyes skidded over us"
 * "Fate continued to deal kindly with Melchior"
 * "Offed with the old and onned with the new"
 * "And the unrighteous prospered"
 * "What shall I do without my crown? Othello’s occupation, gone!"
 * "Our father had aged more evidently than his brother"
 * "Old Melchior did something pathetic, he tried to wave the cameras away"
 * "I sometimes wonder if we haven’t been making him up all along"
 * "Dark and brooding"
 * "Then Melchior did something wonderful. Who'd have thought the old man had it in him?"
 * "Our greatest living Shakespearian"
 * "Bent on making an exhibition of himself to the very end"
 * "As dark and sexy as the inside of a London cab in wartime"
 * "Melchior dreamt up his own father"
 * "Prince of players"
 * "in his voice like Hershey's syrup"

Lady A

 * "One doesn’t marry a man like that"
 * "Cackling away in her genteel fashion"
 * "Even when they robbed their mother of her home and money"
 * "We were going exclusively for Lady’s A’s sake"
 * "Don’t go before you’ve had coffee…"
 * "She twinkled"
 * "Lady Atalanta Hazard, the most beautiful woman of her time"
 * "I’d even hoped that she and Perry might make a go of it"
 * "Our geriatric little girl"
 * "I live mostly in the past these days, I find it’s better"
 * "Have you got anything in the shape of a cucumber, my good fellow?"

Daisy

 * "Enter Daisy"
 * "White that matched the cat that matched the telephone"
 * "I could tell at a glance that she was tight as a tick"
 * "She overshot the drive and screeched to a halt"
 * "She was a trouper and a half alright, she'd got legs, guts, leather lungs, tits out to here, chutzpah, sass, star quality. But class - no"

Lady Margarine

 * "To butter or not to butter?"
 * "She reached middle age quicker than any woman I knew"
 * "The jury is still out on the question of her boy’s paternity"

Saskia

 * "She later admitted she’d put something in the cake, but whether it would have made Melchior ill, very ill or finished him off altogether we never found out"
 * "So well connected. So legitimate. Oh sod it all. So young"
 * "Saskia gave me a dirty look"
 * "Her hair redder than ever"
 * "I felt that odd familiar shudder of distress when I saw Saskia"
 * "You never loved us!"
 * "Being unique amongst mammals a cold blooded cow"
 * "mercenary bitch"

Imogen

 * "Developed a unique line of goldfish breasts"
 * "She’d got a fishbowl on her head with a fish in it"

Tiffany

 * "Oh my little sister Lily is a whore in Piccadilly and my mother is another in the Strand"
 * "Her hands were full of flowers"
 * "not on your life, you bastard"
 * "marry your auntie instead"
 * "Pull yourself together and be a man, or try to"
 * "There's more to fathering than fucking"
 * "Never a sweeter or more innocent girl than our Tiffany, even though she didn't know enough not to flash her tits all over the papers"
 * "The sweetest girl in London, but naïve"

Gareth

 * A celibate one – a non-combatant, as it were.
 * "To add to the hypothetical,disputed, absent father that was such a feature of our history, now you could add a holy father, too. Put it down to liberation theology."
 * "The priest and the game show host, not so different, really."

Grandma Chance

 * "Memory lane is a dead end"
 * "What the fuck d’you mean?"
 * "Hope for the best, expect the worst"
 * "Toot sweet"
 * "Made ‘mountaynes’ out of ‘molehills’"
 * "She took to children like a duck to water"
 * "The boarding house clung to respectability by the skin of it’s teeth ...you could have said the same of her"
 * "She didn't so much talk as elocute"
 * "She wasn't going to let Hitler inconvenience her drinking habits"
 * "Grandma invented this family. She put it together out of whatever came to hand... she created it by sheer force of personality"
 * "She was a mystery"
 * "When I saw you two, the penny dropped"
 * "She was a naturist, she was a vegetarian, she was a pacifist"
 * "When the bombardments began, she’d go outside and shake her fist at the old men in the sky"
 * "She was our air raid shelter, she was our entertainment, she was our breast"

Gorgeous George

 * "Clown Number One to the British Empire"
 * "He didn't travel. The moment he stepped off his native soil, he stopped being funny. In California, he was not bawdy, he was lewd"
 * "Gorgeous George, having stayed himself with a flagon, was trying out a chorus of 'Rose of England' in a defiant and self-conscious manner"

Genghis Khan

 * "He was like a bloody dictator in that studio"
 * "He pressed a button on his desk and Nora's chair collapsed..and she went sprawling, legs in the air"
 * "An orchid had never bit him back before"
 * "Genghis Kahn was staking his all on art"

Ross 'Irish' O'Flaherty

 * It's only a writer...Ross O'Flaherty RIP"
 * "A great future behind him, already"
 * "The last flame of a burned out case"
 * "'God, you're lovely', he said...I wouldn't be able to return the compliment, alas"
 * "old soul"

Puck

 * "Puck looked like a little man but wasn't; he was an aged child"
 * "Puck was all fingers, goose you as soon as look at you, unmentionable habits"
 * "You might find that Puck in your laundry basket, when you least expected it, curled up inhaling your soiled lingerie"
 * "Puck passed by and goosed me"
 * "if a questing hand reached up from under the tablecloth, you knew it was Pucks night out, too"
 * "He drilled holes in the walls of the ladies' toilets and liked to take a peep and I don't know what else"
 * "old ladies loved him"
 * "he had the high tenor of an angel"


text:
User talk:72.70.143.164

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Brim 00:48, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.70.143.164


text:
Talk:US History/World War I

Zimmerman Telegraph?

Russian Revolution -- Aye or Nay?
May I take out the section on the Russian Revolution? I mention it parenthetically above, and it has little bearing in a book about American history. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 18:20, 5 July 2014 (UTC)

The Palmer Raids & the Race Riots of 1919
They ought to be in here, not only as reactions to the War & overseas events, but because they explain a lot about the later period. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 20:09, 6 July 2014 (UTC)

Something from an earlier section to be pertinent here
An influx of unskilled black strikebreakers into East St Louis, Illinois, heightened racial tensions in 1917. Rumors that blacks were arming themselves for an attack on whites resulted in numerous attacks by white mobs on black neighborhoods. On July 1, blacks fired back at a car whose occupants they believed had shot into their homes and mistakenly killed two policemen riding in a car. The next day, a full scale riot erupted which ended only after nine whites and 39 blacks had been killed and over three hundred buildings were destroyed.

Added to main text Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 12:54, 18 October 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:US History/World War I


text:
User:Neoguy9090~enwikibooks

I am neoguy9090. Cool, huh?

title: User:Neoguy9090~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Statistics/Probability/Bayesian

Better Explanation
"The opposite of "Bayesian" is sometimes referred to as "Classical Statistics"

I think this ought to be better explained.

What?
It would be nice if we explained WHY we're doing the things we're doing in this section. Where did that formula come from? Thin air? I saw a lot of this is the standard deviation article also.

Bayesian?
Well, this example uses Bayes' theorem but it isn't really Bayesian. In Bayesian analysis one typically considers an unknown parameter, say θ, as being a random variable characterised by a continuous distribution. The prior distribution p(θ) is often chosen to be quite flat, but it can be peaked to reflect a priori information. The posterior distribution p(θ | x), where x is the data, is more sharply peaked. If there's sufficient data to overwhelm the prior, the posterior is mainly dependent on the data, not the prior.

Bayes' theorem in this context is $$p(\theta \mid x) \propto p(x \mid \theta) \, p(\theta)$$. The normalising factor (to bring the total probability mass to 1) can be found by integration (marginalisation), so Bayes' theorem in full is:

$$p(\theta \mid x) = \frac{p(x \mid \theta) \, p(\theta)} {\int p(x \mid \theta) \, p(\theta) \, d\theta }$$

where the integral is taken over all possible values of θ.

For instance, if you were trying to determine whether a coin is fair, θ would be the parameter of the binomial distribution. But things can get a lot more complicated than this, with multiple parameters and hierarchical models.

--84.9.67.105 (talk) 15:10, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Statistics/Probability/Bayesian


text:
User:AussieDingo1983

Hello! My name is AussieDingo1983. You can view my profile or leave me any messages here.

title: User:AussieDingo1983


text:
User:Kthejoker~enwikibooks

I am wondering if this is the person who keeps inserting blatant crap into the wikibooks articles, because if it is, you are no funnier than a cotton ball. Tampering with informational documents is not funny, but highly annoying to those around you. You are a disgrace to this website and I hope you are ashamed of yourself.

- Not me, I edited the Statistics book for a week or so, and that's about all. - Kthejoker

title: User:Kthejoker~enwikibooks


text:
Complex Analysis

 * 1) Complex differentiability and the Cauchy‒Riemann equations
 * 2) Contour integration
 * 3) /Cauchy's theorem and Cauchy's integral formula/
 * 4) /Local theory of holomorphic functions/
 * 5) /Elementary functions/
 * 6) /The complex projective line and automorphisms of standard sets/
 * 7) /The invariant metric of the unit disk/
 * 8) /Extremum principles, open mapping theorem, Schwarz' lemma/
 * 9) /Global theory of holomorphic functions/
 * 10) /Meromorphic functions and the Riemann sphere/
 * 11) /Complex-analytic methods for the computation of real integrals and series/
 * 12) /Infinite products and factorisations/
 * 13) /Elliptic functions/
 * 14) /Modular forms/
 * 15) /Dirichlet series and the Gamma function/
 * 16) /Tauberian theorems/
 * 17) /Analytic spaces and the ring of convergent power series/
 * 18) /Julia sets and the Mandelbrot set/
 * 19) /Bibliography/

複素解析学 Análise complexa

title: Complex Analysis


text:
User talk:Bartolli

Hi!

Bartolli 10:31, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bartolli


text:
User:Bartolli

Hi, I am Ben!

title: User:Bartolli


text:
Talk:C Sharp Programming/Introduction

C# is a fully object-oriented language?
I think that Lisp, Scheme, Javascript programmers, and others might disagree with the claim that 'C# is a fully object-oriented language'. Functions in C# are not objects. It is not possible to create a new function at run time (delegates don't do it and neither would the trick of currying an existing function by creating an anonymous class at compile time precisely because they happen at compile time). It might be more accurate to say 'C# is a class based language'. See. --kwhitefoot 11:01, 5 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not aware of any universally accepted definition of "fully object-oriented", but if your only issues with the claim are that C# 1.0's functions cannot be objects and that C# 1.0 cannot create new functions at runtime, note that C# 2.0's anonymous methods overcome those deficiencies. Rodasmith 22:45, 5 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Anonymous methods are compiled just like any other method; the method is not created at run time. All that is manipulated at run time is a pointer to the delegate object that implements the anonymous method.  However, that isn't really central to my point.  I was simply pointing out that the use of the word 'fully' in the phrase 'fully object oriented' implies that there is some such definition and that C# complies with it.  As the definition wasn't given it is up to the imagination of the reader to construct one and C# failed to comply with the one my imagination constructed.  If we want to make strong claims, and 'fully' anything is surely a strong claim, we should  be able to back them up.  If we cannot then such statements are vacuous and misleading.  --kwhitefoot 18:14, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

Code example
Hi. I have two problems with the code in the example. Why is "System" in the class when the "using System" is already there? Another thing, why is "Console.ReadLine;" included in the example? Of course "string[] args" isn't necessary either in a basic example. --Stefán Örvarr Sigmundsson 07:37, 18 August 2007 (UTC) using System;

namespace MyConsoleApplication {       class MyFirstClass {               static void Main(string[] args) {                       System.Console.WriteLine("Hello,"); Console.WriteLine("World!");

Console.ReadLine; }       } } Never mind. I noticed that this is explained in the text. --Stefán Örvarr Sigmundsson 07:42, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

using system;

Linux compilers
It seems that DotGNU hasn't been updated since 2007, and is a dead project. Maybe instead the page should point to the mcs compiler that comes with mono? 142.134.91.154 (discuss) 15:10, 11 February 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:C Sharp Programming/Introduction


text:
User talk:Jphillips66

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 11:51, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jphillips66


text:
Complex Analysis/Complex Functions/Complex Functions

A complex function is one that takes complex values and maps them onto complex numbers, which we write as $$f:\Complex\to\Complex$$. Unless explicitly stated, whenever the term function appears, we will mean a complex function. A function can also be multi-valued – for example, $$\sqrt{z}$$ has two roots for every number. This notion will be explained in more detail in later chapters.

A complex function $$f(z):\Complex\to\Complex$$ will sometimes be written in the form $$f(z)=f(x+yi)=u(x,y)+v(x,y)i$$, where $$u,v$$ are real-valued functions of two real variables. We can convert between this form and one expressed strictly in terms of $$z$$ through the use of the following identities:
 * $$x=\frac{z+\bar z}{2},y=\frac1i\frac{z-\bar z}{2}$$

While real functions can be graphed on the x-y plane, complex functions map from a two-dimensional to a two-dimensional space, so visualizing it would require four dimensions. Since this is impossible we will often use the three-dimensional plots of $$\Re(z),\Im(z)$$, and $$|f(z)|$$ to gain an understanding of what the function "looks" like.

For an example of this, take the function $$f(z)=z^2=(x^2-y^2)+(2xy)i$$. The plot of the surface $$|z^2|=x^2+y^2$$ is shown to the right.

Another common way to visualize a complex function is to graph input-output regions. For instance, consider the same function $$f(z)=z^2$$ and the input region being the "quarter disc" $$Q\cap\mathbb D$$ obtained by taking the region

$$Q=\{x+yi:x,y\ge0\}$$ (i.e. $$Q$$ is the first quadrant)

and intersecting this with the disc $$\mathbb D$$ of radius 1:
 * $$\mathbb D=\{z:|z|\le1\}$$

If we imagine inputting every point of $$Q\cap\mathbb D$$ into $$f$$, marking the output point, and then graphing the set $$f(Q\cap\mathbb D)$$ of output points, the output region would be $$UHP\cap\mathbb D$$ where

$$UHP=\{x+yi:y\ge0\}$$ ($$UHP$$ is called the upper half plane).

So, the squaring function "rotationally stretches" the input region to produce the output region. This can be seen using the polar-coordinate representation of $$\mathbb C$$, $$z=r\text{cis}(\theta)$$. For example, if we consider points on the unit circle $$S^1=\{z:|z|=1\}$$ (i.e. the set "$$r=1$$") with $$\theta\le\tfrac{\pi}{2}$$ then the squaring function acts as follows:
 * $$f(z)=1\text{cis}(\theta)^2=\text{cis}(2\theta)$$

(here we have used $$\text{cis}(\theta)\text{cis}(\phi)=\text{cis}(\theta+\phi)$$). We see that a point having angle $$\theta$$ is mapped to the point having angle $$2\theta$$. If $$ \theta $$ is small, meaning that the point is close to $$z=1$$, then this means the point doesn't move very far. As $$\theta$$ becomes larger, the difference between $$\theta$$ and $$2\theta$$ becomes larger, meaning that the squaring function moves the point further. If $$\theta=\tfrac{\pi}{2}$$ (i.e. $$z=i$$) then $$2\theta=\pi$$ (i.e. $$z^2=-1$$).

Next


text:
Complex Analysis/Complex Functions/Continuous Functions

In this section, we
 * introduce a 'broader class of limits' than known from real analysis (namely limits with respect to a subset of $$\Complex$$) and
 * characterise continuity of functions mapping from a subset of the complex numbers to the complex numbers using this 'class of limits'.

Limits of complex functions with respect to subsets of the preimage
We shall now define and deal with statements of the form
 * $$\lim_{z\to z_0\atop z\in B'}f(z)=w$$

for $$B\sube\Complex,f:B\to\Complex,B'\sube B,w\in\Complex$$, and prove two lemmas about these statements.

Proof: Let $$\varepsilon>0$$ be arbitrary. Since
 * $$\lim_{z\to z_0\atop z\in B'}f(z)=w$$

there exists a $$\delta > 0$$ such that
 * $$z\in B'\cap B(z_0,\delta)\Rarr|f(z)-w|<\varepsilon$$

But since $$B\sube B'$$, we also have $$B\cap B(z_0,\delta)\sube B'\cap B(z_0,\delta)$$ , and thus
 * $$z\in B''\cap B(z_0,\delta)\Rarr z\in B'\cap B(z_0,\delta)\Rarr|f(z)-w|<\varepsilon$$

and therefore
 * $$\lim_{z\to z_0\atop z\in B''}f(z)=w$$

Let $$B'\sube B$$ such that $$z_0\in B'$$.
 * Proof

First, since $$O$$ is open, we may choose $$\delta_1>0$$ such that $$B(z_0,\delta_1)\sube O$$.

Let now $$\varepsilon>0$$ be arbitrary. As
 * $$\lim_{z\to z_0\atop z\in O}f(z)=w$$

there exists a $$\delta_2>0$$ such that:
 * $$z\in B(z_0,\delta_2)\cap U\Rarr|f(z)-f(z_0)|<\varepsilon$$

We define $$\delta:=\min\{\delta_1,\delta_2\}$$ and obtain:
 * $$z\in B(z_0,\delta)\cap B'\Rarr z\in B(z_0,\delta)\Rarr z\in B(z_0,\delta_2)\cap U\Rarr|f(z)-f(z_0)|<\varepsilon$$

Continuity of complex functions
We recall that a function
 * $$f:M\to M'$$

where $$M,M'$$ are metric spaces, is continuous if and only if
 * $$x_l\to x,l\to\infty\Rarr f(x_l)\to f(x)$$

for all convergent sequences $$(x_l)_{l\in\N}$$ in $$M$$.

 * Proof

Exercises

 * 1) Prove that if we define
 * $$f:\Complex\to\Complex,f(z)=\begin{cases}\dfrac{z^2}{|z|^2}&:z\ne0\\1&:z=0\end{cases}$$
 * then $$f$$ is not continuous at $$0$$ . Hint: Consider the limit with respect to different lines through $$0$$ and use theorem 2.2.4.

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