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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/Red Alert

b. If you are stranded in a car in a blizzard or desert

 * Blizzard: In a blizzard, make sure the doors are closed and all windows are up. Use water a little at a time and shut off the car's engine to prevent carbon monoxide poisoning. When the snow stops, get out of the car and clear the snow off the roof, hood, trunk, and windows.  This will allow others to see the car and will allow sunlight to warm the inside.

 * Desert: Get out of the car and find shade. If necessary, take shelter in the shadow of your car.  Try to stay hydrated by drinking water.  If you run out of water you may be able to collect it off the car in the morning when the dew falls.  Rather than rationing your water, drink all you can when you can.  Rather than shedding your clothing, put more on to hold in your body's moisture.  Stay near the car.  Do not try to hike to the gas station you think you passed "two miles ago."  It could easily have been 10 miles ago.

c. Motor vehicle accident
Contact the police and stay calm. Stay out of traffic. If available, light road flares to alert other motorists of the danger ahead.

d. Earthquake
Stay somewhere safe such as under a heavy table or in a doorway and away from breakable objects. Stay calm. If you are outside, stay away from buildings and power lines.

e. Flood
Learn the safest route to travel, staying on higher ground away from low-lying areas. Disconnect electrical appliances and equipment, or turn off the main breaker. Know public warning in your area. Do not attempt to cross a flooded stream, such as one that is over the road. Water is very strong and can sweep even a heavy truck downstream in an instant. If you find yourself being swept downstream, try to float on your back and get your feet in front of you with your toes out of the water to avoid foot-entrapment. Do not try to stand in swift water, as if you are knocked over and your foot becomes entrapped by something under the water, the water will hold you down and you will not be able to get up. Use your arms to keep yourself afloat and to guide yourself to the bank.

f. Tornado
Go to a basement or storm shelter. Remain alert to weather conditions. Be familiar with the community warning systems.

g. Hurricane
When a hurricane is forecast to strike your area, take steps to protect yourself. Put up shutters to protect your property and evacuate if advised to do so by local officials. Have a supply of non-perishable food and water on hand. Be aware of storm surge, which is caused when a hurricane temporarily raises the level of the ocean, sometimes by dozens of feet. Take shelter somewhere on high ground during the storm.

h. Thunderstorm
Stay away from trees, tall objects, water, and objects made of metal (such as railing). If possible, get inside a building or in a car. If your hair stands on end, drop to your knees and place your hands on your knees. This will make you a smaller target for a lightning strike. Do not lay on the ground, as this will make you a larger target.

Do not use a traditional land-line telephone (cell phones are OK though). Stay away from windows. Do not take a shower or a bath during a thunderstorm.

i. Atomic emergency
You will first need to decide if you should evacuate or take shelter. If the emergency is already underway, you will need to take shelter underground. If the emergency is pending, but likely, you should evacuate to a safe area without delay. Television and radio reports as well as the local law enforcement should be able to help you make this decision.

On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles.

j. Rock or snow avalanche

 * Rock Avalanche: Quickly exit the affected area. If escape is not possible, curl into a tight ball facing downhill (with your back to the oncoming rocks) and cover your head.  When the landslide ends, check for trapped or injured persons without entering the slide area (more debris could follow).  Direct rescue personnel to any victims you are able to locate.  Watch for flooding - landslides are usually triggered by water.  Watch for broken utility lines (electric, gas, and water) and report them to the authorities.

 * Snow: It is better to not travel in avalanche country, but if travel is necessary, risk can be reduced by observing avalanche safety rules and carrying proper equipment. This includes a radio beacon on every member of your party, and shovels.  Radio beacons made for this purpose transmit constantly, and can be switched to receiver mode after an avalanche.  These can help to find buried victims.  Finding victims quickly and digging them out greatly increases their chances of survival.  Avalanche snow compacts into a very hard mass very quickly after an avalanche, so a shovel is an essential piece of gear.  It is next to impossible to dig someone out of an avalanche with bare hands or even with a ski, but if that is all you have available, you should start right away.

k. Your boat or canoe capsizes in open water
The most important rule of boating safety is to wear your life jacket. If it's a small craft or canoe, turn the boat upright and bail it out, if possible. Once most of the water is out, climb back in. Or, if close to shore, just climb in the boat and paddle. Otherwise, stay with the boat, as this will make it easier for a rescuer to find you. Get as much of your body out of the water as quickly as possible. Do not attempt to swim to shore, as it is often a lot farther away than it appears.

2. When telephoning for help in an emergency situation, what essential information should be given and who should hang the telephone up last?
Give your name, phone number, the nature of emergency, the location of the emergency, whether any personal dangers or injuries are present. The person answering the call of the emergency should be the last to hang up the telephone.

a. Someone's clothes catch on fire
Get the person to the ground and roll him over and over on the ground. Another option is to wrap the victim with a blanket, coat, or jacket if one is handy. If your own clothes catch on fire, stop, drop, and roll - do the same thing to yourself as you would to someone else.

b. A severely bleeding wound
If you see a person who is bleeding heavily, you can do the following:

Press hard onto the wound to stop the bleeding. If an arm or leg is cut, elevate the limb. Cover with a clean pad and apply a bandage. Check that the bleeding has stopped. If it has not, add another pad, and bandage, do not remove previous bandage. If you have bandaged a limb, check frequently that the fingers and toes remain warm. If fingers and toes are getting cold, loosen the bandage to let the blood circulate. Get the person to a hospital for stitches (and immunization against Tetanus) keeping the limb raised.

c. Someone is choking
Coughing is the body's natural defense against choking, and it is generally very effective. If the victim is coughing, do not interfere. If the victim stops coughing (or was never coughing in the first place), ask her "are you choking?" If the victim indicates that she is choking, tell her your are going to help her. To do this, you will need to perform the Heimlich Maneuver.

Briefly, a person performing the Heimlich Maneuver uses their hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea, hopefully expelling it. This amounts to an artificial cough. (The victim of an obstructed airway, having lost the ability to draw air into the lungs, has lost the ability to cough on their own.)

Even when performed correctly, the Heimlich Maneuver can injure the person it is performed on. The Heimlich Maneuver should never be performed on someone who can still cough, breathe, or speak.

d. Someone swallows poison
With poison container in hand, call the local poison control center and do NOT try to make the patient vomit. Only induce vomiting if a poison center worker or a doctor advises you to do so. If the poison is on the skin or clothes, remove the clothing and wash with a large amount of water. If poison gets in the eyes, flush the eyes with clean water for 10 minutes.

Get the victim to a hospital as soon as possible, and if possible, bring the poison container with you.

a. Draw an escape route for your family in case of fire in your home when your normal exits are blocked.
Start by making a map of your house. Draw at least two escape routes for every room, making sure that the two routes do not cross a common area - otherwise, if the common area is affected you will not have a workable escape route.

c. Discuss with your examiner the procedures for safely getting people out of your church and school in case of a fire. Consideration should be given as to how to prevent panic.
Panic usually occurs because a person does not know how to react in a dangerous situation. Having a plan in place before an emergency occurs will help control panic. Practicing the plan ahead of time (such as with a fire drill) reinforces the plan in everyone's minds, so that the situation will feel more familiar if it really happens. Rather than thinking "Oh no! What do I do?!" a practiced person will think "Oh, yes. I know what to do."

If you find yourself in an emergency and feel yourself beginning to panic, try to calm down and use your head. Panic will only make things worse. If you see others beginning to panic, touch them, tell them to calm down, and tell them exactly what they should do. If they see that you are not in a panic and seem to know what to do, they will likely follow.

The best way to quickly evacuate a crowded building such as a church or a school is for everyone to calmly walk out in an orderly fashion. If everyone runs, panic is more likely to take over, and the exits will become jammed as people attempt to squeeze around one another. People have been killed by crowds stampeding out of a building in a panic.

5. What should you and your parents do to prevent abduction of children in your family? What should you do if you are abducted?
Know where your children are all the time. Never leave children alone in cars. Establish a family code word. Tell the children never to go with anyone who does not know the code word. Have fingerprints taken of your children. Keep current photos and records (dental/medical). Make mental note of what your child wears every day. Make sure your children know their address and telephone number, and how to use the telephone. Teach them how to dial 9-1-1.

What to do if abducted: Yell - this person is not my father or mother. Kick the kidnapper's foot or knee. Scream "Fire!" as this is more likely to attract attention than screaming "Help!"

To prevent abduction:
 * Do not allow a child to be alone in a public place.
 * Do not allow a child to go out alone at night.
 * Train your child to not talk to strangers.


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Principles of Economics/Cover

Go to Contents

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Talk:Principles of Economics/Cover

Merging principles and Introduction
I, a long time ago, started the "Introduction to economics" but ran out of time. The point of that was to write a short book that explains economics from the start to people who are do NOT intent to become economists. :) I have looked for such sources before, and I can't really find any. Instead most texts on economics quite quickly delves into detail and specialized nomenclature, which is great for those who know a lot or intend to know a lot, but not so great for those who just want to understand the basics.

Now I return to wikibooks, and see happily that my effort hasn't been completely useless, several people have now improved on what I originally wrote. I also find "Principles of economics" an effort to write an expert book on the subject.

How would it be if we used "Introduction..." as a first chapter in the "Principles..."? Does that make sense? Or does the different audiences mean that they should keep separate? --Regebro 12:50, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Regebro, I definitely like your idea. I too started working an wikibooks econ. text a long time ago and ran out of time. What I have been trying to create with Principles of Economics is a text that is a definitive source of economics knowledge. Each section would start from the very beginning and explain everything for individuals who do not intend to pursue an in-depth knowledge of economics, however, as each section continues on the information becomes more and more detailed in order to also satiate the students (and other inquisitive minds) who are intending to ascertain deep knowledge of economic theory. Let's definitely make a merger, and perhaps you have some suggestions about how to make that happen. Thanks! --Endless Melee

 * Well, I'll take a deeper look on "Principles" and see how we can merge it. --Regebro 15:29, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

I have corrected some of your syntax so that you are now saying what you wanted to say.

Opposition to the Merger
I don't think we should merge these two books. As the original author suggests, the intent of "Introduction to Economics" was to provide a primer on the big ideas in economics, which is an area that I think deserves attention. There is certainly utility in having an introduction to economics in Principles of Economics, but I think it already does that pretty well.

--Greenm1981 (talk) 20:22, 31 October 2008 (UTC)

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Principles of Economics

This book serves as a brief introduction to microeconomics and macroeconomics. Only some basic ideas are covered in a simple way. Therefore, there are no prerequisites for this book. If you would like to learn microeconomics and macroeconomics in more details, you may read other related Wikibooks, e.g. Principles of Microeconomics and Macroeconomics.

Preface

 * To the Student [[File:100%.svg]]
 * What is Economics? [[File:100%.svg]]
 * What kind of economist are you? [[File:100%.svg]]

Introduction
/Thinking Like An Economist/
 * /Scarcity/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Economic Modeling/
 * /Assumptions Economists Make/
 * /Allocation/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Perfect Competition/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Cautions/ [[File:100%.svg]]

/Specialization and Gains From Trade/
 * /Production Possibilities/

/Market Forces/
 * /Competition/
 * /Demand/
 * /Supply/

Microeconomics
/Consumer Behavior/
 * /Utility/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Marginal Utility/ (req. Utility) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Opportunity Costs/ (req. Allocation, Marginal utility) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Demand Laws/ (req. Opportunity costs) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Elasticity/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Economic Systems/

Models

 * /Graphs/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Budget Constraints/ (req. Graphs) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Production Possibilities (req. Budget constraints, Allocation) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Indifference/ (req. Production possibilities, Demand laws) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Types of Goods/ (req. Indifference) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Budget Compensation/ (req. Indifference) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Trade and Specialization (req. Production possibilities) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Demand/ (req. Indifference) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Labor Production/ (req. Budget compensation) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Wage/ (req. Labor production) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Costs to Firm/ (req. Perfect competition, Labor production) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Supply/ (req. Costs to firm) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Economies of Scale/ (req. Supply) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Supply and Demand/ (req. Demand, Supply) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /S-D Shifts/ (req. Supply and Demand) [[File:100%.svg]]

Macroeconomics

 * /Macro objectives/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /GDP/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Multipliers/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Money Supply/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Money/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Monetary Policy/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Fiscal Policy/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Taxation/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Interest Rates/ [[File:100%.svg]]
 * /Inflation/ [[File:00%.svg]]

Models

 * Laffer Curve [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Keynesian Cross Model [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Aggregate Supply & Demand Model (ASAD) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Investment Savings Model (IS) [[File:00%.svg]]
 * Money Demand Model (MD) [[File:00%.svg]]
 * Liquidity Trap Money Model [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Investment Savings Loan Money model (ISLM) [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Philips Curve [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Back-ward Bending Labor Supply Curve [[File:100%.svg]]
 * Solow Growth Model [[File:00%.svg]]

Appendices

 * Special contributions to this work [[File:100%.svg]]

title: Principles of Economics


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Wikijunior:Languages/Serbian

What writing system(s) does this language use?
The Serbian alphabet is based on the Cyrillic writing system. Two brothers named Cyril and Methodius created it using letters of the Greek alphabet in the 9th century. Cyrillic script has changed much with time, even more than the Roman script we use. Actually, modern Serbs are not able to read a three-hundred-year-old book in Serbian! This is not only because the language has changed, but also because they are not able to recognize many letters. The last big change of Serbian script happened in the 19th century, and the alphabet has remained the same since.

There are a total of thirty letters in the modern Serbian alphabet, and they are the following:

It is also possible to write Serbian using the letters of the Roman alphabet, which are used in English too, and many Serbs do so. Here is the list of Serbian Cyrillic letters compared to the Roman ones (the pronunciation is given in the brackets):

How many people speak this language?
Serbian is the native language for about 10 million people. There are also many people who speak it as a secondary language.

Where is this language spoken?
Serbian is, of course, spoken in Serbia (click here to learn about Serbia). But besides Serbia, Serbian is understood in Croatia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, because these languages (Croatian, Montenegrin, and Bosnian) are so similar that everybody understands each other's languages. In fact, they are so similar that Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian are often considered just one big language: Serbo-Croatian. There are many Serbian-speaking communities in the USA, Western Europe, Australia, and many other countries where the Serbs have emigrated.

What is the history of this language?
The Serbian language belongs to the group of languages that are called Slavonic or Slavic. These languages have many commonalities, some of which are similar word roots and similar grammar. For this reason, scientists think that all Slavonic languages originated from one common language, the so-called Protoslavonic language, that people spoke a long time ago (before 1000 A.D.). As time passed, the language spread, and people in different countries began to speak it differently. It is believed that Serbian became a separate language in 11th – 13th centuries, when the first Serbian countries were formed.

As Serbian countries changed with time, so did the language. Major events in Serbian history brought new features to language and literature. Serbian linguist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić is considered the "father" of the modern literary language. Though the Serbian language is very flexible and ever-changing, Vuk’s language stays the base and the standard of the classic style. Vuk's name (Вук) in Serbian means wolf! :)

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Serbian literature is ancient and it has a special style. There are also lots of wonderful children’s books in Serbian.

Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (1787 – 1864) is considered "father" of the modern Serbian language. He is also famous by collecting Serbian proverbs and folk poems and tales. Here is one Serbian folk story written down by Vuk Karadžić:

 * The Dark Realm

 * People speak that once some king with his army reached the very end of the world and entered the Dark Realm, where one can't ever see anything. When they entered the Dark Realm, and walked around it, they felt some small stones under their legs, and suddenly something spoke from the dark:
 * Which one of you takes these stones, he will be sorry! And which one doesn't take them, he will be sorry, too!
 * Some of the soldiers tought:
 * If I am going to be sorry, then why should I take them at all?
 * And some:
 * I'll take at least one.
 * When they returned to the light, they saw that those stones were all pure diamonds. Then those who didn't take them were sorry because they didn't, and those who did take them were sorry because they didn't take some more.

Jovan Jovanović Zmaj (1833 – 1904) is one of the greatest Serbian poets for children. He wrote many beautiful poems. His name Zmaj (Змај) in Serbian means dragon! :) Here is one famous poem by Zmaj:

 * A Child And A Butterfly

 * Child: Oh, my little butterfly, Would you please just come to me! Spread your wings and twinkle by, Here's a rose for you to see.

 * Butterfly: I would like to come and see, I would like to twinkle by; But, your needle might poke me And my life might go bye-bye!

 * Child: I won't do that — don't be scared — Cross my heart so you could know. I would only like to bend — Count how many legs you grow.

 * Butterfly: That is something I can tell Even if I'm not close by: I have six legs that are swell, And now, my dear boy, bye-bye!

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?

 * Здраво (zdravo) - Hello (informal)
 * Добар дан (dobar dan) - Good Day (formal)
 * Како си? (kako see) - How are you? (informal)
 * Како сте? (kako ste) - How are you? (formal)
 * Ја се зовем... (ya se zovem) - My name is...
 * Довиђења! (doveedyenya) - Goodbye!
 * Шта је то? (shta ye to) - What is that/it?
 * Говорите ли енглески? (govoreete lee engleskee) - Do you speak English? (formal)
 * Говориш ли енглески? (govoreesh lee engleskee) - Do you speak English? (informal)
 * Где је купатило? (gde ye koopateelo) - Where is the bathroom?
 * Извините! (eezveeneete) - Excuse me! (formal)
 * Извини! (eezveenee) - Sorry! (informal)

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
Try to learn this little folk poem from the west of Serbia:

 Љуља баба дијете, што га не зовете? Ми смо га звали, шећера му дали, а оно се љути што је шећер жути!

It sounds like this:  Lyoolya baba deeyete, shto ga ne zovete? Mee smo ga zvalee, shetyera moo dalee, a ono se lyootee shto ye shetyer zhootee!

And that means:  Grandma holds her little child, Why don't you kids call him? We did call him, We gave him some sugar to eat, But he was angry on us, Because the sugar was yellow!

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Serbian


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Antelopes

1. Give the general characteristics of antelopes.
Antelopes are a group of herbivorous African and Asian animals, distinguished by a pair of hollow horns on their heads. Many are more closely related to cows or goats than to each other. There are many different species of antelope, ranging in size from the tiny royal antelope to the giant eland. They typically have a light, elegant figure, are slender, have graceful limbs, small cloven hoofs and a short tail. Antelopes have powerful hindquarters and, when startled, run with a peculiar bounding stride that makes them look as though they are bouncing over the terrain like a giant rabbit. Some species of antelope can reach speeds of 50 miles (80 kilometers) per hour, making them among the fastest of land animals.

2. Give three size-groups of these animals, with two examples of each

 * Small Antelopes: Duiker, Klipspringer, and Dik-dik
 * Medium Antelopes: Bushbuck, Impala, and Springbok
 * Large Antelopes: Wildebeest and Elands

4. What do they eat? How do they digest their food?
Antelopes are ruminants. Like other ruminants, such as cattle and sheep, they have well-developed cheek teeth or molars, which grind cud into a pulp. They have no upper incisors; in order to tear grass stems and leaves, their lower incisors press against a hard upper gum pad when they bite.

5. Name three ways in which one benefits from having these animals in the country where one lives.

 * 1. They are beautiful: Antelopes are beautiful to behold.  They are graceful and fast.  An eland, from a standing-position, can jump over 8 feet high, making them difficult to fence in.

 * 2. They attract tourists: Because antelopes are such beautiful creatures, tourists flock to countries so that they can see them.  They also provide food for large predators, and large predators also attract tourists.  Tourism forms the basis of many economies.

 * 3. They provide meat: As they are much more common than carnivores, they can provide protein-rich and lean meat.

6. What are “false hoofs?” Which members of this family do not have them?
False hooves are the toes on an animal which do not normally touch the ground. These toes are present on what one would normally consider an antelope's ankle. Other animals (such as dogs) also have toes like this, only they are called dewclaws rather than false hooves (since dogs don't have hooves).

Sharpe's grysbok and steenbok both lack false hooves.

7. Which antelopes are classed as rare South African animals now? Where can they be seen, outside of the zoo and the museum?

 * Giant Sable Antelope: This animal was thought to be extinct, but was recently rediscovered.  It is found in Angola (which should be considered Southern Africa rather than South Africa).
 * Tsessebe: This animal is another rare South African antelope found in the Kruger National Park.
 * Roan Antelope: Like the Tsessebe, this antelope is also extremely rare and found in the Kruger National Park.

8. What natural enemies do the antelopes have? How do antelopes protect themselves and their young?
Big cats (cheetahs, lions, and leopards) are the antelope's most formidable natural enemies. Antelopes are fast runners, although they are not the fastest animals in the world. They are good at quick, precise turns, and they can run very fast for extended periods of time. This gives them an advantage over many predators such as the cheetah, which relies on sprinting and can be tired out by the antelope's greater stamina. Newborn calves can run with the herd immediately after birth.

The antelope's choice to flee is based largely on the type of predator and its distance from the herd. Usually, gazelles will permit lions to come within 200 m (650 ft.) before fleeing. They likely recognize that a hunting lion prefers to hide while stalking its prey, meaning a visible lion is unlikely to attack. Cheetahs, who are superb sprinters, pose a more dangerous threat. Gazelles will flee from cheetahs when they are over 800 m (0.5 mi.) away.

Antelopes communicate with each other using a varied array of sounds. For example, dik-diks whistle when alarmed, warning other animals of danger as well. This characteristic makes dik-diks less favorable prey for hunters. Generally, though, sight is a much more common form of communication than sound among antelopes. An antelope's mood is indicated by its posture and movement. When excited or alarmed, most medium-sized species of antelope bounce up and down on all four legs, keeping them stretched out straight. This behavior, known as pronking or stotting, acts as an alarming display. Some biologists theorize that stotting also sends a message to predators, showing that individual antelopes are fit and alert, and therefore not worth pursuing.

a. The largest antelope?
The Eland is the largest antelope.

b. The swiftest runner?
Although the Topi has the reputation of being the fastest of all antelopes, its top speed is only 50 km/h. The Topi is a subspecies of the Tsessebe that can run between 50-80 km/h. The wildebeest and the Thomson's gazelle on the other hand can run 80 km/h.

c. A good fighter?
The sable antelope is a very aggressive animal, and they often fight among themselves. Because they are such good fighters, even lions are wary of attacking them. Roan antelopes are also formidable fighters.

d. A good jumper?
The impala and springbok can jump in a single bound. Also, the springbok jumps high, achieving vertical heights up to.

e. Chiefly nocturnal?
The duiker, dik-dik, and the bushbuck are chiefly nocturnal.

f. Called “the African Chamois?"
The Klipspringer is sometimes called the "African Chamois."

g. The national animal of the Union of South Africa?
The national animal of the Union of South Africa is the Springbok.

10. Say which antelope you like to watch most. Tell five of its habits.
Here are the characteristics of several antelope. Your Pathfinders may already have a favorite (or choose some other) antelope not listed here, and that is fine. Encourage research.

 * Dik-dik
 * 1) These antelopes are monogamous, meaning they mate for life.
 * 2) Female dik-diks are somewhat larger than males.
 * 3) The males have horns, which are small, and slanted backwards.
 * 4) They are named for the sound they make when alarmed.
 * 5) They are small.

 * Bongo
 * 1) Bongos have a striking reddish coat
 * 2) They have black and white markings
 * 3) They have long slightly spiral horns.
 * 4) They are large
 * 5) Some say it is the most beautiful antelope.

 * Thomson's Gazelle
 * 1) "Tommies" are known as swift animals.
 * 2) They are able to run at high speeds for long periods of time.
 * 3) They exhibit a distinctive behavior of stotting (running slowly and jumping high before fleeing) when they are threatened by predators such as lions or cheetahs.
 * 4) They live and migrate in herds with hundreds or thousands of other Thomson's gazelles.
 * 5) Occasionally, a Thomson's gazelle and a zebra will even appear to enjoy one another's company with great sociability.

 * Impala
 * 1) They are reddish-brown in color with lighter flanks, and have white underbellies.
 * 2) Males have lyre-shaped horns which can reach up to 90 centimetres (3 ft) in length.
 * 3) Impala are among the most beautiful and graceful of the antelopes.
 * 4) Exceedingly agile, they are capable of leaping more than 12 m in a single bound.
 * 5) Young male impala form bachelor herds of around thirty individuals.
 * 6) Females and young form herds of up to two hundred individuals.
 * 7) Mature males hold territories, and lead any female herds that wander into their territory.

 * Klipspringer
 * 1) Their name means rock hopper.
 * 2) They reach approximately 58 cm (22 inches) at the shoulder.
 * 3) Klipspringers are relatively small animals compared to some of their larger antelope cousins.
 * 4) They never need to drink, since the plants they eat provide them with enough water to survive.
 * 5) Only the males have fragile horns that are usually about 20–25 cm (4-6 inches) long.
 * 6) They stand on the tips of their hooves.

 * Roan Antelope
 * 1) Roan Antelope stand about a meter and half at the shoulder and weigh around 250 kilograms.
 * 2) Roan Antelope are a roan color with a lighter underbelly, white eyebrows and cheeks and a black face, lighter in females.
 * 3) There is a short erect mane, a very light beard and prominent red nostrils.
 * 4) The horns are ringed and can reach a meter long in males, slightly shorter in females.
 * 5) The horns arch backwards slightly.
 * 6) Roan Antelope are found in grasslands where they eat mid-length grass.
 * 7) Roan Antelope commonly fight among themselves for dominance of their herd, brandishing their horns while both animals are on their knees.

 * Springbok
 * 1) Sprinboks have a pocket-like skin flap which extends along the middle of the back on to the tail. The springbok can lift this flap, which makes the white hairs underneath stand up in a conspicuous 'fan'.
 * 2) Like the Thomson's gazelle, springboks stotter when threatened.
 * 3) They used to be very common, but numbers have recently diminished due to an increase in hunting and more land being fenced off as farm land.
 * 4) They are a small brown and white gazelle that stand about 80 cm (32 in) high.
 * 5) Springboks inhabit the dry inland areas of south and southwestern Africa.

 * Wildebeest
 * 1) Wildebeests are also known as gnus.
 * 2) They grow to 1.15–1.4 meters (45–55 inches) at the shoulder.
 * 3) They weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms. (330 and 550 pounds).
 * 4) They inhabit the plains and open woodlands of Africa, especially the Serengeti.
 * 5) Wildebeest can live for more than 20 years.
 * 6) They migrate in May, when around 1.5 million animals move from the plains to the woods
 * 7) They return in November as summer rains water the plains.


text:
Bartending/Cocktails/Greyhound

The Greyhound is a Highball drink made with Vodka and Grapefruit Juice. The "traditional" method for making a highball is;

Fill the highball glass completely with ice. Then add;

1 oz. Vodka

2 oz. Grapefruit Juice

Add a sip stick. No garnishment is needed.

title: Bartending/Cocktails/Greyhound


text:
User:SatyrTN

Please visit my Wikipedia page.

title: User:SatyrTN


text:
Talk:Human Physiology/Cell physiology

Cody and Keith are creating content for phase two.

Jamie, RiRi, Jacquel and Danyell are responsible for first edit Due 8/27.

Garth, Kyle, Natalie, Paige, Brenda, Jody, and Jennifer are responsible for second edit Due 9/3.

Too many subheadings?
if anyone knows how to cut and paste good pics let me know. i am going to see today if i can try and do it. maybe i will maybe i won't we will have to see. but if anyone knows how to do it help!!!!!!!!!!!!!! I like your outline. I'm wondering if the Contents for the chapter is a bit busy because of all the sub-subheadings (such as one for each organelle). I am not suggesting getting rid of any information, but I am wondering if instead of creating subheadings for each organelle just have it stand out within the text. Currently you have them as sub-subheadings with four = signs. Maybe create some headers that don't get picked up by the Contents, and just lump them all under the Organelles section. Perhaps something like: Write all about the mitochondria down below. Or maybe something like:
 * Mitochondria
 * Endoplasmic reticulum
 * You could indent all the text about each organelle if you wanted. For the heading I don't know if you want the bullet style as above or it may be sufficient to just bold the text. What do you think?

One other thought: since it is human physiology I would not include anything on chloroplasts.

Looking good! Provophys 03:26, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

HEY THANKS FOR THE INPUT. I WILL TAKE THEM ALL OUT WHEN I CAN GET MORE INFO IN AND MAYBE TRY AND PUT IT TOGETHER. FOR NOW IT KIND OF HELPS ME TO KEEP IT IN ORDER. I REALLY DON'T KNOW HOW TO DO A CHAPTER. I STILL HAVE THINGS I NEED TO ADD IN. IF YOU HAVE OTHER SUGGESTIONS FEEL FREE TO LET ME KNOW. BUT HOPEFULLY I WILL PULL IT TOGETHER SOMETIME. OR BY THE END OF THE CLASS THE CHAPTER WILL LOOK GREAT WHEN EVERYONE HAS A CHANCE AT IT. THAN KS

I agree with the too many subheadings. Maybe try to combine them into paragraphs and condense the information. Its good information just too over whelming.

subheadings removed
I copied the section on organelles to Word, did a series of search and replace, and now instead of subheadings for the organelles you have bullet points. Let me know if you want something different. Provophys 21:31, 7 August 2006 (UTC) THANKS KEVIN FOR THE HELP. I AM NOT THE BEST ON A COMPUTER. ANY HELP I CAN GET IS WELCOME. IT LOOKS GREAT. LAURIE

i ADDED IN A PIC ON THE KREBS CYCLE BUT IT DOESN'T SHOW UP!
 * I looked around, there is no image by that filename. Are you sure that is the correct name? --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 18:23, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Ooops
I put them back into subheadings :-/

Didn't check the discussion here (I'm pretty new at this myself) first. I just find it easier to find information you want if it's listed at the top, a lot of people will be coming here for fast information (and you'd be surprised how few people use the search function in their browser).. I've got no problems with anybody undoing it, though.

celltypes.png
I saw that you had a hyperlink here to a picture called "celltypes.png", but it was deleted. I fixed it so that the image is displayed now, and is not just a link. If you dont want to keep the image, feel free to delete it. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 21:52, 31 July 2006 (UTC) I don't seem to be able to add anything in to the discussion page. I just put something in and now it is gone. Thought I saved it. Anyway what I said was thank you to anyone who is helping out here. I appreciate it. We added a picture of the cell structure on Monday or Wednesday. Can't remember what day. Looks good. My computer has been out of comission for a few days. Seems to be up and running now. Will add more in and try and find some more pics. THanks to Whiteknight for the help. keep it coming

Images
There are other images to be found at commons:Category:Cell biology. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:34, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

I just wanted to tell you guys that your page is looking great, I like that you went through and condensed more of the infomation.Trisha83 19:18, 7 August 2006 (UTC)

Looks good
Your chapter has improved so much it is now alot easier to read and not so overwheliming. I really liked that your group listened to the coments and changed things. It has great information and I think you have covered every topic. Linsey88 19:22, 7 August 2006 (UTC) THANKS LINSEY88   I STILL NEED TO ADD SOME MORE INFORMATION I HAVE FOR THE CHAPTER. I HAVE TROUBLE WITH MY COMPUTER AT HOME SOMETIMES AND CAN'T GET IT TO TURN ON AND STAY ON. I AM AT WORK RIGHT NOW!

Note on organelles
The sections on flagella and pili really apply more to bacteria than to humans (or other eukaryotes). The only cells with flagella in humans are sperm cells. I don't think there are any that have pili. Provophys 21:31, 7 August 2006 (UTC) OK I WILL GO BACK AND TAKE THAT PART OUT. THANKS KEVIN. I WILL DO THAT TONIGHT WHEN I GET HOME. I STILL HAVE OTHER INFO TO ADD IN THE CHAPTER. THIS IS KIND OF FUN. WHEN I TOOK MICROBIOLOGY I COULDN'T UNDERSTAND THE CELL FOR ANYTHING. NOW I FEEL LIKE I GET IT A LITTLE.

WILL TAKE OUT THE PILI, FLAGELLA AND CILIA OUT LATER. I FOUND SOMETHING ON THE SPERM BUT CAN'T FIND IT RIGHT NOW. WHEN I DO I WILL PUT IT IN FOR THE FLAGELLA AND EDIT OUT THE REST

M Sol's review
I think you have a really good start to your chapter i think there was alot covered but you left things that can be added to wich will be good for the team who works on your chapter in the future. I really enjoyed all teh pictures there wee alot of pictures if things I havent seen before it relly made the chapter more intresting great job keepup the good work.

Scott H.'s review
The chapter looks so awesome guys. I can tell you have put a lot of work into it. And it is very inforitive. If I may make one suggestion. ATP is a very important and complex topic. It would be very helpful if you went into deatail on how it is synithized(spelling?) and how it is used. Think about it without ATP life can not exist. Everything that your cells do uses ATP. From moveig a muscle to tasteing food to talking, your cells use ATP to make these things happen. Also it is amazing that cell recycle ATP. If they didn't you would need to eat a ton of food to keep up with the need for ATP. But like I said I really enjoyed the chapter.Scottholmes 00:50, 10 August 2006 (UTC)

Just a note from Leili
I want to thank all the people who have been so generous with their ideas and advice. This whole book thing is a bit intimidating, but I think it's shaping up pretty well. It has been a little bit of a challenge for me as I don't really have access to the Internet except at school and sometimes at my sister's house, but all things considered things are going OK. Thank you once again-Leili

Review
You have done a great job on the chapter. There are quite a few things I learned when revewing it. It would be helpful to have a periodic table. I realize that it takes up a lot room so maby it would be better just to have a link to it or an apendix with it at the end of the book. My compliments on the chapter. --Clareceglanville 03:43, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Phase 2 Review
This chapter really flows good and in lay-man language. By reading thru your chapter I understand what certain cells do and how they work but my main question now is what happens when they dont produce in certain areas for example metabolism there are many disorders there. So my thought would be to go through the subheadings and add just a brief explination of what can go wrong with the cell and what can happen to the person. Good Job, keep up the hard work.--Danyellmarie 18:42, 23 August 2006 (UTC)

Your chapter is great I really enjoyed the read. Wow great pictures they really help you understand, I also like that there is a lot of them. Well I can tell you guys have put a lot into this chapter, good job, it looks great!--Jacquel 02:31, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

Flagellum
Your chapter is awesome! It very organized and flows well together. One thing that stood out to me was your picture of flagella wasn't labled. you had A,B,C,D, but never said their names such as monotrichous or whatever they're called, i really can't remember but i KNOW kevin knows. Good work guys! Keep it up!--Jami_7 22:33, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

flagella/cilia/pili
Only one human cell has a flagellum (sperm), so I removed the picture of the different flagellar arrangements (it is a good picture, but applies to bacteria). Pili are also found only in bacteria, so I deleted that paragraph. I also updated the cilia and mitochondria paragraphs a bit. It would be nice if we could get a better picture of ciliated cells--a scanning electron micrograph of ciliated epithelial cells would be ideal. Provophys 23:31, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Review
I love the pictures in this chapter! It is a harder chapter to cover because it is so important and you can go into a lot of depth with it as well. I think that your content is wonderful and that it is just enough. Good Job!--JamBam16 00:30, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

RiRi's Comments
I went through and added bullets to things that were grouped together with definitions and I also added some picture toward the end of the chapter. Also I added review questions since there were none. The Next people who take over this chapter, you might want to figure out a better layout for those review question. Sorry i didn't have time. I'm playing catch up on other chapter reviews--{RiRi82 00:18, 3 September 2006 (UTC)}

Question on specialized cells
Under the heading of specialized cells of the human body the only cells that are listed are blood cells exocrine, endocrine, and endothelial cells. What about bone cells, nerve cells, muscle cells, etc? I think a short description of all the main cell types would be nice. Provophys 00:35, 8 September 2006 (UTC)

Kyle's review
There is a lot of information in this chapter. But yet it was still diffcult to find the anwsers to thw questions on the quiz in this chapter. But other then that it looks great

Jody's review
This chapter seems to have made a lot of improvements in the last couple of weeks. I have looked at it several times and like the way it is organized. I know that Kevin had advised us to do more open ended review questions, so it might be nice to change those a little, but I don't know if that is a big deal. It looks great and is very full of information. I think it would also be nice to have a summary for the whole chapter. --Jtervortn 01:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Mispelling on page 20
Page 20 - diagram of eukaryote - nucleolus mispelled as nucleolis.

title: Talk:Human Physiology/Cell physiology


text:
User:Hagindaz/Orphans

Talk pages with orphans listed
Chinese - Blended Learning in K-12 - LaTeX - Cryptography - Bartending - C++ Programming - StarCraft - Electronics - General Chemistry - Latin - XML: Managing Data Exchange - German - Introspector - Java Programming - A Wikimanual of Gardening - Anatomy

Transwiki: First Aid - A Wikimanual of Gardening - Beekeeping - Java Programming - Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter

Orphans with cleanup tags
JoArabize - Joystick Game - Force and Motion - Network address translation

To be transwikied
Monkey Madness Quest - Beowulf - Extermination Order (Mormonism)

How To Be A Real Estate Agent
Being a Real Estate Agent/The First Steps and Getting Your License/United States/What Is a Real Estate Agent?

Gimme Shelter! Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/After Getting Your License - Gimme Shelter! Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Glossary - Gimme Shelter! Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Introduction

Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Deeds - Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Getting Your License in New Hampshire - Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Glossary - Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Introduction - Learning How To Be A Real Estate Agent/Residential Properties

Video games
Animal Crossing: Wild World - Kirby Super Star - List of Mega Man attacks - Mario Kart 64 - Mario Adventure - Metroid Prime - Metroid Prime: Hunters - Paper Mario - NES & Famicom games - Project Entropia - Secret of Mana - Seiken Densetsu 3 - Super Monkey Ball - Star Fox: Assault - The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind/Andasreth Propylon Index - Radiata Stories - Eternal Darkness: Sanity's Requiem

Orphaned backlinks
Radiation Oncology/Epidemiology - Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck - Radiation Oncology/Lung

Coding Cookbook
Coding Cookbook/Change Query Parameter - Coding Cookbook/Escape from encapsulation - Coding Cookbook/HTML Encode - Coding Cookbook/Inline If - Coding Cookbook/JavaScript Encode - Coding Cookbook/Pop-up Window - Coding Cookbook/Resizable Window - Coding Cookbook/SQL Encode - Coding Cookbook/Statusbar Ticker - Coding Cookbook/Tabbar - Coding Cookbook/URL Encode - Coding Cookbook/Validate Email Address

Orphaned transcluded pages
Radiation Oncology/Hodgkin/TOC - The Universe Made Simple/Front Image

Computer Programming
Computer programming/Control:1 - Computer programming/Control:1.1 - Computer programming/Control:1.2 - Computer programming/Control:1.3 - Computer programming/Control:10 - Computer programming/Control:11 - Computer programming/Control:12 - Computer programming/Control:2 - Computer programming/Control:3 - Computer programming/Control:5 - Computer programming/Control:6 - Computer programming/Control:7 - Computer programming/Control:8 - Computer programming/Control:9

Computer programming/Error handling/0 - Computer programming/Error handling/1 - Computer programming/Error handling/2 - Computer programming/Error handling/3 - Computer programming/Error handling/4 - Computer programming/Error handling/5 - Computer programming/Error handling/6

Computer programming/Mathematical calculations/0 - Computer programming/Variables/0

Japanese
Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Parts - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Parts

Japanese/Grammar Lessons/Introduction/Navbar - Japanese/Grammar Lessons/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/Expressing understanding using ne/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/I-adjectives/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/Special kana rules/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/Talking about the weather/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formal salutations/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formality/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Noun predicates/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Pronunciation/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Gojuuon and hiragana/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Na-adjectives/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Questions using ka/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Talking about how you are doing/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Yes and no/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Affirmative and negative forms/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Saying how much you understand/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Using masu/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Verb stems/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Wakarimasu yo/Verbs/Navbar - Japanese/Lessons/Navbar

title: User:Hagindaz/Orphans


text:
Talk:6502 Assembly

Suggestions:
 * Description of zero-page and why it's important/useful
 * Description of the stack, where it's located in memory, and what it's used for
 * Memory mapped I/O
 * Interrupts

Does a good discussion of the 6502 require discussing complete systems, to be able to discuss doing I/O to hardware like printing to the screen or reading the keyboard, or using the basic routines provided by a ROM or disk O/S? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 24.144.50.116 (talk • contribs) 03:55, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the suggestions. I've been working on a new outline to replace this "book" because it is in poor shape. I will take these suggestions into account. I think that we will discuss I/O commands, and perhaps even common port locations of "common" peripherals, and the workings of the 6502 chipset. Some things, like printing to the screen, require too much specialized knowledge of the videochipset and driver, and we can't assume anything. Reading the keyboard/mouse is a possibility, however. We can look at common ROM routines, if there are any that can be called "standard", but I think that we should stay clear away from OS subjects: that really doesnt have anything to do with assembly language programming. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 14:47, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

This is a nice start. In regards to the merger suggestion, I definitely think that this should NOT be merged with the NES intro to programming though. The 6502 was, and is, used in far more systems than just the NES. As for discussing complete systems, I think BRIEF mentions of common system configurations might be OK as it relates to examples of assembly programming (the topic of the wikibook) but details of how to use specific systems or ROM routines seems beyond the scope of this topic. I think Whiteknight has the right idea about the focus. Other books could tackle various system configurations in detail. -AlexS 06:14, 3 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Agreed. I learned 6502 assembly language on the Commodore 64, and continued to use it on C-128, Apple //c, and writing an NES emulator. Knowing a little something about both (6502) and (NES programming) merging is a bad idea, as it will destroy the useful scope of both projects. 66.170.4.2 17:39, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

Merge with NES?
What the crap? Merge with NES programming? The 6502 CPU got way more coverage than that. The NES programming book needs to talk about hacking the sound hardware and the video frame buffer; but do not pretend the CPU came as a Nintendo exclusive specialized chip!

I have to agree. The NES is NOT a commodore 64. There is an active community creating applications and assemblers for the Commodore 64 today, in 2007. Merging this will only cause a new article to be added concerning the Commodore 64, which certainly has far more interest for today's hobbiest than the emulation/theivery environment that the NES has. I came here looking for books on 6502 programming, not on NES programming, because I'm a c64 coder. I would have found nothing if it were merged. I simply don't understand why anyone would suggest the merge, at all.

 * Fair criticisms. I have removed the merge template. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 21:48, 30 December 2007 (UTC)
 * Since when is this "thievery"? And I'd bet a single book about the 6502 could be shared among books specific to Apple II, Atari 2600, Atari 400/800, C64, and NES. But the NES would need different emphasis on what to put in zero page because it is unusual in that programs don't need to stay out of the way of ROM BASIC that hogs the majority of zero page. --Damian Yerrick (discuss • contribs) 02:13, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

Bad examples in the addressing mode section
"LSR ($2A),Y"? Seriously? I was under the impression that LSR only supported five addressing modes (A; d; d,X; a; a,X), not the (d),Y mode seen here. --Damian Yerrick (discuss • contribs) 02:16, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

I have a similar beef with the example "INC $F001,Y" -- barrym95838

suggestion : IMPROVE "M symbol"
I understand that "M" it's not exactly a symbol with the same sense of other 'symbol' in Status Flags table ( Carry, Zero ,etc) ... BUT syntax like    " Flags: N = M7, V = M6, Z "  (see for example BIT opcode) results pretty obscure ..... I guess it will be a great idea to add "M (memory)" in the table... and explain how exactly it means... 87.19.41.121 (discuss) 13:38, 23 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:6502 Assembly


text:
Wikijunior:How Things Work/GUI (Graphical User Interface)

GUI (gOO-EE), also known as Graphical User Interface, is not as complex as one might expect. In reality, we come into contact with a GUI every day we are on our computers! You are probably using a GUI right now to read this page.

A user interface is a way to have a person communicate with a computer. In the very earliest computers, user interfaces were usually a bunch of switches that a user would change to change what the computer was to do. This method was slow and the users had to know the code that the computer would understand. Only a small number of people used this method and as computers improved, better ways to talk to computers were invented.

Eventually a Command Line Interface (CLI) was developed that would allow a user to type in commands that the computer would interpret. A user had a keyboard and a display to see the results. This proved to be a much better way for people to communicate with computers and is still a favorite method for some people to use computers.

As computers became more powerful and better able to display graphics, and new ways to communicate with computers were invented, Graphical User Interfaces were developed.

Who invented it?
Although Apple was the first to mass-produce a successful (practical and usable) GUI, they were not the inventors of the idea, nor were they the first to market it. The honour for implementing the first working GUI goes to Doug Englebart – at the time an employee of Stanford Research Institute. The Xerox Palo Alto Research Center was convinced that Englebart’s model would work on computers available for individual work stations, and they created two working models, the Alto and the Star. The Star was made available to the public, mouse and all, in 1981. But the hardware setup required to operate it was very expensive, and they sold only 25,000 of them. But this was the first GUI-based operating system (OS) available to the public.

How does it get power?
It required electricity to be displayed, usually in a monitor, but it can also use other visual output like projectors or 3D glasses. It also requires human interaction (or a simulation of it) via inputs (orders) given by the use of devices like the mouse, a tactile screen a joystick. There are a multitude of ways to read the user's intention, even an eye blink can be used, recently even brainwaves can be used to operate a GUI.

How does it work?
A GUI allows the user of a computer to communicate with the computer by moving a pointer around on a screen and clicking a button. There are many ways to move a pointer around the screen. Originally the "mouse" (a hand sized box with a cord) used a tiny ball that rolled around a "mousepad" (rugged, leveled surface designed for that purpose), today a laser is used for detecting the movement and there is no longer a "tail" on the "mouse", it has been generally substituted by an infrared or radio transmission. The basic idea continues to be the same, sensors keep track of where the mouse moves and when buttons are pushed and that is then transmitted to the computer that translate it into movement and other activity onto the computer's screen.

There are other ways to move a pointer around including trackballs, buttons, touchpads, touchscreens, joysticks and video game controllers.

The computer will do different things depending upon where the pointer is on the screen and how a button is pressed. A program on the computer is constantly checking for the location of the pointer on the screen, any movement of the mouse, and any buttons pressed. It even checks to see how fast they are pressed. This program will decide what the user wanted to do by these actions and try to do it.

For example, if you move the pointer on the screen over the file menu and press a mouse button you will see a list appear. Moving the pointer down the list to print and clicking again will tell the computer that you want to print a paper copy of this page. It will respond by creating a new dialog box asking you how you want to have the page print out.

What does it do?
As the name already says, a GUI is an interface between the user of a computer, and a program on his/her computer. Graphical User Interfaces give users a graphical overview of options that user can pass to the program, and the actions which they can instruct the program to execute. This allows for a lower threshold for users to start using the program. You click on the file menu, then you can read all the sub-commands and you'll enjoy selecting where to place the mouse and click it.

How does it vary?
GUIs vary, among other things, in terms of:
 * Design: One design can be that items enter from the left and exit on the right while another can be that items enter on the top and exit on the bottom
 * Complexity: Some are simple, allowing only a few or even a single action and some are complex, allowing many actions
 * Graphics: Some have lots of pictures or animations, while others are simple and have only words
 * Way of using the GUI: Some are designed for use with a mouse, some with a keyboard, others with modern ideas like eye movement tracking
 * Navigation: How do I get from one page to another and how do I know where I am. A GUI can do anything from showing a map of the entire application to just giving a page title in the window.

How has it changed the world?
After the arrival of the GUI, many computer systems moved from having boring text screens to having rich graphical interfaces. Thanks to GUIs, working with computers has become much more visually appealing, and even fun.

By having a GUI, computers have become more useful to many more people, who don't have to be computer experts anymore in order to use a computer for common things, such as editing text or viewing photos.

What idea(s) and/or inventions had to be developed before it could be created?
Computers and monitors had to be invented first.


text:
Wikijunior:United States Charters of Freedom/Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, commonly known as the Articles of Confederation, was the first governing document of the United States of America.

The articles, which combined The 13 Colonies of the American Revolutionary War into a loose confederation, were adopted by the Second Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, after 16 months of debate. The articles were ratified three years later on March 1, 1781.

The articles were replaced by the ../Constitution/ on June 21, 1788, when the ninth state, New Hampshire, ratified the Constitution.

Ratification
Congress began to push for ratification of the Articles in 1777, penning a letter (appended to the Articles) urging that the document

 * be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...

The document only became effective as it was ratified by the states. This process dragged on for several years, stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west. Maryland was the last hold-out; it refused to ratify until Virginia and New York agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the Ohio River valley. All of the colonies rebelling against Britain ratified it by 1781.

Although Congress debated the Articles for over a year, it requested immediate action on the part of the states. On February 5, 1778 South Carolina became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. However, three and a half years passed before the final ratification by Maryland on March 1, 1781.

Text of the Articles of Confederation
Even though the Articles of Confederation and the ../Constitution/ were established by much of the same people, they were still very different. The document contained a preamble, 13 articles, a conclusion, and the signatures (Note that the preamble, conclusion and signatures headings are not part of the text of the document) (though the articles have headings labeled Article I-Article XIII).

Preamble
To all to whom these Presents shall come, we the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our Names send greeting.

Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

Article I
The Stile of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of America."

Article II
Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.

Article III
The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

Article IV
The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposition, duties or restriction shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them.

If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense.

Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State.

Article V
For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the States, and while they act as members of the committee of the States.

In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace.

Article VI
No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or title of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility.

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No State shall lay any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain.

No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise.

Article VII
When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

Article VIII
All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from time to time direct and appoint.

The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled.

Article IX
The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article -- of sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace -- appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

''United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a petition to Congress stating the matter in question and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination: and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affection or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.''

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States.

The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislative right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulating post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appointing all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers -- appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

''The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Committee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half-year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requisition shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid- like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled.''

The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant letters of marque or reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled.

The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, alliances or military operations, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States.

Article X
The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite.

Article XI
Canada acceding to this confederation, and adjoining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this Union; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine States.

Article XII
All bills of credit emitted, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the said United States, and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged.

Article XIII
''Every State shall abide by the determination of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.''

Conclusion
''And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in Congress assembled, on all questions, which by the said Confederation are submitted to them. And that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual.''

Signatures
''In Witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. Done at Philadelphia in the State of Pennsylvania the ninth day of July in the Year of our Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Seventy-Eight, and in the Third Year of the independence of America.''

 * On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire:
 * Josiah Bartlett
 * John Wentworth Jr. August 8th 1778

 * On the part and behalf of The State of Massachusetts Bay:
 * John Hancock
 * Samuel Adams
 * Elbridge Gerry
 * Francis Dana
 * James Lovell
 * Samuel Holten
 * Paul Revere

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations:
 * William Ellery
 * Henry Marchant
 * John Collins

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut:
 * Roger Sherman
 * Samuel Huntington
 * Oliver Wolcott
 * Titus Hosmer
 * Andrew Adams

 * On the Part and Behalf of the State of New York:
 * James Duane
 * Francis Lewis
 * William Duer
 * Gouverneur Morris

 * On the Part and in Behalf of the State of New Jersey, November 26, 1778.
 * John Witherspoon
 * Nathaniel Scudder

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania:
 * Robert Morris
 * Daniel Roberdeau
 * Jonathan Bayard Smith
 * William Clingan
 * Joseph Reed 22nd July 1778

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware:
 * Thomas Mckean February 12, 1779
 * John Dickinson May 5th 1779
 * Nicholas Van Dyke

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland:
 * John Hanson March 1 1781
 * Daniel Carroll

 * On the Part and Behalf of the State of Virginia:
 * Richard Henry Lee
 * John Banister
 * Thomas Adams
 * John Harvie
 * Francis Lightfoot Lee

 * On the part and Behalf of the State of NoCarolina:
 * John Penn July 21st 1778
 * Cornelius Harnett
 * John Williams

 * On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina:
 * Henry Laurens
 * William Henry Drayton
 * John Mathews
 * Richard Hutson
 * Thomas Heyward Jr.

 * On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia:
 * John Walton 24th July 1778
 * Edward Telfair
 * Edward Langworthy

Analysis of the text
This section describes each section of the Articles of Confederation.

Analysis of the Preamble
The Preamble briefly describes what the Articles of Confederation are and lists the colonies which ratified this document.

Analysis of Article I
Article I establishes the name of the country as "The United States of America".

Analysis of Article II
Article II explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled.

Analysis of Article III
Article III establishes the United States as a league of states united "...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them..."

Analysis of Article IV
Article IV establishes freedom of movement–anyone can pass freely between states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.

Analysis of Article V
Article V allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (United States in Congress Assembled) to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years.

Analysis of Article VI
Article VI limits the powers of states to conduct foreign relations and to declare war.

Analysis of Article VII
Article VII states that when an army is raised for common defense, colonels and military ranks below colonel will be named by the state legislatures.

Analysis of Article VIII
Article VIII states that expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each.

Analysis of Article IX
Article IX defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.

Analysis of Article X
Article X defines a Committee of the States to be a government when Congress is not in session.

Analysis of Article XI
Article XI requires at least nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy; preapproves Canada, if they apply for membership.

Analysis of Article XII
Article XII reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the Articles of Confederation were ratified.

Analysis of Article XIII
Article XIII declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by all the state legislatures.

Analysis of the Conclusion
The Conclusion declares that all the states shall ensure that the Articles of Confederation are followed and also states that the Union shall be perpetual.

Analysis of the Signatures
The Articles of Confederation were signed by the delegates, ratifying them. The date the document was signed is also written in this section.

Function
The Articles of Confederation supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the 13 states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. But as a tool to build an effective wartime government, they were largely a failure. Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them.

Perhaps the most important power that Congress was denied was the power of taxation: Congress could only request money from the states. Understandably, the states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the confederation chronically short of funds. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and paying congressional debts became a major issue.

Nevertheless, the Continental Congress did take two actions with lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states.

Once the unity demanded by the Revolutionary War became unnecessary, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Indian attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced the Congress to leave Philadelphia on June 21.

Revision
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus.

In September, five states assembled in the Annapolis Convention (1786) to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce. Under their chairman, Alexander Hamilton, they invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787.

According to their own terms for modification, the Articles of Confederation were still in effect until 1790, when every one of the 13 states had ratified the new ../Constitution/. The Congress under the Articles continued to sit until late in 1788, though seldom with a quorum near the end.

 * September 28, 1787 - Congress sends Constitution to States for ratification
 * July 2, 1788 - Ratification of Constitution formally announced by Congress, following ratification by ninth state, New Hampshire, on June 21, 1788
 * November 1, 1788 - Congress under Articles of Confederation adjourns
 * April 1, 1789 - House of Representatives under Constitution reaches a quorum

According to some historians, the Articles were flawed; in particular, the confederal government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly. After all, the states were thirteen individual republics.

Although replaced in 1788 by the ../Constitution/, the Articles of Confederation provided stability during the American Revolutionary War years. Most importantly, the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self-governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government.

Signing of the Articles of Confederation
The copy of the Articles of Confederation in the National Archives has a series of signatures on page six. A list of them is presented here. The signing of the Articles was a process that has caused some confusion. The Articles were approved for distribution to the states, on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.

But, the Articles at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.

On July 9, 1778 the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.

After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.

The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles, and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. After a wait of two years, Maryland ratified, and her delegates signed the Articles on March 1, 1781. The articles were finally in force.

Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.

Source
Basically a junior version of the Wikipedia article


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text: Category:Book:TI-Lists

title: Category:Book:TI-Lists


text: Category:Book:TI 83 Plus Assembly

title: Category:Book:TI 83 Plus Assembly


text:
User talk:Chazz

Just a place-holder in case someone wants to say something to me... Chazz 07:26, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

I don't keep archives; this is talk, it is by its nature ephemeral. Of course, if you want to see what was on here that I have taken away, there is always the history... Chazz 01:20, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

In case anyone is wondering – I have grown excessively weary of editing the Muggles' Guide, and am electing to cut back my contributions significantly. Feel free to contact PNW Raven if you need pointers to ways to assist the Muggles' Guide. Chazz (talk) 21:45, 10 April 2011 (UTC)

I'm done.
I have been working on The Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter now for... thirteen years. I'm tired. I'm tired of personal attacks, of editors who won't debate but vandalize, perhaps with good intentions, usually not. For the past three years, this has been a chore rather than a joy, and it has now reached the point that I no longer feel that the value of my work to the world outweighs the cost to me of doing it.

If anyone else chooses to take up this task, more power to them. But for me, the game is no longer worth the candle.

Goodbye. Chazz (talk) 03:59, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

 * I didn't realize things had gotten that bad. I'm certainly very sorry to hear.  You are, always, a welcome member of the Wikibooks family, whenever and however you may contribute here. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 05:43, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

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