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Animal Behavior/Learning

The view of the brain as a tabula rasa, a blank slate, all too long a basis for the thinking of learning theorists, is patently absurd—Peter Marler, 1996 Behavior is too important to be left to psychologists—Donald Griffin

Learning
Learning is characterized by persistent and measurable changes in behavior which are not associated with fatigue, altered motivation, or maturation. Some information or knowledge is acquired and is then used to alter the individuals actions and responses. Learning as an adaptive behavior allows individuals to adapt to specific environment challenges.

Non-associative Learning
The mode of learning THAT develops in the absence of its association with any reinforcement is called non-associative learning. It is of following two types: Habituation and Sensitization: Habituation refers to a gradual decrease in behavioral responses with repeated encounters of a particular stimulus, which proves of no consequence. It depends on a change in the synapse between the sensory and motor neuron. Independent of conscious motivation or awareness it aids in distinguishing novel and meaningful information from the general background noise. Sensory Adaptation refers to a change in the responsiveness of a sensory system when confronted with a constant stimulus.

In contrast, sensitization refers to an increase in behavioral responses following repeated applications of a particular stimulus. Following sensitization, very little stimulation is then required to produce exceedingly large effects. Initial. light stimulation of peripheral skin receptors may not activate nociceptive (i.e., pain) neurons of the spinal cord. Continued, repeated stimulation of the same pathways will bring about central sensitization suggesting the presence of an irritating or potential more damaging skin issue. Tissue damage or continued inflammation may thereby cause chronic pain conditions. In long-term potentiation (LTP), physiological effects of subsequent synaptic signals are strengthened following initial activation. This process is thought to form an integral component of memory and learning. Repeated stimulation of different neural centers can also strengthen coordinated neuronal firing and thereby lead to seizures.

Associative Learning
The ability to learn is a basic foundation of intelligence. Humans are particularly keen observers of the world around them and are thereby able to reliably identify the presence of different regularities and generalizations. Patterns that are of consequence to our daily lives are readily learned, which suggests the presence of powerful biases in their search and representation. We tend to remember information more easily if we have uncovered it ourselves than if they are simply presented to us.

An effort to form mental images out of any material to be learned may often enhance retention. Dual Code Theory suggests that most information can be committed to memory in either verbal/linguistic code or mental image code. The use of multiple codes for harnessing any material thus may enhance performance by increasing the number of retrieval paths.

Classical Conditioning
A form of associative learning, Classical conditioning requires an unconditional reflex, where an unconditional stimulus (US) elicits an automatic, unlearned (unconditional) response (UR). If a neutral stimulus (NS) tends to precede it, an association is made and the conditional response (CR) becomes transferred onto the (previously neutral) conditional strimulus (CS); a conditional reflex has been learned. For instance, food (US) elicits salivation (UR) in a dog as a natural response. If the sound of a bell (NS) frequently occurs before the food (US) is presented then the mere sound of the bell (CS) will elicit salivation (CR). A mistranslation of "conditional" as "conditioned" meant that in English the CS and CR were referred to as conditioned stimulus and conditioned response, and the verb "to condition" was derived to refer to the process responsible for the establishment of new CR. (From: The Dictionary of Ethology and Animal Learning Edited by Rom Harre and Roger Lamb, The MIT Press, 1986)

Fear conditioning allows organisms to acquire affective responses, such as fear, in situations where a particular context or stimulus is predictably elicits fear via an aversive context (e.g., a shock, loud noise, or unpleasant odor). Little Albert Experiment

Conditioned Taste Aversion (i.e., Garcia conditioning) occurs when a subject experiences symptoms of a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance such as nausea, sickness, or vomiting after consuming unfamiliar food. Learned aversion of such taste is an adaptive trait that trains the body to stay away from items that are likely poisonous (e.g., berries or mushroom). This association sometimes occurs in subjects even when sickness was merely coincidental and not related to the food.

Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949). Thorndike's most famous work investigated the behavior of cats trying to escape from various home-made puzzle boxes. When first constrained in the boxes the cats took a long time to escape from each. With experience however, ineffective responses occurred less frequently and successful responses occurred more quickly enabling the cats to escape in less and less time over successive trials.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) extended the theories proposed by Thorndike about 40 years after Thorndike published his works. His ideas of animals operating on the environment, lead him to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences. The contraption that became known has the Skinner box measured if a task was completed and the duration of time it took for the task to be completed. The Skinner box consisted of a bar on the wall that when pressed triggered the release of a food pellet. It was Skinners belief that by rewarding an animal when an appropriate action occurred it would increase the likelihood that the behavior would be repeated. When the rats, placed in the box, accidentally tapped on the bar on the wall a pellet was released and Skinner observed the amount of time it took the rat to find the pellet. As the rat learned that a pellet released each time he happened to step on the bar, the rat learned to press the bar and to immediately find the food. This training is what became known as operant conditioning. Reinforcement always strengthens the behavior that preceded it and may consist of any outcome that the animal considers desirable. Reinforcers can broadly be categorized into positive reinforcers (i.e., obtaining access to something the animal wants) or negative reinforcers (i.e., removing something considered unpleasant or painful). Punishment is always designed to discourage further performance of the behavior it is paired with. Positive punishment achieves that by inflicting an unwanted outcome such as unpleasant sounds or odors, electric shocks, or pain, while negative punishment removes access to something the animal wants. Skinners operant conditioning is seen in the learning behavior of many animals as well as humans. Oftentimes it goes completely unnoticed, but it can also be used as a deliberate tool in training. As young children explore their world and learn how to eliminate unpleasant stimuli and satisfy desires through proper behavior they are learning through operant conditioning.

Operant conditioning is used extensively in training animals towards performing quite complex tasks. Shaping involves the step-wise reinforcement of successive approximations. This training method relies on the animal to exhibit an interest in showing a wide range of behaviors as well as in obtaining rewards. When a desired behavior is performed, the trainer rewards this action. As this method relies on compliance from the animal, most suited to this training are a combination of positive reinforcers (e.g., a small item of food) for behavior compatible with the trainer's expectations, and negative punishment (e.g., withholding that food item) for behavior that is not. Initially rewards are issued for even a crude approximation or a component of the behavior. While these attempts may have earned the animal a reward at the beginning, subsequent rewards are contingent on progressively narrowing the behavior to what the trainer aims for.

Latent learning
Latent learning refers to an individual's ability to learn associations without explicit reinforcement. Exploratory behavior serves to acquire an understanding of the spatial relationships of objects. It includes the formation of “cognitive maps” of the surrounding. Daily success depends on knowldge of spatial relationships. Hummingbirds and bees recall the location and status of harvesting of flower resources, and several species of birds are able to track a large number of seed stores.

Observational learning
Bandura illustrated the power of an instructional strategy in which children are allowed to observe behavior of individuals who are significant to them. Subsequently they are likely to imitate their role models especially when such behavior is reinforced. His work illustrates that observers readily adapt their behavior based on what they see around them, even when they received no encouragement or incentives to do so. Integrating a continuous interaction between behaviors, cognitions, and the environment, his social learning theory stresses the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling.

Human Language
Humans show exceptional skill to communicate with fellow conspecific using verbal and gestural symbols. Such competence is arguably one of mankind's greatest assets as well as a key to most of our species' achievements. It brings us together with our peers and enriches us through an exchange of experiences, thoughts and value systems. It endows us with the means to acquire skills for situations that we may have never personally encountered before. A staggering range of regionally distinct languages and dialects, grouped in larger language families, not only serves as a system of communcation but also tags us for membership within a specific group. In addition to bringing us together, it has thereby been at the heart of an ancient source of division. Although few things in biology ever group cleanly into one of the nature vs. nurture extremes, this particular division seems to be purely cultural. Regardless of the specific race, ethnic or regional group that we happen to have joined through birth, we all are able to acquire competence in any human language. In particular, we seem to acquire our native language without formal education, long before many of our intellectual capabilities have matured, and simply by immersion into the particular language environment of parents and relatives during the first few years of our life. The scientific study of the nature and structure of languages is called linguistics.

Universal Grammar. BF Skinner (1957) suggested that infants learn language through a process described as operant conditioning, namely, via the monitoring and management of reward contingencies. Skinner's position would be that a four-term contingency analysis comprised of motivating operations, discriminative stimuli, responses and reinforcing stimuli would be the means by which behavior could be explained. In children and infants this process would be expanded by what he called "shaping", "prompting" and other stimuli modeling, imitation and reinforcing procedures. Language acquisition then is a process that would take thousands of instances of such training, and this appears largely to be what takes place. Critics who do not understand the inductive power of this approach largely assert that this view now "appears quite simplistic." However, this argument to complexity is not dissimilar to arguments against Darwin's theory of natural selection. How could the amazing complexity of the animal kingdom come about through such a simple means? Surely, we would need something more complex to explain the variety of animals? Darwin's theory of selection is now accepted as such a means, despite it's "apparent simplicity". Similarly the mechanism of operant conditioning can be seen as sufficient to account for very complex forms of behavior in a wide variety of circumstances without appealing to unproven, non-data driven speculative theoretical approaches like those of Noam Chomsky and others.

Language learning is clearly the most complex task any of us will ever undertake. Yet, the process appears to be considerably less painful than acquiring an understanding of calculus, or organic chemistry. Noam Chomsky (1975) has long argued that this paradox is best explained by the view that humans, and in particular children, have innate abilities that support the acquisition of a language. It is clear that we seem to be naturally good at it, especially before we reach puberty. Moreover, we appear to have a natural need to fill our world with language; in the absence of formal language tutoring a form of language structure develops anyway. Some say a specialized language faculty seems to aid in this process, one that includes innately specified constraints on what forms are possible. These innate, language-specific, information processing mechanisms may be encapsulated in language module of the brain. However, these innate faculties are inferred, hypothesized explanations with no foundation in fact. No biological location has been found for them, no genetic location, no brain structure. It is all inference.

All human languages, even spontaneous ones, show many common principles of language acquisition as well as rules of grammar. The concept of universal grammar proposes that this is due to a set of innate rules, which guide how we acquire language and how we construct valid sentences in it. It thus attempts to explain language in general, and not simply describe the construction of any one specific language per se.

There are many alternative theories of human language consistency besides the speculative theory of "universal grammar". One theory is that human environments possess common structures and human language simply responds to the commonality of the world. Universal grammar is a speculative, unproven hypothesis that is still awaiting confirmation and has no evidence to support it other than "rational argument".

Language Acquisition. At very young age, we acquire our native language by listening to, guessing at the meaning of, and imitating the symbols used by tutors around us. Moreover, during these early years we learn to walk and talk without any explicit need for understanding how we are doing what we are doing. In this process we seem to be helped by a set of Inherent learning strategies, the ability for optimized pattern perception of common, ambient symbols.

Infants are exceptionally broad in their abilities to perceive sound qualities. In fact, as infants we can distinguish many more language sounds than we can as adults. During the first year of life, infant brains are actively engaged in optimizing acoustic perception for the language sounds that surround them. Such early acquisition of information about native language depends on perceptually mapping both the critical aspects of language, and statistical properties of speech.

It is now clear that infants perceive the various phonetic units, track the frequency of different formants, and extract the boundaries of words from running speech. Patricia Kuhl suggests that language acquisition is based on a combination of factors to provide a powerful discovery procedure for language. Evidence suggests that initial perception parses speech in a universal way in all human infants. Infants have inherent perceptual biases that segment phonetic units without providing innate descriptions of them. They were able to parse and discriminate a wide range of basic phonetic units. Adults, in contrast, are only able to discriminated phonetic units that occur in their first language, but fail to distinguish those that are not used there. Japanese adults, for example, fail to discriminate phonetic boundaries of r vs. l, boundaries that do not exist in Japanese. Such discrimination is based on general auditory processing mechanisms, rather than on innate phonetic feature detectors for speech. Language learning requires mapping these probabilistic patterns into language strategies. As infants detect frequency patterns in language input they identify higher-order units. Infants thus discover the critical parameters and phonetic dimensions of the sounds used in their native language. Sensory processing becomes optimized by experience for enhance perception of the specific language around them. Vocal learning unifies language perception and production where vocal learning depends on a comparison of one's own vocalizations to those of others. Imitation forms the integral bong between the perception and production of language abilities and together they become optimized for the first language. If a second language is learned later on, it will carry the accent typical for the speech motor patterns of their primary language, even following long-term instruction. Similarities in infant-directed speaking styles (increased pitch and exaggerated stress) enhances language learning by assisting infants in discriminating phonetic units, as well as by capturing attention.

Broca's Area underlies the ability to produce speech, but it is not critical for understanding language. Patients with damage will fail to form words properly, and speech is halting and slurred. Wermicke's Area is essential for the ability to understand language. Patients with damage to this area can speak clearly, but the words make no sense (i.e., word salad). The Arcuate Fasciculus connects these two areas. Damage to this connection causes conduction aphasia where language is understood, but neither can words be repeated, nor does own speech make any sense. Capabilities for speech are not distributed evenly across the two halfs of the brain. Speech is only disrupted when amobarbital is selectively used to anesthetize only the half of the brain which contains these speech centers. Imaging techniques (e.g. fMRI) have identified that bilingual individuals utilize an overlapping set of neurons in the language areas for these two languages. In contrast, individuals who have acquired a second language later in life will likely rely on separate neuronal areas in these speech centers. Late bilingual speakers are also less likely to show strong lateralization of speech function. This suggests that as two language systems are learned together early-on, they can share the same brain centers without causing catastrophic interference. In adult learning, the best sites of brain real estate have already been taken up by the first language, thus, any new language learning must coopt 'new' territory adjacent to it or on the other half of the brain.

Bird Song
Birds communicate information about danger, food, sex, group movements and many other purposes via acoustic signals. A subset of these have been termed song, as they frequently feature with extended, tonal, melodic characteristics. The Zebra Finch's song, for instance, includes several introductory notes followed by a string of syllables within an extended melodious pattern. Sonograms (i.e., a plot of the intensity of pitch against time) are commonly used as a primary tool for studying and comparing bird songs.

Respiratory muscles force streams of air from large air sacs through the bronchi. Membranes in the syrinx vibrate as air expressed from bronchi passes over them. Syrinx muscles for left and right sound producing structures can act independently, and many birds are able to sing harmonies with themselves. Song appears to play a role in advertising for sex and species recognition as song complexity frequently coincides with the presence of ornate plumage. It also stimulates and synchronizes courtship behavior, stimulates reproductive readiness in females, and contributes to pair bond maintenance. Local song dialects exist in many species.

Successful song in most adult male songbirds depends on memorizing the calls of a conspecific tutor during an earlier, sensitive phase in life. The appropriate song repertoire is acquired in a series of distinct stages. Young birds, during an early Sensory Phase, listen to a conspecific tutor and thereby obtain information about the characteristics of its own song. Only a very specific subset of surrounding songs is actually accepted as suitable, suggesting the presence of an in-built song template. Following this sensory phase, young birds actively begin to vocalize themselves. Their Subsong is an atonal, noisy, meaningless repetition of sounds, which lacks recognizable syllables. Akin to human Babbling birds practice coordinated movements of the respiratory system, sound producing organs, and related structures (e.g., tongue). During Sensory-motor Phase, young birds spontaneously produce Plastic Song, consisting of vocalizations with distinct syllables and recognizable elements. Such "work in progress" will include elements from the song of tutors and elaborate them into a variety of syllables and phrases that even exceed what eventually will be used in its adult song. The ability to hear its own vocalizations are critical for normal development. In transition to the Mature phase, birds adopt a Crystallized Song with syllables and syntax structure that is characteristic of its species. Once established, these song patterns remain fixed in many species, are no more disrupted by deafening, and are presented intact during each subsequent breeding season. In contrast open-ended learners (e.g. starlings and canaries) retain the capacity to adjust or alter their song throughout life.

Song production is under the control of multiple hormonal systems from embryonic gonads. Injections of testosterone induce adult males to sing, even out of season, while similar injections in females have no such effect. The presence of estrogen during male development appears to be essential. When estrogen is blocked experimentally in developing males, testosterone injections fail to elicit song. However, when estrogen had been delivered to developing females, injection of testosterone elicited song in them (Konishi).

Several neural centers with a role in song have been identified. The Higher Vocal Center (HVc) is a group of neurons in the forebrain that is larger in (singing) males than in (non-singing) females. Damage to it blocks song production in adults. The nucleus of the archistriatum (RA) in males is larger than in females and its neurons increase in size and dendritic arborization during song learning. Damage to this area blocks song production in adults. The lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum (LMAN) is neither sexually dimorphic nor shows seasonal change in neuron size or number. Its ablation in young birds interferes with song acquisition but its ablation in adults brings about few deficits as long as song had already been been learned prior to damage. Area X of the paraolfactory lobe (Area X) is sexually dimorphic and new neurons are added in song learning. Damage to it interferes with song acquisition in young birds but not in adults.

As in every behavioral system, a series of independent questions can be addressed for song behavior in Zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata).

 * Proximate Causation: Zebra finch song production requires the flow of air through semi-independent vibrators in syrinx and vocal tract. The presence of song, and song repertoire size are reflected in sexual dimorphism of its controlling brain areas and nuclei. A learning pathway esists separate of a motor pathway. Singing, which is largely restricted to males, is under the control of androgens.
 * Ultimate Causation: Song in Zebra finches is a learned vocalization used during courtship and defense of a territory. Advertising the individual's presence it serves to elicit mating opportunities from females and to stimulate the partner's reproductive behavior and physiology. Moreover, it functions to claim a territory and to repel competitors from it.
 * Phylogeny: Virtually all 9000 species of birds have the ability to vocalize, including crows, turkeys, owls or nightingales. A large subset of them, including the zebra finch, are characterized by complex vocal organs, distinctive brain circuitry for song, and acquisition of species-characteristic vocalizations through learning. Taxonomically these are all restricted to a single order - the Passeriformes.
 * Ontogeny: The emergence of adult zebra finch song illustrates the interactions of genetic and environmental factors in behavioral development. After periods of listening to the songs of tutors, starting its own partial vocalizations, rehearsing and adaptating its own song, the species-specific adult version slowly emerges. Song circuits exhibit extensive plasticity even in adults with ongoing neurogenesis and seasonal changes in neuronal morphology.

White-crowned sparrows (Zonotrichia leucophrys nuttalli) males sing a single song that shows considerable geographic variation in the form of stable dialects. Bilingual and blended strategies exist at the boundaries. The distinctiveness of the song depends on patterns of natal dispersal and the timing of learning. Subject to reinforcement by the song of neighbors, the system is highly dependent on auditory feedback. The work by Peter Marler, Doug Nelson and others for over 30 years illustrates how genetic and environmental factors interact during the development of a complex communication system. Males generally establish territories during late plastic song with a repertoire that consists of ~4 different songs. Improvisations yield individual-specific songs which closely match that of the nearest rival. Cross-fostering experiments illustrate the role of auditory templates in song learning. Young birds reared in the presence of taped song will learn and present that song, even if the tape came from another species. A Song sparrow raised with a swamp sparrow tape will experience little difficulty to learn the swamp sparrow song. Birds in Isolation experiments are raised without access to intact adult song (i.e., no template) and will subsequently show deficiencies in their own song upon maturation. The song does nonetheless contain valid elements of intact adult song. Moreover, Deafening experiments, which deafen birds at hatching, results in song that still contains some valid elements but is an even cruder version than those of isolated birds. When Song preference experiments present young birds with a wide range of conspecific and heterospecific songs, they recognize and preferentially learn the song of its own species. Birds raised in Mixed syllables experiments in the presence of a mixture of swamp- and song sparrow syllables, will accurately produce these syllables in their song but lack the normal adult syntax.

Castration Experiments have shed light on the roles of hormones in song learning. Swamp sparrows that are castrated early in development have low testosterone levels compared to their male siblings. They acquire song but progress to plastic phase only. Treating such birds with injections of testosterone (Enhanced Testosterone Experiment) immediately crystallizes the song. Interfering with testosterone function in adult birds (Reduced Testosterone Experiment) degrades previously crystallized song back to plastic.

Brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) are gregarious birds that follows cattle herds. Brood parasites that are raised by parents of different species, no consistent, conspecific tutor available. So, how do they learn their own conspecific song? One of the strongest stimuli is the bird's own crystallized song and feedback from females is important (i.e., action-based learning).

Parallels between Bird Song and Human Speech Learning
To learn their language, humans and white crowned sparrows follow similar steps, recognition, practice, and clarity. The best time for a human to learn their language is from toddler to twelve years old (Macdonald) and the best time for a white crowned sparrow to learn its song is between 10–50 days from when they were born. Both genes and environment play roles in determining the way each communicate.

The first step for humans and white crowned species in learning their language can be considered recognition. White crowned sparrows and humans listen to a tutor before they begin to communicate their language. The tutor teaches the language and the particular dialect, according to the area. Just like humans, the sparrows also have a dialect depending on where they live. A white crowned sparrow has certain genes that only allow them to learn its own species’ songs. Experiments have been performed in which the sparrow was kept in isolation and played tapes of other song sparrows, the white crowned sparrow will not imitate the other species’ song, but will sing an odd song unlike either species’ song. Humans also cannot communicate with each other using a different species’ language. A study was done in Avignon, France that observed children who were brought up by wolves. It was observed that the children spoke no language at all. Before studies of this kind were done it was thought that the children might learn to communicate with the wolves, just like the Tarzan story. This is not true, the children could not speak the human language nor the language of the wolves (Macdonald). It is a combination of environment and genes that tell white crowned sparrows and humans to learn their proper language. Genes tell the species to only learn the language of their own species and environment plays a factor in determining which dialect each will use.

Once the white crowned sparrow or infant has recognized its species, song, they can begin to practice the language. Infants first communicate by making sounds. The sounds can range from grunts to sounds that mimic their surrounding environments. For example, before babies can say words, they might say moo- moo when looking at a cow. After sounds come words. By the time the infant reaches one year, they should be making sentences out of words (Macdonald). The white crowned sparrow also does not immediately master its song. The sparrow will first sing a short subsong derived from the tutor’s full song. The sparrows keep practicing their subsong just as infants practice their words. After the sparrow has mastered its subsong it can start to form a full song. In both species it is necessary for them to hear themselves in order to vocalize their language correctly.

In conclusion, both white crowned sparrows first listen and recognize their particular species’ language. A white crowned sparrow has a tutor to teach the song. Infants usually have parents that teach them their verbal language. Then they must practice the language, starting off slow with sounds and building up. Both species will continue to improve and clarify their language throughout their lives.

Motor Learning
Coordinated movement requires that motor neuron innervate one or more muscle cells with finely tuned neural patterning. For a person to perform even the simplest motor task, the activity of thousands of these motor units must be coordinated. It appears that the body handles this challenge by organizing motor units into modules of units whose activity is correlated. The cerebellum and basal ganglia are critical for motor learning. Motor learning is "relatively permanent", as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained.

Memory
Memory, in its broadest sense, refers to an individual's ability to acquire information. The formation of memory traces is a complex task which all organisms appear to be able to do. Fundamentally, such an ability requires a series of distinct steps: Information must be encoded as meaningful associations are assessed, the resulting information must be stored in some form, and the memory record must be retrieved when needed. Humans exhibit little conscious awareness of mental processes, such as memory. These were thus long considered inaccessible to objective, scientific study. Inferences about the course of encoding, consolidation and storage of memory thus mostly rely on indirect methods such as testing for retrieval abilities. Consolidation of memory appears to involve independent paths at different time frames. Such evidence derives from the existence of different critical time frames for its formation, and its susceptibility to disruption with different pharmacological tools.

Sensory Memory
Sensory memory provides a means for organisms to remember the experience of a particular sensory perception after the stimulus itself has stopped. It thereby provides an immediate 'snapshot' of an animal's sensory experience. Sensory memory formation is involuntary and does not depend on attention. A different type of sensory memory is stored for each particular modality - Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration; Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information; Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents touch stimuli. Details that prove significant are transferred to more permanent and conscious components of working memory. For example, a toddler who is burnt transfers information from tactile sensory memory to short term memory due to the significance of the stimulus.

Short-term Memory
Short-term memory allows the recall of something from several seconds to as long as a minute. Its strength does appear to depend primarily on attention and not rehearsal. It is thus highly vulnerable to disruption when attention shifts elsewhere. The amount of information that can be held is on the order of 4-6 numbers. This amount can be boosted by grouping them into distinct chunks as for telephone numbers (e.g., 202-456-1414). The ability to recall such information is contingent on transient patterns of neuronal activity in regions of the frontal and the parietal lobe. Memory of written language may primarily rely on acoustic components rather than visual ones, as we are much more likely to make mistakes between letters that sound similar (E,P,D) than those that have visual similarities (O, Q)

Long-term Memory
This type of memory, lasting hours to months, critically depends on a transfer of the information from short term memory using repeated rehearsal. The hippocampus appears to be an essential structure in such routing. Sleep is thought to improve the consolidation of information, possibly by hippocampal replaying of activity from the previous wake period. Electrical activation of hippocampal circuits reportedly are linked to feelings of Deja Vu.

Declarative (Explicit) Memory
Declarative memory refers to the ability to become conscious of, or declare, facts and experiences. It is also referred to as Explicit memory, when it involves direct recalling information that had been obtained from the external world. Representing knowledge of standard textbook material or events, it is best formed by actively recalling the material in spaced intervals. Compared to other forms or memory it is more volative; more easily formed and more easily forgotten. The primary neural basis appears to reside in the medial temporal lobe. Bilateral damage to this area results in anterograde amnesia, as in the famous case of the anonymus memory-impaired patient HM. A surgical procedure for epilepsy left him with damage to his brain in the medial temporal lobe on both sides. the hippocampal formation, parahippocampal gyrus, the entorhinal cortex, and the amygdala. He subsequently suffered from severe anterograde amnesia, where transfer of new events into long-term memory was impaired. He was unable to recall events once his attention had focused elsewhere. Semantic Memory is the ability to consciously recall knowledge of facts that are independent of a specific time and place. medial temporal lobe, diencephalon. Episodic Memory refers to the ability to explicitly recall information about a specific event that has occurred at a specific time and place, medial temporal lobe, diencephalon

Procedural (Implicit) Memory
Implicit memory, which does not need to involve conscious awareness in the act of recollection. Procedural Memory regards the learning of motor skills and habits. Formation requires repeated reinforcement, repetition and practice over many trials rather than recollection. Once formed it is less likely to be forgotten. It is also less easily transferred to related tasks than declarative learning. Striatum, basal ganglia, Deficits can be assessed using a serial reaction time (SRT) task, backwards reading, mirror drawing, probabilistic classification, artificial grammar learning, or prototype abstraction. Motor Responses with Classical Conditioning, Cerebellum. Emotional Responses with Fear conditioning involves an organism's ability to acquire fear responses to a previously neutral stimulus. This occurs when it becomes paired with an aversive stimulus, such as a shock or loud noise. James Watson's Little Albert experiment illustrated that children learned fear of objects when encounters with them were paired with loud noises. Priming refers to a context-dependent activations of clusters of neocortical neurons. As they become more activated, they are more likely to come into consciousness. Even reflex pathways are capable of surprising plasticity. For example, circuits that control motor patterns for walking will be subjected to optimization with sensory input.

Long-lasting Memory
months to lifetime

Case Studies
Patient HM suffered severe memory impairment following bilateral damage to his medial temporal lobes, hippocampal formation, parahippocampal gyrus, entorhinal cortex, and amygdala. His short-term memory remained intact, he was able to largely recall past events, and his ability to learn new motor skills was not disrupted. However, he suffered from severe anterograde amnesia, i.e., the ability to commit new events to long-term memory.

Mechanisms
Memory mechanisms critically depend on changes in synaptic functioning. Hebb Synapses and their role in classical conditioning. If a synapse succeeds at driving a postsynaptic neuron above threshold, its subsequent effectiveness is strengthened.

Long-term potentiation is based on changes in neural signals which will potentiate a neural response for 1–2 weeks. potentiation involves increased release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.

Molecular changes at the synaptic level
During habituation, repeated stimulation of a sensory neuron leads to a smaller activation of the postsynaptic motor neuron. The primary cause for this is a progressive reduction of Ca++ inflow into the presynaptic terminal, decreased transmitter release, and a smaller activation of the postsynaptic target. In sensitization as a result of electrical head shock, release of serotonin activates second messenger systems and phosphorylation of key target molecules. Long-Term Memory depends on new protein synthesis and the formation of new synaptic connections.

TED talks and more

 * Joshua Foer: Feats of Memory (May 2012)
 * Patricia Kuhl: The Linguistic Genius of Babies (Oct 2010)

Comportament animal/Aprenentatge i memòria

title: Animal Behavior/Learning


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Welsh/Useful Phrases

Yes and No
Welsh doesn't have a single word to use every time for yes and no questions. The word used depends on the form of the question. You must generally answer using the relevant form of the verb used in the question, or in questions where the verb is not the first element you use either 'ie' / 'nage'. "Ie" is often pronounced "ia" in northern dialects of Welsh.

 * Oes and Nag oes are used to answer questions regarding a quantity or existence of an object (i.e. the 3 sg. present indicative of the existential verb).
 * Ydy and Nag ydy are the 3 sg. present indicative of the substantive verb 'to be' used, e.g., where the sentence involves a predicate.
 * Ydw and Nag ydw are the 1 sg. present indicative of the substantive verb, used either existentially or in the case of predicates.

Days of the week
When referring to the evening or night of a particular day, Nos precedes the name of the day (and a soft mutation takes place), otherwise the name of the day is preceded by Dydd.

Common phrases
There are many different ways of saying “yes” or no, depending on the context
 * Welsh (language): Cymraeg (kum-RAig / kum-ra:g)
 * English (language): Saesneg (SAY-sneg / SIS-neg)
 * Good morning!: Bore da! (bo-re da)
 * Good afternoon!: P'nawn da! (p'nown da)
 * Welcome!: Croeso! (KROY-so)
 * Goodbye!: Da boch chi! (da BO-khi)
 * Cheerio!: Hwyl fawr! (hooil vowR)
 * Good night!: Nos da! (no:s da)
 * Please: Os gwelwch chi'n dda (oss GWEL-oo-khin dha)
 * Thank you: Diolch (DEE-olkh)
 * Thank you very much: Diolch yn fawr (DEE-olkh'n vowR)
 * You're welcome: Croeso (krojso)
 * No thank you: Dim diolch (dim dee-olkh)
 * Yes: Ie (EE-eh), Do (do:), Oes (oyss / o:s), Ydy (UD-ee) etc.

To answer “yes” you must use a response which is in grammatical agreement with the question.

“Oes...?” (Is there...?) is answered with “Oes” (Yes there is).

“Ydy...?” (Is he/she...?) is answered with “Ydy” (Yes he/she is).

“Ydw...?” (Am I...?) would however be answered appropriately with “Ydych” (Yes you are) and vice versa.

“Ie” (Yes) is used when the verb is not the initial element of the question.

“Do” (Yes I did, Yes you did, etc.) is used in reply to questions in the past tense, although in several dialects it is also used in the present tense. To contradict someone or to give a more definite “no” you can however precede the words for “yes” with “na” or “nag”, e.g. “Nag oes!” (No there isn’t!) (The opposite of Do is Naddo.)
 * No: Na (nah)
 * (I’m) sorry!: Mae'n flin gen i! (mai'n vleen Gen ee)
 * Isn’t it? Wouldn’t it? Aren’t they? Won’t we? etc.: Ynte? (un-teh)
 * Cheers! Good health!: Iechyd da! (YEKH-id dah)

title: Welsh/Useful Phrases


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Macroeconomics/Optimal Growth

Assumptions and Story
The topic of Optimal Growth is often introduced with mention of the economy of a single person dealing with a single commodity. Robinson Crusoe, for instance, might be stuck on an Island with only one commodity, coconuts perhaps, denoted by $$c$$. In this case, just for fun, we may want Crusoe to live forever, but for now we may let him have a finite lifetime. This assumption changes how we will deal with the problem, with a finite lifetime lending itself to the Calculus of Variations or the Hamiltonian methods of analysis, and an infinite lifetime often requiring recursive methods. Also our one good is consumed, and is used for "once" production each day.

Model
In this model, we have on good, $$c \in C \subseteq \mathbb{R}$$.

Our agent has an increasing (or at least non-decreasing) utility function, $$u:C\to \mathbb{R_+}$$.

The production function in the economy is nondecreasing $$f:C\to\mathbb{R_+}$$. For some reason we use $$k$$ as the argument in this function. We'll see the relationship between c and k when we talk about our constraint in just one minute.

Crusoe wants to maximize his utility over the period he lives, but perhaps he discounts the future by a factor of $$\beta$$, so we can write our objective function $$\sum_{t=0}^T \beta^t u(c_t)$$ with $$c_t$$ the amount consumed at time $$t$$ (for now we are considering a discrete time model).

We want our solution to be feasible, so our sequence $$\{c_0, c_1, \ldots\}$$ must be "possible". For this to happen, we need the sequence to satisfy the constraint that $$c$$ consumed plus $$k$$ used tomorrow in production must be less than or equal to the amount produced. We will take as given an initial endowment of coconuts, $$k_0$$. So our problem is:

$$\max \sum_{t=0}^T \beta^t u(c_t)$$

such that $$0 \leq c_t+k_{t+1} \leq f(k_t)$$

Solution for finite T
since our functions f and u are nondecreasing, we can rewrite our problem as:

$$\max \sum_{t=0}^T \beta^t u(f(k_t)-k_{t+1})$$

such that $$k_{t+1} \leq f(k_t)$$ for $$t = 0, 1, \ldots, T-1$$

We can solve this using Calculus of Variations (Euler's Equation) or by first order conditions of the Legrangian with respect to $$k_{t+1}$$, so we get:

$$u^\prime \left ( f(k_t) - k_{t+1} \right ) = \beta u^\prime \left ( f(k_{t+1}) - k_{t+2} \right ) f^\prime (k_{t+1})$$ for $$t = 0, 1, \ldots, T-1$$.

Given $$k_0$$, Weierstrass' Theorem guarantees that this problem has a solution since the objective function is continuous and the constraint set is closed and bounded (hence compact). If T goes to infinity, however, we cannot guarantee a solution this way. A discussion of this will come later.

Solution for finite T over continuous time
Now instead of a summation, we could use an integral to get a similar problem over continuous time.

$$\max \int_{t=0}^T \beta^t u(f(k_t)-k_{t+1})$$

such that $$k_{t+1} \leq f(k_t)$$ for $$t = 0, 1, \ldots, T-1$$

We can solve this using Calculus of Variations (Euler's Equation), or use Hamiltonians if necessary, which we remember is very similar in form to first order conditions of the Legrangian with respect to $$k_{t+1}$$. Using Euler's equation, we get:

title: Macroeconomics/Optimal Growth


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ERP Internals/Industries

There are millions of enterprises organized into thousands of industries. When all factors are considered, each enterprise is unique but there is a great deal of overlap (e.g. everyone has a General Ledger and Accounts Payable). The biggest industry in terms of revenue is manufacturing. The second biggest is retail. Although there are thousands of industries, there are only a few dozen intrinsic functions. An ERP system is designed to accommodate many industries using a common base of functions.

Manufacturing
Manufacturers create their products from raw materials and parts. This can be as simple as assembling a dozen standard parts to creating products that have thousands of components, hundreds of operations, and require weeks of engineering. Some manufacturers sell their products directly to the end-users; others sell them to distributors or large retailers. Some manufacturers produce millions of identical products; others produce custom, one-off products. The Manufacturing sub-system is key to manufacturers.

Distribution
Distributors buy products from manufacturers in large quantities (truckloads, railcar loads) and sell them in smaller quantities to retailers. Inventory and Warehousing are important functions for distributors.

Retail
Retail stores sell products in small quantities to businesses or consumers. A large retailer might buy directly from the manufacturer; others buy from distributors. Point of Sale (POS) is an important function for retail.

Construction
Construction enterprises build things. This can vary from a modest house to a multi-million dollar skyscraper or a six-lane freeway. Job Costing and Project Management are important functions for construction enterprises.

Professional Services
Professional Service enterprises include lawyers, accountants, consultants, architects, and other firms that bill their clients for their services. Since they live or die on billings to clients, timesheets are an important function for professional service enterprises.

Not-for-profit
For-profit enterprises exist to maximize value for their shareholders. Not-for-profit enterprises exist to maximize services to their clients given the amount of resources they have. Not-for-profits use different accounting practices and produce different financial statements than for-profits

title: ERP Internals/Industries


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Scienceshow/Cryogenics/Shooting Corks

Overview
In this experiment, corks are launched out of a tube using liquid nitrogen pressure.

Safety Class
Very dangerous (Should only be attempted after careful training)

Required Safety Equipment

 * The show performer: Glasses and Cryogenic gloves

Materials

 * Corks (real ones, not the plastic ones)
 * Tube which is closed on one end
 * Hammer
 * Liquid nitrogen

Procedure
Put the liquid nitrogen into the tube. Take a cork and hammer it down the tube. Wait for a while, and the cork will launch itself off.

Alternative methods
Some people use a plastic bottle instead of a tube. This is more dangerous, because the plastic bottle is less strong.

Dangers

 * Make sure you always hold the tube while the cork is on (to prevent it from falling over)
 * Make sure you always hit the cork only once. If you try to hit it a second time, it might launch itself while you are hitting it, hit the hammer, and fly into the audience.

Other Factors
This experiment does not work if the tube is too cold. Never do this experiment twice in a row with the same tube.

What's taking place
The gas in the tube evaporates, and when the pressure is high enough, the cork is pushed out.

In the real world
Cannon work like this, only instead of evaporation they use a chemical reaction to produce gas.

Acknowledgements
Experiment developed by Stichting Rino

Page made possible by EuroPhysicsFun

 * Links to this guide in other languages: English.

title: Scienceshow/Cryogenics/Shooting Corks


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Talk:Urban Forestry

This is awesome. Is the person who was working on this still active and around? I'm thinking of putting a polished version of my silviculture notes somewhere on wikibooks. I guess it might be better to put those on something titled "Silviculture" but I'd also like to immediately start in on something that someone else is contributing to. 160.94.27.146 18:50, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

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User talk:204.9.144.52

Regarding edits made during January 22 2007
Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 19:02, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:204.9.144.52


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User talk:A R King/private area

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User talk:168.169.177.244

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 19:30, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:168.169.177.244


text: User talk:A R King/private area/Lesson page design elements


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User:Whiteknight/SoC Design

This book is going to serve as a logical extension of the Programmable Logic book, and will also work as a generalized companion peice to the Microprocessor Design book. Because of my work in this area, I would like to get an outline together quickly, and I would like to implement this book quickly. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 19:48, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Preface
System on a Chip (SoC) design is the process of using hardware description languages (such as Verilog and VHDL) to design chips for a particular purpose. SoC chips are typically designed by interconnecting a series of standalone modules or "cores" together to produce the final system. SoC is so called because chips produced from these designs typically contain all the elements, or many of the elements necessary to institute an entire computing system. Instead of having multiple peices of hardware connected together to form a standard computing system, all the different tasks of these hardware peices are included together as separate cores inside a single chip.

Background

 * Introduction
 * ASIC Design
 * Programmable Hardware

Soft Hardware Design

 * Programmable Logic
 * Modular and Reusuable Software
 * IP and Cores

Software and Hardware Design

 * Software vs Hardware
 * Programmable State Machines
 * Microprocessor Cores
 * Microprocessors as Components
 * Hardware Software Codesign

System on a Chip Design

 * Interconnections
 * SoC Busses

Resources

 * Programmable Logic
 * Microprocessor Design

title: User:Whiteknight/SoC Design


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User talk:168.169.140.86

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 20:31, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

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User talk:207.235.201.100

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 20:32, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

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Orthopaedic Surgery/Brachial Plexus Palsy

Brachial Plexus Palsy, also referred to as Erb's Palsy, is type of obstetric brachial plexus injury, which is complication during delivery. Symptoms include paralysis of the arm or shoulder, lack of muscle control in the arm, a decrease of sensation in the arm or hand.

The Brachial Plexus is located on the right and left side of your neck, between the neck and shoulder area. It is a group of nerves that run from the spinal cord through the arm to the wrist and hand.

Q. What is a Brachial Plexus Injury?

A. A brachial plexus injury is an injury to the nerves that supply the muscles of the arm. Injury to nerves of the brachial plexus can result in complete to partial paralysis to the shoulder, upper arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand, or fingers.

Q. Are there various degrees of severity with a Brachial Plexus Injury?

A. There are four basic types of nerve injuries. Some people only have one type while others have a combination of two or more types. � Avulsion- the nerve is detached from the spinal cord. � Rupture- the nerve is separated from itself, but not at the juncture of the nerve and the spinal cord. There may be one or more ruptures in a single nerve. � Praxis or Traction- the nerve is typically overstretched and damaged, but not detached from itself or the spinal cord. � Neuroma- scar tissue has surrounded the injured nerve and excessive pressure is now placed on the nerve. Therefore, the nerve has trouble getting all the signals to the muscle to be able to perform a movement.

Q. How do Brachial Plexus Injuries occur?

A. Brachial plexus injuries occur when there is excessive stretching, tearing, or other trauma to the brachial plexus network. Injuries can be sustained during delivery of a baby. This is known as Obstetrical Brachial Plexus. Traumatic Brachial Plexus is seen when injuries are sustained secondary to vehicular accidents such as automobiles, motorcycles, or boats, sports injuries particularly football, gunshot wounds, or surgeries. Traumatic BPI's have also been noted with animal bites or puncture wounds.

Q. What are some symptoms associated with Brachial Plexus Injuries?

A. There are several degrees of symptoms that can be seen with BPI. Here are some of the most typical examples: � Limited active range of motion of the entire arm or any part of the arm. � Sensation changes in the involved arm. � Weakness of specific muscle groups. � Poor ability to perform typical midline activities. � Poor ability to weight bear through the arm. � Neglect of the affected arm. � Posturing of the arm in atypical positions. � Developmental Delay � Torticollis- a shortened muscle of the neck, so the head tilts to one side.

Q. How often do obstetrical brachial plexus injuries occur?

A. The current research suggests that brachial plexus injuries are seen 1-4 in every 1000 live births.

Q. What are the treatments?

A. Treatments include but are not limited to the following: Physical therapy, occupational therapy, aquatic therapy, surgical interventions, splinting, casting, electrical stimulation.

Q. When should I initiate treatments?

A. It is essential that a person suffering from a brachial plexus injury initiate treatments as soon as possible. Typically, a person suffering from an obstetrical brachial plexus injury sees a physical therapist or occupational therapist in the first two weeks of life. The goal of the therapist is to assist the family in Range of motion exercises, assess for muscle contractions even when movement is not seen, address positioning, make adaptive equipment, reduce the infant's tendencies toward neglect, and avoid atypical movement patterns, avoid tightening of muscles, and assist with weight bearing activities even in the newborn stage.

References and Resources: Erb's Palsy Center for Awareness


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Talk:Orthopaedic Surgery/Brachial Plexus Palsy

For More Information Regarding Brachial Plexus Injuries or Erb's Palsy, these sites my be helpful.

Brachial Plexus/Erb's Palsy Blog

Brachial Plexus Palsy Foundation

Connecticut Erb's Palsy Circle

Erb's Palsy Group Ireland

Erb's Palsy Group UK

Erb's Place Store

Ian's Hope Foundation

Injured Newborn

Midwest Brachial Plexus Network

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)

United Brachial Plexus Network


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User talk:198.237.17.13

Regarding edits made during January 22 2007
If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 22:35, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

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Talk:Latin/Lesson 5-Accusative

Inaccuracy
Shouldn't bon-īs puell-ās (ACC P f.) be: bon-ās puell-ās (ACC P f.)? --BiT 23:29, 22 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Certainly it should, and I've edited it. Also, I don't want to make a major edit to this admirable pedagogic effort, but maybe the adjectives should be put after the nouns - it's never too early to do the right thing - or is it?  JohnWheater 09:00, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Latin/Lesson 5-Accusative


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US History/Exploration

Christopher Columbus
By the 15th Century European trade for luxuries such as spices and silk had inspired European explorers to seek new routes to Asia. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 had closed a crucial trade corridor. Trade throughout the Ottoman Empire was difficult and unreliable. Portugal was in the lead in exploration, slowly exploring the shores of the African Continent in search of a better route to the spices and luxuries of the Orient.

Then the Italian Christopher Columbus submitted plans for a voyage to Asia by sailing around the world. By the late 15th century most educated Europeans knew the world was round. The Greek mathematician Eratosthenes had accurately deduced that the world was approximately 25,000 miles in circumference. Many of the experts studying Columbus's plans on behalf of the European monarchies he approached for funding realized that this was too far for any contemporary sailing ship to go. Columbus contested the measurements, claiming that the world was much smaller than was widely believed.

After approaching the monarchies of several Italian city-states, and repeated appeals to the English and Portuguese monarchies, the Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella finally decided to give Columbus a chance. King Ferdinand thought Columbus might find something to compete with the neighboring kingdom of Portugal. Columbus set out on August 3rd, 1492. Five weeks later, after almost being thrown overboard by his own crew, the long voyage ended when land was sighted. This was an island called Guanahani (now known as San Salvador, in the island chain called the Bahamas). During this voyage Columbus also explored what is now considered the northeast coast of Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola. On his return to Spain, news of the new lands spread throughout Europe. Columbus was to make three more voyages to the New World between 1492 and 1503, exploring the Caribbean and the mainland of Central and South America. He imported sugar cane to the Americas, beginning an important industry.

Columbus was granted authority by the Spanish Monarchy to claim land for the Spanish, begin a settlement, trade for valuable goods or gold, and explore. He was also made governor of all the lands which he found. Columbus become an increasingly savage and brutal governor in the course of his four voyages. He enslaved and stole from the natives, at one point threatening to cut off the hands of any native who failed to give him gold. He was retired, and to the end of his life he believed that he had reached Asia.

It took another Italian explorer for Spain, Amerigo Vespucci, to correct this error. Amerigo described the lands around his islands and tried to deduce their proximity to Asia. From his voyages, Amerigo deduced that Columbus had found a new Continent. This new continent would be named America.

French Empire in North America
Christopher Columbus's voyages inspired other European powers to seek out the new world as well. Jacques Cartier, a respected mariner in his native France, proposed a trip to the North to investigate whether Asia could be reached from another route. His trip in 1534 retraced much of the voyages of the vikings and established contacts with natives in modern-day Canada. He explored some of northern Canada, established friendly relations with the American Indians, and discovered that the St Lawrence river region neither had abundant gold nor a northwest passage to Asia.

During the 16th century, the taming of Siberian wilderness by the Russians established a thriving fur trade which created a great demand for fur throughout Europe. France was quick to realize that the North held great potential as a provider of fur. Samuel de Champlain settled the first permanent settlement in present-day Canada and created a thriving trade with the Native Americans for beaver pelts and other animal hides.

Meanwhile, in the South, Early French Protestants, called Huguenots, had the opportunity to leave hostile European lands while advancing French claims to the new world. Settlements in present-day Florida and Georgia would create tension with Spanish conquistadors, who after conquering Caribbean lands would begin to expand their search for new lands. In contrast to these French Protestant colonies, in the 17th century French members of the Catholic order of Jesuits organized a settlement in what would become Maine, and began missionary efforts in what would become lower Canada and upper New York State.

Spanish Empire in North America
The Spanish conquistador Ponce de Leon was an early visitor to the Americas, traveling to the new world on Columbus's second voyage. He became the first governor of the present-day area of Puerto Rico in 1509. However, upon the death of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish did not allow Christopher's son to succeed. Like his father, he had committed atrocities against the Native Americans of the Caribbean. The two governors were released and replaced with successors from Spain.

Ponce De Leon, freed of his governorship, decided to explore areas to the north, where there was rumored to be a fountain of youth that restored the youth of anyone drinking from it. Ponce de Leon found a peninsula on the coast of North America, called the new land 'Florida' and chartered a colonizing expedition. His role was brief: attacked by Native American forces, he died in nearby Cuba.

By the early 16th century, Spanish conquistadors had penetrated deep into the Central and South American continents. Native American cultures had collected large troves of gold and valuables and given them to leaders of these prosperous empires. The conquistadors, believing they held considerable military and technological superiority over these cultures, attacked and destroyed the Aztecs in 1521 and the Incas in 1532.

The wealth seized by the Spanish would lead to piracy and a new wave of settlements as the other colonial powers became increasingly hostile towards Spain. Many areas that had been colonized by Spain were inundated with French and English pirates.

By 1565, Spanish forces looked to expand their influence to the New World by attacking the French settlement of Fort Caroline. The Spanish navy overwhelmed 200 French Huguenot settlers, slaughtering them even as they surrendered to Spain's superior military might. Spain formed the settlement of St. Augustine as an outpost to ensure that French Huguenots where no longer welcome in the area. St. Augustine is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city in North America.

In 1587 a Spanish Galleon landed in what is currently California with Filipinos aboard, making them among the first Asians to land in what would become the modern United States.

Catholicism was introduced to the American colonies by the Spanish settlers in what is now present day Florida (1513) and the South West United States. The first Christian worship service was a Catholic mass held in Florida in 1559, in what we now identify as Pensacola. Spain established the first permanent European Catholic settlement in St. Augustine, Florida in 1565, to help the settlers complete the "moral imperative" which was to convert all the Native peoples to Christianity, and to also to help support the treasure fleets of Spain. During the time period of 1635-1675 Franciscans operated between 40 and 70 mission stations, attempting to convert about 26,000 "Hispanicized" natives who organized themselves into 4 provinces, Timucua, in central Florida, Guale, along the coast of Georgia, Apalachee on the northeastern edge of the Gulf of Mexico, and Apalachicola to the west.

British Empire in North America
England funded an initial exploratory trip shortly after Christopher Columbus's first voyage. Departing England in 1501, John Cabot explored the North American continent. He correctly supposed that the spherical shape of the earth made the North, where the longitudes are much shorter, a quicker route to the New World than a trip to the South islands Columbus was exploring. Encouraged, he asked the English monarchy for a more substantial expedition to further explore and settle the lands which he had found. The ships departed and were never seen again. England remained preoccupied with political affairs for much of the 16th century. This was despite the insistence of the author Richard Haklyt, who translated some of the accounts of exploration into English. He wrote that England ought to seek colonies in America, specifically in Virginia.

By the beginning of the 17th century, England, Scotland, and other English possessions had formed the nation of Great Britain and was becoming a formidable foe on the world's stage. The quickly expanding British navy was preparing for a massive strike upon the Spanish armada.

Sir Walter Raleigh, who had gained considerable favor from Queen Elizabeth I by suppressing rebellions in Ireland, sought to establish an empire in the new world. His Roanoke colony would be relatively isolated from existing settlements in North America. He funded the colony with his own money, unlike the previous explorers who had been funded and sponsored by monarchies. It is assumed that the colony was destroyed during a three year period in which England was at war with Spain and did serious damage to the Spanish navy.

The war left the British monarchy so drained of money and resources that the monarchy sold a charter containing lands between present-day South Carolina and the US-Canada border to two competing groups of investors, the Plymouth Company and the London Company. The two companies were given the North and South portions of this area, respectively. There was an overlapping area of development in the middle of the two Companies, a place both could exploit provided one Company's settlement wasn't within a hundred miles of the other's settlement. The Northern Plymouth settlement in Maine failed and was abandoned, but the London company established a Jamestown settlement in 1606.

Virginia and Jamestown

The new area was named Virginia, after both the organizing Virginia Company of London and Queen Elizabeth, "the Virgin Queen." Founded in 1607 with a charter from the Virginia Company, Jamestown was the first permanent English colony in the Americas. However, the swampy terrain was a breeding ground for mosquitoes, which carried dysentery, malaria, and smallpox, diseases that the English did not know. Many of the settlers fell sick and died shortly after.

In addition, Virginia's first government was weak, and its individuals frequently quarreled over policies. The colonists frantically searched for gold, silver, and gems, ignoring their own sicknesses. Indian raids further weakened defense and unification, and Jamestown began to die off. By the winter of 1609-1610, also known as the Starving Time, only 60 settlers remained from the original 500 passengers.

Two men helped the colony to survive: John Smith and John Rolfe. Smith, who arrived in Virginia in 1608, introduced an ultimatum: those who did not work would not receive food or pay. The colonists at last learned how to raise crops and trade with the nearby Indians, with whom Smith had made peace. In 1612, the English businessman Rolfe discovered that Virginia had ideal conditions for growing tobacco. This discovery, and the breeding of a new, "sweeter" strain, led to the plant becoming the colony's major cash crop. Tobacco was then used as medicine against the plague. With English demand for tobacco rising, Virginia had found a way to support itself economically.

In 1619, Virginia set up the House of Burgesses, the first elected legislative assembly in America. It marked the beginnings of self-government, replacing the martial law that was previously imposed on the colonists. However, at the same time Virginia was declared a "crown colony." Its charter was transferred from the Virginia Company to the Crown of England, which meant that Jamestown was now a colony run by the English monarchy. While the House of Burgesses was still allowed to run the government, the king also appointed a royal governor to settle disputes and enforce certain British policies.

Review Questions
1. Name the areas associated with these explorers: Christopher Columbus, Jacques Cartier, John Cabot, Sir Walter Raleigh.

2. Name three motives behind Columbus's voyages.

title: US History/Exploration


text:
User:Iamunknown/Cleanup/Possible duplicate images/Header

 * Stage two: wait for the search engine cache to clear (if ever?), then dump the intersection of the searches "wikipedia" and "en". Of course, get stage one done first. :)

 * Stage one

This is a list, posted here on 2006-12-09 10:15 and retrieved minutes earlier, of all images that the search engine detected as containing the word "wikipedia." I have a hunch that many of these may be duplicates from commons. Please attempt to discover if they are, and then tag those duplicates with.

 * Warnings

 * Make sure that these images are only either reductions or poor quality copies. If they are cropped from ones at commons, do not tag them for deletion!
 * Make sure that an image is not being linked to inline before tagging it
 * Make sure an image is not necessary for some other purpose before tagging it

Do not remove any of the images from this list. Instead strike out only those which:
 * 1) Are confirmed as being duplicates from Wikimedia Commons iff you tag and source them.
 * 2) Are found to be uploaded from any Wikipedia project iff you tag and source them.

Thank you!


text:
User talk:209.103.228.40

Regarding edits made during January 23 2007
Please take care not to replace Wikibooks pages with blank content. Blank pages are harmful to Wikibooks because they have a tendency to confuse readers. If it is a duplicate article, please redirect it to an appropriate existing page. If the page has been vandalised, please revert it to the last legitimate version. If you feel that the content of a page is inappropriate, please edit the page and replace it with appropriate content. If you believe there is no hope for the page, please see the deletion policy for how to proceed. If page is no longer useful, insert delete to its top. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks! If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 04:50, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.--Az1568(Talk) 04:53, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:209.103.228.40


text:
User talk:69.88.46.93

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 08:11, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.88.46.93


text: User talk:A R King/private area/Sample template


text: User talk:A R King/private area/My sandbox


text:
Template:Miskito/Mini exercise

Mini-exercise template for Miskito language course
 * parameter 1: instructions.
 * parameter 2: question items (se bullets or numbers)
 * parameter 3: answer items (use bullets or numbers)

title: Template:Miskito/Mini exercise


text:
User talk:211.229.245.162

Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is intended to be read without the need for external reference and requires content rather than external links particularly those which are for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links may include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that exist to attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page rather than re-adding it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikibooks. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 09:13, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

I will block you if you recreate pages that are not appropriate for Wikibooks. Content here is textbooks not advertisements -- Herby talk thyme 09:19, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:211.229.245.162


text:
User talk:Leviporter~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:35, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Leviporter. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Leviporter~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:22, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:11, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Leviporter~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Cmfprado

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:35, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cmfprado


text:
Template:Miskito/Vocab

Vocab template for Miskito language course ../Lesson ' '
 * parameter 1: item
 * parameter 2: part of speech
 * parameter 3: meaning
 * parameter 4: link (e.g. 1#This and that)
 * parameter 5: notes (further e.g. grammatical information)

title: Template:Miskito/Vocab


text:
User talk:194.66.96.121

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:14, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:194.66.96.121


text:
User talk:202.56.249.18

Cookbook:Breakfast Recipes
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Webaware talk 14:25, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.56.249.18


text:
Talk:Animal Behavior/Genetic Effects on Cognitive Ability

I propose to move this article into the nature vs nurture section at Animal Behavior/NatureNurture Robert Huber 14:30, 23 January 2007 (UTC)


text:
Talk:XForms/Horizontal File Tab Menu Highlighted

I suggest to use the following techinque

    Tab1       Объект   <xf:toggle case="page_2"/> </xf:action> </xf:trigger> </xf:case> <xf:case id="tab_2"> <xf:trigger appearance="minimal" class="tab"> <xf:label>Tab1</xf:label> <xf:action ev:event="DOMActivate"> <xf:toggle case="tab_1"/> <xf:toggle case="page_1"/> </xf:action> </xf:trigger> <xf:trigger appearance="minimal" class="tab" active=""> <xf:label>Объект</xf:label> <xf:action ev:event="DOMActivate"> <xf:toggle case="tab_2"/> <xf:toggle case="page_2"/> </xf:action> </xf:trigger> </xf:case> </xf:switch> </html:div>

<html:div class="pages"> <xf:switch> <xf:case id="page_1"> <html:div class="page page_1"> 1111111111111111111	</html:div> </xf:case> <xf:case id="page_2"> <html:div class="page page_2"> 2222222222222222222	</html:div> </xf:case> </xf:switch> </html:div>

and specifying different look in CSS for

xf|trigger.tab { /* vanilla tab */ ... } xf|trigger.tab[active] { /* current tab */ ... }

That way the first tab and page are selected by default.

-- Vladimir Dronnikov dronnikov@gmail.ru

Automatically selecting the first tab.
I found this example extremely helpful. To get around the problem of automatically selecting the first tab, I just added the following to my element:

onload="window.location = '#tab1';"

From a practical standpoint it's a simple workaround until something better comes along.


text:
Animal Behavior/Maturation

Maturation
Individuals, during their progression from infancy to adulthood, experience a variety of changes, including physical, cognitive, behavioral, and psychosocial.

Puberty
Successfully navigating the transition from juvenile, to meet the demands of adulthood, remains one of the trickiest tasks any individual will likely face. The changes in behavioral repertoire that occur during puberty are reflected in the maturation of endocrine, neural and neurochemical systems. The influence of rising gonadal hormones on male and female reproductive behaviors are well understood. However, corresponding changes also exist in structure and function of neural circuits underlying a much broader range of behavioral and cognitive development.

title: Animal Behavior/Maturation


text:
Welsh/Alphabet

The Sounds of Welsh
This is enough to get you started. For a fuller guide, please see the reference work at Pronunciation of Welsh.

Consonants
We will start with learning the consonant sounds of Welsh. We've split them into 4 groups. Consonants in Welsh can only make one unique sound, as opposed to English which can make several sounds per consonant. For example, the c can make a k sound as in cat or a s sound as in city. When you learn the sound a consonant makes in Welsh, it will only ever make that sound you learn.

Consonant sounds same in English and Welsh
These consonants look the same in English and Welsh, and sound the same.

 * b Like b in boy. Welsh example: bachgen (English: boy)
 * c Like c in cat. Welsh example: cath (English cat)
 * d Like d in dog. Welsh example: drwg (English bad)
 * g Like g in gun. Welsh example: gardd (English garden)
 * h Like h in happy. Welsh example: hen (English old)
 * l Like l in lake. Welsh example: calon (English heart)
 * m Like m in mad. Welsh example: mam (English mother)
 * n Like n in none. Welsh example: nain (English grandmother)
 * ng Like the end of the English word sing. In Welsh, this letter can come at the front of a word. In Welsh, it is never pronounced with a hard g, as in the English finger. Welsh example: angau (English death)
 * p Like p in poker. Welsh example: pen (English head)
 * s Like s in sad. Welsh example: sebon (English soap)
 * t Like t in tar. Welsh example: tŷ (English house)
 * th Like th in think. Welsh example: methu (English fail)

Consonant sounds in English, Different letter in Welsh
These sounds are found in English, but they are assigned to a different letter in Welsh. Train yourself to read them differently now.

 * f Like v in violin. Welsh example: gafr (English goat)
 * ff Like f in friend. Welsh example: ffrind (English friend)
 * dd Like th in then. Welsh example: hardd (English beautiful)

Consonant sounds in English, Not in Welsh
These sounds are in English, but you will not hear them in Welsh.

 * The c in Welsh only makes a hard sound. It will never sound like an s, such as in the English city.
 * The g only makes a sound. It will never sound like an English g, like in the English gender.
 * The th in Welsh represents the th in English think. The dd represents the other th in English, like the word then.
 * There is no z sound in Welsh.

Consonant sounds only in Welsh
These consonant sounds may be new to you.

 * ch Like the Scottish loch or German composer Bach. Welsh example: chwech (English six)
 * ll The ll is a hard Welsh sound to make. It is best described as putting your tongue in the position of l and then blowing out air gently. Like saying a h and l simultaneously, but with more puff. Welsh example: llyn (English lake)
 * r The Welsh r should always be trilled. Welsh example: ar (English on)
 * rh The Welsh rh should be trilled with aspiration. Like saying a h and r simultaneously, but with more puff. Welsh example: rhan (English part)

Vowels
There are seven vowels in Welsh. Most vowels can be two different sounds. The y can take three different sounds. There are clear patterns on when to use which vowel sound, but for the beginning level: learn how to pronounce each word as you go along, and you'll eventually be able to logically deduce which vowel sound to use.

 * a
 * e
 * i
 * o
 * u
 * w
 * y

Alphabet

 * The names of the letters above are in Southern dialect. In the North, the letters are pronounced differently.
 * h indicates voicelessness in mh, nh, and ngh.
 * ph occurs occasionally in words derived from Greek (e.g. phenol) but more commonly as a result of aspirate mutation (e.g. ei phen-ôl)
 * y indicates in unstressed monosyllabic words (e.g. y "the", fy "my") or non-final syllables, but  (N) or  (S) everywhere else.
 * The digraphs (letters consisting of two characters) are treated as a single letter (with the collation order as listed above), although the same combinations of characters can sometimes also arise as a juxtaposition of two separate letters. For example, the digraph ng representing  is alphabetised between g and h (alphabetical order llegach, lleng, lleiaf), but when ng is two letters representing  it is alphabetised between nf and nh (alphabetical order danfon, dangos, danheddog).
 * si indicates (as in English sheep) when followed by a vowel.
 * di and ti sometimes indicate (as in English joke) and  (as in English church)respectively when followed by a vowel. Otherwise  and  are spelled j and ts, but only in loanwords like jẁg "jug" and wats "watch".
 * To pronounce the ll sound, blow while placing your tongue on the roof of your mouth.
 * a b c ch d dd e f ff g ng h i j l ll m n o p ph r rh s t th u w y
 * A B C Ch D Dd E F Ff G Ng H I J L Ll M N O P Ph R Rh S T Th U W Y

And saying it out loud : ah bee ec ech dee eh edd ef eff e.g. eng aetch ee jay el ell em en o pee phee er rhee es tee eth eu oo uh

title: Welsh/Alphabet


text:
Welsh/Mutations

Welsh, as with all other Celtic languages, often sees changes made to the beginning of words depending on the word that precedes it, or the role it plays in the sentence. These changes are known as "mutations", of which Welsh has three distinct types. Common situations in which a mutation may occur are when a word follows a preposition, possessive, or number.

The three classes of mutation are soft, nasal, and aspirate. Soft mutations are by far the most common, whereas aspirate mutations are becoming applied less and less in the spoken language. All mutations occur to words commencing with one of nine different consonants (p, t, c, b, d, g, m, ll, rh), replacing them with different consonants according to mutation type. There are two important things to note at this point:

 * ll and rh are treated as separate letters in their own right and hence have their own section in the dictionary
 * A good knowledge of the possible changes is essential when searching for a word in the dictionary: botel, mhotel, and photel – for example – are all mutated forms of the "base" word potel (meaning "bottle"), which will only be listed in this base (or radical) form in the dictionary. Similarly, knowing that the soft mutation of an initial g causes it to disappear will help to trace an instance of orsaf back to its radical form gorsaf ("station").

Soft mutation
Soft mutation occurs in many situations in the language. Here is an outline of some of the more common situations:

1. Feminine nouns: Welsh has two genders of noun but the importance of committing these genders to memory is slightly less obvious when teaching oneself than it is in other languages such as French and Spanish. While in French gender dictates a series of changes - which definite article is used (le/la), how adjectives agree (petit/petite)... - in Welsh the gender of the noun has a more subtle, but important role in constructing grammatically correct sentences.

Using the definite article y (yr before a vowel) causes a feminine noun to undergo a soft mutation (except if it begins with ll- or rh-).

Example:

 * bachgen - boy
 * merch - girl

after adding the definite article we have:

but:
 * y bachgen - the boy
 * y ferch - the girl (As can be seen from the table above, soft mutation means  m  becomes  f )

The same occurs when the number un - one precedes the noun (except if it begins with ll- or rh-). Hence:

 * un bachgen - one boy
 * un ferch - one girl.

Note 'a boy' would be put into Welsh as simply bachgen, there is no equivalent for the indefinite article 'a' in Welsh.

2. Adjectives following feminine nouns Continuing to use the examples above we will see how any adjective following a feminine noun will also undergo soft mutation.

 * y bachgen - the boy
 * y ferch - the girl

Adding the adjective bach (Eng. little) gives us:

but:
 * y bachgen bach - the little boy
 * y ferch fach - the little girl ( b  also mutates to  f )

The difference is clear in the following two phrases:

 * Prynhawn da - Good afternoon
 * Noswaith dda - Good evening

Noswaith (evening) mutates the adjective da (good)→dda because it is feminine, while prynhawn (afternoon) - a masculine noun - does not.

3. After the majority of prepositions. Most prepositions, particularly monosyllabic ones, require a soft mutation.

Examples:
 * Croeso i Gymru - Welcome to Wales (C → G)
 * O Fangor i Landudno - From Bangor to Llandudno (B → F and Ll → L)

List of prepositions triggering a soft mutation -

am : ar : at : dan : dros : drwy : gan : heb : hyd : i : o : wrth

4. After certain possessives The pronouns for the possessives 'your' (singular, familar) and 'his' also require soft mutation. Other possessives require nasal or aspirate mutations.

dy...(di) - your (familiar)

ei...(e/o) - his

Examples:

tafarn - pub

gives:

dy dafarn (di) - your pub

llyfr - book

gives:

ei lyfr (e/o) - his book

The pronoun ei also means 'her', as well as his, but in this case it requires an aspirate mutation, as is seen in the section below.

Nasal mutation
Nasal mutation is the third column in our table.

1. 'After the preposition yn'' (in). '''

 * This should not be confused with yn when it operates as a particle in constructing a verb. When used as a particle it does not require mutation.

Yn... - In...

Examples:

 * Porthmadog - Porthmadog
 * Tresaith - Tresaith
 * Caerdydd - Cardiff
 * Bangor - Bangor
 * Dolgellau - Dolgellau
 * Glanllyn - Glanllyn

If we add the preposition:

 * Ym Mhorthmadog - In Porthmadog
 * Yn Nhresaeth - In Tresaeth
 * Yng Nghaerdydd - In Cardiff
 * Ym Mangor - In Bangor
 * Yn Nolgellau - In Dolgellau
 * Yng Nglanllyn - In Glanllyn

Notice that yn also changes before certain letters:

 * Ym - Before m-
 * Yng - Before ng-

2. After fy. The word fy, meaning "my", causes nasal mutation in the following words:

 * dillad - clothes
 * fy nillad - my clothes
 * brawd - brother
 * fy mrawd - my brother
 * tadau - fathers
 * fy nhadau - my fathers

In the spoken language, the word fy is sometimes dropped entirely:

 * nillad - my clothes
 * mrawd - my brother
 * nhadau - my fathers

Aspirate mutation
This type of mutation is shown in the fourth column of the table.

1. After a certain possessive The pronoun ei (her) causes an aspirate mutation.

ei...(hi)' - her

Examples:
 * Carreg - Stone
 * Tad - Father
 * Papur - paper

After adding ei, we have:

 * Ei charreg (hi) - Her stone
 * Ei thad (hi) - Her father
 * Ei phapur (hi) - Her paper

2. After "a" a is the Welsh word for and (ac is only used before vowels, hence it cannot cause an aspirate mutation).

...a... - ...and...

Examples:
 * Trosedd - Crime
 * Cosb - Punishment
 * Bara - Bread
 * Caws - Cheese

If we link two of them together with a...

 * Trosedd a chosb - Crime and Punishment
 * Bara a chaws - Bread and cheese

title: Welsh/Mutations


text:
Welsh/Nouns

=Nouns=

-wr and -wyr
If a noun ends with -wr (meaning "man"), as in "milwr" (soldier), change the stem into -wyr.

Examples

You can make a -wr noun feminine by changing it into -wraig. For the plural, change this into -wragedd.

Examples

Indefinite
To turn a word into an indefinite genitive (of a...), simply write:

object subject

For example, if the object was "milwyr" (soldiers), and the subject was "Cymru" (Wales), the sentence would be "milwyr Cymru" (Soldiers of Wales).

Definite
To turn a word into a definite genitive (of the...), simply write

object y/yr subject

For example, if the object was "carreg" (rock), and the subject was "mynydd" (mountain), the sentence would be "carreg y mynydd" (Rock of the mountain).

Note that "y" causes a soft mutation before a feminine noun

For example, if the object was "gwallt" (hair), and the subject was "merch" (girl, feminine noun), the sentence would be "gwallt y ferch" (Hair of the girl, the girl's hair).

title: Welsh/Nouns


text:
Talk:PHP vs ColdFusion

This may violate NPOV. Not sure. 64.150.0.1 15:56, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

Editors
Consider adding CFEclipse as an IDE/editor.

title: Talk:PHP vs ColdFusion