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Talk:Iranian History

Dark Ages
I replaced "Dark Ages" title of the section after Arab conquest with "Advent of Islam" Dark Ages as a title of part of history is too controversial and might be considered politically motivated, especially in the history of a country of 98% Muslim population, many of who believe Islam is not a solely Arab religion but a religion for the world. If any consensus exists about the term "Dark Ages", it would rather suit more Mongolian invasion era.

 * Dark Ages does not refer to the Islamic Invasions in particular but to the period of history following Sassanid rule when the center of power was shifted from Iran to Arabia and a period of political instability when a number of regional dynasties rose and fell with none able to provide a stable government. If "Dark Ages" is used to refer to the MOngolian Invasion then it is equally politically motivated. Opinions differ. Iranian Islam is the Shiite variety which is very different from the variety practised in Arabia and many Iranians (some even devout Muslims) believe that the rule of the Caliphate (especially the Omayyads) was a period when persecution of Iranians was rampant and a dark chapter in Iran's history. To verify these points, I request yo to perform a search in Wikipedia :-) -Ravichandar84 (talk) 03:44, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

Some suggestions
Here are some mistakes I've seen cross-wiki and would not want repeated:
 * Focus on current events-i.e., half of the book is on current events, the other half on "real" history.
 * Framework but not content-i.e., a ton of headers per page but maybe one paragraph on the whole page.
 * NPOV-taking the position of things that are just theories and not fact, unless there is some weighing of facts exhibited.

Thoughts? Laleena (talk) 18:53, 21 February 2008 (UTC)

Ayatollah Khomeini
What do you think of this page? Laleena (talk) 18:24, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Iranian History


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User:Jeff Albro

Original Author:
 * The Design and Organization of Data Centers

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Jeff Albro


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User talk:125.248.167.242

Thanks for experimenting with the page Futurology/Time on Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

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File:Ponche Crema02.jpg

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File:Senior Curaçao blue sams2.jpg

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

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User talk:75.47.234.13

This message is regarding the page Lord of the Flies. Please refrain from adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Az1568(Talk) 05:16, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

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Physics Textbook/Physics is a Way of Thinking

Physics is a way of thinking, a way of doing things, and a way of learning about the world around us.

Much information about the natural world is gathered through our five senses. Thus, the subject matter of scientific inquiry is sensory information, which is obtained through the use of our senses. Observations and experiences evolve into concepts. For example, the push or pull we experience in our muscles is conceptualized as force.

In physics, concepts take on meaning only as we operate with them, that is, we do something with them or about them, or use them in a special way. In this module, you will do laboratory investigations (anytime you can, if you can). You will also make estimates of human speeds or calculate the acceleration of a skater. You will also be required to design solutions to everyday problems and perform a series of tests on the solution you have provided, like in the following activity.

Problem Solving and the Scientific Method
The following activity is an example of a problem that physicists, scientists, or engineers may be working on. Remember the moon buggy and the Mars explorer? These vehicles were actually designed and built for navigating and investigating extra-terrestrial locations. Concepts on forces and motion were considered in the design.

Activity 1.1    Balloon-powered Car

Materials

 * 2 large balloons
 * drinking straw
 * various materials to construct a race

Your Task

 * To design, construct, and test a race car that:

 * is powered by no more than two large balloons.

 * is made from any materials available.

 * must have at least three wheels. The wheels cannot be taken from a toy car, but from something that was not originally meant to be used as wheels.

 * must remain in contact with the ground at all times.

 * must be capable of traveling at least 5 meters.

Scientists do not just come up with one design—rather, they plan and work with several possible solutions to the problem. From a list of possible solutions, they select a few and start constructing the design which is most likely to work. Once a working model is available, they perform various tests to answer problems related to the design and construction aspects. Figure 1.14 outlines the steps that a problem solver like you can follow in coming up with a balloon-powered race car.


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Physics Textbook/Physics is the Pioneer Science

Physics is the pioneer science. Its development into a full-blown science is largely attributed to the successful works of Galileo (1584-1642) and Newton (1642-1727). Moreover, the concepts of the younger sciences, like chemistry, are reducible to that of physics.

Like all other sciences, though, physics employs the scientific method. It deals with the basic nature of all matter and various ways that matter interacts with other matter.

Chemistry deals with the interaction between atoms and properties of substances that result from such interaction. Geology and astronomy are specialized sciences in which the basic principles of physics and chemistry are used to understand Earth and other heavenly bodies.

Biology is concerned with the nature of living things. You have learned that the cell is the basic unit of life. Inside the cell, particularly in the nucleus, are the molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA—the storehouse of information about different life forms in this planet Earth.

The boundary between sciences has been broken down. Most of the promising fields of research today lie at the borders of physics and other sciences. Some examples are biophysics, physical chemistry and chemical physics. The interface of physics, biology and chemistry is most important in the molecular and atomic levels.

Physics and Mathematics
Physics has progressed using the tools of mathematics. On the other hand, mathematics has developed from its association with physics. Differential calculus and integral calculus were developed by Newton to cope with the problem of motion and rates. Vector analysis arose as a tool of mechanics.


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Primary Mathematics/Negative numbers

Negative numbers
''The intended audience for this lesson is students, whether children or adults. For the same lesson, but aimed at an audience of parents and educators, whether in traditional or home-schooling environments, please see this Wikiversity page.''

Introduction
Negative numbers are numbers less than zero. A convenient way to think of them is as a number owed. For example, if you have negative four apples, that means you owe four apples to someone. A dash is typically used to indicate a negative value. In our case, we would write -4 apples.

Some other examples of negative numbers are temperatures below zero, depths below sea-level, or floors in a building below the ground. Opposites can also be used, like forward and backward (negative distance), going faster and slower (negative acceleration), give and take (giving negative quantities), and heating and cooling (adding negative heat).

Negative numbers are always shown with a minus sign (-) directly in front. Positive numbers, which haven't required a label until now, are sometimes shown with a plus sign (+) directly in front, but this is optional.

Addition involving negative numbers
When adding two negative numbers, just find the sum and make it negative:

-4 + -3 = -7

This can be visualized by the use of negative tiles, each of which represent the number negative one (-1).

The situation gets a bit more complicated when one of the numbers to be added together is negative and the other is positive. Let's say we want to add positive two (+2) to negative three (-3). If we draw the plus and minus signs, we can pair up each positive sign with one negative sign and then they cancel each other out. This leaves one negative sign, though, meaning that +2 plus -3 equals -1:

We can write this as:

+2 + -3 = -1

It doesn't matter if we change the order in addition, so we also get:

-3 + +2 = -1

Some people skip the plus sign on positive numbers, this gives us these two equations:

2 + -3 = -1

-3 + 2 = -1

Let's review. To add two negative numbers, just add normally, then make the result negative:

-4 + -3 = -7

When adding one negative number to one positive number, it can be rewritten as a subtraction problem:

4 + -3 = 4 - 3 = 1

It may sometimes be necessary to change the order of the two terms to do this:

-3 + 4 = 4 - 3 = 1

Any subtraction problem can also produce a negative value:

-4 + 3 = 3 - 4 = -1

The last problem can be visualized as if you owed 4 apples, then got 3 (which you gave to the person to whom you owed the apples), so you would still owe them 1 apple.

Subtraction involving negative numbers
Subtracting a negative number is the same as adding the same positive number. In other words, two negative signs makes a positive:

5 - -2 = 5 + 2 = 7

Or, if both numbers are negative:

-5 - -2 = -5 + 2 = 2 - 5 = -3

To illustrate the last example, imagine five negative signs, then you subtract, or take away, two negative signs, leaving you with three negative signs:

It gets a bit trickier when you need to subtract more negatives than you start with. Here we start with one negative but need to take away four. This requires us to add three sets of positives and negatives, which cancel each other out. Then, once we remove the four negatives, that leaves us with three positives:

This means:

-1 - -4 = +3

The other method is to say, since two negative signs make a positive sign, we instead can write:

-1 + 4 = 4 - 1 = 3

Note that, unlike addition, you can't change the order in a subtraction problem, or you may get a different answer. This is true whether you are subtracting positive or negative numbers:

9 - 8 = +1

8 - 9 = -1

Multiplication involving negative numbers
Just multiply normally, then apply the following rules:

 * If both numbers are negative (or both are positive), the result is positive.

 * If only one number is negative, the result is negative.

Thus: 4 × 3 =  12 -4 × -3 =  12 -4 ×  3 = -12  4 × -3 = -12

You can change the order in multiplication, but, unlike addition, there isn't much advantage to doing this. Here are the previous examples in the reverse order:

3 × 4 =  12 -3 × -4 =  12  3 × -4 = -12 -3 ×  4 = -12

Division involving negative numbers
Just divide normally, then apply the following rules:

 * If both numbers are negative (or both are positive), the result is positive.

 * If only one number is negative, the result is negative.

Note that these are the same rules as were used for multiplication:

12 ÷ 3 =  4 -12 ÷ -3 =  4  12 ÷ -3 = -4 -12 ÷  3 = -4

Here's those examples are again, using the alternate slash notation instead of the familiar division sign:

12 / 3 =  4 -12 / -3 =  4  12 / -3 = -4 -12 /  3 = -4

Note that you can't change the order in division, just like you can't in subtraction, or you get a different answer. Here are the previous examples in the reverse order:

3 / 12 =  1 / 4 -3 / -12 =  1 / 4 -3 /  12 = -1 / 4  3 / -12 = -1 / 4

Other notations
Negative numbers are sometimes shown in parenthesis, in red, or with DB (for DeBit) next to them, in the field of accounting (that is, when dealing with money).

title: Primary Mathematics/Negative numbers


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Physics Textbook/Physics in a Personal and Social Context

Classical physics had for its scope the three dimensions of space: length, width, and depth. With Einstein's Theory of Relativity, a fourth dimension was added, time. Now with science affecting almost all facets of our lives, a fifth dimension has emerged, society. As members of society, we would like to learn how physics can be used for personal development. Science through technology influences and determines not only the way we live our lives but our very being as well. We may not be aware of it but science pervades our daily life.

6. As you travel from your home to school, make a list of all things you pass by which you think have physics applications.

Right in our very homes we apply the laws and principles of physics even in simple activities like cooking. We know that food cooks faster in covered pots or pans. Preparing food is made even faster and more convenient with the invention of gadgets like the microwave oven, pressure cooker, turbo broiler, and food processor, all of which applies to the principles of physics.

7. Cite other common health practices and their scientific basis.

Physics, Technology, and Society
Physics is different from technology. Technology yields inventions; physics provides explanations of the natural world. Technology is concerned with the practical applications of scientific laws and theories. The cell phone, electric motor, flat screen colored TV, DVD players, and computers are technological advances. These are results of the application of the laws of electromagnetism.

A further explanation of the distinction between physics and technology is that during Newton's time, only the theory of space travel had been developed and not its technology. Landing on the moon was then only a dream, more so with studying Jupiter or the Sun up close. However, developments in space travel technology have turned those dreams into realities.

Many of our modern technologies are physics-based. The products of these technologies are in the form of goods and services utilized by the people: medical techniques for diagnosis and therapy using ultrasound or ionizing radiation; advances in transportation and communication such as natural gas or hybrid vehicles, the rapid mass transit system, satellites, and wireless communication. While physics provides solutions to our questions about nature, technology provides solutions to our practical problems such as better food production, greater supply of fuel, and alternative sources of energy for power generation or the transport industry.

The demands for energy or technology-related solutions stimulate developments in science. For instance, dwindling fossil fuel resources encouraged scientists to look for new energy sources.

On the other hand, science stimulates technological growth. Discovery of new energy sources and their most efficient utilization served as basis for the development of large-scale technologies. The scientist's need for better and accurate tools and instruments for observation and experiments motivates technologists to develop sophisticated equipment such as those used in the medical field and telecommunications industry.

8. Read about developments on fuels for the transport industry. What physics-related ideas were applied in these developments?

9. Visit the University of the Philippines National Institute of Physics website at http://www.nip.upd.edu.ph to learn more about researches they are doing and instruments they have constructed to facilitate their research. Prepare a report on one research/instrument in line with your interest.

Modern technology demands large quantities of energy. It is estimated that residents of industrialized countries use between 150 and 350 gigajoules per person each year; mostly in the form of electricity. Figure 1.5 shows the world's energy consumption.

10. Create your own physics timeline of events which reflects important physics-related inventions and discoveries in the course of time from the dawn of history up to this time.

The history of technology is a story of the mechanization of labor by using large amounts of energy. It all began with the invention of the steam engine which ushered in the Industrial Revolution. The steam engine, along with significant developments such as the internal combustion engine and the large-scale generation of electricity, has supplied energy requirements for producing goods and the delivery of services to people.

Through the use of transistors and IC's, electrical devices have been transistorized, miniaturized, and automated. Computers and robots are used not only in industry but in homes and business establishments as well. Their use has helped bring about greater productivity, although they have tended to displace people in the work force.

Computers and robots are considered technological advances which bring about increased efficiency. Fewer people can do more in less time because more extensive means are available to utilize nature more rapidly and completely.

Humankind's technological needs have been greatly met and many of our dreams like landing on the moon or living in space have been realized as a result of such high-energy consumption.

Science and technology have influenced to a great extent the quantity and the quality of the modern or technological man's life. A person's average life span has been increased by medical advances. We enjoy the conveniences that electrical appliances provide, like the light bulb and flatiron. Today's smart homes combine information and communication technology to make life easier and more efficient. At night, lights in a smart home automatically turn on or off depending on the presence of the people in the room. You don't need to open the refrigerator to get cold water. It can be dispensed right from the refrigerator door.

For increased mobility, there are cars, buses, bicycles, tricycles, trains, and airplanes. These fast and convenient means of transportation afford more time for other worthwhile activities.

Communication has also become fast and efficient with mobile phones and the services they offer. Gone are the days of the telegraph where the sender had to wait for at least three days before a message was received. Now, there is the fax, e-mail, and short messaging service (SMS) where information can be received in real time.

We must, however, remember that whatever the advancements made in science and technology are, these should benefit mankind. Their wise and proper utilization to ensure the greatest good for everyone lies in the hands of those who have studied and understood the pros and cons of every scientific endeavor.


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Talk:William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Romeoand Juliet/Themes

The first version of this page was a copy-paste from Romeo and Juliet. -Malkinann 07:54, 16 August 2007 (UTC)


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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Body Organisation

In this chapter, the way the cells of the body are organised into different tissues is described. You will find out how these tissues are arranged into organs, and how the organs form systems such as the digestive system and the reproductive system. Also in this chapter, the important concept of homeostasis is defined. You are also introduced to those pesky things—directional terms.

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * the “Mrs Gren” characteristics of living organisms
 * what a tissue is
 * four basic types of tissues, their general function and where they are found in the body
 * the basic organisation of the body of vertebrates including the main body cavities and the location of the following major organs: thorax, heart, lungs, thymus, abdomen, liver, stomach, spleen, intestines, kidneys, sperm ducts, ovaries, uterus, cervix, vagina, urinary bladder
 * the 11 body systems
 * what homeostasis is
 * directional terms including dorsal, ventral, caudal, cranial, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, rostral, palmar and plantar. Plus transverse and longitudinal sections

The Organisation Of Animal Bodies
Living organisms move, feed, respire (burn food to make energy), grow, sense their environment, excrete and reproduce. These seven characteristics are sometimes summarized by the words “MRS GREN”. functions of:

Movement

Respiration

Sensitivity

Growth

Reproduction

Excretion

Nutrition

Living organisms are made from cells which are organised into tissues and these are themselves combined to form organs and systems.

Skin cells, muscle cells, skeleton cells and nerve cells, for example. These different types of cells are not just scattered around randomly but similar cells that perform the same function are arranged in groups. These collections of similar cells are known as tissues.

There are four main types of tissues in animals. These are:

 * Epithelial tissues that form linings, coverings and glands,
 * Connective tissues for transport and support
 * Muscle tissues for movement and
 * Nervous tissues for carrying messages.

Epithelial Tissues
Epithelium (plural epithelia) is tissue that covers and lines. It covers an organ or lines a tube or space in the body. There are several different types of epithelium, distinguished by the different shapes of the cells and whether they consist of only a single layer of cells or several layers of cells.

Squamous epithelium
Squamous epithelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells that are shaped rather like ‘crazy paving’. It is found lining the heart, blood vessels, lung alveoli and body cavities (see diagram 4.1). Its thinness allows molecules to diffuse across readily.

Cuboidal epithelium
Cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cube shaped cells. It is rare in the body but is found lining kidney tubules (see diagram 4.2). Molecules pass across it by diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

Columnar epithelium
Columnar epithelium consists of column shaped cells. It is found lining the gut from the stomach to the anus (see diagram 4.3). Digested food products move across it into the blood stream.

Columnar epithelium with cilia
Columnar epithelium with cilia on the free surface (also known as the apical side of the cell) lines the respiratory tract, fallopian tubes and uterus (see diagram 4.4). The cilia beat rhythmically to transport particles.

Transitional epithelium - with a variable number of layers
The cells in transitional epithelium can move over one another allowing it to stretch. It is found in the wall of the bladder (see diagram 4.5).

Stratified epithelia - with several layers of cells
Epithelia with several layers of cells are found where toughness and resistance to abrasion are needed.

Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium has many layers of flattened cells. It is found lining the mouth, cervix and vagina. Cells at the base divide and push up the cells above them and cells at the top are worn or pushed off the surface (see diagram 4.6). This type of epithelium protects underlying layers and repairs itself rapidly if damaged.

Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
Keratinised stratified squamous epithelium has a tough waterproof protein called keratin deposited in the cells. It forms the skin found covering the outer surface of mammals. (Skin will be described in more detail in Chapter 5).

Connective Tissues
Blood, bone, tendons, cartilage, fibrous connective tissue and fat (adipose) tissue are all classed as connective tissues. They are tissues that are used for supporting the body or transporting substances around the body. They also consist of three parts: they all have cells suspended in a ground substance or matrix and most have fibres running through it.

Blood
Blood consists of a matrix - plasma, with several types of cells and cell fragments suspended in it. The fibres are only evident in blood that has clotted. Blood will be described in detail in chapter 8.

Lymph
Lymph is similar in composition to blood plasma with various types of white blood cell floating in it. It flows in lymphatic vessels.

Connective tissue ‘proper’
Connective tissue 'proper' consists of a jelly-like matrix with a dense network of collagen and elastic fibres and various cells embedded in it. There are various different forms of ‘proper’ connective tissue (see 1, 2 and 3 below).

Loose connective tissue
Loose connective tissue is a sticky whitish substance that fills the spaces between organs. It is found in the dermis of the skin (see diagram 4.7).

Dense connective tissue
Dense connective tissue contains lots of thick fibres and is very strong. It forms tendons, ligaments and heart valves and covers bones and organs like the kidney and liver.

Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue consists of cells filled with fat. It forms the fatty layer under the dermis of the skin, around the kidneys and heart and the yellow marrow of the bones.

Cartilage
Cartilage is the ‘gristle’ of the meat. It consists of a tough jelly-like matrix with cells suspended in it. It may contain collagen and elastic fibres. It is a flexible but tough tissue and is found at the ends of bones, in the nose, ear and trachea and between the vertebrae (see diagram 4.8).

Bone
Bone consists of a solid matrix made of calcium salts that give it its hardness. Collagen fibres running through it give it its strength. Bone cells are found in spaces in the matrix. Two types of bone are found in the skeleton namely spongy and compact bone. They differ in the way the cells and matrix are arranged. (See Chapter 6 for more details of bone).

Muscle Tissues
Muscle tissue is composed of cells that contract and move the body. There are three types of muscle tissue:

Smooth muscle
Smooth muscle consists of long and slender cells with a central nucleus (see diagram 4.9). It is found in the walls of blood vessels, airways to the lungs and the gut. It changes the size of the blood vessels and helps move food and fluid along. Contraction of smooth muscle fibres occurs without the conscious control of the animal.

Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle (sometimes called striated, striped or voluntary muscle) has striped fibres with alternating light and dark bands. It is attached to bones and is under the voluntary control of the animal (see diagram 4.10).

Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart where it produces the ‘heart beat’. Cardiac muscle cells are branched cylinders with central nuclei and faint stripes (see diagram 4.11). Each fibre contracts automatically but the heart beat as a whole is controlled by the pacemaker and the involuntary autonomic nervous system.

Nervous Tissues
Nervous tissue forms the nerves, spinal cord and brain. Nerve cells or neurons consist of a cell body and a long thread or axon that carries the nerve impulse. An insulating sheath of fatty material (myelin) usually surrounds the axon. Diagram 4.12 shows a typical motor neuron that sends messages to muscles to contract.

Vertebrate Bodies
We are so familiar with animals with backbones (i.e. vertebrates) that it seems rather unnecessary to point out that the body is divided into three sections. There is a well-defined head that contains the brain, the major sense organs and the mouth, a trunk that contains the other organs and a well-developed tail. Other features of vertebrates may be less apparent. For instance, vertebrates that live on the land have developed a flexible neck that is absent in fish where it would be in the way of the gills and interfere with streamlining. Mammals but not other vertebrates have a sheet of muscle called the diaphragm that divides the trunk into the chest region or thorax and the abdomen.

Body Cavities

In contrast to many primitive animals, vertebrates have spaces or body cavities that contain the body organs. Most vertebrates have a single body cavity but in mammals the diaphragm divides the main cavity into a thoracic and an abdominal cavity. In the thoracic cavity the heart and lungs are surrounded by their own membranes so that cavities are created around the heart - the pericardial cavity, and around the lungs – the pleural cavity (see diagram 4.13).

Organs

Just as the various parts of the cell work together to perform the cell’s functions and a large number of similar cells make up a tissue, so many different tissues can “cooperate” to form an organ that performs a particular function. For example, connective tissues, epithelial tissues, muscle tissue and nervous tissue combine to make the organ that we call the stomach. In turn the stomach combines with other organs like the intestines, liver and pancreas to form the digestive system (see diagram 4.14).

Generalised Plan Of The Mammalian Body

At this point it would be a good idea to make yourself familiar with the major organs and their positions in the body of a mammal like the rabbit. Diagram 4.15 shows the main body organs.

Body Systems
Organs do not work in isolation but function in cooperation with other organs and body structures to bring about the MRS GREN functions necessary to keep an animal alive. For example the stomach can only work in conjunction with the mouth and esophagus (gullet). These provide it with the food it breaks down and digests. It then needs to pass the food on to the intestines etc. for further digestion and absorption. The organs involved with the taking of food into the body, the digestion and absorption of the food and elimination of waste products are collectively known as the digestive system.

The 11 body systems

 * 1) Skin
 * The skin covering the body consists of two layers, the epidermis and dermis. Associated with these layers are hairs, feathers, claws, hoofs, glands and sense organs of the skin.
 * 1) Skeletal System
 * This can be divided into the bones of the skeleton and the joints where the bones move over each other.
 * 1) Muscular System
 * The muscles, in conjunction with the skeleton and joints, give the body the ability to move.
 * 1) Cardiovascular System
 * This is also known as the circulatory system. It consists of the heart, the blood vessels and the blood. It transports substances around the body.
 * 1) Lymphatic System
 * This system is responsible for collecting and “cleaning” the fluid that leaks out of the blood vessels. This fluid is then returned to the blood system. The lymphatic system also makes antibodies that protect the body from invasion by bacteria etc. It consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen and thymus glands.
 * 1) Respiratory System
 * This is the system involved with bringing oxygen in the air into the body and getting rid of carbon dioxide, which is a waste product of processes that occur in the cell. It is made up of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, diaphragm, ribs and muscles that move the ribs in breathing.
 * 1) Digestive System
 * This is also known as the gastrointestinal system, alimentary system or gut. It consists of the digestive tube and glands like the liver and pancreas that produce digestive secretions. It is concerned with breaking down the large molecules in foods into smaller ones that can be absorbed into the blood and lymph. Waste material is also eliminated by the digestive system.
 * 1) Urinary System
 * This is also known as the renal system. It removes waste products from the blood and is made up of the kidneys, ureters and bladder.
 * 1) Reproductive System
 * This is the system that keeps the species going by making new individuals. It is made up of the ovaries, uterus, vagina and fallopian tubes in the female and the testes with associated glands and ducts in the male.
 * 1) Nervous System
 * This system coordinates the activities of the body and responses to the environment. It consists of the sense organs (eye, ear, semicircular canals, and organs of taste and smell), the nerves, brain and spinal cord.
 * 1) Endocrine System
 * This is the system that produces chemical messengers or hormones. It consists of various endocrine glands (ductless glands) that include the pituitary, adrenal, thyroid and pineal glands as well as the testes and ovary.

Homeostasis
All the body systems, except the reproductive system, are involved with keeping the conditions inside the animal more or less stable. This is called homeostasis. These constant conditions are essential for the survival and proper functioning of the cells, tissues and organs of the body. The skin, for example, has an important role in keeping the temperature of the body constant. The kidneys keep the concentration of salts in the blood within limits and the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas maintain the correct level of glucose in the blood through the hormone insulin. As long as the various body processes remain within normal limits, the body functions properly and is healthy. Once homeostasis is disturbed disease or death may result. (See Chapters 12 and16 for more on homeostasis).

Directional Terms
In the following chapters the systems of the body in the list above will be covered one by one. For each one the structure of the organs involved will be described and the way they function will be explained.

In order to describe structures in the body of an animal it is necessary to have a system for describing the position of parts of the body in relation to other parts. For example it may be necessary to describe the position of the liver in relation to the diaphragm, or the heart in relation to the lungs. Certainly if you work further with animals, in a veterinary clinic for example, it will be necessary to be able to accurately describe the position of an injury. The terms used for this are called directional terms.

The most common directional terms are right and left. However, even these are not completely straightforward especially when looking at diagrams of animals. The convention is to show the left side of the animal or organ on the right side of the page. This is the view you would get looking down on an animal lying on its back during surgery or in a post-mortem. Sometimes it is useful to imagine ‘getting inside’ the animal (so to speak) to check which side is which. The other common and useful directional terms are listed below and shown in diagram 4.16.

Note that we don’t use the terms superior and inferior for animals. They are only used to describe the position of structures in the human body (and possibly apes) where the upright posture means some structures are above or superior to others.

In order to look at the structure of some of the parts or organs of the body it may be necessary to cut them open or even make thin slices of them that they can be examined under the microscope. The direction and position of slices or sections through an animal’s body have their own terminology.

If an animal or organ is sliced lengthwise this section is called a longitudinal or sagittal section. This is sometimes abbreviated to LS.

If the section is sliced crosswise it is called a transverse or cross section. This is sometimes abbreviated to TS or XS (see diagram 4.17).

Summary

 * The characteristics of living organisms can be summarised by the words “MRS GREN.”
 * There are 4 main types of tissue namely: epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues.
 * Epithelial tissues form the skin and line the gut, respiratory tract, bladder etc.
 * Connective tissues form tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, blood, cartilage and bone, and are found in the dermis of the skin.
 * Muscular tissues contract and consist of 3 types: smooth, skeletal and cardiac.
 * Vertebrate bodies have a head, trunk and tail. Body organs are located in body cavities. 11 body systems perform essential body functions most of which maintain a stable environment or homeostasis within the animal.
 * Directional terms describe the location of parts of the body in relation to other parts.

Worksheets
Students often find it hard learning how to use directional terms correctly. There are two worksheets to help you with these and another on tissues.

Directional Terms Worksheet 1

Directional Terms Worksheet 2

Tissues Worksheet

Test Yourself
1. Living organisms can be distinguished from non-living matter because they usually move and grow. Name 5 other functions of living organisms:
 * 1.
 * 2.
 * 3.
 * 4.
 * 5.

2. What tissue types would you find...
 * a) lining the intestine:
 * b) covering the body:
 * c) moving bones:
 * d) flowing through blood vessels:
 * e) linking the eye to the brain:
 * f) lining the bladder:

3. Name the body cavity in which the following organs are found:
 * a) heart:
 * b) bladder:
 * c) stomach:
 * d) lungs:

4. Name the body system that...
 * a) includes the bones and joints:
 * b) includes the ovaries and testes:
 * c) produces hormones:
 * d) includes the heart, blood vessels and blood:

5. What is homeostasis?

6. Circle which is correct:
 * a) The head is cranial | caudal to the neck
 * b) The heart is medial | lateral to the ribs
 * c) The elbow is proximal | distal to the fingers
 * d) The spine is dorsal | ventral to the heart

7. Indicate whether or not these statements are true.
 * a) The stomach is cranial to the diaphragm - true | false
 * b) The heart lies in the pelvic cavity - true | false
 * c) The spleen is roughly the same size as the stomach and lies near it - true | false
 * d) The small intestine is proximal to the kidneys - true | false
 * e) The bladder is medial to the hips - true | false
 * f) The liver is cranial to the heart - true | false

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * Animal organ systems and homeostasis

Overview of the different organ systems (in humans) and their functions in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookANIMORGSYS.html

 * Wikipedia

Directional terms for animals. A little more detail than required but still great.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
Physics Textbook/Summary

 * Light is a form of energy. It travels in straight lines.

 * The speed of light is constant in a vacuum. It is approximately equal to 3.0 x 108m/s.

 * Light rays are regularly reflected by smooth, shiny surfaces. Images form on these surfaces. These are irregularly reflected by rough surfaces. No image forms on these surfaces.

 * Light rays are refracted when they pass at an angle from one medium to another.

 * Light travels in a less dense than in a denser medium.

 * Sunlight separates into different colors, called the visible spectrum, as it passes through a prism. The spectrum consists of the colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

 * Dispersion is the separation of visible light into its different colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

 * Red, green, and blue (RGB) are the primary colors in light.

 * When white light falls on an object which does not transmit light, one of the following happens:

 * all of the colors in white light are reflected: the object will appear light;

 * some of the colors may be reflected: the object appears colored; and

 * all the colors are absorbed by the object: the object appears black.

 * The colors of opaque objects are the colors they reflect and which reaches our eyes. The colors of transparent materials are the colors they transmit.

FORCES
>>Newtons Second Law of Motion<< Equation : [F=ma], where 'a' sometimes can be used as 'G' which is equal to [9.8 m.s¯ ²]

title: Physics Textbook/Summary


text: Summary

title: Summary


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Talk:Vedas

=Started the article Vedas= Hi friends I've started the article Vedas so that only truth is recorded and it is properly presented. BalanceRestored 10:59, 16 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Since wikipedia is an encyclopedia, there's no scope to reveal and discuss the truth. BalanceRestored 11:18, 16 August 2007 (UTC)
 * So, wikibooks becomes an appropriate place to discuss truth.BalanceRestored 11:19, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Vedas


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User:BalanceRestored

 * Om Gam Ganapataye Namaha ||

title: User:BalanceRestored


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User talk:BalanceRestored

 * Om Gam Ganapataye Namaha ||

title: User talk:BalanceRestored


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Java Persistence/Other Persistence Specs

There are many specifications related to persistence in Java. The following table summarises the latest version of each specification.

/What is Java persistence


text:
Outsourcing/Bibliography

Outsourcing

 * Oshri Ilan, Kotlarsky Julia and Willcocks Leslie (authors) The Handbook of Global Outsourcing and Offshoring, Palgrave McMillan, (2009) ISBN 978-0-230-23550-2.
 * Peter Bendor-Samuel (author), Turning Lead Into Gold: The Demystification of Outsourcing (2000), ISBN 1-890009-87-3
 * Ashok Deo Bardhan and Cynthia Kroll, The New Wave of Outsourcing (2003).
 * Peter Brudenall (editor), Technology and Offshore Outsourcing Strategies (2005), ISBN 1-4039-4619-1
 * Lou Dobbs, Exporting America Why Corporate Greed is Shipping American Jobs Overseas, 2004 ISBN 0-446-57744-8
 * Christopher M. England, Outsourcing the American Dream, October 2001, Writer's Club Press, ISBN 0-595-20148-2
 * Georg Erber, Aida Sayed-Ahmed,  Offshore Outsourcing - A Global Shift in the Present IT Industry , in: Intereconomics, Volume 40, Number 2, March 2005, S. 100 - 112,
 * Gary Gereffi and Vivek Wadhwa, Framing the Engineering Outsourcing Debate: Placing the United States on a Level Playing Field with India and China (2006).
 * Thomas L. Friedman, The World is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century 2005 ISBN 0-374-29288-4
 * Ron Hira and Anirl Hira, with forward by Lou Dobbs Outsourcing America, What's Behind our national crisis and how we can reclaim American Jobs  2005 ISBN 0-8144-0868-0
 * Mark Kobayashi-Hillary. 2004. (2nd ed 2005) Outsourcing to India. ISBN 3-540-23943-X.
 * William Lazonick, Globalization of the ICT Labor Force, in: The Oxford Handbook on ICTs, eds. Claudio Ciborra, Robin Mansell, Danny Quah, Roger Solverstone, Oxford University Press, (forthcoming)
 * Baziotopoulos A. Leonidas (2006), "Logistics Innovation and Transportation", Work-in-Progress Conference paper, EuroCHRIE Thessaloniki, 2006.
 * Catherine Mann, Accelerating the Globalization of America: The Role for Information Technology, Institute for International Economics, Washington D.C., June 2006,, ISBN paper 0-88132-390-X
 * Stephen Haag, Maeve Cummings, Donald J. McCubbrey, Alain Pinsonneault, Richard Donovan "Management Information Systems For The Information Age", 2006, McGraw-Hill Ryerson, ISBN 0-07-095569-7
 * National Academy of Public Administration. (2006). "Off-Shoring: An Elusive Phenomenon". Report for the U.S. Congress and the Bureau of Economic Analysis: Washington.
 * McDonald, SM and Jacobs, TJ (2005) Brand Name ‘India’: The Rise of Outsourcing, Int. J. Management Practice, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.152-174.
 * Toledo, Mario, Outsourcing and Offshoring: Companies immerged in a complex environment,, Institute of Technology and Innovation Management Project Work, Hamburg University of Technology.

title: Outsourcing/Bibliography


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Orthopaedic Surgery/Swan neck Deformity

The term swan neck derives from the shape of the finger when this deformity is present. The neck of the swan arches back (into extension) as one moves from the torso to the head. Finally, before reaching the head, the neck flexes forward to allow the swans head to sit upright and forward.

With this introduction, one should realize that the Swan Neck Deformity is one of the most common conditions treated by the hand surgeon. Unlike Boutonniere deformity, the swan neck can be caused by many different anatomic problems. These will be discussed along with some treatment principles.

The so called "double jointed" finger:

Many children and even some adults have the ability to cock back the joints of the finger in a way they term "double jointed". In fact, all fingers are triple jointed and the phenomenon that they are exhibiting is usually nothing more than the formation of a temporary, self-induced, swan-neck deformity. They do this by hyperextending their proximal interphalangeal joints and allowing the lateral bands of the extensor to sublux dorsally. This anatomic configuration: dorsally subluxed lateral bands, hyperextended PIP joint and flexed dip joint is the signature of all types of swan neck deformity.

The pathological basis of Swan-Neck Deformity

The normal three jointed finger is designed to allow for controlled motion at three joints (DIP, PIP, and MCP). Because of space considerations, the joints of the finger cannot contain separate flexors and extensors for all three joints. These and other constraints make it so that the controlled flexion and extension of all three joints in a finger must be accomplished with only three separate groups of muscles: Extrinsic extensors, extrinsic flexors, and intrinsics. The design of the extensor mechanism is so refined that these three systems of muscles are all that is needed to independently control each of the joints of a finger.

In the setting of swan-neck deformity. The conjoined lateral bands which are normally volar to the axis of rotation of the PIP joint, sublux uncontrollably dorsal to that same axis. Instead of functioning normally as flexors of the PIP joint, they become extensors of that same joint. The route that the lateral bands normally take around the condyles of the proximal phalanx as they proceed to their terminal insertion is thereby shortened. The shortening of the route of the lateral bands serves to "slacken" them and the decreased tension is manifested at the DIP joint. At the DIP joint, there is not enough tension to keep the joint fully extended and so the DIP joint droops down into flexion completing the swan neck deformity.

title: Orthopaedic Surgery/Swan neck Deformity


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Arithmetic/Spelling Out numbers

In this section you will learn how to spell out numbers in English. Before we can spell out we must learn how numbers are arranged. We must know what we mean by units, tens, hundreds place and so on.

 * 0 – Zero
 * 1 – One
 * 2 – Two
 * 3 – Three
 * 4 – Four
 * 5 – Five
 * 6 – Six
 * 7 – Seven
 * 8 – Eight
 * 9 – Nine

Places: Using the number 1,234

The place names are:
 * 4 – Ones
 * 3 – Tens
 * 2 – Hundreds
 * 1 – Thousands

It is spelled out as: One Thousand Two Hundred and Thirty Four

Note: After the Thousands, place names can vary depending on local customs. Place a comma after every third number starting at the end of the number to show place value family names change. For example: 598,482,975 or 78,109,200,330.

title: Arithmetic/Spelling Out numbers


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User talk:66.251.125.98

I notice that you've recently created Foie Gras Pasta. Pages which form part of the Cookbook should be titled "Cookbook:pagename" so your book should be titled "Cookbook:Foie Gras Pasta". I have now changed the name of your book so it's in the correct place.

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages.
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

Xania talk 17:11, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

Recipes
The recipes you have contributed seem to be copyright violations from the website mentioned. Equally Wikibooks does not exist to promote external sites - thanks -- Herby talk thyme 10:34, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.251.125.98


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User:Multipleidentitynumberthree

Multipleidentitynumberthree is also available in wikipedia.

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

title: User:Multipleidentitynumberthree


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User talk:Multipleidentitynumberthree

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

title: User talk:Multipleidentitynumberthree


text:
User talk:199.254.165.254

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 17:13, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:199.254.165.254


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User talk:Vuara/Ancient alphabet

BNTcUH very eye You easy to excellent an on and site the navigate. have ,

title: User talk:Vuara/Ancient alphabet


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Talk:LaTeX/Hyperlinks

Hyperref also works with plain 'latex', not only 'pdflatex'. One must specify the right driver instead of 'pdftex', though. I only tested it with 'dvipdfm' (dvi->pdf directly), so I don't know if the ps output has hyperlinks, but the pdf output does.

See for example the documentation at http://www.tug.org/applications/hyperref/manual.html

Addition
How about custom colours? Maybe you could add examples, like dark blue or teal (as in biblatex documentation for instance).

One can define custom colors for hyperref package by writing a small style file that adds to the predefined colors in the color.sty. Specifically create the following mycolor.sty file containing the following lines:

\RequirePackage{color}

\definecolor{bwgreen}{rgb}{0.183,1,0.5}

\definecolor{bwmagenta}{rgb}{1,0.169,0.909}

\definecolor{bwblue}{rgb}{0.317,0.161,1}

These particular colors provide a clear high contract result when printed in color or black and white. Therefore they are useful when making figures that need to be readable in color or monochrome.

To use the newly defined colors with hyperref in your LaTeX document:

\documentclass{article}

\usepackage{mycolor}

\usepackage{hyperref}

\hypersetup{linkcolor=bwmagenta}

[...]

Algorithms package
The following is stated in the end of the section named "Problems with links"

"The problem can also occur with the algorithms package: because each algorithm uses the same line-numbering scheme, the line identifiers for the second and follow-on algorithms will be duplicates of the first."

As I get around 300 errors due to this, any method for fixing it is much appreciated.

Problem with column separators
What if the url contains a symbol & (ampersand)? How to use \href?
 * In the URL section of an href, it doesn't seem that the TeX processor much cares about ampersands. If the TeX processor gives you an error, escape the ampersand like "\&".  If the link doesn't work as you expect it to in the final product, escape the ampersand for the browser by writing "&amp;".  You may have to end up escaping the ampersand twice, writing "\&amp;"
 * If it's the description that contains the ampersand, just use \& instead of & to escape the ampersand for the TeX processor.
 * 68.118.159.98 (talk) 06:53, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Underlining?
Is there any way to automatically underline links in the final output using the hyperref package, as is common in the world wide web? Perhaps an "underline=true" configuration option? - 68.118.159.98 (talk) 06:55, 9 November 2008 (UTC)
 * The configuration option that works for me is "pdfborderstyle={/S/U/W 1}", but I've googled that some older pdf viewer may have problems rendering it.

Will table of contents be displayed as bookmarks (structured tree) in .pdf?
Hyperlinks will be in the pdf, but what about the bookmarks of the pdf? Kazkaskazkasako (talk) 10:32, 28 January 2009 (UTC)
 * everything that's included in the ToC will be included as bookmark. Because the Table of content isn't mentioned in the ToC itself it will not be included as a bookmark. Thijs(User talk:Thijs.de.meester) 9:58 14 july 2009 (UTC)

\hyperref example
It seems that including a \ref inside a \hyperref destroys its purpose: for the example given -- "\hyperref[mainlemma]{lemma \ref{mainlemma}}" -- only the lemma number is hyper-refed, and the "lemma " (sans quotes) part is not, whereas "\hyperref[mainlemma]{lemma blah}" would hyperref "lemma blah" (sans quotes). I will let someone more knowledgable than me correct it or correct me before changing it myself. Unco (talk) 23:08, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

\hyperlink and \hypertarget
I found it much more useful to use \hyperlink{labelname}{descriptive text about link} and \hypertarget{labelname}{} for referencing things in my document than \hyperref[labelname}{some text}. In fact, I couldn't get the \hyperref command to work in conjunction with a \label{labelname}, so I gave up and luckily found this little tidbit. Hope it helps.

ampersand problem
I need to have an ampersand in my url. I have to escape it by \& to be able to compile latex code. But in the url the whole \& is the shown and destroys the link. Anybody knows a workaround? Hm ok the problem only exists within a table where & is the column separator. --62.178.198.156 (talk) 20:48, 19 October 2009 (UTC)

I have the same problem. If there's a workaround for this, please let me know. Thanks.

Preventing a link?
I was wondering if there's a way to switch off the hyperlink for a particular thing. Eg I have "Page \thepage\ of \pageref{LastPage}" in my header, and each header has the last page number highlighted as a link. Of course, I could just wait until I was finished the document and replace it, but we all know that's not geek enough...Grj23 (talk) 04:10, 26 July 2010 (UTC)

Ah, of course. The starred form "\pageref*{LastPage}", does the trick! I wonder if this is worth incorporating into the main text, or is it too niche? It's of course in the manual...Grj23 (talk) 04:25, 26 July 2010 (UTC)

Acrobat question, or link depth
When I try to follow multiple links through Acrobat, say *click* *click*, links don't do anything. Exactly one link will work. I assume this is an Acrobat problem, but I have checked through every setting and nothing fixes it. Any ideas? 99.155.53.151 (talk) 08:35, 31 December 2010 (UTC)

Colors as rgb triples
From trial and error, I found out, that only the ...bordercolor values can be set as RGB triples. If this is true (and not, possibly, due to some other package clash or so), please state this explicitely in the article, and please give some information about the allowed colors for the others. This information seems to be completely omitted in the hyperref manual, by the way.--SiriusB (discuss • contribs) 12:57, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

Addition: I have inserted a note about RGB triples being only valid for bordercolors. Please correct this if it is wrong; but then please answer the question why rgb triples for non-border colors lead to an error message about unknown colors while the same works fine for bordercolors.--SiriusB (discuss • contribs) 13:04, 31 March 2011 (UTC)

It does too much!
Great, but what if I don't want to turn all my internal references into hyperlinks? Suppose I just want to create an ordinary pdf, with one or more links to webpages? The section on Hyperlinks ought to discuss that simpler question first.

Mistake in hypersetup?
I'm not a registered user, so I can't edit the book page, but I think there's a mistake in the section on using the \hypersetup command. The keyword attribute-value pair currently looks like: but I think there are missing brackets, and it should be: Can somebody change this?

"full link" is not defined
In the text

..."but will make the text link text a full link"...

the term "full link" is undefined, and to this naive user it is a mystery as to what is meant.

title: Talk:LaTeX/Hyperlinks


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User talk:Edith Garner

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Jomegat 23:19, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

Hello
Hello Edith!

Thanks for your work on the Soapcraft honor. As you can see, the Arts and Crafts section could really use some work.

If you have any questions about formatting, etc, please do not hesitate to drop me a note. You can do that on my talk page if you like. --Jomegat 23:19, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Edith Garner


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User talk:24.92.206.90

 * [[Image:Octagon-warning.svg|left|30px]] You have been blocked from editing Wikibooks  as a result of your .  Please note that page blanking, addition of random text or spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy are considered vandalism. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. Az1568(Talk) 00:24, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.92.206.90


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Primary Mathematics/Percentages

Introduction
A percentage is a value divided by 100, shown with the percent symbol (%). Percentage comes from two Latin words,per meaning for each and cent meaning 100. For example, 4% is the same as the decimal value 0.04 or the fraction 4/100 (which could also be reduced to 1/25).

Uses for percentages
Traditionally, percentages are used when dealing with changes in a value, particularly money. For example, a store may have a 20% off sale or a bank may charge 7.6% interest on a loan.

Defining the base
The base of a percentage change is the starting value. Many errors occur from using the wrong base in a percentage calculation.

Example
If a store has an $100 item, marks it 20% off, then charges 6% sales tax, what is the final price ?

First, calculate 20% of $100. That's 0.20 × $100 or $20. We then subtract that $20 from the original price of $100 to get a reduced sale price of $80.

Now we add in the sales tax. Here's where the tricky part comes in; what is the base ? That is, do we pay 6% tax on the original $100 price or on the reduced $80 price ? In most places, we would pay tax on the reduced sales price, so $80 is the base. Thus, we multiply $80 × 0.06 to get $4.80 and add that to $80 to get $84.80 for a final price.

Notice that even though we took off 20% and then added back in 6%, this is not the same as taking off 14%, since the 20% and the 6% figures each had a different base. If the 6% sales tax did apply to the original full price, however, then both percentages would have the same base and the total reduction in price would, indeed, be 14%, bring the price down from $100 to $86.

Terms used with percentages

 * If you take 20% off an amount (or a 20% reduction), that means the new price is 20% less than the original (100%) price, so it's now 80% of the original price.

 * If you apply 20% interest to an amount, that means the new price is 20% higher than the original (100%) price, or 120% of the original price. (Note that this is simple interest, we will consider compound interest next.)

Compound interest
Simple interest is when you apply a percentage interest rate only once.

Compound interest is when you apply the same percentage interest rate repeatedly.

For example, let's say a $1000 deposit in a bank earns 10% interest each year, compounded annually, for three years. After the first year, $100 in interest will have been earned for a total of $1100. In the second year, however, there is not only interest on the $1000 deposit, but also on the $100 interest earned previously. This "interest on your interest" is a feature of compounding. So, in year two we earn 10% interest on $1100, for $110 in interest. Add this to $1100 to get a new total of $1210. The 10% interest in the third year on $1210 is $121, which gives us a total of $1331.

For those familiar with powers and exponents, we can use the following formula to calculate the total:

T = P x (1 + I)N

Where:

T = final Total P = initial Principal I = Interest rate per compounding period N = Number of compounding periods

In our example, we get:

T = $1000 x (1 + 10%)3 = $1000 x (1 + 0.10)3 = $1000 x (1.10)3 = $1000 x (1.10 x 1.10 x 1.10) = $1000 x (1.331) = $1331

More complex calculations involving compound interest will be covered in later lessons.

title: Primary Mathematics/Percentages


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Primary Mathematics/Average, median, and mode

Average, median, and mode
There are three primary measures of central tendency, and a couple less often used measures, which each, in their own way, tell us what a typical value is for a set of data. Generally, when finding the measures of central tendency, one would order the values of the data set from least to greatest.

Mode
The mode is simply the number which occurs most often in a set of numbers. For example, if there are seven 12-year olds in a class, ten 13-year olds, and four 14-year olds, the mode is 13, since there are more 13 year olds than any other age. In elections, the mode is often called the plurality, and the candidate who gets the most votes wins, even if they don't get the majority (over half) of the votes.

Median
The median is the middle value of a set of values. For example, if students scored 81, 84, and 93 on a test; we select the middle value of 84 as the median.

If you have an even number of values, the average of the two middle values is used as the median. For example, the median of 81, 84, 86, and 93 is 85, since that's midway between 84 and 86, the two middle values.

Average
The straight average, or arithmetic mean,(sometimes referred to simply as "average" or "mean"), is the sum of all values divided by the number of values. For example, if students scored 81, 84, and 93 on a test, the average is 86.

=Mean= In mathematics, mean has several different definitions depending on the context.

In probability and statistics, mean and expected value are used synonymously to refer to one measure of the central tendency either of a probability distribution or of the random variable characterized by that distribution.[1] In the case of a discrete probability distribution of a random variable X, the mean is equal to the sum over every possible value weighted by the probability of that value; that is, it is computed by taking the product of each possible value x of X and its probability P(x), and then adding all these products together, giving {\displaystyle \mu =\sum xP(x)} \mu =\sum xP(x).[2] An analogous formula applies to the case of a continuous probability distribution. Not every probability distribution has a defined mean; see the Cauchy distribution for an example. Moreover, for some distributions the mean is infinite: for example, when the probability of the value {\displaystyle 2^{n}} 2^{n} is {\displaystyle {\tfrac {1}{2^{n}}}} {\tfrac {1}{2^{n}}} for n = 1, 2, 3, ....

For a data set, the terms arithmetic mean, mathematical expectation, and sometimes average are used synonymously to refer to a central value of a discrete set of numbers: specifically, the sum of the values divided by the number of values. The arithmetic mean of a set of numbers x1, x2, ..., xn is typically denoted by {\displaystyle {\bar {x}}} {\bar {x}}, pronounced "x bar". If the data set were based on a series of observations obtained by sampling from a statistical population, the arithmetic mean is termed the sample mean (denoted {\displaystyle {\bar {x}}} {\bar {x}}) to distinguish it from the population mean (denoted {\displaystyle \mu } \mu or {\displaystyle \mu _{x}} \mu _{x}).[3]

For a finite population, the population mean of a property is equal to the arithmetic mean of the given property while considering every member of the population. For example, the population mean height is equal to the sum of the heights of every individual divided by the total number of individuals. The sample mean may differ from the population mean, especially for small samples. The law of large numbers dictates that the larger the size of the sample, the more likely it is that the sample mean will be close to the population mean.[4]

Outside of probability and statistics, a wide range of other notions of "mean" are often used in geometry and analysis; examples are given below.

Weighted average
The weighted average or weighted mean, is similar to the straight average, with one exception. When totaling the individual values, each is multiplied by a weighting factor, and the total is then divided by the sum of all the weighting factors. These weighting factors allow us to count some values as "more important" in finding the final value than others.

Example
Let's say we had two school classes, one with 20 students, and one with 30 students. The grades in each class on a particular test were:

 * Morning class = 62, 67, 71, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 79, 80, 80, 81, 81, 82, 83, 84, 86, 89, 93, 98

 * Afternoon class = 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 87, 88, 88, 89, 89, 89, 90, 90, 90, 90, 91, 91, 91, 92, 92, 93, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99

The straight average for the morning class is 80% and the straight average of the afternoon class is 90%. If we were to find a straight average of 80% and 90%, we would get 85% for the mean of the two class averages. However, this is not the average of all the students' grades. To find that, you would need to total all the grades and divide by the total number of students:

\frac{4300\%}{50} = 86\% $$

Or, you could find the weighted average of the two class means already calculated, using the number of students in each class as the weighting factor:

\frac{(20)80\% + (30)90\%}{20 + 30} = 86\% $$

Note that if we no longer had the individual students' grades, but only had the class averages and the number of students in each class, we could still find the mean of all the students grades, in this way, by finding the weighted mean of the two class averages.

Geometric mean
The geometric mean is a number midway between two values by multiplication, rather than by addition or subtraction. For example, the geometric mean of 3 and 12 is 6, because you multiply 3 by the same value (2, in this case) to get 6 as you must multiply by 6 to get 12. The mathematical formula for finding the geometric mean of two values is:

$$\sqrt{AB}$$

Where:

A = one value B = the other value

So, in our case:

$$\sqrt{3(12)} = \sqrt{36} = 6$$

Note the new notation used to show multiplication. We now can omit the multiplication sign and show simply AB to mean A×B. However, when using numbers, 312 would be confusing, so we put parenthesis around at least one of the numbers to make it clear.

The geometric mean can be extended to additional values:

$$\sqrt[3]{(2)(9)(12)} = \sqrt[3]{216} = 6$$

For three values, a cube root is performed instead of a square root. On four values, the fourth root is performed.


text:
User talk:Pushbikemonkey

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. Mattb112885 (talk to me) 07:04, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pushbikemonkey


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Cyprus

| European cuisines | Mediterranean cuisines | Middle Eastern cuisines

Cypriot cuisine is the cuisine encountered on the island of Cyprus located in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Overview
Cypriot cuisine is shaped by the island's Mediterranean climate, its geography and history. Reflecting the two dominant populations, Cypriot cuisine has evolved as a fusion of Greek and Turkish cuisine with local twists to well known dishes. Further influences are evident from neighbouring countries, namely Arabic and Middle Eastern cuisine. There are remnants too of French, Italian and Anglo-Saxon influences stemming from the island's occupation by the Luisignan Franks, the Venetians and the British. Modern western cuisine (especially fast food) has an ever increasing influence on the day-to-day diet followed on the island.

Seafood
Seafood dishes include calamari, octopus in red wine, parpouni (red mullet), and sea bass.

Vegetable
Some common vegetable preparations are potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, zucchini, kolokasi (taro), and asparagus.

Meat
Meat based dishes include souvlaki, souvla, sheftalia and pork sausages.

Food preparation
Frequently used ingredients are vegetables such as zucchinis, green peppers, okra, green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans (for fasoulia), broad beans, peas, black-eyed peas, chickpeas and lentils.

Pears, apples, grapes, oranges, mandarines, nectarines, mespila, black berries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, citrus, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, hazelnut are some of the commonest of the fruits and nuts. Some of the most well-known spices and herbs are pepper, parsley, roka, celery, mint, thyme, oregano and others.

Rice is prepared as the chard pilaf, locally called seskoulorizo, which contains chard leaves, chopped onions, long grain rice, peeled and chopped tomatoes, freshly ground pepper, olive oil and parsley. The meal is usually served with plain yoghurt and crusty bread. There is a variety of sweet snacks, which are found in most of the café bars around Cyprus, like the honey and syrup doughnuts. Honey is also used for the pastellaki, which is a snack prepared with sesame, peanut and honey syrup. There can be found many Oriental kebabs, with various kinds of beef or chicken meat, wrapped in a special bread and with various dressings.

Non-alcoholic
Ayran is a traditional yoghurt-based drink also found in several countries of the region. In bygone days it was sold on streets by individual producers but it is now found on chilled supermarket shelves.

Alcoholic
Wine has a long tradition on the island, evidence of which goes back for millennia. Commandaria is a popular desert wine, and zivania is a potent spirit. Cyprus Brandy is also drunk with meze dishes. Local beers such as KEO and Leon are popular served chilled in the summer months especially as an adjunct to the Cypriot version of souvlaki.

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Cyprus


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Category:Cypriot recipes

Recipes from Cyprus

title: Category:Cypriot recipes


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Cookbook:Cuisine of Wales

| Cuisine of the UK

The cuisine of Wales has influenced, and been influenced by, other British cuisine.

Although both beef and dairy cattle are raised widely, especially in Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire, Wales is best known for its sheep, and thus lamb is the meat traditionally associated with Welsh cooking. Specific dishes associated with Wales include:

 * Bara brith, "speckled bread," is a sweetbread which originated in Wales. It is traditionally made with raisins, Zante currant, and candied peel.
 * Cawl is a Welsh stew with lamb and leeks.
 * Crempogs are Welsh buttermilk pancakes.
 * Faggots are Welsh pork meatballs.
 * Laverbread is a Welsh seaweed delicacy.
 * Welsh cakes are small cakes cooked on a bakestone.
 * Lob Scows is a popular stew in Holyhead and Anglesey, a version of the Liverpudlian 'Scouse'.
 * Welsh Rarebit, sometimes called Welsh Rabbit, is toast with cheese and butter.
 * Glamorgan sausage is cheese in breadcrumbs in the shape of a sausage.
 * Cockles are very popular in Wales and served in a variety of ways although usually steamed.

Various cheeses are produced in Wales. These include Caerphilly cheese, Y Fenni cheese, Llanboidy cheese, Red Devil, and an exceptionally strong variety of cheddar, the "Black Bomber."

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Wales


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Guitar/Song Library

The following pages contain recommended links to external websites containing tabs, chords and video lessons which would help you learn playing the songs on your guitar.

 * Guitar Tabs Song Library
 * Guitar Chords Song Library

גיטרה/אוסף שירים

title: Guitar/Song Library


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Guitar/Guitar Accessories

This page is a list of common (and uncommon) accessories you can get for guitar. It is not a buying guide, but it will give you an idea of what to expect in your local guitar shop. While they are not all necessary for playing guitar, some of them are extremely useful and are a good investment.

Picks
Picks are probably the most frequently bought guitar accessory. There are several reasons, but mostly it is because there are so many types of picks, and picks are so easily lost. When you go to the guitar store, you are overwhelmed by the agony of choice, and this is especially true for the beginner.

Picks are probably as old as guitars themselves, although most modern picks are made out of plastic, or sometimes metal. Apart from shape and size of the picks, its strength and the material used to make it are important, because these affect the "feel" of playing with the pick.

Up until about the 70's, most picks were made out of horn or turtle shell. Turtle shell was generally better, because it allowed some flexibility when hitting the strings. However, over time this was devastating the turtle population, and now most picks are made of nylon or plastic. Generally nylon picks have the same properties of the turtle shells, and plastic picks are thicker and denser. However, the general disadvantage of plastic picks is that they wear out quickly, especially if you play fast and hard.

Since the guitar industry constantly experiments with new materials, you might walk into the guitar shop and find something completely exotic. For example, you can buy picks made from hard leather, which are outstanding for classical guitars because of the soft feeling.

Selecting the correct pick for you depends above all on what style of guitar you want to play. Lead or rhythm? Will you be slowly strumming chords, or chugging away on distorted power chords? Each style is most easily accomplished with a particular type of pick. Generally speaking, how hard a pick you use depends on how hard your strings are. Heavier strings will require thicker picks, and vice versa. The shape of the pick determines how much operating area you have to use. For example, rhythm guitarists usually use blunter, larger picks, and lead guitarists use pointier picks so they can more precisely hit individual strings.

If you use hard picks, you will get a hard sound out of the strings, especially with metal picks. Generally the thicker the pick the less "give" there will be when you strum a chord. However, because no two companies manufacture picks with the same material, Company X's 0.76 mm pick will feel different than Company Y's 0.76 mm. Above all, remember that you should always select a pick based on your ability to handle it. You can only play well with a pick if it fits well in your hand.

Picks for the guitar typically range in thickness from the ultra thin 0.38 mm to the really thick 1.14 mm, although bass picks can be thicker. A mid range pick would be something about 0.76 mm thick. Beginners will usually prefer softer picks until they can learn to hold them securely.

Aside from the thickness and mass of the pick, there also exist different pick types. There's the finger pick, which fits over your fingers with a ring (thumb-pick is special because it's angled), and even your normal picks may have different shapes, such as shark-fin (better at chord), sharppoint, etc.

Strings
Each type of guitar uses its own type of strings. Strings are specifically designed for a type of guitar to give it a particular sort of sound. The differences between string types affect the guitar's tone, and it is not recommended to use a set of strings not made for your guitar. Not only would the result not sound good, but attempting to string a guitar with the wrong kind of strings would be difficult, frustrating, and might damage your instrument.

Three of the best and most popular brands of guitar strings for both acoustic and electric guitar are currently Ernie Ball, D'Addario, and Elixir. Ernie Balls and D'Addarios are much cheaper than Elixirs, but Elixirs will keep their bright tone for months (which is why they are higher-priced). But Elixirs can break as easily as any other strings, so they are perhaps best left to people who have been playing a long time and rarely snap strings. The difference between the other two brands is a matter of taste; try them both.

A classical guitar has three bronze wound strings and three strings made out of nylon, which are the higher pitched.

A set of strings for a steel string acoustic has four bronze wound strings and two silvered steel strings, the steel ones being the thinnest and highest pitched.

A set of electric guitar strings are similar to an acoustic guitar's, except the strings are made of nickel instead of bronze and steel. Often there are three wound strings and three nickel strings, but you can also get four wound and two nickel.

The two most common gauges for the high E string in electric guitars are .009 inches and .010 inches (these measurements appear to be used often even in countries using the metric system). Often a whole set of strings is referred to by the gauge of the high E string, e.g., "nines" or "tens" for .009 and .010 gauges respectively. The beginning guitarist is recommended to start with .009s; many professionals also use this gauge, so many guitarists never "outgrow" it.

However, if you wish to try something new, you may want to try out .010 gauge strings once you get used to the lighter .009s. This is only recommended after you have been playing for a while, as your calluses need time to form, and your fingers need to get stronger. This procedure also applies to strings above the .010 range. There are also .011, .012, and .013 gauge strings readily available from all of the manufacturers mentioned above. The benefit of higher gauge strings is tone. If you are planning on playing metal guitar, or any other genre that uses a lot of distortion or overdrive, you probably will not notice a difference in the sound. Alternatively, if you are playing blues or rock, a higher gauge string will give you a heavier, "dirtier" sound, very preferable to these types of music. Stevie Ray Vaughan is notorious for using very heavy gauge strings (some sources claim .014 gauge), contributing a lot to his signature tone.

Tuning Aids
Electronic tuners are a quick, accurate, and precise method of tuning. A tuner can be used in two ways, either through a built in microphone which detects sound, or by directly jacking in an electric guitar. When a note is played, the tuner determines the note you are playing, and then represents visually how sharp or flat the note is. Most models use a combination of lights and a display screen to indicate the tone of the note.

Electronic tuners can be easily drowned out by background noise when you do not jack directly into them. Because of this, they are best used in a quiet environment.

A tuning fork is a piece of U-shaped metal that, when struck, emits a particular tone. Tuning forks are good because, unless bent, they will always emit the same note. The most common tuning forks resonate at either an A, at a frequency of 440 hertz, or C. Using a tuning fork is generally recommended for more advanced players. You can buy a tuning fork that sounds the note E. Many guitarists prefer this due to the fact that the guitar's lowest and highest strings are both E.

To use a tuning fork, gently strike it against the heel of your hand and it will vibrate. Then, set the base of the fork against the body of the guitar if it is acoustic. The sound of the fork will be amplified through the guitar, and you can use it to tune your strings. If you have an electric guitar, you must hold the tuning fork to your ear, and then tune your strings. It is important not to strike the fork against a hard surface, as this may bend the fork out of tune.

If you are using an A tuning fork, then you should tune first to the harmonic on the A string. However, you can also use the 5th fret on the low E string, the 7th fret of the D string, the 2nd fret on the G string, or the 5th fret on the high E string. All of these frets produce an A, although some are in a higher octave.

A pitchpipe is much like a tuning fork, in that it only plays one note and that note is used for tuning. To use a pitchpipe, you blow through the end like a whistle. Traditional breath powered pitchpipes are notoriously unreliable, because temperature changes can affect the note that they play. You can also purchase electronic pitchpipes, which emit notes through a speaker. Some electronic tuners also have this feature.

Cables
Cables are used to connect two sound devices together, like a guitar and an amplifier. There are many different types, each for a different purpose, and it is good for a guitarist to familiarize themselves with some common types.

String Crank
A string crank is essentially a handle with a rotating cap, designed to fit over top of a tuning peg. It makes unwinding strings much quicker, and some also have a slot to help remove the pegs near the bridge that hold the strings in the body.

Slide
A slide or bottleneck is a ceramic, glass or metal cylinder, usually worn on the fingers rather than held in the hand. The term slide is in reference to the sliding motion of the slide against the strings, while bottleneck refers to the original material of choice for such slides, which were the necks of glass bottles.

Instead of altering the pitch of the strings in the normal manner (by pressing the string against frets), a slide is placed upon the string to vary its vibrating length and pitch. This slide can then be moved along the string without lifting, creating continuous transitions in pitch.

Capo

A capo (short for capotasto, which is Italian for "head of fretboard") is a device used for shortening the strings, and hence raising the pitch of the guitar. Capos are used to change the key and pitch of a guitar sound without having to adjust the strings with the tuning keys. It was invented by the Flamenco guitarist Jose Patino Gonzalez.

Flamenco and folk guitar make extensive use of the capo, while it is used very rarely, if at all, in styles like classical guitar and jazz. Capos are useful and good to have, but sometimes they prevent a player from properly learning how to play barre chords. Capos and barre chords both have their uses, and there certainly is no reason you cannot learn to use both.

There are several different styles of capo available, but the basic method is the same; a rubber covered bar pressed down on the strings, and it is fastened on the neck with a strip of elastic or some sort of clamping mechanism. Some special capos can fret individual strings at individual frets, enabling a player to create an open tuning, or have two fretting bars, allowing you to quickly change from one tuning to another without having to move the capo itself.

A simple version can be made with a pencil and a rubber band. Lay the pencil (preferably one with flat surfaces) across the strings at the desired fret, and holding it in place by wrapping the rubber band around both ends and underneath the fretboard.

Because of the different techniques and chord voicings available in different keys, chords played with a capo may sound different. For example, placing the capo at the second fret and strumming a C major chord-shape sounds different than strumming an open D major chord. Although both of these produce the same chords, they each have a different tone and texture. Capos also change the timbre of the strings as the scale length is shortened, making the guitar sound more like a mandolin. Capos give you a greater varieties of sounds you can achieve on the guitar, using open chords and alternate tunings.

A capo is almost essential for older twelve string guitars because manufacturers would strongly recommend that the instrument not be tuned above a tone below standard guitar tuning to reduce stress on the neck. Modern 12-strings can be tuned up to pitch with ultra light gauge strings, but many players still prefer to tune a tone lower and use a capo to play in tune with six-string or bass guitars.

Metronome

A metronome is a device that produces a regulated audible beat, and/or a visual pulse, used to establish a steady tempo. Tempos are measured in beats-per-minute (BPM), and a metronome is invaluable for setting a proper pace, especially when practicing. Although it is possible to buy metronomes with moving parts, most modern ones are electronic.

Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. A regular "tick" sound indicates the beat within each measure, and another, distinct sound (often of a different timbre, higher pitch or greater volume) indicates the beginning of each measure. A tempo control adjusts the amount of time separating each beat (typically measured in beats per minute), while another, discrete, control adjusts the meter of the rhythm and thus the number of beats in each measure. This number is an integer often ranging from one to six, though some metronomes go up to nine or higher. Some devices also have options for irregular time signatures such as 5/4 or 7/8, in which other distinct sounds indicate the beginning of each subgroup of beats within a measure.

Music Stand
When reading music, it's best to use a music stand, as it can be set up at a proper angle. Furthermore, with a sturdy collapsible stand, one can have a reliable platform anywhere.

title: Guitar/Guitar Accessories


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User talk:24.118.120.43

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 11:15, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:24.118.120.43


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River Fishing

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * What is a river?
 * Evaluating conditions
 * What are the parts of a river?
 * Understand Each fishery
 * Techniques to increase mobility
 * Targeting Top-predators
 * Targeting mid-level predators
 * Targeting small food eaters
 * Targeting diverse eaters
 * What are some basic approaches
 * Approaching streams that are seasonal rivers

title: River Fishing


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Template talk:Goodbook/Latin

Personally, I like this version better than this one. The former is much snappier! -- Kowey 12:11, 17 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Snappier, perhaps, but awkward (plus, "Caesar" was misspelled!). I think the current version is a good compromise. --Hieronymous85 12:27, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Goodbook/Latin


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PBASIC Programming/PULSIN and PULSOUT

Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) is the use of the length of an electric signal to represent a value, instead of a large bit pattern. To display the number 12, as an example, we could send a +5V pulse for 12 milliseconds (ms), instead of sending out the binary number 1100. The most common use for PWM is in digital servo motors, especially for robotics. However, other external devices operate using PWM communications as well. To send a PWM signal, instead of a regular binary signal, we use the PULSIN and PULSOUT commands.

Clock Speed
The units of time for PULSIN and PULSOUT are 2 microseconds (μs). A microsecond is 10-6 seconds. For instance, if we sent a PULSOUT with a value of 25, we would have the length of the pulse be:

 * $$25 \times 2\mu s = 25 \times (2 \times 10^{-6}) = 50 \times 10^{-6} = 50\mu s = 0.05 ms$$

The reason why we make the conversion above from microseconds to milliseconds is that many devices display their requirements in terms of milliseconds. It is always important for the programmer to be able to convert between different units.

PULSOUT
To send a PWM signal, you need to specify the port and the amount of time. For example, to send a pulse on port 10 with a length of 4 microseconds, we would write:

PULSOUT 10, 4

Length Between Pulses
The PAUSE function, as we have seen before, can be used to delay operation of the next command. When using PAUSE to insert a delay between PWM pulses, keep in mind that it uses milliseconds, not Microseconds (μs). Remember that  takes the same amount of time as.

PULSIN
In a similar manner to sending a PWM signal, we can also read a PWM signal from an external device. We must specify which port we are reading from, and we must also provide a variable to receive the length of the pulse. For instance, if we wanted to read a PWM pulse on port 5, we could write:

MyByte VAR Byte PULSIN 5, MyByte

Like with PULSOUT, the units of time are 2 μs.

One common device that uses PWM input like this is the Parallax ultrasonic sensor. These sensors return a pulse for a length of time equal to the amount of time it takes sound waves to travel to an object and bounce back. Using some simple arithmetic, if we know the speed of sound and if we know the amount of time, we can calculate the distance of the object.

title: PBASIC Programming/PULSIN and PULSOUT


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XQuery/Tag Cloud

Counting Words

A tag cloud (or weighted list in visual design) is a visual depiction of user-generated tags, or simply the word content of a site, typically used to describe the content of web sites.

One method of creating a tag cloud is to create a list of the words in a document, count the number of occurrences of each word, and depict the more frequently occurring words with a larger font size than the words that occur less frequently.

Counting the total number of words in a text object
To get a feeling for one of the basic techniques, let's examine Jon Robie's code, which takes all of the text nodes in a document, strings them together, splits them into a sequence of "words" (tokenizing by whitespace, punctuation, or the 'nbsp' entity), and counts the number of resulting words:

Note that the string-join function here takes an input sequence and returns a single string that is separated by single spaces (the second argument of string-join).

If you want to see what this routine treats as a "word" in your document, use the following variation.

Another variation is the word-count function found at xqueryfunctions.com:

This version uses the  regular expression (which matches non-alphabetical characters) to return word tokens.

Counting Keywords
Kurt Cagle suggested the following XQuery for counting keywords:

Creating a Tag Cloud
From this you can create a Tag Cloud or word density map such as the "Popular Tags" link on the flickr web site Flicker Popular Tags

title: XQuery/Tag Cloud


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PBASIC Programming/RCTIME

Analog Circuits
Many times, the devices that we connect to our BasicStamp will be regular analog devices, not digital devices. The difference is that instead of sending out ones or zeros, we need to send out a voltage value. As an example, if we wanted to send the value 4, we could either send a digital signal (100), or we could send an analog signal (+4V).

Resistors and Capacitors
A resistor is a device that slows down the flow of electric current. We have already seen Ohm's law before, but we will repeat it here:

 * $$v = ir$$

r is the relationship between the voltage v and the current i. The value of a resistor is measured in units of Ohms (Ω).

A capacitor is a special type of device that stores energy. When you put a voltage across a capacitor, it fills with energy. When you take the voltage away, the capacitor releases that energy. For an example, a flash bulb in a camera uses a capacitor to store lots of energy until you press the picture button. When you press the button, the capacitor releases the energy very quickly, and the camera makes a bright flash. Without the capacitor the batteries would never be able to produce enough energy so quickly.

The ability of a capacitor to store energy is measured in units called Farads. Most capacitors that will be used in small applications have very small values, such as 1 millifarad or less.

RC Circuits
An electric circuit that contains both resistors and capacitors is known as an RC circuit. A capacitor does not charge or discharge it's energy instantly. There is a special value, known as the time constant that determines the amount of time the capacitor takes to charge. The time constant is dependent on the value of the capacitor and the value of the resistor.

Time Constants
The time constant of a circuit is calculated as:

 * $$\tau = rC$$

Where τ is the time constant, in seconds. r is the resistance, in Ohms, and C is the capacitance, in Farads. It takes approximately 5 time constants for an RC circuit to completely charge or discharge energy.

Measuring a Time Constant
The BasicStamp can measure the time constant directly, without first needing to measure the resistance and the capacitance of the circuit. To do this, the BasicStamp outputs 5 volts into the circuit, long enough for the circuit to charge. Then, the BasicStamp turns the output port into an input port, allowing the circuit to discharge energy. When the amount of energy reaches zero, it has been 5 time constants. The BasicStamp divides the amount of time by 5 and returns the time constant value. Keep in mind that this is an approximate process, and it will fail for very large time constants (because the circuit will not have enough time to charge completely).

RCTIME
The RCTIME function measures the time constant of a circuit attached to one of the ports. The other end of the circuit should be attached to ground. It will return a value for the time constant in milliseconds. To read the time constant on port 11, we would write:

MyByte VAR Byte RCTIME 11, MyByte

Special Resistors
There are several types of resistors that we can use in our circuits to do different tasks.

Potentiometers
A potentiometer, or more simply a "pot" is a resistor with variable resistance. Potentiometers typically have some sort of knob or dial that can be turned to alter the resistance. A good example of a potentiometer is a volume knob in a stereo. When the knob is turned up, the resistance decreases, more current flows, and the sound becomes louder. When the knob is turned down, the resistance increases, less current flows, and the sound becomes softer. Another example is a dimmer switch for a light bulb. The more dim the light, the higher the resistance in the switch must be.

If we have a circuit with a potentiometer, we know what C is, and we can measure the time constant, so we can calculate what the resistance must be. If we know what the maximum and minimum resistance is for the potentiometer, we can calculate how much the knob is turned, and in some cases we can even calculate the exact angle that the knob is pointing at.

Potentiometers can appear as knobs, but they can also be attached to wheels to measure the amount that a wheel has rotated. They can also be available as slide switches.

Thermistors
Thermistors are resistors whose resistance changes with temperature. These are commonly used in electric thermometers. By measuring the RC time of a thermistor circuit, we can calculate the temperature.

Photoresistors
A photoresistor is a resistor whose resistance changes depending on how much light there is. By measureing the time constant of the photoresistor, we can determine how much light is shined on it. An example of this is an automatic night-light, which turns on when it detects the light is off.

title: PBASIC Programming/RCTIME


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XQuery/HelloWorld

Motivation
You want to run a small program that tests to see if your XQuery execution environment is working.

XML Output
[/basics/helloWorld.xq Execute]

Discussion
The program creates a temporary variable called  and assigns it a string value. The output is an XML element containing a message element which contains the value of the variable.

Suggestions
Try omitting the curly braces from inside of the result message element. What do you get? [/basics/helloWorld-1.xq Execute]

What happens if you omit the results wrappers? [/basics/helloWorld-2.xq Execute]

Plain Text
You can get XQuery to return plain text using serialization options which define the serialization and the output media-type.

For example to output the message as text, specify the serialization as text and the media-type as text/plain.

[/basics/helloWorld-3.xq Execute]

Expected Output
Depending on your browser set-up, this will launch a viewer for text documents and display

Hello World!

XQuery/HelloWorld

title: XQuery/HelloWorld