text:
Talk:Haskell/Understanding monads

Archives

 * /Nuclear waste/ - archives from before the great rewrite (see especially the last thread) 2007-08-03

Rewrite of the page?
A complete rewrite of the page seems to have been initiated today. I think it's a shame, since the original version with the nuclear waste metaphor was by far the best tutorial I've ever seen. Since I couldn't find any discussion of this huge change anywhere, I've reverted Apfelmus's changes. --Nattfodd 14:00, 3 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Thanks, Natt. The discussion (confusingly) took place on /Nuclear waste/.  The problem with the original version is that it gives only a superficial understanding of monads and doesn't help the reader to really "get" the point (I say this because I am guilty for most of it).  Reverting your revert.  Apfelmus is a well trusted member of this community.  He understands the strengths of the original version and will likely find a way to preserve them whilst overcoming the major shortcomings :-) -- Kowey 14:07, 3 August 2007 (UTC)

 * No the metaphor is great! I watched the WIP page, like, "monad is a triplet of (M, return, >==) where they satisfy laws 1, 2 and 3" etc etc. I couldn't get it after staring at it for ten seconds. I'm generally opposed to the "Yankee textbook" style where everything is explained thrice really down-bowing like to a retard monkey, but the other extreme only works if you've got a live instructor. This book's value as a self-study material benefits hugely from such witty and well-written metaphors as in this article! --Sigmundur (talk) 18:01, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

 * Well, staring at a definition usually doesn't work, the intention was that the reader reads on :-).
 * The dilemma is the following: if there's no clear definition, some people complain that "monad" is just a buzzword (like "cloud computing" etc.). If there's a metaphor, some people complain that don't see the wood for the metaphorical trees anymore, especially if the metaphor is stretched beyond its limits. If it starts with explaining that  is an "action that calculates a value  " (that's how the SPJ's "awkward squad" paper does it and which worked for me), some people complain that this is too abstract either. Hm, now what to do? :-)
 * -- apfeλmus 09:05, 3 October 2008 (UTC)

Section "Motivation"
Thanks for taking up on this somewhat stalled text.

A motivating example is a good idea, but it can easily become a demotivating example if it's too complicated/confusing. I think the core idea of  is reasonably clear, but the cursory remarks, for instance about   and "openness" are too much.

Moreover, I'd certainly avoid saying that monads are "relatively difficult", for they are not, or rather, should not be by virtue of this text.

-- apfeλmus 08:53, 4 August 2009 (UTC)

Topics TODO
  Explain monadic parser combinators! But in another chapter.  The basic triad "rock, scissors, paper" err, "reader, writer, state" is best introduced in another chapter, maybe entitled "A Zoo of Monads". Reader must include the famous function  also known as  !  The  is too cute to not elaborate it further to probabilistic functional programming. The Monty Hall problem can be solved with that. Key: the implementation can be changed, it effectively becomes the Set-Monad then. Extension:  and backtracking.  Exceptions are a nice way to explain monads, too. See also.

Links

 * Brent Yorgey - "The monad tutorial fallacy". Highly relevant! The assertion is that everyone has to discover the abstraction and a suitable metaphor himself, by working through examples. Presenting a metaphor upfront is no use.
 * Ertugrul Söylemez' monad tutorial
 * Henk-Jan van Tuyl - A tour of the Haskell monad functions

Obsolete notes
Move the italic inline notes here when no longer necessary.

What is a monad?
''We're bold and present the exact definition of "monad". This should (hopefully) prevent common confusion about the definition and remove the buzzword status. Of course, this paragraph has to be really short since it doesn't explain why I should care about monads at all or what the intuition behind bind and return is.''

Stateful Computations
''Example state monads, i.e. particular state types. One of them is to be treated before/in parallel to. The others may be useful for exercises!''

''random numbers. Drawbacks: $$\gg$$ is meaningless, using an infinite list of random numbers is a better abstraction. Highlights: the state is more an implementation detail than of individual importance, this makes explanation easier!''

''name-supply. Task: label all leaves in a tree from 1 to n.''

Data.Map for depth first search in a graph.

''SOE, chapter 19: interactive robot language. Nice example monad to program in. But not a good example for implementation.''

  Of course, the problem with an example is that we need to explain the example use case before plunging into. But it's probably worth it. Huh, it turns out that we even have to explain the  pattern for threading state. Seems that random numbers are easiest to explain.

Monad zoo
Just to point out that shapr's girlfriend had some amusing illustrations of monads... might be useful for an eventual Monad Zoo chapter -- Kowey 16:07, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Marvelous, there more amusement, the better ;-) I intend the "Monad Zoo" chapter to take the role of Haskell/Advanced monads. -- apfeλmus 17:11, 7 August 2007 (UTC)

Need Images?
I could draw up some preliminary figures/images if you'd like. I'm not familiar with Haskell, but if I can contribute while I learn... why not? :)

These images correspond to the first monad example, a random number generator.

 * Oh, thank you! I had something along the lines of the diagrams in the awkward squad paper in mind, though, i.e. something like [[Image:MonadState sumTwoDice.png]]. This demonstrates how  is composed of two successive  . Image:monad_state_random2.jpg somehow misses this point :-) I'm not sure wether rectangular boxes are the way to go though, your colorful circles make me thinking.
 * -- apfeλmus 19:01, 21 February 2008 (UTC)

Changes from 20 April 2010
A helpful contributor has made some changes, recorded here: Revision 1761620 compared to 1733846.

Unfortunately, I think they tend to confuse matters more than they enlighten and I chose to undo them. They are modeled on the Monads as Containers tutorial, but this approach is very different from the one taken here and they don't mix very well. How about putting them in an extra section?

I do agree that /  viewpoint should be explained somewhere as well.

-- apfeλmus 11:30, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

Prelude and
We should show a way to hide  and the other monad functions while importing the Prelude.

-- apfeλmus 06:55, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

How to combine Actions with a function?
For example,I write a function to get the nth fibonacci number. fib 0 = 1 fib 1 = 1 fib n = fib (n-1) + (fib (n-2)) And it takes long time to get the 1000th number.So I want to show the progress.When it get the 100th,200th,300th,... number,the console print 1,2,3,....How to do this? Must I modify my function or I can make a wrapper of it.

 * For debugging, you can use to show intermediate results.
 * In general, you have to change your function to  something.

fib n = print n >> case n of  0 -> return 1 1 -> return 1 n -> liftM2 (+) (fib (n-1)) (fib (n-2))
 * Note that your algorithm needs exponential time! I estimate that  will take  around $$10^{190}$$ years. For better algorithms, see also The Fibonacci sequence on the Haskell Wiki.
 * The Haskell Cafe Mailinglist is probably better for asking Haskell questions than the wikibook.
 * -- apfeλmus 13:49, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

Nomenclature: use of f as a monadic value
In the introductory set of three equations, and throughout, you use x for a value, and f,g,h for either monadic values, or functions. I would use either x, m or a for a monadic variable. i.e.

f >>= return == f

becomes:

a >>= return == a

f is strongly associated with function names. -- Neil Mitchell/ndm

 * Good point! How do others do it? SPJ in "Tackling the awkwards squad" says

return x >>= f = f x m >>= return = m m1 >>= (λx.m2 >>= (λy.m3)) = (m1 >>= (λx.m2)) >>= (λy.m3)

with the condition that x is not free in m3. Wadler in "Monads for functional programming" essentially says

return a >>= λb.n = n[a/b] m >>= λa.return a = m m >>= (λa.n >>= λb.o)) = (m >>= λa.n) >>= λb.o

but uses  and   instead of   and.

In my own Haskell code, I always use m for monadic values and g,h for functions that return monadic values. That means

return x >>= g = g x m >>= return = m (m >>= g) >>= h = m >>= (\x -> g x >>= h)

Hm, do I really do that? Oh, dear. I guess just using m for monadic values and f,g for the functions is probably best. Hm, but the other versions of the associative law are more associative.
 * -- apfeλmus 09:19, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

Trouble with currying
I'm not confident enough in my Haskell knowledge to outright correct this, but something looks wrong to me. In the section Threading the State with bind, the definition of >> is:

(>>) :: (Seed -> (a,Seed)) -> (Seed -> (b,Seed)) -> (Seed -> (b,Seed)) (>>) f g seed0 = let (result1, seed1) = f seed0 (result2, seed2) = g seed1 in (result2, seed2)

It looks like the type signature and definition disagree. In particular, the signature indicates that >> produces a function. However, the definition seems to produce a pair (b, Seed). On the other hand, this might just be Haskell magic. --Bytecrafter 22:00, 11 November 2007 (UTC)

 * Even more strangely, >> takes three parameters instead of two... Don't worry, this is just Currying :-) For instance, we may say that (+) is a function that takes one parameter and returns a function, i.e.  and   but we may also think of (+) as taking two parameters.
 * The definition of >> is similar. Hm, maybe it's better to write
 * but the  spans multiple lines, so I'm not sure whether this helps.
 * -- apfeλmus 12:00, 12 November 2007 (UTC)
 * -- apfeλmus 12:00, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

 * OK, I wasn't sure if that was going on or not. I've only ever seen currying in the invocation of functions, not the definition.  Does that imply that the following type signatures are equivalent?

(>>) :: (Seed -> (a,Seed)) -> (Seed -> (b,Seed)) -> (Seed -> (b,Seed)) (>>) :: (Seed -> (a,Seed)) -> (Seed -> (b,Seed)) -> Seed -> (b,Seed)
 * Yes, exactly. -> is right-associative, i.e.  is parsed as.
 * I'm sorry to spam up this discussion page (clearly these questions belong on the currying page), but let me share my impressions. As a reader, I came to this page out of order.  I know a bit about functional programming, but I only know enough Haskell to be able to read it.  I can't really write it.  However, I was very interested to learn more about Monads, since the little that I did know led me to believe that they were magical and cool.
 * No problem, I mean, "out of order" is to the default on the Internet :-) so the/any article should facilitate that. Hm, having an explicit dependency graph for the chapters would be ideal.
 * I had expected to see that (>>) would return a function, and was a bit surprised to see that the definition didn't seem to match the type signature. There are probably other readers in similar situations.  It might make sense to get the type signature and the function definition to agree.
 * I changed some definitions, better that way?
 * To counterbalance my criticism, let me also say that this is the single best Monad discussion that I have seen so far. I appreciate the work that people have put into it, and my comments are only intended to help make the article even better!  --Bytecrafter 01:28, 13 November 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, thanks for your comments! Moreover, there doesn't seem to be an explanation of currying in the wikibook (!? I suppose it's intended to be in Haskell/Higher-order_functions_and_Currying, hm even a bit late for my taste), your remarks brought to light that it's rather absent.
 * -- apfeλmus 09:37, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

"What is a monad" missing something?
A monad is a "thing" that can plug into the monadic plumbing system.

''Think of an internet enabled appliance. What does that mean? It means a "thing" that can plug into the internet. But the internet is basically just a giant router. The functionality all depends on what's plugged in. If no one ever showed you a web browser or a chat client, then you would probably have no idea what the internet is.''

Nevertheless, we can define what a monad is, without giving even the slightest hint of what a monad is good for.

 * Moved Oddron's addition here because IMHO they don't fit. But they're not without point, what do you want to express, Oddron? What bugs you about the current version?
 * The section intentionally does not give an explananation of what monads are good for in order to avoid making it sound like a buzzword.
 * Strictly speaking, there is no "monadic pumbling system". I don't like the internet example, though it does have the good point that there are many very different monads, i.e. that "monad" itself is a rather bare-bones concept.
 * -- apfeλmus 07:47, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

Confused by type definition given for Map?
map :: a -> b -> M a -> M b I'm new to Wikibooks, and haven't the foggiest about monads yet. Appologies if my understanding is wrong but if it's intuitively like map then shouldn't the only difference should be in what the function operates on and what's returned. ie more like map :: (a -> b) -> M a -> M b

-- Steve10345book (talk) 00:11, 21 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Yes, you're right.
 * Note that what you were reading were recent edits that I think confuse matters too much; I've relocated them to another section. The text will be different now. Wikibook - where the text changes while you're reading it. ;-)
 * -- apfeλmus 12:21, 21 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks for clearing that up. Wasn't sure if it were a deliberate error or not. It's quite reassuraning that I have learnt something from previous sections of this wikibook. I've not got a maths, or programming background and feel a good educational book should attempt to build on familar ideas to explain differences with new ideas. As such I quite liked the map analogy, but haven't got the subtle difference with aplication. Keep up the good work, and I'll attempt to help out where I can.
 * Steve10345book (talk) 07:42, 22 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Ah, but who knows what the reader is familiar with. ;-) You probably want to use additional books for learning Haskell anyway; I can recommend Learn you a Haskell or Graham Hutton's book Programming in Haskell.
 * -- apfeλmus 11:23, 23 April 2010 (UTC)

Subsection "What is a Monad?"
In the Right unit law, is m a generic type variable or is it of the monad type M?

Similarly with the  Associativity  law. GPhilip (talk) 12:50, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

 * In both cases,  denotes a value of type   (for some type  ). -- apfeλmus 21:24, 7 July 2008 (UTC)

Recent expansion of section "Definition"
Blaisorblade, I don't agree that your elaboration on the definition is a good idea. My intention was to keep it extremely short and jump right into the example. I think that someone who doesn't know what a monad is yet won't understand the additional remarks, but still waste a lot of time trying to understand them. He is better served by doing the example first and inferring his own intuition from that.

-- apfeλmus 07:35, 7 August 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm in total agreement with Apfelmus: the "cut to the chase" approach of the older versions of this chapter was a key factor in its effectiveness (not that my subjective POV counts much, but I speak as someone who actually learnt monads as a complete newbie starting from this article). Right now I am strongly inclined to remove the whole "Why I need monads" foreword, as well as most of the additions to the introduction.Duplode (discuss • contribs) 22:39, 1 April 2012 (UTC)

 * So I went ahead and performed the "surgery". Last revision before the trimming: --Duplode (discuss • contribs) 04:31, 15 April 2012 (UTC)

Category Theory
Hey, I changed the intro to the Category Theory section so as not to imply that the join/map/return presentation of monads is exactly the categorical definition. It's not. For one, Haskell is not Category Theory; it just has some operations based on concepts from C.T. For another, Haskell monads actually correspond to so-called "strong monads" in C.T.  The difference is that, in a strong monad's version of bind, extra information is passed into the function passed to bind. This corresponds exactly to the existing scope in Haskell. In Haskell, a function passed to bind is closed over the existing scope, and so has access to all variables already in scope, as well as the bound variable. In a categorical strong monad, this is done with a product; in Haskell, it is done with closures and scope. (I am mkehrt on WP; I don't exist on WB).

Broken Link
Link to Haskell/Understanding monads/Error is broken as it seems that section no longer exists. This should be replaced with an appropriate link, or removed.

imperative stuff is confusing me
This section:

… this isn't making sense to me. let x = foo in bar ? This is too abstract. Is the x being used? Is it ever usable in the future? Or is this just a throwaway thing? And the last part "of the imperative language" is baffling. What is this imperative language we are referring to? Should it be "of *an* imperative language" ?? None of this is very clear or helpful in my case. Backfromquadrangle (discuss • contribs) 18:22, 2 May 2014 (UTC)
 * Under this interpretation, the bind operator  is simply a function version of the semicolon. Just like a :  expression can be written as a function application,
 * let x = foo in bar     corresponds to      (\x -> bar) foo
 * an assignment and semicolon can be written as the bind operator:
 * x <- foo;  bar     corresponds to      foo >>= (\x -> bar)
 * The  function lifts a value   to a full-fledged statement   of the imperative language.
 * x <- foo;  bar     corresponds to      foo >>= (\x -> bar)
 * The  function lifts a value   to a full-fledged statement   of the imperative language.
 * The  function lifts a value   to a full-fledged statement   of the imperative language.
 * The  function lifts a value   to a full-fledged statement   of the imperative language.

 * The let examples were, in a precise sense, pseudo-Haskell.  wasn't actually a Haskell expression, but a placeholder for an expression which might use   (or not, though if it didn't the   would be superfluous). It could be , or  . I agree it was unnecessarily abstract, so I made the example concrete.

 * As for the passage about, it is really "the imperative language"; that is, the imperative language implemented by the monad   you happen to choose. I changed the sentence to make that explicit. Does it help?--Duplode (discuss • contribs) 02:33, 3 May 2014 (UTC)

Add amazing link?
Yet Another Monad Tutorial is by far the best thorough explanation out there, skipping all the nonsense. I think we should either provide a "more reading" link to it or otherwise use it as a model for improving the Wikibook. Backfromquadrangle (discuss • contribs) 16:30, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

 * It is a good tutorial indeed. The approach is also quite close to what we are trying to do here, except that the pace is much slower, and the exposition more meticulous. Do you think the link would fit better here or with the broader set of tutorials linked from the front page?--Duplode (discuss • contribs) 03:19, 10 June 2014 (UTC)

Handling the Applicative-Monad proposal
I have just made the absolute minimal changes needed for this chapter to comply with GHC 7.10 and the AMP. No attempt is made to discuss  here, or even to link to the (freshly updated) ../Applicative functors chapter. I see that as possibly more than a temporary solution - IMO it is not necessary to discuss applicatives before monads, and that there are pros and cons with either approach. In any case, a curious reader at this point of the book should be able to do a quick visit to the chapter about applicatives and understand at least the first three sections, so that she sees what the passing mention was about. Duplode (discuss • contribs) 10:43, 4 July 2015 (UTC)

 * A follow-up: given that this chapter is preceded by a prologue whose main goal is introducing, the text was adjusted accordingly. The main change is that there are now several references to  , as we do not have to pretend it doesn't exist any longer. The structure remains essentially the same. Note that the caveat about not asking readers to instantiate   on their own yet still applies, as doing so would call for a deeper discussion of   than the Prologue is able to provide. --Duplode (discuss • contribs) 04:44, 10 October 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Haskell/Understanding monads


text:
Ruby Programming/Reference/Objects

Object is the base class of all other classes created in Ruby. It provides the basic set of functions available to all classes, and each function can be explicitly overridden by the user.

This class provides a number of useful methods for all of the classes in Ruby.

Object inherits from BasicObject which allows creating alternate object hierarchies. Methods on object are available to all classes unless explicitly overridden.

In Ruby, everything is an Object including classes and modules. Object and BasicObject are the most low-level class.

ARGF
ARGF is a stream designed for use in scripts that process files given as command-line arguments or passed in via STDIN.

ARGV
ARGV contains the command line arguments used to run ruby with the first value containing the name of the executable.

DATA
DATA is a File that contains the data section of the executed file. To create a data section use __END__:

ENV
ENV is a Hash-like accessor for environment variables.

STDERR
Holds the original stderr

STDIN
Holds the original stdin

STDOUT
Holds the original stdout

|

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ruby Programming/Reference/Objects


text:
C++ Programming/Classes/Abstract Classes/Pure Abstract Classes

Pure Abstract Classes
An abstract class is one in which there is a declaration but no definition for a member function. The way this concept is expressed in C++ is to have the member function declaration assigned to zero.

 * Example:

A pure Abstract class has only abstract member functions and no data or concrete member functions. In general, a pure abstract class is used to define an interface and is intended to be inherited by concrete classes. It's a way of forcing a contract between the class designer and the users of that class. The users of this class must declare a matching member function for the class to compile.

 * Example of usage for a pure Abstract Class:

Note that this is a bit of a contrived example and that the drawable objects are not fully defined (no constructors or data) but it should give you the general idea of the power of defining an interface. Once the objects are constructed, the code that calls the interface does not know any of the implementation details of the called objects, only that of the interface. The object GraphicalDrawingBoard is a placeholder meant to represent the thing onto which the object will be drawn, i.e. the video memory, drawing buffer, printer.

Note that there is a great temptation to add concrete member functions and data to pure abstract base classes. This must be resisted, in general it is a sign that the interface is not well factored. Data and concrete member functions tend to imply a particular implementation and as such can inherit from the interface but should not be that interface. Instead if there is some commonality between concrete classes, creation of abstract class which inherits its interface from the pure abstract class and defines the common data and member functions of the concrete classes works well. Some care should be taken to decide whether inheritance or aggregation should be used. Too many layers of inheritance can make the maintenance and usage of a class difficult. Generally, the maximum accepted layers of inheritance is about 3, above that and refactoring of the classes is generally called for. A general test is the "is a" vs "has a", as in a Square is a Rectangle, but a Square has a set of sides.


text:
Talk:Python Programming/Numbers

Is float a 32-bit or 64-bit floating point, i.e., single or double precision?

title: Talk:Python Programming/Numbers


text:
User:Lipschitz~enwikibooks

I am a physics grad student hopping between Italy and University of California. I am mostly working on English Wikipedia and Italian Wikipedia. I'm planning to create, or contribute to an Astrophysics book.

 * Leave me a message: User_Talk:Lipschitz
 * My sandbox: User:Lipschitz/Sandbox

title: User:Lipschitz~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Tommy Irianto~enwikibooks

--Twinkling Wizard talk 22:47, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

We've noticed your optional subjects. Maybe you would like to write something about yourself on your user page: User:Tommy Irianto. Thank you for joining the Wikiversity's School of Magic. Welcome again! --George D. Bozovic talk 10:39, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Hi there, Tommy! You know, I must admit, you've asked a really good question at the Classroom. :) In deed, how come there's no lessons?! Well, I must tell you, our School is at the very beginning of its existence. The Wikiversity's School of Magic was founded just a couple of months ago. However, by every day it's becoming bigger and more developed. Because we, its users, help it, of course. ;) This is a wiki school, which means that anyone is free to edit pages. You can edit all of the pages by yourself. If you wish, you can even make a lesson by yourself! However, I don't recommend that to you yet, since there should be at least some primar lessons made by the official professors, before the others could make theirs. But don't be worry! We are writing the lessons every day, and very, very soon the lessons will be available. At this moment we have provided only the Lesson 1, which is the most important lesson, don't you think? You can see it here. And while you're taking your Lesson 1, the Lesson 2 will be ready for you. ;) I shall inform you by myself on this page if that's all right with you. (By the way, hope seeing you at my class soon! ;)) --Twinkling Wizard talk 22:52, 17 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Hello, Tommy. When you take your Lesson 1, you may take the Lesson 2 - here it is. I shall also inform you about the Lesson 3. --Twinkling Wizard talk 22:25, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tommy Irianto. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tommy Irianto~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Tommy Irianto~enwikibooks


text:
User:Chti~enwikibooks

Nous sommes le Monday 29 July 2024 L'encyclopédie comporte actuellement  articles...

title: User:Chti~enwikibooks


text:
User:Lipschitz~enwikibooks/Sandbox

[[Media:Example.ogg]]

title: User:Lipschitz~enwikibooks/Sandbox


text:
Space Transport and Engineering Methods/High Energy Particle Engines

Particle engines generally have very good performance because of the high velocity of the particles. The high velocity also requires a lot of energy, since particle kinetic energy goes as the square of the velocity.

A. Particle Rockets
Particle rockets are distinguished by emitting particles from an internal source, while the next section, External Particle Interactions, covers methods that employ particles in the environment, either natural or man-made.

54 Pulsed Fission Nuclear Thruster
Alternate Names: Orion

Type: Atomic Particles by Nuclear Detonation

Description: A series of small atomic bombs yield debris/particles which push against a plate/shock absorber arrangement. The shock absorber evens out the explosion pulses to a steady acceleration for the vehicle. Issues with this method are not so much technical feasibility as risks of using it near Earth and having a shipload of nuclear weapons, not to mention the radiation levels for crew and cargo. Benefits are the enormous potential payload and high acceleration. A possible application is moving dangerous asteroids. That would not take very many bombs, and the pusher plate/shock absorber could be made from asteroidal metals, even from the asteroid you are moving.

Other applications might involve moving large amounts of material in the outer Solar System, or starting interstellar trips. Far away from Earth the issue of radiation added to the environment is not as significant, since solar and cosmic radiation are already present in large amounts.

Status: Atomic bombs are well tested (unfortunately). A demonstration of the pusher plate technology was done in small scale with conventional explosives.

Variations:
 * 54a Antimatter Catalyzed Pulsed Nuclear - This speculative method uses antimatter triggered implosion of plutonium targets. In theory this would lower the critical mass to ~ 2 grams significantly lowering the size threshold for pulsed nuclear.
 * 54b Implosion Driver Pulsed Nuclear - Standard fission bombs are triggered by a chemical implosion. This method substitutes a laser, ion beam, or other external driver to collapse the fuel load.  It potentially reduces the critical mass with a stronger collapse than chemicals can achieve, or by using a different isotope.

References:

55 Inertial Confinement Nuclear Engine
Alternate Names: Microfusion Engine

Type: Atomic particles by Fission or Fusion Reactor

Description: There are two major methods being pursued for fusion power. Magnetic confinement holds a hot plasma in a more or less steady state long enough for fusion reactions to produce net power. Inertial methods use lasers or particle beams to compress a fuel pellet to high pressure and temperature such that the fusion reaction happens very fast, after which it rapidly expands. Both methods can be applied to space propulsion. Magnetic confinement was addressed at Fusion Heated Plasma Engine, and this method addresses Inertial confinement.

A fuel pellet consists of a fusion core material, such as a Deuterium/Tritium mix, surrounded by a liner to optimally absorb the laser or particle beam energy. Optionally a fission shell surrounds the fusion core. This is similar to the arrangement of a fusion atomic bomb. Alternately particle beams can consist of fissionable heavy ions or fusible light element ions, or even highly accelerated solid pellets of inert or reactive fuels. The end result in all cases is a rapidly expanding cloud of highly energetic particles. These are directed by a shaped magnetic field or pusher plate to produce thrust. Thrust can be varied by how often you generate the explosions.

Status: Inertial confinement fusion is being researched for power generation. A chemical implosion is also the method by which most nuclear bombs are set off.

Variations: Multiple variations are possible by combining:

 * Compression sources: laser, particle/ion beams, or solid pellets,
 * Type of central target: none in the case of colliding pellets, fission and/or fusion fuel ingredients,
 * Type of pellet liner: none or what material, and
 * Thrust method: physical or magnetic nozzle

References:

56 Alpha Particle Emitter
Alternate Names:

Type: Atomic Particles by Radioactive Decay

Description: A radioactive element coats one side of a thin sheet which is capable of absorbing alpha particles. The particles emitted into the sheet are absorbed, while the particles emitted in the opposite direction escape, providing net thrust. Advantages are this is a simple device, and heating of the sheet can produce power as a side effect via thermoelectric or heat engine. Disadvantages are low thrust, and you cannot turn off radioactivity. You would have to close two plates so they face each other to neutralize thrust, and open them like a book to turn the thrust on.

Status: Alpha emitters are well known. Using them for propulsion is theoretical so far.

Variations: Choice of radioactive material allows a wide range thrust levels.

References:

57 Fission Fragment Engine
Alternate Names:

Type: Atomic Particles by Fission Reactor

Description: Thin wires containing fissionable material are arranged to allow the nuclear fragments from the fission to escape. They are allowed to decay naturally for low thrust devices, or arranged in a nuclear critical arrangement for high thrust. The fragments are aimed by electrostatic or electromagnetic fields to mostly go out the back end of the thruster. The performance is very high because of the high speed of the fragments. The fission decay tends to damage whatever the wires are made of, so provision for replacing or reforming the wires would be needed for long term use.

Status: Currently theoretical only.

Variations:

 * 57a Antimatter Sail - Antiprotons are directed at a sail coated with fissionable material such as Uranium. Their negative charge allows them to be captured in the electron shell of the atoms, and then causes fission by annihilation with one of the nuclear protons.  One fission fragment is absorbed by the sail, while the other moves away at several percent of the speed of light, generating thrust.

References:

 * Dusty Plasma Based Fission Fragment Nuclear Reactor Clark and Sheldon, Joint Propulsion Conference, 2005.

58 Pure Fusion Engine
Alternate Names:

Type: Atomic Particles by Fusion Reactor

Description: Various thermonuclear fusion reactors have been proposed. The results of a fusion reaction are high energy particles which can, in principle, be harnessed for propulsion. This differs from 52 Fusion Heated Plasma Engine in that no additional fuel is added beyond the fusion reactants. Instead the high temperature plasma or escaping charged particles are used directly as rocket exhaust. Since a break even fusion reaction has not been achieved as of yet, this remains a theoretical concept.

The actual method of containing the fusion plasma will influence the design of the rocket and its feasibility, in particular the mass of the device. A tokamak or stellarator plasma containment device would present the largest problems in siphoning off plasma for propulsion and their large weight would lead to an uninspiring thrust to mass ratio. Inertial confinement fusion using high power lasers or x-rays on small targets would probably be easier to build into a propulsion device, however the enormous size of the lasers and x-ray generators of current internal fusion projects would lead to the same problem with the thrust to mass ratio.

Status: Significant research is in progress for fusion in general. Applications to space propulsion are theoretical. Besides the large funding for magnetic and inertial confinement fusion, there are several alternate approaches that have lower funding levels.

Variations:

 * 58a Magnetic Confinement - Plasma in a chamber similar to a tokamak fusion power reactor is intentionally leaked to a magnetic nozzle.
 * 58b Inertial Confinement - The fuel pellet is heated and compressed by lasers, electron beam, or ion beam. After fusing, the resulting plasma is directed by a magnetic nozzle.
 * 58c Electrostatic Confinement - The fusion fuel is confined by a spherical potential well of order 100 kV. When the fuel reacts, the particles are ejected with energy of order 2 MeV, so escape the potential well. The potential well is at the focus of a paraboloidal shell, which reflects the fusion particles to the rear in a narrow beam (20-30 degree width).
 * 58d Plasma Mantle Confinement - The fusion fuel is contained in a toroidal/poloidal current pattern, similar to a Tokamak except all the currents are in the plasma. The current pattern is surrounded by a plasma sheath which isolates the fuel from a surrounding working fluid. The fluid provides mechanical compression, which heats the fuel to fusion ignition. After the fuel burn is completed, the energy generated heats the working fluid to high temperature, which then goes out a nozzle producing thrust.
 * 58e Dense Plasma Focus - A high current discharge in a radial arrangement causes the plasma to collapse to high temperature and pressure. This is being developed by Lawrenceville Plasma Physics in Middlesex, New Jersey.  This device has a reported fusion energy of 0.044 Joules vs capacitor energy of 50 kJoules.  The output vs input energy ratio is a measure of how close the device is to practical operation.
 * 58f Magnetized Target Fusion - Colliding plasma balls are further compressed by acoustic shock waves generated by mechanical drivers. General Fusion near Vancouver, Canada is researching this method.

References:

 * Freeman, M. "Two Days to Mars with Fusion Propulsion", 21st Century Science and Technology, vol 1, pp 26-31, Mar.-Apr. 1988.
 * Kammash, T.; Galbraith, D. L. "A Fusion-Driven Rocket Propulsion Scheme for Space Exploration", Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. vol 54 pp 118-9, 1987.
 * Mitchell, H. M.; Cooper, R. F.; Verga, R. L. "Controlled Fusion for Space Propulsion. Report for April 1961-June 1962", US Air Force report number AD-408118/8/XAB, April, 1963.

 * Inertial Confinement

 * Kammash, T.; Galbraith, D. L. "A Fusion Reactor for Space Applications", Fusion Technology, v. 12 no. 1 pp 11-21, July 1987.
 * Orth, C. D. et al "Interplanetary Propulsion using Inertial Fusion", report number UCRL--95275-Rev. 1: 4th Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems, Albequerque, New Mexico, 12 January 1987.
 * Hyde, Roderick, "A Laser Fusion Rocket for Interplanetary Propulsion", LLNL report UCRL-88857. Topics include:
 * - Fusion Pellet design: Fuel selection. Energy loss mechanisms. Pellet compression metrics.
 * - Thrust Chamber: Magnetic nozzle. Shielding. Tritium breeding. Thermal modeling. Fusion Driver (lasers, particle beams, etc): Heat rejection.
 * - Vehicle Summary: Mass estimates.
 * - Vehicle Performance: Interstellar travel required exhaust velocities at the limit of fusion's capability. Interplanetary missions are limited by power/weight ratio. Trajectory modeling. Typical mission profiles. References, including the 1978 report in JBIS, "Project Daedalus", and several on ICF and driver technology.

 * Bussard, Robert W., "Fusion as Electric Propulsion", Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 6, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1990. Abstract: Fusion rocket engines are analyzed as electric propulsion systems, with propulsion thrust- power-input-power ratio (the thrust-power "gain" G(t)) much greater than unity. Gain values of conventional (solar, fission) electric propulsion systems are always quite small (e.g., G(t)<0.8). With these, "high-thrust" interplanetary flight is not possible, because system acceleration (a(t)) capabilities are always less than the local gravitational acceleration. In contrast, gain values 50-100 times higher are found for some fusion concepts, which offer "high-thrust" flight capability. One performance example shows a 53.3 day (34.4 powered; 18.9 coast), one-way transit time with 19% payload for a single-stage Earth/Mars vehicle. Another shows the potential for high acceleration (a(t)=0.55g(o)) flight in Earth/moon space.)
 * Electrostatic Confinement

 * Bussard, Robert W., "The QED Engine System: Direct Electric Fusion-Powered Systems for Aerospace Flight Propulsion" by Robert W. Bussard, EMC2-1190-03, available from Energy/Matter Conversion Corp., 9100 A. Center Street, Manassas, VA 22110. Summary: This is an introduction to the application of Bussard's version of the Farnsworth/Hirsch electrostatic confinement fusion technology to propulsion. 1500<Isp<5000 sec. Farnsworth/Hirsch demonstrated a 10**10 neutron flux with their device back in 1969.

 * Plasma Mantle Confinement

 * Koloc, Paul M., "PLASMAKtm Star Power for Energy Intensive Space Applications", Eighth ANS Topical Meeting on Technology of Fusion Energy, Fusion Technology, March 1989.

This note is 20 years old and needs updating: Aneutronic energy (fusion with little or negligible neutron flux) requires plasma pressures and stable confinement times larger than can be delivered by current approaches. If plasma pressures appropriate to burn times on the order of milliseconds could be achieved in aneutronic fuels, then high power densities and very compact, relatively clean burning engines for space and other special applications would be at hand. The PLASMAKª innovation will make this possible; its unique pressure efficient structure, exceptional stability, fluid-mechanically compressible Mantle and direct inductive MHD electric power conversion advantages are described. Peak burn densities of tens of megawats per cc give it compactness even in the multi-gigawatt electric output size. Engineering advantages indicate a rapid development schedule at very modest cost. (I strongly recommend that people take this guy seriously. Bob Hirsch, the primary proponent of the Tokamak, has recently declared Koloc's PLASMAKª precursor, the spheromak, to be one of 3 promising fusion technologies that should be pursued rather than Tokamak. Aside from the preceeding appeal to authority, the PLASMAKª looks like it finally models ball-lightning with solid MHD physics. -- Jim Bowery)

 * Dense Plasma Focus

 * Lerner, Eric et al, Fusion Reactions from >150 keV Ions, Physics of Plasmas, v 19 issue 3, March 2012.

59 Neutral Particle Beam Thruster
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: A high energy (order 50 MeV) particle accelerator generates a proton beam. This beam is neutralized (combined with electrons to make neutral atoms), then ejected. The exhaust is moving at a substantial fraction of the speed of light, so performance is very high. This type of machine was explored under the US missile defense program as a way of destroying missiles (with the beam). The energy required for space propulsion with this method exceeds the energy available from nuclear fusion, so it only makes sense with antimatter or external power sources such as a laser.

Status: Particle accelerators of this energy have existed since the mid-20th century. What limits this method is lack of a power supply, so it remains untested.

Variations:

 * 59a Near Lightspeed Probe - If the particle accelerator produces very high energy protons, such that relativistic mass increase is significant, and the power source is a very powerful laser located at the origin star, and focused using the star as a gravitational lens, the rocket equation no longer constrains the final velocity. Velocities close to the speed of light would be possible, and stopping would be possible by pointing the accelerator in the opposite direction.  Acceleration in this case is limited by the power to mass ratio of the power conversion and particle accelerator hardware.

References:

60 Antimatter Annihilation
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: Atoms and anti-atoms (or their constituent particles) annihilate, producing pions, then muons, then gamma rays. The charged particles can be acted upon by a magnetic nozzle. The gamma rays can be absorbed by a container, and the resulting heat used to supply power. Antimatter provides the highest theoretical energy fuel (100% matter to energy conversion), although the overhead involved with storing antimatter may reduce the practical efficiency to a level comparable to other propulsion methods.

Status: Small amounts of antimatter have been created and temporarily stored at particle accelerator labs. At present, antimatter is not thought to exist naturally in large quantities.

Variations:

 * Wikipedia article: Redshift Rocket

References:

 * Forward, Dr. Robert L. Antiproton Annihilation Propulsion, AFRPL TR-85-034 from the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory (AFRPL/XRX, Stop 24, Edwards Air Force Base, CA 93523-5000). NTIS AD-A160 734/0 Note: This is a technical study on making, holding, and using antimatter for near-term (30-50 years) propulsion systems. Excellent bibliography. Forward is the best-known proponent of antimatter. This also may be available as UDR-TR-85-55 from the contractor, the University of Dayton Research Institute, and DTIC AD-A160 from the Defense Technical Information Center, Defense Logistics Agency, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA 22304-6145. And it's also available from the NTIS, with yet another number.
 * G. D. Nordley, Application of Antimatter - Electric Power to Interstellar Propulsion, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, June 1990.

61 Magsail
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: The magsail operates by placing a large superconducting loop in the solar wind or planetary ion stream. The current loop produces a magnetic field that deflects the ions, producing a reaction force. Because of the large area covered by the loop, which is mostly empty, it can develop a relatively large force for a given mass. It is limited in direction and strength by the local solar wind or ion flow.

Status: Magnetic field interaction with an ion stream is well understood. Practicality of this method depends on an efficient enough design. Has not been tested as of 2012.

Variations:

References:

62 External Particle Beam
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: A remote particle beam source aims it at a target vehicle. The particles are either absorbed or reflected to generate thrust directly, or their kinetic energy is used as a power source for some other type of propulsion. The major issue is keeping the beam narrow enough to be a useful energy transfer method.

Status: Untested as of 2012

Variations:

References:

63 Interstellar Ramjet
Alternate Names: Bussard Ramjet

Type:

Description: A large funnel or inlet is used to compress interstellar gas, which is then fed to a fusion reactor for propulsion. Because of the low density of the interstellar medium, an extraordinarily large scoop is required to get any useful thrust. Performance is limited by the exhaust velocity of the fusion reaction to a few percent of the speed of light. In other words, collecting the gas causes drag, and at the exhaust velocity of the reactor there will be no net thrust. This makes the system an efficient decelerator by pointing the exhaust forward. In that case the drag and reverse thrust both act to slow the vehicle. Variable density of interstellar gas affects the viability of this method. By running the reactor partly off of internal fuel, this type of vehicle can be brought to high enough velocity for the collector to start to function, and then to go to higher velocities. By having the reactor use less fuel than collected, it can be self-refueling.

Status: Although the concept dates back to 1960, it is untested due to a lack of practical fusion reactors.

Variations:

References:

[D77] R. W. Bussard, "Galactic Matter and Interstellar Flight", Astronautica Acta 6 (1960): 179 - 194.

[D78] A. R. Martin, "The Effects of Drag on Relativistic Spacefight", JBIS 25 (1972):643-652

[D79] N. H. Langston, "The Erosion of Interstellar Drag Screens", JBIS 26 (1973): 481-484.

[D80] D.P. Whitmire, "Relativistic Spaceflight and the Catalytic Nuclear Ramjet", Acta Astronautica 2 (1975): 497 - 509.

[D80] C. Powell, "Flight Dynamics of the Ram-Augmented Interstellar Rocket", JBIS 28 (1975):553-562

[D81] D.P. Whitmire and A.A. Jackson, "Laser Powered Interstellar Ramjet", JBIS 30 (1977):223 - 226.

[D82] G. L. Matloff and A. J. Fennelly, "Interstellar Applications and Limitations of Several Electrostatic/Electromagnetic Ion Collection Techniques", JBIS 30 (1977):213-222

64 Interstellar Scramjet
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: Similar to the interstellar ramjet, the interstellar medium is compressed to fusion density and temperature. In this concept it is only compressed laterally, then re-expanded against a nozzle. Incredible vehicle sizes and lengths are required to reach fusion conditions, but since lateral compression does not cause as much drag as full compression, it is not limited by the exhaust velocity. Thus speed may reach a substantial fraction of the speed of light.

Status:

Variations:

References:

65 External Fuel Supply
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: Any propulsion system which stores all it's fuel at the start has an exponential fuel requirement as a function of velocity. If added fuel is delivered by a particle or pellet stream, either from behind or positioned ahead, that exponential requirement is turned into a linear one. This is because at each point the vehicle is only accelerating itself (plus a small amount of fuel), instead of the vehicle plus all the fuel for the entire mission. In the latter case you are using fuel early to accelerate fuel for later, which causes the exponential overhead.

Status:

Variations: Lots of variations are possible in terms of what fuel is delivered, and if it is formed into a particle stream, discrete pellets, or container tanks of fuel. Incidentally this can also be used for other types of supplies than fuel, but that belongs in the Engineering Methods section.

References:


text:
Space Transport and Engineering Methods/Reference Data

Aerodynamics

 * US Air Force Stability and Control Data Compendium - Starting in the 1920's, the US Air Force collected data for predicting the aerodynamic behavior of aircraft. This link is to the 1978 text version of the compiled data, known as the USAF DATCOM, which is a 3134 page, 113 MB .pdf file. Since then, versions of the data and formulas have been compiled into software modules, which can be run by themselves, or linked into more comprehensive airplane design software.

 * US Standard Atmosphere 1976 - This book gives information and tables describing composition, pressure, temperature, and other properties of the Earth's atmosphere under "standard" conditions. The actual atmosphere varies from these standard conditions due to weather, the solar cycle, and secular changes such as increasing CO2 concentration.  The reference data is still useful for doing calculations, and formulas based on this data have been incorporated into software programs and modules within programs.

Solid Core NTR Development
McDonnell Douglas has a long association with nuclear propulsion, beginning with nuclear aircraft propulsion studies in the mid-1950s. . Additional work includes NERVA nuclear vehicle interplanetary flight studies, and solid core vehicle integration studies under contract to NASA in the 1960s. In 1971 studies were conducted on a Shuttle-launched Nuclear Shuttle System, which used the PEEWEE reactor.

In 1972 LANL undertook a study of a small nuclear engine using NERVA technology and based on the PEEWEE reactor design, that could be used in the newly designed NASA Space Shuttle. This engine would have weighed 2,555 Kg, using composite UC-ZrC-C fuel, with other parameters including the following:

 * Total Operating Period hours 2 1
 * Operating Cycles 20 3
 * Specific Impulse seconds 860 875
 * Thrust kN 71.6 73.0
 * Hydrogen Flow kg/sec 8.5 8.5
 * Thermal Power MWt 354 367

Various other NERVA-derived propulsion concepts were considered, and LANL evaluated a range of mission applications. For instance, it was concluded that a nuclear-propelled orbital transfer vehicle could significantly reduce propellant launch requirements, based on mission models that envisioned from 145 to 872 Orbital Transfer Vehicle flights. The authors concluded that developments in non-nuclear nozzle and turbo-pump technology in the Space Shuttle Main Engine program have enhanced the viability of NERVA derived engines.

LANL mission analyses have identified significant reductions in Initial Mass in Low Earth Orbit (IMLEO) through the use of NERVA technology:

The costs of developing a flight-ready nuclear rocket was estimated to be $4-5 billion, which included the cost of rebuilding the 1960s NERVA capability, which was estimated to include:

This analysis also considered issues associated with testing, noting that:

"The major obstacle to testing at NTS will be the reduced levels of radioactive debris which are allowed to transport into the public domain. The levels are more stringent than those present during the NERVA program. The current exposure limits of 150 m Rem to civilian personnel may restrict the tests of the NTR to low power levels and mass flows in the reactor... A simple solution to this problem may be to utilize one of the Pacific Ocean Islands owned by the United States -- namely Johnston Island... (an) ecological desert of ocean surrounds the area due to the stagnation of the return of the Japanese current..."

ANL Cermet Program

From 1961 through 1967 Argonne National Laboratory conducted a development program for nuclear rocket fuel elements independently of the Rover/NERVA program. Although no engines were fabricated or tested, extensive work was conducted on testing ceramic fuel configurations. Thermal shock tests suggested that these cermet fuels could have substantial tolerance to the effects of nuclear excursions. This program was terminated in 1967, prior to its completion.

Evaluation

Two major problems were identified during the Rover/NERVA program:

Core disassembly due to vibration, accompanied by cracking of the fuel matrix and loss of material into the propellant flow;

Loss of fuel matrix uranium and carbon due to coating erosion and cracking, and through diffusion through the coating.

The first problem was resolved by changed designs which reduced vibration and matrix cracking.

However, the second problem, of fuel element corrosion, proved less tractable:

"Corrosion was most pronounced in the mid-range region, about a third of the distance from the cold end of the fuel element. Fuel operating temperatures were lower here than the fabrication temperatures, hence thermal stresses were higher than at the hot end. Also, the neutron flux was highest in this region..."

"No fuel element geometry or fuel material ever totally solved the NERVA fuel element degradation problem. Mass loss of both uranium and carbon continued to limit service life by causing significant perturbation to core neutronics during the tests. Crack development in the fuel element coating was never completely eliminated.... Non-nuclear testing of coated fuel elements revealed an Arrhenius relationship between diffusion and temperature. For every 205 K increase in temperature (in the range 2400 to 2700 K), the mass loss increased by a factor of ten... resulting in loss of 20% of total uranium in approximately 5 hours of testing at 2870 K."

A number of other program management lessons emerged from this period. One analysis notes that:

"One overriding lesson from the NERVA program is that fuel and core development should not be tied simply to a series of engine tests which require expensive nuclear operation. Definitive techniques for fuel evaluation in loops or in non-nuclear heated devices should be developed early and used throughout the program..."

Solid Core NTR Tests
The initial series of nuclear rocket tests was conducted by Los Alamos National Laboratory, under the KIWI program, which eventually cost $177 million (in then year dollars).

Graphite was chosen as the internal structural material for these nuclear reactors for several reasons. It has excellent strength at high temperatures and its strength actually increases at higher temperatures. In addition, in contrast to metals which are strong neutron absorbers, graphite acts as a moderator, reducing the amount of enriched uranium required in the core. The great disadvantage of graphite, however, is that it quickly erodes in the presence of hot hydrogen. While this erosion cannot be eliminated, techniques are available to reduce erosion to acceptable levels over the operating lifetime of the reactor, which is measured in minutes to hours.

Westinghouse was the prime contractor for the reactor component of the NERVA program, while Aerojet was the contractor for engine elements such as pumps and nozzles. The NERVA program resulted in an investment of $662 million (then-year dollars) for development and testing of flight engine prototypes.

The first nuclear rocket test, conducted in July 1959, used uncoated UO2 plates as fuel elements. This test reached a maximum temperature of 2683 K and a power level of 70 MWt. Vibrations during operations produced significant structural damage in the reactor core.

The first nuclear reactor tested, KIWI-A, successfully demonstrated the principle of nuclear rockets, but it used unclad fuel plates that were not representative of later tests.

 * KIWI A test : This test, conducted in July 1959, incorporated significant modifications in the core design used in KIWI A. The fuel consisted of short cylindrical Uranium Oxide elements in graphite modules, with four axial channels coated with Niobium Carbide using chemical vapor deposition. The reactor ran for 6 minutes at power levels as high as 85 MWt.

 * KIWI-A prime : tested in 1960, replaced the fuel plates with NbC plated graphite modules with 4 micron diameter UO2 particles embedded in the graphite matrix. However, some structural damage occurred in this improved design during its 6 minute test.

 * KIWI A3 : The subsequent KIWI-A3 reactor used a higher temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition process, resulting in a thicker NbC coat with improved adherence. Some core damage occurred during the 5 minute test in October 1959, which reached power levels of 100 MWt, with some fuel elements showing blistering and corrosion. Generally this reactor test was considered successful.

 * KIWI B1A : Using the same UO2 fuel as KIWI A3, the fuel element design was changed to a 7 channel configuration 66 cm long, with niobium carbide coatings. The December 1961 test, which was intended to reach 1100 MWt, only reached 300 MWt, and was terminated after 30 seconds due to a fire caused by a hydrogen leak in the reactor exhaust nozzle.

 * KIWI B1B : This September 1962 test, which was essentially a repeat of the KIWI B1A test, achieved a power level of 900 MWT, but was terminated within a few seconds when several fuel elements were ejected from the reactor exhaust nozzle.

 * KIWI B2 : Design configuration not tested.

 * KIWI B3 :Design configuration not tested.

 * KIWI B4A : This reactor incorporated substantial redesigns based on the failure of the KIWI B1B configuration. The fuel elements were fully extruded hexagonal graphite blocks 1.32 meters long and 19 millimetres in diameter, with 19 cooling channels, each 2.3 millimetres in diameter. However, the test run in November 1962 was terminated when bright flashes in the exhaust stream indicated vibration induced damage to the core was leading to its disintegration.

 * KIWI B4B : Design configuration not tested.

 * KIWI B4C : Design configuration not tested.

 * KIWI B4D : Although modifications in the design of this reactor eliminated the vibration which had marred previous tests, the May 1964 test was terminated after about 60 seconds at full power due to the rupture of a nozzle cooling tube.

 * KIWI B4E : This reactor was the first to use coated Uranium Carbide (UC2) fuel, in place of the Uranium Oxide (UO2) fuel previously used. To avoid oxidation of the Carbide fuel, it the uranium fuel particles were coated with a 25 micron layer of pyrolytic graphite which exuded water vapor. This pyrolytic carbon layer subsequently was also used to enhance fission product retention, though this was not initially its purpose. This reactor was operated for 12 minutes, including 8 at full power. The duration of the test was limited by the available liquid hydrogen storage capability.

 * KIWI TNT : This KIWI-B type reactor was deliberately destroyed on January 1965 by subjecting it to a fast excursion. This test was intended to confirm theoretical models of transient behaviour.

 * Phoebus 1A : This first test of a new class of reactors on June 1965 included over 10 minutes of operations at 1090 MWt, with an exhaust temperature of 2370 K.

 * Phoebus 1B : This February 1967 test built on the previous Phoebus 1A test, reaching power levels of 1500 MWt for 30 minutes, with an additional 15 minutes at lower power levels.

 * Phoebus 2A : The most powerful nuclear reactor of any type ever constructed, with a design power level of 5,000 MWt. Operations in June 1968 were limited to 4,000 MWt dur to premature overheating of aluminium segments of pressure vessel clamps. At total of 12.5 minutes of operations at temperatures of up to 2310 K included intermediate power level operations and reactor restart.

 * PEWEE : This small reactor was intended to be a reactor testbed, incorporating Zirconium Carbide coatings on some fuel elements, instead of the Niobium Carbide used on Phoebus. With a peak operating power of 503 MWt at 2550 K, it achieved new levels of core power density (2340 MWt/m3 average and 5200 MWt/m3 peak), demonstrating a specific impulse of 845 seconds.

 * Nuclear Furnace 1 : The final phase of NERVA fuel development was the Nuclear Furnace (NF-1) reactor, a heterogeneous water-moderated beryllium-reflected reactor for high-temperature nuclear testing of fuel elements and other components. 47 of the 49 fuel elements used Uranium Carbide and Zirconium Carbide Carbon composite fuel, while the remaining 2 fuel elements used Uranium-Zirconium Carbide. Tests in 1972 of composite fuel elements with various carbide contents, thermal expansion coefficients, and thermal stress resistance demonstrated that minimizing the mismatch in thermal expansion coefficient between the fuel and coating would reduce coating cracking and carbon erosion. With a peak operating power of 44 MWt at 2500 K, it achieved new levels of core power density (4500 to 5000 MWt/m3).

The Nuclear Furnace test facility included provisions for remote controlled replacement of core elements, as well as a reactor effluent scrubber system to remove radioactive contaminants from the propellant exhaust.

 * Nuclear Furnace 2 : This reactor was built but not tested, due to the cancellation of all work in this area in 1972. The goals of this experiment included testing of a novel coated particle fuel, using a graphite fuel matrix with a coefficient of thermal expansion closely matched to that of the coating, to reduce thermal stress and cracking.

 * NRX-A1

 * NRX-A2 : This September 1964 engine test included 5 minutes of operation at half to full power levels. Duration of the test was limited by available hydrogen storage capacity. At full power of 1100 MWt the engine demonstrated a specific impulse of 760 seconds.

 * NRX-A3 : This April 1965 test operated for 8 minutes, including 3.5 minutes at full power. The first test was terminated by a spurious trip from the turbine overspeed circuit. The reactor was restarted on May 1965, and operated at full power for 13 minutes, and subsequently restarted for low to medium power operations for an additional 45 minutes. In total, 66 minutes of operations were accumulated, including 16.5 minutes at full power.

 * NRX-EST : This engine operated for a total of 110 minutes, including 28 minutes at full power of 1100-1200 MWt, on five different days in February 1966.

 * NRX-A5 : This 1100 MWt engine was operated in June 1966 for 30 minutes at full power, with the test duration limited by available hydrogen storage capacity.

 * NRX-A6 : This 1100 MWt engine was operated in December 1967 for 60 minutes at full power, exceeding the NERVA design goal.

 * XECF

 * XE' : This 1100 MWt engine was a prototype engine, the first to operated in a downward firing position. It accumulated a total of 28 start cycles in March 1968 for a total of 115 minutes of operations. Test stand coolant water storage capacity limited each full power test to about 10 minutes.


text:
Talk:Space Transport and Engineering Methods/Reference Data

If a type of propulsion involves nuclear fission (for electricity or for a source of thermal energy) or radioactive decay (for thermal energy), if probably should be placed under this chapter. However, if it involves nuclear fusion or antimatter, it probably should be placed under Advanced Rocket Propulsion Concepts. Cshank

Edit History
Text in the section Rocket Propulsion/Nuclear Rocket Propulsion on this page was copied from Rocket Propulsion/Temporary on September 6, 2006. Please see that page for the edit history before that date. Thenub314 (talk) 10:24, 13 August 2009 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Djb

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title: User talk:Djb


text:
Talk:Dog Care/Training

Rename Project
The project Basic Dog Training, which seems quite stalled, should be renamed to Positive Only Basic Dog Training. It advocates a specific point of view, that of Positive Trainers. Wiki guidelines specify a NEUTRAL, unbiased POV. For a title such as BASIC dog training, it clearly contradicts the guidelines.

Move and NPOV
I have merged this article into the main dog care book. However, it was previously a separate book advocating positive dog training, so a section on punishing dogs needs to be introduced. PCU123456789 (talk) 20:13, 27 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Modern Behaviorists and behavior based trainers greatly dispute the meaning and need for punishment. Recent studies indicate that for basic family pets, Positive Reinforcement training is superior to other kinds of punishment based training, due to the fewer negative side effects.

—The preceding unsigned comment was added by Renodogmom (talk • contribs) 05:46, July 6, 2007.

 * That is fine, but unless Positive Only Training is a consensus, Punishment should be covered for the sake of NPOV. The reader should then be provided with information to decide for himself/herself which approach to take. Anyway, I'd feel better if people are punishing animals in a "proper" way instead of deciding for themselves how to do it. 189.34.39.153 (talk) 13:54, 10 August 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dog Care/Training


text:
Cookbook:Spelt Yellow Cake

| United States | Dessert | Cake

A recipe for a spelt cake, an ancient-wheat alternative to yellow cake.

Ingredients

 * 1 teaspoon vanilla
 * 1 cup (240 g) butter
 * 1 cup (240 ml) milk
 * 2 cups (450 g) white granulated sugar
 * 3 cups (650 g) spelt flour
 * 3 teaspoons baking powder
 * 3 pinches salt
 * 4 eggs

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 175°C (350°F).
 * 2) Cream the butter and sugar together until fluffy.
 * 3) Beat in the eggs.
 * 4) Mix in vanilla.
 * 5) Gradually sift in the dry ingredients, alternating with small additions of the milk.
 * 6) Transfer to a greased and floured baking pan.
 * 7) Bake at 175°C (350°F), until a skewer inserted shows no moist crumbs; approximately 30 minutes.

title: Cookbook:Spelt Yellow Cake


text:
Cookbook talk:Spelt Yellow Cake

Spelt as alternate ingredient to wheat
Hi. I'm new to the cookbooks area, so please forgive me if Spelt Yellow Cake does not belong in this cookbook. I obviously copied it from Cookbook:1-2-3-4 Cake. Is there some convention here for showing alternate ingredients in recipes? Rodasmith 06:23, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Spelt Yellow Cake


text:
Talk:Wings 3D

What's the connection between Blender and Wings 3D ?
David - What particular aspect of reading about Blender is going to help a Wings user (esp. a noob) better get to grips with using Wings?

Whilst it's acknowledged that Blender is a darned good app. (I know of quite a few Wings users that also use it) - I doubt that even they would suggest there's a lot of similarity with GUI / workflow etc.

Rather than being on the front page, I'd have thought this was better located in a more general 'Useful links' type of place - or apps to try / use for features that wings doesn't have eg Animation / rendering etc?

pp

(I realise you've cross-referenced these 2 apps - and I'd suggest the same comments are valid the other way round?)

btw - if this seems a negative comment, ie what not to have here, under 'Further reading' - I'd have thought pointers to material about aspects of modelling / edgeloops / techniques etc would be more appropriate - ie stuff that might answer queries / help someone getting to grips with what it's all about ...

''If you want to rename that section "useful links", that's fine with me. (Or is there another one I overlooked?)'' ''As you know, the table of contents of a wikibooks links "deeper" to pages with more detail. But sometimes search engines send people to a page deep in the middle of a wikibook. Imagine that I stumble upon a page in the middle of the Wings 3D book and I think it's great. Do you think I would like to know about the existence of the rest of the book? Of course I would, so I find the link "up" to the table of contents useful.''

I feel it is very important that every page link "up".

''Some books have heavily nested content, so I have to go "up" a few times to get from a page, to a section summary, to the title page. I think it's useful to keep going "up", so I can find out not just about closely-related pages, but also closely related books.'' ''Is there any wikibook more closely related to this Wings 3D book than the Blender book? --DavidCary 21:03, 16 January 2006 (UTC)''

edit link

 * 1) 2 - What's the purpose of the link bringing the reader back to the page that they're reading the link on? (or at least the edit box for same)

You're talking about the  link on the right side? It's a "feature" of the software used by wikibooks.org . It looks pretty silly on this page. ''It's more useful on really long pages like Staff_lounge. Those links helps people add a comment to just the one section they are interested in, without having to scroll through the whole thing in the edit window, or worrying about accidentally messing up some other section. --DavidCary 21:03, 16 January 2006 (UTC)''

title: Talk:Wings 3D


text:
Talk:Movie Making Manual

RE: General points
Hey TP again here!

First of all, a sincere and absolute thanks to all the people who has contributed to this book.

I know it might seem arrogant to show up out of nowhere and critisize the structure, and please take it for what it is. Just another opinion! Believe it or not, im just trying to be helpful in the spirit of the wikipeople.

Just a short comment to your points.

1 & 2 # I agree. I will time stamp this one, and future comments.

3 # I Agree.

4 # You are right about information being duplicated. But I was thinking of a set of crossreferences. I.ex: a pitching article, would apply to producers, screenwriters and directors. One could simply have the same article linked to several places. And add links under the article to whatever other areas it touches on. I believe this can be achieved using categories.

4b # Changing the structure of the book, you are right it would be a huge job. And it would'nt look very good while it was implemented and experimented forth.

What about starting with making categories for the different work fields? And inserting the appropriate articles there? It would not interfere with the rest of the book.

Kind regards

- TP

--TP81 17:43, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

General points
Hi, I'm Jack - one of the people who set up the MMM. I'd like to make some general points to the comments below:

 * 1) It's great that this book is gaining momentum - thanks loads to everyone getting involved!
 * 2) Please PLEASE sign and date-stamp your comments!
 * 3) I agree that this book should be readable by noobs.  But I also feel very strongly that this book should aim to satisfy the needs of both the noob and the practicing professional.  And I believe that _is_ possible - we just need good introductory chapters to help frame the more complex stuff.  And, to be honest, the web is already full of material that caters for noob filmmakers.
 * 4) The structure of the book aims to reflect the structure of a film production.  The problem with having "for directors" or "for producers" section is that lots of material would end up getting duplicated.  For example, pretty much everyone on a film production needs to know the basics of cinematography, for example.  Also, changing the structure of the book would be a big, BIG job - you'd have to change every single page title, every category name, every link etc.

dan_aka_jack 11:46, 22 November 2006 (UTC)

Structure of the whole book
I find the whole structure of this book somewhat confusing. And as I see it, the better the structure, it will be more useful and one would also get more input, and the better the book! So from my point of view this is very important. One has to think of the users. Probably many are beginning filmmakers like me, and it is called the Movie Making Manual.

I would like to suggest a break down of the articles along the following lines:

1. For directors. Here I would put all material concerning the artistic choices while making a film, as well as a description of the directors usual role in the process. Actors, film techiques, film theory, film language, locations etc. Ofcourse bordering subjects like stories and scriptwriting must also be here, in addition to the other categories.

2. For producers. Description of the producers role, budgeting, organizing etc etc.

3. Cinematographers. Techiques, looks, light and cameras, etc.

4. Scriptwriters. Scriptwriting, survinging, selling, pitching, copyrighting, organizations etc.

5. Sound and sound design. Techical and artistic information

6. Editing. Theory and practicalities.

7. Other functions: need its own submenu. Lights, set design, props, AD'ing! and so forth.

8. Film theory: The basis

This is the approach most film schools work from, and I personally think they might be right. It would also be good to have colored blocks with this on the front page. I honestly think this would increase the readability and usefulness of the book. My only question is whether there is enough content yet for such a structure.

So whats your opinions?

Regards

TP.

(And what are the rules about linking to wikipedias many good articles regarding film and filmmaking? Can we simply steal them?) (I would also wish upon a stronger emphasis on making short films, as in reality, most people who make features, or are making their first, know most of the stuff here. Through making short films!)

Movie Making Manual Formatting
Hi, I've got a few suggestions how to make the Movie Making Manual easier to read: Feedback, Suggestions? Cramer 10:38, 16 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Make the colorful banners half their current size to streamline the layout, they will still stand out enough, but currently they overwhelm the page
 * Categories like Category:Writing_movies are difficult to read because all articles start with "Movie Making Manual-" or "MMM/". How about naming each article so that it can stand on its own (no more "MMM" and "Movie Making Manual-" in article titles), and use the top navigation and categorization features to bind them all together?

 * Hi Cramer. Thanks loads for your feedback.  You're right, the MMM is in a bit of a mess.  To answer your two suggestions:
 * Banners: I certainly don't mind if you modify them, sounds like a good idea. Cauri is the guy who designed the banners but I'm not sure whether or not he's got the time to contribute to the MMM at the moment.
 * Page Naming. Yes, it's in a bit of a mess. First off, category names of the form Category:Writing_movies are depreciated because they violate the WikiBooks naming convention... instead we're slowly switching over to category names of the form Category:MMM:writing (i.e. prefixing the category names with MMM).  I'd love to find a way to strip away all the uglyness from the page names but I'm not sure it's allowed (unless you know of some cool new MediaWiki feature I don't know about?).  The page names of the form MMM-Page Name are now depreciated and we're slowly moving over to MMM/Chapter/Page Name.  I'm a big fan of the forward-slash system because it puts breadcrumb trails at the top of each page which helps navigation.  I'm pretty sure we're obliged by the WikiBooks naming convention to include the book name in every page title.  As far as I'm aware, the only way to have an entire book that has "clean" page titles like "Page Title" would be to install and run our own wiki.  Take a look at MMM/Preface/How You Can Help for more detailed info about our existing naming system.
 * dan_aka_jack 17:03, 19 January 2006 (UTC)
 * I would like to see (all of?) the modules for the Movie Making Manual be subpages of said book. We currently have several different ways of doing page naming with this book. Midnightcomm 19:51, 7 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, I appologise for the mess. If you have some time it would be great if you could help migrate the book naming from the old "Movie Making Manual-Page Name" form to the new "MMM/Chapter Name/Page Name" form. dan_aka_jack 15:16, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

Module merge to use
This is a suggestion from the people who are working on this book.

The following module may be useful to merge into this Wikibook somehow: VideoCodecs

If you choose not to use this Wikibook module, please add the   to that page, so we can get rid of it. Otherwise rename the module to conform to the naming conventions here. --Rob Horning 17:52, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

 * OK, thanks. We'll adopt it.  Looks very useful.  Thanks. dan_aka_jack 14:39, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Superlatives!
Hi there - can i just say, what a find this wikibook is! It's really great - it looks good, it's exciting - great work! It's been my burning desire for well over ten years to make a film, and I might just be dipping in to get some tips or add my own if I can. I haven't looked at everything, but I think it would be good to have a bit more on storyboarding, ie images that actually show an extreme close-up, wide angle etc. Also, has anyone heard of the Wikimentary idea? Basically, it is an idea for video files to be available to edit together collaboratively - how it will actually work is anyone's guess, but I thought you might be interested. And the films you mention as being in pre-production - are you developing them here as an idea/script/process, or just writing up about the experience after it's done? Anyway, keep up the good work! Cormaggio 19:13, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

The Basic Basics
Hi.

This movie making manual seems really promising. The only thing I'm wondering about is that seems a bit in-depth for people who are thinking about making their very first short movie. I mean, you don't really need to go through all the steps mentioned in the basic basics bit, if all you want to do is experiment with making a short story with a couple of actors, and editing it together on your computer. That said, I really like the idea of a movie making wiki like this, and hey, maybe I'll contribute some stuff myself in the future, if you'll allow, because I've made a few short movies myself.

Cheers!Doom jester 16:17, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Formatting / Audience
In my opinion, the main target audience for this Wikibook should be people who are interested in low-budget indie filmmaking. Most of the people who read this book will likely fall in this camp. I don't think this site should be geared as much towards professionals, since the information is very specific (i.e. funding a feature in Canada is different than in the US, and features are different than music videos or corporate) and it's unlikely that there'd be enough knowledgeable contributors to get something going.

For people who want to get their feet wet in making films, I think the Wiki should be structured into two main areas: And then there could be another layer that goes more in depth... i.e. Lighting 201, Audio 201, Color Enhancement / Film Look 202, etc.
 * There are course/guides which explains the general concepts. It should provide just enough detail to produce a film, and not overwhelm the user with too much information!  There would be a bunch of modules or courses like:  My First Film 101, Lighting 101, Audio 101, etc.

A "My first film" module would be the introduction for people like Doom jester, who don't want to wade through the entire wikibook and want to get their feet wet.

 * A reference section, with in-depth information. For example, there could be a section on grip equipment which lists all the various pieces of equipment, how to use it, and the applications.

All The Steps are Necessary
Anyone can make a motion picture. All you have to do is learn all the steps.

Learning only a few of the steps does NOT work. Having a "My First Film" section would skip steps. And when you skip steps, you will wonder why your movie does not look right.

It is like making a clock. If you an eliminate some of the gears and wheels then you don't see the minutes, just the hours.

The steps of making a motion picture were developed in the mid 1930s after sound was added. Since then, little has changed. New technology such as digital video still requires the same steps. The steps might be done differently now but they steps still need to be done.

Alternative #1: If you do not want to learn all the steps, simply grab a camcorder and a Macintosh computer with Final Cut Express and begin. Slowly, you will learn what filmmakers have learned 70 years ago. Of all the ways of learning how motion pictures are made, this is the most fun way to learn.

Alternative #2: Become a PA. Anyone can work on a motion picture by becoming a Production Assistant. Today, you can go to the Troma website and look the section about volunteering to work on a movie. Other studios are not as open about getting a job as a Production Assistant and in Hollywood, there is competition to become an unpaid Production Assistant. Still, you can have an interesting experience and work on real motion pictures.

Alternative #3: Become experienced with one step and do that for other filmmakers. If you are extremely observant and take excellent notes, become script supervisor. No degree is required to be a script supervisor. One really good book and perhaps a one day class is all you need. The job of script supervisor is the best possible vantage point for seeing everything that goes on during production of a motion picture.

Alternative #4: Learn film editing. This is best training for anyone who wants to be a movie producer, a movie director, a film composer, a sound effects person and of course a motion picture editor. In film editing, you control how the entire movie comes together. In the past, this was very difficult since the only place you can edit real motion picture or television drama is inside the film studios or the post production houses of Hollywood. However, now that every personal computer comes with an editing program, more and more companies are releasing film dailies from real motion pictures for you to edit at home. If you cannot find any other source of unedited scenes, try the Star Movie Shop. In a few years, I think that even Apple computer will have unedited scenes from hot, new television dramas on the iTunes website for you to edit.

Missing Steps
There are lots of sections still missing in the book. How do you add sections to the Table of Content for MMM?

Example #1: Animation is described as a way of creating visual effects. The animation section of MMM does not explain that animation can be used to make entire motion pictures. To be complete, this book should show all the steps of making an animated movie... which is in a different order than the steps for making a motion picture with a camera.

Anyone who can draw can buy a simple 2D animation program such as Toon Boom and make their own feature film. None of that in explained anywhere in this book so far.

Also, 3D character animation is not explained in the book. Neither is the theory of using digital puppets which are 3D characters that you purchase off the shelf from companies such as DAZ and Poser.

All the steps of making an animated motion picture need to be explained.

Example #2: The telecine section is listed last in post production. It should also be listed first before editing. Most telecine is done to prepare dailies for editing on personal computers. Therefore, a new catagory should be added for Prep of film dailies or telecine of the dailies. This seems like a trivial task but you will see that it is not once you read all that must be done to prepare a movie for editing.

Robert Purser, Editor, Digital Puppet magazine

Theory
What exactly is intended to go in the theory chapter? I mean, isn't that sort of what all the other chapters cover? Athox 23 September, 2006

 * I think this section should be about critical theory and how film is interpreted (psychoanalytic, deconstruction, etc). If this seems appropriate, I'd love to start the page. However, I too am not 100% sure of the page's purpose. If this seems correct to everybody I could do a rough outline of the different approaches. Let me know if this approach to the page seems appropriate here or on the theory talk page. Theadorerex (discuss • contribs) 03:23, 15 June 2011 (UTC)

film and filmless movie making
I would be nice to see this Wikibook cover both film and filmless movie making. The two are very different in many ways-Miketm 00:03, 2 November 2006 (UTC)

Deletion Request
Someone marked Movie Making Manual/Film_Academy Training for speedy deletion, which I changed to a votes for deletion due to my uncertainity of the situation. The reason given was it was an "advertisement". Are the authors/editors aware of this and in agreement that it should be deleted? You can find the votes for deletion discussion here.

--darklama 03:36, 8 November 2006 (UTC)

US Resources
I've noticed that a lot of the content in the MMM is directed towards the UK or applies to those only in the UK. I, for one, would like to see a lot more content that applies to the US, and other countries. Just a suggestion.

~Vaare Valentino 12 February, 2007

Appendices?
What was added at the bottom looks pretty much like an ad. I haven't been contributing to this project, so I am rather uncomfortable about doing a quick revert. Somebody else want to jump in on this one? Weaponofmassinstruction 15:57, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

PDF?
When is this going to be turned into a PDF? My internets are being a bit slow recently, so I would prefer to download it and read it at my leisure. Please do It soon! Great guide by the way.

Orphaned pages

 * Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/HVR-V1
 * Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/RED
 * Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/Slow Mo
 * Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Learning cinematography
 * Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/The Perfect Camera
 * Movie Making Manual/Clapper board
 * Movie Making Manual/Hosting
 * Movie Making Manual/Post-production/Importing From a DVD
 * Movie Making Manual/Sales and Exhibition/Burning a DVD
 * Movie Making Manual/Special Effects

These are not linked to by this book. Please mark them for deletion with, link to them, or merge them into another page and mark them with. – Adrignola talk 00:06, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

Lets Bring MMM Back to LIFE!
Hi, I've recently found this wikibook, and I think it's feeling a little outdated and unorganized, (no offence) so I'm hoping we can bring this wikibook back to life with updated information and be an much more efficient read for people on the fly. So, I have a few things I would like to add, first of all, Chapters? I saw it mentioned in the introduction, and I think it could be awesome. I like the Pre, Pro, and Post production, but in that, there are so many areas, Cinematography, being my more favoured area, there are like 4 pages, The perfect camera I have rewritten, but I think it is an orphan currently, so I'm going to try and structure what I can using the current system, but if anyone would like to help, PLEASE do. Illusional (discuss • contribs) 14:33, 14 July 2012 (UTC)

Naming conventions
As part of a project-wide infrastructure upgrade, I've renamed this book's categories and templates to use current project-wide preferred conventions. The book category is, and its subcategories have names starting with  ; book-specific templates all start with. In several cases there were redundant categories or templates with slight variations in name, which I merged (the number of categories dropped from a little over 50 down to 34).

It seems to me this book would be better off using some other organizational scheme than directly sending readers to the categories. One technique available would be dynamic page lists; other possibilities may be opened up hereafter by semi-automation. (Ping: User:Illusional.) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 04:24, 2 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Movie Making Manual


text:
English in Use/Conversation Pieces

Apologizing

 * Excuse me, ...
 * Sorry!
 * Sorry to interrupt.
 * I'm sorry!
 * I'm so sorry!
 * I'm afraid so.
 * I'm afraid not.
 * I apologize.
 * I do apologize.
 * Please forgive me!

Expressing Surprise

 * Wow!
 * You've got to be kidding me!
 * I don’t believe it!
 * That's incredible!
 * Is that right?
 * You're joking!
 * Really?
 * Seriously?
 * My goodness!
 * Oh my!
 * Gosh!
 * What a surprise!
 * Good heavens! (Use sparingly)
 * Well, well, well! (Use sparingly)

Goodbyes

 * Good-bye!
 * So long!
 * See you!
 * See you later!
 * See you soon!
 * See you tomorrow!
 * Cheerio!
 * Ta-ta!
 * Ta-ra!
 * I'll be seeing you.
 * Good evening.
 * Good night.
 * Have a good evening!
 * Have a good afternoon!
 * Come back soon!
 * Keep safe!
 * Have a safe trip.
 * Bye bye
 * Toodles!

Meeting People

 * Hello there!
 * Pleased to meet you. informal
 * Pleased to meet you, {sir or madam}. formal
 * It's nice meeting you.
 * Finally, we meet!

The following greetings are typically used in formal environments, however, they can also be used for informal environments but be sure not to use sir or ma'am if you know the person well or else it makes the conversation seem a bit too impersonal.

 * Good afternoon, {name or sir or madam}
 * Good morning, {name or sir or madam}
 * Good evening, {name or sir or madam}

Responding to News or Information

 * Good for you!
 * I’m sorry to hear that.
 * Oh, how lovely!
 * Sounds great.
 * Yes, I suppose you must be.
 * Wow! That sounds exciting.

Responding to Thanks

 * You are welcome
 * Don't mention it
 * No problem
 * It's okay
 * It's a pleasure

Saying: That's Life

 * It was just one of those things.
 * That’s the way it goes.
 * These things happen.
 * You know how it is.

Telephoning
To ask about someone on the telephone

 * May I speak to ..., please? (formal)
 * Is ... there? (informal)

To leave a message

 * Can I leave a message? (informal)
 * May I leave a message? (formal)
 * Can you ask ... to call me?

To ask someone to repeat something

 * Could you repeat that, please? (formal)
 * Would you repeat that, please? (formal)
 * Pardon?
 * Excuse me?
 * I'm sorry, I didn't catch that.

Some alternative forms to say "yes"

 * Of course.
 * Sure.
 * Yep.
 * Yup.
 * Yeah. (informal)
 * Uh-huh. (informal)

Thanking

 * Thank you!
 * Thanks! (informal)
 * Thank you so much!
 * Thanks a lot! (if not said with a rising tone, it will often come across as sarcastic, so be careful with this phrase)
 * I don't know how to thank you. (extremely thankful, almost always used after a large gift or favor is given)

title: English in Use/Conversation Pieces


text:
Talk:Quenya/Phonology

/R/ or /r/?
This page lists /R/ instead of /r/. Is this correct? I was under the impression Quenya r was /r/. --86.135.217.213 14:04, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It's normally pronunced [r], but before a vowel [R].--Elistir 21:14, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

 * The IPA symbol [R] is used to indicate the voiced uvular trill, a sound used for r in spoken French. Tolkien found this sound to be distasteful, and noted the Elves did as well. In fact, he went so far as to say that the Orks used this sound in their various languages. It is most decidedly NOT used in Quenya.Corsair Caruso (discuss • contribs) 16:28, 28 March 2015 (UTC)

What about rv cluster in neo-quenya Yarvaxea from the LOTR movie? Is it a valid combination of consonants? 195.16.44.178 (talk) 07:12, 26 February 2009 (UTC)Boris

Anyway, if someone didn't understand the stress patterns, here is a simple quenya stress validator, made in accordance with this article.

Adjusted the IPA. Several phonemes were posited which AFAIK do not occur. Can't be sure about the syllable breaks between C clusters, but C.C seems the best bet for now, even in cases such as x and qu where it's easier to divide them .CC in orthography. Ty is supposedly between a [k] and a [t] w a notable offglide. —Kwami (discuss • contribs) 05:37, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Change of vowel quality with length
Tolkien indicates that, as in German, the quality of vowels change with their length. The vowel chart here does not reflect this. Tolkien makes note on page 71 of The Road Goes Ever On (3rd edition) that the short vowels "may be rendered as in [English] sick, bed, hot, foot (for ŭ), though ŏ is intended to be rounder than in modern [English]." These vowels, respectively, would be rendered [ɪ], [ɛ], [ɔ], and [ʊ].Corsair Caruso (discuss • contribs) 16:28, 28 March 2015 (UTC)

I've changed the vowel qualities, as per "The Road Goes Ever On" and Helge Fauskanger's "Quenya Course," which can be found at his website "Ardalambion." I'm happy to discuss the changes and further sources if anyone feels inclined to do so. Corsair Caruso (discuss • contribs) 16:41, 28 March 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quenya/Phonology


text:
Georgia Water/Regional Plans/Savannah and Ogeechee River Basins

Note: This page is a stub, needing much additional information and editing. The Welcome page shows how you can help.

River Basin Management Plan by Georgia EPD
This plan, prepared under the River Basin Planning Management Act of 1992, provides information for development of the regional basin plan as part of the Georgia Statewide Water Plan (2005-2008).

News articles
"S.C. doesn't like Georgia water plan" (South Carolina's environmental agency has filed an official complaint about Georgia's plan to manage fresh water along the coast.) AP article from SC online newspaper, The State, January 16, 2006.


text:
File:ISTjointangledcube.gif

Wings3d tutorial strip, compiled screen grabs, all own work.

title: File:ISTjointangledcube.gif


text:
User talk:70.22.26.181

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- LV (Dark Mark) 15:16, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.22.26.181


text:
User talk:CatastrophicToad

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Templates can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 15:17, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:CatastrophicToad