text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/Child Care (Babysitting)

1. Be able to look after a baby during several hours in the absence of its mother.
After studying the other requirements in this honor, and after taking care of a baby while its mother is present, you will be ready to take care of a baby in its mother's absence. Offer to watch the baby of a relative, friend, neighbor, or church member. They may offer to pay you, but if you do it for free, you can count time spent watching the baby as community service or outreach.

There are many excellent outreach opportunities for meeting this requirement. If your church is conducting an evangelistic seminar, you can offer your services in the nursery. You can also offer your services during any church program, from the Sabbath worship service to social events to wedding showers to seminars.

Parents invariably appreciate the opportunity to get away from the baby for a few hours, but at the same time, they are hesitant about leaving it in the care of a stranger. If your community offers baby-sitting classes with certifications, consider signing up. Having a certificate will help build the parents' confidence in you.

Being able to leave their child with a qualified baby sitter can be a boon to a parent's spiritual well-being. A church that ministers well to children will attract and retain their parents as members. What better time to start than when their children are babies?

Preparing the bottle

 * Make sure the bottle is clean.
 * If using formula, make sure you mix it according to the directions.
 * If using milk, put only as much as the baby needs in the bottle. The baby's usual care giver should be able to tell you how much and how often the baby should be fed.
 * Older babies may drink milk cold, but others will need it to be heated first. The ideal temperature for milk is body temperature (99 °F, or 37 °C), as that is the temperature of breastmilk.  If the milk needs to be heated, follow these guidelines:
 * Contrary to popular belief, the bottle can be heated in a microwave oven, so long as the milk is mixed well after it comes out. The problem with heating milk in a microwave is that it heats the milk unevenly. There may be pockets of milk that are hot enough to burn the baby's mouth, while other parts of the milk are still cold.  Shake the milk vigorously after removing it from the microwave.
 * You may also heat the milk in a saucepan.
 * Before giving heated milk to a baby, always check its temperature by squirting some on your wrist or on the soft side of your forearm. These areas of your body are sensitive to heat.  If the milk feels hotter than your skin, do not give it to the baby.  Instead, mix up some more and try heating it less, or put it in the refrigerator until it cools down to body temperature.

Feeding the baby

 * Infants cannot hold the bottle for themselves, so you will have to do this for them.
 * A very young baby does not have sufficient strength in her neck muscles to support her head.  In this case, you must support the baby's head while feeding her.
 * Be sure to hold the bottle such that the milk always covers the nipple. If you quit paying attention and the bottle slips around causing the baby to suck air instead of milk, the baby will swallow the air and get a tummy ache.
 * When the baby quits drinking the milk, take away the bottle. Then burp the baby.  This is done by holding the baby against your chest with her head over your shoulder.  Lightly pat the baby on the back until she burps.  She may discharge some of the milk on your shoulder when she burps, so be prepared for that.  That's just the way babies are!
 * If the baby is old enough to hold the bottle by herself, keep an eye on her while she drinks it. It is bad practice to give a baby a bottle when you put her down to go to sleep.  Often when this is done, the baby will fall asleep without swallowing the last mouthful of milk, and this will cause tooth decay.  Furthermore, the baby does not learn to go to sleep without the bottle.

Preparing the bath
Babies cannot tell you if the water is too hot, so you must be careful to ensure that the temperature is right. Fill the tub with about two inches (5 cm) of water, and check that the temperature is comfortable. You do not want it to be too hot, nor should it be too cold. You must not leave the baby unattended even for a few seconds while she is in the tub. Therefore, bring everything you will need for the bath to the tub before you bring the baby in. If you do forget something, take the baby out of the tub, wrap her in a towel so that she does not get cold and so she is not so slippery (you don't want to drop her!) Then take her with you to fetch the forgotten item.

Bathing the baby
You must always stay with the baby when it is in the tub. A baby can easily drown in even half an inch of water. If the phone rings, do not leave the baby so you can answer it. Let it ring, or take the baby with you (wrap her in a towel so she does not get cold) when you go to answer it. The same goes for the doorbell, or any other distraction.

First wash the baby's face, starting with the area around her eyes. Do not use soap on her face - a wet wash cloth will do nicely. It is better to wet the washcloth from the faucet rather than from the tub, because the baby may have urinated in the water. You wouldn't wash your own face in that, so don't wash the baby's face in it either. The reason you start with the eyes is because they are susceptible to infection. Use one corner of the washcloth on one eye, and a different corner of the washcloth on the other eye. This will prevent spreading an existing infection from one eye to the other. After you are finished washing the baby's face, you can wash her hair.

Use a gentle soap and shampoo on the baby. Babies' skin is more sensitive than yours, so you must use extra gentle soap. Also, be careful to not get any soap or shampoo in the baby's eyes. Baby shampoo and soap will not damage the baby if it does get in the eyes, but it may hurt, and the baby may cry. Some babies do not like to get water on their faces, even if the soap doesn't make her eyes sting. You can buy a visor to put around the baby's head to divert the water away from her face when rinsing shampoo out of her hair. Otherwise, you can tilt her head way back (support it with your hand!), and carefully rinse her head that way.

Finally, you are ready to wash the baby's body. Start with the neck, chest, tummy, back, and arms, then move to the legs and feet. Wash the diaper area last, as that area is most likely to pick up germs.

Dressing the baby
When you are finished rinsing the baby, lift her out and carefully wrap her in a towel. Drain the tub immediately. Do not let the water stand in the tub, as the baby could find her way back to the tub, fall in, and drown. Gently dry the baby. You may wish to powder her behind before putting a diaper back on her. It is difficult to get the baby's diaper area dry with only a towel, and powder will help with this. Do not use too much, and be careful not to make powder clouds for you and the baby to inhale. Once powdered, she is ready to be diapered.

Lay the baby on her back, and slip the diaper underneath her hips. Then draw the front of the diaper up towards her tummy. If you are using disposable diapers, undo the adhesive from the back of the diaper and fasten it to the front. Do this on both the left and the right (the order does not matter). Remember that the adhesive will not stick if you get powder on it, so do not expose the adhesive until the powder has settled. Do not draw the diaper too tightly. You should be able to slip two finger into the diaper at the baby's hip. If you cannot, the diaper is too tight. The diaper should be tight enough so that it does not fall off. If you can slip four fingers into the waistline, it may be too loose. Adjust as necessary. You will eventually get the hang of it, so that you won't need to check and recheck.

Finally, put the baby's clothes on her. Be careful not to pinch her when you do this, and make sure the clothes are not twisted and that they lay right.

4. Prepare the baby's bed and put it to bed for the night.
Baby's soil their sheets more often than other people, so it is important to check that the sheet are clean before putting the baby to bed. Sometimes a baby will need to have its sheets changed more than once in a day. We will not go into all the things that a baby can do to soil the sheets. A Pathfinder can well imagine the possibilities without help from this Answer Book.

Child rearing experts frequently debate the proper way to lay a baby down for sleep. Some say to lay them on their tummies so that if they spit up they will not choke on the sputum. Others say to lay them on their backs so they do not bury their faces in the soft mattress or blanket and suffocate (this has happened). This can be addressed by using only a firm mattress in the baby's bed, and by not having a lot of blankets and other items in the bed with the baby. Comforters should also be avoided until the baby is able to turn herself over.

A good compromise to lay the baby on her side. To do this, you may need to roll up two dry towels or small blankets and place them one on either side of the baby to hold her in place. Do not cover her face or head with a blanket. Draw the blanket up over her shoulders, but no farther.

Some parents will wait until the baby falls asleep and then carefully put them to bed. Others are able to put the baby in bed when it is awake. Try to find out how the baby is used to being put to bed before you have to do it yourself.

Weighing the baby
Unless you have a baby scale, this is going to present an easily-overcome difficulty. Babies cannot stand until they are 8 months old or so, and then they are not steady. By the time they gain steadiness, they are not interested in standing on a scale while you try to get a reading. The easy way to deal with this is to weigh both yourself and the baby, and then subtract your weight.

The weigh schedule form
The weigh schedule form is a chart that compares a child's height, weight, and head circumference to that of children of the same age and sex. In Europe (where this honor originates), this data is plotted on a chart to detect development abnormalities. In North America, this data is generally measured and recorded by a pediatrician during a "well child" visit. The results are reported to the parent as percentiles. If a child is in the 60th percentile for height, it means that he is taller than 60% of children of the same age and sex.

In places where these forms are not filled out at home, it should be sufficient to understand that these measurements can be compared to national averages to track a child's development.

6. Explain why breast-feeding is superior to bottle-feeding.
The benefits of breastfeeding are both physical and psychological for both mother and child. Nutrients and antibodies are passed to the baby while hormones are released into the mother's system. The bond between baby and mother can also be strengthened during breastfeeding.

Breast milk, when fed directly from the breast, is immediately available with no wait and is at body temperature. Breast-fed babies have a decreased risk for several infant conditions including sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). The sucking technique required of the infant encourages the proper development of both the teeth and other speech organs. Sucking also has a beneficial role in the prevention of obstructive sleep apnea.

The many health benefits of breastfeeding have been well documented. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics policy statement, "Extensive research, especially in recent years, documents diverse and compelling advantages to infants, mothers, families, and society from breastfeeding and the use of human milk for infant feeding. These include health, nutritional, immunologic, developmental, psychological, social, economic, and environmental benefits."

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on Breast Feeding).

7. What is weaning?
Weaning is the process of gradually introducing the infant to what will be its adult diet and withdrawing the supply of milk. The infant is considered to be fully weaned once it no longer receives any breast milk and begins to rely on solid foods for all its nutrition.

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on Breast Feeding).

8. What is the fontanel (soft spot)? At about what age does it disappear?
The skull of a newborn consists of five main bones: two bones in the front, two bones on the side (one one each side), and one bone at the back of the head. These are joined by fibrous joints, which allow movement that facilitates childbirth and brain growth.

At birth, the skull features a small fontanel at the back of the head, an open area covered by a tough membrane, where the two bones at the sides of the head adjoin the bone at the back of the head. This fontanelle usually closes during the first several months of an infant's life.

There is also a much larger, diamond-shaped fontanel where the two frontal and two side bones come together. This fontanel remains open until the child is about two years of age. This fontenel is found at the very top of the baby's head.

The fontanel at the top of the head is useful clinically. A sunken fontanel indicates dehydration, whereas a very tense or bulging fontanel indicates raised pressure inside the skull (both conditions require medical attention).

Parents may worry that their infant may be more prone to injury at the fontanel. In fact, although they may colloquially be called "soft-spots", the membrane covering the fontanelles is extremely tough and difficult to penetrate.

(Taken from the Wikipedia article on the Fontanelle)

9. Interview staff at a local day care center regarding their organization and the help they offer to mothers.
Day care centers are very busy places, so you will want to make arrangements ahead of time with the staff to meet with them. Allow them to suggest a time when it is convenient for them to talk to you. Be on time and courteous. Day care centers are also excellent places for Pathfinders to do community service. They are unlikely to ask the Pathfinders to take charge of the kids, but they well may have painting or yardwork that needs to be done.


text:
Talk:Java Programming/Keywords/case

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this module to Wikibooks. Tannersf 03:33, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Java Programming/Keywords/case


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts/Dressmaking - Advanced

5. Make a blouse or shirt with set-in sleeve and a collar, and explain how you would adjust the shoulders for persons of different build.
==6. Explain how to make at least four of the following alterations or modifications in patterns: shorten/lengthen waist, shorten/lengthen sleeve, waist size, shorten/lengthen skirt or pants, and shorten/lengthen blouse.==


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts/Housekeeping

2. List items used in keeping a house clean.

 * Broom and dustpan
 * Vacuum cleaner
 * Mop and bucket
 * Dust cloths
 * Toilet brush
 * Scrub brushes
 * Paper towels
 * Furniture polish
 * Window cleaner
 * All-purpose cleaners
 * Sponges

3. Describe the best way to keep stoves, microwave ovens, and refrigerators clean.
The best way to keep these items clean is by cleaning them often. As soon as something is spilled on the stovetop, in the microwave, or in the fridge, it is a lot easier to clean now than it will be later when the spilled item hardens.

4. Under what conditions do germs and pests thrive? Give ways of cleaning each of the following: basement, closets, cupboards, sinks, floors and toilets.
Germs and pests love filth, and that is the primary reason for keeping things clean. Germs and pests carry and spread disease, so keeping the house clean will also help keep its occupants healthy.

Basement
Basements should be swept frequently and kept as dry as possible. If the basement is prone to wetness, it should not be carpeted and nothing should be stored on the floor. Rather, everything should be placed on top of pallets or shelves so that the dampness cannot get into the items stored and cause them to mold. A wet basement should be treated for mold and mildew.

If possible, find the source of the wetness and have it repaired.

Closets
Closets should be kept neat and orderly. Closet organizers, shoe racks, and shelves are excellent aids in this endeavor. It's a good idea to air out the closet occasionally, and the floors should be swept or vacuumed whenever the house is cleaned.

Cupboards
Cupboards should be periodically emptied and wiped down. If the shelves are lined with shelf paper, the paper can be changed every now and then to freshen the look of the cupboards.

Sinks
Sinks should be cleaned frequently. This can be done with dish soap and a sponge or a wash cloth. Stainless steel sinks can be scrubbed with steel wool. If the sink has a garbage disposal, the rubber gasket around the drain should be removed and cleaned frequently too (they get pretty gross). Run citrus peels through the disposal to freshen it up.

Floors
Hardwood, tile, or linoleum floors should be swept and mopped. Carpeted floors should be vacuumed frequently and steam cleaned every now and then.

Toilets
Toilets should be scrubbed on the inside with a toilet brush. Especially important is the area just under the rim. A toilet cleaner should be used to do this. The seat, rim, and lid also need to be wiped down with a general-purpose cleaner, as does the outside of the bowl and the tank.

5. State the proper way to prepare dishes for washing, either in the sink or dishwasher. State the order in which silver, glass, table, and kitchen dishes should be washed.
Scrape all leftover food into a garbage disposal or into the trash. Dishes with tough, stuck-on food may need to be soaked before it can be cleaned. Oatmeal becomes almost cement-like if it hardens in the bowl or pot, so soaking is almost absolutely a requirement. This is true whether the dish will be hand washed or machine washed.

Modern dishwashers do not require that the dish be rinsed before running it through the cycle - the dishwasher will rinse them at least as well as you will. If washing them by hand, it is a good idea to rinse them off first so that you do not spoil the water. It is difficult to get anything clean with dirty water! Once the dishes are prepared for washing, they should be stacked.

Glasses should be washed first, followed by silverware, table dishes, and finally kitchen dishes. In general, the order is to wash the cleanest items first, saving the dirtiest items for last. Glasses are difficult to get clean unless the dishwater is grease-free, so that is the reason they should be done first even if they are more dirty than the silver or table dishes. Keep an eye on the dishwater - if it becomes disgusting, change it!

Rugs
Rugs can be taken outside and shaken out, or even hung over a line and beaten. Keep shaking or beating the rug until dirt stops coming out.

Carpets
Carpets should be vacuumed frequently and steam-cleaned every now and then. If something is spilled on a carpet, it should be cleaned up right away. The best way to do this is by placing an absorbent material (dish towel, wash cloth, or paper towel) over the spill and pressing. As it absorbs the spill, move a dry area of the towel over the spill and continue until it no longer comes up wet. Some spills should be treated with an upholstery/carpet cleaner immediately after this or the carpet will be permanently stained (juices) or bleached (vomit).

Pillows
Pillows usually have an outer covering that can be removed and machine washed. Let the padded portion of the pillow air out while the cover is laundered.

Upholstered furniture
Furniture upholstered with cloth can (and should) be vacuumed whenever the carpets are vacuumed. Remove the cushions and vacuum the undersides, as well as the portion of the furniture underneath them. They can also be touched up with an upholstery cleaner. Follow the directions on the bottle.

Furniture upholstered with leather can be wiped down with a damp cloth, and should be cleaned occasionally with a leather cleaner. Be sure that the leather cleaner you choose is for furniture, or you may end up with stains on your clothing.

Papered walls
Papered walls should be cleaned with a slightly dampened cloth. Be careful not to get the paper too wet or it may peel off.

Painted walls
Painted walls are more durable than papered walls, so they can be scrubbed down with soapy water. Glossy finishes clean easier than satin or flat finishes, so when choosing a paint, keep that in mind. A bathroom, kitchen, or small child's room might be better served with a glossy finish. A ceiling or master bedroom can be painted with a flat paint (if desired).

Floors
Hardwood, tile, and linoleum floors should be swept frequently and mopped occasionally. Always sweep right before mopping. To mop a floor, fill a mop bucket half way with warm or hot water, and add a floor cleaner to it. Submerge the mop under the water, pull it up, wring it out, and then pass it over the floor, "painting" the entire surface of the floor. Plan out where you will mop so that you do not have to walk over the damp floor. It is best to do this chore when small children are outside, not home, or asleep, as they sometimes have difficulty understanding that they should not walk on a wet floor. Carpeted floors should be vacuumed or steamed. Carpets should be frequently cleaned because dust collects faster in carpets because of the material.

Windows
Windows should be washed with window cleaner or with a mixture of vinegar and water. Spray the cleaner on the glass, and then wipe it off, being careful to not leave streaks. When washing both sides of the glass, make the last pass horizontally on the inside and vertically on the outside (or vice versa) so that you can tell which side of the glass a streak is on.

7. How is trash disposed of in your community?
This answer book cannot know how trash is disposed of in your community. You will need to check with your local government for that information. Waste is most commonly placed in a landfill or incinerated. Some communities require that waste be sorted - yard waste, recyclables, construction waste, household waste, and toxic waste are all treated differently.

8. What precautions should be taken in cleaning out a fireplace?
The main danger to be concerned with when cleaning out a fireplace is that of starting an accidental fire. Be sure the ash contains no embers by waiting until no fire has been burning for at least 12 hours. Cover the ashes with damp newspaper to keep the dust down, then shovel the ash into a bag, seal and take the bag outside. You may wish to wear a dust mask when doing this, and you may wish to cover the hearth with a tarp to contain the mess. Do not douse a fire in a fireplace with water except in an emergency, as this can cause the firebox to crack. It will also cause the ash to harden and stick to the brick, making it difficult to clean.

Be sure to have the chimney cleaned by a professional annually so that soot and creosote do not build up - this is a fire hazard.

9. What is meant by keeping a home "baby safe"?
Babies have ways of making their own danger. A house that is "baby safe" has been examined and actions taken to prevent a baby from endangering itself (or others). Unused outlets are covered so that the baby cannot insert paper clips, coins, or other conductive items into them. Cleaners, poisons, and other toxic items are stored out of the baby's reach or locked where they are inaccessible. Stairways are gated so the baby cannot fall down (or climb up and then fall down). Items smaller than a golf ball should also be stored out of a baby's reach, as these are choking hazards. Babies explore the world with their mouths, so they may try to "eat" anything that they can fit into their mouths.

10. Plan and do the work in a house for one week.
This is an example of what your plan should look like

Day	Activity

Monday	Sweep and mop staircase, living room and kitchen

Tuesday	Sweep and mop bedrooms

Wednesday Clean bathroom

Thursday Clean mirrors and windows

Friday	No work done – preparation for Sabbath

Saturday No work done Sabbath

Sunday	Change bed linen


text:
Talk:Electronics/Magnetic Materials

Great job!
This is a great module. It seems complete and is easy to read and follow. Thanks for contributing this to Wikibooks. Tannersf 03:43, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Electronics/Magnetic Materials


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts/Tailoring

a. Wool
The term wool is usually restricted to describing the fibrous protein derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles in sheep.

Wool is taken from animals in the Caprinae family, principally sheep, but the hair of certain species of other mammals is also sometimes called "wool", including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, vicuña, alpaca, and camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits.

Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped, it has a different texture or handle, it is elastic, and it grows in staples (clusters).

b. Worsted wool
Worsted (pronounced /ˈwʊstɨd/), is the name of a yarn, the cloth made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from the village of Worstead in the English county of Norfolk. This village became, along with North Walsham and Aylsham, a centre for the manufacture of yarn and cloth after weavers from Flanders arrived in Norfolk in the 12th century. Worsted cloth, archaically also known as stuff, is lightweight and has a coarse texture. The weave is usually twill or plain. Twilled fabrics such as whipcord, gabardine and serge are often made from worsted yarn. Worsted fabric made from wool has a natural recovery, meaning that it is resilient and quickly returns to its natural shape, but non-glossy worsted will shine with use or abrasion.

Worsteds differ from woolens, in that the natural crimp of the wool fibre is removed in the process of spinning the yarn. In Tropical Worsteds this use of tightly spun straightened wool combined with a looser weave permits the free flow of air through the fabric.

Worsted is also used for carpets, garments, hosiery, gloves and baize.

c. Cotton
This a soft white fabric that is can be is a fibrous substance to plants around it. It is made into a textile fiber that can also be used for thread and sewing. Cotton is very soft and that is how cotton candy got it's name. The fiber in cotton is almost purely cellulose (cellulose- the main consistent of a plant wall).

d. Linen
Linen is a soft fabric that is produced by weaving or knitting fiber fro textile. It is woven from flax. Flax is a blue plant that has textile fiber inside of it. Sheets and some clothing are made out of linen. The reason that linen is thin is because because of its variable length.

a. Plain
Plain or tabby weave is the most basic of the three fundamental types of textile weaves. It is strong and hardwearing, used for fashion and furnishing fabrics.

In plain weave the warp and weft are aligned so that they form a simple criss-cross pattern. Each weft thread crosses the warp threads by going over one, then under the next, and so on. The next weft thread goes under the warp threads that its neighbor went over, and vice versa. Plain weave is also known as "tabby weave" or "taffeta weave."

b. Basket
Basketweave is a variation of plain weave in which two or more threads are bundled and then woven as one in the warp or weft, or both.

d. Twill
Twill is a type of fabric woven with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs.

It is made by passing the weft threads over one warp thread and then under two or more warp threads, over one and under two or more, and so on, with a "step" or offset between rows that creates the characteristic diagonal pattern. Because of this structure, twills generally drape well. Examples of twill fabric are chino, denim, gabardine, tweed and serge.

e. Herringbone
A herringbone weave is made by passing the weft over two warp threads and under the next two. On the next pass the over-under pattern is offset by one so that the weft passes between two warp threads that the previous weft went over.

f. Pile
Pile weave is a form of textile created by weaving. Pile fabrics used to be made on traditional hand weaving machines. The warp ends that are used for the formation of the pile are woven over metal rods or wires that are inserted in the shed (gap caused by raising alternate threads) during weaving. The pile ends lie in loops over the inserted rods. When a rod is extracted the pile ends remain as loops on top of the base fabric. The pile ends laying over the rod may be left as 'loop pile', or cut to form 'cut pile' or velvet.


text:
Talk:Urdu/Vocabulary/Restaurant

The phrases in Urdu do not match the English phrase they are supposed to correspond to.

title: Talk:Urdu/Vocabulary/Restaurant


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Household Arts/Cultural Food Preparation

Cook a meal using local methods and foods by yourself.See example below
In order to satisfy the spirit of this honor, it is important that this requirement be satisfied by adopting the local methods of a Pacific Island. The example cited in the requirement follows this section (with the headings "Materials" and "Method"). It involves cooking a root plant in an earthen pit oven called a lovo. You can dig a lovo yourself, but make sure you have permission from the landowner first. Save any sod so you can re-cover the pit afterwards. You may also need a fire permit in your locality. This method of cooking will take three or four hours, so make sure you have plenty of time before starting.

Dalo
Dalo is also known as taro, and dasheen. Both the root and the leaves of the dalo are used in Pacific Island cooking. Dalo is a traditional staple in many tropical areas of the world, and is the base for making poi in Hawaii. The plant is actually inedible when raw because of needle-shaped members in the plant cells. Severe gastrointestinal distress can occur if the plant is improperly prepared for consumption.

To prepare dalo for cooking in a lovo, simply wash, peel, and slice. You may wish to oil your hands or wear gloves before peeling the dalo, as it may irritate your skin otherwise.

Cassava
Cassava is called mandioca, aipim, or macaxeira in Portuguese, mandio in Guaraní, maniok in Afrikaans and Rotuman, yuca or mandioca in Spanish, mogho in Gujarati, 'tapioka' in Fijian, kappa or maracheeni in Malayalam, singkong or ubi kayu in Indonesian, tugi in Ilocano, balinghoy in Tagalog, maniok in German, Danish and Czech, manyok in Haitian Creole, lumu in Kichwa, manioc in French, mannyokka in Sinhala, and khoai mì, khoai sắn in Vietnamese.

Yams
In the southern United States, sweet potatoes are often referred to as yams, but these two plants are distinct from one another. Yam tubers can grow up to 2.5 meters in length and weigh up to 70 kg (150 pounds). In other words, they can get big! Yams are a primary agricultural commodity in West Africa and New Guinea. They are important to this day for survival in these regions. Yam tubers can be stored up to six months without refrigeration, which makes them a valuable resource for the yearly period of food scarcity at the beginning of the wet season. Yams of African species must be cooked to be safely eaten because various natural substances in raw yams can cause illness if consumed.

Sweet Potato
Sweet potatoes are native to the tropical parts of the Americas. They spread very early throughout the region, including the Caribbean. They were also known before western exploration in Polynesia.

Sweet potatoes very early became popular in the islands of the Pacific, from Japan to Polynesia. One reason is that they were favored as an emergency crop that could be relied on if other crops failed due to typhoon flooding and the like. They are featured in many favorite dishes in Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, and other island nations. Indonesia, Vietnam, India, and some other Asian countries are also large sweet potato growers. Uganda (the third largest grower after Indonesia), Rwanda, and some other African countries also grow a large crop which is an important part of their peoples' diets. North and South America, the original home of the sweet potato, together grow less than three percent of the world's supply. Europe has only a very small sweet potato production, mostly in Portugal.

Sweet potatoes may be peeled before or after cooking in a lovo. Once they are finished, they are typically mashed or sliced and topped with brown sugar and butter.

2. Banana leaves or other leaves used in your area.
Banana leaves are very large and are used much like aluminum foil in Western cultures. If available, coconut leaves are also acceptable. You may have success with corn husks as well.

3. Stones
Stones should be smooth river stones, though bricks can do the job as well. They should be to  across, and the more uniform they are in size, the better. You will need enough to line the bottom of the lovo. Be sure to select stones that will not explode when heated (gravel will explode, as will concrete and cement).

4. Firewood
You will need a long-burning hardwood to cook your food. Avoid softwoods such as conifers as they burn far too quickly to be effective. The length of the logs should be slightly less than the width of the lovo pit. You will need enough wood to build a criss-cross fire about four levels high (see below).

5. Banana stems
Banana stems are one material you can use, but not the only material. Banana leaves, corn husks, or coconut leaves will also work.

6. Coconut leaves
Again, coconut leaves are only one option. Any large leaf will work, as will wet newspaper or burlap. See below for more details.

1. Light the fire first.
The fire is lit in a shallow pit, about deep. The pit should measure between and  across, depending on the amount of food you plan to cook.

2. Pile the firewood in order (criss-cross method).
A criss-cross fire (also known as a council fire) generates a lot of heat. This is necessary to heat the stones which will be used for cooking. The initial logs of this structure can be lain before the fire is lit, but the remainder should wait until the fire is going. Pile the criss-cross at least four layers high, and be sure to use a long-burning hardwood. Allow to  between the logs or you will starve the fire of oxygen and it will die.

3. Put all the stones on top of the firewood.
Stone selection is critical here. Smooth river stones work best, but be warned that some types of stone may explode when heated. You can also use bricks instead of stones. The stones should completely cover the top of the criss-cross structure.

4. Let the fire completely burn the wood until you notice that the stones are red-hot.
This should take about an hour.

5. Clean the lovo/oven.
A lovo is an earth oven, essentially a pit dug in the ground for cooking. To clean out the lovo, remove any still-burning wood from the fire. Be sure to extinguish it or transfer it to an area where it will be safe and out of the way. You can also throw it into a campfire. Leave the stones in the lovo and spread them evenly around. Sweep all the ash off the tops of the stones.

6. Put the smashed up banana stems on top of the stones.
Banana stems are not strictly required here. Many cultures use other types of vegetation instead, with large, fresh native leaves being the most common choice. Make sure the leaves are green.

7. Start to put all the raw foods on top of the banana stems
The food is layered on top of the green vegetation laid down in the previous step. Root plants are peeled an marinated first. You can also wrap them in foil before placing them on top of the leaves or stems.

8. Cover it up first with green coconut leaves before you completely cover it with leaves and leave it for one to one and a half hours.
Layer more leaves on top of the food. Some people use wet newspaper or burlap here instead of leaves. Do not use any plastic. Many cultures will also cover the whole pit with earth once the leaves are piled on. The idea is to prevent any steam from escaping the pile. If you are cooking a lot of food, you may need to let it cook for up to three hours.

9. Uncover the lovo/oven and the food is ready.
Wear garden gloves when uncovering the pile. The stones should still be warm enough to cause a nasty burn. Transfer the food to serving dishes, say grace, and serve the food!


text:
Talk:C++ Programming/Code/Statements/Functions

In general, this page needs more hyperlinks (terms like method and such can be easily hyperlinked).

Also, the code snippets describing the two methods of return codes are badly formatted, and the first one is actually wrong in that it doesn't use the "Positive Means Success" paradigm. And the statement leading into it, "The major problem of this construct is that it creates more imbrication", I believe is incorrect (and the word imbrication, which means "overlap", is obscure and should be altered). A better way of stating it would be "The major problem with the construct is that it only provides a single error code ("Negative" or 0) when there could be many possible reasons why a function would return an error.

There was a later sentence that again used "imbrication" which seemed non-sensical to me.

I don't have time to make the edits right now, but I should be able to write something up in a week or so, unless there are objections, or someone else does it.

Admiralh - July 3, 2007

Please: do not change this page to state that arrays are pointers in C++; they are not, in all sorts of vital ways. It's true that in the context of an array argument declaration the syntax allows pointer parameters to be declared as if they were arrays, but arrays are not pointers in C++ (ever), and pointers are not arrays (except in that any object can be treated as an array of length 1, such as when taking a (&obj)+1 ).

I guess someone should go and hunt down any other occurrences of this error. Volunteers?

I've also tried to use the term "parameter" where appropriate, to distinguish the parameters declared for a function with the arguments passed by a caller. (Parameters are sometimes called "formal arguments", to distinguish them from "actual arguments".) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by James Dennett (talk • contribs).

Panic (or anyone else): if there is a specific change that you object to, please state why, and what the objection is. I don't see any examples above. If I do make an error (for example, write something that is nonsensical), I'm happy to have it pointed out. But please, do make specific points. I try to note when I'm correcting specific errors. For example, many people are confused because they don't understand the difference between the parameters (aka formal arguments) that appear in a function declaration and the actual arguments that are passed to it; understanding that distinction removes many other confusions.

The C++ standard is one source of the term "parameter" for this use (see e.g., [dcl.fct.def], preferring mnemonic references while the standard is being revised). [expr.call] uses the term "arguments" for the expressions used in a function call expression. Sticking to the terminology used by the C++ standard, where possible, ensures consistency and helps people to adapt to C++ instead of being confused by more general Computer Science terminology or terms from other languages.

"Methods" certainly are significant in Smalltalk, but don't correspond exactly to C++'s member functions. A Smalltalk method is the piece of code invoked as a result of message passing. Smalltalk doesn't have non-virtual methods, and indeed its dispatch mechanism is much more flexible than that of C++. (Smalltalk doesn't use the term virtual, of course, nor does it need to. All dispatch uses late binding in Smalltalk.)  C++ has member functions, data members (aka member variables, including static and non-static member variables), member templates, and so on. Indeed, the section of the standard introducing member functions is called "Member Functions" (mnemonic: "class.mfct"), and none of the 8 occurrences I find of the term "method" in the 2003 C++ standard uses the term in the sense of a kind of function.

Let's try to have a constructive discussion of how to present the material, and on the technical content. Wiki works best when you assume other contributors have something worthwhile to offer, unless they show themselves unable to work constructively and cooperatively. Throwing around terms like "nonsensical" and mentioning the possibility of reverting material should be a last resort. But please, do give specific criticism of anything you think is wrong. Here, if others may be interested, or on my talk page, if you think it likely not of interest elsewhere. -- James Dennett 05:45, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

OK, having looked at this module, I don't see any examples of nonsense caused by what I've written there, though I've fixed up a few more pieces of it (such as something that still confused an array with a pointer). So, specific notes of problems would be appreciated, if people find problems. Thanks! -- James Dennett

In the section of passing an array to a function, I doubt whether there is any way to pass the whole array by reference (I mean '&' but not through pointer). As to my limited knowledge, I think we can only pass elements by reference but not the whole array as it is pass through pointer. In case I am correct, the content about this issue in TODO may mislead the readers. -- Ron Lau

It's quite possible to pass an array to a function by reference; it's pretty common. Here's an example with a fairly trivial function template:

template  std::size_t array_size(ElementType (&)[ElementCount]) {   return ElementCount; }

This one looks a little odd as the array isn't really used, but it could be.

Another trivial example:

void set_array_to_1_2_3(int (&array)[3]) {   assert( sizeof array == 3*sizeof(int) ); array[0] = 1; array[1] = 2; array[2] = 3; }

I hope this explains a little better. -- James Dennett 07:55, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

Hello guys what about having a chapter calling Structural programming in C++ where we can have functions, struct, typedef, enum and union? Jayaram Ganapathy

This is just not formal at all
I assume a text book should be formal.

this is not "Woah, my a-paul-igies, I didn't mean to jump right into it, but I'm pretty sure that if you're understanding pointers, the declaration of a function that returns a pointer or a reference should seem relatively logical. The above piece of code shows how to declare a function that will return a reference or a pointer."

It should not speak in 1st person. should not "speak" or imply conversation between auther and reader. Rather than saying "I'm pritty sure" It should say smething like "it is assumed that" - not member here, contact oxinabox1 @ wikimedia or wikipedia, if you must.--60.230.247.35 12:18, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

 * A little informality seems harmless -- maybe even helpful in a book aimed largely at beginner to intermediate programmers about a fairly dry topic. Perl's Camel Book has plenty of jokes, as do numerous others.   However, I've re-written the section you quoted.

 * I also note that this module refers to const member functions, but I don't think it's covered member functions at all at that time (I could be wrong). We need to think about how to organize this material -- James Dennett 16:47, 22 April 2007 (UTC)

Missing inversion?
In the section "The advantage of this paradigm is that the error handling is closer to the test itself. For example the previous code becomes:

if (my_function1) {    //error handler for function 1 errors return FUNCTION_1_FAILED; } "

Should this read:

if (!my_function1) {    //error handler for function 1 errors return FUNCTION_1_FAILED; } --K1mgy (discuss • contribs) 22:27, 25 December 2011 (UTC)

 * You are right. I opted by being more verbose it is easier to understand and avoids type conversion issues. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 23:43, 25 December 2011 (UTC)

java
F Yusufsani264 (discuss • contribs) 23:22, 19 September 2017 (UTC)


text: Talk:C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Variables/Type Casting


text:
United Nations/Trusteeship Council

When the United Nations Charter was signed in 1945, all Member States agreed to set up the International Trusteeship System, which called for the international supervision for 11 Non-Self-Governing Territories administered by seven Member States. A trusteeship is a situation in which one administers a Trust Territory.

The Charter states that "the membership of the Trusteeship Council must reflect a balance between members that administer Trust Territories and members that do not...". For this reason, the size of the Trusteeship Council varies. Over time, the number of Trust Territories has decreased, paralleling with the decreasing size of administering countries. The five veto power nations administer or have administered Trust Territories in the past. By 1985, few Territories were under Trust control, such as the Pacific Islands, under Trust jurisdiction of the United States of America.

Although China is part of the Trusteeship Council, it voluntarily chooses not to intervene in the Council's activities.

Control and Controlled
The Trusteeship Council is like other organs of the UN but is different in some senses. The Council is actually under the jurisdiction of the General Assembly, and carries out the controlled powers of the UN regarding Trust Territories and current issues regarding them. While the Trusteeship Council assumes administration, it is the Security Council that is actually responsible for carrying out the plans of the Trusteeship Council.

Community Action of the Council
Periodically, the Trusteeship Council will provide for formal visiting of Trust Territories. The Council takes action based on adhering to various Trusteeship Agreements and ensures that these Agreements are not treated loosely nor neglected by Member States.

Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote and decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.

The Council: When?
The Trusteeship Council meets annually for regular sessions. However, as of 2002, the Trusteeship Council no longer meets, but has the ability to be "revived" in the event that an issue regarding Trust Territories arises.

The U.N. Charter does not specify whether or not the Trusteeship Council may hold special emergency sessions like the General Assembly or Security Council can. The Council is not a UN body that may issue an resolution that calls for an immediate solution to a problem; (as the Charter says in Article 33, "The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties [the current Members of the Security Council] to settle..." ).

title: United Nations/Trusteeship Council


text:
This Quantum World/Serious illnesses/Born

< PREVIOUS

Born
In the same year that Erwin Schrödinger published the equation that now bears his name, the nonrelativistic theory was completed by Max Born's insight that the Schrödinger wave function $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t)$$ is actually nothing but a tool for calculating probabilities, and that the probability of detecting a particle "described by" $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t)$$ in a region of space $$R$$ is given by the volume integral

\int_R|\psi(t,\mathbf{r})|^2\,d^3r=\int_R\psi^*\psi\,d^3r $$ — provided that the appropriate measurement is made, in this case a test for the particle's presence in $$R$$. Since the probability of finding the particle somewhere (no matter where) has to be 1, only a square integrable function can "describe" a particle. This rules out $$\psi(\mathbf{r}) = e^{i\mathbf{k}\cdot\mathbf{r}},$$ which is not square integrable. In other words, no particle can have a momentum so sharp as to be given by $$\hbar$$ times a wave vector $$\mathbf{k}$$, rather than by a genuine probability distribution over different momenta.

Given a probability density function $$|\psi(x)|^2$$, we can define the expected value

\langle x\rangle=\int |\psi(x)|^2\,x\,dx=\int \psi^*\,x\,\psi\,dx $$ and the standard deviation $$\Delta x = \sqrt{\int |\psi|^2(x-\langle x\rangle)^2}$$

as well as higher moments of $$|\psi(x)|^2$$. By the same token,

\langle k\rangle=\int \overline{\psi}\,^*\,k\,\overline{\psi}\,dk$$ and  $$\Delta k=\sqrt{\int |\overline{\psi}|^2(k-\langle k\rangle)^2}. $$ Here is another expression for $$\langle k\rangle:$$

\langle k\rangle=\int \psi^*(x)\left(-i\frac d{dx}\right)\psi(x)\,dx. $$ To check that the two expressions are in fact equal, we plug $$\psi(x)=(2\pi)^{-1/2}\int \overline{\psi}(k)\,e^{ikx}dk$$  into the latter expression:

\langle k\rangle=\frac1{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int \psi^*(x)\left(-i\frac d{dx}\right)\int \overline{\psi}(k)\,e^{ikx}dk\,dx=\frac1{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int \psi^*(x)\int \overline{\psi}(k)\,k\,e^{ikx}dk\,dx. $$ Next we replace $$\psi^*(x)$$ by $$(2\pi)^{-1/2}\int \overline{\psi}\,^*(k')\,e^{-ik'x}dk'$$ and shuffle the integrals with the mathematical nonchalance that is common in physics:

\langle k\rangle= \int\!\int \overline{\psi}\,^*(k')\,k\,\overline{\psi}(k) \left[\frac1{2\pi}\int e^{i(k-k')x}dx \right]dk\,dk'. $$ The expression in square brackets is a representation of Dirac's delta distribution $$\delta(k-k'),$$ the defining characteristic of which is $$\int_{-\infty}^{+\infty} f(x)\,\delta(x)\,dx = f(0)$$  for any continuous function $$f(x).$$ (In case you didn't notice, this proves what was to be proved.)

Heisenberg
In the same annus mirabilis of quantum mechanics, 1926, Werner Heisenberg proved the so-called "uncertainty" relation
 * $$\Delta x\,\Delta p \geq \hbar/2.

$$ Heisenberg spoke of Unschärfe, the literal translation of which is "fuzziness" rather than "uncertainty". Since the relation $$\Delta x\,\Delta k \geq 1/2$$ is a consequence of the fact that $$\psi(x)$$ and $$\overline{\psi}(k)$$ are related to each other via a Fourier transformation, we leave the proof to the mathematicians. The fuzziness relation for position and momentum follows via $$p=\hbar k$$. It says that the fuzziness of a position (as measured by $$\Delta x$$ ) and the fuzziness of the corresponding momentum (as measured by $$\Delta p=\hbar\Delta k$$ ) must be such that their product equals at least $$\hbar/2.$$ NEXT >


text:
User talk:MelissaB

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 08:27, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:MelissaB


text:
Xray Crystallography/Radiation Damage

The problem of radiation damage to crystals, even to cryocooled crystals, has become a major problem again since the advent of the brilliant beam 3rd generation synchrotrons.

Basis of Radiation Damage

It has long been known that radiation damage to proteins is important, in 1962 Blake and Phillips showed that damage was proportional to the dose received by the crystal and that each 8keV photon was capable of disrupting 70 molecules and disordering 90 more.

At 12.7 keV, of the 2% of X-rays that interact with the crystal, 84% interact through the photo-electric effect (Murray J and Rudiño-Piñera E, 2005). Each X-ray photon can only produce one photoelectron, however each photoelectron can result in over 500 secondary electrons of a lower energy (O'Neil et al. 2002).

Even at cryo temperatures electrons are still mobile within the protein, they can exploit electron tunnelling effects to jump along the protein backbone chain (Jones et al. 1987).

Primary
Primary radiation damage is dose dependent and caused by the interactions X-ray beam photons creating photoelectric electrons. This is an inevitable consequence of X-ray crystallography.

Secondary
Photoelectric electrons from primary radiation damage can then go on to further damage the protein through the creation of free radical, this process is termed secondary radiation damage, in a manner which is both time and temperature dependent. The diffusion of free radicals through the crystal can be slowed by cryocooling.

Direct / Indirect
Both primary and secondary radiation damage can be either direct, directly altering the protein, or indirect, altering the surrounding solvent. Indirect effects can still be just as damaging to the protein, the radiolysis of water can create OH, H, H+ and $$e^{-}_{aq}$$ hydrated electrons which are especially destructive.

Specific Effects
Damage occurs to proteins in a specific manner. The ability of free electrons to tunnel along the peptide backbone (Jones et al., 1987) provides a mechanism for specific structural damage to occur. Structural damage occurs in the order of covalent bond strength (Garman and Owen, 2006);

 * 1) Disulphide bond breakage.
 * 2) Decarboxylation of aspartates and glutamates.
 * 3) Loss of OH groups from tyrosines.
 * 4) C-S bond cleavage in methionines.

 * (Burmeister, 2000; Ravelli and McSweeny, 2000; Weik et al, 2000)

Damage also occurs to metal centres within proteins (Carugo and Carugo, 2005) causing reduction. This can create a problem if most of the pdb structures contain reduced (or partially reduced) metal centres. Active sites of proteins are also susceptible to damage as with the FAD cofactor in DNA apophotolyase (Kort et al., 2004).

It is also known that specific damage occurs before the diffraction pattern is visibly compromised (Ravelli and McSweeny, 2000).

General Effects

 * Change in unit cell dimensions.
 * Increase Wilson B values.
 * Decreased diffraction power of crystal.
 * Loss of high resolution data.

A change in the unit cell dimensions is also characteristic of radiation damage (Ravelli and McSweeny, 2000), however they cannot be used as a measure of damage due to the wide variations in change seen even for crystals of the same protein (Murray and Garman, 2002). Weik et al. (2001) showed a dependence of unit cell volume with temperature, however temperature effects are not thought to be significant to radiation damage in beamlines (Nicholson et al., 2001; Kuzay et al., 2001). Unit cell volume changes are important when you consider that a 1/2% change in all cell dimensions gives a 15% change in general reflection intensities (Crick and Magdoff, 1957), especially when you are only trying to measure a 6-10% change in intensities for anomalous dispersion experiments (Hendrickson and Ogate, 1997).

Rate of Damage
damage proportional to dose

Radiation Limit
cryo room temp

title: Xray Crystallography/Radiation Damage


text:
User talk:82.198.250.66

Xania 11:25, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

You have been warned
Unusual? Quite TalkQu 19:31, 12 March 2009 (UTC)

Block Notice
You cannot edit for 3 months due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below. Jomegat (discuss • contribs) 13:41, 9 February 2011 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.198.250.66


text:
Canadian History/The People of the Lands

Aboriginals
Modern historians believe that Aboriginals arrived from Asia 30 000 years ago by way of a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska. Some of them settled in Canada, while others chose to continue to the south. When the European explorers arrived, Canada was populated by a diverse range of Aboriginal peoples who, depending on the environment, lived caca nomadic or settled lifestyles, were hunters, fishermen, or farmers.

They lived in every region of the country. Often their survival in Canada's harsh climate depended on cooperation, sharing, and respect for the environment. They probably migrated over the Bering Sea from Siberia after the last ice age, between 10 000 and 30 000 years ago. At the time of European contact, they had developed distinct nations throughout what is now Canada with a total population of perhaps 350 000.

The Constitution Act of 1982 recognized three main groups of Aboriginal peoples in Canada: the First Nations and the Inuit, who were the first Aboriginal groups in Canada, and the Metis, who emerged after the settlement of Canada. Today, there are more than 53 distinct languages spoken by Aboriginal peoples. Most of these languages are found only in Canada.

People of the First Nations lived in all areas of Canada, and were very diverse in their cultures and lifestyles. Those who lived on Canada's coasts depended on fishing and hunting while those who lived on the prairies moved with buffalo herds which they hunted for food, clothing, and tools. First Nations people who lived in central and eastern Canada hunted and grew vegetable crops. Today, more than half of First Nations people live on reserves, where they continue to practice their traditions and cultures. Others live and work in cities across Canada, living with the rest of the general population, although some may choose to continue some First Nations practices.

The Inuit lived and settled throughout the northern regions of Canada. They adjusted to the cold northern climate and lived by hunting seals, whales, caribou, and polar bears. The majority of Inuit people live in the new territory called Nunavut and some still hunt for food and clothing.

Many of the early French fur traders and some English traders married First Nations women. Their children and descendants are the Metis people. The Metis were an important part of the fur trade and they developed their own distinct culture on the prairies.

When Europeans arrived in what is now Canada, they began to make agreements, or treaties, with Aboriginal peoples. The treaty making process meant that Aboriginal people gave up their title to lands in exchange for certain rights and benefits.

Most of the agreements included reserving pieces of land to be used only by Aboriginal peoples. These pieces of land are called "reserves". Today, Aboriginal groups and the Canadian government continue to negotiate new agreements for land and the recognition of other rights.

Aboriginal peoples in Canada are working to keep their unique cultures and languages alive. They are trying to regain control over decisions that affect their lives - in other words, to become self-governed. Aboriginal peoples continue to play an active role in building the future of Canada.

SOURCE: Citizenship and Immigration Canada


text:
This Quantum World/Feynman route

< PREVIOUS

=The Feynman route to Schrödinger= The probabilities of the possible outcomes of measurements performed at a time $$t_2$$ are determined by the Schrödinger wave function $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t_2)$$. The wave function $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t_2)$$ is determined via the Schrödinger equation by $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t_1).$$ What determines $$\psi(\mathbf{r},t_1)$$ ? Why, the outcome of a measurement performed at $$t_1$$ — what else? Actual measurement outcomes determine the probabilities of possible measurement outcomes.

Two rules
In this chapter we develop the quantum-mechanical probability algorithm from two fundamental rules. To begin with, two definitions:

 * Alternatives are possible sequences of measurement outcomes.
 * With each alternative is associated a complex number called amplitude.

Suppose that you want to calculate the probability of a possible outcome of a measurement given the actual outcome of an earlier measurement. Here is what you have to do:

 * Choose any sequence of measurements that may be made in the meantime.
 * Assign an amplitude to each alternative.
 * Apply either of the following rules:

 * Rule A: If the intermediate measurements are made (or if it is possible to infer from other measurements what their outcomes would have been if they had been made), first square the absolute values of the amplitudes of the alternatives and then add the results.

 * Rule B: If the intermediate measurements are not made (and if it is not possible to infer from other measurements what their outcomes would have been), first add the amplitudes of the alternatives and then square the absolute value of the result.

In subsequent sections we will explore the consequences of these rules for a variety of setups, and we will think about their origin — their raison d'être. Here we shall use Rule B to determine the interpretation of $$\overline{\psi}(k)$$ given Born's probabilistic interpretation of $$\psi(x)$$.

In the so-called "continuum normalization", the unphysical limit of a particle with a sharp momentum $$\hbar k'$$ is associated with the wave function

\psi_{k'}(x,t)=\frac1{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int\delta(k-k')\,e^{i[kx-\omega(k)t]}dk= \frac1{\sqrt{2\pi}}\,e^{i[k'x-\omega(k')t]}. $$ Hence we may write $$\psi(x,t) = \int\overline{\psi}(k)\,\psi_{k}(x,t)\,dk.$$

$$\overline{\psi}(k)$$ is the amplitude for the outcome $$\hbar k$$ of an infinitely precise momentum measurement. $$\psi_{k}(x,t)$$ is the amplitude for the outcome $$x$$ of an infinitely precise position measurement performed (at time t) subsequent to an infinitely precise momentum measurement with outcome $$\hbar k.$$ And $$\psi(x,t)$$ is the amplitude for obtaining $$x$$ by an infinitely precise position measurement performed at time $$t.$$

The preceding equation therefore tells us that the amplitude for finding $$x$$ at $$t$$ is the product of
 * 1) the amplitude for the outcome $$\hbar k$$ and
 * 2) the amplitude for the outcome $$x$$ (at time $$t$$) subsequent to a momentum measurement with outcome $$\hbar k,$$

summed over all values of $$k.$$

Under the conditions stipulated by Rule A, we would have instead that the probability for finding $$x$$ at $$t$$ is the product of
 * 1) the probability for the outcome $$\hbar k$$ and
 * 2) the probability for the outcome $$x$$ (at time $$t$$) subsequent to a momentum measurement with outcome $$\hbar k,$$

summed over all values of $$k.$$

The latter is what we expect on the basis of standard probability theory. But if this holds under the conditions stipulated by Rule A, then the same holds with "amplitude" substituted from "probability" under the conditions stipulated by Rule B. Hence, given that $$\psi_{k}(x,t)$$ and $$\psi(x,t)$$ are amplitudes for obtaining the outcome $$x$$ in an infinitely precise position measurement, $$\overline{\psi}(k)$$ is the amplitude for obtaining the outcome $$\hbar k$$ in an infinitely precise momentum measurement.

Notes:
 * 1) Since Rule B stipulates that the momentum measurement is not actually made, we need not worry about the impossibility of making an infinitely precise momentum measurement.
 * 2) If we refer to $$|\psi(x)|^2$$ as "the probability of obtaining the outcome $$x,$$" what we mean is that $$|\psi(x)|^2$$ integrated over any interval or subset of the real line is the probability of finding our particle in this interval or subset.

NEXT >

title: This Quantum World/Feynman route


text:
User talk:Adaptive Manipulator

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Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 14:06, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Adaptive Manipulator


text:
User talk:69.30.159.228

Welcome!
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title: User talk:69.30.159.228


text:
Rueda de Casino/Enchufa con Viaje

From Guapea, start the follower off doing a Vacílala, and turn to your right at the same time, moving on the inside of the circle, to pass the next follower. Then turn to your left to meet the follower after. Altogether it's the same distance as Dame Dos.

This move is normally from the initial position (when the men are facing anti-clockwise).

title: Rueda de Casino/Enchufa con Viaje


text:
Rueda de Casino/Patín

From Guapea, the leaders meet in the middle, and link arms around each others' shoulders, then step back on the left while moving to the right, then back to where they started, then let go and turn to their left, moving to the next follower for a Dile Que No.

title: Rueda de Casino/Patín


text:
User:Herbythyme/Flyer

Communicating with editors
Important to get feedback from the first "run". Equally important that the first one is as good as we can make it.

Why?

 * 1) To improve sense of community
 * 2) To get involvement in the project as a whole
 * 3) To recruit "staff"
 * 4) To get feedback
 * 5) To continually improve Wikibooks

How?

 * 1) By bot?
 * 2) From "the staff"

When?

 * 1) On a regular basis?
 * 2) Sign up to process?

Wikibooks Gazette
Welcome to the first edition of the Wikibooks Gazette

This is a short newsletter that is being distributed to all active wikibookians. You are getting this message because you are an established contributor to the project. This newsletter will be distributed on a regular basis, to help share news, information, and tips. It comes from a bot account, User:The Staff. User:The Staff is currently operated by a team of wikibooks admins, the complete list of which is available on the user page of the bot. If you would like to not receive this newletter anymore, please leave a message indicating that at User talk:The Staff.

The work you do at Wikibooks is greatly appreciated. However there are plenty of other opportunities for you to get involved and help us to create a thriving Wikibooks community. We are sure that there are things we can do to help you and your understanding of Wikibooks and similarly there are certainly things you could do to help Wikibooks become a better place.

We would like to ask all wikibookians to add the Bulletin Board to your watchlists. The Bulletin Board is a fast and easy way for wikibookians to communicate important news and events to the entire community. If you have important news to share with the community, you can feel free to add your own entry to that page.

If you have general questions of comments about wikibooks, you are welcome to post a message on The Staff Lounge, a free discussion area. Your input would also be welcomed in the Votes for Deletion and Requests for Adminship discussion pages.

Sometimes it is easy to forget that the Wikibooks community is much larger and more diverse then the people who work in a single book, or on a single bookshelf. Hopefully, together we can all make Wikibooks a better place, and a more valuable educational resource. --User:The Staff

If you have questions or comments about this newsletter, leave a message on User talk:The Staff

title: User:Herbythyme/Flyer


text:
User talk:Waybuilder

I notice that you are adding external links to a page. In practice Wikibooks is intended to be read in a standalone fashion by its readers. As such external links are rarely relevant and content is what is needed. I do hope that you will be able to provide content in the future. Thanks -- Herby talk thyme 18:24, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Waybuilder


text:
User talk:213.217.52.125

Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is intended to be read without the need for external reference and requires content rather than external links particularly those which are for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links may include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that exist to attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page rather than re-adding it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikibooks. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 19:03, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:213.217.52.125


text:
User talk:BreakDecks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 19:23, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Gimp menu.png
Thanks for uploading Image:Gimp menu.png. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Helon 15:11, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:BreakDecks


text:
User talk:Klkc

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 19:25, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Klkc


text:
Talk:Using KDE/Basics

I feel the need to completely rewrite this. Linux users planning to install a new desktop should already know what a desktop is. Also, it's never stated that this only works on Linux. With the overwhelming majority of computers using Windows, this may be deceiving. I won't do anything to it yet, so I'll just ask for feedback.

title: Talk:Using KDE/Basics


text:
User talk:72.89.237.39

Please do not replace Wikibooks pages with blank content. Blank pages are harmful to Wikibooks because they have a tendency to confuse readers. If it is a duplicate article, please redirect it to an appropriate existing page. If the page has been vandalised, please revert it to the last legitimate version. If you feel that the content of a page is inappropriate, please edit the page and replace it with appropriate content. If you believe there is no hope for the page, please see the deletion policy for how to proceed. If page is no longer useful, insert delete to its top. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks! -- Herby talk thyme 19:43, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:72.89.237.39


text:
User talk:217.38.169.62

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 20:32, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:217.38.169.62


text:
User talk:Nkdumb24~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 22:08, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Nkdumb24. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Nkdumb24~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:32, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:18, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nkdumb24~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Rogerzam

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 22:10, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rogerzam


text:
User:Lyondif02

fr:User:Lyondif02 nha from Lyon, France.

Links to my personal pages on the other Wikimedia projects:
 * Wikipedia in French, English.
 * Wikisource in French.
 * Wiktionary in French, English.
 * Wikibooks in French.
 * Wikiversity in French, English.
 * Wikimedia meta-wiki.

title: User:Lyondif02


text:
User talk:Keillor

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 22:42, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Keillor


text:
User talk:Lyondif02

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 22:43, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lyondif02


text:
Talk:United Nations/Trusteeship Council

If anyone else would like to contribute... please do so. Neil the Cellist 22:56, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:United Nations/Trusteeship Council


text:
User talk:Rm5248

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! Xania 23:36, 5 December 2006 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:MaterialPreview.png
Thanks for uploading Image:MaterialPreview.png. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 23:51, 17 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rm5248


text:
Talk:Blender 3D Reference Guide/Buttons Reference/Logic

Re: pretty gay
The phrase "Pretty Gay" is deprecated. This should be reworded either as "attractive homosexual" or "rather lame". Proceed with caution. -Anonymous 67.176.106.192


text:
A-level Chemistry/Edexcel

The Pattern of Periodic Table - Periodicity
In the periodic table, all elements are arrived in order of increasing relative atomic mass and elements with similar properties recurred at regular intervals. The vertical column of similar elements are called groups and the horizontal row is called period. If there is one outermost electron, that element belongs to Group I. If there are 7, it belongs to Group VII.

In Group 0, the electron structure is -s(square) or -s(square)p(to the power of sixth). Because of their stable electron arrangement, noble gases have large first ionisation energies and exist as monatomic molecules. They have very low melting points and very low boiling points. The melting point increases down the column. The melting point of Helium is the lowest (3K), the 'highest' melting point of noble gases is (211K).

Group I and Group II - Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Metals The chemical properties in Group I and II metals are very similar. There are one / two s-electrons, which are held weakly by the positive nucleus. The atoms readily lose the outermost electrons and form positively charged ions.

e.g. Na = Na+ + e-

e.g. Mg = Mg2+ + 2e-

The first ionisation energy is lower than the second, as the number of shells increases, the distance between the nucleus and the electrons increases, thus the force that held the atoms and nucleus together decreases. They can form ionic bond with Group VI / VII elements and metallic structure. In metallic structure, a 'sea' of electrons between each atom held them together. This arrangement allow the atoms to 'slide' above one another without breaking the bonds. It explains the electrical and thermal conductivity of Group I and II metals.

title: A-level Chemistry/Edexcel


text:
The Computer Revolution/Networks/Intranet

What is an Intranet and what are its benefits?
An intranet is a privately maintained computer network that can be accessed only by authorized persons, especially members or employees of the organization that owns it.

The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and computing resources among employees. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups and for teleconferences over long distances. It is similar to the internet as users search for information, however it is rarely used to store information outside the scope of the users occupation and industry.

Benefits

 * 1) Simple routine question and answers can be kept on the intranet to cut down on interoffice chatter.
 * 2) Form Finding. Do your employees spend time chasing paper ? trying to hunt down paper forms, reports, documents? How much time would be saved if each form is saved on the internet and is with a few key strokes of everyone's fingertips!
 * 3) Company Growth and targets. Having such information as the company's targets and goals for each employee can educate employees on how their jobs affect the company's targets and ultimately bottom line.
 * 4) Training. By having on-line training materials. Employees can learn during their work hours right at their own desks.

So Who has Intranets?
Surprisingly enough, a lot of corporations use intranets. Most education system use them to provide on-line courses,registration information, administration steps for current students. Banks are connected to show current account information from branches across the globe. Airline have on-line booking of ticket schedules for travel agents around the world.

Ethernet crossover cable network
A simple, two-computer network between two computers can be created using an Ethernet crossover cable. As in any other TCP/IP network, each computer needs to be assigned a unique IP address. In this network configuration, a default gateway is not used and can be unspecified.

Information on how to deploy such network on Windows systems can be found here


text:
User talk:Mmaca450

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Xania 01:31, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mmaca450


text:
User talk:Joconco22

Hello Joconoco, welcome to wikibooks! Let me qualify my previous statement, it's not that there are few engineers here on wikibooks, its that the engineers that we do have tend not to write about engineering here. That is understandable, because when you get home from a long day of engineering work, the last thing you want to do in your free time is more engineering. Also, there has been some rumblings around the site that we would like to increase our membership. Personally, I would like to lay the foundations for a large number of engineering books, and then invite students and professions from around the nation to come browse, and possible contribute to them. This is a pipe dream, perhaps, but a dream none the less.

Wikibooks is very forgiving, and at the same time there is plenty that you can do before you are an "expert" at it. Some books, such as Semiconductors are small, and very much "in progress", while other books, such as Control Systems are large and elaborate. even if you have a long learning curve, there is plenty you can contribute before you are a complete wiki-wizard.

To answer your final question, there is no specific process or any authorizations that you need to start your own book. However, I do recommend that you put plenty of forethought into it before you break any ground. The first thing you want to do is find a clear and concise title for your work, History of Chemical Engineering would likely do well for the book you described. I would avoid super-long titles such as "A history of Chemical Engineering with a focus on the impact on society", or something like that. Once you have a good title in mind, go to that page, and just start writing. If you want to have more pages in your book, you could create links to them like "History of Chemical Engineering/Page 1", or "History of Chemical Engineering/Introduction".

Beyond those basics, if you need any help at all, please let me know. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 02:08, 6 December 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joconco22


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Music - Beginners


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Music - Advanced


text:
User:Makave

=My Life=

Introduction
Born in the city of Bogotá,in 1971, she was interested from an early age in issues regarding education. Her calling for teaching was influenced by her own experience as a foreign student in an English speaking country. Upon returning to her country ,she entered the Universidad Nacional de Colombia to pursue a career in Psychology. During this time, she began to teach English as a Second Language (ESL)at various language institutes and as a private tutor. In 1995, she took a break from this activity to have a family. Later, she began to work as a high school ESL teacher at different schools of Bogotá. Nowdays, she is following a graduate program in Bilingual Education with which she hopes to link her profession to her area of work.

Current work
She is currently working as Head of the English Department at a private school in Bogota, the capital of Colombia. Additionally, she teaches a reading and writing workshop in English in middle and high school grades of the same school.

title: User:Makave


text:
Bilingual Education

In our globalized world the need to know and understand each other is imperative. This book is thought out to be a reference book for teachers, students and anyone currently working on issues regarding Bilingual Education. Some of its content emerged as academic papers from a Graduate Level course in a University in Colombia.

 * 1) /Definitions of Bilingualism/
 * 2) /Models of Bilingual Education/
 * 3) /Elite and Prestige Bilingualism/
 * 4) /Coercive Power and Language/
 * 5) /Culture and Language/
 * 6) /Theory and Practice/

title: Bilingual Education


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Scales

Scales are an important building block of music. They are the basis of melodies and chords. Without knowing your scales, you are like a car mechanic without his tools.

What are scales? A good way to define a scale is to list the following characteristics:

 * A scale is an organized series of pitches
 * A scale utilizes sharps and flats, when necessary
 * A scale consist of a series of notes that differ in sound
 * A scale is linked to the concept of "Keys" in that a song which utilizes a given scale is said to be in that key (For example: "Mary had a little lamb in C major").

A major scale has 8 tones. The (C major scale) is: C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C.

These notes in the major scale form a pattern of steps between notes called whole tones, or semitones. On a piano keyboard semitones are from key to key with no keys in between, whole tones always skip a key with one key in between.

The major scale is made up of a pattern of two whole tones, followed by a semitone, followed by three whole tones, ending with one more semitone.

This illustration shows the difference between whole tones and semitones on a piano keyboard.

Notice how the whole tones skip a key on the keyboard, and semitones do not. Also you can see that two semitones makes up a whole tone. Whole tones and semitones are types of intervals.

The natural minor scale has a whole tone semitone pattern of whole tone, semitone,  whole tone, whole tone, semitone, whole tone, whole tone.

Other scales such as melodic minor, harmonic minor, pentatonic, and whole tone have different patterns of whole tones and semitones.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Clefs

In order to write a scale on your own, you are going to need to study and understand a few musical terms. The following sections will help you better understand the musical theory that makes up a scale.

Clefs
The word clef is used to describe the symbol at the beginning of the set of five lines on which notes are printed. This symbol tells the player what the notes are going to be within the five lines. In piano music both Treble and Bass clefs are used. Usually the pianists left hand plays the lower notes in the bass clef with his left hand, and the upper notes in the treble clef with his right hand.

This illustration shows a note called middle C. The note drawn in the bass clef is exactly the same note as the one drawn in the treble clef.

The set of five lines on which the notes are drawn is called a staff.

Note Names
The notes on the treble clef have different names for the notes within the lines or on the lines of the staff than the note in the bass clef. These diagrams show the names of the notes in between and on the staff lines for both treble and bass clef.

Notes names can be seen on a piano keyboard as well. The notes played with the black keys on a piano keyboard are named with the note letter plus a symbol to indicate if the note is above or below the note named by a semitone. The symbol means the note is a semitone above the note name and is called sharp. The symbol means the note is a semitone lower and is called a flat.

Notice how the black keys can each be named with two names. This is called enharmonic spelling.

Sharps and Flats
Sharps and flats are notated (drawn on the staff) by placing the sharp or flat symbol in front of the note on the staff. This example shows the notes D, E, F, and G.

Scale Root
The note that the scale starts on is called the root note. Below you can see that the first note for the C Major Scale is the note named "C"

Scale Degrees
The word degree in music simply means a number that has been assigned to each note within a scale. In the C major scale below you can see that the scale degree of E is 3, F is 4, and so on.

The scale degree number 1 will not always be assigned to the note "C". It is assigned to the starting note of the scale or key of the piece is composed in. For example a song in the key of "G" would have the scale degree 1 assigned to the note "G".

Based on what you now know about scale degrees, note names, clefs, and using the whole tone / semitone patterns shown above, you should now have enough information to write a scale in both treble and bass cleff.

/Transcluded Modules


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Note duration

The names of the types of notes come from the fraction of a measure that each note gets in bar of music in four four time. In the 4/4 time signature, the top 4 indicates how many beats are in each bar of music, and the lower 4 indicates that a quarter note gets one beat. Since four quarter notes would fill the entire bar, they are called quarter notes. A half note would get two beats, or ½ of the measure, and a whole note gets 4 beats or the whole measure.

Quarter notes have a solid note head with a stem attached.

Half notes have a hollow note head with a stem attached.

Whole notes have a hollow note head, but no stem at all.


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Bach


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Handel


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Beethoven


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Chopin


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Schubert


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Mozart


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Hayden


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Tchaikovsky


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Other composers

Many more composers articles have been written for wikipedia.
The Composers category in Wikipedia lists composers grouped by musical era.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Music/Orchestra

The modern definition of the word Orchestra tends to refer to the ensemble of mixed instrumentalists playing classical music. When you think of an orchestra, you imagine seventy or eighty or more musicians dressed in black on stage. This was not always the case.

In the musical time period known as Renaissance times (1450–1600) these musical groups not only accompanied vocal music, but played supporting music for drama. Ensembles playing this music were formed from instruments as varied as the harpsichord, viol, lute, recorder, cornett, sackbut, and organ.

The orchestras seen in the Baroque period (1600–1750) began to get bigger. Previous to this, vocal music was the most important music, and instrumental music was less so. The ability of the craftsmen to build instruments had improved to the point that the finest violins ever built were made around this time.

The orchestra of this time centered around the harpsichord. A harpsichord was like the piano of today, except a mechanical pick plucked the strings like a guitar, rather than a hammer hitting the strings like a piano. Violins, violas, cellos, and bass violins provided string sounds. Woodwind instruments like recorders, flutes, bassoons, and oboes, added color to the sound. Trumpets were used in orchestras as well, but were long natural trumpets without the more modern invention of valves. The timpani was the main percussion of the period.

Orchestras of the Baroque period were small by modern standards, numbering only about twenty to thirty players.

The next musical period is called the Classical period (1750–1825). During this period the orchestra grew to include 30-40 players. The brass section grew to include horns and trombones. Woodwinds included piccolos, clarinets, and contra bassoons (bass).

The Romantic musical period (1820–1900) brought new changes to the orchestra and it's instruments. The industrial revolution allowed for technical advances in the fabrication of instruments, especially the brass section with the invention of valved instruments. This allowed composers much more freedom in the parts they could write for all the instruments.

The tuba, bass clarinet, and many percussion instruments were added. This required additional string players to make the orchestra sound balanced. In his Symphony of a Thousand, Mahler had wrote for an orchestra containing one hundred and thirty musicians so it is clear to see with what enthusiasm composers explored the limits of possibility.

A current, professional symphony orchestra usually contains about seventy or eighty instrumentalists selected to fill the four sections of a modern orchestra; Brass, Woodwind, String, and Percussion. This will vary depending on the music being performed.

Brass Instruments

 * Horn
 * Trumpet
 * Trombone
 * Bass Trombone
 * Tuba

Woodwinds

 * Flute
 * Piccolo
 * Oboe
 * Cor anglais
 * Clarinet
 * Bass Clarinet
 * Bassoon
 * Contrabassoon

Strings

 * Harp
 * Violin
 * Viola
 * Cello
 * Double Bass
 * Piano

Percussion

 * Timpani
 * Snare Drum
 * Bass Drum
 * Celesta