text:
User talk:Koantum

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 12:40, 11 November 2006 (UTC)

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This quantum world
This looks interesting hope I can read it sometime. w:user:andersmusician --200.106.105.134 04:32, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Koantum


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects

About this Unit
From the AQA Specification:

You need to produce a portfolio of evidence which considers how light and sound can be used in a performance and the science behind the design of a lighting and sound system in a performance you attended.

Your portfolio of evidence should comprise:

A. a design for a sound system and appropriate control system for a venue you have chosen.

B. a design for a lighting set-up and control system for a performance, or part of a performance, of your choice.

C. a description and evaluation of a sound and lighting system used in a performance you have attended.

How you will be assessed
This unit is assessed through the work you complete for your portfolio.

The marking criteria are found in the AQA specification.

What you need to know
The nature of sound and its application to sound systems.

Sound control systems

The nature of light and its application to lighting systems

Lighting control systems

Evaluating a performance

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects/Sound

Before designing a sound system, you need to understand the nature of sound.

how sound travels

frequency and pitch

amplitude and volume

 * Measure the speed of sound

Know how temperature, pressure, humidity, etc. affect the speed of sound

Measure reflection, refraction and diffraction

Measure resonance

Understand interference

Measure the absorption of sound at different types of surfaces

Measure the reflection of sound at different types of surfaces

consider how the sound is to be transferred from the stage to the auditorium.

ensure that the sound quality is reasonably consistent throughout the auditorium

• the type and quality of equipment used; • the number and type of microphones and loudspeakers used; • the positioning of loudspeakers and microphones; • the shape of the performance area; • the position of the audience; • the position of the performers; • the materials used in the performance area.

Introduction
Many people use one or two rooms in their living space as "theatrical" rooms where theater or music room activities commence. It is a common misconception that adding speakers to the room will enhance the quality of the room acoustics. There are other simple things that can be done to increase the room's acoustics to produce sound that is similar to "theatre" sound. This site will take you through some simple background knowledge on acoustics and then explain some solutions that will help improve sound quality in a room.

Room Sound Combinations
The sound you hear in a room is a combination of direct sound and indirect sound. Direct sound will come directly from your speakers while the other sound you hear is reflected off of various objects in the room.

The Direct sound is coming right out of the TV to the listener, as you can see with the heavy black arrow. All of the other sound is reflected off surfaces before they reach the listener.

Good and Bad Reflected Sound
Have you ever listened to speakers outside? You might have noticed that the sound is thin and dull. This occurs because when sound is reflected, it is fuller and louder than it would if it were in an open space. So when sound is reflected, it can add a fullness, or spaciousness. The bad part of reflected sound occurs when the reflections amplify some notes, while cancelling out others, making the sound distorted. It can also affect tonal quality and create an echo-like effect. There are three types of reflected sound, pure reflection, absorption, and diffusion. Each reflection type is important in creating a "theatre" type acoustic room.

Reflected Sound
Reflected sound waves, good and bad, effect the sound you hear, where it comes from, and the quality of the sound when it gets to you. The bad news when it comes to reflected sound is standing waves.more on standing waves These waves are created when sound is reflected back and forth between any two parallel surfaces in your room, ceiling and floor or wall to wall. Standing waves can distort noises 300 Hz and down. These noises include the lower mid frequency and bass ranges. Standing waves tend to collect near the walls and in corners of a room, these collecting standing waves are called room resonance modes.

Finding your room resonance modes
First, specify room dimensions (length, width, and height). Then follow this example:

1. There are some room dimensions that produce the largest amount of standing waves.
a. Cube

b. Room with 2 out of the three dimensions equal

c. Rooms with dimensions that are multiples of each other

Absorbed
The sound that humans hear is actually a form of acoustic energy. Different materials absorb different amounts of this energy at different frequencies. When considering room acoustics, there should be a good mix of high frequency absorbing materials and low frequency absorbing materials. A table including information on how different common household absorb sound can be found here.

Diffused Sound
Using devices that diffuse sound is a fairly new way of increasing acoustic performance in a room. It is a means to create sound that appears to be "live". They can replace echo-like reflections without absorbing too much sound.

Some ways of determining where diffusive items should be placed were found on this website.

1.) If you have carpet or drapes already in your room, use diffusion to control side wall reflections.

2.) A bookcase filled with odd-sized books makes an effective diffusor.

3.) Use absorptive material on room surfaces between your listening position and your front speakers, and treat the back wall with diffusive material to re-distribute the reflections.

How to Find Overall Trouble Spots In a Room
Every surface in a room does not have to be treated in order to have good room acoustics. Here is a simple method of finding trouble spots in a room.

1.) Grab a friend to hold a mirror along the wall near a certain speaker at speaker height.

2.) The listener sits in a spot of normal viewing.

3.) The friend then moves slowly toward the listening position (stay along the wall).

4.) Mark each spot on the wall where the listener can see any of the room speakers in the mirror.

5.) Congratulations! These are the trouble spots in the room that need an absorptive material in place.  Don't forget that diffusive material can also be placed in those positions.

Speed of sound in air
Mach number is the ratio of the object's speed to the speed of sound in air (medium).

Sound in solids
In solids, the velocity of sound depends on density of the material, not its temperature. Solid materials, such as steel, conduct sound much faster than air.

Experimental methods
In air a range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound.

Single-shot timing methods
The simplest concept is the measurement made using two microphones and a fast recording device such as a digital storage scope. This method uses the following idea.

If a sound source and two microphones are arranged in a straight line, with the sound source at one end, then the following can be measured:

1. The distance between the microphones (x) 2. The time delay between the signal reaching the different microphones (t)

Then v = x/t

An older method is to create a sound at one end of a field with an object that can be seen to move when it creates the sound. When the observer sees the sound-creating device act they start a stopwatch and when the obsever hears the sound they stop their stopwatch. Again using v = x/t you can calculate the speed of sound. A separation of at least 200 m between the two experimental parties is required for good results with this method.

Other methods
In these methods the time measurement has been replaced by a measurement of the inverse of time (frequency).

Kundt's tube is an example of an experiment which can be used to measure the speed of sound in a small volume, it has the advantage of being able to measure the speed of sound in any gas. This method uses a powder to make the nodes and antinodes visible to the human eye. This is an example of a compact experimental setup.

A tuning fork can be held near the mouth of a long pipe which is dipping into a barrel of water, in this system it is the case that the pipe can be brought to resonance if the length of the air column in the pipe is equal to ( {1+2n}/λ ) where n is an integer. As the antinodal point for the pipe at the open end is slightly outside the mouth of the pipe it is best to find two or more points of resonance and then measure half a wavelength between these.

Here it is the case that v = fλ


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects/Sound control systems

Sound in a venue can be controlled by a sound control system.

Explain:

• how a sound system works;

• how sound can be controlled;

• the characteristics of an effective control system;

• digital and analogue systems;

• feedback and how it can be incorporated into a control system.


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects/Light

You need to know about:

• how light travels.

• the intensity and amplitude of light.

• the relationship between distance from a light source and intensity

• the relationship between the frequency, wavelength and colour

• the three primary colours of light, complementary colours and how they combine

• the production of a spectrum from white light

• lighting effects (silhouettes, shadows, lightning flashes, optical illusions, etc.)

• lighting aids (footlights, floodlights, stroboscopes, dimmer boards, dimmer racks, slide projectors, data projectors, colour wheels, mirror balls, lasers, etc.)

You need to measure:

• the reflection of light by plane and curved surfaces.

• the refraction of light by prisms and lenses.

• the use of colour filters

• reflection and absorption of light to colour objects


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects/Lighting control systems

Light in an auditorium can be controlled by a lighting control system.

Explain:

• how light levels are controlled;

• how to produce a system to control light;

• the characteristics of an effective control system;

• analogue and digital systems.


text:
A-level Applied Science/Physics of Performance Effects/Evaluating a performance

 * Describe the sound system.

 * Describe the lighting set-up.
 * Calculate the cost of lighting the performance.


text:
IB Theory of Knowledge

Theory of Knowledge, colloquially referred to as ToK, is a compulsory course for all students earning the IB diploma. In the course, the aim is to help IB students become effective critical thinkers, with a greater goal being to develop IB learners: 'internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world.' The Theory of Knowledge course, along with the Extended Essay, are intended to unify the other academic subject of each student.

The course is centered around the study of 'Ways of Knowing', 'Areas of Knowledge' and 'Knowledge Issues', and encourages students to question what they already know in an abstract manner, by asking questions such as 'What counts as knowledge?' or 'What is the value of knowledge?'

The classroom environment is usually very discussion-based, and the course thus has a secondary function of helping students develop their oral expression skills.

General Information
The length of the course varies slightly between schools, but it must comprise of a minimum of 100 teaching hours. Classes are composed of various activities which depend upon the instructor. Examples include:
 * Guided discussions
 * Readings
 * Class presentations
 * Essays

Grading
The final TOK grade is outputted to an A-E grade. The A-E grade is determined by a: The outputted A-E grade is used in conjunction with the Extended Essay A-E grade and can contribute up to 3 points the diploma. Because these are the only two grades taken into consideration for TOK by the IB, it is recommended that students practice essays and presentations.
 * 10 point "Essay on a prescribed title" worth 67% of the final TOK grade (graded externally)
 * 10 point oral presentation worth 33% of the final TOK grade (graded internally by the subject teacher)

The Theory of Knowledge components and diagram
The TOK diagram is an organization system of the Areas of Knowledge, Ways of Knowing, and the Knower. It is not a set-in-stone form, but rather a suggestion that may be debated upon in a Theory of Knowledge manner. The three components are integral to the TOK course and should be analyzed in great depth in order to make sure each student understands what they can describe. By knowing what each component can describe, a student may and should make well thought out conclusions concerning the components. They are broken up as follows.

Areas of Knowledge
Areas of Knowledge (AOKs) are in effect disciplines in which knowledge may be based. Certain knowledge may overlap certain AOKs or not fit well with any of them, however most knowledge and specific disciplines taken into consideration during the course do fit.
 * Mathematics
 * Natural Sciences
 * Human Sciences
 * History
 * The Arts
 * Ethics
 * Religious Knowledge Systems
 * Indigenous Knowledge Systems
 * Cultural Connection

Ways of Knowing
Ways of Knowing (WOKs) are tools which can be used by knowers in order to obtain and manipulate knowledge.
 * Language
 * Sense perception
 * Emotion
 * Reason/Logic
 * Imagination
 * Faith
 * Intuition
 * Memory

Knower
The knower is not broken up. It represents whatever "knows." Meanings associated with the knower and "knowing" should be discussed.

Discussions
The guided discussions generally relate to the various Areas of Knowledge and Ways of Knowing, and can be specific or inclusive of all Areas and/or Ways. It is helpful for most candidates to actively engage in and participate in discussions, challenging the basis of knowledge. In many cases there is no real "right answer." As such, students probably will debate during the class discussions. Instructors should guide these debates, however should not interfere too far as to not allow students to arrive at their own conclusions. Discussions on the AOKs and WOKs may manifest themselves in many, many ways. For example, a class spent 5 one-hour classes (the entire week) debating if machines can truly know as humans do. They were split into groups with one side affirmative and the other negative. Our group took the stance that they could not, which we initially believed would be easy to defend. We defined machines as a tool programmed by humans, and as such, were merely a more complex form of a hammer or chisel. The negative side however began talking of A.I., and used the example of the lifesaving ability of a water machine, which saved a child's life. They claimed that the machine knew the child was in danger, and reacted. Thus, the argument went on, and on, and on. Other discussions may center around heated topics such as current events or global warming. Care should be taken to keep the discussion TOK related by guiding the students to use analysis from a TOK perspective.

The IBO intends the program to develop critical thinking, and as a result creates questions that are thought provoking. One such question would involve explaining the consequences if the very foundations of knowledge were wrong, as all current knowledge is purportedly based on past knowledge. Often, such discussions span more than one classroom session, as shown above.

Definitions
It is necessary to provide a definition of any term before it can be properly discussed. This ensures that every person taking part in the discussion is aware of the context in which the term is being used, in order to avoid confusion. For example, if you are making a discussion of language, it is important to know if a person is making an argument about language based on traditional, spoken languages, or if they are talking about all languages in general, including body language and computer programming languages. An argument that may be valid for one definition may not be valid for another.

Definition of terms is especially important in the externally marked TOK essay. As with any externally marked paper, clarity is of utmost importance.

The Oral Presentation
Each Theory Of Knowledge student must prepare an internally moderated (marked) oral presentation lasting up to 10 minutes (per person in a group). There are no limits on what you wish to talk about, and thus, the choice is merely interest. A student may choose to talk about fashion, media, the Internet, philosophies, physics, etc. The use of visual aids is completely optional (your instructor may or may not allow them). Some students may choose to sit and talk for 10 minutes, and others may choose to use a poster or Power Point presentation to guide them, although these will not be marked. The focus should thus be on the oral component.

Whatever topic you choose, be sure to relate it in some way to Areas of Knowledge and Ways of Knowing.

Regular reference to both the Ways of Knowing and the Areas of Knowledge are a must for every aspect of TOK. These "dominions", for lack of a better word, often make or break arguments, with conclusions such as "machines cannot know through emotion" but can "know through perception" being formulated. This allows for some sort of middle ground to be reached.

Essay on a prescribed title
The "Essay on a prescribed title" topics are made available in the September before the May exam session. Students may choose from one of six titles. Carefully examine all of them, and look for which you find most interesting in the context of Areas of Knowledge, Knowledge Issues, and Ways of Knowing.

Remember to include:
 * Definitions
 * Note that it is important to define what you plan on talking about. In the machine question (shown above), define what a machine is and consider what defines knowing.
 * Ample usage, discussion and exploration of
 * Ways of Knowing pertaining to your topic
 * Knowledge Issues pertaining to your topic
 * Areas of Knowledge pertaining to your topic

When writing the final essay, it is imperative that you very clearly define your argument and the context and definitions of all terms. This will prevent ambiguities that risk confusing your argument. To continue with the example "Can Machines Know", it is important to define "machines". For example, a machine could be defined as anything from "any piece of technology, future, past, or present that operates by mechanical, non organic means," to "a device capable of performing a series of tasks to do work." The scope of your definitions solidify the meaning of your argument, as different arguments can be made based on different interpretations of words.

Example Questions
The following may be copyright material from the IBO prescribed title list, and thus are intended solely for individual study purposes.
 * What is the difference between “I am certain” and “it is certain”?
 * Is passionate conviction ever sufficient for justifying knowledge?
 * Can a machine know?
 * What is the difference between knowing a friend and knowing how to swim?
 * Discuss the roles of language and reason in history.
 * The traditional TOK diagram indicates four Ways of Knowing. Propose the inclusion of a fifth Way of Knowing selected from intuition, memory or imagination, and examine the knowledge issues it may rise on two Areas of Knowing.

Deciding to Take the Course
If you are an IB Diploma candidate, the course is compulsory.

Otherwise, if you are curious about the ramifications of the basis that all knowledge is incorrect, and if you enjoy asking questions such as "How do we know what we know?", "What does knowing truly mean?" and enjoy both challenging the very fibers of societal knowledge and pondering the state of the universe, then TOK will provide a forum to ponder these questions.

Resources

 * Samples of TOK essay templates

title: IB Theory of Knowledge


text:
Horticulture/Nipponanthemum nipponicum

The Nippon daisy (Nipponanthemum nipponicum, synonyms include Chrysanthemum nipponicum and Leucanthemum nipponicum) is a large bushy perennial which is grown for its good foliage and the large daisy-like flowers in mid- to late autumn.

Description
The plant grows as a mounded, shrub-like perennial up to 3 ft. tall with a wider spread. The leaves are a good dark green, and can be semi-evergreen. Flowers are heads 2-4" wide, with white rays and yellow disks. Stems are stout, green but turning light brown when old, and can root at the nodes if they are allowed to contact the soil.

Growing conditions
Nippon daisy prefers full sun and a rich, well-drained soil. It can survive drought but may wilt temporarily if the soil becomes extremely dry. This plant becomes very large very quickly, so should be sited somewhere where there is ample space.

Varieties
While there are few cultivars of this species, it has been used as a parent plant for hybrid chrysanthemums.

Uses
Grown for fall display and as a cut flower.

Maintenance
The plants can be cut back by 1/2 in midsummer to encourage a more compact, bushy habit, but it will be completely covered in blooms at the end of the season even if not cut back.

Propagation
Propagate by layering or division. Cuttings with buds can be rooted indoors over winter and planted outdoors in spring, but will not mature enough to bloom for several years.

Harvesting
As a cut flower, Nippon daisy has a long life in the vase if cut soon after they fully expand. Unopened flowers do not mature well.

Pests and diseases
This plant rarely has serious problems, but can get the same pests and diseases as Chrysanthemums.

title: Horticulture/Nipponanthemum nipponicum


text:
Vietnamese/Food

Food and Drink

The everyday food of Vietnamese is usually rice with meat and soup. Special foods include Phở and Bún bò.

For more Vietnamese dishes, please see: Cookbook:Cuisine of Vietnam.

title: Vietnamese/Food


text:
XForms/Validate

This program demonstrates how to validate an instance document using an XML Schema. This is typically done before a document is submitted to a web service.

Sample Code
To be done...

title: XForms/Validate


text:
Vietnamese/K vs. kh

K vs. kh

‘K’ & ‘kh’ are two of the 28 consonant symbols in the Vietnamese language. ‘K’ is produced fortis and unaspirated. It is similar to the ‘c’ in cat. In Vietnamese language it is similar to ‘c’ and ‘q’ (In Vietnamese language there are only 21 consonant phonemes). Perhaps one of the most common words beginning with ‘k’ is kem which means ice cream and kẹo which means candy. ‘Kh’ is produced lenis voiceless dorsovelar spirant. The most common ‘kh’ word is không which means no or not though there are less common meanings as well. ‘Khỏe’ which means strong and healthy is another common word. To place ‘khỏe không’ after a personal referent is to enquire as to another’s health - literally: ‘you well no?’ as in ’em khỏe không?’ Also in these times of fast food, the ubiquitous french fry is known as ‘khoai tây chiên’ meaning ‘potato fry’.

title: Vietnamese/K vs. kh


text:
XForms/Facet Validation

Motivation
XML Schemas contain a large amount of data element constraint information other than just the data type. These restrictions on a specific data type are called "facets". Different data types have different types of facets. For example strings may have minimum and maximum length values and integers may have minimum and maximum numeric values.

This program demonstrates how XForms can validate a data set based on the facets within and XML Schema.

Warnings
Note: This program does not run under the FireFox 0.6 extension.

The X-Smiles browser was used to demonstrate this program.

Screen Image
This screen image was taken from the X-Smiles implementation of XForms.

Note that the second field is not at least three characters long so the field is invalid and the background it set to pink according to the CSS style for invalid fields.

XML Schema (schema.xsd)
Here is a simple XML Schema with four strings. The first one is only allowed to be two characters long. The second must have a minimum length of three characters. The third string must not be over five characters long and the fourth one must be between five and seven characters long to be valid.

Sample Program
The following program loads both the XML Schema and initial instance data from two external files (schema.xsd and instance.xml). The initial data in this example is valid but you can change the data to test the validation.

The two lines that load the XML Schema and instance data are:

Also note that the input fields have the incremental attribute set to true. This allows character-by-character validation. The form is revalidated with each key stroke.

title: XForms/Facet Validation


text: User talk:196.218.143.152

title: User talk:196.218.143.152


text:
User talk:Hello06

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:Hello06


text:
User talk:Holy twig~enwikibooks

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Holy twig. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Holy twig~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:13, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:02, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Holy twig~enwikibooks


text:
Kapampangan/Introducing Yourself, Part Two

Part A: Description
This lesson is a follow up of the previous one, here we learn the variations that we can introduce in order to show respect for the elderly as Bob joins the conversation.

The first thing to remember is that the word pu should be used after the subject of the sentence to show respect. So sentences like Áku y George become Áku pu y George.

Next we need to learn a new pronoun: you has a different form if it is used to talk to an older person, or if it is used to speak to several people. This new form is ikayú which can be abbreviated into kayú. The corresponding possessive pronoun, your is yu instead of mu.

When talking to an elderly, wa cannot be used. Instead you should use ópo (Tag) which also means yes, but shows respect at the same time.

Finally, we have just one more essential words to learn: íni this

Part B: Application
It is George's first interview for a job after leaving university. He has an appointment with his new boss which is Bob, a 50 year old professional. For the interview Bob is accompanied by Kevin, a young colleague of Bob that will have to work with George. Bob arrives into the room followed by Kevin and shakes George's hand.

Try to understand the conversation below between George, Bob and Kevin.

Now let us analyse, sentence by sentence, what is happening.

Part C: Exercises
Write the following conversation in Kapampangan and then read it aloud:

 * You meet what seems to be an elderly relative of your friend in that same party, but you are not certain: ask them their name.
 * They are indeed: introduce yourself to them, and express how nice it is to meet them.
 * Finally, introduce a friend to them.

Solutions

Then,

Part D: Summary
You can now introduce yourself in Kapampangan with the correct level of respect that is expected of you. Also you have learned the following new words and phrases:

Grammar rules that you now know:

 * The possessive pronoun corresponding to íka is mu
 * The possessive pronoun corresponding to ikayú is yu
 * The respectful particle pu is always placed after the subject of a sentence.

Part E: Politeness and respect
You may be surprised that you need to learn a different version of a word in order to be able to express politeness. But Kapampangan is not the only language that has a complex linguistic system to show respect. Japanese is known to have such a complex linguistic system to show respect that it even has different verbs for some words like give, depending on the hierarchical level in which you are and the one in which the person you give to is. Much closer to English, French, just like Kapampangan, uses the plural form of you (2nd person plural: vous) to talk to a single person in a respectful level of language, and so does Russian. Italian uses the third person singular and feminine instead (Lei), even if the person you are talking to is male. German uses the plural of the 3rd person feminine (Sie). And finally even in old English, you was used to show respect, while thou was used when respect was not required.

Continue to ../Where Are You From?/


text:
Talk:Haskell/Recursion

Too much recursion
"A note on equation order

Unlike the other example, the order of the two recursive declarations is important. Haskell matches function calls starting at the top and picking the first one that matches. In this case, if we had the equation starting factorial n before the 'special case' starting factorial 0, then the general n would match anything passed into it, including, importantly, 0. So a call factorial 0 would match on the general, n case, the compiler would conclude that factorial 0 equals 0 * factorial -1, and so on to negative infinity. Not what we want."

Just a student's opinion: the compiler is not so mathematically well optimized in this particular situation, probably it would be wise to stop recursion in the case of multipling by 0, as the result of any more multiplication will be also 0. Maybe has this something with lazyness? - Gery Mate

 * But the compiler is doing exactly what you asked it to. The problem here is a mismap between intent and what one wrote: we intend to say that our factorial function is only defined on n >= 0, or the set of natural numbers, but what we wrote is that factorial is valid for all integers, positive and negative. This is an argument for either making this restriction explicit in the code, or better typing. I don't think Haskell has a "Natural" type though. --Gwern (contribs) 02:20, 15 February 2007 (UTC)

Removed example
I removed the following example from the "aside" section:

An example: sometimes you'll want to read input from the user that includes linebreaks/newlines. A looping solution would be to read a line of input, append it to a string variable containing all previous lines, check it for whatever marks the end of the input (ending the loop if true, or looping again if false). Here's a recursive solution which will accumulate input until the '.' is input:

To me, this seems too advanced to go at this point in the book. I suppose that's arguable, but at any rate I don't think the example adds all that much to the text at this point. It's a nice example, though, so I'm putting it here for someone else to do something with (which could of course include putting it back in a way that makes sense =).

--Byorgey 22:01, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

The exercise on (!!)
What should (!!) do when its first argument is the empty list? --GPhilip (talk) 08:38, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

 * The predefined (!!) in the Haskell Prelude raises an exception in that case.

[] !! n = error "index too large"
 * -- apfeλmus 09:41, 30 December 2007 (UTC)

Operator Precedence
In the list concatenation example, the pattern-match recursive case is: (x:xs) ++ ys = x : xs ++ ys

How come this isn't evaluated as "(x:xs) ++ ys" rather than the implicitly intended "x : (xs ++ ys)"? Doesn't Haskell evaluate from left to right?
 * Destynova (talk) 04:41, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The right word is "operator precedence", the word "evaluation order" already has a different meaning. What happens here is similar to the well known fact that multiplication  binds tighter than addition , so   parses as  . For the precedence of the predefined operators from the Prelude, see also Fixity Declarations in the Haskell Report. You will note that   and   have the same precedence, but there's a second property called "fixity" which says whether   parses as   or as   or doesn't parse at all. Both   and   parse in the right-associative way and this explains what happens here.
 * -- apfeλmus 09:38, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Replicate
In this chapter in the excercises, there is an excercise to make a 'replicate' function. However, if you define this in your haskell file and load it into GHCi, GHCi becomes confused if you mean the Prelude-build-in replicate or your own replicate function from the excercise, and starts complaining about ambiguity. Therefore, I renamed 'replicate' to 'replicat'. Feel free to rename to a better solution. --H.Kwint 82.170.165.133 (talk) 02:06, 7 March 2009 (UTC)

Suggestion for mult exercise
'mult' as defined in the page will do excessive iterations in some cases where $$n < m$$. Does anyone else think that it would be a good idea to create an exercise and get the reader to come up with a version of 'mult' that doesn't do excessive iterations? Wei2912 (discuss • contribs) 16:05, 9 November 2014 (UTC)

"ghci> let ..;.." in single line works without curly braces
let factorial 0 = 1; factorial n = n * factorial (n - 1) -- works

tested with ghci 7.6.3, 7.10.2, with basic settings

 * Thanks for catching that. I will trim the note. (Perhaps it would be better to remove it altogether?) --Duplode (discuss • contribs) 11:54, 28 September 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Haskell/Recursion


text:
The Cold War/How did it all start?

After six long years of bloodshed, World War 2 had finally come to an end. Europe was a complete junkyard - dead bodies littered the streets, buildings were destroyed, rubble was everywhere - you probably get the idea now. But the nation that was affected most by this destruction was the Soviet Union.

Over 20 million Soviet citizens died in the conflict and hundreds of thousands of buildings lay in ruin. The damage was horrendous. Stalin, the Soviet leader at that time, was absolutely furious. He didn't want his country to be ever again invaded by the countries in the West, like it had been by Nazi Germany - and he would go to practically any length to prevent this from happening again.

He decided that he would make Eastern Europe his "defence layer" to protect the USSR from any future military threat from the West, by putting communist governments there that would directly obey orders from Moscow.

Asia had also been severely impacted by the Second World War. Japan had been bombed into submission by the Americans, both by conventional bombing which had destroyed large cities such as Tokyo, and by the atomic bomb which had destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The response and the "Iron Curtain"
The Americans and British were angered at these actions. They had been fighting for a free, democratic Europe that would be liberated from the "evil" and murderous ideology of Nazism. But when they found out that the USSR was forcing the countries in Eastern Europe to accept communism, by stationing their troops right next to the polling stations in order to intimidate the voters, they felt that they their very cause, which had cost the lives of millions, had been simply put to waste. They felt that their former ally had betrayed them and grabbed this opportunity to spread and enforce communism throughout the world.

title: The Cold War/How did it all start?


text:
Croatian/Main Contents/Level 1/Lesson 16

And as for that...: A što se toga tiče

Achoo!: Apćiha!

A pleasant journey: Sretan put (lit. Happy/lucky path/trip/way)

Awesome!: Zakon! or ''Fora! (lit. Law! or Joke!), Super!, Mrak!

Anyhow...: Bilo kako bilo,... (lit. It was as it was) or U svakom slučaju... (lit. In any case...)

But still...: Ipak...

Incredible!: Svaka čast (lit. Every honor) or Nevjerojatno!

I don't know: Ne znam

I'm cold: Zima mi je (lit. "Winter is to me"), hladno mi je

Good for you: Blago tebi (lit. Treasure to you)

You're welcome: Nema na čemu or Molim (polite, reply to "thank you")

Never!: Nikada! or Ni u ludilu (Not even in madness)

Good night: Laku noć (lit. Easy night)

Goodbye: Zbogom (lit. With god) or Doviđenja (lit: until [the next] seeing) shorter: bok (bye! Hi!)

Welcome!: Dobrodošli!

What are we going to do?: Što ćemo?

Ow!: Joj! (can also be used as "wow")

Uh-oh: O-o or Ajoj

Yeow!: Jao! (Note: The phrase Jao meni would mean "poor me")

Good luck: Sretno (lit. Lucky)

Never mind: Nema veze (lit. No link)

Leave me alone: ''Pusti me na miru (lit. Leave me on peace)

To put an end to...: Stati na kraj... (lit. To step on the end of...)

Do your best: Daj sve od sebe (lit. Give everything from you)

Shut up!: Začepi! (lit. cork), Kuš!

I swear: Časna riječ (lit. Honorable word) or Kunem se

Die!: Umri! or Crkni!

After all...: Na kraju krajeva... (lit. On the end of the ends)

Get lost!: Briši! (lit. wipe), Gubi se!, Nosi se! (lit. Carry yourself!)

In your dreams!: Malo sutra! (lit. A little tomorrow)

Cheers: Živjeli (lit. Pl. live) or U zdravlje (lit. Into the health)

Hurry!: Požuri
 * Quickly!: Brže (lit. faster)

C'mon: Hajde or Daj (come on already!)

Bless you: Nazdravlje (lit. On health)

... by itself: ''... samo od sebe (lit. alone of itself)

On the spot: Na licu mjesta (lit. on the face of the place)

No (sarcastically): Kako da ne (lit. How that no)

Oh god!: Bože!, Bože sačuvaj (lit. God preserve), Bože dragi (lit. dear God)

When pigs fly:Kad na vrbi rodi grožđe (lit. when willow gives birth to grapes)

Yeah, right! (sarcastic): Da, baš! or Možeš si misliti! (lit. You can think (so))

It's raining: Kiši or Pada kiša (lit. The rain is falling)

It's raining cats and dogs: Lijeva k'o iz kabla (k'o is the abbreviated pronunciation of 'kao')

We're here: Tu smo (lit. here we are) or after a trip Stigli smo (lit. we came)

This way!: Ovuda!

I can't wait: Jedva čekam (lit. I'm barely waiting)

Shoo!: Iš!

Shoo! (for cats): Šic!!!

Shoo! (for dogs): Marš!!! (also means: march)

Yuck!: Fuj! or Bljak!

Tit for tat: Milo za drago (lit. Dear for dear)

Here, kitty, kitty: Mic, mic!

That's right!: Tako je! (lit. It's like that)

True: Istina (lit. Truth)

Oh, my!: Ajme (meni)! or Ajoj!

Well... Err...: Ovaj... Pa...

Wow!: Opa!

Next Lesson


text:
XForms/Bind to ranges

Motivation
Your output can be created from calculations from many inputs. The rules behind these calculations (sometimes called business rules) should be stored in the model, not the view.

Screen Image
This program has two inputs and one output. The output is calculated by multiplying the two inputs together. As you move the range controls the output should be updated.

Sample Program

Discussion
Note that the output is just inputs and outputs. The calculation that multiplies the two inputs together is done in the output bind statement.

title: XForms/Bind to ranges


text:
User talk:204.10.221.252

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.--Az1568(Talk) 17:56, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:204.10.221.252


text:
C++ Programming/TOC2

C++ Programming

v1 Contents >> and Editor's TOC >>

C++ Language Essentials

 * Functions - Arguments, return values, recursive functions, function pointers and overloading.
 * Pointers
 * ../Memory Management/
 * Unions
 * Operator Overloading
 * Inheritance - Base, parent, child and multiple inheritance concepts.
 * Polymorphism - Virtualization and abstraction.
 * Templates
 * Runtime Type Information (RTTI)
 * ../Exception Handling/

Standard Library

 * Standard Template Library (STL)

Beyond the Standard

 * Multithreading
 * Introduction to design patterns
 * Optimizing Your Programs

Appendices

 * ../Glossary/
 * ../Cheat Sheet/
 * ../Standard Headers/
 * ../Operators Table/
 * ../Examples/
 * Resources - Various C++ websites, compilers, libraries, forums and online books, etc.
 * Books

C++-Programmierung Programación en C Más Más Programmation C plus plus C++ Си++

title: C++ Programming/TOC2


text:
Scienceshow/Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology Demonstration Experiments and Hands-on Activities

 * For info on nanotechnology, see the Opensource Wiki Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
 * There is a brainstorm for new experiments on the Discussion page

=Completed Guides=
 * Under preparation in English, but there are numerous in the danish version

All guides are listed on the overview page

=Show sequences=

Show: Intro to nanotech
This show sequence contains material for easily more than 2 hours of stand-up nanotechnology show with plenty of hands-on activities to keep the audience occupied for much longer. There is a kind of red thread going through the show, but emphasis is on showing the wide variety of nanoscale phenomena people will see in their every day life or that can be demonstrated without complicated setups.

Why things are white
This is not really nano, it only shows is that microstructured surfaces can give the white color and is different from the rayleigh scattering in nanoparticles described later.

Light scattering in transparent materials

 * Large transparent crystals and small white crystals (salt, sand, glass...) pieces are white, bulk is transparent.
 * Refraction in a prism gives a rainbow, many refractions in disordered materials give white light.
 * refraction in a droplet of water or a round-bottom bottle of water can make a rainbow
 * Guide: Making Clouds with Liquid Nitrogen. Clouds, make them with liquid nitrogen, could give us a rainbow, but are white because of multiple refractions.

Index matching
How to make white things disappear
 * Guide: Transparent Wool. Wool and silk, make wool transparent by submerging it in benzyl alcohol that matches the refractive index of the wool.
 * Guide: Invisible Glass. Invisible glass in an index matching transparent oil. Cooking oil and pyrex glass work well. You can make fun things like taking a pieces of a broken glass and put them in a jar with oil and then pull out a whole glass you have put in there previously to magically repair the broken glass.

Mixing liquids like glycerol and water can make solutions with intermediate refractive indexes.

Graded index matching
By gradually changing the index of refraction, reflections can be avoided. This can be done by nanostructuring surfaces. For instance silicon surface etched into small spikes becomes black (silicon black) unlike the silvery shine of the smooth surface.

The blue sky

 * Small nanoparticles, smaller or about the wavelength of light, scatter light depending on the wavelength to the fourth power - so blue light is scattered very much while red isn't.
 * Guide: Colloidal Sunset. We make sulfur nanoparticles in a vial on a overhead projector, and you can see the red light going through while the blue gets scattered. SO the sunset you see and the blue sky above you are caused by nanoparticles in the air (salt, clay, smoke...). A too dense solution of nanoparticles give white light (ok, slightly yellow because sulfur is yellow).
 * See the difference in polarization in the blue light
 * Polarizer film NT45-668 8.5x15" 35 USD
 * An easy way to make nanoparticles is also to add a couple of sulfur crystals to ethanol and leave it to make a saturated solution (probably a few mg pr ml is enough to saturate it). The add drops of the solution to water and sulfur nanoparticles form instantly. Propylene glycol should make it possible to make more concentrated solutions (Stable Colloidal Sulfur Solutions, M. W. Brenner; Joseph L. Owades, Science, New Series, Vol. 119, No. 3104. (Jun. 25, 1954), p. 911.). Zeta potential of sulfur nanoparticles from isopropanol solution is -50mV.
 * Its a similar effect you see in some alcoholic drinks like Ouzo, where the anis oil forms oil droplets in the alcohol when too much water is added.
 * Guide: Milk and Nanoparticles. Diluted low-fat homogenized milk show the same effect, so here we have nanoparticles of fat that give the white color. Laser scattering in milk

Silver nanoparticles

 * Guide: Silver Mirror Coating.
 * Synthesize silver mirror to show how nanoscale metal films are still metallic.
 * Guide: Silver Nanoparticle Synthesis. Synthesize silver nanoparticles and show how light going through a dilute solution is red while the reflected (backscattered) light is green-blue. These particles have a plasmon resonance in the yellow frequency range, so they scatter blue to yellow light and let the red pass through.
 * Metal nanoparticles are used for many things - the red color in some pregnancy tests is from gold nanoparticles.

Gold nanoparticles

 * Simple glucose based synthesis, see also DOI 10.1039/b512540e
 * Detailed information Modeling of Formation of Gold Nanoparticles by Citrate Method Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 46 (10), 3128 -3136, 2007.

Dyes and fluorescent molecules

 * These are not really nanostructures, but chemical compunds that have unique optical properties (but quite a lot of chemistry is being called 'nano' these days)
 * Guide: Nile Blue Fluorescence. Nile blue in alcohol - show the red fluorescence when you shine a green laser pointer on it. The molecule absorbs green to red light and can also emit red light when it has absorbed green.
 * Guide: Fluorescent Dyes. Rhodamin dyes and other fluorescent dyes ( Quinine in tonic water)

Spectrometers and diffraction

 * We need a method to distinguish all these strange optical phenomena, and luckily nanostructured surfaces can be used to do so.
 * Guide: Compact Disc Spectrometer. Compact discs - the diffraction in the 'morse-code' bit pattern on the CD surface gives interference of the scattered light that can be seen as bright rainbows. Using the CD you can get an idea about what colors are coming from different light sources. Try looking at a old-fashioned lamp and compare it to a fluorescent tube - the tube has distinct bands from the fluorescent molecules on the inside coating of the tube.
 * Guide: Diffraction Grating Spectrometer. Using diffraction gratings it is easier to see the effect, and you can investigate for instance discharge tubes and light enmitting diodes.

Subwavelength optical elements

 * Monolayers of polystyrene spheres can give nice diffraction patterns.
 * Liquid crystals and polarization effects

Tuning the material properties

 * Guide: Light Emitting Diodes. The light emitting diodes is an example of a material where the properties have been change by changing the composition. By adding different substances to a crystal that emit light, different wavelengths can be obtained.
 * Adding fluorescent dyes to a blue emitting diode can give white light.
 * Activity guide

Different materials absorption, transmission and reflection properties

 * Guide: Absorption, Transmission and Reflection of Light and Heat. This is not really about nanostructures, but show how different wavelenghts behave in different materials. Its a good starting point to talk about optical properties of materials and their bandgaps etc.
 * Using a lamp and an infrared heat source you can see and feel how:
 * Glass transmits visible light but not heat
 * Thin silicon and germanium transmit heat but not visible light (sapphire can also do the trick)
 * A thick silicon wafer absorbs heat and gets quickly hot
 * A gold coated silicon wafer reflects heat and stays fairly cold. The electromagnetic radiation only reahes a few nanometers into the gold (skin depth) and is reflected very well from sub 100nm gold films.
 * A thin water film (add some soap) on a metal mesh stops the heat (thats why chicken lamps warms your skin so comfortably, but you dont really get much warmer from them :-) and why toasting bread toasts the surface and not the inner parts. In the secion on soap films we will see that such films can be sub 100nm thick (I haven't checked up on how thick it actually needs to be to stop heat radiation so much you can feel it, but its probably about a micrometer).
 * try out aerogels...

Photonic Crystals

 * Scientic american article
 * butterfly wings
 * Compare to Refractive index guiding: Optical fibers

Ionization

 * Light emission from ionization - The light emission from the fluorescent lamps, plasma balls and discharge tubes can be used to analyze the gas composition
 * Guide: Plasma Ball.

Field Ionization
The ionization process can also be used in itself to analyze what gasses are present and it can be made better with nanoscale tips, field ionization is also used to make ions in air purifiers (that actually also produce a lot of ozone that isn't healthy)
 * Rub balloons and make them stick on the wall.
 * Guide: Van de Graaff Generator. On a Van de Graaff generator, explain the charging just like rubbing a balloon continuously on your shirt - and demonstrate discharging of cotton pieces the bounce back and forth and stick temporarily by electrostatic forces.
 * Discuss how the high electrical fields break down molecules
 * Guide: Van de Graaff Generator. The show the field emission from a rotator with angled tips and explain how the tip makes huge electrical fields and generate ions and ozone.
 * Guide: Ion Spray. Demonstrate the de-ionization spray gun - smell the ozone and feel the ionized air coming from it. Try using it to detach polystyrene spheres sticking to plastic and other things. They also get charge just like a balloon being rubbed, and stick like the cotton. The ion-spray makes ions go to where there are high charge densities and neutralize it and then the rest of the ions will adhere more or less evenly everywhere and reduce the electrostatic 'dust-attracting' forces. Some hair dryers have 'ion-sprays' built in to reduce the electrostatic feeling in dry hair.
 * Vizualize the ion motion in air with clouds repelled and attracted by VdG

Molecular Surface Forces

 * Like the charge differences can make things adhere, differently charge parts of molecules will also attract each other, for instance the H a water molecule H2O like to be near the O of other water molecules. If there is no static charge in the molecule, there will still be a weak attraction because the overall charge neutrality is only there when we look at a time average. At any instant the electrons will be in specific positions and there will be s small polarization, but this will change quickly with time. However two molecules will affect each other because of the quickly varying polarizations and this gives rise to an attractive force, called the van der Waals force.
 * Paraffin and stearine and wax are examples of materials that are solid because of the VdW forces.
 * Water is an example of a statically charged molecule.
 * The charged molecules attract each other so well that they do not like to mix with the weakly attracting VdW substances -oil and water do not mix well.

 * Guide: Capillary Pressure. Capillary pressure sucking a colored water into small glass tubes but not as much into plastic/teflon tubes. What about oil and soap water?
 * Examples
 * Teflon coatings in the kitchen
 * Superhydrophobic coatings
 * The lotus effect (see below)
 * Super hydrophilic and self cleaning surfaces (see below)

Superhydrophilic surfaces

 * Titanium oxide coatings on windows makes them superhydrophilic and self cleaning, ,

Sticktion and Adhesion

 * Gecko hair

Oil thin films
Estimate the size of moleculs from oil droplets spreading on water.

 * Guide: Oil on Water. oil on water makes a nanometer thin film with interference effects

 *

Soap thin films
In soap bubbles we can see such effects ([SoapBubbler.com website with soap bubbles]).
 * Guide: Soap Films. In a soap film suspended in a metal wire loop that is held vertically you can see rainbow olors in light reflected in it. The top part eventually turns transparent and that is when the film is thinner than 1/4 of the wavelength -and just before the thin film pops.

Lipid bilayers

 * The essential part of a living cell

'Superhydrophobic' coatings

 * Guide: Superhydrofobic coatings. Superhydrofobic coatings
 * Lotus leaf effect, discuss how it works. See the [w:Lotus_effect| lotus effect].
 * nanotube forest demonstration and video
 * A Commercially Available Perfectly Hydrophobic Material

Coated particles
If you boil it, the starch glycose polymer chains will dissolve into the water.
 * Water coating
 * Guide: Non-Newtonian fluid. Maize flour or potato flour experiment. Maize starch is usually best. About equal volumes of flour and water gives a good fluid. Typical grain size is 10 microns giving a 5 micron water film coating the particles if 1 g of water is mixed with 1.5 g of maizens (best result). So its not that nano, but more micro.
 * See also New Scientist blog
 * Surfactants
 * The silver particles mentioned earlier are coated with a charged film of molecules.

Brownian Motion
The motion of matter due to its thermal energy. This is why ferrofluids do not just clump together but stay fluid.
 * Microscope demonstration using colloidal graphite or just a little milk (add some food coloring to see it better, maybe a hydrophobic colorant like paprika)
 * (I have not succeeded in making this experiment:)An overhead projector can also be used - here with sulphur particles
 * Demonstration of gas diffusion through soap film

Combustion

 * iron oxalate based iron nanoparticles for burning fountain in air. Decomposes on heating into ultra fine iron powder and carbon dioxide. The particles ignite spontaneously when poured from the tube into the surrounding air.
 * The process of forming the nanoparticles depends on temperature and many different compunds can be formed at different temperatures
 * Another option is Raney Nickel which can be painted on paper where it burns.

Ferrofluids

 * Guide: Ferrofluid. A ferrofluid - iron particles coated and dispersed in a fluid
 * Guide: Ferrofluid Synthesis
 * see alsoferrofluid synthesis recipePDF using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (N(CH3)4OH) surfactant dissolved in water.
 * ferrofluid recipe using oleic acid surfactant dissolved in kerosene.
 * and a simple one
 * These particles act just like magnets we see in everyday life - or maybe rather like a box of nails that you can stick your magnet into and pull out long strings of nails attracting each other.
 * Ferrofluids are for instance used in loudspeakers to ensure good heat dissipation between the magnet and the moving coil and some damping.
 * The above magnetic experiment shows nanoscale ferromagnetism that was very much like macroscale magnetism (that's just these particles - a lot of research is going into control nanoscale magnetism for data storage on hard disks etc).
 * Ferrofluids can be used to make the magnetic patches on a hard disk visible under an optical microscope.

Electrically controllable particles
Like the magnetic fields that control ferrofluids - electrical fields can be used to control small particles dispersed in liquids.
 * Smart windows that can be transparent or blocking by pressing a switch.
 * Liquid crystals -see the entry above

Quantized conductivity

 * When it comes to electrical conductivity, strange things can happen on the nanoscale: Quantized conductivity.
 * Guide: Quantized Conductivity. Experiment in preparation
 * 12K ohm - thats the resistance for one channel for electrons.

Aerogels, another kind of glass

 * Use it to observe Rayleigh scattering. Talk about the insulation and energy balance when using it in windows. See how capillary forces crush it when its wetted. Examine how much weight it can carry and how 'projectiles' can be caught in it (as in the stardust satellite).
 * I guess another way to make a 'gel' is by making a Calcium acetate saturated solution (412g in 1L water, stir for two days to dissolve well), take 10ml of this solution and mix with alcohol (100ml) that gives an amorphous gel in 10 secs looking very much like the aerogel - the aerogel is then made be critical point drying of such a liquid gel to avoid it collapsing because of capillary effects. Capillary effects are also what causes the whitening of the gel if you touch it with your fingers, where water from your skin is absorbed into the fine capillaries of the aerogel which the collapse.

Mechanical properties of clean surfaces

 * Optical fibers don't break
 * An HF etched glass rod also can sustain much more strain than an untreated because the surface is free of microscopic crack initiating fractures.

The different types of Carbon
Carbon is a good example of a material that can have numerous different nanostructures:
 * Graphite - see it in you pen. Both dark and metallic at the same time. Chemically inert (well, it can be burnt) and used for electrodes in batteries.
 * Graphene sheets - how do they make them? Can it be demonstrated?
 * Pyrolithic graphite - See the diamagnetic properties below. can also be used to cut ice due to the high thermal conductivity. And its quite strong mechanically.
 * Highly oriented pyrolithic graphite - HOPG -make an STM image of the ordered stucture
 * Carbon black -used in ink and as coloring for black rubber. can be used to demonstrate brownian motion.
 * Diesel Sooth - probably the most abundant nanoparticle source in city areas. Many environmental and safety aspects to talk about (why worry about a little nanoparticles in the lab when its all in the air from the traffic outside?).
 * Carbon 60 - buckyballs - the football molecule. Any demonstrations?
 * Carbon nanotubes - rolled up graphene sheets with numerous interesting properties. Can we make a demonstration of actuation of CNT-paper electrodes in water ? Talk about science fiction space elevators and nanoelectronics.
 * Diamond -the hardest material. does not conduct electricity but does conduct heat if i remember right... any demonstrations we can do with diamond powder for instance?
 * Potassium graphite

Diamagnetism

 * Guide: Magnetic Induction in a Tube. Induction recap by having a magnet fall in a aluminium tube
 * Guide: Magnetic Induction in Copper Plates. Moving a magnet over a copper plate cooled by liquid nitrogen
 * Guide: Pyrolithic Graphite. Talk about the graphene sheet and how the electrons can move in it. Let people play with pyrolitic graphite hovering over magnets.
 * Guide: Superconductors. To show a stronger effect, demonstrate magnets hoovering over superconductors. And while you're at it you can also show how liquid oxygen is paramagnetic (and burns well).
 * Compare to ferrofluids

Amorphous materials

 * Guide: Freezing with Liquid Nitrogen. Quick cooling gives small crystals
 * LN2 is used in the industry to make small ice crystals that ensure a better taste of food. Its used to store biological samples without cracking due to freezing and thawing
 * Guide: Freezing with Liquid Nitrogen. Freeze flowers in liquid nitrogen
 * Guide: Supersaturated Sodium Acetate. Demonstrate sodium acetate super saturated solution crystallisation, giving a white crystal (About 650g CH3COONa cab be dissolved in 250 ml water at 100°C, cool very slowly in an undisturbed place).
 * Guide: Amorphous Metals. Demonstrate amorphous metals with unique mechanical properties, see also
 * Guide: Liquid Nitrogen Marshmallows. Serve cryogenic marshmallows
 * Guide: Liquid Nitrogen Ice Cream. Make ice cream with liquid nitrogen - we are back to the thing we started with, white stuff with small particles!

Memory metals

 * Memory Metal

Catalysis
Chemical reaction can often occur at much lower temperatures and more efficiently if catalytic materials are present. For example, various enzymes are used to enhance biochemical processes in detergents and washing powders so you can wash clothes at lower temperatures and with less power and detergent consumption. Catalysts are also heavily used in industrial chemical processes. Often the catalytic material is very expensive and only the small reactive sites on the material surface are actually catalytically active. For these reasons it is much more efficient to use nanostructured catalytic substances that maximize the catalyst area with many reactive sites and a minimal consumption of the material itself.
 * Car exhaust catalyst

 * Demonstration of Methanol catalysis with platinum wire (see also Journal of Chemical Education, vol. 71, no.4, pp 325 -327.)

 *
 * Heat 10ml Methanol in an Erlenmeyer flask (you can color it with methyl blue). Can this be done with ethanol which is less hazardous than methanol?
 * Heat a platinum wire until glowing and hang it into the Erlenmeyer flask
 * The wire will glow weakly and then more brightly as it is heated by the exothermic catalytic oxidation of the methanol to formaldehydeCH3OH + 1/2 O2 =CH2O + H2O
 * When the wire is hot enough, it will ignites the methanol/air mixture that starts burning with a green flame CH3OH + 1.5 O2 =CO2 + 2 H2O, until there is no more oxygen in the flask.
 * The reaction will oscillate, restarting when fresh oxygen gets into the flask
 * See also
 * The flames can be made brighter green if boric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid (catalyst) are added to the methanol (Forming volatile boric acid trimethyl ester, which burns with a green flame: B2O3 + 6 CH3OH = 2 B(OCH3)3 + 3 H2O

 * Catalytic oxidation of ammonia (seems to be a more benign reaction than methanol combustion, though it produces NOx, which require good ventilation)
 * 25 mL of concentrated aqueous ammonia solution in an Erlenmeyer flask. Lower the glowing Pt wire down to a couple of cm above the liquid and it will glow bright. You can also try with copper that will melt a drip into the liquid forming cupperoxide and a complex with the ammonia [Cu(NH 3) 4] 2+. [B. Z. Shakhashiri, Chemical Demonstrations, A Handbook for Teachers of Chemistry, Wisconsin, 1989, Vol.2, p.214-215][Gilbert, Alyea, Dutton, Dreisbach, Tested Demonstrations in Chemistry, Published by arrangement with the Journal of Chemical Education, 1994, Vol. I, p.I-35]. See also.

 * Example of a reaction where the catalyst is temporarily consumed in the reaction by eventually is recovered and ready for a new reaction cycle -When concentrated H2O2 is added to a yellow-orange aqueous solution of Fe3+.

 * Simple Cu catalyzed Zn+Acid reaction and a discussion about the underlying chemistry... could a nanoscaled catalyst help?

Polymers

 * Guide: Superabsorbing Polymers. Superhydrofile superabsorbents. Luquasorb 3746sx 0.1g absorbs 14ml ordinary before becoming fluid.
 * poly vinyl alcohol slime, see also
 * Alginic acid mixed with food coloring. Add the colored Alginic acid to a solution of Calcium Chloride to form worm-like structures.
 * Polyurethane foam is made by mixing two polymers that grow when mixed and.
 * Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Elastomer
 * Sulfur can also be made into a kind of polymer

DNA

 * Extract DNA from vegetables
 * Discuss DNA X-ray diffraction REMOVED
 * We can show chromosome-1 in a high mag microscope. Can different chromosomes be coloured differently?

Enzymes

 * catalysis of oxygen from hydrogen perioxide with peroxidase
 * Enzymes are used in washing powders to
 * make clothes clean at low temperatures (clothes last longer and it saves energy)
 * Dishwashing liquids that also remove starch
 * Leather conditioning with less harsh chemicals
 * Bio fuel production
 * Most chemical processes in your body needs various enzymes to run smoothly, prepare reagents and remove the waste efficiently.

Food
A wealth of dispersions and nanosize particles can be found in food. See e.g. the milk experiment with Rayleigh scattering.
 * Review Physics of Foodstuffs Athene M Donald 1994 Rep. Prog. Phys. 57 1081-1135  doi:10.1088/0034-4885/57/11/001

=Complete dialogue show examples=

The colors in the sky
This show aims at demonstrating a wide variety of nanoscale phenomena that appears in everyday life or relate to everyday life. It is the intention the audience should get several hands-on experiments during the show and participate to some extent. A different sequence is naturally possible and experiments can easily be added or left out depending on the audience and available materials. Depending on the school level of the audience you will probably want to modify this sequence. 'to show' in this description means to pass the sample around whenever possible.

White Nanostructures
Walking around you will actually see a wealth of effects in you daily life that comes from nanoscale phenomena and structures. For instance, you might wonder why things are white. What do you know that's is normally white? Do you know why?

Clouds - If you think of the clouds, they can give us both rainbows or be heavy gray rain clouds or white fluffy clouds.

Rainbows come from refraction of light in the droplet, just like the good old Pink Floyd cover where a white light beam is split into a rainbow. If the droplets are too dense, the rainbow colours will be scattered in many droplets and eventually we will see a diffuse mixture of all colors which gives us white light.

We can make nice clouds by using liquid nitrogen.

 * Guide: Liquid Nitrogen. In this cup (two plastic single use cups put inside each other to work as a cheap and surprisingly effective dewar) I have liquid nitrogen, probably the substance you know better than anything else in your life because 80% of the air your breathe is nitrogen. If we cool it to -196 C it turns into a liquid, just like water vapor can condense on cold things.

 * Guide: Liquid Nitrogen . Pouring it on the floor gives a lot of 'smoke' and leaves no liquid because it boils violently when it reaches something that is 200C over its boiling point. It makes you wonder if nitrogen is grey... but that is a bit strange if 80% of the air is made from it and quite transparent.

 * Guide: Making Clouds with Liquid Nitrogen. If I put a plexiglas tube into the liquid nitrogen, you can see it boil and the 'steam' rising up in the tube. The nitrogen in the tube is quite clear; it is only when it reached the surrounding air it turns into an opaque cloud. And that's what it is - condensation of the water vapor in the air gives real clouds right here for us to play with.

 * Guide: Making Clouds with Liquid Nitrogen. Making better clouds is easy if we take some boiling water where we have a lot of water vapor. Pouring 1 dL liquid nitrogen into 0.5L boiling water in a electric kettle (that can be opened *completely* to avoid bursts of boiling water and nitrogen) we get a thick and heavy cloud of cold condensed water vapor. Its fun to play with, nice and cold - only be careful not to play too much and spill boiling water over you.

So things can be white even if they are clear and transparent as 'bulk' materials, simply because the are cut into small pieces that refract light in all directions. We know that from salt as well, where the individual salt grain can be a nice clear crystal, while a pile of such grains is white.

The refraction of light in the particles depends on the change in refractive index between the surroundings and the material.

Wool is another example of a white material, and here the white color comes from the roughness of the practically transparent wool fibres (when they are from white sheep).

 * Guide: Transparent Wool. If we submerge wool intro benzyl alcohol (has a refractive index of 1.540.) which has the same refractive index as the wool fibres, the light will not be refracted at the fiber interface. And as we can see it becomes almost completely transparent. If you put white silk into it, it will not be transparent, because silk has a different index of refraction. You can also see this effect sometimes if you get greasy food in some paper bags, that become almost transparent.

So it is probably not a good idea to make swimsuits from textiles that match the refractive index of water :-)

The effect does not always have to be nano - salt is white even when the particles are large enough to be visible.

(*Guide: Invisible Glass. we can also show the indexmatching effect by submerging a glass filled with clear oil or a glass figure in an clear oil bath also kept in transparent glass, and ask people to guess what's in it - its invisible until we pull it up)

The Blue Sky
Now we will turn into an effect that does require nanoscale particles and you hopefully see almost every day.

Nanoparticles are present in the sky above us - small water droplets, grains of salt from the sea...

When the particles become smaller than the wavelength of light the begin to scatter light different than the big water droplets making rainbows. It is called Rayleigh scattering and is very dependent on the wavelength of the light.

To illustrate this we will make some sulfur nanoparticles. Sulfur is yellow (show a vial of yellow sulfur crystals), but when made into nanoparticles they can take on many colors.

another recipe uses 6.75L water, 135g sodium thiosulfate and 5 ml Conc. Acid but I dont like to have conc. acid in class demonstrations)
 * Guide: Colloidal Sunset. In a tall glass on an overhead projector, mix diluted sulfuric acid with sodium thiosulfate 1:1 vol, and wait until a pale shine appears, then dilute 10 times or more with water. (Its also called the tyndall-rayleigh experiment/scattering)

As the particles grow because sulfur is precipitated from the solution and aglomerate to form nanoparticles, you see a change in color. The light coming from the sides of the vial is blue while the light going through it is red - you can see what happens when you look into the sky on a bright day and the blue part of the sunlight passing over you is scattered down towards you while the red continues out towards the people looking at the sunset in the horizon. If there is too much sulfur available, at some point the particles become so dense no light passes through the vial, then you should use less liquid to start the reaction. After some time the particles grow so big that they scatter white light like the white cloud (possibly a slightly yellowish one due to the color of sulfur). The blue sky is definitely a nano-scale phenomena.

 * Guide: Milk and Nanoparticles. You actually meet a similar effect every day if you drink milk products. If you take a low fat homogenized milk and pour a little into a large vial with water, you will see the same effect. Milk is white because of the fat in the milk making nanoparticles scattering light. If the fat content is too high or it isnt homogenized it can be difficult to show a clear effect.

Not only do we inhale nanoparticles and enjoy their colors in the sunset and blue sky, we drink them very often.

Silver nanoparticles
There are of course many types of nanoparticles - harmless, healthy, dangerous, and useful ones, just like there are different materials around us.

A quick way to show nanoparticles is to make silver nanoparticles by mixing silver nitrate solution with sodium citrate and boil it reducing the silver to free metallic silver. The citrate stabilizes the silver which assembles in charged thin-film coated nanoparticles.

First we will show what happens when you reduce silver without a stabilizing agent.
 * Guide: Silver Mirror Coating.

Before the show: Add one drop 0.4 M NaOH (aq) per ml of 5%wt silver nitrate solution and shake gently. Then add 1M NaOH dropwise while shaking until the precipitate just dissolves. This is Tollen's reagent, a diaminesilver(I) complex. Use it within a couple of hours. Do not store Tollens reagent because it can form silver nitride which is highly explosive if left for longer periods. After use, neutralise it with dilute nitric acid and flush out in drain if permitted. Tollens reagent recipe tollens reagent

We have a silver solution called tollens reagent and we add a droplet of dextrose that will reduce the silver but not protect the silver from assembling in large structures.

(Put the test tube in a warm water bath and add dextrose solution by letting a droplet slide down the side of the glass, and do not touch it until the reaction has made a nice silver mirror. (aldehydes give a silver mirror, ketones a yellowish mirror and alkynes with a triple bond in the 1-position give a yellow precipitate of silver carbide.))

And so we get a beautiful silver mirror.

 * Guide: Silver Nanoparticle Synthesis. In the case of citrate, the citrate ions form a kind of soap film around the silver as it reacts and the charged part of the citrate molecules will make silver particles repel each other so they do not accumulate and precipitate as metallic film.

When we dilute the silver particle solution so we can look through it, we can by holding it in front and behind a lamp see that light coming through it or 'reflected' from it has different colors. Red/orange light pass through while green-blue light is reflected.

The silver nano particles scatter light the has short wavelengths and leaves most of the yellow and red light pass through. If you make them with gold you get red nanoparticles instead (but it is more expensive chemicals).

The silver and gold nanoparticles are used for many things. Gold nanoparticles is widely used for making chemical reactions -for instance the red color in pregnancy tests often comes from gold nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles can be used to kill bacteria and you can for instance buy socks with silver nanoparticles, and at some point people even believed they should be healthy to drink... I wouldn't try to do that.

=Resources=
 * institute of physics teachers
 * nanotek.nu
 * several chemistry related nanoactivities
 *
 * General Chemistry demonstration exps list
 * The weird properties of water - not really nano, but has lots of info
 * Weird water bridge

title: Scienceshow/Nanotechnology


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User:Mechton

 * Name: Mechton
 * Wiki-experience: Advanced
 * Interests: Everything

title: User:Mechton


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User talk:Mechton

I'm wondering why this wiki is seperate from Wikipedia. Seemlessness would make the two more efficient. --Mechton 21:05, 10 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mechton


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User:Complete fanatic

Hello!

I created this account when I was bored one day, and felt like looking around the site... my very first inclination was to search for my favorite books: The Harry Potter Series. Once I found the Muggle's guide, I immediately went to the page for my favorite character: Remus Lupin. I was shocked at how little information there was about him, and spent some time updating the page, adding and correcting what I felt was necessary.

Now, I've looked at some of the other pages, to find that they are also stunningly empty... so, that's what I'm planning on spending time on at the moment.

title: User:Complete fanatic


text:
Talk:The Computer Revolution/System Software

Zip Drive
A Zip drive is a useful asset to your computer as it allows you to back up your work. It is a little bit larger than the regular A: drive floppy disks and have the ability to hold 100 MB, 250 MB, and now up to 750 MB of data. They allow you to back up hard disks, information on your computer, and also enable you to transport large files from computer to computer. They range in reliability and speed in writing the disk and most Zip drives are compatible in drives with the same capacity ability. Most Zip drives are relatively durable and even come with write protection. Also, some Zip drives can be accessed only with a password so your information cannot be tampered with.


text:
Kapampangan/Disclaimer

 * This book was started using British English standards, authors should attempt to keep it consistent by continuing to write with that in mind.
 * Although we use diacritics to indicate the stressed syllable in this method, it does not mean that we recommend to use it when writing Kapampangan in an every day usage. The reason that the diacritic signs are here is to indicate the stress to the student of Kapampangan, which, without them, would have no means to achieve the correct pronunciation.
 * Also we have introduced a diacritic to indicate the glottal stop (  '  ) for the purpose of our students. It does not mean that we recommend to use in every day writing.

Continue to ../Introduction/

title: Kapampangan/Disclaimer


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User:Mechton/Sandbox

{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; border:2px #A3BFB1 solid;" Lists of basic topics
 * colspan="2" style="background:#CEF2E0; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid;" |
 * colspan="2" style="background:#CEF2E0; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid;" |
 * style="background:#F5FFFA; padding:0em;" valign="top" |
 * style="background:#F5FFFA; padding:0em;" valign="top" |

Below are lists of fundamental concepts for major subject areas. These lists are intended to help the beginner become familiar with the respective areas. For more comprehensive lists on these subjects, see List of topic lists.
 * style="background:#F5FFFA; padding:1.2em;" valign="top" |
 * style="background:#F5FFFA; padding:1.2em;" valign="top" |

[[Image:Books-aj.svg aj ashton 01.svg|30px]] Reference
Research – Almanacs – Basic English words – Databases – Dictionaries (Online dictionaries) – Encyclopedias (Online encyclopedias) – Free online journals – Free software programs – IRC clients – Library types – Magazines – News agencies and newswires – News clients – Newsgroups – Periodic table – Search engines – Reference works – Web directories – Wikipedia reference pages

[[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|30px]] Art and culture
Culture – By country – Classics – Cooking – Critical theory – Hobbies – Literature – Parapsychology

 * Art, The Arts, and Entertainment – Game – Poetry – Sports

 * Performing arts – Dance – Film – Music – Opera – Theatre

 * Visual arts – Architecture – Crafts – Design – Drawing – Film – Painting – Photography – Sculpture

[[Image:Nuvola_filesystems_www.png|30px]] Geography and places
Geography – By country – Lakes – Mountains – Rivers

Countries (includes list of country lists) / Countries – Cities – Counties – Economies – Geographies – Histories – Politics by country – Subnational entities – Transport by country

[[Image:Nuvola apps kworldclock.png|30px|]] History and events
History

 * By time period – By century

 * By region – By continent – By country

Timelines of events

 * By chronology – Big Bang – Ancient Mesopotamia – Ancient Greece – Rome – Roman Empire – Roman Republic – French Revolution – World War I – World War II  – Space Race – Cold War

 * By event type – Battles – Coups d'état – Crises – Disasters – Earthquakes – Epidemics – Explorations – Famous speeches – Historic fires – Inventions – Industrial disasters – Massacres – Military disasters – Military operations – Natural disasters – Nobel Prizes – Nuclear accidents – Recessions – Revolutions and rebellions – Riots – Scientific discoveries – Space Shuttle missions – Treaties – Terrorist incidents – UN peacekeeping missions – Wars

 * By field – Agriculture – Archaeology – Architecture – Art – Aviation – Biology – Chemistry – Communication – Computing – Evolution – Film – Geography – Human evolution – Invention – Literature – Mathematics – Medicine – Music – Photography – Physics – Psychology – Science – Scientific discoveries – Scientific experiments – Scientific method – Sociology – Sports – Transport

[[Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics-p.svg|30px]] Mathematics and abstractions
Mathematics – Arithmetic – Algebra – Calculus – Discrete mathematics – Geometry – Trigonometry – Logic – Statistics – Unsolved problems in mathematics

[[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|30px]] Natural sciences and nature
Biology – Biochemistry – Ecology – Exercise – Health – Health science – Human anatomy – Life extension – Medicine (Unsolved problems in medicine) – Unsolved problems in biology – Nutrition – Unsolved problems in neuroscience

Physical science – Astronomy – Chemistry (Unsolved problems in chemistry) – Earth sciences – Geology – Meteorology – Oceanography – Physics (Unsolved problems in physics)

[[Image:Nuvola apps kdmconfig.png|30px]] People and self
People – By name – By belief – By nationality – By occupation – By office held – By prize won

Self – Biology – Psychology – Relationships

[[Image:socrates_blue_version2.png|32px]] Philosophy and thinking
Philosophy – Ethics – Epistemology – Humanism – Logic – Metaphysics – Philosophical isms – Thinking – Transhumanism – Unsolved problems in philosophy

Thinking – Cognitive biases – Creative thought processes – Decision-making processes – Emotional intelligence – Emotions – Learning processes – Memory biases – Mnemonics – Nootropics (smart drugs) – Organizational thought processes – Perception – Psychometrics – Qualities of thought – Scholars on thinking – Thinking errors – Thought processes & thinking skiils

[[Image:ReligiousSymbols.png|30px|]] Religion and spirituality
Religion – Religions

[[Image:Nuvola filesystems folder home.png|30px]] Social sciences and society
Social sciences – Anthropology – Archaeology – Cognitive science (Unsolved problems in cognitive science) – Communication – Critical theory – Cultural studies – Development studies – Economics (Unsolved problems in economics) – Education – Geography – History – Linguistics (Unsolved problems in linguistics) – Law – Political science – Psychology – Social policy – Sociology –

Society – Community – Criminal justice – Education – Law – Politics (By country) – Public affairs

 * Business – Economics (By country) – Finance – Job-related –  Management – Marketing

[[Image:Nuvola apps display.png|30px]] Technology and applied sciences

 * Main articles: List of basic technology topics and List of technologies

title: User:Mechton/Sandbox


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User:Xania

Hi, I'm Xania. I've been here at Wikibooks since 2005 and presently I'm an administrator (since 2006) and check user (since 2014) here so happy to help with whatever problems you may have.

My specialties are linguistics (Romance, Slavic and Celtic languages and Basque), history, European geography, culture and politics.

I help out here with removing vandalism and spam, checking books for grammar or spelling mistakes, categorizing books, improving Cookbook pages by adding links and metric units and working on several books which I created or have contributed to.

Some Wikibooks that I am currently working on:

 * English - Principal English book
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 * English in use - This book was previously known as "English" and is a Wikibook resource for English grammar and vocabulary.
 * English_as_an_Additional_Language - This is an older book for those learning English as a Foreign Language.
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title: User:Xania


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User talk:88.151.184.13

Please do not add commercial links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is not a vehicle for advertising or a mere collection of external links. Note that books may be collections of external links for educational purposes only. See the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.--Az1568 00:14, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:88.151.184.13


text:
User talk:74.133.58.148

Thanks for experimenting with the page Tomos Moped Guides on Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

--Az1568 00:26, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:74.133.58.148


text:
User talk:65.197.192.130

I would like to thank you for your contributions to Wikibooks. However, it is recommended that you use the preview button before you save; this helps you find any errors you have made, and prevents clogging up recent changes and the page history. Thanks again.--Az1568 00:36, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

Hi, in case you didn't know Extemporaneous Speaking/Speech Structure is a tutorial on how to write a speech. It's not a place for you to give your point of view regarding a current event. Please see Neutral point of view and Wikibooks is not a soapbox.--Az1568 00:53, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.197.192.130


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User:Mechton/Sand1

Basic topics | Topics | Fields | Overview | Portals | Categorical index
 * User:Mechton/Sand2

title: User:Mechton/Sand1