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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Blender Windowing System

The Blender user interface may appear daunting at first, but don't despair. This book explores the interface one step at a time.

In this module, you'll learn about Blender windows:
 * recognizing windows and their headers,
 * the different types of windows,
 * how to activate and resize windows,
 * how to split and join windows.

You'll also practice launching and leaving Blender.

An Interface Divided
Blender's user interface is divided into rectangular areas called (or sometimes, ). The overall arrangement of windows is called a.

If you haven't already launched Blender, go ahead and do so. You should soon see something that resembles the following.

Blender has had some major changes to its user interface (UI) since version 2.4x. Some of these changes include moving buttons and changing the space bar hot key from the “add menu” to the “search menu” (  is now the "add menu” hot key). This is important to know when trying to follow tutorials.

Other changes include the addition of the tool bar and window splitting widget. The shelf widget (indicated by a plus sign) opens hidden tool shelves. The object tool shelf can be toggled on and off by pressing. The properties tool shelf can be toggled on and off by pressing the. The split window widget allows you to split and join windows. Blender 2.69 is shown below.

 * You may be running a different version of Blender - perhaps a newer version. The screenshot was made using the 2.69 release.
 * If you're running an older version, you should probably upgrade. Download instructions are in the Introduction.

 * The user-interface settings on your computer may have been changed.
 * Try resetting the user interface with File → Load Factory Settings.
 * To take a video in Blender, press, and click Make Screencast. This will record what's on your screen until you click the red Close button on the info header. The screencasts will be saved in the tmp folder. In Microsoft Windows, the tmp folder is located at 'C:\tmp'.

Window Headers
Did you find all five headers?

Every Blender window has a header. A header can appear at the top of the window, at the bottom of the window, or it can be hidden. Let's take a closer look at the headers.

If you click with on the header, a menu pops up which lets you move the header (to the top if it’s at the bottom, or vice versa), or maximize the window to fill the entire workspace:

To hide the header completely, move the mouse to the edge of the header furthest from the edge of the window (i.e. the top edge of the header if it is at the bottom of the window, or vice versa); it will change into a vertical double-headed arrow. Now click with and drag towards the window edge, and the header will disappear. In its place, you will see the following symbol appear at the corner of the window:. Click this with to bring the header back.

Window Types
Blender has many types of windows (there are 16 of them in Blender 2.69) and a Console for the Python programming language. You've just encountered the Info, 3D View, Properties, and Outliner windows. The rest will be introduced as needed in later modules.

Every window header in Blender has an icon at the left end to indicate the window type. For instance:
 * [[File:Blender 2.59 Info ico.png]] = Info
 * [[File:Blender 2.59 User Prefs ico.png]] = User Preferences
 * [[File:Blender 2.59 3d view icon.png]] = 3D View
 * [[File:Blender 2.59 Outliner ico.png]] = Outliner
 * [[File:Blender 2.59 Properties ico.png]] = Properties

If you on the icon, a menu will pop up. (If you don't know what means, please review the Keystrokes, Buttons, and Menus Notation module.)

If you've changed any window's type, please change it back (or reload the factory settings with File → Load Factory Settings) before continuing with this tutorial.

The Active Window
The active window is the one that will respond if you press a key. Only one Blender window is active at any given time.

The active window is usually the one containing the mouse pointer. (Blender uses a "focus follows mouse" user interface model. When a hotkey fails to work as expected, it is often because the mouse pointer has strayed into a neighboring window.) To change the active window, simply move the mouse pointer into the window you wish to activate.

Practice changing the active window by moving your mouse between the 3D View and the Timeline windows. The Timeline window is directly below the 3D View header. At this point, it's worth mentioning that the header for the 3D View window and Timeline window is at the BOTTOM of its own window instead of the top as the name "header" implies.

Resizing Windows
Resizing windows is easy.

Dragging on a Border
Whenever you increase the size of one window, you decrease the size of another. That's because Blender has a : unlike many other programs, it does not permit windows to overlap. Neither does it move windows; it just resizes them. If you find that you cannot increase the size of a window (e.g. the Info window) any further although there seems to be enough space to do so, it may be because you decreased the size of another window (e.g., the Outline window) to its minimum size (i.e, just the heading).

Maximizing a Window
Another way to resize a window is to maximize it. When Blender a window, it makes the window as large as possible. The previous window configuration is saved.

 * To maximize the active window, press,  or . On a Mac, if “Spaces” is enabled, you may have to use.
 * When a window is maximized, use,  or  to restore the previous (unmaximized) window configuration.

Practice maximizing and un-maximizing the 3D View and Timeline windows.

Shelves
You will notice that the 3D View window (the largest window in the screenshots above) has several buttons down the left side. This rectangular portion is called the Tool Shelf. This is like a window within a window - you can drag the boundary between it and the main part of the 3D View to resize.

If you drag all the way to the window boundary, the shelf will disappear. In its place, the following symbol will appear:. Click it to bring the shelf back.

Too Much To Fit
If a window or shelf contains too much information to fit within its display area, scrollbars will appear along the bottom or right edge. You can scroll the contents by dragging these with ; alternatively you can drag with directly within the contents.

A window header may also contain more than fits within its displayable area. There is no explicit visual clue for this (though some of the widgets at the right edge might not be visible), but if that happens, you can drag sideways within the header with to scroll its contents.

Splitting And Joining Windows
At the top right and bottom left of every window, you will see something like this:. If you move the mouse over the icon, you will see the pointer turn into a cross. At that point, you can do one of the following by clicking and dragging with :
 * Split the window into two copies horizontally by dragging horizontally away from the edge.
 * Split the window into two copies vertically by dragging vertically away from the edge.
 * Join the window to the adjacent one horizontally (getting rid of it and taking over its space) by dragging towards it.
 * Join the window to the adjacent one vertically (getting rid of it and taking over its space) by dragging towards it.

Of course, the last two are only possible if there is in fact another window in that direction. Note: you can only join windows horizontally that are the same height, and windows vertically that are the same width.

The Default Workspace
If you look at the above screenshot of the default workspace, you will see the following window types:
 * The menu bar at the top (outlined in green) is actually a window, called Info [[File:Blender269InfoIcon.png]]. In previous versions of Blender, you could resize this to reveal the User Preferences, but in 2.5x they have been moved to their own window type. Instead, all you can see here if you enlarge the window are some debug messages, which may be removed in a future version of Blender. As of 2.70, the debug messages are still present in this menu.
 * The largest window on the screen is the 3D View [[File:Blender2693DViewIcon.png]]. This is where you work on your model.
 * The Properties [[File:Blender269PropertiesIcon.png]] window is the tall area on the right; this is where most of the functions are located for performing operations on models, materials etc. In previous versions of Blender this was called the Buttons window. Over time, it evolved into a disorganized area that made it difficult to find things. It has been cleaned up significantly in 2.5x. Note that it defaults to a vertical layout, rather than the horizontal one of previous versions. The new design prefers a vertical layout, which better suits today’s widescreen monitors.
 * The Outliner [[File:Blender269OutlinerIcon.png]] (at the top right) gives you an overview of the objects in your document. As your models get more complex, you will start to appreciate the ability to quickly find things here.
 * The Timeline [[File:Blender270TimelineIcon.png]] (across the bottom) becomes important when you’re doing animation.

The default layout may not be optimal. For example, if you’re doing a static model or scene, not an animation, you can get rid of the Timeline. If you’re doing heavy script development, you’ll probably want the Console available to try things out. And so on.

Workspace Presets
In the Info window/titlebar, you will see a menu with an icon like this. Clicking on it with will show the following menu:

Selecting from this menu lets you quickly switch between various predefined workspace layouts, tailored to various workflows. Try it and see. You can return to the default layout by selecting “Default” (but note that any changes you make to the layout are immediately associated with the name being displayed here). The menu has a search box at the bottom. Typing text here will restrict the menu to showing items containing only that text. It might not appear to have much use, but in a complicated project that needs dozens of different layouts, the search function could become very useful indeed!

The name of the currently selected item appears to the right of the menu icon. In the illustration above, this is "Default". Blender allows you to rename the current menu item by clicking on it with the and typing a new name, so take care not to do so unless you actually want to rename the menu item. For example, if you replace the name "Default" with "MyDefaults", you will subsequently see that "MyDefaults" appears in the list of menu items.

Note also the “+” and “X” icons to the right of the menu; clicking “+” creates a new entry which is a duplicate of the last-selected entry, while clicking “X” gets rid of the currently-selected entry. You will see these conventions appear consistently in menus elsewhere in Blender’s new, revamped interface.

One Document At A Time
Blender can only work with one open document at a time (this does not apply to blender 2.79, which allows multiple instances of blender to run concurrently). To save changes to the current document, select one of the Save options from the File menu (or press to save under the last-saved name). To open a new document (actually load a copy of your last-saved user preferences), select “New” from the File menu (or press ), and select “Reload Start-Up File” from the popup that appears, but be aware this will not automatically save any changes to the previous document.

Scenes
A scene is like a separate Blender-document within-a-document. Different scenes within the same document can easily share objects, materials etc. You can define them once and make different renderings and animations from them. You create, delete and switch scenes using the scene menu in the info header. A new document starts by default with just one scene, called “Scene”.

Leaving Blender
To exit Blender:
 * 1) If there's a tool active, press  to exit the tool.
 * 2) Press .  This brings up an OK? menu.
 * 3) Confirm Quit Blender by clicking  or pressing.

Additional Resources


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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/3D View Windows

3D View windows are used to visualize 3D scenes. You’ll do a lot of work in these windows, so you will need to learn your way around.

In this module, you'll learn:
 * to recognize 10 things commonly seen in viewports
 * to tell which mode Blender is in
 * how to change viewport options and viewpoints
 * how to position the 3D cursor

You'll also learn the fundamentals of:
 * visibility layers

The Viewport and its Contents
Aside from its header, the remainder of a 3D View window is its. You use viewports any time you need an up-to-date view of the scene you're working on.

Viewports are busy places. Go on a scavenger hunt and see what you can find in a simple viewport.

(If you're unsure what means, please review the Keystroke, Button, and Menu Notation module.)
 * 1) Launch Blender.
 * 2) Just so we're all looking at the same scene, load the factory settings using File → Defaults ->  Load Factory Settings.
 * 3) Confirm the “Load Factory Settings” popup with  (or ).
 * 4) If the NumLock indicator on your keyboard is unlit, press  so that numpad hotkeys will work properly.

You should see something like this:

A Virtual Scavenger Hunt
Look at the default scene and find the following eight items:

1. a solid gray cube with orange edges.
 * In the Center
 * This is the, your first Blender object!

2. Three arrows, one red, one green and one blue, their tails joined to a white circle
 * This is not an object (part of your model/scene), but part of Blender’s user interface for manipulating objects. It is the, also known as the.
 * The arrows represent the directions of the, and  axes of the currently chosen  coordinate system. Initially this is the.
 * The circle represents the center of the selected object (the cube).
 * If you don't know what the "global coordinate system" is, please review the module on Coordinate Spaces in Blender.

 * It's possible that a tool is active. Press  to cancel any tool action.
 * Another possibility is that the manipulator has been disabled:
 * Toggle it on or off with.

3. A red-and-white striped circle with black cross-hairs
 * This is not an object. It is the 3D Cursor, which indicates where newly-created objects will appear in the scene.
 * The cursor is similar to the insertion point in a text editor, which indicates where new text will be inserted in a document.

4.
 * In the Lower Left Corner
 * This is not an object. It is the mini axis, and its orientation matches that of the global coordinate system, with the usual conventions: red for X, green for Y and blue for Z. Think of it as a little compass, reminding you which way is left/right, front/back and up/down.

5. The notation "(1) Cube"
 * This is not an object. It is, indicating that:
 * You're viewing the first frame of an animation.
 * and
 * The current or most recently selected object is named "Cube".

6. The notation “User Persp”
 * In the Upper Left Corner
 * This is not an object. This tells you which mode the viewport is in. The first word will change if you select one of the perfect views or the camera view (see below), otherwise it just says “User”, and the second word is “Persp” or “Ortho” to indicate whether this is a perspective or orthographic view.

7. A black round thing that resembles a sun symbol
 * To the Right of Center
 * This represents a lamp, a light source for the scene. (It is an object.)

8. A pyramidal wireframe item
 * This represents a camera, a viewpoint that can be used for rendering. (It too, is an object.) The camera is looking at the base of the pyramid. The solid triangle attached to one side of the base is to remind you which way is up in the image that the camera takes.
 * On a small display, the camera might initially lie outside of the viewport and thus be invisible. In that case,  to zoom out until it becomes visible.

9. A dark gray background, divided into squares by lighter lines. This is the, which you can (but don’t have to) use as a ground plane for positioning your models.
 * Throughout
 * Each grid square is one blender unit (or BU) on a side. A BU can be whatever you wish, e.g. an inch, a centimeter, a mile, or a cubit.  Blender lets you choose your scene scale in the Scene tab of the Properties Panel.

10. Three mutually perpendicular coloured lines associated with the grid floor: the red and green ones lying horizontally in the floor and the blue one running vertically. These are the global coordinate axes for orienting your scene. Red is the X-axis, green the Y-axis, and blue the Z-axis.
 * In Blender 2.67a, you can't see the blue line for Z-axis here, but you can see it in Front or Side view.

Modes
Blender has many modes, i.e. settings that affect its behavior, and this is especially true of the 3D View window.

Sometimes it's not obvious which mode is active. This leads to mode errors where Blender will do something you didn't expect because you thought it was in one mode and it was actually in another.

The function performed by a hotkey or mouse button can depend on:
 * what mode the user interface is in,
 * whether the keyboard is in NumLock mode,
 * which window is active,
 * the mode the active window is in,
 * which item or items are selected,
 * whether you've initiated a hotkey sequence.

It helps to recognize the common modes and how to get out of them.

Object Mode vs. Edit Mode
The 3D View windows are normally in Object Mode. In this mode:
 * The mouse pointer is the default arrow normally used on other programs.
 * is used to select objects in the scene.
 * In versions 2.8 and above Use to select objects in the scene

If there are objects in the scene, you can get into five other modes:
 * Edit Mode: used to edit the shapes of objects
 * The mouse pointer is a thin inverse-video cross.
 * is used to select vertices, faces or edges of the current object.
 * Press to enter/exit this mode.
 * Sculpt Mode/Vertex Paint/Texture Paint/Weight Paint
 * The mouse pointer is now a thin, orange (white in Texture Paint) circle.

These modes are also indicated by a menu in the 3D View header. You can use this menu to change modes.

These modes are a setting shared by all 3D View windows. In other words, when you change the mode in one window, any other 3D View windows change mode also.

Solid vs. Wireframe
By default, the 3D View window draws objects using the Solid drawtype, in which surfaces are opaque. To toggle between Solid and Wireframe drawtype (edges only, no faces) for a particular viewport:
 * 1) Activate the 3D View window

Alternatively, you can choose these and other drawtypes from the "Viewport shading" menu in the 3D View window header.
 * 1) Press.

Orthographic vs. Perspective
By default, viewports draw orthographic views. To toggle a viewport between orthographic and perspective views:
 * 1) Activate the 3D View window.
 * 2) Press.

(If you're unsure what the difference is, please review and .)

Note this perspective versus orthographic setting for the 3D viewport is completely separate from the similar setting in the camera properties. The former takes effect while you’re working on the model, the latter when you render.

So why have a separate setting for the 3D view? Because certain aspects of modelling are easier in one view than another. If the final render will be using perspective, then showing perspective in the 3D view naturally gives you a better idea of how the final render will look. But perspective foreshortening can sometimes make it hard to ensure the model has the proper shape, which is why there is the option to switch to orthographic view.

... you should activate the View Name option. This is enabled by default and causes the name of the current view ("User Persp", for instance) to appear in the upper left corner of every viewport. If there is no text, then you can enable it by:
 * 1) Accessing the User Preferences window.
 * 2) Click on the Interface tab.
 * 3) Enable View Name.

Changing Your Viewpoint, Part One
Each viewport has a viewpoint, which takes into account:
 * the location of the viewer in the 3D scene (There doesn't need to be an object at that location.)
 * the direction the viewer is looking
 * the magnification (or zoom factor) used

Changing your viewpoint allows you to navigate your way through a 3D scene.

We'll start with three very basic techniques:
 * Zooming
 * Orbiting/View Rotation
 * Perfect Views.

Additional techniques will be covered later in this module.

Zooming
Blender offers several ways to zoom in and out:
 * Use
 * Click and drag vertically with.
 * Use and  to zoom in and out in small increments.

Note the following limitations of Blender's zoom feature:
 * If the viewport is in orthographic mode, Blender zooms as if looking through a telescope. You can increase the magnification, but the viewpoint's location doesn't change.  For this reason, you cannot zoom into or through objects in orthographic mode.
 * If the viewport is in perspective mode, Blender zooms to the center of the viewport. The viewpoint can pass through objects, but can't pass beyond this point, no matter what you do. Zooming only gets slower and slower and slower.  If the center of the viewport is somewhere you don't expect, zooming may appear to be broken.

Orbiting and View Rotation
Let's fly around the default cube, viewing it from different angles. In this way you'll see that it really is a cube, centered on the origin, half above the X-Y plane and half below it.

 * 1) Activate the 3D View window by placing the mouse pointer inside it.
 * 2) Now you can:
 * 3) *Click and drag with to orbit freely around the center of the view.
 * 4) *Use to rotate the viewpoint vertically around the center of the view.
 * 5) *Use and  to rotate the viewpoint vertically around the center of the view in 15-degree increments.
 * 6) *Use to rotate the viewpoint around the Z axis.
 * 7) *Use and  to rotate the viewpoint around the Z axis in 15-degree increments.

If this is all very confusing for you, don't worry! You'll learn as you get more experience.

When you are finished flying around the cube, you can restore the original view by reloading the factory settings with File → Load Factory Settings.

You may have pressed number keys above the letters instead of the ones on the numpad. If you do, the default cube will vanish. This is because the scene consists of multiple layers. The default cube is in layer 1, and you've told Blender to switch to the layer of the number you just pressed. The selected object (the cube in this case) remains in layer 1, which is no longer visible. For instance, tells Blender to switch to layer 2. To switch to layer 1 again, press. You can view the different layers by clicking on the little squares on the layer map:

The Shift + Alt + Scroll and Ctrl + Alt + Scroll do not work for me with factory settings in Blender 2.92.0 (Doesnt Work Counter: 2.People)

Perfect Views
It's often useful to get a perfect view of a scene, i.e. to view it along one of the main axes, with the other two main axes oriented up-down and left-right.

The following screenshot shows all three perfect views plus camera perspective for the Suzanne primitive:

This layout is used so often, it has a keyboard shortcut:.

Positioning the 3D Cursor
Positioning the 3D cursor is a very basic operation, yet one that many beginners find challenging. It touches on an issue common to all 3D graphics software: "How do you specify points in a 3D scene when we can only see two dimensions at a time?"

Basic Technique

 * 1) Go into either Object Mode or Edit Mode.
 * 2) Move the mouse pointer to the desired position (in any viewport).
 * 3) Click.

Two Challenges
Challenge #1. Using only tools presented thus far, try positioning the 3D cursor on the virtual camera.

Try it!

When you're done, check your work by orbiting the camera.

Perhaps you thought you were done when you clicked on the camera. But the moment you changed your viewpoint, you probably found that the 3D cursor was actually behind (or in front of) the camera.

Hints:
 * Try positioning the cursor in two different perfect views.
 * Use orthographic, not perspective, view.

Challenge #2. Using only tools presented thus far, try repositioning the 3D cursor at the origin (that is, at the center of the cube).

As before, check your work by orbiting the cube. Don't spend too much time on this.

"I found that I would select the cube when left clicking on it in object mode, if the "Use 3d transform manipulator" button was enabled. To toggle this off, you click on the gray pointing hand in the 3d panel header, or (Ctrl Space)."

"When you want the cursor back into the cube, just select the camera with RMB, put the cursor into the cube following the steps above, and re-select the cube with RMB."

"I've discovered it helps a lot if you are in Object Mode and not in Edit Mode. I wrote the following before discovering this: The problem with this exercise, for me, is that left clicking on the cube selects the cube instead of moving the 3d cursor. If I click on the cube outside of its central white circle I can get the cursor to move there, but only to outside of this white circle, and even then this only works sometimes."

"I failed at this until I had zoomed in close enough to the cube. When I was too far zoomed out I kept selecting the cube rather than creating an edit point."

"I had the same problem and found it was because the cube was selected. I made sure I was in object mode, right clicked on the camera to select the camera instead of the cube, and I could then position the edit point in the cube. However, doing this messed up the next part of the tutorial because you cannot switch into edit mode with the camera selected! Perhaps the suggestion of trying to put the 3D cursor in the cube should be dropped as it raises too many questions at this stage."

"You can deselect all by pressing the AKEY or the select button in the 3D View."

"Use wireframe mode works better to get the cursor in."

"To get it back in the cube: 1) Make sure you're in object mode. 2) Select the cube. 3) Object > Snap > Cursor to selection (cursor refers to the 3D cursor here) so it puts it right in the middle of the cube."

"I think it's an essential point to note that in order to place the cursor inside the cube, the cube must NOT be selected. AKEY was probably the best way to deselect the object."

"If I remember correctly, undo history gets cleared when you switch between object and edit mode."

"I wasted a lot of time here. Thank you to the reader who suggested (on the 3D view header) Object > Snap > Cursor to selection. It was the only thing that worked to get the cursor visible again and placed where clicked."

"I missed the point of the exercise first time around. You can't set a 3D point on a 2D screen without technique. Orthographic views are crucial. I am just learning, but take that, at least, away from it."

"Positioning the 3D cursor in othographic views always made it snap to the cube surface, making it impossible to center precisely. Fix this by disabling "Cursor Depth" on the "interface" tab under "User Preferences".

"The phrase check your work by orbiting the camera needs additional clarification, such as a referenced section or the precise commands to use."

More Ways to Position the Cursor

Here's an easy way to position the cursor at the center of an object:
 * 1) Make sure Blender is in Object Mode, with the object selected.
 * 2) Move the mouse pointer to any 3D View window.
 * 3) Snap the cursor to the selected object using either:
 * 4) * → Cursor to Selected
 * or
 * 1) * Object → Snap → Cursor to Selected

Here's 2 easy ways to relocate the cursor to the scene's origin (0, 0, 0):
 * 1) Move the mouse pointer to any 3D View window.
 * 2) Press  to reset the cursor to the origin.
 * 3) * Note that this also changes the view location, meaning that when you zoom in, you won't zoom in to the scene origin.
 * 4) A better way is to click Object → Snap → Cursor to Center
 * 5) * You can also do this by → Cursor to Center.

Changing Your Viewpoint, Part Two
Now you'll learn some additional techniques for obtaining the view you want:
 * Panning
 * Centering
 * Jumping to the camera's viewpoint
 * Zooming in on a selected area

Panning
When you orbited the cube, the viewpoint's position and direction both changed at the same time. You also can shift the viewpoint up-down or left-right without changing its direction. (This is similar to the side-scrolling effect in the classic Mario and Sonic video games.)

This is called panning, and it's an important skill to master. Try it now:

 * 1) Activate a 3D View window by placing the mouse pointer inside it.
 * 2) Now you can:
 * 3) *Use to pan up and down.
 * 4) *Use and  to pan up and down in small increments.
 * 5) *Use to pan left and right.
 * 6) *Use and  to pan left and right in small increments.
 * 7) *Click and drag with or  to pan freely in the viewplane.

You will likely find this to be a distraction in some cases. To move the viewpoint position back to the center, snap the cursor to the center, then click View → Align View → Center View to Cursor. You could also snap the cursor to the center then press.

In versions ≥2.74 you can also use to center the view to the cursor.

Centering
When you zoom or rotate the view, you always zoom or rotate around the center of the view.

To make sure everything in your scene is visible:
 * 1) Press.

To center the view on an arbitrary point:
 * 1) Move the 3D cursor to the point of interest.
 * 2) Verify the cursor position from a second viewpoint.
 * 3) Press + to center the view.

To center the view on an object in the scene:
 * 1) Make sure Blender is in Object Mode.
 * 2) Zoom out until the object is in the viewport.
 * 3) If any objects are selected, use  (or Select → Select/Deselect All) to deselect them.
 * 4) Select the object of interest by clicking  on it.
 * 5) Press  to center the view.

Jumping to the Camera's Viewpoint
To see the scene as the virtual camera sees it, press. Afterwards, you can rotate, pan, and zoom normally, but the virtual camera will not follow. To go back to your previous view, press again. (In the latest versions of Blender, the virtual camera can be made to follow all the changes made in viewpoint while in camera view by checking the option "Lock Camera to View" on the Transform panel. Hit on your keyboard to bring up the transform panel. To disable this option uncheck "Lock Camera to View.")

Zooming into a Selected Area
Suppose you want to get an extreme closeup of a particular area. Because there's no center mark on the viewport, you might have to pan and zoom several times to get the desired view.

The shortcut for zooming to an area is:
 * 1) Activate a 3D view window that contains the area of interest.
 * 2) Press .  A crosshair appears in the viewport.
 * 3) Click and drag with  to draw a rectangle around the area of interest.
 * 4) When you release, the viewport will zoom in on the area you selected.

View Navigation
You can also change your viewpoint in the 3D view by “walking” or “flying” through it. To activate this, press. By default in Blender 2.70, this puts you in “walk” mode. Earlier versions only offered “fly” mode. (In Blender 2.70 and later, you can choose which one you prefer in User Preferences, under the Input tab.)

In both modes, helpful prompts appear in the header of the 3D view window to remind you of the key functions while the mode is in effect. When you have reached the position and orientation you want, press or  or  to end the navigation mode and stay there, or  or  to abandon the navigation mode and be teleported immediately back to your original position and orientation. (In 2.77+, pressing will teleport you to where the cross hairs point towards.)

Walk Mode
In this mode, you move the mouse to turn your view up/down/left/right, and, , and  or the corresponding arrow keys to move forward, left, back or right, and  and  to move up or down respectively. Hold a movement key down to keep moving. Movement stops as soon as you release it. Pressing will “teleport” you close to whatever objects lie within the crosshairs at the centre of the view.

You can also use to turn on gravity. Make sure there is a floor or other object under you to land on! With gravity on, you can no longer use the vertical movement keys, but you can use to make jumps. Press again to turn gravity off.

Fly Mode
In this older mode, moving the mouse to change the view works the same as in Walk mode, but the above direction keys (,, , , , and the arrows) apply “thrust” in the respective directions, so you keep moving after releasing the key. Press the key repeatedly to increase your speed in that direction, or press the key for the opposite thrust direction to reduce your speed. You can roll the mouse wheel up to apply forward thrust, or roll it down to apply backward thrust.

Your current velocity vector automatically changes direction with you when you turn. Thus, you can apply a single burst of sideways thrust while facing an object, then, without applying any additional thrust, keep turning to face the object, and you will go right around it.

Visibility Layers
Every object in the scene is assigned to one or more of 20.

Visibility layers have many uses:
 * You can put scenery, characters, particles, and lamps in different layers, to help organize your scene.
 * By changing which layers are visible, you can simplify your view of the scene and work with only one or two layers at a time.
 * When rendering, only visible layers are included. You can use this to render your scene layer by layer, checking each layer separately.
 * You can configure lamps to illuminate only objects in the same layer.

In Object Mode, you can tell which layers are visible by looking at the twenty small boxes located in the 3D View header between the Transform Orientation menu and the "Lock" button. The top row of boxes represents layers 1 through 10, with 1 being the leftmost and 10 being the rightmost. Similarly, the bottom row of boxes represents layers 11 through 20.

Hotkeys

 * To view just one of layers 1 - 9, press ...
 * To view just layer 10, press.
 * To view just one of layers 11 - 19, press ..
 * To view just layer 20, press.
 * To toggle the visibility of one of layers 1 - 9 without affecting the visibility of the other layers, press ...
 * To toggle the visibility of layer 10 without affecting the visibility of the other layers, press.
 * To toggle the visibility of one of layers 11 .. 19 without affecting the visibility of the other layers, press ...
 * To toggle the visibility of layer 20 without affecting the visibility of the other layers, press.
 * To make all layers visible at once, press . Press again to return to your previous layer visibility setting.

On the AZERTY keyboard layout, the standard number keys are the &é"'(-è_çà keys. Do not use  unless you want to toggle visibility as explained below.

Holding down while selecting a layer (by keyboard or mouse) will, instead of making only that layer visible, toggle the visibility. In this way, you can select combinations or to hide particular layers.

The key to press to select all layers at once differs by keyboard layout. It is:
 * (the key under Esc) on UK keyboards,
 * US,
 * German, Swedish, Finnish and Hungarian,
 * Swiss German,
 * Danish,
 * AZERTY,
 * Norwegian,
 * Spanish,
 * Portuguese,
 * Brazilian Portuguese,
 * Italian, and
 * Russian.

After pressing the aforementioned key, holding down while pressing it again will restore the visibility settings you had before you made all layers visible.

When only one layer is selected, new objects are automatically assigned to that layer. When two or more layers are visible, new objects are assigned to the most recently visible layer.

Count Your Polys
If you want to count the polygons in your scene, the data is available in the Info Header.

As you can see in the above image, this scene has 507 vertices and 500 faces (polygons).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/3D View Windows


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Asking for Help

So you've come to learn Blender, eh? You've made a great choice. Blender is one of the most powerful 3D animation and 3D creation tools out there, especially if you're short on cash. Learning how to use Blender can be a daunting task, so don't give up! With the help of this wikibook, you can become a Blender power user and put those Maya folks to shame.

If you ever get stuck in a tutorial for some reason, there are a number of places you can turn for help. The best way to get help is with an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) client such as X-Chat. Connect to irc.freenode.net and talk to blender users in the following channels.

 * #blenderwiki
 * #blender
 * #blenderchat
 * #blenderqa
 * #gameblender

If you can't get help there, click the "discussion" tab at the top of the page that you're having trouble with, and explain your problem on that page. Wait at least 24 hours for help.

If you're still not getting help, try asking for help in the BlenderArtists.org forums.

es:Blender 3D: novato a profesional/Clases particulares de principiante

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Asking for Help


text:
Reaktor/Synthesis/Granular

Granular synthesis in general

 * Granular synthesis at Wikipedia
 * Granular Synthesis Resource Site

Examples of Granular synthesis Instruments for Reaktor

 * Reaktor/Ensembles/Travelizer

Classic hardware granular synthesis instruments

 * do they exist at all?

there's at least one: v-synth

title: Reaktor/Synthesis/Granular


text:
Reaktor/Synthesis/Physical modelling

Physical modelling in general

 * Physical modelling at Wikipedia
 * Musical Physical Modelling
 * Physical Modelling Synthesis by Nicky Hind

Examples of Physical Modelling Instruments for Reaktor

 * Steam Pipe
 * ReZone
 * Accoustring
 * Twanger
 * Silverwood
 * Prepared Guitar
 * Cathedral Flutes
 * Geetar
 * Whack It

Classic hardware Physical Modeling synthesis instruments

 * Yamaha VL1
 * Yamaha VL70-m
 * Korg EXB-MOSS card for Triton & Karma; under license from Stanford U. & Yamaha

title: Reaktor/Synthesis/Physical modelling


text:
Novial

Novial (ISO 639-3 code: nov) is an international auxiliary language (IAL) designed by the eminent Danish linguist Professor Otto Jespersen. Of the major IALs it is the most similar to English in terms of both grammar and vocabulary, and is possibly the easiest foreign language for an English speaker to learn.

The vocabulary has been carefully selected from the words most common to English, the Romance languages (especially French) and German and to a lesser extent the Scandinavian languages. The grammar and sentence structure are based mainly on English, allowing students to advance rapidly to reading texts which are interesting in their own right.

The texts in this course are based on an exciting Sherlock Holmes novel with supernatural undertones: The Hound of the Baskervilles written by Arthur Conan Doyle and first published in serial form in the Strand Magazine in 1901–1902.

In each lesson the text is followed by a full list of new words and thorough notes on points of grammar and word formation. Exercises are then provided for students to practise and consolidate their vocabulary and sentence formation.

Beginner's Course
Here are the lessons (there is also a detailed List of Contents here):

An International Language [[File:50%.svg]]
An International Language is a work in progress. It is a translation of the original 1928 book on Novial from English into Novial.

Quotes about Novial
"Novial surpasses the other international languages in all respects."

- Professor C. C. Uhlenbeck of Leiden University, President of the First International Congress of Linguists (1928)

"Novial, invented by Professor Jespersen, is really good: there is a good deal of English in it, so that it is delightfully easy to read. Besides, Professor Jespersen has common sense, which is a great advantage in a professor. Everybody can learn Novial, there is very little grammar in it; but one must be English to understand how one can get along splendidly without grammar."

- George Bernard Shaw

Contribute!
This is a wiki textbook—feel free to edit it, update it, correct it, and otherwise increase its teaching potential. To find out more about wikis, see the [//www.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia] main page.

Ask Questions!
The tutorial group is a place you can ask questions. However, it is not visited much, so do not expect to get an answer within a few hours.

Novialo Enseignement du novial novial Новиаль Novial 诺维亚语

title: Novial


text:
Talk:Data Structures/Singly Linked Lists

multi threading in single linked list

this web page is very useful for my exams.thank you................update some examples related to the questions....................by vignesh


text:
User:Destrogal

Works

 * Wikibooks
 * Introduction to Philosophy
 * Wikiversity
 * School of Philosophy
 * The History of Philosophy: The Ancient Greeks

title: User:Destrogal


text:
Talk:Celestia/FAQs

Should we encourge people to post questions in the FAQ. Wouldn't those be better in the forum? greenwood

 * Yes: questions should be asked in the Celestia Web Forum. If they're asked more than a few times, then they should be added to the FAQ. ...Selden 21:28, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Celestia/FAQs


text:
General Genetics/Population Genetics

Population Genetics is the field of genetics which studies allele distributions and genetic variation in populations. Population geneticists study the processes of mutation, migration, natural selection and genetic drift on populations, and in doing so are studying evolution as it occurs.

Foundations of Population Genetics
Templeton states that the three premises of population genetics are the same premises for population genetics:

 * 1) Templates/DNA can replicate
 * 2) Templates/DNA can mutate and recombine
 * 3) Phenotypes emerge from the interaction of templates/DNA and environment.

Replication of Populations
There are three major properties that a population must maintain with replication:
 * 1) They are composed of reproducing individuals
 * 2) They are distributed over space and time
 * 3) They host a population of genes

The first property indicates that individuals of the population must reproduce to keep the population stable. This is necessary because individuals breakdown over time do to the introduction of entropy and inability for an individual to continuously remove the entropy added by the environment. Thus to maintain the population, individuals must pass down their DNA, or organizational encoding, to the next generation. Through continuous reproduction, a population can be maintained over a much longer time than the individuals that comprise it. In addition, the continuous reproduction of over time enables for the population to have properties and components of its own.

The second property is that a population is distributed over a space. Populations can exists as:
 * small isolated groups
 * a collection of groups with a varied amount of genetic exchange
 * a large interbreeding population that exists over a vast space

In general though the population can be divided into a primary group that can be considered as interbreeding and a secondary group that mates occasionally with the primary group. It is this primary group that population geneticists generally study, as it is generally stable. They define the group as a group of interbreeding individuals that share a common system of mating. The secondary group is generally ignored, and treated as noise in the system, unless it is having a major effect on the primary group.

The third property that must be maintained with reproduction is the population's gene pool. The gene pool is the collection of all the genes, organizational templates, in the population that can be used to create new individuals. By studying this gene pool, geneticists can determine the frequency of alleles, and or groups of alleles in the population and how they are changing over time. From the patterns of result that are obtained, geneticists then can start to understand what forces are acting on the population.

Template Mutations
Change is a requirement of evolution and one method of introducing change is through modification of the templates used sustain the population. In the case of living life, these templates are genes.

Sources of Mutation:
 * Insertions
 * Deletions
 * Single Nucleotide Substitutions (sometimes changing the protein sequences and sometimes not)
 * Transpositions
 * Duplications

An allele is an alternate form of an template. In the case of biological systems, an allele is a form of a gene. Zooming further out, a version of a region of templates is called a haplotype. Biological systems would call this a sequence of nucleotides, while a in a computer system, this would be a sequence of linked objects.

Modeling Evolution
Initially we are going to consider populations with genetic architectures of two loci per template.

Hardy-Weinberg Model
The genetic architecture of the Hardy Weinberg model is one locus, two allele model (Templeton, p. 35).

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
If a population has no forces of evolution acting upon it is in Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium. Quantitatively it says that if the allele proportions of two alleles A and a are denoted p and q then the genotype proportions will be such that the homozygote AA will be of proportion p2, the heterozygote Aa will have proportion 2pq and the homozygote aa will be of proportion q2.

Testing for Hardy-Weinberg
To do this test you do what is known as a Chi Square test ($$\chi^2$$). Where: $$ \chi ^2 = \sum \frac{(observed - expected)^2}{expected} $$

and the degrees of freedom is no. of Genotypes - no. of Alleles if χ 2

Example
If there is a population with genotype proportions AA: 0.1 Aa: 0.4 aa: 0.5

So the allele proportions are $$ p = 0.1 + \frac{1}{2} 0.4 = 0.3 $$

$$ q = 0.5 + \frac{1}{2} 0.4 = 0.7 $$

So our expected values are AA: 0.09 Aa: 0.42 aa: 0.49.

$$ \chi ^2 = \sum \frac{(observed - expected)^2}{expected} $$ $$ \chi ^2 = \frac{(0.1-0.09)^2}{0.09} + \frac{(0.4 - 0.42)^2}{0.42}+ \frac{(0.5 - 0.49)^2}{0.49} $$ $$ \chi ^2 = 0.002 < 3.84 $$ Therefore we can accept the hypothesis is in Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium and that there are no forces of equilibrium on these alleles.

Two Autosomal Loci, Two Allele Model
Extending the H.W. model to two autosomal locus model with two alleles.

For the purpose of this discussion, the first locus will have alleles A and a and the second locus will have B and b. From this we can get the following gamete types and their frequencies through recombination:

A population producing the above four gamates can produce the following genotypes:

If you analyze the table above, it can be noticed that there are only ten unique combinations. Four combinations correspond to homozygous zygotes and the remaining six are the heterozygous zygotes.

Notice that the sum of FreqAB, FreqAb, FreqaB, and Freqab is one. This follows from the earlier model where the sum of p and q equaled one.

Recombination
(this section is used to discuss how we get term r)

Homozygous Case
AB/AB or ab/ab or aB/aB or Ab/Ab

Single Heterozygous Case
AB/Ab or AB/aB aB/ab or Ab/ab

Double Heterozygous Case
AB/ab or Ab/aB

Note that recombination is only noticeable in double heterozygotes.

Linkage Disequilibrium
(this section is used to discuss how we get term D)

Linkage disequilibrium measure, $$\delta$$
Formally, if we define pairwise LD, we consider indicator variables on alleles at two loci, say $$I_1, I_2$$. We define the LD parameter $$\delta$$ as:

 * $$\delta := \operatorname{cov}(I_1, I_2) = p_1 p_2 - h_{12} = h_{AB}h_{ab}-h_{Ab}h_{aB} $$

Here $$p_1, p_2 $$ denote the marginal allele frequencies at the two loci and $$h_{12}$$ denotes the haplotype frequency in the joint distribution of both alleles. Various derivatives of this parameter have been developed. In the genetic literature the wording "two alleles are in LD" usually means to imply $$\delta \ne 0$$. Contrariwise, linkage equilibrium, denotes the case $$\delta = 0$$.

Is Evolution Occurring
If r > 0 and D != 0 then evolution is occurring

If r = 0 or if D equals 0, then no evolution is occurring

Selection
Absolute Fitness

Relative Fitness

Frequency before selection

Frequency after selection

Genetic Drift
First experiments were done in the early 30's. German was a major scientific language before the second world war.

Genetic drift is a function of population size N.

The effects of genetic drift is inversely proportional to population size. This means as the population increases, the deviation from expected allelic frequencies will decrease. (Templeton, p. 84).

Genetic drift is non-directional.

There is no attraction to return ancestral allele frequencies.

Genetic drift is a cumulative function. Changes in allele frequencies from the previous generations are added to the changes that occur in the current generation.

Genetic drift is only occurs when there is variability.

To study genetic drift this section will create a simplified model and expand upon it. The model will just have two states, a) genetic drift is occurring and b) genetic drift is not occurring.

a->b fixation b->a mutations causing differentiable patterns b->a reintroduction of differentiable patterns

Genetic drift can be broken down into two simplified states to start. The f

Example
In each population, 2N=32, po=qo=0.5 initially and then did 19 generations of data. (Buri, P. 1956 "Gene frequency in small populations of mutant Drosophila. Evolution 10: 367-402

(See Figure 6.3 from Hedrick, P.W. 2005, Genetics of populations, 3rd edition. Jones and Bartlett, Sudbury, MA)

Note that in this figure, variance is increasing, but mean allele frequency over populations is staying relatively the same.

Simulation of Genetic Drift
Genetic Drift can be simulated using a Monte Carlo Simulation. (See Figure 6.2 in Hedrick)

The proportion of populations expected to go to fixation for a given allele is equal to the initial frequency of that allele

Only the allele frequencies are changing and the distribution of the allele frequency. The mean allele frequency over multiple replicate populations does not change due to genetic drift.

Heterzygositity or the variance of the allele frequency over the replicate population can be used to understand genetic drift.

We can calculate the number of generations necessary to reduce the reduce the heterozygostity

t=ln(x)*-2*N, where x is how much heterozgostity is left, and N is the population size.

Furthur Reading in Wikipedia

 * Hardy-Weinberg Principle
 * Chi-square test
 * Founder Effect

Glossary
Gene Pool - p. 37 and p. 38 of Templeton's book

Example 1
The probability of observing these numbers is:

$$ P=\frac{N!}{(N_{homo,~observed}!)\cdot(N_{hetero}!)}\cdot freq(Homo_{expected})^{N_{homo,~observed}}\cdot freq(Hetero_{expected})^{N_{hetero,~observed}} $$

$$P=\frac{100!}{(85!)\cdot(15!)}\cdot (0.6)^{85}\cdot (0.4)^{15}$$

Example 2
What are the observed frequencies of p and q?

$$p = \frac{2\cdot Homo_{dom}\cdot Hetero}{2\cdot N}$$

$$q = \frac{2\cdot Homo_{rec}\cdot Hetero}{2\cdot N}$$

$$p = \frac{2\cdot 20 \cdot 50}{2\cdot 100}$$

$$q = \frac{2\cdot 30 \cdot 50}{2\cdot 100}$$

What are the expected number of genotypes?

Do the observed genotypes fit H-W expectation?

$$\chi^2=\sum\limits^{n}_{i=1}{}\frac{observed_i-expected_i}{expected_i}$$

$$G=2\sum\limits^{i=1}_{n}observed_i \cdot \ln{\frac{observed_i}{expected_i}}$$

If χ2 greater than degree of freedom, then the null hypothesis, in this case it fits H.W. can be rejected.

Example 3 - Next Generation
For an autosomal locus

$$p_{next~generation}=homo_{dom}\cdot 1/2 \cdot(hetero)$$

$$q_{next~generation}=1-p_{next~generation}$$

Example 4 - Sex Linked (1 locus, 2 allele)
$$p_{next,~male}=p_{female}$$

$$q_{next,~male}=q_{female}$$

$$p_{next,~female}=\frac{p_{female}+p_{male}}{2}$$

$$q_{next,~female}=\frac{q_{female}+q_{male}}{2}$$

It is possible to solve for the amount of time it will take till an initial frequency is less than or equal to a particular threshold by using the following formula:

$$\frac{deviation_{threshold}}{deviation_{initial}}=(-0.5)^{t}$$

$$t=\max{}\left( \frac{\log{}\frac{deviation_{threshold}}{deviation_{initial}}}{-\log0.5}\right)$$

Example 5 - Inbreeding - Self Pollination
Calculate F Value

$$p = \frac{2\cdot homo_{dom} + hetero}{2N}$$

$$q = \frac{2\cdot homo_{rec} + hetero}{2N}$$

$$Heterozygosity_{observed}=H_{o}=\frac{Hetero_{observed}}{N}$$

$$Heterozygosity_{ expected } =H_{e} = 2pq\,$$

$$F=1-\left( \frac{H_{observed}}{H_{expected}}\right)$$

Chi-squared then can be calculated by:

$$\chi^{2}=F^{2}N\,$$

Example 6 - Inbreeding (1 Locus / 2 alleles)
Given the frequency of the dominant allele and an F value:

$$Heterozygosity_{expected}=H_{e}=2pq\,$$

$$Heterozygosity_{observed}=H_{o}=(1-F)\cdot H_{e}$$

What sample size would be necessary to detect an effect of F=0.01 at the S% significant level?

 * 1) Look up the X2 value for S% significant level (usually S = 5%)
 * 2) Use the following formula:

$$N=\frac{\chi^2 }{F^2}$$

Example 7 - Null Allele
$$p = \frac{2\cdot homo_{dom} + hetero}{2N}$$

$$q = \frac{2\cdot homo_{rec} + hetero}{2N}$$

$$Heterozygosity_{observed}=H_{o}=\frac{Hetero_{observed}}{N}$$

$$Heterozygosity_{ expected } =H_{e} = 2pq\,$$

$$p_{null}=\frac{H_E-H_O}{1+H_E}$$

$$p_{adjusted}=p \cdot (1-p_{null})$$

$$q_{adjusted}=q \cdot (1-p_{null})$$

Example 1
What are the selection coefficients?

$$sel_{homo,~dom}=1-w_{rel,~homo,~dom}$$

$$sel_{hetero}=1-w_{rel,~hetero}$$

$$sel_{homo,~rec}=1-w_{rel,~homo,~rec}$$

Example 2 - Mean Fitness Calculation
What is the mean fitness of this population?

$$w_{mean}=w_{rel,~homo,~dom}\cdot Homo_{dom} +w_{rel,~hetero}\cdot Hetero + w_{rel,~homo,~rec} \cdot Homo_{rec}$$

Example 3 - Natural Selection Analysis
What is the mean fitness of this population?

$$w_{mean}=w_{rel,~homo,~dom}\cdot Homo_{dom} +w_{rel,~hetero}\cdot Hetero + w_{rel,~homo,~rec} \cdot Homo_{rec}$$

$$p = Homo_{dom} + \frac{Hetero}{2}$$

$$q = Homo_{rec} + \frac{Hetero}{2}$$

$$Homo_{dom,~next}=\frac{w_{rel,~homo,~dom}\cdot p^2}{w_{mean}}$$

$$Hetero_{next}=\frac{w_{rel,~homo,~dom}\cdot 2pq}{w_{mean}}$$

$$Homo_{rec,~next}=\frac{w_{rel,~homo,~rec}\cdot q^2}{w_{mean}}$$

$$p_{next} = Homo_{dom,~next} + \frac{Hetero_{next}}{2}$$

$$q_{next} = Homo_{rec,~next} + \frac{Hetero_{next}}{2}$$

$$\Delta p = p_{next} - p\,$$

Example 1
What are the equilibrium frequencies for the pf and qf alleles in females considering that heterozygotes have intermediate fitness?

$$selection_{female}=s_{f}=1-fitness_{homo,~dom,~female}=1-w_{11,~f}$$

$$selection_{male}=s_{m}=1-fitness_{homo,~dom,~male}=1-w_{11,~m}$$

$$q_{equilibrium,~female}=\frac{s_f - 1}{s_f}+(\frac{s_m \cdot s_f - s_f - s_m + 2}{2s_f \cdot s_m})^{(1/2)}]$$

$$p_{equilibrium,~female}=1-q_{equilibrium, female}\,$$

What are the equilibrium frequencies for the pm and qm alleles in males considering that heterozygotes have intermediate fitness?

$$q_{equilibrium,~male}=\frac{1}{s_m}-(\frac{s_m \cdot s_f - s_f - s_m + 2}{2s_f \cdot s_m})^{(1/2)}]$$

$$p_{equilibrium,~male}=1-q_{equilibrium, male}\,$$

What range of sf values will give a stable polymorphism?

$$\frac{s_m}{1-s_m}>s_f>\frac{s_m}{1+s_m}$$

What range of sm values will give a stable polymorphism?

$$\frac{s_f}{1-s_f}>s_m>\frac{s_f}{1+s_f}$$

Example 2 - Complete Dominance w/ Frequency Dependent Selection
What are the selection coefficients shomo, dom and shetero with q = 0.02?

$$w_{homo,~dom}=w_{hetro}=1+\frac{s_{homo,~dom}}{1-q^2}$$

$$(w_{homo,~dom}-1) \cdot (1-q^2) = s_{homo,~dom}$$

$$s_{homo,~dom}=s_{hetero} = (w_{homo}-1) \cdot (1-q^2)$$

$$w_{homo,~rec}=1+\frac{s_{homo,~rec}}{q^2}$$

$$(w_{homo,~rec}-1) \cdot (q^2) = s_{homo,~rec}$$

$$s_{homo,~rec}= (w_{homo}-1) \cdot (q^2)$$

Calculate the stable equilibrium frequency, qe and pe.

$$q_e = (\frac{s_2}{s_1+s_2})^{(1/2)}$$

$$p_e = 1-q_e\,$$

Calculate the mean fitness assuming HW equilibrium and using:

(a) current allele frequencies

$$w_{mean}=w_{homo,~dom}\cdot homo_{dom}+w_{hetero}\cdot hetero + w_{homo,~rec}\cdot

homo_{rec}$$

$$w_{mean}=w_{homo,~dom}\cdot (p)^2+w_{hetero}\cdot 2pq+ w_{homo,~rec}\cdot

(q)^2$$

(b) stable equilibrium allele frequencies

$$w_{mean}=w_{homo,~dom}\cdot homo_{dom}+w_{hetero}\cdot hetero + w_{homo,~rec}\cdot

homo_{rec}$$

$$w_{mean}=w_{homo,~dom}\cdot (p_e)^2+w_{hetero}\cdot 2 p_e q_e+ w_{homo,~rec}\cdot (q_e)^2$$

(c) general formula

$$w_{mean} = 1 + s_1 + s_2$$

Example 3 - Self Incompatibility Locus
Given initial frequencies:

(a) What are the frequencies of the S1, S2, and S3 alleles initially, and after one and two generations?

$$p_1=(1/2)\cdot (P_{S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{S_{1}S_{3}})$$

$$p_2=(1/2)\cdot (P_{S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{S_{2}S_{3}})$$

$$p_3=(1/2)\cdot (P_{S_{1}S_{3}}+P_{S_{2}S_{3}})$$

(b) After one generation?

$$P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{S_{1}S_{2}})$$

$$P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{S_{1}S_{3}})$$

$$P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{S_{2}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~1}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~2}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~3}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}}+P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}})$$

(b) After two generations?

$$P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{prev,~S_{1}S_{2}})$$

$$P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{prev,~S_{1}S_{3}})$$

$$P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}}=(1/2)\cdot (1-P_{prev,~S_{2}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~1}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~2}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{2}}+P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}})$$

$$p_{next, ~3}=(1/2)\cdot (P_{next,~S_{1}S_{3}}+P_{next,~S_{2}S_{3}})$$

Example 4 - Fitness / Overdominance
To find the equilibrium of p:

$$s_{homo,~dom}=1-w_{homo,~dom}$$

$$s_{hetero,~dom}=1-w_{hetero,~dom}$$

$$s_{homo,~rec}=1-w_{homo,~rec}$$

$$p_{eq}=\frac{s_{homo,~rec}}{s_{homo,~dom}+s_{homo,~rec}}$$

$$q_{eq}=1-p_{eq}\,$$

Example 5 - Selection and Viability
$$w_{mean}=Z_{homo,~dom}\cdot V_{homo,~dom}+Z_{hetero}\cdot V_{hetero}+Z_{homo,~rec}\cdot V_{homo,~rec}$$

$$p_{sel}=Homo_{dom,~sel}\cdot \frac{Hetero_{sel}}{2}$$

$$q_{sel}=Homo_{rec~sel}\cdot \frac{Hetero_{sel}}{2}$$

or

$$q_{sel}=1-p_{sel}\,$$

Predicted Genotype Frequencies

$$Homo_{dom, exp}=p_{sel}^2\,$$

$$Hetero_{exp}=p_{sel}^2 + 2p_{sel}q_{sel}\,$$

$$Homo_{rec, exp}=q_{sel}^2\,$$

Example 6
What are the absolute and relative fitness for each?

$$w_{abs,~homo,~dom}=\frac{Homo_{dom,~obs}}{Homo_{dom,~exp}}$$

$$w_{abs,~hetero}=\frac{Hetero_{obs}}{Hetero_{exp}}$$

$$w_{abs,~homo,~rec}=\frac{Homo_{rec,~obs}}{Homo_{rec,~exp}}$$

$$w_{abs,~max} = \max(w_{abs,~homo,~dom}, w_{abs,~hetero}, w_{abs,~homo,~rec})$$

$$w_{rel,~homo,~dom}=\frac{w_{abs,~homo,~dom}}{w_{abs,~max}}$$

$$w_{rel,~hetero}=\frac{w_{abs,~hetero}}{w_{abs,~max}}$$

$$w_{rel,~homo,~rec}=\frac{w_{abs,~homo,~rec}}{w_{abs,~max}}$$

title: General Genetics/Population Genetics


text:
Talk:Ada Programming/Type System

Are Constants Constant?
I'm not sure this page is the best place for this topic, but I do not see a better one.

 * Maybe Ada Programming/Variables could be expanded to cover constants. But then, it should be renamed to Objects, I guess, and I'm not sure if that it's a good idea, since many people would understand object as in Object Oriented Programming. Moreover, that Variables page is one of those pages with a version in pseudocode and a version in Ada, both sharing texts using transclusion, a maintenance headache. -- ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 19:35, 25 October 2022 (UTC)

 * @CKWG - Ada Magica: I think you have written enough content to deserve its own page. In fact, I've seen we have two links to a still-non-existent page in Special:WhatLinksHere/Ada_Programming/Constants -- ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 19:39, 27 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi Manuel,
 * if you think so, that's OK - see my remark at the very start.
 * I would propose to link to the new page Ada_Programming/Constants in /Ada_Programming#Language_Features directly after Type System.
 * Will you do this? CKWG - Ada Magica (discuss • contribs) 15:26, 28 October 2022 (UTC)
 * BTW: I think the page Ada_Programming/Variables is ghastly beyond hope. CKWG - Ada Magica (discuss • contribs) 15:37, 28 October 2022 (UTC)
 * OK, I've added the link in Ada_Programming. -- ManuelGR (discuss • contribs) 18:22, 28 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ada Programming/Type System


text:
User:Taulmarill~enwikibooks

just another Perl hacker ;-)

title: User:Taulmarill~enwikibooks


text:
User:Milliehandshrimp~enwikibooks

Japanese English

英語

title: User:Milliehandshrimp~enwikibooks


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Modeling a Simple Person

In this module, you will model a simple human figure. Along the way, you will practice using extrusion and learn additional ways to select vertices, edges, and faces.

Start a New Scene

 * 1) Start with the default cube (File → Load Factory Settings) and NumLock "on".
 * 2) Press  to edit the cube.
 * 3) Scale the cube down 50% by pressing.

Selection Methods
Just as you did for the house model, you will begin by selecting the top four vertices of the cube. This section presents six methods for doing so.

Ease of selection depends partly on the viewport settings and viewpoint. For greatest ease, you want a view in which the parts you are trying to select are both visible and close together.

For clarity, use a view of the cube in which all vertices are visible:
 * Go to right side view with.
 * Disable the manipulator widget with.
 * Make sure the Limit selection to visible option is "off".

The picture on the right shows the cube with the correct vertices selected.

To begin, make sure you start in Vertex select mode.

Border Select Tool
The selects things that lie in a rectangular region of the viewport.

 * 1) Activate (place the mouse pointer in) a 3D View window.
 * 2) Deselect all vertices by pressing.
 * 3) Press  to activate the border select tool.  Two dashed gray lines should appear, one vertical and one horizontal, forming a crosshair in the viewpoint.
 * 4) Click and drag  diagonally across the area you want to select.  The area will be outlined in dashed gray lines.
 * 5) When you release the mouse button, the vertices inside the rectangle will be added to the selection.

Practice selecting the top four vertices this way. If you make a mistake, press and try again.

Circle Select Tool
The selects or deselects things that lie in a circular region of the viewport.

 * 1) Activate a 3D View window.
 * 2) Deselect all vertices by pressing.
 * 3) Press  to activate the circle select tool. A dashed gray circle should appear. note: Prior to Blender 2.5  twice.

When this tool is active, you can do various things:
 * To move the select area, simply move the mouse pointer.
 * To resize the select area, use or /..
 * To select all vertices within the circle, click.
 * To deselect all vertices within the circle, click or  +.
 * To deactivate the tool, press or.

Practice selecting the top four vertices this way. If you make a mistake, press and try again.

Lasso Select Tool
Like many graphics programs, Blender 3D has a.

 * 1) Activate a 3D View window.
 * 2) Deselect all vertices by pressing.
 * 3) Click and hold.
 * 4) Drag the mouse pointer in a loop around the vertices you want to select.  As you drag, a dashed gray line will appear.
 * 5) You can deselect with lasso by pressing ++.
 * 6) Release the  when you're done.

Vertex by Vertex Selection
You can select (or deselect) vertices one by one, as you did in.
 * 1) Click  on a vertex to make it the only selected vertex.
 * 2) Toggle the select state of additional vertices by clicking.

Edge Select Mode
You can select (or deselect) edges one by one, as you did in.
 * 1) Click  on the Edge select mode button in the 3D View header.
 * 2) Select the top left edge of the cube by clicking on it with.
 * 3) Toggle the select state of top right edge of the cube by clicking on it with.
 * 4) Switch back to Vertex select mode by clicking  on the Vertex select mode button in the 3D View header.

After you switch back to Vertex select mode, all four vertices in the two selected edges are selected.

Face Select Mode
You can select (or deselect) faces one by one, as you did in.
 * 1) Click  on the Face select mode button in the 3D View header.
 * 2) Select the top face of the cube by clicking on its center dot with.
 * 3) Switch back to Vertex select mode by clicking  on the Vertex select mode button in the 3D View header.

After you switch back to Vertex select mode, all four vertices in selected face are selected.

Extruding Limbs
The illustrations in this section are in front orthographic view, so:
 * Use (or View → Orthographic) to switch to orthographic view.
 * Use (or View → Front) to switch to front view.

Region Extrusion

 * 1) Make sure you're still in Edit Mode, with the top four vertices selected. (Only two will be visible in front ortho view.)
 * 2) Activate the extrude tool by using (or Mesh → Extrude Region).
 * 3) Move the mouse pointer upwards. As you do, four new vertices will appear, each connected to one of the four that were previously selected.

The new vertices and their associated edges will move with the mouse pointer. You can lock them into place with or ).

Extruding a Leg

Suppose you want to extrude a region the same size as the default cube -- in other words, one Blender unit on a side.

 * 1) Undo your previous extrude by pressing.
 * 2) Activate the extrude tool again by using  (or Mesh → Extrude Region).
 * 3) This time, as you're moving the extruded vertices around, hold down the  key.  You'll see that the new vertices will only move in multiples of a Blender unit.  This is called, and it makes it easy to extrude by exactly one blender unit. The size of the snapping depends on the zoom level; if you are zoomed out a long way from the object the snapping will be done in large increments and if you are zoomed in close you can snap in finer amounts.

Continue extruding until you have five cubes of equal size stacked atop one another. This will be one leg of your figure.

Extruding the Pelvis

 * 1) Press until all vertices are deselected.
 * 2) Rotate the view (by dragging ) so you can see all four vertices on the right face of the top cube.
 * 3) Select those four vertices.
 * 4) Extrude twice to the right.

Extruding the Rest of the Body
The same trick is repeated over and over to build the rest of our simple body.

 * 1) Create a second leg by extruding down four times from the last cube of the pelvis.
 * 2) Create the torso by extruding up five times from the middle cube of the pelvis.
 * 3) Extrude to each side from the next-to-top cube of the torso to create arms. (Making sure there are five on each side. Refer to the picture on the top of the page)

To be safe, remove any double vertices you may have inadvertently created:
 * 1) In Vertex select mode, press  until all vertices are selected.
 * 2) Make sure that you are in Edit Mode, Press  to bring up the Vertex Context Menu.
 * 3) Scroll over Merge Vertices, and then select By Distance.

Now check your work:
 * 1) Return to Object Mode by pressing.
 * 2) Make sure the viewport draw type is Solid. (Press  if it isn't.)
 * 3) Rotate the viewpoint and examine the body from every side (it might be useful to return to perspective view for this).

This is easily fixed. To create a face:
 * 1) Press  to go back into Edit Mode.
 * 2) Select four vertices.
 * 3) Press  (or choose Mesh → Faces → Make Edge/Face from the 3D View header).
 * Note that you can also make edges with this tool if you select two vertices.

Adding the Head

 * 1) Move the 3D cursor to a point above the neck by clicking with the.
 * 2) Adjust the cursor position in orthographic top, front and side views (,, and  respectively) until the 3D cursor is about where the center of the head should be. It may help to use  → Snap → Cursor to Grid.
 * 3) Make sure you're in Edit Mode with a 3D View window active. (If you create the head in Object Mode, it will be a separate object from the body, and changes to the body later in this tutorial won't affect the head.)
 * 4) Create a sphere using  → Mesh → Icosphere.
 * 5) Leave the default settings for subdivisions and size in the bottom left of the screen. (Note: Your computer may slow down if you set subdivisions above 6)

You should now have a small sphere at the top of the body. To make it more proportional to the body, resize it using the scale tool:
 * 1) Make sure you're still in Edit Mode, with a 3D View window active and the head selected.
 * 2) If necessary change the pivot point to Median Point.
 * 3) Activate the scale tool by pressing  (or Mesh → Transform → Scale).
 * 4) Move the mouse pointer until the head is the size you want.

You may also adjust its position using the grab tool:
 * 1) Make sure you're still in Edit Mode, with a 3D View window active and the head selected.
 * 2) Activate the grab tool by pressing  (or Mesh → Transform → Grab/Move).
 * 3) Move the mouse pointer until the center of the head is where you want it.

Now check your work:
 * 1) Return to Object Mode by pressing.
 * 2) Make sure the viewport draw type is Solid. (Press  if it isn't.)
 * 3) Rotate the viewpoint and examine the body from every side.  Make sure that the head connects properly to the neck.

Save Your Work
You will continue working on your simple person model in the next module.

To save the scene in a  file:
 * 1) Press  +  (or select File → Save).
 * 2) Navigate to the directory (folder) where you want to write the file.
 * 3) Type a filename in the text box to the left of the "Cancel" button.
 * 4) Click  on the "Save Blender File" button.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Detailing Your Simple Person 1

Few real-life objects have perfectly sharp edges. People, in particular, consist of mainly smooth surfaces. How does one model a smooth object using flat faces and sharp edges?

In this module, you'll learn how to smooth a mesh by using subsurfaces and smooth shading.

You'll need the simple person model from the previous module. If you haven't done it, either go back and do it now or download the pre-made model from.

If the model doesn't look solid, your Viewport Shading setting may be set to Wireframe. To switch to Solid shading:
 * 1) Activate the 3D View window.
 * 2) Press.

Subsurfaces
So far, all the meshes you've created have had sharp edges, giving them a faceted appearance like that of a cut diamond. To model a smooth object (like a human body) you might think you need a huge number of vertices and faces. partly solves this problem by automatically subdividing a mesh into a finer mesh suitable for smooth rendering.

You subsurface in Blender by adding a to an existing mesh object. A is simply an algorithm (automatic process) which can be added to an object. (Blender modifiers are analogous to Photoshop adjustment layers.)

To get started, make sure Blender is in Object Mode, with only the simple person object selected:
 * 1) If Blender is in Edit Mode, press.
 * 2) To select the simple person, on it.

To add a subsurf modifier to the selected object:
 * 1) Click on the modifiers tab (wrench icon) in the Properties window.
 * 2) Add Modifier → Subdivision Surface.

You could also add subsurf modifier by pressing.

The object's appearance should immediately become more faceted and more rounded. In addition, several subsurface controls will appear in the Modifiers tab.

The model may include some double vertices. To get rid of these:
 * 1) Edit the model in Vertex select mode.
 * 2) Select all vertices.
 * 3) Mesh → Vertices → Remove Double
 * 4) Try again.

You need to look in to upgrading (or possibly even downgrading) your graphics drivers. Having the right graphics driver can avert many problems.

What just happened? The default subsurf modifier (one level of Catmull-Clark) subdivided each face of the object into four smaller faces that are progressively angled. This softened the sharp edges of the original model where faces met at 90-degree angles.

Controls
For this model, one level of subsurf isn't quite enough. To increase the number of levels to two, just increase the number in the text box directly underneath Subdivisions. The View setting controls the number of subdivision levels visible in the viewport. This is very useful when you have a high-poly scene, just decrease the number of visible subdivisions to speed up viewport action.

You can specify additional levels of subsurfing to be used during renders. For extra smooth renders, you might want three levels of subsurfing. Set this with the Render control immediately below the View control.

The Apply button applies the modifier to the mesh. Do not click it yet. We'll be playing with the model a bit longer before we apply the changes. While useful with some modifiers, applying a subsurf modifier produces a very complex mesh, and there's no need to do so here.

Remember that you can undo any accidental modifications with.

Blender can combine a series of modifiers by them. For this reason, the Modifier tab includes buttons for arranging and removing modifiers.

You can hide edges created by the modifier by activating the Optimal Display toggle button. The effect is especially clear with the Wireframe draw type.

You can edit the mesh in modified form (without actually applying the modifier) by activating the Adjust edit cage to modifier toggle button, a small button with a triangle and vertices, to the left of the Up/Down arrows (the arrows are for changing the position of the modifier in the stack) in the Modifier panel.

Try this out:
 * 1) Press  to enter Edit mode.
 * 2) Make sure Blender is in Vertex select mode.
 * Note that the vertices no longer lie on the surface of the object.
 * 1) Activate the Adjust edit cage to modifier button.
 * Now all vertices lie on the surface of the object, and you can adjust the (modified) vertices directly. However, any additional vertices created by the modifier cannot be directly edited without applying the modifier.

You will be editing the boxy version of the simple person awhile longer, so before continuing, deactivate the Apply modifier to editing cage during Editmode button.

Smooth Shading
Subsurfaces do a good job of smoothing out corners in meshes. Even with two levels of subsurfaces, however, the simple person does not look completely smooth; when viewed close up, it has a scaly appearance. This is because each face is —shaded to resemble a flat surface—resulting in sudden changes in brightness at most edges. For a smooth object, you want, which smooths out the changes in brightness.

 * 1) Go to Object Mode.
 * 2) Set the draw type of a 3D View window to "Solid".
 * 3) Select your subsurfed object.
 * 4) In the Toolshelf on the left, look for a caption called Shading. Under it should be a button called Smooth.
 * All the mesh edges will be smoothed out, leaving no sudden changes in brightness. The faces blend smoothly into one another, making the edges nearly invisible. If the icosphere has not smoothed properly and is dimpled, enter Edit Mode by pressing , select all vertices (A) and recalculate the normal direction (CTRL+N). This is also available in the Toolshelf under Normals.
 * 1) Click the other button under Shading in the Toolshelf, named 'Flat'.
 * The edges will reappear. Now you know the difference between Flat and Smooth.
 * 1) Since the model looks better with smooth shading, click  on the "Smooth" button again.

Note that if you didn't have subsurf enabled, then the mesh wouldn't look much different. This is because smooth shading doesn't affect the mesh shape, it just changes how the computer draws the triangles.

Smooth shading also removes a lot of definition. A good way to get rid of this is simply to add a subsurf modifier like you just did. The modifier will not only require fewer vertices, but add definition.

Save your work. You will continue refining this model in the next module.

Additional Resources

 * For more about modifiers, see
 * For more about Blender subsurfaces, see.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Creating a Simple Hat

In this module, you'll create a hat for your simple person. Along the way, you'll learn how to use the Spin tool and use layers.

Creating a Generatrix
For future convenience, you'll create the hat as a new object in the scene containing the simple person. If you haven't created the simple person, either go back and do it now or else download the pre-made model from.

Start by changing layers to layer two, then add the basis for your hat:
 * 1) Make sure you're in Object Mode (so that a new object will be created).
 * 2) Click  on the second little square, this will make the viewport display layer two. (The top row is for layers 1 to 10, the bottom for 11 to 20, so layer 2 is immediately to the right of layer 1; layer 6 is across the space from layer 5.)
 * 3) Go to orthographic front view by pressing, then.
 * 4) Create a mesh circle at the cursor, by activating the 3D View window, pressing  +   and choosing Mesh → Circle.

The new mesh object doesn't actually have to be a circle. You could use any sort of mesh object here because you're about to reshape it into a custom 2D mesh (called a ) that describes the profile of your hat. More precisely, the generatrix describes one side of a vertical cross-section through the hat. You'll want your generatrix to have a slope; it should be higher on one side (which will become the top of the crown) than on the other (which will become the brim).

 * 1) The newly-created mesh should be selected.  If it isn't, select it by clicking  on it.
 * 2) Press  to edit the mesh.
 * 3) Activate Vertex select mode.
 * 4) Press  until all vertices are selected.
 * 5) Press  to erase all vertices.

Now draw your generatrix, starting with the brim and sloping upwards toward the top of the crown: (If this doesn't work, make sure you are in vertex select mode.)
 * 1) Make sure you're still in orthographic front view.
 * 2) Press  to create the first vertex.
 * 3) Press  to one side of that vertex to extrude another vertex, connected to the first by an edge.

Keep adding vertices until you're satisfied with the shape of your generatrix. You can always undo using or go back and adjust the positions of particular vertices using the grab tool.

The mesh is then spun around an axis perpendicular to the viewplane. You want to spin around a vertical axis, so press to switch to top view.

Spinning the Hat
Now, let's actually spin the hat: If you spin the hat in front view, your hat will be flat. You have to spin the hat in top view.
 * 1) Move the 3D cursor to the vertex you want to spin around by pressing  on it. You can also use the snapping tool for positioning the cursor more precisely by pressing  after selecting that specific vertex. Cursor to selected positions the cursor.
 * 2) Press  to select all the vertices. The Spin control only spins vertices that are selected.
 * 3) Press  to activate the Spin tool.
 * 4) * The Spin tool is also available in the Tool Shelf under Add

You should now see 90° of a generatrix! To spin your hat all the way round, press or look in the Operator Panel just below the Tool Shelf. There should be an input slider named Angle, change this value from 90 to 360. There should also be a slider called Steps, increase the value from 9 to 15.

If your hat has a large hole in the center, you must have accidentally moved the 3D cursor away from the vertex you picked in step 1. Try again.

Remember that if you spin an object 360° there will be a double row of vertices at the row of vertices you spun. To fix this, press to select all vertices, press  and select Remove Doubles. Note that this will only work in vertex select mode.

You may also want to merge the vertices at the top of the hat. Do this by selecting all the vertices at the top with and pressing + → At Center. You may have to do this twice as some vertices might be beneath each other.

Note for AMD windows users that "Radeon Software" using  ALT+R  as default key for "Overlay Hotkey" which blocks key in Blender. You can change hotkey in "Radeon Software" preferences.

You have more than one 3D View window, so Blender is asking which window to perform the spin in. Click on the window that is showing top view.

Smoothing Your Hat

You'll probably have noticed that normal hats aren't usually as faceted as yours! To change this, first press to go back to Object mode then change the shading to Smooth (available on the Tool Shelf). If there are unexpected black marks, try recalculating the normals.
 * 1) Switch to Edit mode and open the Mesh menu in the 3D View Header.
 * 2) Normals → Recalculate Outside.

Next, add a Subsurf modifier to the hat and set the subdivisions to two, as you did in.
 * 1) Click on the modifiers tab (wrench icon) in a Properties window.
 * 2) Add Modifier → Subdivision Surface.

Save your work. You'll need this scene for the next module.

Additional Resources

 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mPtxa_MEPA Ira Krakow's Hat Creation Video Tutorial, based on this page.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Putting Hat on Person

Once you're satisfied with the shapes of individual objects, you'll want to combine them into a coherent scene. You do this in Object Mode.

In this module, you'll learn how to move objects to and from layers. You'll also learn how to rename and parent objects, and you'll get an introduction to Outliner Windows.

You'll need the person-and-hat scene from the previous module. If you haven't done it, either go back and do it now or else download the pre-made model from.

Adjusting an Object's Median Point

 * 1) Load the person-and-hat scene.
 * 2) Make sure Blender is in Object Mode.
 * 3) Switch to Layer 2, select the hat and press . A dialog box will pop up for you to choose which layer to move it to. Either press 1 (the number on top of the keyboard, not the numberpad) or select the first box in the popup.
 * 4) Select the person you made earlier.

Just as you did in Edit Mode, you can specify the pivot for rotating and scaling objects in Object Mode. If you just finished the previous module, the pivot is probably set to "3D Cursor". If so, change it back to "Median Point".

In Edit Mode, the "Median Point" for pivoting is the geometric center of all selected vertices, edges, or faces. In Object Mode, however, it's the origin of the selected object's local coordinates, indicated by an orange dot. In other words, the origin might lie far from the object's geometric center.

You can use buttons in the Tools Shelf to reunify an object's origin with its geometric center:
 * 1) With Blender in Object Mode, click on Set Origin in the Tool Shelf (under the "Edit" sub menu of Tools) and select Origin To Geometry (Blender 2.70: "Object" -> "Transform" -> "Origin to Geometry") to move the selected object's origin to its geometric center (without changing the object's appearance).

This can be useful when you want a better picture of your object. With the origin set to the person's geometric center, you can now snap the object with to the 3D cursor. This will let you view more of the model at one time and make for a faster editing workflow.

Positioning the Hat
Once you have the hat properly oriented, move it into position on the person's head. The grab tool enables you to position objects in Object Mode in the same way you positioned vertices, edges, and faces in Edit Mode.
 * 1) Make sure Blender is in Object Mode.
 * 2) Click  on the hat object to select it.
 * 3) Activate the grab tool by pressing.

As you move the mouse pointer, the hat will move around in the viewport. By default, the movement plane is perpendicular to the view axis, so the hat will move differently depending on which viewpoint you're working in.

Just as in the Edit Mode grab tool, you can:
 * Restrict the direction of motion by pressing, , or . Press once to move parallel to a global axis, twice to use a local axis.  (Press the same key a third time to return to view-plane motion.)
 * To restrict motion to the global X-Y plane, lock the global Z by pressing.
 * Hold down to restrict motion to discrete steps (typically one Blender unit).
 * Hold down to get finer control over the motion.
 * Click or press  to finalize the position and exit the tool.
 * Click or press  to return the object to its previous position and exit.

Use two different orthographic views to position the hat on the person's head. You will probably want to scale the hat to make it fit the person's head better. When you are doing this along the X or Y axis, make the changes symmetrical by specifying the axes you want scaling to be constrained to. This option is available in the Operator panel (just below the Tool Shelf) and also by pressing F6.

Parenting the Hat to the Person

Once you have the hat properly sized and positioned on the person's head, you'll want it to stay there. In order to maintain such a cozy relationship between two objects, you'd have to remember to select them both before rotating, moving, or scaling. A drastic solution might be to join them into a single object using.

A better compromise is to the hat to the person. Parenting creates a relationship between two objects, such that certain changes to one object (called the ) automatically affect the other (called the ). Changes to the child, however, do not affect the parent.

Note that an object can have many children, but only one parent.

Since the person is bigger than the hat, it's logical to parent the hat to the person (meaning: parent = person, child = hat) instead of vice versa.

 * 1) Make sure Blender is in Object Mode.
 * 2) Click  on the hat object to select it.
 * 3) Click  on the person object.
 * Both the person and the hat should now be selected. The order of selection is important here.
 * 1) Press  to parent the hat to the person.
 * 2) Select Object. The most recently selected object becomes the parent of all other selected objects.

Now when you move the hat you will see a line from the hat to the person, indicating that the person is the hat's parent. And if you move the person, the hat will move with it.

You may get an error saying something like Loop to Parents, fix this by clearing all previous parents with +.

Renaming Objects

When you have multiple objects in a scene, it helps to give each one a name.

Click on the Objects tab in the Properties panel (the one with a box icon).
 * 1) Now select the hat by clicking  on it.
 * 2) At the very top of the tab you should see a dialog box with the name of your object
 * 3) * The hat's name might be something like "Circle" depending on which mesh primitive you first built the hat from.
 * 4) Click  on the dialog box and type in a more descriptive name like "Hat".

You have now changed the name of the hat's object datablock. This name change will be reflected in the Outliner, which we will look at shortly.

Now select your person by clicking on it and repeat the process, changing the name to something like "Person".

Outliner Windows

Once you give objects names, it helps to have a way to find objects by their name and parent. This is exactly what the Outliner is for and it comes in very handy when you are working with a large scene. The Outliner is usually just above the Properties panel. You may want to pull it down a bit to see it more clearly.

You'll notice that all the objects in your scene (Person, camera etc) are listed and that you can select these objects by clicking on them. And if you click on an object, a menu will pop up with options like Select, Deselect, Delete etc. If you select the Person and then click the "+" sign to its left, you will see that the Hat is listed below the person. This is because Blender lists all children objects beneath their parents.

On the right of each object there are a series of icons which represent the state of the object. For example, the eye icon means that your object is visible in the 3D viewport. You can turn off its visibility by clicking on the eye, which will turn grey; click again on the eye to make it visible. If you hover the mouse over the icons a text box will pop up with a description of what that particular icon does.

Good on ya' mate!
Congratulations!! You have now finished your simple character. Pat yourself on the back, and have a celebratory coffee! (Or pop!)


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Hot Keys

I'd like to see some more detailed information for most of these keyboard shortcuts. -Spiderworm 15:34, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Me too. Also difference between Shortcuts in Edit and Object mode.--Popski 08:33, 16 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Blender 2.36 HotKeys
Ok, I converted this Hotkeys from official Blender PDF file. Please use official Hotkeys names in your articles! --Popski 14:21, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

The name of this page
Shouldn't it be "Modeling Hot Keys"? To distinguish between modeling hot keys and other hot keys? --Spiderworm 20:21, 3 May 2005 (UTC)

 * What do you mean? This HotKeys aren't just about modeling. --Popski 09:35, 6 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Hmmm... good point. I figured we'd have a hotkeys page for modeling, and separate pages for hotkeys for other things, such as animation, etc.  If we're going to have one master page for hotkeys, it should be moved out of the modeling section.  Having a page full of hotkeys that are not specific to modeling should not be in the modeling section.  But here's another thought.  Maybe we don't do the hotkeys page at all, because I have planned (though I've done nothing about it yet) to create a keyboard shortcuts Blender reference here Blender_3D:_Hotkeys_Reference.  We could then link to the appropriate sections of the hotkey book from the noob to pro book for the user to look over.  What do you think?  --Spiderworm 00:30, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Probably is good to have somewhere all collected HotKeys, but if you need specific HotKeys for sections then just make proper link name and copy right part from collected HotKeys... Maybe this collected HotKeys need to be WikiBook on it's own: Blender 3D: Hotkeys. What do you think? --Popski 09:47, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree, let's create a hotkeys wikibook, either called Blender_3D:_Hotkeys_Reference or Blender 3D: Hotkeys. Lets make sure we link to it via the Blender_3D page.  --Spiderworm 18:13, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Ok, did it. Blender HotKeys is official Blender name so I have put it under Blender 3D: Hotkeys, now you can cut and move this page, because I don't how you will name it now. --Popski 18:51, 9 May 2005 (UTC)

Confusing "key" names
Formatting of "keys" is confusing when initially coming to this documentation. RMB = Right mouse button MMB = Left LMB = Middle When you see these in the middle of documentation there is no context to flag them as "keys" and therefore it is confusing. Even on the "keys" page it is initially confusing because the average user isn't going to understand mouse buttons as "keys".

Not as confusing is the inconsistency in documenting letter keys: When a single letter is the "key" it is documented as "LetterKEY". When a combination of keys are pressed its labeled as "Key + Letter".

title: Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Hot Keys


text:
Cookbook:Mashed Pumpkin

Ingredients

 * 1 small pumpkin
 * 1 pinch of salt
 * 1 pinch of pepper
 * About 1 tablespoon butter

Procedure

 * 1) Clean your pumpkin well, being careful to remove manure, dirt, etc. Chop off the stem.
 * 2) Bake the cleaned pumpkin in a 375 °F (190 C) oven for about 45 minutes per 250 g. A small pumpkin of less than 500 g works best.
 * 3) Remove pumpkin and allow to rest for 5–10 minutes.
 * 4) During this time, take out sea salt, butter, and your pepper mill.
 * 5) Chop pumpkin in half with cleaver, butcher knife, or kitchen hatchet.
 * 6) Remove seeds and guts; roast seeds and discard the rest.
 * 7) Separate the skin from the flesh.
 * 8) Place hot pumpkin flesh in a food processor, along with salt, pepper, and butter to taste.

Notes, tips and variations

 * If pumpkin is not soft when removed from oven, place back in for 10–15 minutes each time.
 * An alternative if you have no food processor is to mash the pumpkin flesh by hand until nearly smooth.

title: Cookbook:Mashed Pumpkin


text:
User:Stevenj

For more about me, see my home page: http://www.mit.edu/~stevenj

I'm also User:Stevenj on Wikipedia.

title: User:Stevenj


text:
Wikibooks talk:Textbook planning

Please dont stone me if this is not the correct place for this type of discussion .. - Karl Wick

 * No - there will be no stoning here. :) --mav

Some of these points (not all) contain list of options that people might express support for. So I listed my support for some. I also listed support from mav and Karl for options that they themselves proposed, but since I don't speak for them, these votes should not be construed as correct until they corroborate them here: Finally, although I've listed my support for various options, I do not in any way mean to stifle further discussion, and I expect people to revise their selections over time. Nor do I support making final decisions by counting the votes and interpreting those data statistically (say, by applying approval voting), unless consensus is reached that we'll need to do such a thing. -- Toby Bartels 08:29 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)
 * mav: Y (I agree with Toby's changes)
 * Karl: Y/N

-

Suggestions go here?

Is it possible to be able to print a whole chapter at a time? From my own experiences of doing tutorials on the web, I like to have a hard copy to read "on the road" but hate having to waste paper and ink to print the same header information multiple times and sometimes have a page almost completely blank except for a single paragraph.

The option to "Print this article only | Print whole chapter" would be good, and articles should flow on from one another without pagebreaks between them.

Any thoughts?

Neolux 15:17 27 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Advanced printing options would be very useful. Oh, BTW, the Wikibooks project works with modules, not articles. Somebody needs to update the interface... --mav 01:05 28 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Manuals vs. Textbooks?
Hi, I was planning on converting the manual for one of my free software projects (http://ab-initio.mit.edu/mpb/) into a wiki, and someone suggested Wikibooks to me. However, I'm confused over whether Wikibooks is appropriate for my purpose.

The front page used to say "textbooks, manuals, articles and other texts". Now it says only "textbooks and classroom texts". On the other hand, Wikibooks already contains "books" on lots of things, like OsiriX and Vi, that look awfully like manuals to me.

The Textbook planning page says that manuals "Should be textbook-oriented in presentation." This confuses me. Can you give me an example of a manual that is not "textbook-oriented"?

If you simply mean that the manual should be long, well-written, and contain tutorials as well as bare-bones reference materials, then I would suggest that this is equivalent to saying "the manual should be good." Being good is, of course, a goal for all manuals and texts, and one they will hopefully attain in time on a wiki.

Can you please clarify? This is in the FAQ, but it only says "no answer yet".

—Steven G. Johnson 19:45, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Comments on proposal to increase user and contributions
IMHO, here are some reasons why Wikibooks is not more successfull. First, I agree on all points of the main page. Second, I think that those points are importants:
 * Books are not like encyclopedia articles (Staff_lounge). It is much more easier to contribute on a Wikipedia article then to write a book. Writing a book requires deep knowledge of the target field, as well as a good writing style and a lot of time.
 * Authorship (Staff_lounge). Scientists and teachers should be the primary source of textbooks contributors. Unfortunatly, often, scientists are judged from the number of publications they produce. It is thus very important to keep track of who did what. It could be cool to have wikimedia's engine giving stats on pages, such has the actual and the total content each contributor has edited, both in absolute and in percentage. This would help to cite the authors correctly.

—Nct 17:21, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Additional comments on Wikibooks success
While I will admit that Wikibooks doesn't have quite the same impact that Wikipedia has had, it certainly is doing better than Wikispecies or some of the truly failed projects that have occured.

I have also noticed a significant increase in activity lately, although it does come in fits and starts. One of the things is that each book seems to be an independent "wikipedia" of its own, and seems to form its own separate community.

I don't think that is a bad thing either.

As pointed out above, books require a slightly different mindset than simply writing a few things down like a typical wikipedia article. You need to spend a little more time trying to research out the content of modules, and more importantly, try to keep a vision of how the whole book is going to come together. It is this holistic view of modules that distinguishes Wikibooks from Wikipedia.

Growing pains will happen here with Wikibooks, and I think that some truly remarkable things will come from this project.

Standard for WikiBooks
Hi, I would suggest to set up a page that provides guidelines for WikiBooks. Particularly, I'd suggest, that all pages belonging to a book should start with "bookname:..." so that they are easily recognized as part of the book. This policy is already beeing used in many books, like Cookbook, Wiki Science, etc..., but there should be a page for setting up new books, that mentiones this. --Andreas Ipp 15:12, 8 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Textbook planning


text:
User:Me at work~enwikibooks

Same guy on en.wp

ok thx

title: User:Me at work~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:GCSE Science/Safety in Mains circuits

An excellent page for GCSE Physics help!

"So basically the earth wire prevents you from touching the case of a potentially faulty appliance" Nonsense!