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Classroom Management Theorists and Theories/Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Overview of Skinner's Theories of Classroom Management
The Theory

Skinner believed that the goal of psychology should be practical (Lieberman, 2000). As it relates to education, Skinner believed the goal of psychology should be to find ways to make education enjoyable and effective for all students. His learning theory relied on the assumption that the best way to modify behavior was to modify the environment. Skinner was a proponent for many instructional strategies that modern day “progressive” educational reformers advocate for: scaffold instruction, small units, repetition and review of instructions, and immediate feedback. Skinner did not approve of the use of punishments in school, or as a behavioral modification technique in general, and based these opinions on his own empirical research that found punishments to be ineffective (Lieberman, 2000). Skinner himself advocated for the frequent use of reinforcement (i.e. rewards) to modify and influence student behavior.

Skinner’s primary contribution to behavioral management philosophy has been from his research on operant conditioning and reinforcement schedules. An operant is a behavior that acts on the surrounding environment to produce a consequence. As a result of the consequence, the operant’s likelihood of reoccurring is affected. The operant is said to be reinforced if the consequence increases the likelihood of the behavior's occurrence. For example, an example of an operant in a typical classroom is staying in one’s seat. A teacher may seek to reinforce this behavior by offering a reward to reinforce student behavior (e.g. recess or food).

Three characteristics of operant conditioning are particularly important to behavior management: a) the reinforcer, b) the reinforcement schedule, and c) the timing of the reinforcement.  First, reinforcers have been placed in three categories (Lieberman, 2000).  Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that require no special training to be effective.  These include food, water, and sensory stimulation.  Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers whose reinforcing properties have been acquired through experience (typically through second order conditioning).  An example of this is the use of a “token economy.”  Many teachers use extrinsic rewards such as stamps, tickets, tokens, and play (or real) money to reinforce behavior.  These rewards can be redeemed for prizes or privileges.  Finally, social reinforcers are reinforcers whose reinforcing properties are derived from the behaviors of members of one’s own species. These reinforcers are typically seen as a blend of primary and secondary reinforcers and include praise, affection, and attention.

In addition to their type, another important characteristic of reinforcers is their saliency, or degree to which an individual prefers the reinforcement. Reinforcers with a high degree of saliency are expected to produce a greater response in the frequency of the operant behavior. Using this logic, David Premack developed a principle (the Premack principle), which argued that operant behaviors of low probability could be reinforced by using access to high-probability behaviors as a reinforcer (1965). For example, if sitting quietly during instruction was a low-probability behavior for a student, access to playing with a preferred toy (a high-probability behavior) could be used as a reinforcer for the operant behavior. Using similar logic, Timberlake and Allison (1974) developed the response deprivation hypothesis, which states that if a high-probability (or highly salient) behavior is deprived, access to that behavior will be reinforcing. In the classroom, this is often used by the introduction of a game or privilege that students highly enjoy. Access to the game is restricted, unless certain behaviors (likely low-probability behaviors) are performed first. A primary conclusion from both of these hypotheses is that teachers looking to find a highly salient reinforcer should look for activities that students prefer to do in their free time (i.e. highly-probable behavior).

Skinner also developed the concept of the “reinforcement schedule”. Reinforcement schedules are divided into two categories: a) continuous reinforcement schedules (CRF), in which every desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs, and b) partial reinforcement schedules in which behaviors are reinforced based on ratios (reinforced after so many occurrences) or intervals (a reinforcement delivered after a certain time interval). Partial reinforcement schedules may be fixed (i.e. a reinforcement after 3 behavioral occurrences [fixed ratio] or a reinforcement after 3 minutes [fixed interval]), or variable (i.e. the ratio or interval at which reinforcement is given is random, but averages to a specific amount). It has been found that variable partial reinforcement schedules are more effective in improving the frequency of an operant behavior and in limiting its extinction when reinforcement is no longer delivered. The later effect is particularly true when compared to continuous reinforcement schedules. This finding suggests that teachers using reinforcements in their classroom suggests that teachers using reinforcements in their classroom should be cautious of seeking to reward students every time they perform a behavior. As many teachers using rewards have noted, students are less likely to perform desired behaviors when the rewards are not present (e.g. "What do I get if . . . ?).

Finally, behavioral research has found that the timing of the reinforcer is very important. If there is much delay between the operant behavior and the reinforcer, improving the frequency of the desired behavior is less likely to happen. For instance, if a teacher said that if students were to turn in their homework they would receive extra recess, behavioral theory would argue that the closer the time the teacher allowed the students to have their recess was to the time the students turned in their homework (the operant behavior), the more likely students would be to turn in their homework regularly. If a teacher often forgot to give the reward, or waited later in the day to grant the reward, the less likely students would be to turn in their homework.

Implementation of Skinner's Theories
Implementation Overview Skinner's theories have been implemented in school systems in a variety of ways. Teachers and parents alike rewarded students for good behavior long before Skinner's theories were developed. However, many behavior management systems used in today's schools are directly influenced by his work. Skinner advocated for immediate praise, feedback, and/or reward when seeking to change troublesome or encourage correct behavior in the classroom. Teachers seeking to implement a reinforcement system in their classroom should use strategies such as a "token economy" to reward students immediately for behaviors that they are reinforcing. Skinner also advocated for teacher identification of and reflection on the environmental effects on student behavior. Formalized strategies that focus on the identification of "triggers" of student behavior are influenced by Skinner's work. One example of a formalized system that makes use of Skinner's research is the Crisis Prevention Institute (see www.crisisprevention.com for details).

For a tutorial in behavioral interventions based upon Skinner's theories of reinforcing positive behaviors see: http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/bi2/chalcycle.htm Elementary Implementation of Skinner's Theories In order to apply Skinner's theories in your own elementary classroom, you could do the following: Secondary Implementation of Skinner's Theories In order to apply Skinner’s theories in your own secondary classroom, you could do the following:
 * Set up reinforcement schedules with your students (particularly those with behaviors that need extreme intervention) to reinforce positive behavior. For example, if a student gets out of his seat frequently, set a timer for 5 minutes.  Every time the student can stay in his seat for 5 minutes, reward him (i.e. give a sticker/token, permit participation in a highly-preferred activity).
 * Set up a "token economy." Many teachers use tickets, tokens, or play money to reward student for desired behavior.  Students can redeem these tokens for prizes in many systems.  Some teachers have found that it is very effective to have students redeem their tickets for classroom jobs or academic privileges (e.g. center time).  So long as the redeemed "prize" is highly preferred, the reinforcement should be effective in improving classroom behavior.
 * Deprive students of educational tasks they enjoy, and use them to reinforce desired behavior. Many criticisms of Skinner's work focus on the overuse of rewards that diminish intrinsic learning.  Using educational tasks themselves as rewards may work to foster the desire to learn intrinsically.  Teachers wanting to foster the intrinsic desire to read may want to begin the year reading highly engaging stories that students are sure to love.  The teacher may then restrict "story time" to the end of the day as a reward for students who have been on-task throughout the day. As long as students highly-prefer the reading, they should be motivated to perform desired behaviors to receive their reward.
 * Create (with student input, if necessary) a system of positive incentives for individual, group, and class behavior. Reward positive behavior before reprimanding negative behavior (for example, instead of punishing one student for not turning in homework, give all other students who did turn in homework consistent rewards until that will induce that one student to follow suit with the rest of class).
 * Ensure that positive reinforcement is immediate so that it can be associated with the positive behavior. This is crucial especially when secondary teachers see students for such a small portion of each day.
 * Recognize the unique instructional needs of individual students and individual periods and modify instructional material and methods appropriately.
 * Provide feedback as students work, not just after they are finished with a particular task.
 * Ensure that students have mastered prerequisite skills before moving on, even if this puts different periods of the same class on different tracks.
 * Reinforce positive behaviors students exhibit, either with problem students or with whole class to refocus problem students

Critique of Skinner's Theories
Professional Critique of Skinner's Theories One major critic of Skinners’ behavioral theories is Alfie Kohn, another prominent educational theorist. Kohn, noted for his assertions supporting entirely intrinsic motivation for learning and behavior, feels that the rewards and punishment system of management so lauded by Skinner is actually a root cause American education’s decline (Kohn, 1993, p. xii). Kohn suggests that rewards and extrinsic motivation yield compliance, which is not, as Skinner suggests, a natural behavior devoid of willful choice. Additionally, it trains humans to expect rewards to such a large extent that they fail to find motivation in the absence of a promised reward.

Kohn does not entirely negate the legitimacy of operant conditioning, but does stress the ability of humans to make moral and conscious judgments and decisions. What Kohn sees is a system of “carrot-and-stick” motivation that has permeated education throughout the United States largely due to the efforts of Skinner and his successors (Kohn, 1993, p. 15). Yet Kohn criticizes that rewards have become such a natural and expected part of the American classroom and workplace that citizens here have become conditioned to expect them. This avoids even the possibility of children learning to find intrinsic motivation in their educations; the more often rewards are used, the more humans become used to them and expect them, and the more they are needed.

Kohn acknowledge the history of rewards and punishment in behavioral psychology, but stresses that the majority of experiments, studies, and practices contributing to this history involved animals other than humans. Both Ayn Rand and Noam Chomsky echo this critique, posing Skinner’s disbelief in conscious choice as preposterous. Rand debases the very suggestion that memory is not influential in human choice, that humans can simply be “conditioned” to adapt to particular environmental factors. Chomsky echoes this sentiment and asserts that Skinner’s empirical evidence is non-transferable to the complexity that exists in human’s ability to communicate and respond to a variety of environmental influencers.

However, many contemporary theorists and psychologists in education adhere to Skinner’s principles of arranging the classroom environment in a manner most appropriate for student learning.

Additionally, theorists today point to the history of such methods that predates Skinner, arguing that if they didn’t work, they would no longer be a part of the increasingly empirical American education system. The notion that productive educational environments should precede intervention exists even in the Individuals with Disabilities Act. This act prescribes accommodations and modifications for students with disabilities prior to intervention, a law that proponents of functional assessment credit directly to Skinner (Ervin et al., 2001, p. 177). Skinner’s supporters note that Skinner’s suggestions for classrooms are not simply systems of overtly proscribed rewards and punishment; rather, they constitute a well-planned and research-based control of environmental factors. This control will leave students no options other than learning and behaving.

Hannah's Critique of Skinner's Theories I see legitimacy in the classroom management and learning theories of B. F. Skinner. His theories make sense and are familiar to me as a teacher, but I also agree with arguments against his studies’ reliance upon laboratory experiments with animals. Skinner relies heavily upon empirical evidence, but in reading his theories of classroom management specifically, I see little evidence to back his opinions aside from hearsay and casual observations.

Yet I also think that other theorists such as Kohn are quick to reduce Skinner’s prescriptions for the classroom to an entirely superficial system of rewards and punishment. Skinner’s ideas are more complex than this; beyond rewards and punishment, he stresses that the environment of a classroom and school, both physical and temporal, should be as conducive as possible to students’ learning. It should not be an environment that necessarily attempts to control that learning with what we popularly call consequences. Skinner stresses immediate feedback, scaffolding, and ensuring student success. These teacher actions are manipulations of the classroom environment that any educational theorist would be hard pressed to criticize.

Of course, Skinner does also suggest praise and rewards once student success is achieved, and I do agree with Kohn that in the perfect world, this wouldn’t be necessary. However, I would challenge Kohn to come to my classroom, or any classroom, and ensure that students are intrinsically motivated throughout every single lesson. While we can try to make lessons as motivating and engaging as possible, not every lesson can realistically have every student intrinsically engaged. I use praise and rewards, not over abundantly, but I use them. While they may not make learning as intrinsic as I’d like it to be, I truly don’t think they’re hurting the education of my students. Regardless of where one stands in the dialogue on Skinner and his contemporaries, it is noteworthy that his, Kohn’s, and others’ theories and critiques focus on a students’ engagement in learning as an antecedent to behavioral problems. As long as students have some reason to be engaged in a lesson, whether it is through extrinsically motivated compliance or intrinsically motivated engagement, they will not misbehave. This I concur with wholeheartedly.

Michael's Critique of Skinner's Theories

It is my belief that B.F. Skinner's theories are the most widely used and misunderstood of any psychological theories that have been applied to educational settings. As Hannah noted in her own reflection, many critics of Skinner and many developers of reward programs based on his theories, simplify his ideas to superficial systems of rewards and punishments. They neglect what is, in my opinion, the most revolutionary aspect of his theory, the influence of the environment on behavior. Skinner did not believe that elements of the environment do cause behavior (as classical conditioning would have it), but that they lead to the probability that a behavior may occur. This probability would depend on previous learning experience and its generalizations to the current environment, as well as genetics.

My own opinions diverge from Skinner's in the use of his theories to create school-wide, and to some degree classroom-wide, initiatives. I agree with critics such as Kohn who argue that these sorts of initiatives, which often focus on primary reinforcers like food (PIZZA PARTY!!), have a negative effect on educational aspiration and self-motivation. It is my opinion, that teachers should seek creative ways to make educational activities highly probable activities. I believe that intrinsic motivation is simply an internalization of the extrinsic motivation that is demonized in "progressive" educational literature. However, behaviors that are intrinsically motivated react to reinforcement in the same ways as those that are more extrinsic. What teachers should try to do is move students from responding primarily to extrinsic rewards to understanding how they are intrinsically motivated. Effective use of Skinner’s ideas relies on individualizing the use of reinforcement to fit the specific interests of specific students.

In sum, students are not lab rats. They will not all push a lever to receive a food pellet. Most will "push" for a pizza party, or extra recess. However, teachers need to consider the fact that some will "push" for time to read their favorite book, time to research a topic on the internet, math worksheets, and word puzzles.

Questions for Consideration

 * Would you rather have Skinner or Kohn as your boss? Why?
 * If Skinner were to set up a charter school in a new utopian society, what would a typical day look like at this school and why would it look this way?
 * Identify two types of reinforcement schedules. Which type of reinforcement schedules have been found to be most effective in influencing enduring behavior?
 * What is the Premack principle and give an example of how it is used in classrooms.


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Cookbook talk:Chicken with Orange, Spinach and Cherry Tomatoes

Good recipe, just got done making it. However, some of the amounts/numbers were off.
 * The dill/orange/garlic mix doesn't go very far at all, so I edited to double each.
 * 10 minutes is not going to be enough to get the chicken done, unless they're very small. Edited to reflect that.
 * 15 minutes wasn't enough either :(

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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User:Symode09

Please contact me on the meta - www.meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Symode09 thanks :)

title: User:Symode09


text:
User talk:Symode09

Please contact me on the meta - www.meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Symode09 thanks :)

title: User talk:Symode09


text:
Manx/Toshiaght

Toshiaght

Introduction

Welcome to the world of Wikibooks' language guide to learning the Manx language. You are here either because you have an interest in learning this wonderful ancient and modern language, you are either Manx or have Manx blood, you have a passion for Celtic languages, you are connected to the Isle of Man, you will take a trip there soon and want to search for some speakers, or you just want to learn a language for fun. Whatever the reason may be for wanting to learn the language, you are here now and we are here to help you learn the language. Failt erriu! (Welcome)

Manx is a very interesting language. As with the other Celtic languages, each Celtic language (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Cornish, Welsh, and Breton) has faced a decline within the past few centuries, but are recovering today, some more than others (Welsh). The interesting thing about Manx is that instead of merely a decline, it actually become extinct and a recognised dead language in the 1970's. But don't let this stop you from learning the language. The language today is encouraged on and off the island and native speakers exist again. Thus, by you learning this language, you will definitely be appreciated by the natives who speak the language. You will read anywhere on the Internet and references that anyone who speaks Manx is proud of that fact and will definitely be eager to help you speak and practise the language.

Manx is the language of some 2000 people, about 60 of whom use it as a mother tongue and daily language. The first figure is about 2% of the population of the Isle of Man, which is actually higher than the percentage of the Irish speaking population in the Republic of Ireland. Those 60 whom have Manx as a mother tongue attend Bunscoill Ghaelgagh (the world's only Manx-medium school) and are instructed in the Manx language in subjects like mathematics, sciences, and others. Though it might be a challenge finding these native speakers to practise with, there are many people of the 2000 those of whom claim to know the language rather well. Some Manx might also be able to understand some of the language, and might even be able to recite to you Manx phrases and proverbs.

Manx has official language status in the Isle of Man, along with English. Though you will surely hear more English when traveling to Douglas (the capital of the island), you can see bilingual signs in Manx Gaelic as well as English throughout the country. Imagine upon your journey to the beautiful Isle of Man reading the Manx signs instead of the English, what a remarkable feeling that would be. So whatever may be the reason for you learning the Manx language, all would most likely agree that it is one of the finest cultural achievements of the Isle of Man.

Read more about the history of Manx

How to use this book
This book is a free content open source guide in learning the Manx language. Though it can be edited by anyone, it is also being monitored by the authors and administrators of this book and Wikibooks, to assure you 100% accuracy. So do not be discouraged about using this book as a primary or secondary reference in your language studies as this book is not giving you any false information.

The book is set up in step-by-step lessons which will introduce the language like a classroom setting and similar to a textbook style tutorial. It will commence with the basics of the language, and gradually introduce grammar aspects of the language, rather than give you a bunch of grammar explanations and a massive list of vocabulary to learn on your own. The book is set up accordingly so you can go at your own pace whether you are a fast learner or prefer to take your time.

Use the navigation header above to navigate to the next lesson, a previous lesson, or the pronunciation guide. Also at the top will be audio files for you to use at your discretion. These are very useful if you want to get a hold on hearing and speaking the language, rather than just learning how to read and write.

At the end of each lesson will be small little practise exercises to test yourself on the knowledge you've gain and accumulated in the previous lessons. Do not be tempted to skip over them! It is very easy to just say ''Oh! I have done enough, I know the answers, no problem at all''. Try to work on each question and check yourself. This will only improve you knowledge on the language.

If you need help at any time, feel free to contact one of the tutors for a question in the tutors section of the book. You can also visit the Manx Gaelic edition of Wikipedia to practise reading in Manx. ManxRadio.org also has news in Manx Gaelic (under GaelicNews) and sometimes broadcasts in Manx. So there are many ways you can use the language. And remember, when you feel it becoming too hard and challenging to learn, don't give up! All languages are challenging, but when you master it then the feeling can be very rewarding! Good luck!

title: Manx/Toshiaght


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New Zealand History/Railways

‹ Back to The New Zealand Wars

Railways Introduced to New Zealand
Railways were initially constructed by provincial governments looking for a mode of efficient transportation.

The first railway in New Zealand was constructed by the Canterbury Provincial Government in 1863. It was built to a broad gauge of 5 feet 3 inches (1600 mm), to suit rolling stock imported from Victoria, Australia. Its primary purpose was to service ships docked at the Ferrymead wharf.

On the 5th of February 1867, the Southland Provincial Government opened a branch railway from Invercargill to Bluff. This railway was built to the international standard gauge of 4 ft 8½ inches (1,435 mm). At this stage, the Central Government set the national gauge at 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm).

A narrow-gauge line was opened on 1 January 1873, in the Otago Province, and Auckland's first railway, between Auckland and Onehunga, opened in 1873.

After the abolition of provincial governments in 1876, the Central Government took over the building of railways in New Zealand.

Forward to The Colonial Government ›

title: New Zealand History/Railways


text:
XQuery/Fizzbuzz

see for the full set of executable scripts and timing comparisons.

Here's an XQuery solution to the FizzBuzz problem posed in David Patterson's blog.. who wrote an XSLT solution.

Chris Wallace wrote this solution to David's configurable version of the problem:

let $config := Fizz Buzz

return string-join(  for $i in ($config/range/@min to $config/range/@max)   let $s :=         for $mod in $config/test/mod       return         if ($i mod $mod/@value = $mod/@test)         then string($mod)         else    return     if (exists($s))     then string-join($s,' ')     else string($i),   "
" )

Execute

The parameterisation of the algorithm was in the original problem as proposed by David Patterson. Simpler solutions are possible if the parameters are fixed.

Here is a solution from Jim Fuller: for $n in (1 to 100) let $fizz := if ($n mod 3) then else "fizz" let $buzz := if ($n mod 5) then else "buzz" return if ($fizz or $buzz) then concat($fizz,$buzz) else $n

Execute

Here is a short and simple solution by Dimitre Novatchev -- note that there isn't any explicit if ... then ... else. (Also, this can be shortened to 3 lines if the $fizz and $buzz variables are eliminated):

for $n in (1 to 100), $fizz in not($n mod 3), $buzz in not($n mod 5) return concat("fizz"[$fizz], "buzz"[$buzz], $n[not($fizz or $buzz)])

Execute

One may notice that the above solution doesn't use any XQuery features that aren't also in XPath -- therefore this is a pure XPath 2.0 solution.

Another solution by Dimitre, which might be faster as it doesn't use any mod operator at all:

for $k in 1 to 100 idiv 15 +1, $start in 15*($k -1) +1, $end in min((100, $start + 14)) return let $results := ($start, $start+1,                     'fizz',                      $start+3,                      'buzz', 'fizz',                      $start+6, $start+7,                       'fizz',                      'buzz',                      $start+10,                      'fizz',                      $start+12, $start+13,                      'fizzbuzz') return subsequence($results, 1, $end -$start +1)

Execute

Again, the above solution doesn't use any XQuery features that aren't also in XPath 3.0 -- therefore this is a pure XPath 3.0 solution.

Here is a solution from Dino Fancellu, pure XPath 3.0:

(1 to 30)!(if (. mod 15=0) then "fizzbuzz" else if (. mod 3 = 0) then "fizz" else if (. mod 5 = 0) then "buzz" else .)

Here is a solution by Benito van der Zander, pure XPath 3.0 without if:

for $i in 1 to 100 return (("fizz"[$i mod 3=0] || "buzz"[$i mod 5=0])[.],$i)[1]

title: XQuery/Fizzbuzz


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Template:Manx/Header

 Manx  — Toshiaght | Abbyrlhit as Coraaghey | 01 | 02 | 03 | 04 | Resources

title: Template:Manx/Header


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New Zealand History/Twentieth Century

‹ Back to The Colonial Government

Major Events from 1900 to 1914
1900

Second Boer War

By the beginning of the twentieth century, New Zealand was already engaged in its first overseas military campaign, the Second Boer War, in which it helped the British Empire fight against the two independent Boer republics, the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic). There were two notable campaigns in 1900:
 * 15th of January 1900: The New Zealand Mounted Rifles defeated a Boer assault at Slingersfontein, South Africa.
 * 15th of February 1900: New Zealand troops were part of the relief of Kimberley.

1901

The Cook Islands and other Pacific Islands were annexed by New Zealand.

1903

Richard Pearse Carries out what is Believed to be the First Manned Heavier-than-air Flight

Richard Pearse, a New Zealand farmer and inventor, was a pioneer in aviation. On the 31st of March 1903, Richard Pearse achieved a semi-controlled flight near Timaru in his home-built plane, approximately nine months before the Wright brothers did.

Pearse built the plane in a workshop on his farm, out of bamboo wire and canvas. When he tested the plane on the 31st of March 1903, it managed to fly several hundred metres before crashing into a hedge. The flight was hardly controlled, however.

Although there were a number of witnesses to this event, Richard Pearse was not very eager to have his achievement widely publicised, or have his planes put into mass production, so his flight is not nearly as well known as the Wright Brothers' flight.

1907

 * Fire destroyed Parliament buildings.

 * Dominion of New Zealand was declared after New Zealand decided not to join the Australian Federation.

1908

 * North Island Main Trunk Railway Line opened.

 * New Zealand's population reached one million.

Forward to New Zealand's Involvement in World War I ›

title: New Zealand History/Twentieth Century


text:
XQuery/Project Euler

Project Euler is a collection of mathematical problems. Currently there are 166 so it may take some time to get through them all :-).

Problem 1
Add all the natural numbers below 1000 that are multiples of 3 or 5.

sum ((1 to 999)[. mod 3 = 0 or . mod 5 = 0])

Run

Problem 2
Find the sum of all the even-valued terms in the Fibonacci sequence which do not exceed one million.

declare function local:fib($fibs,$max) { let $next := $fibs[1] + $fibs[2] return if ($next > $max) then $fibs else local:fib(($next,$fibs),$max) }; sum( local:fib((2,1),1000000)[. mod 2 = 0])

Run

This brute-force approach recursively builds the Fibonacci sequence (in reverse) up to the maximum, then filters and sums the result.

Problem 3
What is the largest prime factor of the number 317584931803?

First we need to get a list of primes. The algorithm known as the Sieve of Eratosthenes is directly expressible in XQuery:

declare function local:sieve($primes as xs:integer*,$nums as xs:integer* ) as xs:integer*  { if (exists($nums)) then let $prime := $nums[1] return local:sieve(($primes,$prime), $nums[. mod $prime != 0]) else $primes };

{ local:sieve(, 2 to 1000 ) }

The list of primes starts off empty, the list of numbers starts off with the integers. Each recursive call of local:sieve takes the first of the remaining integers as a new prime and reduces the list of integers to those not divisible by the prime. When the list of integers is exhausted, the list of primes is returned.

Primes less than 1000

Factorization of a number N is also easily expressed as the subset of primes which divide N:

declare function local:factor($n as xs:integer ,$primes as xs:integer*) as xs:integer* { $primes[ $n mod. = 0] };

Hence let $n:= xs:integer(request:get-parameter("n",100)) let $max := xs:integer(ceiling($n div 2)) let $primes := local:sieve(,2 to $max) return { local:factor($n,$primes) }

Factors of 666

And the largest is

max (local:factor($n,$primes))

Sadly this elegant method runs out of space and time for integers as large as that in the problem.

Problem 4
Find the largest palindrome made from the product of two 3-digit numbers. declare function local:palindromic($n as xs:integer) as xs:boolean { let $s := xs:string($n) let $sc := string-to-codepoints($s) let $sr := reverse ($sc) let $r := codepoints-to-string($sr) return $s = $r };

max( (for $i in (100 to 999) for $j in (100 to 999) return $i * $j) [local:palindromic(.)] )

Run [ takes 20 seconds]

Problem 5
What is the difference between the sum of the squares and the square of the sums for integers from 1 to 100? declare function local:diff-sum($n as xs:integer) as xs:integer) {    sum (1 to $n) * sum(1 to $n)      - sum( for $i in 1 to $n  return $i * $i ) }; local:diff-sum(100) Run

This nasty brute-force method can be replaced by an explicit expression using familiar formula: declare function local:diff-sum($n as xs:integer) as xs:integer { let $sum := $n * ($n + 1) div 2 let $sumsq :=( $n * ($n+1) * (2 * $n +1) ) div 6 return $sum * $sum - $sumsq };

local:diff-sum(100)

Run

title: XQuery/Project Euler


text:
Guitar/E-bow

The E-bow is a device that causes your string to vibrate without it being plucked, almost like a violin bow makes a violin string vibrate. It requires a dramatically different technique to play, as it basically replaces your pick. Furthermore, due to its true sustain capability, it is possible to actually slide up and down along the string without the loss of volume.

The Ebow is basically a self-contained amplifier with sensing coils and driving coils, using the concept of audio feedback. When placed over a string, the driver coil causes it to vibrate, which is picked up by the sensing/input coil. The electrical signal is then amplified by an opamp and produces a varying magnetic field of the same frequency in the driver coil, which then feeds a magnetic field of the same resonant frequency back to the string, thus sustaining its vibration.
 * The ebow is easiest to use when using a humbucker in neck position, as it provide twice the available effective surface when compare to a single coil. If a single coil sound is desired, you would need to be able to provide an alternative wiring such that the coils can be connected in parallel; one such case would be the Ibanez H-H configuration. Alternatively, you can use a "two-single coil" positions (such as position 2 and 4 on a Stratocaster).
 * Use the pilot light to position the ebow.
 * If the guitar side is not on full volume, the ebow may take 10ms before it takes effect; this is especially true on the higher strings.
 * Due to the sustain, the guitar may sound more monotone then a normal picking if you just keep it over the hotspot. Remember to move back and forth away from the hotspot to make it sound more natural.
 * Be careful when moving from string to string, as the two stop-grooves may move the string side to side, providing a mismatch of string to the driver groove.

Harmonic mode
The harmonic mode of the PlusEBow occurs due a reverse in polarity of the output coil, which dampens the fundamental frequency of the string and accentuate the harmonics, which are driven more. Thus, many normally unachievable harmonic notes are also available. However, the harmonic mode will only produce a different timbre of the fundamental note while used on 1st (e) and 2nd (B) string, as well as the higher notes on 3rd (G string).

In harmonic mode, whether to slide into the note or fret it normally will easily change the timbre of the sound. Sliding will keep the tone from before, but fretting it will easily change it. Generally, when a note is fretted close to the bridge, the note will have more bass than one that is fretted close to the nut.

title: Guitar/E-bow


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User:Manojkumar

HELLO Wikians! i m manoj kumar,doing my engineering studies in computer science.i m happy to be a contributor in wikipedia. my interests are in databases.

title: User:Manojkumar


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Principles of Economics/ASAD

The Concept
The keystone concept of macroeconomics is the aggregation. In this sense, aggregate supply (AS) is the total of all goods supplied by the entire economy (of a nation, for example); it is not limited to any one industry. Likewise, aggregate demand (AD) is the total of all goods demanded by the entire economy; it too is not limited to any one industry. Oftentimes, the goods produced by one industry will become the goods demanded by another.

Aggregate Supply
There are generally three forms of aggregate supply (AS). They are:

 * 1) Short run aggregate supply (SRAS) - Within the time frame during which firms can change the amount of labor used but not capital (such as building new factories). This form demonstrates what happens to the economy under the most slack, when resources are underused. Upward shifts in SRAS generally increase output (y) but don't increase price (P). The SRAS curve is nearly perfectly horizontal. The concept is that wages (price of labor) don't change over the short run.
 * 2) Long run aggregate supply (LRAS) - Over the long run, only capital, labor, and technology affect the LRAS in the macroeconomic model because at this point everything in the economy is assumed to be used optimally. In most situations, the LRAS is viewed as static because it shifts the slowest of the three. The LRAS is shown as perfectly vertical, reflecting economists' belief that changes in aggregate demand (AD) have an only temporary change on the economy's total output.
 * 3) Medium run aggregate supply (MRAS) - As an interim between SRAS and LRAS, the MRAS form slopes upward and reflects when capital as well as labor can change. When graphing an aggregate supply and demand model, the MRAS is generally graphed after aggregate demand (AD), SRAS, and LRAS have been graphed, and then placed so that the equilibria occur at the same point. The MRAS curve is affected by capital, labor, technology, and wage rate.

The Model

The economy's output Y = q is the x axis; the price index P is the y axis. The Price index is generally defined as the overall cost of living; the most well-known price index is the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Aggregate demand (AD) is downward sloping; short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) is perfectly horizontal; medium-run aggregate supply (MRAS) is upward sloping; long-run aggregate supply (LRAS) is perfectly vertical.

title: Principles of Economics/ASAD


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Principles of Economics/ISLM

The Concept
The ISLM model is NOT a supply demand model. Instead, it is a model based on two models that are supply and demand models: The investment-savings model and the money demand(liquidity preference)-money supply model. The ISLM model seeks to present a method for determining multiple equilibria in goods market and money market. This method is frowned upon by certain economists.

The basic concept is that in an economy with N models that seek to obtain equilibria, once N - 1 of those models have attained equilibria, all of them are at equilibrium - which is effectively where the economy goes toward in reality. There are basically three markets in capitalist economies: goods, money, and investment. Finding the equilibrium for the last two put together will yield the equilibrium for all three.

The Model

There are two curves, each representing either the IS or the LM set of equilibrium points (NOT set of quantity supplied/demanded). All points along the IS line represent combinations of supply and demand in the investment savings model that reach equilibria; all points along the LM line represent combinations of supply and demand in the money demand model that reach equilibria; the intersection of these two points on the ISLM model represent the point at which both models are at equilibrium. These curves are generally shown more simplistically as straight lines (IS sloping down, LM sloping up). The economy's output Y is the x axis; the interest rate r is the y axis.

If one ever goes below the IS curve, there is a particularly low interest rate considering the amount of money in circulation in the economy (reflected by Y), and firms do more investing (I) than there are savings to do this with (savings S). This forces the point upward, and we return to the IS curve. There is another solution: that low interest rate can be reached if the economy expands, resulting in more savings (which would drive down the interest rate).

If one ever goes below the LM curve, there is a particularly low interest rate considering the amount of money in circulation in the economy (reflected by Y), and the demand for money is greater than there is money available (similar concept to that with the IS curve). This forces the point upward, and we return to the LM curve. The money supply is determined by the Central Bank, and therefore does not depend on Y; however, the demand for money depends on the size of the economy Y. There is another solution: that low interest rate can be reached if the economy shrinks and thereby demands less money.

Changes

An increase in savings in the economy shifts the IS curve downward. A decrease shifts it upward. Shifts in IS curves often result from fiscal policy.

An increase in the money supply shifts the LM curve downward. A decrease shifts it upward. Shifts in LM curves often result from monetary policy.

title: Principles of Economics/ISLM


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Principles of Economics/Multipliers

The Concept
The multiplier effect refers to the idea that an initial spending rise can lead to even greater increase in national income. In other words, an initial change in aggregate demand can cause a further change in aggregate output for the economy. This is because the newly circulated money changes hands several times, each time shrinking in amount due to savings yet adding more to economic activity. Eventually, this cycle involves infinitesimally small amounts of money, so the cycle actually does come to an end, based on the basic geometric series rule:

 * $$ (r)^1 + (r)^2 + (r)^3 + ... = \frac{ 1 }{ 1 - r } - 1 = \frac{ r }{ 1 - r } $$

 * For example: A company spends $1 million to build a factory. This money goes to builders, who in total now have $1 million. They may save 25% of that and use the rest to buy goods. The producers of those goods obtain 75% of the original $1 million and save 25% of that, then spend some more. The multiplier here is 4, because an initial $1 million injected into the economy eventually becomes used the equivalent of four times.

The Multipliers
Note: In the following examples the multiplier is the right-hand-side equation without the first component.

 * y is original output (GDP)
 * $$b_C$$ is marginal propensity of consumption (MPC)
 * $$b_T$$ is original income tax rate
 * $$b_M$$ is marginal propensity to import
 * $$\Delta y$$ is change in output (equivalent to GDP)
 * $$\Delta a_T$$ is change in lump-sum tax rate
 * $$\Delta b_T$$ is change in income tax rate
 * $$\Delta G$$ is change in government spending
 * $$\Delta T$$ is change in aggregate taxes
 * $$\Delta I$$ is change in investment
 * $$\Delta X$$ is change in exports

Standard Lump-sum Tax Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta a_T * \frac{- b_C}{1 - b_C(1 - b_T) + b_M}$$

Note: only $$\Delta a_T$$ is here because if this is a change in lump-sum tax rate then $$\Delta b_T$$ is implied to be 0.

Standard Income Tax Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta b_T * \frac{- b_C * y}{1 - b_C(1 - b_T) + b_M}$$

Note: only $$\Delta b_T$$ is here because if this is a change in income tax rate then $$\Delta a_T$$ is implied to be 0.

Standard Government Spending Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta G * \frac{1}{(1 - b_C)(1 - b_T) + b_M}$$

Standard Investment Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta I * \frac{1}{1 - b_C(1 - b_T) + b_M}$$

Standard Exports Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta X * \frac{1}{1 - b_C(1 - b_T) + b_M}$$

Balanced-Budget Government Spending Equation
$$\Delta y = \Delta G * 1$$

$$\Delta y = \Delta T * 1$$

title: Principles of Economics/Multipliers


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Principles of Economics/Money Supply

Money
The money system is a significant improvement over the barter (item for item) system because while the former allowed trading between anyone who cared for money, the latter could only take place between parties with nearly equivalent marginal benefits of all traded goods (or otherwise, one side would be unwilling to make the trade). Money serves several purposes:

 * Medium of exchange - as an object that is generally accepted as a form of payment, thereby increasing market flexibility
 * Unit of account - a means of keeping track of how much something is worth (in barter systems, it becomes difficult to see how much a traded item is being traded for in terms of worth)
 * Store of value - can be held and exchanged later for goods and services, at an approximate (though slowly changing) value

Money is in two forms:

 * Currency C - circulating money
 * Deposits D - placed in banks and other depository institutions
 * Reserves R - the fraction of deposits that banks are required to hold on to

Money Supply
The money supply is the amount of M1 in the economy (the effective money). The supply of money is determined by the Central Bank through 'monetary policy; the economy then has to make do with that set amount of money. Since the economy does not influence the quantity of money, money supply is considered perfectly vertical (on models).

Consequences of changing the Money Supply

 * Since increasing the money supply can affect AD, then ceteris paribus (cp.) inflation in prices will result at the same time as an increase in output, as can be shown on any supply and demand diagram. A central bank must decide whether the benefits of demand-side economic growth outweigh the costs of potential demand-pull inflation.
 * This resultant inflation could cause the currency to depreciate against others, as fewer goods and services can be bought for the same nominal amount of money. This means that the exchange rate is lower, increasing the price of imports and increasing the competitiveness of exports with their associated effects on the economy!

Money Circulation
The equation MV = PY can be roughly translated as money supply times how fast it cycles through the economy (in a given time period) equals the output of the economy (in a given time period) times the price index. Both sides of the equation reflect the amount of money being used over the course of a period of time. An increase in the money supply (M) means that there will be more money being used by the economy; an increase in the velocity of money (V) means that this money goes through the economy faster (recycles into different hands faster), thereby seeming to increase the money supply. The output (Y) is the amount of goods produced in the economy over the period of time; multiply this by the price index (P) and one obtains the total price of all goods produced. This must equal the amount of money being used over that period of time; otherwise, some production would not have occurred.

title: Principles of Economics/Money Supply


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User:Fryant

Please, leave your comments in my talk page in the Galician Wikipedia.

title: User:Fryant


text:
Category:User gl

eo:kategorio:uzanto gl it:Categoria:Utenti gl ja:Category:User gl pt:Categoria:Usuário gl

title: Category:User gl


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Principles of Economics/Liquidity trap

Normally, monetary policy works because a change in the money supply changes interest rates, which then goes on to change most other things in the economy. However, there is a possibility that in certain situations, most often during financial crises (especially banking crises), an economy may enter a liquidity trap, in which an increase in the money supply does not further lower the interest rate. The demand for money is so responsive, or elastic, that it completely consumes all the additional money, without helping to boost the economy. In this situation, monetary policy is futile (unless it is practiced at a point above (to the left of) the liquidity trap, which would be even worse for the economy).

Beyond a certain point (the liquidity trap line), L(r,y), the money demand, becomes perfectly horizontal. Shifts in (M/P)S, the money supply, in this area have no effect on interest rate r. This is what the diagram shows.

title: Principles of Economics/Liquidity trap


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Hebrew/History

Project Announcement
The Hebrew Textbook project has been launched in order to be a self-study textbook and a textbook to be used in conjunction with the Hebrew Course at Wikiversity. The project goals, templates, resources, and more are outlined on the main page.

title: Hebrew/History


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Principles of Economics/Keynesian cross

The Keynesian cross model depicts national expenditure. Actual expenditure, Y*, is equal to planned expenditure, Y^E at the equilibrium, which is also where the economy will operate. There is a recursive operation, as a form of Y is on both sides of both equations. The Y* curve always starts at the origin and goes at a 45-degree diagonal; the Y^E curve always intercepts the Y axis and has a slope less than 1.

The Keynesian Cross shows the basic multiplier effect. Because the two lines are slanted, and are often at very acute angles with one another, a small shift upward or downward in the Y^E curve will yield a much more significant change in equilibrium along the x axis.

The equilibrium is at:

 * $$ \frac{a - T + I + G + X - M}{1 - b}$$

title: Principles of Economics/Keynesian cross


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Programmable Logic/VHDL Coding and Project Style

Coding style

 * Use spaces and indentation that reflects the purpose of the code. The formatting of the code should emphasize its functionality and help the reader follow its flow.
 * Indent with spaces, tabs are not uniform across all text editors.
 * Use a consistent style when naming signals. One of the authors uses the following
 * Prefix signals with a lower case "s" and capitalize the first letter of the name, ie sFlag
 * Prefix variables with "v", constants with "c", arrays and other general types with "t", processes with "p", and record types with "r" in a similar fashion.
 * Capitalize each new word of a signal name. (sStatusFlag)
 * Designate the input of registers with a _next suffix. If sQ is the output of a register, the signal containing its value on the next rising edge of the clock sQ_next.
 * Avoid repeated code whenever possible. Check the capabilities of your synthesis tool. If the tool supports multidimensional arrays, record types, loops, and/or generate statements, USE them.
 * Use record types (if possible) to pass a large number of status bits or control bits around modules. If the number or type of status bits changes, the entity and port maps of the effected entities do not also have to change. Also, this saves one from having to remember which bit slices of a vector are for which flag or control signal.
 * When using record types or arrays in a design, define these in a package instead of in the architecture. This allows them to be shared between modules.
 * Use an enumeration to specify states for a state machine. This improves readability of the code and helps one follow things when debugging in a simulator. If control of the state machine encoding is needed, check with the synthesis tool and use an "attribute" statement if needed.
 * Don't assign directly to output ports in processes. Assign the outputs to an internal signal and then later use a concurrent statement to assign the values to the output. This gives the ability to inspect the output value if needed (by debugging code or an ILA block if later needed).
 * A text editor that supports column editing is very useful when writing VHDL. (UltraEdit is a Paid one of these...)(NotePad++ is a free one of these, SciTE too...)

Architecture naming
The architecture name should be descriptive of the "type" of design it describes. Some general guidelines are below:
 * Use "behave" for test bench and most behaviorally written code (generally not synthesizable)
 * Use "rtl" for most synthesizable code.
 * Use "struct" for modules that mainly glue other modules together with port maps (top level, etc...)

File naming and organization

 * Create one VHDL entity per file
 * Name the file after the VHDL entity or package it contains ie. address_decoder.vhd contains the entity address_decoder.
 * For all except the largest of designs, it is recommended that all the files that implement a design be kept in the same directory. This saves time when trying to trace signals through files. It is useful to separate test bench files elsewhere. This keeps the directory from getting too cluttered.
 * A useful directory structure for VHDL projects is as follows:
 * /doc - design documentation is kept here
 * /loads - programming files go here
 * /sim - simulation scripts, projects, and testbench files go here
 * /syn - synthesis project and files go here (optional if synthesis done as part of the place and route process, ie using XST with a Xilinx design)
 * /par - place and route/implementation project and files go here.
 * /src - source VHDL/Verilog files go here
 * Use version/source control (subversion, cvs) with your FPGA project. The software programming world has learned a lot of lessons about managing source code. Many of these can be applied to HDL code as well.
 * When possible, a way to poll the "version" of the FPGA/CPLD project should be implemented. This allows the ability to determine what code is being tested on the hardware. This "version" should be coordinated with the version/source control system.


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Principles of Economics/Quota

A Quota restricts the amount of goods that may be produced, imported, made available, etc. This effectively cuts off the supply curve anywhere beyond the quota. The quota itself shows up as a vertical line; all trade to the right of the quota line ceases. Prices are kept unnaturally high due to the unnaturally reduced quantity available. This is what the figure shows.

title: Principles of Economics/Quota


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Principles of Economics/Elasticity

Elasticity refers to the degree, to which one value changes when another does. For example, how quantity supplied and demanded change with respect to price; how investment and savings change with respect to interest rate. The higher (lower) the elasticity, the higher (lower) the degree of change.

Let's use these notations for the following formulas.

 * $$P$$ is price
 * $$Q_s$$ is quantity supplied
 * $$Q_d$$ is quantity demanded
 * $$\Delta$$ is 'change in'

Price elasticity of demand

 * $$= -\frac{ %\Delta Q_d }{ %\Delta P } $$

Price elasticity of supply

 * $$= \frac{ %\Delta Q_s }{ %\Delta P }$$

The higher the absolute value of the elasticity, the higher the degree of change. We use absolute value of elasticity here because the price elasticity of demand is always negative by law of demand. Therefore, the degree of change is higher when the price elasticity of demand is more negative, but it means that it is low in numerical value. Thus, we take the absolute value, so that 'the higher the value of elasticity, the higher the degree of change' holds.

For example, if the price elasticity of demand is more negative, say it equals -5, then if price increases by 10%, the quantity demanded will decrease by 50%. On the other hand, if the elasticity is less negative, say it equals 0.1, then if price increases by 10%, the quantity demanded will only decrease by 1%.

Cross elasticities
The elasticities mentioned above refer to one object (e.g. the price elasticity of demand refer to the price and quantity demanded of one object). Cross elasticities refer to the effects of something's price, interest, etc. on something else. This comes into play with substitute and complementary goods and services for the consumer. For example, one type of cross elasticity refers to the degree to which the quantity demanded of good A changes when price of good B changes.

title: Principles of Economics/Elasticity


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Principles of Economics/Laffer

As the government increases taxes, the economy's available money decreases, resulting in less and less economic activity. Additionally, the taxes reduce the returns on entrepreneurial activity. At first, increasing taxes increases revenues, but provides decreasing marginal returns. At a certain point, the economy has been so taxed (pun intended) that additional taxation would cause the economy to shrink so markedly that it would not increase revenue. This is a point that economists and politicians have much internal and external conflict, because it is particularly difficult to find and may perhaps change over time. At even higher tax rates the government drives the economy into the ground and ends up with less revenue. This is the Laffer Curve.

Some economists believe that the Laffer curve is actually jumbled and fuzzy in the middle - in other words, there is no clear point associated with any particular tax rate.

title: Principles of Economics/Laffer


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Principles of Economics/Monetary Policy

There are four major components to Monetary policy, the decision of how much money is to be made available to the economy. All of them are controlled in part by the Central Bank:

Setting the required reserve ratio
Banks can only lend out a (albeit large) portion of the deposits consumers make to them. A few percentage points are generally required to be held on hand so that consumers making withdrawals will be able to get their money and to prevent infinite money multipliers perpetuated by unscrupulous and risky banking procedures. The Required Reserve Ratio (r) limits the amount of money available in the economy by preventing banks from creating more money than the Central Bank desires.

Setting the discount window lending rate
The Discount Window Lending Rate is the rate at which the Central Bank makes loans exclusively to other registered banks in times of financial and banking instability. Use of the discount window is generally frowned down upon by the general populace and any banks using it (without the backing of moral suasion, see below) will suddenly find stock shares plummeting due to a greatly reduced confidence due to a historical savings-and-loans crisis involving weak banks using the discount window. The discount window's rate is determined by the Central Bank; an announcement of an increase in the rate would mean fewer banks obtaining money through that means, less money for the economy, and shrinkage, while an announcement of a decrease in the rate would pump more money into the economy.

Open market operations
The Central Bank may also buy and sell securities to and from the public and banks in what is known as Open market operations. If it buys securities, its money is entered into the economy, hence allowing for more transactions to be made. If it sells securities, it takes money out of the economy, slowing it down.

Moral suasion
This method involves encouraging people to take certain actions that have certain effects on the economy. This is generally the one with the least determinate effect and is heavily laden sociologically.

title: Principles of Economics/Monetary Policy


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Principles of Economics/Indifference

Indifference and Preference
People are indifferent to what combination of goods they obtain if the goods give the same combined utility. However, as peoples' preferences differ, their individual indifference curves will differ as well, being weighted more in favor of certain goods. It is this preference that determines who will obtain the scarce goods available in the economy: whoever has the most preference will demand a good the most, even at higher prices, and will be more able to obtain it, whereas those who have only minimal preference will not obtain the good.

Indifference curves

Assuming that both of these goods give marginally positive utility no matter how many of them there are, the indifference curves will appear as above. In actuality, there are an infinite number of such curves. Along each curve, one is indifferent to which combination gets one to that curve. Traversing across curves involves a change of utility obtained, much like traversing a contour map involves a change of altitude. For any one entity (individual, firm, society), indifference curves may not cross.

Budget with indifference curves

With any budget curve, we can find a point at which the highest indifference curve is reached, meaning that the greatest possible utility is obtained. This position is located by the intersection of the two lines.

PPF with indifference curves

Similarly, we can find the optimal point for a PPF. Here, a shift in PPF involves the optimal point changing to a position along a lower-utility indifference curve.

title: Principles of Economics/Indifference


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Principles of Economics/Philips

Short Run Philips Curve
The Short run Philips curve is down-ward sloping, showing an inverse relationship between unemployment (u) and inflation. A decrease in interest rates can only be brought about by an increase in interest rates (another reason why Economics is a dismal science - just wait, it gets worse). At any time, the government/Central Bank can determine which interest rate to use, and the economy will adjust to have the unemployment rate that meets the curve at that interest rate.

Long Run Philips Curve
The Long run Philips curve is perfectly vertical, the idea being that in the long run, the Philips curve will assume that form. If the government stays at any point on the short run Philips curve for any significant period of time, people will begin to expect that particular rate of inflation and wages will increase to adjust for that expectation, spurring another round of inflation. This increases the inflation process, raising the inflation rate. To mirror this, the short run Philips curve shifts rightward (with low levels of unemployment and high interest rate) until the point the economy reaches the long run Philips curve (a shift from SRPC1 to SRPC2).

Vicious Spiral Upward
As a result of this shift, the new position involves just as high an interest rate as before, but the unemployment rate has returned to its natural position. The natural unemployment rate is the rate of unemployment that would cause no shift in the short run Philips Curve, and is somewhere around 10%. This is, for most political situations, an unacceptably high unemployment, hence the need to artificially reduce it by increasing interest rate. Hence, the economy enters a spiral in which interest rates continually increase for only temporary decreases in unemployment (told you it gets worse).

Vicious Spiral Downward
The opposite is also true. If the government persistently sets the interest rate below the position where the short and long run Philips curves cross, then there will be higher than normal unemployment. If this is held for a significant period of time, the short run Philips curve will begin to shift downward, resulting in continually decreasing inflation for temporarily higher-than-normal unemployment. However, the suffering that such an economic policy, while effective, would bring to people is politically unpopular, and the general trend has been to rising inflation rates.

title: Principles of Economics/Philips


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Principles of Economics/Allocation

Scarcity, Allocation, and Markets
There is a scarcity of almost everything that brings people happiness. Economics is the analysis of how a society determines how it will distribute, or allocate, its scarce goods to a population, and to a set of purposes that has an infinite desire for more. This is the first and most fundamental reason why economics is sometimes referred to as "the dismal science": never can all desires be satisfied.

Society accomplishes its allocation through market system or/and command system:
 * Market systems use prices as signals to allocate its resources.
 * Command systems make use of political choice to allocate its resources.

For our purposes, we shall focus on explaining how market allocation functions.

Productive and Allocative Efficiency
Through these means, society strives to achieve both productive efficiency and allocative efficiency.

An example of productive inefficiency is when a method of production yields the same as another that uses less of any resource but does not use more of any other resource. Hence, there would be no reason to use the less productive method.

An example of allocative inefficiency is when a method of production uses more of a certain resource and less of another than another method that costs more to society overall. Even if it is productively efficient, the resources are not used in the best distribution -- the allocation is inefficient. In this situation, the inefficient method should be swapped for the more efficient method by a redistribution of which combination of resources is used for a certain mode of production.

Another interpretation of allocative inefficiency is the distribution of goods to members of society in a way that yields less than optimal happiness. This interpretation is almost never achieved but is nevertheless the goal toward which economists strive.

Productive efficiency must be satisfied before allocative efficiency may be.

title: Principles of Economics/Allocation


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Principles of Economics/Marginal Utility

Average versus Marginal
The margin is the edge of a situation; marginal is the adjective form. If a firm is currently producing 10 units of a good, the tenth and eleventh are both considered marginal units of production. Generally, the marginal costs and benefits of a good are more important in determining whether we do something than the average; we would like more of something if its marginal benefits outweigh its marginal costs (e.g. where one likes another unit of a good more than the unit of money one has to expend for it). Even if the average happiness from each individual good obtained may decrease from consuming another unit of goods at the margin, one would still consume it because its value itself, its marginal value, is still positive and greater than the marginal cost.

Utility and Marginal Utility
Utility is the amount of happiness brought by a certain amount of a good for the individual. Marginal utility/Marginal benefit is the amount of happiness brought by the next unit of a good. Under ideal circumstances, the marginal utility of the next unit is infinitely less than the amount of happiness brought by the previous unit of a good. A more precise definition would involve calculus, but a preferred way of "fudging" this relationship involves taking the average of the next and previous units' marginal utilities:

 * Marginal utility = $$\frac{ \Delta _1 + \Delta _2 }{ 2 }$$

where
 * $$ \Delta _1 $$ is the marginal utility of the previous unit
 * $$ \Delta _2 $$ is the marginal utility of the next unit

Law of Diminishing Returns
The Law of diminishing returns states that as more and more of a good is produced/consumed, the less marginal benefit the next unit of that good brings. Goods generally start with high marginal returns at low levels of the good, lower marginal returns at higher levels of the good, and negative marginal returns at even higher levels of the good.

 * This is generally the case with food; as one consumes more and more food, one begins to lose taste for even more food; at one point, one becomes indifferent for whether one wants to eat more; at even higher levels of the food, one feels too full and may be worse off.

[See if you can make a graph that represents/models this law.]


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Principles of Economics/Opportunity Costs

Opportunity Costs
The opportunity cost of a good or of performing an action, also known as the greatest cost, is the lost value of alternate options that could have been chosen, rather than the one that was chosen. If A gives twice as much pleasure as B, and there is no C that gives more pleasure than B and is comparable (such as uses time, effort, or some other resource), then A's opportunity cost is the benefit of B because that is the difference in resulting happiness. In this particular scenario, the opportunity cost of A is not a good indicator of its value, because it says that A is worth only as much as B, which is not the case.

Normally, there would be many alternate uses for the resources of A/B, so that there would not be such a notable difference, and so A and B would be similar in benefits, B and C would be similar in benefits, etc. In such a case where the differences are minor, the opportunity cost of A would be similar to that of B, and that would reflect their similar benefits.

Oftentimes, opportunity cost is seen as what one would have to give up for something else:

 * Opportunity cost of A (in terms of B) = $$ - \frac{ \Delta B }{ \Delta A = 1}$$

where
 * $$ \Delta A $$ is the gain of marginal utility because of a gain of A = 1
 * $$ \Delta B $$ is the loss of marginal utility because of a loss of B

Opportunity costs can also be thought of as the resources lost, or alternate products forgone, through taking a particular action or producing a certain product. The lost resources could be time, effort, money, goods, etc.

Opportunity Cost Principle: Heaberler and Taussing have developed this important cost principle. This principle studies about the various alternatives and their benefits. According to this principle the managerial decision must be such that from the selected alternative benefits.


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Talk:LPI Linux Certification/Work On The Command Line

is "." really a unix program or can this be removed?
 * The period is part of the Bourne shell builtin commands the man page describes it thus.

. filename [arguments] source filename [arguments] Read and  execute  commands  from filename in the current shell environment and return the exit status of the last command exe‐ cuted from filename. If filename does not contain a slash, file names in PATH are used to find the directory  containing  file‐ name. The file  searched  for in PATH need not be executable. When bash is not  in  posix  mode,  the  current  directory  is              searched  if no file is found in PATH. If the sourcepath option to the shopt builtin command is turned off,  the  PATH  is  not searched. If any arguments are supplied, they become the posi‐ tional parameters when filename  is  executed. Otherwise the positional parameters  are unchanged. The return status is the status of the last command exited within the script  (0  if  no              commands  are  executed),  and false if filename is not found or              cannot be read.

 * I agree that this was part of the UNIX command set originally, indeed quiet a few commands in Linux come from UNIX origins. I have confirmed that the "." period is part of the LPI exam syllabus, hence it should remain as is. Barry 09:27, 6 November 2007 (UTC)


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User:Araddaoui

Hello. I am A. H. Raddaoui of Tunisia. I am in the process of preparing an Arabic Language Program for nonnative Speakers. I am interested in Arabic language learning experiences. I am personally a native speaker of a dialect of Arabic, and I started formal study of standard Arabic when I was six. Informal exposure to Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) starts much earlier on, perhaps as soon as the child is aware of the world around them, when they hear MSA spoken in the news, in cartoons, in films, speeches, and many radio and television programs. Maybe this is enough for today.

title: User:Araddaoui


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Galician/Lesson 1/Alphabet

The Galician alphabet has 23 letters as well as 6 digraphs.

Let's see a list of the 23 letters:

The letters j (iota), k (ca), w (uve dobre), and y (i grego) don’t appear in native Galician words and aren’t an official part of the Galician alphabet, with the exception of loan words such as walkie-talkie, jazz or yiddish.

title: Galician/Lesson 1/Alphabet


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User talk:Araddaoui

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 21:02, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Araddaoui


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User talk:Girdi

Welcome to my Talk Page. Click "Add Topic" above to leave me a message, have a discussion, talk about something - whether it be off topic or about Wikipedia, or anything else you'd like to say. I love getting messages so drop me a line!

Question
I tried creating a quiz for myself but it doesn't seem to be working. Would you mind finding the problem for me? Thanks!

{Question 1 + Choice 1 (correct choice) - Choice 2 - Choice 3 - Choice 4
 * type="[]"}
 * Explanation for Choice 1
 * Explanation for Choice 2
 * Explanation for Choice 3
 * Explanation for Choice 4

 * It seems to be working fine. Make sure you include |type=""} if you want to have button. Right now it is multiple selection for a possible answer. What exact problem are you having though? --Girdi (discuss • contribs) 12:19, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Oh... must be something to do with show preview. Whoops. Thanks Kayau 15:45, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * The submit button doesn't work until the page is saved. – Adrignola discuss 15:58, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

Error in Icelandic/Grammar/Nouns
Hello,

I realize that this isn't your mistake, and that you've not edited in nearly a year, but I'm pretty sure you're the best person to tell this to. In the Icelandic Nouns section on adjective placement, the second example's text states that when the suffixed definite article is used, the adjective should follow the noun; but in the example itself, the adjective is first. I looked through the history, and this was changed from an earlier version; but I don't think I should change it back, since the declension was also modified in the same edit, and I know next to nothing about Icelandic. :) Hope you can fix it. 50.0.244.207 (discuss) 04:21, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Hi, you should ask an admin as you are right, I have and plan on staying inactive for some time. I still wear my Wikibooks t-shirt though in public :) --Girdi (discuss • contribs) 07:02, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

 * Oh, alright. If you don't mind, could you recommend an admin that would know the proper Icelandic syntax? I'm new to Wikibooks (I spend most of my time on Wikipedia), so I've no idea where to report this. Before coming here I looked for an error report section of the bulletin board, but couldn't find one. 50.0.244.207 (discuss) 19:07, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

Update...soon? :)

Hi!

I didn't know how to conctact you but...are you going to update the Chechen lessons? I'm interested in them, they were the only lessons I found on internet and they are well structured! :)

Thank you

Hello there!
Are you still active here? If so, why don't you do something, like, say, updating the Chechen language Wikibook?

Greetings
Hi, Johann! My name is Hamzat Aslahanov, I'm Chechen from Dishny teip. Its interesting for me to see such a person as You. You pronounce Chechen words without any eccent, as I can see in pronontiations section in Wiki. You speak it very well. I remember You speak Faroese, why its not presented in your language section on the right of page ?

title: User talk:Girdi


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User talk:DenHaag

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 21:06, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:DenHaag


text: User talk:68.45.33.53

title: User talk:68.45.33.53


text:
User talk:84.171.92.81

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 21:10, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:84.171.92.81


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User:Colobikeguy~enwikibooks

this is my page. please do not urinate on this page.

title: User:Colobikeguy~enwikibooks


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User talk:Colobikeguy~enwikibooks

this is my 'talk' page. please do not urinate on it.

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:19, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Colobikeguy. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Colobikeguy~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:03, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:48, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Colobikeguy~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Manojkumar

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:21, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Manojkumar


text:
User talk:Kelpian

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 22:21, 4 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kelpian


text:
Hebrew/Lesson formats/Answers

Exercises
With link to answers. By default, the name of the answers page is the lesson plus /Answers. So the lesson for "these answers" would be at Hebrew/Lesson formats.

Link back
Put in a link back to the lesson.

In keeping with the recommendation to "integrate content from prerequisites", if an answer depends on content from previous lessons, it would be good to link to them too.

Include questions
Include the questions from the lesson page to make it easier to find the correct question-answer match.

Standard types of questions are
 * Translations.
 * Practice without diacritic marks.

Category
Add to the Hebrew category. Example:

title: Hebrew/Lesson formats/Answers


text:
Manx/Abbyrlhit as Coraaghey

Abbyrlhit as Fockley-Magh Alphabet and Pronunciation

We begin with the basic building blocks of Manx, the alphabet, and some fundamentals of pronunciation. Though it has existed since the 13th century as a distinct language, Manx was not set down in written form until 1610. John Phillips, the Bishop of Sodor and Mann, translated the „Book of Common Prayer“ into Manx using Welsh orthography. Since 1985, the Coonceil ny Gaelgey (or Manx Gaelic Advisory Council) has been regulating the orthography and spelling of Manx.

The Manx alphabet is the same Latin alphabet that English uses, minus the two letters „x“ and „z“, which can still occasionally be found in loan words. The letters all have traditional names in Manx. Since it is a fair assumption that everyone who can speak Manx can speak English as well, you do not need to worry about learning the traditional Manx names of the letters. Still, if you truly want to learn the language, taking the time to learn the letters' names is well worth it.

Abyrlhit 'sy Ghaelg (Manx Alphabet)
The Manx alphabet is slightly easier than the English one, as there are only 24 letters.

There is also one diacritic in Manx, the cedilla (¸), which is only found applied to the initial 'c' in the vowel combination ch to indicate that it is pronounced in the English manner.

Fockley-magh (Pronunciation)
Pronunciation in Manx is rather easier than the other Celtic languages. Manx is a phonetic language, meaning that it is spoken the same way it is written. There are though some vowels that tend to be silent which can be found in diphthongs. Since the orthography of Manx was greatly influenced by English, we tend to see very similar pronunciation rules in Manx as we would see in English.

Corockleyn (Consonants)
The consonants are pronounced the same as they are in English. There are, however, a few differences. Let's have a look at those consonants and combinations which differ from English.

* The sounds, CH, GH, and GHT are guttural sounds and common within the Celtic languages. This type of sound is also encountered in Arabic, Hebrew, German Germanic languages like German, Dutch and Afrikaan and Slavic languages like Polish and Russian.

Breeocklyn (Vowels)
The vowels in Manx are exactly the same as those in English with the addition of y. The vowels are A E I O U and Y.

Daaghooaghtyn (Diphthongs)
Diphthongs might be the only real challenge in Manx pronunciation. A diphthong is a new sound made by combining two vowels, and the results are occasionally unpredictable.

Yindyssagh! You have taken your first steps toward learning Manx. This guide should be referred to frequently when trying to read Manx on your own to learn how to pronounce words and get a better understanding of the language.

Before we move on to our first lesson, it is important to know the name of the language you are beginning to study. The name of Manx is Gaelg. Can you try to say this? Actually, if you say it quickly, it should sound like a word you have heard many times before!

title: Manx/Abbyrlhit as Coraaghey


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User:ADM9842

I am Learning Mandarin, and German

title: User:ADM9842


text:
User:Rachel305

hello everyone i am new because i just signed up today on 11/4/07

title: User:Rachel305


text:
User talk:Lionnese

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:46, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lionnese


text:
User talk:88.235.88.37

Thanks for experimenting with the page Talk:Probability/Introduction on Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has been reverted or removed. Please use the sandbox for any other tests you want to do. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Az1568(Talk) 01:01, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:88.235.88.37


text:
Template:ICT for Disaster Management/Cite

[ ICT for Disaster Management/Notes ]


text: ICT for Disaster Management/Notes

title: ICT for Disaster Management/Notes


text:
User talk:ADM9842

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:23, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:ADM9842


text:
User talk:Rachel305

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:23, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rachel305


text:
User talk:67.180.114.43

– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:33, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:67.180.114.43


text:
User talk:Herman Darman

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:33, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Nias map.jpg
Note: I'm still working on this book, so everything is currently under process. I don't mind you delete the figures. Once I got the full reference, I will upload it again. Thanks.

title: User talk:Herman Darman


text:
User talk:Whiteknight/Count Ticker

Hey WK,

What happened to the numbers starting on October 31? It looks like everything jumped by a factor of ten. --Jomegat 02:27, 5 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Whiteknight/Count Ticker


text:
Classroom Management Theorists and Theories/Jacob Kounin

Overview/History of Jacob Kounin's Work
Jacob Kounin was an educational theorist who focused on a teacher’s ability to affect student behavior through instructional management. His best-known work was done in the 1970s, where he conducted two major case studies. From educational psychologist to a well-known theorist today, Kounin brought a novel idea that incorporated both the instructional and disciplinary aspects of the classroom together. Before this happened, most educators viewed their role as a straight-forward passing on of skills and knowledge to their students. After publishing his book, “Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms”(1977), Kounin attempted to influence the original viewpoint of educators and to integrate teaching and discipline in the classroom.

Kounin’s first observation of an intriguing pattern in student behavior was when he asked a student in his own classroom to put something away; he noticed that the students around him suddenly followed in focusing their attention. He watched as the correction of one student behavior actually spread to other students engaging in inappropriate behaviors, and resulted in a much more ordered room. He later described this phenomenon as the “Ripple Effect”.

This first observation led Kounin to conduct experiments over 5 years with students from all levels, but later Kounin changed his focus to seeing how teachers actually prepared or proactively managed their classrooms before behavior occurred. He noticed how the reactions of teachers to students affected classroom management in a negative way. He learned that teachers were always receiving similar responses from their students no matter how they reacted to misbehavior in the classroom. From this observation, he concluded that there must be something a teacher could do to prevent misbehavior in the first place, which would lead to more effective classroom management.

From his studies, Kounin developed theories about classroom management that were based around a teacher’s ability to organize and plan in their classrooms while using proactive behavior and high student involvement. He believed that in order for a teacher to have an effective connection between management and teaching, there needed to be good Lesson Movement. This Lesson Movement is achieved through withitness, overlapping, momentum, smoothness, and group focus.

Withitness was Kounin’s word to describe a teacher’s ability to know what was going on at all times in his/her classroom. This can be as simple as making scanning looks around the room every once in awhile. Kounin said that is was not necessary for the teacher to know what is going on, but for the students to perceive that the teacher knows.

Overlapping is the ability for a teacher to in a word, multi-task. Being able to present a new topic while preventing misbehaviors is essential for a teacher. The concept of overlapping ties into the idea of withitness as well.

Momentum is the flow of a lesson. A teacher must be able to “roll-with-the-punches” in acknowledging that things might go wrong and being able to fluidly adapt and continue onward despite distractions and disruptions. An example of this would be a student late for the class interrupts or technology that is being used goes wrong.

Smoothness is also highly related to momentum. Being able to keep on track without getting on tangents as well as being diverted by irrelevant questions or information is important. Many times, a teacher can get distracted and leave a topic open and not come back to it until later, which can be confusing to students. Another thing that can ruin smoothness is when a teacher does not have a plan or course of action, it can seem as though the lecture is jumping from one topic to the next.

The final aspect that results in Lesson Movement and effective teaching through integrating management and learning is group focus. Group focus is the ability of a teacher to engage the whole class using techniques such as building suspense or asking community questions. This can also look like asking random questions, or asking a student a question and then looking around at other students to see if they are thinking or ready to respond. These are the main theories and history of Jacob Kounin.

Implementation Of Kounin's Philosophy
As mentioned above the Five Main points of Kounin's work are:

 * 1) "with-it-ness"
 * 2) overlapping
 * 3) momentum
 * 4) smoothness
 * 5) group focus

"With-it-ness"
The teacher is responsible for inhibiting poor behavior. The teacher can maintain this strategy by making eye contact to all students at all times. The teacher should know each student on a personal basis (i.e. name, interests, strengths, weaknesses, etc.)The teacher can use other non-verbal techniques to show students that they are alert and care about the well-being of all students. The teacher may also want to make a respectable suggestion to inform the student that their behavior is unacceptable. The teacher should have communicated to all students the expectations and can have these displayed so everyone can be "with-it".

Overlapping
The teacher can have procedures that will allow the teacher to be effective when two situations occur at the same time. For example, if a student is done with an assessment or an assignment early have something for them to do such as moving on to another assignment, reading a book, or a quiet enrichment exercise. While the early-finishers are staying busy the teacher is allowed to move around the room to answer question or assist struggling students. Another example, if the teacher is in the middle of a lecture and a student enters the room the teacher should make eye contact with the student, have an area for the student to turn in work, and continue with the lesson. Once the students are doing their work the teacher can go to the tardy student and tell them what they missed or answer any questions from the homework assigned the night before.

Momentum
The teacher should make lectures short to allow students to group together and move around to gain more knowledge of the content. The teacher should make sure that these exercises remain short so students do not get bored. A teacher can keep a timer and assign roles to students to keep the students moving and on a time deadline. If students are struggling the teacher can reflect on what they can do to make the lesson more meaningful and easier to understand for their students. This has overtime proven to be successful.

Smoothness
The teacher can have students make hand gestures, that will tell the teacher whether the student has a comment or question concerning the lesson. This technique allows the teacher to have an idea about those students who may cause an unwanted tangent and those who may have a good question, pertaining to utilise the time effectively. When placing students in group-work, the teacher can walk around facilitating and listening to discussions of other students. The teacher can then intervene or take the group to a different track if required.

Group Focus
The teacher can implement this strategy with several techniques:

A.Encourage Accountability: Make students aware that they will be graded for their participation and contributions to the group.

B.The teacher can have a canister of popsicle sticks that have each students name on them. The teacher can pick the popsicle stick at random to keep students on track and out of their seats with anticipation for question/answer time, board problems, etc.

C.The students can facilitate a discussion. Once they have finished a task they can turn to each other or they could pair up with those who are already done and compare answers.

In order for implementation to be effective the teacher must be well organized, communicate their expectations to their students, and hold them responsible for their actions to encourage motivation and attention.

Elementary School
In an elementary setting, the teacher could pair up the class in groups of 3-5 students and assign a team name. The teacher could have a visual of a pocket chart to show where that group will be during the time granted. For example, a pink card for Suzy, Bobbie, and Billy could stand for the Phonics station. A green card could stand for Lizzy, Gary, and Greg to be at the Math station. The time could be set for 30 minutes. Once the timer has elapsed the students would be instructed of how to rotate. The teacher must not remain idle at any time. This should be used as reinforcement/enrichment of the content in which the teacher has already covered the material and could informally assess understanding and application of content. The centers assure the five strategies by having directions at each center, a visual to state where students should be after the time is up, and a way for teachers to actively listen to concerns/speed-bumps that are holding them back. The teacher should make each center as kinestethic as possible with many manipulatives at each station (i.e. Magnetic letters for spelling center, dice or play money for Math, etc.) It is very important that elementary instructors maintain their energy and enthusiasm when presenting to their students.

Middle School
Kounin's theories are very useful in a Middle School setting. The first two terms he uses, "With-it-ness" and "Overlapping," can be used for preventing the misbehavior of other students. When one student is about to throw a paper airplane or punch his friend in the shoulder, the teacher can make eye contact with him and shake his head. The belief is that doing this will show other students that they will not get away with this either. In Middle School, however, it usually becomes more necessary to make an example of a student who willingly breaks a rule so that other students know they will share the same fate if they do so as well. Also, the "overlapping" ability to do more than one thing at once is essential, since most middle school students will capitalize on the opportunity to get away with outlawed behavior while the teacher's back is turned. A final approach that seemed very effective was implementing lesson plans with high participation formats. When every student always has something to do, each will not become bored and find off-task behavior to engage in.

High School
In a high school setting, a teacher needs to incorporate all of the aspects of Kounin's philosophy in their teaching practice. This means that with-it-ness, overlapping, smoothness, momentum, and group focus all must meld together to form a coherent whole. This could be implemented through teachers having at least a week’s lessons ahead of time in order for them to be sure that lesson fluidity occurs. The "with-it-ness" that comes with being an effective teacher is most often the fruit of planning and keeps students on task. This takes a special ability to diffuse potentially distracting situations in which teachers need to bring students back to the task at hand. In showing students the connections between one subject to the next, using previous vocabulary to prepare students for learning new vocabulary, a teacher will show overlapping. This overlapping ties into the momentum aspect. Students that feel they are learning will make connections between old and new material. This confidence will allow them to contribute to the momentum of the classroom. The group focus aspect in the high school setting really takes a quick attention to detail. Keeping high school students on task and not thinking about tomorrow night’s football game is a skill that is essential to promoting learning. A teacher needs to be able to spot check for students not paying attention and rapidly engage them back into the subject, while holding the rest of the class’ attention. This can be done through exciting announcements, demonstrations, or by changing the atmosphere of learning.

Questions
1) How would you incorporate Kounin's 5 Management Behaviors in your classroom?

2) Analyze whether Kounin's ideas would strengthen your teaching practices?