text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Chains/Checking chain wear

Chains increase in length over time due to wear on the pins and bushings. Continuing to use a chain that is beyond a reasonable length can not only cause the chain to "skip" when pedalling under pressure but will also wear out the rest of your drivetrain as the teeth on the cassette/freewheel and chainrings try to match the length of the chain. If you catch a chain before it is too worn you can dramatically increase the life of the rest of your drivetrain.

To check the length of your chain there are two methods.

The ruler method requires only a ruler and is more accurate. Line up a rivet with the zero mark on a standard ruler. Next, you look for the closest rivet to the 12" (304.8mm) mark. On a new chain the rivet will line up exactly, if the rivet is 1/8" (3.175mm) or more past the 12" (304.8mm) mark, the chain needs to be replaced.

If you have access to a tool (e.g. Park CC-2), you can put the pins of the tool into the chain and rotate a dial to obtain a reading indicating the length of your chain. A reading of under 0.5% means the chain is okay, and over 0.5% means the chain needs to be replaced.

If, when you replace your chain, it skips under pressure, this is an indicator that other parts of your drivetrain need to be replaced too. First of all replace the block (freewheel or cassette), if that does not cure the problem you may need to replace the chainrings.

More information: http://sheldonbrown.com/chains.html How to clean your chain: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kMGxiLc8jHE

Trouble Shooting Guide http://chain-guide.com/basics/7-1-6-troubleshooting.html

If there doesn't seem to be any wear be sure that your derailleur is in the correct position. If you still have problems with the chain riding up and skipping, see this walk through: http://bicycles.stackexchange.com/questions/9534/why-is-my-chain-riding-up-and-skipping-teeth-on-the-freewheel


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...e6/3. d4/3...cxd4

= Sicilian Defence =

Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4
 * /4. Nxd4/: Sicilian Paulsen; Taimanov; Scheveningen

Theory table
.

1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...e6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4

= Sicilian 2...e6 = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4
 * /4...Nc6/: Taimanov
 * /4...a6/: Kan Sicilian
 * /4...Nf6/: Scheveningen

Theory table
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...e6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...a6

= Kan Sicilian = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6
 * /5. Bd3/
 * /5. Nc3/
 * /5. c4/: Sicilian, Kan, Maroczy bind (Reti variation)

Theory table
1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6


text:
Radiation Oncology/Bile duct/Staging

Current staging
AJCC 7th Edition (2009) For the 7th Edition staging, there are now separate staging classifications for perihilar (proximal) and distal bile duct tumors

Perihilar Bile Ducts Primary Tumor:
 * Tis - carcinoma in situ
 * T1 - confined to the bile duct, with extension up to the muscle layer or fibrous tissue
 * T2
 * T2a - invades beyond the wall of the bile duct to surrounding adipose tissue
 * T2b - invades adjacent hepatic parenchyma
 * T3 - invades unilateral branches of the portal vein or hepatic artery
 * T4 - invades main portal vein or its braches bilaterally; common hepatic artery; second-order biliary radicals bilaterally; or unilateral second-order biliary radicals with contralateral portal vein or hepatic artery involvement

Regional Lymph Nodes:
 * N0 - no
 * N1 - regional lymph node metastasis (along the cystic duct, common bile duct, hepatic artery, and portal vein)
 * N2 - metastasis to periaortic, pericaval, superior mesenteric artery, and/or celiac artery lymph nodes

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - no
 * M1 - yes

Stage Grouping:
 * I - T1 N0
 * II - T2a-b N0
 * IIIA - T3 N0
 * IIIB - T1-3 N1
 * IVA - T4 N0-1
 * IVB - N2 or M1

Distal Bile Duct Primary Tumor:
 * Tis - carcinoma in situ
 * T1 - confined to the bile duct
 * T2 - invades beyond the wall of the bile duct
 * T3 - invades the gallbladder, pancreas, duodenum, or other adjacent organs without involvement of the celiac axis or the superior mesenteric artery
 * T4 - involves the celiac axis or the superior mesenteric artery

Regional Lymph Nodes:
 * N0 - no
 * N1 - regional lymph node metastasis

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - no
 * M1 - yes

Stage Grouping:
 * IA - T1 N0
 * IB - T2 N0
 * IIA - T3 N0
 * IIB - T1-3 N1
 * III - T4
 * IV - M1

Prognostic factors : serum CEA, CA19.9

Changes from 6th Edition:
 * Now separate staging classifications for perihilar and distal extrahepatic bile duct tumors

Previous editions
AJCC 6th Edition (2002) For the 6th edition - all extrahepatic bile duct tumors (perihilar or distal) are included in one classification

Primary Tumor:
 * Tis - carcinoma in situ
 * T1 - confined to the bile duct
 * T2 - invades beyond the wall of the bile duct
 * T3 - invades liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and/or unilateral branches of the portal vein or hepatic artery
 * T4 - invades main portal vein or its braches bilaterally, common hepatic artery, or other adjacent structures such as the colon, stomach, duodenum, or abdominal wall (unresectable)

Regional Lymph Nodes:
 * N0 - no
 * N1 - yes

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - no
 * M1 - yes

Stage Grouping:
 * IA - T1 N0
 * IB - T2 N0
 * IIA - T3 N0
 * IIB - N1
 * III - T4
 * IV - M1

AJCC 5th edition (1997) Primary Tumor:
 * T1
 * T1a - invades subepithelial connective tissue
 * T1b - invades fibromuscular layer
 * T2 - invades perifibromuscular connective tissue
 * T3 - invades adjacent structures (liver, pancreas, duodenum, gallbladder, colon, stomach)

Regional Lymph Nodes:
 * N1 - metastasis in cystic duct, pericholedochal and/or hilar lymph nodes (i.e in the hepatoduodenal ligament)
 * N2 - metastasis in peripancreatic (head only), periduodenal, periportal, celiac, and/or superior mesenteric and/or posterior pancreatic duodenal lymph nodes

Stage grouping:
 * I - T1 N0
 * II - T2 N0
 * III - T1-2 N1-2
 * IVA - T3 Any N
 * IVB - M1

Intrahepatic bile ducts
AJCC 7th Edition (2009) Note: New staging category beginning with the 7th edition. In prior editions, staging for intrahepatic bile ducts was grouped in with Liver staging.

Primary tumor:
 * Tis - carcinoma in situ (intraductal tumor)
 * T1 - solitary tumor without vascular invasion
 * T2
 * T2a - solitary tumor with vascular invasion
 * T2b - multiple tumors, with or without vascular invasion
 * T3 - tumor penetrating the visceral peritoneum or involving the local extrahepatic structures by direct invasion
 * T4 - tumor with periductal invasion

Regional Lymph Nodes:
 * Regional nodes:
 * Right liver (segments 5-8) - hilar (common bile duct, hepatic artery, portal vein, and cystic duct), periduodenal, peripancreatic, inferior phrenic
 * Left liver (segments 2-4) - hilar, gastrohepatic, inferior phrenic
 * Distant nodes (M1) - celiac, periaortic, pericaval

 * N0 - no
 * N1 - yes

Distant Metastases:
 * M0 - none
 * M1 - yes

Stage Grouping:
 * I - T1 N0
 * II - T2 N0
 * III - T3 N0
 * IVA - T4 N0, Any N1
 * IVB - M1

title: Radiation Oncology/Bile duct/Staging


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c5/2. Nf3/2...e6/3. d4/3...cxd4/4. Nxd4/4...a6/5. Nc3

= Kan Sicilian = Moves:1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 a6 5.Nc3
 * 5...Qc7: Sicilian Paulsen; Scheveningen
 * 5...Nc6: Sicilian Taimanov
 * 5...d6: Sicilian Kan - Knight Variation
 * 5...b5: Sicilian Kan Modern


text: User:Kernigh

title: User:Kernigh


text:
Radiation Oncology/Bile duct/Surgery

Curative surgery (negative margins) is the only treatment modality shown to improve overall survival, and should be the first line therapy in operable patients. Unfortunately, only ~50% present with resectable disease, and only ~50% of these have negative margins. As a result, 5-year overall survival is around 30%.

Primary Surgical Treatment

 * Chang Gung Taiwan
 * 1977-2001 PMID 15793863 -- Prognostic analysis of surgical treatment of peripheral cholangiocarcinoma: two decades of experience at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital. (2005 Jan YY, World J Gastroenterol. 2005 Mar 28;11(12):1779-84.)
 * Retrospective. 608 patients with bile duct CA, 373 patients with peripheral CCA (second order or more intrahepatic branches). Treatment 50% hepatectomy (36% curative resection), 28% choledochotomy with T-tube, 22% laparotomy with biopsy; median follow-up 7.2 months
 * Multivariate risk factors: mucobilia, tumor type, stage, type of operation, chemotherapy
 * Overall survival: 1-year 31%, 5-year 4%
 * Conclusion : "Favorable overall survival of PCC patients undergoing surgical treatment depends on early tumor stage, presence of mucobilia, papillary tumor type, hepatic resection, and post-operative chemotherapy"

 * 1977-2000 PMID 15041513 -- Influence of age on surgical treatment of peripheral cholangiocarcinoma. (2004 Yeh CN, Am J Surg. 2004 Apr;187(4):559-63.)
 * Retrospective. 23 patients <40 years old compared with 284 patients >40 years old
 * Younger patients less mucobilia, less papillary, more advanced stage. Clinical presentation, PE similar, CEA, CA19-9, hepatolithiasis similar. Post-op adjuvant RT and CT more with older patients
 * 2-year OS: 0% in younger vs. 15% in older patients (p<0.001)
 * Conclusion : "Younger patients with PCC had a significantly worse survival rate than older patients with PCC. Hepatectomy is rational and may benefit younger patients with PCC."

 * Seoul Korea 1986-97 PMID 15621994 -- Actual long-term outcome of extrahepatic bile duct cancer after surgical resection. (2005 Jang JY, Ann Surg. 2005 Jan;241(1):77-84.)
 * Retrospective. 282 patients, 151 (54%) underwent resection
 * 5-year OS: 32.5%, tumor histology and LN mets independent prognostic factors by multivariate analysis
 * Conclusion : "In cases of extrahepatic bile duct cancer, resection should be considered and efforts should be made to obtain a tumor-free margin. An aggressive surgical approach will give some survival benefit to the patients with even advanced disease. Long-term follow up is needed before declaring "a cure," because late recurrence after 5 years is detected not infrequently. Adjuvant therapy, local and systemic, needs to be further developed."

 * Ulsan Korea PMID 16096407 --The Number of Metastatic Lymph Nodes in Extrahepatic Bile Duct Carcinoma as a Prognostic Factor. (2005 Hong SM, Am J Surg Pathol. 2005 Sep;29(9):1177-1183.)
 * Retrospective. 209 patients
 * Conclusion : "The patients with 5 or more metastatic lymph nodes had significantly worse survival than those with 4 or less metastatic lymph nodes."

 * Shanghai China 1997-2002 PMID 16083598 -- [Analysis of the relation between surgery and prognosis of hilar cholangiocarcinoma] - [Article in Chinese] (2005 Yi B, Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2005 Jul 1;43(13):842-5.)
 * Retrospective. 198 patients treated, 61% resected, 30% radical resection.
 * Significant predictors of outcome: occupation, preop maximum total bilirubin, operative procedure and postop adjuvant radiation
 * Conclusion : "Operative procedure was the most important prognosic factor of hilar cholangiocarcinoma, radical resection still was the primary measure to cure and long term survival. For irresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma, the effect of ERBD or EMBE could not be considered to be worse than that of open operative treatment."

 * Mayo 1979-97 PMID 15136352 -- Major hepatic resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma: analysis of 46 patients. (2004 Rea DJ, Arch Surg. 2004 May;139(5):514-23; discussion 523-5.)
 * Retrospective. 46 patients treated with major hepatic resection; R0 in 80%
 * Actual 5-year OS: 26%
 * Tumor recurrence predominantly local and regional
 * Conclusion : "The actual 5-year survival rate of 26% justifies major partial hepatectomy, bile duct resection, and regional lymphadenectomy for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. The high frequency of local and regional recurrence warrants investigation of adjuvant therapy."

 * MSKCC 1990-2001 PMID 14534886 -- Patterns of initial disease recurrence after resection of gallbladder carcinoma and hilar cholangiocarcinoma: implications for adjuvant therapeutic strategies. (Jarnagin WR, Cancer. 2003 Oct 15;98(8):1689-700.)
 * Retrospective. 80 GB and 76 hilar CCA reviewed
 * Recurrence: 66% GB vs. 68% CCA at 2 years; median time to recurrence GB 11.5 months vs. CCA 20.3 months (p=0.007)
 * Site of recurrence: isolated locoregional GB 15% vs. 59% CCA; distal (with or without concomitant locoregional) GB 85% vs. 41% CCA. Site of recurrence no apparent impact on survival
 * Conclusion : "After resection, recurrent GBCA is much more likely than recurrent HCCA to involve a distant site. GBCA is also associated with a much shorter time to recurrence and a shorter survival period after recurrence. The results demonstrated significant differences in the clinical behavior of these tumors and suggested that an adjuvant therapeutic strategy targeting locoregional disease, such as radiotherapy, is unlikely to have a significant impact in the overall management of GBCA. Conversely, there is at least some rationale for such an approach in patients with HCCA based on the pattern of initial recurrence."

 * MSKCC 1991-2000 PMID 11573044 -- Staging, resectability, and outcome in 225 patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2001 Jarnagin WR, Ann Surg. 2001 Oct;234(4):507-17; discussion 517-9.)
 * Prospective. 225 patients, 36% underwent resection (28% negative margins)
 * Pre-operative staging system developed
 * All 9 actual 5-year survivors had negative margins and concomitant hepatic resection
 * Conclusion : "By taking full account of local tumor extent, the proposed staging system for hilar cholangiocarcinoma accurately predicts resectability, the likelihood of metastatic disease, and survival. Complete resection remains the only therapy that offers the possibility of long-term survival, and hepatic resection is a critical component of the surgical approach."

 * Hopkins PMID 10982602 -- Surgery for hilar cholangiocarcinoma: the Johns Hopkins approach. (2000 Lillemoe KD, J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2000;7(2):115-21.)
 * Retrospective. 109 patients
 * Median survival (5-year OS): 19 months (11%)

 * Barcelona 1989-99 PMID 11084070 -- Changing strategies in diagnosis and management of hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2000 Figueras J, Liver Transpl. 2000 Nov;6(6):786-94.)
 * Retrospective. 76 patients, 37% surgery (resection or liver transplant)
 * Mean survival: surgery 35 months vs. palliation 6 months. Liver transplant > resection
 * No benefit to chemoradiation over RT (as reported by Anderson 2004)

 * Nagoya Japan 1977-97 PMID 10982608 -- Aggressive preoperative management and extended surgery for hilar cholangiocarcinoma: Nagoya experience. (2000 Nimura Y, J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Surg. 2000;7(2):155-62)
 * Retrospective. 177 patients, 61% curative resection
 * 5-year OS: curative hepatectomy 26%, bile duct resection 16%. If LN+ 14%.
 * Conclusion : "Curative resection after aggressive preoperative management is recommended as a reasonable surgical approach to hilar cholangiocarcinoma."

 * MSKCC PMID 9742921 -- Hilar Cholangiocarcinoma: patterns of spread, the importance of hepatic resection for curative operation, and a presurgical clinical staging system. (1998 Burke EC, Ann Surg. 1998 Sep;228(3):385-94.)
 * 90 patients, 30 (33%) resected, 25 (28%) negative SM. 60 (67%) unresectable (of these, mets 52%, locally advanced 28%)
 * Conclusion : "In half the patients, unresectability is mainly the result of intraabdominal metastases. Presurgical imaging predicts unresectability based on local extension but is poor for assessing nodal metastases. In one third of patients, disease can be resected for cure with a long median survival. Curative resection depends on negative margins, and hepatic resection is necessary to achieve this."

 * Hanover Germany 1971-95 PMID 8988723 -- What constitutes long-term survival after surgery for hilar cholangiocarcinoma? (1997 Klempnauer J, Cancer 1997; 79:26-34.)
 * Retrospective. 339 patients, 49% resected (54% including liver transplant)
 * 32 patients survived >5 years, prognostic factors low stage, negative LNs, and no residual tumor
 * Conclusion : "Radical resection offers the best possibility of prolonged survival with a good quality of life for patients with hilar cholangiocarcinoma."

 * Rotterdam PMID 8049311 -- Proximal cholangiocarcinoma: a multidisciplinary approach. (1994 van der Hul RL, Eur J Surg. 1994 Apr;160(4):213-8.)
 * Retrospective. 66 pts with proximal cholangiocarcinoma, 24% resected, 56% stented. 42% received RT
 * Median survival: resection 35.8 months vs. conservative Rx 10.8 months
 * Conclusion : "A multidisciplinary approach is necessary and the tumour should be resected if possible."

 * Multi-institutional Japan 1973-91 PMID 8165536 -- Extensive resection of the bile ducts combined with liver resection for cancer of the main hepatic duct junction: a cooperative study of the Keio Bile Duct Cancer Study Group. (1994 Sugiura Y, Surgery. 1994 Apr;115(4):445-51.)
 * Retrospective. 6 Institutions. 158 patients, 53% resected, 8.4% post-op deaths
 * 5-year OS: 20%, 3/12 doing well 10+ years out
 * Conclusion : "It is clear that cancer of the main hepatic duct junction has become a curable disease. The operation is a valid procedure that can be widely practiced by competent surgeons."

 * Italy PMID 7684913 -- Palliative treatment of extrahepatic bile ducts tumors. (1993 Cucchiara G, J Surg Oncol Suppl. 1993;3:154-7)
 * Retrospective. 111 patients, 6% no treatment, 29% biliary drainage, 65% surgical exploration (22% radical surgery, remaining 43% palliative surgery)
 * Conclusion : "Although EHBD tumor treatment results are generally poor, surgical exploration should be performed in all patients with acceptable surgical risk, and without evidence of disseminated disease."

 * International PMID 1705417 -- Surgical management of 552 carcinomas of the extrahepatic bile ducts (gallbladder and periampullary tumors excluded). Results of the French Surgical Association Survey. (1991 Reding R, Ann Surg. 1991 Mar;213(3):236-41.)
 * Retrospective. 552 cases treated at 55 centers. Extrahepatic BD only, 56% upper third, 13% middle third, 18% lower thrid, 13% diffuse
 * Resectability: 32% upper, 47% middle, 51% lower
 * 1-year OS: 68% resection vs. 31% palliation (p<0.001)
 * Conclusion : "The results of this study show that resection of extrahepatic bile duct carcinomas, particularly in an upper-third localization, often is associated with worthwhile long-term survival."
 * U Illinois 1974-87 PMID 2011022 -- Carcinoma of the extrahepatic bile ducts. (1991 Chao TC, J Surg Oncol. 1991 Mar;46(3):145-50.)
 * Retrospective. 37 patients, upper BD 38%, middle BD 43%, lower BD 19%.
 * Mean OS: 11.2 months (upper 10.9 months, middle 9.4 months, lower 16.0 months)

 * Hammersmith 1977-85 PMID 2162082 -- Outcome of radical surgery in hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (1990 Hadjis NS, Surgery. 1990 Jun;107(6):597-604.)
 * Prospective local excision vs. partial liver excision. 27 patients with hilar CA
 * Median survival: 29 months, no difference in type of surgery

 * Hopkins PMID 2174191 -- Cholangiocarcinoma (1990 Yeo CJ, Surg Clin North Am 1990; 70:1429-47.)
 * As many as half of all patients explored with curative intent will have a successful resection.
 * The role of radiotherapy in the management of cholangiocarcinoma is uncertain. Our results, like those of many other retrospective analyses, suggest that radiotherapy prolongs survival after curative resection as well as after palliative stenting.

 * Meta-analysis PMID 2204130 -- Research into the results of resection of hilar bile duct cancer. (1990 Boerma EJ, Surgery. 1990 Sep;108(3):572-80.)
 * Meta-analysis. 581 patients reviewed, 499 since 1980.
 * Operative mortality: overall 12%, perihilar 8%, major liver resections 15%
 * 5-year OS: overall 13%, perihilar 7%, major liver resections 17%
 * Conclusion : "Despite the best treatments available, present-day resection modalities are usually still not radical. Extension of resection in the retrohilar and hepatoduodenal direction might further improve the long-term surgical results."

 * PMID 2449770 -- Extended right hepatic lobectomy, left hepatic lobectomy, and skeletonization resection for proximal bile duct cancer. (1988 Pinson CW, World J Surg. 1988 Feb;12(1):52-9.)

 * Vanderbilt PMID 2420244 -- An aggressive surgical approach to bile duct cancer. (1986 Adkins RB, Am Surg. 1986 Mar;52(3):134-9.)
 * 55 patients (1957-1985), 38% upper, 15% middle, 18% lower third
 * Resection in 35%, decompression in 45%, no surgery 20%
 * Median survival: 2.1 years resection, 7.7 months decompression, 4.6 months biopsy only

 * Lahey PMID 3887621 -- Management of cancer of the bile duct. (1985 Rossi RL, Surg Clin North Am 1985; 65:59-78.)
 * Resectability rate for bile duct tumor is currently 25 per cent. Resection is more frequently possible for tumor of the distal bile duct
 * 5-year OS: proximal bile duct is anecdotal, distal bile duct is up to 30 per cent

 * UCSF PMID 4049246 -- Carcinoma of the extrahepatic bile ducts: results of an aggressive surgical approach (1985 Langer JC, Surgery 1985; 98:752-9.)
 * Retrospective, 90 patients (1969-1984)
 * Resection 30% (22% proximal, 40% middle, 57% distal)
 * RT used with resection and for palliation. Responses were observed, but the complication of radiation duodenitis has limited the dose.
 * Conclusion : "An aggressive approach to resection of bile duct tumors is possible with a low operative mortality rate and offers the best opportunity for cure as well as good palliation. Internal bypass is preferable to chronic intubation. The role of radiation therapy in this disease is still not clear."

 * PMID 7053662 -- Diagnosis and treatment of primary extrahepatic bile duct tumors. (1982 Chitwood, Am J Surg 1982; 143:99-106.

 * PMID 4354116 -- Carcinoma of the extrahepatic biliary tract. (1973 Longmire WP, Ann Surg. 1973 Sep;178(3):333-45.)

Review
PMID 12607583 -- Extent of resection and outcome after curative resection for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma. (2002 Kokudo, Surg Oncol Clin N Am. 2002 Oct;11(4):969-83.)

Liver Transplantation

 * Mayo
 * 1993-2004 PMID 16135931 -- Liver transplantation with neoadjuvant chemoradiation is more effective than resection for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2005 Rea DJ, Ann Surg. 2005 Sep;242(3):451-8; discussion 458-61.)
 * Prospective. 71 patients on protocol (neoadjuvant RT, chemosensitization, orthotopic liver transplant), 38 patients underwent liver transplant. Compared with conventional resection 54 patients explored, 26 patients resected.
 * 5-year OS: liver transplant 82% vs. resection 21% (p=0.02)
 * Recurrenct: liver transplant 13% vs. resection 27%
 * Conclusion : "Liver transplantation with neoadjuvant chemoradiation achieved better survival with less recurrence than conventional resection and should be considered as an alternative to resection for patients with localized, node-negative hilar CCA."

 * 1993-2003 PMID 15192792 -- Liver transplantation for unresectable perihilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2004 Heimbach JK, Semin Liver Dis. 2004 May;24(2):201-7.)
 * Prospective. 56 patients, Stage I/II perihilar CCA, treated with neoadjuvant EBRT + BT + 5-FU/capecitabine, followed by liver transplant
 * 4 died and 4 progression of disease prior to completion. 48 staged, 28 underwent transplant
 * 5-year actuarial survival: 54% for all patients, 64% for staged patients, 82% for transplant
 * Conclusion : "Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy with liver transplantation achieves excellent results for patients with localized, regional lymph node negative, hilar cholangiocarcinoma."

 * Essen Germany PMID 15239635 -- 10-year tumor-free survival after intraoperative radiation therapy and secondary liver transplantation for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2004 Sotiropoulos GC, Transplantation. 2004 May 27;77(10):1625.)
 * Case report. No abstract.

 * Nebraska PMID 12243499 -- Radiochemotherapy and transplantation allow long-term survival for nonresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma. (2002 Sudan D, Am J Transplant. 2002 Sep;2(8):774-9.)
 * Prospective. 11 patients treated with 60 Gy BT + 5-FU, followed by transplantation
 * 5/11 (45%) alive without recurrence with median follow-up 7.5 years (2.8-14.5)
 * 6/11 (55%) died; 2 recurrence, 3 sepsis, 1 transplant rejection
 * Conclusion : "Cholangiocarcinoma should not be considered an absolute exclusion criteria for orthotopic liver transplantation. Long-term, tumor-free survival was achieved in 45% of the transplanted patients. Complications of biliary catheter placement for brachytherapy were associated with poor outcome."

 * Pittsburgh
 * 1990-95 PMID 10219804 -- Radiotherapy and multimodality management of cholangiocarcinoma. (1999 Urego M, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1999; 44:121-6.)
 * Retrospective. 61 patients, 38% resection +/- transplant, 62% palliative surgery/biopsy
 * All patients had RT (median dose 49.5 Gy), 50% received chemo (5-FU/Leucovorin/IFNalpha or taxol)
 * Median survival (5-year OS): 20 months (24%)
 * Only predictor of survival was complete resection
 * Conclusion : "Combined modality therapy that includes complete surgical resection with or without transplantation can be curative in the majority of patients with biliary duct carcinoma. Further study is needed to better define the roles of chemotherapy and radiotherapy in cholangiocarcinoma."

 * 1981-96 PMID 9783781 -- Treatment of hilar cholangiocarcinoma (Klatskin tumors) with hepatic resection or transplantation. (1998 Iwatsuki S, J Am Coll Surg. 1998 Oct;187(4):358-64.)
 * Retrospective. 72 patients (34 hepatic resection, 38 resection)
 * 5-year OS: resection 9% vs. transplantation 25%
 * Prognostic factors: Stage 0-II, LN-, SM- (5-year OS 73%)
 * Conclusion : "Satisfactory longterm survivals can be obtained by curative surgery for hilar cholangiocarcinoma either with hepatic resection or liver transplantation. Redefining pTNM stage III and IV-A is proposed to better define prognosis."

Palliative surgery

 * Shanghai China 1997-2002 PMID 16083598 -- [Analysis of the relation between surgery and prognosis of hilar cholangiocarcinoma] - [Article in Chinese] (2005 Yi B, Zhonghua Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2005 Jul 1;43(13):842-5.)
 * Retrospective. 198 patients treated, 61% resected, 30% radical resection.
 * Conclusion: "For irresectable hilar cholangiocarcinoma, the effect of ERBD or EMBE could not be considered to be worse than that of open operative treatment."

 * UCLA PMID 2434042 -- Proximal bile duct cancer. Quality of survival. (1987 Lai EC, Ann Surg. 1987 Feb;205(2):111-8.)
 * Conclusion : "When noncurable disease is found on examination, operative intubation after dilatation is the preferred palliative measure" compared to palliative resection or bypass.

Salvage

 * Tsukuba Japan PMID 8325597 -- Long-term survivors after salvage surgery combined with radiotherapy for recurrence of stage IV main hepatic duct cancer--report of two cases. (1993 Todoroki T, Hepatogastroenterology. 1993 Jun;40(3):285-93.)
 * Case report. Successful combined treatment with surgery + PORT or IORT+PORT
 * Literature review of other cases

title: Radiation Oncology/Bile duct/Surgery


text:
Talk:Radiation Oncology/Standards

Nice write-up Brim! Of course, now I have to go back and make sure I (mostly) conform to this. I do have a question about the chronological order - I find it generally easier to cite the most recent studies first, since they tend to be "more" relevant. That way, I don't have to wade through lot of potentially obsolete studies, and it's easy to see at a glance how current the material is. Any thoughts on that? Tdvorak 19:29, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

 * As it stands, some of these "standards" are really a suggestion, or a call to make the wiki have a uniform look. Some of the standards should be taken as law, such as do not plagiarize, and others, such as providing references, are pretty much common sense.  As for the formatting of the article entries, I think that's more flexible, and it should be open to debate.  As I stated, it's just a guide to one suggested format.  I think it's important for certain elements to be present in a logical format, but the format itself isn't as important.  At this time, I think we should strive for a somewhat consistent look, in that the entries don't look startlingly different from one another, but we need not have all entries look exactly the same.  This wiki is still maturing and finding its identity.  Over time, we may all agree to adopt a certain look, but right now I think it's a little early to do that, since it might change at some point in the future.  If you have any ideas for how we should do the formatting, I'd love to hear it.  Right now we have really only 4 regular contributors and a few others who contribute occasionally.  I'd like to hear from them about what they think too.
 * As for the order of the studies, I think listing them in chronologic order within sections makes more sense. The development of radiation oncology happens in stages, with one type of treatment being compared against another treatment, and then against another, and so on.  Findings from one study influence the design of future studies.  Therefore, I think it makes the most logical sense to present data in chronologic order.  It's the way that all textbooks, journal articles, reviews, and protocols discuss the trials.
 * I understand the convenience of having the most recent article at the beginning, however. We did adopt that for the listing of all the RTOG studies, since I agree that in that case, we're usually searching for more recent RTOG studies and it's easier to have those on the top.  But in the case of other sections in this book, I still think that it makes most sense to order the studies chronologically by date.  I realize that this approach requires us to use a little bit more effort to see the most current studies, but again, I think this works much better than trying to learn radiation oncology backwards from the most current era to the past.  In general it shouldn't be that difficult to locate a desired article.  The only problem I see is for very large topics (like prostate) where we have tons of information.  One thing that might help would be to have a section at the top titled "Current standard of care" where the way we treat currently is listed with a list of the studies that defined that standard of care.  I'm not sure if this would really help though.  Any ideas?  — Brim 23:19, 4 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree with having a "Current standard of care" section, or even a page. I slowly started to develop that in prostate (summarizing the info underneath section headings), since I found myself drowning in information. It was brought home to me now as I am doing some work on cholangioCA. It's a rare CA, without that much literature, and yet ... there is a lot of info. For now, I have a section that I called "Treatment Overview" and I am mulling how to highlight the defining studies, as opposed to the bibliography I put there so far. It could work to have one (short) form page for each CA, which would give an overview of the disease. Epidemiology-Work Up-Staging-Pathology-Treatment Overview, without citing any studies, just saying something like: low risk disease RT dose xx fields yy, no chemo; high risk disease RT dose aa fields bb, chemo cc. And then a separate page for Treatment, having as you suggest the current treatment repeated with supporting seminal studies on top, followed by whatever random assortment of other studies gets put in.
 * As for chronology, it definitely makes sense in a textbook. Or in a paper Intro introducing a given topic. But I guess it depends on what the ultimate goal of this wikibook is. Is it a textbook to learn a topic "from scratch"? Or is it more a reference compilation? If more a textbook, then chronologic order makes sense. If more a reference, then I would lean toward reverse chronology, to more easily look up "what's new", assuming some underlying knowledge of the subject. I think I have been treating this more as a reference book to quickly look up/review current state of a given subject Tdvorak 17:10, 5 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I think it may be worthwhile to associate a page with each cancer that would be "Stuff to absolutely know for boards"; not having started my residency training, I don't have a sense of whether this would be all that different from the "Current Standard of Care" section, but the advantage would be that you could easily link all these "study" pages into a comprehensive syllabus. Tdvorak 15:18, 11 October 2005 (UTC)

 * I envision its goal being both a textbook and a compilation of papers. Ultimately, it should provide as much information as a textbook.  However, because ease of use is a prime goal of this project, I don't think the wiki should become full of prose like a textbook.  I'd like for it to offer all of the important information on a topic, such as background, epidemiology, and all the treatment information.  It should even include pictures, such as the design of radiation portals.  We don't have any pictures like that now, but I hope that one day it will be comprehensive enough to include all that.  The sky's the limit.  As the project grows more complex, as it is already doing, there will be the problem of having too much information, and how to organize the information and keep it easy to use.  My goal is to keep it easy to use, so it can be used as a reference.  That's how it will primarily be used, I imagine.  In a sense, that's really what print textbooks are for radiation oncology.  Textbooks aren't good at teaching radiation oncology; that's what residencies are for, and no textbook that I've seen does a good job of being an instruction manual for how to be a radiation oncologist.  So this wiki shouldn't aspire to that task.  Rather, what textbooks are good at is for putting into perspective the history of the trials that led up to way we treat patients.  They give a historical overview, and they provide references to the data and the papers.  So that's what I think this wiki should be.  An interested person should be able to come here to this wiki, read up on a topic (for example: head & neck cancers), and be able to understand the evolution of the trials, how standard radiation came to be replaced by hyperfractionation and then chemo/RT; what other methods (e.g. radiosensitizers) have been tried, etc.  The wiki should be organized so that it answers simple and meaningful questions: is chemo/RT better than RT alone?  Is chemo+hyperfractionation better than chemo+standard RT? and so on.

 * Someday the wiki is bound to become crowded with information. At that point, and we're starting to reach it now in some chapters, I think it would be wise to organize the information into levels of increasing complexity.  For example, a section on hormonal therapy for prostate cancer might list a few of the most important trials and give a brief overview of their findings, and then you click on a hyperlink for a particular study to view details.  Sort of like what we have for the page of RTOG trials for prostate cancer.  For crowded sections with lots of trials listed, it can be difficult to skim and read the section, so it might make sense to list only the important or landmark studies on the top-level page and then have a hyperlink to something like "See other studies..." which brings you to a page with some of the other studies.

 * I think your idea of having a section of "Stuff to know for boards" is a brilliant idea. Most residency programs have collections of board exam recall questions, and we could implement those into a section on the boards, broken down into major topics or questions that are often asked on the boards, and providing links to the studies. — Brim 00:50, 12 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Radiation Oncology/Standards


text: User talk:193.63.135.207

title: User talk:193.63.135.207


text: User talk:66.42.154.154

title: User talk:66.42.154.154


text:
Talk:Mac OS X Tiger

Welcome to the Discussion page for the Mac OS X Tiger Wikibook!

This book is designed for users with users with moderate computer experience. This book is mainly for home users, or clientside use on large networks. Write about stuff you want this person to know. It's the same audience as books like "The Missing Manual" or "Mac OS X Tiger for Dummies".

Once you get into large(r) network administration, the Terminal, AppleScript, etc., you should put it into the Advanced Concepts section.

=To-Do List For This Wikibook= The following work needs to be done first:
 * 1) Setting Up Accounts - Needs coverage of basic account management
 * 2) Networking your Mac - Needs coverage of basic networking setup/maintenance
 * 3) Printing and Faxing - Needs coverage of basic printer setup/use
 * 4) Appendix B - Needs lots of content

=To-Do List for This Page=

=Discussion= Use this section to discuss the above guidelines.

Review of work so far
The book has to pick a target audience. Right now, it might be "new Mac users", or "new Computer users", or even "users New to Max OS X Tiger". It explains a bunch of elements, then says If you're familiar with computers, you're familiar with the concept of a dialog box. That depends on the user level. Since the guidelines state users with little to moderate computer experience, we shouldn't assume that they are familiar. Lots of users just click ok until they go away. :(

The graphic of OS X retail box isn't there, although there is an imagebox for it.

Finally, a comment on tone. While I think it's important tone be kept light, it should also be focused. (eg, in Intro to Desktop, If you ever feel tempted to slide the Mac desktop out of your monitor and eat it, you're forgiven. I think the sentence would be better as "If you think the Mac desktop looks good enough to eat, your not alone". Rather than in the intro, it might be better placed as a caption or in a sidebar). Don't get me wrong, I don't think humour/jokes aren't a good learning approach, but you are setting the tone in the intro, and that should be casual. Just MHO.

I inserted your idea to the Intro to Desktop page a few minutes ago, with only one minor typographical change (“your” → “you're”). SupremeUmanu (discuss • contribs) 22:23, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

=Windows vs. Mac Past 'Bias'= -History Module Page After reading this 'book.' I noticed the language was very protective and positive about mac and negative towards microsoft. The point i am trying to make is this 'book' needs more neutral language.

As for the windows 'book' I am sure the windows articles may be the same way. As i intend to read them as well. I will note if it seems that there articles seem to bias the history of the company.

Mac OS X books
Hi all,

The Mac OS X Tiger Server has been nominated for deletion. A contributor merged its content into this book and suggested their edit histories be merged.

It was pointed out that these two books had different intended scopes and suggested that contributors be asked.

Suggestions of trimming the book name(s) to remove the version were also raised.

Please contribute to this discussion at Votes for deletion. Thanks, --Swift (talk) 01:57, 8 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Result was merge. Mac OS X Tiger/Open Directory is now orphaned and needs to be merged or speedy deletion tagged. -- Adrignola talk contribs 05:57, 9 July 2009 (UTC)

Orphaned pages
The following pages are orphaned and not linked to by this book. Please link to them, merge them into existing content and label them with, or if the are no longer needed mark them with. -- Adrignola talk contribs 03:08, 3 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Mac OS X Tiger/A Quick Look Under the Hood
 * Mac OS X Tiger/Open Directory
 * Mac OS X Tiger/Using your Mac as a Web Server

 * Done... If are so inclined turn the still lingering sections on the top page as sub categories (I didn't do it because of the speedy request for deletion)...  --Panic (talk) 05:15, 3 August 2009 (UTC)

 * All done. It seems that some pages have an old navigational scheme that is only partially working. My opinion is that those things are a bane on books that create more problems that those they address. I'm not going to fix them and I urge anyone that takes to that task to just remove them...
 * PS: IIRC this is mentioned on the How to use this wikibook (or similar chapter) also... --Panic (talk) 08:17, 6 August 2009 (UTC)

Use of Appropriate Tense
Which tense should I use for writing this book? I understand that Mac OS X Tiger is now five (soon to be six, once OS X Yosemite is released) major versions out of date. Should I write using past tense, possibly mentioning features in perspective with later versions of Mac OS X, or write in present tense and pretend that later software wasn't released yet?

Thanks — SupremeUmanu (discuss • contribs) 21:49, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mac OS X Tiger


text:
Talk:Calculus/Tables of Integrals

Trying to make the layout of this page similar to the table of derivatives.

todo:

hyperbolic

all the "standard"integrals involving arctig substitution (so \sqrt{\pm x^2 \pm a^2) things)

Wouldn't it be helpful if we made it look more like a real table of integrals found in the back of a calc textbook, with ~100 integrals? IMacWin95 23:10, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calculus/Tables of Integrals


text:
Cookbook:Yogi Tea

Yogi tea is a spiced tea similar to chai. It is also the brand name of a line of herbal teas.

Ingredients

 * 15 whole cloves
 * 20 black peppercorns
 * 3 sticks of cinnamon
 * 20 green cardamom pods (crushed or split)
 * 8 or more ¼-inch (0.75cm) slices of fresh ginger root
 * ½ tsp black tea (decaffinated black tea is acceptable)

Procedure

 * 1) Bring 2 quarts (about 2 L) water to boil in 3–4-quart pot.
 * 2) Add cloves and boil for 1 minute.
 * 3) Add peppercorns, cinnamon, cardamom pods and ginger.
 * 4) Cover and simmer gently for at least 30 minutes. For best flavor, cover tightly and simmer over low heat for 2–3 hours.
 * 5) Remove from heat and add tea.
 * 6) Let cool.
 * 7) Strain ingredients from the finished tea.
 * 8) When ready to drink, sweeten to taste with honey or maple syrup. Add soy milk or dairy milk.

title: Cookbook:Yogi Tea


text:
Guide to Unix/Explanations/Filesystems and Swap

A common feature in Unix-like filesystems is that all files appear in one file hierarchy. The filesystem storing the base of the hierarchy is referred to as the root filesystem. /, the directory containing all other directories, is itself is called the root directory. Other filesystems are mounted on directories under / which make these filesystems look like directories in the root filesystem. For example, a CD-ROM containing files might be mounted at /mnt/cdrom. In this example /mnt/cdrom is called a mountpoint. Access to devices is supplied by another filesystem mounted at /dev. Here files representing physical, and virtual devices can be accessed. Filesystems themselves are represented as files in /dev such as /dev/cdrom and can be mounted to directories in the root filesystem such as /mnt/cdrom. Each disk or storage medium may contain one or more filesystems, each of which contains files which can contain data. Some disks are also used for swap, which supplies a temporary storage space for data in memory, when memory is full. Though "swap" resides on a disk, it is not actually a filesystem.

List of Filesystem Types
The choice of Unix-like system influences the choice of filesystem. There are two kinds of filesystems:
 * Filesystems with full Unix support can hold all types of Unix files, including normal files, directories, named pipes, symbolic links, and device nodes. They also support the entire Unix user and group permission model. This makes these filesystems good for mounting on /, and also /home, /tmp, /usr, /var, and other such filesystems if those are separate partitions.
 * Non-Unix filesystems were intended for non-Unix operating systems or to exchange files between different filesystems. Sometimes, the permission on every file on the filesystems must be the same, and only normal files and directories are allowed.

Filesystems with full Unix support

 * Unix File System (ufs/ffs) is the filesystem of *BSD and several commercial Unix variants. UFS is the on-disk layout, while FFS is some kernel optimizations for UFS in *BSD. There are several incompatible extensions to UFS, including the UFS2 of FreeBSD, NetBSD, and Mac OS X. Therefore, UFS is good for the root filesystem, but not good for trading files between different Unix-like operating systems that implement UFS incompatibly.
 * Linux Second Extended Filesystem (ext2, ext3 or ext4) was inspired by ufs/ffs, and is similar. ext2 is the main filesystem implementation for Linux, and can be used as the root filesystem. Unlike ufs/ffs, ext2 always has the same on-disk layout, and can be shared between different Linux systems, and other systems that understand ext2. Note that ext3 is really the same as ext2, but with journaling enabled and supports Hashed B trees which speed up lookups in larger directorys. Linux also provides other filesystems that you might use instead of ext2.
 * reiserfs is an alternative to ext2 on Linux. Reiserfs is a fast journaled filesystem written by Hans Reiser.
 * jfs is a high performance journaled filesystem written by IBM originally for IBM AIX, and then ported to Linux by the same.
 * xfs is a high performance journaled filesystem written by SGI. Originally written for SGI's Irix operating system this fs has been ported to Linux using a shim layer converting Linux VFS and locking semantics to Irix semantics.
 * HFS+ (hfsplus) is the main filesystem implementation for Mac OS X, and can be used as the root filesystem. Like ext2, HFS+ always has the same on-disk layout, and can be shared between different Mac systems. HFS+ supports both Unix and Mac file attributes. HFS+ has binary trees, which make it faster than ffs and ext2 sometimes.

Foreign Filesystems

 * iso9660 is a common filesystem for CD-ROMs. Most Unix-like systems can read it.
 * UDF is a common filesystem for DVDs. Some newer Unix-like systems can read and write it.
 * msdos (FAT) is the filesystem from MS-DOS, FreeDOS, ReactOS, and Microsoft Windows. Normally you can have normal files and directories, but not special files, symbolic links, nor Unix file permissions. Because nearly every Unix-like system (including Linux, *BSD, and Mac OS X) and DOS/Windows understand it, the msdos filesystem is often used to trade files between computers or on computers which boot multiple operating systems.
 * ntfs is a newer filesystem from Microsoft Windows NT. Some Linux kernels can read them.

Disk Partitioning
If the disk is not partitioned, it can be used for one filesystem, or entirely as swap space.
 * On Linux, IDE/ATA disks are called /dev/hda, /dev/hdb, /dev/hdc...
 * On Linux, SCSI disks are called /dev/sda, /dev/sdb, /dev/sdc...
 * On *BSD, IDE/ATA disks are called /dev/wd0c, /dev/wd1c, /dev/wd2c...
 * On FreeBSD, IDE/ATA disks are called /dev/ad0c, /dev/ad1c, /dev/ad2c...
 * On *BSD, SCSI disks are called /dev/sd0c, /dev/sd1c, /dev/sd2c...
 * On *BSD, compact disks (CDs) are called /dev/cd0c, /dev/cd1c...
 * On Mac OS X, disks are called /dev/disk0, /dev/disk1, /dev/disk2...
 * NetBSD/OpenBSD disk images are /dev/svnd0c, /dev/svnd1c, /dev/svnd2c...

Partioning the disk allows for multiple filesystems and swap spaces.
 * On Linux, hda is partitioned into /dev/hda1, /dev/hda2, /dev/hda3, /dev/hda4...
 * On *BSD, wd0 is partitioned into /dev/wd0a, /dev/wd0b, /dev/wd0c, /dev/wd0d...
 * On Mac OS X, disk0 is partitioned into /dev/disk0s1, /dev/disk0s2, /dev/disk0s3...

In addition, *BSD has some extra rules:
 * Partition 'c' (/dev/wd0c) must be the entire disk.
 * If a *BSD operating system boots on the disk, then partition 'a' must be root (/) and 'b' must be swap. (If there is no OS on the disk, then 'a' can be used for any filesystem).

The chapter ../Partitioning Disks/ describes the formats in more detail and how to edit the partition maps.

Mounting Filesystems and Activating Swap
The commands one uses are:
 * mount to mount filesystems
 * umount to unmount filesystems
 * swapctl, swapon, swapoff

Simple mounting
Suppose /dev/hdb is a device (for example, a CD drive) and /mnt/cdrom is the place to mount. Then the mount command is: mount /dev/hdb /mnt/cdrom

There are more mount options so look for mount somewhere in Guide to UNIX/Commands.

Mounting with fstab
The /etc/fstab file helps you mount by specifying a default mount point. mount /dev/hdb
 * 1) Create an /etc/fstab entry for /dev/hdb.
 * 2) Run this command

Unmounting
It is called umount, not unmount... umount /dev/hdb

Mounts by Users
The user mounts are mounting and unmounting of filesystems by users other than the superuser. Unfortunately, the different Unix variants have different approaches to this task. (An alternative is to configure "sudo" to allow users to become root when mounting and unmounting.) Here are some ways that root can permit user mounts:
 * Linux allows the user to perform mounts permitted through the /etc/fstab file. Each line with the mount option "user" describes a permitted mount. For example, mount /dev/cdrom by a non-root user will mount /dev/cdrom using the mount point and options shows in /etc/fstab, but only if "user" is listed as a mount option.
 * Many popular BSD-family operating systems allow the user to mount any device which the user can already read and write. The user can pick any mount point which the user owns. A sysctl value must be changed by the root user in order to do this on most of them.
 * In OpenBSD, kern.usermount must be set to 1.
 * In NetBSD, vfs.generic.usermount must be set to 1.
 * In FreeBSD, PcBSD, and DragonflyBSD, vfs.usermount must be set to 1.

Union Mounts
Normally, filesystems are mounted on empty directories. If the directory was not empty, its files are hidden until the filesystem is unmounted. The union mount allows these files to show through. Each existing file from the directory only shows if there is no file in the same place on the mounted filesystem. All new files are made on the mounted filesystem. Note that union mounts are strange and might not work well on your system.

Some operating systems provide a mount(8) option -o union for this. In this example, a non-partitioned SCSI disk sd0 will be mounted on /etc (which is not normally a mount point). Any existing /etc files that we have that are not also on sd0 will still be available.
 * 1) mount -o union /dev/sd0c /etc

Disk Images
A filesystem can be stored on a file on another filesystem. Such files are called disk images and they have several applications:
 * Use dd to copy data from a device node to a normal file to preserve the content of a small disk, for example a floppy disk.
 * Some programs let you make iso9660 disk images before burning them to CD. One might want to mount your disk image read-only to examine it before the burn. One can also move such images to a computer with a CD burner, or offer the image for download so others may burn it.
 * If you have no free space for new partitions on your disk, but some partition has free space, then you can create a disk image if you need a new filesystem. Sometimes this helps in the creation of encrypted filesystems.

This guide only describes raw disk images, which contain only the filesystem. There are other formats (such as the Mac OS X NDIF format) but these must be converted or handled specially.

Mounting Disk Images on NetBSD and OpenBSD
Normally, NetBSD and OpenBSD only allow mounting of filesystems stored on devices. Thus five steps are involved:
 * 1) Associate the disk image with a svnd device.
 * 2) Mount the svnd device.
 * 3) Use the disk image.
 * 4) Unmount the svnd device.
 * 5) Disassociate the disk image from the device.

Association and dissociation are handled by the vnconfig(8) command. In this example, /the/disk/image will be associated with /dev/svnd0c. This particular disk image has a disklabel with a filesystem on partition 'a', which we mount on /mnt. If there was no disklabel, we would instead mount partition 'c'. ...
 * 1) vnconfig -c /dev/svnd0c /the/disk/image
 * 2) mount /dev/svnd0a /mnt
 * 1) umount /dev/svnd0a
 * 2) vnconfig -u /dev/svnd0c

Mounting Disk Images on FreeBSD 5
In FreeBSD 5, one uses mdconfig(8) with a vnode backed storage.

Mounting Disk Images on Linux
The mount(8) option -o loop can be used to mount disk images instead of devices. ...
 * 1) mount -o loop /the/disk/image /mnt
 * 1) umount /mnt

Some Linux kernels can mount a cloop (compressed loop), which is a compressed disk image. Such an image must be mounted read-only. One first prepares the image and then compresses it how? Then one mounts it how? The Knoppix livecd uses a cloop to fit more programs to the CD.

Creating Disk Images
Creating a new, empty disk image involves two steps before you mount it and start using it:
 * 1) Use dd(1) to make a new file of zeros with the correct size.
 * 2) Format the disk image with partitions and filesystems.

Here is an example. We use dd and an unlimited supply of zeros, /dev/zero, to create a 1440 kilobyte disk image (1440 blocks of 1024 bytes). Then we use mkfs.ext3(8) to create an unpartitioned ext3 filesystem. Note that mkfs.ext3 does no mounting, so it cares not if it formats a device or a disk image. (FIXME is this correct?) $ dd bs=1024 count=1440 if=/dev/zero of=example $ mkfs.ext3 example

The *BSD newfs(8) and newfs_msdos(8) utilities insist on formatting devices only. This is solved with vnconfig(8). If we wanted to partition the disk image, we would also have made a disklabel. One can ignore the imaginary disk geometry. $ dd bs=1024 count=1440 if=/dev/zero of=example $ sudo vnconfig -c /dev/svnd0c example $ sudo newfs /dev/rsvnd0c ... $ sudo vnconfig -u /dev/svnd0c

In fact, on *BSD it is a good idea to always have a disklabel, especially if when creating an ffs filesystem, so that the filesystem will be correctly listed in the label, and the letter will be different from 'c'. $ dd bs=1024 count=1440 if=/dev/zero of=example $ sudo vnconfig -c /dev/svnd0c example $ sudo disklabel -E svnd0 Initial label editor (enter '?' for help at any prompt) > a partition: [a] offset: [0] size: [2880] FS type: [4.2BSD] > p device: /dev/rsvnd0c type: SCSI disk: vnd device label: fictitious bytes/sector: 512 sectors/track: 100 tracks/cylinder: 1 sectors/cylinder: 100 cylinders: 28 total sectors: 2880 free sectors: 0 rpm: 3600 16 partitions: a:         2880             0  4.2BSD   2048 16384   32 # Cyl     0 -    28* c:         2880             0  unused      0     0      # Cyl     0 -    28* > q Write new label?: [y] $ sudo newfs /dev/rsvnd0a ... $ sudo vnconfig -u /dev/svnd0c
 * 1)             size        offset  fstype [fsize bsize  cpg]

Encrypted Filesystems on OpenBSD
Because OpenBSD has integrated crypto, one would expect that there is a way to have an encrypted filesystem. OpenBSD only provides Blowfish encryption for disk images. This is possible with the -k flag to vnconfig(8), used with -c.

In this example, we will mount the encrypted disk image called /secrets, which contains a single partion letter 'a': Encryption key: ...
 * 1) vnconfig -ck /dev/svnd0c /secrets
 * 1) mount /dev/svnd0a
 * 1) umount /dev/svnd0a
 * 2) vnconfig -u /dev/svnd0c

Note that if you entered the wrong encryption key, vnconfig will still succeed. The mount will fail because the disklabel and filesystem header are not readable. In this case, you must vnconfig -u and then vnconfig -ck with the correct key. Make sure to use the correct key when initially formatting a new disk image.

To have an entire encrypted disk partition, create a normal unencrypted disk image, mount it, then fill the partition with one large file to serve as the disk image.

Encrypted Filesystems on Linux
Some Linux kernel configurations let you use losetup to encrypt disk images. Think of lo(opback) setup, not of lose tup.


text:
Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/November 2005 voting

Voting Rules
The following are the rules and conditions for voting for the Collaboration of the Month:

 * 1) Only registered users with 20 or more edits to their name may vote.
 * 2) You may vote under as many nominations as you wish, however, you may only vote for each book itself once.
 * 3) Sign your vote with a number sign and four tildes, #~, after the most previous vote under the book's nomination. Unsigned votes will be removed.
 * 4) Any nomination which receives 3 or more votes in one month will automatically be renominated the next month if it is not chosen.
 * 5) If you wish to include a short comment for your vote, then you may do so. Make sure that if you leave such a comment, that you are also voting for that page.
 * 6) Do not post objection votes as these will have no effect on the final tally.
 * 7) Voting will end at 00:00 UTC on the first day of each month. In essence, when a new month begins voting ends. Any votes added after this time will be discarded.
 * 8) The nomination with most votes will be chosen as the Collaboration of the Month. In case of a tie, the older Wikibook will be chosen.

Raising Chickens
Votes:
 * 1) Klingoncowboy4 18:27, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

Comments: Unless this book gets three votes I will stop renominateing it I promise. Klingoncowboy4 18:27, 1 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I don't think many wikibookians are able to add something to this book. Is it good choice? --Derbeth 23:13, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Cookbook
Votes:
 * 1) Nmontague 06:13, 6 October 2005 (UTC) I think that the Cookbook needs a serious looking at, as it is there are many recipes and ingredients which do not fit in with the rest of the book, massive categorization gaps exist and such. If we can get a few people to just run over the whole thing a couple times it could flesh out much nicer in only a little time.
 * 2) Rob Horning 15:45, 24 October 2005 (UTC) - I'm going to add my vote here because this is a neat resource and with just a little bit of effort to do some minor cleanup it would be a good candidate for Book of the Month. This is also something that Wikibooks has had some signficant success in trying to organize that is otherwise out of place elsewhere in the Wikimedia realm of projects.
 * 3) Juliusross 14:34, 30 October 2005 (UTC)This book needs some tidying up, so outside help could be put to good use.

Comments:

I think it's a good nomination: subject is common, scope of the book is well-defined. It only needs cleanup of discussion page to provide newcomers with well-organised information how to contribute. Maybe there should be separate page describing book organisation, templates etc.? --Derbeth 23:13, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Please see Cookbook:Policy. Kellen T 20:55, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

This book is not at all needy, and thus should not be chosen. This book is probably the most active in fact. Excepting books with really obscure subject matter, any other book would be a better choice. AlbertCahalan 18:51, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

Algebra
Votes:
 * 1) Catcher.in.the.rye.and.all 19:44, 12 October 2005 (UTC) The book is maybe halfway done. A collaboration might give it a little more oompf, a little more completeness.
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 20:23, 24 October 2005 (UTC)
 * 3) AlbertCahalan 18:54, 30 October 2005 (UTC) This book needs work, and we all should know the subject matter. AlbertCahalan 18:54, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

Comments: Maybe this book has too much content to be nominated for this. I don't think so...and anyway what needs to be added is much more abstract and complex than what is there, and therefore far more work to add. Catcher.in.the.rye.and.all 19:44, 12 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I think algebra is too specific topic and it would be hard to attract many contributors. Anyway, it's quite a mature book. --Derbeth 23:13, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Algebra wins - votes are 3 to 3 but Albebra was created in 2003 and Cookbook was created in 2004. --Derbeth 10:40, 2 November 2005 (UTC)

Politicaltheory
Votes:
 * 1) Klingoncowboy4 20:23, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Comments: It's hard to believe a subject that evokes so much discussion and argument on the other wikis is so ignored here. --albamuth 07:45, 18 October 2005 (UTC)
 * But look at it, there is hardly any text in it. --Derbeth 23:13, 24 October 2005 (UTC)


text: User talk:85.100.226.82

title: User talk:85.100.226.82


text:
Cookbook:Textured Vegetable Protein

| Soybean

Textured vegetable protein, also known as textured soy protein, is a meat substitute made from defatted soy flour, a by-product of making soybean oil. It is quick to cook, high in protein, and low in fat.

Textured vegetable protein comes as small dry chunks or flakes when bought in bulk. It has little flavor of its own and needs to be rehydrated and flavored (both can be accomplished in the same step), then added to cooking.

Textured vegetable protein is a versatile substance, different forms allowing it to take on the texture of whatever meat it is substituting for. Using textured vegetable protein, one can make vegetarian or vegan versions of popular dishes like chili, sloppy joes, tacos, burgers, et cetera.

Textured vegetable protein can be found in natural food stores and large supermarkets, usually in the bulk section.

title: Cookbook:Textured Vegetable Protein


text: C++ Programming/Examples/Hello World

title: C++ Programming/Examples/Hello World


text:
C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code

The code
Code is the string of symbols interpreted by a computer in order to execute a given objective. As with natural languages, code is the result of all the conventions and rules that govern a language. It is what permits implementation of projects in a standard, compilable way. Correctly written code is used to create projects that serve as intermediaries for natural language in order to express meanings and ideas. This, theoretically and actually, allows a computer program to solve any explicitly-defined problem.

It is also important to note that the language standard leaves some items undefined. Undefined items are not unique to the C++ language, but can confuse unaware newcomers if they produce inconsistent results. The undefined nature of these items becomes most evident in cross-platform development that requires the use of multiple compilers, since the specific implementation of these items is the result of the choices made by each compiler.
 * undefined behavior

Programming
The task of programming, while not easy in its execution, is actually fairly simple in its goals. A programmer will envision, or be tasked with, a specific goal. Goals are usually provided in the form of "I want a program that will perform...fill in the blank..." The job of the programmer then is to come up with a "working model" (a model that may consist of one or more algorithms). That "working model" is sort of an idea of how a program will accomplish the goal set out for it. It gives a programmer an idea of what to write in order to turn the idea into a working program.

Once the programmer has an idea of the structure their program will need to take in order to accomplish the goal, they set about actually writing the program itself, using the selected programming language(s) keywords, functions and syntax. The code that they write is what actually implements the program, or causes it to perform the necessary task, and for that reason, it is sometimes called "implementation code".

What is a program?
To restate the definition, a program is just a sequence of instructions, written in some form of programming language, that tells a computer what to do, and generally how to do it. Everything that a typical user does on a computer is handled and controlled by programs. Programs can contain anything from instructions to solve math problems or send emails, to how to behave when a character is shot in a video game. The computer will follow the instructions of a program one line at a time from the start to the end.

Types of programs
There are all kinds of different programs used today, for all types of purposes. All programs are written with some form of programming language and C++ can be used for in any type of application. Examples of different types of programs, (also called software), include:

 * Operating Systems:An operating system is responsible for making sure that everything on a computer works the way that it should. It is especially concerned with making certain that your computer's "hardware", (i.e. disk drives, video card and sound card, and etc.) interfaces properly with other programs you have on your computer. Microsoft Windows and Linux are examples of PC operating systems.  An example of an open source operating system written in C++ with source code available online is Genode.

 * Office Programs:This is a general category for a collection of programs that allow you to compose, view, print or otherwise display different kinds of documents. Often such "suites" come with a word processor for composing letters or reports, a spreadsheet application and a slide-show creator of some kind among other things. Popular examples of office suites are Microsoft Office and Apache OpenOffice, whose source code can be found at OpenOffice.org.

 * Web Browsers & Email Clients: A web-browser is a program that allows you to type in an Internet address and then displays that page for you. An email client is a program that allows you to send, receive and compose email messages outside of a web-browser. Often email clients have some capability as a web-browser as well, and some web-browsers have integrated email clients. Well-known web-browsers are Internet Explorer and Firefox, and Email Clients include Microsoft Outlook and Thunderbird. Most are programmed using C++, you can access some as Open-source projects, for instance (http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firefox/) will help you download and compile Firefox.

 * Audio/Video Software:These types of software include media players, sound recording software, burning/ripping software, DVD players, etc. Many applications such as Windows Media Player, a popular media player programmed by Microsoft, are examples of audio/video software. VLC media player is an example of an open source media player whose source code is available online.

 * Computer Games:There are countless software titles that are either games or designed to assist with playing games. The category is so wide that it would be impossible to get in to a detailed discussion of all the different kinds of game software without creating a different book! Gaming is one of the most popular activities to engage in on a computer.

Network Security"Network security software is a key component of modern computer enterprises. Software and programming are key components that allow encryption of personal, financial, and other important and sensitive types of information. Network security software is an important part of protecting a user's online life."

 * Development Software: Development software is software used specifically for programming. It includes software for composing programs in a computer language (sometimes as simple as a text editor like Notepad), for checking to make sure that code is stable and correct (called a debugger), and for compiling that source code into executable programs that can be run later (these are called compilers). Oftentimes, these three separate programs are combined in to one bigger program called an IDE (Integrated Development Environment). There are all kinds of IDEs for every programming language imaginable. A popular C++ IDE for Windows and Linux is the Code::Blocks IDE (Free and Open Source). The one type of software that you will learn the most about in this book is Development Software.

Types of instructions
As mentioned already, programs are written in many different languages, and for every language, the words and statements used to tell the computer to execute specific commands are different. No matter what words and statements are used though, just about every programming language will include statements that will accomplish the following:

 * Input: Input is the act of getting information from a keyboard or mouse, or sometimes another program.

 * Output: Output is the opposite of input; it gives information to the computer monitor or another device or program.

 * Math/Algorithm: All computer processors (the brain of the computer), have the ability to perform basic mathematical computation, and every programming language has some way of telling it to do so.

 * Testing: Testing involves telling the computer to check for a certain condition and to do something when that condition is true or false. Conditionals are one of the most important concepts in programming, and all languages have some method of testing conditions.

 * Repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation.

Believe it or not, that's pretty much all there is to it. Every program you've ever used, no matter how complicated, is made up of functions that look more or less like these. Thus, one way to describe programming is the process of breaking a large, complex task up into smaller and smaller subtasks until eventually the subtasks are simple enough to be performed with one of these simple functions.

Program execution
Execution starts on main function, the entry point of any (standard-compliant) C++ program. We will cover it when we introduce functions.

Execution control or simply control, means the process and the location of execution of a program, this has a direct link to procedural programming. You will note the mention of control as we proceed, as it is necessary concept to explain the order of execution of code and its interpretation by the computer.

Core vs Standard Library
The Core Library consists of the fundamental building blocks of the language itself. Made up of the basic statements that the C++ compiler inherently understands. This includes basic looping constructs such as the if..else, do..while, and for.. statements. The ability to create and modify variables, declare and call functions, and perform basic arithmetic. The Core Library does not include I/O functionality.

The Standard Library is a set of modules that add extended functionality to the language through the use of library or header files. Features such as Input/Output routines, advanced mathematics, and memory allocation functions fall under this heading. All C++ compilers are responsible for providing a Standard Library of functions as outlined by the ANSI/ISO C++ guidelines. Deeper understanding about each module will be provided on the Standard C Library, Standard input/output streams library and Standard Template Library (STL) sections of this book.

Program organization
How the instructions of a program are written out and stored is generally not a concept determined by a programming language. Punch cards used to be in common use, however under most modern operating systems the instructions are commonly saved as plain text files that can be edited with any text editor. These files are the source of the instructions that make up a program and so are sometimes referred to as source files but a more exclusive definition is source code.

When referring to source code or just source, you are considering only the files that contain code, the actual text that makes up the functions (actions) for computer to execute. By referring to source files you are extending the idea to not only the files with the instructions that make up the program but all the raw files resources that together can build the program. The File Organization Section will cover the different files used in C++ programming and best practices on handling them.

Keywords and identifiers
Identifiers are names given to variables, functions, objects, etc. to refer to them in the program. C++ identifiers must start with a letter or an underscore character " ", possibly followed by a series of letters, underscores or digits. None of the C++ programming language keywords can be used as identifiers. Identifiers with successive underscores are reserved for use in the header files or by the compiler for special purpose, e.g. name mangling.

Some keywords exists to directly control the compiler's behavior, these keywords are very powerful and must be used with care, they may make a huge difference on the program's compile time and running speed. In the C++ Standard, these keywords are called Specifiers.

Special considerations must be given when creating your own identifiers, this will be covered in Code Style Conventions Section.

Source code is the halfway point between human language and machine code. As mentioned before, it can be read by people to an extent, but it can also be parsed (converted) into machine code by a computer. The machine code, represented by a series of 1's and 0's, is the only code that the computer can directly understand and act on.
 * Source code

In a small program, you might have as little as a few dozen lines of code at the most, whereas in larger programs, this number might stretch into the thousands or even millions. For this reason, it is sometimes more practical to split large amounts of code across many files. This makes it easier to read, as you can do it bit by bit, and it also reduces compile time of each source file. It takes much less time to compile a lot of small source files than it does to compile a single massive source file.

Managing size is not the only reason to split code, though. Often, especially when a piece of software is being developed by a large team, source code is split. Instead of one massive file, the program is divided into separate files, and each individual file contains the code to perform one particular set of tasks for the overall program. This creates a condition known as Modularity. Modularity is a quality that allows source code to be changed, added to, or removed a piece at a time. This has the advantage of allowing many people to work on separate aspects of the same program, thereby allowing it to move faster and more smoothly. Source code for a large project should always be written with modularity in mind. Even when working with small or medium-sized projects, it is good to get in the habit of writing code with ease of editing and use in mind. C++ source code is case sensitive. This means that it distinguishes between lowercase and capital letters, so that it sees the words "hello," "Hello," and "HeLlO" as being totally different things. This is important to remember and understand, it will be discussed further in the Coding style conventions Section.


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Arabic/Masculine and feminine

Arabic words are either masculine or feminine. For example: رجل (ra-jul) which means man is masculine. امرأة (im-ra-ah) which means woman is feminine. These two examples are very logical. But just like many other languages, everyday objects have their own gender as well. For example, the word for ear must be either masculine or feminine. The most common way to tell a masculine word from a feminine word is the ة (taa' mar-boo-Tah). If a word ends in a ة (h/t) then it is most likely feminine. To make a masculine word feminine usually a ة (h/t) is added to the end of the word. For example:  كلب

kalb kalb dog

 كلبة

kalba/kalbah kal-ba female dog, she-dog

In Arabic nouns, as well as adjectives, have to agree in gender, as well as number. For example:  الولد كبـيـر

al_waladu kabeer(un) al-wa-la-du-ka-beer The boy is big

 البنت كبيـرة

al_bint kabeerah(-tun) al-bint-ka-bee-rah The girl is big.

Did you notice that we called the girl "big" with كبيرة (ka-bee-rah) while when we want to say the boy is big we said كبير(ka-beer). This is generally how it works for singular nouns.

 الولد صغير

al_waladu Sagheer(un) al-wa-la-du-Sa-gheer The boy is small

 البنت صغيرة

al_bintu Sagheerah(-tun) al-bin-tu-Sa-ghee-rah The girl is small.

 الولد طويل والبنت طويلة

al_waladu Taweel al_bintu Taweelah(-tun) al-wa-la-du—Ta-weel—wal-bin-tu—Ta-wee-lah The boy is Tall, and the girl is tall.

title: Arabic/Masculine and feminine


text:
Guide to Unix/Explanations/Installing Packages

The Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X platforms are so widespread that typically a Windows or Mac software vendor will provide a binary. In contrast, several packages for Unix-like systems are only available as sources. If they are available as binaries, they are usually only available for a few popular distros, or statically linked for a few popular kernels, and possibly for a different processor than what you run.

The best way to get many packages, especially free software packages, is to get them from your Unix-like system vendor. Vendors port the packages to their distros and build binary packages.
 * Linux For Newbies has instructions for using apt-get on Debian and rpm on Red Hat.

Handling packages

 * rpm
 * apt-get
 * pkg_add, pkg_delete, pkg_info
 * pkgadd,pkginfo,pkgrm for Solaris

Querying packages
On rpm-based systems, to find out which package owns the command foo (where foo is a standalone executable), use the command: $ rpm -q -f foo

To add a package on linux based system use $ rpm -i foo

To remove package on linux based system user $ rpm -e foo

rpm command has other options user man pages to find out more.


text:
Template:Disambiguation

__DISAMBIG__

title: Template:Disambiguation


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Arabic/SingandPlural

In Arabic a word can represent either one of something (singular), two of something (dual), or many of something (Arabic plural, three or more).

This page is about how words go from being singular to plural in Arabic.

Regular Feminine Plural
A feminine noun is usually made plural by adding ات (alif then taa', pronounced -aat), to the end of the word.

 * مغامرة mughaamarah (pausal form)
 * ٌمغامرة

mughaamaratun (nominative)

 * ًمغامرة

mughaamaratan (accusative)

 * ٍمغامرة

mughaamaratin (genitive or preceded by a preposition)

All of these mean "adventure" and all become:

 * مغامرات

mughaamaraat

Regular Masculine Plural
A masculine noun is usually made plural by adding at the end of the word ون (waw then nuun, pronounced -uun) for the nominative case, and ين (ya' then nuun, pronounced -iin) for other cases.

 * مسلم   --->     مسلمين

Muslim ---> muslimiin (pausal form)

 * مسلمٌ   --->     مسلمون

muslimun ---> muslimuun (nominative)

 * مسلمً > مسلمين

musliman ---> muslimiin (accusative)

 * مسلم ٍ >  مسلمين

muslimin ---> muslimiin (genitive or preceded by a preposition)

All of these mean "muslim(s)"; note that the last two forms have the same plural.

title: Arabic/SingandPlural


text:
Category:Frosting and icing recipes

Frosting and icing are both sugar-based toppings used primarily for pastries and cakes.

Frosting is generally thick and creamy due to a high fat content (usually from butter) whereas icing is more often thin and made up mostly of sugar. When icing dries it becomes hard to the touch while frosting stays somewhat moist for a considerable time after being applied. Frosting is most often used on cakes while icing is more often found on cookies or muffins.

title: Category:Frosting and icing recipes


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Chain Wear Indicator

A chain wear indicator tells you how worn the chain on a bicycle is. As is often believed, chains do not stretch, but rather the rollers become worn. There are various types of chain wear indicators, but they all function by being inserted into the gaps of the chain to determine the amount of chain wear. (If you don't have a chain wear indicator, a ruler can be used.) These devices check to see when 1/16th of an inch of wear has occurred across 12 full links. In general, if the chain is NOT worn out yet, the indicator will not fit in the chain.

After the tires and break pads (which wear out by design), and brake and shifting cables, the part of a bike that needs the most attention is the chain. Because of that and because a chain wear indicator is so easy to use, it should be in the intermediate tool kit, not the advanced tool kit.

If you ride with a stretched chain you will prematurely wear out your chainrings and/or rear cogs (which cost a lot more than a chain). If you let it really go, it can slip. This will of course happen when you are putting a lot of force on the pedals or hitting a bump, and can easily cause a crash.


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User:Kagemusha

影武者 or Kagemusha means "Shadow Warrior" and is taken from the movie "影武者" by 黒澤 明 (Kurosawa Akira). My main reason for joining the Wiki community is to participate in things relating to learning the Japanese Language (日本語). I am by no means an expert nor fluent in Japanese as it is not my native tongue. I am just a student sharing my (limited) knowledge with others interested in Japanese. If I ever make any sort of mistake, please tell me about it so that I can fix it!

title: User:Kagemusha


text:
User talk:213.130.15.77

Please stop. If you continue to use Wikibooks for advertising, you will be temporarily blocked from editing.

title: User talk:213.130.15.77


text:
Category:Coffee recipes

Recipes involving coffee.

title: Category:Coffee recipes


text:
User talk:69.246.12.184

Hi there, I've noticed that you've taken an interest in the Cookbook. I'm glad you have spent at least some time looking at it. However, I think that your comments here, here, and here are less than constructive. How about doing some contributing rather than wanton criticism? Kellen T 07:27, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.246.12.184


text:
Famous Theorems of Mathematics/Four color theorem

Although technically the four color theorem has been proven, for some – professionals and amateurs alike – attempting to discover a more elegant solution to the Four Color Theorem is an engrossing pastime. In theory nothing more than a pencil, some paper, and some thought should be required.

Tips

 * It is easier to work with graphs than maps. Maps are equivalent to their duals, which are planar graphs. Each region corresponds to a vertex and borders between regions correspond to edges. Borders without length are disregarded.
 * On the other hand, working with cubic maps, we can switch prove a 3-coloring of the edges, which is equivalent to a 4-coloring of the areas.
 * It is assumed that it will be easier to prove the Four Color Theorem for fully-triangulated planar graphs. A planar graph which is not fully-triangulated (i.e. it is missing some edges) can easily be made fully-triangulated by adding some edges. Then, after a 4-coloring is found, those additional edges can be removed. However, if you are attempting to solve the Four Color Theorem as a route to solving P = NP, note that it is the finding of a 3-coloring of a [possibly non-fully-triangulated] graph – or proving that such a 3-coloring does not exist – that is hard.
 * The dual of a fully-triangulated planar graph is a cubic planar graph. Cubic means that every vertex has 3 edges. However, not every cubic planar graph has a Hamiltonian cycle – if it did, it would prove the Four Color Theorem. For examples of cubic planar graphs without a hamiltonian see: Tutte's counter-example with 46 vertices and 60 edges; Kozyrev and Grinberg's counter-example with 44 vertices; and Lederberg's or Barnette and Bosák's counter-example with 38 vertices.
 * We can prove that we need not discuss graphs with a connectivity lower than 4. According to Tutte, planar graphs with a connectivity of 4 or higher have a Hamiltonian cycle (of the nodes regarding the graph, or of the areas regarding the map). A Hamiltonian cycle provides us with a trivial way to impose a linear order on our nodes (or areas).

Mis-steps
Here are some of the common pitfalls for the beginner:

 * Not every graph can be generated by starting with a triangle and adding 1 vertex and 3 edges i.e. keeping the graph fully triangulated as each vertex is added. The smallest graph with minimum degree 4 has 6 vertices. The smallest graph with minimum degree 5 has 12 vertices.
 * To generate *every* graph, work it the other way around : in every graph you may eliminate a node by contracting two neighboring nodes in to a single node along their connecting edge. Inversely, we can create every graph by expanding a node into two neighboring ones.

Ideas
The Four Color Theorem is equivalent to finding a Bi-BiPartite solution. In other words it is sufficient to separate the vertexes into just 2 sets – if each set is itself BiPartite. This is actually a simplification because it is clear what makes a graph BiPartite: no odd cycles. If the graph can be decomposed into 2 subgraphs such that each subgraph has only even cycles or no cycles, a solution has been found.

The Four Color Theorem can be equivalent to finding a solution to an equation or a set of equations and may be easier to work with in matrix form.

The simplest equation is of the form (A-B)(A-C)... != 0 where A,B,C,... represent the colors of the vertexes. If 2 vertexes are adjacent, then their values are subtracted. It thus becomes a 'satisfiability problem' in that values for A,B,C... must be found that 'satisfy' the inequality. If two adjacent vertexes have the same color, then their difference is 0 and the entire equation yields 0. Inequalities are not easy to solve using matrix.

To prove an equation representing a 4-coloring or an equivalent assertion, we might have to find a (matrix) equation describing planarity, our main premise.

Minimum Counter Example to the Four Color Theorem
The Four Color Theorem (4CT) essentially says that "the vertices of a planar graph may be colored with no more than four different colors."

A graph is a set of points (called vertices) which are connected in pairs by rays called edges. In a complete graph, all pairs are connected by an edge. In a planar graph only those pairs whose edges do not cross or intersect are connected. A complete planar graph is one which has exactly $$3\cdot n-6$$ edges. [$$n$$ is the number of vertices] Vertices that are connected by an edge are called adjacent vertices Vertices that are not connected are called disjoint vertices.

The 4CT implies that adjacent vertices cannot have the same color; and that four colors are sufficient to meet this condition.

HYPOTHESIS: If the 4CT is true for all fully triangulated planar graphs (FTPG), then it is true for all planar graphs.

Therefore, it is necessary only to prove the 4CT for FTPG's!

The degree of a vertex is the number of vertices with which it shares an edge.

It is generally agreed that every vertex in a 5-chroma planar graph must have degree $$ \ge 5$$. [A 5-chroma planar graph is a graph that cannot be properly colored with less than five colors. In a "properly" colored graph, no two adjacent vertices will have the same color.]

If the 4CT is false, then there must be 5-chroma planar graphs. If such graphs exist, it should be possible to remove vertices and edges from such a graph until the smallest possible 5-chroma graph remains. This is a lot of work, so someone else has already done this for us. This "smallest possible" graph is called a "minimal counter-example to the Four Color Theorem"; more conveniently, MCE/4CT.

One way of proving the 4CT to be true is to prove that every graph thought to be an MCE/4CT is really not!

An MCE/4CT is by definition is a 5-chroma simple loopless planar graph and by choice, a FTPG. If any vertex is removed from a true MCE/4CT, then a 4-colorable graph will always result.

A proposed MCE/4CT is not a true MCE/4CT if it can be shown that there is a least one smaller graph; i.e., one with fewer vertices, that is also 5-chroma.

This is a difficult task, but it is not complex. Complex in the sense that there are many configurations to analyze. It is necessary to analyze only one configuration. This is the subgraph of the MCE/4CT which consists of a vertex of degree = 5 and its 5 neighboring vertices. Every MCE/4CT has at least one such vertex. Figure 1 below is a typical subgraph of a fully triangulated planar graph (FTPG)

1-2             |\   /|              | \ / |              5--0--3               \ | /                \|/                 4             Figure 1 where the central vertex v_0 has degree = 5. Every vertex with degree = 5 in a FTPG will have exactly the same local graph.

For convenience let graph G be a proposed MCE/4CT. Then Chi(G) = 5; i.e., G is 5-chroma. If v_0 is removed as in Figure 2, 1-2             |     |              |     |              5     3               \   /                \ /                 4             Figure 2

then Chi(G-v) must always be <5! [(G-v) is the subgraph of G that remains after vertex v_0 has been removed.]

HYPOTHESIS: There is only one vertex coloring pattern for Figure 2 that will allow Chi(G-v) to equal 4 and at the same time insure that Chi(G) is always greater than 4 when v_0 is restored. The pattern is C1-C2-C3-C4-C3. Figure 2 must have a 4-coloring. This is necessary if (G-v) is 4-colorable and G is not 4-colorable. A 3-coloring of Figure 2 would not require G to be 5-chroma.

Figure 3, shows a typical 4-coloring of the vertices of the graph in Figure 2.

R    G              1-2 |    |              |     |            B 5     3 B               \   / \ /                4                 Y             Figure 3

Usually, Figure 3 can be 3-colored  But in this case,the configuration of (G-v) is such that a normal 3-coloring is not possible''!

None of the configurations of(G-v) are known. It is possible that they are also "unknowable"? Yet is essential that we acknowledge that they may exist!

Here's a new approach!

Because G is a FTPG, its dual is a cubic planar graph (CPG); i.e., C_g. If G is not 4-C, then C_g cannot be bridgeless!

Now consider graph (G-v). It is not fully triangulated. But it can be fully triangulated by the addition of two edges. A typical triangulation is shown in Figure 4.

1---2             |\     /|              | \   / |              |  \ /  |               5---4---3                             Figure 4.

Now graph (G-v) is fully triangulated and its dual is a cubic planar graph; i.e., graph C_v.

The a priori presumption is that C_v is bridgeless, and that C_G is not bridgeless!.

If you want to disprove the existence of a minimal counter example, you may also concentrate on the "minimal" part. If counter examples exist, there has to be a minimal one. Now if we can prove that every supposed minimal counter example can be used to construct a smaller counter example, we disprove the existence of counter examples at all.

Four Color Theorem for Maximal Planar Graphs [MPG]
The 4CT for MPGs is a sub theorem for the 4CT for all planar graphs. It simply states that all MPG's are 4-colorable.

The advantage of MPGs is that certain statements can be made about their structure; i.e., the way that they are drawn on the page.

One convenient way to draw a MPG is to start with a single vertex (V). V is drawn surrounded by 5 or more adjacent vertices. These neighbors of V form a closed ring called a "cycle" graph. This ring is in turn surrounded by a second cycle formed by some or all of the neighbors of the vertices in the first ring. A third closed ring encloses the second ring, etc. This continues until all vertices have been used. The final ring will have only three vertices. Only if the graph is maximal, will it be certain that all of the rings are closed.

The concentric ring configuration is a concept that is not easy to prove!

The main problem with this ring configuration is not that rings may not be closed, but that rings may be short-circuited, in which case there's not a single "next" ring, but multiple next *rings*. If there is no single outermost ring, contraction to a single node doesn't work and there's no necessity for a single final color.

HYPOTHESIS: The colors of each ring are determined by the colors of the next external ring.

HYPOTHESIS. It requires 4 colors in one ring to force 4 colors on the next internal ring.

For any ring in a MPG there must be four coloring of MPG in which the external ring is 3-colorable. Otherwise the MPG can be used to construct counterexample to 4CT. Just join the nodes of the external ring to another new node.

If these hypotheses are true, then the 4CT for MPGs is true.

Rationale: The outermost ring can have only three colors. Therefore, none of the rings can have more than three colors!


text:
User:Pleft

Paul Left

title: User:Pleft


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/XL H1

The Canon XL H1 Records to HDV, the high-defition version of the popular DV codec used in many cameras, including the H1's predecessors the Canon XL 1s and XL 2. HDV is a very well engineered codec and allows for optimal HD compression to tape. Although high quality, the HDV compression codec is in fact compressing the video and disregarding some of the pixels that the XL H1's CCDs are picking up. However, the XLH1 does have an exciting option that none of the other prosumer HD cameras have: a pre-compression HD SDI output. This allows for the exact same signal that is being sent to the HDV codec for compression to be outputted to an HD SDI device through a BNC cable on the side of the camera. Though this feature is designed for use in studio environments where the HD SDI signal can be sent to a video deck such as a DVCproHD or HDCAM deck for full-resolution, uncompressed recording it can also be sent to a computer via an HD SDI video card such as those offered by AJA and Blackmagic and then recorded completely digitally onto a hard drive for editing or higher quality compression.

In a studio the HD SDI output and Genlock input would be highly useful. However, for movie making and general recording the HDV tape option is very high quality and much more compact that working with a large video deck or computer system in the field.

History of the camera
This camera is fourth in the line of XL series cameras from Canon, featuring the body style and many features and technologies of the XL 1, XL 1s, and XL 2 cameras.

Links
/Cameras http://www.canondv.com>


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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/VariCam HD D5

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Movie Making Manual/Cinematography/Cameras and Formats/Kinetta

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Geometry for Elementary School/Fractals

All the previous constructions we considered had one thing in common. The constructions were ended after a final number of steps. When one recalls that mathematicians actually used a ruler and compass in order to execute the constructions, this requirement seems to be in place. However, when we remove this requirement we can construct new interesting geometric shapes. In this chapter we will introduce two of them. Note that these shapes are not part of Euclidian geometry and were considered only years after its development.

Cantor Set
For a full overview of Cantor set see the article at wikipedia on which this section is based. The Cantor set was introduced by German mathematician Georg Cantor.

The Cantor set is defined by repeatedly removing the middle thirds of line segments. One starts by removing the middle third from the unit interval [0, 1], leaving [0, 1/3] ∪ [2/3, 1]. Next, the "middle thirds" of all of the remaining intervals are removed. This process is continued for ever. The Cantor set consists of all points in the interval [0, 1] that are not removed at any step in this infinite process.

What's in the Cantor set?
Since the Cantor set is defined as the set of points not excluded, the proportion of the unit interval remaining can be found by total length removed. This total is the geometric series

 * $$\frac{1}{3} + \frac{2}{9} + \frac{4}{27} + \frac{8}{81} + \cdots = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{2^n}{3^{n+1}} = \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{1}{1-\frac{2}{3}}\right) = 1.$$

So that the proportion left is 1 – 1 = 0. Alternatively, it can be observed that each step leaves 2/3 of the length in the previous stage, so that the amount remaining is 2/3 × 2/3 × 2/3 × ..., an infinite product which equals 0 in the limit.

From the calculation, it may seem surprising that there would be anything left — after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval. However a closer look at the process reveals that there must be something left, since removing the "middle third" of each interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints). So removing the line segment (1/3, 2/3) from the original interval [0, 1] leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3. Subsequent steps do not remove these (or other) endpoints, since the intervals removed are always internal to the intervals remaining. So we know for certain that the Cantor set is not empty.

The Cantor set is a fractal
The Cantor set is the prototype of a fractal. It is self-similar, because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each copy is shrunk by a factor of 1/3 and translated.

Koch curve
For a full overview of Koch curve see the article at wikipedia on which this section is based.

The Koch curve is a one of the earliest fractal curves to have been described. It was published during 1904 by the Swedish mathematician Helge von Koch. The better known Koch snowflake (or Koch star) is the same as the curve, except it starts with an equilateral triangle instead of a line segment.

One can imagine that it was created by starting with a line segment, then recursively altering each line segment as follows:

 * 1) divide the line segment into three segments of equal length.
 * 2) draw an equilateral triangle that has the middle segment from step one as its base.
 * 3) remove the line segment that is the base of the triangle from step 2.

After doing this once the result should be a shape similar to the Star of David.

The Koch curve is in the limit approached as the above steps are followed over and over again.

The Koch curve has infinite length because each time the steps above are performed on each line segment of the figure its length increases by one third. The length at step n will therefore be (4/3)n.

The area of the Koch snowflake is 8/5 that of the initial triangle, so an infinite perimeter encloses a finite area.

Geometria per scuola elementare/Frattali

title: Geometry for Elementary School/Fractals