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Java Programming/Primitive Types

Primitive types are the most basic data types available within the Java language. There are 8:, , , , , , and. These types serve as the building blocks of data manipulation in Java. Such types serve only one purpose — containing pure, simple values of a kind. Because these data types are defined into the Java type system by default, they come with a number of operations predefined. You can not define a new operation for such primitive types. In the Java type system, there are three further categories of primitives:
 * Numeric primitives:, , , and . These primitive data types hold only numeric data. Operations associated with such data types are those of simple arithmetic (addition, subtraction, etc.) or of comparisons (is greater than, is equal to, etc.)
 * Textual primitives: and . These primitive data types hold characters (that can be Unicode alphabets or even numbers). Operations associated with such types are those of textual manipulation (comparing two words, joining characters to make words, etc.). However,  and  can also support arithmetic operations.
 * Boolean and null primitives: and.

All the primitive types have a fixed size. Thus, the primitive types are limited to a range of values. A smaller primitive type can contain less values than a bigger one.

Integer primitive types silently overflow:

As Java is strongly typed, you can't assign a floating point number (a number with a decimal point) to an integer variable:

A primitive type should be set by an appropriate value. The primitive types can be initialized with a literal. Most of the literals are primitive type values, except String Literals, which are instance of the class.

Numbers in computer science
Programming may not be as trivial or boring as just crunching huge numbers any more. However, huge chunks of code written in any programming language today, let alone Java, obsessively deal with numbers, be it churning out huge prime numbers, or just calculating a cost of emission from your scooter. In 1965, Gemini V space mission escaped a near-fatal accident caused by a programming error. Again in 1979, a computer program overestimated the ability of five nuclear reactors to withstand earthquakes; the plants shut down temporarily. There is one thing common to both these programming errors: the subject data, being computed at the time the errors occurred, was numeric. Out of past experience, Java came bundled with revised type checking for numeric data and put significant emphasis on correctly identifying different types of it. You must recognise the importance of numeric data when it comes to programming.

Numbers are stored in memory using a binary system. The memory is like a grid of cells:

Each cell can contain a binary digit (shortened to bit), that is to say, zero or one:

Actually, each cell does contain a binary digit, as one bit is roughly equivalent to  and an empty cell in the memory signifies. A single binary digit can only hold two possible values: a zero or a one.

Multiple bits held together can hold multiple permutations — 2 bits can hold 4 possible values, 3 can hold 8, and so on. For instance, the maximum number 8 bits can hold ( in binary) is   in the decimal system. So, the numbers from 0 to 255 can fit within 8 bits.

It is all good, but this way, we can only host positive numbers (or unsigned integers). They are called unsigned integers. Unsigned integers are whole number values that are all positive and do not attribute to negative values. For this very reason, we would ask one of the 8 bits to hold information about the sign of the number (positive or negative). This leaves us with just 7 bits to actually count out a number. The maximum number that these 7 bits can hold is   in the decimal system.

Positive numbers

Negative numbers

Altogether, using this method, 8 bits can hold numbers ranging from  to   (including zero) — a total of 256 numbers. Not a bad pay-off one might presume. The opposite to an unsigned integer is a signed integer that have the capability of holding both positive and negative values.

But, what about larger numbers. You would need significantly more bits to hold larger numbers. That's where Java's numeric types come into play. Java has multiple numeric types — their size dependent on the number of bits that are at play.

In Java, numbers are dealt with using data types specially formulated to host numeric data. But before we dive into these types, we must first set some concepts in stone. Just like you did in high school (or even primary school), numbers in Java are placed in clearly distinct groups and systems. As you'd already know by now, number systems includes groups like the integer numbers (0, 1, 2 ... ∞); negative integers (0, -1, -2 ... -∞) or even real and rational numbers (value of Pi, ¾, 0.333~, etcetera). Java simply tends to place these numbers in two distinct groups, integers (-∞ ... 0 ... ∞) and floating point numbers (any number with decimal points or fractional representation). For the moment, we would only look into integer values as they are easier to understand and work with.

Integer types in Java
With what we have learned so far, we will identify the different types of signed integer values that can be created and manipulated in Java. Following is a table of the most basic numeric types: integers. As we have discussed earlier, the data types in Java for integers caters to both positive and negative values and hence are signed numeric types. The size in bits for a numeric type determines what its minimum and maximum value would be. If in doubt, one can always calculate these values.

Lets see how this new found knowledge of the basic integer types in Java fits into the picture. Say, you want to numerically manipulate the days in a year — all 365 days. What type would you use? Since the data type  only goes up to 127, would you risk giving it a value greater than its allowed maximum. Such decisions might save you from dreaded errors that might occur out of the programmed code. A much more sensible choice for such a numeric operation might be a. Now, why couldn't they make just one data type to hold all kinds of numbers? Let's explore why.

When you tell a program you need to use an integer, say even a, the Java program allocates a space in the memory. It allocates whole 8 bits of memory. Where it wouldn't seem to matter for today's memory modules that have place for almost a dozen trillion such bits, it matters in other cases. Once allocated that part of the memory gets used and can only be claimed back after the operation is finished. Consider a complicated Java program where the only data type you'd be using would be  integers. What happens when there's no space for more memory allocation jobs? Ever heard of the Stack Overflow errors. That's exactly what happens — your memory gets completely used up and fast. So, choose your data types with extreme caution.

Enough talk, let's see how you can create a numeric type. A numeric type begins with the type's name (, , etc.) and then provides with a name for the allocated space in the memory. Following is how it's done. Say, we need to create a variable to hold the number of days in a year.

Here,  is the name of the variable that holds   as its value, while   is the data type for that particular value. Other uses of integer data types in Java might see you write code such as this given below:

Integer numbers and floating point numbers
The data types that one can use for integer numbers are,  ,   and   but when it comes to floating point numbers, we use   or. Now that we know that, we can modify the code in the code section 3.53 as:

Why not, you say? If we'd used a, we would have to append the number with a   as a suffix, so   should be   as in:

Floating-point math never throws exceptions. Dividing a non-zero value by  equals. Dividing a non-infinite value by  equals.

Question 3.7: Consider the following code:

These are five variables. There are a, a  , a  , a   and a. Retrieve the type of each one.

 * can only be the  because only a boolean can handle boolean values.
 * can only be the  because only a char can contain a character.
 * can only be the  because only a double can contain a decimal number here.
 * is the  because a   can not contain such a low value.
 * is the remaining one so it is the.

Data conversion (casting)
Data conversion (casting) can happen between two primitive types. There are two kinds of casting:
 * Implicit: casting operation is not required; the magnitude of the numeric value is always preserved. However, precision may be lost when converting from integer to floating point types
 * Explicit: casting operation required; the magnitude of the numeric value may not be preserved

The following table shows the conversions between primitive types, it shows the casting operation for explicit conversions:

Unlike C, C++ and similar languages, Java can't represent  as   or   and can't represent   as non-zero. Java can't cast from boolean to a non-boolean primitive data type, or vice versa.

For non primitive types:

title: Java Programming/Primitive Types


text:
User:Tsukata~enwikibooks

Visit http://www.tsukata.org

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Tsukata~enwikibooks


text:
Technical Theatre

Lighting

 * 1) Introduction to Lighting

Types of Lights

 * 1) Ellipsoidal Reflector Spots[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 2) Fresnels[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 3) PAR cans[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 4) Followspot[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 5) Automated ('Intelligent') Lights
 * 6) Floodlights[[Image:00%.svg]]
 * 7) Strobe Lights[[Image:00%.svg]]
 * 8) Cyc Lights
 * 9) Pin Spots
 * 10) Strip Lights
 * 11) Projectors

Other Equipment

 * 1) Gels[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 2) Gobos[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 3) Effects

Design

 * 1) The Designer
 * 2) Tools
 * 3) Colors

Operation

 * 1) Introduction to Lighting Control[[Image:00%.svg]]
 * 2) Dimmers[[Image:00%.svg]]
 * 3) Control Boards
 * 4) Control Software
 * 5) DMX[[Image:25%.svg]]

Introduction to Sound

 * 1) Signal Path

Components of a Sound System

 * 1) Inputs
 * 2) Control
 * 3) Processing
 * 4) Amplification
 * 5) Output

Types of Microphones

 * 1) Lavalier Mics
 * 2) Headset Mics
 * 3) Overhead Mics
 * 4) Boundary Mics
 * 5) Handheld Mics

Microphone Directionality

 * 1) Omnidirectional Mics
 * 2) Cardioid Mics
 * 3) Supercardioid Mics

Transducer Types

 * 1) Dynamic Mics[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * 2) Condenser Mics[[Image:25%.svg]]

Stage Management

 * 1) Role in production
 * 2) Marking up prompt book
 * 3) Calling cues
 * 4) Production reports

title: Technical Theatre


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General Biology/Tissues and Systems/Nervous System

Nervous System

Composed of tissues designed to integrate sensory information and direct a coordinated response to the environment.

Basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron, a highly specialized cell that uses both electrical and chemical processes to communicate. Neurons "listen" to sensory organs or other neurons, and can simultaneously "hear" from 1 to hundreds of inputs simultaneously. Likewise, a neuron can "talk" to other neurons or cells that can create an action, like muscle cells or glands.

Neurons are outnumbered in the nervous system by glia. Glia were once thought to only play a supportive role in helping neurons survive; today we know that they also are important participants in the communication process. Glial cells include astrocytes, ependymal cells, and a cell that has a macrophage like function. There are also oligodendocytes and Schwann cells that provide a myelin sheath.

Neuron structure

 * Dendrite will receive information from other axons
 * Stoma is the neuron body and contains typical cell parts including the mitochondria and nucleus. This is where neurotransmitters are synthesized.
 * Axon hillock is where the cell body and the axon meet.
 * Axon is surrounded by myelin.
 * Contains nodes of Ranvier

Types of axons include unipolar, bipolar, pseudopolar.

Action potentials results from excitatory stimuli received from the dendrites that results in a signal that travels down the axon. On the cellular level, there is a Na+ influx via channels causing a depolarization of the cell. Once those channels close, the slower opening K+ channels will open resulting in hyperpolarization by the cell.

Synapses

Neurotransmitters allow a chemical signal to be sent from one neuron to the other. Neurotransmitters must bypass a physical gap called the synapse. Examples of neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, epinephrine, and glutamate.

Example : Neuromuscular synapses

Circuits / Nuclei / Ganglia

Central nervous system
Central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain There are four lobes of the brain.
 * Frontal lobe - decision making
 * Parietal lobe
 * Temporal lobe
 * Occipital lobe - vision

The areas of the brain are also dedicated to different functions.
 * Precentral gyrus
 * Postcentral gyrus

Protection The CNS is protected by three layers - the pia mater, the arachnoid mater, and the dura mater. Protection also comes from the circulation of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). CSF helps to float the brain and also provide nutrients to both the brain and the spinal cord. CSF is synthesized from the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles. In total, there are four ventricles - 2 lateral ventricles, a 3rd, and 4th ventricle.

Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system is broken down into two sub-systems, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

ANS - Autonomic Nervous System The ANS has two components - parasympathetic and sympathetic.

The sympathetic nervous system is the "fight or flight" or fright response and results in an increased heart rate, increased rate of breathing, and an elevated blood glucose level. There is also decreased digestion. The second neurotransmitter is epinephrine. In this case, the first neuron is short and the second neuron is long.

The parasympathetic nervous system is the rest and digest system.

Drugs must be able to pass the blood brain barrier to have an effect on the CNS. Drugs act by affecting the neuron and how likely it is to fire an action potential.

Stroke occurs when there is a blood clot that goes to the brain and prevent blood flow.


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User talk:Dmhessmdphd

Wikimedia Pennsylvania
Hello there!

I'm writing to inform you that we are now forming the first local Wikimedia Chapter in the United States: Wikimedia Pennsylvania. Our goals are to perform outreach and fundraising activities on behalf of the various Wikimedia projects. If you're interested in being a part of the chapter, or just want to know more, you can: Thanks and I hope you sign up!  Cbrown1023  talk  16:27, 12 July 2007 (UTC)
 * Contact us on IRC at #wikimedia-pa
 * Join our mailing list
 * Visit our blog at http://wmfpa.blogspot.com
 * Sign our list of interested participants

title: User talk:Dmhessmdphd


text:
User:Dmhessmdphd

MD/Neuroscience Ph.D. Candidate, University of Pennsylvania

Future General Surgery Resident

Former Instructor & Academic Coordinator, High School Pipeline Program, U. of PA School of Medicine

title: User:Dmhessmdphd


text:
User:Sraevsky

My Background

School: B.S. in Electrical Engineering, 2002, Brigham Young University. J.D. expected April 2006, J. Reuben Clark Law School, Brigham Young University.

Professional Life: Registered to Practice before the United States Patent and Trademark Office, 2003. Once I pass the bar this summer, I will be a newly-minted patent attorney.

My Interests

I am interested in learning all things related to electrical and computer engineering. I am also interested in legal and business topics, and I'll dabble in everything else.

title: User:Sraevsky


text:
Windows XP/Changing Fonts to Display Other Languages

If you have an English version of Windows XP and are having problems working with non western fonts this article is for you.

Problem: You want to read and write for example in an Eastern European language but the non-western letters are displaying on the screen incorrectly.

Why this happens is because Windows picks a default language page code for non-unicode programs. Your default is probably some version of English.

The program you're using is a little dumb, it wasn't written to be used in environments outside of its locale, it's not checking to see if it's using the right font version. So you need to change the default page code for non-unicode applications.

 * 1) Go to control panel and select regional settings.
 * 2) Select the advanced tab.

It has a drop down box which probably says English, this needs to change to your desired language. In my case this was Polish.

If it's not an option, you might need to change the input method to Polish too; on a Polish keyboard you can change this back to default to an English layout. Once this has been changed, applied and okayed you probably need to restart Windows.

Try your program and hopefully this time your desired languages letters should be shown instead of the random symbols found in the western version of the font.

For writing in the desired language use the language bar to swap between keyboard layouts. Substitute your desired language for Polish in this article.


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User talk:Blackest knight~enwikibooks

Hi I spend a lot of time figuring out how to do things and search all over to find the information to do something.

when I find out I could just leave it at that I have solved my problem however I feel it's better to make the solution open and easy to find for anyone. This seems an Ideal location to transform my many hours of digging into a few minutes light reading for someone else to solve similar problems

I also have a terrible memory and It's likely that a particular problem will crop up again within a couple of years for me and I have to dig again :)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Blackest knight. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Blackest knight~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:03, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:39, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Blackest knight~enwikibooks


text: User talk:81.223.238.202

title: User talk:81.223.238.202


text:
Wings 3D/Useful links

The homepage of Wings3D

The Wings3D forum

Subject:Blender 3D

Bay Raitt and Greg Minters's article "Digital Sculpture Techniques"

title: Wings 3D/Useful links


text:
User:Graham87

I am user:Graham87 on the English Wikipedia. I probably won't be very active here, so if you have sent me a message here, please alert me on my wikipedia talk page.

title: User:Graham87


text:
User:Pietrodn

Babel

Hi! I'm Pietrodn, the same in Wikipedia: Pietrodn. I'm active in Wikipedia since 8 June 2005.

I'm a sysop on italian Wikibooks.

Excuse the my bed Englash. ;-)

it:Utente:Pietrodn

title: User:Pietrodn


text:
User talk:Pietrodn

Leave me a message

title: User talk:Pietrodn


text:
User:Pietrodn/Signature

--  Pi et ro  Dn

title: User:Pietrodn/Signature


text:
User:BimBot

Hello, I'm BimBot, the bot of Pietrodn. Leave messages in his talk.

This bot is for interwikis.

Look my edits.

it:Utente:BimBot

title: User:BimBot


text:
ITunes/Ogg in iTunes

To enable iTunes to play Ogg files, install the official Xiph QuickTime Components. This is straightforward, as outlined below.

If you wish to also associate a file type with Ogg, the process is somewhat more involved; see below.

Install components

 * 1) Make sure iTunes is not running.
 * 2) Install the official Xiph QuickTime Components from Xiph.org. iTunes is a QuickTime based application, these components and frameworks allow any QuickTime application to play Ogg files for that matter.
 * 3) Files may be dragged into the iTunes Library window or added via the File > Add to Library… command.
 * 4) Enjoy your new music!

Conflicts
If you have installed older QuickTime Ogg components, there may be conflicts, so you will want to remove these. Read the installation/uninstallation instructions that came with the older packages, or check in the following directory for files with Ogg in the name, and remove them: /Library/Components, /Library/QuickTime, and similarly in your home directory.

File type association – advanced
iTunes by default does not have a file type association with Ogg files despite the fact that it has an Ogg icon. Enabling the association in Mac OS X requires editing the Info.plist file with a text editor, not Property List Editor (as it does not support copying and pasting branches of the XML tree).

 * 1) Right click on iTunes.app and choose "Show Package Contents", open the Contents folder and then select the Info.plist file and make a copy of it.

Modify your Info.plist by adding this : CFBundleTypeExtensions ogg CFBundleTypeIconFile iTunes-generic.icns CFBundleTypeName OGG Audio File CFBundleTypeOSTypes ogg! OGG! ogg OGG Ogg CFBundleTypeRole Editor LSIsAppleDefaultForType Yes You can change the icon if you want also.

title: ITunes/Ogg in iTunes


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4/3...Nxe4

=Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence=

Frankenstein-Dracula Variation
The funny "Frankenstein-Dracula Variation" name was given to this variation by Tim Harding. It reflects on the scary nature of the variations implied.

White is temporarily a pawn down. They may put this immediately to rights with:

 * /4. Nxe4/

following up the inevitable 4...d5 with 5. Bxd5. But then 5...Qxd5, and the knight finds itself pinned against the vulnerable g2 square. So Nxe4 should not be played with the intention of recovering the pawn. By extension, White's solid third move was in fact a gambit!

The more active response to the loss of the pawn is

 * /4. Qh5/!

And as White seeks to enact revenge with a series of checkmate threats, all hell breaks loose. This is one of the sharpest of all chess variations, right along side such bloodthirsty openings as the Sicilian Dragon and Evans Gambit.

At low playing levels, a variant commonly seen is /4. Bxf7/?!, followed by 4...Kxf7 5. Nxe4 d5 6. Qh5+ Kg8. With this method, White recovers the pawn, but his opponent has a powerful pawn centre, and his slightly exposed King does not offer enough compensation to White (7. Ng5 Qe7).

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4 Nxe4


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Football (Soccer)

Football (also known as soccer or association football) is a sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries, making it the world's most popular sport. The game is played on a rectangular field with a goal post at each end. The object of the game is to score goals by using any part of the body besides the arms and hands to get the football into the opposing goal.

The goalkeepers are the only players allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play and then only in their penalty area. Other players mostly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, but may use their head or torso to strike the ball instead. The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins.

If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time and/or a penalty shootout depending on the format of the competition. The Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA; French: Fédération Internationale de Football Association) which organises a World Cup every four years.

/The Basics/
This section covers all the basics, rules and definitions of football.

/The Leagues And Teams/
The different leagues around the world that play football competitively.

/The Trophies And Cups/
All leagues do have special trophies and cups and special events too. This section covers the major events and cups.

/The History/
This section covers the history of the game including invention, sister sports and more.

Wikinews
Wikibooks sister project Wikinews covers the latest news of the game.

title: Football (Soccer)


text:
Applied Ecology/New Societies and Cultures

Holistic economics
The economic history of the world is the entire history of the world, but seen from a certain vantage point; that of the economy. The ecological history of the world is the history of the world seen from an environmental viewpoint. Increasingly, this environmental viewpoint takes in the place of Homo sapiens in the entire cosmos. To choose one or other vantage point, and no other, is of course to favour from the start a one-sided form of explanation. However, economists and historians have stopped thinking of economics as a self-contained discipline and of economic history as a neatly defined body of knowledge, which one could study in isolation from other subjects. Economists cannot properly grasp economic phenomena unless they go beyond the economy. With regard to political economy, which in the 19th century appeared to concern only material goods, it has turned out to embrace the social system as a whole, being related to everything in society. The same can be said of biologists with respect to ecology, with its history of evolution, which is no longer regarded as primarily science, but as a philosophy of inter-relatedness.

Political culture is an important variable in the analysis of the relationships between culture and ecology as it suggests underlying beliefs, values and opinions, which a group of people holds dear (such as shared ethnic and religious affinities). For example, Catholicism treats the individual as social and transcendent.

Economics and ecology come together at their common linguistic root, ‘oikos’, which in both cases signifies a space where a complex of activities is undertaken concerned with the consumption of natural resources and their transformation for production and distribution.

Management
Solidarity in human societies resides in the organisations established to manage the utilisation of natural resources. Management, as a specific pattern of human activities, emerges in the archaic use of the word economy to define the ordering of household affairs; (via Latin from Greek oikonomia; domestic management, from oikos house + -nomia, from nemein to manage). Managerial behaviour, involves the setting of targets and the marshalling of inputs necessary to overcome limiting environmental factors. It is central to activities that turn environmental resources into food, goods and services. Ecology comes from the same etymological root. As a human scientific endeavour it has prompted new institutions and organisations in society by which ecological thinking can be directed to manage ecosystems as human goods. In this respect, applied ecology is a powerful feedback from science to force cultural changes in the use of habitats and species.

Tension within society comes, on the one hand, from the managerial applications of science for the commodification and industrialisation of nature, and on the other, to the applications of ecology for the preservation of intrinsic value in the living world. These two rival views of the relationship between humans and nature define the area of cultural ecology.

From all of these viewpoints, applied ecology is influencing the formation of new social organisations and their cultural expressions through managerialism as global and local strategies and site operations. Some of these changes in society and culture come about because of direct applications of science. However, other movements, such as 'deep ecology', with their promotion of intrinsic value in ecological order, do not come directly out of the science of ecology, but are suggested, inspired and fortified, by ecological ideas. In native cultures their ideological aspects comprised beliefs, rituals, magical practices, art, ethics, religion and myths. These defined the permissible and acceptable relationships with nature, and they were part of local systems for conserving resources. In industrialised societies this role has been taken over by the cultural package of 'nature conservation', which includes the philosophies and legal systems of society directed at supporting order in habitats and their species. This is the web of perception and action that locks individuals together in geographical space as societies. It is focused on balancing the exploitation of environmental resources for production with the conservation of resources to ensure survival of the community. This balancing act involves technological, sociological and ideological management systems.

The technological aspect of management is concerned with tools, materials and machines. The sociological aspect involves the relationships into which people enter especially in work and in the family. These two aspects encompass topics that deal respectively with the exploitation of resources through production and demand. Changes in technology and social organisation will bring forth changes in the ideas and beliefs that connect people with local and planetary resources, and also define humans in the wider cosmos, but such ideas will always feed back on the social organisation, which moves forward.

The ideological aspects of the conservation of resources are expressed

 * through ideas about 'nature' and 'place', as these have developed historically to provide philosophical, artistic and spiritual values for present day environmentalism;
 * through science, as applied ecology;
 * and through ‘living in nature’ and applying traditional ecological knowledge to realise global and local strategies of resource management.

All these aspects define the two major routes of Western reasoning about nature. On the one hand, since the 18th century, there has been a ready acceptance of the scientific drive for the domination of nature. On the other hand, the environmental outcomes of this mode of activity has precipitated the ecological search for intrinsic value and its preservation. These two rival views of the relationship between humans and nature define a fluid mind-map to steer a global society toward sustainability. The rivalry comes from fragmentation of civil society in the pursuit of profit and status. Only as conscious agents of a cultural revolution, which promotes a balanced synthesis of the exploitative and conserving segments of society, can we harness our species' ecological potential for a sustainable future.

The twentieth century opened with a revolution in humankind’s attitude to the environment. It sprang spontaneously from all branches of culture and from all countries across a Europe. The discoveries of Einstein in outer space corresponded with those of Jung into the inner space of the subconscious. Biology began to shape the modern perspective of our place in nature. The arts themselves exploded into a new environmental dimension. No longer was the inquiring mind satisfied with appearance. Scientists and artists began to define the relationship between people and environment that was more comprehensive than the search for natural resources. Thus artists, such as Paul Klee and Jean Miro, set out to combine the invisible with the visible, the abstract with the figurative. They let themselves be invaded by the living world and then processed it in a very subjective manner.

The cosmic adventure
There are profound connections between stars, atoms and life that place human culture in the grand outline of the development of the universe. This perspective has been called the 'cosmic adventure'.

The adventure began in a hot and undifferentiated broth of radiation. Eventually, on our tiny planet in a remote corner of a small galaxy, there developed the incredible complexity of life, consciousness and culture. We now appreciate that the universe has moved toward increasingly more intense forms of ordered novelty. In this respect, we can say that it does have a direction, particularly here on Earth, where there is significantly more ordered variety than there was three minutes after the big bang. We have arrived throughout the fifteen billion years of cosmic development as part of a process that has kept a balance between pairs of primeval qualities. These qualities are:

 * harmony and contrast;
 * order and unpredictability;
 * unity and complexity;
 * pattern and nuance;
 * homogeneity and diversity;
 * stability and novelty.

The existence of the universe and everything in it depends on the internal ordering, or tuning of its components. As far as we can see, it was six numbers imprinted in the 'big bang' that have maintained the trajectory of cosmic ecology as a balance of qualities. Two of the numbers relate to the basic forces; two fix the size and the overall texture of the universe and determine whether it will continue forever, and two more fix the properties of space itself. If any one of these numbers was slightly different at the start there would be no stars and no life. Our universe is a rarity with the right combination of the key numbers to ensure that it survives and has developed as an intricately structured whole. Terrestrial evolution is the story of one such molecular outcome, as are the political and technological endeavours of nations of the earth are the social outcomes.

Physics and chemistry existed before human evolution and in this sense they define the non-human purpose of the cosmos as a physico-chemical process. Therefore, in thinking about cosmic purpose we must separate ourselves from the modern bias that nature is a value- neutral canvas. It does not remain blank until we have painted it with our cultural and political inventions. The core of human distinctiveness is that we are capable of thinking about the internal ordering of the universe and our planetary systems so as to understand how these qualities are expressed. We are also able to add value to them.

This attitude has an important bearing on the way we view our social and biological heritage in their cosmic, ecological and social dimensions. There are currently two views about the direction of cosmic development and our place in it. After the universe was energised from the void, the ordering of novelty followed the sequence of energy, particles, stars, planets, materials and life forms. Process theology takes the view that a programme of development according to divine will governed the direction. Process humanism takes the view that our universe is just one of an infinity of universes bubbling up at random from the void. Most would be untuned.

Process theology says that the self-creativity of all constituents of the cosmos willed by God deserve our care because they are especially intense actualisations of divinely inspired creativity and cosmic beauty. When nature suffers, God suffers.

Process humanism says that to gain an appropriate sense of our human worth we need to become aware of our creative potential to work towards global order. Therefore, intervention to maintain a balance of qualities that define our biological and social heritage, by ordering novelty and unifying complexity, is actually a small part of the grand cosmic purpose.

Both points of view provide us with a knowledge framework for applying ecological thinking to culture that is deeply rooted in cosmology. Also, they recapture the ancient spiritual sense that we live in a meaningful and intrinsically valuable world and do so in a manner entirely consonant with contemporary science. Humanity's origins and practical capabilities require it to participate in sustaining the cosmic process as a balance of qualities that define our place in nature as much as our attitudes to the use of nature expressed in technology, art, architecture and literature. In particular, this vision involves recognising that conservation of biodiversity is not just for humans or valueless apart from them.

Social applications of ecology
Ecology deals with the interactions between species and the necessary conditions of existence in the environment to which they are adapted. These adaptations comprise webs of perception and action evolved to ensure resources are available to maintain growth and reproduction. Behavioural interactions are at the heart of the interactions where they function to unite individuals into more or less stable social structures. In particular, behaviour determines and regulates the relations of individuals to one another. It provides such external adaptations to the physical environment, and such internal adaptations between the component individuals or groups to make possible an ordered social life. Each species has a behaviour structure that is an evolved harmonious whole in order to maintain the sum of its parts in biochemical equilibrium with its environment. This structure survives and flourishes because it successfully maintains external social solidarity among its members, and chemical integrity amongst its internal organs and cells.

'Ecology' is used to define a particular type or branch of the relationship between living organisms and their environment e.g. aquatic ecology; avian ecology. Where the species is a community of Homo sapiens, sharing a common heritage of ideas, beliefs values and knowledge, the interrelationship is called cultural ecology. It includes an environmental complex of human activities undertaken for profit. The activities are concerned with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services and the management of natural resources (land, forest, water), finances, income, and expenditure of a community, business enterprise, etc. This highlights the fact that the subject matter of both ecology and economics, which are themselves interrelated, cannot be isolated from all the other social, ideological and political problems. Evidence for this are the categories of ‘political ecology’ and ‘social ecology’, which have emerged from the social sciences, to highlight the relationships between political and social organisations and environmental issues.

Applied ecology, being an instrumental mode of systems thinking, has a role to play, as behavioural structures in stabilising the humankind-nature relationship. It is central to an educational system for sustainability, which presents exploitative management and conservation management as two sides of the coin of economic development. Applied ecology provides the operational tools for environmental organisations and institutions interacting within a society, and constituting it. It thereby contributes to group solidarity for planetary survival by providing practical solutions to the challenges of the industrialised environment. A full understanding requires placing applied ecology in the context of systems thinking about the organisation of natural resources and people for production. It is about providing tools for modifying human production by people who are organising for nature conservation. Ecology drives national, and global strategies by which these groups respond to ethical values in nature.

Cultural ecology
Culture first emerges within the ecosystems of primates where it is expressed in the learned group behaviours of food- gathering and display, which are local to a species in a certain place. In humans, culture appeared as the integrated system of learned behaviour patterns characteristic of members of a society. The system of behaviour constitutes a way of life of any given social group. It is also a social heritage, transmitted from generation to generation by individuals and organisations. This heritage is instilled into the minds of the young, not only by initiation and education, but also by the long, unconscious conditioning whereby each individual becomes the person he/she ultimately is. It thus becomes a form of social heredity. As an evolved harmonious whole it ensures that all the institutions interacting within a society, and constituting it, contribute to group solidarity.

New relationships are being forged between culture and ecology in response to social concerns that arise because of the present state of the earth household. One of these responses is the concept of ‘sustainability’, which is not a scientific term, but more a focus of social problems arising from the large-scale use of natural resources. These issues can only be solved by new social organisations, local and global, established to manage industrial production within the limitations of Earth’s ecological infrastructure. There also has to be a new holistic cross-disciplinary social model, where knowledge about human social evolution is categorised to connect the social sciences with disciplines such as law, history, geography, education, and biology. A start in this direction was made by Ramchandra Guha (1994) who argues in favour of creating an ‘environmentally orientated sociology’ for a world in environmental crisis by placing ecological infrastructure at the base of the traditional pyramidal model of society.

In such a pyramid, consisting of ‘nature’, ‘society’ and ‘culture, the two functional pillars of social organisation are the organisation of people for production (political economy) and the organisation of natural resources for production (natural economy). Both of these economies draw upon what may be called the planetary economy. This model of cultural ecology is provisionally set out in Fig 11.1. Geographers and anthropologists mean different (but complementary) things by "cultural ecology." In general, "cultural ecology" studies the relationship between a given society and its natural environment. But geographers generally mean the study of how socially organized human activities affect the natural environment; anthropologists generally mean the study of how the natural environment affects socially organized behaviours (although, at its extreme, environmental determinism has fallen out of favour among most anthropologists).

Fig 11.1 Provisional model of cultural ecology

Social organisation
Wherever we find a community, however primitive, however complex, we find more than an association of individuals, each pursuing a personal own life and possessing personal ideas; we find a social pattern, a coherent body of customs and ideas, an integrated unity or system in which each element has a definite function in relation to the whole environment, physical, biological and social.

But what determines the pattern? The anthropological explanation is 'the necessary conditions of existence of the social organism'. To this the social institutions must correspond. In turn, the necessary conditions of existence, at any stage of social development, depend on the geographical situation and the level of technology. This is true from the Stone Age to the present age of industrialism. Basic to every form of social organization is the method of obtaining those items essential for human survival. In other words, how do the people of a particular society exploit natural resources to produce their food, clothing, tools, and other items that they need in order to live as human beings?

These 'necessary conditions of existence' shape the relationship of people to each other and their command of natural resources. Individuals utilize nature, directly or indirectly, to produce the necessities of life, not in isolation from each other, not as separate individuals, but in common groups and societies with shared, or conflicting, cultural norms.

Political ecology
Political ecology is an umbrella term for a variety of projects that involve politics and the natural environment. ese projects generally fall within one of three types:
 * attempts to study politics using the language and methods of ecology (in other words, the claim that, like species of plants and animals, societies and states can only be understood in terms of their place in a larger system including other societies or states)
 * the study of political struggles for control over natural resources, or of political struggles whose outcome is determined by differential access to natural resources
 * research on biodiversity and natural resource exploitation that is intended to inform public policy.

When geographers and anthropologists refer to "political economy," they generally mean the study of how different polities (states or societies) in different parts of the world are actually parts of a global structure through which one polity exploits another polity. This approach to political economy comes out of the works of Immanuel Wallerstein and Andre Gundar Frank, who argues that European development was made possible by the underdevelopment or impoverishment of non-European societies.

Geographical and anthropological political ecologists argue that a cultural ecology informed by political economy will:

 * look at cultures not only in their natural environment, but in their political environment as well
 * look at how unequal relations among societies affect the natural environment
 * look at how unequal relations (especially class relations) within a culture affect the environment

Social ecology
This section is the first five paragraphs from an open article entitled ‘A Social Ecology’ by John Clark in M. Zimmerman et al., Environmental Philosophy, second edition (Prentice Hall, 1997)

"Humanity is Nature achieving self-consciousness."—Elisée Reclus

In its deepest and most authentic sense, a social ecology is the awakening earth community reflecting on itself, uncovering its history, exploring its present predicament, and contemplating its future. One aspect of this awakening is a process of philosophical reflection. As a philosophical approach, a social ecology investigates the ontological, epistemological, ethical and political dimensions of the relationship between the social and the ecological, and seeks the practical wisdom that results from such reflection. It seeks to give us, as beings situated in the course of real human and natural history, guidance in facing specific challenges and opportunities. In doing so, it develops an analysis that is both holistic and dialectical, and a social practice that might best be described as an eco-communitarianism.

The Social and the Ecological
A social ecology is first of all, an ecology. There are strong communitarian implications in the very term ecology. Literally, it means the logos, the reflection on or study of, the oikos, or household. Ecology thus calls upon us to begin to think of the entire planet as a kind of community of which we are members. It tells us that all of our policies and problems are in a sense "domestic" ones. While a social ecology sometimes loses its bearings as it focuses on specific social concerns, when it is consistent it always situates those concerns within the context of the earth household, whatever else it may study within that community. The dialectical approach of a social ecology requires social ecologists to consider the ecological dimensions of all "social" phenomena. There are no "non-ecological" social phenomena to consider apart from the ecological ones.

In some ways, the term "social" in "social ecology" is the more problematical one. There is a seeming paradox in the use of the term "social" for what is actually a strongly communitarian tradition. Traditionally, the "social" realm has been counterposed to the "communal" one, as in Tönnies' famous distinction between society and community, Gesellschaft and Gemeinschaft. Yet this apparent self-contradiction may be a path to a deeper truth. A social ecology is a project of reclaiming the communitarian dimensions of the social, and it is therefore appropriate that it seek to recover the communal linguistic heritage of the very term itself. "Social" is derived from "socius," or "companion." A "society" is thus a relationship between companions—in a sense, it is itself a household within the earth household.

An Evolving Theory
Over the past quarter-century, a broad social and ecological philosophy has emerged under the name "social ecology." While this philosophy has recently been most closely associated with the thought of social theorist Murray Bookchin, it continues a long tradition of ecological communitarian thought going back well into the nineteenth century. The lineage of social ecology is often thought to originate in the mutualistic, communitarian ideas of the anarchist geographer Kropotkin (1842–1921). One can certainly not deny that despite Kropotkin's positivistic tendencies and his problematical conception of nature, he has an important relationship to social ecology. His ideas concerning mutual aid, political and economic decentralization, human-scaled production, communitarian values, and the history of democracy have all made important contributions to the tradition. However, it is rooted much more deeply in the thought of another great anarchist thinker, the French geographer Elisée Reclus (1830–1905). During the latter half of the last century, and into the beginning of the present one, Reclus developed a far-ranging "social geography" that laid the foundations of a social ecology, as it explored the history of the interaction between human society and the natural world, starting with the emergence of homo sapiens and extending to Reclus' own era of urbanization, technological development, political and economic globalization, and embryonic international cooperation.

Reclus envisioned humanity achieving a free, communitarian society in harmony with the natural world. His extensive historical studies trace the long record of experiments in cooperation, direct democracy and human freedom, from the ancient Greek polis, through Icelandic democracy, medieval free cities and independent Swiss cantons, to modern movements for social transformation and human emancipation. At the same time, he depicts the rise and development of the modern centralized state, concentrated capital and authoritarian ideologies. His sweeping historical account includes an extensive critique of both capitalism and authoritarian socialism from an egalitarian and anti-authoritarian perspective, and an analysis of the destructive ecological effects of modern technology and industry allied with the power of capital and the state. It is notable that a century ago Reclus' social theory attempted to reconcile a concern for justice in human society with compassionate treatment of other species and respect for the whole of life on earth; a philosophical problem that has only recently remerged in ecophilosophy and environmental ethics.

Historical models of communitarianism
Every morning, people leave small country towns in cars to go their workplace and are passed by others whose work destination is the place they have just left. In this dynamic transport shuttle everyone is somehow connected with, and supporting, a transport system based on private cars. Science now indicates that this massive carbon economy has dislodged the biosphere from one of its stable states that has supported human evolution for the past two million years. Climatic change has started to unfold and the world is not a unified community with powers to produce a global technological fix. Many are beginning to believe that in this scenario, sustainable development, with its adherence to annual year on year increases in spending power, is pointing in the wrong direction. Rather, what is needed is a sustainable economic retreat. This will require global strategies to adjust the relationship between production systems and natural resources to generate rates of waste emission that the biosphere can assimilate.

In contrast, a market town in the 1850s was a small balanced community. It represented the oldest kind of human institution, found absolutely everywhere throughout the world in all kinds of societies. Since the late Palaeolithic more than 100 billion human beings have lived on earth and the majority have spent their entire life as members of very small groups, rarely of more than a few hundred persons. Their production systems were each composed of few people. This picture is the staring point for ideas that there is a basic human need for small communities, which is encoded in our genes. It is in our behavioural makeup that we still orientate towards a group; the small group of the village and the tribe. Rural communities in the British 2001 Population Census are still small, yet market towns with their surrounding villages now lack any sense of communal focus or scale of production. Their fragmented residential, commercial and cultural centres emphasise transportation by car so that the inhabitants also lack any sense of pedestrian scale. Village and town are no longer serving as magnets for both people and ideas. People now seem to like isolation. New housing infills are socially sterile. Everything is new clean and neat. Neighbours are usually only glimpsed as they walk to the car. Each house is a small fortress equipped with a barking dog or alarm system. The only visible activity is macho man cutting his lawns. There are obviously great differences between old and new. Leaving aside the crushing poverty, we can legitimately ask if a pre-industrial community was really a haven of creativity and neighbourly harmony, which could serve as a planning model for today’s social ills. Have we really lost a unique combination of unity with social, visual and ecological variety? Is there an historical small-town target that modern planners should use for social and ecological regeneration? Planners, since their profession emerged in the late 19th century, have thought so. Nineteenth century society was based on ideas of mutual aid, political and economic decentralisation, human-scaled production and communitarian ideas (Fig 11.2).

Fig 11.2 A small-town model of communitarianism.

These ideas of social ecology, as a recipe for human life, were first articulated at the end of the 19th century for an improved cooperative economy by the Russian geographer Peter Kropokin. The Scottish planner, Patrick Geddes and his pupil Lewis Mumford developed them in Britain. Americans have followed this path since the 1990s to restore the integrity of their basic institutions and turn back disturbing trends toward crime, social disorder, and family breakdown. The past decade has been an era of important social reforms: in the schools, in the criminal justice system, in family policy. In states and localities across the U.S.A, citizens have fought for greater emphasis on character, individual responsibility, and virtues and values in the public square. Partly as a result, on a host of "leading social indicators”, such as rates of violent crime, rates of youth crime, levels of teenage pregnancy, and even student test scores, the nation is showing incremental but significant improvements.

Communitarian ideas and policy approaches have been playing a major role in this growing North American movement of cultural and institutional regeneration. Communitarian thinkers are in the forefront of the ‘Character Education Movement’, which is fostering a return to the teaching of good personal conduct and individual responsibility in thousands of schools around the country. Likewise, communitarians have been playing a role in the new community-based approaches to criminal justice, which are showing solid success in restoring neighbourhood order and achieving real reductions in violent crime. In the area of family policy, communitarians have worked for policies to strengthen families and discourage divorce. They have led in devising fresh, incentive-based policies designed to discourage a casual approach to marriage and to promote "children-first" thinking and family stability, while at the same time preserving the rights of women and men. The need for action has now reached the large politically influential community of the Evangelical Church, where a group of leaders, convinced of the science behind climate change, is trying to persuade its local membership to reduce their domestic carbon emissions. Communitarianism has become a part of one of the most innovative movements working to renew and revitalize American society.

Yesterday in every town is now a piece of the history of this movement, and everyone who lived through the past twenty-four hours holds some of the public evidence that could be put towards learning about the past to better understand the present and shape the future. The history of communities is in the making; it is not a dead thing to be pulled out and praised or deplored; it is the inhabitants who are custodians of the past, by the recording of the present. To make history part of the community’s social toolkit there has to be a reorientation of history towards ecology. Social ecology is nothing more than an environmentally orientated study of a community, which explores a timeline of the relations between ecological infrastructure, politics, community organisations, the economy and culture. The creation of small town models is therefore an important practical aim for the enrichment of cultural ecology as an educational resource.

Systems thinking
A system is any group of interdependent or interacting parts. Parts are generally systems themselves and are composed of other parts, just as systems are generally parts or components of other systems. Systems thinkers consider that:

 * a "system" is a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as a structured functional unit
 * information flows between the different elements that compose the system
 * a system is a community situated within an environment
 * information flows from and to the surrounding environment via semi-permeable membranes or boundaries
 * systems are often composed of entities seeking equilibrium, but can exhibit oscillating, chaotic, growth or decay behaviours.

Systems thinking techniques may be used to study any kind of system; natural, scientific, social, or conceptual. It was the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s concepts of an open system and general systems theory that established systems thinking as a major scientific movement. He set out to replace the mechanistic foundations of science with the following holistic vision:

“General system theory is a general science of ‘wholeness’ which up till now was considered a vague, hazy, and semi-metaphysical concept. In elaborate form it would be a mathematical discipline in itself purely formal but applicable to the various empirical sciences. For sciences concerned with ‘organized wholes’, it would be of similar significance to that which probability theory has for sciences concerned with ‘chance events’ (Berlalanffy, 1968).

The advantages of systems thinking are:

 * It helps explain why changing a system frequently leads to counterintuitive system responses. For example feedback loops may operate to either keep the organization in check or unbalance it.
 * Traditional decision-making tends to involve linear cause and effect relationships. By taking a systems approach, we can see the whole complex of bidirectional interrelationships. Instead of analysing a problem in terms of an input and an output, for example, we look at the whole system of inputs, processes, outputs, feedback, and controls. This larger picture will typically provide more useful results than traditional methods.
 * Systems thinking also helps integrate the temporal dimension of any decision. Instead of looking at discrete "snapshots" at points in time, a systems methodology will allow us to see change as a continuous process.
 * Systems thinking aims to gain insights into the whole by understanding the linkages and interactions between the elements that comprise the whole "system".
 * Systems thinking can help avoid the silo effect, where a lack of organisational communication can cause a change in one area of a system to adversely affect another area of the system.

These advantages are particularly valuable in studying the evolution and organisation of ecosystems. In this respect, some of the basic principles of ecology, such as interdependence, recycling, resilience and diversity are concerned with processes organised as open systems. In communities, information and ideas flow through networks of systems with feedback loops, which enable individuals and organisations to adapt to changing situations. In this respect, systems thinking, which is behind theories of biological complexity and Earth’s self-sustaining properties, also provides foundations for conservation policies and action plans.


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4/3...Nxe4/4. Qh5

Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence
Black is threatened with Qf7#. They have seven legal moves that prevent this - surely one of them must allow them to avoid ruin?

 * 4...Qe7 and 4...Qf6 allow Nxe4 winning a piece, as without the queen to defend d5 the fork trick has had its prongs bent.
 * 4...g6 allows Qxe5+ picking up the knight or the rook.
 * 4...Ke7 allows Qxe5# picking up the game.
 * 4...d5 gives the pawn back for nothing as after 5. Bxd5 the threat is renewed.
 * 4...Ng5 is met by 5. d4 forcing the knight to e6. Even if knight and king both survive the subsequent complications, White can regain the pawn and enjoy a whopping lead in development.

So by a process of elimination, it has to be

 * /4...Nd6/

Which has the enormous attraction of attacking the undefended c4 bishop.

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4 Nxe4 4. Qh5


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4/3...Nxe4/4. Qh5/4...Nd6

=Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence=

White has had the tables rudely turned on them! White must move the bishop or allow Black to free themselves by capturing it. Keeping up the pressure on f7 would be a good idea, and for reasons that will emerge later they wish to keep d5 free...

 * /5. Bb3/

/5. Qxe5/ is also plausible but is a complete anti-climax; once the queens are exchanged (5...Qe7 6. Qxe7+ Bxe7) Black's game will be easier by orders of magnitude. If Black needs more action, they can try 5...Be7 6. Qxg7 Bf6 7. Qg4 Nc6 (threatening Ne5 and Nd4 attacking c2) but after 8. Bb3 Black has about nothing for the pawn and the king is not safe.

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4 Nxe4 4. Qh5 Nd6


text:
Talk:Mac OS X Tiger/Using the Finder

 * Screenshots
 * List View
 * Collumn View

title: Talk:Mac OS X Tiger/Using the Finder


text: User talk:80.97.242.44

title: User talk:80.97.242.44


text:
United Nations/Charter/Chapter 1

Article 1
The Purposes of the United Nations are:

 * 1) To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace;
 * 2) To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace;
 * 3) To achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and
 * 4) To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attainment of these common ends.

Article 2
The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article 1, shall act in accordance with the following Principles.

 * 1) The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.
 * 2) All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfill in good faith the obligations assumed by them in accordance with the present Charter.
 * 3) All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered.
 * 4) All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations.
 * 5) All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action.
 * 6) The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.
 * 7) Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter Vll.

title: United Nations/Charter/Chapter 1


text:
United Nations/Charter/Chapter 2

Article 3
The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states which, having participated in the United Nations Conference on International Organization at San Francisco, or having previously signed the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in accordance with Article 110.

Article 4

 * 1) Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations.
 * 2) The admission of any such state to membership in the United Nations will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

Article 5
A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council.

Article 6
A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Principles contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Organization by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

title: United Nations/Charter/Chapter 2


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nf6/3. Bc4/3...Nxe4/4. Qh5/4...Nd6/5. Bb3

Vienna Game, Falkbeer Defence
The position is imbalanced; Black is ahead by a pawn but behind in development. In searching for his next move he may choose two radically different developments: with

 * /5...Nc6/,

an apparently strength-cementing move, he enters into an extremely tactical opening, the so-called Frankenstein-Dracula variation, leading to a forced exchange sacrifice and a highly sharp position. On the contrary, with

 * /5...Be7/

he opts for a quiet continuation.

Theory table
.

1. e4 e5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Bc4 Nxe4 4. Qh5 Nd6 5. Bb3


text:
United Nations/Charter/Chapter 3

Article 7
There are established as the principal organs of the United Nations:
 * a General Assembly

 * a Security Council

 * an Economic and Social Council

 * a Trusteeship Council

 * an International Court of Justice

 * and a Secretariat.

Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be established in accordance with the present Charter.

Article 8
The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs.

title: United Nations/Charter/Chapter 3


text:
United Nations/Charter/Chapter 4

Article 9

 * 1) The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations.
 * 2) Each Member shall have not more than five representatives in the General Assembly.

Article 10
The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters.

Article 11

 * 1) The General Assembly may consider the general principles of co-operation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and may make recommendations with regard to such principles to the Members or to the Security Council or to both.
 * 2) The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any Member of the United Nations, or by the Security Council, or by a state which is not a Member of the United Nations in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 2, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any such question on which action is necessary shall be referred to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion.
 * 3) The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security Council to situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security.
 * 4) The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this Article shall not limit the general scope of Article 10.

Article 12

 * 1) While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests.
 * 2) The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security Council, shall notify the General Assembly at each session of any matters relative to the maintenance of international peace and security which are being dealt with by the Security Council and shall similarly notify the General Assembly, or the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is not in session, immediately the Security Council ceases to deal with suchmatters.

Article 13
The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommendations for the purpose of:

a. promoting international co-operation in the political field and encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification;

b. promoting international co-operation in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and assisting in the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.

The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the General Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in paragraph 1 (b) above are set forth in Chapters IX and X.

Article 14
Subject to the provisions of Article 12, the General Assembly may recommend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations, including situations resulting from a violation of the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations.

Article 15

 * 1) The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or taken to maintain international peace and security.
 * 2) The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations.

Article 16
The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it under Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the trusteeship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.

Article 17

 * 1) The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization.
 * 2) The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly.
 * 3) The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned.

Article 18

 * 1) Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote.
 * 2) Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph 1 (c) of Article 86, the admission of new Members to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions.
 * 3) Decisions on other questions, including the determination of additional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.

Article 19
A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due from it for the preceding two full years. The General Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member.

Procedure

Article 20
The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require. Special sessions shall be convoked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the Members of the United Nations.

Article 21
The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session.

Article 22
The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.

title: United Nations/Charter/Chapter 4


text:
Talk:Java Programming/Understanding a Java Program

In later modules, we can do more advanced enhancements of this basic program:

 * put this in a package,, instead of the default package
 * Change the type of,   fields to java.awt.Point2D
 * Overload the constructor with a Distance(Point2D, Point2D) constructor
 * first constructor calls this((Point2D, Point2D)
 * copy arguments defensively since Point/Point2D are mutable.
 * Change Point to Point2D.Double and change the constructor to take doubles not ints and change main to parse doubles not ints.
 * define a new Point3D interface (extends Point2D) and Point3D.Double (extends Point2D.Double?) class to show how the Distance program can work with other Points
 * Add exception handling around the String->number parsing and array indexing in main
 * use number formats for the points, distance
 * use internationalization/resource bundles for the text, number formats

--djb 18:26, 28 January 2006 (UTC)

Friendly to Newcomers
Could this example be a bit confusing to newbies to the language? --Mattylaws (talk) 12:44, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

Questions
How do you use the distance program in eclipse? It isn't obvious how points can be entered the command prompt seems unresponsive.

error
jc@JCMAIN:~/java$ javac Distance.java Distance.java:1: 'class' or 'interface' expected { ^ 1 error

- Any ideas? 161.112.83.102 10:40, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

This didn't compile for me until I changed:

...

To:

That said I really don't know what I'm doing here, and just got the idea to try that off of some random googling. Should the page be changed, or maybe there's a better fix. --Keithonearth (talk) 19:09, 21 August 2009 (UTC)


text:
Java Programming/Javadoc

Java allows users to document the classes and the members by using a particular syntax of comment.

Syntax
A documentation comment is framed by slash-star-star and star-slash (i.e. /** ... */). The documentation is in the HTML format.

A documentation comment is placed just above the commented entity (class, constructor, method, field).

In a documentation comment, the first part is a description text in the HTML format. The second part is a list of special attributes whose name starts with an at sign (@):

 * : Description of the sum method.
 * : Description attribute of the parameter a of the method.
 * : Description attribute of the parameter b of the method.
 * : Description attribute of the value returned by the method.

Here is a non exhaustive list of special attributes:

See also annotations since Java 5.

Documentation
The JDK provides a tool named javadoc which allows to generate the documentation of the well commented classes. The javadoc command without argument give the complete syntax of the command.

Example : for a class named  defined in a package named   in the file   :

The documentation can be generated in a specific folder (C:\ProgDoc for example) with the following command:

The options of this command are described below:
 * : The documentation in US English.
 * : Create the pages about the use of the classes and the packages.
 * : The path of the compiled classes (*.class).
 * : The path of the source classes (*.java).
 * : The path where the documentation must be generated.
 * : The name of the package to document. It is possible to specify several packages, or one or several class names to document only those ones.

The description page of a package copy the description text from the file named  which should be placed in the given folder. In our example, we should document the package in the file.

Since Java 5, the  file can be replaced by a special Java file named   containing only the package declaration preceding by a documentation comment.

title: Java Programming/Javadoc