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William Shakespeare's Works/Histories/Richard III

Act Summaries and Notes

 * /Act I/
 * /Act II/
 * /Act III/
 * /Act IV/
 * /Act V/

Overview and Contextual Notes
Begun circa 1593 and first published in Quarto in 1597, Richard III was written as a sort of sequel to Shakespeare's immensely successful Henry VI plays, which portrayed the Wars of the Roses between the House of York and the House of Lancaster. Richard is portrayed--falsely, historians agree--as an evil hunchback with a lame arm and a short leg. This is largely due to the propaganda efforts of Queen Elizabeth I, the granddaughter of King Henry VII, who kills Richard at the end of our play. As such, there are numerous historical inaccuracies, and although many of these will be addressed in this text, the reader is advised to at least glance over the Wikipedia entry on King Richard III.

Richard has been portrayed both in film and in audio (not to mention onstage) by numerous actors, including Laurence Olivier, Ian McKellen, Kenneth Branagh, John Barrymore, and others.

Plot Summary
Richard III is about King Richard III of England, the last of the Plantagenet Kings. When the play begins, he is the Duke of Gloucester, a large province in southern England. Over the course of the play, Richard commits increasingly repulsive crimes against members of his own family in order to become king, and is finally slain in battle by the Earl of Richmond, who becomes King Henry VII

Richard in Henry VI
Richard first appears in Henry VI, Part 2 as the third of four sons of Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York (historically, he was actually the youngest). Though his relationship with his brothers appears warm enough, the only person who shows true affection for Richard is his father, York. Many outside his family ridicule him due to his physical deformities. At the end of Henry VI, Part 2, he kills the Duke of Somerset, his father's arch-rival, and enters in the first scene of Part 3 with the slain Duke's head, much to the delight of his family. After York's death near the beginning of Henry VI, Part 3, Richard's darker motivations begin to manifest themselves. After he is made Duke of Gloucester, he delivers one of the longest soliloquies--if not the longest--that Shakespeare ever wrote, in which he presents his motivations and his plans to seize the crown. After a series of battles, in which he kills Edward, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the throne, Richard goes to the Tower of London and murders Henry VI, who has been imprisoned by the Yorkists' victorious army.

Sources Cited (Historical/Contextual Information Only):
[The Folger Shakespeare Library]


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Talk:C Programming/Particularities of C

VLA - variable lengh arrays
It think there is some confusion about arrays on this page. I like to reminde everboda that C99 has introduced VLAs - variable length arrays. And they do allow to pass the bounds to a function:

long Fu(int n, int m, long a[n][m]) long Fu(int n, int m, long a[*][*]); long Fu(int n, int m, long a[ ][*]); long Fu(int n, int m, long a[ ][m]);

Sadly the ISO Standart is not available online but cost $18 - so many of us (not me - I got one) have never seen it. And compiler vendors are not keen to tell us what they can't do.

I move the problem down to C89.

--Krischik T 07:14, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

This module is very biased. It was obviously written by someone who loves Java.

All the "real" weaknesses of C listed here refer to the fact that C does no run time checking of anything, such as array bounds. This is left for the programmer to do when necessary because it introduces overhead.

Saying that memory allocation is "tedious" or function pointers are "ugly" is very subjective. It is not a good argument at all. What is tedious or ugly to one person may be fun or beautiful to another.

"Not object-oriented" is a weakness? So, object-oriented is better than procedural? Once again, very subjective.

C is a language for experienced programmers. It is better suited for them because it gives them all the power they need to make high performance programs. If you are a beginner programmmer, other languages, such as Java, are better for you. Those languages force you to program "the right way", preventing programmer's mistakes and cleaning up the mess left behind.

So, to say that a language is better or worse than another, or to say that something is a weakness or strenght, depends on the programmer and the program beeing created.

Italo Tasso 23:05, 12 June 2007 (UTC)

3D arrays
I won't try to speak for the C99 changes, only the traditional behaviour.

In the first function, sizeof returns pretty much what you would expect -- the size of the object on the stack.

In the second function, the type intarray becomes int** (or equivalently int[][]) and sizeof returns the size of the pointer. This, dare I say, goofy behaviour comes from the very beginnings of the language and is a common cause of bugs for novices.

Is it possible for a function to accept the built-in 2D or 3D arrays of arbitrary size? For example, a function that accepts int a[5][4][3]; on one call, and later accepts int b[10][10][10]; in a later call?

My understanding is that it is not -- that is why programmers who need dynamic multidimensional arrays often don't use the build-in 2D or 3D arrays, but instead use Iliffe vectors or some other implementation.

If you think it is possible, please improve this book by telling us how to do it. What is the next step in improving the "lonely_count_sum" function in the following program to support arbitrary-size 3D arrays? --DavidCary (talk) 21:03, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

 * My direct attempt at doing so (using a type cast to int[x][y][z]) wasn't successful - gcc doesn't seem to like that cast even if xyz contain specific integers. One other common workaround besides the one you mentioned so far involves creating a 1-dimentional array to emulate a 3-dimentional one, which requires multiplication.   Because of this, I removed the accurracy tag from that section, but added a comment saying how it can be worked around.
 * However, based on reading of the rest of the article, I do question the POV. In particular, the "broken abstraction" implies that there's an actual deficiency by combining the concept of arrays and pointers, and when combined with other aspects within the module, I feel that there is a definate bias.  --Sigma 7 (talk) 04:01, 3 February 2009 (UTC)

NPOV
I recommend the following be removed:
 * 1) Broken abstraction between pointers and arrays
 * 2) Order of operations not totally intuitive sometimes
 * 3) Not object-oriented
 * 4) No overloading of operators
 * 5) No built in way of handling exceptions
 * 6) Requires use of macros and careful information-hiding and abstraction for code portability

1 is questionable, aside from variable length multi-dimensional arrays there's not much issue. 2 is questionable, since most other programming languages I've seen also have order of operations that appear when you factor in everything. 3 is claiming a whole paradigm is substandard. 4 is pointless, since you can emulate operators using function calls (plus not all languages support overloading those operators either). 5 is incorrect, you can use the signal function from the C89 library - most implementations that raise the SIGSEGV exception would most likely have it available to catch, and any other exception type not handleable by longjmp is generally for an operating system that has it's own exception handling libraries. I question 6, since you don't "require" macros for code portability (although you may need something similar for OS or library compatibility).

These items should be bunched together - if you can or should keep these, it makes the article look less like buckshotting.
 * Arrays do not keep track of their own length (as in Java for example)
 * No automatic array bounds checking
 * No garbage collection
 * Variables are not zero-ed at declaration
 * Tedious memory allocation

Also, the first bit in Tedious memory allocation implies that VLS can't exist, even though it's both supported in C99 as standard, and was allowed by most C89-style compilers as an extension.

Now, any comments? --Sigma 7 (talk) 04:17, 3 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I took up the challenge; the section no longer reads like it was written by a guy with a chip on his shoulder and now emphasizes the low-level nature of C and how it causes the weaknesses. I accidentally removed the C89 section, although I'm not entirely sure it should be restored. Finally, is implementing a real string type even feasible without an object-oriented language? BioTube (talk) 23:11, 14 March 2009 (UTC)
 * That was caused by a faulty closing comment tag. HTML Comment tags are   and  .  In any case, I removed a few others, since they aren't exactly weaknesses or duplicates.  As of now, I feel the NPOV tag can be removed.  --Sigma 7 (talk) 18:43, 16 March 2009 (UTC)
 * "is implementing a real string type even feasible without an object-oriented language?" Yes. Some versions of BASIC and Pascal somehow manage to have a real string type without being object-oriented. --DavidCary (talk) 12:26, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

 * The built-in 2D and 3D arrays have the flaws discussed earlier on this talk page. I think this page should help our readers by giving a link to a discussion of work-arounds. Even though one could argue that "the fact that work-arounds exist means that that isn't a "weakness" of the C programming language as a whole".
 * --DavidCary (talk) 13:16, 20 March 2009 (UTC)

rename of the page and rewording of "weaknesses"
I propose renaming this page as "Particularities of C" and do away of characterizing all the listed characteristics as weaknesses, those simple steps would address the non-NPOV issue. Any objections ? --Panic (talk) 06:51, 23 November 2009 (UTC)
 * I quite agree. The points mentioned in the section are not necessarily "weaknesses", they are just things found in a large amount of languages but are not present in C. Intermediate-Hacker (discuss • contribs) 18:01, 7 November 2011 (UTC)

Proposal to Remove "Lack of Garbage Collection"
I propose that we remove lack of garbage collection as a weakness, as it is really an optional component, and comes with a power.

 * In place of removal, provide valid content about positive reasons for not including it. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 05:35, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

Power of No Garbage Collection
The lack of garbage collection removes an unneeded overhead. I know I personally have never had to use GC in order to create a functioning program. As long as you are capable enough of figuring out when appropriate to free memory without any chance of zombifying it, the lack of GCs makes your code much more efficient.

There Is Optional Garbage Collection
All you have to do is use a library such as Boehm's Garbage Collector and you can start collecting! It is not that hard, just start using GC_MALLOC instead of malloc. Most high-level programming languages actually use Boehm's Garbage Collector, including Portable.NET, Mono, and GNU's D compiler.

Memory Leaks can be Detected
It is possible to use leak detectors, which will notify you when a leak is detected so that you can fix it during the debugging phase. As long as developers use good coding practices, they will not find memory leaks to scourge their code.

It would be useful, however, to find a place in the book to reference garbage collection libraries.

--Topsfield99 (talk) 20:26, 5 July 2010 (UTC)

 * In place or obscurity take the chance to not only state that memory leaks are easy to occur and provide methodologies and reference tools that will ease the burden of fixing those bugs. Take the chance also to explain some security concerns. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 05:35, 16 December 2011 (UTC)

Neutrality
The article starts with the statement that C has some weaknesses. While I agree that C has terse syntax and lacks some features found in more modern languages, the term "weaknesses" is prejudicial. C was designed in an earlier age when memory was dear and CPUs were slow. It was designed for a specific task. It was designed for experienced, skilled programmers. It is a testament to the insights of Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie that it has survived and evolved to today.

As I recall the original title of this entire section was "Weakness of C" and some readers objected. Although the title of the section has changed, the bias of this section remains in the first sentence.

I am not suggesting that the issues discussed here are not important. They are, users of the C language need to be aware of them.

However, I am suggesting that many of the issues discussed here were the result of specific decisions by Kernighan and Ritchie. Revising this section so that it reflects the decisions and tradeoff would improve the objectivity of the section and be more informative.

Thanks. Dmp47 (discuss • contribs) 18:16, 31 December 2011 (UTC)DMP47

 * I've taken a new shot in solving the problem see if you agree and if not you can yourself attempt to address it. Panic (discuss • contribs) 20:19, 31 December 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:C Programming/Particularities of C


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Down'n'dirty Blacksmithing/Hot Cutting

Hot cutting, as implied, is a method of cutting to length the piece of metal that you are working on. The most important thing to remember is not to cut the whole way through the piece.  Hot flying metal seems to have a liking for skin. Trying to explain to the doctor at emergency why you have a fresh brand mark on your hide invites some very interesting conversation. Safety glasses are a must too

A hot cut chisel is ground or forged to thirty degrees instead of the sixty degrees a common cold chisel is. The point may be centered in the chisel or offset to one side.

Both chisels have their uses. When hot cutting with the point in the center of the chisel, metal will be pushed equally to both sides. When the point is offset to one side, metal is pushed one way only so a straighter, squarer cut may result.

To make a hot cut is a three handed job. If you don’t have the third hand, have someone help you or have a separate way to hold the steel in place. The first thing to do when hot cutting is to get the steel to a bright yellow heat where you want to cut it. Remember that as you cut the steel it will heat the chisel tip. So you need to cool off the tip on a regular basis so a can of water nearby is a necessity. A word of caution: do not use the face of your anvil to cut on because if you go too deep or miss with a chisel you will damage the surface of your anvil. Use a sacrificial piece of scrap metal on top of your anvil. Ideally, you would use a soft metal, such as copper or aluminum, to preserve the sharpness of the chisel's edge.

There are two basic ways to make a hot cut: one is from one side only and is usual only done with thin stock. The idea is start cutting from the top down until you are almost through the whole piece. Stop before you are all the way through the piece. Work the steel at cut point back and forth until the last little bit work hardens and breaks off.

The second way is to cut to the mid point of the piece of steel and flip it over to finish it with a second cut. Once again it is important to leave a small piece to be broken off by hand.

With a center point hot cut chisel the metal is pushed to both sides.

Piece is flipped and the cut continued on the other side.

With an offset point a straighter cut may be made.

Piece is flipped and the cut continued on the other side.

Another approach is to use a hot-cut hardy tool. This is essentially a hot cut chisel with a "handle" the right shape to fit in your hardy hole. This frees up a hand, but care is needed to strike squarely, to avoid cutting your hammer.

Even handier is a 2-sided springed hot cut hardy tool, which is sort of like a big nipper to fit in the hardy hole. You hit the top cut, driving it down onto the work to be cut, which is driven onto the lower cut. This cuts both sides of the work at once and avoids scarring either anvil or hammer.

Next Chapter: Exercise 3: Drawing

title: Down'n'dirty Blacksmithing/Hot Cutting


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User:WietsE~enwikibooks

Special:Contributions/WietsE

title: User:WietsE~enwikibooks


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Wikijunior:Languages/Irish

The Irish language is usually called Irish, but it is sometimes called Irish Gaelic or Gaelic/Gaeilge.

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Irish uses a variation of the Latin alphabet, just like English. Irish does not have the letters Q, W, and Y. Irish has the letters J, K, V, X, and Z, but these are only used in borrowed foreign words. Out of them, only V is common.

Irish indicates long vowels with a diacritic called the síneadh fada or just fada. For example, a short A is written as A, while a long A is written as Á.

Because of these differences, Irish has 27 letters, 1 more than English. The Irish alphabet is:

How many people speak this language?
In total, there are 1,656,790 fluent speakers of Irish in the Republic of Ireland (click here to learn about Ireland), from the 2006 census. Only about 75,000 people use Irish as their first and daily language. The Irish language is a required subject in schools in the Republic of Ireland, so most Irish teenagers learn the language.

Where is this language spoken?

Irish is spoken mainly in the Gaeltachtaí, but it is also spoken in some of the homes of native Irish. People also love to speak it on holidays as it identifies them as not British, and only Irish people are fluent in the language.

What is the history of this language?
It is unclear when Celtic languages, which Irish is one of, came to Ireland. Primitive Irish, the earliest form of the Irish language, appears to have died out around the 4th century CE. Old Irish, the next form of the Irish language, lasted until around the 10th century CE, when it was replaced by Middle Irish. Modern Irish, which is still spoken today, appeared around the 16th century CE.

Up until the 19th century, Irish was the most commonly spoken language in Ireland. During the 19th century and continuing on to today, the English language replaced much of the use of Irish in Ireland. Under British law in the early 19th century, people were banned from speaking Irish and were severely punished for doing so.

Irish is becoming more and more popular with Irish youth. It is used in day-to-day chat, and every summer thousands of students spend three weeks to a month in a Gaeltacht (Irish area) where nothing but Irish is spoken continuously.

Irish is one of the oldest written languages in the world, and was used by Early Irish Monks in beautiful illustrated manuscripts, such as the Book of Kells.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Ré Ó Laighleas is an author of Irish short-stories such as "Punk", "Séimí agus Anna", and "Na Bradmharcaigh". These are standard scéal (stories) that Secondary school "Árdléibheal" (Higher Level) Irish students must study, along with poems to prepare them for the Junior and Leaving Certificate examinations.

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?

 * Dia duit (Dee-ah gwit) - Hello (it literally means "God to you")
 * Dia is Muire duit (Dee-ah is Mwurah gwit) - Reply to dia duit (it literally means "God and Mary to you")
 * Dia duit ar maidin (Dee-ah gwit air mah-jin) - Good morning
 * Conas atá tú? (Kunus a-taw too?) - How are you? (Used mostly in Munster)
 * Cén chaoi a bhfuil tú? (Kane kwee a will too?) - How are you? (Used mostly in Connacht)
 * Cad é mar atá tú? (Kod ay mor a-taw too?) - How are you? (Used mostly in Ulster)
 * ______ is ainm dom. (_______ is an-im dumb)- My name is______
 * Cá bhfuil ______? (Caw will) - Where is _____?
 * Teastíonn _______ uaim (Tass-tee-on ______ oo-am) - I need _______
 * Oíche mhaith (Eee-ha wah) - Good night
 * Slán agat (Slawn a-gut) - Goodbye (said by the person leaving)
 * Slán leat (Slawn laht) - Goodbye (said by the person staying)
 * Slán (Slawn) - Casual goodbye (lit. "health")
 * Slán go fóill (Slawn guh foal) - See you later

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
In Irish

Lá breithe shona duit! Lá breithe shona duit! Lá breithe shona _______! Lá breithe shona duit!

In English

Happy birthday to you! Happy birthday to you! Happy birthday dear ______! Happy birthday to you!

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Irish


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Health and Science/Physics

a. Physics
Physics is a branch of science that deals with matter, energy, motion, charge, and force.

Physics starts with observation. We can observe the world around us with our 5 senses, or we can use a number of tools such as a balance, meter stick or ruler, clock or stop watch to provide a more accurate measurement. Galileo used his pulse to time his experiments, but a stop watch would have improved the accuracy of his measurements. Physicists also use more complicated tools as they look at more complicated events such as the collision of sub-atomic particles in an atomic accelerator. The most important tool of physics is mathematics. You can think of Mathematics as the language of physics.

b. Mass
Mass is a quantity of matter related to weight by Newton's second law of motion

$$Force=mass \cdot Acceleration$$.

We can only know if an object has mass if we try accelerate it.

$$Mass = \frac{Force}{Acceleration}$$

If we measured the mass of an object with an ordinary bathroom scale on Earth, on the Moon, and on Mars, we would find that it weighed most on Earth and least on the moon. In each case, the mass did not change, but the weight did. This is because the gravitational force of each planet is different, but the spring in the scale has not changed. For this reason, we use a balance to determine the mass of an object.

With a balance, as the force of gravity changes, it is pulling equally on both sides of the balance. We are now truly measuring the mass of the object, not its weight. Think of a teeter totter on the moon. If your friend is heavier than you, you will still be lighter on the moon, but if you and your friend are balanced on Earth, you will still be balanced on the moon teeter totter.

Weight is equivalent to the Force in Newton's second law of motion. You would truly feel lighter on the moon, but you have lost no mass, you have simply moved to a different gravity field or inertial framework.

c. Work
Work is a measure of energy. If we push a heavy load, then the work that we do is how hard we push the load times how far we push the load.

 * $$Work=Force \cdot distance$$

d. Force
Force is an influence on an object that causes the object to change its motion - either its speed or the direction in which it moves.

e. Power
Power is the amount of energy expended per unit of time. If you can do lots of work quickly, then you are using more power.

 * $$Power= \frac{(Work\ done)}{(time\ it\ took\ to\ do\ the\ work)}$$

f. Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy of an object based on its position relative to other objects. For example if I lift a ball above the ground at a given distance, then the ball has the potential to fall the distance that I've raised it. The potential energy of a ball can be measured by measuring how high you raise the ball against the force of gravity on the mass of the ball.

Potential energy of the ball is given by the relationship:
 * $$E = m \cdot g \cdot h$$

Where
 * E = energy
 * m = Mass of the ball
 * g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec/sec on Earth)
 * h = height we raise the ball

We also see potential energy as the stored energy of a battery. The energy of a battery is stored chemically. It becomes kinetic energy in the form of heat and light when we turn on the switch of our flashlight.

g. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the amount of energy that an object has based on its motion relative to other objects. Kinetic energy in its simplest form is related to the speed of an object in relation to the observer. Kinetic energy in its most complex form can be heat.

The kinetic energy of a moving ball can be measured by knowing two things about the object
 * 1) The mass of the object. (Determined using a balance.)
 * 2) The velocity of the object (Time how long it takes to travel a given distance) $$velocity=\frac{distance}{time}$$

 * $$\ Kinetic\ energy = \frac{1}{2} \times (Mass\ of\ object) \times (Velocity\ of\ object)^2 $$

 * We write this as $$E_k=\frac{1}{2} m v^2 $$

h. Weight
Weight is the force that gravity exerts upon a body. According to Newtons second Law of motion:

 * $$The\ weight = (mass\ of\ object) \times (local\ acceleration\ of\ gravity)$$

Weight is commonly mistaken for mass, but weight could be significantly more on a planet with a larger gravity, or could be significantly less on a planet with a lower gravity. Mass on the other hand is the same in both circumstances.

i. Matter
Matter is anything that has mass. There are four states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Physicists tend to divide the universe up in two general categories

 * Energy
 * Matter

Einstein showed these to be related ($$E=mc^2$$).

j. Inertia
Inertia is a property of matter that works against an external force. According to Newton's first law of motion, a body at rest tends to stay at rest unless acted on by an outside force. An object in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted on by a force.

k. Friction
Friction is the rubbing of the surface of one object against the surface of another.

At the atomic level you can think of bumpy surface like sand paper rubbing against another surface. When the two surfaces are at rest, the high spots of one surface fit into the valleys of the other surface and it takes quite a bit of force to move one over the other. Once they are moving, the two surfaces bounce from peak to peak like a skier only hitting the tops of the moguls. We observe that it takes more energy to start pushing an object than to keep it moving once moving.

We call these two frictional forces

 * 1) Static Friction
 * 2) Kinetic Friction

The energy that we loose to friction is turned into heat. Rub the palms of your hands back and forth across each other. Your hands will start to get warm, in fact this is a good way to warm your hands when it is chilly. This heat can cause problems in the fan of your computer, or the cylinders of a car, so bearings, oil and grease are used to help reduce the heat and damage that can be caused by friction.

l. Wave

A wave is a forward moving disturbance traveling without moving forward the particles of the medium through which it moves.

In a guitar string for example, the string will vibrate up and down, but the particles that form the string do not move horizontally along the string. Likewise, if you throw a pebble into the water, the water goes up and down and the wave spreads out from the splash point, but there is not a flow of liquid along the surface of the water.

m. Center of gravity
The center of gravity is the point from which all the gravitational forces within an object appear to come. This point is the same as the center of mass in a uniform gravitational field.

n. Exponential notation
An exponential notation is a mathematical notation that makes it easier to work with very large numbers or with very small numbers. In physics it is very common to have very large numbers such as the number of atoms in a drop of water, or the number of stars in a galaxy. It is also quite possible to have very small numbers such Planck's constant (0.0000000000000000000000000000000006626068 m2kg/s).

We write numbers in scientific notation by getting rid of the zero space holders.

 * In large numbers
 * For small numbers the exponent is negative

The exponent tells us how many places we need to move the decimal point. We move it to the right for positive exponents and we move it to the left for negative exponents.

Exponential notation is used on many calculators and programming languages. The ×10 is replaced by the letter E, so we would write 31E6 instead of 31×106.

o. Absolute zero
Absolute zero is a theoretical minimum temperature at which all motion of an atom ceases.

This minimum temperature is:

 * 0 Kelvin = -273.15° Celsius  = –459.67° Fahrenheit

The coldest temperature ever was measured by a MIT team in 2003. The temperature was 450 picoKelvin. this is 450x$$10^{-12}$$ Kelvin or 450 trillionths of a degree from absolute zero.

p. Fulcrum
A fulcrum is the support on which a lever turns in moving a body. By changing the distance between the load and the fulcrum, we can increase or decrease the mechanical advantage of the machine known as a lever.

The Center support of a teeter totter is the fulcrum of the teeter totter.

2. What is the scientific method? How can the scientific method be used to study the Bible?
All science starts with observations. A biologist might observe a bird and describe its colors or actions. A chemist might note a pungent aroma. A physicist might observe an object falling. Each of these events would be an observation. We use our senses, or use machines that can increase the power of our senses.

The observation causes us to ask basic questions about the event. These questions can form the basis of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a scientist's guess about what might explain the observations. A hypothesis is most useful if it suggests an experiment that can be done to either prove or disprove the ideas we have as to the way things work.

We do an experiment to test the hypothesis, and this leads to more observations and we start the process all over again.

We can summarize this by:

When an idea has been tested many times it is called a theory, and if it is tested so thoroughly that we are sure that it accurately describes the phenomenon, it might be called a Law.

The scientific method can be applied to any field of study, and tends to be self corrective. Errors cannot stand long - when others do the experiment they will either get the same results or different results. If they get different results, then more observation, hypotheses, and experiments are needed.

The scientific method can be applied to any field of study, including Bible Study. We are not talking about applying science to the Bible, although that can be quite useful. The science of archeology adds more to our understanding of the world of the Bible with each new discovery.

We can also apply Physics to the Bible, for example the Bible does not say how tall the lamp stand was in the sanctuary, but it does tell us how much the lamp stand and it’s utensils weighed. Exodus 25:39 (One talent of gold would have a volume of about 2 liters). We can use our knowledge of science (density, tinsel strength, etc.) to make an estimate of its height.

The use of science adds details to the story, but does not enhance the spirituality of the Bible reading. The important thing for Christians is not knowing each and every statistic in the Bible, but knowing the God of the Bible (John 17:3). This requires knowledge of the character of God, but it also requires personal interaction with God (John 17:23). With this in mind, there are several useful ways to use the scientific method to learn more about God and to enhance our relationship with him.

Observations
The scientific method of study starts with an observation, and in the spiritual world, there are two types of observations:

 * 1) Text based observation

 * We observe the text of the Bible and then, using this observation as a starting point, we start to ask questions and compare scripture to scripture to find answers.

 * 2) Life based observations

 * We observe events in our life or the lives of our family and friends. These observations lead us to ask questions. These questions, in turn, lead us to search for answers in the Bible. We then choose to act, either accepting the counsel of the Bible or rejecting it.

Hypothesis
When we ask questions, we start to formulate a hypothesis. A good hypothesis leads to predictions that can be shown to be true or false by use of an experiment.

As we use the Scientific method in Bible study, our observation leads us to create a hypothesis. This hypothesis helps create a framework that we use to study the Bible. For example the text: “I the LORD do not change…” in Malachi 3:6 might be used to create a hypothesis that “God is consistent”. We then look at the action of God to see if this is true. We will search the scripture comparing scripture to scripture to find further examples of God acting in a consistent manner.

This is the method used by the Christians of Berea:

We all have hypotheses that we have accepted as true. These hypotheses are based on our training, and experiences. All experiences that we have had in the past guide the hypotheses that we are making today. For example, if someone has had a difficult relationship with their father, they may have a different view of God the Father than someone who has had a wonderful relationship with their father.

It is impossible for us to open the Bible without having underlying hypotheses that we filter the Bible through. These hypotheses affect our understanding of the text. Recognizing our own biases can be difficult, but by looking honestly at our own underlying hypotheses, we can start to see the world more clearly.

Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, thought that Jesus was a good man, and we could learn from him morally. Jefferson did not believe the miraculous accounts of the Bible. He created what is commonly known as the "Jefferson Bible" by cutting these accounts from the books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John and arranging the remaining segments to form a story.

The story is in chronological order and contains most of the words of Jesus, but does not tell of the Angels announcing His birth, it does not talk of miracles, and there is no mention of the resurrection. Thomas Jefferson started with the hypothesis that all of these things were, in his words "nonsense".

Martin Luther, on the other hand, believed that the Bible and the complete Bible was true, including the miracles. Luther believed this so much that he wanted everyone to be able to read its words in their own language. He therefore translated the entire Bible into German.

Jefferson and Luther had a different hypothesis relating to the complete truth of the Bible. Their hypotheses lead them to totally different relationships with God. As you can see, the Hypothesis that we start our Bible study with is very important.

Experiment
As we apply the Scientific method to Bible study, we find that there are two types of experiments:

 * 1) Application experiment: You apply your hypothesis to real life situations.
 * By actually putting the Bible text into practice, we can see if our hypothesis is valid. For example, If you read the text in Malachi 3:10

 * Your hypothesis might be that God will bless you if you return your tithe. If you take action on these thoughts and do the experiment, you can find out if it is true.

 * We might read in Proverbs 25:21-22

 * Our experiment then would be to try treating the class bully in a kind manner.

 * 2) Bible Study or research experiment: you take the approach of the Bereans and study the Bible to try to verify or nullify your hypothesis based on comparing scripture with scripture.

 * We do not always have to do the experiment ourselves. The Bible can be viewed as a series of "spiritual" experiments. We see people who had faith and stood for right, we see people who failed repeatedly, but returned to God. We see others who have rejected God completely. Each of these stories is an experiment in spirituality. Life is not long enough to make all the mistakes on our own, therefore; a book such as the Bible can help us see how we should live in order to have a spiritually successful life. It also shows those who failed so we can know what behavior leads us away from God.

 * When you find a spiritual principle in the Bible, you can find an experiment that was performed in the life of the patriarchs, kings, prophets, and apostles by comparing scripture with scripture.

 * One of the distinct messages of the Seventh-day Adventist Church is that there is a "Controversy" between Jesus and Satan. (Job 1) We see from the scriptures that God is self-sacrificing love (John 3:16, 1 John 4:8), and Satan is defined by self-love (Isaiah 14:12-14). We can use this "Hypothesis framework" to study the scriptures. In each story of scripture, how can you see the forces of good struggling against the forces of evil? What does this teach you about God's love for his children and more specifically His love for you?

Once you have done the experiment or studied someone who has done the experiment, then you look at your hypothesis again. Do the results of your experiment support your hypothesis? If they do, your hypothesis could be valid, if not, change your hypothesis and begin the experiment and evaluation process again.

The framework of hypotheses forms our beliefs, and once we are more sure of our beliefs, we will start to take action. Our actions will be molded by our underlying hypotheses.

3. What is a controlled experiment?
A controlled experiment is an experiment where you try to eliminate other factors that might affect the result. Let's look at one of the most famous Physics experiments and possibly one of the most important of all time. It will illustrate how we can deal with and control the variables. The experiment was done by an Italian Scientist by the name of Galileo Galilei.

For almost 2,000 years people believed the philosopher Aristotle who said that heavier objects fall faster than lighter objects. At the time of Galileo, there was no scientific method, and so people believed Aristotle based on his authority. Aristotle's idea was more than a hypothesis, in the minds of the people this was a law of physics.

Galileo asked questions about this law. It is obvious that a feather really does fall slower than a hammer, but he hypothesized that this is because air resistance prevents a feather from falling at full speed. Instead of thinking, as Aristotle did that moving objects tend to come to rest, he thought there might be something holding an object back "frictional forces" that slowed the object down.

Galileo probably did not drop objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, but he did experiments with an inclined plane or a ramp that he rolled objects down. This allowed him to slow down the falling action and thus minimize the "air friction". He was able to determine that objects are accelerating and that the mass does not affect the acceleration.

Galileo was able eliminate the "air friction" variable and this allowed him to "see" the underlying physics of falling bodies. He published his theories in his book entitled Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno à due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences) in 1638.

When designing an experiment you should try to figure out what variables might affect the experiment and then try to eliminate the variable. Sometimes the variables are not discovered until after the first or second experiment. Galileo's hypothesis was that air was affecting the falling objects.

As a demonstration drop a piece of paper and a book at the same time. Ask the students to hypothesize which will hit first, and then do the experiment. Was there hypothesis correct?

Now do the same experiment with the paper crumpled.

What happened?

Why?

This would be a good time to do the experiment of question 10 below.

4. Explain the terms in Albert Einstein's $$E=mc^2$$ equation.
Albert Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity was published on June 30, 1905. Most of the theory of special relativity has to do with the relation between moving objects and light that is passed between them.

Although light is a wave phenomenon, the Michelson Morley experiment of 1887 had shown that there is no medium needed for it to travel through space.

 * E - is the symbol for energy.
 * Energy is a unit of work in MKS system it is $$Kg \cdot M^2/sec^2$$ which is known as a Watt.
 * In the CGS system it is a $$g \cdot m^2/sec^2$$ which is known as an erg. Energy can take the
 * form of heat, and is measured in calories or Kilocalories when talking about heat. Calories are measured in
 * a calorimeter by measuring the change in temperature of water by adding heat into the system. One calorie of
 * heat raises one gram of water one degree centigrade. To show how mechanical energy or work is related to
 * heat energy, paddles are turned in the calorimeter and the temperature change is measured.

 * m- is the rest mass of a particle.
 * This mass could be measured in kg or grams.

 * c- is the speed of light.
 * C stands for celeritas which is Latin for swiftness and is used to represent the speed of light.
 * 299,792,458 Meters/second or 186,282.397Miles/second

 * 2- The 2 on the right of the c represents the action known as squaring a number.
 * We square a number by multiplying it by itself. In this equation we are squaring a very large number which yields a very very large number :$$ 299792458m/sec \cdot 299792458m/sec = 8.98755179\times10^{16}m/sec^2$$

What this equation indicates, is that mass and energy are interchangeable. Mass can become energy and energy can turn into mass. Before Einstein, there were two laws of physics
 * Conservation of matter- This law stated that particles of matter are not created or destroyed
 * Conservation of energy- This law stated that energy is not created or destroyed it just changes form

The $$E=mc^2$$ equation says that there is only one law:

 * Conservation matter and energy- matter and energy are neither created or destroyed

It was not until 1938 that Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn were able to split a nucleus and see that energy was released. The energy released corresponded to the mass loss according to Einstein's equation.

It was shown that an atom with a large nucleus can break into two parts, emitting a gamma ray. If the mass of the two parts were added up some of the mass was missing. The gamma ray had no mass, only energy, but the energy was equivalent to the missing mass if we use Einstein's equation.

When we are talking about very energetic particles such as gamma rays, we often see the gamma ray becoming a pair of particles and then joining again to become a gamma ray.

A gamma ray with an energy of 1.022MEV (Million Electron Volts) can spontaneously form an electron anti-electron (Positron) pair. Each particle has mass that has the equivalent energy of .511MEV and one has a positive charge and one a negative charge. Because one is negatively charged and one is positively charged, they are likely to be attracted to each other and recombine and form a gamma ray again. The gamma ray has no charge or mass.

5. What units of measure for mass, length, and time are used where you live?
Most of the world uses the SI or Système International d'Unités for all measurements. It is only in the United States of America, Myanmar, Liberia, and a few other countries that the English system is used for most activities.

From a scientific point of view, it is very surprising that the English system is still in use in any technologically advanced country. Its use in the United States led to a catastrophic failure in the NASA Mars Orbiter mission of 1999. The $125 million Mars orbiter was lost because a Lockheed Martin engineering team used English units of measurement while the NASA team used the metric system for spacecraft navigation.

Many people think that pound is the English System's mass unit. It is actually the force unit. By continuing to convert from pounds to kilograms we further confuse the difference between force units and mass units.

6. What units of measure are used for time prophecy in the Bible? What is the book, chapter and verse where they can be found?
A day is used to represent a year in two places in scripture:

This is used in the prophecies of Daniel, especially Daniel 8:14

Isaac Newton is known as one of the greatest physicists, but few remember that he devoted more time to the study of the Bible and alchemy than to the study of Physics, and in Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John. he wrote:

 * "The Sanctuary and Host were trampled under foot 2300 days; and in Daniel's Prophecies days are put for years: but the profanation of the Temple in the reign of Antiochus did not last so many natural days. These were to last till the time of the end, till the last end of the indignation against the Jews; and this indignation is not yet at an end. They were to last till the Sanctuary which had been cast down should be cleansed, and the Sanctuary is not yet cleansed."

7. List Newton's three laws of motion.

 * First law
 * An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a force.
 * Experiment-You can do the experiment in question 8 of the physics honor to demonstrate inertia

 * Second law
 * The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force acting on it; This is written as $$F=mA$$.
 * Experiment- Use plastic spoons and marshmallows, nuts, apples or other objects to demonstrate how the same force (the bend of the spoon) accelerates the objects with different mass, different distances.
 * How can you make sure that you get the same force each time?
 * Does the objects mass affect the distance it travels?
 * Does the mass affect the speed of the object?
 * Experiment-Connect a fish scale to a small weight and see what measure you get if you pull the weight slowly or quickly

 * Third law
 * For every action or force there is an equal but opposite reaction.
 * If I push on you, then you push on me with the same amount of force, but in the opposite direction
 * Experiment-You can do the experiment in question 9 of the physics honor to demonstrate action--reaction principle.

8. Using a table cloth and several heavy books, demonstrate Newton's first law of motion.

 * Theory-
 * An object at rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion unless acted on by a force.

 * Materials-
 * Table
 * Table Cloth
 * Books (various sizes)

In this experiment, we will place a table cloth over a table, and then place the books on top of the table cloth.
 * Method-

 * Questions-
 * What happens if you try to pull the table cloth slowly?
 * What happens if you try to pull the table cloth Quickly?
 * What happens if the books are light?
 * Does the type of table cloth matter? What if it is smooth like silk? or Rough like sand paper?
 * What does this experiment tell us about Newton's First Law of motion?
 * Is there another experiment that I can do to prove or disprove Newton's First Law of motion?

 * Spiritual Application-
 * We all resist change in our life. We become comfortable with the status quo. Sometimes a slow persistent push can overcome our inertia and get us headed in the right direction spiritually.

9. Using an air-filled balloon, demonstrate Newton's third law of motion.

 * Theory-
 * For every action or force there is an equal but opposite reaction or force
 * Imagine sitting in space (no friction to hold you in place) with a brick. If you throw the brick, the brick will go away from your original location, but you will also go away from your original location (Your speed will be slower than the brick because you are much heavier than the brick). A rocket does the same thing with the molecules of the exhaust. The molecules are very light, but are traveling very fast, and thus can accelerate the rocket to very high speeds.

 * Material
 * Balloons (this is your rocket)
 * Drinking Straws
 * Tape
 * String
 * paper
 * scissors

 * Method
 * Provide as little guidance as possible. Let the spirit of learning guide.
 * Competition between two or more groups can be prompted by seeing which team can get the balloon to fly to a specific target.
 * Once a team figures out the way to guide the balloon, then you can have races between the various teams.

 * Questions
 * If you blow up a balloon, and then let it go without tying a knot in the opening, What happens?
 * Does this agree with Newton's third law of motion?
 * How can you make the balloon go where you want it to? (guide the balloon?)
 * What provides the force?

 * Spiritual Application
 * When God acts, the universe reacts. We see this repeatedly in the creation story. God spoke and things appear. He says, "Let there be light" and there was light. "For every action there is a reaction"

==10. Demonstrate Galileo's falling body experiment by dropping two plastic beverage bottles (one full of water, the other half full) at the same time from a height of seven feet. Record the results and draw a spiritual application from this experiment. ==

 * Theory

 * The Earth attracts everything to itself. We represent the Newtonian attraction with a Big G which stands for Gravitation constant (in MKS units it has a value 6.67x$$10^{-11}m^3/(kgS^2)$$ and write the equation:

 * $$F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}$$

 * The more mass an object has, the higher the Force exerted on it, this extra force exactly cancels out the inertia of the object, so we can see no matter how big or small an object is it will experience the same acceleration of gravity specified by little g. On the Earth we will let $$m_1=$$mass of earth and $$m_2=$$mass of object which we we say is m: We can then set the Force of gravity = ma by Newton's 1st law of motion:

 * $$F = G \frac{m_e m}{r^2} = ma $$

 * Notice that we have m on both sides of the equation. So m is completely canceled out leaving us with

 * $$a = G \frac{m_e }{r^2}$$

 * G is constant, the Mass of earth $$M_e$$ is constant, and near the surface of the earth, the distance from the center of the earth does not change much, so $$r^2$$ is almost a constant. This means that a is equal to a constant. We call this constant the acceleration of gravity near the surface of the Earth and represent it with the symbol g = 9.8M/$$sec^2$$.

 * $$x=\frac12gt^2$$

 * Notice there is no mass indicated in the equation that specifies the acceleration of an object in a gravitational field.

 * Materials
 * Plastic beverage bottles
 * water

 * Method
 * have the class drop plastic beverage bottles and judge which hits first. Have one half full of water and the other completely full of water. Make sure the lid is screwed on tightly.

 * Questions
 * Which one hit first?
 * What would happen if the bottle was completely empty? Why?

 * Spiritual Application
 * In a Spiritual sense, we are all attracted by the Grace of God big G shown at the cross of Jesus. It does not matter how much Sin there is in our lives the cross of Jesus attracts us equally and overcomes all the sin no matter how much is in our lives. In Christ we are all sinless no matter how bad we have been in the past.

 * Galileo was able to step out on his faith that air frictions was holding back light objects such as a feather, and this is why Aristotle had said that heavier objects fall faster. He imagined a world that had no air friction, and thus was able to see the underlying physics. We must rely on faith as we look toward the heavenly kingdom and imagine a world without suffering, illness, and death.

==11. Demonstrate the mechanical advantage of levers by pulling a large nail, driven deeply into a board, using only a hammer. Pull a second nail using a hammer and a small block of wood, located near the nail, under the head of the hammer. Note the difference in force required to pull the nail with different positions on the hammer on the block (fulcrum) and draw a spiritual application from this experiment. ==

 * Theory-
 * Simple machines are used to create a mechanical advantage. They do this by reducing the amount of force needed to accomplish a job. The list of machines usually includes the following machines
 * Inclined plane- It takes less force to push a load up a slope than lift it straight up.
 * Wheel and axle- The wheel is arguably the most important machine. It reduces the amount of frictional forces.
 * Lever-Is composed of a fulcrum or pivot point and a long rigid bar or beam. The closer the object that we are lifting is to the fulcrum the easier (More mechanical advantage we have.
 * Pulley-Is a wheel that is used with a rope to change the direction of a force. Multiple pulleys can be used together to create a block and tackle that will increase the mechanical advantage.
 * Wedge-This machine is just two inclined planes, but is usually included because it is so useful.
 * Screw-This is simply a circular inclined plane, but because it takes a rotational force and turns it into a linear force, it is almost always included in a list of simple machines.

 * The machine being studied here is a simple lever. The hammer handle is the lever arm, and the curve of the head forms the fulcrum. The claw of the hammer is also a wedge or inclined plane. Sometimes you use a hammer with a pry bar, nail puller or another hammer to wedge the claw under the nail head.

 * The Lever uses the physics principle of torque or rotational force. Torque = force*distance.

 * Materials-Hammer, nails, 2x4 at least 2 feet long, small block of wood

 * Method- Drive a number of large nails (16 penny will work well) halfway into the 2x4 and have the class try pulling a nail. Then demonstrate how to position the block of wood to act as a fulcrum. Have the class repeat the experiment using the block of wood.
 * Questions-
 * Start with a description or demonstration of various machines as described in the theory section. Then ask the class "what kind of machine is a hammer"
 * Where is the fulcrum on the hammer?
 * Where is the fulcrum when using the block of wood?
 * Which way was easier?
 * What difference does it make how close the fulcrum is to the block of wood?
 * What difference does it make where you grip the hammer? Is it easier near the head or at the end of the handle?

 * Spiritual Application Example- If we let the fulcrum of the lever represent Jesus, then the closer we are to Jesus, the easier it is to lift us to a higher spiritual plane.

About the Author
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ICT in Education/Key Challenges in Integrating ICTs in Education

Key Challenges in Integrating ICTs in Education
Although valuable lessons may be learned from best practices around the world, there is no one formula for determining the optimal level of ICT integration in the educational system. Significant challenges that policymakers and planners, educators, education administrators, and other stakeholders need to consider include educational policy and planning, infrastructure, language and content, capacity building, and financing.

What are the implications of ICT-enhanced education for educational policy and planning?
Attempts to enhance and reform education through ICTs require clear and specific objectives, guidelines and time-bound targets, the mobilization of required resources, and the political commitment at all levels to see the initiative through. Some essential elements of planning for ICT are listed below.

 * A rigorous analysis of the present state of the educational system. ICT-based interventions must take into account current institutional practices and arrangements. Specifically, drivers and barriers to ICT use need to be identified, including those related to curriculum and pedagogy, infrastructure, capacity-building, language and content, and financing.

 * The specification of educational goals at different education and training levels as well as the different modalities of use of ICTs that can best be employed in pursuit of these goals. This requires of the policymaker an understanding of the potentials of different ICTs when applied in different contexts for different purposes, and an awareness of priority education needs and financial and human resource capacity and constraints within the country or locality, as well as best practices around the world and how these practices can be adapted for specific country requirements.

 * The identification of stakeholders and the harmonizing of efforts across different interest groups.

 * The piloting of the chosen ICT-based model. Even the best designed models or those that have already been proven to work in other contexts need to be tested on a small scale. Such pilots are essential to identify, and correct, potential glitches in instructional design, implementability, effectiveness, and the like.

 * The specification of existing sources of financing and the development of strategies for generating financial resources to support ICT use over the long term.

What are the infrastructure-related challenges in ICT-enhanced education?
A country’s educational technology infrastructure sits on top of the national telecommunications and information infrastructure. Before any ICT-based programme is launched, policymakers and planners must carefully consider the following:

 * In the first place, are appropriate rooms or buildings available to house the technology? In countries where there are many old school buildings, extensive retrofitting to ensure proper electrical wiring, heating/cooling and ventilation, and safety and security would be needed.

 * Another basic requirement is the availability of electricity and telephony. In developing countries large areas are still without a reliable supply of electricity and the nearest telephones are miles away. Experience in some countries in Africa point to wireless technologies (such as VSAT or Very Small Aperture Terminal) as possible levers for leapfrogging.. Although this is currently an extremely costly approach, other developing countries with very poor telecommunications infrastructure should study this option.

 * Policymakers should also look at the ubiquity of different types of ICT in the country in general, and in the educational system (at all levels) in particular. For instance, a basic requirement for computer-based or online learning is access to computers in schools, communities, and households, as well as affordable Internet service.

In general, ICT use in education should follow use in society, not lead it. Education programs that use cutting-edge technologies rarely achieve long term success:

 * It is cheaper, and easier, to introduce a form of technology into education, and keep it working, where education is riding on the back of large-scale developments by governments or the private sector. Television works for education when it follows rather than precedes television for entertainment; computers in schools can be maintained once commercial and private use has expanded to the point where there is an established service industry.

What are the challenges with respect to capacity-building?
Various competencies must be developed throughout the educational system for ICT integration to be successful.

Teachers.Teacher professional development should have five foci: 1) skills with particular applications; 2) integration into existing curricula; 3) curricular changes related to the use of IT (including changes in instructional design); 4) changes in teacher role( 5) underpinning educational theories. Ideally, these should be addressed in pre-service teacher training and built on and enhanced in-service. In some countries, like Singapore, Malaysia, and the United Kingdom, teaching accreditation requirements include training in ICT use. ICTs are swiftly evolving technologies, however, and so even the most ICT fluent teachers need to continuously upgrade their skills and keep abreast of the latest developments and best practices.

While the first focus—skills with particular applications—is self-evident, the four other foci are of equal, if not ultimately greater, importance. Research on the use of ICTs in different educational settings over the years invariably identify as a barrier to success the inability of teachers to understand why they should use ICTs and how exactly they can use ICTs to help them teach better. Unfortunately, most teacher professional development in ICTs are heavy on “teaching the tools” and light on “using the tools to teach.”

Teacher anxiety over being replaced by technology or losing their authority in the classroom as the learning process becomes more learner-centered—an acknowledged barrier to ICT adoption—can be alleviated only if teachers have a keen understanding and appreciation of their changing role.

Education administrators. Leadership plays a key role in ICT integration in education. Many teacher- or student-initiated ICT projects have been undermined by lack of support from above. For ICT integration programs to be effective and sustainable, administrators themselves must be competent in the use of the technology, and they must have a broad understanding of the technical, curricular, administrative, financial, and social dimensions of ICT use in education.

Technical support specialists. Whether provided by in-school staff or external service providers, or both, technical support specialists are essential to the continued viability of ICT use in a given school. While the technical support requirements of an institution depend ultimately on what and how technology is deployed and used, general competencies that are required would be in the installation, operation, and maintenance of technical equipment (including software), network administration, and network security. Without on-site technical support, much time and money may be lost due to technical breakdowns.

In the Philippines, for example, one of the major obstacles to optimizing computer use in high schools has been the lack of timely technical support. In some extreme cases involving schools in remote areas, disabled computers take months to be repaired since no technician is available in the immediate vicinity and so the computers have to be sent to the nearest city hundreds of kilometers away.

Content developers. Content development is a critical area that is too often overlooked. The bulk of existing ICT-based educational material is likely to be in English (see section on language and content below) or of little relevance to education in developing countries (especially at the primary and secondary levels). There is a need to develop original educational content (e.g., radio programs, interactive multimedia learning materials on CD-ROM or DVD, Web-based courses, etc.), adapt existing content, and convert print-based content to digital media. These are tasks for which content development specialists such as instructional designers, scriptwriters, audio and video production specialists, programmers, multimedia course authors, and web-developers are needed. Like technical support specialists, content developers are highly skilled professionals and are not, with the exception of instructional designers, historically employed by primary and secondary schools. Many universities with distance education programs, and those who otherwise make use of ICTs, have dedicated technical support and content development units.

What challenges need to be addressed in the areas of language and content?

English is the dominant language of the Internet. An estimated 80% of online content is in English.A large proportion of the educational software produced in the world market is in English. For developing countries in the Asia-Pacific where English language proficiency is not high, especially outside metropolitan areas, this represents a serious barrier to maximizing the educational benefits of the World Wide Web.

Even in countries where English is a second language (such as Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, and India) it is imperative that teaching and learning materials that match national curriculum requirements and have locally meaningful content, preferably in the local languages, be developed. (See Box 6.) This would ensure that the Web is a genuinely multicultural space and that peoples of different cultures have an equal stake and voice in the global communities of learning and practice online. Particularly vulnerable to exclusion of this sort are isolated, rural populations, cultural minorities, and women in general. Thus attention must be paid to their special needs.

One encouraging trend has been the emergence of national and regional school networks, or SchoolNets, that facilitate the sharing of content and information—curriculum guides, teaching and learning resources, telecollaborative project registries, school and teacher directories, training curricula and materials, research and policy papers, technology management guides, and start-up toolkits, among others. Countries like Australia, France, Finland, Japan, Canada, Thailand, Ghana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe, to name a few, all have national SchoolNets. The Enlaces programme in Latin America has linked schools from Spanish-speaking countries like Chile, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Peru. In Southeast Asia, efforts are currently underway to pilot SchoolNets in the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam, and to link these to existing national SchoolNets to create a region-wide ASEAN SchoolNet.

In Web-based learning, technical standardization of content has also become a pressing issue. Standardization allows different applications to share content and learning systems. Specifications in content, structure, and test formats are proposed so that interoperability may exist between different management systems, resulting in some cost-efficiencies. Standards must be general enough to support all kinds of learning systems and content. Worth mentioning are initiatives conducted by the Instructional Management System (IMS), the Advanced Distributed Learning /Shareable Courseware Object Reference Model (ADL/SCORM) initiative, the Aviation Industry Computer Based Training Committee (AICC), and the European ARIADNE project, since some of the standards they have proposed are already being widely applied.

The ease by which Web-based educational content can be stored, transmitted, duplicated, and modified has also raised concerns about the protection of intellectual property rights. For instance, are intellectual, property rights violated when lectures broadcast over the television or on the Web incorporate pre-existing materials, or when students record educational broadcast on tape for later viewing?

While schools and universities may already have agreements that expressly authorize the use of certain materials for classroom purposes, these agreements may not be broad enough to accommodate telecommunications transmission, videotape recording, or the distribution of course-related materials beyond the classroom setting..

The United Nations International World Intellectual Property Organization is leading international efforts in setting global standards for the protection of intellectual property rights that would not at the same time unduly curtail the accessing and sharing of information. For teachers and students, each of whom are potential publishers of multimedia materials that incorporate the works of others, information and training about the ethical use of intellectual property should be an important component of ICT-based programs.

What are the challenges related to financing the cost of ICT use? One of the greatest challenges in ICT use in education is balancing educational goals with economic realities. ICTs in education programs require large capital investments and developing countries need to be prudent in making decisions about what models of ICT use will be introduced and to be conscious of maintaining economies of scale. Ultimately it is an issue of whether the value added of ICT use offsets the cost, relative to the cost of alternatives. Put another way, is ICT-based learning the most effective strategy for achieving the desired educational goals, and if so what is the modality and scale of implementation that can be supported given existing financial, human and other resources?

Whyte suggests the following potential sources of money and resources for ICT use programs:

1. Grants

2. Public subsidies

3. Private donations, fund-raising events

4. In-kind support (e.g., equipment, volunteers)

5. Community support (e.g. rent-free building)

6. Membership fees

7. Revenues earned from core business:

 * Connectivity (phone, fax, Internet, web pages)
 * Direct computer access to users
 * Office services (photocopying, scanning, audiovisual aids

8. Revenues earned from ancillary activities:

 * Business services (word-processing, spreadsheets, budget preparation, printing, reception services)
 * Educational services (distant education, training courses)
 * Community services (meeting rooms, social events, local information, remittances from migrant workers)
 * Telework and consulting
 * Specialized activities (telemedicine)
 * Sales (stationery, stamps, refreshments, etc.)

Private sector-public sector partnerships to either pilot or fast track ICT-based projects is a strategy that has gained currency among Ministries of Education in developing countries. These partnerships take many forms, including private sector grants with government counterpart contributions, donations of equipment and education-related content by corporations to state-run schools, and the provision of technical assistance for planning, management, and strengthening human resources at the grassroots level. Multilateral organizations and international aid agencies have also driven many of the most significant ICT in education efforts in the developing world.

But the financial litmus test of ICT-based programs is survival after donor money has run out. Many ICT-based education programs funded by aid agencies or by corporations could not be sustained because government failed to step in with the necessary financing; nor were the local communities in a position to generate the resources needed to continue these programs.This was the case with some of the Interactive Radio Instruction projects initiated by USAID. Therefore, a two-fold strategy is key: government support and local community mobilization

Will ICT use be the silver bullet that will rid a developing country of all of its educational problems?
If there is one truism that has emerged in the relatively brief history of ICT use in education, it is this: It is not the technology but how you use it! Put another way: “How you use technology is more important than if you use it at all…[and] unless our thinking about schooling changes along with the continuing expansion of [ICTs] in the classroom then our technology investment will fail to live up to its potential.”

Technology then should not drive education; rather, educational goals and needs, and careful economics, must drive technology use. Only in this way can educational institutions in developing countries effectively and equitably address the key needs of the population, to help the population as a whole respond to new challenges and opportunities created by an increasingly global economy. ICTs, therefore, cannot by themselves resolve educational problems in the developing world, as such problems are rooted in well entrenched issues of poverty,social inequality,and uneven development.What ICTs as educational tools can do, if they are used prudently, is enable developing countries to expand access to and raise the quality of education. Prudence requires careful consideration of the interacting issues that underpin ICT use in the school—policy and politics, infrastructure development, human capacity, language and content, culture, equity, cost, and not least, curriculum and pedagogy.

Figure 9.


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Category:User ko

ko:분류:User ko it:Categoria:Utenti ko ja:Category:User ko

title: Category:User ko


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Horticulture/Lonicera japonica

The Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica; Suikazura 水鬘 or スイカズラ in Japanese) is a species of honeysuckle native to eastern Asia including Japan, Korea, northern and eastern China, and Taiwan.

Description
It is a twining vine able to climb to 10 m high or more in trees, with opposite, simple oval leaves 3–8 cm long and 2–3 cm broad. The flowers are double tongued, white to yellow, and sweetly scented. The fruit is a globose dark blue berry 5–8 mm diameter containing numerous seeds.

Ecology
Japanese Honeysuckle has become an invasive exotic weed in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, New Zealand and much of the United States, including Hawaii, as well as a number of Pacific and Caribbean islands. It is classified as a noxious weed in several US states, including Illinois and Virginia. It has done severe damage to eastern American woodlands, often forming vast colonies on forest floors that displace virtually all native ground plants, and climbing into trees and shrubs and severely weakening and even killing them by cutting off sap flow and shading their leaves. Scientists and conservationists have suspected for some time now that it releases allelopathic chemicals into the ground, inhibiting the growth of other plants.

Nonetheless, this species is still sold by American nurseries, often as the cultivar 'Hall's Prolific'. It is an effective groundcover, and does have pleasant, strong-smelling flowers, but the damage it does far outweighs any positive qualities. The only invasive exotics that compete with this plant for total damage done in the eastern United States are ../Kudzu/ and ../Multiflora Rose/.

Uses
The Japanese Honeysuckle flower is of high medicinal value in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is called rěn dōng téng (忍冬藤) or jīn yín huā (金銀花; lit. "gold silver flower"). It has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, and is used to dispel heat and remove toxins, including carbuncles, fevers, influenza and ulcers. It is, however, of cold and yin nature, and should not be taken by anyone with weak and "cold" digestive system. In Korean, it is called geumeunhwa. The dried leaves are also used in traditional Chinese medicine.

title: Horticulture/Lonicera japonica


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XForms/Input Field Width

Motivation
Sometimes you want to be able to control the field width, even though the default input text scrolls. This can be done for the entire form or for on a field-by-field basis for all input fields within a form. For example if you have three places that a person's last name occurs they can all be controlled by changing a single CSS file that is imported into the form. This CSS file can also be generated directly from an XML Schema or metadata registry using XML transforms.

Discussion
There are many tradeoffs as to where to put form width information. Ideally it would be generated by a script from a metadata registry. One of the questions concerns if a data element length should only have a default recommended value in a semantic registry and the actual constraints be stored in a constraint schema. We all know that zip codes should be 5 or 9 digits and that a 12 digit zip code may only have meaning in a specific context.

This example has been tested using the FireFox browser. The use of the .xf-value class selector may not work on other systems.

title: XForms/Input Field Width


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XForms/Read and write with get and put

Motivation
Sometimes all you need to do is to put a nice user friendly form that edits a single static XML file. In this case a static file is any file where you know the exact pathname to the file when the form is created and you know that the file name will never change. This is the case when an application has a configuration file in a known location (either absolute or fixed relative to the XForm).

If this is a local file on your hard drive this is very easy to do just by using get and put operations and either absolute path names to the file or relative path names to the directory that the form is located.

XForms also allows a user to read data into a form using a HTTP get and to write data from a file using HTTP put operations using a remote web server. Just make sure you enable put operations on your web server and that the file you are putting is writeable This means you will need to do a chmod +w if it is a UNIX file.

Sample Instance File
The following file is read into memory (from the same folder that the form was executed in) when the form is loaded into the browser. This file is written to the disk when the save button is pressed. The reload button will reload the file into the browser.

Discussion
Note that this form is not applicable when the form data is in a file name that is selected at run time. This is because the  attribute in instance is not dynamic. You can not use an XPath expression in the  attribute.

Here is an example of how files could be dynamically loaded in XForms 1.1:

Note that if this was the case, any form from a nefarious web site might be able to look for a known files or suspicious such as my-passwords.doc and upload them without your consent. This restriction may be eased if the "resource" attribute (part of the XForms 1.1 draft) gets implemented.

title: XForms/Read and write with get and put


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The Cold War/Hungarian Revolution

Stalin ruled the USSR and Eastern Europe with an iron fist. Anyone who disagreed with him would either be given forced labour, jailed in a concentration camp, tortured or executed. This method of totalitarian rule came to be known as "Stalinism". When Stalin died in 1953, there was a power vacuum which was eventually filled by Nikita Krushchev.

Background to Revolution
Krushchev was a fierce anti-Stalinist and caused quite a shock when he denounced Stalin in his "Secret Speech" to the 20th Party Congress. Krushchev described Stalin as a "dictator" who "ruled through fear and terror" and a "personality cult". He also announced that he would relax some of Stalin's policies and end direct control over Eastern Europe. This came as good news to the people in Eastern Europe who hoped that they would be free of Soviet rule.

However, in June 1956, Krushchev's promises were put to the test when riots in Poland, where workers were protesting against food shortages and wage cuts, turned into a general protest against Communism. Although in the end, Krushchev sent in tanks to restore order, he did give way to some economic demands and agreed to appoint the popular Wladyslaw Gomulka as the new prime minister.

Revolution in Hungary
Many people in Hungary were encouraged by the recent events in Poland. In the evening of the 23 October, 20,000 protestors staged a demonstration in support of the Poles, in the capital, Budapest. It wasn't long before the march attracted thousands more people and the crowd grew to 200,000. A statue of Stalin was torn down and the Hungarian national flag was put on the remains of it

A group of students tried to get into the radio station to broadcast their demands but they were arrested by the AVH (Hungarian State Police). There were rumours that the students had been shot and the crowd of protestors started to turn restless. The AVH responded by throwing tear gas from the upper floors of the building and firing on the protestors, killing many people. This started the uprising.

Revolt
As news spread about the massacre, crowds of angry mobs throughout the capital set alight police cars, buildings, and anything else that was seen as "communist", and stole weapons from military depots, handing them out to the public. Even some Hungarian Army soldiers joined the riots. The situation was out of control.

The Hungarian leader Erno Gero asked overnight for the Soviet Army stationed in Hungary to intervene. Although reluctant at first to use force, at 2 AM the next day, Kruschchev decided to send in tanks to the capital to restore order and guard the Parliament building, and other key locations. As in Poland, he also decided to replace Erno Gero with the popular Imre Nagy as prime minister.

Former Government collapses
The rioters, however, now armed, started attacking the AVH and after some hours they seized the radio station and newspaper building. On October 25th the next day, a large group of protestors marched in front of the parliament building. The AVH opened fire on them, and the Soviet troops defending the building mistakenly thought that the AVH, were rioters and returned fire. Armed people in the crowd started firing back. This incident forced the old Communist government to collapse.

Fighting in the capital
For the next three days, armed groups fought Soviet tanks and the remaining members of the AVH using molotov cocktails (petrol bombs). All over the country, revolutionary workers' councils established local governments in their regions and called for a general strike. Communist symbols, such as red stars and Soviet war memorials, and communist books and files, were burnt and destroyed. Eventually a ceasefire was arranged on October 28th and after two days of tense negotiations, Soviet troops withdrew to the country-side.

A new government formed
A day before the ceasefire on October 27th, Nagy formed a new government, reforming the communist system in Hungary. To the alarm of the Soviet Union, he formed a coalition government which shared power with non-communists, such as the local workers' councils that had popped up throughout the country. He also abolished the AVH and the one-party system, so non-communist groups would be allowed to be represented in elections - most importantly, he made the elections free!

The last straw was placed on Krushchev's back when on November 1st, when Nagy announced that Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact and be a neutral country. Three days later, Krushchev decided to put the country "back into line" - if Hungary withdrew, then all the other countries in Eastern Europe would do the same.

Soviet invasion

On November 4th, thousands of tanks invaded Hungary and advanced towards Budapest. They entered North and South of the capital at the same time, splitting it in two - before a single shot had been fired. As soon as the Hungarian Army and the armed groups realized what was happening they tried to resist the invasion, but they were no match for the bigger and more powerful Red Army.

Resistance was finally crushed on November 10th and by that time 2500 Hungarians and 722 Soviet troops had been killed and thousands more injured. 200,000 Hungarians fled the country as refugees to Western Europe, the USA, Yugoslavia and Australia. In the aftermath, thousands of Hungarians were arrested, imprisoned and deported to the Soviet Union, often without trial or evidence, and some were executed.

A total of 25-30,000 Hungarians and hundreds of Soviet troops were killed throughout the revolution. Imre Nagy was caught by the Soviet secret police as he tried to escape the Yugoslav Embassy, where he was in hiding. After a two year trial, he was executed in 1958.

The Hungarian Revolution was a clear warning to the Eastern European countries in the Warsaw Pact that any attempt to break away from the Soviet Union (ie. "defection to capitalism") would not be tolerated and would be met with force. It wasn't until 1989 that Hungary finally gained independence and became the first country in the Warsaw Pact to become a democracy.

title: The Cold War/Hungarian Revolution


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User talk:59.167.181.44

Please do not copy and paste text from wikipedia. If you would like a wikipedia article to be imported for use in the cookbook, please request it on WB:RFI. -- SB_Johnny | talk 17:01, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:59.167.181.44


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User:Zidel333

Hi, I'm active on my Wikipedia user page Zidel333.

title: User:Zidel333


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Talk:Gerris Manual/Object hierarchy

Hi Stephane !

did you generate this page automatically, or cut and paste from somewhere ?

Have you though of a way of automating the switch from the current tutorial to one that I suppose will be on this WikiBook ? amitiés Zaleski 17:33, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi Stephane, I didn't generate anything automatically and I am thinking of taking the occasion to rewrite the tutorial (or at least some of it). Note that this site's content will move (soon i.e. when I find the time) to the sourceforge wiki. One remaining issue with the sourceforge wiki is how to manage images and movies. There is an issue with the way the Sourceforge servers are configured and mediawiki. In the meantime if you want to contribute, you should do so on the sourceforge wiki. amitiés Stéphane 12:10, 24 October 2006 (NZST)

title: Talk:Gerris Manual/Object hierarchy


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User talk:212.71.37.96

Squawk
Please do not replace Wikibooks pages with blank content. Blank pages are harmful to Wikibooks because they have a tendency to confuse readers. If it is a duplicate article, please redirect it to an appropriate existing page. If the page has been vandalised, please revert it to the last legitimate version. If you feel that the content of a page is inappropriate, please edit the page and replace it with appropriate content. If you believe there is no hope for the page, please see the deletion policy for how to proceed. If page is no longer useful, insert delete to its top. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks! --Derbeth talk 17:35, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:212.71.37.96


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User talk:Jerekson

26 over 44
Hello, welcome to wikibooks!

I just wanted to inform you that your book, 26 over 44 has been nominated for deletion on the grounds that it is in violiation of the Neutral point of view, and original research policies here at wikibooks. I have put the npov template at the top of the title page of this book to alert you (and any other contributors) about the potential problem.

If it is your intention to develop a new system of spelling or writing, perhaps Wikiversity is a more appropriate place: they allow collaborative research to happen on a variety of subjects. However, if your intention is to discuss the history and etymology of the english language, as well as discuss some proven methods for learning to read and write, your book will likely be welcome to stay here at wikibooks.

Regardless of where you decide to continue your work (and we all hope that you do continue), it is important that you maintain a neutral point of view, and not use wikibooks as a soapbox to discuss your political agenda (you make several references to the "no child left behind" act, which is definately a political topic).

Thank you, and happy editing. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 19:09, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I got your comment, thank you for the quick reply! Let me try and respond to some of your points specifically, at first:
 * The "No child left behind" act is a very political topic, and saying that the act itself is a failure for any reason (even if you are yourself a republican, and you personally like the act) can seem to have a non-neutral point of view to people who support it politically. If you reference any peice of politics in a negative way, people from the other side of the political aisle will throw a fit: it's probably not they way they should respond, but experiance says that is the way they will respond. You can take that advice however you see fit.
 * I dont think you need to worry too much about the allegations of your book constituting "original research". That's a lable that frequently tends to be added when an NPOV violation is alleged. It is good that you are planning to cite your resources, but nothing that you have said in your text (and I have read all of it so far) strikes me as being particularly original.
 * Your Q&A style of writing is not typical, but I will be the first to tell you that not all books have to be "typical" here. In fact, I would like to encourage new types of projects like this, because I think diversity will be a key factor in the future success of the wikibooks project. Typical or not, It still qualifies as a "textbook" in my eyes.
 * You did not need to lurk beforehand, you did a good thing by being bold and starting your project here. We like new projects, and we like to see projects succeed. The user who nominated your book for deletion assumed that your book would grow in a direction that is not acceptable (NPOV and OR violiations) based on what little is currently available. You have claimed that this is not the case, and I am inclined to believe you. You do have time to finish your project: You have all the time in the world. Wikibooks doesn't impose any sort of deadline on you or your work, so don't worry about that.
 * I'll see what I can do to close that nomination for deletion. Good luck in your project, and please don't hesitate to ask me if you have any questions. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 20:47, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

 * By the way, you are more then welcome to cast your own 'Keep vote on The nominations page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 20:55, 23 October 2006 (UTC)

Book Kept
I just wanted to let you know that the discussion to delete your book is over, and that the decision has been to keep your book. Many users seem to think that your book is a violation of the NPOV policy here, although many users here (including myself) do not think it is a big problem, and can be corrected. I would recommend for you to go over the deletion discussion, find the relevant objections, and work to correct them in the future. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 17:00, 30 October 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jerekson


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User:AnnaKucsma~enwikibooks

This is my page/personal table of contents. I'm using the Dewey Decimal Classifiaction because that's what I'm most familiar with.

Current Rant
I am interested in (biographically speaking) people like Joan of Arc and Elizabeth I of England. I have yet to find a biography on either. Both have been the subject of a good deal of ink; each, for her own reasons, could reasonably (in my opinion) justify having a textbook devoted to them — even if said textbook isn't the obese paper freeweights one has to read in your average 100-level college course.

I have found a little — a scant few paragraphs — on Tudor England at []. This for an era populated by any number of residents who have inspired a great many books. On its own merit, the period has fair number of non-biographical works devoted to it: a noteworthy one is John Guy's Tudor England (ISBN 0192852132, Dewey Decimal # 942.05 G).

I have yet to do a thurough search on information pertaining to Joan of Arc, but I would be very surprised if she wasn't mentioned somewhere. She provided an inspiration for the French army (and people) at a critical point of the Hundred Year's War.

Lookup Tools

 * Card Catalog Office

Dewey Decimal Classification

 * 000 Generalities
 * 100 Philosophy & Psychology
 * 150: Psychology
 * 200 Religion
 * 300 Social Sciences & Education
 * 400 Language
 * 500 Natural Sciences & Mathematics
 * 600 Technology (Applied Sciences)
 * 700 Art & Recreation
 * 720: Architecture
 * 723: Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399
 * 724: Architecture from 1400
 * 800 Literature
 * 900 History & Geography
 * 910: Geography & Travel
 * 914: Europe: London
 * 940: European History: European History
 * 941: British Isles
 * 942: England & Wales
 * 944: France & Monaco
 * 970: General history of North America
 * 973: United States

title: User:AnnaKucsma~enwikibooks


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Talk:Statistics/Distributions/Geometric

Can you explain where does this result come from ?

With a Geometric Distribution it is also pretty easy to calculate the probability of a "more than n times" case. The probability of failing to achieve the wanted result is $$\left( 1-p\right)^k$$.

title: Talk:Statistics/Distributions/Geometric