text:
Mac OS X Tiger/Using the Finder

Introduction
Now that you've learned how to use the Dock, windows, palettes, and various other elements of the Mac interface, it's finally time to put your newfound knowledge to work and start to learn how to put your Mac to use in real-life situations. You'll start by learning how to use your first application, which is called the Finder.

The Finder is an application that lets you browse and manipulate all of the folders and files on your Mac, similar to "Windows Explorer" in Microsoft Windows. Since the Finder is so important, it gets special treatment:

 * It's always running.
 * You can't manually quit it; it quits only when you log out.
 * You won't find it in the Applications folder along with all of your other applications.
 * Its icon is permanently glued into the far left of the Dock.

This chapter will show you how to browse your Mac's disks, manipulate files, and even how to use Spotlight, Tiger's whiz-bang new search feature. If you have an appetite for advanced Finder tricks, see the next chapter.

The Finder Window
Look at your desktop, and find the icon for your internal hard drive. By default, this is called Macintosh HD, although this can easily be changed. Now double-click this icon. A brushed-metal window should appear containing your hard drive's contents.

This window is a Finder window, used to browse through the files and folders stored on your hard drive. Let's dissect a Finder window piece by piece.

 * Toolbar - Remember learning about toolbars in Chapter 2? The Finder window has a toolbar right under its title bar, containing the buttons and controls you need to use the Finder. You can even customize it, as you'll learn below.
 * Sidebar - The Sidebar is a white column running along the left side of the Finder window, divided into two parts by a thin grey line. The upper part of the Sidebar provides links to important things like disks, networked computers, etc. As you insert disks, they automatically appear here. The lower part of the Sidebar displays quick links to folders of your choice. To add a folder, drag and drop it into the sidebar. To remove one, drag it out, and it will disappear in a puff of smoke.
 * Divider - Remember dividers from Chapter 2? In the Finder window, a thin metallic divider separates the Sidebar from the Contents Pane. Grab and drag the dot in the middle to resize the two. Dragging to the left will make the contents pane larger but the sidebar smaller. Dragging to the right does the opposite. You'll feel the divider "snap" into position when it reaches a recommended size.
 * Contents Pane - The Contents Pane, the main white area to the right of the sidebar and separator, shows the contents of the current disk or folder you're viewing.
 * Status Bar - The Status bar is a metallic strip running along the bottom of the window. A snippet of text in the middle gives you a bit of information about the folder you are viewing, e.g. the number of items inside it and the available free space on the "volume" (disk) you are browsing. Symbols sometimes appear on the left side to indicate certain properties of the folder. You'll learn more about these in the next chapter.

Getting Around
Now that you know what the different parts of the Finder window are called, it's time to learn how to browse folders! Mac OS X, like most modern operating systems, keeps files in a nest of folders. While it takes a bit of practice to find your way around, the structure is actually much more logical than that of Microsoft Windows, once you learn how it works.

Internal Hard Drive
If you followed along with the section above, you should have double-clicked the icon on the desktop for your internal hard drive (called "Macintosh HD" by default). You are now looking at a window that contains the following folders:
 * System - Marked with a big blue X logo, this very important folder contains all of the inner workings of Mac OS X itself. Since the files in here are so important to your Mac's operation, Apple has made most of its contents invisible.
 * Library - Marked with a stack of books, this folder contains the fonts, screen-savers, desktop pictures, graphics, and support files that all users share. Only enter this folder if you know what you're doing.
 * Applications - Indicated by an "A" made out of various artist's tools, this folder contains the applications, or programs, that all users have access to. This also contains another folder called "Utilities", which, oddly enough, contains all Utilities.
 * Users - Marked by a few silhouettes of people, this folder contains a "home folder" for each account (covered in just a bit).

In addition, you may find one or two other folders:
 * User Guides and Information - This contains a digital manual for your computer.
 * Developer - Marked with a hammer, the Developer folder appears if you have installed Apple's "Developer Tools" for making Mac applications. It is not covered in this wikibook.

The Users Folder
You can open any folder you see in the Finder by double-clicking on its icon. Double-click on the Users folder icon.

The Users folder contains a private folder for every user account set up on your Mac. These private folders are called "Home Folders". The one for your account doesn't look like a folder at all: it looks like a little house, making it easy to spot in a crowd. There's one special folder in here, called Shared, which contains files available to all users. Remember to save files here if you want to make them available to all users of your Mac.

Your Home Folder
Double-click on your home folder, which looks like a house, to open it.

Your Home folder contains your very own private stash of files. While it can be viewed by other users, most of the folders inside it cannot. Apple includes nine folders for organizing your stuff, and assumes you will follow this organizational structure. The folders are:

 * Applications - While it looks just like the Applications folder that is in your internal hard drive's window, it is in fact very different! The applications in this folder are for you and you only - other users can't see, much less use them.
 * Desktop - This folder is a mirror image of your desktop: add a file to this folder, and it appears on your desktop. It also works in reverse: add a file to the desktop and it appears in this folder. Please note that inserted disks (which also appear on the desktop) do not also appear in this folder.
 * Documents - This folder is for keeping word processor documents, presentations, spreadsheets, etc. Feel free to create your own organizational nest within.
 * Library - Like the library folder in Macintosh HD, this contains the support files for your computer. However, this library contains the files needed only by your account.
 * Movies - Keep your home movies and QuickTime clips organized in this folder. Like the Documents folder, you are encouraged to organize it any way you want.
 * Music - This folder was intended to hold your digital music collection. If you have iTunes set to "Keep iTunes Music Folder Organised" and the path folder set to your Music folder, all the music in iTunes will be neatly organised by Artist and Album in a sub-folder. Otherwise it is mainly used for storing garage-band compositions.
 * Pictures - Like the music folder, the pictures folder is no longer very important now that Mac users keep photos in an app called iPhoto. These days, most people use the pictures folder for desktop backgrounds and pictures they didn't take themselves.
 * Public - This is the only folder in your Home folder that other users can view. Use it to share files with other users. It also contains another folder, called Drop Box, which other users can drop files into but can't view themselves.
 * Sites - This is used in running a website from your Mac, which is not covered in this wikibook.

Using the Toolbar
The Finder window's toolbar contains important buttons and controls you'll need to browse your Mac. By default, the toolbar has four buttons:

 * Back/Forward - The Back Button allows you to go back to the last folder you were viewing in the window. For instance, if you are in your home folder and you open the "Pictures" folder, you can return to your home folder by clicking the back button. The Forward Button reverses the effect of the Back button and takes you to the folder you came "back" from.
 * Window View Buttons - You'll learn about these three conjoined buttons later on.
 * Action Button - This button menu with a gear on it shows a contextual menu for the selected file; the exact same menu you'd see if you were to right-click or control-click the file's icon itself.
 * Search - This Spotlight-powered search field is amazingly good at finding files. It's discussed in the next chapter.

Manipulating Individual Files
As you use your Mac, you'll want to create your own folders and move files into them. This section explains how.
 * Selecting - Click once on a file or folder's icon to select it. The selected file or folder appears highlighted. Some actions performed in the Finder are applied to the selected file.
 * Opening - To open a file, simply double-click it.
 * Moving - To move a file, simply drag and drop it from its current location to its new one. There are a few different ways to do this:
 * If you have two Finder windows open at the same time, you can simply drag a file from one to the other. You can open extra Finder windows by choosing "File > New Finder Window" (⌘N).
 * If you drag and drop a file over a folder icon, then the file will be put inside the folder.
 * If you drag a file over a folder icon and hold it in place (without dropping) for a few seconds, the folder will open automatically. This is because folders in the Mac OS are "spring-loaded". You can repeat this multiple times to drag a file deeper and deeper into the file hierarchy without ever releasing the mouse.
 * Making a New Folder - To create a folder inside the current one, choose "File > New Folder" (⇧⌘N).
 * Renaming - You can rename a file or folder by clicking once on its icon, then once on its name, typing a new name, and pressing return.
 * Duplicate - To make a duplicate of a file, click it and choose "File > Duplicate" (⌘D).
 * Deleting - To remove a file from your Mac, you must first put it in your Mac's "Trash" folder. To do so, drag and drop the file you wish to delete over the trash can icon glued into the far right side of the Dock. However, the file is still on your Mac. Read the note box below for more information.

Manipulating Groups of Files
Sometimes it is convenient to manipulate a group of two or more files at the same time. All you have to do is select the group, and then perform the action as you would with a single file. These two tricks work no matter what:

 * To select a contiguous group of files, click on the first file in a group, and then SHIFT-click the last file. Every file in between is automatically selected.
 * To select a non-contiguous group of files, hold down ⌘ as you click on each file.

Window Views and How to Use Them
Using the toolbar's view controls, you can switch between different "Window Views". These are different ways of visualizing files in the current folder. Each view also behaves differently, so you'll need to know how to interact with items in each one.

Icon View
In Icon view, your files and folders are represented by a grid of pictures (called icons). Advantages of this view include the easier renaming of files and easy-to-see file types, but the disadvantage is that the large and colorful icons take up a lot of space, so you can't see as many files and folders on the screen at the same time.

List View
In list view, files and folders are displayed in a table. The rows in the table are different items, and columns are different types of information: the file's name, size, type, etc. While you can see much more information than other views, some find this view too dense.

You can organize the items in the table by any piece of information. Click on a collumn heading and the items will appear ordered according to that heading, which glows blue. An arrow inside the heading points to show that the items are either arranged from lowest to highest (A to Z) or vice versa; clicking the heading again reverses the order.

You can also see a folder's contents in the same window by clicking the flippy triangle next to its name. Nifty, eh? As always, double-clicking a folder will make it take over the entire window.

Column View
Column view is the most visible, to the user, aspect of Mac OS X's NeXTSTEP heritage. It helps you see the hierarchy of nested folders on your Mac in a way rather similar to how music is browsed on an iPod. At the far left is a column that shows a folder's contents. Clicking on a folder in this column creates another column to the right of the first, which displays the contents of that folder. You can continue as far as you like; the farther right the column, the deeper it is in your Mac's nest of files. Selecting a file will cause an information pane to appear in the next column, including a large preview.

Another advantage of column view is that you can move files easily between two folders. Just drag and drop from one column to another! As always, folders are "spring-loaded", so you can move files with the utmost ease.

Spotlight
Spotlight, Tiger's most groundbreaking new feature, is an advanced search technology that can help you find files quickly. Unlike most desktop search features, it runs blindingly fast— almost as fast as you can type. It also searches inside the body of your files; that is, it can find that document you have hidden away by the word you know is inside it. You'll find Spotlight fields in many applications. Each one searches inside that application only. However, there is a way to search all files, regardless of which application they're in.

The Spotlight Menu
At the far right side of the menu bar is the Spotlight menu, marked with a little white magnifying glass in a blue circle. This menu provides quick access to a system-wide Spotlight search field that is the equivalent of typing the same thing into every search field in Mac OS X and combining the results.

When you type a query, the results appear instantly. You don't even have to press enter! The results are automatically lumped together according to where they came from. The types are marked along the left side of the menu in grey text. Types vary, but include things like Folders, Mail Messages, Documents, Bookmarks, Images, Music, etc. There's also an item marked with "Top Hit", indicating it best matches your criteria.

Simply click on an item to open it. If you want to see an item in its location, revealing where it is stored, hold down the ⌘ key while clicking an item.

You can control the Spotlight menu from the keyboard as well. Clicking ⌘-Space opens the Spotlight menu, and holding ⌘ selects the "Top Hit".

The Spotlight Window
The Spotlight menu is great for displaying the top 20 results, but what if you want to dig deeper? This is when the Spotlight window comes in handy. In many ways, the Spotlight window works like the Spotlight Menu; it pools results from all Spotlight-enabled search fields throughout Tiger. However, the Spotlight window lets you view all results for your query, as well as manage the results much more powerfully. Let's take a look.

Opening the Spotlight Window
Opening the Spotlight window is easy enough. When you do a search in the Spotlight menu and want to see more results, choose "Show All". The number listed next to "Show All" is the number of results you'll see in the Spotlight window.

Using the Spotlight Window
Now we'll break down the Spotlight window into parts, and cover each one as we go along.

Toolbar
The Spotlight window toolbar isn't much to look at. The toolbar contains a lone search field. As you type, progress spinner appears to indicate that Tiger is busy searching. The toolbar also displays the number of results once the search is complete.

Contents Pane
This main area contains all of the results for your query. The results are split into groups according to how you choose in the sidebar (explained below). These groups are marked by blue strips, and can be hidden and shown by using the flippy triangles on their left side.

Integrated into the right side of some of these blue strips are view controls, for choosing how you wish to view the items in a particular group. The views offered are:

 * List - This button, marked by a stack of four horizontal lines, organizes items into a table, much like List View in the Finder. Each row shows (from left to right) the name of the item, the date it was last opened, the time it was last opened, and an "i" button for displaying a complete list of information and about the item, as well as a large icon or preview. As you can see in Fig. 7, this information is often quite extensive.

 * Icon - This button, marked with a grid of four squares, lets you see previews of images and PDF files before opening them. Below each icon is the item name, date last opened, and time last opened.

 * Slideshow - This button, marked with a "play" triangle in a square, displays all of the group's contents in a slideshow.

Sidebar
This white column that runs along the right of the Spotlight window lets you adjust what is searched and how it is displayed.

 * Group by - This changes how the Spotlight window groups results. Kind shows the results Spotlight-menu style, and is the most popular option. Date groups files by when you last opened them, People groups files by who created them, and Flat List eschews groupings all together for a very confusing mess of files, in case you're into that sort of thing.
 * Sort Within Group by - These options let you set how results are ordered within each group.
 * When - The "When" section lets you narrow results down to a specific time you last opened the file. This comes in handy if you know you opened the file you're looking for yesterday.
 * Where - Another handy option, the "Where" section lets you select where Spotlight should look for files. The options are your entire Computer, your personal Home folder, or any disk currently inserted.

The Simple Finder
If you have only two menus in your Menu Bar, your Dock contains very few items, and you are thoroughly confused about why nothing in this wikibook matches what you are seeing on your screen, then your computer's administrator (owner) has turned on the "Simple Finder" for you. The Simple Finder is a drastically simplified version of the Finder, so you can forget pretty much all of this book. Differences between the two Finders are:

 * The left side of the Dock contains open applications only (the Finder and the Dashboard are always running). Therefore, the left side of the Dock in the Simple Finder is not a Launcher; only a Switcher.
 * As far as you're concerned, your computer has only three folders on it.
 * My Applications - Your Mac's administrator has complete control over which apps you can use. This folder contains links to the apps which administrator has approved of.
 * Documents - A place for all your files.
 * Shared - This is the Macintosh HD > Shared folder.
 * All three of these folders are in the right side of your Dock. You can't move them.
 * The Simple Finder has no scroll bars... instead, the Simple Finder has forward and back buttons to "page" through the contents of a folder.
 * You cannot minimize or resize a Simple Finder window.
 * You can only have one window open at a time.
 * The Simple Finder has only two menus, both of which are sparsely populated with commands.
 * The Simple Finder does not support Spotlight search or Smart Folders.
 * There is no way to delete a file in the Simple Finder. Deletion requires an Administrator use the File menu option to upgrade to the standard Finder. The inability to delete a file rules out the use of Simple Finder for most of the people who could benefit from it such as the elderly, the young, and persons of all ages who may be overwhelmed by the complexity of OS X.

The Simple Finder would be fine for most kindergartners, if it allowed them to delete the files they created. In its current state, it is almost worthless. It should not be confused with the far more valuable Simple Finder UI that was introduced in Mac OS 8. It is true that even a working version of Simple Finder would still leave the user to face the complexities of Mail.app, Safari, and other OS X applications, but in practice many of these can be configured to be relatively approachable. Apple did do some work on Simple Finder for OS X 10.4, but it is clear that they are still far from matching the functionality of ten years ago.

title: Mac OS X Tiger/Using the Finder


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Talk:Bartending/Mixers

Juices
Should we frickin' have a separate page for each juice? I vote we have things like Bartending:Mixers:Grapefruit juice redirect to Bartending:Mixers:Juices to keep the semantics nice yet consolodate onto one page.

--Bluefoxicy 05:24, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree. There's not much to say about them, might as well just put a little description on this page and link here from the recipes.  Of course, for most of them it might as well say "squeeze it fresh; sweet and sour is awful" Catscandal 10:55, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

 * For now, I'm going to make the juices into a definition list, and make the individual pages redirect to the section. Hope that works for everyone. Catscandal 11:25, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

I don't see why these can't just link to the relevant articles on Wikipedia.

--Dan131m

Old Oxford University Punch
Why is it in this section?

--Vivouk

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Bartending/Mixers


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Canadian Tort Law/Introduction

Introduction
The best way to understand torts is to know a bit of history of England. When the Normans conquered England in 1066, they did not have the manpower to colonize and occupy the entire country. Rather, the new king imposed his land system by appointing barons, and his legal system by appointing judges. These judges would move from town to town (in "circuit"), hearing disputes and applying the king's law. However, at the beginning, the king's law (or "common law") was very skeletal. If the dispute was not an area within the jurisdiction of the judge, then the judge could not decide the dispute. The way to know if the dispute was an area within the jurisdiction of the judge was to read certain pre-approved "writs". If the writ described the circumstances of the dispute, then the dispute could be heard. Each writ developed its own rules on how disputes of that kind should be resolved.

One of the most often used of these writs was known as "trespass vi et armis". That is, the defendant used physical force against the plaintiff. As the king had a monopoly on the legal use of force, the king wished to punish anyone who used force without his authorization.

In the course of history, more writs were created and those that existed became more loosely interpreted, so that common law judges were able to hear almost any dispute. However, the principle remained that common law judges hear certain types of disputes. Each type of dispute has its own set of rules.

A tort, then, is an act committed by one person with negative consequences for another, and which fits in a certain category and judged according to the rules prescribed by the common law. Types of torts include assault, battery, trespass to land, false imprisonment. The same types of torts are applicable in India as well as in Canada.

Up until the 1930s, the only torts recognized in the common law were "intentional torts" (aka. "direct torts"). An intentional tort meant that the plaintiff was the victim of a direct act by the defendant. In 1932, a new tort was recognized in the common law world: negligence. A direct act of the defendant was not a requirement for negligence; all that was required was that the defendant did something that he or she could have reasonably foreseen would harm the plaintiff. Negligence has since become the most litigated tort.

In Quebec, which did not have a common law tradition, the avoidance of actions that the common law would define as torts are considered to be "Obligations". Every person has certain obligations, including the obligation to avoid causing harm to others and the obligation to honour contracts. The Civil Code has a general provision requiring people to avoid harming others, as well as several specific obligations (e.g., parents are responsible for their children, employers for their employees, owners for their pets, etc.) While this is a philosophically different way of approaching torts, and although the reasons judges give for their decisions are remarkably different in Quebec, the end results are strikingly similar.

title: Canadian Tort Law/Introduction


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Canadian Tort Law/Defamation

Libel and Slander
Libel is the writing of something that one knows to be untrue or shows reckless disregard for whether it was true or not, which causes harm to the victim's reputation. Slander is to do the same thing, only orally instead of in writing. While separate torts, in Canada they are often conceptually brought together under the name of "defamation" or "defamation of character."

An essential element of defamation is that it brings the defendant into hatred, contempt, or ridicule. Therefore, a third party must have heard or seen the defamatory material. The defamatory material must be aimed at the plaintiff (e.g., "all lawyers are incompetent" would not be a defamation of any particular lawyer). There must usually also be real harm to a reputation. An imagined slight that only hurts the feelings of the victim, while causing no actual lowering of esteem in the eyes of others, is not defamation.

Another variation of defamation is the intentional speaking or writing of something that may be true, but with the sole purpose of causing harm to the victim's reputation. For instance, revealing that the victim has a debilitating disease may be defamation, if it was done solely to hurt the person's reputation, can be defamation. Therefore, "truth" is not always a complete defence to defamation in Canada (this is especially so in Quebec; other provinces are more likely to find truth to be a complete defence.)

Another defence to defamation is privilege. Some writing and speech has "absolute privilege", that is, in no circumstances can the author be sued. For instance, Members of Parliament have absolute privilege while in the House of Commons, as do court judgments. "Qualified privilege" is where the speech or writing is an honest opinion expressed for non-malicious reasons. For instance, a financial adviser gives a negative assessment on a company based on faulty information that he nonetheless thought was accurate does not defame the company. Closely related to "qualified privilege" is "fair comment", where people are allowed to express honestly-held opinions on issues of public interest.

title: Canadian Tort Law/Defamation


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Canadian Tort Law/Nuisance

Private Nuisance
Nuisance is the frustration of someone's reasonable use of their property. Nuisance can be any sort of interference. For instance, a defendant can cause nuisance to the use of someone's house by playing music too loudly, putting obstacles to their entranceway, or causing foul odours to spread onto their property.

The nuisance must be substantial and be an unreasonable interference. These two criteria make nuisance one of the most context-specific torts. A 60 decibel noise coming from the neighbours may or may not be a nuisance, depending for instance, on whether the neighbourhood was usually quiet or noisy, and whether the plaintiff used the property for sleeping or for drum practice.

The simple fact that the defendant was "there" before the plaintiff is not a defence to nuisance. If someone builds their home beside a factory, the smells and noise of the factory may still cause a substantial interference on the reasonable use of the plaintiff's house, depending on the facts. Neither is "lawful use" necessarily a defence to nuisance. The construction of a new factory near houses may be legal according to zoning laws, but may still constitute a nuisance to those houses. Of course, the judge may take into account such things as the layout of the town in determining what constitutes a nuisance.

The tort of nuisance relates to interference with lawful use of property, not its ownership. Therefore, a tenant of a building could sue for nuisance.

In the case of a continued nuisance, the court may award a lump sum in advance as damages for future harm.

title: Canadian Tort Law/Nuisance


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Bartending/Drinkware/Glassware

Glasses are used to serve drinks in. Below are outlined some of the different glass styles you may see.

Beer

 * Pint: A standard, all-purpose beer glass with slightly tapered walls. Used primarily for English- and American-style lagers and ales ranging from light lagers to imperial stouts. Pint glasses come in two sizes: Imperial 20 ounce (570 mL) or US 16 ounce (470 mL) pints.
 * Pilsener: A long, narrow glasses with walls that taper towards the base. Used to consolidate volatiles and support delicate heads of pilseners and other lagers.
 * Weizen: A large, curvaceous glass, bulbous near the mouth to support and showcase the heads of weizens and other wheat beers.
 * Seidel: A German-style mug, often of great volume, with handles and thick walls to help maintain a cool temperature. An earthenware, ceramic, or metal version is called a stein.
 * Tulip: A bulbous glass with a trumpeted mouth and short stem used to capture aromas and support large heads of artisanal Belgian ales. They are ideal for swirling beer to release volatiles. Many have etchings on the bottom of the inside of the glass to stimulate carbonation, aiding in head retention. A tulip glass may be substituted with an oversize snifter.
 * Chalice or goblet: A wide-mouthed, bowl-like, stemmed glass, often with metal linings. Used for serving Trappist ales and other abbey-style ales. Like tulip glasses, they are often etched to stimulate carbonation. Chalices may be substituted with an oversize red wine glass.

Brandy Snifter/Balloon
Similar to a wine glass, the brandy glass has a shorter stem and a wider bowl. The purpose is opposite of the wine glass — the brandy glass is designed to be cupped in the hand to warm the brandy.

Rocks
Often referred to as 'Rocks' glasses, Casablanca glasses are used professionally around the world due to their sturdiness, versatility and cheap pricing. Their distinctive octagonal shape comes as a result of the mold involved in the fabrication process. Today Casablanca glasses are the go-to functional glass for the average bartender in place of fashion when preparing, mixing and serving beverages. They can come in a wide range of sizes but the most common being:

 * 5oz - Juices, Minerals and Dining
 * 7oz - Liquor Sipping Glass, Bomb Glass
 * 10oz - Versatile Glass, Often a Standard for Mixers, Half Pint Equivalent for Beers
 * 13oz - Also "Cooler" Glass, Traditionally Gin & Tonic, Long Island Ice Tea or other Similar Cocktails
 * 15oz - Fits Well Into Most Boston Tins, Ideal for Large Drinks, Cocktail Preparation and Serving

Cocktail
Cocktail and whiskey sour glasses are 4 fl oz (120 mL) glasses used for cocktails and whiskey sours. Martinis and Manhattans are examples of cocktails that are served in a cocktail glass; these cocktails are prepared with ice and then strained into the 4 fl oz (120 mL) vessel. Similarly, Sours are prepared in ice and strained into a 4 fl oz (120 mL) sour glass. The stems of these glasses allow the drinker to hold the glass without warming the contents.
 * Martini
 * Double cocktail
 * Hurricane
 * Margarita
 * Poco/Piña Colada
 * Champagne/Daiquiri saucer
 * Whiskey Sour
 * Zombie

Collins
Collins glasses are straight-sided narrow glasses, traditionally wrought of frosted glass, primarily designed for long drinks (namely the fizz and Collins family of drinks), and typically holding around 10 fl oz (300 mL) each.

Highball
Highball glasses are tall, 8 or 9 fl oz (240 or 270 mL) glasses designed to hold highball drinks — iced drinks containing liquor along with water and/or a carbonated mixer. Highball glasses may in some parts also be known as a cooler or a slim jim.

Liqueur
This type of liqueur glass has straight sides and is designed for drinks prepared using the pousse-café method.
 * Pousse-café
 * Irish Coffee
 * Toddy Mug
 * Absinthe or Pastis glass
 * Specialty

Lowball
A 4-6 oz (120-180 mL) lowball glass is designed to hold iced drinks without additional liquids, such as various on-the-rocks drinks.

Pint
A large glass, typically used for beer and related drinks. It is often used as a mixing vessel by customers when a cocktail is not offered at the bar. For example the 'Cheeky Vimto'.

Punch Cup
Small cup used to serve eggnog and other punches.

Rocks/Old Fashioned
Usually used for whiskeys and gin. A perfect rocks glass has a perfect round bottom, and when the ice is dropped from the correct height a "ting" can be heard. Rocks glasses got their name as most of these drinks are served over ice (on the rocks).

Sherry
Small, narrow stemmed glasses with a wider rim than a cordial glass. Holds 6 ounces (180 mL). Ideal for liqueurs and aperitifs.

Shot
A shot glass is a small glass that holds approximately 1.5 oz (45 mL), made for drinks intended to be consumed in one quaff. Shots are also used as volume measurements in cocktail and espresso recipes. A jigger is a metal, hourglass-shaped measure; the larger cup of the jigger measures one shot, and the smaller, one ounce (30 mL). The shooter or double-shot is the shot glass's larger cousin, and holds three ounces (90 mL).

Wine
Although wine glasses can be found in a variety of shapes and sizes, they all consist of three primary elements: the bowl, the stem and the base. The base and stem serve to weight the glass and provide support for the bowl. Wine glasses are stemmed so the drinker's hand does not warm the bowl and thus the drink. The bowl is the primary distinguishing factor of wine glasses. Different wines are best served in a specific style of glass so as to best release the aromas and flavors of the wine.

General Wine Glass Styles
 * Red wine
 * Burgundy
 * Bordeaux
 * White wine
 * Chardonnay
 * Champagne flute
 * In America this has 4-6oz (120-180 mL) volume; in Europe 210 mL-330 mL (7-11 oz.)

Riedel has designed an extensive collection of wine glass styles based on the characteristics of specific grape varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah or common blends such as Burgundy & Bordeaux. The designs are based on the theory that wine can be delivered via the shape of the bowl to the taste buds in a way to accentuate the flavors specific to the grape variety or common to a standard blend. For blends that do not have a specifically designed glass the style designed for the predominate varietal in the blend is often used. A number of other stemware companies have extended their lines beyond basic Red/White dichotomies as well into less common blends in a similar fashion.

Additional Glassware

 * Plastic Glassware
 * Good Cocktails - Bar Glassware
 * [http://www.webtender.com/handbook/glassware.html

title: Bartending/Drinkware/Glassware


text:
Bartending/Garnishes

Garnishes include things like fruit wedges and onions.

Lemon slices
A good supply of lemon slices is a must.Generally a slice of lemon is added to gin and tonics but can be requested for various other drinks.

Lemon twists
You should cut up at least one peel for lemon twists at the beginning of each night.

Generally, you won't need many more than a peel's worth if that much. You should keep a few lemon wedges around as well, for the occasional lemony-fresh patron.

To use a lemon twist, twist the peel skin side down over the drink to release the essential oils into the drink and rub the skin side around the lip of the glass not the white part and drop it in the drink.

Lime wedges
Cut your wedges from a Persian lime, the most common type, not a key lime which is smaller and yellower. The reason for this is because while they are similar, two different flavors are produced.

Always keep your limes refrigerated to ensure the customer, or friend for that matter, is getting the best quality lime. Also, cut the limes as you need them, not before hand. Unless you know you are going to need a lot, cutting them fresh is a must.

Cherries
Use stemmed maraschino cherries, because they're easier to get out of the glass; some bar patrons may also enjoy tying the stems in knots inside their mouths. Do not get cherries soaked in rum or other alcohols; make sure your cherries are alcohol-free, as even small bits of alcohol can be extremely dangerous for drinkers with alcohol allergies.

Keep a lot of cherries around.

Orange Flag
This is a cherry speared onto an orange slice. A "sex on the beach" uses this garnish as do many other mixed drinks.

Olives
Olives should be green, pitted, and without pimento.

If Martinis are very popular at your bar, you want to keep a good supply of olives in stock.

Nowadays it is common to find olives stuffed with different cheeses, such as gorgonzola, blue cheese, and provolone. Jalapeño stuffed olives are also gaining popularity in the South-West region of the United States.

Onions
Small cocktail onions, the size of marbles, are used for Gibsons. Not many people order Gibsons; you should make sure you're prepared, but not over prepared.

Orange slices
Orange slices are another popular garnish.

Mint Leaves
Mint leaves are required to make certain mixed drinks such as a Mojito and a Mint Julep. Mint leaves should be fresh, wrapped in a damp papertowel and refrigerated.

Spices
Some drinks can use spices, such as cinnamon or nutmeg, as a garnish. These are particularly common in dairy-based drinks, like egg nogs, white russians, and alexanders, among others.

title: Bartending/Garnishes


text:
User talk:Vivek iitg

Hi Readers,

I am a security researcher.....well more correctly white hat by day and black hat by night. In my day job i fix bugs and make small enhancements to the software i am maintaining. Sounds ok but not exciting does it ? .....with night comes the excitement ...when i light up in fornt of my laptop and do my security research. i never know how time flies by when i sit there and try and decode the mysteries of the security world. Its always always that i end up re-inventing the wheel but in my opinion its all about getting the basics straight before starting on the real job.

I have coded everything from a silly connect port scanner to an experimental worm which i proudly displayed as part of my final year project at IIT. I remember how proud i was ....to see that i had breathed life into this digital creature, which solely existed because of me, its code a representation of my thought, both conscious and the sub-conscious. I could control it and it was my digital slave forced to do my bidding. Only a hacker can understand the true pleasure which one can derive out of a really "cool" hack. Of course there have been very few who have been appreciative of my work till now, largely because they understand nothing of it. The Indian internet revolution has just begun and largely security unaware.

title: User talk:Vivek iitg


text:
Bartending/Alcohol/Serving alcohol responsibly

Effects of alcohol on the body
Alcohol is a very potent and potentially dangerous drug. It affects many systems of the body, especially the nervous and excretory systems. These effects can be dangerous if alcohol is used in excess. However, there are a number of benefits to alcohol, so it is important to understand its effects before consumption. Refer to the wikipedia article for additional information but ultimately consult your doctor on health issues.

Positive Effects
Beers and wines have beneficial antioxidants in them. Non-alcoholic beers have become ever increasing in popularity, partially due to the fact that these benefits can be received without the effects of alcohol. Many people also find that alcohol and drinking are ways to relax and to socialize. These positive effects can easily be outweighed by excessive drinking, so it is important to remember moderation.

Negative Effects
Alcohol has a profound effect on the nervous system, and intoxication can result in severe degradation of one's ability to make sound decisions. Effects of these bad judgments can range anywhere from self injury to death of one's self and others. It is important to understand the dangers of alcohol, and of drinking in general. Beyond the short term effects of intoxication, there are dangers in general with drinking over long periods of time in excess. Prolonged drinking can lead to obesity, alcoholism, liver and kidney damage, brain damage, circulatory and heart problems, and many other dangers. Those who have allergies to alcohol face dangers vastly magnified in comparison to others and must regulate their alcohol intake accordingly.

In addition to alcohol, there are dangers with specific drinks and the way that they are prepared. Flaming cocktails can cause damage to those who attempt to ingest them, and can lead to fires that may harm others and property. Other dangers include broken glass from glasses or bottles, as well as other dangers not listed. It is important that one remains coherent enough to understand these dangers, as a lack of cognizance can only magnify these problems.

Safe Usage
By drinking responsibly, alcohol can be served, enjoyed, and used safely. It is important to remain aware of one's alcohol tolerance, and to know when to move to non-alcoholic beverages. As well as knowing one's own tolerances, it is important to keep a designated driver. Driving after consuming alcohol is under no circumstances safe, even if one is under the legal limit for intoxication.

Discontinuing service
At the end of the night, it is important that bartenders stop selling alcohol before the time designated by the licence e.g. 3am. This of course depends on the bar's individual licence and/or special circumstances e.g. a festival. For example during the Edinburgh International Festival, Bars, Pubs and Clubs can have extended licences. Also it may also be necessary to discontinue service due to an accident or other unforeseen circumstance. There patrons must be politely informed of these circumstances as much as is in the interest of the company.

Serving a person already under the influence
When bartending, precaution must be taken when serving customers that are already intoxicated or who are possibly below the age of consent. Each bartender must decide whether serving the customer more, or in fact any alcohol is responsible and legal.


text: User:Cacumer~enwikibooks

title: User:Cacumer~enwikibooks


text: User talk:128.248.11.24

title: User talk:128.248.11.24


text:
User talk:213.114.231.46

You have been temporarily blocked from editing Wikibooks. You were warned several times that linking to commercial sites is not allowed. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires.

title: User talk:213.114.231.46


text: User talk:132.198.236.178

title: User talk:132.198.236.178


text:
User talk:64.229.118.169

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:64.229.118.169


text:
Cookbook:Sushi Rice

Sushi rice, termed sushi meshi or shari in Japanese, is a key ingredient for sushi and a staple of Japanese cooking. It consists of short-grain rice dressed with seasoned vinegar called sushisu. The rice is then cooled and dried for easy manipulation and to give a glistening appearance. The Japanese measure their uncooked rice using a measurement called a Gō. This is roughly equivalent to 150 grams when used to measure Japanese rice. One Gō is also the standard size of a rice cooker's measuring cup.

Rice

 * 2 gō (300 g) uncooked, washed, short-grain Japanese rice
 * 400 ml water
 * 1 small sheet of kombu (optional)
 * 1 metric tablespoon (15 ml) sake (optional)

Sushisu

 * 3 metric tablespoons (45 ml) of rice vinegar
 * 1–2 metric tablespoons (12–24 g) of sugar (depending on how sweet you prefer it)
 * 1–1.5 metric teaspoons of sea salt

Equipment

 * Rice cooker
 * Hangiri (rice barrel; optional)
 * Shamoji (rice paddle; optional)
 * Fukin (cloth; optional)
 * Sensu (fan; optional)

Procedure

 * 1) About 30 minutes before starting, fill the hangiri with water and let it stand. The water saturates the wood, which prevents the rice from sticking to it.
 * 2) Make the sushisu: Mix the vinegar, sugar, and salt. Heat the mixture in a saucepan until everything is dissolved, but do not boil. Set aside to cool.
 * 3) Rinse the rice. Put the rice in the cooking pot, half filled with cold water, and swirl it around with your hand. The water will turn chalky white. Carefully drain off the water, and repeat the process several times, until the water remains clear.
 * 4) Allow the rice to stand for 30 minutes. Some recipes say the rice should remain in the cooking pot submerged in its cooking water; others say to transfer it temporarily to a colander to drain.
 * 5) Add an 8 cm-sized sheet of kombu to the cooking pot, along with the sake if you are using it.
 * 6) Boil the water in the cooking pot.
 * 7) Remove the kombu from the cooking pot just as the water boils, and reduce the heat. Simmer the water and rice in the cooking pot for 20 minutes.
 * 8) Turn off the heat but do not remove cover from the cooking pot for 10 minutes (no peeking).
 * 9) Transfer the rice from the cooking pot to the hangiri; if you do not have one, use a large bowl or cookie sheet.
 * 10) Cut the sushisu gently into rice with the paddle, trying not to break the kernels. For Western chefs: this "cutting" motion is similar to the cut-and-fold used for gentle treatment of egg whites. When finished, the rice is evenly coated with the dressing, giving it a shiny appearance.
 * 11) Cover the rice with a cloth for a couple of minutes so the dressing is absorbed.
 * 12) Cool the rice to body temperature by fanning it, while continuing to cut it with the spatula. A traditional hand fan or modern battery-powered fan may be used.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * A rice-cooker is often used instead of a cooking pot; these generally produce good, consistent results. The manufacturer's directions will generally be similar to the above.
 * The rice and sushisu should be mixed immediately after the rice is finished cooking with sushisu at room temperature.
 * Some sushi chefs prefer natural cooling, rather than fanning, and instead let the rice rest in the hangiri for 15 minutes, then re-cut the rice, and continue with this process until the rice is cool.
 * According to some, the faster the rice cools, the better (but see above about natural cooling, which yields a slightly different texture). The rice is best if used quickly: you can use it to make sushi for a few hours; it certainly cannot be prepared a day early.

title: Cookbook:Sushi Rice


text:
Cookbook:Makizushi (Maki Roll)

Makizushi, also called rolled sushi or maki roll, is a variety of sushi. It is made by layering nori, seasoned sushi rice, and fillings, before rolling up and slicing into individual pieces. The outer layer of the maki roll varies, having either nori or rice on the exterior—the latter is sometimes called an inside-out roll.

Ingredients

 * Prepared sushi rice
 * Fillings, as desired (this may consist of either raw/smoked salmon, tuna, etc or perhaps cucumber or avocado)
 * Nori sheets
 * Wasabi paste
 * Water
 * Sesame seeds, if making inside-out rolls with rice on outside (optional)

Equipment

 * Sushi roller (makisu)
 * Plastic wrap, if making inside-out rolls

Instructions

 * 1) Place the roller on a cutting board. If making inside-out rolls with rice on the outside, wrap the roller in a double layer of plastic wrap to prevent rice from sticking to the roller.
 * 2) Place a sheet of nori shiny side-down on top of the roller.
 * 3) Dampen your hands before applying the rice. Grab the rice with one hand and put a fistful on the center of the nori. Spread the rice over the nori approximately 6 mm thick, leaving a 2 cm gap on the side parallel to the bamboo. As a general rule, if you can't see the nori through the rice, you have too much.
 * 4) If making an inside out roll, flip over the nori and rice quickly onto the sushi roller. The rice should now be on on the surface of the plastic wrap, with the nori facing you.
 * 5) Place the primary ingredients in a row in the middle. Slowly use the roller to push the nori against itself (rolling it away from you), using your thumbs and heels of hands for stability. Be careful when you reach the row of ingredients, making sure that it goes underneath the roll rather than just being pushed along.
 * 6) When you reach the end of the nori sheet, use the roller to compact the roll a little, making sure the rice sticking it together. When evening out a bumpy roll, don't squeeze too hard on the sides and don't flatten the roll from the top.
 * 7) To fix the ends of the roll, poke about ½ inch out from one side of mat and while gently holding it in place, press it with the heel of your hand a little.
 * 8) Remove the maki from the sushi roller, and put it on the cutting board below.
 * 9) Wet a sharp knife before slicing. Slice the rolls from the center outwards, into sections of 5, 6, or 8 (depending on the roll and your preference). Cutting from the center first ensures that all ingredients will shift towards the outside two pieces. For the rolls of 6 or 8, cut from the center, then put one roll behind the other, and cut each half in half.
 * 10) If making an inside-out roll, you may garnish the exterior rice with sesame seeds.
 * 11) Serve with soy sauce for dipping. You may also want chopsticks, pickled ginger, and wasabi if culture allows. Sashimi, miso soup, other sushi, or just general Japanese food is also often served alongside it. Green tea is considered the drink of choice to have with sushi.

Notes and tips

 * Dampening the hands before handling the rice will prevent clumping and the rice sticking to your hands. However, too much moisture may also make the rice less sticky, so don't go overboard.

Variations
Common maki rolls include:
 * California roll: avocado, crab meat or imitation crab, cucumber.

 * Tuna roll: Tuna, wrapped in rice and seaweed. This same combination is used to make plain rolls with any other type of fish.

 * Spicy tuna roll: Tuna, spicy sauce (mixture of Japanese mayonnaise and sriracha)

 * Kamikaze roll: Tuna, yellowtail, spicy sauce

 * Philadelphia roll: Salmon (either raw or smoked), cream cheese

 * Cucumber roll: Sliced cucumber

 * Egg roll: Sliced egg yolk.

title: Cookbook:Makizushi (Maki Roll)


text:
Cookbook:Stewed Vegan Maki

The original recipe contributor provided the following anecdote:"'I was given this recipe in college, roughly in late 1998. My friend who was teaching me to make sushi, and taught me this. I liked it as an appetizer to help introduce Japanese flavors to those who were not used to them. I've found success with it also as a type of sushi that those who are vegan, anti-seafood, or just squeamish will eat. It's non traditional, but very good.'"

Ingredients

 * ¼ cup (60 ml) finely-shredded carrot
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) thinly-julienned onion
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) finely-diced celery
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) thinly-julienned daikon radish
 * 2 tablespoons miso paste
 * 2 oz (55 g) sake
 * ½ cup (120 ml) water
 * ½ teaspoon rice vinegar
 * ½ teaspoon wasabi
 * 1½ cups (360 ml) cooked sushi rice
 * 2 sheets of nori

Procedure

 * 1) In a wok or saucepan, combine vegetables and sake. Bring to a simmer and let cook until most of the sake is gone, stirring often.
 * 2) Add the water and miso, bring this to a simmer, and let it cook until the vegetables are soft (but not mushy), stirring often.
 * 3) Remove the vegetables from the pan, and reduce the remaining liquid to a thick sauce consistency.
 * 4) Pour the sauce over the vegetables and mix thoroughly. Let cool, then mix in vinegar.
 * 5) Evenly spread rice over nori, dab half the wasabi across each, then place the vegetable mix across this. Roll tightly.

title: Cookbook:Stewed Vegan Maki


text:
Cookbook:Inarizushi (Stuffed Sushi)

Inarizushi (稲荷寿司, "stuffed sushi") encloses sushi rice and filling in a pocket made of paper-thin omelet, fried tofu, or a cabbage leaf. What follows is the recipe for a version of the recipe which uses omelet (egg) as a wrapper instead of the traditional fried tofu (Japanese: abura a-ge).

Ingredients

 * 4 extra-large eggs
 * 2 teaspoons (8 ml) sake
 * 1 teaspoon (4 ml) sugar
 * ⅛ teaspoon (½ ml) salt
 * 1 teaspoon (4 ml) cornstarch
 * 1 tablespoon (12 ml) cold water
 * Fresh sushi rice

Special equipment

 * Mixing bowl
 * Mixing cup, for the cornstarch thickener
 * Makiyakinabe pan (a Japanese rectangular omelet pan), or a regular frying pan

Wrapper

 * 1) Break the eggs into the bowl. Removing the egg white clinging to the yolk will make for a smoother and more uniform surface.
 * 2) Add the sake, sugar, and salt.
 * 3) Beat the mixture to produce a smooth, consistent texture, but not so much as to create a foam. If you accidentally get air bubbles, let the bowl sit for a few minutes while they pop.
 * 4) Dissolve the cornstarch in the water—it will be closer to a paste than a fluid—and then add it to the egg mix.
 * 5) Heat the pan over medium heat. If you are not using a non-stick pan, you will need to oil the surface.
 * 6) Pour 3–4 tablespoons (40–50 ml) of the egg mixture all at once onto the pan.
 * 7) Swirl the pan to spread the mixture thinly and evenly.
 * 8) Allow the mixture to cook until the edges start to dry out. Remove the pan from the heat, and let the egg mixture continue to cook for 30 seconds from the heat in the pan.
 * 9) Flip the omelet over and return the pan to the heat for 30 seconds.
 * 10) Remove the omelet from the pan, and allow it to cool. You can store these omelets in the refrigerator for a few days.

Assembly

 * 1) Shape the sushi rice into oblong shapes.
 * 2) Place a piece of sushi rice in the center of one of the egg wrappers.
 * 3) Fold the edges of the wrapper over to enclose the rice.

title: Cookbook:Inarizushi (Stuffed Sushi)


text:
Cookbook:Nigiri Sushi

Nigiri, or nigirizushi, is a variety of sushi where a topping is placed on a small bed of seasoned sushi rice.

Ingredients

 * Sushi rice
 * Topping
 * Wasabi (as needed)
 * Nori (as needed)

Procedure

 * 1) If making nigirizushi that requires a band of nori to hold the sushi together, cut the nori into strips about ¼ inch wide and long enough to wrap around the finished sushi with at least 1 inch (2.5 cm) of overlap. Place one such strip on the preparing surface.
 * 2) Hand form the sushi rice into suitable sized sushi bases. Generally, this means a rectangular block about ½–1 inch wide, 1–1½ inch (2.5–4 cm) long, and ½–¾ inch (1.5–2 cm) high. It takes considerable experience to form pleasing sushi bases by hand (beginners may find a plastic sushi mold helpful for forming the bases). Wetting the hands in water prior to forming each sushi base keeps the rice from sticking to the hands.
 * 3) For nigirizushi requiring wasabi between the rice and topping, add a small dab of wasabi on the rice.
 * 4) Add the selected topping on top of the sushi rice.
 * 5) If nori is used, wrap one of the nori band ends up and over the nigirisushi topping firmly, so that it sticks to the rice and topping. Wet the other nori band end with a small amount of water, and wrap it up and over the topping so that it overlaps the other nori end. The water causes the nori ends to stick together.

Common nigirizushi combinations

 * Broiled eel: sushi rice, broiled eel, nori band. Top with eel sauce and bonito and/or sesame seeds.
 * Salmon: sushi rice, raw salmon
 * Shrimp: sushi rice, cooked shrimp (clean and butterfly the shrimp prior to using)
 * Mackerel: sushi rice, mackerel
 * Tuna: sushi rice, raw tuna

title: Cookbook:Nigiri Sushi


text:
User talk:Mithridates

Copyright problem with Image:Sisesma.PNG
--Derbeth 09:00, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Novial wiki book
Hi,

thanks for showing me how to make the word a link to the vocab list. When I get time I'll probably use it extensively. Novialiste 21:57, 26 June 2006 (UTC)

Pictures
I saw your lafamilia.png picture on the Lingua Franca Nova wikibook. Check out the pictures used on such pages as Spanish/Vocabulary/People and German/Appendices/Vocabulary/People. You may want to work this into a lesson! Cilantrohead (talk) 04:35, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

Thanks
I don't know how many other want to say this, but I really appreciate your effort in Salute, Jonathan. I've always been interested in Interlingue after picking up a few words from Tatoeba, and this ia a really fun and easy way to learn the language.

Thank you

-frzzl 86.31.153.116 (discuss) 16:02, 27 November 2021 (UTC)

 * Glad you like it! It's been a blast and I love seeing people encounter it for the first time. Also feel free to drop by the Discord server (or Facebook group and some other places) if you feel like practicing it:
 * https://discord.gg/rsqFRSJ Mithridates (discuss • contribs) 16:19, 27 November 2021 (UTC)

Salute, Jonathan!/Single page
Hi, I noticed in the single page version of your book you just copy the text from all the chapters. This is an inefficient way to do things. Even though it seems as if you have finished or are close to finishing, I suggest to use a dynamically updating way since that way if someone edits one of them, he won’t have to repeat the same edits in the single page version as well. If you want a static version, you can create a pdf. has created Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 (talk) 10:32, 28 January 2022 (UTC)

 * I went ahead and do that. Don’t worry, I have not deleted the single page that you created. I did turn it to a redirect to the printable version but this can easily be reverted. After you finish the grammar section, I will gladly also make a pdf version. -Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 (talk) 21:17, 28 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Awesome, thanks! I noticed recently that the pdf creator function was broken and just assumed that I'd have to do it manually. Yes, the book is largely done for now (won't be touching the text because I recorded the whole thing) but I will be adding more grammar notes and whatnot that doesn't touch the original dialogue so the automatic updates will be very nice to have. Mithridates (discuss • contribs) 01:12, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

 * Great to know that you appreciate the edits! The pdf creator for multiple pages is broken and from what I understand there’s no intention in fixing it, however in the printable version you can go to the printable version, and click “Download as pdf” - that creator isn’t broken. The you upload this pdf to commons. See Programming in LOLGraphics 3.4, Proto-Turkic, and Zine Making. P.s. you can ping users by typing -Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻  (talk) 08:00, 29 January 2022 (UTC)

Also, why is the book status 100% if you haven’t finished it yet? Please consider changing it to status 75%. -Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 (talk) 15:17, 30 January 2022 (UTC)
 * I probably should have been clearer above: it's definitely done, I just haven't excluded the idea of an expansion later on. Lingua Latina per se Illustrata has those additional dialogues and question and answer parts that are recorded too, and I might do something like that one day but as it stands I consider it complete. Mithridates (discuss • contribs) 02:35, 31 January 2022 (UTC)

 * OK I see. Makes sense. -Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 (talk) 07:22, 1 February 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mithridates


text:
Cookbook:Gunkanmaki (Topped Oval Sushi)

Gunkanmaki ("battleship roll") is a variety of sushi where a oval-shaped piece of sushi rice is wrapped with nori and topped.

Base

 * Sushi rice
 * Nori

Common toppings

 * Uni (sea urchin) roe
 * Salmon roe
 * Negitoro (minced raw tuna)
 * Sliced cucumber
 * Quail egg

Procedure

 * 1) Cut nori into strips 1 inch wide and long enough to fully surround your sushi rice with at least 1 inch of overlap.
 * 2) Form the sushi rice into oval pieces approximately 1 inch wide by 1¼ inch long by 1 inch high.
 * 3) Starting with one end of a nori strip, fully wrap the nori around the sushi rice. Wet the inside of the overlapping nori, and press over the first end to seal the roll.
 * 4) Stand the rolled rice up, and place the desired topping(s) on top of the roll as shown in the images.

title: Cookbook:Gunkanmaki (Topped Oval Sushi)


text:
Learning the vi Editor/vi Reference

The following conventions are used in this reference.

Movement
vi can be set up on most systems to use the keyboard movement buttons, such as cursor left, page up, home, delete, etc.

Inserting
All insert commands put vi into insert mode. Insert mode is terminated by the ESC key.

Deleting
Each time a delete command is used, the deleted text is placed into the buffer, replacing any text already in the buffer. Buffered text can be retrieved by p or P.

Changing
The change commands all select text to be removed, the end of which is indicated by a $. Insert mode is entered and new text overwrites or extends the text. When the  key is pressed to terminate the insert, any remaining original text is deleted.

Text deleted during a change is placed into the buffer, replacing any text already there. Buffered text can be retrieved by p or P.

Cut and Paste
The yank commands copy text into the vi buffer. Text is also copied into the buffer by delete and change commands. The put or place commands retrieve text from the buffer.

Searching
Searching uses regular expressions.

Search and Replace
Search and replace uses regular expressions and the Ex command (short ) which has syntax similar to the sed utility - which is not surprising sed, Ex and Vi have common roots - the Ed editor.

The following meta-characters have special meaning in the replacement pattern: For example .:s/\(foo\) \(bar\) \(baz\)/\u\1 \U\2\E \3/ could match the string foo bar baz and substitute Foo BAR baz for it.

Mark Text
Marked lines can be used when changing or deleting text.

vi Options
All options are ex options, and so require an initial colon.

Default options may be placed into a file in the user's home directory called .exrc. Options in this file do not have the initial colon, e.g.
 * set ic

ex Commands
ex commands start with :, which puts vi into last line mode, entered on the last line of the screen. Spaces within the command are ignored.

ex line commands
These commands edit lines and have the following syntax:
 * 1) No line number, meaning work on the current line.
 * 2) With %, meaning work on all lines.
 * 3) A pair of line numbers, such as '3,5' meaning work on lines 3 to 5 inclusive. Either number can be replaced with ., standing for the current line or $ standing for the last line. So .,$ means from the current line to the end of the file and 1,$ means the same as %. Additionally simple arithmetic may be used, so .+1 means the line after the current line, or $-5 means 5 lines before the last line.

External link

 * vim Official Reference Manual
 * An introduction to the vi editor
 * Learning Unix in 10min

Vi文件編輯器/vi指令表

title: Learning the vi Editor/vi Reference


text: Template:Japanese/Ruby

title: Template:Japanese/Ruby


text:
IB Physics

IB Physics Review

Printable Version

Standard and Higher Level Core

 * Topic 1 - Physics and Physical Measurement
 * Topic 2 - Mechanics
 * Topic 3 - Thermodynamics
 * Topic 3 - Thermal Physics
 * Topic 4 - Oscillations and Waves
 * Topic 5 - Electric Currents
 * Topic 6 - Fields and Forces
 * Topic 7 - Atomic and Nuclear Physics
 * Topic 8 - Energy Power and Climate Change

Higher Level Core only

 * Topic 9 - Motion in Fields
 * Topic 10 - Thermal Physics
 * Topic 11 - Wave Phenomena
 * Topic 12 - Electromagnetic Induction
 * Topic 13 - Quantum and Nuclear Physics (SL option B)
 * Topic 14 - Digital Technology (Part of SL option C)

Option topics

 * Option C - Digital Technology Option
 * Option E - History and Development of Physics SL
 * Option E - History and Development of Physics HL
 * Option F - Astrophysics SL
 * Option F - Astrophysics HL
 * Option G - Relativity (HL)
 * Option G - 2010 Electromagnetic waves (HL)
 * Option H - Optics SL
 * Option H - Optics HL
 * Option I - Biomedical Physics (HL)

2016 Syllabus table of contents

 * 1) Core
 * 2) Measurements and Uncertainties
 * 3) Measurements in Physics
 * 4) Uncertainties and Errors
 * 5) Vectors and Scalars
 * 6) Mechanics
 * 7) Thermal Physics
 * 8) Waves
 * 9) Electricity and Magnetism
 * 10) Circular Motion and Gravitation
 * 11) Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics
 * 12) Energy Production
 * 13) Additional Higher Level
 * 14) Wave Phenomena
 * 15) Fields
 * 16) Electromagnetic Induction
 * 17) Quantum and Nuclear Physics
 * 18) Options
 * 19) Relativity
 * 20) Engineering Physics
 * 21) Imaging
 * 22) Astrophysics

Fysiikan oppikirja

title: IB Physics


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Rebol Programming/Third Party/Beer Framework

About BEER
BEER stands for Block Extensible Exchange in REBOL. It is a framework to implement application protocols and solves the encapsulation, extensibility, and flow control problems. BEER is essentially a REBOL implementation of the BEEP Protocol plus additional features.

BEER offers simple framing, robust flow control, asynchrony and extensibility through profiles which permit direct implementation of the semantics of the problem domain.

It was inspired by IETF RFC 3080 and 3081, and it is fully asynchronous allowing for non-blocking user-interfaces.

Each API is called a Profile.

Principles and API of BEER foundation are documented here.

Async Operation
BEER can give you fully asynchronous operation, which means you can do GUI operations and networking operations simultaneously.


text: Template:Georgia Water/Infobox Organizations


text: Georgia Water/External Links/Organizations/Georgia Water Resources Conference


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Bartending/Glossary/Table of measures and conversions

Measurement is among the most important tasks in bar-tending and due to the diverse systems of measurement around the world perhaps the most confusing for a project such as ours. This page lists common liquid measurements in terms of fluid ounces and their metric equivalents.

Common bar measurements

 * (*) "splash" - a 20oz bottle of soda containing a "splash" of real juice contains 1% juice = 0.2oz juice
 * (†) A "shotglass" is usually 1.5 ounces, but sometimes 2 ounces with a measuring line at 1.5 ounces. You can also buy (in US) "short shot" glasses or "pony shots" which are 1 ounce. Pony shots are usually used with martinis, manhattans, and rob roys.

Dash and fill
Some recipes call for a small amount or "dash" to taste. A dash can be loosely defined as 1/6 teaspoon or about 1 mL, essentially the smallest amount one is able to pour from a dasher (a device which fits in the mouth of a bottle to slow the flow of liquid) or dasher bottle (a bottle equipped with such a device).

When instructed to 'fill' with a given spirit or mixer it is presumed that you are working in a glass of the given size and should, after adding the cocktail's other ingredients, 'top off' or fill the glass as instructed. If your recipe lists no specific glassware it may assume a standard highball glass of eight to ten ounces.


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Template:Communication Systems/Page

 Communication Systems

title: Template:Communication Systems/Page


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Communication Systems/Baseband and Broadband Signals

It is important to know the difference between a baseband signal, and a broad band signal. In the Fourier Domain, a baseband signal is a signal that occupies the frequency range from 0 Hz up to a certain cutoff. It is called the baseband because it occupies the base, or the lowest range of the spectrum.

In contrast, a broadband signal is a signal which does not occupy the lowest range, but instead a higher range, 1 MHz to 3 MHz, for example. A wire may have only one baseband signal, but it may hold any number of broadband signals, because they can occur anywhere in the spectrum.

Wideband vs Narrowband
in form of frequency modulation. wideband fm has been defined as that in which the modulation index normally exceeds unity.

Frequency Spectrum
A graphical representation of the various frequency components on a given transmission medium is called a frequency spectrum.


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Template:Communication Systems/Stub

''This section of the  book is a stub. You can help by expanding this section.'' :This template adds page to /Stubs.

title: Template:Communication Systems/Stub


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Communication Systems/Time-Division Multiplexing

Consider a situation where there are multiple signals which would all like to use the same wire (or medium). For instance, a telephone company wants multiple signals on the same wire at the same time. It certainly would save a great deal of space and money by doing this, not to mention time by not having to install new wires. How would they be able to do this? One simple answer is known as Time-Division Multiplexing.

Time Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a convenient method for combining various digital signals onto a single transmission media such as wires, fiber optics or even radio. These signals may be interleaved at the bit, byte, or some other level. The resulting pattern may be transmitted directly, as in digital carrier systems, or passed through a modem to allow the data to pass over an analog network. Digital data is generally organized into frames for transmission and individual users assigned a time slot, during which frames may be sent. If a user requires a higher data rate than that provided by a single channel, multiple time slots can be assigned.

Digital transmission schemes in North America and Europe have developed along two slightly different paths, leading to considerable incompatibility between the networks found on the two continents.

BRA (basic rate access) is a single digitized voice channel, the basic unit of digital multiplexing.

 * [[Image:BRA_comparison.gif]]

 * [[Image:digital_transmission_systems.gif]]

North American TDM
The various transmission rates are not integral numbers of the basic rate. This is because additional framing and synchronization bits are required at every multiplexing level.

 * [[Image:north_american_TDM.gif]]

In North America, the basic digital channel format is known as DS-0. These are grouped into frames of 24 channels each. A concatenation of 24 channels and a start bit is called a frame. Groups of 12 frames are called multiframes or superframes. These vary the start bit to aid in synchronizing the link and add signaling bits to pass control messages.

 * [[Image:DS_framing.gif]]

S Bit Synchronization
The S bit is used to identify the start of a DS-1 frame. There are 8 thousand S bits per second. They have an encoded pattern, to aid in locating channel position within the frame.

 * [[Image:s_bits.gif]]

This forms a regular pattern of 1 0 1 0 1 0 for the odd frames and 0 0 1 1 1 0 for the even frames. Additional synchronization information is encoded in the DS-1 frame when it is used for digital data applications, so lock is more readily acquired and maintained.

For data customers, channel 24 is reserved as a special sync byte, and bit 8 of the other channels is used to indicate if the remaining 7 bits are user data or system control information. Under such conditions, the customer has an effective channel capacity of 56 Kbps.

To meet the needs of low speed customers, an additional bit is robbed to support sub-rate multiplexer synchronization, leaving 6 x 8 Kbps = 48 Kbps available. Each DS-0 can be utilized as:

 * • 5 x 9.6 Kbps channels or
 * • 10 x 4.8 Kbps channels or
 * • 20 x 2.48 Kbps channels.

In the DS-2 format, 4 DS-1 links are interleaved, 12 bits at a time. An additional 136 Kbps is added for framing and control functions resulting in a total bit rate of 6.312 Mbps.

Signaling
Signaling provides control and routing information. Two bits, called the A and B bits, are taken from each channel in frames 6 and 12 in the multiframe. The A bit is the least significant bit in each channel in frame 6, and the B bit is the least significant bit in each channel in frame 12. This provides a signaling rate of 666 2/3 bps per channel.

The quality of voice transmission is not noticeably affected when 2% of the signal is robbed for signaling. For data, it may be a different story. If the data is encoded in an analog format such as FSK or PSK, then robbing bits is of no consequence, but if the data is already in digital form, then robbing bits results in unacceptable error rates. It is for this reason that in North America, a 64 Kbps clear channel cannot readily be switched through the PSTN. This means that data customers are limited to 56 Kbps clear channels. This simple condition has a profound effect on the development of new services such as ISDN. In most facilities, the A and B bits represent the status of the telephone hook switch, and correspond to the M lead on the E&M interface of the calling party.

ESF
CCITT has modified the North American digital hierarchy for the deployment of ISDN, by means of recommendation G.704. ESF consists of 24 DS-0 channels in a frame, but groups them into a 24-frame multiframe instead of the usual 12-frame multiframe.

The S bit is renamed the F bit, but only 1/4 of them are used for synchronization. This is possible because of improvements in frame search techniques and allows more signaling states to be defined.

Bit robbing is still used for signaling over an ESF link, but with the advent of ISDN, it will not be permitted. Instead, channel 24 is used to support a D channel.

 * [[Image:ESF.gif]]

Typical T1 CPE Application
The large telecom carriers are not the only ones who deploy high-speed TDM facilities. In many cases, heavy users of voice or data services can reduce their transmission costs by concentrating their numerous low speed lines on to a high speed facility.

There are many types of T1 multiplexers available today. Some are relatively simple devices, while others allow for channel concatenation, thus supporting a wide range of data rates. The ability to support multiple DS-0s allows for easy facilitation of such protocols as the video teleconferencing standard, Px64.

 * [[Image:T1_mux.gif]]

Multiplexers
Multiplexing units are often designated by the generic term Mab where a is input DS level and b is the output DS level. Thus, an M13 multiplexer combines 28 DS–1s into a single DS–3 and an M23 multiplexer combines 7 DS–2s into a single DS–3.

 * [[Image:M13_mux.gif]]

ZBTSI
ZBTSI (zero byte time slot interchange) is used on DS–4 links. Four DS-1 frames are loaded into a register, and renumbered 1–96. If there are any empty slots [all zeros], the first framing bit is inverted and all blank slots are relocated to the front of the frame. Channel 1 is then loaded with a 7-bit number corresponding to the original position of the first empty slot. Bit 8 used to indicate whether the following channel contains user information or another address for an empty slot.

If there is a second vacancy, bit 8 in the previous channel is set, and the empty slot address is placed in channel 2. This process continues until all empty positions are filled.

The decoding process at the receiver is done in reverse. Borrowing 1 in 4 framing bits for this system is not enough to cause loss of synchronization and provides a 64 Kbps clear channel to the end-user.

European TDM Carriers
European systems were developed along slightly different principles. The 64 Kbps channel is still the basic unit, but signaling is not included in each channel. Instead, common channel signaling is used. In a level 1 carrier, channels 0 and 16 are reserved for signaling and control. This subtle difference means that European systems did not experience the toll fraud and 56 k bottlenecks common to North American systems, and they experience a much larger penetration of ISDN services.

 * [[Image:European_TDM.gif]]

 * [[Image:E1_frame.gif]]

Zero Substitutions
In order to prevent transmission systems from loosing lock on the data stream, it is necessary to avoid long strings of zeros. One of the most effective ways of doing this is to replace the zeros with a predetermined code. This substitution must be done in such a way that the receiver can identify it and strip it off before passing the data stream to the client.

AMI provides a simple means of detecting substitutions. In the normal course of events, alternate marks are inverted. Therefor, deliberately inducing a bipolarvariation at the transmitter can alert the receiver of a substitution. However, a single violation is indistinguishable from a transmission error. Consequently, some additional condition must also occur.

There are two common methods to create a second condition:

 * · Create a second bipolar violation in the opposite direction, within a specified time. This has the effect of keeping the average signal level at zero.
 * · Count the number of marks from the last substitution to predict the next type of violation

B6ZS
B6ZS (binary six zero substitution) is used on T2 AMI transmission links.

Synchronization can be maintained by replacing strings of zeros with bipolar violations. Since alternate marks have alternate polarity, two consecutive pulses of the same polarity constitute a violation. Therefore, violations can be substituted for strings of zeros, and the receiver can determine where substitutions were made.

Since the last mark may have been either positive (+) or negative (-), there are two types of substitutions:

 * [[Image:B6ZS substitutions.gif]]

These substitutions force two consecutive violations. A single bit error does not create this condition.

 * [[Image:B6ZS_example.gif]]

B8ZS
This scheme uses the same substitution as B6ZS.

 * [[Image:B8ZS_substitutions.gif]]

B3ZS
B3ZS is more involved than B6ZS, and is used on DS–3 carrier systems. The substitution is not only dependent on the polarity of the last mark, but also on the number of marks since the last substitution.

 * [[Image:B3ZS_substitutions.gif]]

 * [[Image:B3ZS_example.gif]]

HDB3
HDB3 (high density binary 3) introduces bipolar violations when four consecutive zeros occur. It can therefore also be called B4ZS. The second and thirds zeros are left unchanged, but the fourth zero is given the same polarity as the last mark. The first zero may be modified to a one to make sure that successive violations are of alternate polarity.

 * [[Image:HDB3_substitutions.gif]]

HDB3 is used in Europe. Violation, or V pulses are injected after three consecutive zeros. The fourth zero is given the same polarity as the last mark. In the event of long strings of zeros occurring, a succession of single polarity pulses would occur, and a dc offset would build-up.

To prevent this, the first zero in a group of 4, may be modified to a 1. This B or balancing pulse assures that successive violations are of alternate polarity.

 * [[Image:HDB3_waveform.gif]]

Block Code Substitution
These schemes operate on bytes rather than a bit at a time. Some transmit the signal as binary levels, but most use multi-level pulses. Some authors categorize these as line codes.

A binary block code has the designation nBmB, where n input bits are encoded into m output bits. The most common of these is the 3B4B code.

 * [[Image:3B4B_coding.gif]]

In Europe 4B3T, which encodes 4 binary bits into 3 ternary levels, has been selected as the BRA for ISDN. In North America, 2B1Q which encodes 2 binary bits into 1 quaternary level has been selected for BRA.

 * [[Image:2B1Q_coding.gif]]

Some block codes do not generate multilevel pulses. For example, 24B1P or 24B25B simply adds a P or parity bit to a 24 bit block.

Benefits of TDM
TDM is all about cost: fewer wires and simpler receivers are used to transmit data from multiple sources to multiple destinations. TDM also uses less bandwidth than Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) signals, unless the bitrate is increased, which will subsequently increase the necessary bandwidth of the transmission.

Synchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM is a system where the transmitter and the receiver both know exactly which signal is being sent. Consider the following diagram:

Signal A ---> |---| |A|B|C|A|B|C|  |--| ---> Signal A Signal B ---> |TDM| --> |De-TDM| ---> Signal B Signal C ---> |---|                 |--| ---> Signal C

In this system, starting at time-slice 0, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal A; starting at time-slice 1, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal B; and starting at time-slice 2, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal C. In this situation, the receiver (De-TDM) needs only to switch after the signal on each time-slice is received.

The data flow of each input connection is divided into units where each input occupies one input time slot. Each input connection has a time slot alloted in the output irrespective of the fact whether it is sending data or not.

A -|A3|A2|A1|---> |---| .............|C3|B3|A3|C2|B2|A2|C1|B1|A1|  |--| --->  A              |  |  |  |                        |        |        | B -|B3|B2|B1|---> |MUX| -|||--> |De-MUX| ---> B              |  |  |  |                        |        |        | C -|C3|C2|C1|---> |---|             |        |        |            |--| --->  C                    <-->                                 <> Bit Interval                      Frame (x seconds)

Sync TDM is inefficient when one or more input lines have no data to send. Thus, it is used with lines with high data traffic.

Sampling rate is same for all signals. Maximum sampling rate = twice the maximum frequency all the signals.

Statistical TDM
Synchronous TDM is beneficial because the receiver and transmitter can both cost very little. However, consider the most well-known network: the Internet. In the Internet, a given computer might have a data rate of 1kbps when hardly anything is happening, but might have a data rate of 100kbps when downloading a large file from a fast server. How are the time-slices divided in this instance? If every time slice is made big enough to hold 100Kbps, when the computer isn't downloading any data, all of that time and electricity will be wasted. If every time-slice is only big enough for the minimum case, the time required to download bigger files will be greatly increased.

The solution to this problem is called Statistical TDM, and is the solution that the Internet currently uses. In Statistical TDM, each data item, known as the payload (we used time-slices to describe these earlier), is appended with a certain amount of information about who sent it, and who is supposed to receive it (the header). The combination of a payload and a header is called a packet. Packets are like envelopes in the traditional "snail mail" system: Each packet contains a destination address and a return address as well as some enclosed data. Because of this, we know where each packet was sent from and where it is going.

The downside to statistical TDM is that the sender needs to be smart enough to write a header, and the receiver needs to be smart enough to read the header and (if the packet is to be forwarded,) send the packet toward its destination.

Link Utilization
Statistical multiplexing attempts to maximize the use of a communication path. The study of this is often called queuing theory. A queue is simply a line of customers or packets waiting to be served. Under most circumstances, the arrival rate is unpredictable and therefor follows a random or Poisson distribution pattern, whereas the service time is constant.

The utilization or fraction of time actually used by a packet multiplexing system to process packets is given by:

 * [[Image:Utilization.gif]]

The queue length or average number of items waiting to be served is given by:

 * $$q = \frac + \rho $$

 * [[Image:Queue_length.gif]]

 * Example

 * A T1 link has been divided into a number of 9.6 Kbps channels and has a combined user data rate of 1.152 Mbps. Access to this channel is offered to 100 customers, each requiring 9.6 Kbps data 20% of the time. If the user arrival time is strictly random find the T1 link utilization.

 * Solution

 * The utilization or fraction of time used by the system to process packets is given by:

 * $$\rho = \frac{M} = \frac = 0.167$$

 * A 24 channel system dedicated to DATA, can place five 9.6 Kbps customers in each of 23 channels, for a total of 115 customers. In the above statistical link, 100 customers created an average utilization of 0.167 and were easily fitted, with room to spare if they transmit on the average 20% of the time. If however, the customer usage were not randomly distributed, then the above analysis would have to be modified.

This example shows the potential for statistical multiplexing. If channels were assigned on a demand basis (only when the customer had something to send), a single T1 may be able to support hundreds of low volume users.

A utilization above 0.8 is undesirable in a statistical system, since the slightest variation in customer requests for service would lead to buffer overflow. Service providers carefully monitor delay and utilization and assign customers to maximize utilization and minimize cost.

Packets
Packets will be discussed in greater detail once we start talking about digital networks (specifically the Internet). Packet headers not only contain address information, but may also include a number of different fields that will display information about the packet. Many headers contain error-checking information (checksum, Cyclic Redundancy Check) that enables the receiver to check if the packet has had any errors due to interference, such as electrical noise.

Duty Cycles
Duty cycle is defined as " the time that is effectively used to send or receive the data, expressed as a percentage of total period of time." The more the duty cycle, the more effective transmission or reception.

We can define the pulse width, τ, as being the time that a bit occupies from within its total alloted bit-time Tb. If we have a duty cycle of D, we can define the pulse width as:

 * $$\tau = DT_b$$

Where:

 * $$0 < \tau \le T_b$$

The pulse width is equal to the bit time if we are using a 100% duty cycle.


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Talk:Communication Systems

I created 2 templates to use:

 * Template:Communication Systems Page
 * Template:Communication Systems Stub
 * :
 * /Stubs

We can update these templates, as needed. --Whiteknight T C E 18:34, 7 November 2005 (UTC)

Thermal Noise
I want to add a section to one of the books on the EE bookshelf about thermal noise. I don't know which book to add i to, and this seems the likeliest candidate. --Whiteknight (talk) (current) 18:58, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

Links
I'm going to dump some links here:

-- 00:14, 16 December 2005 (UTC)
 * CIDR
 * Network Address Translation
 * IPv6
 * ISP
 * Point Of Presence
 * National Access Point
 * Autonomous Systems
 * RIP
 * OSPF
 * IGP
 * Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
 * File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 * Telnet
 * DNS
 * Network File System (NFS)
 * CODA
 * Internet Mail
 * URL
 * MIME
 * HTTP
 * Web Cache
 * Secure Sockets Layer
 * Secure HTTP

Data Coding Theory
I have started a new outline for a book that will serve as a continuation of this one, Data Coding Theory. The new book will cover a number of topics specific to binary data encoding, for the purposes of error correction, spectrum spreading, interference reduction and immunity, etc... This new book is an outline only right now, and will likely not be introduced onto a bookshelf for a long time. --Whiteknight (talk) (current) 18:03, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

Cleanup
I went through and cleaned up this book alot today. I flattened out the book so that we don't have nested page names. This makes linking easier and cleaner. I also went through, and made sure that every page has at least 4 headings in it. If a page has less then 4 headings in it, it won't automatically generate a table of contents. More importantly, if we don't have 4 things to say about a subject, I think the page becomes a good candidate for merging. --Whiteknight (talk) (current) 22:46, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Book split, addition of new material, etc
I would like to split this book into two books, Communication Systems, which will be mostly theoretical, and Communication Technology that will reference the first book to discuss actual implementations and communication standards/protocols. Section 5, section 6, section 7, and section 8 will be split out into the new book. To replace these sections, we will expand the area of data coding, and include new information on channel equalization, adaptive filters, and even some basics of analog signal processing (perhaps the start to a new book in it's own right). If nobody objects to this motion, I would like to start on it this winter break. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 16:55, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Communication Systems


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User:Nivritchari

I am an undergraduate student of Economics studying at University of London. Although living in the UK I am originally from Bangladesh, a small country of Southeast Asia. Despite being a student of Economics I have familiarity with computer programming and my prfered programming language is JAVA, although I know C++, Visual Studio.net, PHP and OMNIMARK. I am a web developer as well. Currently I am the editor of online Bangla magazine www.nayadak.org and intrested in writing books for WIKI in Bangla, which is my native tounge.

My Email address: kamalsikder@yahoo.co.uk WEB: www.nayadak.org

title: User:Nivritchari


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Communication Networks/OSI Reference Model

This page will discuss the OSI Reference Model

What It Does
The OSI model allows for different developers to make products and software to interface with other products, without having to worry about how the layers below are implemented. Each layer has a specified interface with layers above and below it, so everybody can work on different areas without worrying about compatibility.

Packets
Higher level layers handle the data first, so higher level protocols will touch packets in a descending order. Let's say we have a terminal system that uses TCP protocol in the transport layer, IP in the network layer, and Ethernet in the Data Link layer. This is how the packet would get created:

1. Our application creates a data packet
 * Data|

2. TCP creates a TCP Packet:
 * TCP Header|Data|

3. IP creates an IP packet:
 * IP Header|TCP Header|Data|CRC|

4. Ethernet Creates an Ethernet Frame:
 * Ethernet Header|IP Header|TCP Header|Data|CRC|

On the receiving end, the layers receive the data in the reverse order:

1. Ethernet Layer reads and removes Ethernet Header:
 * IP Header|TCP Header|Data|CRC|

2. IP layer reads the IP header and checks the CRC for errors
 * TCP Header|Data|

3. TCP Layer reads TCP header
 * Data|

4. Application reads data.

It is important to note that multiple TCP packets can be squeezed into a single IP packet, and multiple IP packets can be put together into an Ethernet Frame.

Introduction
Network Layer is responsible for transmitting messages hop by hop. The major internet layer protocols exist in this layer. Internet Protocol (IP) plays as a major component among all others, but we will also discuss other protocols, such as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), Network Address Translation (NAT), and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). Network layer does not guarantee the reliable communication and delivery of data.

Network Layer Functionality
Network Layer is responsible for transmitting datagrams hop by hop, which sends from station to station until the messages reach their destination. Each computer should have a unique IP address assigned as an interface to identify itself from the network. When a message arrives from Transport Layer, IP looks for the message addresses, performs encapsulation and add a header end to become a datagram, and passes to the Data Link Layer. As for the same at the receive side, IP performs decapsulation and remove network layer header, and then sends to the Transport Layer. The network model illustrates below:

Figure 1 Network Layer in OSI Model

When a datagram sends from the source to the destination, here are simple steps on how IP works with a datagram travels:

 * 1) Upper-layer application sends a packet to the Network Layer.
 * 2) Data calculation by checksum.
 * 3) IP header and datagram constructs.
 * 4) Routing through gateways.
 * 5) Each gateways IP layer performs checksum.  If checksum does not match, the datagram will be dropped and an error message will send back to the sending machine.  Along the way, if TTL decrements to 0, the same result will occur. And, the destination address routing path will be determined on every stop as the datagram passes along the internetwork.
 * 6) Datagram gets to the Network Layer of destination.
 * 7) Checksum calculation performs.
 * 8) IP header takes out.
 * 9) Message passes to upper-layer application.

Figure 2 IP Characteristic in Network Layer

In Network Layer, there exist other protocols, such as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), but, however, IP holds a big part among all.

Figure3 Internet Protocol in Network Layer

In addition, IP is a connectionless protocol, which means each packet acts as individual and passes through the Internet independently. There is sequence, but no sequence tracking on packets on the traveling, which no guarantee, in result of unreliable transmission.

Other Reference Models
TCP/ IP model


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Communication Systems/IEEE 802 Working Groups

The 802 portion of the IEEE is responsible for publishing standards on a number of different protocols. Any chapter with a note such as (IEEE 802.3) is referring to the group below that has published the currently accepted standard for that topic.