text:
Japanese/Kanji

Kanji characters are based on Chinese characters transmitted to Japan during the spread of Buddhism in the 5th century. A large percentage (approx. 70%) of Japanese vocabulary comes from Chinese or Chinese-derived words. While the meaning of individual characters is fairly consistent between the languages, compound words often have different meanings.

Kanji are inflected by hiragana that follow and particles give the case. Most words are written using kanji, though some have none and loan-words from other languages are generally written in katakana. The large number of homophones makes it highly desirable to use kanji and knowing them can help with memorising new words.

Note that writing kanji skillfully is significantly harder than reading kanji skillfully, since one must recall characters, not simply recognize them. Further, with Input Methods allowing one to write Japanese on a computer phonetically (by recognizing the kanji, not needing to produce them), the practical need for kanji writing skills is lower than in the past, but it is still fundamental to mastery of Japanese.

Study methods
Kanji can form a difficult hurdle for some in their study of Japanese. Their nature as graphic representations of concepts translating to sounds gives rise to the particularly diverse methods employed for the study of kanji.

Fundamentally, one’s goal is to learn Japanese, not kanji per se and this has two main implications. Firstly, as many words are written as compounds of multiple kanji it is not sufficient learn the individual two thousand odd characters, but also their combinations. Furthermore, just as learning vocabulary in any language, these must be learnt in the context of the language. Not only does it aid memorisation of terms, but enforces the understanding of their nuance. It is finally worth mentioning that one can learn to speak Japanese without learning to read or write it, just as with any language. If one is, however, ever to learn to read, it is advisable to start right away and learn the characters in parallel with vocabulary and phrases.

Throughout, understand that one’s mastery of any skill is imperfect, impermanent, and incomplete (see 侘寂, wabi-sabi) – while perfection is a worthy goal, it should not be expected nor demanded – mistakes should be expected, and accept that there are further levels of mastery: not 300 people a year pass the Kanji kentei level 1.

Basic issues, regardless of study methods:
 * start early
 * Kanji take a long time to learn; if you start early, kanji will not be the limiting factor, but if you start later in your studies, there will be a dispiriting quantity of catch-up to do.
 * It is not simply an issue of memorizing 1,945 characters (or more for names) – the same character is pronounced in different ways and used in different contexts. Kanji are simply a large amount of data, and this is best learned over a long period of time.

 * review regularly
 * Kanji are easily forgotten, and subtle details and differences fade without review. Regular review, particularly via electronic flashcard programs such as Anki or Mnemosyne, are essential to mastery.

 * make connections: Rather than learning characters in isolation, drawing connections helps memory. For example, learning a character as part of several words, or learning graphically similar or etymologically related characters can help make them more easily remembered.
 * detail: It is easy to make minor mistakes with kanji, be it missing a stroke or forgetting a rarely used kanji. A high level of mastery requires attention to detail, as detailed below.

Because there are so many kanji, and they are relatively sparse (of 1,945 kanji, most will not be used and reinforced in any sample of text, unlike kana) simply memorizing the forms and pronunciations (as one does for the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet or the 46 kana, twice) is less practical and effective, and one instead uses more structured mnemonic methods.

There are three aspects to a particular kanji:
 * form: The character shape – the strokes.
 * sound: The pronunciations, of which there are generally many.
 * meaning: The meanings, both of the individual kanji and its combinations.

There are a number of ways to learn the kanji. Rather than pick one, try to see how each of these works for you and combine them in your study.

Rote
The most straightforward way of learning kanji is by rote. While few will succeed in retaining even a portion of the two thousand basic characters — not to mention their compounds — rote learning is a good way to practice mnemonic devices such as those mentioned in the following sections. Writing reinforces character details, builds muscle memory and improves handwriting. Thus, regardless of learning system, practicing writing the kanji is a valuable aspect of learning.

Make flash-cards with one or more characters on one side, the meaning and reading on the other and drill yourself. Make another set of cards with the meaning on one side and the characters and readings on the other and drill yourself on writing the kanji. There are several programs and website applications that offer kanji drilling. Notable spaced recognition software include Anki and Mnemosyne.

Forgetting a rarely used kanji is easy so it is important to regularly review these.

Handwriting
Note that characters have a generally accepted stroke order. While this may seem an extra burden at first, the order is highly regular and will vastly improve your ability to read other people's handwriting, not to mention make yours more intelligible.

As with the handwriting of most scripts, Japanese calligraphy has a long history and is greatly revered to this day. As kanji are somewhat more intricate than Latin characters, the quality of handwriting and the order the strokes are written in matter a great deal. In fact, without a commonly accepted system, cursive styles and hurried handwriting would be illegible, indeed.

There is, of course, only one way to practice handwriting: By writing. Get yourself a nice notebook, preferable one with good sized squares, and practice, practice, practice.

Context
The Kanji in Context texts from the Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies emphasizes the value of learning not so much kanji characters in isolation, but kanji-based vocabulary, particularly as part of phrases or idioms. In this approach, when learning a kanji, one learns important words that it is part of. Further, one will learn kanji that make up a given word at the same time – for example, one will learn the word 日本 (Nihon, Japan) and, at the same time, the characters 日 (nichi, ni, sun) and 本 (hon, root).

Recognising the constituent parts
As you progress in learning kanji, you'll start to see patterns emerge; constituent parts of characters that are common among many characters. Recognising these will allow you to see the characters as made up of shapes rather than just strokes and thus simplify retaining them. The general method is to systematically break up characters into graphical components, some of which may not be used as separate characters. Next, one systematically maps these elements to some mnemonic, and then builds a picture or story combining these.

The principles at work are:
 * analytic
 * Break up a complex character into simple components.
 * Example: The character 認 which means to notice or to judge is made up of 15 strokes but may be a little bit easier to remember it as a combination of 言, 刃 and 心; word, blade and heart, respectively.

 * associative
 * Associate components across characters.
 * Example: 売 means "to sell", but along with "word", 読, it becomes "to read" and along with "thread", 続, it becomes to continue. This further builds links between characters that share graphical elements or compositional similarities.

 * narrative
 * Associating stories with characters is a powerful method to remember which components it is made up of.
 * Example: The character 暖 means "warm weather" and can be broken down into the components 日, 爫, 一 and 友 meaning "sun", "caress", "one" and "friend". This can then be memorised as warm weather being when "the sun caresses a friend".

Useful resources for diagnosing these constituent parts are the book and online version of Kanji ABC. James Heisig's well-known series Remembering the Kanji is the best known study aid that uses this method. Alternatives include Smart Kanji Book which only includes common kanji and the primitives that form them and the Kanji Pict-o-graphix which uses a graphic approach instead of mnemonic stories. A further such resource is Genki’s Kanji Look and Learn. These may not be sufficient in themselves, as they focus purely on the characters, but can be valuable components of one’s learning, helping with remembering character forms and especially minor details.

Chinese-derived reading
The vast majority of Chinese characters are composed as phono-semantic compounds: one component (generally the radical) is semantic (about the meaning), and the other component is used for its phonetic value (sound) called. Note that this is how the character as used in Chinese is composed. As kanji usually have several readings, including a Chinese-derived one, this can be used to remember the character and one of its readings.

Understanding this, and decomposing characters into Phonetic + Semantic components and relating them to similar characters using either of these components helps with remembering the character’s form, its meaning, and a Chinese-derived pronunciation (on yomi, 音読み).

For example, the character for small is 小 which has the Chinese-derived reading shō. The characters 少, 炒, 抄, 省, 称, 鈔 and 渉 all share that same Chinese reading. Again, keep in mind that these are only the Chinese readings and the each of these has other different readings as well.

Attention to detail
It is easy to make minor mistakes with both recognizing and writing kanji. A high level of mastery requires attention to detail and continual polish (see 改善, kaizen). Even at lower levels, attention to detail yields overlearning and deepens understanding; if you are worrying about the stroke order, you are likely not forgetting the character outright.

Minor errors can be made in writing (e.g. incorrect strokes, strokes touching when they should not, or incorrect stroke order) and pronunciation (e.g. incorrect voicing; especially rendaku/euphonic changes). To achieve a high level requires detecting and correcting such errors. Realizing that one has forgotten a kanji is easy enough. For other errors, one may not notice them, or one may feel a lack of confidence reflecting imperfect mastery. To detect such errors one must review regularly and ensure that all these details are correct.

Particularly useful in subtle errors is to study the character in question with various related characters (both graphically, as in Wiktionary:Appendix:Easily confused Chinese characters, and etymologically), and in the context of various words: this allows one to contrast the character, rather than trying to retain it in isolation.

Readings
A single Kanji letter can be read (pronounced) in many different ways, depending on its context. These readings are categorized into two main groups - that of Chinese origin (on-yomi, ) and Japanese origin (kun-yomi, ). A third group, the nanoriyomi, is used for the names of people and places.

It is often the case that a Kanji letter has more than one reading of Chinese origin. This is because the importing of Chinese letters (with their readings) did not occur just at one time from one region.

Onyomi
Onyomi (音読み) is the Chinese-derived reading, which is most commonly used in compound words and for the numbers.

It may be useful to note that in most kanji databases, the on reading is written in katakana instead of hiragana.

一 (イチ), 二 (ニ), 三 (サン), 四 (シ) are the first four numbers and all are onyomi.

Kunyomi
Kunyomi (訓読み) is the Japanese reading, which can be read as a separate word or can be used in compounds.

This reading is generally written in hiragana in kanji lists.

月 (つき, tsuki) and 日 (ひ, hi) are the moon and sun and are in kunyomi.

Nanoriyomi
Nanoriyomi (名乗り読み) is the name reading, which is used for people's names and for places.

Both "康", read as "やす" (e.g. 徳川家康), and "信", read as "のぶ" (e.g. 織田信長), are written in nanoriyomi.

Kanji Repetition
The noma: (々), symbol indicates the repetition of a Kanji. The word われわれ indicates "us" or "our group" and is written as "我々" instead of "我我", although they are both the same. The same is true with "人々" (ひとびと), meaning people).

JLPT
The Japanese Language Proficiency Test, or JLPT, is a standardized test to evaluate and certify the language proficiency of non-native Japanese speakers. The JLPT has five levels beginning at level N5 and progressing to level N1 - the most difficult. Each level has a certain set of kanji.

 * For the time being, the completion index is as follows:
 * [[File:00 percents.svg]]: Some characters are missing.
 * [[File:25 percents.svg]]: All characters are there, but there are readings missing.
 * [[File:50 percents.svg]]: All characters have both onyomi and kunyomi readings, but not all have example words.
 * [[File:75 percents.svg]]: All characters have example words, but a template or a stroke order image is missing.
 * [[File:100 percents.svg]]: All characters have all their information set up in the template.

JLPT level N5
N5 tests students' recognition of 79 kanji and 482 words.

 * Lesson 1 [[File:100 percents.svg]]: 一・二・三・四・五
 * Lesson 2 [[File:100 percents.svg]]: 六・七・八・九・十
 * Lesson 3 [[File:100 percents.svg]]: 百・千・万・父・母
 * Lesson 4 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 友・女・男・人・子
 * Lesson 5 [[File:75 percents.svg]]: 日・月・火・水・木
 * Lesson 6 [[File:75 percents.svg]]: 金・土・本・休・語
 * Lesson 7 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 年・午・前・後・時
 * Lesson 8 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 間・毎・先・今・何
 * Lesson 9 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 上・下・左・右・北
 * Lesson 10 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 南・東・西・外・名
 * Lesson 11 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 高・小・中・大・長
 * Lesson 12 [[File:75 percents.svg]]: 半・分・学・校・生
 * Lesson 13 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 山・川・白・天・雨
 * Lesson 14 [[File:25 percents.svg]]: 電・気・車・国・円
 * Lesson 15 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 話・聞・食・読・来
 * Lesson 16 [[File:50 percents.svg]]: 書・見・行・出・入
 * Lesson 17 [[File:100 percents.svg]]: 目・耳・口・手・足
 * Lesson 18 [[File:00 percents.svg]]: 新・古・多・少・空
 * Lesson 19 [[File:00 percents.svg]]: 店・社・買・立・安
 * Lesson 20 [[File:00 percents.svg]]: 会・道・飲・駅・魚
 * Lesson 21 [[File:00 percents.svg]]: 週・花・言

JLPT level N4
N4 tests students' recognition of 166 kanji and 453 words.

JLPT level N3
N3 tests students' recognition of 367 kanji and 1555 words.

JLPT level N2
N2 tests students' recognition of 367 kanji and 1481 words.

JLPT level N1
N1 tests students' recognition of 1231 kanji and 2773 words.

title: Japanese/Kanji


text:
Talk:English in Use

About

 * Title: English in Use
 * Started: TODO
 * Size: 33,400 words (Mar 2009)

Intended Audience
The intended auidence of this wikibook:
 * native speakers of English
 * advanced learners of English as a second language

Various
Hey Empororbma, what is the audience for your English book ? American high school students, English as a second language students .. ? Do you intend it to be a bit unique in structure and goals than most traditional books on the English language ? Maybe a brief outline of your goals for the book would help me understand. Maybe we could do this for many or all books .. or at least it becomes more useful when there are more gray areas .... --Karl Wick

There's a big problem with trying to make a textbook for English on the English version of Wikibooks, and that is that there is no focused audience, apart from a very high competence level. Wait until other language versions are started. Gabriel Beecham 16:53, 21 Aug 2003 (UTC)

English:Time was moved from wikipedia and should be incorporated somewhere. --67.118.0.241 22:57, 26 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Learn English in English?
It seems strange to have a "learn English" wikibook in English. I think that this wikibook could be used to gather some lessons written by English native-speakers, which could then be translated into other languages. A language wikibook could always use some native-speaker input, and the other language versions of this seem rather fragmented.
 * did a quick test page at User:Nateji77/ESL, poorly formatted tho. i'd prefer pictorial instructions to "highlight with compter mouse to see words" but cant make images where i'm at, but non-english wikis could take those and translate the instructions. Nateji77 00:15, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I strongly disagree with the idea that an English textbook should not be here. I would say that 80-90% of native English speakers do not know English.  Obviously, they can speak it, and generally, they do so correctly.  But they cannot tell you why they do so, because they do not know the rules of English.  That is what this book is for.  Next time you're confused about the difference between a conjunction and a preposition (and you might be surprised how hard it is to define the difference), thank the writers here that there's a place with an answer.  --Cromwellt|talk 23:10, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Me too. So many native speakers have a poor command of the language and this article would be very useful. I am a teacher of English as a Foreign Language and most students learn English only using English coursebooks (i.e. with no translations). Learning English in English is the most common way to learn the language

 * I agree with it. For example: I am Czech. You probably have no idea how horrible Czech textbooks for learning English are. Most of them were written in communistic times and it seems, that writing of these books was part of fight against capitalism. All better teachers are telling children to buy English textbooks from Oxford, Cambridge, or something similar. So long live this textbook! --Milhaus 17:11, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Broken links
I am observing bad things happen to this Wikibook... For example, content moved from the English:Gerund page to the English/Grammar/Gerund and participles page. The English:Gerund page is now blank.

But some things still link to English:Gerund instead of English/Grammar/Gerund and participles, so readers get a blank page sometimes.

I suggest that users stop moving material until we understand how it broke and how to fix it. --Kernigh 01:18, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

I have posted to User talk:201.50.79.58 because that user blanked English:Gerund and English/Grammar/Gerund while trying to move material. However, I might have missed the user. That IP address belongs to Telemar, a large Brazilian Internet Service Provider, and might be dynamically assigned. --Kernigh 01:29, 30 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It sounds like the pages are not so much broken as they are simply not correctly moved. The links to the previous page should simple by changed over to the new page, and all will be well.  I'll see what I can do.  It shouldn't be too hard.  I'd like to continue the process of standardization of pages here also.  --Cromwellt|talk 04:31, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, I found out that the links to the "English:Gerund" page were almost entirely on the English navigation template, so I changed the template. Now all of the links on those pages (on the template) link to the right place, but this problem may appear again in the future.  I don't know if this is a big deal, but I also couldn't get the pages which link to the template to disappear from the "English:Gerund" whatlinkshere page.  Maybe that will be fixed at a certain time each day or something, because another page I had the same trouble on a couple weeks ago is now the way it should be (this is the first time I've checked it since then).  --Cromwellt|talk 06:28, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

Refocus
In conjunction with my comments earlier on this talk page, I feel that this Wikibook should not necessarily be so much directed toward second-language learners, and much more toward people who do not know the rules of English. This includes second-language learners, but also includes native speakers who know how to speak it but don't know the rules. For that reason I think we should move the references to EAL to the bottom of the page, with a new introduction showing this new focus. How do the rest of you feel about the idea? --Cromwellt|talk 04:29, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

 * So the book isn't broken (as I said above), but it is still in need of cleanup. We have a "Grammar" page which is not being used on the ToC and pages like "Adjectives and Adverbs" which do not exist but are on the ToC.  Added to all this is that the ToC listed here and the navigation template (Template:English) do not match in a variety of ways.  Overall, the issues here are ugly.  I personally think that all parts of speech should be under "Grammar" as subcategories, and that each part of speech should have its own page (with no larger category putting them together except "Grammar").  Where two or more are related closely or could be confused, etc. (such as adjectives and adverbs), there should be a subpage (or description on a page) of the potential confusion, etc., but this should be (if it is a separate page) under "Grammar" immediately after the two things as the next page to read.  At the moment, the book is rather disorganized, which is worsened by the fact that some pages are of the colon standard and others of the forward-slash standard.  We've got our work cut out for us.  Happy editing!  --Cromwellt|talk 05:42, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

Restructure
I would like to separate this into two distinct books:
 * English - Structured like a grammar and uasge book for native English speakers.
 * English as an Additional Language - Structured like a traditional foreign language book

I also would like to change the navigation template and create an exercise template.

Here's my proposed structure for English. Each page should be about the same size. If there are no comments in a few days I'll go ahead with it, so please give your opinion.

The vocabulary and glossary sections will go to English as an Additional Language. Comments are appreciated! --hagindaz 22:27, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * What are your plans for English as an Additional Language? My idea for it, as I said oh-so-long-ago under "Learn English in English", would be to write a progressive, bottom-up textbook that pretends that it is written not in English, but in some other language, and presupposes no knowledge of English. For example, the first chapter would introduce nouns and the present progressive tense and tell a short, simple story (in English) for the reader to try their hand at translating. The goal would be to produce a text for the German, Japanese, Spanish, etc. Wikibook authors to translate into their respective languages. --209.6.213.142 01:55, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't know how EAL classes are traditionally taught and don't have any experience with them, so I won't be able to help there. But to me that sounds like it would be an excellent method. Now that this book is split up, each book will be able to fully concentrate on its own goals and audience, so that should hopefully increase contributors for both projects. --hagindaz 02:14, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I've gotten a username (I was 209.6.213.142) and started drawing up an outline at Talk:English as an Additional Language. You're welcome to help contribute, since activity in this area seems rather sparse. --Krestom 20:43, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

I have provided an example page and discussed my intentions with this book at English in Use/Introduction. --hagindaz 00:29, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Why Not in PDF?
It's written there that creating a truly pdf book from the printable version is easy with the help of open software such as Adobe PDF Creator. Why don't you make it yourself rather than offer users to do this?

ePub is better than PDF.

My Plans
There are several books on Wikibooks about "English". There is this book. There is the book for "English as an additional language" (which is a term that few people use - "English as a Foreign (or Second) Language" is more universal). There is a book I am creating for "FCE Studies" (First Certificate in English by Cambridge University) and another book I may eventually try to develop which is targetted towards level B2 students studying English as a foreign language. My plan would be to have all of those books as links from "English" and have most of the material presently on "English" moved to something like "English Language in Use"

ENGLISH BOOK -> linking to the following books: 1. English Language in Use (guide to grammar and use of language for English natives and advanced learners of English [native speakers and levels C1 and C2] 2. English as a Second Language (present English as an Additional Language book) - targetted towards elementary and lower intermediate students [level A1 and A2] 3. English for Upper Intermediate Students (currently being planned in my head) [level B1 and B2] 4. FCE English - guide for students taking the FCE exam. [level B2]

The level codes I have used are the Common European Framework for languages and understood by all learners of foreign languages in Europe and much of Asia. Obviously a brief about what the level codes mean will also be needed.

Does anyone have any comments or problems about such a change? This book seems quite inactive so unless I hear any dissent I may go ahead soon (safe in the knowledge that changes could be reverted). Xania talk 00:31, 28 April 2007 (UTC)

Former contents
I am moving what was a former material from the main page of "English in Use" here: --Dan Polansky (talk) 10:36, 8 March 2009 (UTC)

Detailed contents

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Grammar
 * 3) Articles and nouns
 * 4) Articles
 * 5) The definite article
 * 6) General uses of the definite article
 * 7) Omissions of the definite article
 * 8) The indefinite article
 * 9) General uses of the indefinite article
 * 10) Omissions of the indefinite article
 * 11) Nouns
 * 12) Concrete
 * 13) Proper
 * 14) Common
 * 15) Individual
 * 16) Collective
 * 17) Abstract
 * 18) Attribute
 * 19) Verbal
 * 20) Words and word groups used as nouns
 * 21) Adjectives made nouns
 * 22) Pronouns made nouns
 * 23) Verbs made nouns
 * 24) Participles made nouns
 * 25) Adverbs made nouns
 * 26) Conjunctions made nouns
 * 27) Prepositions made nouns
 * 28) Interjections or phrases made nouns
 * 29) Countable and uncountable nouns
 * 30) Compound nouns
 * 31) Inflections of Nouns
 * 32) Genders
 * 33) Numbers
 * 34) Regular plurals
 * 35) Almost-regular plurals
 * 36) Irregular plurals
 * 37) Irregular Germanic plurals
 * 38) Irregular plurals of foreign origin
 * 39) Exercises
 * 40) Cases
 * 41) The Nominative Case
 * 42) The Possessive Case
 * 43) The Objective Case
 * 44) The declension of nouns
 * 45) The noun as a modifier
 * 46) The syntactic functions of nouns
 * 47) References
 * 48) Verbs
 * 49) Present and past
 * 50) Present simple
 * 51) Present continuous
 * 52) Present simple and present continuous
 * 53) Past simple
 * 54) Past continuous
 * 55) Past simple and past continuous
 * 56) Used to
 * 57) Present perfect and past
 * 58) Present perfect
 * 59) Present perfect continuous
 * 60) Present perfect and past
 * 61) Past perfect
 * 62) Past perfect continuous
 * 63) Past perfect and simple past
 * 64) Future
 * 65) Future perfect
 * 66) Future perfect continuous
 * 67) Future simple
 * 68) Future with 'going to'
 * 69) Present continuous for future events
 * 70) Present simple for future events
 * 71) If-Clauses (conditional) and 'wish'
 * 72) Pronouns
 * 73) Demonstrative pronouns
 * 74) Interrogative pronouns
 * 75) Personal pronouns
 * 76) Possessive pronouns
 * 77) Relative pronouns
 * 78) Adjectives and adverbs
 * 79) Adjectives
 * 80) Function
 * 81) Form
 * 82) Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed
 * 83) Adjectives word order
 * 84) The + adjective
 * 85) Personality adjectives
 * 86) Adverbs
 * 87) Function
 * 88) Form
 * 89) Kinds of adverbs
 * 90) Adverbs of degree
 * 91) Adverbs of time
 * 92) Adverbs of manner
 * 93) Adverbs of place
 * 94) Conjunctive adverbs
 * 95) Adverbs word order
 * 96) Comparative forms of adverbs
 * 97) Adverbs with different forms and meanings
 * 98) Adverbs with different forms and same meanings
 * 99) Adjectives and adverbs
 * 100) Adverbs with same form as the adjective
 * 101) Any more, any longer, no longer
 * 102) Enough and too
 * 103) Ever
 * 104) Quite and rather
 * 105) Still, yet and already
 * 106) So and such
 * 107) Comparison
 * 108) Superlatives
 * 109) References
 * 110) Conjunctions
 * 111) Prepositions
 * 112) Interjections
 * 113) Functions
 * 114) Gerund and participles
 * 115) Punctuation
 * 116) Orthography
 * 117) Syntax
 * 118) Appositives
 * 119) Figures of Syntax
 * 120) Study guide
 * 121) History

Style
Perhaps titles should start from level two like in Wikipedia (two equal signs). The verbs article differs in that respect. The nouns article has too deep hierarchy, I think hierarchy should not be deeper than 3 levels. Tkorrovi (talk) 14:15, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

I fully appreciate the contributions of everyone here. I'm by far not an expert in grammar, but still I don't understand why some want to break the Goold Brown's grammar. Like, one added an article about appositives, without even reading the syntax article before, and noticing that appositions are already mentioned there. In my opinion, the value of the Goold Brown's grammar is that it is comprehensive grammar, if one thinks that he knows something which is not mentioned there at all, he is most likely wrong, except when he is a very good grammarian. I don't know that much about grammar, and I am only able to copy and adjust that which others have written, but still I don't think that anyone here is good enough to be able to write a comprehensive grammar from scratch. I think that the advanced grammar must be a comprehensive grammar. If one considers this book to be just another grammar, then this book would not make any sense. And as much as I know, Goold Brown's grammar is the only comprehensive public domain grammar, so there is no other grammar which could be the basis of this book. Of course the Goold Brown's grammar is old and partly outdated, but why not edit it and make it a modern comprehensive grammar? Just my thoughts... Tkorrovi (talk) 14:09, 10 April 2009 (UTC)

The article on articles is also missing, it is there: Articles. Tkorrovi (talk) 19:21, 12 April 2009 (UTC)

Scope of this grammar
I think I should explain more the scope of this grammar. This is what supposed to be a comprehensive grammar, though using the word comprehensive may be somewhat unsafe. One may think that a comprehensive or complete grammar should contain everything about grammar, but when we for example compile all scientific works on grammar, then such grammar would likely consist of hundreds of volumes. This grammar is comprehensive in a sense that it covers everything in grammar, but is at that as short as possible. Whatever such grammar should be called, one thing is clear—this grammar cannot be simplified or made shorter by omitting complicated parts or terms. It is therefore a level C grammar, while the grammar in Rhetoric and Composition is level B grammar. Maybe it should be called a Complete English Grammar, but again some may misunderstand what the complete there means.Tkorrovi (talk) 22:36, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

This grammar is based on Goold Brown's grammar and I think it should be, as this gives it a value, and is also a certain guarantee of quality. It can be partly based on any newer grammars as well, but Goold Brown wrote the first comprehensive English grammar, and his grammar is because of that a kind of classical source.Tkorrovi (talk) 12:45, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

Pages to be merged
The following pages were not moved from the English book before it was redirected to Subject:English language. Please merge their content into this book or tag them with. -- Adrignola talk contribs 03:13, 19 June 2009 (UTC)
 * English in Use/Parts of Speech
 * English in Use/Phrasal Verbs
 * English in Use/Vocabulary
 * English in Use/Vocabulary/Data
 * English in Use/Vocabulary/Adjectives

Cambridge series
Is the title copied from Cambridge's In Use series? English Vocabulary in User, Advanced Grammar in Use, English Collocations in Use, Business Vocabulary use and so on. Kayau (talk) 13:47, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:English in Use


text:
Spanish/Verbs

 * ../Verb Phrases/
 * ../Verb Tenses/
 * ../Verbs List/
 * ../Reflexive Verbs/
 * ../How To Conjugate Verbs/

Ejemplos

 * Verbos regulares
 * Amar (regular -AR verb)
 * Temer (regular -ER verb)
 * Partir (regular -IR verb)
 * Verbos auxiliares
 * ../Haber/
 * Verbos irregulares
 * ../Ser/
 * ../Estar/
 * ../Ir/
 * ../Hacer/
 * Otros verbos irregulares
 * ../Gustar/
 * ../Llover/
 * Futuro irregulares
 * ../Poder/
 * ../Querer/
 * ../Saber/
 * ../Caber/

Expressions

 * Expressions using the verb hacer
 * Expressions using the verb tener

Verbos con la voz pasiva
An action takes place without anyone being assigned responsibility for doing it.
 * ../The Passive Voice/

Verbos reflexivos
Reflexive verbs indicate that the action of the verb reflects back on the subject.
 * ../Reflexive Verbs/

title: Spanish/Verbs


text:
Spanish/Contributors

The Spanish Wikibook was created on August 2, 2003 by ThomasStrohmann; it was the first language book on Wikibooks. During December 2006, it underwent a complete archive and rewrite, by Celestianpower. A list of major contributors — past and present — can be found below.

title: Spanish/Contributors


text:
Spanish/Lesson 8

Grammar - Formal Commands (el imperativo)
Commands are used when you ask someone to do something or give instructions to people. In this lesson we learn the formal commands, which are the ones you say to persons where you use the usted or ustedes form. The following table shows the endings for the regular verbs. Note that the stem changes that occur in the yo form, (e->ie, e->i, o->ue, ar/er/ir->go cer->zco etc., ) apply for formal commands:

The following verbs have irregular formal commands:

Like in English, the command is usually put in the beginning of the sentence:

Examples:

Grammar - Informal Tú-Commands
In this lesson we learn the commands you say to someone you would address in the tú form. Spanish distinguishes two different types of tú-commands, the affirmative (do something) and the negative (don't do something). Like the formal commands, we also apply stem changes here:

The following verbs have irregular informal tú-commands for the affirmative and negative.

This can be memorized with the rhyming mnemonic device "di haz pon ten, sal sé ve ven."

Examples:

title: Spanish/Lesson 8


text:
Spanish/Infinitive

The infinitive is the simple, unconjugated form of a verb. It does not indicate who is doing the action or any time reference. "To be" is a verb in the English infinitive form. "Ser" is a verb in the Spanish infinitive form. When you look up a verb in the dictionary it is found in the infinitive form.

In Spanish the infinitive forms always end with "ar", "er" or "ir". Examples: "amar" (to love), "temer" (to fear), "partir" (to leave).

The infinitive can be used for a lot of things in Spanish grammar. It functions as a gerund in Spanish. In the following examples, I will use "nadar" (to swim):
 * Yo quiero "nadar".--- I want to swim.
 * Yo pensaba que "nadar" era divertido---I used to think that swimming was fun

title: Spanish/Infinitive


text:
User:Wintermute~enwikibooks/drafts

Wintermute 19:11, 12 Aug 2003 (UTC) draft: -

Grammar. Gender of nouns in Spanish.

In Spanish all the nouns are masculine or feminine.

For nouns that express entities with gender (people, animals..) there is both a feminine form and a masculine form (example: profesor (m), profesora (f))

The nouns that express entities without gender (objects, abstract concepts) have only one form. This form can be masculine or feminine.

Normally, the feminine words finalize with the letter 'a' and the masculine words end with the letter 'o'.

Examples:

Masculine words: caballo        horse perro          dog libro          book amor           love

Femenine words: paloma         dove hierba         grass casa           house libertad       freedom

- Grammar. The definite article:

As you know, in Spanish, the nouns can be feminine or masculine.

In English the definite article is always “the”.

In Spanish, the definite article is different - depending on the noun being feminine, masculine, singular or plural.

-

Grammar. The indefinite article:

In English de indefinite articles are "a" and "an" (singular) or "some" (plural).

In Spanish there are different forms for feminine, masculine, singular or plural.

Hi Wintermute, this looks really nice! Great work! I have restructured Lesson 2 a little bit so that you can put your grammar section right in the beginning (the gender of nouns should definitely go before doing 'matching adjectives' - my fault, I didn't think of that before...) Thomas P.S. your English is very good, I just made some minor changes.

Pronombres personales. (Personal pronouns.)

Ejercicio 1. Rellena los espacios en blanco con los pronombres personales correctos en Español. Exercise 1. Fill the blank spaces with the correct Spanish personal pronous.

Ejercicio 2. Rellena los espacios en blanco con los pronombres personales correctos en español. Exercise 2. Fill the blank spaces with the correct Spanish personal pronouns.

This looks great. I have put in a link to Spanish Exercises Personal Pronouns in Lesson 1. You can just go and fill the link with your exercises as content! -- Thomas

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "ser". Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "ser" (to be).

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "estar". Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "estar" (to be).

Llena los espacios en blanco con la forma verbal correcta del verbo "ser" o "estar". Fill the blank spaces with the correct form of the ver "ser" or "estar" (to be).

title: User:Wintermute~enwikibooks/drafts


text:
User talk:Wintermute~enwikibooks

Hey Wintermute, thanks for your work on the Spanish textbook. You said that English is not your first language ... what is ? -- Karl Wick

A poco hablas el espanol ... yo estuve viviendo en Mexico por unos anos, en DF .. me encanto, todavia estaria alla si huberia encontrado otro trabajo. Me encantan las chicas latinas y en general toda la cultura latina. De donde eres ? Latinoamerica o Espana o otro lugar ?

Entonces vas a poder corregir el mal espanol que ponemos en el libro de Spanish (por favor !)

--Karl Wick

Vocabulary Project
Hi there, I saw you contributed to the Spanish wikibook, so I thought it might be of interest to you that I have written a program for learning vocabulary. I think for this purpose a program is more useful than a website, although maybe one day we can make this a java project. It is based on the belief that it is best to learn foreign words by learning typical sentences. The program can also be used for learning other stuff that works with the question/answer scheme, e.g. the theory for the driving licence or anatomy. Unfortunately I wrote it in qbasic, which can be downloaded here. It also uses images and sound files for alternation and in order to work on the pronunciation. Let me know what you think about it. I currently have files in English, French (with sound), and Spanish. Catalan and Portuguese are in the planning. Corrections or additions are very welcome. The easiest thing to start with for improvements would be adding new vocabulary, sound files or images. A guide to the program will follow soon, although I think it is rather self-explanatory. In the long run the program should be rewritten in a better language like Visual Basic. Afterwards it should be possible to switch languages within the program. Up to now there is a different version of the program for each language. Get-back-world-respect 23:21, 23 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Wintermute. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Wintermute~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:52, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wintermute~enwikibooks


text:
Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Redox reactions

<< Polar and radical reactions | Functional groups in reactions >>

Oxidation and reduction
Two important types of reactions in organic chemistry are oxidation and reduction.

In oxidation reactions, the oxidized species loses electron density.

In reduction reactions, the reduced species gains electron density.

Of course, these two actions happen in unison as one species is reduced and the other is oxidized. The term redox was coined from the fragments red (reduction) and ox (oxidation). A standard mnemonic for the terms is “OILRIG”: oxidation is loss, reduction is gain.

Oxidation
Oxidation was first observed when oxygen drew electrons off of metals, which were then referred to as "oxidized". (Oxygen is more elecronegative than most other elements.) The term was then applied later to the part of any reaction where electrons are drawn off. Other elements that commonly oxidize in organic reactions include halogens like chlorine and bromine.

Reduction
Reduction of a chemical species results in the gain of electrons for that species. This does not necessarily include any change in formal charge; any time an atom increases its electron density even a little bit it is said to be reduced. For example, if an oxygen is removed from a carbon and replaced by a hydrogen (assume the oxygen is also bonded to another atom), the formal charge of the carbon does not change. However, the carbon "sees" a greater share of the electrons from the single bond to hydrogen than it did for the single bond to oxygen. That is because hydrogen is less electronegative than oxygen and gives up its electrons a bit more easily than oxygen does. So a carbon bonded to hydrogen can take up more of its electron density than the same carbon bonded to oxygen.

Oxidation numbers
It's possible to assign an “oxidation number” to each atom in a molecule. There are a two different approaches to this. For organic molecules it is generally possible to find all the oxidation numbers using a set of simplified rules. There is no single best set of rules, but as an example, given in order of decreasing priority:
 * 1) The sum of oxidation numbers in any species is equal to its overall charge.
 * 2) Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1. Exceptions: it is -1 when bound to a metal and 0 when bound only to itself.
 * 3) Oxidation number of fluorine is -1, unless bound to itself.
 * 4) Oxidation number of oxygen is -2, unless bound to itself or a more electronegative element, such as fluorine.

From this it is possible to find, for example, that the oxidation state of carbon in methanal: We find that: Denoting the oxidation number of carbon as $c$, we have
 * Oxygen has oxidation number -2.
 * Hydrogen has oxidation number +1
 * The overall charge, and so the total oxidation number, is zero.

$1 × (−2) + 2 × 1 + c = 0 = c$

Carbon has oxidation number zero. Verify for yourself that in methane it has −4, and in ethane −3.

An alternative and more general approach is to take the structure of the molecule, and break the bonds such that:
 * In a heteronuclear bond (between different atoms) the more electronegative atom gains all the electrons.
 * In a homonuclear bond (both atoms are the same) the electrons are divided evenly between the atoms.

As usual, a single bond holds two electrons and a double bond four. (There are further complications which we will not go into here.) The charge of each atom after this process is its oxidation number. Given that oxygen is more electronegative than carbon, which is more electronegative than hydrogen, verify that this gives the same results as before for methanal, methane, and ethane.

Both methods give the result that in a neutral species containing only a single element (such as H2 or graphene) all atoms have oxidation state 0.

<< Alkanes | << Polar and radical reactions | Redox reactions | Functional groups in reactions >> | Introduction to functional groups >>


text:
User:Imran~enwikibooks/tempusenet

What is Usenet ?

If your familiar with mailing lists or web-based forum, then the general principle of Usenet is simple so you may just want to skim over this first section.

To explain what Usenet is, I'll try and make analogies with real-life that most people are familiar with. Imagine Usenet as a pin-up board, where anyone can come along and stick a message up, people can then come by read the original message and attach a reply to the board, and then someone els can come along and look at the messages written, and if they want add their own message.

In a basic view that's all that Usenet is, an exchange point for messages.

Now imagine that about 25 million people were reading and writing messages for this pin-board, with one pin-board it would get overcrowded very quickly, the obvious solution is to have more pin-boards, say one for every topic

The technically correct name for Usenet's pin-boards is "newsgroups", currently there are approximately 25,000 active(active meaning in-use) newsgroups, with overall somewhere between 150,000 and 250,000 that currently are dead (dead meaning they are not in use currently).

Returning to our pin-board analogy, it would be very busy if all 25 million users were in the same area, so instead we have replicas created, meaning there are copies of these pin-boards all over the world.

(From now on I'll be calling the pin-boards "newsgroups" as that's the most commonly used term)

I'll introduce some more terminology here, as it makes the explaination go easier later.

News server = These are the places where copies of the newsgroups are held, there is no central news server from where all copies are held, but rather

title: User:Imran~enwikibooks/tempusenet


text:
Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Functional groups in reactions

<< Redox reactions | Drawing reactions >>

Functional groups in reactions make your life easier as an organic chemist because they draw your attention right to where the action is. Any time a reaction is going to occur, you can be almost certain that it is going to take place at a functional group.

There are many functional groups of interest to organic chemists. Here are a few:

1. Halides

These groups are all made up of a single atom in Group 17 of the Periodic Table, which is known as the halogen group, bonded to a carbon atom. They include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Astatine is also a halogen, but it is rarely discussed because it is not readily found in nature and is radioactive. Their electronegativities vary from fluorine with 4.0 to iodine with 2.5, which is approximately the same value that carbon has. Each of these atoms are able to form a single bond with a carbon atom, replacing hydrogen in alkanes and adding across multiple bonds in alkenes and alkyne. Of the four, fluorine is the most reactive and iodine is the least. Because of their intermediate reactivity, chlorine and bromine are often more useful in many reactions.

2. Carbonyl

This group consists of an oxygen atom doubly bonded to a carbon atom. Carbonyl groups are important because the oxygen atom, with an electronegativity of 3.5, shifts electron density away from the rest of the molecule and towards itself. Carbonyls are a key ingredient in aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides.

3. Hydroxyl

This group consists of a hydrogen atom singly bonded to an oxygen atom. The electronegativity difference between hydrogen, which has an electronegatity of 2.1, and oxygen, 3.5, pulls electrons away from the hydrogen and makes it somewhat acidic. This acidic character varies depending on the composition of the rest of the molecule. Hydroxyl groups are found in alcohols, phenols, enols, and carboxylic acids.

<< Redox reactions | Functional groups in reactions | Drawing reactions >>


text:
Organic Chemistry/Introduction to reactions/Drawing reactions

<< Functional groups in reactions | Rates and equilibria >>

Drawing reactions
There are various techniques you will run across for notation of organic reactions.

Arrows
Curved arrows are used to show movement of electrons. They are not used to show where atoms, ions, or molecules move, just electrons. A curved arrow with two "hooks" on the end indicated movement of a pair of electrons. A curved arrow with one "hook" indicated movement of one electron.

 * [[Image:Elektronenvwerschiebung V1.svg|150px]]

Double-headed arrows are used to represent equivalence between resonance structures.

 * [[Image:Mesomeriepfeil.svg|75px]]

Two-way double half arrows are represent a reaction that can go forward or reverse. If one of the half arrows is longer than the other it means that the reaction pathway favors that direction with the longer arrow.

 * [[Image:Equilibrium rl.svg|75px]]

<< Alkanes | << Functional groups in reactions | Drawing reactions | Rates and equilibria >> | Introduction to functional groups >>


text:
General Chemistry/Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions

 * 1) Naming Substances [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 2) Formulas and Numbers [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 3) Stoichiometry [[File:100%.svg]]
 * 4) Chemical equations [[File:100%.svg]]
 * 5) Balancing Equations [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 6) Limiting Reactants and Percent Yield [[Image:50%.svg]]
 * 7) Types of chemical reactions [[File:100%.svg]]
 * 8) Energy changes in chemical reactions [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 9) Predicting Chemical Reactions [[Image:50%.svg]]

Redox Reactions

 * 1) Redox reactions [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 2) Oxidation states [[Image:75%.svg]]
 * 3) Electrochemistry [[Image:25%.svg]]

title: General Chemistry/Chemical Reactions


text:
Talk:Discrete Mathematics/Set theory

elements and members
Should the discussion under notation refer to the example number as an element of the set of a member of the set? ... LouI

 * I assume you mean to say that 3 is an element of the set or a member of the set? Yes, either terminology is acceptable...thank you for jogging my memory :)
 * If that's not what you meant, please clarify, as I don't think I understand you correctly. Dysprosia 22:46, 13 Aug 2003 (UTC)

page moved
I have moved Set theory back to where it was before. Set theory is intended as a purely introductory text, and putting further higher level article links with Set theory disturbs the gradual nature of increase of difficulty as the articles will follow... I hope this is okay with everyone :) Dysprosia 10:27, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC)

questions / answers numbering
The numbering of the questions (section 2.6) doesn't make sense, and some of the answers don't seem to match the questions.

There was a stupid error (probably of mine :) that inserted a carriage return which mucked up the ordering of the numbers. It should be better now. Dysprosia 09:30, 8 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Venn diagrams
Shall I draw some ? If yes what would you like ? Theresa knott 14:42, 2 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Don't ask it, do it. And put them here, too. The one you are asking if she/he would like you drawing pictures to may not look at this section never again. You cannot know. So go and do it (supposing that you know about what you are doing).

--80.220.156.128 21:20, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

ambiguity in section 2.4
I think that section 2.4 is a little unclear

the line reading

Now, B contains some elements of A, but not necessarily all.

could be interpreted to mean that B contains some elements of A in addition to some other elements (not belonging to A)

I suggest

Now, B is made up of elements of A, but not necessarily all

 * I've reworded it in a different way, so it's a bit more clear. Dysprosia 09:02, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

How about we say that B is a subset of A if every element of B is also an element of A? Or, equivalently, B doesn't have any elements that aren't also elements of A? (The formation with the double negative makes it clearer that the empty set is a subset of all sets.)

overstatement
"Note that :
 * $$\{x \in \mathbb{N}|\, ax^2+bx+c = 0\}$$

is a completely different set!"

Is a bit of an overstatement...it's actually a subset, not a completeley different set.

 * That is nitpicking a bit. The idea is still there. Though a different example might be called for. Dysprosia 09:15, 29 Jan 2005 (UTC)

problem set: proper subset
I changed the $$\subset$$ signs in problems 3 and 4 to $$\subseteq$$ signs. You can show that A $$\subset$$ B is false by showing that A = B in addition to showing that there is an element of A that is not in B.

problem set: no pun intended?

pointing
In the first paragraph, I changed "your pointing is called a set" to "what you are pointing to is called a set". A set consists of its members. A pointing consists of a (possibly metaphorical) extension of the index finger. Actually, there is a lot of pointing talk in this module that strikes me as a little troubling. Perhaps this should be changed.

(I also added titles to the first two comments of this talk page so the contents box would appear in the right place.)

set comprehension, problem 3
I'm kind of a newbie, so maybe I'm missing something obvious, but in number 3 the first set would start with 2, whereas the second set would start with 1 as the minimum value. Why are they equal?

Never mind, I got it. Duh.

Definitions of Union, Intersection and Difference
I have simplified the definitions of union and intersection, making them more consistent with the notation used in logic, and clarified the example of difference, where the definition referred to B - A, but the example showed A - B. Nigeltn35 (talk) 20:56, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

PS I'm new to using LaTeX. There must be an easier way of writing A - B to get the font and size right!Nigeltn35 (talk) 07:28, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Introductory Section and Notation
I've attempted a simple introduction, defining a set in terms of 'things' and 'rules'. Have included in the Notations section ∈ and ∉, and used simple text rather than LaTeX where possible. (IMHO LaTeX looks a bit naff in the default font size!) --Nigeltn35 (talk) 17:28, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Special Sets
Introduce these special sets before introducing relations between sets and operations on sets, so that an exercise can follow to allow consolidation of basic ideas. Nigeltn35 (talk) 20:17, 9 November 2008 (UTC)

Russell's Paradox
As I understand it, this page is intended as introductory teaching material on Set Theory as part of a Discrete Maths book. Introducing Russell's paradox may be interesting as a bit of background material for Set Theory in general, but I don't really think that it belongs in this text at all. Is there anyone who would vote to keep it in? If not, I propose to remove it. (If anyone wants to keep it, I think it needs re-writing...) Nigeltn35 (talk) 12:01, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

I've finished editing for the time being
I seem to have pretty well completely re-written this stuff on Set Theory. No-one seems to have objected so far. As far as I'm concerned, it's fairly complete. At any rate it will provide a way in to Relations and Functions, Logic, etc. Does anyone else think there's more to do at this stage? If not, what happens to it now? Nigeltn35 (talk) 12:34, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

Page now split into Four Sections
Following a warning message about the size of the file exceeding 32KB, I have split the text up into four sections: the original Set Theory page containing the first half of the teaching material, Page 2 (the remaining teaching material), Exercises and Answers. Nigeltn35 (talk) 12:06, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

Euler diagrams
Venn diagrams are a special case of Euler diagrams, and half of the diagrams in the Venn diagrams section are not Venn diagrams. Some of the instruction also shows how to convert a Venn diagram to a simpler Euler diagram, though it does not use this terminology.

For those who don't know the difference, an Euler diagram may or may not show intersections between sets which are empty, and if an region of exclusivity or intersection between sets is not shown then this is an assertion that the region is empty. For example, if set A is circumscribed by set B, this indicates that all members of A are also members of B. In some cases, Euler diagrams assert that regions which are shown must be non-empty, or at least it is not yet known whether the region is empty.

A Venn diagram is a special case of an Euler diagram that must show all possible intersections and exclusions. So there is only one Venn diagram for three sets (a token of this diagram is shown in Figure 4), but there are many possible Euler diagrams for three sets (in general, 2^2^(n-1) for n sets). TricksterWolf (discuss • contribs) 19:55, 19 November 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Discrete Mathematics/Set theory


text:
CACS/Preface

The Wikibook Introduction to computers and communications technology.

Scope and Audience
This textbook is intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the field, useful to those who will practice in it, and those who need to deal with it peripherally. While it is not a technical work it does deal with technology and describes its structure, background, content, and business in some detail. This means that it while it can be a general survey, it cannot be necessarily simple. Every attempt is made to add no more complex details than are necessary to place a part of the field in context. But context here also means having a general understanding of the internals of an area, and so some complexity is unavoidable.

Thus there are three goals established:
 * 1) To be comprehensive and complete in terms of the areas covered.
 * 2) To provide enough detail for each area so that the reader can understand what work is accomplished by its practitioners and how that area relates to the rest of the field.
 * 3) To avoid enough technical detail so that a reader who isn't involved in an area does not get trapped in it.

These goals may at first seem contradictions, but they are not mutually exclusive. Instead they serve as boundaries to identify the material included for each topic. Another limit is imposed with respect to large or mainframe computers. The mainframe environment and history are briefly discussed in the introducyion to each part, but most material is based on the now ubiquitous personal or desktop computer environment.

Professional Readers
Those who actively work in computers and communications tend to increase the depth of their knowledge and skills within a limited domain. As they accumulate greater experience and skill, their viewpoint tends to become increasingly that of a single role or area within the discipline. While this text can serve them for an initial survey of the field, its greatest value will be as a continued reference and context to provide a higher level view of those areas outside of their specialty.

An online, collaborative text may be particularly valuable in this second role. All of the areas, disciplines, roles, and uses of this technology are changing. Indeed, the rate of change seems to increase geometrically, while the number of areas or specialties increases exponentially. Unlike a paper text, an online one can be maintained rapidly and constantly. Once the reader is familiar with the format and content of the work, future reference is easier. So when presented with a new feature, function, or technology there is an updated textbook that's just like the one they used before. While some may prefer a paper copy for initial use, an updated copy may be continually available.

Non-Professional Readers
Very few professions today escape being affected by the application of computers and the related communication technology. For those who work in other disciplines an up to date survey and reference may also be valuable when they must deal with the impact of the technology within their own field. When forced to interact with the high priests of technology, they need not compete to get their viewpoint recognized while ignorant of the goals, practices, and terminology of the ordained. When a piece of these technologies interacts with your own business, this will not replace a user manual, or even the level of the Topic X for Dummies. What it does is to provide the background and context that make those materials more useful.

Terminology
There are four words used in this work that require some explanation. The words platform, entity, element, and component are used loosely, but with some intent. Generally the term entity is used to describe the thing being considered or addressed by a topic, element is used to describe a feature or function of the entity being discussed, and component is used to describe a unit that is considered as a whole, and stands alone for some functions, while platform refers to the group of components that are prerequisite to the entity under discussion. Each term frequently represents the specific being discussed and its peers or similar units that operate at the same level.

A specific area or topic may be treated at all four levels. Consider a single Web Page as an example. When describing the Client–Server model of the Internet, it is a component. When considering HTML it is a part of the platform. In a part of the discussion of Web Site Construction it is first an element of the site, and then an entity since there are several topics that directly discuss Web Pages.

Structure
The question of how to organize a comprehensive technology overview is both fundamental and complex. You can probably think of ways to improve the organization chosen (I know I do every time I look at it). This section outlines of the survey's major organization into parts and briefly identifies the main subject for each part.

The overview is organized into a decomposition hierarchy. The hierarchy is presented two layers at a time. Subject definitions are always presented twice, once with their parent subject and again in their own introduction.

For full detail, see the: CACS:Contents

Subject areas and major parts are listed below:
 * Hardware – The machines that are computers and their supporting attachments.
 * Computing Machines – The fundamental engines of the revolution.
 * Peripherals – The things that tie the computers to worthwhile work.
 * Architectures – The structure that ties things together.
 * Communications – The hardware that couples computers and components.

 * Software – The program components that make the computer world accessible.
 * Platforms – Operating Systems and basic Tool Suites.
 * Middleware – The attachment layer.
 * Construction Tools – Languages, Environments, and builders of all kinds.
 * Applications – Tool sets that are used to do real work.
 * Architecture – Structures for coupling components.

 * Communications – Things that let computers and people connect to each other.
 * Architecture – In communications, the Structure comes first.
 * Networks – Computers and users coupled to gain processing power and leverage.
 * Internet – The virtual structure that ties networks together.
 * Content – The information that makes the structure worth having.

 * Applications – Applying the computer world to get things done.
 * Desktop – Direct support of human efforts.
 * Departmental – Those applications that support a single function or functional area.
 * Process – Applications that support a broader work effort.
 * Platforms – Generic applications, structures, and architectures for all kinds of work.
 * Vertical – Organizing applications by Industry Group.

 * Services – How work gets done.
 * Skills, specialties, and expertise.
 * Methods and Life Cycles.
 * Analysis and Programming – Specialties, Languages.
 * Education and training, certification.
 * Related functions: project management, business planning, consulting.

 * Business – How computers, software, and applications are bought and sold.
 * Manufacturers –
 * Software Vendors –
 * Support Structures –
 * Service Providers –
 * Newly Enabled Functions – Call centers, knowledge base, Supplier-company-customer integration.
 * Packaging – Retailing, OEM, Integrators, Alliances.

Some things fell off this hierarchy, and are contained in other areas of topics. These are:
 * History –
 * Miscellaneous Topics – Stray interesting topics that affect multiple areas.
 * Lists –
 * Glossary – An industry full of buzzwords, a consolidated glossary.
 * Reference Data –
 * Companies –
 * Organizations –
 * Index –

Authors
Any work with the broad and inclusive scope proposed cannot succeed without the contributions of many individuals, both experts and generalists. If this text is to be useful to the general audience, it also needs a lot of amateurs to insure that it stays readable. Thanks in advance to all contributors.

As in any good Wiki, details of contribution will be kept for each subject on the page history. Major contributors who wish to be identified will be acknowledged on the CACS/Authors page.

There is to be a separate page about writing sections of this book, and it is kept on the CACS/Author Guidelines page. To comment on direction or structure please use the Talk page of the part, chapter, section or topic.

title: CACS/Preface


text:
CACS/Authors

This Wikibook is a the result of a collaborative effort by a number or contributors. All of them are gratefully acknowledged, and thanked for their good work.

The only ones identified here are those who have chosen to share the blame for its shortcomings. You can contact any of them through their Wikibook user talk page or by eMail. --- Contributors in alphabetic order are:
 * LouI - just a start up of the work. (instigator, nag, and critic).

title: CACS/Authors


text:
CACS

Table of Contents

 * /Preface/
 * /Authors/

Hardware

 * /Hardware Introduction/
 * /Computers/
 * /Peripherals/
 * /Hardware Architecture/
 * /Communications Hardware/

Software

 * /Software Introduction/
 * /Software Platforms/
 * /Software Middleware/
 * /Software Toolboxes/
 * /Software Applications/
 * /Software Architecture/

Communications

 * /Communications Introduction/
 * /Communications Architecture/
 * /Communications Networks/
 * /Internet and Web/
 * /Internet Content/

Applications

 * /Applications Introduction/
 * /Desktop Applications/
 * /Departmental Applications/
 * /Application Processing/
 * /Application Platforms/
 * /Vertical Applications/

Services

 * /Skills and Specialties/
 * /Methods/
 * /Analysis/
 * /Programming/
 * /Education/
 * /Project Management/
 * /Business Planning/
 * /Consulting/

The Computer Business

 * /Business Introduction/
 * /Manufacturers/
 * /Software Vendors/
 * /Support Structures/
 * /Service Providers/
 * /New Business Functions/
 * /New Delivery Models/

Miscellaneous Topics

 * /User Conundrum/ - An essay.
 * /Trouble with Models/ - A view of models and their uses.

Appendices

 * /Glossary/
 * /Index/

title: CACS


text:
CACS/Glossary

Glossary of Computer and Communications Terms

For each term in the Glossary, there is a single data page. When a term is usually known by its acronym, it is defined on a page with that title. When needed, redirect pages will be used to get to that data page from any other frequently used names.

Many terms contained here have more information than is displayed in a simple definition. When a word or phrase within a definition is shown in italics, that word or phrase is also expected to appear in the glossary. A list of All terms is contained at the bottom of this page.

Terms in the Glossary include: processes, languages, terms of art, acronyms, hardware devices, software package names, companies and organizations. Every effort is made to note those that are trademarks or proprietary names. All such use is intended to be made under fair use conditions and should not reduce the owner's rights or the terms of the GNU/GFDL license applied to this work as a whole. The full text of the free use license that applies here is located at Wikipedia License.

''The following is Subject to Change. Currently each term is being set up on a subpage of the Glossary. This is mandated by their intended use in pop-up windows when reading the book.''

A
Active Server Page - Actual Cost of Work Performed - ACWP - Adobe - ADP - Aldus - ANI - Animated Cursor - Apache - Apache Software Foundation - ASP - Application - Application Service Provider - Assembler - Assembly - Assembly Language

B
Basic - Binary - Borland

C
Computer - /CSS/

G
General Routing Encapsulation - GRE - HTML - Hypertext Markup Language

I
ISOC

M
MPLS - Multiprotocol Label Switching

P
PKI - Public Key Infrastruture

T
Tunneling

U
Unary Operator - Unicode - Uniform Resource Identifier - Uniform Resource Locator - Uniform Resource Name - URI - URL - URN

V
Virtual Private Network - VPN

title: CACS/Glossary


text:
CACS/Glossary/HTML

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) (Internet) A document publishing language that mixes content, formatting rules, and processing scripts to create Web Pages. The HTML source is interpreted and displayed by a browser on the end user's computer. HTML is an open specification maintained through a consortium of major vendors and corporations known as the W3C. The most recent, full version of the language specification is HTML 4.01 and dates from December 1999. It can be downloaded from the W3C Web Site.

HTML (or .htm) is also used as a file extension for a stored web page that uses the language.

title: CACS/Glossary/HTML


text:
Discrete Mathematics/Naive set theory

When we talk of set theory, we generally talk about collections of certain mathematical objects. In this sense, a set can be likened to a bag, holding a finite (or conceivably infinite) amount of things. Sets can be sets of sets as well (bags with bags in them). However, a set cannot contain duplicates -- a set can contain only one copy of a particular item.

When we look at sets of certain types of numbers, for example, the natural numbers, or the rational numbers, for instance, we may want to speak only of these sets. These collections of numbers are, of course, very important, so we write special symbols to signify them.

We write sets in curly brackets -- { and }. We write all of the elements, or what the set contains, in the brackets, separated by commas. We generally denote sets using capital letters.

For example, we write the set containing the number 0 and the number 1 as {0,1}. If we wish to give it a name, we can say B={0,1}.

Special sets
The aforementioned collections of numbers, the naturals, rationals, etc. are notated as the following:
 * the natural numbers are written $$\mathbb{N}$$
 * {0,1,2,...}

 * the integers are written $$\mathbb{Z}$$
 * {0,1,-1,2,-2,...}

 * the rational numbers are written $$\mathbb{Q}$$
 * {0,1,1/2,1/3,...,2,2/3,2/4,...}

 * the real numbers are written $$\mathbb{R}$$
 * {0,$$-\sqrt{2}$$,$$\sqrt{2}$$,$$\pi$$,...}

Here we will generally write these in standard face bold instead of the doublestruck bold you see above. So we write here N instead of $$\mathbb{N}$$ (NB following Wikipedia conventions).

Notations
We can write some special relations involving sets using some symbols.

Containment relations
To say that an element is in a set, for example, 3 is in the set {1,2,3}, we write:
 * $$3\in\{1,2,3\}$$

We can also express this relationship in another way: we say that 3 is a member of the set {1,2,3}. Also, we can say the set {1,2,3} contains 3, but this usage is not recommended as it is also used to refer to subsets (see following).

We can say that two sets are equal if they contain exactly the same elements. For example, the sets {2,3,1} and {3,1,2} both contain the numbers 1, 2 and 3. We write:
 * $$\{2,3,1\}=\{3,1,2\}$$

We write the set with no elements as $$\empty$$, or {}. Here, we use the notation {} for the empty set (NB following Wikipedia conventions).

The concept of the subset
A very important concept in set theory and other mathematical areas is the concept of the subset.

Say we have two sets A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}, and B={0,1,2,3,4,5}. Now, B contains some elements of A, but not all. We express this relationship between the sets A and B by saying B is a subset of A. We write this
 * $$B\subseteq A$$

If B is a subset of A, but A is not a subset of B, B is said to be a proper subset of A. We write this
 * $$B\subset A$$

Note that if $$B\subset A$$, then $$B\subseteq A$$

Intersections and unions
There are two notable and fundamental special operations on sets, the intersection and the union. These are somewhat analogous to multiplication and addition.

Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B are the elements common to both sets. For example, if A={1,3,5,7,9} and B={0,1,3}, their intersection, written $$A\cap B$$ is the set {1,3}.

If the intersection of any two sets are empty, we say these sets are disjoint.

Unions
The union of two sets A and B are the all elements in both sets. For example if A={1,3,5,7,9} and B={0,2,4,6,8}. We say the union, written $$A\cup B$$ is the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}.

Set comprehensions
When we write a set, we can do so by writing all the elements in that set as above. However if we wish to write an infinite set, then writing out the elements can be too unwieldy. We can solve this problem by writing sets in set comprehension notation. We do this by writing these sets including a rule and by a relationship to an index set, say I. That is;
 * $$S=\{x \in I | rule\}$$

where rule can be something like x2, or x=3x.

For example, this set forms the set of all even numbers:
 * $$\{x \in \mathbb{N}| x \mod 2 = 0\}$$

This set forms the set of all solutions to the general quadratic:
 * $$\{x \in \mathbb{C}| ax^2+bx+c = 0\}$$

Universal sets
When we do work with sets, it is useful to think of a larger set in which to work with. For example, if we are talking about sets {-1,0,1} and {-3,-1,1,3}, we may want to work in Z in this circumstance. When we talk about working in such a larger set, such as Z in that instance, we say that Z is a universal set, and we take all sets to be subsets of this universal set.

We write the universal set to be $$\mathcal{E}$$, however it may be simpler to denote this as E.

Complements
Given a set A in a larger universal set E, we define the complement of A to be all elements in E that are not in A, that is the complement of A is:
 * $$\{x\in \mathcal{E}|x\not\in A\}$$

We write the complement as A' or Ac. In this document we will use A'.

Problem set
Based on the above information, write the answers to the following questions (Answers follow to even numbered questions)
 * 1) Is $$3/4\in\mathbb{Q}$$?
 * 2) Is $$\sqrt{2}\in\mathbb{Q}$$?
 * 3) Is $$\{x\in\mathbb{N}|2x\}=\{x\in\mathbb{N}|{x \over 2}\in \mathbb{N}\}$$?
 * 4) True or false? If false, give an example of an element in the first set which is not in the second.
 * 5) $$\mathbb{N} \subset \mathbb{Z}$$
 * 6) $$\mathbb{Q} \subset \mathbb{Z}$$
 * 7) True or false? If false, give an example of an element in the first set which is not in the second.
 * 8) $$\mathbb{R} \subset \mathbb{Q}$$
 * 9) $$\mathbb{Z} \subset \mathbb{R}$$
 * 10) Is $$\{1,2,3\} \subset \{1,2,3,4\}$$?
 * 11) Is $$\{1,2,3,5\} \subseteq \{1,2,3,4\}$$?
 * 12) Write the 5 elements of $$\{x\in\mathbb{Z}|x-3 \mod 2 = 0\}$$
 * 13) Write the elements of $$\{x\in\mathbb{C}|x^2+4x-3=0\}$$
 * 14) Find a universal set such that these sets are subsets thereof: $$\{x \in \mathbb{Z^+}|a=x^2 and\ \sqrt{a}\in\mathbb{N}\},\{x \in \mathbb{N}|x/3\} $$
 * 15) Given $$\mathcal{E}=\{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9\}$$, find A' given $$A={1,4,7,9}$$

Answers
2. No, the square root of 2 is irrational, not a rational number 4.1. Yes 4.2. No 6. Yes. 8. 5 elements could be {3,5,7,9,11}. 10. $$\mathcal{E}=\mathbb{Q}$$

Further ideas
These mentioned concepts are not the only ones we can give to set theory. Key ideas that are not necessarily given much detail in this elementary course in set theory but later in abstract algebra and other fields, so it is important to take a grasp on these ideas now.

These may be skipped.

Power set
The power set, denoted P(S), is the set of all subsets of S. NB: The empty set is a subset of all sets.

For example, P({0,1})={{},{0},{1},{0,1}}

Cardinality
The cardinality of a set, denoted |S| is the amount of elements a set has. So |{a,b,c,d}|=4, and so on. The cardinality of a set need not be finite: some sets have infinite cardinality.

The cardinality of the power set
If P(S)=T, then |T|=2undefined.

Problem set
Based on the above information, write the answers to the following questions. (Answers follow to even numbered questions)
 * |{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0}|
 * |P({1,2,3})|
 * 1) P({0,1,2})
 * 2) P({1})

Answers
2. 23=8 4. {{},{1}}

Set identities
When we spoke of the two fundamental operators on sets before, that of the union and the intersection, we have a set of rules which we can use to simplify expressions involving sets. For example, given:
 * $$(A\cup B)'\cap B'\cap A$$

how can we simplify this?

Several of the following set identities are similar to those in standard mathematics

This is incomplete and a draft, additional information is to be added

title: Discrete Mathematics/Naive set theory


text:
User:Tomos

w:en:User:Tomos w:ja:利用者:Tomos meta:User:Tomos

title: User:Tomos


text:
CACS/Index

This page is not yet a normal Index. The capabilities of search engines now satisfy some of the needs formerly addressed by a paper index. That means that as this volume nears completion, the content or use of this page may need redesign.

Currently the page is more of a notepad or guide for an author than it is an aid to the ultimate reader. For any index entry, there is simply a list of those pages, by full name, that have some bearing on the subject. Having this cross reference will aid in updating topics that involve several pages as well as reviewing them to ensure consistency.

Please Direct comments and suggestions for the format and content of this page to its Talk Page.

Index Subjects

 * component
 * (as used in the book) CACS/Preface

 * HTML:CACS/Glossary/HTML
 * Hypertext Markup Language:CACS/Glossary/HTML

title: CACS/Index


text:
Talk:CACS/Index

I'm not sure if this is a good idea for building a Wikibook or not. For a while I'll be using it to sort of mirror a technique I used when building very large word documents. During construction we used the expanded index as a tool to aid internal consistancy for the document as a whole. But part of that utility came from the ability to pop open an insert box for a new entry while editing any page.

Wiki page editing has the advantage of being text only, but page separation makes maintaining this list cumbersome at best. If it proves too difficult, I'll find another solution. Of course, suggestions are welcome! ..LouI 06:00, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC)

title: Talk:CACS/Index


text:
Polish

The Polish language is a member of the Western Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. It is easiest to learn if one already knows some other related language.

The most closely related are other Western Slavic languages: Czech, Slovak, Silesian, Kashubian and Sorbian. More distant are the Southern and Eastern Slavic languages like Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Russian, Ukrainian, Belorusian, respectively.

Polish is spoken by a total of approximately 40 million people, making it the second most widely spoken Slavic language in the world, after Russian. Speakers of related languages can pick it up without much effort.

Someone who doesn't speak any Slavic language, but speaks some other Indo-European language, may still find many similarities between Polish grammar and the grammar of that language, as well as many similar words.

This Wikibook is designed for anyone who wants to learn the basics of the Polish language. It is suitable for beginners and those who have been learning the language for a few years.

Lesson 1

 * 1) /Polish pronunciation/
 * 2) /Basic grammar/
 * 3) * /Exercises - Introductory conjugation/
 * 4) * /Exercises - Introductory declension/
 * 5) /Some useful expressions/
 * 6) * /Exercises - Useful expressions/
 * 7) /Introductions/
 * 8) * /Exercises - Introducing yourself, simple questions/
 * 9) /List of words/ (Lista słów)

Lesson 2

 * 1) /More on nouns - genders/
 * 2) /Order of words in a sentence/
 * 3) /Plural/
 * 4) /Noun cases/ (declensions)
 * 5) * /Hard and soft consonants/
 * 6) * /Feminine noun declension/
 * 7) * /Masculine noun declension/
 * 8) * /Neuter noun declension/
 * 9) * /Prepositions as hints to declensions/
 * 10) /Cześć! Jak się masz?/

Lesson 3

 * 1) /Conjugations of common verbs/
 * 2) * /Exercises - Conjugations of common verbs/
 * 3) /Adjectives/
 * 4) * /More on adjectives/
 * 5) * /Comparative and Superlative/
 * 6) * /Possessive Adjectives/

Lesson 4

 * 1) /Grouping expressions/
 * 2) /Questions/
 * 3) /Verbs/
 * 4) * /Usage of the infinitive/
 * 5) /Na kursie/

Lesson 5

 * 1) /Conversation in Polish/
 * 2) /Vocabulary/

Lesson 6

 * 1) /Declension/
 * 2) * /Nominative case/ (mianownik)
 * 3) * /Genitive case/ (dopełniacz)
 * 4) * /Dative case/ (celownik)
 * 5) * /Accusative case/ (biernik)
 * 6) * /Instrumental case/ (narzędnik)
 * 7) * /Locative case/ (miejscownik)
 * 8) * /Vocative case/ (wołacz)

Grammar

 * 1) /Present tense/ (czas teraźniejszy)
 * 2) /Past tense/ (czas przeszły)
 * 3) /Future tense/ (czas przyszły)
 * 4) /Conditional mood/ (tryb przypuszczający)
 * 5) /Imperative mood/ (tryb rozkazujący)

Grammar 2

 * 1) /Nouns - Gender/ (Rzeczowniki - Rodzaj)
 * 2) /Nouns - Number/ (Rzeczowniki - Liczba)
 * 3) /Pronouns/ (Zaimki)
 * 4) /Possessive pronouns/ (Zaimki dzierżawcze)
 * 5) /Nouns - Gender II/ (Rzeczowniki - Rodzaj II)
 * 6) /Adjectives/ (Przymiotniki)
 * 7) /Nouns - Number II/ (Rzeczowniki - Liczba II)
 * 8) /Verbs/ (Czasowniki)

Copyright
This document was originally copyright 2002 Tomasz Węgrzanowski & Anna (grammar) <taw@users.sf.net>

It may be distributed under terms of GNU Free Documentation License. Since its original writing, it has been edited and redistributed on Wiktionary and, currently, Wikibooks.

title: Polish


text:
User talk:128.175.112.225

Hello :) Please use the Move Page feature in future... Not doing so makes things messier and doesn't allow to save edit history.

However I've moved some things around, if you are interested... please see Talk:Discrete mathematics:Set theory for the rationale Thanks Dysprosia 10:02, 14 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Hey again :) I really appreciate the edits to the Group theory article, however could you be a little more "instructional" in the way you write? We need to explicate the ideas for group theory in an extensive way.

Thanks, and keep contributing! Dysprosia 08:16, 10 Oct 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:128.175.112.225


text:
General Biology/Gallery of Biologists/Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882), British naturalist, founder of the Theory of Evolution by means of natural selection.

''Note: Darwin's books should be read with a historical mindset, as they do not always reflect current scientific opinion (though impressively, they often do). Scientifically speaking, the knowledge held in his books should be supplemented with other books in Biology.''

Links
Texts Online: (both of the above are Project Gutenberg mirrors.)
 * Darwin on the Web Archive
 * ibiblio library listed by author

 * 1) Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals
 * 2) Life and Letters of Charles Darwin
 * 3) Descent of Man
 * 4) Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms
 * 5) Geological Observations of South America
 * 6) Geological Observations of Volcanic Islands
 * 7) Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants
 * 8) Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs
 * 9) Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication
 * 10) Voyage of the Beagle
 * 11) Autobiography of Charles Darwin


text:
CACS/Glossary/ACWP

Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP) (Project Management) The total direct and indirect costs of accomplishing work completed to date. It usually refers either to a given time period or to a completed project phase, activity, or task. Some management techniques compare it to a budget to determine a variance or status. In other cases, when it is usually called earned value, ACWP may be used to determine interim payments to a contractor.

title: CACS/Glossary/ACWP


text:
CACS/Glossary/GRE

General Routing Encapsulation (GRE) (Internet) A method or technique of adding an IP standard header and trailer to a message that does not follow IP protocols. The encapsulated message is sent over a public network while received messages are stripped of the wrapper and processed. This permits non-standard data (from an application like Notes or AppleTalk) and totally encrypted messages to use the Internet. The technology is an important element in Virtual Private Network (VPN) offerings.

title: CACS/Glossary/GRE


text:
CACS/Glossary/MPLS

Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) (Networking) is a system of protocols that uses abbreviated routing information based on the devices and connections of a single Internet Service Provider (ISP). These abbreviated codes are then attached to an IP message to improve the speed and efficiency of internally routed messages. The protocols and their overall use are documented by the IETF in RFC3031.

title: CACS/Glossary/MPLS


text:
CACS/Glossary/PKI

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) (Internet) An evolving system of protocols that define the Digital Certificates and Certificate Authorities that identify and validate the parties in an electronic commerce transaction to each other.

title: CACS/Glossary/PKI


text:
CACS/Glossary/Tunneling

Tunneling (Networks, Software) – a software process that uses General Routing Encapsulation (GRE) programs to send encrypted or incompatible messages over a network, usually the Internet. The concept refers to the use of the internet by two nodes of a Virtual Private Network (VPN), and their treatment of the internet as a 'tunnel' for their messages.

title: CACS/Glossary/Tunneling


text:
CACS/Glossary/VPN

Virtual Private Network (VPN) (Internet) a service, usually offered by an ISP, that uses various routing, encryption, and security technologies to allow the Internet to serve as the equivalent of a private or controlled network. This supports the connection of a corporate network with external elements for telecommuting or extended enterprise applications, or may entirely replace a proprietary network.

VPN is also used to describe the collective software and methods used in the VPN service.

VPN - Wirtualne Sieci Prywatne

title: CACS/Glossary/VPN


text:
CACS/Glossary/Adobe

Adobe Systems Inc. (Corporation) A software vendor specializing in documents. Founded in 1982, their best known products are Pagemaker, Acrobat Reader, and Photoshop. Located in San Jose, California, their web address is http://www.adobe.com/main.html.

title: CACS/Glossary/Adobe


text:
CACS/Glossary/ADP

Automatic Data Processing (ADP) (Corporation) a corporation, specializing in payroll and human resources business services and founded in 1949. As of 2002 they grossed over $15 billion, Headquartered in Roseland, NJ, their web address is www.adp.com.

(Microsoft) .ADP is also a file extension for an Access Database Project.

title: CACS/Glossary/ADP