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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dolores Umbridge

Overview
Dolores Jane Umbridge debuted as the Defence Against the Dark Arts professor in the series' fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Over the course of that book, she manages to create and claim the office of Hogwarts High Inquisitor, and later declares herself Headmistress of Hogwarts. In book 7, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, we learn that she has become the Head of the Muggle-Born Registration Commission in addition to being Senior Undersecretary.

She is described as looking like a large, pale toad, rather squat, and having a broad, flabby face, very little neck, and a wide, slack mouth. Her eyes are large, round, and slightly bulging. She often has a bow on top of her head. Both her office at Hogwarts and the Ministry of Magic shows her surrounding herself with pretty plates on the wall, chintz chairs, lace doilies, vases of dried flowers and other such paraphernalia.

Order of the Phoenix
Dolores Umbridge is first seen when Harry is called before the Wizengamot to answer charges of performing underage magic. Sitting on Cornelius Fudge's right-hand side, she makes a few comments that are intended to fluster Harry.

Umbridge is then appointed by the Ministry of Magic as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher (and Ministry spy) at Hogwarts. She unexpectedly gives a long, extremely boring speech at the Welcoming Feast in which she says she believes the school's teaching methods need to be examined and perhaps revised. In her classes, she teaches exclusively from a singularly useless book: Defensive Magical Theory, by Wilbert Slinkhard, which seems, based on the chapter headings, to concern itself with negotiation and appeasement of, rather than with defence against, the Dark Arts. She steadfastly hews to the Ministry party line that Lord Voldemort has not returned and that Harry Potter's claims are only to garner attention for himself. When Harry dares to dispute the Ministry's stance, she gives him detention, making him write lines with a magic quill that painfully etches the words "I must not tell lies" into his hand permanently.

In reaction to the useless coursework given in Defence Against the Dark Arts classes, Hermione convinces Harry to offer a more practical Defence course. The organizational meeting is held in the Hog's Head Inn in Hogsmeade. Apparently in reaction to this, and clearly at Umbridge's instigation, an Educational Decree is posted that disbands all student organizations and forbids any unauthorized student meetings. The defence association determines to meet anyway, and at the first full meeting, responding to the belief that Defence Against the Dark Arts has been watered down out of fear that Professor Dumbledore is raising a private army to attack the Ministry, the defence group name themselves Dumbledore's Army.

With backing from the Ministry, Umbridge makes herself the final arbiter of student discipline. After Harry and George get into a physical fight with Draco Malfoy following a Quidditch match between Gryffindor and Slytherin, Professor McGonagall scolds them severely and gives them a week's worth of detentions. However, Umbridge steps in and alters the punishment even further, banning Harry, Fred and George from playing Quidditch ever again (Fred did not fight, but only because he was restrained by other members of the Quidditch team).

Again with backing from the Ministry, Professor Umbridge appoints herself Hogwarts' High Inquisitor, a position from which she makes it her duty to examine all the teachers and their methods. She soon targets Professor Trelawney and Hagrid as incompetent.

Later on in the year, Harry does an interview in The Quibbler and when Umbridge finds out, she gives Harry yet another detention, revokes Harry's Hogsmeade privileges and bans the article and makes a decree stating that possession of The Quibbler at Hogwarts is a disciplinary offence punishable with expulsion.

Umbridge does manage to fire Trelawney, and tries to force her to leave Hogwarts. Professor Dumbledore accepts that Trelawney has been fired, but asks her to remain in the castle, saying that he has that authority still. Overriding Umbridge's insistence that the Ministry has the right to provide Trelawney's replacement, Dumbledore says he has already found her replacement, and introduces the new Divination teacher, the Centaur Firenze.

Shortly after, Umbridge hears of the existence of Dumbledore's Army from Cho's friend, Marietta Edgecombe, and attempts to capture the members; Harry alone is caught, but the membership list is recovered. Based on the name of the group, "Dumbledore's Army" as written on the membership list, Professor Dumbledore is accused of plotting against the Ministry. Aurors who have been brought to the school as bodyguards for Fudge attempt to arrest Dumbledore without success, and Dumbledore vanishes from the school. Umbridge proclaims herself Headmistress. Although she carries the title, her authority is generally ignored; she is unable to access Dumbledore's sealed office, and the staff barely acknowledge her.

One day, Umbridge invites Harry to tea in her office and gives him tea spiked with Veritaserum in an attempt to get him to tell her his secrets. However, she is unaware that Snape has given her a counterfeit potion to help protect the Order of the Phoenix. Suddenly, a large bang shakes the school, courtesy of Fred and George, leading her to let Harry go. When Peeves engages in harassing her, his actions are apparently supported by the teachers. It is Fred and George Weasley, however, who lead an outright revolt, creating havoc throughout the school, before jumping on their brooms and leaving Hogwarts for good.

Some time after this, Umbridge decides that she has enough information to fire Hagrid, but feels a need to bring a squad of Aurors to assist her. The resulting magical battle results in Professor McGonagall being injured to the point of having to go to St. Mungo's, and completely disrupts the Astronomy O.W.L. that Harry is then taking.

Although she works for the Ministry of Magic, Umbridge engages in illegal activities, such as attempting to cast Unforgivable Curses on Harry, in an attempt to determine who he has been communicating with via her fireplace. While she is deciding to use the Cruciatus Curse on Harry, she happens to mention that she was the one who had ordered the Dementors to Privet Drive the previous summer. When Hermione tricks her into going into the Forbidden Forest to search for a non-existent weapon, Umbridge foolishly insults the Centaurs, who become enraged and carry her off screaming.

When Dumbledore is reinstated as Headmaster, he personally goes into the Forest to rescue her, although she is so psychologically traumatized (severe PTSD) that she has to be hospitalized. Just before the end of term, Umbridge sneaks out of the Hospital Wing quietly in the hopes of going undetected. However, she runs into Peeves, who hits her repeatedly with McGonagall's walking stick and pelts her with chalk while chasing her away from the Hogwarts premises, thereby ending her tenure at Hogwarts School.

Half-Blood Prince
While visiting the Weasleys' at Christmas, Rufus Scrimgeour mentions that Dolores Umbridge had told him that Harry was interested in becoming an Auror, much to Harry's fury. Umbridge was seen towards the end while attending Albus Dumbledore's funeral along with the other Ministry of Magic staff.

Deathly Hallows
We discover in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince that the real locket of Salazar Slytherin is now a Horcrux containing part of Lord Voldemort's soul, ensuring his immortality and that it had already been removed from its hiding place. Kreacher, the Black Family House-Elf, reveals that it was Regulus Black who replaced it for a fake and that he kept it instead of allowing it to be discarded by Sirius but that it was stolen by Mundungus Fletcher. Mundungus admits to the Trio that he had indeed stolen it and was trying to hawk it and other valuables from the house, when Umbridge stopped him. Umbridge, abusing her power in the Ministry, had demanded the locket as a bribe, in exchange for not jailing Mundungus for selling artifacts without a license. Mundungus does not know her name, but the physical description he gives to the Trio - "looked like a toad" - is enough for them to realise who he is referring to.

In order to regain the locket, Harry, Ron and Hermione break into the Ministry of Magic, disguised with Polyjuice Potion. Ron is immediately detailed by Yaxley to handle a problem with rainfall in his office. Harry and Hermione meet Umbridge on the top floor; Hermione is taken to the courtrooms to record proceedings of the Muggle-Born Registration Commission. When Harry's search of Umbridge's office proves fruitless, he hides under the Invisibility Cloak, and makes his way into the courtroom where Umbridge is enjoying sending Muggle-born wizards and witches to Azkaban for "stealing wands from blood wizards". Umbridge, leaning forward, reveals that she is wearing the locket. Harry, disgusted by Umbridge's using the locket to claim more Blood descent than she is entitled to, Stuns her, and then Yaxley, which gives Hermione time to retrieve the locket. Harry and Hermione then free the remaining Muggle-borns, escorting them to the Atrium and allowing them to leave the Ministry.

The author, in an interview given after publication of this book, reveals that Umbridge has been sentenced to life imprisonment in Azkaban Prison for her crimes against Muggle-borns.

Strengths
It is difficult for us to judge the quality of her magic, as we see very little of it; one gathers that she is powerful, but definitely not as skilled in magic as Professor McGonagall or Professor Flitwick, as, for instance, Flitwick is able to remove the Weasleys' Wizarding Wheezes Instant Swamp quite quickly, while Umbridge is unsuccessful after apparently a full day. She also is unable to reverse the jinx Hermione performed on Marietta Edgecombe that made the word "SNEAK" appear on her face in blisters when she reports on Dumbledore's Army. Nonetheless, the fact that she is able to summon a fully corporal Patronus, as seen in the Muggle-born registration scene, is evidence that she does have some magical strength; we are generally led to believe, and the author has confirmed explicitly, that this requires superior skills which at the least a sizeable fraction of wizards never master.

She does seem to have a very powerful personality, in any case, as she is a senior assistant to at least two Ministers (Cornelius Fudge and Pius Thicknesse), and is respected within the Ministry. She manages to get herself into a position of significant authority under Thicknesse, despite not being a Death Eater – it seems that the higher offices in the Ministry under Thicknesse are filled by Death Eaters, for reasons that should be obvious.

Weaknesses
Even prior to her appointment as High Inquisitor of Hogwarts and long before her crimes against Muggle-borns, Dolores Umbridge has a reputation within the Wizarding world as a politician who has particular prejudices against semi-humans or "half-breeds", most notably werewolves. It is this that leads her to smear and later sack Hagrid, since he is half-giant. She has a weak self-image, which she props up with pomposity, elitism, officious behaviour and a dependency on external props, such as the locket she extorts from Mundungus Fletcher and later claims as an heirloom that "proves" her descent from an old Wizarding family. She exhibits paranoid behaviour both in her monitoring of students' mail as High Inquisitor and in her use of Alastor Moody's magical eye at the Ministry to spy on her staff outside her office.

Umbridge is also willing to do anything to get anyone to obey her, even resorting to breaching laws to do so, as evident when she tried to torture Harry with the Cruciatus Curse when he refuses to give her information. These personality traits are further compounded by her bigotry, which seems to be largely based on a fear of beings outside her understanding or control. It is these same prejudices which ultimately lead to her downfall, first by being seized by the centaurs whom she also calls "half-breeds" and then by being sentenced to life imprisonment in Azkaban for her crimes against Muggle-borns.

Relationships with Other Characters
Umbridge has a particular dislike for Harry Potter. Throughout Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, her bias against Harry in particular, and Gryffindor House in general, is evident. Using her newly acquired power under the Educational Decrees from the Ministry, she bans all extra-curricular activities and gatherings until they are approved by the High Inquisitor (herself); this meant that the House Quidditch teams were disbanded. Slytherin's team was immediately reinstated while Gryffindor was delayed from reforming for nearly a month when then-captain Angelina Johnson put in the request. Nonetheless, by the end of her time at Hogwarts, all Houses other than Slytherin are bereft of any points, until Professor McGonagall awards multiple points to Gryffindor and Ravenclaw on her return from St. Mungo's.

Most Hogwarts teachers despise her, especially those in the Order of the Phoenix. Slytherin prefects such as Draco Malfoy only appear to like her to the extent that she gives them the power to exert more than usual control over others, such as taking House points away. Argus Filch likes her, however, becoming excited when she reinstates corporal punishment for students and he is sorry to see her leave. Umbridge exhibits further animus towards Harry in Deathly Hallows, where she labels him "Public Enemy No. 1" in her propaganda and has Arthur Weasley monitored because of his family's closeness to him.

Umbridge claims relationship to the Selwyn family. This relationship is never proven and she uses the locket of Slytherin (via its apparent antiquity and the "S" sigil on it), despite being totally unaware of its provenance or history, to bolster this otherwise-unsupported claim- much less suspecting that it is a Horcrux that is likely to twist her nature even further when she wears it (which it does).

Analysis
In Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, the first book in the series, Professor Quirrell tells Harry that one of the lessons he had learned from "his master" was that "there is no right or wrong, only power." Dolores Umbridge seems to have accepted that dictum and made it part of her life. Umbridge characterizes the worst aspects of political power. She is ruthless, cruel, brutal, corrupt and devoid of a moral or ethical centre, always presented with a soft, demure exterior. She is depicted using any means to maintain her personal power and the political power of her bosses. She commits attempted murder (via the Dementor attack on Harry), solicits bribes- at least from Mundungus Fletcher and tortures children to achieve her goals. Umbridge cannot tolerate anyone who disagrees with her views or the lies her Minister is spreading. She must exercise complete control over everyone and everything around her. From her perspective, free speech, dissent, diversity and multiple points of view cannot be tolerated. Clearly, Umbridge represents the qualities of a totalitarian government. She leads not by consensus and respect but rather by fear and intimidation. Indeed, while she is taking over Hogwarts, the Ministry as a whole is controlling the press and information to spin events in their favour. The power granted Umbridge by Fudge to consolidate his political strength and squash his perceived enemies is already familiar to us, as is her final crime of the "ethnic cleansing" of Muggle born wizards. The author reminds us how easy it is for a person like Umbridge to thrive when a government loses its accountability.

Throughout Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Umbridge attracted much contempt for her uptight policies, strict educational decrees and her basic power hunger. Despite this, she has the full support of Fudge and the Ministry. This puts emphasis on corruption and foolishness in Government (this is also present, to a lesser extent, in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, through Rufus Scrimgeour). It also raises a theme of power and how it is misused.

Questions

 * 1) How might Dolores Umbridge feel, in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, when the staff members at Hogwarts treat her badly (particularly at the beginning of the year)?
 * 2) Why is Umbridge kept as a Ministry of Magic employee?
 * 3) Why is Umbridge afraid of "half-breeds" – centaurs, giants, etc.?
 * 4) Why did Umbridge send Dementors after Harry?
 * 5) Why didn't the Ministry of Magic detect the fact that Umbridge had sent the Dementors after Harry? Or did they simply ignore the fact?
 * 6) Do you think Umbridge was mean, or just doing her job?

Greater Picture
It should be instructive to the student to examine the character of Umbridge. It is of particular note that while she is not allied with Voldemort and thus nominally not on the side of the evil that Harry is fighting, she is still one of the most hateful characters in the entire series. The reader accepts Rita Skeeter's casual muck-raking as being part of the job she signed up for. Voldemort is clearly the fountainhead of intolerance that darkens the final book of the series, and yet even so he is not as despised as Umbridge. The student should examine how the author achieves this, largely through highlighting Umbridge's motivation for her actions. Key to the picture, of course, is motivation: what are Umbridge's drivers? It is immediately obvious that Umbridge's prime motive is power for herself; she uses her power to gain leverage to claim more power. We see this same sort of behaviour in Draco Malfoy, and can infer that the same process resulted in Voldemort's rise to power; yet neither of these characters inspire the same sort of hatred that the fan community seems to level at Umbridge. What could be the reason for this? We suspect that a large part of it stems from Harry's inability to fight. Against the Ministry, Harry is powerless, and it is made worse because all Harry's allies are equally unable to prevail against Umbridge. Of course, the fact that her motivation seems to be purely self-advancement within the Ministry system makes an already horrible situation seem even worse.


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Talk:Orthopaedic Surgery

Naming policy
Wikibooks is divided into multiple books, however all of these books live in the same namespace. If you are addig chapters to this book, please read Naming policy.

Do not put bracket pairs around arbitrary words! Bad:  Trauma . Good:  Orthopaedic Surgery/ Trauma. On the main Orthopaedic Surgery page, this is good:  / Trauma / .

There are two good reasons to do this. First, all such chapters have an automatic link to the parent Orthopaedic Surgery page. Thus, users will not become lost, wondering, "which book does this belong to?" Second, you get to use Special:Prefixindex/Orthopaedic Surgery/ to list all of your chapters, in case some get unlinked. --Kernigh 19:59, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Orthopaedic Surgery


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Talk:Guitar/Slide Guitar

Use of a battery
"a battery can work to get a good sound"

Is this a safe technique to use on a steel stringed instrument? I'm not versed in slide guitar, but I can imagine if precautions are not taken one could quite easily short the battery through the strings and across the bridge. 81.106.113.213 20:16, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

A battery makes a passable slide. To short-circuit the battery one would have to touch both terminals to the string at once. This is practically impossible in the case of a cylindrical battery, and highly unlikely in the case of a cuboidal 9V battery. In any case the use of a flat battery would further reduce the danger of a short circuit.

slide
The term "slide" more commonly refers to a bar used in an overhand style of playing, than to a tube. The tube is often referred to as a "bottleneck" even when not made of glass.

title: Talk:Guitar/Slide Guitar


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Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 6

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 6
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 6


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Wikijunior:Languages/Hindi

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Hindi does not use Latin characters like the English you are reading, but instead uses a script called devanagari. Devanagari is a type of writing system, called an abugida, where the base character is a syllable that includes a consonant and a vowel. The first consonant in devanagari is क, which stands for the sound "ka". The character can be changed to use different vowels. For example का कि की कु कू के कै को कौ are the k character with each of the main vowels in Hindi. There is also a different form of the vowels when they appear at the beginning of a word or as the second of a pair of vowels. The basic vowels are अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ए ऐ ओ and औ.

How many people speak this language?
There are varying estimates for how many people speak Hindi. It is estimated to be between the second and fourth most commonly spoken language in the world. The number of native speakers varies depending on whether or not very closely related dialects are counted. Estimates range from 340 million to 500 million speakers, and as many as 800 million people can understand the language. Hindi and Urdu are similar in vocabulary but different in script; in everyday conversations, speakers of both languages can usually understand each other. There are 60 to 100 million speakers of Urdu.

Where is this language spoken?
Almost all speakers of Hindi live in India or Nepal, though Hindi can be found all over the world where its speakers have moved to. Countries outside of India and Nepal with a significant number of speakers are South Africa, Mauritius, the United Kingdom, the United States, Yemen, and Uganda.

What is the history of this language?
Hindi has its roots in the ancient language of Sanskrit. The spoken language changed over the centuries from the Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit to Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages. During its changes, Middle Indo-Aryan became known as Apabhramshas (according to many researchers), which sometime around 1000 A.D. were developing into the dialects and languages of today's northern India, including Hindi. Hindi contains plenty of words from Persian and Arabic origins, coming from the Persian people that ruled much of northern India for centuries.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Tulsidas wrote twelve books and is considered the greatest and most famous of Hindi poets. He lived from 1532 to 1623. Premchand is one of the greatest literary figures of modern Hindi and Urdu literature. He lived from 1880 to 1936. Most of the early Hindi literature was in verse form, like poetry.

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?
Hindi word — Latin version of the word — English translation
 * नमस्ते — namaste — hello, good morning, afternoon, etc., and goodbye.
 * आप कैसे हैं? — aap kaise hain? — How are you?
 * मैं ठीक हूँ, और आप? — main Theek hoon, aur aap? — I am fine, and you?
 * आपका नाम क्या है? — aapka naam kyaa hai? — What is your name?
 * मेरा नाम सुनील है — meraa naam Sunil hai. — My name is Sunil.
 * मैं विद्यालया जा रहा हूँ-main vidyalaya jaa raha hun.-I am going to School.,

The word order in Hindi sentences is different than in English. In Hindi the verb usually comes last in the sentence. For example in the sentence given above for "What is your name?", the order the words are actually said in Hindi is "your name what is". Aapka means "your", naam means "name", kyaa means "what", and hai means "is". With practice this difference isn't very hard to get used to.

मछली जल की रानी है Fish is the queen of water
In Devanagri

मछली जल की रानी है,

जीवन उसका पानी है,

हाथ लगाओ तो डर जाएगी,

बाहर निकालो तो मर जाएगी।

In Latin

Machhli jal ki raani hain,

Jeevan uskaa paani hain,

Haath lagao to darr jayegi,

Bahar nikalo to mar jayegi.

Translation

Fish is the queen of water,

Her life is water,

touch her (with your hand) and she will get scared,

take her out and she will die.

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Hindi


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Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 7

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 7
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 7


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Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 8

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 8
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 8


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User talk:GRAHAMUK~enwikibooks

MacOS screenshots
I changed license of some of your MacOS screenshots from GFDL to fair use. MacOS and particularly Xcode aren't free software and their screenshots are not free. --Derbeth talk 22:09, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called GRAHAMUK. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name GRAHAMUK~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:10, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:59, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:GRAHAMUK~enwikibooks


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 9

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 9
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 9


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 10

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 10
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 10


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User:Moriarty73

I am a part-time mature student reading Politics, Philosophy and History. I have contributed some stories on wikinews and wikipedia.

I have completed an entry for Willie Maddren, a footballer for Middlesbrough F.C.. I was surprised he didn't have an entry. I am researching for further contributions.

title: User:Moriarty73


text:
User talk:82.5.6.177

Warning - do not deface Wikibooks
Another user had to remove the annoying, all-uppercase comments that you added to the Star Sonata guide. Wikibooks is not a platform for propoganda. If you continue to add angry comments to Wikibooks, you might become blocked from editing here. --Kernigh 23:52, 2 April 2006 (UTC) screw you

title: User talk:82.5.6.177


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 11

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 11
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 11


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Accountancy/Liabilities

A liability is an obligation to transfer economic benefit as a result of past events.

Importantly, this definition does not take into account the legal position. It reflects the substance of the arrangement rather than the legal form.

Current liabilities represent liabilities that form part of the operating cycle e,g trade payables (trade creditors), or if not part of the operating cycle have a maturity of less than 12 months.

accounting for employee liabilities
DR  CR salary expense      A salary payable           B superannuation           C worker's comp insurance  D employee's tax payable   E A = B + C + D + E
 * Some employee liabilities are deductions from gross pay, and can be recorded to offset the salary payable liability ( they reduce the salary payable by accumulating other liabilities payable), against a total periodic (fortnightly/ monthly ) salary expense.

Common liabilities that fall in this category are the non-expiring ones like superannuation, worker's accident/disability insurance, and pay-as-you-go taxation. Worker's insurance and taxation can be accumulated for lump-sum annual payment.

 * Sick leave can be seen as provision type of liability, where an estimate is made based on historical sick leave about amount of total sick leave will be taken in the coming year, and expensed against a provision for sick leave. Since sick leave doesn't accrue from year to year, unused sick leave provision can reduce the next period's sick leave expense ( similar to ageing of accounts receivable bad debts provision ).

Definition in concept context
With respect to the central equation:
 * Assets = Liability + Equity

Liability and Asset share similar adjectives of past, present, and future in their definitions:
 * Arising out of defined past events
 * A present obligation (liability) / right ( asset)
 * for the future outflow ( liability) / in flow ( asset) of resources ( being the concrete form of abstract economic benefit )

( Equity is defined as assets less liabilities ).

And they both have the same recognition criteria : probable, and measurable.

These definitions may be changed soon, to emphasise concepts such as "presently enforceable", "present right of control over resources(asset)/obligation of economic burden(liability)", by some accounting bodies.

Exercises

 * 1) define asset, liability, and equity, in the framework of 3 sentences about past, present and future , using the words resource, economic benefit, right and obligation.
 * 2) Discuss the meaning : "the future economic benefit has to be both probable and measurable in order for either an asset or liability to be recognized".

The role of probable in defining provisions and contingent liabilities
Probable is more than 50% likely to occur because there was a past obligating event. The past obligating event defines a future payment event which is
 * 1) on a specific date
 * 2) on demand from the obligating party
 * 3) linked to another obligating event by specific agreement

A contingent liability suffers from recognition criteria failure, it can't be reliably measured, or isn't probable.

Contingent liabilities become provisions, which are recognised liabilities on financial statements, when they become probable and can be reliably estimated ( measured ).

A reliable estimate of economic burden serves as measurability for provisions: e.g. product warranty provision: if minor repairs cost 5% of the total cost and an estimated 5% of products may require minor repairs within 2 years of sale, and major repairs cost 20% and 1% of products may require major repairs in 2 years, then a provision is made for 5% x 5% + 20% x 1% of budgeted total sales (0.25% + 0.2% = a 0.45% of sales amount set aside as credit to warranty provision  liability account, and the warranty expense of 0.45% recorded at the start of the same period as the expected sales . On a warranty being claimed, cash in bank is credited and warranty provision debited to settle this instance of liability with economic outflow).

Assessing financing as buyer or seller using financial ratios
The ratios concerned are classed as liquidity ratios and stability ratios.

liquidity ratios

 * the quick ratio - this is current assets except inventory and prepaid assets over current liabilities.
 * If inventory and prepaid assets are included, then it is the current ratio.
 * quick ratio should be > 0.9.

stability ratios

 * assets = liabilities + equity .  Equity / assets = ( assets - liability) / assets = 1 - liability / assets.
 * equity / assets = equity ratio.
 * liability / assets = debt ratio. < 0.6 ok.
 * from above, equity ratio = 1 - liability ratio
 * 1/ equity ratio = assets / equity = capitalisation ratio. < 2.5 ok. ( 1/2.5 = 2/5 = 0.4 = acceptable equity ratio threshold).

How to use
assets / equity > 2.5, (liability + equity) / equity > 2.5 liability/equity + 1 > 2.5, liability/equity > 1.5
 * 1) If more than one years balance sheet is available, a company being considered for investment can be assessed by calculating the liquidity and stability ratios ( or  quick ratio and capitalisation ratio,  to be concrete ).
 * 2) the calculation is (current assets total - inventory - pre-paids) divided by  current liabilities  for each year's balance sheet.
 * 3) If the quick ratio is going down and is significantly less than 1, then liquidity might be a future problem and the company might collapse. A quick ratio less than 1 means that if all the current liabilities are demanded, even by collecting all the current receivables and handing over all cash equivalent assets, there will still be remaining current liability.
 * If the capitalisation ratio is > 2.5, then
 * try to work out if near current liabilities have been hidden in non-current liabilities, or that contingencies exist that would turn non-current liabilities into current liabilities.

Accounting like considerations for taking on liability to increase finance
If assets = liability + equity, and if (big if) more assets can be employed to efficiently increase income, then:
 * increase liability - take on long term borrowings (non-current liabilities), which will have periodic interest expense as well as principal repayment at a fixed long-term date.
 * increase equity - issue shares in the company, dilute control possibly, with the promise of retaining less profits through dividend payments (public drawings) periodically.
 * the risk of increase liability is risk of failure to pay the principal and insolvency. Can liquidity ratios predict this ?
 * the risk of issuing equity as shares is the loss of control of the company, with fewer retained profits due to dividend obligations, a drop in market value due to perceived dilution of share value, more mouths to feed and hence decreased EPS (earnings-per-share) for a given profit.

an example concrete problem statement
From the borrowing viewpoint, if a high probable profit is thought to be likely by increasing assets held through financing, then whether it is better to finance by issuing shares, or by increasing long term borrowings. In the first, the downside is dilution of control and dilution of earnings per share, and in the latter, the downside is increased defaulting risk, decreased liquidity ratios.
 * given A= assets, L = liabilities, P = gross profit before tax of 't'% and additional interest, S the current issued shares, if an increase in assets 'a' results in a increase in gross profits 'p' ,is it better to increase by 'a' by issuing  's' shares at 'a'/'s' per share, or borrowing 'a' at an annual interest rate of 'i'% , where an annual interest of 'i' % times 'a' will be incurred ?
 * in the first, net profit after tax is  P + p * (100 - t) % , giving an earnings per share of ( P + p * (100 - t)/100) / (S + s) , and a debt ratio of L  / (A + a)
 * in the second, net profit after tax and interest is  ( P + p (100 - i) / 100 ) * ( 100 - t) / 100, giving an EPS of (P + p (1 - i/100) * (1-t/100) / S , and a debt ratio of (L + a) / (A + a)

Rough steps in financing:
 * 1) budget and forecast increase profit and increase in assets required. May require lots of management accounting.
 * 2) Model results of increasing liability, increasing equity or a combination of both, in order to increase assets.
 * 3) analyse consequences of possible different actions.
 * 4) choose, lead action
 * 5) review results and learn

Examples
When trying to avoid liability, a company may issue a 1 for x renounceable share issue, and sweeten the decline in EPS for shareholders by offering a discount in market value of the diluting share offerings. This of course brings the market share value down. This really annoys professional brokers as well, because they have to back pedal their BUY recommendation and qualify that growth prospects will suffer a short-term earnings downgrade.

In contrast: Before the recent GFC, many companies were being financed with large borrowings, because earnings were good and banks were happy that companies were keeping up with interest payments as well as growing money on trees to meet the principal payment. No one really wanted earnings-per-share to go down by asking shareholders to pay for growth. But with the onset of stifled cash-flow, it was found that fair value should have been applied to some fake cash equivalents, like sub-prime backed bonds, so the numerator of the quick ratio suddenly dropped for many companies, and financial entities had to sell their investments: non-current liability flicked the contingency switch and became current, increasing the denominator of the quick ratio. The quick ratio went from comfortably above one, to a lot less than one. Growing by debt became corporate criminality in some instances. Debt restructuring can occur, but if this involves the permanent devaluation of investors interests e.g. share revaluation, where secured major investors such as banks are prioritized over unsecured shareholders ( 'the punters'), then either the smaller shareholders have to bear major losses so the major investors will continue lending because their interests are secured, or the major finance investors refuse to continue lending, because they cannot obtain their required degree of security, and the company cannot obtain money to pay current liabilities when they fall due, and the company becomes insolvent.

title: Accountancy/Liabilities


text:
Talk:FHSST Physics/Magnets and Electromagnetism/Alternating Current

i want to know how ac gerators work la bangsattttttttttttt


text:
Wikijunior:Languages/Bengali

What writing system(s) does this language use?
The Bengali language, locally known as Bangla, has its own script which is known as Bengali script.

How many people speak this language
Bengali is the fourth most commonly spoken language in the world with over 200 million speakers. It is the primary language of Bangladesh. 149 million 500 thousand citizens in Bangladesh speak in Bengali. Bengali is also spoken in India, especially in the state of West Bengal, and in Nepal by minority groups. Besides, emigrant Bangladeshis also speak in this language.

Where is this language spoken?
Bengali is spoken in Bangladesh as well as in West Bengal, Tripura (states of India), Assam and also some portion of Jharkhand. West Bengal and Bangladesh together formed the ancient region of Bengal. There is also a growing Bengali speaking population in England.

What is the history of this language?
Bengali evolved from the merging of some derivatives of Sanskrit with local dialects. Prominent Bengali linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji thoroughly studied all the available dictionaries of the 1960s and '70s and came to the conclusive statement that slightly more than half the native words of the Bengali language consisted of naturally modified Sanskrit words, corrupted forms of Sanskrit words, and loanwords from non-Indo-European languages, of which roughly 45% belong to unmodified Sanskrit words and the rest are foreign words. Persian has been the most dominant among foreign words. The oldest specimen of Bengali literature is Charyapada from the 7th century.

Bengali also holds the distinction of being a language for which the speakers had to struggle a lot. In 1952, Bangladesh was part of Pakistan. The Pakistani rulers, mostly from the erstwhile Western wing of Pakistan (which forms the current state), were Urdu and Punjabi speaking, and wanted to declare Urdu as the national language. This was against the wishes of the Bengali population, who were the majority in Pakistan. On 21 February, 1952, a bloody crackdown by Police on unarmed students and activists resulted in a massacre. The movement later resulted in Bangla being recognized as one of the national languages of Pakistan. The event is commemorated as Language Movement Day in Bangladesh, and in 1999, UNESCO recognized it as the International Mother Language Day.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Rabindranath Tagore is the most famous Bengali poet. He received the 1913 Nobel Prize in literature for his book of poems, Gitanjali. Two of his songs are the national anthems of Bangladesh and India.

Kazi Nazrul Islam, another famous poet was known as the rebel poet mainly because of his most famous poem called "Bidrohi" or "The Rebel", and also because of his strong sympathy and support for revolutionary activities leading to India's independence from British Rule.

Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay was a Bengali writer in the early twentieth century, and is one of the all-time most popular Indian authors. He wrote novels and short stories, mostly about the people and social practices of Bengal.

What are some basic words in this language that I can learn?

 * aami - I - আমি;
 * tumi - You - তুমি;
 * aapni - You (with respect) - আপনি;
 * aamra - We - আমরা;
 * bhalobasha - Love - ভালোবাসা;
 * khela - Game - খেলা;
 * din - Day - দিন;
 * raat - Night - রাত;
 * bari - house - বাড়ি;
 * kukur - Dog - কুকুর;
 * beeral - Cat - বেড়াল/ বিড়াল;
 * boi - Book - বই;
 * dhonnobad - Thank you - ধন্যবাদ;
 * naa - No - না;
 * heh - Yes - হ্যাঁ;
 * prithibi - Earth - পৃথিবী;
 * chaad - Moon - চাঁদ;
 * gorom - Hot - গরম;
 * thanda - Cold - ঠাণ্ডা;
 * hi/ai(ei) - hello - নমস্কার;
 * manush - human - মানুষ;
 * bhasha - language - ভাষা;
 * pani/jol - water - পানি/জল;
 * batash - air - বাতাস;
 * akash - sky - আকাশ;
 * maati - soil - মাটি;
 * ekh - one - এক;
 * dui - two - দুই;
 * teen - three - তিন;
 * chaar - four - চার;
 * paach - five - পাঁচ;
 * choy - six - ছয়;
 * shaat - seven - সাত;
 * aat - eight - আট;
 * noy - nine - নয়:
 * dosh - ten - দশ;

 * Aamar naam Rishi - My name is Rishi - আমার নাম ঋষি
 * Tomar Naam Ki? - What is your name? - তোমার নাম কি?
 * Shuprobhat - Good Morning - সুপ্রভাত;
 * Bidaa-ye - Good bye - বিদায়;
 * Pochondo kora- Like - পছন্দ করা।
 * " tumi kemon achho " - how are you - তুমি কেমন আছো ?
 * " ami bhalo achhi " - I'm fine - আমি ভালো আছি

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
A nonsense children's rhyme in Bengali called 'Haattimatimtim'.

 * Haattimatimtim,
 * Tara maathe pare dim.
 * Tader khara duto shing,
 * Tara Haattimatimtim.

 * Translation
 * (Haattimatimtim,
 * They lay eggs in the field.
 * They have two straight horns,
 * They are the Haattimatimtim.)

 * In Bengali script
 * হাট্টিমাটিমটিম
 * তারা মাঠে পাড়ে ডিম
 * তাদের খাড়া দুটো শিং
 * তারা হাটিমাটিমটিম

Another nonsense children's rhyme in Bengali called 'Aaikom Baaikom'.

 * Aaikom baikom taratari,
 * Jodu master shoshur bari.
 * Rel gari jhomajhhom ,
 * Pa pichhle aalur dom.

 * Translation
 * (Aaikom baikom Quickly,
 * Jodu master in-law's house.
 * Rail car Choo-Choo,
 * Slip & fall down mashed potato.)

 * In Bengali Script
 * আইকম বাইকম তাড়াতাড়ি
 * যদু মাস্টার শ্বশুরবাড়ি
 * রেল গাড়ি ঝমাঝম
 * পা পিছলে আলুর দম

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Bengali


text:
Nissan 240SX Performance Modification/Ignition and Fuel Management

When you modify the performance aspects of your 240SX engine, the stock ECU (engine management computer) needs to know how to react to the changes to make best use of the modifications. Several types of modifications for this system are available:

/MAF/ (mass airflow meter)

/Ignition/ (ignition systems, spark plugs)

/FMU/ (Fuel Management Unit)

/Aftermarket ECU/ (AEM EMS, Greddy Emanage etc...)

/Piggyback Computers/ (Apexi SAFC etc...)

/DaughterBoard-ROM TUNE/ (JWT, RS-Enthalpy, BikiRom, CalumSult)


text:
Hindi Lessons

Welcome to the Hindi lessons Wikibook.

This book is an introduction to Hindi and the script used to write it. It was written as an entry at hindi.unilang.org, and the author was kind enough to grant permission to copy and freely modify the text under the GFDL. Presently it is in a very colloquial style and needs editing to conform to Wikibooks conventions and take a bit more scholastic tone (per Vasil's comments), but it is a good start.

First and foremost, let me say some words about how well I know Hindi and about the way I'll teach it... I've learned the little Hindi I know from a guy, who calls himself Siddharth. Thanks to him, I'm writing these lessons - with his permission of course ;-) So, here's the best time to give my gratitude to my guru: धन्यवाद गुरु जी (Dhanyavaad guru-ji)!

Now, back to Hindi. I'll write the lessons in Devanagari (that is the script the Indians use to write Hindi). Don't worry if you don't know how to read Devanagari. I've written with every word in Hindi a transliteration in English letters. Apart from that I've written one short lesson about how to read the Hindi script: Lesson 0. (since I'm a programmer, I always start to count from 0, lol:)

The first lesson is about the language Hindi in general, i.e. about what's Hindi, where is it spoken etc. (of course for those who don't know :-) The number of lessons isn't great for now, as I'm learning more I'll teach more! Besides I think that Hindi grammar isn't that difficult to learn, and actually there isn't much to learn! So, after learning some basic grammatical structures and patterns you'll be able to say much in Hindi! Wish you luck! Enjoy!

Lessons

 * /Lesson 0/: The Hindi Script: Devanagari.
 * /Lesson 1/: Introduction to Hindi. Linguistic Information.
 * /Lesson 2/: Some basic phrases.
 * /Lesson 3/: Pronouns
 * /Lesson 4/: Genders in Hindi... Hindi Verbs - Part 1
 * /Lesson 5/: Hindi Verbs - Part 2.
 * /Lesson 6/: Adjectives. Colors.
 * /Lesson 7/: Cases. The Direct and Oblique case.
 * /Lesson 8/: Modal Verbs.
 * /Lesson 9/: Numbers and question words.
 * /Glossary/

title: Hindi Lessons


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 0

Hindi is written in a script called Devanagari, which is highly phonetic. Once it is learned, Hindi becomes an easy language to read. Each character is pronounced the same way it appears each time, with very few exceptions. Its primary difficulties are that 1) there are some letters written down before another character but pronounced after it, and 2) some letters are formed from the combination of two others.

We'll start with a few straightforward consonants – h, n, d, m, r, k. For now we'll consider them out of "alphabetical" order just to get an idea how they work. They'll be presented in order later.

ह This is the letter for the sound H as in "Hindi," pronounced just as in English (Note:though the sound is pretty similar it has a difference cause its [ɦ] in the ipa. Its the h in behind but found in received pronunciation of the UK. The difference is the normal h we all know and love is voice less while this is voiced. But the hindi letter looks like an h so guess it helps). Note that every Hindi consonant "inherits" the schwa vowel /ə/ with it unless it is otherwise marked (the schwa sound is the initial a in about or the vowel sound in the). However, the schwa is not typically pronounced when at the end of a word. The character ह "h" is read with the schwa as "ha."

न This is "na," similar to the English "n."

Let's join the two together (by the only two possible ways) and pronounce them.

 * हन

At first sight, this looks like "hn." But with every consonant except the last comes the schwa, so we read that as "han." In the ancient language Sanskrit that Hindi descends from that final "a" was pronounced. A contemporary Hindi speaker would read "Siddharta Gautama Buddha" as "Siddharth Gautam Buddh".

 * नह

That would of course be "nuh".

द That's "d" as in "Hindi", pronounced with the tongue a little flatter against the back of the teeth. Consonants pronounced this way are known as dental consonants. There is another d in Hindi, known as retroflex, and made with the tongue touching the roof of the mouth.

म M as in "magnet", so same as English m. If we join two m's we'll have a word, which will be pronounced in Hindi exactly the same way as the English "mum": मम.

र R as in "better". If you pronounce the english word better, you notice the "tt"part is pronounced like the r. That is the r sound in hindi.

क K as in "cut". The c sound in cut is the hindi k.

In Hindi each vowel is written in two ways: as a vowel mark called a matra, and as a detached vowel letter. Matras are seen more often than detached vowels. Detached vowels appear at the start of a word, or when one vowel follows another. In all other cases the vowel marks are used.

Let's start with the vowel marks:

(I hope you remember, that every consonant comes with an "a" unless otherwise marked, so there is no matra for that sound)

An important thing, before we continue: A dot over a vowel nasalizes it, forcing some of the expired air through the nasal cavity. When pronounced, a nasalized vowel is pronounced by forcing some of the expelled air through the nose, producing a slight n or ng sound:

ं	The anusvara dot, nasalizing a vowel. For example if we have dot over no, we'll pronounce that as "no~" (sometimes written as "non") – exactly the same as the French word for "no." नो -> नों (no -> no~). In the lessons I will transcribe the nasalized letter as ~.

These are all the basic vowel marks, allowing us to write some words, using the letters learned so far:

हिंदी - "Hindi." Let's have a closer look. First we see that the word starts with "i", but since it is the short i matra, it is written before but pronounced after the next consonant, which is "h," So far we have "hi". Next we see the dot, nasalizing the vowel to "hi~" (hin). Next two letters: a dental d and the long "i." This word can also be written with the na character written explicitly (in shortened form in this case) as: हिन्दी.

Some more words with what we know so far:

है - "hai" or "hay" (without the "i" sound in "hei") means "is."

हैं - "hai~" (hain) means "are."

मैं - "mai~" (main) means "I."

Next come the detached forms of the vowels:

Recall that these are used after another vowel or at the beginning of a word which starts with a vowel. Their pronunciation is exactly the same pronunciation as in their vowel mark form:

अ a	That's the sound which is equivalent of the "inherited a" I told you about – the one which follows every consonant, if there is no other following vowel. आ 	ā 	Equivalent of ा. इ 	i 	Same as the short i vowel mark. ई 	ī 	Same as the long i vowel mark. ओ 	o 	Same as the O vowel mark. औ 	au 	Same as AU vowel mark. उ 	u 	Same as short u vowel mark. ऊ 	ū 	Same as long u vowel mark.

ए 	e 	Same as e vowel mark. ऐ 	ai 	Same as ai vowel mark.

Some examples:

एक - "ek" = one

उन्नीस - "unnīs" = nineteen

आप - "aap" = you

उनका - "unka" = their

अब - "ab" = now

आंख - "aankh" = eye

अच्छा - "acchā" = good

और - "aur" = and

भाई - "bhai" = brother

Don't bother about the letters you don't know, we'll learn them shortly. The more important thing is that you should recognize and see the detached vowels. Now I'll continue with a comparatively full list of Hindi consonants. Learning them will enable you to read many words in Hindi. Of course there are also combinations of characters to learn, which will be the final step. The consonants are now shown in groups in their traditional order representing their pronunciation classes.

Gutturals (sound is made from the back of throat)
 * क 	ख 	ग 	घ 	ङ
 * k 	kh 	g 	gh 	ng

Palatals (sound is made by the tongue touching the hard palate)
 * च 	छ 	ज 	झ 	ञ
 * c 	ch 	j 	jh 	ñ

Cerebrals (sound is made by rolling the tongue)
 * ट 	ठ 	ड 	ढ 	ण
 * T 	Th 	D 	Dh 	N

Dentals (sound is made by the tongue touching the teeth)
 * त 	थ 	द 	ध 	न
 * t 	th 	d 	dh 	n

Labials (sound is made with lips closed or almost closed)
 * प 	फ 	ब 	भ 	म
 * p 	ph 	b 	bh 	m

Semi vowels (pronounced with lips and throat open)
 * य 	र 	ल 	व
 * y 	r 	l 	v/w

Sibilants and aspirants
 * श 	ष 	स 	ह 	ज़
 * sh 	ssh 	s 	h 	z

Compound and others
 * क्ष 	त्र 	ज्ञ 	श्र 	ऋ
 * ksh 	tr 	gy 	shr 	ri

Double letters (formed only from one consonant, but doubled..., actually easy to spot) (* Note that on some browsers you won't see the letters properly and instead of seeing one letter under another, you'll see one letter left to another with the first letter having under it the special mark, called "virama" to make it semi-consonant.) क्क 	ट्ट 	ठ्ठ 	त्त 	न्न 	ड्ड 	द्द KK 	TT 	TTH 	T'T' 	NN (*Note the similarity with TR) 	DD 	D'D'

Now, just one thing before we end the lesson, and it is very important thing: half consonants. I told you that every consonant comes with the vowel "a" with it. So when you see "sm" you should read this as "sam". But what if you want to say something that begins with "sm", not "sam". When one wants to mute the inherited a-vowel, there is a special mark called "virama". It's put below the letter and if you see a letter with such mark you don't have to pronounce "A" after it. Let us see how that virama-thing looks like:

टम = T + m = Tam ट्म = T + virama + M = Tm

You see the small mark under the T? I bet you do! Well, that's the virama, it mutes the a, so we pronounce "Tm", not "Tam". However as much as useful it may be, it's not used that much in handwriting because almost all consonants in Hindi have their "half consonant" equivalent, so it's not necessary to write the virama, but instead of this one has to write the corresponding half consonant. Half consonant are extremely easy to notice, since they look like the left half of a consonant. Here is an example:

सक = s + k = sak स्क = Half s + k = sk

Some half letters do combine with the next consonant and change shape. I'll give you some of those which you will encounter most often:

Half letter + n: (again: on some browsers you won't see the proper combinations, but consonant + virama + n)

ब् + न = ब्न

ह् + न = ह्न

ग् + न = ग्न

द् + न = द्न

प् + न = प्न

र् + न = र्न * that needs an extended explanation, see below

क् + न = क्न

त् + न = त्न

म् + न = म्न

व् + न = व्न

स् + न = स्न

Half letter + R:

ब् + र = ब्र

ह् + र = ह्र

ग् + र = ग्र

द् + र = द्र

ज् + र = ज्र

ड् + र = ड्र

प् + र = प्र

र् + र = र्र * that needs an extended explanation, see below

क् + र = क्र

त् + र = त्र

च् + र = च्र

ट् + र = ट्र

म् + र = म्र

न् + र = न्र

व् + र = व्र

ल् + र = ल्र

स् + र = स्र

य् + र = य्र

Note how similar the "half letter + n" and "half letter + r" are. There is only one little difference, something like the little hook on the N version.

Half r + consonant:

The half R, followed of course by consonant, is showed by a mark over the second consonants. This mark looks the same as the mark which differentiate the short i detached vowel from the long detached vowel ī. Remember if you see that mark read it as R, but before the consonant it modifies. Some examples:

र्ह, र्स, र्म, र्न, र्ज, र्द, र्ट, र्त

That letters should be read, according to their order: rh, rs, rm, rn, rj, rd, rT, rt

So, that's it. You've learned as much as you'll need to know to be able to read most Hindi texts. For example, you can test yourself by reading (although not understanding) the Hindi version of the web-site of BBC, there you can find some names of countries or famous people, written in Devanagari. That's what I did to show you some examples:

 * पाकिस्तान = Pakistan
 * ताजमहल = Taj Mahal
 * केनेडी = Kennedy
 * बग़दाद = Baghdad
 * क्रिकेट = Cricket
 * वेबगाइड = Webguide
 * इंटरनेट = Internet
 * माइक्रोसॉफ़्ट = Microsoft
 * इराक़ = Iraq
 * सद्दाम हुसैन = Saddam Hussein
 * ग़ज़ा = Gaza
 * इसराइल = Israel
 * इंडोनेशिया = Indonesia
 * मेडागास्कर = Madagascar
 * श्रीलंका = Sri Lanka
 * ईरान = Iran
 * कॉलिन पॉवेल = Colin Powell
 * अल्जीरिया = Algeria
 * बुश = Bush (yeah, the former president of the USA)
 * अमरीका = America
 * यूरोप = Europe
 * तुर्की = Turkey
 * यूरो = Euro
 * कोरिया = Korea

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 0


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 1

Lesson 1: About Hindi. Linguistic Information.

The Republic of India has 22 official or national languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu and English too. Not all of these languages are from the same group, so an Indian speaker of Hindi would understand a Tamil speaker as well as for example an Englishman would understand a Chinese speaker! As one of the official languages of India (Bhaarat), Hindi has more than 180,000,000 speakers. It is an Indo-European language, descended from Sanskrit, and is written using the Devanagari script. Another name for the Hindi language is "khadi boli" (khari boli), which is actually the name of a dialect, originally spoken in Delhi, and from which Hindi developed. Surprisingly, Hindi isn't spoken only in India and in parts of the surrounding countries, but also in... Africa! Yes, it's true - there are over 2,000,000 Hindi speakers in Africa. About the half of them live in South Africa (~800,000) and Uganda (~150,000).

Urdu, the national language of Pakistan is considered by many to be the same language as Hindi. Historically, India was a much bigger country, including the territories of today's Pakistan and Bangladesh, and the language spoken in the country was called Hindustani. The Hindi-Urdu language is often spoken about but, as languages spoken in different countries, Hindi and Urdu are also different in many ways - mostly in vocabulary. Since Urdu is spoken in an Islamic country, it had borrowed many words from Arabic and Persian and therefore has an Arabic hue, whereas Hindi uses more Sanskrit words. Another difference is the writing system: Hindi uses the Devanagari script, but Urdu uses a modified version of the Arabic script (or rather the Persian script).

Most of the other official languages of India have their own script. However, some of them, such as Marathi, use the Devanagari script too. Gujarati has its own script. Some Punjabi speakers use the Devanagari script, but others (Sikhs) use a special script called "Gurumukhi". It's very similar to Hindi though... It's regarded as the script of the gurus (teachers), and that is how it got its name - guru = teacher, mukh = mouth. On the other hand, "Devanagari" means "the heavenly script", or the script used in the city of gods (deva = god, nagari = city, town).

To get a simple idea of how written Hindi looks, see the text below:

हिन्दुस्तान में बहुत सारी भाषाएँ बोली जाती हैं और इस से पता चलता है कि भारत दुनिया का सब से बड़ा प्रजातान्त्रिक देश है।।

So, that was the very first lesson. It's short, but I think it's important to understand the linguistic background of the language you are learning. I hope you agree.

You're now ready to continue to Lesson 2, where you can discover and learn your first words in the fascinating Hindi language!

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 1


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 2

Lesson 2: Some Basic Words & Phrases

In this lesson we will learn some very basic Hindi phrases. We'll start with the two little words "yes" and "no". I think they would be useful :-) So here we are:

 * हाँ = YES ( haa~ - note the nasal "n" at the end of the word)
 * नहीं = NO ( nahi~ - note the nasal "n" at the end of the word)

If you want to sound more polite you can use the particle "जी" (ji). Remember it well! It's a very important particle, similar to Japanese "さん" (san) or Korean "씨" (sshi) in that it can be glued at the end of a name or title. If instead of "Hello Mr. X" you say "Hello Mr. X-ji" a Hindi native would appreciate it... So, let's get back to our "yes-no" thingie and see how to use "ji" there:

 *  जी हाँ = YES (or "Yes, sir"... Ji Haa~)
 * जी नहीं = NO (or "No, sir"... Ji Nahi~)

Note that you can place "ji" after "haa~" or "nahi~" too:

 * हाँ जी = YES (or "Yes, sir"... Haa~ Ji)
 * नहीं जी = NO (or "No, sir"... Nahi~ Ji)

You can also use जी (ji) on its own. Alone it can mean "YES", so if you reply to a question just with "ji" you speak proper Hindi. It can mean "what?" "pardon me" "yes?" etc.:

 * जी = YES (kinda the English "yeah" or "yep")
 *  जी = Yes? Pardon me? What? What do you mean? etc.

Now it's time to learn how to say "Hello" and "Goodbye". Here they are:

 * नमस्ते = Hello! OR Goodbye! ( Namaste )

As you see "namaste" is universal, just like Italian "Ciao" or Hawaiian "Aloha," which also are used for both hello and goodbye. There is another form of "namaste". It's namaskar, bearing the same meaning, and used more frequently in Southern India; you can use it instead of "namaste". They're fully interchangable. Of course if you want to be more polite, you can add the famous "ji" particle :-)

The language of Indian Muslims and Hindus from northeast India and Pakistan is more influenced by Persian, Arabic, and the Islamic religion. For example a Muslim might use the arabic "assalamu alaikum," or peace be upon you (salam /selam/ means peace, the same as the Hebrew "shalom") instead of the Hindu "namaste." If you are greeted with "assalamu alaikum", the proper response is "walaikum assalam" (peace be upon you too). In Urdu one says "khuda hafiz" for "goodbye." If you meet a Muslim you can use that for goodbye...

Next we'll learn two words, designating "thanks" or "thank you":

 * धन्यवाद = Thank you. ( Dhanyavaad, it's the "native" Hindi word )
 * शुक्रिया = Thank you. ( Shukriyaa, from the Arabic word "shukran")

We'll end this lesson with a phrase, meaning "Where are you from". You don't yet need to know what the words in there really mean, just remember it just as a phrase:

 * आप कहां से हैं? = Where are you from? ( Aap kahaa~ se hain? )
 * Note that ~ is used to show nasal sound, i.e. nasalized a. I'll use always that mark to indicate nasalized sounds.

The transliterated "ai" is pronounced not as "a" + "i", but as "ae" or "e". It's similar to the sound of "a" in "apple". I don't write it as "e" to distinguish it from the other 'e'.

That's all for this lesson. Before you continue be sure to remember it well!

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 2


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Hindi Lessons/Lesson 3

Lesson 3: Pronouns.

First, a basic table of the Hindi personal pronouns, then some explanation.

तु (tu) is used only for very close person, e.g. one's girlfriend/boyfriend. तुम (tum) is probably the most used word for "you" (singular) in Hindi. It can be used with everybody, unless one wants to be polite, in which case one says "aap" (आप). NB. When using "aap" (आप) or "tum" (तुम) conjugate the verb for plural. Well, you don't know how to conjugate at this point, but do remember this rule! When meeting someone for the first time, politeness is appropriate, so it is better to use "aap" for "you."

Next, the demonstrative pronouns:

 * यह = This ( yeh / yah )
 * वह = That ( woh / wah )

 * ये = These ( ye )
 * वे = Those ( ve )

And, the possesive pronouns:

So, let's build a Hindi sentence.

 * है = is ( hai )

 * मेरा नाम Peter है = My name is Peter. (Mera naam Peter hai.   नाम (naam) means "name").

NB: The verb in Hindi is always placed at the end of the sentence, a feature which many Asian languages share. (Hindi is SOV, i.e Subject-Object-Verb, language). Thus, for "My name is Peter" we say, "My name Peter is." More examples:

 * उसका नाम हसिनी है. = her name is Hasini. (Uska naam Hasini hai.)
 * यह पानी है. = This is water. (Yah pani hai.)
 * यह घर है. = This is a house. (Yeh ghar hai.)

That's enough material for this lesson I think. The next lesson will address genders and verbs.

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 3


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Hindi Lessons/Lesson 4

Lesson 4: '''Genders in Hindi. Hindi Verbs''' - Part 1.

Unlike many European languages which have three genders or those such as English which have none, Hindi has precisely two, masculine and feminine. There is no reliable rule for which words are which, but one can often deduce a word's gender from its ending. Most Hindi words end in a vowel. Those ending in -aa are usually masculine. Those ending in -i (-ee) are usually feminine. There are of course some words that end in consonants or other vowels, whose gender cannot be predicted and must be learned. When we learn the adjectives and verb conjugation we will find that those -a and -i endings are very important. So, please remember that well:

-aa (ा) as in l*a*va -  general mark of masculine words (singular!) - nouns, adjectives, verbs

-ī (ी) - (ee) -  general mark of feminine words (even both - singular and plural) - nouns, adjectives, verbs

Many masculine Hindi words (ending in -aa of course:) can be turned into feminine ones by simply replacing the -aa ending with -ī! For example:

लड़का (laRkaa) = boy,       लड़की (laRkī) = girl

बिल्ला (billaa) = tomcat,       बिल्ली (billī) = cat, pussycat

Some masculine words ending in -a:

कमरा (kamraa) = room केला (kelaa) = banana तारा (taaraa) = star हवा (havaa) = wind

Feminine Words ending in -ī (-ee):

चीनी (chīnī) = sugar

But exceptions exist. for e.g., the following end in -ī (-ee) but are masculine:

पानी (paanī) = water पक्षी (pakshī) = bird

Some words ending with consonants:

दोस्त (dost) = friend (masculine) किताब (kitaab) = book (feminine) औरत (aurat) = woman (feminine :-)

A word ending in a vowel different from -a or -i:

गुरु (guruu) = teacher

To the general rule of the -a and -i ending there exist some exceptions, that is, there exist some masculine words, which end in -i. For example, the word for "man":

आदमी (aadmī) = man

'''Verbs in Hindi. General Information.'''

The infinitive form of every Hindi verb ends in ना (-na) :

खाना (khaanaa) = to eat

पीना (pīnaa) = to drink

जाना (jaanaa) = to go

आना (aanaa) = to come

करना (karnaa) = to do (remember this one as it's used in many compound verb forms)

देना (denaa) = to give

लेना (lenaa) = to take

लिखना (likhnaa) = to write

पढ़ना (paDhnaa) = to read

समझना (samajhnaa) = to understand

समझाना (samjhaanaa) = to explain (i.e. to make someone understand)

सीखना (sīkhnaa) = to learn

For the root of the verb, required for conjugation, remove its -na ending.

Making plurals :

In plural the masculine -aa ending becomes -e while the feminine -ī ending either remains -ī or becomes -i~ (nasalized):

-aa (ा)  -  general mark of masculine words (singular) - MASC. SG.

-e (े)  -  general mark of masculine words (plural) - MASC. PL.

-ī (ी)  -  general mark of feminine words (singular and plural) - FEM. SG. and PL.

-īn and -i~  -    occasional mark of feminine words (plural) - FEM. PL.

Now back to verbs:

Add "ता" (ta) to verb root for masculine singular and "ते" (te) for masculine plural. Add "ती" (tī) for feminine singular and plural.

Examples:

खाता (khaataa) = eat पीता (pītaa) = drink etc.

However, although these verbs are now conjugated, they are not quite ready to use. One cannot say "Mai~n khaataa"; one must use the copula "to be," the most important verb in Hindi:

The verb "TO BE" (Hona - होना)

मैं हुं (mai~ hu~) = I am

तु है (tu hai) = You (intimate) are

तुम हो (tum ho) = You are

वह है (voh hai) = He/She/It/That is

हम हैं (ham hai~) = We are

आप हैं (aap hai~) = You are

वे हैं (ve hai~) = They are

Let's give you a pattern:

Verb root + TAA / TE / TĪ   +   Conjugated corresponding form of "Hona" (to be)    =    Present Imperfect Tense

Some examples:

NB: Hindi does not use articles

मैं खाता हुं. (mai~ khaataa hu~) = I eat. (Said by a Male)

लडका खाता है. (laRkaa khaataa hai) = The (A) boy eats.

लडकी खाती है. (laRkī khaatī hai) = The (A) girl eats.

आप पीते हैं. (aap pīte hai~) = You (polite sg.) drink OR You (plural) drink.

मैं पानी पीता हुं. (mai~ paanī pītaa hu~) = I drink water. (Said by a male)

तुम पानी पीते हो. (tum paanī pīte ho) = You drink water. NB: "tum" is the most used word for "you" and is actually plural. So whenever you use it, conjugate the verb as plural.

A final, somewhat "funny," example:

मैं सिगरेट पीता हुं. (mai~ sigaret pīta hu~). I smoke a cigarette (Said by a male) ... The literal meaning of the sentence is "I drink a cigarette." Every language has its oddities and peculiarities!

More about other verb tenses in the next lesson(s). Please do review this whole lesson well before continuing to the next one.

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 4


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 5

Lesson 5: Hindi Verbs - Part 2.

We continue with some other tenses in Hindi:

Present Continuous Tense:

Verb Stem + रहा / / रही (rahae/they) + Present Tense of "Hona" (to be)

For those who don't like grammatical terms and don't know for sure what's "continuous tense", I'll tell that it's the same as the English verbs, ending in "-ing". So if you want to say that you "read" a book in the moment of speaking, you have to say "I am reading a book", not simply "I read a book", because the last could mean that you read a book in general, i.e. you're not reading it in the moment of speaking. So let's clear all that out with some examples.

 मैं किताब पढ रहा हुं. (mai~ kitab padh raha hu~) = I'm reading a book.   मैं पानी पी रहा हुं. (mai~ pani pi raha hu~) = I'm drinking water.   मैं रोटी खा रही हुं. (mai~ roti kha rahi hu~) = I'm eating bread. (a girl speaking!)

The verbs stem and raha/rahe/rahi are pronounced almost as one (at once), although they're written separately. Sometimes in colloquial speech all is even shortened more. The "raha hu~" for example is pronounced "rahu~", "raha hai" as "rahai"...

Past Tense:

(This section needs to be revised as it does not account for the distinction between intransitive and transitive verbs. When forming the perfect tense (past) in Hindi, the verb will not always match the traditional subject of your sentence in gender/number (this depends on transitivity of the verb). Some of the examples below are incorrect for this reason and should be rewritten according to standard Hindi grammar and the "ne" construction.)

Building past is easy. Just take the root of a verb and add -a, -e, or -i, respectively for Masculine Singular, Masculine Plurar and Feminine both - Singular and Plurar:

Verb Stem + ा/े/ी (-A/-E/-I) = Past Tense

Note: For verbs, whose stem end in a vowel you have to add या/ये/यी (ya/ye/yi) E.g. खाना -> खा -> खाया(Khana -> Kha (stem) -> Khaya)

Some examples:

  मैं खाया. (mai~ khaya) = I ate.

 मैं पढा. (mai~ padha) = I read.

 लडका खाया. (larka khaya) = The boy ate.

 लडकी खायी. (larki khayi) = The girl ate.

 आप पीया. (aap piya) = You drank. (Sg. polite or Plural) </li>

<li> मैं पानी पीया. (mai~ pani piya) = I drank water. </li>

<li> तुम पानी पीये. (tum pani piye) = You drank water. </li>

</ul>

Some Verbs are irregular. I'll show you some of them (A little below you'll see the past of 'to be', which is needed to build the imperfect past tense, necessary to be able to say such phrases as "I've used to go ..."):

Past of जाना (Janaa = to go)

गया / गये / गयी / गयीं (gaya / gaye / gayi / gayi~) (1: Masc. Sg, 2: Masc. Pl. 3: Fem. Sg, 4: Fem. Pl.)

To build the past imperfect tense, we have first to learn the past tense of the "main" hindi verb: "to be" (Hona). Past of "hona" is even simplier than the present form:

Past of होना (Honaa = To be)

था (tha) = was (for Masculine SINGULAR) थे (the) = were (for Masculine PLURAL)

थी (thi) = was (for Feminine SINGULAR) थीं (thi~) = was (for Feminine PLURAL)

Examples:

<ul> <li> मैं वहां था. (mai~ vaha~ tha.) = I was there. </li> <li> आप यहां थे. (aap yaha~ the) = You (polite) were here OR You (plural) were here. </li> <li> (वहां /vaha~/ = there, यहां /yaha~/ = here, जहां /jaha~/ = where) </li> </ul> Now as you know here/there/where (btw, there exists also another word for where = kaha~) I'll give you a Hindi proverb:

जहां धुआं है, वहां आग भी है. (jahan dhua~ hai, vaha~ aag bhi hai) = Where there is a smoke, there is a fire too.

Past Imperfect Tense:

... Verb Stem + ता / ते / ती (TA/TE/TI) + Past Tense of "Hona" (to be) = Past Imperfect Tense Stem + ता/ते/ती + था/थे/थी/थीं = Past Imperfect Tense The past imperfect tense is used to tell about habitual actions in the past. In English it's best translated with the pattern "used to + verb":

<ul> <li> मैं खाता था. (mai~ khata tha) = I used to eat. </li> <li> लडका खाता था. (larka khata tha) = The boy used to eat. </li> <li> लडकी खाती थी. (larki khati thi) = The girl used to eat. </li> <li> आप पीते थे. (aap pite the) = You used to drink. (Sg. polite or Plural) </li> <li> मैं पानी पीता था. (mai~ pani pita tha) = I used to drink water. </li> <li> तुम पानी पीते थे. (tum pani pite the) = You used to drink water. </li> </ul>

Next comes of course the past continous tense:

Past Continuous Tense:

Well, no need to help you much here. It's the same as the present continous except that it's used the past tense of Hona:

Verb Stem + रहा / रहे / रही (raha/rahe/rahi) + Past Tense of "Hona" (to be) = Past Continuous Tense

<li> मैं किताब पढ रहा था. (mai~ kitab padh raha tha) = I was reading a book. </li> <li> मैं पानी पी रहा था. (mai~ pani pi raha tha) = I was drinking water. </li> <li> मैं रोटी खा रही थी. (mai~ roti kha rahi thi) = I was eating bread. (a girl speaking!) </li>

I think you got it, now for the FUTURE:

Future Tense:

The Future tense it a bit more complicated than the past for it has more verb-endings for person than those by the past tense.

Future Imperfect Tense :

Let us conjugate a verb in the future tense, then I'll give the endings:

Future Imperfect of "Pina" (पीना = to drink)

<li> मैं पीउंगा (mai~ piunga) = I will drink </li> <li> तु पीएगा (tu piega) = You will drink </li> <li> तुम पीओगे (tum pioge) = You will drink </li> <li> वह पीएगा (voh piega) = He/She/It will drink. </li>

<li> हम पीएंगे (ham pienge) = We will drink </li> <li> आप पीएंगे (aap pienge) = You will drink. </li> <li> वे पीएंगे (ve pienge) = They will drink. </li>

For "I" use -unga, for "Tu" use "ega", for "Tum" use "oge", for "voh" use "ega" and for "ham/aap/ve" the plural form "enge".

Future Continuous Tense :

To build that tense use these endings: रहूंगा रहेगा रहेंगे रहोगे (rahunga/rahega/rahenge/rahoge) similarly as the forms for Future Imperfect together with the "conjugated" verb.

Verb Stem + TA / TE / TI + rahunga/rahega/rahenge/rahoge = Future Continuous Tense

Let's make the future continuous of the verb "pina" to make things clear:

Future Continuous of "Pina" (पीना = to drink)

<li> मैं पीता रहुंगा. (mai~ pita rahunga) = I will be drinking. </li> <li> तु पीता रहेगा. (tu pita rahega) = You will be drinking. </li> <li> तुम पीते रहोगे. (tum pite rahoge) = You will be drinking. </li> <li> वह पीता रहेगा. (voh pita rahega) = He/She/It will be drinking. </li>

<li> हम पीते रहेंगे. (hum pite rahenge) = We will be drinking. </li> <li> आप पीते रहेंगे. (aap pite rahenge) = You will be drinking. </li> <li> वे पीते रहेंगे. (ve pite rahenge) = They will be drinking. </li>

So, now you have everything you have to know about verbs except if I've missed something. That was a long and a hard lesson so have a rest before you go to the next lesson :)

Mr. Samir

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 5


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 6

Lesson 6: Adjectives. Colors,Qualities

After the long and fatiguing lesson about hindi tenses, let me explain you how adjectives act in hindi in a short and neat lesson :-)

What you've learned so far will help you much to understand the adjectives in Hindi. Actually they act just like nouns or verbs, having the ending -a for masculine and -i for feminine (generally speaking). The other thing you have to know about them is that they're declined according to the noun they modify. Nothing new as I said! Here are some adjectives, which I'll use a little below in a few examples.

General Adjectives:

 * बडा,महान (bada - some pronounce that 'bara') = Big
 * छोटा,अल्प,लघु (chhota) = Small
 * लम्बा,दीर्घ (lamba) = Long
 * ठिगना (thigna)= short
 * महंगा (mahnga) = Expensive
 * सस्ता(sasta) = Cheap
 * साफ,निर्मल (saf) = Clean
 * गान्दा,मलिन(gandha) = Dirty
 * ठण्डा(thanda) = Cold
 * गर्म (garam) = Hot
 * शुभ (shubh) = good
 * अशुभ (ashubh) = bad
 * सुरूप( sundar) = beautiful
 * कुरूप (karuup) =ugly
 * बलवान (balvan) = strong
 * नीरस,अशक्त(ners, ashkt) = weak
 * शीघ्र (shegr) = clever
 * मूर्ख ( murkh) = stupid

Note that all adjectives given above are in masculine. To make them feminine simply change the -a to an -i and of course those not ending in a vowel do not change at all...

Now we'll use those to build some sentences you already are familiar with:

यह बडा घर है. (Yeh bara ghar hai. ) = This is a big house. यह घर बडा है. (Yeh ghar bara hai.) = This house is big. लडकी अच्छी रोटी खाती है. (larki acchi roti khati hai) = The girl eats a tasty bread. मैं ठण्डी पानी पी रहा हुं. (mai~ thandi pani pi raha hu~) = I'm drinking cold water.

Note how meaning can change depending on the position of the adjective in the first two sentences. Actually nothing so different in meaning, but rather the way of saying that "the house is big" is changed... Now you get the idea, I hope. Therefore let me show you some colors:

Colors:रंग (rang)

 * सफेद, श्वेत (safed) = White
 * काला,श्याम (kala) = Black
 * नील (nila) = Blue
 * हरा (hara) = Green
 * पीला (pila) = Yellow
 * लाल,रक्त,लोहित रंग का (lal) = Red
 * जामुनी, बैंगनी( jamuni, baingni) =Purple
 * कपिश,भूरा(kapish, bhura) = brown
 * धूसर(dhusr) = grey
 * गुलाबी, पाटल (gulabi, patl) = pink
 * नारंगी,कमला (narangi, kamla) orange

I've mentioned it above, but I'll say it once again. You have to "decline" the adjective according to the word it modifies. If it's masculine, use the adjective with the ending -a else i.e. if the word being modified is feminine change the ending to -i. If a word ends in a consonant however you don't have to decline it at all!

You have it all now. You can build crazy sentences as for example "This is a blue house" (Yeh nila ghar hai) or "The girl eats red bread" (Ladki lal roti khati hai) etc. :-) Just be imaginative. I won't give more examples in this lesson. I've promised it'll be short, so it is. Next lesson is about the cases. It isn't really hard, but it's very important. There you'll learn some postpositions as well.

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 6


text:
Hindi Lessons/Lesson 7

Lesson 7: Cases in Hindi. The Direct and Oblique cases. Plural of Nouns.

Like the many prepositions in English (e.g. in, at, on, under, below, of etc.) in Hindi there exist the so called postpositions, playing the same role as the English prepositions, having the same meaning, but with the only difference that they stay after the noun not before it. For example in English we say "In London", but in Hindi that would be "London in" (London men).

In Hindi there are two cases: The Direct case and The Oblique case. When a word is used with a postposition it is in the Oblique case, in all other cases it is in the Direct case. The Direct case is rather like the Nominative case in many European languages. Here are some postpositions:

में (me~) = In से (se) = From का (ka) = Of को (ko) = (To) Not really translatable, used to build Dative and Accusative. I'll explain a little below.

In the previous lessons, I gave many nouns. Their forms are the main forms, i.e. they're in the Direct case. I explained also that masculine nouns ending in -a become in the plural the ending -i. That's the general rule. However there are words, which do not end in -a and I haven't explained the plural of feminine, so here it goes:

Singular and Plural of Nouns in the Direct Case:

Masculine: Ending in -a

Singular:  लडका (ladka) = boy Plural:  लडके (ladke) = boys

Masculine: Ending in other vowel (very few):

Singular:  गुरु (guru) = teacher Plural:  गुरु (guru) = teachers

Masculine: Ending in a consonant

Singular:  दोस्त (dost) = friend Plural:  दोस्त (dost) = friends

Feminine: Ending in -i

Singluar:  लडकी (ladki) = girl Plural:  लड़कियां (ladkiya) = girls

Feminine: Ending in a consonant

Singular:  किताब (kitab) = book Plural:  किताबें (kitabe~) = books

Feminine: Ending in -a or -u

Singular:  अध्यापिका (adhyapika) = female teacher Plural:  अध्यापिकाएं (adhyapikae~) = female teachers

All the sentences I gave in past lessons you can easily turn into plural now or in some cases the sentences are even in plural since some words don't change in plural. Let me show you some examples:

लड़कियां अच्छी राटी खातीं हैं. (larkiya acchi rati khati~ hai~). = The girls eat tasty bread. लडके अच्छी रोटी खाते हैं. (larke acchi roti khate hai~) = The boys eat tasty bread. ये बडे घर हैं. (Ye bare ghar hai~) = These are big houses. वे सुन्दर लड़कियां हैं. (Ve sundar larkiya~ hai~) = Those (they) are pretty girls. वे लड़कियां सुन्दर हैं. (Ve larkiya~ sundar hai~) = Those girls are pretty.

Now for the oblique case. Nouns change in singular and plural in the oblique case as well, here is the explanation (to make it easier for you i'll use the same words as in the examples of direct case above):

Singular and Plural of Nouns in the Oblique Case:

Masculine: Ending in -a

Singular:  लडके (ladke) Plural:  लडकों (ladko~)

Masculine: Ending in other vowel (very few):

Singular:  गुरु (guru) Plural:  गुरुओं(guruo~) (for "admi" /man/ it'll be "admiyo~" - आदमियों)

Masculine: Ending in a consonant

Singular:  दोस्त (dost) Plural:  दोस्तों (dosto~)

Feminine: Ending in -i

Singluar:  लडकी (ladki) Plural:  लड़कियों (ladkiyo~)

Feminine: Ending in a consonant

Singular:  किताब (kitab) Plural:  किताबों (kitabo~)

Feminine: Ending in -a or -u

Singular:  अध्यापिका (adhyapika) Plural:  अध्यापिकाओं (adhyapikao~)

At last you know the cases in Hindi. Now (believe me) you know almost all grammar in Hindi! Congrats! Now we can extend our well-know sentences and make them look really long. Let's try:

सफेद घर में लडकीया अच्छी रोटी खातीं हैं. (safed ghar men larkiya acchi roti khati~ hai~). = The girls eat tasty bread in the white house. मैं कमरे में ठण्डी पानी पी रहा हुं और लडकी अच्छी राटी खा रही है. (mai~ kamre me~ thandi pani pi raha hu~ aur ladki acchi rati kha rahi hai). = I'm drinking cold water in the room and the girl is eating tasty bread. etc... The point is, whenever you wanna say "in", "at", "on", "of" etc of something, you have to use the oblique case, since you use the word with a postposition. Note for example how it is: "kamre me~", not "kamra me~", because we use the postposition "in" (me~).

Now I want to explain to you the use of the postposition particle "ka", meaning "of".

Use of the postposition "का" (ka) = OF

1. Since it's a postposition you always have to use the word preceding it in the Oblique case. 2. Second thing you have to know about it is, that it could (and should :) change to ke/ki according to the word following it (the object).

In English we say "the house of the girl". In Hindi that should be said as "the girl 's house". In this case "the girl" should be in oblique case and house of course (since obviously it is the object) is in the direct case. Our example will be in Hindi "Ladki ka ghar" (लडकी का घर). But if we use a feminine word for an object "ka" changes to "ki" as in "Ladki ki sari" (लडकी की सरी), meaning "the sari of the girl" (sari is a traditional indian female clothing). Then if we wanna say "the houses of the girl" we have to say "ladki ke ghar" (लडकी के घर). I think you got the idea. Now we can build even bigger sentences...

The last thing I should tell you about in this lesson is the use of the particle (postposition) "ko". It could be translated as "to", but in some cases it shouldn't be translated at all. That's so because actually it's the accusative or dative marker. If somebody is the receiver of an action (or the verb) you have to use that particle.

Use of the postposition "को" (ko)

I'll give first some examples and then explain:

लडका लडकीयों को पानी देता है. (ladka ladkiyo~ ko pani deta hai) = The boy gives water to the girls. लडका लडकीयों को किताबें देता है. (ladka ladkiyo~ ko kitabe~ deta hai) = The boy gives the books to the girls. मैं लडके को जानता हुं. (mai~ ladke ko janta hu~) = I know the boy. मैं लडकी को जानता हुं. (mai~ ladki ko janta hu~) = I know the girl. मैं लडकों को जानता हुं. (mai~ ladko~ ko janta hu~) = I know the boys. मैं लड़कियों को जानता हुं. (mai~ ladkiyo~ ko janta hu~) = I know the girls.

Some verbs require the use of dative/accusative and thus the use of 'ko'. Such verb is "to know - janna" (as spanish "conocer", italian "conoscere" or german "kennen"), there are of course other verbs of that sort as for example "to give". "I give the book to the girl" -> To whom do I give the book? -> to the girl (or even just 'the girl') -> dative, so "ladki ko"... I'm sure I'll find a better way to explain that, but for now use that poor explanation. However I think examples do much...

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 7


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Hindi Lessons/Lesson 8

Lesson 8: Modal Verbs.

Modal verbs are those such as "to want", "can" (to be able to), " to need to," "to have to" etc... This lesson covers how to use such verbs in Hindi, in particular these four.

(1). Can /be able to/ = sakna (सकना) You only have to know that it's added to the root of the main verb. "I can read hindi" - in that sentence "the main verb" is "read". So:

Verb stem + SAKNA / सकना (sakta/sakte/sakti/sakti~) + To be (hona, conjugeted) = Can + Verb

Oh, of course, you must "conjugate" the verb sakna as I taught you (i.e. add ta/te/ti/ti~ to its stem "sak"). Here are some examples:

मैं हिंदी में लिख सकता हुं. (mai~ hindi me~ likh sakta hu~) = I can write in Hindi. मैं हिंदी कुछ कुछ बोल सकता हुं. (mai~ hindi kuch kuch bol sakta hu~) = I can speak a very little Hindi. मैं वह नहीं समझा सकता हुं. (mai~ voh nahi~ samajha sakta hu~) = I cannot explain that. लडकी अच्छी राटी कर सकती हैं. (ladki acchi roti bana sakti hai~) = The girl can make tasty bread.

(2). Must (to have to)

To express the idea "to have to," Hindi uses the pattern: "to me ... it is." Thus "I have to go" in Hindi becomes "to me it is to go". "To have to" uses the Dative case, which requires the use of special pronouns which I haven't explained to you yet. For now I'll just say that "mai~" becomes "mujhe" (to me) and "tu" becomes"tujhe" (to you), while for the plural we add the particle "ko". I hope you remember it from the previous lesson. So "ham ko" = "to us".

Examples:

मुझे जाना हैं. (mujhe jana hai.) = (to me / to go / is) = I have to go. तुझे खाना हैं. (tujhe khana hai.) = (to you / to eat / is) = You have to eat. भरात में हमको हिंदी बोलना हैं. (bharat me~ hamko hindi bolna hai) = (India in / to us / hindi / to speak / is) = In India we have to speak Hindi.

(3). Need (Chahie - चाहीए)

"Chahie" is used in similar manner as "to have to." Again, we say "to me," "to you," "to us,: "to the person," etc., i.e. the dative case. Instead of placing the conjugated verb "to be" at the end of the sentence place "chahie":

मुझे जाना चाहीए. (mujhe jana chahie) = I need to go. (Similar to meaning and construction with "mujhe jana hai"...) मुझे पानी चाहीए. (mujhe pani chahie) = I need water.

(4). Want (chahna = चाहना)

Verb infinitive + CHAHNA / चाहना (chahta/chahte/chahti/chahti~) + To be (hona, conjugeted) = Want to + Verb

मैं जाना चाहता हुं. (mai~ jana chahta hu~) = I want to go. वह खाना चाहता है. (voh khana chahta hai) = He wants to eat. हम हिंदी सीखना चाहते हैं. (ham hindi sikhna chahte hai~) = We want to learn Hindi. मैं चाबल चाहता है. (mai~ chaval chahta hu~) = I want rice.

That'll end this lesson. Enjoy the next lesson, where you'll learn how to count to 20 and learn some wh-questions as well...

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 8


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Hindi Lessons/Lesson 9

Lesson 9: Numbers up to 20. Wh-questions and other question-words.

Here is a table of the numbers up to 20:

Next come the question words:

 * क्या (kya) = What?
 * कौन (kaun) = Who?
 * कहां (kaha~) = Where?
 * क्यों (kyo~) = Why?
 * कैसा / कैसे / कैसी (kaisa/kaise/kaisi) = How?
 * कितना / कितने / कितनी (kitna/kitne/kitni) = How much?, How many?

So, basically, that was the lesson, but I forgot something to tell you about. It's concerning the numbers. The Devanagari script even possess its own letters for writing the numbers, but those are not used much in our time. However I'll give them here too:

 * १ = 1
 * २ = 2
 * ३ = 3
 * ४ = 4
 * ५ = 5
 * ६ = 6
 * ७ = 7
 * ८ = 8
 * ९ = 9
 * १० = 10

As you can see they resembles the ""Arabic"" ciphers we use, and it should be so, since actually the Arabic ciphers are INDIAN ciphers. The writing system, on base 10, developed in India, where people used to write numbers with the letters you see above... Later Arabs adopted that system and brought it all over the word, thus it became known as "Arabic numbers"... By the way, written in Devanagari, the year, in which I'm writing these lesson will look as २०१०...

title: Hindi Lessons/Lesson 9


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Hindi Lessons/Glossary

Hindi-English lesson glossary

 * HINDI 	ENGLISH
 * धन्यवाद, शुक्रिया 	thank you
 * गुरु 	teacher
 * हाँ 	yes
 * नहीं 	no
 * जी हाँ 	yes
 * जी नहीं 	no
 * हाँ जी 	yes
 * नहीं जी 	no
 * नमस्ते 	Hello!; Goodbye!
 * शुक्रिया 	thank you
 * मैं 	I
 * तू 	You (very informal)
 * तुम 	You (mid formality)
 * आप 	You (polite and formal)
 * वह 	He, she, it, that
 * हम 	We
 * यह 	This
 * वह 	That (demonstr.)
 * ये 	These
 * वे 	Those
 * मेरा 	My
 * तेरा 	Your (very informal)
 * तुम्हारा 	Your (mid formal)
 * उसका 	His/her (informal)
 * उनका 	His/her (informal)
 * हमारा 	Our
 * आपका 	Your (very formal)
 * उनका 	Their
 * नाम 	Name
 * पानी 	Water
 * घर 	House/home
 * लड़का 	Boy
 * लड़की 	Girl
 * बिल्ला 	Tomcat
 * बिल्ली 	Cat
 * कमरा 	Room
 * केला 	Banana
 * तारा 	Star
 * हवा 	Wind
 * चीनी 	Sugar, also Chinese as an adjective and noun for a Chinese person. Context would make which one clear.
 * मकडी 	Spider
 * पक्षी 	Bird
 * दोस्त 	Friend
 * किताब 	Book
 * औरत 	Woman
 * आदमी 	Man
 * खाना 	To eat, also means food
 * पीना 	To drink
 * जाना 	To go
 * आना 	To come
 * करना 	To do
 * देना 	To give
 * लेना 	To take
 * लिखना 	To write
 * पढ़ना 	To read
 * समझना 	To understand
 * समझाना To explain, to make someone understand
 * सीखना 	To learn
 * सिगरेट 	Sigaret
 * रोटी 	Bread
 * वहाँ 	There
 * यहाँ 	Here
 * जहाँ 	Where
 * धुआँ 	Smoke
 * आग, अग्नि 	Fire
 * भी 	Also, too, as well
 * बड़ा 	Big
 * छोटा 	Small
 * लम्बा 	Long (object), tall (person)
 * महंगा 	expensive
 * सस्ता 	cheap
 * साफ़ 	clean
 * गंदा 	Dirty
 * ठण्डा 	Cold
 * गरम Hot (also spelled as गर्म)
 * रंग 	Color
 * सफ़ेद 	White
 * काला 	Black
 * नीला 	Blue
 * हरा 	Green
 * पीला 	Yellow
 * लाल 	Red
 * में 	In
 * से 	From, with, by
 * का 	Of
 * आध्यापीका 	female teacher
 * जानना 	to know
 * चाबल 	Rice
 * एक 	One
 * दो 	Two
 * तीन 	Three
 * चार 	Four
 * पांच 	Five
 * छः 	Six (also spelled as छह
 * सात 	Seven
 * आठ 	Eight
 * नौ 	Nine
 * दस 	Ten
 * ग्यारह Eleven
 * बारह 	Twelve
 * तेरह 	Thirteen
 * चौदह 	Fourteen
 * पन्द्रह 	Fifteen
 * सोलह 	Sixteen
 * सत्रह 	Seventeen
 * अठारह 	Eighteen
 * उन्नीस Nineteen
 * बीस 	Twenty
 * क्या 	What
 * कौन 	Who
 * कहाँ 	Where
 * क्यों 	Why?
 * कैसा 	How? Also, of what kind/sort/type?
 * कितना How much?

title: Hindi Lessons/Glossary


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Talk:Hindi Lessons

Untitled
The author, Vasil Tabakov of the page at http://hindi.unilang.org is a contributor to the Hungarian Wikipedia and gave permission to "use my lessons as you wish" "The only thing I want you to do is to put as a comment, when you post it the first time, the following: (Vasil Tabakov - hindi.unilang.org) That's all :)" - Taxman 04:26, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hindi Lessons


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Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 12

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 12
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 12


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 13

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 13
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 13


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Cookbook talk:Crêpes I

This recipe calls for a 1/2 cup of water but never specifies where to use it - is it needed at all? 62.189.77.219 Anon
 * It's mixed in evenly with the milk... They didn't include that in the recipe but I don't think it's appropriate anyway. I would use:
 * 4 eggs
 * 2 cups of flour
 * a pinch of salt
 * 2¼ cups of milk
 * ¼ cup (½ stick) melted butter or margarine 74.129.12.67 19:10, 16 September 2007 (UTC)

Clarify, please
"Hence the name" about them being made on flat rocks is unclear. Please explain why that gives them the name.

Pan Temperature
The bit about water drops is very vague !

Please would someone knowledgeable state exactly what the pan temperature should be for a regular crepe ?

(In this century, I expect many people have a thermometer to measure it !)

Many thanks ! Darkman101 (discuss • contribs) 09:40, 12 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Crêpes I


text:
Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 14

The Updated Modernity Version (Parallel, Annotated) John 14
  THE NEW TESTAMENT

John 1 − 2  − 3  − 4  − 5  − 6  − 7  − 8  − 9  − 10  − 11  − 12  − 13  − 14  − 15  − 16  − 17  − 18  − 19  − 20  − 21

title: Biblical Studies/Christianity/John 14


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Cookbook:Oat Flour

| Basic foodstuffs | Cereal Grains | Oats | Flour

Oat flour is a flour made from ground hulled oats. It can be store-bought or homemade. To make oat flour at home, oats can be ground in a blender or food processor and then sieved to achieve a uniformly fine consistency. Whole, steel-cut, and rolled oats can all be used to make oat flour.

Oat flour can be used to make some foods like pancakes and cookies. If made from uncontaminated oats, oat flour is gluten-free and can be used in gluten-free baking. However, it does not have the same properties as wheat flour, and this can affect the taste and texture of baked goods.

title: Cookbook:Oat Flour


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User:Sad1225

=My Name=

Despite the name sad1225, I'm not sad on Christmas. I got this username while I was a student. Even though it's ugly, it's a pretty unique username so I've kept it around.

Recipes
I like cooking so I've been fishing for the best way to add some of my favorite recipes to the web.

 * Chocolate Chip Cookies

title: User:Sad1225


text:
User:Politic0220

Full-time wikiuniversity student with an interest in Economice, Philosphy, Psycology, Political Science, and Computer Science.

title: User:Politic0220


text: Template:Conworld/Sub-book

title: Template:Conworld/Sub-book


text:
User:Robert Horning/Bookshelf Reorganization

I am proposing a major reorganization of the whole structure of the bookshelves, starting over from scratch if necessary:

 * Arts and Culture
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 * Miscellaneous
 * Reference Manuals
 * Annotated Texts
 * Study Guides
 * Travel Guides
 * Unclassified


text:
User talk:Bolo~enwikibooks

Rip
Flag from looks like a rip from Smarty. As far as I googled, there was only 5 pages talking about it. Could you please tell me how it is faster/smaller/better, is it just cause there are less files in the package or what? Cheers Wykis 12:31, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Bolo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Bolo~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:03, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:40, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bolo~enwikibooks