text:
Introduction to Medical Statistics/Analysis of a single sample

Analysis of a single sample
Before getting started with the theory, we will consider a simple example. The example will expose the basic components of a statistical analysis and aim to give an intuitive understanding of the type of results that can be obtained from such an analysis.

A naive question on the human body temperature is whether or not, it on average is 37°C? To answer this question a study was done, which measured the temperature on 130 individuals. The data can be downloaded here normtemp.dat and documentation can be found in (Shoemaker, 1996), and references therein. A brief summary of the data is the following, so-called stem-and-leaf plot:

Stem-and-leaf plot for tempC (Body Temperature / Celsius) tempC rounded to nearest multiple of .1 plot in units of .1

35s | 7 35. | 899 36* | 011  36t | 222222333333 36f | 444444555 36s | 66666666666677777777777777 36. | 888888888888888999999999999 37* | 0000000000111111111111111111  37t | 2222222333333 37f | 44445 37s | 7 37. | 8 38* |   38t | 2

This shows, for example, that one person (first from the top) had a body temperature of 35.7°C, another (second from top) had 35.8°C, while two (three and four from the top) had 35.9°C, and so on. Most had temperatures around 36.6°C to 37.3°C.

A very similar graphical presentation of the same data is given in the histogram below:

If we want to summarize the data using numbers, two important measures are the mean and the standard deviation (SD). For this sample of data, the mean is 36.805°C and the SD is 0.407°C. We will later give a more precise definition of these two summary statistics but for now we can think of them as giving the central point of the data (the mean) and a measure of the variability of the data around their mean. Graphically, the mean can be thought of as the balancing point of the distribution were the columns of the histogram to have weight identical to their area. The SD can for this kind of data be interpreted as follows: If we take the mean and subtract two times the SD, respectively add two times the SD, then approximately 95% of all the subjects will have body temperatures in this interval.

After this first look at the data, let us return to the question of interest: Is the true average body temperature 37°C? One way of answering this is to turn the question around, and start with assuming that 37°C is actually the true, average temperature. The question then becomes, what would samples of size 130 from such a hypothetical population look like? This can be answered with statistical theory, or – in this computerized age – with simulated samples based on random number generation. Specifically, let us assume that this hypothetical population has the distribution of body temperatures shown below:

Imagine that we next draw 1,000 samples, each consisting of 130 individuals. What would their means look like? This is shown here:

Again we see an approximately bell-shaped histogram. The averages of the samples are centered around 37°C (like the hypothetical distribution was), but with a much smaller spread than before. All of the one thousand averages lie between 36.89°C and 37.10°C. This is the first important observation we can make: The variability of an average is smaller (usually much smaller) than the variability of a single observation. We shall later see, that an explicit formula exists describing this reduction in variability. The second important observation, is that none of the one thousand samples had a mean equal to 36.805°C or less (remember that 36.805°C was the actual mean observed on the "real" individuals). It is thus extremely unlikely to get a sample mean of 36.805°C, had the true average temperature in the population been 37°C. This is what is known as a statistical significant result, which is technical jargon for stating that the actually observed data is very different from what would be expected, had the investigated hypothesis (is the true average of body temperatures 37°C?) been true. The answer to our question is thus that while we cannot completely rule that the true average body temperature is 37°, it would be extremely unlikely to observe what we actually did observe, had the true average been 37°. Hence, we conclude that the true average body temperature is not 37°, ie. we reject this hypothesis.

So it was not 37° which is actually not a very informative finding. The far more interesting question is, what the true average body temperature could then be, judged from what we observed in this sample. This is typically answered with a so-called confidence interval. The fundamental rationale behind a confidence interval is to use the data to obtain the best possible (ie. narrow) interval where the true value of a parameter can be expected to be found with a given probability, typically 95%. Formulas for computing the interval depend on type of data and the way they were sampled, but we will defer this to later Chapters and for now concentrate on their interpretation.

Hence let us again consider the hypothetic population described above with mean 37°C and an SD of 0.407°C. In the Figure below we see the result of computing 95% confidence intervals for 50 random samples from this hypothetical distribution. Each interval is represented by a dot indicating the mean of the specific sample while the vertical lines indicate the confidence interval computed for the sample.

Note that of the 50 confidence intervals, there are only two which do not contain the true value of 37°C, the true value for this hypothetical population. This matches rather closely with the definition, stating that 95% of such intervals should contain the true value. In other words 5% of the intervals should not contain the true value, which for 50 samples would correspond to 2.5 of the intervals not covering the true value.

For this specific sample based on real observations the 95% confidence interval is (36.73°C; 36.88°C). The main conclusion regarding the average human body temperature based on this dataset, is thus that the best estimate of the true mean is 36.81°C and we are 95% confident that the true value is somewhere in the range of (36.73°C; 36.88°C). It is the latter part of the statement, which is crucial to appreciating the value of a statistical analysis: If conducted properly it yields a measure of the uncertainty of the results, or in everyday words the likely distance to the true value has been measured, despite its unknown exact value.


text:
Talk:Amateur Radio Manual/Transmission Frequencies

Something so matter-of-fact seems to me like it belongs better in wikipedia then here. This book currently (unless we alter the scope) doesnt really have alot of room either to discuss specific RF signals. I'm wondering if this would do better a) in a book dedicated to RF, or b) a wikipedia artical of the same name. --Whiteknight T C E 13:48, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

Oversize
This page is very big. Maybe i should split it up into several pages? Comment here over the next few days if there is a problem with that.Dolive35 09:36, 17 May 2006 (UTC)

Bandplan?
I clicked on the link to this page expecting to see the Amateur Radio Bandplan. The content of this page is irrelevant to amateur radio! Dodger67 10:34, 30 September 2007 (UTC)

Stuff on the page
Is all the stuff about radio stations in Germany relevant to amateur radio? Also, the parts about longwave, mediumwave and shortwave transmiters seems out of whack as there really arn't any amateur bands in the frequencys covered in that table. I'd expect to see something mentioning WWv/WWVH or CHU, or another time becon....

Tecky2 (discuss • contribs) 03:27, 19 January 2013 (UTC)

More about stuff on page
Seeing as it doen't make sence for this to be here, and wikibooks has a history to it. I will be removing the content in one step, and adding things such as frequencys for WWV, WWVH, and CHU Canada. I know there are more, but those are what I'll add for now.

Tecky2 (discuss • contribs) 04:13, 20 January 2013 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Talk:Futurology

On VFD, the general concensus (so far) is that this book be kept. I think however that it needs some work. I dont know where (if anywhere) that this book is shelved. I think that this book needs to expand it's list of topics to cover. I would be happy to start fleshing this book out in the coming weeks. --Whiteknight T C E 13:53, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Futurology


text:
User talk:198.209.13.253

Attention:

This, is registered to University of Missouri and may be shared by multiple users. If the institution uses proxy servers, this IP address may represent many users at many physical computers.

For this reason, a message intended for one person may be received by another. Similarly, an innocent user may be blocked for another user's vandalism. If you are editing from this address and are frustrated by irrelevant messages, you can avoid them by creating an account for yourself. In some cases you may temporarily be unable to create an account due to efforts to deal with vandalism. Caution should be used when blocking this IP or reverting its contributions without checking - if a block is needed, administrators should consider a soft block

Blocked

 * I've rolled back all the vandalisms by this user listed on his contributions page. --Whiteknight T C E 14:15, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

Blocked
You cannot edit for 2 weeks due to disruptive editing. You are welcome to contribute constructively when editing privileges are restored. You may appeal this action with a reasonable argument by adding the text below.

--ЗAНИA talk 20:06, 8 May 2014 (UTC)

title: User talk:198.209.13.253


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Blending Into Python

Tutorial Authors Wanted on Official Blender MediaWiki!
The main Blender documentation and tutorial authors are now working on the Official Blender MediaWiki. If you're considering helping write Blender tutorials or documentation, please consider helping us at the official wiki instead.--Popski 17:44, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

Good to see you here Python Master Ideasman! :) --Popski 14:46, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blender 3D: Blending Into Python


text:
Georgia Water/Statewide Plan/References

Chapter 6. Statewide Plan

title: Georgia Water/Statewide Plan/References


text:
Talk:Japanese/Kana/Lessons/Hiragana/Lesson 1

Untitled
I just wanted to say... This is a great page!!! I already know the kana, but it helped me remember the proportions of every letter and the correct way to write them. The Mnemonics are great!! Havent seen alot of good Japanese guide pages like this on the net =)

Obake 15:56, 21 October 2005 (UTC)

Very good lesson - please provide more!
I'm a beginner at Japanese and I'd like to learn the entire Hiragana. At first I thought it was going to be an impossible task because of my bad memory for shapes, but this lesson made it really simple. Please create lessons for the rest of the Hiragana too!! Junesun 19:21, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

Never mind, I just saw that on "Kana Lessons" there are more. However, this first lessson should link to the rest, and so should the overview page where I only saw lesson 1!

English-equivalent "Sounds-Like"'s
The then-current version did not actually say HOW to pronounce the vowels, so I added some allegories. Could use more polish. - 116.71.38.86 (talk)

Suggestion
Throughout this section, the links to the next lesson contain the Japanese text, along with arrows (such as On to Lesson 2 - かきくけこ>>). I would like to suggest removing the arrows (or at least separating them with a space from the other text) so that beginners don't mistake them for Japanese characters. Νεοπτόλεμος 01:17, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

Pronunciation guides, without country-specific bias?
The first example says it's pronounced like 'a as in alright', but based on which country's English though? The 'a' in 'alright' sounds like 'ah' for North Americans and 'aww' for Brits and Australians. I suppose the example given is the American version, but as not all the readers of this will be American could there be more general examples given please.


text:
Guide to Unix/Why Unix-like

The operating system installed on many servers and some workstations is Unix-like. But what does it mean to be like Unix? In this book, a Unix-like system is one that is similar to *BSD, GNU/Linux, Solaris, and the original Unix. Today, Mac OS X also qualifies as a Unix-like system.

General Concepts
As opposed to the (point and click) (graphical user interfaces) familiar to the general computer user, work usually gets done in unix in a text-based way, through what's known as the (command line shell).

As opposed to a (single-user) operating system which permits computer usage only by one person at one particular time, unix is a multi-user system, that allows access of multiple users to the computer simultaneously. Normally this is achieved by having the users access the system (remotely), through digital networks.

Whether accessing (remotely) or not, users need a (user account) before being granted access to the system; for the purposes of accounting, security, logging and resource management.

Since each particular user account has varying degrees of control over the system and its resources, having the ability to verify the true identity of a given user is crucial, so a method exists that verifies each user account (username) against a corresponding (password); in a process known as (logging in).

All Unix-like systems are similar. As with many operating systems for servers, the Unix-like systems can host multiple users and programs simultaneously. Some features are specific to Unix-like systems. The Unix-like systems provide a common command line interface called the shell. They also provide a common programming interface for the C language. The latter fact allows most Unix-like systems to run the same application software and desktop environments.

Unix is popular with programmers for a variety of reasons. A primary reason for its popularity is the building-block approach, where a suite of simple tools can be streamed together to produce very sophisticated results. Another reason is the philosophy that 'everything is a file', which means that a standardized set of operations and functionality can be performed on different file types (directories vs. regular files), hardware devices, and even system processes.

The shell
The shell is a program unique to Unix-like systems. It lets you type commands to launch other programs.

When you login to the system through a text-only terminal, Unix gives you a login shell. If your system has a graphical user interface such as GNOME, KDE, or anything that uses X Window System, you can access the shell through a program called a console emulator or terminal emulator. This emulates the text-only terminal that the shell requires for running.

Unfortunately, the shell and the commands are hard to learn. Further, many commands require "arguments" to work. For example, the rm command, which removes files, needs one or more "arguments" naming the files to delete. This book has a ../Explanations/Shell Prompt/ chapter which introduces the shell and its many features.

One can automate tasks by saving shell commands in a text file called a shell script. For example, shell scripts are used to boot the system.

The Unix shell is unique to Unix-like systems. Actually, there are multiple shells available for Unix. These shells extend their features in different ways. For the "Bourne-compatible" shells, the Wikibook Bourne Shell Scripting describes them. Most shell scripts are for Bourne-compatible shells.

The C language
Unix is the origin of the popular C language. Every program on the computer links to the C library which provides basic system features including access to the kernel. Even if an application is written in another language, like C++, it still links to the C library. An interpreted language like perl needs a perl interpreter linked to the C library.

This dependence on C can be a disadvantage. Most Unix-like kernels are written entirely in C; most common programs use C, C++ or Objective-C. It is difficult to add code to these programs in another language such as Fortran. In contrast, some non-Unix systems allow different programming languages to interact more easily.

This book does not describe how to program with C; that is the job of the book Programming:C. However, planned additions to this book will describe how to build and run Unix programs when you obtain their C source code.

The kernel and userland
Each Unix-like system has a kernel. This program controls the computer hardware.

All other programs on the system are part of userland, which means outside the kernel. The kernel shares the system between all running userland programs. To use the keyboard, the network connection, or another part of the hardware, a userland program must contact the kernel using system calls. The kernel allows multiple programs to share the hardware safely. It also switches programs in and out of the processors; thus it is a "multitasking" kernel.

For example, a web server like Apache, through the kernel, can simultaneously make multiple network connections to multiple web browsers. The same computer might also be running other server programs. As another example, a user on desktop system (with GNOME, KDE, or Xfce for example) can simultaneously open multiple windows containing file managers, word processors, and games. While the file manager copies files and the word processor prints a document, the user can play a Tetris clone at the same time.

Today, a very popular kernel is ../Linux/. Linux qualifies as free and open source; even if Linux is running a server for millions of users, there is no licensing fee. Linux is usually combined with GNU to form the UNIX-like operating system, GNU/Linux (although there are some instances where it isn't combined with GNU). Thus, an easy way for a home user to obtain a Unix-like system is to install a GNU/Linux distribution that includes a friendly desktop.

When we want to configure the network connection, storage systems, or other parts of the hardware, we must often use special utility programs that configure the running kernel. Some of those programs are described in this book.

Neutral point of view
The intention is that this book has neutral point of view. Thus, this book claims not that Unix is always the best choice for any task. It will mention both advantages and disadvantages of Unix-like systems.

title: Guide to Unix/Why Unix-like


text:
Guide to Unix/Environment Variables

An environment variable is a setting normally inherited or declared when a shell is started. You can use shells to set variables; the syntax varies but Bourne shells use:

$ VARNAME="new value" $ export VARNAME or $ export VARNAME="new value"

Each program started from that shell will have VARNAME set to new value. The names of environment variables are case-sensitive; by convention they are uppercase.

A shell variable is like an environment variable, except that it is not exported to new programs started from that shell. (You could export it, but normally you just write a shell initialisation script to set it in each shell.)

EDITOR
The editor program called by sudoedit, vipw, and other such programs when you tell them to edit a file.

Examples: EDITOR=vi

EDITOR=emacs

Also see VISUAL.

HOME
The home directory of the user. Most programs use this shell variable to find your home, thus you can set this variable to override the setting in /etc/passwd for your home directory. This way, you can start programs that put dotfiles or other files in a different directory than your usual home directory.

In most shells, ~ refers to your home directory. In C shell, and some more recent versions of Bourne shell, ~tux always refers to the home directory of user tux as specified in /etc/passwd, while ~ (without a username after it) always refers to the value of HOME, even if it differs from your home directory in /etc/passwd.

LOGNAME
The name of the user. This is an easy way for a user to get own username. However, programs must not trust this variable because it can be set to an arbitrary value.

Both LOGNAME and USER should be set to the username.

Examples: LOGNAME=tux

LOGNAME=sudhir

MAIL
The location of incoming local email. When mail or another local email reader inherits this environment variable, it uses this variable to find the inbox.

Some users do not have email at their local Unix box, but instead use the Internet to access their mail server, in which case the MAIL environment variable is irrelevant.

Many users do not have MAIL set, in which case the email reader uses the default setting. The default value for user "tux" would be /var/mail/tux, which is where many systems deliver mail.

MAILCHECK

 * This is a shell variable, not normally exported as an environment variable.

The frequency for which "bash" checks and alerts you for new local email.

MANPATH
The path used by the man(1) command to search for manual pages. The MANPATH environment variable is formatted with ':' separators just like the PATH environment variable.

PAGER
The pager called by man and other such programs when you tell them to view a file.

Examples: PAGER=less

PAGER=more

PATH
A space or colon separated list of directories in which the shell searches for executables when a command is run without an absolute path. For example ls doesn't have an absolute path, but /bin/ls does).

Some systems set PATH using the system shell initialization files, such as /etc/profile for Bourne shells. Some systems set PATH before this as part of the login procedure, for example in <tt>/etc/login.conf</tt> for OpenBSD systems. For example, a Linux box could set the PATH at login, then add <tt>/usr/X11R6/bin</tt> to the path using <tt>/etc/profile</tt>, then add <tt>/home/ambler/bin</tt> to the path using <tt>~/.bash_profile</tt>.

The system boot scripts also set PATH. On some Linux boxes, the first command to set the path would seem to be in /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit, which is one of the shell scripts invoked by the init process (inittab).

Examples: PATH=/bin:/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/sbin:/home/puffy/bin

If this PATH is set and you type the shell command $ uname -r

then the shell searches for the "uname" executable program. First it searches in /bin, then /sbin, then /usr/bin. If /bin/uname is an executable (which it should be), then the shell stops searching and runs it. If /home/puffy/bin/uname also is executable, it is not run, because the search never reached that directory.

In most cases, you only append to the PATH shell variable before exporting it to the PATH environment variable. To delete a directory from your search path, you must reassign the entire PATH variable to a new, shorter string, and often this takes a great deal of typing or some cut and paste operations.

PS1

 * This is a shell variable, not normally exported as an environment variable.

The bash and public domain ksh shells use this as the prompt string.

Things that can be put in the prompt string include <tt>\h</tt> (hostname), <tt>\u</tt> (username), <tt>\w</tt> (absolute pathname of working directory), <tt>\W</tt> (name of working directory w/o path), <tt>\d</tt> (date), <tt>\t</tt> (time).

On some Red Hat boxes, the primary prompt string is set in the <tt>/etc/bashrc</tt> file. The prompt is also set in <tt>/etc/profile</tt>, but the setting in bashrc seems to take precedence. A <tt>~/.bashrc</tt> file runs /etc/bashrc, which sets the prompt. Because every instance of "bash" runs <tt>~/.bashrc</tt>, the prompt also appears in X sessions started from a display manager such as "xdm".

On some Slackware boxes, the command line prompt is set in /etc/profile. The xterm and rxvt prompts are different. The prompt is not set for X sessions, but it would be if you write a <tt>~/.bashrc</tt> to do that. Prompts are shell variables set from shell initialisation scripts. They are not xterm settings set by X resources such as <tt>/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/app-defaults/XTerm</tt>.

 * A Practical Guide to Linux, by Mark G. Sobell and published by Addison-Wesley (1998), has more information on prompt strings at page 331.

PS2

 * This is a Primary shell variable, not normally exported as an environment variable.

The bash and public domain ksh shells use this as a secondary prompt string.

SHELL
The name of the user's default shell, such as /bin/sh, /bin/bash, or /bin/tcsh. See also ../Explanations/Choice of Shell/.

USER
This variable should have the same setting and purpose as LOGNAME.

VISUAL
This variable is used to specify the "visual" - screen-oriented - editor. Generally you will want to set it to the same value as the EDITOR variable. Originally EDITOR would have be set to ed (a line-based editor) and VISUAL would've been set to vi (a screen-based editor). These days, you're unlikely to ever find yourself using a teletype as your terminal, so there is no need to choose different editors for the two. Nevertheless, it is useful to have both set: Many programs, including less and crontab, will invoke VISUAL to edit a file, falling back to EDITOR if VISUAL is not set - but others invoke EDITOR directly.

Examples: VISUAL=mg

VISUAL=vi

See also EDITOR.

title: Guide to Unix/Environment Variables


text: User talk:200.106.23.6

title: User talk:200.106.23.6


text: User talk:201.24.160.64

title: User talk:201.24.160.64


text: User talk:63.162.143.21

title: User talk:63.162.143.21


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/Business Intelligence and XML

Learning objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, for a single entity you will be able to
 * create a report specification entirely in XML for Cognos ReportNet
 * update a report specification in XML format.
 * identify four main sections in a report specification

Introduction
Every report created in Cognos ReportNet has a specification that is written in XML, so you can customize it using XML editor or create a report specification entirely in XML.

Report Specification Flow
After you save a report and open it again, the report specification is pulled from the content store as you can see in Figure 28.1. When you edit it, the changes remain local on the client machine until you save it. When you save the report, the content store is updated.

Figure 28.1 Report Specification Flow

You can see a sample of web report in figure 28.2 and this report can be generated from XML file;

Figure 28.2 Sample of a report

XML in Report Specification Structure
A report specification consists of four main sections.
 * Report Section
 * XML Tag:
 *
 * Query Section
 * XML Tag:
 *
 * Layout Section
 * XML Tag:
 *
 * Variable Section
 * XML Tag:
 *
 *

At minimum, a report specification must include the tags, as well as authoring language and schema information.

The specification header in Report Section includes information about:
 * authoring language, “en-us” indicates American English. You can use other language than English  for the report
 * namespace : http://developer.sample.com/schemas/report/1
 * package name: GSR
 * model version : @name='model'

The query section includes information about:
 * Cube elements are indicated by the tags which can contain:
 * facts (. Country, First Name and Last Name are the facts.
 * dimensions consisting of levels
 * filters ( consiting of conditions. Country is the filter    for this report, which is equal to Germany.
 * Tabular model is contained in the  tags.
 * Each tabular model contains data items (

Below is the complete XML file for the report in Figure 28.3

Exercise
The end user wants to read the report in Japanese language, so you have to add a variable for Japanese language.


text:
Haskell/Type declarations

You're not restricted to working with just the types provided by default with the language. There are many benefits to defining your own types:

 * Code can be written in terms of the problem being solved, making programs easier to design, write and understand.
 * Related pieces of data can be brought together in ways more convenient and meaningful than simply putting and getting values from lists or tuples.
 * Pattern matching and the type system can be used to their fullest extent by making them work with your custom types.

Haskell has three basic ways to declare a new type:

 * The data declaration, which defines new data types.
 * The type declaration for type synonyms, that is, alternative names for existing types.
 * The newtype declaration, which defines new data types equivalent to existing ones.

In this chapter, we will study data and type. In a later chapter, we will discuss newtype and see where it can be useful.

and constructor functions
data is used to define new data types mostly using existing ones as building blocks. Here's a data structure for elements in a simple list of anniversaries:

This declares a new data type Anniversary, which can be either a Birthday or a Wedding. A Birthday contains one string and three integers and a Wedding contains two strings and three integers. The definitions of the two possibilities are separated by the vertical bar. The comments explain to readers of the code about the intended use of these new types. Moreover, with the declaration we also get two constructor functions for <tt>Anniversary</tt>; appropriately enough, they are called <tt>Birthday</tt> and <tt>Wedding</tt>. These functions provide a way to build a new <tt>Anniversary</tt>.

Types defined by <tt>data</tt> declarations are often referred to as algebraic data types, which is something we will address further in later chapters.

As usual with Haskell, the case of the first letter is important: type names and constructor functions must start with capital letters. Other than this syntactic detail, constructor functions work pretty much like the "conventional" functions we have met so far. In fact, if you use <tt>:t</tt> in GHCi to query the type of, say, <tt>Birthday</tt>, you'll get:

Meaning it's just a function which takes one String and three Int as arguments and evaluates to an <tt>Anniversary</tt>. This anniversary will contain the four arguments we passed as specified by the <tt>Birthday</tt> constructor.

Calling constructors is no different from calling other functions. For example, suppose we have John Smith born on 3rd July 1968:

He married Jane Smith on 4th March 1987:

These two anniversaries can, for instance, be put in a list:

Or you could just as easily have called the constructors straight away when building the list (although the resulting code looks a bit cluttered).

Deconstructing types
To use our new data types, we must have a way to access their contents. For instance, one very basic operation with the anniversaries defined above would be extracting the names and dates they contain as a String. So we need a <tt>showAnniversary</tt> function (for the sake of code clarity, we used an auxiliary <tt>showDate</tt> function but let's ignore it for a moment):

This example shows how we can deconstruct the values built in our data types. <tt>showAnniversary</tt> takes a single argument of type <tt>Anniversary</tt>. Instead of just providing a name for the argument on the left side of the definition, however, we specify one of the constructor functions and give names to each argument of the constructor (which correspond to the contents of the Anniversary). A more formal way of describing this "giving names" process is to say we are binding variables. "Binding" is being used in the sense of assigning a variable to each of the values so that we can refer to them on the right side of the function definition.

To handle both "Birthday" and "Wedding" Anniversaries, we needed to provide two function definitions, one for each constructor. When <tt>showAnniversary</tt> is called, if the argument is a <tt>Birthday</tt> Anniversary, the first definition is used and the variables <tt>name</tt>, <tt>year</tt>, <tt>month</tt> and <tt>day</tt> are bound to its contents. If the argument is a <tt>Wedding</tt> Anniversary, then the second definition is used and the variables are bound in the same way. This process of using a different version of the function depending on the type of constructor is pretty much like what happens when we use a <tt>case</tt> statement or define a function piece-wise.

Note that the parentheses around the constructor name and the bound variables are mandatory; otherwise the compiler or interpreter would not take them as a single argument. Also, it is important to have it absolutely clear that the expression inside the parentheses is not a call to the constructor function, even though it may look just like one.

for making type synonyms
As mentioned in the introduction of this module, code clarity is one of the motivations for using custom types. In that spirit, it could be nice to make it clear that the Strings in the Anniversary type are being used as names while still being able to manipulate them like ordinary Strings. This calls for a <tt>type</tt> declaration:

The code above says that a <tt>Name</tt> is now a synonym for a <tt>String</tt>. Any function that takes a <tt>String</tt> will now take a <tt>Name</tt> as well (and vice-versa: functions that take <tt>Name</tt> will accept any <tt>String</tt>). The right hand side of a <tt>type</tt> declaration can be a more complex type as well. For example, <tt>String</tt> itself is defined in the standard libraries as

We can do something similar for the list of anniversaries we made use of:

Type synonyms are mostly just a convenience. They help make the roles of types clearer or provide an alias to such things as complicated list or tuple types. It is largely a matter of personal discretion to decide how type synonyms should be deployed. Abuse of synonyms could make code confusing (for instance, picture a long program using multiple names for common types like Int or String simultaneously).

Incorporating the suggested type synonyms and the <tt>Date</tt> type we proposed in the exercise(*) of the previous section the code we've written so far looks like this: ((*) last chance to try that exercise without looking at the spoilers.)

Even in a simple example like this one, there is a noticeable gain in simplicity and clarity compared to the same task using only Ints, Strings, and corresponding lists.

Note that the <tt>Date</tt> type has a constructor function which is called <tt>Date</tt> as well. That is perfectly valid and indeed giving the constructor the same name of the type when there is just one constructor is good practice, as a simple way of making the role of the function obvious.

title: Haskell/Type declarations


text:
User talk:Luca1500~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Luca1500. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Luca1500~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:23, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:12, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Luca1500~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Health Informatics

I think the title should be Medical Informatics.

not a book; should be a wikipedia entry There may be a subject that is titled "Medical Informatics" but as this topic is defined as multidisciplinary, the title of this subject should not be "Medical Informatics." Medical with a capital "M" refers to the practice of medicine by those with M.D. or D.O. credentials and regulated by cfs state Boards of Medical Examiners. Medical informatics is a sub-field of medicine and of concern primarily to those in medical practice, research, or education. Health informatics is bigger than that. Health informatics belongs to many - including the general public - and refers to the structure, storage, access and retrieval, and use of health information derived from many perspectives and useful in achieving personally valued health and wellness goals. Medical informatics belongs to doctors. Health informatics belongs to everyone and is inclusive of a portion of Medical Informatics.

title: Talk:Health Informatics


text:
Medical Informatics

The purpose of this work is to survey computer usage in the health sciences.

With contributions from:
 * 1) Kevin C. O'Kane

/Introduction/

Pioneering Work

 * 1) /MUMPS/ - Massachusetts General Hospital Utility Multi-Programming Language (R. Greenes and N. Pappalardo)
 * 2) /COSTAR/ - Computer Stored Ambulatory Record - Costar (O. Barnett)
 * 3) /University of Missouri - Columbia System (D.A. Lindberg)/
 * 4) /Technicon/ Lockheed/Technicon System
 * 5) /PROMIS/ University of Vermont PROMIS System (L. L. Weed)
 * 6) /Texas Institute for Research and Rehabilitation Information System/ (C. Valbonna & W. Spencer)
 * 7) /LDS Hospital System/ (H. Warner, et al)
 * 8) /Kaiser-Permanente/ System (M. Collen)
 * 9) /VISTA/ - Veterans Administration (DCHP)
 * 10) /Johns Hopkins Oncology/ Clinical Information System and Tedium (B. Blum)
 * 11) /Dietary Systems/

Computer Based Medical Records Systems

 * 1) /Overview of Computer Based Medical Records/
 * 2) /Case Studies of Computer Based Medical Records/

Economics of Health Care Delivery

 * 1) /Societal Factors/
 * 2) /Rising Tide of Clinical Data and Reporting Requirements/

Impact of New Technologies

 * 1) /The Structure of the Patient Encounter with the Health Care System/
 * 2) /Confidentiality and Data Security/
 * 3) /Medical Linkage, Patient Tracking and Scheduling/
 * 4) /Pharmacy Systems/
 * 5) /Utilization Review and Quality Assurance/

Clinical Decision Support Systems

 * 1) /Clinical Decision Support Overview/
 * 2) /Expert Systems/
 * 3) /MYCIN/ (E. Shortliffe)
 * 4) EMYCIN
 * 5) /Internist/ (Pople & Myers)
 * 6) Caduceus
 * 7) /QMR/ - Quick Medical Reference
 * 8) /CASNET/ Causal ASsociational NETworks (Kulikowski and Weiss)
 * 9) CASNET/Glaucoma
 * 10) /PIP/ Present Illness Program (Gorry and Parker)
 * 11) /ABEL/ Acid-Base and ELectrolyte program
 * 12) /ONCOCIN/ Oncology protocol management
 * 13) /MDX/ (Chandrasekaran and Mittal)
 * 14) /DXPlain/ (MGH Laboratory for Computer Science)
 * 15) /Probability Based Diagnostic Systems/
 * 16) /Bayesian Systems/
 * 17) /Reasoning Foundations of Medical Diagnosis/ (Ledley and Lusted)
 * 18) /Arden Syntax/

Systems of Nomenclature

 * 1) /International Classification of Diseases 9 - Clinical Modification (ICD)/
 * 2) /International Classification of Diseases 10/
 * 3) /Standard Nomenclature of Diseases and Operations (SNDO)/
 * 4) /Systematized Nomenclature of Pathology (SNOP)/
 * 5) /Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - (DSM)/
 * 6) /Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (SNOMED)/
 * 7) /Current Medical Terminology (CMT)/
 * 8) /Current Procedural Terminology (CPT)/
 * 9) /NLM Medical Subject Headings (MESH) and Unified Medical Language System (UMLS)/
 * 10) /Logical Observation Identifier Names and Codes (LOINC)/
 * 11) /Diagnostic Related Groups/
 * 12) /HL7/
 * 13) /HIPAA - Health Insurance Portability Act/
 * 14) /National Drug Codes/
 * 15) /Read Codes/

Other Topics

 * 1) /Automated Interviewing and Multiphasic Screening/
 * 2) /Bioinformatics/
 * 3) /Screening/ - Disease Detection and Treatment
 * 4) /Computer Aided Instruction/
 * 5) /Computed Tomography and Image Processing/
 * 6) /Online Resources/
 * 7) /Communication Networks/
 * 8) /Patient Monitoring/
 * 9) /Pharmaceutical Research Support Systems/
 * 10) /Ethics and Privacy/
 * 11) /Standards/

title: Medical Informatics


text:
Talk:Medical Informatics

How I add Table of contect.
 * it'll do it itself, just do headings

start some structure like chapters to divide the labor ?
 * however...

"Computers are to Informatics as telescopes are to astronomy". I wish I could attribute that at present, but it has been passed around.

The information and the ways of handling it - the connectedness etc - are the key, not the computers, although doing it with COpe-Chat cards would not be easy.

title: Talk:Medical Informatics


text: User talk:24.80.195.250

title: User talk:24.80.195.250


text:
Folkstyle Wrestling/Training Technique

Workout
For wrestling, submission/BJJ, or MMA, I like interval training, that is, doing a workout (whatever it happens to be) at an alternating aerobic and anaerobic pace. My goal, with regard to the conditioning element of a match, is to keep up a good aerobic pace with my opponent, of course forcing him to do the same in the process, then attack (anaerobic activity pressing such also on my opponent in response to me), then go back to an aerobic pace, repeating the process throughout the match. My thinking is that the winner conditioning-wise is the individual who can recover from an anaerobic burst back to an aerobic state to prepare for the next successful anaerobic burst or attack the quickest.

So when I train for competition I may, for example, roll with somebody at a typical solid aerobic pace for one minute, be very aggressive the next 30 seconds, go back to an aerobic pace for a minute, and so on. Or your could run (jog, sprint, jog, sprint, etc.) in a similar manner. Or your could to a hard takedown drill for two minutes and jog for one, repeating the process over and over. You get the picture.

Also, keep track of how many minutes of aerobic and anaerobic activity you are doing to increase it gradually and systematically so you know for sure how your training is going. It is not just the volume of training (more is not always better as you can overtrain) but also how you train whether you are talking technique, conditioning, or strength.

I generally try to maintain a modicum of noncompetition shape for general training (learning to improve the technical aspect of my game), although there have been times over the past couple of years that has simply not been possible. I like to cycle my training for both physical and mental preparation reasons. It has been my experience that you need to avoid the same routine all year else you get burned out and fail to progress maximally. It is my understanding that lifting ought to be done with some variably in order of exercise to avoid habituating the nervous system; at least that's what I was taught at Penn State some years ago.

I think that it is wise to take (at least, depending on what you are trying to accomplish in the competitive arena) one day off per week even if you are training intensely for competition, again for both physical and mental reasons. There are some people, including those who are very good, who probably overtrain. Mimicking them because "they are champions", etc. is not necessarily the wisest thing to do as some people win in spite of (versus because of) how they train. For example, some people train (cardio or strength) like maniacs but may win owing to technical and mental factors (including because of the volume of training) although may not objectively be in maximal physiologic condition (e.g., weaker than they would have been without overtraining).

If you are training two or three times per week BJJ, wrestling, etc., I would suggest lifting on other days. As you "ramp up" your training for competition (especially serious competition) that level of training is not likely to be adequate so you will have to lift on days you are training. I think you are right on target keeping the hours between your strength and jiu jitsu training maximal (if you lift before BJJ). I lift in the morning before work and train BJJ in the evening. My view is that you will profit from improving the technical aspect of your game when you are relatively fresh and not having a major fatigue factor interfering with learning or ingraining new skills (i.e., if you are drill technique with which you are not particularly familiar or proficient while fatigued you are probably going to take longer to develop skillful technique). Being a pipsqueak and rolling with guys, some of who are twice my size, it is just too risky injury-wise to get a hard lift in before BJJ practice. If I am hurt, I cannot train or compete adequately.

One option, depending on your schedule, would be to lift after your BJJ practice if time is really tight, although not vice versa which I think is risky (when you roll in BJJ).

One thing that is crucial, I think, is to recognize that, over the long run, it is skill, not conditioning or strength, that will be the largest factor in success. That is not to say that cardio, strength, nutrition, psychological preparation, etc. are not important, just make sure that in your "training portfolio" that actual training (learning technique and sparring technique) does not become "the odd man out." "Major in the major subjects, minor in the minor subjects." The other things are to supplement, not substitute, the whole reason for what you do: BJJ.

Also, recognize when it is worthwhile to just take a day off, particularly from lifting. My experience has been that three times per week is best for most of my training cycle but that when things really ramp up for competition it is easy, simply by virtue of the volume of training to increase in the upswing in your training cycle, to get fatigued, dread practice, etc. At that point, wisdom is taking a day off from lifting (get a massage, etc.) and even consider lifting twice per week toward the end of your training cycle as you get close to competition so that the volume of doing what you will be doing in competition increases proportionally. I personally have found it helpful to lift two days per week freeweights and one day Nautilus with a trainer who busts my you-know-whats for a brutal hour (with substantial negative training). I make that guy earn his 35 bucks (none of this just yapping motivational crap)! If I feel fatigued or start to feel burned out, I chuck one of the freeweight days.

When training now, I like to go on a short run 5x/week (two or three miles) before lifting. I gradually add interval training to the run. I am best at wrestling, second best at BJJ, and weakest with my stand up. Therefore, in part because of inefficiency with my boxing, I find that an excellent cardio workout. I think that skills with which were are most proficient (read efficient) are a bit more of a challenge to push ourselves with. So boxing rounds with a partner holding mitts does me wonders, again, in part as I am less skilled and efficient (and therefore get more fatigued) with those techniques.

One exercise I like for cardio, strength, and mental reasons, and is easy to do in your BJJ room, is carrying a partner on my back around the perimeter of the room. You can do this in rounds with a brief walking break (i.e., to keep moving). This gets my heart rate through the roof if your partner (or instructor) can push and motivate you. You can do this to mimic rounds in a match or do the aerobic-anaerobic mix with your partner or coach telling you when to jog and when to sprint.

title: Folkstyle Wrestling/Training Technique


text:
Visual Basic .NET/Variables

Variables
In programming a variable is simply a place to store data. A variable has a name and a data type. In Visual Basic .NET, a variable is declared using the Dim (short for Dimension) statement. Here is the syntax:

varName is the name of your variable.

varType is the data type of the variable. Types include string, integer, double, boolean, etc.

For example, to declare an integer named MyInt use:

By default, the variables case doesn't allow to distinguish them, so myint will automatically be converted in MyInt by the IDE if it's declared like that.

On the other hand, to make a program ignore the case in the string values,  should be added.

Data Types
Data Types define the type of data that a variable can store. Some variables store numbers, others store names. The built-in VB.NET type aliases and their equivalent .NET Framework types follow:

Assigning Values
A value is the data contained in a variable. To assign a value to a variable that is already declared, use an equal sign.

Suffix for Literals
Integral literals, such as 42 and 1000, are of type Integer by default. String and character literals, such as "Hello World" and "À", are of type String by default. To specify the type for a literal, suffixes are used. The suffixes are appended immediately after the literals, in the manner <literal><suffix>, without any whitespace between.

Examples
For string and char variables, use double quotes around value: For date variables, use hashes/pounds around the value, in the format #<month>/<day>/<year> <hour>:<minute>:<second> <AM|PM>#:

For all others, remove the quotes and hashes/pounds:

Initial Value
To assign a variable the value of another variable, simply replace the value on the right side of the equal sign with the name of the variable that holds the desired data.

You can also assign a value to a variable in the declaration itself.

Important: Visual Basic always assigns the value of the right variable to the left variable. The variable on the left takes the value of the right variable. The variable on the right does not change.

Constants
Constants are like variables that don't change. They take the place of values that you would not like to type over and over. Constants are declared using the keyword "Const". Their values are defined in their declaration - they also use data types. Here is the syntax: Here is an example: Constants are very useful when you need to type the same numbers/strings/etc many times. For example, to convert from radians to degrees you can type 180/Pi constant: And use it like this: This constant is useful in functions like Sin, Cos, Tan, Arctan, etc.

de:Visual Basic .NET: Variablen Visual Basic .NET/Variables

title: Visual Basic .NET/Variables


text:
Visual Basic .NET/Arrays

Simple arrays
An array is simply a variable that can store more than one piece of data. The data is stored in a list. If you declare an integer, then that variable can only store one integer. An array of integers can store many integers. Each one is given its own number. For example, this line of code:

will give an array like this

This is similar to declaring a normal variable with one difference, the upperBound argument. Unlike previous versions versions of Visual Basic, all arrays in Visual Basic .NET start at 0 and go to the upperBound, for Example:

will declare a variable called MyArray with space for 11 Integers. The integers are stored in MyArray(0), MyArray(1),..., MyArray(10).

To declare an array and assign values in a single line, use the following

Another way to create an array is as follows

Note that anytime these lines are used:

This means the same thing, and is easier to use:

The (number) after the name of the variable declares it as a string.

To access one of the elements in the array:

How many elements do we have in the array?

Display all the elements in the array.

Sort the array.

Sort in descending order.

Reverse the array.

Now that we have, here is another way to sort in descending order without.

With Option Strict On, we would need to use SetValue to assign array elements.

Multi-Dimensional arrays
Arrays also can be multi-dimensional - 2D, 3D, 4D etc. For example, this line of code:

Will give an array like this:

2D arrays can be used in games like a Tic-Tac-Toe.

3D arrays can be thought of as an array of 2D arrays. Where a 2D array has rows and columns, as in a game of Tic Tac Toe, the 3D array stores multiple grids of Tic Tac Toe.

To declare a 3D array:

In this example, the first dimension would typically be the number of arrays in this 3D array. We know these are 2D arrays as the second dimension specifies how many rows in these arrays and the third dimension the number of columns.

Arrays manipulations methods

 * : to transform a string into an array, according to the separator which is placed in parameter.
 * : to convert an array into a string.
 * : to filter some array entries.

Example:

title: Visual Basic .NET/Arrays


text:
Art History/Medieval Art

Medieval art dates roughly from the period 500-1500 AD.

European medieval art is generally centered around the architecture and icons of the Roman Catholic Church. The Christian Church grew from the fourth century onwards as the Roman empire collapsed. The pagan gods were no longer worshipped and such was the power of this new Christian religion that Iconoclasts destroyed early pagan statues and religious objects during the reign of Constantine, Emperor of Rome from 306 to 337. From the ashes of Classical Rome came a new Europe where the Christian Church became intricately entwined in the politics and economics of the day. Charlemagne (c. 742 – 814), a Frankish king, united Western Europe and was given the title "Holy Roman Emperor" (Imperator Augustus) by Pope Leo III on the 25 December 800 C.E. From this moment on the Christian Church and the State had forged a bond that would last for centuries.

Intro
The Romanesque period refers roughly to the eleventh and first half of the twelfth centuries. The term Romanesque was first given to this type of architecture in the 19th Century due to the use of round-headed arches and masonry barrel vaults, practices that had been common in ancient Roman architecture. The kinds of monuments that were sufficiently permanent to survive--mainly church buildings and sculpture--were commissioned by the Church.

Characteristics
Common characteristics of Romanesque architecture are thick, stone walls and large, exterior buttresses to support them, rounded arches, and barrel vaults. The windows in these structures are usually small due to the restraints of using ashlar masonry. The exteriors of Romanesque churches, as compared to the modular Carolingian and Ottonian churches of the ninth and tenth centuries, have unified decorative schemes of architectural and sculptural elements that unite the design as a whole. These design elements include blind arcades, (rows of arches set flush against the wall's surface), and corbel tables, (series of arches mounted, not on columns, but on decorative stone brackets, called corbels), both of which often run around the entire perimeter; down the exterior nave wall, and around the transepts and apse, tying the structure together visually.

One major development of eleventh and twelfth-century architecture is the addition of increasingly elaborate programmes of figural sculpture on the exterior, particularly at the West end, usually the main entrance to the church. Standing figures of sacred Biblical authors, such as prophets and apostles, as well as saints and Old Testament kings were placed against the walls beside the doorways, called jambs. The arches over doorways, instead of being left open, were usually filled with semi-circular slabs of stone, called tympana (sing. tympanum). The subject matter in the tympana was dominated by representations of the Last Judgment when, according to traditional teaching, Christ would return and divide the world into those who will receive eternal reward, and those who will be punished. Romanesque sculpture is marked by a love of inventive surface patterns, and an expressive approach to the human body, using elongation, unnatural poses and emphatic gestures to convey states of mind.

Among smaller art forms, Romanesque manuscript illustrators continued to present full-page author portraits, for example, before the beginning of each Gospel book; but also elaborated the written word with historiated initials, that is, the first letter of a section drawn large, containing relevant figures or even narrative scenes; and marginal miniatures, the small scenes, sometimes fanciful and strange, drawn in the margins of the page. Metalwork, and carved gems and ivory share some of the expressive and decorative qualities of monumental sculpture and manuscript painting.

Gothic
Gothic architecture originated in southern France, around 1140, beginning with the innovative construction of the choir of Saint-Denis. Several characteristics mark Gothic architecture including the use of flying buttresses, elaborate stained-glass windows, ribbed vaults, pointed arches, and a distinct emphasis on verticality.

'Several of these characteristics are exemplified in specific cathedrals:

'Flying buttresses: Notre Dame de Paris Stained Glass: Chartres Cathedral Distinct Verticality: Amiens Cathedral'

In contrast to the dark, claustrophobic Romanesque churches, Gothic cathedrals present a light, airy atmosphere due mainly to their ribbed vaults and flying buttresses which are able to support thinner walls, higher ceilings, and large, light filled windows.

Islamic art to 1500
From c. 670 to 1500, Islam expanded from its roots in modern-day Saudi Arabia to an empire stretching from Morocco to India. The spread of Islam throughout Eurasia was accompanied by the development of an artistic style which was closely related to Islam and its interpretation by regional dynasties. Islamic arts and architecture vary widely according to region but have a few unifying features. The Qur'an forbids depictions of the Prophet Muhammed and depictions of any person in religious art; therefore, Islamic artistic decoration is characterized by abstract floral and vegetal motifs rather than figural representation. Also, the Qu'ran discourages the construction of any building that would outlive its architect unless it serves Islam or the community in some way; therefore, surviving works, particularly works of architecture, tend to be public buildings like mosques, gardens and markets. (Palaces also frequently survive, although this could easily be because of the desire to preserve works of that quality of construction and decoration). Finally, the Arabic language, as the language of the Qur'an, is deeply embedded in Islamic artistic tradition; text is often featured as meaningful decoration in works of art and architecture.

title: Art History/Medieval Art


text:
Guide to Unix/BSD/Introduction

This page summarizes the main features of the *BSD kernel and system, especially in comparison to other Unix-like systems. Currently, this page covers the free variants of *BSD, especially DragonFly BSD, FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. There are also nonfree variants.

The Wikibook, A Neutral Look at Operating Systems, gives an overview of BSD in its Berkeley Software Distribution chapter.

General

 * The *BSD systems are descendants of AT&T Unix (though non-free Unix code was removed) so they feel more like Unix than GNU/Linux.  AT&T had cheaply licensed the code to universities including Berkeley where major enhancements such as TCP/IP were then developed. The last BSD release from Berkeley had non-free code removed so more persons could use it. Today, the *BSD projects honor their ancestry putting BSD at the end of their names.
 * The four big *BSD systems are free software and open source. While *BSD does use some copylefted GNU programs, most of *BSD is not copyleft, which leaves everyone free to make non-free versions of *BSD and distribute binaries without source code. However, some parts of *BSD have extra terms in the license that annoy some people, and which are not found in the GNU licenses. In particular, there was enough dislike for the "advertising clause" (which requires marks on certain ads) that the Regents of the University of California removed it from their license; some other *BSD copyright holders still use the clause.
 * The core system, including kernel and userland, is maintained in one CVS tree. This is similar to OpenSolaris and OpenDarwin, but GNU/Linux programs and kernels are in separate trees, and the development trees of non-free Unix-like systems are normally not public. Compare:
 * DragonFly BSD http://www.dragonflybsd.org/cgi-bin/cvsweb.cgi/
 * FreeBSD http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/
 * NetBSD http://cvsweb.netbsd.org/bsdweb.cgi/
 * OpenBSD http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/cvsweb/
 * OpenSolaris http://cvs.opensolaris.org/source/
 * OpenDarwin http://cvs.opendarwin.org/index.cgi/
 * The *BSD sources are stored in /usr/src/ and the kernel in /usr/src/sys/. The *BSD kernel and system programs are heavily integrated, and so must be upgraded together.

Kernel

 * Recall that a kernel is the interface between programs and hardware. Unix-like kernels provide device drivers and networking support and allow multiple users and programs to share the system.
 * The *BSD kernel (often installed at "/bsd/") is monolithic, which means that it is one program in one memory-addressing space. Thus the kernel avoids forming and sending messages between parts of itself.
 * DragonFly BSD is changing some of this.
 * The original AT&T Unix and Linux are also monolithic, while mkLinux and the kernel of Mac OS X are modular.
 * The kernel is actually the original AT&T Unix with all of its files replaced. The BSD university project had added or replaced so much stuff (the VAX port, the networking features, the fast file system, ...) that *BSD projects could take the free parts and produce completely free kernels without needing a Unix license. A consequence of this is that the BSD kernel has a similar structure to commercial Unix kernels also descended from AT&T Unix.
 * The kernel contains a "securelevel" feature which attempts to permanently restrict what all users (including root, the superuser) can do after a certain point in the boot process.
 * The kernel boot messages (also visible with dmesg, on all Unix systems) are organized and show where each device was detected.
 * In contrast, the Linux drivers seem to give any boot messages that they feel like. The mounting and examining of "/proc" and "/sys", or the use of tools like "lspci", is a better strategy on Linux.

Userland

 * Recall that userland consists of all the software above the kernel. This section describes the userland included with the base system.
 * The programs in /bin/ and /sbin/ are statically linked.
 * This is because /usr/ might not be mounted, so the shared library /usr/lib/libc.so cannot be used.
 * Static linking is when each program is in one file, without the need for other files (shared libraries) containing code shared by programs. The library code is copied into the programs.
 * The main text editor in the base system is "vi". This is nvi included with BSD, and ultimately the original vi, and is not some other vi implementation such as vim. Actually, nvi is a clone of the original vi. The clone was necessary to remove some non-free Unix code.
 * OpenBSD also includes "mg", an editor resembling Emacs 17 but without any free but copylefted GNU code. FreeBSD includes "ee", the "easy editor" with some similarities to nano and pico (both of which are in the ports tree, although nano is free software and pico isn't).

Ports

 * There is a ports tree or packages tree originally from FreeBSD. This consists of Makefiles that automate the downloading, extracting, patching, and building of software for *BSD. This is the main way of installing stuff that is not part of the base system.
 * On NetBSD this is called pkgsrc. A unique feature of the pkgsrc tree is that it also works on other operating systems. DragonFly BSD also uses pkgsrc.
 * Thus installing a program is often two easy steps. First, type a "cd" command to the directory containing the port (for example, /usr/ports/games/nethack/). Then, type a "make install" command and wait for everything to finish.
 * Building software takes a long time, so many prefer to use a binary package instead of a "make install".
 * The system compiler is the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) with C, C++, Objective C, and Fortran 77.
 * By default, gcc does not look in /usr/local/ for header files and libraries; it only looks at the base system.
 * The base system can rebuild itself with gcc.

title: Guide to Unix/BSD/Introduction


text:
Guide to Unix/BSD/Mac OS X

The core of Apple's Mac OS X (and its predecessor NextStep) is Darwin, which contains a lot of BSD code, especially FreeBSD 5 code.

General

 * Darwin, like other *BSD systems, is distributed as a complete Unix-like operating system, including the kernel, shell commands, C compiler, and other important utilities.
 * Darwin is different from other *BSD systems. As listed below, it has several changes that the other *BSD systems lack.
 * Darwin is named for Charles Darwin.

Kernel

 * Name: The kernel is called xnu. It consists of a modified Mach microkernel and a "server" which is a port of the BSD kernel.
 * Processor architecture: Mac OS X runs on both PowerPC-, Intel- and, ARM-based Macs
 * Dualithic: The kernel uses a dualithic design. The Mach microkernel contains device drivers, multitasking, and interprocess communication. Other kernel services, such as networking, filesystems, and traditional Unix system calls, must be provided by "servers".
 * Darwin uses one server, a port of the BSD kernel. Thus networking is similar to other *BSD systems and the UFS filesystem from BSD is also available. This is in contrast to GNU Hurd, which uses a difficult design consisting of many servers.
 * NextStep probably introduced the dualithic design because Mach microkernel was more portable than BSD, or provided better multitasking benefits than BSD. They could port Mach to x86 and PowerPC. Since then, NetBSD has made *BSD very portable and created a monolithic NetBSD/macppc port. FreeBSD and OpenBSD are taking the NetBSD code for their Macintosh hardware ports.
 * Apple (before it bought NextStep) used a similar strategy to port Linux, an x86 operating system, to PowerPC. The mkLinux (microkernel Linux) project started by porting Linux/x86 to use Mach. Then Mach was ported to Macintosh hardware. After Linux 2.0 appeared, Linux was more portable and the monolithic Linux/powerpc port displaced mkLinux. Apple bought NextStep and switched to using Darwin.
 * The microkernel and server are tightly integrated. The microkernel expects the Darwin BSD server, so using another server, such as the mkLinux server, would be difficult.
 * Device drivers: Because they are handled by Mach, device drivers are much different than in NetBSD/macppc. With Darwin, Apple made many replacements to the NextStep drivers.
 * Darwin runs on any Mac the corresponding Mac OS X runs.
 * HFS+ filesystem: Darwin also contains an implementation of the HFS+ filesystem introduced in Mac OS 8.1. It does not run on the classic Mac OS file system HFS used in the Macintosh system software before Mac OS 8.1. HFS+, and not UFS, is the preferred filesystem for Darwin.

Userland

 * GNU commands: Darwin replaces several BSD userland programs with their GNU equivalents; this makes Darwin feel more like GNU/Linux than BSD in several cases. In newer Darwin releases, GNU bash is the default shell, as it is on GNU/Linux.
 * NetInfo: The NetInfo database has stored user and group information since the time of NextStep. The other *BSD systems use the traditional /etc/passwd and /etc/master.passwd system instead. (The two files exist on Darwin, but typically do not contain normal users.)

Version Numbering
Apple labels the Darwin source code with version numbers that match Mac OS X version numbers.
 * Jaguar: Darwin 6.v = Mac OS 10.2.v
 * Panther: Darwin 7.v = Mac OS 10.3.v
 * Tiger: Darwin 8.v = Mac OS 10.4.v
 * Leopard: Darwin 9.v = Mac OS 10.5.v

For example, the Darwin source code corresponding to Mac OS 10.4.3 is Darwin 8.3.

title: Guide to Unix/BSD/Mac OS X


text:
Talk:Bookbinding/Japanese side stitch

This module was based upon content from http://www.sff.net/people/Brook.West/bind/bindit.html; used by permission, under the terms of the GDFL.

Incomprehendable, not metric.

title: Talk:Bookbinding/Japanese side stitch


text:
Bookbinding/Motivation

Why would anyone want to bind their own books? Here are a few answers to that question, though this list is by no means exhaustive.

Preservation
With the right choice of binding techniques and materials, books can survive hundreds of years of gentle use. Even mediocre books outlive most electronic storage media: magnetic tapes and disks lose their magnetization, and optical media such as CDs and DVDs are prone to oxidation of the metallic layer and degradation of any heat-sensitive dye. The format of the printed word is immune to trends in editing software and advances in compression protocols. Creating printed copies can preserve digital information for the long term.

Existing printed matter can also be preserved and made more usable by proper bookbinding techniques. If a book is damaged, replacing the binding can be a relatively straightforward process. Brittle, decayed paper can be replaced entirely, using a photocopier and some careful planning ; the copied book can then be placed in a more durable, permanent binding.

Creation
Books can be works of visual art in their own right, regardless of their content. Hopefully, the methods in this book will introduce more artists to this practical and beautiful medium. Also, making one's own sketchbook, journal, photo album, or notebook often serves as an inspiration to capture other forms of expression with more energy and personality.

Convenience
Information is easy to find on the internet, but most people find that e-books, integrated circuit spec sheets, professional journal articles, and many other materials are easier to use if they are printed out and bound together. While stapling the top corner may be appropriate for thin documents that will be kept in a file folder and read only a few times, a little extra effort produces a volume that goes comfortably from bookshelf to backpack, and can be leafed through several times a day without worrying that the outside pages will fall off.

title: Bookbinding/Motivation


text:
Budget Watch Collecting/Selecting a watch

1. Dial condition--It is very difficult to improve the appearance of most watch dials. They are designed to be protected, and anything strong enough to remove dirt is also likely to remove markings or coatings. Sometimes spot cleaning with a toothpick can reduce some marks, but it is just as likely to make things worse. Watch dials can be "redialed"--This is basically repainted. Quality can range from very good (although rarely as good as the original) to very obviously re-painted. Prices begin at $20 or so, not counting removing the dial and shipping.

2. Case condition. If a watch is gold-tone, check edges, lugs and high spots for missing plating. If the gold has worn off, polishing will make it look good temporarily, but the brass underneath will soon tarnish--The transition from gold to brass can bee seen with a loupe.

3. Movement condition. Mechanical watches should wind and set smoothly. There should be slight resistance when setting--If there is too little resistance, make sure the minute hand moves under its own power, and if it is a calendar (or jump-hour) manually turn the watch to where the calendar starts to move, then make sure the minute hand continues to move while advancing the calendar. The movement should be clean inside, and the balance should be turning evenly and at least half a turn.

4. Crown. Fairly easy to replace, but make sure you know how much your watchmaker charges first. Manual wind watches with worn smooth crowns are especially irritating.

5. Crystal--This may be important, or may be a minor problem. If the crystal is plastic and not cracked or discolored, most scratches can be polished very easily. Domed round plastic crystals and flat glass crystals usually have generic replacement crystals readily available. Fancy crystals can be difficult to find a match for.

A general note - don't feel rushed to buy the first watch that comes along. In general, if you find one specific watch online that meets your criteria, then you will find more than one. Shop around, and get a feel for price and the range of condition that your chosen model can be found in. A common mistake is to buy an inferior watch, and then loose money on it later when you try to sell it to fund the purchase of one in better condition that comes along.


text:
User:Timothy J Scriven

I am Timothy J Scriven, I believe wikipedia can be a powerful source for social change by simply producing the unbiased truth. I live in NSW and of 2006 I am completing my HSC. My home is terrigal, a beautiful area.

I worry about some of the directions wikipedia has taken in relation to the NPOV policy. I believe the policy should not be used as an excuse to place material's in articles which seems sympathetic to suicide, paedophilia etc. Furthermore I believe that wikipedia should, while keeping the NPOV policy in place in some form, favour current mainstream scientific opinion. While I can understand the rationale behind the NPOV policy I think it often makes for less, not more, encylopediac articles written in the style of “Some expert’s believe that this view point is wrong because...” “However it might be noted that...” “Some have argued that...” etc, which while following the letter do not follow the spirt of the NPOV policy.

I'm passionately committed to:

Saving the enviorment. The rule of law. Fighting the emotional, sexual, mental and physical abuse of children. Freedom of speech. Preserving human rights and making culpable before international courts those who violate them. The importance of internet self regulation in addition to government regulation. Legal reform so that the legal system better addresses the problem of moral luck. Combating police corruption. Upholding the importance of analytic skills. Analytic Philosophy.

title: User:Timothy J Scriven


text:
User:Djamund

Currently I am a UNIX administrator at a large private corporation.

My interests include:

 * UNIX (Linux, AIX, HP-UX, and Solaris, in that order).
 * Cygwin
 * LPI Linux Certification
 * LaTeX

title: User:Djamund


text:
Open Culture

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /Information/
 * /Technology/
 * /Media/
 * /Politics/
 * /Work/
 * /Authors/
 * /Glossary/

Links

 * History of Technology

Open Culture

title: Open Culture


text:
Open Culture/Preface

Many articles and books speak about the Open Source movement, but very few or none speak about the broader movement, the Open culture movement, so here is a text trying to explain the broader movement.

title: Open Culture/Preface


text:
Open Culture/Introduction

You might have heard of Open Source, and perhaps you have heard about Mozilla Firefox, a web browser, or of Linux, an operating system that rivals Windows; both attempt to challenge the mainstream software provided by many big tech corporations, much of which is locked behind a paywall, and/or spies on their own users. Open Source Software is not explicitly political - it has adherents across the political spectrum - but the method of development has led a number of theorists to suggest it is applicable to other areas of life. Moreover, it has the potential to change the way we work, govern ourselves and access the media.

This is a new area of study with an unstable lexicon, however, Lawrence Lessig - a professor at Stanford Law School, has dubbed the movement 'Free Culture', a term he borrowed from Richard Stallman's Free Software. Cooperation, Sharing, Global and Knowledge are its key concepts. In its most extreme (and idealistic) form, it is a system where everyone has a equal access to knowledge and information, where society would be free to live in a world of peace, discussion, tolerance, happiness, and understanding. Yes, this is the most idealistic view and we think that it is a goal that society should have. Even many of us claim that it is not possible, but we should strive for it.

title: Open Culture/Introduction


text:
Open Culture/Technology

Technology, the most visible part of the Open Culture movement can be most easily illustrated in the field of both computer software and hardware.

A branch of the Free Software movement known as Open Source software is a commonly-cited example. As in all cases of "free" culture the free software and open source movements are founded on a premise whereby the user is not restricted in the use of the software. The user is encouraged to build upon what has gone before without any fear of being restricted by legal or ethical constraints.

Many users of free software from around the world are able to contribute to the development of applications that are useful, so it is in effect not a single company that creates software for the customers but customers that contribute to making useful and efficient software for themselves as part of a community and society.

Examples
Common examples of this technology include the GNU/Linux Operating System, the Mozilla Firefox web browser, and the LibreOffice office suite. Other examples of this include WordPress, Apache, VLC, Blender, and others. Each of those applications have very significant shares in their respective markets and may pose a threat to their traditional, proprietary competitors.

title: Open Culture/Technology


text:
Open Culture/Media

Media, another area of Open Culture, includes content-sharing such as BitTorrent, and other P2P networks. It is very recent, mainly having come with the development of the Internet. These networks allow everyone to share their photos, music and videos so that everyone has access to all the media he would like and gives his own production to everyone.

What are the incentives to produce new media if one can't get any money out of it? Some incentives include communicating one's thoughts, beliefs and knowledge. And to be sure that one's work will at least have a reference to the author, one can use licenses like the ones that Creative Commons proposes.

People increasingly are influenced by media. This is called the "media imperative".

title: Open Culture/Media


text:
Open Culture/Politics

Many different websites and groups are promoting discussions about national or international politics, these are strong actors in the open culture movement, because they want to have everyone contribute to the different subjects to advance the general knowledge. Though this has been said to be a manifestation of left wing politics.

However, politically-oriented websites tend to attract politically opinionated individuals, and, as a result, Open Culture has not been as successful in such venues as might have been anticipated. For instance, Indymedia, regarded by some as Open, is regarded by many as a failure in that deletions and IP banning is performed by a closed group, and the Open publishing is exploited by parties who might better be deleted, but are not deleted, because the deletion powers vest in the closed groups.

title: Open Culture/Politics


text:
LEGO Design

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * Materials Needed
 * Building from the Official Instructions
 * Creative Building
 * Understand the Pieces
 * Building Smart, Building Strong
 * Using Technic Pieces
 * Using Lego Mindstorms
 * /Power Functions/
 * /Software/
 * /Authors/
 * /Glossary/

title: LEGO Design


text:
LEGO Design/Introduction

It has long been realized that Lego blocks are much more than children's toys, they are grown up's toys as well. With the introduction of Technic Lego (c) and later on Mindstorms Lego (c) Lego became much more than static modeling. It became a live, multi-dimensional simulation. With Lego we can now reproduce much more than simple models of buildings and still objects, we can now make robots and moving modules that accurately represent the world.

LEGO Design has two forms: Creative and Instructional. Instructional building is done with detailed instructions as a guide. Lego Inc. supplies building instructions with all of their products which contain details of the different uses of the parts and tips on their use in creative designing. Creative design involves building without instructions, which requires a lot more creativity and at the end is the most valued type of design.

In this guide we give many instructional designs which were produced by Lego or submitted by independent designers. Alongside are also many tips on how to produce your own successful designs using your Lego at home.

Remember, the important thing is not to make the best model or accurately reproduce reality. The most important thing is to have fun!

title: LEGO Design/Introduction


text:
LEGO Design/Instructions

Official Lego(c) instructions
Usually, you might start out with a LEGO set that comes in a box and includes basic pieces, special pieces, and stickers. In the box there is a set of instructions that details every aspect of the step by step building process. You are almost guaranteed to build something that is sleek, uniform, and closely representative of something. It is recommended that you begin with simple instructions before moving on to the more advanced instructions which are usually found in larger sets.

PAY ATTENTION! Most Lego instructions are designed as step-by-step pictures which illustrate your progress through the stages. To move on to the next stage you must identify the pieces that were added to the new picture since the last one, and add the corresponding pieces to your own model. Many times there are little changes which easily evade the eye, much of the time changes are not easily identified, and other times pieces can be misidentified causing confusion as progress continues. Always pay close attention to the development of the pictures so that you identify the small changes. Lego isn't as difficult as origami, but the lack of clear instructions can make it just as irritating.

Note that many times extra pieces are included in Lego packages, so if you find extras after you've completed the model there is no real reason to panic.

Fan instructions
The amazing invention of the internet has among many, many other things permitted the millions of Lego fans to come together and share their creative inventions with each other. Once you have mastered Official Lego models it is recommended that you check out different Lego fan sites where you can find thousands (if not hundreds of thousands) of different models fitting almost every kind of budget. Most of these models do not have instructions, they are unique creations, but a search for "custom LEGO instructions" will find many that do.after doing it with the instructions try it without the instructions to get better.

title: LEGO Design/Instructions


text:
LEGO Design/Creative

The beauty of LEGO is truly revealed when you start building without instructions. It is best to start with a large collection of standard LEGO pieces (i.e. rectangles, squares, etc.) and an assortment of speciality pieces, perhaps acquired from demolished projects that used a box kit. A large pool of standard pieces will allow you to use the colors you want and still have enough pieces, and the speciality pieces add the occasional design function you will need to express your creative ideas.

The design process usually starts with an idea. Visualize what you want to build. Start with the basics. If you want to build a house, first design the framework. After you have a frame, add a roof, and then exterior decorations.

title: LEGO Design/Creative


text:
LEGO Design/Materials

The following are things you should (or ideally should) have:
 * LEGO elements. LEGO is available either in bulk packages with a variety of bricks, plates, and other elements, or as sets which can be used to build the model on the box or other creations.
 * Base-plates can usually be bought individually, although some come with sets. Like their name implies, they act as a base for models and help provide support. Base-plates are most available in 32x32 and 48x48, but various sizes, colors, and shapes exist.
 * Minifigures add realism to LEGO models. They are generally included with some sets, and some special sets are released which are just minifigures and accessories. Again, consider what you want to do before purchasing.
 * If you are building a Technic model, wheels, axles, and other elements are included in LEGO Technic sets. An electric motor can be purchased separately to add motion to the model.
 * If necessary, sets and parts can be purchased from the LEGO company's Shop-at-Home catalog, or from various web sites that buy and sell LEGO.

title: LEGO Design/Materials


text:
LEGO Design/Pieces

There are several types of standard pieces, characterized and identified by the number of studs that piece contains. The "studs" are the little bumps on the top of almost every element in the LEGO system. A stud fits into grooves found on the bottom of almost every other element in the LEGO system. Obviously, a stud can only fit in a groove and vice versa, and so is the most basic understanding in building with LEGO.

This means that as such LEGO models can only be built "one way up", but there are also special parts to work around this and allow for a variety of angular designs.

LEGO bricks are referred to by mathematical proportions much like timber; for example a "2×4 brick" is a brick that is 2 studs wide and four studs long. The 2×4 is the first and most common LEGO element of all. For most applications you will end up needing greater quantities of this brick than of any of the other elements.

There are two basic types of LEGO elements, "bricks" and "plates". Put simply, bricks are the thick elements and plates are the thin ones; plates are always 1/3 of the height of a brick, so a mixture of plates and bricks can be used, but they still meet at the same height.

In special cases a plate-based part may be 2/3 of a brick, or a "brick" may actually be several bricks high itself, and these can allow for greater flexibility in construction.

LEGO pieces come in a wide variety of colors. Basic bricks and plates are available in around 64 colors, while some specialized elements only come in a few colors. Specialty chromed and glow-in-the-dark elements are also available, as well as transparent varieties of many of the solid colors.

title: LEGO Design/Pieces


text:
LEGO Design/Strength

Sometimes you want to build something that will not fall down if it gets bumped or dropped. When you are building the walls of a house, for example, make sure you build it well. Just like in a brick house, the bricks are not stacked right on top of each other. They are staggered. This gives strength to your building, and creates a strong foundation from which to build your creative incarnation.

Strength is important when building with LEGOs. In case it gets mis-handled while being moved or built, it might break. Hours of hard work could literally crumble away. A strong creation will last its part.

title: LEGO Design/Strength


text:
User talk:Pminton

Copyright problem with Image:Cssposnormal.png
--Derbeth 08:32, 22 October 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pminton


text:
User talk:70.29.3.3

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

December 10, 2005
This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:70.29.3.3


text:
Talk:Russian/Loanwords

Untitled
give me examples of Russian loanwords

Q. re "Saturday - zaterdag/sabbat (Dutch) - sabbath - суббо́та" -- I thought it came from Greek/Eastern (Byzantine) Roman influence, with Greek Sabbaton from Hebrew? I'd agree, it's a loan from Greek, thus from Hebrew for sure. There is just the same case in Polish- "sobota" from Latin Sabbatum. Kameal (talk) 20:00, 22 August 2008 (UTC)

Errors
There are a few errors here. 83.109.103.92 (discuss) 02:23, 7 January 2013 (UTC)
 * быстро -> bistro is proven to be a myth
 * брюки -> broek is actually the other way
 * стул is a loan from Germanic through Old Norse or Low German

title: Talk:Russian/Loanwords