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berikaoba-yeenobis dResaswauli saqarTveloSi

Zvel qarTul, xalxur sanaxaobaTa Soris gansakuTrebul yuradRebas iqcevs xalxuri improvizaciis niRbebis Teatri _ berikaoba. berikaoba anu niRbosanTa dResaswauli msoflios mraval xalxSia cnobili. berikaoba-yeenoba urTulesi da mravalferovani agraruli dResaswaulia da aqarTvelos sxvadasxva kuTxeSi sxvadasxva TaviseburebiT gamoirCeva. sityva “berikaoba” Tavdapirvelad sakulto wes-msaxurebis aRmniSvneli unda yofiliyo. berikaoba, rogorc ganayofierebis da Svilierebis kultis sadidebeli sanaxaobis aRmniSvneli sityva nawarmoebi unda iyos Svilis aRmniSvneli beradan da saerTod, niSnobisa gamomxatveli belidan1. berikaoba beridan aris nawarmoebi. mesxeT-javaxeTSi berikas bers uwodebdnen2. svaneTSic, berikas bers eZaxdnen3. berikaoba ganekuTvneboda sayveliero wes-TamaSobaTa ricxvs. berikaoba Tavisi bunebiT nayofierebisa da aRorZinebisadmi miZRvnili dResaswaulia, amitomac naTelia, Tu ratom iyo, rom es dResaswauli bunebis gamoRviZebisas, gazafxulis damdegs iwyeboda. magram berikaobis svanuri variantis _ muryvamoba-kviriaobis Seswavlam gamoavlina, rom am dReobas adgili hqonda rogorc yvelierSi, ise wlis dasawyisSic. radgan berikaoba Zvelad ganayofierebis kultis wes-msaxurebas warmoadgenda, misi Sesrulebis droc da xangrZlivobac yvelieris kviras ukavSirdeboda. berikaobis sazamTro da sagazafxulo dReobebis wes-Cveulebebi msgavsia, radgan orive SemTxvevaSi es dReoba agraruli xaiaTisaa da tardeba maRalmosavlianobis, nayofiereba-baraqianobis uzrunvelsayofad da Tan orive SemTxvevaSi xdeba erTnairi moqmedeba: ucnaur samosSi, ZonZebSi gamowyobili, sxvadasxva niRbosani (Txis, daTvi, taxis, mamlis niRbiani) berikebis siaruli sofelSi,

1. janeliZe d., qarTuli Teatris istoria, (xalxuri sawyisebi) Tbilisi, 1983 w.gv.18 2. makalaTia s., mesxeT-javaxeTi, Tbilisi, 1938 w., gv. 7-8	3. oniani j., qarTvelTa uZvelesi sarwmunoebis istoriidan (muryvamoba-kviriaoba) sakanidato disertacia, Tbilisi, 1969 w., gv. 10 ojaxis dalocva da nayofiereba-baraqianobis survilis gamomxatveli simRerebis Sesruleba. berikaoba Tavisi arsebobis xangrZlivi drois ganmavlobaSi Camoyalibda niRbebis saimprovizacio Teatrad, romelSic berikebi Taobidan TaobisTvis gadmocemuli scenarebis mixedviT dgamdnen speqtaklebs. berikaobis siuJetebs SemorCenili aqvT sxvadasxva xanisTvis damaxasiaTebeli forma da Sinaarsi. berikaobis siuJetebis fondi (100-mde nomeri) Tavisi Sinaarsisa da wyobis mixedviT Semdegnairad daiyo1: I Zveli qarTuli warmarTuli berikaoba a. cxovelebisa da frinvelebis kulti b. miTologiuri motivebi g. Svilierebis, bunebis ganaxlebisa da ganayofierebis kulti

II saero berikaoba a. salaSqro b. eklesiis msaxurTa mamxilebeli sanaxaoba g. sayofacxovrebo d. batonymobisa da saeTod, usamarTlobis winaaRmdeg mimarTuli berikaoba

berikaoba sxvadasxva saxis iyo, awyobdnen didsa da patara berikaobebs. Tu sofeli didi iyo z. girmiSaSvilis TqmiT, monawileobda 40-idan 100-mde berika, xolo patara berikaobaSi xSirad mxolod sam berikas uTamaSia. berikaoba adgilisa da tipis mixedviT samgvari iyo: 1. kardakar mosiarule 2. moedanze moTamaSe 3. Sereuli tipis. berikaobaSi mxolod mamakacebi monawileobdnen, qalis rols qalad gadacmuli mamakaci asrulebda. berikaobas Tavisi gamgebeli hyavda, romelsac “meTaurs”, “belads” an “Tamadas” uwodebdnen.

1. janeliZe d., dasaxelebuli naSromi, gv. 21 berikaTa gunds “dasi” an “dasta” ewodeboda, romelic Sedgeboda mTavari berikis, berika Roris, arabis, lekis, TaTris, mRvdlis, naTliis, dedoflis, mebarguleebis, mekalaTeebis da sxvadasxva musikalur instrumentebze damkvrelebisgan. berikebi sakazmad iyenebdnen cxvris, Txis da xaris tyavebs, saqonlis kudebs, gogris, nabdis, muyaosa da qaRaldis niRbebs, Rorisa da Txis gamxmar niRbebs, sxvadasxva cxovelebis rqebs, frinvelebis frTebs, inas da naxSirs, simindis, xisa da rqis wiTlad SeRebil “konkila” falosebs, xisgan gamoTlil qamar-xanjlebs, farebs. berika icvamda cxvris an Txis tyavs, cxvri gadmobrunebul tyavkabas. mas saxeze niRabi ekeTa. niRbis wver-ulvaSi Txis balniT irTveboda da Tvalebis, cxviris da kbilebis gamosaCenad iyo gamoWrili. berikas welze qamari ertya, romelzec qvis, Zvlis an xis falosi iyo Camokidebuli. qarTlSi zogan cxvris an Txis gasufTavebuli tyavis niRbebi ekeTaT, zogjer ki Txis rqebs da Tavis qalasac iyenebdnen. imereli berika tyavis samkuTxa formis quds an kvaxaberis saxeliT cnobili ayirosa da xapis niRbebs atarebda. berikas xevsureTSi Semdegnairad rTavdnen: “. . . gafxuWven kacs,Saabamen vacis ybaT, rqaTac daukeTeben, saabamen kuds raisasa. . . “1 dResaswaulis meore mTavari gmiri iyo ‘’kekela” anu dedofali,romlis rolsac vaJi asaxierebda. igi sapatarZlo kabiT, CixtiT ada leCaqiT irTveboda. “kekelas” sxvdasxva feris mZivebs hkidebdnen, saxes ki feradi sacxebliT uRebavdnen, zogjer kiriT gamurulic ki yofila,. arabs, leks, TaTars, romlebic erTsa da imave funqcias asrulebdnen Coxa-axaluxi an raime Zvelmani ecvaT, xolo naTlia, romelsac patarZlis dacva evaleboda Tavdamsxmelebisgan da motrfialeebisgan, Coxa-axaluxSi iyo Cacmuli.

1. ruxaZe j., qarTuli xalxuri dResaswauli, Tbilisi, 1966 w., gv. 6. berikaobis warmodgenebSi gamoyenebuli iyo, rogorc sakravieri, ise xmieri musika. berikebi iyenebdnen dafa-zurnas, dairas, stvirs. maT sakuTari sasimRero repertuaric gaaCndaT, romelsac “berikuli” ewodeboda. rodesac berikebi mzadyofnas daasrulebdnen, sofels daivlidnen. win berika da dedofali miuRvebodaT, ukan ki mTeli amala mihyvebodaT. berikuls mestvire mReroda. qarTlis yvela sofels sxvadsxva “berikuli” hqondaT. berikad namyofis gadmocemiT “diRmuri berikuli muxranulze kargio mosasmenia. . .”1 berikebi kargad daivlidnen mTel sofels. maT yvela sixaruliT eloda, ezoSi berika xtoda da TamaSobda, Tan faloss minas usvamda, riTac maspinZels aniSnebda sursaT-sanovage gamoitaneo. amala ki “beras” leqss dasZaxoda: “berikais karsao, giWyrialeb Tvalsao Cqara Tu ras gamomitan, Toro gimtvrev karsao”2 da sxv. maspinZeli uxvad umaspinZldeboda berikebs da Tan asaCuqrebda, gamaspinZlebis Semdeg berikebs miarTmevdnen ZRvens: xorcs, fqvils, erbos, Tafls, kvercxs, Rvinos, arays da a. S. Tu berikebi gamaspinZlebiT kmayofilni ar iyvnen, maSin berika ezoSi, miwaze gagordeboda, rac ojaxisaTvis cudis momaswaveblad iTvleboda, miuxedavad imisa, rom ojaxi guluxvad umaspinZldeboda berikebs, isini amas ar sjerdebodnen da iparavdnen yvelafers, razec xeli miuwvdebodaT. amas ojaxis wevrebi didi sixaruliT xvdebodnen, radgan maTi azriT, berikebis mier saWmel-sasmelis moparva bednierebis niSani iyo. sanovagiT datvirTuli berikebi axla sxva ojaxs miakiTxavdnen da ase moivlidnen mTel sofels. zogjer berikebi erTi soflis davliT ar kmayofildebodnen da axlobel Tu Soreul soflebsac estumrebodnen. kardakar siarulisa da soflebis Semovlis dros, mTeli yuradReba dedofalze iyo gadatanili, magram dedoflis moxelTeba metad Zneli iyo, radgan xis

1. ruxaZe j., qarTuli xalxuri dResaswauli, Tbilisi, 1966 w., gv. 7 2. ruxaZe j., dasaxelebuli naSromi, 1966 w., gv. 7 xmlebiT SeiraRebuli mxleblebi dedofals erTi wamiTac aSorebdnen Tvals. yvelaze metad mTavari berika gamoirCeoda. igi dedofals exveoda, kocnida. erotiul survilebs dedoflis mimarT dResaswaulis sxva monawileebic iCendnen, radgan vinc dedofals akocebda, is dovlaTiani da mdidari iqneboda. amis Semdeg moedanze iwyeboda nefe-dedoflis qorwilis inscenireba. berika ealerseboda dedofals, colobas sTxovda. dedofalic Tanxmdeboda da iwyeboda qorwilis samzadisi. nefe-dedofals urmiT waiyvandnen jvris dasawerad. maT win ”jvris puriT” xelsi naTlia miuZRodaT. Romelime moedanze meqirwileebs mRvdeli jvars daswerda. mRvdels anaforis msgavsi tanisamosi ecva da olaric ekida. igi Txis balnis wver-ulvaSiT iyo morTuli, qorwili ki simReriTa da cekva-TamaSiT mTavrdeboda. SeuRlebis Semdeg dedoflis mcvelebi TaTari an arabi nefes klavdnen. Sewuxebuli dedifali tiroda, saxes ixokavda. dResaswaulis monawileni amSvidebdnen dedofals, ukeTes qmars hpirdebodnen. Ama mosdevda berikas gacocxlebis inscenireba. mas wyals asxamdnen, saxes usresdnen _ mis gacocxlebas cdilobdnen. amasobaSi mcvelebi dedofals itacebdnen, xolo rodesac berikas CasZaxebdnen, dedofali moitaceso, is cocxldeboda, misdevda xmliT mcvelebs, dedofals ibrunebda da masTan xelmeored qorwindeboda. berikaobis dasasruls moedanze imarTeboda xelCarTuli brZola ketebiTa da xis xmlebiT. damarcxebulebs sursaTs arTmevdnen da kvercxebs umtvrevdnen. dResaswauli mTavrdeboda “saberikao sufriT”. lxini saerTo xarjiTa da Segrovili nadavliT ewyoboda. “saberiko lxins” Sairebi, cekva-TamaSi da simRerebi mohyveboda. drostarebiT guls rom ijerebdnen, dResaswaulis monawileni pirs dasavleTisken izamdnen. isini RmerTs madlobas swiravdnen da SesTxovdnen _ “momaval berikaobas ukeTesad Segvaxvedreo”. berikaobis mTel rig siuJetebSi, mxedrul, salaSqro motivebs moqmedebis warmmarTveli Zala mouxveWiaT. es albaT maSin unda momxdariyo, rodesac berikaoba sakulto mniSvnelobas gascilda, xalxis yofa-cxovrebis amsaxvel garToba-sanaxaobad iqca. gamoricxuli ar aris SesaZlebloba, rom ucxo brZolis motivi berikaobaSi Semotanili yofiliyo im miTebis rkalidan, romelnic Zvel dramatul gansaxierebis arsenals warmoadgendnen, iseve, rogorc es misteria “muryvamobis” mimarT SeniSnuli aqvs akademikos iv. javaxiSvils. cxadia, rom momdevno periodSi berikebi Zvel scenarebSi Tanamedroveobis amsaxvel scenebs urTavdnen: “arabi”, “TaTari”, “leki”, aSkaraa “daTvis”, “taxis”, “dedoflis”, “mefis”, “Txis” niSnebTan SedarebiT momdevno periodSi warmoiSva. dimitri janeliZes “xalxur sawyisebSi” aRwerili aqvs salaSqro berikaoba XVIII saukuneSi TuSeTSi. maT aseTi berikaoba mouwyviaT: “qalaqurad gadaucvamT, xelSi TiTistarebi dauWeriaT da matylis rTva dauwyiaT. mas ar iRebdnen. xalxi ekiTxeboda raTao, bolos Tqves: _ Cven vaJkacebi aRar varT! aRarc Tqvena xarT vaJkacebi, Cven TaTrebma dagviWires alvanSi da dedakacebad gamogviyvanes. Tu guSin Cven gviyves es ambavi, xval Tqven Cveni bedi dagemarTebaT. maSin yvela fSaveli Caicvams dedakacurad, daiWerT xmlis nacvlad TiTistars da TaTrebisaTvis daarTavT matyls. xalxi aRelda, iaraRi aisxa da Tavganwiruli brZoliT TaTrebi gareka saqarTvelodan.” XIX saukunis 40-50-ian wlebSi mTel kavkasiaSi saxelganTqmuli berika _ muSaiTi iyo abel revaziSvili, misi warmodgenebi imarTeboda yofili erevnisa da gunibis moedanze, kviracxovlobas ki _ kukiis gareTac. man TbilisSi warmoadgina “dedamiwis irgvliv mogzauroba”. oCofexebze mdgari abel revaziSvili mayurebels warudga xelSi nabdis qudiT. improvizirebuli TxrobiT berika-muSaiTi msmenelebs mouTxrobda xmeleTsa da zRvaze, afrikaSi, aziaSi, amerikasa da evropaSi mogzaurobaze. am dros misi qudic jadosnur Zalas iZenda da rodesac arabebis Sesaxeb yveboda berika, maSin qudic arabul saxes Rebulobda, TiTqos andazas asaxierebda “ra qveyanaSic mixvide, iqauri qudi daixureo”. Tbilisis xuroTmoZRvaris _ belis naxatiT irkveva, rom XIX s.-is 40-50-ian wlebSi xalxuri sanaxaobebisTvis erT-erTi yvelaze mosaxerxebeli saTamaSo adgili yofila gunibis moedani, romelic igive adgilas iyo, sadac axla mTavrobis win korpusia. belis naxati gamoxatavs XIX s.-is 50-ian wlebSi gunibis moedanze gamarTul saxalxo dResaswauls. moedanze maRal oCofexebze mdgari TeTr Sarvalsa da qurTukSi gamowyobili moTamaSe Cans. vinaidan im dros TbilisSi ganTqmuli iyo oCofexebze moTamaSe abel revaziSvili da ramdenadac naxatze gamosaxuli emTxveva abel revaziSvilis garegnobas, unda vifiqroT, rom belis naxati warmoadgens abel revaziSvilis warmodgenis amsaxvel dokuments. am naxatis mixedviT abel revaziSvilis gars axvevia moTamaSeebi, romlebic albT mis dass Seadgendnen. moedani savsea etlebiT, rac imas mowmobs, rom abel revaziSvilis warmodgenebs Tavadaznauroba da mefis moxeleebic eswrebodnen. maTi saCrdiloblebi merxebTan erTad moTavsebuli yofila mTawmindis mxridan, moednis zemoT. belis minaweriT naxati naturidanaa, e.i. sinamdvilea, aqedan gamomdinare, SegviZlia vifiqroT, rom abel revaziSvili aramarto Tbilisis, aramed mTeli XIX saukunis pirveli naxevris qarTuli xalxuri Teatris yvelaze gamoCenili msaxiobia. dResaswaulis merve dRes, didmarxvis orSabaTs yeenoba iwyeboda da am orSabaTs sxvadsxva saxeli erqva: “Savi orSabaTi”, “wminda orSabaTi”, “kumeti”... Cven gvaqvs yenobis 48 aRweriloba. es masala amJRavnebs yeenobis sami safexuris arsebobas. pirveli safexuri sakulto ceremonialisa da warmarTuli misteriis gadmonaSTebs Seicavs. meore safexuri gviCvenebs, rom sakulto ceremonialisa da warmarTuli misteriis wiaRidan gamosuli yeenoba saero sanaxaobad gadaqceula da qarTveli xalxis mier dampyroblebTan brZolis asaxvis saSualeba gamxdara. mesame safexuri axali drois nayofia da masSi asxulia qarTveli xalxis brZola mefis ruseTis winaaRmdeg. Zvel qarTul sanaxaobaSi “yeenis saxeli” iv. javaxiSvilis azriT, XIII-XIV-ze adre ver gaCndeboda. XIII saukunemde dResaswaulis monawile erTi gundis meTaurs “keisari” unda rqmeoda. VI saukunis manZilze bizantiel dampyrobelTa winaaRmdeg ajanyebulan qarTveli tomebi da cxadia, rom es momenti qarTul sanaxaobaSi mniSvnelovan kvals datovebda, xolo “yeeni” ki im droidan Semovida xmarebaSi, rodesac saqarTvelos yeenoba ucxo Zalad moevlina1. SeiZleba vifiqroT, rom yeenis magivrad erT-erTi gundis meTaurs “arabi” rqmeoda da es saxeli ki VIII saukuneze adre ver gaCndeboda. rodesac “arabi” yeeniT Seicvala, yeenobam arabis niRabi mainc SeinarCuna da igi “yeenis” mxlebelT ricxvSi mainc moeqca. yeeni SubiT xalxs dasdevs, raTa nadavli moipovos. es arabTa mier saqarTvelos awiokebis maCvenebeli SeiZleba iyos. XIX saukuneSi ki am scenam sruliad icvala saxe da igi carizmis winaaRmdeg mimarTul sanaxaobad iqca. xalxi yeenobisvis mzadebas didmarxvis orSabaTs iwyebda. irCevdnen yeens da mis amalas, arCevdnen maTTvis gankuTvnil tansacmels. dResaswaulisTvis saWiro pur-Rvinos erTi ojaxi iZleoda, romelsac Semdeg Tesva-mkaSi exmarebodnen. zogierT sofelSi yeens yovel wels irCevdnen, zogan ki Tu yeens kargi fexi ar hqonda, kargi fexis mqones irCevdnen. yeenad irCevdnen axalgazrda, Ronier, xumara mamakacs, ufro xSirad ki axaldaqorwinebuls. Tu sofelSi ramdenime axaldaqorwinebuli iyo, irCevdnen ufro brgesa da axovans, raTa im wels ufro kargi mosavali yofiliyo. yeenis amal sxvadsxva adgilas sxvadasxva SedgenilobiT iyo. aq Sediodnen: yeeni, dedofali-yeeni, arabi, leki, Sahi, kurTebi anu buRebi, berikebi, vezirebi, 1. javaxiSvili iv., qarTveli eris istoria, Tbilisi, 1979 w., wigni I., gv. 112

mayrebi, naTlia. aseve monawileobdnen metyeve, Jandarmi, xazindari, adiutanti, polkovniki da sxv. yeenis kostumi metad mravalfervani iyo: Tavze exura qaRaldis Wreli qudi an frinvelis bumbuliT morTuli fafaxi, kaxeTSi yeens qudis magivrad kruxis sabudari exura, romelSic zogjer kruxi ijda, raTa im wels didi mosavali mosuliyo. yeeni saxeze qaRaldisgan an muyaosgan damzadebul niRabs ifarebda, romelic xSirad wiTlad iyo SeRebili. yeeni zogjer niRbis magivrad Savad iRebavda saxes da Tmis wver-ulvaSs ikeTebda. yeens cxvris gadmobrunebuli tyavkaba ecva, zogs ki yaraCoxelis tansacmeli. yeenobaSi monawile dedofali Cixti-kopiT an abreSumis wiTeli qaRaldiT iyo morTuli da qarTuli kaba ecva. dedofals vaJi asaxierebda, romelic saxeze ferumarils isvamda da naWrebisagan mkerds ikeTebda. dResaswaulSi monawileobdnen mefe da dedofali, romelTac mefuri tansacmeli ecvaT. mefes Tavze gvirgvini edga da xelSi kverTxi eWira. didmarxvis orSabaTs megangaSeni da berikebi zariTa da sayviriT sofels yeenobis dawyebas amcnobdnen, soflisa da qalaqis moedanze xalxi gamoCndeboda, yeeni da dedofali winaswar gamzadebul taxtebze sxdebodnen, yeens muxlebze gadasaxadis Casaweri davTari edo. Semdeg xdeboda yeenisa da dedoflis “daqorwineba”. yeeni qals gvariSvilobisa da simdidris mixedviT irCevda, agreTve iTvaliswinebda mis silamzes da sxva Rirsebebs. igi maWankals ugzavnida sapatarZlos, qali uars ambobda gaTxovebaze. ganrixebuli yeeni midioda mis mosataceblad, imarTeboda xelCarTuli brZola, romelic yeenis gamarjvebiT mTavrdeboda. Semdeg yeeni da misi amala sofels Camoivlida. isini pirvelad axaldaqorwinebulTa saxlebs miakiTxavdnen. yeeni maspinZels dResaswauls miulocavda da kargi mosavlis aRebas usurvebda. yeeni dajdeboda misTvis gankuTvnil adgilas, durbindiT sofels gaxedavda da gadasaxadis Seweras iwyebda. begaras Seadgenda: arayi, Rvino, erbo, yveli, xaWapuri, qada. dResaswaulis monawileni micemuli saCuqrebiT ar kmayofildebodnen da ojaxidan saWmels itacebdnen. mTavari damrbevi “arabi” iyo. Tu vinme yeens gadasaxadis gadaxdaze uars etyoda, maSin yeeni tyved waiyvanda da ajarimebda mas, rac gadasaxadis ormagad gadaxdiT gamoixateboda. amis Semdeg Widaoba imarTeboda, romelic mdinaris piras an zogjer mdinareSic grZeldeboda. damarcxebul yeens agdebdnen tbaSi an lafSi amosvridnen. wyalSi Casuli yeeni faloss marils moayrida, Rvinos daasxamda, moixsnida, wyalSi Caagdebda da ityoda: “wadi, gamravldi qveyanaze, kargi mosavali moiyvaneo”1. Semdeg yeeni da dedofali qudebs wyliT avsebdnen, xalxs wuwavdnen da Tan ilocebodnen: “gagimravldeT Zroxa, wiwila, qaTami, cxvari da mravali mogsvlodes purio”2. kaxeTSi arc yeenis gaSiSvlebas eridebodnen. mas wylis did “navSi”, anda wylis did gejaSi agdebdnen da karg mosavals natrobdnen. qarTlis zogierT sofelSi sami yeeni hyavdaT, erTi kacebisa, ori _ qalebis. qalebis mier gamarTuli yeenoba ufro karg mosavals iZleoda da amis Semdeg ewyoboda lxini, romelic erT kviras grZeldeboda. lxinis dros sxvdasxva TamaSobebi imarTeboda. yeenobis yvela aRweriloba XIX da XX saukunebis avtorebs ekuTvnis. arsebobda mxolod zogierTi aRweriloba, Tu rogor tardeboda yeenoba XVII-XVIII saukuneebSi. XVII-XVIII saukuneebis TbilisSi yeenoba didi zar-zeimiT ewyoboda. xalxi yoveli mxridan modioda. maT win miuZRodaT spars yeenad wodebuli, romelsac saxe gamuruli hqonda da gadabrunebuli tyapuWi ecva. isini mefis sasaxles miadgebodnen. mefe maT ajildovebda. Semdeg isini didebulTa saxlebisken midiodnen iqac saCuqrebs Rebulobdnen. bolos yeenisa da mefis banakebs Soris brZola imarTeboda, romelic mefis gamarjvebiT

1. ruxaZe j., dasaxelebuli naSromi, gv. 13 2. igive, gv. 1

mTavrdeboda. damarcxebul yeens mdinareSi agdebdnen. amis Semdeg ki qeifi iwyeboda.Tbilisi (1817-1827 w.) “maSin is iyo, sololakis mxare Sendeboda. mTavarmarTeblis sasaxlis garSemo axali qalaqis ubani evropuli xuroTmoZRvrebis gegmazed. dadga yvelieris ukanaskneli dReebi. mTeli tfilisi qalaqi: avlabari, nariyala da CuRureTi yeenobis saTamaSod emzadeboda. Seidabadis xelosnebs, feiqrebs, xuroebs da mWedlebs bevri samuSao hqondaT aRebuli. isini amzadebdnen xis xmlebsa da xanjlebs, sacere rgolebs da Surdulebs”1. am dros mTeli Tbilisi gayofili iyo or nawilad: erTi iyo isani, meore _ nariyala. “isnis mxares iyvnen CuRureTisa da kukiis mosaxleni, xolo nariyalas emxrobdnen verisa da sololakis mcxovrebni. nariyalis maraqaSi gamodiodnen muxran-batoni, orbeliani, baraTaSvili, erisTavi da ermolovi, isnisaSi ki _ kaxeTis mebatoneni _ WavWavaZe, ColoyaSvili, vaxvaxiSvili, jandieri da sxv.”2 dResaswaulis dawyebis win yeeni da dedofali gamodiodnen amaliT da ipyrobdnen mTel qalaqs, mosaxleobas xarks uwesebdnen. ase batonobda yeeni SuadRemde. Semdeg ki yeens moaxsenebdnen, Seni Camogdeba undaTo da iwyeboda brZola mTawmindis serze. imarjvebdnen nariyalelebi. saqarTvelos mefe da misi amala yeens da dedofals saxedrebze svamdnen, Semdeg ki mtkvarSi yridnen. yeenobaSi asaxuli qarTvelTa laSqrobis ambavi xalxs warsulSi gadahqonda. am dRes XVII s.-Si xalxi misevia Sah-abasis warmomadgenels, misTvis jer muri wauglesiaT pirze, Semdeg virze SeusvamT, mTeli qalaqi SemoutarebiaT da mtkvarSi gadaugdiaT. arsebobs kidev erTi xalxuri gadmocema, romlis mixedviT Sav-orSabaT dRes, 1634 wels qarTvelebs giorgi saakaZis meTaurobiT Sah-abasis warmomadgeneli SeusvamT virze da mTeli qalaqi SemoutarebiaT.

1. janeliZe d., dasaxelebuli naSromi, gv. 31 2. ruxaZe r., dasaxelebuli naSromi, gv. 15

XIX s.-is meore naxevridan yeenoba carizmis winaaRmdeg mimarTul sanaxaobad iqca. am periodis TbilisSi erTis magivrad ramdenime yeenoba ewyoboda, romlebSic monawileobdnen berikebi, nefe-dedofali, mayrebi, frakiani da saTvaliani mosamarTle da sxv. zogierTi ubnis yeenebi “pianica kapitnebis” mundirebSi iyvnen Cacmulni da win miuZRodaT Seborkili tusaRebi, romlebsac ukan xis SubebiT SeiaraRebuli jariskacebi mihyvebodnen. erTxel evropis politikuri movlenis inscenireba mowyobila da Tavad bismarkisa da bulanJes msgavsad Cacmuli pirebic gamouyvaniaT. yeenoba saqarTveloSi carizmis gabatonebisTanave aikrZala, magram xalxi ver Seelia am sanaxaobas da mTavarmarTebelma cicianovma es akrZalva moxsna. magram nikoloz pirvelma yeenoba policiis meTvalyureobis qveS daayena. AmasTan erTad gamosca brZaneba, rom muStis garda sxva iaraRi ar yofiliyo gamoyenebuli. mefis xelisuflebam scada, moewyo yeenoba, romelic carizmis Zlevamosilebaze xazis gasmas emsaxureboda, magram xalxma am sanaxaobaSi daiwyo generlebisa da polkovnikebis gamosaxva. maT mier mosaxleobis awiokeba gaiTamaSes, xolo mefis usamarTlobis niSnad yeenobis msvlelobaSi saxrCobelebi da borkilSebmuli tusaRebi gamoiyvanes. aseT yeenobas mefis mTavroba ver Seegua da igi akrZales im mizeziT, rom viTom aseTi sanaxaobebi quCaSi moZraobis SemCerebeli iyo. amis Semdeg xalxi yeenobas orTaWalaSi marTavda, magram mas winandeli elferi aRar hqonda da amitom “yeenobis kudi” daerqva. saqarTvelos sxvadasxva kuTxeSi mopovebuli masala gvarwmunebs, rom yeenoba-berikaoba warmoSobiT ar aris ori erTmaneTisgan damoukidebeli sanaxaoba. yeenoba berikaobis safuZvelze Camoyalibebuli dResaswaulia, romelmac berikaobidan momdinare warmarTul elementebTan erTad asaxa qarTveli xalxis istoriuli warsulis sxvadasxva epizodebi. yeenoba-berikaobis agrarul xasiaTs mowmobs sxvadasxva ritualebi: qorwineba, sikvdilisa da sicocxlis, ferxulis, frinvelis da wylis kultis gadmonaSTebi. magaliTad, wylis kults mniSvnelovani adgili uWiravs rogorc berikaoba-yeenobaSi, aseve sxva msgavs dResaswaulebSi da gvxvdeba wylis gamoyenebis SemTxvevebi, rogorebicaa wuwaoba, wyalkurTxeva, yeenis tbaSi an mdinareSi gadagdeba da sxv. aseve Zalian mniSvnelovania mTavari personaJis _ berika-yeenis Tavsaburavis Tavisebureba. rogorc sxvadasxva monacemebiT irkveva, berika-yeeni dResaswaulis danarCen monawileebTan SedarebiT aSkarad dawinaurebulia. igi “mefis” tituls atarebs, RvTaebrivi warmoSobis pirad miiCneva da nayofierebis RvTaebasTan wilnayaria. am personaJis garegnuli niSnebis Seswavla aucilebelia dResaswaulis mTavari ideis gasagebad. dResaswaulis mTavari moqmedi piris Tavsaburavis nairsaxeobaSi, raTqmaunda gansakuTrebuli azria Cadebuli. aRsaniSnavia, rom qudi Tu qudniRbebi, romlebsac berika-yeeni atarebda da sagangebod keTdeboda, ritualuri daniSnulebis iyo. mosarTavebi _ mamlis Tavi, kruxis sabudari wiwilebiT, Zvali an xis konkila, nazuqis kveri, yurZeni, Ciri, puris TavTavi, feradi qaRaldi da mZivebi sxvadasxva emblemebs warmoadgenda. realurad arsebuli moqmedi piris sakraluri qudiTa da samkaulebiT gamoxatva, raTqmaunda SemTxveviTi ar iyo da masSi albaT, igulisxmeba nayofierebis kultis elementebi. Tavismxriv, mTavari personaJic nayofierebis RvTaebas ganasaxierebs. yeen-mefes gamorCeuli mdgomareoba aqvs mopovebuli, is Sesaferisi uflebebiTa da pativiT sargeblobs. Cans, quds, qudniRbebs samkaulebs da “mefis” tituls Soris raRac kavSiri arsebobs da savaraudoa, rom aseTi mosarTavebi, mxolod berikaoba- yeenobis dResaswaulSi gvxvdeba. aqedan gamomdinare, dResaswaulSi kultmsaxurebis TvalsazrisiT yvelaze maRla dResaswaulis mTavari gmiria warmodgenili, romlisTvisac am Tavsaburavebisa da sxva mosarTavebis tareba aucilebelia. TavsaburavTan dakavSirebiT yuradReba unda mivaqcioT imas, rom arc erT masalaSi berika uqudod ar gvxvdeba. is mudam Tavdaxurulia, Tavze raRac adevs an axuravs. magaliTad, rodesac berika-yeeni wyalSi Casvlis dros Tavsaburavs moixdis, “quds wyalSi amaaTrevs”, xalxs qudiT wyals miasxams da dailoceba, Semdeg svel quds Tavze daixuravs, amiT ibrunebs Tavis Zlevamosilebas. xSirad gvxvdeba boloSi wawvetebuli formis qudebi, romlebsac sxvdasxva datvirTva aqvT da sxvaTaSoris, amgvari qudebi gvxvdeba eraySic, berikaoba-yeenobis msgavsi Tamuzis dResaswaulis drosac da gankuTvnlia mTavari monawilisTvis. e. i. orive SemTxvevaSi msgavs personaJTan gvaqvs saqme. ase rom, saqarTvelos uZveles sazogadoebaSi gavrcelebuli nayofierebis RvTaebis kulti msgavsebas iCens winaaziur samyaroSi gavrcelebul am rigis RvTaebebTan, romlebic wvetiani qudiT, erTi an ori rqiT an misi simboluri gamsaxulebiTaa warmodgenili. amrigad, berikaoba-yeenoba nayofierebasa da aRorZinebasTan dakavSirebuli sagazafxulo dResaswaulia. es iyo berikaoba-yeenobis pirvandeli forma, Semdeg ki am sanaxaobam didi cvlilebebi ganicada, rac gamowveuli iyo saqarTvelos mZime socialur-politikuri cxovrebiT.

gamoyenebuli literatura

1. makalaTia s., mesxeT-javaxeTi, Tbilisi, 1938 w. 2. oniani j., qarTvelTa uZvelesi sarwmunoebis     istoriidan (muryvamoba-kviriaoba), Tbilisi, 1969 w. 3. ruxaZe j., bunebis ZalTa aRorZinebis xalxuri dResaswauli saqarTveloSi, Tbilisi, 1999 w. 4. ruxaZe j., qarTuli xalxuri dResaswauli, Tbilisi, 1966 w. 5. javaxiSvili iv., qarTveli eris istoria, t. I, Tbilisi, 1919 w. 6. janeliZe d., qarTuli Teatris istoria, Tbilisi, 1923 w.

nanuka giglemiani, 2007 weli

title: User:Nanuka sunny~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Gronau~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:43, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

I have noticed your post on Talk:C++ Programming/Classes, fell free to correct any mistakes, you should also start monitoring the Staff lounge. --NoJonny 17:43, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Gronau. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Gronau~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Gronau~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Fib12345~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
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 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 15:36, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Game guides
These are not usually seen as within policy here and so Cop360 may well be deleted. Sorry -- Herby talk thyme 15:36, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

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Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Fib12345. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Fib12345~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:10, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Fib12345~enwikibooks


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/21am

21am
Original author never really layed out a point for the book. Others have cleaned up the stuff he created a bit, but the book seems to have no point. I discussed the lack of direction in detail on the talk page and have gotten no response. The author seems to have left for other ambitions. Either way, if a book on arts management needs to be created, then let it be created. But this definitely isn't it; this book is an aimless few paragraphs that I think should be scrapped. - Monk talk 07:27, 28 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete - Quite old, going nowhere. -within focus 01:43, 29 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete. I agree. The book is poorly defined, doesnt have any substantial content, and it is highly unlikely that people looking for a book on this subject are going to search for the term "21am". --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 01:56, 29 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment. The book has two serious problems:
 * the front page has wording that could scare away talented people -- "If you're a boring arts manager with a degree, don't spoil the party." -- and
 * the name 21am is confusing.
 * These are both easily fixed. That said, there's hardly anything here. I'm no fan of this book, and I wonder whether deleting it might make it more likely that we would get a much better arts management book in the future. But this would survive a VFD no problem if not for its silly diatribe at the top. --Brian Brondel 20:17, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete - wrong name, POV, bugger all content, inflamatory to target readership. Webaware talk 01:02, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Keep - Brian Brondel's changes address my main concerns (had previously voted based on what I saw earlier, not his recent changes). Let's hope someone now addresses the lack of content. Webaware talk 02:37, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Comment Aside from the introduction, I don't understand why the community has so much distaste for this particular book. I fixed the problems I mentioned earlier to illustrate the point. Why must this book go, but not, for example, Voter's Guide:Australia? Brian Brondel 02:00, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * While I don't think that the existence of one book can be used to justify or refute reasons for another book's existence, I too am unsure whether or not this book should be deleted. We have to ask ourselves: are we doing a potential reader an injustice by keeping this book live for anyone to see? I argue that we are not. It is not factually incorrect. It is not misleading in any other way. By leaving it here, it can improve. If someone who wants to flesh out a full arts management book, then they can certainly overhaul this one and ignore the text that is currently there, or they could just start a new one and otherwise disregard this text in its current state.
 * Furthermore, I think that age, relative amount of substantial content, and demand are not appropriate metrics for whether or not a book should be deleted. A book is old; so what? We don't routinely delete books by the virtue of their age. A book is a stub; so what? Someone else can develop it. A book is not in demand; so what? Just let it lie in case it ever is in demand. The name has been fixed, the POV turned NPOV, and it is now less inflammatory. If it degrades further and cannot be fixed by active contributors, i.e. us, then I would argue for its deletion. In its current state, however, where the main currently relevant arguments point out its age, stubiness, and lack of demand, I argue that it should be kept. --Iamunknown 02:16, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The name change, and the rewording of the introductory paragraph are nice changes, but they are only indicative of a last-ditch effort to keep this book when it is on the brink of deletion, not a display of the book's quality or potential. Most of the things that we delete around here, with enough spit and polish, could be made temporarily acceptable (or at least be made to avoid the most dire criticisms), but I don't see why we should keep those books either. Books are a big project, much larger then a wikipedia article, or most other types of wikimedia content. Books require vision and direction, and all too often book stubs are created that reflect a particular person's vision, but that don't make any sense to future contributors. Do we keep stubs? yes, we generally do. However, I think it's prudent for us to consider the potential for the stub to become something more, or to attract new people to the project. A stub that never becomes anything more, and never attracts any interest (at least any positive interest, with VfD nominations counting as "negative interest") is an eternal stub, which is in policy as being perfectly deletable. I would say that this book is an eternal stub, unlikely to draw attention from any further contributors. It also has a distinct dearth of meaningful content (although I will admit that there is some) and nearly as many red links as there is written content. The original author has been absent from this project for over a year now, and without him to at least answer some questions about what he had in mind, I can't imagine that this book will ever amount to anything. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 02:44, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete I have been avoiding this page and many others & will continue to do so .  However this is a very poor stub indeed - as was pointed out in the previous VFD on the page with content it is a plug for software and without that there really is very little to it.  I have no idea how that page survived the last vote - inertia and indifference to quality as usual I imagine -- Herby  talk thyme 18:23, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Keep Can't see a reason to delete this book. The name has been changed and the humourous comment about history graduates has been removed.  The book has purpose and potential. Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Poland_2.svg|15px]]talk 22:08, 4 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I've changed my mind. Whiteknight, you convinced me. This book is still not going anywhere despite Brian's excellent "boringfy" (straight from the edit summary :D) of the introduction and reviving of sorts. The book has purpose and potential, yes, but in its current state is a stub with no willing contributors. It should be deleted because: (1) it is in nowise helpful to the reader and (2) I would imagine that any person who wants to contribute a free "as in free speech" textbook or reference guide related to arts management would totally disregard the current structure. Furthermore, it would be unhelpful and possibly detrminetal to any further development by any interested parties. Thus I argue to delete. --Iamunknown 07:17, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete. Great comments from both WK and Unknown. Brian 00:27, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/21am


text:
User talk:Larzarus

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 15:55, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Larzarus


text:
User talk:Jdedmond~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 15:56, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jdedmond. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jdedmond~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:19, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jdedmond~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Meras

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 15:56, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Meras


text:
Template:Miskito/Reading

Reading template for Miskito language course
 * parameter 1: title (optional)
 * parameter 2: reading
 * parameter 3: translation

title: Template:Miskito/Reading


text:
Template:Miskito/QA head

Question-answer heading template for Miskito language course

title: Template:Miskito/QA head


text:
Template:Miskito/QA

Question-answer template for Miskito language course
 * parameter 1: question
 * parameter 2: answer

title: Template:Miskito/QA


text:
User:Jlochoap

Check the entry in Wikipedia:

title: User:Jlochoap


text:
User talk:Cdtparks

Image Copyright
Thanks for uploading images on Wikibooks. However, the images may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 23:10, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cdtparks


text:
User talk:Yuyuchan3301

Image Copyright
Thanks for uploading images on Wikibooks. However, the images may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

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Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 23:12, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Preview your edits please
If you are unsure about what will be the outcome of your edit (or even seven edits, as you did on Computer programming, starting with this one...), please test it first. There is a preview button below the main textbox, near the submit button, and you can also use the Sandbox. Thank you. -- Jokes Free4Me 17:12, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yuyuchan3301


text:
General Astronomy/Earth's Early Years

Around 3.9 to 4.6 billion years ago, the beginning stages of our solar system formation were set in motion. Over the course of the next 100 million years, all the planets and moons in our solar system as we know it were created, including our Earth and orbiting Moon. The early years of the Earth are referred to as the "Pre-Cambrian" era, and extend until about 500 million years ago. This era includes the Hadaen Eon, the Archean Eon, and the Proterozoic Eon.

The Hadaen Eon
The first time period that the Earth proceeded through was the Hadaen Eon, which extended from approximately 4.6 to 3.8 billion years ago. The Earth at this time was very unlike the Earth today - lacking almost all oxygen and water filled oceans, the heat from the solar system formation as well as internal gravitational energy heating coupled with collisions with leftover planetary bodies made the Earth quite uninhabitable. In fact, the Earth began as mostly molten, and the resulting heat from this material as well as the extreme heat released from the settling of the planetary crusts made any atmosphere unattainable. The Earth's atmosphere was quite unlike what we see today - it comprised mainly of dust leftover from the solar nebula and also of lighter elements such as hydrogen and helium, and later water vapor and gases. During the Archaen eon is when a substantial atmosphere begins to form from the volcanic activity on Earth.

Archean Eon
During the Archean Era, which began 2.5 billion years ago, many of the patterns seen in the Hadaen Eon persisted - namely, the large amounts of heat being radiated due to the solar system formation, the increased tectonic activity and crustal upheaval and recycling, as well as the lack of any significant atmosphere. However, despite the alien image presented to us, the precursors of life were already in place. For starters, by the end of the Archean Eon, continents had begun to form, as well as water deposits resulting from cooling sedimentary rock. Furthermore, gas was expelled from volcanoes and released from the planets core had established an atmosphere of sorts, consisting of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water. It is thought that life developed at this time, with ample fossil evidence attributing to its existence. Members of the Bacteria and Archean families have been discovered preserved in fossils from this time. It should also be noted that rock from the Archean time period is the earliest rock discovered on Earth.

Proterozoic Eon
The Proterozoic Eon is the last eon of the Pre-Cambrian era, as well as the last period before complex forms of life became common on Earth. It extends from 2.5 billion years ago to around 500 million years ago, and is comprised of three geological eras: Paleoproterozoic, Mesoproterozoic, and Neoproterozoic. One of the more notable changes in the Proterozoic era was the buildup up of oxygen in our environment. Due to the biological process of photosynthesis, oxygen had been produced throughout the Archean era, but had been reabsorbed by natural "sinks" in the environment. Such sinks were unoxidized sulfur and iron, which had until this era absorbed most of the oxygen produced. During this eon, the expansion of Prokaryotic life continued, but a new development was seen as well - Eukaryotic life. Both of these life forms continued to flourish, setting the stage for the even more advanced life forms that were soon to evolve.

title: General Astronomy/Earth's Early Years


text:
Wikibooks:Fair use policy/Unstable

Fair use is a legal categorization for copyrighted material, where that material can be used in certain ways without obtaining prior permission from the copyright holder. Historically, it has been the policy of Wikibooks to allow fair use images and text, so long as good, free alternatives were not available. However, in light of certain legal and licensing issues, Wikibooks no longer allows images, text, or other media that may only have been used under the "Fair Use" laws.

Fair use images and text currently on the site are to be phased out, where free alternatives are available, and deleted after a period of time when alternatives are not available. New images, text, or other media uploaded to Wikibooks that are categorized as Fair Use may be speedily deleted as violations of Copyright.

Wikibooks is not proprietary. If a topic cannot be adequately discussed without the inclusion of illustrations that are not free content, then it is not a suitable topic for a textbook in Wikibooks. Examples of unsuitable books might include a book describing how to use a particular piece of proprietary software, unless the software's author has made screenshots available under a free content license. Specifically, video game strategy guides should go on Strategywiki, not here.

title: Wikibooks:Fair use policy/Unstable


text:
Fluid Mechanics/Geophysical Fluid Dynamics

Geophysical fluid dynamics is the study of the atmosphere and oceans using the machinery of general fluid dynamics. Much of the interest and novelty of geophysical flows derives from the fact that they take place in a rotating reference frame. The Coriolis Force, for example, is a result of this rotation, and is a very prominent feature of large scale flows. Other factors contributing to the unique character of geophysical flows include the (thermodynamical) interaction between the atmosphere and oceans and the fact that the systems under investigation are vertically arranged in stable layers (vertical density stratification).


text: Paint.NET/License

title: Paint.NET/License


text:
User talk:Fgabriel~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Mattb112885 04:28, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Fgabriel. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Fgabriel~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:10, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:59, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Fgabriel~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Dianabarker

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! Mattb112885 04:30, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dianabarker


text:
User talk:Sther001

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!

Image copyright problem with Image:Education.jpg.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Education.jpg.jpg. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Iamunknown 04:36, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Image:Education.jpg.jpg is not licensed under a free license. http://www.cartoonstock.com/ is a commercial site and charges even for educational use of images (see http://www.cartoonstock.com/pricing.asp). You may consider using the image without permission of the website under fair use, but I would suggest looking into other alternatives. --Iamunknown 04:36, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sther001


text:
User talk:68.33.90.95

Regarding edits made during February 19 2007
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 05:02, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.33.90.95


text:
Category:Book:Haskell/Not in book

Content which is either old or experimental and therefore not in the wikibook proper.

title: Category:Book:Haskell/Not in book


text:
Category:Book:Haskell/Hierarchical libraries

Library reference


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Simple Vehicle: Body

The Doors
Another way to build'em without messing up your mesh:

Select the top edges where you want the doors and multicut them twice (KKEY) from the frontview (NUM1). Then move the newly created edges down and towards the sides.

Fgon
what exactly is an Fgon? It doesn't seem to truely merge the faces, as now in face select mode the 'square' that designates a face is off-center.)

It is a fake-gon, which is a way to hide triangles and quads on flat faces. This is not same thing as NGON because it is only a visual tool. Pearts (talk) 18:52, 23 July 2010 (UTC)

Trouble with merging Fgon or adjacent faces
Whatever I tried (with or without FGon, on cubes, on planes, etc.), when I type Ctrl+JKEY, Blender complains with. This data does not support joining in editmode

I don't find info about this error on the Internet. Help?

if the face is not flat, or it has a vertex share with another face it will not merge, what you need to do then is just remove the face, and any edges you dont want to have, select three or four vertexes and hit fkey to make a new face in the way you want. Pearts (talk) 01:31, 7 October 2010 (UTC)

Respectful Request about "Noob Note" and "Readers Comments"
If you don't understand something please use the discussion page to make comments or requests. It is impolite and a waste of another readers time to mark up the tutorial with things like "Noob Note" and "Readers Comment." While one instance is insignificant multiply each inappropriate little note by the time it takes to read them, by the number of tutorials done, and it adds up.

I agree with what your saying Pearts (talk) 01:49, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Clarification Request on cab and flatbed section
It would be helpful if the above paragraph specified WHICH 2 vertices. Perhaps someone who has completed this tutorial can make it more clear. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 66.177.151.66 (talk • contribs).

I don't understand the paragraph explaining how to create the cab and flatbed, that one starting with: "Delete the proper edge along the top of the mesh where you want the cab and flatbed to be (XKEY)." I don't know which edge the statement is talking about. I can't continue this tutorial because I can't complete this step. Can anyone who has completed this tutorial(or this step at least) explain what the author means in this whole paragraph?

I agree it's confusing, and will attempt to add some pictures Pearts (talk) 03:44, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Alternate methods plus user comments are COMPLETELY CONFUSING
I'm not sure where the comments begin the alternate method ends etc. please clean up this article, port the alternate method to a new article. as it is I see atleast two if not three different methods all smashed together and sorting through it all is a PITA. as it is you got two methods for the bed, and the pictures alone are mixed up so I see 3 different things involving the doors.

I agree and will sort it all out Pearts (talk) 01:49, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

Adding an Engine Hood - Method 1
I'm having trouble here. When I try to add a loop it gives me an error that reads "could not order loop" and then subdivides the face I tried to add the loop to.''

I had the same problem. For me it was because I changed the jeep design too much so I had deleted and made several faces. Therefore the faces weren't attached to each other so a loop couldn't be made. If that happened then just subdivide the face twice to give you the lines you need and delete all the extra ones and remake the faces. It's more work but I don't know another way to do it.''

I have no idea what the heck this paragraph is talking about, and the pictures don't help, someone really needs to rewrite this that actually understands what is going on. I advise skipping the hood part because it is hard to understand and doesn't look like it changes much.

I hope he talks about shaping the hood with the lines from the Loop Subdivide, and then extruding that profile.

If you don't know, press e to extrude, then type the letter of the axis.

You're basically "drawing" a trapezoid on the hood and extruding it up. Loop divide works parallel to the axes so you'll have a square on the hood after the two loop-divides. Pulling the two vertices that are on the front edge of the hood inwards (along the edge) will create the desired trapezoid. Now just select the face (Ctrl+Tab Faces) and extrude it (EKEY).

Subsurf
If you subsurf the result from this tutorial, you will get a bad looking result, please try not to subsurf the jeep.

Don't subsurf unless you want to edge crease with Shift-EKEY''

Resizing the bed and windshield
Noob, 20th Oct 2008: I found Mesh ==> Vertices ==> Remove doubles is just as good when you bring one or more vertices into contact with one another, like he's done with the tailgate/wheelarch here.

Method 2.2 Multicut for 2.6?
Hi,

I belive multicut doesnt work for 2.6 - is it possible to fix the method?Adam.Elenktik (discuss • contribs) 15:09, 20 May 2013 (UTC)


text:
User talk:168.254.226.153

Regarding edits made during February 19 2007
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. Az1568(Talk) 12:14, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:168.254.226.153


text:
Animal Behavior/Neuroanatomy

Organization of the Mammalian Nervous System
The neurons can all be placed in one of two systems, the central nervous system or the peripheral nervous system.

Central Nervous System
The central nervous system has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both encased in bone which shows their importance. Both the brain and spinal cord receive signals from the afferent neurons and send signals to muscles and glands through efferent neurons.

Structure and Function
The brain is split up into three major layers, the hindbrain is the first, the second is the midbrain, and the forebrain is last.

Hindbrain
The hindbrain is a well protected central core of the brain and includes the cerebellum, reticular formation, and the brain stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and motor output. It utilizes constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. The brain stem contains the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebellum and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. It controls autonomic functions such as breathing and vomiting, and relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal cord. The reticular formation is a part of the brain which is involved in stereotypical actions, such as walking, sleeping, and lying down.

Midbrain
This part of the brain is located between the forebrain and the hindbrain making up part of the brain stem. All sensory and motor information going to and from the fore brain and the spinal cord must pass through the midbrain.

Forebrain
The anteriormost division of the developing vertebrate brain that contains the most complex neural network in the CNS. The forebrain has two major divisions, the lower diencephalon, which contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus, and the upper telencephalon, which contains the cerebrum.

Methods for observing or evaluating brain activity
In the past only two methods of observation were available. The first was observing individuals who have received brain damage and assume that the part of the brain that was damaged controlled the behavior or sense that had changed. The second was connecting electrodes to the outside of someones head and recording the readings.

Newer methods include computed tomography (CT scan), positron emission tomography (PET scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconduction quantum interference devices (SQUID).

Peripheral Nervous System
Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system is split up into the autonomic and somatic. The somatic connect the central nervous system to sensory organs (such as the eye and ear) and muscles, while the autonomic connect other organs of the body, blood vessels and glands.

title: Animal Behavior/Neuroanatomy


text:
Template:Animal Behavior/stub

'' This article is a stub. You can help by [ expanding] this section of the Animal Behavior Book. In the meantime please consult Wikipedia on this subject. ''

title: Template:Animal Behavior/stub


text:
Animal Behavior/Neuroscience

Neuroscience
Neuroscience, the scientific study of central and peripheral nervous systems in biological organisms, aims to explain behavior in terms of the activities of the brain. It explores how the activity of millions of individual nerve cells produce behavior, consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember. Individual subdisciplines may focus on the structure, function, evolutionary history, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology of the brain.

Metabolic Cost
The nervous system has a unique position in the causation of behaviour. Under selective pressure to generate adaptive behaviour, it is subject to costs related to the amount of energy that it consumes - and in this function nervous structures carry a high metabolic demand. A human brain, although accounting for only around 2% of body weight, requires 20% of the body’s oxygen. Half of the energy drives the pumps that exchange sodium and potassium ions across cell membranes and keep the brain's batteries charged. Providing a signalling framework of such magnitude and capability requires strong selection for mechanisms that provide maximized signal to noise ratios at minimized cost. The ionic mechanisms that underlie the electrical properties of neurons, the resting membrane potential and the action potential, offer an exquisitely optimized solution.

Neurophysiology
Neurons are able to conduct and process signals that involve small changes in electrical voltage generated across the neuronal membrane. At rest, the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the cell surround - the resting membrane potential. Individual signals are integrated across different regions of the neuron and throughout sets of neuronal networks in order to determine each unit's response and output. A special type of such voltage changes features a rapid spike in voltage resulting from changes in ion conductances - the action potential. Such signals are predominantly transmitted along axonal lines where neurons interact with other cellular entities over greater distances.

Electrical Properties of Neurons
Three primary mechanisms are responsible for the electrical properties of neurons at rest and during the signalling process.
 * An uneven distribution of ions exists across the cell membrane. The outside features an excess of Na+ and Cl-, while the inside has more K+ and Anions-. A significant portion of the body's metabolic cost goes into maintaining this unequal distribution by constantly running a membrane pump that exchanges 3 outward moving Na+ ions with 2 inward moving K+ ions.
 * The membrane features ion pores that offer unobstructed flow for K+ ions. This outward directed conductance moves positively charged potassium ions along its concentration gradient, resulting in a negatively charged inside to the neuron. As this charge gradient builds, an equilibrium will be reached when an equal number of K+ will move out of the cell along its concentration gradient as are pushed back in along its charge gradient. This state is referred to as the resting membrane potential
 * The active state of the neuron is characterized by the transient opening of voltage-gated sodium channels which causes a rapid inward flow of Na+, powered by both the concentration and the charge gradient. As the inside of the neuron overshoots to a positively charged interior, sodium channels shut close, while the Na/K pump re-equilibrates the neuron to rest.

The voltage present across the cell's membrane can be measured between a reference electrode and a conducting glass capillary tube drawn out to a very fine point, and inserted into the cell. At rest the neuronal interior is negative relative to the outside at between -60 to -80mV, while most non-neuronal cells feature a potential of about -30 mV. The current is carried by ions moving across the membrane at ion conductances when specific channels allow them to pass. Ignoring its active properties, the axon can in electrical terms be viewed as an insulated cable. An electric potential is able to spread passively along any stretch of membrane. In the process its strength decays and the slope of on- and offsets becomes less steep with distance due to the passive cable properties of the membrane. The latter include resistance along its length and both a resistance and a capacitance component across it. Signals will spread fastest when longitudinal resistance is low (e.g., via increased axonal diameter) and they will spread furthest when resistance across the membrane is high (e.g., with layers of myelin for added electrical insulation).

Resting Potential
A neuron is at rest when it has not been activated for some time. At that state it exhibits a negatively charged inside relative to the surrounding environment. The Resting Potential emerges from an unequal distribution of ions across the cell's membrane. An excess of K+ and of various Anions- exists on the inside while Na+ and Cl- exist in higher concentrations on the outside. The membrane is dotted with proteins that permit the flow of ions (i.e., ion pores) or control their flow (i.e., ion channels) across it. In a cell at rest only potassium ions (K+) are able to flow freely between the two compartments. Initially we observe a net flow of positively charged potassium ions from the inside where they are more numerous to the outside where their concentration is much lower (i.e., concentration gradient). With a net flow of positively charged ions from the inside across the membrane, the inside becomes increasingly negative relative to the outside (i.e., charge gradient). This charge gradient pulls positively charged potassium ions back into the cell. The resting potential settles into an equilibrium when as many potassium ions are pushed out of the cell along their concentration gradient, as will enter the cell along the accompanying charge gradient.

Nernst Equation
This equilibrium potential for potassium can be calculated using the Nernst potential for known inside and outside concentrations of any given ion where R = the gas constant (8.3143 joules/mole-degree); T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin (310 degrees); z = ionic valence; F = Faraday's constant (96,487 coulombs/mole). At a room temperature of 25oC) 2.303 * RT/zF solves to 0.0578V or rounded as 58mV. Depending on their respective inside and outside concentrations at the particular cell, different ions will produce different equilibrium potentials (reversal potentials). The ion concentrations are usually similar to those listed:

The Nernst potential for potassium thus can be simplified to the following formula and for sodium is

The cell's resting membrane potential combines all relevant ion currents with K+ ions figuring most prominently due to their high resting conductance. In addition a small number of Na+ ions leak into the cell. The resulting resting membrane potential is thus slightly lower compared to the EK+ at around -65mV. To maintain the concentration gradient across the membrane of resting neurons, ATP continually supplies energy to the Na+/K+ ATPase (ion pump) as ions leak across the axonal membrane.

Action potential
An Action potential represents a transient inward current of cations (Na+). It is generated when the graded membrane potential rises above threshold either spontaneously or because of depolarizing input. During the action potential, voltage-gated sodium channels are opened when the potential rises (i.e., depolarizes) from resting potential (-65mV) to the cells threshold (-55mV). These channels close again when the potential further rises to +10mV. As sodium ions spread to neighboring areas of axonal membrane, they depolarization adjacent patches of membrane with subsequent opening of sodium channels there. The signal then proceeds to run the entire length of the axon (i.e., the all-or-none-principle).

A Refractory period follows the action potential during which time the neuron reestablishes its normal resting potential. At the beginning of this period it is impossible for another signal to be transmitted, this is called absolute refractory phase. This is followed by the relative refractory phase where it is possible to send another signal but more exitation than normal is needed.

The Duration of an action potential is 1-2ms in Vertebrates and 1-100ms in Invertebrates. Frequency of firing ranges from <1 to about 100/sec (100 Hz). The Amplitude ranges between 70-80mV when recorded intracellularly and 5-200µV when recorded extracellularly.

Electrotonic Junctions
Two electrically excitable cells, such as neurons or muscle cells, may be electrically coupled where an action potential in one cell moves directly into the other via arrays of gap junctions. Electrical synapses are fast but cannot be modulated. They are mostly used in neuronal circuits for escape behaviors where speed of conduction is essential. Electrical synapses (gap junctions, electrotonic junctions) allow current to flow between separate neurons when ions pass through gap junctions. Connexons (where 6 connexin proteins form a hemi-channel) are the actual pores that allow ions to flow past the two membranes. A connexon in the presynaptic membrane lines up precisely with its respective equivalent in the postsynaptic membrane, forming a continuous channel from one neuron to another. With a pore diameter of about 1.5m-9 many small molecules can pass through efficiently. Intracellular Ca2+ concentration, pH, or phosphorylation of connexins can profoundly alter the easy with which ions annd proteins may pass through the pore. As there is no synaptic delay in transmission of current from cell to another, the conduction of potential changes is considerably faster than through chemical synapses. Although electrical synapses are often bi-directional, some synapses pass current better in one direction than the other (i.e., rectifying synapse) Electrical synapses are commonly used in time-critical processes (escape behaviors), when rapid synchronization of many cells is needed (e.g., vertebrate cardiac muscle), between glial cells, or early in development.

Chemical Junctions
Cells are also able to communicate chemically across a gap (i.e., synapse), which forms a directional connection from one neuron to another cell. The neurotransmitter is emitted from the terminal endings of one cell's axon onto a dendrite or body of a second cell. The arrival of a signal leads to the release of a neurotransmitter from the presynaptic terminal, diffusion across the synaptic cleft, and binding to receptors in the postsynaptic membrane. Ionotropic or metabotropic receptors are binding proteins which alter ion conductances at the postsynaptic cell membrane (e.g., increase in Na+ conductance depolarizes and is excitatory, CL- hyperpolarizes and is thus inhibitory). When excitatory, the postsynaptic cell is depolarized with an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) and an action potential is elicited if the threshold is reached; in inhibitory connections, the postsynaptic cell is hyperpolarized with an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) and it will thus be harder for other inputs to drive the cell towards an action potential. A single input is rarely sufficient to lead to an action potential in the post-synaptic cell. Multiple EPSPs may add and reach the threshold when a series of action potentials arrive at high rate. Chemical synapses are capable of integrating a complex scenario of inputs:

Neurotransmitter refers to a compound that is released at a synapse and diffuses across the synaptic cleft to act on a receptor located on the membrane of a postsynaptic cell, which may be another neurone, a muscle cell or a specialized gland cell. A wide range of chemicals are used as neurotransmitters in the nervous system. Stored in synaptic vesicles. they are released during the arrival of an action potential and produce changes in the excitability of the postsynaptic membrane. Ca2+ influx at the axon terminus is required for synaptic release.

Neuromodulator refers to a compound that is released within a localized region of CNS, the receptor for which is not necessarily sited on an anatomically apposed postsynaptic cell. Thus a neuromodulator may affect several postsynaptic cells with specificity conferred mainly by the distribution of receptors. Main action is on second messenger systems, e.g. cAMP or inositole triphosphate, presumably affecting protein phosphorylation

Sometimes the same neurochemical may have rapid transmitter type effects, followed by longer modulatory influences. This suggests that neurotransmitter and neuromodulator effects may be most effectively classified at the receptor level. Activation of receptors on a protein structure directly incorporating an ion channel (a ionophore) are defined as neurotransmission while activation of receptors coupled indirectly to ion channels (e.g. via second messenger systems) are defined as neuromodulation.

Signal Strength
For the signal to be passed from one neuron to the next it must have enough energy to break a point called the threshold. Once the threshold is broken the signal is transmitted. The neuron fires at the same strength every time. The strength of a signal is decided by how many different neurons are being fired and at what frequency they are being fired.

Synaptic Integration
Activity in any presynaptic neuron alone is rarely sufficient to elicit an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. Summation of synaptic inputs, however, can occur when a neuron receives multiple excitatory inputs in short order. Synaptic processing describes the ways in which the electrical events in different neurons may interact through interactions at their synapses. Synaptic inputs are mostly located on the dendritic tree of a neuron, while axonal action potentials represent the neuron's output. In order to drive a neuron the integrated influence of the electrical events generated by the synapses must be sufficient to spread through the dendrites to the soma and into the initial segment of the axon (i.e., the axon hillock, trigger zone). The latter is the site of action potential generation. Synaptic integration is thus key to understanding the contribution of individual neurons to information processing within neural networks.

In spatial summation the cell responds when activity from multiple inputs arrives at the same time. If the combined excitation brings the cell to threshold, an actionpotential is initiated. The arrival of a spike train in a presynaptic neuron may produce multiple EPSPs. If these inputs begin to build on each other, the postsynaptic cell may reach threshold and produce an action potential.

Passive membrane properties are important. Long time constants increase the chances for temporal summation. Large space constants determine the likelihood of spatial integration. The size of the postsynaptic cell counts, as a synaptic current delivered into a small neuron will produce a much greater effect than in a large postsynaptic cell.

Location of synapses is important. Control of the cell's activity usually driven by excitatory synapses on dendrites. Inhibitory synapses located on the cell body are able to shut down activity. Synapses at presynaptic release sites are modulatorym controlling the amount of neurotransmitters released.

Ohm's Law
Basic familiarity with key concepts in electricity is essential in order to appreciate the neuronal mechanisms active during such integration. Ohm's law holds that the rate at which electric charges flow (i.e., Current or I) depends on the force and its direction exerted onto the charged particle (i.e., Potential, V) and the ease with which the flow can occur (i.e., Conductance, g). The latter can also be expressed as the reciprocal of the conductance, namely as the degree to which the conductor obstructs the flow of charges (i.e., Resistance, R). The flow of electricity is defined as flowing from negative to positive.

Neurons
The basic functional unit of the nervous system are neurons, i.e., cells that are specialized for processing and communicating information. Neurons have a basic structure of:
 * The cell body (or soma) is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell nucleus and much of the cells metabolic machinery.
 * The axon carries information away from the cell body and may range in size from several microns to as long as several meters in giraffes and whales. Axons may branch into terminal buttons (designated sites of communication) at its end.
 * Dendrites receive neurotransmitter secreted by the axon of other neurons.
 * Synapse is a specialized junction between cells of the nervous system which permits signalling between them.

Glial cells
Glial cells function as support for the neurons; they produce the myelin sheath which surrounds some neurons and also form part of the blood-brain barrier. The ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system is disputed.

Organization of the Mammalian Nervous System
The neurons can all be placed in one of two systems, the central nervous system or the peripheral nervous system.

Central Nervous System
The central nervous system has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both incased in bone that protects them from mechanical injury. Both the brain and spinal cord receive signals from the afferent neurons and send signals to muscles and glands through efferent neurons.

Structure and Function
The CNS consists of brain and spinal cord. The brain is split up into three major sections.

Telencephalon
The anteriormost division of the developing vertebrate brain that contains the most complex neural network in the CNS. The telencephalon (i.e., forebrain) has two major divisions, the lower diencephalon, which contains the thalamus and the hypothalmus, and the upper telencephalon, which contains the cerebrum.

Mesencephalon
The midbrain is located between the forebrain and the hindbrain and processes sensory and motor information relaying between the forebrain and the spinal cord.

Hindbrain
The hindbrain is a well protected central core of the brain and includes the cerebellum, reticular formation, and the brain stem. The cerebellum plays an important role in the integration of sensory perception and motor output. It utilizes constant feedback on body position to fine-tune motor movements. The brain stem contains the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The pons relays sensory information between the cerebellum and cerebrum. The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of the brainstem. It controls autonomic functions such as breathing and vomiting, and relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal cord. The reticular formation is a part of the brain which is involved in stereotypical actions, such as walking, sleeping, and lying down.

Brain Activity
In the past only two methods of observation were available. The first was observing individuals who have received brain damage and assume that the part of the brain that was damaged controlled the behavior or sense that had changed. The second was connecting electrodes to the outside of someones head and recording the readings.

Newer methods include computed tomography (CT scan), positron emission tomography (PET scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and superconduction quantum interference devices (SQUID).

Peripheral Nervous System
Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system is split up into the autonomic and somatic. The somatic connect the central nervous system to sensory organs (such as the eye and ear) and muscles, while the autonomic connect other organs of the body, blood vessels and glands.

title: Animal Behavior/Neuroscience