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Sexual Health/Basic Reproductive Anatomy

Sexual reproduction requires genes from two different individuals, a male and a female. To produce healthy infants a these partners should not be closely related. Natural selection suggests that the greater diversity of parents, the better chance of adaptation and thus survival the infant will enjoy.

Puberty
Puberty is the phase of development that begins the sexual processes in boys and girls. In girls, puberty triggers the beginning of the menstrual cycle, and the development of the breasts. In boys, puberty causes the penis and testicles to grow in size, and signals the beginning of nocturnal emissions and sperm production. In both girls and boys, puberty causes body hair (and facial hair, in boys) to begin appearing. During puberty, hair will start to grow under the armpits, in the groin, and on the chest and back. Leg and arm hair will also become thicker and darker.

Chest, Nipples, and Breasts
In both sexes, nipples and the areas around them are frequently sensitive and responsive to sexual contact. Nipples may be soft or erect. Nipples become erect in response to changes in temperature, sexual contact, and other stimuli.

In the tissue surrounding the nipples, both males and females have milk ducts. In females, these glands are stimulated to produce milk by the hormones associated with pregnancy and delivery. In both sexes, certain kinds of nipple stimulation (such as from a breast pump), certain drugs, and certain hormonal disorders may cause non-pregnancy related milk production.

In females, fatty tissue is formed around the nipples during puberty. These are referred to as breasts, although the entire area may be referred to as a female's chest. In males, this area is simply referred to as the chest.

Anatomy
The male genitals consist of the penis and the testicles. The apparent size of a male genitalia depends on a number of factors, as they become pendulous (hanging down) when warm and relaxed but withdraw tight against the groin when experiencing cold or fear. This may have provided an evolutionary advantage to our ancestors.

Penis
The penis is a long, tube-like organ that is in the front of a man's body, in the groin area. The base of the penis connects in the groin (lower middle abdomen between the legs. The length of the penis is unimportant for reproduction, fertility or manliness, and can vary between 5cm and 20cm (2-8 inches) with an average of about 13cm (5 inches) for an erect adult over age 18. The middle area (the "shaft" of the penis) terminates in a pink gland where the urethra is exposed (the "head" of the penis). The base of the penis is frequently covered in pubic hair. The head of the penis is covered by the foreskin, which can be pulled back to expose the head itself. Men who are circumsized have had their foreskins removed (typically as infants).

The penis can be either "flaccid" (hanging down, soft, small) or "erect" (pointing upwards or outwards, hard, larger and longer). A penis is flaccid most of the time, and urination is difficult or impossible whilst the penis is erect. A penis becomes erect (tumescent or hard) in anticipation of sexual intercourse. Anticipation is not necessarily under conscious control, and erections can occur for no obvious reason. Orgasm (sexual climax or The Feeling) is difficult or impossible whilst the penis is flaccid. Ejaculation of semen usually but not necessarily occurs simultaneously with orgasm. Pre-emission refers to naturally produced fluid lubricant which may sometimes be excreted prior to ejaculation.

Testicles
The testicles hang below the penis, and are covered by a patch of skin called the scrotum. The scrotum is typically covered in pubic hair, and is sensitive to sexual contact. Testicles produce sperm, and the hormone called "testosterone", among other things. Testosterone is a hormone that causes men to develop male secondary sex characters.

The testicles must remain several degrees below normal body temperature to produce healthy sperm. This is the reason why the testicles hang outside of the body in the scrotum. The muscles in the scrotum can expand and contract, to change the shape of the scrotum. If a man is hot, the muscles in the scrotum will lengthen, causing the testicles to move away from the body (thus cooling off the testicles). If a man is cold, the muscles in the scrotum will shorten, causing the testicles to move closer to the body (warming up the testicles).

Testicles may swell uncomfortably if a male has extended sexual stimulation without ejaculation. This is colloquially known as "blue balls" and is not a harmful condition.

Testicular cancer is one of the most common cancers in young men. It is important for men to examine their size and shape is constant on a regular basis, and do not produce pain when handled gently. If there is any change, an early consultation without delay is essential for effective treatment.

Vas deferens
Each testicle has a tiny duct connecting it to the penis. These ducts are known as the vas deferens, and they are the path sperm take from the testicles into the penis during ejaculation. It is these ducts that are severed in a vasectomy (male sterilization). If conducted before puberty, vasectomy can arrest sexual development, as in medieval Castrati (male singers) in whom cutting the vas deferens was said to make a vast difference (to the voice). Their testicles were not usually removed (actual castration) Such interventions are now strictly prohibited as a serious affront to the boy's human rights, since he can not give informed consent for life-changing operations at such a young age.

Semen
Semen is a combination of fluids from multiple glands, and sperm from the testicles. During ejaculation, semen comes out of the erect penis. In some cases, semen squirts or shoots out vigorously, while at other times the semen oozes out slowly and does not travel any distance. Both situations are normal, and both force and volume of ejaculation is unimportant.

Semen can carry STDs and other germs into a partner, so contact with semen should be minimized, and condom protection should always be used during any overtly sexual activity.

Some people choose to take semen into their mouth, and may swallow semen as well. Oral ingestion of semen is not likely to be harmful, but there are no health benefits. There is some risk of transmission of STDs, especially if there are open wounds or sores in the mouth or on the lips. For this reason, it is recommended that people should use protection such as a condom when performing oral sex (described later), and get tested for STDs regularly.

Prostate
The prostate is one of the glands that contributes fluid to semen. The prostate can be stimulated directly through the perineum (skin between the testicles and anus) or from inside the anus, a practice that some men find pleasurable. Prostates are at risk for developing cancer, especially in older men. For this reason, men should get prostate exams regularly to check for cancer and other disorders.

Nocturnal Emissions
Boys of any age may naturally become aroused during sleep and may experience orgasm voluntarily or involuntarily. Those who have passed puberty can experience a phenomenon known as "nocturnal emission". Nocturnal emissions occur at night, while sleeping, and are involuntary releases semen while sleeping. Typically, the emission of semen is the first sign that a young man has reached puberty and is producing sperm normally.

Nocturnal emissions may occur more frequently when ejaculation is not achieved consciously on a regular basis.

Anatomy
Unlike the male penis and testicles, female reproductive anatomy is almost entirely internal. The components that are externally visible are known as the vulva.

Vulva
There is a small structure called the clitoris at the front of the vulva. The clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation. During fetal development, the cells that in males develop into the penis, in females develop into the clitoris. The clitoris has more nerve endings than a male's penis, and even light stimulation can cause sensations of pain or discomfort. The clitoris is surrounded by folds of flesh known as the clitoral hood. The clitoral hood can be pulled back to expose the tip of the clitoris underneath.

Immediately below the clitoris is the urethra. This opening is connected to the bladder, and is where urine is expelled.

The largest feature of the vulva is the vaginal canal, or vagina. The vaginal canal is a fleshy tube, between 3-5 inches deep (but made of stretchable membranes) that opens between the legs, and connects to the uterus.

On each side of the vaginal opening is a Bartholin's gland. The vaginal canal and Bartholin's glands produce lubricating fluid in response to sexual stimulus. Sometimes these glands become clogged, and develop into a Bartholin's cyst. Usually these cysts resolve on their own, but if they are painful, unusually large, or persist for a long period of time, they should be evaluated by a doctor.

Inside the vagina, toward the front of the body, is an area of spongy tissue known as the Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot. This tissue may be related to Skene's glands (the female equivalent of the prostate), or may connect to the interior portion of the clitoris. Some women find stimulation of this area enjoyable.

The clitoris, urethra, and the vaginal opening are surrounded on both sides by the labial lips. The labia is divided into an inner and an outer set of lips, "the labia minora" and "the labia majora", respectively. The labia serve as protective coverings for the clitoris and the vaginal canal, and are also responsive to sexual contact. It is more common for the labia majora to be larger and completely enclose the labia minora. However, it is also normal for the labia minora to be larger and protrude somewhat from the labia majora.

Cervix

The cervix is the muscle connecting the uterus and the vaginal canal. The opening in the cervix is called the cervical os. The size of the os changes throughout a woman's menstrual cycle, being more open during menstruation, and also near ovulation, and more closed at other times. The rigidity of the cervix also varies, from being soft like a person's lips, to being more firm like a person's nose.

Glands inside the cervix, known as cervical crypts, produce a substance known as cervical mucus or cervical fluid. Cervical mucus is usually thick, sticky, and acidic (to help kill any infectious microorganisms, and to physically block the entrance into the uterus). In the several days before ovulation, however, cervical mucus increases in water content, becomes less acidic, and develops a texture that helps guide sperm into the uterus. At this time, cervical mucus may resemble hand lotion, or raw egg white.

Cervical cancer is caused by certain strains of HPV, a sexually transmitted disease. It is important to use barrier protection during intercourse to reduce the risk of STDs, and for sexually active women to receive regular pap smears to screen for precancerous changes.

Uterus
The uterus is a pear-shaped organ about the size of a fist. Two small conduits, called fallopian tubes extend from each side of the uterus. Each fallopian tube ends with a structure called a fimbria, which catches eggs after ovulation and guides them into the fallopian tube.

The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium. Several days before ovulation, the endometrium begins to become thicker and grows new blood vessels. If pregnancy does not occur, the endometrium is shed approximately two weeks after ovulation. This shedding of the endometrium is known as menstruation.

Ovaries
The ovaries are the location of a female's gametes (eggs), and are analogous to the male testicles (which contain the male gametes, sperm). Ovaries release eggs, also called ova (or ovum if it is just one) into the fallopian tubes. Ovaries also produce estrogen, which is the dominant female sex hormone. Estrogen causes the body to feminize, and is the reason why women grow breasts, and undergo other changes at puberty.

Menstrual Cycle
Human females begin menstruating, or having periods, as part of puberty. A girl's first menstruation is called menarche, and usually happens between the ages of eight and sixteen. After menarche, menstruation typically continues to occur at regular intervals - this is called a menstrual cycle. Women stop having menstrual cycles when they enter menopause, most commonly between the ages of forty-five and fifty-eight.

The bleeding of menstruation is the most obvious part of the menstrual cycle. However, there is one other important feature: ovulation. The time between menstruation and ovulation is called the follicular phase, because this is when follicles on the ovaries begin growing. On average, the follicular phase lasts fourteen days, however this varies widely from woman to woman and also from cycle to cycle.

When one of the growing follicles reaches maturity, the ovum (egg) bursts through the ovarian wall. This event is known as ovulation. (The remaining follicles atrophy, or die). Many women experience pain associated with ovulation - this is called mittelschmerz.

The time between ovulation and menstruation is on average fourteen days, however this may vary from woman to woman. Some women have post-ovulatory, or luteal phases of ten days, while others may have luteal phases sixteen days long.

PMS and PMDD
Prior to menstruation, a woman can experience certain hormonal and chemical changes in her body that can lead to a period of physical and psychological stress known as premenstrual syndrome, or PMS. PMS is usually characterized by cramping, bloating and water retention, moodiness and discomfort. PMS is not always experienced, and it is not experienced in all women, but it is considered a normal part of the menstrual cycle.

However, some women experience an extreme form of PMS known as Premenstral dysphoric disorder, or PMDD. PMDD is a more serious condition characterized by extreme moodiness, mood swings, and depression. PMDD can frequently be treated medically with success.


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Backgammon/Glossary

A

 * Acey-deucey (or Acey-deucy): A variant of backgammon in which the roll of 1 and 2 gives the player extra turns.
 * Anchor: A point occupied in the home board by two or more of opponent's checkers.

B

 * Backgammon: A game in which one player bears off all of his checkers while his opponent still has one or more checkers on the bar or in the winner's home board, counting for triple a normal game.

 * Bar: The area where blots are placed after being hit, usually, a raised divider between the home boards and outer boards.

 * Bar point: Either of the two points in the outer board adjacent to the bar; the 7-point or the 18-point.

 * Bear off: To remove a checker from the home board by rolling a number that equals or exceeds the point on which the checker resides.

 * Block: A point occupied by two or more checkers on the home board or the outer board.

 * Blot: A single checker vulnerable to being hit.

C

 * Checker: One of the 15 playing pieces allotted to each player.

 * Cubeless Equity: The value of a position ignoring the use of the doubling cube. This is a value between -3 and +3 that takes into account the probabilities of either side winning a single game, winning a double game or winning a triple game. If at a given point in the game neither party can make a gammon, the cubeless equity of a player simply is the probability of him/her winning the game, minus the probability of the opponent winning the game.

D

 * Deep Anchor: An anchor on the opponent's one-point or two-point.

 * Doubles: A dice roll in which both values are identical, e.g. 1-1 or 6-6.

E

 * End Game: The phase of a game which starts when one of the players begins to bear off.

F

 * Full prime: A prime of six consecutive points that completely blocks the opponent from moving checkers in front of the prime to behind the prime.

G

 * Gammon: A game in which one player removes all his checkers before his opponent can remove any, and counted as a double win.

H

 * Hit: To move onto a point occupied by an opposing blot, and move the opposing checker to the bar.

 * Home board: The portion of the board containing points 1-6. The checkers need to move here before they can be borne off. It is also the part of the board where the opponent's checkers are re-entered from the bar.

I

 * Inner board: Home board.

M

 * Match: A series of games of backgammon, played until one participant reaches a predetermined score.

 * Mid point: Either of the two points furthest from the bar; the 12-point or the 13-point.

N

 * Normalized Match Score: A match score expressed in terms of the number of points needed by both sides to win the match. For instance, '2-away/4-away' (or: -2/-4) could indicate the state of seven-point match in which one party has gained five points and the other side three points.

 * Notation: In backgammon the common way of describing the movement of checkers involves numbering the points around the board from 24 to 1 such that the numbers diminish when the checkers move towards the home board. This implies that a reverse numbering applies when the opponent is on roll (with the 24-point now referred to as the 1-point, etc.). A move of a single checker is indicated by the start and the end number separated by a slash. If a move results in a checker being hit, this is indicated by adding an asterisk to the number on which a checker was hit.

O

 * Open point: A point a player can in principle move his checkers to. I.e. a point that is not occupied by more than one opposing checker.

P

 * Pip: One of the markings on the face of a die, corresponding to a movement of one point.

 * Pip count: The total number of remaining pips needed to bear off all checkers.

 * Point: One of the twenty-four narrow triangles on the backgammon board where the players' checkers sit, or the value of a single game of backgammon before accounting for the doubling cube, or a gammon or backgammon.

 * Prime: Several consecutive points held by a player.

S

 * Split: To break up two checkers which are together on a point and leave them as blots.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Backgammon/Glossary


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Talk:Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Two - Possessives

Thank you so much for this. I am just starting to learn Sumerian for postgrad research. It looks as though you changed the order of your lessons. The quick quiz for lesson two assumes knowledge of the genitive (.ak) and dative (.ir) case-forms, and includes house (e) and temple (e.gal), vocabulary which is not yet introduced, according to the new sequence. Alastair Haines 02:28, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Changes made
Thanks for catching these! I've fixed both issues. Hopefully adding more chapters as well soon. Mike.the.kitty 17:17, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

.ir
I haven't been able to find anything on the .ir suffix. Could it please be explained?

Changes made
All the case particles are now handled in a later lesson, in individual pages. Hopefully it will be a bit more fleshed out in time, but I have updated a bit for the Dative particle (.ir). Thanks for the comment! Mike.the.kitty

Lesson title
I have fixed the misspelling "posessive" several times in this lesson, but I don't know how to fix the lesson title itself.

Title fixed
I've used the "move" feature (it's a tab next to the "history" tab") to rename the article.

Thank you very much, Enlil :) I mis-spelled it consistently through the whole text. *DOH*! I also always mis-spell "seperate". No idea why. On the bright side, I've raised my confidence level that I am not a robot.

Mike.the.kitty (talk) 15:53, 15 June 2009 (UTC)

English to Sumerian quiz
English to Sumerian: "for her child"

using /.ir/ where for "for" ...dative case? Using .ir not yet explained.

the queen of your temple

using /.ak/ here but /.ak/ not yet explained. Also should /e/ be explained as also a temple? otherwise should we be writing: /e.gal.zu.ak/ ?? You currently have /e.zu.ak/

Thanks for the great work!!

the queen of your temple = nin e.zu.ak

A bit higher up on the same page, we learn that the posessive affixes change when they are attached to something in the genitive case. Specifically, ".zu" becomes ".za". "Of your temple" is genitive, so why isn't the correct answer "nin e.z a .ak"? On the page about the genitive case, we find this example:

the sister of my mother = nin ama.ğa

Here, "ĝu" seems to have morphed into "ĝa" as expected. Is the genitive possessive affix optional and replaces the ".ak" particle when it's used? A short explanation on one of the pages might be helpful.

(Btw., I'm new, both on Wikibooks and at learning Sumerian. I hope this is the right place for such questions? Sorry if it's not ;-) )

1st pl sent. -- is sent. “sentient”?
And if so, is “sentient” different from “animate”, or are they synonymous? Babbage (discuss • contribs) 20:56, 30 October 2016 (UTC)


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Relationships/Printable version

Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".

= Contents = If you have saved this file to your computer, click on a link in the contents to go to that section.

 * The Science of Relationships
 * The Evolution of the Human Brain · How Women Select Men · How Men Select Women · How Our Ancestors Lived · Monogamy and Polygamy · Hormones · Communication Styles

 * Life Stages
 * Childhood—Seeking Unconditional Love · Adolescence—Seeking Romantic Love · Adulthood—Families And Forgiveness · Agape—Altruistic Love

 * Practical Advice
 * Where Couples Met · Flirting · How to Write a Personal Ad · Dating · Sex (and Why to Avoid It) · Becoming a Couple · Conflict In Relationships

 * Personality Types
 * Emotional Control Systems · Zeus-Hera · Poseidon-Athena · Apollo-Artemis · Hermes-Hestia · Ares-Hephaestus-Aphrodite · Dionysus-Demeter · Hades-Persephone

 * General
 * About This Book · References · Recommended Books · FAQ · GNU Free Documentation License

= The Science of Relationships =

= The Evolution of the Human Brain =

= How Women Select Men =

= How Men Select Women =

= How Our Ancestors Lived =

= Monogamy and Polygamy =

= Hormones =

= Communication Styles =

= Life Stages =

= Childhood—Seeking Unconditional Love =

= Adolescence—Seeking Romantic Love =

= Adulthood—Families And Forgiveness =

= Agape—Altruistic Love =

= Practical Advice =

= Where Couples Met =

= Flirting =

= How to Write a Personal Ad =

= Dating =

= Sex (and Why to Avoid It) =

= Becoming a Couple =

= Conflict In Relationships =

= Personality Types =

= Emotional Control Systems =

= Zeus-Hera =

= Poseidon-Athena =

= Apollo-Artemis =

= Hermes-Hestia =

= Ares-Hephaestus-Aphrodite =

= Dionysus-Demeter =

= Hades-Persephone =

= General =

= About This Book =

= References =

= Recommended Books =

= FAQ =

= GNU Free Documentation License =

title: Relationships/Printable version


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Talk:Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Eight - The Case System

Hello again, just another couple of tiny quibbles. Firstly, I thought Nanna was the moon god, father of Inanna, and therefore male. Secondly, the dative case actually expresses a 'beneficiary' relationship, rather than a 'benefactor' relationship. A bene-fact-or is one who "does good" to another and will often be the subject. The one who benefits is the beneficiary and is typically (but not always) an indirect object. Compare: "I gave the book to him" and "I gave him the book." Some do indeed describe the dative as expressing a benefactor relationship, but strictly speaking it is a misnomer. The benefactor may not even be expressed in a sentence that uses the dative, however the beneficiary obviously will. Example: "The book was given to him." Alastair Haines 02:41, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

Changes made
Thanks for catching these. I've edited the error regarding bene(factor|ficiary), and added some info about Nanna. (As you guessed, I originally had Inanna there, but changed it later for reasons I can no longer fathom.) Incidentally, feel free to make these types of changes yourself! That is what the spirit of wiki is all about! - Mike

Nice Work
This is one of the best language intros (of any kind) that I've read. You've done a wonderful job of explaining what Sumerian is about, without forcing the reader to slog through a lot of technical details right up front. Most language texts give short shrift to the student's need to get the "lie of the land" before burying him in mechanics.

Many thanks!

Thanks
Many thanks for your time and effort. I was looking for a sumerian intro for a long time. -mehmet


text: Template:Relationships/Navigation

title: Template:Relationships/Navigation


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User talk:Guanabot~enwikibooks

The bot updated the table syntax in Spanish/Lesson 5; however, the colors seem to be gone from the tables. Is there any way that the bot could fix this? -- Video Game Fan 23:54, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

Bot Bug - newlines between HTML attributes
this edit screwed the table right up. I've fixed it now on that page. I guess the bot may have made similar messes elsewhere. The problem is the HTML table sytax allows newlines between tag arributes, but the wiki table syntax does not. The bot should be stripping out any such newlines to avoid this problem -- Harry Wood 13:47, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

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Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Guanabot. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Guanabot~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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title: User talk:Guanabot~enwikibooks


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Korean/Lesson III2

Introduction
This section covers the terms related to religion and encourage the student to speak about his/her religious beliefs using the Korean language. When learning about religion in the Korean language, there are some important factors to consider. First of all, there are 7 different speech levels in the Korean language accompanied by a set of honorific forms for each speech level. In the Korean Bible, the translators use the Hasoseoche (하소서체) form for many of the verses. For daily speech, the reader should use one of the lower speech forms instead.

The second thing that the reader needs to do is be prepared to learn the hanja for many of the words used in religious texts. If the reader learns a few hanja every week, that reader will be able to be able to learn the vocabulary more quickly. The hanja are used in the mixed script Korean Bible, 백팔대참회문, as well as some other Korean religious texts.

Vocabulary
종교(宗教) - Religion

하나님/하느님 - God (하나님 used in Protestants, 하느님 used in Roman Catholic)

하늘 - Heaven

악마/마귀(惡魔/魔鬼) - The devil(사탄-satan)

지옥(地獄) - Hell

성신/성령(聖神/聖靈) - Holy spirit/Holy Ghost

영적인 - spiritual

교회(教會) - Church

성경(聖經) - The Bible

절 - (Buddhist) Temple

무교(無教) - no religion

불교(佛教) - Buddhism

불경(佛經) - Buddhist scriptures

부처님(菩薩님) - Buddha

교파 - sect

영원히(永遠히) - eternally, forever

천국(天國) - paradise

화신(化身) - reincarnation

부활(復活) - resurrection

예수 그리스도 - Jesus Christ

사도(使徒) - apostle

기도하다(祈禱하다) - to pray

응답(應答) - an answer(spiritual)

믿다 - to believe

이해하다(理解하다) - to understand

오해(誤會) - misunderstanding

헷갈리다 - to be confused(혼란스럽다 too)

경전(經典) - scriptures

성전(聖殿) - Temple

인자(人子) - Son of Man

구원(救援) - salvation

표적(表迹) - miracle

title: Korean/Lesson III2


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Korean/Questions

Forming questions
To form questions in high form (존댓말), simply add the ending 습니까? if the verb stem ends in a consonant or ㅂ니까? if it ends in a vowel.

 * Example: 당신은 어디로 가고 있습니까? (Where are you going?)

When forming questions in middle and low form, the questions are implied by a rising final tone, much like in English. The ending for middle form is 요? For low form, just leave off any ending and use just the raw verb stem.

 * Example(middle): 당신은 언제 미국에 왔어요? (When did you come to America?)

 * Example(low): 넌 어디 갔다왔어? (Where have you been?)

무엇
The interrogative pronoun 무엇 means "what". In speech, it is often contracted to 뭐:
 * 이게 뭐예요?
 * What is this?
 * 뭐라고 했어요?
 * What did [you] say?
 * 뭐하니?
 * What are [you] doing?

The pronoun 누구 means "who". It contracts before 가 to make 누가.

The pronoun 어디 means "where".

title: Korean/Questions


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Jeep Liberty/Electrical/ESP

Jeep Libertys manufactured in 2006 and later come standard with ESP, or Electronic Stability Program. Among other things, ESP applies selective breaking to prevent wheel spin. This traction portion of the ESP has an effect similar to that of an LSD. So it doesn't interfere with off road driving, parts of the ESP system are disabled in 4-Hi and 4-Lo. The system relies heavily on the ABS wheel speed sensors to determine if a wheel is slipping. ESP may interfere with LSDs and lockers because it performs many of the same functions that they do. It should be noted that when ESP was introduced in 2006 the factory LSD option was dropped, whether this was because ESP defeats the purpose of a LSD or because it's incompatible with a LSD is not yet known.

title: Jeep Liberty/Electrical/ESP


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Talk:Java Programming/Installation

Environment Variables
One of the to-dos for the page is to add information on setting the environment variables on Windows systems. I've just done a Java install on my system and reviewed the environment variable information commented out on the wiki page and it seems sound. Can we just un-comment what's there?

JAVAC -version, eh?
What do you mean when you say run the "javac -version" command, you should explain how to do that, or link to it for people who are new to the term. I'm pretty good with computers, but some things aren't explained how to do anywhere, so I never have learned how to do them!!! Meemo 04:49, 12 August 2006 (UTC)
 * I completely agree with Meemo on this. I am working on a newer, better approach for laymen to understand how to check for the availability of Java Development Kit. Pictures and screenshots might do some justice here. - Arun Reginald 07:17, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I have already added some pictures and comprehensive text in order to make the reader aware of what happens behind the scenes. Please see as to this helps readers understand the topic at hand better or not. - Arun Reginald 22:38, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

JavaWIDE
I included a link to JavaWIDE on the page because I think this would be a great way to streamline the process of getting to know Java with as little difficulty as possible. General information about the project is available from the Java WIDE website and you can play around with the tool at the JavaWIDE sandbox. Feel free to move this information to more suitable locations if appropriate. What do you think about including it before all of the installation instructions? - Dr. Jam Jenkins
 * With due respect, Dr Jenkins, I think we should move the part regarding JavaWIDE elsewhere within this book. At this point, we would like the readers of the book to enable themselves to install a JDK for themselves on their computer. But, the real challenge here is to actually define the process as simply as possible without talking much about other alternative tools. - Arunreginald (talk) 09:25, 2 March 2010 (UTC)

Other Platforms
As I've murmured elsewhere, I do think it's a good idea to mention the installation process for other platforms, namely a couple of *nix like systems such as Mac and Linux Ubuntu/Debian. We need to keep them under separate titles to make sure they're not confusing. I'll probably start writing a first draft straight away.

ADD: In my replacement, I've veered people away from an IDE such as Netbeans due to my belief that although they do make life a little easier, I think that they can keep new comers from fully understanding what's going on behind the scenes --Mattylaws (talk) 20:14, 7 March 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Java Programming/Installation


text:
User:Neo139

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Neo139
 * My profile is in English Wikipedia.
 * Mijn profiel is in Engelse Wikipedia
 * Mon profil est dans Wikipedia anglais
 * Mein Profil ist in englischem Wikipedia
 * Το σχεδιάγραμμά μου είναι σε αγγλικό Wikipedia
 * Il mio profilo è in Wikipedia inglese
 * Meu perfil está em Wikipedia inglês
 * Мой профиль находится на английском языке Wikipedia
 * Mi prerfil esta en Wikipedia en Ingles

de:Benutzer:Neo139 es:Usuario:Neo139 fr:Utilisateur:Neo139 it:Untente:Neo139 nl:Gebruiker:Neo139 pl:Wikipedysta:Neo139 pt:Usuário:Neo139 sv:Användare:Neo139

title: User:Neo139


text:
User talk:Neo139

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Neo139
 * My discussion is on English wikipedia
 * Mijn bespreking is op Engelse wikipedia
 * Ma discussion est sur le wikipedia anglais
 * Meine Diskussion ist auf englischem wikipedia
 * Η συζήτησή μου είναι στο αγγλικό wikipedia
 * La mia discussione è sul wikipedia inglese
 * Minha discussão está no wikipedia inglês
 * Мое обсуждение находится на английском wikipedia
 * Mi discusión está en wikipedia inglés

title: User talk:Neo139


text:
Emergency Medicine/Psychosomatic Disorders

Somatoform disorder is a relatively new term for what many people used to refer to as psychosomatic disorder. In somatoform disorders, the physical symptoms cannot be explained by any underlying physical disease. In some cases of somatoform disorders, a physical disease is present that might explain the occurrence but not the severity or duration of the physical symptoms. People with somatoform disorders are not faking illness; they sincerely believe that they have a serious physical problem.

The most commonly diagnosed somatoform disorders are somatization disorder, conversion disorder, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, and pain disorder. The individual people who are diagnosed with a somatoform disorder vary greatly. Treatment approaches also vary according to which somatoform disorder a person has.

Diagnosis
Before establishing the diagnosis of a somatoform disorder, the doctor makes sure that the child does not have a physical illness that could account for the symptoms. However, extensive laboratory tests are generally avoided because they may further convince the child that a physical problem exists and unnecessary diagnostic tests may themselves traumatize the child. If no physical illness can be found, the doctor then talks to the child and family members to try to identify underlying psychologic problems or troubled family relationships.

Treatment
Increasingly doctors are recognizing the importance of dealing with psychological and social factors in relation to physical disease. As a result, many doctors now try to deal with the whole person. This means taking all these factors into consideration. By doing this, it is important to realize that the doctor is not playing down or ignoring the physical disease. Many people with so-called psychosomatic disorders feel that their doctor does not take them seriously. They feel that the doctor believes that it's all in the mind. The doctor will always attempt to treat the physical illness with appropriate medical treatment if necessary. But he will also be interested to understand more about the person who has the illness. This will in turn help him and the patient to understand the illness better. Sometimes psychotherapy or talking treatment can help. Patients are given the opportunity and time to talk about their feelings and emotions. This will help provide them with an insight into themselves and help them understand their illness better. Sometimes it is helpful to look at the whole lifestyle of the person involved. This may require looking at how the stress is dealt with, teaching techniques for stress management, as well as examining factors such as diet and exercise.


text:
Sociology of Religion/Secularization

Sociologists have been theorizing about religion since the inception of sociology. The earliest and still most commonly used theorem in the sociology of religion is the secularization paradigm. The name was borrowed from the Catholic Church that has used the term “secular” since the dark ages to describe priests working outside religious orders. It gained new meaning in sociology where it began to describe the idea of a decline and negation of religion (Beckford 2003). Casanova (1994) has argued that: 'The secularization theory may be the only theory which was able to attain a truly paradigmatic status within the modern social sciences. In one form or another … the thesis of secularization was shared by all founding fathers: from Karl Marx to John Stuart Mill, from August Comte to Herbert Spencer, from E. B. Taylor to James Frazer, from Ferdinand Toennies to George Simmel, from Emile Durkheim to Max Weber…' (p.17)

Secularization theory can be traced back to Saint-Simon (1975) who argued that association between church and state had gone through three stages. In ancient Greece and Rome, religion and state were ruled by the same class, which resulted in the interlocking of the two. In medieval times, these two became distinctly separate institutions, with the church being the predominant one. In recent times, the state has become the stronger of the two (Saint-Simon 1975).

At this point, we can distinguish four discrete variations of the secularization theory. Comte (1974) argued that the progress of sciences will result in the disappearance of religion. Weber (1990) accepted Comte’s idea of science undermining religion; however, he did not believe that disappearance of religion is altogether possible. His approach to secularization theory called for decline in religiosity (Weber 1990). The third approach, presented by Luckmann (1963, 1967, 1990), suggested that indeed religion will decline, although a distinction is made between organized religion (which, in his view, is on the decline) and private religion, which will compensate for losses in institutionalized religion. This shift from public to private religions is identified as privatization theory (Luckmann 1963; Luckmann 1967; Luckmann 1990). Parsons (1977a, 1977b) is credited with the fourth approach, which predicts transformation in religiosity. He said that the influence of organized religion is on the wane and shifting towards the personal sphere. However, Christian values are intertwined in western society and, in effect, became a sacred core of our social system (Parsons 1977a; Parsons 1977b).

Apart from the four core theories within the secularization paradigm there are numerous additional conceptualizations that attempt to fuse the original four. The most popular one is described by Berger (1967) who crossbreeds transformation and privatization theories and argues that religion does affect society, although increasingly only in the private sphere (Berger 1967). Another theory combines disappearance premise with Weber’s decline hypothesis and states that religious values are entrenched in the customs of established communities. Additionally, the conversion to industrial societies creates a challenge to these values’ authority (Wilson 1982; Wilson 1985).

The critics of the secularization theory have argued that there is no sufficient empirical support for the theory which sociologist “sacralized” and that, since the founding fathers of sociology on both sides of the Atlantic were staunch critics of religion itself, this paradigm should be abolished from the theoretical discourse (Hadden 1987; Stark 1999; Swatos and Christiano 1999). However, as Yamane (1997) argues, this “sacralized theory” offers “a paradigm in the strict Kuhnian sense of being grounded in a concrete scientific community which shares a core set of concepts, an infrastructure of ‘exemplars,’ even if there is a diversity at the theoretical level within the paradigm” (p.110). The attacks on the secularization paradigm brought on further modifications in the theory described as “neo-secularization” (Phillips 2004; Sommerville 1998; Yamane 1997). This new approach calls for not connecting secularization with falling rates of religious participation but, instead, describing it as a “descaling scope of religious authority” (Chaves 1994). This is associated with differentiation of once entwined religious and secular institutions, which became increasingly separated from their religious sphere. As Sommerville (1998:251) explains: “…we are not saying that differentiation leads to secularization. It is secularization.” Thus, it appears that the paradigm has been shifting from an emphasis on the outcome to an explication of the process itself.

title: Sociology of Religion/Secularization


text:
Emergency Medicine/Wheezing

Wheezing is a high-pitched whistling sound produced by expiratory air flowing through narrowed breathing tubes, especially the smaller ones deep in the lung. It is a common finding in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Causes

 * Asthma
 * Bronchiectasis
 * Bronchiolitis
 * Bronchitis
 * Emphysema (COPD)
 * Pulmonary Oedema / Heart failure (cardiac asthma)
 * Allergic reaction
 * Inhalation of foreign matter into the lungs (especially in children)

Conditions which may exacerbate existing underlying asthmatic tendency include
 * Gastroesophageal reflux disease
 * Viral infection, especially in infants younger than 2 years old
 * Pneumonia
 * Smoking
 * Medications (many asthmatics wheeze after taking aspirin or NSAID)

Treatment

 * Drugs to relieve narrowing of the airways, (beta agonist)such as albuterol, are usually given by inhalation or nebulisation. These are referred as rescue medication.
 * Steroids are extremely important component in the treatment as airway inflammation has now been proved to be the major component of the disease. Steroids may be given orally during the acute phase treatment, but are usually given by inhalers in the long term treatment(so called 'preventors').
 * Hospitalization may be required if the patient's breathing is particularly difficult, or if close observation by medical personnel, intravenous medications, supplemental oxygen are required. In any case, the patient needs to be closely monitored as asthma can deteriorate rapidly.

If a diagnosis is made related to wheezing such as asthma or COPD, further action to treat and manage the condition will be needed.

title: Emergency Medicine/Wheezing


text:
Emergency Medicine/Hemoptysis

Hemoptysis
Hemoptysis is coughing up blood from the respiratory tract. The blood can come from the nose, mouth, throat, the airway passages leading to the lungs, or the lungs. The word "hemoptysis" comes from the Greek "haima," meaning "blood," and "ptysis," which means "a spitting".

Causes
Hemoptysis can be caused by a range of disorders:

 * Infections. These include pneumonia; tuberculosis; aspergillosis; and parasitic diseases, including ascariasis, amebiasis, and paragonimiasis.
 * Tumors that erode blood vessel walls.
 * Drug abuse. Cocaine can cause massive hemoptysis.
 * Trauma. Chest injuries can cause bleeding into the lungs.
 * Vascular disorders, including aneurysms, pulmonary embolism, and malformations of the blood vessels.
 * Bronchitis. Its most common cause is long-term smoking.
 * Foreign object(s) in the airway.
 * Blood clotting disorders.
 * Bleeding following such surgical procedures as bronchial biopsies and heart catheterization.

Treatment

 * Massive hemoptysis is a life-threatening emergency that requires treatment in an intensive care unit. The patient will be intubated (the insertion of a tube to help breathing) to protect the airway, and to allow evaluation of the source of the bleeding.
 * Patients with lung cancer, bleeding from an aneurysm (blood clot), or persistent traumatic bleeding require chest surgery.
 * Patients with tuberculosis, aspergillosis, or bacterial pneumonia are given antibiotics.
 * Foreign objects are removed with a bronchoscope.
 * If the cause cannot be determined, the patient is monitored for further developments.

title: Emergency Medicine/Hemoptysis


text:
Talk:A-level Economics

Could someone define what "A-level economics" is, and what AQA and OCR stand for?

After a quick google, "A-level" refers to a type of advanced high school curriculum. Could someone defend the existence of a 'principles of' and an 'a-level' book? The content should be identical. An 'A-level' reader/syllabus could be attached to the 'principles of' book instead. Jcress410 (discuss • contribs) 01:12, 6 April 2011 (UTC)

ture or false and solve
The numbers 1/√2, 1/√3, 3/4 are the direction cosines of a line. Sunil shaw (discuss • contribs) 15:02, 15 August 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:A-level Economics


text: Category:Book:Woodworking

title: Category:Book:Woodworking


text: Category:Book:Do-It-Yourself

title: Category:Book:Do-It-Yourself


text:
Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Business card box

Please add your suggestions and enhancements to this article.

--Peter 05:49, 17 September 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Business card box


text:
Computational Chemistry/Geometry optimization

 Previous chapter -  ../Semiempirical quantum chemistry/

Geometry Optimization
Important features to notice are that the potential is steeper on the inner side and shallower especially as it moves out towards dissociation. This concept is extended to polyatomic molecules where we have a potential energy surface in $$n$$ dimensions. ($$n$$ is 3N-6 where N is the number of atoms. The -6 comes from the translations and rotations of the molecule, the trivial vibrations referred to in the MOPAC printouts.) The bottom of the potential well is at the equilibrium bond length. In this region the potential function resembles a parabola $$ E = \frac 1 2 f r ^{2} + c $$

Optimization of the geometry of a diatomic is trivial if we can calculate the total energy we follow it downwards as a function of varying $$r$$ by Newton like procedures until we have points either side of the minimum. From this position we can keep bisecting the interval and using quadratic interpolation until the required accuracy is reached.

A vast improvement to this procedure has come from being able to differentiate the Hamiltonian with respect to the 3N nuclear position coordinates, ( $$x, y,$$ and $$z$$ on each atomic centre ). All the modern quantum chemistry programs now use this technique. Newton-Raphson like methods are used to descend down the surface and old gradients are remembered to refine the optimisation. Once in the quadratic region swift convergence to any accuracy is assured.

Cartesian Coordinates and Z-Matrices
The boring problem of molecular geometries.

We have talked so far about geometries assuming they were expressed as matrices of the $$x,y,z$$ coordinates of the individual atoms. Sometimes a more useful and efficient way is to express the same unique geometrical arrangement as the bond lengths and bond angles of the molecule. This has factored out the 6 degrees of freedom corresponding to rotation and translation of the molecule.

Practical Ways of Making Molecular Geometries
To write out the $$z$$-matrix for a medium sized molecule by inspection is a possible but arduous task. To make the cartesian coordinates without computerized assistance is impossible. In practice one uses a molecular modelling system like the MACROMODEL ( Columbia University, New York ), available on UNIX systems. The molecular modelling system uses one of several standard force-fields to refine the built-up geometry. (Notice the terminology force-fields for classical calculations like MM2, hamiltonians for quantum methods like AM1 (Austin Method-1).)

The force-field calculation has all the connectivity of the molecule established by the modelling system so generating the matrices involves walking the tree of connectivities in the most chemically sensible way picking off the leaves, (Hydrogen atoms), with their dihedral angles as $$z$$-matrix entries. In computing terminology trees grow downwards not up. The nodes of a tree are usually the atoms. Terminal nodes are called leaves.

n-pentane in Tree Form
C                                      .. . .                                    .   .   .   .                                   C     H    H   H                                 .. .                              .   .   .                              C    H    H                            .. .                         .   .   .                         C     H    H                       .. .                    .   .   .                    C    H    H                  .. .               .   .   .               H    H    H

The theoretical study of the connectivity of chemistry is called Chemical Graph Theory and is important in areas such as computer assisted chemical synthesis and bibliographic searching.

Polar Coordinates
z                          | |                          |               * (atom)i | theta(i). .                          |           .   .                           |))       .     .                           |  )    . r(i)  .                           |   ). .                          |   .           .                           | .             .                           0y /  .            .                         /     ( .         .                        /(   ((     .      .                       /  (((          .   .                      /   phi(i)          ..                     /                     .                    /                   /                  /                 /               x

Notice that there is a handedness to the axis system, following the right hand rule. The $$z$$-axis, (the principal axis), is the thumb, first finger gives $$x$$, second finger $$y$$. This convention is best adhered to as though left handed coordinate systems will work if consistent great trouble can be caused by stereochemistry, (proteins are made of only L-amino acids|).

Carbon Dioxide
:                      :                       :        00             CC           00 0 0 --C  --0  0  --x 0 0 --C  --0  0 00 1          CC1          00 2 /                   /                   /                  /                 y

By inspection the cartesian coordinates can be written down

The symmetry point group is $$D_{\infty h}$$ but in quantum chemistry calculations often the algorithms require the use of Abelian, (~non degenerate~), groups only so $$D_{2}h$$ is used for carbon dioxide. ($$D_{2}h$$ is the ab-initio quantum chemist's favourite group as it has 8 irreducible representations making the calculation much smaller than the more common $$C_{s}$$ or $$C_{2}v$$ groups, e.g. Quinone with only two unique heavy atoms. The principal axis of rotation is almost always defined as the $$z$$-axis.

Methyl Chloride
In methyl chloride the C-Cl bond is 1.8 angstroms the C-H bond 1.094 angstroms and the CL-C-H angle is 110.6667 degrees. in the diagram the Z-axis is along the C-CL bond.

CL                        : :                        :                         :                         :                         C y                        /=. / = .                    //  =  ..            (x out of page) //  =   . .                  / /    =    . .                 / /    H(3). .               /-/             .-.               H(1)             H(2)

The obvious atom to make the origin is C. Cl will then be 1.8 up the $$z$$-axis. All the hydrogens will have the $$z$$-coordinate $$1.094~*~\cos~110.67$$ i.e. $$-~(1.094~*~\cos~69.33)$$.

H(3) has a $$y$$ coordinate zero and an $$x$$ coordinate negative, (that is in a right-handed cartesian framework, see the Polar Coordinates diagram).

It is best always to use the conventional right handed axes. The memory trick is to think of a sheet of graph paper, $$x$$ is across as usual and $$y$$ up the paper. Positive z then comes out of the paper. Interestingly failure to get this right does not affect any results of calculations other than those of optical activity etc. but a more serious problem is when coordinates are used as building blocks. For instance if you combined a set of amino-acid coordinates from your calculation with some from a crystal structure or the molecular model builder you could inadvertently end up mixing D and L forms in the same peptide.

So the above negative $$x$$ value will be $$1.094~*~\sin~69.33$$. Now remembering this value as '$$xc$$', we can easily get the $$x$$ and $$y$$ coordinates of H2 and H3. These are related by rotations of 120 degrees and have identical coordinates except for a change of sign in the $$y$$-direction. Now the $$y$$-coordinate will be + or - $$xc~*~\sin~120$$. The $$x$$-coordinate is cos~120.

Useful Table for Remembering Common Trig Values
Sines read down the table and cosines up.

With the MACROMODEL modelling system one would bet the icon for CH4 and prod one of the hydrogens with the 'Cl' icon. The MM2 force-field could then be used to optimise the geometry.

Benzene
The calculation of the geometry for benzene is greatly simplified by placing the origin at the centre of symmetry. The carbon atoms are 1.39 angstroms away from the centre of symmetry and the hydrogens are 2.47 angstroms away. The triangle formed between two adjacent carbons and the centre of symmetry is an equilateral triangle. Cos and sin of 60 can be used to calculate the coordinates of H2 and C2. All the rest are related by sign changes.

Y                                     H1         :                                      * :                                     *         :                         H6           *            H2         :                          *          1*           * *                           *       *   *1.39   *       * : *                            *   *       *   *     *   :   *                            *6         2*   *     :     *                          *           *   *     :.....*.........X                *           * *          *                          *           *   *           *                          *5         3*     *       *                          *   *       *   *       *   *                          *       * 4 *       *         *                          *           *           *                                   H5           *            H3                                                * *                                               H4

(Z-axis vertically out of page) Benzene Centre         0.000    0.000    0.000 C              0.000    1.390    0.000 H              0.000    2.470    0.000 C              1.204    0.695    0.000 H              2.139    1.235    0.000 C              0.000   -1.390    0.000 H              0.000   -2.470    0.000 C             -1.204   -0.695    0.000 H             -2.139   -1.235    0.000 C              1.204   -0.695    0.000 H              2.139   -1.235    0.000 C             -1.204    0.695    0.000 H             -2.139    1.235    0.000 **

One of the problems with the above coordinates which I worked out with a calculator is the precision. The atoms on the axes have infinite precision, (~zero|~), whereas the atom positions worked out have only 4-figures, (atoms 2, 3, 5, and 6). This manifests itself as a slight slippage from the full $$D_{6}h$$ symmetry, which will cause degenerate orbitals and equal atomic properties to be not quite equal.

Such unexpected occurrences in computational results are very common though the effects of only finite precision on both input data and computation are not usually serious. In quantum chemistry we need larger than usual accuracy, obtained by double precision arithmetic, because we are concerned with differences in energy between entities which contain large amounts of core electronic energy which 'uses~up' the left hand significant figures of the total energy. (Compared with high energy phenomena most of chemistry is concerned with small differences in energy.) If you were working out the coordinates of a molecule containing a phenyl group you would probably use the molecular modelling system but there are cases where there is high symmetry where you would start from highly symmetrical coordinates as above.

Projections
Newman Projection                            Sawhorse Projection *****************                            *******************                                                                    .H6. *)                                               .                *  )                                             * C2                *    )                                         .. .                * 27  )   @                         H1. .  .   @           .* .    )@                           .    .  .      .     @      .   *    .@                             .   H4.        .       @        *). .          H5         @.     *  )   .                            . .                *120                             C1 *         .      *   ). .  .              *   *)                            .       .          . *       *  .              Z       .           .          *           *              /       H2            H3       *    .        .  *           /     *         .  .       *        /   *          @             *     /                                 :--X      Z       Y             @                   :        (    ^      /         )                                 :        (    ^    /           )            @                    :        (    ^ /              )                                 Y        (    *-X      )

Newman projection is the most useful for quantitative working with dihedral angles. Programs exist to print out the dihedral angles from crystal structures or MACROMODEL coordinates.

Local Origins in Ring Systems
It is often desirable to describe a subsystem and shunt it into geometrical position. This rotation / translation process can be describes by a vector and three Euler Angles. A very suitable orientation for a model fragment is to make any aromatic part as planar as possible, (perhaps by least squares fitting). The origin of the cartesian system can be set to be the centre of the ring defined by the centre of mass assuming all the ring atoms to be carbon and no other atoms considered). The reason for this is obvious if one thinks of a C6H4I- group. The centre of mass would be in the C-I bond and the centre of the ring system is a much more practical origin.

There are many ways of defining the Euler Angles. QM uses the three angles $$\alpha, \beta$$ and $$\gamma$$ which are rotations about $$z$$, $$y^'$$ then $$z^'$$  (i.e. $$z$$, new $$y$$, then the        new $$z$$ axis.

then

then

Here is a piece of FORTRAN code for the resulting transformation matrix from the product of these three rotations.

tran (1,1) = (cos (alpha) * cos (beta) * cos (gamma)) _ - sin (alpha) * sin (gamma) tran (2,1) = (cos (alpha) * cos (beta) * sin (gamma)) _ + (sin (alpha) * cos (gamma)) tran (3,1) = - cos (alpha) * sin (beta) tran (1,2) = - ( (sin (alpha) * cos (beta) * cos (gamma)) _  +  ( cos (alpha) * sin (gamma))  ) tran (2,2) = - ( sin (alpha) * cos (beta) * sin (gamma) ) _ + ( cos (alpha) * cos (gamma) ) tran (3,2) = sin (alpha) * sin (beta) tran (1,3) = sin (beta) * cos (gamma) tran (2,3) = sin (beta) * sin (gamma) tran (3,3) = cos (beta)

The optimization
Once you have your trial geometry, made by a graphical program or by trigonometry as describes previously one of the powerful quantum or molecular mechanics programs will solve the geometry by minimizing the (3N-6) free coordinates.

In many cases this does not give a unique geometry only one of many possible conformations.

 Next Chapter -  ../Applications of molecular quantum mechanics/


text:
Computational Chemistry/Applications of molecular quantum mechanics

 Previous chapter -  ../Geometry optimization/

Frontier Orbital Theory
(The Fukui Theory of Reactivity and Selection)

One of the most important pieces of  information  which  can  be obtained  from the molecular eigenvectors is the Fukui Reactivity Indices. For normal conditions chemical reactivity there are two orbitals which  are  specially  important,  the occupied orbital which is highest in energy and the unoccupied orbital  which  is lowest  in  energy. These are known as the Frontier Orbitals as they are either side of the occupied / virtual divide. (The empty orbitals which are produced from diagonalising  the  Fock-Matrix are known as the virtual orbitals.)

The terminology  your  will  come  across  is the HOMO, Highest Occupied  Molecular  Orbital,  and  the   LUMO,   Lowest Unoccupied  Molecular  Orbital. Initially nucleophiles  attack molecules by placing their surplus electrons, (typically a lone- pair  orbital), into the LUMO. The attacking lone pair orbital is then involved as an electron donor  and  the  LUMO  an  electron acceptor. This is a description in the terminology of Perturbation Molecular Orbital  theory. Of course there is a symmetry here in that what is nucleophilic attack by one molecule is electrophilic attach by the other.

Chemical sense is used to decide which label to place on the reaction but we now have  a  quantitive  way  to label  the reaction in terms of the HOMO and LUMO energies of the reacting species.

In the Fukui theory  reactivity  indices are calculated  from  the  square  of  the  coefficients  of the frontier orbitals. The nucleophilic reactivity indices come from the LUMO coefficients and the electrophilic from the HOMO. For free radical attack the indices are

$$ (c^2_{(HOMO)} + c^2_{(LUMO)}) / 2 $$

Hückel Calculation on Pyridine Output
*************************************************************** * Pyridine                                                    * ***************************************************************

N C2/C2 C3/C3 C4/C4 C5/C5 C6/C6 N/* E(N) = 1.5 **

ATOM LABELS ***********

N          C2          C3          C4          C5

C6

****************************** *                            *  *          6 ATOMS           * *                           *  *          6 ELECTRONS       * *                           *  ******************************

SECULAR DETERMINANT *******************

N   C2   C3   C4   C5   C6

N       E    1    0    0    0    1

C2      1    X    1    0    0    0

C3      0    1    X    1    0    0

C4      0    0    1    X    1    0

C5      0    0    0    1    X    1

C6      1    0    0    0    1    X

ENERGIES IN TERMS OF BETA *************************

1          2           3           4           5

2.525982   1.430795    1.000000   -0.594211   -1.000000

6

-1.862566

EIGENVECTOR MATRIX                                       PART    1

1          2           3           4           5

N         0.754598   -0.432035    0.000000   -0.443012    0.000000 C2        0.387102    0.014950   -0.500000    0.463881   -0.500000 C3        0.223215    0.453424   -0.500000    0.167369    0.500000 C4        0.176735    0.633808    0.000000   -0.563333    0.000000 C5        0.223215    0.453424    0.500000    0.167369   -0.500000 C6        0.387102    0.014950    0.500000    0.463881    0.500000

EIGENVECTOR MATRIX                                       PART    2

6

N        -0.218330 C2        0.367074 C3       -0.465370 C4        0.499708 C5       -0.465370 C6        0.367074

TOTAL ENERGY IN TERMS OF BETA =    9.913554 ********************************************

EXCITATION ENERGY      1.594 BETA 4.46 eV               277.79 nM                 430.7 kJ per Mole

CHARGE DENSITIES WRT 1 ELECTRON PER ORBITAL *******************************************

N          C2          C3          C4          C5

-0.512145   0.199857   -0.010837    0.134105   -0.010837

C6

0.199857

BOND ORDERS *********** N    --- C2           0.5713 N   --- C6           0.5713 C2  --- C3           0.6864 C3  --- C4           0.6537 C4  --- C5           0.6537 C5  --- C6           0.6864

CHARGE DENSITIES IN EXCITED STATE *********************************

( WTR 1 ELECTRON PER ORBITAL )

N          C2          C3          C4          C5

-0.708404   0.234672    0.211150   -0.183239    0.211150

C6

0.234672

BOND ORDERS IN EXCITED STATE **************************** N    --- C2           0.3658 N   --- C6           0.3658 C2  --- C3           0.5140 C3  --- C4           0.5594 C4  --- C5           0.5594 C5  --- C6           0.5140

The reactivity of pyridine is discussed in Streitwieser and Heathcock p1022 onwards. It can be seen from the charge densities that there is positive charge at the ortho (2,5) and para (4) positions, negative charge at the meta (3) position. Electrophiles overwhelmingly attack at the meta position. Both the charge density and the frontier orbitals reinforce here. (The HOMO orbital has equal 0.5 coefficients at ortho and meta positions, but ortho is deactivated by being positively charged.

Nucleophiles attack the LUMO orbital at C2 or C6 (ortho). The coefficients of LUMO at ortho and para are about equal but the ortho position has a greater positive charge which presumably makes it more attractive to electrophiles. (This discussion is about the beginning of the reaction. Sometimes factors which affect the transition state are more important and the predictions from charge densities etc. may not apply when the reaction has proceeded nearer the energy barrier.) In many aromatic systems this kind of frontier orbital analysis works well though. With respect to our discussions of ab-initio quantum chemistry often working in an empty universe with only two molecules involved, it is quite encouraging that Hückel Theory can give rationalizations of reactions which are going on in nitrating mixture, (conc. sulphuric and nitric acids), at 100C plus.

Charge Transfer Interactions
The so called charge transfer complexes are particularly amenable to frontier orbital analysis. In these complexes the acceptor's LUMO is energetically and geometrically accessible to the donor's HOMO and a small fraction of an electron (typically about 0.05) is passed across. The complex has more conjugation than the separated systems and this often moves the lowest excitation into the visible region so charge-transfer complexes are frequently strongly coloured. ( Streitwieser and Heathcock P.832.

Molecular Geometries and Force Constants.
We have talked about this previously. It is of overriding importance as molecules spend most of their time in the ground state equilibrium geometry, so molecular geometry optimization is usually the first process in any modelling calculation. The force constants lead to the normal coordinates which describe the molecular vibrations. The traversing of a reaction coordinate is sometimes described in rather sophisticated treatments as a molecular vibration of the super-molecule. (When calculating interactions between two molecules the geometry which represents the two molecules in proximity is called the supermolecule. The interaction energy is the energy of the supermolecule minus the sum of the energies of the two free species.)

Atomic Population Analysis and Dipole Moments.
Atomic population analysis allows the assignment of $$\delta^+$$ and $$\delta^-$$ charges to the component atoms. This is the charge separation caused by the different electronegativities of atoms in different environments. e.g. Azulene which has only carbon and hydrogen atoms in it but has a largeish dipole moment caused by quantum effects. This chemical phenomenon is even accessible to the simplest quantum method, H\"uckel Theory.

As well as the contribution to the dipole from atomic charges there is another contribution caused by distortion of charge on each atom. The semi-empirical programs separate the dipole into these components by labelling them 'POINT-CHARGE' and 'HYBRID' contributions.

Extract from Nitrobenzene MOPAC / AM1 Run
(Mopac see (Stewart, 1990).)

NET ATOMIC CHARGES AND DIPOLE CONTRIBUTIONS

ATOM NO.  TYPE          CHARGE        ATOM  ELECTRON DENSITY 1         C          -0.0880          4.0880 2         C          -0.1397          4.1397 3         C          -0.0673          4.0673 4         C          -0.1312          4.1312 5         C          -0.0678          4.0678 6         C          -0.1394          4.1394 7         H           0.1443          0.8557 8         H           0.1483          0.8517 9         H           0.1711          0.8289 10         H           0.1710          0.8290 11         H           0.1484          0.8516 12         N           0.5674          4.4326 13         O          -0.3586          6.3586 14         O          -0.3585          6.3585 DIPOLE          X         Y         Z       TOTAL POINT-CHG. -2.598   -4.652    -0.037     5.328    HYBRID         0.044     0.078     0.001     0.090 SUM          -2.554    -4.574    -0.036     5.239

Dipoles are often caused by electronegativity differences between the component atoms of the molecule. In some cases however dipoles are caused by entirely electronic quantum effects where the molecule is composed of nothing but carbon and hydrogen. A good example of this is azulene, a fused pair of a five and a seven membered ring. The H\"uckel 4~N~+~2 rule predicts the stability of C6H6 (benzene), C7H7(+) (Tropylium), and C5H5(-) (cyclopentadienyl). The chemistry of these compounds is in no conflict with the theory, C5H5(-) being a stable very common ligand in inorganic chemistry, (it is abbreviated Cp), Ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2 being the first such 'sandwich' compound to be made. Tropylium forms stable ionic salts, e.g. C7H7(+)Br(-).

HUCKEL CHARGE DENSITIES FOR AZULENE ***********************************

C1         C2          C3          C4          C5

-0.027428  -0.027428    0.145054    0.013553    0.129999

C6         C7          C8          C9          C10

0.013553   0.145054   -0.172879   -0.046600   -0.172879

.                   .                         .   ....              3(+)                        ..      .. 4... ... ...  ...                    ..        .                 ...                10(-)       .                     ... 2... ... ... ..      .                          .              ..     .                           .                .  ........5(+)                         .                 ..9........    ..                           .                 ..     ..                          .               ..      ..                         1              .       ..                    ...  ... ... ... 8(-)        .6                ...                 .      ... ... ... ...7(+).                    ..    ..                .                        ..                    ..

Note the alternation of charges with bond connectivity, which is typical of quantum effects.

BOND ORDERS *********** C1   --- C2           0.4009 C1  --- C7           0.5858 C1  --- C8           0.5956 C2  --- C3           0.5858 C2  --- C10          0.5956 C3  --- C4           0.6640 C4  --- C5           0.6389 C5  --- C6           0.6389 C6  --- C7           0.6640 C8  --- C9           0.6560 C9  --- C10          0.6560

Electronic Spectra
Electronic spectra can be investigated by several methods the simplest of which of which have the disadvantage that the wavefunction being used is better for the ground state of the molecule than the excited state and this introduces some imbalance into the calculation. Many ab-initio programs now have MCSCF calculations to explore such things analytically. It is however half a PhD project to do it properly.

Ionisation Potentials
Ionisation potentials are often calculated by the approximate Koopmans' Theorem. This says that the ionisation potential of an electron in a given orbital is just minus the orbital energy. This is simple both to calculate and to interpret but incorrect in that it takes no account of relaxation processes which occur. When ionisation has happened the remaining N-1 electrons can relax to see more of the positive nuclei rather than just staying where they are. This relaxation is effectively instantaneous on the laboratory timescale and so the Koopmans energies are systematically too small. This is the inverse of the process which makes excitation energies in general too large when calculated in the virtual orbital (VO) approximation.

The experimental technique for looking at ionization potentials is photoelectron spectroscopy. This comes in several varieties with different acronyms such as ESCA. The core (1s) ionization potential, despite being tightly bound to the nucleus and taking no part in chemical bonding is still subject to a chemical shift. The simplest example of this is the azide anion, N3. It is charged

- + -   N=N=N

leading to two photoelectron spectrum peaks at -399eV and -405eV in the ratio 2:1. The practical non-SI unit of spectroscopy at this energy range is the electron volt (eV), 1 eV = 96.4853 kJ per mole, and is about a quarter of the energy needed to break a chemical bond.

Electron Affinities and Excited States
The same problem of using MO coefficents optimised by the SCF procedure for the ground state configuration applies to the Electron Affinity and to using the virtual orbitals as prototype excited states. Nevertheless this is something which we often do as it is the simplest picture and can be worked on using our readily available ground state semi-empirical wavefunction.

The definitive solution to the above problems is through the use of the electron and polarization propagators.

naphalene and azulene
Use a molecular gui like Macromodel make trial geometries for naphalene and azulene. Optimise the geometry. Do a single point calculation at the Huckel level and at the AM1 semiempirical level. (A single point calculation is the quantum mechanics at a pre-specified geometry, in this case the MM2* geometry, often either i) the gas phase experimental geometry, ii) the crystal structure geometry from X-ray or neutron diffraction.

Look at the orbital energies and node patterns. Locate both crystal structures on the database and compare their characteristics with the MM2* geometry. Does azulene have C2v symmetry? It should have experimentally in the gas phase but some methodologies break the symmetry and produce only Cs symmetry with alternating single and double bonds. There is a paper on the solution of this problem at the Hartree-Fock level and with correlated methods. (Hartree-Fock gets it wrong.) MP2 and above is right. If you were sufficiently interested you could use a literature search program to find out if the correlated single-determinant method DFT, (Density Functional Theory), gets this structure right.

VSEPR and electronic properties mini project
This is a mini-project rather than a short problem and involves running the abinitio program of your choice.

The motivation of this computer experiment is to draw together various threads from chemistry about shape, symmetry, electronegativity and electric moments so you will have to consider things like why UF6 is a gas and water and HF hydrogen bond but in the context of the rather  dry looking numbers from computer programs which actually mean a lot and can match experiment. The experiment involves calculation of the electronic structures of CH4, NH3, H2O, HF, BeH2, BF3, H3N-BF3, SF6, XeF4, XeF4O and IF7. In order to complete this experiment you will need access to a modern molecular quantum mechanics program. You will need to do a bit of literature work and use some common sense to get starting points and experimental numbers for comparison with theory. Starting molecular geometries can always be either calculated or estimated as the ability to guess what the value of a number might be approximately is a neccessary scientific skill. (Crude examples of this are estimating a bond length as the sum of the covalent radii of the atoms, regardless of the environment of the atoms in the current molecule or  saying that the chemical shift of an atom is the usual average  for that functional group, in the same way as we habitually use average bond energies.) Reference where you get your covalent radii from, there are several sources. You can start with the NH3, BF3 and H3N-BF3 and IF7 (the difficult unusual molecule). Unless you have a GUI you will need to learn a little bit about a file editor to prepare data files. vi is one of several, pico another. You typically prepare a file for running and submit it to the batch system. (Though many calculations will run in seconds, when preparing work for publication you must always use the best calculation you can afford, and these are typically several hours or even days long.) The quality of the calculation depends on the number of atom based basis orbitals you put in and the cost of the calculations typically increases by the number of basis orbitals to the power 3 and a bit. (You double the basis and the calculation takes 8 times longer.) In a Self Consistent Field (SCF) calculation the usual procedure is to store the many electron repulsion integrals created by the 1/r(1,2) operator in the Hamiltonian on disc. This disc space then becomes a limiting resource which stops the improvement of the calculation. If you want to use lots of f-orbitals on I and d-orbitals on F in IF7 it will fail by filling the disc. Even on NH3 you might use the unfilled d-orbitals in the basis because they allow the nitrogen atom (Another way of looking at this is that the shape of the lone pair and to a lesser extent the tighter bonding orbitals is improved by the extra atomic orbitals.) to be polarized in its bonded environment. There is a mode of execution of most quantum chemistry programs called direct. In this case electron repulsion integrals are calculated  on the fly and not stored. This causes the run to take much longer but not to require very much disc space. (This same technique is always used when calculating the 3N-6 position derivatives of electron repulsion integrals during a geometry optimisation as by using a matrix inversion technique these are only required once and not iterated with as in a SCF calculation). If you are really fanatical about doing the definitive calculation on a molecule you might have to use direct and a 32 hour run to use the largest basis to get the best possible calculation. This is not however necessary to get something good out of this experiment. Estimate the bond lengths in these molecules by adding together the covalent radii. Find the experimental geometries of as many of them as you can. (One of the best compilations of geometries is Landolt-Börnstein. Use your abinitio program to optimize the geometries of the ones you cannot find an experimental geometry for. Here is the experimental geometry of XeF4O below. The units are Angstrom, 10 to the -10 of a metre. You will notice the experimental precision of the Xe=O bond length, and the artificially high precision of the fluorine coordinates which have been subjected to a trigonometrical calculation using 64-bit floating point accuracy! (You will also notice the sloppy way the editor has not recorded the terminal page number of the pre-internet paper and so you might have to go to the library and look it up at some time.) XeF4=O  J.F. Martins, E.B. Wilson,  J Mol Spectrosc 26, 410 (1968) O               0.0000000000    0.0000000000    1.703 XE              0.0000000000    0.0000000000    0.0000000000 F               1.8990624647    0.0000000000   -0.0596804422 F              -1.8990624647    0.0000000000   -0.0596804422 F               0.0             1.8990624647   -0.0596804422 F               0.0            -1.8990624647   -0.0596804422 Preparing data for programs like GAUSSIAN, DALTON, GAMESS or CADPAC can be difficult If you have to use the raw data structure. Most programs now have a GUI by which the data preparation can be simplified, even automated. Answer the following questions in a short report. Give some references and use a style which includes the paper titles and both starting and ending page numbers, (just to get used to the fiddly style used by some journals which waste your time if you loose the end page number!). Many Web and CD journals use this style as they are not wasting paper but it actually does make the reference list easier to navigate. (Q1) Report the first non-zero moment of these molecules i.e. if the molecule has a dipole moment, the dipole, if it has a no dipole, the quadrupole. Two of these molecules are so symmetrical that they have no dipole or quadrupole. What is the name of the next moment, (rather obscure). Note that for the dipole moment of XeF4O it is not obvious which direction the dipole will point as both fluorine and oxygen are electronegative and the O-Xe-F angle is close to 90 degrees. However as there is no symmetry along the O=Xe bond so there must be a non-zero dipole. (Q2) What effect does the lack of a dipole or quadrupole have on the physical properties of these molecules? (Q3) If there is no dipole moment what forces cause the molecule to condense from gas to a liquid, (or in the case of CO2 straight to a solid at 1 atmosphere). What is the relevance of this to the separation of the isotopes of Uranium? Which two factors fortunately make this extremely difficult, (hint. somebody's Law is important in one, how you make Uranium a gas in the other)? The orbital energies are an approximation to the ionization potential. (Technically this is known as Koopmans' Theorem.) The orbital energies are usually in atomic units, but experimentalists use the electron volt (eV). (Q4) See which electron comes out first in NH3, HCl, IF7 and XeF4. Comment on what you expected and what actually happens. (Q5) SF6 is 23900 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than CO2. Calculate its infrared spectrum and look at the orbital energies to see how the binding of electrons influences the molecule's reactivity. Examine the vibrational normal modes with respect to the group tables in a book such as Atkins  Physical Chemistry or Cotton  Group Theory. See how the degeneracies in the group table correspond to both the vibrational degeneracies and the degeneracies in the ionization potentials and therefore the photoelectron spectrum. Confirm the VSEPR rules by starting BF3 and AlF3 from trigonal geometries like ammonia. Hopefully this optimization will go planar! Calculate the vibrational spectrum of these molecules in their correct geometry.
 * 1)   Xe=O   1.703   Xe-F  1.900  O=Xe-F 91.8degree

(Q6) Calculate the vibrational spectrum of flat ammonia and see what happens. There are methods of estimating the moments of these molecules from electronegativity and shape alone.

In general there are two geometries of the molecule we are interested in. The experimental equilibrium geometry and the optimised geometry of the biggest calculation we can afford. (Q7) Calculate the proton and fluorine shieldings in the molecules which have F and H. (Q8) Calculate the (H,H) spin-spin coupling constant in NH3 and the (F,F) constant in XeF4, using the SCF wavefunction (as standard). If you have the computing capacity you could calculate the (H,H) spin-spin coupling constant with an expensive electron correlated calculation, which is actually necessary to get good answers for this exotic property.

Some Experimental Geometries (VSEPR)
NH3  104.9067 theta= 113.7213 R=0.1.024275 G.H.F.D.&A.J.S, J.C.P. 75,1253. N   0.0            0.000000    0.1449084 H1   0.93773726    0.0           -0.26714530 H2            -0.4688686300    0.8121042892   -0.2671453000 H3            -0.4688686300   -0.8121042892   -0.2671453000

BF3  Kuchitsu K, Konaka S. JCP 45 4342 (1966) B              0.0000000000    0.0000000000    0.0000000000 F              1.3120000000    0.0000000000    0.0000000000 F             -0.6560000000    1.1362253298    0.0000000000 F             -0.6560000000   -1.1362253298    0.0000000000

AlCl3 2.049 V.P. Spiridonov, A.G. Gershikov, E.Z. Zasorin, N.I. Popenko, Al 0 0 0 Cl 2.049 CL            -1.0245000000    1.7744860524    0.0000000000 CL            -1.0245000000   -1.7744860524    0.0000000000
 * 1) A.A.Ivanov, L.I. Ermolayeva High. Temp. Sci. 14 (1981) 285.

Notice that when dealing with geometries of ammonia and phosphine the most useful angle is the lone pair to X-H angle, (theta), not the H-N-H angle.

Bibliography for VSEPR
(1) A Chemistry VSEPR website: http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/vsepr/

(2) Different editions of J.  E. Huheey,   Inorganic  Chemistry. (3) C. J. Cramer, Essentials of computational chemistry: theories and models, (Chichester, John Wiley, 2002). (4) F. Jensen,  Introduction to Computational Chemistry, (Wiley, Chichester, 1999). (5) The DALTON website: http://www.kjemi.uio.no/software/dalton/dalton.html (6) Landolt-Börnstein,  New series II, Volume  7,  Structure Data of Free Polyatomic Molecules,  ed. K. H. Hellwege and A. M. Hellwege (Springer, Berlin, 1976). Landolt-Börnstein,  New series II, Volume  15 Supplement to Volume  II/7,  Structure Data of Free Polyatomic Molecules,  ed. K. H. Hellwege and A. M. Hellwege (Springer, Berlin, 1987).


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Computational Chemistry/Data bases and modelling

 Previous chapter -  ../Chemical informatics/

This is a stub entry for databases
Examples of chemical databases are: CSD (the Cambridge Structural Database), ICSD (Inorganic Crystal Structure Data files), PDB (the Brookhaven Protein Data Bank), ELYS (Electrolyte Solutions Database), SPECINFO (IR and NMR Spectroscopy) and ACDRX (Fine Chemicals).

There are extensive organic synthesis data bases such as Comprehensive Heterocyclic Chemistry, Theilheimer Database, Chiras (Asymmetric Synthesis and SPG protecting group database.

 Next Chapter -  ../Macromolecular chemistry/


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Learning the vi Editor/Vim/Tips and Tricks

The Vim Tipbook is a collection of tips, hints and HowTos for using the Vim text editor. It is an outgrowth of the Vim tips database in a more flexible format, and also includes some helpful posts from the Vim mailing lists.

For information on the general use of Vim, please see the Learning the vi Editor/Vim.

Tips for Editing

 * Where possible, extensive personal configurations should be avoided. Keep suggestions within the scope of a single tip. You may wish to link to several other tips that might be used alongside, much in the same way a food cookbook would suggest dishes that go well together.
 * Always provide enough information so that a tip can be used from Vim's default  settings.

Conventions Used
Where a series of commands are required to be entered, these might be listed in a preformatted block:

Which will produce the following formatted text:

=70

Vim Help
If you are new to vi, try the  command. It's an excellent guide for the beginner.

Vim has an extensive help system. EVERYTHING is covered. This system is so extensive, however, that finding the needed information is sometimes akin to finding one's own little needle in a huge stack of hay. But even for that, there are Vim tools:

 * (assuming  is already set)

 * Help tag completion: if you think 'foo' is part of something which has a hyperlink in the help system, use

foo

 * where <Tab> means "hit the Tab key", and if there is only one possible completion Vim fills it in for you; if there is more than one the bottom status line is replaced by a menu which can be navigated by hitting the <Left> and <Right> arrow keys; accept a selection by hitting <Enter>, abort by hitting <Esc>.

 * The  function: if you think that some regular expression describe text you want to search for in the text of all the help files, use

<pattern>

 * where <pattern> is a Vim regular expression, like what you can use after / or ? . It may take some time for Vim to look up all its help files, and it may or may not display interim information which may require you to hit Enter to clear the  (q.v.) When the blinking cursor reappears in your editfile, it means Vim has compiled the list of all help locations where your regexp matches. See them by means of the following

or :cr or :cn or :cprev or :cN or :cla

Inserting Text From a File or Register
If your text is in a file on its own, you can use  with a line number (the number of the line after which to insert, or   for "before first line", or   for "after cursor line", or   for "after last line"; default is after cursor line) in the "range" position, i.e. just before the. The file name comes as an argument at the end.

Example (after line 5): 5r ~/template.txt If your text is in a register, you can use  with a line number (again) in the range position and the register name (including , which must be escaped as  , for the default register; or   for the system clipboard) after the.

Example (before cursor line): .-1put \" You can also insert a string directly using  and direct assignment:  :put ='This is text to insert.' See  :help :read  :help :put

Full Screen Mode
To achieve a full screen editing window on any version of gvim you can do:

:set lines=999 columns=999 m  when present, menu bar is present T  when present, toolbar is present on versions which support it (W32, GTK1, GTK2, Motif, Photon, kvim) l  when present, left scrollbar is always present L  when present, left scrollbar is present if there is a vertical split r  when present, right scrollbar is always present R  when present, right scrollbar is present if there is a vertical split b  when present, bottom scrollbar is present F  when present, gvim (Motif) will display a footer
 * : We remove the flags one-by-one to avoid problems if they appear in the option in a different order, or if some of them do not appear at all. By choosing which ones to remove (or not) you can customize your own flavour of "full-screen Vim".
 * , : setting them to a large value will maximize the window.

For more, see: :help 'guioptions' :help 'lines' :help 'columns'


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Talk:Mathematics for Chemistry/Number theory

The mathematics chemists need to know is wide but it also has features specific to them, (one of which is many of them do not want to do any maths!) They need a book of their own.


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Technologies for Rural Development/Ways of farming

Ways of Farming

Farming can be divided into two main sections, crop farming and animal husbandry. Both have been a major part of human development over last few thousand years.

The first farming began in the Fertile Crescent located in present day Iraq and Syria, with wheat harvesting and the husbandry of sheep and goats around 8000BC. Agriculture was also developed independently in China and the New World at later dates.

Animal Husbandry
Organic farming according to Köpke (1990) comprises the principle of a precise organisation of an agronomically appropriate ( A. Young ), largely self-contained farm organisms. The overall concept makes the combination of plant production and animal husbandry, that is the traditional mixed farm or appropriate cooperations necessary.

Animal husbandry an important financial pillar of organically producing farms. Usually they earn more than 50% of their turnover with animal husbandry.

Soil Stability
Soil erosion is a very important problem for agriculture today; it is caused by overgrazing and also by land clearing.

To solve this problem trees can be planted on steep slopes, or in some cases types of grass such as Vetiver (a grass that grows on my types of soils).

Tecnologías para el Desarrollo Rural/Cómo Mejorar la Agricultura


text: Urdu/Vocabulary/Colors

title: Urdu/Vocabulary/Colors


text: Urdu/Vocabulary/Rooms and Furniture

title: Urdu/Vocabulary/Rooms and Furniture


text:
Urdu/Vocabulary/Days of the Week

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

title: Urdu/Vocabulary/Days of the Week


text:
Urdu/Vocabulary/Months of the Year

Normally months of the year are spoken in the same way as English.

title: Urdu/Vocabulary/Months of the Year


text: Urdu/Vocabulary/Seasons

title: Urdu/Vocabulary/Seasons


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Talk:Biochemistry/Metabolism and energy

ATP Bond Energy
There is NO high energy and low energy bonds in ATP, they are all have the same chemical energy!

Browser Issues
My browser (IE 6.0.2800.1106) has a problem showing the various arrows, such as the equilibrium arrow. Is there a more generic way to show them, or does everyone need to do some modification to their browser? Thanks.

title: Talk:Biochemistry/Metabolism and energy


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Urdu/Nouns

In Urdu there are only two genders: masculine and feminine. It is very difficult for a new user to differentiate between the two genders easily. There are some tricks to find out about them

Masculine Nouns: Nouns ending in aa are normally masculine

 * دادا /Dadaa : Grandfather
 * ابا/Abaa : Father
 * بکرا /Bakraa : Male Goat

Feminine Nouns: Nouns ending in ii are normally feminine

 * دادی/dadii : grandmother
 * بچی /bachii: girl

There may be some exceptions to these rules. For e.g friend or dost could be a girlfriend or boyfriend although the other part of the sentence may disclose the gender.

It is also possible to make a noun out of a verb. All verbs are normally masculine where used as infinitives. Some endings may be used to derive a noun from them

1. ii, n, hat and ''waat' may be used to make a feminine noun of a verb

 * مسکرانہ/muskaraana : muskrarahat

2. oo, 'pan',  may be used to make a masculine noun of a given verb

Explanation
In Urdu, there are only two genders. All male human beings and male animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be "masculine") are masculine. All female human beings and female animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be "feminine") are feminine. Things, inanimate articles and abstract nouns are also either masculine or feminine according to convention, which must be learnt by heart by Urdu speakers. The ending of a word, if a vowel, usually helps in this gender classification. Words if they end in ā, are normally masculine. If a word ends in ī or in, it is normally feminine.

Urdu is a weakly inflected language; the relationship of a noun in a sentence is usually shown by postpositions [] (i.e., prepositions that follow the noun). Urdu language has three cases for nouns. The direct case [] is used for nouns not followed by any postpositions, typically for the subject case. The oblique case [] is used for any noun that is followed by a postposition. Some nouns have a separate vocative case. [] Urdu has two numbers: singular and plural — but they may not be shown distinctly in all declinations. Note that some people nasalize the case ending of the vocative plural case too. The following patterns are perceived from Tiwari ([1966] 2004).

1. Masculine nouns ending in ā
This category includes masculine nouns ending in ā,

3. Feminine nouns ending in short i, long ī and iyā
This pattern includes all feminine nouns that end in short i (جاتی / jāti), long ī (بیٹی / betī) and iyā (چِڑِیا / chiriyā)

Note:
 * 1) Except for the null case-suffix, the ending vowel long ī changes into short i before adding the case-suffix, as the case may be. This is reflected both in pronunciation and in spelling.
 * 2) Except for the null case-suffix, the semivowel y is inserted after the short i of the primary morpheme and before the case suffix for i- and ī-ending nouns. This is reflected in spelling clearly, though in pronunciation, the y may vanish to give a gliding diphthong instead.
 * 3) Except for the null case-suffix, the ending syllable yā is dropped before adding the case-suffix in iyā-ending nouns.

5. Nouns from Persian
An example of a Hindustānī (Hindī-Urdū) masculine word of Persian origin is given below. By the Hindustānī speakers, it is usually declined like any other consonant ending masculine noun.

Some other plural-forming suffixes include -ान / ان- / -ān and irregular plurals (especially from Arabic), etc. E.g., صاحب / sāhib ("boss or sir") →  صاحبان / sāhibān, حاکم / hākim ("officer") →  حکام / hukkām.

اسم

title: Urdu/Nouns