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Japanese/Dialects/Osaka

Examples of words specific to Osaka Dialect (関西弁Kansai-ben)

本当に ＝  ほんま / まじで　(Really?) ありがとう ＝  おおきに (Thank you) ばか ＝  あほう (Stupid[insult]) だめ ＝  あかん (Bad!/Prohibited!) いくらですか ＝  なむぼ  (How much is this?) もしもし ＝  まいどまいど  (Hello)

Many feel that the dialect of Osaka is fast, dirty, down-to-earth and funny. This impression is likely attributed to the fact that most comedians in Japan speak in Osaka-ben. Often in anime, Osaka accents are frequently translated as American accents from the deep south. This is often done because it's a popular belief that people from Osaka are like Texans in personality. The most famous Osaka to Southern dub, is the Azumanga Daioh anime. Amongst anime fans, the topic of whether Osaka should be translated into a southern accent is very debatable. Some believe Brooklyn accents are a more fitting equivalent.

title: Japanese/Dialects/Osaka


text:
User:Sb2k4~enwikibooks

= WIKIPROJECT WORLD RECORDS =

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Sb2k4~enwikibooks


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Talk:Evolutionary Biology

Why is Speciation before Microevolution? In my opinion, it should be ordered afterwards. Does anyone else agree?

128.175.159.44 21:23, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

A great book to draw upon is Richard Southwood's The Story of Life. Is definitely one of the best science books that I've even read. I would like to see an epoch-by-epoch unfolding of evolution as done by Southwood. Would be a powerful magnet to pull in and refine the articles of Wikipedia.

WbZurp 22:45, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Evolutionary Biology


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Gout

Gout is a form of peripheral arthritis resulting from the deposition of monosodium urate crystals secondary to hyperuricemia.

Prevalence in the United States: 1.6 to 13.6 per 1000. Typically occurs in middle aged or elderly males (90% of cases are in males). It is particularly rare in premonpausal women. Caucasians populations are more affected than those of African heritage. Interestingly, gout is relatively frequent in young male Polynesians.

Hyperuricemia and gout are often associated with hypertension, obesity, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, and ethanol abuse.

While all gout patients have a high serum uric acid concentration at some point in their disease progression, most hyperuricemic individuals never show clinical signs of urate crystal deposition.

Pathophysiology

 * Uric acid under excretion (90% of cases)
 * Primary: Idiopathic reduced renal excretion
 * Secondary:
 * Chronic renal failure
 * Thiazide use
 * Alcohol
 * Hyper or hypoparathyroidism
 * Uric acid overproduction (10% of cases)
 * Primary: Enzyme defect in purine synthesis
 * Secondary:
 * Increased turnover of nucleic acids
 * Myeloproliferative and lymphoproliferative disorders
 * Hemolytic anemia
 * Chemotherapy
 * Alcohol

Clinical Presentation
The natural history of progressive urate crystal deposition manifests as three classic stages.
 * 1) Acute gouty arthritis: 80% of attacks involve and single joint with severe pain, redness, and swelling.
 * 2) Intercritical gout: These are asymptomatic intervals between acute attacks most common early in disease progression. This pattern is quite uncommon in other arthritic disorders and alone is very suggestive of gout.
 * 3) Chronic tophaceous gout: Collections of solid urate in connective tissues, which may be calcified.

Attacks may occur for 4–6 years before radiographic evidence.

Location

 * Lower extremity > upper extremity
 * Small joints > large joints
 * Random distribution in hands (helpful diagnostic distinction)
 * First MTP most common (podagra)

Characteristics

 * Marginal, pararticular or intra-articular erosions which may have overhanging edges
 * Well-defined erosions that may have a sclerotic border
 * Joint space preserved (unless very advanced)
 * Not usually associated with osteoporosis
 * Soft tissue and bursa deposition - tophi
 * MRI - Tophus has low intensity on T1 and variable low to high intensity on T2 depending on the amount of amorphous calcification.
 * CT - Tophi have density similar to soft tissue.

Misc. Points

 * Erosions and tophi usually only with longstanding disease
 * 40% of patients have concomitant CPPD
 * Can have many different appearances, but is quite common so always keep in mind.

Images

Fig. 1 Shows classic location at first MTP and small erosion with "overhanging" edge. Notice that the joint space and bone density are preserved.

Fig. 2 Another appearance showing multiple erosion locations including first MTP, base of third and fourth metacarpals, and possibly the head of the fifth metacarpal and second proximal phalanx.

Fig. 3 Advanced gout resulting in joint destruction from large erosions in first, fourth and fifth rays. Notice the large "overhanging" edges.

Fig. 4 Example showing tophaceous gout of fifth MTP joint.

Fig. 5 If you didn't appreciate the tophi on the last example, certainly you will here. Notice calcification of the tophus on the ulnar side of fifth MCP joint.

Fig. 6 Patient with known gout. This example shows chondrocalcinosis of the triangular fibrocartilage. 40% of gout patients have concomitant CPPD. Also notice erosion of the head of the 5th proximal phalanx.

Fig. 7 Tophaceous gout of the 1st MTP. Notice the tophi have a density similar to soft tissue and are both inside and surrounding the bone. Also note the cortical destruction of the proximal phalanx and the head of the metacarpal.

Treatment
First line is to control associated disorders such as hypertension, obesity, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, and ethanol abuse.

Acute Attack

 * Goal is to quickly alleviate pain.
 * Anti-inflammatory therapy with NSAIDs, colchicine, or Cox-2 inhibitors.
 * Should resolve symptoms in hours to days.

Prophylactic

 * Goal is to prevent acute attacks.
 * Indomethacin or colchicine.
 * In patients without evident tophi, prophylaxis can be safely discontinued 6 to 12 months after serum urate levels have normalized.

Antihyperuricemic therapy

 * Goal is a serum urate concentration of 5 to 6 mg/dL which is below that at which monosodium urate is saturating in extracellular fluids.
 * Uricosuric drugs and allopurinol can be used to lower the serum urate concentration.

Surgery
Surgery is typically only indicated to treat the complications of tophaceous disease, which include infection, compression due to the mass effect of a tophus, joint deformity, and intractable pain. Tophaceous deposits may compress nerves or erode through the skin resulting in chronic ulcers which often lead to infection.


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Wikijunior talk:Solar System/Solar System

Older content has been removed from this page for ease of reading and editing. Older versions of this discussion page have been archived at the following points: See also:
 * 2005-08-30 --SV Resolution 15:29, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

duh...what's this about again?

How the Solar System was born
I propose to merge Wikijunior Solar System/How the Solar System was born into this article. If there are any takers, let's try to put it in. --Rob Horning 23:46, 6 August 2005 (UTC)
 * This has been done, right? --SV Resolution 15:06, 30 August 2005 (UTC)

Vote on Proofreading
Rob Horning has proposed that the time is approaching to start proofreading this wikibook. I have proposed a process for proofing a page, and provided a place to talk about the proofreading process.

I have not seen any discussion of the proofreading process, so now I am going to ask for a vote.

Resolution: Proofreading Our Solar System 2005-08-30
Be it resolved that:
 * This module, Our Solar System, is essentially complete and in need of proofreading.
 * We shall begin the proofreading process on this module as of 2005-09-02 as soon as voting is completed.
 * We shall follow the proposed proofreading process
 * Including putting the "proofreading notice" at the top of the module
 * And creating a list of tasks that people can volunteer for.

Voting will continue through 2005-09-01 2005-09-06. If, by the end of the voting period, the "Ayes" have it, any person can claim community support and begin the proofreading process referenced above (placing the notice and creating the initial list of assignments).

All in Favor (Aye)

 * 1) --SV Resolution 15:29, 30 August 2005 (UTC)
 * 2) — Laura Scudder | Talk 15:56, 1 September 2005 (UTC)

Summary
Consensus -- nobody voted against the proposal. --SV Resolution 22:41, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

Where to leave feedback?
I'm new to this project and can't find a general discussion page about the Solar System book. If there is one, please feel free to move my comment to the appropriate place. I'd like to leave a little feedback from my daughter (nearly 8). She finds it confusing that there are so many explanations in brackets breaking up the story: is it too late to suggest little fact boxes where new words are explained separately? I think she'd also appreciate more diagrams, for example the section saying "first comes Mercury, then..." would be much easier to follow if there was a simple diagram next to it. 84.179.32.65 19:34, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

It is never too late to create fact boxes or diagrams. Anything that makes it easier to understand the book is good. Please -- be bold! If you can find a good diagram, please find it. I don't think you would interfere in the proofreading process by sticking it in. If you want to suggest a change to the text (like extracting stuff into fact boxes), you can create a "test version" of the page or section and discuss it here. Thanks! We can use all the help we can get. --SV Resolution 18:09, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

Missing reference
Reference #24 is missing.--Shanel 20:00, 30 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Ouch! I am not sure what happened.  I don't know if I messed that up or if BaseJumper123 did it. --SV Resolution 18:10, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

Havent touched the links or really deleted anything - Basejumper123 17:54 (UST), 31 October 2005

Kids say the darndest things
I just had 5 kids in the age group of this book take a look and they said "the words are really good, but it needs more pictures!" good signs for the book!

-Basejumper123 17:54 (UST), 31 October 2005

GREAT work bringing in some kids. Can you add some more pictures? There are a lot of good ones available for free at NASA. All it takes is googling NASA images, choosing, downloading to your PC, uploading to Commons and adding the "public-domain NASA" tag. Thanks for offering. It will really improve the book. --SV Resolution 15:30, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Finishing up this module
This module is nearly complete. Please do not add information. Please just proofread/copyedit the information already in the module.

When you take on assignment, please do not undo the work already completed in earlier assignments.

If you feel this absolutely must be done, please reopen the phases of work that were completed but which you are now undoing.

If you decide to use conjunctions to hook up existing sentences into more complex sentences, or to add words, you will undo the Phase 3 grade level work in the section you are changing. Please remove the strikeouts and signatures from these sections of phase 3.

If you decide to add facts, this takes you back to phase 2. Please remove the "done" indications from phase 3 and phase 2 for those sections of the module. For instance, the statement that Neptune's and Pluto's orbits cross needs to be fact-checked and needs a reference added in the reference list. Then the sentence/paragraph that statement appears in needs to be checked for grade level.

If you decide to reorganize paragraphs, you need to be sure that the references travel with the facts, and you need to check the result for grade level again.

Please help move this book to completion.

Here is what I have discovered:
 * Writing to grade level means I have to use short sentences and simple words. It sounds choppy. I wouldn't write this way for adults.  But kids are still learning to read.
 * WORD has a nice tool for evaluating grade level of the writing. It's part of the grammar check, so spelling and grammar get checked at the same time.  Bonus.  Most of what I had written already passed WORD's grammar checks.

Thanks to everyone who is trying to make this book great. I know we can all come to an agreement and all pull in the same direction to get this book done. --SV Resolution 15:30, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Now, we send rockets into space to learn more. Astronauts travel around the Earth. Some of them have landed on the the Moon. Robots can fly to other worlds to take pictures. There are even robots on Mars now!

I would say we send astronauts and robots into space. Get rid of the exclamation point.

Rockets carry probes, telescopes, astronauts and robots into space. Astronauts have landed on the moon and robots have landed on mars.

Have robots landed on the moon?

 * There are many robots that have gone to the Moon. Most notable is the Surveyor probes, of which Apollo XII landed within just a few feet of one of the robotic missions to the Moon.  I'm not sure if the designers of that probe expected human hands to work on it after launch, but some pieces were returned to the Earth to test metal fatigue on the lunar environment, and a speculative finding of bacteria that somehow survived for several years on the surface of the Moon raised a whole lot of questions for exobiology and how to maintain a clean environment for interplanetary probes so they don't carry lifeforms with them to other worlds by mistake.  Mars and Europa are of particular concern that space probes don't accidentally introduce life to those worlds before we can study if life exists there in the first place.  --Rob Horning 01:55, 5 December 2005 (UTC)

Finishing? What was I thinking?
Maybe a wiki is a lousy place to write a book. As soon as proofreading is complete, someone is sure to come along and add content, reorganize, raise the reading level... --SV Resolution 02:03, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

Heavy
There seem to be a lot of facts and concepts in just this one module – perhaps some should be introduced elsewhere...? David Kernow 04:36, 6 December 2005 (UTC)

Planetary Nebula
I added a note stating that 'planetary' is what these nebulae were called because through 18th century telescopes, they looked like planets. The name stuck but they have nothing to do with planets. This is often confusing for folks. Canuck100 (talk) 00:10, 8 November 2009 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Granola Bars

| American recipes

Granola bars are a very tasty and easy food to make. They can be sold at the market in small bars, similar to candy bars. However, by following these steps you can create your own tasty granola bars right at home.

This recipe is for chewy granola bars.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup (120 g) soft butter or margarine
 * ¾ cup (180 g) brown sugar
 * ⅓ cup (80 ml) corn syrup
 * 1 egg
 * ½ teaspoon vanilla
 * 3 ½ cups (900 g) uncooked oats
 * 1 cup (240 g) chocolate chips

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (180°C).
 * 2) Grease 13 x 9-inch (30 x 23 cm) baking pan.
 * 3) Combine butter, sugar, and corn syrup.
 * 4) Mix in egg and vanilla.
 * 5) Stir in oats and chocolate chips.
 * 6) Spread mixture in prepared pan.
 * 7) Bake 20–22 minutes.
 * 8) Let cool. Cut into bars, and enjoy.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For extra flavor, add a desired amount of nuts and raisin.

title: Cookbook:Granola Bars


text:
Introspector

Video 1
This is the first of a series of video recordings for explaining the introspector project.

I have decided that a simple personal introduction would be the best way to explain the background and purpose of the project.

The videos will be hosted on wikibooks.org/wiki/Introspector but also posted to Youtube and other portals.

This video should be understandable to my friends and family but also interesting to fellow computer programmers.

The content will be split into modules so that people can skip over material that is not interesting to them.

We will cover many aspects of the introspector project and build a foundation for learning about computing in general.

I will explain what a compiler is, what programming languages are and try to also include the basics of computers for an introduction to computing.

In short, a compiler translates a human written and readable instructions into machine instructions for controlling the computer.

The gcc compiler translates over 5 different languages including C, C++, Java, Fortran, Pascal and ADA into machine languages for windows based Intel machines, Linux based Intel machines, older Macintosh machines running on Motorola processors and basically every hardware on the planet.

Later we will build up from the gnu g++ compiler to gnu tools like the gnu bash shell and Linux OS kernel.

The bash shell will be introduced as a C program that is compiled, and then as a program that you use.

We will go through the basics of the bash programming, as it has its own language, and show how the bash functions are interpreted and executed by a C program.

We will show how bash used the C runtime library of functions to call operating system functions and control the hardware.

We will create basic programs and then show you all steps from writing source code, to compiling, linking, running and debugging the code. I want to be able to give people a feeling for all the steps involved in translation of a computer program into a running system.

One video will show you how to install the gcc compiler on cygwin windows and compile changes to it yourself.

Other videos will show you how to apply patches, how to debug the compiler and what types of patches are available.

Others will show various debugging options and dump files that are available in the compiler.

We will review some of the modules of the compiler, explain the functions provided, who wrote them and the usage of them.

We will build the course up to explaining the need for extracting data from the compiler, and the motivation for the need of the introspector.

Then we will go into RDF and the semantic web as an intelligent representation of the compiler graphs.

Later we will cover the visualization tools like graphviz and the manipulation of the graphs.

Thank you for listening and I am looking forward to your feedback.

Management overview of the introspector
Introspection is basically what is better know in the computer world as reflection. The term "intro" gives us the connotation of inside, looking inside as opposed to reflection that implies a mirror. For me, introspection means looking inside at the structure of program. This means looking at the private and internal data, and giving that data meaning, because we know about it (in that moment). Given all the people involved in the creation of all the parts of a program and the computer system, we cannot achieve full introspection without having access to all their knowledge. This means that there will be limits to the introspection, but we can, given a large enough set of data about the code, crack it.

So, introspection is a means, by which, when applied correctly, can help crack the code of a software and intercept the hidden and encapsulated meaning of the internals of a program.

Introspection is way, a method or process, to break the convention of data hiding and encapsulation by injecting of data collectors into the programs where they have the most information about your software and collecting this information into an intelligible form.

The injection of data collectors involves modification of existing programs, or the modification of the execution path via the debugger.

Given only a binary executable, it is possible to apply this technique, because we can apply introspection to the operating system, shell, and dynamic linker and loader. We can introspect the assembly processing tools and add in information. We can introspect the execution via profiling given knowledge of the processor.

Given no access to the operating system, no access to the tool chain, it will be almost impossible to apply introspection on the machine level. There the process of introspection could be applied to the human operator, to the console and screen shots, were all interaction, all inputs and outputs to and from the system are collected.

The whole idea is that this data collected can be cross referenced to other data collected outside by other systems. The cross referencing is the key to understanding and enriching the data and this is the information gaining and enrichment process.

The full introspection process needs information to work with.

We concentrate only on free/open source software, because it is the only software for which we have enough public information to work on.

Let us start by defining how the GNU Linux operating system is setup.

With a test case we can document the inputs and expected outputs of a function. with assembly and data flow analysis we can understand the types of operations on the data that take place. We can trace where a variable is used and how. With source code we can automate the decoding of the binaries. With change control logs, we can automate the documentation of the sources. With mailing lists, we can understand the discussions about those changes of the sources. Given a source-forge ticketing system, we can also have those artifacts structured in a consistent manner. Now, all those aspects add in information about the program. But when we understand all this information about how the compiler processes the source code, then we can also connect all that together, automatically.

Bash is a shell, it is a program. The shell interacts with the operating system, the core. The shell protects the user from the internals of the core. strace can help intercept calls to the operating system. the calls to the operating system can be seen as a line from the shell to the core and back. the usage of the operating system, its resources such as memory and file system is also vital to understand a program. The operating system usage is hidden from direct inspection. The shell implementation is also hidden.

Full versus Abstract Understanding : All this hidden data is needed for full understanding. Abstract understanding can be however gained by sticking to the interface. We can build an abstract model of the processing. Depending on the depth of the data collected, we can gain more detailed understanding. The internals of the processor are hard to gain access to. Each one is different. The companies try hard to protect the chips design and keep them to themselves. That gives them an advantage.

we can assume that Each tool that is available needs to have a purpose for it to survive. The viability of a tool is something that can be thought about and analysed. Tools that reduce the protection of other tools can be seen as lowering the cost of access. yet these tools also have a cost themselves. we can replace one high set of barriers with another lower set of barriers, yet the barriers are still there.

The problem has to be reduced, and this requires decision making. That involves in the first step the human pattern matching. This can also be codified, but it is still a cost. The people also need to consume resources to survive, and therefore are not objective. I think that one social aspect is that people will protect their interests so that they will avoid doing things that would threaten the stability of their environment. The costs of learning something is something they want to get a return on. If the cost of producing or learning a tool is high, then artificial barriers will be created to make sure that others cannot easily access that. This is one of the key issues in the protection of information. The more resources collected by producer, them more resources they have to protect themselves. There will be a breaking point where a system will collapse into itself and start protecting itself as a survival system.

The very fact that there are so many problems involved in technology means that only ones that are supported will survive. For them to be supported, they need to have a clear model of viability.

The program is really a set of assembly instructions that can also be analysed each instruction is encoded in a string of bytes. we can analyse each byte of information and gain information about it.

In order to understand this information we need however to connect it to the information gained from other systems. This requires communication between many different systems. The communication is difficult, because often there are many different barriers between them.

By analysis of the machine, we are able to see how the path of execution connects them. In order to do that, we need however to have a set of tests that are understood. Understanding of tests could just mean that we can map the test case onto a specification that we also understand. The specification would be split into parts that can be understood by a human. The language of the specification could also be parsed by language tools, and that would provide us with a graph structure that contains identifiers that could be mapped onto things found in the test.

So understanding can be defined by a complete mapping of the graph of data found about the execution of the test to the graph of data extracted from the specification.

we would first define a way to describe layers of graphs that are interconnected. each layer would be extracted from a different tool. Each layer however would be described in a common language. the graph of RFD.

The layer is a program itself, and the total amount of possible graph types is large. That means that a test case would represent a small subset of the total possible amount of graph data. The main point is that the connection and mapping between these graphs it the key.

Programs also do not always work efficiently, so that there might be a huge amount of processing that is not really needed to solve the test case itself. Lets assume that a profile would mark that processing path that is really executed.

given a large test case, we can then look for overlapping parts of smaller tests cases that match the larger one. This would allow us to decompose the large graph into smaller sub-graphs.

Then we can also assert that all this work is being done for a specific purpose. The purpose is understood and it limits the scope of the problem. We need to understand this scope to prevent from wasting resources.

we can iteratively define the system by understanding the work needed to be done by a human in the solving a problem .we need to provide tools for them to work efficiently.

binutils allows us to process a binary program there is a relationship between the source code and the binary, it is created via the compiler. Understanding Source code of a program allows understanding of the program the compiler processes the source code. The compiler is run by the shell. setting breakpoints in the debugger allows inspecting variables when debugging or inspecting a program you can easily be overloaded by information It is possible to use scripts attached to breakpoints to collect information into a file or stream tools can be used to process the collected information to make sense of it we often need to display a graph collected out the dependencies to understand it. the graph structure is natural to the mind to understand RFD is based on graphs.

Original motivation
The author, James Michael DuPont describes his original motivation for the program :

The original idea came from my research into Logic Programming and Program generators. I had attempted to learn Turbo Prolog as a teenager, but never quite got up to speed with it. However, I did like reading the programming manuals, and had done some example programs. The problem for me was that I did not grasp the concepts about its meaning logically, but was more like the child who was putting Nintendo games in the slot. The database assertions were the ones that threw me off, I did not understand that the statements were objects of their own.

Starting with DBASE V with all its graphical interfaces, I became quickly adept at creating databases. Then I did some DBASE III work as well. Back in the late 80s RAD was in. FoxPro, Paradox, and other environments like Alpha4 and the tool Zachary were the key for me.

RAD Interactive Program Generators and Editors use a structured model of data that allows a programmer to quickly solve programs. Meaningful Import and Export functionalities, coupled with remote network file access and locking, were all you needed to create workgroups of people interacting.

These were the original models that define the concepts that I had in mind when the program was designed. That is the model to keep in mind when looking at the introspector project. I used these tools to solve problems for business people around me in my family circle.

This original limited understanding of the implementation of the programs and focus on practical problem solving should be kept in mind.

Now, when we write a document, it is difficult to identify all the streams of data that are flowing into it from the mind of the programmer.

We should however consider it possible that we might become aware of our current situation and want to break out of a monotonic situation. This collapsing of a mental stream into a more compact form and execution of an action of writing is an atomic task. We can see a stream of data as a collapsing house of cards that fall down over time. The writing of symbol to the output to the keyboard is then the final committing of an action. We can then read that symbol back in as input in another stage. Building the house of cards together again requires more than just the cards, and this is where the need for the model is apparent. The model is basically all the data that you need to have to decode the message. For the computer, that is the moment it executes a byte of instruction. So the model for that instruction would be all the data that is needed to be able to trace it back to some external model at some point in the system.

Programs that are generated out of such a model will contain back references to their generating model in the file names, variable names, function names, even in the literal constants, the comments and various other user data sections that are available. Given such a model of the user space, we can assign a meaning to each program declaration. The meaning is defined in terms of the application model.

The purpose of the introspector is not to provide all data for all people at all times, but to provide on-demand structured data about your software program to help you quickly solve problems. The idea is that you have to get information out of a system to which you only have partial access; using the introspection process, you can extract data from the tools that process your programs by creating interceptor objects that hook into running processes and capture any data going to or from a point in the program.

The point of the program can be defined as the instruction pointer of the program. Given a test case that tests for a certain feature we will be able to map a given input file to a model location.

We can see this wiki as a specification. Each version of the wikipage can be seen as a resource. Each word of that version can be used as a index. With this indexing schema we can define all parts of a program with the wikibook.

Example
Let us assume that there is an implementation of a program that is specified by some document. This is executed in a process on some host.

We can define a point in the input data by its offset. This is the reference to the model. Only a register is needed to reference the model that is stored in an array.

Only by choosing and defining a formal viewpoint can you may any sense of the flood of data that is available to you from the compiler.

It's bootstrap idea works by using a version of GCC which uses a modified version of the built in tree dumper to transform print statements about the asts into live data in Resource Description Framework format via the Redland API.

Status
Here is some information about the gcc interface Introspector/GccCpp

Representation of Graphs
Various Experiments have been done and exist with a low level back end representation that is optimized for compiler graphs, experiments with the special data structure "ice cube" for higher speed transfer of the data. The ice cube is a compressed data cube, a set of vectors describing the compiler graphs efficiently.

The data was compiled directly into the program, so that the data was loaded when the program starts. this does not allow for changing of the data. That was in 2003.

Later, in Jan 2005 I have created a more compact graph representation in C and algorithms for using them. This was a good start. It stored the graphs as fixed length records that can be loaded in blocks from the file system.

Goal:

For local usage : The final goal would be able to generate a shared object whenever needed that would generate the most compact and fastest representation of a graph for loading on that machine. we could also use a core dump, given that the graph data is stored in a neutral format.

For transfer : If you want to export a graph, then storing it as RDF/XML would be optimal.

Database
Postgres Interfaces have been built, storing the graphs collected. the database structure of the first version was based on the node types directly. with one table per node type.

Additionally I have used redland to create the database, which creates the tables to represent the graph directly.

The issue of using the database table is that you need to have the following constraints:

LOCALITY: The records that occur together in the compiler should be stored in a way that they can be retrieved together.

Types of Records: The types of records, and the fields that they have need to be chosen carefully. There are very many types of records. For example there are very many types of function declarations.

It does not always make sense to use a union type for the database tables and store all the instances in the same table.

Data Collected
The first introspection sample is collected from gcc abstract semantic graph

Integration
All of these tools are in a disjunct state and are not integrated yet.

Layers
What we want to do is understand the layers of the system.

 * Introspector/Compiler/Input Stream
 * Introspector/Compiler/Lexical Tokens
 * Introspector/Compiler/Parse Tree
 * Introspector/Compiler/AST
 * Introspector/Compiler/RTl
 * Introspector/Compiler/Dwarf
 * Introspector/Linker/Elf/Section
 * Introspector/Linker/Elf/Label
 * Introspector/RDF
 * Introspector/RDF/Statement
 * Introspector/RDF/Resource
 * Introspector/RDF/Statement/Subject
 * Introspector/RDF/Statement/Predicate
 * Introspector/RDF/Statement/Object
 * Introspector/RDF/Schema
 * Introspector/RDF/Schema/OWL
 * Introspector/RDF/Schema/RDFS
 * Introspector/RDF/Processor
 * Introspector/RDF/Processor/CWM
 * Introspector/RDF/Processor/Euler
 * API to convert printfs into rdf emits
 * Call Stack for each PrintF
 * Analysis of flow of data for each variable in the expression
 * Introspector/Graph Layout
 * Introspector/Graph Layout/VCG
 * Introspector/Graph Layout/Dotty
 * Introspector/Graph Layout/Other
 * Introspector/Graph Layout/API
 * Introspector/Annotation
 * Introspector/Annotation/DIA
 * Introspector/Annotation/Doxygen

Blurb
The Introspector/Project has the Introspector/Project/Goals of building Introspector/MetaData/Manipulation/Tools for Free_Software_and_Open_Source_software and Introspector/SourceCode.

The Introspector is a new Introspector/ToolChain to extract Introspector/MetaData about your SoftwarePrograms from the GnuCompilerCollection and other FreeSoftware LanguageTools such as the PerlLanguage, the CSharpLanguage, the BashLanguage and present it to you for making your job as a programmer easier. Code MetaProgramming will become a snap with ExtensibleStyleSheet like Transformations being possible. Agents that condense software information into graphs and guis are underway.

The software is FreeSoftware in the spirit of the GnuManifesto and is revolutionary in the freedoms that it intends on granting to its users.

This MetaData includes all data collected about your software by the compiler, the make & build system, the savannah/sourceforge project management and debian packaging system, the CVS changes and the mailman mailing list software.

Scope creep
The Introspector's scope was originally just the GCC C compiler, but is now expanded to include the extraction of metadata from different compilers and interpreters, such as Perl, bison, m4, bash, C#, Java, C++, Fortran, objective-c, Lisp and Scheme. Various patches will be officially submitted to allow for the Introspector to extract data in a standard form.

File format
This extracted metadata are stored in ntriple rdf files, a repository categorised by the program run, the input file, the function or class declared, and the time and date of the introspection. These files are standardized and available to tools like eulersharp, cwm, Java, Perl, C, C++, etc. via the Redland RDF API. These rdf files can be accessed concurrently via the redland storage interface.

Interfaces
We are building IntrospectorInterfaces to FreeSoftware to allow this metadata to be processed by various applications
 * GUIEditor Glade
 * GraphLayoutTool Vcg
 * DiagramEditor Dia
 * TextEditor Emacs

MetaDataManipulationTools
include
 * DataExtractionTools
 * DataRepresentation
 * DataRepository
 * DataVisualizationTools
 * CodeGenerationTools

IntrospectorGui
includes these interfaces:
 * EmacsInterface
 * BashInterface
 * DiaInterface

DataVisualizationTools
includes
 * VcgInterface
 * AutoDiaInterface
 * DiaInterface support.

DataRepresentation
supports
 * N3, RdfFormat, EulerSharp, CWM, RedlandInterface, NtriplesFormat, PerlRdfLaces
 * XmlFormat
 * HtmlFormat
 * TabularText FileFormats

IntrospectorOntology
The introspector ontology work is in a state ready for integration.

I have created newer versions of the ontology describing the gcc compiler nodes.

Here are the aspects of the ontology:

1. Nodes defined in tree.def 2. Data Structures defined in c, tree.h 3. Data structures dumped in tree-dumper.c 4. Data structures access methods in the macros 5. Usage of the tree in the code of the gcc itself.

Dynamic Issues
What aspects of the tree are used to build the compiler itself.
 * What aspects of the tree are used to define the tree.
 * What aspects of the tree are used to fill out the tree.

Coverage
What test code is needed to exercise the compiler and execute all paths of code. What paths are needed to fill out all aspects of the tree. What parts of the tree are coming from user data? What parts of the tree are coming from compiler data?

Built In Data
What data is built into the compiler itself? What are the differences between the compiler versions?

Standard Headers
What data is created by standard headers? What versions of the headers are used?

Best Fit Ontology
1. What types of records are created from running the compiler?

We want to understand the types of real data collected from the compiler. We want to see a ontology type of record for each occurring configuration of data in the output.

Ideally we would define the type of data as the full path of execution through the compiler, each instruction that affects the data would be recorded in the type history.

For now, we collect the types of data that occur and create a type of each one. This is what I call the instance type.

2. What are the common fields:

for each type of data, each set of fields there is a subset of the fields that also occur in other records. We calculate the greatest common set of fields and relate them to the instance type.

Warning : In OWL, a superset/subset relationship is defined where the instance type is the supertype of the more general type. Why

3. What fields are list fields that just give order to the data?

4. What fields represent the meaning of the program? 5. What other types of records are referenced by the fields? 6. What other records via which fields reference the object of what type?

| See the Protoge Reasoner API

Reasoner Integration
My goal is the usage of fact++ reasoner that is built into the gcc in a single process.

For this to work we need to handling the following issues :

1. When to feed data to reasoner

We can feed the data to the reasoner :
 * We can for the first step handle the dumping functions of the gcc.
 * when it is first collected in the compiler.
 * after the compile has been finished.
 * When it is triggered by user defined code being executed.
 * When user defined patterns defined in RDF outside the compile occurs in the code that are matched

 * We want to be able to process the data during the const folding phase

2. What data to feed to reasoner

We can create a record based on :
 * the data structures of the compiler itself.
 * the data dumper functions, base on the record type.
 * the user defined code, using attributes to mark what data is needed
 * using a rdf to describe what data is to be collected

3. How to process the results of the reasoner

constant data collected from the compiler.
 * We need to be able to merge the results of many compile runs together
 * We want to be able to influence the compile itself. Creating new structures.
 * We want to be able to define user code that is executed during the compile (constant folding expressions) that are based on
 * We want to generate new code that is compiled and linked in

DataExtraction
Needs to be able to:
 * ExtractWiki
 * ExtractMbox
 * ExtractSavannah
 * ExtractCvs

UserManagement
A UserManagement and DeclarationManagement System is needed for the DataRepository.

Examples of IntrospectedProjects are here.

See also: /RelatedProjects/ SimilarNamedProjects UsedProjects AffectedProjects GuestLog

Older Content
These are sections to be edited
 * 1) Introspector/DotGNU/RDF
 * 2) Introspector/Interfaces/CVS
 * 3) Introspector/Interfaces/CoopX
 * 4) Introspector/Interfaces/Foaf
 * 5) Introspector/Interfaces/GUI
 * 6) Introspector/Interfaces/MBOX
 * 7) Introspector/Interfaces/Projects/Savannah
 * 8) Introspector/Interfaces/Projects/VCG
 * 9) Introspector/Interfaces/Wiki/OddMuse
 * 10) Introspector/Introspection
 * 11) Introspector/LanguageTools/Bash
 * 12) Introspector/LanguageTools/Perl
 * 13) Introspector/LanguageTools/Php
 * 14) Introspector/LanguageTools/Python
 * 15) Introspector/LanguageTools/SilverScheme
 * 16) Introspector/RDF/Laces
 * 17) Introspector/RDF/Swoogle
 * 18) Introspector/RelatedProjects/SimilarNamed
 * 19) Introspector/Snippets
 * 20) Introspector/gcc/rtl/peephole/i386.md
 * 21) Introspector/RTL in Lisp

,Example: We will first analyse a c file of relevance:

When we look at the following link:

http://introspector.sourceforge.net/2005/07/bary/doxygen/html/structgnode.html

This picture is a nice overview of the gnode:

http://introspector.sourceforge.net/2005/07/bary/doxygen/html/structdllist__coll__graph.png

Here is another example from the DWARF data:

http://introspector.sourceforge.net/2005/07/unwind-introspector-0.1.1/src/doxygen/html/structpubname__struct__coll__graph.png

Closely related projects

 * Binge
 * carl - Code Analysis and Refactoring Library
 * CPPX
 * GccXML is very similar
 * GaSta is basically the same project
 * llvm
 * ProgramTransformation
 * Stratego
 * Synopsis
 * MetaCPP

Related software
See /RelatedProjects/

title: Introspector


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is the most common purely erosive inflammatory arthropathy. Rheumatoid arthritis is generally symmetric and affects proximal joints. There are no proliferative erosions as in erosive OA, psoriatic or Reiter's arthritides. Rheumatoid arthritis rarely includes any productive bone such as periostitis, enthesopathy, and osteophyte formation unless there is secondary osteoarthritis present. Rheumatoid factor is positive in 90-95% of the cases. Early in rheumatoid arthritis the RF may be falsely negative, and in older patients, the RF may be falsely positive. [MSK: The Requisites, 2nd edition, Manaster et al.]

The characteristic radiographic features of rheumatoid arthritis include soft-tissue swelling, periarticular osteoporosis, joint space narrowing, articular erosions, and marginal erosions. The marginal erosions are caused by the extension of pannus into synovial pockets overlying regions devoid of articular cartilage (which would normally protect against the toxic debris and inflammatory pannus in the synovial fluid). [Musculoskeletal Imaging: Case Review, Josephy Yu, 2001]

Within the Wrist
Early RA will demonstrate erosions in the distal radioulnar joint, ulnar styloid, radial styloid, and triquetro-pisiform joint (the latter are best seen on ball-catcher's view). Typically, the next erosions and joint space narrowing will occur in the carpal bones and MCP joints. Ligamentous rupture can lead to wrist instability resulting in ulnar translocation of entire carpus, scapholunate instability, and dorsal and volar flexion carpal instability (DISI and VISI).

Within the Elbow
Diffuse involvement of joint with extensive erosion in olecranon articulation and joint space narrowing with trochlea of humerus seeming to "dig into" olecranon. Joint effusion a

Within the Shoulder
Glenohumeral joint space narrowing with marginal erosions within the humeral head. Ligamentous/tendinous injury results in rotator cuff degeneration with a "high-riding" humeral head. Also look for lysis of the lateral clavicle and erosion at the insertion of the coracoclavicular ligament.

Within the Spine
The cervical spine is commonly affected; particularly look for C1-C2 involvement which can have catastrophic consequences. For instance, pannus formation near the odontoid can cause erosions in the odontoid and ligamentous laxity of the transverse ligaments. The latter results in increased predental space (greater than 2.5–3 mm which is upper limit of normal in adults) which can result in canal stenosis. Alternatively, the pannus itself can proliferate and directly compress the spinal cord. Also, ligamentous destruction can result in atlantoaxial impaction (i.e. dens goes up into the foramen magnum along with Mr. Cord—Mr. Cord doesn't like that). Other findings include erosions within the facet joints.

Within the Hip
Axial joint space narrowing leading to protrusio deformity at the severe end of the spectrum, diffuse osteoporosis, lack of osteophyte formation unless secondary OA occurs. In contradistinction, OA usually results in superolateral (i.e. weight-bearing) acetabular joint space narrowing, normal bone density and osteophyte formation

Within the Knee
Joint space narrowing, osteoporosis, marginal erosions, without osteophyte formation unless there is secondary OA (do you see a recurring theme?). There may be a joint effusion with fluid tracking into the semimembranosus-gastrocnemius bursa (AKA Baker's or popliteal cyst). Occasionally there will also be patellar tendon rupture.

Within the Feet
MTP joint erosions early on, particularly of the 5th MTP. Toe deformities that result include lateral deviation at the MCPs and hammer toes. Also look for retrocalcaneal bursitis with erosions in the posterior calcaneus; the retrocalcaneal fluid can obliterate the pre-Achilles fat pad (AKA Krager's fat pad).


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Intra-articular bodies

Intra-articular bodies are fragments of cartilage or bone that may occur free within the joint space.

Pathogenesis
Synovial osteochondromatosis (SOC) is a benign proliferation of the synovium. Etiology is unknown. In this condition, cartilaginous metaplasia takes place within the synovial membrane of the joint. Metaplastic synovium organizes into nodules. With minor trauma, nodules are shed as small bodies into the joint space. In some patients the disease process may involve tendon sheaths and bursal sacs.

Cartilaginous intra-articular bodies float freely within the synovial fluid, which they require for nutrition and growth. Progressive enlargement and ossification occur with time. If they remain free, they continue to grow larger and more calcified. In severe cases, they may occupy the entire joint space or penetrate to adjacent tissues. Alternately, they can deposit in the synovial lining, reestablish a blood supply, and become replaced by bone. On occasion, synovial reattachment can lead to complete reabsorption of the cartilage fragment.

Classification
Classification is divided into primary versus secondary SOC. Primary SOC occurs in an otherwise normal joint. It is suggested by monoarticular involvement in a patient in the third to fifth decades of life. Secondary SOC occurs in older patients in joints previously affected by joint disease such as osteoarthritis. This pattern is suggested by bilateral involvement with multiple joint intra-articular bodies.

Gross Pathology
Cartilaginous bodies or osteocartilaginous bodies with central ossification may be noted. They are typically spherical in shape. Sizes range from several millimeters to several centimeters in diameter. The synovium of the involved joint demonstrates villous hyperplasia, which imparts a wrinkled appearance on gross examination. There may be cartilaginous bodies attached to the synovium. Synovial involvement may be focal or diffuse in nature.

Clinical Presentation
Chronic, progressive pain and swelling of affected joint, exacerbated by physical activity. Joint effusion and limited range of motion are common associated features. It primarily affects large joints, including knee (>50% of cases), elbow, hip, and shoulder. SOC is twice as common in men as women. Some patients have intra-articular bodies resting in stable positions within joint recesses or bursae. These patients may be asymptomatic, with SOC merely as an incidental finding at imaging.

Radiography
Typical finding is of multiple, smooth, oval-shaped calcified masses within the joint space or bursa. They have a characteristic popcorn-ball appearance of calcified cartilage. With serial imaging, masses may be found to change in size, disappear, or migrate to recessed areas of the joint. They may pass from the main joint cavity into a neighboring synovial cyst. For this reason, a mass may not be appreciated within the actual joint space itself.

Additional radiographic findings include joint effusion and degenerative changes such as joint space narrowing, subchondral sclerosis, and osteophyte formation.

Fig. 1 Lateral knee radiograph demonstrating multiple large bodies within a Baker's cyst.

CT Arthrography
CT is best utilized in earlier stages of the disease process, before cartilaginous bodies have calcified. CT can effectively detect non-calcified masses or those with only minimal calcification, which allows the radiologist to distinguish this condition from a simple joint effusion.

Fig. 2 Elbow CT of intra-articular bodies in the region of the capitulum.

MR Imaging
MR appearance depends on composition of the intra-articular body. Entirely cartilaginous bodies will appear isointense to muscle on T1 and hyperintense to muscle on T2 weighted images. Partly calcified intra-articular bodies demonstrate foci of absent signal on all pulse sequences. Like CT arthrography, MR with gadolinium may be used to detect intra-articular bodies that have not yet calcified.

Fig. 3 MR demonstrating multiple intra-articular bodies within the bicipital tendon sheath.

Complications
Malignant transformation to synovial chondrosarcoma. This is a very rare complication occurring in chronic cases. Treatment entails synovial excision and total joint replacement.

Clicking, grating, or locking may result from acute mechanical problems due to intra-articular bodies within the affected joint. Locking of the joint may destroy articular cartilage, resulting in secondary osteoarthritis. Symptoms such as joint stiffness and aching are the result of osteoarthritis that sets in after years of persistent joint irritation.

Treatment
Asymptomatic patients do not require therapy. Symptomatic patients should undergo arthroscopic or surgical removal of intra-articular bodies. Patients who have recurrent intra-articular bodies or in whom the entire synovial lining is metaplastic require total synovectomy

Differential Diagnosis

 * Trauma-related:
 * Fracture with avulsed fragment
 * Fragmentation of meniscus with calcification
 * Degenerative joint disease related:
 * Degenerative joint disease with detached spur
 * Synovial proliferation:
 * Pigmented villonodular synovitis
 * Neoplastic:
 * Synovial chondrosarcoma
 * Other:
 * Osteochondritis dissecans
 * Sequestrum from osteomyelitis
 * Neuropathic (Charcot) joint

Intra-articular bodies in SOC typically have popcorn calcification, with a dense sclerotic border with radiolucent central region. This distinct radiographic appearance sets it apart from other cause of intra-articular bodies. Number and size of intra-articular bodies can prove helpful as well. SOC typically presents as multiple intra-articular bodies. Few or isolated intra-articular bodies are more consistent with trauma or osteoarthritis.


text:
Cookbook talk:Granola Bars

Initially by: Lunar shadows 23:57, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

Is this the same as Muesli bars (Australia)? 203.214.115.130 06:32, 14 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Probably similar. Muesli and granola are different, though; they're usually both oat-based, but granola is often more sugary and has clusters/clumps of oats. Kellen T 00:28, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Granola Bars


text:
Diagnostic Radiology/Musculoskeletal Imaging/Joint Disorders/Sarcoidosis

Sarcoidosis is an inflammatory disorder characterized by the formation of noncaseating granulomas in tissues without other known cause for granulomatous disease. The disease has a diversity of clinical manifestations, most commonly affecting the lungs, skin, lymph nodes, and eyes, but can involve any organ system, including the musculoskeletal system.

History
The first case of sarcoid was described by Jonathan Hutchinson over one hundred years ago at King's College Hospital in London. The first person to recognize bone involvement in sarcoidosis was Karl Kreibich in 1904. He found multiple radiolucencies, particularly in the distal end of the second phalanges, on the radiograph of a patient with sarcoid. After examining 60 histologic samples and not identifying any tubercule bacilli, he concluded that lupus pernio, the hallmark of chronic sarcoidosis and associated bone lesions, was a distinct granulomatous process unrelated to tuberculosis.

Epidemiology
The prevalence of sarcoid is estimated to be 10 to 20 per 100,000 people. Incidence varies among geographic regions as well as with ethnicity, with blacks having a three to four time increased risk compared to other ethnicities. In the United States, African Americans have a tenfold increased risk for sarcoid compared to Caucasians while Asians are rarely affected.

Clinical manifestations depend on ethnicity, chronicity of illness, site and extent of tissue involvement, and activity of the granulomatous process. African Americans are more likely to present acutely and to have more severe disease than Caucasians, who tend to present with asymptomatic and chronic disease.

Clinical Presentation
The disease presents between 20 and 40 years of age in 70 to 90 percent of patients. About one half of cases are diagnosed incidentally in asymptomatic patients by an abnormality on a routine chest radiograph. The most common organ system affected by sarcoid is the lung, with the most common presenting symptoms being cough, dyspnea, and chest pain. Patients may also suffer from fatigue, weight loss, weakness, malaise, fever, and ocular disease.

Musculoskeletal involvement usually occurs in patients with generalized disease. Affected patients may present with an acute polyarthritis (especially of the ankle joints), usually occurring in association with erythema nodosum and occasionally with acute uveitis. Involvement of muscle and bone is less common and usually indicates a chronic and prolonged clinical course.

Pathophysiology
The diagnosis of sarcoid is based on compatible clinical and radiographic findings, supportive laboratory data (elevated ACE levels, anergy, elevated serum gamma globulins, positive Kveim test), and evidence of noncaseating granulomas in the absence of other causes for such lesions.

The exact etiology and pathogenesis of sarcoid remains unknown. Several hypotheses exist regarding the involvement of bone in this disease, including:
 * high levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 causing stimulation of osteoclastic activity and bone resorption
 * granuloma induction of a local osteoclastic reaction
 * granuloma production of an osteoclastic activating factor inducing bone resorption

Joints
Joint symptoms and signs occur in 10 to 35 percent of patients with sarcoidosis and occur more frequently in women than in men. Articular disease in sarcoid can be divided into two types: acute and chronic polyarthritis.

The acute pattern is seen in the first six months of symptoms and has a self-limiting course, typically resolving in 4 to 6 weeks. The knees, ankles, elbows, PIP joints, and wrists are the most commonly affected joints. The arthralgia is thought to be due to the effect of inflammatory cytokines on the joints rather than direct granulomatous changes. Monoarthritis and effusion are uncommon. Conventional radiographs of symptomatic joints are usually unremarkable or show only osteoporosis and soft-tissue swelling. Sonographic findings include joint effusions, tenosynovitis, and subcutaneous inflammation. Patients may have elevated ESR and C reactive protein.

When the acute polyarthritis manifests as periarticular ankle inflammation in combination with erythema nodosum and mediastinal lymphadenopathy, the term Lofgren syndrome is given.

Six months or more after the diagnosis of sarcoid, up to 40% of patients may develop joint symptoms due to granulomatous arthritis. The granulomatous synovitis usually follows a chronic transient or relapsing course which may eventually lead to irreversible joint damage. Chronic polyarthritis is more common in women. Involved joints include the knees, ankles, PIP joints, and occasionally the wrists or shoulders. Dactylitis of the fingers may also be seen.

Unlike the acute form of polyarthritis, which is often seen with erythema nodosum, this arthritis is commonly associated with cutaneous sarcoid. Radiographic findings related to joint disease are unusual unless there is extension of osseous disease to subchondral bone. Mild joint space narrowing and erosions can be seen but are nonspecific findings.

Acute or chronic sarcoid arthropathy is a clinical diagnosis and MR imaging is usually not sought. However, MR imaging may be helpful for lesions that are not detected by conventional radiography. Tenosynovitis, tendonitis, bursitis, and synovitis can be seen on MR but are nonspecific findings and may require biopsy for diagnosis of granulomatous involvement.

Muscles
Sarcoid myopathy may demonstrate either myopathic or nodular type involvement. Discrete sarcoidal muscle lesions are reported in 1.4% of known sarcoidosis cases although muscle biopsies demonstrate skeletal muscle granulomas in 50-80% of sarcoidosis patients, usually in asymptomatic patients.

Nodular sarcoid myopathy has a characteristic MR appearance that allows accurate diagnosis. The sarcoid nodules appear as focal intramuscular masses, usually at the musculotendinous junction, are often multiple and bilateral in distribution, and have a lower extremity predominance. Their appearance is described as a "dark star" with central areas of fibrosis that have low signal intensity on all sequences and peripheral areas of bright signal intensity on T2WI and enhancement on post-contrast images (Moore, et al.).

In myopathic sarcoid myopathy, there are nonspecific findings of symmetric proximal muscle atrophy with fatty replacement and increased signal intensity of involved muscle on T2WI. Corticosteroid therapy may be a confounding factor in evaluating potential sarcoid muscle atrophy with the differentation based on clinical findings. MRI may be helpful in delineating the extent of fatty replacement and indicating an optimal location for muscle biopsy.

Bone
Reports of bone involvement in sarcoid have ranged between 1 and 13 percent, with an average of 5 percent. An accurate percentage is difficult to obtain as many skeletal lesions are asymptomatic, screening skeletal surveys are not routinely performed, and minor cystic bone changes can be seen in normal individuals.

The general pattern of osseous lesions is summarized below:
 * Distribution: often bilateral
 * Site of origin: cortical with preservation of periosteum
 * Location: most commonly the hands and feet, although the long bones, skull, vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, sternum, and calcaneus can rarely be affected
 * Position: usually at the ends of affected bones
 * Shape: cystic or lacelike with minimal involvement of adjacent soft tissues or extensive bone erosion with pathologic fracture
 * Calcification: absent

Radiologic Findings
Nuclear scintigraphic findings are usually positive before lesions can be seen on radiography. The radiographic manifestations of sarcoidosis vary with the region of the skeleton affected.

Small bone sarcoidosis
Lesions affecting the small bones of the hands and feet typically have a lytic or lacy reticular appearance on conventional radiographs. Lytic lesions are either minute cortical defects in the phalangeal heads or larger rounded punched-out lesions involving the cortex and medulla. The middle and distal phalanges are the most frequently involved. The lytic lesions likely represent an osteoporotic process producing local and destructive tunneling. The lacy reticular pattern is seen when the tunneling of the cortex is followed by remodeling of the cortical and trabecular architecture. The concave shape of the phalangeal shafts then becomes more tubular. There is often accompanied soft tissue swelling. More localized lytic lesions are also seen, forming cystic defects that may become surrounded by a thin rim of sclerosis as they heal.

Fig. 1 The lacy reticular pattern of bone loss is seen in the right hand of this patient afflicted with osseous sarcoid, particularly in the middle phalanx of the third digit and the proximal phalanx of the fifth digit. Note the preservation of joint spaces.

Fig. 2 The same lacy pattern is demonstrated in the left hand of the same patient. Note the subcortical tunneling in the middle phalanx of the fifth digit.

Fig. 3 A similar pattern of bone loss is seen in this radiograph of the wrist.

In an advanced sclerotic phase, a sequestrum may be seen. Fractures are rare but may occur with extensive lytic disease. Alignment deformities may result due to pathologic fractures with bone collapse rather than secondary to actual joint abnormalities.

Fig. 3 Extensive lytic lesions and subcortical tunneling. There is also acro-osteolysis of the distal phalanges of the third and fourth digits.

Lesions occult to plain radiography may be seen with MR imaging which may demonstrate bone marrow lesions, extension of granulomas beyond the cortex, periosseous soft tissue involvement, or fine perpendicular lines extending from the ghost cortex. Although MR imaging is not necessary for the diagnosis of small bone sarcoidosis, it may be helpful in certain clinical situations, such as differentiating the cause for dactylitis in a patient with sarcoid and gout.

Large Bone sarcoidosis
Detection of sarcoid lesions involving the long bones and axial skeleton is considered uncommon. Lesions may be painful or asymptomatic. Neither bone scintigraphy nor skeletal surveys have been found to be good screening studies for sarcoid lesions.

 * Radiographic images of sarcoid involving the long bones: Wilcox et al.: Bone sarcoidosis. Current Opinion in Rheumatology 2000, 12:321-330.

Large bone sarcoid lesions may be radiographically occult or seen as focal lytic lesions or sclerosis. On MR, the lesions may be indistinct or well-marginated and of varying sizes. The signal intensity characteristics are variable but the lesions typically have low intensity on T1WI, increased intensity on inversion-recovery, T2WI, and fat-saturated proton-density weighted images, and may enhance after contrast administration. Signal intensity is likely related to the activity of the disease process. There have been cases of resolution on follow-up studies with ghosts of the prior lesions having signal intensities consistent with fat or fibrosis.

Skull and Face
Calvarial lesions may be expansile and can be evaluated best with CT. MR may be used to assess for associated soft tissue involvement. Facial bone involvement usually reflects the presence of granulomatous disease in adjacent structures.

 * Radiographic images of sarcoid involving the petrous temporal bone: Ng, Matthew and John K. Niparko: Osseous sarcoidosis presenting as a destructive petrous apex lesion. American Journal of Otolaryngology 2002, 23:241-245.

Spine
Vertebral sarcoidosis is rare and may have a lytic, mixed lytic and sclerotic, or rarely, a predominantly sclerotic appearance. Lesions tend to affect the lower thoracic and upper lumbar spine with preservation of intervertebral disc spaces. Radiographic appearance may simulate osteomyelitis or tumor. Biopsy is often needed to establish a diagnosis.

 * Radiographic images of vertebral sarcoidosis: Rua-Figueroa et al.: Vertebral sarcoidosis: Clinical and Imaging Findings. Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism 2002, 31:436-352.

Treatment
Osseous sarcoid responds poorly to corticosteroids and other drugs used in treating sarcoid. Corticosteroids decrease pain and soft tissue swelling but do not completely normalize bone abnormalities and increase the risk of osteoporosis, fractures, and avascular necrosis. Colchicine, indomethacin, and other NSAIDs may be used for symptomatic relief.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic

A Note on Writing Magic
To quote the "other minister", in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince: "But for heaven's sake — you're wizards! You can do magic! Surely you can sort out — well — anything!" Making characters omnipotent, able to do anything, sounds good, but ultimately makes the story boring. A fictional wizard who could do anything at all that he wished, ultimately would be a plot-destroying device; he would have the power to instantly get out of any predicament he is in, and readers would not be intrigued to see him wave his wand and remove all barriers yet again.

When writing fiction that involves magic of any sort, one must be extremely careful to plan and limit that magic so that barriers remain, so that the challenges faced by the hero are difficult for him to surmount. In order to captivate the reader, the hero must be seen to be stretching his abilities; the reader has to wonder how the hero is going to get out of the predicament he is in, so he can share the hero's joy at having figured it out, and his relief at escaping relatively unscathed.

It does not need to be said that the Harry Potter series shows signs of careful planning of the available magic. The need to hide the relatively small Wizarding population from the much larger Muggle world is mentioned early in the first book, and over the course of the series we learn about the measures needed to manage that concealment, and the reasons such measures are so harsh. The relative strengths of wizards and witches is very nicely managed, as is the growing strength of the characters, especially Harry and Neville. And it is of interest that Harry's most bitter battle is not against Voldemort, a wizard of great power who at least commands respect, but rather against a petty bureaucrat and her power-hungry boss.

No writer is an island, at the very least a writer must have read enough of a genre to know that they want to write in that genre. And influences do creep in, as writers adopt techniques that they appreciate. We note that in the treatment of magic, there are some similarities between this work and the Lord Darcy series by Randall Garrett. In particular, we note Garrett's mention of the difference between active and passive magic, covered in more detail in the article on The Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery; the distinction between Light and Dark magic; and the difference in types of magic, notably healing magic, covered in more detail in the article on Madam Pomfrey. No doubt there are other stories that similarly show reasonable limitations on magic, and it is equally possible that the seminal influence could have been some other work, but the similarities with the Garrett series do seem at least vaguely present to us.

Creatures
Animals and intelligent non-human beings that inhabit the magical world.

 * Acromantula
 * Ashwinder
 * Augurey
 * Basilisk
 * Billywig
 * Blibbering Humdinger
 * Blood-Sucking Bugbear
 * Boggart
 * Bowtruckle
 * Bundimun
 * Centaur
 * Chimaera
 * Crumple Horned Snorkack
 * Chizpurfle
 * Clabbert
 * Cockatrice
 * Crup
 * Dementor
 * Demiguise
 * Diricawl
 * Doxy
 * Dragon
 * Dugbog
 * Erkling
 * Erumpent
 * Fairy
 * Fire Crab
 * Flobberworm
 * Fwooper
 * Ghoul
 * Giant
 * Glumbumble
 * Gnome
 * Goblin
 * Graphorn
 * Griffin
 * Grindylow
 * Heliopath
 * Hinkypunk
 * Hippocampus
 * Hippogriff
 * Horklump
 * House Elf
 * Imp
 * Jarvey
 * Jobberknoll
 * Kappa
 * Kelpie
 * Knarl
 * Kneazle
 * Leprechaun
 * Lethifold
 * Lobalug
 * Mackled Malaclaw
 * Manticore
 * Merpeople
 * Moke
 * Mooncalf
 * Murtlap
 * Nargle
 * Niffler
 * Nogtail
 * Nudu
 * Occamy
 * Phoenix
 * Pixie
 * Plimpy
 * Pogrebin
 * Porlock
 * Puffskein
 * Pygmy Puff
 * Quintaped
 * Ramora
 * Red Cap
 * Re'em
 * Runespoor
 * Salamander
 * Sea Serpent
 * Shrake
 * Skrewt
 * Snidget
 * Sphinx
 * Streeler
 * Tebo
 * Thestral
 * Troll
 * Umgubular Slashkilter
 * Unicorn
 * Veela
 * Winged horse
 * Wrackspurt
 * Yeti

Devices
Objects used by wizards for various purposes.

 * Bezoar
 * Books and Textbooks
 * Brooms
 * Canary Cream
 * Decoy Detonator
 * Deluminator
 * Disappearing or Vanishing Cabinets
 * Extendable Ear
 * Floo Powder
 * Foe Glass
 * Ford Anglia
 * Goblet of Fire
 * Hand of Glory
 * Horcrux
 * Howler
 * Invisibility Cloak
 * Knight Bus
 * Marauder's Map
 * Mirror of Erised
 * Omnioculars
 * Paintings
 * Pensieve
 * Peruvian Instant Darkness Powder
 * Philosopher's Stone
 * Photograph
 * Portkey
 * Probity Probe
 * Quick-Quotes Quill
 * Remembrall
 * Secrecy Sensor
 * Skiving Snackbox
 * Sneakoscope
 * Time-Turner
 * Torture Quill
 * Ton-Tongue Toffee
 * Wand

Magical Plants

 * Abyssinian shrivelfig
 * Blood Blisterpod
 * Bubotuber
 * Devil's Snare
 * Dirigible Plum
 * Dittany
 * Flutterby bush
 * Gillyweed
 * Gurdyroot
 * Mandrake
 * Mimbulus Mimbletonia
 * Snargaluff
 * Sopophorous Bean
 * Venomous Tentacula
 * Whomping Willow

Newspapers, Magazines, Journals

 * The Daily Prophet
 * The Quibbler
 * Transfiguration Today
 * Witch Weekly
 * Which Broomstick

Potions

 * Amortentia
 * Draught of Living Death
 * Draught of Peace
 * Dreamless Sleep Potion
 * Felix Felicis
 * Love Potion
 * Pepper-Up Potion
 * Polyjuice Potion
 * Shrinking Solution
 * Strengthening Solution
 * Swelling Solution
 * Veritaserum
 * Wit-Sharpening Potion
 * Wolfsbane Potion

Potion Ingredients

 * Bezoar
 * Boomslang
 * Lacewing Flies
 * abraxan hair
 * billywig wings
 * baneberry

Methods
Techniques wizards use alone or when interacting with other wizards.

 * Animagus
 * Apparition and Disapparition
 * Divination
 * Fire-call
 * Floo Network
 * Legilimency
 * Metamorphmagus
 * Occlumency
 * Parseltongue
 * Priori Incantatem
 * Transfiguration
 * Unbreakable Vow

Subjects
Courses offered in Hogwarts. A table of who teaches which course in each year is located here.
 * Ancient Runes
 * Apparition
 * Arithmancy
 * Astronomy
 * Care of Magical Creatures
 * Charms
 * Defence Against the Dark Arts
 * Divination
 * Flying
 * Herbology
 * History of Magic
 * Muggle Studies
 * Potions
 * Transfiguration

Spells
Words or phrases that cause a certain effect when using a wand or when said by a wizard. In the books, the terms Spell, Charm, Jinx, Hex, and Curse are all used; the author explains the difference as follows:
 * Spell is the generic term, used for all incantations.
 * Charms typically would affect the behaviour of an object but do not change its nature. Thus making a pineapple tap-dance across the desk is properly a Charm, because the object remains a pineapple; but turning a teapot into a turtle, as is done in Transfiguration, is not.
 * Jinxes carry a connotation of dark magic, though of a very minor sort. Jinxes, like Rictusempra, irritate and amuse, rather than harm.
 * Hexes also carry the connotation of dark magic, again of a minor nature, but slightly darker than Jinxes. An example would be Petrificus Totalus.
 * Curses are spells that are firmly considered Dark Magic. Curses are purely harmful in effect.

A Stunning spell is more properly a charm, because the spelled object changes behaviour and not nature; but the name is kept because of the alliteration. These definitions are flexible; for instance the stunning spell Stupefy can be used either by light or dark wizards, in which case it might be seen as a charm or a hex.

A note on incantation pronunciation
It appears that there are three components to a spell: the incantation or spoken portion, the wand motion, and a mental component involving visualization of the desired effect. We learn in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince that the incantation does not need to be spoken, but can be subvocalized, and we also observe a few spells where one or two of the three components is not required. In those cases where an incantation is required, we note that it seems to be based on the Latin word for the desired effect; this, with other context, would suggest strongly that most incantations are to be pronounced with the Latin character sounds. In particular, the "i" is generally, though not always, pronounced as a long "e", and the "o" is the long form of that vowel, while the "a" and "e" are generally the short forms of those vowels. Among the exceptions are "Wingardium leviosa" and "Rictusempra", where the first "i" seems to be best pronounced as the short English "i". "U" generally takes the long form when it is on its own, but the short form in the "ium" and "us" word endings.

Alphabetical list

 * Accio
 * Aguamenti
 * Alohomora
 * Anapneo
 * Aparecium
 * Avada Kedavra unforgivable curse
 * Avis
 * Banishing Charm
 * Bat Bogey Hex
 * Bubble-Head Charm
 * Colloportus
 * Confringo
 * Confundo
 * Conjunctivitus
 * Crucio unforgivable curse
 * Defodio
 * Deletrius
 * Densaugeo
 * Deprimo
 * Descendo
 * Diffindo
 * Dissendium
 * Disillusionment
 * Duro
 * Enervate
 * Engorgio
 * Episkey
 * Evanesco
 * Expecto Patronum
 * Expelliarmus
 * Expulso
 * Ferula
 * Fidelius
 * Fiendfyre
 * Finite
 * Finite Incantatem
 * Flagrante
 * Flagrate
 * Furnunculus
 * Geminio
 * Gemino
 * Glisseo
 * Impedimenta
 * Imperio unforgivable curse
 * Imperturbable Charm
 * Impervius
 * Incarcerous
 * Incendio
 * Langlock
 * Legilimens
 * Levicorpus
 * Liberacorpus
 * Locomotor
 * Locomotor Mortis
 * Lumos
 * Mobiliarbus
 * Mobilicorpus
 * Morsmordre
 * Muffliato
 * Nox
 * Obliviate
 * Oppugno
 * Orchideous
 * Permanent Sticking Charm
 * Peskipiksi Pesternomi
 * Petrificus Totalus
 * Point Me
 * Portus
 * Prior Incantato
 * Protean Charm
 * Protego
 * Quietus
 * Reducio
 * Reducto
 * Relashio
 * Renervate
 * Reparo
 * Revulsion Jinx
 * Rictusempra
 * Riddikulus
 * Scourgify
 * Sectumsempra
 * Serpensortia
 * Silencio
 * Sonorus
 * Specialis Revelio
 * Stupefy
 * Tarantallegra
 * Tergeo
 * Tongue-tying Curse
 * Undetectable Extension Charm
 * Waddiwasi
 * Wingardium Leviosa

Near-Human and similar
It does not seem quite right to place these in the same category as magical beasts.

 * Ghost
 * Vampire
 * Werewolf

Blood Status and similar categories
A sizable fraction of the Wizarding population believes that lineage is important, to the point that they actually categorize wizards based on their ancestry. As this is a characteristic of the Dark side in these books, these categories are important to the story, and are listed below:
 * Blood traitor
 * Half-blood
 * Muggle-born (or "Mudblood")
 * Pureblood

Additionally, the following terms are used to refer to segments of the population.

 * Muggle
 * Squib

Languages
Fictional languages used throughout the books.

 * Gobbledegook
 * Mermish
 * Parseltongue
 * Troll

Terms

 * Auror
 * Dark Mark
 * Grim
 * Inferius
 * Knight Bus
 * Money
 * Parselmouth
 * Patronus
 * Prophecy

Legal Structures

 * Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery
 * Ministry of Magic
 * Wizengamot

Key Magical Artifacts
Objects that have special significance to the entire series.

 * Horcruxes
 * Deathly Hallows
 * Sword of Gryffindor
 * Sorting Hat

/Magic

title: Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic


text:
Talk:Persian/Lesson 8

Untitled
I will remove the speedy deletion tag from this page, because all of the lessons should be dealt with as a whole, see Talk:Farsi for more discussion. Geo.T 12:20, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Persian/Lesson 8


text:
FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Ecosystems/Biospheres, biomes and ecosystems

Biospheres, biomes and ecosystems

The definition of an ecosystem is any area of nature that includes living organisms and non-living substances interacting to produce an exchange of materials between the living and non-living parts. A problem with the definition is that of a boundary, as the definition can be applied on any scale. For example, a pond with its interaction between the water, micro- organisms, invertebrates, fish and amphibians could be defined as an ecosystem. But if water birds that occasionally frequent the pond and feed on fish are included in this ecosystem, then the boundary of the ecosystem expands to include the living area of the water birds. Ecosystems can best be studied by observing the flows of energy matter through an ecosystem. The definition of the biosphere is the part of the earth in which life is permanently possible and which contains all living organisms. This includes the oceans, the surface of continents and the atmosphere. Animal and plant species are classified into communities that are adapted to a particular environment. The major biomes are, the aquatic biome, the desert biome, the forest biome, the grassland biome and the tundra biome.

The Aquatic Biome

Water covers ¾ of the Earth’s surface. A large number of animals and plants are adapted to living in water and it is thought that life began in water billions of years ago. The aquatic biome can be divided into salt water and fresh water.

Fresh water is essential for life on Earth. Fresh water has low salt concentrations. Fresh water environments include ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands. Ponds and lakes are still water environment, unlike rivers and steams where water flows in a specific direction. These still water bodies can vary from a few metres in size in the case of ponds to thousands of kilometres in the case of lakes. Ponds and lakes may only contain water during the rainy season. In this case they are called seasonal. If they always contain water then they are called permanent. Ponds and lakes may have a small number of different plant and animal species as the ponds and lakes are often separated from each other by long distances and the plants and animals from one pond or lake cannot mix with the plants and animals of another pond lake.

In South Africa, there is only one natural lake. This is Lake Sibaya in Kwazulu Natal.

Ponds and lakes can be classified into zones according to the vertical layers of water.

Uppermost zone of the littoral zone, is the warmest and most productive of the zones as it receives the most sunlight, It is also a zone of high oxygen content. This zone is dominated by algae, macrophytes, snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes and amphibians. Animals in this zone provide food for turtles, snakes & water birds.

The middle zone is the limnetic zone. This zone is usually well lighted. This zone is usually dominated by plankton.

The last layer is the deepest layer and there is usually little light, less oxygen and the temperature is lower in this zone. This zone is dominated by animals who feed as predators or on waste sinking to the bottom.

These three clear layers do not occur in shallow lakes and ponds, as wind causes the layers to mix together.

Streams and rivers start at headwaters. A headwater can be a spring, a region with melting snow or a lake. Water at this region is usually cleaner, clearer and colder. There are a greater number of different species in the middle regions of streams and rivers, which are wider and dominated macrophytes (water plants) and algae (microscopic water plants). The mouths of rivers are usually have murky water with a lower number of different species and lower productivity. These regions are dominated by carp and catfish who can tolerate lower oxygen levels.

Wetlands are areas of standing water that support aquatic plants. These include marshes, swamps and bogs. Plants called hydrophytes grow in wetlands and are adapted to the moist and humid conditions. These plants include pond-lilies, cattails, spruce Cyprus and Gum. These areas have a high number of different species, including amphibians, reptiles and birds.

Salt water or marine regions covers ¾ of the Earth’s surface. The oceans provide a great service as marine plants and algae produce much of the Earth’s oxygen, while absorbing large amounts of harmful carbon dioxide. The evaporation of the seawater also provides rainwater for the land in a process called the hydrological cycle.

A simple representation of the hydrological cycle.

Oceans, like lakes are divided into separate zones. The deepest part of the ocean is called the abyssal zone. There is comparatively little known about the animals that live in this zone. The animals here are adapted to very cold water and the high pressure of the water. Because of the lack of sunlight in this zone, nutrients enter this zone from the shallower waters above. There is one exception however. This is the presence of hydrothermal vents in some parts of the ocean floor. This will be dealt with in more detail, later in this chapter.

The area of the ocean that is above the abyssal zone is called the benthic zone. Here less light penetrates and the water gets colder as the water gets deeper. This area is more productive then the abyssal zone since it is nutrient rich. Here you will find seaweed, fungi, sponges, sea anemones, worms, sea stars, fishes and many other animals.

The pelagic zone is that area of ocean that is usually referred to as open ocean. Light can penetrate this zone, and microphytoplankton and seaweed at the surface are the primary producers of this zone. Many fish, as well as whales and dolphins inhabit this zone.

The intertidal zone is the zone where the ocean meets the land. Depending on the tide, this area is either covered or uncovered by water. Rocky parts of the intertidal zone are stratified, with less diverse and more hardy species inhabiting the highest areas of the intertidal zone where only the fullest tides reach. In areas of the zone that are submerged during high tide, there are more types of animals and plants such as algae, snails, crabs, sea stars and fish. The part of the rocky shore that is only exposed at the lowest tides many plants and animals are also found. There are not as much difference between zones on sandy shores. Here the sand is always moving and animals and plants struggle to establish themselves. Here animals such as clams, crustaceans, worms and shore birds are found.

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are found in warm shallow waters. They are found around islands and as barriers around continents. The organisms that make the coral reefs are called corals. Corals are tiny communities consisting of both algae and tiny animal cells, The corals obtain nutrients from the sun via photosynthesis as well as filtering plankton from the surrounding water. Coral reefs provide a refuge for a huge number of different animals and are therefore very important to conserve.

Estuaries

Estuaries are areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge with the ocean. Estuaries are known to be very productive and provide a relatively safe nursery for the young of many marine organisms. Plants such as algae, seaweeds, marsh grasses, and mangrove trees are found in estuaries. Many different types of animals are found in estuaries including worms, oysters, crabs, fish and waterfowl.

The desert biome

Deserts occur in areas of the planet where the annual rainfall is less than 50 cm. Animals and plants that live in the desert are highly adapted for the desert environment. Deserts cover approximately 1/5 of the Earth’s surface.

Hot and dry deserts

These deserts are usually very cold at night and hot in the day. Daylight temperatures remain hot throughout the year and get particularly hot during summer. In addition there is very little rainfall during winter. Rainfall occurs in short bursts during the year. In fact, there are some desert areas that receive no rainfall. The soil in these deserts is coarse, shallow, rocky or gravely with very little ground water. Plants that grow in deserts are particularly adapted to the conditions. These include ground hugging shrubs and short trees. The leaves of these plants tend to be short, thick and covered in a thick cuticle. The spines of cacti are actually modified leaves. Many desert plants only transpire at night so as to minimise water loss.

Desert animals include small mammals, certain insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds. Most of the desert animals stay inactive during the day and hunt or forage during the night.

Semiarid Desert

Semiarid deserts have summer daytime temperatures that seldom exceed 38 °C. Night time temperatures are usually cool. The winter period in semiarid deserts is usually associated with a dry period, with even less than usual rainfall. The cool evenings allow both plants and animals to reduce water loss. Dew that accumulates on the land surface at night provides an important source of water for both plants and animals. The soil can range from sandy and fine-textured to loose rock fragments, gravel or sand.

Plants in these semiarid desert areas often have many spines with the dual purpose of shading from the sun and for protection from predators. Many plants may also have a taste or smell that is unpleasant to predators.

Animals in semiarid deserts include small mammals such as various rodents, insects such as grasshoppers and ants, reptiles such as lizards and snakes and various birds. Many of these animals are adapted to feeding at night or staying in shady places such as burrows during the day. Coastal Desert

These deserts occur in moderately cool to warm areas such as the Nearctic and Neotropical realm. A good example is the Atacama of Chile. The cool winters of coastal deserts are followed by moderately long, warm summers. The average summer temperature ranges from 13-24 °C; winter temperatures are 5 °C or below. The maximum annual temperature is about 35 °C and the minimum is about -4 °C. In Chile, the temperature ranges from -2 to 5 °C in July and 21-25 °C in January.

The average rainfall measures 8–13 cm in many areas. The maximum annual precipitation over a long period of years has been 37 cm with a minimum of 5 cm.

The soil is fine-textured with a moderate salt content. It is fairly porous with good drainage. Some plants have extensive root systems close to the surface where they can take advantage of any rain showers. All of the plants with thick and fleshy leaves or stems can take in large quantities of water when it is available and store it for future use. In some plants, the surfaces are corrugated with longitudinal ridges and grooves. When water is available, the stem swells so that the grooves are shallow and the ridges far apart. As the water is used, the stem shrinks so that the grooves are deep and ridges close together. The plants living in this type of desert include the salt bush, buckwheat bush, black bush, rice grass, little leaf horsebrush, black sage, and chrysothamnus.

Some animals have specialized adaptations for dealing with the desert heat and lack of water. Some toads seal themselves in burrows with gelatinous secretions and remain inactive for eight or nine months until a heavy rain occurs. Amphibians that pass through larval stages have accelerated life cycles, which improves their chances of reaching maturity before the waters evaporate. Some insects lay eggs that remain dormant until the environmental conditions are suitable for hatching. The fairy shrimps also lay dormant eggs. Other animals include: insects, mammals (coyote and badger), amphibians (toads), birds (great horned owl, golden eagle and the bald eagle), and reptiles (lizards and snakes).

Cold Desert These deserts are characterized by cold winters with snowfall and high overall rainfall throughout the winter and occasionally over the summer. They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the Nearctic realm. They have short, moist, and moderately warm summers with fairly long, cold winters. The mean winter temperature is between -2 to 4 °C and the mean summer temperature is between 21-26 °C. The winters receive quite a bit of snow. The mean annual precipitation ranges from 15–26 cm. Annual precipitation has reached a maximum of 46 cm and a minimum of 9 cm. The heaviest rainfall of the spring is usually in April or May. In some areas, rainfall can be heavy in autumn. The soil is heavy, silty, and salty. It contains alluvial fans where soil is relatively porous and drainage is good so that most of the salt has been leached out.

The plants are widely scattered. In areas of shad-scale, about 10 percent of the ground is covered, but in some areas of sagebush it approaches 85 percent. Plant heights vary between 15 cm and 122 cm. The main plants are deciduous, most having spiny leaves. Widely distributed animals are jack rabbits, kangaroo rats, kangaroo mice, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, and antelope ground squirrels. In areas like Utah, population density of these animals can range from 14-41 individuals per hectare. All except the jack rabbits are burrowers. The burrowing habit also applies to carnivores like the badger, kit fox, and coyote. Several lizards do some burrowing and moving of soil. Deer are found only in the winter.