text:
Romanian/Pronunciation and alphabet

Even though Romanian spelling is very phonetic, a lot of foreigners find the language difficult. The accent and sounds are very similar to Italian (with slight Slavic influences), so remember to sound every letter clearly. Also, sounds very rarely differ between words (i.e. the letter s is always pronounced the same, everytime, unlike in English).

In the pronunciation guide, X-SAMPA will be used to help those people who are familiar with it, or the IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet), in pronouncing Romanian. For those unfamiliar with it, the IPA is a phonetic alphabet designed to help in the description of foreign sounds, and is used extensively by linguists. A good place to start learning the IPA is here.

X-SAMPA is an ASCII method of transcribing the IPA. A guide to it can be found here.

Vowels

 * a (a) : like 'a' in "father", X-SAMPA /a/.
 * e (e) : like 'a' in "bait,", or 'e' in "exit" X-SAMPA /e/.
 * i (i) : in most cases, like the 'ee' in "beet," X-SAMPA /i/. At the end of a word when following a consonant, however, it palatizes the preceeding consonant, X-SAMPA /_j/.
 * o (o) : like 'o' in "chlorine", X-SAMPA /o/.
 * u (u) : like 'oo' in "broom", X-SAMPA /u/.
 * ă : like 'a' in "about," X-SAMPA /@/ (schwa).
 * â (â), î (î) : no English equivalent - it's best to hear it being spoken. â and î are the same sound in Romanian. î is used at the beginning and end of words, and in compound words where one of the words begins with the î sound (i.e. neîndemânatic), and â in all other cases. The best way to approximate this sound is to attempt to make the vowel in "ski," then retract your tongue toward the center of your mouth. X-SAMPA /1/.

Consonants

 * b (be) : like 'b' in "bed," X-SAMPA /b/.
 * c (ce): when followed by i or e, like the 'ch' in "cheese" (X-SAMPA /tS/), otherwise like the 'k' in "sky," X-SAMPA /k/.
 * ch : only occurs before i or e, and is pronounced like the 'k' in "sky," X-SAMPA /k/.
 * d (de) : like 'd' in "dog," X-SAMPA /d/.
 * f (fe/ef) : like 'f' in "food," X-SAMPA /f/.
 * g (ghe/ge) : when followed by i or e, like the 'j' in "judge" (X-SAMPA /dZ/), otherwise like the 'g' in "good," X-SAMPA /g/.
 * gh : only occurs before i or e, and is pronounced like the 'g' in "good," X-SAMPA /g/.
 * h (ha/haș) : like 'h' in "help" or the 'ch' in German "ach," X-SAMPA /h/ or /x/.
 * j (je) : like the 's' in "measure" or the 'j' in French "bonjour," X-SAMPA /Z/.
 * k (ka) : like 'k' in "sky" only found in loanwords from other languages, X-SAMPA /k/.
 * l (le/el) : like 'l' in "love," X-SAMPA /l/.
 * m (me/em) : like 'm' in "mother," X-SAMPA /m/.
 * n (ne/en) : like 'n' in "nice," X-SAMPA /n/.
 * p (pe) : like 'p' in "spill," X-SAMPA /p/.
 * q (ku) : like 'k' in "sky," only found in loanwords from other languages, X-SAMPA /k/.
 * r (re/er) : like the trilled 'r' in Spanish "perro" or Italian "raro," X-SAMPA /r/.
 * s (se/es): like 's' in "snake," X-SAMPA /s/.
 * ș : like 'sh' in "lush," X-SAMPA /S/.
 * ț : like 'ts' in "bits," X-SAMPA /ts/.
 * t (te) : like 't' in "stop," X-SAMPA /t/.
 * v (ve) : like 'v' in "very," X-SAMPA /v/.
 * w (dublu ve) : like 'v' in "very," only used in loanwords from other languages, X-SAMPA /v/.
 * x (ics) : like 'x' in "box," mostly used in loanwords from other languages, X-SAMPA /ks/.
 * y (i grec): like 'ee' in "beet," only found in loanwords from other languages,X-SAMPA /i/.
 * z (zet) : like 'z' in "fizz," X-SAMPA /z/.

Diphthongs

 * oi : like 'oy' in "boy," X-SAMPA /oi/.
 * ea : like the 'ai' in "bait" followed by the 'a' in "father," X-SAMPA /ea/.
 * ai : like the 'i' in "bide," X-SAMPA /ai/.
 * ei : like the 'ei' in "vein," X-SAMPA /ei/.
 * au : like the 'ou' in "mouth," X-SAMPA /au/.
 * ău : like the 'a' in "about" followed by the 'oo' in "boot," X-SAMPA /@u/.
 * ăi : like the 'a' in "about" followed by the 'ee' in "beet," X-SAMPA /@i/.
 * âi : like the Romanian 'â' or 'î' followed by the 'ee' in "beet," X-SAMPA /1i/.
 * îi : like the Romanian 'â' or 'î' followed by the 'ee' in "beet," X-SAMPA /1i/.

title: Romanian/Pronunciation and alphabet


text:
User:Mas~enwikibooks

I'm started writing the Smalltalk book. I'd appreciate any help or feedback on it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Mas~enwikibooks


text:
Wikibooks:Textbook standards

Many states have developed curriculum standards for their public schools. These standards give an age-appropriate outline and structure that can be used to develop textbooks and supporting materials for all schoolgoing ages.

The standards are in fact quite useful. They are painstaking and exhaustive organizations of material with regard to the appropriate level of the curriculum. Teams of trained professionals have already done a big chunk of the work in developing high-quality textbooks. It falls to the contributors at Wikibooks to flesh out this work and deliver it in a way that will be useful and pertinent.

Note that standards neither dictate how the material should be presented, nor how students should be treated based on their progress regarding established learning goals. Rather, the standards are an outline of essential concepts to be included, as well as a suggestion to how to structure them. Standards are often credited with improving educational attainment in schools. Another way to look at standards is the state telling students, parents and teachers what not to teach.

Why use standards?

 * In order to be used by a class in a real school the book must adhere to set standards
 * Standards compliance gives the books an authority equal to other textbooks
 * Once we have one or two top-quality, standards-compliant books on the site, they will serve as a sales tool and bring attention and credibility, which opens us up both to
 * more people using our books and therefore served by our labor
 * more donations from institutional givers, which could translate to less site down time and new software features

Standards in Australia
This list gives an accessible resource for Australians who want to write textbooks for the Australian curriculum. These will vary by State, though certain things will be covered on a federal level. The standards are usually decided by the Department for Education and Training (in Victoria) and affect all primary school, secondary school, TAFE (technical and further education) and university students studying an accredited Australian course in an Australian educational institution (or an international institution offering Australian curriculum as part of its offering).

Victoria
Victorian Curriculum Standards and levels website and Victorian Certificate of Education, VCE(from the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority):

New South Wales
Board of Studies

Australian Capital Territory
ACT government directorate responsible for developing and delivering educational services. ACT Board for Senior Secondary Studies (BSSS) Frameworks (years 11 and 12)

The ACT Board of Senior Secondary Studies (ACT BSSS) is a statutory authority responsible for the certification of senior secondary school studies in government and non-government schools in the Australian Capital Territory. ACT Department of Education and Training (preschool -year 10 (F-10) )

Tasmania
The Office of Tasmanian Assessment, Standards and Certification (TASC) is an independent statutory office responsible for the development of appropriate curriculum, the accreditation of courses, and the assessment and certification of student achievement in senior secondary schooling across all educational sectors in Tasmania. Tasmanian Qualifications Authority

Queensland
Queensland Board of Senior Secondary School Studies

Northern Territory
Northern Territory Department of Education

South Australia
South Australian Education Department

Western Australia
Curriculum Council of Western Australia

Standards in New Zealand
The New Zealand Qualifications Authority has produced a wide range (thousands) of modular "unit" standards that set out the learning objectives and assessment criteria for almost all topics taught in New Zealand schools and tertiary institutions. Many of these are competency based standard at a topic level within a subject.

Text book authors may find this approach useful for segmenting their books into pages or topics and pitching the topic to an appropriate audience.

Note: Level 1 standards are taught in Year 11 (14-16 year olds) while level 7 standards are at a tertiary institution graduate level. (Qualifications are attained by achieving the required unit standards.)

Standards in the United Kingdom
The National Curriculum Online from the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority seems specific to England but also has links to sites that are specific to Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales.

Standards in the United States of America
All U.S. states, populated territories, the District of Columbia, and the Department of Defense have standards for K-12 education. Most use the Common Core though may have additional state standards.

Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) has an excellent database of U.S. standards that are aligned for comparison: McREL Standards Alignment Database

 * Common Core map

Non-Common Core jurisdictions:
 * Alaska Performance & Content Standards
 * Indiana
 * Minnesota
 * Nebraska
 * Oklahoma
 * Puerto Rico
 * Texas
 * Virginia standards

Supplemental standards:
 * California standards
 * Colorado standards
 * Florida standards (links to PDF files)
 * Hawaii standards
 * Massachusetts Curriculum Frameworks
 * Clarifying Language in Michigan Benchmarks
 * New York Core Curriculum/Resource Guides
 * North Carolina Standard Course of Study
 * Ohio standards
 * South Carolina standards (links to PDF files)
 * Utah Curriculum & Instruction

Advanced Placement
The Advanced Placement® program, run by the College Entrance Examination Board, allows high school students to receive college/university level credit in various subjects. Since these standards must reflect to some level both high-school level and university standards, they may be of some help in creating standards-based textbooks. AP Subjects

Science standards (moved here)
Science standards for high schools curriculum by the State of California. Whenever possible it will help adoption of our books if we adhere to the standards already developed.

Standards in Canada
Curriculum standards in Canada are established for each province/territory in all K-12 subjects. Each province/territory tends to suggest that their curriculum standards are high and this contribution to learning as significant. There are some efforts to find common ground on standards between jurisdictions, but these are not maintained or communicated in such a way that allow portability or interoperability across various systems.

Alberta
Curriculum development and programs of study for K-12

British Columbia
Curriculum Overview for K-12

Manitoba
https://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/types.html

New Brunswick
Curriculum Development in New Brunswick

Newfoundland Labrador
Overall curriculum of Newfoundland Labrador

Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia Curriculum for Education and Early Childhood Development

Prince Edward Island
Prince Edward Island Education and Lifelong Learning Framework

Ontario
Curriculum for elementary level K-8 Curriculum for secondary level 9-12

Quebec
Québec Education Program

Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan Curriculum

ja:Wikibooks:教科書の標準規格

title: Wikibooks:Textbook standards


text:
German/Level III/Tour de France

Lernen 7-2 ~ Tour de France
(aus Wikipedia, der freien Enzyklopädie) Die Tour de France ist eines der berühmtesten und wichtigsten sportlichen Großereignisse überhaupt. Seit 1903 wird die Tour alljährlich - mit Ausnahme der Zeit des Ersten und Zweiten Weltkriegs - drei Wochen lang im Juli ausgetragen und führt dabei in wechselnder Streckenführung quer durch Frankreich und das nahe Ausland.

Eine Tour de France der Frauen (grande boucle féminine) mit deutlich kürzeren Etappen wird seit 1984 gefahren. Sie steht medial völlig im Schatten ihres männlichen Pendants.

Vokabeln 7A
die Ausnahme              exception die Enzyklopädie          encyclopedia der Erste Weltkrieg       WW I das Großereignis           major event der Juli                  July das Radrennen             bicycle race die Welt                  world die Woche, die Wochen     week, weeks die Zeit                  time, period der Zweite Weltkrieg      WW II

(bei weitem) berühmteste  among the most widely renowned, the most popular

alljährlich               every year bei                       among (one of) berühmteste               most celebrated, most renowned frei, freien (Akkusativ)  free seit                      since sportlich                 athletic überhaupt                 altogether, generally während                   during drei Wochen lang          three weeks lasting weit                      broad, wide wichtig                   important

Pronunciation Guide >>

title: German/Level III/Tour de France


text:
Talk:Physics Study Guide

Definition Box
In a few sections a box of definitions seems to be useful so there should probably be a universal style for the box Template:PSG/def here's an example of the usage

Variable Box
In a few sections a box of variable usage explanations seems to be useful so there should probably be a universal style for the box Template:PSG/var here's an example of the usage

Cover Art Needed
This book has ben cited a couple times as an exemplary book and yet we don't have any cover art. Msmithma 22:16, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

TOC template
The template should be placed at the bottom of pages

Collaboration
I wanted to get hold of Karl Wick but I couldn't find an email address - so I am going out on a limb here. I believe we can have a mutually beneficial collaboration. My name is Mark Horner and I started the Free High School Science Texts project. The PR homepage is http://www.nongnu.org/fhsst and our project admin is done through http://savannah.gnu.org . We are going to release our books under GFDL and we'd like to put them on the web. We have much content in Maths, Physics and Chemisty but we are looking for people to help us finish them off. We are past the 1/2 mark but still need help.

All my details are on the project page - please contact me if you are interested.

 * This sounds like the beginning of a beautiful relationship. You should have recieved my email by now, lets chat on my talk page. - Karl Wick

What counts as nonessential?

 * You ask a question that deserves an honest answer. To me, the "essentials" include everything that I needed to know to get a passing grade in a pre-med Physics class.

 * Aha! You're revealing your biases! The reason for learning physics isn't to understand nature, but to get a passing grade!

 * True, there's the ultimate goal as well as the more immediate one.

 * Perhaps a more meaningful description of nonessential would be: extended detailed background. My goal in starting this study guide is to draw attention to the central concepts of introductory physics that are easily lost in the hundreds of pages of text in a typical textbook.

 * Often the biggest stumbling block or time-waster in learning a new topic is the terminology. In physics, add in the equations. This guide is intended to bring a spotlight on the equations and terms and give straitforward exlanatinons to each concept. Beyond this we can link to more in-depth material for further study.

 * --Karl Wick

Equations, equations, and equations, and not even a single overview or explanation of the concepts...

 * Would that mean we should move towards adding overviews? Explanations (if included) should be kept short.  This is, after all, a study guide, not a complete rehash of a Freshman-level Physics book.  Overviews should probably be kept down to maybe basic discourse about the use of such equations (after all, if this is a study guide, I wager it would be helpful to have an idea to help people with "word problems"...)

 * And how deep into each level should we go? Calculus based for everything?  Deep sub-topics into quantum equations, etc? -- Pipian

 * By just presenting equations with no explanation on what they mean, you're just encouraging rote memorization with no understanding...

 * I agree on that point, which is why I do think that SOME explanation is needed, but I do not believe that we need a textbook-like explanation ("Free-fall acceleration is acceleration due to gravity. Some examples of this acceleration can be seen when dropping objects from a height, such as an apple from your hand.  It does, however, have acceleration along the y-axis...") but rather a simple one ("Free-fall acceleration is vertical acceleration thanks to the force of earth's gravity.  It is equal to g, or 9.8 m/s^2") -- 209.39.26.2

 * I'm all into some brief explanations. My goal is to help students learn the material in the quickest and least painful way possible.

 * About the Calculus, let that be another book or special subpages of this one. I have not taken any calc-based physics and it is not necessary for pre-meds, so I want to keep that separate. --Karl Wick

 * I think it would be a good idea to include it, but I think a separate section would probably be a good idea as well (Kinda like how you've partially separated out the advanced work information). An appendix perhaps?  ("A Calculus-Based Approach"?)

 * Also, I think I will rework the formulae in TeX format --Pipian

 * I change my earlier stance and now favor including the calculus-based material. Tex stuff sounds great if you like, I have not familiarized myself with how to write that stuff yet. --Karl Wick

 * Yeah, I was about to say that I was going to add such to the Kinematics section first. Now that you've said it's OK, I'll go right ahead and do that.  Shouldn't be that hard to do it inline.  Only thing is that the TeX outputs on a white background, so we will have to accommodate in terms of the tables. I'll go ahead and alter the Kinematics page first though to give you a taste.  I'll add some more explanation to it later.  Also, because I have a minor qualm with using d for displacement, favoring instead Δx (That's what I've read in every physics book that I've read), which also makes sense in the calculus-context (dx/dt), I'm going to switch those "d"s to "Δx"s. --Pipian

 * OK Karl Wick

 * Take a look. That's how I envision the pages looking (aside from adding a little explanation) -- Pipian

 * I like how the formatting looks under Tex. I'd like to keep everything as simple as possible. Right now I get a bit of a headache looking at all of the equations and for ME it is a bit overwhelming, and I think that it will be even more so for someone just getting into the subject. If possible I'd like to relegate all of the calc-based stuff to separate spots where it will not distract those who dont need it. One solution is for the reader to just ignore it but I'd rather not make him go thru all of that work. The calc stuff can be on a different page or on the same page further down. We could link to each more advanced page beneath the corresponding, simpler treatment. My whole goal in starting this book was to make the subject as approachable to a novice as possible and to eliminate averything that may distract him. My intent is that adding additional stuff is material for another, different book. --Karl Wick

 * OK, let me change my mind a bit again. I dont like the formatting in Tex so much cuz it loses the color that sets the equations apart, and the type is in a different font. I think yours and my goals may be different for the project. Mine include printing up copies of this material to sell on campus when I have all of the sections done. Maybe it would be better if you did a paralell version where you copied all of the material you wanted from here but didnt implement the pseudo-drastic changes you propose .. or do whatever you want to do on separate pages linked off of the existing pages. Talk to me cuz I know you will probably be mad/exasperated/something negative about what I am saying. --Karl Wick

 * The equations should still be fairly noticeable, as they are inscribed in boxes (you could dash them or do various other things instead of tinting the insides). Feel free to change it back if you like, but I believe that it would be best to keep it as it is (since it would be more accurate to what people will see in their books, and calculus equations are more difficult to display accurately without the help of TeX).  It would be nice if TeX would place it on the colored background, but this, unfortunately, does not seem to be possible.  As for Calculus, it would be convenient if it were at the bottom of the same page, rather than on a different page.  I don't mind separating it however. -- Pipian

 * I also think it would be beneficial to arrange it as kinematics, forces, momentum, work/energy (should be one section), circular motion, fluids, fields, gravity, waves/sound (should be one section), thermodynamics, electromagnetism, optics, modern (quantum/atomic) physics as that is a more natural way to learn physics. Each builds on the previous up to fields, and it is confusing to think about energy in the gravity chapter when it has not been mentioned in the study guide.  Everything after gravity is more or less up for grabs as to location, though modern physics should be last. -- Pipian

 * So where do we stand on forthcoming development of this text? Would it seriously be better if I split off? (I also tested making the borders thicker on Kinematics, if it looks alright) -- Pipian

There is some duplicated content in the Physics Exercises book I placed a wiki-link in the apedicies to that book as I figured that worked problems would be a good resource. --Martín S-M

After looking at the Manual of Style I realized the book needs a Physics Study Guide/Cover page and I made it and moved all the relavent information to that page from the table of contents. Also I am in the process of removing all the Category:Physics links from the sub-pages. I also moved the detailed infoamtion on changes on the Author page to the disscussion page leaving only the names of authors on the Physics Study Guide/Authors page. I created the subcategory Category:Physics Study Guide--Martín S-M Oct, 20, 2006

I am at a small college in Florida and as an assignment my students have created Wiki pages for Introductory Physics. Feel free to borrow freely from it here. -- S. Weppner

Outlines
Those box outlines are a bit too fat. I thought you had decided not to develop a different book but maybe we could just work on the same one together. If I want to publish my own version later I can just rework it to what I had originally in mind. Also notice that I restructured the list of topics as it seemed you had suggested, please modify as you see fit. --Karl Wick

 * Alright. I slimmed those down to 3px instead of 4px.  If you want, I'll take them to 2px.  As for the topic list, I re-arranged it slightly to put it in a (seemingly) better order.  If you disagree, let me know. -- Pipian

Tracking Changes

 * Karl Wick
 * This book initiated on 10/29/03
 * Adon Metcalfe
 * Added images throughout on 6/18/04
 * Brendan Abbott
 * Minor update to Electronics page on 10/13/04
 * Tristan Sabel
 * Several additions to Physical Constants page on 3/15/05
 * Creation of Approximate Coefficients of Friction page on 3/15/05
 * Adon Metcalfe
 * Definition fix on sound page on 3/27/05
 * Fromund Hock
 * Some changes on light on 8/1/05
 * Martin Smith-Martinez
 * Suggested that the Physics Exercises be merged into the guide 9/06
 * Updated the Physical Constants page
 * Added some images, changed others to thumbnails to the Linear motion and Vectors and Scalras pages Oct 20, 2006
 * Did some migration of boxed equations into the Template:PSG/eq 19:29, 16 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Created the PSG/var and PSG/def templates and made entries in the Style Guide discussion and migrated the variable and definitions on the Forces page into the template format 07:22, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

Print version
Can anyone create a printable version of the entire book? I have tried, but can't seem to get it to work properly.

Yes, a print (PDF)version would be really useful. BTW, what does it take to create a PDF? I have a dial-up access and cannot be of much use here but I hope someone else will do the good work. Kushal_one (on wikipedia)

Freshman?
This book is apparently on the level of Freshman? To what universal stage/degree does that correspond?Adriaan90 (talk) 14:22, 6 June 2009 (UTC)

Orphaned page
Physics Study Guide/Quantum Mechanics is not linked to by this book. If you like it, please link to it. Otherwise, you could merge the content and label it with or mark it with. -- Adrignola talk contribs 13:12, 7 August 2009 (UTC)

The Question Bank
has anyone noticed the question bank that I have added to the Physics Study Guide? That'll be a great way to add content to the textbook. Ofcourse, once the contributors start adding explanations, we will know how to write the guide better!

title: Talk:Physics Study Guide


text: General Relativity

title: General Relativity


text:
User talk:Anthere

Bonjour Anthere :) Nice to see we've dragged yet another from the Wikipedia, hope you have fun here too Dysprosia 22:21, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

hi Dysprosia, I came a couple of times when it was set up, but not since then. Thought of cleaning the place a bit. The logo is gorgious imho ! that makes it a very sunny place. Cheers.

Wikilivres
Je m´étonne que, en entête des Wikilivres, il n´apparaît pas la mention du type : "Un article de la Wikipedia, l´encyclopédie libre" comme il y a en anglais "From Wikibooks,The freebook project". N´aurait-il pas lieu d´y mettre cette mention? (normaliser le texte)Hibisco-da-Ilha 09:25, 10 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Wikimania presentation
Ciao Anthere! How're you? We're working on the Wikimania proceeding - will you write a paper for your presentation?

(sorry if someone has asked you the same question already :p)

Cathy from Hong Kong --Cma 12:25, 21 September 2005 (UTC)

errr, well. No. To be fair, it requires me a lot of time to write properly in english... and in this case, I would feel compelled to write in GOOD english :-) So, I prefer not. However, I can write you a better and more complete summary than the one I wrote much sooner than preparing the powerpoint. What is the deadline ? Anthere

Hoi :) Thanks for your reply. Yeah I understand that's a lot of work! A summary will be good enough if you think that a full paper is taking too much toll upon you.  As you can see, there is not really a deadline, but hopefully it will be before the Wikimania 06?

--Cma 04:27, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Actually, I am glad I did not make any summary... since they were all deleted :-) Anthere 11:06, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Anthere,

I strongly object to what has just happened with the the Wikimania content, and feel that your and Brion's actions are tantamount to completely ignoring the local Wikibooks user community, and a total disregard to local policies as well. As far as where the discussion took place, yeah, it wasn't perhaps as prominent of a location, but keep in mind that even you should admit that Wikimania did not belong on Wikibooks. It is only because of the insistance of people like you that it absolutely must belong on Wikibooks that it is here at all.

The only reason why Wikimania is going to remain on Wikibooks is strictly because of individuals like yourself exerting undo political influence on this project, and that strictly because of your position on the board. Wikibooks is being treated like a backwater project that has no administrators, no user community, and no policies in place.

For a more detailed explaination as to why I think Wikimania absolutely does not belong, and by previously published policy is eligable for immediate deletion by an administrator and doesn't even need a community vote on the topic, see Staff lounge. This content violated several Wikibooks policies, and is from a certain point of view tantamount to vandalism. I didn't immediately delete this content, and I did perform a full transwiki. This is critically important, as I am not really trying to remove the content, but find a more permanent home, and through a process that has been accepted many times for many different projects, including multi-page content that is rather substantial. --Rob Horning 13:25, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

 * BTW, if you are seeking a formal discussion and vote, I guess we can have that now. I have added this to Votes for deletion, FYI.  I suspect several different opinions will be added, and you are welcome to voice your opinion there as well.  I'm getting a little hot under the collar for this, but I do think it eventually does need to go.  --Rob Horning 14:06, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Merci!
Anthere,

Je suis bien content que vous ayez decidé d'utiliser notre livre à votre presentation internationale! J'aimerais vous y accompagner! I would love to hear more about the conference. I'm excited that our class project will be getting more attention. Starting next week I was planning to have class members contact physiology teachers at as many universities as possible to invite them to use the book and help improve it. While there are still some gaping holes and some misinformation, I am so impressed with what the students have accomplished in only 7 weeks. This has been a great experience for most of the students.

I look forward to hearing more from you about your presentation. Provophys 22:48, 28 August 2006 (UTC)

THe presentation is in two days... and I am currently trying to prepare it (and not having much fabulous insight actually). See the link : http://www.hcuge.ch/genevahealthforum/index.html. In case you have a funny strip or interesting image to lighten up the presentation, I am more than interested. I'll use your book for the marketplace as well. Hopefully, it will bring some readers :-) Anthere

title: User talk:Anthere


text:
Puzzles/Decision puzzles/Yet Another Weighing

Puzzles | Decision puzzles | Yet another Weighing

You have a balance and the following items of which you know the weights: a stapler weighing 80g, a pen weighing 40g, an eraser weighing 20g, a ruler weighing 10g, and a small coin weighing 5g.

How many different weights can you measure with these items?

solution


text:
User:Vincent Ramos

 Wiktionary | W:English | W:Español | W:Français | W:日本語 | W:Русский | W:中文 | Meta

Hello,

You may find me editing in the French Wikipedia or send me a message following this link.''

Vincent

title: User:Vincent Ramos


text:
Systematic Phonics/Dividing syllables

Systematic Phonics

If we can divide a word into syllables, it essentially divides it into easy, bite-size chunks that very easy to pronounce. In this way anyone can pronounce even very large and difficult words.

There are a few simple steps to divide a word into syllables.

 * 1) Mark the talking vowels
 * 2) Linkvowels with looping lines un  rneath
 * 3) Mark the consonants
 * 4) Identify consonant patterns
 * 5) Divide word into syllables

Consonant patterns
Take a word and grab any two talking vowels (the two vowels should not have any other talking vowels in-between them). These are the bookends, the beginning and the end of the part of the word that we are going to look at.

There are just five possible combinations of vowels and consonants that can occur:

 * 1) '''VV
 * 2) '''VCV
 * 3) '''VCCV
 * 4) '''VCCCV
 * 5) '''VCCCCV

VV
This vowel pattern always starts with an open syllable. If the vowels make different sounds, split them. If not, keep them together.

VCV
This is the trickiest one of the five, the only one that will trip you up if you are not careful.

First, tentatively divide the syllables between the first vowel and the consonant. Then pronounce the result. If it sounds right, this is the correct division. If it does not sound right, try dividing the syllables between the consonant and the second vowel.

How do you know how to pronounce the syllables ? If the syllable ends with a consonant, it is a short vowel. If it ends in a vowel, it is a long vowel.

Think about it this way: imagine that an ending consonant has hands, and can use them to shut things like a Jack-in-the-box. If the box is shut by that ending consonant, the Jack-in-the-box is stuffed down in the box and real short, just like the vowel will be short. If there is no consonant to shut the box, the Jack-in-the-box springs out and is real long, just like the vowel will be real long.

VCCV
Always break syllables between the two consonants. Almost always, even if the two consonants are the same one repeated, like a double "s". The only exception would be if the two consonants are a single diagraph such as "th" and "sh". With three to five, find the blends, glued sounds, or digraphs, and split. But… if it's a compound, it's the middle point.

title: Systematic Phonics/Dividing syllables


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Systematic Phonics/Blend

Systematic Phonics

Blends or clusters are groups of consonants whose sounds blend together.

They can be composed of two or three consonants and can begin or end a syllable.

Examples include br, cr, dr, fr, gr, pr, tr, bl, cl, fl, gl, pl, sl, sm, sn, sp, st, str, sw, sc, sk, scr, squ, spl, spr, thr, tw, rl, ng, nt, nk, lk, mp, lt, nd, and rt.

title: Systematic Phonics/Blend


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Systematic Phonics/Why use systematic phonics

Systematic phonics is a toolbox designed to enable and empower a person to read. It is useful for children first learning to read, non-native speakers who are learning to read, and even the many native adult English speakers who have not yet learned to read.

With systematic phonics, a reader can break down any word, even the most difficult, into maneagable pieces called syllables. When a person can correctly divide a word, he can then pronounce each part and then the whole word.

Systematic phonics was developed decades ago by language experts as a way to decode the entire English language.

 * From a paper published by the National Institute of Health:  "Findings provided solid support for the conclusion that systematic phonics instruction makes a bigger contribution to children’s growth in reading than alternative programs providing unsystematic or no phonics instruction."

Extensive studies support that the method is effective. However, systematic phonics has not been adopted by most educators, who tend to use "whole language" or "holistic learning" to teach kids to read. Proponents of systematic phonics claim that the failure of many students to read to level can be traced to the use of other, less systematic, teaching methods.

Systematic phonics an be an important part of learning English as a Second Language.


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Graphic Design

Discipline

 * /Graphics/
 * /Type/
 * /Web Design/
 * /Corporate Identity Design/

Theory

 * /Form and Function/
 * /Principles of Design/
 * /Planning/

History

 * /Pioneers of Graphic Design/

Application and Techniques

 * /Project List/
 * /Drawing/
 * /Photography/
 * /Sign Making/
 * /Silkscreening/

Etc

 * /Statistics about graphic designers/
 * /Authors/
 * Example of Immunization Record

title: Graphic Design


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Graphic Design/Project List

A great way to learn to do design is to stretch your graphic design muscles. That is, push up your shirtsleeves and get down to doing some projects. Don't worry if the stuff turns out bad or people hate it, it's all a process of learning.

Business card design
Every professional needs a business card. The US standard is 2" x 3.5" (89 mm x 51 mm). Use a .125" (3.175 mm) margin on all sides.

Using a desktop publishing program, such as Scribus, make a business card for yourself, with typography and graphic elements. Plan layout with an eye for hierarchy.

Symbol design
Using Adobe Illustrator or a similar vector-graphics tool, design a stylized icon or symbol representing an animal, taking care to communicate the socially perceived emotional connotations of this animal. The icon should be scalable to the point that it can be used on office stationary as well as blown up to billboard size. The symbol should employ limited colors so as to be easily and inexpensively printable.

Compact disc design
Find an existing or imagined compact disc recording and design a complete package for it, including all copy appropriate for a disc to be sold in a store (song list, copyright information, etc.) You may use photography that you take yourself or any drawings or other computer art, etc. that you create yourself or commission for the project. Design the inside and outside of the CD case as well as the disc itself, keeping yourself open to the possibilities of non-traditional CD cases (transparent, etc.)

Typeface design
Design a complete alphabet with special characters of your own, original font. You may choose a serif or sans-serif font, or a decorative font. Give samples of bold, extra bold, and italic versions of some letters.

Webpage design
Design, using appropriate tools, an entire webpage devoted to a social or political cause of your choosing. Use colors, images, and a style that conforms to the page's message. Importantly don't forget - that the page you are designing for the Visitors only. So first classify your visitors, and use the color schemes which they impress most. And try to design a user friendly navigation system with a low flashy images.

Toy design
Design a novel toy, optimized for maximum "fun-ness" for an audience of your choosing, and its complete packaging. Include suggestions for a marketing campaign promoting the toy.

Personal projects
Design a project that personally touches you. Whether it be a collage or a poster for something you believe in, it is important to perform your skills for your own use as well as for your clients. Combine tools (Adobe with Macromedia with ink, pencil, highlighters and your trusty scanner). Have fun.

title: Graphic Design/Project List


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Biochemistry/pKa values

Biochemistry

<< Metabolism and energy

It is difficult to discuss the subject of biochemistry without a firm foundation in general chemistry and organic chemistry, but if one doesn't remember the concept of the Acid Dissociation Constant (pKa) from Organic Chemistry, one can read up on the topic below.

Buffers are essential to biochemical reactions, as they provide a (more or less) stable pH value for reactions to take place under constantly changing circumstances. The pH value in living cells tends to fall between 7.2 and 7.4, and this pH level is generally maintained by weak acids. (The pH values in lysosomes and peroxisomes differ from this value, as do the pH measurements of the stomach and other organs found in various types of plants and animals.)

An acid is here defined simply as any molecule that can release a proton (H+) into a solution. Stronger acids are more likely to release a proton, due to their atomic and molecular properties. The tendency of an acid to release a proton is called the dissociation constant (Ka) of that substance, with
 * $${K}_{a} = {[{H}^{+}][{A}^{-}] \over [HA]}$$

for HA <-> H+ + A-.

A larger Ka value means a greater tendency to dissociate a proton, and thus it means the substance is a stronger acid. The pH at which 50% of the protons are dissociated can therefore be calculated as:
 * pKa = -log ( Ka )

This equation is known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

 * $${pH} = {pK}_{a} + \log{[\text{base}] \over [\text{acid}]}$$

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation is derived from the adjacent Ka expression. By taking the logarithm of base ten to both sides, the next part of the equation is obtained. Using the logarithmic property of multiplication, the [H+] breaks from the expression. Since log Ka is equal to -pKa and log [H+] is equal to -pH, they are then substituted. To obtain what is known as the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, -pKa and -pH are subtracted from their respective sides to yield a positive equation.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation interestingly enough predicts the behavior of buffer solutions. A solution of 1 M ethanoic (acetic) acid [HA] and 1 M sodium ethanoate [A-] will have a pH equal to the pKa of ethanoic acid: 4.76.

If we added acid to pure water up to a concentration of 0.1 M, the pH would become 1. If we add the same concentration of acid to the buffer solution, it will react with the ethanoate to form ethanoic acid. The ethanoate concentration would drop to 0.9 M and the ethanoic acid concentration should rise to 1.1 M. The pH becomes 4.67 - very different from the pH=1 without a buffer.

Similarly, adding 0.1 M alkali changes the pH of the buffer to 4.85, instead of pH=13 without buffer. Due to the amphipathic nature of amino acids - which are the monomer building blocks of all proteins, physiological conditions are always considered to be buffered, which plays a major role in the conformations and reactivities of substrates in the cell's liquid interior, its cytosol.

A very small (which would include a large negative value) pKa indicates a very strong acid. A pKa value between 4 and 5 is the most common range for organic acid compounds.

<< Metabolism and energy

title: Biochemistry/pKa values


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User:Xygorn

An engineering student and Simon Fraser University in Canada, Xygorn has a keen interest in computers, and particularly software architecture and programming. He intends to contribute to texts relating to Computers, Biology and Spanish, as time allows.

title: User:Xygorn


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French/Appendices/Web resources

Link collections

 * Wikipedia French language external links - Dozens of valuable links.

Travel in France

 * France travel guide on Wikivoyage

title: French/Appendices/Web resources


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Graphic Design/Drawing

=Drawing= It's a good idea for a student of graphic design to learn how to draw. Sure, you can bypass this and do everything by computer, but drawing by hand trains your mind and your eye to seek out details and improve your grasp of visual forms. It develops different parts of your mind that relate to composition, color, anatomy, depth and mood, and helps you directly perceive things and interpret them.

Much of what we relate to in our lives is linear. For effective visual communication you need to develop a nonlinear, direct connection to the actual tensions, feelings, and dimesions you are interpreting and expressing in your work. Drawing can be an invaluable way to develop a direct connection to the world around you and develop your own outlook.

The ultimate aim of the graphic designer is to understand, use and coordinate the tools of the craft (typeface, art, photography, printing, etc.) and create a message that rises above them. As in music, you do not pay attention to the instruments alone but to the composition as a whole.

Draw some architecture, some life studies, and some abstract compositions. Start with basic media like pencil and charcoal, and then try some things in color. Look at master drawings for ideas and inspiration.

In interpreting three dimensions on a flat surface with a defined page shape, you encounter a number of issues. Evaluate how light falls across an object and how you can make shapes out of shadows. Shading, the gradation of darkness, is one of the most important factors when you draw an object. Shading and defining basic forms can provide a truer understanding of a dimensional object on a flat surface, and can make the difference between a really shoddy piece and a proper drawing. Get beyond outlining in your definition of form.

Appreciate your overall use of the page. Be familiar with positive and negative space (negative space is that space that falls between the objects) and understand they are all part of the overall composition.

To be successful at graphic design you need to develop a taste for solving visual problems and a set of strategies for resolving them.

Examples
{{Center|

Negative Space
With negative space, shape can be implied without drawing the feature itself.

This graphic only draws leaves, but implies a stem through negative space. }}

title: Graphic Design/Drawing


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Graphic Design/Type

=Typography=

Typeforms are an integral part of modern communication. Since the invention of the printing press, people have used printed —and more recently— electronic type to communicate. Could you imagine a newspaper or magazine where all the articles were handwritten and copied? Imagine how difficult it would be to compose an e-mail or use desktop publishing software to create party invitations without the existence of typefaces.

Typefaces are used in print and electronic media not just to communicate a legible message, but as an expressive tool of the author or designer. Each typeface can be used to convey a different style or atmosphere. There are typefaces evocative of Art Deco, The old American West, Weddings and other traditionally formal ceremonies, childhood, The Middle Ages, handwritten text, and an endless variety of other styles.

It is almost imperative as a graphic designer, and absolutely imperative as a typographer, to develop an appreciation and understanding of both modern and historic typography. In everyday life, one should pay attention to the stylistic and practical uses of typefaces in various kinds of media. Note what feelings the designer was hoping to convey, or what style they were attempting to mimic.

Classification
A typeface is a style of lettering, such as Helvetica or Times. A font is the set of a typeface, used to produce the letters. On a computer, it is a file used by the system. People often confuse "font" with "typeface". For example, Helvetica, point 12 is a different font from Helvetica, point 14, even though both are of the same typeface.

A set of similar typefaces is called a "family." Within a family, typefaces are categorized as parent (e.g. Times, Helvetica) or relative (e.g. bold, italic). Typefaces are categorized also according to style (e.g. italic, book), weight (e.g. bold or light), and width (e.g. expanded).

Type is measured in points, from top to bottom of the letters' invisible bounding boxes. Since each letter fills up a percentage of that bounding box, when the size of the box is increased, the letter size increases.

The divisions you may already be familiar with are the serif and sans-serif fonts. Serif fonts, like Times, have the little feet and variable line width characters which make them easy to read. Sans-serif fonts, like Helvetica and Verdana, are drawn with more even-width lines and don't have the little feet, which gives them a clean, modern feel.

Usage in Design
Text can have a number of different purposes in a design. It can be used for pure graphic appeal —or aesthetically— a case in which legibility may be less important than aesthetics. An example of graphical use of text is possibly that of major titles. Text may also, more commonly, be used for communication on a linguistic basis rather than visual, in which case, legibility is always the priority of the designer. A few examples of usage of text for linguistic communication are: the body text of an article or book, the text of a restaurant menu, or in product descriptions in a catalog.

A font may be used either successfully or poorly, depending on its degree of relevance in the project and the skill of the designer. The designer must pay careful attention to letter, word, and line spacing as well as the size of the typeface and its stylistic contribution to the overall aesthetic of the project. He or she must optimize the properties of the text for its purpose in the overall design (aesthetic or communicative) and maintain legibility where it is necessary, and the designer is also expected to add visual variety with formatting and layout, as well as possible font changes where applicable.

Choosing a Font
A designer has to choose a font that is not only appropriate to the mood of the design, but that is appropriate for the text's purpose in the design. For example, there are many kinds of decorative typefaces that one would not want to set an entire article in. This is because a purely decorative typeface tends to be distracting to the content of the message and tire the reader's eyes when used in large portions. Our eyes are most comfortable reading less idiosyncratic typefaces. Decorative typefaces are better suited for display type (greater than 14 points), while simpler type is better used for text (less than 14 points). To maintain readability in large blocks of text —such as in an article— stay consistent, and use only one family.

Readability in Different Media
Standard graphic design wisdom holds that of the categories of serif and sans-serif, serif fonts are easier to read. This is because when reading, the eye quickly scans the tops of the letterforms, and a serif font has more immediately recognizable features thanks to the tiny 'eye-holds' provided by the serifs. There is a notion slowly gaining acceptance, that, for the purposes of purely electronic design, the reverse is sometimes true. Sans-serif fonts are more readable in this case because a screen has a lower resolution than a printed page, so the serifs only serve to smudge the letter forms.

Some typefaces such as Times, originally designed for the London Times newspaper, or Futura, designed as a letterpress (raised plate) type for printing on paper, were intended for the printed page. Others such as Georgia and Verdana were designed for the lower resolution of text on a screen. The shapes of these typefaces are developed to optimize visibility in smaller sizes on a computer monitor. In larger sizes, these differences don't matter as much.

For maximum readability on the page: Serif; On the screen: Sans.

Typeface Sizing
Keep the typeface at a reasonable size for reading. The numbered size of a typeface may reflect the overall height of the lines that stick out of the type, but not the readability size that relates to the inner dimensions of the letters. The type size should be chosen on a visual basis, and not purely on that of font size numbers. Usually, type that is proportioned so that the lower case size is larger in proportion to the overall height of the font, can produce a greater amount of legible words into an equivalent space.

Typeface Spacing
Word spacing should be so that the reader is aware of the beginnings and endings of words with little or no difficulty. Experiment with spacing settings to find the best one. Letter spacing and line spacing may be used to expand on the expressivity of the font. Leave enough space between the lines so that the text is legible. Experimentation is important here, too. The reader's eyes should be pulled to the next word as they read, not to the lines above and below. The letter spacing should be that so the reader can easily differentiate between different characters. Yet again: experiment, experiment, experiment.

 * Kerning
 * Kerning is the horizontal spacing between exactly 2 glyphs. When you are hand kerning text (logotype or headline text usually) try to imagine that the baseline and glyph shapes make a container, and imagine pouring water in. Try to make the negative space between each pair of glyphs hold the same amount of water.

 * Tracking
 * Tracking is the horizontal space added to or subtracted from the space between each and every pair of glyphs in a selection. In other words tracking adds to or subtracts from the kerning of all pairs of glyphs in a selection.

 * Leading
 * Leading is the vertical spacing between separate lines of type. There is a relationship between the length of the line and the amount of leading needed for easy legibility. Longer lines need more leading to prevent the reader's eye from slipping up or down when moving from the end of one line to the beginning of the next. It then logically follows that short lines are preferable if information density is important as in a newspaper.

 * Typographic Color
 * Typographic Color is something of a misnomer in that it is only concerned with one aspect of color: value. The darkness or lightness of a block of text on average is the typographic color of that block of text. Typographic color is strongly influenced by spacing. Consider the difference in the emotions aroused by a dark block of text (long lines with little tracking and leading as seen in many legal agreements) and a light block of text with lots of space.

When to Break Rules
With text used purely for graphical or display purposes, spacing, fonts, or colors that would be considered otherwise unreasonable can be utilized to create a visually appealing effect. The legibility rules that are extremely important in body text aren't as critical to effect the larger typeface size. Make sure that before deciding to use more untraditional methods of formatting text, you consider the desires of your client, and/or the stylistic effect the formatting will have on the overall design. Is it supposed to be a classic, elegant wedding invitation, or is this a layout for a skateboarding magazine article? Consider the circumstances and break or follow the rules of tradition appropriately. Remember that a common amateur mistake is to break too many —or the wrong— formatting rules in rebellion of the idea that aesthetics have constraints. Then, they end up with a horrible mess of a design that looks good under no circumstances. The purpose of a graphic designer is to merge optimal form and function. Remember: anything can be art, but not anything can look good!

Layout
A good layout is one that shows good use of the elements and principles of design. Most importantly, a designer should use the principles of design to draw the reader's eye both to and through the design easily. The elements of design are: color, value, texture, shape, form, space, and line. The principles of design are: contrast, emphasis, balance, unity, pattern, movement, and rhythm. The specifics of both the principles and elements vary from source to source, but the idea remains the same. If you haven't studied the principles and elements of design before, read more in the chapter Principles of Design, or scroll down to view the external links.

=External Links=
 * Books on Typography The Type Directors Club

 * Five Simple Steps to Better Typography -- Mark Boulton

 * Books on Typography -- By Index Book publishing.

 * Typographica. A Journal of Typography.

 * The Principles of Design -- Digital Web Magazine

 * The Elements of Design -- Digital Web Magazine

 * Design examples -- Design Examples Online Magazine

title: Graphic Design/Type


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Graphic Design/Photography

Like drawing, you can skip photography and still be a salary-earning graphic design professional. However, some familiarity with the craft will make you an even better designer.

Kids today have many more options open to them than we did back when I graduated three years ago. That is, you can take digital pictures and save the money and time needed to develop the film.

title: Graphic Design/Photography


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Graphic Design/Form and Function

=Form and function= Just like in architecture, one of the fundamental debates in graphic design is between form and function.

Form is defined as the shape or visual quality of something. It refers to aesthetics, how a piece looks. Much of graphic design centers on how to make a work appealing (or unappealing, or any other quality depending on the project goals).

Function relates to getting the job done. Function is pragmatic and business-oriented. Printing newspaper on glossy magazine paper is too expensive, and printing it on tissue paper would fall apart. An artistic photograph of a mountain may not convey a message appropriate to an Arctic cruise.

title: Graphic Design/Form and Function


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Graphic Design/Statistics about graphic designers

=Statistics= Looking at designers as a whole, only about 60 percent of entering designers stay in the field after two years. By five years, about 30 percent are left. Princeton Review


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Graphic Design/Authors

This book was started by Karl Wick, a graduate of the acclaimed University of Cincinnati College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning (DAAP).

Note from the author
There are not many textbooks published on the discipline of graphic design. Perhaps this is due in part to the abstract, subjective nature of many of its aspects, and the fact that there are few universally-agreed-upon rules like there are for mathematics or the hard sciences.

This book is an attempt to formalize some of the concepts that were taught to me while in design school. The material was difficult and sometimes even overwhelming for me at the time. I did not graduate at the top of my class. However DAAP is a widely respected school and I did receive the vigorous training that characterizes its graphic design department. In this book I will try to break down in a simple and understandable way the basics of what I learned.

title: Graphic Design/Authors


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Geometry/Congruency and Similarity

Congruency
Congruent shapes are the same size with corresponding lengths and angles equal. In other words, they are exactly the same size and shape. They will fit on top of each other perfectly. Therefore if you know the size and shape of one you know the size and shape of the others. For example:

Each of the above shapes is congruent to each other. The only difference is in their orientation, or the way they are rotated. If you traced them onto paper and cut them out, you could see that they fit over each other exactly.

Having done this, right away we can see that, though the angles correspond in size and position, the sides do not. Therefore it is proved the triangles are not congruent.

Similarity
Similar shapes are like congruent shapes in that they must be the same shape, but they don't have to be the same size. Their corresponding angles are congruent and their corresponding sides are in proportion.

title: Geometry/Congruency and Similarity


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GCSE Science/Generating electricity

GCSE Science/Electricity

On the last page we looked at induction. That is how the motor effect acting on electrons in wires causes them to move and create a current. On this page we will look at some practical uses of induction and how electricity is made in power stations.

Look at the diagram of an electric motor. As the coil rotates it cuts the field lines in a downwards direction then an upwards direction. This means that the electricity produced alternates. The current flows one way then the other. The frequency depends on the speed of rotation.

Q1) A motor is rotated manually to produce a current. An oscilloscope is used to investigate this current and produces a trace like the one shown. The time is on the x axis and voltage is on the y axis.

The motor is speeded up. Which one of the following shows the new trace?

Alternating Current
In the section above you learned that a dynamo produces a.c. If you've ever looked closely at a school power pack you will probably have noticed that it has a.c. and d.c. outputs. D.c. stands for direct current. The current flows in one direction only and (apart from when it is switched on or off) doesn't change in value. A.c. constantly changes. An a.c. curve is typically that of a sine wave. The current switches back and forth and the value of the current is constantly changing.(This fact is important when we come to study transformers.)

Some devices work equally well with either a.c. or d.c. Others must have the correct type or they won't work. For example think about a child's train on a track.

If a.c. electricity is used the train will not go anywhere! This is because the current is 'telling' the motor to go forwards, go backwards, no, go forwards and so on. Anything with a small electric motor in it has to use d.c. (Special electric motors which use a.c. do exist. However, the ones you'll come across in school or in any toy application will almost certainly be d.c. motors.)

On the other hand a bulb has no problem working on a.c. This is because a bulb converts the energy of the electric current to heat and light. It makes no difference which way the current flows, the energy is still there. So bulbs, electric fires, cookers and so on do not care if they use a.c. or d.c.

Transformers (which we will study in the next section) will only work with a.c. This is because a transformer needs to have a constantly varying current, and d.c. only varies when it is switched on or off.

 * Q2) Name a source of a.c. Name a source of d.c.
 * Q3) Name a device that only works with d.c. Name a device which will work with a.c. or d.c.
 * Q4) A hair dryer contains a heating element and a fan. Will it work best with a.c. or d.c.? Explain your answer.
 * Q5) An engineer has an idea about the toy train. He thinks, "If I pass the a.c. through a certain useful electric component, I can get rid of the backward direction current and keep the forward direction current. Like this:

What useful electrical component was the engineer thinking of? Answers | Transformers>>

title: GCSE Science/Generating electricity


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User:Thbz

See http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Thbz

title: User:Thbz


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English in Use/Verbs

Verbs are often called action words that show what the subject (a noun or pronoun) is doing. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted on: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled, I love, you love, he loves. Verbs are so called, from the Latin verbum, a word; because the verb is that word which most essentially contains what is said in any clause or sentence. Although described as "action words", they can describe abstract concepts. They are a requirement of any sentence. Verbs have modifications of four kinds: moods, tenses, persons and numbers.

Morphological forms
An English verb has four morphological forms (forms of word formation) ever needful to be ascertained in the first place: the present, the past, the present participle, and the past participle. The third person singular is the fifth morphological form.

The present is that form of the verb, which is the root of all the rest; the verb itself; or that simple term which we should look for in a dictionary: as, be, act, rule, love, defend, terminate.

The past is that simple form of the verb, which denotes time past; and which is always connected with some noun or pronoun, denoting the subject of the assertion: as, I was, I acted, I ruled, I loved, I defended.

The present participle is that form of the verb, which ends commonly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, action, or passion: as, being, acting, ruling, loving, defending, terminating.

The past participle is that form of the verb, which ends commonly in d or ed, and implies what has taken place: as, been, acted, ruled, loved.

Regularity
English, like many Germanic languages, contains both strong (or irregular, which is not quite the same as strong) and weak (regular) verbs. Irregular verbs are one of the most difficult aspects of learning English. Each irregular verb must be memorized, because they are not often easy to identify otherwise.

Verbs are divided, with respect to their regularity, into four classes: regular and irregular, redundant and defective.

A regular verb is a verb that forms the past and the past participle by assuming d or ed: as, love, loved, loving, loved.

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the past and the past participle by assuming d or ed: as, see, saw, seeing, seen.

A redundant verb is a verb that forms the past or the past participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular: as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven.

A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses: as, beware, ought, quoth.

Persons and numbers
The person and number of a verb are those modifications in which it agrees with its subject. There are three persons and two numbers: thus,

 * 1) Singular first person. I love.
 * 2) Singular third person. He loves.
 * 3) Plural first person. We love.
 * 4) Plural second person. You love.
 * 5) Plural third person. They love.

Where the verb is varied, the third person singular in the present tense, is regularly formed by adding s or es: as, I see, he sees; I give, he gives; I go, he goes; I fly, he flies; I vex, he vexes; I lose, he loses.

Where the verb is not varied to denote its person and number, these properties are inferred from its subject: as, if I love, if he love; if we love, if you love, if they love.

Tenses
Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which distinguish time. There are three tenses - Each of the above category lists subcategories. One could even say there are twelve tenses because each of those comes in simple and in progressive forms, which have different meaning.
 * The Present,
 * The Past, and
 * The Future.

The past tense is sometimes called imperfect, but the names perfect and imperfect do not fit their meaning. These names were derived from Latin where they were correct.

The Present

Simple Present Tense is that which expresses what now exists, is normal or correlated to senses. It is used with adverbs like always, generally.

 * "There is a house in New Orleans."
 * "I read a book every week."
 * "I hear a noise."

Present Continuous Tense is that which expresses what is temporary:

 * "I am reading a letter."
 * "The car is running at high speed."
 * "Someone is always working."

Present perfect tense is that which expresses what has taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past, or is still valid. It is used with adverbs like ever, never, today, this week.

 * "I have read several of Shaw's novels."
 * "I have seen him today; something must have detained him."
 * "Have you ever tried fugu fish?"

Present perfect continuous tense is that which which started in the past and has not yet finished.

 * "Since I have been standing here, five planes took off."

The Past

Simple Past tense is that which expresses what took place in time fully past. It is used with adverbs like yesterday,  last week.

 * "Last week, I read several of Shaw's novels."

Past continuous tense is that which expresses what was taking place when (suddenly) something else occurred.

 * "I saw him yesterday, and hailed him as he was passing."
 * "I was giving a presentation when the microphone broke."

Past perfect tense is that which expresses what had taken place, at some past time mentioned, before something other happened.

 * "I had seen him, when I met you."
 * "As soon as my car had been repaired, I could continue my trip."

Past perfect continuous tense is that which expresses what had started before and was still going on, when something else occurred.

 * "I had been listening to the radio when she dropped in."

The Future

Simple Future Tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter.

 * "I shall see him again, and I will inform him."

Future continuous tense is that which expresses what will be currently taking place at a certain time in future.

 * "I will be swimming in the sea by the time you'll awake."

Future Perfect Tense is that which expresses what will have taken place at some future time mentioned.

 * "I shall have seen him by tomorrow noon."

Future Perfect continuous Tense is that which expresses what will have started at some time and will still be ongoing, at some future time mentioned.

 * "I will have been swimming in the sea for four hours by the time you'll awake tomorrow."

Signification
An active verb is a verb in an active sentence, in which the subject performs the verb: as,

 * "I hit the dog."

An active verb can be transitive or intransitive, but not passive or neuter.

Verbs are divided again, with respect to their signification, into four classes: transitive, intransitive, passive, and neuter.

A transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object: as,

 * "Cain slew Abel."
 * "Cassius loved Brutus."

An intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object: as,

 * "John walks."
 * "Jesus wept."

A passive verb is a verb in a passive sentence (passive voice) that represents its subject, or what the nominative expresses, as being acted on: as,

 * "I am compelled."
 * "Caesar was slain."

In a passive sentence, the action is performed on the subject.

 * "I hit the dog,"
 * "The dog was hit by me."

These sentences have the same denotative meaning, but their connotative meaning is quite different; active verbs are much more powerful and personal.

A neuter verb or impersonal passive verb is a verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being: as,

 * "There was light."
 * "The babe sleeps."

Voice
Voice of speech can be active or passive. Principally in passive voice the same tenses can be used as in active voice. There are two forms of passive voice (the second form is preferred):

 * "He gave me the book." =>
 * "The book was given to me,"
 * "I was given the book."

There are however some things to note.

 * "They build a house."
 * "The house is built."

Here active and passive do not really have the same meaning. If for example you describe a picture where people build a house, the first sentence is perfectly correct. The second sentence however will be interpreted as the static perfect of the sentence

 * "The house has been built—it is built now."

This is, the house is now ready and not under construction. So the correct passive form is

 * "The house is being built."

Passive voice can be built quite formally by adhering to some rules. You will however not find normally all tenses as in active voice. Formal rules will lead you to monstrosities like the following, you will certainly never hear (already the active sentence is quite monstrous):

 * "The speech will have been being held for four hours when finally you'll arrive."
 * "The president will have been holding a speech for four hours when finally you'll arrive."

Moods
Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular manner.

There are five moods; the infinitive, the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative.

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number: as,

 * "To die,—to sleep;—to sleep!—perchance, to dream!"—from Hamlet by William Shakespeare.

The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing: as,

 * "I write,"
 * "You know."

or asks a question: as,

 * "Do you know?"
 * "Know you not?"

The potential mood is that form of the verb which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion: as,

 * "I can walk."
 * "He may ride."
 * "We must go."

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, and contingent: as,

 * "If you go, see that you offend not."
 * "See you do it not."—Rev., xix, 10.
 * "God save the queen."
 * "It is a requirement that ... be done."
 * "It's high time you were in bed."
 * "If I were you,..."

The imperative mood is that form of the verb which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting: as,

 * "Depart you."
 * "Be comforted."
 * "Forgive me."
 * "Go in peace."

Conjugation
The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles.

An auxiliary, or a sign of a verb, is a short verb prefixed to one of the morphological forms of another verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, with their variations. Do, be, and have express the indicative mood.

Most often, the auxiliaries are used in the following way:

 * When talking about actions that take place in the future, add the word will before the verb.
 * To describe an action that is temporary, add the appropriate form of the verb be before the verb and add ing to the end of the verb root.
 * To describe an action that has taken place, put the verb in the past tense and add the appropriate form of the verb have before the verb.
 * You can combine the previous two auxiliaries by putting the appropriate form of have before been, and putting both of them before the verb.

Do

 * Present tense, sign of the present. I do, he does, we do, you do, they do.
 * Past tense, sign of the past. I did, he did, we did, you did, they did.

Be

 * Present tense, sign of the present. I am, he is, we are, you are, they are.
 * Past tense, sign of the past. I was, he was, we were, you were, they were.

Have

 * Present tense, sign of the perfect. I have, he has, we have, you have, they have.
 * Past tense, sign of the past perfect. I had, he had, we had, you had, they had.

Shall and will
Often confused with each other in modern English. These auxiliaries have distinct meanings, and, as signs of the future, they are interchanged thus:

Present tense, sign of the indicative first-future.

 * Simply to express a future action or event: I shall, he will, we shall, you will, they will.
 * To express a promise, command, or threat: I will, he will, we will, you will, they will.

Past tense, sign of aorist, or indefinite.

 * Used with reference to duty or expediency: I should, he should, we should, you should, they should.
 * Used with reference to volition or desire: I would, he would, we would, you would, they would.

See also: Shall and will by Wikipedia

May

 * Present tense, sign of the potential present. I may, he may, we may, you may, they may.
 * Past tense, sign of the potential past. I might, he might, we might, you might, they might.

Can

 * Present tense, sign of the potential present. I can, he can, we can, you can, they can.
 * Past tense, sign of the potential past. I could, he could, we could, you could, they could.

Must

 * Present tense, sign of the potential present. I must, he must, we must, you must, they must.

If must is ever used in the sense of the past tense, the form is the same as that of the present: this word is entirely invariable.

Is being
English grammar has changed,

 * "The house is being built."

no longer means the same as

 * "The house is built."

The first sentence refers to an ongoing action, the second to a completed one.

 * "If the expression, 'Is being built,' be a correct form of the present indicative passive, then it must be equally correct to say in the perfect, 'Has been being built;' in the past perfect, 'Had been being built;' in the present infinitive, 'To be being built;' in the perfect infinitive, 'To have been being built;' and in the present participle, 'Being being built;' which all will admit to be expressions as incorrect as they are inelegant, but precisely analogous to that which now begins to prevail."—Bullions's Principles of English Gram., p. 58.

Forms of conjugation
Verb may be conjugated in four ways:

 * Affirmatively: as, I write, I do write, or, I am writing; and so on.
 * Negatively: as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing.
 * Interrogatively: as, write I? do I write? or, am I writing?
 * Interrogatively and negatively: as, write I not? do I not write? or, am I not writing?

The verbs would be conjugated affirmatively, unless said otherwise.

Love, conjugated in simple form
The verb love is a regular active verb.

Simple form, active or neuter
The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that which makes the present and past tenses without auxiliaries; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the indicative.

Infinite mood
The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or number. It is used only in the present and perfect tenses.

Present tense
This tense is the root, or radical verb; and is usually preceded by the preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word: thus,

 * To love.

Perfect tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the past participle; and, like the infinitive present, is usually preceded by the preposition to: thus,

 * To have loved.

Indicative mood
The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses.

Present tense
The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as the present infinitive, or radical verb; except that the verb be has am in the indicative.

The simple form of the present tense is varied thus:

 * I love, he loves, we love, you love, they love.

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary do to the verb: thus,

 * I do love, he does love, we do love, you do love, they do love.

Past tense
This tense, in its simple form is the past; which, in all regular verbs, adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously.

The simple form of the past tense is varied thus:

 * I loved, he loved, we loved, you loved, they loved,

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary did to the present: thus,

 * I did love, he did love, we did love, you did love, they did love.

Perfect tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the past participle: thus,

 * I have loved, he has loved, we have loved, you have loved, they have loved.

Past perfect tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the past participle: thus,

 * I had loved, he had loved, we had loved, you had loved, they had loved.

First-future tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present: thus,

 * Simply to express a future action or event: I shall love, he will love, we shall love, you will love, they will love.
 * To express a promise, volition, command, or threat: I will love, he shall love, we will love, you shall love, they shall love.

Second-future tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the past participle: thus,

 * I shall have loved, he will have loved, we shall have loved, you will have loved, they will have loved.

Potential mood
The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the being, action, or passion. It is used in the first four tenses; but the potential past is properly an aorist: its time is very indeterminate: as,

 * "He would be devoid of sensibility were he not greatly satisfied."—Lord Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. i, p. 11.

Present tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb: thus,

 * I may love, he may love, we may love, you may love, they may love.

Past tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the radical verb: thus,

 * I might love, he might love, we might love, you might love, they might love.

Perfect tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the past participle: thus,

 * I may have loved, he may have loved, we may have loved, you may have loved, they may have loved.

Past perfect tense
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or should have, to the past participle: thus,

 * I might have loved, he might have loved, we might have loved, you might have loved, they might have loved.

Subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is generally preceded by a conjunction: as, if, that, though, lest, unless, except. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is formed by a mere placing of the verb before the nominative: as,

 * "Were I," for, "If I were;"
 * "Had he," for, "If he had;"
 * "Fall we" for, "If we fall;"
 * "Knew they," for, "If they knew."

It does not vary its termination at all, in the different persons. It is used in the present, and sometimes in the past tense; rarely, and perhaps never properly, in any other. As this mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tenses is always relative, and generally indefinite: as,

 * "It shall be in eternal restless change, self-fed, and self-consumed: if this fail, the pillared firmament is rottenness."—Milton, Comus, l. 596.

Present tense
This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future action or event is affirmed. It is therefore erroneously considered by some grammarians, as an elliptical form of the future.

 * If I love, if he love, if we love, if you love, if they love.

In this tense, the auxiliary do is sometimes employed: as,

 * "If you do prosper my way."—Genesis, xxiv, 42.
 * "If he do not utter it."—Leviticus, v, 1.
 * "If he do but intimate his desire."—Murray's Key, p. 207.
 * "If he do promise, he will certainly perform."—Ib., p. 208.
 * "An event which, if it ever do occur, must occur in some future period."—Hiley's Gram., 3d Ed., Lond., p. 89.
 * "If he do but promise, you are safe."—Ib., 89.
 * "Until old experience do attain to something like prophetic strain."—Milton: Il Penseroso.

Past tense

 * If I loved, if he loved, if we loved, if you loved, if they loved.

This tense, like the past of the potential mood, with which it is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense; for it may refer to time past, present, or future: as,

 * "If therefore perfection were by the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there that an other priest should rise?"—Heb., vii, 11.
 * "They must be viewed exactly in the same light, as if the intention to purchase now existed."—Murray's Parsing Exercises, p. 24.
 * "If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect."—Matt., xxiv, 24.
 * "If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing?"—1 Corinthians, xii, 17.
 * "If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and grief to them."—Atterbury.

Imperative mood
The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the second person of the present tense.

 * Love [you,] or do you love.

See, conjugated in simple form
The verb see is an irregular active verb.

Participles
Present Past   Past Perfect Seeing. Seen. Having seen.

Infinitive mood

 * Present tense. To see.
 * Perfect tense. To have seen.

Indicative mood

 * Present tense. I see, he sees, we see, you see, they see.
 * Past tense. I saw, he saw, we saw, you saw, they saw.
 * Perfect tense. I have seen, he has seen, we have seen, you have seen, they have seen.
 * Past perfect tense. I had seen, he had seen, we had seen, you had seen, they had seen.
 * First-future tense. I shall see, he will see, we shall see, you will see, they will see.
 * Second-future tense. I shall have seen, he will have seen, we shall have seen, you will have seen, they will have seen.

Potential mood

 * Present tense. I may see, he may see, we may see, you may see, they may see.
 * Past tense. I might see, he might see, we might see, you might see, they might see.
 * Perfect tense. I may have seen, he may have seen, we may have seen, you may have seen, they may have seen.
 * Past perfect tense. I might have seen, he might have seen, we might have seen, you might have seen, they might have seen.

Subjunctive mood

 * Present tense. If I see, if he see, if we see, if you see, if they see.
 * Past tense. If I saw, if he saw, if we saw, if you saw, if they saw.

Imperative mood

 * Present tense. See [you,] or do you see.

Be, conjugated in simple form
The verb be is an irregular neuter verb.

Morphological forms
Present Past  Present Participle  Past Participle. Be. Was. Being. Been.

Participles
Present Past   Past Perfect Being. Been. Having been.

Infinitive mood

 * Present tense. To be.
 * Perfect tense. To have been.

Indicative mood

 * Present tense. I am, he is, we are, you are, they are.
 * Past tense. I was, he was, we were, you were, they were.
 * Perfect tense. I have been, he has been, we have been, you have been, they have been.
 * Past perfect tense. I had been, he had been, we had been, you had been, they had been.
 * First-future tense. I shall be, he will be, we shall be, you will be, they will be.
 * Second-future tense. We shall have been, he will have been, we shall have been, you will have been, they will have been.

Potential mood

 * Present tense. I may be, he may be, we may be, you may be, they may be.
 * Past tense. I might be, he might be, we might be, you might be, they might be.
 * Perfect tense. I may have been, he may have been, we may have been, you may have been, they may have been.
 * Past perfect tense. I might have been, he might have been, we might have been, you might have been, they might have been.

Subjunctive mood

 * Present tense. If I be, if he be, if we be, if you be, if they be.
 * Past tense. If I were, if he were, if we were, if you were, if they were.

Imperative mood

 * Present tense. Be [you,] or do you be.

Read, conjugated in progressive form
The verb read is an irregular active verb.

Compound or progressive form
Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding the present participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its changes: as,

 * "I am writing a letter."
 * "He is sitting idle."
 * "They are going."

This form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the simple form of the verb.

Morphological forms of the simple verb
Present Past   Present Participle  Past Participle Read. Read. Reading. Read.

Participles
Present        Past      Past Perfect Being reading. ———————— Having been reading.

Infinitive mood

 * Present tense. To be reading.
 * Perfect tense. To have been reading.

Indicative mood

 * Present tense. I am reading, he is reading, we are reading, you are reading, they are reading.
 * Past tense. I was reading, he was reading, we were reading, you were reading, they were reading.
 * Perfect tense. I have been reading, he has been reading, we have been reading, you have been reading, they have been reading.
 * Past perfect tense. I had been reading, he had been reading, we had been reading, you had been reading, they had been reading.
 * First-future tense. I shall be reading, he will be reading, we shall be reading, you will be reading, they will be reading.
 * Second-future tense. I shall have been reading, he will have been reading, we shall have been reading, you will have been reading, they will have been reading.

Potential mood

 * Present tense. I may be reading, he may be reading, we may be reading, you may be reading, they may be reading.
 * Past tense. I might be reading, he might be reading, we might be reading, you might be reading, they might be reading.
 * Perfect tense. I may have been reading, he may have been reading, we may have been reading, you may have been reading, they may have been reading.
 * Past perfect tense. I might have been reading, he might have been reading, we might have been reading, you might have been reading, they might have been reading.

Subjunctive mood

 * Present tense. If I be reading, if she be reading, if we be reading, if you be reading, if they be reading.
 * Past tense. If I were reading, if he were reading, if we were reading, if you were reading, if they were reading.

Imperative mood

 * Be you reading, or do you be reading.

Be loved, conjugated in simple form
The verb be loved is a regular passive verb.

Form of passive verbs
Passive verbs, in English, are always of a progressive form; being made from transitive verbs, by adding the past participle to the auxiliary verb be, through all its changes: thus from the active transitive verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved.

Infinitive mood

 * Present tense. To be loved.
 * Perfect tense. To have been loved.

Indicative mood

 * Present tense. I am loved, he is loved, we are loved, you are loved, they are loved.
 * Past tense. I was loved, he was loved, we were loved, you were loved, they were loved.
 * Perfect tense. I have been loved, he has been loved, we have been loved, you have been loved, they have been loved.
 * Past perfect tense. I had been loved, he had been loved, we had been loved, you had been loved, they had been loved.
 * First-future tense. I shall be loved, he will be loved, we shall be loved, you will be loved, they will be loved.
 * Second-future tense. I shall have been loved, he will have been loved, we shall have been loved, you will have been loved, they will have been loved.

Potential mood

 * Present tense. I may be loved, he may be loved, we may be loved, you may be loved, they may be loved.
 * Past tense. I might be loved, he might be loved, we might be loved, you might be loved, they might be loved.
 * Perfect tense. I may have been loved, he may have been loved, we may have been loved, you may have been loved, they may have been loved.
 * Past perfect tense. I might have been loved, he might have been loved, we might have been loved, you might have been loved, they might have been loved.

Subjunctive mood

 * Present tense. If I be loved, if he be loved, if we be loved, if you be loved, if they be loved.
 * Past tense. If I were loved, if he were loved, if we were loved, if you  were loved, if they were loved.

Imperative mood

 * Present tense. Be you loved, or do you be loved.

Form of negation
A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb not and participles take the negative first: as, not to love, not to have loved; not loving, not loved, not having loved.

First person singular

 * Indicative. I love not, or I don't love; I loved not, or I didn't love; I haven't loved; I hadn't loved; I shalln't, or won't, love; I shalln't, or won't, have loved.
 * Potential. I may, can, or mustn't love; I might, could, would, or shouldn't love; I may, can, or mustn't have loved; I might, could, would, or shouldn't have loved,
 * Subjunctive. If I love not, if I loved not, if they loved.

Third person singular

 * Indicative. He loves not, or he doesn't love; he loved not, or he didn't love; he hasn't loved; he hadn't loved; he shalln't, or won't, love; he shalln't, or won't, have loved.
 * Potential. He may, can, or mustn't love; he might, could, would, or shouldn't love; he may, can, or mustn't have loved; he might, could, would, or shouldn't have loved.
 * Subjunctive. If he love not, if he loved not.

Form of question
A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary: as,

First person singular

 * Indicative. Love I? or do I love? loved I? or did I love? have I loved? had I loved? shall I love? shall I have loved?
 * Potential. May, can, or must I love? might, could, would, or should I love? may, can, or must I have loved? might, could, would, or should I have loved?

Third person singular

 * Indicative. Loves he? or does he love? loved he? or did he love? has he loved? had he loved? shall or will he love? will he have loved?
 * Potential. May, can, or must he love? might, could, would, or should he love? may, can, or must he have loved? might, could, would, or should he have loved?

Form of question with negation
A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the indicative and potential moods, by placing the nominative and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: as,

First person plural

 * Indicative. Love we not? or do we not love? loved we not? or did we not love? have we not loved? had we not loved? shall we not love? shall we not have loved?
 * Potential. May, can, or must we not love? might, could, would, or should we not love? may, can, or must we not have loved? might, could, would, or should we not have loved?

Third person plural

 * Indicative. Are they not loved? were they not loved? have they not been loved? had they not been loved? shall or will they not be loved? will they not have been loved?
 * Potential. May, can, or must they not be loved? might, could, would, or should they not be loved? may, can, or must they not have been loved? might, could, would, or should they not have been loved?

Irregular verbs
An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the past and the past participle by assuming d or ed: as, see, saw, seeing, seen. Of this class of verbs there are about one hundred and ten, beside their several derivatives and compounds.

Methods of learning irregular verbs:

 * To remember verbs:

 * 1) Learn them by heart.
 * 2) Write a reference lists of verbs.
 * 3) Say the verbs aloud (not silently).
 * 4) Set yourself targets, e.g. learn one verb a day.
 * 5) Learn these verbs in groups.
 * 6) Test yourself.

 * To learn how to use them:

 * 1) Write your own example sentences.
 * 2) Collect some examples of use for each verb, e.g. from books, magazines or newspapers.
 * 3) Use an English grammar.

List of the top irregular verbs:

 * English irregular verbs

Redundant verbs
A redundant verb is a verb that forms the past or the past participle in two or more ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular: as, thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of verbs, there are about ninety-five, beside sundry derivatives and compounds.

List of the redundant verbs:

Defective verbs
A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, and is used in but few of the moods and tenses: as, beware, ought, quoth.

List of the defective verbs:

A short syntax
The finite verb must agree with its subject, as "The birds fly", except the following cases: the conjunction and, as "Rhetoric and logic are allied," one person or thing, as "Flesh and blood has not revealed it," empathy, as "Consanguinity, and not affinity, is the ground," each, every, or no, as "No one is the same," and the conjunction or, as "Fear or jealousy affects him."

title: English in Use/Verbs


text:
Puzzles/Easy Sequence 7/Solution

< Number sequences

They are the sum of two numbers before (also known as the Fibonacci-sequence):

2 3 5 8 13 21  34 55 89

That is, 2 + 3 = 5, 3 + 5 = 8, 5 + 8 = 13 and so on...

title: Puzzles/Easy Sequence 7/Solution


text:
Puzzles/Easy Sequence 9/Solution

These numbers are sorted by reverse alphabet:

two, three, six, seven, one, nine, four, five, eight

2 3 6 7 1 9 4 5 8

title: Puzzles/Easy Sequence 9/Solution


text:
User:Insolentsia

I am interested in filling in the gaps in the Physics and Mathematics wikibooks. I will likely start out by elaborating on the existing Electricity and Magentism content, my current area of speciality.

I am currently an undergraduate majoring in physics, philosophy, and bioengineering at UCSD. Although I am a second year, I am taking upper division and graduate courses in physics, and I have taught (informally) and tutored lower division courses in physics. Meanwhile, I've written sections of a physics study guide in modern vernacular. It is called The Slacker's Guide to Physics. (Google it.)

I look forward to adding to wikibooks in my remaining spare time... You can contact me via AIM via insolentsia.

title: User:Insolentsia


text:
Physics with Calculus

This textbook is designed for use with first- and second-year college level physics for engineers and scientists. While the content is not mathematically complicated or very advanced, the students are expected to be familiar with differential calculus and some integral calculus.

Unlike the Modern Physics textbook, this textbook will stay with the traditional order in presentation of topics in mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and geometric optics. These consist the first two semesters and perhaps first few weeks of the third semester. The topics in modern physics, which can be covered during the third semester in the remaining time, can be presented or read in any order.

In keeping with maintaining the orthodox order, we will also maintain the traditional chapter-section organization. A few suggested break points between semesters are shown below as well. These break points are marked by a horizontal line between chapters.

(Note to editors: For the purpose of hierarchical organization, at least until the organization of the book is settled down, it should be: "Physics with Calculus/General Topic/Specific Topic", where "General Topic" is any of the following: Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Waves, Electromagnetism, Optics, Modern. No additional "general topic" should be necessary. "Specific Topic" is what it sounds like it is. It can be as specific as necessary, such as "Conservation of Angular Momentum in Spin-Orbit Coupling", or as general as necessary, such as "Newton's Laws". More specific information, such as ordering of chapters will be kept in this module only. This should minimize the need to rename books each time one section moves from one chapter to another, without the unclear "Part I" or "Unit I".)

Introductions

 * Introduction to Textbook
 * Introduction to Physics (general)
 * Introduction for Engineers
 * Introduction for Chemists
 * Introduction for Geologists
 * Introduction for Biologists
 * Introduction for Mathematicians

Measurement

 * 1) The SI Unit System
 * 2) Scalar and Vector Quantities
 * 3) Significant Figures

Kinematics

 * 1) Motion in One Dimension
 * 2) Motion in Two Dimensions
 * 3) Projectile Motion
 * 4) Relative Motion
 * 5) Velocity and Acceleration

Newton's Laws

 * 1) Newton's First Law
 * 2) Newton's Second Law
 * 3) Newton's Third Law
 * 4) Center of Mass
 * 5) Linear Motion and Statics

Energy

 * 1) Work and Energy
 * 2) Energy and Conservation of Energy

Gravity

 * 1) Newton's Law of Gravitation and Weight
 * 2) Gravitational Potential Energy

Other Topics

 * 1) Momentum and Conservation of Momentum
 * 2) Rotational Motion
 * 3) Linear-Rotational Analogs
 * 4) Fluid Mechanics
 * 5) Harmonic Motion, Waves, and Sounds

Thermodynamics

 * 1) Pressure and Temperature
 * 2) The Ideal Gas
 * 3) Intensive and Extensive Properties
 * 4) Entropy

Electromagnetism

 * 1) Electric Charge and Coulomb's Law
 * 2) Electric Fields
 * 3) Continuous Charge Distributions
 * 4) Gauss' Law
 * 5) Voltage
 * 6) Field Energy
 * 7) Capacitance, Inductance, LRC Circuits
 * 8) Current and Circuits
 * 9) Resistance
 * 10) Magnetic fields
 * 11) Ampere's Law
 * 12) Electromagnetic Induction
 * 13) AC Circuits
 * 14) Maxwell's Equations
 * 15) Electromagnetic Waves

Optics

 * 1) Light
 * 2) Geometric Optics
 * 3) Wave Properties of Light

Modern Physics

 * 1) Relativity
 * 2) Special Relativity
 * 3) Quantum Mechanics
 * 4) Atoms
 * 5) The Bohr Model
 * 6) The Schroedinger Equation

Indices and appendices

 * Glossary
 * Appendix 1: Derivatives
 * Appendix 2: Examples of Derivatives

title: Physics with Calculus


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User talk:66.27.77.86

You probably need to log in if you want the user name "Insolentsia". Thanks Dysprosia 07:02, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.27.77.86