text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/GNU C Compiler Architecture

An Overview of GCC Architecture. Compilation of an expression.
This section is based on a Red Hat magazine article.

The GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) comprises a number of compilers for different programming languages. The main GCC executable gcc processes source files written in C, C++, Objective-C, Objective-C++, Java, Fortran, or Ada and produces an assembly file for each source file. It is a driver program that invokes the appropriate compilation programs depending on the language of the source file. For a C source file they are the preprocessor and compiler cc1, the assembler as, and the linker collect2. The first and the third programs come with a GCC distribution; the assembler is a part of the GNU binutils package. This book describes the internals of the preprocessor and compiler cc1.

Each compiler includes three components: a front end, a middle end, and a back end. GCC compiles one file at a time. A source file goes through all three components one after another. Its representation is modified when it goes from a component to the next. Figure 1 illustrates the components and the source file representations associated with each of them. The abstract syntax tree (AST), register transfer language (RTL), and object are the main representations.

Main Representations
The purpose of the front end is to read the source file, parse it, and convert it into the standard abstract syntax tree (AST) representation. The AST is a dual-type representation: it is a tree where a node can have children and a list of statements where nodes are chained one after another. There is one front end for each programming language.

The AST is then used to generate a register-transfer language (RTL) tree. RTL is a hardware-based representation that corresponds to an abstract target architecture with an infinite number of registers. An RTL optimization pass optimizes the tree in the RTL form. Finally, a GCC back end generates the assembly code for the target architecture using the RTL representation. Examples of back ends are the x86 back end and the MIPS back end.

In the next sections we describe the internals of the C front end and the x86 back end. The compiler starts with its initialization and command line options processing. After that the C front end preprocesses the source file, parses it and performs a number of optimizations. The back end then generates the assembly code for the target platform and saves it to a file.

Auxiliary Data Structures
GCC has a number of additional data structures that facilitate code development, for example vector and heap.

The macros defined in vec.h implement a set of templated vector types and associated interfaces. These templates are implemented with macros, as we're not in C++ land. The interface functions are typesafe and use static inline functions, sometimes backed by out-of-line generic functions. The vectors are designed to interoperate with the GTY machinery.

Because of the different behavior of structure objects, scalar objects and of pointers, there are three flavors, one for each of these variants. Both the pointer and structure object variants pass pointers to objects around -- in the former case the pointers are stored into the vector and in the latter case the pointers are dereferenced and the objects copied into the vector. The scalar object variant is suitable for int-like objects, and the vector elements are returned by value.

There are both 'index' and 'iterate' accessors. The iterator returns a boolean iteration condition and updates the iteration variable passed by reference. Because the iterator will be inlined, the address-of can be optimized away.

The vectors are implemented using the trailing array idiom, thus they are not resizeable without changing the address of the vector object itself. This means you cannot have variables or fields of vector type -- always use a pointer to a vector. The one exception is the final field of a structure, which could be a vector type. You will have to use the embedded_size & embedded_init calls to create such objects, and they will probably not be resizeable (so don't use the 'safe' allocation variants). The trailing array idiom is used (rather than a pointer to an array of data), because, if we allow NULL to also represent an empty vector, empty vectors occupy minimal space in the structure containing them.

Each operation that increases the number of active elements is available in 'quick' and 'safe' variants. The former presumes that there is sufficient allocated space for the operation to succeed (it dies if there is not). The latter will reallocate the vector, if needed. Reallocation causes an exponential increase in vector size. If you know you will be adding N elements, it would be more efficient to use the reserve operation before adding the elements with the 'quick' operation. This will ensure there are at least as many elements as you ask for, it will exponentially increase if there are too few spare slots. If you want to reserve a specific number of slots, but do not want the exponential increase (for instance, you know this is the last allocation), use a negative number for reservation. You can also create a vector of a specific size from the get go.

You should prefer the push and pop operations, as they append and remove from the end of the vector. If you need to remove several items in one go, use the truncate operation. The insert and remove operations allow you to change elements in the middle of the vector. There are two remove operations, one which preserves the element ordering 'ordered_remove', and one which does not 'unordered_remove'. The latter function copies the end element into the removed slot, rather than invoke a memmove operation. The 'lower_bound' function will determine where to place an item in the array using insert that will maintain sorted order.

When a vector type is defined, first a non-memory managed version is created. You can then define either or both garbage collected and heap allocated versions. The allocation mechanism is specified when the type is defined, and is therefore part of the type. If you need both gc'd and heap allocated versions, you still must have exactly one definition of the common non-memory managed base vector.

If you need to directly manipulate a vector, then the 'address' accessor will return the address of the start of the vector. Also the 'space' predicate will tell you whether there is spare capacity in the vector. You will not normally need to use these two functions.

Vector types are defined using a DEF_VEC_{O,P,I}(TYPEDEF) macro, to get the non-memory allocation version, and then a DEF_VEC_ALLOC_{O,P,I}(TYPEDEF,ALLOC) macro to get memory managed vectors. Variables of vector type are declared using a VEC(TYPEDEF,ALLOC) macro. The ALLOC argument specifies the allocation strategy, and can be either 'gc' or 'heap' for garbage collected and heap allocated respectively. It can be 'none' to get a vector that must be explicitly allocated (for instance as a trailing array of another structure). The characters O, P and I indicate whether TYPEDEF is a pointer (P), object (O) or integral (I) type. Be careful to pick the correct one, as you'll get an awkward and inefficient API if you use the wrong one. There is a check, which results in a compile-time warning, for the P and I versions, but there is no check for the O versions, as that is not possible in plain C. Due to the way GTY works, you must annotate any structures you wish to insert or reference from a vector with a GTY() tag. You need to do this even if you never declare the GC allocated variants.

An example of their use would be,

DEF_VEC_P(tree);  // non-managed tree vector. DEF_VEC_ALLOC_P(tree,gc);   // gc'd vector of tree pointers. This must // appear at file scope. struct my_struct { VEC(tree,gc) *v;     // A (pointer to) a vector of tree pointers. }; struct my_struct *s; if (VEC_length(tree,s->v)) { we have some contents } VEC_safe_push(tree,gc,s->v,decl); // append some decl onto the end for (ix = 0; VEC_iterate(tree,s->v,ix,elt); ix++) { do something with elt }

GCC Initialization

The C front end includes the C/C++ preprocessor and the C compiler. Program cc1 includes both the preprocessor and C compiler. It compiles a C source file and generates an assembly (.S) file.

The compiler frontend and backend interact with each other using callback functions called language hooks. All hooks are included into a global variable struct lang_hooks lang_hooks that is defined in file langhooks.h. There are the following types of hooks: hooks for tree inlining, hooks for call graph, hooks for functions, hooks for tree dump, hooks for types, hooks for declarations, and language-specific hooks. The default values for the hooks are defined in file langhooks-def.h.

GCC initialization consists of command line option parsing, initializing the back end, creating the global scope, and initializing the built-in data types and functions.

Each declaration is associated with a scope. For example, a local variable is associated with its function's scope. A global declaration is associated with the global scope.

File toplev.c contains the main cc1 function toplev_main and global variables that define the state of the compiler. Variable current_function_decl is the declaration of the function being compiled or NULL if between functions.

Function toplev_main is the function that processes the command-line options, initializes the compiler, compiles a file, and frees up the allocated resources. Function decode_options processes the command-line options and sets the corresponding variables within the compiler.

Following the command line option parsing function do_compile is called. It performs the back-end initialization by calling function backend_init.

Backend initialization includes a number of steps. Function init_emit_once generates RTL expressions for a number of registers: pc_rtx for the program counter, cc0 for the condition, stack_pointer_rtx, frame_pointer_rtx, etc. They are saved in array global_rtl.

After that, function lang_dependent_init performs language-dependent initialization which includes the initialization of a front-end and a back-end. The C initialization function c_objc_common_init creates built-in data types, initializes the global scope and performs other initialization tasks. Function c_common_nodes_and_builtins creates pre-defined types described in file builtin-types.def.

The standard C types are created at the initialization time. The following table presents several types:

GCC built-in functions are the functions that are evaluated at compile time. For example, if the size argument of a strcpy function is a constant then GCC replaces the function call with the required number of assignments. The compiler replaces standard library calls with built-in functions and then evaluates them once the function's AST is constructed. In case of strcpy, the compiler checks the size argument and uses the optimized built-in version of strcpy if the argument is constant. builtin_constant_p allows to find out if the value of its argument is known at compile time. GCC builtins are used beyond GCC. For example, the string processing library of Linux kernel uses builtin_constant_p to invoke the optimized version of a string processing function if the string size is known at compile time.

GCC evaluates each builtin function using a corresponding expand_builtin function. For example, builtin_strcmp is evaluated using expand_builtin_strcmp. The following table gives examples of GCC builtins:

Parser and Preprocessor
Following the initialization, function do_compile calls function compile_file. This function invokes parse_file front-end language hook which is set to function c_common_parse_file for C language. The latter function invokes function finish_options which initializes the preprocessor and handles -D, -U, and -A command line options (which are equivalent to #define, #undef, and #assert respectively). The C preprocessor handles the preprocessor directives such as #define, #include in the source code.

Preprocessor
The preprocessor is implemented as a library. The C language lexer function c_lex calls the libcpp function cpp_get_token which handles the preprocessor keywords. The state of the preprocessor is defined by variable cpp_reader *parse_in. Type struct cpp_reader contains most importantly the list of text buffers being processed. Each buffer corresponds to a source file (.c or .h). Function cpp_get_token calls appropriate functions for legitimate preprocessor keywords. For example, when #include is encountered, function do_include_common is invoked. It allocates a new buffer and places it on top of the buffer stack making it the current buffer. When a new file is compiled the buffer is popped off the stack and the compilation of the old file continues.

Function do_define is called whenever a new macro is defined using #define keyword.

From Source Code to AST
After running the preprocessor GCC constructs an abstract syntax tree (AST) for each function of the source file. An AST is a number of connected nodes of type struct tree. Each node has a tree code that defines the type of the tree. Macro TREE_CODE is used to refer to the code. Tree codes are defined in files tree.def and c-common.def. Trees with different tree codes are grouped into tree classes. The following tree classes are defined among others in GCC:

There are two types of trees: statements and expressions. Statements correspond to the C constructs, for example an expression followed by a ';', a conditional statement, a loop statement, etc. Expressions are what the statements are built up from. Examples of expressions are an assignment expression, an arithmetic expression, a function call, etc. Examples of tree codes are given in the following table:

In addition to the tree code that defines the type of the tree, a number of operands different for each tree type are available. For example, an assignment expression has two operands which correspond to the left and right sides of the expression. Macro TREE_OPERAND is used to refer to the operands. Macro IDENTIFIER_POINTER is used to find the name of an identifier that an IDENTIFIER_NODE tree represents. The following table presents several tree nodes, their purpose, and their operands.

Each tree has a type that corresponds to the type of C expression that it represents For example, the type of the MODIFY_EXPR node is the type of the left-hand side operand. NOP_EXPR and CONVERT_EXPR trees are used for type casting.

Tree NULL_TREE is equivalent to NULL. Function debug_tree prints out the tree to stderr.

When a new identifier is lexed, it is added to the pool of strings that GCC maintains. The tree code of an identifier is IDENTIFIER_NODE. When the same identifier is lexed again, the same tree node is returned. Function get_identifier returns the tree node for an identifier.

A new variable declaration is processed in a number of function calls. First, function start_decl is called with the name of the declaration, its type as returned by the lexer, and its attributes. The function calls grokdeclarator that checks the type and argument nodes and returns a tree with the code appropriate for the declaration: VAR_DECL for variables, TYPE_DECL for types, etc. The declarartion is then added to the scope. A scope contains all declarations created within a function, but does not contain global declarations. There is also the global scope that contains global declarations. When a function is parsed, its declarations are attached to its body as a BLOCK node. When a declaration is created, the identifier node is associated with the declaration node using IDENTIFIER_SYMBOL_VALUE. Function lookup_name returns the declaration for a given identifier. When a declaration leaves the scope the tree attributes C_DECL_INVISIBLE is asserted.

A symbol table is not maintained in GCC. Instead, the compiler uses the pool of identifiers and C_DECL_INVISIBLE attribute. Language hook lang_hooks.decls.getdecls returns the variables in the scope chained together.

Functions start_init and finish_init are called for an initialized declaration. Function finish_decl finalizes the declaration. For an array declaration it computes the size of an initialized array. Then function layout_decl is called. It computes the size and alignment of the declaration.

Parsing a function depends on the presence of its body. A function declaration is parsed using the same functions as those used for variable declarations. For a function definition, function start_function is called. Then the compiler parses the body of the function. When the function ends function finish_function is called.

Functions start_decl and start_function take declaration's attributes parameter as one of their arguments. The attributes are described in the GCC Manual. Attributes are extensions of GNU implementation of C. The following table presents a few of them and explains their purpose:

For each type of C statement there is a function that constructs a tree node of the corresponding type. For example, function build_function_call builds a CALL_EXPR node for a function call. It takes the identifier of the function name and the arguments as its parameters. The function finds the function declaration using lookup_name and type casts the arguments using default_conversion.

After a function has been parsed, use macro DECL_SAVED_TREE to access its body. It is represented with a BIND_EXPR tree which binds local variables to statements. BIND_EXPR_VARS gives a chain of declared variables. BIND_EXPR_BODY returns a tree of STATEMENT_LIST type.

The following API allows one to traverse a statement list and to manipulate it:

It is possible to instrument function prolog/epilog at this level as demonstrated in gimplify_function_tree. To add a statement to function epilog, use TRY_FINALLY_EXPR tree. Its first operand are the old statements, the second argument is the epilog statements. This type of treet instructs the following passes to execute the statements when a common exit basic block of a function is created.

To instrument function prolog, prepend the tree with the desired statements. Therefore, BIND_EXPR_BODY will have the prolog and the TRY_FINALLY_EXPR tree.

The ASTs are then converted into the SSA and eventually to the RTL representations. Whether the conversion occurs after parsing each function or when the whole file is parsed is controlled by the compiler option -funit-at-a-time. It is false by default.

From AST to GIMPLE
An AST is gimplified when gimplify_function_tree is eventually called from finish_function.

GIMPLE representation is based on SIMPLE described in

According to this paper, the goal is to represent the tree as basic statements:

Temp variables are created as necessary in functions create_tmp_var and declare_tmp_vars.

At this stage, GCC optimizes of complex conditional expressions, that is

if (a || b) stmt;

is translated into

if (a) goto L1; if (b) goto L1; else goto L2; L1: stmt; L2:

Also, each branch of a conditional expression is wrapped into STATEMENT_LIST tree.

From GIMPLE to RTL
Register Transfer Language represents an abstract machine with an infinite number of registers. Type rtx describes an instruction. Each RTL expression has a code and machine mode.

Similarly to ASTs, codes are grouped in a number of classes. They are defined in mode-classes.def.

Machine modes listed in file machmode.def specify a size and format of data at the machine level. At the syntax tree level, each ..._TYPE and each ..._DECL node has a machine mode which describes data of that type or the data of the variable declared.

A list of instructions is built when function is compiled. Function emit_insn adds an instruction to the list. A variable declaration AST has its RTL already generated. Use DECL_RTL to access it. Function emit_cmp_and_jump_insns outputs a conditional statement. emit_label prints out a label. These functions chain instructions one after another. Macros PREV_INSN and NEXT_INSN are used to traverse the list.

It is possible to access the first and last instructions using first_insn and last_insn. get_insns gives the first insn of the current sequence or current function.

Use debug_rtx to print out an RTL instruction on the screen and function print_rtl to print a list of RTL expressions.

A number of functions create the nodes. For example, gen_label_rtx build a label. The most generic functions are located in the target-specific directory. For example, x86 architecture rtl generation files genrtl.c and genrtl.h are in ./host-i686-pc-linux-gnu.

From RTL to Object
Each target architecture has its description represented as struct gcc_target targetm. Default initializers are available in file targhooks.c

The backend generates the assembly code for the specified target platform. Function output_asm_insn is called for each instruction written to the assembly file. Function final_start_function generates the prolog of the function before it is saved to the assembly file.

Lowering Passes
The processing of a function includes its lowering when a number of optimization passes are applied to it in function tree_lowering_passes. As a result of lowering a function its control-flow graph is generated. A subsequent call to function cgraph_create_edges uses basic block information to augment edges of the callgraph with invocations that the current function performs. References to functions yet undefined are saved in function record_references.

Switch Statement
Let us consider how a switch statement is translated from the source code to GIMPLE to RTL.

Function c_parser_switch_statement is called when the statement is encountered in the source code. A typical switch statement has a number of case statements that might have breaks. Therefore, the parser has c_break_label tree that marks the place where switch ends. The function parses the body of the statement and generates LABEL_EXPR tree for the break label if at least one break was found. Function c_finish_case attaches the body to the SWITCH_EXPR tree as one of its operands. In addition, this tree has two other operands: switch condition and switch labels. The operands are accessed using macro SWITCH_COND, SWITCH_BODY, and SWITCH_LABELS. The labels are not filled in at the parse time.

A switch statement is gimplified in function gimplify_switch_expr. The idea is to separate the body from the decision part and generate switch labels to make it possible to redirect execution to the appropriate case after verifying the condition. We will consider the case when default label exists. This function has two pointers to the statement list: pre_p which is the list of side effects and expr_p which is the statement itself.

The body of the switch is gimplified in gimplify_to_stmt_list. Case labels are saved in field case_labels of variable struct gimplify_ctx gimplify_ctxp. Then the function creates a TREE_VEC of labels and initializes them with the corresponding case label. The TREE_VEC is assigned to SWITCH_LABELS operand of switch statement which is then appended to the pre_p list. The original statement is then overwritten with the SWITCH_BODY using expr_p pointer. Finally, the SWITCH_BODY operand of the switch statement in the side effects list is wiped out so that it contains labels only.

From this point on it is clear that compiler tries to represent the original statement using a jump table which maps each possible index value to the address of the corresponding case. Function expand_case implements this idea. It generates a table_label at which jump instructions for each possible index value are generated. Then function try_tablejump is called which expands index tree into index rtl and invokes do_tablejump. This function generates absolute index rtl which combines the base address table_label and index offset. It emits jump instruction to the proper entry of the jump table afterwards. The execution continues in function expand_case. The jump table is generated using SWITCH_LABELS:

labelvec[i] = gen_rtx_LABEL_REF (Pmode, label_rtx (n->code_label));

A number of jump instructions are emitted finally:

if (CASE_VECTOR_PC_RELATIVE || flag_pic) emit_jump_insn (gen_rtx_ADDR_DIFF_VEC (CASE_VECTOR_MODE, gen_rtx_LABEL_REF (Pmode, table_label), gen_rtvec_v (ncases, labelvec), const0_rtx, const0_rtx));

 * 1) https://web.archive.org/web/20160410185222/https://www.redhat.com/magazine/002dec04/features/gcc/
 * 2) L. Hendren, C. Donawa, M. Emami, G. Gao, Justiani, and B. Sridharan. Designing the McCAT Compiler Based on a Family of Structured Intermediate Representations. In Proc. of the 5th International Workshop on Languages and compilers for Parallel Computing, 1992.


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GNU C Compiler Architecture 3 4

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GNU C Compiler Architecture 4 1


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks

Invoke a block of code from a function as in Ruby
Linux implementation of lists allows to invoke a block of code on each element of the list:

pagelist.c:

list_for_each_prev(pos, head) { struct nfs_page *p = nfs_list_entry(pos); if (page_index(p->wb_page) < pg_idx) break; }

list_for_each_prev takes the code in the brackets as a parameter. The trick is to use a macro that rolls out to a for loop whose body becomes the code in the brackets. The goal of this project is to allow programmers to use code blocks in function calls.

Dereference function results when a structure is returned
C allows one to dereference the return value of a function if it is a pointer to a structure:

get_struct->field=0;

If the function returns the structure, not a pointer to it, then a compile-time error is generated:

get_struct.field=0; > request for member `field' in something not a structure or union

This extension addresses the problem of dereferencing structures that are return values.

Use functions to initialize a variable
When a variable is defined and initialized the initializer is constant. You will get an error if you try to use a function, no matter what this function is:

int getint { return 1; } int i=getint; > initializer element is not constant

When a variable is used the function it was initialized with is called.

Default values of function arguments as in C++
void func(int a=0) { printf("a=%d\n", a); } int main { func; } > syntax error before '=' token

Reference parameters as in C++
void test(int &a, int &b); int x,y; test(x,y);

GCC switches in object file
GCC switches in object fileusage: /usr/local/bin/paster serve [options] CONFIG_FILE [start|stop|restart|status] Serve the described application

If start/stop/restart is given, then it will start (normal operation), stop (--stop-daemon), or do both. You probably want ``--daemon`` as well for stopping.

Options: -h, --help           show this help message and exit -v, --verbose -q, --quiet -nNAME, --app-name=NAME Load the named application (default main) -sSERVER_TYPE, --server=SERVER_TYPE Use the named server. --server-name=SECTION_NAME Use the named server as defined in the configuration file (default: main) --daemon             Run in daemon (background) mode --pid-file=FILENAME  Save PID to file (default to paster.pid if running in                        daemon mode) --log-file=LOG_FILE  Save output to the given log file (redirects stdout) --reload             Use auto-restart file monitor --reload-interval=RELOAD_INTERVAL Seconds between checking files (low number can cause                       significant CPU usage) --status             Show the status of the (presumably daemonized) server --user=USERNAME      Set the user (usually only possible when run as root) --group=GROUP        Set the group (usually only possible when run as root) --stop-daemon        Stop a daemonized server (given a PID file, or default                        paster.pid file) [app:main] use = egg:PasteEnabledPackage option1 = foo option2 = bar

[server:main] use = egg:PasteScript#wsgiutils host = 127.0.0.1 port = 80 sudo update-rc.d startup.sh defaults

Type information at run-time
There is no type information in C language available at run-time. The idea is to allow program to get the names and offsets of a structure's field at run time, the symbolic name of an enum declaration, etc. For example, instead of writing

enum tree_code code; ...  switch (code) { case VAR_DECL: printf("VAR_DECL\n"); break; case BLOCK: printf("BLOCK\n"); break; ...  }

one could write

printf("%s\n", type_info(code).name);


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks 3 4

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks 3 4


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks 4 1

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/GCC Hacks 4 1


text:
GNU C Compiler Internals/Creating a Compiler Extension 4 1

Function overloading in C
The C function overloading extension aims at including a C++ feature to C language which allows use functions with the same name but different argument types. The cfo/test.c example of GEM demonstrates this feature:

void ec_aa_add(int from, char *to); void ec_aa_add(int from, int to); ...

are used to add an element to a pool data structure.

The idea behind the implementation of the extension is to rewrite each function declaration so that the new name includes the type information of function's arguments. In the above case, the modified names are ec_aa_add_int_char_ptr and ec_aa_add_int_int. The compilation continues normally with the updated names.

Because of the above modification, the call names need modification as well. The renaming takes into account the types of the arguments so that the appropriate function is called. For example, the compiler will modify

ec_aa_add(1,2);

to

ec_aa_add_int_int(1,2);

Three hooks are used in this extension. Functions cfo_start_decl and cfo_start_function intercept declarations. They call cfo_alias_decl that replaces the name using argument types. To preserve the library code for the programs that do not use CFO extension, the following technique is used. If the function name is encountered first time, an alias is created to its old name so that one can invoke the function using either of them. Thus, the legacy code will use the old name, while the CFO-compiled code will use the type-augmented name. Finally, the declaration name is updated to include type information.

Hook cfo_build_function_call is invoked from the parser when a new function call is found. It replaces the name of callee function with the name that takes into account the types of actual-in arguments.


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/GEM Framework 4 1


text:
Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Links

 * 1) GCC website
 * 2) http://www.gccsummit.org
 * 3) http://research.alexeysmirnov.name/gem

title: Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Links


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/Links 4 1

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/Links 4 1


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/Links 3 4

title: GNU C Compiler Internals/Links 3 4


text: Template:GNU C Compiler Internals/Contributors


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/Contributors 3 4


text: GNU C Compiler Internals/Contributors 4 1


text:
Ancient History/Indian subcontinent

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Stone Age 70,000–7000 BC
 * 3) Mehgarh Culture 7000–3300 BC
 * 4) Indus Valley Civilization 3300–1700 BC
 * 5) Late Harappan Culture 1700–1300 BC
 * 6) Vedic Civilization 1500–500 BC
 * 7) Kuru 600 BC–AD 1279
 * 8) Maurya Empire 321–184 BC
 * 9) Gupta Empire

title: Ancient History/Indian subcontinent


text:
German/Level I/Zu Hause essen

Lesson I.13: Zu Hause essen

title: German/Level I/Zu Hause essen


text:
German/Level I/Filme

Lesson I.14: Filme

title: German/Level I/Filme


text:
German/Level I/Das Haus

Lesson I.15: Das Haus

title: German/Level I/Das Haus


text:
German/Level I/Review 5

Review Section I.E: Lessons I.13 to I.15

title: German/Level I/Review 5


text:
User:Drini

m:User:Drini, steward

title: User:Drini


text:
Ancient History/Americas/Aztec Empire

 * 1) /Origins of the Aztec/
 * 2) /The Aztecs arrive in the Valley of Mexico/
 * 3) /Rise of the Aztecs/
 * 4) /Aztec Triple Alliance/
 * 5) /Tlacaelel and Moctezuma I/
 * 6) /Tlacaelel/
 * 7) /Reform of the Aztec religion/
 * 8) /The height of the Empire/
 * 9) /Fall of the Aztec Empire/
 * 10) /The Conquest of Mesoamerica/
 * 11) /The fate of the Aztec empire under Spanish rule/
 * 12) /The impact of epidemics on the Aztec Empire/
 * 13) /Great leaders/

title: Ancient History/Americas/Aztec Empire


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Themes

High and Low Culture
The book shows the meeting of high and low culture. Dora and Nora represent low culture, they do not perform film, it is a flop and is shown in fleapits.

The meeting of high and low culture can be seen in the way that a PhD student attempts to contact Dora and Nora to interview them about their appearance in the film version of 'A Midsummer Night's Dream'. The Hazard Dynasty, which performed Shakespeare, is now forced to appear on the game show 'Lashings of Lolly'.

While the Hazards live in luxury, Dora and Nora live in a terraced house in Brixton.

The novel shows the decline of high culture. Shakespeare and music halls to the mass media (Lashings of Lolly).

Gorgeous George is used to represent the decline of the British Empire. He once sang "Rose of England, breathing England’s air, Flower of majesty beyond compare…". He has a map of the British Empire on his body but after the war he is forced to play Bottom in 'The Dream'. He is eventually seen on the streets where Dora gives him money. Dora's phrase "Lo how the mighty have fallen" could equally apply to British imperialism (The practice of one country extending its control over the territory, political system, or economic life of another country). It is known that Angela Carter became interested in the relationship between imperialism and British identity.

High culture such as Shakespeare is reduced to low culture by lines such as "2b or not 2b"

Carter could be seen as doing this so as to universalize Shakespeare for the masses (something that Ranulph once tried to do). Shakespeare has come to personify the epitome of "high culture," which is not necessarily true (after all, his plays often featured bawdy humor and more bumbling, even slapstick characters so as to appeal not only to the educated with references to ancient literature but also to the general public). By doing this, Carter blurs the lines between high and low culture and tries to bring Shakespeare back to his roots. She therefore goes against traditional views and the established norm, a theme which runs through the novel.

Legitimacy and Illegitimacy

 * The word Hazard is an archaic word for Chance showing how the two families are connected.
 * Gorgeous George presents a theme of the novel illegitimacy with his joke which ends in the punch line "'E's not your father!" this line reverberates throughout the novel. Specifically, to Saskia and Imogen about Melchior at his 100th birthday party.
 * Not only are Dora and Nora illegitimate but they performed in the "lower-class" music halls rather than "upper-class" Shakespeare. This is pointed out on the first page, they come from the "bastard side of old father Thames".  Also, Melchior's place at Eaton Square is on the other side of the river; the legitimate side.
 * There is irony in the fact that Saskia and Imogen ridicule Dora and Nora, as they are in fact illegitimate themselves. However, Dora and Nora are jealous of the two throughout the novel as they are accepted by Melchior.
 * There are also question marks over Melchior and Perry's parentage. Perry even questions whether Pretty Kitty is the mother of Dora and Nora.
 * The novel itself celebrates romantic illegitimacy - being born on the "wrong side of the tracks".

Patriarchy
Social organization that structures the dominance of men over women.

Melchior embodies patriarchal society, however Peregrine ridicules him by making him jump for his crown and by producing a macaw from his clothes during 'The Dream'.

"old father Thames" - from the beginning of the novel, Carter introduces the theme of a male-dominated society.

However, Carter adopts what can be seen as a rather balanced perspective. On the one hand she criticizes fatherhood ("a moving feast," dealing with absent fathers) and the traditional male-dominated society, yet on the other hand motherhood is brought into question. Indeed, Carter allows the reader to even sympathize with the shallow Melchior in that he in turn has had problems with his own absent father (this is also a counter-argument to the question as to whether Carter is sexist).

Additionally, in Chapter 5, Carter almost again makes the reader pity Melchior in that he may not be that terrible a father in actual fact, it was just impossible for him to live up to the expectations of his daughters. Once again, the argument is balanced.

Nature vs. Nurture

 * "Triumph of Nature over Nurture Ducky"
 * Melchior raises Saskia and Imogen and they turn out like brats!

Perry and Grandma Chance raise Dora and Nora and they are the opposite of Saskia and Imogen

Just about every male in the novel is represented poorly! Even your opinion of Perry is challenged after the incestuous end to the novel.

Identity
Identity is another theme in 'Wise Children'

 * Grandma chance is described as “inventing herself” and inventing the family. The way in which Dora's family has been invented can be seen in the way that Wheelchair replaced Grandma Chance.
 * I was…not the Dora he’d fallen for (Piano Man) – Nora and Dora swap places.
 * ‘We were a pretty girl!’ – Dora and Nora’s identity is almost one, Dora seems to revel in the duality between her and her sister and the recognition it gives them
 * "We were bereft…of a good deal of ourselves, too – Dora feels that she has lost part of herself after Grandma Chance’s death.
 * “A wonder of the plastic surgeon’s art” – Genghis Khan’s first wife changed her appearance to look like Dora.
 * Dora and Nora's first performance is Babes In The Wood, a play of "two children abandoned in a wood". Their situation is much like Dora and Nora's, abandoned by their father, left to survive without the aid of a male role model. (R.O)

title: A-level English/Wise Children/Themes


text: Ancient History/Rome/Rise of Christianity


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Narrative Techniques

The Language and Narrative voice in Wise Children
There are several narrative strategies used in Wise Children. Angela Carter uses a first person narrative allowing an intimate tone to be created between the characters of the novel and the reader. The novel has conversational as well as chatty elements to its tone with which Carter talks to the reader through Dora Chance, intimacy is even created through Dora's crude language such as the line "bugger the robin" and by talking to the reader as if they are in the room with Dora. An example is when she is looking at a photo of Tiffany she states "isn't she lovely?" as if she is expecting a response. The tone of the narrative is also quite reflective.

The plot of Wise Children is non-linear: it doesn't follow a chronological plot line. Dora can frequently revert from the present to the past in a few short paragraphs. This reflects the carnivalesque elements of the book: with the idea of chaos and dissaray.

Narrative techniques include:

Riddles
Q. Why is London like Budapest A. Because it is two cities divided by a river. which links to a tale of two cities by Dickens where London and Paris are referred to.

Direct Address
"Good Morning let me introduce myself. My name is Dora Chance"

Crude Language
"Bugger the robin"

"And wars are facts we cannot fuck away..."

"There's more to fathering than fucking..."

"...Don't be a bitch Dora..." (commenting on herself)

"We can still lift a leg higher than your average dog, if called for."

"We were wet for it, I tell you! Such a rush of blood to our vitals when we started to dance!"

Refrains
"What a joy it is to dance and sing"

"Hope for the best, expect the worst" - Grandma Chance's wisdom

"Lo, how the mighty have fallen."

Theatrical Metaphor
"I made my bow five minutes ahead of Nora"

"That was my last curtain call..." (after sleeping with Perry)

"Enter Daisy"

Shakespearean Quotations
"Give me your hands, if we be friends, and Robin shall restore amends". (A Midsummer Night's Dream)

"Making the beasts with two backs" (Othello)

By basing the event of the day and the novel itself, Carter is comparing and drawing similarities between everyday life and Shakespeare. This ties in with the theme of high-low culture and bringing Shakespeare back to the masses.

Misquotations
"Did she fall or was she pushed? That was the question" - Link to Hamlet (to be or not to be, that was the question)

'To butter or not to butter'-My lady Margerine.

Mimicry
"She would look teddibly, teddibly British"

"She made mountaynes out of molehills"

"...a nayce musical comedy..."

Withholding knowledge
"Irish? Who's he?" - The reader must read much further on to understand the disorientating first few pages. The changes in time frame whet the readers appetite by giving information on characters which occur much later in the novel.

"No. Wait. I'll tell you all about it in my own good time."

Dora as a narrator
Dora can be seen as an unreliable narrator on several occasions she fails to recollect the next part of the story, as she is telling it from memory.

"As I remember it, a band struck up out of nowhere"
 * "I have a memory, though I know it cannot be a true one..."
 * "I could have sworn that..."
 * "these days, half a century and more later, I might think I did not live but dreamed that night..."
 * "I misremember. It was sixty-odd years ago you know"
 * "At my age, memory becomes exquisitively selective"
 * "drunk in charge of a narrative"
 * "We watch so many old movies our memories come in monochrome."

Labels such 'unreliable narrator' and 'magical realism' are inadequate for the complexities of Carters fiction. Rather it can be said that it is more the structure of the novel not being in order allows Dora to weave in new characters and themes.


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Past Paper Questions

Short Questions

 * Examine the ways Carter uses ideas about time, youth and age in the novel.
 * Explore Carter's use of Shakespeare in the novel
 * What Purpose Does Peregrine serve In The Novel?
 * Who Do You Consider To Be Wise Children?.
 * Consider the presentation and importance of Shakespeare in 'Wise Children.
 * Consider the importance of Melchior and the way in which Carter presents this character.
 * Explore the way Carter uses the theme of fathers and daughters in the novel.
 * How appropriate do you find this extract as the opening of the novel? You should consider the subject matter and style.
 * Examine the ways Carter presents the theme of what of what Dora calls the “wrong side of the tracks”.
 * Consider the importance and presentation of Perry in the novel.
 * Examine Carter’s use of doubles in the novel.
 * Examine how Carter presents parents and children in the novel
 * Explore the ways in which the theme of illusion is presented in Wise Children

Reasons to make use of Past Questions and Answers are:

 * Most of the Questions are being repeated.
 * Its gives you what to expect in the exam.
 * Nature of the exam.
 * How many questions with time allowed.
 * Marking scheme for the exam.
 * Sample of the questions that was set for candidates before.

Longer, Quotation-Based Questions

 * Using the following extract as a starting point, consider the ways Carter presents the characters of Lady Atalanta, Imogen and Saskia.

''All in good time I shall reveal to you how it has come to pass that we inherited, in her dotage and, come to that, in ours, the first wife of our illegitimate father. Suffice to say that nobody else would have her. Least of all her own two daughters. Bloody cows. 'The lovely Hazard girls', they used to call them. Huh. Lovely is as lovely does; if they looked like what they behave like, they'd frighten little children. We've been storing Wheelchair in the basement for well-nigh thirty years. We've got quite attached to her. Earlier on, Nora used to take her out shopping, give her some fresh air and that, until she nearly starts a riot, she says to the bloke at the salad stall: 'Have you got anything in the shape of a cucumber, my good fellow?' After that, we had to keep her home for her own sake. Sometimes she goes on a bit, on and on, on and on and bloody on, in fact, worrying away at how Melchior took the best years of her life then deserted her for a Hollywood harlot - his Number Two bride - and how the 'lovely Hazard girls' did her out of all her money and how she fell downstairs and can never walk again and on and on and on and on until you want to throw a blanket over her, like you do to shut up a parrot. But there's not a scrap of harm in her and, besides, we owe her one from way back.''

 * Using the following extract as a starting point, consider Carter's presentation of family conflicts and disappointments in the novel.

''He watched expectantly as they tore off the wrappings. The boxes were of metal, it turned out, with little holes drilled in the top. Curiouser and curiouser. Imogen got hers open first, peered in, then gave a little scream and dropped it. Saskia looked at hers and said: 'Good God!' Inside each box was a little nest of leaves and, inside the nest, a caterpillar. 'Named after you,' said Peregrine. 'Saskia Hazard. Imogen Hazard. Two of the most beautiful butterflies in all the rainforest. You'll go down in all the textbooks. As long as people love butterflies, your names will be on their lips, you'll have a kind of beautiful eternity. They are rare species, just like you both.' Saskia and Imogen stared blankly at their boxes. No doubt they'd hoped for a little oil well each. 'Is that all?' said Imogen. She poked the caterpillar with her fork. It did not stir. 'I think mine's dead,' she said. Saskia snapped her box shut and dropped it on the table. 'Thanks a lot,' she said, with heavy irony.''

''And my heart stood still, I was seventeen again, I was a virgin powdering my nose with beating heart, for there was lilac, lilac everywhere. In bowls in jars in cornucopias. White lilac, the evening's floral theme. I was all misty because of the smell of lilac as we processed in the long line towards where our father was receiving in an alcove, seated on a sort of throne. He wasn’t wearing a monkey suit or tails unlike most of his gusts, but had on a rather majestic and heavily embroidered purple caftan. I thought, colostomy; but that caftan made a lovely contrast to his longish, pewter coloured hair, still thick and heavy. There were rings on his fingers, like a king, or a pope, and a big gold medallion around his neck. He looked regal but festive. My heart gave a thump and the beat started to speed up. We waited patiently in line to wish him 'Happy birthday', standing in line between a theatrical knight and a TV presenter who babbled insanities at one another across us which pissed us off, but we decided to tolerate the invisibility of old ladies-note that, even dressed up like four penny ham-bones, our age and gender still rendered us invisible-because it was special occasion, although as a general rule, we debate invisibility hotly. I snatched at the champagne a couple of times as it waltzed past I was bloody nervous, I can tell you.''
 * How typical is this extract of Dora's reaction to her experiences throughout the novel?

''Nine Months later, her heart gave out when we were born. Apart from that I don't know anything about her. We don't even know what she looked like, there isn't a picture. She was called Kitty, like a little stray cat. Fatherless, motherless. Perhaps Mrs. Chance's house was even a haven to her, in spite of the stairs - she must have run up and down the stairs twenty times a day, thirty times a day. And the grates to be leaded, the front steps to be scoured.   Not that Mrs Chance was what the French called exigeante. She didn’t run the fanciest boarding house in Brixton, it barely managed to cling to respectability by the skin of its teeth, and you could have said the same of her. There were Boston ferns, in green glazed pots, on stands, and Turkey rugs, but the whole place never looked plausible. It looked like the staged set of a theatrical boarding house, as if Grandma had done it up to suit a role she’d chosen on purpose. She was a mystery was Mrs. Chance. ''
 * Using the following extract as a starting point, consider the ways in which Carter uses Grandma Chance and Kitty in the novel.

''The window on the second-floor front window of 41 Bard Road went up, a head came out. Dreadlocks. That Rastafarian. ‘You two, again,’ he said. ‘Have a Heart!’ we said. ‘We’ve got something to celebrate, tonight!’ ‘Well, you just watch it, in case a squad car comes by,’ he said. ‘Drunk in charge of a baby carriage at your age.’ We’d got so many songs to sing to our babies, all the old songs, that we didn’t pay him any attention. ‘Gee, we’d like to see you looking swell, babies!’ and the Hazard theme song, ‘Is You Is or Is You Ain’t’. Then there were songs from the show that nobody else remembers. ‘2b or not 2b’, ‘Hey nonny bloody no’, ‘Mistress Mine’, and Broadway tunes and paper moons, and lilacs in the spring, again. We went on dancing and singing. ‘Diamond bracelets Woolworths doesn’t sell.’ Besides it was our birthday wasn’t it, we’d got to sing the silly song about Charlie Chaplin and his comedy boots all the kinds were singing and dancing in the street the day we were born. There was singing and dancing all along Bard Road that day and we’ll go on singing and dancing until we drop in our tracks, won’t we kids? What a joy it is to dance and sing.''
 * The following is the ending of Wise Children. How appropriate do you find it as the conclusion to the novel?

 * The following extract is taken from the novel after the fire in Melchior’s house when he believes his father’s paper crown is lost. Using the passage as a starting point, explore how the writer uses the idea of a ‘flimsy bit of make-believe’ through the novel.

''‘My crown, my foolish crown, my paper crown of a king of shreds and patches,’ he lamented. ‘The crown my father wore as Lear – to have survived so many deaths, so much heartbreak, so many travels…and now, gone up in smoke! Oh, my dear girl, we mummers are such simple folk. . . superstitious as little children. The fire was welcome to take everything, the frills and furbelows, the toys and the gewgaws, the oil paintings, the cloisonné, the Elizabethan oak. . . . but, oh, my crown! That cardboard crown, with the gold paint peeling off. Do you know, can you guess, my dear, how much it meant to me? More than wealth, or fame, or women, or children. . .’ I’d better believe that, what he said about children. I was amazed to see him so much moved, and on account of what? A flimsy piece of make-believe. A nothing. ‘What shall I do without my crown? Othello’s occupation gone!’''

 * Remind yourself of the following extract which describes the set of the film of A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Using the extract below as a starting point, consider the importance of the film-making episode in the novel.

''The wood near Athens covered an entire stage and was so thickly art-directed it came up all black in the rushes, couldn’t see a thing, so they spayed it in parts with silver paint to lighten it up. The concept of this wood was scaled down to fit the size of fairy folk, so it was all twice as large as life. Larger. Daisies as big as your head and as white as spook, foxgloves as tall as the tower of Pisa that chimed like bells if shook. Gnarled, fissured tree-trunks; sprays of enormous leaves – oak, ash, thorn, like parasols, or gilder planes, or awnings. Bindweed in streamers and conkers, deposited at intervals in heaps on the ground. Yes, conkers. All spikes. And rolling around at random underfoot, or stuck on buds, or hanging in mid-air as if they’d just rolled off a wild rose or out of a cowslip, imitation dewdrops, that is, big faux pearls, suspended on threads. And clockwork birds as well – thrushes finches, sparrows, larks – that lifted up their wings and lowered their heads and sang out soprano, mezzo, contralto, joining in the fairy songs.''

 * Using the following extract as a starting point, consider how Carter presents Melchoir in the novel.

''And my heart stood still, I was seventeen again, I was a virgin powdering my nose with beating heart, for there was lilac, lilac everywhere. In bowls in jars in cornucopias. White lilac, the evening's floral theme. I was all misty because of the smell of lilac as we processed in the long line towards where our father was receiving in an alcove, seated on a sort of throne. He wasn’t wearing a monkey suit or tails unlike most of his gusts, but had on a rather majestic and heavily embroidered purple caftan. I thought, colostomy; but that caftan made a lovely contrast to his longish, pewter coloured hair, still thick and heavy. There were rings on his fingers, like a king, or a pope, and a big gold medallion around his neck. He looked regal but festive. My heart gave a thump and the beat started to speed up.''


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Allusions to Shakespeare

Importance of Shakespeare in 'Wise Children'
Shakespeare is seen to be important to the Hazard dynasty, as it is Shakespeare that is perpetuating it. The way that the novel's characters' lives are almost guided by Shakespeare is another example of magical realism. Shakespeare has had the quote, "It's a wise child that knows its own father" accredited to him, however it has also been accredited to Homer and Mark Twain.

Shakespeare is presented in "Wise Children" as “high culture”. It is the culture of Melchior who comes from the right side of the tracks. However there is a blurring between this high and low culture, as Dora is able to quote Shakespearean lines.

Carter changes the plot when borrowing from some of Shakespeare’s plays. For example, Tiffany rejects Tristram whereas Hero chooses Claudio. But then perhaps this is expected from a feminist writer, as throughout Wise Children the female characters are always the most dominant.

Melchior’s obsession with Shakespeare can be seen in the way that he refers to Dora and Nora as “Peaseblossom! Mustardseed!” Melchior is portrayed as obsessed with his acting; this causes Lady A to make her dramatic speech accusing Melchior of leaving her womb empty. Angela Carter makes several more references to Shakespeare

 * "Shakespeare was a kind of God for him" – A quote about Ranulph (Melchior's father)
 * "Shakespeare, to whom our family owed so much"

Throughout the novel, there are numerous references to the works of William Shakespeare. Carter attempted to provide reference to every Shakespeare play however did not manage it completely:

Twelfth Night
"She worked the provincial circuits, Juliet, Rosalind, Viola, Portia..."
 * What You Will, the West End show, which Melchior Hazard appears, is an alternative title for Shakespeare's play Twelfth Night.
 * Estella is described as playing Viola

 * The triple marriage in the third chapter is an allusion to the triple marriage at the end of Twelfth Night.

Much Ado About Nothing

 * Estella 'A Star Danced' Hazard is a reference to a line in the Shakespearean play Much Ado About Nothing where Beatrice says:

"No, sure, my lord, my mother cried; but then there was a star danced, and under that was I born. Cousins, God give you joy!"

Estella is also described as playing the character of Beatrice.

There is a parallel with Much Ado About Nothing as Hero is hidden believed to be dead like Tiffany.

 * A lot of disguise and deception occurs within the novel (the Chance sisters swapping perfumes to disguise each other as the other, Genghis Khan's first wife assuming the guise of Dora)
 * Carter explores tragedy through comedy (e.g. pedophilia with Lewis Carroll, miscarriages on stage, domestic violence with Nora)

Hamlet

 * Another Shakespearean reference is the house, which Dora and Nora live in at 49, Bard Road, Brixton, London. Dora also muses whether or not a parcel should be delivered to “2b or not 2b” a version of Hamlet’s often quoted line “To be or not to be”. There is also a misquotation of this line when My Lady Margarine is mocked saying "To butter or not to butter"

There is a parallel between the Shakespearean play Hamlet and Tiffany’s shaming on the game show ‘Lashings of Lolly’. She appears mad and delusional like the character Ophelia. Ophelia carries flowers and sings just like Tiffany does. Ophelia drowns which is how it is suggested that Tiffany has died.

There is a parallel with Hamlet as Melchior has multiple marriages like Gertrude, Hamlet’s mother

Saskia tries to poison Melchior at his 100th party via the cake. Poison is a key tool in Shakespearean literature as a means of killing off the king or important person. Claudius poisons King Hamlet, and tries to poison the younger Hamlet. This attempt is successful. What is particularly significant is that in the final scenes, the poison intended for Hamlet kills Gertrude, Claudius's wife and sister. Saskia almost poisons Tristram, highlighting the previously hinted-at incestuous relationship between them. In Wise Children, the Hazard family are portrayed as an illegitimate royalty (for example, the paste board crown echoes the fakeness of their royalty), which is why the poison is unsuccessful. In all Shakespearean tragedy involving the poisoning of a king or lord, they are always successful, but as Melchior isn't real royalty - the attempt on his life is unsuccessful. A kind of echo to Shakespearian cliche-ism.

Melchior quotes Claudius with his line “pretty, pretty lady,” when he covers Tiffany on Lashings of Lolly.

Othello
There is also a parallel with the Shakespearean play Othello when Ranulph kills himself, his wife Estella and Cassius Booth. This mirrors the plot of Othello. Othello believes that Desdemona is having an affair with Cassio. When Othello is performed by the Hazards, Iago is played by Cassius Booth. Ranulph shoots Cassius before killing Estella and turning the gun on himself mirroring Othello’s suicide. Ranulph cannot separate life from art.

A Midsummer Night's Dream
Chapter 3 focuses on a film version of 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' .The reworking of A Midsummer Night's Dream is more one of atmosphere rather than one of plot.

Romeo and Juliet
Old Nanny is presented as the nurse in 'Romeo and Juliet' during chapter five.

Melchior is playing Romeo when Grandma Chance finds him. He refuses to acknowledge paternity of Dora and Nora.

Merchant of Venice
"Here she is as Juliet, as Portia, as Beatrice"
 * Estella Hazard is described as playing Portia

 * She is also mentioned acting in "the casket scene" (Merchant of Venice) and the "sleepwalking scene" (Macbeth)
 * The title of the play "Wise Children" is a reference to the Merchant of Venice (Act 2 Sc 2) when Launcelot says:

"it is a wise father that knows his own child."

Shakespeare was changing a line of Homer's Odyssey: "My mother," answered Telemachus, "tells me I am son to Ulysses, but it is a wise child that knows his own father."

A Winter's Tale
Estella made her debut as Mamillius in 'A Winter's Tale’, which is described as "somewhat pedantic"

Saskia quotes the line "which some call natures bastards" when insulting Dora and Nora.

Julius Caesar
Melchior in old age "Your could hardly tell his Brutus (Julius Caesar) from his Antony" (Antony and Cleopatra").

Antony and Cleopatra
Melchior in old age "Your could hardly tell his Brutus (Julius Caesar) from his Antony" (Antony and Cleopatra").

Dora says that Tristram is the 'last gasp of the Imperial Hazard Dynasty that bestrode the British theatre like a colossus for a century and a half', similar to how Anthony is described in Anthony and Cleopatra.

Macbeth
There is a parallel with Macbeth, Saskia is witch-like. Dora describes her as a witch on several occasions

My Lady Margarine is like Lady Macbeth because she is the driving force behind her husband (e.g. forcing him to appear on TV)

Ranulph Hazard says "Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow" on a wax cylinder

Peregrine Hazard says 'Birnam Wood... Is just now creeping up on Dunsinane' when he takes Dora and Nora to see Melchior.

King Lear
There is a parallel with King Lear as this play focuses on sibling rivalry, the good daughter is rejected and there is mistreatment of parents. Both Ranulph and Melchior marry their ‘Cordelia’. Melchior can be seen as King Lear and Saskia and Imogen as Regan and Goneril as they reject him.

Ranulph is quoted acting in King Lear when he says "Be your tears wet?"

Melchior is introduced as the 'Prince of players!' and told to 'reclaim his crown.' a reference to King Lear.

Tiffany also bears a resemblance to King Lear when she appears on Tristram's gameshow. She says "You only lent it to me! Nothing was mine, not ever!", and strips off her shirt, an allusion to King Lear's revelation after his downfall during which he realises that if he lost his kingdom so easily it couldn't have really been his, and so he strips himself of all clothing in order to rid himself of his temporary material possessions.

As You Like It
‘One Man in his Time…’ is a quote from 'As You Like It'.

Dora and Nora stay in a hotel called the Forest of Arden, which is described as being ever so 'As You Like It'.

Estella is described as playing Rosalind "She worked the provincial circuits, Juliet, Rosalind, Viola, Portia..."

Henry V
Cry God for Harry, England and St George!' when entering Melchior's 100th Birthday party.

Richard III
Melchior is described as becoming Richard III when he gets angry trying to get his crown from Peregrine

Measure for Measure
Dora says during 'The Dream' that they would perform the substitute bride bit in 'Measure for Measure' and 'All's Well that Ends Well'

All's Well That Ends Well
Dora says during 'The Dream' that they would perform the substitute bride bit in 'Measure for Measure' and 'All's Well that Ends Well'

Richard II
Dora keeps a picture of Melchior as Richard II in her drawers.

Coriolanus
"I spotted Coriolanus stoutly buggering Banquo's ghost" - At the Christmas Party.

Henry IV, Part I
Dora paraphrases the quote Shakespeare, discretion is the better part of valour. This originates from Henry IV where Falstaff says: 'The better part of valour is discretion; in the which better part I have saved my life.'

Henry IV, Part Two
As if, when the young King meets up again with Jack Falstaff in Henry IV, Part Two, he doesn't send him packing but digs him in the ribs, says, "I have a job for you!".

Perry is very similar to Falstaff, with his Red hair, weight and his jocular character. Falstaff appears in Henry 1V parts 1 and 2 and the Merry Wives of Windsor (when he 'comes back from the dead', like Perry)

A Comedy of Errors
A Comedy of Errors contains two sets of twins - one high-born and one-low born.

Timon of Athens
“Timon, Caesar, John of Gaunt” – Dora lists the Shakespearean roles appropriate for older men.

The Tempest
When filming 'The Dream' Dora says: "Water!, water, everywhere! Did he think it was the bloody Tempest?"

"bound for oblivion nor leave a wrack behind" - line from the Tempest...describing Dora's attitude towards life and death

On Ranulph and Estella falling in love: “the stuff that dreams are made of”. cf “Such stuff as dreams are made on” – Prospero

The Taming of the Shrew
Angela Carter quotes the song "Brush Up on Your Shakespeare" by Cole Porter – This is a song taken from the musical Kiss Me Kate based on Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew.

The Merry Wives of Windsor
Perry is very similar to Falstaff, who appears in the Merry Wives of Windsor.

Sonnets
Saskia and Imogen are described as "The darling buds of may" (Sonnet 18) conveying their legitimacy.

The Sonnet 'O Mistress Mine' is quoted.

General
Dora and Nora are born on April 23 which as well as being Melchior's birthday is Shakespeare's birthday.

The novel Wise Children is also presented in five chapters like a Shakespearean play with five acts. Wise Children also blends comedy and tragedy in a way that can be seen in Shakespearean plays e.g. Much Ado About Nothing. Wise children could be seen as a parody of the Shakespearean tragedy.

The opening chapter, like in the first Act of a Shakesperian play, introduces all the characters and sets the scene. On the other hand, the final chapter offers resolution, redemption and ties up any loose ends.

Some names are almost speaking names (My Lady Margarine, Wheelchair, Pretty Kitty). These were often used in Shakesperian plays, and makes the characters more memorable.

Using pre-existing characters practically lifted from Shakespeare's plays she can almost paint her own characters in short hand.

In the final chapter of the novel, Dora Chance gives Gorgeous George a £20 note with Shakespeare's face on the back of it; symbolising the end of the novel and Carter's main focus that the plot is based on the character's lives around Shakespeare


text:
Cookbook:Sindhi Cuisine

Sindhi cuisine is from the Sindh region of Pakistan. Given the largely Muslim background from which it developed, when meat is used, it is usually lamb, beef, or chicken. Hindu Sindhi cuisine is similar except that beef is not used. The daily food in most of Sindhi households consists of wheat bread called phulka, gravy, and a dry side dish.

title: Cookbook:Sindhi Cuisine


text:
A-level English/Wise Children/Magical Realism

Magical Realism
The book is an example of Magical Realism. The novel switches between actions, which are described as being so extravagant that the reader has to suspend their disbelief to everyday dialogue between characters. Wise Children cannot be looked at as a realistic level. However Carter does blend the absurd with realism. Many of the character's emotions are real - Dora's longing for acceptance from Melchior, however this is contrasted by absurd moments.

Examples of Magical Realism include:

 * Grandma Chance's ghost who visits Dora and Nora before they go to Melchior's 100th birthday.
 * The end of chapter two where Dora has sex as the building is burning down
 * The coincidence that there are so many twins.
 * "She’d got a fishbowl on her head with a fish in it. I kid you not" - Imogen's headwear at the end of the novel.
 * The amount of 'coincidental' links to Shakespeare
 * The majority of events that occurred during the filming of 'The Dream'
 * Peregrine - everything about him, his appearance, (the size of him), how he always seems to disappear and then turn up miraculously. Links with carnivalesque/carnival, "he was like a travelling carnival".

Wikipedia has an article on magical realism, which you may want to read: Magic realism. For the purposes of studying this novel the definition of magical realism could be Magical "magical elements appear in an otherwise realist setting".

Theatrical references
Dora makes theatrical references:

 * I made my bow fives minutes after Nora
 * The curtain call of my career as a lover (Dora with Perry)

Allusions to fairy tales
There are also many allusions to fairy tales
 * Once upon a time
 * Cinders, you shall go to the ball
 * Saskia is described as the wicked fairy (in sleeping beauty)
 * Melchoir is portrayed as the fairytale villain

Carnivalesque
The term "carnivalesque" refers to a certain spirit that pervaded the medieval European carnivals as described by a Russian  named Mikhail Bakhtin. According to Bakhtin, carnival was a time when all the hierarchies that were so firmly established in medieval life were inverted. Similarly in 'Wise Children' hierarchy is inverted - Lady A becomes known as Wheelchair and is compared to a sheep.

Another aspect of the carnivalesque is chaos and flux - this can be seen in the way that the novel refuses to give a chronological account of events and instead the narrative jumps between different generations.

The refrain "What a joy it is to dance and sing" is asking readers to enjoy the lighter side of life.

There are many references to the carnival in ‘Wise Children’

 * Peregrine says “Life is a carnival”
 * ‘The carnival’s got to stop, some time’
 * Peregrine is the one character that embodies the carnivalesque.
 * He is a magician who can summon doves out of handkerchiefs.
 * Make a set of china and cutlery disappear after an afternoon picnic.
 * Remove a scarlet macaw from Melchior's tights.
 * Dora remembers her time with Perry fondly. She describes the trip to Brighton as the happiest time of her life. He can do magic tricks and exhibits extravagant behaviour – e.g. having an affair with Lady A.
 * He appears at every party or extravaganza such as the weddings at the end of the dream and Melchior’s 100th birthday.


text:
Cookbook talk:Sindhi Cuisine

Editing history from Sindi food
The content of this module was transwikied from the Wikipedia article Sindhi food. The page history of the article at the time the content was moved is included below, and is required for GFDL compliance.

* (cur) (last) 12:54, April 25, 2006 Utcursch m (+cat) * (cur) (last) 23:24, April 24, 2006 Fang Aili (transwikied recipes per Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Sindhi food, cleanup of rest of article) * (cur) (last) 21:45, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 21:42, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 21:40, April 23, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 21:39, April 23, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 21:35, April 23, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 20:52, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 20:52, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 20:17, April 23, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 20:09, April 23, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 20:07, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 19:56, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 19:36, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 19:34, April 23, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 22:30, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:25, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:20, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:16, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:15, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:12, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:12, April 21, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:10, April 21, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 16:22, April 16, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 16:21, April 16, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 16:09, April 16, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 16:04, April 16, 2006 210.18.91.51 * (cur) (last) 02:11, April 16, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 00:57, April 16, 2006 Can't sleep, clown will eat me m (Reverted edits by Lavina8 (talk) to last version by Schzmo) * (cur) (last) 00:57, April 16, 2006 Lavina8 (→Lassi) * (cur) (last) 00:56, April 16, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 23:48, April 15, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 23:47, April 15, 2006 Lavina8 * (cur) (last) 22:49, April 15, 2006 Schzmo (afd) * (cur) (last) 22:48, April 15, 2006 Lavina8

title: Cookbook talk:Sindhi Cuisine


text:
A-level English/The Miller's Prologue and Tale/Past Paper Questions

In what ways was the miller compared to animals?

1
Explore the ways Chaucer presents fourteenth century attitudes towards women in The Miller's Prologue and Tale

2
Remind yourself of lines 199 - 243 (from "Thanne fil it thus, that to the parissh chirche" to " For curteisie, he seide, he wolde noon"), in which The Miller introducesthe character of Absolon.

What is the importance of this section in the whole of The Miller's Prologue and Tale?

3
In the Miller's Prologue Chaucer informs us that the Miller told his churles tale "in his manere". Explore the ways that the Miller's character is reflected in The Miller's Tale.

4
What do you find interesting about the way that Chaucer satirises the code of Courtly Love in The Miller's Prologue and Tale?

5
Remind yourself of lines 113 - 162 (from "This carpenter hadde wedded newe a wyf," to "Or yet for any good yeman to wedde." in which the Miller first describes Alison.

What is the importance of this section in the context of the whole of The Miller's Prologue and Tale?


text:
Parkour/Basic Moves/Cat Leap

A Cat leap (aka Saut de bras )is a common technique in parkour in which a traceur cannot make a jump from one point to another with his or her feet, and therefore must run at the 2nd point (usually a wall), and grab the top with their hands while simultaneously preventing their body from slamming into the wall using their feet.

To execute a cat leap, run at the top of a wall. Your legs should be extended partially in front of you once airborne. Absorb the impact with your legs first, potentially bending your knees and landing on the balls of your feet. Once the feet touch, grab the top of the wall with your hands. The cat leap has been completed. You may either drop down, jump to another wall, or pop on top or over current wall.

Variations
In a variation of a cat leap, the body can either be partially on top of the wall (versus just the arms), or the feet may be slid down the wall, to further avoid impact.

title: Parkour/Basic Moves/Cat Leap


text: Category:Cheeses

title: Category:Cheeses


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Appendix A: Formulae

By the end of this module you will be expected to have learned the following formulae:

The Laws of Indices

 * 1) $$x^ax^b = x^{a+b}\,$$
 * 2) $$\frac{x^a}{x^b} = x^{a-b}$$
 * 3) $$x^{-n}=\frac{1}{x^n}$$
 * 4) $$\left(x^a\right)^b = x^{ab}$$
 * 5) $$\left(xy \right)^n = x^n y^n$$
 * 6) $$\left(\frac{x}{y}\right)^n = \frac{x^n}{y^n}$$
 * 7) $$x^\frac{a}{b} = \sqrt[b]{x^a}$$
 * 8) $$x^0 = 1\,$$
 * 9) $$x^1 = x\,$$

The Laws of Surds

 * 1) $$\sqrt{xy} = \sqrt{x} \times \sqrt{y}$$
 * 2) $$\sqrt{\frac{x}{y}} = \frac{\sqrt{x}}{\sqrt{y}}$$
 * 3) $$\frac{a}{b+\sqrt{c}} = \frac{a}{b+\sqrt{c}} \times \frac{b-\sqrt{c}}{b-\sqrt{c}} = \frac{a(b-\sqrt{c})}{b^2-c}$$

Parabolas
If f(x) is in the form $$a(x + b)^2 + c$$ Axis of Symmetry = $$\frac{-b}{2a}$$
 * 1) -b is the axis of symmetry
 * 2) c is the maximum or minimum y value

Completing the Square
$$ ax^2+bx+c=0\,$$ becomes $$a\left(x + \frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 -\frac{b^2}{4a} + c$$

The Quadratic Formula

 * The solutions of the quadratic $$ax^2+bx+c=0$$ are: $$x = \frac{-b \pm \sqrt{b^2 - 4ac}}{2a}$$
 * The discriminant of the quadratic $$ax^2+bx+c=0$$ is $$b^2 - 4ac$$

Errors

 * 1) $$Absolute\ error = value\ obtained - true\ value$$
 * 2) $$Relative\ error = \frac{absolute\ error}{true\ value}$$
 * 3) $$Percentage\ error = relative\ error \times 100$$

Gradient of a line
$$m=\frac {y_2-y_1}{x_2-x_1}$$

Point-Gradient Form
The equation of a line passing through the point $$\left (x_1, y_1 \right )$$ and having a slope m is $$y - y_1 = m \left ( x - x_1 \right)$$.

Perpendicular lines
Lines are perpendicular if $$m_1 \times m_2=-1$$

Distance between two points
$$d = \sqrt{(x_2-x_1)^2 + (y_2-y_1)^2}$$

Mid-point of a line
$$\left(\frac {{x_1} + {x_2}}{2} ; \frac {{y_1} + {y_2}}{2}\right)$$

General Circle Formulae
$$Area = \pi r^2\,$$

$$Circumference = 2 \pi r\,$$

Equation of a Circle
$$\left (x - h \right )^2 + \left (y - k \right )^2 = r^2$$, where (h,k) is the center and r is the radius.

Differentiation Rules

 * 1) Derivative of a constant function:

$$\frac{dy}{dx} \left (c \right) = 0$$
 * 1) The Power Rule:

$$\frac{dy}{dx} \left (x^n \right) = nx^{n - 1}$$
 * 1) The Constant Multiple Rule:

$$\frac{dy}{dx} c f \left ( x \right ) = c \frac{dy}{dx} f \left ( x \right )$$
 * 1) The Sum Rule:

$$\frac{dy}{dx} \begin{bmatrix} f \left ( x \right ) + g \left ( x \right ) \end{bmatrix} = \frac{dy}{dx} f \left ( x \right ) +  \frac{dy}{dx} g \left ( x \right )$$
 * 1) The Difference Rule:

$$\frac{dy}{dx} \begin{bmatrix} f \left ( x \right ) - g \left ( x \right ) \end{bmatrix} = \frac{dy}{dx} f \left ( x \right ) -  \frac{dy}{dx} g \left ( x \right )$$

Rules of Stationary Points

 * If $$f' \left ( c \right ) = 0$$ and $$f'' \left ( c \right ) <0$$, then c is a local maximum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be concave down on the interval.
 * If $$f' \left ( c \right ) = 0$$ and $$f'' \left ( c \right ) >0$$, then c is a local minimum point of f(x). The graph of f(x) will be  concave up on the interval.
 * If $$f' \left ( c \right ) = 0$$ and $$f \left ( c \right ) = 0$$ and $$f' \left ( c \right ) \ne 0$$, then c is a local inflection point of f(x).


text:
User:KaiMartin

You may contact me via email: kmk@familieknaak.de

And yes, meine Muttersprache ist Deutsch...

-<(kmk)>-

title: User:KaiMartin


text:
A-level Mathematics/C3/Combining Transformations of Graphs

Translation of curves
Many curves are translations of the basic curve of the same degree. For example $$y=(x+1)^2+1$$ is a translation of $$y=x^2$$ by 1 unit up on the $$y$$ axis, $$\begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}$$, and one unit to the left on the $$x$$ axis, $$\begin{pmatrix} -1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}$$, so the full translation is $$\begin{pmatrix} -1 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}$$. It is useful to remember the translations of curves, so that you can easily sketch graphs from the basic shape.

Vertical translation
The constant term moves the entire graph vertically by that much. For example, $$y=x^2+3$$ will move the graph upwards by 3 units, and $$y=x^2-3$$ will move the graph down by 3 units.

Horizontal translation
When a number is subtracted from $$x$$ before it is squared, the entire graph will move in the opposite direction by the same amount. For example, $$y=(x-3)^2$$ will move the graph to the right by 3 units, and $$y=(x+3)^2$$ will move the graph to the left by 3 units. It may be confusing that the graph moves in opposite directions, but with the translations, $$x$$ has to be smaller or larger to give the same result that it used to, so positive numbers move it in the negative direction, and vice versa. You can imagine that the numbers on the $$x$$ axis are changed by the amount of the translation, so in $$y=(x-3)^2$$, the origin $$(0,0)$$ is now $$(3,0)$$.

General translations
In general, $$y=(x-t)^2+s$$ is a translation of $$y=x^2$$ by $$\begin{pmatrix} t \\ s \end{pmatrix}$$.


text:
IB Music/Music History/Renaissance Period

Society

 * 1) Church less powerful because of reformation
 * 2) Humanism
 * 3) Printing press spread learning
 * 4) Educated people all taught music
 * 5) Musical activity shifted to courts
 * 6) Composers sought credit for work
 * 7) Rebirth of culture of ancient Greece and the Roman Empire

Words and music

 * 1) Music to enhance meaning of text
 * 2) Word painting

Texture

 * 1) Chiefly polyphonic: 4-6 important voices
 * 2) Homophony in dances
 * 3) Bass register used: richer harmony
 * 4) Stable chords with triads
 * 5) A cappella—little accompaniment

Rhythm and melody

 * 1) Rhythm a gentle flow, not sharp beat
 * 2) Rhythmic independence between lines
 * 3) Melody moves along a scale; few large leaps

Renaissance Mass

 * 1) Less polyphonic than that of the late middle ages, so that the latin texts could be heard more easily. This was done for religious purposes.

Josquin Desprez

 * 1) Flemish composer
 * 2) Motet = polyphonic choral work set to a sacred Latin text
 * 3) Wrote Ave Maria…Virgo Serena

Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina

 * 1) 16th century Italian composer, music director for St. Peter’s
 * 2) Wrote for Catholic church
 * 3) Pope Marcellus Mass convinced polyphony okay
 * 4) Famous for the Renaissance mass

Vocal music

 * 1) The Renaissance madrigal
 * 2) * Piece for several solo voices set to a short poem
 * 3) * First Italian, then English
 * 4) * Usually polyphonic with unusual harmonies
 * 5) The Renaissance ballett
 * 6) * Also called a fa-la
 * 7) * Mostly homophonic

Instrumental music

 * 1) Subordinate to vocal music
 * 2) Mostly meant for dancing
 * 3) Pavane, galliard, passamezzo some dances
 * 4) Shawm, recorder, lute, cornett, sackbut, viol, organ, regal, harpsichord some instruments

The Venetian school

 * 1) 16th century Venice became center of music, esp. St. Marco
 * 2) Characteristic: parts written esp. for instruments, not voice
 * 3) Giovanni Gabrieli
 * 4) 16th century Venetian composer, organist at St. Marco
 * 5) Wrote instrumental ensemble works and polychoral motets
 * 6) Cori spezzati


text:
IB Music/Music History/Baroque Period

Some baroque flashcards http://www.flashcardexchange.com/flashcards/list/526330

Contextual

 * 1) Theory of affections - Johann Mattheson is credited with the coinage of this blazement. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/7687/doctrine-of-the-affections
 * 2) Specific rhythms, melodies associated with moods
 * 3) One mood throughout each piece
 * 4) Was caused by the Reformation

Rhythm

 * 1) Continuity of rhythm
 * 2) Forward motion

Melody

 * 1) Opening melody repeated in varied form
 * 2) Elaborate, ornamental, hard to sing or remember
 * 3) Dynamic expansion, not balance or symmetry

Dynamics

 * 1) Continuity of dynamics: stays same for long periods
 * 2) Terraced: any shifts are sudden
 * 3) Organ and harpsichord encouraged continuity of volume

Texture

 * 1) Mainly polyphonic
 * 2) Imitation between voices
 * 3) Homophony for contrast

Chords and the basso continuo

 * 1) Chords more important, not just product of melodic lines
 * 2) Bass part important as foundation of chords
 * 3) Basso continuo
 * 4) * Keyboard player plays bass part with left hand
 * 5) * Improvises chords from bass part with right hand
 * 6) * Right hand part called a figured bass
 * 7) The continuo is played by the organ or harpsichord and the cello or bassoon
 * 8) The basso is the figured bass

Words and music

 * 1) Standardized descriptive musical language
 * 2) Words emphasized by many rapid notes per syllable

Baroque orchestra

 * 1) Performance group based on members of violin family
 * 2) Basso continuo plus upper strings
 * 3) Woodwind, brass, percussion optional
 * 4) Trumpet given high, rapid complex lines
 * 5) Same part played by different instruments
 * 6) There was no conductor

Baroque forms

 * 1) Contrasting movements
 * 2) A B A, A B, or undivided

Ground Bass

 * 1) When a musical idea is repeated over and over in the bass
 * 2) It is variation form as the above melodies change
 * 3) It is also called a basso ostinato
 * 4) Used by Purcell

Concerto grosso

 * 1) Small group of soloists pitted against tutti
 * 2) 3 contrasting movements
 * 3) The 1 and 3 movement are in ritornello form

Ritornello form

 * 1) First and last movements of concerto grosso are in this form
 * 2) Opens with theme played by tutti
 * 3) Alternation between solo and tutti
 * 4) (There can be multiple solos at a time)
 * 5) fast
 * 6) like theme and variations
 * 7) what ever it starts with is the theme

The fugue

 * 1) Polyphonic composition based on one main theme called subject
 * 2) When the second voice enters, it presents the subject on the dominant and is called the answer
 * 3) Different voices imitate the subject
 * 4) Variation after each voice presents subject
 * 5) Countersubject, if present, always with subject
 * 6) Episodes occur between presentation of the subject
 * 7) Stretto: imitation before subject completed
 * 8) Varied by:
 * 9) Inversion (upside down)
 * 10) Retrograde (backwards)
 * 11) Augmentation (time values lengthened)
 * 12) Diminution (time values shortened)
 * 13) There were three sections
 * 14) Exposition: Where the subject, answer and countersubject are introduced
 * 15) Development: Where the subject changes key, can go through inversion, Retrograde, Augmentation and Diminution
 * 16) Recapitulation: Where the main subject is again played, it sort of recaps the whole piece through its major sections

Independent fugues

 * 1) are introduced by a short piece of music called either a Prelude, Passacaglia, Fantasia, or a Taccato
 * 2) Passacaglia: a harmonic progression that keeps being repeated
 * 3) Fantasia: a free flowing composition which demonstrates skill and technique
 * 4) Taccato: Shows virtuosity and uses many scales

Opera

 * 1) Drama sung to orchestral accompaniment
 * 2) Text = libretto; always overly dramatic
 * 3) Can be serio or, pitches of speech of Greek drama
 * 4) Created rise of virtuoso singers—castrati among others
 * 5) Very emotional

Aria

 * 1) a song for solo voice
 * 2) typically further showing the audience emotions or intentions of a character

Recitative

 * 1) A short song imitating speech
 * 2) Is usually before or after an aria

Overture

 * 1) Operas start with an overture/symphonia, it is the part where all of the instruments play at the beginning

Women

 * 1) Coloratura Soprano: Very high, rapid scales and trills
 * 2) Lyric Soprano: Light voice, sings roles of grace and charm
 * 3) Dramatic Soprano: Full and powerful voice, capable of passionate intensity

Men

 * 1) Dramatic Tenor: Powerful voice, capable of heroic expression
 * 2) Basso Buffo: Takes comedic roles, can sing very rapidly
 * 3) Basso Profondo: very low voice, plays powerful roles, roles of great dignity

Oratorio

 * 1) Like an opera, but without costumes, scenery or acting
 * 2) Based on biblical stories
 * 3) not intended for religious ceremony

The Baroque sonata
By the time of Arcangelo Corelli, two polyphonic types of sonata were established: the sonata da chiesa (church sonata) and the sonata da camera ("ordinary" sonata, literally chamber sonata).

The sonata da chiesa, generally for one or more violins and bass, consisted normally of a slow introduction, a loosely fugued allegro, a cantabile slow movement, and a lively finale in some binary form suggesting affinity with the dance-tunes of the suite. This scheme, however, was not very clearly defined, until the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and George Friderich Handel, when it became the essential sonata and persists as a tradition of Italian violin music – even into the early 19th century, in the works of Boccherini.

The sonata da camera had consisted almost entirely of idealized dance-tunes, but by the time of Bach and Handel such a composition drew apart from the sonata, and came to be called a suite, a partita, an ordre, or, when it had a prelude in the form of a French opera-overture, an overture. On the other hand, the features of sonata da chiesa and sonata da camera then tended to be freely intermixed. Bach, however, while not using the titles themselves, nevertheless keeps the two types so distinct that they can be recognized by style and form. Thus, in his six solo violin sonatas, Nos. 1, 3, and 5 are recognizably sonate de chiesa; and Nos. 2, 4, and 6 are explicitly called partitas, but are admissible among the sonatas as being sonate da camera.[citation needed] Bach is also cited as being among the first composers to have the keyboard and solo instrument share a melodic line, whereas previously most sonatas for keyboard and instrument had kept the melody exclusively in the solo instrument.

The term sonata is also applied to the series of over 500 works for harpsichord solo, or sometimes for other keyboard instruments, by Domenico Scarlatti, originally published under the name Essercizi per il gravicembalo (Exercises for the Harpsichord). Most of these pieces are in one binary-form movement only, with two parts that are in the same tempo and use the same thematic material, though occasionally there will be changes in tempo within the sections. Many of the sonatas were composed in pairs, one being in the major and the other in the parallel minor. They are frequently virtuosic, and use more distant harmonic transitions and modulations than were common for other works of their time. They are admired for their great variety and invention.

The genre – particularly for solo instruments with just the continuo or ripieno – eventually influenced the solo movements of suites or concerti that occurred between movements with the full orchestra playing, for example in the Brandenburg Concerti of Bach. The trio sonatas of Vivaldi, too, show parallels with the concerti he was writing at the same time.

The sonatas of Domenico Paradies are mild and elongated works of this type, with a graceful and melodious little second movement included. The manuscript on which Longo bases his edition of Scarlatti frequently shows a similar juxtaposition of movements, though without any definite indication of their connection. The style is still traceable in the sonatas of the later classics, whenever a first movement is in a uniform rush of rapid motion, as in Mozart's violin sonata in F (K. 377), and in several of Clementi's best works.

The Chorale and Church Cantata
Chorales tend to have simple and singable tunes, because they were originally intended to be sung by the congregation rather than a professional choir. They generally have rhyming words and are in a strophic form (with the same melody being used for different verses). Within a verse, most chorales follow the AAB pattern of melody that is known as the German Bar form. (Lutheran)

The Baroque Suite
The Baroque Suite is a group of dances usually in the same key. Each piece is usually in binary form (A-A-B-B) or ternary form (A-B-A). The standard dances in the suite are the allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue.

Arcangelo Corelli
influential Italian violinist and composer of Baroque music. His compositions are distinguished by a beautiful flow of melody and by a mannerly treatment of the accompanying parts, which he is justly said to have liberated from the strict rules of counterpoint.

Claudio Monteverdi

 * 1) One of the most important early baroque composers
 * 2) Wrote Orfeo, first great opera
 * 3) Music director at San Marco

Henry Purcell
is generally considered to be one of England's greatest composers. He has often been called England's finest native composer. Purcell incorporated Italian and French stylistic elements but devised a peculiarly English style of Baroque music.

title: IB Music/Music History/Baroque Period


text:
IB Music/Music History/Classical Period

Contrast of mood

 * 1) Contrasting themes in movements
 * 2) Mood could change suddenly or gradually

Rhythm

 * 1) Flexibility of rhythm
 * 2) Pauses, syncopation, changes from long to short notes

Texture

 * 1) Basically homophonic
 * 2) Also intervals of complex polyphony and imitation

Melody

 * 1) Tuneful, easy to remember
 * 2) Some borrowed from folk or popular music
 * 3) Balanced, symmetrical

Dynamics and the piano

 * 1) Gradual dynamic change: crescendo and decrescendo
 * 2) Piano replaced harpsichord because of finger pressure

The end of the basso continuo

 * 1) Gradually abandoned during classical period
 * 2) music written for amateurs--couldn’t handle figured bass
 * 3) Wanted more control over accompaniment

The classical orchestra

 * 1) Standard 4 sections: brass, woodwind, strings, percussion
 * 2) * 1st violins, 2nd violins, violas, cellos, double basses
 * 3) * 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons
 * 4) * 2 French horns, 2 trumpets
 * 5) * 2 timpani
 * 6) Trombones in opera and church music
 * 7) More musicians than a baroque group
 * 8) Tone color more important
 * 9) Strings most important
 * 10) Woodwinds given melodic solos
 * 11) Brass brought power, harmony, but didn’t play melody
 * 12) Timpani for rhythmic emphasis

Classical forms

 * 1) Several movements that contrast in tempo and character
 * 2) * Fast movement
 * 3) * Slow movement
 * 4) * Dance-related movement
 * 5) * Fast movement
 * 6) Each movement could have different forms
 * 7) * A BA or theme and variations
 * 8) * Could have 2, 3, 4 contrasting themes
 * 9) * Sections balance each other

Sonata form

 * 1) aka the sonata allegro form
 * 2) not the same as a sonata (which is a whole composition)
 * 3) is one movement of a classical symphony (the first and sometimes the last)
 * 4) there are 3 main sections: Exposition, Development, Recapitulation and sometimes a Coda

Exposition

 * 1) first movement and it is in the tonic key
 * 2) bridge containing modulation from tonic to new key
 * 3) second theme presented in new key
 * 4) closing section in new key
 * 5) at the end there is a repeat

Development

 * 1) new treatment of themes (can modulate through similar ways as development in a Baroque fugue: augmentation, diminution, inversion, retrograde ect)
 * 2) modulations to new keys

Recapitulation

 * 1) first theme is in tonic key
 * 2) bridge
 * 3) second theme is in tonic key
 * 4) closing section is in tonic key

Coda

 * 1) in tonic key

Contextual Features
The practice of the Classical period would become decisive for the sonata; the term moved from being one of many terms indicating genres or forms, to designating the fundamental form of organization for large-scale works. This evolution stretched over fifty years. The term came to apply both to the structure of individual movements (see Sonata form and History of sonata form) and to the layout of the movements in a multi-movement work. In the transition to the Classical period there were several names given to multimovement works, including divertimento, serenade, and partita, many of which are now regarded effectively as sonatas. The usage of sonata as the standard term for such works began somewhere in the 1770s. Haydn labels his first piano sonata as such in 1771, after which the term divertimento is used very sparingly in his output. The term sonata was increasingly applied to either a work for keyboard alone (see Piano sonata), or for keyboard and one other instrument, often the violin or cello. It was less and less frequently applied to works with more than two instrumentalists; for example piano trios were not often labelled sonata for piano, violin, and cello. Initially the most common layout of movements was: 1.	Allegro, which at the time was understood to mean not only a tempo, but also some degree of "working out", or development, of the theme. (See Charles Rosen's The Classical Style, and his Sonata Forms.) 2.	A middle movement which was, most frequently, a slow movement: an Andante, an Adagio, or a Largo; or, less frequently, a Minuet or Theme and Variations form. 3.	A closing movement, early in the period sometimes a minuet, as in Haydn's first three piano sonatas, but afterwards, generally an Allegro or a Presto, often labelled Finale. The form was often a Rondo.

Theme and variations

 * 1) a basic motif that is repeated again and again that just slightly varies ie. the key, tempo, timbre, duration, ect change
 * 2) each variation is the same length as the theme

Minuet and trio

 * 1) Minuet is a social dance of French origin for two persons
 * 2) originated as a dance
 * 3) it is in 3/4
 * 4) it is ABA (minuet, trio, minuet)

Rondo

 * 1) main theme called a "refrain"
 * 2) the number of themes can vary between pieces, and sometimes the recurring element is embellished or shortened in order to provide variation
 * 3) the refrain alternates with one or more contrasting themes called "episodes", but are occasionally called "digressions" or "couplets"
 * 4) the form can be seen as ABACA or ABACABA
 * 5) commonly used in the last movement of the classical symphony

The classical symphony

 * 1) instrumental (orchestra)
 * 2) 4 movements
 * 3) * 1. fast, in a binary form or later sonata form
 * 4) * 2. Slow
 * 5) * 3. Minuet and trio (later developed into the scherzo and trio), in ternary form and it is 3/4
 * 6) * 4. fast, sometimes also in sonata form. Other common possibilities are Rondo form or sonata-rondo

The classical concerto

 * 1) 3 movement work
 * 2) * 1. fast (sometimes a cadenza (solo))
 * 3) * 2. slow
 * 4) * 3. fast

Classical chamber music
was for 4-9 instruments

String Quartet

 * 4 movements
 * composed for 2 violins and violas and cellos
 * 1) fast
 * 2) slow
 * 3) minuet/ scherzo
 * 4) fast

Piano trio

 * violin
 * cello
 * piano

Joseph Haydn

 * know as "father of the symphony" and "father of the string quartet"
 * used the development of larger structures out of short and simple motifs
 * Haydn's musical practice formed the basis of much that was to follow in the development of tonality and musical form.
 * He took genres such as the symphony, and slowly expanded their length, weight and complexity.
 * Haydn's work became central to what was later described as sonata form
 * his music is quite simple and sometimes boring that is how you can differentiate for your exam
 * his surprise symphony greatly influenced Prokofiev in his writing of the "classical symphony"

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

 * incorporated contrapuntal complexities
 * wrote over 600 compositions including that of symphonic, concertante, chamber, piano, operatic, and choral music.
 * he was a versatile composer and wrote in almost every major genre, including symphony, opera, the solo concerto, chamber music including string quartet and string quintet, and the piano sonata.
 * While none of these genres were new, the piano concerto was almost single-handedly developed and popularized by Mozart.
 * The central traits of the classical style can all be identified in Mozart's music. Clarity, balance, and transparency are hallmarks, though a simplistic notion
 * for the exam you can recognize him by his music typically sounding very light and playful, with complexities.

Ludwig van Beethoven

 * Beethoven was one of the first composers to work freelance
 * he took what was popular and changed it
 * to recognize him his music was very epic sounding with lots of booms
 * his death marked the end of the classical period

title: IB Music/Music History/Classical Period