text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Symbols

Symbols are really the foundation of interactive project development. They help keep file size down, aid in organization, and allow you to use ActionScript to manipulate their appearance. In this chapter, we will be looking at how to make and use symbols, as well as a consideration of the three symbol types and their uses.

A symbol is a reusable image, animation, graphic, movie clip, sound file, font or button that resides in the library. A bitmap (any imported graphic file) is not as controllable as a symbol. For example the alpha/opacity of a bitmap cannot be keyframed for dissolves but a symbol can be. A graphic can be placed in a symbol by entering symbol edit mode and importing the symbol into the symbol stage. Enter symbol edit mode by clicking the + button in the library.

Moving an element to the library converts it to a symbol. (If the Library is not open, open it with Ctrl-L.) If a symbol is dragged into the Library and it has the same name as an existing symbol, the new symbol replaces the old. A Resolve Library Item Conflict requestor appears. Select Replace. Library folders can help avoid same file name problems. If a symbol is dragged out of the library an instance of it (a copy) is created. Changing an instance of a symbol on the stage does not change the master copy. The master symbol can be changed through symbol Edit mode (double click the symbol in the library.) Instances can be named in the Properties panel. To create a new symbol: Insert > New Symbol (or Ctrl-F8) brings up a requestor that wants to know the type of symbol being created (movie clip, button or graphic) and a name for it. It then takes you to symbol edit mode where you create and edit the symbol. A symbol has its own Timeline and layers, independent of the scene Timeline that it is in. A symbol can be composed of many layers and manipulated as a single object. To convert a graphic to a symbol select it and Insert > Convert To Symbol. A Symbol can also be created by dragging an object from the stage to the library. The object on the stage that was dragged into the library will be converted to a symbol and a symbol icon will appear in the library. A Convert to Symbol dialog box appears with several behavior buttons that determine how the symbol will be used. These behaviors are:

/Graphic/ – Used for static images and animations that are tied to the main Timeline. Graphic symbols are created with Flash draw tools. Their icons look like a hazardous waste symbol.

/Button/ – Responds to mouse clicks and other events. Graphics are defined for various button states. Actions are assigned to the button instance. A button symbol icon is a finger on a button.

/Movie Clip/ – Reusable animations. They have their own Timelines that run independently of the main Timeline. They are like mini-movies that run inside the main movie. They can contain interactive controls and can be controlled by ActionScript.

The instance’s type can be changed at any time through the Property Inspector.

Symbols can be edited in context (with other elements on the stage, called Edit In Place) or they can be edited in a separate window. If a master symbol is changed then every existing instance of that symbol will display the changes: Edit > Symbol or double click on the symbol in the library or use the + icon in the library. A symbol can be copied in the library panel by selecting it and Modify > Duplicate Symbol. This is a good way to make new symbols using existing symbols as templates.

Frames from one symbol can be copied into another symbol: Select the frames to be copied on the main Timeline and Edit > Copy Frames. Then create a new symbol. Select frame one of the new symbol and Edit > Paste Frames.

Each object has a registration point used to place the element on the stage. This info is listed in the Info Panel: Window > Panels > Info. An Align Panel is available for aligning elements relative to each other: Window > Panel > Align. A Registration tool is used to place the registration point on the object. Effects can be applied to a selected symbol with Window > Panels > Effects. Effects include color/transparency, animation and sound effects. Single instances or multiple instances of a symbol can be edited. Edit > Edit Symbols.

The link between an instance and a symbol can be broken which turns the instance into a collection of pieces parts. Select the instance. Modify > Break Apart.

Instances can be linked to different symbols in order to retain their properties. A rat symbol for instance could be changed to a cat symbol and its color and movements would be preserved.

To assign a different symbol to an instance select the instance on the stage and click the Swap button in the Property Inspector. Select a new symbol from the Swap Symbol dialog box. The Swap Symbol dialog box also has a Duplicate button that creates a copy of the selected symbol.

 * /Making/ Symbols
 * /Using/ Symbols

title: Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash/Symbols


text:
Talk:Persian/Alphabet overview

content moved to Persian/Alphabet to correspond with German lang edition that is being translated to English. Poppy 00:16, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Persian/Alphabet overview


text:
User talk:Zorbak5099

Regarding edits made during March 2 2007
Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 00:36, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. Az1568(Talk) 00:40, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

This is your last warning. The next time you vandalize a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.  Az1568(Talk) 00:42, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Blocked
You have been temporarily blocked from editing for vandalism of Wikibooks. If you wish to make useful contributions, you are welcome to come back after the block expires. Please note that vandalism (including page blanking or addition of random text), spam, deliberate misinformation, privacy violations, personal attacks; and repeated, blatant violations of our neutral point of view policy will not be tolerated. Az1568(Talk) 00:46, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zorbak5099


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/img

Use
This tag is used to declare an image in the webpage. There are two formats you are to use on the web. They are: .gif (Graphics Interchange Format) and .jpg or .jpeg (Joint Photographic Expert Group).

src
This must be used by the user. It declares the path of the image, in other words the source of the image.

alt
This used to be optional, now with XHTML coming into the spotlight, it is now compulsory to add this to the attributes list. All this does is add text to were the image is supposed to be when it cannot be found by the browser.

align
Tells the browser were the image is supposed to be. The user has a choice of three values with this. They are: left, right and center.

height
This tells the browser how tall the image will be on the webpage. This must not be used to control the image size.

title
This declares text that is shown when the mouse is moved over the image.

width
Tells the browser the width of the image. Must not be used to control the image size.

Standard attributes

 * align
 * height
 * title
 * width

More info
http://yourhtmlsource.com/images/fileformats.html Images and Websites on yourhtmlsource.

title: HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/img


text:
HyperText Markup Language/Tag List/input

Use
These input data from the user. They can be inputs such as text boxes or selection boxes.

type
Type tells the browser what type of input element this is. It can be one of the following:
 * "text": A one line text box.
 * "radio": Small circular choice buttons.
 * "checkbox": A small square choice button.
 * "password": A password box. For security, it shows all characters as "*".
 * "hidden": Hidden text in a web page.
 * "file": Presents a text box for entering the full name of a local file. Also has a "browse" button to select the file.
 * "submit": Submit button.
 * "image": Image Button.
 * "reset": A reset button.

name
Names the attribute. When the form is sent off, the user would want to know what the information is.

size
The size of the text box. This is done in a percentage.

value
Use this when the type attribute has been set to radio. Tells the form what the value is when the box has been highlighted.

checked
Use this to define a value in the checkbox. Use with checkbox only.

Standard attributes

 * checked
 * value
 * size
 * name

More info
A link to a page with more info, then the name of the site the info came from (i.e. W3Schools).


text:
Microprocessor Design/Assembler

Simply having a new microprocessor is not much of a benefit, unless you have a way to program it. The most simple and direct way to program a microprocessor is through the use of an assembler. An assembler converts mnemonics into corresponding machine code instructions. Once you have an ISA, it's a trivial task to map mnemonics to the various instruction opcodes.

Once an ISA is finalized, the design work can usually be split into two teams: a hardware team to design the datapath and control units, and a software team to write an assembler and other programs, such as a simulator and a compiler. This is not the way it is always done, however, as a single group of people is perfectly capable of doing both sets of tasks.

title: Microprocessor Design/Assembler


text:
Cookbook:Crab Dip

| Southern U.S. cuisine | Seafood recipes

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (7½ ounces / 200 g) crab meat
 * 1 cup mayonnaise
 * ½ cup sour cream
 * 1 teaspoon lemon juice
 * 3 teaspoons dry sherry
 * Salt to taste
 * Freshly-ground pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Drain, rinse, and pick over crab meat to remove any bits of shell and cartilage.
 * 2) Combine all ingredients, blending well.
 * 3) Refrigerate until ready to serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve before dinner with chips and crackers.
 * For color and variety, mixed nuts and colorful vegetables can be laid out.

title: Cookbook:Crab Dip


text:
Microprocessor Design/Simulator

Simulators are software programs that have grown in popularity among design groups in recent years. Once an ISA is finalized, and the basics of the datapath are mapped out (especially the timing and delays), a simulator can be a very valuable project to work on.

A simulator allows software for your new microprocessor to be tested on a separate computer. This means that people can write and test software for your new processor even before you have finished designing it!

Simulators have lead to a fascinating new realm of productivity known as hardware software co-design.

title: Microprocessor Design/Simulator


text:
Microprocessor Design/Compiler

With an assembler written, it is typically a good idea (although not always) to write a high-level language compiler for your new processor. Typically the high-level language in these situations is C because of its small number of built in constructions, and the close relationship that C shares with the underlying assembly language.

Compilers help to speed up the development process, so that more complicated software can be written without the tedium of writing large assembly language programs. Another benefit to this is that there are a number of pre-existing tools for use with higher-level languages, such as simulators and debuggers that can increase the efficiency of your software team.

title: Microprocessor Design/Compiler


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books

Books by Jürgen Habermas
Theory of Communicative Action vol. 1: Reason and the Rationalization of Society vol. 2: Lifeworld and System Philosophical Discourse of Modernity

title: Habermas Commentary/Books


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2

Commentary on Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 2: Lifeworld and System copyright 1981 by Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt am Main (Germany) third corrected edition 1985 translated by Thomas McCarthy published 1987 by Beacon Press (Boston)

Note that the first four headings, below, appear in volume 1:

From Lukacs to Adorno: Rationalization as Reification
Here, in volume 2:

The Paradigm Shift in Mead and Durkheim: From Purposive Activity to Communicative Action
To enter the space reserved for detailed commentary pertaining to a page, click on the page number. A blue page number indicates the presence of detailed commentary for that page.

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The Foundations of Social Science in the Theory of Communication

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The Authority of the Sacred and the Normative Background of Communicative Action

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The Rational Structure of the Linguistification of the Sacred

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Intermediate Reflections: System and Lifeworld

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The Concept of the Lifeworld and the Hermeneutic Idealism of Interpretive Sociology

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The Uncoupling of System and Lifeworld

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Talcott Parsons: Problems in Constructing a Theory of Society

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From a Normativistic Theory of Action to a Systems Theory of Society

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The Development of Systems Theory

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The Theory of Modernity

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Concluding Reflections: From Parsons via Weber to Marx

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A Backward Glance: Weber's Theory of Modernity

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Marx and the Thesis of Internal Colonization

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The Tasks of a Critical Theory of Society

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title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA2


text:
Habermas Commentary/Topics

Lifeworld Linguistification of the Sacred

title: Habermas Commentary/Topics


text:
Habermas Commentary/Topics/Linguistification

Habermas first defines “linguistification of the sacred” on TCA2 p. 77. There, it means that people’s behavior or thinking ceases to be guided by fears of the sacred, and instead becomes guided by criticizable validity claims. This, he thinks, is an improvement: the sacred becomes “sublimated” into those validity claims. Basically, you stop behaving as you are told by norms that are protected by unquestionable sacred authority, and instead you experience a release or freeing of the potential for rational, communicative action.


text:
Talk:Wireless Mesh Networks

Wireless Mesh Networks
This book is an advanced topic book that follows after the basic Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi security books. I am willing to contribute if there is interest in this book since I have experience in this area.  kgrr talk05:51, 2 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I am very interested in learning about the topic. I have seen other people decide not to contribute because "there is not interest". I guarantee that somewhere someone appreciates very much that you are willing to share your knowledge. It may go unsaid, but I think it is important to for contributors to remember that their content will be available for a long time (assuming Wikimedia foundation stays around) and with probably .5-3 billion people with potential access to the internet. This knowledge will be used and appreciate by at least a small percentage of those people. If you have the motivation, energy, and you think you can get something out of it for yourself, I would encourage you to contribute. --Remi 05:58, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Topics
* Mesh network basics - definitions - point to multi-point vs. meshes * History Highlights - Philadelphia - Tempe/Chandler/Mesa - Rio Rancho * Motivation - needs not met - service provider (for profit) - digital divide - public service (police and fire departments) - hobbyist - inside of facility * Economics - supply, demand - competition (cable, DSL, WIMAX, others...) - business case (revenue and expenses) - free or fee? (per use, subscription) * Politics - zoning - architectural review * Social Impact - digital divide - community building * Regulatory - licensed / unlicensed * Taxonomy of Mesh Types - WAN, LAN or PAN? - Indoor or Outdoor - Coverage (to the porch or inside) - Hierarchical or Distributive - Low Cost - Real-time Multimedia Capable * Design Parameters - Latency - Jitter - Throughput - Capacity - Handover Speed * How many radios? - One - Two - Three or More * Transport - 802.11a Wi-Fi - 802.11b/g Wi-Fi - 802.16 WIMAX - Others * Access - 802.11b/g Wi-Fi - 802.11a Wi-Fi - 802.16 WIMAX - Others? * RF concerns - Channel Reuse, C/I - Frequencies - Licensed / Unlicensed - Transmitter Mask, Adjacent Channel Interference - Link Budget - Transmit Power - Receive Sensitivity * What layers does it operate on? - Layer 2 (switched mesh) - Layer 3 (routed mesh) - Both Layer 2/3 * Topology Control - Loop Prevention Spanning Tree Routing Protocols - Load Sharing * Mobility / Handoffs - Layer 2 802.11 "roaming" 802.11r enhancements - Layer 3 Mobile IP     Proxy Mobile IP  * Applications - Web Surfing - E-mail - Police/Fire - Gaming - Voice over IP   - Telephone Replacement * Content - Internet - Local * Mesh network vendors (I have a list of 17 of them) - BelAir - Cisco - Nortel - Proxim - RoamAD - Sky Pilot - Strix - Tropos * Power to the Node - Light Pole - Mains - Solar * Survey Tools - Ekahau - Cognio - NetStumbler * Planning Tools - Motorola Mesh Planner - * Mounting Options - Light Pole - Communications Tower - Rooftop * Testing Tools - iPerf - Ekahau - Cognio * Meshes you can build - CUWiN * Appendix A - Applicable Standards - 802.11k - 802.11r - 802.11s - 802.11v - WIMAX * Appendix B - Known Deployments - Philadelphia, PA   - Mesa, AZ    - Chandler, AZ    - ... * Appendix C - Mesh Timeline - 1999   - 2000    - 2001 etc.

I updated this list, am I still missing topics here? Feel free to edit the list.

 kgrr talk15:55, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Thesis Statement
What is the point of this book? Is it a survey of all the mesh types? Is this a design book? I think it should teach mesh technology to someone that already knows Networking and Wi-Fi as a pre-requisite. It should give someone the basic understanding of the issues to buy, design and deploy mesh networks. Can we discuss this?

 kgrr talk06:31, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Type of Book
What type of book will it be? Reference, textbook, self-study course, (application) note collection, tutorial, experimentation instructions, travel report, etc.

I think it should be a textbook.  kgrr talk15:49, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Target Audience
Who are the target audience? How old are they, how advanced are their reading skills and background be? Are they children or adults; students, hobbyists, or professionals; researchers or scientists? (an advanced level for a hobbyist is something completely different than one for a researcher).

The target should be adults; students, serious hobbyists, researchers; professionals = engineers, economists, and marketers, and the like.  kgrr talk15:49, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Scope
What is the scope of the book? A second year IT book and a junior or senior level BS Engineering Book suitable for teaching a semester course with the intent of being able to skip over a few chapters. Knowledge of Networking (CCNA) and Wireless Networking (Wi-Fi) are a pre-requisite.  kgrr talk15:49, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Outline
Once we have the list of topics and the thesis, let's work on the outline. Perhaps someone can organize these into chapters. Can we discuss a strategy?

 kgrr talk06:31, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Merge?
I would prefer that the Wireless Mesh Sensors and the Wireless Mesh Networks books be kept separate because they are really very different technologies although they share the mesh element.Kgrr (talk) 20:46, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Are you still defending that position? I was going to merge the two but saw your opposition. Wireless Mesh sensors Wikibook is an empty stub (about the quality and quantity), the subject aren't that dissimilar you can only get wireless mesh sensors inside a wireless mesh network, and most of the content would have to be duplicated in both books so they cover individually similar subjects, merging does make a lot of sense and in this case will not create any structural damage...
 * If no opposition is stated, in 7 days, I will proceed with the merge. I will try to contact you by email if available and make a note on your talk. --Panic (talk) 20:30, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Wireless Mesh Networks


text:
Ruby Programming/Reference/Objects/Symbol

A Ruby symbol is the internal representation of a name. You construct the symbol for a name by preceding the name with a colon. A particular name will always generate the same symbol, regardless of how that name is used within the program.

:myVariable

Other languages call this process "interning," and call symbols "atoms."


title: File:TextPic3.jpg


title: File:TextPic4.jpg


text:
User talk:87.42.85.36

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 10:43, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:87.42.85.36


text:
Horticulture/Hemiberlesia rapax

Greedy Scale is a scale insect with a wide range of hosts. Its origin is uncertain, but it has become an invasive species in many parts of the world.

Description
Small, grayish-white armored scales, generally found in large colonies.

Symptoms and Signs
Severe infestations cause wilting, distortion, and the death of the host plant.

Ecology
Females do not produce wings, crawlers are spread mechanically or by wind.

Host plants
Greedy scale feeds on hundreds of species, including (but not limited to) species in the following genera: '*../Cotoneaster/
 * ../Abelia/
 * ../Acacia/
 * ../Bamboos/
 * ../Buxus/ (Boxwood)
 * ../Camellia/
 * ../Ceanothus/
 * ../Cedrus/ (Cedar)
 * ../Celtis/ (Hackberry)
 * ../Cercis/ (Redbud)
 * ../Diospyros/
 * ../Eleagnus/
 * ../Erica/ (Heath)
 * ../Euonymus/
 * ../Ficus/ (Fig)
 * ../Fuchia/
 * ../Geranium/
 * ../Hedera/ (Ivy)
 * ../Ilex/ (Holly)
 * ../Ipomoea/
 * ../Juglans/ (Walnut)
 * ../Juniperus/ (Juniper)
 * ../Laurus/ (Laurel)
 * ../Ligustrum/ (Privet)
 * ../Lonicera/ (Honeysuckle)
 * ../Magnolia/
 * ../Mahonia/ (Grape-holly)
 * ../Malus/ (Apple)
 * ../Morus/ (Mulberry)
 * ../Myrtus/
 * ../Olea/ (Olive)
 * ../Persea/ (Avocado)
 * ../Plumeria/
 * ../Prunus/ (Stone Fruits)
 * ../Pyracantha/ (Firethorn)
 * ../Pyrus/ (Pear)
 * ../Quercus/ (Oak)
 * ../Rhododendron/ (Rhododendron, Azalea)
 * ../Robinia/ (Locust)
 * ../Rosa/ (Rose)
 * ../Salix/ (Willow)
 * ../Salvia/ (Sage)
 * ../Sedum/ (Rockcress)
 * ../Ulmus/ (Elm)
 * ../Vaccinium/ (Blueberry)
 * ../Vitis/ (Grape)

title: Horticulture/Hemiberlesia rapax


text:
Intermediate Macroeconomic Theory/Introduction

The term "Macro" has been derived from the Greek word MAKROS which means large. Therefore macroeconomics is that branch of economics which deals with the economy as a whole. It is the study of economic aggregates, (or macro economic variables) such as national income, total employment, total savings, total investment, total consumption, general price level, etc. That is why it has also been called aggregative economics


text:
Horticulture/Camellia

Camellia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Theaceae, native to eastern and southern Asia from the Himalaya east to Japan and Indonesia. There is some controversy over the number of existent species, with anything from 100–250 species being accepted. The genus was named by Linnaeus after Fr. Georg Joseph Kamel S.J., a Jesuit botanist.

Description
They are evergreen shrubs and small trees from 2–20 m tall. The leaves are alternately arranged, simple, thick, serrated, usually glossy, and 3–17 cm long. The flowers are large and conspicuous, 1–12 cm diameter, with (in natural conditions) 5–9 petals; colour varies from white to pink and red, and yellow in a few species. The fruit is a dry capsule subdivided into 1–5 compartments, each containing 1–8 seeds.

Growing conditions
The genus is generally adapted to acidic soils, and does not grow well on chalk or other calcium-rich soils. Most species also have a high rainfall requirement and will not tolerate drought.

Species
There are about 100–250 species, including:
 * ../Camellia assimilis/
 * ../Camellia brevistyla/
 * ../Camellia caudata/
 * ../Camellia chekiangoleosa/
 * ../Camellia chrysantha/ – Golden
 * Camellia
 * ../Camellia connata/
 * ../Camellia crapnelliana/
 * ../Camellia cuspidata/
 * ../Camellia euphlebia/
 * ../Camellia euryoides/
 * ../Camellia forrestii/
 * ../Camellia fraterna/
 * ../Camellia furfuracea/
 * ../Camellia granthamiana/
 * ../Camellia grijsii/
 * ../Camellia hongkongensis/ - Hong Kong Camellia
 * ../Camellia irrawadiensis/
 * ../Camellia japonica/ – Japanese Camellia
 * ../Camellia kissii/
 * ../Camellia lutchuensis/
 * ../Camellia miyagii/
 * ../Camellia nitidissima/
 * ../Camellia nokoensis/
 * ../Camellia oleifera/
 * ../Camellia parviflora/
 * ../Camellia pitardii/
 * ../Camellia polyodonta/
 * ../Camellia reticulata/
 * ../Camellia rosiflora/
 * ../Camellia rusticana/ – Snow Camellia
 * ../Camellia salicifolia/
 * ../Camellia saluenensis/
 * ../Camellia sasanqua/ – Christmas Camellia
 * ../Camellia semiserrata/
 * ../Camellia sinensis/ – Tea
 * ../Camellia taliensis/
 * ../Camellia transnokoensis/
 * ../Camellia tsaii/
 * ../Camellia vietnamensis/
 * ../Camellia yunnanensis/

Uses
One species, Camellia sinensis (tea), is of major commercial importance. Tea oil is a sweet seasoning and cooking oil made by pressing the seeds of Camellia sinensis or Camellia oleifera.

Many other camellias are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers; about 3,000 cultivars and hybrids have been selected, many with double flowers, as in the gallery featured below. Camellia japonica (often simply called Camellia) is the most prominent species in cultivation, with over 2,000 named cultivars; next are C. reticulata, with over 400 named cultivars, and C. sasanqua, with over 300 named cultivars. Popular hybrids include C. × hiemalis (C. japonica × C. sasanqua) and C. × williamsii (C. japonica × C. salouenensis). They are highly valued in Japan and elsewhere for their very early flowering, often among the first flowers to appear in the late winter. Late frosts can damage the flowers.

Maintenance
Camellias have a slow growth rate. Typically they will grow about 30 centimetres a year until mature although this varies depending on variety and location.

Pests and diseases
../Leaf Spot/ ../Black Mold/ ../Leaf Gall/ Flower ../Blight/ ../Canker/ ../Root Rot/ Leaf ../Blight/ ../Viruses/: Variegation may be caused by a virus which vectors through grafting.
 * Cercospora theae (in greenhouse conditions)
 * Pestalosa guepini
 * Phyllosticta camelliae
 * Phyllosticta camelliaecola
 * Sphaceloma
 * Sporonema camelliae
 * Meliola camelliae
 * Exobasidium camelliae
 * Botrytis cinerea
 * Sclerotinia camelliae
 * Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
 * Glomerella cingulata
 * ../Phythopthora cinnamomi/
 * Cephaleuros virescens

Bud drop: Caused by insufficient light, high temperatures before bloom, rootbinding, overwatering, sever freezing.

Chlorosis

Oedema-Caused by overwatering

Sunburn -Too much light

Salt injury

../Nematodes/
 * Root Knot Nematode: ../Meliodgyne incognita/
 * Root Nematode: ../Hemicriconemoides gaddi/

../Aphids/ ../Scales/ ../Whiteflies/ ../Mealybugs/ ../Thrips/
 * Black Citrus ../Aphid: Toxoptera aurantii/
 * Melon Aphid: ../Aphis gossypii/
 * Green Peach Aphid: ../Myzus persicae/
 * Tea Scale: ../Fiorinia theae/
 * Florida Red Scale: ../Chrysomphalus aonidum/
 * Black Scale: ../Saissetia oleae/
 * California Red Scale: ../Aonidiella aurantii/
 * Camellia Scale: ../Lepidosaphes camelliae/
 * Chaff Scale: ../Parlatoria pergandii/
 * Cottony Taxus Scale: ../Pulvinaria floccifera/
 * Florida Wax Scale: ../Ceroplastes floridensis/
 * Glover Scale: ../Lepidosaphes gloveri/
 * Greedy Scale: ../Hemiberlesia rapax/
 * Hemispherical Scale: ../Saissetia coffae/
 * Latania Scale: ../Hemiberlesia lataniae/
 * Oleander Scale: ../Aspidiotus nerii/
 * Oystershell Scale: ../Lepidosaphes ulmi/
 * Olive Parlatoria Scale: ../Parlatoria pittospori/
 * Florida Red Scale: ../Chrysomphalus aonidum/
 * Euonymus Scale: ../Unaspis euonymi/
 * Greenhouse Whitefly: ../Trialeurodes vaporariorum/
 * Citrus Mealybug: ../Planococcus citri/
 * Longtailed Mealybug: ../Pseudococcus longispinus/

../Beetles/ ../Mites/
 * Black Vine Weevil: ../Otiorhynchus sulcatus/
 * Strawberry Root Weevil: ../Otiorhynchus ovatus/
 * Fuller Rose Beetle: ../Pantomorus cervinus/
 * Cranberry Rootworm: ../Rhabdopterus picipes/
 * Caterpillars
 * Omnivorous Looper Caterpillars: ../Sabulodes aegrotata/,  ../Sabulodes caberata/
 * Orange Tortrix Caterpillar: ../Argyrotaenia citrana/
 * Fruittree Leafroller: ../Archips argyrospila/
 * Greenhouse Leaf Tier: ../Udea rubigalis/
 * Spotted Cutworm: ../Xestia/ spp.
 * (see list of Lepidoptera which feed on Camellia).
 * Camellia Bud Mite: ../Cosectatus camelliae/
 * Citrus Rust Mite: ../Phyllocoptruta oleivora/
 * Southern Red Mite: ../Oligonychus illicis/

title: Horticulture/Camellia


text:
User talk:70.169.90.252

Regarding edits made during March 2 2007
Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 15:18, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.169.90.252


text:
Wireless Mesh Networks

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Acknowledgements/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 2) /Introduction/ [[File:25%.svg]]
 * 3) /Mesh network basics/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 4) /History Highlights/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 5) /Motivation/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 6) /Economics/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 7) /Politics/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 8) /Social Impact/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 9) /Regulatory/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 10) /Taxonomy of Mesh Types/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 11) /Design Parameters/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 12) /How many radios?/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 13) /Transport/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 14) /Access/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 15) /RF concerns/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 16) /What layers does it operate on?/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 17) /Topology Control/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 18) /Mobility Handoffs/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 19) /Applications/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 20) /Content/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 21) /Operations/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 22) /Accounting and Billing/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 23) /Management/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 24) /Getting Power to the Node/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 25) /Survey Tools/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 26) /Planning Tools/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 27) /Mounting Options/
 * 28) /Testing Tools/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 29) /Meshes you can build/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 30) /Conclusion/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 31) /Appendix A - Applicable Standards/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 32) /Appendix B - Known Deployments/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 33) /Appendix C - Mesh Timeline/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 34) /Appendix D - Mesh network vendors/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 35) /Bibliography/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 36) /Glossary/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * 37) /Index/ [[File:00%.svg]]

External links and resources

 * Communication Systems

title: Wireless Mesh Networks


text:
User talk:Dudes190

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 16:52, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dudes190


text:
A-level Economics/AQA/Business Economics and the Distribution of Income

Theory of the Firm
The theory of the firm is a series of economic models utilised to understand and explain the nature of firms and their interaction with the market.

Costs
One such economic model is that of the costs which a firm faces. There are two main types of costs discussed; fixed and variable costs.Fixed costs are costs which remain constant at all levels of output. Variable costs are those costs which vary with the level of output. Marginal cost is the cost of producing an extra unit of output. Average cost is the average cost of each unit of output for a given level of output. Total cost is the sum total of costs for a firm at a given level of output.

Calculating and Graphing Costs
In addition to being able to define the different types of costs facing firms it also required that you are able to interpret cost curves and calculate costs. Below is a table illustrating the total, average and marginal costs of a fictional firm. As is demonstrated by the table the formula for calculating the average costs of firm is: $$Average Cost={Total Costs}/{Output}$$

The marginal cost is the extra cost incurred by producing an additional unit of output, therefore, to calculate it the total cost of production at the current level of output is subtracted from the total cost of output at the previous level of output.

Revenue
There are also equivalent revenues for each of the costs. Average revenue is the average amount of revenue from the sale of a given number of units. Marginal revenue is the additional revenue generated from the sale of an extra unit. Total revenue is the total revenue generated from the sale of a given number of units at a given level of output.

Objectives of the Firm
There are a number of possible objectives which a firm may aspire to. This may be to maximise profits or to maximise sales. Newspaper editors may want to maximise their readership and will therefore endeavour to produce at the lowest average cost possible in order to achieve the lowest price and the highest level of demand. A firm seeking to maximise profits on the other hand will produce at a level where the marginal cost and the marginal revenue intersect.

Models of Market Structure
Economists have developed and utilised a series of models of different market structures to explain the different behaviour of firms in markets with different structures. As a model by definition is an attempt to simplify a complicated behaviour each model is based upon a series of assumptions and is therefore of limited use based on the validity of these assumptions.

Perfect Competition
One such model is that of perfect competition. This model attempts to create a situation in which the level of competition leads to both allocative and productive efficiency. It is based on the following assumptions; These four assumptions lead to a further salient characteristic of the model which means that both the consumers and producers are price takers as no single actor has sufficient market power to influence the price level within the industry. In addition to this any firm within the market who will accept the market price is able to sell all of its output, leading to perfectly competitive firms being faced with a perfectly elastic demand curve as shown in figure 1. As it is perfectly elastic both the marginal and average revenue remain constant.
 * There are many firms all of whom produce the same quantity of goods or services and all of whom have perfect knowledge of the other firms within the industry.
 * There are many buyers all of whom posses perfect knowledge of the industry.
 * The goods or services produced by the firms are homogeneous and not differentiated by branding or marketing.
 * Firms have absolute freedom to enter and exit the market due to a total lack of barriers to entry.

Perfect Competition In The Short and Long Run
The short run is defined as any period of time in which there is at least one fixed factor of production (i.e. land, labour, enterprise, capital). In the long run, however, all factors of production are variable, meaning that firms can achieve different levels of profit in the short and long run. In the long run it is only possible for a firm to make a normal profit. As all the products produced by the firms in this industry are homogeneous and there are a large number of firms, an increase in the price of one firms goods will lead consumers to switch to a competitor firm's product leading to the firm with the higher price making a loss and eventually going out of business. A firm may, in the short run, take advantage of a new production technique to increase output and therefore reduce the average cost and price of a unit and make a short run abnormal profit (a profit higher than normal profit). In the long run, however, as all firms have perfect knowledge regarding other firms within the industry all firms will copy this new production technique and too lower their average costs and price.

Monopoly
A monopolist is a sole firm in an industry. A monopoly market structure is essentially the opposite to the market structure of perfect competition. There must be high barriers to entry for a firm to stay as a monopoly.

The following barriers to entry may exist:
 * Natural cost advantages
 * Legal barriers such as patents
 * Marketing barriers
 * Unfair practices


text:
SimCity

Chapters

 * History of SimCity
 * /Starting a City/
 * /SimCity 2000/
 * /SimCity 2000 Concepts/
 * /SimHealth/
 * /SimCopter/
 * /Streets of SimCity/
 * /SimCity 3000/
 * /SimCity 3000 Concepts/
 * /SimCity 4/
 * SimCity 4 Concepts
 * SimCity (2013)
 * LinCity
 * SimCity Parodies
 * SimCity's Legacy
 * Neighbor Connections and Deals

Read more

 * SimCity and Urban Planning
 * SimEarth

title: SimCity


text:
User talk:204.128.70.65

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 19:10, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:204.128.70.65


text:
User talk:88.234.62.194

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 19:30, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:88.234.62.194


text:
Talk:Apache Ant/Getting Started/Installation

Prerequisites
The ant manual contains the following statements. I have edited text on this page which conflicts with this:

To build and use Ant, you must have a JAXP-compliant XML parser installed and available on your classpath, such as Xerces.

The binary distribution of Ant includes the latest version of the Apache Xerces2 XML parser. Please see http://java.sun.com/xml/ for more information about JAXP. If you wish to use a different JAXP-compliant parser, you should remove xercesImpl.jar and xml-apis.jar from Ant's lib directory.

You can then either put the JARs of your preferred parser into Ant's lib directory or put the jars on the system classpath. Some parts of Ant will fail if you use an old parser, especially one that is not namespace-aware. In particular, avoid the Crimson parser.

Tip: "ant -diagnostics" will list the XML parser used and its location.

For the current version of Ant, you will also need a JDK installed on your system, version 1.2 or later required, 1.5 or later strongly recommended. The later the version of Java, the more Ant tasks you get.

Note #2: If a JDK is not present, only the JRE runtime, then many tasks will not work.

RayGates 19:53, 2 March 2007 (UTC)


text:
How To Build a Pinewood Derby Car/Physics

This module has some simple physics and, at the end, some chemistry of the pinewood derby. A pinewood derby car converts gravitational potential energy to translational kinetic energy (and resulting velocity), rotational kinetic energy in the spinning wheels, and heat from friction. The fastest car is the one that starts with the most gravitational potential energy (weight in the back), ends up with the least rotational kinetic energy (light wheels with one lifted) and loses the least energy through friction (proper lubrication and alignment). Pinewood derby cars are a five ounce laboratory of practical physics, chemistry and engineering.

The Pinewood derby car problem is treated in two different ways below: 1) using the equations of motion and 2) using energy. Both are equally valid and arrive at the same result.

Equations of motion treatment
We'll build a physical model that considers all of the predominant forces acting on the Pinewood Derby car. First and foremost is the force of gravity, which is the only (allowed) force to accelerate the car down the ramp. Next, we'll consider the frictional forces of the axles on the wheels and the wheel treads on the track. Finally, we'll consider air drag and how it affects the motion of the car.

Throughout this section, we'll consider an idealized car and track. The car has a mass M of 5 ounces (141.7 grams), a length l of 7 inches and wheels each having mass m of 2.6 grams and radius r of 0.5". The track has overall length L and consists of a ramp of length $$L_r$$ at an angle of incline of $$\theta$$ followed by a flat of length $$L_f$$ to the finish. Given this geometry, an expression for the starting height is $$H=L_r\sin\theta$$. To keep things simple, we will not concern ourselves with the transition between the ramp and the flat at this time. Values for a typical Pinewood Derby track are $$L_r = $$ 8' (2.44 m), $$L_f = $$ 24' (7.32 m), $$H = $$ 4' (1.22 m), and $$\theta$$ = 30$$^{\circ}$$.

It will also be helpful to consider the equations of motion for an object with no external forces. This will be the case for the car on the flat part of the track when friction and wheel rotation are neglected. In this case the equations of motion are:

 * $$ a(t) = 0\, ;\, v(t) = v_0\, ;\, d(t) = v_0t + d_0\,$$,

where a(t) is the acceleration, v(t) is the velocity and d(t) is the distance at time t. The initial distance and velocity at time t=0 are given by $$d_0$$ and $$v_0$$, respectively.

Force of gravity on a falling object
First consider the most basic case of a falling object of mass M (an apple?). The force of gravity is given by the following expression:

 * $$ F_g = Mg\,$$,

where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s2 = 32.17 ft/s2 at the earth's surface). This force is directed downward and results in the object accelerating toward earth.

The equations of motion (neglecting frictional forces) for this object are as follows:

 * $$ a(t) = g\, ;\, v(t) = gt + v_0\, ;\, d(t) = \frac{1}{2}gt^2 + v_0t + d_0\,$$.

An object falling the height of 4' (1.22 m) would take 0.499 seconds and reach a maximum velocity of 4.892 m/s. If this object were then instantaneously turned to slide along the 24' flat track with no friction, the time would be an additional 1.496 seconds for a total time of 1.995 seconds.

Force of gravity on a Pinewood derby car
The Pinewood Derby car does not fall straight downward but rather proceeds down a ramp with an angle of incline $$\theta$$. Only the component of the gravitational force along the track surface will result in the acceleration of the car. The resulting accelerating force is:

 * $$ F_a = Mg \, \sin\theta\,$$.

The car only accelerates when on the ramp of angle $$\theta$$. On the flat part of the track where $$\theta=0$$ this accelerating force becomes zero. This can be thought of as acceleration with a reduced gravity $$g_\theta$$:

 * $$ g_\theta = g \, \sin\theta\,$$.

This reduced gravity can be used in the above equations of motion to solve for the car. In a Pinewood Derby on the initial slope, $$v_0=0$$ and $$d_0=0$$ so (neglecting friction and wheel rotation) these equations become:

 * $$ a(t) = g_\theta = g \, \sin\theta\,;\, v(t) = g_\theta t\,;\, d(t) = \cfrac{1}{2}g_\theta t^2\,$$.

The time $$T_r$$ to roll down the ramp is given by:

 * $$ d(T_r) = L_r = \cfrac{1}{2}g_\theta T_r^2\,$$,

Solving for $$T_r$$:

 * $$ T_r = \sqrt{\cfrac{2L_r}{g_\theta}} = \sqrt{\cfrac{2L_r}{g \sin\theta}}\,$$.

The maximum speed at the bottom of the ramp is:

 * $$ v(T_r) = v_{max} = g_\theta T_r = \sqrt{2gL_r\sin\theta} = \sqrt{2gH}\,$$.

For the idealized ramp, $$T_r$$ = 0.998 sec and $$v_{max}$$ = 4.892 m/s. This has taken twice the time of the falling case above, but the same maximum velocity was achieved!

The equations of motion for the car on the flat part of the track ($$\theta=0$$) for $$t>T_r$$ are given by the following:

 * $$ a(t) = 0\,;\, v(t) = v(T_r) = v_{max}\,;\, d(t) = L_r + v_{max}(t-T_r)\,;\, t>T_r\,$$.

The time $$T_f$$ to finish the flat portion of the race is given by:

 * $$ d(T_r+T_f) = L_r+L_f = L_r + v_{max}T_f\,$$.

Solving for $$T_f$$:

 * $$ T_f = \cfrac{L_f}{v_{max}}\,$$.

The total time to finish the race for this idealized car is:

 * $$T = T_r+T_f = \cfrac{v_{max}}{g_\theta} + \cfrac{L_f}{v_{max}}\,$$.

The flat-track time is 1.4953 seconds for a total time of 2.4933 seconds. Since the same maximum velocity as the falling case was achieved, the (frictionless) flat time is identical. The total time includes the extra half second it took to move down the ramp.

Energy conservation
Some key understanding of the physics of the Pinewood Derby car can be gained through energy considerations. Through this deliberation, we can consider the potential energy available in the system as well as the linear kinetic energy and the rotational kinetic energy in wheels. Above we considered only the linear motion as the car moved down the ramp and across the track. In fact, the rotation of the wheels requires energy and thereby removes energy from the system that would otherwise be available to accelerate the car. To account for the rotation of the wheels, we will consider the energy of the system.

We'll start out with the potential energy in the system, then move on to the simple linear case, and finally add the rotation of the wheels.

Potential energy
The energy that makes a pinewood derby car roll down the ramp is potential energy (symbol $$U_g$$). At the bottom of the ramp, this energy is converted into kinetic energy (symbol $$E_k\,$$).

The potential energy can be calculated using the formula

 * $$U_g = m g h \,$$.

where m is the mass of the car, $$g$$ is the acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s2 = 32.17 ft/s2 at the earth's surface) and h is the height of the car on the starting ramp (about 4 feet = 1.22 meters). The potential energy stored in a 5 ounce pinewood derby car is about 1.7 kg m2/s2= 1.7 J. The quantity 1.7 joule of energy is the same as 1.7 watts of power applied for one second.

Translational kinetic energy
The kinetic energy can be calculated using the formula

 * $$E_k = \frac{1}{2}mv^2$$.

where v is the velocity (speed) of the car, measured in meters per second (in SI units). If all of the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, then

 * $$U_g = E_k \,$$

and, substituting from above,

 * $$m g h = \frac{1}{2}mv^2 \,$$

since the mass is on both sides of the equation, you can divide both sides by $$m$$ and cancel (remove) the mass from the equation.

 * $$g h = \frac{1}{2}v^2 \,$$

and, rearranging, the velocity is found from

 * $$v = \sqrt{2 g h} \,$$

The velocity doesn't depend on the mass, just as Galileo demonstrated at the Leaning Tower of Pisa and, during the Apollo 15 landing, David Scott demonstrated on the moon. The velocity of any object falling from a height of 1.219 m is 4.890 m/s (11 MPH).

Rotational kinetic energy
Moving forward isn't the only kind of kinetic energy; it also takes energy to spin the wheels. The rotational kinetic energy of each wheel is given by

 * $$E_r = \frac{1}{2}I\omega^2$$,

where I is the moment of inertia of a wheel and ω is the angular velocity. Since we consider only a wheel that does not slip on the track, the angular velocity is related to the linear velocity through
 * $$\omega = v / r\,$$,

where r is the radius of a wheel. The moment of inertia for a ring of radius r and mass $$m'$$ is

 * $$I_{ring} = m'r^2\,$$

and for a disk, it is

 * $$I_{disk} = \frac{1}{2}m'r^2\,$$

For a Pinewood Derby wheel, the moment of inertia can be approximated by

 * $$I = 0.58\,m r^2\,$$,

where m is the mass of one wheel and r is the radius of the wheel.

The rotational kinetic energy for N wheels is therefore

 * $$E_{r} = \frac{N}{2} (0.58\,m r^2)\omega^2 = \frac{N}{2} (0.58\,m)v\,^2\,$$.

This turns out to be 0.094 J of energy stored in four wheels at the car's top speed of 4.75 m/s (see the table below). Compare that to the 1.7 J gravitational potential energy from above. Almost 6 % of that energy is stored in the spinning wheels and about 94 % is available for the car's forward velocity.

If we again convert all potential energy into kinetic energy, we can find the maximum kinetic energy and velocity:

 * $$U_g = E_k + E_r \, \Longrightarrow \, M g H = \frac{1}{2} \left( Mv_{max}^2 +  0.58N\,mv_{max}\,^2 \right)\,$$.

Solving for the velocity,

 * $$v_{max} = \sqrt {\cfrac {2gH} {1 + 0.58N \cfrac {m}{M} } } \, = \sqrt {\cfrac{2g H}{\alpha_R}} \, $$

Note that this result is again independent of the track geometry. The rotational factor, which has the effect of reducing the gravity, is expressed as follows:

 * $$\alpha_R = 1+0.58N \cfrac{m}{M} \, $$.

This factor can be used with the gravity in the above equations of motion. It must be combined with the reduced gravity due to the slope of the track. The resultant effective gravity is

 * $$ g'_\theta = \cfrac{g\sin\theta}{\alpha_R} \, $$.

This reduced gravity with wheel rotation can be substituted into the equations of motion to calculate the car's distance, velocity and acceleration at any point. the equations of motion become:

 * $$ a(t) = g'_\theta = \cfrac{g\sin\theta}{\alpha_R} \,;\, v(t) = g'_\theta t\,;\, d(t) = \cfrac{1}{2}g'_\theta t^2\,$$.

Now it is clear why the heaviest possible car is the fastest: for large M, $$\alpha_R$$ approaches 1 and the velocity is the same as the above case for the frictionless block: 4.9 m/s. With standard 3.6 g wheels, a 141.7 g (5 ounce) car has a velocity of 4.75 m/s at the bottom of the track. A 113.4 g (4 ounce) car has a velocity of 4.72 m/s.

The advantage of light wheels is also clear. The slowest car is one with the most mass in the wheels. If $$m=M$$ (four 35 g wheels rolling down the track!) the velocity is 2.7 m/s. With 3.6 g wheels, the velocity is 4.75 m/s; with 1 g light wheels, the velocity is 4.85 m/s. Another way to look at it is that a light wheel car has less than 2 % of its kinetic energy in the wheels while the standard wheel car has almost 6 %.

Raising one wheel reduces the rotational energy as long as that wheel doesn't touch the ground. The velocity of a three wheel (3.6 g) car is 4.78 m/s, while a raised light wheel car can reach 4.86 m/s.

An idealized track
Now that we know how fast an idealized car can go, let's let it run down an idealized track. A typical pinewood derby track is 32 feet long with 4 feet for the starting gate and arresting gear, leaving 8.534 m for travel. The first part of the track has a slope of about 20°, a curved transition section, followed by a flat section to the finish. The track can be approximated by a straight ramp section with length $$d_1$$ followed by a flat section with length $$d_2$$. Times calculated using the straight track approximation differ by less than 0.001 s compared to those obtained using a curved track and numerical integration. With the straight track and 20° slope, $$d_1$$ = 3.564 m and $$d_2$$ = 4.970 m. The car travels down the sloped section $$d_1$$ starting at zero velocity and accelerating to a velocity $$v\,$$ with an average speed of $$v/2\,$$. It then travels the distance $$d_2$$ at a velocity $$v\,$$. The total time is then

 * $$t= 2\frac{d_1}{v} + \frac{d_2}{v} $$

or 12.098/v seconds, if the velocity is specified in meters per second. Run times under different conditions are given in the table below.

!Conditions ||$$h\,(m)$$ || $$m\,(g)$$ || $$m'\,(g)$$ || $$v\,(m/s)$$ || $$t\,(s)$$
 * + Car Speeds and Times
 * Frictionless Block ||  1.219  ||  any || 0 || 4.89 || 2.47
 * Stock Wheels ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 3.6 || 4.75 || 2.55
 * Light (4 oz) Car ||  1.219  ||  113.4 || 3.6 || 4.72 || 2.56
 * Light Wheels ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 1.0 || 4.85 || 2.49
 * One Raised Wheel ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 2.7 || 4.78 || 2.53
 * Light Wheels, One Raised ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 0.75 || 4.86 || 2.49
 * Rear Bias (Stock Wheels) ||  1.243  ||  141.7 || 3.6 || 4.80 || 2.52
 * }
 * One Raised Wheel ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 2.7 || 4.78 || 2.53
 * Light Wheels, One Raised ||  1.219  ||  141.7 || 0.75 || 4.86 || 2.49
 * Rear Bias (Stock Wheels) ||  1.243  ||  141.7 || 3.6 || 4.80 || 2.52
 * }
 * Rear Bias (Stock Wheels) ||  1.243  ||  141.7 || 3.6 || 4.80 || 2.52
 * }
 * }

Center of mass
Up to this point, we have approximated the car as a point mass that starts 1.219 m above the finish and winds up at 0 m. As anyone familiar with pinewood derby knows, it is usually best to keep the center of mass as far back as possible, in part to increase the gravitational potential energy. How much faster is a car with the center of mass shifted to the back? Consider two cars, Car A with the center of mass at the center of the block and Car B with the center of mass 25.4 mm (one inch) in front of the rear axle in an extended wheelbase configuration with the axle 15.9 mm (5/8") from the rear of the block. The center of mass of the Car B is 47.6 mm behind Car A and 23.8 mm higher on a 30° slope. Car A starts at 1.219 m and (as shown above) has a maximum velocity of 4.75 m/s and 2.55 s time; Car B starts at 1.243 m and has a maximum velocity of 4.80 m/s and a 2.52 s time.

Friction forces
Friction is the force that opposes the motion of two objects in contact. In general, there are two types of frictional forces - static and kinetic. Static friction is a force that resists motion. Kinetic friction, also called sliding friction, is a force exerted between two objects in motion relative to one another. The primary types of friction associated with a Pinewood Derby car are the kinetic friction of the axles on the wheels and the static friction of the wheels rolling on the track. Both of these will be discussed in further detail below. Air Drag is considered a special topic and is discussed in detail below.

Other types of friction, including contact between the wheel inner hub and car body, the wheel outer hub and the axle head, the wheel and the track guide rail, can be greatly minimized or completely eliminated through proper car design and tuning.

Sliding (axle) friction
Sliding friction occurs whenever two surfaces are in contact and are in motion relative to one another. For the Pinewood Derby car, the primary source of contact friction is axle on wheel. This friction occurs within the car "system" and always occurs with the metal axle on the plastic wheel. The friction force on the axle and wheel ($$F'_f$$) is as follows:

 * $$F'_f = \mu N_f \,$$,

where $$N_f$$ is the normal force (perpendicular to the contact surface) exerted between the surfaces and $$\mu$$ is the coefficient of friction. The coefficient of friction is a property of the two materials in contact. For a Pinewood Derby car, the value of $$\mu$$ is about 0.24 for smooth plastic on metal and can be reduced to 0.10 or less if the axle is polished and a lubricant, such as graphite, is used.

The normal force is the force of the body mass on the axles. On a track with slope of $$\theta$$, the total normal force of all load-bearing axles is

 * $$N_f = (M-Nm)g \cos\theta \,$$,

where M is the mass of the car, m is the mass of a wheel, and N is the number of load-bearing wheels. $$M-Nm$$ is 127.3 g for a car at maximum weight with four 3.6 g load-bearing wheels.

The force of friction relative to the track is reduced by the mechanical advantage, which is the ratio of the wheel radius to the wheel bore hole radius. For every rotation of the wheel, the car travels one wheel circumference: 95.0 mm. The axle travels only 7.19 mm around the wheel bore hole circumference per rotation. The wheel-to-axle friction is then

 * $$F_f = \mu \left( \cfrac{r}{r_B} \right) (M-Nm)g  \cos\theta = \mu' (M-Nm) g \, $$,

where $$r_B$$ is the radius of the wheel bore hole and the adjusted coefficient of friction $$\mu'$$ is:

 * $$\mu' = \mu \left( \frac{r}{r_B} \right) \, $$.

The linear acceleration due to this force, including the effect of wheel rotation, is opposite the direction of motion and is

 * $$a'_f = \cfrac{\mu' g \left( 1-\cfrac{Nm} {M} \right) \cos\theta}{\alpha_R} = \cfrac{\mu' g \alpha_m \cos\theta}{\alpha_R}\,$$,

where the factor for wheel mass $$\alpha_w$$ has been defined:

 * $$ \alpha_w = 1- \frac{Nm}{M} \,$$.

Because this is a constant acceleration, it can be written as an effective reduced gravity in the equations of motion. The reduced gravity for all geometric, rotational and sliding frictional effects thus far is

 * $$g'_{\theta f} = g \cfrac{\sin\theta - \mu' \alpha_w \cos\theta}{\alpha_R} \, $$.

Using the above values, the wheel-to-axle frictional force is 0.00946 N.

Note that the wheel-to-axle friction for a light wheel car is 8% larger than for the stock wheel car due to the greater mass of the body (137.7 g body plus four 1.0 g wheels). However, the frictional force can be cut in half using needle axles, which are allowed in some open class races. A 1 mm needle axle has a mechanical advantage of 30 and a frictional force of 0.00453 N (assuming light wheels).

Another result is that a raised wheel does nothing to reduce wheel-to-axle friction. A three wheel car simply distributes the weight among three axles rather than four and the frictional force is the same. All of the raised wheel advantage stems from rotational kinetic energy.

Rolling friction
There are two kinds of friction: static and kinetic. Static friction is the resistance of an object at rest, for example, a heavy box at rest on concrete floor. Rolling resistance is the friction between a rolling wheel and surface. It is a static friction because, even though the wheel is moving, it is not sliding against the surface. Kinetic friction is the force that opposes the motion of a moving object. Using the box example, this would be the force that must be overcome as you slide the box across the floor. In the wheel example, rolling resistance is static, while skidding or doing a burnout involves kinetic friction. In this sense, rolling resistance is for the most part a "good" friction for a pinewood derby car because it does very little work and because it helps to convert what would otherwise be skidding friction into the significantly lower friction between the wheel and axle.

The force that results from rolling resistance is given by:

 * $$F_{r} = C_{rr} N \, $$

where Crr is the coefficient of rolling friction (CRF), and $$N$$ is the normal force (perpendicular to the track). The CRF value for a low rolling resistance tire is about 0.002 (see the rolling resistance article).

On a track with a slope of $$\theta$$, the normal force is perpendicular to the track and is given by

 * $$ N_\theta = Mg \cos\theta \,$$.

The frictional force from rolling resistance is then

 * $$ F_{\theta r} = C_{rr} Mg \cos\theta \,$$.

This force acts in the opposite direction of the motion of the car. The linear acceleration due to this force is

 * $$ a'_{\theta rr} = g' C_{rr} \cos\theta = \cfrac{g C_{rr} \cos\theta}{\alpha_R} \,$$,

resulting in an effective rolling resistance reduced gravity of

 * $$ g'_{\theta rr} = g \cfrac{\sin\theta - C_{rr} \cos\theta }{\alpha_R} \,$$,

The rolling resistance reduced gravity can be substituted into the equations of motion to solve for the car distance, velocity and acceleration at any point in time.

On a flat section of track, $$\theta=0$$ and

 * $$F_{r} = C_{rr} Mg = 0.002 \times 0.1417\,kg \times 9.807\,m/s^2 = 0.0028\,N \ $$.

The wheel-to-axle friction and rolling resistance are of comparable magnitude. From the above section, the rolling resistance was estimated to be about 0.003 N compared to the wheel-to-axle friction estimated above to be about three times larger.

Car modifications that can reduce the CRF can reduce the rolling resistance by the same factor. For example, a "V" or "H" tread pattern limits the contact area between the wheel and track and thereby reduce the CRF and rolling resistance. Note that a raised wheel does not reduce the overall rolling resistance since the full weight of the car is distributed over the remaining three wheels and increases their rolling resistance. However, the rolling resistance is greater for the rear wheels in a rear biased car since they bear a greater fraction of the weight.

Motion with friction
The "all-in" reduced gravity that includes the effects of track geometry, wheel rotation, sliding friction and rolling friction is:

 * $$g'_{\theta fr} = \cfrac{g_{\theta fr}}{\alpha_R} = g \cfrac{\sin\theta- \mu' \alpha_w \cos\theta - C_{rr} \cos\theta }{\alpha_R}  \, $$.

Note that the reduced gravity can be negative. In particular, it is negative on the flat track when $$\theta=0$$. Also of interest is that there will be some minimum value for $$\theta$$, below which the car will never overcome frictional forces and begin rolling - even on the sloped track!

The equations of motion become:

 * $$ a(t) = g'_{\theta fr} \,;\, v(t) = g'_{\theta fr}t+v_0\,;\, d(t) = \cfrac{1}{2}g'_{\theta fr}t^2+v_0t+d_0\,$$.

At the start of the race, $$v_0=0$$ and $$d_0=0$$. At the start of the flat section, simply reset the time to zero and use $$\theta=0$$, $$v_0=v_{max}$$ (you must calculate $$v_{max}$$ from these equations) and $$d_0=L_r$$.

Measuring friction
The static and dynamic friction can be measured using the apparatus in Figure 1. From Newton's Second Law of Motion we know that the forces balance, therefore the normal force balances the gravitational force on the car

 * $$ N_f = mg \,$$.

At the point where the mass M just balances the static frictional force

 * $$ \mu N_f = mg \,$$

and

 * $$ \mu = M/m\,$$.

The reader can verify that, in the inclined case of Figure 2, the coefficient of friction is given by

 * $$\mu = \frac{ \left ( \frac{M}{m} - \sin(\theta) \right ) } {\cos(\theta)} \,$$.

The kinetic friction can be determined using either of the above apparatus, but the procedure takes a bit more patience. Add or subtract from the mass M until the car moves at a constant velocity when pushed. At this point, the gravitational force is equal to the kinetic frictional force. The trick is that the car can neither accelerate nor decelerate; we want F=ma=0, but this time when the car is in motion.

Air drag
The frictional force of a gas or liquid on a body is called drag and the drag force Fd can be calculated from

 * $$ \mathbf{F}_d= {1 \over 2} \rho A C_d v^2 = b v^2$$

where ρ is the air density (about 1.2 kg/m3), v is the velocity of the air relative to the body, A is the frontal area of the body, and Cd is the drag coefficient, which depends on the shape and surface of the vehicle (but about 0.4 for a typical car). The constant b is defined above as a convention. For a Pinewood Derby car, A is dependent on the car design - an uncut block is 0.0014 m2. Using the 4.75 m/s for a 5 ounce car with standard wheels gives a drag force of 0.0081 N. Using $$F=ma$$, we get an acceleration of -0.057 kgm/$$s^2$$, about 0.6% of the gravitational force, but still enough to slow the car from 4.75 m/s to 4.69 m/s on the flat section of the track alone. A numerical integration with a similar track resulted in an a run that was 1.8% slower. In practice, all cars experience some air drag, but a low and sleek design may have an advantage of a few hundredths of a second against a less aerodynamic car.

At the sizes and speeds of pinewood cars, the viscosity of air does not matter at all; the only important air resistance force is the drag force, proportional to the density of the air and the speed squared. The drag force is a kind of ram pressure.

To get to the equations of motion for a vehicle subject to ram-pressure drag, we consider the car on a sloped track with rotating wheels and friction forces and add to this model the air drag force. The acceleration of the car based on the balance of forces is the following:

 * $$ \frac{\mathbf{F}_d}{M}= a(t) = \cfrac{g_{\theta fr} - \frac{b}{M} v^2}{\alpha_R} $$,

Recall that the force is related to acceleration through Newton's second law of motion and the acceleration is the derivative of velocity. Thus, an equation for the velocity of motion can be written:

This is a non-linear differential equation for the velocity. It's solution is not straightforward but is tractable. The equations of motion are:

 * $$ a(t) = g'_{\theta fr} \left[ 1 - \tanh^2 \left( t \sqrt{\cfrac{g'_{\theta fr} b}{\alpha_R M}} \right) \right] \, $$,

 * $$ v(t) = \sqrt{\frac{g'_{\theta fr} \alpha_R M}{b}} \tanh \left( t \sqrt{\cfrac{g'_{\theta fr} b}{\alpha_R M}} \right) \, $$,

 * $$ d(t) = \frac{\alpha_R M}{b} \ln \left[ \cosh \left( t \sqrt{\cfrac{g'_{\theta fr} b}{\alpha_R M}} \right) \right] \, $$.

Tribology
Tribology is the study of friction, lubrication and wear. Since friction is the force that slows a Pinewood Derby car and lubrication reduces friction, tribology is an essential science of the sport. Wear is not an important consideration since, as we have seen above, the forces are low. The lubricant must reduce the friction between the wheel and axle and also be compatible with the polystyrene wheels. Expanded polystyrene is known as styrofoam and makes a great cup for hot cocoa, but is a poor container for an organic solvent such as gasoline or naptha (ask your Dad about the old auto shop trick). Pure polystyrene can be crosslinked to form a copolymer with polybutadiene that is called high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) or high-impact plastic. HIPS is excellent for injection molding, so it is no coincidence that it is the material used for Pinewood Derby car wheels. Nonetheless, care must be taken to keep inappropriate solvents from lubricants, paints, or cleaners away from the wheels. Another consideration for lubrication is the possibility of fouling the track with excess lubricant, especially liquids. Some race rules permit only dry powder lubricants for this reason.

Graphite

Graphite, like diamond is one of the several forms of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is a poor gemstone, but it is an excellent lubricant. This is because the chemical bonds in diamond form a three dimensional structure, while the bonds in graphite form a two dimensional structure. The two dimensional sheets of graphite slide easily over each other, giving graphite powder its lubricating properties.

Molybdenum Disulfide

Molybdenum disulfide has the chemical formula MoS2 and is similar in chemical structure to graphite in that it forms two-dimensional layers that slide upon each other. In pinewood derby applications, molybdenum disulfide powder is typically mixed with graphite powder.

Teflon

Teflon is the DuPont brand name for polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which is a synthetic fluoropolymer (a fluorine containing polymer). Teflon has the lowest coefficient of friction of any known solid material. It is used in powdered form as a Pinewood Derby lubricant.


text:
Cookbook:Shrimp and Cheese Grits

| Southern U.S. cuisine | Breakfast Cuisine | Seafood

Ingredients

 * 3–4 strips thickened smoked bacon, diced
 * 1 pound large shrimp
 * 6 servings of grits
 * 1 cup shredded sharp cheddar cheese
 * ¼ cup butter
 * ½ large sweet onion, cut into thin strips
 * ½ yellow bell pepper, cut into strips
 * ½ red bell pepper, cut into strips
 * 2–3 cloves garlic, minced
 * ¼–½ teaspoon hot sauce, or to taste (optional)
 * juice of one lime

Procedure

 * 1) Fry bacon until crisp, remove and set aside.
 * 2) Sauté onions, garlic, and peppers in bacon grease, add lime juice and hot sauce and set aside.
 * 3) Prepare grits per the directions on box. Add cheese and butter when done cooking to allow for them to melt, then set aside.
 * 4) Stir when done melting.
 * 5) Sauté the shrimp until they turn pink, about 2–3 minutes.
 * 6) Place the grits and cheese in large serving container and place the shrimp down the center of the container.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If served on individual dish/platter, serve sliced limes on the side.
 * In preparing the grits, you may want to use condensed milk instead of water to make the grits for an extra creamy texture!
 * As an alternative, add garden peas to grits and serve with steamed bell peppers, zucchini, yellow squash, and mushrooms on the side. Adds a great taste texture with the peas!
 * If you are planning to use unpeeled shrimp, plan an extra 20 minutes to peel the shrimp!

title: Cookbook:Shrimp and Cheese Grits