text:
User talk:24.154.156.228

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:24.154.156.228


text:
Using KDE/Advanced Topics

System Settings
This module in KDE is where the user configures the desktop environment. It provides the user with a centralized and convenient way to configure all KDE settings.

It contains General and Advanced tabs, each tab contains objects that you can click to configure specific behaviour.

As you can see from the screenshot above, it's designed to be intuitive and simple to configure. For users familiar with Windows XP, this may seem similar to "Control Panel".

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Using KDE/Advanced Topics


text:
User talk:200.216.5.163

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:200.216.5.163


text:
Template:Formal Logic/Preliminaries TOC

For book Formal Logic.

 * 1) Preliminaries
 * 2) Sets

title: Template:Formal Logic/Preliminaries TOC


text:
User:Mithridates

I am currently putting together a book called Salute, Jonathan!, a textbook for the language Occidental/Interlingue that follows the nature method used in such books as Lingua latina per se illustrata. The book is written entirely in Occidental, but after it is completed I will add some separate English commentary in the way the Nature Method Institute did it: the textbook is in the target language only, with separate chapters for the use of a teacher using it in the classroom.

The English section after the Occidental text is completed will be similar to the Haas grammar but with each part illustrated using examples from the story that the reader is supposed to have completed by then (thus there will be a larger spoiler tag on the top):

http://interlingue.pbworks.com/w/page/4887780/Grammatica%20de%20Interlingue%20%28English%29

As of July 20 2019 I have the whole story written in Occidental (100,000+ words) and am adding it here chapter by chapter. Once that comes into form the English supplementary chapters will follow.

Update 10 October 2021: I am currently recording the audio for the book and have finished up to chapter 88. Recording and editing the audio up to chapter 100 will probably be done near the end of the month.

title: User:Mithridates


text:
User:Thanos silva

Auditora Médica

Teste

Teste

title: User:Thanos silva


text:
Easy Ido

This is a course for the language Ido. Ido is a simple language to learn, and the explanations in this course are simple too. If you can translate this course into your language, please do so.

What is Ido?

 * Ido is perhaps the easiest language in the world to learn. It has a 100% regular grammar with no exceptions.
 * Ido was created to be a language that everybody could learn quickly to talk to people from other countries.
 * Ido was created on the basis of Esperanto but changed to make it easier to learn and write.
 * Ido is used by at least 1000 people in the world today.
 * Ido uses no special letters like in the Esperanto language (ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ and ŭ) so you don't need extra software to write it.
 * Ido has its own Wikipedia and Wiktionary.
 * As of 2024, Ido is years old.
 * Ido has its own magazines and literature.
 * Ido looks a lot like French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian (and Esperanto too).
 * Ido will help you understand Latin and other romance languages.

Okay, let's learn Ido!

 * Lesson one
 * Lesson two
 * Lesson three
 * Lesson four
 * Lesson five
 * Lesson six
 * Lesson seven
 * Lesson eight

Where to go from here

 * Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona.
 * Ido society in the UK
 * Deutsche Ido-Gesellschaft
 * Ido-France

 * Parolez Ido - an Ido-language community with blogs and forums.

 * Ido-English dictionaries:
 * English-Ido at Glosbe
 * English-Ido dictionary by Dyer
 * Dictionary by Germana-Ido

 * Magazines:
 * Gazuyi
 * Progreso
 * Ido-Saluto!

 * Wikipedio - Wikipedia in Ido

Ido Ido fácil

title: Easy Ido


text:
Easy Ido/Lesson one

Lesson two

Alphabet
The alphabet is the same as English: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.

Vowels
There are five vowels. Remember to say vowels short. Don't say things like ow, aw, and so on. Just say o, a.

When two vowels go together we can have these two possibilities. They can be pronounced together, as a diphthong:(there are only two):
 * au - ow - ow
 * eu - e + oo -e-oo spoken very quickly.

Or they can be pronounced separately, each vowel sound fully enunciated (like "oasis"):

Consonants
Most are the same as English. But:

Accent
All words have an accent on the second-last sound, except infinitives, which are verbs that end in -ar. They have an accent on the last sound.

mea, libro, amiko, jupo, sinistre.

But:

irar, facar, dormar, manjar.

Words having two consecutive vowels in the last syllable (the first being i or u) take the accent on the previous syllable, if there is one:

aquo, manui, Wikipedio.

However, if there is no other syllable, then it is the second to last vowel that takes the accent:

dio, sua, tui.

Except that an u right after a q can never take the accent. The stress vowel is then the last one in:

quar, quo, quin.

'The' and 'a'
These are called 'articles'. Ido has the word la for "the". But Ido does not have a word for "a". That means that "amiko" can mean "friend" or "a friend". La amiko means "the friend".

Nouns

 * All singular nouns end with -o. Domo (house), skolo (school), urbo (city).
 * All plural nouns end with -i. Domi (houses), skoli (schools), urbi (cities).
 * You don't need an -o on people's names and names of places. These are 'proper nouns'. But don't forget that some spellings may be different; for instance if the words America and Canada existed in Ido, they would sound like Ameritsa and Tsanada, so we write them as Amerika and Kanada instead. For less common names it is favourable not to alter the spelling, otherwise the original spelling could be difficult to retrieve.

Adjectives

 * All adjectives end with -a. vera (true), simpla (simple), bona (good).
 * You can make comparisons and say 'the most' and 'the least' with the words plu, min, maxim, and minim. Plu vera (truer), plu simpla (simpler), min bona (less good), min simpla (less simple), maxim bona (best), minim simpla (least simple).
 * To say something has a certain quality more or less than something else use kam, as in plu simpla kam (simpler than).
 * To say something has a certain quality the most or least out of a group, use de, as in maxim bona de (best of).
 * You can compare things as being similar and say tam ... kam meaning 'as ... as'. For example tam simpla kam (as simple as).
 * You can put adjectives before the noun like in English (bona skolo), or after the noun like in French (skolo bona).

Adverbs
Adverbs usually come from adjectives. Just replace the -a with -e. Vere (truly), simple (simply), bone (well).

As in English, there are adverbs that don't come from adjectives, mostly relating to time and place. These include ibe (there), ante (before), seque (afterwards), lore (then, at that time), sempre (always), anke (also).

Top | Lesson two

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title: Easy Ido/Lesson one


text:
Easy Ido/Lesson two

Lesson one | Lesson three

Verbs
Note the correlations between the tenses of the infinitive and non-infinitive conjugations (future -o, past -i, present -a)

The verb "to be"

 * The verb "to be" is esar. Me esas (I am), Me esis (I was), Me esos (I will be).
 * You can just say es instead of esas if you feel like it. You use this verb all the time and that's why it has a short form.

Negative
To make a negative, just put ne before the verb. Me ne esas (I am not), ne flugas (doesn't fly), ne vidos (will not see).

Active

 * Replacing -ar with -anta turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that is doing an action. Fluganta uceli - flying birds. Kantanta viro - a singing man.
 * Replacing -ar with -inta turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that has done an action. Fluginta uceli - birds that have flown. Kantinta viro - a man that has sung.
 * Replacing -ar with -onta turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that is going to do an action. Flugonta uceli - birds that are going to fly. Kantonta viro - a man that is going to sing.

Passive

 * Replacing -ar with -ata turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that is having something done to it. Drinkata aquo - water being drunk. Manjata pano - bread being eaten.
 * Replacing -ar with -ita turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that had something done to it. Drinkita aquo - water that was drunk. Manjita pano - bread that was eaten.
 * Replacing -ar with -ota turns the verb into an adjective describing the thing that is going to have something done to it. Drinkota aquo - water that is going to be drunk. Manjota pano - bread that is going to be eaten.

Had and have

 * When saying things like "I have eaten," "I had gone," and "I will have sung," you use the endings -abas, -abis, and -abos. Me manjabas la pano (I have eaten the bread), me manjabis la pano (I had eaten the bread), me manjabos la pano (I will have eaten the bread).

Lesson one | Top | Lesson three

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title: Easy Ido/Lesson two


text:
Talk:Easy Ido

Untitled
I see that a course on Ido has already been started but this one has a different purpose - somewhat like the Simple English Wikipedia, with explanations written as simple as possible and probably no more than ten lessons. The goal of this course is to be translated into all other languages available on Wikibooks. The other course on Ido can be developed like any other with words like jussive, present perfect, superlative and whatnot. This course avoids specialized terms as much as possible. Mithridates 13:53, 6 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Where did you get this course? Phil.andy.graves 13:06, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

How do I translate this to another language?
I really want to translate this page to Norwegian, but how do I do it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Hirotosama (discuss • contribs) 16:58, 26 August 2011 (UTC)

 * You could copy the pages of this book over to the Norwegian Wikibooks site, satisfying the licensing requirements by giving a permanent link to the English version in the comment when you create the page. e.g. http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Easy_Ido&oldid=2159559. (This is available under the "Toolbox" menu on the left.)

 * Between the English Wiki projects we have an Importing procedure which preserves the page histories, but I don't think this is available between different languages. You could ask for help from the people at the Norwegian Wikibooks site who should be able to give you some more advice. Recent Runes (discuss • contribs) 21:43, 26 August 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Easy Ido


text:
Easy Ido/Lesson three

Lesson two | Lesson four

Pronouns
These are words like I, you, he, she, and so on. Formal vs Familiar: the formal second person singular pronoun (vu) should be used for those you are not friendly with or somebody who holds higher authority than you, whereas the familiar (tu) should be used amongst friends and equals.

Ownership
Just put an -a on the end to show ownership.
 * mea - my, mine
 * tua - your, yours (one person, a friend)
 * vua - your, yours (one person)
 * ilua - his
 * elua - her, hers
 * olua - its
 * lua - his, her, hers, its
 * nia - our, ours
 * via - your, yours (more than one person)
 * ilia - their, theirs (of males)
 * elia - their, theirs (of females)
 * olia - their, theirs (of inanimate things)
 * lia - their, theirs
 * onua - one's
 * sua - one's own, his own, her own, its own, their own.

Examples

 * Ol esas mea libro. - it is my book.
 * Ni havas libro. - we have a book.
 * El havas sua ucelo. - she has her (own) bird.
 * El havas elua ucelo. - she has her (some other girl's) bird.
 * Me ne flugis. - I didn't fly.

Lesson two | Top | Lesson four

|3

title: Easy Ido/Lesson three


text:
Easy Ido/Lesson four

Lesson three | Lesson five

Note: This section has a lot of information, so go slowly!

Changing verbs to nouns, nouns to verbs, and others

 * You can turn any adjective into an adverb by replacing -a with -e. mala (bad), male (badly).
 * You can turn verbs into nouns by replacing the -ar with an -o. Remember that because verbs are action words, the noun will only be about the action itself, not the thing you use to do it. vidar (to see) - vido (seeing or sight); promenar (to walk) - promeno (a walk).
 * You can change the -a on an adjective to -o, which gives you a noun of the thing that the adjective symbolizes. giganta (gigantic) - giganto (a giant). yuna (young) - yuno (a young person, a youth).
 * Don't forget that the verbs we turned into adjectives before can turn into nouns in the same way too. drinkar (to drink) - drinkanta (drinking) - drinkanto (someone or something drinking, a drinker). flugar (to fly) - fluganta (flying) - fluganto (flier, the thing doing the flying).
 * If you change the -o to an -a, you get a direct adjective. This means that metalo (metal) turns to metala (of metal), as in metala telefono (a metal telephone). Don't forget that this doesn't mean "metallic"! If it did, you could turn it back into metalo with the meaning "metal-like", and the word metalo would have two meanings. In the same way, papero (paper) turns into papera as in papera ucelo (a paper bird), and doesn't mean a "paper-like bird". This point is very important.
 * The usual way to make an adjective from a noun is to replace the -o with -ala. Now the word papero turns into paperala (of paper), and we get the word paperala industrio (paper industry). Papera industrio would be an industry made of paper, so don't say that. Words like lego (law) turn into legala (legal) and manuo turns into manuala (manual, by hand).

Turning adjectives into verbs

 * There are some ways of turning adjectives into verbs. If you replace -a with -igar, you have a verb that means to turn something into the adjective. For example, kolda (cold) becomes koldigar (to make cold).
 * To make a verb that shows something turning into the adjective, replace -a with -eskar. kolda becomes koldeskar (to become cold).
 * Don't forget that now that they are verbs, don't worry and just use them in the same way as the others. Me koldigis tu (I made you cold), Elu koldeskos (she will get cold).

Turning nouns into verbs

 * To derive a verb from a noun the appropriate suffix must be used, according to the intended meaning of the verb.
 * Nouns can turn into verbs by replacing -o with -agar. The suffix -agar comes from the word agar which means "to act", so -agar means "to act with a tool". This means that martelo (a hammer) becomes martelagar (to act with a hammer, that is, to hammer).
 * You can do the same thing to make a verb with the meaning "to add" by replacing -o with -izar. That means that salo (salt) becomes salizar (to salt, or to add salt).
 * Once you have a verb, you can turn it into a noun again, but remember that the meaning is about the action now, not the object. So martelagar (to hammer) becomes martelago (the act of using a hammer, or hammering), and salizar becomes salizo (the act of salting, or adding salt).
 * If you use the wrong ending you'll have a different meaning. If you put -izar on martelo for example, you will have the verb martelizar which means "to add hammer", which doesn't make much sense.

Okay, that's enough for this lesson. Make sure to read this one a few times to remember. Try finding some words of your own, change the endings and see if you can find them in real Ido sentences on Google.

Lesson three | Top | Lesson five

|4

Ido fácil/Lição quatro

title: Easy Ido/Lesson four


text:
Talk:East Asian Calligraphy/Basic stroke order

Untitled
This is meant to be about stroke order, not character writing direction.

上
Every resource I've seen (double checking just now) indicate that shàng 上 is written with the vertical stroke first, despite your claim in the text.


text:
Saxophone/First notes

Holding the Saxophone
The saxophone should be held as follows. Place your left thumb on the thumb rest under the octave key (the key that's facing towards you and controls the pad on the neck of the saxophone). You should be able to easily slide your thumb upwards and press the octave key. Place your first three fingers on the B, A, and G keys (respectively). In the right hand, place your thumb under the thumb rest so that some of the weight of the instrument rests on your thumb. Then place your first three fingers on the F, E and D keys (respectively).

Playing a B
The common first note on any woodwind is a B, which is fingered by pressing down the second pearl key finger of the left hand (note that the first key is not where the first finger goes). Practice long tones on this note.

Playing an A
The next logical move from B is A, which is fingered by pressing down the second and fourth pearl note (the "little button" is skipped). Practice long tones on this note, then practice moving between B and A and vice versa.

Playing a G
A G is fingered by pressing down the second, fourth, and fifth fingers. Practice long tones, moving between B, A, and G in all combinations, then become proficient at the following:

Playing a C
In order to play a C, first place your thumb on the back button,then go two keys down and press.

Playing a D
This is a tricky note on saxophone. To play a D, hold down the octave key (which is just above your thumb on your left hand) and push down the first three fingers of your left hand and the first three of your right hand. The note will probably not come out on the first try. Keep trying until it works. It takes a more focused air stream. Once you can consistently get the D out, practice long tones and moving from C to D. This is a fairly difficult jump. Once you have mastered this, play the following until you are proficient:

Playing an E
Once you have mastered the D, the E should be simple. Finger a D and lift the third finger of the right hand. The same type of air stream is required. Again, practice long tones and moving to E from the other notes.

Playing an F
To play an F, hold the octave key and finger an E, removing the second finger on the right hand. Again, the air stream should be focused. Practice long tones and moving between all of the notes. Practice the following exercise:

title: Saxophone/First notes


text:
Georgia Water/Water Policy/Issues/Background

Chapter 2. Water Resources Policy in Georgia

 * 2.5.1. Background -- Identifying the Issues

1999 - ACCG/GMA Joint Task Force on Water Resource Policy

 * The Association County Commissioners of Georgia (ACCG) and the Georgia Municipal Association (GMA) published their ACCG-GMA Joint Task Force on Water Resource Policy report, | Georgia Water Resource Policy - A Call for Action] in December, 1999. The report listed four key needs to:
 * Clearly state a comprehensive water management strategy,
 * Refine Georgia's water allocation policies,
 * Encourage multi-jurisdictional water management on a regional/watershed basis,
 * Coordinate water and land use planning and management.

2001 - Georgia Board of Natural Resources

 * The Georgia Board of Natural Resources prepared the | Water Issues White Paper(May, 2001) which provided a summary of current water law in Georgia and "identified fifteen specific water issues and solutions which are recommended for consideration by the Joint Study Comittee for inclusion in the Comprehensive Water Plan."
 * Interbasin water transfers
 * Allocation of state water to private entities for resale
 * Improve allocation of water for agricultural use
 * Statewide water conservation
 * Interim instream flow protection strategy
 * Priorities for water use during drought
 * Privately owned public water systems
 * Assure a reliable and adequate water supply in growth areas with water supply reservoirs
 * Real-time water management
 * Water quality monitoring
 * Attain water quality standards
 * Assure wastewater capacity in growth areas
 * Develop and implement erosion and sedimentation control improvements
 * Public information and involvement
 * Improve old water and sewer infrastructure

2002 - Joint Comprehensive Water Plan Study Committee

 * The | Final Report of the Georgia Water/Joint Comprehensive Water Plan Study Committee of the Georgia General Assembly listed | 42 water issues needing review and possible revision of policy.
 * 1. Wastewater Capacity in Growth Areas
 * 2. Improvement of Old Water and Sewer Infrastructure
 * 3. Attaining Water Quality Standards/TMDLs
 * 4. Cost-Effective Stormwater Solutions
 * 5. Septic Tank Installation and Maintenance
 * 6. Protection and Management of Georgia’s Aquifer Recharge Areas
 * 7. Source Water Assessment/Protection
 * 8. Protection, Conservation and Restoration of Wetlands, Marshlands, and other Aquatic Ecosystems
 * 9. Water as a Public Resource versus a Market Commodity
 * 10. Allocating/Reallocating Water among Users
 * 11. Allocation of State Water to Private Entities for Resale
 * 12. Legal Status of Water Withdrawals, Permits and Transfers
 * 13. Legal Status of the Water in Aquifers while in the Ground and Following Withdrawal
 * 14. Interbasin Water Transfer and Basin-of-Origin Protection
 * 15. Water for Agricultural Use
 * 16. Statewide Water Conservation and Efficiency
 * 17. Water Reuse
 * 18. Consumptive Use Measurement and Reduction
 * 19. Instream Flow Protection Standards and Strategy
 * 20. Priorities for Water Use during Drought
 * 21. Irrigation Efficiency and Research
 * 22. Overdraft of the Floridan Aquifer/Salt Water Intrusion
 * 23. Water Supply Reservoirs
 * 24. Aquifer Storage and Recovery
 * 25. Flood Mitigation, Floodplain Management, and Dam Safety
 * 26. Lake Protection and Management
 * 27. Development/Implementation of Erosion and Sedimentation Control Improvements
 * 28. State and Substate/Regional Water Management Options
 * 29. Privately Owned Public Water Systems
 * 30. Interstate Water Issues
 * 31. Real-Time Water Management
 * 32. Water Management with Increased Variation in Weather Patterns
 * 33. Interagency Coordination
 * 34. Enforcement
 * 35. Water Quality, Quantity, and Biotic Integrity Monitoring
 * 36. Data Management Systems
 * 37. Public Information and Involvement
 * 38. Statewide Watershed Management and Assessment Information/Standards
 * 39. Increase Funding and Personnel for Water Resources Administration, Including Monitoring
 * 40. Availability and Use of Federal Funding for Water-Related Activities
 * 41. Water for Energy Production Systems
 * 42. Water Security

2005 - Georgia Water Resources Conference

 * Five panels were scheduled for the 2005 Georgia Water Resources Conference, held April 25-27, 2005, to discuss issues related to the Georgia Comprehensive Statewide Water Resources Management Plan.
 * Water Quantity Allocation
 * Instream Flow Protection
 * Ground Water Level Protection
 * Water Quality (TMDL) Allocation
 * Water Conservation/Efficiency/Reuse


text:
Bicycles/General Safety

This chapter is meant to deal with General Safety, and will cover what equipment you may need, visibility maintenance and security, all of which can be adjusted before a rider begins their daily commute.

Maintenance
First and foremost a cyclist needs a well maintained and functional machine. The bicycle is one of the few consumer durables still intended to be maintainable by the owner: most cycle maintenance is simple and requires only basic tools. At the very least the rider should regularly check safety-critical components:
 * Brakes: the front brake should be capable of locking the front wheel so that if the bike is pushed forwards, the rear wheel lifts; the rear brake should be capable of skidding the rear wheel.
 * Headset: with the front brake firmly on, rock the bike forwards and backwards. If you feel a clunk as the bike moves, and the handlebars move around, then the headset probably needs adjusting or replacing.
 * Tires: inspect your tires regularly for cuts and wear. Worn tires can blow out, with perilous consequences.  They also puncture more readily.  Check that your tires are pumped up enough.  Pinch the tire between thumb and forefinger: It should feel hard.  Mountain bike tires typically run at about 45psi, road bike tires at anything up to 120psi.  Do not use garage forecourt airlines (gas station air compressors) to inflate bike tires, use a proper pump preferably with a pressure gauge.  Over-inflated tires can lift off the rim and burst.  Under-inflated tires compromise control and can result in pinch flats, also known as snakebite punctures for their characteristic double holes.
 * Wheels: In turn, lift each end of the bike and spin the wheel. It should spin freely and the rim should remain roughly the same distance from the brake blocks.  A wheel which is badly out of true may indicate a broken spoke - this should be fixed as soon as possible or else more spokes (or the whole wheel) will probably soon fail.  Try to move the rim from side to side.  If it moves or you feel a clunk, then the bearings may be worn and should be checked.  If the wheel feels gritty as it spins, or rumbles, the bearings are probably damaged.
 * Handlebars: stand in front of the bike, facing towards it; hold the front wheel between your legs; grab the handlebars and try to turn. If the bars twist on the stem, tighten them.
 * General: if you have mudguards (fenders), a rack, a chain guard or any other equipment attached to your bike, give it a good rattle from time to time and check that it is still securely fixed. Loose mudguards, for example, can go in your wheel and bring you down.

Lights & conspicuity
The general consensus is that if you ride after dark you should use lights. This a legal requirement in most places. It is also generally recommended that you dress to be seen, especially in poor weather. Although this consensus is broad-based, it is largely intuitive and there are few studies to support or refute it.

Children
It is common for parents to buy a bike that is too big, in the knowledge that a child will grow. This can make it very difficult for the child to control the bike properly - in most cases it would be better to buy a second-hand bike the right size than a new one with "room for growth," which is, in reality, too big.

Adults
In adults the biggest fault is usually having the saddle too low, but this is mainly an issue of erroneously perceived comfort and health. It upsets the ability of the rider to control the bike and damages the riders knees and back. The best advice when buying/fitting a bike is to go to a specialist bike shop (Caveat emptor) and take advice.

Helmets
A well fitted and maintained bicycle helmet is among the most commonly considered pieces of safety gear.

Benefits of helmets

 * Protection
 * The obvious purpose of a helmet is to protect much of the head from serious injury during a crash or accident. Instead of the head taking damage directly, the helmet can take the blunt force of the damage, reducing impact on the rider by either deflecting or crushing from the source of impact, instead of the riders skull.
 * In addition to being a protective piece of safety gear, it is notable that this protection is passive, that is to say it is in effect as long as the helmet is worn. In a fast moving accident, a rider will not have time to outstretch their arms to protect their head, and doing so risks further loss of control of the bicycle. A properly worn helmet should offer protection without needing any thought or action by the cyclist in those key moments - freeing up precious mental bandwidth to focus on best handling the situation.

 * Visibility
 * A bicycle helmet adds around an inch or a few centimeters to the height of a rider, which can help a cyclist be seen by others when they are behind obsicles such as other vehicles, hedges, etc. Combined with the bright white or colored shell most helmets are clad in, this increases rider visibility to others.

 * Eye protection
 * Most bicycle helmets do nothing to directly protect the eyes from debris or other hazards. That said many bike helmets have a built in vizor. This mainly helps keep the glare of the sun out of the eyes, but they also help with deflecting low hanging twigs, falling nuts, etc. A disruption or lapse in vision can be the difference between a pleasent ride and an accident. Bike helmets do not replace dedicated eye protection, but it could suppliment it.

 * Legal compliance
 * In many jurisdictions it is illegal to ride a bicycle without wearing a helmet. While such laws may or may not be enforced, wearing a helmet in such jusrisdictions errs on the side of caution and compliance with the law. This can reduce unnessicary interactions with the police, or can help otherwise demonstrate that you intended to ride a bicycle within the law.

Caveats
With all that in mind, a helmet is only one part of a comprehensive bicycle safety strategy. A bicycle helmet will not protect the whole body, nor the whole head or neck. It is part of a rider's last line of defense, and does not replace other safety gear, nor does it replace safe riding techniques and practice.

Among some cyclists the safety benefits of a helmet are considered controversial. These controversies often include changes to motorist and rider psychology caused by the wearing of a helmet, debates over helmet effectiveness in a crash, and the broader health and safety outcomes caused by the hassle of helmets leading some to drive automobiles instead, ultimately reducing community health. Still others focus on personal liberty, and believe that nobody should be required to wear a helmet by law. It is ultimately up to the rider whether or not they wear a helmet.

Conclusion
With all that said, It may be worthwhile to wear a helmet just to keep the sun out of your eyes. If you do decide to wear a helmet, make sure that it is well-fitting and is correctly fastened and that it is worn in the correct position. Take care of your helmet, it must not be dropped or bumped and make sure that the surface is not scratched which could damage the internal structure.

Local Information
Find a local independent bike shop that you trust. Go in and have a chat with the people and see if it is your kind of place. The staff in a good bike shop will be able to offer invaluable advice and they are mostly happy to help. Independent bike shops are recommended because their staff tend to be more passionate and knowledgeable about cycling than in most chain shops.

Many areas also have local cycling organisations, ranging from sport-oriented cycle clubs to campaigning organisations for 'transport' cyclists.

The Internet
There are many web forums offering discussion of all aspects of cycling and related issues, as well as information sites run by individuals and organisations. Links to some of these are given at the bottom of the page.

Government Information
Government agencies issue information and advice about cycling. the UK Highway Code contains a summary of road traffic laws and official 'best practice'. Whilst few cycling organisations advocate breaking the law, many see the advice elements as written by non-cyclists, and not necessarily in line with reality or cyclists' best interests.

Maintenance
It's vital that the bicycle you rely on is in good condition. Learn to do simple jobs like lubrication and brake and gear adjustment. Clean your bike regularly. Take your bike in for a service at your bike shop at least once a year. Essential safety critical parts that you should check often are:

 * Wheels
 * Are your tires in good condition and correctly inflated?
 * Don't ride on bald or flat tires.
 * Are the wheel bolts tight enough to hold the wheel in place? If you have quick-release wheels check that the quick release is correctly tightened every time you ride your bike. Does the wheel run straight and true? if there are wobbles in the spinning wheel your bike shop can easily "true" them for you.

 * Cables
 * Check all your brake and gear cables for signs of rust, wear or fraying. The brake cable is one of the most important parts on a bike so make sure you keep a close check on its condition. If your cables look worn out get your bike shop to fit new ones.

 * Brakes
 * Test the brakes before you get out on to the road. When looking at the brakes check that the brake pads are not worn out, and that they make contact with the wheel rim correctly when force is applied on the lever. Ask your bike shop to show you how to perform day to day adjustment on your brakes.
 * See also Adjusting Brakes.

Many bike shops, public libraries, and other community organizations run cycle maintenance courses. Check with the staff in your local cycle shop, cycle group, or community center.

Security
Bike theft is rampant in many areas, some unexpected. If you're going to leave your bike anywhere you must assume that it will attract thieves. The usual method used by bike thieves is as follows:

Understanding Thief Behavior

 * Bikes usually disappear overnight.
 * Bikes are stolen by opportunists during the day but organised bike gangs steal bikes at night, after mapping out their intended locations in the preceding daylight hours.

 * Beware of strangers on bikes.
 * Prior to an organised theft, young strangers or near-strangers will be seen observing in the area of the bikes during the daytime, perhaps on bikes themselves. Even if they are sent away it is wrong to assume that the point was won; they are casing the place for a night theft and they or others will return, usually the same night. If observers are noticed during the day, take the bikes into the house regardless of any inconvenience.

 * No lock is totally safe.
 * Any lock can be broken, but buy a good lock to keep the odds in your favor. Thieves use car jacks to break d-clamp locks, and bolt cutters for chains and cables. Some say that skeleton keys are available for locks.

 * Bikes are then stripped of any peculiar fixings
 * In fact, all of the brakes and other accessories can be removed; They are interchanged between other bikes to confuse recognition.

 * The thieves sell the bikes quickly
 * They get comparatively low prices for bikes but in view of the low penalties imposed on their activities, they steal large numbers of items.  Selling the bikes compounds the difficulty of recovery even if the items are found.

Defense against Theft
Bear in mind then, the following points:
 * No cycle lock is thief proof
 * All you can do to protect your bike is buy time. You have to increase the risk for the thief to the point that they will not bother targeting you.  By the time that a bike is stolen, the chance of it being recovered by police is poor.

 * Invest in a secure cycle lock.
 * There are many types to choose from. The staff in the bike shop will be able to offer you the best advice. A common guide is that you should invest at least 10% of the price of your cycle in a lock.  Ideally consider a lock that can fasten both wheels and the frame to a bike stand or other immovable object.   Two locks of different types may be better than one.   Insurers insist on good locks and they have approved lists.

 * Insure your bike
 * Read the policy carefully; some of these are difficult to claim on.  If your bike receipt does not have all of the items on it, including the bike number, date of purchase, cost, and other items, then make sure you get these or the insurance might not work.   Similarly,  the receipt for your bike lock is expected to be much-detailed, including its make, model, price, and serial number, so that you can justify the good lock clause.   No easy task; most counter receipts lack detail.   Although most insurance covers theft away from home when an approved lock was used, insurers will not usually pay for a bike stolen from the common area of flats whether or not a good lock was used, (on the railings).   There is often a stipulated front-door lock quality for insured items in the house itself, though frankly, taking the bike into the house at night gives the best protection of all.  Sadly, many only realize the limitations of insurance after an unsuccessful claim.

 * Quick release components need locked too
 * Wheels and saddles need locked to deter petty thieves. It might be worth investing in a light cable lock to secure your components to your frame. Two locks are also better than one because it takes the thief longer to remove them.

 * Choose the place that you lock your bike up carefully.
 * Never lock your bike up somewhere that you hope it won't be noticed - remember, no lock is thief proof, but they buy time. If the thief thinks it will take too long to remove the lock, and they might be caught then they won't attempt a theft. By locking your bike up in a quiet spot you are removing the only advantage you have.  Ideally choose a designated cycle parking facility provided by the (most) municipal authorities. If not then lamp posts, fences, signs, etc. provide useful locking points. Make sure you lock your bike up in busy places. There are a few major points to make about picking the object you lock your bike to:

 * Never lock your bike to cast iron railings!
 * Cast iron is brittle, so although a railing looks strong a sharp blow from a heavy hammer can shatter it in no time at all. If you're not sure find something else to lock your bike to.

 * Check that the bike stand or other object is secure.
 * Bicycle locking stands should not move. They should be as solid as a rock. Some really do just lift up out of the ground. Some fences have railings that slide right out. What ever you're locking your bike to, give it a good shake before you lock your bike to it. If it looks like it might go somewhere, choose somewhere else to lock your bike.

 * When you lock your bike to a sign make sure it's a tall one.
 * Thieves will just bend the sign up and lift your bike over the top of the post if they can. Make sure the post is too tall for them to do that.  Also, in some countries, (London, UK), the police might object to bikes cabled to lampposts, and as such if an offense is being committed, you might that it makes for a difficult insurance claim in the event of a theft.

 * Try not to leave your bike outside overnight anywhere.
 * You will find that insurance policies may not cover this, even in the common area of your home. Take any bike that you value into the house, a garage, or a shed. Folding bikes make this regime easier, even if they have 26 inch wheels.

 * Make your cycle less attractive to thieves.
 * You can get your bicycle frame stamped with a unique number (sometimes your postcode or zip-code) and registered with the police. There are also electronic tags that identify your bike as stolen if the police find it.  There are internet property registers like Immobilise.com that are used by law enforcement and bike owners to check whether  or not for-sale and recovered items are already reported as stolen.   Theoretically, there should be no international boundaries to internet registers, though the lack of international police liaison (and their disinterest) might prevent it.   Priority in most police forces is given to crimes against the person, so bike theft has quite a low priority.

 * Some cyclists wrap the frame of their cycles in tape.
 * Use either electrical insulating tape or "gaffer" tape to make the frame unique; this also covers the labels on an expensive frame and protects the paintwork. It is also removable, any gunk left over from the tape can be removed with degreaser. Some (particularly messengers) cover their frames in vinyl stickers. This looks cool but might not be to everybody's taste. It has the same effect as taping.

 * Fitting mudguards gives a bike a slightly less racy appearance.
 * It also helps make it less attractive to thieves.

 * Take lots of photos of your bike.
 * This will help you identify it before reporting a find to police.  It is difficult to check a serial number on a parked bike, and perhaps dangerous too, so consider other ideas, like keeping a photo of the bike's paint chip patterns on your phone for a quick comparison. Chip patterns are quite unique and thieves rarely take the trouble to cover them.

Clothing

Cycle shops sell a wide range of clothing specifically designed for cyclists.

Summer Clothing
In the hot, humid, and cloudy summer you may to wear shorts and a t-shirt. The "wicking" t-shirts sold in bike shops and mountaineering shops etc. will draw the sweat away from you and help keep you dry. A light wind-cheater is handy for colder moments.

In areas with harsh sunlight, it may make more sense to wear a loose fitting shirt and pants. (Though not so loose fitting it can get caught in the mechanical bits of the bike!) This stops the harsh light fron directly hitting the body.

Regardless of the clothing you pick, you should still apply sun protection to any parts of the body where it is needed.

Winter Clothing
In the winter you'll want breathable waterproofs - something that keeps the rain off but also lets the sweat out, normal waterproofs will just trap your sweat and make you feel damp.

When riding a bike in winter, your hands will be even more exposed to the cold then usual. Make sure to have good cyclist gloves that ward off the frost bite while maintaining the flexibility needed to quickly handle controls.

You may consider bringing hand warmers just in case.

If riding in the snow, avoid white clothing to aid in your visibility.

Pants, Shorts, and Skirts
Standard Clothing

Among standard clothes, in general the more freely it allows your legs to move, while remaining out of the chain, the better it is. For that reason, shorts and other loose clothing are commonly prefered, followed by flexible fabrics such as sweatpants or even business slacks. Denim, particularly jeans, offers a lot of protection, but is also quite restrictive, especially before the fabric is broken in.

It is possible to ride a bicycle with a skirt.

Cycling Shorts

Specialty bike shorts are perhaps the most efficent clothing for cycling, being one of the least restrictive options for leggings allows the cyclist to operate nearly unimpeded. That said, shorts offer less physical protection then pants.

Cycling shorts are really good for cyclists aiming for high speeds and unimpeded riding. These shorts are different from normal shorts in that the seams are specially placed to avoid chafing your "sensitive" regions, and sometimes they have padding to soften the ride. Bike shorts designed this way are often intedned to be worn without underwear. They can be made of special wicking material to draw away sweat and keep you dry.

The look of cycle shorts can be controversial for many riders, and some non-riders may even see such clothing as indecent. and to wear them in some locations requires a degree of boldness. For commuters going to work, wearing only bike shorts and a light shirt could be out of the question. Some riders may wear these under more conventional clothes for a more standard look.

Visibility
It is important to be as visible as possible when cycling. It is very easy for other road users to fail to see a cyclist in the dark until it is too late.

The reflectors supplied with your bike are a legal minimum requirement (in the UK and many other jurisdictions) but they will not be enough to ensure you are fully visible. Reflectors fail for myriad reasons- see Sheldon Brown's guide for a list. Pedal reflectors tend to work the best, because they are in motion most of the time, resulting in a "flashing" effect. Spoke reflectors help to make you visible from side on, and like pedal reflectors are in constant motion. Despite this, A cyclist has to take responsibility for their own visibility. If the car that hits you has no headlights then your reflectors won't do anything. It is important that you fit front and rear lights. Many cyclists also attach extra lights to their clothing/helmet.

Despite the problems with bike reflectors, don't be tempted to remove them, They're an important back up. Many cyclists attach extra reflectors to their bike. Reflective tape is particularly useful as is can be wrapped around the frame, turning the surface of the bike into a reflector with out adding any unsightly bits of plastic and metal. Reflective clothing is also recommended. A wide range of reflective jackets, belts, trouser clips, vests etc. is available in cycle shops. A cheap alternative can be the reflective tabards worn by road repair crews. These are available in builders merchants and should be certified to be industry safety standards.

Bells and horns
A bell or horn (or among London cycle messengers an elaborate whistle) is an essential piece of safety equipment. Use it to warn pedestrians of your approach on shared pathways, or if they have not noticed you when they are crossing the road. Ring your bell for a few seconds before going round any blind corners. If you cycle on canal towpaths ring the bell before and while going under any bridges, as the entrance to many bridges (in London for example) is obscured by a kink in the path. Remember that bicycles don't make any engine noise so you have to help others become aware of your presence.

Other road users
It is inevitable when cycling in an urban centre that you will come in conflict with other road users, including both moving and parked motor vehicles, pedestrians, maintenance activities, deliveries and trash pickups. Many regular cyclists (and many drivers) have a long list of examples of imbecility on the part of drivers that led to a near miss/close shave, or seemingly unwarranted aggression from frustrated motorists. Growing numbers of motorists and pedestrians have equally-long lists of absurdly bad behavior by cyclists. Cycle-commuting is healthier for you and better for the environment. These personally- and socially-desirable benefits entitle you to no more special consideration than anybody else on the street. The important things you must remember are:

 * You have as much right to be on the road as motorists (except emergency vehicles in the course of their duty). If they can't pass you safely they ought to wait. You may not want to hold your breath for this, however.
 * Other users - especially pedestrians -  have just as much right to use the roads and streets. If you endanger their safety by not observing road-rules, you are just as culpable as any motorist who will not give you space.   Your additional attention is warranted for children, people with disabilities, animals, many seniors, and visitors who are unfamiliar with local right-of-way arrangements.
 * Safety is everybody's lookout. It is your responsibility to be seen - this can mean slowing down when approaching cross-traffic; wearing highly-visible gear in poor light (fog, rain, dusk, glare) and lights visible for 100 meters when it is dark; giving indications of your intention to move in the lane or make a turn.  It is also wise to be aware of distractions that may afflict other riders, drivers, and pedestrians - these include phones and music players as well as sudden noises, flashing lights, or furious activity in the environment.  Making eye contact with drivers at junctions, etc., really helps ensure he/she has seen you, and lets you anticipate when someone may pull in front of you.
 * Streets are for riding. Sidewalks are for walking.  Don't ride on the sidewalk, and don't ride the wrong way down a one-way street.  If a street has a bicycle lane, use it.  Follow safety rules for bikes on stairs, escalators, and public transit.  Stop at stop-lights and stop signs.  Exercise care to avoid slower-moving and halted vehicles and pedestrians.
 * Crowded urban areas are never a place for racing or time-trials. Many urban cyclists are goal-oriented, intense, and assertive individuals who easily transfer this attitude onto the street.  Being focussed prevents general-awareness of your surroundings, however, it is a major safety hazard.
 * Do not retaliate or provoke a confrontation. A cyclist is much more vulnerable than a motor vehicle. Even an exasperated gesture may provoke road rage, making a bad situation worse. Be satisfied that cycling in cities is quicker, better for your health, environmentally friendly and a social activity. If you really want to make your voice heard you can see if your city has a cyclist's association, or perhaps join a bike ride organised by the protest group Critical Mass (but avoid illegal behaviors).

title: Bicycles/General Safety


text:
Bicycles/Modifications

The scope and utility of a bicycle can often be extended through modification by the user or through the after-market.

 * Fixed gear hub conversion

title: Bicycles/Modifications


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Easy Ido/Lesson five

Lesson four | Lesson six

Compound words

 * You can create compound words by combining two (or more) words. Like so: maro-salo for sea salt. The preceding word changes the meaning of the following. Just like in English, the first word describes the second one, so salo-maro would be a salt sea instead of sea salt. The hyphen between the words is not necessary: marosalo would also be correct, but it can be easier to read with the hyphens. The way you would do it in English, maro salo is, however, not correct. If you have two nouns and it is easier to pronounce, you can take the -o off the first one, so mar-salo would be correct as well. You don't want to make a word that's impossible to say though, so you would say letro-buxo instead of letr-buxo for postbox.

Smaller particles

 * Use di to show who owns or belongs to something. libro di John is "John's book".
 * Use de to show where something is from. libro de John means "John's book" (the book you got from John).
 * Use da to show what something is by. libro da John means "a book by John", (John wrote the book).
 * Use pri to show what something is about. libro pri John means "a book about John", (John is the subject of the book).
 * Use a or ad for the English word "to" when talking about direction. De Francia a Rusia - "From France to Russia", il parolis ad el - "he spoke to her".
 * Use per to show what you are using to do something. Li voyajas per aviono - "They travel by aeroplane".
 * Use kun to show that one thing is in company with something else. El iris kun sua spozo - "She went with her husband (spouse)".
 * Use ek for the word "out", as in made out of something. shuo facita ek ledro - "a shoe made out of leather".
 * Use en for the word "in". en mea chambro - "in my room".
 * Use aden (to + in) to mean "into". aden mea chambro - "into my room".
 * Use sur to mean "on". Pozez ol sur la lito - "Place it on the bed".
 * Use adsur to mean "up onto". la kato saltis adsur la tablo - "the cat jumped up onto the table".
 * Use alonge in the same way you use English "along". Irez alonge la rivero - "Go along the river".

Word order

 * You will have no problems following English word order when you write in Ido, but you can change things around a bit.
 * As said before, adjectives can go before or after a noun, like in French.
 * Adverbs go anywhere as long as the meaning is clear.
 * The subject goes before the object, but you can put the subject after if you want by putting an -n on the object. Me manjas pano - "I eat bread", but: Men manjas pano - "(A) bread eats me". Of course you could just change the order and say Pano manjas me.

Questions

 * Ask yes or no questions by using ka or kad before a sentence. Vu iris a la urbo - "You went to the city". Ka vu iris a la urbo? - "Did you go to the city?" (NOTE: The choice between ka and kad is only about euphony. Just choose the one you think sounds better in each particular case).
 * You don't change the word order when asking a question like in English.
 * Other words: kande (when), quale (how), ube (where), quo (what), qua (who).

Lesson four | Top | Lesson six

|5

title: Easy Ido/Lesson five


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies

Basic Tools
Tools every cyclist should consider having:
 * Allen wrenches (2-8mm)
 * Chain tool
 * Screwdrivers (Phillips and flathead)
 * Open and/or box wrenches (8, 9, 10, and 15mm are the most common for bike use)
 * Tire levers
 * Pump
 * Puncture repair kit

Cyclists traveling long distances may wish to carry these tools with them. Alternately, they may wish to carry a multi-tool.

Intermediate Tools
Tools for cyclists with more of an interest in bicycle repair:
 * Pedal wrench
 * Cone wrenches
 * An appropriately sized spoke wrench
 * Chain whip
 * Crank puller
 * Cable cutter
 * Hammer
 * Headset wrench
 * T25 torx wrench
 * Cassette tool
 * Truing jig
 * Wheel dishing gauge
 * Chain wear indicator
 * Repair stand

Professional Tools
Tools for cyclists who are prepared to fix anything that may go wrong on a bicycle:
 * Bottom bracket tapping and facing tool
 * Bottom bracket tool
 * Crown race setting tool
 * Headset cup remover
 * Headset press
 * Starnut driver
 * Head tube facer/reamer

Supplies

 * Degreaser
 * Grease
 * Oil
 * Penetrating oil
 * Thread locking compound
 * Tire patch compound
 * Tire patches
 * Ti Prep
 * Cable ends to prevent cables from fraying.


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A-level Mathematics/OCR/M3/Elastic Strings and Springs

Hooke's Law and the Modulus of Elasticity
The natural length is the length of an elastic string or spring when it is not stretched or compressed. An elastic string or spring experiences a tension when its length is greater than the natural length. In addition, a spring experiences a compression when its length is less than its natural length. To simplify our analysis, we use the term tension to refer to both types of forces (i.e. tension and compression). Also, we use the term extension to refer to the change in the length of the string or spring. Thus, the extension for a compressed spring is negative.

According to Hooke's Law, the extension $$x$$ is proportional to the tension $$T$$ applied to the elastic string or spring. Although Hooke's Law holds only up to the limit of elasticity, we may safely assume its applicability unless otherwise told. We may write this relationship in terms of the natural length $$l$$ and the modulus of elasticity $$\lambda$$ (which is a property of the elastic string or spring independent of its length) as follows:

Note that the tension and the extension are in the same direction (i.e. the variables are either both positive or both negative). This should be intuitive since we are considering the force exerted on (i.e. NOT exerted by) the elastic string or spring.

If a mass attached to the end of the elastic string or spring is producing the extension, then by Newton's Third Law, the elastic string or spring exerts a force on the mass equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to its tension. To illustrate this, let us consider the system on the right.

Consider a particle P of mass $$m$$ suspended vertically from one end of a light (i.e. massless) elastic string of natural length $$l$$ and modulus of elasticity $$\lambda$$. The other end of the string is attached to a fixed point O. When the particle is at rest, the resultant force acting on it is zero according to Newton's Second Law. Therefore, the downward weight of the particle should balance the upward force exerted by the string on the particle (which is equal in magnitude to the tension of the string):

Elastic Potential Energy
An elastic string or spring is able to store energy when it is extended (and compressed, in the case of a spring). This stored energy is termed the elastic potential energy (EPE). The EPE in an elastic string or spring is converted from the work done (by an external agent) in producing the required extension. This is just the work done against the force exerted by the elastic string or spring by virtue of its tension. Therefore, the EPE can be determined by integrating the tension $$T$$ wrt the extension $$x$$:


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User talk:82.168.153.24

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:82.168.153.24


text: User talk:24.57.69.157

title: User talk:24.57.69.157


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Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Appendix

Company Specific Manuals

 * Bontrager
 * Campagnolo
 * China Bicycle Manufacturer
 * Fox
 * Hayes
 * Mavic
 * Magura
 * Marzocchi
 * /Moulton/
 * Progressive
 * Rock Shox
 * Shimano
 * SRAM


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User:FraterM

User Page
Fraterm is the userid for Michael S Costello on the Wiki-Books site.

title: User:FraterM


text:
User talk:68.66.19.249

Please stop. If you continue to blank pages, you will be blocked from editing.

title: User talk:68.66.19.249


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User talk:Nitron

Copyright problem with Image:Saxophone HotCrossBuns.gif
--Derbeth 18:58, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

scaling images
You can scale an image using wikitext instead of uploading of a smaller version. Add something like "|768px" to the Image: link. You may also add "|thumb" or "|frame" as desired. See the image instructions in the Editing help for more details.

I added a note like the above the to recent image and reverted to the larger one, but I see you uploaded over that. The wiki scaling works fine; the note stem didn't disappear. You might want to revert back to the original again.

AlbertCahalan 23:10, 6 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nitron


text:
Talk:Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Suspension/Front suspension lubrication

More Information
The information currently on this page (directing a user only to the manufacturers webpage) is not sufficient and not in the spirit of WikiBooks. I understand that each brand and type of suspension will likely have differences in lubriction, but there should be enough commonality between the methods to allow a useful article to be written. Mindfrieze 19:11, 6 November 2005 (UTC)


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User talk:67.175.245.229

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:67.175.245.229


text:
User talk:87.248.169.134

This is your last warning. The next time you blank a page you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks.

title: User talk:87.248.169.134


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User:Unformed

unformed known by one of the many following names in other web locations: "asaka vlademir khan", "Vlademir Khan First Emperor of Velgeax", "Vlademir1", and "The Grinning Skull" can be reached as vlademir1 on yahoo, or using that email in MSN Messenger.

title: User:Unformed


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Cookbook:Phulourie (Split Pea Fritters)

This is a side dish that may be eaten with spicy dhaal, or with spicy "sour" chutney (similar to mango chutney).

Ingredients

 * ½ pt split peas, or 1 lb ground split pea flour
 * ½ cup flour
 * 1 teaspoon baking powder
 * 2–3 cloves garlic, ground
 * 1 beaten egg
 * Salt to taste
 * ¼ teaspoon turmeric
 * ½ teaspoon ground gheera (cumin)
 * Oil for frying

Procedure

 * 1) If using whole split peas, soak overnight in lightly salted cold water, lightly salted. Drain and grind finely using a mill or food processor.
 * 2) Mix all the ingredients, adding enough water to make a dropping consistency.
 * 3) Drop dollops of batter into hot oil, squishing through thumb and forefinger to make balls about ¾ inch in diameter.
 * 4) Fry until golden brown, remove from oil, and drain on brown paper or kitchen towel.

title: Cookbook:Phulourie (Split Pea Fritters)


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Communication Theory/Propaganda and the Public

Around the time of World War One and Two, Communication research largely focused on the influence of propaganda. One question that researchers sought to answer was: how can communication be utilized to create behavioral changes? Governments felt that if they were to function efficiently, they could only do so with the coordinated cooperation of their citizens. Through the use of propaganda, governments could ensure that a nation functioned to meet its goals, but could also lead to crushing individuals' ability to shape their own lives and their own consciousness. Research into this area greatly expanded mass communication research in the twentieth century.

This chapter approaches the question of propaganda, from the perspective of someone that many have called one of the "fathers of communication," Walter Lippmann.

Early Experiences of Walter Lippmann (1889-1974)
Walter Lippmann was born in 1889 and spent much of his youth exploring arts such as painting and music, travelling to Europe, and acquiring a particular interest in reading, all due to his family’s secure economic status (Weingast, 1949). By the time he entered Harvard in the fall of 1906, Lippmann had been exposed to a wide array of ideas and had been well prepared for the challenging work that lay ahead of him at school. It was at Harvard that the first influences on Lippmann’s work and theoretical approach first appeared.

Lippmann was influenced by the social thinkers of the time such as George Santayana, William James, and Graham Wallas. It is impossible to understand Lippmann's own thought without some grounding in the perspectives popular at Harvard and elsewhere. He was influenced by the move toward an American pragmatic approach, as well as socialist thinkers of the time.

William James (1842-1910)
Many consider William James to be one of the most prominent influences on Lippmann while at Harvard (Weingast, 1949; Steel, 1999). The two scholars first met when Lippmann published an article in the Illustrated, a Harvard campus magazine. Lippmann's article, written as a response to a book of Barrett Wendell's, was a commentary on social justice and the plight of the common man. James was intrigued by Lippmann's article and surprised Lippmann by approaching him. The two became friends, and Lippmann's regular conversations with James profoundly influenced his future work.

William James is perhaps best known for his theories of pragmatism. James (1907) defines the pragmatic method as, "The attitude of looking away from first things, principles, 'categories,' supposed necessities; and of looking toward last things, fruits, consequences, fact" (p. 29). He showed how pragmatism is related to truth, and truth is that which can be verified. "True ideas are those that we can assimilate, validate, corroborate, and verify" (James, 1907, p. 88). In this way, James (1907) suggested that the understanding of the world is based on enduring, significant perceptions of the effects of the objects that surround individuals. Although Lippmann strayed from the practice of pragmatism in his own work, there were ideas that he took from James' theories and applied to his own life. Steel (1999) claims that one of these ideas was that of meliorism, or the idea that "things could be improved, but never perfected" (p. 18). Another is practicality, or the idea that "men had to make decisions without worrying about whether they were perfect" (Steel, 1999, p. 18).

The themes of meliorism and practicality are indeed evident in Lippmann’s thought and writing. Throughout many years of writing, Lippmann's opinions on the issues of the public and their relationship to government tended to waver. For example, according to Weingast (1949), Lippmann initially supported the idea that government intervention in the economy was necessary, specifically through the provision of public projects to support employment during times of economic hardship. However, when Franklin D. Roosevelt presented his New Deal, which included more government intervention in the public arena, Lippmann did not support the program (Weingast, 1949). Lippmann (1936) wavered in his views on socialism as well.

It is doubtful that his constant changes of opinion were purposeful; rather they served as evidence of James' influence on Lippmann's work. By accepting the ideas of meliorism and practicality, it could potentially mean that one is always striving to find the next best solution; that when one theory fails, another can be developed to take its place. By questioning himself and his beliefs, Lippmann was advancing his own theories and finding new ways of understanding his surroundings.

George Santayana (1863-1952)
Santayana was a philosopher at Harvard who also influenced the work of Lippmann. Santayana’s theories revolved around the idea of the essence of objects, which Munson (1962) defined as the "datum of intuition" (p. 8). Santayana was interested in uncovering the various essences that made up human life: those values which could be uncovered and then tied to human experience (Steel, 1999). This outlook is a sharp contrast to the theories of James, which Lippmann had already been exposed to. Steel (1999) explained that while James focused on the idea of moral relativism, or the ability to create truth from observation, Santayana was focusing on the "search for absolute moral values that could be reconciled with human experience" (p. 21).

Santayana’s influence on Lippmann is evident in his later work. Tied to Santayana’s ideas of the "essence" of humanity and life, were his ideas that democracy could result in a tyranny of the majority (Steel, 1999, p. 21). This idea is easily related to Lippmann's later writings in Phantom Public (1925). Phantom Public examines the American public within a democratic system. Lippmann (1925) expresses his ideas that the majority of the American public is uneducated in public issues, easily manipulated into siding with the majority, and therefore, plays a very limited role in the democratic process. In relation to democracy, Lippmann states, "Thus the voter identified himself with the officials. He tried to think that their thoughts were his thoughts, that their deeds were his deeds, and even in some mysterious way they were a part of him…. It prevented democracy from arriving at a clear idea of its own limits and attainable ends" (p. 148). Lippmann (1925) shows that within a democratic system the majority is actually suppressed by the minority opinion. It is this overwhelming suppression of the public opinion within a democratic system that seems to represent Santayana’s influence on Lippmann. If Santanyana argued that democracy would result in a tyranny of the majority, Lippmann (1925) supported this idea by showing that public opinion caused little influence on a democratic system that was actually controlled by the educated elite.

Graham Wallas (1858-1952)
Graham Wallas, a founder of the Fabian Society, was another predecessor to Lippmann’s work (Steel, 1999). Wallas is perhaps best known for his work Human Nature in Politics (1981). The political views expressed in this book helped to shape Lippmann’s later thoughts about the relationship between the public and its environment.

Wallas (1981) expresses his thoughts on the public’s understanding of their surroundings. He states that the universe presents the public with, "an unending stream of sensations and memories, every one of which is different from every other, and before which, unless we can select and recognize and simplify, we must stand helpless and unable to either act or think. Man has therefore to create entities that shall be the material of his reasoning" (p. 134). In this way, Wallas was showing that the public is incapable of understanding their environment; the stimuli that they are presented with are too numerous to gain a well-versed understanding. Steel (1999) claims that this idea was one of Wallas’ greatest influences on the future work of Lippmann, particularly in Public Opinion (1922). In this work, Lippmann (1922) expanded upon Wallas’ original ideas about the relationship between the public and their environment, and was able to show that the public was not able to take in all of the knowledge from their environment that would truly be needed to affect their governance.

Aside from inspiring Lippmann to examine the relationship between the public and the environment, Wallas can also be credited with influencing Lippmann to break his ties with the Socialist school of thought (Steel, 1999). Until his interactions with Wallas, Lippmann had held strong socialist beliefs, based not only upon his experiences at school, but also upon the writings of Karl Marx.

Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Karl Marx was particularly concerned with explaining the class struggles that existed in society (Rogers, 1994). His most well-known works were Das Kapital (Capital) and The Communist Manifesto. Through these works, Marx explained his theories about the struggle of the working class, their alienation from their work, and their need to rebel against the elite in order to take ownership for their actions and gain power (Rogers, 1994). Marxism explained the way that economic forces create changes in society, and the need for the creation of a communist system to restore equality to that system (Rogers, 1994).

While at Harvard, Lippmann read Marx’s ideas on communism, and chose to support the ideology of socialism (Steel, 1999). Lippmann also joined the Fabians while at school. They were a group which urged for the empowering of the middle-classes, rather than the over-throwing of the elite, in order to create social equality (Steel, 1999). Unlike Marxists, however, the Fabians still believed in the presence of an intellectual elite (Steel, 1970). This theme is present in Lippmann’s Phantom Public (1925). In this piece of literature, Lippmann (1925) explains that society is truly dominated by an intellectual elite, even when they might think that they are following a system of majority rule. "…it is hard to say whether a man is acting executively on his opinions or merely acting to influence the opinion of someone else, who is acting executively" ( Lippmann, 1925, p. 110).

Marx also claimed that mass media is used as a tool by the elite social classes to control society (Rogers, 1994). This theme is evident in Lippmann’s Public Opinion (1922), which explained that it was the mass media who determined what information the public could access, and how the limitation of such access could in turn, shape public opinion.

The remnants of Marxism are present in Lippmann’s later works, such as Public Opinion and Phantom Public. By 1914, Lippmann was no longer a supporter of the implementation of socialism on a large scale (Steel, 1999). With his publication of Drift and Mastery (1914), Lippmann denounced the use of socialism (Steel, 1999). Furthermore, his publication of Good Society (1936) was essentially a criticism of the very theories of socialism that he had once supported. By this point, Lippmann (1936) recognized the error in the socialist theories; the fact that even by putting an end to private ownership and developing collective property, people still may not know how to properly distribute resources without exploitation. Lippman (1936) claims "This is the crucial point in the socialist argument: the whole hope that exploitation, acquisitiveness, social antagonism, will disappear rests upon confidence in the miraculous effect of the transfer of titles" (p. 72). Lippmann’s wavering views on socialism are important. They clearly affect how Lippmann sees the relation between man, his environment, and his government. These themes will be prevalent in Lippmann’s theories, as he explains how and why the public is subject to manipulation.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Aside from his reading of Karl Marx, Lippmann was also influenced by the readings of other academics. Of particular importance to the work of the propaganda/mass communication theorists in general was the work of Sigmund Freud. Freud’s influence can be seen not only in the work of Lippmann, but also in the work of Lippmann’s contemporaries.

Sigmund Freud was initially trained as a medical doctor and later founded psychoanalytic theory (Rogers, 1994). Of particular importance to psychoanalytic theory was the understanding of an individual’s mind. According to Rogers (1994), Freud was able to divide the human consciousness into three states; the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious consists of those things which we know about ourselves, the preconscious consists of those things which we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and the unconscious consists of those things which we do not understand or know about ourselves (Rogers, 1994). From these three levels of individual analysis, Freud attempted to understand human behavior. Both Freud’s general theories of psychoanalysis, as well as one of Freud’s writings in particular, The Interpretation of Dreams, came to be of particular importance to the propaganda theorists.

The Interpretation of Dreams dealt with the idea that dreams are a form of wish fulfillment; they represent a desire of the unconscious that can be achieved during sleep through the creation of a dream to fulfill a need (Levin, 1929). Lippmann applied this idea to his work in Public Opinion (1922). In Public Opinion, Lippmann (1922) stressed the idea of “The World Outside and the Pictures in Our Heads” (p. 3). This concept involves the idea that a person’s perceptions of an event or situation may not match what is actually happening in their environment (Lippman, 1922). This idea was influenced by The Interpretation of Dreams, in that Lippmann used this book to develop his idea of a “pseudo-environment” that existed in the minds of individuals (Rogers, 1994, p. 234).

Bernays' (1928) understanding of human motives was also based on the study of Freud’s work. Bernays was Freud's nephew, and at various times in his life the American travelled to Vienna to visit with his uncle. Bernays had a special interest in adopting psychoanalytic theory into his public relations work, and this influenced his thinking in relation to public opinion. In Propaganda, Bernays (1928) claims it is the Freudian school of thought that recognized "man's thoughts and actions are compensatory substitutes for desires which he has been obliged to suppress" (p. 52). Bernays (1928) goes on to show that propagandists cannot merely accept the reasons that men give for their behavior. If they are truly hiding their real motives, as Freud suggests, then "the successful propagandist must understand the true motives and not be content to accept the reasons which men give for what they do" (Bernays, 1928, p. 52). By getting to the root of a man’s wants and needs, Bernays suggests that propaganda can become more effective and influential.

Overall, Freud’s theories were a strong guiding framework for understanding individuals. By helping theorists such as Lasswell, Lippmann, Bernays, and Ellul to understand individuals, Freud was also helping them to understand the public that they aimed to manipulate.

The Theories of Walter Lippmann
While at Harvard, Lippmann had first-hand exposure to the theories of William James, George Santayana, and Graham Wallas. He had also read the works of Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx. While some applications of Lippmann’s predecessors’ ideas to his research have already been discussed, it is important to examine the overall theories of Walter Lippmann.

Following his time at Harvard, Lippmann decided to pursue a career in journalism. He had focused on the study of philosophy at Harvard. By 1910 he had dropped out of their graduate program and was ready to pursue a career (Steel, 1999). Lippmann started his career by working for Lincoln Steffens, writing primarily about socialism and issues on Wall Street (Rogers, 1994). Following his time with Steffens, Lippmann began work on an elite intellectual magazine known as the New Republic (Rogers, 1994). Lippmann worked on New Republic for nine years, and as his time there came to an end, he began to publish his most prominent pieces of literature (Rogers, 1994).

Public Opinion
Public Opinion (1922) is perhaps Lippmann’s most well-known work. It was in this piece that Lippmann first began to develop and explain his theories on the formation of public opinion. Lippmann (1922) begins this book by describing a situation in 1914, where a number of Germans, Frenchmen, and Englishmen were trapped on an island. They have no access to media of any kind, except for once every sixty days when the mail comes, alerting them to situations in the real world. Lippmann explains that these people lived in peace on the island, treating each other as friends, when in actuality the war had broken out and they were enemies (Lippmann, 1922).

The purpose of the above anecdote is to develop the idea of "The World Outside and the Pictures in Our Heads" (Lippmann, 1922, p. 3). Throughout Public Opinion, Lippmann (1922) explains the way that our individual opinions can differ from those that are expressed in the outside world. He develops the idea of propaganda, claiming that "In order to conduct propaganda, there must be some barrier between the public and the event" (Lippmann, 1922, p. 28). With this separation, there is the ability of the media to manipulate events or present limited information to the public. This information may not match the public’s perception of the event. In this way, Lippmann was essentially presenting some of the first views on the mass communication concepts of gatekeeping and agenda-setting, by showing the media’s power to limit public access to information.

Lippmann (1922) showed how individuals use tools such as stereotypes to form their opinions. “In putting together our public opinions, not only do we have to picture more space than we can see with our eyes, and more time than we can feel, but we have to describe and judge more people, more actions, more things than we can ever count, or vividly imagine…We have to pick our samples, and treat them as typical” (Lippmann, 1922, p. 95). Lippmann shows that the public is left with these stereotypical judgments until the media presents limited information to change their perception of an event. Rogers (1994) claims that in this way, Lippmann was showing us that "...the pseudo-environment that is conveyed to us by the media is the result of a high degree of gatekeeping in the news process" (p. 237). Lippmann recognized that the media was altering the flow of information, by limiting the media content that was presented to the public. Furthermore, Lippmann presents the idea of agenda-setting, as he recognizes that the mass media is the link between individual perceptions of a world, and the world that actually exists (Rogers, 1994).

Phantom Public
Phantom Public (1925) focused on describing the characteristics of the public itself. Lippmann (1925) used this book to show the public’s inability to have vast knowledge about their environment, and therefore, to show their failure to truly support a position. Lippmann (1925) gives a harsh view of the general public, stating, "The individual man does not have opinions on public affairs... I cannot imagine how he could know, and there is not the least reason for thinking, as mystical democrats have thought, that the compounding of individual ignorances in masses of people can produce a continuous directing force in public affairs" (p. 39). This book seemed to show that democracy was not truly run by the public, but rather, was being controlled by an educated elite. The public could not be truly well informed, so they were easily convinced to side with an educated minority, while convincing themselves that they were actually in a system of majority rule. Lippmann (1925) claims that the book aimed to "...bring the theory of democracy into somewhat truer alignment with the nature of public opinion... It has seemed to me that the public had a function and must have methods of its own in controversies, qualitatively different from those of the executive men" (p. 197).

Other Writings
Lippmann also published a number of other books that dealt primarily with his political thoughts regarding the public. These included A Preface to Politics (1913) and Good Society (1936). While these works are important toward understanding Lippmann’s thoughts on the relation of the public to their government, Public Opinion and Phantom Public held most of Lippmann’s theories that were relevant to mass communication research.

Future Career Path
Aside from his major works of literature, Lippmann was perhaps best known for his "Today and Tomorrow" column, which he began publishing in 1931 in the New York Herald Tribune (Weingast, 1949). This column gave Lippmann complete freedom of expression, and the ability to write about such topics as history, government, economics, and philosophy (Weingast, 1949). Although the column tended to appeal to a limited American audience, it dealt with a wide variety of important issues. Weingast (1949) estimates that only 40% of American adults could understand Lippmann’s column, and only 24% could be considered regular readers of the column (p. 30). However, it is this column that still must be recognized for helping Lippmann’s ideas to gain popularity.

Lippmann’s various works led him to a great many opportunities to work with important figures in history. In 1918, he was given the ability to assist President Woodrow Wilson in writing the Fourteen Points, which helped to restore peace after World War One (Rogers, 1994). Of more importance to communication studies, Lippmann was also given the opportunity to publish and present propaganda in Europe to support the acceptance of the Fourteen Points on an international scale (Steel, 1999). It is through this work that some of Lippmann’s ties to Harold Lasswell can be observed.

Harold Lasswell (1902-1978)
As Lippmann was writing propaganda, Harold Lasswell was undertaking empirical analyses of propaganda. In fact, much of the propaganda that Lasswell was examining was actually being written by Lippmann himself (Rogers, 1994).

Harold Lasswell (1902–1978) was a prominent scholar in the area of propaganda research. He focused on conducting both quantitative and qualitative analyses of propaganda, understanding the content of propaganda, and discovering the effect of propaganda on the mass audience (Rogers, 1994). Lasswell is credited with creating the mass communication procedure of content analysis (Rogers, 1994). Generally, content analysis can be defined as, "...the investigation of communication messages by categorizing message content into classifications in order to measure certain variables" (Rogers, 1994). In an essay entitled "Contents of Communication," Lasswell (1946) explains that a content analysis should take into account the frequency with which certain symbols appear in a message, the direction in which the symbols try to persuade the audience’s opinion, and the intensity of the symbols used. By understanding the content of the message, Lasswell (1946) aims to achieve the goal of understanding the "stream of influence that runs from control to content and from content to audience" (p. 74).

This method of content analysis is tied strongly to Lasswell's (1953) early definition of communication which stated, "Who says what in which channel to whom and with what effects" (p. 84). Content analysis was essentially the 'says what' part of this definition, and Lasswell went on to do a lot of work within this area during the remainder of his career.

Lasswell's most well-known content analyses were an examination of the propaganda content during World War One and Two. In Propaganda Technique in the World War, Lasswell (1938) examined propaganda techniques through a content analysis, and came to some striking conclusions. Lasswell (1938) was similar to Ellul, in that he showed that the content of war propaganda had to be pervasive in all aspects of the citizen’s life in order to be effective. Furthermore, Lasswell (1938) showed that as more people were reached by this propaganda, the war effort would become more effective. "...[T]he active propagandist is certain to have willing help from everybody, with an axe to grind in transforming the War into a march toward whatever sort of promised land happens to appeal to the group concerned. The more of these sub-groups he can fire for the War, the more powerful will be the united devotion of the people to the cause of the country, and to the humiliation of the enemy" (Lasswell, 1938, p. 76).

Aside from understanding the content of propaganda, Lasswell was also interested in how propaganda could shape public opinion. This dealt primarily with understanding the effects of the media. Lasswell was particularly interested in examining the effects of the media in creating public opinion within a democratic system. In Democracy Through Public Opinion, Lasswell (1941) examines the effects of propaganda on public opinion, and the effects of public opinion on democracy. Lasswell (1941) claims, “Democratic government acts upon public opinion and public opinion acts openly upon government” (p. 15). Affecting this relationship is the existence of propaganda. Due to this propaganda, “General suspiciousness is directed against all sources of information. Citizens may convince themselves that it is hopeless to get the truth about public affairs” (Lasswell, 1941, p. 40). In this way, Lasswell has created a cycle, whereby the public is limited in the information that is presented to them, and also apprehensive to accept it. However, it is still that information that is affecting their decisions within the democratic system, and is being presented to them by the government. This is an interesting way of viewing the power of the media that is somewhat similar to Lippmann’s theories.

Edward Bernays (1891-1995)
At approximately the same time that Lippmann and Lasswell were examining public opinion and propaganda, Edward Bernays (1891–1995) was broabout or alter the opinions of individuals, but this may actually be beneficial to society’s functioning as a whole. Bernays states, “We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of... Vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are to live together as a smoothly functioning society" (p. 9).

Based on these ideas that the public opinion can be modified, and that such shaping is a necessary part of society, Bernays pursued his work in the field of public relations. "Public relations is the attempt, by information, persuasion, and adjustment, to engineer public support for an activity, cause, movement, or institution" (Bernays, 1955, p. 3). In The Engineering of Consent, Bernays (1955) lays out the framework for understanding the public and developing a public relations campaign. Bernays (1955) claims that the key to a successful public relations campaign is adjustment of the campaign to the attitudes of various groups in society, gathering information to effectively express an idea, and finally, utilizing persuasion to influence the public opinion in the intended direction.

Bernays’ theories represent a step forward for mass communication theory. They move away from more typical presentations of “hit-or-miss propaganda,” and move toward a deeper understanding of the public, and the necessity of attention-generating propaganda in influencing public opinion (Bernays, 1955, p. 22). Bernays (1955) himself made a statement regarding his phrase, “the engineering of consent.” He said, “Engineering implies planning. And it is careful planning more than anything else that distinguishes modern public relations from old-time hit or miss publicity and propaganda” (Bernays, 1955, p. 22). Furthermore, Bernays’ theories also represent a different view of the formation of public opinion. In opposition to Lippmann, who views the public as being easily manipulated, Bernays cautions against this. He claims, “The public is not an amorphous mass which can be molded at will or dictated to” (Bernays, 1928, p. 66). Instead, Bernays (1928) offers the idea that in attempting to influence the public, a business must “…study what terms the partnership can be made amicable and mutually beneficial. It must explain itself, its aims, its objectives, to the public in terms which the public can understand and is willing to accept” (p. 66).

Bernays elaborates on these ideas in Public Relations (1952). Rather than merely attempting to manipulate the public through propaganda, Bernays presents public relations as a tool that can be used to combine the ideas of the public and the persuader. “The objective-minded public relations man helps his client adjust to the contemporary situation, or helps the public adjust to it” (Bernays, 1952, p. 9). Bernays view of the public is softer than that of Lippmann, as he recognizes the power of society, but still also claims that manipulation of the public is possible. Bernays (1952) writes of the benefits of public relations, “To citizens in general, public relations is important because it helps them to understand the society of which we are all a part, to know and evaluate the viewpoint of others, to exert leadership in modifying conditions that affects us, to evaluate efforts being made by others, and to persuade or suggest courses of action” (p. 10). Under this framework, while manipulation of the public is still possible, it is not in such blatant ignorance of the public opinion. Theorists such as Lippmann and Ellul tended to disagree with this point.

Jacques Ellul (1912 – 1994)
Jacques Ellul’s (1912–1994) theories on propaganda took a different view of the formation of public opinion. Ellul (1965) shows that propaganda is actually a specific technique, which is both needed by the public, and by those who create the propaganda in the first place. In Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes, Ellul (1965) defines propaganda as, "a set of methods employed by an organized group that wants to bring about the active or passive participation in its actions of a mass of individuals, psychologically unified through psychological manipulations and incorporated into a system" (p. 61). In contrast to the other theorists examined in this chapter, Ellul tends to view propaganda as a necessary, but all-encompassing, activity. It is not something to be presented to the public in a single instance, but rather, must become a consistent part of every aspect of the public's life.

In The Technological Society, Ellul (1964) categorizes propaganda as a form of human technique. In general, he considers the term "technique," to be referring to the methods that people use to obtain their desired results (Ellul, 1964). Specifically, he claims that human technique examines those techniques in which "man himself becomes the object of the technique" (Ellul, 1964, p. 22). In this scenario, man is the "object," as he is constantly being exposed to, and pressured by, various presentations of propaganda. Ellul (1964) goes on to say, "Techniques have taught the organizers how to force him into the game... The intensive use of propaganda destroys the citizen's faculty of discernment" (p. 276).

While The Technological Society focuses on the methods used to create a technique, such as propaganda, Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes (1965) focuses on the specific relationship between propaganda and the manipulation of public opinion. As with Lippmann, Ellul understands the lack of knowledge that the general public holds for use in forming public opinion. Ellul (1965) comments on the use of stereotypes and symbols in propaganda, as did Lippmann in Public Opinion (1922). Ellul (1965) states, "The more stereotypes in a culture, the easier it is to form public opinion, and the more an individual participates in that culture, the more susceptible he becomes to the manipulation of these symbols" (p. 111).

Both Ellul and Lippmann recognize the inability of the public to form educated opinions as a whole. However, while Lippmann chose to focus on the idea that we should accept the fact that it is truly an educated elite that is controlling our opinions, Ellul chose to focus on the fact that the public actually has a need for propaganda. Ellul contests the idea that the public is merely a victim of propaganda. Rather, he states that, "The propagandee is by no means just an innocent victim. He provokes the psychological action of propaganda, and not merely lends himself to it, but even derives satisfaction from it.  Without this previous, implicit consent, without this need for propaganda experienced by practically every citizen of the technological age, propaganda could not spread" (Ellul, 1965, p. 121).

Through his theories in The Technological Society and Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes, Ellul tends to give the media and society’s elite (the creators of propaganda) a lot of power in shaping public opinion. While Bernays recognized the importance of making propaganda appeal to the needs of the public, Ellul claims that the public's need is simply for propaganda in the first place.

Recent Mass Communication Theorists
Based on the traditional theories of Lippmann, Lasswell, Bernays, and Ellul, more recent studies have been able to be conducted on the use of propaganda in creating public opinion. Lippmann (1922) was essentially the first theorist to develop the idea of the agenda-setting function of the media. By 1972, McCombs and Shaw had set out to study this phenomenon in their work “The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media.” This study examined the 1968 presidential campaign, by asking undecided voters to identify the key issues of the presidential campaign, and then comparing those ideas to the issues that were being presented by the mass media at the time (McCombs & Shaw, 1972). McCombs and Shaw (1972) found that there was a +0.967 correlation between voter judgment of important issues, and media presentation of those issues. McCombs and Shaw used this information to further Lippmann’s ideas that the mass media did indeed set the agenda for what the public should think about.

Iyengar and Kinder (1982) expanded on Lippmann’s theories as well, by putting the idea of agenda-setting and priming to the test. They created experimental situations, in which subjects were exposed to news broadcasts that emphasized particular events. The results of this study both supported and expanded upon Lippmann’s initial theories. "Our experiments decisively sustain Lippmann’s suspicion that media provide compelling descriptions of a public world that people cannot directly experience" (Iyengar & Kinder, 1982, p. 855). Iyengar and Kinder (1982) found that those news items that received the most attention, were the news items that people found to be the most significant. Furthermore, Iyengar and Kinder (1982) also found evidence of a priming effect, in that those events that received the most attention by a news broadcast, also weighed the most heavily on evaluations of the president at a later time.

Lippmann’s (1922) theories in Public Opinion also touched on the idea of a gatekeeper in the media process. By 1951, Kurt Lewin had expanded on this idea, by showing that people can manipulate and control the flow of information that reaches others (Rogers, 1994). Based on the ideas of both Lewin and Lippmann, White (1950) undertook an examination of the role of a gatekeeper in the realm of mass media. In The “Gatekeeper”: A Case Study In the Selection of News, White (1950) examined the role of a wire editor in a newspaper. He found strong evidence that there was a gatekeeping role at work within the mass media, as this editor rejected nine-tenths of the articles that he received, based primarily on whether he considered the event to be “newsworthy,” and whether he had another article on the same topic that he liked better. His results were important, as they showed the subjective judgments that an individual can exert in releasing limited information to the public.

Conclusion: The Importance of These Theories
The theories developed by Lippmann, Lasswell, Ellul, and Bernays are important for a number of reasons. Based on the ideas of his predecessors, Lippmann was able to bring attention to the fact that the public is able to be influenced by the media. The work of Lippmann and his colleagues has led to more recent research that is meant to help understand the influence of the media on the public. Through the work Iyengar and Kinder, White, Lewin, and McCombs and Shaw, a more comprehensive understanding of the media has been developed. The public has now been made aware various media functions such as agenda-setting, gatekeeping, and priming, and the potential effects that these techniques can have on their audiences.

The theories presented in this paper have tied heavily to both the direct effects and limited effects media models. Theorists such as Ellul tended to side heavily with the direct effects model, whereby propaganda could directly influence the thought of the masses. Meanwhile, theorists such as Lippmann also noted that the media might not be influencing only thought, but may also be influencing what people thought about. It was this line of thinking that resulted in a starting point for future research in the area of the limited effects of the media. Such limited effects were shown through the work of Iyengar and Kinder, as well as McCombs and Shaw.

Overall, the research of the scholars discussed in this paper has been very important to the understanding of the media, the manipulation of the public, and the formation of public opinion. While the theories of Lippmann, Lasswell, Bernays, and Ellul were formed years ago, they continue to help us understand the society that surrounds us today.