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Instructional Technology

There are two views for the definition of technology. Traditionalists view it as the systematic application of science to practical problems. A more contemporary view is that technology is the application of knowledge so that it can be built from one generation to the next (Braudel in Seels & Richey, p. 7). The second view is not synonymous with integration, although it certainly does have implications for integration, but in a systematic way. As such, technology includes tools, processes, applications, skills and organization. Technology in education or instruction is more than the technical application of tools, machines, computers, products and communication systems (such as multimedia, computerized instruction, games, simulations or interactive video). It also encompasses the "application of the principles of science in order to solve learning problems..." (Seels & Richey, p.6).

Historically, Instructional Technology (IT) grew out of audiovisual communications and according to Seels & Richey (1994) Jim Finn is credited with initiating the development of the field of Instructional Technology in response to his desire to make audiovisual communications a profession.

IT meets most or all of the six characteristics of a profession as described by James Finn (1969):

 * An intellectual technique
 * An application of that technique
 * A long period of training
 * An association of members
 * Enforced standards and a statement of ethics
 * A body of intellectual theory (p. 232)

At the time of Finn's writing (1927), he noted that of the six defining characteristics of a profession, IT only possessed two. Finn believed that IT would become more credible and professional as more members of the field participated in activities that supported the aforementioned characteristics.

The field of Instructional Technology is not synonymous with the use of technology in education; instead, it is a discipline, a field of study, a craft, and an art.

In 1994, the Association for Education Communications and Technology (AECT) defined Instructional Technology as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management and evaluation of processes and resources for learning" (Seels & Richey, p. 1). This definition emphasized the need for balance between the field's theory base and practical use. Additionally, it outlined the domains IT seeks to influence while also establishing that these domains do not exist in a linear relationship to each other. The domains are conceived as independent of each other but connected.

As reflected in the list of topics below, the interests of IT are broad and varied, encompassing a wide range of topics related to practice, application and theory. This book is a collaborative effort between graduate students in the Instructional Technology program at Wayne State University to provide an introduction to the field of Instructional Technology.

Instructional Design

 * Instructional Design
 * Domains of Field
 * Bases of the Field
 * /Instructional Design is science, philosophy or technology?/
 * Project Based Learning
 * Individualized Education Program
 * /Postmodernist Thoughts/

Theories, Models, and Leaders in the Field

 * Instructional Transaction Theory (ITT)
 * Models of Instructional Design
 * /Technology Information Literacy/
 * Influential Leaders in Instructional Technology
 * Michael Allen
 * /Ruth Clark/
 * /Jim Finn/
 * /Edgar Dale/
 * /Robert Heinich/
 * /Donald L. Kirkpatrick/
 * /Robert M. Gagne/
 * /Herbert Marshall McLuhan/
 * /Lisa M. Beeson/
 * /Harold D. Stolovitch/
 * /Erica J. Keeps/
 * /Robert F. Mager/

Human Performance Technology

 * Human Performance Technology
 * HPT in the Workplace

Distance or Web-Based Learning

 * eLearning
 * Distance Education
 * Web Content Accessibility Guidelines

Instructional Technology

 * /Legal Issues/
 * Digital Storytelling
 * Hybrid Format Courses
 * Introduction to Information Literacy in the K12 Classroom
 * Utilizing Technology for Meaningful Learning
 * Using Technology to Enhance Mathematics Instruction
 * History of Instructional Technology before 1900
 * /Simulation Pedagogy/

LMS, LMCS, and Reusable Learning Objects

 * Learning Management Systems
 * /Creating a Marketplace for Reusable Learning Objects/
 * Reusable Learning Objects in Special
 * Learning Objects
 * /Low Threshold Applications/

A Professional Field: Instructional Technology

 * /Evaluation of IT as a profession/

title: Instructional Technology


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Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Scales and Weights

In front of you is a balance. Your task is to devise a system, using 4 weights, so that any whole number of kilograms can be weighed up to n kg, where n should be the largest possible.

Example: Suppose you use these weights: 1 kg, 2 kg, 4 kg, 8 kg. This way you can weigh any weight up to n=15 kg by combining these weights.

1 kg = 1 kg

2 kg = 2 kg

3 kg = 2 kg + 1 kg

...

14 kg = 8 kg + 4kg + 2 kg

15 kg = 8 kg + 4 kg + 2 kg + 1 kg

Solutions: Up to 40 kg | Up to 80kg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Instructional Technology/Learning Management Systems

Learning Management Systems
This section was started by IT 7310, Learning Management Systems, in the  Instructional Technology program at  Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA

The instructor is Tim Spannaus. Student contributors will identify their sections.

While the WSU IT students will start this section, we welcome your comments and contributions.

K-12 Classroom

Learning Objects

Selecting a LMS Vendor

Knowledge Management

Universal Design

Reusable Learning Objects in Special Education

Learning Management Systems in Healthcare

A Non-Techies Guide to Selecting a LMS

Project Based Learning

Return to Instructional Technology.


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Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Scales and Weights/Solution 1

Puzzles | Logic puzzles | Scales and Weights | Solution 1

Weights are: 1, 3, 9, 27

Explanation
You can put the weights on the other side of the balance, therefore subtracting some of the weight from the other side. Using this system the objects can be weighed thus:

1kg = 1kg

2kg = 3kg - 1kg

3kg = 3kg

...

39kg = 27kg + 9kg + 3kg

40kg = 27kg + 9kg + 3kg + 1kg


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User:Tspannaus

Tim Spannaus

Home page

Wayne State University bio page

title: User:Tspannaus


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User:Lbs6380~enwikibooks

See my user page on wikipedia.

title: User:Lbs6380~enwikibooks


text: User:Vikreykja~enwikibooks

title: User:Vikreykja~enwikibooks


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Organic Chemistry/Aromatics

<< Dienes | Aromatics | Aromatic reactions>>

After understanding the usefulness of unsaturated compound, or conjugated system, we hope to explore the unique structure of aromatic compounds, including why benzene should not be called 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene because it is more stable than a typical triene, and seemingly unreactive. Called "aromatic" initially because of its fragrance, aromaticity now refers to the stability of compounds that are considered aromatic, not only benzene. Any cyclic compound with 4n+2 pi electrons in the system is aromatic. The stability of aromatic compounds arises because all bonding orbitals are filled and low in energy. =History of Aromatics= Early in the 19th century, advances in equipment, technique and communications resulted in chemists discovering and experimenting with novel chemical compounds. In the course of their investigations they stumbled across a different kind of stable compound with the molecular formula of C6H6. Unable to visualize what such a compound might look like, the scientists invented all sorts of models for carbon-to-carbon bonding -- many of which were not entirely stable -- in order to fit what they had observed to what they expected the C6H6 compound to look like.

Benzene (which is the name that was given to the aromatic compound C6H6) is probably the most common and industrially important aromatic compound in wide use today. It was discovered in 1825 by Michael Faraday, and its commercial production from coal tar (and, later on, other natural sources) began in earnest about twenty-five years later. The structure of benzene emerged during the 1860s, the result of contributions from several chemists,  most famously that of  Kekulé.

Scientists of the time did not have the benefit of understanding that electrons are capable of delocalization, so that all carbon atoms could share the same π-bond electron configuration equally. Huckel was the first to apply the new theory of quantum mechanics to clearly separating σ  and  π electrons. He went on to develop a theory of π electron bonding for benzene, which was the first to explain the electronic origins of aromaticity.

=Benzene Structure= Benzene is a hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms connected to each other through one p-orbital per carbon. Its chemical formula is C6H6, and its structure is a hexagonal ring of carbons sharing symmetrical bonds, with all six hydrogen atoms protruding outwards from the carbon ring, but in the same plane as the ring. The p-orbital system contains 6 electrons, and one way to distribute the electrons yields the following structure:

 * Benzol.svg

However, another resonance form of benzene is possible, where the single bonds of the first structure are replaced with double bonds, and the double bonds with single bonds. These two resonance forms are co-dominant in benzene. (Other forms, such as a structure with a π bond connecting opposite carbons, are possible but negligible.) Thus, each bond in benzene has been experimentally shown to be of equal length and strength, and each is accounted as approximately a "1.5" bond instead of either a single or double bond alone.

Electron density is shared between carbons, in effect yielding neither a single nor a double bond, but a sort of one-and-a-half bond between each of the six carbons. Benzene has a density of negative charge both above and below the plane formed by the ring structure. Although benzene is very stable and does not tend to react energetically with most substances, electrophilic compounds may be attracted to this localized electron density and such substances may form a bond with the aromatic benzene ring.

An electron delocalisation ring can be used to show in a single picture both dominant resonance forms of benzene:

 * Benzene circle.svg

Benzene Properties
Benzene is a colorless, flammable liquid with a sweet aroma and carcinogenic effects. The aromatic properties of benzene make it far different from other alkenes in many ways.

Benzene Reactions

 * Main article: Aromatic reactions

Unlike alkenes, aromatic compounds such as benzene undergo substitution reactions instead of addition reactions. The most common reaction for benzene to undergo is electrophilic aromatic substitution (EAS), although in a few special cases, substituted benzenes can undergo nucleophilic aromatic substitution.

Benzene Health Effects
In the body, benzene is metabolized, and benzene exposure may have quite serious health effects. Breathing in very high levels of benzene can result in death, while somewhat lower (but still high) levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and even death.

The major effect of benzene from chronic (long-term) exposure is to the blood. Benzene damages the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells, leading to anemia. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the immune system, increasing the chance of infection. Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular menstrual periods and a decrease in the size of their ovaries. It is not known whether benzene exposure affects the developing fetus in pregnant women or fertility in men, however animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene.

The US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) also classifies benzene as a human carcinogen. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause leukemia, a potentially fatal cancer of the blood-forming organs. In particular, Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) may be caused by benzene.

=Aromaticity= Aromaticity in organic chemistry does not refer to whether or not a molecule triggers a sensory response from olfactory organs (whether it "smells"), but rather refers to the arrangement of electron bonds in a cyclic molecule. Many molecules that have a strong odor (such as diatomic chlorine Cl2) are not aromatic in structure -- odor has little to do with chemical aromaticity. It was the case, however, that many of the earliest-known examples of aromatic compounds had distinctively pleasant smells. This property led to the term "aromatic" for this class of compounds, and hence the property of having enhanced stability due to delocalized electrons came to be called "aromaticity".

Definition
Aromaticity is a chemical property in which a conjugated ring of unsaturated bonds, lone pairs, or empty orbitals exhibit a stabilization stronger than would be expected by the stabilization of conjugation alone. It can also be considered a manifestation of cyclic delocalization and of resonance.

This is usually considered to be because electrons are free to cycle around circular arrangements of atoms, which are alternately single- and double-bonded to one another. These bonds may be seen as a hybrid of a single bond and a double bond, each bond in the ring identical to every other. This commonly-seen model of aromatic rings was developed by Kekulé. The model for benzene consists of two resonance forms, which corresponds to the double and single bonds' switching positions. Benzene is a more stable molecule than would be expected of cyclohexatriene, which is a theoretical molecule.

Theory
By convention, the double-headed arrow indicates that two structures are simply hypothetical, since neither can be said to be an accurate representation of the actual compound. The actual molecule is best represented by a hybrid (average) of most likely structures, called resonance forms. A carbon-carbon double bond is shorter in length than a carbon-carbon single bond, but aromatic compounds are perfectly geometrical (that is, not lop-sided) because all the carbon-carbon bonds have the same length. The actual distance between atoms inside an aromatic molecule is intermediate between that of a single and that of a double bond.

A better representation than Lewis drawings of double and single bonds is that of the circular π bond (Armstrong's inner cycle), in which the electron density is evenly distributed through a π bond above and below the ring. This model more correctly represents the location of electron density within the aromatic molecule's overall structure. The single bonds are sigma (σ) bonds formed with electrons positioned "in line" between the carbon atoms' nuclei. Double bonds consist of one "in line" σ bond and another non-linearly arranged bond -- a π-bond. The π-bonds are formed from the overlap of atomic p-orbitals simultaneously above and below the plane of the ring formed by the "in line" σ-bonds.

Since they are out of the plane of the atoms, π orbitals can interact with each other freely, and thereby they become delocalized. This means that, instead of being tied to one particular atom of carbon, each electron can be shared by all the carbon atoms in an aromatic ring. Thus, there are not enough electrons to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the "extra" electrons strengthen all of the bonds of the ring equally.

Characteristics
An aromatic compound contains a set of covalently-bound atoms with specific characteristics:
 * 1) The molecule has to be cyclic
 * 2) A delocalized conjugated pi system, most commonly an arrangement of alternating single and double bonds (can sometimes include triple bonds if the geometry of the molecule permits)
 * 3) Coplanar structure, with all the contributing atoms in the same plane
 * 4) A number of pi delocalized electrons that is even, but not a multiple of 4. (This is known as Hückel's (4n+2)Π rule, where,n= 0,1,2,3 and so on. Permissible numbers of π electrons include 2, 6, 10, 14, and so on)
 * 5) Special reactivity in organic reactions such as electrophilic aromatic substitution and nucleophilic aromatic substitution

Whereas benzene is aromatic (6 electrons, from 3 double bonds), cyclobutadiene is not, since the number of π delocalized electrons is 4, which is not satisfied by any n integer value. The cyclobutadienide (2−) ion, however, is aromatic (6 electrons). An atom in an aromatic system can have other electrons that are not part of the system, and are therefore ignored for the 4n + 2 rule. In furan, the oxygen atom is sp2 hybridized. One lone pair is in the π system and the other in the plane of the ring (analogous to C-H bond on the other positions). There are 6 π electrons, so furan is aromatic.

Aromatic molecules typically display enhanced chemical stability, compared to similar non-aromatic molecules. The circulating (that is, delocalized) π electrons in an aromatic molecule generate significant local magnetic fields that can be detected by NMR techniques. NMR experiments show that protons on the aromatic ring are shifted substantially further down-field than those on aliphatic carbons. Planar monocyclic molecules containing 4n π electrons are called anti-aromatic and are, in general, destabilized. Molecules that could be anti-aromatic will tend to alter their electronic or conformational structure to avoid this situation, thereby becoming merely non-aromatic.

Aromatic molecules are able to interact with each other in so-called π-π stacking: the π systems form two parallel rings overlap in a "face-to-face" orientation. Aromatic molecules are also able to interact with each other in an "edge-to-face" orientation: the slight positive charge of the substituents on the ring atoms of one molecule are attracted to the slight negative charge of the aromatic system on another molecule.

=Monosubstituted Benzenes= Benzene is a very important basic structure which is useful for analysis and synthesis in most aspects of organic chemistry. The benzene ring itself is not the most interesting or useful feature of the molecule; which substitutents and where they are placed on the ring can be considered the most critical aspect of benzene chemistry in general.

Effects of Different Substituents
Depending on the type of substituent, atoms or groups of atoms may serve to make the benzene ring either more reactive or less reactive. If the atom or group makes the ring more reactive, it is called activating, and if less, then it is called deactivating.

Generally, the terms activating and deactivating are in terms of the reactions that fall into the category of Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS). These are the most common forms of reactions with aromatic rings. Aromatic rings can undergo other types of reactions, however, and in the case of Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution, the activating and deactivating nature of substituents on the rings is reversed. In EAS, a hydroxyl groups is strongly activating, but in Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution, a hydroxyl group is strongly deactivating. But since EAS is the most common reaction with aromatic rings, when discussing activation and deactivation, it's normally done in terms of the EAS.

In addition to activating or deactivating, all groups and/or substituent atoms on a benzene ring are directing. An atom or group may encourage additional atoms or groups to add or not to add to certain other carbons in relation to the carbon connected to the directing group. This concept will be further discussed in the next chapter, but when memorizing the groups below it is helpful to also memorize whether it is O (ortho), M (meta) or P (para)-directing.

Another factor that heavily influences direction, however, is steric hindrance. If, for example, you have a tert-butyl substituent on the ring, despite the fact that it is ortho/para directing, the ortho positions will be largely blocked by the tert-butyl group and thus nearly all the product would be para.

Activating Substituents
Activating substituents make benzene either slightly more reactive or very much more reactive, depending on the group or atom in question. In general, if one of the major heteroatoms (nitrogen or oxygen) is directly attached to the carbon ring then the result is probably activation. This is merely a rule of thumb, and many exceptions exist, so it is best to memorize the groups listed below instead of counting on a quick and dirty rule of thumb.

Deactivating Substituents
A deactivating group is a functional group attached to a benzene molecule that removes electron density from the benzene ring, making electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions slower and more difficult than they would be on benzene alone. As discussed above for activating groups, deactivating groups may also determine the positions (relative to themselves) on the benzene ring where substitutions take place, so each deactivating group is listed below along with its directing characteristic.

Activation vs. Deactivation and ortho/para vs. meta directing
So why are some substituents activating or deactivating? Why are some meta directing and others ortho/para directing? From the above tables, it seems pretty clear there's a relationship.

There are primarily two effects that substituents impart on the ring that affect these features:

 * 1) Resonance effects
 * 2) Inductive effects

Resonance Effects
Let's first look at resonance effects. Resonance effects are the ability or inability of a substituent to provide electrons to the ring and enhance its resonance stability. To see this, we must first get a basic understanding of the mechanism of Electrophilic Aromatic Subsitution. We'll discuss EAS in more detail in the next section, but some basics are called for here.

As you can see in the image above, the electrophile is attacked by pi electrons in the ring. The same carbon is now bonded to both the hydrogen that was bonded to it and the electrophile. This in turn creates a carbocation on the adjacent carbon, making the ring non-aromatic. But aromatic rings like to remain aromatic. The nucleophile which was previously bonded to the electrophile now attacks the hydrogen, abstracting it from the ring and allowing the pi-bond to re-form and returning the ring to its aromatic nature.

As we've seen before in some other reactions, when a carbocation is created as an intermediate, stability of that carbocation is crucial to the reaction. This is the case in Electrophilic Aromatic Subsitution as well.

So what is the effect of substituents on the ring?

Let's look at the situation above. In this case we have Phenol, a benzene ring with an -OH (hydroxyl) group attached. When we nitrate the ring with nitric acid in sulfuric acid (a reaction we'll discuss in the next section), a nitro group is attached to the benzene ring.

There are 3 possible places for the nitro group to attach: An ortho, meta, or para position. To understand the stability of the carbocation, we need to look at the resonance structures for a given attack and see what the results are.

The first resonance structure of the ortho attack results in a positive charge on the carbon with the hydroxyl group. This happens to be the most stable of the 3 resonance structures for an ortho attack because the two negative electron pairs in the oxygen act to stabilize the positive charge on the carbon. The other two resonance forms leave a carbon with a hydrogen attached, to hold the positive charge. Hydrogen can do nothing to stabilize the charge and thus, these are less stable forms.

In the para attack situation, notice that the second resonance form also puts a positive charge on the carbon with the hydroxyl group. This provides for stability just as it does in the case of an ortho attack and thus, the middle resonance form is very stable.

Finally, in the meta attack situation, all of the resonance forms result in a positive charge on a carbon with only a hydrogen attached. None of these is stable, and thus, meta attack with a hydroxyl group attached, is a very small percentage of the product.

So the electron pairs in the oxygen act to stabilize the ortho and para attacks.

Inductive Effects
Now let's look at the inductive effects of deactivating substituents. Let's imagine that, instead of a hydroxyl group, we instead have a carbonyl group attached to the ring in its place. When a carbonyl is attached, the ring is bonded to a carbon which in turn, is double-bonded to an oxygen, the double-bonded oxygen is withdrawing electrons and this inductive effect is felt on the ring, strongly deactivating its pi-bond nature and putting a positive dipole on the carbon. Looking at the resonance structures, this carbon, which already has some positive nature is now given the added resonance of a positive charge, in the case of ortho and para attacks. Positive plus positive equals more positive and thus, less stable. There's no negative charge or negative electron pair to stabilize this positive charge.

So in this case, not only is the entire ring less activated, but the ortho and para attacks result in much more unstable carbocation resonance forms. Hence, meta is the preferred position, but the overall reaction is less active than plain benzene.

Halides as the Exception
Notice that in the list of activating vs. deactivating substituents, the activating ones are all ortho/para directing. In the deactivating substituents, all but the halides, are meta directing. Why are halides an exception?

Because halides are more electronegative than carbon, they induce a positive dipole on the attached carbon and a negative dipole on their own atom(inductive effect), and in accordance to the previous logic of activating/deactivating substituents, deactivate the ring. However, halides also possess lone pair electrons in their outer shell to share with the ring, allowing the resonance structures with favored ortho/para attacks versus meta attacks due to their poor resonance forms. In essence, although halides do deactivate the ring to some extent, they provide major resonance contributors due to the availability of their lone pairs. Resonance structures usually trump the inductive effect.

Detailed Effects of Substituents
We've discussed some generalities about the effects of substituents and even some specifics about certain ones, but let's look more closely at the substituents and try to understand the details of what makes them activating vs. deactivating.

-NH2, -NHR, and -NRR are all very strongly activating. Though nitrogen is more electronegative than carbon, its ability to share a pair of electrons greatly outweighs its electron withdrawing effect.

-OH and -O- is similar in that it is even more electronegative than nitrogen, but it has two pairs of electrons to share, which also greatly outweighs its electron withdrawing effect.

-NHCOCH3 and -NHCOR are also strongly activating, but the inductive effect of the double-bonded oxygen acts to make the nitrogen more electron withdrawing, so they're not quite as activating as the other -N substituents above.

-OCH3 and -OR are also still strongly activating, but less so, because the electron density is shared on both sides of the oxygen.

-CH3 and -R in general provide some electron density sharing, but not nearly as much as a pair of electrons. Thus their effect is only weakly felt.

For deactivating groups we have:

-NO2, or nitro and -NR3+. The nitro group is very strongly deactivating because of its resonance structure. The nitro group has two resonance forms: O=N+-O- and O--N+=O. Both of these forms leave a full positive charge on the nitrogen making it completely unable to help stabilize the positive carbocation intermediate. The same applies to -NR3+.

-CF3 and -CCl3 both have an inductive electronegative effect of 3 halides, but with no electrons to share with the ring, leaving them also very strongly deactivating.

-CN has a triple bond between the carbon and nitrogen with a resonance form of a double bond between the carbon and nitrogen and a positive charge on the carbon, meaning that between the electronegativity of the nitrogen and positively charged carbon in the resonance form, it destabilizes the carbocation and offer no electrons to the ring.

-SO3, -COR, -CO2R - all of these have electronegative oxygens giving the carbon a positive partial charge and providing no electrons for stability on the ring.

-F, -Cl, -Br, all have a similar effect. They are electronegative and deactivate the ring, but have electrons to share that, to some degree, makes up for it, allowing the ortho/para direction. But to understand their effects better, you need to look at them in terms of their placement on the periodic chart. Florine is the most electronegative element and it's very small and thus very close to the carbon it's bonded to. This gives its electromagnetic influence a stronger deactivating character. Chlorine is less electronegative, but it's also larger and thus further away from the carbon, making it harder for it to share its electrons. And so on.

=Polysubstituted Benzenes= Unsubstituted benzene is seldom encountered in nature or in the laboratory, and you will find in your studies that most often benzene rings are found as parts of other, more complicated molecules. In order for benzene to react in most situations, it gains or loses some functionality dependent on which functional groups are attached. Although the simplest case is to work with benzene that has only one functional group, it is also essential to understand the interactions and competitions between multiple functional groups attached to the same benzene ring.

When there is more than one substituent present on a benzene ring the spatial relationship between groups becomes important, which is why the arene substitution patterns ortho, meta and para were devised. For example three isomers exist for the molecule cresol because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group can be placed either next to each other (ortho), one position removed from each other (meta) or two positions removed from each other (para). Where each group attaches is most often a function of which order they were attached in, due to the activating/deactivating and directing activities of previously attached groups.

Competition Between Functional Groups
When a ring has more than one functional group, the effects of the groups are combined and their total effect must be taken into account. In general, effects are summed. For example, toluene (methylbenzene) is weakly activated. But p-nitrotoluene has both a methyl group and a nitro group. The methyl group is weakly activating and the nitro is pretty strongly deactivating, so overall, the group is very deactivated. In terms of direction, however, both substitutents agree on the direction. The methyl group is ortho/para directing. The nitro group occupies the para position, so the methyl will now want just ortho direction. The nitro group is meta directing. The positions meta to the nitro are also ortho to the methyl, so this works out and further substituents will be almost entirely in the positions ortho to the methyl group.

If two functional groups disagree on direction, the more activating group is the one that controls direction. That is, if you had m-nitrotoluene, most of your product would tend to be ortho/para to the toluene and not meta to the nitro, despite the nitro having a stronger influence on overall activation.

Naming Conventions
When a benzene ring has more than one substituent group attached, the location of all of the groups not directly attached to carbon number one must be explicitly declared. This is done by listing the number of the carbon atom where the group is attached, followed by a hyphen and the group's name. The carbon atoms of the benzene ring should be numbered in order of previously established precedence, i.e., a bromine would take precedence over a nitro group, which itself would take precedence over an alcohol or alkane group. The names of the groups should be listed in alphabetical order, i.e. "2-methyl-5-nitrobenzaldehyde."

<< Dienes | Aromatics | Aromatic reactions>>

title: Organic Chemistry/Aromatics


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Debate/Topics/Religious Circumcision of Children

Although the right to choose religious circumcision for one's self is non-controversial, the right of a caregiver to consent on behalf of a child for non-therapeutic surgery is more contested.

Generally there are two types of argument: Supporters and Opponents.

Religious freedom
Supporters: Caregivers have a fundamental right to make religious decisions on behalf of children under their care. The state has no right to limit this in any way.

Opponents: Circumcision is sexual assault and is therefore beyond the caregiver's rights of action against another person. Religious freedom must be limited when health decisions are made on behalf of a minor.


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User:Andrewcool~enwikibooks

AndrewCool
My Real name is Andrew A. I live in Texas and i was born may 10th. San Antonio, Texas

title: User:Andrewcool~enwikibooks


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Talk:Debate/Topics/Drug Prohibition

Is there actually any evidence that shows that when drugs are legal, drug abuse increases? Drug use does not mean drug abuse; people experimenting with reasonable amounts of cocaine or smoking a nightly joint after work are not drug abusers. Guanaco 04:48, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I agree with you, but you can no doubt imagine how difficult it is to find any kind of honest comparison. I don't have statistics on hand, but after an initial upsurge in marijuana use after the Netherlands legalized it, usage rates went down to below previous amounts (and below rates for the US) and usage of hard drugs went down too.  Of course, none of this adequately addresses the use/abuse distinction you make. This Issue Guide should be expanded to include all of this -- well, actually most of it really belongs at Premise:Legal status of drugs and rates of use and abuse or something. TUF-KAT 01:39, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Debate/Topics/Drug Prohibition


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Cookbook:Mango

Mangos are similar to peaches. They should be very sweet and juicy. Low-quality (but not rotten or unripe) mangos are fibrous and have a turpentine smell.

Mangos do not keep well. Non-rotten fresh ripe mangos are very rare. Many mangos start rotting right on the tree. The sliced mango in the picture has in fact just started to rot, as you can see by the dark-appearing translucent area. This mango would have a bit of a funny smell, vaguely like plastic or some sort of cleaning fluid. The translucent area is starting to liquefy. An unripe mango is crunchy, pale yellow on the inside, and not very sweet. Mangos should not have dark spots on the side; these indicate that the mango has started to rot. Mangos generally rot from the non-stem end, from the seed or pit, and from any dark spots on the outside. Black fibers indicate a different sort of rot, also bad.

When purchasing a mango, obviously avoid any signs of rot. A mango should feel solid, but not really hard. A mango should have a noticeable good smell. The small elongated variety with a pointy end will generally be of better quality than the larger and more rounded type.

There are many ingenious ways to open a mango, most failing to let you examine the mango for bad spots. (you can take off the sides and then flip them inside out for example) The more-or-less obvious method is best. Slice off the stem end with a sharp knife. Next, use the knife to help you peel the mango. Dig the knife in a bit at the stem-end cut, creating a pull tab. Peel away from this tab. Repeat all the way around the stem end, then elsewhere as needed. Be gentle in holding the fruit as you do this. Next, notice the symmetry. A mango contains a large flat seed that divides the fruit into two halves. Slide the knife along each side of the seed, cutting the fruit into three pieces. Cut away and discard any translucent areas. If you had to discard anything, rinse the remaining part to get rid of juices from the rotten part. Chop up the fruit as desired. The middle section may give you trouble; if it is good then you might just gnaw it from the seed.

Cooked mangos lose the characteristic mango smell and flavor. This can be desirable if you want a mush that tastes like sweet potatoes. You could serve cooked mangos with meat.

Green mangos are sometimes used in cooking. The whole mango may be chopped or thinly sliced, including the skin and seed.

Mango recipes

 * Jamaican Jerk Chicken
 * Crab Quesadillas with Mango Salsa

Warning
Many people are allergic to mango sap. Drops of sap may be found near the stem end of a mango. Mangos are related to cashews.

title: Cookbook:Mango


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Australian History/Colonialism

‹ Return to the Contents ‹ Back to Explorers After Cook

There were a number of factors which led to the Colonisation of Australia.

In this Chapter

 * Settlement of New South Wales (1788-1889) ›
 * Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) (1825-1889) ›
 * Swan River (Western Australia) (1829-1889) ›
 * South Australia (1836-1889) ›
 * Victoria (1850-1889) ›
 * Queensland (1859-1889) ›
 * Forward to The Road to Federation ›

title: Australian History/Colonialism


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User talk:Goodgerster

Cookbook:Sponge_Cake and Cookbook:Impossible Sponge_Cake
The recipe for sponge cake is indeed incorrectly weighted.

I understand that the recipe is intended to be scalable. Besides being complicated and probably not needed, the procedure doesn't work.

First of all, the Cookbook:Baking Soda or Cookbook:Baking Powder (Very different! Which one?) is not scaled. If scaling is so important, this is a problem.

 * On second thought, it doesn't matter. This ingredient is unused. Perhaps the original recipe used normal flour?

The second is the matter of the eggs. If the eggs have lost weight and you do not add water to restore them, you will be using eggs that are thicker than normal. Your instructions handle eggs that have lost content via a leak, not via evaporation.

You say that the recipe is 140+ years old. This might be older than the stanardization of egg weights. The USDA Large egg is about the same size as an EU size M egg. I presume this is what you mean. Since these are the default sizes AFAIK, it would have been better to leave the size unspecified. Relying on standard weights will let you be accurate to plus-or-minus 6% or so, which is good enough for every recipe I've ever used.

Regarding kitchen scales, you are clearly unaware of world-wide cooking issues. I have never heard of a US household having such an item. The normal US household has only a crude bathroom scale for measuring human weight. I would not be able to purchase a kitchen scale at any normal place (supermarket) for buying kitchen items. I'd have to drive a long way to a specialty cooking store. I'd probably have to pay $30. Nobody normal would ever do that. Most people in the US are unfamiliar with weighing anything not measured in whole pounds, which would make for a truly huge cake.

Fortunately, the recipe can be fixed based on normal density of the various ingredients.

title: User talk:Goodgerster


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Cookbook:Sponge Cake I

| Dessert | Cake

Sponge cake is the most commonly-recognised variety of baked confectionery in Britain. It has a sweet taste, often flavoured with vanilla, chocolate or other additions. It can be cut and displayed in a very large number of different ways.

A more difficult version of this recipe is available for those with a kitchen scale and wanting to use it.

Cake

 * 2 eggs
 * 4 oz self raising flour
 * 1 ½ tsp baking powder
 * 4 oz superfine sugar
 * 4 oz butter or margarine
 * 1–2 tbsp vanilla extract (optional)
 * Food coloring (optional), as desired

Assembly (optional)

 * 2–4 tbsp jam, loosened with palette knife or similar
 * Buttercream
 * 1 tbsp icing sugar

Cake

 * 1) Preheat an oven to 400°F.
 * 2) Cream together the sugar and butter in the mixing bowl. They should achieve a creamy texture with quite a thick consistency. The longer and faster the butter and sugar are creamed the lighter the cake will be when cooked.
 * 3) Add both eggs and mix well.
 * 4) Add all the flour using a fine sieve from a height, adding air to the flour, and beat with wooden spoon in a circular motion, trying to incorporate as much air as possible.
 * 5) Add any food coloring, flavoring etc. at this point. If you add liquid ingredients, add the same volume again of sugar-and-flour mix to compensate. If adding dry ingredients, ensure to use equal parts less flour than any extra ingredient added.
 * 6) Grease 1–2 cake pan(s) with butter. You may wish to use a springform pan for this recipe.
 * 7) Scrape the batter into the pan(s). If using two pans, try to ensure that both tins have an equal amount of batter in them and that both are not more than ¾ filled.
 * 8) Put the cake tins into the oven and leave them for approximately 10 minutes before checking them. The cooking time should eventually reach around 15 minutes: keep checking them regularly after about 8 minutes since ovens vary.
 * 9) Turn the cake out onto a wire rack to cool.

Assembly (optional)

 * 1) If assembling 2 layers of cake, turn one of them upside down and spread the jam or buttercream onto its base. Stick the other cake top-side up onto the upside-down cake.
 * 2) Dust the cake with icing sugar using a fine sieve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * To make a chocolate variation, substitute cocoa powder to taste with an equal volume of the flour. For example, if using 4 tbsp of cocoa powder, omit 4 tbsp of flour.

title: Cookbook:Sponge Cake I


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Cookbook talk:Sponge Cake I

Simply put, kitchen scales are not found in the USA. So it isn't just a problem of using metric stuff. Conversion requires calculations involving density. So, here goes.

Would it not be easier to only put 2 lists of ingredients on the other page? Not 2 recipies.

What sort of fail spongecake is this?! Nothing about separating the eggs, beating until extremely light and airy, and then gentle folding in. Looks to me like someone's grandma wrote 'sponge' on top of a poundcake recipe and it was copied into here verbatim. 58.96.125.24 (talk) 04:45, 11 January 2010 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Sponge Cake I


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Javafied/Preface

With lessons learnt from C and C++, Java emerged as a language of choice for the Internet programmer in its early days circa 1995. Many a programmers adopted this easy-to-use language almost instantly after its launch and why wouldn't they when it offered all the goodies in one bag: Automatic Garbage Collection, Graphics, Animation, Graphical User Interfaces, Platform Independence, Networking, Internationalisation and Documentation.

All that hype: Rise and fall of Java
The year 1996 saw Java develop a massive following as Usenet groups flooded with vast amounts of news and information about the language. The Java beta and 1.0 might have caused a huge noise in the development community, but it was the version 1.1 launch in March 1997 that led people into thinking "Can Java replace Windows?"1.

People began measuring Java up against systems like Microsoft Windows and no matter how impressive Java seemed, people began scratching up tidbits against the language. Some said it was slow, some simply disliked it because the  method in the   class drew a line that was of   width. And soon technical papers began appearing on websites benchmarking Java speeds and issues related to performance hits and glitches in Java programs. Java faded out.

The resurrection
With Java out of the scene, software vendors like Microsoft adopted almost all of the functionalities of Java (the Virtual Machine Bytecode, Garbage collection and Multithreading), plastered it over their existing products namely Visual C++ and Visual Basic to come out with a new language, C# and a brand new platform, .Net. Java was long forgotten. C# was now the language of choice for a programmer, a language with the same functionality as that of Java and the speed of C/C++. C# ruled over Java in all aspects.

Java started losing developers, heck, I was one of them. But then the minor version incremented. The  was now. Hope appeared at the horizon of neglect as streaks of bright red at sunrise would. The Java language was not dead yet! Still in beta it clambered, resurrected but to vain. C# development had juiced out half of developers once devoted Javaholics. A few months later Java incremented to, but this time Java had some major changes introduced into the language syntax to match some constructs like   and the   loop equivalent common to C#. Java attracted a few more developers but it had yet to convince the end-users. Can it?

We'll be exploring how Java can be useful for developers and users both on the Windows platform in this book and will travel deep into the world of Java to learn what's new in Java.

Support
It doesn't just end with this book. We will try to provide ongoing support to readers of this book and keep on improving the text of the book through the discussion link on the top of each and every page of this book.

We would also be:
 * providing a download section where the source-code (if any) could be downloaded.
 * publishing FAQs on using this guide to overcome most of your problems.

Talkback
What makes an author more merrier than response? We welcome comments to the manuscript and would like to hear from all the readers of the book. If you'd like to talk to any of the authors of the book, go ahead and do so using the discussion link on top of the page.

Please let us know if there are any errors in this book, lest correct them yourself and provide us with your suggestions fro future editions.

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Japanese/Basic Japanese/Answers/Lesson 2

Answers
1.
 * a) これは何ですか.
 * b) あれは何ですか.
 * c) それは何ですか.

2.
 * a) これ は___です.
 * b) あれ は___です.
 * c) それ は___です.


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A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/DOS

Introduction: what is a DOS?
DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System, is an OS that initially loads itself from disk. The boot PROM contains a trivial OS and a BIOS (basic input/output system) that is sufficient only to achieve that initial load. (Earlier OSs loaded from paper tape, punched card or magnetic tape. The first personal computers, such as the Altair did not have an operating system of any kind although they could be added later to use devices.)

In common with most other OSs, Disk Operating Systems consist of four primary modules: All modern OSs are disk operating systems, but the term "DOS" has stuck to the first generation personal computers that used it.
 * The extended input/output system which reads and writes to disk and tape, reads from keyboard and writes to screen and/or printer. (Hence the term "read-out" is a Hollywood nonsense neologism for "display"). Most DOSs are at least minimally open, so that third party developers can write hardware "drivers" (extensions to the I/O system) to support their hardware.  Mac OSs are the most restrictive, Linux the least (fully open). Older Apple DOSs were actually fairly open.
 * The Network connection. (This is just a special case of I/O but occasionally it is useful to treat it separately.)  No early OSs had networking (ignoring the trivial case of attached terminals), but it was added during the 1970 to 1990 period.
 * The task scheduler. Its function is to determine which process should run next and for how long.  In early OSs, this was fairly rudimentary - one task had complete control and if an application crashed, the machine crashed.  Interrupts were used to give control back to the OS and a different process  takes over.  A "grown up" OS needs pre-emptive multi-tasking, which came to the mainframe world with Exec 8 on Univac hardware in about 1970 and to the personal computer world in 1985 with AmigaOS.
 * The file (and directory) system
 * The User Interface - in early OSs, this is just a command-line environment.

Early proprietary DOSs
Well known DOSs include PC-DOS/MS-DOS (Microsoft), DR-DOS (Digital Research), and FreeDOS. These are all designed to be compatible with MS-DOS. In fact to the average computer user MS-DOS is DOS. The rest of this section discusses MS-DOS. The name that Apple gave to DOS for the Apple II was originally DOS 3.1, which went to 3.3, and was then completely redone for ProDOS.

Benefits

Today, DOS is commonly used in embedded systems for low royalties, low memory usage, and ease of direct hardware access. DOS remains popular among nostalgists, hobbyists, and in corporate/educational environments where a legacy runtime is needed. Quite simply, DOS offers compatibility with DOS programs that need total control of the machine.

Limitations

Foremost, there is no built-in graphical interface for DOS, which can make it intimidating to beginners.

Since DOS is without a default GUI interface, the user must rely on first-party interfaces (Microsoft's DOSSHELL and versions of Windows from 1.03 to 3.12) a non-standard 3rd-party interface (e.g. Gem/FreeGEM) or memorize how to type commands to control DOS.

It is widely accepted that the command-line environment that DOS provides is inferior to the one provided by UNIX-like systems. One example of this is that DOS systems lack a sophisticated scripting environment.

In addition to a comparatively limited user interface, relative to any modern OS, DOS has a few other notable limitations, including:

 * CPU and memory usage cannot be managed separately for multiple simultaneous processes (multitasking)
 * hardware invented after about 1995 - 1998 is not natively supported

FreeDOS
As the name suggests, FreeDOS is a free implementation of the MS-DOS operating system. The project was started in 1994 when Jim Hall, a student at the University of Wisconsin - River Falls, was discouraged to hear that Microsoft would be moving away from their DOS operating system with the release of Windows 95.

For more information, visit the FreeDOS website at www.freedos.org.

title: A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/DOS


text:
Hebrew/Archive/Verbs

פעלים  the Hebrew VERB by: Dodi Richter ביד- דודי ריכטר

The normal Hebrew verb has a 3-consonant Shoresh שרש, or "root", which has a vague meaning. Between and around the shoresh are added vowels and other consonants in certain patterns to create new verbs, nouns, and adjectives related to the root in a way determined by the pattern. For example, the root כתב, meaning to write, is added to the pattern פּוֹעֵל, meaning one who does an action, to get כּוֹתֵב, a writer, or one who writes. The root פעל p-'-l "to create, do" is used to indicate the pattern, and the first "פ", second "ע", and third "ל" letters of this root are used to symbolize respectively the first, second, and third letters of roots in general.

From the shoresh there can be formed 7 patterns of verb forms, called Binyanim בִּנְיָנִים (Singular: Binyan בִּנְיָן), literally meaning constructions. There are other, rare forms not used in Modern Hebrew.

 * 1) Pa'al פָּעַל. This Binyan is the simplest, and is most often called the Kal קל which means "easy" or "light".
 * 2) *Example: "broke" in the sentence: "I broke the window." "שָׁבַרְתִּי אֵת הַחַלּוֹן"
 * 3) Nifal נִפְעַל. This is the passive form of the Pa'al.
 * 4) *Example: "is broken" in the sentence "The window is broken." "הַחַלּוֹן נִשְׁבַּר"
 * 5) Pi'el פִּעֵל. This is the more intense form of the verb, indicated by the dagesh in the second letter of the root which shows that it should be pronounced twice as long, "פִע-עֵל", though this is usually ignored in Modern Hebrew. Sometimes the Pi'el shows a causative.
 * 6) *Example: "shattered" in the sentence: "I shattered the window" "שִׁבַּרְתִּי אֶת הַחַלּוֹן"
 * 7) *Example of causative: "He learnt" "לָמַד" (Qal) vs. "he taught" "לִמֵּד".
 * 8) Pu'al פֻּעַל. This is the passive form of the Pi'el, also with a dagesh in the second letter of the root.
 * 9) *Example: "was shattered" in the sentence: "The window was shattered." "הַחַלּוֹן שֻׁבַּר"
 * 10) *Example of causative: "He was taught" "לֻמַּד".
 * 11) Hif'il הִפְעִיל. This is the causative form of the verb.
 * 12) *Example: "reminded" in the sentence: "I reminded him (I caused him to remember)." "הִזְכַּרְתִּי אוֹתוֹ" (The Pa'al of the verb, "זָכוֹר", means "to remember" or "זָכַר" "he remembered.")
 * 13) Hof'al הָפְעַל or Huf'al הֻפְעַל. This is the passive of the Hif'il.
 * 14) *Example: "was reminded" in the sentence: "He was reminded." "הֻזְכַּר"
 * 15) Hitpa'el הִתְפַעֵל. This is the reflexive form of the verb, in which the subject acts on itself.
 * 16) *Example: "strolled" in the sentence: "He strolled." (The Pa'al of the verb, "הָלוֹך", means "to walk", "הָלַך" "he walked"; therefore the Hitpa'el has the sense of "he walked himself", or "he strolled".)

The consonants of the Shoresh determines the "type" of verb it is, of which there are three principal ones in Hebrew: Strong, Weak and Hollow.

Usually, a verb should be of the Strong type and conform to the general rules of adding and changing vowels and consonants according to Binyan, tense, person, number, and gender. However, some letters can cause a verb not to be Strong, because these rules cannot be applied to these letters, or because these letters can sometimes be dropped.

Weak verbs have such letters as the first or third letter of the Shoresh. There are seven letters that make a verb Weak. These are as follows: א 'alef, ע 'ayin, ה heh, ח chet, י yod, ו vav and נ nun.

Hollow verbs are verbs in which the SECOND root letter is a ו vav or a י yod. These disappear in conjugation. The Shoresh for "to habitate" (temporarily) is גור, and when conjugated becomes (in the Pa'al Binyan, present tense, גר (masculine singular), גרה (feminine sing.), גרים (masc. plural), גרות (fem. plur.). The ו is dropped.

The Hebrew verb also has a Gizrah (גזרה), or Sound Class.

title: Hebrew/Archive/Verbs


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Ecology/Biological community

<< Chapter 3 | Chapter 4 | Chapter 5 >>

Chapter 4. The Biological Communities

A community or biocoenosis is an assemblage of organisms (species populations) whose composition and aspect is determined by the properties of the environment and by the relations of the organisms to each other (modified from Braatne, 2005). Möbius proposed the term biocoenosis in 1877 in his study of oyster reefs in the North Sea, recognizing that interactions between species in a structurally complex system brought with it a higher level of functional complexity. Shelford defined a community as an "assemblage with unity of taxonomic composition and a relatively uniform appearance (Odum, 1959)." The biotic community, along with the physical or abiotic elements of the environment together constitute the ecosystem- how a community of organisms interact with their environment of Tansley (1935).

Like an "ecosystem," the size or area occupied by a community can vary considerably. Bounded by the distribution of the component species' populations where these overlap, communities produce a uniform species composition. Some species might as well be members of other surrounding (or distant) communities. Like the ecosystem concept discussed in Chapter 5, the community concept is broadly defined as one of nested units: conceptually small units potentially being part of containing larger units. This fact is recognized when ecologists define major communities as those of sufficient size and completeness of organization to be relatively independent of adjoining communities, and minor communities as those more or less dependent on neighboring (or surrounding) assemblages.

Communities show both functional and structural (taxonomic) unity, although some species may be replaceable over time and space so that functionally similar communities can have different species compositions. The community concept emphasizes the idea that organisms live together in an orderly manner; that species distributions are more than simply individuals responding in a similar way to a particular set of physical factors. And, of course, a community has properties or characteristics that are more than the sum of its species populations and unique attributes.

 * Read Biocoenosis

Communities and Biomes
In simplest terms, a community is an assemblage of populations living in the same place at the same time, interacting with each other and their environment. According to this definition, there are also various spatial scales that are recognized when describing different types of communities. Spatial scale refers to the size of the organisms that make up the community and can range from very small (i.e., bacteria) to very large (i.e., animals). There are three approaches to spatial ecology: Theoretical Ecology, Metapopulation Ecology, and Landscape Ecology (Hanski 1998). Every community affects another adjacent community, i.e. communities intergrade continuously. Read Metapopulation.

Examples of different spatial scales in communities:
 * 1. A forest - made up of trees, plants, and animals
 * 2. A single tree - made up of a community of insects and flora
 * 3. A termite gut - made up of a community of protozoa, bacteria, and archaea

 * Read Communitiy (Ecology).

Emergent properties of communities include stability, response and resilience to invasion and drought, and bioremediation. (Read Bioremediation)

Terrestrial Biomes
The earth contains many different geographical areas that contain similar climatic conditions. As a result of natural selection, many comparable ecosystems, "biomes", have developed in these areas. A biome is a community on a global scale, and is usually defined by temperature, precipitation, and by the types of plants and animals that inhabit it. Generally, biome classification is determined by the climate and geography of an area. Each biome consists of communities that have adapted to the different climate and environment inside the biome. Specifically, there are special vegetation adaptations as well as physical and behavioral adaptions made by animals in order to accommodate the environment. Several biomes have been identified and include tropical forest, temperate forest, taiga, grassland, chaparral, desert, tundra, and aquatic environments. Tropical forests are characterized by high precipitation (around 75–200 cm of rainfall a year) and high temperatures. In contrast, the coniferous forests of the taigas get just 30–84 cm of precipitation per year and are exposed to average temperatures of -60 Celsius degrees in the winter. Chaparrals also play host to extreme temperatures and low precipitation (15–40 cm of per year) while grasslands average 25–70 cm of rain per year and have temperatures similar to those of temperate forest and deserts. Deserts and tundras are both very dry biomes (less than 30 cm of precipitation per year), but differ widely in their average temperature ranges. While there are clearly a wide variety of biomes on Earth, they are not all equally represented in terms of land mass.

Taigas are the largest terrestrial biome covering the Earth's surface. Located in the Northern Hemisphere, just below the tundras, they cover 11% of the land mass in the Northern Hemisphere and make up 27% of the Earth's total forest. In fact, the biggest forest in the world is the Siberian taiga.

Conifers that make up taigas exhibit needles rather than leaves as a specialized adaptation for the taiga biome. The needles have less surface area for better water retention and a wax covering with sunken stomata to help reduce water loss and to protect the conifers from freezing weather. The dark green color of the conifer needles helps absorb energy from the sun to induce photosynthesis for survival. Conifers also display an inverted funnel shape to help shed the enormous amounts of snow load. The long cold winters and the short summers make it hard for plants and animals to survive and the taiga biome is consequently less diverse than others. The acidic soil of the taiga regions also affects the vegetation and the animals that feed on those plants.

The survival and land mass coverage of the taigas is threatened by many factors. Since the woody bark of conifer trees is easily burned, fires, natural or man-made, pose a major threat to the taigas. Also, logging and clear cutting for pasture land diminishes the size of the taigas in certain areas. The province of Manitoba has signed away 40% of its productive taiga for cutting; an area equal to the size of North Dakota. In addition, Alberta, Canada is allowing massive deforestation in the next sixty years. The loss of a considerable portion of the taiga is major concern, not only because of the subsequent loss of biodiversity and oxygen production, but also because of the "greenhouse effect". The grasslands are also affected by disturbances. Belcher et al. 1989 studied 25 km2 of mixed-grass prairie in Manitoba Canada. The study showed that native prairie was affected by disturbances such as roads, trails, and plowed fireguards. These disturbances expose mineral soil allowing for infestations of leafy spurge which significantly declines the abundance of the dominant native grass species. Leafy spurge poses a threat to potention rangeland, and the conservation of native vegetation.

Aquatic Communities
There are three types of aquatic communities that occur in nature: marine, freshwater, and estuaries.

Marine communities are supported by water of relatively high salinity and are composed of organisms that are able to survive such high-salt conditions. The tropical coral reef is an example of a marine community that is usually found in shallow, tropical marine waters in latitudes ranging from 30°N to 30°S. On average, the growth of these communities is limited to depths of less than 100 feet and water temperatures greater than 72 °F (22 °C). These growth limiting factors facilitate the formation of limestone, the major structural component of the reefs. The limestone is secreted by living organisms, including Cnidarians, coralline algae, mollusks, echinoderms, and some annelid worms. Cnidarians are the chief contributor to the limestone formation as they secrete an exoskeleton of calcium carbonate.

There are three basic types of coral reefs: Fringing Reef, Barrier Reef, and Atoll. Fringing Reef is continuous with the shore line and is usually exposed during low tide. Barrier Reef is further away from shore and is usually separated from the shore by a lagoon with an island. The Great Barrier Reef, located off the cost of Australia, is the largest known coral reef. Its width varies between 10 and 90 miles along its 120-mile length. Atoll is a type of reef that allows some passage out to sea and surrounds a lagoon that does not have an island. The reefs accommodate organisms of both mobile and non-mobile species. Lobsters, crabs, squid, reef sharks, and many different types of fish and sea cucumbers feed off of the reefs. Different types of algae also inhabit the reefs and serve as a food source for predators.

While the coral reef is an important marine community, many factors are negatively affecting its survival. In fact, as Jackson (1997) points out, coral reef communities have most likely been degraded long before the study of ecology was made relevant in the 1920s. Today, the hulls and anchors of ships associated with the fishing industry are causing damage to the reefs and high demand from the jewelry industry is decreasing the size of the reefs considerably. Coastal development, water pollution and tourism also pose a threat to the success of the coral reef communities. Jackson proposes the need for large scale reef protection efforts with "extreme" political, economic, and social implications if there is to be any hope of reef conservation.

 [http://www.reefbase.org/key_topics/reeffisheries.as} [[Image:Barker Dam Lake Reflection.jpg|thumb|left|Barker Dam Lake in California is an example of a freshwater community]] In contrast to marine communities, freshwater communities are supported by water of relatively low salt concentration and are composed of organisms that would most likely not survive in high salinity conditions. Freshwater communities include rivers, lakes, streams, and ponds.

An estuary represents a community that is supported by freshwater and saltwater. Estuaries occupy a coastal location, with an open connection to the sea and some type of freshwater flow (i.e., rivers and streams). Therefore, they are affected by the constraints of both types of environments, creating many small biological niches and accommodating high diversity.

Due to the variable nature of the salinity in estuaries, there are many factors that must be taken into account during estuary classification. Circulation patterns, tidal range, freshwater input, dominant habitat types, etc., are all examples of potentials for estuary variation. Therefore, estuaries are typically classified by regions (i.e. northeastern United States, southeastern United States). However, as Roman et al. point out, each estuary is capable of exhibiting unique characteristics due to the complex nature of the geomorphology of a specific area. Even though regional classifications are generally acceptable, it is important to remember that there are always exceptions to the rule.

Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are comprised of two main types: freshwater ecosystems and marine ecosystems. The main driving force of life in these ecosystems is plant growth, from which food chains begin. Plants require four components to grow. They are water, energy in the form of solar radiation (sunlight), inorganic carbon (either carbon dioxide or bicarbonate ions), and minerals/nutrients. Something that we may take for granted is that many of these ecosystems are downstream from humans. However, this fact has not gone unnoticed in the ecosystems. Frissell points out that a number of well monitored species have been detrimentally effected from being downstream of humans. Frissell argues this is due to the fact that we need to view changes to aquatic ecosystems differently than terrestrial ecosystems. Events such as fire and windstorms dramatically effect terrestrial ecosystems, while they have little effect on aquatic systems. At the same time things such as flooding and accelerated erosion are limited in terrestrial ecosystems, but very important in aquatic systems. This is the context in which aquatic ecosystems should be viewed.

Freshwater Ecosystems
The study of freshwater ecosystems is termed limnology. They can be divided into two broad categories: lentic ecosystems, which are contained in basins, and lotic ecosystems, which are flowing water systems. Glaciers are one cause of lentic environments, where retreating glaciers leave behind basins. The flowing water of lotic systems is responsible for about 6 to 30 times the productivity in primary producers compared to primary producers in standing water (Nelson and Scott 1962).

Saltwater Ecosystems
Saltwater ecosystem structures are dictated by temperature, salinity, currents, waves, and tides. The most productive areas of the sea are coral reefs and coastal waters. Freshwater rivers eventually empty into the ocean and terrestrial ecosystems meet the edge of the sea. In certain areas, specifically Australia, there have been increases in salinity in freshwater regions. This has been shown to be a major factor driving natural selection in this region; only the most tolerant organisms are able to survive and reproduce. Unfortunately, it appears that the salinity of these regions will continue to increase. However, the effects of the salinity changes on the ecosystem are unknown and remain to be seen in those areas.

Limnology
Limnology (from Greek: Λίμνη limne, "lake"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of inland waters (both fresh and saline) and their biological, physical, chemical, geological, and hydrological aspects. This includes the study of natural and man-made lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands, and groundwaters. When studying the dynamics of an ecosystem, limnology involves variables such as pH, temperature, depth, and dissolved oxygen profiles of the body of water. Productivity of the system is tested using a transparency test with a Secchi disk, or by analyzing species diversity and abundance.

François-Alphonse Forel (1841–1912) established the field with his studies of Lake Geneva, the largest freshwater lake in Europe. Limnology is closely related to Hydrobiology,the science of underwater life, which applies the principles and methods of physics, chemistry, geology, and geography to ecological problems. Much of modern hydrobiology can be viewed as a sub-discipline of ecology, but the sphere of hydrobiology includes taxonomy, economic biology, industrial biology, morphology, physiology, etc. The study of life in inland waters can be divided into lotic system ecology (flowing waters) and lentic system ecology (still waters).

One area of current research is eutrophication, which focuses on biotic interactions in plankton assemblage. This branch of hydrobiology involves microbial loops, water blooms, phosphorus load, and lake turnover. Another concern of limnology is the acidification of mountain lakes. Long-term studies are being carried out to monitor changes in the ionic composition of river, lake, and reservoir water as a result of acid rain and fertilization. Another goal of current research is the elucidation of the basic environmental functions of the ecosystem in reservoirs, which are important for water quality management and water supply.

Many populations of fish are declining in certain habitats due to environmental changes and recreational fishing. In response, fish hatcheries breed fish in a predator-free, unlimited resource environment before releasing them into a natural habitat, also known as stocking. A study by Power (1994)investigated predation by sauger and walleye on paddlefish that were being stocked in Lake Sakakawea. Predators at three different sites along the lake were sacrificed, and 73% had ingested at least one paddlefish. All of the ingested paddlefish still intact were only 36-52% of adult size. These findings suggest that paddlefish are being stocked in the lake before they are large enough to avoid such predation. Another issue with stocking is that the progeny are sometimes genetically inferior to those that are born in a natural habitat. The downfall to raising fish in such an environment is that there is no competition and no "survival of the fittest."

Microorganisms have a huge influence on limnology. They are largely responsible for nitrogen balance in lakes, decomposition of water humus in bogs, annual cycling of iron, and oxidation of sulfur. Kuznetsov (1968)studied this complex cycling by incubating reservoirs and using radioactive isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, iron, and sulfur to monitor what form they were in and at what rate turnover occurred. Microorganisms establish an elaborate cycle to maintain chemical stability that allows a variety of aquatic life to flourish.

Succession
The concept of succession was first clearly put forth by Clements (1916). The classical use of the term involves three fundamental concepts (after Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986):
 * 1) vegetation occurs in recognizable communities;
 * 2) community change through time results from the biota present modifying the environment (changes are autogenic);
 * 3) changes are linear and directed towards a climax ecosystem (Odum, 1971).

Succession is the predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community. It's a colonization of a disturbed area that eventually leads to an increase in species diversity. Succession is divided into two stages- (1) Primary Succession and (2) Secondary Succession.

Primary succession deals with the recolonization of bare ground. The primary succession has r-selected organisms-- species that can survive at high disturbance areas and are fast growing organisms. There are several factors that can cause disturbance- (1) people, (2) diseases, (3) fire, (4) precipitation/floods, (5) wind/hurricanes/tornadoes, (6) temperature extremes (like freezing or extreme heat), and (7) volcanoes. In other words, the communities that are in early succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-dispersed species. The other stage of succession (as succession moves forward) will be replaced by more competitive species Ecological succession/Succession. A good example of primary succession is the ecological response to the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980. Bishop et al. 2005 describes that a primary succession landscape like Mount St. Helens may teach us fundamental mechanisms that describe the formation and function of ecological communities. The use and understanding of these mechanisms may lead to the restoration of devastated landscapes.

 * Read Seral community

The other stage of succession is secondary succession which is the recolonization of partially cleared areas (this occurs after primary succession). Eventually, secondary succession/colonization leads to mature communities called climax communities which are stable communities. The secondary succession communities have k-selected organisms--organisms that use the limiting resource the best and therefore can out-compete other individuals. The secondary succession may include a seral community--an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem that advances towards its climax community.
 * Read Succession

title: Ecology/Biological community


text:
Cookbook:Date Bars

 * Cuisine of the United States | Dessert

Date bars have crumbly upper and lower surfaces with a date filling in the middle. Also see the Date Squares recipe.

Ingredients

 * ¼ cup white granulated sugar
 * 3 cups (1 pound) cut-up dates
 * 1½ cup water
 * ¼ cup shortening
 * ½ cup butter or margarine
 * 1 cup brown sugar
 * ½ tsp baking soda
 * 1¾ cup flour
 * 1½ cup quick-cooking oatmeal
 * 1 tsp salt

Procedure

 * 1) Mix the dates, sugar, and water in a saucepan.
 * 2) Cook over low heat, stirring constantly for about 10 minutes or until thickened. Cool.
 * 3) Cream together the butter, shortening, and brown sugar in a separate container.
 * 4) Mix the flour, salt, baking soda, and oats into the crumble crust mix.
 * 5) Grease a 13x9-inch pan.
 * 6) Evenly press half of the crumble mixture into the bottom of the pan.
 * 7) Spread the date filling on top.
 * 8) Evenly place remaining crumble mixture into the pan, pressing lightly.
 * 9) Bake for 25 to 30 minutes at 400°F, or until light brown.
 * 10) Cut into bars while still warm.

title: Cookbook:Date Bars


text:
Cookbook talk:Whole Wheat Pancakes

I made this recipe, and the mixture seemed awfully thin (I've made pancakes from a mix before). The first one turned out more like a crepe than a pancake; that was probably because I had the heat too low. The next few turned out as pancakes, but very thin and with soft and spongy interiors. About halfway I added more flour to the mixture. The pancakes after that were a nice thickness, but still a bit spongy and tasted a bit off (probably from too much flour).

Any comments? Suggestions? Is the recipe supposed to produce thin pancakes, and what proportions of solid should I add (or liquid should I take out) to make it thicker while still tasting the same? Thanks for any help. --SPUI 18:42, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Oh, just the opposite. This recipe produces very thick pancakes. They often come out about 1/4", 1 cm, or 3/8" thick. If you do not spread the pancake out well, it can even be 1/2" thick in the middle. Did you use whole wheat flour? ("whole meal" flour in the UK) The batter can thin out if you let it sit for a long time. AlbertCahalan 19:28, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I used standard white flour - I didn't realize that made much of a difference. Any suggestions for how much white flour to use (and any other adjustments)? --SPUI 21:42, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * In that case, reduce the liquid a bit. Try 3/4 cup. You might start with even less at first, adding more later as needed.

 * Still, "crepe" sounds awfully thin. Might you have used baking soda instead of baking powder? They are seriously different; if you wish to use baking soda you'd need to add some vinegar in place of some (1 tablespoon maybe) of the milk, or add some powdered acid (cream of tartar or citric acid perhaps). Baking soda won't do anything without acid in the recipe. The pancakes won't puff up right without a leavening agent.

 * If your baking powder is getting a bit old, you could try adding a bit more than called for. This might be the problem if you store your baking powder in a hot and humid place, such as next to the stove.

 * I suggest using the whole wheat. You need more fiber in your diet. The fiber will help prevent colon cancer. Besides, the whole wheat actually tastes better. Don't worry, it won't be like eating saw dust.

 * AlbertCahalan 04:32, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Another idea: maybe you overmixed the pancakes. I've adjusted the instructions to note this. AlbertCahalan 03:24, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

I just made it with white flour and 1/2 cup milk. I think it came out well; my brother said it was a bit dry but he usually has syrup. --SPUI 13:46, 3 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Thickness depends on elevation. At sea level, this recipe will produce very thin pancakes; at 10,000 feet, the pancakes will be almost an inch thick. --67.185.172.158 05:33, 1 July 2006 (UTC)

Ingredients
This recipe is close to the one I already had (pancakes aren't that complicated, after all), with a couple changes. First, I usually use honey instead of oil (butter and syrup are other alternatives, though untried by me). Also, I add a half-teaspoon of vanilla, and use(d) half the baking powder.

The sugar was a nice addition. I used this recipe's amount (of brown sugar) yesterday morning, then made another batch with 50% more, which I preferred. I often eat these as snacks, and syrup can be messy, so it's nice for the sweetness to be a little less subtle.

You can also sprinkle nuts on the pancakes just after pouring them, but this almost always causes an air bubble under the middle of the pancake when it's flipped, and that in turn makes even cooking more difficult.

All of this may make me sound like a cook, but I'm not. Pancakes are all I do. =)

Elembis 01:32, 24 May 2005 (UTC)

I don't make pancakes too often, but cheese is a nice thing to add to pancakes. so I added it in the variety section. Ynead 00:05, 6 Aug 2005

Grams
I suggest put the ingredients in grams. Thanks.--Lagoset (discuss • contribs) 16:39, 27 May 2015 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Whole Wheat Pancakes


text:
Talk:Political Theory

In my opinion, it's a good idea not to jump into discussion of what the main categories of political systems are. What I'd personally advocate is starting with a classical theorist or two, like Plato, and looking at the roots of modern political thought, then maybe Hobbes/Locke, Rousseau, Marx, etc. Go through them in a sort of sequence so we can see how the theories developed, and then when it comes to describing them, the reader will have a knowledge both of intellectual history and of the modes of thought used to arrive at the conclusions that form today's forms of government.

-My own objections: first of all, this page is redundant -- for a less developed page http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Politicaltheory -Second of all, a political theory book should not start with "a classical theorist or two", rather theres a whole rich history of political theory, and most political Theory textbooks that I have read focus on the history, not on modern ideologies. If you want to write a book on Political Ideology, perhaps you should title it that. I might be wrong, this is my own experience. In short, the "Introduction" part of your textbook outline should be the most substantial part, most Political Theory courses focus on these canonical authors. I also would recommend inclusion of Old Testament, New Testament, and Middle Age political theorists such as Machiavelli, St Augustine (analog to Plato), and Thomas Aquinas to name a few. There are others that are necessary to cover as well such as the post-Aristotle Hellenic political philosophers (they can be covered briefly though). If you want to broaden this beyond western theory you can tackle Confucius among others, though I would vote against this. There can be another textbook called Eastern Political Theory. This is just touching on Ancient political theory. I am not even going to begin naming other "classic" authors that fill the modern period. -I'm against putting emphasis on modern political ideologies. The above should illustrate why--there is not enough room to accomodate that without starving the historical theories. Make a political ideology textbook for that. Though I'm willing to hear arguments if you have convincing ones. cokane November 17 2005

Possible objections:

1) It's too canonical. I actually agree with this: everyone at my university who studies politics goes through the usual Plato, Locke, Rousseau, Marx sequence. But at the same time, these thinkers are canon for a reason: they have been extremely influential and a lot of people - important people - have taken their thought to heart. If this sounds like an argument from authority or popularity, that's because it sort of is. But at the same time, we assume anyone doing a "University" course - particularly an open one such as this - will be of the questioning persuasion. After they have learned the basics, students will not be scared of questioning thought. Additionally, we can balance out any description of these thinkers with objections and dissenters from both their contemporary and our present-day sources.

2) It marginalises other thinkers, even those who stated the same conclusions but arrived at them differently. I suppose this is a bit of a restatement of the original question, and as such the solutions are the same. Balance out the "canon" with a heretical tradition. Show that the the tradition of political thought is

3) It's ethnocentric. It's white, it's European, it's Anglo. Fair enough objection here: but I don't think I'm wrong in saying that most "politics" DOES stem from those civilisations influenced by Greco-Roman tradition. Once again, we can offer alternative explanations and objections to what is taught (e.g. modern-day Islamic objections to individualist politics; Singaporean objections to liberal democracy; when discussing Locke, cite present day objections not only to his theory of consent, but also his limits of political action to a few, thus invalidating the idea of universal consent.)

nach0king 20:18, 29 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I've separated out the procedures of government from the ideologies of government. I'll contribute more when i'm teaching this again in second summer.  Keeping clear, distinct and easily interpretable categories, will get us much farther, than mixing them.  --Buridan 13:42, 15 May 2005 (UTC)

removed feminism
while it may be an ideology, it is more social than political. It will be covered later. --Buridan 13:44, 15 May 2005 (UTC)

democracy and republic
aren't they close to the same thing? --OMouse

 * Not really, a true democracy is self-representation, a republic is appointed or elected representation. In aristotelian terms, there are three forms of government, kingship, aristocracy, and democracy.  rule by the one, rule by the few, and rule by the many.  In the tripartite division that i posted, i used republic for the the 'rule of the few' category, and when it is filled in over time, that will be expanded upon.    --Buridan 16:45, 15 May 2005 (UTC)

9 ideologies
It says there are 9 main ideologies but unless I can't count, there's only 8? Sars 17:57, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

Feminism was removed as was another ideology (unless I'm mistaken) and someone just forgot to change that number. Thanks for pointing that out. OMouse 19 August 2005

Added Environmentalism
There are 9 now. I added environmentalism, for the reasons noted in the text. Am new to wikis, and apologise if I've not followed any shared protocols in what I've added today to the Political Theories. Wwwendos 26 September 2005

Edited Marx
was a rather vague and simplistic description that did not focus on his actual contribution to pol. theory. Old - "Karl Marx believed in teamwork and the power of labor." Cokane 17 November 2005

Question
Hi there, my name is Martin M. Elissetche. I'm a PhD student at the University of Maryland and the creator of a social science dictionary located at www.socialsciencedictionry.org. I wanted to know if I could place a copy of your book on my web site or whether you prefer if I just link to it. Please let me know what you think at info@socialsciencedictionary.org. Cheers, m.

 * A link will promote contribution to the book (but you can indeed post a copy in it and provide the link at the same time) --Panic (talk) 06:18, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

Merge
Since no one is opposing or acting to complete the merge. If no objection is raised I'll start merging the works in 7 days. --Panic (talk) 06:22, 26 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Merge complete, I did a minor reshuffle of the sections but a major restructure of the book is in order. The original structure of the Political Theory (stub, since there isn't enough content to call it a book yet) wasn't chronologically oriented, and it should because it would become more easy to fallow the evolution of the political theory the impact different policies had on society and the people that arouse of said society with new ideas... --Panic (talk) 02:44, 1 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Political Theory