text:
Electronics/RAM and ROM

RAM: Random Access Memory ROM: Read Only Memory

Capacitors as memory
NOTE: Modern memories use transistors, gates, diodes, etc.
 * Capacitors can be charged, and when they are charged they can be discharged.
 * When charged they act like a source of voltage but only for a limited time unless they are "refreshed".
 * If charged they can be "refreshed" by charging them again and again to keep their voltage above a specified minimum. This procedure can be quite automatic at regular intervals and applies ONLY to capacitors that already have a voltage that is above that set minimum.
 * "Writing" into a capacitor-memory means either charging that capacitor or discharging it as required. We say that a memory is "a zero" if its voltage is below a specified value, and it is "a one" if above. Putting a 1 into the memory means charging the capacitor, while putting a 0 into the memory means discharging the capacitor.
 * "Reading" a capacitor-memory is equivalent to putting a voltmeter across its terminals to see whether its voltage is or is not above a given minimum.

Examples
Reference 1: Programmer's Reference Guide for the Commodore 64 Personal Computer, published in 1988 by Commodore Business Machines, Inc.
 * part of the microprocessor 6510's characteristics:
 * For a 0 the minimum is minus 0.3 Volt, and the maximum is plus 0.3 Volt.
 * For a 1 the minimum is plus 2.0 Volt, and the maximum is 1 Volt above the supply voltage which usually is about 5 Volt, but whose absolute maximum is 7.0 Volt. Note that static electricity (by friction on the carpet for example) can cause a lot of damage and must be guarded against.

Reference 2: The Semiconductor Memory Data Book for Design Engineers, published in 1975 by Texas Instruments Inc.

Bits

 * Think of "one bit" as one memory unit, such as one capacitor-memory. It can have a 0 or a 1 "in it", as required; a "High" (H) usually is a 1, and a "Low" (L) usually is a 0. Bit is a shortened version of binary digit.

Bytes

 * A byte is a group of bits. One bit can only represent "a count" of zero or one, two bits grouped together into a byte can represent a count of zero to 3, 3 bits into a byte can count up to 7 and n bits in a byte can count up to 2n minus 1. A byte with 8 bits in it can count from 0 to 255. "Words" are bytes; they each have a stated number of bits in them.
 * Bytes can also be combined; 2 bytes, each with 8 bits in it, can count up to 256 times 256 minus 1, that is 0 to 65535.

Words

 * Words are a concept that dates back to early computer architectures, where a single "unit" of memory was different from 8 bits. Common early word sizes were often 10 bits, but sometimes six or 20 bits.
 * Generally a word was defined as the size of the memory bus for internal storage (i.e. RAM or ROM), as well as the minimum independently addressable unit of memory.
 * Most modern CPU architectures use independently addressable byte architecture, but some modern CPUs (like the Pentium and other x86 CPUs) perform memory and instruction tasks more efficiently if the memory is "aligned" on word boundaries.
 * Terms like word and longword date back to 16-bit and 32-bit CPU architectures respectively, and to give a common framework for backward compatible software tools. More recently, the term quadword is used to denote a 64-bit piece of memory, although the term octaword is sometimes used (because it is 8-bytes being accessed at once).
 * Endian architecture defines how the memory is encoded within the RAM of the computer and its relationship with the byte addresses. Generally this is not an issue for most software except when you write data files meant for consumption on multiple platforms that have multi-byte components.

Address Bus connection
Just as the mail delivery person needs to have an address on each item to be delivered/collected, so also access to a particular byte of memory is "delivered" to a particular address, or "collected" from a particular address.
 * For example a memory can have 16 address connections, labelled 0 to 15. That means that data can be fed into, or taken out of, a specific memory cell, whose address is between 0 and (216 minus one), which is between 0 and 65535.

Data Bus connection
After the specific address has been fed into the memory, a specific given number is fed ("written") into the data bus connection, or the content of that address is "read".
 * For example a memory can have 8 data connections, labelled 0 to 7. That means that the number fed into the selected byte must be between 0 and (28 minus one), which is between 0 and 255.

Read/Write connection
There is also an input terminal connection that indicates the operation required. A 0 into that connection may indicate that the next operation will be a "write", while a 1 may indicate that it will be a "read".

Clock connection
A memory may require one or more clock signals, possibly "phase 1" and "phase 2", etc., which are inputs into the memory from oscillators, meaning they alternate very fast between 0 and 1 continuously. While the clock is, maybe, 0 various changes can be made, such as an address change and/or a change of data, but the actual reading or writing takes place only while the clock is, maybe, 1. Some memories include clock oscillators, possibly requiring external crystals.

RAM (Random Access Memory)
A RAM is a "Random Access Memory" - Sizes and their architecture vary considerably, users can put into any of their addressed bytes any number up to a given maximum, and that number can be replaced by another number as required, when required. Some memories supply the complements of what was put into them.
 * For example a memory with 1024 bits can require only a 0 or 1 to be put into any of the 1024 cells, while another memory can require 4 bits (0 to 15) per word, but only 16 words can be retained at a time, etc.

Dynamic Read/Write Memories
 * Requires frequent refreshing.

Static Read/Write Memories
 * Retains the data even if control signals are absent, however such memories may use dynamic addressing

ROM (Read Only Memory)
A ROM is a "Read Only Memory". It is factory-produced, and usually its contents are fixed. A ROM can be read, but it usually cannot be written. Usually a ROM contains very important fixed information required for the equipment for the operation.

Mask-Programmed Read-Only Memories
 * Uses a mask during manufacture, contents cannot be altered.

Programmable Read-Only Memories
 * Permits a change of each cell after manufacture, but once only.

Reprogrammable Read-Only Memories
 * Permits changes to each cell after manufacture, more than once.

title: Electronics/RAM and ROM


text:
Talk:Puzzles/Logic puzzles/Two Cities/Solution

answer is wrong.b'coz if the person u r asking might be a liar or honest.so u can't go by his answer and deduce that the city is one of them

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text: Template:TOC right

title: Template:TOC right


text:
Template:TOC

See Editing Wikitext: The Table of Contents

Usage
This template takes two variables:
 * , can be any of,  ,  ,
 * , must be an integer. This limits how deep the TOC goes.

title: Template:TOC


text:
Ada Programming/Libraries/IO

The following libraries help you when doing input/output:

 * AdaCL, Ada Class Library : A multipurpose library featuring filtering of text files, string I/O, command line parsing, etc.
 * XML/Ada : XML and Unicode support.
 * Matreshka : SAX-style XML reader and writer. Supports XML1.0 (Fifth Edition), XML1.1 (Second Edition), Namespaces in XML and XML Base Specifications. Strings, files and sockets can be used as input source in both blocking and non-blocking modes. Full Unicode support and many text codecs is provided also.

Wikibook

 * Ada Programming
 * Ada Programming/Libraries

|IO

title: Ada Programming/Libraries/IO


text:
Novial/Hound Lesson 5

Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 – Lesson 4 - Lesson 5 – Lesson 6 – Lesson 7 -

Prefixes – Suffixes

Li Hunde de Inferne
Mortimer kontinua lekte:

”After ke les had voyaja tra un o du kilometres, les pasad mutone-farmere e klamad a lo ob lo had vida li chaso. Tamen li home esed tam foli pro timo ke lo apene poved parla. Ma finalim lo dikted ke ya lo had vida li hundes sekuent li desfelisi yuna. Lo dikted: ’Ma ultru me ha vida ke Hugo Baskerville pasad me sur sen nigri kavala e hintru esed tal hunde de inferne ke me prega ke lu non mey seku me.’

”Li ebri siniores kavalkad a devanu til ke li nigri kavala did veni galopant kun vakui sadle e arosat per blanki skume. Aftru les kavalkad proxim mutu, pro ke les tre timad. Kavalkant lentim ye ti manere les trovad finalim li hundes. Quankam kurajosi tipe de hunde, les ploretad timosim regardant angusti vale devan les.

”Tri ek li homes, li maxim kurajosis o forsan li maxim ebris, kavalkad en li angusti vale. Tand lu larjisad en larji spatie in kel sidad du grandi stones kel esed plasat da serteni oblivet popule de oldi tempes. Li lune lumad klarim vor li desfelisi yuna had fala, morit pro timo e fatigo. Proximu liad li kadavre de Hugo Baskerville. Apud li kadavre mordant li kole, stead sordidu: grandi, nigri bestie kun forme de hunde, ma plu grandi kam irgi hunde kel mortal home ha vida. Durant ke les regardad, lu did tonda eku li kole de Hugo Baskerville, after ke, kand lu turnad sen brulanti okules vers les, li tri homes kriad pro timo e kavalkad for, ankore kriant. On dikte ke un ek les morid ye ti sami nokte pro tu kel lo had vida e ke li du altris esed ruptet homes durant sen seteri vivos.”

Vocabulary

 * after ke – after which
 * aftru – after that, afterwards
 * altri – other
 * angusti – narrow
 * apene – hardly, scarcely
 * apud – near
 * arosa – (to) sprinkle (with liquid), water
 * bestie – beast
 * blanki – white
 * brula – (to) burn
 * chaso – (the, a) chase, hunt
 * da – by (indicates agent of an act)
 * desfelisi – unhappy
 * devan – in front of, ahead of, before (in space)
 * devanu – ahead
 * ebri – drunk, intoxicated
 * en – into (instead of a in)
 * fala – (to) fall
 * fatigo – tiredness, fatigue
 * finalim – finally
 * foli – mad, crazy
 * forme – form
 * forsan – perhaps, maybe
 * galopa – (to) gallop
 * hintru – behind, behind that (him, her, it etc.
 * inferne – hell
 * irgi – any, no matter which
 * kadavre – corpse, cadaver, dead body
 * kavalka – (to) ride (on horseback)
 * kilometre – kilometre
 * klama – (to) shout
 * klarim – clearly, brightly
 * kole – neck
 * kria – (to) cry out, scream
 * kuraje – courage
 * kurajosi – courageous, brave
 * larji – wide, broad
 * larjisa – (to) widen, broaden
 * lentim – slowly
 * lia – (to) lie, be lying down
 * luma – (to) shine
 * lune – moon
 * manere – manner, way
 * mey – may, let it be that
 * morda – (to) bite
 * mori – to die
 * mortal – mortal
 * mutone-farmere – sheep farmer
 * mutu – each other, one another
 * nigri – black
 * nokte – night
 * oblive – (to) forget
 * parla – to speak
 * pasa – (to) pass (by)
 * per – by, with (instrument with which something is done)
 * plasa – (to) place, put on a place
 * ploreta – (to) whimper
 * popule – people
 * prega – (to) pray
 * proximu – nearby, near to that
 * quankam – although
 * regarda – to watch, to regard, to look at attentively
 * rupte – (to) break
 * sadle – saddle
 * sami – same
 * seku – to follow
 * seteri – remaining, rest of
 * skume – froth, foam, scum
 * sordidi – foul, disgusting, nasty, sordid
 * spatie – space
 * stea – (to) stand
 * stone – (a) stone
 * tal(i) – such (a), of that kind
 * tand – then
 * tamen – however, nevertheless, yet, still
 * til ke – until
 * timosim – fearfully
 * tipe – type, kind
 * tonda – (to) tear, rip, shear
 * tra – through, across
 * ultru – moreover, further
 * vakui – empty
 * vale – valley
 * vivo – life
 * vor – where
 * voyaja – (to) travel
 * ya – indeed, certainly (used to confirm a statement, in a sentence)

Active and Passive Participles
The active participle is formed by adding -nt to the simple stem if it ends in -a or -e. If the stem ends in -u or -i -ent is added to the stem:

 * brula – brulant ((to) burn – burning)
 * rupte – ruptent ((to) break – breaking)

 * seku – sekuent ((to) follow – following)
 * mori – morient ((to) die – dying)

These are pronounced with the stress on the -ant or the -ent.

The endings -i, -e -o or -a can be added to these forms with their usual meanings:

 * brulanti okules – burning eyes
 * amanti fema – a loving woman
 * amanta – a lover (female)
 * amanto – a lover (male)
 * amante – a lover (male or female)

The passive participle is formed by adding -t to the simple stem.

 * brula – brulat ((to) burn – burnt)
 * rupte – ruptet ((to) break – broken)

 * seku – sekut ((to) follow – followed)
 * mori – morit ((to) die – dead)

Notice that li kaptate in the title of lesson 4 literally means the captured (person), i.e. the captive.

Conjunctions from Prepositions plus KE
Several conjunctions are formed by placing the simple conjunction ke (that) after a preposition:

 * after ke – after which
 * durant ke – while
 * pro ke – because, on account of the fact that
 * til ke  – until

The Reciprocal Pronoun MUTU
The phrase one another, each other is translated with the pronoun mutu. Adding the adjectival ending -al forms the adjective mutual (mutual).

or
 * li amantes ama mutu – the lovers love one another
 * les rakonta rakontes a mutu – they tell stories to each other
 * les tima mutu – they fear each other
 * les tima mutualim – they fear each other (mutually)

Anaphoric Adjectives
As we have seen in Lesson 1 adjectives are made into corresponding nouns with the endings -e, -a, -o and -u. However, if an adjective is used alone referring to a noun just mentioned (anaphorically) it retains the -i ending and if plural an -s is added to the -i. For example:

 * tri ek li homes, li maxim kurajosis o forsan li maxim ebris – three of the men, the bravest or perhaps the drunkest
 *  un ek les morid e li du altris esed ruptet homes  – one of them died and the two others were broken men

The Prefix DES-
The prefix des- forms the direct opposite of the root word.

 * felisi – desfelisi (happy – unhappy)
 * honorabli – deshonorabli (honourable – dishonourable)
 * espera – desespera ((to) hope – (to) despair)

The Adjectival Suffix -OSI
The suffix -osi forms adjectives which mean having or possessing, especially in great quantity.

 * otie – otiosi (leisure – idle, unoccupied)
 * timo – timosi (fear – fearful)
 * kuraje – kurajosi (courage – courageous, brave)

The General Suffix -ET-
The suffix -et- forms diminutives:

 * kastele – kastelete (castle – chateau, small castle)
 * plora – ploreta (weep – whimper)
 * drinka – drinketa ((to) drink – (to) sip)

It also forms terms of affection:

 * patro – patreto (father – daddy)
 * matra – matreta (mother – mummy)

_____________________________________________________________________________________ Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 – Lesson 4 - Lesson 5 – Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

title: Novial/Hound Lesson 5


text:
Category:Brazilian recipes

Recipes from Brazil.

nl:Categorie:Braziliaanse keuken

title: Category:Brazilian recipes


text:
Category:Jam and Jelly recipes

Recipes for jam or jelly.

title: Category:Jam and Jelly recipes


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Category:Tangerine recipes

Recipes involving tangerines.

title: Category:Tangerine recipes


text:
Category:Lime recipes

Recipes involving limes.

title: Category:Lime recipes


text:
Talk:Making an Island/Facilities/Water

Merge?
Would it be better if the food and water sections just be merged together into one module?

title: Talk:Making an Island/Facilities/Water


text:
Python Programming/Game Programming in Python

3D Game Engine with a Python binding
Both are very good free open source C++ 3D game Engine with a Python binding.
 * Irrlicht Engine (Python binding website: )

 * CrystalSpace is a free cross-platform software development kit for real-time 3D graphics, with particular focus on games. Crystal Space is accessible from Python in two ways: (1) as a Crystal Space plugin module in which C++ code can call upon Python code, and in which Python code can call upon Crystal Space; (2) as a pure Python module named ‘cspace’ which one can ‘import’ from within Python programs. To use the first option, load the ‘cspython’ plugin as you would load any other Crystal Space plugin, and interact with it via the SCF ‘iScript’ interface .The second approach allows you to write Crystal Space applications entirely in Python, without any C++ coding. CS Wiki

3D Game Engines written for Python
Engines designed for Python from scratch.

 * Blender is an impressive 3D tool with a fully integrated 3D graphics creation suite allowing modeling, animation, rendering, post-production, real-time interactive 3D and game creation and playback with cross-platform compatibility. The 3D game engine uses an embedded python interpreter to make 3D games.

 * Panda3D is a 3D game engine. It's a library written in C++ with Python bindings. Panda3D is designed in order to support a short learning curve and rapid development. This software is available for free download with source code under the BSD License. The development was started by [Disney]. Now there are many projects made with Panda3D, such as Disney's Pirate's of the Caribbean Online, ToonTown, Building Virtual World, Shell Games and many others. Panda3D supports several features: Procedural Geometry, Animated Texture, Render to texture, Track motion, fog, particle system, and many others.

 * Crystal-space Is a 3D game engine, with a Python bindings, named *Crystal, view Wikipedia page of *CrystalSpace.

2D Game Programming

 * Pygame is a cross platform Python library which wraps SDL. It provides many features like Sprite groups and sound/image loading and easy changing of an objects position. It also provides the programmer access to key and mouse events. A full tutorial can be found in the free book "Making Games with Python & Pygame".

 * Phil's Pygame Utilities (PGU) is a collection of tools and libraries that enhance Pygame. Tools include a tile editor and a level editor (tile, isometric, hexagonal). GUI enhancements include full featured GUI, HTML rendering, document layout, and text rendering. The libraries include a sprite and tile engine (tile, isometric, hexagonal), a state engine, a timer, and a high score system. (Beta with last update March, 2007. APIs to be deprecated and isometric and hexagonal support is currently Alpha and subject to change.) [Update 27/02/08 Author indicates he is not currently actively developing this library and anyone that is willing to develop their own scrolling isometric library offering can use the existing code in PGU to get them started.]

 * Pyglet is a cross-platform windowing and multimedia library for Python with no external dependencies or installation requirements. Pyglet provides an object-oriented programming interface for developing games and other visually-rich applications for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux. Pyglet allows programs to open multiple windows on multiple screens, draw in those windows with OpenGL, and play back audio and video in most formats. Unlike similar libraries available, pyglet has no external dependencies (such as SDL) and is written entirely in Python. Pyglet is available under a BSD-Style license.

 * Kivy Kivy is a library for developing multi-touch applications. It is completely cross-platform (Linux/OSX/Win & Android with OpenGL ES2). It comes with native support for many multi-touch input devices, a growing library of multi-touch aware widgets and hardware accelerated OpenGL drawing. Kivy is designed to let you focus on building custom and highly interactive applications as quickly and easily as possible.

 * Rabbyt A fast Sprite library for Python with game development in mind. With Rabbyt Anims, even old graphics cards can produce very fast animations of 2,400 or more sprites handling position, rotation, scaling, and color simultaneously.


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Making an Island/Materials

Seacrete / Biorock / Mineral accretion
By using a low electrical current and a metal mesh you can cause minerals to be deposited on the mesh. Rate of deposition is limited by current used, flow rate of water and many other variables. The minerals can grow at the rate of about 5 inches per year depending on the amount of current flowing. The higher the current (amps), the faster that accumulation occurs. This is a fairly environmentally-friendly technique as the only resources it requires that are not easy to provide from a renewable source is the mesh.

Of course, the electricity must also be considered and this will require a source. This could be provided by generators such as solar panels, wind generators, batteries, and the like, but these will require some kind of existing nearby structure or platform to be positioned on.

Concrete
Concrete is fairly commonly used by artificial island projects.

Concrete is not a particularly 'green' material, as concrete production releases a large amount of carbon dioxide.

Pikecrete/Pykrete
Pikecrete is a compound invented by a British scientist named Geoffrey Pyke working under Lord Mountbatten during the Second World War. It consists of ice with 14% sawdust or wood pulp and 86% water mixed into a slurry and frozen. The resulting compound is not only roughly as strong as concrete, but also resists melting and is able to float, being less dense. It also does not suffer from concrete's carbon dioxide output issues.

History Lord Mountbatten threw a small block into Churchill's bath water as he rushed into his house and gave him the idea of building an aircraft carrier (HMS Habakkuk and sister ships) out of pikecrete. The ship would have been larger than anything before or since, and it could resist (unlike normal ships) torpedoes and bullets.

Supposedly, Lord Mountbatten demonstrated this by firing two rounds from his revolver--one at ice which was shattered, and then at the pikecrete which actually bounced off and nicked Admiral Ernest King in the leg, making his point.

Pikecrete theoretically only needs cooling pipes to keep it afloat in tropical waters. Aircraft carriers made of it would therefore have been able to stay afloat, only needing to go to the Arctic every few years for a complete re-freezing.

Currently As of today pikecrete/pykerete is not considered relevant by most scientists. Pykrete is generally only used for glacial reconstruction.

Steel and other metals
Steel hulls have some great benefits. It's readily available all over the globe, it's not prone to marine borers, it is quite cheap once you come up to a certain scale (some where around 7 meters in diameter for a circular island).

But it certainly has some backsides as well. Since sea water is inherently eroding on almost all metals, the steel has to be protected in some way. The obvious solution to the layman is of course different kinds of paints and varnishes. As one intuitively understands, this not an ecological way, and since it usually demands some re-applying every now and then you might have to see to that your island is capable of being dry docked. Another alternative of conservation, or more correct, for delaying the erosion, is using anodes. The two methods can be combined.

Plastics and ceramics
Artificial Islands have been made using recycled plastic bottles.

That said, plastics should be used with care. Erosion of plastic leads to micro plastics leaching into water, which has negative environmental impacts.

title: Making an Island/Materials


text:
Electronics/Digital to Analog & Analog to Digital Converters

Signals in the real world tend to be analog. For example the water level in a tank or the speed of car as measured by a tacho-generator. In order to process them with a digital circuit, we need to convert them to digital signals. Conversely, once the digital signals are processed, they must often be converted back to an analog signal. An example would be processing an audio signal digitally and sending it to a speaker. The speaker requires an analog signal.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion
An Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) takes an analog input signal and converts the input, through a mathematical function, into a digital output signal. While there are many ways of implementing an ADC, there are three conceptual steps that occur.
 * 1) The signal is sampled.
 * 2) The sampled signal is quantized.
 * 3) The quantized signal is digitally coded.

Sampling
By, sampling we turn a continuous-time function which may take on infinitely many values at different times into a discretized function that may take on infinitely many values at different discrete indices.

Sampling generally is done with a Sample-And-Hold circuit (simple experiments can be done using a capacitor and switch). To be able to reconstruct the signal we must consider the Sampling Theorem which says that a sampling frequency twice the highest frequency we're expecting is needed. In a simple way sampling can be defined as the process of taking samples from the continuous time function x(t) and for the signal to reconstruct we must consider the sampling theorem which states that the sampling frequency must be always greater than or equal to twice the highest frequency.

Quantization
Quantization is the process of taking a continuous voltage signal and mapping it to a discrete number of voltage levels. The number of voltage levels affects the quantization noise that occurs. Since digital computers are binary in nature, the number of quantization levels is usually a power of 2, i.e.,

$$N = 2^n$$

where n is the number of quantization bits.

The signal may be amplified or attenuated before going into the ADC, so that the maximum and minimum voltage levels give the best compromise between resolution of the signal levels and minimization of clipping.

Encoding
Encoding is the process of converting the quantized signals into a digital representation. This encoding is performed by giving each quantization level a unique label. For instance, if four bits are used, the lowest level may be (in binary) 0000, and the next highest level 0001, etc.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
A Digital to Analog converter (DAC) takes a digital signal and converts it, through a mathematical function, into an analog signal. Again, the DAC may be implemented in a number of ways, but conceptually it contains two steps. In fact along with the counters we are using digital to analog convertor while converting analog signal to digital signals also. Here we can use counter along with the shift register to store the digital data.
 * 1) Convert each time step of the digital signal into an "impulse" with the appropriate energy. In a real system, this could be accomplished by creating short pulses that have the same voltage, but whose total power is modified by changing the pulse length.  This pulse train produces a signal whose frequency response is periodic (and theoretically extends to infinity).
 * 2) Apply a low-pass filter to the time sequence of impulses. This removes all of the high-frequency periodicities, leaving only the original signal.


text:
User:DannyWilde~enwikibooks

Please refer to my page in Wikipedia.

title: User:DannyWilde~enwikibooks


text:
Radiation Oncology/Mycosis fungoides

 * For B-cell lymphomas, see Cutaneous B-cell lymphoma

Epidemiology

 * More common in blacks than whites
 * More common in males than females (1.6:1)
 * Median age at presentation is 55-60

Presentation

 * Generally presents in patients with long history of skin plaques, rash, plaques, pruritis, erythroderma
 * 5% present as Sezary Syndrome (defined historically by the triad of erythroderma, generalized lymphadenopathy, and presence of Sezary cells in skin, nodes, and peripheral blood)

Histology

 * Typical cells are lymphocytes with cerebriform and sometimes hyperchromatic nuclei, and mostly confined to the epidermis.
 * Sezary cells are enlarged atypical lymphocytes with convoluted nuclei

Pathogenesis

 * PMID 15128898, 2004 — "The pathogenesis of mycosis fungoides." Girardi M, Heald PW, Wilson LD.  2004 May 6;350:1978-88.

WHO-EORTC Classification
During recent consensus meetings, the WHO and EORTC agreed upon a new classification system for cutaneous lymphomas which is now called the WHO-EORTC Classification. PMID: 15692063
 * Indolent cutaneous T-cell lymphomas - includes mycosis fungoides, lymphomatoid papulosis, primary cutaneous anaplastic large cell lymphoma. These entities have 5-year disease specific survival of approximately 80-100%
 * Aggressive cutaneous T-cell lymphomas - includes Sezary syndrome, primary cutaneous peripheral T-cell lymphoma. These entities have 5-year disease specific survival of <25%

Prognosis

 * 97% 10-year disease specific survival with limited patch/plaque disease
 * 83% 10-year disease specific survival with generalized patch/plaque disease
 * 42% 10-year disease specific survival with tumor stage disease
 * 20% 10-year disease specific survival with lymph node involvement

Staging
2009 AJCC Staging (7th edition)

T Stage
 * T1 - Limited patch/plaque (<10% total skin surface)
 * T1a - Patch only
 * T1b - Plaque +/- patch
 * T2 - Generalized patch/plaque (>10% total skin surface)
 * T2a - Patch only
 * T2b - Plaque +/- patch
 * T3 - One or more tumors (≥ 1cm diameter)
 * T4 - Confluence of erythema covering 80% or more of body surface area

N Stage
 * N0 - Nodes clinically uninvolved
 * N1 - Nodes clinical abnormal, histopathology Dutch grade 1 or NCI LN0-2
 * N1a - Clone negative
 * N1b - Clone positive
 * N2 - Nodes clinically abnormal, histopathology Dutch grade 2 or NCI LN3
 * N2a - Clone negative
 * N2b - Clone positive
 * N3 - Nodes clinically abnormal, histopathology Dutch grade 3-4 or NCI LN4

M Stage
 * M0 - No visceral involvement
 * M1 - Visceral involvement (must have pathology or imaging confirmation)

B Stage (Blood)
 * B0 - No circulating Sezary cells (<5% of lymphocytes)
 * B0a - Clone negative
 * B0b - Clone positive
 * B1 - Circulating Sezary cells (≥5% of lymphocytes)
 * B1a - Clone negative
 * B1b - Clone positive
 * B2 - High blood tumor burden (≥ 1000/uL Sezary cells with positive clone)

Notes:
 * Patch indicates any size skin lesion without significant elevation or induration. Presence/absence of hypo- or hyperpigmentation, scale, crusting, and/or poikiloderma should be noted
 * Plaque indicates any size skin lesion that is elevated or indurated. Presence/absence of scale, crusting, and/or poikiloderma should be noted
 * Tumor indicates at least one 1-cm diameter solid or nodular lesion with evidence of depth and/or vertical growth. Note total number of lesions, total volume of lesions, largest size lesion, and region of body involved
 * Abnormal node indicates any palpable peripheral node that on physical examination is firm, irregular, clustered, fixed or 1.5 cm or larger in diameter. Node groups examined on physical examination include cervical, supraclavicular, epitrochlear, axillary, and inguinal. Central nodes are not currently considered in the nodal classification, unless used to establish N3 histopathologically
 * T-cell clone is defined by PCR or Southern blot analysis of the T-cell receptor gene
 * For visceral spread, spleen and liver may be diagnosed by imaging criteria
 * For blood, Sezary cells are defined as lymphocytes with hyperconvoluted cerebriform nuclei

Treatment

 * NCI Randomized Trial PMID 2594037 comparing combination electron beam radiation + chemotherapy to topical therapy
 * 103 patients
 * Xrt arm treated to 30 Gy to total skin + CTX, doxorubicin, etoposide, vincristine. Topical treatment arm treated patients with sequential topical therapies.
 * Patients in combined arm had higher rate of complete response (38% vs 18%), but also higher rate of acute toxicity. There was no difference in overall survival.
 * Median duration of complete response in combined-modality for advanced disease was less than 2 years
 * Authors' conclusion was that aggressive therapy did not improve prognosis as compared to conservative treatment beginning with sequential topical therapies

title: Radiation Oncology/Mycosis fungoides


text:
Japanese/Grammar/Pro-forms

Japanese has demonstratives (words for pointing to the subject of discussion) much in the same way that many other languages do. Japanese demonstratives are highly regular and take four standard prefixes:
 * こ〜, for objects close to the speaker;
 * そ〜, for objects closer to the listener;
 * あ〜, for objects far from either; and
 * ど〜, for question forms.

These are suffixed with various pronoun indicators that are listed in the table below.

Japanese also makes a distinction between a prenominal form and regular form, meaning that the prenominal form must describe a noun that follows. For example, in the sentence "This cat" the word "this" describes the cat. The prenominal form replaces the れ with a の. In that way, "あの", "その" and "この" are the prenominal forms of "this" and "that".

Note that the 〜ちら chira group may be used instead of the 〜こ ko group and also may be appended with の no instead of the 〜の no group in some cases in more official (formal) expressions. For example, "こちらの kochira no" can also mean "this (object/thing)".

Which which
There are several ways to say which depending on the number and item being asked about.

While these are by no means hard rules, "どちら" is more used particularly for two objects while "どれ" is mainly used for three or more items. For a particular item one can use "どの〜" (for whatever number) though "どちらの〜" is also common.

Also...

 * どのくらい, どれぐらい

"どのくらい" or "どれくらい" is a phrase for listening to the "at degree" or "grade" like "How many?" or "How much?" in English.

In Japanese, “くらい” or “ぐらい” means "at degree" of English. And "くらい" is one of noun.

"ぐらい" is the euphonic change of "くらい".

There are two meanings of "How many " or "How much".
 * どれほど

One meaning is a phrase to listen to the "at degree", as in “どのくらい” above.

Another meaning is an expression used as an antonym question when you want to emphasize that the degree is high or low.

In form, above sentence is a question form, But the meaning is not question.

The meaning is “I walked very much”, and I emphasize that.

Unlike English antonym questions, Japanese antonym questions give a somewhat high-pressure impression, so be careful when using them.

 * どれだけ

None, all, some
"どれか" is used to mention one or few from a plurality of items.
 * どれか

"どれも" and "どれでも" is used when everything introduced in topic is  matched to the topic theme.
 * どれも、どれでも

A note on kanji
The prefixes have kanji, but these are written in kana in modern Japanese. They are: Some of the suffixes similarly have kanji:
 * こ〜: 此
 * そ〜: 其
 * あ〜: 彼
 * ど〜: 何
 * 〜こ: 処
 * 〜ちら: 方
 * 〜いつ: 奴

title: Japanese/Grammar/Pro-forms


text:
Dutch/Lesson 11

Interrogative pronouns
The main interrogative pronouns in Dutch are:
 * Wie? - Who?
 * Wat? - What?

As in English wie also has possessive form:
 * Wiens? - Whose?

More properly said this is the form for the masculine and neuter singular. There is also a form wier for the feminine singular and the plural. As this division of labor does not chime well with the disappearance of feminine gender, this form is fast becoming obsolete. Wiens gets used in all cases nowadays, or it gets supplanted by
 * Van wie is die tekening?

Or even, though, this is frowned upon in official grammar:
 * Wie z'n tekening is dat?

The latter construction is the official form in Afrikaans, but in Dutch is considered colloquial if not dialect.

The interrogative adjective is:
 * Welk - which

It is inflected like an adjective, and it has an ending -e in most cases:
 * De tekening - Welke tekening?
 * De tekeningen - Welke tekeningen?

But not with a neuter noun:
 * Het paard - Welk paard?

The pronoun wat cannot be used as adjective, but there is a construction:
 * Wat voor (een)? - What kind of?

Wat is also used as an indefinite pronoun with the meaning of some
 * Er gingen wat vingers omhoog
 * "~There were some fingers that were stuck in the air."
 * Some fingers went up

Notice that its indefinite character triggers an impersonal construction with er.

There is also an interrogative adverb:
 * Hoe? - How?
 * Hoe komt dat op de grond?
 * How did that land on the floor?
 * Hoe maakt u het?
 * How do you do?

Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns in Dutch are in some case similar to the interrogative ones:
 * Ik weet niet wie er komt - I don't know who is coming.
 * Ik weet niet welke tekening ik moest maken - I don't know which drawing to make.

Other relative pronouns resemble the demonstrative ones: For a singular neuter word it becomes dat
 * Dat is de tekening die op de grond ligt - That is the drawing that lies on the ground.
 * Dat is het krijt dat op de grond ligt. - That is the crayon that lies on the floor.

In the above example the part het krijt is called the antecedent in both Dutch and English grammar. In Dutch when the antecedent is included into the relative pronoun, the initial d- of dat changes into a w-

 * Wat op de grond ligt is de tekening - That which lies on the floor, is the drawing.

For persons wie is also used this way:
 * Wie zijn tekening af heeft, moet het zeggen - Whoever is finished with his drawing should say so.

It is possible to make the antecedent explicit with the demonstrative pronouns datgene and diegene:
 * Diegene die zijn tekening af heeft ... or in plural: Diegenen die hun tekening
 * Datgene wat op de vloer ligt

Notice that after datgene it is wat that follows. Wat is also used when the reference points back to an entire phrase
 * De tekening ligt op de vloer, wat erg vervelend is - The drawing lies on the floor; which is really annoying.

Lastly there are a few antecedents are always followed by wat
 * het eerste wat - the first thing that
 * alles wat - everything that
 * iets wat - something that
 * veel wat - much that
 * weinig wat - little that

Admittedly, there is considerable confusion under Dutch speakers about when to use dat and when to use wat. So do not be surprised so see and especially hear deviations from the above official grammar rules. In Afrikaans e.g. the pronoun of choice is wat in all cases and some Dutch speakers are not far from that usage.

In English relative pronouns are often omitted, in Dutch this is not the case:

 * This is something that I saw yesterday -> Dit is iets wat ik gisteren zag.

As we have seen before the word order in Dutch is peculiar in such sentences: look at the positions of saw and its Dutch cousin zag. Below we will start to deal with this issue.

Word order
Many English speakers who set out to learn the Dutch language succeed in their effort to a considerable extent. Some of them become quite fluent. They do encounter a few problems. One is that Dutch speakers consider it polite to reply in English when detecting an English accent and it takes some insisting to break through that barrier. Another major stumbling block is the fact that Dutch has retained West-Germanic word order and English has abandoned it in favor of one that resembled that of the French-speaking nobility that ruled the land after 1066. We'll examine a number of aspects.

Inversion
We have already seen a number of examples of inversion. For example, that of the of verb and subject in questions:

 * Jij hebt een mooi huis.
 * Heb je een mooi huis?

Apart from the fact that the final -t is lost for the jij-form of the verb, this is not unfamiliar, as inversion also occurs in some English phrases like:

 * Hi, how goes it?
 * What say you?

Although often English resorts to the auxiliary verb to do, where Dutch uses only inversion:

 * Maar wat zie ik daar?
 * But what do I see there?

Another example of inversion occurs when the order is changed for the sake of emphasis by putting an item at the beginning of the sentence.

 * Een mooi huis heb je!
 * That's a fine house you've got!

 * Morgen ga ik naar huis.
 * Tomorrow I'm going home.

 * Je gooit je andere tekening toch niet zomaar op de grond!
 * Maar dan gooi je je andere tekening toch niet zomaar op de grond!

Sometimes this is not so much a question of emphasis. It is more a way to stuff a few more items in the same sentence, particularly adverbs or adverbial expressions.

 * Zonder twijfel gaat hij morgen naar huis.
 * Undoubtedly he will go home tomorrow.

Notice that the adverb of time (morgen) precedes the indication of place here, because naar huis gaan is felt as a verbal expression and verbs tend to end up at the end of the sentence.

Verbs in final position
Another feature we have already encountered is that in tenses that use an auxiliary the participle or infinitive is put at the end of the sentence:

 * Ik heb gezien
 * Gisteren heb ik vanaf de dijk een aantal kluten gezien
 * Morgen zal ik nog eens op de dijk gaan kijken.

Notice that in this case the inversion is applied on the auxiliary (heb ik..., zal ik...) and that in compounds with more that one infinitive as gaan kijken (go have a look) they both end up at the end. Whether gaan or kijken goes first varies a little from region to region; one can also hear—particularly in the south:

 * Morgen zal ik nog eens op de dijk kijken gaan.

Indirect clauses and conjunctions
In Dutch, word order is used to mark what role a clause plays with respect to the rest of the sentence. The indirect clause has a different order, particularly in the position of the verb.

 * jij hebt een mooi huis
 * ik zie dat je een mooi huis hebt

In this case it is the persoonsvorm, i.e. the conjugated part of the verb (that carries the -t ending) that moves to the end of the clause to indicate that it has become the direct object of the main clause ik zie....

This is also true if the persoonsvorm is an auxiliary:

 * jij bent gisteren met de trein naar huis gegaan
 * ik betwijfel dat je gisteren met de trein naar huis gegaan bent

Again there is some variation possible:

 * ik betwijfel dat je gisteren met de trein naar huis bent gegaan.

The same principle applies after a conjunction like omdat (because).

 * Je hebt gelijk omdat ik met de auto gegaan ben.

And also when interrogatives are used as relative pronouns:

 * Eerst wist ik niet welke tekening ik moest maken

The order:

 * Eerst wist ik niet welke tekening ik maken moest

is not wrong, but rather uncommon in this case.

Onderschikkend and nevenschikkend
Not all conjunctions produce a hierarchical relationship. Conjunctions (voegwoorden) like want (for) of (or) and en (and) maar (but) simply link two equivalent phrases. Compare:

 * Je hebt ongelijk want ik ben gisteren wel degelijk met de trein naar huis gegaan
 * Je hebt ongelijk omdat ik gisteren wel degelijk met de trein naar huis gegaan ben

In the case of want (for) the two clauses are on equal footing, in the case of omdat (because) the first part je hebt gelijk (you are right) is the master program and the rest a subroutine initiated with omdat (because).

Conjunctions that produce a subordinate clause are known as onderschikkend, in English, they are known as subordinating conjunctions; the ones that link two phrases in equality are called nevenschikkend, in English, co-ordinating conjunctions.

(Sometimes the onderschikkend kind is called subjunctions rather than conjunctions (see e.g. the German wiktionary), but in English where the distinction is of no consequence for the syntax this is unusual.)

Because the relative role of the clauses is more clearly marked by their word order, it is possible to make longer sentences in Dutch without generating ambiguity. In English compound sentences become confusing and ambivalent more easily. When writing English, a speaker of Dutch needs to fight the tendency to produce convoluted sentences. Conversely Dutch may look somewhat long-winded to an English speaker.

Copulas
As in English the verb zijn (to be) is the most important copula, or koppelwerkwoord lit. coupling verb. As the name indicates these verbs couple a subject to a predicate of subject complement as opposed to having one or more objects.

The complement can be a noun:
 * Jan is bakker - John is a baker by profession

But is can also be an adjective:
 * Jan is dik - John is fat.

Sometimes prepositional adverbs are also used as predicates

 * Het licht is uit - the light is off

Some words in Dutch are only used as predicates like beu (sick and tired):
 * Ik ben het gezeur beu. - I am fed up with the nagging.

The het gezeur part is usually called an oorzakelijk voorwerp in Dutch grammar which translates into causative object. In the past it would have taken a genitive case, but that no longer is the case.

There a number of other verbs besides zijn that can act as copulas:

worden
Primitive tenses: worden - werd - geworden.

In English it translates into to become.
 * Jan wil bakker worden. - John wants to become a baker

lijken
Primitive tenses: lijken - leek - geleken.

In English it translates into: to seem, to appear
 * Het leek groter dan het was - It seemed larger than it was.

blijken
Primitive tenses: blijken - bleek - gebleken.

In English it translates into: to prove to be, to turn out
 * Het bleek groter dan we dachten - It turned out to be larger than we thought.

blijven
Primitive tenses: blijven - bleef - gebleven.

In English it translates into: to remain, to stay
 * De lucht bleef donker - The sky remained dark.

heten
Primitive tenses: heten - heette - geheten.

In English it translates into: to be called, to be alleged to be
 * Hij heette Jan. - His name was John.
 * Het heet goed te zijn voor je gezondheid - Allegedly it is good for your health

dunken
Primitive tenses: dunken - docht - gedocht.

This is an impersonal verb. In English it is represented in the expression methinks. Its meaning is to give cause to think. It is becoming obsolete in Dutch as wel
 * Mij docht dit niet verantwoord - It appeared to me not to be responsible.

schijnen
Primitive tenses: schijnen - scheen - geschenen.

In English it translates into: to be said to be, to be alleged to be
 * Het schijnt goed te zijn voor je gezondheid - Allegedly it is good for your health

title: Dutch/Lesson 11


text:
Dutch/Lesson 12

Grammatica 12-1. Worden and the Passive Voice
In most languages transitive verbs can be put in the passive voice. In English for example:

 * Active: The cook prepares dinner.
 * Passive: Dinner is prepared by the cook.

The object dinner of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive one. It is this 'transition' that makes the verb to prepare a transitive one.

The passive voice is formed by means of its own auxiliary worden in Dutch. It is a regular strong verb:

 * worden – werd – geworden

Use as a copula
As we have seen the verb worden can also be used as a verb (copula) in its own right rather than as an auxiliary and then it translates into to become or to get. Compare:
 * Ik word piloot
 * I (will) become a pilot

 * Hij werd zo rood als een kroot!
 * He became as red as a beet (He blushed for shame).

 * Je schilderij wordt erg mooi!
 * Your painting is turning out very well!

 * Niet kwaad worden!
 * Don't get mad!

The perfect of worden
As worden describes a process rather than an action, it is itself an ergative verb. (More about those below). In Dutch that means that it takes the verb zijn in the perfect and not to have as in English.

 * Hij is piloot geworden
 * He has become a pilot.

Use of worden as an auxiliary
As an auxiliary + past participle worden expresses the passive voice:

 * Hij verslaat me ==> Ik word door hem verslagen
 * He beats me ==> I am beaten by him

Notice the change in word order:
 * 1) As in the case of the perfect tenses the past participle moves to the very end of the sentence.
 * 2) As in English the subject (he) and the object (me) swap places.
 * 3) The old subject becomes an expression with door (English: by)

The perfect tense of the passive
The perfect tense of the passive can cause some confusion because of the ergative conjugation with zijn and the fact that the participle geworden is usually omitted:

 * Ik ben door hem geslagen (geworden)
 * Ik ben door hem geslagen
 * I have been beaten by him.

Thus, in such cases ik ben does not translate into I am, but into I have been!.

Notice that this imparts to the verb zijn and its forms (ben, bent, is, was, waren etc.) three rather different roles:

 * 1) copula (the verbal equal sign =)
 * 2) active perfect auxiliary for ergative verbs, i.e. those of motion or those describing a process instead of an action.
 * 3) passive perfect auxiliary for transitive verbs.

Compare:

 * Ik ben piloot. (copula)
 * Ik ben naar huis gelopen (ergative perfect of directed motion)
 * Dit ongeluk is gisteren gebeurd (ergative perfect of a process)
 * Ik ben door hem geslagen (passive perfect)

The latter sentense is a transipostion of:

 * Hij heeft mij geslagen (active perfect)

Notice that the agent of the action ("hij") reappears as a prepositional object with door: "door hem" in the passive. The ergative perfects do not have such an agent. They also generally take "to have" in English.

Usage
Particularly in the imperfect tenses, the passive voice is quite common in Dutch, probably more so than in English because  the auxiliary worden makes it easily recognizable. It often occurs without a clear subject in conjunction with the adverb er (8) to describe circumstance.

 * Er wordt veel van je verwacht.  (veel is subject)
 * Much is expected from you.
 * Er wordt van je verwacht dat je meedoet (dat je meedoet is subject)
 * It is expected of you that you partake.
 * Er wordt vaak om gelachen (no subject)
 * It is often laughed at.
 * Er is veel om die grap gelachen
 * That joke has been much laughed at.

The active version of such expressions requires the use of the indefinite personal pronoun men that translates into one or an impersonal they (analogous to the French on or the Spanish se).

 * men verwacht dat je meedoet
 * lit. one expects that you participate – they expect you to participate
 * men lacht erom / ze lachen erom
 * they laugh at it

Definite versus indefinite objects
When transposing a sentence from an active to a passive voice it matters whether the object of the active sentence is indefinite or definite. Compare:

 * Deze bakker bakt dat lekkere brood --> Dat lekkere brood wordt door deze bakker gebakken
 * Deze bakker bakt een brood --> Er wordt een brood gebakken door deze bakker
 * Deze bakker bakt brood --> Er wordt brood gebakken door deze bakker.

In other words: in passive sentences with an indefinite subject like 'een brood' or 'brood' the presence of the adverb er is required.

Indirect objects and ditransitive verbs
The transition to the passive construction normally involves the direct object. However for some verbs it is also possible to make the indirect object the new subject. Such verbs are usually called ditransitive.

In English the same auxiliary "be" or "have been" is used to construct the new sentence. In Dutch that is not the case: a different auxiliary is used krijgen instead of worden. Such a construction is usually called a pseudopassive construction. Compare the following sentence where "him" is the indirect and "house" the direct object:

The pseudopassive construction with krijgen is relatively rare in Dutch. Notice that the agent usually gets van rather than door in the pseudopassive.

Ergatives (+zijn) and inergatives (+hebben)
A verb that carries a direct object is called a transitive verb. In Dutch these verbs can usually form passive voice constructions, much like in English:

 * De politieman ziet een inbreker ==> De inbreker wordt door de politieman gezien.
 * The cop sees a burglar ==> The burglar is seen by the cop.

Verbs that do not have a direct object are often called intransitive in English, but there are really two kinds in Dutch.

Ergative verbs
There are the ergative verbs like gaan, komen, smelten, gebeuren, ontploffen and quite a few others. They take zijn as their auxiliary in the perfect and they have no passive voice at all.

 * Ik ben gisteren gekomen – I have come yesterday.
 * Dit is gisteren gebeurd – This has happened yesterday

Actually Shakespeare would have used is in English as well and fans of the books of J.R.R. Martin may still run into phrases like "it is come to this" etc. When Nancy Pelosi announced the passing of the Affordable Care Act she said "The bill is passed". In other words, English used to have the same and there are some faint echoes left.

Ergative verbs describe processes rather than actions.

Inergative verbs
A different group is called inergative (or 'unaccusative'). These verbs do take hebben in the active perfect, as English does. Take smoking:

 * Hij rookt. - He smokes.
 * Hij heeft vele jaren gerookt – He has smoked for many years.

These sentences -indicating that someone is a smoker- do not have a direct object. However, the verb does express an action much like in the case of most transitive verbs.

Impersonal passive voice: another use of "er"
In contrast to English intransitive verbs, Dutch inergatives such as "roken" can undergo the transition to a passive of sorts, but it is an impersonal passive usually initiated with er.

 * Hij rookt -> Er wordt door hem gerookt.

Unfortunately, there is not really much of an English equivalent for this. Something like "smoking is done by him" is a clumsy rendering of the meaning of the impersonal passive sentence. In Dutch however such constructions are very common. Actually, the most common usage is to leave the actor out altogether:

 * Er wordt hier gerookt -- People smoke here. ("smoking is being done here")
 * Er wordt gebeld! -- Someone is calling. ("ringing is happening")

Neither sentence possesses a subject in Dutch. Some grammarians might call "er" a dummy subject, but most maintain that it is simply an adverb. A real direct translation does not really exist. English typically resorts to an active sentence using someone or uses an entirely different construction like:

 * I hear the bell.

In Dutch, such impersonal passives are a very common way to indicate that it is not clear who the actor is or that the focus is not on the actor, but on the action. Impersonal passives emphasize that something is being done by parties unknown.

Impersonal passives are not limited to inergative verbs. Transitive verbs also form them:

 * Er werd door de politieagent een inbreker gezien. - ("There was sighted a burglar by the cop")

In this case een inbreker is the subject, but there still is an element of generality: the identity of the burglar is not known. Notice that this sentence has the indefinite article een rather than definite de in the sentence above. A sentence like:

 * Er werd door de politieagent de inbreker gezien.

is not possible, because the impersonal passive expresses the idea that the identity of the burglar is either not known or not of interest. English would often use a word like some to emphasize the indefinite nature.

 * Some burglar was seen by the cop.

In the definite case Dutch would use a personal passive:

 * De inbreker werd door de politieagent gezien. - The burglar was seen by the cop.

When is a verb ergative?
Ergative verbs do not form passives at all, not even impersonal ones.

As we saw above ergatives take zijn (to be) in their perfect tense, where English takes to have:

 * ik ben gekomen – I have come.
 * het is gebeurd – it has happened.

The use of zijn presents a problem for native English speakers. (Germans have no problem, their language has a very similar situation.)

How do you know what to use? There are two main groups of verbs that are ergative:
 * 1) One is the verbs that express motion like coming, going, driving, floating etc.
 * 2) The other is verbs that express a process or event that happens autonomously (not: a deliberate action), without a clear party who is to blame for it like happening, melting, flowing, solidifying, sinking.

Obviously the examples floating and sinking show that the two groups overlap.

Verbs describing processes
Such verbs often only occur as ergatives:

 * Stollen – to solidify

 * ergative present: Het vet stolt- The grease solidifies.
 * ergative perfect: Het vet is gestold – The grease has solidified.

Because this verb involves a process, not an action, Dutch uses "to be" to form the perfect, not "to have" as English does.

Sometimes however "process" verbs occur both in an ergative and in an active transitive form.

 * Smelten – to melt

 * active: Ik smelt het ijs – I melt the ice
 * ergative: Het ijs smelt – The ice melts

Notice that in this case English has the same active – ergative switch. The subject of the latter (ijs/ice) is the object of the former. Ergativity itself is not the problem: English has that too. The problem only arises when putting the verb in the perfect, because Dutch opts for a different auxiliary:

 * active: Ik heb het ijs gesmolten – I have melted the ice
 * ergative: Het ijs is gesmolten – The ice has melted

Notice that the active can also be switched into a passive using "worden"

 * passive: Het ijs wordt door mij gesmolten
 * passive perfect: Het ijs is door mij gesmolten geworden

As "geworden" is typically omitted in Dutch (in contrast to German "worden") the perfects of the ergative and the passive are very similar. The difference is the presence of an agent ("door mij").

Ergatives sometimes do have an expression that denotes the cause of the process (rather than agent). Such an expression often uses the preposition van, although door can also be used:

 * De chocola is van de hitte van de zon gesmolten. - The chocolate has melted from the heat of the sun.

Verbs of motion
Verbs of motion are often more complicated, because can be used both as ergatives and as inergatives.

 * Lopen – to walk

 * ergative: Ik ben naar huis gelopen. - I walked home
 * inergative: Ik heb vandaag veel gelopen – I have walked a lot today

 * In general one can say that if the sentence focuses on a process of directional movement (e.g. "home") the verb of motion is ergative and takes zijn.
 * If the focus is on the action (exercising in the park or so) the verb is inergative and takes hebben.

Of course, walking is both and an action and a process of transportation, but in a sense Dutch views "walking home" as a process (that 'just happens'), but "walking a lot" as an action (that the agent chooses to 'do').

The ergative version does not possess a passive, but the inergative version can have an impersonal passive, usually with "er":

 * impersonal passive: Er wordt hier veel gelopen. - there is lot of walking here

Besides the ergative and inergative version there can also be a transitive variant as well for some verbs, in which case a personal passive can at times be formed:

 * Rijden – to drive has all three varieties:

 * ergative: Ik ben naar huis gereden – I drove home
 * inergative: Ik heb vandaag veel gereden – I have done a lot of driving today
 * transitive active: Ik heb hem naar huis gereden – I took him home in my car
 * transitive passive: Hij is door mij naar huis gereden – He was taken home by me (in my car)

Ergatives and "er"
Ergative verbs can also be combined with "er" to convey an indefinite connotation:

 * Een trein ontspoorde in Rotterdam – A train derailed in Rotterdam.
 * Er is in Rotterdam een trein ontspoord. - There was a derailment in Rotterdam.

Synopsis
The use of the auxiliaries "hebben", "worden" and "zijn" can be summarized in the following table.

Notice that inergatives actually have more in common with transitives than with ergatives, even though in traditional grammars ergatives and inergatives are typically lumped together as 'intransitive verbs'. This obscures the fact that both transitive and inergative verbs are verbs of action, whereas ergatives are verbs of process or motion.

Notice also that all three groups can take the auxiliary "zijn". For ergatives it is mandatory.

A few small groups of verbs do exist in Dutch that cannot take "zijn", but only take "hebben".
 * 1) reflexive verbs (using "zich")
 * 2) impersonal verbs
 * 3) a few verbs that lack all passive forms either carrying a direct object or not

title: Dutch/Lesson 12


text:
User talk:Dodge city 2004

Bold textDodge City 2004 is a New hard cover action book. Author Stephan C Shaver is donating 50% of the profits to the Families of Our Fallen Heros, who have been Killed in Afghanistan and Iraq.Dodge City 2004 is a story about the War in the Middle East and the Old West after the Civil War. You can buy the book on our Web Site www.dodgecity2004.com

title: User talk:Dodge city 2004


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Talk:Raising Chickens/Building a Pen

Other Methods
If you would like to suggest other methods of buuilding a fence but would rather not add them to the book go ahead and post them here. Klingoncowboy4 19:12, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

Other Suppliers
Feal free to add any source of supplies here Klingoncowboy4 19:14, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Raising Chickens/Building a Pen


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Japanese/Lessons/Personal pronouns

There are many ways to address people in Japanese. The choice of words will depend on the social status, age, and sex of both speaker and listener, as well as the level of familiarity and respect. As with all features of language, these aren't completely consistent and evolve over time so.

It's worth mentioning that personal pronouns are used much less than in English. Addressing others with the second person pronoun (you, あなた) is uncommon and may seem odd, even rude. Usually, the person is identified by the context but otherwise one may indicate the person by addressing people with their names with an appropriate suffix (such as "〜さん" or "〜くん", see below). Note also that female speech is generally more polite than male speech.

The most popular personal pronouns are given in the following table. Each row is combined of the pronouns of similar level of politeness. The rows are written starting with the most polite to the least.

Widely used personal pronouns
Listed from the most polite to the least.

First person pronouns

 * わたくし（私） - the most polite modern 1st person pronoun.
 * われ（我） - quite humble and polite but old-fashioned (plural "われわれ" is used as humble way to talk about one's organization).
 * わたし（私） - contraction of わたくし, a universal word that may be used in any situation. Most language courses advise to use only this pronoun.
 * あたし（私） - further contraction of わたし, used ONLY by women to sound cute/innocent.
 * ぼく（僕） - mostly used by men (sometimes by women who want to sound tough), especially by boys and young males. This is the commonly polite word to use at semi-formal events and general conversations by young men. ぼく is also used as a poetic "I".
 * じぶん（自分） - neutral pronoun that means "self" (not only "myself", this also can be used as a 2nd and 3rd person pronoun), used by military people and officials to indicate that they are part of a huge organization. May also mean "a person".
 * おれ（俺） - informal. Used with a very casual group and/or to sound masculine.
 * うち（家）- feminine and not polite
 * あたい - another contraction of わたくし, quite informal
 * せっしゃ（拙者）- literally means "clumsy person," used by samurai
 * わがはい（我輩）- a personal pronoun popularized by Natsume Souseki's "Wagahai Ha Neko de Aru"

Second person pronouns

 * あなたさま（あなた様） - the most polite modern 2nd person pronoun. Used when the politeness level demands using person's name, but you do not know it (still you must apologize for using this and ask for the name)
 * あなた - a usual and polite word for addressing strangers. This is actually a kosoado pronoun. Better avoid this word in cases other than addressing strangers, or at all.
 * あんた - informal version of "あなた". Used mostly by women to address inferiors.
 * きみ（君） - informal "You" used mostly by men, although starting to gain popularity among women. A person that uses "きみ", most likely uses "ぼく" as a 1st person pronoun. きみ is also used as a poetic "You".
 * おまえ（お前） - quite rude and vulgar, sometimes used by older people. Acceptable when used between friends. Literally means "front" ("you, in front of me"). A person that uses "おまえ", most likely uses "おれ" as a 1st person pronoun.

Third person pronouns

 * あのかた（あの方） - the most polite way of telling "he" or "she".
 * あのひと（あの人） - quite polite.
 * かれ（彼） - neutral and usual "He". Note: use with caution as this may also mean "boyfriend".
 * かのじょ（彼女） - neutral and usual "She". Note: use with caution as this may also mean "girlfriend".
 * やつ（奴） - rude, implies hatred.

Plural
In case of "われ", plural may be formed by doubling the pronoun, but most commonly plural is formed with suffixes, which by themselves also have a level of politeness. Consequently, the level of politeness of both pronoun and suffix must match (although there are usually two different suffixes may be applied in any particular case, so you may slightly vary the politeness level of the resulting pronoun). Here are the common suffixes from the most polite to the less polite:

 * ~とも (for example, わたくしども; note that it is rather common for words in Japanese to change voicing when used as affix, like in this example "と" is pronounced (and written) as "ど")
 * ~かた (for example, あなたがた; the previous note applies here too)
 * ~たち - quite polite and most commonly used plural maker (for example, わたしたち)
 * ~ら (for example, ぼくら)

Additional personal pronouns
These are less common ones that one won't hear in common use but are included for those interested.

title: Japanese/Lessons/Personal pronouns


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User talk:MDChanderson

Radiation Oncology
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks! Thank you for your many valuable contribuations to the Radiation Oncology wikibook.

If you would like, you can add your name to the list of authors at Radiation Oncology:Authors. — Brim 21:18, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:MDChanderson


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Super NES Programming/Graphics tutorial

This tutorial will cover how to map tiles to the SNES background.

In order to render background, program has to set few things for each background, remember to set this for every background you want to render:
 * BG Mode (affects number of planes, bitdepth), set in register 0x2105
 * Size of tile (8x8 or 16x16), set in register 0x2105
 * Set background map
 * Set background tileset

Tile Map
The map is a 2 dimensional array (32x32, 64x32, 32x64 or 64x64) of tile indexes. The SNES goes through the array and for each index in the map renders a tile specified in the array. Since tiles can be either 8x8 or 16x16 pixels, we can end up with background image dimensions ranging from 256 to 1024 pixels (size_of_map * size_of_tile).

A member of an array is a two bytes long structure(two bytes long = 16 bits):

High byte Low byte

vhopppcc cccccccc

 * c is the index of a tile in the tileset (tileset is specified per BG), SNES will get the address of a tile as (base_tileset_bits << 13) + (8 * color_depth * tile_number)
 * h: horizontal flip
 * v: vertical flip
 * p: palette number
 * o: priority bit

Use registers $2107-$210A to set map for your background.

Structure of registers $2107-$210A

aaaaaass

a: address of the map in VRAM. Multiply the number by 2048 (or shift 11 bits) in order to get the byte location of the map.

s: size of the map * 00=32x32 * 01=64x32 * 10=32x64 * 11=64x64

If the map has a dimension greater than 32 (e.g. 64x32), array doesn't have 64 tile indexes per row, instead it will store two 32x32 maps right after each other in VRAM. The first map (32x32 tiles = 2*32*32 bytes) will represent the left part of the map and the second one (same size as the first one) will represent the right side of the map.

Tileset
Tile is a small 8x8 or 16x16 image that is used to construct larger images.

Technical info
To employ the SNES's PPU, one must understand exactly how it processes graphic data.

Bit Depths

 * Mode 0: 4 colors, 2 bit per pixel(bpp)
 * Mode 1: 8 colors, 3 bpp (you may see this in some tile editors but the SNES doesn't display 3bpp graphics. They have to be expanded to the 4bpp format before being used.)
 * Mode 2: 16 colors, 4 bpp
 * Mode 3: 128/256 colors, 8bpp (only in Mode 7)

Tile format
The SNES uses an odd interleaved format for its tile data. Consider this "x" pattern with the palette

The tile data itself will consist of these bytes: .db $00, $81, $81, $42, $C3, $24, $E7, $18, $E7, $18, $C3, $24, $81, $42, $00, $81 "How exactly does this correspond to that tile?" I hear you wonder.

Each row of pixels is represented by two bytes. Take the first row ($00, $81). It consists of the colors 2,0,0,0,0,0,0,2. In binary form: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Each of the bits in byte 0 are equivalent to bit 0 in it's corresponding pixel. Take the next row ($81, $42): 12000021       colors, 10000001	$81, 01000010	$42, You may hear people refer to bitplanes. Those mean sets of bytes corresponding to bit ?'s of all the pixels, where ? is from 0 to the number of bits per pixel minus 1. Thus, in this case, bitplane 0 would refer to the odd bytes in the tile data($00,$81,$C3,etc.).

Does this make sense? I'm not so sure myself..

 * common console graphic formats

Palette format
Colors for the SNES are 15 bits each, and stored in bgr format. ?bbbbbgg gggrrrrr

The color full green like this would be stored as:

%00000011, %11100000

In HEX:

$03, $E0

Palettes are simply arrays of colors. The palette shown above would be stored in the ROM as (one color being "$xx, $xx"):

.db $EE, $00, $10, $02, $4A, $01, $00, $00

title: Super NES Programming/Graphics tutorial


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Radiation Oncology/Standards

 * Welcome!
 * Wikibooks textbooks, including this Radiation Oncology textbook, are open source works
 * Anyone is welcomed and encouraged to contribute anytime and anything related to Radiation Oncology :)
 * We appreciate both small contributions (correcting typos etc.) as well as larger content contributions
 * Feel free to add yourself to the Author List; the more the merrier :)

General
This list of standards is meant to provide a uniform look and conformity for this book but is not meant to be inflexible or immutable. Please feel free to make suggestions on the talk page about how you think this book could be improved. This is a work in progress.

 * Do not plagiarize!!! This includes cutting and pasting an abstract. Abstracts are copyrighted material.

 * Keep it simple and easy to read. The fewer details the better.

 * Subpages shall use the "/" directory-style hierarchy, e.g. Radiation Oncology/Prostate.
 * Note: the book started off using ":" instead of "/" and most pages haven't been changed to this format as of yet.
 * All new pages should be made to use the "/" format.

 * Cite your sources!
 * Use the automatic PMID link to link to articles references in PubMed. Just type the PubMed ID (PMID) like this  PMID 11697327  and it will be formatted like this: PMID 11697327.  This is recommended because it makes the source code much easier to read than if external links to pubmed were used.
 * In addition to PubMed (www.pubmed.org), another very helpful search tool is Google Scholar. In particular, it shows (somewhat comprehensively?) other future papers that have cited the "Googled" paper.

 * You are highly encouraged to create your own user account and log in before making any edits. See how to login for information.

 * At the top of each page in the book, attach the template for the Table of Contents header -- type  .  This allows for easy jumping back to the main page and other important pages (such as RTOG studies).
 * Certain complex topics that are divided into several pages may have their own sub-Table of Contents for -- e.g. see the subpages of Radiation Oncology/Breast and Radiation Oncology/Prostate.

 * It is great to link to the full text version / PDF of an article, but try to do this only if there is free access for everyone and it doesn't require an institutional subscription.

 * Ordering of articles within a section: it makes logical sense for the studies to be ordered chronologically (earliest studies listed first), since in general, the results of one study influence the results of subsequent studies.
 * An exception is the page listing all RTOG studies, which is in descending order. The reason for that is that it's just more convenient to have the newer studies listed at the top so you don't have to scroll all the way to the bottom to get to the current studies.

 * P-values: don't say p<0.000000001. Just say "S.S." or "SS" for statistically significant.  If it's not statistically significant, say "N.S."  An exception is if there's a trend toward significance, then you can put the p value.  On a similar note, there's no need for confidence intervals.

Editing

 * Here is a link to Help:Editing
 * To start, click the edit this page button on top of the page
 * When done with changes, click the Save Page button underneath
 * In general, there are only a few symbols that are used

Page entry
Try to give the pages a consistent look. If in doubt, look at other pages within the wiki.

As a guide, use the following example:
 * Name of study, Date (Date range of study) - PMID 12345 — "Title of publication." Author's name. Publication citation.

e.g.
 * INT 0123 / RTOG 94-05, 2002 (1995-99) - PMID 11870157 — "INT 0123 (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 94-05) phase III trial of combined-modality therapy for esophageal cancer: high-dose versus standard-dose radiation therapy." Minsky BD et al. J Clin Oncol. 2002 Mar 1;20(5):1167-74.

For a study that has several publications stemming from it:
 * Name of study (date range)
 * 10-year update (2000): PMID 12345 — "Title of publication." Author's name. Publication citation.
 * Results
 * 5-year results (1995): PMID 123456 — "Title of publication." Author's name. Publication citation.
 * Results
 * Original publication (1993): PMID 1234567 — "Title of publication." Author's name. Publication citation.
 * Results
 * Etc.

This Radiation Oncology/Standards page is the Local manuals of style for the Radiation Oncology wikibook.

title: Radiation Oncology/Standards


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Econometric Theory/Least Squares

Definition of least squares
The comparison method called Least squares is based on the fact that differences can be positive or negative, but that the square of a real negative number is always positive. Therefore, if there are several differences, the sum of all the squares of these differences is an indication of how close items are, and the best "fit" is the one with the least sum of the squares of the differences, with this method of comparison being called Least squares.

Least Squares Estimation
For example an experiment resulted in values 2,5,4 at times 0, 1, 2. Let x be the time, and y be the actual results obtained. First we will compare the y with the values, at the times x, of a straight line; call these values y1 given by y1=2+x, being 2,3 and 4

x  y | y1   y2   y3    0   2 |  2   2.7   2 1  5 |  3   3.7   5   2   4 |  4   4.7   4

At time x=0 the difference d=y-y1=0, its square d2=0, and the sum of the d2 so far is 0 At time x=1 the difference d=y-y1=2, its square d2=4, and the sum of the d2 so far is 4 At time x=2 the difference d=y-y1=0, its square is 0, and the sum of all the d2 is 4.

Trying another straight line, y2=2.7+x gives differences 2-2.7=-0.7, squared 0.49; next is 5-3.7=1.3, squared 1.69, and 4-4.7=-0.7, squared 0.49. The total of the squares is 0.49+1.69+0.49=2.67, being less than 4 it is the least squares so far.

Now let us try a quadratic equation, y3=2+5x-2x(squared), with its values shown above. The sum of the squares of the differences here is 0, being the least of the squares, and therefore the best fit.

title: Econometric Theory/Least Squares


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Econometric Theory/Asymptotic Convergence

Convergence in Probability
Convergence in probability is going to be a very useful tool for deriving asymptotic distributions later on in this book. Alongside convergence in distribution it will be the most commonly seen mode of convergence.

Definition
A sequence of random variables $$\{ X_n ; n=1,2, \cdots \} $$ converges in probability to $$X_{ }$$ if:

an equivalent statement is:

This will be written as either $$X_n \begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} { }_p \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} \end{matrix} X$$ or $$\operatorname{plim} X_n = X$$.

Example
$$X_n = \begin{cases} \eta & 1- \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{n} \end{matrix} \\ \theta & \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{n} \end{matrix} \end{cases}$$

We'll make an intelligent guess that this series converges in probability to the degenerate random variable $$\eta$$. So we have that:

$$\forall \delta >0,\; \Pr \{ |X_n - \eta| > \delta \} \leq \Pr \{ |X_n - \eta| > 0 \}= \Pr \{ X_n= \theta \}= \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{n} \end{matrix}$$

Therefore our definition for convergence in probability in this case is:

So for any positive values of $$\epsilon \in \mathbb{R} $$ we can always find an $$N \in \mathbb{N}$$ large enough so that our definition is satisfied. Therefore we have proved that $$X_n \begin{matrix} { }_p \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} \eta$$.

Convergence Almost Sure
Almost-sure convergence has a marked similarity to convergence in probability, however the conditions for this mode of convergence are stronger; as we will see later, convergence almost surely actually implies that the sequence also converges in probability.

Definition
A sequence of random variables $$\{ X_n ; n=1,2, \cdots \} $$ converges almost surely to the random variable $$X$$ if: equivalently Under these conditions we use the notation $$X_n \begin{matrix} \begin{matrix} { }_{a.s.} \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} \end{matrix} X$$ or $$\lim_{n \to \infty} X_n = X \operatorname{a.s.}$$.

Example
Let's see if our example from the convergence in probability section also converges almost surely. Defining: $$X_n = \begin{cases} \eta & 1- \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{n} \end{matrix} \\ \theta & \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{n} \end{matrix} \end{cases}$$ we again guess that the convergence is to $$\eta$$. Inspecting the resulting expression we see that: Thereby satisfying our definition of almost-sure convergence.

Convergence in Distribution
Convergence in distribution will appear very frequently in our econometric models through the use of the Central Limit Theorem. So let's define this type of convergence.

Definition
A sequence of random variables $$\{ X_n ; n=1,2, \cdots \} $$ asymptotically converges in distribution to the random variable $$X$$ if $$F_{X_n}(\zeta ) \rightarrow F_{X}(\zeta )$$ for all continuity points. $$F_{X_n}(\zeta )$$ and $$F_{X_{}}(\zeta )$$ are the cumulative density functions of $$X_n$$ and $$X$$ respectively.

It is the distribution of the random variable that we are concerned with here. Think of a students-T distribution: as the degrees of freedom, $$n$$, increases our distribution becomes closer and closer to that of a gaussian distribution. Therefore the random variable $$Y_n \sim t(n)$$ converges in distribution to the random variable $$Y \sim N(0,1)$$ (n.b. we say that the random variable $$Y_n \begin{matrix} { }_{d} \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} Y$$ as a notational crutch, what we really should use is $$f_{Y_n} (\zeta )\begin{matrix} { }_{d} \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} f_Y(\zeta )$$/

Example
Let's consider the distribution Xn whose sample space consists of two points, 1/n and 1, with equal probability (1/2). Let X be the binomial distribution with p = 1/2. Then Xn converges in distribution to X.

The proof is simple: we ignore 0 and 1 (where the distribution of X is discontinuous) and prove that, for all other points a, $$\lim F_{X_n}(a) = F_X(a)\,$$. Since for a < 0 all Fs are 0, and for a > 1 all Fs are 1, it remains to prove the convergence for 0 < a < 1. But $$F_{X_n}(a) = \frac{1}{2} ([a \ge \frac{1}{n}] + [a \ge 1])$$ (using Iverson brackets), so for any a chose N > 1/a, and for n > N we have:
 * $$n > 1/a \rightarrow a > 1/n \rightarrow [a \ge \frac{1}{n}] = 1 \land [a \ge 1] = 0 \rightarrow F_{X_n}(a) = \frac{1}{2}\,$$

So the sequence $$F_{X_n}(a)\,$$ converges to $$F_X(a)\,$$ for all points where FX is continuous.

Convergence in R-mean Square
Convergence in R-mean square is not going to be used in this book, however for completeness the definition is provided below.

Definition
A sequence of random variables $$\{ X_n ; n=1,2, \cdots \} $$ asymptotically converges in r-th mean (or in the $$L^r$$ norm) to the random variable $$X$$ if, for any real number $$r>0$$ and provided that $$E(|X_n|^r) < \infty $$ for all n and  $$r\geq 1$$,

$$ \lim_{n\to \infty }E\left( \left\vert X_n-X\right\vert ^r\right) =0. $$

Cramer-Wold Device
The Cramer-Wold device will allow us to extend our convergence techniques for random variables from scalars to vectors.

Definition
A random vector $$\mathbf{X}_n \begin{matrix} { }_{d} \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} \mathbf{X} \; \iff \; {\mathbf{\lambda}}^{\operatorname{T}}\mathbf{X}_n \begin{matrix} { }_{d} \\ \longrightarrow \\{ } \end{matrix} {\mathbf{\lambda}}^{\operatorname{T}}\mathbf{X} \quad \forall \lVert \mathbf{\lambda} \rVert \ne 0$$.

Central Limit Theorem
Let $$\ X_1, X_2, X_3, ... $$ be a sequence of random variables which are defined on the same probability space, share the same probability distribution D and are independent. Assume that both the expected value μ and the standard deviation σ of D exist and are finite.

Consider the sum $$\ S_n = X_1 + ... + X_n $$. Then the expected value of $$\ S_n $$ is nμ and its standard error is σ n1/2. Furthermore, informally speaking, the distribution of Sn approaches the normal distribution N(nμ,σ2n) as n approaches ∞.


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Talk:Econometric Theory/Asymptotic Convergence

So far just tried to think of a basic structure to the chapter.--Alistair 23:43, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

I don't know how to use the AMS math packages to get the \xrightarrow{p} symbol for convergence in probability, as such the formatting is slightly off... Also, as is obvious, my formatting of the definition of Convergence in probability is rather clumsy.--Alistair 12:23, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

Is the example of almost-sure convergence correct?
The example is not right. See http://books.google.de/books?id=irKSXZ7kKFgC&pg=PA93&lpg=PA92&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false.

I’m hoping the following can give a little intuitive understanding of why the example is wrong, and it may help clarify the difference between convergences almost surely and convergence in probability. I apologize if I’m not 100% technically correct.

For fn(x) to converge to η almost surely, the probability that fn(x) = θ has to be zero for all fm(x) for m>n. In the example, the probability of f(x) = θ equals 1/n; therefore, for any n, the probability sequence of fm(x) = θ, for m > n, starting with n, is 1/(n+1), 1/(n+2), 1/(n+3), etc. We need the probability of the union of these events.

The harmonic series, though, diverges. No matter where you start, that is, for any n in mathematics lingo, the sum of the subsequent terms goes to infinity. I hope it is intuitive that if the sum of probabilities is infinite, the union of these probabilities is 1 – this logic can be seen up by referring to the Borel-Cantelli theorem. So not only is the probability that fm(x) = θ not equal to 0, it is equal to 1!

For me, the easy way to remember the difference between convergence in probability and convergence almost surely, is that for convergence in probability, we simply need that the probability approaches the limit as n gets large. But to get convergence almost surely, it has to equal the limit for an infinite number of trials beyond n! Almost sure convergence is similar to having the sequence of probabilites converge in a classical calculus convergence sense. ```` Can someone remove this example? It is plain wrong. Why would P(\lim_{n\rightarrow} X_n \in A) <=\lim_{n\rightarrow} P( X_n \in A) hold in general? It does not. And "proof" uses this. Also, the definition of X_n here and earlier is incomplete, or, if you want syntactically wrong. --Szepi (discuss • contribs) 01:26, 26 January 2011 (UTC)

Example of Convergence in distribution
The example was adapted from Michael Hardy's text in the wikipedia: w:Talk:Convergence of random variables. Albmont (talk) 17:19, 31 October 2008 (UTC)


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User:Cleduc

Please visit my user page on the English Wikipedia: w:en:User:Cleduc

title: User:Cleduc


text:
User:Cspurrier

'''I am most active on Wikinews. My Wikinews userpage'''

About Me
I am mostly a Wikinewsie, but I am also somewhat active here on Wikibooks. I am a bureaucrat on EN Wikinews, as well as being an Admin here. On 22 Dec 2006 I became a Steward.

 * Wikinews user page
 * Meta user page

Contacting Me
If anyone needs me I am often on IRC or you can leave a note on my talk page.

E-mail: Craig@craigweb.net ICQ: 119042057 AIM: craigcraigwebnet IRC: CraigSpurrier on #wikibooks, #wikinews, #wikinews-en #wikimedia

title: User:Cspurrier


text:
Wikijunior:Solar System/Pluto/Charon

Charon is one of the three moons of Pluto.

How big is Charon?
Charon measures about 1,200 km across, about half the diameter of Pluto. Because the size difference between Pluto and Charon is so small, they are sometimes considered to be double planets. They are also sometimes thought of as the first two trans-Neptunian objects.

What is its surface like?
The surface of Charon is covered in water ice.

How long is a day on Charon?
One day on Charon is equal to 6 days, 9 hours, and 18 minutes on Earth.

How long is its orbit with Pluto?
Charon and Pluto share an orbit around a point that is directly between them, this orbit takes roughly six and a half days

Who is it named after?
Charon is named after a figure in Greek mythology. Charon ferried the dead across the river Acheron to Hades if they could pay him.

How was it discovered?
Charon was discovered by James Christy on June 22, 1978. He was examining highly magnified images of Pluto and noticed a small bulge sometimes appeared in the pictures. The bulge was later confirmed in older images and was given the temporary name of S/1978 P 1.

Wikijunior Sonnensystem/ Pluto/ Charon Wikijunior Il sistema solare/Plutone/Caronte

title: Wikijunior:Solar System/Pluto/Charon


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Talk:Indonesian/Question Words

Untitled
Hi, I just want to tell that Indonesians tend to use Kata Tanya for Question Words, well, at least I've never heard someone (i'm Indonesian) say Kata Penanya and my teacher also taught me Kata Tanya so, I'll edit it.--Indoboy 08:05, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

S

Thanks!
Thanks for the help, great revision for my indonesian exams.

title: Talk:Indonesian/Question Words


text:
Econometric Theory

Econometrics is the branch of economics concerned with the use of mathematics to describe, model, prove, and predict economic theory and systems.

This book can be considered to be three parts.
 * Chapters 1-4
 * An introduction and mathematical base needed to perform basic and more advanced econometrics.

 * Chapters 5, 6
 * The basics of bivariate and multivariate regression analysis.

 * Chapters 7-16
 * Applications of basic econometrics and advanced topics.

Contents

 * 1) Introduction to Econometric Theory
 * 2) /Methodology of Econometrics/
 * 3) /Types of Econometrics/
 * 4) /Statistical Packages/
 * 5) Prerequisites
 * 6) /Important Terms and Concepts of Regression Analysis/
 * 7) /What is Regression?/
 * 8) /Regression versus Causation and Correlation/
 * 9) /Terminology and Notation/
 * 10) /Data/
 * 11) /Statistical Concepts/
 * 12) /Summation and Product Operators/
 * 13) /Sample Points, Sample Space and Events/
 * 14) /Probability Density Function (pdf)/
 * 15) /Concepts of Probability Distributions/
 * 16) /Theoretical Probability Distribution/
 * 17) /Asymptotic Convergence/
 * 18) /Statistical Inference/
 * 19) Estimation
 * 20) Hypothesis Testing
 * 21) /Matrix Algebra/
 * 22) /Definitions/
 * 23) /Types of Matrices/
 * 24) /Matrix Operations/
 * 25) /Determinants/
 * 26) /Inverse of a square Matrix/
 * 27) /Matrix Differentiation/
 * 28) /Classical Normal Linear Regression Model (CNLRM)/
 * 29) /Assumptions of Classical Linear Regression Model/
 * 30) /Properties of OLS Estimators/
 * 31) /Proofs of properties of β1/
 * 32) /Maximum Likelihood (ML)/
 * 33) /Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)/
 * 34) /Normal Equations Proof/
 * 35) /Multiple Regression Analysis/
 * 36) /Ordinary Least Squares (OLS)/
 * 37) /Coefficients/
 * 38) /Variance/
 * 39) /General Least Squares (GLS)/
 * 40) /Coefficients/
 * 41) /Variance/
 * 42) /Inference/
 * 43) /t-Test/
 * 44) /F-Test/
 * 45) /The Coefficient of Determination: R/
 * 46) /The Likelihood Ratio (LR), Lagrange Multiplier (LM) and Wald (W) Tests/
 * 47) /Dummy Variables/
 * 48) /Problems with Heteroskedasticity and Autocorrelation/
 * 49) /Multicollinearity/
 * 50) /The Nature of Multicollinearity/
 * 51) /Theoretical Consequences in case of Multicollinearity/
 * 52) /Practical Consequences in case of Multicollinearity/
 * 53) /Tests for Multicollinearity/
 * 54) /Solutions to Multicollinearity/
 * 55) /Heteroskedasticity/
 * 56) /The Nature of Heteroskedasticity/
 * 57) /Theoretical Consequences in case of Heteroskedasticity/
 * 58) /Practical Consequences in case of Heteroskedasticity/
 * 59) /Tests for Heteroskedasticity/
 * 60) /Solutions to Heteroskedasticity/
 * 61) Serial Correlation - Autocorrelation
 * 62) /Simultaneous-Equation Models/
 * 63) /Time-Series Analysis/
 * 64) /First-Order Autocorrelation/
 * 65) /An Autoregressive (AR) Process/
 * 66) /A Moving-Average (MA) Process/
 * 67) /ARIMA Models/
 * 68) /Box-Jenkins Methodology of identifying, estimating and checking ARIMA Models/
 * 69) /Vector Autoregression/
 * 70) /ARCH/
 * 71) /GARCH/
 * 72) /Model Specification and Diagnostic Testing/
 * 73) /Specification Errors/
 * 74) /Tests of Specification Errors/
 * 75) /Incorrect Specification of Error Term/
 * 76) /Nested and Non-nested Models/
 * 77) /Model Selection Criteria/
 * 78) /Problems with Residuals: Robust Regression/
 * 79) /Outliers/
 * 80) /Leverage/
 * 81) /Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Estimators/
 * 82) /Microeconometrics: Qualitative Dependent Variable Models/
 * 83) /Introduction/
 * 84) /Linear Probability Model (LPM)/
 * 85) /Binary Choice Models/
 * 86) /Logit/
 * 87) /Probit/
 * 88) /Tobit/
 * 89) /Poisson Regression/
 * 90) /Study Aides and Equations/
 * 91) /Basic Statistics/
 * 92) /Hypothesis Testing/
 * 93) /SLR/
 * 94) /MLR/

Resources

 * Gretl Gnu Regression, Econometrics and Time Series Library (open source and free software for econometric calculus)

title: Econometric Theory


text:
Talk:Econometric Theory

OK, brand new book. Moved the theory section out of Econometrics where it originally was. Just beginning to flesh out this book. Any comments, please do be candid. --Alistair 09:44, 30 July 2005 (UTC)

econometric theory
What is econometric theory? Since I don't know, I probably don't have much to contribute here, but I am in an economics class and I'm trying to find where what I am learning can go. So, for me and future confused editors-- what is econometric theory, and what in the field of study economics is decidedly not encompassed in econometric theory?

Completion of this book? My aim is to finish this book by Christmas 2007. I will see how I get along. Nevertheless, I have written my own (extensive) addition to the contents page. I would like this book to be very much in-depth analysis, have some examples and use matrix algebra, since it is more thorough than using regular one-line notation

What are my aims: 1. Use as many links as possible to avoid duplication of data that can be found in other Wikibooks or Wikipedia articles. 2. Be thorough and cover everything in-depth 3. Use easy-going language to avoid too much bureaucratic-style language and avoid too lengthy passages. 4. I am not sure where to get pictures and graphs, but I am good with the mathematics. I would like some complementation from other "Wikibookians". Whisky Brewer, 21:00, December 28 2006

title: Talk:Econometric Theory


text:
Econometric Theory/Introduction

The word econometrics means "economic measurement". The purpose of econometrics is to quantify and verify predictions from economic theory. It is a mixture of economic theory, mathematical economics, and statistics.

Apart from econometrics, there are two subjects closely related to econometrics. Firstly, mathematical economics is concerned with expressing economic theory in equations. It is algebra of the kind where variables can be subtracted, added, multiplied and divided in an equation. But it is not concerned with measurability or empirical verification. Secondly, we have economic statistics whose concern is to collect, process and present economic data. Many developed countries have government agencies whose job it is to collect and distribute economic data, such as the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, which publishes data on unemployment, inflation, productivity, etc. The Bureau releases this information to the public and it is often used by other levels of government, social scientists, and interested laymen.

Lastly, it is important for econometricians to distinguish between observational data and experimental data. The use of observational data has three implications: firstly, the econometrician often uses data without knowledge of how the data were sampled; secondly, since the econometrician has no knowledge of how the data were generated, i.e. how people and companies behaved, there is uncertainty as to which economic or statistical model best represents these data; and thirdly, in order to obtain a suitable model that can be used for inference, econometrics is concerned with avoiding misspecification, or else the results of the model may be wrongly interpreted.

Prerequisites
This Wikibook assumes that you have had some experience with the following topics: and are well-versed in the following:
 * Set Theory
 * Real Analysis
 * Statistics
 * Linear Algebra

title: Econometric Theory/Introduction


text:
Ada Programming/Web 2.0

Here is a list of Web 2.0 resources about Ada:

News & Blogs

 * reddit.com — Ada [ RSS ], social news website on which users can post links to content on the web.
 * Stack Overflow — Ada questions
 * Ada Gems, programming tips and articles about specific language features.
 * Ada Planet, news aggregator.
 * Ada Programming blog [ RSS ], by Martin Krischik and other authors.
 * Java 2 Ada [ RSS ]

Social Networks

 * @AdaProgrammers at Twitter
 * Linked In — Ada developers group (free register needed)
 * Gitter chat room

General Info

 * Ada Resource Association
 * Awesome Ada, a curated list of awesome resources related to the Ada and SPARK programming language.
 * SlideShare, presentations about Ada programming, Ada 95, Ada 2005, Ada 2012 tag pages.
 * Open Hub, a directory of Open Source projects. Its main features are source code analysis of public repositories and public reviews of projects
 * Ada@Krischik, Ada homepage of Martin Krischik
 * WikiCFP — Calls For Papers on Ada [ RSS ]
 * AdaCore channel on youtube.com, Ada related videos.

Wikimedia projects

 * Wikipedia articles (Ada category):
 * Ada
 * Jean Ichbiah
 * Beaujolais effect
 * ISO 8652
 * Ada Semantic Interface Specification
 * Wiktionary entries:
 * ACATS
 * Ada
 * ASIS
 * Wikisource documents:
 * Steelman language requirements
 * Stoneman requirements
 * Wikibooks tutorials:
 * Programación en Ada, in Spanish
 * Programmation Ada, in French
 * Ada, in Italian
 * Wikiquote:
 * Programming languages — Ada
 * Wikiversity:
 * Ada course
 * Ada course

Source code

 * Examples Ada Programming wikibook
 * Rosetta Code — Ada Category, programming examples in multiple languages

Projects

 * AdaCL
 * The Ada 95 Booch Components
 * The GNU Ada Compiler
 * ASIS
 * GLADE
 * Florist
 * GNAT — GCC Wiki
 * RTEMSAda
 * AVR-Ada - Ada compiler for Atmel microcontrollers (Arduinos)
 * Ada Bare Bones - Tutorial to write a small Multiboot kernel written in Ada

|Web 2.0

title: Ada Programming/Web 2.0


text:
User:MDChanderson

Currently working on filling in the blanks.

title: User:MDChanderson