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Talk:LaTeX/Command Glossary

You missed \quad and \qquad. --130.75.117.49 (discuss) 10:27, 23 May 2013 (UTC)

Grouping by category
The list of commands would be more useful if it had been grouped into categories. --Orderud 20:46, 21 April 2006 (UTC)

I agree as is mentioned on the main discussion page of the LaTeX wikibook. When I get more time I will probably start adding back in the pages you removed unless I hear a good reason not to. --Chris Igjimh 07:33, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Alphabetical indices are AFAIK extremely easy to maintain and search - the user does not need to learn the category structure of the creator. I support the current alphabetical setup. --Dan Polansky (talk) 05:53, 8 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:LaTeX/Command Glossary


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User talk:80.68.8.43

This is your last or only warning. There is a history of placing external links connected with this account in some form. If you are not blocked immediately from editing Wikibooks you will be if you place another external link.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:80.68.8.43


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Pigwidgeon

Overview
Pigwidgeon, or Pig, a Scops owl, was a gift from Sirius Black to Ron. Ron's sister, Ginny, named the owl. The owl refused to answer to anything else after that.

Prisoner of Azkaban
At the end of the last chapter, as Harry travels on the Hogwarts Express, Hermione notices a little owl just outside the window. Harry catches it and takes it inside. It carries a note for Harry from Sirius: Sirius has hidden far away, and is thinking about letting himself be seen by a Muggle, so that security at school can be lowered. He was the one who had sent Harry the Firebolt; he had gotten Crookshanks to deliver the order to the post office. Hermione says that she had known it was him. Sirius also says that he feels responsible for causing Ron to lose his rat Scabbers; now that Ron has no pet, he may keep the owl if he wishes. Ron holds the owl under Crookshanks' nose, and Crookshanks purrs (apparently stating it is just a normal animal, not like Ron's previous pet, Scabbers, an Animagus), so Ron keeps the owl.

Goblet of Fire
Ron sends Pigwidgeon to Harry with the information that whether or not the Dursleys will allow him to go to the Quidditch World Cup, the Weasleys will be coming to get him; and saying that Harry should let Ron know whether it will be a visit or a rescue by return owl. Harry is bemused; he hasn't yet learned Pigwidgeon's name, and doesn't understand why Ron refers to him in his note as "Pig".

Once Harry has arrived at The Burrow, he learns the owl's name. This year, there is a requirement that all students have formal robes; Harry's are elegant, but Ron's are musty, have lace around the collar and sleeves, and look to date back to the previous century. Pigwidgeon chooses this moment to choke on an over-large owl treat, and Ron, hurrying to help him, laments about how everything he owns is rubbish.

Near Christmas, Ron sends Pigwideon off with a message for Sirius Black. Pigwidgeon apparently takes about three weeks to deliver the message and return, although by this time Sirius is reportedly somewhere in England.

Order of the Phoenix
Pigwidgeon flies madly around Harry, Ron and Hermione as they greet one another excitedly on Harry's arrival at Number 12, Grimmauld Place. He continues to fly around, twittering madly, as Harry yells at Ron and Hermione, but retreats to the top of the wardrobe, joining Hedwig, when Fred and George Apparate into the room.

After the meeting that evening, Hedwig and Pigwidgeon are clattering around on top of the wardrobe. Ron throws some Owl Treats up there for them, explaining that Dumbledore doesn't want them out hunting too often, it would raise questions.

On the last day before the start of classes, Harry climbs on a chair to clean all the owl droppings off the top of the wardrobe. Finishing, he tosses the accumulated owl droppings into a wastebasket, which swallows them and belches loudly. During the conversation that follows, the wastebasket occasionally makes soft gagging noises as it coughs up the owl droppings.

Pigwidgeon is almost certainly on the luggage cart which Mad-Eye Moody brings to the platform, but his presence is not mentioned. The first time we see him is when Ron returns to Harry's compartment and puts Pigwidgeon's cage beside Hedwig's. As they near Hogsmeade station, Ron and Hermione, being prefects, must supervise the other students' preparations, so Pigwidgeon is left for Harry to carry. Luna volunteers to carry Pigwidgeon for him. She is separated from Harry in the crush of students, but catches up to him and Ron as they prepare to enter the horseless carriages, much to Ron's relief.

The next time Pigwidgeon is mentioned is as Ron is returning to school after the Christmas holidays. They are traveling on the Knight Bus, which is full of chairs rather than four-poster beds, it being daytime. As the Knight Bus travels with its normal great Bang!, Ron's chair is knocked over and Pigwidgeon, in his lap, bursts out of his cage and flies to the front of the bus, to rest on Hermione's shoulder.

Hedwig and Pigwidgeon are then not seen again until the trip back to London on the Hogwarts Express. It is noted that Hedwig and Pigwidgeon are disturbed by Ron's outburst when he learns that Ginny is going out with Dean.

Deathly Hallows
When Harry turns 17 and he is no longer bound by the restriction against underage sorcery, he celebrates by sending a number of Ron's possessions flying around the bedroom they share. The commotion disturbs Pigwidgeon, who starts fluttering madly around in his cage.

Pigwidgeon does not accompany Ron on his travels; we don't see him after Ron, Harry, and Hermione leave The Burrow.

Strengths
Despite his size, Pigwidgeon is a valiant owl. He is always eager for a delivery job, and will tackle any delivery, even if it is so large that he is barely able to lift it. In one scene, Ron tosses him out the window of the Owlery at the school with a letter to carry, and Pigwidgeon falls halfway to the ground before he manages to reach flying speed.

Weaknesses
Pigwidgeon is very small. Though he has a valiant spirit, a standard sized letter is too large for him to handle physically. On one occasion, Pigwidgeon takes several weeks to travel a distance that Hedwig travels in two days. Unlike the other post owls, who apparently can be sent on deliveries with enough accuracy that they can be expected to reach their destination at a specific time, Pigwidgeon, overwhelmed by his cargo, is almost as erratic as the superannuated Errol in making his deliveries on time.

Relationships with Other Characters
Pigwidgeon is owned by Ron Weasley, who seems to be very scathing towards Pigwidgeon in public, referring to him as a "stupid little feathery git", as he constantly seems to try to show off. However, despite appearances, Ron is actually very attached to Pigwidgeon, as he is the first owl he owns. Ginny also seems quite taken with the owl when Ron first gets him, as she is the one who names Pigwidgeon in the first place.


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Physics Exercises/Conservation of Linear Momentum

Exercises
conservation of linear momentum and recoil velocity=== A motionless catapult was aimed horizontally and fired a 10.0 kg wood block due west at 50 m/s. If the catapult's mass was 250 kg, what is the recoil velocity of the catapult if friction is ignored?

Solutions
Conservation of linear momentum or recoil velocity=== Conservation of linear momentum is used to solve this problem. The sum of the momentum of the wood block plus the momentum of the catapult must equal the sum of their momentum before the object was fired, which is zero.

M = mass, V = velocity, c = catapult, w = wood block

 * $$M_cV_c+M_wV_w = 0$$

 * $$(250. kg)V_c + (10.0 kg)(50.0 m/s) = 0$$

 * $$V_c =\frac {-(10.0 kg)(50.0 m/s)}{250.0 kg}$$

 * $$V_c = - 2.00 m/s$$

The negative sign indicates that the direction is opposite to the direction of motion of the wood block, which would be east.

ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION
solution as we know here ,the external force is zero(The force which provide the forword velocity to the wooden block )so the net momentum of the system will remain constant

Let Pi =the initial momentum of the system (catapult + wooden block) So that Pi = (Pc +Pw) initial Here Pc is the momentum of the catapult and Pw is the momentum of the wooden block As initially both of the catapult and wooden block were at rest so that their initial momentum was zero As the external force on the system is zero so initial momentum of the system must be equals to the final momentum Hence Pf = 0 = (Pw +Pc) finally As Pw = 10*50 =500 And Pc = 250* final velocity of catapult (v) So that (500+250V) =0 V= -2 m/s here negative sign show that the final velocity of the catapult will be in the opposite direction of the wooden block


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Accountancy/Year End Adjustments

The revenue recognition principle is the basis for making adjusting entries at the year end. These are necessary to better match the revenues and expenses that occurred during the accounting year. Adjusting entries are used to record the economic events. There are two types of adjustments: Accrued and Deferred adjustments. Examples of these adjusting entries are:

A prepaid expense is an economic benefit paid for in advance of its use. We pay insurance premium for a year. If this period does not coincide with the accounting period then at the year end an advance part of the premium is for the next year. We have to adjust this amount of advance payment as Prepayments (or sundry debtors) Account to reflect that the amount is not yet utilised to the benefit of the company but an asset with future benefit yet to be utilise. Unless similar expenditures are adjusted at the year end, the profit for the year is not accurate.

Similarly, expenses incurred during the year but not yet paid must be accounted for by adjusting by charging to the respective expenditure account and temporarily held in credits on the sundry creditors account as if the amount is owed to the external party.

Another kind of year end adjustment is where there is no financial activity to prompt the record of such transactions. Under this category are apportion of depreciations, provision of directors fees, provision for proposed dividends etc.

Notice all these actions of adjusting is just to reflect on the true and fair situation so that the profits, assets and liabilities of the company is fully stated and recorded completely according to the economic and financial effects.

title: Accountancy/Year End Adjustments


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Accountancy/Balance Sheet

The Balance Sheet is a financial statement that lists the assets, liabilities, and the ownership equity of a business entity as of a specific date.

A balance sheet can be presented in many different ways. A classified balance sheet is one format where the accounts are listed in some logical manner such as:

 * Assets are listed in order of liquidity with the most liquid to the least liquid form. This is usually classified into groups such as Current Assets and Fixed Assets.
 * Liabilities are listed in order of when they are become due. The further subdivision may be Long Term Liabilities and Current Liabilities.
 * Equity is generally presented with paid-up capital first and then various reserves and lastly the retained earnings.

The balance sheet could reflects the financial strength of a business. It depends on the type the business. A healthy balance sheet for a merchandiser would probably have a Current Ratio, i.e. Current Assets divided by Current Liabilities of 2 and a Debt Equity ratio of 1:2.

title: Accountancy/Balance Sheet


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets/Chapter 2

Synopsis
The strange, small creature on Harry's bed has large, green eyes, pointy ears, and is wearing a ragged pillowcase. He introduces himself as Dobby, a House-elf. Harry realizes that the mysterious pair of eyes in the hedge had belonged to the elf. Dobby is unable to reveal the Wizarding family that owns him, and hits himself uncontrollably each time he tries. He also punishes himself for speaking badly about his masters and for leaving his home without permission, which he did to deliver a dire warning: Harry Potter must not return to Hogwarts because terrible events will happen at the school. Dobby is once again unable to provide more details. When Harry ignores his warning, Dobby taunts him about his friends not writing to him all summer. When Harry asks how Dobby knew that, Dobby admits having intercepted Harry's letters hoping Harry would think his friends no longer cared about him, and so would not return to school.

Furious, Harry chases Dobby downstairs, where the Dursleys are dining with the Masons. Dobby levitates Aunt Petunia's cake with a Hover Charm. When Harry refuses his demand to stay away from Hogwarts, Dobby drops the cake, splattering cream over Petunia's spotless kitchen before vanishing. The Dursleys blame Harry, and Uncle Vernon attempts to pacify the Masons, telling them his nephew is slightly disturbed. However, when a messenger owl arrives, Mrs. Mason becomes frightened and runs out of the house, dashing Uncle Vernon's hopes for a lucrative business deal.

The owl-borne letter is from Mafalda Hopkirk, an official at the Ministry of Magic, stating that Harry has violated the Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery. Any further magic on Harry's part while away from school may be grounds for permanent expulsion from Hogwarts. The Ministry didn't know a house-elf was there, so they warned Harry because he was the only magical person in Privet Drive. Uncle Vernon locks Harry into his bedroom and bars the window, now knowing he is unable to use magic to escape.

Three days later, a rattling on the window bars awakens Harry; in the moonlight, Harry sees Ron Weasley peering in at him.

Analysis
Harry is once again manipulated by forces he is unable to control. A House-elf wants to prevent his return to Hogwarts, nominally for Harry's own protection, though no specific information is provided as to what peril could be there. Harry, believing in his own strength, never considers any real danger awaits at Hogwarts, at least nothing serious enough to compel him to remain at the Dursleys. Dobby probably would have revealed additional information if he could, but as he appears to be a slave, he is likely prohibited from saying more. Of course, there is no definitive proof yet that the House-elf's warning is genuine, and there could even be some sinister motive behind his actions, though that seems unlikely — Dobby's character and actions seem too simplistic and transparent for such a deception, and the deception he does admit to, intercepting Harry's letters, seems almost child-like in its execution and expectation.

If Dobby is indeed being truthful, then his emotional reaction to Harry's respectful manner provides a glimpse into the Wizarding world beyond what Harry, and readers, have seen so far. Dobby's reaction suggests that non-human magical creatures are probably poorly treated in Wizarding society. Also, Dobby's reverential treatment toward Harry re-enforces his fame, and indicates it is even more wide-spread than Harry realized. Harry is still uncomfortable with the unwanted attention, and the knowledge that everyone knows more about him than he does. This fame, at least while he must stay at the Dursleys, is anything but an asset, resulting in his family treating him even more disdainfully as the magical world they so detest increasingly seeps into the Dursley household.

The Ministry's letter clearly surprises Harry. While he had been warned against using magic at home, he was unaware the Ministry could monitor him. However, they obviously are unable to detect just who performed the magic, as it was assumed it was Harry who cast the Hover charm. Harry's obvious fear while in the kitchen with Dobby was concern that Vernon would punish him for disobeying his orders, rather than the Ministry detecting him using magic. Harry knows Vernon still has significant power over him and can make his life even more miserable. Harry may also fear that Vernon will attempt to prevent him returning to Hogwarts, a fear that seems justified when Harry's bedroom becomes a jail cell.

Tension gradually mounts as Harry's chances to return to the place he loves grow ever more remote. While Ron's appearance at the window brings some immediate relief, it also raises questions: though Ron knows Harry's situation, how can he, also being underage, help Harry? And how, in fact, did he reach Harry's room without triggering a similar Ministry warning?

Review

 * 1) Why can't Dobby reveal what the danger is to Harry?
 * 2) Why does Uncle Vernon lock Harry in his bedroom?
 * 3) Why would Dobby want to help Harry?

Further Study

 * 1) How could Dobby know something bad might happen to Harry at Hogwarts? What danger might that be?
 * 2) How could Dobby, as a slave in another wizard household, be able to stop Harry's mail for all that time without his masters' noticing his absence?
 * 3) Can Dobby be trusted, or could he be involved in a plot to harm Harry? Explain.
 * 4) Why does the Ministry believe it was Harry who cast the Hover charm?
 * 5) Why did the Ministry notice Dobby's magic at the Dursley house, but not the magic that Hagrid used in the first book?
 * 6) What does Dobby's reaction to the way Harry treats him indicate?
 * 7) Why has Ron appeared at Harry's window? How can Ron, also too young to use magic, help Harry?

Greater Picture
Dobby, we will eventually learn, is the Malfoy family's House-elf; we, like Harry, don't yet know this for certain, as he is restricted from revealing anything to Harry. Perhaps unsurprisingly, Dobby's poor condition reflects how the Malfoys generally treat anyone they consider beneath them, just as Harry's physical condition reflects how badly the Dursleys treat him. We have already seen the Malfoys' disdain for those they consider their inferiors, as shown by Draco's treatment of Harry, Ron, Hermione, and Neville, treatment that will continue throughout the series. It is Dobby's similarly shabby treatment, compared with how Ron, Hermione, and Harry are treated by Draco, that leads the reader to guess, possibly before Harry, that Dobby is the Malfoy's House-elf.

Dobby is a minor character, though he proves extremely useful to Harry throughout the series. Here, he is violating orders by speaking to Harry; we gather this is because Dobby knows how House-elves' lots improved since the Dark Lord's fall following his encounter with Harry, and, aware that the Malfoys are planning some mischief at Hogwarts, has taken it upon himself to warn Harry. Dobby's freely-given loyalty to Harry will continue, and is returned with Harry's respect and treatment due an equal. The contrast between Dobby responding to Harry's needs, and his response to the Malfoys' demands, is a lesson in the difference and value of loyalty that is freely given as opposed to it being demanded.

It should be noted here that Dobby's expectations for ill-treatment from humans seems common among House-elves; we will see it again in Kreacher, and to a lesser extent in Winky. Later, we see that Ron, though treating House-elves benignly, also considers them as menials, while Harry and Hermione feel differently; Hermione is even moved to create a student organization, S.P.E.W., that advocates elf rights. Harry and Hermione have both been raised in non-magical households, and so only recently learned that House-elves existed and are enslaved. Raised as Muggle children, Harry and Hermione were isolated from the prevailing belief that House-elves are an under-class, and should be treated accordingly. Ron, having been raised in the magical world, believes it is morally acceptable to enslave these creatures, and agrees with the generally-held view that most elves are treated well, and are happy only when they have masters to serve. While this may actually be an accurate assessment, it could have resulted from centuries of selective breeding and behavioral conditioning. Bigotry towards House-elves, other non-human magical creatures, and also Muggle-born wizards and witches is a recurring theme throughout the series.

What Lucius Malfoy is planning to send into the school is Tom Riddle's Diary. It is always uncertain whether Malfoy knows exactly what the result will be, or even what the Diary is (Voldemort's Horcrux). The Diary, we later learn, was likely given to Lucius with information that it was an anti-Mudblood weapon, though without details as to how precisely how it would act. If Malfoy had known that the weapon was barely controllable and largely indiscriminate, he might have balked at putting it in such close proximity to his son, Draco, or would at least have issued Draco a stronger warning.

Interestingly, Dobby seems to be better aware of the threat's precise nature than Lucius Malfoy, who is orchestrating it. When Harry asks if the threat is connected to "He Who Must Not Be Named", Dobby claims it is not, but seems to be hinting at something. In the book's final chapter, Dobby states it was not precisely "He Who Must Not Be Named", as the threat was actually from before he stopped using the name Tom Marvolo Riddle in favour of the tabooed "Lord Voldemort". Dobby is clearly aware this early in the book that the threat, as embodied by the Diary and its embedded Horcrux, is Tom Riddle, who only later adopted his new, self-imposed title. We hear later that Lucius had told his son, Draco, that he did not know who the Heir of Slytherin was. We cannot know if Lucius was lying, but whether or not he knew that the Heir was Tom Riddle, he was probably ignorant about the precise nature of the weapon embedded in the Diary; if he had known that it was a Horcrux, he likely would have been far more careful about what he did with it, and would have known that the plan to attack Hogwarts with it would have to be placed in abeyance until Voldemort had returned and could give the go-ahead.

While Dobby knew Tom Riddle would be the threat's agent, it is unlikely he knew how the threat would be carried out. Dobby is probably unaware of what had happened the previous time the Chamber was opened, as Lucius was a student significantly after that sequence of events. (Tom Riddle had attended Hogwarts some fifty years before this; Lucius Malfoy, only about twenty years previous.)

It is mentioned elsewhere that stories involving magic have a drawback: by making anything possible and largely effortless, it becomes too easy for the hero to succeed, thus making the story uninteresting. The Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery is an intriguing method for the author to impose limitations on using magic. Harry certainly could make his life easier by judiciously using magic during his summer vacations, but that would remove an interesting plot point. The Dursleys, annoying as they are, will remain useful as a contrast to Harry's life at Hogwarts, and his means of coping with his aunt and uncle without using magic becomes a ruler by which to measure his growing character and maturity. There is an exception to this in the next book when Harry reacts against his family using magic, though it is entirely unintentional, driven by extreme emotions after provocation.

The Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery is significant later in the series. The decree states that it is a "reasonable" restriction, indicating that circumstances exist under which a minor can use magic, presumably in an emergency situation. While Harry is only issued a warning for the Hover charm, which he did not even cast, later, in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, when Harry and cousin Dudley are attacked by Dementors intending to suck out their souls, Harry casts a Patronus charm to repel them. However, the Ministry of Magic immediately suspends Harry from Hogwarts and charges him with a crime, forcing him to attend a full Ministry hearing. Their sole motive at that time is to permanently expel him not only from Hogwarts, but wizard society, thus removing him as an impediment to the Ministry's official agenda regarding Voldemort. The Ministry misuses the Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery solely to achieve this; Harry is forced to prove that his using magic in that situation is, in fact, reasonable, in the face of a court biased strongly against him.

Connections

 * The Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery is here mentioned for the first time by name. It is earlier mentioned in the previous book and in the first chapter of this book without being named. Concerns about violating this Decree will cause Harry to bolt early in the next book, only to be effectively pardoned in the following chapter. The Decree is mentioned again in the fifth book, and it is used later in that book as a weapon against Harry, at which it proves inadequate. Finally it is mentioned that the Trace enforcing the Decree has been terminated on the morning of Harry's 17th birthday.
 * "Harry Potter" is the first thing Dobby says in the series. It will be also the last thing he says in the series, before he dies.
 * The warning letter was sent by Mafalda Hopkirk. Mafalda will send Harry two more letters when he uses magic to protect himself and Dudley from Dementors. Later, when the Trio breaks into the Ministry, Hermione will be disguised as Mafalda by using Polyjuice Potion.


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets/Chapter 3

Synopsis
Ron Weasley and his brothers, Fred and George, are outside Harry's window in a flying Ford Anglia. There to rescue Harry, they pull the bars off the window with the car. Fred and George gather Harry's Hogwarts belongings that are locked in the cupboard under the stairs, and load them into the car.

Hedwig screeches, reminding Harry she is being left behind. This awakens Uncle Vernon, who barges into Harry's room as Harry is half way out the window. Grabbing Harry's ankle, he attempts to pull him back in, but Harry yanks free, and he, Ron, Fred, and George head to the Weasleys' home, The Burrow.

Harry tells Ron, Fred, and George about Dobby, and they speculate about who owns him, eventually concluding that he could belong to the Malfoys. Harry learns that Draco Malfoy's father, Lucius Malfoy, once supported Lord Voldemort.

They arrive at The Burrow, an oddly crooked house. Molly Weasley is waiting, furious that they "borrowed" the car. After yelling at the twins and Ron, Mrs. Weasley warmly greets Harry. During breakfast, Harry glimpses Ginerva (Ginny), Ron's younger sister, who is apparently too shy to speak.

As punishment, the twins and Ron must de-gnome the garden, using Gilderoy Lockhart's Guide to Household Pests technique in his book. Curious, Harry assists, even though he does not have to. He attempts to gently drop the leathery Gnomes over the fence, but after being bitten, he flings them like the Weasley boys, who first twirl them until they are too dizzy to find their way back.

Ron's father, Arthur Weasley, who works for the Ministry of Magic, arrives after a long night's work, searching for illegal and Dark magical objects. Mr. Weasley loves Muggle technology and gadgets, and he is clearly intrigued with his sons' adventure in the car until Mrs. Weasley sternly chastises him. Ron shows Harry his bedroom, which is plastered in Quidditch posters. He apologizes for his home's disorderliness, but Harry thinks it is all wonderful, and, as he watches the gnomes making their way back into the garden, looks forward to spending the remaining summer with the Weasleys.

Analysis
In the last chapter we asked: how can Ron help Harry? Ron is underage, as are Fred and George, and capable though they may be, they are prevented from using magic to free Harry. However, apart from the flying car, which apparently does not violate the prohibition against underage magic, no magic is used to liberate Harry. Instead, the bars are pulled off the window with the car, and Fred and George pick both the bedroom's and the cupboard under the stairs' locks with a common Muggle hairpin. The same hairpin is used to open Hedwig's cage, freeing her for the first time all summer. It is never made clear why casting a spell triggers the prohibition trace, but using a charmed object like the flying car does not; for some speculation on this matter, please see the article on The Decree for the Reasonable Restriction of Underage Sorcery.

It is worth noting how quickly Harry settles in to the Weasley household. The reader gets the feeling that Harry feels at home almost instantly, even before Mrs. Weasley tips a few extra sausages onto his breakfast plate. Some of this, no doubt, is due to the existing friendship with Ron, but that alone is not sufficient to explain it. We can speculate that part of Harry's increasing comfort in The Burrow is due to acceptance of his magical ability, and part to the healthy communication between Weasley family members. This straightforward relationship is something Harry has been hunting for during almost all of his time at the Dursleys', and has never found.

The author often mentions a character by name before they are actually seen. Gilderoy Lockhart, who plays a large role in the book, is introduced here, by name only. He is apparently handsome ("'Mum fancies him,' said Fred in a very audible whisper"), and his solutions for problems may look good on paper, but only seem to work temporarily when employed. By sunset, Harry observes the Gnomes sneaking back into the garden one-by-one through the Weasley's hedge.

Ginny Weasley is reintroduced, though she only glances at Harry from afar; every time she sees him (twice in this chapter), she squeaks and runs away. Says Ron, "You don't know how weird it is for her to be this shy, she never shuts up normally . . ." She may have a classic schoolgirl crush, building Harry up in her mind as some heroic figure, then, when physically in his presence, is too timid to speak.

Review

 * 1) What caused Ron and the Twins to go to Privet Drive?
 * 2) What leads the boys to suspect that Dobby is owned by the Malfoys?
 * 3) Why does Mrs. Weasley punish her boys? Why does Harry volunteer to take part?

Further Study

 * 1) Why would Gilderoy Lockhart's methods only work temporarily?
 * 2) Why is Ginny, who is normally very talkative, acting so shy?
 * 3) Why is Mrs. Weasley cross with Mr. Weasley? Is he acting appropriately?
 * 4) Compare and contrast life at the Weasleys' home to the Dursley household. How do these similarities and/or differences affect Harry?
 * 5) Based on what is seen and heard in this chapter, give a description of what Gilderoy Lockhart may be like.

Greater Picture
The boys have correctly surmised that Dobby belongs to the Malfoys, though Harry will be uncertain until the book's end. Simply because Dobby is the Malfoys' property, his actions, though supposedly meant to protect Harry, would actually seem suspicious and likely motivated by that family for some sinister purpose. However, Dobby has risked his own life to warn Harry that he is in grave danger should he return to Hogwarts. Because Dobby is the Malfoys' slave, he has become aware that Draco's father, Lucius Malfoy, is behind the plot to unleash a monster within Hogwarts. Because Dobby is magically bound to protect the Malfoy family's secrets, his warning to Harry is so vague that Harry mostly disregards it. Even were Dobby able to be more explicit, however, nothing could dissuade Harry from returning to Hogwarts, the only place he feels he fits in.

Ginny's reaction to Harry makes it seem unlikely that they would ever have a significant relationship. Oftentimes, a schoolgirl crush simply fades over time, and Ginny's feelings seem more like superficial hero-worship than romantic interest. Ginny, however, will be thrust into several events that force her to mature quickly, and her feelings for Harry deepen as she gradually understands who he really is. Starting even before this chapter, a study of Ginny's character will be rewarding, as the author writes a very realistic maturation for her, ending with a true romantic relationship with Harry.

Several other minor plot points occur in this chapter. Gilderoy Lockhart soon appears, true to our expected image: physically attractive, charming, seemingly plausible, but ultimately unreliable. This tendency to believe in someone simply because they have certain desirable attributes is illustrated by other characters, notably Tom Riddle, a former Slytherin student, who, fifty years earlier, falsely implicated Hagrid in opening the Chamber of Secrets and unleashing a monster. Even though Riddle was behind the attacks, he was considered believable mainly because he was handsome, intelligent, personable, and fully human. (Hagrid, we will find out in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, is half-Giant.)

The gnomes making their way back into the garden is actually a point in understanding Lockhart's character. Though we have not yet met him, this vignette is a classic example of Lockhart's style: flashy, plausible, initially appearing to work, but ultimately failing. We will see the same in the man himself and in his magic later in this book.

The flying Ford Anglia will also make a few more appearances; notably, it will carry Ron and Harry to school when they find they can't reach Platform Nine and Three Quarters, and it will save Harry and Ron when they get into trouble in the Forbidden Forest later in this book.

Arthur Weasley mentions someone named Mundungus Fletcher, who tried to jinx him when his back was turned. Mundungus reappears in the fourth book, as shady as this brief mention leads us to expect, and in each book after that. We never find him to be trustworthy, though he is an Order of the Phoenix member and apparently loyal to Dumbledore and the Order.

Mr. Weasley's job with the Ministry will also prove important, not only because it gives him the authority to investigate other characters for Dark magic, but because it showcases his apparent unambitious nature, as he actually enjoys what he does and stays with it, foregoing the traditional career-advancing track to achieve status and more money that other Ministry employees seek; this unusual trait apparently attracts unwelcome attention from the likes of Lucius Malfoy.

Also, as is typical of how the author introduces something or someone long before it plays a part in the series, it is mentioned that the Weasleys have a Ghoul in the attic. This Ghoul will play an important role in the final book, though it remains unseen to readers until then.

Connections

 * The ghoul in the Weasley's attic will be made up to look like Ron with a case of Spattergroit, to explain his absence from Hogwarts when he leaves the Burrow with Harry in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
 * Arthur Weasley's lack of ambition will be a point of friction with his son Percy. Percy, also working for the Ministry, is extremely ambitious, and cannot accept that his father is happy in what seems to him to be a dead-end job. The issue that finally results in Percy's estrangement from the family is marginally based on this. The official Ministry position, at the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, is that Dumbledore and Harry are lying about Voldemort's return, and Arthur refuses to reject his faith in Dumbledore for the chance to improve his Ministry position. Percy severs relations with his family to prevent any hindrance in his career that would spring from his family's support for Dumbledore.
 * While we generally do not mention characters in the Connections section, this chapter's mention of Mundungus Fletcher is worthy of note. Fletcher, who will reappear next in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, and will play a substantial role in each succeeding book, is worth mention here as an indication that the author had already begun to plan for a Wizarding underworld, not allied with either side of the principal conflict, but rather out for what they could get for themselves. Fletcher will develop into a small-time con-man, thief, and dealer of contraband and stolen goods, but will have a significant role to play because of his situation at the edge of respectability. When we see him next, he will be making an inflated damages claim, for the destruction of a twelve-room tent that he had never owned.


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US Tort Law/Wrongful Death

'''Disclaimer: This page is sourced from an actual law student. Neither he or the editors of this article are licensed attorneys. All information discussed herein is a work in progress and cannot be construed as legal advice.'''

In this chapter of the Torts Casebook we will discuss Wrongful Death

Sources:

 * Neil Wehneman's podcast on this topic:

 * Neil Wehneman's notes on this topic (personal communication).

Facts:

 * The plaintiff was the executor of an estate that belonged to a man run down by a truck and killed

 * The defendant was an insurance company
 * at this point in time, Wisconsin allowed direct action against an insurance company

 * Luer, driver of the truck, was driving the truck within the scope of his employment; respondeat superior would have kicked in through vicarious liability

 * Within a few hours of the man's death, his wife died after finding out about the tragedy

 * Luer knew that he had "spells" where he would lose consciousness

 * It was illegal for someone with epilepsy to get a driver's license

Issues:
Is it negligence, specifically wrongful death action, for an individual who suffers from "spells" (even if he does not understand their reason) to drive?

Decision:
Yes, the reasonable person would be aware of the danger caused by these "spells".

The defense in turn justified the actions by saying they were "Acts of God"

Response by the Supreme Court Justice: "the term Act of God in its legal sense means such inevitable accident as cannot be prevented by human care, skill, or foresight."

Wrongful Death Overview:
Wrongful death is one of the most significant torts, as far as damages go; it does not fall under the common law, it is a statutory tort.

Statutes

Under common law, you cannot recover from wrongful death. The theory is that you cannot be "made whole" if you are dead.

The statutes fixed this problem by assigning the rights to the heirs of the deceased. (Note: If the heirs are not determined by the will, the state has a means of finding your rightful heirs)

Damages

Due to tort reform the common law often puts a caps on tort damages. In Ohio, the constitution states that wrongul death damages cannot be capped, but a statute is in place that does not allow for punitive damages.

There is huge list of damages that can be included, ie consortium, companionship, education, etc...

Survival Action

This is a period after the negligent action by the plaintiff, but before the eventual wrongful death.

 * This period of time involves medical expenses, lost wages, and mental and physical pain.

If you die immediately you cannot recover, and if you are unconscious you will only get medical expenses.

Unmarried, Long Term Couples

In general, unwed couples do not have the ability to recover from a wrongful death unless it is stated explicitly in the statute. However, they do have legal recourse if they are mentioned in the explicit will.

title: US Tort Law/Wrongful Death


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User talk:Jackylisiukwan

Introduction:
In economics,Use Value (or Total Use Value (TUV)) is the level of satisfication or preference in terms of money to the amount of goods obtained. It follows the law of demand & decreases with more goods or service obtained.

Average use Value (AUV)
Equation definition: $$TUV/Q$$

Marginal Use Value (MUV)
Equation definition: $$\frac{\Delta\ TUV}{\Delta\ Q}$$ As we consider the $$\Delta\ Q\rightarrow 0,$$ we can rewrite as $$\frac{dTUV}{dQ}$$

Utility
By full differential: $$dTU=\frac{\delta X}{\delta U}dX+\frac{\delta X}{\delta U}dY$$

title: User talk:Jackylisiukwan


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User talk:Smieskes

Hey :) Papst hier. Euer Chap sieht gut aus. Leider noch keine Zeit für den Inhalt gehabt *thumbsup :)

--Aschoeke 20:23, 19 August 2006 (UTC)

Welcome
Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Take a look at Naming policy
 * See list of templates which can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! --Derbeth talk 09:40, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Smieskes


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User:Nadir1984

I am nadir1984.

title: User:Nadir1984


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User:Ajani mgo~enwikibooks

Ajani's Law
Ajani's Law states that "Life is Great."

Justification: From an empty shell-of-a-body, life is breathed into it and there rises a Man capable of thought, speech and action.

Truth: There is nothing we look forward to more when we fall asleep than to wake in the morning.

Belief: Who does not want to believe that life was given to us so that we could fulfill a purpose, some higher destiny, a given calling?

Therefore, given that justified true belief virtually equates knowledge, Ajani's Law is knowledge.

"I travelled from the past to declare this law void." - Ajani

title: User:Ajani mgo~enwikibooks


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Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Hints for good writing

First and most important: Always remember, that we are writing a scientific book, not a novel; an essay; or a wikipedia article. For a start you could read this article

Try to write a consistent block of text, using subheadings, paragraphs and footnotes. Do not make listings, keywords and in general articles, but chapters.

Your first assignment is the introduction to your chapter. Keep in mind that this is the basis for the rest of your chapter. You shouldn't later rewrite your Introduction completely, because you did not know what to write. This assignment already counts for your mark.

''The mentioned APA Publishing Manual is not online. However, there is a good overview here

If you need help, check out the link section or write Iroewer and Aschoeke on their discussion site or via email.


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User talk:Iroewer

Hi bibi,

Ich habe meine Reviews soweit fertig. Mein eindruck ist bis auf 2-3 die die punkte wohl net brauche recht gut. Allgemein finde ich die chaps etwas zu kurz und das englisch ist net so dolle manchmal. Aber insgesamt *thumbsup* schau dazu auch mal hier:

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Featured_books

Schaust du mal unter Good Books :)

Klasse die Zusammenarbeit, diese Dinge sind mir noch nicht aufgefallen. Bei mir waren es vor allem das deutsche Endglisch was mir in den Augen wehgetan hat und ich mit sehr viel Muehe korrigiert habe. Man will ja nicht die Arbeit der Anderen zerstoeren. Aber schliesslich ist es die Grundvorraussetzung fuer einen gut strukturierten Text und fuer die Lesbarkeit sowieso. Auf der einen Seite gebe ich dir Recht, dass wir erst warten sollten bis alles hochgeladen ist, aber auf der anderen Seite werden die Seiten vom 19.8. bewertet und Veraenderungen danach nicht mehr! Da ich ja auch noch Tutorin bin muss ich mir das alles ja eh noch ein paar mal durchlesen und eigentlich hiess es dass wir wie gesagt die Versionen vom Samstag ausdrucken sollen. Naja vielleicht kann man bei unserer Gruppe ja auch eine Ausnahme machen. Bei den Kapiteln wo noch nichts stand habe ich auch auf die Discussion Homepage geschrieben, dass es sehr wichtig fuer unsere Gruppe ist, dass Sachen schon vorher hochgeladen werden. Trotzdem erwarte ich, dass alles erst wirklich Sonntag fertig sein wird. Conclusion aus all meinem Gelaber, ich denke wir sollten zumindestens die fast fertigen Kapitel schon bearbeiten, da fuer die Gruppen danach ja keine Moeglichkeit gibt was zu veraendern. Ich wundere mich nur ob wir die Text so tiefgreifend aendern sollen (so wie ich das im oberflaechlichen mit dem Korrigieren gemacht habe) oder ob wir die Gruppen nur darauf hinweisen was sie verbessern sollen. Oder teils teils...? Ich glaube das mit dem 'you' zu aendern ist es jetzt zu spaet. Mir war noch aufgefallen dass manche Anfaenge netter sind wie andere, so z.B. die wo es Beispiele oder kleine Geschichten gibt. Auf den Discussion Seiten der Gruppen die eher einen sproeden Anfang haben, habe ich das vermerkt und teilweise mails verschickt, wenn mir aufgefallen war, dass die Gruppe kaum auf ihre Seite geht. Manche Gruppen habe kaum oder auch gar keine Bilder, was ebenfalls wichtig fuer eine gute Praesentation waere. Ansonsten, finde zumindestens ich, sind ein paar schon richtig gute dabei. So jetzt habe ich mein Gehirn so weit entleert und hoffentlich nichts vergessen. Und ja ich mache gerade Ferien in Frankreich und vor der Haustuer der Mont Blanc. Rafael besucht hier eine Physikschule und waehrendessen arbeite ich halt am Wikibook. Lg Iroewer 23:44, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

So, also ich hab mal ein bisschen drübergeschaut und mir schonmal ein paar Stichpunkte gemacht. Ich würde vorschlagen, die ganzen Korrekturen diesbezüglich aber erst zu machen, wenn alle ihre kompletten Arbeiten hochgeladen haben, denn erst dann kann man ja alles einheitlich machen, wenn man weiß, wie die anderen Sachen so sind. Was ich mir so aufgeschrieben habe sind kleinere Sachen, wie z.B., dass in der Contentbox die gleichen Begriffe verwendet werden sollten ("Links" vs. "External Links" z.B.), dass die Contentbox immer ganz oben stehen sollte und darunter ne Introduction (nicht Outline wie in Evolutionary Perspektive on Social Cognitions) und so Zeug. Desweiteren hab ich da aber auch was schwerwiegenderes gefunden. Und zwar wird in 7 von den 14 Projekten mit "you" gearbeitet (hoffe du verstehst was ich meine) und in den anderen nicht. Vielleicht sollte man das auch noch anpassen, obwohl man sich dann einigen müsste, ob man in allen Texten "you" verwendet oder in keinem. In beiden Fällen wird das Umschreiben ne blöde Arbeit. Unter Umständen würden wir dann da vielleicht zuviel Einfluss auf den Text nehmen, denn die Sätze müssten dann komplett neu formuliert werden. Ansonsten sehe ich da bisher nicht mehr viel, was wir noch machen könnten/sollten. Wie gesagt würde ich da ganz gerne warten, bis wir alles vorliegen haben, um das dann anzugleichen. Bist du eigentlich noch im Urlaub? Wie lange insgesamt? Wenn du noch da sein solltest erhol' dich noch gut. Bis demnächst. LG Steffen

24.04.06

Hi Imme, könntest du dir bitte mal unseren Text (Chapter 13) anschauen und sagen, ob das so ungefähr als Introduction annehmbar ist?

LG, anna (Gruppe Knowledge)

Hey Imme,

kleiner Tipp: In der editing Leiste hat es einen Knopf "unterschreiben". Dadurch kannst du geschreibsel spraen und die leute können dir direkt auf der seite hier rückmeldung geben. bye, --Aschoeke 21:43, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Ja Guru, meinst du damit Iroewer? Hab ich inzwischen auch schon gelernt;)! me 01:11, 29 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Iroewer


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Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Links for possible sources

 * OCW MIT - The Opensource Teaching resource of MIT
 * Cognet MIT - The Cognitive Science Resource of MIT, available only if you are a subscriber, e.g. UOS students for the time being.
 * PubMed - Public life science studies
 * Public Library of Science
 * Tactile Perception and Learning Lab - (Trieste, Italy)
 * UCL - Experimental Techniques


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User talk:Dirk math

Perhaps you could elaborate as to what your old ip address was before you registered and put a message on the user page of that ip address. This would prove that you are the same person as the person who wrote this book. I beleive you but it cannot hurt to prove it Dolive35 18:47, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

Welcome
Welcome to wikibooks. If you need to check how to do something, you could check my talkpage on wikipedia, my username is dolive21 on there. There are some basic insturctions on using wikipedia, most of which carry over to wikibooks. Feel free to Leave a message on my talk page on wikibooks and/or wikipedia if you need any help, not that you seem likely to need it, as you seem a to be a much more experienced editor than me. You will prbaly get a quicker responce on wikipedia, as I edit that more.Dolive35 12:27, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dirk math


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User talk:Chinadust

For the equations for flight try googling something like lift thrust Dolive35 19:02, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chinadust


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Cookbook talk:Mango

Eddible inner pit?
So I take it you can eat the inside part to? What's it like? (Won't have mangos available for a few weeks atleast)

66.219.200.234 19:54, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Mango


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Talk:Italian/Lessons/Lesson2

Are we referring to inflection here?
By "the different spoken pronounciation," I assume we are not talking about the pronunciation (the sounds that make up the words), but rather the inflection (the tones, what would be notes in music). What I don't know is whether saying "inflection" here would clarify anything for the reader, who may not recognize the word. 129.41.246.4 20:32, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Italian/Lessons/Lesson2


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Wikijunior:Languages/Estonian

What writing system(s) does this language use?
Estonian uses the letters in the English alphabet, but includes several letters with diacritics. Here is a list of all the Estonian letters.

 * A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, Š, Z, Ž, T, U, V, W, Õ, Ä, Ö, Ü, X, Y

Letters in bold are only used in words that are not actually Estonian; rather, they are from another language.

How many people speak this language?
Estonian is spoken by about 1.1 million people, making it the 243rd highest language in number of speakers.

Where is this language spoken?
Estonian is an official language in:

 * Estonia
 * European Union

It is a minority language in:
 * Finland
 * Russia

What is the history of this language?
It is believed that the Baltic-Finnic languages evolved from a proto-Finnic language, from which Sami was separated around 1500–1000 BC. It has been suggested that this proto-Finnic had three dialects: northern, southern and eastern. The Baltic-Finnic languages separated around the first century, but continued influencing each other. You might see southwestern Finnish dialects have many genuine Estonian influences.

Around the 15th century, northern Estonia was under great cultural influence of Germany. Some German monks wanted to bring God closer to the native people, so they invented the Estonian literal language. It was based on the German alphabet and one character "Õ/õ" was added. As time passed, many words that were borrowed from German coalesced. This was the beginning of enlightenment.

When the Estonians declared themselves a nation, at the beginning of the 20th century, the country bloomed. For the first time they could express themselves freely. This was the golden age of Estonia, and the language evolved greatly.

The Second World War ended the golden age. Forces from the east marched in, took power, and Estonian was often deemed unnecessary to speak or teach. At that time many changes were made. For example, the structure of sentences was changed — the verb was put at the beginning of the sentence. Interestingly, this is not the way that it is in German.

When the Estonian people got back to power, the Soviet Union was disunified. They were a democratic nation for a second time; the cultural shield was broken. New information came in. A lot of slang words and phrases were adopted from English and English-speaking countries.

Interesting fact
Finnish and Estonian are closely-related languages. It's been said that northern Estonians can understand what is being said by Finnish people, even if they haven't learned Finnish.

Strangely, it doesn't seem to work the other way around. The Finnish have to put a lot more effort into learning Estonian than Estonians have to put in for Finnish.

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
Anton Hansen Tammsaare

Friedebert Tuglas

Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald

Johann Voldemar Jannsen

Jaan Kross

Lennart Meri

What is a simple song/poem/story that I can learn in this language?
At Christmas time, you might like to sing Christmas carols about your tree. The Estonians do, too. This song is originally called "O Tannenbaum", but it's called "Oh kuusepuu" in Estonian. It has also been translated into English. The song was first written by Ernst Anschütz in 1824.

Here is the first verse:

and so on...

Listen to the melody

title: Wikijunior:Languages/Estonian


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User:Dirk math

I've written a Wikibook about Quenya Grammar.

But as I've written it before I joined it is written under the IP: 80.201.107.39

More info about me on Wikipedia: Dirk_math

title: User:Dirk math


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Talk:Statistics/Testing Data/Chi-SquaredTest

We could use a section on goodness of fit using Chi-square, I don't think I'm qualified to write one though.


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Template:Political Economy/stub

''This or section of Political Economy is a stub. You can help Wikibooks by [ expanding it].'' /Stubs :This template adds page to /Stubs. Stub

title: Template:Political Economy/stub


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Category:Book:Political Economy/Stubs

To place a module on this list, put Political Economy/stub at the bottom of the module or section.

title: Category:Book:Political Economy/Stubs


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Wikijunior talk:Languages/Arabic

Pronounciation
How can we know we're pronouncing these words right? (well, unless it's Arabic, it must be English phonenems) Should I attend a preschool Arabic speaking class? ;)

66.219.200.234 21:50, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I know I am pronouncing them right because I speak arabic. Most arabic letters have very similar sounds, some however are pronounced more emphaticly, which your tounge on the roof of your mouth. The only letter really quite difficult for people new to arabic to pronounce is the "alif" ("ا"). However, if there is a great enough need to, i can provide a recording of the words in the "What words can i learn" section. N1person 14:43, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

 * Except for `ayn... i still can't say that letter!  Would this (and maybe the other sections) be helped by showing the alphabet of the language in question, or samples of characters if it's a character-based system? The chavi 23:56, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

taskheel
Hi there, since arabic is a special consideration you might put the "tashkeel" التشكيل (or maybe harakat? الحركات )into the samples? it should be a good idea for people who are not originally arabic, since they are the ones that might be interested in this book, 84.36.2.133 23:31, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

Who are some famous authors or poets in this language?
The first sentence (The most famous and influential Arabic "author" of all time was the founder of Islam, Mohammad with the Holy Qur'an. He was the messenger of God with the Qur'an, Islam's holy book. ) in this section conveys the idea that Quran was written/authored by Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) where as Muslims believe Quran is the word of Almighty God. This sentence requires modification to reflect the same.

title: Wikijunior talk:Languages/Arabic


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Category:Book:Modern History/Stubs

To place a module on this list, put Modern History/stub at the bottom of the module or section.

title: Category:Book:Modern History/Stubs


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User:Mkoguchi

mkoguchi@uos.de

title: User:Mkoguchi


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Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Imagery

Note: Some figures are not included yet because of issues concerning their copyright.

Introduction & History
Mental imagery was already discussed by the early Greek philosophers. Socrates sketched a relation between perception and imagery by assuming that visual sensory experience creates images in the human's mind, which are representations of the real world. Later on, Aristoteles stated that "thought is impossible without an image". At the beginning of the 18th century, Bishop Berkeley proposed another role of mental images - similar to the ideas of Sokrates - in his theory of idealism. He assumed that our whole perception of the external world consists only of mental images.

At the end of the 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt - the generally acknowledged founder of experimental psychology and cognitive psychology - called imagery, sensations and feelings the basic elements of consciousness. Furthermore, he had the idea that the study of imagery supports the study of cognition because thinking is often accompanied by images. This remark was taken up by some psychologists and gave rise to the imageless-thought debate, which discussed the same question Aristoteles already had asked: Is thought possible without imagery?

In the early 20th century, when Behaviourism became the main stream of psychology, Watson argued that there is no visible evidence of images in human brains and therefore, the study of imagery is worthless. This general attitude towards the value of research on imagery did not change until the birth of cognitive psychology in the 1950s and -60s.

Later on, imagery has often been believed to play a very large, even pivotal, role in both memory (Yates, 1966; Paivio, 1986) and motivation (McMahon, 1973). It is also commonly believed to be centrally involved in visuo-spatial reasoning and inventive or creative thought.

Concept
Imagination is the ability to form images, perceptions, and concepts. In fact, images, perceptions and concepts are not perceived through sight, hearing or other senses. Imagine the work of the mind and help create fantasy. Imagination helps to provide meaning and provide an understanding of knowledge; imagination is the basic ability of people to create meaning for the world; imagination also plays a key role in the learning process. The basic training method for cultivating imagination is to listen to stories; when listening to stories, the accuracy of wording is the basic factor of “generating the world”. Imagine any power we face. We combine what we touch, see and hear into a "picture" by imagination. It is widely believed that as an intrinsic ability, as a factor in perceiving the public world from the senses, in the process of inventing a partial or complete personal domain in the mind, the term is used in the professional use of psychology, meaning the mind. In the recovery process, [source request] restores the sensory object previously presented to the perception. Because the use of this term contradicts the use of everyday language, some psychologists tend to describe this process as an "image process" or "image", or as a "regeneration" imaginary process, using "generating or constructive" The imaginary process "images of imagination" are seen with the "eye of the soul." Imagination can also be expressed through fairy tales or imaginary situations. The most famous invention or entertainment product is created by one's imagination. One hypothesis about the evolutionary process of human imagination is that imagination allows conscious species to solve problems by using psychological simulations. Children are often considered to be imaginative groups. Because their way of thinking has not yet formed, there are fewer ideological restrictions and rules than adults. Therefore, it is often imaginative. Children often use stories or pretend games to practice their imagination. When children have fantasies, they play a role on two levels: on the first level, they use role-play to achieve what they create with imagination; at the second level, they pretend to believe that the situation is to play games.

In terms of behavior, what they create seems to be a real reality, and this already exists in the myth of the story. Artists often need a lot of imagination because they are engaged in creative work, and imagination can help them break existing rules and bring aesthetics into a new model. Imagine the universal use of this term, which means the process of forming an image that has not been experienced before in the mind, or the process of forming an image that is at least partially experienced or formed by different combinations. Some typical examples are as follows: fairy tale Fiction The illusion of forms inspired by fantasy novels and science fiction spurs readers to pretend that these stories are real, and by resorting to fantasy objects such as books or fantasy, these objects are not in the fantasy world. Imagination in this sense (not limited to the precise knowledge gained from actual needs) is somewhat exempt from objective limitations. Imagine being in the position of another person. This ability is very important for social relationships and social understanding. Einstein said: "Imagination... is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encompasses the world." [8] However, in all fields, even imagination is limited: therefore, one Human imagination does violate the basic law, or the inevitable principle of violating the actual possibility, or the possibility of rationality in a certain situation, is considered a mental disorder. The same limitations place imagination in the realm of scientific assumptions. The advancement of scientific research is largely due to some temporary explanations; these explanations are based on imagination. However, these assumptions must be made up of previously identified facts and must be coordinated with the principles of a particular science. Imagination is an experimental part of thinking that creates functional-based theories and ideas. Separate objects from real perceptions and use complex "features" to envision creating new ideas or changing ideas. This part of the thinking is crucial to improving and improving the way new and old tasks are completed. These experimental ideas can be implemented steadily in the field of simulation; then, if the concept is very likely and its function is real, then the concept can be implemented in reality. Imagination is the key to the new development of the soul. It shares with others and progresses together. Imagination can be divided into: Automatic imagination (from dreams and daydreams) Don't automatically imagine (renewable imagination, creative imagination, future dreams)

The Imagery Debate
Imagine yourself back on vacation again. You are now walking along the beach, while projecting images of white benzene-molecules onto the horizon. At once you are realizing that there are two real little white dots under your projection. Curiously you are walking towards them, until your visual field is filled by two seriously looking, but fiercely debating scientists. As they take notice of your presence, they invite you to take a seat and listen to the still unsolved imagery debate.

Today’s imagery debate is mainly influenced by two opposing theories: On the one hand Zenon Pylyshyn’s (left) propositional theory and on the other hand Stephen Kosslyn’s (right) spatial representation theory of imagery processing.

Theory of propositional representation
The theory of Propositional Representation was founded by Dr. Zenon Pylyshyn who invented it in 1973. He described it as an epiphenomenon which accompanies the process of imagery, but is not part of it. Mental images do not show us how the mind works exactly. They only show us that something is happening. Just like the display of a compact disc player. There are flashing lights that display that something happens. We are also able to conclude what happens, but the display does not show us how the processes inside the compact disc player work. Even if the display would be broken, the compact disc player would still continue to play music.

Representation
The basic idea of the propositional representation is that relationships between objects are represented by symbols and not by spatial mental images of the scene. For example, a bottle under a table would be represented by a formula made of symbols like UNDER(BOTTLE,TABLE). The term proposition is lend from the domains of Logic and Linguistics and means the smallest possible entity of information. Each proposition can either be true or false.

If there is a sentence like "Debby donated a big amount of money to Greenpeace, an organisation which protects the environment", it can be recapitulated by the propositions "Debby donated money to Greenpeace", "The amount of money was big" and "Greenpeace protects the environment". The truth value of the whole sentence depends on the truth values of its constituents. Hence, if one of the propositions is false, so is the whole sentence.

Propositional networks
This last model does not imply that a person remembers the sentence or its single propositions in its exact literal wording. It is rather assumed that the information is stored in the memory in a propositional network.

In Figure 1, each circle represents a single proposition. Regarding the fact that some components are connected to more than one proposition, they construct a network of propositions. Propositional networks can also have a hierarchy, if a single component of a proposition is not a single object, but a proposition itself. An example of a hierarchical propositional network describing the sentence "John believes that Anna will pass her exam" is illustrated in Figure 2.

Complex objects and schemes
Even complex objects can be generated and described by propositional representation. A complex object like a ship would consist of a structure of nodes which represent the ships properties and the relationship of these properties.

Almost all humans have concepts of commonly known objects like ships or houses in their mind. These concepts are abstractions of complex propositional networks and are called schemes. For example our concept of a house includes propositions like:

Houses have rooms. Houses can be made from wood. Houses have walls. Houses have windows. ...

Listing all of these propositions does not show the structure of relationships between these propositions. Instead, a concept of something can be arranged in a schema consisting of a list of attributes and values, which describe the properties of the object. Attributes describe possible forms of categorisation, while values rep- resent the actual value for each attribute. The schema-representation of a house looks like this:

House Category: building Material: stone, wood Contains: rooms Function: shelter for humans Shape: rectangular ...

The hierarchical structure of schemes is organised in categories. For example, "house" belongs to the category "building" (which has of course its own schema) and contains all attributes and values of the parent schema plus its own specific values and attributes. This way of organising objects in our environment into hierarchical models enables us to recognise objects we have never seen before in our life, because they can possibly be related to categories we already know.

Experimental support
In an experiment performed by Wisemann und Neissner in 1974, people are shown a picture which, on first sight, seems to consist of random black and white shapes. After some time the subjects realise that there is a dalmatian dog in it. The results of this show that people who recognise the dog remember the picture better than people who do not recognise him. An possible explanation is that the picture is stored in the memory not as a picture, but as a proposition.

In an experiment by Weisberg in 1969, subjects had to memorise sentences like "Children who are slow eat bread that is cold". Then the subjects were asked to associate the first word from the sentence that comes in their mind to a word given by the experiment conductor. Almost all subjects associated the word "children" to the given word "slow", although the word "bread" has a position that is more close to the given word "slow" than the word "children". An explanation for this is that the sentence is stored in the memory using the three propositions "Children are slow", "Children eat bread" and "Bread is cold". The subjects associated the word "children" with the given word "slow", because both belong to one proposition, while "bread" and "slow" belong to different ones. The same evidence was proven in another experiment by Ratcliff and McKoon in 1978.

Theory of spatial representation
Stephen Kosslyn's theory opposing Pylyshyn's propositional approach implies that images are not only represented by propositions. He tried to find evidence for a spatial representation system that constructs mental, analogous, three-dimensional models.

The primary role of this system is to organize spatial information in a general form that can be accessed by either perceptual or linguistic mechanisms. It also provides coordinate frameworks to describe object locations, thus creating a model of a perceived or described environment. The advantage of a coordinate representation is that it is directly analogous to the structure of real space and captures all possible relations between objects encoded in the coordinate space. These frameworks also reflect differences in the salience of objects and locations consistent with the properties of the environment, as well as the ways in which people interact with it. Thus, the representations created are models of physical and functional aspects of the environment.

Encoding
What, then, can be said about the primary components of cognitive spatial representation? Certainly, the distinction between the external world and our internal view of it is essential, and it is helpful to explore the relationship between the two further from a process-oriented perspective.

The classical approach assumes a complex internal representation in the mind that is constructed through a series of specific perceived stimuli, and that these stimuli generate specific internal responses. Research dealing specifically with geographic-scale space has worked from the perspective that the macro-scale physical environment is extremely complex and essentially beyond the control of the individual. This research, such as that of Lynch and of Golledge (1987) and his colleagues, has shown that there is a complex of behavioural responses generated from corresponding complex external stimuli, which are themselves interrelated. Moreover, the results of this research offers a view of our geographic knowledge as a highly interrelated external/internal system. Using landmarks encountered within the external landscape as navigational cues is the clearest example of this interrelationship.

The rationale is as follows: We gain information about our external environment from different kinds of perceptual experience; by navigating through and interacting directly with geographic space as well as by reading maps, through language, photographs and other communication media. Within all of these different types of experience, we encounter elements within the external world that act as symbols. These symbols, whether a landmark within the real landscape, a word or phrase, a line on a map or a building in a photograph, trigger our internal knowledge representation and generate appropriate responses. In other words, elements that we encounter within our environment act as external knowledge stores.

Each external symbol has meaning that is acquired through the sum of the individual perceiver's previous experience. That meaning is imparted by both the specific cultural context of that individual and by the specific meaning intended by the generator of that symbol. Of course, there are many elements within the natural environment not "generated" by anyone, but that nevertheless are imparted with very powerful meaning by cultures (e.g., the sun, moon and stars). Man-made elements within the environment, including elements such as buildings, are often specifically designed to act as symbols as at least part of their function. The sheer size of downtown office buildings, the pillars of a bank facade and church spires pointing skyward are designed to evoke an impression of power, stability or holiness, respectively.

These external symbols are themselves interrelated, and specific groupings of symbols may constitute self-contained external models of geographic space. Maps and landscape photographs are certainly clear examples of this. Elements of differing form (e.g., maps and text) can also be interrelated. These various external models of geographic space correspond to external memory. From the perspective just described, the total sum of any individual's knowledge is contained in a multiplicity of internal and external representations that function as a single, interactive whole. The representation as a whole can therefore be characterised as a synergistic, self-organising and highly dynamic network.

Interaction
Early experiments on imagery were already done in 1910 by Perky. He tried to find out, if there is any interaction between imagery and perception by a simple mechanism. Some subjects are told to project an image of common objects like a ship onto a wall. Without their knowledge there is a back projection, which subtly shines through the wall. Then they have to describe this picture, or are questioned about for example the orientation or the colour of the ship. In Perkys experiment, none of the 20 subjects recognised that the description of the picture did not arise from their mind, but were completely influenced by the picture shown to them.

Image Scanning
Another seminal research in this field were Kosslyn's image-scanning experiments in the 1970s. Referring to the example of the mental representation of a ship, he experienced another linearity within the move of the mental focus from one part of the ship to another. The reaction time of the subjects increased with distance between the two parts, which indicates, that we actually create a mental picture of scenes while trying to solve small cognitive tasks. Interestingly, this visual ability can be observed also with congenitally blind, as Marmor and Zaback (1976) found out. Presuming, that the underlying processes are the same of sighted subjects, it could be concluded that there is a deeper encoded system that has access to more than the visual input.

Mental Rotation Task
Other advocates of the spatial representation theory, Shepard and Metzler, developed the mental rotation task in 1971. Two objects are presented to a participant in different angles and his job is to decide whether the objects are identical or not. The results show that the reaction times increases linearly with the rotation angle of the objects. The participants mentally rotate the objects in order to match the objects to one another. This process is called "mental chronometry".

Together with Paivio's memory research, this experiment was crucial for the importance of imagery within cognitive psychology, because it showed the similarity of imagery to the processes of perception. For a mental rotation of 40° the subjects needed two seconds in average, whereas for a 140° rotation the reaction time increased to four seconds. Therefore, it can be concluded that people in general have a mental object rotation rate of 50° per second.

Spatial Frameworks
Although most research on mental models has focussed on text comprehension, researchers generally believe that mental models are perceptually based. Indeed, people have been found to use spatial frameworks like those created for texts to retrieve spatial information about observed scenes (Bryant, 1991). Thus, people create the same sorts of spatial memory representations no matter if they read about an environment or see it themselves.

Size and the visual field
If an object is observed from different distances, it is harder to perceive details if the object is far away because the objects fill only a small part of the visual field. Kosslyn made an experiment in 1973 in which he wanted to find out if this is also true for mental images, to show the similarity of the spatial representation and the perception of real environment. He told participants to imagine objects which are far away and objects which are near. After asking the participants about details, he supposed that details can be observed better if the object is near and fills the visual field. He also told the participants to imagine animals with different sizes near by another. For example an elephant and a rabbit. The elephant filled much more of the visual field than the rabbit and it turned out that the participants were able to answer questions about the elephant more rapidly than about the rabbit. After that the participants had to imagine the small animal besides an even smaller animal, like a fly. This time, the rabbit filled the bigger part of the visual field and again, questions about the bigger animal were answered faster. The result of Kosslyn's experiments is that people can observe more details of an object if it fills a bigger part of their mental visual field. This provides evidence that mental images are represented spatial.

Discussion
Since the 1970s, many experiments enriched the knowledge about imagery and memory to a great extend in the course of the two opposing point of views of the imagery debate. The seesaw of assumed support was marked of lots of smart ideas. The following section is an example of the potential of such controversities.

In 1978, Kossylyn expanded his image screening experiment from objects to real distances represented on maps. In the picture you see our island with all the places you encountered in this chapter. Try to imagine, how far away from each other they are. This is exactly the experiment performed by Kossylyn. Again, he predicted successfully a linear dependency between reaction time and spatial distance to support his model.

In the same year, Pylyshyn answered with what is called the "tacit-knowledge explanation", because he supposed that the participants include knowledge about the world without noticing it. The map is decomposed into nodes with edges in between. The increase of time, he thought, was caused by the different quantity of nodes visited until the goal node is reached.

Only four years later, Finke and Pinker published a counter model. Picture (1) shows a surface with four dots, which were presented to the subjects. After two seconds, it was replaced by picture (2), with an arrow on it. The subjects had to decide, if the arrow pointed at a former dot. The result was, that they reacted slower, if the arrow was farer away from a dot. Finke and Pinker concluded, that within two seconds, the distances can only be stored within a spatial representation of the surface.

To sum it up, it is commonly believed, that imagery and perception share certain features but also differs in some points. For example, perception is a bottom-up process that originates with an image on the retina, whereas imagery is a top-down mechanism which originates when activity is generated in higher visual centres without an actual stimulus. Another distinction can be made by saying that perception occurs automatically and remains relatively stable, whereas imagery needs effort and is fragile. But as psychological discussions failed to point out one right theory, now the debate is translocated to neuroscience, which methods had promising improvements throughout the last three decades.

Investigating the brain - a way to resolve the imagery debate?
Visual imagery was investigated by psychological studies relying solely on behavioural experiments until the late 1980s. By that time, research on the brain by electrophysiological measurements such as the event-related potential (ERP) and brain-imaging techniques (fMRI, PET) became possible. It was therefore hoped that neurological evidence how the brain responds to visual imagery would help to resolve the imagery debate.

We will see that many results from neuroscience support the theory that imagery and perception are closely connected and share the same physiological mechanisms. Nevertheless the contradictory phenomena of double dissociations between imagery and perception shows that the overlap is not perfect. A theory that tries to take into account all the neuropsychological results and gives an explanation for the dissociations will therefore be presented in the end of this section.

Support for shared physiological mechanisms of imagery and perception
Brain imaging experiments in the 1990s confirmed the results which previous electrophysiological measurements had already made. Therein brain activity of participants was measured, using either PET or fMRI, both when they were creating visual images and when they were not creating images. These experiments showed that imagery creates activity in the striate cortex which is, being the primary visual receiving area, also active during visual perception. Figure 8 (not included yet due to copyright issues) shows how activity in the striate cortex increased both when a person perceived an object (“stimulus on”) and when the person created a visual image of it (“imagined stimulus”). Although the striate cortex has not become activated by imagery in all brain-imaging studies, most results indicate that it is activated when participants are asked to create detailed images.

Another approach to understand imagery has been made by studies of people with brain damage in order to determine if both imagery and perception are affected in the same way. Often, patients with perceptual problems also have problems in creating images like in the case of people having both lost the ability to see colour and to create colours through imagery. Another example is that of a patient with unilateral neglect, which is due to damage to the parietal lobes and causes that the patient ignores objects in one half of his visual field. By asking the patient to imagine himself standing at a place that is familiar to him and to describe the things he is seeing, it was found out that he did not only neglect the left side of his perceptions but also the left side of his mental images, as he could only name objects that were on the right hand side of his mental image.

The idea that mental imagery and perception share physiological mechanisms is thus supported by both brain imaging experiments with normal participants and effects of brain damage like in patients with unilateral neglect. However, also contradictory results have been observed, indicating that the underlying mechanisms of                                                                               perception and imagery cannot be identical.

Double dissociation between imagery and perception
A double dissociation exists when a single dissociation (one function is present another is absent) can be demonstrated in one person and the complementary type of single dissociation can be demonstrated in another person. Regarding imagery and perception a double dissociation has been observed as there are both patients with normal perception but impaired imagery and patients with impaired perception but normal imagery. Accordingly, one patient with damage to his occipital and parietal lobes was able to recognise objects and draw accurate pictures of objects placed before him, but was unable to draw pictures from memory, which requires imagery. Contrary, another patient suffering from visual agnosia was unable to identify pictures of objects even though he could recognise parts of them. For example, he did not recognise a picture of an asparagus but labelled it as “rose twig with thorns”. On the other hand, he was able to draw very detailed pictures from memory which is a task depending on imagery.

As double dissociation usually suggests that two functions rely on different brain regions or physiological mechanisms, the described examples imply that imagery and perception do not share exactly the same physiological mechanisms. This of course conflicts with the evidence from brain imaging measurements and other cases of patients with brain damage mentioned above that showed a close connection between imagery and perception.

Interpretation of the neuropsychological results
A possible explanation for the paradox that on the one hand there is great evidence for parallels between perception and imagery but on the other hand the observed double dissociation conflicts with these results goes as follows. Mechanisms of imagery and perception overlap only partially so that the mechanisms responsible for imagery are mainly located in higher visual centres and the mechanisms underlying perception are located at both lower and higher centres (Figure 9, not included yet due to copyright issues). Accordingly, perception is thought to constitute a bottom-up-process that starts with an image in the retina and involves processing in the retina, the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, the striate cortex and higher cortical areas. In contrast, imagery is said to start as a top-down process, as its activity is generated in higher visual centres without any actual stimulus, that is without an image on the retina. This theory provides explanations for both the patient with impaired perception but normal imagery and the patient with normal perception but impaired imagery. In the first case, the patient’s perceptual problems could be explained by damage to early processing in the cortex and his ability to still create images by the intactness of higher areas of the brain. Similarly, in the latter case, the patient's impaired imagery could be caused by damage to higher-level areas whereas the lower centres could still be intact. Even though this explanation fits several cases it does not fit all cases. Consequently, further research has to accomplish the task of developing an explanation that is able to explain the relation between perception and imagery sufficiently.

Imagery and memory
Besides the imagery debate, which is concerned with the question how we imagine for example objects, persons, situations and involve our senses in these mental pictures, questions concerning the memory are still untreated. In this part of the chapter about imagery we are dealing with the questions how images are encoded in the brain, and how they are recalled out of our memory. In search of answering these questions three major theories evolved. All of them explain the encoding and recalling processes different, and as usual validating experiments were realised for all these theories.

In search of answering these questions, three major streams evolved. All of them try to explain the encoding and recalling processes differently and, as usual, validating experiments were realised in all streams.

The common-code theory
This view of memory and recall theories that images and words access semantic information in a single conceptual system that is neither word-like nor spatial-like. The model of common-code hypothesis that for example images and words both require analogous processing before accessing semantic information. So the semantic information of all sensational input is encoded in the same way. The consequence is that when you remember for example a situation where you were watching an apple falling down a tree, the visual information about the falling of the apple and the information about the sound, which appeared when the apple hit the ground, both are constructed on – the – fly in the specific brain regions (e.g. visual images in the visual cortex) out of one code stored in the brain. Another difference of this model is that it claims images require less time than words for accessing the common conceptual system. Therefore images need less time to be discriminated, because they share a smaller set of possible alternatives than words. Apart from that words have to be picked out of a much larger set of ambiguous possibilities in the mental dictionary. The heaviest point of criticism on this model is that it does not declare where this common code is stored at the end.

The abstract-propositional theory
This theory rejects any notion of the distinction between verbal and non - verbal modes of representation, but instead describes representations of experience or knowledge in terms of an abstract set of relations and states, in other words propositions. This theory postulates that the recall of images is better if the one who is recalling the image has some connection to the meaning of the image which is recalled. For example if you are looking at an abstract picture on which a bunch of lines is drawn, which you cannot combine in a meaningful way with each other, the recall process of this picture will be very hard (if not impossible). As reason for this it is assumed, that there is no connection to propositions, which can describe some part of the picture, and no connection to a propositional network, which reconstructs parts of the picture. The other case is, that you look at a picture with some lines in it, which you can combine in a meaningful way with each other. The recall process should be successful, because in this case you can scan for a proposition which has at least one attribute with the meaning of the image you recognised. Then this proposition returns the information which is necessary to recall it.

The dual-code theory
Unlike the common-code and abstract-propositional approaches, this model postulates that words and images are represented in functionally distinct verbal and non - verbal memory systems. To establish this model, Roland and Fridberg (1985) had run an experiment, in which the subjects had either to imagine a mnemonic or how they walk the way to their home through their neighbourhoods. While the subjects did one of this tasks, their brain was scanned with the positron emission tomography (PET). Figure 10 is a picture combining the brains of the subjects, which achieved the first and the second task.

As we can see on the picture, for the processing of verbal and spatial information different brain areas are involved. The brain areas, which were active during the walking home task, are the same areas which are active during the visual perception and the information processing. And among those areas which showed activity while the mnemonic task was carried out, the Broca-centre is included, where normally language processing is located. This can be considered as an evidence for both representation types to be somehow connected with the modalities, as Paivio’s theory about dual-coding suggests Anderson (1996). Can you imagine other examples, which argue for the dual-code theory? For example, you walk along the beach in the evening, there are some beach bars ahead. You order a drink, and next to you, you see a person, which seems to be familiar to you. While you drink your drink, you try to remember the name of this person, but you fail stranded, even if you can remember where you have seen the person the last time, and perhaps what you have talked about in that situation. Now imagine another situation. You walk through the city, and you pass some coffee bars, out of one of them you hear a song. You are sure that you know that song, but you cannot remember the name of the interpreter, nor the name of the song either where you have heard it. Both examples can be interpreted as indicators for the assumption that in these situations you can recall the information which you perceived in the past, but you fail in remembering the propositions you connected to them.

In this area of research, there are of course other unanswered questions, for example why we cannot imagine smell, how the recall processes are performed or where the storage of images is located. The imagery debate is still going on, and ultimate evidence showing which of the models explains the connection between imagery and memory are missing. For now the dual-code theory seems to be the most promising model.

Links & Further Reading
Cognitive Psychology Osnabrueck

Dr. Rolf A. Zwaan's Homepage with many Papers

Articles

Cherney, Leora (2001): Right Hemisphere Brain Damage

Grodzinsky, Yosef (2000): The neurology of syntax: Language use without Broca’s area.

Mueller, H. M., King, J. W. & Kutas, M. (1997). Event-related potentials elicited by spoken relative clauses; Cognitive Brain Research 4:193-203.

Mueller, H.M. & Kutas, M. (1996). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/HMM/PDF-Dateien/1510.pdf What’s in a name? Electrophysiological differences between spoken nouns, proper names and one’s own name]; NeuroReport 8:221-225.

Revised in July 2007 by: Alexander Blum (Spatial Representation, Discussion of the Imagery Debate, Images), Daniel Elport (Propositional Representation), Alexander Lelais (Imagery and Memory), Sarah Mueller (Neuropsychological approach), Michael Rausch (Introduction, Publishing)

Authors of the first version (2006): Wendy Wilutzky, Till Becker, Patrick Ehrenbrink (Propositional Representation), Mayumi Koguchi, Da Shengh Zhang (Spatial Representation, Intro, Debate).


text:
Talk:Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Imagery

I am looking for some other people who chose to write about Imagery. Please contact to me, if you are member of this section! mkoguchi

a bit messy, that's why i initially rated you 25%

Hello Team Imagery, I am a member of team 12: Knowledge. I see, that you are going to write about Imagery and also about Propositions. Are you going to contrast these two approaches? Doing that would be a good idea. We did want to do that also, but with you having this issue, for us it will be enough to do just a tiny bit and link to your chapter. Please write a note to our discussion site. Best lbartels

You must hurry a bit. This is far from enough and from the topics you have on the list, you have way to go! Hope you already have something offline. --Aschoeke 11:44, 17 August 2006 (UTC)


text:
Category:Book:Use the Source/Stubs

To place a module on the list, tag it with Use the Source/stub at the bottom of the incomplete module or section.

title: Category:Book:Use the Source/Stubs


text:
Talk:Introduction to Philosophy/Theocracies

NPOV
This article is almost entirely POV. It also fails to address the subject at hand KevinBaker 01:53, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, this module is not at the same standard as others and seems to be written without much thought, research and neutraility. This should be re-written by someone who knows more about the subject at hand. --Michael Campbell 21:12, 5 January 2007 (UTC)Michael Campbell
 * There are two books implied: Introduction to Philosophy

Theocracy: A Secular Appraisal Geofferybard (discuss • contribs) 23:50, 24 February 2011 (UTC)