text:
Java Swings/Overview

Swing is a tool kit in Java which provides a way to build cross platform user interfaces. It is built on top of and designed as a replacement for AWT, the other UI toolkit built into Java. SWT is a third toolkit you may hear about. SWT is an open source toolkit and is a full topic in of itself, see SWT's Homepage for more information.

Overview
Swing provides many controls and widgets to build user interfaces with. Swing class names typically begin with a J such as,  ,. This is mainly to differentiate them from their AWT counterparts and in general are one-to-one replacements. Swing is built on the concept of Lightweight components vs AWT and SWT's concept of Heavyweight components. The difference between the two is that the Lightweight components are rendered (drawn) using purely Java code, such as drawLine and drawImage, whereas Heavyweight components use the native operating system to render the components.

Some components in Swing are actually heavyweight components. The top-level classes and any derived from them are heavyweight as they extend the AWT versions. This is needed because at the root of the UI, the parent windows need to be provided by the OS. These top-level classes include,  ,   and. All Swing components to be rendered to the screen must be able to trace their way to a root window or one of those classes.

So what does using Swing get you? So far we've only talked about components and rendering. Well, to start with you get the following.
 * Controls: Buttons, Check Boxes, Lists, Trees, Tables, Combo boxes (dropdown list), Menus, Text fields
 * Displays: Labels, Progress bars, Icons, Tool Tips
 * Pluggable look and feels (PLAFs): Windows, CDE/Motif, Mac. Allows for "skinning" the application without changing any code

 * Standard Top-Level Windows: Windows, Frames, Dialogs etc.
 * Event Listener APIs
 * Key bindings & mnemonics: Allow keystrokes to map to specific actions.

title: Java Swings/Overview


text:
UK Constitution and Government/Parliament

Presentation
The Parliament

Previous Chapter | Next Chapter --

Parliament
Parliament is the supreme law-making body in the United Kingdom. It is made up of two Houses of Parliament, namely the House of Commons and the House of Lords, as well as the Sovereign. The Sovereign's involvement in the life and working of Parliament is purely formal.

In constitutional theory, Parliament in its strictest sense is sometimes referred to as the Queen-in-Parliament; this contrasts with the more ordinary use of the term "Parliament", meaning just the two Houses of Parliament. Within the British constitutional framework, the Queen-in-Parliament is supreme ("sovereign"), able to make, alter, or repeal any law at will.

Both Houses of Parliament meet at the Palace of Westminster.

Parliaments and Sessions
As with most legislatures, Parliament does not continue in perpetual existence. Typically, the "life" of a Parliament is around four years.

Parliament is initially summoned by the Sovereign. This now always occurs after there has been a general election. Once assembled, and a Speaker has been chosen by the House of Commons, Parliament is formally opened by the Sovereign. The business of the two Houses is arranged into sessions, which usually last a year (running from around October or November each calendar year). However, there is usually a long recess during the summer months, when business is temporarily suspended.

The opening of each parliamentary session is conducted in accordance with a great deal of traditional ceremony. The Sovereign takes his or her seat on the throne situated in the chamber of the House of Lords, and the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod (one of that House's officers) is commanded to summon the House of Commons. When Black Rod reaches the door of the Commons, it is slammed shut in his face, to symbolise the right of the Commons to debate without royal interference. Black Rod then solemnly knocks on the door with his staff of office; on the third knock, the door is opened, and he is permitted to enter and deliver his message. MPs then proceed from the Commons to the House of Lords, to hear the Speech from the Throne, more commonly known as the Queen's Speech. The Speech outlines the Government's legislative proposals for the session; while worded as if it's the Sovereign's own policy, the Speech is in fact entirely drafted by Government ministers.

Each session is ended by a prorogation. The Commons are formally summoned to the House of Lords, where another formal Speech is read out, summing up the work of the two Houses of Parliament over the course of the session. In practice the Sovereign no longer attends for the prorogation; Lords Commissioners are appointed to perform the task, and one of their number also reads out the Speech.

By law, each Parliament must come to an end no later than five years from its commencement; this is known as dissolution. Because a dissolution is necessary in order to trigger a general election, the Prime Minister was effectively able to choose to hold elections at a time that seems the most advantageous to his or her political party.

After the 2010 General Election the Liberal Democrat party made the introduction of a law on fixed term parliaments a requirement for forming a coalition government with the Conservative party. A coalition was necessary as the result of the election meant no party had an overall majority of seats. The main opposition party from the previous parliament, the Conservative party, gained the most seats and under parliamentary protocol had the first opportunity to try and form a government. They concluded a formal deal with the Liberal Democrats to govern together. The Liberal Democrats had insisted on fixing the term of parliaments to reduce the inherent advantage the governing party had in being able to choose the moment to hold an election. There are provisions in the Fixed Term Parliaments Act to allow an early election with the consent of Parliament. These provisions were used in 2017.

Although the duration of Parliament has been restricted to five years since 1911, legislation was passed during both World Wars to extend the life of the existing Parliament; this meant that the Parliament summoned in 1935 eventually continued in existence for around ten years, until 1945.

Composition
While sometimes described as the "lower house", the House of Commons is by far the most important of the two Houses of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons are known as Members of Parliament, or MPs.

The entire United Kingdom is subdivided into constituencies, each of which returns one MP to sit in the House of Commons. There are presently 650 constituencies, however the exact number fluctuates over time as the boundaries of constituencies are periodically reviewed by Boundaries Commissions set up for each part of the UK. Constituencies are intended to have roughly equal numbers of voters, but in practice the smallest and largest constituencies can have a significant difference in size.

At each general election all seats in the House of Commons become vacant. If a seat becomes vacant during the life of a Parliament (i.e. between general elections), then a by-election is held for that constituency. The election for each constituency is by secret ballot conducted according to the First-Past-the-Post system: the candidate with the most votes is returned as MP.

Qualifications of voters
A person must be aged at least eighteen in order to vote.

The following nationalities are entitled to vote at parliamentary elections:
 * British citizens
 * citizens of the Republic of Ireland
 * citizens of Commonwealth countries

Irish and Commonwealth citizens must have been resident in the United Kingdom. British citizens who are resident abroad are only able to vote if they had been resident in the United Kingdom within the previous 15 years.

Certain categories of people are unable to vote:
 * the Sovereign
 * members of the House of Lords
 * people serving prison sentences
 * persons convicted of "corrupt practices" (electoral malpractice) within the previous five years
 * the insane

By convention, close relatives of the Sovereign also do not vote.

Qualifications of MPs
Anyone who is not disqualified to vote is also qualified to be an MP, except the following:
 * undischarged bankrupts
 * persons convicted of treason
 * members of legislatures outside of the United Kingdom that are not in Commonwealth countries
 * civil servants
 * members of certain specific public bodies, and holders of certain specific statutory offices
 * members of the armed forces
 * judges

Resignation as an MP
Since the 17th century, the House of Commons has asserted that MPs may not resign. However, in practice members are able to resign by the legal fiction of appointment as Crown Steward and Bailiff of the three Chiltern Hundreds of Stoke, Desborough, and Burnham, or as Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. Neither of these offices carries any duties, but have been preserved in force so that those appointed to them automatically lose their seats in the House of Commons as having accepted an office of profit under the Crown.

Speakership and procedure
The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker. There are also three Deputy Speakers, with the titles of Chairman of Ways and Means, First Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means, and Second Chairman of Ways and Means.

The Speaker and his or her deputies are elected at the commencement of a Parliament, and serve until its dissolution. Following a general election, the Father of the House (the member with the longest unbroken service in the House, who is not also a Minister of the Crown) takes the chair. If the Speaker from the previous Parliament has been returned as a member of the new Parliament, and intends to continue in office, then the House votes on a motion that the member take the chair as Speaker. Otherwise, or if the motion for his or her re-election fails, then members vote by secret ballot in several rounds; after each round, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated. The election ends when one member secures a majority of votes in a particular round. Thereafter, the Speaker-elect leads the House of Commons to the House of Lords, where the Lords Commissioners (five Lords representing the Sovereign) officially declare the Royal Approbation (approval) of the Speaker, who immediately takes office. The Speaker traditionally lays claim to all of the House's privileges, including freedom of speech in debate, which the Lords Commissioners then confirm on behalf of the Sovereign.

If a Speaker should choose to resign from his post during the course of Parliament, then he must preside over the election of his successor. The new election is otherwise conducted in the same manner as at the beginning of a Parliament. The new Speaker-elect receives the Royal Approbation from Lords Commissioners; however, the ceremonial assertion of the rights of the Commons is not repeated.

The Speaker is expected to act impartially. He or she is an important figure within the House of Commons, controlling the flow of debate by selecting which members get to speak in debates, and by ensuring that the customs and procedures of the House are complied with. The Speaker and his deputies do not generally speak during debates, nor vote at divisions.

The Speaker also exercises disciplinary powers. He or she may order any member to resume his or her seat if they consistently contribute irrelevant or repetitive remarks during a debate. An individual who has disregarded the Speaker's call to sit down may be requested to leave the House; if the request is declined, then the Speaker may "name" the member. The House then votes on whether to suspend the member in question for a certain number of days, or even, in the case of repeated breaches, for the remainder of the session. In the most serious cases, the House may vote to expel a member. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without a vote.

The House votes on all questions by voice first. The Speaker asks all those in favour of the proposition to say "Aye," and those opposed to say "No". The Speaker then assesses the result, saying "I think the Ayes have it" or "I think the Noes have it", as appropriate. Only if a member challenges the Speaker's opinion is a division, or formal count, called. During a division, members file into two separate lobbies on either side of the Commons chamber. As they exit each lobby, clerks and tellers count the votes and record the names. The result is then announced by the Speaker. In the event of a tied vote, the Speaker (or other occupant of the Chair) has a casting vote; however, conventions exist that the Speaker would cast a vote to maintain the status quo. In effect moving bills on to further scrutiny, but not pass a bill into law.

Composition
Generally speaking, membership of the House of Lords is by appointment for life. However, up until 1999, hereditary peers were also members of the Lords; when this right was abolished, a compromise measure allowed them to elect ninety of their number to continue as members.

Certain office-holders are also ex officio members of the House of Lords:
 * the Earl Marshal
 * the Lord Great Chamberlain
 * the Archbishop of Canterbury
 * the Archbishop of York
 * the Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester

The Earl Marshal and Lord Great Chamberlain are mostly ceremonial offices. In addition to the three ex officio bishops, the 21 longest-serving diocesan bishops also sit in the Lords.

The general qualifications for sitting and voting in the Lords are:
 * to have reached the age of 21
 * to be a British citizen, or a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, or a citizen of a Commonwealth country
 * to not have been convicted of treason
 * to not have been declared insane

Speakership and procedure
The Lord Speaker is elected by the House. Until recently his or her duties were carried out by the Lord Chancellor, a Minister of the Crown.

In contrast with the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Speaker has a relatively minor role, since the House of Lords is generally self-governing: the House itself decides upon points of order and other such matters. The seat used by the Lord Speaker is known as the Woolsack.

Similar to the House of Commons, the Lords also vote by voice first. The Lord Speaker (or whoever else is presiding) puts the question, with those in favour saying "Content," and those opposed saying "Not-Content." If the Lord Speaker's assessment of the result is challenged, a division follows, with members voting in the appropriate lobby just as is done in the Commons. The officer presiding may vote from his or her place in the chamber rather than from a lobby. In the case of a tie, the result depends on what type of motion is before the House. A motion that a bill be advanced to the next stage or passed is always decided in the positive, while amendments to bills or other motions are decided in the negative, if there is an equality of votes.

Acts of Parliament
Legislation passed by Parliament is in the form of an Act of Parliament.

A draft law is known as a Bill. A bill passes into law provided that it has either been passed by both Houses of Parliament, or the provisions of the Parliament Acts have been complied with; and provided it has received the Royal Assent.

A bill must pass through several stages in both of the two Houses. A bill is "read" three times in each House. The First Reading for Public Bills is almost always a formality. The Second Reading is a debate on the merits of the general principles behind the bill. Next follow the Committee and Report stages. The Third Reading is a vote upon the bill as a whole, as amended during the Committee and Report stages. Once the House into which the bill was first introduced has finished with it, the bill is then introduced into the other House. Any amendments by the second House then have to be agreed to by the first before the bill can proceed.

Bills are classified as either Government Bills or as Private Members' Bills. Ministers of the Crown introduce Government Bills; private members introduce Private Members' Bills.

Bills are also classified as Public, Private, Personal or Hybrid. Public bills create laws applied generally (for instance, reforming the nation's electoral system). Private bills affect a specific named company, person or other entity (for instance, authorising major constructions on specific named public lands). Personal bills are private bills that confer specific rights to specific named individuals (for example by granting the right to marry a person one would not normally be allowed to wed). Hybrid bills are public bills that directly and specially affect private interests.

Public Bills
A Public Bill's First Reading is usually a mere formality, allowing its title to be entered in the Journals and for its text to be printed by the House's authority.

After two weeks, one of the bill's supporters moves "that the bill be now read a second time". At the second reading debate, the bill's general characteristics and underlying principles, rather than the particulars, are discussed. If the vote on the Second Reading fails, the bill dies. It is, however, very rare for a Government bill to be defeated at the Second Reading; such a defeat signifies a major loss.

In the House of Commons, following the Second Reading, various procedural resolutions may need to be passed. If the bill seeks to levy or increase a tax or charge, then a Ways and Means Resolution has to be passed. If it involves significant expenditure of public funds, then a Money Resolution is necessary. Finally, the government may proceed with a Programme Motion or an Allocation of Time Motion. A Programme Motion outlines a timetable for further debate on the bill and is normally passed without debate. An Allocation of Time Motion, commonly called the Guillotine, limits time available for debate. Normally, a Programme motion is agreed to by both parties while an Allocation of Time Motion becomes necessary if the Opposition does not wish to cooperate with the Government. In the House of Lords, there are no Guillotines or other motions that limit the time available for debate.

Next, the bill can be committed to a committee. In the House of Commons, the bill may be sent to the Committee of the Whole House, a Standing Committee, a Special Standing Committee or a Select Committee. The Committee of the Whole House is a committee that includes all members of the House and meets in the regular chamber. The Speaker is normally not present during the meetings; a Deputy Speaker normally takes the chair. The procedure is used for parts of the annual Finance Bill and for bills of major constitutional importance. More often, the bill is committed to a Standing Committee. Though the name may suggest otherwise, the membership of Standing Committees is temporary. There can be from sixteen to fifty members; the strength of parties in the committee is proportional to their strengths in the whole House. It is possible for a bill to go to a Special Standing Committee, which is like a Standing Committee except that it may take evidence and conduct hearings; the procedure has not been used in several years. Finally, the bill may be sent to a Select Committee. Select Committees are permanent bodies charged with the oversight of a particular Government department. This last procedure is rarely used; the quinquennial Armed Forces Bill, however, is always referred to the Defence Select Committee.

In the House of Lords, the Bill is committed to the Committee of the Whole House, a Public Bill Committee, a Special Public Bill Committee, a Select Committee or a Grand Committee. The most common committee used is the Committee of the Whole House. Sometimes, the bill is sent to a Public Bill Committee of twelve to sixteen members (plus the Chairman of Committees) or to a Special Public Bill Committee of nine or ten members. These committees correspond in function to the Commons Standing and Special Standing Committees, but are less often utilised. Select Committees may also be used, like in the Commons, though it is rare for this to be done. The Grand Committee procedure is the only one unique to the House of Lords. The procedure is reserved for non-controversial bills that must be passed quickly; a proposal to amend the bill is defeated if a single member votes against it.

In both Houses, the committee used considers the bill clause-by-clause and may make amendments. Thereafter, the bill proceeds to the Consideration or Report Stage. This stage occurs on the Floor of the House and offers it an opportunity to further amend the bill. While the committee is bound to consider every single clause of the bill, the House need only debate those clauses which members seek to amend.

Following the Report Stage, the motion that the bill be now read a third time is considered. In the House of Commons, there is a short debate followed by a vote; no further amendments are permitted. If the motion passes, then the Bill is considered passed. In the Lords, however, amendments may be moved. Following the vote on the third reading, there must be a separate vote on passage.

After one House has passed a bill, it is sent to the other for its consideration. Assuming both Houses have passed a bill, differences between their separate versions must be reconciled. Each House may accept or reject amendments made by the other House, or offer other amendments in lieu. If one House has rejected an amendment, the other House may nevertheless insist upon it. If a House insists upon an amendment that the other rejects, then the bill is lost unless the procedure set out in the Parliament Acts is complied with.

Once a bill has passed by both Houses, or has been certified by the Speaker of the Commons as having passed the House of Commons in conformity with the Parliament Acts, the bill is finally submitted to the Sovereign for Royal Assent. Since 1708, no Sovereign has failed to grant Royal Assent to a bill. Assent may be given by the Sovereign in person, but is usually given in the form of letters patent read out in each of the Houses; in the House of Lords the Clerk announces the Norman French formula "La Reyne le Veult", and the Bill thereupon becomes an Act of Parliament. In 1708 the formula used for the Scottish Militia Bill was "La Reyne s'avisera" (however, this was on ministerial advice).

In theory the Sovereign has the right to either withhold or reserve the assent, however this right is not exercised. If assent were withheld, then the bill would fail. If assent were reserved, then formally a final decision on the bill has been put off until a later time; if Assent were not given before prorogation of the session, then the bill would fail.

Private, Personal and Hybrid Bills
In the nineteenth century several hundred private Acts were passed each year, dealing with such matters as the alteration of local authority powers, the setting up or alteration of turnpike trusts, etc. A series of reforms has eliminated the necessity for much of this legislation, meaning that only a handful of private Acts are now passed each year.

A private bill is initiated when an individual petitions Parliament for its passage. After the petition is received, it is officially gazetted so that other interested parties may support or contest it. Counter-petitions objecting to the passage of the bill may also be received. To be able to file such a petition, the bill must "directly and specially" affect the individual. If those supporting the bill disagree that such an effect exist, then the matter is resolved by the Court of Referees, a group of senior Members of Parliament.

The bill then proceeds through the same stages as public bills. Generally, no debate is held on the Floor during the Second Reading unless a Member of Parliament files a "blocking motion". It is possible for a party whose petition was denied by the Court of Referees to instead lobby a Member to object to the bill on the Floor. After the bill is read a second time, it is sent to one of two committees: the Opposed Bill Committee if there are petitions against the bill, or the Unopposed Bill Committee if there aren't. After taking evidence, the committee may return a finding of Case Proved or Case Not Proved. In the latter case, the bill is considered rejected, but in the former case, amendments to the bill may be considered. After consideration, third reading and passage, the bill is sent to the other House, which follows the same procedure. If necessary, the bill may have to face two different Opposed Bill Committees. After differences between the Houses are resolved, the bill is submitted for Royal Assent.

Personal bills relate to the "estate, property, status, or style" or other personal affairs of an individual. By convention, these bills are brought first in the House of Lords, where it is referred to a Personal Bill Committee before being read a "first" time. The Committee may make amendments or even reject the bill outright. If the bill is reported to the House, then it follows the same procedure as any other private bill, including going through an Unopposed or Opposed Bill Committee in both Houses. A special case involves bills that seek to enable marriages between those who are within a "prohibited degree of affinity or cosanguinity". In those cases, the bill is not discussed on the Floor and is sent at the committee stage to a Select Committee that includes the Chairman of Committees, a bishop and two lay members.

Hybrid bills are public bills that have a special effect on a private interest. Prior to the second reading of any public bill, it must be submitted to the Clerk, who determines if any of the House's rules have been violated. If the Clerk finds that the bill does have such an effect on a private interest, then it is sent to the Examiners, a body which then may report to the House that the bill does or does not affect private interests. If the latter, then it proceeds just like a public bill, but if the former, then it is treated as hybrid. The first and second readings are just as for public bills, but at the committee stage, if petitions have been filed against the bill, it is sent to a Select Committee, but the Committee does not have the same powers of rejection as Private Bill Committees. After the Committee reports, the bill is recommitted to another committee as if it were a public bill. Thereafter, the stages are the same as for a public bill, though, in the other chamber, the bill may have to be considered once more by a Select Committee.

Supremacy of the House of Commons
Under the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the House of Commons is essentially the pre-eminent chamber in Parliament. If the Lords fail to pass a bill (by rejecting it outright, insisting on amendments disagreed to by the Commons, or by failing to vote on it), and the bill has been passed by the Commons in two consecutive sessions, then the bill may be presented for Royal Assent unless the House of Commons otherwise directs, and provided that the bill was introduced in the Lords at least one month before the end of each session. However, twelve months must have passed between the Second Reading in the first session, and the final vote on passage in the second one. Also, the bill passed by the Commons in each session must be identical, except to take into account the passage of time since the bill was first proposed.

The effect of the procedure set out in the Parliament Acts is that the House of Lords may delay a bill for at least thirteen months, but would ultimately be unable to overturn the concerted will of the House of Commons. However, this procedure does not apply in the case of private or personal bills, nor to bills seeking to extend the life of Parliament beyond five years.

Under the Parliament Acts, a special procedure applies to "money bills". A bill is considered a money bill if the Speaker certifies that it relates solely to national taxation or to the expenditure of public funds. The Speaker's decision is final and cannot be overturned. Following passage by the House of Commons, the bill can be considered by the House of Lords for not longer than one month. If the Lords have not passed the bill within that time, it is submitted for Royal Assent regardless. Any amendments made by the House of Lords are ignored unless accepted by the House of Commons.

In addition to the Parliament Acts, tradition and conventions limit the House of Lords. It is the privilege of the House of Commons to levy taxes and authorise expenditure of public funds. The House of Lords cannot introduce bills to do either; furthermore, they are barred from amending supply bills (bills appropriating money to expenditure). In some cases, however, the House of Lords can circumvent the rule by inserting a Privilege Amendment into a bill they have originated. The Amendment reads:

 * Nothing in this Act shall impose any charge on the people or on public funds, or vary the amount or incidence of or otherwise alter any such charge in any manner, or affect the assessment, levying, administration or application of any money raised by any such charge.

The House of Commons then amend the bill by removing the above clause. Therefore, the privilege of the Commons is not violated as they, not the Lords, have approved the tax or public expenditure.

Delegated legislation
Many Acts of Parliament authorise the use of Statutory Instruments (SIs) as a more flexible method of setting out and amending the precise details for new arrangements, such as rules and regulations. This delegated power is given either to the Queen in Council, a Minister of the Crown, or to other named office holders. An Act may empower the Government to make a Statutory Instrument and lay it before both Houses, the SI to take legal effect if approved by a simple vote in each House; or in other cases, if neither House objects within a set time. In theory, Parliament does not lose control over such statutory instruments when delegating the power to make them, while being saved the necessity to debate and vote upon even quite trivial changes, unless members wish to raise objections.

English Votes For English Laws
During the creation of the Devolved Administrations of Scotland and Wales, the idea of an English Parliament or Regional Assemblies were discussed but ultimately not implemented. This created an issue where the UK Parliament is acting as a de facto English Parliament on matters devolved to the national assemblies. MPs from all regions were free to debate and vote on issues which did not effect their constituencies or constituents.

The Conservative Government of 2015 decided to address the issue in a controversial manner. Instead of bringing a bill to the Parliament, they proposed changes to the Statutory Instruments (SIs). Any bill brought before the Commons which is adjudged by the Speaker to only effect English Constituencies (or in some limited cases England and Wales) can have a ”double majority” rule imposed. In short, all MPs are allowed to debate and vote, but for a vote to be won both a count of votes of all MPs and a vote for English only MPs must be won.

Privilege
Each House has a body of rights that it asserts, or which are conferred by statute, with the aim of being allowed to carry out its duties without interference. For example, members of both Houses have freedom of speech during parliamentary debates; what they have said cannot be questioned in any place outside Parliament, and so a speech made in Parliament cannot constitute slander. These rights are collectively referred to as Parliamentary Privilege.

Both Houses claim to determine their own privileges, and are acknowledged by the courts as having the authority to control their own proceedings, as well as to discipline members abusing the rules. Furthermore, each House is the sole judge of the qualifications of its members. Collectively, each House has the right of access to the Sovereign. Individually, members must be left free to attend Parliament. Therefore, the police are regularly ordered to maintain free access in the neighbouring streets, and members cannot be called on to serve on a jury or be subpoenaed as a witness while Parliament is in session. (Arrest for crime is still possible, but the relevant House must be notified of the same.) Parliament has the power to punish contempt of Parliament, that is, violation of the privileges and rules of a House. Any decisions made in this regard are final and are cannot be appealed to any court. The usual modern penalty for contempt is a reprimand, or brief imprisonment in the precincts of the House, but historically large fines have been imposed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Russia

| European cuisines

 * Borscht
 * Tvorog
 * Sirniki
 * Vareniki
 * Bliny
 * Vinegret
 * Olivier salad
 * Okroshka
 * Beef Stroganoff
 * Solyanka
 * Dressed herring
 * Kholodets
 * Kulich
 * Kvass
 * Pelmeni
 * Pirozhki
 * Pirog
 * Rassolnik
 * Shashlik
 * Shchi
 * Ukha
 * Vatrushka

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Russia


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Haskell/Overview

Haskell is a standardized functional programming language with non-strict semantics. Haskell features include support for recursive functions, datatypes, pattern matching, and list comprehensions. By combining these features, functions that would be difficult to write in a procedural programming language are almost trivial to implement in Haskell. The language is, as of 2011, the functional language on and in which the most research is being performed.

The examples below give a taste of Haskell, oriented toward those familiar with other programming languages.

Examples
The classic definition of the factorial function:

A cute definition using Haskell's built-in list notation and the standard  function:

Both definitions above should compile into the same efficient code via a smart compiler using equational reasoning.

A naive implementation of a function which returns the nth number in the Fibonacci sequence:

A function which returns a list of the Fibonacci numbers in linear time:

The previous function defines an infinite list, which is possible because of lazy evaluation.

One could implement  as: ( is an operator which gets the nth element of a list).

The Quicksort algorithm can be expressed in Haskell concisely as: (Note that, conventionally, quicksort swaps values in-place; however, since Haskell's lists are immutable, this requires values to be copied instead.)

Non-skipping stable merge sort is

where  is the function composition operator ,   is a lambda expression (a nameless function), and the predefined function      repeatedly applies a function fun  until a condition cond  is met; with   keyword introducing the local definitions showcasing the use of patterns (with   matching a non-empty list with the head   and tail  ) and guards.

The Hamming numbers sequence is just

using sections (partially applied operators) and the built-in function  working with lists, whether finite or not, due to lazy (i.e. by-need ) evaluation. Also, enclosing function's name into back-quotes turns it into infix operator so that sub-expressions are automatically formed as if by placing parentheses appropriately, forming a nested expression, as in 2+3+5 --> ((2+3)+5) ; and a comment line is introduced by two dashes.

Finally, the infinite list of prime numbers by trial division is or as unbounded incremental Sieve of Eratosthenes with ordered lists, defining primes corecursively as natural numbers which are not multiples of primes. Or with arrays,

It's not just for quicksort!
Haskell is also used to build "real world" programs, including graphical or web user interfaces. To get a taste of Haskell in the real world, check out web frameworks in Haskell and Haskell in industry articles on the Haskell wiki, or darcs, an advanced revision control system written in Haskell.

title: Haskell/Overview


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Biochemistry/Proteins

Proteins are a primary constituent of living things and one of the chief classes of molecules studied in biochemistry. Proteins provide most of the molecular machinery of cells. Many are enzymes or subunits of enzymes. Other proteins play structural or mechanical roles, such as those that form the struts and joints of the cytoskeleton. Each protein is linear polymers built of amino acids. Proteins are also nutrient sources for organisms that do not produce their own energy from sunlight and/or are unable to fix nitrogen. Proteins can interact with one another and with others molecules to form complexes.

- Index of chapters and main sections

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Protein role in biology
 * 3) Proteins as polymers of amino acids
 * 4) Protein function depends on structure
 * 5) Protein synthesis
 * 6) The chemistry of proteins
 * 7) Amino acid structure and chemistry
 * 8) Disulfide bonds
 * 9) Post-translational modifications
 * 10) Protein structure and folding
 * 11) What is protein folding?
 * 12) Protein structural levels
 * 13) Secondary structure elements
 * 14) Tertiary structure elements
 * 15) Common folds and modules
 * 16) Types of Protein
 * 17) Oxygen Binding Proteins

title: Biochemistry/Proteins


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Cookbook:Appetizers

Appetizers are dishes served before a meal or at a cocktail party or other informal occasion. They are often referred to as snacks or hors d' oeuvres.

In general, appetizers are intended to be eaten by hand in a bite or two, or at least be capable of being cut with the side of a fork, rather than a knife. Since appetizers are a customary course in French and Italian cooking, among other styles of cooking, it is fairly easy to find haute cuisine recipes for appetizers.

Arguably, one fundamental, unspoken, purpose of appetizers, especially in a restaurant setting, is to keep hungry people fed until the main dish is served.

In a home setting, people who might have trouble getting the main meal on the table in a timely fashion on a particular day, such as a holiday, might especially want to have planned in advance to serve an appetizer of some type or sort.

One of the most fundamental appetizer categories in modern times, ignoring haute cuisine, is the dip and carrier combination, of which the variations are endless.

Recipes
For a complete, automatically generated list of recipes, see Category:Appetizer recipes.

title: Cookbook:Appetizers


text:
Gothic/Old

 * Gothic/Verbs

 * Gothic/Phonology
 * A|Stem
 * Gothic/Neuter|A|Stem
 * Gothic/Feminine|A|Stems
 * Weak
 * Gothic/Neuter|Weak

= Phonology =

Examples

 * Masculine A-Stems

 * aiths: oath
 * asts: twig
 * bagms: tree (cf. German Baum, English "beam" (of wood))
 * laufs: leaf (Gothic au frequently = English ea)
 * maithms: gift
 * stains: stone (ai=o)
 * winds: wind

 * Neuter A-Stems

Feminine A=Stems (so is the fem. definite article)

Weak Declensions
Weak nouns decline differently than strong nouns (hence the different name) and sometimes are more simple.

Examples

 * Masculine Weak
 * sa atta: the father
 * sa bloma: the flower (cf. "bloom")
 * sa brunna: the well (in Old English this word became burna "stream", and is still used in river names ending in -bourn )
 * sa fula: the foal
 * sa galga: the cross (cf. "gallows")
 * sa garda: the yard, the fold
 * sa Guta: the Goth
 * sa Austraguta: the Ostrogoth
 * sa hana: the rooster (cf. "hen", which comes from the feminine of this noun, which originally meant "the singer")
 * sa magula: the little boy
 * sa matha: the worm
 * sa mena: the moon
 * sa milhma: the cloud
 * sa skuggwa: the mirror
 * sa sparwa: the sparrow
 * sa sunna: the sun
 * sa unhultha: the demon

 * Neuter Weak
 * thata augadauro: the window
 * thata auso: the ear
 * thata barnilo: the little child
 * thata hairto: the heart
 * thata kaurno: the (single) grain
 * thata sigljo: the seal (cf. Latin sigillum)
 * thata thairko: the hole

But the Weak declensions are not all the same there exists a few irregulars. First the masculine irregulars:

NEXT TO COME: FEMININE WEAK NOUNS, NEUTER AND FEMININE STRONG A-STEM VOCABULARY ALSO.

= Links =

Gothic language on the web

Gotisch Gotisch

title: Gothic/Old


text:
German/Lesson 5

<< Lektion 4 | Lektion 5 | Lektion 6 >>

Wiederholung
Lesson 5 is a review (Wiederholung) lesson to summarize the German language lessons presented in Lessons 1 through 4. You should, then, return to Lektion 1 and review (that is, reread) each of the four lessons back up to this point. For a more advanced course, you might now incorporate each of the advanced lessons into this "review" process. That is: review Lesson 1, then do Lesson 1A, review Lesson 2, then do Lesson 2A, etc.

Parts of Speech and Word Order
Sentences are composed of parts that perform specific functions. You have been introduced to most (but not all) the major parts of speech: pronouns/nouns, verbs, and adjectives; and how these are expressed in German compared with English. Consider the following:

Ich brauche Wurst und Käse
 * I (pronoun as subject) need (verb) sausage and cheese (nouns as direct objects)

Haben sie zu viel Arbeit?
 * Have (verb) they (pronoun subject) too much (adjectives) work (noun direct object)?

Word order in a simple sentence follows that used in English. Subject and verb are reversed to form a question. In English, but not in German, the question sentence could also be stated (and, in fact, occurs more often in the US) as 'Do they have too much work?'

Nouns
Nouns are words that typically occur in sentences as either subjects (performers of some action) or objects (recipients of some action). Most nouns are the name of either a "person, place, or thing" and, in German, are always capitalized. Every noun in German has an "assigned" gender ( masculine, feminine , neuter ), and we learn each noun with its nominative case, definite article (der, die, das, respectively) in order to also learn that gender. Thus, a Vokabeln section for nouns is presented thusly: der Anhang, die Anhänge     appendix, appendices      (singular and plural) die Brücke                  bridge der Freund, die Freunde     friend, friends           (singular and plural) das Gespräch, die Gespräche conversation, conversations die Grammatik               grammar                   (note irregular stress) die Lektion                 lesson                    (note irregular stress) die Straße                  street

title: German/Lesson 5


text:
User:Tero~enwikibooks

Tero's user page on Wikipedia.org

title: User:Tero~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Confections

| Desserts | Recipe Index

Confections, also known as sweets, lollies, candy, and occasionally sweetmeats (in British english), refers to any sweet, sugar-rich dish or food item. Confectionery items include sweets, lollipops, candy bars, chocolate and other sweet items of snack food.

Note: If you are going to list a recipe here, first check the dessert section to see if it would be better listed there.

For a complete, automatically generated, list of recipes which have been categorized, on their individual pages, as being confection recipes, visit Confection recipes.

Also, below is a list of a few selected confection recipes contributors have manually added to this page:

Chocolate

 * Brigadeiro (a Brazilian confectionary)
 * Chocolate Balls
 * Chocolate Truffle

Fudge

 * Chocolate Fudge
 * Penuche (Brown Sugar Fudge)
 * Maple Penuche
 * Red Cross Fudge

Squares

 * Chocolate Squares
 * Cranberry Orange Squares
 * Date Squares
 * Lemon Squares
 * Tropical Squares

Taffy

 * Honey Taffy
 * Chocolate Taffy
 * Molasses Taffy

Miscellaneous

 * Acid Drops
 * Granola Bars
 * Peanut Brittle
 * Marshmallows
 * Turkish Delight

title: Cookbook:Confections


text:
Talk:Hindi

Untitled
Can someone guide me on how to enter letters in the Devanagari script? I can probably cover some of the basic grammar, having studied Hindi for 10 years now! Gokul madhavan 13:45, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Well, I'm going to bed now. :) I just wanted to say that I know the book looks like a mess but I know what I'm doing and it's gonna be great. :) --Addicted2Sanity 08:18, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Writing lessons
I would really like to see lessons teaching how to read and write Hindi step-by-step. It's hard to learn from an overview of letters. Lack of examples is another problem, but even if there were examples afterwards the learning situation would be far from perfect because the student would still have to memorise all letters at once in order to be able to begin practising.

What I have found really useful when learning non-Latin alphabets is a "divide and conquer" method that introduces few letters at a time and offers example words for practise immediately after each letter / each set of letters. What's even better is if those example words are understandable without prior knowledge of the language, that is, international words. For example: names of countries, cities or famous people (if their name isn't significantly different in Hindi than in English), common personal names, Hindi words that have entered English, English words that are used in Hindi, words that both Hindi and English have derived from Greek or Latin... The advantage of using these words is that students will be able to quickly see their own progress and the whole learning process becomes as fascinating as solving a puzzle. See the "Read Write and Pronounce Greek" lessons in the Modern Greek Wikibook for an example, or this external page on Cyrillic.

If you'd like to try this approach for teaching how to write Hindi, I'd be glad to help you, even though I don't know it yet (I'd learn it though and I have learned a variety of foreign alphabets already). Just create a big list of suitable words on a planning page like Modern Greek/Writing lessons plan, answer me here and I'll try to find an optimal order for letters.

Thanks for your efforts to teach a language that is hard to find in European schools!

Junesun 16:37, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

P.S.: If there's somebody generally unsure about how to create good language lessons, I really recommend reading the following two pages about it: Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks and Authoring Foreign Language Textbooks/Bite-sized language lessons.

Transliteration scheme
This book uses a ton of different transliteration schemes. It's confusing and it looks like a total mess. I suggest that ISO 15919 be used throughout the page. I'll look into doing some machine transliteration myself if I can find the proper software. Tasnu Arakun (talk) 18:24, 12 November 2008 (UTC)

In e-book/pdf format
There are tons of free online lessons on Hindi available but I haven't ever found one that is downloadable format. So maybe we can produce the Hindi Wikibook in a pdf format. I can do the compilation and editing and producing part. And the German wikibook has a great structure that could be followed. We'd need more content as well.Shyboy16 (talk) 10:14, 14 April 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hindi


text:
Gothic/Phonology

<< Gothic

Strong Nouns This is the strong noun A-Stem section, there are other kinds of strong nouns but we will deal with those later.

Masculine A-Stem Nouns Gothic has strong and weak nouns (along with strong and weak adjectives!). There are many stems or different declensions within each class of nouns. Here I will show you a-stem nouns. There are three genders in Gothic: masculine, feminine, neuter. These are not always sex-based as in English.

Now onto the masculine article (definite). Gothic has no indefinite article (a, an) but only a definite (the) which has masculine, feminine, and neuter forms.

For a while here I'm going to be basically throwing you a lot of tables. But here I'll explain the cases: Nominative: marks the subject of the sentence Accusative: marks the direct object of the sentence Genitive: marks possession Dative: marks the indirect object of a sentence.

title: Gothic/Phonology


text:
Genealogy

Genealogy is the research of one's family history (or someone else's). What is included in "family history" varies depending on the individual researcher.

There's a table of contents on every page that will help you navigate the pages. If you want to skip to a certain page, look below.

For everyone

 * /Getting started/
 * /Establish goals/
 * /Work backwards/
 * /Family interviews/
 * /Locating the previous overseas residence/
 * /Online options/
 * /Websites/
 * /FamilySearch/
 * /RootsWeb/
 * /Ancestry/
 * /Yahoo! Groups/
 * /Usenet Groups/
 * /Google Maps/
 * /Mailing lists/, etc.
 * Developing Genealogy Web-Pages
 * /Recording your research/
 * /Hard Copy/
 * /Software/
 * Archiving your records
 * Archiving paper-based documents
 * Archiving photos

Area-specific

 * /Africa/
 * /Egypt/
 * /South Africa/
 * /Asia/
 * /Afghanistan/
 * /China/
 * /Iran/
 * /Iraq/
 * /Israel/
 * /Pakistan/
 * /Saudi Arabia/
 * /Turkey/
 * /Europe/
 * /France/
 * /Germany/
 * /Italy/
 * /Latvia/
 * /Poland/
 * /Portugal/
 * United Kingdom
 * /North America/
 * /Canada/
 * /Mexico/
 * United States
 * /Oceania/
 * /Australia/
 * /New Zealand/
 * /South America/
 * /Brazil/

/Authors/

Genealogy sites

 * US National Archives Genealogy Section
 * Family Genealogy and History Internet Education Directory
 * Family Search - LDS Genealogy Site
 * Genealogy Tips and Research Guides
 * Cyndi's List of Genealogy Sites on the Internet - worldwide genealogy directory
 * Genealogy Resources, Newsletter and Databases for Family Tree History
 * Access Genealogy
 * Surname Web
 * Genealogy Resources at FamilyForest.com
 * Civil records from the Netherlands 1800~1920

title: Genealogy


text:
Gothic/Masculine

Strong Nouns This is the strong noun A-Stem section, there are other kinds of strong nouns but we will deal with those later.

Masculine A-Stem Nouns Gothic has strong and weak nouns (along with strong and weak adjectives!). There are many stems or different declensions within each class of nouns. Here I will show you a-stem nouns. There are three genders in Gothic: masculine, feminine, neuter. These are not always sex-based as in English.

Now onto the masculine article (definite). Gothic has no indefinite article (a, an) but only a definite (the) which has masculine, feminine, and neuter forms.

For a while here I'm going to be basically throwing you a lot of tables. But here I'll explain the cases: Nominative: marks the subject of the sentence Accusative: marks the direct object of the sentence Genitive: marks possession Dative: marks the indirect object of a sentence.

title: Gothic/Masculine


text:
User talk:Rawuza~enwikibooks

Antworten zum Projekt Traditionsrechtschreibung unter Talk:Traditionsrechtschreibung: Inhalt.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Rawuza. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Rawuza~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:24, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Rawuza~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:Dutch/Lesson 3

/Archive1/

title: Talk:Dutch/Lesson 3


text:
Cookbook:1-2-3-4 Cake

| United States | Cake

This is a traditional American recipe for a 1-2-3-4 cake, a simple form of yellow cake. The name comes from the volumetric ratio of butter to sugar, flour, and eggs.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (240 g / 8.5 oz) butter
 * 1 cup (240 ml / 8.1 oz) milk
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * 2 cups (450 g / 16 oz) white granulated sugar
 * 3 cups (400 g / 14 oz) all-purpose flour
 * 3 teaspoons baking powder
 * 3 pinches of salt
 * 4 eggs

Procedure (brief)

 * 1) Preheat oven to 175 °C (350 °F)
 * 2) Cream the butter and sugar together until fluffy.
 * 3) Beat in the vanilla and eggs, one at a time, ensuring the batter is well mixed after each egg.
 * 4) Gradually sift in the dry ingredients, alternating with small additions of the milk.
 * 5) Transfer to a greased and floured baking pan.
 * 6) Bake at 175 °C (350 °F), until a skewer inserted shows no moist crumbs.

Preparation
You will need these things:

Method
كعكة-1-2-3-4

title: Cookbook:1-2-3-4 Cake


text:
Cookbook talk:1-2-3-4 Cake

Page history from Pound cake

Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit

 * (cur) (last) . . 02:51, 29 Jan 2004 . . Gentgeen (Transwikied recipes to wikibooks)
 * (cur) (last) . . 18:12, 22 Dec 2003 . . Noldoaran
 * (cur) (last) . . M 17:08, 6 Dec 2003 . . Seglea (link to recipe)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 17:07, 6 Dec 2003 . . Seglea (linkfix)
 * (cur) (last) . . 17:06, 6 Dec 2003 . . Seglea (added authentic equal-quantities recipe)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 13:20, 6 Dec 2003 . . Jengod (wikify)
 * (cur) (last) . . 09:00, 6 Dec 2003 . . 69.37.18.204 (Sorry if the recipe is a little non-specific, but it is a old handed down recipie, so is likely public domain)

This was easy to make, but it sure wasn't the nicest cake I've ever had! Don't think I'm a fan of "yellow cake"... pfctdayelise 13:18, 25 April 2006 (UTC)

 * why do you think like that Ms Lehana (discuss • contribs) 17:33, 3 April 2023 (UTC)

The cake doesn't look delicious. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Morphine54 (talk • contribs) 03:54, 2 December 2010 (UTC)

I remember my mother telling me that in HER mother's time a 1234 cake was your basic cake that every bride had to know how to do.

About flour
How many are grams for flour? Veraimanica (discuss • contribs) 11:22, 19 December 2016 (UTC)

This is delicious I even tried it Dort3456 (discuss • contribs) 00:38, 7 January 2021 (UTC)

How many minutes
How many minutes should it be cooked for LIFE WITH STEPHANIE (discuss • contribs) 16:02, 20 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:1-2-3-4 Cake


text:
Genealogy/Authors

This book initiated on 02/14/04 by Bwood. Getting Started material by Diana Grzelak Needham.

KirbyMeister is also working on this project. Bob Fornal from http://bob.fornal.org is also working on this project.

title: Genealogy/Authors


text:
Genealogy/Locating the previous overseas residence

Finding your family village name: You must find your ancestor’s community's name before you will be able to locate ancestral records that were recorded in the "old country." This will usually require beginning research in the U.S., or whatever your home country, to determine the correct community.

First, begin with yourself. Gather everything you know about your own origins: where you were born, what religion you were raised in, your own civil and religious records. Then go back one generation at a time, looking for all of the available information you have. Where did your parents live? Where were they born? Gather their records. Sometimes even the smallest detail can lead you on the path to discovery. At times, you will not be able to locate a particular record for a parent or grandparent. If that is the case, look for records of their siblings. Often those will have the information you seek.

=Records to Search=

Family documents
Get out those old shoe boxes, start reading and really look at the details. Old letters often contain family connections, dates, locations and hints to lead you in the right direction. The same applies to old photographs which may have names and dates, or the photograpy studio or photographer’s name. Address books, postcards and, of course, family Bibles contain information and clues. Deeds, marriage certificates, naturalization papers, social security papers, Wills, and even insurance policies can be sources for information. I found one great-great grandmother’s address in Poland in an old personal address book which was about to be thrown out when her granddaughter passed on.

Contact your relatives. Many families are large, and an aunt, great-uncle, or distant cousin may have family documents you were not even aware existed. Begin with the one who was closest to your ancestor or cared for them before they died. Often those relatives end up with the ancestor’s documents.

An important note about family Bibles: in most of the older Bibles, the family information is listed about 2/3 to 3/4 of the way toward the back of the book (unlike modern Bibles where this information is listed in the first few pages).

Public Records
Public records in general present some problems. Families changed their names; names were misspelled due to language barriers; phonetic spellings were used by clerks; different pronunciation of letters from one language to the next, typographical errors and poor penmanship created transcription errors, among others. Some records are missing due to misfiling, or were destroyed by fire and flood. This is as true in the U.S. as it is in other countries; the 1890 Federal Census being a prime example.

Vital records
Birth, marriage and death records are generally located in the county seat in which the event happened (in the USA, other arrangements apply in the rest of the world). The cost of those records vary from county to county, and often depend upon whether you ask for a certified copy of the record or just a genealogical copy (generally cost less).

Most U.S. counties can be accessed on the web as follows: www.co.”countyname”.”state two letter abbreviation”.us/ (omit the quotation marks in your search. If that doesn’t work, just do a web search with your favorite search engine. The information for obtaining the records should be on the county site. In the U.S. this information can be found on the USGenWeb site: http://www.usgenweb.org/. There is also a World GenWeb site that may help for researching in other countries: http://www.worldgenweb.org/.

Another source to find vital records by state in the U.S. can be found at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/howto/w2w/w2welcom.htm. Some of these state sites give the year in which the state began to maintain the records, the locations to find earlier records, and refer to databases which are also searchable on the web.

SSDI
The Social Security Death Index is available free on line at http://ssdi.rootsweb.com/  Scroll down a bit and just put the name in the search box, and a list of persons with that name will come up. The Social Security Death Index is generally updated every three months.

When a person is found, the name, date of birth, date of death, last residence, the state in which the number was issued, and the number itself is shown. If you wish to obtain a copy of the original Social Security Application, you can click on the SS-5 letter link. The following information was requested on the application: Name, current address, birthdate, birthplace (generally City and State, place of employment and business address (if applicable) and names of parents (mother’s full maiden name).

Social Security is constantly updating this file. If the person for whom you are looking recently died, they probably won't be here. Give it a few months before you check again.

Obituaries
Published obituaries can be a valuable source of information. Often parents’ names, spouses, children and surviving siblings are shown. This is especially valuable if you are unable to locate information on your ancestor and don’t have the female siblings’ married names. Generally, if listed at all, it is with their then present married name, giving you another piece of information to allow you to continue your search.

Obituaries may be found in the “morgue” of the local newspapers, historical libraries in various cities and counties, and some public libraries have film or online databases for obituaries, marriages and death notices.

Alien Registration
Alien registration was required beginning in 1940 for resident aliens in the USA. The records can be obtained for the years 1940-1944 from the Immigration and Naturalization Service. http://www.bcis.gov/graphics/aboutus/history/ImmRecs/AREG.htm

Voter Registration
Most U.S. counties and states keep voter registration records. The states’ records are generally kept in the office of the Secretary of State. You can check with the county or state departments for information. Additionally, the LDS has filmed numerous voter registration indexes for various areas of the United States. You can check their Family History Library Catalog on line to see if your location has been filmed. http://www.familysearch.org/eng/Library/FHLC/frameset_fhlc.asp

WWI Draft Registration
In 1917 and 1918 males old enough to serve in the military were required to register for the draft, whether citizen or alien. See more detailed information on Ancestry WWI Draft Information at Ancestry.com

The LDS has compiled the WWI Draft Registration on microfiche arranged by state of residence, and you can contact your local Family History Center to view the registration records. Information is available at WWII Draft Info at FamilySearch.org

United States Census
The U.S. census is an excellent source of information, although it won’t usually give you the town of origin, it will give the country and occasionally the Province, such as “Prussian Posen” or “Russian Warsawa”. Keep in mind that the reference to “Posen” and “Warsawa” in these records generally refer to the Province and not the city.

Remember that these records are organized by family group. You will generally find parents and children, but sometime will also find grandparents and even great-grandparents living with their descendants. This information is also valuable because it provides a fairly accurate view of where the family (including siblings) were located when the individual census was taken - given several, this can show how the family members came and went in a household.

Census films may be obtained at your local Family History Center of the LDS (see the Family History Library search page listed under voter registration above) or through the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) http://www.archives.gov/research_room/genealogy/research_topics/census_records.html.

These records are also available on line through the paid genealogical subscription sites, www.Ancestry.com and www.Genealogy.com.

Immigration records
There are a number of sources for ship manifests, and their availability varies with the time and port to which your ancestor immigrated. The most well-known is the Ellis Island database on line, and if your ancestors immigrated between 1892 and 1924 to the port of New York, you may find that information free online: http://www.ellisisland.org/sign/index.asp?ACT=LL&login_targ=none. You must register to use the site, but it is without charge.

There have been some problems with the Ellis Island database indexing and linking, and the usual problems with misspellings and transcription errors. Another site which can help with such problems is the Stephen P. Morse website which gives search options not available from the Ellis Island site, and a way in which to find “missing manifests.” http://stevemorse.org/

For more information on Ellis Island records, go to the Jewish GenWeb site: http://www.jewishgen.org/infofiles/eidbfaq.html

The LDS has filmed numerous passengers records for many ports, and have some ports indexed so that you can find your ancestor’s name and arrival date before you order the actual manifest. Again, you can check what records they hold at http://www.familysearch.org/eng/Library/FHLC/frameset_fhlc.asp

NARA also has many manifests for U.S. ports: http://www.archives.gov/research_room/genealogy/immigrant_arrivals/passenger_records.html

Additional passenger arrival information can be found on the following sites:

Immigration and Ships Passenger Lists Research Guide http://home.att.net/~arnielang/ship04.html#whatrec

Polish Genealogical Society of America http://www.pgsa.org/ships.htm

An extensive reference for immigration to Australia, Canada, Europe, the U.S. and other parts of the world is found on Mary’s Genealogy Treasures at: http://www.telusplanet.net/public/mtoll/immigr.htm.

Declarations of Intent or Citizenship Applications are generally found in the local county court of residence prior to the Federal government taking over the naturalization process. A guide to finding these records is found at: http://www.germanroots.com/naturalizationrecords.html

There are some free and paid searchable naturalization databases on the web for the U.S. and Canada at: http://www.germanroots.com/naturalization.html

Land records
These are often harder to obtain and study than other documents, but they may hold clues, if not outright references to former residence.

Probate records
Again, these may hold clues, if not outright references to former residence.

Religious records
Baptismal records and marriage applications kept by the churches often have parents’ names and place of birth. If you cannot find your ancestor’s batismal certificate, you may have be able to find a sibling’s record and locate the information indirectly.

Catholic records are generally kept in the parish in which the ceremony was performed. If a parish has closed, the records may have been sent to the Diocese or Archdiocese archives, or to the nearest church still in existence. Many local parishes are now on line in the U.S. To locate a specific church by town or city and even by foreign Language masses, this site is very helpful: http://www.masstimes.org/ASP/. There is even a scrollable map so you can find a parish nearest your ancestors’ home.

There is no set web address for the Archidiocese in the U.S., but a web search for “catholic archdiocese” and the city or state will generally get you good results. For a Diocese, you can use a similar search. Many have information about how to obtain genealogical records.

The Evangelical(Lutheran) church of the U.S. has genealogical assistance. Their website is: http://www.elca.org/os/archives/index.html. Genealogical information is at the top right.

Additionally, the Lutheran World Federation has information and links to their member churches throughout the world. Just click on “member churches” and scroll down to the area in which you are searching: http://www.elca.org/os/archives/index.html.

Jewish records: Jewish Temples did not (and do not) keep records as did the Christian churches. These are family records, and were kept in the family papers. Some of the mohels who performed the bris mila kept records, but they were his personal records and would be with his family documents. Of course, many of these were lost through war and the holocaust, but there are still many ways one can search for their Jewish ancestors. Jewis GenWeb has an excellent guide to searching for family and ancestors: http://www.jewishgen.org.


text:
Genealogy/Recording your research

Research success is more than knowing where to look. In addition to data about your family, you'll want to have maps, background information about places, material about resources and how to use them. It won't take long for you to gather so much information that you can't keep track of it all. A systematic method for handling data is crucial. A good system has these qualities:
 * All materials are stored securely and redundantly
 * System is easily to understand, use and maintain
 * Provides the ability to transport relevant data to research sites
 * Facilitates the future publication / distribution of collected information

Decide how you will store irreplaceable materials (original documents, photos). Always copy or scan originals and store the originals in a secure location (safety deposit box, safe, firesafe box, etc.) Label each newly acquired document with a source description and an ID. You may find it easiest to just number each document sequentially. It becomes almost impossible to know in advance how to organize an ID system that handles all future acquisitions. Refer to this document ID when extracting data from the document into your research system (binders, software, etc.) Most genealogy software allows you to keep a list of sources. Use this ID to file the documents, or enter you own ID as part of each source notation.

Unless you can always bring a notebook computer to every research site, you should use a binder to display the current state of your research for reference. You'll need to know what you already know as you look for new information.

A new option for those that use computers for recording their research, you can use a USB thumb drive/flashdrive/memory stick and load the entire Personal Ancestral File (PAF) program on the drive along with your database and access it at any computer that has USB capabilities. Other computer programs may be able to do the same thing, but I am not sure. PAF is a free computer download from www.familysearch.org that has documentation and multimedia abilities. The PAF program is a windows based program, but can be run on a MAC if a pc-emulator is used.

title: Genealogy/Recording your research


text:
Genealogy/Establish goals

When starting genealogy, you should ask yourself what you want to accomplish with your research.

Are you primarily curious about your ancestors and want to see what information is easily available? Do you want to devote your life to uncovering and preserving the past?

What parts of your family do you wish to research? Some people prefer to focus on a few lines and mostly ignore the lines that marry in. Some people collect every person that can be tied in, including every umpteenth cousin many times removed. What about adoptions? Which line do you research? If you have a surname to research that isn't very common, will you research anyone with that name, whether there is any known connection to you or not ("one-name study")?

As time goes on, your scope may change. But try to determine at the beginning what you wish to research in order to avoid re-doing previous work.

title: Genealogy/Establish goals


text:
Genealogy/Work backwards

Working backwards from yourself to your most distant ancestors is a critical method in tracing one's own ancestry. Although it requires discipline, it is extremely important to systematically work backwards in time through the record trail, exhausting all record sources for each person, before working on their parents and grandparents. Without working systematically backwards, it becomes more and more easy to miss a crucial piece of evidence, or to rely on a hypothesis or guess as the foundation for later efforts. Use of a checklist for every person you are researching can make this methodical task easier.

In order to properly work backwards, one should use evidence in one generation regarding the previous generation as your foundation.

Birth, marriage, and death certificates, both civil and ecclesiastic, often name, or even describe the occupation of, the bride or groom's father and mother. Many times the certificate's subject's place of birth is given, and sometimes the place of the parents' birth as well. For example, old civil birth records (1865–1910) in New York City, found at the Municipal Archives, have a field for Father, Father's Place of Birth, Mother (with maiden name), and Mother's Place of Birth. Similarly, old ecclesiastic records from the villages around Kaiserslautern in southern Germany often describe the fathers of both groom and bride, the fathers' residences, and occupations. Less often in the oldest records, the mother is named. However, using either record, one would certainly establish a solid footing for looking into the previous generation.

However, a single record, such as a birth, is not enough if further records are available. If one readily finds the civil birth record, it can serve as a guide for the location of the same person's ecclesiastic baptismal, christening, or circumcision records, which may confirm, conflict, or expand upon the information in the civil record.

Further research should be conducted upon your subject, however. Marriage and death certificates and records, both civil and church, land records, coroner's reports, voter rolls, census returns, and numerous other pieces can add to your understanding of a person's parents and their history.

In many cases, you will find information about several different generations at the same time.

title: Genealogy/Work backwards


text:
Discrete Mathematics/Recursion

In this section we will look at certain mathematical processes which deal with the fundamental property of recursion at its core.

What is Recursion?
Recursion, simply put, is the process of describing an action in terms of itself. This may seem a bit strange to understand, but once it "clicks" it can be an extremely powerful way of expressing certain ideas.

Let's look at some examples to make things clearer.

Exponents
When we calculate an exponent, say x3, we multiply x by itself three times. If we have x5, we multiply x by itself five times.

However, if we want a recursive definition of exponents, we need to define the action of taking exponents in terms of itself. So we note that x4 for example, is the same as x3 × x. But what is x3? x3 is the same as x2 × x. We can continue in this fashion up to x0=1. What can we say in general then? Recursively,
 * xn = x × (xn-1)

with the fact that
 * x0=1

We need the second fact because the definitions fail to make sense if we continue with negative exponents, and we would continue indefinitely!

Recursive definitions
Reducing the problem into same problem by smaller inputs. for example a power n            2 power 4 the recursion(smaller inputs) of this function is = 2.2.2.2.1 for this we declare some recursive definitions a=2 n=4 f(0)=1 f(1)=2 f(2)=2 f(3)=2 f(4)=2 for this recursion we form a formula f(n)= a.f(n-1) by putting these smaller values we get the same answer.

Recurrence relations
In mathematics, we can create recursive functions, which depend on its previous values to create new ones. We often call these recurrence relations.

For example, we can have the function :f(x)=2f(x-1), with f(1)=1 If we calculate some of f ' s values, we get
 * 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...

However, this sequence of numbers should look familiar to you! These values are the same as the function 2x, with x = 0, 1, and so on.

What we have done is found a non-recursive function with the same values as the recursive function. We call this solving also know as x'to sup with value 0 and so on.

Linear recurrence relations
We will look especially at a certain kind of recurrence relation, known as linear.

Here is an example of a linear recurrence relation:
 * f(x)=3f(x-1)+12f(x-2), with f(0)=1 and f(1)=1

Instead of writing f(x), we often use the notation an to represent a(n), but these notations are completely interchangeable.

Note that a linear recurrence relation should always have stopping cases, otherwise we would not be able to calculate f(2), for example, since what would f(1) be if we did not define it? These stopping cases when we talk about linear recurrence relations are known as initial conditions.

In general, a linear recurrence relation is in the form
 * an=A1an-1 + A2an-2 + ... +  Ajan-j
 * with f(t1)=u1, f(t2)=u2, ..., f(tj)=uj as initial conditions.

The number j is important, and it is known as the order of the linear recurrence relation. Note we always need at least j initial conditions for the recurrence relation to make sense.

Recall in the previous section we saw that we can find a nonrecursive function (a solution) that will take on the same values as the recurrence relation itself. Let's see how we can solve some linear recurrence relations - we can do so in a very systematic way, but we need to establish a few theorems first.

Sum of solutions
This theorem says that:
 * If f(n) and g(n) are both solutions to a linear recurrence relation an=Aan-1+Ban-2, their sum is a solution also.

This is true, since if we rearrange the recurrence to have an-Aan-1-Ban-2=0 And we know that f(n) and g(n) are solutions, so we have, on substituting into the recurrence
 * f(n)-Af(n-1)-Bf(n-2)=0
 * g(n)-Ag(n-1)-Bg(n-2)=0

If we substitute the sum f(n)+g(n) into the recurrence, we obtain
 * (f(n)+g(n))-A(f(n-1)+g(n-1))-B((f(n-2)+g(n-2))=0

On expanding out, we have
 * f(n)-Af(n-1)-Bf(n-2)+g(n)-Ag(n-1)-Bg(n-2)

But using the two facts we established first, this is the same as
 * 0+0=0

So f(n)+g(n) is indeed a solution to the recurrence.

General solution
The next theorem states that:
 * Say we have a second-order linear recurrence relation, an-Aan-1-Ban-2=0, with supplied initial conditions.

Then γrn is a solution to the recurrence, where r is a solution of the quadratic equation
 * x2-Ax-B=0

which we call the characteristic equation. We guess (it doesn't matter why, accept it for now) that γrn may be a solution. We can prove that this is a solution IF (and only if) it solves the characteristic equation ;

We substitute γrn (r not zero) into the recurrence to get
 * γrn-Aγrn-1-Bγrn-2=0

then factor out by γrn-2, the term farthest on the right
 * γrn-2(r2-Ar-B)=0

and we know that r isn't zero, so rn-2 can never be zero. So r2-Ar-B must be zero, and so γrn, with r a solution of r2-Ar-B=0, will indeed be a solution of the linear recurrence. Please note that we can easily generalize this fact to higher order linear recurrence relations.

 Where did this come from? Why does it work (beyond a rote proof)? Here's a more intuitive (but less mathematically rigorous) explanation.  Solving the characteristic equation finds a function that satisfies the linear recurrence relation, and conveniently doesn't require the summation of all n terms to find the nth one. We want : a function F(n) such that F(n) =  A * F(n-1) + B * F(n-2) We solve : x2 = A* x  + B, and call the solution(s) r. There can be more than one value of r, like in the example below! We get : a function F(n)  = rn  that satisfies F(n) = A * F(n-1) + B * F(n-2) Let's check: Does rn = A*rn-1 + B*rn-2 ? Divide both sides by rn-2 and you get r2 = A*r + B, which must be true because r is a solution to x2 = A* x + B

Why does γ*rn also satisfy the recurrence relation?

If F(n)=rn is a solution, that is, rn-A*rn-1-B*rn-2=0, then certainly F(n)=γrn is a solution since γrn-A*γrn-1-B*γrn-2=γ(rn-A*rn-1-B*rn-2)=0.

Because we have a second order recurrence, the general solution is the sum of two solutions, corresponding to the two roots of the characteristic equation. Say these are r and s. The general solution is C(rn)+D(sn) where C,D are some constants. We find them using the two (there must be two so that we can find C and D) starting values of the relation. Substituting these into the general solution will give two equations which we can (hopefully) solve.

Example
Let's work through an example to see how we can use the above theorems to solve linear recurrence relations. Examine the function a(n) given here
 * a(n)=a(n-1)+2a(n-2)

The characteristic equation of this recurrence relation is
 * r2-r-2 = 0 from above, as A=1 and B=2

i.e. (r-2)(r+1)=0 which has roots 2, -1.

So the general solution is C(2n)+D(-1)n.

To find C and D for this specific case, we need two starting values, let's say a(1) = 0 and a(2) = 2. These give a system of two equations 0 = C(21)+D(-1)1 2 = C(22)+D(-1)2  Solving these two equations yields: C = 1/3, D = 2/3, so the solution is 1/3*(2n)+2/3*(-1)n.

title: Discrete Mathematics/Recursion


text:
User:Karl Wick/Goals and skills

Job skills and experience
Spanish language skills

Multicultural background / experience

Tutoring experience

Customer service exp

Science background

Social service exp

Office

Overseeing volunteers

Goals
Help people

Fulfillment

Passion

Influence others

Flexibility

Do a variety of things

Advancement

Manage / oversee others

Interaction and relationships

Multitasking

Possible avenues
Teaching

Medicine

Community development

Non-profit sector

Domestic / international efforts

title: User:Karl Wick/Goals and skills


text:
Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Breathing

Presentation
With the breathing reality check, you check if you can breathe underwater or with your fingers tightly sealing your nose. Always remember to concentrate on the act. When you seal your nose, don't release the air pressure when you're done with the test. As well as doing this regularly, you could also do it every time you go swimming.

That being said, if you feel at all uncomfortable, unplug your nose! You don't want to risk suffocating yourself.

NOTE: I have had personal experience with the breathing technique. I have used it numerous times. Only until recently it has worked perfectly fine for inducing lucid dreams; however, within the last two weeks, every time I try to plug my nose and breathe in, it doesn't work even in the dream world! It may be because I do the test so often that my expectation of the result carries into the dream world, therefore giving me the result I expect no matter if I'm dreaming or not. But, I do not see why this would happen since I constantly question the reality of the world around me hoping and expecting to be in a dream. My advice is to have a variety of techniques down in your mind and test two or three of them. Sometimes, my breathing AND hand checks don't work any more! I have found that text and digital clocks are the only solid way to know for sure since I seem to have exhausted the ability to use the techniques relating to my body.

Examples of this reality check working

 * I realised that the situation was getting a bit strange and did the breathing reality check. I found that I could breathe through my nose and immediately searched for a mirror...
 * I did the breathing reality check out of routine. Somehow I was uncertain whether I was dreaming - it seemed I hadn't sealed my nose tightly and I could still breathe through it. I pressed tightly and still managed to breathe. I was convinced. I went outside...
 * I was pushed down into the water. I almost drowned before I tried to breathe, then I suddenly found I could breathe underwater. As I came up to the surface I realised that I was therefore dreaming.
 * While using the WILD technique, I thought it might be time to perform a reality check. As I couldn't decide which one to use, I suddenly felt myself sinking through my bed. Eventually, I fell through and fell into the water. I immediately found out that I was able to breathe through my nose and realised that I was dreaming.

Examples of this reality check failing

 * My first attempt at reality checking; I found myself in a pool, and could breathe; for a moment I was lucid but then I decided that I could breathe because the pool had no chlorine, and I went on without lucidity.
 * I did the reality check out of habit and I could not breathe with my nose closed.
 * I breathed through a shut nose, and a dream character said that you just thought it worked. I continued on non-lucidly.
 * My nose was quite greasy, so I couldn't seal my nose properly... I was breathing, but I thought it was pretty normal, as my nose wasn't shut, so no lucidity came.
 * I did the breathing reality check. It didn't work. I said, "that's odd - my reality check failed!" I kept doing it until it worked. Only when I woke up, I realised that I just needed to do a reality check and then I would realise that I was dreaming.
 * I was taking a hallucinogenic drug in my dream and my drug guide told me that I should feel as if I'm in a dream, therefore the reality checks should prove true even though I'm not really dreaming. When I woke up I soon realized I actually was.
 * I tried breathing underwater at the beach when I thought I was asleep, inhaled a mouthful of water, and had to be rescued by lifeguards.

Sueño lúcido/Test de Realidad/Respiración

title: Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Breathing


text:
Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Jumping

Presentation
Also called the flying reality check; with the jumping reality check, you jump up and see if you float back down. Also try these techniques:

 * While driving, try to pull the steering wheel up. You should start flying into the air if you are dreaming.
 * If you are almost asleep or not sure if you are dreaming yet, try to levitate above your bed without moving or opening your eyes. This will help you continue to fall asleep if you are not dreaming, or will tell if you are dreaming already.
 * If you are riding in any vehicle, bicycle, etc, try to make it fly.

Examples of this reality check failing

 * I did the jumping reality check but I just went down normally. I continued in my dream...
 * I did the jumping reality check and floated back down. I asked a dream character about this. He said that gravity was decreasing due to global warming. I accepted this weird explanation and continued in my dream.
 * I did the jumping reality check and found that I could float about a foot off the ground. It's like the sensation of standing on a balloon, except it's nothing but air. This happens all the time in my dreams, but apparently I believe that I can really do this, and the dream continues nonlucidly.

Sueño lúcido/Test de Realidad/Saltar

title: Lucid Dreaming/Reality Checks/Jumping


text:
Calculus/Choosing delta

 * This page is an addendum to Calculus/Formal Definition of the Limit.

Recall the definition of a limit:

A number $$L$$ is the limit of a function $$f(x)$$ as $$x$$ approaches $$c$$ if and only if for all numbers $$\epsilon>0$$ there exists a number $$\delta>0$$ such that
 * $$\Big|f(x)-L\Big|<\epsilon$$

whenever
 * $$0<|x-c|<\delta$$.

In other words, given a number $$\epsilon$$ we must construct a number $$\delta$$ such that assuming
 * $$0<|x-c|<\delta$$

we can prove
 * $$\Big|f(x)-L\Big|<\epsilon$$

moreover, this proof must work for all values of :$$\epsilon>0$$.

Note: this definition is not constructive -- it does not tell you how to find the limit $$L$$, only how to check whether a particular value is indeed the limit. We use the informal definition of the limit, experience with similar problems, or theorems (L'Hopital's rule, for example), to determine the value, and then can prove the correctness of this value using the formal definition.

Example 1: Suppose we want to find the limit of $$f(x)=x+5$$ as $$x$$ approaches $$c=9$$. We know that the limit $$L$$ is 9+5=14, and desire to prove this.

We choose $$\delta=\epsilon$$ (this will be explained later). Then, since we assume
 * $$|x-9|<\delta$$

we can show

which is what we wanted to prove.
 * $$\Big|(x+5)-14\Big|$$
 * $$=|x-9|$$
 * $$<\delta$$
 * $$=\epsilon$$
 * }
 * $$=\epsilon$$
 * }
 * $$=\epsilon$$
 * }

We chose δ by working backwards from the formula we are trying to prove: $$\Big|f(x)-L\Big|<\epsilon$$. In this case, we desire to prove
 * $$|x-9|<\epsilon$$

given
 * $$|x-9|<\delta$$

so the easiest way to prove it is by choosing $$\delta=\epsilon$$. This example, however, is too easy to adequately explain how to choose $$\delta$$ in general. Lets try something harder:

Example 2: Prove that the limit of $$f(x)=x^2-9$$ as $$x$$ approaches $$2$$ is $$L=-5$$.

We want to prove that
 * $$\Big|f(x)-L\Big|=|x^2-4|<\epsilon$$

given
 * $$|x-2|<\delta$$.

We choose $$\delta$$ by working backwards. First, we need to rewrite the equation we want to prove using $$\delta$$ instead of $$x$$:

$$\begin{matrix}|x^2-4|&<&\epsilon\\ |x-2|\cdot|x+2|&<&\epsilon\\ \delta(\delta+4)&=&\epsilon\end{matrix}$$

Note: we used the fact that $$|x+2|\leq\delta+4$$, which can be proven with the triangle inequality.

Word of caution: the above series of equations is not a logical series of steps, and is not part of any proof, but is an informal technique used to help write the proof. We will select a value of $$\delta$$ so that the last equation is true, and then use the last equation to prove the equations above it in turn (which is what was meant earlier by working backwards).

Note: in the equations above, when $$\delta$$ was substituted for $$x$$, the sign $$<$$ was replaced with $$=$$. This can be done (but is not necessary) because we are not told that $$|x-2|=\delta$$, but rather $$|x-2|<\delta$$. The justification for this becomes clear when the above equations are used in backwards order in the proof.

We can solve this last equation for $$\delta$$ using the quadratic formula:
 * $$\delta=\frac{-4+\sqrt{16-4(-\epsilon)}}{2}=\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2$$

Note: $$\delta$$ is almost always in terms of $$\epsilon$$. A constant value of $$\delta$$ (e.g., $$\delta=0.5$$) will not work unless the limit is of a constant function (for instance, $$\lim_{x\to 3}5=5$$).

Now, we have a value of $$\delta$$, and we can do our proof:

given
 * $$|x-2|<\delta$$

$$\begin{matrix}\Big|f(x)-L\Big|&=&|x^2-4|\\ \ &=&|x-2|\cdot|x+2|\\ \ &<&\delta(\delta+4)\\ \ &<&\big(\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2\big)\big(\sqrt{4+\epsilon}+2\big)\\ \ &<&\big(\sqrt{4+\epsilon}\big)^2-2^2 \\ \ &<&\epsilon\end{matrix}$$

Here a few more examples of choosing $$\delta$$ ; try to figure them out before reading the explanation.

Example 3: Prove that the limit of $$f(x)=\frac{\sin(x)}{x}$$ as $$x$$ approaches $$0$$ is $$L=1$$.

Explanation:

Example 4: Prove that $$f(x)=\frac1x$$ has no limit as $$x$$ approaches $$0$$.

Example 5:

Prove that $$\lim_{x\to 2}x^2=4$$

Solution: To do it, we'll look at two cases: $$\epsilon\ge4$$ and $$\epsilon<4$$. The $$\epsilon\ge4$$ case is easy. First let's let $$\epsilon=4$$. That means we want the values chosen in the domain to map to $$(0,8)$$ in the range. We want a delta such that $$(2+\delta)^2=8$$ so let's choose $$\delta=2\sqrt2-2$$. The chosen $$\delta$$ defines the interval $$(4-2\sqrt2,2\sqrt2)$$ in our domain. This gets mapped to $$(24-16\sqrt2,8)$$ in our range, which is contained in $$(0,8)$$. Notice that $$\delta$$ doesn't depend on $$\epsilon$$. So for $$\epsilon>4$$, we widen the interval in the range that we are allowed to map onto, but our interval in the domain stays fixed and always maps to the same sub-interval in the range. So $$\delta=2\sqrt2-2$$ works for any $$\epsilon\ge4$$.

Now suppose $$0<\epsilon<4$$. We want a $$\delta$$ such that $$0<|x^2-4|<\epsilon$$ whenever $$0<|x-2|<\delta$$. So let's assume $$0<|x^2-4|<\epsilon$$ and work backwards to find a suitable $$\delta$$:
 * $$0<|x^2-4|<\epsilon$$
 * $$-\epsilon0$$. Since both numbers above are positive, we can take the (positive) square root of both extremes of the inequality:
 * $$\sqrt{4-\epsilon}<x<\sqrt{4+\epsilon}$$
 * $$\sqrt{4-\epsilon}-2<x-2<\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2$$

The above equation represents the distance, either negative or positive, that $$x$$ can vary from 2 and still be within $$\epsilon$$ of 4. We want to choose the smaller of the two extremes to construct our interval. It turns out that $$\Big|\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2\Big|\le\Big|\sqrt{4-\epsilon}-2\Big|$$ for $$0<\epsilon<4$$, so choose $$\delta=\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2$$. As a sanity check, let's try with $$\epsilon=0.002$$.
 * $$\delta=\sqrt{4+\epsilon}-2$$
 * $$\delta=\sqrt{0.002+4}-2$$

which is approximately
 * $$\delta=0.0004999375$$

At the extreme right of the domain, this gives
 * $$x=2.0004999375$$

and
 * $$x^2=2.0004999375^2=4.00199999993750390625$$

which is within 0.002 of 4.

title: Calculus/Choosing delta


text:
Learning the vi Editor

This book aims to teach you how to use the vi editor, common to many Unix and Unix-like operating systems. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ "Learning_the_vi_editor" [New file].

The above text is a little example of how the vi editor's screen looks.

Contents

 * /Getting acquainted/
 * /Basic tasks/
 * /Making your work easier/
 * /Advanced tasks/
 * /Details/
 * /Vi clones/
 * /Vim/
 * Basic navigation
 * Modes
 * Tips and Tricks
 * Useful things for programmers to know
 * Enhancing Vim
 * External Scripts
 * VimL Script language
 * Vim on Windows
 * Vim Touch
 * /vile/
 * /BusyBox vi/
 * /vi Reference/

Appendices

 * Navigation
 * Acknowledgements

Links

 * http://thomer.com/vi/vi.html

de:Vi-Befehlsreferenz:_Übersicht Vi Vi Vi Vim

title: Learning the vi Editor