text:
AP Chemistry/The Basics

You should remember everything here from your high-school level chemistry class.

Units and Measurement

 * Fahrenheit is not used on the AP exam. Celsius (°C) and Kelvin (K) are used. Pure water freezes at 0° Celsius (273K) and boils at 100 °C (373K). Kelvin, on the AP exam, can be converted to Celsius by adding 273.15.

Significant Figures
Significant figures are used to ensure that precision is communicated correctly. When measured numbers are given, the last digit is assumed to be ±1. The number 3.5 for example is assumed to range from 3.4 to 3.6 when an exact precision is not given.
 * Digits 1 through 9 are significant, and so are zeroes in between them. For example, the number 209 has three significant figures.
 * Zeroes to the right of all other digits are only significant if there is a decimal point written. 290 has 2 sig figs, 290. has three, and 290.0 has four.
 * Leading zeros are not significant. 0.00209 has only three sig figs.

Measured vs. Exact Numbers
Exact numbers are either defined numbers or result from a count. A dozen is defined as 12 objects. A pound is defined as 16 ounces. Exact numbers are assumed to have an infinite number of significant digits. Measured numbers by contrast always have a limited number of significant digits as described previously. A mass reported as 12 grams is implied to be known to the nearest gram and not to the tenth of a gram.

The Mole and Avogadro's Number
12 grams of Carbon-12 contain exactly one mole (6.02) of molecules. This is a measured number known as Avogadro's number. It is easy to convert between atomic mass, grams, and particles using Avogadro's number.

Multiplying and Significant Figures
Multiplying measured numbers in Chemistry is not like multiplying in math. 5 * 92 equals 460 in math class, but it equals 500 in chemistry. This is because the 5 only has one significant figure, so the answer has to be rounded to one sig fig. If 5.0 and 92 were multiplied, on the other hand, the answer would be 460 in both subjects.

Adding and Significant Figures

 * 1) First, align all the numbers vertically, as if you were going to add them. DO NOT WRITE IN EXTRA ZEROS AS PLACEHOLDERS.
 * 2) Add
 * 3) Round to the smallest place that contains a digit in every number.

Example: 210 + 370. + 539   210   370.   539 + 1119 ≈ 1120

States of Matter

 * Solid (s) - definite shape and volume. Vibrates in place, but does not flow.
 * Fluids - take the shape of their container.
 * Liquid (l) - definite volume
 * Gas (g) - variable volume (compressible)

History of Chemistry

 * Democritus - philosopher who made the idea of atoms.
 * Antoine Lavoisier - discovered Law of Conservation of Mass, which states that mass does not appear or disappear in chemical reactions, only rearrange.
 * John Dalton - first scientist to scientifically describe atomic theory.
 * Matter is made from indestructible particles called atoms.
 * Atoms of the same element are the same.
 * Compounds are two or more atoms bonded together.
 * Chemical reactions are the rearrangement of atoms.
 * J.J. Thomson - discovers the electron.
 * Robert Millikan - discovers the mass and charge of electrons.
 * "Raisin Pudding model" - atoms are like pudding, with electrons as raisins.
 * Ernest Rutherford - through his gold foil experiment, discovers the nucleus. Since most of the alpha particles he shot through the gold were not deflected, he concluded that most of an atom is empty space.

Modern Atomic Theory
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons weigh approximately 1 AMU, and electrons have a negligible mass. Elements are determined by the number of protons in the atom, known as the atomic number. The number of neutrons varies, creating different isotopes of different mass. The atomic mass of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons, both of which are found in the nucleus.

Electrons
Electrons are arranged into shells that surround the atom. Each shell has 1-4 subshells, which themselves have 1-7 orbitals, each of which holds two electrons.

Filling Electron Shells

 * Aufbau principle - fill the lowest energy subshells first, in accordance with the following image:

 * Exception: Elements within the Lanthanide and Actinide series contain nuances and do not strictly follow the gif pattern. Elements on either side of these series do adhere to the gif.
 * Hund's rule - fill each orbital in a subshell with one electron before putting a second electron in any of those orbitals.

Writing Electron Configurations
E.g. sodium = 1s22s22p63s1

VESPR Theory
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VESPR) theory. Electrons in a compound will try to move as far apart from each other as possible. Bonded pairs repel more strongly than unbonded pairs.

Hybrid Orbitals
The moving apart of electron pairs requires the hybridization of orbitals. These hybrids range from sp to sp3d2, having two to six pairs. This leads to several different shapes for each central atom in the molecule.

Sigma and Pi Bonds

 * Sigma bond - forms in all compounds
 * Pi bonds - one or more are formed per extra electron pair that is shared among two atoms. These bonds are weaker than sigma bonds.

Resonance
Sometimes, there is more than one "correct" way to draw a substance. In reality, the structure of the substance is an average of the drawn variations.

The Periodic Table
You should already be familiar with this. Each row is called a period, and each column is a group or family. Nonmetals and metals are separated by a jagged line on the right side. (Hydrogen is also a non-metal). Elements that border the line are called metalloids, and share characteristics with both metals and nonmetals.

Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers are a way of keeping track of electrons and making sure that components of a compound match by the correct ratios.
 * Pure elements have an oxidation number of zero.
 * Ions, monoatomic or polyatomic have oxidation numbers equal to their charge.
 * The sum of the oxidation numbers in covalent and ionic compounds must equal zero.
 * Bonded Group 1 metals are +1, Group 2 are +2, and halogens are -1, unless bonded with oxygen.
 * Bonded oxygen is -2 unless it is in a hydroxide (OH), where it is -1, or with fluorine, where it is positive.
 * Bonded hydrogen is -1 when bonded with a metal and +1 when bonded with a nonmetal

Binary Compounds
(First element's name) (Second element's name + ide) e.g. Sodium Chloride.

Binary Acids
Hydro(nonmetal+ic) acid. E.g. Hydrobromic acid (HBr)

Ternary Compounds
(First element's name) (polyatomic ion's name) e.g. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH). Note that there is an exception - the ammonium ion (NH4+) can replace the first element.

Ternary Acids
In the following order: (hydrogen)(a nonmetal)(oxygen)

If the ion ends in -ate, the acid will be named (nonmetal)ic acid. Example: H2SO4 contains a sulfate ion. It is called sulfuric acid.

If the ion ends in -ite, the acid is named (nonmetal)ous acid

Stock System
Some elements, especially transition metals, can have many oxidation numbers. As a result, the positive oxidation number has to be written in, using Roman numerals. For example, CuO is Copper (II) oxide and Cu2O is Copper (I) oxide.

title: AP Chemistry/The Basics


text:
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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Whiteknight/remotetalk.js


text:
Talk:Signals and Systems/Noise

Sorry, not really sure how to start one of these discussion pages, but white noise is not the same as Gaussian noise (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise)

title: Talk:Signals and Systems/Noise


text:
Cookbook:Split Peas (Cooked)

| Vegetarian Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 2 cups dry split peas, picked over
 * 5–6 cups water

Procedure

 * 1) Rinse the split peas well, and discard the water (potted plants love it!)
 * 2) Simmer the split peas in salted water for ¾–1 hour.
 * 3) Serve.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If you have hard water in your area, adding ⅛ teaspoon baking soda will reduce the cooking time.
 * Bacon, ham, kielbasa, salt pork, or smoked sausage may be added during cooking for added flavor.

title: Cookbook:Split Peas (Cooked)


text:
User:Blueapples

A BlitzMax coder.

title: User:Blueapples


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Three - The Genitive Case

The Genitive Case
There are a variety of uses for the genitive case. One frequent use is to indicate posession. The case marker for the genitive is .ak. As is typical in Sumerian, this particle is subject to the loss of the final -k unless succeeded by another particle. For instance, the Sumerian sentence lugal Unug.a(k) = the king of Uruk, will typically be written without the final -k, but when the phrase is followed by, say, the ergative case marker (which is .e), we get lugal Unug.ak.e.

This is very typical in Sumerian. Whenever a word ends in a consonant from a case marker (or other grammatical suffix), that consonant is often dropped. When we add another suffix, though, we restore that consonant before adding our new suffix.

The genitive marker may be repeated if the semantics require. The phrase the house of the king of Uruk will be written e lugal Unug.ak.a(k), where we interpret the logical chunking to be [e [lugal Unug].ak].a(k).

[Thomsen §161, Edzard §5.4.2.3]

Vocabulary
igi = eye amar = calf Urim = a city in ancient Sumer

Translate
igi.ene nin.ak lugal Urim.ak amar ses.zu.ak

Generate
the brother of the king the sister of my mother

Answers


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Three - The Dative Case

The Dative Case
Whenever a sentence expresses something being done for someone, the beneficiary is put in the dative case, by suffixing the dative case particle .ir. Consider:

(1) Nanna.(i)r Šulgi.(e) e.Ø mu.na.(n).du = For Nanna, Shulgi built the temple

We see that the temple was built for Nanna, and hence his name is put in the dative case. As is standard, the initial /i/ sound is often lost when it occurs right after another vowel. (Nanna, incidentally, was the name for the moon god, also called Zuen.)

Also, somewhat mysteriously, the /r/ sound was often not written either! That means we're basically seeing Nanna but reading Nanna.(ir). However, it is often quite easy to tell when this is happening, and the meaning is usually clear whether or not the particle is actually written.

[Thomsen §175, Edzard §5.4.2.5]


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Three - The Ergative Case

The Ergative Case
Sumerian, as mentioned before, is a split-ergative language. Ergativity is simply one way in which languages mark certain phrases in a sentence as the subject or object, for instance. In ergative constructions, we usually mark the "agent", or whoever is doing the action, differently than the "patient", namely whoever the action is being done to. An example might be the sentence Achilles eluded Paris. Here, it is Achilles who is doing the eluding, and is the Agent, and Paris is the Patient -- the one who is being eluded.

Now, not all sentences have a patient. Intransitive sentences (as opposed to the transitive example above) are such constructions, and an example might be Socrates slept. Here, we only have a Subject, namely Socrates.

The distinguishing feature of ergative languages is that the Patient and Subject are always in the same case (the absolutive) while the Agent gets its own case (the ergative). In Sumerian, the ergative case is denoted by the suffix .e. In (1) above, notice that Šulgi.(e) is the Agent of the action (he is building the temple), so we place the ergative suffix after his name. (Again, we see the typical Sumerian habit of dropping a suffixed vowel if it comes right after another vowel.)

The important thing to remember is that in ergative constructions, we mark the Agent of the action by the .e suffix.

[Thomsen §173, Edzard §5.4.2.2]


text:
Sumerian/Grammar/Lesson Three - The Absolutive Case

The Absolutive Case
In light of the discussion above about ergativity, we just need to note that the Patient and Subject of ergative constructions are marked by a suffixed .Ø. This is the "null" suffix. It means that there is no vocalized marker of the absolutive case. While it might seem silly to attach a "nothing" to words, it is really just an analytical tool so we can clearly delineate which participants in a sentence are performing which tasks.

In (1) above, note that the temple (e) is the thing being built. Hence, it is the Patient of the ergative sentence. So we mark it with the null prefix, and we have e.Ø, signifying that e is in the absolutive case.

[Thomsen §169, Edzard §5.4.2.1]


text:
User talk:84.250.110.93

Please put all mail to wikipedia User:Peace keeper II

title: User talk:84.250.110.93


text:
Embedded Systems/Resources

Wikimedia Resources

 * Robotics
 * Communication Systems
 * Digital Signal Processing
 * List of emulators
 * Embedded System Engineering
 * Serial Programming Book
 * Programmable Logic
 * Parallel Computing and Computer Clusters
 * Electric Circuits
 * Analog and Digital Conversion
 * Embedded Control Systems Design
 * Digital Circuits
 * Programmable Logic
 * VHDL for FPGA Design

Related Programming Resources

 * Ada Programming
 * Assembly Language
 * C Programming
 * C++ Programming
 * Forth
 * Software Engineers Handbook
 * https://docs.rust-embedded.org/book/

Web Resources

 * "AN887: Microcontrollers made easy" 2002 a gentle introduction to microcontrollers in general and some of the things they do, with lots of pictures.
 * Knowledge and concepts behind VLSI chip design
 * Embedded System description in simple words
 * Microcontrollers Forum
 * http://www.EmbeddedRelated.com/
 * Embedded White Papers, Downloads, Companies, News, Articles
 * Microcontroller based free projects.
 * Embedded Systems Design Magazine has articles such as "The basics of programming embedded processors: Part 1" by Wayne Wolf
 * Embedded Systems Resources
 * Electronics Components Tutorials for Robotics
 * Dedicated Systems Magazine
 * RTC Magazine
 * COTS Journal
 * Portable Design Magazine
 * PKG Magazine
 * www.embeddedcommunity.com
 * "Tools for Embedded Developers" recommended by the Ganssle Group
 * Embedded System News
 * Embedded Systems Weekly
 * "Technical Report on C++ Performance" by Dave Abrahams et al. has a lot of tips for using C++ in embedded systems.

Books
The article "Turn a kid on to embedded systems" by Jack Ganssle 2005 recommends these books:
 * "MC68HC05 Family, Understanding Small Microcontrollers" free download from Freescale "a well-written 300+ page tome that I highly recommend."
 * "Ham Radio for Dummies" by Ward Silver 2004.
 * the "ARRL Handbook" published by the American Radio Relay League.
 * the "Engineer's Mini-Notebook for the 555 Timer." 32 pages by Forrest Mims III
 * "Getting Started in Electronics" by Forrest Mims III ... "a 128-page complete intro to the field ... available from W5YI.org"
 * "The Art of Electronics" by Horowitz and Hill. "For advanced tech wannabees only."
 * "An Embedded Software Primer" by David Simon "the best introduction to writing firmware available."
 * "Embedded Systems Design Using the Rabbit 3000 Microprocessor" by Kamal Hyder and Bob Perrin.

Other books about embedded systems:

 * Barr, Michael et al. "Embedded Systems Dictionary" ISBN 1578201209
 * Predko, Myke. "Programming and Customizing PICmicro Microcontrollers", McGraw Hill, 2002. ISBN 0071361723
 * Pont, Michael J. "Embedded C" Addison Wesley, 2002. ISBN 020179523X
 * Berger, Arnold S. "Embedded Systems Design: An Introduction to Processes, Tools and Techniques" CMP Books, 2001. ISBN 1578200733

title: Embedded Systems/Resources


text:
User talk:Awalczewska

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! Mattb112885 (talk) 23:33, 6 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Awalczewska


text: Embedded Systems/Licensing

title: Embedded Systems/Licensing


text:
User:Whiteknight/Simple Stub

''The page of the  Wikibook is a stub. You can help by expanding this section.'' /Stubs

This template creates a basic stub template for a specific book. To make the template, type:

This template must be subst'd

title: User:Whiteknight/Simple Stub


text:
Disaster and WMD Defence Guide

This book is about defending from disasters (not natural unless added later) and WMDs (Weapons Of Mass Destruction).

Subjects
The events handled in this wikibook include:

Attacks

 * Nuclear [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]
 * /Biological/ [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]
 * /Air/ [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]
 * /Ground/ (Requires military expertise! Only unarmed) [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]

Leaks

 * /Gas leaks and attacks/ [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]
 * /Radiation leaks/ [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]

Preparation

 * Itemlist [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]
 * How to choose the room or place to shelter in [[Image:X mark.svg|15px| ]]

title: Disaster and WMD Defence Guide


text:
Talk:Animal Care/House Gecko

It has been suggested that this page be merged with animal care/animal care/house gecko.

I started both pages, this one and the other one on accident. The other one just needs to be deleted. Any objections?

Rafael Block

title: Talk:Animal Care/House Gecko


text: Category:Book:MediaWiki Developer's Handbook


text:
User:Whiteknight/codeviewer.js

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$(WKCreatePVForm);

title: User:Whiteknight/codeviewer.js


text:
User:Whiteknight/printversion.js

//Print Version Creator //Maintained by User:Whiteknight /*  This script operates a semi-automagical print version creator gadget. This gadget is  located at User:Whiteknight/Print Version Gadget. It uses Whiteknight's Javascript core library to help with some of the common tasks and the AJAX-related tasks. Documentation and the gadget itself is located at  User:Whiteknight/Print Version Gadget.

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pv.display = function { wk.toggleDisplay(pv.boxspan, "none"); wk.spanText(pv.statspan, "Print version text: "); if(pv.getBookName != "") { wk.appendSpanText(pv.statspan, "Copy the text below into " +     "" + pv.bookName + "/Print Version " +      " Warning : " +       "this text may need to be edited manually to remove unwanted " +       "templates, categories, links or odd formatting that the tool " +      "cannot account for. "); } wk.spanText(pv.textspan, "" + pv.htmltext + " "); }

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title: User:Whiteknight/printversion.js


text:
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title: User:Whiteknight/pagetester.js


text:
This Quantum World/Implications and applications

< PREVIOUS

=The Schrödinger equation: implications and applications= In this chapter we take a look at some of the implications of the Schrödinger equation

i\hbar\,\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial t} = \frac{1}{2m} \left(\frac\hbar i \frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}} - \mathbf{A}\right)^2\psi + V\psi. $$

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This Quantum World/Implications and applications/How fuzzy positions get fuzzier

< PREVIOUS

How fuzzy positions get fuzzier
We will calculate the rate at which the fuzziness of a position probability distribution increases, in consequence of the fuzziness of the corresponding momentum, when there is no counterbalancing attraction (like that between the nucleus and the electron in atomic hydrogen).

Because it is easy to handle, we choose a Gaussian function

\psi(0,x)=Ne^{-x^2/2\sigma^2}, $$ which has a bell-shaped graph. It defines a position probability distribution

$$ If we normalize this distribution so that $$\int dx\,|\psi(0,x)|^2=1,$$ then $$N^2=1/\sigma\sqrt{\pi},$$ and
 * \psi(0,x)|^2=N^2 e^{-x^2/\sigma^2}.

$$ We also have that
 * \psi(0,x)|^2=e^{-x^2/\sigma^2}/\sigma\sqrt{\pi}.
 * $$\Delta x(0)=\sigma/\sqrt{2},$$
 * the Fourier transform of $$\psi(0,x)$$ is $$\overline{\psi}(0,k)=\sqrt{\sigma/\sqrt{\pi}} e^{-\sigma^2 k^2/2},$$
 * this defines the momentum probability distribution $$|\overline{\psi}(0,k)|^2=\sigma e^{-\sigma^2 k^2}/\sqrt{\pi},$$
 * and $$\Delta k(0)=1/\sigma\sqrt{2}.$$

The fuzziness of the position and of the momentum of a particle associated with $$\psi(0,x)$$ is therefore the minimum allowed by the "uncertainty" relation: $$\Delta x(0)\,\Delta k(0)=1/2.$$

Now recall that

\overline{\psi}(t,k)=\phi(0,k) e^{-i\omega t}, $$ where $$\omega=\hbar k^2/2m.$$ This has the Fourier transform

\psi(t,x)=\sqrt{\sigma\over\sqrt{\pi}}{1\over\sqrt{\sigma^2+i\,(\hbar/m)\,t}}\, e^{-x^2/2[\sigma^2+i\,(\hbar/m)\,t]}, $$ and this defines the position probability distribution

$$ Comparison with $$|\psi(0,x)|^2$$ reveals that $$\sigma(t)=\sqrt{\sigma^2+(\hbar^2/m^2\sigma^2)\,t^2}.$$ Therefore,
 * \psi(t,x)|^2={1\over\sqrt{\pi}\sqrt{\sigma^2+(\hbar^2/m^2\sigma^2)\,t^2}}\, e^{-x^2/[\sigma^2+(\hbar^2/m^2\sigma^2)\,t^2]}.

\Delta x(t)={\sigma(t)\over\sqrt{2}}= {\sqrt{{\sigma^2\over2}+{\hbar^2t^2\over 2m^2\sigma^2}}}= {\sqrt{[\Delta x(0)]^2+{\hbar^2t^2\over 4m^2[\Delta x(0)]^2}}}. $$ The graphs below illustrate how rapidly the fuzziness of a particle the mass of an electron grows, when compared to an object the mass of a $$C_{60}$$ molecule or a peanut. Here we see one reason, though by no means the only one, why for all intents and purposes "once sharp, always sharp" is true of the positions of macroscopic objects.

Above: an electron with $$\Delta x(0)=1$$ nanometer. In a second, $$\Delta x(t)$$ grows to nearly 60 km.

Below: an electron with $$\Delta x(0)=1$$ centimeter. $$\Delta x(t)$$ grows only 16% in a second.

Next, a $$C_{60}$$ molecule with $$\Delta x(0)=1$$ nanometer. In a second, $$\Delta x(t)$$ grows to 4.4 centimeters.

Finally, a peanut (2.8 g) with $$\Delta x(0)=1$$ nanometer. $$\Delta x(t)$$ takes the present age of the universe to grow to 7.5 micrometers.

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This Quantum World/Implications and applications/Time independent Schrödinger equation

< PREVIOUS

Time-independent Schrödinger equation
If the potential V does not depend on time, then the Schrödinger equation has solutions that are products of a time-independent function $$\psi(\mathbf{r})$$ and a time-dependent phase factor $$e^{-(i/\hbar)\,E\,t}$$:

\psi(t,\mathbf{r})=\psi(\mathbf{r})\,e^{-(i/\hbar)\,E\,t}. $$ Because the probability density $$|\psi(t,\mathbf{r})|^2$$ is independent of time, these solutions are called stationary.

Plug $$\psi(\mathbf{r})\,e^{-(i/\hbar)\,E\,t}$$ into

i\hbar\frac{\partial\psi}{\partial t} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\cdot\frac{\partial}{\partial\mathbf{r}}\psi + V\psi $$ to find that $$\psi(\mathbf{r})$$ satisfies the time-independent Schrödinger equation

E\psi(\mathbf{r})=-{\hbar^2\over2m}\left(\frac{\partial^2}{\partial x^2}+ \frac{\partial^2}{\partial y^2}+\frac{\partial^2}{\partial z^2}\right)\psi(\mathbf{r})+V(\mathbf{r})\,\psi(\mathbf{r}). $$

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Talk:Trigonometry/Solving Triangles Given ASA

Interwiki
vlos:Hình học 10/Chương II/§3. Các hệ thức lượng trong tam giác và giải tam giác --Nguyenthephuc 07:44, 7 June 2007 (UTC)


text:
User talk:89.207.208.5

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 08:12, 7 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:89.207.208.5


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Fundamentals of Science

Scenario
In quality control laboratories tests are carried out to check the quality of substances, whether they are raw materials, materials being produced/manufactured on a large scale or checks on such substances such as the quality of river water or soil or foods.

As part of your professional development as a new science technician working in the quality control laboratory of a pharmaceutical manufacturing chemical company, you have been asked to investigate:

 * some key features of the periodic table
 * atomic structure and chemical bonding
 * the preparation of standard solutions
 * simple acid-base titrations
 * how the titrations would be carried out differently in a modern quality control laboratory.

Task 1 P1
Many of the elements (in compounds and their solutions) involved in carrying out the preparation of standard solutions and titrations are in different groups and periods of the periodic table.

a)	Using the first 18 elements in the periodic table, complete the PERIODIC BASICS ACTIVITY & submit as evidence

b)	Choose 1 of the first 18 elements, and complete the ADOPT AN ELEMENT activity & submit as evidence

c)	Complete the CANDY CANE activity and submit as evidence

d)     Using the laboratory procedure and risk analysis provided by your tutor, safely prepare a standard solution of sodium hydroxide at 0.10M.

Also using the laboratory procedure and risk analysis provided by your tutor, carry out two simple titrations using the sodium hydroxide solution of known molarity against:
 * an unknown solution of a strong acid
 * an unknown solution of a weak acid.

Repeat the titration three times to ensure that you have consistent results. Calculate the molarity of the unknown solutions using the given calculation method to achieve accurate results.

Task 2 M1
Using the results obtained from your practical experiments, draw conclusions about the accuracy of your results in terms of the:
 * consistency of the volume of unknown solution titrated.
 * the accuracy of the end point.
 * the indicator used.
 * your method of calculation.

Task 3 D1
a).	Explain how standard solutions and titrations are prepared and used in industry.

b)	Although the fundamental concepts underlying the preparations of standard solutions and the carrying out of titrations are the same in modern industrial laboratories, the methods by which they are carried out can be different and automated. Describe how preparations of standard solutions and titrations are carried out in modern industrial laboratories.

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

Textbooks
Adams S and Allday J — Advanced Physics (Oxford University Press, 2000) ISBN 0199146802

Ciccotti F and Kelly D — Physics AS (Collins Educational, 2000) ISBN 0003277550

Fullick A — Heinemann Advanced Science: Biology (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570951

Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X

Fullick P — Heinemann Advanced Science: Physics (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570978

ILPAC — Advanced Practical Chemistry, 2nd Edition (Independent Learning Project for Advanced Chemistry) (Hodder Murray, 1997) ISBN 0719575079

Websites
BBC learning.

The ICI Company.

National Learning Network.

The Royal Society of Chemistry.


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Working in the Science Industry

Assignment Booklet

 * Issued	10 Sept
 * Final Deadline	21 Jan

Context
We continue to encounter many scientific challenges and at the centre of them all is the understanding and skill of the laboratory science technicians who work in a variety of places and scientific disciplines. The most important driving force in their success or failure will be how their laboratory is organised.

Laboratory technicians need to have a good understanding of how each of the specialist laboratories has individual requirements and also have generic procedures and practices. An understanding of safety regulations and the application of laboratory management information systems are essential. These combine to give an appreciation of how to run an efficient, effective and safe laboratory. This unit is crucial in underpinning the training of a science laboratory technician.

The unit starts by exploring the essential procedures and practices found in all laboratories. This is supported by a look at specialist laboratories. They are examined on their different individual requirements in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and safety. This unit gives learners an appreciation of how scientific data and records are kept in a modern laboratory information system. Finally, the unit provides an essential insight into how laboratories are organised today in the light of up-to-date safe working practices and safety regulations.

Learning Outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:

 * 1) Know how procedures are followed and information passed on in the laboratory
 * 2) Understand the design of a workplace with respect to its efficiency, effectiveness, safety and security
 * 3) Understand laboratory management information systems and a range of scientific computer applications
 * 4) Be able to demonstrate and understand safe working practices in the laboratory.

Assignment 1 (P1/M1/D1)
1a) Conduct a series of interviews with a Science Technician from each department, investigating procedures & practices commonly undertaken by them in a laboratory.

For each procedure/practice give a brief description & identify how they are communicated within the team

1b) Produce a spider diagram that highlights the main types of Science Technicians working within industry, and illustrates some of their main responsibilities.

(P1)

1c) Submit evidence of documented procedures that you have used in the laboratory. This must include;
 * Method for wiring a plug (photograph)
 * Method for servicing a Bunsen burner (photograph)
 * Method for flaming glass (photograph)
 * Material disposal sheet
 * A simple Titration

(M1) Material Disposal Sheet (Task 1c – M1)

1c)

EXPLAIN and ANALYSE why laboratory procedures and practices must be communicated in a laboratory.

You will need to make a judgement about the importance of communicating laboratory procedures to other laboratory personnel, giving reasons and examples to support your evaluation.

(D1)

INTERIM DEADLINE

Assignment 2 (P2/M2/D2)
Scenario

Laboratories obviously have special design requirements, and different types of laboratory have further specialist feature In this assignment you will produce a design for a laboratory for a company which is requesting bids for a new facility. You will have to describe why the design is fit for purpose..

Task 2a
Design features.

(This task meets criterion P2)

Identify the key features necessary in a laboratory (services, furniture, access, safety equipment, fume cupboard, storage, workspace, seating)

Laboratories specialise in many different areas: Examples
 * microbiology
 * chemistry
 * biochemistry
 * pathology
 * haematology
 * physics
 * analysis
 * material science
 * forensic science
 * research
 * viscousity of car oil investigation

Anchem has different laboratories for microbiology, chemistry, asbestos, etc.

Morriston Hospital has laboratories for biochemistry, pathology and haematology.

How might the design aspects vary from one type of laboratory to another?

Research what types of equipment and design are used in various laboratory settings.

Task 2b
Your design.

(This task meets criterion M2)

Design a science laboratory for an independent science company. Include all the features you identified in Task 2a, or if anything is not relevant, explain why.

Draw a diagram of the laboratory layout on A3 paper, identifying the key features in the design of this specialist laboratory. Alternatively use the LDTL software you can download here.

On your diagram showing the design, add annotations to show its individual key features.

Remember to include the following universal features;
 * services,
 * furniture,
 * access,
 * safety equipment,
 * storage,
 * workspace
 * seating

Task 2c
Explaining your design.

(This task meets criterion D2)

To accompany your design from Task 2b, describe how the design is fit for purpose.

Discuss:

Safety requirements:
 * materials;
 * radioactive substances;
 * specialist equipment;
 * health and safety requirements;
 * waste disposal;
 * toxic and flammable substances;
 * storage;
 * specific safety equipment and clothing;

Security

Efficiency & effectiveness

Explain why a good laboratory design is important for efficiency, effectiveness and safety of those using the lab space.

INTERIM DEADLINE

Assignment 3 (P3/M3/D3)
Prepare a table that;

 * Identifies the scientific data that may be stored and recorded in a laboratory (P3)
 * Describes the procedure for storing workplace data and necessary records in a laboratory management information system (M3)

Consider;
 * identify the scientific data and records necessary for storage in an lab.
 * describe the framework for security and confidentiality in a lab.
 * Explain the advantages gained by keeping data and records on a laboratory management information system. (D3)

Assignment 4 (P4/M4/D4)
As a technician you have been asked to demonstrate safe working practices in a laboratory and describe their regulation. Complete the tasks below;

4a) Produce a risk assessment for flaming glass, include all associated risks, minimisation of risk & the action to be taken when incidents occur.

4b) Produce an A3 size poster, or a leaflet that describes the main legislation involved in safe working practices in a lab. Include;

 * Health & Safety at Work Act (1974) – risk assessments, safety policy
 * COSSH regulations (1994) – Toxic/flammable/microbiological
 * RIDDOR (1995)

4c) You will usually find a set of ‘Lab Rules’ in a science lab. They are there for your safety! The drawing on this web site shows a lab where there are no safety rules.

 * 1) Write down a list of all the things going wrong in this lab.
 * 2) For each of your answers, write a safety rule.
 * 3) Design a poster for your lab, showing one safety rule and the reason for having it

(P4).

4d) Submit a discussion essay that explains HOW & WHY safe working practices in a laboratory are regulated.

Include;
 * CLEAPSS hazcards
 * Manufacturer’s data sheets
 * MSDS (material safety data sheet)
 * Good laboratory practice e.g. quality standards, UKAS BS 17025, BS EN ISO 9001
 * Risk Assessments
 * COSHH regulations (register)
 * HSE inspectors
 * UKAS assessments
 * Other relevant regulation/legislation

If you explain how – merit, if you go on to explain why – distinction

To achieve these criteria, attention should be paid to applying the most up to- date regulations in all working practices in today’s scientific environments

write an evaluation to why you think lims is good

(M4/D4)

INTERIM DEADLINE

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources except (*) which have been added later.

Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science Education, 2003) ISBN 0863572839

Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000) ISBN 0854049193

Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002) ISBN 0340847123

Websites
The Association for Science Education.

The Institute of Biology.

Office of Health and Safety (American website: has a set of scenarios that could provoke discussion).

Bio Rad science education.

GlaxoSmithKline virtual tour of genetics laboratories.

Howard Hughes Medical Institute virtual laboratory tours.

CLEAPSS.

The Institute of Physics.

(go to: Publications; Laboratory Handbook; Full copy of the Handbook) Institute of Science Technology, Technician’s Handbook by Judson PF.

Society of Chemical Industry.

The Royal Society of Chemistry.

The Science Consortium.

Science Learning Centre, London.

Science Enhancement Programme.

Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC).

*What-not-to-do laboratory cartoon

*Download free LDTL laboratory design software from ASE


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Scientific Investigation

Content
On completion of this unit a learner should:
 * 1. Be able to plan an investigation relevant to the area of study
 * 2. Be able to undertake the planned investigation, using appropriate scientific principles
 * 3. Be able to collect, collate and analyse the results from the investigation
 * 4. Be able to draw conclusions from the investigation.

Assignment 1 - Planning
Scenario

Catalase is an enzyme which catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is present in most living organisms. Different organisms have different versions of the enzyme. We can use a suspension of yeast cells as ‘the enzyme’ although obviously this is not very pure. Alternatively we can use homogenised liver, parsley, etc.

As a class, we will look at various aspects of this enzyme. We will compile a book which gives a comprehensive description of catalase. You will provide one chapter to the book.

Note: Approaching the assignments in this way covers multiple Key Skills. In particular, the assignments are designed to cover the outer key skills (Working With Others, Problem Solving and Improving Own Learning and Performance) at level 2 - hence the frequent instructions to work as a team and the inclusion of a conference (which students are expected to organise for themselves). If key skills are not a priority, then these aspects can be tackled in a less involved manner.

Aspects we could include:
 * Methods of following reaction – volume of oxygen, loss of mass, etc.
 * Comparison of enzyme levels from the same sample over time: Use as assay for time of death
 * Comparison of enzyme levels and properties from different species (e.g. yeast, liver, parsley)
 * Comparison of enzyme levels from the same species at different stages in its life cycle (e.g. green, yellow, red peppers)
 * Comparison of enzyme levels from different parts of the same organism
 * Extraction of the enzyme from homogenised biological material
 * Effect of temperature
 * Effect of pH
 * Effect of inhibitors
 * Effect of peroxide concentration

Task 1– Choosing a topic and researching it.
Decide what aspect of the enzyme you want to work on. Share this information with the others in the class. Are there any areas the class has failed to address? Who will tackle these areas?

What is the nature of the investigation?

State your objectives and hypothesis

Describe what type of experimental research you need to do (e.g. laboratory)

There is a lot of basic research to do, which will be common to many research topics. Make a list of what research you need to do. Share this information with the rest of the class. Who else is looking for the same information? Make arrangements to share out the task of research equitably.

What deadline will you need to set for completion of sharing research? This will need to be before the deadline for this assignment!

Break down your research targets into short deadlines. How will you find this information? Will you need help using any of these resources?

Information resources:

What information sources will you need?
 * Consider textbooks, internet sources, the college’s subscription sources, BRENDA database, contact with relevant academics.

How will you extract information from them?
 * Make headings based on what you need to know, and sort the information into these categories as you do your research.

How will you record the sources?
 * Use the Harvard referencing system. Note the relevant information as you go along: Author, date, title, publication/web address

Assess if the information is reliable and applies to your investigation.
 * Wikipedia is notoriously unreliable – how would you check that its contents are correct?

Meets criterion P1

Task 2 – Evaluating the research.
Collect all the relevant research material – yours and other students’.

List the problems you need to solve to answer your research targets.

Do you now have all the information you need? How valuable is the research done so far? (Assess each piece of information)

Do you need more information? If so, how and when are you going to get it?

Meets criterion M1

Task 3 – Planning the investigation.
List the aims of your investigation – how you will know how the investigation has succeeded? What is your hypothesis?

Consider options for tackling the research. Give advantages and disadvantages. Consider what resources will be required and any costs.

Describe the details of experimental design and controls, the proposed analytical techniques to be used, your assessment of possible errors in practical work.

Justify the hypothesis, experimental procedures and recording methods chosen. Confirm your decision with the lecturer.

Produce a detailed plan for your investigation, including health and safety assessments.

Health and safety risk assessments should include descriptions of how you will eliminate/minimise any identified risks;

Meets criteria P1 and D1

Assignment 2 - The practical investigation
Scenario

Having researched and planned an investigation into one aspect of the enzyme catalase, you now have the chance to carry out the practical work. Your initial findings will be reported to the rest of the class at a science conference. Your final report will form a chapter of the class’s book about catalase.

Task 1 – The practical investigation.
Having scientifically planned your investigation, it is time to apply those principles by doing the experimental work.

You will need to show that you can:
 * Assemble the relevant equipment and materials;
 * Adhere to health and safety requirements;
 * Manipulate and observe experiments skillfully
 * Use appropriately the instruments and techniques for taking measurements;
 * Record results with accuracy, integrity, precision;
 * Maintain a working laboratory book

Your records should include:
 * health and safety issues
 * what support you rely on
 * how you cooperate with others
 * how you revise your plan as you go along

The experiments will carry on after the conference which is the main focus of assignment 3. After the conference there will be time to adapt your work based on the ideas and suggestions from the meeting.

Meets criteria P2 and P3 (‘practical’ part)

Assignment 3 - Reviewing progress
During your work on assignment 2, you will be attending a science conference to review your progress.

Scientists regularly meet to discuss their latest progress. Conferences are less formal than publishing a research paper. Papers need to be peer-reviewed before publication. Presentations at a conference are not reviewed beforehand and the audience is expected to provide constructive criticism and suggestions.

You will present your findings so far to the rest of the class. They will help you review your progress and may use some of your ideas in their own research.

There are two forms of presentation at a conference:

Short lectures

The progress of the research is briefly described and the audience is invited to comment.

Posters

Information about the research is assembled to make a display. Other researchers can read the work at their leisure and question the researchers about their work.

This assignment is based largely on the information exchanged at the conference.

Task 1 – The conference.
Prepare a poster and/or presentation about your work so far.

Describe how you ensure accuracy and precision in your work.

Evaluate how effective these measures have been in making your work accurate and precise.

Meets criteria M2 and D2 (‘evaluation’ part)

Task 2 – Review.
Write a summary of what you have learned from the conference:

 * 1) What have you learned about your own work? Could you improve the techniques or are you justified in repeating the same methods?
 * 2) How is the rest of the class progressing? If anyone is doing better than you in any respect – how can you learn from their methods? If anyone is failing to meet their targets is there any way you can help them (without jeopardising your own work)?
 * 3) Discuss how the collaboration is working and what problems have occurred. Describe how the work has met or will meet its targets. Include your contributions. Suggest and agree ways to improve.

Meets criterion M3

Task 3 – The practical investigation.
Discuss possible ways to improve the accuracy and precision of your methods.

Analyse how effective each improvement would be.

Justify whether you adopt or reject each improvement.

Meets criterion D2 (‘improvements’ part)

Assignment 4 - Data analysis
Scenario

As you collect more and more raw data, it becomes important to analyse the results. You might find that one measurement is obviously wrong, and needs to be repeated. You can check your results with those of the rest of the class, and with the studies you researched in Assignment 1, but you will need to convert your results into the same format as the other values.

Task 1 – Data analysis.
This work is best done as we go along, but towards the end of the investigation you need to make sure that you can make sense of all the data collected.

Collect your data into tables and graphs. Take care to show:
 * organisation of data e.g. class intervals, tallying;
 * correct units of experimental quantities used;
 * fitness for purpose of methods used;
 * repeatability;
 * sources and magnitudes of errors in reading taken
 * assessment of experimental accuracy and precision;

What do your data show you? You need to process and analyse the raw data e.g. mean, standard deviation, student’s t-test. Particularly useful is establishing that two results are significantly different. Make sure your calculations are accurate.

It will be useful to compare your results with any values you can find in published studies. Assess the information sources you use:
 * is the source relevant?
 * if so, does it support or contradict your results?

Meets criteria P3 (‘analysis’ part) and D3

Assignment 5 - Writing your report
Scenario

It is time to start writing your chapter of the class’s book on catalase.

There is a lot you can write already – based on your initial literature research.

As you collect and analyse more data, your conclusions and contribution will become more and more substantial.

Having done all the hard work, give your efforts the report they deserve!

Task 1– Writing your final report.
Write your scientific report of the investigation:
 * Use correct scientific protocol i.e. structure, format;
 * Use correct scientific language and terminology i.e. past passive tense;
 * Include a section for relevant references and bibliography;
 * Present your data in an appropriate format, to an appropriate degree of precision, and using correct units.

Meets criterion P4

Task 2 – Conclusions.
Read over your conclusions again.
 * How are they justified?
 * What experimental data supports your conclusions? Do any of your experiments contradict your conclusions; and if so, why have you ignored these results?
 * How do your conclusions relate to the reports you researched in Assignment 1?

Meets criterion M4

Task 3 – Final evaluation.
In conclusion, your report should include:
 * An evaluation of the results.
 * A discussion of sources of error and how to minimize them.
 * Evaluation of your conclusions – how certain are they?
 * Comparison of your experimental methods and literature investigations.
 * Consideration of your hypothesis – did it hold up?

Meets criterion D4

Resources
Edexcel recommend the following resources apart from * which have been added to edexcel's list.

Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863

Dean J R et al. — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X

Dean J R et al. — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2005) ISBN 0131144006

Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press, 2003) ISBN 0521815274

Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000) ISBN 0854049193

Jones A et al. — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002) ISBN 013045141X

Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169

Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002) ISBN 0340847123

Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736

Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X

Reed R et al. — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003) ISBN 0130451428

Journals
Nature

New Scientist

Websites
Ideas for practical investigations.

*BRENDA enzyme database entry for catalase


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Scientific Practical Techniques

Content
On completion of this unit a learner should:
 * 1. Be able to use analytical techniques
 * 2. Be able to use scientific techniques to separate and assess purity of substances
 * 3. Be able to use instruments/sensors for scientific investigations.

=Chromatography=

=Colorimetry= Colorimetry is "the science and technology used to quantify and describe physically the human color perception." It is similar to spectrophotometry, but is distinguished by its interest in reducing spectra to the physical correlates of color perception, most often the CIE 1931 XYZ color space tristimulus values and related quantities.

=Titration=

In medicine, titration is the process of gradually adjusting the dose of a medication until the desired effect is achieved.

Titration is a common laboratory method of quantitative/chemical analysis which can be used to determine the concentration of a known reactant. Because volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis.

A reagent, called the titrant, of known concentration (a standard solution) and volume is used to react with a solution of the analyte, whose concentration is not known in advance. Using a calibrated burette to add the titrant, it is possible to determine the exact volume that has been consumed when the endpoint is reached. The endpoint is the point at which the titration is complete, often determined by an indicator (see below). In the classic strong acid-strong base titration the endpoint of a titration is when the pH of the reactant is just about equal to 7, and often when the solution permanently changes colour due to an indicator. There are however many different types of titrations (see below).

Many methods can be used to indicate the endpoint of a reaction; titrations often use visual indicators (the reactant mixture changes colour). In simple acid-base titrations a pH indicator may be used, such as phenolphthalein, which becomes pink when a certain pH (about 8.2) is reached or exceeded. Another example is methyl orange, which is red in acids and yellow in alkali solutions.

Not every titration requires an indicator. In some cases, either the reactants or the products are strongly coloured and can serve as the "indicator". For example, an oxidation-reduction titration using potassium permanganate (pink/purple) as the titrant does not require an indicator. When the titrant is reduced, it turns colourless. After the equivalence point, there is excess titrant present. The equivalence point is identified from the first faint pink colour that persists in the solution being titrated.

Due to the logarithmic nature of the pH curve, the transitions are generally extremely sharp, and thus a single drop of titrant just before the endpoint can change the pH significantly — leading to an immediate colour change. That said, there is a slight difference between the change in indicator colour and the actual equivalence point of the titration. This error is referred to as an indicator error, and it is indeterminate.

Preparing a sample for titration
In a titration, both titrant and analyte are required to be aqueous, or in a solution form. If the sample is not a liquid or solution, the samples must be dissolved. If the analyte is very concentrated in the sample, it might be useful to dilute the sample.

Although the vast majority of titrations are carried out in aqueous solution, other solvents such as glacial ethanoic acid or ethanol (in petrochemistry) are used for special purposes.

A measured mass of the sample can be placed in a flask and then be dissolved or diluted. The mathematical result of the titration can be calculated directly. Sometimes the sample is dissolved or diluted beforehand and a measured volume of the solution is used for titration. In this case the dissolving or diluting must be done accurately because the mathematical result of the titration must be multiplied with this factor.

Some non-acid-base titrations require buffering to maintain a certain pH for the reaction. Therefore, buffer solutions are added to the reactant solution in the flask.

Some titrations require "masking" of a certain ion. This can be necessary when two reactants in the sample would react with the titrant and only one of them must be analysed, or when the reaction would be disturbed or inhibited by this ion. In this case another solution is added to the sample which "masks" the unwanted ion (for instance by a weak binding with it or even forming a solid insoluble substance with it).

Some reactions may require heating the solution with the sample and titration while the solution is still hot (to increase the reaction rate).

Procedure
A typical titration begins with a conical flask containing a precisely known volume of the reactant and a small amount of indicator, placed underneath a burette containing the reagent. By controlling the amount of reagent that is added to the reactant, it is possible to detect the point at which the indicator changes colour. As long as the indicator has been chosen correctly, this should also be the point where the reactant and reagent neutralise each other, and by reading the scale on the burette the volume of reagent can be measured.

As the concentration of the reagent is known, the number of moles of reagent can be calculated (since $$concentration = moles / volume$$). Then, from the chemical equation involving the two substances, the number of moles present in the reactant can be found. Finally, by dividing the number of moles of reactant by its volume, the concentration is calculated.

Types of titrations
Titrations can be classified by the type of reaction. Different types of titration reaction include:
 * Acid-base titration is based on the neutralisation reaction between the analyte and an acidic or basic titrant. These most commonly use a pH indicator, a pH meter, or a conductance meter to determine the endpoint.
 * A Redox titration is based on an oxidation-reduction reaction between the analyte and titrant. These most commonly use a potentiometer or a redox indicator to determine the endpoint. Frequently either the reactants or the titrant have a colour intense enough that an additional indicator is not needed.
 * A Complexometric titration is based on the formation of a complex between the analyte and the titrant. The chelating agent EDTA is very commonly used to titrate metal ions in solution. These titrations generally require specialised indicators that form weaker complexes with the analyte. A common example is Eriochrome Black T for the titration of calcium and magnesium ions.
 * A form of titration can also be used to determine the concentration of a virus or bacterium. The original sample is diluted (in some fixed ratio, such as 1:1, 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, etc.) until the last dilution does not give a positive test for the presence of the virus. This value, the titre, may be based on TCID50, EID50, ELD50, LD50 or pfu. This procedure is more commonly known as an assay.

Measuring the endpoint of a titration
Different methods to determine the endpoint include:
 * pH indicator: This is a substance that changes colour in response to a chemical change. An acid-base indicator (e.g., phenolphthalein) changes colour depending on the pH. Redox indicators are also frequently used. A drop of indicator solution is added to the titration at the start; when the colour changes the endpoint has been reached.
 * A potentiometer can also be used. This is an instrument which measures the electrode potential of the solution. These are used for titrations based on a redox reaction; the potential of the working electrode will suddenly change as the endpoint is reached.
 * pH meter: This is a potentiometer which uses an electrode whose potential depends on the amount of H+ ion present in the solution. (This is an example of an ion selective electrode. This allows the pH of the solution to be measured throughout the titration. At the end point there will be a sudden change in the measured pH. It can be more accurate than the indicator method, and is very easily automated.
 * Conductance: The conductivity of a solution depends on the ions that are present in it. During many titrations, the conductivity changes significantly. (For instance, during an acid-base titration, the H+ and OH- ions react to form neutral H2O. This changes the conductivity of the solution.) The total conductance of the solution depends also on the other ions present in the solution (such as counter ions). Not all ions contribute equally to the conductivity; this also depends on the mobility of each ion and on the total concentration of ions (ionic strength). Thus, predicting the change in conductivity is harder than measuring it.
 * Colour change: In some reactions, the solution changes colour without any added indicator. This is often seen in redox titrations, for instance, when the different oxidation states of the product and reactant produce different colours. Such titrations are known as 'self-indicating'.
 * Precipitation: If the reaction forms a solid, then a precipitate will form during the titration. A classic example is the reaction between Ag+ and Cl- to form the very insoluble salt AgCl. Surprisingly, this usually makes it difficult to determine the endpoint precisely. As a result, precipitation titrations often have to be done as "back" titrations (see below).
 * An isothermal titration calorimeter uses the heat produced or consumed by the reaction to determine the endpoint. This is important in biochemical titrations, such as the determination of how substrates bind to enzymes.
 * Thermometric titrimetry is an extraordinarily versatile technique. This is differentiated from calorimetric titrimetry by the fact that the heat of the reaction (as indicated by temperature rise or fall) is not used to determine the amount of analyte in the sample solution. Instead, the endpoint is determined by the rate of temperature change.
 * Spectroscopy can be used to measure the absorption of light by the solution during the titration, if the spectrum of the reactant, titrant or product is known. The relative amounts of the product and reactant can be used to determine the endpoint.
 * Amperometry can be used as a detection technique (amperometric titration). The current due to the oxidation or reduction of either the reactants or products at a working electrode will depend on the concentration of that species in solution. The endpoint can then be detected as a change in the current. This method is most useful when the excess titrant can be reduced, as in the titration of halides with Ag+. (This is handy also in that it ignores precipitates.)

Other terms
The term back titration is used when a titration is done "backwards": instead of titrating the original analyte, one adds a known excess of a standard reagent to the solution, then titrates the excess. A back titration is useful if the end point of the reverse titration is easier to identify than the end point of the normal titration. They are also useful if the reaction between the analyte and the titrant is very slow.

Particular uses

 * As applied to biodiesel, titration is the act of determining the acidity of a sample of WVO by the dropwise addition of a known base to the sample while testing with pH paper for the desired neutral pH=7 reading. By knowing how much base neutralizes an amount of WVO, we discern how much base to add to the entire batch.
 * Titrations in the petrochemical or food industry to define oils, fats or biodiesel and similar substances. An example procedure for all three can be found here:.
 * Acid number: an acid-base titration with colour indicator is used to determine the free fatty acid content. See also: pH of fatty acids.
 * Iodine number: a redox titration with colour indication which indicates the amount of unsaturated fatty acids.
 * Saponification value: an acid-base back titration with colour indicator or potentiometric to get a hint about the average chain length of fatty acids in a fat.

The importance of representative sampling
“The fundamental principle behind any sampling activity is that a small amount of collected material should be representative of all the material being monitored. The number and location of samples that are needed to make up a representative sample depends on how homogeneous the material is. If it is very homogeneous, only a few samples may be required. If the material is heterogeneous, many more samples will be required.”

Monitoring can be classified into types

 * 1) Periodic measurements – measurements are made at periodic intervals; for example, once every three months. The sample is often withdrawn from the sampling site (extractive sampling). An instrumental or automated technique may be used, where the sampling and analysis of the substance is fed to an on-line analyser. Alternatively, a technique may be used where a sample is extracted on site and analysed later in a laboratory. Samples may be obtained over several hours, or may be so-called “spot” or “grab” samples collected over a period of seconds to several minutes.
 * 2) Intermittent measurements are made when convenient/possible. The timing between measurements may be semi-periodic (e.g. every day, sometime during working hours).
 * 3) Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMs) are automated measurements carried out continuously, with few (if any) gaps in the data produced. Measurement may be carried out in situ, or extractive sampling may be used with an instrument permanently located at or near the stack. CEMs are also referred to as Automated Monitoring Systems (AMS), particularly in Europe.

Should ambient air sampling be continuous or intermittent?
Consider:

 * the averaging period of the relevant quality criteria with which the data will be compared
 * whether the impact is acute or chronic
 * the detail required, e.g. short peaks averaged over three minutes, one-hour averages, daily averages, etc.

Short sampling programmes are unlikely to give data representative of long-term conditions. Meteorological conditions and source variations can have significant effects on pollutant concentrations. Where short-term peaks are of interest, these may be unusual events occurring for only a few days each year. Hence short-term monitoring campaigns are of very limited value for characterising air-pollution episodes.

Definitions of important terms
Sampling plane – the plane at 90° to the centreline of the stack, duct or channel at the sampling location.

Sampling point – the specific position on the sample plane from where the sample is extracted.

Isokinetic sampling – when the flow enters the sampling nozzle at the same velocity and direction as usual flow at the sampling point.

Representative sampling of particulates, gases and liquids
Although a flowing gas or liquid might be thought of as being more homogeneous than, for example, a stockpile of coal; such flows can become heterogeneous. This may be due to differences in chemical composition, or differences in temperature and velocity, which may lead to stratification and swirling. Where the flow is also carrying particulates or aerosols along the duct or channel, there is likely to be even less uniformity. Here, special measures must be taken to ensure samples are representative.

If the flowing sample may be heterogeneous, samples must be obtained from multiple sample points across the sampling plane to give an overall average value.

If the emission rate is to be calculated, the flowrate will need to be measured; this will require velocity measurements to be made at several points across the sampling plane.

For extractive methods involving gases or liquids carrying particulates or aerosols, the sample must be collected isokinetically.

Where to sample?
Spatial considerations encompass both the location of monitoring positions relative to study area or emission source, and individual sampling site criteria, e.g. position relative to local emission sources and any interfering effects.

Data handling and data analysis.
Is the speed of results generation important? For example, results may be required in real time for public health warnings, whereas several weeks turnaround may be adequate for supplying routine results for authorisation compliance monitoring.

How to sample?
Both the type of sampling and analytical end method need to be considered. Sampling may be unidirectional or omnidirectional; in-situ, mobile or remote sensing. Method selection involves an appraisal of cost versus performance, the latter including limits of detection, sensitivity, speed of instrument response, susceptibility to interfering species and the overall uncertainty of the measurement.

Supplementary data collection.
Other information may be relevant to the study, for example meteorological conditions, process data and traffic flows. Meteorological conditions are obviously important in assessing the impact of a single source on its surroundings since they dictate the transport and dispersion of pollutants in ambient air. Many chemical transformations between reactive species in the atmosphere are also influenced.

Soil sampling
If a property of the sample changes over time, then the analysis shall be carried out without as soon as possible.

If a sample has been stabilised, or preserved then this fact shall be recorded when the results are reported and details of the stabilising procedure or preserving agent shall be recorded.

When a sample has been dried and is subsequently analysed, sufficient information shall be provided to establish the stability of the parameter analysed. Such information shall provide justification for analysing the dried sample, rather than analysing the sample on a “wet-weight” or “as submitted” basis.

Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863

Dean J R et al. — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X

Dean J R et al. — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2005) ISBN 0131144006

Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press, 2003) ISBN 0521815274

Jones A et al. — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002) ISBN 013045141X

Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169

Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736

Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X

Reed R et al. — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003) ISBN 0130451428

Journals
Nature

New Scientist

Websites

 * *Ecological sampling methods


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Perceptions of Science

There are four main strands to this unit:

Scientific theories
How they have developed; what questions they have answered, might answer and could never answer; how new theories are developing:

 * Evolution
 * Gravity
 * Ozone depletion
 * AIDS and AIDS origin - how the disease was identified and some dissident views on its cause.
 * Plate tectonics - a good example of a paradigm shift
 * Relativity
 * Quantum mechanics
 * Big Bang
 * Genetics
 * How malaria spreads
 * Germ theory of diseases

The Scientific Method
The scientific method is the ideal way for science to proceed. The simplest theory (Occam's razor) that fits the observations is tested.

Theories may adapt to new data, or an entirely new theory may be necessary. Adopting a completely new theory is called a paradigm shift.

Falsifiability: Some philosophers and scientists, most notably Karl Popper, have asserted that no empirical hypothesis, proposition, or theory can be considered scientific if no observation could be made which might contradict it.

For example, "the Earth has been visited by little green men" is unfalsifiable, since no amount of observation could ever demonstrate its falsehood. However, the opposite statement "The Earth has not been visited by little green men" is falsifiable, by the presentation of one little green visitor.

Areas where science has the answers

 * Diagnosis of diseases; HIV, cancer, etc.
 * Materials science
 * Nuclear power
 * Diagnosis of genetic conditions; Down’s syndrome, cystic fibrosis, etc.
 * Identify CO2 levels and global temperatures

Areas where science might provide answers sometime

 * Nuclear fusion
 * A base on the moon
 * Is there life on Mars?
 * How to store nuclear waste
 * How to generate power without CO2
 * How to remove CO2 from the atmosphere
 * What causes cancer?
 * Can AIDS be cured?
 * Does the Higgs boson exist?
 * Can chemicals be made using less energy?
 * When will earthquakes occur?
 * When will a volcano erupt?
 * When will viral outbreaks occur?

Areas where science does not give answers, and never will

 * Should we provide fertility treatment to the elderly?
 * Who should be given the limited medical resources we have?
 * What should we do now we know our unborn child has Down’s syndrome?
 * Should we spend money on a moon base/particle collider/other expensive science projects?
 * Is animal testing ethical?
 * How much should we reduce GDP to reduce CO2 emissions?

Public concerns about science
Study two recent cases from the media. Are the concerns justified? Have the media made a fair contribution?

 * Concerns about MMR vaccine.
 * Do badgers cause bovine TB?
 * Should we put fluoride in water?
 * Should we test pharmaceuticals on animals?
 * Is cannabis safe?
 * Can we blame our actions on our genes?
 * Is the International Space Station worth it?
 * How much pollution should we allow?
 * What do we do about Global Warming?
 * Does God exist?
 * Does homeopathy work?
 * Do antidepressants work?
 * Should we teach evolution in schools?
 * Is bisphenol-A a problem?

These online news sites cover science stories:

 * New Scientist
 * Scientific American
 * BBC News Science and Nature
 * ABC News in Science
 * CNN News Science

Ethical and moral issues
How have scientific advances created new ethical questions? How have scientific advances affected society?

 * Roy_Meadow and his controversial theory that because cot death is not inherited, multiple cases in the same family were murder.
 * GM_food - can it increase the productivity of farmers? Can they afford it? Will it benefit or harm the environment? Are the foods safer? Better?
 * Genetic fingerprinting - good for catching rapists, but should we all be fingerprinted?
 * Contraception and abortion became much more reliable and less risky during the 20th century. Various ethical and moral objections have been raised to the use of contraception and the practice of abortion. Before the 20th century these were minor issues, because few people would take the risk.
 * Advances in surgery, particularly transplant surgery, raised important ethical questions when it first became practicable. One aspect was that the legal definition of death had to be changed to allow heart surgery. There are groups who will not accept certain types of medical procedure on ethical grounds. For example, Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions.
 * Antibiotics – who should receive them if supply is limited?
 * DNA testing – who should be tested? Who should know?
 * Genetic screening – should insurance companies know?

Applications and funding of science
How science is influenced by political groups. Who funds science? Who decides how to use scientific knowledge?
 * Global_warming_controversy. Who benefits from the acceptance of Global Warming Theory? Who would benefit if were found to be untrue?

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources except * which have been added to their list.

Textbooks
Best J — Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians and Activists (University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0520219783

Brignell J — The Epidemiologist: Have They Got Scares for You! (Brignell Associates, 2004) ISBN 0953910822

Curran J — Mass Media and Society (Hodder Arnold, 2005) ISBN 0340884991

Goliszek A — In the Name of Science: A History of Secret Programs, Medical Research and Human Experimentation (St Martin’s Press, 2003) ISBN 0312303564

Jackson A R W and Jackson J — Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2004) ISBN 0130432512

Jewkes Y — Media and Crime: A Critical Introduction (Sage Publications Ltd, 2004) ISBN 0761947655

Michaels P J — Meltdown: The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists, Politicians and the Media (Cato Institute US, 2005) ISBN 1930865791

Moreno J D — Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans (Routledge Inc, 2000) ISBN 0415928354

Mur C — Animal Experimentation (Greenhaven Press, 2004) ISBN 073772000X

O’Sullivan T et al — Studying the Media (Hodder Arnold, 2003) ISBN 0340807652

Spitz V — Doctors from Hell: The Horrific Account of Nazi Experiments on Humans (Sentient Publications, 2005) ISBN 1591810329

Websites
Office of Health and Safety (American website - has a set of scenarios that could provoke discussion).

Royal Society of Chemistry’s chemical science network.

*Sense About Science - debunking popular myths about science.

*The CSI Effect.

*Resources for discussing science


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/AoN for Science Technicians

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following presources.

Textbooks
Hogan P, Job B, Baker D and Morley D — Key Maths GCSE: Edexcel Summary and Practise Higher (Nelson Thornes, 2002) ISBN 074876772X

Metcalf P — GCSE Edexcel Maths (Revision Guide) (Collins, 2006) ISBN 0007213611

Parsons R — GCSE Modular Maths: Edexcel Higher Revision Guide (Coordination Group Publications, 2004) ISBN 1841460931

Pledger K (editor) — Edexcel GCSE Maths: Higher Student Book (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2006) ISBN 0435534092

Journals
Mathematical Association

Mathematical Gazette

Mathematics in Schools

Websites
BBC GCSE Bitesize

BBC Skillswise

Digitalbrain

University of Birmingham selection of mathematics education sites

GCSE guide

Gcsevise

Mathstutor


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Maths for Science Technicians

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

Textbooks
Attwood G et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 1 (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 043551122X

Attwood G et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 2 (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 0435511238

Clark J — Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 0582411270

Emanuel R and Wood J — AS Core Maths for Edexcel (Longman, 2004) ISBN 0582842379

MacPherson A et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 3 (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 0435511254

Pledger K — Heinemann Modular Maths for Edexcel AS and A-Level: Core Book 4 (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2004) ISBN 0435511009


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Stats for Science Technicians

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

Textbooks
Attwood G, Dyer G and Skipworth G — Revise for Statistics: No. 1 (Heinemann Modular Mathematics for Edexcel AS & A Level Statistics) (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2001) ISBN 0435511165

Attwood G, Dyer G and Skipworth G — Revise for Statistics: No. 2 (Heinemann Modular Mathematics for Edexcel AS & A Level Statistics) (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2001) ISBN 0435511173

Attwood G, Dyer G and Skipworth G — Revise for Statistics: No. 3 (Heinemann Modular Mathematics for Edexcel AS & A Level Statistics) (Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2001) ISBN 0435511181

School Mathematics Project — Statistics 1 for Edexcel (SMP AS/A2 Mathematics for Edexcel) (Cambridge University Press, 2004) ISBN 0521605350

School Mathematics Project — Statistics 2 for Edexcel (SMP AS/A2 Mathematics for Edexcel) (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521605393

Journals
Journal of Applied Statistics

Statistical Methods in Medical Research ISSN 09622802

Statistical Modelling: An International Journal ISSN 1471082X

Websites
Blackwell Statistics

Royal Statistical Society


text:
Finite Model Theory/FO EFG

Logic and Games
Connection between Games and logical Quantifiers...

Simple Games

 * 1) S chooses first all n from one/both side(s), then D chooses all
 * 2) one match as in 1. for every i = 1 ... n where the i'th choice must include the i-1'th.

Definition
Ehrenfeucht-Fraisse-Game (EFG)

Let $$\mathfrak{A}$$ and $$\mathfrak{B}$$ be finite relational structures, with the same set of relation symbols, and n be a fixed natural number.

A game is said to be an Ehrenfeucht-Fraisse-game iff it is constituted the following way
 * 2 Players: Spoiler S and Duplicator D
 * Game tree:
 * Root: a pair of empty sequences
 * Branch:
 * Move of S: S chooses exactly one element of either A or B that has not been chosen already (latter is not relevant in the first move)
 * Move of D: D chooses exactly one element of the remaining set that has not been chosen already, i.e. if S has chosen from A D has to choose from B and if S chose one from B D has to choose from A.
 * Terminator: The game is finished iff α and β are of size n.
 * Turn: Moves are carried out alternatingly, S is to move first.
 * Payoff: D wins iff the final position defines a partial isomorphism by mapping the i-th elements of α and β, for all i. Else S wins
 * Information: the players are assumed to have perfect information

title: Finite Model Theory/FO EFG


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Informatics

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

Textbooks
Gibas C and Jambeck P — Developing Bioinformatics Computer Skills (O’Reilly, 2001) ISBN 1565926641

Jagota A K — Data Analysis and Classification for Bioinformatics (Bioinformatics By the Bay, 2000) ISBN 0970029705

Radford T — ''Frontiers: Science and Technology: Bk. 3'' (Atlantic Books, 2003) ISBN 1843540177


text:
Applied Science BTEC Nationals/Using Science in the Workplace

=Resources=

Edexcel recommend the following resources.

Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science Education, 2003) ISBN 0863572839

Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002) ISBN 0340847123

Articles from newspapers, television or radio transcripts or other scientific/business journals may also be useful.

Websites
The Association for Science Education

The Institute of Biology

Glaxo Wellcome

The Institute of Physics

Society of Chemical Industry

The Royal Society of Chemistry

The Science Consortium

Science Enhancement Programme

Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC)