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OCR A-Level Physics/Glossary of Terms

Definitions of keywords and terms that you will need to know.

A

 * Absolute zero
 * Zero on the thermodynamic temperature scale, or 0 K (kelvin), where a substance has minimum internal energy, and is the coldest possible temperature. It is equal to -273.15 degrees Celsius.

 * Absorption spectrum
 * A spectrum of dark lines across the pattern of spectral colours produced when light passes through a gas and the gas absorbs certain frequencies depending on the elements in the gas.

 * Acceleration
 * The (instantaneous) rate of change of velocity in respects to time.

 * Acceleration of free fall (g)
 * The acceleration of a body falling under gravity (9.81ms-2 on earth).

 * Ammeter
 * A device used to measure the electric current in a circuit. It is connected in series with the components.

 * Amount of substance
 * A SI quantity, measured in moles (mol).

 * Ampere
 * The SI unit for electric current.

 * Amplitude
 * The maximum displacement of a wave from its rest/mean position (measured in metres).

Any odd integer of $$\pi$$ radians apart (for points in waves) The gradual loss of flux intensity through a medium.
 * Antiphase
 * Attenuation

Attenuation coefficient

Measure of how much an incident energy beam (ultrasound or x-ray) is attenuated through a medium. I = I0e-μx

Attenuation Mechanisms

- Simple scattering = low energy x-ray photon encounters an electron in an atom causing it to be scattered without a change in energy.

- Photoelectric effect = X-ray photon absorbed by an electron causing it to be emitted from the atom as a photoelectron.

- Compton scattering = X-ray is deflected from interaction of electron causing wavelength of photon to increase as well as emittance of electron from atom at high speed.

- Pair production = High energy x-ray photon interacts with nucleus of atom causing production of e- and e+.ω

Astronomical Unit (AU)

Average distance from the Earth to the Sun. ≈ 1.5 x 1011 m

Atomic mass unit, u

! atomic mass unit is equal to the mass of 1/12th the mass of one carbon-12 atom.

Archimedes' Principle

For an object submerged in a fluid, the up-thrust is equal to the weight of that the object displaces. Rate of change in distance (m) calculated over a completed journey, with respect to time. Measured in ms-1.
 * Average Speed (v)
 * Antinode
 * A point of maximum amplitude along a stationary wave caused by constructive interference.

Angular velocity, ω

Rate of change of angle, measured in rads-1

Aphelion

The furthest point in an elliptical orbit from the sun.

Activity

Rate at which nuclei decay or disintegrate. It is also the number of alpha, beta or gamma photons emitted per unit time. Measured in Becquerels. Bq

Acoustic impedance (Z) Z = ρc

Fraction of ultrasound intensity reflected at the boundary depends on the acoustic impedance (Z) of both media. Product of density (P) of substance and speed of ultrasound (c) in it.

B

 * Braking Distance
 * Distance travelled from the brakes being applied to the car stopping completely.

Baryon

Hadron composed of 3 quarks.

Brownian motion

Random motion of a larger particle in a gaseous system due to collisions with smaller particles.

Bremsstrahlung (or Braking) Radiation

Form of X-ray radiation produced when high energy electrons interact with a nucleus.

Black body radiation

At an given temperature above absolute zero, an object emits emr at different wavelengths and intensities.

Boyle's Law

A gas law stating a gas' pressure is inversely proportional to the volume, considering temperature is constant.

Boltzmann constant, k

A constant describing the ratio between the ideal gas constant and Avogadro's constant (R/Na) ~ 1.38 x 10-23 m2kgs-2K-1

Binding Energy ΔE=Δmc2

Minimum energy required to completely separate a nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons.

Binding energy per nucleon

Measure of stability. The greater the value, the more tightly bound the nucleons, and the more energy needed to break them.

C
How much positive or negative the charge carriers are per unit volume. Measured in coulombs.
 * Charge (Q)

Capacitor

An electrical component which can separate (store) charge on two metallic plates, separated by an insulator (dielectric).

Capacitance (C)

The amount of charge per volt that can be stored. Measured in Farads. Energy contained within the chemical bonds between atoms and molecules.
 * Chemical Energy (Ec)

Characteristic Radiation

Form of X-ray radiation produced when high energy electrons interact with electrons in orbitals around a nucleus, causing a transition of another electron to fill its gap. Ratio between the frictional force and normal contact force acting on an object. Total energy in a closed system of interacting objects remains constant - can be transferred into alternate forms. For a closed system of interacting objects, the total momentum in a specified direction remains constant considering no external resultant force acts on it. The concept of current as the transfer of positive charge. I.e. from ve+ to ve- in a circuit.
 * Coefficient of Friction ($$\mu$$)
 * Conservation of Energy Law
 * Conservation of Momentum Law
 * Conventional current

Contrast medium μ α Z3

Used to improve visibility of soft-tissues in x-rays. e.g. iodine and barium compounds: due to large atomic number.

Cosmological Principle

When viewed on a large scale, the universe is homogenous and isotropic, and the laws of physics are universal.
 * Coulomb's Law
 * The force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them squared

A material that allows the transfer of energy through it (e.g. electrical).
 * Conductor

Control rods

Absorb thermal neutrons to control the rate of reaction and maintain it at a steady rate.

Coolant

High specific heat capacity to take away heat energy from reactor. Moving region in which the medium is more dense or of higher pressure than the surrounding. Angle of incidence at which from that point on, no more refraction will occur - only total internal reflection. Measured in degrees. The temperature in which the electrical resistance of a material falls to zero. Rate of flow of charge. Measured in amperes, A.
 * Compression
 * Critical Angle ($$\theta$$)
 * Critical Temperature
 * Current (I)
 * Couple
 * Two equal, opposite and parallel forces which create rotational force.

Charles' Law

A gas law stating that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas, considering pressure remains constant.

Centripetal acceleration

Acceleration causing an object to move in a circular path, i.e. always acting towards the centre. Measured in ms-2

Centripetal force, Fc

The force responsible for an object moving in a circular path. Measured in Newtons.

c

Speed of light in a vacuum constant. ~ 3.00 x 108 ms-1

D

 * Displacement
 * The distance in a given direction.
 * Displacement (Oscillations)
 * Distance from equilibrium position. Measured in meters.

Property of a wave in which when it passes through a gap, it spreads out.
 * Diffraction
 * Density
 * Density is the mass of a body per unit volume

The resistive force on an object when it travels through a fluid. The average velocity of electrons travelling within a material. Measured in ms-1 The ability of a material to plastically deform under tensile forces without fracturing.
 * Drag
 * Drift velocity (v)
 * Ductility

Dopple effect

The apparent shift in frequency of a wave caused by relative motion between the source and the observer.
 * Decay Constant
 * The probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time

Decay types:

- Alpha = Heavier elements release alpha particles to reduce their proton to neutron ratio, becoming more stable.

- Beta- = Due to neutron rich isotopes by which the weak nuclear force is responsible for a neutron decaying into a proton: which releases a B- electron.

- Beta+ = Due to proton rich isotopes by which the weak nuclear force is responsible for a proton decaying into a neutron: which releases a B+ positron.

- Gamma = Due to a surplus of energy within the nucleus usually following an alpha or beta decay.

Damping

A reduction in amplitude of an oscillation as a result of energy being drained from the system to overcome friction or other resistive forces.

Driving frequency

The frequency of the forced oscillation system.

E
Energy stored within an object due to an elastic change in its shape (i.e. stretch or compression). Measured in joules. A change in objects shape in which it will return to its original shape once the force is removed. Energy of electrical charges due to their position in an electric field. Measured in joules.
 * Elastic energy (Ee)
 * Elastic deformation
 * Electrical energy
 * Electric field strength (E)
 * The force per unit charge that a positive point charge would experience at a specified point in an electrical field. Measured in Volts per metre or Newtons per Coulomb

 * Electric potential (V)
 * The energy per unit charge that a positive point charge would require to move from infinity to a specified point in an electrical field.. Measured in Volts

Amount of charge carried by a single proton or electron (1.6x10-19 C), which may be positive or negative.
 * Elementary Charge (e)
 * Energy
 * The stored ability to do work

A form of progressive wave with perpendicularly oscillating magnetic and electric fields. Energy available to be transferred from other forms (e.g. chemical) into electrical, per unit charge. The resting position for particles in a medium.
 * Electromagnetic Radiation
 * Electromotive Force (e.m.f)
 * Equilibrium position

Equipotential Field Lines

Field lines that represent lines of equal electrical potentials. Perpendicular to electric field lines.
 * Extension (x)
 * The change in length of an object when a force is applied to it

Eccentricity

How 'squashed' an ellipse is. I.e. the closer the foci are, the less eccentric an ellipse is.

Escape Velocity

The minimum velocity of an object required to escape the gravitational field of a larger body.

F

 * Faraday's Law
 * The emf induced in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate at change of magnetic flux linkage.

 * Force
 * A force causes a mass to change motion.

Force arising when two objects rub against each other.
 * Frictional Force
 * Frequency
 * The number of oscillations per second. Measured in hertz, Hz.

Free oscillation

When a pendulum is pulled to one side and allowed to oscillate freely,

Forced oscillation

Periodic driver is applied to an oscillator.

Fundamental particle

Particle with no internal structure.

Fuel rods

Bombardment with neutrons causes fission and the release of energy.

G

 * Gravitational Field Strength (g)
 * The force that a unit mass would experience at a specified point. ms-2 or Nkg-1

 * Gravitational Potential
 * The work done per unit mass to move and object from infinity to a specified point in a gravitational field. Measured in Jkg-1

 * Gravitational Potential Energy
 * the energy an object has due to its relative position in a gravitational field. Found by mass x gravity (or gravitational field strength) x height
 * or force per unit mass at a set point in a gravitational field. Measured in joules.

Gravitational Constant, G

Constant ensuring direct proportionality in newtons laws of gravitation. ~ 6.67x10-11m3kg-1s-2

Geostationary orbit

An orbit with equal period to that of the Earth (i.e. equal angular velocity). The orbit must be above the equator and rotate in the same direction as the Earth.

Geosynchronous

An orbit with equal period to that of the Earth. Doesn't have to be above the equator.

H
Ability of an object to resist surface scratching and pressure.
 * Hardness

Half life

Average time it takes for the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to half.

Hadron

Particle composed of quarks in which interacts via the strong force.
 * Heat: A form of energy transfer, also known as 'Thermal Energy'.

Hubble's Law
 * Hooke's Law: An approximation that states that the extension of a spring is in direct proportion with the load added to it as long as this load does not exceed the elastic limit.

The recessional velocity of a galaxy is almost directly proportional to the distance, d, from Earth. (V≈H0 d)

Homogenous

The universe is composed of the same thing.

Heat flux, q, (Heat flow density)

Rate at which thermal energy is transferred per unit area, per unit time.

Heat transfer coefficient, h

How well heat is conducted over a series of resistant mediums.

I
Property of matter by which it continues in its existing state, rest, or uniform motion, unless acted on by an external resultant force. A collision in which some kinetic energy is transferred to other forms (e.g. heat). Points in waves in which have no phase difference.
 * Inertia
 * Inelastic Collision
 * In-phase
 * Instantaneous acceleration
 * acceleration at a specific time; slope of tangent to velocity- time graph.

 * Instantaneous position
 * position of an object at specific time.

 * Instantaneous velocity
 * Velocity over an infinitesimal interval of time or displacement.

Describes how much energy per unit time is received per unit area from a wave. Measured in Wm-2 Resistance at the source of e.m.f (e.g. cell) due to its construction. Energy is lost as heat etc which reduces the terminal p.d. The superposition of waves when they interact, leaving a resultant amplitude. The force or energy of which a body moves with. Described as the change in momentum. Calculated by the product of force and change in time. Measured in Ns.
 * Intensity (I)
 * Internal resistance (r)
 * Interference
 * Impetus
 * Impulse ($$\Delta$$p)
 * Internal energy
 * Sum of random potential and kinetic energies of atoms within a system. Measured in joules.

Isochronous

An oscillation with a constant period.

Isotropic

The composition of the universe is equal throughout (i.e. equal density)

Isotope

Nuclei of the same element that has equal number of protons but different number of neutrons.

J

 * Joule
 * The SI unit of work done, or energy. One joule is the work done when a force of one newton moves an object one metre.

K
The sum of current entering a junction in a circuit, equals the total leaving it - conservation of charge law. The sum of e.m.f's equals the sum of p.d's across components in a closed loop of a circuit - conservation of energy law.
 * Kirchhoff's 1st Law
 * Kirchhoff's 2nd Law
 * Kinetic Energy
 * The energy an object possesses due to its motion, given by KE = 0.5 x mass x velocity²

Kepler's Laws:

1st: Planets orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one foci.

2nd: A line segment joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

3rd: The square of the orbital period, T, of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun.

K lines

Peak intensities of specific energy photons produced from characteristic radiation.

L
Form of progressive wave that oscillates parallel to the direction of energy transfer.
 * Longitudinal wave
 * Lenz's Law
 * An induced electromotive force (emf) always gives rise to a current whose magnetic field opposes the original change in magnetic flux.

Lepton

Particle not composed of quarks and considered a fundamental particle by which interacts via the weak force.

Light year (ly)

Distance travelled by light in a vacuum in a year. ≈9.46 x 1015 m

M
Maxima

Point of constructive interference due to path difference being whole integer of wavelengths (from coherent waves).

Minima

Point of destructive interference due to path difference being an odd number of half wavelengths (from coherent waves).

Malleability

Ability to plastically deform under compressive stress.

Moment (M)

Product of the force applied and perpendicular distance between force and pivot point or axis of rotation. Measured in Nm.

Momentum (p)

Vector quantity describing the 'inertia of movement'. Product of velocity and mass of an object. Measured in kgms-1

Moderator

Reduces speed of thermal neutrons by collisions with moderator atoms. e.g. water.

Magnetic Flux

Magnetic flux is the product of magnetic flux density and the projection of area onto a surface at right angles to the magnetic field. measured in Weber's (ωb)

Magnetic flux density

The force acting per unit charge per unit length on a wire placed at right angles to the magnetic field. Measured in Tesla's (T)

Magnetic flux linkage

The product of magnetic flux and number of turns in a current-carrying coil. Measured in Weber Turn's (NΦ)

Magnetic Field

A field surrounding a permanent magnet or a current carrying conductor in which magnetic objects experience a force.

Mass defect Δm

Difference between the mass of the completely separated nucleons and the mass of the nucleus.

Meson

Hadron composed of a quark and an antiquark.

N
A point of minimum amplitude of a stationary wave due to deconstructive interference. The force that arises when an object rests on another. Measured in N. States that a body will remain at rest or at constant velocity unless an external resultant force acts on it. The resultant force acting on an object is directly proportional to the rate in change of momentum with respect to time, and is in the same direction. For interacting objects, they will exert equal and opposite forces on each other. The energy stored within the nuclei of atoms. Measured in joules. The number of free charge carriers within a material per unit volume. Unit: m-3
 * Node
 * Normal contact force
 * Newtons 1st Law of motion
 * Newtons 2nd Law of motion
 * Newtons 3rd Law of motion
 * Nuclear energy (En)
 * Number density (n)
 * Newton
 * Unit in which force is measured. Symbol "N". One Newton is the force required to give a mass of 1kg an acceleration of 1ms-2

Neutrinos

Fundamental particle with 3 'flavours', almost massless with 0 net charge.

Natural frequency

The frequency of a freely oscillating system.

O
Oscillation

A regular variation in displacement of particles in a medium.

Out of Phase

Points in waves with phase difference.

Ohm's Law

Voltage is directly proportional to current as long as all other physical properties remain constant (V =IR) for an ohmic conductor.

P
Describes the difference in positions of points on a wave, or multiple waves. Measured in radians or degrees.
 * Phase difference ($$\Phi$$)

Parsec (Pc)

The distance which a radius of 1AU subtends an angle of one arcsecond. ≈ 3.1 x 1016 m

Parallax

The apparent shift in position of a nearby star against the background of distant stars. A method used to determine the distance, d, between the Earth and a nearby star. The emission of photoelectrons from a material into a vacuum due to the absorption from EM radiation. (above threshold frequency). Generation of a current/p.d. form the absorption of EM radiation. A material becomes more electrically conductive from the absorption of EM radiation.
 * Photoelectric Effect
 * Photovoltaic Effect
 * Photoconductive Effect
 * Period (T)
 * The time taken for one complete oscillation. Denoted by 'T'.  T=1/f

A collision in which no kinetic is lost (i.e. sum of kinetic energies before collision equals sum of kinetic energies after).
 * Perfectly Elastic collision

A universal constant. ≈ 8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1
 * Power
 * The rate at which work is done. Measured in Watts.

Action of restricting the oscillations of a transverse wave - only oscillate in one plane.
 * Polarization

Polar Orbit

An orbit which passes above or close to both poles on the Earth.
 * Pressure
 * The load applied to an object per unit surface area. Measured in Pa.

Principle of superposition

When two or more waves meet, the resultant displacement for a single point is equal to the sum of individual displacements for the waves at that point.

Principle of Moments

For a system in dynamic equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about any pivot point must equal the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same pivot point. An oscillation that travels through a medium or vacuum - transferring energy from one place to another. A change in an objects shape in which it will not return to normal once the force is removed. A simple circuit in which includes resistors to supply variable p.d's. Sliding dial which alters resistance and hence p.d.
 * Progressive wave
 * Plastic Deformation
 * Potential divider circuit
 * Potentiometer
 * Potential difference
 * The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to the other. The unit is volt.

Perihelion

Closest point in elliptical orbit from the sun.

Piezoelectric effect

Electric charge that accumulates in piezoelectric materials when subjected to applied mechanical stress e.g. sound waves.

Q

 * Q or q
 * Often used as the symbol for charge in equations

Quark

Considered a fundamental particle which forms hadrons, mesons etc and are bound by the strong nuclear force.

R
The force in which tries to return a system to its equilibrium position.
 * Restoring force
 * Resistivity
 * The property of a material that measures it resistance to electric current. It is defined as the resistance a wire of the material would have if it had a cross sectional area of one metre square and a length of one meter.

Describes the resistance of flow of charge carriers within a material/circuit. Measured in ohms, $$\Omega$$. The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a material. given by n = c/v. n>1. When a wave travels into a new medium at a non-zero angle of different optical density (refractive index), it changes speed and hence direction. Frequency is constant. When a wave hits another medium that is smooth enough for it to bounce off at an equal angle to the normal. Frequency, wave speed and wavelength are constant. A moving region in which the medium is less dense or of less pressure than surrounding medium. Energy associated with all EM radiation, stored in oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
 * Resistance (R)
 * Refractive Index (n)
 * Refraction
 * Reflection
 * Rare-fraction
 * Radiant energy
 * Radian
 * A radian is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle when the arc length is equal in length to the radius.

R.M.S

The root mean squared speed of gaseous atoms.

Resonance

A phenomenon which occurs when a driving frequency on an oscillator matches the natural frequency of the system. When this occurs, amplitude will increase due to energy being supplied by the driver.

Radial field pattern

Planets are modelled as a point mass with a centre of gravitation with field lines around a spherical object.

S

 * Scalar
 * A quantity with magnitude but no direction.
 * A quantity with magnitude but no direction.

 * Speed
 * A scalar quantity, speed is the rate of change of distance with respect to time. Measured in ms-1

 NB s can also mean displacement.

 * Stopping Distance
 * Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
 * thinking distance (distance travelled while reacting) = time taken to react X velocity
 * braking distance (distance travelled while braking)

Superposition

The process of waves interfering and their amplitudes being added to calculate a resultant.

Superconductor

Material in which can conduct electrical charge with zero resistance.

Stiffness

Ability of an object to resist plastic deformation when force is applied.

Stefan's Law (Stefan-Boltzmann Law)

States the total power radiated per unit surface area of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature. (L = 4π r2 σ T4 )

Stefan's constant

Fundamental constant relating to stefan's law ( ≈ 5.67 x 10 -8 Wm-2 K-4 )

Sound energy

Energy of mechanical waves due to movement of atoms.

Specific Heat Capacity
 * Specific Heat Capacity
 * The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance per unit of mass by 1 degree, without going through a change in state.

 * Specific Latent Heat
 * The amount of heat energy required to change the state of 1 kg of the mass of a substance, without a change in temperature.
 * Fusion
 * The amount of heat energy required for a phase change of 1 kg of the mass of a substance from solid to liquid or from liquid to solid, without a change in temperature.
 * Vaporization
 * The amount of heat energy required for a phase change of 1 kg of the mass of a substance from liquid to gas or from gas to liquid, without a change in temperature.

T

 * Temperature
 * A SI quantity, measured in kelvin (K)

Temperature scale

A scale with two fixed temperatures at each extreme. Other values are then allocated at equal intervals in between. The forces being applied onto a material (usually a wire) on two opposite sides in order to stretch it. Both forces' values are the same as the tensile force value.
 * Tensile force
 * Tensile stress
 * The tensile force per unit cross-sectional area. Measured in Pa.

Ration between extension and original length of an object. Ability of a material to absorb tensile forces without fracturing.
 * Tensile Strain
 * Tensile strength
 * Terminal Velocity
 * maximum velocity a body can travel. When resistive forces = driving force, acceleration = 0, so it cannot travel any faster.

 * Thermistor
 * An electrical component that changes its resistance depending on its temperature.

 * Thinking distance
 * The distance travelled from seeing the need to stop to applying the brakes.

 * Threshold frequency
 * The lowest frequency of electromagnetic radiation that will result in the emission of photoelectrons from a specified metal surface.

Emission of electrons from the absorption of heat.
 * Thermo-ionic emission

Thermal Equilibrium

When a system reaches thermal equilibrium, there is no net transfer of energy.
 * Thrust
 * A type of force due to an engine (usually forward force).

 * Time interval (t)
 * A SI quantity, measured in seconds (s).

 * Time Constant
 * Time taken for current/charge/voltage to fall to 1/e of its initial value.

 * Torque / moment
 * Moment = force x perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force
 * Torque = one of the forces x the distance between them

Occurs when angle of incidence > critical angle.
 * Total internal reflection
 * Transverse Wave
 * A progressive wave that transfers energy as a result of oscillations/vibrations that are perpendicular to direction of energy transfer.

 * Triangle of forces
 * If three forces are acting at a point that can be represented by the sides of a triangle, the forces are in equilibrium.

 * Turning forces
 * More than one forces that if unbalanced will cause a rotation.

U

 * Ultimate tensile strength
 * The maximum tensile force that can be applied to an object before it breaks.

 * Ultimate tensile stress
 * The maximum stress that can be applied to an object before it breaks.

 * Ultraviolet
 * A form of electromagnetic wave (wavelengths 10-9-3.7x10-7m). It may cause sun tanning. Usually classified into three categories: UV-A, UV-B and UV-C.

Uniform field pattern
 * Up-thrust:A force experienced due to the pressure difference of the fluid at the top and bottom of the immersed portion of the body.

At surfaces of planets, considering modest ranges of height compared to the radius, the gravitational field is approximately uniform and field lines are modelled as parallel and equally apart.

V

 * Vector
 * A quantity with magnitude and direction.

 * Velocity
 * The (instantaneous) rate of change of displacement with respect to time. Velocity is a vector. Measured in ms-1

 * Velocity-time graph
 * A motion graph which shows velocity against time for a given body.

Mechanical oscillation.
 * Vibration
 * Volt (V)
 * The unit of potential difference (p.d.) or electromotive force (e.m.f.)

potential difference=energy/charge
 * Voltmeter
 * A device used to measure the potential difference across a component. It is connected in parallel across a component.

 * Volume(V)
 * A physical quantity representing how much 3D space an object occupies, measured in cubic metres(m3)

W

 * Watt(W)
 * The unit of power.

 * power = energy / time

 * Wave
 * Series of vibrations that transfer energy from one place to another.

 * Wavelength(λ)
 * The smallest distance between one point of a wave and the identical point of the next wave, measured in metres (m).

Product of frequency and wavelength of a wave. Measured in ms-1
 * Wave speed (v)
 * Wave-particle duality
 * The theory which states that all objects can exhibit both wave and particle properties.

 * Weight
 * The gravitational force acting on a body, measured in newtons (N).

weight=mass x gravitational force

Wein's Displacement Law

States the product of maximum intensity wavelength and temperature of a body is constant. (ʎmaxT = constant (constant ≈ 2.9x10-3)
 * Work Done
 * The energy transferred when an object is moved through a distance by a force. Can be calculated by multiplying the force involved by the distance moved in the direction of the force.

Alternatively, [work done = transfer of energy]. i.e., work is done when energy is transferred from one form to another. [OCR do not accept this definition if asked "Define work done by a force"]
 * Work function energy (Φ)
 * The minimum energy that is required for a material to release an electron, measured in joules(J).

X

 * X rays
 * A form of electromagnetic wave (wavelengths:10-12-10-7m). It is used in X-ray photography.

Y
Amount of force needed to change an object into its plastic state.
 * Yield Strength
 * Young's double slit experiment
 * An experiment to demonstrate the wave nature of light via superposition and interference.

 * Young Modulus
 * Ration of tensile stress to tensile strain. Stress per unit Strain, units: Pascals or N/m2

Z
भौतिक विज्ञान की पारिभाषिक शब्दावली

title: OCR A-Level Physics/Glossary of Terms


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences

Using System Preferences
When you open System Preferences, you see the System Preferences main screen. This screen is full of icons, each representing a "pane", or group of controls. System Preferences grouped into Personal, Hardware, Internet & Network, and System rows. As with all other aspects of Tiger, Spotlight is built into the top right corner of the System Preferences menu.

The Preference Panes
The following is a list of all of the default System Preferences panes. Each pane has a specific purpose. Usually, the name of the window gives it away, while others, such as Security, may have many different purposes.

 * 1) Personal
 * 2) Appearance
 * Change the appearance of your Mac's controls.
 * 1) Dashboard & Exposé
 * Choose how you activate Dashboard and Exposé.
 * 1) Desktop & Screensaver
 * Change your Desktop Picture and Screensaver.
 * 1) Dock
 * Set fine-grained options over the Dock.
 * 1) International
 * Set up your computer so you can read and write in another language.
 * 1) Security
 * Lock down your computer with FileVault encryption and other security measures.
 * 1) Spotlight
 * Organize your Spotlight results and block certain folders for privacy.
 * 1) Hardware
 * 2) Bluetooth
 * Configure your Mac's built-in Bluetooth module.
 * 1) CDs & DVDs
 * Tell your Mac what to do when a disc is inserted.
 * 1) Displays
 * Configure the display(s) attached to your Mac.
 * 1) Energy Saver
 * Set timers and options to lower your computer's power consumption.
 * 1) Keyboard & Mouse
 * Customize your computer's keyboard and mouse.
 * 1) Print & Fax
 * Set up printers and send faxes.
 * 1) Sound
 * Choose a set of speakers and a microphone, set options, and choose an alert sound.
 * 1) Internet & Network
 * 2) .Mac
 * Set up and use .Mac services including iDisk and Sync.
 * 1) Network
 * Manage your Mac's various network connections.
 * 1) QuickTime
 * Optimize QuickTime for best performance while playing movies over the Internet.
 * 1) Sharing
 * Set up your Mac to share services with other computers on a network.
 * 1) System
 * 2) Accounts
 * The master control panel for Mac OS X's account system. The link above will take you to Chapter 8.
 * 1) Classic
 * Classic lets you run Mac OS 9 inside a bubble, but it's being phased out this year and is not covered in this Wikibook.
 * 1) Date & Time
 * Adjust you Mac's clock and calendar.
 * 1) Software Update
 * Set your Mac to automatically check for updates online.
 * 1) Speech
 * Have your computer speak to you, or speak to your computer.
 * 1) Startup Disk
 * Choose a disk for your computer to boot from.
 * 1) Universal Access
 * Set options to accommodate you if you have trouble seeing, hearing, or using a keyboard and mouse.
 * 1) Other
 * This section contains panes from add-on software products like Apple Remote Desktop and Flip4Mac.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Mac OS X Tiger/System Preferences


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/OpenOffice.org & OpenDocument Format

Introduction
OpenOffice.org is exactly what its title suggests: an open source office applications suite. It is based on the source of Sun Microsystems' StarOffice, which was donated to the open source community in 2000. OpenOffice.org will read and save files in several formats used by other office applications, but its default format is OpenDocument, which is an XML format standardized by OASIS (Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards). Because of these two factors, an open source editor and XML-based files, OpenOffice.org is poised to be of great importance in the very near future as the trend continues for national governments, particularly in the European Union, to require that all electronic government documents be saved in an open source format.

OpenDocument Format
As stated in the introduction, OpenDocument is an XML format standardized by OASIS. An OpenDocument file takes the form of a compressed zip archive with one of the following extensions:

(Note that all of these extensions are version 2.0 only)
 * .odt (text)
 * .ott (text template)
 * .odm (master document)
 * .oth (HTML template)
 * .ods (spreadsheet)
 * .ots (spreadsheet template)
 * .odg (drawing)
 * .otg (drawing template)
 * .odp (presentation)
 * .otp (presentation template)
 * .odf (formula)
 * .odb (database)

The zip archive contains the following files and directories (from OpenOffice.org Help documentation):

 * The actual text of the document is stored in content.xml. By default this is a stripped-down version of the document that leaves out formatting elements such as indentation or line breaks in order to streamline saving and opening the document.

content.xml Example

 * meta.xml contains the meta information of the document, which can be edited in File – Properties. If a document is saved with a password, meta.xml will not be encrypted.

meta.xml Example

 * settings.xml contains further information about the settings for this document.

settings.xml Example

 * styles.xml contains the styles applied to the document that can be seen in the Styles and Formatting window.

styles.xml Example

 * manifest.xml in the meta-inf directory describes the structure of the XML file.

manifest.xml Example

The schema for the OpenDocument formats may be found at http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/12572/OpenDocument-v1.0-os.pdf (caution: 706 pages).
 * Other files and folders may be included in the archive if necessary.

Open Office Capabilites
OpenOffice contains WRITER which is OpenOffice.org’s word processor. CALC is a powerful spreadsheet that has all the tools needed to calculate, analyze, summarize, and present data. IMPRESS is a fast and powerful way to create effective multimedia presentations. DRAW will produce everything from simple diagrams to dynamic 3D illustrations and special effects. New to Version 2, BASE enables you to manipulate database data seamlessly within OpenOffice.org. It allows the creation and modification of tables, forms, queries, and reports.

Download at http://download.openoffice.org/

The Future of OpenDocument
Government and business leaders alike are beginning to realize the importance of open source document formats and to act upon this realization. In July 2005, Norway's Minister of Modernization, Morton A. Meyer, presented a plan for information technology in Norway called “eNorge—the digital leap,” in which open standards and open source are addressed. Meyer's objectives for open standards and open source are as follows:

Also, Meyer said “Proprietary formats will no longer be acceptable in communication between citizens and government.”
 * Within 2009 all new ICT- and information systems in the public sector shall use open standards.
 * Within 2006 a set of management/administrative standards for data and document exchange should be established.
 * Within 2006 all operations in the public sector should have introduced plans for how they will use open standards, service oriented architecture and open source.
 * Within 2008 all data and document exchange in the public sector shall satisfy the management/administrative standards.
 * Within 2008 all public forms shall be built on a common interface.

In the US, IBM's Vice President of Standards and Open Source, Bob Sutor, made the following recommendations to users in his blog as part of an “Open Document Commitment to Action”:
 * Insist today that the provider of your office applications (word processor, spreadsheet, presentation software) is committed to support the OASIS OpenDocument Format for Office Applications standard in their products by January 1, 2007.
 * Insist today that the office applications you deploy allow users to easily set the OASIS OpenDocument standard as the default "save" format for your documents. That is, you should not have to go to a lot of trouble to avoid using proprietary formats.
 * Get a commitment from your office applications provider to join and contribute to the OASIS OpenDocument standard technical committee.
 * Ask your CIO when you will be able to use office applications that support the OASIS OpenDocument standard.
 * Ask your local and federal governments when they will be supporting the OASIS OpenDocument standard.
 * Insist that any XML document format you use is not encumbered by proprietary extensions, and that the format is freely available for anyone to implement without restrictions, including open source communities that use a GPL license. Ensure that if implementers must accept a license covering the format, the license is clear and unambiguous on these important issues.
 * "They are your documents: you should be able to do whatever you want with them, whenever you want, with whatever application you wish to use"

The implications are clear. The computing world is moving toward open source software and file types for information exchange, especially in business and government, and OpenOffice.org, with its XML-based format, stands to be at the front of the pack.

Additional Links
http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc_home.php?wg_abbrev=office

http://www.sun.com/software/star/staroffice/index.jsp

http://www.koffice.org/


text:
User talk:Craniac

Copyright problem with Image:Screamer.jpg
--Derbeth talk 23:47, 15 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Craniac


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/XMLHTTP

History
The XMLHttpRequest object enables JavaScript to make HTTP requests to a remote server without the need to reload the page. It was first implemented by Microsoft as an ActiveX object but is now available as a native object within both Mozilla and Apple's Safari browser. Javascript is used to transfer information back to the server in real time where it can be processed by the server, and then returned instantaneously to the user.

Purpose
The main function of the XMLHttpRequest object is that it provides an easy way for webpages to receive updated information from servers without having to refresh the whole webpage. As a result, the webserver’s processing load is reduced and the user receives information faster without seeing any interruptions in service.

Future Application
The XMLHttpRequest object has many improvements over the existing data exchange methods. Many developers still rely on Common Gateway Interchange (CGI) for data exchange. Since CGI has no adequate restriction about the format of data, XML usage is relatively pointless from a data exchange standpoint. Utilizing the inherent abilities of XMLHttp will remove the inadequacies originating from the widespread use of CGI. The XMLHttpRequest object provides a more adequate approach for real-time content delivery than existing development methods.

Tutorials
http://developer.apple.com/library/safari/#documentation/appleapplications/Conceptual/SafariJSProgTopics/Articles/XHR.html

title: XML - Managing Data Exchange/XMLHTTP


text:
User talk:Newdist79

We are deleting your book Naturism according to What is Wikibooks. If you want to keep your work, copy its contents fast, because it can be deleted without warning. --Derbeth talk 00:47, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

Images
The Naturism modules and images have been deleted. This was done without community consensus, so I undeleted the modules. I could not restore the images, so they are lost unless you reupload them. Guanaco 22:54, 18 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Newdist79


text:
User talk:Drawyks

I am avid reader and scholar Sky Ward.

--Drawyks 01:37, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Drawyks


text:
Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Numbers

Untitled
Are the "cardinal numbers" (ひとつ, ふたつ, etc.) avoided on this page for any particular reason?

title: Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Numbers


text:
Help:Tracking changes

Wikibooks is a wiki, and as such is designed to allow anyone to edit pages and thus contribute to the collection of textbooks here. On popular books it is necessary to collaborate and coordinate with others. But how can you do so if you cannot keep track of changes other editors are making? Fortunately, Wikibooks' software makes it easy to monitor revisions to pages. You can follow changes to any page in the wiki, pages linked from a particular page, pages in a list of your choosing, and a single page. You can also see changes made by a particular user. The software has a useful interface for seeing what has been added and/or removed from a page. In an environment where anyone can change pages, even those without accounts, vandalism can be a concern. Wikibooks has a system where pages can be reviewed to verify that changes by new or unregistered users are beneficial. With all these tools at your disposal, you won't miss a thing!

Recent changes
The Recent Changes page lets you see the most recent changes made to pages at Wikibooks. Using this page, you can monitor and review the work of other users, allowing mistakes to be corrected and vandalism to be eliminated. There is a link to the Recent Changes page in the sidebar of each page. You can also create a link to the page as Special:RecentChanges.

Related changes
The Related Changes page lets you see the most recent changes for pages linked to from the current page, or for pages that link to the current page. Using this page, you can monitor and review relates works. The parent links created by the software on a subpage do not count as page links to show changes for. There is a link to the Related Changes pages in the toolbox for most skins. You can also create a link for a page with Special:RecentChangesLinked/PageName. All of the preferences and limitations that apply to Recent Changes also apply to Related Changes.

Preferences
Logged-in users can set preferences to adjust the appearance of these pages. For help in doing this, see how to log in and how to set preferences. The options that affect these pages are:

 * Days to show in recent changes – You may select the number of days to be shown by default on the Recent Changes page.
 * Number of edits to show by default – You may select the number of changes which will be shown by default. Once on that page, links are provided for other options. In the case of Enhanced Recent Changes this number of changes includes those that are initially hidden.
 * Use enhanced recent changes – with this option enabled, multiple edits are grouped together. This option uses JavaScript, and won't work in every browser.
 * Hide minor edits in recent changes – this hides all edits that have been marked as minor by logged-in users.
 * Hide reviewed edits in recent changes – this hides all edits that have been reviewed.

Enhanced Recent Changes
Enhanced Recent Changes groups recent changes per day, where "day" is defined according to local time. For each day, it groups the changes by page, and displays the titles of the changed pages in order from new to old latest change of the day concerned, or in the case of hiding minor edits, latest major change.

Multiple edits on the same day to a single page are grouped together on the Recent Changes screen. Only a summary line is shown, info about the individual edits is loaded into the browser right away but only shown by clicking on the blue arrow on the left. This option uses JavaScript and does not work in every browser (see Browser issues with MediaWiki).

This feature applies also to Related Changes and the enhanced watchlist. The latter is simply a selection of the enhanced Recent Changes, namely a restriction to watched pages, without the bolding.

Appearance
The default Recent Changes looks like this:

 * (diff) (hist) . .  !  Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pterosaurs [ review ] ; 10:06 . . (+1,864) . . 111.222.33.44 (talk) (Add examples)
 * (diff) (hist) . . N Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pterosaurs; 10:04 . . (+890) . . Anthere (talk | contribs) (links)
 * (diff) (hist) . . N Wikijunior:Dinosaurs; 10:04 . . (+3394) . . Brion VIBBER (talk | contribs) (New page)
 * (Move log); 10:03 . . Maveric149 (talk | contribs) (moved Main page to Main Page)

Enhanced Recent Changes shows changes to one page on the same line, with an arrow next to it:

N    10:06 Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pterosaurs [ review ]  (2 changes | hist). . (+2754) . . [ 111.222.33.44; Anthere ] N    10:04 Wikijunior:Dinosaurs (diff | hist). . (+3394) . . Brion VIBBER (talk | contribs) (New page) 10:03 (Move log). . Maveric149 (talk | contribs) moved Main page to Main Page (better location)

Clicking this arrow expands the entry so you can see all the changes made:

10:06 Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pterosaurs [ review ] (2 changes | hist). . (+2754) . . [ 111.222.33.44; Anthere ]  !  10:06 (cur | prev). . (+1,864) . . 111.222.33.44 (talk) (Add examples) N</tt>          <tt>10:04</tt> (cur | prev). . (+890) . . Anthere (talk | contribs) (links) <tt>N</tt>    <tt>10:04</tt> Wikijunior:Dinosaurs (diff | hist). . (+3394) . . Brion VIBBER (talk | contribs) (New page) <tt>10:03</tt> (Move log). . Maveric149 (talk | contribs) moved Main page to Main Page (better location)

Each indicates four edits: the first by a user who is not logged in, to Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Pterosaurs; the second by Anthere to Wikijunior:Dinosaurs; the third by Maveric149 to Main page; and the fourth by Brion VIBBER to Wikijunior:Dinosaurs.

What each element used means:
 * "diff" links to the diff-page for this edit; it is not available for new pages, or for page moves
 * The "hist" link corresponds to the Page history link on the edited page: it shows not just this edit but also older and newer ones. For page moves, the hist link leads to the history of the new page title
 * A bold m indicates that the user marked the edit "minor". Only logged in users can mark edits minor, to avoid abuse.
 * A bold N indicates that the page is "new", i.e., previously did not exist. It is possible for a change to possess both the "minor" and "new" indicators; this is typically used for new redirects.
 * A bold b indicates that the edit is made by a bot (an account with bot flag), or that the edit is hidden by an administrator.
 * A bold  !  indicates that the page is unreviewed. For more information see  Reviewing pages below.
 * The next link is a link to the current version of the page in question.
 * A bold link indicates this page is part of your watchlist.
 * The [ review ] tag next to the page title will take you to a page that shows the diff between the last reviewed edit to the page and the most recent edit.
 * 10:06 refers to the time in UTC. You can change the time to your time zone using your preferences - see how to set preferences.
 * (+1,864) (generally a green number with a +, or a red number with a -) refers to the number of bytes that have been added or removed.
 * For logged in users, the next link is a link to their user homepage (as usual with internal links, the view page if the page exists, the edit page if it does not, the two being styled differently). For users who are not logged in, the link is to their user contributions.
 * There is a link to the user's talk page (the same remarks regarding existence apply).
 * Finally, there is a link to the user's contributions if the user is logged in.
 * For page moves, a link is given to both the old and new title.

Watching pages
Watching pages allows any logged-in user to keep a list of "watched" pages and to generate a list of recent changes made to those pages (and their associated talk pages). In this way you can keep track of and react to what's happening to pages you have created or are otherwise interested in.

Controlling which pages are watched
There are four ways to control which pages you have on your watchlist:
 * 1) When viewing a page, click the star sign between the 'View history' tab and the search box at the very top of the page (for the default appearance, in some other versions, click on the "watch" or "unwatch" tab), to respectively add or remove the page from your watchlist.
 * 2) When editing a page, check or uncheck "Watch this page" before saving (above the Show preview button).
 * 3) Click "View and edit watchlist" or "Edit raw watchlist" at the top of the watchlist page to view or alter the list of watched pages directly. The first option takes you to Special:Watchlist/edit, where the watched pages are listed with checkboxes which can be used to remove items. The second takes you to Special:Watchlist/raw, which has a text area with a list of watched pages, one title per line, sorted by namespace number and then alphabetically. You can edit the list directly, copy it to an external editor or replace it with a list created elsewhere. Duplicates are automatically removed on saving.

If you check "Add pages I edit to my watchlist" on the "Watchlist" tab of your user preferences, then the "Watch this page" checkbox will always be checked by default when you edit pages. Other similar options are "Add pages I create to my watchlist", "Add pages I move to my watchlist", "Add pages I review to my watchlist", and (for administrators) "Add pages I delete to my watchlist".

It should also be noted that:
 * Talk pages are not listed at Special:Watchlist/edit or Special:Watchlist/raw, but they are automatically watched whenever their corresponding non-talk pages are watched.
 * It is not possible to watch automatically generated pages, such as Special pages. Watching a category page will pick up changes to the text of the category page itself, but not to the lists of subcategories and pages contained in the category. Similarly, watching an file will not detect uploads of new versions of the file.
 * Additional page titles may sometimes appear on your watchlist as a result of page moves (see Moves, creations, and deletions below).
 * When a watched page contains transcluded text, such as templates, the form of the page may change as a result of changes to the transcluded pages. These changes will not show up on your watchlist unless you are watching the transcluded pages as well.

How to read a watchlist
When you are logged in to Wikibooks, a link,  appears at the top of every page. This links to the special page Special:Watchlist, reporting recent changes to your watched pages. It is a list separated by days, ordered backwards according to the time of the edit.

Each line shows details of each edit: whether minor (m), whether made by a bot (b), the time, a link to the page, a link to the difference ("diff") made by the edit in question, a link to the page history ("hist"), the editor's user name or IP address, the increase (green) or decrease (red) in the number of bytes, e.g. (+76), (-490) or, if over 500, in bold: (+794) , (-2,412) , and the edit summary. Technically, the watchlist is just another way to filter recent changes.

Options
There are various options available to control how the list of changes is displayed:
 * You may choose to hide or show minor edits, bot edits, one's own edits, edits by anonymous users, and edits by logged-in users (links for this purpose appear at the top of the watchlist page). Initially the default behavior for all of these is "show"; this can be changed using the options available on the "Watchlist" tab of your user preferences.
 * You can choose how many hours or days you want the list of changes to go back, using the links at the top of the watchlist. For the maximum (30 days), select "all". For non-standard values, select one of the available links and then edit the value after "days=" in the URL. The default value, which must be a number of days not greater than 7, is set on the "Watchlist" tab of user preferences. Note that there may be a later cut-off due to the limit on the number of displayed changes, described below.
 * You can restrict the list to changes in a specified namespace, using the "Namespace" drop-down box (check "Invert selection" to exclude the specified namespace).
 * You can elect to display only the last edit to each watched page ("Simple watchlist"). This is currently the default, but can produce misleading results (for example, if the last edit to a page was minor, then there is no indication that a previous non-minor edit occurred). To ensure that all changes are displayed, check the "Expand watchlist..." option on the "Watchlist" tab of your user preferences.
 * Having selected the expanded watchlist, you can choose "enhanced" display mode, which groups together all changes made to each page on a given day. Click on the blue arrows to the left of the list to expand or collapse each group. This option applies to both the watchlist and recent changes, and for this reason appears on the "Recent changes" tab of user preferences, not the "Watchlist" tab.
 * You may choose to set the "Maximum number of changes to show in expanded watchlist" (on the "Watchlist" tab of user preferences). The maximum possible number of changes to display is currently 1000. If this causes a later time cutoff than you desired, you can see earlier changes by filtering by type or namespace, as described above.

Effects of watching a page
When you view Recent Changes, Enhanced Recent Changes or Related Changes, entries relating to pages you are watching appear bolded. This means that it may be beneficial to mark pages as "watched" even if you do not intend viewing the Special:Watchlist page.

Moves, creations, and deletions
Actions affecting watched pages (page moves, page creations and deletions, protection) also appear in the watchlist. For example, if you watch a page that does not yet have a talk page, you will see on your watchlist when someone creates that talk page.

You can watch a page even if neither the content page nor the talk page exists. To do that, go to the page's URL, either by typing the URL directly or following a (broken) link, and then press the watch button.

If a page you have watched is moved to a new title, the new title will be automatically added to your watchlist. Even if the page is later moved back (and even if the page at the new title is deleted), the new title will remain in your watchlist along with the old one. If you notice mysterious nonexistent pages appearing on your watchlist, this is the most likely explanation.

Alternatives to watchlists
An account can have only one watchlist. However, it is possible to set up watchlist-like functionality using the "Related changes" feature, in a way that effectively enables a user to achieve multiple watchlists. To do this, create a page (normally in your own user space) containing links to the pages you wish to watch. Changes to those pages can then be monitored by going to the user page and clicking "Related changes". Note that in this case the talk pages corresponding to "watched" pages are not automatically included (though Template:La2 can be used to do so), and that changes to the user page itself will not be picked up.

Related Changes can also be used to monitor changes to pages belonging to a category, including the addition of pages to the category (which is not picked up by placing the category on a watchlist). However, the removal of pages from the category is not detected.

Page history
Every editable page on Wikibooks has an associated page history (sometimes called revision history or edit history), which is accessed by clicking the "history" tab at the top of the page. The page history contains a list of the page's previous revisions, including the date and time (in UTC) of each edit, the username or IP address of the user who made it, and their edit summary.

Using a history page
On a history page:
 * All past changes to the page in question are listed in reverse-chronological order.
 * To view a specific version, click a date.
 * To compare an old version with the current version, click cur.
 * To compare a version with its predecessor, click prev.
 * To compare two specific versions, tick the left-column radio button of the older version and the right-column radio button of the newer version, and then click the "Compare selected versions" button.
 * Minor edits are denoted as m.

Below is a detailed example of a page history using the default skin:

Edits are shown from newest to oldest. Each edit takes up one line which shows; time & date, the contributor's name or IP and the edit summary, as well as other diagnostic information. Let's look at some of the functions of this page:
 * 1) "Revision history of" is added to the page name and the "View History" tab is highlighted.
 * 2) These links take you to the most recent edits (Latest), oldest edits (Earliest) or the next or previous page of edits (Next n / Previous n). Note that the black text in parentheses will become links, when applicable.
 * 3) The blue numbers list the number of edits displayed on a page - 20, 50, 100, 250 or 500. A higher number increases the length of a page but reduces the number of pages The number you select replaces n in the links to the previous or next pages, e.g., (Next 100 / Previous 100).
 * 4) (cur) takes you to a diff page, showing the difference between that edit and the current version. The current revision appears below the changes, so you can see how the page is now rendered.
 * 5) (prev) takes you to a diff page showing the changes between that edit and the previous version. The most recent version (the one on the same line as the "last" you clicked on) appears below the changes, so you can see how the page was rendered.
 * 6) The two columns of radio buttons can be used to select any two versions on the page. The current selection is marked by a special background. The two most recent versions are selected by default when you first view the history (that is why they appear framed and have a different background, see horizontal area around 4 and 6). Let's say you want to compare the versions corresponding to numbers 10 & 11 on the image. First, click the left radio button next to number 11. The right column of buttons will then fill as far as number 11. Then click the right button next to number 10. Finally, click Compare selected versions. This takes you to a diff page showing the changes between the two versions. The most recent version (in this case number 10) appears below the changes, so you can see how the page was rendered.
 * 7) This gives the time and date of the edit, expressed in local time according to the preference setting. The date and time link to the version of that day and time. Thus, the  first line links to the version that was current at the time of loading this revision history, and therefore the result may differ from that of following the link on the page margin to the current version. Even if the page has not changed in the meantime, the Revision-info message appears.
 * 8) The username or IP  of the contributor appears here.
 * 9) This is the edit summary. It is the text the user wrote in the edit summary box (below the edit box).
 * 10) This edit summary begins with an arrow link and grey text. This means the user has only edited a section of the page (named in the grey text). This text is automatically added when you edit a section. A standard edit summary can be added by the user. This appears in black text.
 * 11) m stands for minor edit.

It is possible to restore an old version of a page by following the link to that version, clicking "edit" and then saving. This should be done with caution, as it means that all changes made to the page since the time of that version will be lost.

In rare cases, all or part of a page history entry may be shown in grey, struck out by a horizontal line. This indicates that information has been hidden from public view by an administrator.

Moved and deleted pages
When a page is moved (renamed), the entire edit history of the page, before and after the move, is shown. The old title becomes a redirect and loses its edit history.

If instead of a move, the entire content was cut and pasted into a new substitute page, the page history gets spread across two pages. The histories can be merged in this case.

When two pages are merged, typically one becomes a redirect. In this case, the revision history of the redirect is kept.

When a page is deleted, its revision history remains in the database and can be retrieved by an administrator, who can also undelete the page.

Administrators can also remove selected revisions from a page history, for example if they contain defamatory text.

Files
A file can be edited, or, more generally, be replaced by a different file, by uploading a new file with the same name. Again, all versions are kept. The file's history listing forms part of the description page, which appears when clicking on the file. The file's history consists of this and the old versions themselves.

Linking to a specific version
It is sometimes useful to link to a specific version of a page (a snapshot of it). For example, one might have done a review of a Wikibooks page and want to indicate which particular version was reviewed.

If the version is not the current version, one can use the page history to view the old version of the page. The URL of this old version is suitable for use to permanently reference this version, and can usually be obtained from the browser's location bar.

However, if a page contains transcluded text (such as a template), or a time-based variable (such as CURRENTTIME ), it will be rendered according to the current state of the template or the time now, possibly producing a different result than was rendered at the time the old version was saved.

User contributions
User contributions pages are automatically generated pages that list the edits that a particular user has made.

You can check your own contributions to refresh your memory about which pages you have worked on (and to easily access these again), and also to find out whether there have been any subsequent edits (see page history). This can be a useful quick alternative to accessing your watchlist, particularly if your watchlist contains a large number of pages. Other users' user contribution pages can also be accessed and are useful for seeing how other users have contributed. They can be used to track down vandalism, serial copyright violations, etc.

Accessing a user contributions page
To access your own user contributions page, click "my contributions" at the top of the page, or visit Special:MyContributions.

To access the contributions of a logged-in user (named account), go to the user page (User:XXX) and click on "User contributions" listed under the "Toolbox" menu on the left-hand side of the screen. This works even if the user page has not been created yet (i.e. an edit box displays).

To access the contributions of an anonymous user (identified by IP address), use one of the following methods:
 * Click on the IP address where it appears on your watchlist, in Recent changes or in Page history.
 * Put the IP address in the search box and press Enter on your keyboard.
 * If the user is currently blocked, a notice will be displayed at the very top of the contributions screen like this example.

Bear in mind that a public IP address may have been used by different users at different times. (And conversely, that a given user may have used multiple IP addresses and/or usernames.)

Appearance of a user contributions page
Below is an example of a user contributions page:

 * 1) The username or IP of the contributor
 * 2) A search form, allowing you to search by username, IP address (or range), date, or namespace (such as Template). IP range search uses a wildcard asterisk, such as 10.11.12.* or 192.168.*. This requires you are logged in and check "Allow /16 and /24 – /32 CIDR ranges on Special:Contributions forms (uses API), as well as wildcard prefix searches" under Gadgets in Special:Preferences.
 * 3) A list of edits, shown from newest to oldest. Each edit takes up one line which contains:
 * 4) The time and date of the edit, displayed in your preferred format.
 * 5) (hist) takes you to the page history, so you can see all edits made to that page. This can be useful if someone has updated a page you have worked on, and you want to see their changes.
 * 6) (diff) takes you to a diff page showing the changes between that edit and the previous revision. The revision after the edit appears below the changes so you can see the result of the edit.
 * 7) m indicates a minor edit; N indicates a new page.
 * 8) The current name of the page that was edited.
 * 9) The edit summary, a description written by the editor (or generated automatically, in certain cases). If a summary begins with an arrow link and grey text, the user has only edited the stated section of the page. Wikibooks automatically adds this when you edit a section.
 * 10) (top) signifies that the edit is the current revision. The page is as the user last saved it. This can be used to watch pages (if your last edit to the page does not display (top), the page has been changed).
 * 11) If an editor has made more edits than will fit on one page, this line provides links to the most recent edits (latest), oldest edits (earliest) or the next or previous page of edits (newer n / older n).
 * 12) The blue numbers list the number of edits displayed on a page: 20, 50, 100, 250 or 500. The number you select replaces n in the links to the previous or next pages e.g. (newer 100 / older 100). Views of up to 5000 edits per page are possible by modifying the URL.

Administrators and other users with special tools may have additional options on contributions pages.

The following information normally does not appear:
 * Edits from a page that has been deleted afterwards (unless the page, including the revision concerned, has been restored).
 * Uploading of a new file with the same name as one that already exists, thus replacing it
 * Deletion or restoration (undeletion) of a page (if the user is an administrator). Use Special:Logs or click "Logs" on the user contributions page for viewing these actions.

Viewing diffs
A diff is a page or panel showing the difference between two versions of the wikitext of an editable page.

Links to the diffs corresponding to specific edits appear in various lists, including page histories, a user's contributions, Recent Changes, Related Changes, and watchlists. There may also be links to the diffs between the specified version and the current (last) version. In page histories it is possible to generate a diff between any two versions – select the left radio button for the older version, the right radio button for the newer version, and click Compare selected versions.

Diffs can also be displayed while editing a page, via the Show changes button, to see clearly what changes you are about to make. The diff is also shown during an edit conflict, so you can see exactly what you need to reintegrate.

Appearance of diffs
This example shows the top of the diff page (some of the links are dummies). The older version is shown on the left, the newer version on the right.

Explanation of colors
Unchanged text is black on grey (only parts before and after changed text are shown). Paragraphs which have changed are highlighted in yellow on the old version side, and green on the new version side. Where whole paragraphs have been removed or inserted, the other side is blank (white). Removed text is shown in red on the old version. New text is shown in red on the new version.

Controls and links
The links "Revision as of date" link to each version. If the newer version is the latest one, the link will be to the usual page and the wording will be "Current revision (date)" instead. For administrators and reviewers, a revision with "[checked revision]" above it has been reviewed while a revision with "[pending revision]" above it has not yet been reviewed. Revisions with "[unreviewed revision]" above them occur on a page where no revision at all has been reviewed.

The "(edit)" link will take you to the page for editing that version. You may be warned that you are editing an out-of-date revision; if you ignore this and continue, you will revert all the edits made since after that revision.

The "(undo)" link on the newer revision's side will revert that specific edit. When you click the link you can check the diff page of the edit you are going to make, and the edit summary will be automatically filled in with the phrase of MediaWiki:undo-summary. This summary can be edited before you submit your edit. When you are undoing several edits at once, the auto-summary may not work. Though the link exists on all diff pages, it does not function when the revisions conflict. Often versions older than the current one cannot be undone in this way. If it does not work, you will be told that the edit could not be undone and end up in the regular editing page of the current version.

Below that are links to the user page and talk page of the each user who edited the older or the newer versions. Links to the users' contribution lists are also shown. For administrators and reviewers, a "[rollback]" button also appears where applicable, allowing them to revert all of the edits made by that user.

Then the edit summaries are shown in a parenthesis. If the user has used links in their edit summary, these act as links on the diff page as well. If the editor marked the edit as an minor edit, m appears before the summary.

The "Previous edit" and "Next edit" links lead to earlier or later diffs. When you are viewing the diff between two non-consecutive versions of a page, you will also see the message "(x intermediate revisions not shown.)".

After the table of differences, the latest of the two compared versions is shown fully, unless you have specified in your preferences that this is not to be done.

Linking to a diff
If you need to create a link to a specific diff (for use on a talk page or noticeboard, for example), then locate the diff from the page history, go to the diff page, and copy the URL from your browser's address bar. Then paste this URL (the whole of it, including http:// ) into the text of the page where you want the link to appear, putting single square brackets [...] around it.

The URL for a diff is based on the  value of the old revision. If a revision has oldid value 12345678, so its URL is:

then URLs for its diffs may take the forms:

 * diff with the current version:
 * diff with the previous version:
 * diff with version 10000001:

Another way of creating links to diffs is described at Template:Diff.

The previously described means will generate external links. For an internal link write You can format such links like any internal link, that means you may define a label so something like will emit very first edit. See the MediaWiki documentation on “Diff” for more details.
 * for a link to a specific diff
 * for a comparison of two revisions.

Reviewing pages
See also FlaggedRevs extension help at MediaWiki

The pending changes system (also known as edit review and flagged revisions) allows reviewers to review page revisions for quality. This is our primary counter-vandalism tool. This feature also allows readers who log in to manage the revision they are served, using their preferences.

Regular contributors are automatically given reviewer status by the software. Reviewers automatically review pages at the lowest setting (called checking a page) when they save, so active books will usually have contributions by non-reviewers reviewed shortly after they are committed.

Pages can be reviewed by pressing the [review] link on pages like Special:RecentChanges and Special:Watchlist. Otherwise, pages can also be reviewed by using the following technique (which is needed if the page is previously unreviewed):
 * 1) Go to the bottom of the page.
 * 2) There should be a "Review this revision" dialog.
 * 3) Press the "Accept revision" button.

Stable version
Except for the Wikijunior namespace, by default the latest version of a page, reviewed or not, is shown to readers. In the Wikijunior namespace, by default readers are served only the last reviewed version of a page (if there is a reviewed version, otherwise the latest unreviewed version; but on Wikijunior we try to be sure there is a reviewed version). This is called the stable version. Administrators are able to change the settings for pages so that the stable version (the latest reviewed version of a page) is shown by default to logged-out readers. For logged-in readers, whether the stable version or latest version is shown by default can be altered in preferences.

This is used primarily for Wikijunior books, but any book can opt in to this. Regardless of what version is initially shown, in cases where there are pending unreviewed changes to a page, there will be tabs titled Read and Latest draft to switch between the stable version and the most recent edit.

Quality criteria and levels
A page can be reviewed based on its quality. Four levels of review are available for revisions, with each level incorporating the previous levels:

 * poor/unrated: the default rating for unreviewed revisions, or for revisions that don't reach "minimal" quality.
 * minimal: proofread for spelling, punctuation, grammar, paragraph structure, and paragraph consistency; it is also the default for certain actions (see below).
 * average: typography and language is found to be consistent with the book's local manual of style, but not thoroughly examined otherwise.
 * good: thoroughly examined to ensure ideas and concepts are consistent, neutral, accurate, and verifiable.

Please note that "minimal" does not necessarily refer to the quality of the revision, but can instead refer to the quality of the review itself, in other words how thoroughly it is carried out. "Minimal" is also the default level for contributions from editors who hold the  right; other editors will default to "poor/unrated". "Minimal" reviews can also occur during patrols for basic quality control of revisions; these include basic checks for:

 * Vandalism and spam.
 * Potentially inaccurate information, or other potential errors.
 * Potential problems with conforming to various policies and guidelines.

If most of the pages in a book have a revision that has been flagged as "good", the book may be a good candidate to be nominated as a featured book.

As a non-enforceable but documented bit of culture, reviewers are discouraged from reviewing pages in books at the "good level" (called approving a page) if the book contributors do not want to take part in having their pages reviewed. The good level may be useful as a matter of internal review by the book contributors, or an external review such as in a request to have the book be featured, etc.

Monitoring reviewing

 * Special:Log/review: logs of page reviews
 * Special:ValidationStatistics: page review statistics
 * Special:PendingChanges: pages with pending changes
 * Special:UnreviewedPages: unreviewed pages (reviewers/administrators only)
 * Special:ConfiguredPages: pages with review configurations

Patrol
A patrol is the first review of a page after page creation. A log of patrolled pages is maintained at Special:Log/patrol. The main differences between patrol and review are:

 * Patrol only applies once per page creation. But reviewing pending changes is an ongoing process that happens every time a page is edited.
 * Patrol is restricted to administrators, who hold the  right, which enables them to mark others' page creations as patrolled. However, the   right is held by administrators, reviewers, autoreviewed users,  and bot accounts, and enables one's own page creations to be automatically patrolled.
 * Patrol applies to all new page creations; if you have the  right, this is automatic. But review is usually limited to pages in certain namespaces, such as the main, Wikijunior, Cookbook, file, template and modules namespaces. This is because pending changes protection is automatically applied there.

To patrol pages, go to and press the [Mark this page as patrolled] link near the bottom of the page; if it is absent, either the page has been (auto)patrolled, or else you do not have administrator access.

Edit review interface
A user can configure whether the interface for indicating a page's review status is detailed or minimal in Special:Preferences, influencing the way pages in Wikibooks appear.

title: Help:Tracking changes


text:
Help talk:FAQ/Editing

Meta:Help:Editing FAQ authors and history
= From Meta:Help talk:Editing FAQ =
 * 21:05, 25 January 2006 User:70.125.37.195 (→Q: How do I get a page deleted?)
 * 16:29, 17 January 2006 User:Urhixidur m (→Q: How do I get a page deleted?)
 * 16:28, 17 January 2006 User:Urhixidur (→Q: How do I get a page deleted?)
 * 22:26, 10 January 2006 User:66.241.129.106 (→Q: Can I generate a frame-like structure on a Wiki page?)
 * 22:25, 10 January 2006 User:66.241.129.106 (→Miscellaneous)
 * 22:25, 28 December 2005 User:216.254.75.124 (→Q: Can I link to a specific section header if there are multiple section headers of the same name? If so, how? - missing word)
 * 02:47, 9 December 2005 User:Uncle G (Added editor TOC.)
 * 06:34, 15 November 2005 User:Amgine (reverts more silliness)
 * 06:31, 15 November 2005 User:24.85.85.76 (amgine reverts silliness)
 * 06:29, 15 November 2005 User:216.239.58.136 (→Q: How do I archive my User Page?)
 * 06:29, 15 November 2005 User:216.239.58.136 (→Miscellaneous)
 * 06:28, 15 November 2005 User:216.239.58.136 (→Q: Can I link to a specific section header if there are multiple section headers of the same name? If so, how?)
 * 06:28, 15 November 2005 User:216.239.58.136 (→Editing)
 * 14:42, 2 November 2005 User:SV Resolution (→Q: Can I make transparent borders and rules on a table?)
 * 14:38, 2 November 2005 User:SV Resolution (→Q: Can I put preformatted text inside a numbered list?)
 * 00:04, 23 October 2005 User:Blackcap (typo, +editing section, minor formatting, new question)
 * 23:21, 7 October 2005 User:209.50.165.2 (→Q: How do I archive my User Page?)
 * 17:09, 6 October 2005 User:SV Resolution (Statement of purpose for this document.)
 * 17:01, 6 October 2005 User:SV Resolution m (→Q: Can I make transparent borders and rules on a table?)
 * 17:00, 6 October 2005 User:SV Resolution (→Q: How do I archive my User Page?)
 * 16:58, 6 October 2005 User:SV Resolution (→Q: How do I archive my User Page?)
 * 02:03, 4 October 2005 User:Patrick (→Q: How do I archive my User Page? - clarify)
 * 18:38, 3 October 2005 User:SV Resolution
 * 02:30, 3 October 2005 User:SV Resolution

Image
This is a image issue with text "Click on the image to get the description page. Also, when you upload the file everything you put in the upload summary is placed into the image's description page. See Image:Introductory Physics fig 4.3.png for an example of what goes onto one of these pages."

from a section in Help:FAQ/Editing. Can any of the editors replace  with something similar? Xeverything11 (discuss • contribs) 17:33, 20 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Help talk:FAQ/Editing


text: User talk:Piotrus

title: User talk:Piotrus


text:
Blended Learning in K-12/General Comparisons in Blended Learning

Offline and Online Learning One of the most distinguishable characteristics of blending learning is its ability to combine two different forms/setting of learning and instruction. (Singh, 2001) In blended learning, instruction takes place in an offline and online setting. In the offline setting, the instruction takes place in a traditional, face-to-face classroom. The online setting usually takes place using the Internet. Although there are distance courses solely designed to have all of its instruction take place online through the use of the Web, blended learning utilizes the atmosphere of both offline and online settings.

The dual settings of online and offline learning are optimally combined to administer the responsibilities of sharing content, establishing and continuing communication, and stimulating interaction. Ideally, the online and offline components of a blended learning class are more or less symbiotic, where the interactions and successes of each setting feed off each other.

In blended learning the web enhancements of the online portion also contribute to not only aiding in the pragmatic goals of the classroom, but to augmenting the pedagogical goals as well. (Wingard, 2004) The percentage of time and activity spent by students either on the online or offline classroom is usually dependent on the nature of the course and the preference of the instructor.

Early results of studies show an increase in student-instructor interaction and student preparation in use of course material. (Wingard, 2005)

Structured and Unstructured Learning Structured or formal learning occurs when content is organized like chapters in a text book. Unstructured learning takes place informally online through synchronous and asynchronous discussions as well as e-mail correspondence. In a blended learning environment instructors can develop a program that incorporates both types of learning together. (Singh, 2001) Although traditionally used in higher education, blended learning is making its way into elementary, middle, junior high, and high schools around the country.

A structured learning program must encourage students to be actively engaged. More importantly, it must allow the instructor to track student use of the program, manage access to the next stage on the basis of completion or assessment, and follow up with another form of communication to students who are not completing work. (Hoyle, 2003) Finally, it should have specific learning objectives and expected outcomes. A blended learning environment with a structured program can benefit those students who learn better on their own rather than in the traditional classroom setting. (Zenger and Uehlein, 2001) This can be especially helpful in the k-12 classroom as individual student needs must be met. One common pitfall of structured online learning is merely the repackaging of current class curriculum and placing it in an online environment. (Hoyle, 2003)

In an unstructured online environment, students actually have some control of their learning experiences. Some students prefer the discovery method of learning while others prefer more straightforward content. (Zenger and Uehlein, 2001) The freedom to interact and collaborate with peers without the teacher looming overhead can be highly motivating for some students. This would be beneficial for younger students with learning disabilities in that they may recognize their individual strengths in this new environment. In an unstructured learning environment, assessment is especially important to ensure objectives have been met. (Hoyle, 2003)

Best practices in blended learning contain structured and unstructured components.
 * Create a structured core curriculum of learning activities that are taught using a variety of instructional methods.
 * Support an environment in which students can learn smaller parts and work their way up to more complex ideas.
 * Create a classroom in which students can learn informally.
 * Provide technological support and for students.
 * Provide an easy to use environment. (Oakes and Casewit, 2003)

Personal Experiences – Lisa Abate (2004) developed an unstructured asynchronous component to her classroom while on maternity leave. An online classroom was created using a common educational website where Lisa communicated with her students. She integrated the concepts her substitute teacher discussed in the classroom and included online extensions for her students. Not only did these teachers “team teach”, but they did it from different places within the blended learning environment.

Off-the-Shelf Content vs. Custom Content One of the greatest advantages of Blended learning is that it gives students and instructors the opportunity to utilize a wide range of resource materials. Although there does not seem to be much research about the types of materials used, students and instructors are not limited to those resources which can be exploited in a traditional face-to-face setting. Rather, the instructor can combine all of the traditional resources, which include lectures and assigned readings, with interactive, self-paced materials.

Traditional textbooks increasingly offer multi-media components as part of their ancillary materials. These might include opportunities for extra skill practice, online assessments, and links to resources that would not realistically fit into a traditional bound book. The instructor may include these extra resources as part of the learning modules in a blended course. Theoretically, the instructor could create a blended course entirely from these ancillary materials for a completely off-the-shelf learning experience.

Alternatively, the instructor could choose to create a course without utilizing a traditional textbook at all. Using the wealth of material that is available online, the instructor can synthesize materials to create a unique learning context, combining recorded lectures, online articles, and material up-loaded by the instructor. While this has always been possible in traditional face-to-face courses, particularly at the post-High-School level, it has not always been feasible for the K-12 instructor.

An additional possibility, which would not be possible in a traditional setting, is the creation of the forum as a learning resource. (NSW, 2005) Although discussion has been a part of face-to-face instruction, the learning forum provides a virtual space in which discussion can occur, as well as a mechanism for recording the discussion that ensues. Students not only construct their own knowledge in this space, but can return to it at a later time for clarification. The instructor can also use this permanent record to assess student participation, and include new viewpoints as resources for subsequent learning modules or courses.

Implications for K-12 Education

Restructuring the Class One of the most difficult challenges of transforming a traditional K-12 class into a blended learning classroom requires a shift in an educator’s teaching paradigm. Instead of preparing the necessary materials for the off-line setting of a traditional classroom, the blended learning K-12 teacher now must also organize and maintain the on-line, virtual classroom. The time, planning, and organization needed to restructure a K-12 blended classroom requires the educator to, in essence, plan and organize a class in two settings, which complement each other in terms of scheduling, content, lesson flow, and organization.

A blended learning classroom requires the K-12 instructor to develop teaching materials prior to the start of class. Other K-12 classroom models have also used other characteristics of blended learning for instructing students through the Web and other electronic tools. Web-enhanced campus courses, Web-centric courses, Web-courses using distance learning and campus settings, and traditional distance courses have implemented web use to certain degrees. Each category of web integration requires a varied percentage of packaged developed material, ranging from fifty to one hundred percent. (Boettcher and Conrad 1999) However, the percentage of prepared material web material in blended K-12 course ultimately depends on teacher preference, student/school technological capabilities, and other lesson dependent factors.

Like the other models of Web integration in the K-12 classroom, blended learning courses need to successfully address and incorporate four of the following components:

 * Administration – organization of the syllabus, increase teacher productivity/efficiency, distributing/collecting material, and scheduling duties
 * Assessment – providing feedback, tracking student progress, and testing opportunities
 * Content Delivery – communicating content through different learning styles, using multimedia, incorporating learning activities, using the Internet for the acquisition of knowledge
 * Community – building the classroom community through synchronous/threaded chats, providing office/help hours to communicate online (Schmidt 2002)

Benefits of Blended Learning One of the more potentially impacting benefits of blended learning is in the area of student accessibility. According to Jeffrey, the ability to use the Web for the classroom has the potential to serve any student, at any time, in any place. (Jeffrey 2003) Likewise, the characteristics of blended learning also allow its K-12 students the same advantages in terms of accessibility. A blended learning’s online course components could possibly minimize the accessibility concerns for the following K-12 students who cannot meet in the traditional classroom:

 * students in rural or small school districts where the proximity of the classroom is the main challenge to content/material accessibility
 * home-schooled students with instruction in subjects their parents feel unable to teach
 * handicapped or hospitalized students who cannot travel to the traditional classroom
 * expelled students who are required not to attend the traditional classroom as a consequence but still can have access to material to prevent falling behind academically (Jeffrey 2003)

In addition to accessibility issues, blended learning also possesses the ability to collect and organize digital content material can also eliminate the use of physical textbooks in the classroom. Electronic content and resources can substitute for the information found in textbooks, or the electronic copies of textbooks can be downloaded onto computers and laptops, thus eliminating the high cost of purchasing textbooks and the physical and problematic concerns some educators have with students carrying heavy textbooks. The delivery of textbook information in an electronic format seems ideal for blended learning classrooms. According to one article, allowing teachers to use digital media instead of prescribed textbooks can open up all kinds of creativity and empowering tools of instruction. (Colin 2005)