text:
Signals and Systems/Fourier Series

The Fourier Series
The Fourier Series is a specialized tool that allows for any periodic signal (subject to certain conditions) to be decomposed into an infinite sum of everlasting sinusoids. This may not be obvious to many people, but it is demonstrable both mathematically and graphically. Practically, this allows the user of the Fourier Series to understand a periodic signal as the sum of various frequency components. (Or) The representation of a signal over a certain interval of time in terms of linear combination of orthogonal function is called Fourier series.

Rectangular Series
The rectangular series represents a signal as a sum of sine and cosine terms. The type of sinusoids that a periodic signal can be decomposed into depends solely on the qualities of the periodic signal.

Calculations
If we have a function f(x), that is periodic with a period of 2L, we can decompose it into a sum of sine and cosine functions as such:

 * $$f(x) = \frac{1}{2}a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty\left[a_n\cos\left( \frac{n \pi x}{L} \right)+b_n\sin\left( \frac{n \pi x}{L} \right)\right]$$

The coefficients, a and b can be found using the following integrals:

 * $$a_n = \frac{1}{L}\int_{-L}^L f(x)\cos \left( \frac{n \pi x}{L} \right)\,dx$$

 * $$b_n = \frac{1}{L}\int_{-L}^L f(x)\sin \left( \frac{n \pi x}{L} \right)\,dx$$

"n" is an integer variable. It can assume positive integer numbers (1, 2, 3, etc...). Each value of n corresponds to values for A and B. The sinusoids with magnitudes A and B are called harmonics. Using Fourier representation, a harmonic is an atomic (indivisible) component of the signal, and is said to be orthogonal.

When we set n = 1, the resulting sinusoidal frequency value from the above equations is known as the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency of a given signal is the most powerful sinusoidal component of a signal, and is the most important to transmit faithfully. Since n takes on integer values, all other frequency components of the signal are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

If we consider a signal in time, the period, T0 is analogous to 2L in the above definition. The fundamental frequency is then given by:
 * $$f_0=\frac{1}{T_0}$$

And the fundamental angular frequency is then:
 * $$\omega_0=\frac{2 \pi}{T_0}$$

Thus we can replace every $$\left( \frac{n \pi x}{L} \right)$$ term with a more concise $$(n \omega_0 x)$$.

Signal Properties
Various signal properties translate into specific properties of the Fourier series. If we can identify these properties before hand, we can save ourselves from doing unnecessary calculations.

DC Offset
If the periodic signal has a DC offset, then the Fourier Series of the signal will include a zero frequency component, known as the DC component. If the signal does not have a DC offset, the DC component has a magnitude of 0. Due to the linearity of the Fourier series process, if the DC offset is removed, we can analyse the signal further (e.g. for symmetry) and add the DC offset back at the end.

Odd and Even Signals
If the signal is even (symmetric over the reference vertical axis), it is composed of cosine waves. If the signal is odd (anti-symmetric over the reference vertical axis), it is composed out of sine waves. If the signal is neither even nor odd, it is composed out of both sine and cosine waves.

Discontinuous Signal
If the signal is discontinuous (i.e. it has "jumps"), the magnitudes of each harmonic n will fall off proportionally to 1/n.

Discontinuous Derivative
If the signal is continuous but the derivative of the signal is discontinuous, the magnitudes of each harmonic n will fall off proportionally to 1/n2.

Half-Wave Symmetry
If a signal has half-wave symmetry, there is no DC offset, and the signal is composed of sinusoids lying on only the odd harmonics (1, 3, 5, etc...). This is important because a signal with half-wave symmetry will require twice as much bandwidth to transmit the same number of harmonics as a signal without:

$$a_0=0\,$$ $$a_n= \begin{cases} 0, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\ \frac{2}{L}\int_0^L f(x) \cos(n \omega_0 x) dx, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is odd} \end{cases} $$

$$b_n= \begin{cases} 0, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\ \frac{2}{L}\int_0^L f(x) \sin(n \omega_0 x) dx, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is odd} \end{cases} $$

Quarter-Wave Symmetry of an Even Signal
If a 2L-periodic signal has quarter-wave symmetry, then it must also be half-wave symmetric, so there are no even harmonics. If the signal is even and has quarter-wave symmetry, we only need to integrate the first quarter-period:

 * $$a_n=

\begin{cases} 0, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\ \frac{4}{L}\int_0^{L/2} f(x) \cos(n \omega_0 x) dx, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is odd} \end{cases} $$

We also know that because the signal is half-wave symmetric, there is no DC offset:

 * $$a_0=0\,$$

Because the signal is even, there are are no sine terms:

 * $$b_n = 0\,$$

Quarter-Wave Symmetry of an Odd Signal
If the signal is odd, and has quarter wave symmetry, then we can say:

Because the signal is odd, there are no cosine terms:
 * $$a_0=0\,$$
 * $$a_n=0\,$$

There are no even sine terms due to half-wave symmetry, and we only need to integrate the first quarter-period due to quarter-wave symmetry.

 * $$b_n=

\begin{cases} 0, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\ \frac{4}{L}\int_0^{L/2} f(x) \sin(n \omega_0 x) dx, & \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is odd} \end{cases} $$

Summary
By convention, the coefficients of the cosine components are labeled "a", and the coefficients of the sine components are labeled with a "b". A few important facts can then be mentioned:

 * If the function has a DC offset, a0 will be non-zero. There is no B0 term.
 * If the signal is even, all the b terms are 0 (no sine components).
 * If the signal is odd, all the a terms are 0 (no cosine components).
 * If the function has half-wave symmetry, then all the even coefficients (of sine and cosine terms) are zero, and we only have to integrate half the signal.
 * If the function has quarter-wave symmetry, we only need to integrate a quarter of the signal.
 * The Fourier series of a sine or cosine wave contains a single harmonic because a sine or cosine wave cannot be decomposed into other sine or cosine waves.
 * We can check a series by looking for discontinuities in the signal or derivative of the signal. If there are discontinuities, the harmonics drop off as 1/n, if the derivative is discontinuous, the harmonics drop off as 1/n2.

Polar Series
The Fourier Series can also be represented in a polar form which is more compact and easier to manipulate.

If we have the coefficients of the rectangular Fourier Series, a and b we can define a coefficient x, and a phase angle φ that can be calculated in the following manner:

 * $$x_0 = a_0 \,$$

 * $$x_n = \sqrt{a_n^2 + b_n^2}$$

 * $$\phi_n = \tan^{-1}\left(\frac{b_n}{a_n}\right)$$

We can then define f(x) in terms of our new Fourier representation, by using a cosine basis function:

 * $$f(x) = x_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty x_n\cos(n\omega x - \phi_n)$$

The use of a cosine basis instead of a sine basis is an arbitrary distinction, but is important nonetheless. If we wanted to use a sine basis instead of a cosine basis, we would have to modify our equation for φ, above.

Proof of Equivalence
We can show explicitly that the polar cosine basis function is equivalent to the "Cartesian" form with a sine and cosine term.

 * $$f(x) = x_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty x_n\cos(n\omega x - \phi_n)$$

By the double-angle formula for cosines:

 * $$f(x) = x_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty x_n \left [ \cos(n\omega x)\cos(-\phi_n)-\sin(n\omega x)\sin(-\phi_n) \right]$$

By the odd-even properties of cosines and sines:

 * $$f(x) = x_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty x_n \left [ \cos(n\omega x)\cos(\phi_n)+\sin(n\omega x)\sin(\phi_n) \right]$$

Grouping the coefficents:

 * $$f(x) = x_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty [x_n \cos(\phi_n) \cos(n\omega x) + x_n \sin(\phi_n)\sin(n\omega x)]$$

This is equivalent to the rectangular series given that:

 * $$a_n=x_n \cos(\phi_n)\,$$
 * $$b_n=x_n \sin(\phi_n)\,$$

Dividing, we get:

 * $$\frac{b_n}{a_n}=\frac{x_n \sin(\phi_n)}{x_n \cos(\phi_n)}=\tan(\phi_n)$$

 * $$\phi_n = \tan^{-1}\left( \frac{b_n}{a_n} \right)$$

Squaring and adding, we get:

 * $$a_n^2+b_n^2=x_n^2 \left[ \cos^2(\phi_n) + sin^2(\phi_n) \right]$$
 * $$a_n^2+b_n^2=x_n^2 \,$$
 * $$x_n=\sqrt{a_n^2+b_n^2}$$

Hence, given the above definitions of xn and φn, the two are equivalent. For a sine basis function, just use the sine double-angle formula. The rest of the process is very similar.

Exponential Series
Using Eulers Equation, and a little trickery, we can convert the standard Rectangular Fourier Series into an exponential form. Even though complex numbers are a little more complicated to comprehend, we use this form for a number of reasons:

 * 1) Only need to perform one integration
 * 2) A single exponential can be manipulated more easily than a sum of sinusoids
 * 3) It provides a logical transition into a further discussion of the Fourier Transform.

We can construct the exponential series from the rectangular series using Euler's formulae:

 * $$\sin(x)=\frac{-i}{2}\left( e^{ix} - e^{-ix} \right); \quad \quad \cos(x)=\frac{1}{2}\left( e^{ix} + e^{-ix} \right)$$

The rectangular series is given by:

 * $$f(x) = a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left[a_n \cos(n \omega x )+ b_n \sin(n \omega x)\right]$$

Substituting Euler's formulae:

 * $$f(x) = a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left [ \frac{a_n}{2} e^{i n \omega x} + \frac{a_n}{2} e^{- i n \omega x} - \frac{i b_n}{2} e^{i n \omega x} + \frac{ib _n}{2} e^{- i n \omega x } \right]$$

Splitting into "positive n" and "negative n" parts gives us:

 * $$f(x) = a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left [ \frac{a_n}{2} e^{i n \omega x} - \frac{i b_n}{2} e^{i n \omega x} \right] +

\sum_{n=-\infty}^{-1} \left [ \frac{a_{-n}}{2} e^{i n \omega x} + \frac{ib _{-n}}{2} e^{i n \omega x } \right]$$

 * $$f(x) = a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{2} (a_n-i b_n) e^{i n \omega x} +

\sum_{n=-\infty}^{-1} \frac{1}{2} (a_{-n}+i b_{-n}) e^{i n \omega x}$$

We now collapse this into a single expression:

 * $$f(x) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} c_n e^{i n \omega x}$$

Where we can relate cn to an and bn from the rectangular series:

 * $$c_n =

\begin{cases} \frac{1}{2} (a_{-n}+i b_{-n}), & n<0\\ a_0, & n=0\\ \frac{1}{2} (a_n-i b_n), & n>0 \end{cases} $$

This is the exponential Fourier series of f(x). Note that cn is, in general, complex. Also note that:
 * $$\Re(c_n)=\Re(c_{-n})$$
 * $$\Im(c_n)=-\Im(c_{-n})$$

We can directly calculate cn for a 2L-periodic function:

 * $$c_n = \frac{1}{2L} \int_{-L}^{L} f(x) e^{-i n \pi x / L } dx$$

This can be related to the an and bn definitions in the rectangular form using Euler's formula: $$e^{ix}=\cos{x} + i \sin{x}$$.

Negative Frequency
The Exponential form of the Fourier series does something that is very interesting in comparison to the rectangular and polar forms of the series: it allows for negative frequency components. To this effect, the Exponential series is often known as the "Bi-Sided Fourier Series", because the spectrum has both a positive and negative side. This, of course, prods the question, "What is a negative Frequency?"

Negative frequencies seem counter-intuitive, and many people would be quick to dismiss them as being nonsense. However, a further study of electrical engineering (which is outside the scope of this book) will provide many examples of where negative frequencies play a very important part in modeling and understanding certain systems. While it may not make much sense initially, negative frequencies need to be taken into account when studying the Fourier Domain.

Negative frequencies follow the important rule of symmetry: For real signals, negative frequency components are always mirror-images of the positive frequency components. Once this rule is learned, drawing the negative side of the spectrum is a trivial matter once the positive side has been drawn.

However, when looking at a bi-sided spectrum, the effect of negative frequencies needs to be taken into account. If the negative frequencies are mirror-images of the positive frequencies, and if a negative frequency is analogous to a positive frequency, then the effect of adding the negative components into a signal is the same as doubling the positive components. This is a major reason why the exponential Fourier series coefficients are multiplied by one-half in the calculation: because half the coefficient is at the negative frequency.

Note: The concept of negative frequency is actually unphysical. Negative frequencies occur in the spectrum only when we are using the exponential form of the Fourier series. To represent a cosine function, Euler's relationship tells us that there are both positive and negative exponential required. Why? Because to represent a real function, like cosine, the imaginary components present in exponential notation must vanish. Thus, the negative exponent in Euler's formula makes it appear that there are negative frequencies, when in fact, there are not.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the name for the frequency range that a signal requires for transmission, and is also a name for the frequency capacity of a particular transmission medium. For example, if a given signal has a bandwidth of 10kHz, it requires a transmission medium with a bandwidth of at least 10kHz to transmit without attenuation.

Bandwidth can be measured in either Hertz or Radians per Second. Bandwidth is only a measurement of the positive frequency components. All real signals have negative frequency components, but since they are only mirror images of the positive frequency components, they are not included in bandwidth calculations.

Bandwidth Concerns
It's important to note that most periodic signals are composed of an infinite sum of sinusoids, and therefore require an infinite bandwidth to be transmitted without distortion. Unfortunately, no available communication medium (wire, fiber optic, wireless) have an infinite bandwidth available. This means that certain harmonics will pass through the medium, while other harmonics of the signal will be attenuated.

Engineering is all about trade-offs. The question here is "How many harmonics do I need to transmit, and how many can I safely get rid of?" Using fewer harmonics leads to reduced bandwidth requirements, but also results in increased signal distortion. These subjects will all be considered in more detail in the future.

Pulse Width
Using our relationship between period and frequency, we can see an important fact:

 * $$f_0 = \frac{1}{T}$$

As the period of the signal decreases, the fundamental frequency increases. This means that each additional harmonic will be spaced further apart, and transmitting the same number of harmonics will now require more bandwidth! In general, there is a rule that must be followed when considering periodic signals: ''Shorter periods in the time domain require more bandwidth in the frequency domain. Signals that use less bandwidth in the frequency domain will require longer periods in the time domain.''

title: Signals and Systems/Fourier Series


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Physical Chemistry/Introduction to Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is a misnomer since we will only consider equilibrium phenomena, not time-dependence like in kinetics. Thermodynamics deals with things like energy, entropy, volume, heat, work, efficiency (ideal), free energy, chemical potential, pressure, temperature. It was developed to explain steam engines back in the 1800's. It has come a long way since then, able to explain a vast array of phenomena in chemistry, physics, and biology. It is an old, but beautiful theory. It is important in chemistry.

Sample problem

An ideal monoatomic gas at 1 bar is expanded in a reversible adiabatic process to a final pressure of $$\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}$$ bar. Calculate $$q\;$$ per mole, $$w\;$$ per mole, and $$\Delta \overline{U}$$.

To solve this, we need to apply the fact that $$\frac{T_2}{T_1} = \left ( \frac{P_2}{P_1} \right )^{\gamma - 1 / \gamma}$$.

So, substitute and solve for $$T_2$$

$$\frac{T_2}{298.15\ K} = \left ( \frac{0.5\ bar}{1.0\ bar} \right )^{\begin{matrix} \frac{\begin{matrix} \frac{5}{3} \end{matrix} - 1}{\begin{matrix} \frac{5}{3} \end{matrix}} \end{matrix}}$$

$$T_2 = {225.96\ K}$$

Now, we use

$$w = \int_{T_1}^{T_2} \overline{C}_v\, dT$$

Which will give us $$w$$

$$w = \int_{298.15\ K}^{225.96\ K} \overline{C}_v\, dT = \begin{matrix} \frac{3}{2} \end{matrix} R \left ( 225.96\ K - 298.15\ K \right ) = -900.39\ J\ mol^{-1}$$

Hence, we have all of our answers...

Adiabatic means $$\Delta \overline{U} = w$$, so $$q = 0\ J\ mol^{-1}$$ and $$w = -900.39\ J\ mol^{-1}$$ while $$\Delta \overline{U} = -900.30\ J\ mol^{-1}$$

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
This law of thermodynamics was developed after the establishment of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The law is involved in defining temperature.

Let us consider three systems, A, B, and C. If systems A and C are in equilibrium, and B and C are in equilibrium, then A and B will be found to be in thermal equilibrium when connected by a heat conductor. This associative property of systems is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two systems are in thermodynamic equilibrium separately with a third system then both these systems are said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other.

Chimie physique/Introduction à la thermodynamique classique

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:205.188.117.70

http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=US_History:Road_to_Revolution&diff=prev&oldid=262741

title: User talk:205.188.117.70


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Gmail/Stars

Stars is one of many organization systems in Gmail.

How to
You might want to star messages for different reasons - to mark it as über-important, as a temporary filing system, or just for fun. If you want to "star" a message, there are several ways that you can. If you are in a mailbox view (i.e. "Inbox," "All Mail," "Sent Mail"), then listed on the very left of the subject line is a small white star - the easiest way to star a message? Simply click on that star, and watch it turn from white to yellow, indicating the change in status from "unstarred" to "starred." One can also use this technique when viewing a message (noting that the subject line will have moved to the top of the page).

If you want to star multiple messages, you can select them using the radio boxes (check boxes) and then select "Add Star" from the drop-down menu at the top of the page.

Unstarring is intuitive once you understand how to star - you can do it by clicking on the yellow star we talked about before, or using the radio boxes (check boxes) and drop down menu.

Operator
You can use the operator is:stared in your filters to avoid deleting your starred messages.

title: Gmail/Stars


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User talk:Irrevenant~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Kellen T 17:50, 26 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Please also check out the Cookbook policy page and the Cookbook talk pages.

RE: POMO?
I've seen you use the acronym "POMO" on the "Votes for Deletion" page. What does it mean, please? Irrevenant 21:10, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Er, I don't recall using the term myself, but, anyway, it's short for postmodernism. GarrettTalk 04:58, 10 November 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Irrevenant. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Irrevenant~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:18, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:03, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Irrevenant~enwikibooks


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Talk:French/Lessons/Alphabet

How to pronounce R in French?
The pronunciation is rather difficult for some language speakers. And I cannot find such sound in either English or my native language Chinese. Can anyone give more details on the pronunciation or give a picture of the position of the tongue?

I just noticed something after insterting the paragraph clarifying the difference in phonological terms on the the English and French 'p' and 'b'. I don't believe that the voiced labial stop 'b' is ever aspirated in English. In fact, the rule as the wikipedia aspiration page states it (and as I learned it as well), is "voiceless stops are aspirated when they begin a stressed syllable". 'B' is voiced and so it shouldn't fall into that category. But I'm not a native speaker and may not have absorbed the rules of English phonology that natives don't even have to think about. Tell me: is there the same difference between between 'pit' and 'spit' as 'bit' and ... well, it's hard to come up with an example. 'sbit'? But that's not a word. We need a word where the 'b' does not begin a stressed syllable. The 's trick' that works for 'pit' and 'spit' (and 'kill' and 'skill') does not work here since I cannot think of a word with this consonant cluster (I don't think 'disbarred' works because it's syllabized 'dis-barred' and so the 'b' still starts a stressed syllable). Possibly 'dweeb' might work here for comparison with 'bit' since the 'b' ends the syllable instead of beginning it. Suggestions anyone?

I am a native speaker, and when I say "spit" and "sbit" I get the exact same sound. Although sbit isn't a word, I think it demostrates the point quite clearly. So, until we can find a word with an unaspirated B, I think it could be used. 151.213.240.56 02:14, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

Does "ÿ" and "ö" exist in french?
As french native speaker, I don't know any word with those letter modified this way... Maybe I am mistaking but are you sure they exist in modern french? --Lyndametref 03:27, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

 * The lesson on accents says, "The letter ÿ is only used in very rare words, most old town names : L'Haÿ-Les-Roses (Paris surburb)." Don't know about ö. --Hagindaz 04:20, 5 April 2006 (UTC)

b and p - pit and spit example
I'm having trouble with the pit and spit example, as I'm noticing said "puff" on the second word when the text says it shouldn't. Because of this, I'm not sure if the text there is correct, or if it's a normal method on how I pronounce English words - and as such, I might never meet the requirement of that exercise even if I'm correctly pronouncing "papa". --206.248.132.105 (talk) 22:55, 14 January 2009 (UTC)

Punctuation spacing
I'm looking for an authoritative style guide on French spacing of punctuation symbols. I currently found one from Nova Scotia, but I think I need another style guide in order to confirm if this is correct under international French. --Sigma 7 (talk) 16:22, 26 January 2009 (UTC)

Usefulness of the h-section
Given the general irregularity of french pronounciation, i wonder if telling people about difficulties such as aspirated versus unaspirated h upfront is a good idea. Especially if the exercise is to lookup words in a dictionnary. Just say that as a rule, h is silent, and leave the aspirated bit for later. I'd drop this section, and reintroduce it whenever liaison is introduced, in a section like "liaison and words starting with a vowel". In the current state, it is as if you introduced a versus an to students on their first english lesson, just because they learn how to pronounce the letter u. Likewise, the section on french p versus english p seems a bit too frightening: you have to exercise with a piece of paper before you even see the first french sentence?

Conjugation of habiter Lesson 1.05
My version has tu habite. I believe it should be tu habites.

title: Talk:French/Lessons/Alphabet


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Rhetoric and Composition/Advanced Topics

Overview: Advanced Topics
Now that you have learned some of the basics of college writing, it is time to dive into the advanced topics of writing. The tools you have learned from previous sections will help you to be a more successful writer with advanced topics. There are many different reasons for which one writes. It could be for school, work, or even the community. The topics discussed in this section are writing for the humanities, sciences, and business. Each chapter will highlight the unique features that separate these genres and give practical examples of how each uses writing to achieve goals.

Writing in the Humanities
Writing in the Humanities includes theoretical writing, creative writing, interpretive writing, and analytical writing. Each of these qualifies as writing in Humanities, but each uses a significantly different style.

Theoretical writing includes historical and philosophical writing. This topic focuses on the ideas of past cultures and people. It also includes writing about your own theories.

Creative writing uses a more imaginative approach and can include storytelling, personal expression, or even free association. Poetry, song lyrics, short stories, non-fiction, and fiction novels are all included under creative writing. In creative writing, there is more freedom for the writer to explore feelings or ideas. Some forms of creative writing, like sonnets, do include formatting concerns or restrictions. Creative writing is more concerned with personal expression than adhering to tradition, however.

Interpretive writers do more than simply summarize the text they study. Interpretive writing improves understanding by asking a series of good questions. The interpretive writer introduces their own ideas about a text, but they must always back up claims by referring to the text they analyze, or another appropriate source.

Analytical writing is much like interpretive writing, but also goes a bit further. Not only will you provide information, but you will also analyze it. This includes asking “how” and “why.” You will need to take a critical approach to develop an understanding of the topic before writing about it.

This chapter will expand on the differences of theoretical, creative, interpretive, and analytical writing, and will share tips on how to write successfully while using those different approaches.

Writing in the Sciences
Writing in the sciences focuses on informing the reader of new discoveries, and assisting readers in discovering truth through facts. This form of writing should not leave anything open to interpretation by the reader. Information should be presented with solid data given in detail. Science writing is generally written in past tense and should be concise. Common forms of science writing includes lab reports and literature reviews.

Writing in science includes two main categories: natural sciences and social sciences. Natural sciences include pure science and applied science. Pure sciences are life sciences, physical sciences, and earth sciences. Applied sciences include medical sciences, engineering sciences, and computer science.

Social sciences focus on human behavior and societies. Social sciences involve documenting actual events as they happen as with case studies. Categories of social science include psychology, anthropology, political science, sociology, education, business, and economics.

This chapter will explain the distinct features of writing for the sciences.

Writing in Business
Business writing has a practical bent to it. Writing in business often means explaining a situation, event, or change. The author typically has a very specific action they wish the audience to take, and that action often contains time concerns as well.

Good business writing is concise and focuses directly on the stated purpose. A business document needs to be organized in a manner that directs a reader's eye to the most important points. A well-written business document should allow the reader to quickly scan for purpose, time constraints, and a contact person who can answer further questions.

Writing in business can include: memos, cover letters, resumes, project reports, proposals, thank-you letters, emails, and business plans.

This chapter will give you the techniques needed to build a resume as well as many important documents used in a business setting.


text:
Georgia Water/References

References, by Chapter

 * 1) References - Introduction'''
 * 2) References - Georgia Water Policy'''
 * 3) References - Management Programs'''
 * 4) References - Georgia Water Information'''
 * 5) References - Planning'''
 * 6) References - Statewide Plan'''
 * 7) References - Regional Plans'''
 * 8) References - Overview
 * 9) References - Savannah and Ogeechee Rivers
 * 10) References - Satilla, Suwannee and St. Marys Rivers
 * 11) References - Oconee, Ocmulgee and Altamaha Rivers
 * 12) References - Flint and Ochlockonee Rivers
 * 13) References - Chattahoochee River
 * 14) References - Coosa, Tallapoosa, Tennessee Rivers
 * 15) References - Georgia Coastal Area (Floridan Aquifer)

References - Combined Listing

title: Georgia Water/References


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Georgia Water/Planning

Chapter 5. Water Resources Planning in Georgia

 * Contributors

5.1. Professional Planning Standards

5.2. Planning Standards in Georgia

5.3. Best Practices in Water Resources Planning

5.4. History of Water Planning in Georgia

5.5. Current Water Planning in Georgia

5.6. Examples of State Water Plans (in other states)

5.7. References

title: Georgia Water/Planning


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Language Dictionary/ToonTalk

ToonTalk
Ken Kahn invented and implemented ToonTalk and proposes it for children. It is available for free from the ToonTalk web site to run under Windows on Intel-type architecture. I don't know whether anyone has tried it on a Windows emulator over a Unix-like system.

Type
ToonTalk has fine-grained concurrency and arguably a declarative interpretation, as a concurrent constraint (logic) language. Arguments are objects, not in the "object-oriented" programming sense of "object", but in the more everyday sense in that if I hand you an object, I don't have it anymore.

Execution Entry Point
The programmer triggers execution by performing a manipulation. There is no particular place to which this is limited.

General Syntax
ToonTalk's syntax is animation, as in cartoons. The programmer takes on a persona and shows robots what to do by example. The programmer (or a robot) can assemble robots into teams of robots. Giving a team a box (an array/tuple container) starts a process. Order matters in the team. On each execution cycle of the process, the robots in sequence attempt to match a pattern (one pattern per robot) to the box. The first match fires.

The programmer or a robot can put an object in a "hole" (compartment) in a box, or can take it out. You may regard this as similar to assignment. Holes can be empty.

A magic wand is available to copy things, and a vacuum cleaner is available to make things go away.

There is one reference and communication structure, consisting of bird/nest pairs (or families). A bird flies to a nest, in the simplest case (it is also possible to have multiple birds fly to the same nest, one bird fly to multiple nests, or multi-to-multi, but for this description, I'll continue assuming the simplest communication). When the programmer or a robot gives an object to a bird, the bird (she; all birds are female and all robots are male) flies to her nest and deposits the object there. If there are any objects already on the nest, the bird puts the new object underneath them.

When a robot is waiting for an object of a particular type to be in a hole in a box, if there is in fact an uncovered nest in that hole, the robot waits until a bird should put something on the nest. Then, the box appears to the robot as though the delivered object were there instead of the nest. Consequently, you can pass structures (as boxes with possible nested boxes) with, in effect, parameters whose values are not known yet, represented as nests. When another part of the program figures out what the value of the parameter should be, it can hand an object representing that value to the bird that flies to the nest in question.

You may regard handing an object to a bird as similar to assignment.

Actually, I lied; the bird and nest is not the only reference structure. There are also "sensor" objects linked to other objects as their "looks", and changes to one are immediately reflected in the other. These can't be boxes, however, just text, numbers, or pictures. I consider sensors dirty in the sense that assignments are dirty in Lisp and you can think of "pure Lisp" as a dialect free of this dirt. However, the sensors seem to be necessary in ToonTalk practice as part of an output mechanism (animated "pictures") that would be awkward to drive with birds; Dr. Kahn experimented with having birds as the only I/O and eventually switched to using the sensors.

Comments
The programmer or a robot can type labels on holes, birds and nests, and robots. The labels have no effect on execution, but can help the programmer very much to remember what the holes are for in the design. Also, the repertoire of objects includes "notebooks" on which it is common practice to write documentation as text pads placed on the left page to document whatever object is stored on the right page that follows. A notebook as a whole can also be labeled.

Variable Declarations
A box has a number of holes. You can put any object in a hole that is not already occupied. You can also hand a "rectangular" object (such as a box, a number pad, or a text pad) to a bird. The presence of the hole or bird could be said to constitute a declaration of a variable. The logic behind such a thought would argue that you can think of putting an object in a hole as assigning a value, and so the hole represents the potentiality to determine that value, and that is what a variable fundamentally is; it's an entity whose value we may not know yet, but to which a value can be assigned once we have figured out what it ought to be. From this viewpoint, the value of a bird could be thought of as the sequence of objects that will eventually be given to the bird.

On the other hand, if we choose to think of any object in ToonTalk that gets modified as two distinct objects, the one before the modification and the version after, then we can see the language as declarative and so of course there are no assignments nor variables to declare, except logical variables, and a bird/nest pair could be thought of as a logical variable. When you extract the bird/nest pair from Tooly the Toolbox, you are declaring the variable.

It's a matter of viewpoint.

Method Declaration/Implementation
There is a "toolbox" (really a supplies box) available to the programmer and all robots in all contexts. The programmer takes a fresh robot from the toolbox and hands it an example box. Each robot sports, at all times, a comic-book style "thought bubble", which reveals what pattern the robot would try to match (always a box) (a fresh robot has a thought bubble without any box in it; this is referred to as a "robot without a thought"). The programmer (in this case, a robot can't do this) gives an example box to a fresh robot as just taken from Tooly, the toolbox (the tools all have cute names; the magic wand is Maggie and the vacuum cleaner is Dusty). The animation then expands the robot's thought bubble to fill the screen. It is populated with a copy of the example box, and with the toolbox, and with an image of the robot that is connected to the mouse as its cursor. The programmer uses this cursor to act out what the robot should do every time it fires. To finish up writing the method, the programmer has two choices exactly. One is to hit the ESC key. When the robot executes this action, the process of which it is a part continues in existence and proceeds to its next cycle of execution. The other exit syntax is to pick up a bomb and explode it. This destroys the process when executed. Note that the programming session is not an execution, except in a limited sense that calculations on the visible objects will have their results evident.

After the programmer has thus specified the robot's actions (or body or tail as I would call it, thinking of the robot as a rule in a logical language), the programmer (or a robot, I think) can generalize the robot's pattern to the degree required by the software design.

Scope
Robots can manipulate the objects that are convenient to hand. The robot finds these objects in its "My Box" and can temporarily put them on the floor. "My Box" can also be manipulated (e. g. given to a bird).

Robots do not wander around.

There are three forms of action at a distance. One is the bird/nest mechanism already described above. The second is the spawning of new processes. A third involves special "sensor" objects that have immediate effects on their remote correspondents; I don't like to talk about them; they're dirty.

When a robot or the programmer hands a message (any "rectangular" object) to a bird, after the bird delivers the object to her nest, the bird flies back, and it is possible to hand her additional messages, or to pass her off to somebody else who can do so (e. g. by putting her in a hole in a box and handing the box to another bird).

Conditional Statements
The only conditions are those that are checked by the robot pattern matching mechanism described above. The body of a robot is straight-line code with no conditions, loops, or subroutine calls. Thus no stack is required for execution, and the time to fire a robot is predictable and short.

Patterns can directly check object type (e. g., number, string, N-hole box (with possible pattern constraints on what can be in the holes), box generally without regard to number of holes, bird, empty nest) and can check for constant values of numbers and strings (thus a string can serve as a message selector). To do magnitude comparisons (<, >), it is necessary to employ a balance. The balance compares two numbers or strings that are on either side of it in a box, and a pattern can look for a balance in a given aspect of tilt (less than, equal, or greater than).

Looping Statements
Each process that does not blow up is always in a loop. Recursion is also possible by spawning additional processes, which can contain a copy of the robot team that spawns them, or any other robot team. There is no other looping mechanism. In particular, as mentioned above, the body of a robot is staight-line.

Output Statements
Suppose you have been given a bird, and your understanding is that you are to use that bird as your output channel. Then extract a text pad from Tooly. While holding or pointing to the text pad, hit the backspace key to get rid of the "A" that is there (all fresh text pads have the single character "A" on them). Then type "Hello world." Press enter if you would like to include a carriage return. Hand the modified text pad to the bird.

There are also "pictures", which can have robots on the back of them executing as processes and causing the picture to change appearence (including showing text) using sensor objects associated with the picture. The programmer may thus animate characters.

The programmer can travel around the system and observe any process or object, and manipulate them besides.

Containers
The native container is the box. A box is a linear arrangement of zero to 64K - 1 holes. A hole can contain any object or be empty. Note that a box can contain another box. Boxes can be appended to each other or broken up. The zero-hole box is possible and useful.

Note that a list structure can be built of two-hole boxes. This differs from a Lisp list in that no objects can be shared between lists (except, in effect, birds and nests).

Note that processes can be used to contain things (every process centers around a single box, called "My Box"), and linked structures can be built up of processes communicating via birds and nests.

Algorithms
Algorithms tend to be recursive.

Garbage collection
There is no automatic garbage collection. Each process (except the ones on the backs of pictures) occupies a "house". The programmer is responsible to decide when these are no longer needed and arrange for them to blow themselves up.

Physical Structure
The dynamic space for systems being run and modified by a user/programmer is called a "city". A city consists of a 2-d array of city blocks with streets and avenues running between them. Four houses can be built on each block. A helicopter is available to give the programmer an overview and to support quick movement around the city. On entering a house (on foot), the programmer can observe the contents, which is usually a process. A programmer can also leave objects around in houses (or even on the grass outside, but this is not very useful, as not all manipulations will work from there). Processes are blind to whatever a programmer may have left in their respective houses, and an execution cycle of a process cannot leave anything behind, either (other than "My Box" and its contents). When a process spawns another process, this is done by the robot extracting a fresh truck from Tooly (it looks like a toy truck) and placing on it a team of robots (a single robot is really a one-robot team, and there is no way to construct a zero-robot team) and a box. As soon as the truck is loaded with both these ojects and is sitting on the floor of the house, it drives away. Once outside, it grows to the size of a real truck (so it appears in the animation, anyway) and drives around looking for a place to build a house. An invisible crew of house builders emerges from the truck and builds the house very quickly. The truck then shrinks to toy size again and drives into the house. The truck then disappears, leaving the team of robots to work on the box.

It is possible for the programmer to save a city on a Windows file, and to resume execution with a copy of that city. It is possible for the programmer to export or import any object (the export format is XML). There are long-distance birds that can fly over the Internet to different running instances of ToonTalk. There are "notebooks" that hold copies of objects on their pages (which can include notebooks). Every programmer has a principal notebook, which is persisted between ToonTalk sessions. It is here that one usually saves robots as soon as they are defined. These mechanisms, with the exception of the long-distance birds, are only available to the programmer by direct manipulation; robots cannot do them. Robots have no access to a persistency mechanism except through "foreign birds" (not to be confused with long-distance birds), which constitute the interface between languages.

Tips

It may be best not to have been exposed to other programming languages.

But some basic computer science still applies. Recursion is still recursion, and data structures are still data structures.

If you want to program with a stack, you can make your own.

Web References
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ToonTalk/links

Books and Articles

Morgado, Leonel; Kahn, Ken (2008). Towards a specification of the ToonTalk language, Journal of Visual Languages & Computing, 19 (2008), 574-597.

Main list of papers:


text:
Cookbook:Blackberry Mush

Ingredients

 * 100 g (3.5 oz / 1 cup) blackberries
 * 80 g (2.8 oz / ⅓ cup) white granulated sugar
 * 240 ml (8.1 oz / 1 cup) water
 * 20 g (0.71 oz / ⅙ cup) cornstarch

Procedure

 * 1) Put the fruit in a saucepan.
 * 2) Add sugar, cornstarch, and water, and mash to a pulp.
 * 3) Simmer or boil, uncovered, to reduce moisture.
 * 4) Serve hot over ice cream, or cold as jam.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Raspberries, plums, blueberries, and peaches may be cooked in the same way.

title: Cookbook:Blackberry Mush


text:
Cookbook talk:Blackberry Mush

Blackberry mush authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Blackberry mush =
 * 2005-10-26 12:44:06 User:Joel7687 m (formatting)
 * 2005-09-17 23:42:29 User:Viriditas
 * 2004-09-18 16:11:03 User:Anthony DiPierro
 * 2003-08-25 15:37:32 User:Angela m (format)
 * 2002-03-29 13:33:22 User:62.98.178.73 m

title: Cookbook talk:Blackberry Mush


text:
User talk:Geeke

I am here to help :)

title: User talk:Geeke


text:
Category:Blackberry recipes

Recipes involving blackberries.

title: Category:Blackberry recipes


text:
Category:Berry recipes

Recipes involving berries.

title: Category:Berry recipes


text:
Category:Citrus recipes

Recipes involving citrus fruit.

title: Category:Citrus recipes


text:
ILife/Appendix A

While technically not part of iLife, this feature on all Macs that came with an Apple Remote, lets you enjoy your media from your sofa.

The Front Row Remote
Front Row is a feature on some of Apple's latest Macs that lets you control certain functions of iLife from your sofa using a special remote. This remote is a curvy white rectangle reminiscent of the iPod shuffle and the now-defunct iPod mini. It has only six buttons on it: Play/Pause, +, -, >>, <<, and MENU.

Getting around Front Row
To show Front Row, press the MENU button on your remote. Your Mac desktop flies away into the background and four gargantuan icons rotate into place. Pressing MENU again hides Front Row and brings you back to your desktop, exactly the way you left it.

title: ILife/Appendix A


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Language Dictionary/Oz

Oz

Type
Multiparadigm; execution is sequential but programming styles could almost hide the sequentiality. Logical or dataflow variables are provided as well as shared mutable multi-assignment variables; however, the syntax for use of those variables differs so as to call attention to which the programmer is using.

Execution Entry Point

General Syntax

Comments

Variable Declarations

Method Declaration/Implementation

Scope
 There is lexical scoping?

Conditional Statements
 "if" and "case" commands are primitively available. Case commands permit decomposition of structures by pattern matching.

Looping Statements
 Built in.

Output Statements

Containers
 foo(bar=1, bletch=2) constructs a transparent data structure. The parts in lowercase are literals.

Algorithms

Garbage collection
 Is automatic.

Physical Structure
 Is developed and executed in an IDE, Mozart. There are tools for modularization and source code management (?).

Tips

Web References

Books and Articles
<List additional books and articles that may be helpful. Please include for what level reader the references are appropriate. (beginner/intermediate/advanced)> Van Roy and Haridi: Concepts, Techniques and Models of Computer Programming ("CTM").


text:
Talk:Software Engineers Handbook/Language Dictionary/PLI

Contributions
Thanks to Robin Vowels who contributed the original content by email. - Christine Frayda

Correction?
Isn't

do k = 1 repeat 2*i until (k > 1000);

supposed to be

do k = 1 repeat 2*k until (k > 1000);

with the variable k beeing used within the repeat statement?

Request of Discussion
I've decided to write some basic information about bit (1) strings into the main article and to put advanced information into a new "special" articel. About my motivation: Well, that's my point of view, I'd like to read how other people think about this.
 * I think the main article should contain basic information which enables reader to read/write PL/I programs, it shouldn't by a huge collection of very special information.
 * Simple boolean variables and NOT/AND/OR are programming fundamentals needed for programs more complex than "Hello World".
 * By my experience bit (n), n > 1 and BOOL/ALL/ANY are useful but there are many applications programmers they never needed it.

Kind regards, Wolfgang = Wzwz (talk) 18:31, 8 June 2009 (UTC) ( who will be absent the next 2 or 3 weeks )


text: User talk:68.81.193.206

title: User talk:68.81.193.206


text:
User talk:24.250.6.17

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:24.250.6.17


text:
Software Engineers Handbook/Language Dictionary/DEC PDP-11

Note: All assembly language sample code depends on the developing environment assembler and operating system.

Digital Equipment Corporation PDP-11
Here is the wikipedia entry.

Type
CISC

Execution Entry Point
On Unix, execution of a program would begin at the first word. The Unix "a.out" format (assembler output) had a header, and the first word of the header, 407 octal, was a branch around the rest of the header. By Fifth Edition Unix, the header did not actually get loaded in the execution image, so the 407 octal did not have to be executed; however, the "magic number" 0407 (octal) stuck as part of a.out format, even as the format moved to other computer architectures.

Registers
There were eight 16-bit registers, addressed by three bits in addressing modes in instructions. Register 7 was the program counter and register 6 was the stack pointer. Registers zero through 5 were general-purpose. The stack grew downward.

Addressing modes included postincrement and predecrement. A popular myth assumes these to be the source of the increment and decrement operators in C, but in fact those were inherited from B, which was implemented before the PDP-11 existed.

A consequence of the fact that the PC was addressed as an ordinary register, and of the inclusion of the postincrement addressing mode, was that you could load a literal value into a register (or send it to memory, for that matter) by having the literal follow the instruction in memory.

mov (PC)+, R5       177265

would put 177265 octal in register 5. In the assembler (using Unix assembler syntax here), you could abbreviate this as

mov $177265, R5

General Syntax
In the Unix assembler, a colon followed each label.

foo:  mov -(PC), -(PC)   / copy this instruction to the previous / location and branch there br foo            / branch to foo

Of course in the above example, the branch to foo would not have to be executed since the instruction before it is a (nasty) loop unto itself.

Instruction fields occurred on three-bit boundaries starting from the low-order side, so it was easy to remember some instructions and the addressing modes for programming in binary from the front-panel switches. For instance, machine language for

mov -(PC), -(PC)

was 01x7x7 octal, where I forget what x was but it denoted the addressing mode, predecrement, each 7 denotes the PC, and the 01 is the opcode for move (which means copy). These field boundaries did not hold for the branch instructions, however.

Comments
At least one of the assemblers (the DEC?) allowed comments delimited with a semicolon to end of line. In the Unix Assembler the character "/" was used instead.

Interrupts
The processor status word (PSW) was addressed at a specific memory-mapped location (-2, I believe). The interrupt vectors were in low memory. An interrupt would push the return address on the stack, and something else, because the format for an interrupt differed from that of a subroutine call, because there was a return-from-interrupt instruction distinct from the normal return (from subroutine) instruction.

Conditional Statements
There were branches, which went to short relative addresses, and jump instructions, which could go to any address using any addressing mode. Only branches could be conditional, in which case they would depend on condition codes set by a previous compare or arithmetic instruction. I forget whether there was a "branch never". There was a "wait", which would wait until the next interrupt, and a "halt", which would give control to the console (if executed in kernel mode or on a machine without protection).

cmp r0, (r1)       / compare the contents of register R0 to                           / what R1 points to in memory (two-byte word) bne foo            / branch not equal, to foo

Input/Output
Devices were memory mapped in high addresses. You could use interrupts or polling to know when they were ready. There were several levels of interrupt (or bus request).

There was a graphical computer called the GT40, before raster graphics became de rigeur. It had a computing processor that was a PDP-11, and a coprocessor to do the vectoring graphics. The graphic processor had its own jump instruction and would be put in a loop to keep the screen refreshed. There were great lunar lander and space war programs.

User programs on Unix, of course, did I/O with system calls, which were trap instructions.

stdout = 1 .data msg:   .code sys write; stdout; msg; 14. / is the length / don't bother checking for error or a write of less than / the full buffer. sys exit; 0                  / exit with an OK status

I'm not certain whether the exit status followed the "sys exit" as above, or whether it was in r0.

clr r0       sys exit

Since the arguments to system calls usually followed the trap instructions in memory, and the arguments often should be variable, and you can't write reentrant code if there are variables mixed in your executable code, Unix provided the "sys indir" call which could point to a system call in data space, which Unix would interpret as though it had occurred inline.

Indirection

One layer of indirection, determined by the instruction. You could index by a literal following the instruction.

Physical Structure

On Unix, assembly language usually used the .s extention (for "source"). The result of assembly was called a.out unless you told the assembler otherwise, in which case the convention was to use a .o suffix (for "object"). Typically the linker "ld" (for "loader") would be run on a bunch of .o files to produce the new a.out, which you could then cause the execution of by just typing its name.

Useful Commands

There were, in both the Unix and DEC assemblers, nonce labels. Rather than make up a name for every label you needed, you could just use a number and reach it locally.

1:   cmp r3, r4           / hit size limit yet? bge 2f mov (r0)+, (r1)+ inc r3      br 1b 2:

In the Unix assembler, 2f meant 2 forward (the next "2:") and 1b meant 1 back, and so on.

Jumps could jump farther than branches, but took up two words, so a branch was desirable if possible. The assemblers provided a way to code a branch if it could reach and a jump otherwise. You could write it conditional, in which case the assembler would output a branch around a jump if necessary (inverting the condition, of course).

jle foo                / jump to foo if less or equal jbr bar                / jump or branch to bar

The PDP-11 ia one of the original mini-computers. It was used in a huge variety of ways, from timesharing to embedded control as well as some desktop use. PDP-11 is not a language per se, but PDP-11 assembly is a flavor of assembly. This early machine's architecture influenced later microprocessors and because it affected the design of the machine native code, it also affected higher level languages.

The postincrement addressing also made it into the Motorola 6800.

The only reason you would want to learn the PDP-11 assembly language would be if you had acquired a working PDP-11 machine and wanted to write or modify programs running on it. The machine, PDP-11, as well as every machine that ran it native is obsolete.

Web References

Books and Articles
PDP-11 Programmer's Handbook, Digital Equipment Corporation


text:
User talk:213.159.79.142

Please stop. If you continue to use Wikibooks for advertising, you will be temporarily blocked from editing.

title: User talk:213.159.79.142


text:
Reaktor/Modules/Step Filter

The step filter updates its output value only if the input value changed by a significant amount, specified by the threshold input. Incoming values thus update in "steps".

Sometimes a reaktor module sends out a lot of events with the same value, which you can't really see. In the case you want to trigger something each time the output changes its value, you have to use a stepfilter with a threshold of 0 to filter out the events with the same value.

title: Reaktor/Modules/Step Filter


text:
Reaktor/Ensembles

Dissected ensembles, with description of their inner workings

 * L3
 * Weedwacker

title: Reaktor/Ensembles


text:
Reaktor/Ensembles/L3

L3 is a loop-based sample transformer. You can modifying the sound of loaded loops using different sound effects using a step-sequencer. These modifications, which are grouped into patterns (from A to H), can also be sequenced.

Each pattern consists of a number of step-sequenced sound modifications. Each step represents a 1/16 note. The sound parameters that can be modified are offset inside the sample, gain, panning, pitch, reversing a portion of the sample, rolling (stutter effect) a portion of the sample, and modifying the attack and the decay of the sample portion.

The ensemble can be separated into two big units, the sequencer unit and the audio unit. Roughly, these units are separated into the modules "Seq V5" (pattern sequencer), "Editor" (pattern editor/sound parameter sequencer) for the sequencer unit, and "Engine" for the audio unit.

Seq V5
SeqV5 is, according to its comment, a sequencer built by [|James Walker-Hall]. It is the part of the L3 ensemble that sequences the patterns, and handles the pattern length. On the L3 panel, it is the top bar with the pattern names on top, and crosses underneath the activated patterns, as well as the bar and beats-per-bar scale value field on the left. It has no input port (except the mysterious inactive "*"), and outputs the pattern length in 96th (port 96L), the current pattern number (port #), the current position inside the current pattern in 96th (port 96P), as well as the same information in 16th, which isn't used in the L3 ensemble.

SeqV5 consists of 4 modules. "Time" handles the bars and beat-per-bars inputs, and outputs the length of the pattern in 96th. It somehow involves the number of voices of the instrument, which is locked to 32. The maximum number of bars is voices module beats-per-bar, which is kind of obscure. "96P" handles the midi clock information and the pattern sequencer, and outputs the current bar, whether the module is playing, and the position in 96th inside the active pattern. "Pattern" handles the pattern sequencer, and outputs the number of current pattern according to the information out of "96P". "16P" transforms the 96th time into 16th time.

"96P" determines the current pattern and the sequences of pattern inside a macro "Loop", which interprets the mouse-area messages over the pattern sequencer. The Mouse macro converts the 0-1 X coordinate of the mouse area to a value from 1 to 16, and passes the mouse clicks to the loop area macro. This macro catches the x-coordinate of the mouse on the first click, and merges this first x-coordinate with future coordinates (moving the mouse with the button pressed). These coordinates are sorted, and the resulting range is the active pattern range in the pattern sequencer. The LLd and LSd outputs are used for the display of the selected range, while LL and LS are the actual outputs. They get triggered when a snapshot is recalled or when the mouse is released.

title: Reaktor/Ensembles/L3


text:
Feminism

Table of Contents

 * /Preface/
 * Introduction to Feminism[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * History of Feminism[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Feminist Philosophers - Some biographies of feminist philosophers.[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /John Stuart Mill/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Simone de Beauvoir/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Germaine Greer/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Angela Davis/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Judith Butler/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Famous Feminists - Some biographies of famous feminists.[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Mary Wollstonecraft/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Betty Friedan/
 * /Gloria Steinem/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Andrea Dworkin/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Susan Faludi/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Naomi Wolf/ [[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Tori Amos/[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Annie Sprinkle/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Elizabeth Cady Stanton/[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Susan B. Anthony[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminist Ideologies - The main schools of feminist thought.[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Marxist Feminism[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Ecofeminism/ [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Radical Feminism/ [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Liberal Feminism/ [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Socialist Feminism/ [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * /Anti-Racist Feminism/[[Image:00%.svg]]
 * /Ifeminism/ [[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Women's Organisations[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Rape Abuse and Incest National Network[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * National Organization of Women
 * The Issues - Some issues of concern to feminists, and the debates surrounding feminism[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Literary Criticism/[[Image:50%.svg]]
 * /Rape/[[Image:25%.svg]]
 * Can Men be Feminists?[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Trans People
 * /Pornography/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Women's Work[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Equal Rights Amendment[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Race[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Gender[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Class relations[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Queer Theory/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Reproductive Rights/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Sex and Sexual Relations[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Religion[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Political Representation/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and the Arts[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Language Use[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Technology Use[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Ecology[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Historical Interpretation[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Suffrage/[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminism and Science[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Feminist Writings and Literature[[File:00%.svg]]
 * A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (Mary Wollstonecraft, 1791)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * The Second Sex (Simone de Beauvoir, 1949)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * The Feminine Mystique (Betty Friedan, 1963)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * The Female Eunuch (Germaine Greer, 1970)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Our Bodies, Ourselves (Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 1973)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Woman Hating (/Andrea Dworkin/, 1974)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (Cherríe Moraga and Gloria E. Anzaldúa, eds., 1981)[[File:00%.svg]]
 * Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (Thinking Gender) (Judith Butler, 1989) [[File:00%.svg]]
 * The backlash to feminism, and the critics of feminism[[File:00%.svg]]
 * /Authors/
 * /Glossary/[[File:00%.svg]]

title: Feminism


text:
Feminism/Preface

The purpose of this Wikibook is to provide a resource for those studying Women's Studies (or Feminism) at Undergraduate level. This book will include noteworthy feminist philosophies, branches of feminist philosophy, and noteworthy prominent feminists (focusing on their work as feminists). Feel free to contribute to this book to improve its teaching potential!

Status
As of October 2005, this book is still heavily under development. There are also many articles to be added. That said, given the influence of feminism on both society and academia within the past decade, it is definitely a worthwhile subject matter for a Wikibook. What appears here is a starting point. - AmishThrasher 02:04, 27 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Feminism/Preface


text:
Feminism/Introduction

Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements, and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation. As a social movement, feminism largely focuses on limiting or eradicating gender inequality and promoting women's rights, interests, and issues in society.

Within academia, some feminists focus on documenting gender inequality and changes in the social position and representation of women. Others argue that gender, and even sex, are social constructs, and research the construction of gender and sexuality, and develop alternate models for studying social relations.

Some feminist scholars consider the essence of feminism as broader than male and female relations. It has been posited that the hierarchies in businesses and government and all organizations need to be done away with and replaced with a decentralized ultra-democracy. Some argue that the concept of having any central leader in any organization is a concept derived from the male-centric family structure (and therefore in need of reform and replacement). (See Anarcha-Feminism and Post-structuralism)

Feminist scholarship is interdisciplinary, drawing on fields of study such as anthropology, legal theory, sociology, history, literature and media studies among others. Feminist Studies, Women's Studies, or Gender Studies may be their own academic departments at some universities, while at others courses that use a feminist analysis may be taught through other departments, such as any of those listed above or another department with an explicitly political bent, such as Ethnic Studies, LGBT Studies, or Queer Studies. There is an ongoing debate as to whether or not the needs of students and of the field are best served by teaching about women's issues, racism, homophobia, and other interconnected issues in departments specifically devoted to such study or as single courses through a variety of more traditional departments such as Literature, History, etc.

Feminist political activists often campaign on issues such as reproductive rights, violence within a domestic partnership, maternity leave, equal pay, sexual harassment, discrimination, and sexual violence. Themes explored in feminism include patriarchy, stereotyping, objectification, sexual objectification, and oppression.

In the 1960s and 1970s, much of feminism and feminist theory largely represented, and was concerned with, problems faced by Western, white, heterosexual, middle-class women while at the same time claiming to represent all women through a theory of universal patriarchy and worldwide sisterhood. Since that time, many feminist theorists have challenged the assumption that "women" constitute a homogeneous group of individuals with identical interests. Feminist activists emerge from within diverse communities, and feminist theorists have begun to focus on the intersection between gender and sexuality with other social identities, such as race and class. Many feminists today argue that feminism is a grass-roots movement that seeks to cross boundaries based on social class, race, culture, and religion. Feminisms are culturally specific and addresses issues relevant to the women of each society, such as female circumcision in Sudan, or the glass ceiling in developed economies. There is an ongoing debate about the extent to which certain issues, such as rape, incest, and mothering, are universal, and under what circumstances feminists can and should intervene in other countries and form alliances with activists from other backgrounds, in light of histories of colonialism and globalization that can render forming truly helpful international projects rather difficult.

Over the years a number of feminist political parties have been formed. Although negative stereotypes about feminists are still quite common, feminism and women's rights are often subjects of mainstream or even conservative political rhetoric, as when Laura Bush used the concept of women's rights in a critique of the Middle East in 2005.

title: Feminism/Introduction


text:
Feminism/History

The history of feminism reaches far back before the 18th century, but the seeds of the feminist movement were planted during the latter portion of that century. The earliest works on the so-called "woman question" criticised the restrictive role of women, without necessarily claiming that women were disadvantaged or that men were to blame.

Prior to 1850
Feminist thought began during The Enlightenment with such thinkers as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet championing women's education. The first scientific society for women was founded in Middleberg, a city in the south of the Dutch republic, in 1785. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) is one of the first works that can unambiguously be called feminist, although by modern standards her comparison of women to the nobility, the elite of society, coddled, fragile, and in danger of intellectual and moral sloth, does not sound like a feminist argument. Wollstonecraft believed that both sexes contributed to this situation and took it for granted that women had considerable power over men.

Late 19th century
The movement is generally said to have begun in the 18th century as people increasingly came to believe that women were treated unfairly under the law. The feminist movement is rooted in the West and especially in the reform movement of the 19th century. The organised movement is dated from the first women's rights convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848.

Emmeline Pankhurst was one of the founders of the suffragette movement and aimed to reveal the institutional sexism in British society, forming the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Often the repeated jailing for forms of activism that broke the law, particularly property destruction, inspired members to go on hunger strikes. As a result of the resultant force-feeding that was the practice, these members became very ill, serving to draw attention to the brutality of the legal system at the time and to further their cause. In an attempt to solve this the government introduced a bill that became known as the Cat and Mouse Act, which allowed women to be released when they starved themselves to dangerous levels, then to be re-arrested later.

Other notable 19th-century feminists include, Emma Goldman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Margaret Sanger.

The Feminist movement in the Arab world saw Egyptian jurist Qasim Amin, the author of the 1899 pioneering book Women's Liberation (Tahrir al-Mar'a), as the father of Arab Feminist Movement. In his work Amin criticized some of the practices prevalent in his society at the time, such as polygamy, the veil, or women's segregation, and condemned them as un-Islamic, and contradicting the true spirit of Islam. His work had an enormous influence on women's political movements throughout the Islamic and Arab world, and is read and cited today. Less known, however, are the women who preceded Amin in their feminist critique of their societies. The women's press in Egypt started voicing such concerns since its very first issues in 1892. Egyptian, Syrian and Lebanese women and men had been reading European feminist magazines even a decade earlier, and discussed their relevance to the Middle East in the general press.

20th century
Many countries began to grant women the vote in the early years of the 20th century, especially in the final years of the First World War and the first years after the war. The reasons for this varied, but included a desire to recognise the contributions of women during the war, and were also influenced by rhetoric used by both sides at the time to justify their war efforts. For example, since Wilson's Fourteen Points recognised self determination as a vital component of society, the hypocrisy of denying half the population of modern nations the vote became difficult for men to ignore. (See: Women's suffrage)

The 1920s were an important time for women, who, in addition to gaining the vote also gained legal recognition in many countries. However, in many countries, women lost the jobs they had gained during the war. In fact, women who had held jobs prior to the war were sometimes compelled to give up their jobs to returning soldiers, partly due to a conservative backlash, and partially through societal pressure to reward the soldiers. Many women continued to work in blue collar jobs, on farms, and traditionally female occupations. Women did make strides in some fields such as nursing.

In both World Wars, manpower shortages brought women into traditionally male occupations, ranging from munitions manufacturing and mechanical work to a female baseball league. By demonstrating that women could do "men's work", and highlighting society's dependence on their labour, this shift encouraged women to strive for equality. In World War II, the popular icon Rosie the Riveter became a symbol for a generation of working women.

The rise of socialism and communism advanced the rights of women to economic parity with men in some countries. Women were often encouraged to take their place as equals in these societies, although they rarely enjoyed the same level of political power as men, and still often faced very different social expectations.

In some areas, regimes actively discouraged feminism and women's liberations. In Nazi Germany, a very hierarchical society was idealized where women maintained a position largely subordinate to men. Women's activism was very difficult there, and in other societies that deliberately set out to restrict women's, and men's, gender roles, such as Italy, and much later Afghanistan.

Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the first wave and feminists after about 1960 the second wave. Second wave feminists were concerned with gaining full social and economic equality, having already gained almost full legal equality in many western nations. One of the main fields of interest to these women was in gaining the right to contraception and birth control, which were almost universally restricted until the 1960s. With the development of the birth control pill feminists hoped to make it as available as possible. Many hoped that this would free women from the perceived burden of mothering children they did not want; they felt that control of reproduction was necessary for full economic independence from men. Access to abortion was also widely demanded, but this was much more difficult to secure because of the deep societal divisions that existed over the issue. To this day, abortion remains controversial in many parts of the world.

Many feminists also fought to change perceptions of female sexual behaviour. Since it was often considered more acceptable for men to have multiple sexual partners, many feminists encouraged women into "sexual liberation" and having sex for pleasure with multiple partners. The extent to which most women in fact changed their behaviour, first of all because many women had already slept with multiple partners, and secondly because most women still remained in mainly monogamous relationships, is debatable. However, it seems clear that women becoming sexually active since the 1980s are relatively more sexually active than previous generations. (See: Sexual revolution)

These developments in sexual behavior have not gone without criticism by some feminists. They see the sexual revolution primarily as a tool used by men to gain easy access to sex without the obligations entailed by marriage and traditional social norms. They see the relaxation of social attitudes towards sex in general, and the increased availability of pornography without stigma, as leading towards greater sexual objectification of women by men. Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin gained notoriety in the 1980s by attempting to classify pornography as a violation of women's civil rights.

There is a so called third wave, but feminists disagree as to its necessity, its benefits, and its ideas. Often also called "Post-Feminist," it can possibly be considered to be the advancement of a female discourse in a world where the equality of women is something that can be assumed—rather than fought for.

Recent activities
In many areas of the world women are still paid less than men for equivalent work, hold much less political and economic power, and are often the subject of intense social pressure to conform to relatively traditional gender expectations. Feminists continue to fight these conditions. The most high profile work is done in the field of pay-equity, reproductive rights, and encouraging women to become engaged in politics, both as candidates and as voters. In some areas feminists also fight for legislation guaranteeing equitable divorce laws and protections against rape and sexual harassment. Radical feminism was a significant development in second wave feminism, viewing women's oppression as a fundamental element in human society and seeks to challenge that standard by broadly inverting perceived gender roles along with promoting lesbian and gay rights.

In the Arab and Islamic world, feminist movements face very different challenges. In Morocco and Iran, for example, it is the application of Islamic personal status laws that are the target of feminist activity. According to Islamic law, for example, a woman who remarries may lose custody over her children; divorce is an unqualified male privilege; in certain countries polygamy is still legal. While not attacking Islamic law itself, these women and men in different Islamic countries offer modern, feminist, egalitarian readings of religious texts. In Egypt feminist gynecologist Nawal al-Sa'dawi centers her critique on the still-prevalent custom of female genital mutilation. Feminist groups in other African countries have targeted the practice as well.

One problem feminists have encountered in the late 20th century is a strong backlash against perceived zealotry on their part. This backlash may be due to the visibility of some radical feminist activism that has been inaccurately perceived as representing the feminist movement as a whole. Many women, and some men, have become reluctant to be identified as feminists for this reason. Outside of the West, feminism is often associated with Western colonialism and Western cultural influence, and is therefore often delegitimized. Feminist groups therefore often prefer to refer to themselves as "women's organizations" and refrain from labeling themselves feminists.

title: Feminism/History


text:
Feminism/Ideologies

Some forms of feminist theory question basic assumptions about gender, gender difference, and sexuality, including the category of "woman" itself as a holistic concept, further some are interested in questioning the male/female binary completely (offering instead a multiplicity of genders). Other forms of feminist theory take for granted the concept of "woman" and provide specific analyzes and critiques of gender inequality, and most feminist social movements promote women's rights, interests, and issues. Feminism is not a single ideology. Over-time several sub-types of feminist ideology have developed. Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the first-wave feminists, and feminists after about 1960 the second-wave feminists. More recently, a new generation of feminists have started third-wave feminism. Whether this will be a lasting evolution remains to be seen as the second-wave has by no means ended nor has it ceded to the third-wave feminists. Moreover, some commentators have asserted that the silent majority of modern feminists have more in common ideologically with the first-wave feminists than the second-wave. For example, many of the ideas arising from Radical feminism and Gender feminism (prominent second-wave movements) have yet to gain traction within the broader community and outside of Gender Studies departments within the academy.

For example, Radical feminism argues that there exists an oppressive patriarchy that is the root cause of the most serious social problems. Violence and oppression of women, because they are women, is more fundamental than oppressions related to class, ethnicity, religion, etc. Radical feminists have been very vocal and active in influencing attitudes and state-wide school curriculum standards. Thus, it is not unusual for feminism to be equated with the ideas proposed by Radical feminism. Some find that the prioritization of oppression and the universalization of the idea of "Woman," which was part of traditional Radical feminist thinking, too generic, and that women in other countries would never experience the same experience of being "woman" than women in Western countries did.

Some radical feminists advocate separatism—a complete separation of male and female in society and culture—while others question not only the relationship between men and women, but the very meaning of "man" and "woman" as well (see Queer theory). Some argue that gender roles, gender identity, and sexuality are themselves social constructs (see also heteronormativity). For these feminists, feminism is a primary means to human liberation (i.e., the liberation of men as well as women, and men and women from other social problems).

Other feminists believe that there may be social problems separate from or prior to patriarchy (e.g., racism or class divisions); they see feminism as one movement of liberation among many, each affecting the others. In this section, we will explore some of the main schools of feminist thought.

Wikipedia (Feminism article)

title: Feminism/Ideologies


text:
Feminism/Germaine Greer

Germaine Greer has stirred up debate all her adult life, identifying herself since the late 50s as an anarchist. The Guardian reported that the writer Angela Carter described her as "a clever fool", while former British MP Edwina Currie called her "a great big hard-boiled prat". Christine Wallace used the terms "grooviness personified", "anachronistic passivity", and "hegemonic heterosexuality" to describe her subject, to which Greer replied that Wallace was a "dung-beetle" and "a flesh-eating bacterium". Stephanie Merritt wrote in The Guardian:

"She has been in the business of shaking up a complacent establishment for nearly 40 years now and was employing the most elemental shock tactic of getting naked in public both long before and long after it ever crossed Madonna's mind ... She has repeatedly written about her own experiences of lesbian sex, rape, abortion, infertility, failed marriage (she was married for three weeks to a construction worker in the 1960s) and menopause, thereby leaving herself open to claims that she shamelessly extrapolates from her own condition to the rest of womankind and calls it a theory ... In part, her ability to remain so prominently in the public consciousness comes from an astute understanding and well-established symbiotic relationship with a media as eager to be shocked as she is to shock."

Greer was born in Melbourne, Australia in 1939, growing up in the bayside suburb of Mentone. After attending a convent, Star of the Sea College, in Gardenvale, Melbourne, she won a teaching scholarship in 1956 and enrolled at the University of Melbourne, where she acquired the nickname Germianic Queer, and graduated in 1959 with a B.A. (Hons.). She then moved to Sydney, where she became involved with the Sydney Push, a group of intellectual left-wing anarchists who practised non-monogamy. The writer Christine Wallace describes Greer at that time:

"For Germaine, [the Push] provided a philosophy to underpin the attitude and lifestyle she had already acquired in Melbourne. She walked into the Royal George Hotel, into the throng talking themselves hoarse in a room stinking of stale beer and thick with cigarette smoke, and set out to follow the Push way of life — 'an intolerably difficult discipline which I forced myself to learn'. The Push struck her as completely different from the Melbourne intelligentsia she had engaged with in the Drift, 'who always talked about art and truth and beauty and argument ad hominem; instead, these people talked about truth and only truth, insisting that most of what we were exposed to during the day was ideology, which was a synonym for lies — or bullshit, as they called it.' Her Damascus turned out to be the Royal George, and the Hume Highway was the road to it. 'I was already an anarchist,' she says. 'I just didn't know why I was an anarchist. They put me in touch with the basic texts and I found out what the internal logic was about how I felt and thought' (Wallace 1997)."

While in Sydney, Greer lectured at the University of Sydney, gaining an M.A. in 1963 for a thesis on Byron. A year later, the thesis won her a Commonwealth Scholarship, which she used to fund her doctorate at the University of Cambridge in England, where she became a member of the all-women's Newnham College.

Professor Lisa Jardine, who was at Newnham with Greer, recalled the first time she met Greer, at a college formal dinner:

"The principal called us to order for the speeches. As a hush descended, one person continued to speak, too engrossed in her conversation to notice, her strong Australian accent reverberating around the room. At the graduates' table, Germaine was explaining that there could be no liberation for women, no matter how highly educated, as long as we were required to cram our breasts into bras constructed like mini-Vesuviuses, two stitched white cantilevered cones which bore no resemblance to the female anatomy. The willingly suffered discomfort of the Sixties bra, she opined vigorously, was a hideous symbol of male oppression ... [W]e were ... astonished at the very idea that a woman could speak so loudly and out of turn and that words such as 'bra' and 'breasts' — or maybe she said 'tits' — could be uttered amid the psuedo-masculine solemnity of a college dinner."

Greer joined the student amateur acting company, the Cambridge Footlights, which launched her into the London arts and media scene. Using the nom de plume Rose Blight, she wrote a gardening column for the satirical magazine Private Eye, and as Dr. G, became a regular contributor to the underground London OZ magazine, owned by Australian writer Richard Neville. [4] The July 29, 1970 edition was guest-edited by Greer, and featured an article of hers on the hand-knitted Cock Sock, "a snug corner for a chilly prick."

She received her Ph.D. in 1968 for a thesis on Shakespeare's early comedies, and accepted a lectureship in English at the University of Warwick. The same year, in London, she married Australian journalist Paul du Feu, but the marriage lasted only three weeks, and ended in divorce in 1973.

Following her 1970 success with The Female Eunuch, Greer left Warwick in 1972 after flying around the world to promote her book. She co-presented a Granada Television comedy show called Nice Time with Kenny Everett and Jonathan Routh, bought a house in Italy, wrote a column for The Sunday Times, then spent the next few years traveling through Africa and Asia, which included a visit to Bangladesh to investigate the situation of women who had been raped during the conflict with Pakistan. On the New Zealand leg of her tour in 1972, Greer was arrested for using the word "bullshit" during her speech, which attracted major rallies in her support.

In 1989, Greer returned to Newnham College, Cambridge as a special lecturer and fellow, but left after attracting negative publicity in 1996 for allegedly "outing" Dr. Rachel Padman, a transsexual colleague. Greer unsuccessfully opposed Padman's election to a fellowship, on the grounds that Padman had been born a man, and Newnham was a women's college. A June 25, 1997 article by Clare Longrigg in The Guardian about the incident, entitled "A Sister with No Fellow Feeling", disappeared from websites on the instruction of the newspaper's lawyers.

title: Feminism/Germaine Greer


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Feminism/Marxism

Marxist feminism is a sub-type of feminist theory which focuses on the dismantling of capitalism as a way to liberate women and states that capitalism, which gives rise to economic inequality, dependence, political confusion and ultimately unhealthy social relations between men and women, is the root of women's oppression.

Feminist theory (or radical feminism) emerged in the 1970s stating that modern society and its constructs (law, religion, politics, art, etc.) are predominantly the product of males and therefore have a patriarchal character. According to people who subscribed to this view, the best prescription for women's oppression would be to replace the patriarchy with a gender equal culture or to have a separation of the sexes. Some feminists at this time felt the emphasis on criticising a perceived patriarchy was too narrow and/or misguided and so there soon emerged feminists who began analysing women's situation from a class based Marxist/socialist perspective.

According to Marxist theory, in capitalist societies the individual is shaped by class relations; that is, people's capacities, needs and interests are seen to be determined by the mode of production that characterises the society they inhabit.

Marxist feminists see gender inequality as determined ultimately by the capitalist mode of production and the major social divisions as class related. Women's subordination is seen as a form of oppression (rather than an illiberal discrimination) which is maintained (like racism) because it serves the interests of capital and the ruling class. Marxist feminists have also extended traditional Marxist analysis by looking at domestic labour as well as waged work.

title: Feminism/Marxism


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Feminism/Tori Amos

Tori Amos (born Myra Ellen Amos on August 22, 1963 in Newton, North Carolina, USA) is an American singer-songwriter. She is married to her English sound engineer Mark Hawley, and they have one daughter together, Natashya "Tash" Lorien Hawley, born on September 5, 2000.

Amos was one of a number of confessional female singer-songwriters in the early 1990s and is noteworthy as one of the few modern popular music stars to utilize a piano as her primary instrument. She is known for lyrically opaque but emotionally intense songs that tackle a wide range of subjects, including sexuality, religion, patriarchy and personal tragedy. Some of her charting singles include "Crucify", "Silent All These Years", "Me and a Gun", "Cornflake Girl", "A Sorta Fairytale", "Professional Widow" and "Spark".

Amos has experienced limited chart success in the United States and the United Kingdom but has also enjoyed a large cult following. She is also known for making eccentric comments during interviews and in concerts.

At age 21, Amos moved to Los Angeles to pursue her music career. While there she managed to get several acting jobs, including a Kellogg's Just Right cereal commercial (for which role she beat out a then-unknown Sarah Jessica Parker). (Amos says that she got the job because she could actually play the piano, whereas Parker could not.) After playing a bar one night, she gave a ride home to a patron, who sexually assaulted her—an experience that would feed into her emotionally-charged song "Me and a Gun." She also met Steve Caton, who played guitars on her albums through To Venus and Back (1999).

Starting RAINN
After touring throughout 1992 in support of Little Earthquakes, Amos went to New Mexico to write her second solo record, Under the Pink. It debuted at #1 in the UK and #12 in the US charts on its release in January 1994. It disappointed some critics, however, who considered it a step sideways rather than forwards from Little Earthquakes (but was voted among the greatest albums of the 1990s by Rolling Stone magazine some years later). In February, she began the "Under the Pink" tour. Four tracks were released as singles: "God", "Cornflake Girl" (a #4 single in the UK), "Pretty Good Year" and "Past the Mission", which featured the vocal contribution of Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails. A limited edition release of the album commemorating the Australian tour included a second disc entitled "More Pink", a collection of B-Sides.

Around this time an Australian tabloid managed to take "up-skirt" photographs of Amos during a live performance at which she was not wearing panties. Amos did not comment on this until eleven years later, citing it as her impetus to not return to Australia during a tour between 1995 and 2005.

Amos also contributed the song "Butterfly" to the soundtrack for the 1994 movie Higher Learning as well as a cover of the R.E.M song "Losing My Religion".

In June, 1994, Amos co-founded RAINN, The Rape Abuse and Incest National Network. RAINN is a toll-free help line in the US which connects callers with their local rape crisis center. In 1995, Amos, duetting with Robert Plant, contributed the song "Down by the Seaside" to the Led Zeppelin tribute album Encomium.

Amos performed a highly publicized television concert called "The Concert for RAINN" in late 1996. This coincided with "National RAINN Day", and during the concert all cable and network television stations aired Amos' public service announcement about the organization. During this concert Amos performed a song with her friend Maynard James Keenan of the band Tool. During this year she also co-wrote/performed a song called "It Might Hurt a Little Bit" with singer Michael Stipe of the band R.E.M.. It was intended for the soundtrack to the film Don Juan DeMarco but was not used and has never been released.

title: Feminism/Tori Amos