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General Astronomy/The Big Bang and Cosmic Expansion

The Big Bang is a misnomer, as it implies an explosion. In fact, the model describes an expansion of the Universe, not into some pre-existing space, but rather that it created space as it expanded. There is nothing outside the Universe, so there was nothing to expand into. It's just at one time every point in the Universe was incredibly close to every other place (less than the size of an atom), and that at the moment of the Big Bang, they all started getting farther apart at a high rate. This expansion continues today, and in fact appears to be speeding up, possibly due to another force called "dark energy." By current thinking, this expansion will continue forever, continually cooling.

The basic idea dates back to the 1920s and Georges Lemaitre who, basing his idea on Einstein's general theory of relativity. Soon afterwards Hubble's discovery that all distant galaxies are receding from us served as a confirmation of the basic idea of the Universe having a beginning in time and having since expanded.

By today's measurements—using the current size and rate of expansion as we understand them—working backwards in time leads to the conclusion that approximately 13-14 billion years ago, the Universe was compacted into the volume of less than that of an atom. By understanding how the forces of Nature work, we can trace this backwards into earlier times and higher temperatures. As we do so, the nature of the laws of Nature change, such that at 10^-43 of a second after the Big Bang (the "Planck time"), the laws as we know them break down. Hence, we cannot look farther back in time than that—and in such a situation it is impossible to look to a time before the Big Bang. [Of course, we cannot rule out the possibility that those ideas may someday change.]

At and before Planck time, most astronomers and physicists think that all the forces of the Universe—electromagnetism, the two nuclear forces and gravity—were all merged into one force, but we do not know how that force worked. After the Planck time, gravity separated from the "Grand Unified Force," the latter of which consisted of the strong nuclear force and the electroweak force. As things cooled further, the electroweak force split into electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force, and the regime we have today was born.

During the first three minutes of the expansion, energy cooled and matter in the form of hydrogen and helium "froze" out. After about three minutes, the expansion had cooled the Universe so much that no more elements were created ("nucleogenesis"). In fact, no new elements were formed for hundreds of millions of years until the first stars formed. All the hydrogen in the Universe, including that in you, and most of the helium can be traced back to the first three minutes of the Universe.

After that the Universe expanded for hundreds of millions of years before the first stars and galaxies formed in a highly energetic state (by today's standards). Since then, the stars and galaxies have evolved to what they are today.

There are three major pieces of evidence in favor of the Big Bang:

First and foremost is the expansion itself. This was discovered in the 1920s through the red shifts of distant galaxies. If all the universe is expanding today—which is certainly what the evidence shows—then it is reasonably easy to work the process backward in time to deduce that at earlier epochs the Universe was smaller.

The second piece of evidence was predicted by George Gamow, who is considered by many to be the "father" of the Big Bang, although he was not the first to come up with the idea. In the 1940s he made the calculations that showed how elements were formed at the time of the Big Bang. Basically, he said that if the Big Bang idea was correct, then the Universe should consist of roughly 75 percent hydrogen and 25 percent helium (other elements being very small constituents). This could not be confirmed at the time, but with the advance of technology, has since been confirmed.

The third and very strong piece of evidence also was predicted by Gamow long before it could be confirmed. Basically, he said that the Big Bang would have been very hot, and as it expanded the Universe would cool off. As matter cools off it gives off certain types of radiation. It is like a hot fireplace poker cooling off and changing colors, or the embers of a fire dying and turning dark. Even though they may not give off visible light, they continue to radiate infrared radiation. Although Gamow had a wrong estimate on the age of the Universe, he said that by today it should have cooled to a certain level, and if we had the technology to detect it, we could read the radiation and effectively take the temperature of the Universe. The technology to do this became available in the 1960s, and the radiation predicted by Gamow—properly adjusted for today's more refined value of the age of the Universe—has been discovered. It is called the "Cosmic Background Radiation," or "Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation," and is often abbreviated as CBR or CMBR. The CBR is especially good evidence in favor of the Big Bang, as there is little if anything else that can adequately explain it.

Historically, the Big Bang has had problems. The three main ones are called:

 * The Horizon Problem. You might call this the Mixing Problem. If we look to the edge of the observable universe in any direction, we find that everything seems the same, as if it was well mixed. But material 10 billion light years in one direction cannot mix with material that is 10 billion light years in another direction simply because the age of the Universe is too short. The material on one edge of the observable Universe is over the "horizon" for material at the other edge. They cannot interact. Yet everything is well mixed. How did it get that way?
 * The Flatness Problem. The actual density of matter in the Universe is too close to the critical density (that density required to just stop the expansion) to be coincidental. To be as close as it is today, the Universe had to have been "flat" (that is, critical density and observed density exactly the same) to within something like 60 decimal places. This is amazing. How could it possibly be so close?
 * The Smoothness Problem. In the original Big Bang scenario, everything is expanding away from everything else in all directions. As such, no two particles of matter would have every gotten close enough to stick together by gravity. Hence, there would be no galaxies, no stars, no planets. Yet these all exist.

About 25 years ago a physicist named Alan Guth came up with an idea now known as Cosmic Inflation. Think of water cooling off and changing into ice. It takes energy (heat) to hold water in a liquid state. When the water cools and changes to ice, it gives up this energy into the environment. This is called a "symmetry breaking." Basically, what Guth said was that in the early Universe, just a tiny fraction of a second after the Big Bang, something similar happened as it expanded and cooled. Only here the heat energy solidified into matter (via E=mc^2). The energy released in this symmetry breaking caused the expansion to suddenly speed up for a very short while, much greater than the Big Bang alone. This super expansion (inflation) helps solve the three problems that previously plagued the Big Bang model.

 * In a short introduction we must leave out detail, but in essence Inflation solves the Horizon Problem because at the very early stages of the Big Bang, everywhere was close enough to every other "where" such that they were well mixed. The sudden inflation essentially locked that well-mixed state in and it remained as the Universe has expanded to today.
 * Inflation solved the Flatness Problem because the inflation naturally ran out of energy just as the density reached the right value.
 * It solved the Smoothness Problem because in the very early Universe, quantum fluctuations caused small irregularities throughout the baby Universe (we know such "irregularities" occur all the time in space today). You can think of these as small density concentrations or "knots" in the fabric of space. Inflation suddenly blew these up to enormous size, trillions of times larger than the originally were. As the Universe expanded, matter collected around these spatial "kinks" and eventually formed galaxies.

Although there have been other theories, most notably the Steady State theory, none have been able to adequately explain all the evidence in at least a semi-consistent and coherent model. Some of the other theories are just variants on the Big Bang model.

We have a reasonable mechanism to explain Cosmic Inflation and the changes in the Universe since the Big Bang itself, but the cause of the original "bang" is unknown. There have been suggestions, but none offer an ultimate solution. One idea is that the Universe arose completely out of nothing, just as we observe (although on vastly smaller scales) in the quantum physics we know today. [Particles come into existence out of nothing all the time, but they do not stay around long enough to be counted. They are called "virtual particles" and there is strong evidence that they exist even though we normally are unaware of them. By the proper application of energy, we can make some of these particles stay around longer so we know they exist.]

What caused the Big Bang? This question probably does not have a scientific answer. It is in a category of questions like, "Why does something exist instead of nothing?" That, nobody knows.


text:
User:Teratornis

See my Wikipedia user page.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Teratornis


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Wings 3D/User Manual/User Interface/Hotkeys

Hotkeys
One of the great advantages Wings3D offers its users, is the ability to set user defined hotkeys. There are standard hotkeys which come predefined upon installing Wings, but most of these can be redefined to your liking.

Assigning Hotkeys
Any command that appears in a menu can be assigned to a keyboard shortcut. To assign a hotkey to a command, open the menu containing the command. Highlight the command and press the < Insert > or the < / > key, followed by the key you wish to assign it to. The hotkey should now appear beside the command. To delete a hotkey, highlight the command and press the < Del > or < \ > key.

These instructions can also be found in Help|How to define hotkeys

What to Know about Hotkeys
Here are a few facts about hotkeying in Wings, which will help in creating a layout that works for you.

 * The hotkey assigned to a tool or command is displayed beside it in the menu where that command is found.

 * Wings accepts any combination of ,  or  as a modifier to a hotkey. For instance, using the B key, you can assign the following eight command:

 * B, +B, +B, +B, ++B, ++B, ++B, +++B

 * Wings uses Context Sensitive hotkeys. Just as with Context Sensative Menus, Wings only allows you access to hotkeys of tools and commands available from within the current Selection Mode. This means that you can re-use the same hotkey for tools or commands in different Modes.  For instance S can be assigned to both Smooth in the Face menu and Slide in the Edge menu.  If there is a conflict Wings will tell you right away.

 * Hotkeys assigned to tools or commands found in the Menu Bar cannot be re-used. This is because the commands found in Menu Bar menus will (for the most part) work across all modes, making them global hotkeys.  For example if you assign +T to Tweak in the Tools Menu, you cannot re-use this hotkey because pressing <Ctrl>+T in any mode will start up Tweak Mode.

 * Wings does not currently allow hotkeying for Right or Middle mouse button options.

 * For your current hotkey listing, in the Menu Bar go to Help|Defined Hotkeys.
 * Currently there is no built in facility for printing a list of your hotkeys, however one can use the Erlang Console to produce an .html of all your hotkeys, which you can print. To do this you must enter some code into the Erlang Console.  Instructions are found on Scorpius's web page http://chronosphere.home.comcast.net/tut-wings-shell.htm

Hotkey Strategies
Although everybody eventually comes up with their system for hotkeys, there are some good basic strategies to get you started. The primary tools in wings such as Move, Rotate, and Scale have five basic directions along which you can perform an operation. These are:

 * the three axes X, Y, Z
 * along the selection's Normal
 * along the plane created by the camera's point of view, called Free

The primary tools Move, Rotate, and Scale also share the fact that they are available across all of the selection modes. Because of this it makes sense to use the same hotkey for Move, say 'M', in all four selection modes and use modifier keys to achieve the five basic directions. Because the basic directions X, Y, Z, Normal, and Free exist across all modes for a variety of tools, it makes sense to assign a modifier key to each direction. For example if we decide that <Alt> represents the X direction, then 'Move along X axis' would be <Alt>+M. You can then hotkey Move along X axis as <Alt>+M in the Vertex, Edge, Face, Body, and Light selection modes, so no matter what selection mode you are in you can always hit <Alt>+M to move your selection along the X axis. You could then consider using <Ctrl> for the Z axis, and <Shift> for the Y axis so no matter what tool you use the modifier for the operation's direction is always the same. Say you decide that 'R' is for rotate. Rotate around the Z axis can be hotkeyed as <Shift>+R, and around the X axis can be <Alt>+R just like Move along Z axis could be <Shift>+M. Once you decide what is best for you you can assign the other directions. Remember that there are eight possible combinations of any key plus its modifiers. This should be plenty to get the majority of the tools hotkeyed in a way you are going to remember them.


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Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places

Regions of Middle-Earth

 * Eriador
 * Gondor
 * Harad
 * Lindon
 * Mordor
 * Northern Waste
 * Rhovanion
 * Rhûn
 * Rohan

title: Guide to The Lord of the Rings/Places


text:
Cookbook:Lumpia (Fried Filipino Spring Rolls)

| Cuisine of the Philippines

Lumpia are a variety of fried Filipino spring rolls, and they make a tasty dish.

Ingredients

 * 1½ pounds (680 g) ground chicken or pork
 * ⅓ cup chopped water chestnuts
 * ½ cup chopped onion
 * 4 eggs
 * ¼ cup soy sauce
 * salt and freshly ground black pepper, to taste
 * 2 packages (about 40 ea.) small-to-medium size egg roll wrappers (wonton wrappers)
 * 4 cups cooking oil
 * Sweet and sour sauce

Procedure

 * 1) In a large bowl, combine meat, water chestnuts, onion, eggs, soy sauce, salt, and pepper. Mix well and set aside.
 * 2) On a clean, dry surface, place one egg roll wrapper with one corner facing you (like a baseball diamond).
 * 3) Place about 1 tablespoon of the meat mixture in the center of the wrapper.
 * 4) Dip your fingers in a glass of water and lightly wet the corner pointing away from you (second base).
 * 5) Fold the corner closest to you (home base) over the mixture, then fold the side corners over that and roll away from your body. The wet corner should seal the roll.
 * 6) Repeat the filling and shaping process with the remaining ingredients.
 * 7) Place the rolls in large zip-close plastic bags and freeze overnight.
 * 8) In a large saucepan, heat the oil to about 350°F (175°C) or until it begins to shimmer and the oil bubbles lightly when a wooden chopstick is inserted.
 * 9) Using tongs, place each frozen lumpia roll in the hot oil and fry until brown, about 3 to 4 minutes. Use tongs to turn rolls to ensure even cooking.
 * 10) Remove the rolls to a plate covered with paper towels to absorb excess oil.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve with sweet and sour sauce.


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User:Pathfinders/About the author

Mark O'Ffill is a member of the NAD Honors Committee and submitted the 2006 requirements for the Computer and Advanced Computer Honors. He also is the author of the Internet and Internet Advanced NAD AY Honors.

Mark was the webmaster for the 1999 and 2004 NAD International Pathfinder Camporees, serving for over seven years in that capacity, providing the Camporee community with an online informational resource.

At the writing of this biography, Mark is the Religion and Computer Teacher at Pacific Union College Preparatory School in Angwin, CA. He also serves as Registrar and Information Technology Services guy for this institution. He has been a staff member at PUC Prep since 2003.

"Pastor Mark" is an ordained minister, and served for almost five years as a youth pastor in Florida. He is a 6th generation Seventh-day Adventist pastor, and loves studying Adventist history.

Mark is an avid Pathfinder, serving as a Pathfinder staff member since the age of fifteen, when he was the youngest Director in the North America Division. Since 2004, he has been the Area 9 Area Coordinator for the Northern California Conference of Seventh-day Adventists. He loves earning Pathfinder honors and mentoring staff members in creative teaching methods they can use in teaching Pathfinders.

title: User:Pathfinders/About the author


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English as an Additional Language/ELL Intervention Strategies

This information is intended to be used as a resource for educators to find ways to help English language learners. It is crucial for educators to teach to students' learning styles. Moreover, identifying what is the best learning style to use is critical when teaching English language learners. ELL students, specially the older ones, can be proficient in their own languages, nevertheless it is common for them to experience difficulty when learning a second language. One of the reasons for this phenomenon could be because of the different learning styles the learner is used too.

Learning Styles
There are several different learning styles, but there is not one style that has been proven better than another on its own. Educators don’t just focus on any learning style specifically; in fact there is a significant overlap in all the different learning styles. Auditory learners are the type of students who recall everything they hear. They prefer oral instruction and they learn by listening and speaking best. This is particularly difficult for ELL learners because their input comprehension is not developed enough to process all the information at once. ELL students will remember what they were able to comprehend and more than likely will capture some of the context and not all making this a very challenging learning style on its own.

Visual learners will do best in an environment that they are able to see what they are learning about. Their comprehension ability is enhanced by presenting the information in a visual manner. Usually this information is presented by using maps, computer graphics, graphic organizers, charts, cartoons, posters, text with pictures, movies, etc. Today technology has taken visual aids in the classroom to the next level. There are so many ways in which you can present a topic to students using technology as a tool to aid a lesson in order to make a visual learning environment.

Kinesthetic learners are the type of learners that captivates new information by touching or manipulating objects. This type of learner usually involves the student’s whole body in learning or otherwise known as Total Physical Response. TPR is an excellent method to teach ESL\ELL students because they remember material best if they act it out and are involved in the interaction. Some examples of this technique is playing games that involve their whole body, movement activities, making models, following instructions to make something or setting up experiments.

Technology as Intervention Strategies
This is an interactive series of activities and games that teachers using McMillan Treasures Curriculum in elementary grades for language arts can access via the Internet. Students can try at home or they can interact with the website in the classroom during center time if the capabilities of computers will allow it. These activities are related with the story, vocabulary, and grammar that the students are studying in class. http://activities.macmillanmh.com/reading/treasures/

Great Resources and Links
1. Just as important to identify the student’s learning style is to identify the stages of language acquisition in the second language. Here is a great resource link to better understand the stage of language acquisition. http://www.everythingesl.net/inservices/language_stages.php

2. Once the teacher is able to identify the best combination of learning styles to implement in the classroom, the stage of language development needs to be identified. Then a series of interventions and strategies are implemented, here is a good resource link on issues of identification and intervention methods. http://web.archive.org/web/20050516174907/http://www.crosscultured.com/articles/accult_cogn_handouts.pdf

3. What to do when you have an ESL\ELL student with special needs? Here is link to a great article on this matter and it is a source for great strategies to implement in the classroom. http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/0108ortiz.html

4. Research Study: Early reading intervention for English language learners at-risk for learning disabilities: student and teacher outcomes in an urban school Published by: Learning Disability Quarterly - September 22, 2001 Author: Diane Haager http://www.colorincolorado.org/articles/cld_earlyreadingint.php

5. This is a list of accommodations and interventions strategies that could be adapted for ELL students; however these are specifically for Special Education students. http://atto.buffalo.edu/registered/ATBasics/Foundation/Laws/AccomList.pdf


text: User:YK Times

title: User:YK Times


text:
Z80 Assembly/Hello World

In this section you will make a program to display "Hello, World!" on the screen.

Writing the Program
Make a new text file in Notepad and type in the following text: The tabbed lines need to be tabbed! Save this file as myprog.z80 into your "Programs" subfolder.

Compiling the Program
Compiling essentially means translating text code into code that a machine can read.

To compile your program myprog.z80 first open a Command Prompt (Start > Run... > command in Win9x, or Start > Run... > cmd in WinNT). You should be faced with a black window with some white text saying what folder you are in. The first step is to change the folder to your programs folder. To do this use the following commands: Afterwards, you need to type in: This should automatically compile myprog.z80 if you have followed all instructions correctly. The finished program should be located in your "Programs" folder as myprog.8xp.
 * 1) cd subfoldername (This will go to the subfolder that you tell it to.)
 * 2) cd .. (This will instantly go to the folder that holds the folder you are in.)
 * 1) compile myprog

Testing the Program
On your computer, open up the TI 83 Plus Flash Debugger to make a fake calculator for testing purposes. Click on the white paper icon to make a new fake calculator and choose the 83+ calculator. Then click on Load... RAM File and open your compiled program (myprog.8xp). Finally, click on the triangle-shaped play button to begin emulation. On the fake calculator, press [2nd]+[Catalog] to bring up the catalog and arrow down to Asm(. Press enter to insert the command into the screen and then select your program ([PRGM],[ENTER]). The screen on the calc should say Asm(prgmMYPROG). Now press enter, and "Hello World" should be displayed on the screen.

Always test your programs on the Flash Debugger before you use them on your real calculator because there is a large chance of your real calculator crashing.

Commands of the Program
The only lines of importance now are the middle ones: When the calculator executes a program, it follows the commands line by line. The first line (ld a,0) loads zero into a, which is a commonly used variable. So now the variable a=0. The next two lines load that number into the cursor row and column. So now the cursor is located at 0,0 and the next text will be displayed at that location. The fourth line (ld hl,text), loads the location of .db "Hello... into hl, another variable. B_Call(_PutS) takes the text that hl has specified and displays it at the current cursor location. Finally, ret tells the calculator to exit out of the program. You should now have a vague understanding of the functions of most of the lines in your first program.

title: Z80 Assembly/Hello World


text:
Cookbook:Chicken Tagine with Lemon and Olives

| American cuisine

Ingredients

 * 2 tablespoons lemon juice
 * 1 pound boneless, skinless chicken breasts, cut in three pieces
 * ¼ cup all-purpose flour
 * ½ teaspoon salt
 * ¼ teaspoon freshly ground black pepper
 * ⅛ teaspoon ground red pepper
 * ¼ teaspoon ground turmeric
 * 2 teaspoons olive oil
 * 1 medium yellow onion, chopped
 * 2 teaspoons grated fresh ginger
 * 2 garlic cloves, minced
 * ½ cup fat-free low-sodium chicken broth
 * ¼ cup pitted green olives
 * 2 teaspoons grated lemon zest
 * 3-inch cinnamon stick
 * 2 tablespoons chopped fresh cilantro

Procedure

 * 1) In a large zip-close plastic bag, combine the juice and chicken. Seal and marinate in the refrigerator 30 minutes.
 * 2) Remove chicken from bag and discard marinade. Pat chicken dry with paper towels.
 * 3) In a shallow bowl, combine the flour, salt, and black and red peppers, and turmeric.
 * 4) Dredge the chicken through the flour mixture, lightly coating both sides, and set aside.
 * 5) In a large, deep nonstick skillet, heat the oil over medium-high heat.
 * 6) Add the chicken and cook for 3 minutes per side, or until lightly browned.
 * 7) Remove the chicken from the pan and set aside.
 * 8) Add the onion, ginger, and garlic to pan. Fry until tender.
 * 9) Return the chicken to the pan. Add the broth, olives, lemon zest, and cinnamon stick.
 * 10) Bring to a boil, then cover, reduce heat, and simmer 1 hour or until chicken is tender.
 * 11) To serve, discard the cinnamon stick and stir in cilantro.


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Biblical Studies/New Testament Commentaries/The Gospel of John/Chapter 5

Introduction to John Chapter 5
Key Points to Look For
 * Comparison with narrative in the Synoptic Gospels describing the healing of a paralytic.
 * The idea that God works on the Sabbath.
 * The relationship between equality and subordination in Jesus' words.
 * James McGrath's argument (in an article in NTS and in his book John's Apologetic Christology) that in 5:18 the participle should be understood in the following manner: "He was making God his Father, and yet making himself equal to God", so that there is a tension between a claim to sonship and behaving as an equal, rather than the latter being the implication of former.
 * Is "making himself equal to God" a correct or incorrect assessment of Jesus from the perspective of this author?

A controversy between Jesus and the Jews In the fifth chapter the Jews are confronting Jesus about breaking the law of Moses. Jesus instantly healed a man who had been unable to walk for thirty-eight years. He told the man to pick up his bed and walk. Because there was a law in the Hebrew religion about working on the Sabbath, the man carrying his bed was accused of breaking the law. This is a very important point in Jesus' ministry because it marks the first time Jesus directly incites "The Jews." Jesus claimed that he was doing exactly what God told and even showed him to do, but because of religious blindness the Jews confronting him did not recognize, approve or understand that God was being revealed through the miracle of Jesus. Jesus was not putting himself above the laws of the Jews by commanding a man to perform a task on the Sabbath, he was showing them that they had the wrong law. To further this controversy of the times, the healed man seems to have more less concern for the law than for the man (Jesus) who gave him permission to disobey the law. In v. 13, the narrator tells the reader that Jesus had “slipped into the crowd,” which shows once again that He keeps His ministry low profile, and for the people. Jesus later tells the healed man to “Stop sinning,” he did not teach that humans inherited a sin nature or that they could not stop sinning. By saying, “Something worse may happen to you,” Jesus is forewarning the man of a punishment for sins. Later he says whoever sins is a slave of sin and slaves cannot abide in the Father's house.

At the beginning of this chapter, Jesus performs a miracle. He heals an invalid who is trying to make his way to healing waters and is receiving no help from those around him. Jesus tells him to pick up his mat and walk away, and the man is immediately cured. However, a little ways down the road, the man is stopped and chided for carrying his mat on the Sabbath day. However, he tells those who stop him that he was told by the one who healed him to carry the mat. Breaking Sabbath was a serious offense in the ancient world, and this event helped to spark anger against Jesus from the people at the top.

It is more likely that the sin of which Jesus is talking is a symbolic and thus the punishment that would follow the sin would not be specific to the man or represent actual sickness. "The misfortune is punishment for was a common view, which has not died out in modernity," (Smith 133). The sickness that may result from human sin could be paralleled to evil and "sickness" among people.

This passage is the first occurrence in the Gospel of John where someone was healed by their faith in Jesus. When the man was healed just by Jesus asking him if he wanted to be healed, it is the same occurrence as in the Synoptic Gospels when people are healed by their faith Jesus. The important part of this passage is the conflict between Jesus and the religious leaders. Jesus healed a man but was "wrong" according to the Jewish leaders because the healing took place on the Sabbath. This story is an illustration of someone being blind to faith. The leaders are so concerned with meaningless laws that they do not see that good is being done through faith. Isn't this what John wrot that the Law came by Moses but grace and truth came by Jesus.

The Jews seemed quite upset with Jesus claiming to be God's son. The work he did in this chapter, however, is highly appropriate for a father/son relationship. In verse 17, Jesus says, "My Father is still working, and I also am working." This is consistent with the fact that sons typically learned the family business and became apprentices for their fathers. Fathers also were known to send their eldest sons to do business for them when they were unable to do so. In a sense, then, Jesus is acting as an apprentice to God, his Father. Jesus explains this further in verse 19, when he starts using the phrase "as the Father, so also the Son...". The only time Jesus says the Son does something without the Father is in verse 22 when he talks about judgment.

Unlike the Synoptic Gospels, in which all accounts of Jesus' healing miracles take place outside of Jerusalem, John's account of Jesus' healing takes place inside Jerusalem. Also, "Bethesda" is a very real and exact location in Jerusalem. It was probably used as a healing spa for cripples and paralytics. The man, obviously sick and or paralyzed, came to this place for healing (or at the very least, an ease from pain). Jesus' Message to the Jews    After it is stated that the Jews are looking to kill Jesus because he was, one, working on the Sabbath, and two, making himself equal to God, he gives them this very long message that starts at verse 19 and ends at the end of the chapter. Basically what Jesus tells the Jews that confront and see him there is that he does things like the Father in a like manner and the Father works through him so that others may believe. He further says that "the hour is coming where the dead will hear the son of God and those who have given heed will live" (John 5:25) (a reference to the Judgment Day when he raises the dead). What this means then is that those who have believed will be able to go on in the second coming of Jesus, and live once more. Judgment is soon coming, but is not up to Jesus to judge because he only judges through the will of the one who sent him. He then further goes on to explain that there is another here on earth that bears witness to him (John the Baptist) and they have taken kindly to him and were willing for awhile to "rejoice greatly in his light"(John 5:35). Now it is Jesus who has come to bear witness to God. Furthermore, these are the ways in which the Jews can be saved, by believing in those that come to bear witness to God, through John, and then Jesus. They only have to believe in Jesus and what he says and they can be saved.

A Note on Sonship in John Chapter 5 In claiming His Sonship (Verse 18), Jesus was completely misunderstood. Later he tells the Jews that their father is the devil and they say no God is our father. So they all claimed sonship. They wanted to kill him for claiming to be the Messiah and because they had really embraced the devil as their father while claiming God as their father.

Verse 5:18 There is some controversy over how this verse should translate. The New Revised Standard Version states this verse as, "For this reason the Jews were seeking all the more to kill him, because he was not only breaking the sabbath, but was also calling God his own Father, thereby making himself equal to God." However, one particular scholar, James McGrath, believes the end of this line should read something along the lines of "...he was not only breaking the sabbath, but was calling God his own Father, and also claiming himself equal to God."

The charge that he was making himself equal to God is moot since the Jews who wanted to kill him made the same claim that God was their father. The fact is he said "The father is greater than I."

McGrath believes this is the case because in Biblical times, it wasn't assumed that a son calling a man his father made the son equal to his father. In fact, the relationship between a father and son in these times was definitely not of equals, but involved the son's obedience, and a hierarchal relationship, making the father "above" the son. Therefore, McGrath's translation makes more sense historically, considering Jesus calling God his Father because he truly believed he was wouldn't necessarily automatically mean, during the times these events occurred, that Jesus believes he is equal to his Father, God. Either way, verse 5:18 in John, that shows the Jews' dismay with Jesus' claims, is an ideal segue into Jesus' long monologue regarding what he proclaims his relationship to be with God.

Jesus "equal" to God? The major question throughout the end of chapter five asks was Jesus really "equal" to God? This question should be asked because a first glance at verses 19-32 provides a seemingly contradictory picture of a Jesus that is both very submissive to the Father but also taking on some of his tasks. First, one must look to the definition of equal. This word should be researched for us to gain a better understanding of whether or not Jesus was really equal to God. There are several verses that suggest they were not. For instance just a few verses can be examined. Verse 19, Verse 22 "For not even the Father judges anyone, but He has given all judgment to the Son..." Verse 27 "He gave Him authority to execute judgment, because He is the Son of Man." Verse 30 "I can do nothing on My own initiative. As I hear, I judge; and My judgment is just, because I do not seek My own will, but the will of Him who sent Me." (NAS). The words I speak are not mine but the fathers. Of my own self I can do nothing. The miracles are done through me by the father.

There are also verses that appear to suggest equality. For instance, verse 21 "For just as the Father raises the dead and gives them life, even so the Son also gives life to whom He wishes." verse 26 "For just as the Father has life in Himself, even so He gave to the Son also to have life in Himself." (NAS). If the father gave him the power he could not be equal to the Father or he would have the power in himself. God cannot give something to God. One must look deep into contextual meanings of this last chapter to really gain an understanding of whether Jesus and God were "equal". The main part of this context is the Gospel itself. It is a mistake to read John 5  through the lens of the prologue. If you believe that the first few verses, the author portrays Jesus as "the Word," saying, "In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God and the Word was God" (John 1:1), you will misread everything to make Jesus God. But if you look carefully at the prologue it says the word was with God. It does not say Jesus was with the father. You cannot add words to scripture. If the word is the Angel of Wisdom, God's architect who inhabited Jesus, then Jesus is the agent of God and given God's power but not equal to God. The son of God but not God the son. The phrase God the son never appears in Scripture. In fact it says God is not a man nor a son of man. However, if you read the final statement that the "Word (Jesus) was God" you must force everything to fit your preconceived idea and explain away things like Jesus being tempted to sin. God cannot be tempted. Jesus not knowing the day of his return. Jesus dying. God cannot die. You end up saying Jesus is both fully God and fully human, which of course sounds contradictory and is the orthodox view on the matter. The author of John doesn't give us such contradictions. If you say the man Jesus did have personal and human opinions and wills that were separate from his divinity, and occasionally he had to suppress his own will to allow God's will to be done.You create a schizophrenic hybrid man who at times is divine and at times human and feels abandoned by his divine side on the cross. It's like saying I am poor because in my right pocket I have no money but in my left pocket I have a million dollars.

All of that being said, how do you reconcile John 10:30 "The Father and I are one."; John 14:9 "Whoever has seen me has seen the Father."; John 20:28-29 "Thomas answered him, 'My Lord and my God!' Jesus said to him, 'Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are those who have not seen and yet have come to believe.'"; as well as the response that Jesus gives in Chapter 5 that makes it pretty clear that he does everything that the Father does, from raising of the dead, to handing out judgment, and even receiving the praise and glory that God receives (Smith pg. 135). In all of these passages John is putting Jesus on an even plane with God and when challenged or questioned about his relationship with God Jesus never denies their equality but rather offers explanations that are either affirmations of that claim or at worst ambiguous. One may not be able to make the case that the New Testament as a whole portrays Jesus as equal to God, but it seems pretty clear that some verses seem to.

The answer is simple Jerome who translated the scriptures into Latin in the 5th Century and the English translators who came on the scene 1800 years after Jesus were already convinced that Jesus was God and that there was a trinity before they sat down to translate their texts. They force it upon their work. If you look at the confession of Thomas in Hebrew he calls Jesus my adoni and elohim. Moses was an adoni and elohim. The Judge of Israel were adoni and elohim. It means my master and God's appointed agent. Jesus prayed that the disciple could share the same oneness with the Father that he had so I can say I and the father are one. That doesn't mean I am claiming to be God.If we had time I could take you through the New Testament and show you all the mistranslations where Jesus was deified. Instead I appeal to 1 Cor 8:6 But to us there is but one God, the Father. Jesus told Mary Magdalene I go to my God and Your God, my father and your father. If he were God he would not have a God.

Comparison with the Synoptic Gospels There are a few main similarities between the healing story in John and the healing story in the Synoptics. There is controversy over Jesus' authority in both Mark 2 and John 5. Also, there is a failure to observe the Sabbath in both Mark 3 and John 5. On top of these general similarities, John 5: 8 and Mark 2: 9 and 11 are almost exactly the same. John 5: 8 states, "Jesus said to him, 'Stand up, take your mat and walk.'" Mark 2: 9 and 11 state, "Which is easier, to say to the paralytic, 'Your sins are forgiven,' or to say, 'Stand up and take your mat and walk'?...I say to you, stand up, take your mat, and go to your home." While John 5 and Mark 2 are incredibly close, there are some significant differences in the stories. First of all, John 5 takes place in Jerusalem. In the Synoptics, there are no healing stories that take place there. Second of all, in John 5, Jesus has knowledge of how long the man has been ill (38 years...the same time Israel was in the wilderness). In the Synoptics, there is no proof that Jesus knows such things. On top of these two differences, it is very John-like to have Jesus approach the man instead of the other way around. This doesn't really happen in the Synoptics. In conclusion, while it seems, on the surface, that the healing story in John could be a re-writing of Mark 2, scholars believe the differences are too significant.

John reports events that took place at another feast in Jerusalem and the third sign of Jesus’ ministry. At the pool of Bethesda, there was a man who had been ill for thirty-eight years. He was questioned by Jesus if he wanted to be well. The man replied that he had never been the successful one; someone else had always beaten him to the water. Jesus’ reaction was instant, "Rise, take up your mat and walk," (verse 8). This incident led to controversy with the rulers because it was done on the Sabbath. First, because the man was carrying his mat, they accused the man of working on the Sabbath and second, the Jews challenged Jesus about his actions on the Sabbath. Jesus replied, "My Father is working still, and I am working" (Verse 17). The Sabbath was to be a holy day used for worship, rest and for doing good deeds. In addition, because Jesus referred to God as his Father they accused him of blasphemy, making himself equal to God. Jesus replied, "The Son can do nothing of his own accord, but only what he sees the Father doing….". Far from claiming to be equal with God, Jesus showed that he learned from the Father and did his works. He claimed the father was greater than he and never claimed equality. He said of myself I can do nothing. The father is in me doing these things. The Jews wanted to kill him because darkness hates the light and tries to extinguish it.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Peripherals/3D Scanners

Functionality
3D scanner can scan a three dimensional object into the computer. It create a real- world object which can used many ways such as industrial design, prototyping, movies and video games. There are many kinds of 3D scaners.scaners. 3D scanner can be fast and easy way to create 3D objects.

Types of 3D scanners
There are two types of 3D scanners that will be introduced now, contact and non-contact. As well, non-contact can be divided into active scanners and passive scanners. Let's look more information about the types of 3D scanners.

Contact
By physical touching, contact 3D works well. For instance, CMM is a contact 3D scanner. One of the disadvantages of CMM is that it requires contact, and this object is being scanned while people use it. Another disadvantage is that the function of CMM is slower than other kind of scanner

Active
Some radiation are emitted by Active scanners, such as light, ultrasound or x-ray.

Passive
Passive scanners do not emit any radiation. As well, passive scanners do not need any particular hardware, so it is normally cheap.

http://www.3dscanners.com/

Desktop 3D Scanner
Before the most flexible 3D scanners developed, there is one cyberware's Desktop scanner which called model 15 shows up. It allows you to catch the shape well and get the many kinds of objects. This small system suits easily on a desktop. Being a highly integrated Model 15 provide all the 3D scanning resources that people need, however, it only costs you a small amoumt of money.

The features of the Desktop 3D scanners
 * scanning unit
 * motion subsystem
 * software - in an integrated format

With a little bit extra of a graphics workstation, everything are included, and it makes fast, high-quality scans.

Entertainment
By creating digital 3D models, 3D scanners can be used to make movies and video games

Manufacturers
3D scanners were provided by many measurement systems. Most scanners perform either an open data format for x,y,z coordinate data and save that in an ASCII file.

When you buy a measurement system, you have to consider accuracyk volume, speed, and color. Furthermore, you have to consider your specific application, the size of your project, and the distance of the object from which you will be collection data.


text:
Cookbook:Middle Eastern Meatballs

| Rice

Ingredients

 * 1 cup low-fat plain yogurt
 * 1–2 teaspoons finely-chopped garlic
 * 1 teaspoon crushed dried mint
 * Salt to taste
 * ¾ pound 93% lean ground beef
 * ½ cup cooked brown rice
 * ⅓ cup finely-chopped onion
 * ¼ cup packed cilantro, chopped coriander
 * ¼ cup packed flat-leaf parsley, chopped
 * ½ teaspoon ground cinnamon
 * ¼ teaspoon ground cumin
 * ⅛ teaspoon red pepper flakes
 * ⅛ teaspoon ground black pepper
 * ½ teaspoon salt

Procedure

 * 1) In a small bowl, whisk together the yogurt, garlic, and mint. Season to taste with salt.
 * 2) Set the broiler rack 5 inches from the heat.
 * 3) Preheat the broiler.
 * 4) In a mixing bowl, combine the meat, rice, onion, cilantro, parsley, cinnamon, cumin, red and black peppers, and ½ teaspoon salt, stirring mixture with a fork until it is well blended
 * 5) With your hands, form the mixture into 1½-inch meatballs.
 * 6) As you make them, place the meatballs on a baking sheet that fits under the broiler.
 * 7) Broil the meatballs until they are well browned on top, 4 to 5 minutes.
 * 8) Using tongs, turn and cook until the meatballs are browned outside and no longer pink in the center, 3–4 minutes.
 * 9) Transfer them to a serving plate and serve warm, passing the yogurt sauce in a bowl.

title: Cookbook:Middle Eastern Meatballs


text: Template:GFDL-presumed

title: Template:GFDL-presumed


text:
Template talk:GFDL-presumed

History
The following section contains the history, in order to satisfy the requirements of the GNU Free Documentation License, of the template as it was copied from the English-language Wikipedia. * (cur) (last) 02:17, 30 January 2007 Geni (Talk | contribs) (big and colour text) * (cur) (last) 01:57, 30 January 2007 Geni (Talk | contribs) * (cur) (last) 14:35, 22 August 2006 Mets501 (Talk | contribs) (interwiki) * (cur) (last) 15:24, 31 July 2006 R. Koot (Talk | contribs) (pipe) * (cur) (last) 02:27, 4 April 2006 Freakofnurture (Talk | contribs) (tidy format, 0 words changed) * (cur) (last) 03:38, 18 March 2006 Admrboltz (Talk | contribs) m (Image:Heckert GNU white.svg) * (cur) (last) 17:53, 28 February 2006 Howcheng (Talk | contribs) ({{GFDL}} -> {{GFDL-self}}) * (cur) (last) 13:43, 26 January 2006 Physchim62 (Talk | contribs) (CAT:ICT) * (cur) (last) 04:25, 26 January 2006 Mdd4696 (Talk | contribs) (Added Category:Image copyright templates) * (cur) (last) 12:59, 18 September 2005 Gmaxwell (Talk | contribs) (I've gone through ALL of the GFDL-presumed images, and converted the ones which really have no source into nosource. What remains are images where they have a source but no license info.) * (cur) (last) 04:35, 18 September 2005 Zscout370 (Talk | contribs) * (cur) (last) 22:26, 31 July 2005 Duncharris (Talk | contribs) (more info, etc) * (cur) (last) 15:14, 31 July 2005 Duncharris (Talk | contribs) (fix wording) * (cur) (last) 19:23, 17 May 2005 Quadell (Talk | contribs) m (Reverted edits by 205.174.22.26 to last version by Paddu) * (cur) (last) 13:07, 17 May 2005 205.174.22.26 (Talk) * (cur) (last) 07:42, 3 April 2005 Paddu (Talk | contribs) (might not be created by the uploader; "See Category:Presumed GFDL images for details") * (cur) (last) 21:09, 29 March 2005 Paddu (Talk | contribs) (could be public domain; change cat to Category:Presumed GFDL images) * (cur) (last) 22:58, 28 March 2005 Quadell (Talk | contribs) m (fixed error) * (cur) (last) 22:56, 28 March 2005 Quadell (Talk | contribs) (+in good faith) * (cur) (last) 22:55, 28 March 2005 Quadell (Talk | contribs) (new template for "presumed" GFDL images)

imbox
or something like this. ViperSnake151 (talk) 01:26, 28 September 2008 (UTC)
 * ✅ — Mike.lifeguard | talk 16:58, 28 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Template talk:GFDL-presumed


text:
Category:Presumed GFDL images

These files were uploaded without a copyright tag, but other users have presumed that they want them licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. If you have uploaded one of these files, please see GFDL-presumed for further instructions.

title: Category:Presumed GFDL images


text:
Template:Wikipedia-inline

Adapted from w:Template:Wikibooks-inline. History given on this template talk page.

title: Template:Wikipedia-inline


text:
Template talk:Wikipedia-inline

History
The history of the template given here, in order to comply with the text of the GNU Free Documentation License, was copied from the history page of the template at Wikipedia, and thus is licensed under the GNU General Public License. * (cur) (last) 19:32, 7 May 2006 Pathoschild (Talk | contribs) m (Shortened) * (cur) (last) 19:31, 7 May 2006 Pathoschild (Talk | contribs) (shortened) * (cur) (last) 19:30, 7 May 2006 Pathoschild (Talk | contribs) (+ sort key) * (cur) (last) 19:28, 7 May 2006 Pathoschild (Talk | contribs) m (corrected logo) * (cur) (last) 19:26, 7 May 2006 Pathoschild (Talk | contribs) (creation)
 * You copied it? You should of imported it so that all is kept.  Ebe123 (discuss • contribs) 10:37, 5 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Wikipedia-inline


text:
Talk:Acoustics/Fundamentals of Acoustics

Variables
The variables in each equation should be identified immediately above it. Furthermore, any details needed to understand the applicability of an equation should be stated explicity. D021317c 05:50, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Beginning at the beginning
Acoustics is the science of sound, isn't it? What is sound? I suspect it's a sensation, and that what we sense is acoustic energy, so we should approach the subject from a study of the nature of that energy. By introducing differential equations into the discussion, we lose any readers who haven't reached the second or third years of college, and those who haven't majored in the sciences. I disapprove. On the other hand, a great deal of complexity can be presented without any mathematics, leaving it to those who are familiar with arithmetic, algebra, calculus, or differential equations to infer what they must be, and presenting them separately later (aimed at various levels of education) for those who are interested. In other words, let's have a book which begins with accessibility to the broadest possible audience, and take it as far as readers care to go, but in easy, incremental stages. D021317c 06:36, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Equations of sound
The way the wave equations are written here seems a bit off. Is their a reason to denote the time variable by x instead of t? Thenub314 (talk) 15:46, 10 March 2009 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Waterw00d~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

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BTW Wikibooks pages are not Personal homepages. Wikibookians have their own personal pages, but they are used for information relevant to working on free textbooks and other content on Wikibooks. If you are looking to make a personal webpage unrelated to textbook work (e.g. posting your résumé), please make use of one of the many free homepage providers on the Internet. Thanks. Az1568(Talk) 06:18, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

I have deleted your user page as it violates WB policy. If you wish to have a use page of your own please keep it related to Wikibooks.--Az1568(Talk) 03:49, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Waterw00d. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Waterw00d~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Waterw00d~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:202.190.80.21

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!.

BTW Wikibooks pages are not Personal homepages. Wikibookians have their own personal pages, but they are used for information relevant to working on free textbooks and other content on Wikibooks. If you are looking to make a personal webpage unrelated to textbook work (e.g. posting your résumé), please make use of one of the many free homepage providers on the Internet. Thanks. Az1568(Talk) 06:18, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.190.80.21


text:
User talk:D021317c

My name is Marshall Price. I'm a piano technician living in Miami, Florida. I remember my user name by the mnemonic "Oh, to unfree one's heaven!" recalling that the d prefix and c suffix originally stood for Dade County, though it's been changed to "Miami-Dade County" since "d021317c" was assigned to me by the free public library ISP, sometime around 1994. That ISP is gone now, and I pay $10/month for dial-up service.

title: User talk:D021317c


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/How to make the interface look normal?

Please download: MenuLayoutDelete.zip

Link: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/dejavu-l/files/DVX/Miscellaneous/

You need to login into yahoogroups to access it.

To use the MenuLayoutDelete file for recovering lost windows positions in DVX:

 * 1) Download the file to the hard disk.
 * 2) Close DVX.
 * 3) Double-click on the file and follow the (brief) instructions.
 * 4) Reopen DVX. Normally, everything should be back to normal.

Please note that this action will at the same time reset all "customizations" that may have been performed to DVX, as Atril commented when sending the file (I understand that this refers to special fonts for some windows, etc., etc.). Anyway, very few people heavily customize their DVX interface.


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/How to restore the AutoSearch/File Navigator window?

1. Download the following file: http://www.atril.com/dvx/MenuLayoutDelete.reg

2. Close DVX

3. Execute the reg file by double-clicking on it

4. Restart DVX


text:
User:Leighblackall

I live on Mount Dandenong, Australia.

I work with RMIT University.

Contact

 * eMail: leighblackallATgmailDOTcom
 * Phone: +610404561009

Projects

 * The Future of Learning in a Networked World
 * Open Education Practices: A User Guide for Organisations
 * Permaculture Design
 * Sustainable Business
 * Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
 * Open Data
 * Wikiversity
 * Test

title: User:Leighblackall


text:
User:Brockert

I am Ben Brockert.

title: User:Brockert


text:
User talk:Saibo

Hallo! Please use my de.wikipedia talk page to contact me.

title: User talk:Saibo


text:
User:Saibo

Hallo! Please visit my de.wikipedia user page

title: User:Saibo


text:
User talk:Benjamin Meinl

Welcome to wikibooks. I noticed that you are adding solutions to the Non-programmers Python tutorial. I request that you add them in a sub page or on a different page (perhaps at the end of the tutorial), rather than right in line with the text, so that people have a chance to do the program before seeing a solution. Thanks. Jrincayc 13:36, 7 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I think the hidden textbox's are acceptable. Jrincayc 15:26, 11 February 2007 (UTC)

lululululul!

title: User talk:Benjamin Meinl


text:
User talk:Nrs135

Hello, welcome to wikibooks!

I see that you've been doing some cleanup work on the Control Systems book. I've been the lead author on that book for some time now, and it is always nice to have some additional help. As you've already noticed, there are plenty of things to fix in that book, and we need all the help we can get!

If you need anything, of if you have any questions, please don't hesitate to ask me on my user talk page. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:26, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nrs135


text:
Cookbook:Parmesan Cheese Soufflé

| American cuisine | Vegetarian Cuisine | Eggs

Ingredients

 * 1 tablespoon unsalted butter
 * 3 cups freshly grated Parmesan cheese
 * 2 cups low-fat sour cream
 * ½ cup all-purpose flour
 * 5 large egg yolks
 * 7 large egg whites
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * ½ teaspoon cayenne pepper
 * 2 tablespoons chopped fresh chives

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (175˚C).
 * 2) Butter a 2-quart (2 liter) soufflé dish.
 * 3) Add 1 cup cheese, tilting dish to evenly coat the bottom and sides. Shake out any excess. Set dish aside in refrigerator.
 * 4) Place the sour cream in a large mixing bowl.
 * 5) Sift the flour into the sour cream, then whisk until well combined.
 * 6) Add the egg yolks, one at a time, whisking after each addition.
 * 7) Stir in salt, cayenne, chives, and remaining 2 cups cheese.
 * 8) In a large clean bowl (copper is ideal), vigorously whip the egg whites until stiff peaks form.
 * 9) Gently fold egg whites into the sour cream mixture.
 * 10) Pour the batter into the prepared soufflé dish and bake until soufflé has risen 2–3 inches above the rim and top is golden brown (1 to 1½ hours).
 * 11) Serve immediately.

title: Cookbook:Parmesan Cheese Soufflé


text:
Talk:Physics Study Guide/Basic Units

Atrocious
It's downright atrocious that this is considered a "finished" book, with all the basic stuff that was wrong right on the first page: miscapitalized joules, newtons, wrong symbol for seconds, italic unit symbols (and not properly spaced), a ludicrous claim that dynes are SI units, etc.  Metric1000 16:39, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Dim definitions
I can't recollect all, and I decided to refrain from more corrections. The last epitome I've noticed was "Parsec". Yes, good explanation of the abbreviation; but please confer the rest with the OED article (though OED's approximation is looser). Lincoln Josh (discuss • contribs) 18:10, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Physics Study Guide/Basic Units


text:
Cookbook:Anchovy Herb Salsa Verde

This anchovy herb salsa verde is different from Mexican salsa verde. It may be a Spanish recipe.

Ingredients

 * ½ cup extra-virgin olive oil
 * 9 cured anchovy fillets, drained, patted dry, and minced
 * 6 tablespoons finely-chopped fresh flat-leaf curly parsley
 * 3 tablespoons finely-chopped fresh rosemary
 * 3 tablespoons finely-chopped fresh thyme
 * 3 tablespoons finely-chopped fresh mint
 * ⅛ teaspoon freshly-ground black pepper

Procedure

 * 1) In a small bowl, mix together all ingredients.
 * 2) Serve with chips or grilled meat.

title: Cookbook:Anchovy Herb Salsa Verde


text:
User talk:221.127.142.89

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

Best, Iamunknown 17:14, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:221.127.142.89


text:
Algorithms/Find approximate maximum

Algorithm
Method : findApproimateMax(i_aryTb)

define a constant call factorA and assign 100 define o_intMax is integer and assign i_aryTb[0]; define p_countMax is integer and assign 1 for loop = 1 to (i_aryTb.length - 1) do, index if ( i_aryTb[index] > o_intMax ) then o_intMax  := i_aryTb[index]; p_countMax := 0; else p_countMax = p_countMax + 1; if ( p_countMax bigger or equal factorA ) then return o_intMax and terminate the method; end if      end if   end loop return o_intMax;

Algorithm
Method : findMax(i_aryTB, numberOfSecond) if numberOfSecond <= 0 then numberOfSecond := -1; end if   define a constant factorA := 100; define p_logStart become := current_time; define p_logFinish := p_logStart + ( numberOfSecond ); define o_intMax := i_aryTb[0]; looping from 1 to (aryTb.length - 1), p_intI begin if ( aryTb[p_intI] > o_intMax ) then o_intMax := aryTb[p_intI]; end if; if ( the remainder of p_intI / factorA is zero ) then begin if ( p_logFinish <= current_time and numberofSecond not equal -1 ) then return o_intMax; terminate the method; end if       end if    end looping return o_intMax;

Algorithm
Method : findApproximateMax(i_intaryTb,i_one_stepLength) define o_max and assign i_intaryTb[0]; looping from 0 to i_intaryTb.length -1 ,index += i_one_stepLength if ( index >= i_intaryTb.length ) then break the looping; if ( i_intaryTb[index] > o_max ) then o_max = i_intaryTb[index]; end if  end looping return o_max;

title: Algorithms/Find approximate maximum


text:
Talk:Visual Basic/Arrays

Hi

How do I pass matrices to a function? For example to multiply them? Of course I can use Excels MMult function for that but I'd like to multiply complex numbers and quaternions Iarlagab 18:13, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Visual Basic/Arrays


text:
ColdFusion Programming/dates

Coldfusion can handle the creation, modification, display, and usage of dates.

Setting a Date
In order to set a date use the cfset function.

Displaying a Date
The basic display of a date is simply to output it. This would display: 12/3/2006
 * 1) mydate#

There is function that allows you to easily convert a date into another format.
 * 1) dateformat(mydate, 'yyyy/mm/dd')#

This would display: 2006/12/3

The options to be used here are: The options can be separated by - /, or space to create the format that you want.
 * d: Day of the month as digits, no leading zeros
 * dd: Day of the month as digits
 * ddd: Day of the week, abbr.
 * dddd: Day of the week, name
 * m: Month as digits, no leading zero
 * mm: Month as digits
 * mmm: Month as abbr.
 * mmmm: Month as name.
 * y: Year - last two digits, no leading zeros
 * yy: Year - last two digits
 * yyyy: Year - four digits

Modifying a date
If we want to add 5 days to today we would use this function.

The options for dateadd are:
 * yyyy: Year
 * q: Quarter
 * m: Month
 * y: Day of year
 * d: Day
 * w: Weekday
 * ww: Week
 * h: Hour
 * n: Minute (remember m is for month not minute)
 * s: Second

title: ColdFusion Programming/dates


text:
Microprocessor Design/Pipelined Processors

Pipelining Introduction
Let us break down our microprocessor into 5 distinct activities, which generally correspond to 5 distinct pieces of hardware:

 * 1) Instruction fetch (IF)
 * 2) Instruction Decode (ID)
 * 3) Execution (EX)
 * 4) Memory Read/Write (MEM)
 * 5) Result Writeback (WB)

Any given instruction will only require one of these modules at a time, generally in this order. The following timing diagram of the multi-cycle processor will show this in more detail:

This is all fine and good, but at any moment, 4 out of 5 units are not active, and could likely be used for other things.

Pipelining Philosophy
Pipelining is concerned with the following tasks:
 * Use multi-cycle methodologies to reduce the amount of computation in a single cycle.
 * Shorter computations per cycle allow for faster clock cycles.
 * Overlapping instructions allows all components of a processor to be operating on a different instruction.
 * Throughput is increased by having instructions complete more frequently.

We will talk about how to make these things happen in the remainder of the chapter.

Pipelining Hardware
Given our multicycle processor, what if we wanted to overlap our execution, so that up to 5 instructions could be processed at the same time? Let's contract our timing diagram a little bit to show this idea:

As this diagram shows, each element in the processor is active in every cycle, and the instruction rate of the processor has been increased by 5 times! The question now is, what additional hardware do we need in order to perform this task? We need to add storage registers between each pipeline state to store the partial results between cycles, and we also need to reintroduce the redundant hardware from the single-cycle CPU. We can continue to use a single memory module (for instructions and data), so long as we restrict memory read operations to the first half of the cycle, and memory write operations to the second half of the cycle (or vice-versa). We can save time on the memory access by calculating the memory addresses in the previous stage.

The registers would need to hold the data from the pipeline at that point, and also the necessary control codes to operate the remainder of the pipeline.

Our resultant processor design will look similar to this:

If we have 5 instructions, we can show them in our pipeline using different colors. In the diagram below, white corresponds to a NOP, and the different colors correspond to other instructions in the pipeline. Each stage, the instructions shift forward through the pipeline.

Pipelined processors generate the same results as a one-instruction-at-a-time processor does when running the same software -- they just generate those results much more quickly. People who build pipelined processors sometimes add special hardware -- operand forwarding; pipeline interlocks; etc. -- in order to get the same results "as if" each instruction is fetched, evaluated, and its results committed before the next instruction is fetched (non-overlapped) -- even though pipelined processors actually overlap instructions.

The throughput of a processor is the number of instructions that complete in a span of time. Many processors are designed to have a typical throughput of one instruction per clock cycle, even though any one particular instruction requires many cycles -- one cycle per pipeline stage -- from the time it is fetched to the time it completes.

Superpipeline
Superpipelining is the technique of raising the pipeline depth in order to increase the clock speed and reduce the latency of individual stages. If the ALU takes three times longer than any other module, we can divide the ALU into three separate stages, which will reduce the amount of time wasted on shorter stages. The problem here is that we need to find a way to subdivide our stages into shorter stages, and we also need to construct more complicated control units to operate the pipeline and prevent all the possible hazards.

It is not uncommon for modern high-end processors to have more than 20 pipeline stages.

Resources
Pipeline (computer)

 * Jim Plusquellic. "CMSC 611: Advanced Computer Architecture". "Introduction to Pipelining".
 * Jon "Hannibal" Stokes. "Pipelining: An Overview (Part I)".
 * Jon Stokes. "Pipelining: An Overview (Part II)".


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User:Nilfanion

I am an administrator on the English Wikipedia and on Commons and I am not currently active here on Wikibooks. Currently, most of my work on Wikibooks relates to my Commons activity, so please forward any messages to my Commons talk page.

title: User:Nilfanion


text: User talk:Nilfanion

title: User talk:Nilfanion


text:
Monopoly/Project

=Monopoly Project Page=

Welcome to the monopoly project page. This is a book about the best selling board game monopoly. If you are interested in taking part in this project please sign up under contributors.

In Scope
The [US] game's design is clearly based upon images and places located within Atlantic City, New Jersey. Hence "Boardwalk."

Tasks
Create projectpage --AdRiley Completed --AdRiley 21:01, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Rework Contents Page --AdRiley 21:01, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

Image Copyrights
How do we stand with regards to including images of monopoly in our book? I should imagine monopoly is copyrighted, are photographs I take of my set breach of copyright? --AdRiley 21:01, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Yes, unless the company that owns them (Parker Bros.?) releases them under public domain or one of the free-use copyrights. -- SB_Johnny | talk 23:34, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * One thing that you should try is to contact Parker Bros, and ask for permission to use some images for "a book you are writing on monopoly". They might give you some images, or they might give you permission to use images you already have. This strategy has worked sometimes in the past, but not always. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:28, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

 * If you do that, you need to make sure they understand that it's a wikibook though, otherwise they might not understand that you're not asking for personal permission, but rather free licensing.-- SB_Johnny | talk 10:12, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

There are some images on commons for you to use, and so long as they are on commons, you can use them without fear of copyright problems: There aren't a lot of images, but this should get you started. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 01:46, 8 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Monopoly
 * Commons:Category:Monopoly

Beyond Boardwalk and Park Place Rules copyright
Do we have the right to reproduce the rules from the 1986 book Beyond Boardwalk and Park Place Rules? I suspect not... --AdRiley 21:01, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * No, for the same reasons that the images are problematic. -- SB_Johnny | talk 23:36, 7 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Reproducing the rules verbatim is not allowed, but you are likely allowed to paraphrase them, so long as you offer proper citations. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:29, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Timeline
07/02/2007 AdRiley joined project

07/02/2007 Project Page Created

Contibutors
AdRiley

title: Monopoly/Project


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Canoe trip

Plan on one canoe for every two people. The supplies should be loaded into the center of the canoe, with the heaviest items being placed lowest in the boat, and the lighter items place on top of them. Remember that the canoe will almost certainly take on a bit of water from wet shoes, dripping paddles, etc., so don't put anything that must stay dry on the bottom of the boat. Some have reported success in placing a tarp down first, loading equipment on top of it, and then drawing the edges over the top of the gear. How ever you load the gear into the canoe, make sure you tie everything down. If the canoe capsizes during the trip, you want the gear to stay with the boat rather than go floating merrily down the stream - or worse - sink to the bottom. Try to remember that this is a possibility when you are selecting your gear. Don't bring anything with you that you cannot afford to leave on a river bottom (such as a borrowed tent, an heirloom axe, or a pair of designer sunglasses). Also try to remember that leaving gear on the bottom of the river is a form of pollution.

Canoe camping has one great advantage over backpacking in that you can pack a lot more gear into a canoe than you can into a backpack. Just don't overdo it. You will still have to carry everything during the portage.

Once the canoe is loaded, check its trim - that is, check that the bow and stern are at the same level. You don't want to have the either end sticking way out of the water, as that will make a canoe "tippy."

Before leading a group down a river, you should scout it first. During your scouting trip, you will be looking for hazards and evaluating river conditions. The trip should answer these questions: Another important reason to scout the river before bringing the group with you is so that you'll be able to choose the best camping site along the route. When you're going down for the first time, you might be tempted to settle for a sub-optimal site if you don't know there's a better place around the next bend.
 * Are there rapids?
 * Is the least skilled person with you able to navigate them?
 * Is there an easy way to get off the river upstream from the rapid?

|


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Backpack trip

Read over the answers in the Backpacking and Hiking honor before setting out. Both have a lot of information that is helpful for a trip like this, and a 15-mile trip will meet the "big" requirement in both.

"Carrying all needed supplies" means that you do not hike from point A to point B while someone else drives an SUV there laden with all your gear.

/Overlapping requirements


text:
A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/CPU

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the 'brain' of the computer.

It's typically a square ceramic package plugged into the motherboard, with a large heat sink on top (and often a fan on top of that).

All instructions the computer will process are processed by the CPU. There are many "CPU architectures", each of which has its own characteristics and tradeoffs. The dominant CPU architectures used in personal computing are x86 and PowerPC. x86 is easily the most popular processor for this class of machine (the dominant manufacturers of x86 CPUs are Intel and AMD).

Introduction
Most CPUs divide the tasks of interpreting and carrying out the instructions between: Almost always, a CPU includes a collection of registers to hold operands and intermediate results.
 * 1) A control unit that directs program flow and
 * 2) One or more execution units that perform operations on data.

When every part of a CPU sits on a single physical integrated circuit, one calls it a microprocessor. Practically all CPUs manufactured today classify as microprocessors.

The term "CPU" often refers—imprecisely—to other centrally important parts of a computer, such as caches and I/O controllers, especially when those functions exist on the same microprocessor chip as the CPU. With the arrival of multi-core chips, the term CPU can either mean the physical chip (see the picture) mounted on the motherboard, or it can mean the core within the chip.

Manufacturers of desktop computers occasionally erroneously describe the entire personal computer (the system unit or sometimes white box, including the computer case and the computer hardware it contains) as the CPU. Rather, the CPU, as a functional unit, consists of that part of the computer which actually executes the instructions (add, subtract, shift, fetch, etc.).

CPUs contain a small amount of static RAM (SRAM) called a cache. Some processors have two or three levels of cache, containing as much as several megabytes of memory.

Types of CPUs
There are many types of CPU's.Many processor architectures can also be characterized by their CPU design, like register size. Today most desktop computers and laser printers have 32-bit processors. Some 64-bit processors are rapidly becoming more widespread. Smaller devices like mobile phones, PDAs, or portable video game devices may have 16 or 8 bit processors. Embedded systems such as microwave ovens, calculators, computer keyboards, and infrared remote controls typically have 8 bit or 4 bit processors.

Intel CPUs
Intel is currently the most popular CPU choice in personal computing.

Intel has 10+ types of CPU from which a person may choose.

Classic Pentium CPU Package = MHz/GHz= 60 to 200 MHz Slots/Sockets =

Celeron - SEP, PPGA, FC-PGA, FC-PGA2 Pentium 4 – OOIA/OLGA and FC-PGA2 Itanium – PAC (uses PAC418) Itanium 2 – PAC (uses PAC611)

Sockets 1-7 and Super Socket 7
These are the Pentium OverDrive Processor Sockets for Pentium Processor-based Systems.

Socket 4
When you look at socket 4 you may be wondering what it's used for. This socket is used for putting a CPU in. Just like all sockets a CPU is put into it to help the computer process information. This socket needed a voltage of 5 volts. This socket was a 273 pin system, meaning that it needed 273 pins put into it from a CPU chip. The CPU chips that were put into this socket had 273 pins. Socket 4 is old school, meaning this is a very, very old socket that was used during the days of the Classic Pentium 60/66.

Classic Pentium CPUs could go from 60 to 200 MHz. These chips are in the 125+ MHz range. Just look at them closer and you'll be able to tell.

Socket 5
Socket 5

Intel Socket 5 Specification

Designation: Socket 5

Number of Pins: 320

Pin Rows: 5 (staggered)

Voltage: 3.3 volts

Motherboard Class: Pentium

Supported Processors: Pentium 75-133 MHz, Pentium OverDrive

Description: Socket 5 is the first socket designed for the mainstream (second generation) Pentium processors. It supports low-speed Pentiums from 75 to 133 MHz. Higher-speed Pentiums such as the 166 MHz and 200 MHz, and the newer Pentiums with MMX, will not work in a Socket 5 because they have an extra pin. They must be used in a Socket 7. Pentium OverDrives to upgrade Socket 5 Pentiums exist to allow upgrades to these motherboards. Socket 5 is now obsolete, replaced by Socket 7.

Socket 6
Intel Socket 6 Specification

Designation: Socket 6

Number of Pins: 235

Pin Rows: 4

Voltage: 3.3 volts

Motherboard Class: 486

Supported Processors: 486DX4, Pentium OverDrive

Description: Socket 6 is the last 486 class socket standard created by Intel. It is a slightly modified Socket 3, and it never caught on in the marketplace. Presumably, with Intel discontinuing the 486 line of processors, motherboard manufacturers did not see any need to incur the cost of changing their designs from the Socket 3 standard. Socket 6 is not used in modern motherboards.

Socket 7
Socket 7 is a 321-pin Zero Insertion Force processor socket and is a superset of the previous 320-pin Socket 5. (1)

The ZIF socket was designed so that the average computer user could upgrade the CPU. It supported Pentium and Pentium MMX processors up to 233 MHz.

SECC
(SECC) Single Edge Contact Cartridge. The card has a single edge which is put into a slot. This slot could be Slot 1, Slot 2, and even Slot A.

Each card that goes into a slot is different. SECC card are covered with a plastic black housing. They have a fan and a heatsink that is attached to its housing.

The difference between a SECC card and a SECC-2 (Single Edge Contact Cartridge 2) card is that the SECC-2 card does not use a fan or a heatsink. This is why when you have a SECC-2 card in your computer, you should put in a fan to help it recover from the heat it will generate. The reason the SECC-2 card is called SECC-2 is because it is the second version of SECC.

The SECC-2 card uses Slot 1. Slot 1, also known as SC242, is a connector with 242 contacts. This Slot-type connector is used to attach SECCs that have Pentium III processors onboard and attached to them.

Socket 370
Sometimes the motherboard doesn't allow for the PPGA Processor to be put directly onto the main board. Thus, a slocket is needed to be put into a slot on the mother board and have the PPGA put into its Socket 370 adaptation section. PPGA Processors from Intel fit onto a slocket that goes into Slot 1. 370 is the number of pins on the PPGA Celerons. The PPGA Celerons have 370 pins, this is why it goes into a "Socket 370". In case you're still stumped, the Socket 370 only allows 370 pins to be inserted into it.

SSA stands for: Slot-to-Socket Adapter

FC-PGA
FC-PGA (Flip Chip Pin Grid Array) CPUs can be installed onto the slocket just like a PPGA CPU can however they need a specific slocket of their own. FC-PGA CPUs also have 370 pins.

The side about FC-PGAs is that you can put a cooler onto them.

External Links for PPGA and FC-PGA: http://www.intel.com/design/quality/celeron/ppga/integration.htm

Socket PAC418
Is used for Itanium CPU.

Socket 423
Is used for Pentium 4 CPU.

Socket 478
Is used for Pentium 4 and Celeron CPU.

Socket 603
Socket 603 takes PGA CPU.

Socket 775
LGA (Land Grid Array) Socket type, not using Pins anymore, Intel Celeron D, Intel Pentium 4, Intel EE, Intel Pentium D, Intel Core 2 Duo/Extreme CPUs

AMD CPUs

(Note: The above photos are an AMD K6 300MHZ processor similar to the description below however operates at a slightly lower voltage and is prior to the K6-2)

The above is a first version of an earlier processor created by AMD called AMD-K6-2. The speeds that clocked from this processor are 166 to 500 MHz. This Processor has 321 pins and takes from 2.5 V to 3.5 V from the power supply to power itself up. This CPU is comparable to a Pentium II or a Intel Celeron Processor.

The above is a picture of the processor called AMD-K6-III. This CPU would be put into Super Socket 7. The processor compares to a Pentium II with a MHz between 350 and 450. This current processor is a 450 MHz model.

Slot A
AMD's Slot A CPU's were the first attempt at K7. The difference between Athlon and Duron are core capabilities (Duron less cache) and at the end of the Slot A range their voltage requirements and FSB (Front Side Bus) speed as well as what image was used to create them (Barton, ...). They ranged from 400 MHz to 1.6 GHz. They were favoured at one point by overclockers because to increase the processing speed all you needed was a pencil(until soft speed options came along) and were always faster than the Intel equivalents. All need fans and a large heatsink (some as many as 4 fans) as they throw out heat. The format was dropped by AMD because when the computer boxes were moved, the weight of the heatsink would shift and on occasion break the motherboard - in favour of Socket A.

Slot A processors are not compatible with Slot 1 or Slot 2 motherboards and vice versa.

Socket 462/A
Is used for AMD Athlon, Duron and Sempron CPUs.

Socket 754
AMD Sempron/Athlon 64 CPUs - single memory channel

Socket 939
AMD Athlon 64 CPUs - Dual channel memory - chip has 2 on-board memory controllers that work in parallel

Socket 940
AMD Opteron CPUs - Primarily for servers, has dual channel memory with error correction, hence the extra pin

AM2 AM2+
Newest socket from AMD (7-4-06) - Supports DDR2 Memory - Very similar to the Socket 940 AM2+ socket supports AMD Quad Core processor, looks the same visually as AM2

Chipsets
The chipset commonly is divided into two devices, the northbridge, and the southbridge. The northbridge is usually the more powerful of the two, and is the closer chip to the physical CPU.

The northbridge, essentially has a few primary functions. Grabbing/Addressing memory from the RAM, and deploying the contents over the data bus for the CPU to read. The northbridge also controls how much ram can be installed into the system. The other functions is allowing the southbridge and its parts, and the AGP slot to communicate with the CPU. In essence the northbridge acts like sort of a receptionist for the cpu, channeling communication from other parts to communicate directly to the CPU. Today, now that the AGP slot is being phased out, and memory controllers are being implemented directly into CPU cores, the northbridge is becoming marginalized if not completely left out of current designs. One example would be the AMD64 in which the memory functions of the northbridge is now in the CPU core, and there is only a southbridge in the chipset.

The southbridge is another chip in the total chipset. Usually the same size as the northbridge, but further away from the CPU (usually near the BIOS), it controls the communication between various peripheral components. A list of what a common southbridge would control would be, IDE controlers, USB ports, PCI slots, and so on. The southbridge also has many other features, but it depends on the features the board has, since most are embedded into the southbridge.


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A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is categorized into the following types:

SRAM
SRAM—Static Random Access Memory. From the book bag analogy SRAM would mostly relate to a small notepad. One of the major features of SRAM is that it never has to be refreshed so data never changes; also SRAM is faster than DRAM. The major drawback however is price, although chip prices have continued to fall, SRAM is still more expensive than DRAM. The most common area SRAM is implemented in the CPU cache where memory doesn’t need to be refreshed often and speed is a factor, and where small quantities are economical. Classic Pentiums and 486 CPUs had SRAM on the motherboard. No memory addresses are assigned in this memory. The 'S' in SDRAM does not mean Static, but Synchronous. SDRAM stands for Synchronous Dynamic RAM.

DRAM
DRAM—Dynamic Random Access Memory. In the book bag analogy, DRAM would be scratch paper. DRAM is the primary memory used in computers today. The advantage of DRAM is that it is very dense, more and more memory is being crammed into chips every day, and getting cheaper at the same time. The main disadvantage is that it is slower, and has to be refreshed often. Today the most common found ram is SDRAM, Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. The now more common variant of SDRAM is DDR which allows two times the data to be moved in a single cycle, and has dual channel ability. A less common, and now rarely used type of DRAM is RDRAM created by Rambus. Although faster than DDR, the industry decided to use DDR due to licensing issues and overall cost.

VRAM
Video RAM memory is not used as much today as it once was due to the fact that most PC comes with integrated graphics that uses system ram to store display information. Most high-end video graphics cards contain VRAM. VRAM deals with only the display of the bitmap graphics. It can be read and manipulated at the same time, making it faster than ordinary RAM. Because of these enhancements, they are extremely expensive and thus most integrated graphics do not come with VRAM.

RAM Form Factors
RAM comes in many forms; the certification test has questions on legacy and current ram form factors. The following list of form factors have been used in the past:

Graphics card memory is permanently attached to the graphics card.

Memory Modes

 * Real Mode is the main mode that was used in early PCs, it is still used today, during booting on a normal 32-bit pc. When windows starts, protected mode kicks in, and real mode is turned off. Real mode was introduced with the 16-bit 286 processor, in real mode, 1 Megabyte of memory could be addressed at most.
 * Protected Mode is another mode that was introduced with the 286, allowing ***, protected mode mostly turned on when the operating system is loaded on the system. Protected mode when introduced was only exploited on windows 3.0 and up, however, other OSes also use protected mode. The main function of this mode is to give the ability to break the 1 MB barrier, and allow more memory to be addressed by the computer. Protected mode has changed since its initial introduction on the 286, on the 386 for instance, there was 'standard' and 'enhanced', standard allowed up to 16 bits to be addressed, while enhanced allowed 32 bits to be addressed.

Memory Area

 * Conventional memory
 * High memory area
 * eXtended Memory Specification (XMS)


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A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/Adapter card

Adapter card

Buses
Control Bus: The physical connections that carry control information between the CPU and other devices within the computer. Whereas the data bus carries actual data that is being processed, the control bus carries signals that report the status of various devices. For example, one line of the bus is used to indicate whether the CPU is currently reading from or writing to main memory. (Webopedia.com)

Electrical bus

Bus bar

System Bus

Data bus

Bus Architecture
Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) This architecture was originally used in the IBM PC/XT and PC/AT used for connecting peripheral devices. It has been made obsolete by PCI.

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Developed by Intel Corporation. It is a standard for local bus. It has a throughput rate of 133MBps.

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) A standard for 3-D graphic interfaces. Its first incarnation had a bandwidth of 266MBps with 2x, 4x, and 8x versions later following. The x is how many times 266MBps set bandwidth is (2x would be 533MBps, etc.). AGP ports are still common but are quickly being made obsolete by PCI Express.


text:
A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/Ports

Ports on the computer are used to send or receive data. Physical ports are usually found in the back of the system and allow connecting devices to the computer.

The most common ports are:


text:
A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/CPU/IRQ

Interrupt Requests (IRQ) are hardware lines which devices can send interrupt signals to the CPU. When a new device is added to a PC an IRQ number should be set manually by using a DIP switch. This specifies which interrupt line the device may use. IRQ conflicts used to be a common problem before Plug-and-Play.

IRQ Numbers

 * IRQ0: The interrupt reserved interrupt for the internal system timer. Used exclusively for internal operations this is not available to peripherals or other devices. A conflict on this interrupt indicates a hardware problem on the system board.
 * IRQ1: This interrupt is used only for the keyboard/keyboard controller. A conflict on this interrupt indicates a hardware problem on the system board.
 * IRQ2: This interrupt is a cascade for IRQs 8 to 15 allowing the use of extra IRQs 8 to 15. When used as a linkage between the two interrupt controllers, this means that IRQ2 is no longer available for typical use. Conflicts on this line come from trying to use a device on IRQ2 and another on IRQ9 at the same time.
 * IRQ3: This interrupt is used for COM2 and COM4 (second serial port and fourth serial port). It is a popular option for modems and sound cards. Modems often come pre-configured to use COM2 on IRQ3. Conflicts are common on IRQ3. The two biggest problem areas are: modems that attempt to use COM2/IRQ3 and clash with the built-in COM2 port, and second systems that attempt to use both COM2 and COM4 simultaneously on the same interrupt line. The problem can be avoided by changing the conflicting device to a different interrupt.
 * IRQ4: This interrupt is used for COM1 and COM3 (first and third serial port). This is also an option for modems, sound cards, and other devices. Conflicts are somewhat common on this interrupt, the biggest problems being modems that attempt to use COM3 and clash with COM1 and systems that try to use COM1 and COM3 at the same time on the same interrupt line.
 * IRQ5: This interrupt is usually used for LPT2 (second parallel port) or a sound card. This interrupt is commonly the only free interrupt below IRQ9 and is the first choice for devices that would conflict with other IRQs.
 * IRQ6: This interrupt is most commonly used by a floppy disk controller. Conflicts arise from an incorrectly configured peripheral card.
 * IRQ7: This interrupt is usually used by LPT1 (first parallel port) which is typically used for printers. The most common conflicts arise if you are using two parallel ports and they both try to use IRQ7, but this is unusual.
 * IRQ8: This interrupt is a reserved interrupt used only for the real-time clock timer. The timer is used by software programs to manage events that must be calibrated to real-world time. There is rarely a conflict in this interrupt.
 * IRQ9: This interrupt is usually an open IRQ and is most often used by peripherals, specifically network cards. If you are trying to use IRQ2 then you cannot use IRQ9.
 * IRQ10: This interrupt is typically used by network cards, sound cards, SCSI host adapters, secondary IDE channels, and PCI devices. This is one of the easiest IRQs to use because it is rarely contested by other devices.
 * IRQ11: This interrupt can be used by network cards, sound cards, SCSI host adapters, secondary IDE channels, and PCI devices. This line is usually open and is usually not contested by many devices.
 * IRQ12: This interrupt is typically used by a PS/2 mouse, but can also be used by network cards, sound cards, SCSI host adapters, VGA video cards, and PCI devices. Not contested by many devices.
 * IRQ13: This interrupt is a reserved interrupt for the math coprocessor. It is used only for internal signaling and is not available for use by peripherals. Because it is a dedicated interrupt line there should never be any conflicts.
 * IRQ14: This interrupt is used by the primary hard drive controller. Problems with IRQ14 are rare.
 * IRQ15: This interrupt is used by the secondary hard drive controller. Problems result from assigning a peripheral to this interrupt while not disabling the secondary hard drive controller.


text:
User:J. Finkelstein

See my user page at Wikipedia, and my my user page at Wikimedia Commons.

title: User:J. Finkelstein