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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape/Sync

Lip-Sync with Shape Keys
Here I will attempt to explain my recent dealings with using Blender Shape Keys to produce convincing lip-sync (Lip-synchronisation, i.e.: "speech") for simple, humanoid characters.

This is aimed at people with an understanding of Blender fundamentals like vertex loops, face loops, sequencer and of course, Blender's new Shape Key system. If these terms mean nothing to you, then you may well struggle to keep up. If you're familiar with them then I hope this tutorial will prove to be a breeze and your characters will be speaking so fluently you'll have trouble shutting them up!

Other Lip-sync tutorials, if you can find them, recommend using other software like Magpie, Papagayo and others, but while I've no doubt they provide a valuable service and maybe make syncing easier, I will be using only Blender for this tutorial. I haven't tried using lip-sync software yet so I can't really say if it's easier or not.

You will find links to interesting audio files you can use for testing animation and lip-sync near the bottom of the page.

Setting up for Lip-Sync
First, set up your Blender screen so you have everything you need for this project. You'll need a front 3D Window, an Action Window, the Buttons Window (showing Editing - F9 - panels) and a Timeline Window. If you've got the room, a Side-view 3D Window would be handy too.

The basic sound units are called phonemes and the mouth shapes we use to represent these phonemes for lip-sync are called visemes (or sometimes, phoneme shapes) and there are many references for these around the web. Legendary animator Preston Blair created one of the most popular viseme sets, which is great for cartoon-style characters. Other visemes are aimed at more-realist, humanoid characters. The shapes you choose depend on the style of your model. (I'll try to provide some useful links later)

Sample viseme shapes.

The first and most difficult step in good lip-sync is making the shape keys for these visemes. How well these are made ultimately determines the success of the animation and it is worth spending time getting them right, although they can be modified and tweaked later. So choose your favourite set of visemes (or even look in a mirror and use your own face as a reference) and start setting your keys. A model with good topology - especially well formed edge loops around the mouth area - will be a big help here!

What on Earth are topology and edge loops?!?!
Topology refers to the way your 3D mesh defines the object, in this case your character's head. Edge loops refers to the flow of consecutive edges around the character's major features. Typically, good edge loops flow around the eyes and around the mouth in a somewhat deformed, "circular" manner. Selecting and deforming a single loop of edges and vertices surrounding a facial feature is much quicker than having to individually select a lot of edges that don't flow naturally around that feature. Similarly, deforming a single loop or collection of related, nested loops is much easier and quicker than trying to deform a seemingly random set of edges. You can easily see these loops in the character screenshots above. The series of edges surrounding the mouth simply stretch from wide ellipses to almost circular to create a useful variety of mouth shapes. The faces defined by paired edge loops are referred to as face loops. The close-up image below shows selected face loops.

There are many tutorials on the web about these topics so if you need more information before proceeding then a quick search is probably a good idea.

Setting the basic viseme shape keys
First, select your undeformed mesh and create your basis key. Go to Editing (F9) window and go to the "Shapes" panel. Press the "Add Shape Key" button. Enter and exit edit mode to set the basis key. Then create your first key Key 1 and name it "M". Enter edit mode and if your character's mouth isn't already closed (some people make them that way) then close it by carefully selecting the faces and loops around the mouth. You will usually use Size-Z plus a bit of grabbing and shifting to achieve this. Don't forget to include the faces on the inside of the lips or the deformation will be unpleasant. When you're happy with the shape, exit Edit mode and there you have it. Your character can now say "Mmmmmm" whenever you like. Test it by moving the Shape Key slider back and forth but make sure to leave it at zero before making more keys. (If you made your character with a closed mouth then you can just add the new "M" key then enter and exit edit mode to set it.)

Selecting face loops

For most new keys, you will select the basis key first then press "Add Shape Key" then make the required shape from scratch in edit mode. However, some mouth shapes are very similar, like "OH and OOO" or "EE and SS" and it would be easier if you could start with something close to what you want rather than shifting everything from scratch every time. Luckily, Blender allows you to do just this. Once you've made your "EE" key, for example, you can select it and immediately press "Add Shape Key" then enter edit mode and the mouth will already be deformed and you only need to make subtle changes to it to make your "S" shape.

'''Remember that the keys you make are for sounds, not letters. In general, you'll need shape keys for the following sounds'''
 * M, B, P
 * EEE (long "E" sound as in "Sheep")
 * Err (As in "Earth", "Fur", Long-er" - also covers phonemes like "H" in "Hello")
 * Eye, Ay (As in "Fly" and "Stay")
 * i (Short "I" as in "it", "Fit")
 * Oh (As in "Slow")
 * OOO, W (As in "Moo" and "Went")
 * Y, Ch, J ("You, Chew, Jalopy")
 * F, V

These can often be used in combination with each other and with jaw bone rotations and tongue actions to also produce other sounds like "S", "R", "T", "Th" and a short "O" as in "Hot" - or these can also be specifically made with their own shapes. This decision depends largely on your character. Start with the essentials and make others if you need them.

NOTE: I use one jawbone in my current character and this is also used to control the mouth shapes. It doesn't drive the shapes but it moves the bottom teeth and tongue (which can also be controlled separately) and the faces that make up the chin part of the character mesh. For some visemes, I move the jawbone into a logical position before adding the shape key. For example. I open the jaw for the "OH" key and close it for the "M" key. Later, when animating, the jawbone is animated along with the Shapes for a very convincing result.

Using jawbone with shapes

Load the audio
Once all your viseme shapes are set the time comes to get your character to speak. (Normally you would animate the body first and leave the lip-sync till near the end).

If you haven't already done so, load your audio file into a Blender Video Sequencer Window and position it where you want it. Currently, Blender only supports 16 bit wav format audio files so you may need some editing or conversion software to process the file if it isn't in this format. "Audacity" is a good, open-source (free) editor that will suit this purpose and much more.

Blender Video Sequence Editor Window showing loaded Audio Strip

Go to the Scene Window (F10) and press the "Sound block buttons" button --(in the three buttons near the frame counter. It looks like an audio wave)--. Press the "Sync" and "Scrub" buttons. The "Sync" button makes the playback in the 3D window closely match the audio when you press Alt-A (it does this by dropping image frames if necessary and it generally provides only a rough guide of how things match-up). The "Scrub" button is important for lip-sync as it means that whenever you change frames, Blender plays the audio at that point (Currently in some Blender builds you have to press Alt-A at least once to get this feature to start working).

Blender Soundblock Panel

Select your character and your Shape Keys should be listed in the Action Window, in the order in which you made them (I don't think they can be shuffled). You will see a small triangle button labelled "Sliders" at the top of the list - press it to show the sliders for each shape. If you drag the mouse back and forth in this window, you should hear the audio play as you cross frames. This is how you will identify the main viseme/phoneme key frames.

Shape Key Sliders

Getting down and dirty
Before you begin your lip-sync, you obviously need to know what your character says. It might be worthwhile writing it down and even speaking it over and over, in time with the audio, to get a feeling for the sounds you'll be dealing with. Some sounds are what I'll call "key sounds" and others are almost dead, non-descript "in-between" sounds that fill in the gaps between the key sounds. Obvious key sounds are those where the lips close and those where they are tightly pursed or wide and round, other key sounds can differ with every piece of audio. Don't make assumptions about the shapes you'll use based on the words you know are there. What you are animating are the actual sounds - not letters or words (Keith Lango has much to say about this on his website and I recommend reading it)

The Timeline Window
Go to the Timeline Window. This window seems to have been largely overlooked in previous documentation yet it provides the basics for timed animation plus a few other goodies to make your animation life a little easier. Here you can turn auto-keying on and off at will (you'd normally go to the hidden User Preferences window which is a pain and easy to forget), navigate frames, play and pause the animation in the 3D window, turn Audio Sync on and off, set the start and end frames for the animation and set frame markers. This last feature is the key to our project.

In recent Blender releases,the audio "Scrub" feature works in most windows. As you scrub through the audio, listen for where the key sounds occur. As you hit a key sound, scrub back and forth to find where that sound commences. In the Timeline Window, press "M" to set a frame marker at this frame. The marker can be labelled by pressing CTRL-M in the Timeline Window while the marker is selected (yellow). Enter a sensible name for the marker that indicates what the marker is for (like the phoneme sound and/or which word it starts or ends). Markers are selectable and moveable and can be deleted just like other Blender items.

NOTE: Depending on the speed of your system, you may find you get more pleasing audio scrubbing and better 3D window playback if you turn off subsurf for your model and hide any unimportant parts of the scene on different layers. The fewer things Blender has to calculate as you scrub or play-back, the faster it can draw the frames to maintain sync with the audio.

Turn off these buttons to disable subsurf setting in 3D window

Blender Timeline Window

Scrub through the whole audio - or sections of it in a long piece - marking and labelling all the key sounds.

Setting the keys
Now you have everything you need for your first lip-sync pass. Start at the first frame and click once on all your Shape Key sliders in the Action Window to set them all to zero. Move through the frames from start to finish setting shape keys where you marked the key sounds in the Timeline Window. If your character has a jaw bone and tongue bone(s), you will need to set these where required as you go.

Trouble in paradise? A quick lesson in handling Shape Keys
If you haven't set shape keys before you might notice one interesting dilemma - they have great memories! Once you set a slider to any value, it stays at that value until you set another value somewhere. The shapes change in a linear fashion between keys. At first, this appears to be a problem if you want to key "MOO" because after you set the "M" key slider to 1 (one), it will stay there, making it impossible to get your character to say "OO" while his lips are trying to stay shut. So, you have to set the "M" slider on the "M" sound, then as the audio goes into the "OO" sound, you must set the "M" slider back to zero and then set the "OO" slider to its full value.

This introduces another problem. After you set the "OO" key, your "M" sound is messed up because the mouth is now also being affected by the "OO" shape that follows it. So, you must make sure the "OO" sound is set to zero when you want the lips closed in the "M" position.

In general, you'll find yourself setting each shape 3 times The same principle applies to the jaw bone and tongue - 3 keys to each move.
 * once to determine where you want the mouth to begin moving to this shape (slider set to zero)
 * once to set the slider at the desired level for this phoneme
 * and once more to end this shape and move into the next one (slider set to zero)

Setting multiple shape keys

As you get more comfortable with this procedure, you'll find you can leave some shapes set longer or adjust them to different levels as they can provide some interesting mouth shapes when combined with other shapes.

Setting the in-between sounds
Once the key sounds are properly set, you should be able to scrub slowly through the Action Window and watch your character speak in time with the audio. It won't be perfect but it's a start. To fix his speech impediment, you now have to fill in the sounds between the key sounds. Mostly these will be dull vowel sounds ("err, uh, ah") and silence. These shapes are set in exactly the same way but here you'll have to really watch the 3D view as you set the sliders. Try combinations of sliders like "EE" and "OH" to get the perfect shape for each individual sound. You have to be guided by your character. Does he look like he's saying the sound you're hearing? (Remember that exactly what's being said is not important - it's only the sound that matters). Test each sound as you set it by scrubbing a few frames over and over and watching your character mouth the sounds.

All that's left, hopefully, is some polishing and tweaking. If it's not perfect then don't despair. Like other areas of animation, it can take a while to get a feeling for lip-sync and as the tools and workflow become more familiar you can pay more attention to the important work.

Putting it all together
When you're reasonably happy, it's time to combine the audio and video and watch the result. Since Blender can't do muxing (combined audio/video) you'll need to composite it with the editing software of your choice (OSX users can use recent versions of iMovie, virtualDub is often recommended for Windows users and Avidemux2 is often recommended for Linux users.).

What Blender can do is provide a fully synced version of the audio file the same length as the animation - even adding silence at the start and end if need be to maintain the synchronisation. To make this synced audio file, go back to the "Sound block buttons" panel and press "MIXDOWN". This saves a .wav file using the filename and location you entered in your output box (you did didn't you?) plus a frame count (something like 'speech.avi0001_0400.wav'). Then save your animation by pressing the "ANIM" button.

Combine the audio and video in your video editor and export a muxed file. You may find when you play it back that the mouth seems to be just slightly out of sync. This may be for two reasons: You're syncing per frame, the sound doesn't start exactly at a frame. The second reason is the way the brain processes faces and expressions and mixes it with sounds heard to comprehend speech. This comprehension phenomenon is barely understood and is a common challenge in animation, and some physiologists think our brains read lips and facial expression as a way of setting up to understand the context of sounds received and comprehending the meaning behind language. To solve it, you can go back into Blender, select the audio in the Sequencer Window and move it one or two frames later, then press "MIXDOWN" again to create a new .wav file with a split second of silence at the start. Remix this with your video and watch the results.

From here on its all a matter of testing and tweaking until you're happy!

Using Blender to render Audio AND Video TOGETHER.
Ever since Blender 2.3, it has been possible to render video with the audio attached. Once you have your animation done, and are ready to render: In the buttons window, click scene (F10). In the format tab, choose FFMpeg. There will now be three tabs. Click on Audio. Click Multiplex, and choose your audio codec. Click Video. Choose your video codec (including AVI). Now, in another section of the window, there will be an Anim tab. Click Do Sequence. And click ANIM. When you watch the video, you'll notice that it has sound.

Note: The mac version of blender doesn't have the FFMpeg codec in blender by default.

Audio Files
You can find some interesting audio files selected for animators at animationmeat. These files come complete with a pre-marked phoneme sheet.

Note
One final note. Watch how the pros do this. When actors are doing voice overs for major releases their actions are recorded and even integrated into the final animation. If you have a digital camera, you may also try recording your own mouth performing your dialogue and approximating its positions to your animation. This can give you a great visual reference, possibly frames for frames if your frame rates match, and save you time.


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Horticulture

Horticulture is an effort to create a coherent and wide-ranging guide to the practice of gardening. The text is intended for use by horticulture students, horticultural workers, and home gardeners.

The project scope aims at temperate-region gardens, spanning the USDA Hardiness Zones 4-8.

Types of Gardens

 * /Container Gardening/
 * /Rock Gardens/
 * /Water Gardens/
 * /Herb Gardens/
 * /Flower Gardens/
 * /Color Gardens/
 * /Community Gardens/
 * /Urban Gardens/

Outdoor Gardening

 * /Elements of a Garden Location/
 * /First Steps in Planning a Garden/
 * /Laying Out a Garden Bed/
 * /Putting a Garden Plan into Action/
 * /Permaculture/
 * /Raised Beds/

Soils, composting and mulches

 * /Soils and Composts/
 * /Soil Improvement/

Propagation methods, seeds and sowing

 * /Irrigation/
 * /Leaf Cuttings/
 * /Planting Techniques/
 * /Sowing/

Outdoor Plants

 * Foliage
 * Flowers
 * Foods
 * Grasses
 * /Trees/
 * /Shrubs/
 * /Fungi and Lichen/
 * /Mosses and Bryophites/

House plants

 * /House Plants/

Container Plants

 * Flowers
 * Foods
 * Terrariums

Tools

 * /Lawn Mowers/
 * /Protective Clothing/

Materials

 * /Herbicides/

Schedule of activities

 * /Spring Cleanup/
 * /Fall Cleanup/

Weeds

 * /Weed Profiles/
 * /Weeding Tools/

Pests and diseases

 * /Pest Control Methods/
 * /Pest Profiles/
 * /Pesticides/
 * /Plant Pests and Diseases/

Resources

 * All pages of Horticulture
 * |Index
 * /Requests/

Contributing

 * An invitation to contribute
 * List of contributors
 * Discuss the project
 * Manual of style
 * Using the page templates to begin a new page
 * Modifying Wikipedia articles for use here

Handbuch Gemüsebau Horticultura y jardinería Jardinage Leer jezelf ecologisch tuinieren Ekoogrodnictwo

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Horticulture


text:
User talk:Peterthisted

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

title: User talk:Peterthisted


text:
User talk:Smithbrenon~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

And I know what you mean about the Byzantium/Constantinople/Istanbul confusion... but go ahead and edit that bit, and fix it.Andrew Watt 16:57, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Smithbrenon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Smithbrenon~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:42, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:30, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Smithbrenon~enwikibooks


text:
Wikijunior:United States Charters of Freedom/Constitution

The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. When nine states of the then thirteen states ratified the document it marked the creation of a union of sovereign states, and a federal government to operate that union. It replaced the weaker, less well-defined union that existed under the ../Articles of Confederation/ and took effect on March 4, 1789. The handwritten copy signed by the delegates to the Congress is on display in the National Archives in Washington, D.C. It is the second of the three Charters of Freedom along with the ../Declaration of Independence/ and the ../Bill of Rights/.

Background
During the Revolutionary War, the thirteen states first formed a weak central government—with the Congress being its only component—under the Articles of Confederation/. Congress lacked any power to impose taxes, and, because there was no national executive or judiciary, it relied on state authorities, who were often uncooperative, to enforce all its acts. It also had no authority to override tax laws and tariffs between states. The Articles required unanimous consent from all the states before they could be amended and states took the central government so lightly that their representatives were often absent. For lack of a quorum, Congress was frequently blocked from making even moderate changes.

The Confederation Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787. Twelve states, Rhode Island being the only exception, accepted this invitation and sent delegates to convene in May 1787. The decision was made to draft a new fundamental government design which eventually stipulated that only 9 of the 13 states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect. These actions were criticized by some as exceeding the convention's mandate and existing law. However, Congress, noting dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation government, unanimously agreed to submit the proposal to the states despite what some perceived as the exceeded terms of reference. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia, followed by a speech given by Benjamin Franklin. In it he talked about how he wasn't completely satisfied with it but that perfection would never fully be achieved. He accepted the document as it was and he wanted all those against the ratification of it to do the same. The new government it prescribed came into existence on March 4, 1789, after fierce fights over ratification in many of the states.

Text of the Constitution
The text of the Constitution can be divided into nine sections: the preamble, 7 articles, and the conclusion. (Note that the preamble and conclusion headings are not part of the text of the document) (though the articles have headings labeled Article I-Article VII).

Preamble
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

Section 1
All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section 2
The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

''Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five and Georgia three.''

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section 3
The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

''Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.''

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States.

''The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.''

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section 4
The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Place of choosing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section 5
Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal.

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting.

Section 6
''The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place.''

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office.

Section 7
All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills.

''Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law.''

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill.

Section 8
The Congress shall have power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and Post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section 9
The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince or foreign State.

Section 10
No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress.

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Section 1
''The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows:''

Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector.

''The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not lie an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; a quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice-President.''

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States.

No person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States.

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected.

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them.

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States."

Section 2
The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offenses against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment.

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.

The President shall have power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session.

Section 3
He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section 4
The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Section 1
''The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.''

Section 2
The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; to Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State; between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

''In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make.''

Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed.

Section 3
''Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court.''

The Congress shall have power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted.

Section 1
''Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof.''

Section 2
The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, But shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.

Section 3
New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new States shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State.

Section 4
The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence.

Article V
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article VI
All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States.

Article VII
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

Conclusion
''Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names.''

 * Virginia: George Washington
 * Delaware: George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom
 * Maryland: James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll
 * Virginia: John Blair, James Madison Jr.
 * North Carolina: William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson
 * South Carolina: John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler
 * Georgia: William Few, Abraham Baldwin
 * New Hampshire: John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman
 * Massachusetts: Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King
 * Connecticut: William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman
 * New York: Alexander Hamilton
 * New Jersey: William Livingston, David Brearly, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton
 * Pennsylvania: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris

Analysis of the text
This section describes each section of the Constitution.

Analysis of the Preamble
The Preamble neither grants any powers nor inhibits any actions; it only explains the rationale behind the Constitution. The Preamble, especially the first three words ("We the people"), is one of the most quoted and referenced sections of the Constitution.

Analysis of Article I
Article I establishes the legislative branch of government, U.S. Congress, which includes the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Article establishes the manner of election and qualifications of members of each House. In addition, it provides for free debate in congress and limits self-serving behavior of congressmen, outlines legislative procedure and indicates the powers of the legislative branch. Finally, it establishes limits on federal and state legislative power.

Analysis of Article II
Article II describes the presidency (the executive branch): procedures for the selection of the president, qualifications for office, the oath to be affirmed and the powers and duties of the office. It also provides for the office of Vice President of the United States, and specifies that the Vice President succeeds to the presidency if the President is incapacitated, dies, or resigns, although whether this succession was on an acting or permanent basis was unclear until the passage of the 25th Amendment.

Article II also provides for the impeachment and removal from office of civil officers

Analysis of Article III
Article III describes the court system (the judicial branch), including the Supreme Court. The article requires that there be one court called the Supreme Court; Congress, at its discretion, can create lower courts, whose judgments and orders are reviewable by the Supreme Court. Article Three also requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, defines the crime of treason, and charges Congress with providing for a punishment for it, while imposing limits on that punishment.

Analysis of Article IV
Article IV describes the relationship between the states and the Federal government, and amongst the states. For instance, it requires states to give "full faith and credit" to the public acts, records and court proceedings of the other states. Congress is permitted to regulate the manner in which proof of such acts, records or proceedings may be admitted. The "privileges and immunities" clause prohibits state governments from discriminating against citizens of other states in favor of resident citizens (e.g., having tougher penalties for residents of Ohio convicted of crimes within Arizona). It also establishes extradition between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for freedom of movement and travel amongst the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, especially by citizens who live near state borders; but in the days of the Articles of Confederation, crossing state lines was often a much more arduous (and costly) process. Article IV also provides for the creation and admission of new states. The Territorial Clause gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of Federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article IV requires the United States to guarantee to each state a republican form of government, and to protect the states from invasion and violence.

Analysis of Article V
Article V describes the process necessary to amend the Constitution. It establishes two methods of proposing amendments: by Congress or by a national convention requested by the states. Under the first method, Congress can propose an amendment by a two-thirds vote (of a quorum, not necessarily of the entire body) of the Senate and of the House of Representatives. Under the second method, two-thirds of the state legislatures may convene and "apply" to Congress to hold a national convention, whereupon Congress must call such a convention for the purpose of considering amendments. Thus far, only the first method (proposal by Congress) has been used.

Once proposed—whether submitted by a national convention or by Congress—amendments must then be ratified by three-fourths of the states to take effect. Article V gives Congress the option of requiring ratification by state legislatures or by special conventions assembled in the states. The convention method of ratification has been used only once (to approve the 21st Amendment). Article V currently places only one limitation on the amending power—that no amendment can deprive a state of its equal representation in the Senate without that state's consent.

Analysis of Article VI
Article VI establishes the Constitution, and the laws and treaties of the United States made in accordance with it, to be the supreme law of the land. It also validates national debt created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all legislators, federal officers, and judges take oaths to support the Constitution.

Analysis of Article VII
Article VII sets forth the requirements for ratification of the Constitution. The Constitution would not take effect until at least nine states had ratified the Constitution in state conventions specially convened for that purpose. New Hampshire became that ninth state on June 21, 1788. Once the Congress of the Confederation received word of New Hampshire's ratification, it set a timetable for the start of operations under the Constitution, and, on March 4, 1789, the government under the Constitution began operations.

The Constitution was ratified by the states in the following order:

Analysis of the Conclusion
The Conclusion ends the Constitution and is basically a summary of the document's date of completion and contains the delegate's signatures.

Provisions for amendments
The authors of the Constitution were aware that changes would be necessary from time to time if the Constitution was to endure and cope with the effects of the growth of the nation. However, they were also conscious that such a change should not be easy, in case it permits ill-conceived and hastily passed amendments. They also wanted to ensure that an amendment would not block action desired by the vast majority of the population. Their solution was to devise a dual process by which the Constitution could be altered.

The first option must begin in Congress which, by a two-thirds of the members vote in each house, may initiate an amendment. Alternatively, the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states may ask Congress to call a national convention to discuss and draft amendments. To date, all amendments have been proposed by Congress. The second option is that two-thirds of the state legislatures may convene and "apply" to Congress to hold a national convention, whereupon Congress must call such a convention for the purpose of considering amendments. Although state legislatures have occasionally requested the calling of a convention, no such request has yet received the concurrence required for such a convention. As of mid-2006, only the first method (proposal by Congress) has been used.

In either case, an amendment must have the approval of the legislatures or of smaller ratifying conventions within three-fourths of the states before becoming a part of the Constitution. All amendments except one have been submitted to the state legislatures for ratification; only the 21st amendment was ratified by individual conventions in the states.

Amendments to the United States Constitution are considered "articles in addition to and amendment of" the original body of the text and are appended at the end of it. This is the case even when an amendment revises or rescinds an existing clause or section. There is no provision for expunging from the text obsolete or rescinded provisions.

Some people feel that demographic changes in the U.S.—specifically the great disparity in population between states—have made the Constitution too difficult to amend, with states representing as little as 4% of the population theoretically able to block an amendment desired by over 90% of Americans; others feel that it is unlikely that such an extreme result would occur. However, any proposals to change this would necessarily involve amending the Constitution itself.

Congressional legislation, passed to implement provisions of the Constitution or to adapt those implementations to changing conditions, also broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meanings given to the words of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the many agencies of the federal government have a similar effect. In case of objection, the test in both cases is whether, in the opinion of the courts, such legislation and rules conform with the meanings given to the words of the Constitution.

Amendments
The Constitution has a total of 27 amendments. The first ten, written in the ../Bill of Rights/, another Charter of Freedom, were ratified simultaneously. The following seventeen were ratified separately.

The Bill of Rights (1-10)
The ../Bill of Rights/ comprises the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Those amendments were adopted between 1789 and 1791, and all relate to limiting the power of the federal government. They were added in response to criticisms of the Constitution by the state ratification conventions and by prominent individuals such as Thomas Jefferson. These critics argued that without further restraints, the strong central government would become tyrannical. The amendments were proposed by Congress as part of a block of twelve in September 1789. By December 1791 a sufficient number of states had ratified ten of the twelve proposals, and the Bill of Rights became part of the Constitution. One of the failed proposals has yet to be ratified, while the other became the 27th amendment in 1992.

Subsequent amendments (11–27)
The 17 ../Additional amendments to the United States Constitution/ ratified after the Bill of Rights cover many subjects. The majority of the seventeen later amendments stem from continued efforts to expand individual civil or political liberties, while a few are concerned with modifying the basic governmental structure drafted in Philadelphia in 1787.

Although there are 27 amendments to the United States Constitution, one of them, the 18th Amendment, is inoperative. It was rescinded by the 21st Amendment, and is the only amendment to date to be directly and specifically repealed by another.

Unratified amendments
Over 10,000 Constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress since 1789; in a typical Congressional year in the last several decades, between 100 and 200 are offered. Most of these concepts never get out of Congressional committee, much less get proposed by the Congress for ratification. Backers of some amendments have attempted the alternative, and thus far never-utilized, method mentioned in Article V.

Of the thirty-three amendments that have been adopted by Congress and sent to the states for ratification, six have not been ratified by the required number of states. Four of these six amendments are still technically open and pending. Since the early 20th century, Congress has usually, but not always, stipulated that an amendment must be ratified by the required number of states within seven years from the date of its submission to the states in order to become part of the Constitution.

Pending amendments
The following amendments are still before the states; none of them has a ratification deadline attached:

 * The Congressional Apportionment Amendment, proposed by the 1st Congress on September 25, 1789, defined a formula for how many members there would be in the United States House of Representatives after each decennial census. Ratified by eleven states, the last being Kentucky in June 1792 (Kentucky's initial month of statehood). In principle it may yet be ratified, though as written it became moot when the population of the United States reached ten million.

 * The Titles of Nobility Amendment, proposed by the 11th Congress on May 1, 1810, would have ended the citizenship of any American accepting "any Title of Nobility or Honor" from any foreign power. This amendment was ratified by 12 state legislatures.

 * The Corwin Amendment, proposed by the 36th Congress on March 2, 1861, would have forbidden any attempt to subsequently amend the Constitution to empower the Federal government to "abolish or interfere" with the "domestic institutions" of the states (an implicit reference to slavery). It was ratified by only Ohio and Maryland lawmakers before the outbreak of the Civil War. Illinois lawmakers—sitting as a state constitutional convention at the time—likewise approved it, but that action is of questionable validity. However, adoption of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments after the Civil War likely means that the amendment would be ineffective if adopted.

 * The Child Labor Amendment, proposed by the 68th Congress on June 2, 1924, which stipulates: "The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age." This amendment is now moot, since subsequent federal child labor laws have uniformly been upheld as a valid exercise of Congress' powers under the commerce clause.

Expired amendments
The following amendments are no longer before the states; neither of them were ratified by the required number of states prior to the attached ratification deadline:

 * The Equal Rights Amendment, or ERA, which reads in pertinent part "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." Proposed by the 92nd Congress on March 22, 1972, it was ratified by the legislatures of 35 states, and expired on either March 22, 1979, or on June 30, 1982, depending upon one's point of view of a controversial ratification deadline three-year extension by the 95th Congress in 1978. Of the 35 states ratifying it, four later rescinded their ratifications prior to the extended ratification period which commenced March 23, 1979 and a fifth—while not going so far as to actually rescind its earlier ratification—adopted a resolution stipulating that its approval would not extend beyond March 22, 1979. There continues to be diversity of opinion as to whether such reversals are valid; no court has ruled on the question, including the Supreme Court. But a precedent against the validity of rescission was first established during the ratification process of the 14th Amendment when Ohio and New Jersey rescinded their earlier approvals, but yet were counted as ratifying states when the 14th Amendment was ultimately proclaimed part of the Constitution in 1868.

 * The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment was proposed by the 95th Congress on August 22, 1978. Had it been ratified, it would have granted to the District of Columbia–as though it were a state– full representation in the United States Congress, full representation in the Electoral College system, and full participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended. It would have also repealed the 23rd Amendment. Ratified by the legislatures of only 16 states—less than half of the required 38—the proposed amendment expired on August 22, 1985.

Proposals for amendments
There are currently only a few proposals for amendments which have entered mainstream political debate. These include the proposed Federal Marriage Amendment, the Balanced Budget Amendment, and the Flag-Burning Amendment.

Questions
Here are some questions to answer. If you are stumped, and need the answer, just click and drag your mouse over the space next to the question. The answer will show up. The answers to all the questions are located in this article (except question 12). (Question 12 has no right or wrong answer).

 * 1) What document did the Constitution replace? The Articles of Confederation
 * 2) Which one of the 13 states did not send a delegate to sign the Constitution? Rhode Island
 * 3) How many of the 13 states were needed to ratify this document in order for it to become functional? 9
 * 4) Who was nicknamed the "Father of the Constitution"? James Madison
 * 5) How many articles are there in the Constitution? 7
 * 6) How many delegates signed the Constitution? 39
 * 7) Which article describes how to amend the Constitution? Article V
 * 8) How many ways are there to amend the Constitution? 2
 * 9) How many times has the Constitution been amended? 27
 * 10) Which document the first ten amendments to the Constitution written on? The Bill of Rights
 * 11) Which document influenced the Constitution? The Magna Carta
 * 12) Which article do you think is the most significant and why? Answers may vary

Source
Adapted from the Wikipedia article.


text:
Ancient History/Human Evolution/Human Origins

Examining Human Origins
The study of the deep past can be divided roughly into two sections: history, and prehistory. History assumes that the culture or people being studied had writing of some sort—that they kept records of what they bought and sold, what they ate, what they saved, what they spent, and what they believed. Writing is one of the most important inventions of humans, and cultures that have writing are forever changed by it. Yet writing did not exist in some places until very recently, and even the oldest writing in the world is no more than 6500 years old.

By contrast, prehistory is the name we give to every part of human culture and experience that happened before the invention of writing. Most of the planet Earth had some form of writing by 1950 CE, which meant that in some places, prehistory lasted into the twentieth century. By contrast, prehistory extends back in time at least to 100,000 years ago. Prehistory may extend even farther than that, to one million years or even three million years! There is far more prehistory than history, and yet we know more about the last six thousand years than we do about the previous million.

Yet everything we know today about prehistory is as a result of the investigations of scientists. Many different scientists are working together in order to uncover the mysteries of prehistory. These scientists come in many types: paleoanthropologists, archaeologists, physical and cultural anthropologists, zoologists, chemists, botanists, physicists, historians and dedicated amateurs. It is difficult and under-appreciated work, but it is necessary if our understanding of the past is to advance.

Reconstructors of the Past
In order to understand prehistory, we first have to understand what these scientists are doing, and how they are doing it.

How do these professions help us understand prehistory? How can we reconstruct the past without having any writing from that time period? In fact, each type of scientist mentioned has a specific role to play in understanding the past. Archaeologists and paleoanthropologists often have first-contact responsibilities when it comes to prehistory. Paleoanthropologists are scientists who look for and study old bones. When they find such bones, a paleoanthropologist can often learn many things about the animal it came from. Bones from an animal's limbs reveal whether an animal walked on two legs or four legs, whether it swam in the water or flew. A piece of a skull can reveal the size and shape of the animal's brain. Pieces of vertebrae can tell a scientist whether the animal walked upright or hunched over. Some bones even reveal what diseases an animal had. In the case of exploring human origins, old bones may reveal how long humanity has walked on the Earth, and what we have done in the world.

Paleoanthropologists
Paleoanthropologists combine the methods of paleontologists and biological anthropologists into one comprehensive study. Paleontology is the study of fossil evidence of ancient creatures, and biological anthropology is the inter-disciplinary study of physical changes in humans. Therefore, a paleoanthropologist is a scientist who studies fossil evidence of ancient human beings. Paleoanthropologists have played a major role in discovering what we know about evolution today.

Although fossils are a major piece of the puzzle, the theory of human evolution was built with the help of several other anthropological fields, all closely tied to paleoanthropology. For example, human behavioral ecology is the study of ancient human behavior and how it changed over time. Similar to archaeology, this field revealed how humans have adapted to changing environments and advanced technologically through the stone age. In addition, fields such as paleopathology, the study of ancient diseases, and osteology, the study of bones, have taken the findings of paleoanthropologists to new levels and provided more insight into the lives of ancient people.

Archaeologists
Archaeologists do a slightly different task in the study of prehistory. Where paleoanthropologists study old human bones, archaeologists study ancient dwelling or burial places. Wherever people live, they often leave things behind when they move: pottery, an earring, food, tools, or garbage. Sometimes they leave the whole house behind. Where paleoanthropologists study bones, archaeologists study the remains of houses and shelters and camps where people lived. In addition, archaeologists sometimes study grave-sites, where people are buried, to examine the things the dead person's relatives left behind.

Archaeologists work through the study not only of objects, but their relationships to one another. When first excavating a site, an archaeologist will lay down a grid over the earth, usually constructed of stakes in the ground, and cords. The grid divides the land beneath it into many small squares of equal size. Once digging begins, a good archaeologist records what she or he finds, and where. The grid helps define what else a given object was found near. Thus, if a gold bracelet is found near the skeleton of a woman, the archaeologist may assume that the woman and the bracelet were buried at the same time. On the other hand, a bronze sword in the ground forty feet away and ten feet deeper probably was not buried at the same time as the woman or the bracelet.

Chemists
Other professions perform supporting roles to archaeologists and paleoanthropologists. Chemists can do tests on the chemical composition of objects from ancient sites. Flint and obsidian, two types of stone used in prehistoric tools, have specific chemical signatures depending on where they come from, and obsidian from a volcano in eastern Turkey has a different signature than a volcano in Japan or in Spain or Italy. If an archaeologist in Morocco finds a hunter buried with a flint spear made with Iranian flint, she knows that either the hunter traveled a very long way before he died, or that the hunter had dealings with traders from far away. Chemists can also do Carbon Dating studies, in which organic material like bone, antler or wood is subjected to a chemical test. The test reveals the approximate age at which the organic thing died, and is usually accurate to within a century or two.

Zoologists, Botanists and Physicists
Zoologists and botanists help explore prehistory by studying the remains of animals and plants. Botanists can count seeds found at an archaeological site, and note the different kinds of seeds and nuts present. This reveals the landscape in which early humans lived. Perhaps the plants were suited to warmer or colder climates, or maybe they are extinct. Perhaps the plants had medicinal uses, or make food taste better. The archaeologist can sometimes tell if the seeds were being stored for eating or for planting, simply by knowing how many of a given kind are being stored. Zoologists can study animal bones to determine if the animal was domesticated or not. Knife marks on the bone revealled Potassium-Argon dating. This technology can get the date of an object wrong by more than a thousand years—but it can also give the rough ages for objects that are hundreds of thousands of years older than radiocarbon can detect. Additionally, physicists have designed and built a number of technologies useful to archaeologists, including a side-scan ground-penetrating radar, that can find buildings and archaeological sites without digging them up.

Anthropologists are scientists who study human culture and behavior patterns. They contribute to the study of prehistory by examining the tools, clothing and equipment left behind at archaeological sites, and determine how that equipment was made and what it was used for. Physical anthropologists study human bones for signs of disease or malnutrition, and work with botanists and zoologists to reconstruct the diets of failed hunters. Cultural anthropologists study how ancient cultures made things, and what they thought and believed, based on the objects those cultures created and then abandoned.

Once all these scientists have done their jobs and learned what they can from the objects left behind by our most distant ancestors, they issue a report on their findings. A historian then takes the reports of many archaeologists, and tries to construct a coherent narrative or story of what was happening in the world or in a region of the world during the time period covered by these archaeological sites.

Amateur and Volunteer
None of these jobs, from the historian to the paleoanthropologist, would be possible without the interest and excitement of dedicated and interested amateurs. Amateurs may not have much scientific training, but they can do the digging at archaeological sites, and sort bones and record information from a site on the grid. They can contribute to non-profit organizations that fund studies of prehistory, and they can read up on archeology and report the results to their friends. Amateurs can use their heads, hearts, eyes, ears and mouths to understand the past, just like anyone else, and they can transmit the excitement of studying the past to others.


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User:Timrem/monobook.js

// Lupin/popups.js

mw.loader.load(            'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Lupin/popups.js'             + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript&dontcountme=s');

title: User:Timrem/monobook.js


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Talk:Horticulture/Plant-by-Plant Information/Hellebor

Didn't know how to state the reason for deleting, but this book was copy-pasted from another book, which has since been moved here under another name (with its history intact). Johnny 17:49, 3 June 2006 (UTC)


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WebObjects/EOF/Using EOF/Problems

Problems
This section describes some problems and bugs that sometimes occur when using Enterprise Objects Framework.

EOF fails to initialize models when not specifically ordered

 * Authors: Francis Labrie
 * Affected products: WebObjects 5.2.x, 5.3.x
 * Bug reference: rdar://4571773

Problem:
Sometimes when having several data models using shared objects in a WebObjects application, models load, initialization and connection simply fail with strange and unexpected exceptions. Typical exceptions are:

 *

 *

 * etc.

I saw several report of this bug in various mailing list, but no one leads to a right solution or a good explanation:

 * http://lists.apple.com/archives/webobjects-dev/2005/Aug/msg00295.html
 * http://www.wodeveloper.com/omniLists/webobjects-dev/2004/September/msg00255.html

Solution:
I've finally found that this problem is related to the models load and initialization order. Most of the time, EOF is able to initialize a group of models flawlessly. But in some circumstances, it just fails.

The best fix would be to make EOF dynamically analyse models groups, building a graph of dependancy with all entities for each group and ordering the models and the entities initializations according to this graph. But a such solution is a little bit more complex and should typically be integrated directly into the EOAccess layer.

To work around this bug with a simpler solution, you can add in the  dictionary of each model the   key assigned to a value of four digit, example: ,  ,  , etc. You must use priority values with the same number of digit, because these will be converted to strings, and if you set a priority of  , the string value will be considered as higher than a priority of.

Then create a static method that perform an  with each model of the group sorted by priority:

private static final NSArray _PriorityDescendingModelSortOrdering = new NSArray(new Object[] {		EOSortOrdering.sortOrderingWithKey("userInfo.priority", EOSortOrdering.CompareDescending), 		EOSortOrdering.sortOrderingWithKey("name", EOSortOrdering.CompareAscending)	});

...

public static void assertModelGroupConnectionDictionariesAreValid(EOEditingContext editingContext, EOModelGroup modelGroup) { Enumeration models; EOAdaptor adaptor; EODatabaseContext databaseContext; EOModel model;

// Get models enumerator from default group models = EOSortOrdering.sortedArrayUsingKeyOrderArray(modelGroup.models, 			_PriorityDescendingModelSortOrdering).objectEnumerator;

while(models.hasMoreElements) { model = (EOModel)models.nextElement; NSLog.debug.appendln(" Connecting " + model.name + " model, userInfo = " + model.userInfo + "..."); databaseContext = EODatabaseContext.registeredDatabaseContextForModel(model, editingContext); adaptor = databaseContext.adaptorContext.adaptor;

// Test connection dictionary adaptor.assertConnectionDictionaryIsValid; NSLog.debug.appendln(" The \"" + model.name + "\" model is connected."); } // while } // assertConnectionDictionariesAreValid

The sort ordering here sort by descending model priority and ascending model name to ensure constancy on sort result.

You'll have to find the right model order: you can deduce it with logic drawing a dependency graph, or you can find it with tests and errors. Typically, when an exception has above is thrown, it's because the model initialization was done too late. I usually set priority to framework models from  (low) to   (high), and application models from   (low) to   (high).

Exception:
For some cases, this solution still does't help (see this message). I suspect the entities ordering in model to be the problem (see below). If it's still not the case, you can try to use the ERXSharedEOLoader class in Project Wonder.

EOF fails to fetch or save entities when not correctly ordered in model

 * Authors: Francis Labrie
 * Affected products: WebObjects 5.2.x, 5.3.x
 * Bug reference:

Problem:
Sometimes when using inheritance with entities in a data model in a WebObjects application, fetching or saving data may simply fails with strange and unexpected exceptions. Typical exception is:

 *

 * etc.

Solution:
Typically, this kind of error occurs when the parent entity is in an another model which was initialized after the current entity model one (see above) or when the parent entity is coming after the current entity in the alphabetically ordered list of entities of the current model. To illustrate the latter case: if your abstract parent entity name is "Flower" and you are fetching the concrete sub-entity "Anemone" while both entities are part of the same model, you can get this kind of exception on the first "Anemone" fetch.

To avoid this exception, simply edit the "index.eomodeld" file in a text editor and reorder the entities references in the array, putting parent entities above sub-entities. But you should then take care with the EOModeler: you'll have to reorder these entities references each time you modify and save the model.

New sub-entity insertion fails because primary key is null

 * Authors: initially reported by Chuck Hill
 * Affected products: WebObjects 5.2.x, 5.3.x
 * Bug reference:

Problem:
When a sub-entity have a parent entity with a relationship set to propagate primary key, any new sub-entity insertion when saving changes from an editing context will throw an integrity violation exception because the primary key column is set to.

Solution:
To avoid this bug, uncheck the Propagate primary key relationship property of the parent entity. Unfortunately, if the parent entity is not abstract, this solution will not be applicable: you'll probably have to modify the relationship modeling itself.

title: WebObjects/EOF/Using EOF/Problems


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User:MyName~enwikibooks

Hello, I'm currently active on the same username on Wikinews. You can contact me there.

title: User:MyName~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Ellipsis

Contact me
You can find me most often on the English Wikipedia.

My User Page on the English Wikipedia is the fastest way to contact me, aside from emailing me, although I will check back here whenever I need to do something on Wikibooks.

Games on Wikibooks
Are being evicted. Just read the polemic at Staff lounge page. I have had to move all Final Fantasy X stuff already. You guys better find a home for your Harry Potter guide ASAP Renmiri 20:57, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Conversation continued at User_talk:Renmiri. --DanielBC 05:14, 4 June 2006 (UTC)
 * From what I understand, they are basically deleting pretty much everything that is not taught at a school or college. Nevermind if you aren't on the project that is probably why you are not aware of it. Renmiri 22:24, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

Ancient History
Thanks for getting (ever so briefly) involved with the Ancient History project. I hope you'll come back and work on it some more. -Andrew Watt 03:17, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called DanielBC. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name DanielBC~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:07, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ellipsis


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Every Material Known to Man/Misty Globe

I tried to follow the instructions provided but I got very lost, can someone please explain better, or put up pictures showing what buttons I should be pushing because I can't find the buttons in the Map To window, the textures turn a solid color, and the IPO isn't showing anything. --141.157.133.235 22:48, 3 June 2006 (UTC)


text:
Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Disappearing Cabinets

Critical Spoilers being Left Open
In the overview of disappearing cabinets, under a "beginner" spoiler warning, it basically gives away the final storyline to the last book currently on sale! Shouldn't this be upgraded to a Intermediate warning? It is a fairly critical concept that there is a way to get inside Hogwarts other than apperating. Does anyone agree? --DanielBC 23:23, 3 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Absolutely. I've made a first pass at changing that; I'll come back for more later.


text:
Talk:Brewing/Procedures

Procedures overview
I've written a complete simplified description of the entire beer making process in hopes of driving this book towards the goal of being a textbook. The entire simplified description should be understood by a student brewer, while all the details can be left out until the student is ready. This way, a teacher can instruct a student to read this chapter first and become familiar with the entire brewing process before being exposed to all the fine details. I may have put too many unneeded details into this page, but right now I really don't want to edit this down, since the work is fresh in my mind and thus not very objective.

The final section may not be entirely necessary, but I don't see enough information there to warrant a distinct chapter for it, or even an appendix. Perhaps other tips and tricks could be compiled into an appendix later..... perhaps legal restrictions could be addressed in such a page....

I removed and tried to avoid using specific volumes from this page - five gallons may be the standard batch size in the US, but it is by no means the only. Some kits provide merely enough ME to produce 2.5 gallon batches, and a few clever brewers I know brew in 55-gallon drums with 20 to 40 gallon batches. Besides, volumes are details, best left to recipies. --Schusselig 05:20, 2 August 2007 (UTC)

Also needed
Brewing processes that also need to be included (when I have the time) are Storage/Lagering and Filtration - although these are probably not major proceses in home brewing, they are important brewing processes. Andbrew.downes (talk) 07:15, 27 October 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Brewing/Procedures


text:
Template talk:Java Programming/LanguageFundamentalsTopic/Nav

Package, Nested Classes, and Access modifiers are not under Program structure, I moved them out.

I would delete 'imports' as that is related to package. Ervinn 03:44, 6 July 2006 (UTC)


text:
User:Danthemanpirates

Hi yall If you are a computer science graduate, could you finish the Wikiversity School of computer science because most of the stuff is not dun

title: User:Danthemanpirates


text:
Talk:European History/A Brief Outline of European History

has anybody thought about makeing a visual timeline of this?

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was pretty strong in Europe at some point in history (XVI-XVII century). It could be mentioned at least once. How about a propos the Battle of Vienna 1683 (-western forces were led by Polish-Lithuanian King)? There is nothing about the battles with the Ottoman Empire here. Quote from wiki page about the Battle of Vienna: "The battle marked the turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of the Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire."

Doesn't note it is incomplete
This Outline Chapter of the book covers only the period 1400-present, however the book begins with the Backround chapter in 7,000 BCE, continues with the Middle Ages chapter from 5th century to 1400, and only then moves onto the subjects covered by the Outline chapter. The Outline chapter should somehow be noted as currently being incomplete. LookingGlass (discuss • contribs) 22:32, 14 February 2014 (UTC)


text:
Regular Expressions/Introduction

What is a regular expression?
A regular expression is a method of representing a string matching pattern. Regular expressions enable strings that match a particular pattern within textual data records to be located and modified and they are often used within utility programs and programming languages that manipulate textual data. Regular expressions are extremely powerful.

Example applications
Various software applications use regular expressions to locate, select or modify particular sections text. For example, a regular expression could be used to:

 * replace the word "snake" with the word "serpent" throughout an entire piece of text
 * locate pieces of text containing the words "fox" and "sheep" on the same line

Regular expression components
Regular expressions are made up of three types of components:

 * anchors used to specify the position of the pattern in relation to a line of text.
 * character sets used to match one or more characters in a single position.
 * modifiers used to specify how many times a character set is repeated.

Syntax varies across application programs
The syntax of regular expressions varies across application programs. For example the shell uses a limited form of regular expression called shell regular expressions for filename substitution, whereas AWK uses a superset of extended regular expressions syntax.

Supporting Software
Regular expressions are supported by various software tools, including command line tools, plain text editors and programming languages. Most of these tools are available for various computing platforms, including Linux, Windows and Mac OS X. The tools use slightly different syntax styles. Let's look at some notable ones.

The tools that use regular expressions are enlisted below:

A regular expression can be considered to be a little computer program that finds or isolates a subset of a larger set of text. In the same way that an ordinary computer program needs a computer to execute it, a regular expression needs a software application to interpret it — to give it meaning.

For example, a regular expression can be used to tell an editor to find the next occurrence of the word "Chapter" followed by several spaces and digits. Or you can use a regular expression to tell the UNIX grep command to show only those lines of a file that contain the word "Wiki" followed by either the word "Books" or the word-fragment "pedia". We will discuss the exact syntax of such regular expressions in the next chapter.

Expressões regulares/Introdução

title: Regular Expressions/Introduction


text:
Wooden Boats: Building and Repair

This project is an attempt to create an easy to use reference book on building and repairing wooden boats.

Table of Contents

 * What is a wooden boat?
 * History

Hand Tools

 * Overview
 * Description and Use
 * Maintenance and Restoration

Power Tools

 * Overview
 * Description and Use
 * Maintenance and Restoration

Painting and Varnishing

 * Overview
 * Brushes
 * Brushing Liquid (thinning varnish)

Additional Resources

 * Websites
 * Books
 * Periodicals

title: Wooden Boats: Building and Repair


text:
Wooden Boats: Building and Repair/Additional Resources/Websites

Important Resources

 * WoodenBoat Magazine

Individual Projects

 * "Victorious" - Restoration Project
 * "Rocquette" - Restoration Project

USA

 * The Wooden Boat School

UK

 * Boat Building Academy - Lyme Regis
 * International Boat Building Training College
 * Falmouth Marine School


text:
Umbraco/Plugins And Extensions/Static Export

Static HTML export
This plugin uses Umbraco's action interface to catch publish events and write out the published page to another document root.

The plugin is available from http://www.darren-ferguson.com/code-bank.aspx

More details and install instructions are contained in the zip download.

Note: This is heavily under development, and not yet intended for production systems.


text:
Cookbook:Chip Butty

A Chip Butty is a sandwich made of chips (French fries).

Ingredients

 * Chips from a chip shop or homemade
 * Sliced white bread, or pita bread for kebab-shop style
 * Butter
 * Ketchup or a brown sauce (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Make sure the chips are not too greasy and have been well drained.
 * 2) Take two slices of bread (the heel works best) and butter both on one side, then apply ketchup and spread evenly over the bread.
 * 3) Add chips in a manner akin to herringbone floor tiling, making sure to minimise any gaps. You can add multiple layers.
 * 4) Put both slices of bread together, then put the assembled sandwich on a flat surface and slap it hard several times with with an open hand to crush the filling. Eat immediately!

title: Cookbook:Chip Butty


text:
History of Embrun/Saint Augustine-de-Catherine/Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1848-1856

< Back to Life in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1845-1848

Connection to the Outside World
In January 1848, the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada issued a request for a road to be built from Bytown (now Ottawa) to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine.

The corduroy road's construction began on January 14th, 1848. The road was completed and reached the small community on March 14th. Shocked at the ribbon of logs stretching as far as he could see, Jonathan Smithson, a young resident of Saint Augustine-de-Catherine, got on a horse and traveled down the road. He reached Bytown then rode back to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine, telling tales of the road winding through forests and fields to Bytown.

People in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine decided to use the road to export lumber. The road became known as the Saint Augustine-de-Catherine road and lasted until 1951.

Prosperity
This road brought prosperity to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine in the 1850s. A schoolhouse was built in 1853, when the village had 145 people. That year, the Saint Augustine-de-Catherine road was rebuilt out of cobblestone.

A small chapel was built in July 1853 to replace the log cabin used for religious ceremonies. Some people began rebuilding their homes out of stone. By 1854 nearly half the homes in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine were made out of stone. And the main road was rebuilt out of cobblestones, just like the Saint Augustine-de-Catherine road that branched off it. An interesting fact to note: Part of the route the Saint Augustine-de-Catherine road took is now a road in Embrun called Saint Augustine Road.

Some newcomers wanted to live closer to the river. However, the people who were already in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine told them not to start their home there, as the floodwaters extended out in that direction. But most of these newcomers didn't listen. They built their homes right by the river anyway. However, when the floods started in the following Spring, they understood their mistake. But many of them already spent all their money on a home by the river, and couldn't afford to move to a better spot. They tried to sell off their homes, but not many were going to fall for a home that would be pounded by floods the next spring. The 'river-dwellers' as the people living by the river were now called, eventually managed to sell their homes at a very low price. This started a cycle of the poorer people in the town living by the river.

In 1855, the Citizens Committee of Saint Augustine-de-Catherine decided to build a church in the town. It was completed on May 15, 1856. That day, the town was renamed Embrun after the town of Embrun, Hautes-Alpes in France.

So ended Saint Augustine-de-Catherine and began Embrun.

Continue to Under a new name ›