text:
Israeli History/Six-Day War, Yom Kippur War, Settlements

At the beginning of 1967, Israel was facing multiple crises at once. An economic recession had drained consumer confidence. Large-scale immigration of Mizrahim (Middle Eastern and Asian Jews) had created a class divide and sparked worry about Israel's future as a progressive, Western democracy. The atmosphere of the entire country was one of malaise and anxiety over the future of the Zionist project. By the end of the year, not only did Israelis have cause for celebration, their attitude towards Zionist and foreign affairs had changed dramatically, and they had set a very different course for Israel on the international stage. Whether this was a change for the better, though, is debatable. Veteran politician Simha Flapan explained his concerns in retrospect:"With the blitz victory in 1967 and the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, the sudden expansion of Israel's borders gave rise to a more rapid erosion of the socialist and humanist values that had once been the hallmark of labor Zionism: prominent political leaders, poets, writers, and intellectuals, whose roots had been in the labor movement, joined the new, dynamic Greater Israel movement, which sought to turn Israel's most recent conquests into an integral part of the country."

- Simha Flapan

Build-up to war
Jerusalem, ignored by the Tel Aviv elite, lay in a divided and sometimes quixotic state. Jordanian soldiers would fire on tourists taking pictures of them; adventurous scavengers sometimes stepped on land mines in the no-man's-land; Israeli Arabs could only meet their Palestinian relatives at irregularly determined times in a square between the Mandelbaum Gate and its Jordanian counterpart; and the Western Wall was open only to foreign tourists, not even to the most pious Israeli. The Jewish Quarter of the Old City, under Jordanian control, was scheduled to be turned into a park. Fifty-two of the fifty-three synagogues in the Quarter were razed and turned into henhouses or horse stables.

PLO forms, 1964. Fatah begins bombings, 1965. Meanwhile, in 1963 the IDF had formed a plan code-named Whip to capture and occupy the West Bank.

On 25 October 1966, three Israeli soldiers are killed near Hebron. Israel responds with Operation Shredder, destroying dozens of homes and wounding or killing 100 civilians.

Six-Day War
On May 16, 1967, Nasser ordered UN peacekeepers to leave the Egyptian border, and Secretary Thant complied. Israel considered this tantamount to declaring war. Putting the peacekeepers on the Israeli side of the border was not seriously considered because it would cause Israel to lose face. The Israeli cabinet, dominated by hawks, began preparing for war-- interestingly, the two most powerful individuals opposed to the war, Lyndon B. Johnson and Ben-Gurion, specifically refused to interfere with the war planning efforts. Johnson stayed out of discussions in order to maintain neutrality on Israeli politics, even though the cabinet spent three weeks trying to obtain approval or disapproval from him before finally deciding to declare war without it, and Ben-Gurion did the same because he had retired from politics, even though individual members of the Knesset were calling for him to be reinstated as prime minister to resolve the crisis.

Meanwhile, the general population of Israel, unaware of these back room deals, were panicking over the prospect of war, which most newspapers were reporting as inevitable. Runs on grocery stores cleared the aisles of bread and milk. Some Israelis fled overseas to live with relatives, and many dug trenches around their homes and installed bomb shelters in their basements. The tension throughout the country was palpable, although the soldiers guarding the front lines were much less fearful than civilians.

Day 1
On June 5, the Israeli air force unexpectedly bombed the air forces of Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, demolishing 400 planes in less than 24 hours. Because this attack took the opposing forces by surprise and no resistance was put up, Israeli commanders considered the war virtually won by the day's end. Eshkol had offered King Hussein the option of staying out of the war (which would have left the West Bank and Jerusalem peaceful under Jordanian control), but surprisingly, he chose to launch shells at Jerusalem and Tel Aviv instead. Hussein's army was disorganized--"amateurish", according to Odd Bull--and the Syrians did not even bother to counterattack. The Israelis, though, did sustain dozens of casualties.

Day 2
On June 6, the cabinet seriously took up the matter of whether it was going to capture the Old City of Jerusalem and the West Bank. Both were a very dangerous prize: they were politically crucial to Jordan and full of impoverished refugees holding mortal grudges from the War of Independence, and yet once taken, the Israeli people would not permit the government to surrender them. Eshkol, considering these dangers, was hesitant to actually propose that the IDF march on Jerusalem. Menachem Begin, who would later become Prime Minister, said that the IDF was charged with "liberating the eastern part of western Eretz Israel" (implying that Jordan itself would soon be "liberated"), and suggested that the entire Knesset march to the Western Wall with two rabbis and recite a prayer. General Moshe Dayan offered a rather incautious compromise of surrounding the Old City without conquering it immediately, which was implicitly accepted when the meeting adjourned.

Day 3
On June 7, the Egyptian forces in Jerusalem had fled the city--only their abandoned shoes remained. Begin, impatient after hearing of a cease-fire, called Dayan, who impulsively ordered a march on Jerusalem (upsetting high-ranking generals stationed in other parts of the country, who wanted to be there for the historic event). At 10 in the morning Israeli flags were planted atop the Dome of the Rock and the Western Wall, causing an impromptu celebration. Thousands of exuberant Israelis flooded the Old City. Zionists were punch-drunk on the feeling of victory: the chaplain of the IDF and soon to be Chief Rabbi of Israel, Shlomo Goren, advised General Uzi Narkis to demolish the Dome of the Rock. Narkis harshly rebuked him, and Dayan ordered the Israeli flag removed from the Dome. Meanwhile, Ben-Gurion's instinctive reaction on hearing the news was to begin resettling the Jewish Quarter of the Old City, and he began arranging for this immediately. When he saw a street sign near the Western Wall labelled "Alborak" in Arabic, he demanded that it be taken down, and although he had no political power nearby soldiers followed his orders. His other demand, to demolish the slums and public toilets near the wall, was carried out by Narkis before the end of the war. Narkis actually advised a contractors' association to demolish the houses so that Israel would not be legally responsible.

Conclusion
The final three days were comparatively inconsequential. An American spy vessel, the USS Liberty, was mistakenly attacked by the Israeli Air Force. Although some see a malicious motive in this attack, most historians (and both governments) consider it just one of many operational errors during the course of the war. The IDF seized the Golan Heights; Syria destroyed several kibbutzim in response. Both Jordan and Syria, apparently overwhelmed, requested a cease-fire, and in response Israel claimed more territory. After six days, Israeli forces were in position to march on Cairo, Damascus and Amman. The march was only halted because the Soviet Union was threatening to intervene in what appeared to be an immense upheaval in the fragile Middle Eastern balance of power. The US Secretary of State, Dean Rusk advised the Israelis to accept a cease-fire, and taking into consideration the costs of attacking the capitals, they did so on June 10.

During the war, 776 Israelis died, as did 15,000 Egyptians, 2,500 Syrians, and 800 Jordanians. Israel conquered enough land to triple the 8,000 square miles that it previously controlled to 26,000 square miles. More than 9,000 Palestinian families were reunited in 1967, and ultimately more than 60,000 Palestinians were allowed to return. But a new refugee population had been created and the old refugee problem was made worse. 90 percent of the Jordan Valley was evacuated by Palestinians who remembered the events of 1948. While these fears were mostly unfounded, in the villages of Qalqilyah, Bayt 'Awa, Hafla, Jifliq, Bayt Nuba, Imwas, Yalu and Bayt Mirsim, IDF forces demolished hundreds of refugee homes and ordered their inhabitants to walk to somewhere else without any clear justification; some refugees from these towns wandered for four days without food or water, then were sent back to their homes only to watch them being demolished. During a cabinet meeting, Dayan expressed his hope that the entire West Bank would be evacuated.

Military victory and diplomatic defeat
After the end of the war, Arab leaders convened to create a fierce diplomatic response to their defeat. They would no longer recognize Israel, and refuse to negotiate or settle a peace.

US under Johnson imposed an arms embargo on Israel and all of the        Middle East. Arabs later accused the US of airlifting supplied to Israel. France - Israel's main arms supplier also placed an embargo on          Israel. the Soviet Union supplied massive amounts of arms to the Arabs. the armies of Kuwait, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq contributed           to the Egyptian, Syrian, and Jordanian fronts

The UN Secretary Council unanimously passed a resolution on November         22, 1967 that was meant to provide guidelines for a peace            settlement, but Arabs interpreted the Resolution in a way that placed all the             responsibility for concessions of the Israelis and none on            themselves. The most controversial clause in United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 is the call for           the "withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied            in the recent conflict". The word "all" is probably the most contentious word in this resolution, because it isn't there, and the opposing sides are fiercely opposed on whether it was meant to be. In fact, the word "all" was purposefully omitted by the Soviet delegation. The Arab states failed to add it to the resolution, but even today they consider the word "all" to be implied.

"It would have been wrong to demand that Israel       return to its positions of June 4, 1967, because those              positions were undesirable and artificial.""

- Lord Caradon

On October 15, 1968 the PLO stated to the UN General Assembly that it       rejected Resolution 242. Israel accepted the resolution on May 1, 1968.

The captured territories
"The situation between us is like the complex relationship between a Bedouin man and the young girl he has taken against her wishes. But when their children are born, they will see the man as their father and the woman as their mother. The initial act will mean nothing to them. You, the Palestinians, as a nation, do not want us today, but we will change your attitude by imposing our presence upon you."

- Dayan, to Palestinian poet Fadwa Tukan

In 1948, there were no disputed territories under Israel's control, excepting the fact that the Arab states disputed the very existence of Israel. In 1956, though, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula were captured from Egypt. During Israel's swift victory in the Six-Day War, two new territories were added: the West Bank, home to millions Arabs who had been expelled from Israel in the War of Independence, and the Golan Heights, a sparsely inhabited area but strategically important due to its water resources. Obviously, it was not ideal for Israel to be occupying a region full of people who remembered their expulsion from their homes quite well and still demanded the right to return. It was widely acknowledged that Israel's occupation of all four of these territories could become a potential source of future disputes and violence. After the war ended, Israel attempted to make a deal with Egypt and Jordan, returning the Gaza Strip and West Bank to their control in return for legal recognition and peace negotiations. The involved countries rejected this offer unilaterally in the Khartoum Resolution.

Instead of annexing the West Bank a military administration was created. The Israeli authorities tried to reduce the impact on the population by preventing incidents that might encourage the Arabs to leave their homes. In 1972, elections were held in the West Bank. Women and nonlandowners were now permitted to vote unlike during Jordanian rule. The Israeli government required that the school texts in the territories be purged of anti-semitism or anti-Jewish language. Farmers, having produced a record crop in 1967, were permitted to sell their produce in Jordan, sparking an "open bridges" policy. As the year crept on, though, the West Bank's economy became tied to Israel's. In 1968 the customs stations were shut down and the lira became the official currency.

Economic assistance was provided, for example, that some of the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip were moved from camps to new homes. Many Palestinians had fresh water and electricity in their homes for the first time. This brought about protests from Egypt which had done nothing for the refugees when it controlled the area, but preferred to have the Palestinians suffer so that Israel could be blamed for the poor conditions.

Palestinians were also given freedom of movement: they could travel to and from Jordan. East Jerusalem Arabs were allowed to choose whether or not they would retain their Jordanian citizenship or acquire Israeli citizenship.

Conflict continues
Munich massacre, Operation Wrath of God

Egypt
War of Attrition 1971 President Anwar Sadat poised the proposition of signing an agreement with Israel, so long as all of the occupied territories  captured by the Israelis were returned.

1972 At the Munich Summer Olympics, Palestinian terrorists assassinated 11 Israeli athletes Sadat stated that war was inevitable because there was no progress     towards peace; he claimed that he was prepared to sacrifice 1 million      soldiers in a war with Israel.

Sadat continued threatening war throughout 1972 - 1973 unless the         United States forced Israel to comply with his interpretation of the United Nations Resolution 242 {total withdrawal of Israeli forces  from territories gained during the 6-day war in 1967. While petition the US, Sadat built up a diplomatic offensive with        European and African states to aid his cause.

April 1973 during an interview, Sadat warned that he would renew       the war with Israel, but because of his previous threats pretty much        no one expected war.

Israel begins to prepare for war
On October 5, 1973 Israelis began preparing for the imminent war.. At 5:00am General David Elazar, the chief of staff, was the first     to recommend mobilization of forces and a preemptive air strike. This was overruled. A few hours passed and a partial call-up of the reserves was approved. Prime Minister, Golda Meir, still did not authorize Elazar to take       military action. Meir advised the US ambassador of the situation and asked that         he pass on the message that the Arabs should be restrained. US Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, then appealed to Sadat and       the Syrian President Hafez Assad not to do anything rash. Kissinger also warned Meir not to shoot first.

Israel's chances for victory and having less casualties would be      better if Israel launched a preemptive strike along with the rapid       mobilization of the IDF (Israeli Defense Forces), however, Meir feared       that by striking first, the US would be angered and Nixon might not       support Israel's policies or Israel during the war.


text:
Cookbook:Gochugaru

| Korean Cuisine

Gochugaru (고추가루, also transliterated as go choo ga roo) is red chile pepper, dried and ground into a coarse powder. In preparing Korean dishes, just about any ground red chile pepper may be used as a substitution, but be aware that different varieties of chile powder can be quite a bit hotter or milder than gochugaru, and so it is advisable to add in small amounts until the desired level of spiciness is reached.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Gochugaru


text:
User:LoopZilla

LoopZilla 11:38, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User:LoopZilla


text:
User talk:LoopZilla

LoopZilla 11:59, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:LoopZilla


text:
User:Parsifal~enwikibooks

Parsifal is a team. --Parxy 14:59, 4 Apr 2005 (UTC)

title: User:Parsifal~enwikibooks


text:
Lojban/Bridi

''This page is part of a pre-draft textbook. Therefore some information is inaccurate.''

Definition
bridi is the concept of sentences that can be composed by the use of a predicate and several called arguments. It corresponds to the linguistic concept of a clause.

A predicate together with its arguments (called sumti) is a bridi. A bridi's relations are expressed by a brivla.

Example
The statement mi prenu (I'm a person) is a bridi where x1 prenu is a brivla and mi is the sumti of the brivla.

title: Lojban/Bridi


text:
Movie Making Manual/Foley

Foley sound is the technical term for the recreation of sound effects for a movie in a studio. Named after Jack Foley, the inventor of this technique, it entails replacement and addition of sound in a film. Foley sound is created by an industry professional known as the foley-artist. Usually this is done in a recording studio known as a Foley Stage with the film being played back and interlocked to an audio recording device while the artist watches the picture and uses sometimes unusal articles and techniques to match picture.

Foley sounds may include as much as a: the dry smack of a punch, the revving engine of a car, or the crashing waves of the sea.

External link: "The art of Foley" http://atlantamusicgroup.com/foley1.html

/Audio /Post-production

title: Movie Making Manual/Foley


text:
Cookbook:Lemon Meringue Pie (American)

 * Desserts | US Cuisine

This is the American old-fashioned lemon meringue pie with a gel-like filling. If you want a sticky filling, use the British Lemon Meringue Pie recipe instead.

Pie filling

 * 1½ cups (360 ml) cold water
 * 1 cup (240 g) white granulated sugar
 * 2 tablespoons all-purpose flour
 * 3 tablespoons cornstarch
 * ¼ teaspoon salt
 * ½ cup (120 ml) lemon juice (from about 2 lemons or bottled lemon juice)
 * 1 tablespoon lemon zest (from about 2 lemons)
 * 2 tablespoons butter
 * 4 egg yolks, beaten
 * ⅛ teaspoon ground turmeric

Meringue

 * 4 egg whites
 * ¼ teaspoon cream of tartar
 * 6 tablespoons white granulated sugar

Pie crust

 * 1) Prepare and bake Grandma's Pie Crust or a ready-made refrigerated or frozen pie crust.
 * 2) Let cool.

Pie filling

 * 1) In a saucepan whisk together water, sugar, flour, cornstarch, salt, turmeric, lemon juice and lemon zest. Make sure any flour or cornstarch lumps are stirred until they dissolve.
 * 2) Cook over medium heat until mixture starts to simmer. Stir constantly.
 * 3) Add butter, then stir until melted.
 * 4) Beat egg yolks in a small bowl. Add about ½ cup (120 g) of hot lemon mixture into eggs and stir well. This tempers the egg yolks so they won't scramble when added to the simmering lemon mixture.
 * 5) Pour tempered egg mixture into pan of simmering lemon mixture. Stir until well mixed.
 * 6) Continue simmering lemon filling about 2 minutes until it thickens, stirring constantly.
 * 7) Pour into cooled pie shell and allow to cool while preparing meringue.

Meringue

 * 1) Place 4 egg whites in mixer and whip at high speed until they start to foam.
 * 2) Add cream of tartar to egg whites then, while continuing to beat, add sugar, 1 tablespoon at a time. Beat about 30 seconds between tablespoonfuls of sugar.
 * 3) Continue to beat meringue until stiff peaks form when beaters are raised from bowl.
 * 4) Spread meringue over pie, starting on lemon pie filling, using rubber spatula. Spread over edges of crust, completely sealing in the lemon pie filling.
 * 5) To form peaks in meringue, use the flat side of a rubber spatula to touch the meringue and pull away. Repeat over entire surface of meringue.
 * 6) Place pie in 350°F (180°C) oven for 15 minutes until high points of meringue are lightly browned.
 * 7) Serve at room temperature or chilled.

Warnings

 * The pie filling is quite hot when pouring it into pie shell.
 * Keep this pie refrigerated.
 * In humid weather meringue may "weep" (small dots of liquid form on the surface). To lessen this possibility, apply meringue to lemon filling while it is still hot, cool pie to room temperature before refrigerating, and/or use powdered sugar instead of granulated sugar when making the meringue.

title: Cookbook:Lemon Meringue Pie (American)


text: File:Decision structure.jpg

title: File:Decision structure.jpg


text:
Systems Theory/Decision Behavior

Behavioral Decisions
Behavioral decision research is concerned with how people make judgments and choices, and with how the processes of decision might be improved. The field of behavioral decision research is intensely interdisciplinary, employing concepts and tools from psychology, economics, statistics, and other disciplines.

Recently, experimental research on judgment and choice was said to be “psychology’s leading intellectual export to the social sciences as well as to a host of applied fields” (Tetlock, 2002, Psychological Review).

Studies in the psychology of individual choice have identified numerous cognitive, informational, temporal, and other limitations which bound human rationality, often producing systematic errors and biases in judgment and choice. One of the greatest factors in forming any decision is a perception of the decision maker. Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself i.e. the world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important.

Types
There are three types of factors that influence perception:
 * 1) Factors in the perceiver:
 * Attitudes
 * Motives
 * Experiences
 * Interests
 * Expectations
 * 1) Factors in the situation:
 * Time
 * Work setting
 * Social Setting
 * 1) Factors in the target:
 * Novelty
 * Motion
 * Sounds
 * Size
 * Background
 * Proximity
 * Similarity

When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. This is the essence of attribution theory. When the individual behavior is observed there are three types of interpretation of this behavior, according to the attribution theory: (1) Distinctiveness: different behaviors in different situations; (2) Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation: (3) Consistency: response is the same over time.

Errors
As is the case with most theories, errors and biases are possible in the attribution theory. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others. Self-serving bias is the tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Perception and Decision
There is an obvious link between perception and decision. Decision is passed through a prism of individual decision-maker’s perception. This decision-making was (and still is) the subject of research of multiple disciplines. Few prominent decision-making models emerged. One that has been described and used the most is the Rational Decision- Making Model, which describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. Economists favor theories based on axioms of rational choice. Decision-making behavior is assumed to be rational and consistent. Agents maximize utility or profits, and the information required to do so is either freely available or optimally purchased. In the most extreme form, exemplified today by rational expectations models, agents have perfect models of the economy and never systematically err. However, in order for this model to work, it should be in conformance with numerous assumptions:
 * Problem is clear,
 * Options are known,
 * Preferences are clear and constant,
 * No time or cost constraints are present, and
 * Maximum payoff.

Steps to a Decision
Steps in the rational decision-making model are:
 * 1) Define the problem.
 * 2) Identify the decision criteria.
 * 3) Allocate weights to the criteria.
 * 4) Develop the alternatives.
 * 5) Evaluate the alternatives.
 * 6) Select the best alternative.

However, we can judge from our experiences that people are not always rational, nor that they behave in the rational manner. To support this observation psychologists have documented numerous experimental results of departures from optimal behavior in a wide variety of decision-making tasks.

Limitations
Rationality is bounded by limitations of information, time, and cognitive capability. This is what Herbert Simon referred to as bounded rationality. Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity. This bounded rationality influences how the decisions are made in the organizations.

In a 1981 review Hogarth laments the "insufficient attention" paid "to the effects of feedback between organism and environment." By feedback is meant not merely outcome feedback but changes in the environment, in the conditions of choice, which are caused, directly and indirectly, by a subject's past actions. For example, a firm's decision to increase production feeds back through the market to influence the price of goods, profits, and demand; greater output may tighten the markets for labor and materials; competitors may react - all influencing future production decisions. Such multiple feedbacks are the norm rather than the exception in real problems of choice. As a result it has been difficult for behavioral decision theory to make much headway in analyzing the dynamics of aggregate organizations such as a firm or industry.

Types of People
Decision Theory does not in general provide a good description of people's decision behavior. Under some conditions Decision Theory may be approximately accurate: especially when experienced people are making consequential decisions (financial investors, lawyers negotiating a law suit settlement, etc.). But, even in these situations there are many violations of "rationality." Compared to Decision Theory's predictions, people are:

Boundedly Rational
 * they violate "obviously rational" axioms
 * they cannot "cognitively compute" all the probability X payoff values

Boundedly Selfish
 * they care about fairness
 * they are altruistic
 * have Bounded Self-Control

title: Systems Theory/Decision Behavior


text:
J2ME Programming/SymbianOS and J2ME

Introduction
This not a complete history of SymbianOS but in fact a summary of SymbianOS so that we as J2ME developers can determine what optional APIs we have access to by Operating System version and devices series version within the SymbianOS ecological infrastructure.

There are two main device platforms that are deployed on top of SymbianOS. Nokia created Series60 and licensed it to others like Samsung. UIQ(a Pen Based UI for Symbian) is a joint effort between Sony-Ericsson, Motorola and Symbian Ltd.

Base Set of MIDP, SymbianOS
A brief footnote before we begin on the J2ME Platform. Before the J2ME Platform SymbianOS came with two other Java platforms, embedded java on SymbianOS 5 and the personal java and javaphone combination on SymbianOS 6. Thus, PersonalJava and JavaPhone before the Personal Profile will be mentioned here to be accurate of what OS versions have that combination. Note: Although the underlying OS does not limit Heap size, persistent storage, and etc on the later versions of Symbian the JSRs do limit the jar, jad, and persistent storage sizes in the form of JSR 185(JTWI).

SymbianOS 6.x
In 2002 MIDP 1.0 was back ported to SymbianOS 6 versions. The SymbianOS versions that MIDP 1.0 was back ported to are SymbianOS 6.0 and SymbianOS 6.1

Thus, we only have basic MIDP 1.0 on SymbianOS 6.0 and SymbianOS 6.1 on devices 2002 and onward.
 * MIDP
 * MIDP 1.0 except pausedApp is never called contrary to the MIDP 1.0 specification.
 * CLDC 1.0
 * Sun's KVM

 * Personal Java(pre Personal Profile)
 * Modified Personal Java 3.0.x(PesonalJava Application Environment 1.1.1a)
 * JDVMI for debug support over TCP/IP connection
 * JavaPhone 1.0
 * JavaPhone 1.0 APIs
 * Personal Java optional interfaces for serial communications, and secure socket communications (HTTPS is supported, javax.net.ssl is not implemented).
 * Java Telephony API(JTAPI)
 * Java Telephony Mobile

SymbianOS 7.0
Has the basic MIDP 1.0 implementation
 * MIDP
 * MIDP 1.0 except pausedApp is never called contrary to the MIDP 1.0 specification.
 * CLDC 1.0
 * Heap size, code size, and persistent storage size are unconstrained
 * Over-The-Air provisioning implemented
 * GCF including sockets implemented
 * KVM VM
 * Personal Java(pre Personal Profile)
 * Modified Personal Java 3.0.x(PesonalJava Application Environment 1.1.1a)
 * JDVMI for debug support over TCP/IP connection
 * JavaPhone 1.0
 * JavaPhone 1.0 APIs
 * Personal Java optional interfaces for serial communications, and secure socket communications (HTTPS is supported, javax.net.ssl is not implemented).
 * Java Telephony API(JTAPI)
 * Java Telephony Mobile

SymbianOS 7.0s
In this version of SymbianOS 7, MIDP 2.0 was introduced This MIDP 2.0 implementation includes:
 * MIDP
 * Over-The-Air provisioning MIDP 2.0 implementation
 * Heap size, code size, and persistent storage size unconstrained
 * GCF implementation includes sockets, server sockets, datagram sockets, secure sockets, HTTPS and HTTP
 * WMA is implemented
 * Bluetooth is implemented excluding Push and the OBEX profile
 * CLDC1.0 implementation is supported
 * Sun's CLDC HI VM 1.0

There are two configuration sfor this SymbianOS 7.0s version, smartphones and communicators. The communicator version does include both MIDP 2.0 described above and this PersonalJava configuration:
 * Personal Java(pre Personal Profile)
 * Modified Personal Java 3.0.x(PesonalJava Application Environment 1.1.1a)
 * JDVMI for debug support over TCP/IP connection
 * JavaPhone 1.0
 * JavaPhone 1.0 APIs
 * Personal Java optional interfaces for serial communications, and secure socket communications (HTTPS is supported, javax.net.ssl is not implemented).
 * Java Telephony API(JTAPI)
 * Java Telephony Mobile

SymbianOS 8.0
This is the first MIDP 2.0 implementation on SymbianOS with full JTWI compliance
 * OTA MIDP 2.0 implementation
 * Full JTWI implementation of the new securtiy model allowing signed MIDlets
 * Heap size, code size, and persistent storage unconstrained
 * Full GCF support
 * WMA implemented
 * Bluetooth excluding OBEX profile implemented
 * CLDC1.1 implementation
 * MultiMedia JSR 135
 * 3D Graphics JSR 184
 * File/PIM GCF JSR 75
 * Sun's CLDC HI 1.1 Vm with subset of JNI

SymbianOS 8.1
Implements MIDP 2.0 compliant with JTWI
 * OTA MIDP 2.0 implementation
 * MIDP 2.0
 * CLDC 1.1
 * Heap size, code size, and persistent storage not constrained
 * GCF implementation including all socket implementations
 * PIM/FIle GCF JSR 75
 * MMedia JSR 135
 * 3D Graphics JSR 184
 * Bluetooth implemented excluding OBEX profile
 * WMA
 * Sun's CLDC HI VM 1.0 with JNI subset

SymbianOS 9.1
Implements MIDP 2.0 and JTWI
 * MIDP 2.0
 * CLDC 1.1
 * WMA
 * MMedia JSR 135
 * 3D graphics JSR1 84
 * Bluetooth implemented excluding OBEX profile
 * JTWI security model
 * Heap size, code size, and persistent storage size are unconstrained
 * Sun's CLDC HI VM 1.0 with JNI subset

Other Nokia Series

 * Series80
 * Device Platform 2.0
 * MIDP 2.0/CLDC 1.0 from underlying SymbianOS 7.0s, specifically the communicator SymbianOS 7.0s configuration
 * CDC and Personal Profile implemented with IBM's J9 VM

 * Series90
 * Device Platform 2.0
 * MIDP2.0 CLDC1.1 from underlying SymbianOS 8.0
 * Legacy closed source Nokia UI APi in packages com.nokia.mid.ui and com.nokia.mid.sound

Series60

 * Device Platform 1.0
 * Based on SymbianOS 6.1 with MIDP 1.0 and CLDC 1.0 and legacy Nokia UI APIs in packages com.nokia.mid.ui and com.nokia.mid.sound.
 * In Nokia UI API backlight is not supported

 * Device Platform 2.0
 * Feature Pack 1.0cs
 * Based on SymbianOS 7.0s providing MIDP 2.0 and CLDC 1.0
 * Supports MMAPI JSR 135
 * Supports the other JSRs from SymbianOS 7.0s
 * Feature Pack 2.0
 * Based on SymbianOS 8.0, actual kernel version is SymbianOS 8.0b with MIDP 2.0 and CLDC 1.1
 * All JSRs with SymbianOS 8.0 are supported
 * Feature Pack 3.0
 * Based on SymbianOS 8.1 providing MIDP 2.0 and CLDC 1.1
 * Supports all JSRs from SymbianOS 8.1

UIQ

 * UIQ 2.0
 * Based on SymbianOS 7.0 and provides MIDP 1.0 and CLDC 1.0
 * Supports the JSRs from SymbianOS 7.0
 * UIQ 2.1
 * Based on SymbianOS 7.0s and provides MIDP 2.0 and CLDC 1.0
 * Supports the JSRs from SymbianOS 7.0s

Conclusion
By using the information you can determine not only what versions of MIDP and CLDC are on the device but also what optional apis denoted by their JSR are accessible on the SymbianOS powered devices that you may be targeting your application development.

Trademark Notices
J2ME, Java and all Java-based marks are trademarks or registered trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. in the U.S. and other countries. All other Trademarks are property of their respective owners.

title: J2ME Programming/SymbianOS and J2ME


text:
Cookbook:Wheat

Wheat is a grain which is the basis of many different kinds of food. Ground into flour it is the basis for most of the bread and pasta eaten in the world. The whole grains can be boiled and used like rice. With some processing, wheat is converted into couscous and bulgur wheat, which both are easier to cook and used like rice.

Wheat berries (unprocessed seed) are also grown to make wheat grass juice.

title: Cookbook:Wheat


text:
Talk:Bulgarian

WB:DICT
Wikibooks is not a dictionary, but this appears to be a simple list of translations. Please develop lessons and a structure to teach the language instead of simply listing words and their translations. Thanks. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 19:02, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

Where's the Alphabet?
Naamatt2 (discuss • contribs) 20:45, 1 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Well, like the introduction says, you can find it in the Wikipedia article. :) --V111P (discuss • contribs) 09:09, 10 March 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bulgarian


text:
Cookbook:Zest

Zest is the coloured outer surface of citrus fruit; zesting is the act of scraping the zest from the fruit. A zester is ideal for the task. Some people use a serrated knife instead. Alternatively, the careful application of a fine-toothed grater works well (pictured is a grater specifically designed for zesting). Dried zest is sometimes sold alongside spices.

Bitterness associated with zest may be removed by blanching the zest, preferably twice. The bitterness comes from the raw white layer of the peel, when a zester digs deeper than the surface zest.

Lemon

 * Buchteln
 * Carbonara pasta sauce
 * Ginger beer
 * Lemon Curd
 * Lemon Squares
 * Lemon Meringue Pie
 * Lemon Sponge
 * Lemon Blueberry Pancakes
 * Lemon Poppy Seed Pancakes
 * Limoncello
 * New York Cheesecake
 * Pasta alla gorgonzola
 * Shrimp Scampi Angel Hair Pasta with Lemon and Pine Nuts
 * Spaghetti alle Vongole

Lime

 * Key Lime Pie
 * German Meatballs
 * Spaghetti alle Vongole
 * Summer pudding

Orange

 * Bouillabaisse
 * Tunnel of Love
 * Orange Cardamom Pancakes
 * Madeira Honey Cake

title: Cookbook:Zest


text:
Cookbook:Zester

| Kitchen tools

A zester is a tool for removing zest. A common design would be a foot-shaped blade sticking out of a handle, sharp along the toe edge, and with little holes in the toe area. This a scraped over the peel (rind) of a citrus fruit to remove strips of zest.

title: Cookbook:Zester


text:
Cookbook:Bonito Flakes

| Seafood | Fish | Japanese Cuisine

Dried bonito flakes, known as katsuo-bushi or katsuobushi in Japanese cuisine, are flakes of dried, smoked bonito fish.

Production
Lean bonito or skipkack tuna are caught—typically in the spring and summer—and the fillets removed. The flesh is briefly boiled in hot water before smoking to impart the first round of flavor. The smoked fish is then allowed to ferment and dry for several months until it has a complex flavor and a very dry and tough texture. This dry block of fish is then shaved into flakes with a very sharp blade.

Characteristics
Bonito flakes look very similar to wood shavings,  as they are light and delicate in texture. Due to the characteristics of the fish and the manner in which it is prepared, the flakes have a rich, savory, fishy taste.

Selection and storage
Katsuobushi can be sold as the solid piece, but the flakes are the most common form used by consumers. Because they are dried, they last well at room temperature if kept away from air and moisture.

Use
Bonito flakes are used to make katsuobushi-dashi, the second most favored type of dashi (Japanese broth) for miso soup.   Bonito flakes are also used for onigiri filling and okonomiyaki, as a topping/garnish and seasoning, and to make ponzu sauce.

title: Cookbook:Bonito Flakes


text:
Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash

''This book is a student project, created by students of an introduction to Flash class. It will act as a document that presents instructions on how to use Adobe Flash Professional from the perspective of people learning how to use it themselves.''

This books aims to introduce Flash Professional to those with no prior experience with Flash.

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Why Use Flash?/
 * 2) /Shortcuts/
 * 3) /Interface/
 * 4) Document Window
 * 5) Timeline Window
 * 6) Property Inspector
 * 7) Tool Bar
 * 8) Panels
 * 9) /Tools/
 * 10) Rectangle and Oval
 * 11) Pencil
 * 12) Brush
 * 13) Pen
 * 14) /Color/
 * 15) Color Mixer
 * 16) Color Swatches
 * 17) Gradients
 * 18) /Animation/
 * 19) Shape Tweens
 * 20) Motion Tweens
 * 21) /Symbols/
 * 22) Graphic
 * 23) Button
 * 24) Movie Clip
 * 25) Making
 * 26) Using
 * 27) /Text/
 * 28) Static
 * 29) Dynamic
 * 30) Input
 * 31) Embedding Fonts
 * 32) Filters and Blend Modes
 * 33) Adding Filters
 * 34) Saving Presets and Combining Filters
 * 35) Blend Modes
 * 36) Dimensional Shadows
 * 37) Animating Filters with Motion Tweens
 * 38) Custom Easing
 * 39) Controlling Color
 * 40) Adjusting Color Filters
 * 41) Color Properties
 * 42) Layering Graphics
 * 43) Applying Compound Blend Modes
 * 44) Creating an Animated Alpha Blend
 * 45) /Bitmaps/
 * 46) When to use Bitmaps Instead of Vectors
 * 47) Importing
 * 48) Caching
 * 49) /Sound/
 * 50) Importing
 * 51) On the Timeline
 * 52) Stream and Event
 * 53) /Video/
 * 54) Supported Codecs
 * 55) Importing
 * 56) Using Flash Video Encoder
 * 57) Using The FLVPlayback Component
 * 58) Exporting
 * 59) /Interactivity/
 * 60) ActionScript
 * 61) Events and Handlers
 * 62) Timeline Control
 * 63) /Components/
 * 64) Data
 * 65) Playback
 * 66) User Interface
 * 67) /Publishing/
 * 68) Publish Settings
 * 69) SWF Files
 * 70) HTML Files
 * 71) Projectors

Adobe Flash

title: Beginner's Guide to Adobe Flash


text:
Talk:A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/Berkeley Software Distribution

Development Resources

 * BSD
 * w:category:BSD
 * http://www.daemonnews.org/200104/bsd_family.html

forgot MacOS X and Darwin
The kernel started as very old BSD. The MACH microkernel disaster was added, taking over memory management and task handling among other things. This was the NeXT kernel. Then lots of NetBSD code was added to modernize things a bit.

Userspace took a similar path, but being modernized mostly with FreeBSD and GNU code.

AlbertCahalan 01:14, 14 October 2005 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Lardon

| Oil and fat

Lardons are bits of lard that can be injected into a tough piece of meat prior to cooking. The injection of lardons is called larding.

In French cuisine, lardons are blocks of bacon, cut in a cuboid shape, about 3 to 4 cm long and a little less that 1 cm wide on the other 2 sides.

title: Cookbook:Lardon


text:
Cookbook talk:Space Cake

Feedback
Any feedback on the recipe?
 * yeah, sucks
 * Please explain in which way this recipe sucks so I can clarify parts of, or ammend, the recipe to help others.

 * This is a very odd recipe! You can't seriously mean 1 cup of weed, that's a ridiculous amount.  This is more like a very odd sort of... scone recipe.  The recipe can't be right with water in it, and no eggs or at least milk.  It can't rise at all... I really suggest just your classic victoria-spongey style recipe with say an 8th of weed in it.  A cup of weed?  No way, how much would that cost!!!?  Admittedly I haven't made this recipe, but just looking at it firstly saying a cup of weed from the fact it has loads of water in and no eggs, it's just clearly wrong.  Baking at 300 degrees is also crazy- 220 at most for almost any sort of baking.

Ive been making cakes every weekend for the last couple of months, for 8 cakes I use 3.5g of weed, 3g in the mix and then the rest mixed into the sauce for the top, but that other guy is right, if you go over 200*c it burns, fast. I had it on 250*c and within 10mins it was burnt to funk

 * Also agree. A cup of weed, roughly speaking and obviously depending on quality, would cost upwards of $200. That is an insane amount, and no more then 3.5g should be used bottom line. 66.134.233.126 (talk) 20:45, 31 December 2007 (UTC)

Suggestions
Any suggestions for things to add?

This recipe works a dream just dont use a cup of mahjurana use around an eighth and make the recipe to your own calculatons weighed by eye and it turns out fine!!!!!!!!!!!

Warning
Should that warning and disclaimer be added to the Rum Balls?

Feedback
Please add any observations you have had with this recipe to the discussion page, as well as any ideas or different methods you have attempted. I would also like to convert this recipe to organic and wheat-free versions, so if anyone has the proportions one would need to adjust for the different ingredients, please edit this article and add them accordingly or put them in the diuscussion page and someone else can format them in properly.

Feedback From A_o_D

So, i cooked this 'space cake' and it was great!:)

A_o_D

Get rid OF IT!!!!!!!!!!
This should not be allowed on this website. Marijuana is nothing but ILLEGAL! Who arees with my that Space Cake should be deleted, it is illegal!!!!!!!!!!! ---Birdie1999 (discuss • contribs) 02:55, 16 March 2016 (UTC)
 * So what about areas that cannabis is legal? See Legality of cannabis by country --Atcovi (Talk - Contribs) 20:02, 16 March 2016 (UTC)
 * In many Muslim parts of the world, alcohol is forbidden by law. Do we also get rid of all recipes that use alcohol? Chazz (talk) 03:34, 17 March 2016 (UTC)

Remove notice of cannabis illegality
Remove the notice about cannabis illegality.

Whether or not cannabis, or any other recipe ingredient, is illegal, taboo, or even simply customarily disliked is for the reader to discern. Likewise, it is for the reader to decide whether or not to accomodate that illegality, taboo, or dislike.

For ingredients that are illegal in some given area, the people in that area generally know it. If they don't, they can or will find out easily.

It is not the responsibility, duty, obligation, or burden of this encyclopedia, or its editors, to "hold the hands" of readers. Thus, it is offensive to those of us who object to such coddling of sentient human beings. Given this, and the above, there are multiple reasons why the notice about cannabis illegality should be removed. There are no reasons to emplace it. -T

73.12.175.124 (discuss) 03:21, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Space Cake


text:
Talk:Arabic/Some history

Untitled
I fixed up this article. I deleted errors, and gave a good explanation.

The biggest error that was in the text was that: 1. the dots are not usually used to read or write Arabic The truth is they are always used nowadays. Just open a book, and you will see the dots. They were not in the pre-islamic era, and during the Early islamic era.

THOSE Dots do not indicate vowels. They differentiate one constanant from others that are written with the same shape.

I believe that the person who wrote the article is confusing the dots with the signs used to indicate vowels. The signs used to indicate vowels are loops, and lines, there is a sign for the lack of a vowel, and there is also a sign for the gemination of a constanant. These symbols are the ones viewed as mostly superfluos to anyone fluent in reading arabic.

I just wanted to clean up the text a little bit. The general message was there, although not readily understood.

Feel free to improve on this all you want.

-Firehead

title: Talk:Arabic/Some history


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Render Settings

The render settings control various options related to the output of rendered, or full quality images. Rendering an image will calculate effects not displayed in the editing environment (due to their complexity), and therefore takes a larger amount of time to produce an image. If you notice an error partway through a render, then you can press to abort the render.

The Render Settings
Let's take a look at all of the rendering options that Blender has. Open up a new scene (CTRL + N) and click on the camera icon in the Properties window to get to the rendering context. You should see something that looks like the image on the left.

These are the default settings for Blender Internal. Let's take a look at all of these settings and see what they do.

Render Layers and Render Passes
Render layers are a way of organising data so that you can edit the render selectively after it's finished. This requires different objects to be on different scene layers, and each scene layer usually has its own render layer (though this is arbitrary).

Render passes are different types of data that make up an image, separated and put into its own 'pass' that you can use to change the render selectively. This is extremely common when using Blender's compositor to do post-processing.

For example, let's say that you want to composite a 3D object from Blender into a video that you shot. In order to make the shadows from the render affect the footage, you would enable ambient occlusion and select the 'AO' pass as shown in the image on the right. You then would have an AO pass in addition to the combined render. You could then multiply the AO pass over the footage in the compositor in order to make shadows from Blender appear in your footage. If you had separated your image into different color passes then you could edit each color pass to make the colors match the footage.

Of course, you could also use the render passes/layers to make post-processing easier in completely digital scenes. e.g. use the Index Object pass to make a glare effect on a particular object. The index object pass creates a greyscale mask for an object that you can plug into the 'Factor' input of the glare node, this makes the glare effect occur only for that object.

Dimensions and Anti-aliasing

As you can see in the image on the left, below the render layer settings we have the dimensions and anti-aliasing settings.

The dimension settings are pretty simple: the X slider defines the width (in pixels) of your render, the Y slider defines the height (also in pixels) of your render. Above the X/Y sliders is a menu with some handy presets for commonly used resolutions, such as 1080p, 720p, and different TV resolutions. Below the X/Y sliders is another slider showing a percentage, the percentage indicates what size the render will be compared to the X/Y values. In the screenshot the slider is at 50%, so the scene will be rendered at half the size of the full resolution (in this case half the size of 1080p). It is common to render at 50% resolution to decrease rendering time while developing a scene, before switching to 100% resolution for a final (slow) render.

Render

Now, let's move on to the render tab! The first thing you should notice is the VERY BIG button that says 'Render' on it. This button performs the same action as the F12 button. Below this is a drop-down box, allowing you to change between the Blender Internal Render engine and YAFRAY. (For more on YAFRAY, see YAFRAY Render Options). Next to the 'Render' button are 5 buttons: Shadow, Env Map, Pano, Ray, Radio. These are explained in detail below:
 * Shadow: Lights will cast shadows.  If this is turned off, nothing will cast a shadow.  To see this, add a plane below your default cube and render.  Now turn this button off and see how there are no shadows.
 * EnvMap: Use the environment map.
 * Pano: This enables panoramic rendering. For more on panoramic rendering, see Panorama Settings
 * Ray: This enables Ray Tracing. Turn it off, and render the same images as I talked about in the description of the Shadow button. "What!?"  you say.  "That did the same thing as turning off the shadows!  What's the deal?"  Well, ray tracing is used to calculate how light goes through objects like glass and stuff. It also has something to do with shadows.
 * Radio: This stands for Radiosity.

Moving on, the next button we come to is the 'OSA' button. For the use of this button, see OSA

To the right of the OSA button, are some percentages. These will set the renderer to render at the specified percent of the resolution that you have set. (We'll come to resolution later) For an experiment, press the '50%' button. As you can see, Blender renders the image at 50% of the set resolution. This is an easy way to make a quick render.

Next on our tour, we come to two boxes labeled 'Xparts' and 'Yparts'. These buttons change the number of boxes that Blender will render in total. Play around with these to see how they change the number of small boxes in the render window when you render.

Anim / Bake

The final tab we'll (briefly) cover is the Anim(Animation) tab. If you have made an animation, pressing the 'ANIM' button will render your animation. Right below it are two buttons, Do Sequence and Do Composite. The Do Sequence button will render your animation with any effects you have done in the Sequence Editor and the Do Composite button will render an animation with your composite node work included. The Sta: and End: are the start and end frame numbers. The default setting is that your animation will start at frame 1, and will end at frame 250.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Render Settings


text:
Spanish/Vosotros Usage

Vosotros is the informal way to address a group including the person you are talking to. In English, we do this in various ways: y´all, you guys, all you, you all, yous guys, etc - depending on the region from which we originate. Vosotros is similar; with usage varying geographically as with the English expressions. This verb form is generally only used in Spain, and using it anywhere else (Latin America, the Caribbean, and Mexico, for example) will attract some very funny looks. It is usually used in a very informal way to address a group of people and implies that not one of the persons in the group would deserve an Usted title in singular conversation. In all situations where vosotros is not appropriate, you would use ustedes to address more than one person.

However, vosotros is also used in some more formal written forms on both sides of the Atlantic. For example, Biblical passages typically use vosotros forms when the speaker is addressing multiple people. You will regularly see and hear vosotros in Biblical quotes wherever you are. Therefore, you may want to at least recognize the usage even if you don't know how to use it yourself.

title: Spanish/Vosotros Usage


text:
Spanish/Gerund

This conjugation is the equivalent of -ing in English (ex. I am talking. Estoy hablando.)

 * It is used to indicate an action that is continuous.
 * for -er and -ir verbs the suffix is -iendo
 * for -ar verbs the suffix is -ando

Escribir--->Escribiendo         writing Correr->Corriendo           running Crear-->Creando             creating
 * Examples:

title: Spanish/Gerund


text:
Political Theory/Individualism

The individualism sub-ideology of liberalism is the ideal of the individual being of more importance than the collective. In modern western culture, it is often overlooked, however in feudal societies this was highly important to those without any individual freedoms.

title: Political Theory/Individualism


text:
Swedish/Nouns

Like English nouns, the Swedish nouns are declined according to number: they're either singular or plural. Unlike English, however, Swedish nouns are also declined according to article ("the car" versus "a car"). Instead of a definite article - "the" in the case of English - Swedish uses suffixes. We will see how this works later on.

Gender
The North Germanic languages, to which Swedish belongs, originally had three genders: masculine (maskulinum), feminine (femininum) and neuter (neutrum). However, as the language evolved, the first two were merged into a "real gender" (realgenus) or common (utrum). In practice, this means Swedish has what we might call two flavours of "it", which can complicate matters.

Common - gender neutral

 * en stol - a chair
 * stolen - the chair
 * en ny stol - a new chair
 * den nya stolen - the new chair
 * stolar - chairs
 * stolarna - the chairs
 * nya stolar - new chairs
 * de nya stolarna - the new chairs

Neuter

 * ett bord - a table
 * bordet - the table
 * ett nytt bord - a new table
 * det nya bordet - the new table
 * två bord - two tables
 * borden - the tables
 * nya bord - new tables
 * de nya borden - the new tables

The gender of a noun does not only affect the noun itself but also adjectives describing the noun, definite articles and singular indefinite articles.

As a rule, the gender of a noun cannot be figured out just by looking at spelling.

There are two generalizations that might be helpful to know: almost all nouns that end with an "-a" belong to the common gender, and most words that remain unchanged in the plural form (for example: "a tire, several tires" becomes "ett däck, flera däck") are neuter nouns; the only clear "-a"-ending exceptions to the common form are the words "ett öga" ("an eye"), "ett öra" ("an ear") and "ett hjärta" ("a heart").

Definiteness
A definite noun in English takes the definite article the, and an indefinite noun takes the indefinite articles a or an. As far as indefinite nouns are concerned, things are very similar in Swedish.

The indefinite articles are en and ett. A neuter noun takes ett and a common noun takes en.
 * ett bord - a table
 * en stol - a chair

The definite articles in Swedish are attached to the end of the noun as a suffix. The neuter suffix is -et and the common suffix is -en.
 * bordet - the table
 * stolen - the chair

In addition to these two suffixes, Swedish also has two further definite articles which are much more similar to English the. The articles are used when you want to use an adjective (a word which describes a noun like green, big, old, etc) with the definite noun. The common article is den and the neuter is det.

 * det nya bordet - the new table
 * den nya stolen - the new chair

Notice that the nouns still have the definite suffix attached, which might appear slightly awkward in English. For example, the example det nya bordet mentioned above literally translates as The new the table, which is nonsensical in English but fully correct in Swedish. Note that some fixed expresssions tend to drop the first the, as for example svenska folket (the Swedish people). Adjectives decline for number and gender, but that will be looked at in greater detail elsewhere.

Number
Swedish boasts no less than six different pluralization suffixes, two of which are used in both genders. In the common gender, it's often hard to know which one to use together with a certain noun. The -s plural suffix is never used in Swedish.

Though it is important to remember that there are always exceptions, and there are words with complete irregularity, like "gås" (goose) and "gäss" (geese).

Common:

-er

 * bild > bilder (picture > pictures)

-ar

 * båt > båtar (boat > boats)
 * stege > stegar (ladder > ladders)

-or
[only used with words ending in -a]
 * flicka > flickor (girl > girls)

-r

 * sko > skor (shoe > shoes)

-0 (no suffix)
[only used with titles, occupations etc. ending in unstressed -are]
 * bagare > bagare (baker > bakers)

Neuter:

-0 (no suffix)

 * hus > hus (house > houses)

-n

 * äpple > äpplen (apple > apples)

-er
[only used with words ending in stressed -eri]
 * bageri > bagerier (bakery > bakeries)

The plural definite
In Swedish the plural definite articles are -en for neuter gender and -na for common gender.

 * borden - the tables
 * stolarna - the chairs
 * husen - the houses

As you can see, -en was also used as one of the definite articles for common gender. This can produce confusion as a person might want to say the table and think that they should use the -en as definite article: borden. That would however lead to saying the tables.

title: Swedish/Nouns


text:
User:Mrdude

MrDude is the pseudonym for Jacob Gest, a 21 year old human who currently resides in Denver Colorado. Jacob Gest uses this moniker on most Internet communities, although the use of burningraycob or jakegest is also common. To find out more him one might visit his personal website.

Life on the wik
MrDude actually started using wikibooks yesterday and therefore can claim no fame.

Wiki Projects
Here are all the wiki Projects He is currently involved in (some less than others) Project Name Username Wikipedia Mrdude Wikinews Mrdude Wikiquote Mrdude Wikisource Mrdude Wiktionary Mrdude

Some contributions He would like to point out
(for no real obvious reason)
 * Nothing at all, but just you wait

title: User:Mrdude


text: Hindi/Vocabulary

title: Hindi/Vocabulary


text:
Instructional Technology/Learning Management Systems/Knowledge Management

Welcome to the Knowledge Management Wiki Page
This Wiki Page provides an overview of the basic concepts of Knowledge Managemment (KM). The history, people and specific technology of KM are not covered here. Sections on the different types of KM systems do not necessarily appear in historical order.

What is the goal of KM?
The goal of KM is to make knowledge accessible for rapid response to emerging situations. A practical KM system therefore enables workers to efficiently reuse the knowledge of an organization rather than to waste time recreating redundant knowledge.

What is the cycle of KM?
Collection

KM people and systems should capture new knowledge as it is generated by an organisation.

The KM system must therefore provide a convenient format for reporting new knowledge.

Organization

KM systems provide a structure for organization that facilitates both storage and retrieval of new knowledge.

Organization of knowledge supports the main goal of KM which is provide easy access to knowledge for reuse.

Refinement

KM knowledge bases must be uncluttered.

Obsolete knowledge must be removed; redundant examples must be removed; errors must be corrected. Systematic maintenance takes planning and the allocation of time.

What defines the term "knowledge" within KM?
KM is a system for managing knowledge within specific organizations. KM therefore covers proprietary processes, procedures, histories and the lessons learned during the operation of a given organization. The knowledge bases managed by KM systems are therefore finite and focused, as opposed to the general knowledge bases stored in library systems and the universe of information and misinformation that is published on the World Wide Web. www.

Where does organizational knowledge come from?
Creative Activities Organizations generate new knowledge through activity. Organizations create designs, processes, procedures, and reports in order to improve operations, serve clients, and conform to regulations.

Problem Solving Activities All organizations must solve problems. The list includes legal problems, production problems, labor problems, and customer problems. Problem solving activities generate reusable knowledge such as problem-prevention knowledge and problem-solving strategies.

Reuse of Existing Knowledge The reuse of existing knowledge also generates new knowledge. Old case studies can be reused to generate new solutions; old trends can be analyzed to generate new forecasting tools. New knowledge often descends from established knowledge.

Intranets as Knowledge Management Systems
Intranets - by Natural Progression When companies began to develop their intranets, it began as an Internet-based private-secure networked environment where divisions, departments and employees could store, retrieve, publish, and share information. As time when on the intranet began to build its repository of information and thus it started becoming a valuable repository of knowledge. Once search engine capabilities were added to the intranet, accessibility to the information and knowledge became more structured and easy to locate, sort and retrieve. Therefore, by natural progression, Intranet sites are becoming knowledge management systems. For more information, read the article by Steven L. Telleen, Ph.D. [Intranets as Knowledge Management Systems]

Why is KM needed?
Effective Knowledge Management ensure that the right information is available to the right person at the right time.

Workforce Turnover When employees leave an organization they take valuable knowledge with them.

Limitations of Human Memory Employees rapidly move from project to project. The details of past activities are often forgotten. Also, human memory can be self-corrupting, because people will unconsciously alter their knowledge to make things logical or acceptable within their own contexts.

Poor Communications Corporate microsystems can be competitive and self-insulating. One brand-management team may create an effective marketing strategy, and then neglect to share that new strategy with another brand-management team in the same organization.

How is a KM professional’s definition of KM substantively different than a typical dictionary definition of that word?
The Webster's New Millennium™ Dictionary of English (2005) defines knowledge management (KM) as the technologies involved in creating, disseminating, and utilizing knowledge data. Tiwana (2002) states “KM enables the creation, distribution, and exploitation of knowledge to create and retain greater value from core business competencies." The substantive difference between these definitions is the dictionary definition does not focus on the outcome of KM. That is, to retain value from business knowledge. The value can be the benefit of using knowledge to adjust to change or using knowledge to avoid making the same mistakes again.

What is epistemology, and why is that subject mentioned in relation to KM?
The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language (2000) defines epistemology as the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge, its presuppositions and foundations, and its extent and validity. Epistemology is mentioned in relation to knowledge management (KM) because KM deals with the management of knowledge. Thus it is imperative to understand the nature of knowledge in order to manage it. In addition epistemology deals with validity or strength of knowledge. Thus epistemology can assist KM practitioners in categorizing knowledge on a scale of weak to strong. Thus a KM practitioner can use ideas from the study of knowledge to better manage knowledge in an organization.

What is “innovative nonexploiters”?
Innovative nonexploiters are companies or organizations that have innovations or are innovators but do not exploit or take advantage of their innovations. Example of innovative nonexploiters would be companies that have innovation but are weak exploiter of their own innovation or knowledge. The outcome of being an innovative nonexploiter could be negative, to the company, if external forces take advantage of the knowledge or innovation and capitalize on it. Tiwana (2002) cites XEROX as an example of an innovative nonexploiter citing their PARC innovation as the foundation of the computer industry that XEROX did not take advantage of.

What is “intellectual capital”? Give some examples.
Intellectual capital is intangible or “vague” assets that may not be measurable, but are invaluable to an organization (Tiwana, 2002). In a business setting intellectual capital can be a companies competitive edge over other companies. Examples of intellectual capital could be reputation, human knowledge, patents, strong leadership, or name recognition. In general if something adds value to a company, but it cannot be logged in the accounting ledgers that it is most likely intellectual capital.

What skills do instructional technologists bring to knowledge management projects?
Instructional technologists bring various skills to knowledge management projects. Included in these skills are identifying subject matter experts, designing instruction to enhance the knowledge base of an organization, determine appropriate methods to cross-train employees to share (verses hoard) knowledge, using the design process to transfer tacit knowledge to written or implicit knowledge. Using models (ADDIE) to develop systematic method methods to use an organizations knowledge base to enhance an organization. Enhance the learning environment of an organization by defining learning characteristics and styles of the human resources in the organization.

What problems are there with knowledge?
Cost of obtaining knowledge or keeping knowledge from getting out can be very costly. For instance to hire or train an employee with knowledge on how to fix O-rings on the space shuttle can have a very high price tag.

In terms of interpretation knowledge can be interpreted differently, and the interpretation can have serious implications. For example knowledge of weapons of mass destructions in Iraq were interpreted as a threat to civilization by the Bush administration. This lead to serious consequences that are currently being debated by the public at all levels.

Hoarding poses a problem because knowledge can be hoarded. Hoarding in itself is not a good thing. Some persons hoard knowledge for financial gain. Some persons hoard knowledge to be devious. An example of hoarding knowledge may be a person keeping knowledge from a judge or jury to sway the outcome of a court case.

Culture/language can also be a problem with knowledge. This can also be linked to translation. Translating knowledge can be very difficult and costly. For example translating knowledge written on the ancient pyramids in Egypt was a costly and time-consuming process.

What are the potential risks associated with not integrating KM into an organization’s operation?
KM helps avoid unnecessary work duplication, expensive reinvestment, and repeated mistakes (Tiwana, 2002).

KM can save an organization from “knowledge walkouts” (2002). Meaning that persons with specific knowledge that is important for on organizations survival can leave without sharing that knowledge with others.

KM can make an organization a proactive anticipator (2002). Thus by implementing KM an organization can anticipate changes and use knowledge to anticipate change that without KM can hit an organization hard.

KM mutually reinforces an organization agility or dexterity (2002). An organizations ability to react comes from their knowledge and the agility comes from the ability to apply the knowledge (2002).

Where would a KM professional argue that knowledge resides?
Tiwana (2002) suggests that knowledge “originates in individual minds, but is often embedded in organizational routines, processes, practices, systems, software, and norms.” Behaviorism, which is a traditional educational conception, defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior that may or may not be the result of instruction (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp 2004). Thus in terms of a traditional educational conception of learning, one could suggest that there is not a tension between KM professional concept of knowledge and an educational concept. That is, KM professional agree that knowledge resides in an individuals mind and is passed along within the organization through routines or processes. A behaviorist believes that learning is a change in behavior. Thus for changes in the routine or process to occur learning as to occur, that is a change in behavior will result in the change of routines or process. Therefore, both the KM professional and the behaviorist believe that learning and knowledge begin with an individual and are passed along through changes in behavior and the organization, respectively.

What is a Course Management System
(CMS) are specific types of KM systems often used in academic settings. Examples of software applications for creating a CMS include Blackboard and Web CT. Course Management Systems

Advantages of CMS

 * Reasonably user friendly.
 * Support student collaboration and dialogue.
 * Support links to documents, images and other web sites.
 * Provide a student roster with email capabilities.
 * Facilitate real-time "classroom" discussions.
 * Facilitate on-line testing of students.

Limitations of CMS

 * Does not support reusable learning objects (RLO).
 * Does not support collection of statistical information.

What is a Learning Management System
Learning Management Systems (LMS)are a specific type of KM system often used in business settings. Examples of software applications for creating a CM include Gen21 and Moodle. (Moodle is an open-source application.) Learning Management Systems

Advantages of LMS

 * Support links to documents, images and other web sites.
 * Facilitate on-line testing of students.
 * Facilitate collection of test performance for statistical analysis.
 * Support SCO and SCORM architectures.

Limitations of LMS

 * LMS applications are moderately complex and require more learning than CMS applications.

Links
(Moodle Home Page) (Web Book on LMS) (Wikipedia Page on Moodle

Sections under Construction

 * Wikis
 * Electronic Performance Support
 * Case Based Reasoning Systems

Questions and Answers

 * Please post your questions and answers here.
 * If you suggest a hypothetical answer, please mark it as such, i.e. "Guess."
 * Thank you for your contributions.

Q: Electronic Performance Support Systems birthed the development of Knowledge Management Systems. Why did the name change occur? JS (19 Apr 05) A: Guess. EPSS provides specific instructions for well defined tasks. KM per se is a category that includes several broader knowledge bases. Perhaps the differences in purpose generated the need for different names. TR (20 Apr 05)

 Return to Instructional Technology. Return to Learning Management Systems.


text:
Talk:Lisp Programming/Beginning Lisp

This excerpt:

(quote param1 param2)

would return

(param1 param2)

is incorrect, and should be revised thusly:

(quote (param1 param2)) would return (param1 param2). As written (quote param1 param2) would return param1.

title: Talk:Lisp Programming/Beginning Lisp


text:
Ido

 * Ido was originally created in 1907 as a reformed version of Esperanto. The reforms were not accepted by the Esperanto community and it was decided that the only way to carry them out would be to use a new name for the language.

How is Ido different from Esperanto?

Alphabet

 * Alphabet introduction
 * Principles of orthography

Grammar

 * Syllables
 * Personal pronouns
 * Demonstrative pronouns
 * Adjectives
 * Verbs
 * Articles & qualifiers
 * Conjunctions
 * Prepositions
 * Comparatives & superlatives
 * Forming questions
 * Forming commands
 * Forming dates & times

LEVEL I: Beginner

 * 1. Introducing yourself
 * 2. Describing yourself and others
 * 3. Numbers
 * 4. Colors
 * 5. Recreation
 * 6. Family
 * 7. Around the house
 * 8. The workplace
 * 9. School
 * 10. Onomatopoeia

LEVEL II: Intermediate

 * 1. Shopping
 * 2. At the restaurant
 * 3. Downtown
 * 4. Public transportation
 * 5. At the hotel
 * 6. At the library
 * 7. At the farm
 * 8. Medical care

LEVEL III: Advanced

 * 1. The human body
 * 2. Religion
 * 3. Nature
 * 4. The universe
 * 5. Reading a book
 * 6. Using the telephone
 * 7. Using computers

About the Authors

 * Authors

Ido Ido Ido nyelvkönyv 이도

title: Ido


text:
Ido/Verbs

All verbs in Ido are regular and have no exceptions.

The infinitive ends in -ar, the present tense in -as, the past tense in -is, the future tense in -os, the conditional tense in -us.

 * Havar - to have
 * Me havas - I have
 * Ni havas - We have
 * Me havis - I had
 * Me havos - I will have
 * Me havus - I should have

title: Ido/Verbs


text:
Warfare

From failure to success and somewhere in-between, this section views war from the perspective of reality rather than theory.

"History is written by the winners."

"History will be kind to me, for I intend to write it." -Attributed to Winston Churchill

"Those who will not remember history, are condemned to repeat it." -Santayanna.

"Walk softly, but carry a big stick." -Theodore Roosevelt.

It is hoped by many that one day we will have peace and unity throughout the world. Until that day arrives, people who are free or wishing to be free must be prepared to fight to maintain or obtain their freedom. Freedom is a temporary result of successful Warfare (and lots of politicking... but that's another book). Successful Warfare begins in the mind. To that end, the following section attempts to establish a mental framework in which the necessity of Successful Warfare is understandable.

A people may choose to avoid offensive actions. If they care to survive, they cannot avoid preparation for defensive actions. In the past invasions aimed to wipe out the original inhabitants.

After an early history of militancy, the Roman peoples became addicted to the opulence (or at least the free bread and circuses) that their empire had gained for them. Wearying of fighting their own wars, they attempted to defend their borders with hired help. Where is the Roman Empire today?

Iceland was sparsely inhabited by Irish monks before and when the Norse arrived. Iceland today has one of the most homogeneous (Scandinavian) gene-pools of any nation on earth.

The Tibetans were one of China's scourges for centuries, descending from the Tibetan plateau to raid and pillage the Chinese. The Chinese solved the problem by sending in Buddhist monks espousing the peaceful philosophy of the Buddha. The Tibetans converted en masse. Who's laughing now?

Freedom is not free.

''If you can read this, thank a Teacher. If you can read this in English, thank a Veteran.'' -[anonymous Americana]

Evolution of War
This section details the evolution of warfare and fighting throughout the history of man.

Display vs. Proof.

Fighting requires resources. Expenditure of these resources produces a weakened state, more susceptible to losing the next confrontation. Displays and Intimidation have always been and will always be preferable to actual fighting. This is seen from the lowest orders of animals to the May-Day Parades of the Soviets (and at all stations in between). This is an unalterable axiom of warfare.

Display rather than Proof, however, allows for bluffing and deception.

Safety in numbers: more is better (usually).

In the beginning, there was the Alpha-male. The Alpha-male is, by definition, capable of defeating each an every other individual in "the group" in one-on-one fighting.

Somewhat later, although still in the mists of time, it was discovered that two or more weaker individuals could combine their strengths to overcome an onerous alpha-male. It is also true, however, that allies usually fall to bickering among themselves once the obvious danger of the (former) Alpha-male has been removed. "There can be only one" is a truism of most primitive situations, and is the basis of the Executive branch of government in modern representative democracies (committees are a perfect way to prevent anything from actually being accomplished). Nonetheless, the concepts and utility of combined forces and collective security have been with us ever since. Bigger armies defeat smaller armies with alarming regularity. With a few hiccups (induced by the occasional downfall of society and subsequent dark ages), societal groupings (tribes/states) and their fighting branches (warrior-bands/armies) have tended to increase in size.

Speed vs. Armour

Basic fighting may be defined as delivering kinetic energy to ones adversary in ways least conducive to their continued functioning, while attempting to avoid their reciprocal offerings.

The two primary ways of avoiding the receipt of kinetic energy are Speed (being fast enough to get out of the way) and Armour (shielding, to absorb the blow via the law of Conservation of Momentum). The requirements for Speed vs. Armour are mutually conflicting. The more armour you carry, the slower you can move... the faster you move, the less armour you can carry.

In the evolution of warfare, the pendulum has swung back and forth many times between the requirements for speed vs. armour. Usually it is some tactical or technical innovation which provides the impetus for reversing the swing.

Greek Hoplites in phalanx formations were very heavily armoured for their day, yet they were undone by the administrative superiority of more lightly armoured Roman Legions.

The introduction of the stirrup to Europe in the 5th century AD allowed what had been lightly armoured cavalry lancers to develop into the Knights in Armour of the mediaeval era. The extra stability of stirrups and larger horses allowing, for a time, high speed and heavy armour; the entire ensemble of man, horse, armour and arms being the delivery device for the kinetic energy. The high infrastructure requirements for supporting this fighting style eventually helped to develop one of the highest levels of armouring seen: stone castles -- absolutely zero speed and manoeuvrability, combined with as much shielding as one could quarry, all in an attempt to defend the specific piece of land which allowed sustaining the fighting horses and men.

These circumstances, however, were wholly undone by the introduction of gun-powder and firearms beginning in the 14th century AD. Firearms induced a reversion to little or no armour. The available armouring technologies were incapable of stopping bullets; and with the slow rate of fire and high rate of misfires, once a soldier had fired his shot, speed was of the utmost importance to complete ones bayonet charge before the enemy could reload.

Automatic weapons and machine guns reversed the pendulum yet again. Speed for charging meant little before the heavy sustained fire of the 20th century. Helmets, so noticeably absent from 18th and 19th century battlefields made a great comeback. It was the extreme heavy armour of tanks that broke the trench-warfare stalemate of WWI.

War planes, and fighter planes, rockets, and missiles... speed, speed, and more speed.

Nuclear weapons, however brought the state of the art back to ever larger bunkers, perhaps culminating in artifacts such as Cheyenne Mountain.

Technology

 * 1) Teeth.............................
 * 2) Fists and feet.....................
 * 3) Wooden clubs and unshaped rocks....
 * 4) Deceit & Trickery..................
 * 5) Spies..............................
 * 6) Pointed sticks.....................
 * 7) Knapped stones.......at least 1 million BCE
 * 8) Fire...............................
 * 9) Atl-atl............................
 * 10) Bow (& arrow)......................
 * 11) Psychological weapons.(drums, trumpets, war paint)
 * 12) Fortifications.....................
 * 13) Tunneling and Sapping..............
 * 14) Copper.............................3500 BCE
 * 15) Bronze (alloy of copper and tin)...3000 BCE
 * 16) Armour.............................
 * 17) Horse and Chariots.................2000 BCE
 * 18) Biological weapons (spreading disease intentionally)
 * 19) Iron...............................1500 BCE
 * 20) Steel (combination of iron and carbon)
 * 21) Bagpipes (psych. weapons)..........
 * 22) Stirrups............in the West by  400 AD
 * 23) Gunpowder...........in the West by 1350 AD
 * 24) Cannon & Mortars...................1350
 * 25) Firearms...........................1450
 * 26) Rifling of gun barrels.............
 * 27) Grenades...........................
 * 28) Submarines.........................1780
 * 29) Railroads (troop & materiel movt)..
 * 30) Modern machining...................1800
 * 31) Steamboats (as gunships)...........1820s
 * 32) Balloons (for observation).........
 * 33) Telegraph..........................
 * 34) Revolvers..........................
 * 35) Breech-loading rifles..............1850s
 * 36) Barbed wire........................
 * 37) Iron-clad ships....................1860s
 * 38) Repeating rifles...................
 * 39) Gatling guns.......................
 * 40) Telephone..........................
 * 41) Automatic rifles...................
 * 42) Radio..............................
 * 43) Smokeless gunpowder................
 * 44) Machine guns.......................1900s
 * 45) Zeppelins & Dirigibles.............
 * 46) Aeroplanes.........................
 * 47) Carriers (ships w/ aeroplanes).....
 * 48) Poison Gas.........................1910s
 * 49) Tanks..............................
 * 50) Flame throwers.....................
 * 51) Antibiotics........................1940s
 * 52) Radar..............................
 * 53) Sonar..............................
 * 54) Computers..........................
 * 55) Missiles & Rockets.................
 * 56) Nuclear bombs......................1945
 * 57) Helicopters........................
 * 58) Satellites.........................1957
 * 59) Nuclear Submarines and Ships.......
 * 60) Napalm and herbicides..............
 * 61) Poisons

Guerilla Warfare

Guerrilla Warfare is a redundant misnomer, as "Guerilla" is Spanish for "little war". But we seem to be stuck with the term in English, at least.

Guerilla Warfare takes maximum advantage of speed, and seems to have little use for armour. Furthermore, it would seem to defy the rule of "Strength in Numbers", as most operations are conducted by small highly-mobile groups. During a guerilla attack, soldiers attack the enemy quickly, then "vanish" into the landscape.

To be maximally effective, however, an insurgency must be well entrenched, which is to say, they should have the support of the populous among which they operate. Thus, although they may have very few actual operatives, the collusion of the local non-combatants swells the effective number of real participants far beyond the number of soldiers their adversary may be able to field. Furthermore, the surrounding populous provides maximum opportunity for Cover and Concealment both before and after any particular strike.

Total War

Total War is the practice of considering all of an enemy's resources as valid targets; to include civilian population, and means of production (agricultural and industrial).

The earliest record of Total War tactics is the Trojan War, where a Mycenean army of 100.000 defeated the Trojans and their allies, destroyed and looted their city and killed or enslaved almost every inhabitant. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, there were no industrial means of production, aside from perhaps mining, smelting, and the activities of smiths (armourers). Agricultural means of production (farms and farmers) were more often siezed to augment the invader's supplies than destroyed, or rather destroyed by their defender to deny them to the invader (Scorched Earth Policy). Civilian populations, however, have always suffered during war, whether because they were taken to be sold into slavery, because their food was taken or destroyed, because their homes were occupied or destroyed, or due to the pestilence which always accompanies warfare.

During the high middle-ages in Europe, the code of Chivalry supposedly forbade the mistreatment of non-combatants. It is not at all clear that the civilians would agree that this was actually the case.

And for an all too brief period around the 18th century, War was considered a Gentlemen's' Sport: supposedly not making more of a mess than could be cleaned up by tea-time. This is more likely a Victorian romanticisation, all the more plausible the further you were in time and space from the battle field.

WWI and to a greater degree WWII were text-book examples of Total War; with indiscriminate use of Chemical Weapons and bombing (conventional and nuclear) of industrial/population centres to destroy enemy resources and morale.

Law of War

In conjunction with the increased use of Total War, the Geneva Conventions have been an attempt by the larger players in geo-politics to provide a framework for minimizing the inherent suffering of war. In particular, guidelines have been laid down concerning the "fair" treatment of medical facilities and personnel, clergy/chaplains, the wounded, and prisoners of war.

The International Red Cross (and sister organizations such as the Red Crescent, et al.) are the bodies responsible for implementing many of the humanitarian assistances prescribed under the various Geneva Conventions.

The International Court at The Hague is the responsible body for trying and prosecuting parties suspected of breaching the guidelines laid out in the Geneva Conventions. [vide War Crimes and War Criminals]

Various treaties have been attempted to eliminate or reduce the threat from Chemical, Biological, and Nuclear weapons of mass destruction. None of these have been nearly as comprehensive as the Geneva Conventions. The United States, for instance, reserves the right of 1st strike with Nuclear Weapons, the right to retaliate with Chemical Weapons (2nd strike), and will not use Biological Weapons (no strike).

It is extremely important to note, that the Geneva Conventions and these other treaties are all agreements between the governments of states/nations. Supranational terrorist groups are NOT parties to these agreements, and indeed, their most basic tactics fly in the very face of these agreements. It is left as an exercise for the reader as to whether or not these individuals should be accorded the rights guaranteed under these agreements.

Religious and Ideological Wars

Aside from merely wishing to conquer another group, and take what is theirs, Religious and Ideological Wars have been an attempt by one party to violently control the way another group thinks, or to subjugate or at least harm them because of what they think.

A non-exhaustive list of examples of this behaviour include the spread of Islam (7th century onward -- the creation of the Caliphate), various civil wars of the Byzantine Empire, the Crusades (12th through 14th centuries), the Wars of the Reformation, the spread and containment of Communism (the Cold War)(20th century), and the more recent disagreement between Islamic fundamentalist terrorists and the Western Nations.

Strategy
If you're only thinking about military matters, you're not thinking about strategy. Strategy encompasses all the tools at a nation's disposal: military, diplomatic, economic and social. Military force is but one tool in a nation's toolbox.

Strategy is defining a nation's needs and objectives, and then devising a plan for meeting those needs and objectives. For example, in WWII Hitler knew he could not sustain Germany's military/industrial expansion without access to oil. Germany had no oil reserves and neither did any of its immediate neighbours. The closest oil reserves of any size were in the Caucasus mountains of Russia. So to meet Germany's need for oil, Hitler's strategy was to invade Russia and take theirs.

The actual invasion plan was not a strategic decision, but an operational one. At the military operational level, you are concerned primarily, if not solely, with military matters. So the decision to invade Russia was a strategic decision, but the decision of when and where to attack, and with what forces, were all operational decisions. Typically, strategic decisions are made by a country's political leaders while operational decisions are made by its senior military commanders.

Tactics
If you can smell the smoke and hear the gunfire, you're in a tactical situation. Tactical engagements are often called "battles." The battles of The Alamo and Little Big Horn are famous examples of tactical battles. While strategic situations may take months, years or even decades to play out, tactical situations are usually resolved in a few minutes to a few days. In land combat, tactical decisions are made at the lower levels of the command structure, from junior officers down to individual soldiers. In naval combat, they are typically made by junior to senior level officers commanding anything from a single ship to a large carrier group. In air combat, tactical decisions are made by squadron leaders, who are typically mid-level officers, to individual pilots. Tactical decisions must typically be made quickly, under fire, and with immediate life-and-death consequences.

Decisions can however, be both a tactically good decision, but a strategically bad decision. This is how tactics and strategy are usually differentiated. For example, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor destroyed far more American military resources than Japanese military resources. This was a tactical victory by the Japanese, but the overall grand strategy was a failure because the events following Pearl Harbor resulted in Japan's defeat.

Operations
Between the political abstractions that characterize strategy and the minute-to-minute, life-and-death drama that characterizes tactics, lies the realm of operations. Operations tend to be strictly military affairs and are orchestrated by senior military commanders, generals and admirals. Operations tend to be unfold over days, weeks or even months and to involve large numbers of men and several battles. The Invasion of Normandy and the Tet Offensive are famous examples of recent military operations. The distinctions between these levels are fuzzy. For example, in the Battle of Gettysburg in the Civil War, there were actually a number of smaller tactical engagements, making the overall Battle of Gettysburg look more like an operational engagement than a tactical one.

The Army
The primary job of the army is to take and control territory and to stop the enemy from doing the same. Modern armies are composed of basically 3 groups. First is the infantry, composed of individual soldiers fighting "up close and personal" with personal, hand-held weapons. This is the dirtiest, most dangerous, and most important job in the military. In the beginning was the infantry, and the infantry is still considered "The Queen of the Battlefield." You can bomb the enemy's capital into a smoking rubble, but until your guys are walking around in its streets and cleared out any survivors, you can't claim to have conquered it.

Then there is the artillery, composed of big guns, or more recently, rockets. The guys firing the big guns rarely see their targets. They rely on forward observers to tell them where to shoot. An observer can be a guy on a hilltop, a guy in an airplane or anywhere they can see the target. This is called "indirect fire." If the guys firing the guns can see their targets it is called "direct fire." Artillery guys hate direct fire because it means the enemy is way too close. Half of all combat casualties are caused by artillery, so locating and destroying the enemy's artillery is always a high priority.

Finally, there is armour or tanks. Tanks specialize in moving quickly across relatively open ground and delivering a lot of fire-power. While tanks look big and imposing, they do have their vulnerabilities. Their main one is that they can't see very well. So tanks depend on infantry to be their eyes. A tank without infantry cover is very vulnerable. The Marines like to say that "Hunting tanks is fun and easy." Tanks need room to move to be at their most effective, so they are of limited usefulness in heavy jungle or forest (like Vietnam), mountains (like Korea and much of Afghanistan), or in built-up cities (like Stalingrad). But in flat, open areas, like the deserts of Iraq and the steppes of Russia, they are fearsome indeed.

The Navy
Using ships to transport goods is by far the most efficient way to move large amounts of people and goods across oceans. The job of navies has traditionally been to ensure that your country maintains the ability to move your people and goods, while at the same time, interfering with your enemy's ability to move his people and goods. One of the most noteworthy recent examples of this was the North Atlantic campaign of WWII. The Americans were trying to move men and materials across the Atlantic Ocean to help Britain. At the same time, the German navy, using mainly U-boats, was trying to stop this traffic. Had the Allies failed, Germany probably would have been able to conquer Britain as it had the rest of Europe.

In addition to this basic role, modern navies have developed other capabilities as well. An example is putting nuclear missiles into a submarine to turn it into a mobile, almost undetectable missile base. Submarines have also distinguished themselves as superb platforms from which to spy on the enemy. The recent best-seller Blind Man's Bluff is a gripping account of how this was done during the Cold War. The American navy has invested a lot to develop the ability to conduct amphibious assaults, that is, to attack from the sea using land-based forces (think D-Day). This is the primary mission of the U.S. Marines. Aircraft carriers also provide the navy with a mobile airfield which can be used to conduct air operations virtually anywhere in the world.

The Air Force
The introduction of aircraft in the early 20th Century adds a new dimension to warfare. That dimension reflects itself not only in new ways to deploy fire but also in boosting the ability of the ground troops to deploy their fire, supplying knowlegde about quantity, quality and disposition of opposing forces. Air power has a negative effect on the enemy's morale as well.

Since the introduction of balloons to spy on the enemy and to direct artillery barrages the importance of the aircraft rose exponentially:
 * 1) balloons and reconaissance fixed-wing aircraft: spying, spotting
 * 2) air-superiority fighters: air-to-air fighting, gaining control of the air-space
 * 3) tactical bombers: targeting foes in the battlefield - JU-87 Stuka
 * 4) strategic bombers: destroying the enemy's ability to wage war - Allied campaign against the Axis
 * 5) rocket-proppeled unmanned one-use weapons - V1 and V2
 * 6) rotary-wing aircraft: both as gunships or transports
 * 7) multi-purpose unmanned aircraft: both as gunships or as reconnaissance

It's now impossible to disassociate ground and air power: the regular infantry or even small, commando-like units can call upon superior firepower in the form of airstrikes; small, highly mobile, unmanned aircraft can acquire information about enemy forces or infrastructure to direct ground operations. It's the exploration of all dimensions that deliver victory.

Logistics
Logistics is essentially distribution and delivery of supplies to troops. Supplies include anything from food rations, to additional soldiers, to munitions, to fuel and anything in between. As armies of an invading force moves out of it's home territory, supply lines are formed to deliver such supplies to soldiers fighting towards the front. Without supplies, soldiers will go hungry, vehicles will run out of fuel, guns will run out of ammunition, and armies will be unable to replace men lost in combat.

The concept of logistics has become increasingly important throughout the history of warfare. The more advanced military technology is, the more supplies necessary to continue a war effectively. For example, soldiers fighting with swords required far fewer and complicated supplies than soldiers fighting with gunpowder muskets. Today modern soldiers fighting with assault rifles with tanks and armored personnel carriers require a large variety of complicated supplies including ammunition, fuel, repair kits, additional weapons, etc.

Logistics is also part of strategy. During World War II the Chinese forces used a strategy where they purposely let the Japanese forces take land, while buying the Chinese forces time. Eventually the Japanese advance was halted as Japan simply could not find the supplies to reach further into China, while trying to fight an insurgency in the territory Japan occupied at the same time.

title: Warfare


text:
User talk:Harami~enwikibooks

a

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Harami. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Harami~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:16, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:01, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Harami~enwikibooks