text:
Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Psychological Issues

Experts have proposed dozens of psychological causes for stuttering. Then they use psychological tests to test their hypotheses. And, every time, the tests prove the "experts" wrong. But this doesn't stop the experts from writing books promoting their theories.

In 1928, a Freudian psychologist advanced a theory that stuttering was an attempt to satisfy unresolved oral-erotic needs. If this were true, there would stuttering phone sex lines. Imagine finding ads in the back of Playboy magazine with scantily-dressed women saying, "Call me! I stutter!"

A 1939 personality test study found that stutterers were more neurotic, more introverted, less dominant, less self-confident, and less sociable than non-stutterers. Examination of the personality test found sixteen speech-related questions, including "If you are dining out do you prefer someone else to order dinner for you?" The psychologists had interpreted stutterers' reluctance to order in restaurants as evidence of neuroses, rather than as difficulty talking.

A 1952 study of hostility and aggression found stutterers more likely to turn hostility inward. A 1953 study found the opposite.

Other psychological studies found no difference between stutterers and non-stutterers for self-concept, levels of aspiration, body images, role perception, handwriting, social maturity, birth order, exaggerated fears, sleep disturbances, hyperactivity, temper tantrums, thumb sucking, and nail biting.

Stutterers are, on average, psychologically normal, except for fears and anxieties around talking. We generally have the same speech-related fears and anxieties as non-stutterers, such as fear of talking to strangers and fear of speaking to an audience, but these fears are greater in stutterers.

Freedom to Speak—Badly

From the book How to Learn Any Language:

Americans, however, hold one high card that too frequently goes unplayed. We're gregarious. We're extroverts. Some say it contemptuously. Some say it admiringly. But those who know us best agree that we Americans are the only people in the world who enjoy speaking another language badly!

Most people in the world are shy, embarrassed, even paralyzed when it comes to letting themselves be heard in languages they speak less than fluently. An American may master a foreign language to the point where he considers himself fluent. A European, however, who speaks a language equally well and no better will often deny he speaks it at all!

Are you an American—happy to talk even when your speech isn't good? Or are you a European—"shy, embarrassed, even paralyzed" when you can't speak fluently?

Or are you Chinese? In China, stutterers are expected to keep their mouths shut because stuttering will embarrass their families. You don't want the neighbors to find out that your brother stutters, so you find him work that doesn't require speech, and he stays at home the rest of the time.

If that doesn't sound fair to you, stick an American flag pin in your lapel. Then go out and speak English—badly, if you have to.

The First Amendment to our Constitution is freedom of speech. Our ancestors believed that talking is the most basic human right. If you don't want to talk, are you throwing away the fundamental freedom that previous generations fought for?

Change Your Lifestyle to Talk More

Ask your supervisor to give you work requiring talking. This could be talking to customers, or calling suppliers, or training other employees.

Or change careers to a job that requires talking. A man bought an anti-stuttering device, quit his job as a back room accountant at a bank, then worked at the Chicago Board of Trade, yelling orders to buy or sell soybean futures.

Or find a volunteer service requiring talking. Hospitals have information booths where volunteers direct visitors to their floors. Public television stations need volunteers to answer the phones during pledge drives.

Political groups need canvassers to collect signatures on petitions. Pick a cause you believe in. Imagine yourself standing on a busy street corner, talking to passerby about an important issue. Can you picture anything more American?

Complimenting People

Here's another way to make the world a better place. Make eye contact, smile, and then compliment a person.

Don't limit this to attractive, single persons of the opposite sex. Make everyone you meet feel good about themselves. Compliment old men, women pushing strollers in the park, the person behind you in the supermarket line, and your in-laws.

Here are a few compliments you can make about anyone:

 Compliment the person's smile. Then smile. This will make the person smile. Add a little joke such as, "Give my compliments to your orthodontist." Compliment the person's eyes. This reminds you to make eye contact. Look into the person's eyes long enough to mentally note his or her eye color. A friend broke up with her boyfriend when, wearing sunglasses, she asked him what color her eyes were. He didn't know. Compliment the person's name. This helps you remember the person's name. Associate the person's name with an interesting fact, e.g., ask how his or her name is spelled (e.g., Rebecca vs. Rebekah), the ethnic origin, or the meaning of the name. (I got a date with a woman named Alethea because I knew that alethea is Greek for truth). Ask if the person is related to a celebrity with the same last name. Read a history of your area to learn the names of local heroes and historical figures. Compare the person to a celebrity. (A friend writing a personal ad asked if she looked like Natalie Merchant or Neve Campbell. I replied that she reminded me more of a young Tommy Lee Jones.) Listen for extraordinary things people have done, then reflect this back to them. Everyone thinks that their lives are ordinary. E.g., a man who flies jet fighters thinks of himself as an ordinary fighter pilot.

Tell Stuttering Jokes

A stutterer goes away to a two-week intensive speech therapy course on the East Coast. When he returns, his friends ask how it went.

The stutterer pauses, takes a deep breath, and slowly says, "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers."

His friends are amazed. "You said that completely fluently!" they say.

The stutterer says, "Y-y-yeah b-b-but it's, it's h-h-hard t-t-to w-w-work th-that in-t-to a, a c-c-conversation."

Add more stuttering jokes!

Inward Anger vs. Outward Anger

Stuttering, like any frustrating experience, causes anger. Some individuals direct these feelings inward (i.e., they hate themselves). This leads to a vicious cycle or "self-fulfilling prophecy" of failure.

But other stutterers direct these feelings outward. These individuals feel anger at other people. Their relationships at work or socially go poorly, again creating a vicious cycle of failure.

How do you feel when people disrespect you when you stutter? Do you feel anger at yourself for stuttering? Or do you feel anger at the person who treated you poorly?

When you're angry, do you do nothing, but get angrier inside? That's inner-directed self-hatred.

Or do you take action to "send a message" nonverbally—which the other person is certain to misunderstand? I once "sent a message" to my housemates that it was their turn to buy toilet paper. Don't ask me what I did! They didn't get the message. They just got angry back at me. That didn't lead to domestic bliss.

If you're doing fluency shaping therapy use slow, stretched syllables when telemarketers call. Do you look forward to annoying telemarketers? If so, your anger is directed outward. But if you refuse to annoy telemarketers, your anger is directed inward.

Outer-directed anger is easier to outgrow than inner-directed anger. E.g., you can't wait for telemarketers to call. You have your DAF device plugged into your telephone. You sit down to dinner, and the phone rings. It's the Munificent Police Protective Association. You happily draw out a forty-five minute conversation. Your dinner gets cold but your speech gets better. Then a friend calls, and you speak fluently at a slow-normal rate. You feel good about yourself and your anger drops away.

In contrast, if your anger is inner-directed and a telemarketer calls, you decide not to practice your speech therapy, you stutter a "No, thank you" to the telemarketer and hang up. Your speech doesn't improve and your self-hatred continues.

If practicing speech therapy with a telemarketer scares you, have your speech-language pathologist pretend to call you. She'll try to sell you slow pitch bats, slow blow fuses, stainless steel slow cookers, and slow jam CDs. If you can't think of anything to say, ask, "How slow are the slow pitch bats?"

Then call her, reversing roles. Convince her that your slow blow fuses are the slowest, and that no one makes a slower slow cooker. Practice this until you're willing to practice therapy skills with a telemarketer.

Denial Is a Bigger Problem Than What You're Denying

I had a neighbor with schizophrenia. He went to a dentist for a root canal, and the CIA put a radio into his tooth. The government was broadcasting messages to his brain.

Like 40% of schizophrenics, he denied that he had the disorder. He'd lost his job as a chemical engineer, and now worked as a minimum-wage security guard. He had no friends other than me.

My neighbor enjoyed reading French and Italian newspapers at a university library. He'd take the newspapers to the basement where no one would hear him repeating obscenities to annoy the CIA agents listening to his thoughts. One day security guards asked him to leave. To get away from them he ran into traffic in a busy street. He wasn't allowed to use the library after that.

Consider what would have happened if he'd told a librarian that he had a mental illness that made him talk to himself, and asked if there was somewhere he could read the newspapers without disturbing anyone. The librarian would have unlocked a conference room for him to use.

Denying that he had schizophrenia took a lot of effort. His life would have been simpler if he admitted that he had the disorder. If you put more effort into denying that you have a disorder than the treatment would demand, then you have a denial problem.

He'd ask me whether I thought he was crazy. I'd say, "You're crazy if you deny that you have a mental illness. If you admit it, then you're not crazy."

Avoidance is Denial

Denial can look like avoidance. Many stutterers will spend two hours driving to a store to see if the store has an item, instead of spending two minutes calling the store (and experiencing the embarrassment of stuttering).

Many stutterers substitute words. E.g., saying "the great American pastime" instead of "baseball." That's eight syllables instead of two, and some listeners won't know what you're talking about.

When avoiding stuttering takes more effort than stuttering, you're denying how much effort avoiding stuttering takes.

Here's an extreme example of avoidance. A woman called me, inquiring about stuttering treatments. Her husband was a computer software engineer. He'd stopped talking. He'd requested a demotion at work to a position in which he never spoke to anyone. He sat in his cubicle, communicating by e-mail. At home he no longer spoke to his wife or children. He stopped participating in social activities or friendships. His wife was considering divorce. But ﬁrst she was learning everything she could about stuttering, in hopes of ﬁnding something that would enable him to speak.

Did this man have a stuttering problem? Or did he have a denial problem? He thought he could make his life easier by not talking. But the effort required to not talk (e.g., an unhappy marriage) outweighed the effort of talking (e.g., to his wife, who already knew and accepted that he stuttered).

"I Can Do It Without Help" Is Denial

A friend lives in a state that provides anti-stuttering telephones free (see State Special Telephone Equipment Programs). He stutters moderately to severely. I suggested that he fill out the application to get an anti-stuttering device. He said no, he'd been to a good speech therapy program, and he knew what he had to do. He was determined to improve his speech without electronic devices, medications, or other help.

It's been five years since he went to that speech therapy program. He still stutters. He's denying that the speech therapy program wasn't helpful. He's denying that he doesn't know what to do to improve his speech. He's denying that he needs help.

In contrast, a stutterer not in denial will use whatever's avail-able to improve his speech. If your state wants to give you a telephone that helps you talk fluently, why not take it?

"But I’ve Tried Speech Therapy" Is Denial

Consider why crazy weight loss diets attract customers. People try the "pizza and ice cream" diet, it doesn't work, and then they can say that they tried to lose weight but the diet didn't work. Therefore no diet, exercise plan, or anything else will ever work. Therefore they have an excuse to be overweight. These people chose the "pizza and ice cream" diet instead of the salads and running ten miles a day diet. They chose a fad diet because they knew it wouldn't work.

Similarly, some stutterers go to one speech therapy program, it doesn't help, and then write articles saying that "achieving fluency…is nearly impossible" and "stuttering is a physical impediment for which little can be done." That's also denial. The person avoids effective treatments, by denying that effective treatments exist.

Denying the Most Important Thing in Your Life

I was unaware how severely I stuttered (see My Life in Stuttering). I thought that I had a minor speech problem. I tried to do everything that everyone else does. When I consistently failed at things most people seemed to effortlessly achieve (e.g., finding a job, finding a girlfriend) I didn't realize it was because talking to me was an excruciating experience for listeners. No one told me that. They just avoided me.

Did I have a denial problem? Yes—but let me tell you about an accountant I had dinner with. He worked for the local government. He kept pen and paper next to his bed because he'd wake up with ideas of how to solve accounting problems at work.

My first thought was, this guy needs a life! He dreams about accounting!

Then I thought, he thinks about accounting 24/7. He must be a good accountant. When I need an accountant I'll hire him.

My speech improved after I was 30, when I made stuttering the center of my life. I thought about stuttering 24/7. I'd wake up with ideas for how to solve speech problems. Speech therapy changed from something I did two hours a week in speech clinics, to what I did all the time.

My denial problem wasn't that I didn't admit that I stuttered. My denial problem was that I didn't admit that stuttering was the most important thing I did. I'd pushed it to the side and focused on other things.

Whatever you focus on, you can achieve. It may take years of persistence but you will succeed. But you can only think about one thing 24/7. You don't want to spend your life climbing a mountain, get to the top, then see that you climbed the wrong mountain.

Miracles Happen

Miracles happen when you focus on the most important thing in your life, and then everything else falls into place, effortlessly. E.g., you improve your speech, then your boss gives you a promotion. Then the pretty blonde at the photo store wants to be your girlfriend. It happened to me, and it'll happen to you. To read about more miracles, see the appendix Famous People Who Stutter.

But before your miracles can happen, think about my question. Is stuttering the most important thing you do? If you're a severe stutterer, as I was, the answer may be yes. Miracles aren't going to happen in your life until you think about stuttering 24/7. If your child stutters, you may have to focus on your child's treatment, rather than leaving it to the school's speech-language pathologist.

But if you're a mild stutterer, stuttering might be the wrong mountain for you to climb. You might be focusing your energy on avoiding stuttering, when listeners don't care whether you stutter. They might even like hearing you stutter occasionally. Maybe you should put your energy somewhere else.

References
 * 1) Bloodstein, Oliver (1995) A Handbook On Stuttering, 5th edition, San Diego: Singular Press.
 * 2) 	Yeoman, Barry.  Wrestling with Words, Psychology Today, November/December, 1998.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Portkey

Overview
A portkey is a common item used to transport anyone touching it to another pre-determined location, such as a Quidditch match. Typically portkeys will activate at a specific time, but apparently it is also possible to create an on-contact Portkey that activates immediately when touched, or an on-command Portkey that activates on demand. A Portkey can be any sort of object, most often something of no value: an old teakettle, for instance, a discarded boot, or the head of a broken statue. A Portkey cannot, we believe, be a human.

Extended Description
Portkeys appeared in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire first as a means of getting to a major event, specifically the Quidditch World Cup, where it was used to transport those members of the Weasley family and those members of the Diggory family who were unable to Apparate. It was later used to transport those same individuals back home. In this section, we learned that Portkeys would typically be unobtrusive items that would activate at a specific time, transporting all who were directly in physical contact with them to a specific other point.

A Portkey was also used to transport Harry and Cedric Diggory to the graveyard where Voldemort staged his return; in this application, the Portkey activated immediately upon contact, taking Harry and Cedric from the center of the third-task maze to the graveyard, and then later carrying Harry and Cedric's body from the graveyard to the edge of the third-task maze.

On two separate occasions in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Professor Dumbledore is seen to create a Portkey, once to carry Harry and the Weasleys from his office to 12 Grimmauld Place, and later to carry Harry from the Ministry of Magic to Dumbledore's office. Both of these Portkeys seemed to be of the delayed-activation type, as in both cases Dumbledore counted down for the portkey to activate; in the first case, this was necessary because it was necessary to transport all of the Weasleys, along with Harry, to Grimmauld Place, in the second case it was because Dumbledore wanted to hand the Portkey to Harry. In the first case, though, it seems more likely that the Portkey was a command-activation type, because while Dumbledore did count down to the activation, he had made the Portkey before he had heard back from the portrait of Phineas Nigellus, and he could not have known exactly when it was to activate until Phineas Nigellus had reported back.

Analysis
When Dumbledore uses the Portus charm to create a Portkey in front of Cornelius Fudge in the Ministry of Magic, Fudge, then Minister for Magic, seems shocked that Dumbledore would so lightly create an "unauthorized Portkey". It appears that, because of their ability to deposit a person within areas that are protected from incursion (recall that both Hogwarts and 12 Grimmauld Place are protected by being made unmappable and by having spells to prevent Apparition), creation of Portkeys is controlled by the Ministry.

Apparition requires a firm knowledge of the destination to which you will be going; one must assume that creation of a Portkey requires at least that same understanding of the destination, probably even more. It is certain that the two Portkeys that Dumbledore creates are for destinations with which he is extremely familiar. It is interesting that, rather than create another Portkey for himself, Dumbledore returns to Hogwarts by way of the Floo Network, especially since Hogwarts attachment to the Floo network is supposed to be somewhat thin.

In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Mad-Eye Moody tells Harry that the area around Privet Drive is being monitored for use of the Floo Network, Apparition, and use of Portkeys, ostensibly for Harry's protection, but actually to monitor where he is taken if he leaves there. From this, we may gather that Portkey use can be monitored if not prevented.

Portkeys are used later in that same book to bring various groups from safe-houses scattered around the country to The Burrow. Harry and Hagrid, for example, catch a hairbrush from Ted Tonks' house. These Portkeys are timed; there is some discussion in the Tonks house about not missing the Portkey, and there is concern at the Weasley house because two prior Portkeys had already returned without the Order members who were to travel with them.

Greater Picture
It has been mentioned that one of the problems with writing a book about magic is the entire issue of limitations. If your hero can do literally anything by means of magic, then you have no story. We believe that the regulation of transportation, as shown here by Fudge's reaction to Dumbledore's creation of an "unauthorized Portkey", is a way of applying a judicial limitation to an otherwise over-extensive form of magical transportation. We have noted above that in the two instances where Dumbledore is seen to create Portkeys, the intended destination is unmappable and proof against most forms of magical access; Portkeys clearly can circumvent the barriers to use of Apparition and the Floo network that are present at Grimmauld Place and at Hogwarts. In the final book, we are told that the use of Portkeys is being monitored in Harry's neighborhood; it would seem that the Ministry is able to detect not only that a Portkey is being created, but also that it is being used. This may be the only thing that prevents Voldemort from using a Portkey to enter places ordinarily forbidden to him, like the Ministry.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Parseltongue

Overview
Parseltongue is the language of snakes. A wizard capable of speaking Parseltongue is called a Parselmouth.

Extended Description
The ability to speak Parseltongue is usually inborn; a wizard is born being able to speak Parseltongue, and those who are not born with the ability cannot normally learn the language (although, according to the author, Dumbledore may have learned to understand it, and in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Ron learnt one word of it, though it is questionable whether he knows what it means). To date, the ability to speak Parseltongue has been almost entirely associated with those who can show direct descent from Salazar Slytherin.

Harry, it turns out, can speak Parseltongue, though he was apparently not born with that ability. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Professor Dumbledore suggests that when Lord Voldemort, who is Slytherin's last descendant, tried to kill Harry, some of Voldemort's powers were transferred to him; one of those was Parseltongue.

Analysis
Harry's ability to speak Parseltongue is first described in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets; it is only there that we discover how rare this ability is and how it is linked to Voldemort. However, this is not the first use of this ability; in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Harry speaks to a snake while visiting the zoo with the Dursleys.

The fact that Harry is a Parselmouth plays a major role in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, as it is his ability to understand Parseltongue that allows him to hear the Monster in the Chamber when it is prowling through the school, and because it allows him to actually open the Chamber. It also plays a lesser role in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince where it allows him to understand the conversations between members of the Gaunt family as viewed in Dumbledore's Pensieve. It also plays a small role in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows where it allows Harry to open the locket Horcrux, understand the false Bathilda Bagshot, and understand Voldemort's instructions to Nagini. Ron imitates the sounds Harry made while opening the locket in order to open the Chamber of Secrets in that book, but that is not really Parseltongue but rather simple parroting.

Questions

 * 1) In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Morfin Gaunt apparently refuses (or is unable) to speak anything except Parseltongue. How is Dumbledore, who is not a Parselmouth, able to understand what happens in the Pensieve memory where Morfin is talking to Tom Riddle?

Greater Picture
We learn in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows that Harry's ability to speak Parseltongue is actually related to the soul shard that Voldemort lost when trying to kill Harry. That soul shard had attached itself to Harry, and was the source of this ability, as well as the ability to see into Voldemort's mind. The soul shard was destroyed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, and Harry's ability to speak Parseltongue went with it, according to the author.

The reason that Dumbledore can speak Parseltongue is never made entirely clear, but it is mentioned that he could speak some hundreds of languages, including Mermish and Gobbledegook. Having him understand Parseltongue as well would be relatively simple; apparently the ease of learning a language increases with the number of languages learned, even for Muggles.

While it is not directly associated with the language, we note that Harry is usually unable to tell whether he is speaking or hearing Parseltongue. When addressing the entrance to the Chamber of Secrets, for instance, he only realizes that he had spoken Parseltongue when Ron tells him it wasn’t English. No real explanation for this is given to us, nor is there any explanation for why Harry can tell the difference when visiting the House of Gaunt in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, but not in the following book in Bathilda Bagshot's house. We suppose it may have something to do with environment; Harry may be more likely to expect Parseltongue from the clutch of odd people in the Gaunt shack than in Bathilda's house. It is possible that this lessened ability to tell the difference came about because the ability was simply dropped on him; if he had to work to learn the language, as we suppose Dumbledore did, he would be much more likely to differentiate. As it is, it is something he has always known, and so seems as easy for him as English. (Even among Muggles, people who, as children, have had somewhat equal exposure to a standard language and a milder one of its dialects will usually switch between them as the occasion requires, and will not instinctively feel a difference between the standard language and their own dialect when hearing or speaking it; though if they set their minds to actually thinking about it, they can make the distinction, as again apparently Harry can.) This inability to distinguish is a minor plot point at two places in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, and a somewhat larger one a Bathilda's house in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Wingardium Leviosa

Overview
Wingardium Leviosa is a common spell used to levitate objects.

Extended Description
This is the first charm taught to Harry's first year class; it is a relatively simple charm, but only Hermione is able to perform it correctly at first.

It is explicitly mentioned at three other places in the series.

Firstly, during the same evening it is introduced, Ron uses it to levitate a club above the head of an attacking mountain troll; when he releases the spell, the falling club knocks out the troll.

Secondly, in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry uses it on a sidecar which has fallen off a flying motorcycle. In fact, Harry is actually in the sidecar when he uses Wingardium Leviosa on it; while it seems that the ability to fly unaided is exceptional among wizards, the ability to charm objects on which you are mounted is relatively simple.

Thirdly, in chapter 32 of the same book, Ron uses the spell on a fallen-off twig of the Whomping Willow to touch the knot on the tree's trunk that will stop its branches from violently attacking anyone near the tree. The Trio then enters the tunnel that leads from the Willow to the Shrieking Shack.

Wingardium Leviosa is also mentioned implicitly in the chapter about Harry's O.W.L. exams in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, where it is the answer to the first question Harry reads in his theoretical Charms exam. Harry instantly remembers the defeating of the mountain troll in his first Hogwarts year mentioned above, and therefore the answer comes easily to him, which greatly reduces his initial nervousness.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Pureblood

Overview
A Pureblood is a witch or wizard who descends from other witches and wizards only (not Muggles).

Extended Description
The followers (most commonly know as Death eaters)of Lord Voldemort believe that there is a distinction between those who are descended entirely from those who are able to do magic and those who have non-magical blood in their ancestry. Echoing the views of Salazar Slytherin, one of the founders of Hogwarts, Voldemort believes that non-magical ancestry somehow taints the bloodline. Only those with no such taint deserve to be called Pureblood, and only Purebloods deserve to be taught magic.

It is perhaps interesting that Voldemort himself is not a pureblood; while his mother, Merope Gaunt, was a member of one of the oldest Wizarding familes in existence, his hated father was a “Muggle”. In spite of this, he is still considered the heir of Salazar Slytherin.

The term Pureblood first appears in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, but Draco's hatred of Hermione clearly stems from this prejudice, and is evident from the beginning of the series.

Analysis
The idea of "racial purity" pervades the entire series. While the core story is Voldemort's return to power, and Harry's battle to prevent this, it is necessary for Voldemort's followers to break Wizarding law in order to restore him to power. The only way that they can justify this to themselves is to demonize the main Wizarding community, as being somehow sub-Wizard because of their Muggle ancestry. This is quite sharply brought out in the episode with the Gaunt family, as viewed in Dumbledore's Pensieve in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. The Gaunt family would apparently rather live in solitude and squalor with their pride in being pure-bloods, than join the Wizarding community and accept the fact that their status was no higher than that of Wizards who had Muggle parents.

It has been mentioned in the discussion of Lord Voldemort that this emphasis on racial purity is very similar to the German Nazi ideas of pure Aryan heritage – and there is an interesting parallel in that Hitler himself was not pure Aryan.

It is also mentioned, in the topic Half-blood, that in fact many half-bloods, including Lord Voldemort himself, are more powerful magicians than many Purebloods.

Greater Picture
There are a number of parallels between the earlier Dark period when Grindelwald was in power, and the Second World War; the author seems to have put the decisive battle with Grindelwald in 1945, and then imprisoned him alone in Nurmengard, a jail that he had constructed for his enemies, in an obvious nod to Rudolf Hess' imprisonment alone in Spandau Prison. The author has also remarked on an amazing similarity between the events in the Wizarding world between Fudge's denial of Voldemort's return, and the appearance of Voldemort before witnesses in the Ministry a year later, and the events in England under Chamberlain while the Third Reich was consolidating its power base. While the latter was apparently accidental, the former was not; and so we should not be surprised by similarities between Hitler's Final Solution and Voldemort's. One wonders if there is some Muggle philosopher who preached extinction of the unfit that Hitler was using as his role model, the way Voldemort (and, one supposes, Grindelwald) were basing their campaigns on Salazar Slytherin.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Petrificus Totalus

Overview
Petrificus Totalus is a spell that freezes or petrifies the body of the victim, making it incapable of moving, except for the eyes and breathing. It is also known as the Body-Bind Curse or the Full Body-Bind, the latter being used apparently to differentiate it from Locomotor Mortis, the leg-locker curse. The spell can be broken by the Finite Incantatem spell.

Extended Description
This is apparently a fairly simple spell, as Hermione uses it on Neville late in the first book.

Harry will use this spell himself on a number of occasions. Perhaps interestingly, it is almost exclusively used against Dolohov, who is twice petrified by Harry in the battle at the Ministry of Magic in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, and at the top of the Astronomy Tower in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, then by Hermione in the all-night cafe in the Tottenham Court Road, and finally by Parvati Patil in the climactic final battle in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.

It will be used by others on Harry as well; notably, in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Draco Malfoy will petrify Harry and break his nose, and later in the same book, Professor Dumbledore will petrify Harry to keep him out of the action and safe. Once Dumbledore is killed, the curse wears off on Harry.

Analysis
The Harry Potter story arc, consisting as it does of an epic struggle between good and evil, will have fights, larger battles, and perhaps even an all-out war. In order to prevent the series, ostensibly for children, from becoming excessively dark, there must be non-lethal weapons for the protagonists to use. To that end, the author has provided us with a number of disabling spells, ranging from the simple stunning, disarmament, and binding jinxes, through to those with humorous effects. It is uncertain why there would need to be so many different ways to disable, but we can surmise that the author has at least some reason for use of each variety. Notably, the full body-bind jinx here leaves the subject fully aware of what is happening, able to see and recall what proceeds around him after he has been jinxed.

Greater Picture
It is mentioned above that a person disabled by means of this jinx retains his sight and the ability to observe and recall events occurring around him. Apparently this knowledge of the passing scene on Dolohov's part is what alerts Voldemort to Harry's escape from Death Eaters in the Tottenham Court Road coffee house, after his departure from The Burrow in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Voldemort would not, otherwise, have any reason to punish Rowle for allowing that escape. As such, it is a useful plot point; knowing that Harry is no longer at any of the Order of the Phoenix safe-houses, Voldemort is likely to hold off on further torture of occupants of those houses, including Ron's family.


text:
Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Famous People Who Stutter

The chapter is divided into sections because it exceeds the 32K limit of some browsers.

 * Singers and Actors

 * Athletes

 * Writers and Photographers

 * Political and Business Leaders

 * Other Professions

 * British Royals and Commoners

 * More Stutterers in History

 * Serial Killers

 * In the Ancient World


text:
Talk:Swedish/Adverbs

This page ought not to be merged, but rather expanded. There are adverbs in Swedish which aren't formed from adjectives and aren't mentioned here. Also not mentioned are adjectives which effect the entire clause, not just the verb: He ran naturally He ran, of course
 * Naturligt sprang han.
 * Naturligtvis sprang han.

title: Talk:Swedish/Adverbs


text:
Template:C sharp/kw

C Sharp Programming/Keywords/ Kw

title: Template:C sharp/kw


text:
Celestia/Development/Win32 platform/Win SDK

This page is obsolete. See the page "Win32 Platform"


text:
Celestia/Development/Win32 platform/Win CVS

How to get the C++ source code for Celestia with the latest WinCVS

This page is obsolete. Celestia code development now uses Subversion (SVN). CVS no longer works. For details of building Celestia under Windows, please read the page Windows XP 32bit & Windows 7, 64bit

December 30, 2005

Step 1 Get Python. To download Python, go to the official Website. http://www.python.org/

Step 2 Get WinCVS, the Concurrent Versions System 2.0.51d http://www.wincvs.org/

Step 3 Enter info into WinCVS to prepare for getting source code

Step 3b Create a new folder on your Hard Disk. I suggest to use a folder in the root. As an example my folder is: C:\CVS. This folder will be the base for our local CVS tree.

Step 3c Use menu Admin:Preferences to set Home to c:\CVS

Step 3d Understand that the Sourceforge Repository is a remote website. You will get your own copies of the source code into your computer directory c:\CVS\celestia (or c:\celestia if you make a mistake like I did).

Step 4 Communicate with the SourceForge website where the C++ source code is kept

Step 4a Use the WinCVS menu Admin:Login... A dialog window appears called Login settings. Put a checkmark in the CVSROOT box

Step 4b Paste this line in the login line for cvsroot
 * pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia

Step 4c When you are prompted for a password, do not type in anything, just hit the OK button

The console should report your success with code 0, as shown on 3 lines here:

cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia login Logging in to :pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:2401:/cvsroot/celestia

 * CVS exited normally with code 0 *****

If you get code 1, try again. Maybe the connection is too busy to service your login.

Step 4d Checkout the files with these commands. The first time this is a checkout. Future WinCVS sessions are updates, and the commands are the same.

Step 4e Use the menu Admin:Command Line...

Step 4f check the box for CVSROOT and put this line in the space next to that box:
 * pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia

Step 4f2 : check the box for Execute in directory, enter c:\CVS

Step 4g paste the command on the next line into the big empty command line box: cvs -z3 -d:pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia co -P celestia

Wait while files are then listed as they are sent to your computer. The console will show stuff like this :

cvs -d :pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia -z3 -d:pserver:anonymous@celestia.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/celestia co -P celestia (in directory C:\CVS) cvs checkout: cwd=C:\CVS ,current=C:\CVS cvs checkout: Updating celestia U celestia/ABOUT-NLS U celestia/AUTHORS . ..

Wait while files are then listed as they are sent to your computer.

The files were put in c:\CVS\celestia

Also, download the Windows-specific shared libraries that aren't included with Celestia on SourcForge. http://shatters.net/celestia/files/winlibs-new.zip Unzip these files and put them in a directory with the other library files.

Now you have the C++ files.


text:
High School Mathematics Extensions/Supplementary/Summation Sign

Summation Notation
We normally use the "+" sign to represent a sum, but if the sum expression involved is complex and long, it can be confusing.

For example:$$\frac{1}{1 \times 2} + \frac{1}{2 \times 3} + \frac{1}{3 \times 4} ...... + \frac{1}{100 \times 101}$$

Writing the above would be a tedious and messy task!

To represent expression of this kind more compactly and nicely, people use the summation notation, a capital Greek letter "Sigma". On the right of the sigma sign people write the expression of each term to sum, and write the upper and lower limit of the variable on top and under the sigma sign.

Example 1: $$\sum_{k=3}^{10} 2k+1$$ $$=\ (2(3)+1)\ +\ (2(4)+1)\ +\ (2(5)+1)\ +......+\ (2(10)+1)$$ $$=\ 7\ +\ 9\ +\ 11\ +......+\ 21$$

 Misconception: From the above there is a common misconception that the number on top of the Sigma sign is the number of terms. This is wrong. The number on top is the number to substitute back in the last term.

 It would be useful here to indicate what values the lower limit of summation may take on.

Example 2: $$\frac{1}{4}-\frac{1}{9}+\frac{1}{16}-\frac{1}{25}......-\frac{1}{9801}+\frac{1}{10000}$$ $$=\frac{1}{2^2}-\frac{1}{3^2}+\frac{1}{4^2}-\frac{1}{5^2}......-\frac{1}{99^2}+\frac{1}{100^2}$$ $$=\sum_{k=2}^{100} (-1)^k \frac{1}{k^2}$$

 Tip:If the terms alternate between plus and minus, we can use the sequence $$(-1)^k=-1,\ 1,\ -1,\ 1...$$

Exercise
Change the following into sum notation: Change the following sum notation into the normal representation: (Need more exercise,especially "reading" sigma notation and change back into the old form)
 * 1) Use the summation notation to represent the expression in the first example.
 * 1) $$23\ +\ 24\ +\ 25\ +\ 26\ +......+\ 1927$$
 * 2) $$13\ +\ 16\ +\ 19\ +\ 22\ +......+\ 301$$
 * 3) *$$1\ -\ 2\ -\ 3\ +\ 4\ +\ 5\ -\ 6\ -\ 7\ +\ 8......+\ 400$$(Hint:reorder the terms, or get more than one term in the expression)
 * 4) *$$1000\ -\ \frac{3}{1\times(1+3+5)}\ -\ \frac{5}{(1+3)\times(1+3+5+7)}\ -\ \frac{7}{(1+3+5)\times(1+3+5+7+9)}......$$(Hint:You need to use more than one sigma sign)
 * 1) $$\pi = 4\sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^k}{2k+1}$$
 * 2) $$\sin x = \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \frac{(-1)^k}{(2k+1)!}x^{2k+1}$$

Operations of sum notation
Although most rules related to sum makes sense in the ordinary system, in this new system of sum notation, things may not be as clear as before and therefore people summarize some rules related to sum notation (see if you can identify what they correspond to!)

(Note:I suggest getting a visual aid on this one:showing that you can sum a two dimensional array in either direction)
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i\pm c\ =\ \pm(q-p+1)c\ +\ \sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i$$
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i \pm B_i \ =\ \sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i \pm \sum_{i=p}^{q} B_i$$
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} c A_i\ =\ c\sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i$$
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} \left [ \sum_{j=r}^{s} A_{ij} \right ] \ =\ \sum_{j=r}^{s} \left [ \sum_{i=p}^{q} A_{ij} \right ]$$
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i \ =\ \sum_{i=p-k}^{q-k} A_{i+k} $$(Index substutition)
 * $$\sum_{i=p}^{q} A_i \ =\ \sum_{i=p}^{r} A_i + \sum_{i=r+1}^{q} A_i \;, where\; p \le r < q $$(Decomposition)
 * $$\left ( \sum_{i=p}^{q} a_i \right ) \times \left ( \sum_{j=r}^{s} b_j \right )\ =\ \sum_{i=p}^{q} \sum_{j=r}^{s} a_i b_j$$(Factorization/Expansion)

Exercise
(put up something here please)

Beyond
"To iterate is human; to recurse, divine."

When human repeated summing, they have decided to use a more advanced concept, the concept of product. And of course everyone knows we use $$\times$$. And when we repeat product, we use exponential. Back to topic, we now have a notation for complex sum. What about complex product? In fact, there is a notation for product also. We use the capital Greek letter "pi" to denote product, and basically everything else is exactly the same as sum notation, except that the terms are not summed, but multiplied. Example: $$\prod_{h=2}^{5} 2h-3$$ = $$[(2\times2)-3]\times[(2\times3)-3]\times[(2\times4)-3]\times[(2\times5)-3]$$

Exercise
1. It has been known that the factorial is defined inductively by: $$0!\ =\ 1$$ $$n!\ \times\ (n+1)\ =\ (n+1)!$$

Now try to define it by product notation.


text:
Template:C sharp/Navigation

C# Programming Cover | Introduction | Basics | Classes | Advanced Topics | The .NET Framework | Index Navigation

title: Template:C sharp/Navigation


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/private

The keyword is used in field, method, and property declarations to make the field, method, or property private to its enclosing class. That is, it is not visible outside of its class.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/private


text:
Radiation Oncology/Head & Neck/RT Technique

This page is for IMRT for head & neck.

Contouring targets

 * See: Anatomy and contouring

Dose regimens
Simultaneous integrated boost:
 * PTV 66 (primary), PTV 60 (high-risk nodal), PTV 54 (elective nodal) in 30 fractions. (2.2 Gy/fx, 2.0 Gy/fx, 1.8 Gy/fx). Equivalent (acute effects) to ~69-73 Gy to the primary at 1.8-2 Gy/fx.

Thermoplastic masks

 * Princess Margaret (2006-2008) -- standard immobilization mask vs skin-sparing immobilization mask
 * Randomized. 762 CBCT scans in 20 patients. Arm 1) standard mask (SM) vs Arm 2) skin-sparing mask (SSM) modified with low neck cutouts
 * 2010 PMID 20056344 -- "Cone-beam CT assessment of interfraction and intrafraction setup error of two head-and-neck cancer thermoplastic masks." (Velec M, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2010 Mar 1;76(3):949-55. Epub 2010 Jan 7.)
 * Outcome: Initial interfraction sigma SM 1.6 mm or 1.1 degrees vs SSM 2.0 mm and 0.8 degrees. No difference after CBCT correction. Initial intrafraction sigma <1 mm and <1 degree for both masks.
 * Conclusion: Interfraction and intrafraction setup error not significantly different between masks. Mask cutouts should be considered to reduce skin toxicity

Daily setup variations

 * U. Wisconsin - PMID 15708257, 2005 — "The impact of daily setup variations on head-and-neck intensity-modulated radiation therapy." Hong TS et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Mar 1;61(3):779-88.
 * Study of 10 patients treated with conventional H&N radiotherapy techniques (not IMRT). Immobilization with standard thermoplastic mask, room lasers, weekly portal imaging. Setup accuracy was assessed daily by obtaining positioning errors (3 translations + 3 angular) using an optically guided positioning system. The positional errors were applied to 10 H&N IMRT plans for analysis of the impact of positional errors on the integrity of the IMRT plans over a 30 day course.
 * Mean setup error in single dimension was 3.33 mm, composite vector of 6.97 mm. Tumor underdosing and normal tissue overdosing were common.
 * Conclusion: More rigorous immobilization and patient setup are needed for IMRT.

Treatment technique
Risk of extracapsular extension:
 * <1 cm - 17-43%, 1-3 cm - 65-83%, >3 cm - 67-95%.
 * PMID 7316852 (1981, Johnson), PMID 7105450 (1982, Snow), PMID 4027895 (1985, Snyderman), PMID 3583851 (1987, Carter), PMID 2030629 (1991, Hirabayashi)

Margin around lymph nodes:
 * PMID 16243444, 2006 — MDACC: "Determining optimal clinical target volume margins in head-and-neck cancer based on microscopic extracapsular extension of metastatic neck nodes."  Apisarnthanarax S et al. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 Mar 1;64(3):678-83.
 * 96 lymph nodes up to 3 cm with extracapsular extension were examined. Mean and median ECE extent was 2.2 and 1.6 mm. Was <5mm in 96% of nodes. No correlation with size of lymph node and distance of ECE.
 * Recommend 1 cm CTV margins to cover microscopic nodal extension.

Time-to-treatment:
 * ''Please see the Time-to-treatment section

Daily time of treatment
 * NCIC HN3 -- morning RT vs. afternoon RT
 * Randomized, proof of principle. 205/216 patients, receiving primary or postop RT. Arm 1) morning (8-10 AM) RT vs. Arm 2) afternoon (4-6 PM) RT; no chemo. Primary outcome mucositis
 * 2008 PMID 18805649 -- "Comparison of Toxicity Associated with Early Morning Versus Late Afternoon Radiotherapy in Patients with Head-and-Neck Cancer: A Prospective Randomized Trial of the National Cancer Institute of Canada Clinical Trials Group (HN3)." (Bjarnason GA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2008 Sep 19. [Epub ahead of print])
 * Outcome: Grade 3+ mucositis AM RT 53% vs. PM RT 62% (p=0.2). In patients with RT dose 66-70 Gy, 45% vs. 67% (SS). Also longer time-to-mucositis >7.9 weeks vs. 5.6 weeks (SS). Significant benefit in patients who continued to smoke 43% vs. 76% (SS)
 * Conclusion: Morning RT associated with significantly less weight loss, and reduction in oral mucositis in patients getting >=66 Gy

LN response by size
 * Brisbane (Australia); 2008 (1997-2003) PMID 19032396 -- "Predicting regional control based on pretreatment nodal size in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck treated with chemoradiotherapy: a clinician's guide." (Porceddu SV, J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2008 Oct;52(5):491-6.)
 * Retrospective. 117 patients, HNSCC, N+, treated with concurrent chemo-RT. Median RT dose 70 Gy. Stratified into pretreatment LN <=3 cm vs. 3-6 cm vs. >6 cm
 * Outcome: Regional control if LN <=3 cm 88% vs. 3-6cm 72% vs. >6 cm 50% (SS)
 * Conclusion: Quantitative guide for regional control based on pre-rx nodal size

Larynx/Hypopharynx RT
 * West Florida; 1992 PMID 1616592 -- "A technique for postoperative irradiation of carcinomas of the larynx and hypopharynx." (Amos EH, Med Dosim. 1992;17(2):65-7.)
 * Postop RT technique. 15 degree lateral kick-out of table and 15 degree gantry rotation for each of 2 lateral fields. Benefit lower dose to shoulder and avoid hotspot near cord

 * Univ North Carolina; 1991 PMID 1869469 -- "A comparison of postoperative techniques for carcinomas of the larynx and hypopharynx using 3-D dose distributions." (Sailer SL, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1991 Aug;21(3):767-77.)
 * Postop RT techcnique for larynx/hypopharynx. Comparison of minimantle technique (MGH), 3F technique (University of Florida), 3F technique (standard), and kicked out lateral technique
 * Conclusion: Favor kicked-out lateral technique for better coverage and homogeneity


text: Template:C sharp/Keywords

title: Template:C sharp/Keywords


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/void

The keyword is used in method signatures to declare a method that does not return a value. A method declared with the return type cannot provide any arguments to any  statements they contain.

Example:

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/void


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/try

The keyword is used to identify a statement or statement block as the body of an exception handling sequence. The body of the exception handling sequence must be followed by a  clause, a   clause, or both.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/try


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/int

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 32-bit signed integer whose value ranges from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/int


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/catch

The keyword is used to identify a statement or statement block for execution, if an exception occurs in the body of the enclosing C Sharp Programming/Keywords/try block. The catch clause is preceded by the C Sharp Programming/Keywords/try clause, and may optionally be followed by a C Sharp Programming/Keywords/finally clause.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/catch


text:
Organic Chemistry/Chirality/Diastereomers

= Diastereomers = Diastereomers are stereoisomers that are not enantiomers (mirror images) of each other. Due to their different shape, diastereomers can have different physical and chemical properties. This is perhaps especially true of diastereomers involved in biological systems.

According to IUPAC the term "geometric isomerism" is an obsolete synonym of "cis-trans isomerism" and its use is strongly discouraged. Sometimes the term "geometric isomerism" has been used as a synonym of stereoisomerism, i.e. optical isomers being considered to be geometric isomers. This, however, is not consistent with current standard chemical nomenclature. The exact term for stereoisomers that are not optical isomers is diastereomers.

A special kind of diastereomer is an epimer. Epimers are diastereomers that differ at one of several asymmetric carbon atoms. There is also something called an anomer, a special type of epimer. An anomer differs at a new asymmetric carbon atom when a ring is formed (in carbohydrate chemistry).

Cis-trans Isomerism
Stereoisomerism can occur when a double bond is present, because the pi bond involved prevents that bond from being "twisted" the same way that a single bond can be. A good example is 1,2-dichloroethene: C2H2Cl2. Consider the two examples below: The two molecules shown above are cis-1,2-dichloroethene and trans-1,2-dichloroethene. These two molecules are geometrical isomers because the two carbon atoms cannot be rotated relative to each other, due to the rigidity caused by the pi bond between them. Therefore, they are not "superimposeable" – they are not identical, and cannot take each other's place. Cis/trans isomers have different chemical and physical properties and can exhibit dramatically different biological activity.

Cis-trans isomerism (Often called geometric isomerism although this term refers to all stereoisomers) is a form of stereoisomerism and describes the orientation of functional groups at the ends of a bond around which no rotation is possible. Both alkenes and cycloalkanes have restricted rotation around certain bonds. In alkenes, the double bond restricts movement and rotation, as does the looped structure of cycloalkanes.

Rotation is possible around the double bond of an alkene but it requires between 60 and 70 kcal of energy. Without the addition of this energy, groups that start on one side of the double bond stay there. This is the basis of cis/trans isomerism.

There are two forms; the cis and trans isomers. The form in which the substituent hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the bond that doesn't allow rotation is called cis; the form in which the substituent hydrogens are on opposite sides of the bond is called trans. An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying cis-trans isomerism is 2-butene.

Cis isomers and trans isomers of a substance have different physical properties. Trans isomers generally have higher boiling points and lower densities. This is because the trans isomers molecules can line up and fit together better than the cis form. Two isomers with very different properties are maleic acid and fumaric acid. The names are two trivial names for 2-butenedioic acid and respectively the cis and trans isomer.

Cycloalkanes and similar compounds can also display cis-trans isomerism. As an example of a geometric isomer due to a ring structure, consider 1,2-dichlorocyclohexane. These compounds can be named more rigorously using R/S notation.

E/Z notation
Main article: E-Z System

The trans/cis system for naming isomers breaks down when there are more than two different substituents on a double bond. (The cis/trans system should only be used when the carbon atoms involved each have a hydrogen atoms attached). The E/Z notation is unambiguous. Z (from the German zusammen) means together and usually corresponds to the term cis; E (from the German entgegen) means opposite and usually corresponds to the term trans.

Usually, E isomers are more stable than Z isomers because of steric effects. When two large groups are closer to each other, as they often are with Z, they interfere more with each other and have a higher potential energy than with E, where the large groups are farther apart and interfere less with each other.

= Diastereomers with stereocenters =

In simple terms, two stereoisomers are diastereoisomers of each other if only one chiral center differs between the two stereoisomers. That is to say, if both molecules contain two or more chiral centers, but if only one of the chiral centers in each molecule is different than the other, then the two molecules are diastereoisomers of one another.

If a molecule contains a single asymmetric carbon atom or stereocenter, it will have two mirror image forms. If a molecule contains two asymmetric carbons, there are four possible configurations, and it would be mathematically and physically impossible for all four to be mirror images of each other. The more chiral centers in a molecule, the more possibilities there are for different conformers, and therefore the more possible diastereomers exist.

As an example, tartaric acid contains two asymmetric centers, but two of the configurations of the tartaric acid molecule are equivalent to one another -- and together they are called meso compounds. This configuration is not optically active, while the remaining two configurations are D - and L - mirror images. For this reason, the meso form of tartaric acid is a diastereomer of the other forms.

The meso form of tartaric acid (right) is a diastereomer of the other forms.

Two common prefixes used to distinguish diastereomers are threo and erythro. When drawn in the Fischer projection the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on the same side and the threo isomer has them on opposite sites.

Carbohydrates
The families of 5 and 6 carbon carbohydrates contain many diastereomers because of the large numbers of asymmetric centers in these molecules. Since each carbon in the primary chain of an aldose (one type of carbohydrate) and all but one of the carbons in the primary chain of a ketose (another type of carbohydrate) have both a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group attached, most of the carbons in any given sugar are actually chiral. Since the number of possible conformers for a chiral molecule is 2 raised to the n power (2n), where n is the number of chiral centers, this makes for a great deal of variability in carbohydrates and a large number of diastereomers.

''D-glucose and L-glucose are enantiomers. Other pairs of sugars (e.g. L-glucose and D-mannose)are diastereomers.''

Glucose adopts a ring structure in solution. This is super awkward to show with a Fischer projection so a Haworth projection is usually used instead:

-OH groups on the right of a Fischer projection are drawn below the ring in the Haworth projection.

=Diastereoselectivity= Diastereoselectivity is the preference for the formation of one or more than one diastereomer over the other in an organic reaction.


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/using

The keyword has two completely unrelated meanings in C#, depending on if it is used as a directive or a statement.

The directive
as a directive resolves unqualified type references so that a developer doesn't have to specify the complete namespace.

Example:

can also provide a namespace alias for referencing types.

Example:

The statement
as a statement automatically calls the on the specified object. The object must implement the interface. It is possible to use several objects in one statement as long as they are of the same type.

Example:

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/using


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/namespace

The keyword is used to supply a namespace for class, structure, and type declarations.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/namespace


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/class

The keyword is used to declare a class.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/class


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/static

The keyword is used to declare a class or a class member (method, property, field, or variable) as static. A class that is declared static has only static members, and these are associated with the entire class instead of class instances.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/static


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/string

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for. That is, it indicates an immutable sequence of characters.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/string


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/public

The keyword is used in field, method, and property declarations to make the field, method, or property public to its enclosing class. That is, it is visible from any class.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/public


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/protected

The keyword is used in field, method, and property declarations to make the field, method, or property protected to its enclosing class. That is, it is not visible outside of its class.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/protected


text:
Podcasting

Podcasting is the so-called syndicated publishing or distribution of audio or video programmes on to the Internet. Podcasts are easy to create as all you require is a name, microphone/headphones, a topic, and a laptop or a phone you could utilize to edit your podcast then record. Podcasts are in MP3, MPEG or a similar file format. Podcast producers make their programmes available with RSS feeds, a tool that allows listeners to select programmes they wish to download or to set the software to automatically download innovative programmes as they become available.

Podcasting for listeners
Listening to podcasts is easy and enjoyable. You can listen to any topic, at any time of the morning, day, or night, 24/7. But to listen to a podcast, you need to be able to find them. Locating podcasts by relevant topics is done through Podcast Directories.

Contents

 * Podcasting/Equipment
 * Podcasting/Distribution

title: Podcasting


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/sbyte

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents an 8-bit signed integer whose value ranges from -128 to 127.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/sbyte


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/byte

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents an 8-bit unsigned integer whose value ranges from 0 to 255.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/byte


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/short

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 16-bit signed integer whose value ranges from -32,768 to 32,767.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/short


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/ushort

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 16-bit unsigned integer whose value ranges from 0 to 65,535.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/ushort


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/char

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a Unicode character whose from 0 to 65,535.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/char


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/decimal

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a signed, 128-bit decimal number whose value is 0 or a decimal number with 28 or 29 digits of precision ranging either from $$-1.0 \times 10 ^{-28}$$ to $$-7.9 \times 10^{28}$$ or from $$1.0 \times 10^{-28}$$ to $$7.9 \times 10^{28}$$.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/decimal


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/uint

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 32-bit unsigned integer whose value ranges from 0 to 4,294,967,295.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/uint


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/long

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 64-bit signed integer whose value ranges from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/long


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/ulong

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a 64-bit unsigned integer whose value ranges from 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/ulong


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/float

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a IEEE 754, 32-bit signed binary floating point number whose value is negative 0, positive 0, negative infinity, positive infinity, not a number, or a number ranging either from $$-1.5 \times 10 ^{-45}$$ to $$-3.4 \times 10^{38}$$ or from $$1.5 \times 10^{-45}$$ to $$3.4 \times 10^{38}$$.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/float


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/double

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in cast and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents an IEEE 754, 64-bit signed binary floating point number whose value is negative 0, positive 0, negative infinity, positive infinity, not a number, or a number ranging either from $$-5.0 \times 10 ^{-324}$$ to $$-1.79 \times 10^{308}$$ or from $$5.0 \times 10^{-324}$$ to $$1.79 \times 10^{308}$$.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/double


text:
Talk:Conreligion

I'm going to change the second sentence of Henotheism from "The difference between henotheism and monolatrism is that henotheists seem not to believe that the non-worshipped gods have no power on those who don't believe in them." to "The difference between henotheism and monolatrism is that henotheists seem believe that the non-worshipped gods have power on those who don't believe in them." I got rid of the double negative. If I have misinterpreted it, then please try to clarify it, as it is very hard to understand. Ydirbut 19:36, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

Ancestor Worship
It seems to me that it lacks ancestor worship as one of the religion types. As I know literally nothing about that type of religion, would someone more knowledgable than I please create it. Ydirbut 19:39, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

Agnosticism
The description of Agnosticism is totally incorrect. It starts with: "When a people believe there is a higher power ..." Unfortunately this is not Agnosticism. According to the American Heritage Dictionary (2000), Agnosticism is: * 1. The doctrine that certainty about first principles or absolute truth is unattainable and that only perceptual phenomena are objects of exact knowledge. * 2. The belief that there can be no proof either that God exists or that God does not exist. And Encarta Dictionary (2005) has simply: * View that God’s existence is unprovable: the belief that it is impossible to know whether or not God exists The presupposition that a deity exists, as in the definition provided here, is incorrect. Agnostics neither assume that a deity exists, nor do they assume that one does not. So the rest of the definition simply doesn't apply. A simpler and far more accurate definition of Agnositicism would be: "Belief that no deity's existence can be known for certain." Also, I should note that the idea that believing a deity requires having "set rules" for it/him/her, is equally erroneous. There are religions which believe in deities, but which accept a certain amount of subjectivity; for instance, the classical Gnostics, and their forerunners in the Greco-Roman mystery-religions.

PsiCop 02:00, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

As nobody is taking any initiative, I'll go ahead and change it myself. --Ajallan 17:18, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

More?
Isn't religion also about abstract ideas, philosophies, stories, legends, myths, etc, and not only gods? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.85.166.212 (discuss • contribs) 10:26, 8 April 2013

 * Yes, I would say so. You'll notice this book is listed as at the lowest stage of completion — the box in the upper right of the main main of the book (and so far only page of the book) has zero out of four quarters shaded.

 * This is quite a challenging topic to write a neutral book about; not impossible, but quite challenging. One would want to ask oneself, what is the available literature on the subject, and study up on it, to avoid simply loading one's own biases into the book.  I suspect there's not an awful lot of high-quality stuff written out there about religion-construction.  Probably comparative religion/mythology/folklore is what one would study.  --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 10:48, 8 April 2013 (UTC)

Rules
Most religions have rules on how one should or shouldn't behave, and how they can reach some goal. This might be important. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.85.166.212 (discuss • contribs) 23:33, 10 April 2013

Demons
Could a major demon or evil being be considered a deity? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.85.166.212 (discuss • contribs) 23:33, 10 April 2013

Physical
Many religions make their god(s) seem like physical beings, but is there any where this isn't the case? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.85.166.212 (discuss • contribs) 23:33, 10 April 2013

Yes. See, for instance, the more philosophical forms of Islam (mu'tazila), most extant varieties of Judaism (actually, any "normative" modern rabbi will have a rather non-physical notion of God, but is willing to use physical language to describe God - but if you want an exceedingly aphysical God, check the Kabbalist notion of Ein Sof), several varieties of Christianity, and really clearly in Sikhism. Several religions do teach that their god(s) are very very non-corporeal, and oftentimes in ways that exceed or evade normal physical existence - or encompass all normal physical existence. However, one relevant question then is whether the laity's notion of God or the educated religious thinker's notion of God can be held to be the more correct notion wrt the religion. From a purely descriptive p.o.v., both need to be acknowledged. Sure, the Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures may make God seem very corporeal and physical, but a religion's scripture isn't just the words on the pages - it's the tradition of how to understand the words on the pages as well. --217.29.224.86 (discuss) 11:01, 14 June 2021 (UTC)

Suggestion
You should begin with how religions form and evolve through time. :-)

Examples
May you show some examples of real and fictional religions in this book?

title: Talk:Conreligion


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/bool

The keyword is used in field, method, property, and variable declarations and in  and  operations as an alias for the .NET Framework structure. That is, it represents a value of or. Unlike in C++, whose boolean is actually an integer, a in C# is its own data type and cannot be cast to any other primitive type.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/bool


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/struct

The keyword declares a structure, i.e. a value type that functions as a light-weight class.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/struct


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/this

The keyword is used in an instance method or instance property to refer to the current class instance. That is, refers to the object through which its containing method or property was invoked. It is also used to define extension methods.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/this


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/enum

The keyword identifies an enumeration.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/enum


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/new

The keyword has two different meanings:
 * 1) It is an operator that requests a new instance of the class identified by its argument.
 * 2) It is a modifier that explicitly hides a member.

As an example, see the code below:

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/new


text:
Talk:Poker/7-stud

The wikipedia article is more in depth. some stuff could be taken from it I guess.

title: Talk:Poker/7-stud


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/if

The keyword identifies an  statement with the following syntax:
 * if-statement ::= "if" "(" condition ")" if-body ["else" else-body]
 * condition ::= boolean-expression
 * if-body ::= statement-or-statement-block
 * else-body ::= statement-or-statement-block

If the condition evaluates to, the if-body executes. Curly braces ("{{C sharp|{}}" and "}") allow the if-body to contain more than one statement. Optionally, an clause can immediately follow the if-body, providing code to execute when the condition is false. Making the else-body another statement creates the common cascade of, , , ,  statements:

The boolean expression used in an statement typically contains one or more of the following operators:

See also C Sharp Programming/Keywords/else.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/if


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/else

The keyword identifies a  clause of an  statement with the following syntax:

 * if-statement ::= "" "" condition "" if-body "" else-body
 * condition ::= boolean-expression
 * if-body ::= statement-or-statement-block
 * else-body ::= statement-or-statement-block

An clause immediately follows an if-body. It provides code to execute when the condition is false. Making the else-body another statement creates the common cascade of, , , ,  statements:

The above example only checks whether is less than 0, if  is not 4. It in turn only checks whether is 0, if  is not less than 0. Since none of the conditions are true, it executes the body of the final clause.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/else


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/for

The keyword identifies a  loop.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/for


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/foreach

The keyword identifies a  loop.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/foreach


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/in

The keyword identifies the collection to enumerate in a  loop.

The keyword may also be used in a query, e.g., ' item  dataset'. Immediately following the contextual keyword is a range variable representing one item in the dataset. The dataset to be queried is defined immediately following the contextual keyword. See also, , , , , and.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/in


text:
C Sharp Programming/Keywords/while

The keyword identifies a  loop.

/Keywords

title: C Sharp Programming/Keywords/while


text:
Wikibooks:Templates/Maintenance

Quality

 * See also: Help:Stub.

Structure

 * See also: Category:Structural maintenance and Category:Merge templates.

title: Wikibooks:Templates/Maintenance


text:
User:Chupon

Hi there. My profile is over on Wikipedia.

title: User:Chupon