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General Biology/Classification of Living Things/Eukaryotes/Animals/Phyla

Introduction to animal phyla
There currently are almost 40 recognized phyla.

Phylum — Number of Species — Common Name
 * Placozoa — 1
 * Monoblastozoa — 1
 * Rhombozoa — 50
 * Orthonectida — 50
 * Porifera — 9,000 — sponges (figures)
 * Cnidaria — 9,000 — corals (figures)
 * Ctenophora — 100 — comb jellies
 * Platyhelminthes — 20,000 — flatworms (figures)
 * Nemertea — 900 — ribbon worms (figures)
 * Rotifera — 1,800 — rotifers (figures)
 * Gastrotricha — 450 — gastrotrichs
 * Kinorhyncha — 150 — kinorhynchids
 * Nematoda — 12,000 — roundworms (figures)
 * Nematomorpha — 230 — horsehair worms
 * Priapula — 15
 * Acanthocephala — 700 — (figures)
 * Entoprocta — 150
 * Gnathostomulida — 80
 * Loricifera — 35
 * Annelida — 15,000 — segmented worms (figures)
 * Sipuncula — 250 — peanut worms (figures)
 * Echiura — 135
 * Pogonophora — 145 — beard worms
 * Vestimentifera — 8 — beard worms
 * Arthropoda — 957,000 — arthropods (figures)
 * Onychophora — 80
 * Tardigrada — 400 — water bears
 * Pentastomida — 95 — tongue worms
 * Mollusca — 100,000 — molluscs (figures)
 * Phoronida — 15
 * Ectoprocta — 4,500 — sessile zooids
 * Brachiopoda — 335 — lampshells
 * Echinodermata — 7000 — echinoderms (figures)
 * Chaetognatha — 100 — arrow worms (figures)
 * Hemichordata — 85 — acorn worms
 * Chordata — 50,000 — chordates (figures)

Phylum Porifera
The name Porifera means "pore-bearing".

This phylum is commonly called sponges. The number of species is estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000. All are aquatic and almost all are marine.

Animals in this phyla have no true tissues, which means, for example, that they have no nervous system or sense organs. Although sponges are multicellular, they are described as being essentially at a cellular level of organization. They are sessile as adults, but have a free swimming larva.

Their bodies are porous. They are filter feeders; water flows in through many small openings (ostia), and out through fewer, large openings (osculum). They have inner and outer cell layers, and a variable middle layer. The middle layer often is gelatinous with spiny skeletal elements (called spicules) of silica or calcium carbonate, and fibres made of spongin (a form of collagen). Choanocytes are flagellated cells lining the inside of the body that generate a current, and trap and phagocytize food particles.

Their cells remain totipotent, or developmentally flexible: they can become any type of cell at any point in the sponge's development. This allows for the great regenerative power sponges have.

Sponges are an ancient group, with fossils from the early Cambrian (ca. 540 mya) and possibly from the Precambrian. Sponges often are abundant in reef ecosystems. They somehow are protected from predators (spicules? bad taste?).

Many organisms are commensals of sponges, living inside them. Some sponges harbor endosymbiotic cyanobacteria or algae (dinoflagellates, a.k.a. "zooxanthellae").

Phylum Cnidaria
Name comes from the Greek knide- meaning "nettle".

This phylum formerly known as phylum coelenterata consists of the jellyfish, hydra, sea anemones, corals, sea pens, sea wasps, sea whips and box jellyfish. There are about 9,000 species. Almost all are marine. This is another ancient group, with fossils perhaps reaching back to 700 mya.

Cnidarians exhibit radial symmetry. Their basic body plan is a sac with a gastrovascular cavity, or a central digestive system. They have one opening, which serves as both mouth and anus. The body wall has an outer ectoderm, an inner endoderm, and a variable undifferentiated middle layer called mesoglea or mesenchyme that may be jelly-like. The mesoglea is NOT considered to be true mesoderm and so the Cnidaria are described as diploblastic. Tentacles usually extend from the body wall around the mouth/anus. There are two basic body plans: the polyp and the medusa. The polyp is sessile and attaches to substrate by the aboral end (i.e., the end away from the mouth). The medusa ("jellyfish") is a floating form, and looks like an upside-down version of the polyp. Some cnidarians only have the polyp stage, some have only the medusa stage, and others have both.

The typical life cycle of a cnidarian involves what is called "alternation of generations": an alternation between an asexual polyp stage and a sexual medusa stage.

The tentacles are armed with cnidae (or nematocysts), small intracellular "harpoons" that function in defense and prey capture. When fired, the cnidae deliver a powerful toxin that in some cases is dangerous to humans. The phylum is named after the cnidae.

Cnidarians have no head, no centralized nervous system, and no specialized organs for gas exchange, excretion, or circulation. They do have a "nerve net" and nerve rings (in jellyfish).

Many cnidarians have intracellular algae living within them in a mutualistic symbiotic relationship (Dinoflagellates = zooxanthellae). This combination is responsible for much of the primary productivity of coral reefs.

There are three main classes in the phylum

 * Class Hydrozoa (hydras and Portuguese man-of-war are well-known but atypical examples of this Class)
 * Class Scyphozoa (jellyfish)
 * The medusa stage is dominant and the polyp stage often is reduced.
 * Class Anthozoa (sea anemones, most corals)
 * No medusa (jellyfish) stage, so sexual reproduction occurs in the polyp stage in this group. The polyps also can reproduce asexually, which is how individual "corals" grow.

Phylum Platyhelminthes
Name means "flat worm"

Most members of this phylum are parasitic (flukes and tapeworms), but some are free living (e.g., planaria). There are about 20,000 species.

They are dorsoventrally compressed (i.e., "flat").

Animals in this phylum are acoelomate, triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and unsegmented. Platyhelminths have a simple anterior "brain" and a simple ladder-like nervous system. Their gut has only one opening. Flatworms have NO circulatory or gas exchange systems. They do have simple excretory/osmoregulatory structures (protonephridia or "flame cells").

Platyhelminths are hermaphroditic, and the parasitic species often have complex reproductive (life) cycles.

There are four main classes of platyhelminths:

 * Class Turbellaria (mostly free living flatworms, e.g., planaria)
 * Class Monogenea (parasitic flukes)
 * Class Trematoda (parasitic flukes, e.g., liver fluke and the human blood fluke, Schistosoma)
 * Class Cestoda (tapeworms)
 * Cestodes are endoparasitic in the gut of vertebrates. They do not have a mouth or digestive system.

Phylum Rotifera
The Rotifers. The name means "wheel bearing," a reference to the corona, a feeding structure (see below).

They are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and unsegmented. They are considered pseudocoelomates.

Most less than 2 mm, some as large as 2 – 3 mm.

Rotifers have a three part body: head, trunk, and foot. The head has a ciliary organ called the corona that, when beating, looks like wheels turning, hence the name of the phylum. The corona is a feeding structure that surrounds the animal's jaws. The gut is complete (i.e., mouth & anus), and regionally specialized. They have protonephridia but no specialized circulatory or gas-exchange structures.

Most live in fresh water, a very few are marine or live in damp terrestrial habitats. They typically are very abundant. There are about 2,000 species.

Parthenogenesis, where females produce more females from unfertilized but diploid eggs, is common. Males may be absent (as in bdelloid rotifers) or reduced. When males are present, sexual and asexual life cycles alternate. Males develop from unfertilized haploid eggs and are haploid. Males produce sperm by mitosis which can fertilize haploid eggs, yielding a diploid zygote that develops into a diploid female. Sexual reproduction occurs primarily when living conditions are unfavorable.

Most structures in rotifers are syncytial ("a mulitnucleate mass of protoplasm not divided into separate cells," or "a multinucleated cell") and show eutely (here, "constant or near-constant number of nuclei").

Phylum Nematoda
Name from the Greek for "thread".

This phylum consists of the round worms. There are about 12,000 named species but the true number probably is 10 - 100 times this!

These animals are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented pseudocoelomates. They are vermiform, or wormlike.

In cross-section, they are round, and covered by a layered cuticle (remember this cuticle !!). Probably due to this cuticle, juveniles in this phylum grow by molting. The gut is complete. They have a unique excretory system but they lack special circulatory or gas-exchange structures. The body has only longitudinal muscle fibers. The sexes are separate.

Nematodes can be incredibly common, widespread, and of great medical and economic importance. They are parasites of humans and our crops. They can live pretty much anywhere.
 * In one rotting apple, there can be up to 90,000 nematodes, and in one tablespoon of coastal mud, there can be 236 species of nematodes!

Nematodes can be free living or important parasites of our crops, or of humans and other animals. They have become very important in development studies, especially the species Caenorhabditis elegans, presumably due to its small size and constancy of cell number (eutely - 959 cells in C. elegans).

Phylum Annelida
Name means "ringed", from the Greek annulatus.

This phylum consists of earthworms, leeches, and various marine worms given many different names (e.g., sand worms, tube worms). There are about 12,000 - 15,000 species.

Animals in this phylum are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented coelomates. Development is typically protostomous. They have a complete circulatory system, and a well-developed nervous system. Typically, each segment has paired epidermal "bristles" (setae or chaetae).

Most are marine but they are successful occupants of almost anywhere sufficient water is available. They can be free living, parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalistic.

Major advances of this phylum include the true coelom, segmentation, both longitundinal and circular muscles, a closed circulatory system and, for most, a more advanced excretory system (metanephridia).

There are three main classes of Annelids

 * Class Oligochaeta (earthworms)
 * Class Polychaeta (marine worms, fan worms, sand worms, paddle worms)
 * Class Hirudinea (leeches)

Phylum Arthropoda

Name means "jointed feet".

This phylum consists of spiders, ticks, mites, insects, lobsters, crabs, and shrimp, and is the largest of all the phyla. So far, over 1 million species have been named, and it is likely that the true number out there is 10 - 100 times greater.
 * This phylum also includes the extinct trilobites, which were prevalent in the Paleozoic era. Because of their exoskeletons, these animals fossilized well and over 4000 species have been named.

These animals are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, segmented, protostome coelomates. The coelom is generally reduced to portions of the reproductive and excretory systems. They have an open circulatory system.

The most notable advancement of this phylum is a rigid exoskeleton. It has major implications in these organisms' locomotion, flexibility, circulatory systems, gas exchange systems, and growth. It also was partially responsible for the ability of the arthropods to move on to land.

There are several major groupings of arthropods:
 * Major subgroups include:
 * The chelicerates (eurytperids, horseshoe crabs, scorpions, spiders, ticks) have clawlike feeding appendages. They lack antennae and usually have simple eyes.
 * The Trilobites...they get their own grouping
 * The uniramians (centipedes, millipedes, insects) have one pair of antennae and unbranched (uniramous) appendages.
 * The crustaceans (crabs, shrimp, lobsters, barnacles and many others) have two pairs of antennae and branched (biramous) appendages.
 * Major Classes Include
 * Class Arachnida (mites, scorpions, spiders, ticks)
 * Class Diplopoda (millipedes)
 * Class Chilopoda (centipedes)
 * Class Insecta (insects)
 * Class Crustacea (crabs, crayfish, lobsters, shrimp)

Phylum Mollusca
Name means "soft".

This phylum consists of snails, slugs, bivalves, chitons, squids, octopus, and many others. About 110,000 species

All molluscs have a similar body plan:

 * A muscular foot, usually used for movement.
 * A visceral mass, containing most of the internal organs.
 * A mantle, a fold of tissue that drapes over the visceral mass and secretes the shell, if present.
 * Most have a radula, or a rasping organ to scrape food.

Molluscs are bilaterally symmetrical, or secondarily asymmetrical. They are coelomates, but the coelom generally has been greatly reduced; the main body cavity is a hemocoel. Development is typically protostomous. The gut is complete with marked regional specialization. Large, complex, metanephridia (excretion).

Many molluscan life cycles include a trochophore larva. This stage also is characteristic of annelids.

There are several major classes of molluscs:

 * Class Polyplacophora (chitons)
 * Class Gastropoda (snails, limpets, conchs, slugs, nudibranchs)
 * Class Bivalvia (clams, mussels, scallops, oysters)
 * Class Cephalopoda (squids, octopus, nautilus, cuttlefish)
 * Class Scaphopoda (tusk shells)

Phylum Echinodermata
Name means "spiny skin"

This phylum consists of sea stars, brittle stars, sea urchins, and sea cucumbers.

Echinoderms are mostly sessile or very slow moving animals.

As adults, they are radially symmetrical, but in the larval stage, they are bilaterally symmetrical. They are considered deuterostomes.

Echinoderms are unique in that they have a water vascular system composed of a system of fluid-filled canals. These canals branch into the tube feet, which function in feeding, locomotion, and gas exchange.

There are six major classes of echinoderms:

 * Class Asteroidea (sea stars)
 * Class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
 * Class Echinoidea (sea urchins, sand dollars)
 * Class Crinoidea (sea lilies and sea feathers)
 * Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumber)

Phylum Chordata
Name means "the chordates", i.e., these animals have a notochord at some stage in their lifecycle.

This phylum consists of tunicates, lancelets, and the vertebrates.

There are four major features that characterize the phylum Chordata.

 * A notochord, or a longitudinal, flexible rod between the digestive tube and the nerve cord. In most vertebrates, it is replaced developmentally by the vertebral column. This is the structure for which the phylum is named.
 * A dorsal hollow nerve cord which develops from a plate of ectoderm that rolls into a tube located dorsal to the notochord. Other animal phyla have solid nerve cords ventrally located. A chordate nerve cord splits into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord.
 * Pharyngeal slits, which allow water that enters through the mouth to exit without continuing through the entire digestive tract. In many of the invertebrate chordates, these function as suspension feeding devices; in vertebrates, they have been modified for gas exchange, jaw support, hearing, and other functions.
 * A muscular, postanal tail which extends posterior to the anus. The digestive tract of most nonchordates extends the length of the body. In chordates, the tail has skeletal elements and musculature, and can provide most of the propulsion in aquatic species.

Chordates have a segmented body plan, at least in development. This segmentation evolved independently from the segmentation of annelids.

Three subphyla make up the phylum Chordata:

 * Subphylum Urochordata (tunicates): the adults are enclosed in a tunic made of a carbohydrate much like cellulose. They squirt water out of an excurrent siphon. Urochordates are characterized by errant (mobile and active) larvae and sessile adults. All are filter feeders. The only "chordate" characteristics retained in adult life are the pharyngeal slits. Larval urochordates look more like adult cephlochordates & adult vertebrates than adult urochordates.
 * Subphylum Cephalochordata: Cephalochordates are known as lancelets because of their blade-like shape; they are also known as amphioxus. They are marine animals and usually live on the bottom, but can swim.
 * Subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates) ...

Formally, the phyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata are considered invertebrates.

Subphylum Vertebrata
Vertebrata refers to the presence of vertebrae and a vertebral column.

This subphylum includes most of the animals with which most people are familiar.
 * Vertebrates show extreme cephalization.

The notochord generally is replaced by the cranium & vertebral column in adults.

Neural Crest Cells
Later in development, these give rise to many cells of the body, including some cartilage cells, pigment cells, neurons & glial cells of the peripheral nervous systems, much of the cranium, and some of the cells of the endocrine system.

Some scientists would like to classify the neural crest as the fourth germ layer.

Neural crest cells come from the dorsal edge of the neural plate, thus ectoderm.


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General Biology/Classification of Living Things/Eukaryotes/Animals

Key Terms
synapomorphy

Introduction
What makes an animal an animal?

If animals are a monophyletic taxon, then animals should be able to be defined by synapomorphies, (shared, derived characteristics). Ideally, we would NOT define this or any taxon using symplesiomorphies (shared ancestral or primitive characteristics) or homoplastic characters (the independent evolution of similarity, or "convergent evolution"). See pages 654 - 656 and Fig. 32.6 in your text to review these concepts. As you consider the characteristics listed below, ask yourself whether or not each is a synapomorphy.

Characteristics of an Animal

 * There is no one universally accepted definition of an animal. The following treatment follows your text, beginning on page 876.
 * Animals:
 * Are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes …
 * Lack the distinctive cell walls of plants & fungi
 * Share unique characteristics …
 * Share certain reproductive characteristics …
 * Other commonly used definitions …

Animals are multicellular heterotrophic eukaryotes
 * Unfortunately, none of these traits is exclusive to animals:
 * Plants, fungi, and some algae are multicellular.
 * Many bacteria, protists, and all fungi are heterotrophic.
 * Everything other than bacteria and archaea are eukaryotic.
 * Moreover, all three of these characteristics also apply to fungi.
 * However, there is a difference here between animals and fungi. Animals generally take in their food through ingestion, or eating and swallowing something. Fungi are absorptive heterotrophs; they secrete their digestive enzymes onto their food, and then absorb the resulting nutrients.

Animals share unique characteristics
 * Only animals have muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
 * Only animals have collagen, a structural protein
 * Only animals have the following types of intercellular junctions: (See pages 135 - 139, Figure 7.15 in your text for more information on these junctions.)
 * Tight junctions (sealing function)
 * Desmosomes (anchoring function)
 * Gap junctions (communication function)

Animals share certain reproductive characteristics
 * Most animals reproduce sexually, with the diploid stage dominating.
 * In most animals, a small, haploid, flagellated, motile sperm fertilizes a larger, haploid, nonmotile egg to form a diploid zygote.
 * Mitotic division of the zygote yields a blastula stage, followed by a gastrula stage. A synapomorphy? This feature could be another "unique characteristic" shared by animals.
 * Development may be direct to adult form, or there may be a sexually immature stage (or stages) that are morphologically & ecologically distinct from the adult called a larva (plural: larvae).

Other commonly used definitions or characterizations
 * It is surprisingly difficult to find two texts that agree on a precise definition of an animal. Here are a few perspectives from some other texts.
 * Animals are multicellular eukaryotes; they are chemosynthetic heterotrophs that ingest their food.
 * Animals are motile, though many are secondarily sessile. Gametes usually are produced in multicellular sex organs, and the zygote passes through embryonic stages that include a blastula.
 * Animals are organisms that are multicellular, with more than one type of cell. They are heterotrophic. They reproduce sexually (at least sometimes), with a zygote formed from two different haploid gametes. They go through a developmental stage called a blastula.
 * Animals are not photosynthetic, have no cell wall, and no hyphae or mycelia. (What would a cladist think of this definition of the taxon Animalia?)

What kinds of animals are there?
 * Kingdom Animalia generally is recognized to have approximately 30 phyla ...
 * There is relatively little dispute over the number of phyla recognized; however, the phylogenetic relationships among the phyla are hotly debated.
 * Molecular techniques for assess similarity based on nucleotide sequences in nucleic acids are providing valuable new perspectives on this question.
 * Remember that two animals in different phyla generally are considered to be more different from each other than are animals within one phylum (e.g., nematodes are more different from annelids than humans are from sharks).

This text is based on notes very generously donated by Ralph Gibson, Ph.D. of the Cleveland State University.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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General Biology/Animal Evolution

The Evolutionary Tree in Animals
There are many competing hypotheses for the form of the evolutionary tree of animals. A traditional hypothesis is that the tree resembles a tuning fork: it has a short base and two main branches. However, there is recent molecular evidence that challenges part of this traditional hypothesis.

Under the tuning fork model, the "base" of the tree includes structurally simple animals like sponges, corals, and their relatives.

One main branch includes arthropods, molluscs, annelids, and nematodes. This branch, or a large part of it, usually is called the protostomes.

The second main branch includes vertebrates (phylum Chordata), and starfish, sea urchins, and their relatives (phylum Echinodermata). This branch usually is called the deuterostomes.

Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes), which include free living planarians as well as parasitic flukes and tapeworms may be placed very low on the protostome branch, or high on the trunk just below the protostome - deuterostome branching.

Support for the "Tuning Fork" Model
The features of animals that have been interpreted as suggesting a tuning fork model are extremely basic characteristics of body organization and early embryonic development.

Asymmetry
Lack of any symmetry. Many sponges are asymmetric.

Bilateral Symmetry
There is only one plane of symmetry, and it is anterior-to-posterior, dorsal-to-ventral, through the midline.

Characteristic of most protostomes and the higher deuterostomes.

Presence of True Tissues
Tissues are defined as an integrated group of cells that share a common structure and a common function (for example, nervous tissue or muscle tissue).

Sponges are described as lacking true tissues.

True tissues are present in Cnidaria, flatworms, and all higher animals.

Number of Embryonic Germ Layers
Germ layers are defined as the basic tissue layers in the early embryo which give rise developmentally to the organs and tissues of the adult (e.g., ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm).

This is a concept that is applied only to organisms considered to have true tissues.

Two Germ Layers
Organisms with two germ layers are said to be diploblastic.

This is characteristic of Cnidarians.

Three Germ Layers
Such organisms are said to be triploblastic.

This is characteristic of flatworms and all higher organisms.

Four Germ Layers (?)
Some developmental biologists consider the neural crest tissue of vertebrate embryos to be a fourth germ layer.

Nature of the Main Body Cavity
Most triploblastic animals have a fluid-filled space somewhere between the body wall and the gut. Such a cavity can provide numerous functional advantages.

For example, peristalsis of the gut need not affect the body wall, and movements of the body wall during locomotion need not distort the internal organs.

We will consider three conditions with respect to the body cavity:

Acoelomates
These animals lack an enclosed body cavity; the only "body cavity" is the lumen of the digestive tube.

The space between the gut and the body wall is filled with a more or less solid mass of mesodermal tissue.

The major example of this is the phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms. Minor examples: Phylum Nemertea (Rhynchocoela) and Phylum Gnathostomulida (not responsible for these "minor" examples).

Pseudocoelomates
Pseudocoelomates have a fluid-filled cavity between the body wall and the gut, but it does not form within mesoderm, nor does it end up fully enclosed by mesoderm.

This cavity often is interpreted as being a developmental remnant of the blastocoel, the fluid-filled cavity of the blastula stage of the embryo.

To distinguish it from the next grade, this type of cavity is called a pseudocoelom.

Major examples of pseudocoelomates include the phyla Nematoda (round worms) and Rotifera (rotifers). Other phyla listed in the table that are considered to be pseudocoelomates are flagged with an asterisk. Note that recent molecular data in particular have challenged the "naturalness" of the pseudocoelomates as a possible taxon.

Coelomates
Coelomate animals also have a fluid-filled cavity between the body wall and the gut.

In this grade, however, the cavity is completely enclosed by mesoderm.

Major examples of coelomates include molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, and chordates.

The protostome-deuterostome distinction
The distinction is based on several fundamental characteristics of early development.

Characteristic:
 * Protostomes
 * Deuterostomes

Determinate vs. indeterminate cleavage
 * Determinate
 * Indeterminate

Spiral vs. radial cleavage
 * Spiral
 * Radial

Fate of the blastopore
 * Mouth
 * Anus

Source of mesoderm
 * Lip of blastopore
 * Wall of archenteron

Formation of coelom
 * Schizocoely
 * Enterocoely

Phyla Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata
 * Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda
 * Roundworms & flatworms, although non-coelomate, demonstrate other protostome features, and so are included in this group by some authorities.

This text is based on notes very generously donated by Ralph Gibson, Ph.D. of the Cleveland State University.

title: General Biology/Animal Evolution


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Structured Query Language

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a widely-used programming language for working with relational databases. The name of the language is generally pronounced as the three letters of its abbreviation or, in some people's usage, as.

This Wikibook provides a short description of SQL, its origins, basic concepts and components, and many examples. The book follows the specifications of the SQL:2011 standard developed by a common committee of ISO and IEC. Their publications are not freely available but can be ordered online. Or you may want to refer to a working draft that you can download from Whitemarsh Information Systems Corporation.

Introduction

 * /About the Book/
 * /Database Management Systems (DBMS)/
 * /Relational DBMS (rDBMS)/
 * /SQL: A Language for Working with rDBMS/
 * /SQL: The Standard ISO IEC 9075 and various Implementations/
 * /Language Elements/
 * /Learning by Doing/

The Snippets Corner BBC Snippets screeenshot 5.jpg

 * SELECT code FROM examples WHERE topic = ...

Foundation

 * Create a simple Table
 * Handle Data
 * Example Database Structure
 * Example Database Data

Data Query Language

 * SELECT Fundamentals
 * Join Operation
 * Grouping
 * IS NULL Predicate
 * Predefined Functions
 * Set Operations
 * Case Expression
 * Subquery
 * Views

Data Manipulation Language

 * INSERT
 * INSERT, using Subqueries
 * UPDATE
 * UPDATE, using Subqueries
 * DELETE
 * DELETE, using Subqueries
 * MERGE
 * TRUNCATE
 * COMMIT and ROLLBACK

Data Definition Language

 * CREATE TABLE
 * Data Types
 * Foreign Key
 * Alter Table
 * Drop Table
 * Temporary Table
 * Indexes

Data Control Language

 * Managing Rights (GRANT / REVOKE)

Advanced Topics

 * Additional SELECT features
 * Pattern Matching (LIKE Predicate and much more)
 * IN, SOME/ANY, ALL, EXISTS
 * Advanced Grouping: Rollup / Cube
 * Window functions (Data Warehouses, OLAP)
 * With Clause (Common Table Expression CTE)
 * Recursions
 * NULLs and the Three Valued Logic
 * Transactions / Isolation Levels
 * Some Notes on typical SQL (non-trivial) Tasks
 * Retrieve Top N Rows per Group
 * Eliminate Duplicates

Appendices

 * Warnings and Exceptions (SQLSTATE)
 * /Glossary/

title: Structured Query Language


text:
Internet Technologies

Scope
This work is aimed at people already familiar with using the Internet, who want to know how and why it works. When we say technology we don't just mean the software and hardware, but also the human components which are an integral part of the overall system of the Internet.

Contents

 * 1) /The Internet/
 * 2) /Domain names/
 * 3) /Web hosting/
 * 4) /Routing/
 * 5) /Protocols/
 * 6) /History and evolution/
 * 7) /The Web/
 * 8) /History of the Web/
 * 9) /Routing the Web/
 * 10) HTML and CSS
 * 11) /Embedded technologies/
 * 12) /Proxy servers/
 * 13) /Search engine/
 * 14) /Web advertising/
 * 15) /Online shopping/
 * 16) /Email/
 * 17) /History of email/
 * 18) /Routing email/
 * 19) /Email headers/
 * 20) /Email spam/
 * 21) /Email security/
 * 22) /Usenet/
 * 23) /History of Usenet/
 * 24) /Routing Usenet/
 * 25) /How newsgroups are created/
 * 26) /Usenet spam/
 * 27) /Future of Usenet/
 * 28) /IRC/
 * 29) /History of IRC/
 * 30) /Routing IRC/
 * 31) /Remote Access/
 * 32) /Telnet/
 * 33) /SSH/
 * 34) /VNC/
 * 35) /Remote Desktop Connection/
 * 36) /Wireless connnectivity/

Related books

 * The World of Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
 * HyperText Markup Language
 * Cascading Style Sheets
 * GET
 * PHP Programming
 * PHP and MySQL Programming

title: Internet Technologies


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User:Emperorbma

Started: Japanese, English

Directory Structure
commons.wikimedia User Page meta.wikipedia User Page wikibooks User Page wikipedia User Page wikiquote User Page wikispecies User Page wiktionary User Page
 * Laboratory
 * Lab Discussion
 * Lab Notes
 * Public Commentary
 * General Discussion

title: User:Emperorbma


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User talk:Emperorbma

Welcome Emperorbma, I hope you can enjoy yourself here and find a bit of fulfillment as I imagine you have on the other wiki projects. Karl Wick

I gotta go back and look over my Hiragana and Katakana again .. its gotten pretty rusty. I am still bummed that the guy I lent my comprehensive Kanji dictionary to later denied that it was mine, apparently so he would not have to give it back. But they cant steal your spirit Emperorbma, never let them steal your spirit ! --Karl Wick
 * I'll do what I can... -- Emperorbma

I must say, Emperorbma, you're doing some great work with the learn Japenese book - keep it up, I'm truly amazed at what you've done so far! Tompagenet 00:45, 10 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Honestly, most of it isn't me tho. -- Emperorbma 01:19, 13 Dec 2003 (UTC)

See Talk:Programming:C_plus_plus_Hello_world -- Paddu 08:42, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Thanks for the help with Algebra:Functions. I think I've run out of steam for my first wind myself. :) --Spikey 03:12, 18 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Computer programming/Types got additions by AlMac effectively doubling the size of the article since prior folks like you last worked on it. I just thought you might like to see what I did to it. AlMac 23:49, 17 July 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Emperorbma


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Talk:World History/California Content Standard

If we talk about Jewish and Christian philosophy, we have to also talk about Islamic philosophy too. Islam is much more widely practiced tha]] 14:15 7 Aug 2003 (UTC) PS. Am I allowed to delete my own message?


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Cookbook:Atkins Diet Cooking

The Atkins diet is a diet in which one eats a low level of carbohydrates and larger amounts of protein, including meats, poultry, and fish. Dieters avoid simple carbohydrates (refined sugar and starch (ie.flour) as well as most forms of sugar, starches (including starchy vegetables like potatoes), milk (but not cream or cheese), and grains (including most breads). During the initial 'induction' phase, during which the dieter is limited to no more than 20 net carbohydrates per day, there is a long list of vegetables that are generally felt to be too high in carbohydrates for the Atkins diet, including sweetcorn, peas, potato and others. Some people include carrots in their list of no-nos. However, green beans and many other vegetables such as asparagus, cabbage, broccoli, lettuce, courgettes/zucchini, aubergines/eggplant are OK and encouraged within the Atkins diet, even during the early stages.

Net carbohydrates are defined as total carbohydrates minus fiber content and sugar alcohols. It is net carbohydrates that are monitored by those practising the Atkins way of life. In fact, one of the first goals of Atkins is to discover your unique CCL, or Critical Carbohydrate Level. This number is simply the number of net carbs that can be eaten daily to maintain a fixed weight. There are four phases to Atkins:

 * 1) Induction
 * 2) Ongoing Weight Loss
 * 3) Pre-Maintenance
 * 4) Lifetime Maintenance

As one moves through the four phases, more variety in food types can be added to the diet, including some breads, fruit, etc. that are considered taboo during the very early stages.

Artificial sweeteners are generally used instead of sugar, and Atkins recipes have high levels of protein. Fat is not avoided. A typical Atkins-approved dessert might be fresh berries served with heavy cream mixed with splenda.

It should be noted that while Atkins works well for short-term weight loss for many people, its long term side effects are continually debated. Therefore, one would be wise to do research and consult a doctor before beginning this diet. Thereafter, your doctor will be able to advise you as to the frequency of additional physical check-ups.

The following recipes were created for the Atkins diet or are otherwise acceptable on it:

 * Atkins-friendly Tira Misu
 * Atkins-friendly Chocolate Mousse

Consider replacing bananas with pawpaws, which are generally more nutritious.

title: Cookbook:Atkins Diet Cooking


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Cookbook:Atkins-Friendly Mock Tiramisu

| Atkins Diet Cooking | Dessert

This preparation is loosely inspired by tiramisu, and it contains rich dairy, egg, cocoa, and coffee. However, in order to make it compatible with the Atkins diet, it does not contain refined carbohydrates. As a result, it contains no cake, ladyfingers, or added sugar and is not a true tiramisu.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup sour cream
 * 2 cups cream cheese (not low-fat)
 * 2 eggs
 * 2 tbsp baking cocoa
 * 1 tsp instant espresso powder

Procedure

 * 1) Blend everything together until smooth.
 * 2) Enjoy!

Warnings

 * This recipe contains raw eggs. Please see the module on Eggs for possible health effects.

title: Cookbook:Atkins-Friendly Mock Tiramisu


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Cookbook:Atkins-Friendly Chocolate Mousse

| Atkins Diet Cooking | Dessert

This chocolate mousse recipe is low in carbohydrates, and is therefore acceptable for an Atkins-style diet.

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (240 ml) or 1 part half and half
 * 1 cup (240 ml) or 1 part heavy cream
 * 1 cup (240 ml) or 1 part water
 * 4 scoops or 1 part Atkins Chocolate Shake Mix
 * 2 tsp or 1/24 part stevia extract or other sugar replacement

Procedure

 * 1) Lightly whip half and half and cream in a blender.
 * 2) Add other ingredients into blender.
 * 3) Blend everything together until smooth.
 * 4) Enjoy.


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Cookbook talk:Atkins Diet Cooking

My knowledge about the Atkins diet is only cursory but does it really contain no (== 0) carbohydrates. I doubt it. I suppose it is rather a low carbohydrate high fat and diet. Atkins Nutritional Approach Kpjas 18:26 7 Aug 2003 (UTC)
 * No, in fact it doesn't. The "Atkins Diet" described in this writeup is referring to the first phase of the diet, "Induction". Despite popular hearsay, Induction is not the entire Atkins program; it is but a two-week program for beginning the Atkins diet. Also, the limit is 20 grams of carbohydrates a day. The limit increases to each person's needs over the course of the program.--66.24.4.236 06:31, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * It's generally impossible to consume a no-carb diet due to the presence of 'incidental' carbohydrates - the lactose in milk and even cream products, for instance (however, there is considerably less in higher-fat creams (table, whipping, etc) per serving and some preferentially consume these). Even animal tissue has SOME carbs in the form of residual glycogen but it is negligible. Generally the only way you're going to achieve a true no-carb diet is by going on a traditional arctic Inuit style diet.

title: Cookbook talk:Atkins Diet Cooking


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User talk:Imran~enwikibooks

About Internet: I don't know how much work or how far your thoughts have gone in starting this book. My thought is to move (retitle it) to Using the Internet and tighten the scope a bit in that direction. Of ourse, you DO need an outline of the technology involved, so it would be embedded. What do you think? ...LouI 05:39 8 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * What I was invisioning for the book was to cover a more "behind the scenes of the internet" type content, whereas a Using the Internet would really only need to cover it from a user points view. Perhaps it might make more sense to have two books, one aimed at the novice/beginner level which just explains how to use email/usenet/irc/etc, and one aimed at the intermediate level user who already knows how to use the internet and now wants to know how it works. We could use the books to complement each other (i.e. in the Internet Technologies book we could have say a short introduction to usenet which says for more information about how to use Usenet see chapter X in Using the Internet.) --Imran 13:23 8 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Following that thought, I'd reach for three interrelated books: Surfing the Internet, Using the Internet, and Understanding the Internet (even though the last is an impossible stretch ;-) and perhaps should be Working with the Internet). Of course, eventually you get a lot of specific technology books, addressing subjects like CSS/HTML/ASP etc. Another way to look at this might split it different ways: Introduction to Internet Technology, Introduction to Internet in Business, and Intro to Internet Personal Uses. The field is so large I don't know how to crack it. How do you address prop-heads, suits, and geeks at the same time? For a third view, you can look at Internet components, contents, and uses separately. Sorry to ramble, but I'm trying to hit various combinations to see if one emerges as obvious. LouI 18:21 9 Aug 2003 (UTC)

 * Splitting it into Surfing the Internet, Using the Internet, and Understanding the Internet seems like a good idea. I don't think splitting it into usages (personal, business,etc.) would be effective because of overlap between the two. --Imran

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Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Imran~enwikibooks


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Spanish/Slang

Spanish slang is more localized than English slang and sometimes people from one Spanish-speaking country get confused talking to people from other Spanish-speaking countries.

title: Spanish/Slang


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World History

'' Welcome to...  The World History Project ''

Welcome to the World History Project. This organization is dedicated to making a free, open-content, standardized textbook on World History based on the /AP World History Standard/. The goal is to create a standard of quality which will suffice for a secondary and post-secondary environment. The World History Project is the "brains" behind the organization. We are a set of regular contributors who organize and give the major guidance to the World History page. We welcome contribution of any who wish to help (whether as part of the World History Project or no), as well as collaboration with other projects - contact us here at our main discussion page or here at our Authors page.

Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it... If history always repeats itself, and we are to expect the unexpected, how incapable must man be to not learn from it?

Standards | Our Golden Rule | The Authors |

 * Operation: Blank Check- Finalization of structure and basic articles- See The Rise of Dictatorship and Totalitarianism for an example of the type of article completeness desired Current

Prologue - An Introduction to World history and the Advanced Placement examination

Period 1- Technological and Environmental Transformations, to c. 600 B.C.E

 * 1) /Big Geography/- Peopling of the Earth
 * 2) Ancient Civilizations - The Beginning of Agriculture and Ancient Cultures
 * 3) The First Chinese Dynasties - From Mythical Period to The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties
 * 4) Civilization and Empires in the Indian Subcontinent - Indus Valley Civilization and the Mauryan and Gupta Empires
 * 5) World Religions - Religions of the past
 * 6) Ancient Greece and Alexander the Great - From Minoans to the rise of Hellenistic Empires, through Alexander the Great

Period 2- Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E.

 * 1) The Roman Empire
 * 2) The Unification of China
 * 3) Middle Eastern Empires and the spread of Islam.
 * 4) The Middle Ages in Europe- - The beginning of the west
 * 5) The Norman empire- - The beginning of England
 * 6) Precolumbian History of the Americas - Immigration of ancient peoples, Mexico, Mesoamerica, and North/South America
 * 7) Ancient Kingdoms of Africa - Eastern and Western African nations through colonization

Period 3- Regional and Interregional Interactions, c. 600 C.E. to c. 1450

 * 1) Samo's Empire - The beginning of Czechia, Slovakia and Austria

Period 4- Global Interactions, c. 1450 to c. 1750

 * 1) Changes in Eurasia - Mongol Conquest and Aftermath
 * 2) The Renaissance in Europe
 * 3) Age of Discovery & Imperialism
 * 4) Religious Wars in Europe
 * 5) The Rise of Nationalism and the Nation-state
 * 6) Revolution, Change, and philosophy - English Civil War and Bill of Rights, American, French, and Glorious Revolutions, the spread of Democratic and Libertarian ideas
 * 7) Napoleonic Europe and Reactionism

Period 5- Industrialization and Global Integration, c. 1750 to c. 1900

 * 1) The Industrial Revolution - Its beginnings and consequences.
 * 2) Changes in East Asia
 * 3) The Age of Imperialism, Part II

Period 6- Accelerating Global Change and Realignments, c. 1900 to the Present

 * 1) Causes and course of the First World War
 * 2) Effects of the First World War
 * 3) The Russian Socialist Revolution - The Russian Revolution, Civil War, and the advent of Communism
 * 4) The Interwar Years - The Great Depression and the changes in society and culture during the interwar period
 * 5) The Rise of Dictatorship and Totalitarianism - Fascism and the like.
 * 6) Causes and course of the Second World War - The Axis and Allies.
 * 7) Consequences of the Second World War - The shift of powers, and the change of world order.
 * 8) The Collapse of Imperialism - Freedom, Change, and Revolution - The end of the Empires
 * 9) The Cold War
 * 10) The World Economy
 * 11) A New Millennium - Challenges and developments in the present day.

Appendices

 * 1) Conflicts
 * 2) Major Figures
 * 3) Technology
 * 4) Preparing for the AP Exam

Other

 * 1) Authors

Světové dějiny 世界史 World History 世界歷史

title: World History


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World History/World Religions

' This page is for an elementary explanation of the origins and nature of the religions. It is not meant to be an in depth study by any means. '

Animism
Animism (from Latin animus, -i "soul, life") is the worldview that non-human entities (animals, plants, and inanimate objects or phenomena), possess a spiritual essence.

Baha'i Faith
The Bahá'í Faith is the youngest of the world's independent religions. Its founder, Bahá'u'lláh (1817–1892), is regarded by Bahá'ís as the most recent in the line of Messengers of God that stretches back beyond recorded time and that includes Abraham, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster, Christ and Muhammad.

The central theme of Bahá'u'lláh's message is that humanity is one single race and that the day has come for its unification in one global society. God, Bahá'u'lláh said, has set in motion historical forces that are breaking down traditional barriers of race, class, creed, and nation and that will, in time, give birth to a universal civilization. The principal challenge facing the peoples of the earth is to accept the fact of their oneness and to assist the processes of unification.

Wikipedia article: Bahá'í Faith

Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion based largely around the teachings of the Siddhārtha Gautama (although his exact status is still controversial and changes by sect) and is now the central religion of most of Southeast Asia, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, and parts of China, Nepal, India, and a small part of Russia. It is also a major religion in Korea and Japan and has a growing influence in the west.

Gautama was born in ancient Nepal around the 6th century BC, son of a King and relieved of all tasks. One day, while being brought around by his charioteer, he saw the four passing sights (an old man, a sickly man, a decaying corpse, and a holy man), which brought him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness, and death happen to all people over countless lives. He left his wife, children, rank, and his entire life to solve that problem. Gautama tried everything to achieve inner peace (he nearly killed himself numerous times) but found nothing that worked. He then tried sitting peacefully under a Bohdi tree and meditating. This proved very successful, and he soon achieved the inner peace he wanted. He then traveled the lands, preaching his new faith. (Postscript-Buddhism is largely based on Jainism, and shares many beliefs with Jainism.)

Within the context of postclassical China, dominations such as pure land and Zen Buddhism appealed to both aristocratic elites and the mass peasantry. A commonality of religion in the global context: the induction of fervent belief system in the presence of societal corruption and lack of intellectual synthesis.

Modern Buddhism still follows the ideals of Gautama-peace, kindness to man, and love of nature (including vegetarianism). There are three modern sects of Buddhism - Theravada, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna (practiced in southeast Asia, East Asia, and scattered parts of Asia, respectively).

For information on the sects of Buddhism, or some tenets of Buddhism, go to the Wikipedia articles on:

Buddhism

Theravada

Mahayana

Vajrayana

Christianity
Wikipedia article on Christianity.

Confucianism
Wikipedia article on Confucianism

Hinduism
Hinduism is a term coined to designate the traditional socio-religious systems of the people of India. This term does not appear in any of the sacred literature of India. Hindus refer to their religion as Sanatana Dharma which loosely translated means “The Eternal Path”. Sanatana means eternal, perpetual or sustained. Dharma means any method by which one sees reality for what it is, and that by which one is drawn closer to the Absolute Truth and Ultimate Reality — it is the Philosophia Perenis.

In a context of world history, the Hindu emphasis placed upon social divisions as ample means for a productive society led to the highly stratified caste system in which birth and socio-economic position determined semi-permanent placement.

There are two world religions which have formed the cultural and ethical basis of the world as we know it. Both have an unbroken history going back thousands of years. Judaism with a 5000 year old tradition is the mother of the western civilization through its offshoot Christianity. Hinduism is the older of the two with a literature going back to the beginning of recorded history.

Hindu civilisation originated in the Gangetic and Indus valleys and from there spread out over the entire region of southeast Asia. Its offshoot — Buddhism, shaped and molded the civilizations of Japan, China, Tibet and the rest of Asia. There is evidence to suggest that the Ancient pre-Biblical kingdom of the Mittani in Asia minor was ruled by Kings with Hindu/Sanskrit names. The Hittites were an Indo-European people and according to some sources are said to have originated in the Gangetic Basin of India. Hindu philosophy/theology influenced the ancient Greeks since the time Alexander the Great conquered parts of north India. A remarkable similarity has also been demonstrated between the religion and mythology of the ancient Scandinavian people and that of the people of India.

The ancient civilizations such as the Roman, Greek, Egyptian, Sumerian, Babylonian, Mayan, Aztec, and Inca have all passed away. Even the Jewish culture has undergone many radical changes since its inception 5000 years ago – yet the Hindu civilisation continues as a vibrant and living vector, and has remained virtually unchanged for over 6000 years. Today, Hindu communities are to be found in almost every country on earth.

Hinduism

Islam
Islam

Jainism
Jainism

Judaism
Judaism

Sikhism
Sikhism

Shinto
Shinto

Taoism
Taoism/Daoism

title: World History/World Religions


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World History/Revolution, Change, and philosophy

====10.2 Students compare and contrast the Glorious Revolution of England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution and their enduring effects worldwide on the political expectations for self-government and individual liberty.====

1. Compare the major ideas of philosophers and their effects on the democratic revolutions in England, the United States, France, and Latin America (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Montesquieu, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Simón Bolívar, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison).

2. List the principles of the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights (1689), the American Declaration of Independence (1776), the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789), and the U.S. Bill of Rights (1791).

3. Understand the unique character of the American Revolution, its spread to other parts of the world, and its continuing significance to other nations.

4. Explain how the ideology of the French Revolution led France to develop from constitutional monarchy to democratic despotism to the Napoleonic empire.

5. Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but was repressed for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe until the Revolutions of 1848.


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World History/The Industrial Revolution

Causes of Industrial Revolution

 * 1. Agricultural Revolution; people at the time before this major event relied on crops and plantations to make food, shelter, and clothing.
 * 2. Labor Supply
 * 3. Markets
 * 4. Entrepreneurs
 * 5. Transportation; Just take a moment to briefly think about how hard and complicated the process of transportation was before the 1800s for example.
 * 6. Investment Capital
 * 7. Inventions; Both scientific and technological inventions improved the quality of life very much.
 * 8. Natural Resources
 * 9. Stable Political Climate
 * 10. Religious Attitudes (Protestant/Christian ethic)
 * 11. Need for growth; Nothing is permanent, and there always need to be a change, in each political and individual level.

Negative aspects of the Industrial Revolution

 * Low wages
 * Long hours
 * Unsafe conditions
 * Child Labor
 * Exploitation of women
 * Insecure employment
 * Slums
 * Pollution

Responses to industrialism

 * Socialism
 * Unions
 * Parliamentary system

Objectives
10.3 Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Revolution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States.

1. Analyze why England was the first country to industrialize.

2. Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison). 3. Describe the growth of population, rural to urban migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution.

4. Trace the evolution of work and labor, including the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement.

5. Understand the connections among natural resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy.

6. Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a dominant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Socialism, and Communism.

7. Describe the emergence of Romanticism in art and literature (e.g., the poetry of William Blake and William Wordsworth), social criticism (e.g., the novels of Charles Dickens), and the move away from Classicism in Europe.

The Industrial Revolution

In 1750, most people in Europe lived on small farms and produced most of their needs by hand. By the middle of the 19th century, many people lived in cities and most of their needs were produced by complex machines using steam power. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to Belgium, France, Germany, the United States and Japan. It was a fundamental change in the way goods were produced, and altered the way people lived. The Industrial Revolution is a major turning point in world history.

Why Great Britain?
Great Britain became the focus of the Industrial Revolution for a variety of reasons: the start of the Agrarian Revolution, an abundance of natural resources, available capital, and the political will to support innovation.

The Agrarian Revolution was a change in farming methods that allowed for a greater production of food. This revolution was fueled by the use of new farming technology such as the seed drill and improved fertilizers. The results of this revolution in farming was a population explosion due to the higher availability of food. Also, the Enclosure Movement, which was the consolidation of many small farms into one large farm, left many people jobless and homeless. These people provided the workforce of the Industrial Revolution.

Great Britain's geography provides them with an abundance of the natural resources needed for industrialization, such as iron ore and coal. Britain also had access to many navigable rivers and natural harbors which provided for the easy movement of goods both within the country, and overseas. The British overseas empire provided them with a strong economy, this produced the capital (money) needed to build railroads, factories, and mines.

Politically, British entrepreneurs enjoyed a high degree of freedom from state control, compared to their counterparts in France, Russia and other parts of Europe. A relatively fair court system existed to enforce contracts and settle disputes among capital owners. These factors may have allowed new technologies and energy resources to take root and flourish. Britain experienced a revolution in energy use as they switched from animal power, to water power, to steam power in a few short years. The steam engine was the power source of the Industrial Revolution.

Philosophy
The philosophy of Communism appeared as a reaction to the condition of the Working Class in industrial society. Karl Marx wrote in The Communist Manifesto (1848) that all of human history is based on the conflict between the bourgeoisie (those who control the means of production) and the proletariat (working class). He predicted that the proletariat would rise up in a violent revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a society with an equal distribution of goods and services. This socialist theory would form the basis for the Bolshevik, Chinese, and Cuban Revolutions in the 20th Century. The United States had a very strong reaction to these events.

Imperialism
Due to the need for raw materials and new markets, the industrialized nations took control of Africa, India, South East Asia, and others. Imperialism had a negative effect on most of these cultures, and did not completely end until after World War II. Most of the benefits of imperialism accrued to the European nations.

The Industrial Revolution was a major turning point in world history as it resulted in a complete change in society on all levels. Effects of the Industrial Revolutions were long reaching, and influenced many other cultures both positively and negatively.

title: World History/The Industrial Revolution


text: World History/Changes in East Asia

title: World History/Changes in East Asia


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World History/Causes and course of the First World War

Factors Leading to War
Constant colonial tensions among the great powers had given rise to the possibility of a great war between the major European powers. For almost a hundred years, since the fall of Napoleon, a remarkable series of events kept the relative peace. But as 1914 approached, tensions began to rise in a number of countries, and key issues began to take their toll.

The Changing of Imperialism
By 1914, Imperialism had begun to come at last to a turning point. The massive land grabs that had divided up Africa, given Britain such a huge empire, and led to the collapse of the Chinese Empire had finally run their course. There simply were very few places left on Earth containing massive amounts of land not already claimed by a western power. This was especially bad news to nations that were latecomers to the game of Imperialism, Germany and, to a lesser extent, Russia.

Wilhelm II did not wish for Germany to miss out on the benefits of a colonial empire. Germany already had some territories in Africa, and after the Berlin Conference of 1885, they were major policy makers on the continent. However, Wilhelm II continually pushed for a larger role for Germany in Africa, leading ultimately to the Morocco Affair, and a heightening of tension.

Turmoil in Russia
Russia was also undergoing immense changes. After three hundred years of Romanov rule, Russia was finally making a transition to a modern nation. However, the Romanov tsar, Nicholas II of Russia, was still clinging onto a good measure of authoritarian power. The struggle between Nicholas II and reform-minded progressives would eventually lead to the drama of the Russian Revolution.

To make a bad situation worse, Russia was also in a bad geographic situation. Despite being the largest European power in terms of land area of their home nation, Russia was mostly poor and un-industrialized. Much of the nation was underdeveloped, and only slowly inching its way toward a more profitable existence. At the same time, Russia was dealing with an unfavorable political situation, already reeling from the loss of the Russo-Japanese War, as well as attempting to stay afoot of the fast-paced diplomacy of the west.

The Sick Man of Europe
For several hundred years, the Ottoman Empire had been slowly collapsing under its own weight, watching helplessly as first one province and then another had broken away, or been stolen. Recently, in the Crimean War, the Ottomans had been forced to rely upon the aid of Britain and France to sustain itself in conflict against the Russians. The Empire had previously been called the "Sick Man of Europe", but prior to the war it was called the "Dying Man of Europe".

Only sparse pieces of the Balkans remained in Ottoman control by 1914, and they were being encroached on from many fronts. The Austrians in the north clearly wanted to pacify provinces in the region, the Russians in the east wanted Istanbul itself to guarantee themselves a safe passage through to the Mediterranean from their Black Sea ports, and the people who lived in the Balkans were beginning to experience their own internal unrest. By 1914 it looked like conflict could erupt at any moment in the Balkans.

Naval build up and the end of Splendid Isolation
In order to demonstrate their military capability, Germany embarked on a plan to build up her navy, constructing the High Seas Fleet, equipping it with the latest in military technology. This not only contributed to a rise in Germany's military power, but it also seriously alarmed Great Britain. Britain had long subscribed to the theory of Splendid Isolation, under which Britain attempted to hold itself aloft from affair on the continent. Protected by the Royal Navy, the most powerful navy in Europe, Britain had remained inviolate to foreign powers for centuries; even Napoleon was unable to land an army on her shores. Under Splendid Isolation, Britain chose to abstain from permanent relationships with European powers and to continually work to maintain a balance between them, all the while protected from continental strife by her powerful navy.

The construction of the German High Seas Fleet pushed Britain into a fury of shipbuilding, in an attempt to stay ahead of German production. The knowledge that they could no longer stand by in the distance and remain safe from European struggle, and the continuing threat created by German armament programs, propelled the British out of their self-imposed isolation. It also led to a souring of relations between both Britain and Germany.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
On June 28, 1914, at approximately 11:00 am, Franz Ferdinand and his wife were killed in Sarajevo, the capital of the Austro-Hungarian province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, by Gavrilo Princip, a member of Young Bosnia and one of several (seven) assassins organized by The Black Hand (Crna Ruka). The event, known as the Assassination in Sarajevo, was one of the main triggers of World War I.

War Breaks Out
Officially, the First World War began on June 28, 1914 in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, with the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of the Austro-Hungarian Empire by Gavrilo Principe, a member of a secret Serbian society, The Black Hand, hoping to unite the Slavic speaking lands of the Austro-Hungarian Empire with the nearby Kingdom of Serbia. In retaliation, Austria, with the support of Germany, presented Serbia with a list of demands that would severely threaten the Kingdom's autonomy. The Austrian leaders had been waiting for this moment for several years, because they feared just the sort of Serbian groups that were now operating in Bosnia, and had been waiting for this chance to weaken Serbia for several years. After consultations with the Russians, Serbia rejected the demands, leading to war with Austria. Russia responded with a general mobilization, followed by Austria's ally Germany and Russia's ally France. The first stage of the war quickly escalated, with a general war breaking out between an alliance of Germany and Austria against Russia, France, and Serbia.

The war presented the Germans with a special problem. Their own armies were scattered on the country's eastern and western borders against France to the west and Russia to the east, but the armies of France and Russia were concentrated against the Germans on their respective borders. In order to make the best out of this two front situation, the German generals began to carry out the Schlieffen Plan, developed by a German general in case of war with both France and Russia. The plan called for a quick and massive strike against the French while the massive Russian army was still mobilizing, hoping that their Austrian allies could stop the Russian advance long enough for them to finish off the French and move their troops by rail to defend the east.

Unfortunately, the quickest way to strike the French capital, Paris, and knock the French out of the war involved a broad offensive through neutral Belgium. Great Britain, a nominal ally of France, promised to intervene in case Germany invaded Belgium, and declared war shortly after German forces crossed the border. The Germans initially expected the Belgians to put up very little resistance, but this proved to be incorrect and the longer than expected time required to defeat the Belgians allowed the French to regroup.

While the Germans were pushing deep into Belgium, Serbian forces crossed the Danube in a daring attack against the Austrians. This offensive, like many others after it, failed, and the war zone along the Balkans would change very little during the first year.

Meanwhile, the massive German offensive bearing down on France was beginning to run out of steam. First, the Russians scored several early victories against the Austrians and moved through Poland (then a Russian territory) on their way to attack Prussia and the vulnerable German capital, Berlin. The worried German generals withdrew several divisions to the eastern front, allowing the French to regroup and defeat the German lead elements at the Battle of the Marne, slightly more than 15 miles outside Paris.

Though the German armies were stopped by the French, the Russian armies bearing down on Prussia were similarly defeated by German forces under Field Marshall Hindenburg at the Masurian Lakes, and then at Tannenberg. Though the Russian army was much larger than the German army, the Russian commander's decision to split his forces in a two-prong attack contributed to his defeat, and allowed the Germans to break apart the offensive piecemeal.

Stalemate and Trench Warfare
Following these defeats, the war on both fronts bogged down. In the west, both French and British forces and the Germans built a massive series of trenches from the Swiss border to the North Sea to defend their positions. This period of "Trench Warfare" saw very little change in the battle lines, and several uses of poison gas by the Germans. With no major breakthroughs on either fronts, and furthermore the people in Russia were killed. German and British leaders looked to the Mediterranean to break the stalemate. This put the two remaining neutral powers, Italy and the Ottoman Empire (later Turkey) in a tough position. Before the war, the Italians had agreed to support Germany and Austria in case of war. However, British and French diplomats promised the Italians the Austrian territories adjacent to Venice if Italy declared war, which they did after the prodding of many Italian radicals, among them Mussolini. The Ottoman Empire also had to make a tough choice, because Britain was the Empire's traditional protector and Russia was the Empire's traditional enemy. Germany's offer of two battleships and Middle Eastern territories allowed the Turks to strike out at both simultaneously, beginning with a naval strike against the Russian naval base at Odessa. The Ottoman entry into the war encouraged neighboring Bulgaria to also enter the war in an alliance with Germany, leading to the rapid defeat and occupation of Serbia by the Austrians. Austria played an important part in the war and still is today a leading military nation.

In 1915 the Ottomans launched an attack into Egypt in an attempt to capture the Suez Canal. The assault failed and the Ottomans retreated back into their empire. Once again in 1916 the Ottomans attempted to capture the canal, but this once again failed. This attack convinced the British to push their defence of the Canal further out, into the Sinai, and so starting in October, the British under Lieutenant General Sir Charles Dobell began operations into the Sinai desert and on to the border of Palestine. Initial efforts were limited to building a railway and a waterline across the Sinai. After several months building up supplies and troops, the British were ready for an attack. The first battle was the capture of Magdhaba on December 23 1916. This was a success, the fort was captured.

In 1916, the Central Powers invaded Romania, and forced them to sign an unwilling peace.

America Enters the War
By 1916, the two groups had been fighting for two years with neither side making significant gains. Food shortages had appeared in Germany (under blockade by Britain) and Russia, leading to much discontent. Responding to the British blockade, the Germans launched a naval offensive of their own, using submarines known as U-Boats to prey on allied shipping.

The Lusitania
A British-American tourist cruise liner that was intentionally sunk by a German U-Boat. However, there was some ammunition onboard in the cargo area, and this was the German reason for sinking.

The Zimmerman Telegram
A telegram from Germany to Mexico that encouraged Mexico to attack the United States.

This telegram was provided to the United States by Great Britain and there has been some speculation on whether it was forged by Great Britain in order to get the previously neutral United States to join World War I

Defeat of the Central Powers
Germany miscalculated by launching the u-boat campaign, which intended to win the war before the entry of USA. This miscalculation was a military suicide on the part of Germany as it led to the entry of USA. America with her vast resources entered the war on the side of allied forces leading them to a sweet victory against Germany.


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World History/The Rise of Dictatorship and Totalitarianism

Quick Quiz

Benito Mussolini and Fascism in Italy (1922-1939)
Benito Mussolini, born into a poor blacksmith's family, was so named by his radically socialist father (his mother was a devout Catholic schoolteacher) after the executioner of a Mexican emperor. Shortly after becoming qualified as a teacher, Mussolini taught in a small school. Mussolini was a far-left socialist and advocated a violent revolution to overthrow the parliamentary monarchy within Italy and denounced nationalism. When World War I broke out in 1914, however, he broke with his party comrades when he celebrated the entry of his nation into the war – even though he had dodged the draft. Throughout the Great War, he fought earnestly to keep Italy involved, and, financed by large arms manufacturers and the British and French governments, operated a small, pro-war newspaper. When the war came to an end in 1919, Mussolini was quick to recognize the dissatisfaction of many of the homebound soldiers and countrymen concerning the Treaty of Versailles. In an effort to persuade Italy to enter the war on their side, the Allied Powers promised Italy significant territorial gains at the expense of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The final settlement, however, was less favorable to Italian interests than that originally promised, and resulted in widespread malcontent regarding the post-war government.

In March 1919, Mussolini created a radically nationalist and anti-communist party – Fasci Italiani di Combattimento. Mussolini, who loved the splendor and extravagance of Ancient Rome, adopted a Roman symbol of authority, the fascio (an axe wrapped in whipping rods) for his group of devotees. As inflation and economic decline spread throughout Europe and Italy following the war, factory workers began to go on strikes in northern Italy. In 1920, Mussolini’s group’s numbers were bolstered by ex-soldiers willing to break up these strikes. Mussolini marched 50,000 Fascist supporters (known as Blackshirts for their attire) in squads against the strikers and left-wing newspapers. The Blackshirts garnered their support from the financial contributions of industrialists and large landowners, who shared their anti-communist sentiments, but also believed that they could control the excesses of the Fascist party. The police often refused to stop the squads, allowing the Blackshirts freedom to inflict whatever damage they wished.

The widespread destabilization of the previous social orders throughout Europe due to economic uncertainty in the aftermath of the war and the successful establishment of the Soviet Union as a socialist state led many to believe that democracy was weak and ineffectual, while monarchy was discredited as an oppressive and unresponsive system. A command economy was thought to be a progressive and scientific method of social organization. Fascism incorporated the futuristic and populist elements of Communist ideology, but also identified itself strongly with the nationalism that had created the modern European nation-states in the late 19th Century.

Despite growing popularity and the introduction of proportional representation in the Parliament, Mussolini's party fared poorly at the polls, winning no seats in 1920 and only 35 in May 1921 (7% of the vote). The internal political situation however, swung in Mussolini's favor. The birth of the Communist Party of Italy, openly allied with Lenin's Soviet regime in Moscow, polarized Italian politics. Proportional representation caused stagnation in government, until a weak coalition finally came into place in February 1922. In October of that year, as Mussolini was giving one of his soon-to-be characteristic speeches from atop a balcony, he suddenly cried, “To Rome! To Rome!” The crowd of supporters, much to Mussolini’s surprise, echoed his cry. Blackshirts to the number of 40,000 organized to march on the capital. Mussolini, however, went into hiding, afraid of the impending collapse of his movement. When it became clear that the army would not oppose his action, however, Mussolini moved decisively. As Blackshirts began to occupy key posts in Rome on 27-28 October, the king, Victor Emmanuel III, to the chagrin of his elected cabinet, appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister so long as Mussolini halted the advance to Rome. Mussolini agreed. His word was not to be trusted, however, as he soon after marched on the city anyway, creating an incredible propaganda success for the Fascists. Over the next few years, he led a slow-motion coup d'état. By 1926, he had become the undisputed totalitarian dictator (“Il Duce,” or “the leader”) of Italy.

Mussolini's regime embarked on a campaign of militarization and political maneuvering. First, he began to ready Italy for war. One of Mussolini’s driving ambitions was to restore the hegemony of the Roman Empire in a modern Italy. To that end, he encouraged couples to have as many children as possible as he organized large-scale expansions of the agricultural sector to feed them. He extended an olive branch to the Catholic Church by way of the Lateran Accords, which recognized papal authority over the Vatican and declared Catholicism the official religion of all of Italy, ending hundreds of years of estrangement. Mussolini seemed to have been a victim of his own propaganda as, in 1935, he deemed his newly-formed army strong enough to invade Ethiopia. The Italian army invaded from Italian-held Eritrea. The underestimation of the enemy proved fatal for thousands of ill-prepared Italians as the army met face-to-face with the “Lion of the Desert,” Omar Mukhtar (whose death by hanging at the hands of the Italians ended his twenty-year resistance). The poorly-armed Ethiopians were eventually defeated primarily due to terror tactics, such as poison gas and terror bombings. Mussolini’s sense of superiority did not seem hurt by his army's poor preparation, as, over the next few years, he became a close ally of Hitler's. In 1939, Mussolini signed the “Pact of Steel,” creating a formal alliance between Italy and Nazi Germany. Mussolini, while publicly effervescent, did not have the universal power and control enjoyed by Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, a lack of gravitas which would later cost him his life. Nevertheless, Mussolini rode at the helm of the 20th century dictatorship, invented the terms Fascism and Totalitarianism, and pioneered the use of propaganda to control the masses in newspapers, posters, radio, and in movie cinemas.

The Weimar Republic (1918-1933)
Following the complete collapse of Germany's armed forces throughout the waning months of 1918, German generals and politicians desperately sought to surrender. The Allied Powers, however, would not negotiate with the autocratic Kaiser Wilhelm II, and insisted upon Germany to adopt a democratic government. In this disarray, Germany quickly fell along the slippery slope to revolution, appearing as though it might go the same direction as Russia – Marxist. After Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated the throne on November 7, a new republic was declared, and a National Assembly convened at Weimar to circumvent the unrest in Berlin. The hastily-formed republican government took its name from the host city and surrendered. The Allied Powers, in turn, forced upon the defeated nation extremely harsh and punitive terms through the Treaty of Versailles. Clause 231 of the treaty, the so-called "war-guilt" clause, called for Germany to accept total and sole blame for the Great War (while, arguably, they merely joined) and to pay reparations to the “victimized” Allied Powers. Finally, it was established that Germany was to disband its air force permanently, and to have no more than 100,000 men in its armed forces. The Rhineland, along the Franco-German border, was demilitarized and put under French jurisdiction. The extremely valuable Saar region, home to most of Germany’s factories, was made autonomous.

These harsh restrictions gave the fledgling Weimar Republic unwarranted disrespect. Many Germans had opposed the treaty, and it created large amounts of resentment within Germany. (Retrospectively, the Treaty of Versailles is seen as one of the most fundamental causes of the rise of Adolf Hitler and World War II.) The newfound lack of industry compounded the reparations Germany was forced to pay. To assuage its monetary woes, The Weimar Republic began to print paper money at exorbitant rates – rates so high, that, by 1923, the American Dollar was worth 4.2 trillion German Marks. Amidst the chaos of disappearing life savings and a tumultuous economy, Gustav Stresemann came to the forefront of Weimar Politik. Under his leadership, the Weimar Republic managed to regain marked stability in the period of 1923-1929. Peoples discontent about the Weimar government increased day by day. Hyperinflation was corrected, but Stresemann's death in 1929 and the catastrophic worldwide Great Depression the same year brought about the death of the Weimar Republic. This untimely fall led to the empowerment of a man who would vault Germany to an unprecedented world power, who would pursue the elimination of “undesirables” such as Jews and homosexuals, who would begin the second world war of the 20th Century. Hitler, who had been subverting many of his countrymen during the economically tumultuous 1920s, took advantage of the Weimar Republic’s fall.

The Rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany (1914-1939)
In August 1914, as the world took the fatal plunge into World War I, an unknown and unimportant young Austrian national named Adolf Hitler enlisted in the German Army. Born on April 20, 1889 into a troubled and strict Austrian family, Hitler was a failed artist and an ardent German nationalist (Austrians are ethnically German and indistinguishable from their cousins). His anti-semitic views already in place from his early life as a vagrant (he dropped out of high school and was refused admission to a Vienna art school), Hitler was eager to serve his adopted homeland. He had an exemplary record of service and received the prestigious Iron Cross, both First and Second Class, and also achieved the undistinguished rank of Corporal. Shocked and deeply angered by the German defeat in 1918, he personally put the sole blame on the so-called "November politicians" (referring to those who formed the Weimar Republic). He also put blame on the Jews for the downfall of Germany.

After the war, Hitler remained in the army and after receiving intelligence and oratory training, became an intelligence official tasked with infiltrating political parties and reporting to his superiors on their activities. In March 1919, he was instructed to sit in on a meeting of the small nationalist German Worker's Party. He joined the party in September, and upon his discharge from the army in 1920, soon became the leader of the party which changed its name to the German National Socialist Worker's Party (NSDAP or Nazi for short, from its German name Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei). Over the next few years, Hitler's oratorical skills allowed the party to expand. It soon had its own private armed forces, known as the SA led by Ernst Rohm. Another important admirer was Erich Lundendorff, a Field Marshall from the First World War, whose help proved invaluable in setting up the Beer Hall Putsch.

The Beer Hall Putsch and Mein Kampf (1923-1925)
On November 8, 1923, Adolf Hitler and a group of SA raided a beer hall in Munich where the three most powerful politicians in Bavaria were giving speeches. Taking the men hostage, Hitler threatened them with death (and his own suicide) if they did not side with his intention to overturn Bavaria's government and then to march on Berlin. The men agreed (with little other choice). Hitler then made the colossal error of leaving the hall. He left Marshall Lundendorff in command, who upon the assurances of the three politicians that they only wished to return home to their families and would continue to support Hitler, allowed them to leave the hall. The men quickly denounced Hitler and mobilized the government's resistance to his "revolution". Adolf Hitler was enraged. He decided to march his SA the next morning against the Bavarian government. However, army regulars were already at the War Ministry when Hitler arrived and the rebellion was quickly scattered. Hitler was arrested and tried. He spoke so forcefully at his trial however, that the head judge had to harass the other two judges into even convicting him at all. He received a five year sentence. The abortive coup Hitler tried to carry out is referred to as the Beer Hall Putsch.

In prison, Hitler dictated the book Mein Kampf (My Struggle) to his close friend and confidant, Rudolf Hess. The book was a savage "hymn of hate" denouncing Jews as "parasites" and laying down the foundation for the plan of military conquest Hitler would later attempt. It was all painfully clear: the rearmament of Germany, the invasion of Poland, the invasion of the Soviet Union; Hitler had written down for anyone who wished to read it his plan of action. Unfortunately, few non-Germans read the book, but all too many Germans did. Hitler was released after spending only eight months of his sentence, mostly because the authorities thought he was harmless. He found the Nazi party virtually moribund. In 1925, he formed the Schutzstaffel (SS) to be his personal body guard under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler.

The Nazi Regime (1933-1939)
Through the use of propaganda, Hitler became immensely popular among the German people. To end the depressions, Hitler followed a program of massive public works, including the infamous Autobahn, dams, roads, railroads, and civil improvements. His official announcement of rearmament in 1936 (although it had actually begun much earlier) stimulated the economy further, as it would in the United States during the Second World War. Culture evolved along a strict set of party rules. Men were the heads of work and home; a woman's place was as a cleaner and a mother. The Nazis encouraged large families to literally create men to serve in the army. The Nazis, through their policy of racism, wanted superiority in every sphere of life. When the Olympic Games came to Berlin in 1936, the Germans showed off their athletes in huge stadiums built for the purpose.

Adolf Hitler practiced a policy of racial superiority of the Germans, whom he called Aryans, and people were sorted by the correct ethnic "purity". The ideal was the tall, blond, blue-eyed, muscular, and handsome Nordic youth (ironically, Hitler had brown hair). Hitler's regime followed a totalitarian policy; the SS and the secret police, the Gestapo, ruthlessly enforced loyalty to Hitler and rounded up the Nazi's enemies. In 1934, when the army had demanded as the price of its support the dissolution of the SA, Hitler had Ernst Rohm assassinated. Heinrich Himmler became the chief of secret police activities and the mastermind behind the terror. In 1935, the Nazis enacted the Nuremberg Laws, which placed extreme restrictions of Jews and their freedoms as human beings. The economic lives of the Jews were smashed. At this stage however, Hitler was not actively killing Jews but deporting them. The Nazis operated concentration camps at this time to deal primarily with political prisoners.

The propaganda machine of the Nazis was similar to that of Stalin in the USSR. However, the Nazis, under propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels, used their propaganda to acquire not only acquiescence to Hitler's schemes, but also to convince the Germans of their policy of racial purity and antisemitism. Goebbels saw to it that, like in the Soviet Union, a picture of the Führer appeared in every building and home, and in many public places. Posters were one of the favorites of the Nazis. They also used the theater extensively to bring in support for the party's goals.

Joseph Stalin takes power in the Soviet Union (1924-1934)
When Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, he left a power vacuum behind in the wake of his death, centering on the continued use of the New Economic Policy (NEP). The primary contenders for political power were Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky. Leon Trotsky was a brilliant politician, and had been Commissar of War during the Civil War. He was a gifted orator and a dedicated Communist, especially to the cause of causing Marxist revolutions internationally, through the use of arms if need be. Ironically, Trotsky had originally been a member of the Menshevik faction of the Russian Social Workers Party, until Lenin, recognizing his genius, had won him over to the Bolshevik camp. Stalin, on the other hand, was a gifted organizer. He was referred to by many of his contemporaries in the party as "Comrade Index-card". However, Trotsky was obviously the more popular choice for the job as the head of the new communist state. Unfortunately for Trotsky, Stalin was also the party's General Secretary. Although primarily a bureaucratic job, the General Secretary actually held the most power in the party because he appointed regional and local party posts in government. Stalin was therefore in a position to appoint those who would support his bid for power.

Stalin initially allied himself with the right and center factions of the Communist Party (if any part of a far-left party may be called "right") which supported the continued existence of the NEP. Allying himself with Lev Kamenev and Grigori Zinoviev, he threw his might against Trotsky, who was removed from his post as People's Commissar of War. Stalin now turned against Kamenev and Zinoviev, allying himself with Nicolai Bukharin. Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party on November 12, 1927, and expelled from the Soviet Union in 1928. He eventually found his way to Mexico, where he was murdered in 1940, probably on Stalin's orders. Now Stalin turned on his allies again, abandoning Bukharin and calling for the abandonment of the NEP. By now, Stalin was the undisputed leading figure of the Communist Party. By the early 1930s, Stalin would truly become the dictator of the Soviet Union.

The First Five-Year Plan and Collectivization (1927-1939)
At the Fifteenth Congress of the Communist Party, Stalin openly advocated the end of the NEP and introduced a plan for rapidly industrializing the largely rural Soviet Union, remarking that the country was "fifty to one hundred years behind the advanced countries". The government then introduced Gosplan (The State General Planning Commission) which came up with basis for the Five-Year Plan, aimed to turn the country into a major industrial power within five years. The plan set ridiculously high quotas for development. Nonetheless, terrific economic growth was achieved, especially in the areas of coal and iron output. As a result, steel production grew exponentially. However, harsh penalties for not making quotas caused large-scale misrepresentation of growth to occur. Harsh totalitarian measures were introduced. Miners were expected to put in 16 and 18 hour work days, unheard of even the strictest parts of the major capitalist countries. Poor and hazardous working conditions caused countless deaths. Most of the massive industrial complexes constructed for the Five-Year Plan were built by slave-laborers, sentenced for trivial and often completely false crimes. Approximately 3.7 million people were sentenced for counter-revolutionary crimes, approximately 0.6 million were put to death, 0.7 million were expatriated, and 2.7 million  were sent to forced labor camps (called the Gulag), often itself a death sentence.

As another part of the Five-Year Plan, the government began to forcibly collectivize agriculture (that is, to create large-scale farms where peasants worked the land collectively). The state sought not only an increase in agricultural output, but also to export grain abroad, in order to gain financial capital to buy important technologies for the industrial parts of the Five-Year Plan. By 1936, 90% of the nation's farms had been collectivized. However, this was not done without cost. Peasants almost universally actively opposed collectivization. In the Ukraine, the peasants killed off livestock rather than give it to the authorities. Stalin was so incensed that he allowed a famine to occur which led to the deaths of millions of innocent Ukrainians. As a result, throughout the period of 1924-1953, agricultural output was generally low, not regaining output levels of the period of the NEP until 1940, and rising only marginally in the following years. In addition, Stalin saw fit to deal with richer peasant farmers (known as Kulaks) by deporting them to forced labor in Siberia. In practice however, any person critical of collectivization was deemed a Kulak and summarily deported. It is estimated that at least 2.5 million peasants (in addition to the above industrial workers) were deported, though the true number is believed to be much greater.

The Great Purges and Politics in the Soviet Union (1930-1939)
Throughout the period of collectivization and the Five-Year Plan, the Soviet government became increasingly tyrannical. Stalin, was extremely paranoid, began to turn on important members of the party he had once called supporters. In 1934, the last person who might have rivaled Stalin, Sergei Kirov, was shot in his office, most likely on Stalin's orders. Using the murder as a pretext, he began to engage in ruthless purges of the party membership. Ironically, most of the purged members were original members of the party and colleagues of Lenin, known as the Old Bolsheviks. Through a series of show trials, the defendants were sentenced to death and to forced labor in the Gulag. Often, after using torture to extract signed confessions and agreeing on lenient sentences for a confession of false charges in the court, Stalin would turn on his word and have the defendants executed. Zinoviev and Kamenev, Stalin's old allies, both met this fate. Through 1936-1937, a period known as the Great Terror, Stalin supposedly personally signed 40,000 death warrants.

Stalin's dictatorship held incredible control over the general populace of the nation. Intense propaganda campaigns tried to indoctrinate the society with Communist thought. Stalin wanted to replace the national identities, such as the Russians, Ukrainians, or Belarussians, with the idea of a purely "Soviet" citizen. He also stipulated that all ethnic groups be treated equally. Under the Tsars, the Russians had been given preference. Now the heavy hand of Stalin was given equally to all nations. However, this did not prevent him from forcing the speakers of every language in the USSR to convert to the Cyrillic alphabet. Religion came under intense pressure as well, as atheism was the official policy of the state. Priests were rounded up and shipped to Gulag or executed. By the end of the terror, less than 1,000 churches remained out of at least 20,000. The NKVD, the Soviet secret police, hunted down citizens suspected of "counter-revolutionary" or "subversive" crimes. During the Great Terror, as many as 1 million people (the NKVD's own records admit 0.681 million) were executed for simply "opposing" Stalin's ideas and plans. False confessions were routinely extracted through torture and intimidation. The penalty for countless others (numbering by the most conservative estimates in the millions) was the Gulag. Fear was the order of the day in the Soviet Union. In addition, the Soviet state cultivated an extreme cult of personality around Stalin. Pictures of the dictator appeared at every street corner and in every building, including people's homes. School children ended the pledge of allegiance at the beginning of each day by saying "...and thank Comrade Stalin for this happy life". To be fair, social conditions did improve under Stalin. Unemployment fell to practically zero, and large bounds in the public health were introduced. However, there was no freedom whatsoever in Soviet society.

Francisco Franco's Fascist Spain and the Spanish Civil War (1936-1945)
Francisco Franco rose to power after the brutal turmoil of the Spanish Civil War. The conflict was between the residing leftist republican parties and the nationalist movement led by Franco. Some view the Spanish Civil War as a "dress rehearsal for World War II". The Struggle of dictatorship and democracy is evident in this conflict.


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World History/Effects of the First World War

Direct Effects
The First World War left Europe in ruins. By the Treaty of Versailles, Germany, taking the blame for the war, was forced to pay massive reparations to the victorious Allies and lost lands to France and a restored Poland. The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed, with Czechoslovakia seceding, and other territories going to Poland, Serbia (now Yugoslavia), Italy, and Romania. These changes were made permanent by the Treaty of Saint-Germain, which also gave Yugoslavia the Austrian Adriatic Fleet. Bulgaria ceded small strips of territory to Romania, Yugoslavia, and Greece.

The Great Influenza Epidemic
Most devastating, though, was a massive influenza outbreak that started on the front lines and spread throughout the world, carried by soldiers returning from the war. This outbreak killed more people in more countries than the war itself.