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Gender and ICT/References

_______. 2001. ‘Information and Communications Technologies: A Priority for Women in Developing Countries’. Paper prepared for the International Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology: Current Trends and Future Action, Radcliffe Public Policy Centre, Cambridge, MA, 30 April-1 May 2001. _______. 2001. China set to catch up with Japan. http://www.emarketer.com, 9 February. Association for Progressive Communications. 2003. ICT Policy: A Beginner’s Handbook. Johannesburg: APC. APC WNSP. 2003. Gender Evaluation Methodology for Internet and ICTs: A Learning Tool for Change and Empowerment. pp. 42–43. APC WNSP. Gender Analysis. http://www.apcwomen.org/gem/en/understanding_gem/genderanalysis.htm APC WNSP. Gender Analysis Matrix. APC WNSP. Gender and Information and Communication Technology: Towards an Analytical Framework. http://www.apcwomen.org/work/research/analytical-framework.html APC WNSP. Gender Indicators. http://www.apcwomen.org/gem/en/gem_tool/step4.htm APC WNSP. The Betel Chew Ritual. Bhatty, K. 1998. ‘Education deprivation in India: A survey of field investigations’, Economic and Political Weekly, 4 July. pp. 1731–1740. Chamberlain, L. 2002. ‘Considerations for Gender Advocacy vis-à-vis ICT Policy and Strategy’. Paper presented at the UN Division for the Advancement of Women Expert Group Meeting on Information and Communication Technologies and Their Impact On and Use as an Instrument for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 11-14 November 2002. Ref: EGM/ICT/2002/OP.2. Chamberlain, L., Hafkin, N., Huyer, S. 2002. Recommendations for the Operational Integration of Gender in infoDev – Draft for discussion, unpublished infoDev paper. Costanza-Chock, S. 2003. ‘Data slaves: low-skill infowork in US prisons’. Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Annenberg School for Communication in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts. Cited in Gurumurthy, A. 2004. Gender and ICTs: Overview Report. Brighton: BRIDGE, Institute of Development Studies. p. 25. Dhar, A. (moderator). 2003. Summary of Discussions: From 13 September to 12 December. Discussion list by i4d on Gender ICT: Issues, Implications & Opportunities. http://www.dgroups.org/groups/GenderICT/docs/GenderIctReport.doc Evers, H. 2002. Transition towards a Knowledge Society: Malaysia and Indonesia Compared. http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/soz/iw/pdf/Evers_Transition.pdf Fontaine, M. 2000. ‘A High-Tech Twist: ICT Access and the Gender Divide’. Knowledge Enterprise Inc. http://www.TechKnowLogia.org Gibbons, D. S. and Kasim, S. 1990. Banking on the Rural Poor. Penang: Centre for Policy Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia. Gurumurthy, A. 2004. Gender and ICTs: Overview Report. Brighton: BRIDGE, Institute of Development Studies. Gurumurthy, A. and Sarkar, R. 2003. Poverty Alleviation through Tele-centre Initiatives. Bangalore: IT for Change. http://itforchange.net/mambo/content/view/62/40/ Hafkin, N. 2002. ‘Gender Issues in ICT Policy in Developing Countries: An Overview’. Paper presented at the UN Division for the Advancement of Women Expert Group Meeting on Information and Communication Technologies and Their Impact On and Use as an Instrument for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 11–14 November 2002. Hafkin, N. and Taggart, N. 2001. ‘Gender, Information Technology, and Developing Countries: An Analytic Study’. For the Office of Women in Development, Bureau for Global Programs, Field Support and Research, United States Agency for International Development. http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/cross-cutting_programs/wid/pubs/hafnoph.pdf Henson, V. 2002. How to Encourage Women in Linux. http://www.faqs.org/docs/Linux-HOWTO/Encourage-Women-Linux-HOWTO.html

Hersh, M. 2000. ‘The Changing Position of Women in Engineering Worldwide’. IEEE Transactions of Engineering Management. Vol. 47, No. 3, August. p. 346. Heyzer, N. 2002. UNIFEM and Information Technology. July. Jorge, S. N. 2001. ‘Gender-aware guidelines for policy-making and regulatory agencies’. Prepared for the Task Force on Gender Issues, August 2001, Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/gender/pdf/GenderAwarenessGuidelines.pdf Jorge, S. N. 2000. ‘Gender Perspectives in Telecommunications Policy: A Curriculum Proposal’. Report of Working Group I, Third Meeting of the Task Force on Gender Issues, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, Switzerland, 9-10 October 2000. Document TFGI 3/4 E. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/gender/projects/GenderCurriculum.pdf Kabeer, N. 1999. ‘From feminist insights to an analytical framework: An institutional perspective on gender inequality’, in Kabeer and Subrahmanian (eds.), op. cit. Kabeer, N. 1997. ‘Tactics and trade-offs: Revisiting the links between gender and poverty’, IDS Bulletin, Vol. 28, No.3. pp. 1–13. Kabeer, N. 1994. Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought. London: Verso, 330pp. Kabeer, N. and Subrahmanian, R. 1999. ‘From concepts to practice: Gender-aware planning through the institutional framework’, in Kabeer and Subrahmanian (eds.), op. cit. Kabeer, N and Subrahmanian, R. (eds). 1999. Institutions, Relations and Outcomes: A Framework and Case-Studies for Gender- Aware Planning, New Delhi: Kali for Women. Kaplinsky, R. 2002. ‘Global Integration: A Race to the Bottom’, IDS News. http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/news/Archive/HDRkapkinsky.html

Kee, J. 2004. ‘Using ICT in Services, Public Education and Advocacy’. Case study prepared for the APC WNSP-organized Gender and ICT Policy Advocacy Workshop, Asia Pacific NGO Forum, Beijing+10, Bangkok, Thailand, 2 July 2004. Kenny, C. 2001. ‘Information and Communication Technologies and Poverty’, in TechKnowLogia, July/August. Knowledge Enterprise Inc. http://www.TechKnowLogia.org Kenny, C., et al. 2000. ‘ICTs and Poverty’. Draft manuscript, World Bank. In Information and Communication Technologies: A Priority for Women in Developing Countries. Paper presented at the International Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology: Current Trends and Future Action, Radcliffe Public Policy Centre, Cambridge MA, 30 April - 1 May 2001. Kuga Thas, A. M. 2003. ‘Potential Benefits of ICT and Gender Related Barriers’. Paper prepared for UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific and presented at the Forum on Gender and ICTs, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 21 August 2003. Longwe, S. H. 2002. ‘Spectacles for Seeing Gender in Project Evaluation’. Presented at the APC WNSP Africa Gender Evaluation Workshop, Zanzibar, Tanzania, 19–23 November 2002. Marchand, M. H. and Runyam, A. S. 2000. Gender and Global Restructuring: Sightings, sites and resistances, London and New York: Routledge. pp. 3–4 Mitra Sr, S. 2001. ‘New Technologies for Development and Disaster Relief’. Paper presented at the United States Agency for International Development Conference, Washington, DC, January 2001.

Mitter, S. 2001. Asian Women in the Digital Economy: Policies for Participation, Kuala Lumpur: UNDP. Mitter, S. 2000. ‘Keynote Address on Women in Knowledge Societies: Challenges and Opportunities’. Presented at the Global Knowledge II Women’s Forum, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 6–7 March 2000. http://www.globalknowledge.org/gkii/gkf_womenforum_prog.htm Mitter, S. 1998. ‘On Questioning the Globality of Knowledge: Information Society and Women’s World’, GASAT Asia Conference, August. In Information and Communication Technologies: A Priority for Women in Developing Countries. Paper presented at the International Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology: Current Trends and Future Action, Radcliffe Public Policy Centre, Cambridge MA, 30 April - 1 May 2001. Mitter, S. 1995. ‘Who benefits: measuring the different impact of new technologies’ in Missing Links: Science and Technology for Sustainable and Equitable Development. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. p. 234. Mitter, S. 1995. ‘Information Technology and Working Women’s Demands’ in Mitter, S. and Rowbotham, S. (eds.) Women Encounter Technology: Changing Patterns of Employment in the Third World. London and New York: Routledge. pp. 19–43. http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu37we/uu37we05.htm#2.%20information%20technology%20and %20working%20women’s%20demands Mitter, S. 1995. in Ng and Kua (eds.) 1995. New Technologies and the Future of Women’s Work in Asia. Workshop Report, Malaysia, 13–16 September 1994. Maastricht, the Netherlands: United Nations University / Institute for New Technologies Publications. p. 67.

Mitter, S. and Rowbotham, S. (eds.) 1995. Women Encounter Technology: Changing Patterns of Employment in the Third World. London and New York: Routledge. http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu37we/uu37we00.htm#Contents Moser, C. O. N. 1993. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training. London: Routledge. Ng, C. 1999. ‘Making women’s voices heard: technological change and women’s employment in Malaysia’ in Gender, Technology and Development, Vol. 3 No. 1. p. 24. Ng, C. 1998. ‘Teleworking and Gender in the Information Age: New Opportunities for Malaysian Women’. Paper presented at the Regional Conference on Gender and Technology in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand, 4–7 August 1998. http://www.apdip.net/ projects/seminars/it-policy/cn/resources/cecilia/TWGASAT.html Ng, C. and Yong, C. 1995. ‘Information Technology, Gender and Employment’ in Mitter, S. and Rowbotham, S. (eds.) Women Encounter Technology: Changing Patterns of Employment in the Third World. London and New York: Routledge. http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/uu37we uu37we0k.htm#9.%20information%20technology, %20gender%20 and%20employment Nua Internet Surveys. http://www.nua.ie/surveys/ Ramilo, C. 2002. ‘National ICT Policies and Gender Equality: Regional Perspective—Asia’. Paper presented at the UN Division for the Advancement of Women Expert Group Meeting on Information and Communication Technologies and Their Impact On and Use as an Instrument for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women, Seoul, Republic of Korea, 11-14 November 2002. Ref: EGM/ICT/2002/EP.2. Ramilo, C. and Villanueva, P. 2001. ‘Agenda Item 4: Issues, Policies and Outcomes: Are ICT Policies Addressing Gender Equality?’, UNESCAP Expert Group Meeting to Review ICT Policies from a Gender Perspective, Bangkok, Thailand, 18-19 December 2001.

Rathgeber, E. 1995. ‘Schooling for What? Education and Career Opportunities for Women in Science, Technology and Engineering’, in Missing Links: Science and Technology for Sustainable and Equitable Development. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre. pp. 181–200. Rathgeber, E. and Adera, E. O. (eds.) 2000. ‘Gender and Information Revolution in Africa’ in Information and Communication Technologies: A Priority for Women in Developing Countries. Paper presented at the International Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology: Current Trends and Future Action, Radcliffe Public Policy Centre, Cambridge MA, 30 April-1 May 2001. Reardon, G. 1998. ‘Globalization, Technological Change and Women Workers in Asia’ in Information and Communication Technologies: A Priority for Women in Developing Countries. Paper presented at the International Meeting on Gender, Science and Technology: Current Trends and Future Action, Radcliffe Public Policy Centre, Cambridge MA, 30 April-1 May 2001. Rose, P. 1995. Gender and Education Policy: Lessons from the World Bank, Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Sarkar, R. 2003. ‘Building Information Societies: Grappling with Gendered Fault-lines’. DATAQUEST. Shreiner, H. 1999. ‘Rural Women, Development, and Telecommunications: A Pilot Program in South Africa’. Gender and Development. Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 54–70, in Benjamin, P. Telecentre 2000: International Case Studies: Africa. Sprigman, C. and Lurie, P. 2004. ‘Broadband Marxism’, in Foreign Policy, March/April, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=2509. Cited in Gurumurthy, A. 2004. Gender and ICTs: Overview Report. Brighton: BRIDGE, Institute of Development Studies. p. 20. Subrahmanian, R. 2002. ‘Gender and Education: A Review of Issues for Social Policy’ in Social Policy and Development Programme Paper No. 9. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. April. United Nations Development Fund for Women. 2000. Progress of the World’s Women 2000. New York: United Nations. p. 28. http://www.unifem.org United Nations Development Programme. 2002. Human Development Report 2002. New York: UNDP. http://www.undp.org

Wickett, E. 2004. ‘Video for development communication’, The Drum Beat, Issue 256, 5 July, The Communication Initiative. http://www.comminit.com/drum_beat_256.html Williams, S., Seed, J. and Mwau, A. 1994. The Oxfam Gender Training Manual. Oxford: Oxfam UK and Ireland. Youth Creating Digital Opportunities. 2003. ‘Talk to Her: A Dialogue to Action among Young Women in ICT’. Consultation Report. 24 October - 30 November 2003.

title: Gender and ICT/References


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Gender and ICT/About the Authors

Angela M. Kuga Thas has been a member of the APC WNSP since August 2002. An advocate for women’s empowerment and non-discrimination, Angela draws her knowledge and experience from her wider networking and previous work with women’s rights advocates on the CEDAW Convention and in the area of women’s sexual and reproductive health, as well in the provision of micro-credit for poor women. Angela has been particularly active in supporting the work of APC WNSP in its gender and ICT policy advocacy during the processes of the first phase of WSIS. She played a lead role in the APC WNSP’s inaugural Gender and ICT Awards collaborative project with GKP, and in the successful Malaysian replication of WENT, a regional ICT training workshop which was jointly managed annually by the APC WNSP and APWINC on behalf of AWORC from 1999 to 2004. Angela has always been passionate about building up the capacity of others, particularly women, and with a group of like-minded women and men, founded KRYSS (Knowledge and Rights with Young people through Safer Spaces). Working within a gender equality and human rights framework, KRYSS aims to better enable young people in dealing with and addressing identity-based discrimination, and adopts the use of creative arts and expression in our training. A Malaysian, Angela designed the Seed Grant and Small Innovative Project (SGSIP) Fund of the GKP and plays an advisory role to its Youth Social Entrepreneurship Initiative. Angela is also a member of the Advisory Board of the Global Fund for Women and the International Advisory Committee for BRIDGE at the Institute of Development Studies in the United Kingdom. She currently sits on the Board of the Association for Women’s Rights in Development.

Chat Garcia Ramilo is a Filipino national residing in the Philippines. She has been specializing in gender, ICT and women’s electronic networking for the last nine years. Chat is currently the Global Coordinator of APC WNSP. For the last three years, she has managed APC WNSP’s ground-breaking GEM project. As a gender and ICT specialist, Chat has worked as a gender and ICT consultant for UNIFEM, UNESCAP, the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, the Canadian International Development Agency and the World Bank. She has also been a speaker and resource person in international workshops and conferences in many countries. The most recent of these are at the UNESCO Expert Group Meeting on Gender Issues in the Information Society (Paris, July, 2003), United Nations Commission on the Status of Women, 47th Session (New York, March, 2003), Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on WSIS (Tokyo, January 2003), and the UN Division for the Advancement of Women Expert Group Meeting on Information and Communication Technologies and Their Impact On and Use as an Instrument for the Advancement and Empowerment of Women (Seoul, November 2002).

Cheekay Cinco has worked as the Regional Coordinator for GEM for ICTs and Internet-based initiatives, one of the major projects of the APC WNSP in the past three years. As such, she has assisted several projects and initiatives in Asia-Pacific in developing and implementing gender evaluation in their work. She was also involved in drafting and finalizing the current version of the GEM tool . She also assisted the projects supported by GKP through its SGSIP fund in incorporating gender in the evaluation of their projects. Aside from being an active member of the APC WNSP, she is also one of the founding members of WomensHub, a Philippine-based organization that focuses on gender and ICT issues in the Philippines. She is currently managing WomensHub’s project called ‘SheBlogs’, which aims to develop an open source, web management application and website for Filipino women. She has been working in the area of gender and ICT since 1999 when she was the Project Administrator for AWORC, an online regional network of women’s resource centres and organization focusing on utilizing ICTs for women’s empowerment. Her experience in AWORC included managing the network’s regional website for the Five-Year Review of the Beijing Platform for Action. She has also been involved as a trainer, and as part of the coordinating team of the WENT initiative.

APDIP The Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme (APDIP) is an initiative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) that aims to promote the development and application of information and communication technologies for sustainable human development in the Asia-Pacific region. APDIP aims to meet its goals by focusing on three inter-related core areas: (i) policy development and dialogue; (ii) access; and (iii) content development and knowledge management. APDIP collaborates with national governments, regional, international and multi-lateral development organizations, UN agencies, educational and research organizations, civil society groups, and the private sector in integrating ICTs in the development process. It does so by employing a dynamic mix of strategies – awareness raising, capacity building, technical assistance and advice, research and development, knowledge sharing and partnership building. http://www.apdip.net

APC WNSP The Association for Progressive Communications Women’s Networking Support Program (APC WNSP) was initiated in 1993 in response to several convergent needs and demands from within the women’s movement. It is a global network with over 100 women and their organizations from more than 35 countries. They are individual women and women’s groups and organizations working in the field of gender and ICT. APC WNSP promotes gender equity in the design, development, implementation, and use of ICTs - with special focus on inequities based on women’s social or ethnic background - through the provision of research, training, information, and support activities in the field of ICT policy, skills-sharing in the access and use of ICT, and women’s network-building. http://www.apcwomen.org

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gender and ICT/About the Authors


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Lariat


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Halter hitch

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Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Final Assignment Links/Tiffany Hall

Rather than rank ordering what I believe to be the five most important change issues in curriculum and instruction, I’ve created a hierarchy wherein one level supports and/or leads to another in an effort to reach the ultimate goal—making America competitive in a “flat” world. For the sake of this assignment, if I absolutely had to rank order my chosen change issues I would do so as follows:

1.	Curriculum and Instruction Reform: Making America Competitive in a “Flat” World

2.	Believing that Change Can Happen: Becoming Comfortable with Risk

3.	Teachers as Learners and Learners as Teachers/Learning How to Learn and Teach

4.	Standards Based Testing as the Ceiling Rather than the Floor

5.	Isolation and Differentiation

The change issues most important to me are discussed below in ascending order as they would appear on a hierarchical graphic organizer.

Believing that Change Can Happen: Becoming Comfortable with Risk
We as teachers have far more power than we realize. To utilize this power, we must become risk takers. Teaching is a profession that requires years of training, demonstration of basic competencies, and continuous learning to maintain certification. There are few other professions that require a similar level of ongoing professional development and evaluation, yet of all professions teachers have the least input into what actually happens in their field. Many times this is because teachers aren’t given a seat at the table, but what is wrong with demanding and taking that seat? Teachers are in the trenches and see first hand how students respond to instruction. Good teachers know what works best for students. Knowing what works best isn’t good enough. Teachers have to be willing to stand up and fight for what works best for students. In my third year of teaching I was a member of a kindergarten team required to use Breakthrough to Literacy (BTL), a computer based reading program, for all of my students regardless of reading or writing ability. I had three BTL stations in my classroom and each child was assigned a station with a total of six students assigned per station. A student spent a 15-minute session on BTL and upon completion of the session, would tap the next student assigned to complete fifteen minutes on BTL. This cycle was required to go on all day long with each student completing at least two BTL sessions per day. Out of my eighteen students, I had only four that I thought could really benefit from the type of instruction BTL provided, so I didn’t require the others to complete the sessions. That year, my students were reading so well that they were allowed to take Accelerated Reader (AR) tests that were reserved for grades two and above and their hallway writings rivaled the writings of the second graders. My students also served as math tutors for the fourth graders having difficulty with algebraic concepts. Because of this, I really saw no reason for them to have to sit in front of a computer and pick out the letter tile that matched the sound heard at the beginning of the word ball. My colleagues warned me that the students were expected to spend a certain amount of time on the computer each quarter and that the time was being monitored and reported to the principal. I approached my principal and let her know that I was not going to meet the time requirement and I showed her why. I sat down and shared with her my students’ monthly reading logs and their journal writings so that she could see the quality of their work and what they were capable of. My argument against BTL for all was similar to my previous argument against lock step grade level planning with exactly the same experiences for all students in all classes. That year I was the only kindergarten teacher not required to use BTL as intended and the only teacher in the building not required to be on the same exact page as every other grade-alike teacher. My students benefited from my willingness to take the risk and buck the system and what was so funny is that the district level BTL monitor agreed. Upon visiting my classroom to download my BTL time sheets, she had the opportunity to see my students in action and read some of their writings. She disabled BTL on two of my computers and added word processing software so that those BTL stations could then be used as publishing centers, which was far more appropriate for and of a far greater benefit to my students. I am sure that my students weren’t the only kindergartners in the building for whom BTL was obsolete, but because their teachers never did or said anything to challenge it, they were forced to complete those 15-minute sessions all day every day. Yes, those students earned certificates and one dollar for completing 100 lessons, but my students got so much more—learning tailored to their needs, readiness, and interests. Until we as teachers raise our voices and become comfortable with taking risks, many students will go without what is truly best for them.

Teachers as Learners and Learners as Teachers/Learning How to Learn and Teach
This requires a certain level of openness and risk taking on the part of the teacher, as well as the students. I believe one goal of education is to foster a love of learning in students that encourages them to be lifelong learners. What better way to foster this love of learning than demonstrating to students that no one, not even a teacher, ever knows everything and therefore, must continuously learn? This love of learning can also be developed by giving students opportunities to teach. We hear so much about collaborative teaching between teachers, but why can’t collaborative teaching include students? One school year I had a student that came in with a wonderful lesson on leaves. I used her idea and let her co-teach the lesson. That helped the other students to realize that yes, there are certain things they had to learn, but how they learned it could be influenced by them. After that experience, students were more willing to share their ideas in their areas of expertise. That year in science when the class learned about things that sink or float in water, I allowed one student who was a Titanic fanatic to share the story of the Titanic with the class. These teaching opportunities gave the students a chance to share their interests and also taught them how to gather information to make a presentation before an audience of diverse learners. What a wonderful skill to begin exercising in kindergarten. That type of experience prepares students to function in a world wherein they have to communicate ideas to people of varying backgrounds and levels of understanding with different beliefs in addition to allowing the students to connect with themselves as teachers and learners and take an active role in the teaching and learning processes.

Isolation and Differentiation
We have talked a great deal about different types of isolation in education, but the most important in my opinion is isolation of content. In an increasingly interdependent world where what happens in India affects what happens in America, it is so important for students to be able to make connections and see relationships. This is difficult to achieve if subjects are always taught in isolated chunks of time never to intermingle. The challenges that may someday be faced by today’s youth will be nearly impossible to approach without the knowledge of a variety of disciplines and understanding how everything works together. Just having the ability to tap into those disciplines and see how knowledge from one can assist in the resolution of an issue that on the surface seems irrelevant to that discipline will be an invaluable 21st century skill. Differentiating instruction is just one instructional strategy that can provide opportunities to develop this 21st century skill. According to Mary Frances Briley, differentiation is a journey, not a destination. No teacher will ever be absolutely perfect with differentiation; however, there are some teachers who are truly masterful in their differentiation of product, process, and content and those teachers know how to skillfully differentiate across the disciplines providing students with very rich learning experiences that require them to tap into knowledge and skills learned in a variety of subject areas. My brain does not store information in neat little compartments never to be opened unless I am thinking about that specific topic. The brain does not work that way, so why should teachers teach that way?

Standards Based Testing as the Floor Rather than the Ceiling
Standards based testing has dumbed down the American education system. Rather than providing students rich, meaningful, and respectful learning experiences that will prepare them to maintain America’s position as a world power, schools are now creating a citizenry highly adept at bubbling in a circle without very much thought. Although the world is round, I doubt that any of its most critical issues can be addressed and/or resolved via the filling in of a slew of little round bubbles. Unfortunately, many do believe that success on a standards based test means that students are well prepared for bright, productive futures. This is only true if the future is devoid of complex issues requiring complex thought. I do believe that testing has its place in education because it is very important for student competence to be assessed; however, the assessment must be authentic. I advocate for the use of more portfolio based and problem based assessments.

Curriculum and Instruction Reform: Making America Competitive in a “Flat” World
This is the ultimate goal of education. All a person has to do is pick up the phone and attempt to get assistance with anything to realize that the world is flat. To produce graduates capable of competing with a workforce that will include the entire world, American education as we know it must change. As shared in a previous class discussion, the jobs that will be available for today’s students haven’t even been created yet. So, what are we preparing students for? I truly believe that the traditional nine to five job is on its way out the door and that the jobs of the future will be more unique and specialized in nature and will require levels of creativity and collaboration to which the average American student is not accustomed. What can we do about this? How can the American education system be improved to prepare students for future success? It starts with teachers taking the risk to challenge the powers that be in an effort to give students what they need—a quality education that provides students with the necessary knowledge and skills to compete in a flat world.


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CCNA Certification/Routing Protocols/EIGRP

EIGRP is a Cisco proprietary "hybrid" routing protocol.


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Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Final Assignment Links/Patricia Horne

Aggressively address issues of poverty---Turn hopelessness into promise
As an urban educator, I am surrounded daily by reminders of the challenges of children who live in poverty. Yet I find that books on the topic (such as Ruby Payne's A Framework for Understanding Poverty) still reveal issues of poverty that I had not even imagined. The impacts on education are far reaching. Maslow's hierarchy of basic needs and brain research tells us that children who are hungry, tired, sick or scared are not ready to learn. It is time for us to get proactive instead of reactive. We need to put money into school reform and create community schools that provide all of the services students need (dental, medical, food, child care, adult education). I believe we would reap the benefits of this investment down the road in money saved addressing social problems such as crime, dropouts, teen pregnancy, etc.

I want to share some excerpts from an article I read entitled "Silenced by Poverty". It was featured in The Tribune, a northern Colorado paper on Feb. 20, 2005. The story reminds us that these students are not just struggling to learn and be successful, they are "struggling to survive". The author explains that because some students will go entire weekends without food, "hunger pains make it difficult to concentrate on learning". I found the next paragraph to be quite compelling: "While many students look forward to the new school year with new notebooks, clothes and supplies, students who live in poverty worry about how they will find a pencil to write with and where they will get the required materials for each class. This struggle continues daily as they search for the calculator that is required for math or the poster board and markers that they must have to complete their required project." The author explains that these students feel different because of what they wear, what they don't have and assignments they did not complete because they couldn't find a quiet spot in their overcrowded, stressed out homes. Poverty impacts students' extracurricular opportunities as well. Often students living in poverty have to hold down jobs to contribute to the family income. Even those who do not work complain that they lack the money for equipment and even the small fee for the physical required to participate. These experiences only add to "disappointment and dropout risk".

It is time for the education community and society at large to get serious about ways to help alleviate some of the stresses these children face.Free and reduced meals is a good start but we can and need to do so much more. The Tribune author asserts that in doing so we will increase a student's chances of graduating and contributing back to society.

Free high quality preschool for all---importance of school readiness/get the gap early
Retrieved from the Anne Casey Foundation site on June 19, 2007 http://www.aecf.org/Home/MajorInitiatives/RelatedInitiative/EarlyChildhoodSchoolReadiness.aspx

School readiness/leveling the playing field

Statistics indicate that children living in poverty start school behind middle class children. Their vocabularies in third grade are about 1/3 that of their peers. Researchers believe that reading and math gaps in high school can be traced all the way back to differences upon school entry. The Anne Casey Foundation's initiative is one of many across the country that is working to ensure all children, regardless of socioeconomic status, have a high quality early childhood experience. The group wants to build the capacity of everyone who interacts with the child from family to child care providers.

ODU's own Dr. Kersey is an advocate for free high quality preschool for all. Her many years of working with children bears witness to the importance of a strong, positive first experience with education. As a former first grade teacher in a housing project school, I could not believe how far behind my students were when they came to me. Many of them were already eight years old in the first grade. While they showed tremendous growth in that year, it would take much more time to have them on equal footing with middle class children. This experience convinced me of the need for year round schools. These students had come so far only to sit in front of play stations all summer. Not only do we need to provide students with an early academically rich experience, we need to continue those experiences throughout their public school years. We need to rethink the idea of three months off from school.

The Casey Foundation is working to not only get children into school earlier but to get their parents involved sooner. They seek to provide parental education and health care assistance to form a partnership with the parents to promote the academic success of the children. I believe this is a model that will take off in the not too distant future. I think the key to drawing parents and the community into a partnership is to show them you truly care and offer them what they need. High quality preschool would alleviate child care constraints for many parents struggling to make ends meet. It would go a long way to prepare students for kindergarten and build good will with their parents.

Teachers as learners and learners as teachers---let the circle be unbroken
Labels are very limiting. To call someone a student implies they have nothing to teach. Similarly, it can be assumed that a teacher has nothing to learn. Any teacher worthy of the title knows that students have so much to teach us. They have experiences and insights that we may not. They are able to communicate in a way that reaches their peers when we don't. They are able to come up with connections and exceptions that we haven't even thought of. It is this kind of learning, the give and take between students and teachers, that builds a strong classroom community of mutual respect. When the teacher listens to and validates the students' ideas, they feel empowered and are more motivated to become actively involved in their education. They are less likely to feel disenfranchised and less likely to be identified as a behavior problem in class. They become vested in what is taking place in their classroom.

Perhaps the greatest obstacle to shifting the classroom paradigm from teacher-centered to student-centered is the unwillingness of teachers to give up control. Some educators feel that they are expected to know everything. Some don't know how to admit they don't know something. The worst thing a teacher can do in this age of information is try to give the students some made up answer which the students can easily check on the internet. Rather, when a teacher says to students, "That's a really good question. I don't know? What do you think and how could we find out?", the teacher empowers the student to take control of their own learning. These types of conversations (Socratic dialogues) lead to higher level questions and critical thinking. These are the very skills workers of the future need. In fact, by asking the student how they could get the answer, the teacher is modeling the need for lifelong learning.

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Curriculum and pedagogy--what we teach and how we teach needs to change
Hall and Florin said it best,"The world is changing and education needs to change". The educational system we have today is obsolete. It was designed at a different time to meet the needs of a completely different society.

Today's world is interconnected and information is easily retrieved from most anywhere in the world via technology. Our students have grown up with technology and are what Prensky calls "digital natives". Their minds are wired and they think non-linearly. Unfortunately schools have not changed to reflect the way these technologically-savvy students think and learn. This has resulted in students being bored and feeling disenfranchised from school.

Traditional by the book learning seems unnecessary when technology allows you to research and locate information spontaneously. As Friedman purports in his book, The World is Flat, the workers of the future are going to need a completely different set of skills. He states that right-brain skills will be needed---creativity, the ability to work collaboratively, to look at problems from multiple perspectives, to respect diversity, and to problem solve and think critically. These skills are best learned through real-world based problem solving. Educators have to teach the necessary social skills as part of the curriculum to allow students to actively participate in their own education. Students should have some say in what they want to learn. The teacher can help guide the process to ensure key concepts are introduced. At this point in history, it is arguably more important that students learn in context than learn content in isolation. It is essential that students are trained in how to continue to be lifelong learners. To remain marketable, workers of the future will have to continue to learn and adapt to keep up with the new global economy.

Accountability---a good idea gone bad
I firmly believe in the idea of accountability. A high quality education can open doors that would otherwise remain closed to students. We must ensure that students are receiving the very best we have to give. The idea of accountability is a good one. How it is being applied is arguably bad. To deem a student, teacher or school as competent/incompetent based on one measure is statistically invalid. The Virginia SOLs provide one measure of students' minimum competencies. What the tests don't show is the creative, authentic and higher level extensions and connections that are made in the classrooms. The tests don't measure the skills needed for workers of the future: the ability to collaborate, use technology, respect diversity, and see a problem from multiple points of view. The problem with the current accountability system is that based on one number, the public believes the schools (teachers) are or are not doing a good job. Our first mission has to be to educate the public as to what the SOLs really tell us. We need to remind parents, and even some fellow educators, that SOLs should be the minimum of what is taught in the classroom, not the sum---SOLs are the floor, not the ceiling. The accountability system needs to be revamped to include authentic assessment, much like colleges viewing portfolios instead of using SAT scores. The system needs to give teachers the space to take risks and go above and beyond without fear of reprisals for not "being on the required strand at the required time for the required amount of time". The success or failure of our students depends on allowing our educational system to evolve to reflect the changing world. We should all (educators and the community) be held accountable when it comes to the success of these students who will be the workforce of the future.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Lark's head

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text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Man harness


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Wikijunior:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments/Guide a termite

You can make a termite bend itself to your will. All you need is a Bic pen and a termite. Put the termite on a piece of paper (careful, don't let it escape, because if it does then it'll eat your home). Then, draw lines on the paper with your Bic pen. The termite will follow the lines! You can even draw a circle and the termite will simply walk along it. If you get an ant and try this trick, the ant will go away from the lines.


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Iranian History/The Early Sassanians

The Sassanians were a clan of pure-blooded Persians who claimed descent from the Achaemenid Emperors. Their ancestor Sasan was a petty king of Persia, which by the time of the Parthians, had been reduced to a minor principality under Parthian overlordship. His son, Ardashir, revolted against the Parthian king Artabanus (Artavadan) in 226 and established the Sassanian kingdom after inflicting a crushing defeat on the Arsacids in three successive battles. Being a Sassanian of Achaemenid descent, he regarded the Parthians as outsiders and considered it as his duty to liberate the country from foreign rule.

Ardashir I 226-240AD
Ardeshir-i-Babagan or Ardeshir I, also known as Artakshatra, Artakshasa and Artaxerxes, was the founder of the Sassanian Dynasty.

Early Life and Rise to Power
There are many conflicting accounts of his early life. But the Karnamik-i-Ardashir, the most popular of all accounts, tells us that Ardashir was the son of one Sasan who was married to the daughter of Babak, the Parthian satrap of Persia. The Karnamik-i-Ardashir also speculates on an Achaemenid ancestry for Ardeshir. This is probably an attempt by Ardeshir to justify his usurpation of the throne.

Ardeshir was deeply concerned by his country's subordination to Parthia. So he declared war against the Parthians and exhorted his people to rebel, portraying the insurrection as a patriotic struggle for independence and the Parthians as foreign imperialists. The rebellion was extremely successful, and Carmania was conquered in a few days followed by the outlying regions of the province of Media. The Parthian Emperor Artabanus (Artavadan) confronted the rebels with a huge army but was defeated by them in three consecutive battles, in the last of which Artabanus was killed.

With the death of Artabanus, Ardashir ascended the throne as the first Sassanian monarch of Persia. But soon afterwards Khusro the king of Armenia, who was a brother of Artabanus, rebelled against the new ruler and conquered the province of Assyria. In his rebellion he had the active support and participation of Rome.

In 229, Ardashir crossed the Tigris and invaded the Roman province of Mesopotamia. Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, retaliated by invading Mesopotamia from Damascus. By the spring of 232, the whole of Mesopotamia was back in Roman hands.

After he had establish Roman dominance over Mesopotamia, Alexander Severus took the offensive and launched a three-pronged attack on the Sassanian kingdom.

The northern wing was fairly successful in realizing its goals. However, the south wing which moved into Persia proper could not traverse the marshy terrain and suffered a crushing defeat near Ctesiphon. Severus sent Roman reserve troops to rescue the entrenched soldiers but was defeated once again and forced to withdraw. A peace was concluded and the war came to an end. Ardashir's success in this war established him firmly on the throne of Persia, and voices of opposition were eventually silenced.

Relations With Armenia
Soon after the conclusion of peace with Rome, Ardeshir turned his attention towards Armenia and invaded the province. The Armenians, however, offered stiff resistance and the campaign was an utter failure. Ardeshit then resorted to intrigue and got rid of the Arsacid king of Armenia.

Ardeshir and the Zoroastrian Revival
Ardeshir was a devout Zoroastrian and made Zoroastrianism the state religion and the Avesta the holy book. His period is celebrated in Iranian history as the period of Zoroastrian revival. He even tried to impose Zoroastrianism in the far-flung corners of the Empire and with this aim in mind, he undertook military expeditions. The heretics were condemned.

Shapur I 240-271
Shapur I succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Ardeshir Babagan. He was the son of Ardeshir through a Parthian princess, the daughter of Artabanus, the last Parthian Emnperor.

Rebellion in Armenia and Hatra
As soon as Ardeshir died, Armenia asserted its independence, but Shapur immediately crushed this nascent insurrection. Soon afterwards, Hatra rebelled but Shapur quelled the rebellion easily by disposing of the king by means of treachery.

War with Rome
The state of Rome at this time was such that it could not escape the eye of Shapur I. Alexander Severus had been murdered in 235 AD by Maximin, who was later deposed, to be replaced by weak rulers all of whom were killed after short periods on the throne. The mantle finally fell on Gordian who was then an youth of fifteen.

Hoping to take full advantage of Rome's weak condition, Shapur crossed the Tigris and took the important fortress of Nisibis. He then proceeded to ravage Syria and took the important Roman metropolis of Antioch. Gordian hastened to the defence of Antioch with his father-in-law Timesitheus, who was immediately appointed Commander-in-chief. Gathering a large army, he retook Antioch and crossing the Euphrates defeated the Persians at Carrhae and Resaina. Nisibis fell after a siege and the Persians retreated leaving the Romans in charge of the whole area to the west of the Tigris.

Gordian advanced further and was confident of taking Ctesiphon when disaster struck. Timesitheus was murdered and soon afterwards, Gordian himself was murdered by Timesitheus' successor Philip. Philip concluded peace with Shapur I and withdrew from Persian lands.

However, the peace was short-lived. Philip died soon afterwards and was succeeded by six weak successors who died within a period of fourteen years. Shapur saw his chance and crossed the river Tigris in 258 AD. Within a few weeks, he was once again in charge of Antioch. The aged Roman Emperor Valerian hastened to Syria and retook Antioch but as he was meditating on an invasion of Mesopotamia he was treacherously betrayed by the Praetorian prefect Macrianus who handed him over to the Persians and captured the throne for himself. Valerian became a Persian prisoner and spent his last years in the custody of Shapur I.

Shapur's Campaign
Soon Rome fell into a civil war as rival contenders arose for the throne. Seeing his chance, Shapur I once again crossed the frontier. He took Edessa and crossing the Euphrates with his army took Antioch and proceeded to ravage Cilicia, Cappadocia, Tarsus, Caesarea Mazaca and Emesa and all provinces right into the vicinity of Constantinople.

Rebellion in Syria
Shapur retreated across the frontier and crossed with his armies back into Mesopotamia. However, his return to Ctesiphon was made difficult by the rebellion of Odenathus, the Arab chief of Palmyra. Odenathus defeated Shapur and pursued the returning Persian army right up to the gates of Ctesiphon. Odenathus even made an unsuccessful bid to capture Ctesiphon but left when faced with a stout defence. However, he returned to Palmyra unmolested and crowned himself the independent ruler of Syria.

Legacy
Shapur's reign saw many highs and lows in Sassanian history. The high point of his reign was the capture of the Roman Emperor Valerian and the low point was his defeat by the Arab chief Odenathus.

Ormazd I 271-2
Shapur I died in 271 and was succeeded by his son Ormazd I. Ormazd ruled for the short span of a little over an year. He is credited with having founded the city of Ram-Hormuz in Eastern Persia during his short reign.

Bahram I 272-5
Ormazd I was succeeded by Bahram I who was especially known for his extreme stupidity. One of the first acts of his reign after becoming Emperor was to put to death the Prophet Mani at the instigation of the Zoroastrian high-priest Kartir.

Roman Conquest of Syria
Odenathus had died and was succeeded by his wife Zenobia. Hoping to take advantage of the rule of a woman, Rome invaded Syria and captured Palmyra. Zenobia requested Persian help, which was refused. Faced with the prospect of capture and humiliation, Zenobia was forced to flee. Bahram I offered her the safety of Ctesiphon but the Romans overtook her and took her prisoner. Bahram I tried to appease the Roman Emperor with costly presents but the Emperor humiliated him by exhibiting Persian envoys as prisoners of war and later executing them.

Rome's Persian campaign
The Roman Emperor Aurelian resolved to conquer Persia and led a large army through Illyricum and Macedonia. However, in the spring of 275, he was murdered at a place called Coenophrurium. His successor called off the expedition and returned to Rome.

Bahram I died soon afterwards, and was succeeded by his son or brother Bahram II.

Bahram II 275 - 292
Bahram II succeeded Bahram I in 275 and immediately after his accession to the throne launched an expedition to Sakasthan (the modern-day Sistan) and subjugated the province.

Wars with Rome
In 282, Carus the Emperor of Rome crossed the Euphrates and Perso-Roman hostilities again broke out. Bahram II hurriedly recalled his troops from Afghanistan and posted them on the Western frontier. The Persians fared badly as the Romans conquered Mesopotamia and took Selucia and Ctesiphon. But one night, as Carus was camping on the outskirts of the Persian capital, disaster struck. There was a terrible thunderstorm and a bolt of lightning struck the tent. Carus was killed in the melée, although the exact cause of his death is unknown. As an immediate consequence of Carus' death, Rome pulled back its troops from the Persian frontier.

Secession of Armenia
In 286, Rome resumed hostilities by supporting the cause of the Armenian king Tiridates. Tiridates revolted successfully and liberated Armenia from Persian yoke. Persia sent two armies against him but he defeated both these armies in pitched battles. He even extended his sway beyond the frontiers of Armenia, into Persian territory. Before he could prepare an expedition to subdue Tiridates, Bahram II passed away in 292.

Bahram III 292 - 293
Bahram III ruled for four months and was incompetent and ineffectual to stop Tiridates.

Narseh 293 - 301
Narses or Narseh succeeded Bahram III, and soon after his accession he was involved in a war of succession with his brother Ormazd. Narseh emerged victorious and Ormazd was probably slain.

In 296, Narseh embarked on his first military campaign provoked by the repeated attacks of Tiridates. He defeated Tiridates and made deep forays into Armenian territory. Tiridates fled Armenida and sought the protection of Rome.

As 296 drew to a close, the Roman Emperor Diocletian sent his son-in-law Galerius at the head of a large army into Asia. Narseh took Khabour, and was camping near the Euphrates when Galerius took command in Mesopotamia and engaged Narseh in a set of three battles. The first two ended in a stalemate while the last one resulted in a humiliating defeat for Galerius.

Galerius retreated to join his father-in-law Diocletian at Antioch, and leading a reinforced Roman army entered Armenia in 297. Narseh resisted but was defeated and was forced to flee. However, his baggage fell into the hands of the Romans along with his sisters, concubines and members of the royal household. Narseh was therefore forced to sign a treaty with Rome in order to rescue them. Unable to bear the humiliation, Narseh abdicated in 301 and was succeeded by his son Ormazd II.

Ormazd II 301 - 309
Ormazd II ascended the throne in 301 and ruled for eight years. His reign was one of peace and prosperity. The king was a lover of art and architecture and founded entirely new cities in Khuzestan and Susiana. Ormazd is also credited with having established a Court of Justice. Ormazd died in 309 succeeded by his yet unborn son Shapur II, who was crowned Emperor while still inside his mother's womb.

Shapur II 309 - 379
Ormazd II had a son called Ormazd who hoped to succeed on his father's death in 309. But he was highly disliked by the Zoroastrian clergy and noblemen ,who threw him into a dungeon. As Ormazd had left no other sons, they proclaimed an as yet unborn infant of Oramzd II as the Emperor of Persia. Fortunately for the Magi and for Persia, the child was a boy and was given the name Shapur.

Persia during Shapur's minority
During the first sixteen years of Shapur's reign, Persia suffered from the invasions of the Arabs and Mesopotamians. Finding the rich and prosperous Persian Empire under the rule of a young child, the barbarous Arabs were constantly tempted to harass their Persian overlords. The tribes of Beni Aqyar and Abdul Kais were constantly harassing the Persians. One Mesopotamian chieftain called Tahir even had the courage to make a successful invasion of Ctesiphon and carry away a sister or aunt of the Persian monarch.

Retaliatory Wars against Arab tribes
However, when Shapur came of age in 325, Persia began to retaliate. Shapur defeated the Arabs and drove them from Persian territory. He is also credited with establishing the Persian navy and a fleet of considerable size landed at El Katif on the Persian Gulf and inflicted a crushing defeat on the rebellious Arab tribes. The captives were punished by piercing their shoulders and inserting a string into the wound and driving them off into captivity. This earned Shapur the title 'Dhoulacta' or 'Lord of the shoulders'.

Shapur's Arabian campaign lasted 12 years at the end of which he was completely victorious.

War with Rome 337 - 350
Emperor Constantine the Great of Rome was an early contemporary of Shapur II. Being a convert to Christianity, he displayed the aggressive zeal of a new convert. His reputation was so great that Shapur did not venture to invade the dominions of Rome.

In 338, well after Constantine had died, Shapur laid siege to Nisibis. However, the garrison at Nisibis resisted determinedly for sixty-three days and Shapur was forced to call off the siege.

In 341, Shapur succeeded in capturing the Armenian king Tiranus and placed his son Arshaka or Arsaces on the Armenian throne. Arsaces ruled as a vassal of Persia.

Shapur launched a second siege of Nisibis in 346 but was repulsed once again.

In 348, Shapur made a determined effort to drive off the Romans from Mesopotamia. A decisive battle was fought at Singora in which the Romans were heavily outnumbered and defeated.

In 350, two years after the Battle of Singora, Shapur made one last effort to capture Nisibis. Shapur had seized the opportune moment to launch the attack when Constantine had left for Rome to quell a domestic insurrection. The Persians made a successful breach but were unable to enter the fort due to the soft mud. At length, Shapur sounded the retreat and Nisibis remained with the Romans. That very year, Shapur had to conclude hostilities with the Romans due to the outbreak of a rebellion by the Massagatse of the north.

The Second Roman War 359 - 361
A rebellion in the Persian province of Armenia triggered the Second Perso-Roman war of Shapur II. Shapur's campaign against the Massagatse had been an overwhelming success by the year 357 to the extent that garrisons supplied by the Massagatse fought in the war against Rome which broke out in 359.

Hostilities between the Persians and Romans commenced in 359 when a Roman army occupied Mesopotamia. The Persians crossed the Tigris and advanced on the Romans, at which the Romans quit their positions and retreated from Mesopotamia, laying waste to the whole country. They made a stand at the impregnable fortress of Amida (now Diabekr), which they successfully defended from the attacks of the Chionite allies of the Persians.

The Persians launched a second and more aggressive attempt to capture the fort and Amida was occupied by them after a siege of seventy-three days. The inhabitants were slaughtered. After the conquest of Amida, Shapur crossed the Tigris and invaded Singara. Singara fell easily to the Persians. Emboldened, the Persian troops crossed Nisibis and conquered Phoenicia. By 361 when the war came to an end, the Persians were once again the masters of Mesopotamia.

Julian's Persian Campaign 362 - 363
Constantine was succeeded by Julian who was as ambitious as Alexander the Great. He reached Antioch in 362 and, collecting an army and Armenian support, invaded Mesopotamia. He divided his army and sent one division against Media while he himself led the other division down the river Euphrates. Leaving Carrhae on the 26th of March, Julian led 65,000 soldiers across the Euphrates and occupied the Persian strongholds of Anah and Thilutha and then the Persian city of Perisabor (Mruz Shapur) near Ctesiphon before laying siege to Ctesiphon itself. Maoga-Malcha, the fortress that protected Ctesiphon, resisted stoutly but was eventually taken. Julian crossed the Tigris and even took the city of Ctesiphon itself. But the Romans decided not to advance further, as they were convinced that they had not yet seen the full strength of Shapur's army. So they withdrew from the territories they held and commenced their return journey to Rome.

The Roman army reached the city of Samara on the Tigris safely. But they were ambushed by the Persian cavalry and elephant corps on the banks of the Tigris and were killed in large numbers. Julian was among the slain and was succeeded by Jovian as the Roman Emperor. Soon after taking over from Julian, Jovian masterminded the safe retreat of the Roman troops across the Tigris and negotiated a peaceful settlement with the Persians.

According to the terms of the peace treaty, the Persians got back the five provinces to the east of the Tigris ceded by the Sassanian monarch Narseh. The strongholds of Nisibis and Singara, regarded as impregnable, became part of the Persian Empire.

War in Armenia 363 - 370
Christian Armenia had been an ally of Christian Rome ever since the start of the Persian campaign. But on the accession of the pagan Julian to the throne of Rome, Armenia began to waver. The Armenian Emperor Arsaces favored the Persians and when hostilities between the Romans and the Persians came to an end he was compelled to surrender to the Persians. Iberia too was taken by Shapur who made a certain Aspacures the king of Iberia.

Immediately, Armenia revolted and proclaimed Arsaces' wife Pharandzem the queen of the country. Pharandzem and her son Para enlisted the support of the Romans and liberated most of Armenia from Persian control. At this, Shapur took charge himself and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Armenians.

While Shapur was busy in Armenia, Iberia revolted. Rome supported the rebellion and sent a large army to liberate Iberia. Peace was however concluded in a short while and Iberia was divided equally between Rome and Persia.

Soon after the winter of 370 came to an end, Shapur crossed the frontier and attacked the Romans at a place called Vagabanta. The Romans resisted determinedly and, old and worn out, Shapur retreated.

Religion and Religious Movements
The state religion of the Sassanian Empire was Zoroastrianism, and an extremely zealous form of Zoroastrianism was practised. Ardeshir-i-Babagan, who established the Sassanian Empire, regarded his rebellion against Artavadan the Parthian as a holy war against non-Zoroastrian outsiders. The Karnamik-i-Ardashir tells of Ardashir's victory over the "Worm of Guzaran" (Guzaran is probably Gujarat in India) and the forcible conversion of the "idolatrous population" to Zoroastrianism. Ardeshir's reign witnessed a revival of Zoroastrianism, which Persian lore says had grown moribund during Parthian rule.

The compilation of the Avesta was a process which had begun during the reign of the Parthian monarch Valkhash, but it gained momentum only during the time of Ardeshir. The Avesta was completed only during the time of Khusrau Anushirvan, whose reign is usually regarded as a golden age of Persian literature when a number of classics were compiled.

However, this period of Zoroastrian ascendancy also saw a number of heresies, at least one of which even survived the Islamic conquest. The Sassanian Emperors differed on their opinion on these supposedly heretical cults. While some supported them, others were against them.

Manichaeism
The most powerful threat to orthodox Zoroastrianism rose from a heretical sect which arose during the time of Shapur I.

This heretical sect was founded by Mani, a native of Babylon, during the time of Shapur I. Mani was born Qurqabios on the 14th of April 216; his parents were Pateg and Marmaryam who hailed from the Ashganiyya family of Parthian nobility.

Mani's father Pateg was from Hamadan and he had moved to Ctesiphon in his youth. At Ctesiphon, he used to frequent a temple of idols to pray. According to biographer Al-Nadim, one day one of the idols cried out to him, “Fatiq, do not eat meat, do not drink wine, and stay away from any sexual commerce!” He heard the cry three days three times each.

Pateg then joined a Christian Baptist community called Mughtasila, headed by an individual called Al-Haysa (Elchasai by the Romans). Al-Haysa preached that sin could be atoned for by a second baptism. Al-Haysa detested the bloody ceremony carried out during Easter and broke off from the Christian church by adopting vegetarianism. Otherwise the religion was scrupulously observed: circumcision, monotheism, rejection of divination and astrology, etc. He made water the symbol of his new religion and preached that Jesus was the last of a series of Messiahs starting with Adam. Mani was brought up amongst the Mughthasila from the age of four. At the age of twelve, however, he broke up from the community.

Mani had his first revelation at the age of twelve when the angel Al-Tawm (The Twin) appeared to him. Mani detested the elaborate purification rituals that the Mughtasila community indulged in and never missed an opportunity to portray their futility. On the contrary he preached that the purification which Jesus had mentioned in the Scriptures was the separation of light from darkness. Eventually, Mani was excommunicated and denounced as a heretic.

At the age of twenty-four, Mani had a second revelation. This was on April 12, 240, on the exact day when Shapur I was crowned king. Mani preached that the paraclete or Holy Ghost was nothing but himself. According to accounts, first of all, he travelled to the East and converted the king of Turan (modern-day Baluchistan). He returned to Babylon a few months later and made the acquaintance of Piruz, a brother of Emperor Shapur I, who arranged for an audience with the Sassanian Emperor.

At the Sassanian court, Mani presented his faith as the "true religion" as had been preached by Zoroaster himself. He compiled his teachings into a book and named it Shaburaghan after Shapur I in his bid to impress the king further. At length, Shapur was convinced and he assured royal protection, though it is evident that he did not convert to the faith himself. With royal patronage, Mani toiled to spread his new faith to every nook and corner of the Empire. He sent Adda and Pateg to the west and Ammo to the north-east while he himself travelled to the north-western frontier of the Empire to spread the faith.

Manichaeism flourished under Shapur I and his son Ormazd I and during the early part of the reign of Bahram I. The Manichean scriptures assert that Ormazd I was a convert to Manichaeism. However, Mani was arrested and confined to a prison when he failed to heal a dying son of Bahram I. He escaped by bribing the jailer, but was captured and eventually brought before the king. Bahram I reportedly skinned him alive and offered his flesh to the birds. His skin, however, was hung in front of his palace at Ctesiphon as a warning.

Though Mani was barely 60 when he was brutally executed in 276, his religion survived him and eventually emerged as the strongest of the Zoroastrian heresies. One of the prominent torch-bearers after Mani's death was King Amaro of Hira. By the end of the 3rd century, the religion had reached North Africa; by the 4th century AD, it had reached Rome where it became an issue of concern to the Roman Catholic religion. Edicts were issued to nip its influence in the bud. However, Manichaeism survived in Constantinople till the 6th century AD, where it was eventually wiped out by aggressive proselytization of the Roman Catholic missionaries.

In the east, however, Manichaeism survived for a long time. It had to go underground fearing persecution by the Sassanians but emerged from exile when Iran was conquered by the Arabs in 636 - 652. After that, it began spreading rapidly eastwards, first to Sogdiana (the modern-day Samarkand) and Balkh and then to Central Asia and even China. In Iran, the faith survived for a few centuries but died away by the start of Ghaznavid rule in the 10th century AD. It also died away in Sogdiana and Balkh as these lands came under Islamic rule. However, it survived in China well into the 16th century AD and as evidence indicates, may well have survived until the 18th century AD.

Manichaeism left a more profound impact on Christianity than Zoroastrianism. Gnosticism and the Classical Revival of the 15th and 16th centuries claim to have been directly inspired by the Manichean doctrine.

Edict of Kertir
Kertir was the Zoroastrian chief-priest of Persia during the reign of Shapur I, Ormazd and Bahram I. He was a sworn enemy of the Manicheans and was chiefly responsible for the execution of Prophet Mani.

He is remembered for and known through his edicts at the Naqsh-i-Rajab and the Kaaba-i-Zardosht. In the inscription at the Kaaba-i-Zardosht he describes his own rise to power and denounces non-Zoroastrian creeds. He describes the methods used to propagate Zoroastrianism and the persecution inflicted on other religions. He says that Manichaeism was abolished in the Empire and its practice made illegal.

Adarbad Mahraspand
Adarbad Mahraspand was a Zoroastrian high-priest who lived during the reign of Shapur II. He was mainly responsible for the compilation of the Avesta. When Shapur was still a child, Adarbad collected the bits and pieces of the Avesta which had survived Alexander's invasion and gave the Avesta the form that we know today. The compilation took around five years, from 325 to 330.

According to the Zoroastrian prophecies, the Zoroastrian faith would be overthrown three times and three times it would be restored - first, by Alexander and it was restored by Ardeshir; second by the heretic Mani and it was restored by Adarbad Mahraspand and lastly, it would be overthrown by the Arabs and restored by Soshyant. The Zoroastrian prophecies also mention three great prophets of Zoroastrianism, the first being Zoroaster himself, the second being Jamasp, the son-in-law of Zoroaster who recites the Avesta as dictated to Zoroaster and compiles it in the form of a book and third, Adarbad Mahraspand.

Zoroastrian legends state that molten iron was poured down Adarbad's chest to test his purity and devotion and as if by miracle, Adarbad emerged from this test of purity, unscathed.

title: Iranian History/The Early Sassanians


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I posted a comment in response yours on the Algebra I in Simple English Book. You obviously have a strong opinion on (and I'm presuming some expertise in) Math pedagogy so I would appreciate your opinion and hope that you decide further contribute to the book. I have also started another text on basic Arithmetic if you are interested. Thanks --Ezra Katz 00:17, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:JCGonzales~enwikibooks


text:
FOSS Open Content

Table of Contents

 * /Preface/
 * /List of Acronyms/
 * /Introduction/
 * /Contextualizing Open Content/
 * /Emergence of the Open Content Paradigm/
 * /Open Content and the New Knowledge Paradigm/
 * /Characteristics of Open Content Licenses/
 * /Survey of Open Content Projects/
 * /Policy Implications/
 * /Limitations of Open Content/
 * /References/
 * /Resources/
 * /Bibliography/
 * /Glossary/
 * /About the Author/
 * /Acknowledgements/

Information
This book is donated by the International Open Source Network and UNDP Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme (UNDP-APDIP) to the community. The original publication:

Author: Lawrence Liang

© UNDP-APDIP, 2007, 54 pages

ISBN 978-974-7170-40-5

ISBN 974-7170-40-X

is located at http://www.apdip.net/publications/fosseprimers/foss-opencontent.pdf

This wikibook is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License and Creative Commons Attribution License 2.5

title: FOSS Open Content


text:
Template:FOSS Open Content

 FOSS Open Content

Preface — List of Acronyms — Introduction — Contextualizing Open Content — Emergence of the Open Content Paradigm — Open Content and the New Knowledge Paradigm — Characteristics of Open Content Licenses — Survey of Open Content Projects — Policy Implications — Limitations of Open Content — References — Resources — Bibliography — Glossary — About the Author — Acknowledgements — Discuss

title: Template:FOSS Open Content


text:
User talk:Morenita~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 00:36, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Morenita. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Morenita~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Morenita~enwikibooks


text: Category:Book:FOSS Open Content

title: Category:Book:FOSS Open Content


text:
User talk:Barlowm

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 00:38, 21 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Barlowm


text:
User:DS1953

Also on:
 * en.wikipedia (primary)
 * meta
 * commons

title: User:DS1953


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Miller's


text:
User:Cronholm144~enwikibooks/Images

these are images that I plan to use on the calculus book

title: User:Cronholm144~enwikibooks/Images


text: Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Knot/Packer's