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Radiation Oncology/NHL/Randomized

Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma

Diffuse Large B-Cell

 * GELA LNH93-4 (France) (1993-2002) -- CHOP x4 vs. CHOP x4 + RT
 * Randomized. Stopped early after no difference on interim analysis and new evidence showing Rituximab benefit. 576 patients. Age >60, localized Stage I-II aggressive lymphoma, IPI 0. Arm 1) CHOP x4 alone vs. Arm 2) IF-RT 40 Gy (involved nodes/extranodal + adjuacent uninvolved nodes)
 * 7-year update, 2007 PMID 17228021 -- "CHOP alone compared with CHOP plus radiotherapy for localized aggressive lymphoma in elderly patients: a study by the Groupe d'Etude des Lymphomes de l'Adulte." (Bonnet C, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Mar 1;25(7):787-92.)
 * 5-year EFS: CHOP 61% vs. CHOP/RT 64% (NS). Survival affected by Stage II and male sex
 * Relapses: CHOP local 47%, distal 37%, both 16%; CHOP-RT in-field 21%, out-of-field 66%, both 13%
 * Second cancers: 29 (14%); 9 in CHOP alone vs. 20 in CHOP-RT
 * Subset analysis (49 patients) showed no benefit to RT in bulky disease either (small #)
 * Conclusion: No advantage to adding RT
 * Comment: As a result of this study and GELA93-1, GELA abandoned RT in first line treatment of localized aggressive lymphoma. CHOP-R is used instead
 * Editorial PMID 17228015 -- "Role of radiation therapy in localized aggressive lymphoma." (Ng AK, J Clin Oncol. 2007 Mar 1;25(7):757-9.)

 * GELA LNH93-1 (France)(1993-2000) -- ACVBP vs. CHOP x3 + RT
 * Randomized. 647 patientss, <61 years, localized Stage I or II aggressive lymphoma (Working Formulation: diffuse mixed, diffuse large (80%), or immunoblastic; or anaplastic according to Kiel), no age-adjusted IPI adverse features. Stage I 67%, extranodal involvement 49%, bulky disease 73%. Arm 1) CHOP x 3 + involved-field RT vs Arm 2) ACVBP plus sequential chemo consolidation (MTX, leucovorin, etoposide, ifosfamide, Ara-C). RT one month after last cycle of CHOP, 39.6 Gy. Involved field was involved nodal group and adjacent uninvolved nodes.
 * 5-years; 2005 PMID 15788496 - "ACVBP versus CHOP plus Radiotherapy for Localized Aggressive Lymphoma." (Reyes F, N Engl J Med. 2005 Mar 24;352(12):1197-205.) Median F/U 7.7 years
 * Outcome: 5-year EFS ACVBP 82% vs CHOP-RT 74% (SS), true for both bulky and non-bulky subsets; OS 90% vs 81% (SS)
 * Conclusion: In younger patients, ACVBP + consolidation is better than CHOP x3 + RT
 * Comment: ACVBP arm used higher doses of doxorubicin and cytoxan with higher dose intensity than CHOP and used a consolidation phase with different drugs not used during induction.

 * National Medical Center, Mexico (1989-97) -- Residual disease: RT vs. Observation
 * Randomized. 166 patients, DLBCL, high-intermediate/high clinical risk, with residual disease (<5 cm mass) after chemotherapy. Arm 1) RT 30/20 vs Arm 2) observation.
 * 2005 PMID 16260856 — "Residual disease after chemotherapy in aggressive malignant lymphoma: the role of radiotherapy." (Aviles A, Med Oncol. 2005;22(4):383-7.) Median F/U 13.5 years
 * Outcome: 10-yr PFS RT 86% vs observation 32% (SS). Of 57 relapses in the observation arm, 31 were in the site of initial residual disease, 23 disseminated. 10-year OS 89% vs 58% (SS).
 * Conclusion: Salvage RT improves outcome in patients with residual disease after chemotherapy

 * SWOG 8736 (1988-1995) -- CHOP x8 vs CHOP x3 + RT
 * Randomized. 401 patients, intermediate/high grade (Working Formulation), Stage I-IE, or non-bulky (<=10 cm) II/II-E. 67% Stage I, 73% IPI 0-1. Arm 1) CHOP x 8 vs Arm 2) CHOP x 3 + involved field RT. RT dose was 40 Gy, with a boost to 50 Gy for residual disease (majority received 45-50 Gy)
 * 5-years; 1998 PMID 9647875 — "Chemotherapy alone compared with chemotherapy plus radiotherapy for localized intermediate- and high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma." (Miller TP, N Engl J Med. 1998 Jul 2;339(1):21-6.)
 * Outcome: 5-yr PFS CHOP-RT 77% vs CHOP 64% (SS), OS 82% vs 72% (SS). PFS by IPI: 0-1 77%, 2 60%, 3 34%
 * Toxicity: 2 deaths (CHOP arm neutropenia, RT arm RILD), Grade 4 CHOP 40% vs. RT 30% (p=0.06)
 * Conclusion: CHOP x3 + RT superior to CHOP x8
 * 8-years; 2001 Abstract "CHOP Alone Compared to CHOP Plus Radiotherapy for Early Stage Aggressive Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas: Updated of the SWOG Randomized Trial." (Miller TP, Blood 98: 724A, 2001, abstr 3024.) Median F/U 8.2 years
 * Outcome: 7-year FFS curves overlap (NS), 9-year OS curves overlap (NS). Continuous decline, with no plateau
 * By risk factors (age >60, elevated LDH, PS >1, Stage II): 5-year OS no RFs 94%, 1 RF 71%, 3 RFs 50%
 * Conclusion: Excess late (>5 years) relapses and deaths in CHOPx3-RT arm negate initial benefit. CHOPx3 + RT remains best standard treatment for Stage I and non-bulky Stage II, but optimal treatment may include more/different systemic chemo
 * Histology; 2004 ASH Abstract -- "Histologic Subtypes Do Not Confer Unique Outcomes in Early-Stage Lymphoma: Long-Term Follow-Up of SWOG 8736." (Spier CM, Blood (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts) 2004 104: Abstract 3263)
 * Outcome: 10-year OS and FFS no difference, no survival plateau. No difference by histology. Only 1 CNS failure (in a patient with testis involvement; none in Burkitt's Lymphoma)
 * Conclusion: Histology should not be used to exclude early stage intermediate/high grade patients
 * Comment: Trial was trying to address if addition of RT can reduce amount of chemo required. Results from the abstract update suggest that 3 cycles of CHOP are insufficient, even in this reasonably low risk population, due to higher rate of late (>5 years) failures

 * ECOG 1484 (1984-1992) - CHOP x 8 + RT vs CHOP x8
 * Randomized. 352 patients, 172 assessable for +/- RT. Diffuse aggressive lymphoma (Working Formulation: diffuse large cell (80%), diffuse mixed large cell and small cell, and diffuse small cleaved cell). Stage I with risk factors (mediastinal or retroperitoneal involvement; or bulky disease > 10 cm), Stage IE, Stage II-IIE (68%). Patients in CR after 8 cycles of CHOP were randomized to Arm 1) 30 Gy involved-field RT vs Arm 2) observation. If PR, 40 Gy.
 * 6-years; 2004 PMID 15210738 — "Chemotherapy with or without radiotherapy in limited-stage diffuse aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study 1484." (Horning SJ, J Clin Oncol. 2004 Aug 1;22(15):3032-8. Epub 2004 Jun 21.) Median F/U for CR patients 12 years
 * CHOP x8 outcome: 69% assessable. CR 71% (n=172 assessable for +/- RT), PR 29% (treated with RT). Most patients with Stage II bulky disease had PR
 * RT randomization outcome (n=172): 6-year DFS RT 73% vs. control 56% (SS, p=0.05). 10-year OS 68% vs. 65% (NS)
 * RT boost outcome (n=71): 31% CR rate, median OS 9.9 years. Overall, 10-year DFS 78% for all patients treated with chemo + RT
 * Conclusion: After CHOP x8, low-dose RT provided better local control and DFS, with no impact on OS

Mantle Cell

 * GLSG (Germany) -- CHOP +/- Rituxan
 * Randomized. 122 untreated patients, advanced-stage MCL. Treated with Arm 1) CHOP vs. Arm 2) R-CHOP. Patients <=65 with CR/PR second randomization to ASCT vs. IFN-alpha. Patients >65 received IFN-alpha maintenance
 * 2005 PMID 15668467 -- "Immunochemotherapy with rituximab and cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone significantly improves response and time to treatment failure, but not long-term outcome in patients with previously untreated mantle cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the German Low Grade Lymphoma Study Group (GLSG)." (Lenz G, J Clin Oncol. 2005 Mar 20;23(9):1984-92.)
 * Outcome: R-CHOP better for CR (34% vs. 7%, SS), and TTF (21 months vs. 14 months, SS), but no difference in PFS or OS
 * Conclusion: Better response rate, but no difference in PFS or OS

Other

 * Mexico (1981-91) — 1996 - Treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of Waldeyer's ring: radiotherapy versus chemotherapy versus combined therapy. (Aviles A, Eur J Cancer B Oral Oncol. 1996 Jan;32B(1):19-23.)
 * 316 pts. Phase III. Stage I NHL of Waldeyer's ring. Randomized to extended-field RT alone, chemotherapy alone (CHOP or CHOP-like), or combined therapy with chemo + RT.
 * Median f/u 6.8 yrs. CR in 93%, 87%, 97%. 5-yr FFS 48%, 45%, 83% (SS); OS 56%, 58%, 90% (SS).
 * Conclusion: improved results with combined chemo+RT.

title: Radiation Oncology/NHL/Randomized


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Andrew Kirke

Overview
Andrew Kirke is a Beater on the Gryffindor Quidditch team. Along with Jack Sloper, he takes over for Fred and George Weasley.

Order of the Phoenix
In the last meeting of Dumbledore's Army before Christmas, Angelina Johnson tells Harry that they have finally managed to get replacement Beaters. Alicia Spinnet says the new beaters are Andrew Kirke and Jack Sloper, and that they are nowhere as good as Fred and George, but were the best of a very bad lot.

On February 14th, Ron says that he can't go to Hogsmeade because Angelina wants a full day's practice. Ron is sceptical that it will help, because Sloper and Kirke are even worse than he is.

The following weekend, in the match against Ravenclaw, it is mentioned that one of the low points of the game is Kirke shrieking and falling backwards off his broom as Zacharias Smith zooms towards him with the Quaffle.

Half-Blood Prince
When try-outs happen, Kirke is passed over; the new Beaters are Jimmy Peakes and Ritchie Coote. It is not mentioned whether Kirke tries out for his position or not.

Strengths
Andrew appears to have at least some knowledge of Quidditch. He is shown to not be a particularly good Beater, but he does successfully try out for the position. As a result, he is eventually part of a team that wins the Quidditch Cup.

Weaknesses
Despite liking Quidditch, Andrew is not very good at it.

Relationships with Other Characters
Andrew is presumably on relatively good terms with Jack Sloper, as they work together as Beaters on the Quidditch team. By association, he will also know everyone else on the Quidditch team.

Questions

 * 1) Why is Andrew on the Quidditch team when he is not very good at Quidditch?
 * 2) How old do you think Andrew might be? Why is this?

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:OC Photography Program/Traditional Darkroom

It should be mentioned that fixer should NEVER be poured down the drain.


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XQuery/Simple RSS reader

The BBC provides a wide range of RSS news feed, e.g. UK Educational news

News Page
Reformat the RSS feed as HTML: declare option exist:serialize "method=xhtml media-type=text/html";

let $news := doc("http://newsrss.bbc.co.uk/rss/newsonline_uk_edition/education/rss.xml") let $dateTime := $news/rss/channel/lastBuildDate return Education news from the BBC at {string($dateTime)} { for $newsItem in $news/rss/channel/item[position < 10] return {string($newsItem/title)} {string($newsItem/title/description)} more.. }

Execute

Text-to-Speech
The Opera browser with Voice extension supports text-to-speech, allowing this news to be spoken. This uses the XML vocabularies VoiceXML and XML Events. [2019-01-26 : Sadly Opera no longer supports VoiceXML]

declare option exist:serialize "method=xhtml media-type=application/xv+xml";

let $news := doc("http://newsrss.bbc.co.uk/rss/newsonline_uk_edition/education/rss.xml") let $dateTime := $news/rss/channel/lastBuildDate let $newsItems := $news/rss/channel/item[position < 10] return    BBC Education news   {for $newsItem in $newsItems return   string($newsItem/description) }            BBC Education news at {string($dateTime)}   <h:img src="http://www.naturalreaders.com/images/laba.gif"/> </h:a> (Requires the Opera Browser with Voice extension) </h:p> { for $newsItem in $newsItems return <h:div> <h:h4>{string($newsItem/title)}</h:h4> <h:p>{string($newsItem/description)} <h:a href="{$newsItem/link}">more..</h:a></h:p> </h:div> }   </h:body> </h:html>

Execute

Note that the html namespace has been given a prefix, so that the default prefix can refer to the RSS feed.

Generic RSS reader
More generally, a reader which could voice any RSS feed would be a useful service.

UWE news Execute

title: XQuery/Simple RSS reader


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XQuery/Flickr GoogleEarth

Flickr photos which are geo-coded can be used to generate a GoogleEarth overlay.

[** API not functional on this server yet **]

Select Photos

The code for the Flickr Api to kml transformation. $flickrKey is my Flickr API key (not shown).

declare option exist:serialize "method=xhtml media-type=application/vnd.google-earth.kml+xml";

declare function local:callFlickr($method,$params){ doc(concat("http://api.flickr.com/services/rest/?method=",$method,"&api_key={$flickrKey}", string-join($params,"&"))) };

let $username := request:request-parameter("username","") let $tags := string-join(request:request-parameter("tags",""),",")

let $user := string(local:callFlickr("flickr.people.findByUsername",concat("username=",$username))//user/@id) return  Places for {$username} tagged {$tags} { for $photo in local:callFlickr("flickr.photos.search",(concat("user_id=",$user),concat("tags=",$tags)))//photo let $photo_id := string($photo/@id) let $details := local:callFlickr("flickr.photos.getInfo",concat("photo_id=",$photo_id))//photo where exists($details/location) return  {string($details/title)} {let $url := string(local:callFlickr("flickr.photos.getSizes",concat("photo_id=",$photo_id))//size[@label="Small"]/@source) return util:serialize(  ,) }     {string($details/description)}  {string($details/location/@longitude)},{string($details/location/@latitude)},0   }

title: XQuery/Flickr GoogleEarth


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User:Sanatjena

hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhuitttgffvv

title: User:Sanatjena


text:
User:Mike.lifeguard/Header

__NONEWSECTIONLINK__

title: User:Mike.lifeguard/Header


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Talk:Calculus/Introduction

in the problem -3t^2 + 5t = 0 what is t?

Religious comments not appropriate here
This page is generally pretty well written and is a nice introduction for the beginner. However the sentence that reads "Is calculus then perhaps a manifestation of some divine ordering of the universe?" is totally out of place here. Asking the question whether calculus is indication of the existence of a supernatural being has no place in an article teaching calculus. It is a point of view. Antarctic-adventurer (talk) 12:35, 9 January 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Calculus/Introduction


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MediaWiki:Common.js/Displaytitle.js

function change_displaytitle {	var text = $("#displaytitle").attr('title'), what;

if ( text ) { what = $("#ca-nstab-" + ( mw.config.get('wgCanonicalNamespace').toLowerCase || 'main' ) ); what.find('a').text(text); } } $(document).ready(change_displaytitle);

title: MediaWiki:Common.js/Displaytitle.js


text: Template:Displaytitle

title: Template:Displaytitle


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Talk:Geometry for Elementary School/Points

I would not call those non-points 'balls', but rather 'discs'. Especially since 'ball' means sphere in the next chapter ('Lines').

Plane shapes
I am going to change back "plane shapes" to something like balls, discs or circles. I think it is bad enough to have an informal discussion of limits for elementary school students, we shouldn't push toward generality at this point. If the "limit" of one particular shape suffices we should stick to it.

Also, It is also not clear to me that any plane figure would do, at least with the definition I think of as the limit of a sequence of sets in the plane. But this point is kind of irrelevant, since it probably wouldn't come up again in ones education until measure theory. Thenub314 (talk) 08:28, 24 April 2010 (UTC)

Is this a high schools mathematics? Omwengareuben (discuss • contribs) 04:56, 26 November 2017 (UTC) Of course this is tautological since the definition of a 'line' is 'two connected points', and the definition of a 'plane' is 'the surface specified by three points'. (and the three point are not on the same line )

A typo detected
In the paragraph:

"When we name a point, we always use an uppercase letter. Often we will use P for "point" if we can, and if have more than one dot, we will work our way through the alphabet and use Q, R, and so on. However, nowadays many people with start with any letter they like, although the P still remains the best way."

the underlined bold word should be removed.

And good work!!


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XQuery/XPath examples

Motivation
You would like to select specific structures within an XML document. You would like to use a language that is consistent across all W3C XML Standards. This language is XPath.

Sample Input File
Put this file in /db/apps/training/data/books.xml

XPath provides a number of functions and axes to move around an XML structure.

Sample Test XQuery Script
Here is a sample XQuery "driver" for these tests. To use it just replace the function after the return on the last line.

Screen Image of XQuery Results in oXygen
There are several ways to test your XPath expressions. One of the most useful is to put your XML test data in document within eXist and then use a tool such as oXygen to execute the test on the server but then display the results in the oXygen results window. This can be done within oXygen by setting up eXist (not the default internal Saxon) as your "transformation scenario".

The following is a screen image of how these results look when viewed with the oXygen IDE:

Sample XPath Expressions
Return the entire data file

$books

Get just books and all the data for each book.

$books//book

Get all the book titles

$books//title

Get the collection description

$books/description/text

Get the descriptions for all the books

$books//book/description/text

Counting and Math
Count the number of books using a absolute path

count($books/book) (: should return 5 :)

Count the number of books using //. With eXist executes much faster on larger collections.

count($books//book) (: should return 5 :)

Get a sequence of all the titles in the book collection.

$books//title/text

Calculate the total and average price of all the books in the collection.

sum($books//list-price/text) (: Should return a number such as 171.8 :) avg($books//list-price/text) (: Should return a number such as 34.36 :) min($books//list-price/text) (: Should return a number such as 29.95 :) max($books//list-price1/text) (: Should return a number such as 49.95 :)

The following scripts show some of these functions and axes in use.

Adding Predicates
A predicate is a qualifier that is added to the end of an XPath expression. It is usually used to filter out nodes from result set. Predicates are similar to WHERE constructs in SQL.

Get all the wikibooks

$books//book[format='Wikibook']

Get just the titles of the wikibooks

$books//book[format='Wikibook']/title/text

Get all the books that contain the word "XQuery" somewhere in the title

$books//book[contains(title, 'XQuery')]/title/text

Complex Predicates

 * 1) node
 * 2) text
 * 3) string(..)
 * 4) data(..)
 * 5) child::
 * 6) parent::
 * 7) following-sibling::
 * 8) preceding-sibling::
 * 9) descendant::
 * 10) descendant-or-self
 * 1) descendant-or-self

Navigating around a tree with distinct tags

Navigating around a tree with a single tag

title: XQuery/XPath examples


text: User:Dom

title: User:Dom


text: User talk:Dom

title: User talk:Dom


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User talk:Golden chaos2007

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

I saw your Old English book. It's looking good so far, but it seems like you could use some help with the formatting. The first tip i can give you is to not indent your paragraphs. When you do that, the formatting gets a little strange. Make sure your paragraphs do not start with a tab or a space.

Also, the pages in your book should be named "BOOK/PAGE", not "BOOK:PAGE" (notice the forward slash in place of the colon). This is a small issue and I can go through and fix it if you would like. Let me know what you need on my user talk page, and I can help you out. Welcome to Wikibooks. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 21:24, 30 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Golden chaos2007


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Respiratory System

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * why animals need energy and how they make it in cells
 * why animals require oxygen and need to get rid of carbon dioxide
 * what the term gas exchange means
 * the structure of alveoli and how oxygen and carbon dioxide pass across their walls
 * how oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood
 * the route air takes in the respiratory system (i.e. the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus,
 * bronchioles, alveoli)

 * the movements of the ribs and diaphragm to bring about inspiration
 * what tidal volume, minute volume and vital capacity are
 * how the rate of breathing is controlled and how this helps regulate the acid-base balance of the blood

Overview
Animals require a supply of energy to survive. This energy is needed to build large molecules like proteins and glycogen, make the structures in cells, move chemicals through membranes and around cells, contract muscles, transmit nerve impulses and keep the body warm. Animals get their energy from the large molecules that they eat as food. Glucose is often the energy source but it may also come from other carbohydrates, as well as fats and protein. The energy is made by the biochemical process known as cellular respiration that takes place in the mitochondria inside every living cell.

The overall reaction can be summarised by the word equation given below.

Carbohydrate Food (glucose) + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + energy

As you can see from this equation, the cells need to be supplied with oxygen and glucose and the waste product, carbon dioxide, which is poisonous to cells, needs to be removed. The way the digestive system provides the glucose for cellular respiration will be described in Chapter 11 ("The Gut and Digestion"), but here we are only concerned with the two gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide, that are involved in cellular respiration. These gases are carried in the blood to and from the tissues where they are required or produced.

Oxygen enters the body from the air (or water in fish)and carbon dioxide is usually eliminated from the same part of the body. This process is called gas exchange. In fish gas exchange occurs in the gills, in land dwelling vertebrates lungs are the gas exchange organs and frogs use gills when they are tadpoles and lungs, the mouth and the skin when adults.

Mammals (and birds) are active and have relatively high body temperatures so they require large amounts of oxygen to provide sufficient energy through cellular respiration. In order to take in enough oxygen and release all the carbon dioxide produced they need a very large surface area over which gas exchange can take place. The many minute air sacs or alveoli of the lungs provide this. When you look at these under the microscope they appear rather like bunches of grapes covered with a dense network of fine capillaries (see diagram 9.1). A thin layer of water covers the inner surface of each alveolus. There is only a very small distance -just 2 layers of thin cells - between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries. The gases pass across this gap by diffusion.

Diffusion And Transport Of Oxygen
The air in the alveoli is rich in oxygen while the blood in the capillaries around the alveoli is deoxygenated. This is because the haemoglobin in the red blood cells has released all the oxygen it has been carrying to the cells of the body. Oxygen diffuses from high concentration to low concentration. It therefore crosses the narrow barrier between the alveoli and the capillaries to enter the blood and combine with the haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.

The narrow diameter of the capillaries around the alveoli means that the blood flow is slowed down and that the red cells are squeezed against the capillary walls. Both of these factors help the oxygen diffuse into the blood (see diagram 9.2).

When the blood reaches the capillaries of the tissues the oxygen splits from the haemoglobin molecule. It then diffuses into the tissue fluid and then into the cells.

Diffusion And Transport Of Carbon Dioxide
Blood entering the lung capillaries is full of carbon dioxide that it has collected from the tissues. Most of the carbon dioxide is dissolved in the plasma either in the form of sodium bicarbonate or carbonic acid. A little is transported by the red blood cells. As the blood enters the lungs the carbon dioxide gas diffuses through the capillary and alveoli walls into the water film and then into the alveoli. Finally it is removed from the lungs during breathing out (see diagram 9.2). (See chapter 8 for more information about how oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood).

The Air Passages
When air is breathed in it passes from the nose to the alveoli of the lungs down a series of tubes (see diagram 9.3). After entering the nose the air passes through the nasal cavity, which is lined with a moist membrane that adds warmth and moisture to the air as it passes. The air then flows through the pharynx or throat, a passage that carries both food and air, to the larynx where the voice-box is located. Here the passages for food and air separate again. Food must pass into the oesophagus and the air into the windpipe or trachea. To prevent food entering this, a small flap of tissue called the epiglottis closes the opening during swallowing (see chapter 11). A reflex that inhibits breathing during swallowing also (usually) prevents choking on food.

The trachea is the tube that ducts the air down the throat. Incomplete rings of cartilage in its walls help keep it open even when the neck is bent and head turned. The fact that acrobats and people that tie themselves in knots doing yoga still keep breathing during the most contorted manoeuvres shows how effective this arrangement is. The air passage now divides into the two bronchi that take the air to the right and left lungs before dividing into smaller and smaller bronchioles that spread throughout the lungs to carry air to the alveoli. Smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles adjust the diameter of the air passages.

The tissue lining the respiratory passages produces mucus and is covered with miniature hairs or cilia. Any dust that is breathed into the respiratory system immediately gets entangled in the mucous and the cilia move it towards the mouth or nose where it can be coughed up or blown out.

The Lungs And The Pleural Cavities
The lungs fill most of the chest or thoracic cavity, which is completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The lungs and the spaces in which they lie (called the pleural cavities) are covered with membranes called the pleura. There is a thin film of fluid between the two membranes. This lubricates them as they move over each other during breathing movements.

Collapsed Lungs
The pleural cavities are completely airtight with no connection with the outside and if they are punctured by accident (a broken rib will often do this), air rushes in and the lung collapses. Separating the two lungs is a region of tissue that contains the oesophagus, trachea, aorta, vena cava and lymph nodes. This is called the mediastinum. In humans and sheep it separates the cavity completely so that puncturing one pleural cavity leads to the collapse of only one lung. In dogs, however, this separation is incomplete so a puncture results in a complete collapse of both lungs.

Breathing
The process of breathing moves air in and out of the lungs. Sometimes this process is called respiration but it is important not to confuse it with the chemical process, cellular respiration, that takes place in the mitochondria of cells. Breathing is brought about by the movement of the diaphragm and the ribs.

Inspiration
The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscle that completely separates the abdominal and thoracic cavities. When at rest it domes up into the thoracic cavity but during breathing in or inspiration it flattens. At the same time special muscles in the chest wall (external intercostal muscles) move the ribs forwards and outwards. These movements of both the diaphragm and the ribs cause the volume of the thorax to increase. Because the pleural cavities are airtight, the lungs expand to fill this increased space and air is drawn down the trachea into the lungs (see diagram 9.4a).

Expiration
Expiration or breathing out consists of the opposite movements. The ribs move down and in and the diaphragm resumes its domed shape so the air is expelled (see diagram 9.4b). Expiration is usually passive and no energy is required (unless you are blowing up a balloon).

Lung Volumes
As you sit here reading this just pay attention to your breathing. Notice that your in and out breaths are really quite small and gentle (unless you have just rushed here from somewhere else!). Only a small amount of the total volume that your lungs hold is breathed in and out with each breath. This kind of gentle “at rest” breathing is called tidal breathing and the volume breathed in or out (they should be the same) is the tidal volume (see diagram 9.5). Sometimes people want to measure the volume of air inspired or expired during a minute of this normal breathing. This is called the minute volume. It could be estimated by measuring the volume of one tidal breath and then multiplying that by the number of breaths in a minute. Of course it is possible to take a deep breath and breathe in as far as you can and then expire as far as possible. The volume of the air expired when a maximum expiration follows a maximum inspiration is called the vital capacity (see diagram 9.5).

Composition Of Air
The air animals breathe in consists of 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide. Expelled air consists of 16% oxygen and 4.4% carbon dioxide. This means that the lungs remove only a quarter of the oxygen contained in the air. This is why it is possible to give someone (or an animal) artificial respiration by blowing expired air into their mouth.

Breathing is usually an unconscious activity that takes place whether you are awake or asleep, although, humans at least, can also control it consciously. Two regions in the hindbrain called the medulla oblongata and pons control the rate of breathing. These are called respiratory centres. They respond to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. When this concentration rises during a bout of activity, for example, nerve impulses are automatically sent to the diaphragm and rib muscles that increase the rate and the depth of breathing. Increasing the rate of breathing also increases the amount of oxygen in the blood to meet the needs of this increased activity.

The Acidity Of The Blood And Breathing
The degree of acidity of the blood (the acid-base balance) is critical for normal functioning of cells and the body as a whole. For example, blood that is too acidic or alkaline can seriously affect nerve function causing a coma, muscle spasms, convulsions and even death. Carbon dioxide carried in the blood makes the blood acidic and the higher the concentration of carbon dioxide the more acidic it is. This is obviously dangerous so there are various mechanisms in the body that bring the acid-base balance back within the normal range. Breathing is one of these homeostatic mechanisms. By increasing the rate of breathing the animal increases the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide that is expelled from the blood. This reduces the acidity of the blood.

Breathing In Birds
Birds have a unique respiratory system that enables them to respire at the very high rates necessary for flight. The lungs are relatively solid structures that do not change shape and size in the same way as mammalian lungs do. Tubes run through them and connect with a series of air sacs situated in the thoracic and abdominal body cavities and some of the bones. Movements of the ribs and breastbone or sternum expand and compress these air sacs so they act rather like bellows and pump air through the lungs. The evolution of this extremely efficient system of breathing has enabled birds to migrate vast distances and fly at altitudes higher than the summit of Everest.

Summary

 * Animals need to breathe to supply the cells with oxygen and remove the waste product carbon dioxide.
 * The lungs are situated in the pleural cavities of the thorax.
 * Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of the lungs that provide a large surface area. Here oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the red blood cells in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Carbon dioxide, at high concentration in the blood, diffuses into the alveoli to be breathed out.
 * Inspiration occurs when muscle contraction causes the ribs to move up and out and the diaphragm to flatten. These movements increase the volume of the pleural cavity and draw air down the respiratory system into the lungs.
 * The air enters the nasal cavity and passes to the pharynx and larynx where the epiglottis closes the opening to the lungs during swallowing. the air passes down the trachea kept open by rings of cartilage to the bronchi and bronchioles and then to the alveoli.
 * Expiration is a passive process requiring no energy as it relies on the relaxation of the muscles and recoil of the elastic tissue of the lungs.
 * The rate of breathing is determined by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. As carbon dioxide makes blood acidic, the rate of breathing helps control the acid/base balance of the blood.
 * The cells lining the respiratory passages produce mucus which traps dust particles, which are wafted into the nose by cilia.

Worksheet
Work through the Respiratory System Worksheet to learn the main structures of the respiratory system and how they contribute to inspiration and gas exchange.

Test Yourself
Then use the Test Yourself below to see how much you remember and understand.

1. What is meant by the phrase “gas exchange”?

2. Where does gas exchange take place?

3. What is the process by which oxygen moves from the alveoli into the blood?

4. Why does this process occur?

5. How does the structure of the alveoli make gas exchange efficient?

6. How is oxygen carried in the blood?

7. List the structures that air passes on its way from the nose to the alveoli:

8. What is the function of the mucus and cilia lining the respiratory passages?

9. How do movements of the ribs and diaphragm bring about inspiration? Circle the correct statement below.
 * a) The diaphragm domes up into the thorax and ribs move in and down
 * b) The diaphragm flattens and ribs move up and out
 * c) The diaphragm domes up into the thorax and the ribs move up and out.
 * d) The diaphragm flattens and the ribs move in and down

10. What is the function of the epiglottis?

11. What controls the rate of breathing?

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites
A good interactive explanation of breathing and gas exchange in humans with diagrams to label, animations to watch and questions to answer.
 * http://www.biotopics.co.uk/humans/resyst.html Bio topics

Although this is of the human respiratory system there is a good diagram that gives the functions of the various parts as you move your mouse over it. Also an animation of gas exchange and a quiz to test your understanding of it.
 * http://www.schoolscience.co.uk/content/4/biology/abpi/asthma/asth3.html School Science

Wikipedia on the lungs. Lots of good information on the human respiratory system with all sorts of links if you are interested.
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung Wikipedia

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
Erlang Programming/Records

Records in Erlang are syntactic sugar for tagged tuples. The functionality is provided by the preprocessor, not the compiler, so there are some interesting restrictions on how you use them and their support functions.

Defining Records
-record(myrecord, {first_element, second_element}).

The code above defines a record called myrecord with two elements: "first_element" and "second_element". From now on we can use the record syntax #myrecord{}.

Equivalent to Tuples
Records are syntactic sugar for tuples.

 * 1) myrecord{first_element=foo, second_element=bar} =:= {myrecord, foo, bar}.
 * 2) myrecord{} =:= {myrecord, undefined, undefined}.

The record we defined with two fields is equivalent to a tuple with a tag (the name of the record) and as many elements as the record has fields—two, in our case.

title: Erlang Programming/Records


text:
Talk:Erlang Programming

Mnesia
I'd recommend giving mnesia its own section as there's easily enough content:

 * Mnesia
 * Creating a Database
 * Schema
 * Table copy types
 * Loading from textfiles
 * Using mnesia
 * Read/write/delete
 * Locks
 * Queries
 * Managing Mnesia
 * Backup/restore
 * Adding db nodes
 * Creating, deleting and altering table copies
 * Fragmenting Tables
 * Distributing Tables
 * Local content
 * Copies
 * Performance
 * Dirty operations

Print Version
It'd be great to have a print/pdf version of Erlang Programming.

title: Talk:Erlang Programming


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Lymphatic System

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * the function of the lymphatic system
 * what the terms tissue fluid, lymph, lymphocyte and lymphatic mean
 * how lymph is formed and what is in it
 * the basic structure and function of a lymph node and the position of some important lymph nodes in the body
 * the route by which lymph circulates in the body and is returned to the blood system
 * the location and function of the spleen, thymus and lacteals

Lymphatic System
When tissue fluid enters the small blind-ended lymphatic capillaries that form a network between the cells it becomes lymph. Lymph is a clear watery fluid that is very similar to blood plasma except that it contains large numbers of white blood cells, mostly lymphocytes. It also contains protein, cellular debris, foreign particles and bacteria. Lymph that comes from the intestines also contains many fat globules following the absorption of fat from the digested food into the lymphatics (lacteals) of the villi (see chapter 11 for more on these). From the lymph capillaries the lymph flows into larger tubes called lymphatic vessels. These carry the lymph back to join the blood circulation (see diagrams 10.1 and 10.2).

Diagram 10.1 - A capillary bed with lymphatic capillaries

Lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic vessels have several similarities to veins. Both are thin walled and return fluid to the right hand side of the heart. The movement of the fluid in both is brought about by the contraction of the muscles that surround them and both have valves to prevent backflow. One important difference is that lymph passes through at least one lymph node or gland before it reaches the blood system (see diagram 10.2). These filter out used cell parts, cancer cells and bacteria and help defend the body from infection.

Lymph nodes are of various sizes and shapes and found throughout the body and the more important ones are shown in diagram 10.3. They consist of lymph tissue surrounded by a fibrous sheath. Lymph flows into them through a number of incoming vessels. It then trickles through small channels where white cells called macrophages (derived from monocytes) remove the bacteria and debris by engulfing and digesting them (see diagram 10.4). The lymph then leaves the lymph nodes through outgoing vessels to continue its journey towards the heart where it rejoins the blood circulation (see diagrams 10.2 and 10.3).

Diagram 10.2 - The lymphatic system

Diagram 10.3 - The circulation of lymph with major lymph nodes

Diagram 10.4 - A lymph node

As well as filtering the lymph, lymph nodes produce the white cells known as lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are also produced by the thymus, spleen and bone marrow. There are two kinds of lymphocyte. The first attack invading micro organisms directly while others produce antibodies that circulate in the blood and attack them.

The function of the lymphatic system can therefore be summarized as transport and defense. It is important for returning the fluid and proteins that have escaped from the blood capillaries to the blood system and is also responsible for picking up the products of fat digestion in the small intestine. Its other essential function is as part of the immune system, defending the body against infection.

Problems with lymph nodes and the lymphatic system
During infection of the body the lymph nodes often become swollen and tender because of their increased activity. This is what causes the swollen ‘glands’ in your neck during throat infections, mumps and tonsillitis. Sometimes the bacteria multiply in the lymph node and cause inflammation. Cancer cells may also be carried to the lymph nodes and then transported to other parts of the body where they may multiply to form a secondary growth or metastasis. The lymphatic system may therefore contribute to the spread of cancer. Inactivity of the muscles surrounding the lymphatic vessels or blockage of these vessels causes tissue fluid to ‘back up’ in the tissues resulting in swelling or oedema.

Other Organs Of The Lymphatic System
The spleen is an important part of the lymphatic system. It is a deep red organ situated in the abdomen caudal to the stomach (see diagram 10.3). It is composed of two different types of tissue. The first type makes and stores lymphocytes, the cells of the immune system. The second type of tissue destroys worn out red blood cells, breaking down the haemoglobin into iron, which is recycled, and waste products that are excreted. The spleen also stores red blood cells. When severe blood loss occurs, it contracts and releases them into the circulation.

The thymus is a large pink organ lying just under the sternum (breastbone) just cranial to the heart (see diagram 10.1). It has an important function processing lymphocytes so they are capable of recognising and attacking foreign invaders like bacteria.

Other lymph organs are the bone marrow of the long bones where lymphocytes are produced and lymph nodules, which are like tiny lymph nodes. Large clusters of these are found in the wall of the small intestine (called Peyer’s Patches) and in the tonsils.

Summary

 * Fluid leaks out of the thin walled capillaries as they pass through the tissues. This is called tissue fluid.
 * Much of tissue fluid passes back into the capillaries. Some enters the blind-ended lymphatic capillaries that form a network between the cells of the tissues. This fluid is called lymph.
 * Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries to lymph vessels, passing through lymph nodes and along the thoracic duct to join the blood system.
 * Lymph nodes filter the lymph and produce lymphocytes.
 * Other organs of the lymphatic system are the spleen, thymus, bone marrow, and lymph nodules.

Worksheets
Lymphatic System Worksheet

Test Yourself
1. What is the difference between tissue fluid and lymph?

2. By what route does lymph make its way back to join the blood of the circulatory system?

3. As the lymphatic system has no heart to push the lymph along what makes it flow?

4. What happens to the lymph as it passes through a lymph node?

5. Where is the spleen located in the body?

6. Where is the thymus located in the body?

7. What is the function of lymphocytes?

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites
A nice clear explanation here with great diagrams of the (human) lymphatic system.
 * http://www.cancerhelp.org.uk/help/default.asp?page=117 Cancerhelp

Introduction to the Lymphatic System. A good description of lymph circulation with an animation.
 * http://www.jdaross.cwc.net/lymphatics2.htm Lymphatic system

Good information here on the (human) lymphatic system, lymph circulation and lymphoid organs.
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_system Wikipedia

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text:
English History

Chapters

 * 1) /Preface/
 * 2) /Introduction/
 * 3) /Prehistoric England/
 * 4) /Roman England/
 * 5) /Anglo-Saxon England/
 * 6) /The Middle Ages/
 * 7) /English Colonies in America/
 * 8) /The House of Stuart/
 * 9) /The Industrial Age/
 * 10) /Bibliography/
 * 11) /Authors and Contributors/

External resources

 * http://www.british-history.ac.uk/
 * http://www.englishhistory.info
 * http://www.britainexpress.com/History/

title: English History


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/The Gut and Digestion

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * what is meant by the terms: ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation, egestion, peristalsis and chyme
 * the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of a herbivorous, carnivorous and omnivorous diet
 * the 4 main functions of the gut
 * the parts of the gut in the order in which the food passes down

The Gut And Digestion
Plant cells are made of organic molecules using energy from the sun. This process is called photosynthesis. Animals rely on these ready-made organic molecules to supply them with their food. Some animals (herbivores) eat plants; some (carnivores) eat the herbivores.

Herbivores
Herbivores eat plant material. While no animal produces the digestive enzymes to break down the large cellulose molecules in the plant cell walls, micro-organisms' like bacteria, on the other hand, can break them down. Therefore herbivores employ micro-organisms to do the job for them.

There are two types of herbivore:
 * The first, ruminants like cattle, sheep and goats, house these bacteria in a special compartment in the enlarged stomach called the rumen.

 * The second group has an enlarged large intestine and caecum, called a functional caecum, occupied by cellulose digesting micro-organisms. These non-ruminant herbivores include the horse, rabbit and rat.

Plants are a primary pure and good source of nutrients, however they aren't digested very easily and therefore herbivores have to eat large quantities of food to obtain all they require. Herbivores like cows, horses and rabbits typically spend much of their day feeding. To give the micro-organisms access to the cellulose molecules, the plant cell walls need to be broken down. This is why herbivores have teeth that are adapted to crush and grind. Their guts also tend to be lengthy and the food takes a long time to pass through it.

Eating plants have other advantages. Plants are immobile so herbivores normally have to spend little energy collecting them. This contrasts with another main group of animals - the carnivores that often have to chase their prey.

Carnivores
Carnivorous animals like those in the cat and dog families, polar bears, seals, crocodiles and birds of prey catch and eat other animals. They often have to use large amounts of energy finding, stalking, catching and killing their prey. However, they are rewarded by the fact that meat provides a very concentrated source of nutrients. Carnivores in the wild therefore tend to eat distinct meals often with long and irregular intervals between them. Time after feeding is spent digesting and absorbing the food. The guts of carnivores are usually shorter and less complex than those of herbivores because meat is easier to digest than plant material. Carnivores usually have teeth that are specialised for dealing with flesh, gristle and bone. They have sleek bodies, strong, sharp claws and keen senses of smell, hearing and sight. They are also often cunning, alert and have an aggressive nature.

Omnivores
Many animals feed on both animal and vegetable material – they are omnivorous. There are currently two similar definitions of omnivorism:

1. Having the ability to derive energy from plant and animal material.

2. Having characteristics which are optimized for acquiring and eating both plants and animals.

Some animals fit both definitions of omnivorism, including bears, raccoons, dogs, and hedgehogs. Their food is diverse, ranging from plant material to animals they have either killed themselves or scavenged from other carnivores. They are well equipped to hunt and tear flesh (claws, sharp teeth, and a strong, non-rotational jaw hinge), but they also have slightly longer intestines than carnivores, which has been found to facilitate plant digestion. The examples also retain an ability to taste amino acids, making unseasoned flesh palatable to most members of the species.

Classically, humans and chimpanzees are classified as omnivores. However, further research has shown chimpanzees typically consume 95% plant matter (the remaining mass is largely termites), and their teeth, jaw hinge, stomach pH, and intestinal length closely matches herbivores, which many suggest classified them as herbivores. Humans, conversely, have chosen to eat meat for much of the archaeological record, although their teeth, jaw hinge, and stomach pH, and intestinal lengths also closely match other herbivores.

The dispute of human/ chimps classifications is caused by two things. First, there is research that both plant-only and some-animal diets promote health (longevity and freedom from disease) in humans. Second, well-off humans have often chosen to eat meat and dairy products throughout written history, which some argue shows that we prefer meat and dairy by latent instinct.

Per the classical definition, omnivores lack the specialized teeth and guts of carnivores and herbivores but are often highly intelligent and adaptable reflecting their varied diet.

Treatment Of Food
Whether an animal eats plants or flesh, the carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the food it eats are generally giant molecules (see chapter 1). These need to be split up into smaller ones before they can pass into the blood and enter the cells to be used for energy or to make new cell constituents.

For example:
 * Carbohydrates like cellulose, starch, and glycogen need to be split into glucose and other monosaccharides;
 * Proteins need to be split into amino acids;
 * Fats or lipids need to be split into fatty acids and glycerol.

The Gut
The digestive tract, alimentary canal or gut is a hollow tube stretching from the mouth to the anus. It is the organ system concerned with the treatment of foods.

At the mouth the large food molecules are taken into the gut - this is called ingestion. They must then be broken down into smaller ones by digestive enzymes - digestion, before they can be taken from the gut into the blood stream - absorption. The cells of the body can then use these small molecules - assimilation. The indigestible waste products are eliminated from the body by the act of egestion (see diagram 11.1).

Diagram 11.1 - From ingestion to egestion

The 4 major functions of the gut are:
 * 1. Transporting the food;
 * 2. Processing the food physically by breaking it up (chewing), mixing, adding fluid etc.
 * 3. Processing the food chemically by adding digestive enzymes to split large food molecules into smaller ones.
 * 4. Absorbing these small molecules into the blood stream so the body can use them.

The regions of a typical mammals gut (for example a cat or dog) are shown in diagram 11.2.

Diagram 11.2 - A typical mammalian gut

The food that enters the mouth passes to the oesophagus, then to the stomach, small intestine, cecum, large intestine, rectum and finally undigested material exits at the anus. The liver and pancreas produce secretions that aid digestion and the gall bladder stores bile. Herbivores have an appendix which they use for the digestion of cellulose. Carnivores have an appendix but is not of any function anymore due to the fact that their diet is not based on cellulose anymore.

Mouth
The mouth takes food into the body. The lips hold the food inside the mouth during chewing and allow the baby animal to suck on its mother’s teat. In elephants the lips (and nose) have developed into the trunk which is the main food collecting tool. Some mammals, e.g. hamsters, have stretchy cheek pouches that they use to carry food or material to make their nests.

The sight or smell of food and its presence in the mouth stimulates the salivary glands to secrete saliva. There are four pairs of these glands in cats and dogs (see diagram 11.3). The fluid they produce moistens and softens the food making it easier to swallow. It also contains the enzyme, salivary amylase, which starts the digestion of starch.

The tongue moves food around the mouth and rolls it into a ball called a bolus for swallowing. Taste buds are located on the tongue and in dogs and cats it is covered with spiny projections used for grooming and lapping. The cow’s tongue is prehensile and wraps around grass to graze it.

Swallowing is a complex reflex involving 25 different muscles. It pushes food into the oesophagus and at the same time a small flap of tissue called the epiglottis closes off the windpipe so food doesn’t enter the trachea and choke the animal (see diagram 11.4).

Diagram 11.3 - Salivary glands

Diagram 11.4 - Section through the head of a dog

Teeth
Teeth seize, tear and grind food. They are inserted into sockets in the bone and consist of a crown above the gum and root below. The crown is covered with a layer of enamel, the hardest substance in the body. Below this is the dentine, a softer but tough and shock resistant material. At the centre of the tooth is a space filled with pulp which contains blood vessels and nerves. The tooth is cemented into the socket and in most teeth the tip of the root is quite narrow with a small opening for the blood vessels and nerves (see diagram 11.5).

In teeth that grow continuously, like the incisors of rodents, the opening remains large and these teeth are called open rooted teeth. Mammals have 2 distinct sets of teeth. The first set, the milk teeth, are replaced by the permanent teeth.

Diagram 11.5 - Structure of a tooth

Types Of Teeth
All the teeth of fish and reptiles are similar but mammals usually have four different types of teeth.

The incisors are the chisel-shaped ‘biting off’ teeth at the front of the mouth. In rodents and rabbits the incisors never stop growing (open-rooted teeth). They must be worn or ground down continuously by gnawing. They have hard enamel on one surface only so they wear unevenly and maintain their sharp cutting edge.

The largest incisors in the animal kingdom are found in elephants, for tusks are actually giant incisors. Sloths have no incisors at all, and sheep have no incisors in the upper jaw (see diagram 11.6). Instead there is a horny pad against which the bottom incisors cut.

The canines or ‘wolf-teeth’ are long, cone-shaped teeth situated just behind the incisors. They are particularly well developed in the dog and cat families where they are used to hold, stab and kill the prey (see diagram 11.7).

The tusks of boars and walruses are large canines while rodents and herbivores like sheep have no (or reduced) canines. In these animals the space where the canines would normally be is called the diastema. In rodents like the rat and beaver it allows the debris from gnawing to be expelled easily.

The cheek teeth or premolars and molars crush and grind the food. They are particularly well developed in herbivores where they have complex ridges that form broad grinding surfaces (see diagram 11.6). These are created from alternating bands of hard enamel and softer dentine that wear at different rates.

In carnivores the premolars and molars slice against each other like scissors and are called carnassial teeth see diagram 11.7). They are used for shearing flesh and bone.

Dental Formula
The numbers of the different kinds of teeth can be expressed in a dental formula. This gives the numbers of incisors, canines, premolars and molars in one half of the mouth. The numbers of these four types of teeth in the left or right half of the upper jaw are written above a horizontal line and the four types of teeth in the right or left half of the lower jaw are written below it.

Thus the dental formula for the sheep is:
 * 0.0.3.3
 * 3.1.3.3

It indicates that in the upper right (or left) half of the jaw there are no incisors or canines (i.e. there is a diastema), three premolars and three molars. In the lower right (or left) half of the jaw are three incisors, one canine, three premolars and three molars (see diagram 11.6).

Diagram 11.6 - A sheep’s skull

The dental formula for a dog is:
 * 3.1.4.2
 * 3.1.4.3

The formula indicates that in the right (or left) half of the upper jaw there are three incisors, one canine, four premolars and two molars. In the right (or left) half of the lower jaw there are three incisors, one canine, four premolars and three molars (see diagram 11.7).

Diagram 11.7 - A dog’s skull

Esophagus
The Esophagus transports food to the stomach. Food is moved along the esophagus, as it is along the small and large intestines, by contraction of the smooth muscles in the walls that push the food along rather like toothpaste along a tube. This movement is called peristalsis (see diagram 11.8).

Diagram 11.8 - Peristalsis

Stomach
The stomach stores and mixes the food. Glands in the wall secrete gastric juice that contains enzymes to digest protein and fats as well as hydrochloric acid to make the contents very acidic. The walls of the stomach are very muscular and churn and mix the food with the gastric juice to form a watery mixture called chyme (pronounced kime). Rings of muscle called sphincters at the entrance and exit to the stomach control the movement of food into and out of it (see diagram 11.9).

Diagram 11.9 - The stomach

Small Intestine
Most of the breakdown of the large food molecules and absorption of the smaller molecules take place in the long and narrow small intestine. The total length varies but it is about 6.5 metres in humans, 21 metres in the horse, 40 metres in the ox and over 150 metres in the blue whale.

It is divided into 3 sections: the duodenum (after the stomach), jejunum and ileum. The duodenum receives 3 different secretions:
 * 1) Bile from the liver;
 * 2) Pancreatic juice from the pancreas and
 * 3) Intestinal juice from glands in the intestinal wall.

These complete the digestion of starch, fats and protein. The products of digestion are absorbed into the blood and lymphatic system through the wall of the intestine, which is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area for more efficient absorption (see diagram 11.10).

Diagram 11.10 - The wall of the small intestine showing villi

The Rumen
In ruminant herbivores like cows, sheep and antelopes the stomach is highly modified to act as a “fermentation vat”. It is divided into four parts. The largest part is called the rumen. In the cow it occupies the entire left half of the abdominal cavity and can hold up to 270 litres. The reticulum is much smaller and has a honeycomb of raised folds on its inner surface. In the camel the reticulum is further modified to store water. The next part is called the omasum with a folded inner surface. Camels have no omasum. The final compartment is called the abomasum. This is the ‘true’ stomach where muscular walls churn the food and gastric juice is secreted (see diagram 11.11).

Diagram 11.11 - The rumen

Ruminants swallow the grass they graze almost without chewing and it passes down the oesophagus to the rumen and reticulum. Here liquid is added and the muscular walls churn the food. These chambers provide the main fermentation vat of the ruminant stomach. Here bacteria and single-celled animals start to act on the cellulose plant cell walls. These organisms break down the cellulose to smaller molecules that are absorbed to provide the cow or sheep with energy. In the process, the gases methane and carbon dioxide are produced. These cause the “burps” you may hear cows and sheep making.

Not only do the micro-organisms break down the cellulose but they also produce the vitamins E, B and K for use by the animal. Their digested bodies provide the ruminant with the majority of its protein requirements.

In the wild grazing is a dangerous activity as it exposes the herbivore to predators. They crop the grass as quickly as possible and then when the animal is in a safer place the food in the rumen can be regurgitated to be chewed at the animal’s leisure. This is ‘chewing the cud’ or rumination. The finely ground food may be returned to the rumen for further work by the microorganisms or, if the particles are small enough, it will pass down a special groove in the wall of the oesophagus straight into the omasum. Here the contents are kneaded and water is absorbed before they pass to the abomasum. The abomasum acts as a “proper” stomach and gastric juice is secreted to digest the protein.

Large Intestine
The large intestine consists of the caecum, colon and rectum. The chyme from the small intestine that enters the colon consists mainly of water and undigested material such as cellulose (fibre or roughage). In omnivores like the pig and humans the main function of the colon is absorption of water to give solid faeces. Bacteria in this part of the gut produce vitamins B and K.

The caecum, which forms a dead-end pouch where the small intestine joins the large intestine, is small in pigs and humans and helps water absorption. However, in rabbits, rodents and horses, the caecum is very large and called the functional caecum. It is here that cellulose is digested by micro-organisms. The appendix, a narrow dead end tube at the end of the caecum, is particularly large in primates but seems to have no digestive function.

Functional Caecum
The caecum in the rabbit, rat and guinea pig is greatly enlarged to provide a “fermentation vat” for micro-organisms to break down the cellulose plant cell walls. This is called a functional caecum (see diagram 11.12). In the horse both the caecum and the colon are enlarged. As in the rumen, the large cellulose molecules are broken down to smaller molecules that can be absorbed. However, the position of the functional caecum after the main areas of digestion and absorption, means it is potentially less effective than the rumen. This means that the small molecules that are produced there can not be absorbed by the gut but pass out in the faeces. The rabbit and rodents (and foals) solve this problem by eating their own faeces so that they pass through the gut a second time and the products of cellulose digestion can be absorbed in the small intestine. Rabbits produce two kinds of faeces. Softer night-time faeces are eaten directly from the anus and the harder pellets you are probably familiar with, that have passed through the gut twice.

Diagram 11.12 - The gut of a rabbit

The Gut Of Birds
Birds’ guts have important differences from mammals’ guts. Most obviously, birds have a beak instead of teeth. Beaks are much lighter than teeth and are an adaptation for flight. Imagine a bird trying to take off and fly with a whole set of teeth in its head! At the base of the oesophagus birds have a bag-like structure called a crop. In many birds the crop stores food before it enters the stomach, while in pigeons and doves glands in the crop secretes a special fluid called crop-milk which parent birds regurgitate to feed their young. The stomach is also modified and consists of two compartments. The first is the true stomach with muscular walls and enzyme secreting glands. The second compartment is the gizzard. In seed eating birds this has very muscular walls and contains pebbles swallowed by the bird to help grind the food. This is the reason why you must always supply a caged bird with grit. In birds of prey like the falcon the walls of the gizzard are much thinner and expand to accommodate large meals (see diagram 11.13).

Diagram 11.13 - The stomach and small intestine of a hen

Digestion
During digestion the large food molecules are broken down into smaller molecules by enzymes. The three most important groups of enzymes secreted into the gut are:
 * Amylases that split carbohydrates like starch and glycogen into monosaccharides like glucose.
 * Proteases that split proteins into amino acids.
 * Lipases that split lipids or fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Glands produce various secretions which mix with the food as it passes along the gut.

These secretions include:
 * Saliva secreted into the mouth from several pairs of salivary glands (see diagram 11.3). Saliva consists mainly of water but contains salts, mucous and salivary amylase. The function of saliva is to lubricate food as it is chewed and swallowed and salivary amylase begins the digestion of starch.
 * Gastric juice secreted into the stomach from glands in its walls. Gastric juice contains pepsin that breaks down protein and hydrochloric acid to produce the acidic conditions under which this enzyme works best. In baby animals rennin to digest milk is also produced in the stomach.
 * Bile produced by the liver. It is stored in the gall bladder and secreted into the duodenum via the bile duct (see diagram 11.14). (Note that the horse, deer, parrot and rat have no gall bladder). Bile is not a digestive enzyme. Its function is to break up large globules of fat into smaller ones so the fat splitting enzymes can gain access the fat molecules.

Diagram 11.14 - The liver, gall bladder and pancreas

Pancreatic juice
The pancreas is a gland located near the beginning of the duodenum (see diagram 11.14). In most animals it is large and easily seen but in rodents and rabbits it lies within the membrane linking the loops of the intestine (the mesentery) and is quite difficult to find. Pancreatic juice is produced in the pancreas. It flows into the duodenum and contains amylase for digesting starch, lipase for digesting fats and protease for digesting proteins.

Intestinal juice
Intestinal juice is produced by glands in the lining of the small intestine. It contains enzymes for digesting disaccharides and proteins as well as mucus and salts to make the contents of the small intestine more alkaline so the enzymes can work.

Absorption
The small molecules produced by digestion are absorbed into the villi of the wall of the small intestine. The tiny finger-like projections of the villi increase the surface area for absorption. Glucose and amino acids pass directly through the wall into the blood stream by diffusion or active transport. Fatty acids and glycerol enter vessels of the lymphatic system (lacteals) that run up the centre of each villus.

The Liver
The liver is situated in the abdominal cavity adjacent to the diaphragm (see diagrams 2 and 14). It is the largest single organ of the body and has over 100 known functions. Its most important digestive functions are:
 * the production of bile to help the digestion of fats (described above) and
 * the control of blood sugar levels

Glucose is absorbed into the capillaries of the villi of the intestine. The blood stream takes it directly to the liver via a blood vessel known as the hepatic portal vessel or vein (see diagram 11.15).

The liver converts this glucose into glycogen which it stores. When glucose levels are low the liver can convert the glycogen back into glucose. It releases this back into the blood to keep the level of glucose constant. The hormone insulin, produced by special cells in the pancreas, controls this process.

Diagram 11.15 - The control of blood glucose by the liver

Other functions of the liver include:
 * 3. making vitamin A,
 * 4. making the proteins that are found in the blood plasma (albumin, globulin and fibrinogen),
 * 5. storing iron,
 * 6. removing toxic substances like alcohol and poisons from the blood and converting them to safer substances,
 * 7. producing heat to help maintain the temperature of the body.

Diagram 11.16 - Summary of the main functions of the different regions of the gut

Summary

 * The gut breaks down plant and animal materials into nutrients that can be used by animals’ bodies.
 * Plant material is more difficult to break down than animal tissue. The gut of herbivores is therefore longer and more complex than that of carnivores. Herbivores usually have a compartment (the rumen or functional caecum) housing micro-organisms to break down the cellulose wall of plants.
 * Chewing by the teeth begins the food processing. There are 4 main types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars and molars. In dogs and cats the premolars and molars are adapted to slice against each other and are called carnassial teeth.
 * Saliva is secreted in the mouth. It lubricates the food for swallowing and contains an enzyme to break down starch.
 * Chewed food is swallowed and passes down the oesophagus by waves of contraction of the wall called peristalsis. The food passes to the stomach where it is churned and mixed with acidic gastric juice that begins the digestion of protein.
 * The resulting chyme passes down the small intestine where enzymes that digest fats, proteins and carbohydrates are secreted. Bile produced by the liver is also secreted here. It helps in the breakdown of fats. Villi provide the large surface area necessary for the absorption of the products of digestion.
 * In the colon and caecum water is absorbed and micro organisms produce some vitamin B and K. In rabbits, horses and rodents the caecum is enlarged as a functional caecum and micro-organisms break down cellulose cell walls to simpler carbohydrates. Waste products exit the body via the rectum and anus.
 * The pancreas produces pancreatic juice that contains many of the enzymes secreted into the small intestine.
 * In addition to producing bile the liver regulates blood sugar levels by converting glucose absorbed by the villi into glycogen and storing it. The liver also removes toxic substances from the blood, stores iron, makes vitamin A and produces heat.

Worksheet
Use the Digestive System Worksheet to help you learn the different parts of the digestive system and their functions.

Test Yourself
Then work through the Test Yourself below to see if you have understood and remembered what you learned.

1. Name the four different kinds of teeth

2. Give 2 facts about how the teeth of cats and dogs are adapted for a carnivorous diet:
 * 1.
 * 2.

3. What does saliva do to the food?

4. What is peristalsis?

5. What happens to the food in the stomach?

6. What is chyme?

7. Where does the chyme go after leaving the stomach?

8. What are villi and what do they do?

9. What happens in the small intestine?

10. Where is the pancreas and what does it do?

11. How does the caecum of rabbits differ from that of cats?

12. How does the liver help control the glucose levels in the blood?

13. Give 2 other functions of the liver:
 * 1.
 * 2.

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * http://www.second-opinions.co.uk/carn_herb_comparison.html Second opinion. A good comparison of the guts of carnivores and herbivores
 * http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/~ALRF/giintro.htm The gastrointestinal system. A good comparison of the guts of carnivores and herbivores with more advanced information than in the previous site.
 * http://www.westga.edu/~lkral/peristalsis/index.html Peristalsis animation.
 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digestion Wikipedia on digestion with links to further information on most aspects. Like most websites this is mainly about human digestion but much is applicable to animals.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


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User:Archaelus

archaelus can generally be found in #erlang on irc.freenode.net

title: User:Archaelus


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Erlang Programming/Debugging and Tracing

Tools

 * Debugging
 * dbg
 * debugger
 * Tracing
 * ttb
 * invision
 * et
 * Coverage
 * Cover

Coverage
Coverage shows what functions are covered by a test. Sample program: test_rotate.erl -module(test_rotate). -export([test/0]). test -> assert( left_rotate([a,b,c]), [b,c,a] ). assert(X, X) -> true. left_rotate([]) -> []; left_rotate([H|T]) -> T ++ [H]. Sample output:

33> cover:compile(test_rotate). 34> test_rotate:test. true 35> cover:analyse_to_file(test_rotate, "cover.html", [html]). Contents of cover.html shows that each clause was run once except for left_rotate([]). Each time the program is tested, the run count for each visited clause is increased by one. Cover sample output file:

File generated from test_rotate.erl by COVER 2008-04-23 at 12:49:11 *********************************************        |  -module(test_rotate). | -export([test/0]). |           |  test -> 1..|   assert( left_rotate([a,b,c]), [b,c,a] ). |       1..|  assert(X, X) -> true. |      0..|  left_rotate([]) -> []; 1..| left_rotate([H|T]) -> T ++ [H]. |


text: User:Extremecircuitz~enwikibooks

title: User:Extremecircuitz~enwikibooks


text:
Erlang Programming/Performance and Optimization

Profiling
There are a number of profiling libraries available:
 * cprof
 * eprof
 * fprof

Profiling of any kind has a runtime performance penalty - the reason for the different libraries above is their different trade-offs in terms of profiling precision and the performance penalty for using them.


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User:Whiteknight/per book/User talk:Whiteknight.js

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wk_import_script('User:Whiteknight/remotetalk.js');

if (mwCustomEditButtons) { mwCustomEditButtons[mwCustomEditButtons.length] = { "imageFile": "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Button_attendre.png", "speedTip":  "Preserve", "tagOpen":   "", "tagClose":  "", "sampleText": "" }; }

$(function {  var editlinks = wk.getElementsByClass("editsection");  for(var i = 0; i < editlinks.length; i++) {    var j = i + 1    var a = document.createElement("a");    a.href = "javascript:KeepSection(" + j + ");";    a.innerHTML = "keep";    a.id = "WK_Keep_" + j;    var b = document.createElement("a");    b.href = "javascript:TagSection(" + j + ");";    b.innerHTML = "tag";    b.id = "WK_Tag_" + j;    var c = document.createElement("a");    c.href = "javascript:DeleteSection(" + j + ");";    c.innerHTML = "delete";    c.id = "WK_Delete_" + j;    wk.appendChildren(editlinks[i], ["[", a, "][", b, "][", c, "]"]);  } });

function ReloadPage { var currentUrl = unescape(window.location.pathname); if(typeof window.location.reload == "function") { window.location.reload(true); } else if(typeof window.location.replace == "function") { window.location.replace = currentUrl; } else { //warning: adds a new entry to page history. window.location.href = currentUrl; } }

function KeepSection(j) { wk.postEdit(wgPageName,               "",                "marking section to avoid archival",                {section:j, filter:addTopNote, minor:"true", watch:true, callback:ReloadPage}); wk.spanText("WK_Keep_" + j, "Loading...").href = ""; }

function TagSection(j) { wk.postEdit(wgPageName,               "",                "tagging with timestamp",                {section:j, filter:addTopNote, minor:"true", watch:true, callback:ReloadPage}); wk.spanText("WK_Tag_" + j, "Loading...").href = ""; }

function DeleteSection(j) { if(confirm("Delete this section?")) { wk.postEdit(wgPageName, "", "removing conversation",                {section:j, minor:false, watch:true, callback:ReloadPage}); wk.spanText("WK_Delete_" + j, "Loading...").href = ""; } }

function addTopNote(pagetext, text) { var lines = pagetext.split("\n"); var title = lines.shift; pagetext = title + "\n" + text; for(var i = 0; i < lines.length; i++) { pagetext = pagetext + "\n" + lines[i]; } return pagetext; }

//


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Corps-Style Marching/Authors & Contributors

List of Contributors to Corps-Style Marching:

Deus Trombonae ????

Kevin Lakhani - Contributor, has written one page so far.


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Wikijunior:Visual Math/recognize greater than sign

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