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Statistics/Numerical Methods/Quantile Regression

Quantile Regression as introduced by Koenker and Bassett (1978) seeks to complement classical linear regression analysis. Central hereby is the extension of "ordinary quantiles from a location model to a more general class of linear models in which the conditional quantiles have a linear form" (Buchinsky (1998), p. 89). In Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) the primary goal is to determine the conditional mean of random variable $$Y$$, given some explanatory variable $$x_i$$, reaching the expected value $$E[Y|x_i]$$. Quantile Regression goes beyond this and enables one to pose such a question at any quantile of the conditional distribution function. The following seeks to introduce the reader to the ideas behind Quantile Regression. First, the issue of quantiles is addressed, followed by a brief outline of least squares estimators focusing on Ordinary Least Squares. Finally, Quantile Regression is presented, along with an example utilizing the Boston Housing data set.

What are Quantiles
Gilchrist (2001, p.1) describes a quantile as "simply the value that corresponds to a specified proportion of an (ordered) sample of a population". For instance a very commonly used quantile is the median $$M$$, which is equal to a proportion of 0.5 of the ordered data. This corresponds to a quantile with a probability of 0.5 of occurrence. Quantiles hereby mark the boundaries of equally sized, consecutive subsets. (Gilchrist, 2001)

More formally stated, let $$Y$$ be a continuous random variable with a distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$ such that

$$ (1) F_Y(y) = P (Y\leq {y}) = \tau$$

which states that for the distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$ one can determine for a given value $$y$$ the probability $$\tau$$ of occurrence. Now if one is dealing with quantiles, one wants to do the opposite, that is one wants to determine for a given probability $$\tau$$ of the sample data set the corresponding value $$y$$. A $$\tau^{th}$$-quantile refers in a sample data to the probability $$\tau$$ for a value $$y$$.

$$ (2) F_Y(y_\tau) = \tau$$

Another form of expressing the $$\tau^{th}$$-quantile mathematically is following:

$$ (3) y_\tau = F_{Y}^{-1}(\tau)$$

$$y_\tau$$ is such that it constitutes the inverse of the function $$F_Y(\tau)$$ for a probability $$\tau$$.

Note that there are two possible scenarios. On the one hand, if the distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$ is monotonically increasing, quantiles are well defined for every $$\tau \in (0;1)$$. However, if a distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$ is not strictly monotonically increasing, there are some $$\tau$$s for which a unique quantile can not be defined. In this case one uses the smallest value that $$y$$ can take on for a given probability $$\tau$$.

Both cases, with and without a strictly monotonically increasing function, can be described as follows:

$$ (4) y_\tau = F_Y^{-1}(\tau) = inf \left\{ y | F_Y(y) \geq \tau \right\} $$

That is $$y_\tau$$ is equal to the inverse of the function $$F_Y(\tau)$$ which in turn is equal to the infimum of $$y$$ such that the distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$ is greater or equal to a given probability $$\tau$$, i.e. the $$\tau^{th}-$$quantile. (Handl (2000))

However, a problem that frequently occurs is that an empirical distribution function is a step function. Handl (2000) describes a solution to this problem. As a first step, one reformulates equation 4 in such a way that one replaces the continuous random variable $$Y$$ with $$n$$, the observations, in the distribution function $$F_Y(y)$$, resulting in the empirical distribution function $$F_n(y)$$. This gives the following equation:

$$ (5) \hat{y}_\tau = inf \left\{ y | F_n(y) \geq \tau \right\}$$

The empirical distribution function can be separated into equally sized, consecutive subsets via the number of observations $$n$$. Which then leads one to the following step:

$$ (6) \hat{y}_\tau = y_{(i)} $$

with $$i=1,...,n$$ and $$y_{(1)},...,y_{(n)}$$ as the sorted observations. Hereby, of course, the range of values that $$y_\tau$$ can take on is limited simply by the observations $$y_{(i)}$$ and their nature. However, what if one wants to implement a different subset, i.e. different quantiles but those that can be derived from the number of observations $$n$$?

Therefore a further step necessary to solving the problem of a step function is to smooth the empirical distribution function through replacing it a with continuous linear function $$\tilde{F}(y)$$. In order to do this there are several algorithms available which are well described in Handl (2000) and more in detail with an evaluation of the different algorithms and their efficiency in computer packages in Hyndman and Fan (1996). Only then one can apply any division into quantiles of the data set as suitable for the purpose of the analysis. (Handl (2000))

Ordinary Least Squares
In regression analysis the researcher is interested in analyzing the behavior of a dependent variable $$y_i$$ given the information contained in a set of explanatory variables $$x_i$$. Ordinary Least Squares is a standard approach to specify a linear regression model and estimate its unknown parameters by minimizing the sum of squared errors. This leads to an approximation of the mean function of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable. OLS achieves the property of BLUE, it is the best, linear, and unbiased estimator, if following four assumptions hold:

1. The explanatory variable $$x_i$$ is non-stochastic

2. The expectations of the error term $$\epsilon_i$$ are zero, i.e. $$E[\epsilon_i]=0$$

3. Homoscedasticity - the variance of the error terms $$\epsilon_i$$ is constant, i.e. $$var(\epsilon_i)=\sigma^{2}$$

4. No autocorrelation, i.e. $$cov(\epsilon_i, \epsilon_j )=0$$ , $$i\neq j$$

However, frequently one or more of these assumptions are violated, resulting in that OLS is not anymore the best, linear, unbiased estimator. Hereby Quantile Regression can tackle following issues: (i), frequently the error terms are not necessarily constant across a distribution thereby violating the axiom of homoscedasticity. (ii) by focusing on the mean as a measure of location, information about the tails of a distribution are lost. (iii) OLS is sensitive to extreme outliers that can distort the results significantly. (Montenegro (2001))

The Method
Quantile Regression essentially transforms a conditional distribution function into a conditional quantile function by slicing it into segments. These segments describe the cumulative distribution of a conditional dependent variable $$Y$$ given the explanatory variable $$x_i$$ with the use of quantiles as defined in equation 4.

For a dependent variable $$Y$$ given the explanatory variable $$X=x$$ and fixed $$\tau$$, $$0<\tau<1$$, the conditional quantile function is defined as the $$\tau-th$$ quantile $$Q_{Y|X}(\tau|x)$$ of the conditional distribution function $$F_{Y|X}(y|x)$$. For the estimation of the location of the conditional distribution function, the conditional median $$Q_{Y|X}(0,5|x)$$ can be used as an alternative to the conditional mean. (Lee (2005))

One can nicely illustrate Quantile Regression when comparing it with OLS. In OLS, modeling a conditional distribution function of a random sample ($${y_1,...,y_n}$$) with a parametric function $$\mu(x_i,\beta)$$ where $$x_i$$ represents the independent variables, $$\beta$$ the corresponding estimates and $$\mu$$ the conditional mean, one gets following minimization problem:

$$ (7) min_{\beta\in\Re}\sum_{i=1}^{n}(y_i-\mu(x_i,\beta))^{2} $$

One thereby obtains the conditional expectation function $$E[Y|x_i]$$. Now, in a similar fashion one can proceed in Quantile Regression. Central feature thereby becomes $$\rho_\tau$$, which serves as a check function. $$ (8) \rho_{\tau}(x)=\begin{cases}\tau*x & \mbox{if } x \ge 0 \\ (\tau-1)*x & \mbox{if } x < 0 \end{cases} $$

This check-function ensures that

1. all $$\rho_\tau$$ are positive

2. the scale is according to the probability $$\tau$$

Such a function with two supports is a must if dealing with L1 distances, which can become negative.

In Quantile Regression one minimizes now following function:

$$ (9) min_{\beta\in\Re}\sum_{i=1}^{n}\rho_{\tau}(y_i-\xi(x_i,\beta)) $$

Here, as opposed to OLS, the minimization is done for each subsection defined by $$\rho_\tau$$, where the estimate of the $$\tau^{th}$$-quantile function is achieved with the parametric function $$\xi(x_i, \beta)$$. (Koenker and Hallock (2001))

Features that characterize Quantile Regression and differentiate it from other regression methods are following:

1. The entire conditional distribution of the dependent variable $$Y$$ can be characterized through different values of $$\tau$$

2. Heteroscedasticity can be detected

3. If the data is heteroscedastic, median regression estimators can be more efficient than mean regression estimators

4. The minimization problem as illustrated in equation 9 can be solved efficiently by linear programming methods, making estimation easy

5. Quantile functions are also equivariant to monotone transformations. That is $$Q_{h(Y|X)}(x_\tau)=h(Q_{(Y|X)}(x_{\tau}))$$, for any function

6. Quantiles are robust in regards to outliers ( Lee (2005) )

A graphical illustration of Quantile Regression
Before proceeding to a numerical example, the following subsection seeks to graphically illustrate the concept of Quantile Regression. First, as a starting point for this illustration, consider figure 1. For a given explanatory value of $$x_i$$ the density for a conditional dependent variable $$Y$$ is indicated by the size of the balloon. The bigger the balloon, the higher is the density, with the mode, i.e. where the density is the highest, for a given $$x_i$$ being the biggest balloon. Quantile Regression essentially connects the equally sized balloons, i.e. probabilities, across the different values of $$x_i$$, thereby allowing one to focus on the interrelationship between the explanatory variable $$x_i$$ and the dependent variable $$Y$$ for the different quantiles, as can be seen in figure 2. These subsets, marked by the quantile lines, reflect the probability density of the dependent variable $$Y$$ given $$x_i$$.

The example used in figure 2 is originally from Koenker and Hallock (2000), and illustrates a classical empirical application, Ernst Engel's (1857) investigation into the relationship of household food expenditure, being the dependent variable, and household income as the explanatory variable. In Quantile Regression the conditional function of $$Q_{Y|X}(\tau|x)$$ is segmented by the $$\tau^{th}$$-quantile. In the analysis, the $$\tau^{th}$$-quantiles $$\tau \in\left\{0,05; 0,1; 0,25; 0,5; 0,75; 0,9; 0,95\right\}$$, indicated by the thin blue lines that separate the different color sections, are superimposed on the data points. The conditional median ($$\tau=0,5$$) is indicated by a thick dark blue line, the conditional mean by a light yellow line. The color sections thereby represent the subsections of the data as generated by the quantiles.

Figure 2 can be understood as a contour plot representing a 3-D graph, with food expenditure and income on the respective y and x axis. The third dimension arises from the probability density of the respective values. The density of a value is thereby indicated by the darkness of the shade of blue, the darker the color, the higher is the probability of occurrence. For instance, on the outer bounds, where the blue is very light, the probability density for the given data set is relatively low, as they are marked by the quantiles 0,05 to 0,1 and 0,9 to 0,95. It is important to notice that figure 2 represents for each subsections the individual probability of occurrence, however, quantiles utilize the cumulative probability of a conditional function. For example, $$\tau$$ of 0,05 means that 5$$\%$$ of observations are expected to fall below this line, a $$\tau$$ of 0,25 for instance means that 25$$\%$$ of the observations are expected to fall below this and the 0,1 line.

The graph in figure 2, suggests that the error variance is not constant across the distribution. The dispersion of food expenditure increases as household income goes up. Also the data is skewed to the left, indicated by the spacing of the quantile lines that decreases above the median and also by the relative position of the median which lies above the mean. This suggests that the axiom of homoscedasticity is violated, which OLS relies on. The statistician is therefore well advised to engage in an alternative method of analysis such as Quantile Regression, which is actually able to deal with heteroscedasticity.

A Quantile Regression Analysis
In order to give a numerical example of the analytical power of Quantile Regression and to compare it within the boundaries of a statistical application with OLS the following section will be analyzing some selected variables of the Boston Housing dataset which is available at the md-base website. The data was first analyzed by Belsley, Kuh, and Welsch (1980). The original data comprised 506 observations for 14 variables stemming from the census of the Boston metropolitan area.

This analysis utilizes as the dependent variable the median value of owner occupied homes (a metric variable, abbreviated with H) and investigates the effects of 4 independent variables as shown in table 1. These variables were selected as they best illustrate the difference between OLS and Quantile Regression. For the sake of simplicity of the analysis, it was neglected for now to deal with potential difficulties related to finding the correct specification of a parametric model. A simple linear regression model therefore was assumed. For the estimation of asymptotic standard errors see for example Buchinsky (1998), which illustrates the design-matrix bootstrap estimator or alternatively Powell (1986) for kernel based estimation of asymptotic standard errors.

In the following firstly an OLS model was estimated. Three digits after the comma were indicated in the tables as some of the estimates turned out to be very small.

$$ (10) E [H_i | T_i, O_i, A_i, P_i] = \alpha + \beta T_i + \delta O_i + \gamma A_i + \lambda P_i $$

Computing this via XploRe one obtains the results as shown in the table below.

Analyzing this data set via Quantile Regression, utilizing the $$\tau^{th}$$ quantiles $$\tau \in \left(0,1; 0,3; 0,5; 0,7; 0,9\right)$$ the model is characterized as follows:

$$ (11) Q_H [\tau| T_i, O_i, A_i, P_i] = \alpha_\tau + \beta_\tau T_i + \delta_\tau O_i  + \gamma_\tau A_i  + \lambda_\tau P_i   $$

Just for illustrative purposes and to further foster the understanding of the reader for Quantile Regression, the equation for the $$0,1^{th}$$ quantile is briefly illustrated, all others follow analogous:

$$ (12) min\left[\rho_{0,1}(y_1-x_1\beta)+\rho_{0,1}(y_2-x_2\beta)+ ...+\rho_{0,1}(y_n-x_n\beta)\right] $$

$$ \mbox{ equation 12 with } \rho_{0,1}(y_i-x_i\beta)=\begin{cases}0,1(y_i-x_i\beta) & \mbox{if }(y_i-x_i\beta)>0 \\-0,9(y_i-x_i\beta) & \mbox{if }(y_i-x_i\beta)<0 \end{cases} $$

Now if one compares the results for the estimates of OLS from table 2 and Quantile Regression, table 3, one finds that the latter method can make much more subtle inferences of the effect of the explanatory variables on the dependent variable. Of particular interest are thereby quantile estimates that are relatively different as compared to other quantiles for the same estimate.

Probably the most interesting result and most illustrative in regards to an understanding of the functioning of Quantile Regression and pointing to the differences with OLS are the results for the independent variable of the proportion of non-retail business acres $$(T_i)$$. OLS indicates that this variable has a positive influence on the dependent variable, the value of homes, with an estimate of $$\hat{\beta}=0,021$$, i.e. the value of houses increases as the proportion of non-retail business acres $$(T_i)$$ increases in regards to the Boston Housing data.

Looking at the output that Quantile Regression provides us with, one finds a more differentiated picture. For the 0,1 quantile, we find an estimate of $$\hat{\beta}_{0,1}= 0,087$$ which would suggest that for this low quantile the effect seems to be even stronger than is suggested by OLS. Here house prices go up when the proportion of non-retail businesses $$(T_i)$$ goes up, too. However, considering the other quantiles, this effect is not quite as strong anymore, for the 0,7th and 0,9th quantile this effect seems to be even reversed indicated by the parameter $$\hat{\beta}_{0,7}= -0,021$$ and $$\hat{\beta}_{0,9}= -0,062$$. These values indicate that in these quantiles the house price is negatively influenced by an increase of non-retail business acres $$(T_i)$$. The influence of non-retail business acres $$(T_i)$$ seems to be obviously very ambiguous on the dependent variable of housing price, depending on which quantile one is looking at. The general recommendation from OLS that if the proportion of non-retail business acres $$(T_i)$$ increases, the house prices would increase can obviously not be generalized. A policy recommendation on the OLS estimate could therefore be grossly misleading.

One would intuitively find the statement that the average number of rooms of a property $$(O_i)$$ positively influences the value of a house, to be true. This is also suggested by OLS with an estimate of $$\hat{\delta}=38,099$$. Now Quantile Regression also confirms this statement, however, it also allows for much subtler conclusions. There seems to be a significant difference between the 0,1 quantile as opposed to the rest of the quantiles, in particular the 0,9th quantile. For the lowest quantile the estimate is $$\hat{\delta}_{0,1}= 29,606$$, whereas for the 0,9th quantile it is $$\hat{\delta}_{0,9}=51,353$$. Looking at the other quantiles one can find similar values for the Boston housing data set as for the 0,9th, with estimates of $$\hat{\delta}_{0,3}=45,281$$, $$\hat{\delta}_{0,5}=53,252$$, and $$\hat{\delta}_{0,7}=50,999$$ respectively. So for the lowest quantile the influence of additional number of rooms $$(O_i)$$ on the house price seems to be considerably smaller then for all the other quantiles.

Another illustrative example is provided analyzing the proportion of owner-occupied units built prior to 1940 $$(A_i)$$ and its effect on the value of homes. Whereas OLS would indicate this variable has hardly any influence with an estimate of $$\hat{\gamma}=0,001$$, looking at Quantile Regression one gets a different impression. For the 0,1th quantile, the age has got a negative influence on the value of the home with $$\hat{\gamma}_{0,1}=-0,022$$. Comparing this with the highest quantile where the estimate is $$\hat{\gamma}_{0,9}=0,004$$, one finds that the value of the house is suddenly now positively influenced by its age. Thus, the negative influence is confirmed by all other quantiles besides the highest, the 0,9th quantile.

Last but not least, looking at the pupil-teacher ratio $$(P_i)$$ and its influence on the value of houses, one finds that the tendency that OLS indicates with a value of $$\hat{\lambda}=-0,953$$ to be also reflected in the Quantile Regression analysis. However, in Quantile Regression one can see that the influence on the housing price of the pupils-teacher ratio $$(P_i)$$ gradually increases over the different quantiles, from the 0,1th quantile with an estimate of $$\hat{\lambda}_{0,1}=-0,443$$ to the 0,9th quantile with a value of $$\hat{\lambda}_{0,9}=-1,257$$.

This analysis makes clear, that Quantile Regression allows one to make much more differentiated statements when using Quantile Regression as opposed to OLS. Sometimes OLS estimates can even be misleading what the true relationship between an explanatory and a dependent variable is as the effects can be very different for different subsection of the sample.

Conclusion
For a distribution function $$F_Y (y)$$ one can determine for a given value of $$y$$ the probability $$\tau$$ of occurrence. Now quantiles do exactly the opposite. That is, one wants to determine for a given probability $$\tau$$ of the sample data set the corresponding value $$y$$. In OLS, one has the primary goal of determining the conditional mean of random variable $$Y$$, given some explanatory variable $$x_i$$, $$E[Y|x_i]$$. Quantile Regression goes beyond this and enables us to pose such a question at any quantile of the conditional distribution function. It focuses on the interrelationship between a dependent variable and its explanatory variables for a given quantile. Quantile Regression overcomes thereby various problems that OLS is confronted with. Frequently, error terms are not constant across a distribution, thereby violating the axiom of homoscedasticity. Also, by focusing on the mean as a measure of location, information about the tails of a distribution are lost. And last but not least, OLS is sensitive to extreme outliers, which can distort the results significantly. As has been indicated in the small example of the Boston Housing data, sometimes a policy based upon an OLS analysis might not yield the desired result as a certain subsection of the population does not react as strongly to this policy or even worse, responds in a negative way, which was not indicated by OLS.


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Cookbook:Potato Skins

Potato skins is a dish made with potato halves, cheese, bacon, green onions, and sour cream.

Ingredients

 * 8 small baking potatoes
 * Vegetable oil
 * Garlic salt
 * 2 cups (8 oz) shredded cheddar cheese
 * 12 slices bacon (optional), cooked and crumbled
 * 2 tablespoons chopped fresh chives, divided

Procedure

 * 1) Scrub potatoes and rub skins with oil. Prick each potato several times with a fork.
 * 2) Bake potatoes at 400°F for 30–45 minutes or until potatoes are done. Allow potatoes to cool to touch.
 * 3) Cut top third off each potato; discard tops. Carefully scoop out pulp, leaving about ⅛ inch-thick shells. Reserve potato pulp for other uses.
 * 4) Fry potato skins in hot oil (375°F) for 3–4 minutes or until browned. Remove potato skins and drain on paper towels.
 * 5) Place potato skins, cut side up, on an ungreased baking sheet. Sprinkle with garlic salt and cheddar cheese. Broil 6 inches from heat for 30 seconds or until cheese melts.
 * 6) Top potato skins with bacon if using them and 1 tablespoon chives.
 * 7) Press green chiles between paper towels to remove excess moisture. Combine chilies, sour cream and red pepper in a small bowl; stir well. Top with remaining 1 tablespoon chives. Serve with potato skins.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You don't have to make the chili sour cream—you can just put a spoonful of sour cream right onto of the potato skin.
 * You can also bake these off in the oven to melt the cheese if you don't want to fry them in oil.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Potato Skins


text:
Introduction to Library and Information Science

Library and Information Science (LIS) is the academic and professional study of how information and information carriers are produced, disseminated, discovered, evaluated, selected, acquired, used, organized, maintained, and managed. This book intends to introduce the reader to fundamental concerns and emerging conversations in the field of library and information science.

A secondary goal of this book is to introduce readers to prominent writers, articles, and books within the field of library science. The book originated as a collection of annotations of important LIS articles. Though these citations are being developed into a fuller text, we hope that this book remains firmly rooted in the literature of LIS and related fields, and helps direct readers toward important resources when a particular topic strikes their fancy.

This book is primarily intended to support introductory courses in graduate-level LIS programs, but it can also be used in Library Technician programs. When complete, this text will be aligned with the Foundations of library services competency set from the ALA-APA Library Support Staff Certification. Laypeople interested in the practical and theoretical considerations that information workers face will also enjoy this book.

If you want to get involved, or notice something in this book that you would like to add, you are encouraged to edit boldly. If you need ideas of how to start, check out our /To Do List/.

Chapters

 * 1) /Contextualizing Libraries: Their History and Place in the Wider Information Infrastructure/
 * 2) /Ethics and Values in the Information Professions/
 * 3) /Information Policy/
 * 4) /Information Organization/
 * 5) /Information Seeking/
 * 6) /Re-contextualizing Libraries: Considering Libraries within Their Communities/
 * 7) /Technology and Libraries: Impacts and Implications/
 * 8) /Library Cooperation/
 * 9) /Transcending Boundaries: Global Issues and Trends/
 * 10) /Learning More: Free LIS Resources/

About this book

 * /List of Contributors/
 * /LSSC alignment/
 * /Local Style Guide/
 * Want to get involved? Please visit our /To Do List/ to find something you can do to help make this book better!


text:
Talk:Modern Greek/Reading Exercises/Reading 04

=question about αρέσω=

Untitled
Some comments on your questions --83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

I've seen all three of the following in books or in Google searches:

 * Aρέσω το αυτοκίνητο. I like the car.
 * This is plain wrong!
 * 83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Με αρέσει το αυτοκίνητο. I like the car. (lit, "The car pleases me.")
 * This is regional variation (Nothern Greece, especially Salonica)
 * 83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Μου αρέσει το αυτοκίνητο.
 * This is the correct one!
 * 83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Are all three of these correct? Do they all mean the same thing? Am I confused? In the third example, why would the genitive be used?--Bcrowell 18:25, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

 * ''No, only the third is correct.

 * It is not μου, it is μού. When μού is accented, it means "to me" "σε μένα". When it is not accented it means "of me".

 * Here is an example in order to differentiate:

 * Μού έδωσε ένα αυτοκίνητο και τώρα το αυτοκίνητο είναι δικό μου.

 * He gave me a car and now the car is mine''

 * 83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The genitive is in reallity a dative, that is used mostly with pronouns:

 * ''I would say the dative (which is not used anymore) means "to/at something/someone", while the genitive means "of something/someone". It's like "give" and "take".

 * ''Example:

 * Δόξα τω Θεώ = Glory to God (dative)
 * Δόξα του Θεού = Glory of God (genitive)''
 * 83.146.62.97 02:41, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Εφτά τραγούδια θα σου πω
 * γιά να διαλέξεις το σκοπό:
 * που θα μου πεις
 * γιά να σου πω το "σ'αγαπώ"
 * (Μιχάλης Κακογιάννης, music by Μάνος Χατζιδάκις)

Lyricist: Μιχάλης Κακογιάννης

 * Έλα μέσα, Βασίλη, έλα και συ, παιδί, είπε του Αποστόλη. Απο πού έρχεστε;
 * (From: Πηνελόπη Σ. Δέλτα, Στα μυστικά του Βάλτου)

=formatting, cognates= Hi 83.146.62.97 - I didn't do a very good job of explaining in the text what I meant by stuff like ο λογαριασμός the bill (lit. the account, ="logarithm"). What I was trying to indicate with the equals signs was that the word was cognate with the English word after the equals sign. I've changed all the = to →, which I hope will lead to less confusion. I'll also add a note to the text the first time the → appears. The English word logarithm does come from the same roots as λογαριασμός (logos+arithmos).--Bcrowell 04:56, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Bcrowell λογαριασμός does not derive from λογος + αριθμός. The word that derives from these two words is λογάριθμος (which indeed is logarithm). It is a false cognate. --83.146.62.97 05:27, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Oops! Sorry about that. It was my favorite false cognate, too :-) --Bcrowell 05:37, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

 * No worries, keep up the good work! You pave the road to all of us :-) --83.146.62.97 05:42, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

=fruit= Can someone help me understand the difference between ο καρπός and το φρούτο? A Greek speaker wrote this:
 * ο καρπός (also το φρούτο in the general sense of fruits, not as products of trees)

Is το φρούτο more general than ο καρπός? Is an orange both a φρούτο and a καρπός? I deleted the explanation from the list, because it was making the format of the table hard to read by separating the two columns from each other by a wide space. Maybe we could have a note below the vocabulary list about this?--Bcrowell 03:30, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

 * The word καρπός is used only to indicate something that derives from something else therefore "Το μήλο είναι ο καρπός της μηλιάς" ("The apple is the fruit of the appletree"). There is also the famous religious phrase "Ο καρπός της κοιλίας της" ("The fruit of her womb").

 * But if we just want to categorize the apple we say "Το μήλο είναι φρούτο" ("The apple is a fruit"). For our purpose the word φρούτο is the correct one.--83.146.62.97 05:45, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

=Socrates drank the conium= Just to say that the name of the band was not translated to that in English, it WAS that. They had an English name, this is why I put it there. See http://www.athensguide.com/socrates/

Verb forms
A table of verb forms is not complete without the present of the perfective aspect. Note that the imperfect is mostly formed regularly, whereas the derivation of the ; from the perfective present often shows slight variations: πέρνω - έπερνα να πάρω - πήρα

One exception is έχω that has no aorist stem but an irregular imperfect είχα. Similar for είμαι. Some verbs that have dropped an initial vowel have irregular augments in the imperfect, like ήθελα, ήξερα. Andreas 02:30, 20 February 2006 (UTC)

==


text:
User talk:Matusz

Computer programming
Thanks for participating on Computer programming. But I must tell you that your Prolog entry does not anwer the two important questions:

 * 1) Why should I learn Prolog?
 * 2) What paradims will Prolog it teach me?

Entries which do not answer these questions will be deleted :-( . Not imediatly - we only trim down the page once a year or so ;-).

--Krischik T 18:42, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

 * A lot better - but could do with some fine tuning. I don't mean content, I mean presentation. i.E. You in one place you begin a sentence with Prolog was designed to help. However, the book is centered around learning so it would be better to begin the sentence with Learning Prolog will help you to. Sadly most entries make that mistake, beeing to much like a litte wikipedia - and most changes are made my anonymous users so I can't discuss the entry with them :-( . --Krischik T 07:03, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Matusz


text:
Accountancy/Prepayments

Prepayments, also called deferrals, result from cash payment preceding an expense or revenue recognition. The most common example of a prepaid expense is unearned revenue. Often, businesses pay for services from which they have not yet benefited e.g. rent is often paid in advance.

The double entry for a prepayment is:

Later when the rent is actually due the entry is:

title: Accountancy/Prepayments


text:
Template:Drcr

/Templates

title: Template:Drcr


text:
Template:Currencychoice

$ /Templates

title: Template:Currencychoice


text:
Cookbook:Müsli

Müsli or muesli is a German cereal mix that is often oat-based with dried fruits. Although it can be bought in several flavors, this is the recipe to make it yourself.

Ingredients

 * 3 cups (720 g) rolled oats
 * 2 cups (480 g) coarse oat bran
 * ¾ cup (180 g) unsweetened dried coconut
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) currants
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) golden raisins
 * ¼ cup (60 g) chopped dried mangoes
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) chopped dried apples
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) chopped dried apricots
 * ½ cup (120 g) chopped almonds
 * ¼ cup (60 g) chopped raw cashew nuts
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) pumpkin seeds
 * ⅓ cup (80 g) sunflower seeds (shelled)

Procedure

 * 1) Combine all the ingredients in a large bowl, then transfer to an airtight container to store.
 * 2) Serve with milk, yogurt, honey or berries. The dried müsli will keep for up to a month in airtight container.

title: Cookbook:Müsli


text: Template:False Friends of the Slavist/Bibliography


text:
Accountancy/Accruals

An accrual is the effect of receiving goods or services before cash payment. This will most often result in a liability on the company's books, usually as a payable. Another type of accrual results from recognizing revenues before payment. Note this does not include unearned revenue, which is a deferral. Sometimes a business uses a service (e.g. electricity) which it has not yet been invoiced for. The double entry for this is:

Later when this bill gets paid

It is possible for an accrual to be made for telephone call charges in the period while the line rental (paid in advance) is a prepayment.

title: Accountancy/Accruals


text: Template:False Friends of the Slavist/End


text:
Cookbook:Feature requests/Structure recipes should be better structured

 * Introduction: Categorization and what makes this recipe special, why is it good? i.e. very health, very easy, ingredients easy to find

 * Short list of steps for review

 * Detailed list of steps with pictorials

 * Total amount and Serving Sizes

 * Categorization of the main group of ingredients according to the food pyramid. For example: contains: 3 servings of dairy products, 2 servings of red meat and 1 serving of dark green vegetables

 * Nutritional Information: calories, proteins, fats, etc.

 * Ingredients shopping guide: Create a link to every used ingredient in the recipe to wikipedia.org or wikimedia.org. The ingredient description should contain a picture of a standard package for the food to make it easy to find in the supermarket, also, it should be categorized according to supermarket shelf labels like "groceries".

 * Rating (counter of views, etc.)


text:
User:Sartak~enwikibooks

TODO: Add content! :)

title: User:Sartak~enwikibooks


text:
Managerial Economics/Introduction

Definitions
An economy consists of a set of people or individuals and their environment. Each individual in an economy has an economic problem.

An economic problem arises because each individual has unique desires (defined as experiences he or she would like to have) and a limited set of assets (consisting of human capital, possessions, and time). This limitation prevents the individual from ever satisfying all his desires and dictates his behavior.

Human Capital includes physical attributes, mental capabilities, skill, personality, associates (people she knows or know her), creativity, influence, and a philosophy of life.

Possessions are the physical objects the individual posses or, more properly, has a claim on.

Time is limited to 24 hours each day for the remainder of an individual's life.

Economics
The economic problem we face forces us to economize, that is, to decide which desires to satisfy and which ones to leave unsatisfied. This behavior is both economically rational and the rationale behind economics.

It is important to note that the process of economizing occurs entirely in the context of uncertainty because the consequences of our actions happen in the future (of which we know nothing), and our decisions are made while being unaware of all things which exist in the present.

Economics then is the study of the consequences of economizing in the context of uncertainty. Economics is relevant as an internal model against which we can compare our present situation and make better decisions about our behavior. It does not give a set of tools to use, but rather an understanding of the world in which we live.

title: Managerial Economics/Introduction


text: Template:False Friends of the Slavist/Books


text: Template:False Friends of the Slavist/Start


text:
False Friends of the Slavist/Russian-Polish

Zwodnicze słowa polskie i rosyjskie

Русско-польские ложные друзья переводчика


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Hotkeys

Blender's user interface is very flexible and often provides more than one way to do something. Many operations that can be done by clicking on buttons and menus can also be done with keyboard shortcuts called "hotkeys". The hotkey is usually much faster than the corresponding mouse action, so it's a good idea to learn them as soon as possible.

An entire WikiBook (titled Blender 3D: HotKeys) is devoted to Blender hotkeys. We encourage you to refer to it as often as necessary.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Hotkeys


text:
Reaktor/Hosts/Pro Tools

Protools
Known Issues
 * Protools 7 refuses to play many reaktor modules at present, this is a known bug and Native Instruments are talking to Digidesign to identify the problem and provide a fix.

title: Reaktor/Hosts/Pro Tools


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 30 of the Finance Act 2002

This Section raises the charge to corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2003 at 30%.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 31 of the Finance Act 2002

This Section sets the small companies' rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2002 at 19%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies at 11/400ths.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 32 of the Finance Act 2002

This Section sets the starting rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2002 at 0%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies between the starting rate and small companies' rate at 19/400ths.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 133 of the Finance Act 2003

This Section raises the charge to corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2004 at 30%.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 134 of the Finance Act 2003

This Section sets the small companies' rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2003 at 19%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies at 11/400ths.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 135 of the Finance Act 2003

This Section sets the starting rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2003 at 0%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies between the starting rate and small companies' rate at 19/400ths.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 25 of the Finance Act 2004

This Section raises the charge to corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2005 at 30%.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 26 of the Finance Act 2004

This Section sets the small companies' rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2004 at 19%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies at 11/400ths.


text:
Taxation in the United Kingdom/Legislation/Section 27 of the Finance Act 2004

This Section sets the starting rate for corporation tax for the financial year beginning 1 April 2004 at 0%, and the fraction for marginal relief for small companies between the starting rate and small companies' rate at 19/400ths.


text:
User:Danvk

Dan Vanderkam, a student at Rice University. I'm dantheox on Wikipedia.

title: User:Danvk


text:
Student Congress Debate/A Session

When you arrive at your house, there will probably already be a set docket of bills that you will be debating.

The Parliamentarian (Parli) or Points Recorder (PR) asks for all representatives (or senators) that wish to run for Presiding Officer (PO).

Each PO candidate will then have a trial time of x amount of minutes (set by the Parli/PR). The first PO candidate takes the chair, and then the floor is opened up for motions. When a PO candidate takes the chair, it is customary for them to introduce themselves and establish the time signals that they will be using.

PO candidates will all have tryouts during the regular cycle of debate. When all candidates have had their turn, the house will vote a PO in, and that PO will take over for the remainder of the congress.

At this point a few motions might be made, these include:
 * Suspending the rules (motions allowed under this category vary by region)
 * Direct Questioning (allows speakers to call on people asking questions instead of the PO)
 * Open Chambers (Eliminates usage of the motion "Rise to a point of personal privilege")
 * Main Motion (begin debate)

After Main motion is called and seconded, the vote will most likely be unanimous.

From here, debate proceeds into the docket of bills and/or resolutions.

The PO will say something similar to this: We will now proceed to "A Bill Concerning the Issue" If there are no objections, I will not read this bill. (brief pause) Seeing no objections, is there a speech in authorship?

(TODO) add details of authorship/sponsorship vs. affirmative speech

If there is no Authorship speech, then PO asks if there is a Sponsorship speech, and then a First Affirmative speech.

After the first speech (authorship/sponsorship/first affirmation), then the PO calls for a speech in Negation.

After the negation speech, the PO asks if there are any motions.

Debate then falls into a loop that is similar to this pattern:
 * Aff Speech
 * Neg Speech
 * Motions

This loop is followed until previous question is passed, or the bill is tabled.

Debate on other bills follows the same pattern as above.

At the end of the day, the PR and Parli will have a list of nominated members that the chamber ranks in order.

This ranking is combined with rankings by the PR and Parli to determine placing.

title: Student Congress Debate/A Session


text: User:Kyriakos~enwikibooks

title: User:Kyriakos~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Kyriakos~enwikibooks

Thanks dude!

--CherryT 23:53, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Isometric Pixel Art Author

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kyriakos. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kyriakos~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:21, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:10, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kyriakos~enwikibooks


text:
Isometric Pixel Art/Making a Box

's the different methods of making this box. There are a couple different ways of putting it together:

 * The Puzzle Piece Method (Recommended for this Tutorial): Make the separate lines (the x, y, and z axis) and put them together like a puzzle using copy and paste to duplicate the lines. Good for uniformity and if you aren't making different length of your lines.
 * The Line by Line Method: Create each line individually. Good if you don't like using copy and paste or if your shape is not uniform (like a person or animal) but is extremely easy to mess up.
 * (Not Recommended for this Tutorial)Pixel by Pixel Method: Pros: Makes for really good quality pictures with unparallel uniformity, if done right. Cons: Takes an extremely LONG TIME.

Math? IN ART?
That's right! We are going to do a quickly lesson in geometry. For your pixel line lengths, I suggest them being multiples of each other (ex: 2 x 2 = 4; 2 x 3 = 6). This makes it look more like a real cube. Also, we must remember that the lines must be of equal length for it to be a real cube. Isometric lengths make this really hard to do, because each axis has a different scale (ex: The X axis (up and down)compared to the Y axis (left to right)are equal, but they are both different from the Z axis (forward and backward)). Eyeball it and find out what looks right to you.

 * The "Golden Rule" of Isometric Pixel Art is that for every 2 pixels in the Z axis (front to back) there is one pixel for the X or Y axis (up and down, left and right). Although this may not always work for every single thing you draw isometrically, it is the general rule so remember it!

Let's Begin!

Congratulations! You've just made your first isometric drawing!

title: Isometric Pixel Art/Making a Box


text:
Introduction to Physical Science/Editing Guide

=Introduction To Physical Science Bible=

Authors
Welcome to the IPS project. Before you start writing it would be a good idea to read this guide and get aquainted with the point and audience for this book. This guide is written as a general reference and is, of course, not scripture but it is how the project should genneraly conducted. If you disagree with anything is this guide, I request that you ask the other contributors in the discussion page before changing it to make sure that there is an agreement. Again, welcome to the project and I hope we can all strive to make this a productive experience. --Basejumper123

Purpose

 * To serve as a one year course in IPS (introductory physical sicence)
 * To effectively educate through
 * Critical Thinking
 * Answering Questions
 * Hands-On Work
 * Gradual Assesment

 * To serve as a complete teacher resource including
 * Homework
 * Worksheets
 * Questions and Problems
 * Assesments
 * And to fully integrate these resources into the course.

Following the Purpose

 * 1) Remember to ask before you tell
 * 2) Keep students fully involved by forcing them to read in order to answer the chapter questions.
 * 3) Order the text so that it logically explains the details of the subject

Audience

 * This book is targeted at
 * 7th-9th graders who have already finished earth and life science
 * Generally people ages 13-15
 * People who generally need a highly structured learning environment
 * The following help
 * Concice Points
 * Logical Procedure
 * Frequent References to previous learning
 * Frequent glossaries, word banks, examples
 * Resources to gain information on the information (expantion)
 * Diagrams
 * Real-Life Examples

=Formats= There are certain formats that should be followed in order to keep this book organized and logical. Keeping sections known will allow the readers of this book (7th-9th graders) to keep on point and will allow the teachers of this course to assign tasks by simply mentioning a section.

Module Formatting

 * 1) Prose (text regarding the topic)
 * 2) Vocabulary
 * 3) Questions
 * Covering the Reading (questions that check reading comprehension)
 * Critical thinking (questions that ask the reader to built answers off what he has learned)
 * Exploration (questions that ask the reader to take their learning further (like a small project)

Discussion Formatting

 * 1) References
 * 2) Photo References
 * 3) Tasks
 * 4) Discussion


text:
User:CherryT

CherryT

High School Student, in the US.

Hobbies: Pixel Art, Video Gaming, Reading

Likes: Pie, helping other people, mmm... Pie, making Wikibooks

Current Wikibook Project: Isometric pixel art

title: User:CherryT


text:
Isometric Pixel Art/FAQ

Is pixel art out-dated?
Technology is used to create art, but once art exists, it transcends technology. Pixel art exists as a technique, and it remains infinite in potential. Pixel art is not replaced by any other newer art forms but rather exists alongside them and offers unique stylistic properties. It also allows for distinct individual artists' styles.Well-loved video game art from the pixel art era will remain celebrated and rediscovered indefinitely.In addition, with the rise in popularity of mobile phone games, pixel art has resumed its practical status. Thriving enthusiast and hobbyist communities also exist online.

Do I have to buy a special program?
By all means, NO! Do not go out and buy a program just for this Wikibook. Most Operating Systems come with a pixel-based art program and it is easy to obtain one for free if you do not have one.

title: Isometric Pixel Art/FAQ


text:
Windows Programming/MDI Programs

Multiple Document Interface (MDI) applications are a very common and popular type of application. MDI applications allow a single program window to contain multiple open workspaces simultaneously. Creating them isn't particularly tricky, and this chapter will attempt to explain the process in detail.

Steps to Making an MDI
These are the steps to making an MDI application. We will explain each of them.

 * 1) Register the Frame and Child window classes.
 * 2) Modify the message loop.
 * 3) Create the frame window.
 * 4) Create the MDI Client
 * 5) Create MDI child windows with the client.

Register the Window Classes
Like any other windows application, we need to register the window classes. The main window (the frame, or the "parent" window) needs to be created. Frame windows are just like any other window, but they generally have a background color of COLOR_APPWORKSPACE. Also, the child windows in an MDI application are not allowed to have their own menus, so the Frame window must manage the application menu. Remember, that different child windows usually require different menu choices (or different menus all together), so the Frame window needs to maintain a current record of the active child window, and set the menu accordingly.

The child window class (all of them) needs to be created with WS_CHILD class. An MDI application may have any number of different types of child windows (a famous example is the use of spreadsheets and charts in Microsoft Excel), and they all need to be registered before use.

Modify the Message Loop
MDI applications use an almost-normal message loop, but if you want to use accelerators in your program, you need to add a new step:

while(GetMessage(&msg, hwndFrame, 0, 0)) {   if(!TranslateMDISysAccel(hwndClient, &msg) &&       !TranslateAccelerator(hwndFrame, hAccel, &msg)) {       TranslateMessage(&msg); DispatchMessage(&msg); } }

This way the accelerators get routed to the correct destination among all the different child windows. If you are not using accelerators, you don't need to worry about this step.

The Frame Window
Frame Windows get created like any other windows. Remember, however, that frame windows are just a backdrop for the action that is happening in the child windows, so you shouldn't get to crazy or fancy with your background artwork.

The Client Window
You need to create a window of type "MDICLIENT". MDICLIENT windows are defined internally in Windows, so you don't need to worry about what it is or what it does. When you create an MDI client window, you first need to fill out the fields in the CLIENTCREATESTRUCT structure. You pass a pointer to this structure as the LPARAM data field in the CreateWindow function.

MDI Child Windows
Creating MDI child windows is a little bit different from creating normal windows. To create an MDI child window, you must fill out the MDICREATESTRUCT data structure. The MDICREATESTRUCT is very similar to the WNDCLASS structure, except it is more limited. After creating this structure, you must send it as a message to the MDICLIENT window:

hwndChild = (HWND)SendMessage(hwndClient, WM_MDICREATE, 0, (LPARAM)mdicreatestruct);

The message function will return a handle to the newly created child window.

The "Window" Menu
Many MDI applications will offer a "Window" popup menu on the menu bar, to manage the MDI child windows. This menu frequently has options to "Tile" or "Cascade" the child windows, and it frequently maintains a listing of the currently available child windows in the application. It turns out that the MDI Client window will manage this menu for you, if you just pass it the correct handle to the menu.

Next Chapter

 * Registry API

title: Windows Programming/MDI Programs


text:
Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/Making a Box

Added a good start for the tutorial. Jellocube27 01:39, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Thanks for the Pics Jello

CherryT 01:16, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

how can you measure the isometric box??

title: Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/Making a Box


text:
Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/About

Author Icons
I think we should all have icons on the About this Wikibook page. Try for 100 x 100 Pixels for something small. -Cherry

I like this idea, but I think it would be best if we had a template for it so it does not seem thrown together! -jello

What template could we use? I would use little "bio" cards if we could, using something like the picture boxes. Let's see if we could build off that. CherryT 03:03, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/About


text:
Management Strategy/Analyzing Resources and Capabilities

The Role of Resource Analysis in Strategy Formulation
Intangible assets are often overlooked, but they are many times the only source of sustainable competitive advantage (ie. brand, technology, information, culture, etc).

Taking the lead from military campaigns in which the goal is to pitch "strength against weakness"(1), business strategy should be defined by resource analysis rather than the inverse. Firms that base their strategy on the development of specific capabilities have shown better adaptability than those that base their strategy on their customers or on how to serve them. One can take Merrill Lynch, American Express and Sears as having examples of failed strategies (being too broad and having an emphasis on customer needs), and Honda and 3M Corporation as having examples of successful strategies (with a focus on the capability of making engines and adhesives respectively).

Basically, any element that is traditionally considered to support competitive advantage can be seen as stemming from the correct acquisition and use of resources. For example, barriers to entry can be created by owning a strong brand, patents, or retaliatory capacity. A monopoly is nothing more than ownership of market share. Cost advantages come from process technology, size of plants, and access to low-cost inputs. Finally, Differentiation advantage comes from a brand, product technology, or marketing, distribution, and service capabilities.

Tangible Resources
Tangible resources are the easiest to evaluate since they are visible and quantifiable. Two key questions underlie this procedure(2):
 * What opportunities exist for economizing on finance, inventories, and fixed assets?
 * What are the possibilities for employing existing assets more profitable?

Intangible Resources
Much of a company's worth comes from less defined assets such as reputation, technology, or a particular set of cultural attributes within the company. Intel and American Express have successfully protected their intangibles, while Xerox has repeatedly over-looked its core assets. Brand is everything for Coca-Cola, and Gillette, while software and pharmaceutical companies depend mosty on their technology and patents.

Human Resources
People in companies provide skills, knowledge, intuition, and reasoning (known as human capital). Additionally, the culture inside an organization consists of relationships, values, and routines, and companies that have a strong set of managerial values have a strategic advantage over those that don't- through employees increased identity with corporation, increased stability and consistency as well as a guide for appropriate behaviour.

Core Competences
Hamel and Prahalad introduced the term "core competences" (3) in 1990 to describe those competences that a) "make a disproportionate contribution to ultimate customer value or to the efficiency with which that value is delivered," and b) "provide a basis for entering new markets."

So the question to ask in this case is "What can such and such firm do better than others?"

The process of identifying core capabilities can begin in many ways; the two more common ones are through a classification of all capabilities according to function, or through a value chain analysis that separates a firm into small sequential activities.

Example of a value chain:

Technology (patents) >> Product Design (quality) >> Manufacturing (assembly) >> Marketing (brand) >> Distribution (warehousing) >> Service (warranty)

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is important because it brings objectivity into the process of identifying competences. It also brings vain imaginations down to the ground. To create a benchmark, one must identify areas of potential improvement; identify world-leading companies in each area; contact the companies (visit, talk to managers, discuss with workers); and define goals based on the learning done at those companies.

Appraising competitive advantage
A source of competitive advantage must be scarce, relevant, durable, immobile, and unreplicable.

Appraising Resources and Capabilities
Resources and capabilities need to be appraised against two key criteria. First is their importance: which resources and capabilities are most important in conferring sustainable competitive advantage? Second, where are our strengths and weaknesses as compared with competitors?

---

1. B.H. Liddell Hart, _Strategy_ (Praeger, New York, 1954), p.365

2. R.M. Grant, _Contemporary Strategy Analysis_ (Butler & Tanner LTD, Frome and London, 1991), p.102

3. C.K. Prahalad and G. Hamel, "The Core Competences of the Corporation" _Harvard Business Review_ (May-June 1990): 79-91

4. Grant (2008) Contemporary Strategy Analysis

5. V. Kuzevanov, S. Sizykh (2006) "Botanic Gardens Resources:Tangible And Intangible Aspects of Linking Biodiversity and Human Well-Being", Hiroshima Peace Science, 28 (2006), pp.113–134


text:
Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/car

Simple outline:

 * Show iso car
 * Deconstruct into simpler shapes
 * Build said shapes
 * Reconstuct
 * Show how to add details

title: Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/car


text:
Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/Art Gallery

If you are an IPA artist, please put a link to your work here! We would appriciate it!

title: Talk:Isometric Pixel Art/Art Gallery


text:
Isometric Pixel Art/Other Boxes

Wondering what you can do with that silly old box? Here's some examples.

Skyscraper!
Make the Y axis lines longer and check it out! It's now a skyscraper!

Chessboard!
Make the boxes black and white and make a chessboard!

Table!
Make a rectangle composed out of boxes (2 x 3 should do)

Make a "flattened" box (less X axis)to make the table top.

Then erase the middle lines in the front of the rectangle.

Turn the three lines on the outside into legs and erase all the lines on the bottom.

A table! Yay! Perfect for fancy dinner parties. Well, maybe not yet.

First we have to talk about detailing.

title: Isometric Pixel Art/Other Boxes


text:
Mac OS X Tiger/Meet the Applications/TextEdit

TextEdit is a multi-purpose text editor that comes free with Mac OS X. It can save files in a variety of formats:

 Microsoft Word HTML Plain Text Rich Text Format

It supports graphics embedding, drop shadow, and styles.


text:
Computer Go/Glossary

Chain
A group of stones that are all connected along the lines of the board (vertically or horizontally). All stones in one chain share their liberties. Also "block", "string", or "group".

Group
Either a synonym for chain or used to refer to several chains considered together that co-operate or that could be trivially connected.

Liberty
An empty point adjacent to a single stone or chain of stones.

Point
Either the scoring unit or an intersection on the board. In Tromp-Taylor terminology, a point may be colored black, white, or empty. Using boards, coloring a point black or white means placing a stone of that color on the point. Coloring a point empty, i.e. emptying a point, means removing the stone from it.

Suicide
Self-capture; a move that does not capture any stones and in which the stone just placed has no liberties.

Superko
The rule that no move can repeat an earlier board position. In Tromp-Taylor terminology, a move that repeats an earlier grid coloring violates the superko rule. Variants of the rule exist.

title: Computer Go/Glossary


text:
Computer Go/Representing the Board

Representing the Board
One of the first problems that all Go programs must solve is how to store the current state of the game. The simplest representation needs to at least implement:

 * a way to determine whether a given point contains a black piece, a white piece, or is empty
 * a way to place a piece, or remove a piece from a given point
 * a way to store which point (if any) is illegal due to the Ko rule[1]

Sample Code
public class Board { public Point koPoint;

private int boardSize; private Color[][] board;

public Color getColor(Point p) { board[p.x][p.y]; }

public void setColor(Point p, Color color) { board[p.x][p.y] = color; } }

Some programs, like GNU Go, use a one-dimensional array instead of a two-dimensional array. This has several advantages:
 * a point on the board can be represented by a single integer
 * one computation is often sufficient for a 1D-coordinate where two would be required for 2D-coordinates

For more information on this strategy, see Representing the board as a one-dimensional array.

Most programs also store additional information that makes it easier to evaluate board positions; we will cover these strategies in a later section.

Next Section: Recognizing Illegal Moves

title: Computer Go/Representing the Board


text:
Computer Go/Recognizing Illegal Moves

Recognizing Illegal Moves
A non-passing move is legal if the point is unoccupied, the point is not illegal due to the Ko rule, and the move is not suicide. A move is not suicide if any of the following conditions holds true:
 * any neighboring point is empty
 * any neighboring point is the same color and has more than one liberty
 * any neighboring point is a different color and has only one liberty

From the code we currently have, we can determine if a point is unoccupied and if a point is illegal due to the Ko rule. What we need now is code to loop through the neighbors of a particular point, as well as code that will determine the number of liberties of a given group.

The first is trivial:

private List getNeighbors(Point p) { List neighbors = new ArrayList;

if (p.x > 0) neighbors.add(new Point(p.x - 1, p.y)); if (p.x < boardSize - 1) neighbors.add(new Point(p.x + 1, p.y)); if (p.y > 0) neighbors.add(new Point(p.x, p.y - 1)); if (p.y < boardSize - 1) neighbors.add(new Point(p.x, p.y + 1));

return neighbors; }

Determining the number of liberties of a given group is a little more difficult. Because the number of liberties of any given group is important information that is accessed frequently, most programs store a list of all groups on the board (and their liberties) and update it incrementally, rather than calculate it every time it is needed. We'll start out using a much simpler method: flood fill.

This algorithm starts at the point in question, changes it to the opposite color, and then recursively performs the algorithm on every neighboring point of the original color. By remembering all neighboring empty points, we can determine the number of liberties of the group.

private Set getLiberties(Point p) { Set liberties = new HashSet;

Color myColor = getColor(p); Color floodfillColor = myColor.opposite; setColor(p, floodfillColor);

List neighbors = getNeighbors(p); for (Point neighbor : neighbors) { if (getColor(neighbor) == myColor) { liberties.addAll(getLiberties(neighbor)); } else if (getColor(neighbor) == EMPTY) { liberties.add(neighbor); }	}

return liberties; }

Unfortunately this algorithm changes the board, so we need to make sure that we only ever perform it on a copy of the board.

private boolean inAtari(Point p) { return clone.getLiberties(p).size == 1; }

Now we have all the resources required to determine if a given move is legal.

public boolean isLegal(Point p, Color c) { // Is the point already occupied? if (getColor(p) != EMPTY) { return false; }		// Is the move ko? if (p.equals(koPoint)) { return false; }

// Is the move suicide? boolean suicide = true; for (Point neighbor: getNeighbors(p)) { if (getColor(neighbor) == EMPTY) { // if any neighbor is VACANT, suicide = false suicide = false; } else if (getColor(neighbor) == c) { // if any neighbor is an ally // that isn't in atari if (!inAtari(neighbor)) { suicide = false; }		} else if (getColor(neighbor) == c.opposite) { // if any neighbor is an enemy // and that enemy is in atari if (inAtari(neighbor)) { suicide = false; }		}	}	if (suicide) { return false; }	// If the point is not occupied, the move is not ko, and not suicide // it is a legal move. return true; }

Next Section: Processing a Move

title: Computer Go/Recognizing Illegal Moves


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Budget Watch Collecting/Identifying movements

Most movements have a caliber number-In most cases this will be below the balance wheel. In some cases it will be on one of the bridges, and occasionally it will be on the dial side, only visible by removing the dial. There may be several designations--It is common for the visible indications to mention the brand of the watch company, while the semi-hidden marks will tell who actually made the movement. Bulova has its own movement codes, and generally have this code on a bridge. Often however this Bulova movement was made by someone else and only minorly updated, this will usually have the maker's marks in their usual place under the balance. Ranftt.de has a very good online database of movements, searchable by number, with pictures and a varying amount of info.


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Movie Making Manual/Scene Breakdown

A Scene Breakdown Page may be useful information if your play is structured in a series of formal Scenes in changing locations and time periods. It's also a good way to make a complicated Time Structure clear to a reader. But if you have fewer than 6 Scenes, it works as well to list them under each Act on the Setting & Time Page. And it's a clear way to indicate what kind of demands you're really putting on the Scene and Lighting Designers. If what you're doing with design is out of the ordinary, it's also a good idea to add a brief statement about this to your description on the Setting & Time page.

Here's one way of doing it. .

SCENES

ACT I	Scene 1		A Lecture Hall		Now

Scene 2		The Forest		1635

Scene 3		Nate's Place		Now

Scene 4		The Town Square		1635

Scene 5		The Forest		1635

Scene 6		Hester's House		Now

Scene 7		Nate's Yard		Now

Scene 8		A Field			1635

ACT II

Scene 1		Nate's Office		Now

Scene 2		Hester's House		Now

Scene 3		The Town Square		1635

Scene 4		The Forrest		1635

Scene 5		A State Park		Now

Scene 6		Hester's House		Now

title: Movie Making Manual/Scene Breakdown


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Chinese Tractor Maintenance/General Maintenance

This page contains general maintanence information applicable to most tractor models.

This page is part of the Chinese Tractor Maintenance book. Go to the Chinese Tractor Maintenance book.

Fluids
This section is a summary of the recommendations of Chinese tractor owners for changing fluids in their tractors. The fluids of concern here are cooling, hydraulic fluid, engine oil and gear oil. Recommendations for fluids to change and the fluids to use when you first get your tractor are given. General procedures for changing fluids are described that are applicable to most tractors. Procedures for specific tractor models can be found in sections for the tractor model.

Changing Fluids After Delivery
Tractors are delivered in two likely conditions:
 * Crate
 * Assembled

If your tractor arrives disassembled in a crate (a crate tractor) then it is highly recommended that you change all of your fluids before running the tractor. Although fluids shipped with crate tractors are improving, there is a long history of these fluids being of substandard quality and causing mechanical problems long before the factory recommended first fluid change.

Another issue with the Chinese tractors is the metal shavings, chips, flakes, dust and dropped parts that the manufacturing process leaves in the fluid pathways that have not been cleaned out. By removing the original fluids, flushing, replacing filters and replacing the fluids you will remove most of the offending material. This will reduce clogging, premature wear and breakdown of your tractor.

If you are buying/have bought an assembled tractor from a dealer, ask the dealer if the fluids have been changed. If the dealer has changed the fluids you may want to ask some details about how it was done. If no flushing was done during the fluid change then you may still want to do your own fluid change.

Regardless of whether you change the fluids when you first receive your tractor you should replace them after you have run the tractor for a few hours (5–10 hours). During the first few hours of operation many mill marks on mating metal surfaces of moving parts will wear off and be suspended in the working fluid, caught in a filter or settled on the bottom of a pan. Any metal fragments that remain suspended in the fluid will cause additional wear on the tractor's working parts. These metal flakes should be removed after a few hours by flushing and replacing the fluids to prevent unneeded wear.

General Fluid Change/Flushing Procedure
This section contains general instructions for flushing out the fluids the first time you change the fluids in your tractor. Subsequent fluid replacement should not require flushing unless you detect excessive metal particles in the drained fluid.

Kerosene can be used as the flushing agent. It has sufficient lubrication that it can be used for a short time for running in your tractor for the engine oil, hydraulic oil and gear oil. It is thin enough to work as a solvent to break loose metal particles in pans and on the walls of fluid passageways.

Kerosene can be reused if it is filtered between uses. About 10 gallons will be sufficient for most Subcompact and Compact Chinese tractors if it is reused. It can be run through an oil filter for filtering.

Since gear oil is the heaviest oil in your tractor, if you are reusing the kerosene for flushing all of the oil based fluids, perform the gear oil flush last.

==== Engine Oil

The main function of engine oil is to keep the engine cool and maintain its temperature in cold weather too and to dissolve the dirt particle in it and set them down.The additive in engine oil work as a detergent and mix the dirt particles in it and keep away from the engine from friction.The good engine oil will always in its natural colour that is golden.The best engine oil does not contains any colour additives,it will be in pure golden colour. The shell rimula and helix are the best engine oil of the world.

Injector Pump Fluid Change
(TBS)

Hydraulic Fluid Change/Flush
(Intro TBS)

The following is the procedure for replacing the hydraulic fluid:

 * Drain the hydraulic fluid:
 * Start tractor.
 * Allow the engine to run a few minutes to warm up the hydraulic fluid and pump.
 * Cycle the 3 Point Hitch (3PH) a few times. Leave the 3 Point Hitch fully raised.
 * If you have a Front End Loader (FEL) cycle the lift and bucket on the Front End Loader a few times. Leave in the up position.
 * Turn off engine.
 * Place bucket under hydraulic fluid reservoir drain.
 * Open drain on hydraulic fluid reservoir.
 * Lower the 3PH.
 * Lower the FEL.
 * At this point for tractor owners with a single pump for both Hydraulics and power steering the following is done:
 * Follow the procedure in
 * Close the reservoir drain.
 * If there is fluid remaining in the reservoir then you can remove it with a suction device like a turkey baster.
 * Locate the hydraulic fluid screen if you have one. Clean the screen and put it back in. If you have a hydraulic fluid filter then leave it in place for now.
 * If you which to flush the hydraulic system (see ) then do the following:
 * Fill the hydraulic reservior with kerosene.
 * Follow the procedures to drain the hydraulic fluid.
 * If you have a hydraulic fluid filter then replace it.
 * Fill the hydraulic fluid reservoir.
 * Start the engine and cycle the 3PH and/or FEL.
 * If the hydraulics do not work then follow the procedure here Chinese Tractor Maintenance/Trouble Shooting

Power Steering Fluid Change/Flush

 * Drain Power Steering:
 * Raise front end of tractor (allows wheels to be turned).
 * Remove the hydraulic hoses from steering cylinder.
 * Turn steering wheel left and right.
 * Reattach hydraulic hoses to power steering cylinder.
 * Lower front end of tractor.

Gear Oil Change/Flush
The oil used in the transmission and rear axle is normally the same as in is used in the 4x4 front axle. Also use the same procedure for flushing.

Transmission/Rear Axle Fluid Change Flush

 * Drain out the old gear oil. See the section for your specific tractor for the location of the drain plugs.
 * Fill the transmission and axle to the normal level with kerosene.
 * Start up the engine (you didn't drain the engine oil and forget to put it back in did you?) and drive the tractor. Use both forward and reverse gears so that the faces of the gears get flushed. This should only require a few minutes.
 * Stop the tractor and park on a level surface.
 * Drain the kerosene from the transmission and axle.
 * Refill the transmission and axle with your choice of gear oil.
 * Fill until the dip stick shows full or oil drips out of the unscrewed weep hole in the housing (whichever is applicable).
 * Since gear oil can be thick it can take time for it to level out throughout its housing. When you think you have it full wait for 10 minutes and then check again. It may require several iterations of filling and waiting to completely fill the gear case.

4x4 Front Axle Fluid Change Flush
Do the front axle flush at the same time as the transmission if you have sufficient kerosene. Follow the same procedure as with the transmission.

Fuel
Another "fluid" to change is the fuel. Just to be on the safe side it is a good idea to drain the fuel from the fuel system. You don't know how long the fuel has been in the tank or what its quality is. Replacing the fuel might prevent you from having to clean/replace your fuel injectors.

 * Drain fuel tank.
 * Drain sediment bowl.
 * Replace the fuel filter.
 * Fill fuel tank.

If there seems to be significant sediment or "chunks" in your drained fuel you may have algae in your tank. When you put new fuel in the tank obtain some biocide and add the recommended amount.

Replacement Fluids
There are a great variety of brands and types of fluids that can be successfully used in your Chinese tractor. Many of the fluids have been found by owners at Walmart and Napa.

Engine Oil
(Intro TBS)

In cold weather climates a lighter weight engine oil should be used to aid in cold cranking and to reduce the work load on the engine.

Engine oils used successfully by Chinese tractor owners include:
 * Shell Rotella or Delo 400 15W/40
 * shell Rimula 20w/40 is a multigrade oil and best for tractors

Injector Pump Fluid
Use non-detergent oil. Use a weight appropriate for your air temperature. 30wt is a good all-around choice.

Hydraulinc Fluid / Power Steering
In cold weather climates a lighter weight fluid should be used to aid increase the operating speed of the equipment.

Hydraulic fuild that has been successfully used by Chinese tractor owners include:
 * AW32 (for cold country). (will speed up operation).
 * Walmart Super Tech Transmission/Hydraulic oil (not all walmarts have it).

Coolant
(TBS)

Gear Oil
Gear oil is used in the tractor transmission/rear axle and if the tractor has 4 wheel drive it us used in the front axle.

Since Chinese tractors use "yellow metal" for some parts the gear oil must be yellow metal safe. Yellow metal is copper, brass, bronze etc. The gear oil that you buy should say on the label that it is "yellow metal safe". Gear oil that does not say that it is "yellow metal safe" may have added agents to aid in its performance in high heat and/or high pressure environments. These additives will cause oxidation of the yellow metal. The oxidation will cause pits in the surface of the metal and eventually the part will fail. One sign that your yellow metal has oxidized is a black color on the surface.

Gear oil should show that it is low/anti foaming on the label.

Gear oils that have been successfully used by Chinese tractor owners include:
 * Rotella GL-4 - walmart
 * GL-5 80W/90
 * Super Tech 85W/140
 * Kubota Super UDT (true synthetic for winter).

Fuel
Diesel fuel obtained from your local filling station as well as truck stops can be used in your tractor.

Radiator Fin Cleaning
The radiator fins, over time, accumulate dust and debri between the fins reducing the cooling efficiency of the radiator. This causes the engine to run hotter.

When dust and/or debri builds up between the fins the fins must be cleaned. One method of cleaning is to use compressed air.
 * Remove the radiator screen
 * Blow the compressed air into the BACK of the radiator so that the debri goes back out the front of the radiator. Trying to blow air into the front of the raditor may cause debri to become lodged tighter into the radiator fins.
 * Replace the radiator screen.

High pressure water is NOT recommended for cleaning the radiator. This can easily damage the radiator fins.

To reduce the amount of debri entering the radiator the radiator screen can be replaced by a filter or augmented. See Chinese Tractor Maintenance/Modified Cooling System


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Optics/Light

Visible light (commonly referred to simply as light) is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has a wavelength in the range of about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm – between the invisible infrared, with longer wavelengths and the invisible ultraviolet, with shorter wavelengths.

Primary properties of visible light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength spectrum, and polarisation, while its speed in a vacuum, 299,792,458 meters per second (about 300,000 kilometers per second), is one of the fundamental constants of nature. Visible light, as with all types of electromagnetic radiation (EMR), is experimentally found to always move at this speed in vacuum.

In common with all types of EMR, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" called photons, and exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.

In physics, the term light sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not.

title: Optics/Light


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Tagalog/Why study Tagalog

Hello fellow reader and welcome to this tutorial on the Tagalog language. As a major Philippine language and, as Filipino, the national language of the Philippines, Tagalog can help you get by in the Philippines better.

Why Study Tagalog?

 * The next time you visit the Philippines, you don't need to take your Tagalog-English English-Tagalog dictionary when asking where the toilet is.

 * Speaking Tagalog helps you to gain more Filipino friends.

 * You hate the Western Cold weather and finding some beaches to sunbathe in and communicating in Tagalog the next time you visit the country will help you to NOT-GET-LOST when touring around. (The Philippines might have a large population of English speakers but this doesn't mean that everyone in the country understands English fluently.)

 * You might get pissed when some of the Filipino people start talking in Tagalog and you might think they're talking about you, learning Tagalog will help you understand what they're talking about and the next time you see some talking in Tagalog you won't get a misinterpretation of what they're talking about.

 * You're obsessed of eating Filipino foods but you don't understand the menu because it's written in pure Tagalog. After learning some Tagalog you will understand what the menu says and you'll know what you're consuming.

 * You might also love reading literature, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo by José Rizal are mostly translated into Tagalog however its main form was in Spanish, you might not understand Spanish nor Tagalog, but after studying Tagalog the books will catch your heart.

Demographics
Tagalog is the native language of 22 million Filipinos and is the largest of all the Philippine languages. More than 65 million people, roughly about three-fourths of the Philippine population, have learned Tagalog as their second language to varying degrees of comprehension.

Tagalog is one of the keys to Philippine culture. By studying it, you unlock an amalgamation of Malay, Arab, Indian, Latin and European cultures.

However, there are catches to learning Tagalog. For example, accentation can differentiate different forms of a word with the same spelling (as in hapon, which can mean either "afternoon" or as a reference to Japan), as in Spanish, but accents are usually not written. This can create confusion at first.

Also, Tagalog can use different word orders but that mean the same thing: an example is the Wikipedia slogan, which can be translated as Ang Malayang Ensiklopedya (the English word order) or Ang Ensiklopedyang Malaya (the Spanish word order).

Learning Tagalog, however, can be made easier if one knows how to speak Spanish or languages such as Malay or Indonesian, which Tagalog either has cognates or has borrowed words from. It helps create a better learning experience.

^ Table of Contents ^ | Why study Tagalog? | How to use this Tagalog Wikibook>>

title: Tagalog/Why study Tagalog


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User:Matt73~enwikibooks

Student at the University of Melbourne.

title: User:Matt73~enwikibooks


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Russian


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Kashubian


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Czech


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Upper Sorbian


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Slovak


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Slovenian