text:
Robotics/Navigation/Mapping

To find routes efficiently a robot has to know it's surroundings. Maps can be very handy for this. Either the robot has the memory and tools for it and draws its own map, gets its map in advance or get a partial map (e.g. only walls) and adds the other obstacles to it itself.

 * Getting the map in advance works fine in a static environment.
 * The partial map is a more efficient approach as it already contains all the static parts of the world.
 * Working from scratch is the best approach when the robot is often placed in new environments.

Drawing a map has 2 major issues:
 * Not all elements in the surroundings are stationary. Most sensors are too limited to measure directly if the obstacle is a wall, a chair or a person. A method for solving this issue is to use a "score" for each obstacle measured. Add to the score if the object is detected again when the robot passes the same location.
 * Localization isn't perfect. Small accumulating errors can make it hard to determine the exact location of the robot and therefor can make it hard to find where a detected obstacle has to be noted on the map. One solution to this problem is Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM), which corrects the location of detected objects based on the estimated error of the robots location.

A third minor issue is memory. On a robot build without a computer memory is limited and storing an entire map can be next to impossible. If you have the memory the map can be stored in different ways:
 * 2D array: Easy and fast to access, very wasteful with memory.
 * linked list: slower to use, more efficient with memory.
 * Quadtree: faster than linked list, much harder to implement, very efficient with memory.

Implementing these structures on a PC is reasonably easy, however constructing them in a limited environment as a microcontroller is a serious challenge.

title: Robotics/Navigation/Mapping


text:
Robotics/Navigation/Trajectory Planning

Trajectory Planning
Trajectory planning is moving from point A to point B while avoiding collisions over time. This can be computed in both discrete and continuous methods. Trajectory planning is a major area in robotics as it gives way to autonomous vehicles.

Trajectory planning is sometimes referred to as motion planning and erroneously as path planning. Trajectory planning is distinct from path planning in that it is parametrized by time. Essentially trajectory planning encompasses path planning in addition to planning how to move based on velocity, time, and kinematics.

Holonomicity
Holonomicity is the relationship between the controllable degrees of freedom of the robot and the total degrees of freedom of the robot. If the number of controllable degrees of freedom are greater than or equal to the total degrees of freedom a robot is said to be holonomic. By using a holonomic robot many movements are much easier to make and return to a past pose is much easier.

A car would be non-holonomic, as it has no way to move laterally. This makes certain movements, such as parallel parking, difficult. An example of a holonomic vehicle would be one using mecanum wheels, such as the new Segway RMP.

Dynamic Environments
In dynamic environments, such as the real world, many possible collision objects are not stationary. This makes trajectory planning more difficult as time is constantly changing and objects are moving. A robot cannot simply move backward in time as it might simply back away from a stationary collision. In addition to this many choices are completely irreversible due to terrain, such as moving off of a cliff.

Concepts
Trajectory planning gives a path from a starting configuration S to a goal configuration G avoiding collisions in a 2D or 3D space.

A configuration is the pose of a robot describing its position. Configuration Space C, is the set of all configurations. For instance, in two dimensions a robot's configuration would be described by coordinates (x, y) and angle θ. Whereas in three dimensions a robot's configuration would be described by coordinates (x, y, z) and angles (α, β, γ).

Free space Cfree is the set of all configurations that are collision-free. Computing the shape of Cfree is not efficient, however, computing if a given configuration is a collision free is by simply using kinematics and collision detection from sensors.

Target space is a linear subspace of free space which we want robot go there. In global motion planning, target space is observable by robot's sensors. However, in local motion planning, robot cannot observe the target space in some states. To solve problem, robot assume several virtual target space which is located in observable area (around robot). The virtual target space is called sub-goal.

Artificial Potential Field
Artificial Potential Field Planning places values over the map with the goal having the lowest(Highest) value raising(falling) the value depending on the distance from the goal. Obstacles are defined to have an incredibly high(low) value. The robot then simply moves to the lowest(highest) potential value adjacent to it, which should lead it to the goal. However this technique often gets trapped in local minima. Certain techniques can be used to avoid this, such as wavefront potential field planning. Artificial potential fields can be achieved by direct equation similar to electrostatic potential fields or can be drive by set of linguistic rules.

Sampling Based Planning
Roadmap method is one sampling based planning method. First a sample of N configurations in C as milestones. Then a line PQ is formed between all milestones as long as the line PQ is completely in Cfree. Then graph search algorithms can be used to find a path from start to the goal. As N grows better solutions are found, however this increases computation time.

Grid Based Planning
Grid Based planning overlays a grid on the map. Every configuration then corresponds with a grid pixel. The robot can move from one grid pixel to any adjacent grid pixels as long as that grid pixel is in Cfree. Then a search algorithm such as A* can be used to find a path to get from start to the goal. One potential tradeoff with this method is with a lower resolution grid(bigger pixels) the search will be faster, however it may miss paths through narrow spaces of Cfree. In addition as the resolution of the grid increases memory usage increases exponentially, therefore in large areas using another path planning algorithm may be necessary.

Reward-Based Planning
Reward-Based Algorithms assume that robot in each state (position and internal state include direction) can choose between different action (motion). However, the result of each action is not definite. In the other word, outcomes (displacement) are partly random and partly under the control of the robot. Robot gets positive reward when it reach to the target and get negative reward if collide with obstacle. These Algorithms try to find a path which maximized cumulative future rewards. Markov decision processes (MDPs) is a popular mathematical framework which is used in many of Reward-Based Algorithms. Advantage of MDPs over other Reward-Based Algorithms is that it generate optimal path. Disadvantage of MDPs is that it limit robot to choose from a finite set of action; Therefore, the path is not smooth (similar to Grid-based approaches). Fuzzy Markov decision processes (FDMPs)is an extension of MDPs which generate smooth path with using an fuzzy inference system.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Robotics/Navigation/Trajectory Planning


text:
Robotics/Navigation/Exploration

Exploration means having the robot filling in parts of the map. This requires sensors that detect the obstacles and localization to know where the robot is. Fusing this data allows the robot to fill in where the obstacle is on the map.

title: Robotics/Navigation/Exploration


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User talk:Paris Lovett

Hey Pazzah, good idea of starting an EM textbook! I'm mainly into internal medicine, but if there are any topics you'd like me to cover, please drop me a line on the English Wikipedia. I'd love to do some acute metabolic disturbances and liver disease-related pages. I also like haematology. JFW | T@lk  15:00, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Hi Pazzah, I'm the guy who got the Wikibooks site going. I was working in an emergency room in Ohio for a while, and volunteering at a Red Cross facility in Mexico City, before the docs convinced me not to study medicine like I was thinking. Anyway I am very excited that you are doing this work here, this is the very type of work that I had in mind when I got the page started. Thank you and let me know if you need help at any time (although the technical guys have taken over and sometimes I don't know what is going on). --Karl Wick 17:29, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Dr. Lovett, I made some additions to the EM book, a table of contents and some boilerplate information. Also I noticed a new website dedicated to everything medical:

http://www.wikimd.org/index.php?title=Main_Page

Maybe a place for a medical encyclopedia, while the medical textbooks go here.

Please let me know if there is anything else I can do to be of service.--Karl Wick 18:49, 3 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Paris:

I haven't quite figured out where 'Talk' goes, but this seems active.

I hope the talk went well at SAEM. I understand it was today. I am in Tucson and pretty much disconnectewd for a few days - I'll be back in Houston and connected Wed evening.

I started a little experiment with 'Templates' thinking of the variations in structure which may be useful.

First I discovered the 'Template' means something different in Wiki stuff - a fixed text that can be replicated on many pages, such as the disclaimer and is invoked with double brackets. I thought PageStencil might be a good alternate terminology for us to use as a page/article structure such as you laid out for general articles.

It semed to me those headings generally work for disease oriented chapters.

I started thinking of a low level kind of page that relates one-to-one with a good EM refernce paper. Abstracts are available in PubMed and are linkable now by using simply PMID 15635313 amd Wiki creates a link to PubMed - pretty nice.

However, most papers of interest will also need a summary of significance and a little better idea of content to be useful. Full text is spotty and the WIkibook will allow a digestion of the significance of a paper and links to all sorts of related information.

I thought I would start with the 20 papers in ABEM's LLSA - for 2004 and 2005 as useful paoers of inbterest to many.

I started playing with naming the paper with the PMID - a canonic form for summaries of one paper so is would be easy to prevent duplication, but that may not be necessary and may be confusing.

Then I encountered some kind if WIki Form-Nazi's who put my pages on a list for Speedy Deletion - not a very friendly approach to cooperative development. They apparently proceeeded to delete my pages, experimantal as they were. I learned to keep a copy of the source offline as the pages were deleted and I do not see a means to roll back the deletions.

So, welcome to Wiki world, Kirt.

Another structure may be a drug page for each drug- a focus or rapid lookup by drug name which should link to all the relevant other places - contexts where the drug or class of drugs may appear.

Another subject of interest will be how to optimally use categories to lump and split things in a useful and user-intuitive manner.

As soon as I feel comfortable with the structure and feeding of WikiBooks, I will try to write a short tutorial introduction for EM authors to break them in relatively painlessly.

Nice book structure
Paris,

I really like the structure of your book. I started a Human physiology book as a class project 7 weeks ago. I think you will agree that it is impressive what a small group of students can do in a couple of months (especially when they are getting graded on it!). I thought I would invite you to browse our book, make any corrections or improvements you like, and give us any insights from the field. My students are beginning pre-nursing students, and the class is introductory physiology. If there is something you learned in your beginning physiology class that proved particularly useful, or if there is something you wish you had learned, I would be very interested in hearing about it so we can be sure it is in our book.

Good luck with your book. If you have a chance, I recommend getting an EMT class to contribute to your book as part of the class. Provophys 23:01, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pazzah. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pazzah~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paris Lovett


text:
User:Jfdwolff

I'm mainly on Wikipedia. See my userpage there. If you'd like to contact me, please edit my talk page there.

title: User:Jfdwolff


text:
User talk:Jfdwolff

I'm mainly on Wikipedia. See my userpage there. If you'd like to contact me, please edit my talk page there.

title: User talk:Jfdwolff


text:
User:Mhwombat

IGTF

title: User:Mhwombat


text:
Computer Programming/Function overloading

This Computer programming article is available in pseudocode and Ada.

Description
Function overloading (also method overloading) is a programming concept that allows programmers to define two or more functions with the same name and in the same scope.

Each function has a unique signature (or header), which is derived from:

 * 1) function/procedure name
 * 2) number of arguments
 * 3) arguments' type
 * 4) arguments' order
 * 5) arguments' name
 * 6) return type

Please note: Not all above signature options are available in all programming languages.

Warning: Function overloading is often confused with function overriding. In Function overloading, a function with a different signature is created, adding to the pool of available functions. In function overriding, however, a function with the same signature is declared, replacing the old function in the context of the new function.

Demonstration
Since functions' names are in this case the same, we must preserve uniqueness of signatures, by changing something from the parameter list (last three alienees).

If the functions' signatures are sufficiently different, the compiler can distinguish which function was intended to be used at each occurrence. This process of searching for the appropriate function is called function resolution and can be quite an intensive one, especially if there are a lot of equally named functions.

Programming languages supporting implicit type conventions usually use promotion of arguments (i.e. type casting of integer to floating-point) when there is no exact function match. The demotion of arguments is rarely used.

When two or more functions match the criteria in function resolution process, an ambiguity error is reported by compiler. Adding more information for the compiler by editing the source code (using for example type casting), can address such doubts.

The example code shows how function overloading can be used. As functions do practically the same thing, it makes sense to use function overloading.

function int generateNumber(int MaxValue) { return rand * MaxValue } function int generateNumber(int MinValue, int MaxValue) { return MinValue + rand * (MaxValue - MinValue) }

calling the first function
The first code block will generate numbers from 0 up to specified parameter MaxValue. The appropriate function call is:

int Number := generateNumber(10);

calling the second function
The second requires another parameter MinValue. Function will return numbers above or equals MinValue and lower than MaxValue.

int Number := generateNumber(6, 10);

A Swift Example
In this example, the constants "a" and "b" are inferred to be Integers, and as a result, the variable "c" is also an integer. As such, the compiler will use the overloaded function "doIt" on line 1, because it is the only function which matches the identifier (name) of the function, parameter types and names (labels), and return type.


text:
Talk:Data Structures/Sets

I think the Sets chapter should be before the Graph chapter because the Graph interface could benefit from returning edge sets and node sets from its functions. What needs to be changed to accomplish this? --jyasskin 16:31, 27 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * We should stick with the adjacency matrix and adjacency list representations for graphs and present them before sets. A disjoint set will be radically different and is more advanced of a topic (and requires knowledge of trees; further, some non-disjoint sets should be efficient search trees themselves). To iterate over the edges requires only an edge iterator accessor. I suppose here, though, the design of BFS and DFS should dictate what will really be useful for the graphs chapter. We should simplify some of these interfaces and move closer to the Java version than the C++ library. MShonle 05:05, 28 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Data Structures/Sets


text: User:Toper~enwikibooks

title: User:Toper~enwikibooks


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Civ/Freeciv

Nothing much here yet.

The stated purpose of Freeciv (at one point) was to create a working clone of Civ II for the UNIX/Linux platform. It seems to have worked, and has been ported several times.

You could visit the manuals and HOWTOs at the Freeciv website.

title: Civ/Freeciv


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QBasic/Files

In this lesson, we will learn how to create and modify files. In doing so, we will create a portion of a text editor to handle reading and writing files to and from disk - the program won't be complete by the end of this chapter, but will be finished within Advanced Text Output.

Let's start by setting up out main procedure:

As you can see, we are using CASE rather than IF. IF statements can sometimes work better than case statements, but for now, we want to avoid spaghetti code (where there are too many GOTO's).

So far, we don't really have much, but it's a start. We've asked the user what they want to do, and finished 1/3 options. Not so shabby when you put it that way!

The OPEN statement
The open statement allows either reading or writing information from the disk. In general, the open statement follows this pattern:

The file$ determines the filename to use. The FOR portion indicates how the file will be accessed or operated - it may be APPEND, BINARY, INPUT, OUTPUT, and RANDOM. The AS # is the identifier used for the file handle in question - this may be a variable if desired.

Input and output
When you need to access or write content to a file handle, the PRINT and INPUT statements expect a file handle to appear as the first parameter:

In some cases, you need to detect if you are going to reach the end of file - this is performed by the EOF function, which accepts a filehandle that takes input.

Reading the file from disk
We will now add a subroutine to read the complete file from disk, as lines of text, into an string array called text. It is also possible to read a data file full of numerical values (and input these into a number array), however that is a different topic.

Note the code that finds the file 'size', by reading lines one at a time until the End Of File is reached, and the use of 'SEEK' to 'rewind' to the beginning again.

The example above treats the file as type=text. If the file contains numbers (for example, a data array of N integers per line x M lines) these can be read (input #) one at a time, directly into a numeric array. Input will read the numbers one at a time, 'stopping' after each is input. Numbers can be separated by 'anything' (so lines of text will be skipped).

Writing a file to the disk
The function for writing a file to disk is easier:

Part 2: New file
In order to create a new file, you have to open it for OUTPUT, then close it. Example: NOTE: If you accidently open an existing file, all of its contents will be overwritten!

title: QBasic/Files


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Talk:Coordinate Reference Systems and Positioning

Julie,

I am willing to contribute. However, at the moment TC 211 is in the process of revising ISO 19111, based on the work done in OGC. I am on the Editing Committee, which has just completed a two-day meeting going through all the comments received. This has led to some (not many) changes in the model (minor change really) and in terminology. I think the cookbook should reflect these changes, in order to be up-to-date. Some of the changes to the document taken off-line affect some of the explanatory text. I consider this explanatory text a prime candidate to include in this cookbook.

Regards, Roel Nicolai Shell International co-chair OGC CRS Working Group member EPSG Geodesy WG

Roel,

Thank you for your willingness to participate. I want the chapter to be consistent with ISO 19111 concepts and terminology, wherever possible. The purpose of the chapter is to provide high level information for a basic understanding of global coordinate reference systems (e.g., WGS 84, ITRFxx/GRS80) and case studies from different regions and countries of the world about the challenges of tying their datums to global coordinate reference systems. I think that such a chapter would be of benefit to developing countries or regions who are updating their national datums to tie into WGS 84 or ITRFxx/GRS 80.

Regards, Julie

Julie,

As said we (Editing Committtee) are in the process of editing the original OGC document, which contained descriptions mainly from my hand. Roger Lott and I are now editing the texts after which they need to be offered to the EC again. This means I would like to hang on until these texts are considered (reasonably) final.

It is not quite clear to me what you mean by "case studies". Do you mean some examples to show how you actually define such a coordinate reference system and how you transform coordinates from one system to e.g. WGS 84 or ITRF xx?

Regards, Roel [Februari 8, 2005]


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Gambas/Colours

Back to Gambas

The RGB Colours Program
This program shows you the RGB colours. You can change the values of each colour from 0 - 255 and you will see the special mixed colour, when you hit the commandbutton.

Out of 3 decimal numbers, one hexadecimal number is build as a string using the following code:

sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&"

To get the program going, you will need 1 commandbutton, 1 drawingarea, 3 textboxes and 3 textlabels.

What does it look like? See it here ( in German ) http://www.madeasy.de/7/prgfarbergb.htm

The Code:

PUBLIC SUB Button1_Click DIM sHex AS String DIM r AS Integer DIM g AS Integer DIM b AS Integer IF Textbox1.text = "" THEN Textbox1.Text = 0 IF Textbox2.text = "" THEN Textbox2.Text = 0 IF Textbox3.text = "" THEN Textbox3.Text = 0 r = Val(Textbox1.Text) g = Val(Textbox2.Text) b = Val(Textbox3.Text) sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" DrawingArea1.BackColor = Val(sHEX) END

The Sunset Program
When you need a background for a program, you can use this little color sunset program.

You will need a drawing area on your form to get the program going. You can choose different colours when you use the following scheme:

Blue RGB(0, 0, i) Red RGB(i, 0, 0) Green RGB(0, i, 0) Yellow RGB(i, i, 0) Violett RGB(i, 0, i) Türkis RGB(0, i, i) Gray RGB(i, i, i)

What does it look like ?

The Code

PUBLIC SUB Form_Open DIM r AS Integer DIM g AS Integer DIM b AS Integer DIM h AS Integer DIM he AS Integer DIM sHex AS String r = 0 g = 0 FOR b = 0 TO 255 sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" Draw.begin(DrawingArea1) Draw.Forecolor= Val(sHEX) Draw.LineWidth=5 he = DrawingArea1.Height h = he * b \ 255 Draw.Line(0, h, DrawingArea1.Width, h) Draw.End NEXT END

You can make the program better, when you add the following code and change the border of the form to Resizeable.

PUBLIC SUB Form_Resize DrawingArea1.Move(0, 0, ME.ClientWidth, ME.ClientHeight) END

The Spectrum program
The natural colour spectrum is shown in the following program using a slidebar.

You need a drawing area and a slidebar as controls.

' Gambas class file PUBLIC SUB Form_Open drawingarea1.BackColor = &HC2020C& scrollbar1.minvalue = 1 scrollbar1.maxvalue = 1120 END PUBLIC SUB ScrollBar1_Change drawingarea1.BackColor = Val(spektrum(scrollbar1.value)) END PUBLIC FUNCTION spektrum(ss AS Integer) AS String x AS Integer sHEX AS String s AS Integer r AS Integer g AS Integer b AS Integer s = 0 FOR x = 1 TO 255 'red to yellow r = 255 b = 0 sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(x,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" s = s + 1 'PRINT s IF s = ss THEN RETURN sHEX NEXT 's = 255 FOR x = 255 TO 1 STEP -1 'from yellow to green g = 255 b = 0 sHEX = Hex$(x,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" s = s + 1 'PRINT s IF s = ss THEN RETURN sHEX NEXT 's = 510 FOR x = 1 TO 255 'from green to cyan r = 0 g = 255 sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(x,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" s = s + 1 'PRINT s IF s = ss THEN RETURN sHEX NEXT 's = 765 FOR x = 255 TO 1 STEP - 1 'from cyan to blue r = 0 b = 255 sHEX = Hex$(r,2) & Hex$(x,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" s = s + 1 'PRINT s IF s = ss THEN RETURN sHEX NEXT 's = 1020 b = 255 FOR x = 1 TO 100 'from blue to violett g = 0 sHEX = Hex$(x,2) & Hex$(g,2) & Hex$(b,2) sHEX = "&H" & sHEX & "&" b = b - 2 s = s + 1 'PRINT s 'PRINT shex IF s = ss THEN RETURN sHEX NEXT 's = 1120 END

Maybe you can change the program, so that the colour value is shown in a textbox. 1. Get a textbox out of the toolbox. 2. Add the following code textbox1.text = spektrum(scrollbar1.value) in the part PUBLIC SUB ScrollBar1_Change

title: Gambas/Colours


text: Template:Navlist/Top

title: Template:Navlist/Top


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Gambas/Comments

Back to Gambas

A good program has comments. They are very helpful to others trying to understand the program. When the program is compiled, all the comments are skipped. You can make comments as long as you want.

The difference between Gambas comments and VB comments is that Gambas has no such command as REM. Use the apostrophe instead. 'Apostrophe works. Rem does not.

Comments begin with an apostrophe and continue to the end of the line. Multi-line comments are not allowed. Example 'This is a comment and this is skipped during compilation.

You can comment or uncomment when you are testing a program. In the code window you can also mark some code and make a comment out of it with the shortcut Ctrl + K. You can uncomment with Ctrl + U.

title: Gambas/Comments


text:
User:Marknewlyn

My textbook project which will soon migrate to WikiBooks

title: User:Marknewlyn


text:
Cookbook:Poutine

| Canadian Cuisine | Quebecois Cuisine | Side Dishes

Poutine is common dish throughout the Quebec, Ontario, and Atlantic regions of Canada, made of French fries, cheese curds, and gravy. This recipe uses pre-canned gravy and fries the potatoes from scratch.

Ingredients

 * 1 L vegetable oil for deep frying
 * 1 can (290 g) of poutine sauce (French: mélange à sauce poutine) or gravy
 * 5 medium potatoes
 * 2 cups fresh cheddar cheese curds or mozzarella

Equipment

 * 1 deep fat fryer or large stove pot to fry the potatoes
 * 1 saucepan or cup suitable for warming gravy
 * 1 serving dish, with enough depth to act as a basket for the fried potatoes

Procedure

 * 1) Slice potatoes into finger-width fries and rinse them well to remove any dirt.
 * 2) Begin warming gravy, keep the temperature low enough for a slow heating.
 * 3) Heat oil to 185°C (365°F).
 * 4) Cook sliced potatoes in the oil for about 5 minutes.
 * 5) Following a first frying to cook the potatoes, they are often removed and then fried again for about 1 minute to crisp the outside.
 * 6) Remove the fries from the oil; optionally place them on a paper towel mat to absorb excess oil.
 * 7) Move the fries to a serving dish and put room-temperature cheese curds over the fries.
 * 8) Pour the gravy over the top; the dish should be served before the cheese curds start to melt.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Fresh cheddar cheese curds (preferably less than one day old) and crispy fries are considered essential to heighten the dynamic contrasts in texture, temperature and viscosity for which the dish is known. Air and moisture seep out of the curds over time, which alters their acidity level and causes proteins to lose their elasticity. This causes the curds to lose their complex texture and squeakiness. Food safety practices require refrigerating curds more than a day old, but this suppresses the properties of their texture. Because fresh curds are not always available, mozzarella cheese may be an unavoidable substitute.
 * The sauce is traditionally a light and thin chicken gravy. A light gravy will more easily coat all the fries, emulsifying into the remaining frying oil and unifying the dish. A sauce brune which is a combination of chicken and beef stock may also be used.
 * The high dynamic contrasts make eating poutine a rich sensory experience. Even small variations—relative temperatures, the size of the curds, the oil used for frying, or spices in the gravy—can result in a distinctly different poutine.
 * Restaurants that specialize in poutine, called poutineries, often have dozens of varieties, most of which add a meat topping with the gravy adjusted for balance.
 * There are many internationally inspired variants which replace some or all of the ingredients but maintain the contrasts of a crispy element, a dairy-like element, and a unifying sauce:
 * Replacing gravy with salsa, the cheese curds with sour cream, adding diced onions and tomatoes turns poutine into mexipoutine, an item also carried by the likes of Taco Bell under the name "Fries Supreme".
 * Replacing the gravy with marinara sauce, adding either loose lean ground beef or crumbled sausage and replacing the cheese curds with mozzarella cheese changes the dish to poutine Italiano, served in several fast food restaurants in Toronto, Ontario.

title: Cookbook:Poutine


text:
Online OsiriX Documentation/Forward a Crash Report to the Developers

One hopes that OsiriX will never crash. However, if it ever does, you can be very helpful to the developers by forwarding a crash report to them.

To do this, go to the Utilities folder which is located in your Applications folder.

There you will find an application named Console. Double-click on this application to run it. You should now see a window that looks something like this:

If you don't see the side pane on the left listing all of the available logs, click on the Logs icon to toggle this list on.

Now click on the little triangle next to ~/Library/Logs. This should toggle a sublist of the logs in this category. Your screen should now look something like this:

Now click on the little triangle next to CrashReporter. This will toggle a sub-sublist of the crash reports from various applications. You may see something like this:

Now scroll down through this list until you see an option titled OsiriX.crash.log. Click on this and you will now see a lot of text appear in the right sided pane of the Console application window, such as shown below.

This, at long last, is your crash log for OsiriX. Drag your cursor over this text and copy it. Then paste it into an e-mail message to one of the OsiriX developers.


text:
Online OsiriX Documentation/Forwarding a Crash Report to the Developers

< ^ |

One hopes that OsiriX will never crash. However, if it ever does, you can be very helpful to the developers by forwarding a crash report to them.

To do this, go to the  Utilities folder which is located in your Applications folder.

There you will find an application named Console. Double-click on this application to run it. You should now see a window that looks something like this:

If you don't see the side pane on the left listing all of the available logs, click on the Logs icon to toggle this list on.

Now click on the little triangle next to ~/Library/Logs. This should toggle a sublist of the logs in this category. Your screen should now look something like this:

Now click on the little triangle next to CrashReporter. This will toggle a sub-sublist of the crash reports from various applications. You may see something like this:

Now scroll down through this list until you see an option titled OsiriX.crash.log. Click on this and you will now see a lot of text appear in the right sided pane of the Console application window, such as shown below.

This, at long last, is your crash log for OsiriX. Drag your cursor over this text and copy it. Then paste it into an e-mail message to one of the OsiriX developers.

An even more sophisticated approach is to use the BugTracker feature of SourceForge.net (where the OsiriX source code base is maintained). You can access it from http://sourceforge.net/projects/osirix/ This process is described in Online OsiriX Documentation/SourceForge BugReporter.

OsiriX オンライン解説文書/OsiriX入門_開発者にクラッシュレポートを送信する


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US History/Ford Carter Reagan

The New Right
Ever since the 1964 election, in which the conservative Barry Goldwater failed to defeat incumbent Lyndon B. Johnson, a grassroots (beginning on the local level) movement among other conservatives began growing. Slowly, a group of conservatives began changing their policies and marketing strategies until finally, President Reagan (the culmination of this movement) was elected in 1980. And so, the product of this reformation of the right wing of the political spectrum (the conservative side), became known as the New Right.

This new breed of conservatism emphasized, above all, "smaller" government. This entailed lowering taxes as a catalyst for increased consumer spending, and thus economic growth, at the cost of cutting governmental programs and welfare. Conservative economists pushed "supply side economics" and openly advocated doing away with the tax-funded welfare state created mostly by the New Deal reforms of the 40s in order to keep more money in the hands of consumers instead of the coffers of welfare programs. Additionally, while Goldwater openly opposed the involvement of religion in politics, Reagan ushered in a generation of evangelical Christian activists along with the New Right. During the 1980 election, Reagan openly expressed his commitment to his religion, and during his presidency spoke out strongly against abortion and in support of other issues dear to the religious. The New Right conservatives also notably supported a more hawkish, aggressive foreign policy in the face of communism. They mostly did away with Nixon's detente strategy in favor of a more threatening American world presence.

Sun Belt
Meanwhile, a band of states in the south and southwest (called the "Sun Belt" because of their sunny climates) had been, since the 50s, experiencing growth that far outpaced the rest of the country. A number of factors contributed to this rapid relative growth. Southern states such as Florida and Texas and areas in the southwest such as southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico had year-round warm, sunny climates and large expanses of flat land suitable for building long tracts of suburban housing. With the widespread adoption of air conditioning by the 1950s, new housing in warm Sunbelt suburbs attracted those living in more seasonably cold climates, and in particular the Northeast. Retirement in the Sunbelt was also an attractive prospect to many of the elderly, and places such as southern Florida became popular places for retirees to relocate.

White Flight
Simultaneously, the racially-charged phenomenon known as "white flight" was underway by the 1950s as an indirect result of court decisions (specifically Brown v. Board) and new laws encouraging the desegregation of urban neighborhoods. As blacks moved into predominantly white urban neighborhoods, white families, sometimes worried that as a result of desegregation property values would fall, would put their houses up for sale and move to the suburbs, which were often quieter, safer, and demographically whiter than inner cities. This contributed to the construction of suburbs around major Sunbelt cities such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, Miami, Tampa, Orlando, Atlanta, Houston, and Dallas in the 50s, 60s and 70s. Many families fleeing northern inner cities would eventually settle in these new suburbs.

Car Culture
At the same time, the construction of long-distance, high-speed, high-capacity, limited-access roadways, such as those built as a part of Eisenhower's Interstate highway system, facilitated a lifestyle more dependent on the automobile--that is, it became practical and economical for most members of the workforce to live farther away from their jobs than they had ever lived. Whereas earlier in the century the norm had often been for workers to live near their jobs in cities and take a relatively short drive, ride public transportation, or even walk to work, in the second half of the century it became far more common to live in suburbs miles away from jobs (which often remained in dense urban areas) because expressways and inexpensive gasoline facilitated much longer commutes. As suburbs grew, so did American oil consumption. Traffic, environmental, and indirect health problems often arose as suburbs grew beyond the capacity of the infrastructure already in place. This trend would have important bearings on U.S. energy and environmental policy in the 70s and in the new millennium.

Demographics
Importantly, some Sunbelt growth was also attributed to immigration from Mexico, and in places like southern California tensions would flare over the employment and taxpayer-funded welfare of illegal immigrants. Southern Florida's growth in the 70s and 80s also had a notable component of immigrants from Cuba, which fell to communism in 1959.

California experienced the greatest growth and surpassed New York as the most populous state, as did Texas (which became the second most populous state). Florida also exhibited very rapid growth. The Sun Belt was (and still generally is, with the notable exception of California and to a lesser extent Florida) committed to conservatism, and in part contributed to Nixon's and Reagan's electoral successes. The growth of this region was at the expense of the Northern cities. The effects of this period on cities are discussed in the final section of this chapter.

Other important demographic shifts were taking place during this period as well. Beginning in the early 60s, fertility rates began a sharp decline from an average of almost four children per family in the late 50s to an average of less than two by the 70s, signaling the end of the post-war baby boom and the birth of what is widely known as "Generation X," the generation that came of age during the 80s and early 90s. This relative drop in fertility rates would later have extremely important repercussions for Social Security, Medicare, and the U.S. health care system as a whole.

Ford and Rockefeller

The world watched as Gerald Ford turned back towards the White House after seeing off former President Nixon in his helicopter. There, he took the oath of office and became the thirty eighth president of the United States. Washington was relieved to put the Watergate crisis behind it. He appointed Nelson Rockefeller, a popular Republican and the former governor of New York, as his Vice President. Many were excited of what would come of Ford's presidency.

Controversy
One of Ford's first acts in office would stun the nation. Using executive powers granted to him by the Constitution, Ford granted Nixon a pardon, on September 8, 1974, for any misconduct he may have exhibited as president. Even though Ford fiercely defended his actions, he never regained the popularity that he had in his first days in office. Many believed that Nixon and Ford had worked out a bargain in advance, with Nixon's resignation in exchange for a pardon from Ford.

Later that year, it was leaked to the American public that the CIA had been spying and keeping secret files on legitimate American citizens. Months later, it was leaked that the FBI was doing the same thing. Ford appointed a commission to investigate the inner workings of the two agencies. He, with the help of Congress, passed legislation to keep the agencies in check.

After recovering some trust, the President would again stir up controversy. He offered amnesty, or protection from the law, to those who had avoided the draft or deserted during the Vietnam War. While many approved, others did not, believing that the policy was far too lenient; after all, their loved ones had obeyed the law.

Foreign Affairs
Ford did not have major diplomatic experience, so he relied on Kissinger, who continued Nixon's policies. In 1974, Ford met with Brezhnev to again discuss nuclear weapons. In July 1975, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, a pledge between the western world and the Soviet Union to respect human rights. Ford also continued to work with China. The Chinese communist leader, Mao Zedong, died in 1976, and a more moderate, centrist government came to power. As a result, the U.S. and China continued to move closer. Ford’s main issues during his presidency were the North Vietnamese victory over South Vietnam (1975), the Mayaguez Incident, Detente and human rights policy, the Middle East crisis, Arab oil power, and the first international economic summits. His actions to re-assert U.S. ability and prestige following the collapse of Cambodia and the humiliating Fall of Saigon in South Vietnam were energetic. On May 12, 1975, the American Merchant Marine ship, S.S. Mayaguez, with 39 crewmen aboard, was captured in international waters by Cambodian gunboats. The ship was retrieved and all crewmen were saved, but at the cost of 41 American servicemen's lives.

Recession and Inflation
As the 1970s progressed, it seemed that Europe and Japan might pass the United States in economic power. Japanese cars were popular throughout the nation and European made goods were strong competition to American made goods. Many factories were forced to close, and soon, many Americans were unemployed or underemployed, that is, when one works in a job for which he is overqualified. Another contributing factor to the economic hardships were the actions of the middle-eastern OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Even though the oil shortage had been for the most part resolved, OPEC kept its prices high, and the high prices led to inflation (the loss of value of a currency).

To help to reduce inflation, Ford launched Whip Inflation Now (WIN), which promoted the saving of money and advised people to grow their own vegetable gardens in an effort to avoid high food prices. The program led to a small but insignificant drop in inflation; the economy was still plunging into recession. Ford also tried to control inflation by cutting government spending. He vetoed many appropriations bills from Congress that allowed for more spending.

To stimulate the economy, Ford pressed Congress to pass a tax cut, believing that with the extra money saved on taxes, Americans might spend more money. Ford was right, but with less tax revenue, the federal deficit widened. Despite the things he tried, he could not make the economy recover.

1976 Election

In November 1975, Ford again was determined to win single handedly, noted that he would be competing in every primary. He vowed to, “go right down to the wire in the convention in Kansas City and win there.” Ford was treated as a joke, just as Tom Branden had pointed out, that when "the nation’s end men begin to treat a serious politician as a joke, he is though.” It all began during his trip to Australia in the Spring of 1975, Ford slipped on a rain-slickened ramp while getting off a plane in Salzburg and fell on the stairs. This incident happened in front of various cameramen and reporters, which meant it happened in front of the entire world. Instead of his presidency, Ford became famous for his social blunders, whether they were authentic or fabricated.So going into the 1976 election Ford hoped that, as the incumbent, he would win the election despite his past.

Americans had not quite forgotten about the Watergate crisis and Ford's subsequent actions, though. The Watergate Scandal opened the eyes of American people to see the corruption that was taking place in their own government. The scandal and the state of the economy hurt the Republican party and gave Carter the advantage of being viewed as a newcomer and a reformer.

The 1976 election hollowed the financially conservative Ford against the more liberal Carter. The economic policies of the candidates’ became extremely important as the economy’s recovery from one of the worst post-WWII recessions slowed down. Ford held up a slow-growth policy to fight inflation, while Carter advocated stronger growth at the risk of inflation.

Jimmy Carter, a little known Democrat, slowly gained recognition in primaries, and he eventually won the Democratic nomination. Ford, on the other hand, struggled to win the nomination from his party, almost losing it to former California governor Ronald Reagan. On Election Day, the race was very close, but Carter eked out a victory over Ford, winning 50 percent of the popular vote to Ford's 48.

Background
Jimmy Carter (James Earl Carter, Jr.), the thirty-ninth president of the United States, was born October 1, 1924, in the small southwest Georgia farming town of Plains, and grew up in the nearby community of Archery. The first president born in a hospital,[6] he is the eldest of four children of James Earl Carter and Bessie Lillian Gordy. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr., was a farmer and businessman; his mother, Lillian Gordy Carter, a registered nurse. He had been a peanut farmer from a tiny town called Plains. He attended Georgia Southwestern College and the Georgia Institute of Technology, and received a bachelor of science degree from the United States Naval Academy in 1946. In the Navy, he became a submariner, serving in both the Atlantic and Pacific fleets and rising to the rank of lieutenant. Before he became president, Carter served two terms as a Georgia State Senator and one as the Governor of Georgia (1971-1975).

Carter ran with Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota as his vice presidential candidate. Carter ran for president against Gerald Ford who had won the Republican nomination against Ronald Reagan by a slim margin. Carter defeated Ford in the election of 1976. During his presidency, Carter sought to conduct the presidency on democratic and moral principles. Carter, building his campaign on the fact that he was an "outsider," had little experience with politics on the national level. From the start of his presidency, Carter was very down-to-earth and informal; not very much like most politicians.

In 2002 President Carter was given the Nobel Peace Prize. He is the only American president to ever get a Nobel Peace Prize after his presidency. Carter was also against the death penalty in the United States. His thoughts on it were to replace the death penalty with life in prison. He offered amnesty to Americans who had fled the draft and gone to other countries during the Vietnam War.

Deregulation
During his administration, Carter worked to deregulate many key sectors of the nation's economy, particularly the transportation and travel industry. The first major deregulation act passed during his presidency was the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, which removed much of the Civil Aeronautics Board's control over commercial aviation. Before the passage of the act, airlines had to receive government approval of routes, sometimes waiting ten years before getting a decision. Many requests were rejected because, for example, the case had become "stagnant." The Staggers Rail Act, passed in 1980, had a similar effect on the railroad industry.

Another key piece of legislation passed during the Carter presidency was the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act, passed in 1980. It lessened government control on the interest rates for money deposited and saved in banks, so that with higher interest rates, people would be encouraged to save their money.

Energy & Inflation

High prices on oil imports caused inflation to skyrocket during the Carter administration by as much as 12 percent per year. A widening trade deficit (a higher value on imports than on exports) also contributed to the inflation. To stress the need to conserve energy, Carter symbolically turned down the thermostat in the White House. Five laws passed in 1978, collectively known as the National Energy Plan, created a Department of Energy, allotted money from the U.S. budget to go to alternative energy research and created tax incentives to encourage domestic oil production and energy conservation.

In March 1979, nuclear power would also become part of the nation's energy crisis. Nuclear power, which involves splitting atoms and releasing energy while creating hazardous radioactive material, made up more than ten percent of the nation's electricity. A partial meltdown at Three Mile Island near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, released radiation into the environment, alerting the nation to a potential hazard. Soon a protest movement against nuclear power spread, and while no further nuclear power plants were ordered in the United States, most already in operation continued in operation and most then under construction eventually went into operation.

Camp David Accords

During the 1976 election, peace talks between the middle east, Israel, and the U.S. had stalled. The newly-elected president Carter moved to restart these talks, but when the right-wing Likud Party of Israel took control of the government in an electoral sweep, hopes for continued peace talks seemed all but lost. But Egyptian president Anwar Sadat, frustrated with the stalled process and motivated by prospects that the U.S. might help its anemic economy, decided to visit Israel, thereby recognizing its existence. Israel received Sadat's initiative, and the two countries soon went into bilateral (instead of the multilateral talks with the entire Arab world that Carter and Sadat had hoped for) talks, witnessed by the president at Camp David in Maryland.

The secret negotiations were heated and dramatic, and the two countries had threatened to walk on multiple occasions. Carter had personally appealed to Sadat and Israel leader Menachem Begin to stay in the talks. After twelve days, an agreement was reached, and on September 17th, 1978, the Camp David Accords were signed at the White House.

Hostage Crisis in Iran
In the '70s, Iran was a very strong Persian Gulf ally to the U.S. The Iranian Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, had built up a powerful military with U.S. help. Many Iranians complained about government corruption and the negative influence that the West had on Muslim values. In 1979 however, the shah was forced to leave the country after Islamic fundamentalists, (those who believe in very strict obedience to religious rules) led by the new Iranian ruler Ayatollah Khomeini, took control of the government.

Supported by the fundamentalists, Iranian students took over the U.S. embassy in Tehran, the capital of Iran, and took 52 U.S. citizens hostage. The United States was horrified. Negotiations to release the hostages failed and a rescue attempt in the country ended with the death of eight U.S. soldiers.

Though fear of an American-backed return by the Shah was the publicly stated reason, the true cause of the seizure was the long-standing U.S. support for the Shah's government. Reza Pahlavi ruled Iran from 1941 to 1979, with a brief period of exile in 1953 when he fled to Italy due to a power struggle with Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh. Because Mossadegh's policies and announcements created concern over access to Iranian oil, oil prices, and possible Soviet influence in Iran, the United States and British intelligence services aided Iranian military officers in a coup to overthrow the Prime Minister. After his return to power, the Shah established a very close alliance with the United States. The U.S. supplied weapons, training, and technical knowledge that aided the Shah in modernizing his country. However, the Shah ruled as a dictator, using SAVAK, his secret police, to terrorize his political enemies. The Shah was opposed by both the Marxist Tudeh Party, and by fundamentalist Islamic leaders who believed his policies and his reliance on the Americans were corrupting Iranian society.

The hostage crisis in Iran greatly lowered the public opinion of Carter, even though there was little else that Carter could do about it. The ordeal took a toll on his campaign for reelection in 1980; the public saw as a president who bargained with terrorists, and he lost to Ronald Reagan, 489 to 49 in the electoral college. An even greater disappointment for his failed campaign came in the last weeks of his term, in January 1981: with hard work, Carter secured the release of the hostages.

Iran-Iraq War
The Iran-Iraq War permanently altered the course of Iraqi history. It strained Iraqi political and social life, and led to severe economic dislocations. Viewed from a historical perspective, the outbreak of hostilities in 1980 was, in part, just another phase of the ancient Persian-Arab conflict that had been fueled by twentieth-century border disputes. Many observers, however, believe that Saddam Hussein's decision to invade Iran was a personal miscalculation based on ambition and a sense of vulnerability. Saddam Hussein, despite having made significant strides in forging an Iraqi nation-state, feared that Iran's new revolutionary leadership would threaten Iraq's delicate Sunni Shia balance and would exploit Iraq's geostrategic vulnerabilities--Iraq's minimal access to the Persian Gulf, for example. In this respect, Saddam Hussein's decision to invade Iran has historical precedent; the ancient rulers of Mesopotamia, fearing internal strife and foreign conquest, also engaged in frequent battles with the peoples of the highlands.

The Iran-Iraq War, also known as the Imposed War by Iraq, began when Iraq invaded Iran on 22 September 1980 following a long history of border disputes and fears of Shia insurgency among Iraq's long suppressed Shia majority influenced by Iran's Islamic revolution. Although Saddam's Iraq hoped to take advantage of revolutionary chaos in Iran and attacked without formal warning, they made only limited progress into Iran and within several months were repelled by the Iranians who regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982. For the next six years Iran was on the offensive. Despite several calls for a ceasefire by the United Nations Security Council, hostilities continued until 20 August 1988. The last prisoners of war were exchanged in 2003.

The war is noted for being very similar to World War I. Tactics used included trench warfare, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, use of barbed wire, human wave attacks and Iraq's extensive use of chemical weapons (such as mustard gas) against Iranian troops and civilians as well as Iraqi Kurds.

Terrorism
At the turn of the 19th century, terrorism in the form of political assassination became a major global phenomenon. In the post-World War II years, other types of terrorism became strategies of choice for nationalist groups across the globe in their struggles for independence.

In predominantly agrarian societies, this terrorism took the form of guerrilla warfare, with China and Indochina as the classic examples. A number of these national political movements, which owed much of their success to violence, adopted a strategy in the war of semantics surrounding the use of violence. These newly created Third World Countries, as well as their brethren from the communist states, advanced the argument that their fight against colonial oppression was not terrorism but rather the hard work of dedicated freedom fighters.

A significant turning point in the history of terrorism was the formation of Hezbollah (Party of God), formed in 1982 in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon. This Lebanon-based radical Shi’a group takes its ideological inspiration from the Iranian revolution and the teachings of the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Its members were not only interested in carrying out the goals of the revolution but were also concerned with the social conditions of their fellow Shiites throughout the Middle East. Hezbollah’s outreach in Lebanon during the 1980s solidified Lebanese Shiite support and helped spawn smaller terrorist groups, the most recognizable of which was the Islamic Jihad.

Reaganomics
"I have only one thing to say to the tax increasers. Go ahead, make my day."

In the years before and following Reagan's election, a conservative movement grew which complained that the government spent too much money and collected too many taxes. So, Reagan decided to cut taxes and spending. Reagan's policy of supply-side economics (increasing supply and services to stimulate the economy) soon became known simply as "Reaganomics." Reagan took over the worst economy since the Great Depression, one marred by Stagflation with unemployment of 13% and inflation of 17%. "Reaganomics" cut the top tax rate by half and lowered all other tax rates by a significant margin. The deals struck with the Democratic controlled congress caused an increase in spending and the decreased revenue from the tax cuts and smaller tax shelters could not cover the increases in spending on defense Reagan demanded. The largest increase in spending was defense in a plan to bankrupt the Soviet Union. By 1983, the economy began a steady growth, doubling tax revenue and increasing GDP by 2 trillion dollars. However critics of Reganomics note that the policies caused the national debt to increase significantly, as well as create significant income inequality.

The Reagan Revolution
During his Presidency, Ronald Reagan pursued policies that reflected his optimism in individual freedom, expanded the American economy, and contributed to the end of the Cold War. The "Reagan Revolution", as it came to be known, aimed to reinvigorate American morale, and reduce the people's reliance upon government

Air Traffic Strike
In 1981 Air Traffic Control workers began to strike, hoping to achieve better pay, better conditions, and less hours. Without air traffic control to guide planes, flights could not safely take place sending air travel to a halt. Furthermore, as federal employees, the air traffic controllers were violating the law by striking.

Regan was a former union leader and gave a grace period of 48 hours for strikers to quit striking and return to their duties at Air Traffic Control. While most striking workers did not return to work, a few did. This coupled with policy changes was able to restore about 50% of previous flight capacity during the strike.

Ultimately, Regan fired over 10,000 striking air traffic control workers, and banned them from future federal service, though some were later able to return. The strike was broken, the union dissolved, and it took about a decade to recover staffing of air traffic control positions to previous levels.

Sandra Day O'Connor Supreme Court nomination
In 1980, Ronald Reagan promised to nominate the first woman to the Supreme Court should he be elected. Then, on July 3, 1981, Associate Justice Potter Stewart, who had been appointed by Dwight Eisenhower in 1958, retired. Reagan fulfilled his promise and nominated Sandra Day O'Connor, a judge on the Arizona Court of Appeals. The Senate confirmed her unanimously, and on September 25, 1981, she became the first woman to serve on the Supreme Court. She served as Associate Justice until January 31, 2006, when her successor, Samuel Alito, was confirmed.

Reagan nominated two other Justices to the Court. In 1986, he successfully nominated Antonin Scalia, and in 1988, he nominated Anthony Kennedy.

Arms Race
As promised in his campaign, Reagan drastically increased military spending to a level of about $1.6 trillion in five years. This triggered a secondary arms race between the United States and the USSR, and relations between the two fell to levels not seen since the 60s. While Reagan favored drastically increasing spending on the military, the US confidence in full-scale ground war had been broken with the loss of Vietnam in the 70s. Because of this, Reagan favored funding trained insurgents to fight enemy governments instead of committing the army full-scale.

Grenada
The first major military conflict during Reagan's administration was 1983's Operation Urgent Fury, the invasion of the Caribbean island nation of Grenada. When the island was taken over by Marxist Bernard Coard in a coup, Reagan used the safety of 500 U.S. medical students working in the government as a pretext for the invasion. The new government was quickly overthrown in just four days, and served as a model for future conflicts.

Insurgencies
Reagan also, with the help of South Africa, funded insurgent groups fighting Soviet-backed regimes in the African nations of Mozambique and Angola. In Afghanistan, which had been invaded by the Soviet Union to the north, the U.S. government provided arms and humanitarian aid to mujahideen rebels fighting the Soviet-backed government. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev, a Communist party reformer, assumed leadership of Russia. Realizing that his Soviet troops were bogged down in a costly guerrilla war, and wanting to regain face with the international community, he announce in 1987 that the Soviet army would be withdrawing from the country, and had completely left by 1989.

Central America and Iran Contra
Hostage takings in the middle east did not end after the 1979 Iran hostage crisis. In 1983, members of an Iranian militant organization were arrested for truck bombings in Kuwait, and an ally militant organization retaliated for the arrests by taking thirty hostages in Lebanon, six of whom were American. In order to free the hostages, the administration decided that it would secretly sell arms to Iran, one of America's greatest enemies, which was in the middle of a war with Iraq. Few countries were willing to supply Iran with weapons, and the United States sold the arms to Iran in the hopes that Iran would pressure the militants in Lebanon to free the hostages. This sale had the explicit approval of Reagan himself.

At the same time, a coup d'état in Nicaragua brought to power the socialist Sandinista government. The country had formerly been friendly territory for multinational corporations and a wealthy ruling class, and this resulted in a large poor class willing to hand power over to left-wing leaders. American interests in Central America seemed in jeopardy with the Sandinista government in power. When the CIA decided to conduct sabotage missions against the Sandinistas without congressional approval, the Republican senate angrily passed the Boland Amendment, which banned the funding of the anti-Sandinista Contra rebels by certain governmental agencies.

Because of this, a few in the Reagan administration decided to, possibly without the President's knowledge, use the proceeds from the secret weapons sale with Iran to secretly fund the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.

These dealings went on in violation of the Boland amendment, and in conflict with statements made by Reagan that he would not negotiate with terrorists. When a Lebanese magazine revealed the weapons-for-hostages dealings in 1986, scandal ensued. Reagan, with pressure from congressional Democrats and the media, created the Tower commission, led by former senator John Tower. The commission in the end laid most of the blame for the dealings on Reagan himself for not paying more attention and not having more direct control over many governmental agencies. The scandal itself raised many separation of power and presidential ethics questions, but Reagan emerged from its aftermath relatively unscathed. By the end of his second term, Reagan once again was registering positive approval ratings.

"A few months ago I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages. My heart and my best intentions still tell me that's true, but the facts and the evidence tell me it is not."

Changing Modern Society
A broad shift in values and attitudes took place in the U.S. between 1970 and 1990 as financial prosperity spread through American society. Across almost all social and economic groups, the trend was away from community and toward individualism. Aspects of the change included resistance to taxation and support for tax cuts; distrust of government and belief in privatization of public functions on the argument that the private sector could carry them out more effectively; decreased support for public assistance to low-income groups and demands that these groups improve their own economic standing; and a general decrease in the type of public citizen involvement that earlier generations had practiced during the middle decades of the 20th century. Politicians of both major parties hastened to follow these trends, with the Republicans in the lead under Reagan and the elder Bush, while the Democrats, seeing their broad base of voters increasingly drawn toward Republican positions, hastening to follow.

Pop Culture of the 70's and 80's
Disco music became an icon of the late 1970's, with disco dancers wearing flamboyant and eye catching clothing. While disco had declined in popularity in America by the early 1980's, it had a large influence on emerging genres, such as electronic music and early hip hop.

Hip Hop emerged as a popular genre during the 1980s, with artists like Run-DMC, NWA, and the Beastie Boys enjoying popularity.

Pop artists such as Michael Jackson, Madonna, Bruce Springsteen, Prince, and others became immensely popular in America during the 80's.

Rock music, especially hard rock and related genres, also enjoyed a resurgence in the 1980's, with Metallica, Mötley Crüe, Queen, AC/DC, Kiss, Bon Jovi and other bands enjoying massive success in the United States.

MTV, a music television channel was launched in 1981. During the 1980's it broadcast music videos as well as related content and helped popularize music that was not being played on the radio.

Everyday life
By the late 1970's microwave ovens had become small enough and affordable enough to gain popularity in the household.

During the 1980's, big box stores that combined both a grocery store and a department store under one roof became very popular.

Urban Problems
Many people believed that despite large change in the 60’s and 70’s, race relations were taking a major step back during the Reagan administration. Reagan’s “New Right” caused a more apparent dividing of lines between religions and races. In 1988 national report claimed that blacks and whites were once again segregating. It pointed out the fact that more whites were living in nice suburban homes, while blacks and latinos lived in largely impoverished communities. Although there were more white people living in poverty, the percentage of people of color living in poverty was nearly three times that of whites. The living conditions of people of color living in poor urban communities continued to diminish and the neighborhoods became increasingly diminished as more struggled.

The war on drugs disproportionately affected minority communities, with unequal enforcement of the law leading to large numbers of African Americans behind bars for relatively trivial crimes. As an example, Crack first made an impact in New York in 1985, striking poor urban neighborhoods. As more and more people became addicted to crack the business of drug dealing became more profitable and, therefore, more competitive. America saw a steep incline of drug crimes and gang related violence. In 1987 the death toll of gang related violence was at 387 in Los Angeles alone. Many of the victims were innocent bystanders. This increase in violence caused swift action. Many states enacted laws that gave mandatory prison sentences for crack possession. These laws made the punishment of holding 1 gram of crack the equivalent to having 100 grams of cocaine, the drug of choice for higher income whites. These laws are still considered some of the most blatantly racist in recent history. These laws, along with other crackdowns on people of color, caused a disproportion of black and latino convictions compared to people who were white. By 2000, young black men were more likely to have been arrested than to have graduated from college. Many see this as an obvious way to hold young black people down and keep them in impoverished, and even homeless, states.

As the Sun Belt as a whole grew, it accompanied a nationwide trend of migration out of cities and into suburbs. This migration was easier to accomplish with more accessible transportation brought by cars. The service sector of the economy grew along with this shift, at the expense of the shrinking manufacturing industry. Cities in the northern and midwestern "Rust Belt" were left with smaller populations and thus smaller tax bases, and large, poverty-stricken minorities; bankruptcy loomed for many northern cities. Additionally, old downtown areas of cities exhibited gentrification, a phenomenon in which affluent, young middle class citizens move into restored urban areas. This displaced the lower class and poor and contributed to one of the biggest problems of the mid-80s-- homelessness.

Conservative Movements
Neoconservatism The neoconservative movement grew in the 1960s & 1970s as a reaction to the growing antiwar counter-culture & liberal social programs like the Great Society. Neoconservatism advocated a very hawkish, interventionist foreign policy, and was less committed to cutting governmental spending than mainstream conservatism was. While the Reagan administration was the first to show hints of neoconservatism, the movement would not be in the political mainstream until the rise of think tanks like the American Enterprise Institute and the Project for the New American Century in the mid and late 90s. The culmination of this movement was the election of George W. Bush in 2000.

The Religious Right Evangelical Christians constitute the main constituency of what is often referred to as the “religious right.” Like neo-conservatism, evangelical Christianity (often referring to themselves as “born-again”) grew in the 1960s & 1970s. Organization such as the Moral Majority, founded in 1979 by televangelist Rev. Jerry Falwell, stressed “family values.”

Conservative Coalition Sharing membership and views on a variety of issues, neoconservatives and the religious right began to join forces in the late 1970s to form a conservative political coalition. The political platform of this coalition included moral opposition to drug use, pornography, and abortion, as well as opposition to the expensive liberal social programs of the 1960s and 1970s. The coalition also favored free-enterprise and foreign policy backed by a strong military.

The new coalition proved to be politically powerful, fueling a conservative victory in the national elections of 1980 when Republicans, supported by neoconservatives and the religious right, earned a majority in the U.S. Senate, while Ronald Reagan won in a landslide over Jimmy Carter in the presidential race. Specifically, California’s “Christian Voice” was influential in the 1980 election, swaying the vote in the South & the Midwest. The Rev. Jerry Falwell’s Moral Majority registered approximately 3 million voters from 1979 to 1980.

African Americans in Politics
By the 80s, African Americans saw a level of political empowerment and representation unseen during the course of the country's history. Mostly running as Democrats, the 80s saw the rise of many major black political players. Shirley Chisholm, a Brooklyn native, was elected to Congress in 1968, representing New York's 12th district. She was one of the founding members of the powerful Congressional Black Caucus, which would eventually constitute a large chunk of the Democratic caucus itself. Today, the powerful group boasts 43 members, all Democrats. Eventually Chisholm would be the first African American and first woman to make a serious (though unsuccessful) bid for the Presidency, but it would not be until Obama that one would get on the ticket in the general election.

In 1984, civil rights leader Jesse Jackson decided to make a bid for the Democratic nomination for the presidency and exceeded expectations, winning five southern primaries. Although he lost the nomination to Vice President Walter Mondale, Jackson was seen as a more credible candidate for the 1988 election. This proved to be an accurate prediction, with he and eventual nominee Michael Dukakis running neck and neck for the nomination. Briefly, Jackson was considered the frontrunner. Despite his loss, Jackson would remain politically active and would continue to push for progressive reform and civil rights for many minority groups, notably including homosexuals.

Other black politicians were appointed to positions of power as well. In 1967 President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Thurgood Marshall to the supreme court. Marshall became the first African American to serve on the bench, and he did not retire until 1991. Clarence Thomas became the second black justice when he replaced Marshall that same year. As a general in the army, Colin Powell was appointed to the position of National Security Advisor, and was eventually elevated to the powerful position of Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. As a civilian, Colin Powell was appointed to the position of Secretary of State by George W. Bush in 2001. This was the first time a black person had been appointed Secretary of State and was the highest ranking position that any African American had held before.

Technology
In 1984 Motorola introduced the first mobile phone, the DynaTac to limited markets.

NASA launched their first space shuttle in 1981, their first reusable spacecraft.

"A computer on every desk"
This era saw the rise of the personal computer in common business use.

title: US History/Ford Carter Reagan


text:
Cookbook:Tacos

| Meat Recipes | Mexican Cuisine | Tex-Mex Cuisine

A taco is a traditional Mexican food consisting of a small hand-sized corn- or wheat-based tortilla topped with a filling.

Base ingredients

 * Ground, finely sliced, or chopped beef
 * Corn tortillas or ready-made taco shells
 * 1–4 tsp per pound (450 g) of beef of cumin
 * Chili powder, to taste

Optional ingredients

 * Black olives
 * Shredded mild cheddar cheese, if desired
 * Fresh tomatoes
 * Chopped cilantro
 * Fresh spinach, shredded or diced
 * Mushrooms
 * Salsa, or hot sauce, as hot as you would like
 * Sour cream
 * Chopped lettuce or shredded cabbage
 * Chopped tomato
 * Chopped onion

Procedure

 * 1) If you would like to have 'build-your-own' tacos, dice the optional ingredients your desire as needed and place in separate bowls for use on the table.
 * 2) Place the beef in a wide pan on a large burner. Ground beef will need to be broken up as it cooks; chopped or sliced beef needs to be stir-fried and may require oil. When using high-fat ground beef, you may wish to drain and very, very lightly rinse the beef in a colander, or add water to float the fat, cool to solidify the fat, remove the fat, drain the water, and reheat. If you are using ground beef, which is quite alright, also see the Taco Meat recipe.
 * 3) Add lots of cumin to the beef. Cumin is the magic ingredient that makes a taco taste like a taco. You may also add a bit of salt, a bit of chili powder and/or diced onion.
 * 4) Prepare the outside covering:
 * 5) * Pre-made shells can be reheated in the microwave as the package directs.
 * 6) * Plain corn tortillas can be used for soft tacos, although, for soft tacos, either a double layer of corn tortillas or a single layer of flour tortilla works best. The tortillas should be microwaved, covered, in 15+ second stages, flipping between stages, until warm, and kept covered and warm prior to use.
 * 7) * You could make your own hard taco shells from corn tortillas, but rest very well assured that soft corn tortilla tacos are absolutely the most traditional. If you need hard shells and can not find them pre-made, you may, with great effort and use of your time, use a deep-fat process, going one at a time and using a large spoon to form the shells into the normal U shape. Pan frying in ¼ inch to ½ inch of oil will also work; be sure not to let the tortillas stiffen prior to being bent into the U shape you desire.
 * 8) Place hot beef into a hard shell or down the middle of a warm soft tortilla (two for corn). A very simple, and quite authentic, taco would be to then add a sprinkling of finely diced onion and cilantro into the inside of the taco, fold the tortilla over (if soft) and serve with lime quarters for squeezing into the taco. See Tacos de Bistec.
 * 9) You may also continue on to place cheese onto the beef. The heat of the beef should slightly melt the cheese. You may wish to microwave the taco a bit, especially if the cheese is cold or if you are using low-fat cheese.
 * 10) Add other toppings as the cook desires.
 * 11) Serve the tacos with a small or large assortment of items that people can add. Traditionally, in a restaurant, this would amount to only pico de gallo or a hot sauce. However, 'build-your-own' tacos with a good assortment of items to add can add a bit of fun to a gathering or family dinner.

title: Cookbook:Tacos


text: School of Mathematics

title: School of Mathematics


text:
Movie Making Manual/PromoteMMM

= The Movie Making Manual =

The Movie Making Manual is a practical guide to filmmaking taking the form of a wikibook.

Wikibooks are online books which are editable by anyone. Anyone can update or change any page - this quickly produces accurate and detailed information. The concept of freely editable online information has been proven by the phenomenal success of the Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org) which has now overtaken Encyclopedia Britannica in number of entries, is far more up-to-date and in many cases is more accurate.

The more contributors a project has the greater the breadth and depth of the information on offer. We would like to invite you to come along and be an editor of/contributor to the Movie Making Manual.

Being an Editor entails doing one or more of the following:

 * Contributing content
 * Promoting the concept
 * Telling everyone you know about it both online and offline
 * Encouraging others to contribute to the project
 * Checking submitted postings
 * Dealing with vandalism (reverting pages)

Free as in Freedom
The books will be released under an open content license that means that they are free forever. No one can keep you from using these materials, modifying them or distributing them. Also, the license guarantees that any works that are derived from these materials will be similarly free to modify and distribute, forever.

Free as in Money
Should filmmakers really spend $50 or more for a filmmaking book when they can get the same information for free? These texts are owned by the community and the world, not an individual or company.

Academia Meets the Real World
Our filmmaking book is started by filmmakers and is continually augmented by working filmmakers. These are no ex-filmmakers seeking additional income, these are the people at the coal face.

Up-to-the-minute Changes
Readers will never have to wait months or years for another edition to come out that incorporates the latest changes in the field. The very minute a discovery or advancement is made the text can be updated to reflect that change. With the radical pace of change in the digital film era this is a good thing.

Built-in Feedback
Every module in the books has its own associated talk page where filmmakers can ask each other questions and help each other with the material.

Global Access
Filmmakers from around the world who have access to the Web can find quality educational information, regardless of financial status, local/regional educational restrictions, or proximity to an educational institution.

title: Movie Making Manual/PromoteMMM


text:
Movie Making Manual/Online Resources

=General film websites=

Film Academy Specialises in Film Business

East End Film Society A London filmmaking club.

The New Black UK Black Film Distribution & Exhibition Network

Talentcircle.co.uk World's leading resource and film community with more than 40,000 members working in independent film.

UKfilm.org Advice, Discussion, News, Comment and Events Calendar for the UK film maker

The Clapperboard A guide to independent film making.

Film Academy TV Online Movie Channel

PDInfo.com Has information on music and songs in the public domain.

BBC Film Network Streaming shorts, info on filmmaking, articles etc

Channel4 Film

Mandy.com Film and TV production directory.

UKscreen.com Film makers, actors and Musician directory. There are over 30000 members, mainly from the UK. Also broadcast short films and music.

The New Producers Alliance This is a UK-based organisation.

Raindance The UK response to Sundance has become a film festival, a centre for film courses and a resource for filmmakers.

Making the Movie Blog Contains a diary of independent feature film "Rain in the Mountains" plus helpful movie-making tips and reviews of movie-making websites.

Rain in the Mountains Contains the post-production diary of the independent feature film "Rain in the Mountains."

SimplyScripts Database of movie scripts and screenplays to popular, mainstream movies. Resource for screenwriters.

Skillset Film A one stop shop for all information on getting in and getting on in film careers.

Trigger Street Trigger Street is a collection of scripts and shorts online. Members rate each other's films and scripts and give one another feedback. Set up by Kevin Spacey.

Wikiversity's film department has a free class on basic filmmaking. Though still under construction, lessons are now available for script formatting and creating thumbnail storyboards for the short movie called Seduced by the Dark Side!.

Wikiversity' music department has a free class in film scoring for non-musicians (such as filmmakers.)

=Blogs (news, views & film making techniques)=

 * blog page for The Clapperboard
 * http://cinematech.blogspot.com/
 * http://www.hdforindies.com
 * http://www.selfreliantfilm.com
 * CINEMA news from india

=Forums and mailing lists=

The Cinematography Mailing List (aka CML) An excellent mailing list for discussing all-things-cinematography. Frequented by high-end DPs. Very high quality responses.

UKfilm.org Advice, Discussion, News, Comment and Events Calendar for the UK film maker

Cinematography.com Another great cinematography forum.

DVinfo.net

2-Pop

DVXuser

Creative Cow A fantastic forum. There's a section for every software title you can think of and many other issues too (e.g. "Adobe After Effects", "HDV" etc). Packed with very knowledgable people. If you're having a software problem then check here first.

Movie Making Manual Section on Watching Films on the Internet

This is the weekly trials and tribulations of a filmmaker who took the plunge and shot a $50K dollar short film in an attempt to get into the Hollywood game. It's very entertaining, but gives you a great insight into what it means to be a filmmaker.

=VFX links=

http://www.vfxblog.com/

http://www.fxguide.com/

http://www.vfxtalk.com/forum/

FXguide.com podcast RSS feed

http://www.vfxpodcast.com/ (XML)

http://www.highend3d.com/

http://www.cgsociety.org/

=Film-related podcasts=

For film-makers
Creative Cow Useful creative tech news. In depth interviews.

Filmmaking Central Podcast from an independent filmmaker, good on the filmmaking process itself.

KCRW's The Business US-centric high-quality podcast about the movie industry.

KCRW's The Treatment Interesting discussions with screenwriters

Creative Screenwriting Magazine

Film Review podcasts
Mark Kermode's film reviews Reviews current releases

DVD Weekly podcast Reviews current DVDs and has a 'featured DVD of the week' which they review in more depth

Reel Review Radio Reviews classic films including M, Rear Window, etc. Made by a film buff.

/Training /Tools and equipment

title: Movie Making Manual/Online Resources


text:
Catalan/Introducció

Welcome!
Welcome to the WikiBooks Catalan course.

Method
This book presents simple bilingual texts with Catalan on the left, English on the right. Beneath the Catalan text is a phonetic transcription of the words with the stressed syllable in bold. A literal translation of the English can be found in parenthesis (like this) where the Catalan does not map well to English. You will sometimes see superscript numbers like this1 - these are notes that can be found just below the bilingual text. Example below:

NOTES

1: ets means you are when speaking informally to peers and people younger than you.

This book focuses on learning by input rather than learning by rote. This means, in practice:
 * Lessons are short.
 * Chunks of language, rather than individual words, are the focus.
 * Verb conjugation is slowly and unevenly exposed.
 * Explicit grammar is kept to a minimum except when it clarifies.

How to Use This Book

 * 1) Aim for one lesson at day.
 * 2) If audio is available, you should listen to the dialogue a few times without reading along to see how much you understand. At first, this will likely be zero, but you can get a sense for the rhythm of the language. Later, you will notice words that you don't understand. This is fine.
 * 3) Listen and read the Catalan text at the same time. Catalan has silent letters, usually at the end of a word. See if you notice them, then check against the phonetic transcription.
 * 4) When you find a word you don't know, make a guess and then check the English translation to see if you were right.
 * 5) Practice reading the lines of text, one at a time, after the speaker. Notice intonation differences for questions, or when the speaker pauses (or doesn't).
 * 6) Finally, try the translation exercises. The answers are found on the same page.

Other things to try:
 * Oral change up: If the sentence reads "I am from Barcelona", try changing it, orally to "Are you from Barcelona?".
 * Make flashcards for words that you struggle with.
 * The next day1, listen to the audio recording and transcribe it. Check your transcription against the Catalan text.
 * Copy the English text to a notebook. The next day, attempt to translate it into Catalan. Check your translation.

1: Spacing out your learning is more effective than doing it all in the same day. This is called recall practice.

More Resources
The Catalan language is spoken by approximately 12 million people. For more information see:

For learning resources on the internet see:

 * Enciclopèdia.cat, el teu portal del coneixement en llengua catalana. (Your web portal to the Catalan language knowledge)
 * Gran diccionari de la llengua catalana
 * English-Catalan dictionary [Dictionary stats (last updated 20th January 2014)
 * Catalan verb conjugations ,
 * Consorsi per a la normalització lingüística

title: Catalan/Introducció


text:
Finnish/Introduction

^^Contents^^ | Introduction | Alphabet>>

Overview
Finnish (suomi in Finnish) is a language belonging to the Finnic branch of the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic language family. It is not an Indo-European language. Its closest linguistic relatives are the Estonian, Karelian, and Sámi languages. It is also somewhat distantly related to Hungarian and several minor languages spoken in northern Russia.

Altogether about six million people speak Finnish. It is spoken in Finland as an official language, as a minority language in Sweden (mainly in Northern Sweden and Stockholm), in the Russian Federation (in the Republic of Karelia and the province of Leningrad), in northern Norway (Finnmark) and in Finnish immigrant communities in the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada.

Language structure
The language is structured mostly in the fashion of Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) like in English, but it also might go Object-Subject-Verb, Verb-Subject-Object or Object-Verb-Subject, as the word order is very flexible in Finnish. However its little quirks like the fashion of the prepositions (in Finnish, they are actually postpositions), vowel harmony and the absence of articles and sometimes pronouns, make it seem like a mishmash of consonants and vowels. For example the phrase “I am in the car” changes to “(I) am car|in”, “olen autossa”.

Differences between spoken and written Finnish
There is a significant difference between formal written Finnish and colloquial spoken Finnish. Most Finns, especially the younger generation, speak the language in an informal way, and while the differences between colloquial Finnish and formal Finnish aren't enormous, it can be difficult to develop a natural conversational style purely based on literary study. In practice, you will be understood without difficulty, but one should not expect the conversation of native speakers to match the precise grammatical fashion in which the language is taught. See also the slang and accents of Finnish.

Borrowed words
Finnish, like most languages, has "borrowed" words from other languages. However, many have been altered in the process of nativization to the extent that they may not even be recognizable. Finnish grammar does not allow words to end in any consonants other than a single 's', 'n', 't', 'l' or 'r', so in borrowing, a vowel is often added, e.g. vokaali. In addition, if the preceding consonant is geminate, it is borrowed as such, e.g. konsonantti.

Also, Finnish does not differentiate voiced-unvoiced pairs like 'b' and 'p', or 'g' and 'k', although newer loans preserve the spelling, if not the pronunciation. Foreign spelling idiosyncrasies such as the letter 'c' are rarely used. Consonant clusters are usually removed in older loans. For example, strand → ranta. Phonemic long vowels may be added, e.g. laki < lag (Swedish, cf. English "law"), but laaki < slag (Swedish, cf. English "slay").

Examples:

 * baari, pubi – bar, pub
 * bussi – bus (the proper word is linja-auto)
 * dieetti – diet
 * elefantti – elephant (though the more Finnish, but equally used word is norsu)
 * euro – euro (currency used in Finland)
 * pankki – bank
 * paperi – paper
 * posti – post office
 * radio – radio
 * sekki (or shekki) – cheque
 * shampoo (or sampoo) – shampoo
 * tee – tea
 * televisio – television
 * turisti – tourist (although turisti is an international word, the more local word being matkailija)

False friends
Some of the false friends can be similar to Swedish, an example is appelsiini that is similar to the Norwegian and Swedish appelsin meaning orange (think of it as an apple from China). There aren't many false friends in Finnish, but beware, because there are a few!

 * ale – sale, not "ale"
 * appelsiini – orange, not "apple"
 * dokumentti – both documentary and document
 * greippi – grapefruit, not "grape"
 * kinkkinen – tricky, not "kinky"
 * kudos - tissue (as in muscle tissue), not "kudos"
 * he – they, not "he"
 * me – we, not "me"
 * motoristi – motocyclist, not "motorist"
 * viina – liquor, not "wine"
 * likööri - liqueur, not "liquor"

Exercise Number One
Figure out what these Finnish words are in English. You will find the answers at the back of the book.

 * 1) historia
 * 2) projekti
 * 3) lista
 * 4) faksi
 * 5) galleria
 * 6) linkki
 * 7) skandaali
 * 8) kopio
 * 9) idiootti
 * 10) klassikko

Exercise Number Two
These are more difficult. Many of them are loans from languages other than English but they still bear some similarity to their English translations.

 * 1) lamppu
 * 2) lasi
 * 3) pommi
 * 4) tikku
 * 5) tuhat
 * 6) naula
 * 7) mies
 * 8) kortti
 * 9) valkoinen
 * 10) torstai

title: Finnish/Introduction


text:
Finnish

This book is an introductory beginners course in the Finnish Language.

Being developed alongside this book are a Grammar Reference Book and a Guide to Modern Finnish which readers may find useful.

For very practical reasons, these other books cannot be merged with this basic introductory course book (see Discussion Page for further information).

Introduction

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Alphabet

Grammar

 * Grammar-Vowel harmony
 * Grammar-Suffixes
 * Grammar-Cases
 * Grammar-Verbs
 * Grammar-Conditional

Some phrases

 * Time
 * Basic greetings
 * Names and nationalities

Dialogues

 * Dialogues with audio read by native speakers
 * Dialogue 1: kohtaaminen metroasemalla / encounter on a metro station

Answers to exercises

 * Answers to exercises

About the book

 * Cover page
 * Appendix A: Common phrases

Suomen kieli käyttöön Finés Enseignement du finnois פינית Fiński/Okładka Suomen kieli käyttöön Äidinkieli ภาษาฟินแลนด์ Мова людства/Фінська

title: Finnish


text:
Cookbook:Strudel

| Desserts | German Cuisine

This version of strudel uses filo pastry to create the thin sheets. Serve warm with ice cream.

Ingredients

 * 4 fresh apples, preferably red
 * ½ tsp ground cinnamon
 * 2 tbsp white sugar
 * ½ cup melted butter
 * Filo pastry sheets

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 200°C.
 * 2) Peel, core, and cube apples.
 * 3) Combine apples, cinnamon, and sugar. Mix well.
 * 4) Generously brush filo pastry sheets with butter.
 * 5) Spread apple mixture over pastry sheet.
 * 6) Alternate with two layers of filo pastry for every layer of apple mixture.
 * 7) Brush with melted butter.
 * 8) Bake for 30 minutes or until pastry is golden brown.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For more tartness, substitute for 3 red apples and 1 green apple.

title: Cookbook:Strudel