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User:Rs2~enwikibooks/Matlab

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Preface
2004, March 22nd

For better or for worse, Matlab has become part of modern engineering. For those who work with Matlab regularly, few things are as frustrating as knowing that Matlab can solve one's problem, but not knowing how. For this reason, I wanted to start a Matlab Wiki. Every time I need to figure out how to do something by myself or give up and e-mail Mathworks support, I have the desire to prevent others from repeating the process. A few dozen people collaborating on a Wiki could help each other a great deal. A few hundred people collaborating could write the definitive Matlab reference. Feel free to criticize me as wickedly as you like, just make sure that the effect of your edits are increases in the amount of information or in its clarity. My plan is to write an entry a day, starting with things that are undocumented or poorly documented on the internet. Hopefully you will join in.

--Rs2 05:41, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm just starting out with this whole Wikibooks thing, and I'd like to contribute where I can. Hopefully soon I can contribute to the Matlab book-to-be, but until I dust off my cobwebs, I'm just going to start with some minor copy editing, such as changing all the interwiki links to the short form that doesn't generate the off-site image. Scott B

Introduction
From Wikipedia: (all links to Wikipedia) MATLAB is a computer program by MathWorks which allows one to easily manipulate matrices, plot functions and data, and implement algorithms in its own internal programming language. It runs on Windows, MacOS, Linux, and Unix and is widely used in the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis. The language was invented by Cleve Moler in the late 1970s.

Free software alternatives to MATLAB include GNU Octave and Scilab, which have an identical (or at least very similar) syntax. Another free alternative is Python in combination with libraries like Numeric Python and SciPy.

Controls
Gone are the days when engineers used drafting boards and pencils. In today's world, high speed computing replaces hand-drawn Bode, Nyquist, root locus, and Nichols plots as well as impulse and step responses with numerically generated ones.

title: User:Rs2~enwikibooks/Matlab


text:
William Shakespeare's Works/Tragedies/Othello/Iago

The name Iago is a Spanish name, in English the name is James. When England was under attack by Spain the King was King Iago so to the British the name had a bad connotation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Robotics

Robotics brings together several very different engineering areas and skills. There is metalworking for the body. There is mechanics for mounting the wheels on the axles, connecting them to the motors and keeping the body in balance. You need electronics to power the motors and connect the sensors to the controllers. At last you need the software to understand the sensors and drive the robot around.

This book tries to cover all the key areas of robotics as a hobby. When possible examples from industrial robots will be addressed too.

You'll notice very few "exact" values in these texts. Instead, vague terms like "small", "heavy" and "light" will be used. This is because most of the time you'll have a lot of freedom in picking these values, and all robot projects are unique in available materials.

 * /Introduction/
 * /Contributors/

Design Basics
Note to potential contributors: this section could be used to discuss the basics of robot design/construction.
 * 1) What you should know
 * 2) Physical Design
 * 3) Design software
 * 4) Tools and Equipment
 * 5) Electronic Components
 * 6) Mechanical Components
 * 7) Building materials
 * 8) Basic Programming

Physical Construction
This section could be used to discuss various means through which robots are constructed.
 * 1) The Platform
 * 2) Construction Techniques
 * 3) Resourcefulness

Robot control
This section could be used to discuss the control method and control algorithm introduces and analyzes the robot, including the position control, trajectory control, force control, torque control, compliance control, hybrid force / position control, decomposition motion control, variable structure control, adaptive control and hierarchical control, fuzzy control, learning control, neural control and evolutionary control, intelligent control.
 * 1) The basic principles of robot control
 * 2) Basic control principles
 * 3) Servo control system
 * 4) Position control robot
 * 5) DC drive system modeling
 * 6) The basic structure of the position control
 * 7) Single joint position controller
 * 8) Multi-joint position controller
 * 9) Compliant control robot
 * 10) The basic concept of supple movement
 * 11) Active impedance control
 * 12) Hybrid force and position control
 * 13) Displacement and force supple movements hybrid control
 * 14) Decomposition of movement of the robot control
 * 15) Motion control principle decomposition
 * 16) Decomposition velocity control
 * 17) Decomposition motion acceleration control
 * 18) Decomposition motility control
 * 19) Variable structure control of robot
 * 20) The basic principle of variable structure control
 * 21) Sliding Mode Control Robot
 * 22) Robot mode variable structure control sample
 * 23) Adaptive control robot
 * 24) State of the model control system and the main structure
 * 25) Robot model reference adaptive controller
 * 26) Robot self-tuning adaptive controller
 * 27) Linear perturbation adaptive robot controller
 * 28) Intelligent robot control
 * 29) The basic concept of intelligent control
 * 30) Classification of intelligent control system
 * 31) Hierarchical intelligent robot assembly system
 * 32) Adaptive Fuzzy Control Robot
 * 33) Multi-fingered hand neural control
 * 34) The evolution of the mobile robot autonomous navigation control

Components
This section could be used to discuss components used in robotics or the making of robots.
 * 1) Power Sources
 * 2) Actuation Devices
 * 3) Motors
 * 4) Stepper Motors
 * 5) Shape Memory Alloys
 * 6) Air muscle
 * 7) Linear Electromagnetic
 * 8) Piezoelectric Actuators
 * 9) Pneumatics/Hydraulics
 * 10) Miniature internal combustion engines
 * 11) Grippers
 * 12) Audio
 * 13) Video

Computer Control
This section could be used to discuss the things involved with controlling robots via computers.
 * 1) Control Architectures
 * 2) Reactive Systems
 * 3) Sense-Plan-Act
 * 4) Brooks' Subsumption Architecture ( Subsumption architecture )
 * 5) Hybrid Systems
 * 6) Swarm Robotics
 * 7) The Interface
 * 8) Personal Computers
 * 9) Single Board Computers and multichip modules
 * 10) Microcontrollers
 * 11) Remote Control
 * 12) Networks

Sensors
Sensors that a robot uses generally fall into three different categories:

 * 1) Environment sensors tell the robot what is happening around it
 * 2) Thermal Sensors
 * 3) Pressure Sensors
 * 4)  Ranging Sensors
 * 5) Touch Sensors
 * 6) Feedback sensors tell the robot what it is actually doing, and
 * 7) Communication sensors allow a human or computer to provide a robot other information.

Sensors aren't perfect. When you use a sensor on your robot there will be a lot of times where the sensors acts funny. It could miss an obstacle, or see one where none is. Key to successfully using sensors is knowing how they function and what they really measure.
 * Real World Sensors
 * Digital image Acquisition

Navigation

 * 1) Navigation
 * 2) Localization
 * 3) Collision Avoidance
 * 4) Exploration
 * 5) Mapping
 * 6) Trajectory Planning

Exotic Robots
This section could be used to cover "special" robots.
 * 1) Special Robot brains
 * 2) BEAM
 * 3) Cooperating Robots
 * 4) Hazardous Environment Robots
 * 5) /Types of Robots/
 * 6) Contest Robot
 * 7) Entertainment Robot
 * 8) Arms
 * 9) Wheeled
 * 10) Tracked
 * 11) Walkers (with legs)
 * 12) Modular and fractal Robots
 * 13) The LEGO World
 * 14) LEGO Robots
 * 15) Introduction to the  RCX
 * 16) Programming the RCX

Resources

 * /Resources/
 * Papers on various robot related subjects

title: Robotics


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XML - Managing Data Exchange/Introduction/Answers

Exercise 1
Use NetBeans to create a markup file describing a restaurant. The markup should identify the name and address of the restaurant and the type of food or foods in which it specializes.

Answer
Submitted by Princess Anne Rayborn

Exercise 2
Let's assume we want to create a personnel file for a smaller company. What kind of data do we have? Analyse the data from following table. Our goal is to transform it into a markup file. Name of the company: 'Exercises inc.'

Answer
Submitted by Stefan Meyer (Team 1)


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XML - Managing Data Exchange/The one-to-many relationship/Answers

Chapter
To return to the chapter, follow this link: One-to-many relationship

Exercises
To view the exercises, follow this link: exercises

Answer - Exercise 1
XML schema:

XML document:

Answer - Exercise 2
XML schema:

XML document:

Answer - Exercise 3
XML schema:

Exercises
To view the exercises, follow this link: exercises


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XML - Managing Data Exchange/The one-to-one relationship/Answers

Exercise 1

 * 1) Create an XML schema to describe the most popular restaurant in a city. Use either the all order indicator or the choice order indicator in your schema. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * 2) Using the schema, create an XML document and populate it with data for one city that has a most popular restaurant as well as two or more other restaurants. Check that it is well-formed and valid.
 * 3) Write an XML style sheet to display the most popular restaurants sorted by name if the restaurant is located in a city with population > 5,000.

Exercise 2

 * 1) Create and XML schema to represent the most popular professors at a university. Include first name, last name, department, and years teaching.
 * 2) Using the XML schema, create and XML document and populate it with data about a university and its most popular professor. Use at least three universities and two professors at each university.
 * 3) Write and XML style sheet to display the most popular professors at each school sorted by the professor names.


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GCSE Science/Parallel and series circuits answers

Answers to practice questions on series circuits

 * Q1)Let R1 = 2Ω, R2= 3Ω, and V=5V what is the voltage across R1 and R2 ?
 * The total resistance =5Ω
 * So the current is = 1A
 * Apply Ohm's law to each resistor in turn gives:
 * V1 = 2V
 * V2 = 3V

 * Q2)Let R1 = 3Ω, R2= 3Ω, and V=6V what is the voltage across R1 and R2 ?
 * The total resistance is 6V
 * The current is therefore 1A
 * V1 = 3V
 * V2 = 3V

 * Q3)Let R1 = 2Ω, V=5V  and I= 1A what is the value of resistor R2 ?
 * The total resistance = V/I
 * =5/1
 * = 5Ω

So R2 = 3Ω

Answers to Questions on Parallel Circuits

 * Q4)You disconnect one of the bulbs, does the other stay lit?

Yes it does.

 * Q5)You reconnect the disconnected bulb, does the other dim or brighten?

Ideally it should not make any difference. The brightness of the lit bulb should remain the same. (In practice the bulb will probably dim a tiny bit because of the internal resistance of the battery, but that's more advanced than this course)

 * Q6)Would it be reasonable to say "each branch of the circuit behaves as if the other branch weren't there" ?

It certainly would.

 * Q7) Calculate the resistance of the above pair of resistors if they had been in series rather than parallel.

R1 + R2 = 1 + 1 = 2 Ω
 * Q8) A parallel circuit has two resistors, one is 2 Ω the other is 3Ω what is the total resistance of the circuit?

Let the Voltage be V.

From Ohm's Law
 * current I1 = V/2 A
 * current I2 = V/3 A

So the total Current I = V/2+V/3
 * = V(1/2 +1/3)
 * = V (5/6)

Now we Apply Ohm's Law to the circuit again only this time using the total current so that we know what the total resistance is-

R = V/I
 * = V/{V(5/6)}
 * = 1/(5/6)         We cancel the V's
 * = 6/5             To divide by a fraction, turn it upside down and multiply

 * Q9) Three resistors are in parallel (three separate branches) their resistances are 2Ω,2Ω and 3 Ω what is the resistance of the circuit?

Rather than going through the whole procedure for Q8 again we note that -

1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 * = 1/2 + 1/2 + 1/3
 * = 4/3

So R = 3/4 Ω


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User:Rs2~enwikibooks/MatlabCommands

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title: User:Rs2~enwikibooks/MatlabCommands


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XML - Managing Data Exchange/Namespace

Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will:
 * be able to understand what XML Namespace is and its purpose
 * be able to recognize XML Namespace structure and what each part is doing
 * be able to think of organizations in which Namespace would be necessary

What is Namespace?
An XML namespace is a collection of names that are identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) reference, which are used in XML documents as element types and attribute names. URIs were used simply because they are a well-known system for creating unique identifiers. Namespaces consist of several parts including local names, namespace URIs, prefixes and declarations. The combination of a local name and a namespace is called a universal name. You might find it easier to think of a namespace as a dictionary that is a source of definitions for items that you use within an XML document.

All schemas include the namespace http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance. You can think of this as the master dictionary to which all schemas must refer because it defines the fundamental items of an XML schema. The namespace's address looks like a URL, but in XML we use the broader term Uniform Resource Identifier (URI).

Because a document can refer to multiple namespace, we need a convenient short form for referencing the namespace. One of the common forms used is xsd as illustrated in the following.

xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"

The xlmns informs XML that you are referencing a name space, and the xsd indicates this is the short form of the namespace.

For example, you might use the following line of code in an XML schema

The previous line of code states that the definition of element name and string are found in "http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"

Namespace enables you to use elements described in multiple schemas within your XML document, so the short form of a namespace's URI is useful for identifying the namespace to which you are referring.

History
Namespace in XML was a new W3C recommendation in January, 1999. Namespace was created to be a pretty simple method to distinguish names used in XML documents. The main purpose of Namespace is to provide programmers a method for which to grab elements and attributes that they want, leaving behind other tags that they do not need. These programmer-friendly names will be unique across the Internet. The XML namespaces recommendation does not define anything except a two-part naming system for element types and attributes.

For additional information regarding the W3C recommendation, follow this link: http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/.

When would you use Namespace?
It would mainly be used to avoid naming conflicts. If you don’t have any duplicate elements or attributes in the XML that you use, namespaces are not necessary. It is however beneficial if you have duplicate elements or attributes. It basically makes two part structures that make it unique. Instead of just defining element A, for example, you have to define element A with some other type of identifier. That is where the URI comes into play. The URI in combination with the element or attribute creates your namespace and it is then a universal name.

Namespace Structure
XML namespaces differ from the "namespaces" conventionally used in computing disciplines in that the XML version has internal structure and is not, mathematically speaking, a set.

This is an example of 2 Namespace declarations:

The first declaration associates the addr prefix with the “www.example.com/addresses” URI. The second declaration defines www.example.com/files as the default namespace. If there is not a prefix defined for that element, a default namespace is applied. This default namespace is applied to all elements without a prefix. Please note, however, that default namespaces do not apply directly to attributes.

How Does It Work?
When specifying a universal name in an XML document, you use an abbreviation based on an optional prefix that's attached to the local name. This abbreviation is called the qualified name or qname. To declare an XML namespace, you use an attribute whose name has the form: xmlns:prefix These attributes are often called xmlns attributes and their value is the name of the XML namespace being declared. This is a Uniform Resource Identifier. The first form of the attribute (xmlns:prefix) declares a prefix to be associated with the XML namespace. The second form (xmlns) declares that the specified namespace is the default XML namespace.

Namespace Best Practices

 * Try to limit the number of Namespaces to about 5 per document. More than five namespaces in a document gets unwieldy.
 * Make distinctions in XML namespaces only when there are truly distinctions between the things being named.
 * Try to stick to documents in namespace normal form wherever possible because they are simplest to read and to process.
 * Avoid overriding namespaces frequently because it can cause confusion in your documents.

Example of Namespace Use
Let’s say we are going to be pulling address values from two different sources and address from one source pulls in a mailing address while from the other source, it pulls in a computer IP address. We’ll need to create a Namespace so that we can distinguish the two addresses elements.

Postal Address XML document 100 Elm St., Apt#1

IP Address XML document 172.13.5.7

How do we distinguish these Address elements in the case that they need to be combined into the same document? We would assign each address name to a namespace. Therefore, it becomes defined in two parts, the address element and the XML namespace. Every time the element Address comes up, it will have to look at two things instead of one for definition, but this look up only has to be performed one time because the combination is universally unique.

In this instance, we could create Namespaces for the address element:

The first declaration associates the prefix 'addr' with the URI, "www.example.com/postal_addresses and the second declaration sets "www.example.com/ip_addresses" as the default namespace. So, where a the prefix 'addr' is used, it will pull the postal address and for others, it will pull the IP address.

Defining the location of an XML schema
Assume you have created a schema, example.xsd, that is located in the same directory as your XML document, example.xml. In the XML document you will indicate the location of the schema with the following code.

Of course, if example.xsd is stored somewhere other than the same directory as example.xml, you specify the full path.

Potential Problems with Namespace

 * Different XML technologies are going to process namespaces differently. Some will see namespace declarations as such and some will just see them as attributes.
 * Namespace is a compromise solution that doesn't meet the needs of all users.
 * XML namespaces seem simple on their face, but they can cause real confusion and increased complexity if they are not handled or managed correctly. To manage Namespaces correctly, you must understand thoroughly the meaning, rules, and implications of the various concepts that make up the XML namespaces mechanism and stick consistently to simple conventions.
 * As mentioned in Best Practices, using more than 5 namespaces can get unwieldy. So, how do large organizations tackle this design difficulty if there is a need for many namespaces? The basic source of this problem is that naming convention for most information architecture is fundamental, but with XML, it was patched together as an afterthought. Namespaces have been very difficult to incorporate smoothly.

Programmation XML/Espace de nom

title: XML - Managing Data Exchange/Namespace


text:
File:Clausiusthm Engineering Thermodynamics.png

Clausius Theorem


text:
Talk:Botany/Microbes

I started adding to this page, but it may not be totally in line with the how the chapter was planned initially:

Chapter 1 begins like this (now): Botany is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of plants. Traditionally, botanists studied all organisms that were not generally regarded as animal. However, advances in our knowledge about the myriad forms of life, especially microbes (viruses and bacteria), have led to spinning off from Botany the specialized field called Microbiology. Still, the microbes are usually covered in introductory Botany courses, although their status as neither animal nor plant is firmly established

This sounds like chapter 6 should be about bacteria en viruses in general. However, I am focussing on plant pathogenic bacteria and viruses - I think that makes more sense in the context of this textbook. I you think different - please tell me how you think it should be done.

Aletta 20:30, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Botany/Microbes


text:
Bioeconomics

Bioeconomics is the theory of economic exploitation of living resources, dealing with two dynamic systems: population dynamics and the dynamics of economic systems. Bioeconomics therefore leans on two traditional university disciplines, biology and economics.

Short reference to production theory
Production theory is a central element in microeconomics and describes simply the conversion of inputs (v) into outputs (Q):

There are several ways of specifying this function. One is as an additive production function:

where p0, p1, .... pn are parameters that are determined empirically.

Another is as a Cobb-Douglas production function (multiplicative):

Other forms include the constant elasticity of substitution production function (CES) which is a more general formulation including the Cobb-Douglas function, and the quadratic production function which is a specific type of additive function. The best form of the equation to use and the values of the parameters vary from company to company and industry to industry.

In a short run production function at least one of the (inputs) is fixed. In the long run all factor inputs are variable, in principle at the discretion of management.

In classical theory production may involve three types of input: Labour (L), Capital (K) and Natural resources (R). Some classical works splits the latter into two: Natural resources and Energy resources (E). More often outputs from other production processes are used as inputs others. But in principle it should be possible to separate all inputs down to the three or four basic types of input.

Catch production in the short run
The simplest model of catch production involves only two input factor: A natural resource (x) and a fishing activity (fishing effort, F).

Production of fishing effort
Let us start to discuss the production of a certain quantity of fishing effort. Further let us assume that human labour input (which could be regarded as a natural resource, but is more practically described as labour) and Capital (boats, fishing gears, etc.) is the two basic types of input in the production of fishing effort. Also assume one of the two factors could be perfectly substituted by the other in a certain quantity.

While limiting the input factor to two, the substitution rates can easily be viewed in a contour plot, often referred to as isocurves of production (Fig. 3.1).

The concept of efficient production
Equation 3.1 is simply giving a technical description on how F is produced by the input factor L and K and does not give us any suggestions on which mix of input factors are to be preferred. In order to prioritize between different alternatives of producing a specific quantity of F, it is convenient to look at the cost of the two input factors. Let the unit cost of labour (L) be w and the unit cost of capital (K) be r. The total cost of production (C) then is:

Lagrange's method can be used in order to maximise the production of fishing effort at a cost constraint, which is the dual problem of minimising the cost at a given production. The Lagrange equation will be:

where C0 is the given cost and $$\lambda$$ the Lagrange multiplier.

The first order condition when maximising the Lagrange equation, is that the partial derivatives of the equation with respect of L and K equals 0, from which follows:

This expression is referred to as the marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS). In the most cost-efficient production MRTS should according to Eq. (3.4) equal the price ratio of the two input factors. Cost efficient solutions of different levels of production are shown in Figure 3.2.

Producing fish harvest by two input factors
By regarding production of fishing effort as an independent production process, production of (h, fish harvest) can be expressed by the two input factors x and F:

It is reasonable to assume that x and F is substitutable in the same way as L and K in Figure 3.1. In order to fish a certain quantity, say one kilo fish, when the stock biomass is low (low x-value), one has to input a larger fishing effort than in the case of a higher stock density (large x-value).

Eq. (3.5) therefore is of the same type as Eq. (3.1) and in principle we have the same type of continuous substitution as indicated in Figure 3.1.

Market failures while using common resources
The first problem makes it impossible to continue along the normal methods of identifying cost efficient solutions. Since the scarcity of the natural resource is not reflected in a price, we lack the value information on this factor. The other problem is also corrupting our model, as it attacks the basic assumption of independency in availabilities of the two input factors. In the long run in fact we have:

The straight forward implication of this is obvious from Eq. (3.5):

showing that in the long run (keeping fishing effort constant over a sufficient period of time) catch will be determined by the fishing effort alone.

The crucial relationship to investigate further therefore is the x-F relationship. How the stock biomass x be defined as a function of fishing effort F? At this point we have to turn to biology and population dynamics.

Population growth
Population dynamics is the study of marginal and long term changes in numbers, individual weights and age composition of individuals in one or several populations, and biological and environmental processes influence those changes. In idealized population growth models one differs between compensatory growth and decompensatory growth, the first one is regarded as normal growth.

The logistic growth model is a widely-used compensatory growth model.

Logistic growth
Let us assume annual biomass growth of a fish population to follow logistic growth (first proposed as a demographic model by Verhulst, 1838. (Applied as a biomass growth model by Pearl, 1934.) The population dynamics is described by a differential equation where biomass (x) is a function of time (t) and the time derivative of population biomass is:

Note that the two parameters (constants), r often referred to as the intrinsic growth rate and K the population biomass at natural equilibrium, are not the same as the parameter r and the variable K above (in pnt. 3).

The parabolic function (square function) in Eq. 4.1, shown in Figure 4.1, describe and increasing biomass growth as the population biomass increases, up to a certain population size (which is easy to identify as K/2), where the biomass growth starts declining to reach zero at biomass level K. K therefore represents a natural equilibrium biomass of an unexploited stock.

Biomass growth as a function of time
The differential equation (4.1) has a unique solution ( = INTEGRAL):

x0 being the biomass at t=0.

Catch production in the long run
Let us start with catch production in the short run as discussed above. Eq. (3.5) defines catch as an output from of production process where stock biomass, x, and fishing effort, F, are input factors. x can be substituted by F. This assumption of substitution is taken care of in the so-called Schaefer production equation:

q is a constant (parameter) often referred to as the catchability coefficient. By referring to Eq. (2.3) we see that the Schaeffer production equation is of the Cobb-Douglas type, with powers set equal to 1. Later we will investigate the consequences of the choice of power values.

The biomass growth equation (4.1) now has to be adjusted to include catch. The annual biomass growth will be the natural growth (right hand side of 4.1) minus the harvested biomass (e.g. 5.1):

As Eq. (4.1) identify K as the natural biomass equilibrium when $$t \rightarrow {\infty}$$, Eq. (5.2) also identify an equilibrium biomass when keeping F constant over an infinite number of years. The equilibrium is defined by

from which follows (in the case of Eq. 5.2):

Skipping the trivial solution x=0, the stock biomass - fishing effort relationship is given directly from Eq. (5.4):

The long term catch equation is finally found by inserting Eq. (5.5) into the short term catch equation defined by Eq. (5.1):

title: Bioeconomics


text:
Authoring Webpages

Foreword
The World Wide Web (often simply called "the Web") is a means of communication using inter-linked pages of text called "web pages". A coherent group of such pages is called a "website". This short course will attempt to provide a hands-on approach to teach you how to make high-quality web pages. After a short introduction, you will be thrown in at the deep end and start making web pages yourself.

Table of contents

 * 1) /Requirements/
 * 2) Introduction: the World Wide Web
 * 3) /Creating a simple page/
 * 4) /How to write for the web/
 * 5) /Adapting a webpage for visual browsers/
 * 6) /HTML, XHTML and DOCTYPEs/
 * 7) Collecting pages in a website
 * 8) /Promote your website/
 * 9) /Scalable websites/ (Advanced topic)
 * 10) /Avoiding pitfalls/
 * 11) /Preventing link rot/
 * 12) /Conclusion/
 * 13) /Answers/

Rationale
Many textbooks approach the creation of webpages and websites as a computing task. Many others approach it as a graphical design challenge. Both approaches are rooted in treating the web as if it were a computational or graphical medium. Rooting the web in a understandable metaphor may be comforting, it is also misleading.

The web is a new medium, that requires a completely new approach to building parts of it. Although students will often pick up some of the right concepts while studying the 'programming' and 'designing' books, it is often better to start with the right concepts, and deal with the computational and graphical aspects of the web later.

What this textbook therefore tries to accomplish, is providing the student with a strong basis for learning more about building webpages. This book will try and do this in a practical, hands-on way. Almost from the get-go, students will start authoring their own webpages.

For teachers

 * Teacher's Guide

For further reading

 * Starting A Website
 * Web_design
 * Web Development
 * HyperText Markup Language
 * Web Design References - A huge mega-reference (nearly 3,000 links) of information and articles about web design and development. It is dedicated to disseminating news and information about web design and development with emphasis on elements of the user experience, accessibility, web standards, CSS, JavaScript and much more.
 * Web Design Update - broken link - A a plain text email digest newsletter. It typically goes out once a week.  All web designers and developers are invited to join.
 * - Books -List includes Accessibility, Color, CSS, Dreamweaver, Information Architecture, Evaluation, JavaScript, Navigation, PHP, Project Management, Typography, Usability, Web Standards, Writing, (X)HTML.
 * Webpage design flaws: Mistakes to avoid by Bill Beaty

title: Authoring Webpages


text:
Authoring Webpages/Requirements

= Requirements =

In order to use this tutorial, you must have a web browser and a text editor. (Most operating systems come shipped with both.)

If you use Microsoft Windows, you will find an editor called Notepad in your Accessories.

Note: a text editor is not the same as a word processor. Do not use a word processor for this course.

Once you get more comfortable authoring webpages, you may want to acquire a more powerful text editor. For now, however, editors like Notepad, Simpletext (Apple Macintosh) or Nano (GNU/Linux) suffice.

Also, some minimal computing knowledge is assumed. If you do not know how to operate a computer, this course is not for you, yet.

Testing: Your first Webpage
In order to test whether you fulfil the requirements, you will now create your first web page in the following simple steps.

<!DOCTYPE html>   <title> Simple document </title>
The text of the document goes here!

 * Open your text editor program.
 * Type in the following simple HTML document. Note: all valid webpages must start with a DOCTYPE. This selects the version of HTML used by the web page.
 * Save your text as a file called  to your hard disk (or other storage medium). For the remainder of this course, it would be handy if you had a separate folder where you could save your webpages.
 * Open your web browser program.
 * Open the .html file you just saved in your web browser. Most browsers have a menu called something like 'File/Open File' for this.
 * Your browser should now display your first webpage.

This doesn't look very impressive, does it? Well, it will get much more impressive soon, and the good news is that it will not get much more difficult.

To reach true impressiveness though, you need to be able to reach your audience. To reach your audience, a webserver program needs to know about your webpages, so that it can serve your pages to all who ask for them.

Webservers
You could run your own webserver, but setting up such a program is beyond the scope of this tutorial.

If you follow this course in a class, the teacher will have set up a webserver for you.

If you follow this course by yourself, please check the website hosting options your Internet Service Provider (ISP) has available. (The ISP is the company that connects you to the internet. If you are connected through your work or college, consult with your systems administrator about hosting possibilities.) A form of web hosting may even be a free service your ISP offers you as part of your access package.

Recapitulation
In short, you need:
 * 1) A text editor (program)
 * 2) A web browser (program)
 * 3) A webserver (program+internet connection, or computer+program+internet connection)

The first two items you need right away, the last you need when you want to publish your webpages on the World Wide Web.

Up: Table of Contents - Next: Introduction

title: Authoring Webpages/Requirements


text:
User:KirbyMeister~enwikibooks

Dead.

KirbyMeister at English Wikipedia – KirbyMeister at Simple English Wikipedia – KirbyMeister at Wiktionary

title: User:KirbyMeister~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:KirbyMeister~enwikibooks

Each user should put their posts in their own category.

R3m0t
Well, this is a bit ironic - I've only had a few, and certainly none recently. I think I'll set the target to start doing all the stuff I need to properly at the end of the week, when the stress is over. At the moment, I'm remembering about 1 dream every week, so I'm not going to get LDs any time soon. r3m0t (cont) (talk) 00:05, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Woah, I thought everybody knew what the Placebo effect is! r3m0t (cont) (talk) 07:29, 26 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Each to his or her own, is all I can say. In some forums, people would decide to give it an acronym - SCILD (SimCity Induced Lucid Dream). But not me.

Should section 1.1 (Waking up and getting back to bed) be merged with the WBTB section? Partly?

Talk:Lucid dreaming has a list of stuff I want to do. I'm just going through everything with MS Word for spelling and grammar right now. (But not appendices, that would take ages more) r3m0t (cont) (talk) 21:34, 3 Apr 2004 (UTC)

From your new edits on the "reality checks" section, can I assume you got another LD? r3m0t (cont) (talk) 05:29, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

SimCity wikibook? HAHAHAHAHAHA!!! Sorry, but it's funny. What next, Spongebob? ;) r3m0t (cont) (talk) 17:51, 17 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Why is that so funny? We should be willing to take whatever we can. - SamE 22:45, 18 Apr 2004 (UTC)

People are rarely interested in many different games, unlike the sections of the lucid dreaming wikibook. I suggest you scrap the nav. Sorry! r3m0t (cont) (talk) 18:53, 17 Apr 2004 (UTC)

No more LD count? Did you lose motivation? r3m0t (cont) (talk) 21:00, 5 May 2004 (UTC)

I lost motivation. Then I found Second Life. ;) KirbyMeister 04:40, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

SamE
Great idea for the ToC. I like it - could it be expanded to the other categories (other than just computer games), or should we wait until we can get some more game walkthroughs for those types of games? - SamE 22:45, 18 Apr 2004 (UTC)

SimCity
I've expanded the page on SimCity quite dramatically, and given that you have contributed to it in the past, I'm wondering if you have any comments, suggestions, or anything else to contribute to it? AmishThrasher 15:47, 23 September 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called KirbyMeister. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name KirbyMeister~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:19, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:09, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:KirbyMeister~enwikibooks


text:
Authoring Webpages/Teacher's Guide

Goals of this course
This course has only one goal: to teach the practice of creating webpages.

If you want to teach your pupils about computing, networking, the internet, HTML et cetera, I would like to refer you to other WikiBooks.

Related Wikibooks

 * Internet Technologies

Requirements
In order to be able to teach this course, you need to:
 * familiarise yourself with the material;
 * provide your students with a computer linked to the internet, or make sure they have access to such a computer for the duration of the lesson;
 * provide your students with web browsing software, or make sure they have access to a web browser;
 * provide your students with text editing software, or make sure they have access to a text editor;
 * set up a web server, and provide access to it;
 * provide storage space for your student's projects; and
 * make sure your students possess a minimum of computing experience.

Optional:
 * graphics to be used in the practice projects; and
 * graphics editing software, to create such graphics.

Web browsers
The web browsers you use should be able to handle HTML 4 or better. Web browsers that are shipped with current operating systems are acceptable for this goal.

There are lessons in this course that deal with graphical presentation of web pages. You may skip these lessons, but if you don't, you need to provide a so-called graphical web browser. Well known such browsers are for instance Mozilla, Apple Safari, Opera, and Microsoft Internet Explorer. These browsers are either provided with your operating system, or can be downloaded and used freely.

If you need to download and install a web browser, we recommend the FireFox family of web browsers.

Ideally you will provide your students with several web browsers on side-by-side computers. This will allow them to see how the rendering of web pages varies between different browsers.

Text editors
The text editors that generally accompany an operating system are all that is needed to create webpages in this course.

Although you may use editors that are specifically geared towards creating and editing websites, we advise against this. It might make your students dependent on such editors. Even if all they will use after they finished the course is such an editor, learning the basics of creating a webpage can be very helpful during trouble shooting.

Webservers
None of the practice projects are so complex that they require a certain server set-up. Later versions of this course may require more advanced webservers. If you do not know how to set up a webserver, consult your systems administrator. One thing to keep in mind is that you may wish to run your webserver solely on an intranet. That way, your students cannot abuse the school's Internet connection to publish information the school does not wish to be associated with.

If you are the systems administrator, you might find Apache2Triad or more generally comparison of web servers helpful.

On the other hand, using a free web hosting service is likely to be easier than setting up even the easiest intranet web server. It may help student motivation to see that their work is becoming part of the "real" WWW that anyone in the world can immediately read, and not just another homework assignment that only the teacher can read. Although some hosting services provide "templates" and "wizards" for creating websites, we recommend against using those tools -- it might make students dependent on that hosting service. Instead, use ordinary file uploads.

Storage space
The practice projects are all reasonably small. You may devise a large end-of-course project though. Also, your students may wish to study webpages they created earlier on. For these reasons, it could be handy to provide your students with storage space to keep their projects on and reference later.

The HTML and CSS and JavaScript files (which does not include image files, MP3s, videos, etc.) for one larger than average web site is under 8 MB.

Does this need to be separate from the files on the web server?

Previous knowledge
If your students are new to computing, you may want to spend the first lesson acquainting them with some general principles of computing. At the very least, they should know how to:

 * Start up and switch off a computer or session;
 * Start and quit programs;
 * Open and close files from programs;
 * Copy, move, create and delete files on a file system;
 * Operate a webbrowser; specifically, how to open a URL; how to open a file; how to navigate between webpages using hyperlinks; how to navigate between webpages using browser functionality.

Class project
Since this is a work book as much as a text book, students will benefit from having engaging projects in which they can test their skills to the fullest.

Many of the exercises in this book are designed to provide such project but will probably be found lacking by almost all students. The exercises are limited by their nature: they must assume incomplete knowledge in the earlier chapters of the book, and they must be finishable within the time set for homework.

Therefore, it would be advisable to have an end-project in which the students can test all the skills and knowledge they acquired during this course.

The teacher is free to invent such a project, and hopefully in the course of time, many cool project proposals will be added to this Wikibook.

However, a teacher of minors can also choose to participate in the six-monthly ThinkQuest competition. ThinkQuest is a website creation competition for elementary and secondary school students that has produced some of the finest sites on the web today. Students are pitted against other students from all over the world. The competition is fierce and the participants need to use all they've got to have a chance at winning. All participating teams must have a school teacher as team leader, but the students themselves must do all the work.

In due time, this Wikibook will provide all the basic knowledge required for participating in and winning a ThinkQuest competition with one major exception: this book will not deal with embeddable content, such as images, animation, video et cetera. These form an important part of the web, but they fill a whole separate book on their own: the Web Design book.

The students who are following this course on their own, are encouraged to think up their own projects. If you come up with fun projects, please share them by posting their descriptions here.

title: Authoring Webpages/Teacher's Guide


text:
Robotics/Computer Control/The Interface/Microcontrollers

Microcontrollers are the core of many robots. They have considerable processing power packed on to one chip, allowing lots of freedom for programmers. Microcontrollers are low level devices and it is common to program them using an assembly language, this provides a great deal of control over the hardware connected to the controller. Many manufacturers also provide high-level language compilers for their chips, including BASIC and C.

What's the difference between a microcontroller, microprocessor, and a CPU ? The CPU is the part which actually executes the instructions (add, subtract, shift, fetch, etc.).

A microprocessor is any CPU on a single chip.

A microcontroller is a kind of microprocessor, because it includes a CPU, but it typically also contains all of the following components on the same single chip:
 * (discrete) inputs
 * (discrete) outputs
 * ROM for the program
 * RAM for temporary data
 * EEPROM for non-volatile data
 * counter/timer
 * clock

Some microcontrollers even include on board Analog-to-Digital converters (ADCs). This allows analog sensors to be directly connected to the microcontroller.

With this capability, microcontrollers are quite convenient pieces of silicon.

The outputs of a microcontroller can be used to drive many things, common examples include LEDs and transistors. The outputs on a microcontroller are generally low power. Transistors are used to switch higher power devices (such as motors) on and off.

All CPUs are useless without software.

Most software for a PC is stored on the hard drive. But when you first turn one on, it starts executing the software in the boot ROM. If you wanted to change that software, you would have to pull out the ROM chip, program a new ROM chip (in a "chip programmer"), and then plug the new chip into the PC.

Most robots don't have a hard drive -- all their software is stored in ROM. So changing that software is exactly like changing the boot code of a PC. (If your robot has an external ROM chip, then that is the one that is pulled and replaced. If your robot uses a microcontroller with internal ROM, then the microcontroller is pulled and replaced).

Many recent PC motherboards and microcontrollers use Flash instead of ROM. That allows people to change the program without pulling out or putting in any chips. They can be rewritten with new data, like a memory chip, but permanently, and only a certain number of times (10,000 to 100,000 erase/write cycles).

Here are a few pages about specific µcontrollers:
 * 8051
 * Atmel AVR
 * Microchip PIC
 * Embedded Systems/ARM Microprocessors


text:
Electronics/Voltage Dividers

Ideal case
Consider the illustration below. Assume initially that no current is flowing in or out of the terminal marked Vout. In this case, the only path for current is from Vin through R1 and R2 to GND. The equivalent resistance of this configuration is R1+R2 since these are resistors in series. From Ohm's law the current flowing through both resistors is     $$I = \frac{V_{in}}{R_1+R_2}$$. Also from Ohm's law, we know that the voltage drops across the resistors are I*R1 and I*R2 respectively. A quick check shows that the sum of the voltage drops across the resistors adds up to Vin. Now we can calculate the voltage at Vout (still assuming that no current flows through the terminal Vout). In this case the voltage is just $$0V + IR_2$$ where the 0V is the voltage at GND. If we substitute what we calculated for I, we obtain $$V_{out} = \frac{R_2}{R_1+R_2}V_{in}$$. This is the voltage divider equation for the ideal case where no current flows through the output. Another way of saying that no current flows through the output is that the output has infinite resistance. A quick mental check using $$I=V/R$$ shows that the voltage calculated divided by infinity equals zero

Non-ideal case - finite resistance outputs
In the non-ideal case, we need to consider the resistance of the output. If we assume that the resistance of the output is R3 (and it is connected only to GND), we need to modify our analysis as follows. Now we have two resistors in parallel from the Vout junction to GND. The equivalent resistance of the parallel resistors then is $$R_{eq}=\frac{R_2R_3}{R_2+R_3}$$ and the equivalent resistance of the entire circuit is    $$R_{tot}=R_1+\frac{R_2R_3}{R_2+R_3}$$. This yields a current of     $$I=\frac{V}{R_{tot}}=\frac{V_{in}}{R_1+\frac{R_2R_3}{R_2+R_3}}$$. Now we multiply this by $$R_{eq}$$ calculated above to obtain the output voltage: $$V_{out} = IR_{eq} = \frac{R_{eq}}{R_{tot}}V=\frac{\frac{R_2R_3}{R_2+R_3}}{R_1+\frac{R_2R_3}{R_2+R_3}}V_{in}$$ Normally R2 will be much smaller than R3 so Req will be approximately equal to R2. Keep in mind that a resistance R3 that is 100 times as large as R2 results in a voltage sag of about 1% and that a resistance R3 that is 10 times as large as R2 results in an almost 10% voltage sag.

Non-ideal case - complex impedance
Both voltage divider equations hold for complex impedances. Just substitute Z's for R's and do the complex arithmetic. The resulting equations are just the following: $$V_{out}=\frac{Z_2}{Z_1+Z_2}V_{in}$$ - ideal case $$V_{out}=\frac{\frac{Z_2Z_3}{Z_2+Z_3}}{Z_1+\frac{Z_2Z_3}{Z_2+Z_3}}V_{in}$$ - non-ideal case

title: Electronics/Voltage Dividers


text:
Unsolved Problems in Biology

Chapters

 * 1) /Introduction/
 * 2) /What is Life?/ Are there life forms in the universe that are not based on carbon? Is there a clear boundary between carbon-based life and Artificial life?
 * 3) /How Did It Start?/ What are the different hypotheses of origin of life? Did life begin on this planet, was there inanimate intervention (such as a meteor hitting the earth) or intelligent, extraterrestrial design? What are the mechanisms of biorhythms and chronobiology? Why is magnetite in living creatures?
 * 4) /Sexual Reproduction/: Why have so many biological systems developed sexual reproduction?
 * 5) /Tree of Life/: Do all animals link together to a primary source?
 * 6) /Protein folding/: Given a DNA sequence, what  shape will the protein fold into? Given a particular desired shape, what DNA sequence will produce it?
 * 7) /Consciousness/. What is it?  Can we create artificial life that has human-like consciousness?
 * 8) /Sleep/: Why is it necessary for mammals to sleep? Or dream, come to that?
 * 9) /Viruses/.  What are the signs of current or past infection to discover where Ebola hides between human outbreaks?
 * 10) Where is memory/information stored in brain? How are other animals different than humans in regard to brain function?

title: Unsolved Problems in Biology


text:
Talk:Starting and Running a Wiki Website

About

 * Started: 23 March 2004
 * Size: 2,400 words (Sep 2008)
 * Focus: instructions about wikis in general. No research and no case studies. Could cover instructions for corporate in-house wikis, for which public wiki hosting is inappropriate.
 * Out of scope: wiki markup.
 * Focus: instructions about wikis in general. No research and no case studies. Could cover instructions for corporate in-house wikis, for which public wiki hosting is inappropriate.
 * Out of scope: wiki markup.

About copying content from WikiWikiWeb
I have e-mailed Ward Cunningham, but until I hear back from him, I will operate from my interpretation of the following excerpt from Wiki Copy Rights:

 * Q: Can I take unsigned pages relevant only to wiki use? I would like to start my own wiki based on the perl code distributed at the wikibase. I would like to copy the pages that were written primarily to help new users get over the first few moments of questions about wiki. --JohnRepici

 * A: It would be fair use if you quoted wiki modestly and included a proper link or citation. (See HowToCiteWiki.) Taking pages from this site and posting them as your own would not. -- WardCunningham

I interpret this to mean that we can do what I have just done, i.e. quote from the WikiWikiWeb and give appropriate credit. The same page raises a good point: why copy a Wiki when one can just link to it? Some possible answers: (add things I missed) I believe the former. For those who believe the latter, I encourage you to improve the guide at WikiWikiWeb. Whatever you do, do not inappropriately copy material from WikiWikiWeb, i.e. without first getting permission from the original author of what you copy.
 * Wikis should be duplicated because one is Copyleft and the other is not, or
 * Wikis should not be duplicated.
 * If the other Wiki is only linked to, then if it goes down the current Wiki will lose content.

-Rs2 05:17, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Update - Ward's response
Ward confirmed that fair use is the rule. He referred me to the following material that he wrote to address exactly these issues: -Rs2 17:45, 1 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * http://c2.com/ppr/about/copyright.html
 * http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?HowToCiteWiki

test

"stolen link"
I just now deleted the line

"**Wiki Hosting- someone seems to have "stolen" the link?"

Edit 35207 ( http://wikibooks.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Wiki_Science:How_to_start_a_Wiki&diff=35207&oldid=34152 ) originally added that link. As far as I can tell, that site does not currently offer any special Wiki support (perhaps they did in the past).

If they do (perhaps in the future) offer wiki support, please post a link to the exact page that mentions Wiki support.

-- DavidCary 06:10, 28 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Learning Wiki markup
I searched "wiki markup" and got information on how to start a wiki, but no information on how to create and edit pages. Something with simple instructions would be helpful. Standard html does not seem to work.

Thanks!

NPOV
I found it very much agianst the NPOV that there where only two wiki-engines mentioned (they are not the only and not the best solution for everything. Instead I put in some links to sites which compare wiki-engines. If you disagree, please leave a note on my userpage in the german wikipedia. Thanks. --213.140.17.106 13:28, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Wikis for Existing Hostings
I was not able to find any information regarding which wiki engines do not require special privilege to install. If I already have a web hosting and want to add wiki in a particular section, which engines will work for me ,without any need to contacting technical support of hosting providers. I will be very happy if some body provides me with this information on this talk page. Thanks in advance.

Free Wikis comparison table out of date
As of Oct 2005, the free wiki comparison table seems to be quite outdated. For example, Schtuff.com apprently does have revisions and history, to the contrary of the table entry. Also, X-Wiki and some others have now very interesting advanced features, which would deserve mentioning in the "pros" column. --Andras

MediaWiki
I like a section about how to start a MediaWiki engine.

Paid wiki hosting
I suppose a web host included in this section should provide a reasonable set of services that enable people to build and maintain a wiki site. But no such set is described here, and I personally know that one of the web hosts listed here do not even provide the ability to run a basic MediaWiki maintanence script. I would rather drop this section or provide more accurate information about each host.

freewiki
Is http://freewiki.info/ useful enough to add to this module? I like the screenshots there.

Wikipedia
Is the big Wiki hosted on one of these? If it is hosted, on what? -Salty 66.69.124.88 03:04, 22 April 2006 (UTC)

 * They run dedicated servers for the big wikis. 207.216.17.170 16:08, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

Links from Wikipedia
The text of the article suggests, "Link to your wiki on a relevant page in the Wikipedia namespace." Some readers have become quite upset by the fact that, when they follow this advice, their links are removed from Wikipedia. More clarification is needed. After all, Wikipedia is not a collection of links, and unless the wiki is particularly informative, there always going to be editors who will oppose its addition to Wikipedia articles. -66.92.76.142 15:55, 15 July 2006 (UTC)

 * w:WP:NOT does allow for linking to relevent articles by people involved, but one must justify the relevency and value to avoid people who only partially understand the rules. 207.216.17.170 16:07, 15 July 2006 (UTC) w:User:HighInBC

Annoying Message
I just created a wiki at editthis.info, and whenever I add an external link to a page, it says:

"Hello link spammer. Just so you know, google does not follow links off this page. The links are tagged to be ignored by search engines, so go somewhere else. All you are doing is annoying users. Adding links here will not help you page rank

Thanks, Rob -a sysadmin who doesn't need soma ;)".

Does anyone know why this is happening?--65.96.158.140 20:15, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

I'm getting exactly the same message! That's reeeeeally annoying! I've posted a message at the editthis help desk, but apparently no one's there!

200.177.128.231 22:10, 24 August 2006 (UTC)

WYSISWYG
I have a request. I dont know if Ishould be discussing here but I need a Wiki (preferably free but I dont mind paying if it is really good) that will allow the maximum ease of use. I am pretty fammiliar with Wiki syntax but I wish to use one which will not require Wiki syntax or little for a project. Most of all I want a tabular format which I can edit with as much ease as MS excel. What I want is something like this: I create a set of tables (with or without syntax) but each cell in the table should be editable individually by clicking on it. Is there a Wiki which offers a lot of ease for naive computer users. --59.162.197.16 13:26, 17 May 2007 (UTC)

Terminology
The terms "self-hosting" and "Hosted wikis" currently used in chapter names seem dubious. Better terms are welcome. Other terms coming to mind are "in-house", "outsourced", and "outsourcing". --Dan Polansky (talk) 10:06, 15 September 2008 (UTC)

Oppose merging
I just saw that a user suggested merging and I think that it’s not a good idea. This book is more about the technical side of running a wiki, and the other book is also about “the wisdom”. I think that it’s better to have them as separate books and maybe link to each other in the “see also” section. -Gifnk dlm 2020 From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 (talk) 16:15, 24 January 2022 (UTC)
 * That makes sense. I agree with Gifnk dlm. L10nM4st3r / Roar at me 11:38, 27 June 2022 (UTC)


text:
Unsolved Problems in Biology/Grist

Welcome!

 * Please add your question(s) about biology to the TOP of the list, below.

 * Guidelines for this page.
 * Try to edit this page as little as possible.
 * The purpose of this page is to collect questions about biology that are on people's minds.
 * Questions posted here can be copied to other pages where they can be categorized and serve as the basis for new chapters in the book.

Top of the list of questions
Explain the Paradox of the plankton. How the high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle.

What are the current drawbacks and adverse effects to telomerase bio-genesis inhibition technology?

Is natural selection capable of producing the major innovations we see in the living world, or only minor variations within species boundaries?

Why age? Why must all organisms die? Why do cells of different organisms age on different time scales?

Is the biology of chimps enough like that of humans that we should grant them human rights?

Does it make sense to think about moving living organisms from Earth to other planets like Mars or Venus in order to terraform them?

Can you engineer a tree so that it makes electricity.....so that you could have a tree in your yard that would be able to charge a chemical battery?

What is the upper limit (if any) on how long a human can live?

Will it ever be possible to transfer a human mind to a robotic brain and body?

title: Unsolved Problems in Biology/Grist


text:
Botany/Bryology

<< Contents Page | Chapter 10 | Chapter 11 |  Chapter 12 >>

Chapter 11. Bryology ~ The Liverworts and Mosses

Bryology is the study of nonvascular complex plants classified in the Division Bryophyta.

The Bryophytes have several adaptations that allow them to grow on land, but are still tied to moisture for their reproduction. Their size is also restricted because they do not have vascular tissues, which limits their height and keeps them close to the nutrition and moisture of the ground. Rhizoids anchor them to the ground, but do not conduct water or nutrients as roots do. Some mosses have developed pores, but they do not open and close as stomata do.

Most mosses look like undifferentiated green mold on rocks, but while they are non vascular, they have complex forms and parts. They have what appear to be leaves coming off their stalks, but are not leaves because they have no veins. Most notable in their anatomy is the peculiarity of their life cycle. The haploid organism is actually most of what we would call the moss. That green mat is the gameteophyte contains half of the DNA, or one full set of chromosomes. When the female gametophyte is fertilized with motile sperm from the male gametophyte, the diploid sporophyte grows directly out of the gametophyte. So out of an ordinary spiky green moss stalk, a tall curved stalk grows, with a large cap on it. That structure is the sporophyte. It will produce spores (that are haploid) that will propagate more haploid mosses. Each successive evolutionary adaptation of plants has reduced the haploid stage in size, and increased the diploid, or sporophyte stage. In ferns, the next evolutionary innovation based in bryophytes, the gametophyte stage functions the same way as here, the haploid spores make a haploid organism, which after fertilization grows a full diploid sporophyte from it. However, what we know as a fern is the diploid organism, the gametophyte is a very small heart shaped organism at the base of the fern. Read:
 * Bryophyta
 * Mosses (Musci)
 * Liverworts (Marchantiopsida)
 * Hornworts (Anthocerotae)

Questions 11.1 Out of the mosses, the liverworts and the hornworts, do any of these have seeds? 11.2 How are bryophytes similar to the algae? How are they different? 11.3 How is a spore different from a seed? How many sets of chromosomes does a spore have (1N or 2N)?

title: Botany/Bryology


text:
Botany/Equisetophyta

<< Contents Page | Chapter 12 | Chapter 13 | Chapter 14 >>

Chapter 13. Equisetophyta ~ The Club Mosses and Horsetails
The Equisetophyta is a very old division—the plants of this division were among the first plants to grow on land. Equisetophyta are sometimes referred to as fern allies, as they have the same life cycles as ferns, and have similar developments that allow them to grow taller than the bryophytes.

Read:
 * Equisetophyta
 * Horsetail

title: Botany/Equisetophyta


text:
User:Theresa knott/sandbox

Here is an excel file for you to download [[Media:Year 5 prep school experiments.xls |Excel spreadsheet]]

title: User:Theresa knott/sandbox


text:
User:ArneEide

My homepage

title: User:ArneEide


text:
Electronics/KCL

Kirchoff's Current Law
Current is conserved.

Current flowing into a junction is equal to that flowing out.

I1 = I2 + I3

 * $$ I_{1} = I_2 + I_3 + \cdots + I_n \,\! $$

Current is the flow of electrons through a piece of metal. Given the sheer number of electrons involved it is similar to the flow of water through a pipe. When the pipe branches the water has multiple paths to travel. The only rule is that the amount of water entering any place has to be equal to the amount of water leaving any that place. Otherwise the pipe would explode from the pressure or the water would cease to exist.

Here is more about Kirchhoff's laws which can be integrated here

title: Electronics/KCL


text:
File:Abshum Engineering Thermodynamics.png

absolute humidity

prologues := 2; % input metaobj.mp; beginfig(1); numeric u; u := .4cm; drawarrow origin .. 10u * dir(90); drawarrow origin .. 10u * dir(0); label.lft(btex $\omega$ etex, (0, 10u)); label.bot("t", (10u, 0)); path pp; pp := (0, 2u) {dir (5)} .. (2.5u, 2u) .. (8u, 6u) .. (9u, 8u); draw pp; label.lft(btex $\omega_a$ etex, (0, 4u)); path qq; qq := (0, 4u) .. (8u, 4u); draw qq dashed evenly; pair a; a := qq intersectionpoint pp; dotlabel.top("2", a); draw a .. ( a + 4u * dir(-90)) dashed evenly; label.bot(btex $t_{dp}$ etex, a + 4u * dir(-90)); dotlabel.rt("1", point 2 of qq); path ss; ss := qq shifted (0, -1.5u); label.lft(btex $\omega_b$ etex, (0, 2.5u)); pair b; b := ss intersectionpoint pp; dotlabel.top("3", b); draw (point 0 of ss) .. b dashed evenly; currentpicture := currentpicture scaled 2; currentpicture := currentpicture shifted -llcorner currentpicture; endfig; end;


text:
Cookbook:Borscht

| Ukrainian Cuisine | Soups

Borscht, or borsch is a hearty beetroot vegetable soup considered to originate from Ukraine or Western Russia. The soup is part of the local culinary heritage of many Eastern and Central European nations. It is also a staple dish in Eastern Europe, and made its way into United States cuisine by way of Jewish immigrants (as well as other Eastern Europeans).

Recipes of borscht vary, but beetroot is an essential ingredient.

Soup

 * 1½ cups thinly-sliced potatoes (about 3 small potatoes)
 * 1 cup thinly-sliced beets.
 * 4 cups water
 * 1–2 tablespoons butter
 * 1½ cups chopped onion (about ⅓ of a large onion)
 * 1½ teaspoons salt
 * 1 stalk celery, chopped
 * 1 medium carrot, chopped
 * 3–4 cups shredded cabbage (about ⅓ of a large cabbage)
 * a little fresh-ground black pepper
 * 1 teaspoon dill weed
 * 1–2 tablespoons cider vinegar
 * 1–2 tablespoons brown sugar or honey
 * 1 cup tomato purée or ¼ to ½ cup tomato paste

Garnish

 * Sour cream or yogurt
 * Dill weed

Procedure

 * 1) Place the potatoes, beets, and water in a medium-sized saucepan. Cover and cook over medium heat until tender (20–30 minutes). While that is cooking, proceed with the recipe.
 * 2) Melt the butter in a Dutch oven/soup pot. Add the onion and salt. Cook over medium heat, stirring occasionally, until the onions are translucent (8–10 minutes).
 * 3) Add the celery, carrots, cabbage, and 2 cups of the water in which the potatoes and beets are cooking. Cover and cook over medium heat until the vegetables are tender (8–10 minutes).
 * 4) Add the remaining soup ingredients (including the potatoes, beets, and the rest of the water in which they are cooking). Cover and simmer for at least 15 more minutes. Correct the seasonings. If it is too thin, let it simmer uncovered, and maybe add a little more tomato paste.
 * 5) Serve hot, topped with sour cream or yoghurt and sprinkled with dill. If desired the sour cream or yoghurt can be served with the soup and used as a condiment to taste.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * A sour environment is essential for the authentic taste and preservation of the red color, but excessive amount of acetic acid from the vinegar (esp. distilled) causes a sharp restaurant smell and taste. The cider vinegar can be replaced with sauerkraut or extra tomatoes.
 * Ukrainian Cabbage Soup (Kapusniak)
 * Montreal Russian Borscht

title: Cookbook:Borscht


text:
Cookbook talk:Borscht

This module uses text originally published to the Wikipedia article Borscht. The page authors at the time the text was copied are inlcuded below:

* (cur) (last). . m 18:05, 2 Jan 2004. . Halibutt * (cur) (last). . m 00:50, 25 Dec 2003. . Derek Ross (relink) * (cur) (last). . 15:34, 10 Dec 2003. . 159.83.183.60 (tweaked sentence for less fussiness) * (cur) (last). . m 16:44, 25 Aug 2003. . Maximus Rex * (cur) (last). . m 21:45, 11 May 2003. . Alex756 (fx lk eastern European) * (cur) (last). . 11:06, 27 Apr 2003. . 65.94.42.215   * (cur) (last). . 07:12, 27 Apr 2003. . Montrealais * (cur) (last). . 15:57, 26 Apr 2003. . LittleDan * (cur) (last). . 15:19, 26 Apr 2003. . Zoe (Borshch) * (cur) (last). . m 15:16, 26 Apr 2003. . Montrealais * (cur) (last). . 15:15, 26 Apr 2003. . Montrealais

a few questions
First, this is a rather particular version. A very basic recipe (without tomatoes, potatoes, honey or sugar) would be better, and then a section on regional or suggested variations. By the way, do you mean sliced potatoes and beets or diced? Sliced would be very difficult to eat with a spoon. Second, I don't get the point of saying it is from Ukraine or Western Russia, and mentioning Eastern and Central Europe, and then specifying it made its way into THE United States by way of Jewish immigrants. The article should specify Ashkenazic Jewish immigration if it were true, which I don't think it is anyways. Why not just say "central and eastern European immigration"? Third, what is a "sour environment"? And what is a "sharp restaurant smell and taste"? --Richardson mcphillips (discuss • contribs) 14:54, 29 November 2014 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Borscht


text:
Cookbook:Sirniki (Russian Cheese Fritters)

| Cuisine of Russia

Sirniki are Russian sweet curd fritters, generally eaten after the main course at dinner, but sometimes also at breakfast.

Ingredients

 * 500 grams cottage cheese
 * 2 eggs
 * 6 tablespoons flour
 * 2 tablespoons sugar
 * 1 teaspoon salt

Garnish

 * Sour cream and sugar or jam, confiture.
 * Apple sauce

Procedure

 * 1) Mix cottage cheese, eggs, flour, sugar and salt.
 * 2) Take piece of paste, make round, flat shape and put on warm frying pan with oil or melted butter.
 * 3) Wait until it becomes gold colour and flip.
 * 4) When it is brown on both sides you can eat it.


text:
Cookbook:Bánh Mì

| Vietnamese Cuisine | Sandwiches

Bánh mì means 'bread' in Vietnamese, and it often refers to a type of Vietnamese sandwich. It may have started as a 'kitchen sink' recipe in Vietnam, where various leftovers would be tossed into a sandwich to finish them up (like a po' boy). Bánh mì is now sought after by many for its unique and delicious flavors. There are many different types of bánh mì sandwiches, ranging from chunked BBQ grilled pork, sliced pork pate, and shredded grilled chicken, to grilled and smoked fish, sardine, meatball, Chinese-style sausage, and tripe.

Choices of bread are also quite varied. It is customary to use a toasted French baguette or French bread, because of the textures these breads provide: bánh mì tastes best when the outer crust of the bread is firm but not overly hard, and the inner part of the bread is fluffy and light like a yeast roll, that is, one which is not overly dense or spongy. The reason for this is that the crust's firmness provides a barrier for the moisture of the sandwich, and the lightness of the inner bread does not overwhelm the flavors of the sandwich, which would otherwise make the sandwich taste overly 'bready'. Still, no sandwich tastes better than the flavor of the bread, so make sure the bread is fresh and flavorful (preferably one from a bakery). Using a store-bought bread yields unpredictable results as they tend to taste overly processed or they taste like the plastic or paper bag in which they are kept.

Ingredients
Many different ingredients may be used to make bánh mì. Put in as many as you wish in your sandwich—each is different.

Core ingredients

 * 1 loaf baguette-style bread
 * Julienned carrot
 * Julienned daikon radish
 * Salt
 * Water
 * Coconut vinegar or white vinegar
 * Sugar

Standard bánh mì fillings

 * Cilantro (coriander) leaves and stems
 * Super-thin jalapeño slices
 * Fresh sliced cucumber

Meat fillings

 * BBQ pork
 * BBQ chicken
 * Sliced pork paté
 * Sliced pork meatloaf
 * Sliced ham
 * BBQ beef
 * Textured vegetable protein (wheat gluten, seitan, sueyu, suegai - vegetarian fish fillets)
 * Seasoned tofu
 * Meatballs
 * Sliced Chinese/Thai/Vietnamese-style sausage (waxy kind)
 * Sardines
 * Tripe
 * Smoked salmon
 * Grilled or fried whitefish

Optional additional fillings

 * Sliced turnip
 * Sliced green onions
 * Sliced, patted dry tomatoes
 * Sprigs of mint
 * Sprigs of basil
 * Shredded cabbage
 * Sprout mix
 * Lettuce

Sauces for sandwich

 * Japanese mayonnaise (Kewpie Mayo - squeeze bottle with a baby on front)
 * Mayso (mayo and soy sauce)
 * Maysocha (mayo, soy sauce, and sriracha chili sauce)
 * Maycha (mayo and sriracha)
 * Hot Mom (mayo, Lao Gan Ma – Sad, Old grandmother Chinese hot sauce)
 * Any of the above with lime or lemon juice and sugar
 * BBQ sauce and mayo

Pickling the vegetables

 * 1) Lightly sprinkle the julienned carrot and radish with salt. Let rest 5 min, then rinse with cold water.
 * 2) Mix equal parts of water, vinegar with sugar. Bring to a boil, cool, and pour over vegetables.
 * 3) Store this mixture in a container in the refrigerator for at least a day before using.

Sandwich assembly

 * 1) Slice a length of baguette lengthwise. Form a trench in each half by either removing the excess bread or compressing it. These depressions are where you will put the filling.
 * 2) Toast the bread if desired.
 * 3) Spread a layer of desired sauce(s) on each half of the bread.
 * 4) Fill the sandwich with any of the desired fillings listed above.
 * 5) Serve.

title: Cookbook:Bánh Mì


text:
User talk:Alettaka

Alettaka, welcome to Wikibooks and thanks for your contributions and interest. It is great to have highly educated people like yourself helping us keep the standards high. Hope you enjoy your work here. Let me know at any time you think I could be of help to you in any way. --Karl Wick

title: User talk:Alettaka


text:
Electronics/KVL

Kirchoff's Voltage Law
Kirchoff's laws can be described with a sentence as, What comes in, must go out. It's that simple. You have a potential on one side of a battery, then you need the negative potential on the other side of the battery. You have a current into a junction, the same current must go out of the junction.

in a circuit

in series voltage drops and current stays constant in parallel voltage stays constant and current divides according to the resistance

voltage stays constant in parallel and current drops in p

Voltage is the potential between two charges.

The nice things about potentials is you can add or subtract them in series to make a larger or smaller potential as is commonly done in batteries.

In parallel voltage...

The flow a circuit is that of a potential drop. Electrons flow from areas of high potential to ground which is low potential. At a given place in a circuit there are numerous paths to ground. Each of them has the same voltage as they have the same potential from ground.

All the components of a circuit have resistance that acts as a potential drop.

title: Electronics/KVL


text:
Electronics/Diodes

Diode
Theoretically, a diode allows current flow in only one direction. An ideal diode acts as a perfect insulator for currents flowing in one direction and as a perfect conductor for currents flowing through it in the other direction. The direction in which the diode allows current to flow is called the forward bias direction and that in which current is resisted is called reverse bias direction. Diode has a symbol as shown
 * [[Image:Diode symbol.svg]]

Construction
The modern semiconductor diode consists of two regions of semiconductor each having impurities of different types such that one side has excess holes (p-region) and the other has excess electrons (n-region). Such a junction of p and n regions is called a pn junction diode. The p-region has about twice as much area as the n-region to compensate for the lesser mobility of holes compared to electrons.
 * + o-- [P | N]--o - .Theoretically, a diode allows current flow in only one direction the most common type today  is a crystalline piece of material with a p junction connected to two electrical terminals.

I V Curve

As seen in the graph above the diode actually works in both the forward region and the backward region. In the forward region the value of I and V are positive and in the backward region I and V are negative.

Forward Region

 * Current and Voltage are positive
 * When V < Vd . I = 0 . Diode does not conduct
 * Khi V = Vd . I = 1mA . Diode starts to conduct . Vd = 0.3v|Ge, 0.6v|Si
 * Vd is called Forward Break Over Voltage
 * Khi V > Vd . Diode conducts current . Current is calculated by $$I = I_o [e^{(\frac{V_d}{nV_T})t} - 1]$$

Backward Region

 * Current and Voltage are Negative
 * When the value of voltage is more negative than the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Voltage the Diode will be destroyed

Ideal Diode
The real diode approaches the ideal diode in the sense that the reverse current is extremely small (less than 1fA) at least for a significant part of the characteristic, and the forward current is very high (on the order of 1mA). Although a real diode does not have the characteristics as the ideal diode, in theory it is possible to make an ideal diode if the concentrations of dopants in both the regions are infinite. However, there is no way of actually doing this and experiments do not agree.

The Shockley equation
The diode reverse (saturation) current is governed by the doping concentration. The current flowing through the device varies as the voltage applied across it changes as given by the Shockley diode equation (not to be confused with Schottky):

$$I_D = I_S [ exp(V_D/nV_T) - 1 ]$$

In the equation above $$V_T$$ is defined as $$V_T = k T/q$$, where $$k$$ is Boltzmann's constant, $$T$$ is the temperature in Kelvin, and $$q$$ is the magnitude of the charge on an electron.

In the forward bias direction, current flows with low voltage. If one draws a characteristic for this equation, a sharp increase in current can be seen at a particular voltage called the cut-in voltage or the on-voltage.

In the reverse bias mode, the diode current is approximately $$-I_S$$. This is called the reverse saturation current because it looks like the diode is saturated with charge and cannot allow more current in the reverse bias direction than this.

It initially appears that as the temperature $$T$$ increases, the total diode current would decrease. However, the saturation current $$I_S$$ increases with temperature faster than the $$V_T$$ term decreases the current. This leads to a negative temperature coefficient for the entire device: as the diode heats up, it will pass more current.

Break-down
However, a break from the above equation takes place at a point called break-down voltage. One could think of it as the point where the Shockley equation breaks down and is no longer valid. There are two reasons for breakdown to occur.

Avalanche Breakdown
 * This occurs as a result of excess minority carriers in a region. Minority carriers are those carriers that are in the wrong region. For example, electrons will be minority carriers in the p-region.

Zener Breakdown
 * This is basically due to a size difference or dopant concentration difference. One of the regions has a greater region of depletion (Reverse bias voltage induces a depletion region, which is sparse in a densely doped region and dense in a sparsely doped region. )

See also Zener diodes

Summary
So basically, there are three modes in which a diode operates:

Forward
 * No current flows until a small forward voltage is reached called cut-in voltage.

Reverse
 * The diode prevents current from flowing in the opposite direction. Current is small, and voltage can be large (but not exceeding the Zener voltage.)

Breakdown
 * Once the diode voltage is more negative than the Zener voltage, the diode allows current to flow in the reverse direction.

When there is no voltage applied, the excess electrons of the N type semiconductor flow into the holes of the P type semiconductor. This creates a depletion region that acts as a voltage.

Diode Variations
Bridge Rectifier:
 * A diode circuit that 'rectifies' alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). The bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier, meaning that both the positive and negative portions of the wave become positive.  (In a half-wave rectifier, positive stays positive, and negative becomes zero.)  The bridge rectifier has advantages over other full-wave rectifier designs, because it reduces peak-inverse voltage (PIV), the largest negative voltage across a single junction diode.  By reducing the PIV, it becomes possible to use diodes with lower breakdown (Zener) voltages.  This allows the use of cheaper diodes to perform the same function.
 * 4 Diode Bridge Rectifier.png

LED (Light Emitting Diode)
 * A diode that emits light!
 * [[Image:LED symbol.svg]]

Schottky:
 * A diode made from a metal-semiconductor junction, rather than an p-type/n-type silicon junction. These diodes typically have a much lower forward voltage drop than standard diodes (around 0.2V versus 0.6V).
 * [[Image:Schottky diode symbol.svg]]

Zener:
 * A diode that is meant to be operated in the breakdown region. These diodes have lower Zener (breakdown) voltages, so that they can achieve the breakdown mode without melting. Unlike other diodes, these have very specific breakdown voltages, typically between 2 and 200 volts. See also Zener diodes
 * [[Image:Zener diode symbol.svg]]

Varicap:
 * A diode that is build to use the capacity in dependance of the cross voltage. Although they rectify, they will be used in tuning circuits as a replacement of manual operated variable capacitors. They permit the use of electronic equipment to be controlled, this permits a phase-locked loop and other circuits which needs stability and electronic control. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity under certain conditions.

title: Electronics/Diodes


text:
Human Anatomy

Contents

 * Introduction
 * What is anatomy?
 * Terminology and Organization
 * /The Skeletal System/
 * Bones
 * Bone Tissue
 * Gross Anatomy of the Skeletal System
 * Joints
 * Musculature and Circulation
 * Myology
 * Muscle Fibers
 * Gross Anatomy of the Muscle System
 * The Heart
 * Angiology
 * Arteries
 * Veins
 * The Lymphatic System
 * The Nervous System
 * The Neuron
 * Anatomy of Neural Interactions
 * Gross Anatomy of the Nervous System
 * The Organs of the Senses
 * Organ Systems
 * Splanchnology
 * The Respiratory System
 * The Digestive System
 * The Integumentary System
 * The Integumentary System

 * Human Positions
 * Surface Anatomy and Surface Markings

title: Human Anatomy


text:
Electronics/Units

These are the units you would find when doing problems in electronics. The majority of these units are named after famous people in the field who either discovered the units or had someone else name the units after them.

One reason people don't understand math or Physics very well is that it literally is Greek to them.

(Do we want these separated from the definitions page? or should we include all of these on the definitions page and just have a separate units page too?)

''My take on the units page is that it is a guide for doing math problems. Imagine doing a math problem and coming across Ξ. That's where the units page comes in handy as you only have to search through a small number of units to find the unit you want. Ideally all the definitions in Units should find their way into the main definitions page.''

''Ok. So we should copy all of these to the definitions page as well? Things like frequency, length, time and wavelength are not units; they should be in the definitions section and not here. Hertz, meters, and seconds are units.''

Ampere, Amp (A): The SI unit for current I. Equals a coulomb (1 C) of charged particles moving past a point in one second (1 s). $$A = \frac{C}{s}$$

Coulomb (C): The SI unit for charge Q. 1 C = 6.24 x 1018 Q

Cycles per second (cps): As the name implies, a measurement of frequency in full cycles of a wave per second. This is equivalent to Hertz, but Hertz is the official unit. The unit cps (or kilocycles, megacycles, etc.) is more often seen in older documents.

Farad (F): The SI unit for Capacitance (C). One Farad equals a capacitor that has a Coulomb (1 C) of charge on it with a voltage separation of a Volt (1 V). $$F = \frac{C}{V}$$

Inductance

Henry (H): The SI unit for inductance. $$H =V \frac{s}{A}$$

Frequency

Hertz (Hz): The SI unit for frequency. One Hz is one cycle per second.

Horse Power (HP): The power a horse can achieve. 1 HP = 746 W

Joule (J): The work required to move a Newton (1 N) a meter (1 m). J = N m

Length: (l): The symbol for distance in meters (m).

Meter (m): The SI unit for distance. The distance light travels in 1/299,792,458 second.

Ohm (Ω): A measure of resistance or impedance. 1 Ohm =

Second (s): The SI unit for time.

SI: The standard system of units.

Time (t): The symbol for time in seconds (s).

Volt (V): A potential due to an electric field. $$V = \frac{C}{J}$$

Watt (W): A measure of power (P). A Watt is a Joule (1 J) of work done in a second (1 s). $$W = \frac{J}{s}$$

Wavelength (λ): The distance between two peaks of a cycle.

title: Electronics/Units


text:
Human Anatomy/Osteology

 * /Structure/
 * The Axial Skeleton
 * Skull
 * Vertebral Column
 * Thorax
 * The Appendicular Skeleton
 * Upper Extremities
 * Lower Extremities

title: Human Anatomy/Osteology


text:
Human Anatomy/Osteology/Introduction

The framework of the body is built upon a series of bones, supplemented in certain regions by cartilage; the bony part of the framework constitutes the skeleton.

The skeletal system serves several functions, among them are:

 * Protection and support: The ribs protect the organs of the thorax and the skull protects the brain. The legs support the weight of the entire body. The vertebrae also support the upper body.

 * Movement: Most skeletal muscles attach to the bones of the skeletal system and use them as leverage points for movement of the body.

 * Production of blood cells: The bone marrow produces blood cells in a process known as hematopoiesis.

 * Storage: "Yellow bone marrow" or adipose tissue stores fat in the medullary cavity of long bones. Bones can also be broken down to release inorganic calcium and phosphorus stored in the non cellular matrix of the bone.

In the skeleton of the adult there are generally 206 distinct bones:

Axial Skeleton:
 * Vertebral column 26
 * Skull 22
 * Hyoid bone 1
 * Ribs and sternum 25
 * Auditory ossicles 6
 * Total 80

Appendicular Skeleton:
 * Upper extremities 64
 * Lower extremities 62
 * Total 126

Total 206

Types of Bones
Bones are divisible into four classes: Long, Short, Flat, and Irregular. Long Bones are found in the limbs and function as levers, they are longer than they are wide. Short Bones transfer forces of movement and are cube shaped as in the carpus and tarsus. Flat Bones are used for either extensive protection or the provision of broad surfaces for muscular attachment. The bones expand into broad, flat plates, as in the skull and the scapula. Irregular Bones have peculiar forms, cannot be grouped under the preceding heads, and are used for muscle attachment and articulation. Some irregular bones include the vertebræ, sacrum and coccyx.

LONG BONE
Long bones consists of a body or shaft and two extremities. The body, or diaphysis is cylindrical, with a central cavity termed the medullary cavity. The wall consists of dense, compact tissue of considerable thickness in the middle part of the body, but becoming thinner toward the extremities. Within the medullary cavity is adipose tissue or "yellow bone marrow".

The extremities are refered to as the epiphysis. Within the epiphysis is the "spongy bone" also known as "red bone marrow". It is within this marrow that red blood cells are produced at an average rate of 2.5 million per second. Running horizontally across the spongy bone of this region is the Epiphyseal line which is a region of cell growth responsible for lateral bone growth during youth, when growth is complete this line calcifies and becomes known as the epiphyseal plate.

Nutrient foramen run through the compact bone and allow the passage of nutrients in and out of the bone. There is a thin outer layer of connective tissue called the PERIOSTEUM which is highly vascular and allows for muscle and tendon attachment, it is bound to the bone itself by PERFORATING FIBERS which are composed of collagen. This layer does not cover the articulating regions of the bone. The bones belonging to this class include: the clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges. it is strongest largest of all body bones.

SHORT BONE
Short bones are generally equal in length, width, and thickness. They are found in the wrists and ankles. Aside from points of insertion and vascular areas, short bones are almost completely covered by articular surfaces.

FLAT BONE
These bones are composed of two thin layers of compact tissue enclosing between them a variable quantity of spongy bone. They generally offer protection, as is the case with the bones of the cranium and with the ribs and sternum.

title: Human Anatomy/Osteology/Introduction


text: Electronics/Laplace Transform pairs

title: Electronics/Laplace Transform pairs


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of India

| South Asian cuisines

Indian cuisine is the general term for the wide variety of cooking styles from India. Indian food is almost always prepared with fresh ingredients along with delicate mixtures of many different fresh and dried spices and the exact recipes often vary greatly from one household to the next. To refer to Indian Cuisine is almost a misnomer, since the regional dishes vary tremendously from region to region.

Perception and Myths
Curry Phenomenon: In Western countries, such as Great Britain and the United States, the complex formulations of fresh and dried spices are often replaced by simple dry powders such as red chilli powder and curry powder. The word curry comes from the Tamil kari or Marathi kadi (a type of thick sauce).

Hot/Spice Factor: Indian food is usually perceived as 'spicy' or 'hot'. While that is sometimes true, most Indian foods are not necessarily 'spicy' or 'hot'. Chilli peppers similar to cayenne chili peppers, commonly referred to as "chilli(es)" in Indian cookbooks and lexicon, are the common culprit for making the dishes fiery hot. If you do not prefer the heat, stay away from dishes that contain liberal use of chillies, or tone down the chilli amount to suit your taste. The other ingredient to be careful with is peppercorn, most commonly referred to as "pepper" in Indian recipes and cookbooks. Cloves and cinnamon can be used to balance out the heat.

As an aside, no distinction is made between "spicy" and "hot". There are many recipes which have a lot of spice, but no chillies, and therefore are spicy and not hot!

As in most cuisines, most vegetable and meat dishes are called by thousands of different names, depending on the region, language, ingredients and method of preparation. The recipes listed here are only examples of a few Indian dishes and should not be considered as a general guide to Indian food. Feel free to experiment with them. Substituting spices and altering the suggested procedures is encouraged. Indians regularly engage in such practices and often create unique tastes in their household.

Main Dishes

 * Aloo gobi
 * Aloo masala
 * Potato masala (potato filling for dosa)
 * Appam (Kerala rice pancake)
 * Basic Indian Tomato Gravy (curry base)
 * Southern Style Baingan Bartha (roasted eggplant with curd))
 * Cholley (chickpeas, also called chana)
 * Dal Makhani
 * Dosa (thin and crisp, similar to a crepe)
 * Kairi /Khichidi (rice seasoned with various lentils)
 * Rassa Bhaaji (Bittergourd)
 * Keralan Vegetable Stew
 * Kharngal (spiced rice and lentil porridge)
 * Malai Mixed Vegetable
 * Matar Paneer
 * Menthi Koora Pappu (lentil stew with Methi leaves)
 * Pachadi (cucumber dish from Kerala)
 * Puttu
 * Rava Dosa (Dosa made from Rava instead of Rice)
 * Tadka dhal (lentil stew)
 * Undhiyu (mixture of different vegetables)
 * Uperu (Kannada lentil-spinach dish and broth)
 * Guthu-vankai (Telugu Brinjal filled with masala and fried sometimes boiled)

Rice Dishes

 * Pulihora or Puliyodarai Quick
 * Pulikkachal (Tamarind Rice)
 * Lemon Rice
 * Saffron Rice
 * Curry fried rice
 * Pulao
 * Coconut Rice
 * Indian Rice

Non-Vegetarian Dishes

 * Badami Murgh
 * Biryani (rice-based dish)
 * Bombay duck/Bomry/Bomil Fry (fried fish)
 * Chicken Curry
 * Chicken Vindaloo
 * Chicken Tikka
 * Chicken Tikka Masala
 * Murghi korma (Chicken Curry)
 * Chicken Madras
 * Chicken Onion Fry
 * Chicken kebab
 * Chicken Jalfrezi
 * Chicken Paprika
 * Saffron Chicken
 * Murgh Makhni
 * Mutton Sukha
 * Lamb Madras
 * Prawn Curry
 * Prawn fry
 * Crab Masala
 * Malvani Chicken Curry
 * Pork Aachi (Kerala style pork with a western touch)
 * Egg Rice (an accompaniment that can also be eaten by itself)
 * Shrimp Hooman (An authentic goan saraswat shrimp curry )
 * Butter Chicken (Chicken Makhni, Chicken cooked with a taste of butter)

Accompaniments

 * Aavakaaya
 * Coriander Chutney
 * Cucumber Raita
 * Chilli and Ginger Chutney
 * Coconut chutney
 * Sweet n Sour Mango Chutney
 * Mirchi ka Salan (Chilly curry)
 * Sambar
 * Rasam
 * Pan masala
 * Raita

Breads

 * Aapam
 * Adhirasam
 * Baati
 * Bhatoora (wheat bread)
 * Chapati or Roti (thin flat bread)
 * Idli
 * Idiyappam
 * Dosa (thin crispy rice pan cake)
 * Koki (thick chapati can be made with onions and coriander or just plain salt and pepper)
 * Kulcha (mixed vegetable bread)
 * Kuzhi Paniyaaram
 * Mudde (ragi ball)
 * Naan (flat wheat bread)
 * Puri or loochi
 * Shirmal
 * Uthappam
 * Wade
 * Wheat Bread stuffed with Vegetables (Stuffings may be potatoes, cauliflowers, or anything else)

Snacks

 * Samosa (fried appetizer similar to dumplings, empanada)
 * Bengal Potatoes
 * Pohe (a form of rice flakes, called Avalakki in Kannada)
 * Onion Bhaji
 * Namkeens (indian fried crackers)
 * Mixture (spicy party mix, sometimes called Bombay mix)
 * Hyderabadi Haleem (Hyderabadi Porridge)
 * Mirapakaya Bajji (Chilli Snack)
 * Bonda (Round wheat flour snack)
 * Gare (Green Gram Snack)
 * Punugu (Small Version of Bonda)
 * Dabeli
 * Pakoda
 * Khandvi
 * Mysore bhaji
 * Muthiya
 * Murukku

Sweets

 * Ashoka Halwa (Moong dal sweet)
 * Barfi (condensed milk sweet)
 * Boondi Ladoo (Chickpea flour based with sugar and ghee)
 * Chakarai Pongal (sweetened rice and lentil dish)
 * Double ka Meetha (Bread Pudding)
 * Gajar ka Halwa (Carrot Pudding)
 * Gulab jamun (deep-fried milk based sweet)
 * Jalebi (syrupy sweets shaped like pretzels)
 * Kesari (Semolina pudding - South Indian Style)
 * Kal Kals (fried Christmas sweet)
 * Kheer (rice pudding)
 * Modak (fried coconut dumplings)
 * Mohanthaal (Gram flour sweet)
 * Mysore Pak (Chickpea flour based with sugar and ghee)
 * Qubani ka meetha (Apricot Pudding)
 * Rosogulla (steamed cheese based sweet)
 * Ras Malai (mild cheese dumplings soaked in sweetened, thickened milk syrup)
 * Sheer Khurma (sweet Vermicelli Pudding)
 * Shrikhand (De-watered Yogurt)
 * Surati Ghari (Almonds and Pistachio dumplings Garnished with Ghee)
 * Ghever
 * Kulfi (Indian frozen dessert)
 * Mishti Doi

Beverages

 * Masala Chai (hot spiced milk tea, traditionally referred to as just 'chai')
 * Madras Filter Coffee (sweet milky drip-brewed coffee flavored with chicory)
 * Lassi (yoghurt-based drinks in either sweet or salted flavors; the most common flavors include mango, rosewater and plain sugar-sweetened lassi)
 * Jal-jeera (pungent spice and mint flavored water drink enjoyed in summer)
 * Lemon Sharbat (lemon juice added to water with salt and sugar )
 * Cookbook: Jigarthanda Milk (Milk, almond gum, sarsaparilla root syrup, sugar, and ice cream.)

Ingredients and their Cookbook names
Livre de cuisine/Recettes de cuisine indienne 料理本/インド料理 ms:Resipi:Masakan India

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of India