text:
Introspector/GccCpp/mytypes.h

here is my new tree.h wrapper

//#typedef HOST_WIDE_INT int ;
 * 1) ifndef HOST_WIDE_INT
 * 1) define HOST_WIDE_INT long
 * 2) endif

 * 1) include "machmode.h"

class rtx_def; class tree_decl; class tree_int_cst; class tree_real_cst; class tree_string; class tree_complex; class tree_vector; class tree_identifier; class tree_list; class tree_vec; class tree_exp; class tree_block; class tree_type;

class tree_common; typedef tree_common tree_node; typedef tree_node *tree;

C ; \ C (void *); \ C (C *); \ C (C &); \ C (const C &); \ operator bool const;\ C & operator = (void *); \ C & operator = (const C &); \ bool operator != (const C & ) const ; \ bool operator != (C & ) const;\ bool operator != (C & ) ;\ bool operator != (C * ) ; \ bool operator != (const int ) const ; /*!= 0*/		\ bool operator != (const int ); /*!= 0*/		\ bool operator == (const C & ) const ;		\ bool operator == (C & ) ;\ bool operator == (C * ) ;
 * 1) define TREECONSTRUCTOR2(C) \

TREECONSTRUCTOR2(C)\ C (tree_common *);
 * 1) define TREECONSTRUCTOR(C) \

template  class TRef { public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(TRef) bool operator != (T *); bool operator != (const int & ) const; bool operator != ( const T & ) ; bool operator == ( T ) ; T & operator = (T *); T & operator = (T &);

operator T ; };

template  class TPtr { public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(TPtr) bool operator != (T *); T & operator = (T *); T & operator = (T &);

T * operator -> ;

operator T ; };

template  class TreePtr { public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(TreePtr) bool operator != (T *); T & operator = (T *); T & operator = (T &);

operator tree_node* ; operator tree_decl * ; operator tree_int_cst * ; operator tree_real_cst* ; operator tree_string* ; operator tree_complex* ; operator tree_vector* ; operator tree_identifier* ; operator tree_list* ; operator tree_vec* ; operator tree_exp* ; operator tree_block* ; operator tree_type* ;

T * operator -> ;

operator T ;

bool operator != (const int &);

};

class TRefmachine_mode : public TRef { public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(TRefmachine_mode) operator int; TRefmachine_mode & operator = (TRefmachine_mode &); TRefmachine_mode & operator = (machine_mode ); TRefmachine_mode & operator == (machine_mode );

// TRefmachine_mode & operator ==  (int );

};

class mystring : public TRef { public: mystring & operator = (const char *); // mystring & operator = (const char *); };

class TRefHOST_WIDE_INT : public  TRef { public: TRefHOST_WIDE_INT ; TRefHOST_WIDE_INT ( HOST_WIDE_INT ); const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator = (const long int & ); const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator = (const int &); operator long int ; operator bool ; operator long unsigned int; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (const long int  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator &= (const long int  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator << (const long int  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator |= (const  TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator |= (const  unsigned long int &  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (const  int  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator &= (const  int  ) const; const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator << (const  int  ) const; bool operator < (TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &); bool operator < (long unsigned int &); bool operator < (int &); bool operator < (int) const;

bool operator == (const int & ) const; bool operator == (const long unsigned int & ) const; bool operator == (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; bool operator == (const HOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const;

bool operator != (const long int  ) const; bool operator != (const int  ) const; bool operator != (const unsigned  ) const; TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator ~  ; };

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT TRefHOST_WIDE_INTNULL;

// LOW class TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT : public  TRef { public: TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT ; TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT ( int ); TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator = (int );

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (const unsigned long int  &) const; const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (const   TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const;

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator += (const  int &  );

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator &= (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator |= (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator |= (const  unsigned long int &  ) const;

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator << (const long int  ) const;

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (long int  ) const ;

TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator + (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator ~  ; const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator ^ (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator ^= (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; bool operator != (const  TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; bool operator != (const  unsigned long int &  ) const; bool operator != (const int &  ) const;

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator << (const  int  ) const;

operator long int; operator int; bool operator < (long unsigned int &); bool operator < (TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &); bool operator < (int &);

bool operator == (const int  ) const; bool operator == (const unsigned int  ) const; bool operator == (const long unsigned int  ) const; bool operator == (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const; bool operator == (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &  ) const;

};

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INTNULL;

class tree_common ; typedef tree_common tree_node;

class BitRef2 : public TRef {

public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(BitRef2)

unsigned operator |= (unsigned);

bool operator == (const BitRef2&);

bool operator > (const long&); bool operator > (const BitRef2&); bool operator > (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &); bool operator > (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &);

bool operator > (TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &); bool operator > (TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &); bool operator < (const BitRef2&); const BitRef2 & operator = (unsigned); const BitRef2 & operator = (int );

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & operator += (const  int &  );

BitRef2 & operator ~  ; BitRef2 & operator << ( int ) ;

tree_node * operator = (tree_node * );

};

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator & (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &,const BitRef2 &  ); const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT & operator &= (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &,const BitRef2 &  ) ;

typedef BitRef2 TRefunsignedint; typedef BitRef2 TRefunsigned ; typedef BitRef2 TRefint;

const BitRef2 false_bit_ref;

class tree_type;

class TreeRef2 { public: TreePtr type;

int GetCode; BitRef2 side_effects_flag; BitRef2 constant_flag; BitRef2 addressable_flag; BitRef2 volatile_flag; BitRef2 readonly_flag; BitRef2 unsigned_flag; BitRef2 asm_written_flag; // BitRef unused_0 ;

BitRef2 used_flag; BitRef2 nothrow_flag; BitRef2 static_flag; BitRef2 public_flag; BitRef2 private_flag; BitRef2 protected_flag; BitRef2 deprecated_flag ; // BitRef unused_1 ;

BitRef2 lang_flag_0; BitRef2 lang_flag_1; BitRef2 lang_flag_2; BitRef2 lang_flag_3; BitRef2 lang_flag_4; BitRef2 lang_flag_5; BitRef2 lang_flag_6;

};

class TreeRef {

public: // create one // TreeRef(tree_node*);

int GetCode; tree_node * operator = (tree_node *);

bool operator ==  (const TreeRef2 &) const;

bool operator ==  (const TreeRef *) const; bool operator !=  (TreeRef &) const ; bool operator !=  (TreeRef *) const; bool operator !=  (const int & ) const; bool operator !=  (const int & ) ; bool operator !=  (const int  ) const; bool operator !=  (const int  ) ;

// bool operator !=  (const void *); // bool  operator !=  (void *); bool operator !=  ( unsigned );

bool operator ! ; operator bool ;

operator tree_node * ; /*

operator tree_decl * ; operator tree_int_cst * ; operator tree_real_cst* ; operator tree_string* ; operator tree_complex* ; operator tree_vector* ; operator tree_identifier* ; operator tree_list* ; operator tree_vec* ; operator tree_exp* ; operator tree_block* ; operator tree_type* ; */ };

class TreeExpRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeExpRef(tree_node *); tree_exp * operator -> ;

};

class TreeIntCstRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeIntCstRef(const TreeRef &); TreeIntCstRef(tree_node *); tree_int_cst * operator -> ; bool operator < (const TreeIntCstRef &) const; bool operator <= (const TreeIntCstRef &) const; bool operator > (const TreeIntCstRef &) const; bool operator > (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &) const; bool operator > (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &) const; bool operator > (const int &) const;

bool operator < (const unsigned long int &) const; bool operator < (const unsigned int &) const; bool operator < (const  int &) const; bool operator < (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &) const; bool operator < (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &) const; bool operator >= (const TreeIntCstRef &)const; bool operator == (const TreeIntCstRef &)const; bool operator != (const TreeIntCstRef &)const; const TreeIntCstRef& operator += (const TreeIntCstRef &); const TreeIntCstRef& operator + (const TreeIntCstRef &); const TreeIntCstRef& operator + (const int &); const TreeIntCstRef& operator += (const int &); const TreeIntCstRef& operator - (const TreeIntCstRef &); const TreeIntCstRef& operator - (tree ); const TreeIntCstRef& operator - (const int );

const TreeIntCstRef & operator << (long int  ); const TreeIntCstRef & operator << (const long int  ) const; const TreeIntCstRef & operator << (const int  ) const;

const TreeIntCstRef & operator & (long int  ) const ;

// operator long unsigned int ; };

unsigned int ToUnsignedInt(const TreeIntCstRef &);

template  long unsigned int ToLongUnsignedInt(T);

class TreeType;

class TreeTypeRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeTypeRef(tree_node *); TreeType * operator -> ; bool operator == (tree ) const;

bool operator == (const TreeTypeRef &) const; bool operator != (const TreeTypeRef &) const; bool operator != (tree ) const;

bool operator == (const TreeTypeRef *) const; bool operator != (const TreeTypeRef *) const; };

class TreeStringRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeStringRef(tree_node *); tree_string * operator -> ; };

class TreeName { public: operator tree_node * ; };

class TreeValuesRef { public: operator tree_node * ;

};

// interface used by fold-const class TreeType { public: TRefmachine_mode mode; TreeIntCstRef maxval; TreeIntCstRef minval; TreeIntCstRef size; TreeIntCstRef precision; TreeIntCstRef align; TreeTypeRef main_variant; TreeName name; TreeValuesRef values; };

class TreeDeclRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeDeclRef(tree_node *); tree_decl * operator -> ; };

class TreeRealCstRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeRealCstRef(tree_node *); tree_real_cst * operator -> ; };

class TreeComplexRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeComplexRef(tree_node *); tree_complex * operator -> ;

};

class TreeVectorRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeVectorRef(tree_node *); tree_vector * operator -> ; };

class TreeVecRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeVecRef(tree_node *); tree_vec * operator -> ;

TRef length; TreeRef a[1];

};

class TreeListRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeListRef(tree_node *); tree_list * operator -> ; };

class TreeExprRef : public TreeRef { public: TreeExprRef(tree_node *); tree_exp * operator -> ; };

class BitRef {

public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(BitRef) unsigned operator |= (unsigned); BitRef& operator = (int); operator unsigned ;

};

typedef BitRef2 TRefunsigned_long;

class basic_block_def; class bitmap_head_def; class cselib_val_struct;

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&        operator > (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &); const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&        operator > (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&,const BitRef &); const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT& operator > (const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT&,const BitRef2 &);

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&        operator > (const BitRef &,const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&); const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT& operator > (const BitRef2 &,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT&);

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&        operator > (const BitRef2 &,const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&); const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT& operator > (const BitRef &,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT&);

const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&        operator ^ (const long int &          ,const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT&); const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT& operator ^ (const unsigned long int & ,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT&);

const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT& operator ^ (const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT & ,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT&);

int & operator+=(int & ,const TRefunsignedHOST_WIDE_INT &); int & operator+=(int &,const TRefHOST_WIDE_INT &); const TreeIntCstRef & operator << (unsigned long int ,const TreeIntCstRef &); const TreeIntCstRef & operator << (long int ,const TreeIntCstRef &);

const TreeIntCstRef & operator &= (int,const TreeIntCstRef &);

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Horticulture/Abelia x grandiflora

Cultivation and uses
Abelia × grandiflora was first raised at the Rovelli nursery by Lake Maggiore in Italy in 1886. It is used as an ornamental plant in specimen plantings in gardens, or in a mixed border with other shrubs. Propagation is by cuttings.

Synonyms include Abelia rupestris Hort., Linnaea pringiana Graebn, and L. spaethiana Graebn.

title: Horticulture/Abelia x grandiflora


text:
Introspector/GccCpp/rtl.h

here is my start

 * 1) ifndef RTX_H
 * 2) define RTX_H

// we dont have this fully defined yet, rtx_code class TRefrtx_code : public TRef { public: TREECONSTRUCTOR(TRefrtx_code) operator int; TRefrtx_code & operator = (TRefrtx_code &); // TRefrtx_code & operator =  (rtx_code ); // TRefrtx_code & operator ==  (rtx_code ); // TRefrtx_code & operator ==  (int ); };

class rtvec_def; //typedef struct rtvec_def *rtvec; //union tree_node;

class rtx; class rtvec; class mem_attrs; class reg_attrs;

class addr_diff_vec_flags { public: /* Set at the start of shorten_branches - ONLY WHEN OPTIMIZING - : */ BitRef2 min_align; /* Flags: */ BitRef2 base_after_vec; /* BASE is after the ADDR_DIFF_VEC. */ BitRef2  min_after_vec;  /* minimum address target label is after the ADDR_DIFF_VEC. */ BitRef2  max_after_vec;  /* maximum address target label is after the ADDR_DIFF_VEC. */ BitRef2  min_after_base; /* minimum address target label is after BASE. */ BitRef2  max_after_base; /* maximum address target label is after BASE. */ /* Set by the actual branch shortening process - ONLY WHEN OPTIMIZING - : */ BitRef2 offset_unsigned; /* offsets have to be treated as unsigned. */ BitRef scale; };

class rtunion_base { public: mystring rtstr; TRef rtint; TRef rtuint; TRef m_rtx; TPtr m_rtvec; TRefmachine_mode rttype; addr_diff_vec_flags rt_addr_diff_vec_flags; cselib_val_struct *rt_cselib; bitmap_head_def *rtbit; tree rttree; basic_block_def *bb; mem_attrs *rtmem; reg_attrs *rtreg; }; //typedef union rtunion_def rtunion;

class rtx_u { public: rtunion_base fld[1]; HOST_WIDE_INT hwint[1]; } ;

class rtx_insides { public:

TRefmachine_mode mode; TRefrtx_code code;

/* 1 in a MEM if we should keep the alias set for this mem unchanged when we access a component. 1 in a CALL_INSN if it is a sibling call. 1 in a SET that is for a return. In a CODE_LABEL, part of the two-bit alternate entry field. */ BitRef2 jump ; /* In a CODE_LABEL, part of the two-bit alternate entry field. 1 in a MEM if it cannot trap. */ BitRef2  call ; /* 1 in a REG, MEM, or CONCAT if the value is set at most once, anywhere. 1 in a SUBREG if it references an unsigned object whose mode has been from a promoted to a wider mode. 1 in a SYMBOL_REF if it addresses something in the per-function constants pool. 1 in a CALL_INSN, NOTE, or EXPR_LIST for a const or pure call. 1 in a JUMP_INSN, CALL_INSN, or INSN of an annulling branch. */ BitRef2   unchanging ; /* 1 in a MEM or ASM_OPERANDS expression if the memory reference is volatile. 1 in an INSN, CALL_INSN, JUMP_INSN, CODE_LABEL, BARRIER, or NOTE if it has been deleted. 1 in a REG expression if corresponds to a variable declared by the user, 0 for an internally generated temporary. 1 in a SUBREG with a negative value. 1 in a LABEL_REF or in a REG_LABEL note for a non-local label. In a SYMBOL_REF, this flag is used for machine-specific purposes. */ BitRef2  volatil ; /* 1 in a MEM referring to a field of an aggregate. 0 if the MEM was a variable or the result of a * operator in C;    1 if it was the result of a. or -> operator (on a struct) in C.    1 in a REG if the register is used only in exit code a loop. 1 in a SUBREG expression if was generated from a variable with a    promoted mode. 1 in a CODE_LABEL if the label is used for nonlocal gotos and must not be deleted even if its count is zero. 1 in a LABEL_REF if this is a reference to a label outside the current loop. 1 in an INSN, JUMP_INSN or CALL_INSN if this insn must be scheduled together with the preceding insn. Valid only within sched. 1 in an INSN, JUMP_INSN, or CALL_INSN if insn is in a delay slot and from the target of a branch. Valid from reorg until end of compilation; cleared before used. 1 in an INSN, JUMP_INSN or CALL_INSN or related rtx if this insn is    dead code. Valid only during dead-code elimination phase; cleared before use. */ BitRef2   in_struct ; /* At the end of RTL generation, 1 if this rtx is used. This is used for copying shared structure. See `unshare_all_rtl'. In a REG, this is not needed for that purpose, and used instead in `leaf_renumber_regs_insn'. 1 in a SYMBOL_REF, means that emit_library_call has used it as the function. */ BitRef2   used ; /* Nonzero if this rtx came from procedure integration. 1 in a REG or PARALLEL means this rtx refers to the return value of the current function. 1 in a SYMBOL_REF if the symbol is weak. */ BitRef2   integrated ; /* 1 in an INSN or a SET if this rtx is related to the call frame, either changing how we compute the frame address or saving and restoring registers in the prologue and epilogue. 1 in a MEM if the MEM refers to a scalar, rather than a member of    an aggregate. 1 in a REG if the register is a pointer. 1 in a SYMBOL_REF if it addresses something in the per-function constant string pool. */ BitRef2   frame_related ;

rtx_u u; };

class rtx {

public: rtx; rtx(const rtx & ); rtx(rtx &); rtx(rtx *); rtx(int); operator bool; operator void*; rtx_insides * operator -> ; };

class rtvec { public: rtvec(int); operator bool;

int num_elem;		/* number of elements */ rtx elem[1];

};
 * 1) endif


text:
Template:1911

This page incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

title: Template:1911


text: Talk:Horticulture/Trifolium

title: Talk:Horticulture/Trifolium


text:
User talk:Nesnad/sandbox/Things you want

It's time to get what you want. But how do you do that? With a phrase like this.

 これ を  ください

''' This please. '''

This makes it pretty easy to ask for anything. Just thing with a please on it. Plug in your things and you're set! Johnny must be smiling right now. Things you want people to do can be said in almost the same way too. OK, let's watch Johnny and Mary at a local bar. Hmmm, what will they talk about?

If Johnny wanted Mary to drink some too, what would he say? Lets find out!

Notice that Johnny put the thing with the article thing and then the special action word right before please. He could skip the thing and the article and just ask Mary to drink, but he wanted to be more clear about what to drink. Lets hope they don't get too drunk!

And now the final wrap up of all our new skills?

 * Next: empty link


text:
Cookbook:Cincinnati-Style Chili

Ingredients

 * 2 pounds ground beef
 * 1 quart cold water
 * 1 can (6 ounces) tomato paste
 * 2 medium onions, finely chopped
 * 2 cloves of garlic, minced
 * 1 tablespoon vinegar
 * 1 teaspoon Worcestershire sauce
 * 3 tablespoons chili powder
 * 1 tablespoon salt
 * 1 teaspoon cumin
 * ½ teaspoon oregano
 * ½ teaspoon cayenne pepper
 * ½ teaspoon black pepper
 * ½ teaspoon cinnamon
 * ½ teaspoon allspice
 * ¼ teaspoon marjoram
 * ⅛ teaspoon ground cloves
 * 2 bay leaves

Procedure

 * 1) Crumble the raw ground beef into the cold water.
 * 2) Add remaining ingredients and spices. Stir well, breaking the meat up before cooking.
 * 3) Cover and simmer over low heat for two hours, stirring occasionally.
 * 4) Cool, then refrigerate and remove solidified grease.
 * 5) Reheat and serve as desired.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve over spaghetti. Top with cheese to make a Three-way, top with onions and cheese to make a Four-way, top with cooked pinto beans, onions and cheese to make a Five-way. May also be used as hot dog sauce with mustard and minced onions to make a Coney, adding shredded cheese to make a Cheese Coney.

title: Cookbook:Cincinnati-Style Chili


text:
Cookbook:Indian Butter Chicken II (Murgh Makhni)

Ingredients

 * Plain yogurt
 * Ginger
 * Garlic
 * Green chili paste
 * Chicken, cut into pieces
 * Butter
 * Tomato purée
 * Red chile powder
 * Salt
 * Garam masala
 * Cream

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the yogurt, ginger, garlic, and chili paste. Add the chicken, and let marinate for a few hours.
 * 2) Heat butter in a skillet. Add the chicken mixture, and fry.
 * 3) Make a red gravy of tomato purée, red chili powder, salt, and garam masala. Add water, bring to a boil and reduce heat.
 * 4) Add the cooked chicken mixture to the sauce, and coat well.
 * 5) Add cream, and simmer for 10 minutes.
 * 6) Serve hot.


text:
Conlang/Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds

Radicals
Radicals are sounds produced in the back of the throat. They are divided into two categories: pharyngeals and epiglottals. Pharyngeals/epiglottals are commonly found in Afro-Asiatic languages of North Africa/Middle East/Horn Africa.. (Arabic, Somali, Egyptian/Ancient-Egyptian-Coptic and related languages) and in British Columbia, in the Salishan languages. Pharyngeal plosives are thought to be impossible. Very few languages contrast epiglottal and pharyngeal consonants.

The pharyngeals possible are the voiceless pharyngeal fricative and the voiced pharyngeal fricative, actually an approximant. The epiglottals possible are the epiglottal plosive, the voiceless epiglottal fricative, the voiced epiglottal fricative, actually an approximant, the epiglottal trill, and the epiglottal flap, which is not known to occur in any language.

Ingressive and mixed airstreams
An ingressive airstream is what is generated when, instead of air flowing out, air flows in. In a mixed airstream consonant, air is pushed both in and out of the mouth, by two different methods. Ingressive consonants can be either voiced or voiceless. There are three types of ingressive consonants: Pulmonic ingressive, glottalic ingressive and clicks. Mixed airstreams are found in implosive consonants and some clicks. In order of commonness, they are ejectives, implosives, and clicks and glottal ingressives. Pulmonic ingressives are not known to be phonemic in any language.

Ejectives
There are a large number of ejective consonants. The most common is k'. They are considered glottalic egressives, where the airflow is caused by the glottis moving upward rapidly, causing pressure in the oral cavity to increase rapidly. They are slightly more common than implosive consonants according to WALS, occuring in 95 languages, out of the 576 languages listed. It is sometimes postulated to exist in PIE, but such theories are usually discredited. All ejectives are unvoiced and oral (not nasal nor glottal). They are represented with an apostrophe after the letter in question. Semivowel and trill ejectives are postulated to exist, but are not found in languages, presumably because of the difficulty in pronouncing such ejectives. All unvoiced oral obstruents can be ejectives, but bilabial ejectives are rare. If a sound is not in the voiceless inventory of a language, it is unlikely that it will have the corresponding ejective.

Implosives
The implosive consonants are as follows. They are found in 76 out of 576 languages listed according to WALS. They are mainly found in sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia. Most "pulmonic" stops are lightly imploded. They are made of Although affricate implosives are theoretically possible, they are not found, presumably due to the difficulty in pronouncing and distinguishing it.
 * b - ɓ
 * d - ɗ
 * ɟ - ʄ
 * g - ɠ This appears in english as the "glug-glug" onomatopoeia

Glottalic ingressives
Glottalic ingressive consonants are articulated similarly, except that they are voiceless. They are significantly rarer than implosive consonants. They are usually shown as an implosive consonant with a voiceless diacritic. Occasionally they are shown with a upward left hook and the corresponding voiceless consonant like ƙ (which in some dialects, is also the glug-glug onomatopoeia). These are extremely rare.

Clicks
Lingual ingressives, or clicks, are the next most common, centered around the Khoisan languages in Africa. Khoisan is not a genetic family, but a wastebasket taxon with most click languages of Africa. Clicks can be articulated in a variety of ways. They can be nasalized and can be pulmonically voiced, unvoiced, or a whole litany of contours. Clicks come in several main POAs, bilabial, dental, alveolar, retroflex, and palatal. In addition there is a percussive click, pronounced by the tongue smacking the bottom of the mouth. The percussive click only occurs in a cluster with alveolars in the only language where it is attested, the Sandawe language.

Click consonants are famous to the Western world mainly because of the 1980s movie, The Gods Must Be Crazy, in which the main character is a member of a tribe that communicates only in clicks. No language has been found that communicates in only clicks, however.
 * is a dental click and ! is an alveolar click

title: Conlang/Advanced/Sounds/Unusual sounds


text:
Cookbook talk:Salată de Boeuf (Romanian Beef Salad)

unclear
Specifies "1 can" peas, how big is a can?

Specifies juice of 1 lemon, how much juice is this?

Specifies "French mustard", Cookbook:mustard implies there are several kinds. Dijon mustard?

Specifies olives - black or green?

Random832 (talk) 19:51, 27 December 2007 (UTC)


text:
.NET Development Foundation/PageStructure

This is a template page

Please do not delete

The template will be used in the navigation bar


text:
Cookbook:Adobo Sauce

| Cuisine of Mexico | Southwestern U.S. cuisine | Tex-Mex cuisine

Adobo sauce is a sauce or marinade used in Latin American and Southwestern U.S.-style cooking, made of finely chopped or pureed chiles, garlic, vinegar, and often onions and tomatoes. Food that has been prepared with adobo is sometimes called adobado.

Chipotles in adobo sauce is a particular use of this condiment in which chipotles (smoked jalapeño peppers) are stewed in adobo sauce. Ingredients of this sauce generally include tomatoes, garlic, vinegar, salt, and spices.

Ingredients

 * 12 chipotle peppers or smoked, dried jalapeño peppers (most co-ops can get these for you, or try the specialty produce section of your grocery store)
 * 4 cups (0.95 L) water
 * ½ cup (120 ml) onion, diced
 * ⅓ cup (80 ml) apple cider vinegar
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) ketchup
 * 3 cloves garlic, crushed or sliced
 * 1 pinch of cumin, oregano
 * Salt to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Combine all ingredients in a heavy saucepan. Cook over a very low heat for 1–2 hours until the chiles are very soft and the liquid has been reduced to about 1 cup. Alternatively, cook in a slow cooker overnight.
 * 2) Beat with a mortar and pestle, or put in blender to puree for a thick sauce.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Sauce will keep for several weeks in the fridge in an airtight container. You can also can it in mason jars for longer storage, following proper procedures for sterilizing jars and canning.

title: Cookbook:Adobo Sauce


text:
User talk:70.80.155.147

Mattb112885 (talk to me) 02:52, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:70.80.155.147


text:
User talk:Jonasfagundes~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 03:05, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jonasfagundes. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jonasfagundes~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:17, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jonasfagundes~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Ah388775

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 03:05, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ah388775


text:
User talk:Kevin k

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 03:05, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kevin k


text:
Mirad/Sample Texts

The Lord's Prayer in Mirad

 * 1. Atia¹ ted tejea² totamu³,
 * 2. eta dún tatadwu¹,
 * 3. eta deban upu,
 * 4. eta vag swu¹ meiru gè swe totamu,
 * 5. buu atiu udjubu atia ádjuba¹ tel,

title: Mirad/Sample Texts


text:
Talk:Circuit Idea/Never Answered Circuit Questions

The idea behind this page
When we see for the first time a circuit, our natural human will is to understand it immediately, to discern the basic idea behind it and to imagine how it operates. Thinking about the new unrecognized circuit, we, human beings, begin asking a chain of natural questions. Alas, browsing through various electronics resources we usually cannot manage to find answers to our questions. Regretfully, education suppresses our most human desire - to ask questions and to get answers to questions. As a result, there are lots of questions that are never answered.

What are the questions that we need to understand, improve and invent new circuit?

...problem solved...

 * What is the problem that the circuit solves?
 * Where does this problem spring from?

... predecessors...

 * What are the simpler passive circuits, on which the new compound passive circuit is based?
 * What is the more elementary passive circuit that is transmuted into the new active one?
 * What is the relation between the old passive and the new active version?
 * What are the same but previous circuit implementations (tube, transistor, op-amp, etc.)?

... structure...

 * Why has the circuit the structure showed?
 * What is the sense of connecting the passive components?
 * Why are active components added to the circuit?
 * Why are the components connected in this way?

... operation...

 * What do the active components (tubes, transistors, op-amps, etc.) do in this circuit?
 * How do the active components do what they do?
 * Can we substitute the abstract active electronic components by equivalent electrical ones?
 * Can we put ourselves into their place?
 * What do we do to perform their action?

...general idea...

 * What is the basic circuit idea?
 * Where the circuit idea comes from?
 * How the idea is been evolving through years?

...imperfections...

 * What are the problems in the circuit examined?
 * What causes the problems? Is the cause internal or external?

...improvements...

 * How do we improve the circuit?
 * What additional components do we add to elaborate it?
 * Can we create an almost ideal circuit?

List of specific circuit questions
Voltage-to-current converter.


text:
Circuit Idea/Common Circuit Questions

<<< bottom - specific questions - page stage >>>

When we see for the first time a circuit, our natural human will is to understand it immediately, to discern the basic idea behind it and to imagine how it operates. Thinking about the new unrecognized circuit, we, human beings, begin asking a chain of natural questions. Alas, browsing through various electronics resources we usually cannot manage to find answers to our questions. Regretfully, education suppresses our most human desire - to ask questions and to get answers to questions.

This page contains a list of common questions that we need to understand, improve and invent new circuits. In other page, we will continuosly add specific circuit questions.

The problem

 * What is the problem that the circuit solves?
 * Where does this problem spring from?

Predecessors

 * What are the simpler passive circuits, on which the new compound passive circuit is based?
 * What is the more elementary passive circuit that is transmuted into the new active one?
 * What is the relation between the old passive and the new active version?
 * What are the same but previous circuit implementations (tube, transistor, op-amp, etc.)?

Structure

 * Why has the circuit this structure?
 * What is the sense of connecting the passive components?
 * Why are active components added to the circuit?
 * Why are the components connected in this way?
 * Can (some) internal circuit points serve as inputs or outputs?

Operation

 * What do the active components (tubes, transistors, op-amps, etc.) do in this circuit?
 * How do the active components do what they do?
 * Can we substitute the more abstract active electronic components by equivalent electrical ones?
 * Can we put ourselves into their place?
 * What do we do to perform their action?
 * Where currents flow?
 * What are the voltages of circuit nodes?

General idea

 * What is the basic circuit idea?
 * Where the circuit idea comes from?
 * How the idea is been evolving through years?

Imperfections

 * What are the problems in the circuit examined?
 * What causes the problems? Is the cause internal or external?

Improvements

 * How do we improve the circuit?
 * What additional components do we add to elaborate it?
 * Can we create an almost ideal circuit?
 * Can we reverse the circuit to obtain the opposite circuit?

<<< top - specific questions - page stage >>>

title: Circuit Idea/Common Circuit Questions


text:
Soil Mechanics/External links

You can find many useful documents on engineering geology, soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering design as 'engineer manuals' and 'technical manuals' on the US Army Corps of Engineers website:

title: Soil Mechanics/External links


text:
Disc Golf

Disc golf (sometimes called Frisbee golf, folf or frolf) is a disc game in which individual players throw a flying disc into a basket or at a target. According to the Professional Disc Golf Association, "The object of the game is to traverse a course from beginning to end in the fewest number of throws of the disc."

Disc golf is similar to traditional golf and uses much of the same rules and terminology. As in ball golf, a course usually consists of 18 holes. Unlike ball golf, most courses are located in public parks and are free to play, although some courses require a nominal fee, and the sport requires inexpensive discs instead of costly clubs and balls. The modern disc golf target consists of a metal basket with chains hanging over it and was invented in 1976.

Nomenclature
Disc golf is sometimes informally called "Frisbee golf" ("Frisbee" being a trademark of the Wham-O toy company for its line of discs), "folf", or "frolf" (a portmanteau of "Frisbee" and "golf" made popular by a reference on a 1997 episode of the television sitcom Seinfeld). The governing bodies of the sport and the manufacturers of equipment uniformly refer to the game as "disc golf."

Basic Terminology
Tee Pad - the area where the first throw of a given hole must take place. These are often concrete pads, but may also be natural tees (dirt or grass), paving stones, rubber sheets, or a marked portion of an existing sidewalk or parking lot.

The Basket - often called the pin. Once a disc lands in the basket, the hole is considered completed. Most commonly, a 'basket' is composed of a central pole, a catching basket with a set of chains suspended above it. The chains help to stop, or at least slow, the flight of the disc. This helps to drop the disc into the catching basket.

Throw - the act of propelling the disc towards the basket. Each throw is counted towards the player's score. There are three types of throws: backhand, forehand (often called sidearm), and overhand. (styles of throw are explained later in this entry)

Lie - the spot where the disc comes to rest. This is often marked by a mini-disc marker.

Par - like in ball golf, each disc golf course has a posted par. The ‘par’ is the number of strokes that a scratch player would need to complete the hole. This is usually the number of throws it takes to reach the green + two putts. On a hole less than 400 ft, the par is usually three, depending on the number of obstacles. For holes more than 400 ft, the par is usually four. Most disc golfers disregard the posted par, in favor of a universal par of three. To the competitive disc golfer, every hole is a par three, making the total par for 18 holes always 54. This serves to simplify the game. And this helps the average disc golfer measure themselves against the pros. Most pros can finish any hole in three strokes.

Drive - any throw off of the tee pad, or a throw from the fairway designed for maximum distance.

Approach - usually the second shot of a hole, designed to place the disc within putting distance.

Putt - a throw is officially considered a putt if it is made within the circle. Many players consider distances of twenty or thirty meter putts, and use their putting motion. There are special rules related to official putting however. (see below)

Ace - known as a hole in one in ball golf. An ace occurs when a player makes their first shot, or drive, into the basket. An ace in disc golf is fairly rare and much praise is given to those who have accomplished this spectacular feat.

The Circle - what is considered the green in disc golf. This is a circle ten meters in radius, with the basket at its center.

Differences and Similarities to Ball Golf
Unlike ball golf, disc golf is more able to utilize natural objects than ball golf. Forcing players to play through small holes in tree lines, or around hills and buildings, or through tight lines in the woods is not uncommon in disc golf. Having low canopies in the woods also provides an interesting challenge. Playing uphill or downhill is also common on the disc golf course. Some holes may be only 150 ft, but there could be three lines, with clearance of only ten feet that the disc must fly through to get to the hole. A good disc golf hole has multiple lines that can be used to reach the basket, making the use of multiple shots an option. A good disc golf course, however, has a few holes that force a certain kind of shot. These holes force players to use a wide variety of techniques, rewarding a player who has taken the time to master many different shots.

Older disc golf courses are generally shorter than newer courses, and all courses are much shorter than ball golf courses. The top pros generally throw between 300 ft. and 500 ft, while most amateurs throw less than 300 ft. People simply can't throw a disc as far as a golf ball can be hit. Older courses were designed before technology allowed discs to fly as far as they do, and so they tend to be shorter, with more technical holes, usually only featuring one or two holes that are over 350 ft or even 300 ft. Most new courses often feature holes that are more than 500 ft.

Rule differences with ball golf and disc golf:
 * In ball golf, the player can only carry 14 clubs. Disc golf has no rule concerning how many discs a disc golfer can carry. Also, disc golfers may add discs to their bag during the round, which is not allowed in ball golf.
 * Whereas club golfers must "play it where it lies" on the ground, it doesn't work the same with disc golf since the disc is thrown and not struck. Disc golfers must have a supporting point (usually a foot but can be any part of the body) on the playing surface within 30 cm behind the front edge of where their previous shot landed (if inbounds) at the point their next throw is released. This allows the disc golfer to lean to the left, or the right to establish a better angle around obstacles. His 'pivot' foot must remain behind his marker however. A special mini-disc is usually used to mark the previous lie on the ground, however the use of a mini is only required if the player would like to use the same disc they just threw or if they are moving the lie.
 * In disc golf, it is acceptable for a player to 'fall' in front of his lie. The motion of throwing the disc often involves a significant amount of force, which can cause a player to be off-balance. As long as his 'plant' of 'pivot' foot is behind his marker when he releases the disc, he may fall in front of the marker after the release. This allowance does NOT apply to putting. A throw is officially considered a putt in disc golf if the lie is marked within what is known as 'The Circle'. This is a circle with a ten-meter radius, with the pin at its center. After putting, a disc golfer must demonstrate balance with his plant foot, before they may step away from his marker. However, like golfers may putt from the fringe, rough or fairway, most disc golfers still use a putting motion on shots that are longer than 10 meters, often called "being out of the circle" or "being outside." The player may follow through on these shots and many players develop a jump putt where the golfer literally jumps towards the target. This allows a combination of accuracy that putting provides and more power on the putt.
 * Falling putts (when the player follows through [as described above] on a putt 10 meters or shorter) and foot faults (when a player does not release the disc behind their mark or within the required distance of the mark, when a player has a part of their body touching the ground on release past their mark or when their tee shot is released from off the teeing area) are penalized in a unique way. The first offense is not penalized a stroke, but the golfer is required to re-throw the shot and then is warned for the offense. Any subsequent fouls, however, are penalized one stroke and the golfer must re-throw.
 * Disc golf doesn't have "hazards" as defined in ball golf. Bodies of water, park roads and areas of cement are typically defined as out-of-bounds in disc golf, however, sometimes these are not. Most courses define these areas as out of bounds or in bounds on tee signs at each hole, however, there is no universal standard for these. As in ball golf, any out-of-bounds shot is a one stroke penalty, however, the rules for spotting the lie for the next shot are quite different than those in ball golf. If a throw lands out of bounds, unless defined by the hole, the thrower has the option of playing from the previous lie, or playing from the approximate spot where his disc crossed into the out-of-bound territory. If he chooses to play from where his disc crosses out-of-bounds, he may take a one-meter relief from the out-of-bounds area, even if it puts him closer to the pin. The rules do not permit a player to have a supporting point touching out of bounds on release so this is the reason for the relief. If a player lands within a meter of the out of bounds and is in bounds, he is still granted this relief for the same reasoning. This relief is an option, the only rule regarding this involving this is when the disc is released. Most golfers use this rule to their advantage to make putts closer or to improve their lie. Some holes may require a throw from a Drop Zone. If that is the case, the thrower simply moves to the drop zone to play his next shot. A disc is only considered out-of-bounds if it is completely surrounded by out-of-bounds. If any part of the disc is touching in-bounds, then the lie is playable.
 * Another difference is the optional penalty for a disc that lands more than 2 meters above the playing surface. The course designer may specify that on particular trees, holes, or the whole course, a disc landing above 2 meters will receive a one throw penalty. This is known as the 2-Meter Rule. If not specified, there's no penalty for a disc landing any height above the ground. In ball golf, it's likely a player will need to take an unplayable penalty if their ball lands above the ground. On the other hand, balls are much less likely to remain stuck above ground than discs are as they fly through trees. When the disc is stuck above ground (including on top of baskets and those that land in the wrong the basket) are to be marked directly below the disc. Even if the disc is not retrieveable, as long as the player can identify it, he is not penalized (assuming the 2- meter rule is not in effect). A tournament director has the option of enforcing the 2-Meter Rule regardless of whether or not the course enforces the rule. Many casual disc golfers often choose whether to play with the 2-Meter Rule at the beginning of a round.
 * Disc Golf holes may also have what are known as 'mandatories' or what are commonly called "mandos" These are obstacles that a disc must pass in a certain way. For example, a tree may be marked as a 'right mandatory', meaning a disc must pass that tree on the right side. Failure to hit a mandatory is a one-stroke penalty, and the thrower must play from his previous lie or a drop zone if provided. Mandos are usually put in place to force a player to play down a fairway instead of down another fairway to help with safety.

Safety: Disc golf is usually played in a public park, thus bikers, hikers, children playing and campers are often on the course. On some courses, such as on a college campus, athletic activities often take place on fairways. Disc golfers have to be very careful to avoid pedestrians, and it is a generally accepted rule that pedestrians have the right-of-way.

Equipment
The golf disc used today is much smaller than traditional flying discs. Also, general-purpose flying discs, such as those used for playing guts or Ultimate Frisbee, have a simple edge to them, whereas disc golf discs have extended lips. They also have a much smaller diameter and profile.

There are a wide variety of discs, divided into three basic categories: putters, mid-range discs, and drivers.

The putters are designed similar to discs you would play catch with: e.g., a Wham-o brand Frisbee®. They are designed to fly straight, predictably, and very slowly compared to mid-range discs and drivers. Mid-range discs have slightly sharper edges, which enable them to cut through the air better. Drivers have the sharpest edge and have most of their mass concentrated on the outer rim of the disc rather than distributed equally throughout. Drivers are the hardest types of discs to learn how to throw; their flight path will be very unpredictable without practice. Drivers are also often divided into different categories. Innova Discs, the most popular disc manufacturer, divides their discs into Distance Drivers and Fairway Drivers, with a fairway driver being somewhere between a distance drive and a mid-range disc. New players will find that throwing a distance driver accurately will require experience with disc golf disc response. It is better to begin play with a fairway driver and later incorporate distance drivers.

Discraft Discs, one of Innova's biggest competitors, divides their drivers into 3 categories: Long Drivers, Extra Long Drivers and Maximum Distance Drivers. The greater the distance of the driver the less control the disc golf player has on the disc. Therefore, an unexperienced player would most likely prefer to use a Long or Extra Long Driver while an experience player would go for a maximum distance driver if they were seeking longer throws.

Natural action of the disc: For a right-handed, back-hand thrower (RHBH), the disc will naturally pull to the left. For a right-handed fore-hand thrower (RHFH), the disc will naturally pull to the right. For a left-handed, back-hand thrower (LHBH), the disc will naturally pull to the right. For a left-handed, fore-hand thrower (LHFH), the disc will naturally pull to the left.

Over stable: A disc that is over stable will increase the natural angle of the disc.

Stable: A disc that is stable will maintain the angle of the disc when thrown.

Under stable: A disc that is under stable will push against the natural angle of the disc.

Weight of the disc: Golf discs typically weigh between 150 and 180 grams (5.3-6.3 oz.), and measure about 21–24 cm in diameter. PDGA rules prohibit discs weighing more than 200 grams, or whose weight is more than 8.3 grams per centimeter of diameter. Lighter discs are more suited to less experienced players, and heavier discs are more suited to experienced players. This is not always the case however. A lighter disc will be more under stable than its heavier counterparts.

Types of Throws and Throwing Tips
First, some basic terminology:

Distance Driving - a throw that is designed to produce a great deal of distance. When trying to throw for a max distance, the ideal flight path of the disc, for a RHBH thrower, is to turn slightly to the right, straighten out, and then fade to the left. This will look like a ')' or an elongated ‘?’.

Approaching - if a player is not driving the disc, he is either approaching or putting. Professional players consider around a 200–250 ft shot to be an approach. For many players, however, this is the length of their normal drives. For some players, a shot does not truly become an approach until around 100 ft.

Putting - officially, a disc is being putt if it is being thrown within the circle. However, many players use their putting motion from much further away. There are many different types of putts which are explained below. As with anything, a disc golfer must find what is comfortable for them, and go with it. There is no ‘wrong’ way to putt. A good video of putting instruction can be found at this link: http://www.discraft.com/resources.html

Backhand - when throwing backhand, a thrower must determine for himself what kinds of discs work best for them, depending on how much ‘snap’ they throw with. ‘Snap’ is generated by high arm speed and by a player cocking his wrist and literally snapping the disc on the release. When thrown correctly, a disc will literally make an audible snapping sound upon release. Players who throw with a great deal of snap should throw over stable discs, whereas a player who doesn't throw with a great deal of snap should throw under stable discs.

Forehand - As with backhands, players have to determine for themselves what sort of discs work for them. Generally, forehand throws generate more snap than a backhand throw, so usually, forehand shots require more over stable discs.

With both forehands and backhands, the throwing ability of different players will progress. For example, when a player first starts throwing, they do not throw with a great deal of snap, thus they should use under stable discs. However, the player will eventually learn how to throw with more snap, which will require them to move to more over stable discs. Players should not, however, remove that first disc for the bag, as it may now be good for turnover drives or anhyzers. Players have to learn their discs and learn what works best for them.

Hyzer - a hyzer is a throw that is designed to take advantage of the natural angle of the disc. For example, a RHBH hyzer is a shot that fades to the left. There are a few types of hyzers. A soft hyzer is a throw that gradually fades, whereas a spike hyzer is a throw where the disc fades hard and drastically. Spike hyzers can result in discs that are literally ‘spiked’ into the ground. These types of throws are used to navigate certain obstacles. A disc that is slightly over stable with a high glide, such as the Innova Valkyrie, are good for soft hyzers, whereas a disc that is very over stable with a low glide, such as Innova Firebirds, are best for spike hyzers.

Anhyzer - an anhyzer is a throw that is designed to go against the natural angle of the disc. For example, a RHBH thrower who throws a disc that fades to the right would be throwing an anhyzer. To execute an anhyzer, a RHBH would tilt the disc to the right when he releases the disc. Under stable discs are best used for anhyzers. As with hyzers, soft and spike hyzers are options. The Innova ‘Roadrunner’ and ‘Stingray’ are good for anhyzer shots.

Turnover - a disc is ‘turned over’ when it flies against the natural angle of the disc. For example, a RHBH thrower has turned a disc over if it flies to the right when released flat. This differs from an anhyzer because of the angle of release. Turnover drives are generally released flat or at a slight angle, whereas an anhyzer is released at a more drastic angle. Ideally, the disc will ‘flex’ back to the natural fade, creating an ‘S’ curve when thrown with an over stable disc. Some curves are more drastic then others. A more under stable disc will turn over harder than an over stable disc. Depending on the shot, a certain type of turnover drive may be required. Lighter discs will turnover much easier than heavier discs. An ideal drive for max distance is usually slightly turned over. Depending on the thrower, many discs can be used for turnover drives.

S-Curve - or Flex Shot - occurs when an over stable disc is thrown with anhyzer angle. The disc will turn to the right for RHBH thrower during the initial high speed phase of the throw, and when the disc slows down it will turn back to the left. This allows the disc to move around obstacles, and also allows a predictable end of the throw, allowing the thrower to power the disc without the fear of the disc turning too far to the right.

Hammer/Tomahawk - an overhand throw where the thrower grips the disc much like he would a forehand. This throw has a unique flight pattern which is best learned by throwing a few out in a field. It is useful for going over difficult obstacles. Mid-range discs with high glide are best for hammers. The Innova Max and Roc are good discs for hammers.

Thumber - an overhand throw that involves placing the thumb inside the lip of the disc. Like the hammer, the thumber has a unique flight patter than is best learned by throwing a few out in a field. It is also useful for going over difficult obstacles. The Innova Monster is a good thumber disc.

Roller - this is a shot designed to travel a short distance in the air and then roll towards the target. Rollers can be thrown forehand and backhand, and should be considered a very advanced throw. Many disc golfers can roll a disc farther than they can throw it. Rollers are very effective in going under obstacles, such as a circle of trees around the basket. They are difficult to control, and require a great deal of practice. Innova Sidewinders and Roadrunners make good long distance rollers, and Innova Leopards and Cheetahs make for good mid to short range rollers.

In-line Putting - a style of putting where the plant foot is directly behind the lie marker and pointed right at the basket, and the other foot is placed behind the plant foot. The disc is thrown from the chest generally straight at the pin. Some in line putter throw the disc with a bit of snap and run right at the basket, while others try to float the disc into the basket. This is just a matter of personal taste or what the situation dictates. In-line putters almost always put backhand.

Straddle Putt - a style of putting where one foot is placed behind the lie marker and the other is parallel, rather than behind, the plant foot. The putter often squats a bit a uses their legs to propel the discs. Straddle putts can be used to navigate around obstacles and provide a clear line to the basket. Some prefer the stability of straddle putting for shorter puts and many use the stance for jump putting. Most straddle putts are backhand putts, though they can be forehand puts.

Jump Putt - outside the circle, jump putting is used to generate more power. It is similar to straddle putting except the putter jumps forward with the release of the disc. This is a tough skill that requires some practice, but can be very effective. Many golfers do not bother with jump putting, though many use it very effectively. Jump putting is illegal within the circle. Jump putting is almost always done with a backhand throw.

Turbo Putt - an interesting style of putt where the thumb is placed in the middle of the disc and the fingers are rested on the outer rim of the disc. The putter spins the disc slightly with the release and pushes with his fingers to propel the disc. This style of putting is not very effective outside of the circle.

Pancake Putt - a putt used in the event a miss will create a bad disc placement (i.e. over a ledge, into water, etc.). The disc is held top plate facing away from the putter with fingertips placed on the top plate over the rim and thumb resting outstretched on the bottom of the disc rim. The putter raises his full arm above his shoulder then quickly swings in a downward motion. His arm follows through the putt; the disc is released by all fingers slightly higher than the intended target. The fingertips will press into the top plate causing the disc to flip bottom to top and halt upon impact. A heavy putter or mid-range disc is suggested.

Kneeling Putt - in disc golf, the situation often dictates that a throw must be made from a kneeling position. Any point of contact is legal as long as it follows previously stated rules, i.e., in line with the marker disc, no closer to the hole and within the acceptable distance behind the marker.

When putting, golfers also use unconventional stances. Golfers sometime contort their bodies in unique ways to navigate around obstacles. Sometimes a lunge position is utilized to putt, either forehand or backhand. Sometimes the golfer's feet are each at a different level of elevation. By rule, it is technically legal for someone to completely lie on the ground and throw, assuming their foot is behind their mini marker, and they do not use their body to decrease the distance between their marker and the pin.

Scoring
Stroke play is the most common scoring method but there are many others, including match play, skins, speed golf and captain's choice, which in disc golf is referred to as "doubles" (not to be confused with partner or team play).

In every form of play, the goal is to play as few strokes per round as possible. Scores for each hole can be described as follows:

A snowman (perhaps 4 over par on a par 4 hole) is an informal term in some countries for a score indicating that 8 shots were taken at a single hole

Doubles play is a unique style of play that many local courses offer on a weekly basis. In this format, teams of two golfers are determined. Sometime this is done by random draw, and other times it is a pro-am format. On the course, it is a 'best-disc' scramble. Meaning both player throw their tee shot, and then decide which lie they would like to play. Both players then play from the same lie, again choosing which lie is preferable.

Disc Manufacturers
The major disc manufacturers are as follows:

1. Innova

2. Discraft

3. MVP Disc Sports

4. Gateway

5. Prodigy

6. Millenium Discs

7. Disc Golf Association

8. Lightning Discs

9. Vibram

10. Dynamic Discs 11. Prodiscus

12. Latitude 64

13. Westside

Different types of plastic:

The first plastic listed in each entry is the Innova line, the second is the Discraft line, and the third is the Gateway line.

1. DX/Pro-D/S - this is the economy line of plastic. It is generally very grippy when worn, but it will wear very quickly. It is easy to warp and bend these discs. They do not maintain their flight characteristics for too long. Many players use DX plastic for mid-range discs, but not in drivers. Many also prefer putters in this plastic, citing the added grip as their reasoning.

2. Proline/Elite-X/H - A plastic more sturdy than economy plastics. Players often prefer the feel of these over the economy line.

3. Champion/Elite-Z/E/Proton - A premier plastic that is extremely durable, more expensive, and due to the high percentage of polyurethane, often translucent. It will maintain flight characteristics even after a great deal of abuse. Players often find it is easier to control a Champion of Elite-Z disc and that they can get more of a reaction out of the disc with less effort.

4. Glow - this plastic glows in the dark when held up to a florescent light. It is a bit more durable than DX plastic, but not quite as durable as Pro-Line plastic.

5. Star/ESP - A very durable plastic that maintains flight characteristics a bit longer than Champion or Elite-Z plastic and that is a grippier plastic. Some players prefer the feel of Champion or Elite-Z plastic, while others prefer Star or ESP.

6. ESP FLX (Discraft) - A very flexible plastic offered only by Discraft. The disc can literally bend in half and spring right back into its original form. The grip it offers is superb. The discs also do not bounce far. When the hit a tree, they tend to fold and drop to the ground, rather than carry deeper into the woods. They also grip the chains very well.

History
Disc golf, in some form, has probably been played informally since the early 1900s, according to Victor Malafronte's, "The Frisbee Handbook." But modern disc golf started in the late 1960s when it seems to have been invented in many places and by many people independently. Two of the best-known figures in the sport are George Sappenfield and "Steady Ed" Headrick.

George Sappenfield and early object courses
For example, George Sappenfield, a Californian, realized that golf would be a lot of fun if played with discs. He set up an object course for kids to play on, and other early courses were also of this type, using anything from lamp poles to fire hydrants as targets. A year later, Sappenfield introduced the game to many adults, and courses began to crop up in various places in the Midwest and the East Coast (some perhaps through Sappenfield's promotion efforts, others probably independently envisioned). Before 1973 and the invention of the disc golf target called the disc pole hole, there were only a few disc golf object courses in the U.S. and Canada. Despite having never heard of the International Frisbee Association (IFA) that Ed Headrick and Wham-O had put together, or ever seeing a copy of the IFA Newsletter, Jim Palmeri, his brother, and a small group of people from Rochester, NY, had been playing disc golf as a competitive sport on a regular basis since August 1970, including tournaments and weekly league play. By 1973, they had even promoted two City of Rochester Disc Frisbee Championship events which featured disc golf as the main event. In Canada, beginning in 1970, newly arrived Americans, Ken Westerfield and Jim Kenner played Frisbee golf daily on an 18 object hole course they designed at Queen's Park in downtown Toronto. They also added disc golf to their 1975 Canadian Open Frisbee Championships on Toronto Island. In California, the Berkeley Frisbee Group established a standardized 18 hole object course on the Berkeley campus in 1970. University of Michigan Nichols Arboretum, Ann Arbor had an object Frisbee golf course designed in 1973.

"Steady Ed" Headrick and the growth of the modern game
The first standardized target course was put in by "Steady Ed" Headrick, a flying disc innovator known as the "Father of Disc Golf", in what was then known as Oak Grove Park in La Canada Flintridge, California, California,. (Today the park is known as Hahamonga Watershed Park). This park is immediate to the south of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, which supplied at least a few of the earliest players. Ed worked for the San Gabriel, California, California-based Wham-O Corporation and is credited for pioneering the modern era of disc sports.

Headrick coined and trademarked the term "Disc Golf" when formalizing the sport and invented the Disc Pole Hole, the first disc golf target to incorporate chains and a basket on a pole. Headrick founded the Professional Disc Golf Association (PDGA), Disc Golf Association (DGA), and Recreational Disc Golf Association (RDGA) as governing bodies for professional, competitive amateur, and family-oriented play, respectively, and worked on standardizing the rules and the equipment for the quickly-growing sport. Headrick abandoned his trademark on the term "Disc Golf", and turned over control and administration of the PDGA to the growing body of disc golf players in order to focus his passion for building and inventing equipment for the sport. Upon his death, Headrick was cremated and his ashes were made into a limited number of discs per his wishes. The discs were given to friends and family, and some were sold with all proceeds going toward funding a nonprofit "Steady" Ed Memorial Disc Golf Museum at the PDGA International Disc Golf Center in Columbia County, Georgia. One of the discs that contain Headrick's ashes will be permanently placed on the roof of the center. When asked why this was to be done, by a member of the local media, PDGA Executive Director Brian Graham quoted an old Frisbee addage, "Old Frisbee players are like old Frisbee's ... They don't die, they just land up on the roof."

Women in the sport
While there are more male than female players, the Women's Disc Golf Association exists to encourage female players and arrange women's tournaments. A PDGA survey states that out of its 11,302 members in 2006, 8% are female, or about 900.

World Disc Golf Champions and Hall of Fame
A list of all disc golf hall of fame inductees through 2007.

For more information, visit the website of the Disc Golf Hall of Fame.
 * 1993: Vanessa Chambers | Dave Dunipace | Ed Headrick | Tom Monroe | Jim Palmeri | Dan Roddick | Ted Smethers
 * 1994: Harold Duvall | Nobuya Kobayashi | Darrell Lynn | Dan Mangone | Doug Newland | Snapper Pierson | Lavone Wolfe
 * 1995: Ken Climo | John David | David Greenwell | Johnny Roberts | Dr. Rick Voakes
 * 1996: Mike Conger | Patti Kunkle | Rick Rothstein
 * 1997: Steve Slasor | Elaine King | Jim Kenner
 * 1998: Gregg Hosfeld | John Houck | Carlton Howard
 * 1999: Sam Ferrans | Steve Wisecup | Tim Selinske
 * 2000: Tom Schot | Royce Racinowski
 * 2001: Stan McDaniel | Johnny Sias
 * 2002: Alan Beaver | Gary Lewis
 * 2003: Mark Horn | Brian Hoeniger | Dr. Stancil Johnson,
 * 2004: Derek Robins | Geoff Lissaman | Johnny Lissaman | Marty Hapner
 * 2005: Mats Bengtsson | Sylvia Voakes
 * 2006: Chuck Kennedy| Kozo Shimbo
 * 2007: Fred Salaz | Michael Travers

title: Disc Golf


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Horticulture/Achillea millefolium

Achillea millefolium or Yarrow (other common names Common Yarrow, Gordaldo, Nosebleed plant, Old Man's Pepper, Sanguinary, Milfoil, Soldier's Woundwort, Thousand-leaf (as its binomial name affirms), Thousand-seal) is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native to the Northern Hemisphere.

Description
Common Yarrow is an erect herbaceous perennial plant that produces one to several stems (0.2 to 1m tall) and has a rhizomatous growth form. Leaves are evenly distributed along the stem, with the leaves near the middle and bottom of the stem being the largest. The leaves have varying degrees of hairiness (pubescence). The leaves are 5-20 cm long, bipinnate or tripinnate, almost feathery, and arranged spirally on the stems. The leaves are cauline and more or less clasping. The inflorescence has 4 to 9 phyllaries and contains ray and disk flowers which are white to pink. There are generally 3 to 8 ray flowers that are ovate to round. Disk flowers range from 15 to 40. The inflorescence is produced in a flat-topped cluster. Yarrow grows up to 3500m above sea level. The plant commonly flowers from May through June, and is a frequent component in butterfly gardens. Common yarrow is frequently found in the mildly disturbed soil of grasslands and open forests. Active growth occurs in the spring.

Growing Conditions
Common yarrow is a drought tolerant species of which there are several different ornamental cultivars. Seeds require light for germination, so optimal germination occurs when planted no deeper than ¼ inch. Seeds also require a temperature of 65-75 degrees Fahrenheit. Common yarrow responds best to soil that is poorly developed and well drained. The plant has a relatively short life, but may be prolonged by dividing the plant every other year, and planting 12 to 18 inches apart. Common yarrow is a weedy species and can become invasive. It may suffer from mildew or root rot if not planted in well-drained soil.

Varieties
There are several varieties and subspecies:
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. millefolium - Europe, Asia
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. alpicola - Rocky Mountains
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. borealis - Arctic regions
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. californica - California
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. occidentalis - North America
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. pacifica - west coast of North America
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. puberula - California
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium var. rubra - Southern Appalachians
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. chitralensis - western Himalaya
 * Achillea millefolium subsp. sudetica - Alps, Carpathians

Uses
Yarrows can be planted to combat soil erosion due to the plant's resistance to drought.

The herb is purported to be a diaphoretic, astringent, tonic , stimulant and mild aromatic. It contains isovaleric acid, salicylic acid, asparagin, sterols, flavonoids, bitters, tannins, and coumarins. The plant also has a long history as a powerful 'healing herb' used topically for wounds, cuts and abrasions. The genus name Achillea is derived from mythical Greek character, Achilles, who reportedly carried it with his army to treat battle wounds. This medicinal action is also reflected in some of the common names mentioned below, such as Staunchweed and Soldier's Woundwort.

Yarrow has also been used as a food, and was very popular as a vegetable in the 17th century. The younger leaves are said to be a pleasant leaf vegetable when cooked as spinach, or in a soup. Yarrow is sweet with a slight bitter taste.

Herbal medicine
Yarrow has seen historical use as a medicine, mainly because of its astringent effects. Decoctions have been used to treat inflammations such as piles (hemorrhoids), and also headaches. Confusingly, it has been said to both stop bleeding and promote it. Infusions of Yarrow, taken either internally or externally, are said to speed recovery from severe bruising. The most medicinally active part of the plant are the flowering tops. They also have a mild stimulant effect, and have been used as a snuff. Today, yarrow is valued mainly for its action in colds and influenza, and also for its effect on the circulatory, digestive, and urinary systems.

The flowers, rich in chemicals are converted by steam into anti-allergenic compounds. The flowers are used for various allergic mucus problems, including hay fever. Harvest during summer and autumn. Drink the infused flower for upper respiratory phlegm or use externally as a wash for eczema. Inhale for hay fever and mild asthma, use fresh in boiling water.

The dark blue essential oil, extracted by steam distillation of the flowers, is generally used as an anti-inflammatory or in chest rubs for colds and influenza. Massage oil for inflamed joints, dilute 5-10 drops yarrow oil in 25 ml infused St. John's wort oil. A chest rub can be made for chesty colds and influenza, combine with eucalyptus, peppermint, hyssop, or thyme oils, diluting a total of 20 drops of oil in 25 ml almond or sunflower oil.

The aerial parts are used for phlegm conditions, as a bitter digestive tonic to encourage bile flow, and as a diuretic. The aerial parts act as a tonic for the blood, stimulate the circulation, and can be used for high blood pressure. Also useful in menstrual disorders, and as an effective sweating remedy to bring down fevers. Harvest during flowering. The tincture is used for urinary disorders or menstrual problems. Prescribed for cardiovascular complaints. Soak a pad in an infusion or dilute tincture to soothe varicose veins.

Yarrow intensifies the medicinal action of other herbs taken with it, and helps eliminate toxins from the body. It is reported to be associated with the treatment of the following ailments:

Amenorrhea, anti-inflammatory, bowels, bleeding, blood clots, blood pressure (lowers), blood purifier, blood vessels (tones), Catarrh (acute, repertory), colds, chicken pox, circulation, contraceptive (unproven), cystitis, diabetes treatment, digestion (stimulates), dyspepsia, eczema, fevers, flus, gastritis, glandular system, gum ailments, Heartbeat (slow), influenza, insect repellent, internal bleeding, liver (stimulates and regulates), lungs (hemorrhage), measles, menses (suppressed), menorrhagia, Menstruation (regulates, relieves pain), Nipples (soreness), nosebleeds, piles (bleeding), smallpox, stomach sickness, toothache, thrombosis, ulcers, urinary antiseptic, Uterus (tighten and contract), varicose veins, vision.

The salicylic acid derivatives are a component of aspirin, which may account for its use in treating fevers and reducing pain. Yarrow tea is also said to be able to clear up a cold within 24 hours.

Companion planting
Yarrow is considered an especially useful companion plant, not only repelling some bad insects while attracting good, predatory ones, but also improving soil quality. It attracts predatory wasps, which drink the nectar and then use insect pests as food for their larvae. Similarly, it attracts ladybugs and hoverflies. Its leaves are thought to be good fertilizer, and a beneficial additive for compost.

It is also considered directly beneficial to other plants, improving the health of sick plants when grown near them.

title: Horticulture/Achillea millefolium


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User talk:Nesnad/sandbox/Actions you want to do

Wow, we sure have used a lot of different phrases. Lets wrap up by saying things we want to do! Lets listen to Johnny and Mary...

To wrap things up we need to know a few description words for actions we want to do. Those would be...

Wow, with these words and all the other ones we have seen in this book you could talk as much as Johnny or Mary. So what is stopping you? Go through the lessons a few more times, get comfortable with the words and try them out. Nothing is better than using the language to begin to learn new and better ways to communicate. Enjoy your journey!

 * Return to main page: empty link


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Circuit Idea/Specific Circuit Questions

<<< bottom - common questions - page stage >>>

Passive Voltage-to-Current Converter
What is the cause and effect relation in a voltage-supplied Ohm's circuit? What does the resistor convert here - energy or information? Is the circuit reversible (can we swap circuit inputs and outputs)? How does a series connected load affect the circuit? How can we decrease the error caused by the load? How do we eliminate the error at all? Is there any relationship between this passive and the active version? If yes, how do we convert the passive version into an active one? What are the input and output resistances?

Passive Current-to-Voltage Converter
What is the cause and effect relation in a current-supplied Ohm's circuit? What does the resistor convert here - energy or information? Is the circuit reversible (can we swap circuit inputs and outputs)? How does a parallel connected load affect the circuit? How can we decrease the error caused by the load? How do we eliminate the error at all? Is there any relationship between this passive and the active version? If yes, how do we convert the passive version into an active one? What are the input and output resistances?

. ..

How do We Create Sinusoidal Oscillations?
How oscillations arise in nature? Why does an LC tank consist of two "heterogeneous" accumulating elements (a capacitor and an inductor)? Why is it not assembled by two "homogeneous" elements (both capacitors or both inductors)? What is the role of these elements in the LC circuit? What do they actually do there? What are they? Why does the energy in an LC tank "have no peace"? What make it circulate (in theory, infinitely) between the two components? What makes the accumulating elements discharge completely? Why does an LC oscillation have a sinusoidal shape? Why is it no with linear or other shape? Why does not the LC natural frequency depend on the amount of the "pushed" energy? Why is the oscillation curve symmetrical? What are the differences between LC and other (RC, relaxation, etc.) oscillations? Is there any likeness between them and what is it? What is the connection between an LC tank and a pendulum? What is the "capacitor" and what is the "inductor" in a pendulum?

title: Circuit Idea/Specific Circuit Questions


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A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Signal Frequencies

The frequency of a wave describes how many waves go past a certain point in one second. Frequency is measured in Hertz (usually abbreviated Hz), and can be calculated using the formula:

V = fλ

where V is the velocity of the wave (in ms−1), f is the frequency of the wave (in Hz), and λ (the Greek letter lambda) is the wavelength of the wave (distance from one peak / trough to the next, in m).

Multiple Frequencies
Let us consider the following signal (time is in ms, and the y-axis represents volts):

This signal is constructed from a number of different sine waves, with different frequencies, added together. These sine waves are as follows:

Frequency Spectra
Each of these sine waves has a different frequency. You can see this, as they have different distances between their peaks and troughs. These frequencies can be plotted against the amplitude of the wave, as in the table, and chart drawn from it, below:

This chart is known as the frequency spectrum of a signal.

Fundamental Frequency
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency that makes up a signal. In the above example, the fundamental frequency is 80 Hz. It is always the frequency farthest to the left of a frequency spectrum, ignoring noise. Other frequencies are known as overtones, or harmonics.

Questions
1. What is the frequency of an X-ray (wavelength 0.5 nm)?

2. A sound wave, with a frequency of 44 kHz, has a wavelength of 7.7mm. What is the speed of sound?

3. What is the fundamental frequency of the following signal?

4. Approximately how many harmonics does it contain?

5. The three sine waves sin x°, 4sin(2x-50)° and 0.5sin(3x+120)° are added together to form a signal. What are the frequencies of each of the waves? What is the signal's fundamental frequency? Assume that the waves are travelling at the speed of light, and that 60° = 1mm.

/Worked Solutions/


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A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Signal Frequencies/Worked Solutions

1. What is the frequency of an X-ray (wavelength 0.5 nm)?

X-rays are electromagnetic waves, so they travel at the speed of light (3 x 108 ms−1).

3 x 108 = f x 0.5 x 10−9

$$f = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{0.5 \times 10^{-9}} = 600 \times 10^{15} \mbox{ Hz} = 600 \mbox{ PHz}$$

'''2. A sound wave, with a frequency of 44 kHz, has a wavelength of 7.7mm. What is the speed of sound?'''

V = 44 x 103 x 7.7 x 10−3 = 338.8ms−1

3. What is the fundamental frequency of the following signal?

The big spike on the left is at approximately 750 Hz, so this is the fundamental frequency.

4. Approximately how many harmonics does it contain?

There are 14 other big spikes, plus a few other spikes which may be large enough to be harmonics.

'''5. The three sine waves sin x°, 4sin(2x-50)° and 0.5sin(3x+120)° are added together to form a signal. What are the frequencies of each of the waves? What is the signal's fundamental frequency? Assume that the waves are travelling at the speed of light, and that 60° = 1mm'''

sin x° has a wavelength of 360°. Using this, we can calculate the wavelengths of the other two waves, since f(ax) stretches f(x) by the reciprocal of a on the x axis. The frequency of each wave is given by the formula:

$$f = \frac { v }{ \lambda\ } = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{\lambda\ \times 10^{-3}}$$

sin x° has the lowest frequency, so 50 GHz is the fundamental frequency of the signal.


text:
VHDL for FPGA Design/D Flip Flop

Generated Symbol

VHDL-kieli FPGA-suunnittelussa/D-kiikku

title: VHDL for FPGA Design/D Flip Flop


text:
User talk:EnaamA

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 15:34, 28 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:EnaamA


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A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Bandwidth

Bandwidth is the frequency of a signal. Although original signals have varying frequencies, when these are transmitted, for example, as FM radio waves, they are modulated so that they only use frequencies within a certain range. FM radio modulates the frequency of a wave, so it needs some variation in the frequencies to allow for transmission of multiple frequencies. Since bandwidth is a frequency, it is the number of bits per. second. The bandwidth required to transmit a signal accurately can be calculated by using 1 as the number of bits, giving the formula:

$$B = \frac{1}{t}$$

where B is bandwidth (in Hz), and t is the time taken to transmit 1 bit of data (in s).

The bandwidth of a signal regulates the bit rate of the signal, as, with a higher frequency, more information can be transmitted. This give us the formula (similar to the formula for lossless digital sampling):

b = 2B

where b is the bit rate (in bits per. second), and B is the bandwidth (in Hz).

Questions
1. A broadband internet connection has a bit rate of 8Mbit s−1 when downloading information. What is the minimum bandwidth required to carry this bit rate?

2. The same connection has a bandwidth of 100 kHz reserved for uploading information. What is the maximum bit rate that can be attained when uploading information using this connection?

3. A lighthouse uses a flashing light and Morse Code to communicate with a nearby shore. A 'dash' consists of the light being on for 2s. The light is left off for 1s between dots and dashes. What is the bandwidth of the connection?

4. The broadband connection in question two is used to upload a 1Mbyte image to a website. How long does it take to do this?

/Worked Solutions/


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Emergency Medicine/Hypotension

"Low blood pressure". In this state circulation of blood is hampered or decreased. If hypotension is severe enough, it can cause mental status changes as well as confusion, dizziness, syncope, nausea, weakness, lightheadedness.

title: Emergency Medicine/Hypotension


text:
A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Bandwidth/Worked Solutions

'''1. A broadband internet connection has a bit rate of 8Mbit s−1 when downloading information. What is the minimum bandwidth required to carry this bit rate?'''

$$2B = 8 \times 10^6$$

$$B = \frac{8 \times 10^6}{2} = 4 \times 10^6 \mbox{ Hz} = 4 \mbox{ MHz}$$

'''2. The same connection has a bandwidth of 100 kHz reserved for uploading information. What is the maximum bit rate that can be attained when uploading information using this connection?'''

b = 2 x 100 x 103 = 200 x 103 bits / second = 24.4 kbytes / second

'''3. A lighthouse uses a flashing light and Morse Code to communicate with a nearby shore. A 'dash' consists of the light being on for 2s. The light is left off for 1s between dots and dashes. What is the bandwidth of the connection?'''

One bit takes 3 seconds to transmit.

$$B = \frac{1}{3} \mbox{ Hz} \approx 333 \mbox{ mHz}$$

'''4. The broadband connection in question two is used to upload a 1Mbyte image to a website. How long does it take to do this?'''

The bit rate is 200 x 103 bits / second.

1 Mbyte = 1048576 bytes = 8388608 bits.

$$b = \frac{\mbox{no. of bits}}{\mbox{no. of seconds}}$$

$$200 \times 10^3 = \frac{8388608}{\mbox{no. of seconds}}$$

$$\mbox{no. of seconds} = \frac{8388608}{200 \times 10^3} \approx 42\mbox{ s} $$


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Cookbook:Basted Egg

A basted egg is a sort of a cross between a sunny side up fried egg and a poached egg. The result is an egg that is fried on the bottom and steamed on the top. The egg will look similar to a sunny-side-up egg, except that the exposed portion of the yolk will take on a cloudy white appearance.

Ingredients

 * 1 egg
 * Salt (optional)
 * Pepper (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Heat a non-stick pan over medium heat. Add a small amount of non-stick spray, butter, or oil of your choice.
 * 2) Crack the egg into the pan, and add any desired seasoning (such as salt and pepper).
 * 3) Allow the egg to cook only briefly before adding approximately 1 tablespoon of water. Immediately cover the pan with a lid, and allow the egg to cook for 2–3 minutes, depending on how well done you desire the egg.
 * 4) Remove from heat and serve immediately.

title: Cookbook:Basted Egg


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A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Semiconductors

A semiconductor has a conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. They are less conductive than metals, but differ from metals in that, as a semiconductor heats up, its conductivity rises. In metals, the opposite effect occurs.

The reason for this is that, in a semiconductor, very few atoms are ionised, and so very few electrons can move, creating an electric current. However, as the semiconductor heats up, the covalent bonds (atoms sharing electrons, causing the electrons to be relatively immobile) break down, freeing the electrons. As a result, a semiconductor's conductivity rises at an increasing rate as temperature rises.

Examples of semiconductors include silicon and germanium. A full list of semiconductor materials is available at Wikipedia. At room temperature, silicon has a conductivity of about 435 μS m−1.

Semiconductors are usually 'doped'. This means that ions are added in small quantities, giving the semiconductor a greater or lesser number of free electrons as required. This is controlled by the charge on the ions.

Questions
1. What is the resistivity of silicon, at room temperature?

2. What sort of variable resistor would a semiconductor be useful in?

3. If positive ions are added to silicon (doping it), how does its conductivity change? /Worked Solutions/

4. What is a practical application of a Semi-Conductor?


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A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Semiconductors/Worked Solutions

1. What is the resistivity of silicon, at room temperature?

$$\rho = \frac{1}{ \sigma } = \frac{1}{435 \times 10^{-6}} \approx 2300 \Omega \mbox{m} = 2.3 \mbox{k} \Omega \mbox{m}$$

2. What sort of variable resistor would a semiconductor be useful in?

A thermistor, as the resistance of a semiconductor decreases as heat increases (but, assuming use of a potential divider, the voltmeter would have to be on the other resistor).

3. If positive ions are added to silicon (doping it), how does its conductivity change?

When a few positive ions are present, they present "holes" into which some electrons can fall. This decreases the over-all number of valence electrons in the lattice, and these are more easily occupied by drifting electrons under the application of a potential difference across the semiconductor, so the effect is greater conductivity.