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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Ecosystems/Resources

2. Resources Humans are separated from other animals in their extensive use of materials to make things. All these materials are derived from Earth. Our bodies use materials in the process of metabolism to facilitate growth and provide energy. Outside of our bodies, we use renewable and non-renewable resources. More abstract resources that we use but do not alter are those such as scenery, wildlife, swimming in dams etc. In every ecological system there are natural limits to the total amount of living matter that can be supported 2.1. Biotic and abiotic resources Water: Occurs in a gas, solid and liquid phase. Usually the most useful in the liquid phase and low in dissolved salts (i.e. fresh water). 97% of all the water on Earth is salt water. 3% of water is fresh water and ¾ of this is locked up in glaciers and ice caps. ¼ is ground and surface water. Surface water is continually moving through the hydrological cycle. Find a simple representation of the hydrological cycle.

The cycle can be regarded as a series of storage tanks, interconnected by the transfer process of evaporation, moisture transport, condensation, precipitation and runoff. Critical water is rainfall on land, as rainfall into the sea is not useful. The distribution of rainfall on land is uneven. Look for diagram of SA’s rainfall patterns.

Some of the rainfall on land is evaporated, some runs into the oceans, some enters the groundwater system. 2.1.1 Biotic 2.1.2 Abiotic

1.1	Ecosphere and Biosphere.

There terms are used as the idea of ‘Nature’ is very different meaning between an ecologist and the ‘man on the street’.

Biosphere: that part of the Earth in which life is permanently possible and which contains all living organisms.

Fundamental ecological variables:

Abiotic factors: Climate, Physico-chemical composition of the environment etc. Biotic factors- Paratisism, predation, food supple etc.

Can be dependant or independent of population density.

Primary periodic factors: temperature and amount of light. Secondary periodic factors: Cyclic variations derived from those primary factors. (e.g. Humidity, plant food supply etc.). Aperiodic factors: Drought, volcanoes etc.

Fundamental ecological variables:

Matter, Energy, Space, Time and Diversity.

1. Matter.

Law of tolerance – there exists a range of concentrations, called the interval of tolerances, in which all physiological processes involving that element can take place normally. E.g. Nitrates in soil.

The law of conservation of matter: In natura there is an almost perfect and permanent recycling of matter, alternating between organic and inorganic forms, which is brought about by the three categories into which living organisms can be assigned: 1. The primary photosynthetic producers, 2. The animal consumers, 3. The animal decomposers.

2. Energy: All living systems, are energy converters more than anything else. The utilisation and conversion of energy occur with more efficiency then even the most perfect human machines. Energy is essential for vital processes at every level: from elementary cellular mechanisms to that of the entire biosphere.

First law: The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be neither created or destroyed, but only changed from one form to another.

The second law:

No process involving a transformation of energy can take place without a partial degradation of the energy, which passes from a concentrated, ordered form to one that is dilute and unusable (in other words, to heat at a low temperature).

Third law:

The unicyclic flow of energy. Can only pass once through any given trophic level of the food chain – degraded as ir progresses, so that it is gradually dispersed and lost to the surroundings in a non- usable form (entropy). The energy upon which all ecological systems function has one external source: the sun (actually no).

A law of optimisation in the use of energy: all species that occupy a particular ecological niche use the available energy more efficiently than other species having similar requirements but less well adapted to the environmental conditions appropriate to that Niche. Whole ecosystems tend to evolve towards a structure consisting of communities that use the available energy most efficiently.

Lindemann’s Law: Only a fraction of the energy reaching a given trophic level in a community is transmitted to a higher trophic level. Smaller animals generally use more energy (survace area to volume ratio).

Space:

Total mass of living organisms which can populate an ecosystem depends directly on the space available.

1.	Available area determines the intensity of the competition within and between species. The density of populations can be a limiting factor by being either too high or too low. The distribution of individuals in each species over the available space also plays a fundamental role (random, clumped or uniform). Plant eating forest insects thrive in a homo-geneous distribution of their host species rather than discontinuous afforisitation. Crop monocultures offer opportunities for some pest species to thrive. 2.	Time. Concerned in the evolution of every ecological system towards a state of maturity (characterised by the optimum accumulation of biomass and therefore of energy – per unit surface area). During the annual cycle, the length of time during which ecological factors have tolerable values determines the types of community capable of occupying and given environment. Get diagram of succession. Diversity:

Characterises a whole community of living organisms. ‘The richness of a population’ The greater the number of species in a given community, the greater is the degree of saturation of potential niches, and thus the greater is the structural complexity of the food web. Redundancy. – if one species is compromised. Older systems are more diverse.

Ecological principles governing the use of natural resources.

Definition of a resource.

A form of energy and/or matter which is essential for the functioning of organisms, populations and ecosystems. In the case of humans: a resource is any form of energy or matter essential for the fulfilment of physiological, socio-economical and cultural needs, both at the individual level and that of the community. Human/ecosystem use of natural resources involves a permanent transformation of matter. This transformation is the result of a continuous flow and consumption and energy (from sun for biosphere or fossil fuels in regards technological civilization). A resource may consist of one of the various forms of primary energy persent in the ecosphere. In addition, however, it may be defined as anything needed by a living organism such that an increase in its availability leads to an increase in energy flow through the organism, and thus a greater rate of energy conversion.

Principles concerning energy.

a.	Production of biomass in a given ecosystem governed by solar radiation. b.	Energy is transformed in food webs from one form to another but is neither created nor destroyed. Both in primary producers and in animal consumers, part of the energy available is stored in the biomass, with the remainder being used up in metabolic processes. Plants: only a fraction of the incident solar radiation is converted to biochemical energy though photosynthesis. A large proportion of biochemical energy is used for respiration while rest as biomass. In animals, the energy flow undergoes a greater number of ‘partitions’ than it does in plants. In addition to the energy needed for basal metabolism, and for growth and reproduction, there is a certain amount required for locomotion, in homeostasis, the consumption needed to maintain a constant internal temperature. Some food is never assimilated (faeces). Further consumption of energy into the shape of other excreta and of radiated heat, associated with metabolic processes occurring at all levels or organic activity. The efficiency of energy conversion in animal biomass is low and represents a small percentage of energy consumed. All organisms make optimal use of energy by adopting a energy strategy. One category devotes a high proportion of energy intake to reproduction e.g. field mouse approx ½ energy to gestation.

Large long lived organisms store the majority of the available energy in the growth and reproduction of the adult biomass, only a small fraction going to the offspring, e.g. in the blue whale: 97% of the energy ends up in the biomass of the adult while 3 %T of the energy ends up in the biomass of the child.

a.                         b                         c                  d Solar radiation à Lucerne à      Calf à       Child. 0,24 % * a       8% * b        0.7% *c

Therefore limit to length of food chains.

In terrestrial environments, the longest chains are generally of type:

Plant – herbivore –carnivore –top carnivore.

And the most common of all:

Grass – cattle –humans.

In an aquatic environment, we can have:

Phytoplankton ---zooplankton ---microphagus fish ---predator fish –superpredator fish.

Or:

Phytoplanton –zooplankton—anchovy—mackerel—tuna—humans.

Overall energy efficiency of a food chain is a greater the shorter it is.

Phytoplankton –zooplankton—blue whale.

NB Humans could achieve greater use of energy by being vegetarians.

Principles concerning matter:

a.	In the light of human needs, no natural resource can be said to exist in unlimited quantities, whether it be mineral or biological. The availability of a resource is restricted by various abiotic and /or biotic factors. Such factors as the spatial distribution of a mineral element or biological molecule (e.g. water), the difficulties of transference from the lithosphere or from the atmosphere and many others, may combine in such a way that many chemical elements and mineral molecules which are abundant on the Earth’s surface become limiting factors for primary and secondary production because of their unavailability. No proportional relation exists between total biomass and productivity. Environments like tropical rain forests or animal species like whales do not exhibit a distinctively greater primary or secondary productivity then more modest ecosystems or species. Ignorance of this led to the almost extinction of certain whale species for example/

b.	Both the scarcity of a mineral element and its excess through natural or human pollution, can act as factors limiting the take up of other natural resources. c.	‘Law of the optimum’ – An increase in the availability of a nutrient, does not produce an unlimited increase in productivity. Get graph of ‘Law of diminishing yield’ Two types: A.	Stimulating type. B.	B. Non-stimulating type susceptible to law of diminishing yield.

Principles concerning space:

a.	The space available to any organism or person is limited as can’t use all space in distribution as not all suitable. b.	The area available for ensuring that each individual is fed decreases more rapidly than the population density, as the area may be assigned to movement, nesting etc. Esp relevant for humans: roads, housing etc.

Principles governing diversity.

a.	The greater the stability of ecological factors, the greater the diversity of the ecosystem. Human activity in a natural ecosystem, because it is unforeseeable and always acyclic, inevitably has the affect of decreasing the species diversity. b.	Tine on species diversity: Succession. The diversity of an ecosystem increases as a function of time. c.	The biomass /productivity ratio of an ecosystem is proportional to its diversity.

H = K*B/P.

Where H is diversity, B – Biomass P is productivity and K is a constant. P = flow of energy per unit time. It takes a longer time for energy to flow in long food chains and hence linked to diversity.

d.	The ratio of B/P grows as a linear function of diversity and/or time up to an asymptotic limiting value. The B/P ratio is low for a field of field of cereal and max in a primitive tropical forest. e.	The most diversified ecosystems are the most stable. There will be a larger number of links in the food web and more organisms with redundant functions. f.	NB Grasslands and stability (check thesis) and redundancy lookup. Diversified ecosystems exploit less diversified ecosystems. Forest savanna example: Forest animals mostly seek their food in neighbouring open ground (savanna) thereby preventing savanna from evolving to the more diversified stage.

Principled concerning populations.

The law of population growth in the absence of limiting factors: Rate of growth of population with time is observed to remain constant but the speed of growth increases exponentially with time.

The law of population growth with limiting factors: The max speed of growth is attained when the size of the population is half the limiting capacity of the environment.

Stability of populations.

In the stable environment subject only to small fluctuations in its ecological factors, the populations themselves are stable. High diversity carries with it very low levels of wastage because of the great variety o niches occupied by the species forming the community. Such high efficiency in the utilisation of energy in mature and highly diversified ecosystems leaves no room for wastage of resources and there is therefore no surplus which would permit great fluctuations in species populations. Only in species belonging to ecosystems with very simple food chains (lookup lemmings and locust plagues). That sudden explosions of population are experienced.


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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Ecosystems/Resources/Energy flow within environments

2.3. Energy flow within the environment

Energy on earth originates from the sun. What about undersea thermal vents? Energy on Earth allows life to exist. The sun facilitates the movements of air and water in the atmosphere. The sun also facilitated the formation of non-renewable resources such as oil and coal. Green plants at most capture 1/20 of the suns energy that reaches Earth. Plants use most of that energy for metabolisms and therefore only 1% of energy is converted to plant tissue.

Energy flow can be depicted in a food chain.

Plant - herbivores - carnivores Decomposer Organisms

Energy has allowed man to become more industrialised and even allowed man to travel to the moon!

Because of energy loss, biomass normally diminishes through the stages of secondary and tertiary production.

 * top carnivores
 * carnivores
 * herbivores
 * primary producers

The biggest animals tend to be on top of the pyramid. The world’s biggest land and sea animals, i.e. the elephant and Blue Whale have decided to cut out the middle man, and instead of being top carnivores, feed directly on plants.

Look up an interesting article on the net.

The term power is used for energy obtained for urban and industrial purposes, measured by the rate of flow of useful energy that can be made to work. Some measures of power are the kilojoule (KJ), the megajoule (MJ) and the kilowatt (KW).

Look up article on oil demand.

Wold consumption of energy has been doubling every 14 years. The development of new technology may rapidly change energy consumption.

Types of energy sources:

 * 1) Diversion of current energy flows:
 * 2) Solar flux (photosynthesis)
 * 3) Falling water & wind
 * 4) geothermal energy
 * 5) tidal energy
 * 6) release of stored energy
 * 7) fossil fuels – oil, coal, gas. All represent stored energy from photosynthesis from the geological past and which yield energy upon combustion.
 * 8) Nuclear energy. Liberates energy contained in the nucleus of the atom.

The advancement of societies followed the access and use of energy:

 * 1) Hunter – gatherer societies. Used solar energy via food and fuel wood.
 * 2) Agricultural societies. Used solar energy and the labour of beasts as well as wind and water power. The surplus food supported civilization and economy.
 * 3) Advanced industrial societies. ¼ used for transport, 1/5 in houses, 12% in offices, hospitals and schools, 42% in the industrial sector.

Different forms of energy supply:

Coal: This is the most secure and assured energy source. Causes large environmental pollution but may be utilized more as oil becomes more scarce.

Oil: Estimated to have a short remaining lifespan Oil has more uses then just a form of fuel. Once supply has passed its peak, oil may become too important to use as a fuel. It is estimated that the supply of oil will begin to run out by 2030.

Natural Gas: linked to petroleum.

Fossil fuels are not likely to run out soon. By 2030 most oil and gas resources will be exhausted and much coal reserved will have been depleted.

Nuclear power: This is generated when the nucleus of Uranium 235 is bombarded with neutrons – the uranium breaks into two fragments and a release of energy occurs. 1 kg of Uranium 235 can release the equivalent energy to 2500 kg of coal.

Hydropower: This is an ancient form of power generation. Basically the power that is generated is a function of volume and drop. The first large scale power generation was done at the Niagra falls. The impoundments of dams cause evaporation and silting.

Geothermal energy:

The thermal gradient is 25 degrees per KM but is steeper in some places, where there is tectonic instability. Often geothermal energy is in the form of water or steam. Heat is used to either generate electricity, or for other uses, e.g. heating a hotel in Paris and greenhouses and hotels in Iceland, for spas and crocodile farms in Japan. Italy, the USA have electrical power plants using this source.

Windpower: This has been in use since the 12’th century. The major problem is that wind speeds are so variable. Storage is important in this case. Wind could be used to hydrolize water to provide hydrogen as a fuel. A large land area is needed for wind power, 4 – 5 times that of direct solar collection. This form of energy is likely to be useful when coupled with other technology. This is the largest potential energy source.

Tidal power. Potentially using trapped water at high tide and allowing water to ebb through turbines, thereby generating electricity. Lookup this.

Wave power. Few attempts and low potential for new energy source.

Biomass: Generating power from organic waste i.e. straw, refuse, sewerage, pulp waste. Waste is fermented to give off methane. There are many such installations in use.

Solar energy:

Constant and inexaustable. The total energy falling on 100 km2 of tropics would cover all consumption. Solar energy is very diffuse, therefore needs to be converted to more palable forms of energy such as electricity or hydrogen. A common use of solar power is for the heating of water or space. Solar thermal electrical conversion uses an optical concentrator which focuses on an absorber which then transmits the heat to an electrical generating plant. Photovoltaic conversion turns radiation directly into DC current via a silicon cell. Producing hydrogen using this method may be a possibility. Solar power would be ideal for decentralised, low output use such as remote rural areas, small localised industries, clinics, schools and homes.

Stretching the resources.

This could be done by energy conservation i.e. using less energy and better use of energy. For instance, the heat generated by powerstations could be used to heat homes, insulation in homes, public transport.

All the energy transferred undergoes a change of form that will tend to heat energy.

Deep sea bed usually regarded as unproductive. However volcanically active areas of the sea bed heat sea water in crack systems – releasing hot water loaded with metals and dissolved sulfide. These areas are associated with fantastic diversity of animals – large limpits, clams, tube worms and mussels. Get pic. How does such a productive ecosystem occur amidst such poverty? Certain bacteria derive energy from oxidation of sulfide, providing a food source for animals.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Human Influence/Air

Oil extractions and gas flumes kill birds. Burning of fossil fuels emits CO2 into the environment. Fossil fuels: Most air pollution is caused by the burning of fossil fuels for combustion energy. The three chemicals that most pollute the air are carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Carbon monoxide is mainly produced by petrol/diesel vehicles. The percentage of carbon monoxide by car pollution is small compared to pollution due to natural causes. Carbon monoxide is seen as a poison to humans rather than bad for the ecosystem. Sulphur dioxide is much more toxic and originates from the combustion of coal and fuel oils, at sulphuric acid plants, and in the processing of metal ores containing sulphur. It is converted to a form of sulphuric acid in the atmosphere which is precipitated onto the Earth and is highly toxic to plants and causes corrosion to various manmade materials. This ‘Acid Rain’ is common in industrialised areas and at high levels can cause inflammation of the respiratory tracts of animals and people. Hydrogen Sulphide are sometimes by-products of petroleum processing, coking and paper making. Hydrogen sulphide may also be produced by anaerobic bacteria in sewerage. This pollutant is viewed more as a nuisance rather than a serious environmental pollutant.

Pollution by particulate matter: produced by industrial processes, auto exhausts, bare soil and fires. Also dust accumulates in cities and areas suffering from erosion due to overgrazing. Soot from combustion processes. This particulate matter suspended in the atmosphere causes a lowering of visibility, soiling of paintwork, corrosion of manmade materials. Many costs accrued to public health because of the aggravation of brachial illness (look up effects to townships). The future effects of particulate matter in the atmosphere may cause some global cooling although some global warming is also possible.

Smog: Nitrous oxides are emitted into the atmosphere through the combustion of coal, oil or natural gas in power plants and pollutants from internal combustion engines. Incomplete combustion of the auto – engine is by a factor of 6 the most aggravation polluter. Nitrogen dioxide is a respiratory irritant and also absorbs sunlight, especially in the blue wavelengths, and so appears as a yellow-brown gas. It absorbs sunlight and through a chemical reaction produces ozone, formaldehyde and nitrous oxide. The high ozone levels in some cities cause respiratory problems amongst some people. Smog has also affected crops and forests. Smog also damages infrastructure.

Because of the dynamic nature of the atmosphere, pollutants are often transported far from their source. Most sulphur compounds end up in the ocean with no consequences. Some substances seem to pose more of a threat however. One of the more worrying effects is the more efficient transmission of solar radiation, leading to fears of global warming and the increase of skin cancer from UV radiation. Chlorofluorocarbons are one such substance that is released into the atmosphere due to refrigerator cooling systems and aerosol propellants. (Show pic of CFC free cans!) This substance breaks down very slowly. The production of CFCs has been declining in recent years, and is thought to be less of a problem then carbon dioxide. Nitrous oxides produced in the atmosphere from aircraft also seem not to pose a significant threat compared to those of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide concentrations have been increasing in the atmosphere since the lat 19th century. It is estimated that 50 – 60% of carbon dioxide lands up in the sea and the rest goes into terrestrial ecosystems via photosynthesis. The levels of carbon dioxide can be maintained or reduced by protecting and planting forests. Carbon dioxide acts to let in solar radiation but reducing the outward movement of solar radiation, causing a global warming effect. Even slight shifts in temperature can have wide ranging consequences in shifting the boundaries of deserts and suitable cultivation areas. The melting of polar ice caps could also bring about a rise in the sea level.

Something that can be classified as land, air and water pollution: Pesticides: Used to eliminate man’s competitors and also to kill viruses and bacteria that are detrimental to our health. Ideally toxins used as pesticides should break down into harmless substances after they have done their job. In reality though, some substances persist in the environment in a toxic form. Through natural selection, some pest organisms and pathogenic life forms are becoming resistant to pesticides/antibiotics. For example, the malaria carrying mosquito Anopheles is showing some immunity to DDT. A bacteria strain, known as Staphylycoccus, is often unaffected by penicillin. Some pesticides accumulate in the environment, with concentrations becoming more concentrated in organisms higher up on the food chain (example of whales etc.). Chemicals such as copper sulphate have been used for hundreds of years as a pesticide. Sodium chlorate is a well-known weed killer. Modern pesticides are more often complex organic molecules. The most widespread of pesticides are those of the organochlorine group. DDT belongs to this group and was first used in a widespread fashion after the second world war. DDT is highly toxic to most species of insects, but fresh water fish are also vulnerable. All pesticides in this group are long live(10–15 years) and persist in food chains, causing sub-lethal and lethal effects at various - trophic levels. (Example of DDT being at a universal concentration in the environment.). DDT appears to be distributed across the whole world, even in Antarctica. DDT appears to make the egg shells of some birds too thin and the eggs break. Low dosesof DDT affect the behavior and reproduction of fish and amphibians. Although DDT is the most well known of the organochlorine pestices, there are more such as BHC, dieldrin, adlrin, endosulphan and heptachlor which are as toxic. Although most of these have been banned in many countries, substitutes have been developed that are more specific and are less persistant. Interestingly, most people in the USA are not fit for human consumption as they have a too high concentration of DDT.

Noise pollution: relevance for chapter 2. Air, water. Noise levels in many urban industriased areas known to be bad for peoples health.

Warefar: Chapter 2: Air and land and water. Warfare is usually about resources and pre-empts rapid use of these resources. Iraq war and burning of oil wells. Vietnam and destruction of forests. The transmission of disease when in North America blankets infected with smallpox were sent as gifts to the Indians. Zimbabwe, civil war and shooting of wild animals. Vietnam and bombing of rural areas – destroyed trees and crops, made soil more arid and killed wildlife and some erosion. Biocides were used in large scale in Vietnam in order to deny cover and sustenance. About 10 percent of South Vietnam was sprayed one or more times. Forest is taking a long time to re-establish and hampered by high water table. At least 3 sensitive species were affected and malerial mosquitos thrived.

Nuclear explosion will cause immense damage and contamination of ecosystems. The initial explosion will destroy much of an ecosystem, but also miles around the site there will be large amounts of radiation. This radiation will create malformations and mutations in animals due to mutations of genes, which produce important proteins. These malformations could range from impotence to life-threatening scaring. Such consequences can destroy entire ecosystems within months if not days.

Conclusion to chapter 2: Pollution is causing ecosystems to become dominated by generalist species- forest – hardy shrubs and weeds, sensitive phytoplankton to sewage plant algae, diversity In birds, plants and fish to much lower diversity. Dominated by hardy species. From stable populations to instable populations of pest species – certain insects and rodents. Ecosystems that require constant tinkering.


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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Human Influence/Water

Petroleum installations produce some lethal effluent problems. Open cast mines also cause acidification of water (look up some SA examples). Open pit mining causes eutrophication of streams from top soil nutrient dumping.

Contamination by oil:

Crude oil spills are most serious pollution source, The flammability of oil, its toxicity to plants and animals and the aesthetic effects of oil make it a serious polluting agent. In the marine environment, there are two main sources of contamination. One is the chronic effects of losses from refining, shipments, tanker cleaning and other accidental spills. The second source are the acute incidents where a large amount of oil is lost during an accident. Oil can kill organisms directly through coating and asphixiation, and kill be poisening via contact or ingestion. Water –soluble toxic compounds can be lethal to fish and invertebrates and result also in the destruction of the sensitive eggs and larval forms of fish. Disruption of the body insulation of birds. Oil may have an effect on food chains, if one major prey or predator species is effected. Aquatic areas affected by chronic oil spillage may have a lowered species biodiversity and fluctuations in oxygen concentration. Oil may inhibit photosynthesis by phytoplankton. Polar regions are most at danger from oil spills, as the low temperature slows down the breakdown of oil and polar aquatic organisms tend to have long life cycles. Coral reefs are also in grave danger from oil spills as they recover slowly and affected coral reef may be eroded away. Many cleanup techniques are aimed at cleaning up the intertidal zone for the benefit of tourism but to the detriment of other parts of the ecosystem. Emulsifiers and chalk make oil contamination a danger for the benthos and open ocean and scraping of beaches causes much biological damage.

PCB’s. These are a group of organic substances in paint, inks and carbonless copy paper. These substances are long lasting and soluble in fats. It has been found at high trophic levels in food chains and effect the metabolism and waterproofing of sea birds. People where effected in Japan with high levels of PCB’s causing skin ailments.

Eutrophication

The introduction of large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus into surface fresh waters is a major cause of eutrophication. In un-impacted ecosystems phosphorus is scarce and is a limiting factor to population growth of species within an ecosystem. Large inputs of phosphorus into an aquatic ecosystem may cause a aquatic macrophyte bloom, after which nitrogen may become the limiting factor. After nutrients in the water are depleted, these macrophytes start dying and decaying, causing anaerobic conditions within the aquatic ecosystem. This process has resulted in changes in the fauna of impacted ecosytems, generally in lower biodiversity.


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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Human Influence/Land

Creation of derelict land.

This is land damaged by industrial or other development so that the land is incapable of beneficial use without treatment. Mining is the main cause of derelict land. Industrial processes such as smelting also cause derelict land. Derelict land may contribute to dust, soil erosion and the subsequent siltation of rivers. Treatment of derelict land is typically expensive.

Organic wastes.

Many organic wastes may result in the exposure to the environment to a certain element that is usually a limiting substance that is biologically important to certain species. For example, sewage which causes outbreaks of cholera, typhoid and dysentery. Treatment of sewage water should ideally kill the agents of the mentioned ailments. The level of sewage contamination is usually indicated by the concentration of Eshcherichia coli, which is a harmless bacteria but a good indication of sewage contamination.

Detergents

More phosphorus is added from ‘hard’ synthetic detergents whose foaming reduces photosynthesis and inhibits the oxygenation of water.

Agricultural wastes.

Fertilisers are applied in large amounts to crops in modern times, releasing large concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus into the environment. Causing the eutrophication of fresh waters. Nitrates entering the ground water may also metabolic disorders in domestic animals and children if used for drinking. Domestic livestock produce a lot of waste including sewage waste, much more in fact then their human owners.

Lead.

The industrial production of lead increased in the 1940’s when lead was first used as an additive in petrol. Most lead produced is now used in this way (modern times?). Lead released into the atmosphere has a residue time of about a month before falling out. The concentration of lead is highest near highways and smelters, but the atmospheric form ensured a wide distribution. It has been shown that there is an accumulation of lead in the Greenland ice cap. Lead poisening has been implicated in causing mental imparement in humans.

Mercury

Mercury is used in the production of chloride and caustic soda, and as a fungicide. There are two pathways in which mercury and contaminate the environment. The first is the contamination of food, mostly grain, which can cause the death of animals and man. The contamination of water with mercury causes the uptake of mercury in fish.

Cadmium

Waste heat- relecvance to chapter 2 section 3: commonly by power generating plants – e.g. waste heat in Lake Antario (Canada) – hot water can cause changes in biota. A body of water at 30 degrees is essentially a biological desert and many game fish require temperatures of < 10 degrees for successful reproduction. A temperature rise of 10 degrees will double the rate of many chemical reactions and so the decay of organic matter, and the solution rate of salts are all elevated by heating. The metabolic rate of animals is increased and so they require more oxygen which, however, is lower in concentration and the require higher temperatures.


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FHSST Biology/Contents/Index/ES/Ecosystems/Resources/Biotic (living) and Abiotic (non-living) resources

Minerals – ores like iron, aluminium and copper. Catalysts and harders – sand gravel cement, clay salt sulphur and diamonds – all non-renewable but mostly available for re-use. Distribution is uneven.

The US citizen is responsible for the use of 7.25 kg of lead, 3.55 tons of stone, sand and gravel, 227 kg of cement, 91 kg of clay, and 91 kg of salt. Luckily, not many nations consume as much. The rate of consumption of more minerals since 1950 then in the previous recoded history of the world. Due to technological advances, some believe there will be no major shortages in mineral supply, e.g. atomic power will provide the energy to extract minerals from presently unviable sources such as the sea. This point of view has been attacked. Unless technology develop to utilize the following abundant supplies: iron, aluminium, magnesium, silicates, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sunlight, to provide all our mineral needs.

71% of Earth’s surface. The salinity of the sea has been stable for the last 2000 million years. Organisms in the sea play an important role in removing minerals from the liquid state to solid state. Mineral resources: Those dissolved in the water, thos deposited in the sea bed. The utility of dissolved elements is proportional to the concentration in the water and the relative cost of mining the mineral on terrestrial sources. NaCl, Mg and bromine are at present the only minerals in sea water that exceed 1 part per million. Sediments and sedimentary rocks on the continental shelves are sources of certain materials such as petroleum and natural gas. Manganese nodules in sediment. They occur as a layer with a mean depth of 4000 – 5000 m. There are reports of large deposits of sulphide ores of zinc, copper and iron on the sea floor. A small proportion of the worlds wealth by mining comes from the sea but this is likely to increase.

Biological resources: There are limiting factors on the biological productivity of the sea. The euphotic zone in which photosynthesis can occur is only about 60mm??cm?? deep, primary producers are scattered very thinly otherwise they would shade each other, therefore are self limiting. CO2 also scarse in sea water and depends on mixingdynamics. Plankton are generally unable to control their regional movements and considerable patchiness in their presence and productivity. Food shains generally simple and short lived. As animals grow, their diets change so that food chains are continually forming and disappearing. Detritus and bacteria are important food sources in shallow water and probably have a important role in deeper water since there are 10 grams of dead and 100g of dissolved carbon for every gram of living carbon in the water column, and the dead organic carbon can only be made available again via bacterial activity. Open oceans are the least productive and can be considered biological desserts because of the small size of autotrophic zone in relation to the heterotrophic zome in which the cycling of nutrients takes place. The distribution of productivity suggests that nutrients may be a limiting factor. Coastal zones are productive because of sources of nutrients. There are also upwelling zones (West coast etc.). Tidal flats and estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. The standing crop is always relatively low because of the high turnover (i.e. short life spans). It is not viable to harvest phytoplankton or zooplanton (taste, processing, low density, silicated shells). Third trophic level yields many more desirable species e.g. flounders, haddock, cod, herring, sardines and certain whales and further along the food chain, tuna, salmon, swordfish, seals and certain whales. There are also detritus feeders I.e. sole and crustacea. (up to date harvesting estimates and SA example?). Asian countries most consume sea food. The extension fo fisheries could involve : the exploitation of untapped spacies, better capture techniques, extending operation into unexploited areas. The fertilisation of low nutrient areas may in the future be employed to increase productivity (lookup?). Krill may become a viable food source as most whale populations have been decimated.

Oysters and mussels in Hong Kong and Philippines and Japan, are vulnerable to contamination. True aquaculture involves selective breeding and the chosen species by keeping them captive throughout their breeding cycle. This is very difficult and requires unpolluted sea water and a suitable coastal site and waste heat, needs much skill.

Over exploitation of biological resources.

The population must not be overcropped to the point that its reproduction no longer provides sufficient individuals to constitute a resource. Requires the rational management of the resource. Serious declines have occurred in the past: Asian and Californian sardine, North West pacific salmon, Yellow fin tuna are presently taking strain. Interim regulatory measures are sometimes applied to such species, regulating catch and net size, but these measures are difficult to enforce and therefore certain species have been overfished. It may not be possible for an overfished species to regain its place in energy pathways of the ecosystem. Sea mammals have been exploited: Japan and porpoises. Certain seals. Whaling: most prolific example of over-exploitation. Japan and the USSR (former) still killing whales.

Pullution: Sea had had some deliberate and accidental spills and continues to be used as a garbage bin: radio isotopes and industrialised effluents.


text:
The Descent of Man/Chapter V

Darwin begins this chapter by explaining Wallace's views on man's evolution, i.e, that with the development of human intellect allowing him to make tools and shelters against a variety of climates, man would not have been as exposed to natural selection except as it related to his intellect. The more intelligent and creative people were more likely to survive.

Darwin restates the point that the desire for the praise of peers led to habitual social behavior. This can be seen in animals like dogs as well as "savages" and probably helped to naturally select those who worked with others of their species. He also touches on the question of the beginning of civilization and why some cultures progress and others don't.

Under "Natural Selection and Civilized Nations" Darwin points out that civilization has led to activities that enable the weaker members of society to survive and multiply while war carries off the fittest. He also discusses the relative merit of primogeniture and inheriting wealth.

In the subsection on "Hereditary Genius" Darwin states that the more intelligent will have a greater effect on society through their works as well as their children. He quotes statistics on the mortality rates of married and unmarried men and contradictory evidence on the effect of moral behavior on population growth. He also warns that natural checks to population increase among the morally inferior will not always keep them from overwhelming and reversing the progress of a society.

Looking at ancient Greece or sixteenth century Spain, he wonders what had stopped those cultures from taking over Europe. The United States appears to Darwin as a very good example of natural selection. At the same time Darwin acknowledges that progress comes from education of the young and "a higher standard of excellence...embodied in the laws, customs and traditions of [a] nation..." This in turn comes from a desire for approval which is a social instinct.

Finally Darwin holds that all "civilized" societies arose from "barbarous" ones. As examples he points to ways of writing, superstitions and trials by combat which have persisted through the ages.

title: The Descent of Man/Chapter V


text:
Talk:German/Level I/Freizeit/Problems

Untitled
will my modifications be seen by everybody or only by me?
 * Everybody! Welcome to the Wiki :) --Cspurrier 17:52, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

everybody, DO NOT ANSWER THE EXCERSISES HERE

Best Ten Ten
What does "Best Ten Ten" mean? 83.31.80.104 (discuss) 16:17, 25 December 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level I/Freizeit/Problems


text:
User talk:Sb2k4~enwikibooks

World Records
Is this supposed to be a Wikibook or a Wikiproject?

 * If it's a book, then it should not be labelled a Wikiproject in Template:New, nor on the page World Records.
 * If it's a project, then it should not be listed in Template:New, but rather on Community Portal; it should include only 'records' relating to the Wikibooks site, and should live in the 'Wikibooks' namespace.

Also note that additions to Template:New should be at the top of the list, as specified in the text of that page. I also recommend using the '/' rather than the ':' delimiter for page naming. See WB:NP for details. - Aya T C 17:24, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
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title: User talk:Sb2k4~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Flammekueche (Bacon and Onion Flatbread)

| Alsatian recipes

Flammkuchen or tarte flambée is a well-known Alsacian speciality. It is like pizza in that a thin crust of dough is baked in a very hot oven, but its topping is primarily crème fraîche, onions, and bacon. Like many traditional regional dishes there are innumerable ways of preparing it. Here is one example.

Starter

 * ¼ cup all-purpose flour
 * ¼ cup moderately hot water, about 110 °F (45 °C)
 * 1 tbsp sugar
 * 1 package yeast

Dough

 * 2 cups all-purpose flour
 * 1 tsp salt
 * ¼ cup beer (home brew)
 * 6 tbsp (¼ cup + 2 tbsp) milk

Topping

 * 2 tbsp oil
 * 1 medium (3 oz / 85 g) onion, finely chopped
 * 1 cup crème fraîche, commercial or home made (see note)
 * ½ tsp salt
 * ¼ tsp pepper
 * 4 pinches nutmeg
 * 3 ounces bacon, cut into matchsticks

Procedure

 * 1) Mix the starter ingredients together in a small bowl, cover tightly, and set aside in a warm place for 30 minutes.
 * 2) When the starter is light and bubbly, mix the beer and milk into the mixture.
 * 3) Put the flour and salt into a food processor, then, with the motor running, add the yeast mixture through the feeding tube. Process the dough until it forms a ball. Add very small amounts of additional flour or milk if necessary.
 * 4) Process the ball until it is smooth, elastic, and warm, about 45 seconds to 1 minute.
 * 5) Butter a medium-sized bowl, roll the ball around in the butter, then cover and let rise in a warm place until doubled. Punch down and let rise a second time.
 * 6) While the dough is rising, heat 1 tablespoon of the oil in a nonstick skillet. Add the onion and cook, stirring, over low heat for 5 minutes or until golden brown. Let cool.
 * 7) Combine the crème fraîche, salt, pepper, and nutmeg. Add the cooled onion.
 * 8) Heat the remaining oil in the skillet and fry the bacon until lightly browned, stirring constantly. Remove and drain through a strainer.
 * 9) Preheat the oven to 450 °F (220 °C) or as hot as it will go. If using a pizza stone, preheat the oven for at least 30 minutes.
 * 10) Lightly oil a 14 x 16 inch (35 x 40 cm) baking sheet. Roll the dough until slightly smaller than the baking sheet. Place it on the sheet. If using a pizza stone you may roll the dough onto a sheet of parchment paper.
 * 11) Spread the onion mixture over the dough, leaving a very small raised rim all the way around, then dot with the bacon.
 * 12) Bake for 4 to 20 minutes depending on oven temperature. The tart should is lightly browned and bubbling. Burned/blackened edges are traditional. Serve very hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Some recipes, like the one used by restaurants in Strasbourg, do not use yeast in the dough.
 * To make crème fraîche, combine 1 cup heavy cream with 2 tbsp cultured buttermilk, stir, cover with plastic wrap, and leave at room temperature for 12 to 24 hours, or until it has become very thick. Refrigerate, and it will become even thicker.

Livre de cuisine/Tarte flambée


text:
Cookbook:Native American Cuisine

| North American cuisines

Native American Traditional Foods
This page links to a variety of recipes for Native American traditional foods. The primary purpose of this page is to make traditional foods recipes more accessible to young people and to provide a resource for people interested in modifications of traditional Native American foods that may make them healthier for diabetics. For the purposes of this page, a traditional food means any recipe that is passed from generation to generation.

Northwest coast (Nooksack) recipes

 * Acorn Crusted Salmon
 * Baked Lemon Thyme Halibut
 * Biscuits Forty years ago baking powder biscuits were eaten in place of fry bread.
 * Coconut Crusted Baked Cod
 * Dried Ooligans or Hooligans These small fish run in select rivers of the North American Pacific coast. Ooligan also known as eulachon or candle fish are rich in fats and in the past the oil was concentrated to grease for storage and trade. Now days they are usually dried, canned or smoked.
 * Eel chowder
 * Fall Chanterelle Mushroom Frittata
 * Fireweed Scones
 * Fried Tiger Lily Pastries
 * Glottucks
 * Halibut Cheek Stir-Fry
 * Indian ice-cream or Sxusem This fluffy whipped berry desert was eaten at celebrations.
 * Muskrat Soup
 * Pashofa
 * Pickled Herring
 * Plank-Grilled Salmon
 * Poached Salmon with wild Huckleberries
 * Roasted Rabbit
 * Purple Plum Pie
 * Rosemary Grilled Salmon Steaks
 * Setauket chowder
 * Smoked Eulachons
 * Smoked Salmon Breakfast Burrito
 * Smoked Salmon Chowder
 * Smoked Salmon Dip
 * Sting'in Nettle Pesto
 * Tempura Baked Halibut with Cilantro Aioli
 * Teriyaki Grilled Salmon Steaks
 * Vegetable Stuffed Mushrooms

Southwest recipes

 * Three Sisters Stew

Northeast recipes

 * Succotash

See our listing of Native American recipes.

title: Cookbook:Native American Cuisine


text:
Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Momentum and Conservation of Momentum

Momentum and Energy
Momentum is a physical quantity that is equal to the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity. Momentum is related to energy, and like energy it remains conserved in a closed system (a system where no energy enters or leaves). Classically, momentum is defined as such:

$$\mathbf{p}=m\mathbf{v}$$

where the bold P and v indicate vectors.

Where kinetic energy is defined as:

$$E=\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)mv^2$$

Therefore,

$$2E/\mathbf{v}=\mathbf{p}$$

Also note

$$\frac{dE}{dv}=p$$

That is, momentum can be used to measure the change in kinetic energy as an object changes velocity.

Force and Momentum
Force is defined as the mass of an object multiplied by its acceleration:

$$\mathbf{F}=m\mathbf{a}$$

Acceleration is the derivative of velocity, which is the vector form of distance over time. Thus, the integral of acceleration is velocity:

$$\int adt=v$$

Using this, we can easily see how the integral of Force is momentum:

$$\int Fdt = m\int adt = mv = p$$

Conservation of Momentum
Recall the main result from Center of Mass that for a system of particles

$$ F = M \frac{dV}{dt} = \frac{d MV}{dt} $$

where F is the sum of the external forces, M is the total mass, and V is the velocity of the center of mass (that is, the time derivative of the center of mass). If F = 0, we have $$MV = \sum_i m_i v_i = const$$. If we define $$m_i v_i$$ to be the momentum of a particle then we have the law of conservation of momentum -- that the total momentum is conserved when there are no external forces. In other words, the momentum you start out with will be the momentum you end up with. Say you're playing pool, and you go to smack the 8-ball in the right corner pocket. As a challenge, however, your opponent rolls the 8-ball across the table. The conservation of momentum can be summed up with a simple equation:

$$\sum p_i = \sum p_f$$

As you smack the cue ball toward the 8-ball and your opponent rolls the 8-ball across the table, you give the cue ball some velocity v_1 and the 8-ball a velocity v_2. The initial momentum for the entire system is therefore:

$$m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 = \sum p_i$$

Being the pool player with some sweet skills that you are, the cue ball smacks the 8-ball and it goes flying into the pocket. Right after the collision, the momentum of the system is:

$$m_1v_1' + m_2v_2' = \sum p_f$$

Can you guess what we can do next? Since we know that the momentum of the system is conserved, we can set these two equations equal to each other:

$$m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 = m_1v_1' + m_2v_2' = \sum p_i = \sum p_f$$

Now, there are a plethora of ways to solve these equations, depending on what values are given or determined through experiment. If we determine the masses and the initial velocities plus one of the final velocities, we can solve the equation by simple algebra this way:

$$(m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 - m_1v_1')/m_2 = v_2' \Rightarrow (m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 - m_2v_2')/m_1 = v_1'$$

The "$$\Rightarrow$$ " symbol here means "implies". Obviously, if you can solve for v1' here you can solve for v2'.

Now let's try something a bit harder. Say that we're poor college students and can't afford to purchase machines that measure velocity. Instead, however, we can measure forces and masses. We intentionally hit the cue ball with a force of 3N and roll the 8-ball with a force of 1N. If we want to find momentums now, we'll have to calculate them using our given information. Well, we can use the nifty equation

$$\int Fdt = \int madt = mv = p$$

(I just integrated F = ma over time). Our momenta are therefore easily calculated:

$$\int_{t_1}^{t_2} 3\, dt = p_1\quad and\quad \int_{t_1}^{t_2} 1\, dt = p_2$$

Remember that because the integral of force is momentum, momentum is equal to the area under the curve of force (by time). In other words, when you smack a cue ball you exert some force over some time interval. If you were to plot this, the momentum of the cue ball at the end of the time interval would be the total area under that curve to that point.

The principle of conservation of momentum can, of course, be applied to a situation where two colliding objects creates one big object. Say that your billiard balls were made of a clay, and just as your cue ball hit the 8-ball, they stuck together to form one large mass of clay. the conservation of momentum equation would now look like

$$\sum p_i = m_1v_1 + m_2v_2 = \sum p_f = (m_1 + m_2)/v'$$

--Mattciv 18:21, 7 August 2005 (UTC)

Continuous Systems
Now is a nice time to look at an interesting class of problems involving continuous mass distribution. The classic example is a rocket that burns fuel and ejects exhaust at a velocity v relative to the rocket. If the rocket starts out with mass $$M_0$$ and burns fuel at a rate of b, what is the velocity of the rocket as a function of mass burned (or equivalently time since the mass burned is bt).

Consider the rocket at two times t and t + dt. At t it has a velocity forwards of u, and mass M. At t + dt, it has velocity u + du and mass M - dm and has expelled a small mass dm at velocity u - v forward (so that it is traveling at -v relative to the rocket). Using conservation of momentum,

$$ Mu = (M - dm) (u + du) + (u-v)dm$$.

This simplifies to

$$ du = v \frac{dm}{M}$$

noting that the product of two small things is really, really small and we can safely take $$du dm$$ to be zero.

Integrating gives

$$ \Delta u = v \ln(\frac{M}{M_0})$$.

Or, if we want to find u as a function of time, just substitute $$ M = M_0 - bt$$.

As you can see, the conservation of momentum provides a powerful tool for problems such as these. If we wanted to find the velocity of a rocket that's going away from earth, we have to note that the conservation of momentum does not quite hold, but that $$ p(t + dt) = p(t) + Fdt$$ which is the same thing as F = ma.

Using differentials (or deltas if you're a stickler for that kind of thing) is a very useful technique that will allow you to write a differential equation for most systems (all if you're very clever), so it is a trick well worth remembering.


text:
Raising Chickens/Winters

In most parts of the world winters are not a big issue. However, once you go north/south of certain latitudes then keeping your chickens going through the winter is a big deal.

Winterizing your Shelter
If you are using an existing shed that has wall cavities(in between the outside siding, and the inside wall) you can fill those up with sawdust, and that helps.

Heat
Depending on the size and cold tolerance of your chickens heating can be very important or just a nice add on. If your shelter is small enough and insulated well the heat produced by your chickens might be enough to keep them warm. If this is not the case then it might be necessary to put heating in. A heat lamp can help add warmth to the chickens shelter. The cold tolerance of chickens varies. However, some chickens can be quite happy in -20 Celsius.

Butchering all your chickens in the fall
One option of getting your chickens through the winter is to not do it. If you are raising chickens for meat purposes then this is an option worth considering. For instructions on doing this look in the Butchering section of this book.

title: Raising Chickens/Winters


text:
Talk:German/Level I/Introduction

Helping/auxiliary verbs
hi, There are no helping verbs in German. That's not right. Do you mean auxiliary verbs? What about Ich habe gesungen, Ich bin gegangen or Ich werde kommen? haben and sein and werden are auxiliary verbs! m:User:Louisana

As native German I can second that - there are auxiliary verbs, and they are quite necessary. Imagine English w/o auxiliary verbs.. --84.62.175.68 14:43, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

Hi! I'm a native German, too, and I deleted that assertion. I think I'm right to suppose that a "helping verb" is an "auxiliary verb" (at least the English Wikipedia article redirects there), so it turns out to be wrong. Those who know German, please read Hilfsverb. --Langec 20:29, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

Closeness of English and German
Can someone with some knowledge clear this up:

German and English are very close to each other. Here are some major similarities: ... As you can see, German is very much like English. There are, however, differences:
 * Both languages have the same 26 letters: A - Z.
 * German has more letters than and different pronunciations from English (see Lesson 1).

 * There is more truth to the second statement. In addition to the ascii alphabet we have vokals with those funny dots on top and the sharp s. However, I wouldn't base the proximity of languages on the number of letters. After all, Finnish uses the same letters as English but linguists have a hard time to find any similarity at all.--KaiMartin 00:36, 3 May 2006 (UTC)

Identical Words?
"Many words, such as Football and Sandwich are the same in English and German. "

Really? One of the first German words I learned was Fußball... not really the same as English. Terrafire 15:25, 29 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Hi Leo, I (a German) can confirm that. Sandwich is another bad example, because this word has been imported from English to German; it is not a native German word. Otherwise, you could also name "kindergarten" or "autobahn", which would be ridiculous ;-) I'd suggest to leave that point out. --Langec 20:32, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I replaced the examples with words like Text, Zoo, Handball, Park, Position, Garage, ... I guess some of these words are imported from Latin, Greek, and French into both languages. In that sense they might be bad examples, but they are considered normal German/English words now. --Martin Kraus (talk) 11:25, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

Contents
I can not find the special German method of showing completeness anywhere in the German Wikibook. The section stating that they do things differently should be revised. Jade Knight 09:54, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

More guttural
"German is more 'guttural'. In German, you talk in the back of your mouth."

What is the reasoning behind this statement? In both Standard German and English, there are no consonants with Epiglottal, Pharyngeal, or Uvular articulation (regional varieties of  aside). Is the reasoning based on the number of sounds in the back of the mouth, i.e. /k, g, h, ŋ/ in English vs /k, g, ç, x, h, ŋ/ in German? Or maybe the frequency of these sounds?

Regardless, "In German, you talk in the back of your mouth" is an imprecise--if not outright false--statement. --JS

 * I removed the statement since I didn't know what it refers to. --Martin Kraus (talk) 11:22, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

English has genders?
In what possible sense do English words have genders?

 * Please sign your comments with --~ . The way I understand that statement is that you have to use pronouns of the right gender to refer to nouns: "The man walks on the street. He wears a hat. A woman follows him. She doesn't wear a hat. The street doesn't really care. It has seen many men and women." But maybe the statement should be removed. --Martin Kraus (talk) 07:03, 8 July 2010 (UTC)
 * And think of phrases like "brother sun and sister moon", the sun and the moon, while referring pronouns are "he" for sun and "she" for moon. In German the other way round: *Schwester Sonne und Bruder Mond", die Sonne und der Mond. --93.83.23.30 (discuss) 19:26, 6 June 2013 (UTC)

audio does’nt work
audio does’nt work 154.182.198.9 (discuss) 15:08, 15 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Level I/Introduction


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3

2. Nf3 - King's Knight Opening
After '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3''', White has initiated one of the most classical and popular chess openings, the King's Knight Opening. No matter which opening White chooses, the goal is to develop their pieces quickly and control the center of the board. White should also be aware of Black's counterplay and be prepared to defend against it. With their first two moves, White demonstrates fundamental principles of chess opening play, including control of the center, development of pieces, and preparation for castling.

 * 1) Control of the Center: The move 1. e4 claims central space and opens lines for the queen and king's bishop. The question for Black at this point is whether to challenge the opposing pawn on e4 or support their own pawn on e5. The follow-up 2. Nf3 develops a knight to its most active square, attacking the e5 pawn and further exerting control over the center.
 * 2) Importance of Flexibility: While these are standard plans, White must remain flexible and adapt to Black's responses, tailoring the strategy to the specific position on the board.
 * 3) Strategic Goals for White: In all these variations, White's objectives include rapid piece development, king safety (usually through castling), maintaining or increasing central control, and creating opportunities for tactical or positional advantages in the middlegame.

Responses by Black: Supporting the black pawn
Black's valuable center pawn is threatened with capture, but White's pawn remains safe. Black's typical response to 2. Nf3 is either 2...Nc6, defending the e5-pawn, or 2...Nf6, challenging White's e4 pawn (the Petrov Defense). Each choice leads to different types of positions and strategies.

2...Nc6 is the natural move, combining defence of the pawn with control of the d4 square and avoiding committing another pawn for now. 2. Nf3 is 10 times more popular than everything else combined, and in turn the reply 2...Nc6 is about 5 times more popular than everything else combined.

'''Common Continuations for White after 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6:'''
 * 3. Bb5 (Ruy Lopez): A classical approach aiming to exert pressure on Black's center and knight on c6.
 * 3. Bc4 (Italian Game): Targets f7, the weakest point in Black's camp, and supports White's central pawns.
 * 3. d4 (Scotch Opening): Aiming for rapid development and opening of the center.
 * 3. Nc3 (Three Knights' Opening): Develops another piece while keeping central tension.
 * 3. c3 (Ponziani Opening): Prepares to support the d4 push, challenging Black's central pawn structure.

2...d6, Philidor's Defence, is the other safe option to defend the pawn.

It restricts Black's dark-squared bishop to the e7-square, and grants White an advantage in territory, but it builds a fortress that cannot be easily battered down. This is generally considered an inferior way to defend the e5 pawn because white can easily push for advantage here, and white gets a 58% score here, with 41% wins opposed to Black's 25%. This is especially the case if Black makes a ...c7-c5 push to kick a potential knight on d4, greatly weakening the d6-pawn.

An alternative (older) way to play this is to follow up with 3...f5, but more recent analyses have proven this line to be completely losing for Black

Note that 2...f6? is a bad move.

2...f6 is known as the Damiano Defence. It is a poor move as it weakens black's kingside and deprives the knight on g8 of its most natural development square. Additionally, it does not even defend the pawn; if 2...Nxe5, fxe5 allows Qh5+, after which black either loses a rook (3... g6 4. Qxe5+) or is hunted into the center of the board with 3...Ke7 4. Qxe5+. Even the person for who the "defence" is named after, Pedro Damiano, condemned the defense as weak and inferior.

Challenging the White pawn
2...Nf6 is the Petrov Defence.

Black wants the same things that White wants, but once again White will be back in a symmetrical position with the advantage of moving first. This opening is known to be notoriously drawish due to the resultant symmetric positions.

2...f5 is the Latvian Gambit.

This iconic counter-thrust divides opinion like very few other openings.

Has Black lured White into a minefield of tricks and traps leading to an inevitable violent death?

Or has Black given away a pawn for nothing?

2...d5 is the Elephant Gambit.

It's along the same lines as the Latvian, but less complex – White needs to do less memorising to reach a good position.

Statistics
Estimated next move popularity.

Nc6 83.5%, Nf6 11%, d6 4%, f5 0.5%, other less than 0.5%.

Theory table
'''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3'''


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Qf6

= Greco Defence =

2...Qf6
Moves:
 * /3. Bc4/

The Greco Defence attempts to defend Black's e-Pawn with the Queen. This defence is rarely seen professionally as White is provided an advantage in development.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bill Weasley

Overview
William "Bill" Arthur Weasley is the eldest son of Arthur and Molly Weasley; he is two years older than Charlie, the second son. He is tall with long, red hair tied into a ponytail and a fang earring, both of which his mother disapproves of. At Hogwarts he was in Gryffindor House and Head Boy in his seventh year. After Hogwarts, Bill worked as a curse-breaker for Gringotts Wizarding Bank in Egypt.

Bill Weasley's birthday is 29 November. His birth year is not given in the series, but internal evidence suggests 1971.

Philosopher's Stone
Bill is first mentioned to Harry Potter by Ron Weasley while they are journeying to Hogwarts on the Hogwarts Express. He is said to have been Head Boy while at school, and is now working for Gringotts in Egypt as a curse-breaker.

Chamber of Secrets
Bill continues to work at Gringotts Bank in Egypt.

Prisoner of Azkaban
The Weasley family visits Bill over the summer holidays in Egypt.

Goblet of Fire
Bill is waiting at the Weasleys' kitchen table when Harry arrives by Floo powder from the Dursleys'. This is our first time seeing him, dressed in his usual unconventional attire. Having only Percy as an example, Harry had expected Bill, a former Head Boy, to be somewhat stodgy; but Bill can only be described as cool.

Bill is home because Arthur Weasley has procured tickets to the Quidditch World Cup. He is attending with the family and Harry and Hermione, but rather than travel by Portkey with his father and the younger Weasley children, he instead Apparates to the campsite with Percy and Charlie. Bill apparently enjoyed the match, discussing it at some length with the others at their campsite later that evening. When a riot breaks out during the night, he, along with Charlie, Percy, and Arthur attempt to break it up before any Muggles are hurt, collecting himself an injury in the process.

In the following week, he is seen several times around the Weasley home, usually being nagged by his mother about his long hair and fang earring. When Amos Diggory calls Arthur about Mad-Eye Moody, Bill takes part in the conversation where we learn about Moody's history. Charlie and Bill accompany the family to the Hogwarts Express to see the children off, and Bill alludes to something mysterious happening soon at Hogwarts. Apparently Charlie and Mrs. Weasley also know about it, but say nothing, much to the annoyance of Harry, Ron, Fred, and George.

We next see Bill just before the Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament. As Harry's family has no interest in watching him compete in the Tournament, Bill and his mother have come in their place to cheer him on. Fleur Delacour, upon seeing Bill waiting for Harry, seems unbothered by the long hair or the fang earring. Harry spends the day touring Hogwarts with Mrs. Weasley and Bill, and listening to Mrs. Weasley's reminiscences about her Hogwarts days; Harry waves to Bill and Mrs. Weasley before entering the maze.

As Harry arrives in the hospital wing after Voldemort's return, Bill, along with Mrs. Weasley, Ron, and Hermione, is demanding that Madam Pomfrey tell them where Harry is. Everyone stays by Harry's bedside as he is given sleeping potion.

Bill is still present when Harry is awoken by Cornelius Fudge's arrival. After Fudge's departure, Professor Dumbledore tells Mrs. Weasley that he needs to send an urgent messenger to Arthur Weasley about what has happened, and to start gathering allies within the Ministry. Bill volunteers to carry the message to his father, and departs.

Order of the Phoenix
Bill is first seen when Harry arrives at Number 12, Grimmauld Place. When Harry, Ron, Hermione, Ginny, Fred, and George head to the kitchen for dinner, Bill is there, cleaning up after the Order of the Phoenix's meeting.

During conversation before and over dinner, we learn that Bill no longer works as a curse-breaker and has taken a desk job at Gringotts so that he can be closer to home to work for the Order. He has also started giving Fleur Delacour lessons so that she can, "eemprove 'er Eeenglish".

At Christmas, when Arthur Weasley is attacked at the Ministry, he is taken to St. Mungo's Hospital. Molly Weasley stays until he is out of danger, then returns to Grimmauld Place to update everyone on his condition, and says that Bill is sitting with Arthur.

Half-Blood Prince
When Harry arrives at The Burrow after meeting Horace Slughorn, Fleur Delacour brings him his breakfast, during which she announces that she and Bill are engaged to be married the following summer. Ron, Hermione, and Harry agree with Ginny that Molly Weasley dragging Nymphadora Tonks under Bill's nose is unlikely to divert Bill's attention; Tonks also seems too depressed since the Battle at the Ministry to be interested in Bill. Bill is apparently living at The Burrow and is there for Harry's birthday. He mentions that Florean Fortescue has departed his ice cream store in Diagon Alley.

Bill, who works for Gringotts, retrieves some money for Harry from his vault, saying that due to tight security measures, it could take Harry several hours to get into Gringotts.

Bill and Fleur are at the Burrow at Christmas; Mrs. Weasley is mildly upset that Tonks, though invited, has chosen to stay away. She believes Bill's presence is keeping Tonks from spending Christmas with them.

Bill is present during the battle under the Astronomy Tower; he was evidently one of the Order members guarding Hogwarts while Albus Dumbledore was absent. Bill is viciously mauled by the werewolf, Fenrir Greyback. Fortunately, as Fenrir was not transformed at the time, Bill did not become a werewolf, though Madam Pomfrey is unable to completely heal his face, and he remains permanently scarred. Molly Weasley believes Fleur will break the engagement, being he is no longer as handsome as he was. Fleur is indignant at this suggestion, proclaiming she is pretty enough for them both, and the wedding is still on. This declaration marks the beginning of Molly and Fleur's reconciliation.

Though there is fear that Fenrir's attack may have turned Bill into a werewolf, the only permanent damage he suffers is his scarred face and a new craving for very rare steaks.

Deathly Hallows
Bill begins the summer with a mission to help protect Harry. The protective charms at Number 4, Privet Drive end when Harry reaches his majority, so shortly before his birthday, the Order of the Phoenix gathers to transport Harry to a safe house. Seven groups will travel separately to one safe house, with six groups having a Harry Potter decoy and a protector, and one group with the real Harry and his protector, Hagrid. Polyjuice Potion is used to transform the decoys into Harry's likeness. Bill is a protector, while Fleur assumes Harry's identity. Though attacked by Death Eaters, they make it to their destination and from there to The Burrow.

Once there, Bill assists in tending to his brother George, whose ear was severed by Snape's Dark spell. After leading a moment of respect for the fallen Alastor Moody, Bill departs to help search for his body, though it is never found.

The day after Harry's birthday, Bill and Fleur Delacour are married. The celebration is interrupted by news arriving, via Patronus from Kingsley Shacklebolt, that the Ministry has fallen, and that Death Eaters are on their way to the Weasleys'.

When Ron becomes fed up with Harry's mission for Dumbledore, he leaves. He is unable to return to The Burrow, however, because his decoy (a ghoul disguised to look like him) is there, pretending to be Ron suffering from Spattergroit – or so the authorities would believe. Instead, he goes to Shell Cottage, Bill and Fleur's seaside home, and spends Christmas there. On his return to Harry and Hermione, he tells them about Shell Cottage.

Harry, Ron, and Hermione are captured by Snatchers and imprisoned in Malfoy Manor along with several others. Harry pleads for help from someone he sees in Sirius Black's magic mirror, and shortly is joined by Dobby. Needing a safe place to transport Dean Thomas, Luna Lovegood, and Ollivander, he remembers Ron telling him about Shell Cottage, and orders Dobby to take them there. Shortly afterwards, Ron, Hermione, Griphook, Harry, and Dobby follow; Dobby, mortally wounded by Bellatrix Lestrange, dies there, and Bill assists Harry in burying him near the cottage, and helps care for the recuperating Ollivander and Griphook.

Once Ollivander has recovered enough to travel, Bill takes him to Auntie Muriel's. Later, Bill is present when Remus Lupin arrives at Shell Cottage to announce the birth of his and Tonks' son, little Teddy Lupin. As that celebration is winding down, Bill cautions Harry about making any deals with Griphook. Goblins, he says, believe that ownership of Goblin-made items remains with them, regardless if a human paid for it. Goblins consider it a rental rather than purchase, and the goods should be return to the maker when the original "owner" dies.

Bill is present at the Battle of Hogwarts, he is among the last few arrivals through the tunnel from the Hog's Head, and is present when Percy arrives to reconcile with his family before joining the fight against Voldemort and his Death Eaters.

It is in this book that we learn that his name is actually William, rather than (as we might suppose) Bilius, apparently a favoured name among the Weasleys.

Strengths
Bill Weasley is a clever, powerful, and resourceful wizard. He is loyal to his family and to Harry Potter. He also belongs to the Order of the Phoenix and plays a significant role in the fight against Lord Voldemort.

Weaknesses
Though clever and laid back, Bill can be slightly foul mouthed, swearing in both Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.

Relationships with Other Characters
Bill met Fleur Delacour when he accompanied his mother to Hogwarts to support Harry Potter during the Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament, in which she was also a Champion. Fleur was attracted to Bill immediately, eyeing him from a distance. Shortly after, Bill moved back to England to work for the Order of the Phoenix, taking a desk job at Gringotts. Fleur was working part-time at the bank, and the two began dating shortly after.

After a year together, Bill proposed, and Fleur accepted. His mother felt it was too soon for him to marry, and worried that he was only doing it in response to Lord Voldemort's return. In addition, Fleur's blunt personality, apparent self-centeredness, and tendency to speak her mind irritated both Molly and Ginny. Mrs. Weasley became convinced that their mutual feelings were based more on physical attraction, as well as the adventurous side each possessed — him as a Curse Breaker, and her as a Triwizard Champion. After Bill is attacked and disfigured by the werewolf, Fenrir Greyback, during the Battle Under the Astronomy Tower, Fleur showed her true feelings by declaring that she loved Bill no matter what he looked like, and by her insistence that she would tend his injuries. Her declaration convinced Mrs. Weasley that her son had made the right choice, and the two women finally put aside their differences.

Bill and Fleur married on August 1, 1997, and soon settled into Shell Cottage, near the sea. Following the war, Bill and Fleur had three children, Victoire, Dominique, and Louis Weasley.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Charlie Weasley

Overview
Charlie Weasley is the second son of Arthur and Molly Weasley. He is three years older than Percy, the Weasley's third son. He was a Prefect in his fifth year at Hogwarts, and Quidditch Seeker on the Gryffindor house team. After graduation, he went to work with dragons in Romania. If he stayed for the full seven years, he would have left Hogwarts the year before Harry arrived.

According to the author, Charlie's birthday is 12 December. His birth year is not given in the series, but internal evidence suggests 1972, since he would need to be age 11 before start of his first school term at Hogwarts on September 1, 1984.

Philosopher's Stone
Charlie is mentioned in passing on the Hogwarts Express as Ron lists his brothers who have attended Hogwarts before him.

At tea with Hagrid on the Friday of their first week, Hagrid asks Ron how Charlie is doing, saying that he always liked Charlie, who was good with animals.

In commenting on Harry's proficiency on a broom, Professor McGonagall says "He caught that thing in his hand after a fifty-foot dive. Didn't even scratch himself. Charlie Weasley couldn't have done it." Later that day, Fred and George tell Harry that they've heard about him; they are on the team as well, they're Beaters, and George tells Harry, "We haven't won since Charlie left, but this year's team is going to be brilliant." A few times after that, Oliver Wood compares Harry's skills as Seeker favourably with Charlie's.

The Weasley children, Percy, Fred, George, and Ron, stay at Hogwarts over Christmas because their parents are visiting Charlie in Romania.

When it becomes apparent that something is going to have to be done about Hagrid's pet dragon, Norbert, Harry hits on the idea of sending Norbert off to Ron's brother Charlie. Though he does respond to Ron's letter, Charlie does not directly appear, but four of his friends do end up spiriting Norbert away in the night.

Goblet of Fire
Charlie is waiting at the Weasleys' kitchen table when Harry arrives by Floo powder from the Dursleys'. It is mentioned here that he has a large, healing burn on one arm.

Charlie is at home because Arthur Weasley has managed to get tickets to the Quidditch World Cup, and will be going to the Cup with the rest of the family. Being old enough to Apparate, he does so, arriving at the campsite about noon with Percy and Bill. He goes to the stadium with the rest of the Weasley family, and apparently enjoys the match, discussing it at some length with the rest of the family on their return to the campsite. When the riot breaks out that night, he goes with Bill, Percy, and Arthur to try to break it up before the Muggles get injured, and in the process collects an injury.

In the following week and a bit, we see him a few times around the Weasley family home, doing homely tasks like darning a fireproof balaclava. When Amos Diggory calls Arthur to tell him about Mad-Eye Moody, Charlie is part of the conversation where we learn about Moody's history.

Charlie travels with the rest of the group to the Hogwarts Express, and alludes to something mysterious that will be happening at Hogwarts. Apparently Bill and Mrs. Weasley, who have accompanied the group to the platform, know about it as well, but none of them will say anything, much to the annoyance of Harry, Ron, Fred, and George.

We see Charlie again at the run-up to the First Task of the Triwizard Tournament, where he is one of the wizards brought in to wrangle the dragons needed for that task. He speaks briefly to Hagrid, unaware of Harry's presence under the Invisibility Cloak, but suggesting that Hagrid was unwise to bring Madame Maxime to see what her champion would be facing.

Following the First Task, Charlie runs up to Harry to congratulate him after getting past the Hungarian Horntail, and tells him he's tied in first place with Viktor Krum.

Right before the Third Task, when Harry meets Bill and Mrs. Weasley, Bill tells Harry Charlie had wanted to come too, but he couldn't get time off work.

Order of the Phoenix
While Charlie Weasley is mentioned as being in the Order of the Phoenix, Arthur Weasley says that they have chosen to leave him in Romania, so that he can bring wizards from other countries into the organization.

Deathly Hallows
Charlie first appears at Harry's 17th birthday party, the day before Bill and Fleur Delacour's wedding, as he's to serve as best man. Upon seeing being asked about Norbert by Hagrid, Charlie tells him they call her Norberta now, as it turns out the dragon's a girl, to everyone's surprise.

Apparently, Charlie is unable to return to Hogwarts from Romania in time to play a part in the first part of the Battle of Hogwarts, but he arrives with the reinforcements and is part of the forces who eventually defeat the Death Eaters.

Strengths
Charlie has a gift with animals, especially dragons. He was also a skilled seeker, with Oliver Wood believing he could have played for England if he had chosen to.

Analysis
One issue that has been mentioned repeatedly on the Harry Potter fan sites is that, as stated here, Charlie is three years older than Percy, so possibly the last time he will have flown as Seeker for Gryffindor would be in his seventh year, the year immediately preceding Harry's arrival. In that case, the Twins' statement in the first book that they haven't won a game since Charlie left, would be true only because they hadn't played any games since Charlie left. While this does rather nag at the reader, and the author has never explained it, there is one unexplored possibility: Charlie's chosen profession does not seem to require any NEWT-level studies. So Charlie, as the Twins did after him, might not have chosen to wait out the seventh year of school. In fact, as he would have come of age shortly before Christmas of his sixth year, he could well have left school then, leaving Gryffindor without his services as Seeker for the last two matches of that year and the three matches immediately before the series opens. It is more likely, though, that if he had chosen to leave school early, he would have left at the end of his sixth year, leaving Gryffindor 0 for 3 in Quidditch the year before Harry arrived.

The narration in general seems to imply that Charlie is four or five years older than he actually is. This is highly unlikely, though, given other events in the series: if Charlie were four or five years older than this stated age, then Bill as the older brother would need to be at least three or four years older than his stated age, so would have been born at the latest in 1968, while his wife (still at school when the Triwizard Tournament takes place) is at the most three years older than Harry Potter, hence born at the earliest in 1978. This ten year gap in ages is not impossible, but one that would have probably been commented upon. This is likely to be a simple mistake much like with the age of Bellatrix Lestrange.

It is also said in the first three books that Gryffindor hasn't won the Quidditch cup in seven or eight years, amounting to Charlie's entire tenure at the school based on his stated age. One would think that if Charlie was as good as he was said to have been, Gryffindor would have won at least a few times during that period. Of course, we don't know whether other Houses had similarly stellar players. As the Quidditch Cup seems to be based on total points in the tournament, it is of course possible that other Houses, faced with dismally weak opposition from teams other than Gryffindor, would take the opportunity to pump up their winning scores and their Cup standing by unnecessarily extending their games. It is suggested that the most usual winner of the Quidditch cup is Slytherin, and this does seem to be a strategy that House would be willing to employ.

Questions

 * 1) Why do you think Hagrid liked Charlie so much?