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Blended Learning in K-12/Blended Learning in Grades 9-12

Today's high school student often has the maturity and technical expertise necessary to participate in e-learning experiences. However, students of this age frequently require the support of a teacher in a classroom. Blended learning combines the best of both worlds for high school students: the fluidity of using Internet resources and the reassurance of face-to-face experiences. It extends learning beyond the classroom, and expands the breadth of courses offerings, while providing the personal support and encouragement from a teacher still necessary for many students. The following paragraphs describe the effectiveness of blended learning, how to successfully achieve blended learning in a high school environment, and provide specific examples for teachers.

Research on Effectiveness of Blended Learning
High school students are often motivated by online learning, and often have the maturity and self-discipline to work independently and succeed in online coursework. "Evidence overwhelmingly shows that ALN [Asynchronous Learning Networks] are at least as effective as classroom learning" (Hilz et al., 2004). Much of the evidence of online learning success, however, relates to college and graduate level students who demonstrate a better completion rate than younger learners. Some high schools have found that providing hybrid courses, or blended learning experiences that provide more face-to-face support to students have better completion rates. One example is the Mannheim Township Virtual High School in Pennsylvania. While receiving many accolades for their success with individual students participating in their online learning courses, the dropout rate hovered around 25%. The program was uniquely revamped to address this issue. The solution was a hybrid online and traditional course model that has resulted in a 99% completion rate (Oblender, 2002).

The weaknesses of online courses are addressed by hybrid, or blended learning courses. Blended learning provides more structured time for student work while still allowing students the opportunity to proceed at their own pace. Teachers are available to monitor progress and provide encouragement and support to students who may lag behind. Blended learning courses provide physical resources that are not available in courses that are presented completely online, including language, technology and science labs (Oblender, 2002).

Blended learning also provides many benefits not available in traditional classrooms. The need for textbooks is diminished. Material presented is timely and relevant, and student progress is self-paced. The students' learning environment is extended to organizations, people and facilities not available in the classroom. Students who participate in blended learning gain advanced technological competencies (Oblender, 2002).

Distinct advantages exist for at-risk students when exposed to blended learning, particularly synchronous activities. Joining a "cyber-study group" results in higher performance for these students compared to students who study alone. "Peer-to-peer interactions needed for collaboration promote a collective sense of responsibility . . . students who have low self-efficacy or an external locus of control receive feedback and encouragement from their study partners." Also the presence of the instructor is more frequent, and results in more meaningful dialogue between teachers and students (Newlin, et al., 2002).

Getting Started with Blended Learning
For teachers just getting started in blended learning, the simplest approach may be to choose websites that expand on what is being taught in class, and/or provide extra practice for specific skills. In this scenario, the greatest proportion of the learning experience involves face-to-face learning, with a less significant web component. High school teachers who are looking to add a web component should start simple. The purpose is to expand on and clarify topics covered in class, and provide opportunities for students to extend the learning experience beyond the confines of the classroom. Some examples:

Foreign language students can utilize My Language Exchange. At this website, a student can locate a student learning his language who is a native speaker of the language he is learning. Together, the two students can participate in practice sessions using lesson plans, text and voice chat rooms, a dictionary, a private notepad, etc.

Math students can utilize online simulations of math concepts at The National Library of Virtual Manipulatives. Simulations are available in Numbers and Operations, Algebra, Geometry, Measurement, Data Analysis, and Probability. Using these manipulatives can provide a better understanding of math concepts, and well as practice in various areas.

English students can extend their learning of the writing process beyond the walls of the classroom by using Principles of Composition. This site contains a full high school composition course with interactive lessons and practice.

Students of American history can expand and develop their knowledge and understanding of major events in the history of our country by using The American Memory Collection published and maintained by the Library of Congress. Another good source is to use some of the interactive sites provided by National Geographic. The Underground Railroad trip is especially good for upper elementary and jr. high students. It forces them to think and make decisions while explaining what the underground railroad is.

Enriching science students through technology is made possible by the wide array of interactive resources available on the web. Students can conduct an in depth and interactive study of Biology at Interactive Biology. Chemistry students can expand on textbook information with information and animations on periodic table elements by using The Visual Elements Periodic Table. Students of physics can enrich the learning experience by spending time at The Physics Classroom.

Moving Forward: Incorporating Synchronous Web Components Into the High School Class
As teachers and students gain confidence in the incorporation of blended learning, they can discover numerous web components available to enhance the learning experience for students. Live synchronous experiences are good examples. These include video conferencing, instant messaging, chat rooms, and virtual classroom modules.

Video conferencing serves a variety of purposes. Most video conferencing options are not free, but available for an hourly fee, or through a subscription service. Students can benefit from the expertise of specialists in various areas and can participate in virtual field trips. Students living in remote areas can benefit from resources and people only available in more populated areas. The Albany Institute of History and Art offers numerous "virtual field trips" for high school students. Students are active participants as they join in real time with the Institute's historians, examining artifacts and collaborating with experts. History students can interact with holocaust survivors via video-conferencing through The Holocaust Memorial and Educational Center in New York. These are just a few of numerous video conferencing options available across the curriculum.

Video conferencing has purposeful academic applications in language courses, but some controversy exists over whether these needs can be addressed via asynchronous video. CUSeeMe was the grandfather of two-way video conferencing. Successors include NetMeeting, PalTalk and iVisit. Live Video conferencing has its drawbacks, however. Many schools lack the bandwidth necessary for effective and problem-free two-way conferencing (Godwin-Jones, 2003).

Instant messaging, discussion boards and chat rooms provide a means for remediation and consultation for students outside the school day. "Communication tools like discussion boards and chat rooms can be effective in inter-team collaboration as well as in faculty-student communication" (Eastman, et al., 2002). Students can become motivated in directing their own learning. Through these synchronous activities, students become empowered, can develop better communications skills, and develop their ability to work cooperatively. Students who are more timid in a face-to-face environment often gain confidence in online discussions. Teachers frequently become more accessible to students through these types of synchronous activities (Eastman, et al., 2002). Traditional text chats can now be enhanced with voice and/or video. "Apple recently announced multimedia enhancements of its iChat application, along with introducing the new iSight camera" (Godwin-Jones).

Use of Asynchronous Web Components in Secondary Education
Blogging, which began as an online journal several years ago has escalated to "several hundred thousand diarists . . . actively posting blogs about almost every conceivable topic." Blogs provide an instant, online writing space with the potential for an audience of thousands; free and instant publishing. Teachers will find that the "presence of an audience can increase engagement and a depth of writing" (Bull, 2003). "Blogs also help students exchange ideas much like a group of students waxing poetic at a . . . coffeehouse. Blog sites often prominently display the e-mail addresses of [their] creators, letting readers instantly provide feedback to the site" (Toto, 2004). Blogging has numerous instructional applications in high school. Literary activities using blogs include character journals, character roundtable, think-aloud postings, and literature circle group responses. Revision and grammar activities include nutshelling (extracting a line from a paragraph that holds the most meaning), devil's advocate writing (online debate), and exploding sentences (slowing down a student from an earlier post and adding rich, descriptive detail). At Hunderdon Central Regional High School in Flemington, New Jersey, students use a blog to discuss "The Secret Life of Bees" by Sue Monk Kidd in an American Literature Class (Bull, 2003).

Blogs can also help improve student writing. While students often begin their blog experience with sloppy grammar and spelling, the presence of an audience generally changes that. Since students are often the most critical audience, the blog writer begins to strive to improve writing to avoid criticism. Also blogging "forces students to become more savvy about the world around them." The need to feed the interest of the audience inspires students to be clever and interesting (Toto, 2004). Blogging is a tool that inspires collaboration, and encourages students to extend learning well beyond the traditional school day. Appropriate use of blogs "can empower students to become more analytical and critical; through actively responding to Internet materials, students can define their positions in the context of others' writings as well as outline their own perspectives on particular issues (Oravec, 2002).

Course management systems provide a mode of presentation and organization for blended learning. Moodle is a good example. Moodle was design to "provide a set of tools that support an inquiry- and discovery-based approach to online learning" (Brandl, 2005). Being available free of charge, it also has good financial benefits for school districts, as opposed to commercial course management systems. Teachers using moodle are able to provide a virtual classroom round the clock. "Moodle has great potential for supporting conventional classroom instruction, for example, to do additional work outside of class, to become the delivery system for blended course formats (Brandl, 2005). It is based on socio-constructivist theory, promoting cooperation among and between students and teachers.  It provides for both synchronous and asynchronous discussion through a chat option and threaded discussion.  "At the core of the concept of an asynchronous learning network is the student as an active—and socially interactive—learner" (Hilz et al., 2004).

Pulling It All Together: The Teacher's Perspective
The goal of blended learning is to use technology as a tool for learning and to promote a discovery-based approach to online learning. It is also intended to help students become "anytime, anywhere" lifelong learners. Keeping abreast of the technology is a challenge for teachers as well. The teacher needs to participate in ongoing professional development, read the latest research, and share ideas with other teachers. Teachers must actively seek out and utilize individuals that can act as mentors and technical support providers in their quest for effective blended learning techniques. If teachers must be lifelong learners themselves in order to promote lifelong learning among their students -- they must lead by example.

The Role of Blended Learning in the Future of High School Education
While teachers grapple with the challenges of staying up-to-date on new technologies, students being educated in this technological era are confident in their use of technology. New teachers enter the workplace well-equipped to face the technological challenges that await. As access to technological resources improves for all students and the digital divide narrows, high schools find themselves better able to implement blended learning. In the near future, high school learning will no longer be limited the length of the school day or the confines of the school building. Resources will be available for all students to learn anywhere, anytime.

Across the country, high schools are already making this vision a reality. One example is the Urban School in San Francisco, which has incorporated a 1:1 student laptop program. Foreign language courses have been improved with the use of voice files to improve listening and speaking skills. History students contribute meaningfully beyond the confines of the classroom and school to the broader community beyond by providing web-based election materials to the local community and producing an award-winning website that contains oral histories of area holocaust survivors. Math and science simulations are available for extra practice and enrichment to students when and where they need it, and language arts students participate in online literature circles, generating “more thoughtful and meaningful responses” than would typically be expected in a traditional classroom discussion (Levin).

Summary
The benefits for students abound in blended learning. Teachers have the opportunity to individualize instruction at all levels and for all students. Extra help is available to students who need it, and enrichment opportunities can be provided for students who move at a faster pace than the rest of the class. Teacher availability extends beyond the confines of the school day and the school building. Learning opportunities are expanded for all students. Students become actively engaged, and are well-prepared for the technological workplace that will be theirs. Collaboration is encouraged, and students have the opportunity to collaborate with a diverse and worldwide student body. Curriculum connections can be made which encourage higher level thinking (Morehead et al., 2004). Great potential exists for both students and teachers, and the future of blended learning is significant. What of the questions that would seem to need to be addressed is the availability of the technology to allow for blended learning. It would seem that wealthier districts would have a significant advantage in the resources available to them. Many poorer districts have poor student to computer ratios or do not have the ability to make computers available to classroom students on a regular basis.


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Talk:Statistics/Testing Data/z-tests

This article is highly unsatisfactory to explain its topic!130.89.219.179 23:21, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

The example "Is The Machine Working Correctly?" is seriously flawed. A quick inspection of the data shows that the standard deviation is nowhere near the 0.05 value quoted. The z test does not take into account the sample standard deviation since it assumes that the standard deviation of the population is known. Which test can be used to determine the likelihood of getting this sample standard deviation?

sample size for non-normal populations
The n=30 rule is over-simplistic. The answer really depends on whether there are outliers and/or skewness in the population distribution. With a symmetric, but non-normal distribution, n values smaller than 30 will suffice. With even moderate skewness, n>30 will be necessary. With outliers, n may have to be hundreds or even thousands before the CLT has converged sufficiently.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Statistics/Testing Data/z-tests


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User:Robert Horning/Sandbox

This is an attempt to try stuff out. Nothing is permanent here, and this is mainly my "experimental" area for trying different editing ideas instead of using a regular book module instead (I've done that far too often anyway).

-
 * Going to some new policies
 * ../New Module (This feature doesn't work right now)
 * Computer science category subdivisions for LOC
 * Go to main page
 * Wikimedia Foundation Meeting Place
 * A Whole Wikibook
 * Wikiversity
 * Mono chat
 * Mono Develop

Something to look at in the future:

w:Template:Featured article

Special:Log&type=&user=Robert Horning

logs

This page was last updated on --

title: User:Robert Horning/Sandbox


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Headset Wrench

Similar to a cone wrench, a headset wrench is a thinner than usual open ended wrench and is used to adjust the cone or cup and locknut in a threaded headset. Common sizes range from 30mm to 36mm. In general two headset wrenches are used in parallel to tighten the locknut against the cup or cone.


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Bottom Bracket Tapping and Facing Tool

This tool serves two purposes. First of all to recut and clean the threads in the bottom bracket shell of the frame. Secondly to face the edge of the bottom bottom bracket shell to ensure an even interface with the bottom bracket.


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Headset Press

Essentially a huge bolt with a nut on each end, the headset press is used to evenly insert the headset cups into the frame.


text:
Bicycles/Maintenance and Repair/Tools and Supplies/Wheel Dishing Gauge

It is important for the rim of a wheel to be exactly central in relation to the hub's axle. The wheel dishing tool is used to make a comparison between the distance from each end of the axle to each side of the rim.


text:
User:Eric Hughes

I wrote a manifesto, which was apparently somewhat influential.

title: User:Eric Hughes


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X86 Disassembly/Floating Point Numbers

Floating Point Numbers
This page will talk about how floating point numbers are used in assembly language constructs. This page will not talk about new constructs, it will not explain what the FPU instructions do, how floating point numbers are stored or manipulated, or the differences in floating-point data representations. However, this page will demonstrate briefly how floating-point numbers are used in code and data structures that we have already considered.

The x86 architecture does not have any registers specifically for floating point numbers, but it does have a special stack for them. The floating point stack is built directly into the processor, and has access speeds similar to those of ordinary registers. Notice that the FPU stack is not the same as the regular system stack.

Calling Conventions
With the addition of the floating-point stack, there is an entirely new dimension for passing parameters and returning values. We will examine our calling conventions here, and see how they are affected by the presence of floating-point numbers. These are the functions that we will be assembling, using both GCC, and cl.exe:

CDECL
Here is the cl.exe assembly listing for MyFunction1:

Our first question is this: are the parameters passed on the stack, or on the floating-point register stack, or some place different entirely? Key to this question, and to this function is a knowledge of what fld and fstp do. fld (Floating-point Load) pushes a floating point value onto the FPU stack, while fstp (Floating-Point Store and Pop) moves a floating point value from ST0 to the specified location, and then pops the value from ST0 off the stack entirely. Remember that double values in cl.exe are treated as 8-byte storage locations (QWORD), while floats are only stored as 4-byte quantities (DWORD). It is also important to remember that floating point numbers are not stored in a human-readable form in memory, even if the reader has a solid knowledge of binary. Remember, these aren't integers. Unfortunately, the exact format of floating point numbers is well beyond the scope of this chapter.

x is offset +8, y is offset +16, and z is offset +24 from ebp. Therefore, z is pushed first, x is pushed last, and the parameters are passed right-to-left on the regular stack not the floating point stack. To understand how a value is returned however, we need to understand what fmulp does. fmulp is the "Floating-Point Multiply and Pop" instruction. It performs the instructions:

ST1 := ST1 * ST0 FPU POP ST0

This multiplies ST(1) and ST(0) and stores the result in ST(1). Then, ST(0) is marked empty and stack pointer is incremented. Thus, contents of ST(1) are on the top of the stack. So the top 2 values are multiplied together, and the result is stored on the top of the stack. Therefore, in our instruction above, "fmulp ST(1), ST(0)", which is also the last instruction of the function, we can see that the last result is stored in ST0. Therefore, floating point parameters are passed on the regular stack, but floating point results are passed on the FPU stack.

One final note is that MyFunction2 cleans its own stack, as referenced by the ret 20 command at the end of the listing. Because none of the parameters were passed in registers, this function appears to be exactly what we would expect an STDCALL function would look like: parameters passed on the stack from right-to-left, and the function cleans its own stack. We will see below that this is actually a correct assumption.

For comparison, here is the GCC listing:

This is a very difficult listing, so we will step through it (albeit quickly). 16 bytes of extra space is allocated on the stack. Then, using a combination of fldl and fstpl instructions, the first 2 parameters are moved from offsets +8 and +16, to offsets -8 and -16 from ebp. Seems like a waste of time, but remember, optimizations are off. fld1 loads the floating point value 1.0 onto the FPU stack. faddp then adds the top of the stack (1.0), to the value in ST1 ([ebp - 8], originally [ebp + 8]).

FASTCALL
Here is the cl.exe listing for MyFunction2:

We can see that this function is taking 20 bytes worth of parameters, because of the @20 decoration at the end of the function name. This makes sense, because the function is taking two double parameters (8 bytes each), and one float parameter (4 bytes each). This is a grand total of 20 bytes. We can notice at a first glance, without having to actually analyze or understand any of the code, that there is only one register being accessed here: ebp. This seems strange, considering that FASTCALL passes its regular 32-bit arguments in registers. However, that is not the case here: all the floating-point parameters (even z, which is a 32-bit float) are passed on the stack. We know this, because by looking at the code, there is no other place where the parameters could be coming from.

Notice also that fmulp is the last instruction performed again, as it was in the CDECL example. We can infer then, without investigating too deeply, that the result is passed at the top of the floating-point stack.

Notice also that x (offset [ebp + 8]), y (offset [ebp + 16]) and z (offset [ebp + 24]) are pushed in reverse order: z is first, x is last. This means that floating point parameters are passed in right-to-left order, on the stack. This is exactly the same as CDECL code, although only because we are using floating-point values.

Here is the GCC assembly listing for MyFunction2:

This is a tricky piece of code, but luckily we don't need to read it very close to find what we are looking for. First off, notice that no other registers are accessed besides ebp. Again, GCC passes all floating point values (even the 32-bit float, z) on the stack. Also, the floating point result value is passed on the top of the floating point stack.

We can see again that GCC is doing something strange at the beginning, taking the values on the stack from [ebp + 8] and [ebp + 16], and moving them to locations [ebp - 8] and [ebp - 16], respectively. Immediately after being moved, these values are loaded onto the floating point stack and arithmetic is performed. z isn't loaded till later, and isn't ever moved to [ebp - 24], despite the pattern.

LC5 and LC6 are constant values, that most likely represent floating point values (because the numbers themselves, 1073741824 and 1074266112 don't make any sense in the context of our example functions. Notice though that both LC5 and LC6 contain two .long data items, for a total of 8 bytes of storage? They are therefore most definitely double values.

STDCALL
Here is the cl.exe listing for MyFunction3:

x is the highest on the stack, and z is the lowest, therefore these parameters are passed from right-to-left. We can tell this because x has the smallest offset (offset [ebp + 8]), while z has the largest offset (offset [ebp + 24]). We see also from the final fmulp instruction that the return value is passed on the FPU stack. This function also cleans the stack itself, as noticed by the call 'ret 20. It is cleaning exactly 20 bytes off the stack which is, incidentally, the total amount that we passed to begin with. We can also notice that the implementation of this function looks exactly like the FASTCALL version of this function. This is true because FASTCALL only passes DWORD-sized parameters in registers, and floating point numbers do not qualify. This means that our assumption above was correct.

Here is the GCC listing for MyFunction3:

Here we can also see, after all the opening nonsense, that [ebp - 8] (originally [ebp + 8]) is value x, and that [ebp - 24] (originally [ebp - 24]) is value z. These parameters are therefore passed right-to-left. Also, we can deduce from the final fmulp instruction that the result is passed in ST0. Again, the STDCALL function cleans its own stack, as we would expect.

Conclusions
Floating point values are passed as parameters on the stack, and are passed on the FPU stack as results. Floating point values do not get put into the general-purpose integer registers (eax, ebx, etc...), so FASTCALL functions that only have floating point parameters collapse into STDCALL functions instead. double values are 8-bytes wide, and therefore will take up 8-bytes on the stack. float values however, are only 4-bytes wide.

title: X86 Disassembly/Floating Point Numbers


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User:Pfv2~enwikibooks

Welcome to my page

My homepage.

I will mostly write about computer science.

My Wikipedia FR user page.

title: User:Pfv2~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Cottage Cheese Pancakes

Ingredients

 * 1 cup (240 g) cottage cheese
 * 6 eggs
 * ½ cup (120 g) flour
 * ¼ teaspoon salt
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) vegetable oil
 * ¼ cup (60 ml) milk
 * ½ teaspoon vanilla extract

Procedure

 * 1) Place all ingredients in a blender, and blend for 1 minute.
 * 2) Pour about ¼ cup (60 g) batter for each pancake on a griddle sprayed with cooking spray or lightly coated with vegetable oil.
 * 3) Let cook until golden on both sides.

title: Cookbook:Cottage Cheese Pancakes


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Guide to Unix/Explanations/Shell Prompt

The shell prompt (or command line) is where one types commands. When accessing the system through a text-based terminal, the shell is the main way of accessing programs and doing work on the system. In effect, it is a shell surrounding all other programs being run. When accessing the system through a graphical environment such as X11, it remains possible to open a terminal emulator and do useful work with the shell.

This chapter describes how to find a shell prompt and start using it.

Finding a shell prompt
People get shell prompts in different ways, such as:
 * They use a graphical environment (such as Aqua, GNOME, or KDE) and a terminal emulator.
 * They do not use GUI, but simply use TTY device; sometimes also use GUI and get to a TTY device with Ctrl+Alt+F[number] (most GNU/Linux systems allow 1–6 for [NUMBER]). To get back to The X Window System, use Ctrl+Alt+F[number 1 higher than the number of TTY devices].

Using the TTY device
Unix systems can use TTY devices for a shell. The first line looks like login:

Type your username at this prompt, then type your password. This gives a shell.

Opening a terminal emulator
A terminal emulator (or console emulator) is a program that emulates the terminal hardware that early users traditionally used to login to Unix. It appears as a window in the graphical environment and allows access to the shell prompt.

There are several ways to open a terminal emulator: Most terminal emulators, like other graphical programs, provide a menu bar to configure the terminal. For example, they allow you to change the font and colors; some people prefer white text on a black background. xterm is more difficult to configure; its menus can be found by holding the Control key and clicking with each of the three mouse buttons.
 * With The X Window System, try xterm. Most setups either start you with an xterm or two when you login, or provide a menu from which you can start an xterm.
 * KDE provides a Terminal Program (Konsole). You can find it in the K Menu > System menu. If you right click on an empty part of your icon panel, you can Add an Application Button for the terminal.
 * GNOME provides a terminal emulator somewhere in the Programs menu.
 * LXDE provides the terminal emulator LXTerminal (at least in the Lubuntu distro). It can be found in the Accesories submenu of the launch menu, usually situated in the lower left corner of your desktop.
 * Using Enlightenment 17, right click on the desktop, then go to Enlightenment>Eterm.
 * On Mac OS X, use /Applications/Utilities/Terminal. That is, go to the Applications folder on your hard disk, and to the Utilities folder inside it, and double-click the icon for the Terminal program. You may want to keep the Terminal icon on your Dock.

Using SSH to access a remote shell
The ssh program is a secure way to connect to a shell account on a remote server. The server must be running the sshd servers software to accept the connection. See the chapter on ../Connecting to Remote Unix/.

Appearance of the prompt
The shell prompt normally ends in a $ sign. For simplicity, the examples in this book use a shell prompt like this: $

Some older shell prompts end in % instead: %

The C shell sometimes uses > instead: >

Several shells have prompts that give more information, such as: localhost:puffy {1}

You can also customize your shell prompt. For bash, use these special characters in the variables $PS[1–4]. $PS1 is what you usually see and $PS2 is what you see when you are doing a multi-line command with a backslash ('\'). For more see the manual.

Never copy/type the shell prompt used in this book. The shell will always give you a prompt if it is ready to accept commands.

Root shell prompt
If you become root or login as root, most systems change the shell prompt to end with #. The root account is allowed to do anything (delete or change any file) so the # is a reminder of the power of the prompt. Avoid using the # prompt unless necessary; see the chapter on ../Becoming Root/. In this book, root shell prompts look like this: #

Arguments and Options
When entering a command, the shell does a few things in this order (if it succeeds, it executes the found command):
 * 1) The shell checks if the command is an absolute path (such as /bin/ls) and if that path is an executable file.
 * 2) If the command is not an absolute path, the shell:
 * 3) searches through its builtin commands for the entered command.
 * 4) Looks in the directories in environment variable PATH for the entered command. It starts its search with the first directory listed in PATH, then the second and so on.

For examples, we'll be using the command ls, which lists files and directories. This command lists the contents of /var (which may differ on your computer): $ ls /var account backups db     lib     msgs    run     tmp audit  crash   empty   log     named   rwho    www authpf cron    games   mail    quotas  spool   yp

The first word, "ls", is the name of the program or command built into the shell to run. In this case, the program /bin/ls is run. The "/var" in this case is an argument; it tells ls what to list. Arguments are separated by whitespace, usually one space.

There are some special arguments called options. Each command decides what is an option, but for many commands, options with only one hyphen to start usually are short for a more descriptive option that starts with two hyphens and some that start with two hyphens don't have shorthands. Here is an example (read it as "el es dash el slash var"): $ ls -l /var drwxr-xr-x  2 root    wheel      512 Mar 20  2005 account drwxrws---  2 root    wheel      512 Mar 20  2005 audit drwxrwx---  2 root    authpf     512 Mar 20  2005 authpf ... drwxr-xr-x  2 root    wheel      512 Jun 11 02:09 yp

Note that these commands require that options come before other arguments. For example, the following does not work (unless you have a file or directory called -l): $ ls /var -l ls: -l: No such file or directory /var: account backups db     lib     msgs    run     tmp audit  crash   empty   log     named   rwho    www authpf cron    games   mail    quotas  spool   yp

Exception: on systems with the GNU C library (GNU and GNU/Linux), many programs (not all of them) will automatically treat the options as if they were in the front, so ls /var -l is the same as ls -l /var. This is nice for users who forget to type some option.

What if there really is a file called "-l"? Then it must be specified that "-l" is not an option. One does this using the "--" argument, which means "end of options". This is why it is inconvenient to have filenames start with hyphens. $ ls -- -l -l

Editing Commands
If the shell has command-line editing, then the arrow, End, and Home keys are useful. The left and right arrows allow the user to move the text cursor to edit the command and the Home and End keys allow the user to move the to the beginning or end of the line. For example, we want to list some specific files, like this: $ ls -l /etc/passwd /etc/profile

But we typed: $ ls l- /etc/passwd /etc/profile

We can press the Home key to move the cursor to the beginning of the line, then use the right arrow to move the cursor to the right to delete the "-l". After this, we press Return to run the command as normal. (This will not work in many non-shell programs that lack command line editing!)

Shells with history features allow using the up arrow to recall previous commands to the shell prompt. These previous lines are not run again unless the user presses Return. The down arrow returns down the list.

If the arrow keys are broken, or you actually find some keyboard without arrows, then the Control Emacs navigation keys (Ctrl+B, Ctrl+F, Ctrl+P, Ctrl+N, Ctrl+E and Ctrl+A) also work in most shells.

The current/working directory
Use cd to change the directory you are "in." The syntax is cd followed by the pathname. cd bin would take you to the bin directory (located in the directory you are currently in), cd .. would take you up one level. cd ~ would take you to your home directory, and cd ~ followed by a username would take you to that user's home.

Although many shell prompts have the current directory's name or the end of the current directory's name right in the prompt (like '[user@localhost ~]$'), you can use the command pwd to Print the Working Directory. $ cd /etc $ pwd /etc $ ls passwd profile passwd profile $ cd ~john $ pwd /home/john

Finding help for commands
The first word of the command is the name of the command. For example, in the following command, "ls" is the command name, and "-l", "/etc/passwd", and "/etc/profile" are the arguments. $ ls -l /etc/passwd /etc/profile

But how do we know what the "ls" command does? Most Unix-like systems provide online manual pages for each command. For example, $ man ls

This opens the manual page in a program called the pager. The most common pagers are less and more. These let the user type  to scroll down a screenful, 'b' to scroll up a screenful,  to scroll down by one line, and 'q' to quit the pager.

However, the manual pages are often not useful for persons who know almost nothing about the commands. The chapter on Commands will help. The section Guide to UNIX/Commands/Getting Help contains strategies for how to use man and the other help tools effectively.

Continue

 * 1) ../Shell Prompt/
 * 2) ../Quoting and Filename Expansion/
 * 3) ../Pipes and Job Control/

title: Guide to Unix/Explanations/Shell Prompt


text:
Canadian Property Law/Glossary

 * Abatement:
 * Adverse possession: Also known as "squatter's rights". If a person occupies land for a predetermined period of time as set out in the different provincial acts and no legal action is taken to evict or indicate to the person an act of trespass, the ownership in the land goes from the original owner to the squatter.
 * Allodial:
 * Assignment:
 * Bailment:
 * Bequeath:
 * Bequest:
 * Bona fide purchaser for value without notice:
 * Bona vacantia:
 * Cestui que vie:
 * Chain of title:
 * Chattel:
 * Chattel mortgage:
 * Chose:
 * Chose in Action:
 * Chose in possession:
 * Clear title:
 * Colour of title:
 * Concurrent estate:
 * Conditional estate:
 * Condition Precedent:
 * Condition Subsequent:
 * Constructive delivery:
 * Constructive possession:
 * Constructive trust:
 * Contingent estate:
 * Convey:
 * Conveyance:
 * Corporeal hereditament:
 * Co-tenancy:
 * Curtesy:
 * Deed:
 * Defeasable interest:
 * Determinable limitation:
 * Detinue:
 * Devise:
 * Doctrine of Worthier title:
 * Dominant tenement:
 * Donatio Mortis Causa:
 * Dower:
 * Easement:
 * Eminent domain:
 * Encumbrance:
 * Encroachment:
 * Equity of redemption:
 * Escheat:
 * Escrow:
 * Estate:
 * Executor/executrix:
 * Fee simple:
 * Fee tail:
 * Feoffment:
 * Fertile octogenarian:
 * Fixture:
 * Foreclosure:
 * Freehold estate:
 * Future interest:
 * Gift:
 * Gift over:
 * Good title:
 * Grant:
 * Hereditament:
 * Incorporeal hereditament:
 * Intangible property:
 * Intestate/Intestacy:
 * Intestate succession:
 * Issue:
 * Joint tenancy:
 * Jus tertii:
 * Landlord:
 * Leashold:
 * Licence:
 * Lien:
 * Life in being:
 * Life estate:
 * Livery of seisin:
 * Living will:
 * Lost modern grant:
 * Mortgage:
 * Mortmain:
 * Nemo dat rule:
 * periodic tenancy:
 * Per stirpes
 * Possession:
 * Posessory interest:
 * Possibility of reverter:
 * power of appointment:
 * Power of sale:
 * Primogeniture:
 * Property:
 * Pur autre vie:
 * Quia emptores : English statute of 1290 that abolished subinfudation
 * Quiet enjoyment:
 * Real Property:
 * Remainder:
 * Remainderman:
 * Replevin:
 * Restrain on alienation:
 * Restrictive Covenant:
 * Resulting trust:
 * Reversion:
 * Reverter:
 * Rule against perpetuities:
 * Rule in Shelley's case:
 * Rule in Andrews: A rule for constructive gifts that allows for escaping the rule against perpetuities. If one member of a group satisfies a requirement for vesting at the time the gift takes effect then the class closes on whoever is alive at the time.
 * Run with the land:
 * Seisin:
 * Severalty:
 * Severance:
 * Shifting interest:
 * Springing interest:
 * Statute of Uses:
 * Subinfudation:
 * Sublease:
 * Subtenant:
 * Survivorship:
 * Tenant:
 * Tenancy:
 * Tenancy in common:
 * Tenancy at sufferance:
 * Tenancy at will:
 * Tenament:
 * Tenure:
 * Torrens title:
 * Trover:
 * Trust:
 * Unities:
 * Use:
 * Usufruct:
 * Vested in interest:
 * Vested in possession:
 * Waste:
 * Will:
 * Words of limitation:

Back to Canadian Property Law

title: Canadian Property Law/Glossary


text:
Canadian Constitutional Law/Distribution of powers

Introduction
From 1867 until 1982, the Division of Powers was the most important issue in Canadian constitutional law.

Upon reading s. 91 and 92 of the BNA Act (renamed the Constitution Act, 1867 in 1982), it becomes clear that much of what a government does today was not envisaged in 1867. The welfare state, electricity, air and space travel, telecommunications, the automobile, and industrial pollution are of major importance to modern governments. Yet none of these things existed in 1867, and so nothing was mentioned about them in the BNA Act division of powers.

However, as seen in the last lesson on the Unwritten Constitution, a constitutional principle exists that full sovereignty is vested in the two levels of government, i.e., anything that can be thought of is either in the jurisdiction of the federal government or the provincial government. Therefore, for a century and a half, Canadian (and British) courts have been stretching the meaning of the words of the BNA Act to extend to cover all of these new areas of society. The British North America Act, 1867,(BNA ACT) which established a federal Constitution for Canada, enumerated in Sections 91 and 92 the topics on which the Dominion and the Provinces could respectively legislate. Notwithstanding that the lists were framed so as to be fairly full and comprehensive, it was not long before it was found that the topics enumerated in the two sections overlapped, and the Privy Council had time and again to pass on the constitutionality of laws made by the Dominion and Provincial legislatures. It was in this situation that the Privy Council evolved the doctrine, that for deciding whether an impugned legislation was intra vires, regard must be had to its pith and substance. That is to say, if a statute is found in substance to relate to a topic within the competence of the legislature, it should be held to be intra vires, even though it might incidentally trench on topics not within its legislative competence. The extent of the encroachment on matters beyond its competence may be an element in determining whether the legislation is colourable, that is, whether in the guise of making a law on a matter within its competence, the legislature is, in truth, making a law on a subject beyond its competence. But where that is not the position, then the fact of encroachment does not affect the vires of the law even as regards the area of encroachment. Vide Citizens Insurance Company of Canada v. William Parsons (1881) 7 AC 96; The Attorney-General for Ontariao v. Attorney-General for the Dominion of Canada 1894 A.C. 189; The Attorney General of Ontaria v. Attorney-General for the Dominion (1896) AC 348; Union Colliery Company of British Columbia v. Bryden (1899) AC 580; Attorney-General for Canada v. Attorney-General for Ontaria (1937) AC 355; Attorney-General for Alberta V. Attorney-General for Canada (1939) AC 117 and Board of Trustees of Letherbridge Northern Irrigation District v. Independent Order of Foresters (1940) AC 513.

Peace, Order, and Good Government
The Fathers of Confederation believed at the time that they had covered every possible new area of law with a clause in the BNA Act. The first paragraph of section 91 of the BNA Act states that the federal government has the power "to make laws for the Peace, Order, and good Government of Canada, in relation to all Matters not coming within the Classes of Subjects by this Act assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces", in addition to the powers specifically listed as federal. Thus, any new areas of law would become federal.

It quickly became apparent, however, that the "Peace, Order and Good Government" (POGG)section, if interpreted too broadly, could effectively rob the provinces of most of their powers. For instance: the invention of the automobile. The automobile could have been seen as a new jurisdiction, under the complete control of the federal government. But if so, the province's jurisdiction over roads, cities, intra-provincial transportation, and land would become effectively meaningless.

The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is a court run by the House of Lords in London. It was the highest court in Canada from 1867 to 1949, and heard Canada's important division of powers cases from that era. It could overrule the Supreme Court of Canada; many important cases bypassed the Supreme Court altogether and went directly to the JCPC.

The JCPC developed a doctrine called "pith and substance". This meant that, whenever a government's legislation was challenged for being outside its jurisdiction, the JCPC would examine the "pith and substance" of the legislation. The court would try to figure out what the law was "really about". Once the JCPC had figured out the legislation's "pith and substance," it would decide which one of the listed powers mentioned in s. 91 or 92 of the BNA Act most closely corresponded with that "pith and substance", to see if the government had jurisdiction. If the pith and substance of the law was substantially within the government's jurisdiction, then any incidental effects the law had on another government's jurisdiction were permissible.

This doctrine greatly increased the importance of the listed powers in s. 91 and 92, consequently decreasing the importance of the POGG clause. The power that the JCPC found most often corresponded to the "pith and substance" of contested legislation was s. 92(13), the provincial jurisdiction over "Property and Civil Rights."

"Civil Rights" is a term of art in Canadian law. Unlike in the United States, where "civil rights" is synonymous with "human rights", civil rights in Canada means the ability of a person to make contracts (including marriage contracts), to buy, sell, and use property, to have parental authority, and to sue and be sued; one can think of them as the rights one attains upon adulthood.

The JCPC found that the pith and substance of most disputed laws related to property and civil rights. In Toronto Electric Commissioners v. Snider (1925), the JCPC struck down the federal Industrial Disputes Investigation Act. It was a law giving the federal government certain authority over certain labour disputes. The JCPC rejected the federal government's argument that such a law was for the Peace, Order, and Good Government of Canada, holding that the POGG power really just gave the federal government the power to act during emergencies. Rather, since labour disputes are contract disputes, such a law is in pith and substance about Civil Rights, a provincial jurisdiction. Therefore, the federal law was struck down as unconstitutional.

The POGG power never really recovered from the rulings of the JCPC. Eventually, the federal government abolished appeals to the JCPC, making the Supreme Court of Canada truly the supreme court. The Supreme Court of Canada has interpreted the POGG power slightly more broadly. In the Anti-Inflation Reference (1975), the federal government asked the Supreme Court whether the federal government could fight inflation by imposing wage and price controls (usually in provincial jurisdiction) using its POGG power. The majority of Supreme Court justices agreed, but for differing reasons. Most felt that POGG was an emergency power, and that the Court should be deferential in letting the federal government decide whether inflation was a "national emergency" or not. This is the "national emergency" doctrine of POGG. A smaller group of judges felt that another doctrine of POGG was also valid: the "national concern" doctrine. This doctrine means that where a new type of jurisdiction emerges, which does not correspond to any of the listed jurisdictions of the BNA Act, AND if it is of "national concern", then it falls under POGG.

The Supreme Court clarified the "national concern" doctrine in R. v. Crown Zellerbach, [1988 1 S.C.R. 401]. The Supreme Court stated that the "National Concern" doctrine is valid, and has the effect of essentially adding a new category to the list of federal powers, if one can answer "yes" to all of these questions:

 * 1) Is the jurisdiction in question a single, distinct, and indivisible jurisdiction?
 * 2) Is it impossible for the provinces to deal with this jurisdiction on their own?
 * 3) Does it have ascertainable and reasonable limits, so that it does not remove large areas of jurisdiction from the provinces?

Despite these decisions, the POGG power has very rarely justified the federal government exercising jurisdiction. Much more common is the politically controversial "Spending Power". Using its taxing power under s. 91(3) of the Constitution Act, 1867, the federal government collects more tax revenue than it needs in order to exercise the areas under its own jurisdictions. It gives the extra money to the provinces to spend on their jurisdictions, providing that the provinces meet certain conditions required by federal laws. This gives the federal government varying amounts of influence over areas of provincial jurisdiction, such as health and education. and its all ???

Interjurisdictional Immunity
As seen previously, if the government has jurisdiction over the "pith and substance" of the law it has enacted, then any "incidental effects" on other governments' jurisdictions are acceptable. For instance, the federal Divorce Act is valid legislation because the federal government has jurisdiction over divorce (s.91(26)), even though the Divorce Act has some incidental effects on child custody, which is usually considered to be within the provincial jurisdictions of "Civil rights" (s.92(13)) and "Matters of a private nature" (s.92(16)).

In a few rare instances, the Supreme Court of Canada has ruled that the federal government's jurisdiction (up until now, never the provincial government's jurisdiction) had "Inter-Jurisdictional Immunity." Provincial government legislation could have no effect on these jurisdictions, not even incidentally.

There are two cases where this has happened. The first is federal election postering. In McKay v. the Queen (1965), the Supreme Court of Canada held that municipal by-laws could not be enforced to prevent the posters of federal political parties from being put up during election periods. This was because federal election postering has Inter-Jurisdictiona Immunity from provincial government legislation. Since municipalities get their authority to make by-laws from provincial legislation (see BNA Act s. 92(8)), such by-laws had no effect on federal election posters. This did not mean that the municipal by-law was rendered invalid; it maintained its effect on every type of postering except federal election posters.

The other case were the Supreme Court has recognized Inter-Jurisdictional Immunity is in Federal Works and Undertakings. This federal power oddly comes from BNA Act s.92(10)(a). The provincial government has jurisdiction over "works and undertakings" except the ones listed. One of these exceptions is "telegraphs". Consequently, the major telephone companies are all under the jurisdiction of the federal government.

Worker health and safety is a provincial jurisdiction ("Civil rights"). So, if the province passes a law which, in pith and substance, regulates worker health and safety, can it have incidental effects of the major telephone companies? No, according to the Supreme Court decision in Bell Canada v. Quebec (C.S.S.T.), [1988 1 S.C.R. 749]. The Supreme Court laid out the following test:

 * 1) If the purpose of the provincial law is to regulate a federal work/undertaking, then it is unconstitutional.
 * 2) If the provincial law directly affects a vital part of the federal work/undertaking, then interjurisdictional immunity applies (the law has no effect on the federal work/undertaking).
 * 3) If the provincial law has an indirect effect which impairs the operation of the federal work/undertaking, then interjurisdictional immunity applies.

On the facts of the case, the Supreme Court ruled that occupational health and safety directly affected the vital management decisions of Bell Canada, and therefore the law had no effect on the company.

The Interjurisdictional Immunity doctrine has a very limited application; for the mostpart, provincial legislation applies to companies that are usually under the jurisdiction of the federal government.

Back to Canadian Constitutional Law


text:
Canadian Constitutional Law/Application of the Constitution

In the governmental structure of Canada there is no clear separation of powers between the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. As such, the role of the courts will often overlap into other territories, such as the Supreme Court's advisory role in hearing reference cases. Conversely, the judicial realm can be encroached by other groups, such as the creation of administrative tribunals to hear cases. Nonetheless, there are limits to these sorts of encroachments as can be seen in the issue of justicibility and jurisdiction. Following this, there is the further issue of who is able to apply to the Courts. Namely, what type of individual or group can have proper standing to make a claim to a Court. Lastly, we will look at what sort of remedies are available under the Constitution to a successful claimants.

Justiciability
The justiciability of a dispute asks whether the issue is so political or speculative that the courts should not be involved. The concern is that the courts may go beyond their constitutional role in Canada if they were to get involved in controversies that are outside of their expertise of interpreting and applying the law.

The US constitution is based on a strict doctrine of separation of powers, which is enforced by the "political question" doctrine that prevents courts from examining issues that are meant to be dealt with by the legislative branch. In Canada, however, there is a presumption that the heads of power will overlap to some degree. The "political question" doctrine has been rejected by the Courts (Operation Dismantle).

The current practice has been that so long as there is a legal component to the issue, the dispute will be considered justiciable, but only the legal issue can be examined. In Re Quebec Secession, the Court examined only the "legal framework" of the province's ability to secede, but not the merits of the decision to do so. Equally, in Operation dismantle the courts refused to examine the soundness of the executive branch's policy. In Re Canada Assistance Plan, They further articulated that even if the question is partly political, if there is a "sufficiently legal component" than it can be fairly examined.

Jurisdiction
As already mentioned, the jurisdictional division between courts is not clean split. The debate focuses on the application of section 96 which gives the federal government the authority to appoint judges to the Superior Courts. As the true authority of the Superior Court is said to be inherent, this section has been construed to provide protection for the Superior Courts' jurisdiction. The Superior Court functions as an anchor to which the entire court system radiates from. The issue of jurisdiction can be framed as the carving out of jurisdiction for inferior and statutory courts. To complicate matters, jurisdiction is not necessarily exclusive. It is possible for courts to have concurrent jurisdiction where two or more types of court can hear a given case.

Tribunals
In recent years the use of administrative tribunals in handling disputes has exploded. These tribunals, created by federal or provincial statute, are typically composed of mostly individuals without legal experience. Familiar examples are rental boards, workers' compensation boards, no-fault automobile insurance boards, and labor dispute panels.

The power of a tribunal to review cases depends on the governments ability to encroach on section 96 powers. The leading case on this is the Supreme Court decision of Re Residential Tenancies Act (1981).

Public Interest
Over the past few years there has been a developing tradition of allowing public interest groups to apply to the Courts with constitutional arguments. The test for whether a public interest group can dispute a law was first given in Borowski. The Court proposed a three-step test:

Mootness
Mootness refers to a legal issue that has no connection to the controversy to be resolved in a court case. The Court generally will decline issues that are moot. The test for mootness is "whether there is a live controversy which affects or may affect the rights of the parties. The court may decline to hear a hypothetical or abstract issue. However, it may exercise its discretion to depart from this general policy or practice".


text:
Canadian Constitutional Law/Aboriginal peoples

Government jurisdiction
By virtue of section 91(24) of the Constitution Act, 1867 the federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over matters relating to “Indians and lands reserved for the Indians”. On this basis the federal government has sole jurisdiction to negotiate treaties with the aboriginal peoples. Any attempt on the part of the provincial governments to interfere with any of the treaties would be in violation of the Constitution.

The Indian Act is the sole legislation regulating the government oversight of aboriginals. Much of the Act deals with the rights of band members living on reserves, and has little constitutional significance.

Provincial Jurisdiction
Section 88 of the Act provides that the provinces can have jurisdiction over aboriginal matters so long as it does not conflict with the laws of the Act.
 * 88. Subject to the terms of any treaty and any other Act of Parliament, all laws of general application from time to time in force in any province are applicable to and in respect of Indians in the province, except to the extent that those laws are inconsistent with this Act or any order, rule, regulation or by-law made thereunder, and except to the extent that those laws make provision for any matter for which provision is made by or under this Act.

The extent of provincial authority over Indian matters apply only with respect to matters that fall within the provincial jurisdiction. However, in practice five exceptions have been developed.

Aboriginal and Treaty rights
Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982 acknowledges the existence of aboriginal and treaty rights, it states: 35. (1) The existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of Canada are hereby recognized and affirmed.

(2) In this Act, "aboriginal peoples of Canada" includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.

(3) For greater certainty, in subsection (1) "treaty rights" includes rights that now exist by way of land claims agreements or may be so acquired.

(4) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, the aboriginal and treaty rights referred to in subsection (1) are guaranteed equally to male and female persons. Often this section is confused as being part of the Charter which ends at section 34. Thus, this section provides an absolute right to aboriginals and is not subject to section 1 or 33.

The word "existing" is key to the understanding of section 35. The Supreme Court acknowledged in R. v. Sparrow[1990] 1 S.C.R. 1075 that, prior to 1982, aboriginal rights existed by virtue of the common law, and therefore could extinguished by an Act of Parliament. However, with the constitutional entrenchment of those rights in section 35, aboriginal rights cannot be extinguished unilaterally by the government.

Broadly speaking, section 35 provides for two types of aboriginal rights: Aboriginal Treaty Rights and Aboriginal Rights. The first is a sui generis right gained through the enactment of treaties between the government and the aboriginal peoples. Proving the existence of these rights can often prove difficult as they are frequently based on oral tradition passed on through the aboriginal peoples. The second type is a right based in the common law.

Back to Canadian Constitutional Law


text:
Canadian Constitutional Law/Amending the Constitution

Before 1982, the only way to amend the written Constitution of Canada was to ask the Parliament of the United Kingdom in London to pass legislation. Even upon the passage of the [Statute of Westminster, 1931, when the United Kingdom Parliament stated that its laws no longer applied to Canada, the U.K. Parliament retained the right to amend the Constitution of Canada through section 4 of the Statute. The Constitution Act, 1982, was therefore made law by a statute of the United Kingdom (called the Canada Act).


text:
Windows Programming/Key Combinations

Here is a key combination guide for computers:

DOS
Cntrl+Alt+Delete - performs a soft reset

Left arrow, right arrow - Move cursor backward or forward one character

Cntrl + left arrow, right arrow - Move cursor backward or forward one word

Home, End - Move cursor to start or end of line

Up, down arrow - Scroll up and down stored (command) buffer

Page up, down - Places oldest or most recent (command) in command line

Insert - Toggle between insert and over-type modes. (square cursor denotes over-type mode)

Esc - Delete current line

F1 - Repeat text typed in preceding line character by character

F3 - Repeat text typed in preceding line (complete)

F5 - Cycle through entire current (command) buffer

F7 - Display all entries in current (command) buffer with line numbers

Alt+F7 - Delete all entries in current (command) buffer

F8 - As F5, If preceded by entry of character string, will load latest buffer line with corresponding characters (from start of buffer entry line)

F9+Buffer line number - Displays relevant buffer line; normally F7 first to show lines with numbers

Cntrl+C - Close down most applications and return to prompt

Shift+Alt+Print Screen - High efficiencey mode. Black and greens.(MTK sometimes... im a wizurd...)

All versions

 * Tab Switching between controls in active window
 * Alt+F4 Closes the active window
 * Win+M Minimize most programs
 * Win+D Shows the desktop
 * Cntrl+Tab Switching between Tabs in active window
 * Cntrl+C Copies selected text, images or files into the clipboard
 * Cntrl+X Cuts selected text, images or files into the clipboard
 * Cntrl+V Paste data from the clipboard
 * Cntrl+A Select all
 * Cntrl+Z Undo
 * Shift+Del Delete file permanently without keep in Recycle Bin (used by Windows Explorer)

Windows Vista or Newer

 * Win+Tab switching between programs with the Windows Flip 3D effect

Windows Versions Before Windows 95

 * Cntrl+Alt+Del brought up a blue screen

title: Windows Programming/Key Combinations


text:
Category:Disambiguation pages

See Wikipedia's guideline for more info.

title: Category:Disambiguation pages


text:
Gmail/Forwarding and POP/IMAP

To use your Gmail account with a third party mail service, you can configure it to work with POP3 or IMAP.

Enabling POP3/IMAP

 * 1) Log onto your Gmail account at http://www.gmail.com
 * 2) Click settings in the top right corner
 * 3) Click the "Forwarding and POP/IMAP" tab
 * 4) Click Enable POP for all mail or Enable IMAP
 * 5) Click save changes

title: Gmail/Forwarding and POP/IMAP


text:
Talk:Gmail/Forwarding and POP/IMAP

IMAP in title
this page should be renamed POP3 and IMAP --Ncusa367 (talk) 18:04, 12 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Done. --Swift (talk) 19:01, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

How do you enable forwarding?
How do you enable forwarding? I have 2 accounts one has it enabled one doesn't...one says "Forwarding and POP/IMAP" the other just says "POP/IMAP Downloading" 68.238.1.127 19:50, 10 March 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gmail/Forwarding and POP/IMAP


text:
WebObjects/Project WONDER/Installing

There are two ways to install Project WOnder -- binary distribution or building from source.

Nightly Build Server
The easiest way is to install the binary distribution. m Dimension Technology runs a nightly build server for Project WOnder that preserves historical builds at http://webobjects.mdimension.com/wonder. Simply grab the Wonder-VERSIONNUMBER-Frameworks.tar.gz archive and uncompress it into your /Library/Frameworks folder, and you have successfully installed Project WOnder.

Build from Source
The second, slightly more annoying, way to install WOnder is to build it yourself from the SourceForge CVS tree. wo.dir.root=/ wo.woroot=/ wo.dir.user.home.library.frameworks=/Users/username/Library/Frameworks wo.dir.local=/ wo.wosystemroot=/System wo.dir.library=/System/Library wo.dir.user.home.library=/Users/username/Library wo.dir.local.library=/Library wo.dir.library.frameworks=/System/Library/Frameworks wo.dir.local.library.frameworks=/Library/Frameworks wo.wolocalroot=/ wo.dir.system=/System eclipse.home=/Developer/Applications/Java\ Tools/Eclipse/
 * 1) cvs -d:pserver:anonymous@wonder.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/wonder login
 * 2) There is no password
 * 3) cvs -z3 -d:pserver:anonymous@wonder.cvs.sourceforge.net:/cvsroot/wonder co -P Wonder
 * 4) cd Wonder
 * 5) You will need to make sure you have a wobuild.properties file in ~/Library/. The contents should be similar to this:

Lastly, run "ant dist", "ant frameworks", or "ant examples".

This will build all the frameworks and applications into ~/Roots.

title: WebObjects/Project WONDER/Installing


text:
Novial/Hound Lesson 6

Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7 -

Prefixes – Suffixes

Li Inquesto
”Tali es li rakonte, men filios, del venio del hunde kel, on dikte, deposu ha es plage ye dis familie. Me ha skripte lu pro ke, te kel klarim es savat have min terore kam te kel es nur insinuat o divinat. Ultru multes ek li familie ha sufra subiti, sangosi, misteriosi morios. Dunke me konsila ke vus evita vadant trans ti agres ye ti deslumosi hores kand li povos de malu es exaltat.

“[Disu fro Hugo Baskerville a lon filios Rodger e John, kun instruktiones ke les dikte nulu pri lu a sen fratra, Elizabeth.]”

Doktoro Mortimer, hant fina lekte dis uniki naratione, did pusha sen lunete a sur sen fronte e did regardada vers Sinioro Sherlock Holmes.

Diso dikted ”Nu?”.

“Ob lu non interesa vu?”

“Interesanti por kolektere de rakontes.”

Mortimer did tira jurnale ek sen poshe.

”Me sal rakonta kelku plu resenti. Disu es li Devon Jurnale de 14esmi de maye de dis yare. Lu deskripte li faktes deskovrat pri li morio de Sir Charles Baskerville kel eventad kelki dies ante ti date.”

Li jurnalal artikle deskripted li resenti morio del proprietere del kastelete del famile Baskerville de ti tempe. Charles had gana grandi sume de moneye kom spekulatore in Sudi Amerika. Lo tand did returna a Anglia e usad sen moneye por projetes de rikonstruktione e pluboniso in li lokal sosie. Li kortal inquesto did konkluse ke Charles Baskerville did mori pro kordial falio durant ke lo promenad along alee in li parke de sen kastelete. Li medike kel atestad li morio esed Doktore Mortimer self.

After ke lo did lekte li artikle, Mortimer dikted: “Tes es li publiki faktes pri li morio de Sir Charles Baskerville.”

Holmes dikted: ”Danko pro rakonta a me pri interesanti kasu. Ob dis artikle kontena omni li publiki faktes?”

“Yes.”

“Nun rakonta a me li privatus.” Lo apoyad retro e posturad sen maxim non-expresiv e judikeral aspekto.

Vocabulary

 * alee – lane, walk, ally
 * along – along
 * Anglia – England
 * apoya – (to) prop up, support, lean against
 * artikle – article
 * aspekto – look, appearance
 * atesta – (to) attest, testify
 * danko (pro) – thanks (for)
 * deposu – since, since then
 * deskovrat – discovered
 * deskripte – describe
 * deslumosi – dark
 * diso – the latter
 * divinat – guessed, devined
 * exaltat – exalted
 * fakte – fact
 * falio – failure, failing
 * filio – son
 * fina – (to) finish
 * fratra – sister
 * fronte – forehead
 * gana – (to) gain
 * inquesto – inquest, inquiry
 * insinuat – insinuated, hinted
 * instruktione  –  instruction
 * judikeral – judicial, judge-like
 * jurnalal – newspaper, of a newspaper
 * jurnale – newspaper, journal
 * kasu – case
 * kelku – something
 * kolektere – collector
 * konkluse – (to) conclude
 * konsila – (to) counsil, (to) advise
 * kontena – (to) contain
 * kordial – of the heart, cardial
 * kortal – of a court, court
 * lokal – local
 * lunete – glasses, specticles
 * malu – evil thing
 * maye – May
 * medike – (medical) docter, physician, medic
 * min multi – less
 * misteriosi – mysterious
 * moneye – money
 * morio – death, process of dying
 * non-expresiv – inexpressive, expressionless
 * nu – well, well then (interjection)
 * nulu – nothing
 * nun – now
 * parke – park
 * plage – plauge
 * pluboniso – improvement
 * postura – (to) pose, assume an attitude
 * povos – power
 * privatu – private one, something private
 * projete – project
 * promena – (to) walk, stroll
 * publiki – public, of the public
 * pusha – (to) push
 * rakonto – telling
 * regardada – stare, keep on looking
 * resenti – recent
 * returna – (to) return
 * rikonstruktione – reconstruction
 * sangosi – bloody, covered in blood
 * savat – known
 * self – self, oneself, himself, etc.
 * sosie – society, community
 * spekulatore – speculator
 * subiti – sudden
 * Sud Amerika – South America
 * sufra – (to) suffer
 * sume – sum, amount
 * tal(i) – such, like, of that kind
 * terore – terror
 * tira – (to) draw, pull, tug
 * trans – on the other side of, beyond, over
 * ultru – moreover, further
 * uniki – unique, singular
 * usa – (to) use
 * vada – (to) go
 * venio – coming
 * yes – yes

Passive of Being
The passive voice, indicating a state of being, is expressed with es followed by the past participle of the verb:

 * es exultat – is exalted
 * esed savat – was known
 * sal es morit – shall be dead

Note that the stress is on the vowel before the final -t.

Sexless Nouns Ending in -U
As discussed in Lesson 1, replacing the -i ending of an adjective with -u forms a sexless noun with the character of the adjective:

 * li malu – the evil one, evil
 * li privatus – the private ones

E/A/O Words
The related nouns and verbs which alternate the endings –e, –a and –o are a major characteristic of the Novial language. Note that all e/a/o words are from sexless nouns so no confusion is possible with the use of these endings for male or female/female/male as was described in Lesson 1.

In the preceding reading texts several examples of e/a/o words occurred and were listed with their translations but with no further explanation.

These endings provide a very convenient way of converting a sexless noun ending in –e into a corresponding verb ending in –a, provided that the meaning of the verb is very obvious. If there is any possibility of uncertainty in meaning, another verbal ending should be used for clarity.

 * rakonte – rakonta – rakonto (story – (to) tell – telling)
 * date – data –dato (a date – (to) date, provide a date – dating)
 * lume – luma –lumo (a light – (to) shine – shining)
 * drinke – drinka – drinko (a drink – (to) drink – drinking)
 * sadle – sadla – sadlo (a saddle – (to) saddle – saddling)
 * forme – forma – formo (a form – (to) form – forming)

The Prefix NON-
The prefix non- converts the stem to sense not. Note this is not the direct opposite which is expressed with the prefix des-. Examples:

 * non-expresiv – inexpressive
 * non-mutual – non-reciprocal

The Prefix RI-
The prefix ri- indicates repetition. As an independent word ri means again.

 * konstruktione – construction
 * rikonstruktione – reconstruction

The Suffix -AD-
The suffix -ad- is added to verbal stems to indicate repeated or continuous action.

 * regarda – (to) look
 * regardada –(to) keep on looking, (to) stare

__________________________________________________________________________________ Novial home – Pronunciation Guide

Contents – Lesson 1 – Lesson 2 – Lesson 3 - Lesson 4 – Lesson 5 - Lesson 6 – Lesson 7

Prefixes – Suffixes

title: Novial/Hound Lesson 6


text:
Talk:Probability/Conditional Probability

example
This is from a game show, maybe "The Price Is Right" or "Wheel of Fortune".

 * 1) Three doors are shown. A nice price is behind one of the doors.
 * 2) A contestant is asked to choose 1 of 3 doors to open.
 * 3) Before opening the selected door, one of the unselected doors is opened, revealing some junk. (a goat maybe)
 * 4) The contestant is offered the option to change his choice. (they may, and should)
 * 5) The chosen door is opened, revealing either a goat or something nice.

Lots of people get this one wrong. Lots of wrong people feel really sure that they are correct. Wikipedia may have an article about this example.

AlbertCahalan 06:16, 3 October 2005 (UTC)

There is indeed a Wikipedia article about this problem: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_hall_problem

Credner 27. Nov 2005

um... "The probability of one die showing six is 11/36"...a die has 6 sides on it, not 11. Let's not be teaching BS with a book. This is a sure way to make people not want to look at Wikibooks. I will try to correct the mistake. But come on! since when does a die have 11 sides??? CatastrophicToad 18:26, 15 January 2006 (UTC)

I don't kno how familiar you are with probability theory, but the text was correct, allthough I made it a little more explicit. The experiment was throwing two dice and hence in 11 of the 36 cases (at least) one dice shows six. And BTW there are dice with eleven sides. Nijdam 23:46, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

The text is not correct. The probability of a double six given that you've seen one of the dice and it's a six is 1/6. Because the outcome of the two die are independent events, you can look at it as mathematically equivalent to throwing one die twice. The first comes up six; what's the probability of a six when you roll it again? Dice has no memory. Now consider what the probability is that you get at least one six when rolling two dice. This is a different problem than the one where one die is revealed. In this case, the probability is higher (11/36). Either die could have the six so the number of rolls that fit the problem statement is higher. Too bad the first example given in a "textbook" is wrong.

The point is the difference between one of the dice or dice number one. When saying "one of the dice" it may refer to any one of the two. If it were the case that die number one shows six, the probability of the other, number two, showing six would be 1/6. But that is not the case as might be see nfrom the example. But for utter accuracy I change "one dice" into "one of the dice".Nijdam 20:50, 10 March 2006 (UTC)

I don't think conditional probability is introduced in the best way. The two dice, and accidentally seeing that one of them is six is a good example (and you're right to change it to one of the dice). It might be clearer if you have somebody tell you rather then you accidentally seeing one of the dice.

However, the thing I really dislike is whenthe probabilities are pulled together and the conditional probability just stated as being 1/36 / 11/36

I feel it would be better to say: Now look at all possibilities for the two dice, where at least one of them shows a six. Note that there are 11 possibilities, all equally likely and so the chance of a double 6 given you know there is one.....--MarkyParky 23:16, 25 August 2006 (UTC)

Hello MP, the problem is that in this case we may refer to the 36 possibillities that are equally likely. But that is not the general case. What if P(B)=0.321 and P(AB) = 1/99? Maybe it is good to mention somehing like we "blow up" the probabillity of the event B to 100% etc.?Nijdam 15:22, 30 August 2006 (UTC)

The statement that accidentally seeing one of the die is a 6 gives us a 1/11 probability is wrong, becase it fails to take into account the odds that one of the die was a 6, but that the die we accidentally saw was not the 6. If we imagine one red die and one blue die, we can see that the the odds of the blue die being 6 (having seen the red die and knowing it's 6) are 1/6. The same holds true if we saw the blue die is 6. The only case where where the odds are 1/11 is when we know that EITHER the red die OR the blue die is a 6, which is not the case if we actually saw the die. Therefore, it should be changed to say "Suppose somebody looks under the cup, sees the result, and tells us AT LEAST ONE of the die is 6.

I'm sorry, this is just all wrong, and most of the above discussion is not even relevant. In the example as currently given: ONE die is known to be six; ONE die is not known; we wonder what the probability of "double-six" is. The probability that THE UNKNOWN DIE is a six is 1/6. If the unknown die is a six, given that the known die is also a six, we have "double-six"; therefor, the probability of double-sixes is 1/6. Simple. I will not edit, because I really am not sure what the point of this example is supposed to be, so I can't usefully fix it.

 * I have rewritten the example in a clearer way. Hope that the example can be understood more easily now. LeoChiukl (discuss • contribs) 10:46, 25 May 2022 (UTC)

Incoming link from Wikiversity
I'm not sure what to do. I am working on v:Bell's theorem and need to reference conditional probability. The best wiki on this is right here, so I made a link to one section (that I added). The alternative is for me to copy this page to Wikiversity and edit it. That eliminates the cross-wiki stuff, but also forces duplication. Which alternative is best?

Another option is to use a permalink from the article that needs the info on Wikibooks. I just added that to my article. --Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 21:43, 26 September 2015 (UTC)See also: w:User:Guy vandegrift

The lede
In addition to creating the example with the venn diagrams and integers (even/prime), I changed the lede:

1. I tried to put more information into less space. The pair of equations appears on one line, but split with a space (&nbsp) so that people with cell phones will be able to see two lines.
 * $$P(A|B) = \frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)} \, \Leftrightarrow $$  $$P(A \cap B)  = P(A|B) P(B) =  P(B|A) P(A)$$

I see no reason to use an entire paragraph to show what is algebraically trivial.

2. Wikipedia calls it Bayes' theorem, so I noted the controversy and linked to Wikpedia. Is that OK? If not, I have no objection to removing the link to Wikipedia and reference to Bayes.

yours truly --Guy vandegrift (discuss • contribs) 22:22, 26 September 2015 (UTC)


text:
Talk:X86 Disassembly/Calling Convention Examples

gcc
If you have gcc 3.0 or higher, Linux uses the -mregparm=3 option to put 3 args in registers. For per-function control, it does this:

 * 1) define asmlinkage CPP_ASMLINKAGE __attribute__((regparm(0)))
 * 2) define FASTCALL(x)    x __attribute__((regparm(3)))
 * 3) define fastcall       __attribute__((regparm(3)))

Usage in a header file:

extern void FASTCALL(__up_read(struct rw_semaphore *sem));

Usage in a C file:

void fastcall sched_exit(task_t * p) {

While gcc on Windows does support a few odd Microsoftisms, that's not really the way gcc is meant to be used.

Also, on x86-64, gcc puts up to 6 integer arguments in registers without being affected by floating-point usage. (8 args for double, and 8 args for float)

AlbertCahalan 06:29, 3 October 2005 (UTC)

errors
From here, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Reverse_Engineering/Calling_Conventions

"STDCALL passes arguments right-to-left, and returns the value in eax. (The Microsoft documentation erroneously claims that arguments are passed left-to-right, but this is not the case: see the Calling Conventions Example page for details.)"

From here, http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Reverse_Engineering/Examples/Calling_Conventions

"Notice that y is a higher offset from ebp, which indicates that these arguments are passed on the stack from left-to-right, instead of right-to-left as the Microsoft documentation claims."

One must be wrong. It appears this page is in error. y is located at ebp+12 and x is located at ebp+8, so y is pushed first, or right-to-left.

Also, MASM 5.1 documentation defines STDCALL as selecting between CDECL and PASCAL for variable and fixed arguments, respectively. You've presented STDCALL as CDECL only in the MS and GNU C summary.

I modified the page to indicate that in this example the stdcall function takes arguments right-to-left. 63.241.31.130 (talk) 01:18, 6 June 2008 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Cilbir (Turkish Eggs with Yogurt)

Ingredients

 * 4 eggs
 * 1 tbsp vinegar
 * 1 L water
 * 2 tbsp butter
 * 1 tsp hot paprika
 * 1 cup (240 ml) yogurt
 * 1 clove garlic, minced
 * Salt
 * Pepper, to taste

Procedure

 * 1) In a small mixing bowl, combine the yogurt, garlic and salt.
 * 2) Add the vinegar and some salt to boiling water, and poach the eggs.
 * 3) Remove the eggs with a slotted spoon and place an egg in each dish.
 * 4) Cover the eggs with plenty of yogurt.
 * 5) Melt the butter in a small skillet.
 * 6) Stir in the paprika, and pour the hot butter over the eggs.
 * 7) Serve immediately.


text:
Hindi/Tenses

Verbs in Hindi can be put into 3 aspects (habitual, progressive, perfective), 5 moods (indicative, presumptive, contrafactual, subjunctive, imperative), and 3 tenses (present, past, future). The copular verb "to be" होना (honā) in Hindi makes a distinction between the perfect and the imperfect past as well, while all the other verbs only have the perfect past.

Hindi uses compound verbs to mark the aspect and the mood. In such compound constructions the aspectual participle acts as the aspect marker and the copular verb as the common mood/tense marker. Hence, unlike many other indo-european languages, the aspects and the moods which the verbs are in can be clearly demarkated.

Also, Hindi has a couple of verbs besides होना (honā) [to be] that can act as the copula. Those copular verbs are रहना (rêhnā) [to stay], आना (ānā) [to come], जाना (jānā) [to go], and करना (karnā) [to do]. These could be called the secondary copulas, while होना (honā) [to be] is the primary copula.

Grammatical moods
The verbs in Hindi as discussed above can be put into different grammatical moods and aspects. For now we will stick to the grammatical moods and will later discuss the grammatical aspects. For now, just know that there is a base verb होना [to be] (aka copula verb) that helps us construct all the grammatical aspects of Hindi. This copula is the only verb in Hindi that has certain conjugations for some grammatical moods that the rest of the verbs do not have. A list of the grammatical moods that only the copula होना [to be] has is:
 * 1) Indicative mood
 * 2) * Present tense
 * 3) * Past imperfect tense
 * 4) Presumptive mood
 * 5) Subjunctive mood
 * 6) * Present tense

The verb होना
The conjugations of the copula होना (honā) [to be] for all the 5 moods and the 3 tenses are shown in the table below. These are the non-aspectual conjugations, or the simple aspect conjugations. However, beside the meaning "to be" of होना (honā), depending on the context of usage it can also be translated into English as "to be/exist", "to have/possess", "to happen", and "to become". The meaning of "to happen" when used with animate nouns, can also possibly mean "to be born". Also, in the third person the present indicative conjugations है and हैं can be translated to "there is" and "there are" respectively. Similarly, the indicative past imperfect था and थी could be translates to "there was" while थे and थीं to "there were" respectively. And, similarly the future indicative (the future presumptive as well) in the 3rd person can be translated as "there will be".

The rest of the verbs
Using the verb करना [to do] as an example to show what conjugations the rest fo the verbs have.

Comparing this table for करना [to do] with the previous conjugation table for होना [to be] it can be seen that करना [to do] (and the rest of the verbs) have a lot few conjugations.

Indicative mood
The indicative mood conveys factual information. It can be translated into English the following way:

It must be noted that these present indicative forms only exist for the verb होना [to be]. No other verb in Hindi has the present indicative conjuguations. A little linguistic fact: Historically, Hindi used to have the present indicative forms but eventually they somehow changed their meaning from the present indicative to the future subjunctive. So, all the conjugations that once represented the present indicative mood now represennt the future subjunctive mood in Hindi.

Also, keep in mind that it is only the simple verbal aspect in which the rest of the verbs don't have the indicative mood forms. The other aspects which are the habitual aspect, the perfective aspect, and the progressive aspect do have indicative mood forms for all the verbs. We will learn about them soon!

Presumptive mood
The presumptive mood conveys presumption about something, it could also convey the nuance of indifference to things. It is not easy (if not impossible) to translate this mood into English.

In Hindi, the present, past, and the future conjugations of the presumptive mood is the same. Also, only the verb होना [to be] has the presumptive mood conjugations. For the other verbs, the preseumtive mood forms are constructed using the aspectual participles.

They presumptive mood could roughly be translated in the following way:
 * 1) वो होगा/होगी — (s)he/it must be, it must be true that (s)he/it is, (s)he/it might be
 * 2) तुम होगे/होगी — you must be, it must be true that you are, you might be
 * 3) होंगे तुम्हारे पास 1000 रुपये पर मुझे फ़र्क नहीं पड़ता। — It could/might be true that you have ₹1000 but I don't care. [The sentence conveys that the speaker is indifferent to the fact that the listener has ₹1000 even without using the expression फ़र्क नहीं पड़ता (don't/doesn't care)]

Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive mood of the verbs express desire, wish, or want.

Subjunctive triggering words
It is always subjunctive form of verbs that are used with certain verbs or phrasal words, that is certain verbs and desire expressing expressions trigger the subjunctive. Using any other mood with such verbs or phrases will make the sentencec grammatically wrong. For example:

 * 1) चाहना [to want, to love, to like]
 * 2) * मैं चाहता हूँ कि वो करे। — I want that (s)he do.
 * 3) * मैं चाहता हूँ कि वो करेगा। — [ungrammatical sentence] (the future subjunctive when switched with future indicative mood makes the sentence ungrammatical)
 * 4) काश [wish, hope, I wish]
 * 5) * काश ऐसा हो। — (I) Wish that it is like that.
 * 6) * काश ऐसा है। — [ungrammatical sentence] (the present subjunctive when switched with present indicative mood makes the sentence ungrammatical)

However, note that subjunctive can be used with the sentences like the first example above if non-subjunctive triggering verbs are used as well, but in such cases the indicative mood can also used in the sentence, for example:

 * 1) बोलना [to tell, to say]
 * 2) * मैंने उसे बोला कि वो आये। — "I told him that he come."
 * 3) * मैंने उसे बोला कि वो आएगा। — "I told him that he will come". (which is equivalent to saying — I told him: "You will come.")

The first sentence above expresses the same as what the 1st sentence in the first example expressed, a wish or desire through the subjunctive verb आये. The second sentence is the indirect reporting of the what you said to somone. It's the indirect speech form. The pronoun वो in the sentence may or may not refer to the same person who is represented by pronoun उसे. So, both these sentences express two different gramamrical ideas.

Conveying a past event
Another type of sentence when the subjunctive is used is when you are conveying someone a past event. Let's say that a friend of yours asked you to give him money and you are narrating this event to someone else at a later time, your sentence could be one of the two sentences below:

 * 1) मेरा दोस्त बोला कि मैं उसे पैसे दूँ। — My friend asked me to give him money.
 * 2) मेरा दोस्त चाहता था कि मैं उसे पैसे दूँ। — My friend wanted that I give him money.

In the first exammple sentence, the verb दूँ is the subjunctive form of the verb देना [to give] and बोला is the past perfective form of the verb बोलना [to tell, to say]. The second sentence uses the verb चाहना [to want] to convey the same.

Seeking approval
Historically, in Hindi, the subjunctive form of the verbs used to be the present indicative form of verbs (that is why no verbs in Hindi with an exception of the verb होना [to be] have present indicative forms), so subjunctives in some cases also convey what the present indicative would have roughly conveyed, for example the subjuntive form of verbs when turned into a question in the first person (i.e. only with the pronoun मैं) translates with the word "shall" added to the question, this form of question is used to ask another person permission or seeking for approval to do something. For example:

 * 1) करना [to do]
 * 2) * मैं करूँ? — Shall I do?
 * 3) आना [to come]
 * 4) * मैं आऊँ? — Shall I come?

Also, note that in the eastern dialects of Hindi the pronoun मैं is not used, but instead the pronoun हम is used as the 1st person singular (as well as the plural) pronoun. So, it's possible hearing people हम and its subjunctive conjugugation for seeking approval.

 * 1) करना [to do]
 * 2) * हम करें? — Shall I do?
 * 3) आना [to come]
 * 4) * हम आएँ? — Shall I come?

Contrafactual mood
The name contrafactual is made up of two constituents, "contra" (means 'against') and "factual" (means 'truth'). So, as the name suggests this mood is used when you want to talk about things that are not true, that are not factual, things that could been been but did not, things if they were true but are not. From its usage you will notice that this mood is very similar to the subjunctive mood in the sense that both convey some kind of wish or desire. The only difference being that the contrafactual mood looks back into the past, while the subjunctive mood into the future.

You will see that there are a two different usages of the contrafactual mood. It is used as the past subjunctive and the past conditional mood both.

Conveying unreal past

 * 1) काश ऐसा होता। — (I) wish it were true.
 * 2) काश बोलते कुछ उसे तुम। — (I) wish you had told something to him/her.

Past conditional sentences
These sentences are equivalent to the English construction of "If ____, then _____." For example: "If he were hungry, I would have given him bread." Such sentences talk about hypothetical situations in the past. In English you would notice that the first part of the sentence "I he were hungry..." uses the past subjunctive mood and the second part of the sentence "I would have given him bread" uses the conditional mood.

Now, as we discussed above in Hindi, the past conditional and the past subjunctive mood both are represented as the same contrafacutual mood. It is also important to keep in mind that the verbs in contrafactual mood agree with the number and gender of the noun (either the subject or the direct object) in the sentence. When the subject is in the dative or ergative case then the verb agrees with the object in the sentence and in any other case the verb agrees with the subject of the sentence. Examples of contrafactual mood to form past conditional sentences are given below:

 * When nominative case is used:
 * अगर मैं उसे ये बात बोलता तो वो सबको बता देता। — If I (masc.) had told him this thing, he would have told it to everyone.
 * अगर मैं उसे ये बात बोलती तो वो सबको बता देता। — If I (fem.) had told him this thing, he would have told it to everyone.

In the first part of the sentence, the subject (the pronoun मैं) is in the nominative case so the verb in contrafactual mood will agree with the pronoun मैं in gender and number. If मैं refers to a female use the feminine conjugation (बोलती) (ी ending shows its feminine) and when it refers to a male, use the masculine conjugation (बोलता). The same happens in the second part of the senetnce, the pronoun वो is in the nominative case and hence the verb in contrafactual mood agrees with the gender of the person referred using वो.

 * When dative case is used:
 * अगर उसे भूख होती तो मैं उसे ब्रॅड दे देता। — If (s)he were hungry, I (masc.) would have given him/her bread.
 * अगर उसे भूख होती तो मैं उसे ब्रॅड दे देती। — If (s)he were hungry, I (fem.) would have given him/her bread.

The noun (object) भूख (hunger) is feminine and it it's used with hence it goes with उसे (to him/her) [dative case], so agreeing with भूख, the contrafactual verb होती (ी ending shows its feminine) is used. In the second part, मैं (I) is the nominative case, and so the gender/number agreement will be with the subject. If मैं (I) is used by a female, the verb would have been देती instead of देता.

title: Hindi/Tenses


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User talk:82.225.178.189

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:82.225.178.189


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User talk:203.52.130.138

Regarding edits made during February 27 2007
Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 03:35, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

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Talk:Chinese (Mandarin)/How To Study Chinese

Untitled
Additional study tips are at How to learn a language and it's subsequent links.

Mnemosyne
I am so very, very happy to see Mnemosyne plugged in this section. :) --Notyourbroom (talk) 21:33, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Skritter
I think it would be useful to add Skritter (http://www.skritter.com) under the writing section. Since I'm not independent (I work for them) I'll just suggest it here and let others add it if they agree.

Thx!