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Developing A Universal Religion/Life/Intelligent Life

The contention that life exists elsewhere holds a mystery. If ten million planets in our galaxy alone are likely to support life, why have we not heard from any of it by now? It has been estimated that about a thousand of these planets would be supporting life that has evolved to the state of communicating by radio transmissions. Why has the SETI Institute (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence) not yet detected intelligence-bearing signals?

Moreover, why have we not found unquestionable evidence that we have been visited by aliens, or by one of their devices? We have already sent probes far beyond our own solar system, and within a decade or two will likely send similar instruments to exoplanets orbiting neighbouring stars. Indeed, in less than a couple of generations we may be visiting these planets ourselves. (Current technology necessitates journeys limited to a dozen years or so, but ion-accelerated drives already in use promise an ability to travel great distances in that amount of time.) This being so, we will inevitably attempt to colonize any habitable exoplanets we find, and, from those bases, we will certainly move onwards and outwards. All intelligent life, needing to replenish the resources it consumes throughout its industrial development on its home planet, will want to do the same. A few plausible assumptions and a couple of calculations suggest that any such pioneering life form will have colonized the whole of its own galaxy within a period of five to fifty million years.

This may seem a long time relative to our life span, but it is minuscule in evolutionary terms (we have to go back farther than that to find living dinosaurs). And it is an almost infinitesimal period on the galactic time scale. Life on other planets could well have begun a billion or more years before it arose on ours. Why, then, have we not been colonized by any of the intelligent civilizations that should have been able to do so in the past hundreds of million years? Or, why have we not at least been visited by some form of von Neumann probe (see The Expanding Universe, footnote 7 for a little more information about von Neumann probes) during that time?

Crawford suggests that the answer to this puzzle (called the “Fermi Paradox”) could be that, although the formation and evolution of life may indeed be universal, its subsequent development into intelligent life forms may be rare. An alternative explanation could be that von Neumann probes have already visited, or even now be present. If they were small enough—developed by aliens using nanotechnology, perhaps—we would not have noticed them.

However, the explanation may be even simpler. Perhaps life forms intelligent enough to use von Neumann probes, or to travel and colonize hospitable planets, avoid planets whose “intelligent” inhabitants are constantly at war among themselves. Landing would certainly lead to a transfer of technology, and would eventually equalize abilities of the two life forms. Far easier for them to wait to see if we mature to a stage where we no longer make war; seeking contact before then only invites trouble and is simply not what an intelligent being would do.

 * Return to Life, Introduction
 * ../Summary/


text:
Developing A Universal Religion/Life/Summary

The major points in this chapter may be summarized as follows.

 * 1) We don’t know where life started, but we do know how it developed once it took root on this planet.
 * 2) Evolution, meaning change over time, is a fact. Natural Selection is a theory, and it very satisfactorily explains why evolution occurs.
 * 3) There is a high probability that life exists wherever conditions permit, in likely countless billions of habitats throughout the universe.
 * 4) Life’s history parallels that of the universe in its change from simple to complex, because the same laws of physics govern the behaviour of both. In particular, the second law of thermodynamics. This law states that the total amount of disorder (also known as entropy or complexity) in a closed system (for example, the universe) can never decrease.

To understand entropy, it may help to consider a handful of black marbles shaken into a box containing a handful of white ones. The two mix, and the marbles become disordered, their arrangement “complex.” It takes energy to separate the black and white marbles and return this “system” to “simplicity.” Thus, the disorder of a complex system can be decreased but energy is required, and this energy must come from some larger system. In the example just given, the energy comes from the food eaten by the person separating the marbles. In turn, the energy in the food came from an even larger system—our sun (via photosynthesis), whose energy in turn came from that introduced at the universe’s beginning (through the singularity that opened into the Big Bang). But, the universe is the largest system we know. It is a closed system (as far as we can tell) and energy cannot be taken from “outside” (if such a place exists). So the universe becomes more and more disordered each second as innumerable events occur everywhere. It becomes more complex, its entropy is ever increasing, and it must forever continue to become so, because there is nowhere (again, as far as we know) from which can be taken the energy needed to order it again.

Subsystems within the universe can be made more ordered because they are open systems, and energy can therefore be taken from elsewhere in the universe’s stock. Life does this organizing, for example when it changes complex food molecules into simpler ones before recombining them in ways useful to itself. Many other processes also reduce entropy, for example when sunlight or lightning break water into its constituent hydrogen and oxygen molecules. But the net result of any kind of organizing is always an increase in the universe’s complexity, because the energy exchanges that are involved all release electromagnetic radiation (usually in the form of heat—think how hot a person would become were they to quickly sort ten thousand marbles, for instance). This energy release eventually heats (i.e., agitates) atoms somewhere, and adds disorder. In other words, with each exchange the total quality of the energy is irreversibly degraded, increasing the total complexity of the universe. Life started simple and is becoming more and more complex through the addition of variations and adaptations to what existed earlier. In this manner, its evolution parallels that of the universe.

 * Return to Life, Introduction
 * Looking For A Purpose, Introduction

(A postscript to this chapter titled ../../Origin Theory Modifications/ is to be found at the end of this part.)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Talk:Radiation Oncology/NHL

Organization of lymphoma pages
Since lymphoma is a complex topic with several subtypes, I thought it would be difficult to discuss all subtypes in a single section on, say, "high grade lymphomas." Also, it would be redundant to include background information and treatment information for each of the subtypes on their own pages since treatment for many lymphoma types is essentiall the same.

I decided to split up the pages as follows: an "overview" section that is split up into different pages for each unique subtype. These overview pages would discuss epidemiology, etiology, survival, prognostic factors, etc.

There would also be a "treatment" section that discusses lymphoma treatment. I think it makes most sense to divide this up into treatment for high grade and low grade lymphomas, since in practice, that's how treatment is decided. — Brim 20:10, 21 August 2005 (UTC)

 * In general I agree, but I think for some of the more specific/rare subtypes, it makes sense to keep all the disease-specific treatment info on the disease-specific page (e.g. MALT) Tdvorak 05:00, 18 November 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Radiation Oncology/NHL


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5

= Caro–Kann Defence =

2...d5
This is the main line of the Caro–Kann. It is a semi-open game that tends to contain lines with minor piece play. In this position, White has four ways to deal with the central tension:

 * 1) Attempt to close the center with /3. e5/, the Advance Variation.
 * 2) Exchange a set of pawns with /3. exd5/.
 * 3) Wait for Black to exchange pawns with either /3. Nc3/ or /3. Nd2/, the Classical Variation. The two knight moves usually lead to the same position after 3...dxe4 4. Nxe4.
 * 4) Prepare to recapture in the center with a pawn by /3. f3/, aiming to keep a full pawn center.

Note that after 3. Bd3?!, 3... dxe4 4. Bxe4 Nf6 gives Black the initiative.

Theory table
1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Nd2

=Caro-Kann Defence=

After the commonly-played 3...dxe4 4. Nxe4 this transposes into the main Classical Variation, as if 3.Nc3 had been played.

Theory table
.

1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.Nd2


text:
Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. exd5

= Caro-Kann Defence: Exchange Variation = White exchanges on d5, and black almost always responds with cxd5. This forms opposite-wing majorities. This usually will lead into a Panov-Botvinnik Attack, although independent lines can arise after 4.Bd3.

Theory table
.

1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.exd5


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. e5

=Caro-Kann Defence - Advance Variation=

The Advance Variation was widely regarded as inferior for many years, owing chiefly to the strategic demolition that Aron Nimzowitsch (playing as White) suffered at the hands of José Capablanca in one of their games at the New York 1927 tournament. It has since been revitalized by aggressive lines such as the Bayonet Attack (4.Nc3 e6 5.g4) favored by Latvian Grandmaster Alexei Shirov or the less ambitious 4.Nf3 e6 5.Be2 c5 6.Be3 popularized by English Grandmaster Nigel Short.

Black almost always plays 3...Bf5 to free the light-squared bishop outside the pawn chain.

The 3...c5 variation is an important alternative and avoids the weight of theory associated with 3...Bf5. It was used by Mikhail Botvinnik in his 1961 match vs. Mikhail Tal (though with a negative outcome for Botvinnik – two draws and a loss). In comparison to the French defense, Black lacks the tempo normally spent on ...e6. However, White can only exploit this by the weakening of his own central bind with 4.dxc5 when Black has good chances of regaining the pawn.

Theory table
.

1.e4 c6 2.d4 d5 3.e5


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Cygwin

Before experiencing X
Cygwin/X is installed by selecting the necessary packages from the X11 category with the standard Cygwin installer. Users unsure of what is needed should install all of the X11 components.

Accessing X of your Local Cygwin
You can run the X server and the Window Manager locally and get the X Window GUI environment.

There are various ways you can do this. They are as follows:

MultiWindow Mode
In the multiwindow mode, there is an internal window manager that creates a Windows window to display the X application on the Windows desktop.

X
X is a soft-link (shortcut from Windows standpoint) to /usr/X11R6/bin/XWin.

 * 1) Start Cygwin
 * 2) Execute the command,  . (Cygwin/X window comes up)
 * 3) Execute the command,
 * 4) Execute the command,  . (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

startxwin.bat

 * 1) Run startxwin.bat from   folder where your Cygwin is installed. This can be done by double clicking on the batch file. It will bring up an xterm window. If you don't want to go through the hassle of finding this file, you can simply run the startxwin-multiwindow.bat file which should be present on your desktop. Both the scripts are very similar.
 * 2) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

startxwin.sh

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . It'll bring up an xterm window.
 * 3) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

startx

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . It'll bring up an xterm window.
 * 3) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

External Local Window Manager
If you want the complete desktop environment, you will have to run a window manager or Linux desktop to send the GUI to your X server. This section is a discussion on this topic.

X
X is a soft-link (shortcut from Windows standpoint) to /usr/X11R6/bin/XWin.

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . (Cygwin/X window comes up)
 * 3) Execute the command,
 * 4) Execute the command,
 * 5) Check your Cygwin/X window. You have got the desktop. :-)

Accessing X of a Remote Box
In the following discussion the following IP addresses and user name have been assumed:-
 * remote_box - IP Address or domain name of remote box
 * my_system - IP Address or domain name of your Windows system
 * user_name - A valid account in the remote box

X11 Forwarding
For some of the methods described in this section, X Forwarding should be enabled in the remote box. Whether this is enabled or not can be found out from the file,  of the remote box.

If there is a line, it means X11 Forwarding is enabled and you can go ahead with the steps below.

If it is,, X11 Forwarding is disabled. You can edit it to enable it. Of course this can be done by the "root" only. If you need X11 Forwarding enabled and you are not the "root" of the box, you'll have to talk to its admin.

MultiWindow Mode
In the multiwindow mode, there is an internal window manager that creates a Windows window to display the X application on your Windows desktop.

X
X is a soft-link (shortcut from Windows standpoint) to /usr/X11R6/bin/XWin directory.

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . (Cygwin/X window comes up)
 * 3) Execute the command,
 * 4) Log in to the remote box with the command,
 * 5) Execute the command,  . (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application on the remote box. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

For the above method to work, X11 Forwarding should be enabled in the remote box.

startxwin.bat

 * 1) Run startxwin.bat from   folder where your Cygwin is installed. This can be done by double clicking on the batch file. It'll bring up an xterm window. If you don't want to go through the hassle of finding this file, you can simply run the startxwin-multiwindow.bat file which should be present on your desktop. Both the scripts are exactly similar.
 * 2) Execute the command,   to provide remote box access to the X server running on your Cygwin. Alternatively you can execute the command,   to disable access control completely, so that any client can connect to your X server.
 * 3) Log in to the remote box with the command,
 * 4) Execute the command,   on the remote box.
 * 5) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application on the remote box. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

If X11 Forwarding is enabled in the remote box, you can omit step 2 and step 4.

startxwin.sh

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . It'll bring up an xterm window.
 * 3) Execute the command,   to provide remote box access to the X server running on your Cygwin. Alternatively you can execute the command,   to disable access control completely, so that any client can connect to your X server.
 * 4) Log in to the remote box with the command,
 * 5) Execute the command,   on the remote box.
 * 6) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application on the remote box. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

If X11 Forwarding is enabled in the remote box, you can omit step 3 and step 4.

startx

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . It'll bring up an xterm window.
 * 3) Execute the command,   to provide remote box access to the X server running on your Cygwin. Alternatively you can execute the command,   to disable access control completely, so that any client can connect to your X server.
 * 4) Log in to the remote box with the command,
 * 5) Execute the command,   on the remote box.
 * 6) Execute the command,   in the xterm window. (xclock comes up).

Now you can run any X application on the remote box. They open up in separate windows individually with your windows title-bar, caption buttons and border. You don't get the desktop environment in this case.

If X11 Forwarding is enabled in the remote box, you can omit step 3 and step 4.

PuTTY

 * 1) Open PuTTY
 * 2) From the Category tree, select "Session" and enter the host details.
 * 3) From the Category tree, select "Connection > SSH > X11" and check the "Enable X11 Forwarding" checkbox.
 * 4) Click "Open" and login.
 * 5) Run an X Server on your Windows machine. There are various ways to do it.
 * 6) Open Cygwin and run.
 * 7) Run   from Windows or open Cygwin and run ,  . An extra xterm opens which might be a pain since you don't need it. (The previous two steps save you from that).
 * 8) Get back to your PuTTY window and execute the command,   (xclock comes up).
 * 9) Check your Cygwin/X window. (You have got the desktop :-))

For this method to work X11 Forwarding should be enabled in the remote box and you should be logging into the remote box using the SSH protocol.

If you want to save yourself from the first four steps, simply add the path of the PuTTY directory to the Windows PATH variable or you can simply put PuTTY.exe in the Windows directory. Henceforth, you can simply execute the command,  from anywhere and then proceed with step 5.

External Remote Window Manager
If you want the complete desktop environment of a remote box, you will have to run a window manager or Linux desktop on the remote box and forward the X output to the X server of your Windows PC so that you can see the GUI on your X server. This section is a discussion on how this can be done.

X
X is a soft-link (shortcut from Windows standpoint) to /usr/X11R6/bin/XWin directory.

 * 1) Start Cygwin (The Bash shell comes up)
 * 2) Execute the command,  . (Cygwin/X window comes up)
 * 3) Execute the command,
 * 4) Log in to the remote box with the command,
 * 5) Execute the command,   on the box.
 * 6) Check your Cygwin/X window. You have got the desktop of the remote box. :-)

For the above method to work, X11 Forwarding should be enabled in the remote box.

PuTTY

 * 1) Open PuTTY
 * 2) From the Category tree, select "Session" and enter the host details.
 * 3) From the Category tree, select "Connection > SSH > X11" and check the "Enable X11 Forwarding" checkbox
 * 4) Click "Open" and login.
 * 5) Execute the command, , to run the Cygwin X server on your Windows system.
 * 6) Get back to your PuTTY window and run.
 * 7) Check your Cygwin/X window. (You have got the desktop :-))

For this method to work X11 Forwarding should be enabled in the remote box and you should be logging into the remote box using the SSH protocol.

If you want to save yourself from the first four steps, simply add the path of the PuTTY folder to the Windows PATH variable for once and ever. Henceforth, you can simply execute the command,  from anywhere and then proceed with step 5.

Recipe: Run an X application (on a remote UNIX machine) with a local Windows X Server
- Install Cygwin including the X11 client and Secure Shell SSH.

- Start Cygwin Bash Shell by clicking on the Cygwin icon.

- Start the X Server (This opens another Bash Shell in an X window. $ /usr/X11R6/bin/startx - Allow the remote computer to X Client into your local computer by adding the remoter server to the access control list.  $ xhost +RemoteServerName or IP Address - Use ssh to access the remoter computer. You will be prompted for a UserID and Password.  $ ssh -X +RemoteServerName or IP Address - While on the remote computer execute the program you want in background mode.  $ +ProgramYouWant &

Cygwin Tips

 * Install Cygwin to the default directory, C:\cygwin\ for consistency. You can also make the path longer, for instance to keep multiple versions of Cygwin.
 * When installing, check cygrunsrv to allow for running sshd as a Windows service
 * To use rxvt as the preferred console, create a Windows shortcut with the Target set to C:\cygwin\bin\rxvt.exe --loginShell -sr and Start in set to C:\cygwin\bin.
 * To enlarge the console window and add a title, add -geometry "80x50" -title Cygwin to the Target.
 * To start an SSH session, add -e ssh user@machine.name.com to the Target.
 * To change the default home directory to My Documents on NT-based Windows (NT/2000/XP/2003/Vista), create an environment variable called HOME with value of C:\DOCUME~1\USERNAME\MYDOCU~1 (where USERNAME is your Windows login username).
 * Create an environment variable called SHELL with value of /bin/bash.
 * Make sure c:\cygwin\bin; is added to the Path environment variable.
 * To mount prefix from /cygdrive to / type this command once, mount -s --change-cygdrive-prefix /
 * Or keep cygdrive as is and create mounts (e.g. mount -u C: /C) for every drive.
 * Emacs and vi are the most popular editors but Nano is the easiest to use.
 * Create a file called .bash_profile in the HOME directory containing the following lines:
 * alias dir='ls -lav—color=auto'
 * EDITOR=nano; export EDITOR
 * VISUAL=nano; export VISUAL
 * To use the clear command install the ncurses package (in the lib category)

title: Cygwin


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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Basic Carpet Texture

Goal
I am using a basic scene that I quickly set up before I started to create the carpet material. It shows a monkey (suzanne), a plane, camera, 3 area lamps and 1 spot lamp.

The purpose of this tutorial, is to highlight the power of blenders built in shaders and procedural textures to create a carpet material to use in your scenes.

NOTE:'' For those of you needing help getting a similar scene to the one above, here are some axis positions,etc. to help out: (Spot-Lamp)-X=1.62,Y=0.86,Z=6.74;rotation-X=37.26,Y=3.16,Z=181.34; (Area-Lamp-1)X=4,Y=3.27,Z=4.12;rotation-X=54.67,Y=-18.59,Z=-109.47; (Area-Lamp-2)X=-2.07,Y=-2.08,Z=4.85;rotation-X=29.37,Y=-28.98,Z=355; (Area-Lamp-3)X=0.315,Y=-2.89,Z=4.29;rotation-X=49.23,Y=-10.63,Z=6.68; (Monkey)X=0.05,Y=0,Z=0.42;rotation-X=58.61,Y=-16.07,Z=23.245;DIM(dimensions)X=2.734,Y=1.969,Z=1.703; (Plane)x=0,y=0,z=0;(no rotation);Dimensions: X&Y=14.30,z=0. Alternatively, you could also download a pre-made file in case that you're in a hurry.

Noob Note: Try adjusting each of the area lamps Dist(ance) value.

Noob Question: How does the above coordinates help me at all? I haven't found anything that tells me were in 3D space object actually is or the objects dimensions little alone control them. Nothing in the Tutorial up to now even gives a clue to this.

Noob Answer: Hit 'N' to bring up the Transform Properties window and enter the values there.

The Basic Material and Shader Settings
For the basic material for the carpet set the color settings of your material as follows - Col (R 0.714) (G 0.134) (B 0.134) Dark Red Spe (R 0.590) (G 0.210) (B 0.084) Reddish Brown Mir (R 1.000) (G 1.000) (B 1.000) White

Noob Note: Copy paste-able hex values: Dark Red (DC6666), Reddish Brown (CA7E52) and White (FFFFFF)

Change the specular shader to ('phong') and leave the default lambert diffuse shader as it is. Change the ('spec') to [0.13] and the ('hard') to [12]. Lastly click the ('Full Osa') button to enable it. If you render now you will notice that the plane looks like an ugly pastel color (if not, you have a different lighting setup to mine and the shader will not look the same as the images in this tutorial.) Don't worry about this ugly looking plane it will soon be a beautiful carpet.

Cloud Texture 1
Press 'F6' on the keyboard to bring up the texture panel. Click the bottommost of the long boxes to create a texture in the bottom channel. Create a new texture and rename it something like 'Red Clouds 1'. From the ('Texture Type') pull down select clouds. In the 'Clouds' settings panel change ('NoiseSize') to [0.210] and ('NoiseDepth') to [4].

Now select the Colors tab which will bring up the ColorBand for the texture. Press the orange ('Add') button to add a cursor on the colourband. Next make sure the 'Cur : 0' is showing next to the add button and change the colours as follows - (R 0.770, G 0.168, 0.168). Now click on right side of the 'Cur : 0' so it shows 'Cur : 1'. Change 'Pos' to 0.6. Set Alpha to 1 and change the colour to (R 0.732 G 0.243 B 0.243).

Now go back into the material settings and change the settings in the Map To tab as follows. Click ('Spec') twice so the text becomes yellow do the same for ('Hard'). Now select 'Subtract' for the texture blending mode. Change ('Col') to [0.188].

At this stage if you render you might find it hard to notice the difference, it is apparent only where there is low light levels on the plane, don't worry about this at the moment. It means if you render with Ambiant Occlusion you get a nice carpet effect of slightly varying colour.

Cloud Texture 2
Go back to the texture panel and create another texture, call it 'Clouds' and put it in the channel above 'Red Clouds'. Change ('NoiseSize') to [0.054] and ('NoiseDepth') to 4. Select 'Improved Perlin' from the Noise Basis pull down. Finally change ('Nabla') to [0.031]. Do not change any more settings here.

Now in the material panel, under the Map To tab change the following - Click ('Nor'). Click ('Spec') and ('Hard') twice so as they are yellow.

As you can see the material is starting to look a bit better, only 2 more textures to go.

The Final Cloud Texture
Switch to the texture panel once again and create a new Clouds texture in the next channel up. Change ('NoiseSize') to [0.010] and ('NoiseDepth') to [6]. Now click on the 'Colors' tab and change the colour of the left cursor ('Cur : 0') to (R 0.713 G 0.262 B 0.223) and Alpha to 0. Switch to Cursor 1 ('Cur : 1') and its colour settings (R 1.000 G 0.363 B 0.000) and Alpha to 1.

Now in the materials panel under the 'Map To' tab Click ('Nor'). Click ('Spec') and ('Hard') twice so as they are yellow. Leave the blending mode as 'Mix'. Change ('Col') to [0.464] and ('Nor') to [1.00].

The Last Texture
Finally, go to the textures panel one last time. Create a new Stucci texture in the next channel up. Change ('NoiseSize') to [0.006] and ('Turbulence') to [10.94]. Click on the 'Colors' tab. The first cursor 'Cur : 0' should be black with alpha 0. 'Cur : 1' should be red (R 1.000 G 0.000 B 0.000) with alpha 1.

Now go to the materials panel. Under the 'Map To' tab Click ('Nor'). Click ('Spec') and ('Hard') twice. Change the Blending type to 'Subtract'. Change ('Col') to [0.056] and ('Nor') to [0.50]. And that's it. When you render now, you should have a nice-looking carpet material. By tweaking with the colours you can create any colour of carpet.


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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Organic Modeling

Subsurface modeling

Organic modeling is considered by some the most challenging. Non-organic can mostly be accomplished by extrusion and scaling. Organic modeling on the other hand involves mainly curves, as nature has a thing against straight lines. Because of this, organic modeling is usually done with subsurfaces. To subsurf a mesh, first select it and navigate to the 'Editing' tab. Then go to the modifiers stack and add a new Subsurf modifier.

In Blender 2.5 Alpha 0, Subsurf has been removed from the modifiers list. Instead hit Ctrl, followed by a number which will specify the subsurf level. For example Ctrl-1 adds a new Subsurf modifier of level 1. This also works in Blender 2.4. Increasing the level greatly increases the number of verts in your model, so make the level relative to the number of vertices in your original model (pre-subsurfed). Subsurf often works best in conjunction with smoothing, so be sure to set your object to smooth, again in the 'Editing' tab, or in 2.5 A0 under 'Object Tools', which you can bring up by hitting the T key in the 3D viewport.

In this way you can create a smoother, higher-poly shape based on that of the original mesh. This is controlled by the vertices, edges and faces of the original.In order to control the rounding of your mesh you can use two methods: loopcuts, which is a very sloppy method as it adds more verts to your mesh, which serve very little purpose and can get in the way of modeling; and Edge Creasing. The latter can work extremely well in most circumstances. By default all edges are declared uncreased, and so allow complete rounding in subsurfing, by creasing the edges using Shift-E you can far better control the amount of rounding on your mesh, and most importantly, without adding extra vertices. However, unfortunately Edge Creasing is not available in Blender 2.5 A0. Yet. And so loopcuts and extra verts are the only option.

Now, start shaping your mesh into an organic shape. There are various tutorials for modeling bodies and faces, but it is often a good idea to use references. Only use quads - that is, shapes with four vertices. Triangles do not subsurface well, they create bad looking rough surfaces - avoid if at all possible. Also avoid Poles, which are vertices connected to anything other than 2 or 4 other vertices, as they create literal creasing in your subsurfed mesh, that is, sudden bunching up and pinching of faces.

To make the object shape properly, you will need good edgeloops and edgeflow. This means that all your vertices and/or faces line up in a continual line or curve around your model. It is possible to select edgeloops all in one, fantastic when you have to resort to them in controlling rounding, by holding down Alt when selecting a vert. This really expands into topology, which is an advanced subject. I would recommend visiting http://www.subdivisionmodeling.com/forums, although it has just been closed down, which was a great place to start, however it still (at the time of revision) is active and well worth a look if you are struggling with modeling heads. It is best not to have too many vertices to avoid making the subsurfaced shape look rough - in other words, the original shape should be quite low-poly.


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World History/Exam Prep

On the AP Exam, there are a variety of questions you will encounter. There is the multiple-choice question, familiar to many students, with choices A through D. There are also three essay questions in section II of the exam: the Document-Based Question, or DBQ; the Compare and Contrast Essay Question; and the Change-over-Time Essay. In Section I: Multiple Choice, there are 70 questions. You are given 55 minutes to complete Section I. Section II contains the free-response essay questions. You are given 130 minutes to complete the three essays.

The Document-Based Question
The document-based question asks the student to answer a question about a group of people, civilization, period in world history, or other topic. The basis for your answer should consist of historical knowledge, and information obtained from the set of documents provided in the test booklet. In your essay, you are required, at a minimum, to give a thesis statement introducing your topic. It is recommended that you use all documents if possible in your analysis of the given topic, but you may exclude one document from your analysis. You should analyze bias you find in the given documents, and provide any missing documents that you may have found useful, but were not provided. To help plan your essay, you should group the documents into categories for use in your thesis statement. You should then relate each document to a manner consistent with the point being proven. Remember to cite the documents to make your essay easier to follow.

The Change-Over-Time Essay
The COT asks you to compare the changes and continuities from one time period in a country or region to a later time. One format you can use to organize this essay is to start with your "baseline", the beginning time period. Then describe the ending period. Finally describe the changes, or lack thereof, that took place between the starting and ending periods. After spending some time organizing your essay, you can go ahead and write it.

The Compare and Contrast Essay
In this essay, you must compare/contrast two civilizations, groups of people, etc. You are often asked to choose two groups out of three that are provided. You should make relevent, direct comparisons in your essay, stemming from your thesis that describes the fundamental differences and/or similarities between the two groups being compared and contrasted.

Tips for the Multiple-Choice

 * Read the question, then all the answer choices before making a decision as to the answer.

 * If you don't know the answer immediately, try to eliminate two or more answer choices that you know are wrong.

 * Choose and bubble in an answer for every question in the test. If you are not sure about the answer to a question, make your best guess.

 * Try marking questions you are unsure about in your exam booklet, and then going back to those marked questions once you have completed the multiple choice portion of the exam if you have extra time. Be sure to choose an answer to those questions as you pass them the first time around though, as you may risk forgetting to choose an answer if there is no time left, which will always impact you negatively.

Tips for the Essays

 * Don't waste time trying to correct spelling and grammar, attempt first to get your point across.

 * Plan your essay before you begin writing, if possible. Even if you don't end up extensively planning your essay, keep your writing organized.

 * Don't hurry trying to finish in order to add a conclusion to your essay. If you have time available, write the conclusion, if not, finish the body; it is more important.

 * If you have extra time, read over your essay, but keep in mind you are writing the essay in pen. It is probably best to think your essay through the FIRST time, since editing afterwards is hard.

AP Exam Scoring
You will receive your scores over the summer after your May exam. (Probably in mid-July) The scoring is on a scale of 1-5, with 5 being the highest. Fours are desireable, as they are accepted for credit at most colleges. Some colleges accept threes. Fives are often exceedingly hard to obtain. In some cases, it may require more than memorization (i.e. strong, fluid, and convincing writing on essays) of names, dates, and other history information to obtain a five.

Good luck!

title: World History/Exam Prep


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Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Paths

It is fun putting a camera on a path and animating it through your scene. Just plop an old ordinary beizer curve into your scene and make it whatever shape you would like. Then put a camera in your scene and parent, CTRL+PKEY, it to the path. Select Follow Path from the menu that pops up. Then view your animation, ALT+AKEY. To set the number of frames it takes to get across the path, go to Editing (F9) panel for the path and set the number of frames in the PathLen, uh, thing with the arrows on the side and number in the middle.

Well, that should get you started. What I did for one scene, and what I recommend for all scenes, is to put an empty on another path and set the camera to TrackTo it via CTRL+TKEY TrackTo Constraint. It is tricky to get right but the results are rewarding.

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Paths


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User talk:Mecanismo

Hello there Mecanismo,

You can find (and contribute) STL information on the Programming:C_-/-_-/- Wikibook, hope it helps ya...

--Panic 00:49, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

Changes to C++ Programming/Code/IO
Good work. Notice however two items... You failed to introduce the reader (even ended up removing the some of the pertinent information) of what "os.flush" is, it would be also interesting to provide a factual (or practical) example of the distinction. Even a note about possible issues and perhaps extend the notion on the debugging area. --Panic (discuss • contribs) 02:24, 19 June 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mecanismo


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Cookbook:Pecan Sweet Potatoes

| Southern U.S. Cuisine | Texas cuisine

Base

 * 3 cups cooked, mashed sweet potatoes
 * ½ stick (4 tbsp) margarine, melted
 * 2 eggs, beaten (or 3 egg whites)
 * ½ cup milk (or ¼ cup skim milk)
 * ⅓–1 cup white granulated sugar
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla extract
 * ½ teaspoon almond extract

Topping

 * 1 cup brown sugar
 * ½ stick (4 tbsp) margarine, melted
 * ¼ cup flour (if using self-rising flour, omit salt and baking powder)
 * ⅛ teaspoon baking powder
 * ⅛ teaspoon salt
 * ½ cup chopped pecans

Procedure

 * 1) Mix base and topping ingredients in separate bowls.
 * 2) Pour the sweet potato mixture into a 9x12-inch pan.
 * 3) Sprinkle on topping, and bake at 350°F for 45 minutes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Other nuts can be used in the topping—almonds or peanuts serve admirably.
 * Stores well frozen.

title: Cookbook:Pecan Sweet Potatoes


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Cookbook:Candied Sweet Potatoes

| Southern U.S. Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 4 medium sweet potatoes, peeled and sliced
 * 4 Granny Smith apples, peeled, cored, and sliced
 * ½ cup raisins
 * 2 Tablespoons honey
 * 3 Tablespoons apple juice or cider
 * 3 Tablespoons melted butter

Procedure

 * 1) Arrange sliced sweet potatoes, apples, and raisins in a greased 2-quart baking dish.
 * 2) Mix the liquids and butter together. Pour over the dish's contents.
 * 3) Cover with foil and bake at 350°F for 30 to 45 minutes, until sweet potatoes are tender and glazed.

title: Cookbook:Candied Sweet Potatoes


text:
Cookbook:Sweet Potato Crisp

| Southern United States Cuisine

Base

 * 7 cups cooked, mashed sweet potatoes
 * 1 cup white granulated sugar
 * ¾ cup butter
 * 2 eggs, well beaten
 * ⅓ cup milk
 * 1 teaspoon vanilla

Topping

 * ¾ cup butter, melted
 * 1 cup light brown sugar
 * ½ cup flour
 * 1 cup pecans, chopped

Procedure

 * 1) Blend all the base ingredients together until creamy and smooth.
 * 2) Mix all the topping ingredients together in a bowl.
 * 3) Transfer the sweet potato mixture to a large casserole dish.
 * 4) Sprinkle on topping, and bake at 350°F until top crisps and hardens.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Other nuts can be used in the topping—almonds or peanuts serve admirably.

title: Cookbook:Sweet Potato Crisp


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Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Mayans

The Maya were a Mesoamerican civilization. They had the most advanced writing system in the Americas prior to European contact. They used sophisticated mathematic systems and had complex and useful cyclical calendars. Spectacular art and monumental architecture were two other notable accomplishments of this civilization.

What country did they live in?
The ancient Mayans lived in what is now known as southern Mexico and northern Central America including Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Yucatán Peninsula and El Salvador. Their descendants still live there today, and many of them speak the Mayan languages.

What did their buildings look like?
The Mayans were master architects, building pyramids and even entire cities, many of which are still standing today.

Mayan pyramids were made of stone. The stone was carved to create a stairstep design. On the top of each pyramid was a shrine dedicated to a particular deity. Rituals thought to influence the Gods were held in these shrines.

Mayan cities grew around the pyramids. They consisted of plazas connected together by sacbeob (whiteway) causeways. There appears to have been little planning in their design; the topography of the region influenced the type of buildings constructed. For example, cities in the hills had tall towers, while cities built on limestone grew into large municipalities.

The largest plazas were at the heart of Mayan cities. They contained governmental and religious buildings, such as the royal acropolis, great pyramid temples, and occasionally ball-courts. Temples and observatories were always constructed so they followed the Mayan interpretation of the orbits of the stars. Outside of this center were less important temples and shrines. At the outskirts lay the homes of the common people.

Building Materials
The Mayans lacked many tools, such as metal tools, pulleys, and perhaps even the wheel. They did, however, have an abundance of materials. The most common material was limestone, taken from local quarries. Limestone was easy to work, and only hardened once removed from its bed. In addition, it could also be used as mortar or stucco. Common homes used wooden poles, adobe (a mixture of straw and sandy clay), and thatch; however, houses made of limestone have been found as well. In the city of Comalcalco, fired-clay bricks have been found as a substitute for stone. The Mayan's used clay, stone, limestone, thatched hay, wooden poles, and metal to make common day houses.

What did they eat?
The Mayans grew a wide variety of crops, including corn (maize), Amaranth, manioc, and sunflower seeds. These crops were grown in permanent raised fields, terraces, forest gardens, and managed fallows. There was also harvesting of wild crops. The Mayans ground cacao and mixed it with water to make the first chocolate.

What did they wear?
When the king appeared in public, he wore white robes and a gold crown on top of his head, decorated with Quetzal (a type of bird) plumes.

During wartime, the Mayans wore masks, while commanders wore robes made of silver and gold. Some Mayan clothes were made of deer skin. Usually women made the clothes.

What did their writing look like?
The Mayans wrote using a series of glyphs (symbolic pictures), which were painted on ceramics, walls, or bark-paper codices (books), carved in wood or stone, or molded in stucco. Each glyph represented a word. Mayans wrote numbers vertically.

The Mayan script was used up until the arrival of the Spanish. Although many Mayan centers went into decline (or were completely abandoned) during or after this period, many Mayans still had the skill and knowledge of Mayan writing, and the early Spanish conquistadors knew of people who could still read and write the script. Unfortunately, the Spanish however believed that the Mayan books were evil so by the end of the 16th century, almost all knowledge of the Mayan script was lost.

Attempts to decipher the Mayan script came in the 19th century. Investigators were soon able to decipher the Mayan numbers and portions of texts related to astronomy and the Mayan calender. Most of the Mayan script has since been deciphered, but work still continues today. The Mayan calendar ends at the year of 2012, when they believed the world would end.

What did they believe?
The Mayans believed that time was cyclical, that is, it goes in circles. The Mayan shaman interpreted these cycles by looking at the number relations of all their calendars. If the interpretations of the shaman showed bad times ahead, human sacrifices would be performed to make the gods happy. They left behind a prophesy that the world would end on December 21, 2012 and bring about the fifth cycle of the world.

According to Mayan mythology, there were thirteen heavens and nine underworlds, with one god for each. Natural elements, stars and planets, numbers, crops, days of the calendar and periods of time all had their own gods.

The creation story of the Mayans is found in the Popol Vuh ("Council Book" or "Book of the Community"). According to the book, the gods Tepee and Tucuman's decided that, in order to preserve their legacy, they had to make a race of beings who could worship them. Earth, along with the animals, was created. Man was first made out of mud but then he fell apart. Other gods were summoned and man was next created of wood but had no soul. Finally, man was made out of maize by even more gods.

The Mayans worshiped Gods and Goddesses and they believed to make the Gods and Goddesses happy they had to make human sacrifices.

What is left of them today?
The ancient Mayans abandoned their large cities suddenly. To this day, no one is still certain why. However, the Mayan people never died out; their descendants still live in Mexico and Central America. The Mayan's legends and royal lineage is written in a book called Popul Vuh. The word 'hurricane' comes from the name of a fearsome Mayan god named Hurakan who is mentioned in this book.

People
Mayans painted their bodies red, black, white, and blue and thought crossed eyes were cool. They tied objects to their babies' heads to give them crossed eyes. They tied boards to their babies' heads to flatten them too.

At the start of the 21st century, there were about 6 million Mayans living in the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, and Chiapas, and in the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.

The largest group of modern Mayans is found in the Yucatán region of Mexico. They speak both "Yucatec Maya" and Spanish, and are generally integrated into Mexican culture. More traditional Mayans are found in Guatemala. Many of them wear traditional clothes and practice traditional customs. The most traditional Mayans are a group called the Lacandon, who avoided contact with outsiders until the late 20th century by living in small groups in the rain forests.

Cities

There are many Mayan buildings that were once part of cities still standing today. The most important ones are: Chichen Itza, Coba, Copán Kalakmul, Tikal, and Uxmal. These cites lay forgotten for centuries, until modern-day explorers rediscovered them. Archaeological surveys and excavations were conducted (and are still being conducted) on some of these sites, revealing more about Mayan culture. Today, some cities can be visited by tourists.

Are some of them famous even today?
There are indigenous people in Southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras who are descended from the Maya. One of the most famous of them is Rigoberta Menchu, a Quichè Indian. She wrote about the struggles of her people in her book I, Rigoberta Menchu. She received a Nobel Peace Prize.

Wikijunior Alte Zivilisationen/ Mayas

title: Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Mayans


text:
User:Omegatron/sig

— Omegatron

title: User:Omegatron/sig


text:
Cookbook:Cake Brownies

| Dessert

These cake brownies are somewhat less dense and almost cake-like compared to ready-made mixtures one would buy from a store.

Ingredients

 * 2 eggs
 * 1 cup (6 ¾ oz / 2.4 dl) white granulated sugar
 * ½ cup (4 ¼ oz / 120 g) melted butter or cream
 * 4 tbsp cocoa
 * ¾ cup (6 ¼oz / 180 g / 1.8 dl) flour
 * ½ tsp salt
 * ½ tsp baking powder
 * 1 tsp vanilla
 * ½ cup (4 ¼ oz / 120 g / 1.2 dl) chopped walnuts or other nuts (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (175°C). Grease a 9 x 9 inch (23 x 23 cm) square cake pan.
 * 2) Whisk eggs until light in a medium-sized bowl.
 * 3) Add sugar, melted butter, and cocoa. Mix well.
 * 4) Add flour, salt, baking powder, vanilla, and nuts. Mix well with a rubber spatula.
 * 5) Pour into prepared pan. Bake for 20 minutes at 350 °F/175 °C (Gas Mark 4).
 * 6) Cool.

title: Cookbook:Cake Brownies


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Cookbook:Rich Brownies

| North American Cuisines

Rich brownies are cake-like but are denser and not springy or gooey.

Ingredients

 * 4 ounces (110 g) unsweetened baking chocolate
 * ⅔ cup (160 g / 1.6 dl) solid fat (e.g. margarine, butter, shortening, or lard)
 * 2 cups (450 g / 2.7 dl) baking sugar
 * 4 eggs
 * 1 tsp vanilla
 * 1¼ cup (300 g / 3 dl) flour
 * 1 tsp baking powder
 * 1 tsp salt
 * 1 cup (240 g / 2.4 dl) coarsely chopped nuts (½ inch / 1 cm walnuts work well)

Procedure

 * 1) Heat oven to 175 °C (350 °F).
 * 2) Melt chocolate and margarine in a double boiler, or (carefully) in a saucepan on low heat, stirring often.
 * 3) Remove from heat.
 * 4) Mix in the sugar, eggs and vanilla.
 * 5) Excluding the nuts, mix the dry ingredients with each other, and then into the wet mixture.
 * 6) Mix in the nuts.
 * 7) Spread into a 30x20 cm (13x9 in) baking pan, or into two 20x20 cm (8x8 in) baking pans.
 * 8) Bake for 30 minutes, or until brownies pull away from the sides of the pan.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * This works well with 3 Tablespoons of oil in place of the solid fat. When using lard, ⅓ cup should be about right.
 * Unlike other brownie recipes which use cocoa powder and fill one small pan, this recipe uses baking chocolate and fills two small pans or one large one.

title: Cookbook:Rich Brownies


text:
Cookbook:Fudge Brownies

| North American Cuisines

Fudge brownies are dark, dense, fudge-like brownies. They contain more cocoa than cake-like brownies and as a result they are slightly more bitter and have a more "dark chocolate" taste.

Ingredients

 * 110 g (1.2 dl or ½ cup or 4 oz) flour
 * 110 g (1.2 dl or ½ cup or 4 oz) unsalted butter
 * 280 g (3 dl or 1 ¼ cups or 10 oz) granulated sugar
 * 2 large, cold eggs
 * 170 g (1.8 dl or ¾ cup or 6 oz) cocoa
 * ¼ tsp salt
 * 1 tsp vanilla essence

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 160°C (325°F or Gas Mark 3).
 * 2) In a saucepan, melt butter over low heat.
 * 3) Slowly stir in sugar, making sure it is completely dissolved. Stir in cocoa, then remove from heat and add vanilla.
 * 4) Stir in salt and mix until even.
 * 5) Whisk eggs together in a separate bowl, then add to the mixture and stir well.
 * 6) Add flour and stir until all of the flour is incorporated and the batter is an even color. Stir well for at least another 50 strokes.
 * 7) Pour into an 8×8-inch pan lined with aluminum foil, leaving plenty of overhang on both sides.
 * 8) Bake for about 26 minutes—the time varies depending on your pan type and your individual oven.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * For the best results, refrigerate the brownies until they are cooled completely. Use the foil hanging over the edges as handles to remove the baked brownies from the pan (this requires some care as the brownies are not solid at this point). Fold the foil over the top so that the brownies are covered top and bottom with foil, and then put the whole thing in the refrigerator until cooled (feel the bottom center if you aren't sure). This prevents the edges from overcooking while allowing the center to finish baking and cool. If you omit this step, you may end up with an undercooked center and/or overcooked edges.
 * For the real chocolate lover, crumble about 50 grams (1¾ ounces) of a dark chocolate bar (one with about 70% cocoa content) into the batter and stir it lightly right before pouring the mixture into the baking pan. You may need to add a few minutes to the baking time.
 * Cut a brownie in half lengthwise and eat it with ice cream in the middle like an ice cream sandwich.
 * Instead of adding vanilla and/or nuts, try adding about 100 grams (4 oz) of fresh raspberries; their sharpness goes very well with the richness of the chocolate. Half fill the tin with batter, sprinkle the raspberries over the mixture, then pour on the rest.

title: Cookbook:Fudge Brownies


text:
Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Phrases and Idioms

Untitled
These aren't actually idioms. By definition, an idiom is a phrase whose total meaning can't be deduced from the individual words. As in, "finding your feet" or "a shot in the dark"

The phrase "おじいさんがすぐに帰らなければ" has an ambiguity (thus may not be a good example). This can mean either of the followings: The writer of this page probably intended 1., I guess. In 2., the speaker seems unconfortable with his/her grandfather ;) - Marsian / talk 12:34:18, 2005-08-29 (UTC)
 * 1) If Grandpa (who has been to somewhere outside now) doesn't return soon...
 * 2) If Grandpa (who is here now) won't get out of here immediately...

I think someone could add "Neko shita"


text:
Neapolitan/colors

'E culure
Napolitano/Colores Napoletano/Colori

title: Neapolitan/colors


text: Template:Wikijunior:Solar System/Coolfacts


text:
Talk:Poker/Basics

Does a 3 king 2 aces beat 3 aces 2 tens

-- No, with two full houses the hand with the higher triplets wins.

Probability
One pair: 1 in 2 1/3 Two pair: 1 in 20 Three of a kind: 1 in 50 Straight: 1 in 250 Flush: 1 in 500 Full House: 1 in 700 Straight Flush: 1 in 65,000 Royal Flush: 1 in 650,000

Source: Bicycle Rank of Hands

Going over the top
Can a hand: Q K A 2 3 count as a straight or straight flush? If so, what would the high card be? 70.111.224.85 20:31, 2 January 2006 (UTC)

does a kicker count in a straight

IF THE COMMUNITY CARDS ARE 2- KINGS 2- QUEENS AND A 4 AND PL;AYER ONE HAS ACE 6 AND PLAYER 2 HAS 4-7 WHO WINS?

title: Talk:Poker/Basics


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C2/Sequences and Series

Definitions
A sequence is simply a list of numbers in a particular order. We call these numbers the terms of the sequence. For instance, 2,4,6,8 are the first four terms in the sequence of even positive integers. When we take the sum of the terms in a sequence, we get a series. For example, 2+4+6+8+... is a series.

We denote the terms in a sequence by $$T_n$$ where $$n$$ is the number of the term in question. For example, we have $$T_1=2$$, $$T_2=4$$, $$T_3=6$$, and so on, in the sequence described above.

A definition is a rule that tells us how to compute each term in a sequence. For example, a rule for the sequence above is $$T_n=2n$$. A relation describes how each term is related to other terms. For instance, a relation for the above sequence is $$T_{n+1}=T_{n}+2$$.

Sigma ($$\Sigma$$) Notation
As you might have suspected, describing a series with the help of some of its terms isn't always a good idea --- if too few terms are used, the series can be ambiguous to your reader; on the other hand, you risk insulting your reader by writing out too many terms! To express a series succinctly, we use the sigma $$(\Sigma)$$ notation instead.

In general, a series may be written as $$\sum_{k=k_0}^{N} f(k)$$, which means "sum of all terms beginning with $$f(k_0)$$ up to and including $$f(N)$$". Hence,

$$\sum_{k=k_0}^{N} f(k)=f(k_0)+f(k_0+1)+f(k_0+2)+\cdots+f(N)$$.

As an example, the series 2+4+6+8+... may be written as $$\sum_{k=1}^{\infty}2k$$.

Recognising Simple Progressions
A progression is just another word for a sequence. In this module, you are expected to be well-acquainted with two very common types of progressions --- the arithmetic progression and the geometric progression.

Briefly, an arithmetic progression or AP is a sequence in which each successive term is the sum of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of an AP is 1,4,7,10,..., where the difference between successive terms is 3.

A geometric progression or GP is a sequence in which each successive term is the product of the previous term and a fixed value. An example of a GP is 2,4,8,16,32,..., where each term is twice the value of the previous term.

Arithmetic Progression (AP)
An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: $$a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, a+4d, \ldots$$, where $$a,d$$ are constants. The first term $$T_1$$ in the AP is denoted by $$a$$, and the common difference between subsequent terms is denoted by $$d$$. Thus, the series 1,4,7,10,..., is an arithmetic progression with $$a=1$$ and $$d=3$$.

Rules
The common difference $$d$$ can be calculated by $$d = T_n - T_{n-1}$$, where $$n=2,3,4,...$$.

The $$n$$th term is given by $$T_n = a + (n-1)d$$.

The sum of the first $$n$$ terms of an AP (with $$T_1$$ as its first term and $$T_n$$ as its last term) is given by $$S_n = \frac{n}{2} (T_1 + T_n) = \frac{n}{2} (2a+(n-1)d)$$.

In fact, more generally, the sum of $$n$$ consecutive terms in an AP is given by $$\frac{\mathrm{number\,of\,terms}}{2}(\mathrm{first\,term} + \mathrm{last\,term}) $$.

Example
What is the sum of the even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, ..., 100?

The given sequence can be expressed as an AP with $$T_1 = a = 2$$, and $$d=2$$. We want the sum of the first 50 terms of the AP:

$$S_{50}=\frac{50}{2}(2+100) = \frac{50}{2}\left(2(2)+(50-1)2\right) = 2550$$.

Geometric Progression (GP)
A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence that can be written in the following way: $$a, ar, ar^2, ar^3, ar^4, \ldots$$, where $$a,r$$ are constants. The first term $$T_1$$ in the GP is denoted by $$a$$, and the common ratio between subsequent terms is denoted by $$r$$.

Rules
The common ratio $$r$$ can be calculated by $$r = \frac{T_n}{T_{n-1}}$$, where $$n=2,3,4,...$$.

The $$n$$th term is given by $$T_n = ar^{n-1}$$.

The sum of the first $$n$$ terms of an GP is given by $$S_n = \frac{a(1-r^n)}{1-r}$$.

Proof of this is given by:

$$S_n = a+ar+ar^2+\ldots+ar^{n-1}$$

$$rS_n = ar+ar^2+ar^3+\ldots+ar^n$$

$$S_n-rS_n = a-ar^n$$

$$S_n(1-r) = a(1-r^n)$$

$$S_n = \frac{a(1-r^n)}{1-r}$$

Sum Of An Infinite Geometric Series
We say that the geometric series $$\sum_{k=0}^{\infty} ar^k= a+ar+ar^2+ar^3+ar^4+\ldots$$ is convergent if the sum to infinity $$S_{\infty}$$ approaches some limit. This occurs when $$|r|<1$$. Hence, if $$|r|<1$$, then

$$S_{\infty}=\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}\frac{a(1-r^n)}{1-r}= \frac{a}{1-r}$$.

Proof of this is given by:

$$S_{\infty} = a + ar + ar^2 + ar^3 + ...$$

$$rS_{\infty} = ar + ar^2 + ar^3 + ar^4 + ...$$

$$S_{\infty} - rS_{\infty} = a$$

$$S_{\infty}(1-r) = a$$

$$S_{\infty} = \frac{a}{1-r}$$

Binomial expressions
A binomial is a polynomial with two parts in the form $$(a+b)$$, such as $$(x+1)$$. When a binomial is raised to a power, you could simplify it by multiplying out the brackets several times. The expanded polynomial is called a binomial expansion, and all binomial expansions follow a pattern that can be used to expand binomials quicker than multiplying out several brackets. For now, we will only look at binomial expressions which are raised to positive integers.

Expansions of $$(x+1)$$
Here are the expansions of $$x+1$$ raised to different powers.

If you look at the coefficient of each term, you may notice a pattern. These numbers are called binomial coefficients and are found by adding the two numbers above it.

Pascal's triangle
Binomial coefficients are more commonly known as Pascal's triangle, named after Blaise Pascal.

The first 10 lines of Pascal's triangle are:

(1)                                     1     1                                   1     2     1                                1     3     3     1                             1     4     6     4     1                          1     5     10    10    5     1                       1     6     15    20    15    6     1                    1     7     21    35    35    21    7     1                 1     8     28    56    70    56    28    8     1              1     9     36    84    126   126   84    36    9     1           1     10    45    120   210   252   210   120   45    10    1        1      11    55    165   330   462   462   330   165   55   11     1

Since each number is found by adding the two numbers above it, it is possible to find a few lines of the triangle to help you expand binomials. For binomials raised to powers greater than 10, you should use the binomial coefficient formula.

Binomial coefficient formula
When a binomial is raised to a large power, it may be too time consuming to find the binomial coefficients by writing out Pascal's triangle. Fortunately, there is a formula that can find any line of Pascal's triangle.

If $$n$$ is the power of the expansion, and $$r$$ is the number of the term in a single row, the binomial coefficient formula is:

$${n\choose r}=\frac{n!}{r!(n-r)!}$$

The $$!$$ means factorial and multiplies $$n$$ by every integer less than itself, down to 1.

So $$3! = 3 \times 2 \times 1 = 6$$.

To find the binomial coefficients, you use the formula with the required value of $$n$$, and $$r=0$$, $$r=1$$, $$r=2$$, and so on, until $$r=n$$.

Most scientific calculators will have two buttons that will be useful in this process, one is the factorial button, usually labelled n! and the other will actually find $${n \choose r}$$ and is often labelled nCr or $$C^n_r$$. (The C stands for "choose" or "combination" which is based on the formula's use in probability.)

You should be aware that Pascal's triangle is symmetrical, so once a coefficient is repeated, you can write down the rest of the coefficients with ease.

Expanding binomials
Now that you know how to find the coefficients in a binomial expansion, you can easily expand any binomial that is raised to a positve integer by following these simple steps:

For a binomial in the form $$(a+b)^n$$,

 * 1) Write down $$a$$ in descending powers, from $$n$$ to $$0$$
 * 2) Write down $$b$$ in ascending powers, from $$0$$ to $$n$$, making sure that you place the terms so that the powers add up to $$n$$
 * 3) Add the binomial coefficients to each term, either from line $$n$$ in Pascal's triangle (ignoring the 1 at the top), or by using the binomial coefficient formula.

You then simplify where necessary.

For example, for the expansion of $$(x+2)^4$$:

$$x$$ in descending powers: $$x^4$$ $$+$$ $$x^3$$ $$+$$ $$x^2$$ $$+$$ $$x^1$$ $$+$$ $$x^0$$

$$2$$ in ascending powers: $$2^0$$ $$+$$ $$2^1$$ $$+$$ $$2^2$$ $$+$$ $$2^3$$ $$+$$ $$2^4$$

Grouping everything together we now have:

$$x^4$$$$2^0$$ $$+$$ $$x^3$$$$2^1$$ $$+$$ $$x^2$$$$2^2$$ $$+$$ $$x^1$$$$2^3$$ $$+$$ $$x^0$$$$2^4$$

Adding in the binomial coefficients:

$$1 x^4$$$$2^0$$ $$+$$ $$4 x^3$$$$2^1$$ $$+$$ $$6 x^2$$$$2^2$$ $$+$$ $$4 x^1$$$$2^3$$ $$+$$ $$1 x^0$$$$2^4$$

Finally simplifying will now give us:

$$x^4$$ $$+$$ $$8 x^3$$ $$+$$ $$24 x^2$$ $$+$$ $$32 x^1$$ $$+$$ $16 $

This process is summarised in the equation known as the binomial theorem:

$$(x+y)^n=\sum_{r=0}^n{n \choose r}x^ry^{n-r}$$

In case you are not familiar with sigma notion this means:

$$(x+y)^n = {n \choose 0} x^0y^n + {n \choose 1} x^1y^{n-1} + {n \choose 2} x^2y^{n-2} + \dots  + {n \choose {n-2}}x^{n-2}y^2 + {n \choose {n-1}}x^{n-1}y^1 + {n \choose n}x^ny^0$$

Several simplifications can be made but they aren't worth memorising as you will pick them up automatically: $$(x+y)^n = y^n + nxy^{n-1} + {n \choose 2} x^2y^{n-2} + \dots + {n \choose {n-2}}x^{n-2}y^2 + nx^{n-1}y + x^n$$


text:
Visual Basic/Loops

Loops are control structures used to repeat a given section of code a certain number of times or until a particular condition is met.

Visual Basic has three main types of loops: for..next loops, do loops and while loops.

Note: 'Debug' may be a reserved word in Visual Basic, and this may cause the code samples shown here to fail for some versions of Visual Basic.

For..Next Loops
The syntax of a For..Next loop has three components: a counter, a range, and a step. A basic for..next loop appears as follows:

In this example, X is the counter, "1 to 100" is the range, and "2" is the step.

The variable reference in the Next part of the statement is optional and it is common practice to leave this out. There is no ambiguity in doing this if code is correctly indented.

When a For..Next loop is initialized, the counter is set to the first number in the range; in this case, X is set to 1. The program then executes any code between the for and next statements normally. Upon reaching the next statement, the program returns to the for statement and increases the value of the counter by the step. In this instance, X will be increased to 3 on the second iteration, 5 on the third, etc.

To change the amount by which the counter variable increases on each iteration, simply change the value of the step. For example, if you use a step 3, X will increase from 1 to 4, then to 7, 10, 13, and so on. When the step is not explicitly stated, 1 is used by default. (Note that the step can be a negative value. For instance, for X = 100 to 1 step -1 would decrease the value of X from 100 to 99 to 98, etc.)

When X reaches the end of the range in the range (100 in the example above), the loop will cease to execute, and the program will continue to the code beyond the next statement.

It is possible to edit the value of the counter variable within a for..next loop, although this is generally considered bad programming practice:

While you may on rare occasions find good reasons to edit the counter in this manner, the example above illustrates one potential pitfall:

Because X is set to 7 at the end of every iteration, this code creates an infinite loop. To avoid this and other unexpected behavior, use extreme caution when editing the counter variable!

It is not required by the compiler that you specify the name of the loop variable in the Next statement but it will be checked by the compiler if you do, so it is a small help in writing correct programs.

For loop on list
Another very common situation is the need for a loop which enumerates every element of a list. The following sample code shows you how to do this:

The list is commonly a Collection or Array, but can be any other object that implements an enumerator. Note that the iterating variable has to be either a Variant, Object or class that matches the type of elements in the given list.

Do Loops
Do loops are a bit more flexible than For loops, but should generally only be used when necessary. Do loops appears in the following formats:

 * Do while
 * Do until
 * Loop while
 * Loop until

While loops (both do while and loop while) will continue to execute as long as a certain conditional is true. An Until loop will loop as long as a certain condition is false, on the other hand. The only difference between putting either While or Until in the Do section or the Loop section, is that Do checks when the loop starts, and Loop checks when the loop ends. An example of a basic loop is as follows:

This loop will print hello several times, depending on the initial value of x. As you may have noticed, Do loops have no built in counters. However, they may be made manually as shown above. In this case, I chose x as my counter variable, and every time the loop execute, x increase itself by one. When X reaches 10, the loop will cease to execute. The advantage of Do loops is that you may exit at any time whenever any certain conditional is met. You may have it loop as long as a certain variable is false, or true, or as long as a variable remains in a certain range.

Endless loop: Do..Loop
The endless loop is a loop which never ends and the statements inside are repeated forever. Never is meant as a relative term here - if the computer is switched off then even endless loops will end very abruptly.

In Visual Basic you cannot label the loop but you can of course place a label just before it, inside it or just after it if you wish.

Loop with condition at the beginning: Do While..Loop
This loop has a condition at the beginning. The statements are repeated as long as the condition is met. If the condition is not met at the very beginning then the statements inside the loop are never executed.

Loop with condition at the end: Do..Loop Until
This loop has a condition at the end and the statements are repeated until the condition is met. Since the check is at the end the statements are at least executed once.

Loop with condition in the middle:Do..Exit Do..Loop
Sometimes you need to first make a calculation and exit the loop when a certain criterion is met. However when the criterion is not met there is something else to be done. Hence you need a loop where the exit condition is in the middle.

In Visual Basic you can also have more than one exit statement. You cannot exit named outer loops using Exit Do because Visual Basic does not provide named loops; you can of course use Goto instead to jump to a label that follows the outer loop.

While Loops
While loops are similar to Do loops except that the tested condition always appears at the top of the loop. If on the first entry into the loop block the condition is false, the contents of the loop are never executed. The condition is retested before every loop iteration.

An example of a While loop is as follows:

The While loop will run until the condition tests false - or until an "Exit While" statement is encountered.

Nested Loops
A nested loop is any type of loop inside an already existing loop. They can involve any type of loop. For this, we will use For loops. It is important to remember that the inner loop will execute its normal amount multiplied by how many times the outer loop runs. For example:

This will print the word 'hi' twenty times. Upon the first pass of the i loop, it will run the j loop twice. Then on the second pass of the i loop, it will run the j loop another two times, and so on.

title: Visual Basic/Loops


text:
Visual Basic/Arrays

Introduction
Arrays are extremely useful in Visual Basic, and are present in many other programming languages. Arrays are used to group similar data together, to make it easier to search and sort through this data. The best way to look at an array is to show you one. Say you want to make a phone book for your computer. Rather than make a new variable with a new name whenever you want to add a name, you can make an array. Arrays consist of the variable name and a subscript, which is put in parentheses for computer use. So, if you want to make a phone book of say, 100 people, rather than make a bunch of variables named 'person1, person2, person3....person100', you may use an array. All you have to do is dimension the array (see above). So now those 100 variables turn into person(1 to 100) in a dim statement. Now you may be asking, what do I do now? Each object stored in an array is called an element. What you have done is created an array which can hold 100 elements. If you want to print the 32nd person in your phone book, you simply would type:

Debug.Print Person(32)

Use of Arrays
Arrays have far more uses other than just making phone books. But before we get into specific uses, let's look at some of the basic techniques used when working with arrays. The first thing you may want to do is learn how to easily fill an array. Filling an array with random numbers is a popular technique for starting off programs, and testing other techniques such as sorting. To fill an array, a simple For Loop may be used.

The above shows an example of read-write iteration over an array. For Each loop can be used for read-only iteration over an array:

Indices
Per default, array indices start at 0, unless "Option Base 1" declaration is used. Without the declaration used, an array declared as "Dim MyArray(5)" has 6 elements: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

The index range of an array has to be a continuous sequence of integers, including negative numbers. Thus, the following is possible:

Size
The size of an array can be obtained using LBound and UBound as follows: Keywords: length, item count, element count.

Dynamic Arrays
An array with the number of elements specified upon its declaration, as in Dim Names(0 to 9), is a static one: the number of its elements cannot be changed in runtime. By contrast, an array declared without the number of elements, as in Dim Names, is a dynamic array, and its number of elements can be changed using ReDim. To preserve the element content of the array when using ReDim, Preserve keyword has to be used after ReDim.

Say you have a phone book program running and it has an array of your friends' names, like this:

But say you want to add more friends to your phone book, when a button is clicked, for example. What do you do? You can define a dynamic array instead:

This array initially has no elements. You can add more elements, by using the ReDim keyword:

This would create two new elements. You can assign names to these elements in the same way as before:

If you want to add more entries then use, for example:

But you'll end up losing all the old records! If you want to keep them, you must also use the Preserve keyword:

To iterate AKA loop over the elements of a dynamic array, you have to use LBound and UBound functions or For Each loop, as described at.

To add an element to an initialized dynamic array, you can proceed as follows, using UBound function:

However, UBound does not work with an un-initialized dynamic array, so the following would cause a run-time error:

One way to avoid this run-time error is to keep a flag:

Another way to avoid the run-time error is to catch the error created by the use of "UBound" on an uninitialized array:

Finally, you can use the following hack to check if a dynamic array has been initialized:

Variant Arrays
Variant arrays are dynamic arrays declared using the Variant type, and initialized using "= Array". Their advantage is that, after they are initialized using "= Array", LBound and UBound functions work with them even when they have no elements, as follows:

As a consequence, adding an element is straightforward, with no need to check for UBound failure:

Variant arrays can be initialized to a set of values:

For very large arrays, the overhead of using variant arrays, which have the element type of Variant rather than String or other narrower type, may well be restrictive, in which case conventional dynamic arrays should be used. What seems also much faster than variant arrays for adding items one at a time are ../Collections/.

Multi-Dimensional Arrays
Arrays can be defined to have any number of dimensions (or indices), by listing the sizes of each dimension:

An element can be referenced like this:

Dynamic arrays can also be re-dimensioned to have any number of dimensions:

The LBound and UBound functions can be used to find the bounds of a particular dimension:

Would give 4.

Using UBound without the second parameter gives the first dimension

Erasing Arrays
Any type of array can be re-set to empty by using:

Mixing Arrays
The real power of arrays comes when defining arrays of arrays. What does this mean? Declare an array:

What do we have here? Essentially two arrays inside another. They can be referenced like this:

Would show 3.

You can nest arrays like this to any depth and in any order and they can be of any size. A note of caution must be taken when using the ReDim statement, however. You cannot specifically re-dimension a particular dimension of an array; instead you need to temporarily copy to a variant.

Use of Matrices
See also the section .

Matrices are not as commonly used as arrays, but are an important element of programming. Rather than just one dimension, a matrix may have 2 or more. So, to make a matrix, the Dim statement would be:

This will create a matrix that is 10 by 10 and comprised of integers. In reality, a matrix is much like an array of arrays. The first thing you'll want to do is know how to create a loop for reading and filling a matrix. But before that, even, you should know how matrices are structured. An example matrix would be: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9   1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1    2  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1    3  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1    4  1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

This is a 4 by 9 matrix. When talking about matrices, rows are always stated before columns. You will also notice column numbers travel from left to right, while row numbers travel from top to bottom. This is very important. And of course, matrices need not consist of merely 1s. So, now you want to fill a matrix? Its very similar to an array.

This will of course fill the matrix with nothing but ones, but random numbers may be used (see references). As you may notice, this involves nested loops. The loop fills left to right, top to bottom (the same directions we use when reading).

Sorting
For sorting variant arrays, see http://stackoverflow.com/questions/152319/vba-array-sort-function.

title: Visual Basic/Arrays


text:
Interlingua/Curso de conversation/Capitulo 6, Scenas 3 e 4 (interlingua)

SCENA 3: Le aeroporto de Frankfurt e le officios del senior Runde: Quando le scena comencia, Petro telephona le senior Runde, dicente que tosto ille essera in su officio post un breve viage in un taxi.

Illes parla sur le aeroporto de Frankfurt e se demanda lo que occurreva con Sophia, le secretaria del senior Runde, qui iva portar Petro al officios de Elektrobahn in Frankfurt in un automobile del compania. Le senior Runde pare esser confidente que su secretaria retornara tosto.

Petro tunc vole saper si ille potera parlar interlingua durante le conferentia. Le senior Runde dice que isto essera possibile, specialmente si ille parla assatis lente- e specialmente clarmente.

Illes anque parla sur le duration del reunion, e le senior Runde vole saper si il ha alique special que Petro necessita pro su presentation. Petro responde que ille ha venite con omne lo que ille necessita.

Tunc Petro dice que ille volerea cognoscer un pauco le operationes de Elektrobahn, e le senior Runde dice que ille dara a Petro con multo placer un tour del officios e del fabrica de su compania post lor reunion.

Petro: Bon die. Io es Petro Minelli. Io es in Frankfurt in le aeroporto. Como? Excusa me, io non vos audi. Ascolta, senior Runde, io es in le aeroporto e tosto prendera un taxi pro vader a vostre officio.

Senior Runde: Ma io ha inviate Sophia, mi secretaria, con un automobile pro apportar vos a mi officio. Esque illa non ha arrivate al aeroporto?

Petro: Io non la ha vidite.

Senior Runde: Povre Sophia.

Petro: Io suppone que illa vos telephonara quando illa essera troppo frustrate post essayar trovar me.

Senior Runde: Ah, certemente, si. Il es multo facile perder se in un aeroporto. On poterea cercar alicuno omne un septimana sin trovar le.

Petro: Io ha vidite un loco appellate le Treffpunkt. Esque isto es le loco ubi nos debe trovar nos?

Senior Runde: Si, ma io mesme ha difficultates in trovar passageros in ille Treffpunkt. E il ha plus que un de ille punctos, e lor uso pote esser multo frustrante a vices.

Petro: Intertanto, il non il non ha multo que on pote facer pro vostre secretaria.

Senior Runde: Vos ha ration. Il non ha ullo que on pote facer. Sophia revenira al officio eventualmente, sin dubita. Si vos trova un taxi, prende lo. Il es multo facile perder multo tempore in le aeroporto de Frankfurt.

Petro: Un altere cosa importante: Esque io pote parlar interlingua in le conferentia iste postmeridie?

Senior Runde: Si, naturalmente. Nos omnes parla interlingua assatis ben. Ma vos debera parlar lente e clarmente.

Petro: Io crede que nos non habera multe difficultates con le communication in ille caso.

Senior Runde: Nos non ha habite problemas con le uso de interlingua in omne nostre reuniones usque nunc.

Petro: Le reunion comencia a duo horas, nonne?

Senior Runde: Si, vos ha ration.

Petro: E generalmente quante tempore dura illos?

Senior Runde: Vostre parte del reunion durara generalmente un sol hora. Post illo, nos habera altere reuniones inter nostre proprie personal.

Petro: Si, io comprende. Usque nunc, io non ha apprendite exactemente que face vos illac. Esque vos pote dar me un parve tour.

Senior Runde: Si naturalmente. Ah, un altere cosa: Esque vos habera besonio de cosas special pro vostre presentation, como photocopias o altere cosas similar?

Petro: No, io ha con me omne lo que io necessita.

Senior Runde: Esque vos ha un description imprimite de vostre projecto?

Petro: No. Io va simplemente exponer le grande lineas del projecto e explicar le programma que nos ha establite pro Geneva de maniera que vos sapera como vos pote usar nostre servicios nove.

EXERCITIO 3: Fixar un incontro con alicuno.

Guida: Io me demanda qual es le melior maniera de fixar un incontro con alicuno.

Un femina: (Parlante in le telephono) Mercuridi. Mercuridi postmeridie. A que hora arriva le traino? Tres horas trenta. Al station principal. Qual es le melior loco pro incontrar alicuno? Sub le horologio. In le medio del station. Si, multo ben. Tres horas trenta in le medio del station. Gratias.

Un homine: Hallo? Il es io.

Un femina: Bon die. Como sta vos?

Un homine: Multo ben, gratias.

Un femina: Que die arriva vos?

Un homine: Mercuridi.

Un femina: E como va viagiar vos?

Un homine: Per le traino.

Un femina: Esque nos pote incontrar nos post vostre viage?

Un homine: Naturalmente. Io pote incontrar vos in le station principal.

Un femina: A que hora?

Un homine: Io essera illac verso tres horas e medie.

Un femina: E si le traino veni retardate?

Un homine: In ille caso, esque vos pote attender me?

Un femina: Si, naturalmente. Io vos attendera in le exito.

Un homine: Il ha multe exitos.

Un femina: Esque io pote attender vos in le restaurante?

Un homine: Il ha multe restaurantes.

Un femina: Tunc ubi pote io attender vos?

Un homine: Eh, ben. Que nos nos incontra sub le horologio.

Un femina: Ubi es le horologio?

Un homine: Illo es in le medio del station.

Un femina: Multo ben. Io vos incontra verso tres horas e medie.

Un homine: A revider.

Un femina: A revider.

Guida: Io me demanda si le ingenieros german comprendera le interlingua de Petro.

SCENA 4: Frankfurt: Un sala de conferentias: Petro parla al conferentia e explica le systema nove de reuniones regular planificate pro le ingenieros principal del companias que participa in le projecto Geneva. Ille propone quatro themas de discussion in iste reuniones. Quando ille ha finite, le senior Runde le offere caffe e tunc da a ille un tour del officios e del fabrica de Elektrobahn. Post le tour, ille invita Petro a un bibita e offere monstrar Frankfurt a ille. Al fin del scena illes vade al officio de designo.

Petro: Bon die. Infelicemente, io non parla ben le germano, ma on me ha dicite que vos pote comprender me si io parla interlingua.

Senior Runde: Illo es ver, si vos parla clar e lentemente.

Petro: Si io parla de un maniera clar e lente. Multo ben. Io es in iste reunion pro parlar un pauco a vos sur le nove projecto Marex Mundial in Geneva. Nos nos ha installate illac recentemente, e nos nunc comencia nostre operationes. Nos vole inaugurar un systema de reuniones specialmente ante que nos comencia un projecto nove. Ma nos anque vole inaugurar un systema de reuniones mensual regular pro communicar informationes e ideas. Le prime reunion essera in Geneva, le secunde in Paris, le tertie in London, e le quarte hic in Frankfurt. Nos habera iste reuniones omne le anno in cata un ex iste citates successivemente. Io propone que nos discute quatro themas principal. Le prime essera nove developpamentos technic, le quales includera nove formas de locomotion o nove recercas sur motores, systemas de assemblage, etc. Le secunde essera le construction, le installation de vias, e systemas auxiliar, como systemas de securitate. Le tertie concernera systemas de controlo de signales e traffico. Isto includera systemas informatic e innovationes electronic e mechanic. Il es essential que omne nos cognosce le developpamentos nove, specialmente le nove systemas magnetic e pneumatic e altere possibilitates technologic in systemas de transportation urban. In omne iste areas, ideas nove nasce quasi cata septimana. E pro mantener nostre superioritate competitive, nos sempre debe saper lo que es disponibile.

Senior Runde: Ben.

Petro: Esque vos ha caffe in iste officio?

Senior Runde: Si naturalmente. Ecce illo. Vos pote vos servir, si vos vole.

Petro: Gratias.

Senior Runde: Io nunc pote monstrar vos nostre fabrica, si vos vole.

Petro: Si, multe gratias.

Senior Runde: Nos anque pote visitar le officio de planification. Nos ha tres fabricas in Germania. Le fabrica de Frankfurt es le plus grande de ... Ecce le departimento de machinas--essentialmente motores electric de grande potentia. Vos potera vider le catena de assemblea illac.

Petro: E iste motores es destinate a que?

Senior Runde: Principalmente pro projectos in Germania. Iste gruppo hic va a Hannover. Dice me, ubi es vostre hotel?

Petro: Presso le station ferroviari.

Senior Runde: Vos volerea haber un bibita con me iste vespere?

Petro: Ah, si, un idea excellente!

Senior Runde: Il ha unes areas multo agradabile in Frankfurt.

Petro: Ah si?

Senior Runde: Io poterea monstrar vos unes, si vos vole.

Petro: Con multe placer. Vos es multo amabile.

Senior Runde: Le officio de planification es in basso. Vamos examinar lo brevemente.

EXERCITIO 4: Invitar alicuno a sortir.

Guida: Nos ha vidite que iste vespere Petro ha sortite pro un bibita como in Paris. Bon. Il ha manieras de invitar personas a sortir e manieras de responder si o no a un invitation. Io volerea audir unes ex illos.

Un homine: Vole vos sortir iste vespere pro un bibita?

Un femina: Io lo regretta, ma io non pote facer lo hodie.

Un homine: Vermente?

Un femina: Io lo regretta, ma io vermente non ha le tempore.

Un homine: Eh, ben, forsan un altere die. Possibilemente deman?

Un femina: No, io lo regretta, ma io non pote.

Un homine: Forsan venerdi?

Un femina: Si, io non ha ullo a facer venerdi. Que nos sorti venerdi vespere.


text:
Interlingua/Curso de conversation/Capitulo 7, Scenas 1 e 2 (interlingua)

SCENA 1: Le officios de Geneva: Martijn Ockrente e Olivero Rossi, post audir le nova del projecto egyptian, es multo felice. Illes parla con Catherina sur le tempore e le loco de lor reunion le proxime matino. Catherina tunc vade via, e Martijn e Olivero parla sur le projecto e le possibilitates de assecurar le contracto pro Marex.

Martijn explica como a vices il es possibile eluder le leges sur le publicitate e le offertas public, le quales sovente non es tan public como illos appare. Il es facile, ille dice, decider anticipatemente qui va ganiar le contracto e dar a un compania preferite multe tempore pro preparar su presentation, e un insufficientia de tempore al altere candidatos. Omnes es de accordo que il ha pauco que illes pote facer durante iste parte del processo, ma Olivero vole examinar le contos.

Catherina, qui ha retornate al officio, rememora a Petro que illes va sortir pro dinar e dice a Olivero que ille non debe travaliar troppo iste vespere. Olivero e Martijn se ride un pauco de Petro proque ille va sortir con Catherina e dice que ille debe cambiar a nove vestimentos ante sortir con illa.

Martijn: Illo vermente es un bon nova!

Catherina: Si.

Olivero: Le reunion deman es a que hora?

Catherina: A dece horas.

Martijn: Possibilemente il esserea un bon idea que nos nos reuni un pauco avante.

Olivero: Si.

Catherina: Io va facer photocopiar iste papiros. Io vos revidera tosto.

Martijn: Multo ben.

Olivero: On non ha le tempore pro facer un offerta complete.

Martijn: Illo non es necesse.

Olivero: Ma nos debera facer isto ante multe tempore.

Martijn: Si, ma deman il suffice que nos sia amabile.

Olivero: E competente.

Martijn: E intelligente. Solmente isto essera necesse deman.

Olivero: Ma seriosemente, qual es le probabilitate que nos obtenera iste contracto? Si illo es pro le governamento, nos debera facer un offerta public.

Martijn: Sin dubita, si.

Olivero: E si on debe facer un offerta public, illo significa que omne le mundo pote submitter alique.

Martijn: Exactemente.

Olivero: Le japoneses, le americanos, le svedeses, omnes.

Martijn: Si.

Olivero: E tunc illes va seliger le offerta le plus economic, e possibilemente ...

Martijn: Si, ma attende.

Olivero: Que?

Martijn: Le offertas public non es sempre tan public como forsan tu crede.

Olivero: Ma illos debe esser assi, secundo le regulas del joco. E certemente il ha leges pro illo. In omne le paises il es assi.

Martijn: Si, ma il ha diverse manieras de manipular le conditiones legal.

Olivero: Como?

Martijn: Eh, ben, pro exemplo, tu publica un annuncio in jornales differente in le qual tu dice "Se sollicita offertas pro un importante projecto de developpamento."

Olivero: Si?

Martijn: Tunc tu adde: "Le offertas debe esser facite in un periodo de vinti un dies." Non vide tu? Qui pote facer un offerta complete in tres septimanas?

Olivero: Eh ben, il ha possibilemente alicuno que pote facer isto.

Martijn: Naturalmente. In ille caso tu adde: "Pro detalios ulterior, scribe nos ... " Illes non pote preparar un offerta ante haber disponibile le detalios precise. E tunc tu invia a illes iste information solmente un septimana ante le data de clausura.

Olivero: Ah, io comprende. Illo es astute. E durante ille tempore ...

Martijn: Exactemente, durante ille tempore tu decide qui tu vole seliger pro completar le projecto. Tu da a illes un septimana extra, e tu invia a illes le detalios complete ante que le alteres lo recipe.

(Petro entra.)

Petro: Bon die a omnes.

Martijn: Salute, Petro.

Petro: De que parlava vos?

Martijn: Del projecto egyptian, le reunion de deman.

Olivero: Martijn me diceva que le offertas public non es sempre completemente public.

Petro: Como?

Olivero: Tu selige anticipatemente le interprisa que obtenera iste contracto. Tu da a illo assatis tempore pro preparar un offerta e minus tempore a omne le alteres.

Petro: Multo astute!

Martijn: Illo es solmente un maniera de approchar se a iste problema. Il anque ha alteres.

Olivero: Ma esque il non apparerea irregular haber un sol offerta?

Martijn: In ille caso tu demanda que illes submitte tres offertas differente.

Olivero: Eh ben! ... Io es plus felice esser in le contabilitate e non in le marketing. Illo non es multo honeste.

Martijn: Ma le affaires es assi. On sempre debe accommodar se al realitate.

Olivero: Si. E io debe examinar unes numeros.

Martijn: De omne manieras, on non pote facer multo iste vespere.

Olivero: Io vole solmente facer un examination breve pro cognoscer le limites un pauco.

Catherina: Bon die.

Olivero: Bon die, Catherina.

Catherina: Omne es preste pro deman?

Martijn: Io crede que si.

Olivero: Martijn justo nunc nos ha explicate le differente medios de manipular un offerta public. Il ha diverse manieras multo astute.

Catherina: Ma lor uso non depende de nos. Il es le interprenditor qui decide. Si il es vos que ille vole, ille trovara un maniera de assecurar que vos essera seligite. Ben. Vos claudera le officio iste vespere?

Olivero: Eh, ben, io vole travaliar un pauco sur le numeros e verificar unes detalios.

Catherina: Multo ben, si vos vermente vole. Petro, esque nos va sortir iste vespere pro dinar?

Petro: Si, si ...

Catherina: Bon, eh ben, io va a mi appartamento pro cambiar de vestimentos. Esque tu pote trovar me illac verso septe horas e medie?

Petro: Multo ben Io essera illac.

Catherina: A revider. E Martijn e Olivero, non travalia troppo iste vespere. On debera esser in bon forma deman.

Olivero: Si, vos ha ration. A deman.

Martijn: Multo ben.

Catherina: A revider.

Olivero: Ah ha!

Martijn: Que significa illo?

Olivero: (Imitante Catherina) "Io va a mi appartamento pro cambiar de vestimentos. Esque tu pote trovar me verso septe horas e medie?"

Martijn: Io spera, Petro, que vos va amusar vos multo ben iste vespere.

Petro: Ah, vos dice omne illo proque vos es jelose.

Olivero: No. Io solmente recognosce que il es un medio, como multe alteres, de ganiar successo in le affaires ...

Martijn: Ma io credeva que illa sortiva con ille switze.

Petro: No, illa ha terminate su relationes con ille.

Olivero: Tunc il es vos qui va jocar iste vice, Petro. Bon sorte!

Petro: Io non ha ulle tempore pro isto. Io va preparar me pro iste vespere.

Olivero: Si, e no oblida le ducha e le vestimentos munde.

Petro: Si, si. Io nunc debe vader via.

Martijn: A revider. Amusa vos ben.

Olivero: A revider.

EXERCITIO 1: Opportunitates pro successo.

Guida: Io ha trovate illo un pauco difficile. De que parlava ille exactemente? Obtener le contracto? Signar le contracto? Il anque habeva altere parolas que io non ha comprendite multe ben.

Un homine: Aeroporto de Tripoli. Appello pro offertas pro construer hangars in le aeroporto de Tripoli? Que es illo?

Un femina: Illo es un annuncio.

Un homine: Illo es in le jornal.

Un femina: Illo es un annuncio in un jornal.

Un homine: Illes vole que le companias que lege le annuncio ...

Un femina: ... face un offerta.

Un homine: Illo appareva in le jornal. Tunc, ...

Un femina: ... illo es un appello pro un offerta public.

Guida: Si, io comprende. Il habeva anque questiones de opportunitates pro successo.

Un homine: Esque il es public?

Un femina: Illo es in le jornal. Si illo es in le jornal, illo es public.

Un homine: Tunc ulle compania pote facer un offerta?

Un femina: Si, proque illo es un offerta public in un jornal.

Un homine: Esque io anque pote participar?

Un femina: Vos vole participar? Vos pote si vos vole.

Un homine: Esque io debe scriber a illes?

Un femina: Si. Scribe a illes si vos vole.

Un homine: Vos crede que io recipera le contracto?

Un femina: Io non sape. Esque vostre precios es correcte? Vos recipera le contracto si vostre precios es correcte.

Un homine: Vos pensa que illo es possibile?

Un femina: Io non sape. Vos ha le competentias requirite. Ma vos es un mercante de aqua mineral!

Un homine: Si, ma io pote participar si io vole!

Guida: Ille es comic, ille mercante de aqua mineral. Ma que nos vide lo que va passar quando Petro e Catherina sortira pro dinar iste vespere.

SCENA 2: Geneva: In un restaurante: In iste scena nos trova Petro e Catherina in un restaurante ordinante un repasto. Petro deveni infelice quando ille discoperi que on pote dansar illac solmente le venerdis e le sabbatos. Quando illes ordina lor repastos, Petro vole alique calide, e ille time que ille non va haber assatis pro mangiar. Ille ha multe fame.

Le garson prende lor ordine, e Petro demanda si ille habera assatis a mangiar. Le garson le assecura que le portiones es multo generose ma que ille poterea haber un portion supplementari si ille ha multe fame. Catherina ordina carne de cervo, ma le cocina non lo ha in iste momento, e le garson suggere alternativas.

Petro: Il pare que isto es un bon restaurante.

Catherina: Si, illo pare multo bon.

Petro: E on anque pote dansar. E il ha un cabaret.

Catherina: Si, io lo ha vidite. Ma io anque ha vidite que on pote dansar solmente le venerdi e le sabbato.

Petro: Ubi ha tu vidite illo?

Catherina: Sur la porta. Illo dice "Dancing e Cabaret, le venerdi e le sabbato."

Petro: Ah, illo es regrettabile.

Catherina: Illo non importa. Le restaurante mesme es multo agradabile.

Petro: Si, ma io voleva dansar.

Catherina: Eh ben, forsan illes vos lassara dansar, si vos insiste.

Garson: Esque vos volerea ordinar immediatemente?

Catherina: Oh, io non ha potite vider un menu.

Petro: Un momento. Nos nos non es completemente preste.

Garson: Io revenira in un minuta.

Petro: Que nos vide. Que ha il que sia bon?

Catherina: Ah, carne ce cervo. Io crede que io va ordinar illo.

Petro: Io vole qualque cosa calide.

Catherina: Ah, il ha suppa de pisce, o soufflé con asparagos. Illo debe esser calide.

Petro: Si. Io crede que io va ordinar le soufflé, ma io me demanda se io va haber assatis. Io ha multe fame.

Catherina: Vos sempre pote demandar un supplemento de patatas o alique simile.

Garson: Esque vos nunc es preste a ordinar?

Catherina: Si. Io volerea un avocato con crangones.

Garson: Ben, seniora. E pro vos, senior?

Petro: Io volerea un soufflé con asparagos. Dice me un cosa: Esque le portiones es grande?

Garson: Si, senior. Illos es vermente copiose. Si vos vole, vos sempre pote ordinar un portion supplementari.

Petro: Multo ben.

Garson: E vos, seniora, que prefere vos como entrée?

Catherina: Io volerea haber le carne de cervo.

Garson: Ah, seniora, io lo regretta multo. Il non ha ulle carne de cervo in le cocina in iste momento. Ma le ove es excellente. E nos anque ha un entrée de pullo que es exceptionalmente bon.

EXERCITIO 2:

Guida: Bon. Omne iste dialogo occurreva in un restaurante. Io volerea revider un pauco lo que on dice in un restaurante. Primo, como appella on le garson?

Un femina: Garson, per favor.

Garson: Si, que vole vos, seniora.

Un femina: Ille volerea vider le menu, per favor.

Garson: Le menu, ... il ha un sur vostre tabula, seniora.

Un femina: No, illo es le carta de vinos.

Garson: Excusa me. Io va apportar a vos un menu. Ecce lo.

Un femina: Gratias.

Garson: Es que vos ha seligite alique?

Un femina: Io va prender un platto de pisca.

Garson: Multo ben, e como legumines?

Un femina: Pisos e patatas, per favor.

Garson: Pisos e patatas, multo ben. E vole vos anque un salata?

Un femina: No, gratias. Nulle salata.

Garson: Si. E como bibita?

Un femina: Un medie bottilia de vino blanc.

Guida: Io crede que io comprende illo. E al fin del repasto? Il essera necesse que illa appella le garson pro pagar.

Un femina: Garson, per favor!

Garson: Si, vos vole un dessert?

Un femina: No, nullo gratias. Io volerea le nota pro pagar.

Garson: Certemente. Le repasto vos ha placite?

Un femina: Si, illo esseva deliciose, gratias. Que es illo?

Garson: Como?

Un femina: Le dece septe euros.

Garson: Illo es le servicio, seniora.

Un femina: Io vide. Illo certemente es car!

Guida: Que nos audi lo que Catherina e Petro dice inter se post le repasto: