text:
School Science/Demonstrating the effects of amylases on starch

This experiment demonstrates the effects of heat and pH on the activity of enzymes.

Materials required
Saliva (contains amylases that break down starch), starch, iodine, test tubes, hot plate

Methods
Exact amounts should be determined by trial and error.
 * 1) Collect some saliva (no mucus) in a beaker. Conduct the experiment in test tubes or small beakers and do not put anything into your mouth to mix with saliva.
 * 2) Mix starch with water and boil until solution becomes clear. Cool. This step is necessary to homogenize the starch solution and increase the surface area of the starch for the enzymes to act on.
 * 3) Mix starch solution with a small drop of iodine. A positive reaction is indicated by a dark blue/black color.
 * 4) Mix starch solution with some saliva. Mix well. Keep at body temperature for several minutes (hold in hand). Amylases in the saliva break down the starch.
 * 5) Mix saliva/starch solution with a small drop of iodine. Reaction should be negative.

Here are some variations

 * 1) Alternative: Heat up saliva to denature the enzyme before mixing with starch solution. Iodine reaction should be positive for starch.
 * 2) Alternative: Mix saliva with acids or bases (e.g. lemon juice for safety) before mixing with starch. This can be used to demonstrate pH sensitivity of the amylase.
 * 3) Alternative: Mix saliva first with iodine. Then use the iodine/saliva mixture to test for starch. The iodine possibly inhibits the amylases in the saliva.
 * 4) Alternative: Conduct a Benedicts Test to test for simple sugars after starch solution has been treated with saliva. Benedict's test should be positive after addition with saliva. Test results are expected to be negative without addition of saliva or after heat denaturation or pH change of the saliva.

For a briefer demonstration of the enzymatic effect, hold a cracker in your mouth for 60 seconds. The amylases will break down the starch and the cracker will start to taste sweet due to the sugar produced.


text:
Talk:School Science/Demonstrating the effects of amylases on starch

Demonstrating the effects of amylases on starch authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Demonstrating the effects of amylases on starch =
 * 2005-11-03 13:31:00 User:Bluebot m (Bringing "External links" and "See also" sections in line with Manual of Style recommendations.)
 * 2005-09-30 17:16:19 User:Uncle G (Removed links to deleted articles.)
 * 2005-06-11 13:48:48 User:Fungkoonfun m
 * 2005-05-14 06:16:22 User:212.165.80.55 (→Introduction)
 * 2004-12-11 11:15:13 User:81.136.22.240 (→Methods)
 * 2004-11-27 17:49:24 User:Oliver12 (→Methods)
 * 2004-08-29 01:54:15 User:Mashford m (→Methods)
 * 2004-05-07 08:24:06 User:Oliver12 (=Methods=)
 * 2004-05-06 14:53:15 User:Oliver12 (=Methods=)
 * 2004-05-06 14:28:23 User:Oliver12

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
School Science/Creating chemical solutions

This module describes how to create various chemical solutions

Diluting Concentrated Acids
{| class="wikitable"

CAUTIONS

 * Only pour Acid Into Water , not the other way around, especially with concentrated acids.
 * Acids may quickly absorb water, which is exothermic, and can create significant heat. When acid is poured slowly into water, any heat generated should be safely and evenly dissipated in the water. However, if water is poured into acid, the water may quickly reach boiling temperature, with exploding bubbles spraying acid everywhere.

 * Dilution of concentrated acids should always be done in a fume cupboard.
 * Consider the additional Safety Notes included below for specific acids.
 * }

Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric acid can be supplied as either a 36% or 32% concentrate solution, so carefully check the bottle first.

To make a 1 molar solution (1M):

36%
Add 83.5mL of 36% hydrochloric acid to about 600mL of distilled water in a 1 litre measuring cylinder in a fume cupboard. Make up to 1L, mix well, and pour into a labelled bottle.

32%
As above, except use 96mL of hydrochloric acid.

{| class="wikitable"

Safety Notes

 * Concentrated hydrochloric acid is highly corrosive; and
 * very irritating to the lungs, wear a face shield and use a fume cupboard.
 * }

 * 1M (mole/litre) solutions and above should be labelled IRRITANT.
 * 5M solutions and above should also be labelled CORROSIVE.

Nitric Acid
Assuming the concentrated nitric acid is 70%w/v, then to make a 1M solution:

Add 62mL of concentrated nitric acid to about 700mL of water, then dilute to 1L.

{| class="wikitable"

Safety Notes
Add the acid slowly, stirring constantly with a polypropylene or glass stirring rod. If the solution gets too hot (by touch, or noticeable agitation / fuming), stop and let it cool down.
 * }

 * 0.1M (mole/litre) solutions and above should be labelled IRRITANT.
 * 1M solutions and above should also be labelled CORROSIVE.

Sulfuric acid
{| class="wikitable"

Safety Notes

 * Concentrated sulfuric acid is highly CORROSIVE, and
 * a dehydrating (drying) agent.
 * Causes severe burns. It should only be handled under close supervision by an experienced person.
 * Wear appropriate gloves.
 * Protect the eyes with safety goggles or, even better, a face shield.
 * Carcinogenic.
 * }

Slowly add 54mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to about 700mL of iced water, and dilute to 1 litre. This is a 1M solution.

 * 1M (mole/litre) solutions and above should be labelled IRRITANT.
 * 4M solutions and above should also be labelled CORROSIVE.

Ethanoic acid, also known as Acetic acid
The concentrated acid is called Glacial acetic acid as it freezes at 17°C.

{| class="wikitable"

Safety Notes

 * Glacial acetic acid is CORROSIVE, and
 * the vapour is an extreme IRRITANT.
 * Wear appropriate gloves.
 * Protect the eyes with safety goggles or, even better, a face shield.
 * Work in a fume cupboard.
 * }

To make a 1M (mole/litre) solution, add 57mL of the concentrate to about 600mL of distilled water, and dilute to 1 litre.

 * 1M (mole/litre) solutions and above should be labelled IRRITANT.
 * 4M solutions and above should also be labelled CORROSIVE.

Help! It won't dissolve
Some substances do not dissolve very readily in water and require special methods.

This dissolves very slowly in water. The best thing to do is to start making it up the day before you need it. Mix the powder into agitated water, then put into the fridge overnight. When you come back in the morning it will have dissolved. In general, starch is insoluble in water, but some types of starch, for example, corn starch will dissolve in water provided they are made into a paste first with cold water then dissolved in boiling water.
 * Sodium alginate
 * Starch

Most iron (III) salts do not form stable aqueous solutions. In order to get them to dissolve you need to add a small amount of acid. Add hydrochloric acid to the chloride, etc.
 * Iron (III) salts

Biuret reagent
This is used to test for the presence of protein. There are two recipes the first consists of two reagents Biuret A and Biuret B. For the second (Quantitative) recipe, in about 600mL of distilled water, dissolve in order 3g of copper (II) sulfate · 5H2O, 5g of potassium iodide, 9g of potassium sodium tartrate. 4H2O, and 8g of sodium hydroxide. Make the dissolved solids to 1 litre. Label the solution IRRITANT
 * A is 0.1M sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide the bottle should be labelled CORROSIVE.
 * B is 0.01M copper (II) sulfate solution

Benedict's reagent
This is used to test for reducing sugars. It has two recipes. Benedict's qualitative and Benedict's quantitative.

Benedict's Qualitative Reagent
The reagent is made up by first dissolving 173g of sodium citrate and 100g of anhydrous sodium carbonate in about 600ml of distilled water. Then 17.3g copper (II) sulfate · 5H2O is dissolved in about 100ml of distilled water. The two solutions are then mixed together and when cool are made up to 1L with distilled water.

Benedict's Quantitative Reagent
In about 600ml of hot water dissolve In about 100ml of water dissolve When the solutions have cooled, mix them together stirring constantly. Add
 * 200g of sodium citrate
 * 75g sodium carbonate
 * 125g potassium thiocyanate
 * 18g of copper (II) sulfate · 5H2O
 * 5ml of 5% potassium ferrocyanide then make up to 1L.

Iodine Solution
Iodine solution is used to test for starch. Recipes vary but 1g of iodine plus 1g of potassium iodide in 100mL water is suitable. Dissolve the iodide then the iodine.

Buffer Solutions
Buffer solutions help to keep the pH of a sample constant. Make up 0.1M citric Acid and 0.2M phosphate solutions then mix as follows,


text:
Talk:School Science/Creating chemical solutions

Creating chemical solutions authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Creating chemical solutions =
 * 2005-10-12 09:49:28 User:165.247.30.191 (fix link)
 * 2005-09-30 13:01:26 User:81.208.83.235 (→Nitric Acid)
 * 2005-09-30 13:00:28 User:81.208.83.235 (→Diluting Concentrated Acids)
 * 2005-09-10 22:21:40 User:Beland
 * 2005-09-02 12:38:59 User:Patrick m (Making up solutions moved to Creating chemical solutions)
 * 2005-09-02 07:53:40 User:212.219.108.9 (→Sulfuric acid)
 * 2005-09-02 07:48:55 User:212.219.108.9 (→Benedict's Quantitative Reagent)
 * 2005-08-16 16:24:36 User:Lerdsuwa m (→Reagents used for testing foodstuffs - link repair (You can help!))
 * 2005-08-01 21:41:40 User:142.163.254.204 (→Sulfuric acid)
 * 2004-07-08 11:39:19 User:Darrien m (Cleanup. Remove redundancy.)
 * 2004-07-08 00:20:38 User:4.20.73.206 (→Nitric Acid)
 * 2004-06-25 16:17:52 User:Darrien m (Archaic -> IUPAC. Cleanup.)
 * 2004-04-12 22:42:16 User:Darrien m (Chase Copper (II) sulfate redirects.)
 * 2004-04-06 09:28:15 User:Nilmerg m (=Benedict's Qualitative Reagent= fix link)
 * 2004-03-30 17:10:28 User:Mprounos (Volume of 100% ethanoic acid needed for 1M solution was incorrect, need 57mL for 1L not 29mL as per previous edit.)
 * 2004-01-03 08:05:56 User:Maveric149 m (removed ugly inline, self-referential and alarming  disclaimer; disclaimer already linked at bottom of every page )
 * 2003-12-20 05:17:42 User:Timwi m (Wikipedia risk disclaimer)
 * 2003-09-23 12:21:14 User:Wik
 * 2003-08-06 03:41:24 User:171.75.223.190
 * 2003-04-14 07:48:31 User:65.92.240.203 (copyedit: fixed section heading)
 * 2003-04-14 07:17:24 User:Bryan Derksen m (some formatting)
 * 2003-02-24 14:21:41 User:Theresa knott (Adding sodium citrate buffer recipes)
 * 2003-02-18 15:04:01 User:213.249.155.233
 * 2003-02-17 15:57:39 User:212.219.0.185
 * 2003-02-15 13:51:17 User:Theresa knott (adding info on benedict's reagent)
 * 2003-02-15 01:25:24 User:Adrian Kirkup m
 * 2003-02-14 21:51:23 User:Cyp (Added spelling, punctuation, corrected html)
 * 2003-02-14 16:06:28 User:Theresa knott m
 * 2003-02-14 15:28:25 User:Adrian Kirkup
 * 2003-02-14 15:02:56 User:Theresa knott (Info on iodine and biuret solutions)
 * 2003-02-14 14:18:01 User:Theresa knott m (change 3 to III)
 * 2003-02-14 14:09:48 User:Theresa knott (info on iron 3 salts [does anyone know how to add a roman numeral 3 ?])
 * 2003-02-14 14:00:49 User:Theresa knott (Addied info on nitric acid)
 * 2003-02-14 13:27:44 User:Theresa knott (Added info on sulphuric acid)
 * 2003-02-14 11:16:20 User:Theresa knott m (formatting)
 * 2003-02-14 11:13:47 User:Theresa knott (added info on starch and put lists into alphabetical order)
 * 2003-02-13 22:40:30 User:Theresa knott (changed one of the links back [Adrian check your talk page])
 * 2003-02-13 22:21:09 User:Adrian Kirkup m
 * 2003-02-13 22:19:31 User:Adrian Kirkup m
 * 2003-02-13 22:18:20 User:Adrian Kirkup
 * 2003-02-12 17:24:56 User:Patrick (1M (mole/litre) (?))
 * 2003-02-12 09:18:25 User:217.204.254.210
 * 2003-02-11 21:04:43 User:195.92.198.71 (added info on sodium alginate)
 * 2003-02-11 17:33:15 User:Cyp (Added a safety tip. Think article has a strange name, though.)
 * 2003-02-11 17:24:22 User:Cyp m (Added spelling and punctuation.)
 * 2003-02-11 17:16:33 User:217.204.254.210

Title "Making up solutions"
Hm. I kind of dislike the title of this page, because it is vastly ambiguous. On one hand, it can mean "Constructing/building a chemical solution (i.e. water plus a dissolved compound)", but on the other hand it can also mean "Coming up with bogus answers to problems". How about ... Mixing solutions? Creating chemical solutions? ... -- Timwi 05:21, 20 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Anybody who understands chemistry understands the meaning of this title.

 * I agree with Timwi, I moved it to "Creating chemical solutions".--Patrick 12:42, 2 September 2005 (UTC)

Brilliant!! I'm a lab tech and this information is very, very useful. Not always readily available on the internet if you have lost the book and you need to make a solution in a hurry-  if I get time I'll try add to it.

Solutions by volume or weight
For true novices, introducing the difference between weight and volume is important. This page has a decent introduction. ImperfectlyInformed (talk) 08:08, 24 March 2009 (UTC)


text:
Do-It-Yourself/Unclogging drains

Clogged drains can be a real nuisance. There are a few home-remedies you can try before calling a plumber.

 * Products
 * Drano
 * LiquidPlumber

 * Home-Remedies
 * Clorox
 * Baking Soda
 * Use equal amounts of vinegar and baking soda. Cover drain and let stand for at least one hour then flush with hot water till drain is clear.

 * Remedies with tools
 * Plunger
 * Hose Bladder
 * Plumbing Snake

 * Industry
 * Plumber

Products
Most people start off with a store-bought solution, which may or may not produce results. These products are typically $10-20(US) and be purchased cheapest at hardware stores.

Try using the plunger on the drain after letting it sit 15 minutes, then flushing with hot water while plunging like a crazyman. Make sure to get a good air seal on the plunger over the drain, if one is not obtained, try a bigger plunger.

Home-Remedies
Several people have reported using Clorox bleach and/or Baking Soda instead of the commercial products, yielding better results.

Another trick, which may or may not work, is to plug up all the drains in the sink with towels, and run a hose full-blast down the drain, in an effort to blow out the clog.

Remedies with tools
If the clog is between your drain and the nearest vent, a plunger can usually be used to loosen a clog, allowing it to continue down the pipe. The hope is that the next pipe is larger and thus it will not create another clog.

If a plunger doesn't work, a water bladder might. Connect the bladder onto a garden hose and insert it into the pipe/drain. When you turn the hose on the bladder will block the drain so the water will build up pressure and push the clog down the pipe. Be careful, though, if the water can find another way out, it will.

Depending on the layout of your pipes, you might be able to feed a snake into it to pull the clog out. Be careful not to damage your appliances, as most snakes are metal with a sharp point. Insert it into the pipe until you cannot push it any further. Then turn it clockwise and it will work its way through the clog. Once there is no more resistance it has breached the clog: gently pull it back and see what the clog was (wear gloves while doing this!)

Industry Professionals
If nothing else, call your local plumber.

title: Do-It-Yourself/Unclogging drains


text:
Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Unclogging drains

Clog (plumbing) authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Clog (plumbing) =
 * 2005-11-14 18:21:07 User:Uncle G (The article has been copied to Wikibooks.)
 * 2005-10-09 20:08:32 User:Rx StrangeLove m (added move to wikibooks tag as a result of AFD)
 * 2005-09-28 03:48:54 User:Bob Palin
 * 2005-09-28 03:48:22 User:Bob Palin
 * 2005-09-28 02:45:48 User:Chovy

title: Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Unclogging drains


text:
School Science/Care of living organisms

This page describes the care of living organisms in a school science laboratory, other than humans. For this, see human care.

Plants
The most common plant to be found in a school science lab is the geranium Pelargonium. They are very easy to grow and tolerate abuse well. They can be propagated from cuttings very easily. Take a section of geranium with one or two smallish leaves and leave in water for two to three weeks. When you see the roots growing, pot into sandy compost. Cuttings should be taken on a regular basis to replace old plants, which tend to become woody and unattractive after a couple of years laboratory abuse.

Geraniums are good for the following experiments:

 * Testing leaves for starch
 * Nail varnish impressions of stomata

Fish pond water
A good species of fish to keep is the goldfish as they can thrive in cold water. They come in a variety of fancy forms that are quite beautiful. Be careful that you don't keep fancy goldfish in the same tank as regular ones because ordinary goldfish can swim much faster than fancy ones and will kill them. Furthermore, ordinary goldfish have a bigger diet and are constantly digging food out of the gravel.

Water snails (Limnaea and others) can be purchased in the UK from a number of suppliers including Blades Biological. You can easily obtain snails from garden ponds and clean canals, or from many pet shops which stock fish. They help to keep a cold water fish tank clean and free of algae. They can be used to investigate respiration and the carbon cycle.

Stick insects
Stick insects come in a variety of species and by and large are very easy to keep. Beware some species of stick insect reproduce asexually and you will be overrun with little stick insects unless you remove the eggs. They typically live for about 18 months, and, depending on the species, feed on brambles or privet.

Woodlice
Start your own breeding tank: the best way to get woodlice at all times of the year (and no need to go searching under stones if ordered at the last minute). Use a large opaque plastic box with a lid; about 3-5cms of fine soil in the bottom; a couple of lumps of chalk; some clumps of damp cotton wool; a source of food, for example celery, potato, leaves.

According to which type and age range of woodlice you start with they should start breeding within a few weeks or months, although some can take up to two years to reach breeding age. If planning to be used for detailed investigation, only put one species in the tank, unless you want a selection of offspring.

Daphnia
Culture Daphnia (Water flea) or Cladoceran in an aerated aquarium filled with freshwater. Allow the water to stand for 24 hours to equilibrate dissolved gases.

Make a suspension of yeast in water, and pipette enough into the aquarium to just give the water a milky tinge. Introduce the Daphnia. When they clear the yeast from the tank, add a similar amount. If the tank is left in daylight, algae can grow on the sunlit side. This can be scraped off and broken up, and added to the diet of yeast. Be sure to change the water completely once a month.

One interesting, if slightly morbid way of cleaning 'green' tropical fish tanks of algae is to remove the fish into a second tank (being sure the second tank is well circulated and set at the appropriate parameters similar to that of the original tank) and add Daphnia to the algal soup. After a couple of weeks, when the Daphnia have eaten the algae, re-introduce the fish. This is also a good demonstration of a food chain in action.

title: School Science/Care of living organisms


text:
Talk:School Science/Care of living organisms

Care of living organisms authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Care of living organisms =
 * 2005-11-14 18:25:06 User:Uncle G (The article has been copied to Wikibooks.)
 * 2005-09-10 22:46:01 User:Beland
 * 2005-06-13 00:07:34 User:Mysekurity (→Fish pond water - missing period (you can help!))
 * 2005-03-24 05:14:34 User:Xanzzibar m (→Fish pond water)
 * 2005-01-31 10:02:22 User:193.145.201.53
 * 2005-01-22 21:40:19 User:66.81.56.214
 * 2004-09-03 02:27:06 User:Ta bu shi da yu (→Animals)
 * 2004-08-14 01:28:46 User:RedWolf m (disambiguation: egg)
 * 2004-04-21 23:12:59 User:66.159.215.95 (inappropriate link removed)
 * 2004-03-29 23:11:33 User:Delta G m (=Daphnia= wikilink)
 * 2004-01-29 07:25:17 User:Fabiform m (typo)
 * 2003-11-25 20:52:37 User:Mainguyen (I've changed cladoceran, freshwater, be sure to,good)
 * 2003-11-25 20:48:10 User:Phle96 (thrive, are, furthermore, ordinary goldfish have a bigger diet and are constantly digging food out of the gravel.)
 * 2003-11-25 20:34:40 User:Phle96 m (being sure the second tank is well circulated and set at the appropriate parameters similar to that of the original tank)
 * 2003-11-25 02:21:51 User:Mainguyen
 * 2003-05-19 14:23:18 User:Theresa knott m (fixied some links)
 * 2003-05-19 14:16:55 User:Patrick
 * 2003-03-17 08:46:33 User:Theresa knott m
 * 2003-02-27 20:42:01 User:Theresa knott m
 * 2003-02-27 16:05:37 User:Adrian Kirkup
 * 2003-02-13 20:50:49 User:62.254.128.6
 * 2003-02-13 12:54:48 User:Theresa knott m (added links)
 * 2003-02-13 12:14:24 User:213.249.155.235
 * 2003-02-13 11:47:43 User:195.194.47.240
 * 2003-02-12 10:46:54 User:160.9.128.23
 * 2003-02-11 22:24:48 User:195.92.198.74
 * 2003-02-11 20:34:14 User:195.92.198.75 (started adding content to page)
 * 2003-02-11 17:25:56 User:62.3.68.170
 * 2003-02-11 17:22:13 User:217.204.254.210
 * 2003-02-11 17:21:30 User:217.204.254.210


text:
School Science/Cannon fire

Cannon fire is an audio experiment that produces a series of crackles and bangs like gunfire. The noises are produced by hydrogen peroxide and potassium manganate(VII) reacting to produce oxygen which increases the rate of burning of the ethanol.

Safety

 * Wear eye protection / full face shield
 * Remove any concentrated sulfuric acid from the area when using potassium manganate(VII)
 * Avoid inhaling any vapour produced
 * Be aware of the pale blue / invisible flame that is produced by the burning ethanol

Required

 * Heatproof surface
 * Large evaporating basin or metal plate
 * Safety screens
 * Splints
 * Hydrogen peroxide (20%)
 * 0.5 g potassium manganate(VII)
 * Ethanol

Method

 * 1) Place 30 cm3 hydrogen peroxide and 20 cm3 ethanol into the basin
 * 2) Surround the basin with screens and light the mixture with the splint. The ethanol will burn with a pale blue or invisible flame
 * 3) Sprinkle 0.5 g of potassium manganate(VII) into the dish

title: School Science/Cannon fire


text:
Talk:School Science/Cannon fire

Cannon fire authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Cannon fire = You can't tell much from the title. I have noticed various "high school" experriments appear recently. Should they all be named something like "High school experriment: cannon fire"? -- Chris Q 12:25 Feb 13, 2003 (UTC)
 * 2005-10-12 09:50:45 User:165.247.30.191 (fix link)
 * 2005-09-10 22:32:10 User:Beland
 * 2005-05-27 10:28:01 User:BjKa (3 content edits (some guessing involved!), 2 links, 4 typos)
 * 2004-11-15 18:38:01 User:69.133.230.184 (→Required)
 * 2003-07-25 18:31:54 User:Angela m (bold title word)
 * 2003-02-14 17:33:25 User:Cferrero m (typos)
 * 2003-02-14 17:27:45 User:Theresa knott m (Addin a link)
 * 2003-02-13 15:16:52 User:Timo Honkasalo m
 * 2003-02-13 12:14:43 User:Rbrwr m (no need for =HEADING= at top, then ==Mixed case==)
 * 2003-02-13 12:10:42 User:Susan oliver
 * 2003-02-13 12:10:14 User:Susan oliver
 * 2003-02-13 12:02:52 User:Susan oliver
 * 2003-02-13 11:57:08 User:Susan oliver
 * That's a reasonable idea, but not everyone uses the term high school. Perhaps 'School science experiment- bla bla bla' would be better. Theresa knott

title: Talk:School Science/Cannon fire


text:
Do-It-Yourself/Campfire

A campfire is a fire lit at a campsite, usually in a fire ring. Campfires are a popular feature of camping, particularly among organized campers such as Scouts, Guides or Royal Rangers. Without proper precautions they are also potentially dangerous. A certain degree of skill is needed to properly build a campfire, to keep it going, and to see that it is properly extinguished.

The dangers
A campfire may burn out of control in two basic ways: on the ground or in the trees. Dead leaves or pine needles on the ground may ignite from direct contact with burning wood, or from thermal radiation. Alternatively, airborne embers (or their smaller kin, sparks) may ignite dead material in overhanging branches. This latter threat is less likely, but a fire in a branch will be virtually impossible to put out without firefighting equipment, and may spread more quickly than a ground fire.

Embers may simply fall off of logs and be carried away by the air, or they may be ejected at high speed by exploding pockets of sap. With these dangers in mind, some places prohibit all open fires, particularly during times of the year that are prone to wildfires.

Campfires are prohibited in many public camping areas. Public areas with large tracts of woodland usually have signs indicating the level of fire danger, which usually depends on recent rain and the amount of deadfalls or dry debris; when the danger is highest, all open fires are prohibited. Even in safer times, it is common to require registration and permits to build a campfire. Such areas are often kept under observation by rangers, who will dispatch someone to investigate any unidentified plume of smoke.

Finding a site, and other safety measures
Ideally, every fire should be lit in a fire ring. If a fire ring is not available, a temporary fire site may be constructed. One way is to cover the ground with sand, or other soil mostly free of flammable organic material, to a depth of a few centimeters. The area of sand should be large enough to safely contain the fire and any pieces of burning wood that may fall out of it. Sand piles should be scattered after the fire has been put out. If the topsoil is moist, it may suffice to simply clear it of any dead plant matter. Fire rings, however, do not fully protect material on the ground from catching fire. Flying embers are still a threat, and the fire ring may become hot enough to ignite material in contact with it.

No fire should be lit close to trees, tents or other fire hazards. This includes overhanging branches; some carry dead, dry material that can ignite from a single airborne ember. In addition, a fire may harm any roots under it, even if they are protected by a thin layer of soil. Conifers run a greater risk of root damage, because they lack taproots and their roots run close to the surface.

Fires also should not be lit on bare rocks. The ash will leave a black stain that cannot be easily removed, but the fire's heat can lead to more dramatic consequences. It will cause the outer layer of the rock to expand, possibly causing it to crack. It may also boil pockets of water contained in the rock.

An additional safety measure is to have sand and water on hand to smother and douse the fire if it does get out of the fire pit. It is wise to gather these materials before they are actually needed.

Types of fuel
There are, by conventional classification, three types of material involved in building a fire without manufactured fuels.
 * Tinder is anything that can be lit with a match. The best natural tinder is dead, dry pine needles or grass; a more comprehensive list is given in the article on tinder. A quantity of tinder sufficient to fill one's cupped hands to the top is the bare minimum needed.
 * Kindling is an arbitrary classification including anything bigger than tinder but smaller than fuelwood. In fact, there are gradations of kindling, from sticks thinner than a finger to those as thick as a wrist. A quantity of kindling sufficient to fill a hat may be enough, but more is better.
 * Fuelwood ranges from small logs two or three inches across to larger logs that can burn for hours. It is typically impossible to gather without a hatchet or other cutting tool, so fuelwood must usually be brought from home or purchased at a nearby store.

The gathering of fuel in natural areas is often restricted. Cutting of living trees is almost always forbidden - but neither is it very useful, because sap-filled wood does not burn well. Squaw wood (dead parts of standing trees) may also be prohibited. Wood lying on the ground is usually permitted.

Building the fire
Having found a suitable site and gathered materials, the fire-builder has a variety of designs to choose from. A good design is very important in the early stages of a fire. Most of them make no mention of fuelwood - in most designs, fuelwood is never placed on a fire until the kindling is burning strongly.

The tipi fire-build is perhaps the best, but it is takes some patience to construct. First, the tinder is piled up in a compact heap. The smaller kindling is arranged around it, like the poles of a tipi. For added strength, it may be possible to lash some of the sticks together. A tripod lashing is quite difficult to execute with small sticks, so a clove hitch should suffice. (Synthetic rope should be avoided, since it produces pollutants when it burns.) Then the larger kindling is arranged above the smaller kindling, taking care not to collapse the tipi. A separate tipi as a shell around the first one may work better.

A lean-to fire-build starts with the same pile of tinder as the tipi fire-build. Then, a long, thick piece of kindling is driven into the ground at an angle, so that it overhangs the tinder pile. The smaller pieces of kindling are leaned against the big stick so that the tinder is enclosed between them.

A log cabin fire-build likewise begins with a tinder pile. The kindling is then stacked around it, as in the construction of a log cabin. The first two kindling sticks are laid parallel to each other, on opposite sides of the tinder pile. The second pair is laid on top of the first, at right angles to it, and also on opposite sides of the tinder. More kindling is added in the same manner. The smallest kindling is placed over the top of the assembly. Of all the fire-builds, the log cabin is the least vulnerable to premature collapse, but it is also inefficient, because it makes the worst use of convection to ignite progressively larger pieces of fuel.

A variation on the log cabin starts with two pieces of fuelwood with a pile of tinder between them, and small kindling laid over the tops of the logs, above the tinder. The tinder is lit, and the kindling is allowed to catch fire. When it is burning briskly, it is broken and pushed down into the consumed tinder, and the larger kindling is placed over the top of the logs. When that is burning well, it is also pushed down. Eventually, a pile of kindling should be burning between two pieces of fuelwood. The logs will eventually catch fire from it. Another variation is called the funeral pyre method because it is used for building funeral pyres. Its main difference from the standard log cabin is that it starts with thin pieces and moves up to thick pieces. If built on a large scale, this type of fire-build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the air flow.

The traditional Finnish rakovalkea (literally "slit bonfire") is constructed by placing one long piece of fuelwood atop another, parallel and bolstering them in place with four sturdy posts driven into the ground. (Traditionally, whole unsplit tree trunks are used for the fuelwood.) Kindling and tinder are placed between the logs in sufficient quantity (while avoiding the very ends) to raise the upper log and allow ventilation. The tinder is always lit at the center so the bolstering posts don't burn prematurely. The rakovalkea has two excellent features. First, it burns slowly but steadily when lit; it doesn't require arduous maintenance, but burns for a very long time. A well constructed rakovalkea of two thick logs of two meters in length can warm two lean-to shelters for a whole sleeping shift. The construction means that the logs themselves act as wind-cover! Thus, exposure to smoke is unlikely for the sleepers; nevertheless someone should always watch in case of an emergency. Second, it can be easily scaled to larger sizes (for a feast) limited only by the length of available tree trunks.

Lighting the fire
Once the fire is built, the next step is to light the tinder, using either a match or a lighter. A reasonably skillful fire-builder using reasonably good material will only need one match. The tinder will burn brightly, but be reduced to glowing embers within half a minute. If the kindling does not catch fire, the fire-builder must gather more tinder, determine what went wrong and try to fix it.

One of five problems can prevent a fire from lighting properly: wet wood, wet weather, too little tinder, too much wind, or a lack of oxygen. Rain will, of course, douse a fire, but a combination of wind and fog also has a stifling effect. Metal fire rings generally do a good job of keeping out wind, but some of them are so high as to impede the circulation of oxygen in a small fire. To make matters worse, these tall fire rings also make it very difficult to blow on the fire properly.

Steady, forceful blowing may be in order for a small fire in an enclosed space that has mysteriously slowed down, but blowing may extinguish a fire if it is done abruptly or when it is not needed. Most large fires easily create their own circulation, even in unfavorable conditions, but the variant log-cabin fire-build suffers from a chronic lack of air so long as the initial structure is maintained.

Once the large kindling is burning, all of the kindling should be put on the fire, save for one piece at least a foot long. This piece is useful later to push pieces of fuelwood where they are needed. Once all of the kindling is burning, the fuelwood should be placed on top of it (unless, as in the rakovalkea fire-build, it is already there). For best results, two or more pieces of fuelwood should be leaned against each other, as in the tipi fire-build.

Without matches
There are several ways to light a fire without any matches. All of them work with only the lightest and most flammable tinder, such as paper.

On a sunny day, a lens may be used to focus the light onto the tinder. The most suitable lenses are magnifying glasses (included in some compasses), but eyeglasses may also suffice.

The "bow and drill" method is also well-known, but it is a lot of work. The bow is similar to that used for archery. To make such a bow, find a thin rope or flexible but sturdy vine, and a sturdy stick about two feet long. Tie the rope to one end of the stick, and make another knot on the other end of the stick, with the rope between the ends not quite taut. The drill is another straight stick, thin but strong, preferably stripped of bark and with a sharpened end. The center of the bowstring (rope) is wrapped around the drill, with the two sticks at right angles to each other. The end of the drill is placed on a piece of bark in the middle of the tinder. The bow is moved rapidly back and forth to rotate the drill and create heat and friction on the bark. This method works best with an assistant feeding the tinder to the hot spot.

The crudest method of igniting a fire is to strike two hard objects (at least one of them combustible) together to produce a spark, and ignite tinder from the spark. The substances traditionally used to produce sparks are flint and either steel or pyrite. Replacing the steel with ferrocerium (lighter "flint") produces more sparks with less effort. Rotting wood (punkwood) or charred fuel are sometimes used as tinder when using this method.

Campfire activities

Campfires have been used for cooking since time immemorial. However, portable stoves have all but replaced campfires in this regard. For cooking information, see cooking on a campfire. Other practical, though not commonly needed, applications for campfires include drying wet clothing, alleviating hypothermia and use as a distress signal.

Most campfires, though, are lit exclusively for recreation. People tend to find something fascinating about flames and glowing coals, so a campfire is usually an agreeable way to pass the time from dusk to bedtime, particularly for those in a pensive mood. Campfires are also good venues for intimate conversation and storytelling; yarns and stories about poltergeists are particularly popular.

Another traditional campfire activity involves impaling marshmallows on sticks or uncoiled coat hangers, and roasting them over the fire. Roasted marshmallows may also be used for S'mores.

Extinguishing the fire
Leaving a fire unattended is dangerous! Any number of accidents might occur in the absence of people, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Ash is a very good insulator, so embers left overnight will only lose a fraction of their heat.

Large amounts of water are indispensable for extinguishing a fire. To properly cool a fire, water should be poured on all the embers, including places that are not glowing red. The water will boil violently and carry ash in the air with it, dirtying anything nearby but not posing a safety hazard. The water should be poured until the hissing noises stop. Then the ashes should be stirred with a stick to make sure that the water has penetrated all the layers; if the hissing continues, more water should be added. A fire is fully extinguished if the ashes are cool to the touch.

If water is scarce, sand may be used. The sand will deprive the fire of oxygen quite well, but it is much less effective than water at absorbing heat. Once the fire has been covered thoroughly with sand, all water that can be spared should be poured on it, and the sand stirred into the ash.

Finally, in lightly-used wilderness areas, it is best to replace anything that was moved while preparing the fire site, and scatter anything that was gathered, so that it looks as natural as possible.

&

title: Do-It-Yourself/Campfire


text:
Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Campfire

Campfire authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Campfire =
 * 2005-11-11 23:09:59 User:Smack (→Finding a site, and other safety measures - more about bursting rocks)
 * 2005-11-04 11:00:18 User:Alan Parmenter (→Finding a site, and other safety measures)
 * 2005-09-26 18:12:49 User:WikidSmaht
 * 2005-09-25 06:51:49 User:Fir0002 (→Campfire activities - added photo)
 * 2005-09-11 20:46:33 User:Smack (moving wikibooks template to top, as it applies to several sections)
 * 2005-09-10 22:24:22 User:Beland (→Building the fire - )
 * 2005-09-02 16:15:37 User:Smack (moving new image down the page)
 * 2005-09-02 08:56:51 User:Dirk Beyer (+ pict, captions)
 * 2005-07-26 10:17:02 User:Pappa m (Category:Primitive technology)
 * 2005-07-09 04:57:14 User:Smack (→External links - making the link more specific)
 * 2005-07-08 05:49:17 User:24.87.241.96
 * 2005-07-03 00:40:50 User:Smack m (→Types of fuel - might as well be consistent)
 * 2005-07-02 18:55:53 User:217.121.144.89
 * 2005-06-14 03:23:14 User:Smack (misc changes)
 * 2005-06-14 01:21:55 User:24.60.154.151 (→Extinguishing the fire)
 * 2005-06-02 05:35:01 User:Smack (moving tinder information to new page)
 * 2005-05-31 22:25:44 User:Polyparadigm (→Without matches - notes on spark method)
 * 2005-05-01 03:59:30 User:Smack m (making - →Without matches -  a subsection)
 * 2004-12-17 14:30:44 User:12.111.23.5 (→Without matches - Removed reference to "tampons")
 * 2004-12-08 16:58:41 User:Selphie m
 * 2004-11-17 06:33:16 User:Smack m (reinstating 'and')
 * 2004-11-17 00:03:56 User:62.255.64.4 (→Types of fuel)
 * 2004-10-19 03:51:52 User:Korath m (→Related topics - rm circular redirect)
 * 2004-10-18 15:10:37 User:Wayland (Categories)
 * 2004-10-17 17:27:29 User:Wayland (Category:Procedural knowledge)
 * 2004-10-01 21:21:22 User:Robbot m (Andre Engels - robot  Adding:de)
 * 2004-09-15 18:19:19 User:Finn-Zoltan m (→Campfire activities)
 * 2004-09-10 08:11:17 User:Selphie m (changed "girl scouts" to "guirl guides" (two different things))
 * 2004-09-10 07:57:36 User:Evil saltine
 * 2004-07-22 09:39:02 User:Foobar (no one sells beryllium as a firestarter)
 * 2004-06-14 09:45:29 User:Heron m (→Building the fire - atop each other -> one atop the other)
 * 2004-05-28 12:47:48 User:The MoUsY spell-checker m
 * 2004-05-06 21:33:01 User:Justanyone m (wikify log cabin)
 * 2004-04-18 06:32:59 User:Telso m (=Building the fire=)
 * 2004-04-18 06:03:00 User:Carbuncle m (+ja:)
 * 2004-04-03 23:35:02 User:Smack (merging info from flint and steel fire)
 * 2004-03-14 21:20:17 User:Benji Franklyn m
 * 2004-03-14 21:15:36 User:Benji Franklyn m
 * 2004-03-14 21:11:25 User:Benji Franklyn (Amend text)
 * 2004-02-21 13:15:23 User:Wayland (added link to flint and steel fire)
 * 2004-02-12 22:50:41 User:68.88.64.121
 * 2003-11-16 03:05:57 User:Naddy m (typo)
 * 2003-10-11 19:00:25 User:Robbot m (Robot-assisted disambiguation Grass)
 * 2003-09-29 01:50:32 User:Guppy m
 * 2003-09-29 01:49:33 User:Guppy m (wikify S'more)
 * 2003-09-17 20:02:19 User:Heron m (typo)
 * 2003-09-17 19:58:21 User:Heron m (sp)
 * 2003-08-24 07:19:10 User:64.170.110.218
 * 2003-07-17 03:16:34 User:Smack m (changing headings)
 * 2003-07-17 03:15:44 User:Smack m
 * 2003-07-17 03:11:36 User:Smack m (rm how to light a fire)
 * 2003-07-17 03:11:04 User:Smack (merging how to light a campfire)
 * 2003-07-05 03:36:07 User:Smack (moving information to cooking on a campfire; adding new info)
 * 2003-06-30 11:48:41 User:Patrick m
 * 2003-06-30 07:13:07 User:Smack (moving information to how to light a fire)
 * 2003-05-16 16:26:16 User:Frecklefoot m (fixed link, added links)
 * 2003-02-23 17:05:53 User:Ortolan88 (the voice of long experience )

Talk moved from How to light a fire upon merging
As well as the three methods of building a fire which the author describes, I would add a fourth, which I would call the funeral pyre method. This is because this is the method used for building funeral pyres.

The method is to lay layers of equal sized kindling laid horizontally. Each subsequent layer is laid horizontally but at 90 degrees to the previous layer. Most importantly, the space between the kindling pieces must be at least as much as the width of the kindling in that layer. As the layers build larger kindling is used. This type of fire build collapses in a controlled manner without restricting the air flow.

Contributed by Andrew Ballantine andrewballantine@btconnect.com

I propose merging back into campfire. This article is:
 * 1) not specifically about lighting campfires, but also building them, finding places to build them, etc
 * 2) not generally about fires, but specifically about campfires

I also think that the advice should be attributed to specific organisations - it will sound more authoritative that way. Martin 17:39 5 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * Hm. I actually started writing this article before I ever looked at campfire - I don't exactly remember why.  I guess it's a good idea.  The second paragraph of campfire would be merged into the section on safety, and the final paragraph would become a new section titled Campfire activities or something to that effect.  I want to get someone else's input before I go through with the merge, though.
 * What advice are you talking about exactly? -Smack 17:45 5 Jul 2003 (UTC)

Things like "Do not leave a fire burning unattended!". Now, I'm sure this is good advice, but it sounds like my encyclopedia is telling me what to do! I'd rather have something like:

 * Unattended campfires cause 15,365 casualties a year, worldwide. The Association of Campers and Caravaners gives this advice:

 * "Do not leave a fire burning unattended! Any number of accidents might occur in your absence, blah blah blah, leading to property damage, personal injury or possibly a wildfire. Blah blah blah. Pour water on all the embers, and continue pouring until the hissing noises stop. Blah blah blah.". [link]

It's not bad as is... I just think it would be better like that. Up to you, though. Martin 21:19 5 Jul 2003 (UTC)

 * This goes back to the unresolved dispute of Wikipedia talk:How-to articles, but I think you're right. I won't bother looking up an authoritative quotation, but a partial de-mandatification is in order. -Smack 04:08 6 Jul 2003 (UTC)

I've begun a full conversion to the declarative mood in preparation for merging this back into campfire. -Smack 19:42 15 Jul 2003 (UTC)

We learned how to make a campfire in Girl Scouts. First, your tiny candy kindling goes in a pile. Very flammable candy like spicy Jolly Ranchers or Hot Tamales are best, because you want to use something that will burn for a long time. A few mini marshmallow firelighters won't hurt either.

Next, you make a little pile of all your pretzel sticks around the kindling. The perfectionistic eight-year-old will balance them together the way she imagines a teepee to look. That's the tinder.

Before you're allowed to eat it, you have to take a tiny pretzel stick, strike it on the table, and carefully reach inside to light it. If you have a really gung-ho troop leader, they may make you light it by rubbing two little pretzels together. Presumably the rock salt is flammable.

The nice thing about the teepee or cone style of pyro-architecture is that as the kindling inside burns, the pretzels will fall inward toward the jolly ranchers and catch on fire, or burn more, depending.

Some anonymous individual has removed the reference to toilet paper and tampons as excellent tinder. I'm not responsible for its insertion into the article, but I would like to know exactly what is wrong with it.

title: Talk:Do-It-Yourself/Campfire


text:
Cookbook:Bread Making

French Style Baking

 * The French are renowned for their artisan breads. By using the four basic ingredients of water, flour, yeast, and salt, the French have mastered the art of creating complex breads that vary widely, despite the fact that each loaf contains the same ingredients. French law dictates that for “French” style breads, only the four above-mentioned ingredients may be used, along with ascorbic acid and rye flour.  By manipulating rising times, kneading techniques, and with the use of speciality brick ovens, the French breads are as varied and unique as the regions in France.

Flour

 * The most common flour used in baking is wheat-based, which contains proteins that, when agitated in the presence of water, form gluten. Gluten is a stretchy protein structure that holds in the bubbles made by leaveners (such as yeast or baking powder). Flours are graded by the amount of protein — in the United States, high gluten is 12-14%, while the standard bread flour contains 10-13% protein. All-purpose flour has a protein content of 9-12%, and pastry flour, used primarily for baking, is a softer flour with a protein content of about 9-10%. In Europe, the flour generally contains a lower protein content than that found in American bread flour, which necessitates longer mixing times and additions to the flour, such as ascorbic acid (a form of vitamin C, which gives the dough tenacity for better rising).

Water

 * Many bakers prefer to use filtered water. Tap water that contains any traces of chlorine should not be used because the chlorine can kill the yeast.

Yeast

 * Two basic kinds of yeast are used in bread making: commercial yeast and natural yeast, which is the kind of yeast contained in sourdoughs. The two most common types of commercial yeast are compressed, also called cake yeast, and dry yeasts of which there are several forms. Active dry yeast must first be “proofed” to activate it prior to adding it to the flour and water: it is soaked in a small amount of water between 90-110F or 32-43C for approximately ten minutes. Sugar can be added to help the yeast “feed” and proof faster.  Instant dry yeast may be mixed into flour before adding water.

 * Natural yeast is trickier to work with, and it must be kept in controlled environments. By combining flour and water and allowing it to sit, the mixture will pick up natural yeasts in the air that will ferment to create more yeast. With repeated stirring and additions of flour and water, the mixture will become a sourdough. The sourness of the dough comes from a bacterial culture that lives alongside the natural yeast, typically a lactobacilli strain, most famously "Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis", as in the famous San Francisco sourdough.

 * Professional dough conditioners are available to enhance the environment for the yeast.

Salt

 * Salt serves a more important function than just providing flavor; it also controls the fermentation of the yeast. Too much salt and the yeast action will be retarded; too little salt, and the dough will not entrap enough carbonic gases to form a strong texture. Certain breads, such as Italian ciabattas, do not traditionally contain salt, but the majority of breads do.

title: Cookbook:Bread Making


text:
Cookbook talk:Bread Making

Bread Making authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Bread Making = "Yeast is soaked in a small amount of water between 90-110 degrees for approximately ten minutes." 90-110 Celsius degrees would definitely kill the yeast so I will change it to "90-110F or 32-43C". Someone probably knows a better way of saying this.
 * 2005-10-09 20:02:24 User:84.109.71.28 (, assuming this is not copyrighted; otherwise, delete)
 * 2005-09-29 20:02:04 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bibliography)
 * 2005-09-29 19:57:38 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 19:49:50 User:129.65.177.87 (→Recipes)
 * 2005-09-29 19:47:41 User:129.65.177.87 (→Recipes)
 * 2005-09-29 19:42:20 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bibliography)
 * 2005-09-29 19:35:48 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 19:33:20 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 19:23:49 User:129.65.177.87 (→French Stlye Baking)
 * 2005-09-29 19:23:20 User:129.65.177.87 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 18:10:09 User:65.169.45.251 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 17:54:56 User:65.169.45.251 (→Bread Making)
 * 2005-09-29 17:48:21 User:65.169.45.251
 * 2005-09-29 17:46:29 User:Jossifresco (Bread Making moved to Bread making: cap)

Suggest merge
I'd like to suggest that this page be merged with Cookbook:Bread. Cookbook:Bread contains similar information, and anything that's missing can be added from this page. I also think that the recipes from this page should be moved to their own pages, and then links to them can be added on the Cookbook:Bread_Recipes page. What do other people think? Wikidsoup (talk) 00:22, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree. I don't think the recipe fits in the context of the discussion of the article. The recipe should, however, be saved somewhere. Gzuufy (discuss • contribs) 02:00, 7 November 2014 (UTC)

biscuit recipe
I'd suggest moving the biscuit recipe because it does not belong here. Also, if this page is only going to talk about yeast bread recipes, it should not have a quick bread recipe on it.

title: Cookbook talk:Bread Making


text:
Beekeeping/Leading practices

Beekeeping is an inherently local process. What works best for one beekeeper will often fail for another because of even minor differences in climate, forage, or the traits of his sub-race of bees. Also, the needs and goals of the hobbyist beekeeper will be very different from the needs and goals of the commercial beekeeper. Nevertheless, some generally established leading practices for beekeeping exist that have wide relevance.

As with anything in Wikipedia, this information is not guaranteed (See the General disclaimer). This articles' talk page is open to civil discussion.

Explanation of categories
The practices on this page are sorted by "Generally Accepted" vs. "Controversial or Emerging" practices and within those categories by the most likely audience - "All", "Hobbyist" or "Commercial" beekeepers. So far, no leading practices have been identified that are uniquely appropriate to the Sideliner beekeeper.

All beekeepers

 * Treat for disease only as needed: Over-use or inappropriate use of medications to treat disease or pests will lead to increased resistance to the medication.

 * Label honey with place of origin: Honey, like wine, picks up unique flavors from the flowers and nectars in the local environment. Each varietal will have a distinct taste and mouthfeel. Labeling your honey with place of origin can distinguish it from mass-market blended honeys which have lost that unique flavor and aid in determining its composition if you wish to attempt to recreate it.

 * Storing pollen: To store pollen for feeding the next spring, freeze it in sealable plastic bags.

 * Track Growing Degree Days: Growing degree days can reliably predict the time from last frost to bloom for each of the major nectar sources in the area of your beehives. This can enable more effective supering and, in some cases, better planning for pest control.

Hobbyist beekeepers

 * Re-queen annually: There are many benefits to annual re-queening (some of which are still disputed), but the most relevant benefit to the hobbyist beekeeper is that a young queen (<13 months) emits stronger pheromones and therefore hives with young queens rarely swarm. Since hobbyists often keep hives in residential areas with non-beekeeper neighbors, swarm control is a high priority.

 * Some beekeepers believe that it is better to requeen in the Fall, for several reasons:
 * Purchased queens are more available to amateur beekeepers in the Fall; there is a high demand by commercial beekeepers for Spring pollination tasks and queens may thus not be available until relatively late, perhaps after a first year queen has swarmed, taking away a large portion of the colony.
 * If the colony is fed at an appropriate interval before the Spring nectar flow the hive will be strong and ready for production as the young queen will be a better layer of eggs than a queen installed in the previous Spring and far less likely to swarm in the Spring, with appropriate hive management used to reduce the probability of Summer swarming.

 * Inspect often: Inspecting your beehive is an important way to learn about bees, bee behavior, etc. Frequent inspections will expose you to more types of behaviors and help you learn more quickly.  The trade-off in lost honey production is generally worth the educational value. Note that you should be careful in timing inspection to prevent chilled brood.

 * Elevate the hive: Placing the hive on a stand about 45 cm (18 inches) high can significantly reduce back strain. It will also deter some predators such as skunks by forcing them to expose less protected underbellies to the bees' stings. Caution: Do not make the stand so high that you will have difficulty removing the full honey supers from the top of the hive.

Commercial beekeepers

 * Standardize your equipment: Standardized equipment will make it easier to interchange hive parts, frames, etc. between hives as needed.

 * Inspect only when necessary: Inspecting beehives disrupts the bees, kills some, and takes time and labor. It has been estimated that each inspection is the equivalent of reducing the bees' productive time by 3 to 7 days.

All beekeepers

 * Food Grade Mineral Oil as a miticide: Recent research by Dr. Pedro Rodriguez and others has suggested that a Food Grade Mineral Oil (FGMO) vapor fogged into the hive can be an effecitive miticide. The vapor droplets are sized to interfere with the mites' respiration without affecting the respiratory apparatus of the larger bees. Research continues in order to improve the consistency of results and improve the cost-effectiveness of treatment.

 * Do not provide honey as a supplemental feed: Many beekeepers provide supplemental feed for bees to get through periods of drought or harsh winter. The optimal solution is to leave enough honey on the hive for the colony to survive the winter. When that is not possible, most beekeepers provide sugar water as a supplement for two reasons:

 * 1) Honey contains small levels of material that is indigestible to the bees. During a long winter when the bees are confined to the hive and can not leave to void themselves, this can lead to honeybee dysentery.
 * 2) Honey from another hive may be contaminated with American Foulbrood spores. While AFB is harmless to humans and hence may be included with honey, it is an extremely serious disease for honeybees, frequently requiring the whole hive to be torched to prevent the spread of it.

Hobbyist beekeepers

 * Start with two hives: By starting with two colonies, the beginning beekeeper can compare bee behavior and more rapidly learn what makes a difference and what is random variation. Two hives also increases the odds that at least one hive will survive the winter and lets you split your hive and repopulate when or if one of the colonies dies.

 * Consider top-bar hives: The (old) conventional wisdom discourages top-bar hives for beginners, yet the simplicity, low cost, and ease of use are distinct advantantages when learning beekeeping. An advantage of this type of hive is the ease with which it may be completely inspected with minimal disturbance of the bees.

Commercial beekeepers

 * Use first-generation Africanized Queens: For pollination beekeepers in areas with africanized bees such as Mexico an emerging practice is to locally raise and wild breed queens, but using only a purchased, pre-inseminated non-africanized queen to produce queens. It appears that these first generation africanized queens do not exhibit the extreme and massive defensiveness of subsequent generations.

title: Beekeeping/Leading practices


text:
Talk:Beekeeping/Leading practices

Beekeeping leading practices authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Beekeeping leading practices =
 * 2005-10-14 00:40:27 User:Evilphoenix m (rvv)
 * 2005-10-14 00:40:00 User:141.153.212.205
 * 2005-09-27 02:42:06 User:Shoefly (→All beekeepers)
 * 2005-09-26 17:29:25 User:WikidSmaht
 * 2005-08-27 05:34:45 User:69.142.2.68 (Fix spelling and add wikibooks suggestion, on talk page...)
 * 2005-08-27 05:30:27 User:69.142.2.68 (Add chilled brood and did some work on honey feeding. Also emphasize AFB severity.)
 * 2005-08-27 05:24:25 User:69.142.2.68 (Expand on labeling)
 * 2005-08-27 05:21:49 User:69.142.2.68 (Slight re-writing, see talk page)
 * 2005-08-16 04:35:01 User:Leonard G. (→See also - now using template)
 * 2005-05-16 01:46:24 User:Rhombus (→Hobbyist beekeepers - no, it's "feeded.")
 * 2005-04-27 03:20:51 User:Pugdog m (→Hobbyist beekeepers - grammer fix, omitted word)
 * 2005-04-02 06:16:26 User:FirstPrinciples m (→All beekeepers)
 * 2005-04-02 06:14:51 User:FirstPrinciples (update link)
 * 2005-01-26 14:09:42 User:Rossami m (According to my English style guide, those parens are supposed to be unbalanced.)
 * 2005-01-26 10:05:02 User:MPF m (balancing brackets; typo)
 * 2005-01-20 04:29:04 User:Shoefly
 * 2004-11-30 00:22:33 User:165.68.129.133 (→Commercial beekeepers)
 * 2004-11-30 00:17:17 User:165.68.129.133 (→Hobbyist beekeepers)
 * 2004-11-28 00:37:31 User:68.23.162.231 (→All beekeepers)
 * 2004-11-19 12:26:50 User:Rossami m (reverting the parenthetical notation.  See Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Wiki Syntax)
 * 2004-11-18 22:29:04 User:Wrp103 (→All beekeepers - Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax)
 * 2004-11-15 03:01:08 User:Rossami (add GDD)
 * 2004-10-21 02:42:18 User:Leonard G. m (→Hobbyist beekeepers - more on fall requeening)
 * 2004-10-13 05:03:41 User:Leonard G. m (→Hobbyist beekeepers)
 * 2004-10-13 05:03:03 User:Leonard G. m
 * 2004-10-13 05:01:34 User:Leonard G. m (→See also)
 * 2004-10-13 05:00:16 User:Leonard G. m (→Commercial beekeepers)
 * 2004-10-13 04:55:05 User:Leonard G. m (→Hobbyist beekeepers)
 * 2004-09-18 23:38:05 User:Michael Hardy m (→Hobbyist beekeepers)
 * 2004-09-18 23:37:36 User:Michael Hardy m (→Generally Accepted)
 * 2004-08-03 14:08:20 User:Rossami m (restoring the "definition list" format (correctly this time, I hope))
 * 2004-08-03 00:08:43 User:Neckro (fixed markup (entire article was boldface))
 * 2004-04-29 03:31:30 User:Leonard G. m (One more space)
 * 2004-04-29 03:30:25 User:Leonard G. m (Linked top bar hive, added blank lines after paragraphs)
 * 2004-04-27 21:34:36 User:Leonard G. (=Hobbyist beekeepers= (added plug for top bar hive))
 * 2004-04-21 23:11:29 User:Rossami (Start with two hives)
 * 2004-04-21 23:06:46 User:Rossami (supplemental feed)
 * 2004-04-18 01:06:06 User:Rossami m (Like wines, non-blended honeys are described as varietals - not varieties.  (Don't know why))
 * 2004-04-17 04:24:16 User:Korath m (=Commercial beekeepers=)
 * 2004-04-17 04:23:43 User:Korath m (=Hobbyist beekeepers=)
 * 2004-04-17 04:23:17 User:Korath m (18 inches (30 cm) -> 18 inches (45 cm).  (30 cm ~= 12 inches; unsure which figure is correct.))
 * 2004-04-17 04:20:23 User:Korath m (=All beekeepers=)
 * 2004-04-17 04:19:17 User:Korath m
 * 2004-03-09 16:25:23 User:Rossami
 * 2004-03-09 16:09:37 User:Rossami
 * 2004-03-08 01:59:17 User:Angela (unvfd: 6 votes to keep)
 * 2004-03-06 02:44:07 User:Rossami (added Vote for Deletion header)
 * 2003-12-18 00:08:34 User:Rossami m (grammar)
 * 2003-12-18 00:06:16 User:Rossami
 * 2003-12-12 15:26:30 User:Rossami
 * 2003-12-11 22:07:06 User:Rossami (first draft)

From VfD

 * I created it. I don't have the content knowledge to finish the page and based on the length of time unedited, no one else has interest. Rossami 02:42, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Some information is better than none. Everyking 02:49, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Looks pretty cool. -- Decumanus 02:51, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. I'll try to get some more on it. Pollinator 02:57, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Move to Wikibooks, surely. Egil 07:08, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. BTW: I am doing a research and I plan to write a paper related to bees, so I want to learn more on these subjects. Optim·.· 08:24, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Articles are often unedited for ages. Then someone new comes along, see them, thinks "well this is a very poor show for my favorite subject" and greatly expands them. It's all how the wonderful world of wikipedia works.theresa knott 10:39, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Good start. Except possibly the page title itself, perhaps should be moved to "Beekeeping Recommended Practices" or "Beekeeping Good Practices." Dpbsmith 11:53, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

removed content
Anon User:165.68.129.133 removed the following entry from the Hobbyist beekeeper section without explanation or comment. Moved here for discussion. I do not see a reason to have deleted this. Rossami (talk) 02:10, 30 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Spray labels with hairspray : Many hobbyist beekeepers make their own labels for honeyjars. The ink on homemade labels often does not hold up well to routine use. Spray the page of labels with hairspray before applying them to the jars.

 * My reaction to this has been that it is off topic - certainly not related to beekeeping or honey preparation leading practices, but it did not look worth the trouble of removing. I'm glad someone finally did it. Leonard G.

Wikibooks
I seriously think this belongs on WB, not becuase it's unencyclopedic, but because it whould be better if added to a bee-keeping Wikibook with refs from Wikipedia articles that should stay here. RfC. Thanx 69.142.2.68 05:37, 27 August 2005 (UTC)
 * Please note that Wikibooks already has a large, home-grown, wikibook entitled Beekeeping. Uncle G 14:27:52, 2005-09-05 (UTC)
 * I wouldn't necessarily say it was a large Wikibook, but it does have some frame work up to become a large wikibook, and hopefully it has some potential. So far it seems as if I have been the main contributing author, with help from a few other individuals. Unfortunately, life happens, and I simply have not had any real free time to add anything of merit, so I have put my editing on hold. However, plenty more content is needed, so if someone wants to port this over to beekeeping, by all means please do so.--Artic 17:01, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

Housel positioning
The text below had been a separate article. It was merged with Beekeeping but did not really fit there. If it fits in Wikipedia, I think it might fit best here.

However, I'm adding it for discussion on the Talk page before we include it in this article because I have a large portion of skepticism about this particular technique. I wrote a paper about 2 years ago on Housel positioning. The existence of the theorized center comb has never been independently confirmed. Housel reports finding it in feral colonies but other beekeepers looking at other feral colonies find no such pattern. Furthermore, a 3-D model of such a comb shows that it would either take an inordinately greater amount of wax than the center structure of any other comb or that it would result in a flat-bottomed cell - which would be a sub-optimal use of volume and different than all other comb. While Housel's theory has been published, it has not been confirmed and is generally considered to be a fringe theory by most bee researchers. Should this be added to the article and if so, where? Rossami (talk) 05:14, 25 September 2005 (UTC) Recent research by Michael Housel has resulted in a new trend in comb positioning, called Housel positioning. Housel positioning more closely mimics the arrangement of cells created by wild honeybees. Practicioners of Housel positioning have found it to result in larger cells in the outer combs of a Langstroth hive (thus allowing more honey storage), decreased bee stress, and increased utilization of comb foundations in general.

title: Talk:Beekeeping/Leading practices


text:
School Science/Agar plate

An agar plate is a sterile Petri dish that contains agar plus nutrients, and is used to culture bacteria or fungi. Generally, 'selecting' substances are also added to the plate, such as antibiotics.

Preparation of agar plates
Most types of agar are purchased pre-prepared in powder form, although it is possible to buy a base agar mix and add nutrients separately. For a typical standard mix of Lauria-Bertani (LB) agar, the following is added per litre of distilled water whilst on an automatic stirrer: It can be helpful to gently boil the mixture to facilitate dissolving: this can be done in a microwave oven, or over a gentle flame. Once dissolved the agar needs to be sterilised, usually by pouring it into a conical (Erlenmeyer) flask, then sealing the top with a cotton wool wad, and finally covering the cotton wool with a loose layer of aluminum foil. This is then autoclaved for 15 minutes. The sterile agar is then allowed to cool to 50 °C: this is just above the setting point of agar and pouring at this cooler temperature helps prevent condensation forming on the lid. Chemical agents (e.g. antibiotics) are added at this step to prevent their degradation at the higher temperatures; agar is especially useful in that it may be sterilized at higher temperatures yet since it solidifies at lower temperatures, chemical additives may be added without fear of degradation. Before the plates are poured, every care is taken not to contaminate them with stray bacteria: sterile technique must be used.
 * 1) 10g of an amino acid (usually tryptone or peptone)
 * 2) 5g of yeast extract
 * 3) 5g of NaCl
 * 4) 15g of agarose (omitting this step produces liquid LB)
 * 1) Hands are thoroughly washed with antimicrobial soap and hot water.
 * 2) The bench is wiped with ethanol or some other disinfectant
 * 3) A Bunsen burner is set up with a gentle blue flame. This will be used to sterilise the mouth of the flask, and will also provides a reasonably sterile environment in the vicinity. This will also be used to flame plates that develop bubbles from pouring.
 * 4) The number of plates to be poured are placed on the bench, with their lids still on.
 * 5) The aluminium foil is removed and discarded. The cotton wool is removed with the little finger. It is held in the little finger the whole time, not put down.
 * 6) The mouth of the flask is flamed to kill bacteria on the outside of the rim.
 * 7) The lid of the plate is lifted just high enough to allow the plate to be poured, and the dish is quickly half filled with agar.
 * 8) The lid is replaced, the plate swirled gently to ensure even distribution of the molten agar, then left to stand on the bench for at least 20 minutes to solidify.
 * 9) Once all the plates are poured, the flask mouth is reflamed and the cotton wool reinserted. Any unused agar is still sterile.

To allow traceability, a lot number assigned to the flask is written on the plates poured with it.

Inoculation techniques
Before inoculation, important information is written on the bottom of the plates, close to the rim:
 * 1) date of inoculation
 * 2) temperature of incubation
 * 3) duration of incubation
 * 4) microorganism inoculated
 * 5) initials of the plater

Streaking
The most common method of inoculating an agar plate is streaking.

Streak plates

 * 1) With this method, a small amount of sample is placed on the side of the agar plate (either with a swab, or as  a drop from an inoculating loop if the sample is a liquid).
 * 2) A sterile loop (flamed until red hot, then cooled by touching the agar away from the inoculated sample) is then used to spread the bacteria out in one direction from the initial site of inoculation. This is done by moving the loop from side to side, passing through the initial site.
 * 3) The loop is then sterilised (by flaming) again and the first streaks are then spread out themselves.
 * 4) This is repeated 2-3 times, moving around the agar plate.

What should happen is that single bacterial cells get isolated by the streaking, and when the plate is incubated, forming discrete colonies that will have started from just one bacterium each.

Christmas tree
This pattern is used for culture of urine. A small loop is dipped in the urine, and a single streak is made down the middle of the agar plate. Then the loop is swayed in and out going through the streak multiple times at right-angles to the first streak.

Stab culture
A needle is flamed then immersed in the culture. It is then stabbed into a small sterile jar of nutrient agar. If the bacteria are anaerobic they will grow, otherwise they do not.

Preparing a lawn
A lawn is often used for testing sensitivity to antibiotics, or for work with bacteriophages. What is needed is an even and complete spread of growth all over the agar plate (a "lawn"). Around an antibiotic disc there will be a clear area in which bacterial growth is inhibited; the diameter of this area can be measured to find out whether that bacterial strain is resistant to the antibiotic.

One way to prepare a lawn is to use a 0.5 McFarland suspension of bacteria in saline (this means the saline is made just slightly turbid.) A sterile swab is dipped into this suspension, then it is moved from side to side down the whole agar plate so all the area is covered. The plate is rotated 90 ° and the swab moved side to side perpedicularly to the first time. This is done once more with the swab rotated 45 °.

Once a lawn has been prepared, a small disk of sterile filter paper is soaked in antibiotic and placed on the plate. After incubation there will be a ring of zero growth visible around the filter paper if the lawn bacteria are sensitive to that antibiotic. A collection of small disks each soaked in a different antibiotic, and attached to a larger ring, can be purchased commercially. They are known as antibiotic sensitivity discs or by the name "Mastrings" (a trademark of Mast Group Ltd) and can be used to test the sensitivity of an organism to a range of antibiotics all at once.

Incubation of agar plates
Plates are incubated upside down to prevent drops of condensation collecting on the inoculated surface.

Some plates are incubated at 37° C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere: the temperature and conditions at which some of the body's bacteria will grow. Special incubators can maintain these conditions.

Some bacteria must be incubated anaerobically (without any oxygen). These can be placed in containers, along with a substance that removes oxygen, and the tightly sealed container placed in the regular incubator.

Fungi, and some bacteria (e.g. Yersinia sp.), should be incubated slightly cooler. This is usually 30 °C, and room air often is used.

Yoghurt bacteria grow at much higher temperatures (typically ~45 °C). They are therefore particulally safe to use when teaching microbiology, especially to children.

Campylobacter is a difficult bacterial species to grow. It needs special agar plates, plus its own microaerophilic environment.

Types of agar plates

 * Blood agar - contains blood cells from an animal (e.g. a sheep). Most bacteria will grow on this medium.
 * Chocolate agar - this contains lysed blood cells, and is used for growing fastidious (fussy) respiratory bacteria.
 * Neomycin agar - contains the antibiotic neomycin.
 * Sabouraud agar - used for fungi. It contains gentamicin and has a low pH that will kill most bacteria.
 * Thayer-Martin agar - chocolate agar designed to isolate Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
 * XLD agar - xylose lysine deoxycholate agar. It is used for the culture of stool samples, and contains two indicators. It is formulated to inhibit Gram-positive bacteria, while the growth of Gram-negative bacilli is encouraged. The colonies of lactose fermenters appear yellow.
 * Nutrient agar - safe to use in school science laboratories because it does not selectively grow pathogenic bacteria.
 * Hay Infusion agar - used for the culturing of slime moulds.
 * MacConkey agar - MacConkey agar is both selective AND differential. The medium is used to differentiate between Gram negative bacteria while inhibiting the growth of Gram positive bacteria. The addition of bile salts and crystal violet to the agar will inhibit the growth of most Gram positive bacteria, making MacConkey agar selective. The medium also differentiates between lactose-fermenters and lactose nonfermenters. Lactose and neutral red are added to differentiate the lactose fermenters, which form pink colonies, from lactose nonfermenters that form clear colonies.
 * Spirit blue agar- medium containing lipids, which lets it test for the presence of lipase. If the bacteria is able to produce lipase in the presence of these lipids, the Spirit blue dye will be digested along with the lipids, which are mixed in as an emulation with the dye. The medium, which is normally opaque and light blue in color, will have halos around colonies of bacteria that make lipase.
 * Tryptic Soy Agar - Usually used for Bacteria- Micrococcus luteus.

Safe disposal of agar plates
Plates, once finished with, must be made safe before throwing away. The usual method is to place inside an autoclave bag and then sterilise by autoclaving at 121 °C, 103 kPa (15 psi) for 15 minutes. Plastic plates will melt (hence the bag). After about 20 minutes the autoclave will have cooled down and the bag can safely be thrown away. If no autoclave is available an ordinary domestic pressure cooker can be used, or, in a hospital or professional lab an incinerator may be used.

Other equipment may be decontaminated by being placed in a suitable disinfectant such as Virkon for 24 hours.

When all manipulations are done, the bench is disinfected once again. The last step should be to wash the hands thoroughly with antimicrobial soap and hot water before leaving the lab.

title: School Science/Agar plate


text:
Talk:School Science/Agar plate

Agar plate authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Agar plate = The agar solution doesn't necessarily need to be boiled to dissolve (as a first step); as long as it is thoroughly mixed, the autoclave's heat and boiling of the water during sterilization will cause it to go into solution. Tygar 07:13, Feb 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * 2005-11-14 18:39:16 User:Uncle G (The article has been copied to Wikibooks.)
 * 2005-11-12 10:10:44 User:220.246.168.171 (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-11-07 00:11:18 User:Miborovsky m (→Streaking -minor)
 * 2005-11-07 00:10:07 User:Miborovsky m (→Streaking - reword)
 * 2005-10-15 14:12:13 User:Who m (Reverted edits by 83.71.104.184 to last version by Evilphoenix)
 * 2005-10-15 14:10:07 User:83.71.104.184
 * 2005-10-14 00:36:35 User:Evilphoenix m (rvv)
 * 2005-10-14 00:35:43 User:141.153.212.205
 * 2005-09-20 10:58:50 User:Serrie (revert vandalism)
 * 2005-09-20 10:44:16 User:202.67.65.166
 * 2005-09-10 21:37:54 User:Beland (→Preparation of agar plates - )
 * 2005-09-06 01:08:12 User:68.40.228.111 (→Types of agar plates)
 * 2005-09-06 01:06:52 User:68.40.228.111 (→Types of agar plates)
 * 2005-08-27 02:40:46 User:Zoicon5 m (→See also)
 * 2005-08-25 03:03:14 User:Bubbachuck m (rmv link to "feces")
 * 2005-08-25 03:02:16 User:Bubbachuck (rv vandal)
 * 2005-08-23 07:00:13 User:198.54.202.234
 * 2005-08-20 00:28:40 User:64.229.208.182 (→Streaking)
 * 2005-08-20 00:28:09 User:64.229.208.182 (→Streaking)
 * 2005-08-13 23:14:44 User:Bubbachuck (fixed picture)
 * 2005-08-13 23:10:29 User:Bubbachuck (misc info: selective growth, prep own agar, melt temp/solid temp)
 * 2005-08-08 18:54:49 User:DavidB
 * 2005-06-06 22:48:52 User:204.77.52.225 (→Incubation of agar plates)
 * 2005-06-06 22:37:49 User:204.77.52.225 (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-04-21 21:17:09 User:Icairns (→Christmas tree - fix link)
 * 2005-04-03 18:55:36 User:Gene Nygaard (→Preparation of agar plates - link)
 * 2005-03-28 03:46:53 User:Bryan Derksen m (Category:Laboratory equipment)
 * 2005-03-24 19:38:32 User:Phyzome (adding topic pic)
 * 2005-03-24 02:41:08 User:ClockworkSoul m (Reverted edits by 82.10.35.57 to last version by Tygar)
 * 2005-03-21 11:40:32 User:82.10.35.57 (];)
 * 2005-02-20 20:06:55 User:Tygar (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-01-31 07:47:13 User:65.13.171.9 (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-01-31 07:46:45 User:65.13.171.9 (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-01-30 19:05:18 User:Theresa knott m (Reverted edits by 82.34.185.47 to last version by Gene Nygaard)
 * 2005-01-30 18:54:44 User:82.34.185.47 (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2005-01-24 20:48:49 User:Gene Nygaard m (→Safe disposal of agar plates - cleanup)
 * 2005-01-06 16:36:21 User:68.63.123.21 (→Streaking)
 * 2004-12-17 04:22:14 User:CanisRufus m (RedWolf - link bacteria to bacterium)
 * 2004-10-28 21:48:05 User:Jimbo Wales
 * 2004-09-28 02:19:56 User:Whosyourjudas (-cat (in template))
 * 2004-09-28 02:13:46 User:Whosyourjudas (+)
 * 2004-09-28 02:12:40 User:Whosyourjudas (fmt see also)
 * 2004-09-08 13:48:13 User:MeltBanana m (→Safe disposal of agar plates - adopt an orphan)
 * 2004-09-05 05:42:31 User:68.232.166.102
 * 2004-08-31 05:54:08 User:68.232.166.102 (→Safe disposal of agar plates)
 * 2004-08-09 09:18:25 User:Mwng (→Types of agar plates)
 * 2004-08-07 23:47:06 User:Christopherlin (+ Category:Laboratory equipment)
 * 2004-06-21 00:30:56 User:Rmhermen (→Safe disposal of agar plates)
 * 2004-06-18 19:25:40 User:Pigsonthewing (→Preparation of agar plates)
 * 2004-06-18 17:19:58 User:Bobblewik (psi -> lb/in&sup2)
 * 2004-04-16 20:01:49 User:213.48.162.98 (M: caps, italics, typos, copyedit)
 * 2004-03-27 07:36:39 User:Delta G (hands and bench disinfected)
 * 2004-03-27 07:28:48 User:Delta G (=Inoculation techniques=)
 * 2004-03-27 07:22:07 User:Delta G (=Preparation of Agar Plates= lot number is)
 * 2004-03-27 07:11:02 User:Delta G (=Incubation of agar plates= plates incubated upside down)
 * 2004-03-27 06:58:14 User:Delta G m (=Preparing a lawn= wikilink)
 * 2004-03-26 15:44:46 User:Theresa knott m (Reverted edits by 62.171.194.4 to last version by Naddy)
 * 2004-03-26 15:14:00 User:62.171.194.4
 * 2004-03-03 23:19:23 User:Naddy m (typo)
 * 2004-02-13 17:44:26 User:62.49.16.208 (typo Kpa -> kPa)
 * 2003-11-18 04:36:31 User:Tristanb m ({->
 * 2003-11-17 11:52:57 User:Reddi m (See also:)
 * 2003-11-17 11:51:27 User:Reddi m (img frmt)
 * 2003-11-17 03:38:39 User:Tristanb m ({->(, (psi))
 * 2003-07-19 00:21:25 User:Tristanb m (typos)
 * 2003-07-18 23:28:14 User:Tristanb m (typo, capital Virkon)
 * 2003-07-18 15:14:21 User:Theresa knott (added streak plate diagram plus some copyediting.)
 * 2003-07-18 12:44:46 User:Theresa knott (Added lots more info - preparing, disposal of, stab cultures. Please re-copyedit.)
 * 2003-07-10 01:26:55 User:Tristanb m (added more to lawn)
 * 2003-07-05 00:27:50 User:Tristanb m (typo, minor reword, plus a start on other types of streaking)
 * 2003-06-29 05:28:59 User:Tristanb m (forgot a space)
 * 2003-06-29 04:59:26 User:Idl m
 * 2003-06-29 04:51:24 User:Idl (XLD blahing)
 * 2003-06-29 04:07:15 User:Tristanb m (added thayer-martin)
 * 2003-06-29 01:50:50 User:Tristanb (a start on an article)

Suggested move to wikibooks
I disagree that this article should be moved to wikibooks as per the recently added tag. It may well be that the article can be improved and made more encyclopaedic and that some of the "how to" might belong elsewhere, but as a frequent user of wikipedia, I was searching for this infomation here and expected to find it on wikipedia--User:AYArktos | Talk 01:42, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

Question about incubation times
How long are the plates usually incubated for? I assume it depends on the experiment. --User:AYArktos | Talk 01:50, 20 September 2005 (UTC)
 * In my limited experience - a few days. Theresa Knott (a tenth stroke) 02:13, 20 September 2005 (UTC)

 * From distant memory, when looking for most human pathogens, plates are incubated for two days in total, although many are looked at after one day, before being reincubated.

 * For slower growing pathogens (e.g Campylobacter, Bordetella), plates are sometimes incubated for longer. But for commoner Staphs, Streps, candida, respiratory bugs, gram negative bacilli, etc., two days is sufficient. Every lab will have their own protocols however. Tristanb 23:41, 21 September 2005 (UTC)

needs to be better
it doesn't have enough information or is understandble for a year 8 student myself.

title: Talk:School Science/Agar plate


text:
Talk:First Aid/Obstructed Airway

Abdominal thrusts authors and history

 * 2005-10-14 00:36:26 User:Evilphoenix m (rvv)
 * 2005-10-14 00:34:35 User:141.153.212.205
 * 2005-10-09 02:41:46 User:Dupz (Reverted edits by 141.153.205.137 to last version by OGRastamon)
 * 2005-10-09 01:58:22 User:141.153.205.137
 * 2005-09-29 02:05:40 User:OGRastamon (→Trivia - Disambiguation(You can help!))
 * 2005-09-26 17:32:15 User:WikidSmaht
 * 2005-09-18 03:56:01 User:Keenan Pepper m (move television reference into "trivia" section)
 * 2005-09-10 21:37:26 User:Beland (→Performing the Heimlich maneuver - )
 * 2005-09-05 06:26:15 User:66.117.224.2
 * 2005-09-02 00:15:43 User:BD2412 m (disambiguation link repair (You can help!))
 * 2005-08-26 12:55:00 User:Chobot m (robot  Adding: es)
 * 2005-08-13 05:39:09 User:68.221.53.228
 * 2005-06-28 07:45:17 User:217.132.78.119 (→On a standing or seated victim - removed a double word: maneuver)
 * 2005-05-22 13:25:34 User:Sdfisher m (unable to reply -> unable to reply verbally - →On a standing or seated victim)
 * 2005-05-22 13:24:28 User:Sdfisher (When to call for help, and when not to use the procedure.)
 * 2005-05-20 17:45:23 User:Bluemask m (interwiki. tl:)
 * 2005-05-05 16:37:19 User:Rama
 * 2005-05-05 16:20:09 User:206.82.16.35 (→Indications that someone is choking)
 * 2005-05-05 16:19:36 User:206.82.16.35 (→Indications that someone is choking)
 * 2005-04-26 22:06:58 User:M7it (+it: ** Safety first: commented out "railing" suggestion **)
 * 2005-04-10 19:53:33 User:131.215.241.26
 * 2005-04-10 19:35:37 User:131.215.241.26
 * 2005-03-24 14:11:41 User:24.3.221.149
 * 2005-03-04 06:33:13 User:207.14.67.32
 * 2005-02-14 17:26:35 User:Nickdc m (del. repetitive ext. link)
 * 2005-02-14 16:07:41 User:Nickdc (→External links)
 * 2005-02-14 06:56:50 User:4.231.8.234
 * 2005-02-14 06:55:36 User:4.231.8.234
 * 2005-02-14 06:54:48 User:4.231.8.234
 * 2005-02-14 00:32:54 User:4.231.8.109
 * 2005-02-14 00:26:36 User:4.231.8.109
 * 2005-02-13 20:25:27 User:4.230.228.241
 * 2005-02-13 20:24:40 User:4.230.228.241
 * 2005-02-13 16:27:49 User:4.231.8.99 (→External links)
 * 2005-02-13 16:24:59 User:4.231.8.99 (→External links)
 * 2004-12-17 11:06:32 User:PhilHibbs m (Standardise headings)
 * 2004-12-01 23:38:30 User:Rama
 * 2004-11-29 22:53:11 User:Rama (→On a standing or seated victim)
 * 2004-11-29 22:42:22 User:Rama (→Performing the Heimlich maneuver)
 * 2004-11-28 02:09:07 User:61.102.137.121
 * 2004-11-14 22:03:22 User:Vacuum m (→Performing the Heimlich maneuver)
 * 2004-11-08 20:51:30 User:212.129.144.76 (nl:)
 * 2004-10-18 15:55:38 User:Wayland (Categories)
 * 2004-10-07 10:14:50 User:Cdang (→After the airway is clear - medical advice necessary)
 * 2004-10-07 10:11:04 User:Cdang m (category:first aid)
 * 2004-09-21 17:24:23 User:Finog m (→On an unconscious victim - SP first-fist)
 * 2004-09-14 05:56:32 User:Arminius (add link)
 * 2004-08-24 21:54:55 User:Rossumcapek m (→On an unconscous victim -  typo)
 * 2004-05-29 19:28:36 User:217.187.47.182 (German link)
 * 2004-05-23 01:42:50 User:Bryan Derksen m (link)
 * 2004-01-03 07:58:40 User:Maveric149 m (removed ugly inline, self-referential and alarming  disclaimer; disclaimer already linked at bottom of every page )
 * 2003-12-03 15:14:37 User:Hashar m (fr:)
 * 2003-11-30 04:18:08 User:Chris 73 (No longer used for drowning)
 * 2003-11-14 06:41:28 User:Wik m
 * 2003-11-13 02:27:09 User:Tristanb m (preemptive disambig diaphragm)
 * 2003-10-03 07:22:01 User:161.200.255.162
 * 2003-09-29 19:04:16 User:Zoicon5 m
 * 2003-08-24 12:02:01 User:Shimmin (de-stubification)
 * 2003-03-16 01:23:21 User:PierreAbbat m (add missing bracket)
 * 2003-01-08 10:50:20 User:Eloquence m
 * 2003-01-08 10:41:30 User:217.158.106.86 (diaphragm)
 * 2003-01-08 10:31:41 User:64.170.110.218

Clarifications on when not to use
Yes, I know this text is redundant within the article. However, it is previously indicated in italics rather than in the emergency procedures. I feel it's more likely to be noticed if it is mentioned redundantly, and it is critical information. --Steven Fisher 13:26, 22 May 2005 (UTC)

Clarification about ABC(D)s before calling.
I feel there is a contradiction in the book. Should one reassess the patient's ABC when he or she becomes unconscious or call EMS right away?
 * I can't immediately come up with a situation where this is an issue. I suppose if the victim is conscious, but has a life-threatening injury, you would call EMS before checking their vitals (but after checking ABCs - note the difference between the primary and secondary assessments). Perhaps if you explain what the contradiction is I can answer your query better. — Mike.lifeguard | talk 03:40, 7 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Ahh, you meant this module in particular, not the book in general. I hope this edit clarifies matters for you. If not, please let me know. — Mike.lifeguard | talk 03:49, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:First Aid/Obstructed Airway


text:
Cookbook:Deep Fried Chickpea Dough Balls (Chyueeam)

| Cuisine of India

Cheyeeam are deep-fried balls of ground chickpeas.

Ingredients

 * ½ kg kadalai paruppu (Bengal gram, small brown chickpeas)
 * ½ kg vellam (jaggery, unrefined palm sugar)
 * 10 elackai (cardamom pods)
 * ½ kg maida mavu (refined wheat flour)
 * Water
 * Salt, to taste
 * 1 litre cooking oil

Procedure

 * 1) Soak kadalai paruppu in clean water for at least 8 hours. They will double in size, so allow extra water for them to soak up.
 * 2) Boil kadalai paruppu. This should take about 40 minutes in a regular pot on the stove, or about 9 minutes in a pressure cooker (plus 10 minutes to depressurise).
 * 3) Grind boiled kadalai paruppu with the jaggery and elachi, without adding any water, to make a dough.
 * 4) Make small balls with the dough.
 * 5) Make a thin batter with the maida and water. Add salt as needed.
 * 6) Dip the dough balls in the batter.
 * 7) Pour the oil in a pan. Heat until a small piece of dough floats and bubbles when added.
 * 8) Add a few battered dough balls. Deep fry individually until golden.


text:
Cookbook talk:Deep Fried Chickpea Dough Balls (Chyueeam)

Chettinad cuisine authors and history
= From Wikipedia:Talk:Chettinad cuisine =
 * 2005-10-02 13:23:03 User:GregorB
 * 2005-10-01 21:24:33 User:142.3.7.65
 * 2005-10-01 21:22:54 User:142.3.7.65