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User talk:Abdelazer

Hi,

Thanks for your comments on the Haskell wikibook. I haven't had the time (attentional cycles?) to look at them in detail, but perhaps you might consider sharing them with the wikibook list (wikibook at haskell dot org), where other people might react usefully to them. Or this being a wiki, just be bold and do what you think is right. The worst that could happen is a revert. -- Kowey 04:01, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Abdelazer


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PHP Programming/Coding Standards

Indenting and Line Length
Use an indent of one tab (no spaces! Good IDEs can convert this to pseudo spaces - 2, 4, etc.). If you use Emacs to edit your code, you should set indent-tabs-mode to nil. It is recommended that you break lines at approximately 75-85 characters. There is no standard rule for the best way to break a line; use your judgement. This applies to all file types: PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript, etc.

Indentation rules should be applied in the source file that will be edited by others. The visual appeal of HTML output should not be taken into consideration when writing code that generates HTML.

Validation
As of September 2006, the DocType on our documents will be XHTML 1.0 Transitional. Therefore, compliant HTML according to the XHTML 1.0 standard should be used at all times. Exceptions should be just that. A good reference for the XHTML elements can be found at DevGuru.

Also, to ensure that the box model is done correctly by Internet Explorer 6, we must use the following DocType on all pages. Only this doc type is to be used. No other information should be placed before it.

Example DocType

Element Usage
When at all possible, try and use standard HTML elements properly. "Div Soup" should be avoided at all times. "Div Soup" refers to HTML where a div (or span) is used when it is not needed. For example, if you need a word to be bolded, do not use a <span> tag and apply a style. Instead, use the <strong> tag.

Tables should be used only when data needs to be displayed in columns. One cell tables should never be used.

One common exception is needing to use <div> tags in place of <p> tags when the contents of the tag will be other block level elements such as <ul>.

Example HTML

CSS Standards
Inline styles should be avoided!

Styles in CSS files should be as specific as possible. One should always try to avoid using a bare class name. If you are styling an object that has a container, your style should reference the continer as well as the element being styled. The more verbose your styles in your CSS the less likely you will mess up another element on another page accidentally.

The most efficient way to style an element is by styling that type of element inside a container. If only one element needs to be styled in a special way, it should be assigned and id and styled using the id and preferably a container.

Here is some HTML from our sidebar:

Example Article HTML

And here is a small bit of how we style those elements.

Example CSS

This verbosity ensures that other elements are not accidentally styled.

Request Vars
Although our servers currently have register_globals enabled, PHP 6 will remove this option. Therefore, in new code, you should always use the super globals $_GET, $_POST, and $_COOKIE. $_REQUEST should be used only when it is known for sure that a variable could be supplied using multiple methods.

PHP & HTML
No "template system" such as Smarty will be used. PHP itself is a templating language. A best effort should be made to arrange your code by putting logic at the top of file and output at the bottom of the file. Sometimes that will require looping the same information twice. However, this will make the code much more maintainable.

Example PHP/HTML Mix

Control Structures
These include if, for, while, <tt>switch</tt>, etc. Example <tt>if</tt> statement

Control statements should have one space between the control keyword and opening parenthesis, to distinguish them from function calls.

You are strongly encouraged to always use curly braces even in situations where they are technically optional. Having them increases readability and decreases the likelihood of logic errors being introduced when new lines are added. Example <tt>switch</tt> statement

Function Calls
Functions should be called with no spaces between the function name, the opening parenthesis, and the first parameter; spaces between commas and each parameter, and no space between the last parameter, the closing parenthesis, and the semicolon. Example function call

As displayed above, there should be one space on either side of an equals sign used to assign the return value of a function to a variable. In the case of a block of related assignments, more space may be inserted to promote readability: $short       = foo($bar); $long_variable = foo($baz);

Function Definitions
Function declarations are similar to function calls with the beginning brace on the same line as the function declaration. Example <tt>function</tt> definition

Arguments with default values go at the end of the argument list. Always attempt to return a meaningful value from a function if one is appropriate. Longer <tt>function</tt> example

Comments
Complete inline documentation comment blocks (docblocks) must be provided. Please read the Sample File and Header Comment Blocks sections to learn the specifics of writing docblocks for PHP. Further information can be found on the phpDocumentor website.

Non-documentation comments are strongly encouraged. A rule of thumb is that if you look at a section of code and think "Wow, I don't want to try and describe that", you need to comment it before you forget how it works.

C style comments (<tt>/* */</tt>) and standard C++ comments (<tt>//</tt>) are both fine. The use of Perl / shell style comments (<tt>#</tt>) is strongly discouraged.

Including Code
Anywhere you are unconditionally including a class file, use <tt>require_once</tt>. Anywhere you are conditionally including a class file, use <tt>include_once</TT>. Either of these will ensure that class files are included only once. They share the same file list, so you don't need to worry about mixing them - a file included with <tt>require_once</tt> will not be included again by <tt>include_once</tt>.

PHP Code Tags
Always use <tt><?php ?></tt> to delimit PHP code, not the <tt><? ?></tt> shorthand. This is the most portable way to include PHP code on different operating systems and server setups.

Header Comment Blocks
All source code files shall contain a "page-level" docblock at the top of each file and a "class-level" docblock immediately above each class or function. Example docblocks

Short Descriptions
Short descriptions must be provided for all docblocks. They should be a quick sentence, not the name of the item. Please read the Coding Standard's Sample File about how to write good descriptions.

@author
There's no hard rule to determine when a new code contributor should be added to the list of authors for a given source file. In general, their changes should fall into the "substantial" category (meaning somewhere around 10% to 20% of code changes). Exceptions could be made for rewriting functions or contributing new logic.

Simple code reorganization or bug fixes would not justify the addition of a new individual to the list of authors.

@since
This tag is required when a file or class is added after the package's initial release. Do not use it in an initial release.

@deprecated
This tag is required when a file or class is no longer used but has been left in place for backwards compatibility.

Order and Spacing
To ease long-term readability of the source code, the text and tags must conform to the order and spacing provided in the example above. This standard is adopted from the JavaDoc standard.

Example URLs
Use example.com, example.org and example.net for all example URLs and email addresses, per RFC 2606.

Classes
Classes should be given descriptive names. Avoid using abbreviations where possible. Class names should always begin with an uppercase letter and use mixed case to separate words.

Examples of good class names are:

Log NetFinger HTMLUploadError

Functions, Methods and Variable Names
Functions, methods and variable names should be named using the Unix C style. If applicable, functions should have the package or library name as a prefix to avoid name collisions. Names should be all lowercase with each new "word" separated by an underscore(<tt>_</tt>). Some examples:

connect get_data build_some_widget

$i $count $temp_array

Private class members (meaning class members that are intended to be used only from within the same class in which they are declared are preceded by a single underscore. For example:

_sort _init_tree $this->_status

Constants and Global Variables
Constants and global variables should always be all-uppercase, with underscores to separate words. Prefix constant names with the uppercased name of the class/package they are used in. For example, the constants used by a package named <tt>DB</tt> begin with <tt>DB_</tt>.

Note: The true, false and null constants are excepted from the all-uppercase rule, and must always be lowercase.

File Formats
All scripts must:

 * Be stored as ASCII text
 * Use ISO-8859-1 character encoding
 * Be Unix formatted, which means:
 * Lines must end only with a line feed (LF). Line feeds are represented as ordinal 10, octal 012 and hex 0A. Do not use carriage returns (CR) like Macintosh computers do or the carriage return/line feed combination (CRLF) like Windows computers do.
 * It is recommended that the last character in the file is a line feed. This means that when the cursor is at the very end of the file, it should be one line below the last line of text. Some utilities, such as diff, will complain if the last character in the file is not a line feed.

Sample File
Each docblock in the example contains many details about writing Docblock Comments. Following those instructions is important for two reasons. First, when docblocks are easy to read, users and developers can quickly ascertain what your code does.

Please take note of the vertical and horizontal spacing. They are part of the standard.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: PHP Programming/Coding Standards


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Talk:World Stamp Catalogue/New Zealand

Images
See commons:Category:Stamps of New Zealand for more images of New Zealand stamps. Webaware talk 05:03, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:World Stamp Catalogue/New Zealand


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Hermione Granger

Overview
Hermione Granger remains unattached for the first three years of the series. It seems that Viktor Krum is attracted to her when he arrives for the Triwizard Tournament in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, but she does not reciprocate his feelings; she sees him as a pen-friend, though it is obvious to us that he wants more than that. When Ron's relationship with Lavender ends, he suddenly discovers his true feelings for Hermione, feelings which Hermione has quietly had for him for the past three years or more; and by the end of the sixth book, they have become more than "sort of" together, according to Harry. They remain so, with some friction, throughout the seventh book.

Philosophers' Stone
Hermione starts off this book as a smart, but very bossy and largely unattractive girl with rather large teeth. She is written as a "grind", the sort of person who is obsessed with rules and marks, and is quite unappealing. After Hallowe'en, however, she becomes friends with Harry and Ron, and later takes part in protecting the Philosopher's Stone, helping Harry to bypass the many obstacles leading to where it is being guarded.

Chamber of Secrets
Hermione develops a rapid crush on Gilderoy Lockhart, Hogwarts' new Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor, resulting in possibly a bit more than an annoyed flicker from Ron. While she never develops an attachment for Lockhart, she, along with many other girls in the school, seems entranced by him. Despite some clear evidence that his magical competence is limited, Hermione asks Madam Pince if she can keep the note Lockhart wrote giving her permission to check out a restricted library book. It is only as the year continues, and Lockhart's competence is repeatedly challenged and found wanting, that Hermione finally loses interest in him.

Towards year's end, Hermione is attacked and petrified by the Monster that has been released from the Chamber of Secrets. When we see her in the Hospital Wing, Ron seems more deeply affected than Harry.

Prisoner of Azkaban
Hermione is somehow managing to take twelve subjects during most of this book, though it drops to eleven after she gives up on Divination in mid-April. She is far too busy, even with the Time-turner to assist with her scheduling, to have much of a social life, and when we see her she is tired from overwork and snappish. When Hermione suggests to Professor McGonagall, at Christmas, that Harry's new broom might be jinxed, this causes an estrangement between Hermione and the other two. During this time, Hermione is working to try and secure a reprieve for Buckbeak, a job that Harry and Ron promised to help with, but have somehow forgotten.

The return of Harry's broom could have cured this separation, but Ron's pet rat, Scabbers immediately disappears, apparently eaten by Hermione's pet cat Crookshanks, leaving Ron estranged from Hermione. We learn from Hagrid that she is feeling this separation very deeply – she is often in tears when she visits him. The two of them do reconcile when they have to start work on Buckbeak's final appeal, but they remain at least outwardly friends, rather than anything more serious.

Goblet of Fire
Ron is apparently infatuated with Fleur Delacour, a Beauxbatons student and shortly the Beauxbatons Champion in the Triwizard Tournament, much to Hermione's disgust. When Fleur comes over to the Gryffindor table to ask if they want their bouillabaisse, Ron is almost struck dumb. After she departs, Ron says that she must have some Veela in her ancestry. Hermione is rather nettled by this, and says that nobody else is acting that silly about her, but Harry notices that many other students seem similarly struck by her.

Viktor Krum, who arrived with the Durmstrang delegation, and has been chosen as their Champion in the Tournament, seems to appear in the library whenever Hermione is there.

It is early in this term that the abortive duel between Harry and Draco Malfoy results in Hermione's already big teeth being dramatically over-enlarged by a stray curse. In the Hospital Wing, Madam Pomfrey arranges to shrink them to their original size, but Hermione deliberately has her overdo it, so that they are the correct proportion for her face.

Matters come to a head at the Yule Ball. Ron invites Hermione to be his date (apparently as a last resort), but Hermione already has a date - with Viktor Krum, who had haunted the library to get closer to Hermione. After three hours getting ready for the ball, Hermione is almost unrecognizably pretty. Ron glowers at Hermione, livid with what the reader recognizes as jealousy, as she dances with Viktor. When she floats over to speak to Ron and Harry, Ron accuses her of "fraternizing with the enemy". After a row, Hermione angrily stalks off into the crowd, while Ron and Harry exit for a walk in the rose garden.

After the dance, Harry finds Ron and Hermione arguing in the Gryffindor common room. Hermione shouts that if Ron does not like it, then, "The next time there's a Ball, ask me before someone else does, and not as a last resort!" Hermione storms off and Ron, stunned, says Hermione is quite clearly missing the point. It is obvious to Harry, and the reader, that Hermione understands the jealousy between them, while Ron quite clearly either does not, or is unwilling to accept it, and will not for some time.

In the Second Task, the merpeople are holding someone valuable to each Champion deep under the lake. Hermione is the "hostage" that Krum is to rescue. When Harry returns to the surface with Ron and also Gabrielle, Fleur's sister, Hermione and Viktor are close to each other, talking privately; Hermione breaks away from Krum briefly to check on Harry and Ron. Fleur is overjoyed at Gabrielle's rescue and gratefully kisses Harry, and also Ron, because he helped. Hermione is somewhat bothered by Fleur's attention to Ron, but is distracted by Viktor, who is apparently trying to retain Hermione's attention when she talks to Harry and Ron.

Shortly after, Rita Skeeter writes a scurrilous article for Witch Weekly suggesting Hermione is keeping both Harry and Viktor as lovers. Hermione wonders how Rita knew Viktor had invited her to visit him over the summer; Ron becomes upset at hearing about the invitation.

A month before the Third Task, after surveying where the task will take place, Krum asks Harry to walk with him. Harry is amazed when Krum asks if Hermione is Harry's girlfriend, and Harry replies she most definitely is not; they are only friends, despite how much Hermione talks about him.

As the Beauxbatons' carriage is about to depart, Fleur bids Harry goodbye. Ron is once again almost completely tongue-tied in her presence, earning a vexed look from Hermione.

Order of the Phoenix
Hermione remains largely unattached throughout this book, though she seems to be constantly holding Ron to a high standard, trying to turn him into a better person. It is mentioned that Hermione is writing to Viktor Krum, who Ron pettily persists in calling "Vicky". Hermione insists that he is only a pen-friend, but Ron darkly says that he would like to be a lot more than that. Hermione flushes at this comment.

As Ron is leaving breakfast for the Quidditch pitch, on the morning of his first-ever Quidditch match, Hermione kisses him on the cheek. Ron seems bemused by this, rubbing the spot on his cheek as he leaves the Great Hall.

Half-Blood Prince
Fleur is living in the Weasley's house as she prepares for her wedding to Bill. Ron, still dealing with the remnants of his infatuation with her, has mixed feelings about this development, as he seems to still be hoping for a kiss from her, but is totally abashed when she "jumps out at [him] unexpectedly, like then." Mrs. Weasley and Ginny are not so pleased; she seems quite self-centered and doesn't seem to care for the feelings of the family very much. Hermione is upset by this as well; it seems that Ron's ongoing goofiness whenever Fleur is around is quite troubling to her.

Lavender Brown begins the school year openly flirting with Ron, much to Hermione's disgust. After a particularly terrible Quidditch practice, Ron and his sister Ginny have a row after he and Harry accidentally walk in on her snogging Dean Thomas in a Hogwarts hallway. They have a screaming match in which Ginny accuses Ron of having absolutely no experience with girls. She says that Harry and Cho have been snogging, as have Hermione and Viktor Krum, and accuses Ron of being jealous because he's the only one (presumably, of the Trio plus Ginny) who doesn't have anyone to snog with. Since Ron is still smarting from watching Hermione being singled out by Krum, and their ongoing pen-pal relationship, he responds to Lavender's advances. Their relationship is publicly and intensely physical – Harry at one point compares it to a vertical wrestling match, and at another point wonders which of several hands he can see belongs to whom. This causes a huge rift between Hermione and Ron that lasts several months during their 6th year. Hermione is somewhere between vexed and incensed at this relationship of Ron's, at one point summoning a flock of birds to attack Ron when he and Lavender barge in on her, evidently looking for a private place to snog.

Hermione, as an exceptional student, has been invited to join the "Slug Club", a group of students who periodically are asked to parties by Professor Slughorn. Slughorn has made a larger than usual effort for the Christmas party, and Hermione is expected to bring a guest, as is Harry who has also been courted for the Slug Club. Hermione debates with herself, during Herbology class with Ron and Harry, who she will take to the Slug Club Christmas party. Ron eventually quietly asks if she will take him; she does not answer. Shortly after this, Hermione, in Ron and Lavender's entangled presence, loudly tells Parvati Patil that she is taking Cormac McLaggen to the Slug Club party, because she likes "good Quidditch players." This leaves Harry marveling at the lengths to which women would go to get revenge.

This strategy backfires on her, as McLaggen keeps trying to maneuver Hermione under mistletoe at the party. She latches onto Harry once he arrives, as his date, Luna Lovegood, seems to have chosen to spend her time discussing conspiracy theories with Professor Trelawney.

On his birthday, Ron eats some chocolate cauldrons which have been spiked with love potion by Romilda Vane, who intended them for Harry. After receiving the antidote from Professor Slughorn, Ron is nearly killed by some poison intended for another victim, possibly Dumbledore. Though they have been going through one of their stretches of estrangement before this, Hermione, deeply worried, stays by his bedside in the Hospital Wing his entire first day. It is likely significant that the first time Ron speaks coherently after being poisoned, it is immediately after the first time that Hermione, waiting at his bedside, has said something, and that what he says is her name. She visits him frequently until he is fully recovered, and thereafter she and Ron mend their differences.

After Ron's recovery, Ron's spell-checking quill goes wrong one day when doing homework and messes up an essay he is writing. Hermione unbends enough to offer to correct it for him. With a sigh of relief, Ron pushes his essay over to her, saying that he loves her. Hermione blushes, but says only that he shouldn't let Lavender hear that.

Harry now determines that he must use Felix Felicis potion to get a memory from Professor Slughorn. Under the influence of this potion, he decides to don his Invisibility Cloak and go visit Hagrid. As he, Ron, and Hermione descend from the boy's dormitory, they run into Lavender; she of course can't see Harry, and starts berating Ron for being up in his dormitory "alone with her" (Hermione). This is basically the lever Ron needs to end his relationship with her.

By the close of this book, Ron and Hermione are almost a couple. Between the battle under the Astronomy tower and Dumbledore's funeral, we see what appears to be almost a double date, with apparent intimacy between Ron and Hermione as well as an intimate relationship between Ginny and Harry; and Ron and Hermione sit together at Dumbledore's funeral, where we also see them comforting each other.

Deathly Hallows
Harry finds that Ron has been given a book by Fred and George, Twelve Fail-Safe Ways To Charm Witches, which he describes as "pure gold". Harry, who has received his own copy from Ron privately (Ron says it's not for his mother's eyes), notes him using the techniques in this book both on his own mother and on Hermione; Hermione seems pleased when Ron compliments her.

Hermione is somewhat shocked when Viktor Krum shows up at Bill and Fleur's wedding; Fleur has invited him, and Hermione had not expected to see him there. He, in turn, is disgruntled when Ron hauls Hermione away and onto the dance floor; it is obvious at this point that he had in fact been hoping she would be more than a pen-friend. Hermione and Ron are still on the dance floor when Kingsley Shacklebolt's Patronus arrives with news of the fall of the Ministry. Fleeing the arriving Death Eaters, the Trio find sanctuary, in Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place. There, as they turn in for the night, Hermione chooses to sleep beside Ron, holding hands with him for mutual comfort.

As the Trio escape from the Ministry, Ron is Splinched, and Hermione is desperate in her efforts to heal him. She seems almost as affected by Ron's injury as Ron is himself.

During their search of the Horcruxes, especially after they retrieve Slytherin's Locket from Umbridge, the relationship between the friends is strained. Ron, who is used to having three daily meals and not doing much work, is especially put out by their continued, apparently aimless, peregrinations through the cold, wet British countryside. His feelings are strengthened by the Locket, and, in a moment of rage when Harry admits not having a plan to find the Horcruxes, abandons the quest. His departure leaves Hermione in tears, and while they delay their departure the next morning in the hopes that Ron will return to their camp, eventually they decide that they must leave for the sake of their safety. Knowing that Ron will not be able to find them again, Hermione is devastated, and simply sits, sobbing, at their arrival point, leaving Harry to set the defensive spells around them.

By common unspoken agreement, Harry and Hermione do not discuss Ron's departure. Hermione retreats even further into her books, and Harry does not know how to console her.

When Ron comes back, Hermione explodes with apparent rage, and starts to hit him with all her strength, the first show of irrationality from Hermione. Harry has to separate them with a Shield charm, whereupon Hermione physically seems to retreat into herself. In hopes that Hermione will relent, Harry explained that Ron just saved him from certain death. She eventually does unwind, though Harry is a little surprised that she seems to not be moved by either Ron's saving Harry, or Ron's conquering the jealousy inspired by the Horcrux in its efforts to preserve itself. Rather, it is Ron's detailing his attempt to return, and his finding Harry and Hermione by means of the Deluminator, that cause her to relax a little. However, relations between the two are very strained for a few days.

As part of the reconciliation process, Ron accedes immediately to Hermione's suggestion that they visit Xeno Lovegood, overriding Harry's caution, and guides them to the Lovegood house. Betrayed by Xeno, the trio must escape from the Lovegood home. During the visit to the Lovegoods', and following the escape, Ron and Hermione seem to have fully reconciled their differences.

When the Trio are captured and taken to Malfoy Manor, Hermione is kept apart from the others by Bellatrix Lestrange, who is torturing her in order to determine how they had found the Sword of Gryffindor. Ron is frantic, shouting her name and pounding the walls, as her screams reduce him to sobs. Once freed from the dungeons, Ron concentrates his efforts on saving Hermione, and though she has been tortured nearly to the point of being unconscious, it seems that Ron's efforts do have some effect. When she has recovered, in Shell Cottage, she no longer seems quite as distant.

After their arrival at Hogwarts following their Gringotts break-in, with the Final Battle in Hogwarts' grounds becoming inevitable, Ron expresses his worry for the house-elves and asks if he and Hermione should tell them to go away so that they don't get killed. This act of maturity and selflessness from Ron prompts Hermione to kiss him, ignoring Harry's presence, and apparently confirming their relationship status as Ginny had earlier similarly done with Harry.

In the Epilogue, "Nineteen Years Later", Hermione is happily married to Ron and they have two children, Rose and Hugo. Rose is going to start Hogwarts that year. The happiness apparent in the epilogue, as Ron jokes numerous times with Hermione, shows that they are both very content with their relationship.

Notable Consequences
Just before Christmas in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Hermione comments that Ron has the emotional depth of a teaspoon. It's more accurate however, to say that Ron's ability to empathise with the emotions of others is the size of a teaspoon. We have seen this repeatedly; Ron seems oblivious to how his words can be hurtful to others, though he sometimes says things deliberately; many of his more provocative utterances in Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban are meant to sting Hermione, as retaliation either for arranging for Harry's Firebolt broom to be confiscated by McGonagall, or for her apparent callousness when his pet rat appears to have been killed by her cat, Crookshanks. However, Ron also shows a lot of compassion towards Hermione on numerous occasions through the saga.

It is Hermione's caring about Ron so much, also, that delays his return to the group in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. Ron had no way to locate Harry and Hermione's next campsite once they had departed the one Ron had left from. To spare Hermione's feelings, Harry avoids mentioning Ron by name, and so neither does Hermione. Only when Hermione eventually speaks Ron's name does Dumbledore's Deluminator detect it, leading Ron to Harry and Hermione. If Harry or Hermione had spoken Ron's name sooner, the Deluminator could have led him back more quickly.

Analysis
It is interesting to see how single-minded Hermione is in pursuing Ron. There are side-lights, of course; Viktor Krum is an interesting companion for a while, and she continues writing to him after he returns to Durmstrang, but it is possible she keeps the communication lines with Viktor open as a means to gather information, and also in case Krum has some later role to play in the fight against Voldemort as the anti-Voldemort movement had been forced underground. However, it is equally possible she simply wanted a foreign pen pal.

The author has mentioned "anvil-sized hints" being dropped about Ron and Hermione getting together since about Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. It is in that book that we can see Ron's growing jealousy towards anyone daring to show a romantic interest in Hermione, and Hermione, earlier in the same book, seems to be furious and scowling at any female (notably Fleur Delacour) that shows affection towards Ron.

A red herring is seen in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, however; Ron expresses the same indignation when he finds Dean and Ginny snogging. Could Ron regard Hermione as a sister? Actually, we see that Ron is acting protective towards Ginny, and is jealous towards Hermione, but the difference is subtle.

We never find out exactly what was going on between Viktor and Hermione. True, Ginny does tell Ron that Hermione and Viktor snogged, but this is inconclusive, as Ginny was in mid-quarrel with Ron, trying to verbally hurt him. Ginny may only be repeating rumours, embellishing them for effect. Viktor would certainly like to spend time snogging with Hermione; what is uncertain is whether he actually has. Hermione clearly set her sights on Ron early in the series, and expresses that intent after the Yule Ball, before Viktor has decided to ask if Harry has left the field clear for him. It is uncertain if Hermione would jeopardize her potential relationship with Ron by being known to be snogging with Viktor. It is barely possible that Hermione, following the example of Cho Chang in Harry's fifth year, which led to that couple's Valentine's Day meltdown, may have been mentioning other suitors to gauge or increase Ron's commitment to her. However, as Hermione seems aware of how and why that failed to work, it seems unlikely that Hermione would try a similar tactic on Ron. Against this, we must mention Harry's apparent lack of surprise at Ginny's accusation; this would appear, at first glance, to indicate that Harry was aware of romantic activity between Hermione and Viktor. On re-reading, however, his reaction seems to be bemusement, leading us to believe it more likely that the appearance of Viktor in Ginny's diatribe is not based on actual fact.

Greater Picture
It is interesting to note that Ginny Weasley and Hermione have each set their sights on one particular boy, and throughout the series will act with a certain single-mindedness to get him. Hermione, we see here, has decided that Ron is the one for her, and seems set on catching him, while Ginny is equally centered on capturing Harry. We will find out that Hermione had advised Ginny to give up on Harry when Harry fell for Cho Chang; this is the point at which Ginny started going out with Michael Corner. It is peculiar, then, that Hermione is unable, or unwilling, to follow her own advice when Ron and Lavender become an item. Perhaps it is simpler for her to see problems in Ginny's romantic life than in her own; it certainly is true in real life that it is easier to see other people's problems than to see your own.


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Existential Psychotherapy

Existential psychotherapy is the only established form of psychotherapy that is directly based in philosophy rather than in psychology. It was founded at the beginning of the century, on the one hand by the original work of Karl Jaspers in Germany, ( 1951, 1963, 1964) which itself influenced Heidegger’s thinking and on the other hand by the work of two Swiss psychiatrists, Ludwig Binswanger (1946, 1963) and Medard Boss (1957, 1962, 1979, 1988), who were in turn inspired by the work of Heidegger to create an alternative method of dealing with emotional and mental distress. All three turned from psychiatry to philosophy, in an attempt to understand the human predicament, paradoxes and conflicts of their patients. These early applications of existentialist philosophy to psychotherapy have been followed by a number of other and varied attempts, as for instance in the work of Frankl (1946, 1955, 1967), May (1958, 1969, 1983), Laing (1960, 1961, 1964, 1967), Szasz (1961, 1965, 1992) Yalom (1980, 1989), van Deurzen (1984, 1988, 19, 1997) and Längle A (1990, 2003, 2014), Längle S & Wurm CSE (2015).

There has however continued to be great diversity between these and other authors as no official or formal rendering of existential psychotherapy has ever been agreed. To confuse matters further existential principles have also been applied more indirectly to psychotherapy as part of the humanistic psychology movement, for instance in Person-centred and Gestalt approaches to psychotherapy, which often pride themselves in their existential origins. Personal-construct therapies also have a basis in the phenomenological approach and there are a number of psychoanalytic writers who take existential ideas into account as well. All of these approaches however tend to focus on the intra-personal dimensions of human existence and they have formulated psychological theories that do not allow the philosophical dimension to come to the fore or to be central. Radical existential psychotherapy focuses on the inter-personal and supra-personal dimensions, as it tries to capture and question people’s world-views. Such existential work aims at clarifying and understanding personal values and beliefs, making explicit what was previously implicit and unsaid. Its practice is primarily philosophical and seeks to enable a person to live more deliberately, more authentically and more purposefully, whilst accepting the limitations and contradictions of human existence. It has much in common with the newly developed practice of philosophical consultancy, which is just finding its feet in Germany, the Netherlands, Israel and the United States (Lahav 1995, Achenbach 1984, Hoogendijk 1991).

There continues to be a lack of systematic theorizing about existential psychotherapy and a lack of research to demonstrate the effectiveness of this kind of work. This is mostly because the existential approach resists formalisation and opposes the fabrication of a method that can be taught as a technique and followed automatically. Existential psychotherapy has to be reinvented and recreated by every therapist and with every new client. It is essentially about investigating human existence and the particular preoccupations of one individual and this has to be done without preconceptions or set ways of proceeding. There has to be complete openness to the individual situation and an attitude of wonder that will allow the specific circumstances and experiences to unfold in their own right. We can however distinguish a number of themes that will predictably emerge in this process. The following list of existential issues is a personal selection based on the compilation of the work of the major philosophers of existence. The order in which the issues are presented and discussed is based on my experience of teaching trainee psychotherapists some of the predictable patterns that emerge when clients in psychotherapy present their concerns and begin to examine their lives in a philosophical manner. Of course life is a great deal more complex than this list suggests and one can look at the same issues in many different ways. What follows is a brief description of my particular pathway towards clarity. It is important to remember that existential psychotherapists aim to assist their clients in finding their own.

EXISTENTIAL ISSUES •	Ontological description

The first thing to keep in mind when applying philosophy to psychotherapeutic practice is that when philosophers think about human living they do so not as anthropologists or psychologists. They do not primarily preoccupy themselves with concrete experiences, but they rather allow themselves to build theories about human living in an abstract sense. They are concerned to describe the ontological dimension of life and only secondarily come to the concrete experience of the individual. They try to pinpoint what it is that makes human living possible and difficult in the first place. Ontological descriptions are thus descriptions that tell us what the sine qua non of human existence is. They sketch out the conditions without which there would be no real human life. It is extremely useful to ask oneself what the basic foundations of human living are. Heidegger’s book Being and Time (Heidegger 1927) is just such an attempt at describing the essential being in the world of humans. His consideration of human beings as Dasein, or being-in-the-world, redefines questions of self and psychology as questions of living and philosophy. His sharp thinking about what makes human being possible provides a useful map of existence, which can certainly be argued with and revised, but which nevertheless asks important questions about people in general, allowing for a closer examination of the particular individual life afterwards. Of course there are many such possible maps and ontological theories to be found in philosophy. Existential philosophy is particularly focussed on the predictable dilemmas of human living that will be regularly encountered when doing psychotherapy. •	Meaning of life

According to Heidegger the most fundamental philosophical question is: ‘Why is there something rather than nothing?’ We do not actually know the answer to this question, but it remains a fundamental question to ask ourselves if we are going to be serious about examining human living from scratch. Clients ask themselves this question regularly and in particular they are unclear about the meaning of their own life. Philosophers show such questioning to be necessary in order to become a self-reflective human being. Doubts about the meaning of life are the beginning of all philosophy. Doubt and wonder enable us to rediscover the miracle of being. Children have not lost this ability to wonder and they ask the question ‘why’ at the most inopportune moments. Adults tend to wonder about the meaning of life particularly when things are difficult and no longer self-evident. Once upon a time the meaning of life was given by religion or by social rule. These days meaning is often looked at in a far more sceptical manner (see Tantam, this volume). It is therefore not surprising that people often find themselves in what we can be called a vacuum of meaning (Frankl 1946,1955). The experience of meaninglessness becomes a major problem in many people’s lives and it may lead to a number of concrete difficulties, which may look like personality problems or other forms of pathology. Psychotherapists, psychologists or psychiatrists often have considerable difficulties in recognizing the validity of philosophical questioning. They are reluctant to engage in theoretical discussions with clients and patients who are seemingly disturbed, but who actually may be in search of meaning. We can only engage in such discussions if we have been willing to question our own lives and can recognize that anxieties and doubts about meaning do not have to be equated with personal pathology or mental illness (Szasz 1961, 1965, 1992).

It is by no means easy to be truly available to help others in finding meaning in their lives when their existence is in crisis. The meaning of life is never given and can not be transmitted unless a person is willing to search for it independently. Phenomenologists recognized that meaning making is one of the defining characteristics of human consciousness. It could therefore be argued that the meaning of human living is to learn to give it meaning. In order to come to a position from which we can learn to give meaning we have to first come to a point of doubt and a realization of the lack of intrinsic meaning in our lives. Frankl (1946) spoke of three sources of meaning. Firstly through taking from the world what is there, learning to savour and appreciate what is already given to us, as in aesthetic enjoyment of nature or the pleasures of the senses. Secondly to give to the world and add new enjoyments to it through acts of our own creativity and by giving to others in this way as well. Thirdly by our attitudinal values, which could include suffering, when it is necessary to endure the harsh conditions we may be exposed to. If there is no alternative to our suffering, it is always possible to find an attitude of human dignity by enduring the hard labour, pain and disappointments, Frankl argues, even when we have to face up to extremes of torture and deprivation. Längle (2003) developed a system of four fundamental dimensions of existence which build ground for meaning. According to this structure of existence meaning as the fourth dimension is based on the three preceding dimensions of existence: accepting reality, relating to values and life, being oneself authentically.

•	Existential anxiety

The experience of meaninglessness and the creation of meaning are closely related to the experience of Angst or existential anxiety. This occurs against the backdrop of the personal realization that I am ultimately alone in the world and that I have to contend with my mortality and other limitations, taking responsibility for myself in the face of endless challenges and confusions. This crisis of meaning was first described by Kierkegaard (1844, 1855), who thought that it was a great deal preferable to begin to feel anxious about life and question it, rather than to live in the despair of those who deny the need to think for themselves. Kierkegaard thought that human beings would only gradually become capable of such questioning. He believed that people are vegetative to start out with, not taking much notice of the meaning of anything at first. They then grow sentient as they are beginning to follow their senses and relate more intensely to the world. After this they grow conscious of the world around them and as they begin to form judgements about things, eventually they become knowing about some of what is. Out of knowing can grow self-knowing as we apply the ability to think and recognize, compare and judge for ourselves. Out of self-knowing can come a self-awareness that leads to autonomy and the ability to make choices and decisions for oneself. This process plunges us into Angst, or existential anxiety, likened by Kierkegaard to a dizziness of freedom. He thought that experiencing Angst was the sine qua non of us assuming our responsibility as individuals and that without it we could never come face to face with the demands our life makes on us.

Anxiety or Angst is a core concept in existential philosophy, which sees it as the basic ingredient of vitality. Learning to be anxious in the right way, i.e. not too much or too little is the key to living a reflective, meaningful human life. As Kierkegaard put it:

Whoever has learnt to be anxious in the right way has learnt the ultimate. (Kierkegaard 1844:155)

Anxiety has to be distinguished from fear. The former is a generalized feeling of Unheimlichkeit (Heidegger 1927), of not being at ease, or at home in one’s world, whereas the latter has a concrete object. It is anxiety that allows us to define ourselves as a separate person and to become responsive and responsible as well as aware and alert. Although we may become overwhelmed with anxiety, so that it becomes counterproductive, on the whole anxiety is to be seen as a positive breakthrough towards the goal of the fully lived human life. •	How are we to live our lives?

In this sense existential psychotherapy does not reassure people when they come to talk about the predicaments and conflicts in their lives. They are encouraged to consider their anxiety and their problems as a valid starting point for the work that has to be done. When people wonder what is wrong with their life it is tempting to treat such questioning as symptomatic of emotional problems, but existential psychotherapy sees it as an attempt at coming to grips with philosophical dilemmas. Most of us are all likely to encounter such dilemmas sooner or later and people should be assisted in getting clarity on how they want to live when such issues arise. People easily lose their sense of direction. Moral and ethical issues are increasingly obscure in the world we live in today. It may be helpful to turn to Nietzsche’s challenge (Nietzsche 1883) that we should re-value all values. He insisted that our thinking had gone astray and that much that people took for granted had to be reconsidered. He thought it crucial to consider afresh what a good human life consists of. In order to do so it is useful to turn to the map of human existence that can be pieced together from the writings of existential philosophers, so that we can find our way through the obstacles of human living without losing our bearings. •	Intentionality

The lynchpin of human existence is the concept of intentionality. It was Husserl’s phenomenology that established intentionality as its new foundation following Brentano’s original idea (Husserl 1900, 1913, 1929). Phenomenology posits that human consciousness is essentially transparent and in this sense is always and necessarily connected to a world. It is never independent and always has an object. As we are non-substantial, transparent, beings we cannot but reach out to a world. We are always in relation. Through us the world comes to light. We always, think, do, desire, imagine something. There always is some contents to our mind. It is possible to set aside our automatic ways of intending things and judging things and take heed of our tendency to do so. We can learn to be disciplined about our intentionality and through the phenomenological reduction question all the automatic judgements we normally take for granted. Husserl called this process ‘coming to things themselves’ and it is often referred to as the epoche. It consists of putting our usual assumptions about the world in brackets. This does not mean that we get rid of them or pretend they do not exist, but rather that we deal with them separately so that we can describe the situation, object of our attention or other person we are dealing with fairly and as it really is. To make oneself consistently query one’s assumptions about the world and reconsider it with a cleared attitude of openness is obviously extremely relevant to the practice of psychotherapy. What we find when we apply this manner of observing other people is that they themselves are always in a relationship of intentionality to the world they live in. It is their mode of being in the world that we need to turn to next.

•	Lived world

Husserl spoke of the Lebenswelt, or lived world to describe the sort of universe that we live in. Everyone has their own perspective on the world, their own particular point of reference their own atmosphere and outlook. The lived world of the cat is obviously different to that of the dog or the bird for instance. When a cat comes into a room it may seek out cosy hiding places, while a dog may orientate himself by his sense of smell, looking for good spots to lift a leg on, whereas a bird might be focused on finding high places to perch on. The same room would seem a very different place to different people. In an even more complex manner they have a world of their own. This world determines where people go and what they want and do. Heidegger (1927) described the human world in quite a lot of detail, showing it to always have a horizon, a home ground and a foreign ground. We are always at a certain distance from things, although our relation to things might be determined by our intentional stance towards them more than by the actual space that separates us. When I run for the bus for instance, it seems closer to me than the ground that I run over. I see it as near and if it suddenly pulls out the severance that I experience and the sudden distance between me and the object of my desire may plunge me into confusion and disappointment. To describe the experiences of my world as completely as possible and without the usual assumption that I already know what I am describing leads to new insights into what human living entails.

•	Situations

We discover immediately that people are always connected to the world in a number of concrete ways. Heidegger in this context spoke of our ‘thrownness’. He said that we are always thrown into a world that is already there to start with and into which we simply get inserted. It is important to recognize the factual situations that we are confronted with. We are part of a certain culture, a certain environment with a particular climate and history, a certain society and a specific situation. It is only within the givens of that situation that we can exercise our own choices. Sartre (1943) called this our facticity and he recognized that we can never release ourselves from this, even though we can choose our position in relation to it. In terms of psychotherapy it also means that it may be necessary to look at people’s problems in a structural way. Instead of seeing everything as the person’s personal, emotional or internal problem, problems can be seen as part of an overall situation. Context is crucial and has to be taken into account. •	Limit situations

Of all the situations in which we can find ourselves there are certain ones that are irrevocable. These situations have to be accepted. We cannot avoid them or overcome them: we have to learn to live with them. Heidegger emphasised the importance of death as a marker of our finite nature. Death in this sense is not to be taken as something happening to us at some point later, but as something that is relevant to us right now. The realities of our mortality and of our incompleteness have to be faced for us to become aware of and true to our nature, which is to be finite. Heidegger considered that the reality of our death is that it completes us. The recognition of the inevitability of death gives us a certainty that nothing else can give us. The fear in the face of death allows us to claim back our individuality, our authentic being, as we are inevitably alone in death and find ourselves much sobered and humbled by the knowledge of our mortality. Death, according to Heidegger:

amounts to the disclosedness of the fact that Dasein exists as thrown being towards its end. (Heidegger 1927:251)

In other words: death is part of me and to accept my living towards this end gives my life back to me in a new way.

Jaspers (1951, 1971) spoke of limit situations as those situations, which define our humanity. Sooner or later we inevitably come up against guilt, death, pain, suffering and failure. The philosophical take on this is that we should encourage people to come to terms with some of the inevitable conflicts and problems of living whilst also asking themselves how they can move forward in a new and desirable direction. Limit situations are what bring us in confrontation with ourselves in a decisive and fundamentally disturbing way. They evoke anxiety and therefore release us from our tendency to be untrue and evasive about ourselves and our lives.

•	Self-deception Sartre was particularly adamant that as human beings we try to pretend that we are solid and definite in the way that objects are. People do not like to face up to their fundamental nothingness and mortality. We think we can pretend to be like a stone or a solid thing, but in fact in doing so we are deceiving ourselves, reinventing ourselves in bad faith (Sartre 1943). To be in bad faith is an almost unavoidable state of play for human beings as we seem to find it particularly difficult to face up to the implications of our freedom as consciousness. One of the objectives of human living is to become increasingly aware of our ability to choose to live deliberately rather than by default and to diminish the extent to which we seek to tell ourselves false stories about ourselves. Sartre said that the only choice we do not have is not to choose because not to choose involves a choice as well.

In fact we are a freedom which chooses, but we do not choose to be free. (Sartre 1943:485)

The coward is fulfilling the project of cowardice, in the same way in which the hero is fulfilling the project of heroism. They can both either choose to take responsibility for their choice or pretend that it just happened to them and is not open to question.

Heidegger saw the existence of other people, with whom we are fallen into a world where the anonymous ‘They’ decides about our actions and our identity as the major obstacle to authenticity. He recognized, as Sartre did, that human beings are condemned to living inauthentically for much of the time, but that we should nevertheless aim to retrieve ourselves from inauthenticity. It is the anxiety of our possible death and our discovery that we are alone in the face of our own fate and destiny that allows us ultimately to take ourselves seriously and posit ourselves firmly, resolutely as individuals facing death.

•	Time

This is when it also becomes possible to become more aware of the dimension of time, which is a crucial category of human living. It is always today and not tomorrow or yesterday. I am always no longer and not yet. We orientate ourselves in relation to the various ways in which we stand out in time. Our lives are a constant process of transformation that we cannot stop. Heidegger spoke of the three ec-stasies of time (Heidegger 1927:329), which are the ways in which we stand out in the past, in the present and in the future. We go back to ourselves in terms of remembering the past. We let ourselves be encountered by the world in the present and we reach out towards ourselves in the future. The past (Erbe) is the legacy we go forward with and which we can recollect in different ways. This means that we can re-present the past to ourselves in a new and creative manner. The present is our fate (Schiksal), which we have the task to live out as fully as possible, obviously drawing on the legacy of the past and making ourselves present to our own fate by facing our limitations rather than hiding away in inauthenticity. The future is our destiny (Geschick) and the destination that we choose for ourselves in relation to what is available to us. Our destination is thus created from our legacy and our fate. All of my actions are full of the awareness of my temporal change. There is decay and development around me. Life consists of movement, transformation and action. All of these are only possible in time. My existence is historic. It creates a story. How I create this story is of utmost importance. Existential psychotherapy is about retracing the story and reorienting a person in time.

•	The fragile self

The way in which I tell my story is the way in which I create a self. Existential philosophy does not posit the notion of a fixed and determined self. There is no such thing as an essential solid self, only intentionality and being in the world. Sartre used to say that existence preceded essence. I come into the world first and exist and only after that do I create a self for myself out of my actions. The self is a window on the world and out of our living in time and standing out in the world we become what we are. Sartre went as far as to say that people were the sum of their actions. Therefore the choices we make are constitutive of the sort of person we become. We are constantly in the process of creating a self, yet when we try to capture this self, we realize it is as if we were trying to catch our shadow: it moves away from us and changes as we try to fix it. We cannot be a definitive something. Our stories change as we live and so we are changed too. As we saw before the only way in which we can believe in a self is by being in bad faith, i.e. by using self-deception. Any image we create of ourselves is in a sense a lie: it never tells the full story about who we are or could be. We have to re-create ourselves every day and to become aware of this is to become authentic and true to the self which isn’t one. We are thus doomed to feel a sense of incompleteness as life requires us to try ever harder to be equal to what we are capable of, even though we can never achieve it.

•	Existential guilt

Most of us will therefore have a frequent sensation of unease with ourselves. The awareness that we are not true to our full human ability and that we live inauthentically will lead to the experience of existential guilt. In existential guilt we hear the voice of our conscience and this must be taken extremely seriously. We are not guilty because we have fallen short by other people’s standards or because we have behaved badly, but simply because we fall short as human beings. It is important to note that most existential philosophers assume that human living will inevitably expose us to falling short and therefore to feeling existential guilt. We are always indebted to life. We are always capable of being more alive, more open, more true to the potential of human consciousness than we actually are. We are therefore condemned to feel existential guilt, as we are condemned to feel existential anxiety; largely because we are, as Sartre said condemned to be free. Heidegger greatly valued the call of conscience which he believed to warn us of our existential guilt, thus bringing us back into confrontation with our human fate, allowing us to rediscover our authentic being.

The call is the call of care. Being guilty constitutes the Being to which we give the name of “care”. (Heidegger 1927:333)

To become authentic requires us to take into account our essential ways of existing and conduct ourselves accordingly. All of these modalities of existence, which Heidegger refers to as the existentialia are consequences of our intentional nature. •	Care Our intentional nature, and the nature of our consciousness as the place where being comes to light, as Heidegger put it, makes us care. People are the custodians of Being because they are nothing in themselves but need to reflect something, in order to fully exist. As transparent entities human beings are therefore condemned to care. The world always matters to us and we have to take account of our care for the world, which manifests in lots of different ways. It is therefore not the question whether we care, but how. Care is not to be understood as a negative or a positive, but rather as the inevitable mode of our relating to a world that is of importance to us. Heidegger speaks of care as manifesting as our concern for things and our solicitude for people. But our care also manifests in some specific ways in which we are in the world and relate to it.

•	Mood

The fact that the world always matters to us is evident in the way in which we are always in a mood. We cannot be separate from the world, but always respond to it in a particular state of mind. Heidegger (1927: 134) called this: Befindlichkeit, or the way in which I find myself. This state of mind is a response to the atmosphere created between the world, and me by my care for what is happening in it. Stimmung, or attunement, is the way in which I respond to the atmospheres, the way in which, like a musical instrument I am attuned in a particular way to the world around me. Through my resonance with the world I disclose the world in a particular way. My mood colours the world as it is also coloured by it. My own being is disclosed in my moods at the same time as it discloses the world. Moods are therefore invaluable indicators of what is happening between my world and me. We can never not be in a mood and we cannot just stop a mood. We can only get out of one mood by getting into another. Sartre elaborated on this idea of the central position of mood or mode of being by describing emotions as active rather than passive. He spoke of emotion as a kind of magic by which I alter the world and therefore myself in one blow (Sartre 1939). •	Understanding

As human beings we can respond to the world through our emotions, but we can also through our emotions and our ability to reflect on them come to grasp things in a new way. This new way of understanding (verstehen) is not just about human intelligence and the capacity for calculating things in the world. Heidegger makes the distinction between Vernunft (rational mind) and Verstand (understanding) which is our ability to see the whole of what is rather than analyse things with our mind (Heidegger 1927:144). Understanding discloses the potential of our being, as it shows us what we are capable of. In his later work he made the distinction between calculative thinking and meditative thinking (Heidegger 1954). He showed how important it was to learn to think again in this more encompassing meditative manner where we are open to the world and receive it with gratitude for what is, rather than trying to subject it to the analysis and manipulations that our calculative mind imposes. Heidegger suggests that we use Sicht, or vision to understand the world and our relation to it. Umsicht, or the vision of looking around one, applies to objects and we need to approach objects with the care of circumspection. We use Rucksicht, which suggests a kind of withholding, in relation to other people, which manifests as considerateness. Finally and perhaps most importantly we employ Durchsicht, or seeing through things in relation to ourselves. It is thus transparency that brings into being careful understanding of ourselves. •	Discourse

Language is an essential vehicle for understanding our modes of being. Heidegger speaks of discourse as the third essential mode of being (together with mood and understanding). Discourse is a broader concept than language and includes it. Although discourse is obviously linked to language it can also manifest as silence. We have to struggle to retrieve valuable discourse out of all the possible misuses of talking. Speech can turn to idle talk (Gerede rather than Rede). Discourse can flounder in curiosity, which is a moving across the surface of things, distracted by their novelty, as we collect and accumulate useless information. In this way we drown in existence and we go under in ambiguity. (Merleau Ponty 1945). Discourse is to be used carefully for it to become a valuable resource for the manifestation of being. In language or in silent thought we can capture and express ourselves in relation to life and begin to come to terms with our essential function of being the shepherds of being. •	Communication

The mastery of language makes human communication possible. However communication is a lot more complex than simple speech. Heidegger was aware that Mitsein, or being with others, was part of our essential nature. He also described people as at the mercy of the anonymous other who defines their being-in-the-world. Authentic being is only possible when we set ourselves aside from others. Sartre described our struggle with others as a desperate attempt at survival and at gaining a false sense of security. He saw human communication, which is by no means only about language as taking place either in a sadistic, a masochistic or an indifferent way. We can try to dominate the other or we can submit or withdraw from communication altogether. In sharp contrast to Sartre’s pessimistic view of human relations and human communication the philosopher Martin Buber (1923,1929) saw the possibility of a more positive way of human interaction. He distinguished between I-it and I-Thou modes of relating. He noted that the way we relate to others determines what kind of person we become. In the I-It mode of relating I treat the other as an object and become an object myself. In this mode I see the other only for part of what the other is capable of and at the same time become partial myself. In the I-Thou mode I relate to the other for all the other is capable of and I relate thus with my whole being as well. The I-Thou mode of relating has a spiritual dimension. Buber described the way in which we create a space between others and ourselves. In this space human communication becomes a reality. He called this space the in-between. True dialogue can be created in this space when we release our self-reserve and reach out to the other with our whole being.

Where un-reserve has ruled, even wordlessly, between men, the word of dialogue has happened sacramentally. (Buber 1929:3-4).

•	Mastered irony

Kierkegaard believed that language should be used with what he calls mastered irony. This requires the ability to detach oneself sufficiently from one’s situation to be able to see oneself in some perspective. He claims that those who lack irony do not have even the beginning of a personal life. To have a personal life and be able to be objective about oneself and subjective about others is to Kierkegaard a primary objective.

Most men are subjective toward themselves and objective toward all others, frightfully objective sometimes-but the task is precisely to be objective toward oneself and subjective toward all others. (Kierkegaard 1967, IV 4542).

He distinguishes fanatics, who cling to certain beliefs and nihilists who deny all beliefs, but sees them both as lacking in courage. In mastered irony one questions one’s own beliefs while still being committed to them. As usual the challenge is to be able to live in the tension between opposites.

•	Paradox

This idea that human living takes place in the tension between opposing forces is present throughout existential philosophy. Most obviously this is represented by Heidegger’s (1927) description of the tension between life and death, or by Sartre’s descriptions of the tension between being and nothingness, expressed in the tension between being-for-itself (the being of consciousness) and being-in-itself (the being of objects) (Sartre 1943). Kierkegaard for his part described this tension as one between the infinite and the finite. He claimed that one can get too much drawn into either the finite or the infinite and that the challenge of living is to maintain the right sort of tension between both. The person who is immersed in the finite gets caught up in the dangers of concrete living. The person who gets too immersed in the infinite is the dreamer, who merges with the universe and becomes either overwhelmed or terrified or depressed by it ending up feeling alienated from everyday reality. Kierkegaard thought it was important to be capable of modulating between the two extremes. Merleau Ponty was equally aware of the paradoxical nature of human living and he firmly believed that we have to live with what amounts to an essential ambiguity (Merleau Ponty 1945, 1968).

•	The four dimensional force field In this force field of opposites there are a number of different dimensions of experience. Systematic descriptions of human experience have outlined four dimensions. Heidegger spoke of the different dimensions as those of earth, world, man, and gods (Heidegger 1957). Binswanger (1946,1963) spoke of the Umwelt (environment), Mitwelt (world with others) and Eigenwelt (personal world), whilst a spiritual dimension (Uberwelt) is also implied in his work (van Deurzen-Smith 1984). In essence philosophers have recognized that human experience is multiple and complex and takes place on a number of different levels. Firstly there is our involvement in a physical world of objects, where we struggle between survival and death. Secondly there is our activity in a social world of other people, where we struggle with the contradictions between our need to belong and the possibility of our isolation. Thirdly there is a personal dimension where we grapple with the tension between integrity and disintegration. Finally there is a spiritual dimension where we seek to find meaning against the threat of meaninglessness. On each of these dimensions we have to learn to stand in the tension between opposites, discovering that we cannot have life without death, love without hate, identity without confusion, and wisdom without doubt. As Paul Tillich once said:

The courage of confidence takes the anxiety of fate as well as the anxiety of guilt into itself (Tillich 1952:163).

title: Existential Psychotherapy


text:
Usenet Explorer User's Manual/Manual/Reading News

This chapter explains how to read text articles.

See also Getting started from the Selected Help Topics on the Usenet Explorer home page, scroll all the way down to the bottom, to "Reading text articles".

 * 1) in the newsgroup view, select the text articles that you want to read
 * 2) from the context menu, select "Download bodies", or press
 * 3) show the Article pane by dragging the splitter at the bottom of the newsgroup view up
 * 4) read the article in the Article pane


text:
The English Civil War

Table of contents

 * /Guidelines/
 * /Causes/
 * /outbreak/

title: The English Civil War


text:
The English Civil War/Guidelines

This book on the English Civil War is aimed at older children and younger adults. In accordance, the content of the book should be written in a style that is:

 * Clear and informative, and straight forward
 * Engaging and interesting to the reader
 * Has a narrative content - e.g. ''"To understand why Civil War erupted...we need to..."

It should NOT be the following:

 * Written in an encyclopedic style, comparable to Wikipedia
 * Should not use technical, sophisticated or complex vocabulary or phrases

title: The English Civil War/Guidelines


text:
Cookbook talk:Toast

Is this a joke?

 * Nope. In the USA, people often eat this for breakfast. AlbertCahalan 04:46, 30 July 2007 (UTC)

LARD?! Why in the world would someone put lard on toast as a topping? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.28.186.172 (discuss • contribs) 2008-03-31T12:52:21
 * For the same reasons people spread butter or margarine on toast. Probably healthier than many margarines too (trans fat!) Webaware talk 02:02, 31 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Toast


text:
Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Credibility

By Tiffany M. Hall and Camilla Walck, June 2007

Introduction
Credibility in education covers a wide range of issues. Among these are the credibility of the teacher, credibility of instructional resources, the credibility of information, and the credibility of research material.

Credibility of the Teacher
A credible person is expert (experienced, qualified, intelligent, skilled) and trustworthy (honest, fair, unselfish, caring) (ChangingMinds, 2007). Grounded in Aristotle’s concept of ethos, McCroskey and Young (1981) defined the concept credibility as “believability.” The constructed credibility of an individual is primarily dependent upon how they are perceived by others (Robinson & King, 2000). Knowledge and expertise of subject matter, honesty of intent, and concern for others all play into teacher credibility. With credibility involving more belief than fact it is strongly situated via the "eye of the beholder", allowing for such things as accuracy and reality to be irrelevant(Kougl, 1997). Credibility, a subjective way of thought, seems most prevalent and necessary to attain within the classroom setting (Robinson, T. & King, T., 2002).

Knight, 2000, organizes the characteristics of a credible teacher as one who possesses competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism. Competence is the perceived “expertness” of the speaker, i.e., their knowledge of matter (Knight). No one can argue the fact that a teacher must have mastered the subject matter in order to develop credibility in his/her field. However, if a teacher fails to deliver the subject matter in a way that is logical and meaningful to the student, credibility will be lost. In order to enhance credibility in delivery of material teachers must possess good classroom management skills, have the ability to answer questions, possess a broad range of information, and have the ability to explain complex material well (Knight).

Trustworthiness refers to whether or not the teacher has the best interest of the students at heart (Knight). The student knows whether or not the teacher truly cares about his/her success in the class. Teachers who work to develop this trust must develop relationships with their students that foster teacher-student dialog. They know their students. This knowledge extends beyond the academic abilities of the student. The teacher should know about the student's home life, learning style, special abilities, and any extracurricular activities the student may participate in. If at all possible, teachers should make attempts to attend outside events that their students are involved in. In addition, teachers who are consistent and fair with classroom discipline, work to include all students in activities, treat all students the same, and do not embarrass students are more likely to develop trustworthiness with their students.

Dynamism refers to how a teacher presents his/her self in daily interactions with students and the curricular activities. Teachers must present material in a manner that excites the students about the topic of discussion. Diversity in delivery of instruction, use of technology, games, discussions, and investigations are all methods that lend diversity to presentation of material. However, even the most exciting method of instruction can fail to excite students when the teacher is not enthusiastic in the delivery. A more recent factor receiving notice by scholars is that of teacher immediacy, which refers to the use of communication behaviors (e.g., movement, enthusiasm, use of gesters, humor, vocal variety) that reduce both the psychological and physical distance between two individuals (Myers, Zhong & Guan, 1998). Whether at the conscious or unconscious level, a student's perception of the teacher's ethos, or speaker's character, has an important impact on how he or she will react to the teacher and how effective the teacher will be in the classroom (Haskins, 2000).

Credibility of Intructional Resources
Also lending to the teacher’s credibility are the resources the teacher uses in the classroom to enhance instruction. Resources containing erroneous information that can be disproved by students puts the teacher’s reliability and trustworthiness at risk. To maintain personal credibility it is important that teachers evaluate the credibility of instructional materials and web based information used within the classroom.

Credibility of Books
One thing a teacher may do in preparation for presenting a new unit of study or project is to select books that may be included in the classroom library or to be used for whole group reading. START, an acronym for Scope Treatment Authority Relevance Timeliness, is recommended by University of Minnesota Libraries (2007) to assist in determining the credibility of books. To evaluate books for instructional purposes, teachers must consider scope. For this purpose scope refers to the extent to which a topic is covered. Does the book cover the topic completely? If not, to what extent? The teacher must also consider treatment. What is the books purpose? Is the selection biased? Is the information fact based or opinion based? Are other sources cited? Also for consideration is authority. Who is the author and is he or she an expert in the subject? What company published the book? The relevance of the book must also be considered. Is the information relevant to the topic of study? Timeliness is also important when determining credibility. When was the book published or copyrighted? Is the information current? Is the information still useful?

Credibility of Software
Software is an instructional tool that teachers often use in the classroom. Teachers can use anything from games to encyclopedias, all of which can be credible sources for learning. Different types of games can include cognitive development games and skill practice games. Many teachers are skeptical about using games in the classroom and feel that they are not credible; however, games can often be a very credible for student learning. For example, games help teachers gain students' attention and increase their motivation to learn (Using games for learning, 2000). Regardless of the type of software that the teacher chooses to use, when evaluating software for instructional use, the teacher should approach the software as a student. If the software is billed as user friendly, is it? Is it as engaging as the reviews suggest? Is the information biased? Is any of the content potentially offensive to any group of students? Is the information presented factual?

Information Overload
There is no question that this is the information age. Modern technlogy has brought with it the ability for immediate access to seemingly limitless amounts of information. The click of a mouse opens the door to an overflow of information about topics as trivial as Paris Hilton’s latest follies to topics as consequential as global warming. Any teacher with “googling” capability can use the Internet to enhance instruction in any discipline. A Google search can yield so many choices that a teacher may not know where to begin. In January 1994, the World Wide Web consisted of 900 websites. In May 2007, there were 118, 023, 363 sites on the Internet (http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html). Google catalogs billions of web pages that make up web sites. Because there is such an enormous amount of information on the Web, “it seems impossible that all of the sites can be considered credible” making it important to determine the credibility of sites considered for use within the classroom (Greer, et al., 2002).

So Easy Even a Caveman Can Do It
With the availability of site builder web sites and web site development software, anybody can create a web site to be included on the Internet. Wikimedia makes it even easier for Internet users to become content contributors to the World Wide Web. Few barriers stop people from publishing on the Web. The online world contains deceptive coverage of current events, health information that is factually incorrect, and ads that promise the impossible (Fogg,et al., 2002). With anyone able to post information on the Internet for the world to see, how can teachers be certain of the credibility of the information presented? Teachers, as well as students, need to be educated on how to evaluate this information to determine its validity.

Credibility of Online Information
Peer review, author credibility, and writing style are three traditional methods utilized to determine credibility (Standler, 2003). These traditional methods may be difficult to employ when evaluating Internet sites because authors are no longer limited to publication by publishing companies or scholarly journals. Many writers may forego the challenges of traditional publication and instead opt for the ease of publication on the World Wide Web. This often eliminates peer review and leaves the author’s credibility unquestioned by a publisher and the work untouched by the editor’s pen. This results in increased responsibility for the teacher when selecting Internet sites for use with students. It is imperative that teachers develop a keen sense for determining the credibility of information found on the Web. Teachers must be educated on methods to ensure the credibility of this information. Because so much information is available, and because that information can appear to be fairly "anonymous", it is necessary to develop skills to evaluate what you find (Kirk, 1996).

Even without the endorsement of peers and publishing companies, it is possible that information posted online is credible. Teachers must review information found online to determine if it meets their standards for credibility. Credibility is all about trustworthiness. After reading information presented on a web page, teachers can determine the trustworthiness by accessing prior knowledge and/or conducting research to validate the accuracy and authenticity of the ideas presented on the web page. Additionally, teachers should consider the information's relevance to what is being taught, its ability to engage students in learning, and its appropriateness for the intended users. The following link provides a list questions to consider when assessing the credibility of on-line resources:

Teaching Students How to Evaluate Sources for Credibility
Teaching students how to evaluate a work for reliability and credibility becomes especially important now that they are exposed to such a large quantity of information from the Internet. In addition to the methods already mentioned for evaluating this information, teachers would do well to teach their students at least the rudiments of logic. Students should know, for example, the meanings of the words "premise" and "assumption." They should be taught to look for sufficient evidence to back up any assertions they encounter in their research, and older students should be able to distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Finally, students should be alerted to the possibility of fallacious reasoning, and older students should be able to identify such fallacies as non sequitur, broad generalization, and post hoc (illogical assignment of causation between two events that are probably unrelated). Advertisers are often guilty of using these fallacious methods to persuade consumers to buy their products, and students will be well served by learning how unscrupulous people may try to manipulate them in this way to act against their own best interests.

Credibility of Research
Equally important to the credibility of the teacher is the utilization of proven educational practices within the classroom. The credibility of information impacts educational research. In order for educational practices to be effective, the evaluation of these practices must be credible. Inadequate evaluation and synthesis of extant literature impacts not only the quality of a single study, but can have cumulative effects on a body of literature that may manifest in a lineage of poor conceptualization, design, measurement, methodology, and ultimately, inferences (Dellinger, 2004). Additionally, some researchers believe that procedural guidelines must be established for classroom action research to be considered credible (Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education, 2007).

With respect to any action research that the teacher conducts in his or her classroom, its value and credibility will be enhanced if the data so collected are triangulated, that is, are gathered by different persons or with different methods. Simply having another observer such as a colleague come into the classroom to observe the results of a new practice the teacher is experimenting with increases the credibility of the conclusions concerning the effectiveness of the that practice. Getting feedback from the students themselves would also increase the credibility of the findings as would evaluating the written work that students produce as a result of the practice. The more evidence the teacher has from a variety of sources, the more likely that he or she will be able to convince administrators or colleagues to adopt his or her ideas or practices.

Conclusion
Credibility is often in the eye of the beholder. Competence, trustworthiness, and dynacism all contribute to teacher credibility; however, that credibility is greatly influenced by everything from how the teacher speaks to the instructional materials he or she uses. At a time when skepticism about and criticism of public education seems to be growing, it is of the utmost importance that teachers project an image of credibility and utilize resources and methods that are credible.

Discussion Question #1
How can you as a teacher increase your credibility as perceived by your students?

Response #1

It is vital for teachers to admit when they do not know the answer to a question. Answering a question wrongly, especially when the student discovers the answer is wrong, is a major source of loss of credibility. In addition, learning a new concept together brings the teacher closer to the student in the learning process. This is not to say that teachers do not need to know their material. Credible teachers know their curriculum and are not threatened to learn more. In fact, those teachers who stay current by taking courses (or other methods of gaining knowledge) are more credible than those who do not. Students perception of this credibility is enhanced when the student knows the teacher is continuing his/her pursuit of knowledge.

Teachers must work to develop positive relationships with their students both in and out of the classroom. This can be accomplished by attending student events, making conversation with the student at lunch, or calling home to report positive contributions. When I see my students in the hall, I make it a point to have a quick conversation with them. This conversation goes beyond just saying hello.

Teachers need to make sure that their methods of instruction are met with enthusiasm. This means the teacher needs to be enthusiastic about the material, have the ability to excite the students about the material, and be aware of when the students are getting bored with the delivery method. I try to 'gauge' my audience and switch things up when I feel like I am losing my audience. Adding jokes, funny stories, or interesting demonstrations to a lecture can be effective in grabbing the students attention.

Response #2

One way to bolster credibility with students is to utilize resources and materials familiar to and trusted by students. Often as a way to engage students, I would use “kid approved” information in my lessons. For example, many pre-kindergarten and kindergarten students may be unfamiliar with the role of a scientist, but just about every student knows Jimmy Neutron from Jimmy Neutron Boy Genius and the Professor from The Power Puff Girls. As a teacher, all of my science units were problem based requiring students to think like a scientist. Well, that can be challenging if the students don’t even fully understand what a scientist does. When discussing the role of a scientist, I always included information about real scientists such as George Washington Carver and Marie Curie, but for that added level of understanding and in a lot of ways, credibility, I also included information about scientists to which my primary students could relate and immediately recognize. Not only did seeing their familiar cartoon friends hook them, they were pleasantly surprised to see that even their teacher knew of Jimmy Neutron and the Professor.

Discussion Question #2
What is one thing you look for when evaluating the credibility of instructional materials and/or Internet sites used within your classroom?

Response #1

When evaluating the credibility of sources on the internet, I look for sources that are from reliable publications. Often I will look at the references from these publications in order to find further sources of information. Wikibooks are very new to me, so I am still a bit unsure as to how to evaluate the credibility of material found on these sites. However, I have yet to find any questionable information on the wikibook sites that I have visited. I feel that the "peer" review of the material and the fact that such worthy people (like our own classmate:)) are montitoring entries helps to give credibility to these sites. My feelings are that wikibooks offer some of the most up-to-date information on a broad range of topics. With many people contributing to the process, mistakes can be identified and corrected. In addition, many of the links I use in the classroom are sponsored by scientific organizations. For example, the National Science Organization provides links to many credible scientific sites that are chosen for teacher use in the classroom.

Response #2

When evaluating instructional materials and Internet sites for credibility, I consider the ideas presented and try to determine if the ideas are supported by evidence. I do that by reviewing the works cited in the bibliography or footnotes and by checking the ideas presented against what I already know. If there are no other works cited by the author, I search for other resources that may support or disprove the work of the author.

I also consider information about the author. If there is little information about the author, I will Google the author to find additional publications by the author as well as credentials. If I am unable to find and/or verify credentials, that does not stop me from using the resource with students. I am more concerned with the accuracy and authenticity of the information than anything else.


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Algebra/Completing the Square

Derivation
The purpose of "completing the square" is to either factor a prime quadratic equation or to more easily graph a parabola. The procedure to follow is as follows for a quadratic equation $$ y = ax^2+bx+c $$:

1. Divide everything by a, so that the number in front of $$ x^2 $$ is a perfect square (1):
 * $$ \frac{y}{a} = x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x + \frac{c}{a} $$

2. Now we want to focus on the term in front of the x. Add the quantity $$ \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 $$ to both sides:
 * $$ \frac{y}{a} + \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x +\left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 + \frac{c}{a} $$

3. Now notice that on the right, the first three terms factor into a perfect square:
 * $$ x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x +\left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = \left(x + \frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 $$

Multiply this back out to convince yourself that this works.

4. Therefore the completed square form of the quadratic is:
 * $$ \frac{y}{a} + \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = \left(x + \frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 + \frac{c}{a} $$ or, multiplying through by a,

$$ y = a\left(x+\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 + c - \frac{b^2}{4a} $$

Explanation of Derivation

1. Divide everything by a, so that the number in front of $$ x^2 $$ is a perfect square (1):
 * $$ x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x + \frac{c}{a} = {a}$$

Think of this as expressing your final result in terms of 1 square x. If your initial equation is

2. Now we want to focus on the term in front of the x. Add the quantity $$ \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 $$ to both sides:
 * $$ \frac{y}{a} + \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x +\left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 + \frac{c}{a} $$

3. Now notice that on the right, the first three terms factor into a perfect square:
 * $$ x^2 + \frac{b}{a}x +\left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = \left(x + \frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 $$

Multiply this back out to convince yourself that this works.

4. Therefore the completed square form of the quadratic is:
 * $$ \frac{y}{a} + \left(\frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 = \left(x + \frac{b}{2a}\right)^2 + \frac{c}{a} $$ or, multiplying through by a,

Example
The best way to learn to complete a square is through an example. Suppose you want to solve the following equation for x.

title: Algebra/Completing the Square


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Swedish/Lesson 3

Welcome to the third lesson teaching you the Swedish language!

Dialogue
Fredrik - Swedish teenager John - American visitor

Fredrik: Fråga mig om någonting. English: Ask me about something.

John: Vilka är dina intressen? English: What are your interests?

Fredrik: Jag gillar att spela fotboll och ishockey på min fritid. English: I like to play football and ice hockey in my spare time.

Fraser - Phrases
Vad är din hobby? -- What is your hobby? Vad gillar du att göra? -- What do you like to do? Jag gillar schack -- I like chess Jag föredrar datorspel -- I prefer computer games Min hobby är fotboll -- Football is my hobby Matematik är roligt -- Maths is fun

Ordlista - Vocabulary
Roligt -- Fun Intresse -- Interest Att dansa -- to Dance Att sjunga -- to Sing Att gilla -- to Like Att tycka om -- to Like ("Gilla" is colloquial, that is, somewhat more informal than "tycka om". In the constructions with "tycka om", the particle "om" is stressed.)

title: Swedish/Lesson 3


text:
Talk:Algebra/Completing the Square

Needs to be formatted correctly i.e "/" should be a fraction bar.

title: Talk:Algebra/Completing the Square


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Swedish/Lesson 5

Swedish School starts when children are seven years old to fifteen years old. If they want to they can choose to go to high school, if they do it they g there from that they are sixteen years old to that they are nineteen years old.

In this time they learn:
 * svenska = Swedish
 * historia = history
 * idrott = PE
 * matematik (formal), matte (casual) = mathematics (maths)
 * NO, Natur Orientering = Physics and other nature sciences (lit. nature orientation)
 * SO, Social Orientering = social knowledge (lit.Social Orientation)
 * engelska = English
 * B-språk = free choice of a third language to learn, optional
 * C-språk = free choice of a fourth language to learn, optional

title: Swedish/Lesson 5


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Swedish/Lesson 6

Vocabulary
Vad kostar den/det? = How much is it? Den kostar...= It costs... Choklad = Chocolate Tack så mycket = Thank you so much Får man prova den/det? = Can I try it? Ursäkta, kan du hjälpa mig? = Excuse me, can you help me?

title: Swedish/Lesson 6


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Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bb5/3...d6

= Ruy Lopez = The move is sometimes called the Old Steinitz Defence because it is viewed as not best for black. The pawn on e5 is not threatened by Bxc6 so there is no need to defend it. Black allows his light square Bishop to become active, but at the same time his dark square bishop is getting blocked, so there isn't much of any gain in development. The move also allows white to play d4 immediately.

Theory table
.
 * 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bb5 d6


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Talk:Consciousness Studies/Seventeenth And Eighteenth Century Philosophy

Kant is neither rationalist nor empiricist
I would either change the title of this part or give Kant a section of his own. He is not an empiricist in the philosophical sense. Rather, his view was one of reconciling empiricism with rationalism. In the naive sense Kant was a scientific man and in this sense he could be considered an empiricist, but this is not relevant for the WikiBook about consciousness.

Read more about empiricism and rationalism: EmpiricismRationalism Rationalism vs. Empiricism @ Stanford

 * Well spotted. This whole page needs moving to a new name ie: seventeenth and eighteenth century philosophy! RobinH 15:37, 1 June 2007 (UTC) Done. RobinH 08:47, 4 June 2007 (UTC)


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Ohio 7th Grade World History

Throughout the school year Mr. Holman's and Mr. Pennington's 7th grade social studies class studied many topics. We decided to create a digital textbook to share what we have learned. This textbook is about the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. We studied a large span of history, which included many diverse topics, including: Pre-History, Stone Age, Rome, Greece, Egypt, and China, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation, Scientific Method, and the spread of Christianity. Our class decided the Middle Ages and the Renaissance were the most interesting. The main purpose with this textbook is to share our knowledge.

Table of Contents

 * /Introduction/

Middle Ages

 * 1) /Introduction to the Middle Ages/
 * 2) /Causes of Middle Ages/
 * 3) Fall of Rome
 * 4) Vikings Invade Western Europe
 * 5) Charlemagne and Christianity
 * 6) /Social Pyramid/
 * 7) /Wealth and Social Class/
 * 8) /Religion/
 * 9) /Weapons and Defense/
 * 10) /Japanese Feudalism/
 * 11) Japanese Feudalism Compared to European Feudalism
 * 12) Japanese Samurai vs. European Knights
 * 13) /Magna Carta/
 * 14) /Spread and Impact of the Black Death/

Renaissance

 * 1) /Introduction to the Renaissance/
 * 2) /Gutenberg and the Printing Press/
 * 3) /Literature/
 * 4) Introduction
 * 5) Shakespeare
 * 6) Machiavelli
 * 7) /Art/
 * 8) Introduction
 * 9) Humanism
 * 10) /Math and Science/
 * 11) /Architecture/
 * 12) Introduction
 * 13) Renaissance Homes
 * 14) Renaissance Churches
 * 15) Effects
 * 16) /Conclusion/

Protestant Reformation

 * 1) /Reformation/
 * 2) /Martin Luther/
 * 3) Indulgences
 * 4) 95 Thesis
 * 5) /King Henry VIII/
 * 6) /John Calvin/

title: Ohio 7th Grade World History


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User talk:Bmsss

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 15:33, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

Introduction and Table of Contents
Hi - can you take a look at the naming policy in the "welcome" above. The page here is not correctly named to be part of Wikibooks. It should be a sub page of whatever the main book is you are creating. There is no need to recreate it - use the "move" tab to rename it - thanks -- Herby talk thyme 15:33, 1 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Please do take a look at naming policy. Equally "redlinks" on pages are the way it should be until there is an actually page there.  Thanks -- Herby  talk thyme 16:01, 1 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Will you please check out how to name stuff & policy rather than just doing it - it will make your life much easier as time goes by - thanks -- Herby talk thyme 17:16, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bmsss


text:
User talk:216.11.121.21

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 15:34, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.11.121.21