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Trigonometry/Radians

There are $$360^\circ$$ in a complete circle

Units of Measure
We have been measuring angles in degrees, with $$360^\circ$$ in a complete circle. However, what if we measured the circle according to how many units we went around it. Think about it this way, do you measure the runner going around the circular track according to the degrees from the centre or the meters around the circle? The obvious answer is meters around the circle. However, how do you measure this in trigonometry?

Choice of Units for Length and Weight
In measuring many quantities we have a choice of units. For example with distances we can use the metric system and measure in metres, kilometres, centimetres, millimetres. It is also possible to measure distances in miles, yards, feet and inches. With weights we can measure in kilogrammes and grammes. We can also measure in pounds and ounces.

Choice of Units for Measuring Time
In measuring time we choose to have 60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour. We could devise a new more metric system for time and divide an hour into 100 units, each three fifths of our current minute, and then divide these shorter 'minutes' up into 100 units each of which would be about a third of a second.

Why 60? Why 360?
The choice of dividing into 60 is not entirely arbitrary. 60 can be divided evenly into 2,3,4,5 or 6 or 10 or 12 parts. 60 can't be divided evenly into 7 equal parts, each a whole number in size, but it's still pretty good. Using 360 degrees in a full circle gives us many ways to divide the circle evenly with a whole number of degrees. Nevertheless, we could divide the circle into other numbers of units.

Metric Degrees?
From the earlier talk of the metric system you might be anticipating that we are about to divide the circle up into 100 or 1000 'degrees'. There is actually a unit called the 'grade' or 'Gradian' (Grad on calculators which have it) in which angles are measured by dividing a right angle up into 100 equal parts, each of one Gradian in size. One Gradian is 0.9 of a degree - quite close to being one degree. The grade is in turn divided into 100 minutes and one minute into 100 seconds. This centesimal system (from the Latin centum, 100) was introduced as part of the metric system after the French Revolution. The Gradian unit is nothing like as widely used as either degrees or the units that interests us most on this page. The unit we introduce here is called the Radian.

Radians is the circumference measure at the point from $$\left(x,0\right)$$.

Choice of Units for Radians
Radians are quite large compared to degrees (and to Gradians). There are about 6.28 Radians to a complete circle. There are about 57.3 degrees in one Radian.

Are the statements: Compatible? It is not hard to check.
 * There are about 6.28 Radians to a complete circle.
 * There are about 57.3 degrees in one Radian.

 * Digression: In maths books it is well worth quickly checking statements that can be checked easily. It helps reinforce your understanding and confirm that you are understanding what is being said. Also, unfortunately, it isn't that unusual for maths books have tiny slips in them, where the person writing the book has written say, $$x_i$$ instead of $$x_j$$ or some other small slip. These tend to happen where the author knows the material very well and is seeing what he expects to see rather than what is actually written. They can be very confusing to someone new to the material. These kinds of mistakes can also happen in wikibooks, sometimes a visitor trying to improve the content can actually introduce errors. In wikibooks you may also see sudden changes in notation or notation that does not match a diagram, where material has been written by different people.

We said "there are about 6.28 Radians to a complete circle". The exact number is $$2\pi$$, making the number of radians in a complete circle the same as the length of the circumference of a unit circle.

Remember that:

The circumference of a circle is $$2\pi\times R$$ where $$R$$ is the radius.

Justifying Choice of Units for Radians
At this stage in explaining trigonometry it is rather difficult to justify the use of these strange units. There aren't even an exact whole number of radians in a complete circle. In more advanced work, particularly when we use calculus they become the most natural units to use for angles with functions like $$\cos(\alpha)$$ and $$\sin(\alpha)$$. A flavour of that, but it is only a hint as to why it is a good unit to use, is that for very small angles.
 * $$\sin(\alpha)\approx\alpha$$

And the approximation is better the smaller the angle is. This only works if we choose Radians as our unit of measure and very small angles.

We claim that for small angles measured in radians the angle measure and the sine of the angle are very similar.

Let us take one millionth of a circle. In degrees that is 0.00036 degrees. In Radians that is $$\frac{2\pi}{1,000,000}\approx 0.00000628$$ Radians. The angle of course is the same. It's one millionth of a circle, however we choose to measure it. It is just as with weights where a weight is the same whether we measure it in kilogrammes or pounds.

The sine of this angle, which is the same value whether we chose to measure the angle in degrees or in radians, it turns out, is about 0.00000628. If your calculator is set to use degrees then $$\sin(0.00036^\circ)$$ will give you this answer.

The Radian Measure
There are $$2\pi$$ Radians in a complete circle.

It is traditional to measure angles in degrees; there are 360 degrees in a full revolution. In mathematically more advanced work we use a different unit, the radian. This makes no fundamental difference, any more than the laws of physics change if you measure lengths in metres rather than inches. In advanced work, If no unit is given on an angle measure, the angle is assumed to be in radians.

$$\frac{3\pi}{2}^c\equiv\frac{3\pi}{2}{\rm rad.}\equiv\frac{3\pi}{2}$$

A notation used to make it really clear that an angle is being measured in radians is to write 'radians' or just 'rad' after the angle. Very very occasionally you might see a superscript c written above the angle in question.

What You need to Know
For book one of trigonometry you need to know how to convert from degrees to radians and from radians to degrees. You also need to become familiar with frequently seen angles which you know in terms of degrees, such as $$90^\circ$$ in terms of radians as well (it's $$\frac{\pi}{2}$$ Radians). Angles in Radians are nearly always written in terms of multiples of Pi.

You will also need to be familiar with switching your calculator between degrees and radians mode.

Everything that is said about angles in degrees, such as that the angles in a triangle add up to 180 degrees has an equivalent in Radians. The angles in a triangle add up to $$\pi$$ Radians.

Defining a radian
A single radian is defined as the angle formed in the minor sector of a circle, where the minor arc length is the same as the radius of the circle.

$$1{\rm rad}\approx 57.296^{\circ}$$

Measuring an angle in radians
The size of an angle, in radians, is the length of the circle arc s divided by the circle radius r.

$$\text{angle in radians}=\frac{s}{r}$$

We know the circumference of a circle to be equal to $$2\pi r$$, and it follows that a central angle of one full counterclockwise revolution gives an arc length (or circumference) of $$s=2\pi r$$. Thus $$2\pi$$ radians corresponds to $$360^\circ$$, that is, there are $$2\pi$$ radians in a circle.

Converting between Radians and Degrees
Because there are $$2\pi$$ radians in a circle:

To convert degrees to radians:

$$\theta^c=\theta^\circ\times\frac{\pi}{180}$$

To convert radians to degrees:

$$\phi^\circ=\phi^c\times\frac{180}{\pi}$$

Exercises

 * Convert
 * $$180^\circ$$ into radian measure.

 * $$90^\circ$$ into radian measure.

 * $$90^\circ$$ into radian measure.

 * $$137^\circ$$ into radian measure.

 * Convert:
 * $$\frac{\pi}{3}$$ into degree measure.

 * $$\frac{\pi}{6}$$ into degree measure.

 * $$\frac{7\pi}{3}$$ into degree measure.

 * $$\frac{3\pi}{4}$$ into degree measure.

title: Trigonometry/Radians


text:
Talk:Interlingua

Untitled
Jay, es un multo bon cosa que tu ha comenciate iste pagina pro interlingua in wikibooks.org. Io spera que tote le textos litterari/religiose e non-encyclopedic, como le traductiones del Biblia e de Don Quichotte, potera esser movite a ci, a fin que ia.wikipedia.org pote retornar a esser un encyclopedia e non un repositorio de textos qualcunque.

 * Le Biblia e Don Quixote deberea plus tosto esser addite a Wikisource, que es destinate a libros original, historic, etc. — Ensjo 11:56, 21 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Io vole remarcar in ultra que le entratas pro le IED e le duo glossarios tue pare plus apte a wiktionary.org (un sito specialmente pro dictionarios, que jam include interlingua in su pagina principal) que ci.

Que nos usa systematicamente ia.wikipedia.org pro articulos encyclopedic, wiktionary.org pro definitiones de dictionario, e wikibooks.org pro libros electronic.

- Martijn

This wikibook is really lousy. Compare to the wikibook of Lingua Franca Nova.

Expansion
Anyone mind if I alter this wikibook's organization for expansion purposes? Almafeta (discuss • contribs) 07:53, 1 August 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Interlingua


text:
User:Natevw~enwikibooks

I am Nathan. My personal website is called natevw's website, hosted at the college I attend.

One subject I wish to study further is the freedom of this gnu way of thinking.

title: User:Natevw~enwikibooks


text:
How to Write an Essay

Contents

 * 1) /Basics/
 * 2) Research and Preparation
 * 3) Parts of an Essay
 * 4) /Five Point Essay/
 * 5) /Types of Essay/
 * 6) How to write a Free Response
 * 7) /Authors/
 * 8) AP essays
 * 9) Document Based Questions (DBQ)

Contributing
This is a wiki textbook -- feel free to edit it, update it, correct it, and otherwise increase its teaching potential.

निबंध लेखन कसे करावे ?

title: How to Write an Essay


text:
How to Write an Essay/Authors

Original Author: Pingveno

Modified by sjoplin

title: How to Write an Essay/Authors


text:
Cell Biology/Cell division/Cell cycle

The normal cell cycle consists of 2 major stages. The first is interphase, during which the cell lives and grows larger. The second is Mitotic Phase. Interphase is composed of three subphases. G1 phase (first gap), S phase (synthesis), and G2 phase (second gap). The interphase is the growth of the cell. The normal cell functions of creating proteins and organelles. The Mitotic Phase is composed of Mitosis and Cytokinesis. Mitosis, when the cell divides. Mitosis can be further divided into multiple phases. Cytokinesis, which is when the two daughter cells complete their separation. Mitosis is the division of the nucleus and cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm. There is some overlap between there two sub phases. Reproductive cell division is called meiosis, which yields a nonidentical daughter cells that have only one set of chromosomes. In other words, they have half as many chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis occurs in gonads, ovaries or testes. Therefore combining two gametes together produce 46 chromosomes.

From Wikipedia
The cell cycle is the cycle of a biological cell, starting from the time it is first formed from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two cells, consisting of repeated mitotic cell division and interphase (the growth phase). A cell spends the overwhelming majority of its time in the interphase(about 90% of time).

Background Information
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, consists of four nucleic acids, A, T, C, and G. In a cell, the DNA provides the directions for creating all of the proteins necessary for cell viability, health, growth, function, and replication. The unique DNA sequence that encodes each protein is called a gene, and the complete set of genes for an organism or cell is referred to as it's genome. Prokaryotic genomes are often a single long DNA molecule, and Eukaryotic genomes consist of number of DNA molecules. A typical human cell has about 2 m of DNA, which is 250,000 times greater than the cell's diameter. Before a cell divides the DNA is first copied then separated so that each daughter cell ends up with a complete genome. Chromosomes are the packaged DNA molecules. Because of chromosomes, the replication and distribution of so much DNA is manageable. Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus. They contain two sets of each chromosome: one set inherited from each parent. For example human somatic cells (all body cells except the reproductive cells) each contain 46 chromosomes; the reproductive cells, gametes, have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells. The number of chromosomes in somatic cells varies widely among species. Eukaryotic chromosomes are made of chromatin that is a complex of DNA and associated protein molecules. Each single chromosome contains one very long, linear DNA molecule that carries several hundred to a few thousand genes; the associated proteins maintain the structure of the chromosome and help control the gene activity. When a cell is not dividing, each chromosome is a long thins chromatic fiber; however after DNA duplication chromosomes condense. Each chromatin fiber coils and folds. Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, containing an identical DNA molecule, initially attached along adhesive protein complex; such attachment is called sister chromatid cohesion. In condensed form of chromosome, a center narrow part is called centromere, a specialized region where the two chromatids are closely attached. The other part of a chromatid on either side of the centromere is referred as arm. Once the sister chromatids separate, they are considered individual chromosomes.

Overview

The mitotic phase includes both mitosis and cytokinesis which is usually the shortest part of the cell cycle. Interphase accounts about 90%of the cycle; during interphase the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. Interphase is divided into sub-phases: G1 phase ("first gap"), the S phase ("synthesis"), and G2 phase ("second gap"). The chromosomes are duplicated only during the S phase. During G1 phase cell grows until S phase where the cell prepares for the cell division during G2 phase. Based on human cell, M phase only takes about 1 hour while the S phase occupies about 10-12 hours.

The cell cycle consists of The cell cycle stops at several checkpoints and can only proceed if certain conditions are met, for example, if the cell has reached a certain diameter. Some cells, such as neurons, never divide once they become locked in a G0 phase.
 * G1 phase, the first growth phase
 * S phase, during which the DNA is replicated, where S stands for the Synthesis of DNA.
 * G2 phase is the second growth phase, also the preparation phase for the next stage
 * M phase or mitosis and cytokinesis, the actual division of the cell into two daughter cells

Mitosis
Mitosis has five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitotic spindle starts to form in the cytoplasm during prophase. it is made of microtubules and other associated proteins. while the mitotic spindle assembles, the microtubules of the cytoskeleton disassemble, providing the material used to construct the spindle. In animal cells, the assembly of spindle microtubules starts at the centrosome, the microtubule-organizing center. In plant cells, the centrioles are not present.

During interphase in animal cells, the single centrosome replicates; the two centrosomes remain together near the nucleus and they move apart during prophase and prometaphase of mitosis as spindle microtubules grows. The two centrosomes are located at the opposite end of the cell. Then aster, a radial array of short microtubules, extends from each centrosome. Kinetochore is a structure of proteins associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA at the centromere. Each of the two sister chromatids of a replicated chromosome contains kinetochore as it face in opposite direction. During prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules form as come of the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores. After the microtubules are attached to chromosome's kinetochores, the chromosome begins to move towards the pole from which those microtubules extend. the chromosomes moves in a motion like a tug-of-war. Metaphase plate is the imaginary plane that formed during metaphase the centromeres of all the duplicated chromosomes are on the plane midway between the spindle's two poles. The other microtubules that did not attach to kinetochores overlap and interact with other nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite pole. The nonkinetochore microtubules are responsible for elongating the whole cell during anaphase. During anaphase, the cohesins holding the sister chromatids of each chromosome are cleaved by enzymes. Then the chromatids separated, and they move towards the opposite ends of the cell. The region of overlap is reduced as motor proteins attached to the microtubules move away from one another, using ATP. As the microtubules push apart from each other, their spindle poles are pushed apart, elongating the cell. As the duplicate groups of chromosomes arrive at the opposite ends of the elongated parent cell, the telophase begins; during telophase nuclei reforms and cytokinesis begins.

 * G2 of Interphase:During G2 phase, a nuclear envelope bounds the nucleus, and two centrosomes forms by replication of a single centrosome. In animal cells, each centrosome contains two centrioles. The chromosomes are duplicated during S phase but cannot be seen since they are not condensed yet.
 * Prophase: the chromatin fibers coils and dense into chromosomes and the nucleoli disappear. Each duplicated chromosome has tow identical sister chromatids joined at their centromeres along with their arms by cohesins, then the mitotic spindle form. The asters are the radial arrays of shorter microtubules that extend from the centrosomes. Propelled by the lengthening microtubules, the centrosomes move away from each other.
 * Prometaphase: As the nuclear envelope fragments, the microtubules extending from each centrosome invade the nuclear area. the chromosome become more condensed as each of the two chromatids of each chromosome has a kinetochore. Some of the microtubules attach to the kinetochores ("kinetochore microtubules" and other nonkinetochore microtubules interact with each from fromt he opposite pole of the spindle.
 * Metaphase: Metaphse is the longest stage of mitosis. The centrosomes are placed at the opposite poles of the cell. The chromosomes' centromeres lie ont he metaphse plate as the chromosome convene on the metaphase plate. Each kinetochores of the sister chromatids are attacged to kinetochore microtubules coming from opposite poles.
 * Anaphase: Anaphase is the shortest stage of mitosis, and begins when the cohesin proteins are cleaved, allowing the two sister chromatids of each pair to part suddenly. The two liberated daughter chromosomes moves towards oppostie ends of the cell as the kinetochore microtubules shorten. The cell starts to elongate and nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen. By the end of anaphase, the two ends of the cell have equivalent collections of chromosome.
 * Telophase: Two daughter nuclei form in the cell, and nuclear envelopes arise from the fragments of the parent cell's nuclear envelope. As nucleoli reappear, the chromosome become less condensed, and completes the division of the one nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei.
 * Cytokinesis: In animal cells, cytokinesis involves formation of cleavage furrow; in plante cell the cleavage furrow does not exist. The formation of cell wall in the middle of cell (cell plate) divides the cell into two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis
The cytokinesis process begins with cleavage. Cleavage furrow, a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate, is the first sign of cleavage. As it process, contractile ring of actin microfilaments form on the cytoplasmic side. The actin microfilaments interact with the myosin molecules, and cause the ring to contract. As the cleavage furrow deepens, the cell is separated into two with its own nucleus. For plant cells, there is no cleavage furrow because they have the cell walls. Instead of forming cleavages, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move along microtubules to the middle of the cells, and forms cell plate. As the cell plate enlarges, and surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane along the perimeter of the cell and from two daughter cells.

Binary Fission
Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction by "division in half". In prokaryotes, binary fission does not involve mitosis, but in single celled eukaryotes that undergo binary fission. In bacteria, motst genes are carried on a single bacterial chromosome that consists of a circular DNA molecule and associated proteins. The chromosome of the bacterium Escherichia coli, is 500 times as long as the cell when it is sctreched out. At the origin of replication, DNA of the bacterial chromosome begins to replicate. As the chromosome continues to replicate, one origin moves rapidly toward the opposite end of the cell, and the cell elongates. When the replication is complete the bacterium is about twice its initial size, and its plasma membrane grows inward, dividing the parent E. coli cell into two daughter cells. Bacteria don’t have mitotic spindles; the two origins of replication end up at opposite ends of the cell or in some other very specific location.

The Evolution of Mitosis
Since the prokaryotes were on Earth more than a billion years than eukaryotes that mitosis had its origins in simpler prokaryotic mechanism of the cell reproduction can be assumed. Some of the proteins involved in bacterial binary fission are related to eukaryotic proteins that function in mitosis. Possible hypothesis of evolution of mitosis is that prokaryotic cell's reproduction gave rise to mitosis.

The Cell Cycle Control System
Based from mammalian cell grow experiment, possible hypothesis was supported: the cell cycle is driven by specific signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm. In this experiment two cells in different phase of the cell cycle were fused to form a single cell with two nuclei. One cell was in the S phase and the other was in G1, and G1 nucleus immediately entered the S phase, as though stimulated by chemicals present in the cytoplasm of the first cell. Therefore, if a cell undergoing mitosis (M phase) was fused with another cell in any stage of its cell cycle, the second nucleus enteres mitosis. Other experiments on animal cells and yeasts demonstrates the sequential events of the cell cycle control system; the cell cycle control system operates set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycles. The cell cycle control system proceeds on its own, but it is regulated at certain checkpoints by internal and external signals. Animal cells have built-in stop signals that halt the cell cycle at checkpoints until they get go-ahead signals. The signals report whether crucial cellular processes that should have occurred by that point have in fact been completed correctly and thus whether or not the cell cycle should proceed. The three check points are in G1, G2, and M phase. For mammalian cells, G1 check points are the most important. When a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell complete the G1, S, G2 and M phases and divide; however when a cell does not get a go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle and enter non dividing state, G0 phase. Most of human cells are in G0 phase, such as mature nerve cells and muscle cells. However the liver cells can re-enter the cycle by external signals such as growth factor released during injury. Rhythmic fluctuations in the abundance and activity of cell cycle control molecules pase the sequential events of the cell cycle. The regulatory molecules are portins of two types: protein kinases and cyclins. Portin kinases are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating. The protein kinases give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2 checkpoints. The kinases that drive the cell cycle are present at a constant concentration in the growing cell, but they are in an inactive form. In order to activate them, kinase must be attached to a cyclin, a protein that cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of such requirement, these are called cyclin-dependent kinases or Cdks. The activity of cdks rises and falls with changes in the concentration of its cyclin partner. The cylclin level rises during the S and G2 phases and then falls rapidly during M phase. MPF, the maturation -promoting factor, or M-phase -promoting factor, activity corresponds to the peaks of cyclin concentration. MPF triggers the cell's passage past the G2 checkpoint into M phase. MPF acts both directly as a kinase and indirectly by activating other kinases. During anaphase, MPF hels switch itself off by initiating a process that leads to the destruction of its own cyclin. The Cdk, noncyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell in inactive form until it associates with new cyclin molecules synthesized during the S and G2 phase of the next round of the cycle. Density-dependent inhibition is a phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing. It is caused by external physical factor. Also most animal cells exhibit anchorage dependence; in order to divide, the cells must be attached to a substratum; like a cell density, anchorage is signaled to the cell cycle control system via pathways involving plasma membrane proteins and elements of cytoskeleton linked to them. The loss of cell cycle controls leads to cancer cells, which exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence.

Reference
Berg, Jeremy M., John L. Tymoczko, and Lubert Stryer. Biochemistry. 7th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 2012. Print.

Reece, Campbell, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minosky, and Robert B. Jackson. Biology. 8th ed. San Francisco: Cummings, 2010. Print.

title: Cell Biology/Cell division/Cell cycle


text:
Cell Biology/Cell division/Meiosis

Meiosis is a special type of cell division that is designed to produce gametes. Before meiosis occurs, the cell will be double diploid and have a pair of each chromosome, the same as before mitosis.

Meiosis consists of 2 cell divisions, and results in four cells. The first division is when genetic crossover occurs and the traits on the chromosomes are shuffled. The cell will perform a normal prophase, then enter metaphase during which it begins the crossover, then proceed normally through anaphase and telophase.

The first division produces two normal diploid cells, however the process is not complete. The cell will prepare for another division and enter a second prophase. During the second metaphase, the chromosome pairs are separated so that each new cell will get half the normal genes. The cell division will continue thorough anaphase and telophase, and the nuclei will reassemble. The result of the divisions will be 4 haploid gamete cells.

Crossover
Crossover is the process by which two chromosomes paired up during prophase I of meiosis exchange a distal portion of their DNA. Crossover occurs when two chromosomes, normally two homologous instances of the same chromosome, break and connect to each other's ends. If they break at the same locus, this merely results in an exchange of genes. This is the normal way in which crossover occurs. If they break at different loci, the result is a duplication of genes on one chromosome and a deletion on the other. If they break on opposite sides of the centromere, this results in one chromosome being lost during cell division.

Any pair of homologous chromosomes may be expected to cross over three or four times during meiosis. This aids evolution by increasing independent assortment, and reducing the genetic linkage between genes on the same chromosome.

title: Cell Biology/Cell division/Meiosis


text:
Cell Biology/Cell division/Mitosis

Mitosis is the normal type of cell division. Before the cells can divide, the chromosomes will have duplicated and the cell will have twice the normal set of genes.

The first step of cell division is prophase, during which the nucleus dissolves and the chromosomes begin migration to the midline of the cell. (Some biology textbooks insert a phase called "prometaphase" at this point.)The second step, known as metaphase, occurs when all the chromosomes are aligned in pairs along the midline of the cell. As the cell enters anaphase, the chromatids, which form the chromosomes, will separate and drift toward opposite poles of the cell. As the separated chromatids, now termed chromosomes, reach the poles, the cell will enter telophase and nuclei will start to reform. The process of mitosis ends after the nuclei have reformed and the cell membrane begins to separate the cell into two daughter cells, during cytokinesis.

The mitotic phase which includes both mitosis and cytokinesis is the shortest part of the cell cycle. The interphase cycle accounts for about 90% of the cell cycle. This phase is where the cell grows and copies its chromosomes in preparation for cell division. In the G1 phase which is also called the “first gap” the cell grows as it copies its chromosomes. In S phase, the cell starts to synthesize the DNA and completes preparation for cell division. In G2 it starts to divide.

In biology, Mitosis is the process of chromosome segregation and nuclear division that follows replication of the genetic material in eukaryotic cells. This process assures that each daughter nucleus receives a complete copy of the organism's genetic material. In most eukaryotes, mitosis is accompanied with cell division or cytokinesis, but there are many exceptions, for instance among fungi. There is another process called meiosis, in which the daughter nuclei receive half the chromosomes of the parent, which is involved in gamete formation and other similar processes, which makes the parent cell still active.

Mitosis is divided into several stages, with the remainder of the cell's growth cycle considered interphase. Properly speaking, a typical cell cycle involves a series of stages: G1, the first growth phase; S, where the genetic material is duplicated; G2, the second growth phase; and M, where the nucleus divides through mitosis. Mitosis is divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

The whole procedure is very similar among most eukaryotes, with only minor variations. As prokaryotes lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere, they cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis.

Prophase

The genetic material (DNA), which normally exists in the form of chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome. Since the genetic material has been duplicated, there are two identical copies of each chromosome in the cell. Identical chromosomes (called sister chromosomes) are attached to each other at a DNA element present on every chromosome called the centromere. When chromosomes are paired up and attached, each individual chromosome in the pair is called a chromatid, while the whole unit (confusingly) is called a chromosome. Just to be even more confusing, when the chromatids separate, they are no longer called chromatids, but are called chromosomes again. The task of mitosis is to assure that one copy of each sister chromatid - and only one copy - goes to each daughter cell after cell division.

The other important piece of hardware in mitosis is the centriole, which serves as a sort of anchor. During prophase, the two centrioles - which replicate independently of mitosis - begin recruiting microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles) and forming a mitotic spindle between them. By increasing the length of the spindle (growing the microtubules), the centrioles push apart to opposite ends of the cell nucleus. It should be noted that many eukaryotes, for instance plants, lack centrioles although the basic process is still similar.

Prometaphase
Some biology texts do not include this phase, considering it a part of prophase. In this phase, the nuclear membrane dissolves in some eukaryotes, reforming later once mitosis is complete. This is called open mitosis, found in most multicellular forms. Many protists undergo closed mitosis, in which the nuclear membrane persists throughout.

Now kinetochores begin to form at the centromeres. This is a complex structure that may be thought of as an 'eyelet' for the microtubule 'rope' - it is the attaching point by which chromosomes may be secured. The kinetochore is an enormously complex structure that is not yet fully understood. Two kinetochores form on each chromosome - one for each chromatid.

When the spindle grows to sufficient length, the microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to.

Metaphase
As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores, they begin to line up in the middle of the cell. Proper segragation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a microtubule before separation begins. It is thought that unattached kinetochores control this process by generating a signal - the mitotic spindle checkpoint - that tells the cell to wait before proceeding to anaphase. There are many theories as to how this is accomplished, some of them involving the generation of tension when both microtubules are attached to the kinetochore.

When chromosomes are bivalently attached - when both kinetochores are attached to microtubules emanating from each centriole - they line up in the middle of the spindle, forming what is called the metaphase plate. This does not occur in every organism - in some cases chromosomes move back and forth between the centrioles randomly, only roughly lining up along the midline.

Anaphase

Anaphase is the stage of meiosis or mitosis when chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell (opposite ends of the nuclear spindle). Centromeres are broken and chromatids rip apart.

When every kinetochore is attached to a microtubule and the chromosomes have lined up along the middle of the spindle, the cell proceeds to anaphase. This is divided into two phases. First, the proteins that bind the sister chromatids together are cloven, allowing them to separate. They are pulled apart by the microtubules, towards the respective centrioles to which they are attached. Next, the spindle axis elongates, driving the centrioles (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. These two stages are sometimes called 'early' and 'late' anaphase.

At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations.

Telophase

The nonkinetochore microtubules elongate the cell and try to cut the cell in two. The nuclear envelopes start to become created by fragments of the parents cell’s nuclear envelope. Then, the chromatids start to become less tightly coiled together. By this point, cytokinesis is fully under way.

Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis refers to the physical division of one eukaryotic cell. Cytokinesis generally follows the replication of the cell's chromosomes, usually mitotically, but sometimes meiotically. Except for some special cases, the amount of cytoplasm in each daughter cell is the same. In animal cells, the cell membrane forms a cleavage furrow and pinches apart like a balloon. In plant cells, a cell plate forms, which becomes the new cell wall separating the daughters. Various patterns occur in other groups.

In plant cells, cytokinesis is followed through by the usage of contracting ring of microfilaments that pull the cleavage furrow within itself, cutting the cell in two. In plant cells, vesicles from the Golgi apparatus start to form a cell plate within the center of the cell. When this cell plate solidifies and connects the two ends of the cell, a new cell wall is created and two daughter cells are produced.

Regulation of Cell Cycle
Protein kinases are enzymes that activate or inactivate other proteins by phosphorylating them. These give out the signals for the G1 and G2 checkpoints to occur. However, to be active, the kinase must be attached to a cyclin. This is why it is called a CDK or a cyclin-dependent kinase.

Internal kinetochores exhibit a wait function. Not until all kinetochores are attached to a spindle microtubule does the cell process starts. This helps prevent some chromosomes from being left behind. Density dependent inhibition is when cells have a cue to multiply until a certain level of density is fulfilled. This means that a cell keeps multiplying until there is a full layer or until a certain level of pressure is built upon each other.

One possible explanation of why cancer cells do not follow normal signals is because they have an abnormality in the signaling pathway that conveys the growth factor’s signal to the cell-cycle control system. Usually, a cell will follow normal checkpoints due to the release of CDK in the system that regulate the cell process. However, in a cancer cell, the checkpoints are random. This means that because the cell does not follow density-dependent inhibition or follow the growth signals, the cell replicates at random points.

title: Cell Biology/Cell division/Mitosis


text:
Wikibooks:Transwiki log/Articles moved to here

Use ~ if the page was moved into our Transwiki: namespace (most likely).

(Please record both moves here)

July 2008

 * Transwiki:PCB layout guidelines merged into Practical Electronics/PCB Layout --DavidCary (talk) 00:22, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

September 2008

 * Transwiki:Windows 2000/XP hard drive migration to be merged somewhere.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:11, 8 September 2007 (UTC)

November 2008

 * Transwiki:Useful unix command from English Wikipedia, merging into Guide to UNIX and Guide to X11 --Kernigh 06:40, 23 November 2005 (UTC)
 * [[Image:Yes_check.svg|15px| ]] '-- CFeyecare '  Talk!   18:15, 19 November 2008 (UTC)


text:
Computer Programming/DOS Programming

About the platform
DOS, or Disk Operating System, can colloquially refer to any of a hundred different such operating systems. The name itself derives from it's ability to work with disks, a significant improvement over previous methods of storage. Generally this means the OS supplies a means of organizing, listing, reading, and writing files on the media.

MS-DOS was Microsoft's first Operating System. It was built upon QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System), which was deliberated modeled after Gary Kildall's CP/M. The original MS-DOS was simplistic and very difficult to use for the untrained. As time progressed, the interface remained essentially the same (keyboard on a text console), however it had some significant usability features (e.g. DOSKey) implemented as well.

MS-DOS retained the crown of most used DOS until Microsoft usurped its own OS with Windows, however there were other non-Microsoft disk operating systems (DOS) as well. DR-DOS was the primary competitor for MS-DOS and did fairly well until Windows 95 arrived. Afterwards, most people abandoned the non-GUI DOS system.

A few diehards continued to use DOS, however, and some have produced a version of DOS written under an Open Source license known as FreeDOS. Although abandoned by its "creator", DOS is still a stable and viable operating system, although it has been overshadowed by Windows and the most popular open source operating system, Linux.

DOS is still occasionally used on boot disks, so system recovery software may sometimes be written for DOS.

The most popular languages for use on the DOS platform, besides DOS batch files and Intel x86 Assembly Language, are C and BASIC.

See QEMU/FreeDOS and A Neutral Look at Operating Systems/DOS for more information about FreeDOS.

C/C++ Compilers
The main compiler for 32-bit DOS is DJGPP ( http://www.delorie.com/djgpp ). Nevertheless, 16 bit programs make up a substantial amount of the pre-Windows 95 program set, and so you may need to find a 16 bit compiler if you want to program on extremely old computers.

For the most part however, one can just use a 32 bit DOS extender, such as CWSDPMI.

Batch files
DOS allows the use of batch files, which are a collection or "batch" of DOS prompt commands stored in a file. When a user types in the filename (with or without the extension) of a batch file, DOS will perform each command listed in the .bat file, then return control to DOS.

Assembly Language
DOS comes with a low-level debugger called DEBUG. This allows debugging of an executable program which it loads into memory along with DEBUG. This is done by running DEBUG program at the DOS prompt, where program is the name of your program. DEBUG will work with .com and .exe executables. You must include the file extension in the filename when you call it using DEBUG. DEBUG does not work with .bat files.

DEBUG can also be run without a file to view CPU register contents, memory, and to assemble machine instructions directly into memory. A brief walkthrough of how to run DEBUG to view and change memory and registers, as well as assemble and run some basic machine instructions can be viewed here.

DOS MS-DOS/PC DOS入門 MS-DOS

title: Computer Programming/DOS Programming


text:
Wikibooks talk:Templates/Maintenance

I don't like the idea of a stub module, it doesn't sound professional, perhaps changing it to "under construction" would be better. Gentgeen 13:09, 16 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Does anyone notice the fact that the stub link currently goes to a nonexistent page, and the list under Find or fix a stub is empty? It seems, from my new-user perspective, that some administrative tasks need to be done here that haven't been... if you're going to have boilerplate stub text (which nobody, incidentally, seems to be using) it really ought to link to something that exists! Glenn Willen 13:43, 9 May 2004 (UTC)

rename and moveto confusion
It seems that the names of these two templates should be the other way round. --Wmheric (talk) 08:19, 9 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Templates/Maintenance


text: Talk:C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Variables


text:
User:Pulsar

Hello!

Je ne cause pas un traite mot d'anglais, enfin presque donc s'il vous plait écrivez moi en français. Merci d'avance.

Connaissance en Basic assembleur-X86, de bonnes notions des bases de données, mais seulement des rudiments dans les langages dédié actuels.

title: User:Pulsar


text:
Talk:Structured Query Language

General comments
"Maybe it would be a good idea create an entire book about databases and reference that as a requirement for learning SQL.."
 * I agree. The same would also go for having a book about Computer Programming as a prerequisite for learning C++. Noldoaran 03:21, 17 Dec 2003 (UTC)
 * See Programming:Database Programming. --Lathspell 23:41, 6 September 2006 (UTC)

You need to introduce language elements in their properly defined categories (DDL / DML/ DCL). Also, the section on relational database history is out of place. If you're going to talk about databases in general, put that section BEFORE any information on SQL itself, so that you can introduce SQL in that context. Also, you might consider removing the references to the term "relational", since many would argue that SQL DBMSs certainly are not.
 * Done. I left "relational" though as SQL is about relational (in the math sense) databases although maybe not about "relational in the strict sense of Codds 12 rules" (which probably nobody I personally know has ever read :)). Or where are the violations? --Lathspell 00:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

It would be helpful for readers to preface the two tracks with information about to evaluate which track of the two tracks to read?. What is the distinction between the standard and classic tracks? --DeCage (discuss • contribs) 15:42, 25 March 2019 (UTC)

 * The 'classic' track is the first version of this book. When I created a complete new version around 2012, I refused to overwrite the old one and created the additional 'standard' track. But my intention was - and is - replacing the 'classic' track completely. All concepts, topics, and syntax elements shall be contained in the new version. Therefore my question: does the 'classic' track has some advantages over the 'standard' track (as of today)? Shall we transfer special topics of 'classic' to 'standard' and then delete this version? Kelti (discuss • contribs) 08:57, 28 March 2019 (UTC)

 * I've mostly been working with the standard track. I don't know the 2 tracks well enough to understand whether or how to merge the two. In a quick comparison it looks like 'standard' has more complete explanations and 'classic' has a more reference and graphical approach. Maybe each approach is useful to different readers. dCage (discuss • contribs) 21:05, 2 April 2019 (UTC)

SQL Syntax?
Should SQL keywords like SELECT, WHERE, JOIN, ect be in all capitals in the examples? Some of them are, while others are in all lowercase. I feel as though this would make the syntax more readable and it is pretty much standard to do so anyway. --Nick Manley 03:10, 17 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Definetly yes! --Lathspell 06:41, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

Should we drop all these empty sections?
I suggest we gank all the empty sections. In the beginning, we just should just accumulate as much SQL-related material as we can, and then later try to organize it.
 * No empty sections visible? Already removed? --Lathspell 00:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

DBMS's
We should also mention IMB DB2 and MS SQL Server since these are also two major DBMS's --Nathan 21:35, 16 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Done. --Lathspell 00:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Factual Error?
Is text actually a SQL standard datatype?? --Nathan 21:34, 16 November 2005 (UTC)
 * No it's at least not in the SQL2003 standard. Replaced with "integer". --Lathspell 00:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

Revisions
I did some major revisions on the JOINS secion. I hope to continue and complete these changes --Nathan 20:35, 12 December 2005 (UTC)

I changed an error in the "ADDING DATA" section it was quantiy now it quantiy_available to match the code in the table creation. Also I note when I SELECT * FROM fruit; I get 1's in the second column. after checking the mysql reference it is probably due to not specifying the "precision and the scale" http://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/4.1/en/numeric-types.html I'm not sure if this is common with most kinds of SQL as I am just learning but... perhaps a note should be made --Caleb Wed May 24 20:42:40 EDT 2006

I reordered the introduction so that it now goes from Databases -> Relational Databases -> SQL -> SQL servers. The language commands were tried to be grouped into DDL and DML to make it easier for other people to find the right point for additions. --Lathspell 00:11, 7 September 2006 (UTC)

From IP talk page
I think that the assertion that SQL is "a method for specifying the means of requesting data..." is convoluted and incorrect. SQL isn't a method: it's a language. SQL also doesn't specify the means, or how to accomplish the task Rather, it specifies the ends: the desired or expected result of the operation. I added a more descriptive definition of SQL as a declarative language to further clarify this point.

I also removed the paragraph that incorrectly stated that SQL is non-programmable. Of course SQL is programmable, since it is after all a database programming language. I think the original author may have confused this term with non-procedural, which has quite a different meaning. In any case, I added a reference to the characteristics of procedural database languages to further clarify how the contrast between SQL as a declarative language. Further expansion of this topic could be useful to show the steps to perform a query using dBase/xBase code vs. SQL.

I also think the term metadata shouldn't be used without a definition or reference to its meaning, since it isn't a term that readers should be expected to know.

Introducing foreign keys without first discussing primary keys is not a very good idea. Foreign key specifications won't work without primary keys, so the CREATE TABLE example with the REFERENCES clause wouldn't ever work. Creating tables without primary keys is also a very bad example. I also noticed that primary keys are being used later in the examples, but with no prior description of them.

(thanks for moving my comments here - I'm a Wikibooks newbie). —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 76.175.21.1 (talk • contribs) 16:34, 24 Dec 2006 (UTC)

Expansion of SQL description
I added several examples of simple SQL commands to give the reader a quick overview of what SQL syntax actually looks like in practice. I also expanded the discussion of how SQL is used in context with other languages, with a brief introduction to two tier client/server processing and middleware libraries. Additional examples showing SQL used within these other language contexts might be useful, however it's probably time to create additional pages to go into these details. --Sqldbaguy 03:48, 25 December 2006 (UTC)

printable version problem
The queries example are in scroll panes on the printable version, they should be in regular wrappable cells. Please feel free to MOVE this notice to some other page but the problem should be addressed and I'd like to know where it should be. --DynV 00:43, 1 March 2007 (UTC)

Comment on proposed merging MySQL implementations into this book
I would recommend against discussing any relational database implementation syntaxes. It tends to become a black whole of comparisons, or separate segments of a chapter that would be better served as a separate version of the text. This book seems to focus squarely on the subject of the general concepts that are consistent the SQL standards, thus should be to all implementations. My feeling is that it is best to learn the standard then go on to learn implementation, of which I now have implemented projects on MySQL, Oracle & SQL Server. The MySQL book is developing on it's own. Merging MySQL has two problems, first it would make it more difficult for those trying find content only for MySQL and second it would make this book loose focus on what is common between all implementations of SQL. Compounding this is merging MySQL indicate content on Oracle, DB2, and SQL Server all need to be added since all three have larger market shares than MySQL (at least as of 2005). 69.149.16.104 02:03, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

Extensions
I have plans to create some more pages for our book during spring and summer 2012. You can find a first draft of TOC at my sandbox. Comments desired!

As I'm not a native English speaking person, I like to get your support concerning accurate phrasing. You may write directly into my sandbox. --Kelti (discuss • contribs) 12:45, 19 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Good news. I have several advices for you :)
 * SQL:2011 has been published three months ago. You have the chance to write documentation for this latest specification instead of the SQL:2008 specification.
 * I think you'd rather add your pages one by one directly in the final location instead of writing your pages in a sandbox. Each time a page is finished, you can add the page in the summary. The documentation would be improved in real time. If someone modifies an existing page, you won't have to merge the content. And you know "Motivation lack always strikes when it shouldn't" :) To be sure your work will be merged one day, merge your work constantly.
 * Good contributions. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 20:18, 22 March 2012 (UTC)

I have finished the first block of five additional pages and will integrate them to the book mid of May. Please review them (content and my poor english phrasing) by correcting the text directly in my sandbox and give me feedback in discussion pages. Here is the link: User:Kelti/sandbox --Kelti (discuss • contribs) 10:02, 9 May 2012 (UTC)
 * OK. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 01:07, 11 May 2012 (UTC)

Further Extensions
I plan to merge the book at end of 2013 with the content of my sandbox and its subpages. There are ten new pages, which overlaps in form and content with existing pages. As my work is not finished I leave the old pages 'as is'. In the new version preliminary there will be two tracks: the 'classic track' with the unchanged, actual pages and the new 'evolving track' with the new pages. I/we shall move the classic track to the evolving track, so that it gets superfluous one day.

Some more comments: --Kelti (discuss • contribs) 19:51, 16 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I use a new data model with 4 tables. I think this one is easierer to understand and at the same time an example of all possible relationships: 1:n and n:m.
 * I have tested all statements against MySQL and Oracle. If possible, please test against MS SQL Server, db2 and postgres.
 * The new pages focus on textual explanations, examples and exercises. The SQL syntax is of course also presented, but is not a priority.
 * Please review the new pages (content and especially my poor english phrasing) by correcting the text directly in my sandbox.
 * I will read that. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 21:18, 16 December 2013 (UTC)

Who is supposed to be target audience of this wikibook?
Because it looks extremely hermetic - mostly for tech geeks and academics. Nimdil (discuss • contribs) 10:06, 14 December 2017 (UTC)

 * In fact we tried to find a compromise between technical accuracy and feuetonistic length of the textual representation. This is done in the hope to address the (expected) typically reader of an IT related Wikibook: persons with a mid-term or even long-term interest on the topic ('junior geeks'). They differ from a typical Wikipedia user which seeks for a short-term explanation, e.g.: DB2 return codes, and from a Wikiversitiy user which seeks for general principles, e.g. relational algebra.

 * At the same time we focused the content to the books title: pure SQL standard - no implementation aspects, no performance aspects, no theory.

 * How can we improve the book?
 * More detailed explanations in the text?
 * More examples?
 * Something else?
 * My observation is, that the more complex issues like 'window functions' are retrieved only by few readers. The basic issues have a higher page recall.
 * Kelti (discuss • contribs) 09:19, 15 December 2017 (UTC)

Standard and Classic Tracks : integration or maintain : discussions and actions
Hi all, This topic is created to discuss how to move forward with the Standard and Classic tracks.

In the Extensions and Further Extensions topics on this discussion page, a plan to merge the two tracks is described. This seems like a good plan to move forward with. Both tracks have positive features and cover the same knowledge domain.

The Standard track uses a consistent set of example tables throughout. This is helpful to the reader. The examples are nice. The exercises at the end of sections is helpful. The shorter sections are useful for the reader to learn a bit at a time.

The Classic track has a good introductory overview of relational databases. It also has a more visual display of tables and displays results so the reader can verify the commands on their own database system. Also the classic track is organized on by the main sections of the SQL language: Data Query Language, Data Manipulation Language, and Data Definition Language.

Each of the above distinctions are positive qualities and there are probably others too. Integrating these 2 tracks could make a stronger single track by combining these positive features.

Does this look like a good thing to do or are there other approaches?

DeCage (discuss • contribs) 17:44, 16 May 2019 (UTC)

 * I'm in favour of such a merge. The topics listed by DeCage are important - and I want to add a minor aspect. If you check the number of readers, you will recognize that only the first and second page of the classic track shows significant interest of the public. Therefor we can concentrate our efford to this two pages. And the last page 'DB2 Return Codes' shall not be part of the SQL wikibook - it describes an issue of one specific implementation. Concerning return codes SQL uses SQLSTATE. --Kelti (discuss • contribs) 14:05, 29 May 2019 (UTC)

 * The new start-page is reduced to the standard track. It contains two pages with introductory information about relational DBMS; it is structured for DQL, DCL, DML, and DDL; the used four tables are visualized in an ER-model; the tables are used in a consistent way for all examples and exercises. IMO we don't miss any critical text of the classic track. Please let me know if you believe that something important is lost. --Kelti (discuss • contribs) 10:08, 6 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Structured Query Language


text:
Russian/Useful Words and Expressions

 * До́брое у́тро (Dobroye utro) :good morning
 * До́брый день (Dobriy den) :good day
 * До́брый ве́чер (Dobriy vecher) :good evening
 * Здра́вствуйте (Zdravstvuyte) :it's a kind of universal greeting, you can use it 24 hours a day, though only once per day to the same person. formal.
 * Споко́йной но́чи (Spokoynoy nochi) :good night (literally, 'peaceful night')
 * Приве́т (Privyet) :hi. informal.
 * До свида́ния (Do svidanya) :good bye
 * Пока́ (Poka) :bye; also used as English "until": подождите, пока я приду (wait until I come)

 * Пожа́луйста (Pozhalusta) :please; also used for saying "you are welcome" as an abreviation of "please think nothing of it"
 * Спаси́бо (Spasiba) :thanks

 * Прошу́ проще́ния (Proshu proshcheniya) :I'm sorry / excuse me (formal)
 * Извини́те (Izvinitye) :I'm sorry / excuse me (informal)

 * Да (Da) :yes
 * Нет (Nyet) :no / not

 * Как дела́? (Kak dyela?) :How are you?
 * Хорошо́. (Kharasho) :Fine/ Good

 * Я бу́ду борщ с больши́м коли́чеством смета́ны (в рестора́не) (Ya budu borshcht s bal'shim kalichistvuhm smitany (fristarani)) :I'll take borshch with lots of sour cream (in the restaurant).

 * Как Вас зову́т? (Kak Vas zovut?) :What is your name? (lit. "What do [they] call you?")
 * Меня́ зову́т... (Menya zovut...) :My name is... (lit. "[they] call me ...")
 * Когда́ Вы родили́сь/роди́лись? (Kogda Vy rodilis?) :When were you born?
 * Где Вы родили́сь/роди́лись? (Gdye Vy rodilis?) :Where were you born?
 * Где Вы живёте? (Gdye Vy zhivyotye?) :Where do you live?
 * Кто Вы? (Kto Vy?) :Who are you?
 * Где Вы? (Gdye Vy?) :Where are you?
 * Где Вы у́читесь? (Gdye Vy u chityes?) :Where do you study?
 * Ру́сский язы́к о́чень краси́вый. (Russkiy yazyk ochen' krasivy) :The Russian language is very beautiful.
 * Я Вас люблю́. (Ya Vas lublyu.) :I love you.
 * Я хочу́ есть. (Ya khochu yest'.) :I'm hungry (I want to eat).
 * Я хочу́ пить. (Ya khochu pit'.) :I'm thirsty (I want to drink).
 * Мне ну́жен перево́дчик. (Mne nuzhen pervodchik.) :I need an interpreter/translator.

title: Russian/Useful Words and Expressions


text:
Russian/Contents

Moscow-city2007.JPG

Moscow, the capital of Russia ]] The Russian Wikibook is a collaborative effort to create a comprehensive textbook for learners of the Russian language. Russian is an East Slavic language, related to Ukrainian and Belarusian, and is spoken by over 270 million people worldwide. This book includes four sections: a main text curriculum, a grammar supplement, an appendix, and a vocabulary. The main text guides the student through the lessons and provides everything to understand the texts that are to be understood. The grammar supplement provides a greater detail into the concepts presented in the lessons. The appendix is there to refer to for usage and other miscellaneous concepts. The vocabulary groups words into concept-based sections for studying.

Содержа́ние (Contents)

 * Предисло́вие (Foreword)
 * Áзбука (Alphabet)

Гла́вы (Chapters)

 * 1) Как тебя́ зову́т? (What is  your name?)
 * 2) Lesson 2  - Introducing yourself.
 * 3) Lesson 3  - Basic Grammar.
 * 4) Lesson 4  - Vocabulary.
 * 5) Lesson 5  - Text.

Грамма́тика (Grammar)

 * Introduction
 * Articles
 * Gender
 * Cases
 * Nominative
 * Genitive
 * Dative
 * Accusative
 * Instrumental
 * Prepositional
 * Adjectives
 * Pronouns
 * Interrogative Pronouns
 * Personal Pronouns
 * Possessive Pronouns
 * Verbs
 * Verbal Aspect
 * Past tense
 * Future tense
 * Adverbs
 * What and Which

Приложе́ние (Аppendix)

 * Russian Names
 * Alphabet
 * False Friends
 * Cursive
 * Loanwords
 * Prepositions

Слова́рь (Vocabulary)

 * Vocabulary
 * Numbers
 * Geographical names
 * Useful Words and Expressions

Miscellaneous resources

Internet Resources

Contributors

Russisch Ρωσικά Russisch Rosyjski Enseignement du russe רוסית 俄语

title: Russian/Contents


text:
User:Mxn/Vietnamese

=Draft 1= Following is a draft outline of the planned Vietnamese Wikibook. These planned articles are pitifully out of order – I'd like them to be ordered by difficulty, and have one lead into the other, like an academic course would.

Note: This list has been modified and placed in a Table of Contents.

I plan to use some of the content on Học với Tôi, one of my websites, in this textbook.

=Draft 2=

This time, I'm going to aim at a more structured plan. The current Vietnamese book will be split into three levels, according to difficulty and amount of usage. Each book will have a goal (preliminary goals are stated below).

Each book – often more than once within the book – the same topic is repeated. Each time it is repeated, it is either a review, or a deeper look at the topic.

In the end, I'd like each chapter to have a title in Vietnamese, at least three exercises (or should the goal be two exercises until the next draft?), and

This plan won't take effect until the current book gets a decent amount of lessons started (half of them?). It'll probably also require that someone else helps me out.

I'm basing this plan on the experience I've had for three years so far, learning Spanish. If you have any questions, reservations, doubts, clarifications needed, comments, compliments, or flames – just kidding – feel free to respond on this page's Talk Page.

Level 1: Chào!
This book will get you started. It will focus on basic phrases, vocabulary, and structure. By the end, you should know enough to visit a Vietnamese community (not necessary in Vietnam) for a day and be able to minimally communicate with the people there.

Introduction

 * About the authors
 * History: do we really need this at the intro level, or can we have this as a cultural note later on?
 * Pros & cons

The Basics
The essential stuff that you need to know before you begin with vocabulary and grammar. Lessons:

 * Alphabet
 * Consonants
 * Vowels
 * Tones: just an introduction to tones and tone marks; we'll build on this lesson extensively later on
 * Numbers (single-digit)
 * Colors

Chào!
Starting a conversation by introducing yourself. Lessons:

 * Greetings
 * Introducing yourself
 * Saying goodbye

Cultural note:
 * The handshake: taking a look at shaking hands with others, as opposed to the tradition of bowing

Tôi Là... (?)
Describing yourself.

 * Age
 * Numbers (double-digit)
 * Physical characteristics (height, build, hair, facial characteristics)
 * Clothes: just enough to describe someone (red shirt, blue jeans, white cap)
 * Nationality

...

Cái Gì?
Asking questions. Lessons:

 * Interrogative pronouns (question words)

...

Level 2: Hàng Ngày
This intermediate-level book will expand on the vocabulary and structures introduced in Level 1. It will focus on everyday situations and tasks. By the end, you should be able to spend a few weeks (is that too much?) in Vietnam, communicating with the people around you.

Phòng Ngủ
The bedroom.

Phòng Tắm
(Or should we call it Phòng Cầu Tiêu?) The bathroom, its fixtures, toiletries, and so on.

 * Fixtures
 * Toiletries & associated actions

Phòng Bếp
The kitchen.

 * Appliances & associated actions

Ngon Lắm!
Learning about Vietnamese food. This is basically a cultural chapter (but it, of course, has tons of vocabulary), and an extension of possible cultural notes that could appear well before here.

 * Rice dishes
 * Soup
 * Sandwiches
 * Snacks
 * Beverages

This section should be so good that everyone who takes a course using this book should look forward to this section in particular. This would be a good opportunity for an instructor using this course to take the students on a field trip to a Vietnamese restaurant

Cultural note: We'll take a look at how the Vietnamese typically do not assign specific dishes to certain meals during the day (for example, eating phở or cháo (porridge) for breakfast, lunch, and/or dinner).

Nhà Hàng
Eating at the restaurant. (Or could we call it Tiệm ăn?)

 * Ordering food
 * Payment: we'll likely introduce the money topic earlier on

Level 3
This is the advanced academic-level book. By the end, you should be able to study various subjects in Vietnamese, such as mathematics and science.

Level 4
This is the highly-advanced book. By the end of this book, you should be able to read modern Vietnamese literature and study in Vietnamese.

title: User:Mxn/Vietnamese


text:
Cookbook:One-Hour Thanksgiving Dinner

This recipe is for an entire thanksgiving dinner that takes one hour to cook. The recipe uses various pre-cooked ingredients and instant foods, and is designed for those cooking Thanksgiving dinner for the first time, such as college students.

Ingredients

 * 1 ea. 5–6 lb fully pre-cooked smoked turkey breast (see notes)
 * 2 cans of desired vegetables
 * 1–2 package(s) of instant potatoes or stuffing
 * 1 package of 12 instant frozen biscuits
 * 1 package of turkey gravy mix
 * Nonstick cooking spray or vegetable oil

 * 1 pre-made pumpkin pie (optional)
 * 1–2 cans cranberry sauce (optional)

Equipment

 * 1 small disposable aluminum turkey pan with built-in rack
 * Probe thermometer

Procedure

 * 1) Thaw the frozen turkey breast for one day in the refrigerator.
 * 2) Preheat the oven to 350°F.
 * 3) Remove turkey from bag and place in aluminum roasting pan. Spray the turkey with cooking spray, or rub the breast with it vegetable oil.
 * 4) Place turkey breast in the oven on the middle rack, and cook for 15 minutes.
 * 5) Begin preparing the gravy mix according to package directions.
 * 6) Place the vegetables on the stove over low heat.
 * 7) Prepare the instant potatoes or stuffing according to the package directions.
 * 8) On a small pan lay out your frozen biscuits allowing them to touch one another. At this point the turkey breast should have been cooking for 30 minutes.
 * 9) Place the frozen biscuits on the lower rack of the oven. The biscuits will cook just fine with the turkey in the oven and will be ready in 25–30 minutes. Check them after 20 minutes to be sure they do not burn.
 * 10) Finish preparing your instant potatoes or stuffing, instant gravy, and vegetables. Place them in serving dishes if desired.
 * 11) Place the cranberry sauce in a serving dish. If you are serving pie along with the dinner you will also need to place the pie on a serving dish. If a frozen pie has been purchased, follow the instructions for reheating
 * 12) After 1 hour of cooking, remove the turkey and check the internal temperature with a thermometer to make sure it has reached 160°F (the minimum temperature necessary to kill any remaining bacteria).
 * 13) Carve the turkey and serve with all of the prepared side dishes.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Turkey breast: certain brands are readily available in almost every U.S. supermarket, but they must be fully-cooked frozen turkey breast, as they will only be cooked for 1 hour. The words "heat and serve" may be on the package. Avoid processed turkey breast loaf.
 * Biscuits: The frozen home-baked butter variety works best. It is important that the biscuits in a can are not used.
 * There are many uses for the leftover turkey. Sliced turkey leftovers can be used to make sandwiches or turkey biscuits.
 * The portion along the bone can be used to prepare turkey soup by placing it in a soup pot along with 4 cups of water, 1 chopped onion, 2 tablespoons salt, and pepper to taste. Bring to a boil, then lower the heat and allow to simmer for 2 hours. Add another cup of water, spices to taste, vegetables such as carrots or potatoes, and noodles. Simmer for an additional hour and a half.

title: Cookbook:One-Hour Thanksgiving Dinner


text:
Indonesian/Important Phrases

These are some of the most commonly used words and phrases.

Common phrases
⁂ Click here for more information on Standard Indonesian phonology, how it differs from Standard Malay phonology. Vowel reduction is evident in modern Indonesian phonology due to the influence of Javanese.

Helpful vocabulary for asking about words
When you're trying to find the right word, these can help you ask for suggestions:
 * same → sama
 * almost the same → hampir sama / mirip
 * antonym → lawan kata

If you forget these, you can fall back on: Sinonim and antonim are not common words, but they are easy to remember, many Indonesian speakers understand them, and they can be helpful in your early stages of trying to communicate.
 * sinonim → synonym
 * antonim → antonym

Kata-kata Penting (Important Phrases)
Lost traveller's guide for important phrases.

 * Thank you → Terima kasih
 * Yes → Ya
 * No, not → Tidak (used to negate anything but nouns)
 * No, Not a X → Bukan X (where X is a noun)
 * Sorry → Maaf
 * Excuse me → Permisi
 * Never mind / It's okay → Tidak apa-apa
 * Okay → Baik
 * Please (to let other people pass) → Silahkan
 * Please (to order something) → Tolong
 * Please give me X → Tolong berikan saya X

 * My name is X → Nama saya X
 * I am from Y → Saya dari Y
 * Where is Z? → Di mana Z?
 * Where is X embassy? → Di mana kedutaan X?
 * I lost my passport → Paspor saya hilang (Literally, my passport is lost)
 * Taxi → Taksi (almost the same pronunciation)
 * Where are you going? → Ke mana? (Literally = to where?)
 * To X? → Ke X
 * Turn left → Belok kiri
 * Turn right → Belok kanan
 * Go straight ahead → Lurus (Terus)
 * There / Over there → Di situ

 * What's this/that? → Apa ini/itu? (pointing to something)
 * I want to see it. → Saya mau lihat itu
 * How much? → Berapa?
 * How much is this/that? → Berapa ini/itu?
 * Too expensive → Kemahalan
 * Give me a lower price → Kurang sedikit harganya
 * Cannot → Tidak bisa

Time
These are the words used to deal with almost any situation involving past or future. If neither word is used, it likely means that the action is happening around now.
 * sudah (already)
 * belum (not yet)

title: Indonesian/Important Phrases


text:
Japanese/Contents

= Phrase =

 * Japanese Phrasebook
 *  Everyday Phrases

Introductions

 * Japanese/Cover
 * Japanese/Introduction
 * Japanese/Introduction/About
 * Japanese/Study methods
 * Japanese/Contributor's Guide

Linguistics

 * Japanese/Pronunciation
 * Japanese/Pitch accent
 * Japanese/Dialects
 * Special:PrefixIndex/Japanese/Dialects
 * Japanese/Grammar

Reading and writing

 * Japanese/Japanese writing system
 * Japanese/Kana Chart
 * Japanese/Kana
 * Japanese/Kanji
 * Special:PrefixIndex/Japanese/Kanji

Reading practice

 * Japanese/Reader

Vocabulary

 * Special:PrefixIndex/Japanese/Vocabulary

 * Japanese/Vocabulary
 * /Vocabulary
 * Japanese/Vocabulary/Everyday Phrases

Nouns

 * Japanese/Grammar/Nouns

Verbs

 * Japanese/Grammar/Verbs — An overview of classes and forms.
 * Japanese/Verb conjugation table.
 * Japanese/Grammar/Verbs/te form
 * Japanese/Grammar/Verbs/te form/iru
 * Japanese/Lesson Progressive/Answers - should probably be deleted. Quiz is trivial.
 * Japanese/Grammar/Transitivity
 * Japanese/Lesson Conditional
 * Japanese/Lesson/Simultaneous action
 * Japanese/Grammar/~あげく（に）

Adjectives

 * * Japanese/Grammar/Adjectives Still a bit rough, but good enough to put on the front page.

Pronouns

 * Japanese/Lessons/Personal pronouns

Particles

 * Japanese/Grammar/Basic Particles は, が, を, に, へ, か, の, と や, も, で, から, まで, より
 * Japanese/Grammar/Sentence ending particles か, の, ね, よ, ぞ, な, な, かな & かしら, ぜ, わ, さ
 * Japanese/Lessons/Other uses of particles Combining particles, simple clauses and various other little bits.

Counters

 * Japanese/Grammar/Counters

Pro-forms

 * Japanese/Grammar/Pro-forms

Others, Sentence Patterns

 * Japanese/Lesson Relative Clauses
 * Japanese/Lesson/Where is it?
 * Japanese/Grammar/Grammar Assorted
 * Japanese/Grammar/~ほど
 * Japanese/Lessons/Assembling simple sentences (lists a few sentence structures in an introductory fashion)

Giving and receiving

 * Japanese/Lesson Giving and Receiving

Time and day

 * Japanese/Lessons/Days Maybe rename as "Days of the month" or "Dates"
 * Japanese/Lesson/Telling time

Formality and honorifics

 * Japanese/Grammar/Honorifics — includes formal/informal verb forms.
 * Japanese/Grammar/Honorific prefixes — includes prefixes attached to nouns to show respect.
 * Japanese/Grammar/Politeness — word choices in different levels of formality.
 * Japanese/Grammar/Writing
 * Japanese/Lessons/Personal suffixes and name usage

Comparisons

 * Japanese/Grammar/Comparisons

= Lessons =

 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Yes and no
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ogenki desu ka/Questions using ka — Very short. Only discusses the question marker "か".

Copula, existence and predicates

 * Japanese/Elementary Japanese/Lesson 2 (undeveloped) AはBです
 * Japanese/Lesson/What is that?
 * Japanese/Basic Japanese/Answers/Lesson 2
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Noun predicates
 * Japanese/Existence and Copula
 * Japanese/Lesson/Existence

Introductions and greetings

 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formal salutations answers answers

Adjectives

 * Japanese/Lessons/I-adjectives — Needs more examples to match the な-adjectives.
 * Japanese/Lessons/Na-adjectives
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Ii tenki desu ne/Talking about the weather — Undeveloped; discusses describing the weather (( は) 天気 ですね. ) and "ね".

Numbers

 * Japanese/Numbers
 * Japanese/Lessons/Lesson 3 Inquiring about phone numbers and age.

Miscellaneous

 * Japanese/Lesson/Asking for something
 * Japanese/Lesson/Giving directions
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Konnichiwa/Formality — Informal greetings and discussion on when these are acceptable.
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Lesson 1/Unit 1-4/Answers
 * Japanese/Lessons/Introduction/Amerika-jin desu ka/Foreign loan words
 * Japanese/Lessons/Word list 1 "This is the list of words you should have learned during the first five weeks of this course."
 * Japanese/Mini-tutorial lesson — Phrases and conversation at a restaurant.

= Structure/Lesson Plans/Syllabus =
 * Japanese/Practical Lessons
 * Japanese/Practical Lessons/Syllabus
 * Japanese/Lessons/Basic (content for about ten lessons)
 * Sugu ni Hajimemashō

Users

 * User:Balloonguy/Japanese — A discussion about the rearrangement of contents. (precedes this overhaul and is somewhat outdated by it)
 * User:Telamon~enwikibooks/Japanese — A single page with greetings.
 * User:Helpfulstuffnz/Japanese — A restructuring of the old main page.
 * User:Mkn/Japanese — A new book, never got past an introduction and a page on Japanese scripts.
 * User:Retropunk/Japanese_Curriculum (in active development 01:20, 14 November 2008 (UTC) )
 * User talk:Nesnad/sandbox Nesnad's Quick Start Japanese.

Links and resources
These should be found place on pages where are relevant.
 * w:Category:Japanese language tests)
 * Japanese/Internet Links
 * Japanese/Software

Commons

 * commons:Category:Japanese pronunciation
 * commons:Commons:CJK stroke order project

Meta

 * Japanese/Discussion
 * Japanese/Discussion/Archives:December, 2005
 * Japanese/Discussion/Archives:September, 2005
 * Japanese/Q&A
 * Japanese/Q&A/Archive 1

Templates

 * /Templates

 * Template:Furi
 * Template:Japanese example
 * Template:Japanese vocabulary entry
 * Template:Japanese related
 * Template:Japanese kana
 * Template:Japanese kanji readings

Just an idea...
... tell me what you think.
 * Template:Japanese verb style

Navigation

 * Template:Janav (There is nothing on this, so far, but the look is nice and we might as well base a book-wide navigation on this ... if we choose to use a book-wide navigation template at all.)
 * Template:Japanese kana navigation
 * Template:第三夜Nav

Meta

 * Template:Japanese obsolete
 * Template:Japanese todo

Ruby
These are out-dated and should be replaced with furi when used in Japanese text, but kept for general use elsewhere on Wikibooks.

 * Template:Ruby (should be kept)
 * Template:Ruby-2 (not really that useful. Delete)

Not sure what to do about these:
 * Template:Rubywikt
 * Template:Rubywikt-2

Not Japanese language

 * Japanese/Background Japan (should be a separate book or merged introduction)

title: Japanese/Contents


text: Elements of Art

title: Elements of Art


text:
Cookbook:Household Cyclopedia Sauces

Below are a number of recipes from the cookbook The Household Cyclopedia by Henry Hartshorne (1881), reworked for modern directions and units of measure. The original recipes can be found within their book.

title: Cookbook:Household Cyclopedia Sauces


text:
Elements of Art/Introduction

Audience (who the book is for)
Students, producers and consumers of diverse forms of art, including but not limited to painting, drawing and sculpture, who would like to know more about the elements and theory of their specific art and art in general. This book is also for those who have an interest in the history of art. It will be richly illustrated, so that the facts and concepts it contains will be comprehended by children and adults, and be within their interest levels.

Purpose (why it might be used)
Elements of Art is designed to be used as a reference book. It is also a teaching book, to be consulted with other and more advanced/specialised resources on the subject, including textbooks that people may already be using. It can be a 'cram book' for examinations and tests, or a 'coffee table' book to take to the museum, library or keep at home.

Form (the shape of the book)
Chapters explaining (describing, analysing) the form, content and structure of particular elements of art, as well as general concepts reinforced throughout the book, and at the end of a section. Generally they are designed to build upon one another.

Thus, there are chapters about line, colour, dimensionality (2-D forms of art like drawing and painting, and 3-D like sculpture) and shape.

General Questions about Art (five Ws and a H-hopefully will be answered throughout the book, by clicking on specific links)
WHO WHAT WHERE WHEN WHY and HOW

What are the elements of art? How many elements? What are the forms of art? What is the difference between two-dimensional art? What is line? What is colour? How is line used? How is colour used? What is a dimension? What are the components of two dimensions? Of three? How can I show emotion? What have artists used to show emotion? What have artists used to show senses?

Who is an artist? Who created the first art?

Where was the first art created? Where were major art developments? Where can I go and see (hear/touch/taste/smell) art? Where can I go and learn more about art? Where do I start?

When was the first art created? When were the major art developments? When is an artwork complete?

Why do we create art? Why do we need art? Why do we respond to elements? Why use line/colour/whatever there and not here?

http://SeaCloud9.org This web site is dedicated to the latest technological advancements, open source code, and cutting edge multimedia art.

title: Elements of Art/Introduction


text:
Elements of Art/Line

What is line?
In art, line is the continuous movement of a mark from dot to dot.

An identifiable path created by a point moving in space.

Examples of line usage:

Tughra of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent

Leonardo Da Vinci's The Head of the Virgin in Three-Quarter View Facing Right

Francisco Goya's Plate 43 from 'Los Caprichos': The sleep of reason produces monsters

Lines of direction
The ability to manipulate a line includes suggesting its direction. There is no limit to a created line and below are the most common and basic types.

Horizontal
Horizontal lines generally travel from left to right and are relative to the horizon. In art, it often establishes a feeling of rest as well as develops a ground in space.

Vertical
Vertical lines travel up and down; they're perpendicular to horizontal lines. They often emphasize height and, in art, leads the eye from bottom to top and vice versa.

Diagonal
Diagonal lines are angled and can either be an incline or decline slope. Artistically, they can be described as "unbalanced" and are considered neither horizontal nor vertical.

Patterns can be created by using any of these lines, especially combining them, and manipulating them to produce variations.

Lines of length
Lines can be short or long.

Short lines
Short lines are lines that only extend for a short distance.

Long lines
Long lines are lines that extend for a longer distance than a short line would.

Lines of thickness
The thickness or thinness of a line can be achieved by using different materials. A ballpoint pen will create a thinner line than a big marker. Thick and thin lines are used to express different meanings in the work being creative. Using both Thick and thin lines together helps pull together a more cohesive work of art.

Thick lines
Thick lines give the appearance of strength and allow a supportive quality to the lines around them. They tend to stand out and grab the eye's attention.

Thin lines
Thin lines appear frail as if they can break under the slightest pressure. Thin lines give the piece a sense of elegance and lightness.

Putting lines together
There are many ways to put lines together.

One of the simplest is to join a horizontal and a vertical line. A square is two horizontal lines and two vertical lines.

Many lines can be put together to make a shading effect. An example of this is cross-hatching, where many small horizontal lines are put over many small vertical lines. This gives a realistic effect.

Putting curved lines together can create organic shapes unlike the vertical and horizontal lines which create a point.

Effect of lines
Line creates movement and emotion in an artwork.

Lines of movement
Lines can often give an artwork a sense of movement. For example, organic lines can create a sense of flowing movement, while geometric line can create a rigid feel or no movement in an artwork. Implied line can aid in guiding the viewers eye around an artwork, this is a form of movement in itself. The viewers eyes are moved by the implied line around the artwork. Repeated lines can create a vibration movement in an artwork.

An example of implied line moving a viewer through an artwork can be seen in Raphael Sanzio's 'School of Athens'. The structure if the building create lines that unconsciously force the viewer to move through the painting and eventually to the focal point, the two men in the middle of the painting. As you can see there are 'lines' all leading to the direction of these men.

Lines of emotion
There are a variety of different lines in art that all protrude some form of emotions. Organic, wavy lines create a mood of peacefulness and are softer on the viewer. While straight lines can have more harsh emotion for example power or anger. Vertical lines can also depict the same more hard emotions. Horizontal line are more peaceful than vertical lines. Diagonal lines create a sense of motion.

An example of line protruding emotion can be seen in Van Gogh's 'Wheat field with Cypresses' The horizontal, curvy lines, created by the landscape and Van Gogh's visible brush strokes, sets the mood of the painting. The line creates a sense of calmness and tranquility.

title: Elements of Art/Line


text:
Botany/Magnoliophyta

<< Contents Page | Chapter 14 | Chapter 15 | Chapter 16 >>

Chapter 15. Magnoliophyta (I)

The Division Magnoliophyta in the Kingdom Plantae comprises those species of plants that were formerly classified as angiosperms and are known widely as the flowering plants. You have already studied flowers (Chapter 4), so now understand that the Division Magnoliophyta comprises all those species of plants that have flowers. For perspective: all of the plants we have read about in Section II of the Botany Study Guide up to this point do not have flowers, but certainly do have reproductive structures. We also know that flowers are the reproductive structures of the plants that bear them, and that reproductive structures are not limited to flowering plants. Thus, "flowers" are structures that distinguish plants in the Division Magnoliophyta from plants in the other divisions of the Kingdom Plantae. Observe a flower, and you know you are examining an angiosperm. However, not all angiosperms have obvious, showy flowers. You will need to consider that the structure of a flower is quite variable across all the many species of angiosperms (about a quarter million have been identified) and a few flowering plants actually seldom flower. However, angiosperm botanists put great stock in the structure of flowers as a way of classifying plants—more than any other part of a plant, the flower provides the basis for placement of a species in subtaxa (classes, orders, and families) of the Division Magnoliophyta.

The Division Magnoliophyta is split into two large classes: the Magnoliopsida and the Liliopsida.

 * Read Flowering plants ( The following links are included )
 * Reread cotyledon article
 * Read dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida)
 * Read monocotyledons (Liliopsida)
 * Read How to distinguish monocots and dicots and follow any links that you are uncertain about

There are over 300 families and 250,000 species of flowering plants. The remainder of this chapter will be concerned with the dicotyledonous angiosperms (Class Magnoliopsida), leaving the monocotyledonous angiosperms to be covered in the next chapter.

Flower evolution
Conifers are pollinated by wind, meaning they must produce a large amount of pollen grains for only a few to arrive at the female megaspore, resulting in fertilization. An advancement that allowed for higher rates of fertilization per energy expended in making pollen would surely result in that new plant type being prolific and even dominant. However, a single mutation would never result in a flower adequately adapted to spread pollen using animals. Flowers are the result of a special kind of evolution called co-evolution.

If plants reproduced and thrived with wind pollination, why did flowers evolve?

Suppose one wind pollinated plant began to have its' pollen eaten by an animal, for example a beetle. Then suppose the beetle spreads the pollen from the male cones to the female cones while looking for pollen because it can't tell the difference between the male and female cones; it searches both, spreading pollen from the male to the female in doing so. This plant has an advantage over all wind pollinated plants, because of a higher rate of fertilization. Any mutation that leads to pollen being spread by an animal soon becomes prevalent within a species, because the plant pollinated by an animal is more efficient. The plant and the animal rely on each other, one for food, the other for reproduction. Any mutation in the animal that helps pollinate the plant will become prolific through natural selection, just as mutations that favor feeding the insect or making the insect come to the flower will be dominant. This back and forth evolution results in such seemingly improbable structures as flowers that look like female moths that are pollinated by amorous male moths, or flowers and bird beaks that complement the feeding of the bird and the pollination of the flowers.

Class Magnoliopsida (dicots)
Members of the Class Magnoliopsida are defined partly on the basis of the seed or seedling having two cotyledons, most obvious at germination. But the differences between dicots and monocots are many, and we will be able to recognize most flowering plants that we encounter as belonging to one or the other class without having to dissect the seed or observe the seedling.

title: Botany/Magnoliophyta


text:
Elements of Art/Shape

SHAPE
Shapes are created with lines in a given space, either real or imaginary. Shapes can be endlessly rotated. Shapes may be organic (curved, freeform, similar to nature) or geometric (rigid, having definite properties).

Circle
A circle is a shape with only one side created from a single, continuously curved line which encompasses the whole of the shape.

Triangle
A triangle is a shape comprised of three straight lines which meet at three endpoints - the bottom side is horizontal, and the other two sides are diagonal, meeting each other at a point.

Square
A square is a shape which is made of four straight lines which intersect at four points at 90 degree angles: the top and bottom lines are parallel to one another, as are the two lines comprising the sides of the square. In a square, each of the sides is the exact length of the other sides (a rectangle is a different shape where the opposing sides are equal in length; thus, all squares are rectangles but not all rectangles are squares.)

Pentagon
A shape with 5 sides. The bottom side is horizontal, there are two vertical sides that are parallel, and the two top sides are diagonal. A common use of the pentagon is to draw a house.

Hexagon
A shape with six sides. 4 sides are diagonal and 2 are horizontal.

Star
The most common type of star is made of five triangles, each connected to a side of a pentagon by the bottom side. The lines forming the pentagon may or may not be drawn. Stars can also be drawn with four, six, or more points.

Three-dimensional forms
Three-dimensional shapes are not flat; instead, they create depth which creates form and the shapes appear touchable.

Sphere
A round figure where every point on its surface is an equal distance from the center.

Examples: ball and globe.

Cone
A solid or hollow object that tapers from a circular base to a point. It is a geometric shape formed from the base with lines that connect to one common point.

Examples: funnel, traditional ice cream cone, traffic cones, and classic party hats.

Pyramid
A structure whose sides are made of triangles attached to each other by the sides and a base shape by the bottom. The base of a pyramid may be a triangle or a square.

Example: the Great Pyramid of Giza

Cube
A cube has 8 endpoints, 12 edges and 6 faces. At every endpoint 3 lines intersect, and at an intersection any two edges are perpendicular to each other. Everything about the cube (edges, faces..etc) are equal. Think of a square with depth.

Examples: Rubik cube and classic ice cube.

Prism
A shape with two identical ends (often a shape) and flat sides that connect the ends. There are two common prisms: triangular and rectangular. However, a prism could be any shape as long as it is a polyhedron which means all faces are flat and all edges are straight This rules out a cylinder because it is curved.

Putting shapes together
Most shapes in art are combinations of the shapes described above. They may be expressed (that is, they have a clear outline) or implied (the viewer has to see them for themself).

Also, different shapes can be put together for interesting results.

Weight
Weight can capture the viewers eye by creating two-dimensional shape(s) that has a force that an element applies and attracts the eye.

When it comes to shapes, you will notice that when you have shapes that are irregular, like an irregular triangle or quadrilateral, it will appear lighter than that of a regular shape. The reason for this being, is because irregular shapes make is appear as though part of the mass is taken away.

When you put more elements into a space you are giving that space more weight.

Height
Height has an effect on both two-dimensional forms and three-dimensional shapes. It related to how tall the shape can be made or stretch too. By having a variety of heights with shapes you are able to have all different types of proportions with how tall each shape is, one could be extremely tall while the other is shorter.

title: Elements of Art/Shape


text:
Elements of Art/Two and Three Dimensions

Two and Three Dimensions
Dimensions, in art, can create some really interesting effects.

They are connected with perspective, which is often used in graphic design, especially one-point perspective and two-point perspective.

Two dimensions
The two dimensions are height and width.

Three dimensions
The three dimensions are height and width and depth. Depth is often applied by projecting a shadow. Three-dimensional shapes can often be created by extra lines, or by doing a net.

Art forms that use two dimensions
Drawing Painting

Art forms that use three dimensions
Sculpture Origami

Art forms that use two and three dimensions
Provide examples Mixed-media.


text:
General Chemistry/Properties of matter

The fundamental properties that we use to measure matter in are; Inertia, Mass, Weight, Volume, Density and Specific Gravity. The periodic table is a visual method of interpreting the chemical properties of elements which effect the measurements below.

These measurements can be classified into two categories, intrinsic and extrinsic.

the overall weight is equal to to another extrinsic properties

Extrinsic properties (also called extensive), such as volume and weight, are directly related to the amount of material being measured.

 * Inertia - the resistance of an object to changes in motion (Newton's first law).
 * Measured as mass because it is intimately related to mass. Mass has inertia by virtue of its nature.
 * Common units: kilograms (kg), grams (g), pounds (lb).
 * Fundamental property of matter.
 * Mass - a) the amount of matter in an object; b) a measure of resistance to acceleration that an object has.
 * Common units; kilograms (kg), grams(g), pounds (lb), ounces (oz).
 * Sometimes equated with weight, but only valid when the acceleration due to gravity is understood to be 9.81 m/s2 (i.e., earthly conditions), or when a different definition of the word "weight" is used, as is normal in commerce and the medical sciences.
 * Weight:
 * 1) Mass times the acceleration of gravity.
 * 2) Note that Weight is very different from Mass, a common misconception for students. However, weight and mass are related. An easy way to remember the difference is that no matter what planet you are on, you will always be the same mass. However, if you enter a different planet or go on the moon, your weight will change.
 * 3) The measure of the attraction between two objects, one of which is generally much larger than the other.
 * 4) Common units: newtons (N), pounds-force (lbf), ounces-force (ozf).

 * Force:
 * Common units: pounds-force (lbf) or newtons (N).
 * Relevant equation(s):
 * F = m a ( Force = Mass * acceleration )
 * W = m g ( Weight = Mass * Gravity )
 * N = 1 kg m/s2 ( newtons = kilograms * meters per second squared )
 * Notes: The acceleration of gravity near the surface of the earth is 9.81 meters per second squared or 9.81 m/s2.
 * Volume - the amount of space that an object occupies.
 * Common units: liters (l), cubic meters (m³), cubic feet (ft³), fluid ounces, pints, quarts, gallons.

Density- the amount of how much an object/ matter is or how compact it is

Intrinsic Properties
Intrinsic properties (also called intensive) are those which are independent of the quantity of matter present. For example, the density of gold is the same no matter how much gold you have to measure. Common intrinsic properties are density and specific gravity.

 * Density - units of mass per unit of volume.
 * Common units: g/cm3 and kg/m3
 * Relevant equation(s):
 * D = m/v ( Density = mass/volume )
 * These measurements are relative to temperature. The density of water (at 4 degrees Celsius) is 1.00 g/cm3. Above and below that temperature, the density will be slightly different.
 * Specific Gravity - ratio of a substance's density relative to the density of water. Usually table values use a water temperature of 25 degrees Celsius. See current reference books for examples.
 * Since specific gravity is a ratio with the same numerator as denominator, it has no units.
 * Specific gravity is usually measured with a hydrometer.
 * Specific gravity can be an ambiguous measurement if the temperatures of the two substances are different.
 * Specific Heat - the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of a pure substance by one degree Kelvin.
 * Common units J/(g*K) (Joules per gram-Kelvin).

title: General Chemistry/Properties of matter


text:
User talk:4.8.64.47

User 4.8.64.47 is dbroadwell before he created an account.

---

Go WikiWiki!

title: User talk:4.8.64.47


text:
User:Dbroadwell~enwikibooks

This page Blank ... on purpose. -- Dbroadwell 01:25, 22 Dec 2003 (UTC)

title: User:Dbroadwell~enwikibooks