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Wikijunior:Bugs/Cockroach

What does it look like?
A cockroach is similar to other insects in the way its body is constructed. The body is divided into three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax. Most cockroaches have three joints on each leg, which means they have 18 knees!

The skeleton is made of a hard substance called chitin. When a skeleton is on the outside, it is called an exoskeleton. The exoskeleton supports and protects the roach’s insides. Because it is hard, the exoskeleton cannot grow. To get around this problem, a cockroach sheds its exoskeleton several times per year. Then its body grows quickly before the new exoskeleton forms. When the exoskeleton has just been shed, the cockroach’s skin appears very light. Then, after about eight hours, the skin becomes dark again.

Wings, when present, overlap one another and lay flat over the back, but the tips of the hind pair do not fold. There is a yellowish stripe along the front margin of each fore wing. Males usually have two sets of wings. Females either lack wings or have wings that are too small for flying. There are important sensory organs called cerci on the rear-most segment of the body.

At first, many cockroach species appear similar to each other, but have distinguishing characteristics when examined more closely. The American cockroach is often referred to as a water bug. It is 1-1/2 inches to 2 inches long. Its flat oval body is reddish brown. It has wings that are fully developed. There are yellowish edges and markings on the exoskeleton. The exoskeleton, known as the pronotum is usually bare or only slightly covered with silky hair.

The Oriental cockroach has an unusual scallop shape which comes from the way the rear, side corners of its abdomen point outward like edges of a scallop shell. It can be confused with American and Turkistan cockroaches because of its general appearance. However, a closer look will reveal distinguishing cream-colored markings behind the head and around the wings.

The male Oriental cockroach is about 1 inch long and has short, rounded wings. The female is larger than the male and can grow to 1-3/8 inches long. The female has very small wing stubs, so it is flightless. The Oriental cockroach is black or very dark, reddish brown. It is often called Black roach, Black beetle, or water bug because of its dark color and hard body. Another name is Asiatic cockroach. It is also called Shad roach because its young appear in great numbers just when shad are swimming into fresh waters to breed.

The German cockroach looks shiny and is generally brown or light brown in color. It has long slender legs, long, thin antennae, and wings. The Field cockroach is a species that is often confused with the German cockroach. It is olive in color with a black stripe between the eyes. The Madagascar hisser is one of the largest species of cockroach, reaching two to three inches in length when mature. Unlike most cockroach species, it is wingless.

Where does it live?
Most cockroaches live in warm, moist, tropical regions of the world, such as Florida and Mexico. Only a few species live close to people where they can find food easily. They often hide in dark corners of kitchens or near the stove where food gets spilled.

The majority of cockroach species have lived in the same places for a very long time, far away from people. An example is the Common wood cockroach, the country cousin of the city-dwelling pest cockroaches. It lives in the damp forests of South Africa, in areas where it can hide under logs and stones. It likes moist conditions. Another example is the Giant Cave cockroach from the rain forests of Central America and the Caribbean. It likes to live in caves with bats. Its young burrow into the bat droppings. The species lives outside caves too, where it shelters in hollow logs and trees.

Cockroaches are very successful creatures because they have not adapted exclusively to one habitat or food. They can survive in a variety of places. Entomologists, people who study insects, believe there are about 3,500 different species of cockroaches worldwide. About 55 cockroach species are found in the United States. In cooler areas cockroaches can be found all the way from Antarctica to Greenland. They find crevasses and corners inside warm buildings such as hospitals, ground-floor storage areas, homes, and basements. They rarely live outdoors in the cooler climates except during very hot, humid summer weather. California is home to six species of “pest” cockroaches. The German cockroach prefers kitchens, bathrooms, and areas where food is prepared or stored. Brownbanded cockroaches prefer warm areas indoors, behind pictures on walls, in hollow legs of furniture, and cluttered rooms. Smokybrown cockroaches like planter boxes, trees, shrubs, and vegetation.

A seventh species, the Field cockroach, is not really a pest since it is usually found outdoors in piles of leaf litter and plant debris. It is known to come indoors when it is hot or dry. The German cockroach was introduced from Europe and has become widely established in cities.

The American cockroach was introduced to the United States from Africa as early as 1625. It has spread throughout the world by commerce. It prefers sewers, water meter boxes, and storm drains. It is at home in steam tunnels of large buildings like hospitals and places where animals are raised.

The Oriental cockroach usually lives outdoors and likes cool damp, dark places such as woodpiles, ivy, ground cover, garages, basements, water meter boxes, and drains.

Turkistan cockroaches usually live outdoors or in masonry areas away from building. They prefer water meter boxes, cracks between concrete blocks, piles of leaves, and potted plants.

In northeastern areas of the United States the American cockroach is a common pest. It often infests landfills and survives the winter weather by taking advantage of the warmth generated by piles of trash.

The unusual Hissing roach is originally from the island of Madagascar off the coast of Africa. It likes to live in rotting logs. It can be found in many parts of the world because people enjoy keeping it as a pet because of its appearance, large size, and interesting behavior.

What does it eat?
We think of dead animals, dung, and dead plant matter as waste to be disposed of. But to a Cockroach and tens of thousands of other insects, these are valuable food resources. A Cockroach is called an omnivore because it eats both plant and animal matter.

Some species, such as the Wood Cockroach, eat organic matter such as cellulose, a material that is found in trees and plants. The Wood Cockroach is usually found in the woods living under dead logs and stones. It can survive and grow on a diet rich in cellulose. It has overcome the difficulty of digesting cellulose by means of a specialized digestive system.

When a cockroach moves its feelers, it is sniffing the air. It uses its feelers as a nose. It can also smell with its mouth, which is handy for sniffing out food.

In general, cockroaches have powerful jaws to chomp through food. When chewing, the mouth moves side-to-side rather than up and down. The mouth parts point backward. The sense of smell is partly located in the mouth and partly in the feelers. Salivary glands in the mouth produce fluid to help digest food. The fluid from the salivary glands also allows it to spit—a nasty roach habit.

How does it defend itself?
Many cockroach species use defensive secretions that are extremely sticky and sometimes toxic. The upper side of the hindmost segment of the abdomen is covered with a sticky secretion. Small predators, such as centipedes and ants, are disabled when their mouth-parts or legs become entangled in the sticky secretion. Inside the outer skeleton, a cockroach has a white substance called fat body. It is similar to the fat we have in our bodies. It stores energy. But, it also helps with digestion in a way that makes poisons, such as insecticides, less harmful.

A cockroach is very sensitive to movement, so it is hard to sneak up on one from behind. One way it senses movement is through two tiny hairs at the tip of the abdomen. These are called cerci. Even a tiny breeze caused by something nearby tells it something is happening. If it is frightened by the movement, it will zoom off in the opposite direction to whatever the cerci have detected.

A cockroach has a pair of compound eyes made up of tiny light sensitive parts called ommatidia. Each one of these acts like a single eye with a six-sided lens. Light passes through the ommatidia, then a nerve takes the image to the brain. The compound eye is very sensitive and can pick up light from different sections of the roach’s surroundings. The brain combines all the individual images from the ommatidia to create one complete image, or picture. Compound eyes are very useful for detecting small movements. As something moves, its image is picked up by a changing cluster of ommatidia. This immediately alerts the cockroach that an enemy is approaching.

The Madagascar cockroach is nicknamed “hisser” because of its ability to force air through small openings the abdomen. It is believed to be the only insect that can hiss in this exact manner. Hissing takes two forms: the disturbance hiss and the fighting hiss. Only the male uses the fighting hiss. The hissing sound is used to frighten away predators and to defend territory. Hissing is also a way to communicate danger to others.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
A cockroach undergoes incomplete metamorphosis. It goes through three stages in the life cycle—egg, nymph, and adult. Just like young of other insect species, a cockroach develops inside a fertilized egg. The eggs are usually glued together by the female to form a packet, or egg case. It contains 16 to 64 eggs depending on the species and on how much food the mother can find. In some cockroach families the female keeps the eggs inside her body and gives birth to live young. The Cape Mountain cockroach does this. In some species the female carries the egg case inside until hatching time is close. Other species deposit their egg cases quite soon after they are formed.

The young cockroaches that are born alive stay with their mother for a day or so. Most are not born alive. Their mothers lay eggs that they hatch out of. As soon as they hatch they are on their own for survival. At first the newly hatched babies are soft and white. Soon after being exposed to air they harden and turn a darker color. The creature that hatches from the egg is the nymph. It looks like the adult but is smaller and does not have reproductive organs or wings. Each time a nymph needs to grow, it has to shed its skin. This happens between five and fourteen times before adulthood is achieved. As the nymph grows, it gradually develops all of its adult features. The German cockroach nymph sheds its skin about six times in the 95 days it takes to become an adult. Depending on species and conditions, adults can live for as little as a month or for several years.

What special behavior does it exhibit?
A cockroach is a nocturnal creature, moving about at night time. It does not like the light. It tends to congregate with others in corners and generally travels along the edges of walls. It hides in dark, warm areas, especially narrow spaces where surfaces touch it on both sides. An adult German cockroach can hide in a crack 1/16 inch wide! The Madagascar hissing cockroach is an excellent climber and can easily scale smooth glass.

When disturbed, a cockroach will run rapidly. Its speed helps it quickly get away from danger and into a safe hiding place. Certain large tropical cockroaches hold the record for the fastest moving land insects in the world. Many species are wingless and depend on fast running speed to escape enemies.

A cockroach can do without food for up to a month. It cannot live without water for more than a week. Most of the water it needs comes from food.

How does this bug affect people?
Not all cockroach species are pests. Many live far away from people. As a decomposer they help recycle dead wood. They speed up the breakdown of dead organic matter.

Cockroaches become pests when they infest homes. They eat all kinds of food and sometimes destroy books, rugs, and clothing. Their presence does not necessarily indicate uncleanliness, but people are repulsed when they find cockroaches where they live.

Disease-causing organisms can be carried on the legs and bodies. Cockroach excrement and castoff skins contain allergens which cause skin rashes, watery eyes, congestion, asthma, and sneezing. Secreted odors can affect the flavor of various foods. When there are many cockroaches present, these secretions may result in a characteristic, unpleasant odor.

Cockroaches are able to live in cold conditions but will die if temperatures go much below freezing. When it gets too cold they move in with humans. They are attracted to large buildings with central heat and boiler rooms. The heating of buildings in winter has allowed roaches to spread to all the places where humans live. On the other hand, they cannot survive at very high temperatures, so heat is sometimes used to kill them. People have their homes wrapped in a very large canvas tent, and then blow heated air (140 degrees F) into it for four hours to get rid of the unwelcome guests.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Cockroach


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Spider

Description
Spiders are members of a group of animals without backbones, called the Arthropods, meaning “joint legged.” They are not insects. They belong to the Class Arachnida, along with the tick,  dust  mite, and  scorpion.

Spiders never have antennae or wings. Their eight legs have seven segments each. The tip of each leg usually has two or three claws and many bristles or hairs.

Spiders do not have an internal skeleton or backbone. They instead have an external skeleton, called an exoskeleton. It is tough and fairly rigid like a suit of armour. It is flexible for ease of movement. Muscles are attached to the inside. The exoskeleton supports and protects a spider’s soft delicate internal organs.

The head and thorax are combined to form the cephalothorax. Sometimes there are spikes, lumps, or odd shapes on it. There is a narrow pedicel (waist) connecting the cephalothorax to the abdomen. When viewed from above a tough covering or shield called a carapace can be seen.

At the front of the head are chelicerae (jaws). There are sharp teeth and fangs to pierce the exoskeleton of a spider’s prey. Each fang has a tiny hole connected to poison sacs. The fangs move on hinges and inject poison when the spider bites.

Scientists use the number and arrangement of a spider’s eyes to identify its family. There is normally a group of six to twelve simple eyes. One pair of eyes forms an image, while the surrounding eyes detect movement.

The silk with which a spider builds webs comes from a special organ in the abdomen called a spinneret. Most spiders have three or four pairs of spinnerets to deliver liquid silk to the outside.

People often confuse spiders with their eight-legged relations called harvestmen which look similar but have a different body arrangement. Unlike spiders, harvestmen have a body with head, thorax and abdomen fused into a single structure.

Spiders range in size from very small to relatively large. The  small Branch Tipped  Spider is only 1/16 of an inch long. The Orb-Weaver Spider is 3/8 of an inch long. The large Black and  Yellow   Argiope   is 1-1/8 inches long.

Tarantulas are large hairy spiders. They can be 1-3/8 inches or more in length. Female Cobalt Blue  Tarantulas  can be 2-3/4 inches long. Brown Recluse Spiders have a leg span about the size of a quarter. Their body is about 3/8 of an inch in length and about 3/16 of an inch in width. Females can be 2 to 7 inches. They are commonly referred to as "fiddleback" or "violin" spiders because of a violin-shaped marking on the back. Often, this feature is very faint depending on the species and on how recently it has molted. Their color ranges from light tan to dark brown. They are covered with many fine hairs that give them a velvety appearance. They have long, thin, brown legs also covered with fine hairs. Brown Recluse Spiders have six eyes instead of the usual eight.

Habitat
Spiders are familiar predators found in nearly every habitat. Some species live in damp marshes and some live in dry deserts. Spiders that do not spin webs live in silk-lined burrows, while others have no permanent safe place. Some spiders live part of their lives on the surface of freshwater ponds and lakes. A few dive below the surface where they can survive for short periods of time. Spiders that live along the coastline are able to tolerate immersion in salt water when the tide is in. Only true water spiders, Argyroneta, are able to live completely under water.

Water Spiders build their homes underwater, spinning silken tents that they fill with bubbles of air. They are found throughout temperate Asia and Europe, including Great Britain and Ireland. They live in lakes, ponds, and ditches.

American House Spiders live in sheltered corners of houses, barns and other buildings. Their range is throughout the United States and Canada.

Brown Recluse Spiders are native to the United States. They are found mainly in the central Midwestern states southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Occasionally they are transported in materials and may be found outside this area. In favorable habitats, their populations are usually dense.

Brown Recluse Spiders seek and prefer seclusion. They usually occupy dark, undisturbed sites indoors or outdoors. Indoors, they may be found in attics and basements. They may seek shelter in shoes, folded linens, and behind furniture. Outdoors, brown recluse spiders may be found beneath logs and under loose stones in piles of rocks. Southern Black Widows   live among fallen branches and under many kinds of objects, including furniture and trash. Their range is from Massachusetts to Florida, west to California, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. They are most common in the south.

Tarantulas are nocturnal and hide in dark cavities or burrows during the day. They come out to hunt by touch when it gets dark. They are sometimes called banana spiders, because tropical species arrive in cargoes of fruit. There are about 30 species in the United States.

Diet
All spiders feed almost entirely upon prey that they catch for themselves. A few species eat food which has been taken by other spiders. They usually eat other arthropods, mainly insects, woodlice and centipedes. One family feeds exclusively on other spiders. Very large species, such as the “bird-eating” spiders, are able to consume small animals.

Orb Weaver Spiders coat some of their silk with droplets of sticky liquid to catch prey. Other species create a bewildering maze of dry silk threads where insects get lost.

Water Spiders anchor their nests to water plants. During the day, they sit in the nest with their front legs in the water, waiting. When a water insect passes by,  it is quickly pounced on, killed, and drawn into the nest. When they venture out of their nest to hunt, Water Spiders carry an air bubble on the abdomen to breathe from. Their genus name is Argyros, from the Greek for “silver” because the air bubble shines with a silvery hue through the water.

Some spider species stalk and ambush their victims on the ground. Most spin webs to catch prey in the air. Intricate spider webs can be seen between plants, branches, or buildings. There are many different web shapes, weaving patterns, and web locations. Each spider species spins only one kind of web. Scientists often identify a species by its distinctive web.

American House Spiders spin irregular webs made of sticky strands. Their webs catch dust as well as prey and are known as “cob webs”.

Southern Black Widows    spin irregular meshed webs with a funnel-shape to hide in.

Most species  of   Tarantulas  line the top of their burrows with silk, but do not spin webs to catch prey. They prey on insects, lizards, and other small animals.

Brown Recluse Spiders are largely scavengers, preferring dead insects and meat.

Defense
Most species have poor vision and feel movement through body hairs or slits in the exoskeleton. Brown Recluse Spiders are not aggressive, and normally bite only when crushed, touched or disturbed. There are reports of people having been bitten in bed after rolling over onto one of these spiders. Others have been bitten after accidentally touching one while cleaning storage area.

Southern Black Widows   are the most feared of all spiders. Female Black Widow venom is very poisonous to people. Despite their reputation, they often  escape rather than stab,    unless they are guarding an egg. Males do not bite.

Some spiders defend themselves in strange ways indeed. ... Orb spiders make body doubles of themselves out of dead bugs and silk to defend themselves from predators while in their webs. The green lynx spider can spit venom up to a foot away, so you don't have to even come in contact with it to become a victim.

==Reproduction                                                                                Spiders undergo simple metamorphosis with only three main growth stages, egg, spiderling, adult. The pupal stage is omitted and the young spiderlings often look like small versions of adults. Because the exoskeleton cannot stretch, spiders can grow only by shedding or molting the exoskeleton several times.==

Most spiders lay eggs in silken sacs. Egg sacs may be placed in the web or attached to twigs or leaves. Some species carry the sac around until the eggs hatch. Young spiderlings are often cannibalistic, eating their own kind.

Female American House Spiders spin pear-shaped brownish silken cocoons around the egg mass and hang it in a web.

Female tarantulas continue to molt after reaching maturity and may live to twenty years.

Special behavior
Some spiders have up to six types of silk glands to make silk for different uses. They use silk to catch and bind prey, to build webs and cocoons, and to spin draglines. Many spiders pull a dragline when walking. It serves as a life line for jumping clear of danger. Dragline silk is twice as elastic as nylon.

All young spiders release long silken strands, which they use like a parachute to ride the wind from one place to another. This process is called parachuting.

Spiders save their prey for a later meal by wrapping it in hundreds of thin threads called a swathing band.

Female Southern  Black Widows often eat the smaller males   after mating with their leader,   earning the name “widow.”

When young Water Spiders hatch, they leave the nest covered with bubbles trapped by hydrophobic (water repelling) hair so they can breathe under water until they find a nesting place of their own.

Human effects
Few spiders bite people. The venom of most is harmless. Some South American species of Tarantulas have deadly venom, but the bite of North American Tarantulas is no more dangerous to people than a wasp or bee sting.

Spiders are part of folklore and legend in many parts of the world. They are considered beneficial to humans because they help keep insect populations in check. They help to balance nature in general.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Spider


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Scorpion

What does it look like?
Scorpions are relatively large. Their average length is 1-5/8 to 5 inches long. Some scorpions can grow to over 8 inches. Scorpions have claws and resemble small lobsters. They have 2 body segments, no antennae, and 4 pairs of legs. They have a stiff outer covering (exoskeleton) and jointed legs. There are two large pincers in front. The pincers have sticky ends to pick up prey and to climb.

Scorpions have a midsection (cephalothorax) and an abdomen. The tail is made up of the last five segments of the abdomen. The tail curves upward. There is a poisonous “sting” at the end of the tail. There are 2 eyes in the center of the midsection and 2 to 5 eyes on each side. A few scorpion species are blind. Males are usually longer and more slender than their counterparts. Males also have long tails. Scorpions living in desert regions are light yellow or brown. Scorpions living in mountains are black or brown. Scorpions glow in the dark when ultraviolet light shines on them.

Scorpions have been on Earth about 400 million years. They lived on Earth before dinosaurs arrived 230 million years ago. Scorpion fossils have been found in Scotland. Fossils show that ancient scorpions were twice as big as scorpions today. Gigantoscorpio  and Brontoscorpio fossils are 14 inches to 3 feet long.

The longest scorpion in the world today is the Flat Rock Scorpion of South Africa. It can be over 8 inches long. The Emperor Scorpion of Africa can be 7 inches long. The smallest scorpions are in the Microtityus group. They are less than ½ inch long.

Arizona Bark Scorpions are 2 to 3 inches long. They have a long, slender tail. They are tan with darker coloring on the back. Some have stripes or patterns. They glow a bright bluish color under a black light.

Slender Brown Scorpions are reddish with a blue-tinted tail. They have a slender body. In Florida, they are called Red Forest  Scorpions and  Red  Bark Scorpions. In Cuba, they are called Dusky Scorpions and  Brown   Scorpions,    which means “scorpion blue”. Adult males are 2 to 6 inches long. Adult females are 2-1/2 to 4 inches long.

South African Fat-tailed Scorpions and Brown Fat-tailed Scorpions can be 4 inches in length. They are reddish-brown, dark-brown, or black. Their curved tail is very thick. Their pincers and tail have tiny hairs to detect movement. Their feet have sensory hairs to detect surface changes where they walk or climb.

Giant Forest Scorpions are stout and bulky. They have thick body plates (exoskeleton) and very large pincers. They are black in color and may have a blue or green shine. They are 4 to 5 inches long.

African Red Clawed Scorpions are about 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 inches long. They have a black body with either dark-red or light-red claws.

Emperor Scorpions are very large. Adults are about 7-3/4 inches. They are shiny black and glow light green or blue under ultraviolet light. They have two large blackish-red pincers in front. There is a sting at the end of the long tail.

Where does it live?
Scorpions live in harsh environments. They are found in deserts, tropical forests and savannas. They live on all continents except Greenland and Antarctica. Scorpions have been found at sea level and high in the mountains. They cannot live in areas with permafrost or thick grasses. The soil in these places is packed too tightly. They need loose soil to dig burrows. They live in burrows, cracks, or under rocks and bark.

Arizona Bark Scorpions are well adapted to desert habitats. They live in dry, arid regions, near streams or other bodies of water. They live in Arizona and other southwestern states. They are found at the Grand Canyon. They live in the Sonora Desert of northwestern Mexico. They hide in shady places when the sun is out. They can be seen high in rock crevasses, in trees, and under rocks. Sometimes they are found inside people’s homes. They are active at night (nocturnal). They hunt for prey in the dark.

Slender Brown Scorpions live in North America, South America, and Africa. There are only a few  Slender Brown  Scorpions left  in Europe. They can be found in rainforests, savannas, forests, and arid regions. They need to live in places where average temperatures are about 85 degrees Fahrenheit. They cannot live where humidity is too high. They make homes under bark, rocks, and fallen trees. They live among tropical plants (Bromeliads) that grow on the ground. They also live in epiphytic plants—Spanish moss, orchids, and ferns.

Emperor Scorpions are native to Africa. They can be found in the Congo, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, and other African countries. They live in hot humid, rainforests and tropical savannas. They dig burrows in the soil or under rocks and logs. Sometimes their burrows are under termite mounds or tree roots.

Brown and South African Fat-tailed Scorpions are both found in northern and western Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. They live in dry, arid regions, savannas, and rainforests.

Giant Forest Scorpions live in tropical and subtropical areas of southeastern Asia.

African Red Clawed  Scorpions live on the floor of African rainforests.

Brown and South African Fat-Tailed Scorpions live in arid regions of the Middle East and Africa. They live in Turkey, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Israel.

What does it eat?
Scorpions eat spiders and insects. Some species eat other scorpions. Their pincers grab the prey. The poisonous sting on the end of the tail kills it. Each species has a type of venom suited to kill its preferred prey.

Arizona Bark Scorpions eat small insects, spiders, and other scorpions. They have pincers and a venomous tail to catch and kill prey.

Giant Forest Scorpions have large pincers used for crushing prey.

Emperor Scorpions eat insects, mice, and small lizards. They use sensory hairs to locate prey. They grab prey with pincers. They crush it with their large claws.

Brown Fat-tailed Scorpions  eat spiders, insects, lizards, and mice. They will eat other scorpions. They hold and crush their prey. They hurt it with a venomous sting.

African Red Clawed Scorpions eat insects, frogs, small rodents, spiders, and mites. They will eat other scorpions. They have a mild sting. They use their claws to crush and hurt their prey.

How does it defend itself?
Most scorpions use their claws and poisonous tail to sting and defend against predators.

Emperor Scorpions hide under rocks or logs. They use their large claws and venom for defense.

African Red Clawed Scorpions repeatedly sting their attacker when threatened.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Scorpions undergo incomplete metamorphosis. The eggs hatch inside the adult’s body. Then she gives birth to live young. Species in temperate climates give birth in spring and summer. In hot tropical climates, they give birth throughout the year. Baby scorpions are called “scorplings.”  The average number born in a litter is 25. But the number born can be from 1 to 100.

At birth, scorplings are white and covered by a thin membrane. They leave the membrane to crawl onto the adult’s back. At this point, they have no defenses. They look like small adults. After the first molt they leave the adult’s back. Then they can live alone and catch their own prey. As they grow they shed their outer covering. It can take 5 years to become an adult. Scorpions’ average life span in the wild is 3 to 8 years..

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Each scorpion species has a special type of venom to kill their chosen prey.

Scorpions have specialized survival skills. They can slow their metabolism when food is scarce. They can survive by eating as little as 1 insect per year.

Scorpions are able to live in extreme environments. They are unharmed if frozen overnight and thawed out in the morning.

Their body temperature is affected by the surrounding temperature. They must stay warm to be active.

Most scorpions are solitary, living by themselves. There are exceptions. Arizona Bark Scorpions hibernate with others of their own species. They spend the winter together under bark or in fallen trees. Sometimes family groups work together to capture prey. Offspring of some species stay with the adult  for weeks, months, or years. Emperor Scorpions have been observed living in small colonies. They are social but become aggressive if cornered.

Emperor Scorpions will burrow through termite mounds up to 6 feet deep to find prey. They can slow their metabolism enough to go a year without food.

Slender Brown Scorpion females can give birth to different colored scorplings in a single litter.

African Red Clawed Scorpions often  do not get along with the others  of their kind  and are cannibalistic. They will also  eat   babies  of their own.

Scorpions become active at night. They glow in the dark (fluoresce) under ultraviolet (uv) light. Biologists use uv lights to study scorpions at night.

How does this bug affect people?
In general, most scorpions are not dangerous. They do not attack people, but they will sting if threatened. Emperor Scorpions look fearsome but are really timid. Some people like them for pets. Giant Forest Scorpions and African  Red Clawed  Scorpions  still  have mild venom and are popular as pets.

About 30 to 40 species worldwide have lethal venom. Two species in Arizona have deadly stings. But, the poison of most North American species is not deadly. Arizona Bark Scorpions have very potent venom. Their sting is hazardous to human health. In rare instances, it can be deadly. Brown and  South African  Fat-tailed Scorpions are very aggressive. They are one of the most dangerous scorpion species in the world. Their stings cause several human deaths each year.

Slender Brown Scorpion venom is thought to be useful as anti-inflammatory medicine. People like Slender Brown Scorpions  as pets. They are not known to prey on other scorpions. They can be kept with other species of scorpions as long as shelter and food are available. Blue Scorpions should not be mistaken for a species called the Giant Blue Scorpion, another name for the Malaysian Forest Scorpion (H. spinifer). The Giant Blue Scorpion is fairly deadly. It is often confused with Slender Brown Scorpions and Emperor Scorpions.

Scorpions are an important part of many ecosystems. They are helpful in controlling insect pests. They are harmful because their spike can be painful.

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Scorpion


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Wikijunior:Bugs/Centipede

A work in progress, will update soon -Wes

What does it look like?

Centipedes have between 15 and almost 200 segments, with one pair of legs for each segment. Most centipedes have less than fifty segments, and so less than one hundred legs. They are flat arthropods. The head has two antennae and a pair of mandibles. The furthest forward, or anterior, segment has a pair of venomous claws. The largest known centipede, the Amazonian giant centipede, grows over one foot long. However, the most common centipedes are only a few inches long. A centipede is usually between a brown and a red color. Some types of centipedes are blind.

Where does it live?
Centipedes live all over the world, in South America, North America, Africa, and Europe. Some of the largest centipedes are located in South America (see left). Centipedes prefer moist, dark, and cool habitats. The centipede is mainly a nocturnal creature, but may be seen during the day.

What does it eat?
A centipede is a carnivorous creature, and eats prey that is available to it. It is not well known exactly what it eats, but any soft-bodied, reasonably sized creatures are common in the diet. It is believed that for some species of centipedes worms are the main source of food. Some larger species of centipedes can eat reptiles, small mammals, birds, and bats! Some centipedes even eat each other! To kill their prey, a centipede will grab it with its jaws and inject a poisonous bite to kill it.

How does it defend itself?
Centipedes have many self-defense mechanisms against predators such as beetles, spiders, and snakes. A centipede can pinch a predator with its back legs or poison an animal with its bite, but it has some more interesting defensive tricks. A centipede can "drop" its legs that are being pinched by a predator and run away, leaving the predator with nothing but a few legs! Some centipedes also emit a gas that can hurt predators. Centipedes also blend into the environment quite nicely, and are very quick! That centipede is one tough arthropod!

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Males deposit a mass that contains the necessary components for reproduction. Males will then court females and lead them to this mass, or leave the mass for a female to find. A female will then take in this mass and get ready to lay eggs. In colder climates, eggs are laid during the spring or summer. In warmer climates however, there seems to be no specific breeding pattern. Around 10-60 eggs are laid, depending on the species. Eggs are laid in the ground or in nests. While some centipedes just bury their eggs, other types will guard the eggs until they hatch. It may take a couple of months before the eggs hatch into larvae. The lifespan of a centipede varies greatly between the different types, but some can live between 5 and 6 years!

What special behavior does it exhibit?
Centipedes are indeed quite interesting creatures! The ability to lose legs and kill much larger animals make it very unique. The centipede is also nocturnal, mostly roaming at night. Walking barefoot at night would give me the creeps!

How does this bug affect people?
The centipede can be a nuisance as its bites can be painful to humans. There is only one recorded death as a result of a centipede, but the victim was bit in the head. Poisons usually are not strong enough to hurt humans, but some bites can numb, swell, or discolor the skin. If a person is allergic, they should seek medical attention.

Resources
Wikipedia Article

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Centipede


text:
Wikijunior:Bugs/Millipede

What does it look like?
Have you ever been playing in a sandbox and seen a tiny critter with seemingly thousands of legs? Did it curl into a ball when you picked it up? You were holding a millipede. Millipedes are arthropods that have a large number of legs - two pairs of legs per segment. The name comes from the Latin roots milli ("thousand") and ped ("foot"). Millipedes do not have a thousand legs, although common species have between 80 and 400 legs (two or four pairs of legs per segment). Millipedes range in length from around 1.25 centimeters to 16.5 centimeters. Millipedes have very many short legs, which makes them rather slow. Millipedes, however, are powerful diggers! With their legs, they burrow underground, head first. Millipedes have flat, lensed eyes on the side or front of their heads. From birth, they gradually grow and add more legs at two pairs per segment.

Where does it live?
Most millipedes live underground. They have poor eyesight, because they don't need to see in the dark.

There are millipedes all over the world. The largest species is giant African millipede (Archispirostreptus gigas). One species of millipede( Pneumodesmus newmani) was the first known land creature! It lived around 428 million years ago, that's a long time!

What does it eat?
Millipedes are scavengers, and eat mostly dead vegetation. Most millipedes eat decaying leaves and other dead plant matter. They will eat anything from rotting leaves to apples, to potatoes! When eating, a millipede will moisten the food with secretions, and then scraping it in with the jaws.

How does it defend itself?

When a millipede is in danger, it curls into a tight coil — protecting its delicate legs inside its armoured body. The millipede lacks the ability to bite or sting, so this is it's primary protection. Many species also put out poisonous liquid or gas through microscopic pores along the sides of their bodies. These poisons can burn ants and other insects that are attacking it. Any effects on humans are usually minor, but can cause skin irritation.

What stages of metamorphosis does it go through?
Most millipedes go through a simple stage of metamorphosis. During winter, adults keep safe and warm until spring. During spring, male and female millipedes become active and mate. Females will then lay eggs, covered in a sticky substance, in the soil. Larvae usually resemble small adults just days after hatching, and grow gradually in size. In other species, females do not lay eggs, but give birth to their young. Millipedes will take between 21 and 25 weeks to develop out of the basic stages, and grow for 2 to 5 years. After maturing, they will live for several more years.

What special behaviour does it exhibit?
The millipede burrows down into dirt in a wave-like pattern. It moves down a tunnel head first. While burrowing, millipedes seem to have the ability to restructure and secure the dirt around them. Millipedes also shed old exoskeletons as they grow larger.

How does this bug affect people?
Though it may seem small, the millipede is very important to the ecosystem! Since it is a scavenger, a millipede cleans up dead matter from the environment. The millipede is like a garbage man for the Earth! Occasionally, the millipede can be a pest as it eats plant stems or leaves. The creature may seem creepy with all those legs, but most won't do any harm at all. Be careful though, all those legs may tickle your skin!

Reference

 * Wikipedia Article
 * Millipedes, Cockroaches, Beetles, and More
 * Centipede, millipede
 * Millipede and Centipede Management Guidelines

title: Wikijunior:Bugs/Millipede


text:
User:MichaelFrey/ Wikibooks in numbers

Software Version:

Admins:

Benutzer:

Benutzer pro Admin:

de:Benutzer:MichaelFrey/ WB in Zahlen

title: User:MichaelFrey/ Wikibooks in numbers


text:
User talk:82.34.177.22

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
 * The use of a username of your choice
 * The ability to view all your contributions via a "My contributions" link
 * Your own user page
 * Your own talk page which, if you choose, also allows users to send you messages without knowing your e-mail address
 * The use of your own personal watchlist to which you can add articles that interest you
 * The ability to rename pages.
 * The ability to upload images
 * The ability to customize the appearance and behavior of the website
 * The eligibility to become an administrator
 * The right to be heard in votes and elections
 * Your IP address will no longer be visible to other users.

We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

Thanks for helping with the Permaculture page!!! -- SB_Johnny | talk 18:09, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.34.177.22


text:
User:BookManOne

Hi,

I'm book man one!

Pages Started

 * The Balance of the Seventh Column

title: User:BookManOne


text:
User talk:BookManOne

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --dark lama  18:34, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

The Balance of the Seventh Column
This appears to have been copied from Wikipedia. Would you like to have the article imported? Copying from wikipedia without attribution violates our copyrights. -- SB_Johnny | talk 20:10, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Hey SBJohnny, it's not a Wikipedia article, just in Wikipedia format, I welcome anyone to reformat as necessary. I plan on fixing all red links as time progresses. BookManOne 20:24, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Looks like a Wikipedia article to me... are you planning to write a book about this book? We generally don't have one page books here.
 * Are you the author of the book? Or the Wikipedia article about it that was deleted last year? -- SB_Johnny | talk 23:15, 1 January 2007 (UTC)
 * No, I didn't know there was a wikipedia article about it. I just read it and thought it would be good to start an article about it.  If you don't think it works for this site, then by all means, I don't mind you deleting it. BookManOne 02:17, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't think there's anything wrong with it as an article, but "articles" go on Wikipedia, books go on Wikibooks :). If you want to move it to Wikipedia, do that first, then put on the Wikibooks page.
 * If you're going to do a full annotation of it that's a different story of course. See Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter for what an annotation looks like... I get the impression you're not planning to do that sort of thing here.-- SB_Johnny | talk 02:45, 2 January 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually, you've just given me a great idea, let me do some research and think about this guy's (Norcross') text a little bit more, so I can get time to fix it up. Can you mark the page so that people know I'm going to research for it or something? BookManOne 02:59, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:BookManOne


text:
User:Pbarnes~enwikibooks

My Works

 * Cookbook:Beef Stroganoff
 * Cookbook:Lo Mein

title: User:Pbarnes~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Elephante

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

Xania talk 19:01, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elephante


text:
User talk:Delugep34

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Sundance Raphael 19:13, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Delugep34


text:
User talk:Pbarnes~enwikibooks

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
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 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 19:20, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pbarnes. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pbarnes~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:34, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:21, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pbarnes~enwikibooks


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Hunters

The hunter's fire is a cooking fire. The logs on top are spaced close enough together such that a pot, pan, or Dutch oven can be placed on them. Try to lay it as level as possible.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Reflector

This fire can be used for baking, though it is not as efficient as a reflector oven (which is has a metallic reflecting surface and often surrounds the item. The fire itself can be of any other form, and is placed in front of the reflector.  The item to be baked is placed between the reflector and the fire.  This fire is also good for getting oneself warm.  The reflector can also be a large rock.  If you sit (or sleep) between the reflector and the fire, the side of you facing the fire will be warmed directly, while the reflector throws heat to the opposite side.  Very toasty.

If making the reflector from logs, the vertical members should be driven deeply into the ground to support the weight of the horizontal members. You can also use rocks to support them.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Star

The advantage of this fire is that the logs can be of any length, avoiding the need to cut them up. As the ends of the logs burn, they are pushed into the fire. The fire is lit at the center of the star. If the logs are propped up on the fire ring, gravity will feed them in as they burn.


text:
Algorithm Implementation/Graphs

Contents

 * /Breadth-first search/
 * /Depth-first search/
 * /Maximum flow/
 * /Shortest path/
 * /Maximum matching/

title: Algorithm Implementation/Graphs


text:
Algorithm Implementation/Graphs/Maximum flow

Contents

 * /Edmonds-Karp/
 * /Dinic/
 * /Boykov & Kolmogorov/
 * /Sim Cut/
 * /Simulation s-t Cut/


text:
Algorithm Implementation/Graphs/Maximum flow/Edmonds-Karp

MATLAB
This code is the direct transcription in MATLAB language of the pseudocode shown in the Wikipedia article of the Edmonds-Karp algorithm.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Veela

Overview
Veela, who are the team mascots of the Bulgarian National Quidditch team in the Quidditch World Cup, take the form of inhumanly beautiful and infinitely desireable women.

Extended Description
The Veela seem to have the ability to change between two states. In their normal state, they appear to be women, with skin that "shines moon-bright" and white-gold hair that "fans out behind them without wind". They are incredibly beautiful, though inhumanly so, but when they dance, that apparent inhumanity no longer matters. Like the legendary Sirens, Veela music and dance has the power to cloud men's minds and make them want to do insane and self-destructive things in order to secure the notice of these desirable creatures.

When they get angry, though, they change into beings with heads like birds, with sharp, cruel, beaks and scaly wings, and apparently have the ability to throw fireballs. "And that is why you should never go for looks alone," as Mr. Weasley comments.

In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, it is revealed that Fleur Delacour's wand has, as its active magical core, the hair of a Veela. Fleur says that it is from her grandmother, which tells us both that Veela and humans can interbreed, and that Ron's earlier guess that there was some Veela in Fleur's background is correct.

Analysis

Veela are mentioned also in the Muggle mythos. There, they are shapeshifters, though most alluring in their human form. Predominantly women, though there are some males, they are rather mischievous creatures. They enjoy luring men away from their homes or away from their journeys, and dancing or singing so that the men are compelled to join them. Men so entranced end up being led into fairy rings and forced to dance until they die or one of their friends pulls them out. We note that this magical luring effect is referred to in archaic texts with the fine old word "glamour," and have used the same term in this text in places where it seems appropriate.

We do see quite a few males so entranced in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, though none of them are convinced to dance until they die; we do note that Ron and Harry almost jump from the Top Box at the Quidditch World Championship, that the referee at that match abandons his job, and that Ron almost volunteers to fly a broomstick to the moon shortly afterwards. It is interesting that Ron is more susceptible than Harry. Perhaps Harry's resistance to the Imperius curse is somehow related to his lack of susceptibility to the Veela glamour.


text:
Operating System Design/Critical Section Problem/Monitor

Many people prefer using a monitor as an alternative to a semaphore.

A Monitor is essentially a class with private methods, plus a queue. Processes that want to enter a monitor (i.e., run *any* of the private methods) must wait in the queue. Only when there are no processes in the monitor (i.e., no one is running any of the private methods) is a process allowed into the queue. The monitor itself runs the single threaded portions. This guarantees that there can only be one process executing inside a monitor at any one time.

Monitors are well structured when compared to semaphores and thus are easy to understand and implement.

A common bug with semaphores is a process that acquires a semaphore, does what it needs to do, but accidentally fails to release the semaphore. That process may have finished long before the programmer notices that other processes are deadlocked, waiting forever for someone to release the semaphore.

Monitors make this common problem impossible. It is still possible for a system using monitors to deadlock, but only when the process is stuck in an infinite loop inside the monitor, which is much easier to debug than a process that seemed to finish successfully a long time ago.


text:
Cookbook:Corn Dogs

| American cuisine | Midwestern cuisine

Ingredients

 * ⅔ cup (160 g) corn meal
 * ⅓ cup (60 g) flour
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * ½ cup (120 ml) milk
 * 1 egg, beaten
 * 2 tablespoon vegetable oil
 * 8–10 hot dogs

Equipment

 * 8–10 wooden skewers

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat deep fat fryer to.
 * 2) Combine corn meal, flour, and salt. Add milk, egg, and oil; mix well.
 * 3) Insert a wooden skewer into one end of each hot dog.
 * 4) Coat with flour, then coat with corn meal mixture.
 * 5) Fry a few at a time in deep hot oil until golden brown.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Serve with mustard, like at a fair.

title: Cookbook:Corn Dogs


text:
Cookbook:Original Texas-Style Chili

| Cuisine of the United States | Texas cuisine

The original Texas-style chili version of chili con carne contains no vegetables at all, except chili peppers. If using fresh peppers, they should have been prepared by being boiled, peeled, and chopped. If using dried peppers, they need to be soaked in hot water for 1 hour before being chopped.

Ingredients

 * 3 lbs (1.3 ) beef or other meat
 * 2 oz (55 ) beef kidney suet
 * 4 chile pods, skinned and blistered, or sun-dried chiles
 * 1 tablespoon dried oregano
 * 1 tablespoon crushed cumin seeds
 * 1 tablespoon salt
 * 1 teaspoon cayenne pepper
 * 1 tablespoon Tabasco sauce (optional but frequently included)
 * 2 garlic cloves, chopped (or more, to taste)
 * 2 heaping tablespoons masa harina

Procedure

 * 1) Sear beef in a little cooking oil (not lard) until lightly browned.
 * 2) Add the seared beef, suet, and chile pods to a large iron skillet or pot (at least four quarts), and enough water (the reserved "pepper water" if you prepared the pods yourself) to keep the meat from burning. Bring to a boil, then lower heat, cover, and simmer about 30 minutes.
 * 3) Take pot off the stove and add spices and garlic. Put back on the stove, bring to a boil again, lower heat, and simmer another hour, keeping the lid on as much as possible. Stir when necessary, but remember that too much stirring will tear the meat. Add a little more water if anything seems seriously in danger of burning (but as little water as possible).
 * 4) Take pot off the stove and skim off all or most of the grease.
 * 5) Mix in masa harina, which "tightens" or thickens the chili con carne and adds a subtle tamale-like flavor. Simmer about 30 minutes more, until meat is done. Do a lot of tasting during this time, (1) to adjust the seasoning, and (2) just because a chili cook should do a lot of tasting.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Many of the above quantities may be somewhat adjusted up or down, depending on personal taste.
 * The meat is simply bite-size—traditionally, it was the size of a pecan nut—or coarsely ground, with ½-inch plate holes in a meat grinder as standard. It must always be beef, venison, or other mature meats. Stewing meat also works well. Prime beef or veal, on the other hand, are not suitable for chili con carne, as they tend not to remain solid.
 * Many cooks omit the suet as being much too greasy, although it does add flavor.
 * Ancho or Anaheim peppers are recommended. For an "elevated" flavor, use four pepper pods per pound of meat; for a milder "beginners" version, use only 2–3 pods.
 * Chili powder is a barely adequate substitute in the original recipe, but it lacks the subtle sting of the pods. A heaping teaspoon of chili powder is the approximate equivalent of one average-size chili pod.
 * Crushed tortilla chips can be substituted for masa harina (this is what Alton Brown did on the Food Network show Good Eats).

title: Cookbook:Original Texas-Style Chili


text:
Cookbook:Jailhouse Chili

| Cuisine of the United States | Texas cuisine

This is a modern version of Jailhouse Chili, as served in the Texas prison system. In the early part of the 20th century, those likely to regularly spend time in local detention facilities in the American Southwest were said to rate the accommodations among themselves by the quality of the chili con carne they were served. This became a matter of local pride and competition with other communities.

Ingredients

 * 25 lbs (11 ) coarse-ground beef
 * ½ lb (225 ) cumin
 * ¼ lb (110 ) chili powder
 * ⅛ lb (55 ) paprika
 * 2 handfuls crushed dried red chile peppers
 * ½ lb (225 ) finely-chopped garlic

Procedure

 * 1) Sear beef in a little cooking oil (not lard) until lightly browned. Drop the seared beef and chili peppers in a large stock pot, and add enough water to keep the meat from burning. Bring to a boil, then lower heat, cover, and simmer about 30 minutes.
 * 2) Take pot off the stove and add spices and garlic. Put back on the stove, bring to a boil again, lower heat, and simmer another 90 minutes, keeping the lid on as much as possible. Stir when necessary, but remember that too much stirring will tear the meat. Add a little more water if anything seems seriously in danger of burning (but as little water as possible).
 * 3) Take pot off the stove and skim off all or most of the grease. Serve hot.

title: Cookbook:Jailhouse Chili


text:
Wikijunior:Dinosaurs/Prehistoric Creatures Before the Dinosaurs

The Earth existed for millions of years before the time of the dinosaurs. This time is known as the Paleozoic Era while the dinosaur time is known as the Mesozoic Era.

There were strange and wonderful creatures living in each of the seven periods of the Paleozoic Era: Precambrian, Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.

The types of creatures that lived then were reptiles, amphibians, fish, arthropods and mammal-like reptiles.

In the late Permian a big extinction wiped out 90% of life on Earth. It all started 543 million years ago. Before this time there was a time called the Precambrian, it lasted for four billion years. The Permian extinction that wiped out 90% of all life on Earth gave the reptiles space to spread out quickly and evolution led them to develop into dinosaurs over millions of years.

The Precambrian period
This period was the period from which the Earth was first formed. It lasted billions of years and for almost all of it there was no life. However, for reasons we don't yet understand life suddenly began. It started out only as small, one-celled creatures. Soon they evolved into more complicated creatures at the start of the Cambrian period.

The Cambrian period
The Cambian started 543-490 million years ago. At this time life developed in the seas, not on dry land.

Some of the first creatures to live on Earth in the Cambrian were haikouichthys, trilobites, jellyfish and a creature called Anomalocaris. Haikouikthys were 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long. They had a primitive backbone, scavenged meat and lived 535 million years ago in the area now known as China. Haikouicthys also was one of the first vertabrates

The trilobites were the Paleozoic's big success story; they could be 5 millimeters- 80 centimeters long (0.2-32 inches). The trilobites were scavengers too and they lived 520-248 million years ago in the Cambrian period to the Permian period. They could be found all over the world. They are known as the beetles of the Paleozoic.

The Anomalocaris was two meters (6.5 feet) long and it had a hard shell that could split off if it was bent too far. Anomalocaris was a carnivore. Anomalocaris lived in the areas now known as North America, China and Australia. Anomalocaris means strange crab.

The Ordovician period
The Ordovician Period lasted from about 510 to 440 million years ago. The land of the super-continents did not support life, so all the creatures lived in the oceans and seas. Some creatures that developed in the Ordovician had backbones and were the first vertebrates. Some common non-vertebrate animals from this period were corals, sea urchins, trilobites, sponges, arthropods and jellyfish.

One creature of the Ordovician Period was called Cameraceras. Cameraceras was a cone like creature that was 10-11 meters (33-36 feet) long. It lived in the ocean and is related to the modern day squid. Another creature of the Ordovician is Megalograptus, Megalograptus was one metre(3.25 feet) long. Megalograptus was carnivorous and was found in the area now known as North America.

The Silurian period
The Silurian started 433-417 million years ago. The first plants started to evolve, life finally reaching land. The land creatures were similar to today's millipedes and centipedes. As the plants died and the bugs and fungus decomposed them, the first dirt started to arrived. Silurian fish like cephalaspis were bony-headed fish. While life on land was going slowly, the water saw the arrival of massive arthropods like Brontoscorpio (meaning thunder scorpion), which was 99cm long. The fish back then had a good reason to have large head armour: since bones were still primitive, the fish used bony plates to protect their brain. Fish like cephalaspis had a very good sense of navigation and memory. Although there were benefits to having head wear, there was also the down side the boniness slowed the fish down, making them vulnerable to attack by Brontoscorpio.

The Devonian Period
During the Devonian Period, fish may have evolved feet and lungs, and became the first amphibians and the first vertebrate to walk on land. The Devonian also saw the success for the placoderms, a group of bony fish with scissor-like jaws and big bony teeth. The placoderms eventually became extinct at the end of the Devonian. On land, plants started to get big and turned into the first trees and since there would be nothing to eat the trees for the next hundred million years the trees turned into vast forests.

The Carboniferous period
This period was a time were giant insects ruled. The earth's oxygen content was 20% higher than today, and this probably explains why they got so big. As well as giant insects, many other huge creatures roamed the land, such as Eryops, a large carnivorous amphibian.

The Permian Period
Mammal-like reptiles started evolving such as Gorgonops, Dimetrodon and Lystrosaurus. Near the end of the Permian the earth's land formed the super continent Pangea, and started to dry up causing creatures like Scutosaurus to search the planet for water. The end of the Permian also saw an extinction worse than the K-T Extinction. The K-T extinction killed 75% of life on earth, but this extinction eventually caused the extiction of 90% of the life on earth.


text:
Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology/Nervous System Structure

The nervous system is divided between the peripheral nervous system, or PNS, and the central nervous system, or CNS. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, while the peripheral nervous system is made up of the spinal nerves, the autonomic nervous system and the cranial nerves

Terminology
To refer to various positions in the nervous system, a set of spatial terms are used. In the spinal cord, dorsal is closer to the back of a person, and ventral is closer to the person's chest, or front. Closer to the brain is referred to as rostral, and closer to the end of the spinal cord is caudal. In the brain, superior and dorsal refer to a position closer to the top of the head, and inferior and ventral refer to a position closer to the bottom or base of the head. Also, in the brain, to refer to something closer to the face, it is called rostral or anterior, and something closer to the back of the head, it is called posterior or caudal. Throughout the nervous system, concentric structures are found, and to refer a structure closer to the outside of the head, the term lateral is used, and closer to the center of the brain is called medial. In addition, slices called sections of structures can show three dimensions of the structure. A section that would cut ear to ear and nose to back of the head is called a horizontal section. A section parallel to the face is a coronal section, and a section that could separate the two hemispheres of the brain is a sagittal section.

Neuralation
In the beginning of neural development (neurulation) in a growing embryo, there are three layers: the endoderm, which becomes the viscera; the mesoderm, which becomes the bones and muscle; and the ectoderm, which becomes the skin and nervous system. The disctinction of the nervous system appears after three weeks. The neural plate becomes a groove, which then differentiates to a tube, which becomes the CNS, and a crest, which becomes the PNS. In the mesoderm, the are somites (masses of tissue) that become the spinal cord vertebrae and the somatic muscles.

First Phase: Rostral
The first phase of neural differentiation occurs on the rostral end of the neural tube (the tube becomes the brain) which forms three separate vesicles: the prosencephalon becomes the forebrain; the mesencephalon becomes the midbrain, and the rhombencephalon becomes the hindbrain. The forebrain, or prosencephalon, develops into two pairs of vesicles, the optic vesicles and the telencephalic vesicles, and an unpaired diencephalon. The optic vesicles, which are parts of the brain, form into optic stalks and optic cups, which become the optic nerve and retina.

Telencephalon
The telencephalon differentiation occurs in 4 stages: First, the telencephalon grows over and around the diencephalon. Next, vesicles begin to form ventrally to become the olfactory bulbs, and then the gray matter differentiates into the different structures of the telencephalon. Finally, the white matter, the fatty tissue or myelin, forms around axonal inputs and outputs of the cells in the telencephalon. The telencephalon contains the cerebral cortex and the basal telencephalon while the diencephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus. In the paired telencephalon are the lateral ventricles as well. The diencephalon contains the third ventricle. The white matter that develops is involved with three different systems: the cortical white matter connects different neurons in the cortex. The corpus collosum connects the two hemispheres, and the internal capsule connects the cortex to the diencephalon.

Forebrain
The forebrain can be seen to have many different structures. The differentiation of the telecephalon results in a pair of cerebral hemispheres that contain the cerebral cortex, olfactory bulbs, basal ganglia, hippocampus and amygdala. the cerebral cortex is associated with cognition and motor and sensory functions. The olfactory bulbs relay olfactory information to the cortex. the basal ganglia contributes to the fine tuning of voluntary motor control. The hippocampus is associated with the formation of short term memories, and the amygdala is associated with fear and emotion. In the diencephalon, there is the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus is a sensory relay to cortex, and the hypothalamus maintains control of the autonomic nervous system and endocrine systems.

Midbrain
The midbrain (mesencephalon) differentiates into the tectum, which contains the superior and inferior colliculus, the tegmentum, which contains the dopamine reward system (contributes to motor control), and the cerebral aqueduct, which connects two ventricles and contains cererbro-spinal fluid.

Hindbrain
The hindbrain (rhombencephalon) differentiates into two structures on its rostral end, and one on its caudal end. In the rostral end, the rhombic lips swell and fuse to become the cerebellum. The ventral rhombencephalon becomes the pons. The caudal end of the ventral rhombencephalon becomes the medulla. In the hindbrain, the fourth ventricle is also formed, connecting to the cerbral aqueduct. The hindbrain acts as a bidirectional relay between the forebrain and the spinal cord. The cerebellum controls movement and coordination, and it is where inputs from the spinal cord and cortex converge to coordinate motions. The pons acts as relay to the cerebellum: 90% of axons from the cerebral cortex synapse in the pons. The medulla is a relay area for the somatic sensory, autonomic sensory, and the motor nuclei.

Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is formed from the caudal end of the neural tube, and it is characterized by two colors. The gray matter contains the dorsal horns, which contains sensory axons and terminals, an intermediolateral column, and the ventral horns, which carry motor axons and neurons. The white matter is made of three different columns carrying ascending sensory signals and descending motor signals.

Four Regions of Dermatomes
The somatic motor system in the spine is divided into four regions. Starting from the top of the spine, the cervical division (C1 through C8), the thoracic division (T1-T12), the lumbar division (L1-L5), and the sacral division (S1-S5, Coc1). There are two spinal nerves coming out of each side of each spinal column, and the dorsal nerve carries sensory signals to the brain, and the ventral nerve carries motor signals from the brain.

Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system in the spine has two major divisions that act in opposite ways. The sympathetic division prepares the body for action (fighting, fleeing etc...) while the parasympathetic division causes the body to relax.


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Neuroscience/Cellular Neurobiology/Somatic Sensory System

There are many different sensory systems. The somatic sensory system mediates the sense of touch, and the proprioceptive division relays information about internal parts of the body. The auditory system provides hearing, and located in the same area is the vestibular system, which provides a sense a balance. The olfactory system and the gustatory system mediate the sense of smell and taste. The conversion of outside signals to chemical signals in the brain is referred to as transduction, and sensory transduction in the various systems shares a few characteristics. Sensory receptors (neurons, in the somatic sensory and olfactory systems, and epithelial cells in the visual, auditory, gustatory systems) synapse on an interneuron that relays signals to the brain. Perceptions can vary in four ways: modality (auditory, visual, etc.), intensity, duration and location. Variations in sensation are encoded in variations in action potentials.

Modalities
There are five major modalities: vision, touch, smell, taste and hearing. In each modality, there may be submodalities (touch, pressure and temperature, in touch.) Each modality has a specific receptor. Vision transduction requires photoreceptors; audition, mechanoreceptors; taste and smell, chemoreceptors, and the touch system uses mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors (pain receptors.) Each one of these modalities has its own pathway, and a relay through the subnuclei of the thalamus, and eventually terminate in a specific area of the cortex.

Intensity
The intensity of a stimulus has a threshold; that is, there is a minimum stimulus required for its perception. The intensity is encoded in two ways: frequency of action potential and population. A stronger stimulus will cause a higher frequency of action potentials. In addition a greater stimulus will affect a larger area, causing a larger number of cells to respond to the stimulus, and this is perceived as a more intense stimulus.

Skin's Mechanoreceptors
Skin receptors include four types of mechanical receptors that have different field sizes and speeds of adaptation. There are two mechanoreceptors with large field sizes: pacinian corpuscles and ruffini's endings. While they both respond to stimuli from a large area of the skin, and therefore are not useful for locating stimuli accurately, pacinian corpuscles' speed of adaption is fast, and ruffini's endings adaptation is slow. The term speed of adaptation refers to how quickly the mechanoreceptor respond to stimuli. Slow adaptation means that the receptor is slow to give a response to a stimuli, and when a stimulus is removed, the response falls slowly. Fast adaptation means that the receptor will respond quickly, but will not give a sustained response. Two mechanoreceptors have a small receptive field: merkel's discs and meissner's corpuscles. Merkel's discs respond slowly, and meissner's corpuscles respond quickly. In addition to these four receptors, the skin contains nociceptors (pain receptors, usually free nerve endings) and thermoreceptors (sensitive to temperature.)

Dermatomes
Dermatomes are the receptive field of a particular section of the spinal cord. Specifically, the area of the skin that makes up the receptive field of a spinal nerve, dorsal root and spinal segment.

Speed of Adaption
All receptors will adapt to stimulus, i.e. the receptor's potential amplitude decreases with continued stimulation. The slowly adapting receptors experience tonic (continued) activation while the rapidly adapting receptors respond only with the onset and offset of the stimulus, but not in between. This difference discriminates between transient and persistent sensory signals.

Types of Nerve Projections
There are four types of primary afferents (nerves fibers): the largest is the A alpha, whose diameter is usually between 13 and 20 micrometers. Signals travel between 80 and 120 m/s in A alpha afferents and carry information from proprioceptors in the skeletal muscles. A beta afferents are 6 - 12 micrometers in diameter and carry information from the skin's mechanoreceptors at 35 - 75 m/s. A gamma afferents are 1 - 5 micrometers in diameter and carry information about pain and temperature at 5 - 30 m/s. All three A type afferents are myelinated, which increases the speed of transmission. The fourth type of afferent is C, which is unmyelinated, .2 - 1.5 micrometers in diameter, and carries information about temperature, pain, and itch at .2 - 5 m/s.

Somatic Sensory System Paradigm
There are a few elements shared by every modality of the somatic sensory system. Starting with a receptor, the sensory system transfers information via a primary sensory neuron to a sensory pathway which then carries the information to the brain. Receptors that relay information on touch and pressure are mechanical; for temperature, there are thermoreceptors, and pain receptor are called nociceptors. The primary sensory neurons are the first neurons in the sensory system to respond and are called the first order neurons. These project through the dorsal root ganglia to synapse inside the spinal cord, and on the other (peripheral end) is a receptor. At this point, each modality follows its own pathway. Mechanoreceptors follow the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway and the second neuron in the pathway is found in the medulla. Thermoreceptors and nociceptors follow the spinothalamic pathway and their second order neurons are found in the dorsal horn of the spinal segment corresponding to their dermatome.

Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal Pathway
The dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathway, used to transmit touch and proprioceptive information, first goes up the ipsilateral (same side as input) dorsal column until it reaches the medulla. The projection synapses in the dorsal column nuclei (includes the Gracile nucleus and the cuneate nucleus.) Next, the pathway crosses to the contralateral side (opposite side of the input) and continues to the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. After synapsing in the thalamus, still on the contralateral side, the pathway continues to the primary somatic sensory cortex.

Spinothalamic Pathway
The spinothalamic pathway, relaying information about temperature and pain, enters the spinal cord through the ipsilateral dorsal horn and immediately crosses, and the projection synapses on the secondary neuron in the contralateral side. The pathway proceeds all the way up the spine to the ventral posterior nuclei of the thalamus. After the thalamus, the pathway continues to the primary somatic sensory cortex (on the contralateral side.) In the somatic sensory cortex, every part of the body is represented by a particular area, i.e. each part of the body constitutes the receptive field of some group of neurons in the somatic sensory cortex.


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Cookbook:Pedernales River Chili

| Texas cuisine

Pedernales River Chili was American President Lyndon Johnson's favorite chili con carne recipe. It was named after the location of his Texas Hill Country ranch. The recipe calls for leaving out the traditional beef suet (on doctor's orders after his heart attack while he was U.S. Senate Majority Leader) and also adds tomatoes and onions. LBJ preferred venison, when available, over beef; Hill Country deer were thought to be leaner than most. Lady Bird Johnson, the First Lady, had it printed up on cards as a mail-out because of the many thousands of requests the White House received for the recipe.

The recipe is originally from Zephyr Wright, the Johnson's family cook.

Ingredients

 * 4 lbs (1.8 ) coarse-ground meat (venison preferred)
 * 1 large onion, chopped
 * 2 cloves garlic, finely chopped
 * 1 teaspoon dried oregano (preferable to fresh oregano, which grows wild in central Texas)
 * 1 teaspoon powdered cumin
 * 6 teaspoons chili powder (or more, to taste)
 * 2 cans (16-oz/500g) whole tomatoes
 * Salt to taste
 * 2 cups (470 ml) hot water

Procedure

 * 1) Brown meat, onion, and garlic in a large skillet.
 * 2) Add rest of ingredients and bring to a boil. Lower heat, cover, and simmer for about an hour.
 * 3) Skim off grease.

title: Cookbook:Pedernales River Chili


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User talk:82.44.112.214

Xania talk 00:11, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.44.112.214


text:
User talk:69.150.187.85

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

Xania talk 00:25, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.150.187.85


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Cookbook:New Mexico Chili Verde

| Cuisine of the United States | Southwestern cuisine

New Mexico Chile Verde is the most popular version of chili con carne in the U.S. state of New Mexico. While there apparently is no canonical recipe for Chile Verde (green chile), all versions involve roasting fresh green chile peppers and cooking them slowly with meat (usually pork but also beef, chicken, or turkey), garlic, oregano, and cumin. The consistency is usually much thinner than Texas-style chili and is sometimes listed on restaurant menus as "green chile stew". In addition to being eaten by the bowl (sometimes with pinto beans or diced potatoes added), Chili Verde often is treated as a condiment and is ladled over burritos, enchiladas, hamburgers, and fried eggs.

The following is a representative recipe for chili verde, but there are many variations:

Ingredients

 * 2 green bell peppers, chopped (not frequently used in New Mexico)
 * 4 large, mild green chile peppers
 * 5 cups water
 * 1 large can (16 oz) stewed tomatoes
 * 2 tablespoons pork bouillon granules
 * 1 tablespoon dried oregano
 * 1 tablespoon whole cumin seeds
 * 1 tablespoon coriander
 * 8 oz ground pork
 * 1 large onion, chopped
 * 6 tablespoons butter or margarine
 * ⅓ cup (240 ml) all-purpose flour

Procedure

 * 1) Combine bell peppers, chili peppers, water, tomatoes, bouillon, oregano, cumin, and coriander in a large pot. Cook over medium heat until peppers are tender.
 * 2) Meanwhile, cook pork and onion in a skillet over medium heat, stirring occasionally, about ten minutes, or until pork is browned and crumbly. Drain pork and add to chile mixture. Simmer for 20 minutes.
 * 3) Heat butter in the skillet over medium-low heat. Add flour. Cook, stirring frequently, until flour browns, about 2 minutes.
 * 4) Add flour mixture to chile. Continue cooking and stirring until thickened to preference.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * If fresh green chili peppers are not available, dried Anaheim chili peppers may be substituted, but the results will be substantially different.

title: Cookbook:New Mexico Chili Verde


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Cookbook:Chili con Carne

| Cuisine of the United States

Chili con carne (sometimes simply shortened to chili) is a spicy stew-like dish, generally containing chile peppers. There is dispute over the components of chili, with arguments that 'true' chili does not contain beans/tomatoes/meat/etc. However, chili as it is commonly known in the USA typically features tomatoes, beans, and meat, along with other vegetables. There are many variations according to geography and personal preference. There are also vegetarian versions, sometimes known as chili sin carne, which are made without meat. The name "chili con carne" is a slight corruption of the Spanish chile con carne, meaning "chiles with meat". Chili con carne is the official dish of the U.S. state of Texas.

Beans
Pinto beans (frijoles), a staple of Tex-Mex cooking, have long been associated with chili, and the question of whether beans "belong" in chili has been a matter of contention among chili cooks for an equally long time. It is likely that in many poorer areas of San Antonio and other places associated with the origins of chili, beans were used rather than or in addition to meat, due to poverty. In that regard, it has been suggested by some chili aficionados that there were probably two chili types, depending on what could be afforded and how frugal the cook was.

As chili spread east into areas where beef was more expensive (beef was plentiful and cheap in San Antonio and other cattle towns), chili with pinto or other beans became more prevalent. In some eastern areas, this dish is referred to as "chili beans" while the term "chili" is reserved for the all-meat dish. Other changes included the adding of other vegetables. Bell peppers are common, and even celery appears in recipes. Many easterners are just as adamant about the inclusion of beans in their chili for an authentic flavor as Texans are about their exclusion.

Most commercially-prepared canned chili includes beans. Commercial chili prepared without beans is usually called "chili no beans". If you substitute chunks of fresh mushrooms for the beans, you will cut the calorie content of your favorite chili recipe by at least a third, without sacrificing taste. The bland white button mushroom will soak up the flavors of the chilies, tomatoes, chili powder, etc, while helping the chili retain its consistency.

Many chili experts believe, however, that beans and chili should always be cooked separately and served on the side. It is then up to the consumer to stir his preferred quantity of beans into his own bowl. Some cooks prefer black beans, black-eyed peas, or kidney beans instead of pinto beans.

A popular saying among chili purists is "If you know beans about chili, you know chili ain't got no beans".

Tomatoes
Another ingredient considered anywhere from required to sacrilegious is tomatoes. Wick Fowler, north Texas newspaperman and inventor of "Two-Alarm Chili", insisted on adding tomato sauce to his chili. He also believed that chili should never be eaten newly-cooked but refrigerated overnight to seal in the flavor.

Texas chili
Texas chilis are generally beef-based, use dried red chili peppers, and are therefore red in color. They contain no beans and little or no vegetables other than the chili peppers.

 * Original Texas-Style Chili: This recipe contains no vegetables except chilies which have been prepared by being boiled, peeled, and chopped.
 * Jailhouse Chili: In the early part of the 20th century, those likely to regularly spend time in local detention facilities in the American Southwest were said to rate the accommodations by the quality of the chili they were served. This became a matter of local pride and competition with other communities. This is a modern version, as served in the Texas prison system.
 * Pedernales River Chili: This chili was the favorite of U.S. President Lyndon Johnson and is named after the location of his Texas Hill Country ranch. Johnson preferred his chili made with venison.
 * Texas Easy Chili: This recipe is a chili powder- and tomato juice-based sauce combined with cubed or ground beef.

New Mexico chili
The official state vegetable of New Mexico is the chili pepper and the official state question is "Red or green?" This refers to the decision New Mexican chili devotees must regularly make, and which engenders frequent discussion and argument. The red chili is simply a riper form of the green chili; the former is cooked in its dried form and the latter is used fresh from the field, with significant differences in results. For those who simply cannot decide, the standard reply is "Christmas", meaning a portion of each. New Mexico chilies are more commonly based on pork, and include more vegetables than Texas style chilies.

 * New Mexico Chile Verde: Chile verde ("green chili") is generally considered more typical of New Mexican cuisine, possibly because of its more marked visual contrast to Texas-style chili. While there apparently is no canonical recipe for chili verde, all versions involve roasting fresh green chilies and cooking them slowly with meat, garlic, oregano, and cumin.
 * Green Chili Stew: This recipe is a New Mexican dish that is known as the beef stew of New Mexico. It is usually served with tortillas or sopapillas.
 * Chile Colorado: Chili Colorado ("red chili") is a pork-based chili from New Mexico that uses dried red chili peppers.

Other meat-based chilis

 * Chili con Bambi: Another venison based chili con carne. Intended for slow cooking so can use very tough meat.
 * Cincinnati-Style Chili: Cincinnati-style chili is a very popular regional variation that is quite different from Texas-style chili. Most notably, it is usually eaten as a topping for spaghetti or hot dogs, rather than as a stew by itself. Cincinnati-style chili is beanless, but a "four-way" serving includes beans on top of the spaghetti under the chili. The connection between cheddar cheese and chili probably originated in Cincinnati, since the cheese normally tops Cincinnati spaghetti dishes.
 * White Chili: Instead of a tomato-based sauce and red meat (beef), great northern beans and chicken breast meat can be substituted. The resulting dish appears white when cooked, and has more of an alkali bean taste, instead of the acidic taste of traditional chili.
 * Pepper chili: Chili made with bell-peppers

Vegetarian chili
Vegetarian chilis acquired wide popularity in the U.S. during the 1960s and 1970s with the rise of the vegetarian philosophy, and is also popular with those on diets which restrict red meat. To make a chili vegetarian, the meat is left out of the recipe or replaced with a meat analogue such as textured vegetable protein or tofu. Some people consider vegetarian chili to be a spicy vegetable stew, and not true chili.

 * Vegan Chili: This is a kind of chili that needs no meat (and uses no ersatz meat). Molasses gives this chili a somewhat Louisiana flavor.
 * Bean Chili: This chili recipe, which is also vegan, uses kidney beans, red and green bell peppers, and chili powder.
 * Black Bean Chili: This vegetarian chili uses black beans.

Serving
Several beverages are commonly used to accompany a bowl of chili, including ice-cold beer or cold milk to moderate the impact of the chilies on the throat. Saltine crackers, broken up and scattered on top, are common in chili parlors. Similarly, commercial corn chips can be added as a topping, producing something akin to Frito Pie. Jalapeño cornbread, rolled-up corn tortillas, and pork tamales also are popular for dunking. Peanut butter sandwiches or peanut butter on saltine crackers served on the side can also accompany chili. In Missouri, a small portion of pickle juice is often poured into the bowl of chili. In Indiana, some heap coleslaw in their bowl of chili before eating. In Southeast Texas people eat chili over white rice, much like one would eat gumbo; this is due to the proximity to Louisiana; this is also common in the United Kingdom.

Similar dishes
Dishes often described as similar to chili con carne include French cassoulet, Indian curry, Jewish cholent, Serbian bean soups and especially Hungarian goulash.

Recipes
For a complete list of chili recipes, see Category:Chili recipes or browse below:

title: Cookbook:Chili con Carne


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Teepee

The teepee fire is probably the most recognized campfire. It is somewhat difficult to lay however, as getting the logs to balance against one another can be tricky. Sometimes the log pile will topple and upset the kindling and tinder beneath, and you'll have to start again from scratch. If necessary, you can lash them together at the top with twine (but don't use a synthetic rope such as nylon or polypropylene). Once laid, the teepee fire is very easy to light, as convection will take the flames right to the fuel.

Adding fuel to a teepee fire can also be challenging as the balance problem is still there, but it is now complicated by the presence of heat. For this reason, teepee fires often devolve into a chaotic heap.

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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Log Cabin

The log cabin is easy to lay, and it is fairly stable as well. It is laid very much like a log cabin (hence the name). It is somewhat difficult to light though, as the fuel is off to the side of the tinder and kindling. When it burns, it falls in on itself, confining itself to the fire ring. It is also easy to add more fuel and maintain a neat orderly fire.

|


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User:Twofingers

Hi there, I'm still a student but soon to be a 3D software developer. My worst drawback is that I always try to propagate open source trends. Which means: poor cash flow!

P.s. No one has to like me. But yeah, pretty much everyone does...

[Linux] [Blender3D] [Voodoo Camera Tracker] [Gimp] [C++] [OpenGL] [Ogre3D] [Stop stalking this Guy! :P]

title: User:Twofingers


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Camping/Fire/Council

The council fire was used by Native Americans during their meetings (or councils). It is very much like the log cabin fire except that more than two logs are laid on each layer. Be careful not to lay the logs too close to one another. Leave gaps of at least one inch (2.5 cm) between each log to allow air to circulate. Like the log cabin fire, the council fire is very stable, and it falls into itself as it burns, remaining within the fire ring. Unlike the log cabin fire, the council fire lights easily as the main fuel is located directly above the kindling and tinder where convection will carry the flames. This fire is hot, and will make a nice bed of coals for cooking. It also uses a lot of fuel. This fire is sometimes called a pyramid fire as well.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bertha Jorkins

Overview
Bertha Jorkins was a witch working with the Department of Magical Games and Sports in the Ministry of Magic. She was also Sirius Black's and James Potter's school mate at Hogwarts. When she is first mentioned in the book, she has been missing since being on vacation in Albania. It is later revealed that she is dead.

Goblet of Fire
In Chapter One, Lord Voldemort reminds Wormtail that he murdered Bertha Jorkins after they forced her to reveal Ministry information. With this information, Voldemort devised a plan to lure Harry Potter to a place where he would use him for a sinister purpose.

After her disappearance from Ludo Bagman's department, Bagman seems unconcerned, saying, "Poor old Bertha... memory like a leaky cauldron. Will likely turn up sometime in October thinking it's still July." Arthur Weasley is later called upon to assist in damage control when Rita Skeeter discovers her unexplained absence and writes about it in the Daily Prophet.

Bertha's absence is mentioned several times throughout the book. Sirius Black disputes Bagman's claim about Bertha, telling Harry that when they were at school together, she had a very good memory and a very long nose for gossip; a bad memory is not something he would associate with her. Professor Dumbledore summons her memory from his Pensieve, and he and Harry see her accusing a fellow student of jinxing her only because she followed him, though she later expands on this, saying she had followed him and his girlfriend, had seen them kissing, and had told him she would tell everyone about it.

Finally, under Veritaserum, Barty Crouch Jr. reveals that Bertha had visited Bartemius Crouch Sr.'s house some time before our story begins, and had discovered that Barty, who supposedly died in Azkaban, was hidden at his father's house. Bartemius put a memory charm on Bertha, but it caused her ongoing memory problems. On vacation, she fell in with Wormtail, who brought her to Voldemort. From her, Voldemort learned about the Triwizard Tournament being held at Hogwarts. By breaking the memory charm, he learned also that Barty Crouch Jr. had escaped Azkaban and was being hidden at his father's house. Breaking the memory charm destroyed Bertha's mind, and Voldemort quickly murdered her as she was no longer useful.

Strengths
Before Bartemius Crouch damaged it, Bertha had evidently quite a good memory, and one gathers that she had something like Rita Skeeter's nose for gossip.

Weaknesses
After her memory had been charmed, she seems to have become notably weak in her ability to remember, and had been, as a consequence, shunted around from department to department at the Ministry.

Analysis
In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Voldemort had gained some kind of body shortly after Bertha had been captured by Peter (Wormtail) Pettigrew. Later on it mentions that Voldemort "pointed his wand" at Peter and used the Cruciatus Curse on him. When Harry arrives in the graveyard Peter drops an "ugly baby" into the cauldron. What if the "service" that Bertha provided was more then just the information about Barty Jr. and the Triwizard Tournament at Hogwarts? It is entirely possible, though horrible to contemplate, that the body that Voldemort inhabited during this book was, in fact, Jorkins' child, possibly one that she had gone on holiday to have privately. Voldemort would, of course, not mention this in his exposition to the Death Eaters as to how he had survived, due to the shameful weakness of the body he had been forced to inhabit; and the author would not have mentioned it anyway in a book intended for children.


text:
Cookbook talk:Aspartame

There is a lot more to Aspartame than what is presented here. Where is all the information?

title: Cookbook talk:Aspartame