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User:Lord Voldemort~enwikibooks/Quicksand

Just my sandbox. Nothing survives for too long in here. -- LV (Dark Mark) 20:08, 11 November 2005 (UTC)

No original research (adapted from Wikipedia):

Wikibooks is not the place for original research. Citing sources and avoiding original research are inextricably linked: the only way to verify that you are not doing original research is to cite sources who discuss material that is directly related to the module, and to stick closely to what the sources say.

No original research is one of three content policies. The other two are Neutral point of view and Verifiability. The three policies are complementary, jointly determining the type and quality of material that is acceptable in the main namespace. They should therefore not be interpreted in isolation from each other, and editors should try to familiarize themselves with all three.

What is original research?
Original research refers to original research by editors of Wikibooks. It does not refer to original research that is published or available elsewhere (although such research may be excluded if editors consider the source to be disreputable or inappropriate).

The phrase "original research" in this context refers to untested theories; data, statements, concepts and ideas that have not been published in a reputable publication; or any new interpretation, analysis, or synthesis of published data, statements, concepts or ideas that, in the words of Wikibooks's founder Jimmy Wales, would amount to a "novel narrative or historical interpretation".

Primary and secondary sources

 * Primary sources present information or data, such as archeological artifacts; photographs (but see below); historical documents such as a diary, census, transcript of a public hearing, trial, or interview; tabulated results of surveys or questionnaires, records of laboratory assays or observations; records of field observations.
 * Secondary sources present a generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of information or data.

Original research that creates primary sources is not allowed. However, research that consists of collecting and organizing information from existing primary and/or secondary sources is strongly encouraged. In fact, all modules on Wikibooks should be based on information collected from primary and secondary sources. This is not "original research," it is "source-based research," and it is fundamental to writing a textbook.

In some cases, where a module (1) makes descriptive claims the accuracy of which is easily verifiable by any reasonable adult without specialist knowledge, and (2) makes no analytic, synthetic, interpretive, or evaluative claims, a Wikibooks article may be based entirely on primary sources, but these are exceptions.

In most cases, Wikibooks modules include material on the basis of verifiability, not truth. That is, we report what other reliable secondary sources have published, whether or not we regard the material as accurate. In order to avoid doing original research, and in order to help improve the quality of Wikibooks modules, it is essential that any primary-source material, as well as any generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of information or data has been published by a third-party reputable publication (that is, not self-published) that is available to readers either from a website (other than Wikibooks) or through a public library. It is very important to cite sources appropriately, so that readers can find your source and can satisfy themselves that Wikibooks has used the source correctly.

In some cases, there may be controversy or debate over what constitutes a legitimate or reputable authority or source. Where no agreement can be reached about this, the module should provide an account of the controversy and of the different authorities or sources. Such an account also helps ensure the article’s neutral point of view.

"No original research" does not mean that experts on a specific topic cannot contribute to Wikibooks. Indeed, Wikibooks welcomes experts and academics. However, such experts do not occupy a privileged position within Wikibooks. They should refer to themselves and their publications in the third person and write from a neutral point of view (NPOV). They must also cite publications, and may not use their unpublished knowledge as a source of information (which would be impossible to verify).

Why do we exclude original research?

 * 1) It's an obligation of Wikibooks to its readers that the information they read here be reliable and reputable, and so we rely only on credible or reputable published sources. See No original research for a discussion on how to judge whether a source is reliable.
 * 2) Credible sources provide readers with resources they may consult to pursue their own research. After all, there are people who turn to textbooks as a first step in research, not as a last step.
 * 3) Relying on citable sources helps clarify what points of view are represented in a module, and thus helps us comply with our NPOV policy.
 * 4) Relying on credible sources also may encourage new contributors.  For example, if someone knows of an important source that the module has not drawn on, he or she may feel more confident in adding important material to the module.

The role of expert editors
"No original research" does not mean that experts on a specific topic cannot contribute to Wikibooks. On the contrary, Wikibooks welcomes experts. We assume, however, that someone is an expert not only because of their personal and direct knowledge of a topic, but because of their knowledge of published sources on a topic. This policy prohibits expert editors from drawing on their personal and direct knowledge if such knowledge is unverifiable. If an expert editor has published the results of his or her research elsewhere, in a reputable publication, the editor can cite that source while writing in the third person and complying with our NPOV policy. Otherwise, we hope expert editors will draw on their knowledge of other published sources to enrich our modules.

What is excluded from articles?
A Wikibooks entry (including any part of a module) counts as original research if it proposes ideas; that is:

 * it introduces a theory or method of solution; or
 * it introduces original ideas; or
 * it defines new terms; or
 * it provides new definitions of pre-existing terms; or
 * it introduces an argument without citing a reputable source, which purports to refute or support another idea, theory, argument, or position; or
 * it introduces or uses neologisms.

All of the above may be acceptable content once it has become a permanent feature of the public landscape. For example:

 * the ideas have been accepted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal; or
 * the ideas have become newsworthy: they have been independently reported in newspapers or news stories.

If you have an idea that you think should become part of the corpus of knowledge that is Wikibooks, the best approach is to arrange to have your results published in a peer-reviewed journal or reputable news outlet, and then document your work in an appropriately non-partisan manner.

The fact that we exclude something does not necessarily mean that material is bad -- Wikibooks is simply not the proper venue for it. We would have to turn away even Pulitzer Prize-level journalism and Nobel Prize-level science if its authors tried to publish it first on Wikibooks.

How to deal with Wikibooks entries about theories
For theories:
 * 1) state the key concepts;
 * 2) state the known and popular ideas and identify general "consensus", making clear which is which, and bearing in mind that extreme-minority theories or views need not be included.

Unstable neologisms, and ideas stemming from one individual who is not an authority, or from a small group of such individuals, should either go to "votes for deletion" (because they "fail the test of confirmability", not because they are necessarily false), or should be copyedited out.

What counts as a reputable publication?
Reputable publications include peer-reviewed journals, books published by a known academic publishing house or university press, and divisions of a general publisher which have a good reputation for scholarly publications.

For non-academic subjects, it is impossible to pin down a clear definition of "reputable". In general, most of us have a good intuition about the meaning of the word. A magazine or press release self-published by a very extreme political or religious group would often not be regarded as "reputable". For example, Wikibooks would not rely only on an article in the Socialist Workers' Party newspaper, The Militant, to publish a statement about President Bush being gay. However, if that same claim was in The New York Times, then Wikibooks could refer to the article (and to the sources quoted in the article). The political magazine could, however, be used as a source of information about the party itself.

Ask yourself some questions when you are evaluating a publication. Is it openly partisan? Does it have a large or very small readership? Is it a vanity publisher? Is it run principally by a single person, or does it have a large, permanent staff? Does it seem to have any system of peer review, or do you get the feeling that it shoots from the hip? If you heard that the publication you are about to use as a source was considering publishing a very negative article about you, would you (a) be terrified because you suspect they are irresponsible and do not fact-check; or (b) feel somewhat reassured because the publication employs several layers of editing staff, fact-checkers, lawyers, an editor-in-chief, and a publisher, and will usually correct its mistakes? If it is (a), do not use it as a source. If it is (b), it is what Wikibooks calls "reputable".

When dispute arises regarding whether a publication is reputable, you can attempt to get more editors involved and work toward a consensus. There is no clear definition, but don't ignore your intuition.

Original pictures
Pictures have enjoyed a broad exception from the NOR policy. Wikibooks editors have always been encouraged to take photos or draw pictures and upload them, releasing them under the GFDL or another free licence, to illustrate modules. There are several reasons this is welcomed:
 * Pictures are generally used for illustration and do not propose unpublished ideas or arguments, the core reason behind the NOR policy.
 * Due to copyright law in a number of countries and its relationship to the work of building free textbooks, there are relatively few publicly available images we can take and use. Wikibooks editors' pictures fill a needed role.

A known disadvantage of allowing original photographs to be uploaded is the possibility of editors using photo manipulation to distort the facts or position being illustrated by the photo. Manipulated images should be prominently noted as such and, if they are not, should be posted to Votes for deletion. Even noted as having been manipulated, they should not be used to illustrate modules in the main namespace, although editors are free to make use of them on user pages.

Images that constitute original research in any other way are not allowed, such as a diagram of a hydrogen atom showing extra particles in the nucleus as theorized by the uploader. All uploaded pictures are subject to Wikibooks's other policies and guidelines, notably Verifiability, and Neutral point of view.

Neutral point of view
The prohibition against original research limits the possibility of an editor presenting his or her own point of view in a module. Moreover, by reinforcing the importance of including verifiable research produced by others, this policy promotes the inclusion of multiple points of view in a module. Consequently, this policy reinforces our neutral point of view policy.

In many cases, there are multiple established views of any given topic. In such cases, no single position, no matter how well researched, is authoritative. It is not the responsibility of any one editor to research all points of view. But when incorporating research into an module, it is important that editors situate the research; that is, provide contextual information about the point of view, indicating how prevalent the position is, and whether it is held by a majority or minority.

Verifiability
The quality of a textbook depends on its accuracy and reliability. Our NPOV policy acknowledges that people may disagree as to what "the truth" is. People can, however, agree that certain points of view exist. By relying on the research of others, and by presenting facts, assertions, theories, ideas, claims, opinions, and arguments that have been published by a reputable publisher, the no-original-research policy and our verifiability policy reinforce one another.

The threshold for inclusion in Wikibooks is verifiability, not truth.

See Verifiability for more detailed information.

Cite sources
In order for people to be able to verify the research represented in a Wikibooks module, they must know where they can find the sources outside Wikibooks. Since this policy encourages editors to draw on previously published sources, it reinforces our cite sources policy.

See Cite sources for more details and rationales, as well as an example of citation style (although formatting is of secondary importance).

Origin of this policy: the opinion of Wikibooks's founder
Wikibooks's founder, Jimmy Wales, has described original research as follows (although referencing Wikipedia, the same holds true here):

"The phrase 'original research' originated primarily as a practical means to deal with physics cranks, of which of course there are a number on the Web. The basic concept is as follows: It can be quite difficult for us to make any valid judgment as to whether a particular thing is true or not. It isn't appropriate for us to try to determine whether someone's novel theory of physics is valid; we aren't really equipped to do that. But what we can do is check whether or not it actually has been published in reputable journals or by reputable publishers. So it's quite convenient to avoid judging the credibility of things by simply sticking to things that have been judged credible by people much better equipped to decide. The exact same principle will hold true for history' (WikiEN-l, December 3, 2004)."

"An article that makes no new low-level claims, but nonetheless synthesizes work in a non-standard way, is effectively original research that I think we ought not to publish. This comes up most often in history, where there is a tendency by some Wikipedians to produce novel narratives and historical interpretations with citation to primary sources to back up their interpretation of events. Even if their citations are accurate, Wikipedia's poorly equipped to judge whether their particular synthesis of the available information is a reasonable one. ... I think in part this is just a symptom of an unfortunate tendency of disrespect for history as a professional discipline. Some who completely understand why Wikipedia ought not create novel theories of physics by citing the results of experiments and so on and synthesizing them into something new, may fail to see how the same thing applies to history' (WikiEN-l, December 6, 2004)."

On talk pages and project pages
Like most Wikibooks policies, No original research applies to modules, not to talk pages or project pages, although it may be regarded as poor taste to discuss personal theories on talk pages.

Other options

 * Meta-Wiki allows original research, see for instance research, Wikiresearch, Wikimedia Research Network, wikiversity, m:category:research, and statistics.


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Category talk:Cookbook

I am looking for an book for "brewing beer". I was thinking it would be part of How To. Since beer is a beverage I thought it would be good to look at the cookbook. It doesnt look like its belongs anywhere in the cookbook currently though. Brewing beer has its own techniques and recipes. Should it go in cooking techniques or recipes or its own topic? (I am sure that wine and spirits making would have the same problem) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by SupIAmMike (talk • contribs) 14:32, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It looks fairly incomplete, but there is a Brewing Wikibook. Gentgeen 06:37, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Category talk:Cookbook


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User talk:HappyDog

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You can sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * Check out our help page if you need additional help.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Templates can save your time
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, or ask me personally on my talk page.

Good luck! -- LV (Dark Mark) 22:25, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Cheers LV - I have actually been registered for nearly a year (UserID 3362 out of about 17,500!) :) --HappyDog 18:41, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Well, I had seen you had been here for a while, but still had a red-linked talk page, so I thought I'd let you know people appreciated you, and that this is a community, not just random editors. Keep up the good work. -- LV (Dark Mark) 15:30, 17 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:HappyDog


text:
Algebra/Binomial Theorem

The notation ' $$n!$$ ' is defined as n factorial.

 * $$n!=n\times(n-1)\times(n-2)\times(n-3)\times\dots\times3\times2\times1$$

0 factorial is equal to 1.
 * $$0!=1$$

Proof of 0 factorial = 1
 * $$n!=n\times(n-1)!$$
 * When n = 1,
 * $$1!=1\times(1-1)!$$
 * $$1=1\times0!$$
 * And thus,
 * $$0!=1$$

The binomial thereom gives the coefficients of the polynomial
 * $$(x+y)^n$$.

We may consider without loss of generality the polynomial, of order n, of a single variable z. Assuming $$x\ne0$$ set z = y / x
 * $$(x+y)^n=x^n(1+z)^n$$.

The expansion coefficients of $$(1+z)^n$$ are known as the binomial coefficients, and are denoted
 * $$(1+z)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}z^k$$.

Noting that
 * $$(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}x^{n-k}y^k$$

is symmetric in x and y, the identity
 * $${n\choose n-k}={n\choose k}$$

may be shown by replacing k by n - k and reversing the order of summation.

A recursive relationship between the $${n\choose k}$$ may be established by considering
 * $$(1+z)^{n+1}=(1+z)(1+z)^n=\sum_{k=0}^{n+1} {n+1\choose k}z^k=(1+z)\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}z^k$$

or
 * $$\sum_{k=0}^{n+1} {n+1\choose k}z^k=\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}z^k+\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}z^{k + 1}=\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}z^k+\sum_{k=1}^{n+1} {n\choose k-1}z^k$$.

Since this must hold for all values of z, the coefficients of $$ z^k $$ on both sides of the equation must be equal
 * $${n+1\choose k}={n\choose k}+{n\choose k-1}$$

for k ranging from 1 through n, and
 * $${n+1\choose n+1}={n\choose n}=\frac{n!}{(n-n)!n!}=\frac{n!}{n!}=1$$
 * $${n+1\choose 0}={n\choose 0}=\frac{n!}{(n-0)!0!}=\frac{n!}{n!}=1$$.

Pascal's Triangle is a schematic representation of the above recursion relation ...

Show
 * $${n\choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}$$

(proof by induction on n).

A useful identity results by setting $$z=1$$
 * $$\sum_{k=0}^n {n\choose k}=2^n$$.

The visual way to do the binomial theorem
(this section is from difference triangles)

Lets look at the results for (x+1)n where n ranges from 0 to 3. (x+1)0 =         1x0           =                1 (x+1)1 =       1x1+1x0         =              1   1 (x+1)2 =     1x2+2x1+1x0       =            1   2   1 (x+1)3 =   1x3+3x2+3x1+1x0     =          1   3   3   1

This new triangle is Pascal’s Triangle.

It follows a counting method different from difference triangles.

The sum of the x-th number in the n-th difference and the (x+1)-th number in the n-th difference yields the (x+1)-th number in the (n-1)-th difference.

It would take a lot of adding if we were to use the difference triangles in the X-gon to compute (x+1)10. However, using the Pascal’s Triangle which we have derived from it, the task becomes much simpler. Let’s expand Pascal’s Triangle.

(x+1)0                                   1 (x+1)1                                 1   1 (x+1)2                               1   2   1 (x+1)3                            1    3   3    1 (x+1)4                          1    4   6   4    1 (x+1)5                        1   5   10   10   5   1 (x+1)6                     1   6   15   20   15   6   1 (x+1)7                  1   7   21   35   35   21   7    1 (x+1)8               1   8   28   56   70   56   28   8    1 (x+1)9             1   9   36   84   126  126  84   36   9    1 (x+1)10         1   10  45   120  210  252  210  120  45   10    1

The final line of the triangle tells us that

(x+1)10 = 1x10 + 10x9 + 45x8 + 120x7 + 210x6 + 252x5 + 210x4 + 120x3 + 45x2 + 10x1 + 1x0.

Practice Problems
 { Problem 1: Find the following without using a pencil and paper:}

{$$99^2$$ { 9801_7 }
 * type="{}"}

{$$998^2$$ { 996004_7 }
 * type="{}"}

{$$101^3$$ { 1030301_7 }
 * type="{}"}

Problem 2: If 3! * 5! * 7! = n!, what is n?

title: Algebra/Binomial Theorem


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Help:Templates

A template is simply a page designed for inclusion on other pages. If a template is changed, this is usually reflected on every page that uses the template. As you might begin to imagine, templates are a powerful tool that when put to good use, can reduce work and increase maintainability. On this page you will learn how to use templates and how to make your own templates.

General
Templates may contain any desired wikitext, including calls to other templates. They have some limited programming capacities: customizable values (called parameters), calculation and branching (using parser functions), and access to wiki-specific variables, such as dates, times, and page names.

To use a template in a page, a template tag (in the form  , which is the name of the template enclosed in doubled curled brackets) is added where you want the template to appear. When a reader wants to view the page, the servers fetch the contents of the template page, process any variables relevant to the page, and display the result in place of the template tag.

Templates are useful for any text for which one wants a copy in two or more pages, and there is no need for each copy to be edited independently, to adapt it to the page it is in. Since parameters can be used, versions may to that extent even be different, and parameter values can be edited independently for each. Templates are not only convenient, but they can also “force” a useful uniformity, e.g., a certain “style”.

Typical applications are:
 * Messages for displaying information (split)
 * Navigation between a book's pages or chapters for easier reading online (chapter navigation)
 * Placeholders for displaying visual information. Like tables, figures, diagrams, illustrations, etc.
 * Composites composed of a table of simple images which display more complex ideas (chess diagram

Template pages and namespaces
Templates have their own namespace which uses the prefix "Template:" (similar to the familiar "User:", "Help:", and "Talk:" namespaces).

Most templates exist in the template namespace, and can therefore be found on pages titled "Template:Template name". Sometimes, however, users create templates in other namespaces, such as the User: namespace. The normal use of a template (called transclusion) is possible from any namespace, but the advantage of the template namespace is that the "Template:" prefix is not needed when transcluding. By contrast, in order to transclude content from any other namespace excepting the main namespace (where books reside), the full name is needed, including the namespace prefix. If transcluding from the mainspace (which is rarely done) a colon must be prefixed inside the template syntax, or the software treats the code as an uncreated template. Thus:

Template names are exactly like other page names: case-sensitive except for the first letter, with spaces indistinguishable from underscores. If the symbol # (normally used to link to a section of a page) appears within the curly brackets, then it and any characters that follow it are ignored.

Template pages, like most other pages, have talk pages associated with them, where editors can discuss any issues relating to the template. (For this reason, templates should not be placed in "Talk:" namespace, even if they are intended for use on talk pages; since talk pages do not have talk pages of their own, there would be no page for discussing the template.)

Template usage
To transclude a template into another page, use the following syntax (called a template tag):

This consists of the template name and various parameters that are passed to the template, where each parameter is separated by a vertical bar (or pipe), and the entirety is surrounded by doubled curly braces,. The template tag should be placed in a page wherever the template is intended to appear. The "Template:" prefix is never needed for transclusion, only for finding and editing the template itself (though if the template is created in a different namespace that prefix is needed). Not all templates have parameters, and not all templates that have parameters need to have values provided, so sometimes is sufficient to use a template. If a parameter is needed, but a value is not provided by the user, the template may render with something like in the text, where the '...' might be a number or a parameter name. This is to inform the user that a named or unnamed parameter is missing, and can be avoided by using default values for the parameter.

Parameters come in two basic forms: These may be mixed:
 * unnamed parameters (sometimes called 'positional' parameters): values that are put into the template in the order they appear
 * named parameters: values associated with a particular named key in the template
 * named parameters: values associated with a particular named key in the template

By convention named parameters are listed last, though that is not a requirement. Whitespace characters (spaces, tabs, returns) are stripped from the beginnings and ends of named parameter values (unnamed parameters are unaffected), but not from the middle: thus will be treated as though the user had typed.

Template pages themselves may include material that is not transcluded with the template (such as documentation or categories that the template itself belongs to), or material that is only used when the page is transcluded (such as categories that apply to the transclusion page, but not the template). See the discussion of the includeonly and noinclude tags, below.

Attempting to transclude a template that does not exist produces a redlink, just like linking to any other nonexistent page. Following the link allows one to create that particular template.

Basic template usage examples
If you wish to experiment with any of these, please use the template sandbox.

Templates with no parameters
To see an example of a very simple template, look at Template:Tc. This template does nothing more than tranclude the letters "in" into other pages. For instance, editing the following phrases into any page will yield the associated results:

You'll notice that the template includes only the letters "in" when transcluded, despite the explanatory text on the template page ("This template is used..." click on the template link above to see). If you edit the template page, (click this link), you'll see that everything except the letters "in" is enclosed in 'noinclude' tags, discussed later.

Templates with unnamed parameters
Transclusion with parameters is only slightly more complicated. For a quick example, the famous dead man's hand can be reproduced by the following templates, using unnamed parameters:

In the second example, the position of the parameter in the template tag determines which suit it belongs to. Thus, the first A8 (first slot) goes to spades, the empty position (second slot) goes to hearts, the 9 (third slot) goes to diamonds, the second A8 (fourth slot) goes to clubs. Note that the empty parameter position is counted; if the extra pipe is forgotten, as in the third example, the result is that the cards end up in the wrong positions, and a appears, meaning that the template was expecting a value for the fourth positional parameter but none was provided. See the section on parameters and default values, below.

Templates with named parameters
Using named parameters is similar to using unnamed parameters. For example, Template:Payoff matrix (which is used in some books on game theory) gives a simple 2-by-2 grid with adjustable values, using the names UL, UR, DL, and DR to refer to Up Left, Up Right, Down Left and Down Right, and a Name parameter to add a name to the bottom of the matrix.

In the second case, the order of the parameters has been altered without changing the result - one of the advantages that named parameters have over unnamed parameters - and one of the values (UL) has been removed entirely, allowing the template to insert the default value of "0, 0".

Parameter names are case sensitive, even in the first character. for example, using "dr = 9","Dr = 9" or "dR = 9" instead of "DR = 9" will cause the Down Right cell to display the default "0, 0". The alternate case versions are treated as different parameters and ignored by the template.

Substitution
Generally, templates are processed into readable text when a user browses a page. This is the normal intention of a template: since the template is reevaluated each time it's used, changes to the template can propagate across many pages quickly and effortlessly. Occasionally, however, this is not appropriate. For instance, a user may want a template which returns a date or time that remains fixed, rather than changing each time the page is browsed. For those cases there is substitution, which is done by adding subst: before the template name in the template tag. Substitution does exactly what its name suggests: rather than processing the template each time the page is browsed, substitution processes the template at the time the edit is saved, and replaces the template tag with the processed results.

For example, the template tc (as shown above) adds the letters "in" wherever it is placed. Thus, the wikitext  bra  will produce the word bra. The wikitext will always remain as  bra , however, so if tc is changed so that it adds the letters "wn", the wikitext will produce brawn instead of brain. Substituting like so -  bra  - will permanently change the wikitext to read brain, and later changes to the template tc will have no effect on the substituted text.

Common mistakes
URL problems

URLs can contain equals signs (=) e.g. http://some.page.org?key=value&key2=value2. However, the first equals sign in a template parameter listing is always treated as though it sets off a named template parameter. thus will act as though  http://some.page.org?key  is a parameter name, not the start of a URL. There are two workarounds for this problem:
 * Use an explicit positional parameter reference: .  the '1=' refers to the first positional parameter explicitly and will obviate the subsequent equals signs
 * Use the special template =: .  This template returns an equals sign that is not parsed or interpreted by the wiki software.

Whitespace problems

Named parameters will automatically strip whitespace - spaces, tabs, carriage returns and line feeds, or other non-visible characters from a parameter. Unnamed parameters will retain all whitespace. This can cause odd formatting issues where the wrong behavior is expected.

Vertical pipe problems

The vertical pipe character (|) is used in templates (and parser functions) to separate parameters. If you need to provide a pipe character to a template parameter, then use the special template ! which returns an unparsed pipe character, or use the HTML entity &#124; for the pipe character.

Creating and editing templates
Templates are created and edited in much the same way as any other page: choose an appropriate name, navigate to that page, then click the Edit tab or create a new page as needed. The only real difference is that templates will normally be placed in the "Template:" namespace rather than the (unprefixed) main namespace. Anything that can be included on a normal page can be included on a template, including other templates. Beyond that, templates have access to programming features—parameters, parser functions, and variables—which allow for context-dependent use, and special tags that help control which information is transcluded and which is not.

When creating templates, it's best to follow a few simple principles:
 * Choose a short, descriptive name. Some people suggest that generic template names be entirely in lowercase letters, and those for a specific book use the form Template:Book Name/Template Name, but there is currently no hard guideline.
 * Make a quick search of template space or browse templates to make sure that the template you're creating hasn't already been done. It is sometimes easier and better to enhance an already existing template than to create a new template from scratch.
 * Make sure your template is properly documented and included in the correct categories. (see below)
 * Try to make your template modular: i.e. capable of standing on its own and in a variety of different page contexts, without breaking, producing poor output, or messing up a page's layout. In general, you want your template to be transparently useful to other editors—the more effort they have to put into understanding how your template is used, the less they will be willing to use it.

Template documentation
Categorizing your template and documenting it will make it easier for other editors to find and use.
 * To add documentation, put the documentation template inside 'noinclude' tags on the template page. This will create a documentation subpage that you can edit
 * Categories that apply to the template itself should be added to the template page (inside 'noinclude' tags, with the documentation template). Categories that are to be transcluded to the transclusion page should be placed on the template page inside 'includeonly' tags.

Parameters
Parameters are special codes that allow wikitext to be fed to a template; the template can be constructed to produce different outcomes depending on the values of the parameters it receives. Parameters may have names, or may be referenced by the position of values provided in the template tag (the order of the parameters in the template code is irrelevant). Parameters in a template take the form, where the tripled curled-braces surround the name of a named parameter or the number of a positional parameter. Values entered for parameters can be quite long, and if needed the transclusion of an entire page may be used as the value for a parameter.

To see how parameters work, consider this example. Assume there is a template called 'peoplepets' that produces some text about people and their pets. A template tag for this template might look like the following:

 * A.
 * B.

The contents of the template itself, on the page Template:Peoplepets, looks as follows:

 * and own a   named  who is  years old.

Thus, the two template tags above will transclude the following text, respectively:

 * A.
 * B.

Things to note:
 * The numbering of positional parameters skips over named parameters (as with 'age' above)
 * The leading and trailing spaces around the values of named parameters in the template tags are stripped by the template.
 * This is not true for unnamed parameters, which preserve trailing and leading whitespace. However, browsers render multiple whitespace characters as a single space, so the extra spaces around 'Fido', 'fat' and the other unnamed parameter values aren't immediately visible.  This can be confusing if unnamed parameters are used for something other than display, such as links.
 * The order in which named parameter values are used in the template doesn't matter.
 * The number of a positional parameter is treated as though it were a name: could have been written  .  This is useful when positional parameters need to be entered out of order, or when a position parameter value contains an equals sign.
 * Values may be empty. Here the second positional parameter and the 'age' parameter have empty values:
 * Template tag:
 * Produces (note the missing words):
 * Values can remain unprovided. Here the 'kind' parameter has been omitted:
 * Template tag:
 * Produces (this displays the missing parameter):

Parameter defaults
Default values can be specified for parameters using the vertical pipe character: |. The above example template could be rewritten as follows (in which 'friend' is the default value for positional parameter 2, the 4th positional parameter defaults to emptiness, and the 'kind' of the pet defaults to 'dog'—see Template:Peoplepetsd):

 * and own a   named  who is  years old.

A template tag like the following: will then produce the phrase .

Note that the '3=' before the name of the dog is required, since the second positional parameter is not specified.

An empty value for a parameter will override a default value, producing an empty space. In other words, will then produce the phrase

Dummy parameters and tag layout
Parameters that are not used in the template are ignored if they are provided by the template tag. This was intended to prevent transclusions from breaking if a template is changed in a way that removes a parameter; there's no need to go to every page a template is transcluded onto and change the tags. This has an added benefit, however, of making some template tags more readable, through spacing, or by adding comments. Using t3d:

Since t3d does not use parameters, , or the 'row #' values have no effect on the produced wikitext. Dummy named parameters can be used in any template tag; simply choose an unused parameter name and add it into the tag as 'unusedname = value'. One special case of a named dummy parameter is to use an empty string as the parameter name.

Restrictions on parameters and parameter values

 * Unnamed parameters cannot be assigned a value containing an equals sign (=); the parser will treat the equals sign as the assignment of a named parameter. There are several indirect means around this limitation:
 * In the template, write the value as the default of an undefined parameter:
 * , where the ellipsis can be the number of an unused positional parameter, or can be a blank string (a null parameter).
 * In the page, assign the values to the template parameters with one of the following methods:
 * , where the '1=' notation explicitly names the first unnamed parameter.
 * Use the special template =, e.g.,
 * Use the HTML entity for an equals sign: &#x3d; . This is only useful for text representation; If the equals sign needs to be processed as an actual equals sign (as in another template) this approach won't work.
 * Parameter values cannot contain vertical pipe (|) characters; the parser will treat the pipe character as a separator rather than as text. Pipes are possible within wikilinks ( country=USA ) or nested templates (e.g., volume= 30 acre.ft ). Indirect means around this limitation are as follows:
 * Use the special template !, which returns a valid pipe character. Use this method if you need something that will be read as an actual pipe character (for instance, if you're using the parameter to modify the structure of a wikitext table)
 * Use the HTML entity for a vertical pipe: &#124; . This is only useful for text representation; If the pipe needs to be processed as an actual pipe, this approach won't work.
 * Parameter values cannot contain unmatched sequential curled brackets - }} or {{ . The parser will try to parse them as the beginning or ending of a template tag or parameter, and will throw errors somewhere. Parameters can, however, contain other parameters, magic words, or template tags.
 * again, this can be circumvented using 'nowiki' tags or HTML entities.

Nesting templates
Templates may contain other templates – usually called 'nesting'. As the template is processed, the wikitext produced by any nested templates is transcluded into the nesting template, so that the final product is essentially processed from the most deeply nested template out. While fairly straight-forward in application, it involves some noteworthy quirks and tricks.

To pass a parameter value to a nested template, place a parameter tag as the value of one of the nested template's parameters.

 * Examples:
 * Template:A contains "the quick brown jumped over...". This takes the value passed to the third positional parameter of Template:A and passes it as the first positional parameter of Template:B, then returns the wikitext produced by B as part of the phrase.
 * Template:A contains "the quick brown {{B|waldo= {{mw-arg|3}} jumped over...". As above, except  the third positional parameter of Template:A is passed to the named parameter 'waldo' of Template:B.

A template can call itself, but will stop after one iteration to prevent an infinite loop.

Noinclude, includeonly, and onlyinclude
Several tags are available to control what does and doesn't get transcluded from a template. The three tags are noinclude, includeonly, and onlyinclude.

noinclude
The 'noinclude' tag is used to prevent text on the template page from being transcluded onto other pages. This is often used for:
 * documentation
 * categories that apply to the template itself
 * interwiki links to related templates on other wikis.

Its use is straightforward:
 * If this text were in a template page, this part would be transcluded
 *  but this text would not be transcluded

includeonly
The 'includeonly' tag is the opposite of the 'noinclude' tag. Text within an includeonly block is only included when the page is transcluded, it does not appear on the template page itself. This is frequently used for:
 * categories that apply to the transcluding page
 * hiding messy text or error messages that occur on the template page itself (often because parameters that need a value are undefined)

Its use is straightforward:
 * If this text were in a template page, this part would appear on the template page and on the transclusion page
 *  but this text would only appear on the transclusion page

onlyinclude
The 'onlyinclude' tag literally only includes the material that is between the tags; anything else on the page - even text within 'includeonly' tags, will appear on the template page but will not be included. This is not frequently used, but might be useful when only a small bit of text in the middle of an otherwise large page is to be transcluded.

It is used like this:
 * If this text were in a template page, this part would be visible there, but would not be transcluded
 *  This text would not be visible on the template page, nor would it be transcluded </tt>
 * <tt> this text is all that would be transcluded </tt>

Variables
System variables take the format where the enclosed text is always entirely capitalized. These provide information directly from the system itself: local dates and times, information about the current page, and even information about the wiki itself.

The PAGENAME and NAMESPACE variables are particularly useful, and frequently used, to change template behavior based on context. For example, if the template includes a category (e.g. cleanup templates, which categorize the page as a page which needs cleanup), it will often check the NAMESPACE variable to make sure that talk pages, user pages, or anywhere else the tag might incidentally be placed do not themselves get categorized as pages needing cleanup.

Parser functions and modules
Parser functions are tools for performing simple branchings and text manipulation. They take one or more parameters and return a wikitext value based on the parameters. There are two basic forms for parser functions (distinguished by whether a pound sign follows the opening brackets):

 * Core parser functions, of the form.
 * Parser functions from an extension to the software, of the form.

Parser functions are primarily used for the evaluation of parameters or variables, in order to produce different results in different contexts.

Core parser functions generally deal with text manipulation and specific project tasks.

The extended features provide more programming-oriented parser functions.

Other kinds of calculations and string manipulation functions, such as find and replace, can be performed by Module:String and other modules. Such modules similarly take one or more parameters.

Other editing information

 * If the first included character of a template is one of the Wiki markup characters <tt>:;*#</tt>, then it is processed as though it is at the beginning of a line (even when the template tag is not). This allows the creation of various kinds of lists in templates where the template may not always be in the correct place for a list.  To avoid this effect use <tt><nowiki>#</nowiki></tt> or an HTML entity such as <tt>&#58;</tt> for a colon. This is also useful in conjunction with definition lists.
 * When a page called for transclusion is a redirect page, the redirect target is included instead.

Revision history of pages containing templates
Pages in the stored page history consist of wikitext with possible references to templates and images. When viewing an old version of a page, these refer to the current versions of the templates and images, if these still exist. Thus the former composite page is not reconstructed.

title: Help:Templates


text:
Cookbook:Traditional Beef Stroganoff

Beef stroganoff, in its simplest form, is simply tender beef with a mushroom and sour cream sauce. It is very popular as a basic food service dish as it is very easy to produce it in large quantities. It is also very popular in Brazil (where it is better known as "strogonoff" or "estrogonofe"), but the recipe is slightly different there.

The current accepted history of this dish dates back to the 1890s when a chef working for Count Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov (the famous Russian general) invented the recipe for a cooking competition in St. Petersburg. After the fall of Imperial Russia, the recipe was popularly served in the hotels and restaurants of China before the start of the Second World War. Russian and Chinese immigrants, as well as U.S. servicemen stationed in China, brought several variants of the dish to the United States, which may account for its popularity during the 1950s. It is commonly served with noodles or rice.

Despite the allusion of the name "stroganoff" to Count Paul Stroganoff, a 19th century Russian diplomat, the origins of the dish have never been confirmed. Larousse Gastronomique notes that similar dishes were known since the 18th century but insists the dish by this specific name was the creation of chef Charles Briere who was working in St. Petersburg when he submitted the recipe to L 'Art Culinaire in 1891, but the dish seems much older. It did not appear in English cookbooks until 1932, and it was not until the 1940s that beef stroganoff became popular for elegant dinner parties in America.

Ingredients

 * 2 pounds (900 g) beef chuck roast
 * ½ teaspoon (2.5 ml) salt
 * ½ teaspoon (2.5 ml) ground black pepper
 * 8 tablespoons (110 g) butter
 * 4 green onions (white parts only), sliced
 * 4 tablespoons (60 ml) all-purpose flour
 * 10.5 ounces (300 ml) condensed beef broth
 * 1 teaspoon (5 ml) prepared mustard
 * 6 ounces (150 g) sliced canned mushrooms, drained
 * ⅓ cup (160 ml) sour cream
 * ⅓ cup (160 ml) white wine
 * Salt to taste
 * Ground black pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Remove any fat and gristle from the roast, and cut into strips ½ inch thick by 2 inches long. Season with ½ teaspoon each of salt and pepper.
 * 2) In a large skillet over medium heat, melt the butter and brown the beef strips quickly, then push the beef strips off to one side. Add the onions and cook slowly for 3 to 5 minutes, then push to the side with the beef strips.
 * 3) Stir the flour into the juices on the empty side of the pan. Pour in beef broth and bring to a boil, stirring constantly. Lower the heat and stir in mustard.
 * 4) Cover and simmer for 1 hour or until the meat is tender.
 * 5) Five minutes before serving, stir in the mushrooms, sour cream, and white wine. Heat briefly then salt and pepper to taste.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Green onion and canned mushrooms can be replaced with white onion and fresh mushrooms, respectively. Fry both until soft.
 * Add a dash of Worcestershire Sauce.

Libro di cucina/Ricette/Manzo Stroganoff

title: Cookbook:Traditional Beef Stroganoff


text:
Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Speech Motor Learning and Control/Zen in the Art of Stuttering

Zen in the Art of Stuttering

Eugen Herrigel taught philosophy at the University of Tokyo in the 1920s and 1930s. To learn the Japanese philosophy of Zen Buddhism he studied archery for six years with a Zen master. In 1953 he wrote Zen in the Art of Archery about his experiences.

Daisetz T. Suzuki wrote in the introduction to Herrigel's book:

Zen is the "everyday mind," as was proclaimed by Baso (died 788); this "everyday mind" is no more than "sleeping when tired, eating when hungry." As soon as we reflect, deliberate, and conceptualize, the original unconsciousness is lost and a thought interferes. We no longer eat while eating, we no longer sleep while sleeping. The arrow is off the string but does not fly straight to the target…Calculation which is miscalculation sets in…The archer's confused mind betrays itself in every direction and every field of activity.

Wendell Johnson said, "Stuttering is what you do trying not to stutter again."

Malcolm Fraser (founder of NAPA Auto Parts and the Stuttering Foundation of America said, "Stuttering is largely what the stutterer does trying not to stutter."

The goal of stuttering therapy is spontaneous fluent speech. The goal of Zen is to do life activities without self-conscious calculating and thinking.

Non-stutterers usually talk without self-conscious calculating and thinking. But sometimes they are self-conscious about their speech. Fear of public speaking is common. And non-stutterers are self-conscious about asking the boss for a raise, or asking someone out on a date, or when discussing a difficult subject. Speech pathologists call this pragmatics—the mental effort of calculating the listener's reaction to your speech. In the Zen framework, pragmatics is the calculation that is miscalculation.

The goal of stuttering therapy should be to become a "Zen master of speech," just as other Zen masters are archers or swordsmen or calligraphers. To make an analogy to Baso, you sleep when tired, eat when hungry, and talk when you need to communicate. You don't worry about the listener's reaction. You don't fear embarrassment. If the listener doesn't do what you want or expect, you don't get upset.

You also talk fluently—but let's define fluency as if we're learning a foreign language. You need vocabulary to express your thoughts, grammar so your meaning isn't misconstrued, and accent and articulation to be understood. Mild stuttering may be OK, if your listener understands you, and you don't fear or avoid speaking. Van Riper called this "fluent stuttering," and a Zen master might call it "fluency which is not fluency."

Like speech, archery is a combination of motor skills. You tense and relax certain muscles, with split-second timing. Like fluency for a stutterer, these motor skills are not easy or obvious. Like many stutterers working on their speech, Herrigel worked six years before he considered himself an archer.

Why did Herrigel study archery to learn Zen philosophy? Most Zen students read books, take classes, and talk with Zen masters. How could learning a set of motor skills teach you a philosophy? Herrigel was told that to learn Zen he must begin "by learning one of the Japanese arts associated with Zen."

Master Kenzo Awa's first lesson was drawing the bow, letting "only your two hands do the work, while your arm and shoulder muscles remain relaxed, as though they looked on impassively."

This step is like stuttering therapy, with the goal of speaking while keeping your speech-production muscles relaxed.

Herrigel couldn't do this first step. He would "start trembling after a few moments, and my breathing became more and more labored." Sounds like stuttering!

He was trying to draw a six-foot bow held above his head, which requires great strength. But somehow the Master did this effortlessly.

…he called out to me to "Relax! Relax!"…the day came when…I lost patience and brought myself to admit that I absolutely could not draw the bow in the manner prescribed. "You cannot do it," explained the Master, "because you do not breathe right."

Sounds like stuttering therapy! The Master continued,

"Press your breath down gently after breathing in, so that the abdominal wall is tightly stretched, and hold it there for a while. Then breathe out as slowly and evenly as possible, and after a short pause, draw a quick breath of air again—out and in continually, in a rhythm, that will gradually settle itself. If it is done properly, you will feel the shooting becoming easier every day. For through this breathing you will not only discover the source of all spiritual strength but will also cause this source to flow more abundantly, and to pour more easily through your limbs the more relaxed you are." And as if to prove it, he drew his strong bow and invited me to step behind him and feel his arm muscles. They were indeed quite relaxed, as though they were doing no work at all. The new way of breathing was practiced, without bow and arrow at first, until it came naturally. The slight feeling of discomfort noticeable in the beginning was quickly overcome. The Master attached so much importance to breathing out as slowly and steadily as possible to the very end, that, for better practice and control, he made us combine it with a humming note.

First relaxed breathing, and now vocal fold vibration!

I cannot think back to those days without recalling, over and over again, how difficult I found it, in the beginning, to get my breathing to work out right… When, to excuse myself, I once remarked that I was conscientiously making an effort to keep relaxed, he replied: "That's just the trouble, you make an effort to think about it. Concentrate entirely on your breathing, as if you had nothing else to do!"

I've heard stuttering therapists say the same thing…

It took me considerable time before I succeeded in doing what the Master wanted. But—I succeeded. I learned to lose myself so effortlessly in the breathing that I sometimes had the feeling that I myself was not breathing but—strange as this may sound—being breathed. And even when, in hours of thoughtful reflection, I struggled against this bold idea, I could no longer doubt that the breathing held out all that the Master had promised.

Learning to draw the bow took a year. Perhaps stuttering therapies are unsuccessful because we expect results too quickly. Stuttering therapy could start with a year of breathing exercises.

Then Herrigel learned to loose the arrow. This was even more difficult than drawing the bow. Herrigel kept jerking his hand at the moment of release, resulting in "visible shaking of my whole body and affected the bow and arrow as well." This caused the arrow to "wobble."

The Master told Herrigel, "Don't think of what you have to do, don't consider how to carry it out! You mustn't open the right hand on purpose."

Herrigel told the Master that after drawing the bow, "unless the shot comes at once I shan't be able to endure the tension…I can't wait any longer."

The Master replied that Herrigel's inability to wait was because, "You do not wait for fulfillment, but brace yourself for failure."

Herrigel spent three years learning to release the arrow. The Master kept saying to release the arrow without tension, like a bamboo leaf holding snow, bending lower and lower until the snow slips off. The bamboo leaf waits without effort until the snow falls off.

In stuttering therapy, the first word of a phrase should be without effort, rolling off your vocal folds like the snow sliding off the bamboo leaf. You shouldn't intend to say the first word, as the archer doesn't open his hand on purpose. The word should say itself, without your planning or calculating or trying.

Herrigel's three years practice releasing the arrow suggests that learning to release the first word of a phrase may also take three years, and be the hardest part of stuttering therapy.

Herrigel was dedicated to his practice, but he couldn't release the arrow smoothly. The Master kept telling Herrigel to become "truly egoless." Herrigel became dejected, and planned to discontinue the archery lessons, concluding that, "all my efforts of the last few years had become meaningless."

Then, one day, after a shot, the Master made a deep bow and broke off the lesson. "Just then 'It' shot!" he cried.

"It" meant that Herrigel had loosed a shot without loosing the shot. "It" had loosed the shot, not Herrigel. The Master could not say anymore what "It" was, just that "It" can only be known through experience.

Only after considerable time did more right shots occasionally come off, which the Master signalized by a deep bow. How it happened that they loosed themselves without my doing anything, how it came about that my tightly closed right hand suddenly flew back wide open, I could not explain then and I cannot explain today…I got to the point of being able to distinguish, on my own, the right shots from the failures. The qualitative difference is so great that it cannot be overlooked once it has been experienced.

In stuttering therapy, the difference between your relaxed, fluent voice and your tense, stuttering voice is as obvious as night and day—after you learn relaxed, fluent speech. Until then it seems impossible.

The Master then began training Herrigel to shoot at a target, adding, "He who has a hundred miles to walk should reckon ninety as half the journey."

The Master refused to teach Herrigel to aim, insisting that the target was not the goal, and the goal cannot be aimed at, and that the goal doesn't have a name, except maybe "enlightenment".

But even though the Master did not aim, all of his shots lodged in the black center of the target, from sixty feet away.

At first Herrigel tried to shoot without caring if the arrows hit the target. But he couldn't do this, and "I confessed to him that I was at the end of my tether."

The Master replied:

You worry yourself unnecessarily. Put the thought of hitting right out of your mind! You can be a Master even if every shot does not hit.

You can be a Zen master of speech even if you still stutter. Mild disfluencies don't matter, if you communicate well.

When the Master said he sees "the goal as though I don't see it," Herrigel replied that the Master should then be able to shoot blindfolded. The Master then had Herrigel set up the target in darkness, except for one candle. Herrigel could not see the target at all, but the Master shot two arrows. When Herrigel turned on the lights, he saw that not only had both arrows hit the bulls-eye, but the second arrow had hit the first and splintered it!

Herrigel describes the following months as the hardest yet, of trying to hit the target yet not trying to hit the target. He gradually came to see the value of this training:

It destroyed the last traces of any preoccupation with myself and the fluctuations of my mood.

Finally, the Master had Herrigel shoot in front of spectators, and awarded him a diploma, "inscribed with the degree of mastery." Before Herrigel returned to Europe, the Master added,

I must only warn you of one thing. You have become a different person in the course of these years. For this is what the art of archery means: a profound and far-reaching contest of the archer with himself. Perhaps you have hardly noticed it yet, but you will feel it very strongly when you meet your friends and acquaintances again…You will see with other eyes and measure with other measures.


text:
User:Divine Hope

Eager to learn beginning game programming. Currently finishing up learning C++ (Finished Java).

Prefers to follow lesson plans rather than go 1on1 with an instructor <_<

Email me at finalheaven12687@hotmail.com

title: User:Divine Hope


text:
Wings 3D/Tutorials/Making pipe fittings with Wings/A different approach

There is at least one other method of making pipe fittings available on the internet, and the methods posted there make a wider variety of fittings. This is another approach.

Okay, we are going to make three different types of pipe fittings with this technique.

A 90% elbow joint.

A pipe "Tee"

And a four way fitting.

The "Tee" is made from the elbow joint, and the four way is made from the "Tee".

STEP 1
Start with a basic cylinder. Select it with the body tool (the all red pyramid in the group of four at the top of the W3D screen), it should all turn red, like the image in Step 2.

STEPs 2 & 3: ROTATE
Right click to bring up the body menu. Select ROTATE. It will ask you what axis you want to rotate about. Select the "X" axis. BUT DO NOT MOVE YOUR MOUSE. Instead, hit the   key. A menu will pop up asking you for a numeric value for the rotation in degrees. Input 90. The cylinder should now be laying on its side. DON'T hit your space bar to deselect it, instead, right click again and select rotate once more. This time pick the "Y" axis. Again, DON'T move the mouse. Hit and put in the value of -45 (minus 45, not plus) Make sure you are in orthographic view (that is the rightmost of the two pyramids in the upper left corner of your screen). The top image is an orthographic view, which means you are looking at it from a 45 degree angle to start, so when you do the second rotation, it appears sideways on to your point of view (POV).

STEP 4
Use your mouse to drag a box around the vertices at the right edge of the cylinder. (Alternatively, you could also use face select and use flatten in the face menu) You should now have all the vertices at one end selected. Leaving them selected, right click to bring up the vertices menu and choose FLATTEN > X. This will make all those vertices flatten into a plane perpendicular to the X axis. If you hit your  key so you are looking down the "X" axis, you should see an oval shape.

STEP 5
Hit the spacebar to deselect the vertices (if you used face select, just leave things as they are) Go into face mode and select the face created by the vertices you just flattened. Right click to bring up the face menu. Do EXTRACT REGION > X to make a copy of just that face. Drag it away from the cylinder. Hit your spacebar to deselect everything.

STEP 6
Now go into body mode and select the now deformed cylinder. Hit   to delete it.

STEP 7
Select the region you just extracted. On the menu across the top of the screen click on TOOLS > CENTER > ALL. The oval shape should now be centered at the origin of the workplane.

STEP 8: MORE ROTATION
With it still selected, right click and select ROTATE > X. Don't move the mouse. Hit   and enter 90 in the pop up box. Leave the oval selected. You will get this:

Below is the view looking straight down the "X" axis.

STEP 8
Right click and pick rotate again. This time choose "Y". Don't use the mouse. Hit   and enter the value 45. (we are going a POSITIVE 45 degrees this time...) Your oval will rotate to a 45 degree angle.

TWO VIEWS: ORTHO AND STRAIGHT DOWN THE "X" AXIS AFTER ROTATION.

STEP 9
Go into face mode and select ONE SIDE ONLY of the oval. Right click. Do EXTRUDE REGION > X. Don't move the mouse. and enter the value 3.

STEP 10
The face you just extruded should still be selected. Right click. Select FLATTEN > X. Now you have a cylinder that is flat on one face and at 45 degrees on the other.

You now have one half of a 90-degree pipe elbow with one end mitered at a 45-degree angle.

STEP 11
Hit space to deselect everything. In face mode, rotate your model and select the 45 degree angled face.

Do TOOLS > VIRTUAL MIRROR > CREATE.

Now do TOOLS > VIRTUAL MIRROR > FREEZE. Now you have a 90 degree elbow! All you have to do is make it hollow, which we do in the next step.

STEP 12
In face mode, select the two "ends" of your elbow and right click. Select INTRUDE from the menu. Move your mouse until you achieve your desired degree of wall thickness and left click. You will now have a completed 90 degree pipe elbow. This is the foundation for the pipe "Tee" and the four way connection.

In the next steps, we will make the pipe "Tee", which involves cutting away portions of an "un-intruded" 90 degree elbow and then doing another VIRTUAL MIRROR/FREEZE MIRROR. We will also do a four way connection by cutting up a pipe "Tee" and re-joining it.


text:
Subject:C++ programming language

C++ Programming : this book covers the history and characteristics of the programming language as it may be taught in an introductory to advanced course or as a reference book, including information on what is a programming language or how to install a compiler to the most used external libraries, GUI frameworks, design patterns, RAII, Multi-Threading and other information needed for real world programming in C++.

Geared towards: anyone interested in the C++ programming language.

C++ Language : the emphasis of this book is its hierarchical organization of topics about the C++ programming language. This book attempts to be comprehensive in its coverage of all topics about the language (both basic and advanced), discussing traditional techniques alongside modern ones. Although covering all topics, this book tries to avoid overwhelming the reader: Instead of presenting readers with a lengthy "wall of text", a "quick read" (surface-level description) is given for each topic. The goal is for that introduction to clearly educate readers about that topic, so that readers can know whether or not they need to dig deeper into that concept. For many beginning readers, that amount of text will suffice. In case readers discover that they do want to learn more, every topic is supplemented with a pointer to where they can go for further knowledge that is specifically targeted to that particular detail about C++.

Geared towards: either beginning C++ programmers (who wish for a quick introduction to aspects of the language), or advanced engineers (who wish for a resource where they can quickly lookup a topic and get a pointer to further detail).

More C++ Idioms : the objective of this open book is to help elevate the knowledge of programmers who have moderate level of familiarity with C++ to a level where they feel much friendlier with C++. It provides an exhaustive catalog of modern reusable C++ idioms based on what expert programmers often use while programming/designing using C++. It is an effort to capture their vocabulary and concepts into a single work.

Geared towards: anyone with an intermediate level of knowledge in C++ and programming language paradigms.

Optimizing C++ : platform-independent guidelines to develop efficient software using C++.

Geared towards: C++ programmers who need to improve the performance of the software they develop.

Understanding C++ : book covering only the core C++ language and its standard library and focuses on writing clean portable code. This book assumes you already have a C++ compiler installed and have read how to compile programs with it.

Geared towards: anyone with a moderate knowledge of how to use a computer and an interest in understanding the C++ standard.

C++ Programming As A Set Of Problems : a book covering the C++ language from the practical side. This book assumes you already have a C++ compiler installed and have read how to compile programs with it. Geared towards: anyone with a moderate knowledge of how to use a computer and an interest in programming with C++.

Intro To C++ : Do you want to learn C++, and have ways to actually remember how? Check this book out then!

Geared towards: someone who wants to get into computer programming and start off with C++.

C++-Programmierung Programación en C++ Programmation C++ Dal C al C++ C++ C++ Programar em C++ Си++ C++ சி++ C++ 프로그래밍

title: Subject:C++ programming language


text:
User:K wifler

Welcome:

My Programming Career
 * Please talk on the discussion page.
 * I will have to erase stuff to shorten the list.
 * I don't archive.
 * I'm usually not noticed by anyone, so you're an unusual person.
 * Yes, I'm very straightforward on anything nontheoretical.
 * I do tend to speak about myself as I a lot.
 * I try to simplify things down and usually end up leaving stuff out.
 * I often edit things many times no matter how small it ends up being.
 * I don't enjoy being in large crowds.
 * I would like to help remake the free education system by adding some software.
 * I enjoy theoretical things and like playing with math formulae.
 * I don't like negative use of voice.
 * I enjoy playing mind games when there is nothing to destroy in the process.
 * Yes, I'm using a bulleted list, but you may un-bullet it if you like.
 * I enjoy telling others what to do especially if I can't do it myself.
 * I like being better at explaining things, without having ever done them, than retired pros can.
 * I don't believe in giving personal info on the internet, but I'm male.
 * I'm also known as k_wifler everywhere I have been on the web except when there was a legal issue.
 * I like using GameMaker very much because of its help file, and I wish C++ had the same kind of help file (hint hint).

title: User:K wifler


text: User talk:K wifler

title: User talk:K wifler


text:
Space Transport and Engineering Methods/Ion and Plasma Engines

Combustion type engines are limited in temperature, and thus gas exhaust velocity, either by the chemical energy of the fuel, or the melting point of the engine materials. Ion and plasma type engines bypass these limits and reach much higher velocities by one or more of: using external energy sources, lower energy density to limit engine heating, or using non-material containment such as magnetic fields to direct the flow. These methods also tend to make ion and plasma engines heavy compared to combustion engines, so they are not used for launch from high gravity bodies. Rather they operate where there is already a low-g environment in orbit or away from gravity wells.

The ion and plasma types both involve high energy particles. The distinction is one of density. In the former the particles act individually, while in the latter they are dense enough to require treating them as a flowing medium.

48 Electrostatic Ion Engine
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: Electrostatic ion thrusters generally work by first ionizing the propellant, then using a voltage gradient to accelerate the ions. They are capable of high exhaust velocities (30-50 km/s), but relatively low energy density and thrust in order to prevent overheating and erosion of the screens creating the voltage difference. Since the voltage gradient is uniform between two flat screens, the ion beam is well directed without a nozzle. Ejecting only positive ions would produce a net charge on the engine, so ion engines also have an electron gun to balance the charges emitted.

All ion engines require an external power source. A number of variations for the power source have been proposed, but only Solar-Electric has actually been used. Since ionization merely removes an electron, but does not accelerate the ion, it represents an efficiency loss for the engine. Therefore ion engines tend to prefer fuels with high atomic weight relative to ionization energy. Since most high atomic weight elements are solids, Mercury and Xenon have often been chosen, and sometimes Argon if operating in a cold environment or reaching a very high exhaust velocity is desired.

Status: Ion thrusters have been used in recent years on some communications satellites and interplanetary spacecraft.

Variations:
 * 48a Solar-Electric Ion - Sunlight is converted to electricity by a photovoltaic array. The electricity is used to ionize and accelerate the propellant by electrostatic voltage.
 * 48b Thermoelectric Ion - Radioactive isotope decay produces heat. Heat is converted to electricity by semiconductors. Electricity ionizes and accelerates atoms in the engine.
 * 48c Laser-Electric Ion - A laser tuned to the optimum absorption wavelength of photovoltaic cells supplies power. The cells convert laser light to electricity, which is used to power the ion engine. The ion engine then ionizes and accelerates the propellant. The reason for using a laser is to get higher power levels than natural sunlight provides.
 * 48d Microwave-Electric Ion - A microwave receiving antenna, or Rectenna, on the spacecraft converts microwaves to electricity. Electricity is used to ionize and accelerate atoms.  Microwave antennas can be low mass, but the operating distance is limited by the ability to focus the long wavelength.
 * 48e Nuclear-Electric Ion - A nuclear reactor generates heat, which is converted to electricity in thermoelectric or turbine/generator cycles. Electricity is used to ionize propellant and accelerate it by electrostatic voltage.  This is more suited to high power applications, and outer Solar System locations where sunlight is weak.
 * 48f Electrospray Thruster - An ionic liquid is emitted from a capillary nozzle similar to an inkjet printer. A high voltage electrode then accelerates the charged droplets.  This is suited to very small thrust levels for small spacecraft, or for steering, since lithography can be used to create microscopic nozzles.
 * 48g Colloid Thruster - Rather than individual ions, this method accelerates relatively massive colloidal charged particles.

References:

 * Solar-Electric, 1970s

 * Loeb, H. W. "Electric Propulsion Technology Status and Development Plans - European Programs (Space Vehicles)", J. Spacecraft and Rockets, vol 11 no 12 pp 821-8, Dec. 1974.
 * Mutin, J.; Tatry, B. "Electric Propulsion in the Field of Space", Acta Electron. (France) vol 17 no 4 pp 357-70, Oct. 1974 (in French).
 * Byers, D. C.; Rawlin, V. K. "Critical Elements of Electron- Bombardment Propulsion for Large Space Systems", J. Spacecraft and Rockets vol 14 no 11 pp 648-54, Nov. 1977.
 * Parkash, D. M. "Electric Propulsion for Space Missions", Electr. India vol 19 no 7 pp 5-15, 15 April 1979.

 * Solar-Electric, 1980s

 * Kaufman, H. R. "Performance of Large Inert-Gas Thrusters", AIAA paper number 81-0720 presented at 15th International Electric Propulsion Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, 21-23 April 1981.
 * Clark, K. E.; Kaufman, H. B. "Aerospace Highlights 1981: Electric Propulsion", Astronautics and Aeronautics, v 19 no 12 pp 58-59, 1981.
 * Zafran, S. et al "Aerospace Highlights 1982: Electric Propulsion", Astronautics and Aeronautics, v 20 no 12 pp 71-72, 1982.
 * James, E.; Ramsey, W., Sr.; Steiner, G. "Developing a Scaleable Inert Gas Ion Thruster", AIAA paper number 82-1275 presented at AIAA/SAE/ASME 18th Joint Propulsion Conference, Cleveland, OH, 21- 23 June 1982.
 * Anon. "Ion Propulsion Engine Tests Scheduled", Aviation Week and Space Technology, v 116 no 26 pp 144-5, 1982.
 * Brophy, J. R.; Wilbur, P. J. "Recent Developments in Ion Sources for Space Propulsion", Proceedings of the Intl. Ion Engineering Congress vol 1 pp 411-22, 1983.
 * Bartoli, C. et al "Recent Developments in High Current Liquid Metal Ion Sources for Space Propulsion", Vacuum vol 34 no 1-2 pp 43-6, Jan. -Feb. 1984.
 * Jones, R. M.; Poeschel, R. L. "Primary Space Propulsion for 1995-2000 - Electrostatic Technology Applications" AIAA/SAE/ASME 20th Joint Propulsion Conference, AIAA paper number 84-1450, 1984.
 * Imai, R.; Kitamura, S. "Space Operation of Engineering Test Satellite -III Ion Engine", Proceedings of JSASS/AIAA/DGLR 17th Intl. Electric Propulsion Conf. pp 103-8, 1984.
 * Bartoli, C. et al "A Liquid Caesium Field Ion Source for Space Propulsion", J. Phys. D vol 17 no 12 pp 2473-83, 14 Dec. 1984.
 * Voulelikas, G. D. "Electric Propulsion: A Review of Future Space Propulsion Technology" Communications Research Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, report number CRC-396, October 1985.
 * Nakamura, Y.; Kuricki, K. "Electric Propulsion Test Onboard the Space Station", Space Solar Power Review vol 5 no 2 pp 213-9, 1985.
 * Rawlin, Vincent K; Patterson, Michael J. "High Power Ion Thruster Performance", NASA Technical Memorandum 100127, 1987.
 * Mitterauer, J. "Liquid Metal Ion Sources as Thrusters for Electric Space Propulsion", J. Phys. Colloq. (France) vol 48, no C-6, pp 171-6, Nov. 1987.
 * Mitterauer, J. "Field Emission Electric Propulsion - Emission Site Distribution of Slit Emitters", IEEE Trans. on Plasma Sci. vol PS-15, pp 593-8, Oct. 1987.
 * Stuhlinger, E. et al "Solar-Electric Propulsion for a Comet Nucleus Sample Return Mission" presented at 38th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Brighton, England, 10 October 1987.
 * Laser-Electric Ion:

 * Maeno, K. "Advanced Scheme of CO2 Laser for Space Propulsion", Space Solar Power Review vol 5 no 2 pp 207-11, 1985.

 * Microwave-Electric Ion:

 * Nordley, G. D.; Brown, W. C. "Space Based Nuclear-Microwave Electric Propulsion", 3rd Symposium on Space Nuclear Power Systems, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 13 January 1986, pp 383-95, 1987.

 * Nuclear-Electric Ion:

 * Reichel, R. H. "The Air-Scooping Nuclear-Electric Propulsion Concept for Advanced Orbital Space Transportation Missions", J. British Interplanetary Soc. vol 31 no 2 pp 62-6, Feb. 1978.
 * Hsieh, T. M.; Phillips, W. M. "An Improved Thermionic Power Conversion System for Space Propulsion", Proceedings of the 13th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference pp 1917-1923, 1978.
 * Ray, P. K. "Solar Electric versus Nuclear Electric Propulsion in Geocentric Space", Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc. vol 39 pp 358-9, Nov.-Dec. 1981.
 * Powell, J. R.; Botts, T. E.; Myrabo, L. N. "Annular Bed Nuclear Power Source for Electric Thrusters", AIAA paper number 82-1278 presented at AIAA/SAE/ ASME 18th Joint Propulsion Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, 21-23 June 1982.
 * Powell, J. R.; Boots, T. E. "Integrated Nuclear Propulsion/Prime Power Systems", AIAA paper number 82-1215 presented at AIAA/SAE/ASME 18th Joint Propulsion Conference, Cleveland, Ohio, 21-23 June 1982.
 * Buden, D.; Garrison, P. W. "Space Nuclear Power Systems and the Design of the Nuclear Electric Propulsion OTV", presented at AIAA/SAE/ASME 20th Joint Propulsion Conference, AIAA paper number 84-1447, 1984.
 * Cutler, A. H. "Power Demands for Space Resource Utilization", Space Nuclear Power Systems 1986 pp 25-42.
 * Electrospray Thruster:

 * Micromachined propulsion systems for very small satellites, EFPL Microsystems for Space Technologies Lab.

49 Arc Jet Engine
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: Sunlight is converted to electricity by a photovoltaic array. The electricity is arced through a propellant stream, heating it to a plasma. The propellant is then expanded through a nozzle. No specific protection from heating is used in the nozzle. The arc jet method uses relatively low energy density and thrust levels, and a thick-walled refractory metal for the chamber and nozzle. Exhaust velocities of about 6-8 km/s are reached with liquid fuels like Hydrazine or Ammonia.

Status: Arc Jets have been used on spacecraft, and are commonly used on Earth as plasma torches for cutting metals.

Variations:
 * Pulsed Plasma Thruster - operates by ablating Teflon material between two electrodes by means of an electric arc. The Lorentz force accelerates the material out as thrust.
 * Vacuum Arc Thruster - operates by vaporizing and ionizing cathode material by means of a vacuum arc. The plasma accelerates outward as thrust.
 * Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster - operates via electric arc between central cathode and shell anode. Flowing gas between them is ionized and accelerated by the Lorentz force from current and field interactions.

References:

 * Hardy, Terry L.; Curran, Francis M. "Low Power DC Arcjet Operation with Hydrogen/Nitrogen/Ammoinia Mixtures", NASA Technical Memorandum 89876, 1987.
 * Stone, James R.; Huston, Edward S. "NASA/USAF Arcjet Research and Technology Program", NASA Technical Memorandum 100112, 1987.
 * Kagaya, Y. et al "Quasi-steady MPD Arc-jet for Space Propulsion", Symposium for Space Technology and Science, Tokyo, Japan, 19 May 1986, pp 145-154, 1986.
 * Manago, Masata et al "Fast Acting Valve for MPD Arcjet", IHI Engineering Review, v 19 no 2 pp 99-100, April 1986.
 * Pivirotto, T. J.; King, D. Q. "Thermal Arcjet Technology for Space Propulsion", Chemical Propulsion Information Agency, Laurel, Maryland, 1985.

50 Electron Beam Heated Plasma Engine
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: A high voltage (hundreds of keV) electron beam is injected axially into a propellant flow. The electron beam heats the flow to plasma temperatures, which produces high specific impulse. Cool gas is injected along the chamber walls to provide film cooling and protect the chamber from the very high temperature plasma.

Status:

Variations:

References:

51 Microwave Heated Plasma Engine
Alternate Names: Electron-Cyclotron Absorption Rocket, Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR), Helicon plasma thruster

Type:

Description: Partially ionized gas directly absorbs microwaves, becoming hot, then expands through rocket nozzle. To keep the hot plasma from damaging the engine, a magnetic field is used for confinement, often using superconductors for efficiency. Current versions use Argon as propellant, but other gases should function with tuning. It may be possible to use unprocessed rock as fuel.

Status: VASIMR is in ground testing

Variations:

References:

 * Personal communication from Ad Astra Rocket Company in reference to alternate fuels, 27 Mar 2012. Extensive publications about their thruster are linked to the main description page.

52 Fusion Heated Plasma Engine
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: The exhaust of a pure fusion rocket is a thin, extremely hot plasma which gives very high performance. If higher thrust is needed, Hydrogen can be mixed with the plasma. This increases thrust at the expense of performance. By varying the mixture ratio, the performance vs thrust can be adjusted as needed during a mission.

Status: Fusion engines await practical fusion reactors, which are still in the research stage as of 2012.

Variations:

 * Reactor Leakage Mixed - Some of the fusion reaction plasma leaks past the containment fields. This may be a mix of reacted particles, and un-reacted fuel.  The leakage can be directly used as engine exhaust, or further mixed with additional material for higher mass flow/thrust at lower performance.
 * Plasma Kernel Mixed - The fusion core plasma may be intentionally seeded with non-reacting material, which gets heated as part of the reaction. A certain percentage is directed out of the core for thrust, balanced by new fuel added to the core.  The possible advantage of this method is eliminating the mixing problem of adding mass after the reactor.  Fusion engines produce very high exhaust velocities, so trying to mix more matter into the stream may require very large engine components.  Otherwise the stream may simply be gone before it has a chance to mix.

References:

53 Antimatter-Heated Plasma Engine
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: The exhaust of a pure antimatter rocket is charged particles and gamma rays. This gives an extraordinarily high exhaust velocity, but relatively low thrust. If higher thrust is needed, hydrogen can be mixed with the plasma, at at the expense of performance. This likely requires a large magnetic bottle to contain the particles and Hydrogen ions (protons) long enough to mix.

Status:

Variations:

References:

53 Electrodeless Lorentz Force (ELF) Thruster
Alternate Names:

Type:

Description: The ELF-160A thruster creates a high-density, magnetized plasmoid known as a Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) employing a Rotating Magnetic Field (RMF). The RMF driven azimuthal currents, coupled with the enhanced axial magnetic field gradient produced by the FRC inside the flux preserving conical thruster, produce a large axial JθxBr force that accelerates the plasmoid to high velocity. The ELF-160A is completely electrodeless, the propellant is magnetically isolated from the thruster body, quasi-neutral, and there is zero contact between high temperature propellant and the thruster.

Status: Active Development under Department of Defense contract.

Variations: One variation is the ElectroMagnetic Plasmoid Thruster (EMPT), an electrodeless pulsed plasma thruster that generates and accelerates a Field Reversed Configuration (FRC) to produce thrust.

References:
 * Slough, J.; Kirtley, D.; Weber T. "Pulsed Plasmoid Propulsion: The ELF Thruster", presented at the 31st International Electric Propulsion Conference, September 20-24 2009
 * Pancotti, A. P.; Little, J. M.; Neuhoff, J. S.; Cornella, B. M.; Kirtley D. E.; Slough J. T. "Elecrodeless Lorentz Force (ELF) Thruster for ISRU and Sample Return Mission", presented at Joint Conference of 30th International Symposium on Space Technology and Science, 34th International Electric Propulsion Conference and 6th Nano-satellite Symposium, July 4-10 2015


text:
User:K wifler/Programming

I'm not sure, but is this a valid user-subpage?

My programming career thus far includes a small list of unfinished example attempts written in GameMaker Language which is a high-level programming language written in Delphi (I think).

A programming career is usually launched in several stages, let me explain them. First a person must either learn a programming language or choose to do something that requires programming knowledge. In this case, I chose to make computer games.

Many people would not say that the decision is part of the process to starting your career because none of them remember how they decided to be what they are. In this I am included since as far as I can remember I have always wanted to make computer games, or some kind of electronic game. In addition, my tastes started out at the top of the computer game technology list as well (3D games).

Secondly, a person will usually either go to school or become a hacker. Of course I put it simply enough, but it is more complicated than that. I am a hacker at heart, but I am also a very moral person, so I influenced myself away from hacking and spent my youth simply playing computer games all day every day.

Of course there is another component to the second step, that is guidance. Most people will tell you a story of their hero or someone who influenced their choices. I however am completely self-guided.

The journey to the third step is a long one. This may not be so long depending on your time spent and your typing speed. This step is usually marked by joining a team of programmers. You are on a nearly direct path to making a program that you can call your own (or at least your group can).

title: User:K wifler/Programming


text:
Talk:Wings 3D/Tutorials/Making pipe fittings with Wings/A different approach

Looks ok so far. I think it's just a server causing problems with the images and they should be back as soon as it gets fixed. *Thumbs up*

--Pauljs75 04:48, 13 January 2006 (UTC)


text:
General Chemistry/Thermodynamics/The First Law of Thermodynamics

The First Law of Thermodynamics is simply a restatement of the Law of Conservation of Energy. There are a few ways of stating it, but they all mean the same thing:

The first definition is self-explanatory. As an example, a propane grill does not "create" energy when it cooks food. The energy stored within propane molecules and oxygen atoms is released in the form of heat and light when the propane molecules reassemble themselves into carbon dioxide and water (the combustion reaction). Energy has not been created or destroyed. It has simply changed from chemical potential energy into light and thermal energy.

The second explanation comes from a physics point of view. It means that adding heat to a system increases its internal energy, and a system that does work (like breaking bonds or assembling large molecules from small ones) decreases its internal energy. Overall, the total amount of heat, work, and energy remains constant. This should make sense because heat is energy and work is energy being applied, so based on the first definition, all forms of energy must be accounted for.


text:
User talk:Ricky clarkson

Rueda de Casino
I remove the notice. As a book the title is Ok. For me as an administrator it is somtimes difficult to distinquish between small books and chapters of larger books violating the naming convention. In this instance I was hunting down chapters which may or may not belong to the Dance book which is in a pretty bad shape. I am not even shure if the contributers of Dance head for a book or a bookshelf - currently there is the List of dances which is neither fish nor meat.

However Rueda de Casino seems large enough to be a book of it's own in any case. Please accept my appologies. --Krischik T 07:00, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

No problem. Ricky.

title: User talk:Ricky clarkson


text:
Talk:General Chemistry/Thermodynamics

Naming policy
Please have a look at the Naming policy. Thank you. --Krischik T 07:34, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:General Chemistry/Thermodynamics


text:
User:Srinivasasha

I am Srinivas asha from india. I am an Engineering student.

Also see

 * Wikipedia:User:Srinivasasha
 * Wikinews:User:Srinivasasha
 * m:User:Srinivasasha

title: User:Srinivasasha


text: User talk:61.17.217.175

title: User talk:61.17.217.175


text:
User talk:Srinivasasha

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

title: User talk:Srinivasasha


text:
Robotics/Components/Actuation Devices/Miniature internal combustion engines

These are the small internal combustion engines used in model cars and planes.


text:
C Sharp Programming/Object Lifetime

Introduction
All computer programs use up memory, whether that is a variable in memory, opening a file or connecting to a database. The question is how can the runtime environment reclaim any memory when it is not being used? There are three answers to this question:

 * If you are using a managed resource, this is automatically released by the Garbage Collector
 * If you are using an unmanaged resource, you must use the IDisposable interface to assist with the cleanup
 * If you are calling the Garbage Collector directly, by using method, it will be forced to tidy up resources immediately.

Before discussing managed and unmanaged resources, it would be interesting to know what the garbage collector actually does.

Garbage Collector
The garbage collector is a background process running within your program. It is always present within all .NET applications. Its job is to look for objects (i.e. reference types) which are no longer being used by your program. If the object is assigned to null, or the object goes out of scope, the garbage collector will mark the object be cleaned up at some point in the future, and not necessarily have its resources released immediately!

Why? The garbage collector will have a hard time keeping up with every de-allocation you make, especially at the speed the program runs and therefore only runs when resources become limited. Therefore, the garbage collector has three "generations".

 * Generation 0 - the most recently created objects
 * Generation 1 - the mid-life objects
 * Generation 2 - the long term objects.

All reference types will exist in one of these three generations. They will firstly be allocated to Gen 0, then moved to Gen 1 and Gen 2 depending on their lifetime. The garbage collector works by removing only what is needed and so will only scan Gen 0 for a quick-fix solution. This is because most, if not all, local variables are placed in this area.

For more in-depth information, visit the MSDN Article for a better explanation.

Now you know about the garbage collector, let's discuss the resources that it is managing.

Managed Resources
Managed resources are objects which run totally within the .NET framework. All memory is reclaimed for you automatically, all resources closed and you are in most cases guaranteed to have all the memory released after the application closes, or when the garbage collector runs.

You do not have to do anything with them with regards to closing connections or anything, it is a self-tidying object.

Unmanaged Resources
There are circumstances where the .NET framework world will not release resources. This may be because the object references resources outside of the .NET framework, like the operating system, or internally references another unmanaged component, or that the resources accesses a component that uses COM, COM+ or DCOM.

Whatever the reason, if you are using an object that implements the interface at a class level, then you too need to implement the  interface too.

This interface exposes a method called. This alone will not help tidy up resources, as it is only an interface, so the developer must use it correctly in order to ensure the resources are released. The two steps are:

 * 1) Always call Dispose on any object that implements IDisposable as soon as you are finished using it. (This can be made easier with the  keyword)
 * 2) Use the finalizer method to call Dispose, so that if anyone has not closed your resources, your code will do it for them.

Dispose pattern
Often, what you want to clean up varies depending on whether your object is being finalized. For example, you would not want to clean up managed resources in a finalizer since the managed resources could have been reclaimed by the garbage collector already. The dispose pattern can help you implement resource management properly in this situation:

Applications
If you are coming to C# from Visual Basic Classic you will have seen code like this:

Note that neither oFSO nor oFile are explicitly disposed of. In Visual Basic Classic this is not necessary because both objects are declared locally. This means that the reference count goes to zero as soon as the function ends which results in calls to the Terminate event handlers of both objects. Those event handlers close the file and release the associated resources.

In C# this doesn't happen because the objects are not reference counted. The finalizers will not be called until the garbage collector decides to dispose of the objects. If the program uses very little memory this could be a long time.

This causes a problem because the file is held open which might prevent other processes from accessing it.

In many languages the solution is to explicitly close the file and dispose of the objects and many C# programmers do just that. However, there is a better way: use the using statement:

Behind the scenes the compiler turns the using statement into  ...  and produces this intermediate language (IL) code:

Notice that the body of the Read function has been split into three parts: initialisation, try, and finally. The finally block includes code that was never explicitly specified in the original C# source code, namely a call to the destructor of the Streamreader instance.

See Understanding the 'using' statement in C# By TiNgZ aBrAhAm.

See the following sections for more applications of this technique.

Resource Acquisition Is Initialisation
The application of the using statement in the introduction is an example of an idiom called Resource Acquisition Is Initialisation (RAII).

RAII is a natural technique in languages like Visual Basic Classic and C++ that have deterministic finalization, but usually requires extra work to include in programs written in garbage collected languages like C# and VB.NET. The using statement makes it just as easy. Of course you could write the try..finally code out explicitly and in some cases that will still be necessary. For a thorough discussion of the RAII technique see HackCraft: The RAII Programming Idiom. Wikipedia has a brief note on the subject as well: Resource Acquisition Is Initialization.

Work in progress: add C# versions showing incorrect and correct methods with and without using. Add notes on RAII, memoization and cacheting (see OOP wikibook).

title: C Sharp Programming/Object Lifetime


text:
User:Luthinya~enwikibooks

Luthinya was born in Xi'an, China in 1993 and currently studies in St Paul's Girls' School of Hammersmith, London. Previously she has lived in China for nine years where she committed most of her primary education. As her parents believed in a preferable and freer education in England she came over the sea to that country in 2003 and plans to remain until when she could matriculate into university. She has a deep interest in modern theoretical physics despite also cherishing a love for famous works of literature and philosophy, the most prominent among which being The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien and Critique of Pure Reason by Immanuel Kant. The coming to the West has profoundly influenced her character into a freer form of thought and expression, besides also considerably widening her channels of interests and knowledge into more distant and esoteric fields. Luthinya also personally feels that she owes most of her abilities in creative and 'against- the- tide' thinking to the encouragement of individuality prevailing in Western schools, instead of the reducing of students to a mindless and faceless mass by means of the helplessly lacklustre exams, as is the tide of modern China enforced indirectly by Mao Zedong himself. Certainly her love for modern physics would not have bloomed so bright had it been left to wait and whither in the Chinese classroom Newtonian physics.

A rather profound quotation from Fritjof Capra would ascribe to her current character very well: Physicists have no need of Mysticism and Mystics have no need of Physics, but humanity needs both.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Luthinya"

title: User:Luthinya~enwikibooks