text:
Engineering Thermodynamics/Thermodynamic Systems

Thermodynamic System
In general, a system is a collection of objects, and there is a lot of subtlety in the way it is defined, as in set theory. However, in thermodynamics, it is a much more straightforward concept.

A thermodynamic system is a region of space or a finite quantity that occupies a volume and has a boundary. The surroundings refer to anything external to the system. The imaginary envelope that separates the system from its surroundings is known as the boundary. The boundary is what defines the limits of the system. The boundary can be fixed or moving. The system and its surroundings together constitute the universe.

Another term sometimes used instead of system is control volume. In the case of a closed system, in which the mass of matter inside the system remains constant, the control volume is referred to as control mass. A control volume is said to be enclosed by a control surface.

Proceeding further, the general term system will be used to refer to a thermodynamic system.

Isolated System
An isolated system is a system which does not allow the exchange of neither mass nor energy with its surroundings. An isolated system does not interact with its surroundings at all. The boundary of the system does not allow mass or energy transfer.

A close approximation of an isolated system is a thermos flask which retains the warmth of the liquid, by slowing down the interaction of the liquid and the air outside using a vacuum boundary. The only true isolated system is the universe.

Closed System
A closed thermodynamic system is a system which allows the exchange of heat and work with the surroundings but does not permit any exchange of mass across the boundaries. This type of system is also called a non-flow system, due to lack of flow across the boundary. The cylinder and piston of a reciprocating engine with gas in the cylinder is an example of a closed system. Another simple example is a kettle, in which heat is supplied to the kettle but the water contained in it remains constant.

Open System
An open thermodynamic system is a system in which allows the exchange of both mass and energy with the surroundings. The mass within the system varies over time. An open system is also called a control volume.

An example of an open system is an air compressor which draws in air from the surroundings, compresses it to a high pressure and then releases it from the system through a nozzle

Adiabatic System
An adiabatic system is a system which allows the exchange of work but not heat with its surroundings. The system achieves this with a thermally insulating boundary.

Continuum
An continuum is a system that contains a continuous distribution of matter. A continuum treats the matter in a system as distributed evenly in space and does regard the action of individual atoms or molecules. Pressure, temperature and other properties are the averages of the properties of many atoms and molecules taken together.

Phase
Matter which has is homogenous throughout its physical structure and chemical composition is called its phase. The most commonly observed phases are solid, liquid and gas phases.

Homogeneous System
A homogeneous system consists of only a single phase. Pure substances and homogeneous mixtures are examples of heterogeneous systems.

Heterogeneous System
A heterogeneous system consists of two or more different phases.

Properties of Pure Substances
A cursory review of properties will introduce the variables of thermodynamics to the student. Properties of substances are things such as mass, temperature, volume, and pressure. Properties are used to define the current state of a substance. Several more properties exist to describe substances in thermodynamics, but a stronger understanding of theory is required for their definition and application.

Properties can be intensive, if they are point properties (properties that make sense for a point) or extensive, if they depend on the amount of matter in the system. Examples of extensive properties of systems are mass of system, number of moles of a substance in a system, and overall or total volume of a system. These properties depend on how much matter of the system you measure. Examples of intensive properties are pressure, temperature, density, volume per mass, molar volume (which is volume per mole), and average molecular weight (or molecular mass). These properties are the same regardless of how you vary the amount of mass of the substance.

Properties are like the variables for substances in that their values are all related by an equation. The relationship between properties is expressed in the form of an equation which is called an equation of state. Perhaps the most famous state equation is the Ideal Gas Law. The ideal gas law relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of an ideal gas to one another.

Volume
The SI unit for volume is m3.

Volume is an extensive property, but both volume per mass and molar volume are intensive properties since they do not depend on the measured mass of the system. A process during which the volume of the system remains constant is called an isochoric (or isometric) process.

Pressure
The SI unit for pressure is Pa (Pascal), which is equivalent to a $$ N/(m^2)$$. Pressure is an intensive property. A process in which pressure remains constant is called isobaric process.

Temperature
Temperature, the degree of hotness or coldness of a body is Defined. Based on the zeroth law of thermodynamics, is a fundamental concept of thermodynamics. We know that a body at high temperature will transfer energy to one at lower temperature. Consider two bodies with different temperatures in contact with each other. Net energy transfer will be from  the hotter body to the colder body. At some point, the net energy transfer will be zero, and the bodies are said to be in thermal equilibrium. Bodies in thermal equilibrium are defined to have the same temperature.

Systems
Classical thermodynamics deals with systems in equilibrium. The equilibrium state is defined by the values of observable quantities in the system. These are called system properties.

The minimum number of variables required to describe the system depends on the complexity or degrees of freedom of the system. Degrees of freedom refer to the number of properties that can be varied independently of each other in a system. Some of the common system variables are pressure, temperature, and density, though any other physical properties may be used.

Consistent with the axiomatic nature of subject development, many of the relationships between physical properties cannot be completely specified without further development of theory. What is good about classical thermodynamics is that many of the axioms stated here can be derived using techniques of statistical thermodynamics. And statistical thermodynamics gives results in many cases where classical thermodynamics fails, such as in the specific heats of gases with many degrees of freedom. In some sense, the relationship between classical and statistical thermodynamics is similar to the one between classical and quantum mechanics, i.e., classical thermodynamics approximates statistical thermodynamics in the macroscopic limit.

Processes
A change in the system state is called a process. When the initial and final states of a process are the same, the process is called a cycle. If a process can be run in reverse with no change in the system + surroundings, then the process is called a reversible process. If a process is not reversible it is called an irreversible process.

Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is one in which the temperature remains constant. Please note that a process being isothermal does not imply anything about the heat transferred or work done, i.e. heat transfer may take place during an isothermal process. An isothermal process implies that the product of the volume and the pressure is constant for an ideal gas. i.e. PV = Constant

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If a system A is in thermal equilibrium with another system B and also with a third system C, then all of the systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics. This is how a thermometer works. If a thermometer is placed in a substance for temperature measurement, the thermometer's glass comes into thermal equilibrium with the substance. The glass then comes into thermal equilibrium with the liquid (mercury, alcohol, etc. . . .) inside the thermometer. Because the substance is in thermal equilibrium with the glass and the glass is in thermal equilibrium with the inner liquid, the substance and liquid must be in thermal equilibrium by the zeroth law. And because they are thermally equivalent, they must have the same temperature.

Temperature Measurement
Temperature is measured by observing some property of the system which varies with temperature. Such a property is called thermometric property, e.g.: - The volumes of most liquids increase with temperature. - The length of a metal rod increases as the temperature increases. - The pressure of a constant volume of gas increases with temperature

It is useful to establish a temperature scale so that a cardinal relationship can be established between various systems at different temperatures. This is done by defining the temperature t as a function of a thermometric property X, such that the temperature is a linear function of X, i.e., equal changes in the property X give rise to equal changes in the temperature. Such a linear function is t = a + b X, for which one needs to assign arbitrary temperatures to two values of X to find the values of the constants a and b.

For example, in the case of the Celsius scale, the measurements are based on properties of water at the boiling point and melting point. Suppose the value of the thermometric property is Xb for the normal boiling point and Xm for the normal melting point. Then the temperature is given by t = 100 (X - Xm)/(Xb - Xm), where X is the thermometric property at temperature t, and we have chosen tm = 0 °C and tb = 100 °C. The normal melting and boiling points are the temperatures of melting and boiling at 1 atmosphere pressure.

The major temperature scales are the Celsius (°C), the Fahrenheit (°F) and the Kelvin (K) scales. Note the absence of the ° sign for kelvin—it is not degrees Kelvin, but kelvins, not capitalized when spelled out, and with the normal English plural which was added to the degree when Kelvin was an adjective modifying that unit.

Different thermometers are used for different temperature ranges. As the reader might have guessed by now, this means that the different thermometers will only agree on the fixed points. However, a set of thermometers have been carefully selected and calibrated so that this is not a big issue in practice.

The standard in this case is the International Temperature Scale, which was introduced in 1927, and revised in 1948, 1968, and 1990. The latest scale is denoted by T90 for the Kelvin scale and is defined from 0.65 K upwards. For instance, between 0.65 K and 5.0 K T90 is defined in terms of the vapor-pressure temperature relations of 3He and 4He. The ranges for different materials overlap and any of the valid materials can be used as a standard in the overlapping region.

The Ideal Gas
Recall that a thermodynamic system may have a certain substance or material whose quantity can be expressed in mass or moles in an overall volume. These are extensive properties of the system. If the substance is evenly distributed throughout the volume in question, then a value of volume per amount of substance may be used as an intensive property. For an example, for an amount called a mole, volume per mole is typically called molar volume. Also, a volume per mass for a specific substance may be called specific volume. In such cases, an equation of state may relate the three intensive properties, temperature, pressure, and molar or specific volume.

A simple but very useful equation of state is for an ideal gas. The ideal gas is a useful notion in thermodynamics, as it is a simple system that depends on two independent properties. An ideal gas is one that has no intermolecular interactions except for completely elastic collisions with other molecules. For a closed system containing an ideal gas, the state can be specified by giving the values of any two of pressure, temperature, and molar volume.

Consider a system, an ideal gas enclosed in a container. Starting from an initial state 1, where the temperature is T1, its temperature is changed to T2 through a constant pressure process and then a constant molar volume process, then the ratio of pressures is found to be the same as the ratio of molar volumes. Suppose the initial value of the pressure and molar volume are p1 and V1 respectively, and final value of pressure and molar volume are p2 and V2 respectively. Note that we haven't chosen a specific scale for the temperature (like say, the Celsius scale). Now, suppose we were to choose a scale such that T1/T2 = p1/p2, we can show that the value of pV/T is constant for an ideal gas, so that it obeys the gas equation pV = RT, where p is the absolute pressure, V is the molar volume, and R is a constant known as the universal gas constant. The temperature T is the absolute temperature in the ideal gas scale, and the scale is found to be the same as the thermodynamic temperature scale. The thermodynamic temperature scale will be defined after the statement of the second law of thermodynamics.

This equation pV = RT is called the equation of state for an ideal gas, and is known as the ideal gas equation. Most common gases obey the ideal gas equation unless they are compressed or cooled to extreme states, so this is a very useful relation. A similar equation may be written where, for the specific type of gas, specific volume is used instead of molar volume and a specific gas constant is used instead of the universal gas constant. This then writes as pv = mrT.

In the above image, the volume of an ideal gas at two different pressures p1 and p2 is plotted against the temperature in Celsius. If we extrapolate the two straight line graphs, they intersect the temperature axis at a point t0, where t0 = −273.15 °C.

From experiment, it is easy to show that the thermodynamic temperature T is related to the Celsius temperature t by the equation: T = t + 273.15. The zero of thermodynamic temperature scale is 0 K, and its significance will be clear when we discuss the second law of thermodynamics.


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Hebrew/To and From

Vocabulary
English    =        Hebrew

Question words

Where (is)? =       Eifo? ?איפה Where to? =       Le'an? ?לאן Where from? =       Me'ayin? ?מאין*

Particles

The             =         Ha... ...ה (definite article) Prefixes to the word it is modifying And             =         Ve... ...ו Prefixes to the word it is modifying To              =         Le... ...ל Prefixes to the word it is modifying From            =         Mi... ...מ Prefixes to the word it is modifying In              =         Be... ...ב Prefixes to the word it is modifying That            =         She... ...ש Prefixes to the first word in the clause it is modifying

Nouns

restaurant      =        Mis'ada מסעדה hotel           =        Malon מלון restroom        =        Sherutim שרותים (literally means "services") street          =        Rehov  רחוב England         =        Angliya  אנגליה Germany         =        Germanya  גרמניה Israel          =        Yisrael  ישראל Australia       =        Ostraliya אוסטרליה United States   =        Artsot ha-brit  ארצות הברית U.S.A.          =        (written abbreviation)  ארה"ב (Pronounced Arhav - Though seldom used in speech)

Footnote

 * Although Me'ain (where from) is taught in a lot of textbooks, it is rarely used in daily speech. instead, the word used is Me'eifo (מאיפה).

Exercises
How would you say the following in Hebrew?

 * 1) Where are you from?
 * 2) Where is the restaurant?
 * 3) How are you?  (Review from lesson 1.)
 * 4) Where is a restroom?  (This is useful and important question for travelers.  Note: The English word "a" is not translated, so the question translates word for word as "Where is restroom?")

Use the word 'Eifo' (אֵיפֹה) for "where is":

Eifo hashirutim? "Where is the restroom?" איפה השרותים?

Eifo hamisadah? "Where is the restaurant?" איפה המסעדה?

Eifo hamalon? "Where is the hotel?" איפה המלון?

Eifo r'chov ben-y'hudah? "Where is Ben-Yehuda street?" איפה רחוב בּן-יהודה?

Eifo y'rushalayim? "Where is Jerusalem?" איפה ירושלים?

Related lessons
Places Level 1B

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hebrew/To and From


text:
Talk:Linux Guide/Installing (advanced)

Merge!
Proposed merge with Linux for Newbies

for - I changed my mind on this one (see history, about 5 mins ago ;-), it is about the same stuff --H2g2bob 00:49, 24 March 2006 (UTC)

I can see how a lot of the article needs to stay the same (preparation, etc.) but I think that each special installer needs a different page (Fedora, Debian, Mandrake, etc.) as they're all very different. [ alerante | “” 13:56, 23 Jun 2004 (UTC) ]

 * It occurs to me that the best option may be to have only the easiest install (I think that an install of Debian from Knoppix is the best choice) on this page. I haven't done that yet, but as far as I can tell, it's the easiest way for anyone running an i386 to get Linux.  Too many options can get confusing, so I think that the best thing to do would be to present a single course of action.  (Of course, if one doesn't like choices, Debian might not be the best bet...)  Paullusmagnus 16:24, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Knoppix is marked as fair compatibility with Debian. It's true that is easy to install, but how it work when it is installed is another question... I think that is Ubuntu better for this purpose. Where are other Linux distributions in this WikiBook anyway? --Popski 18:18, 31 May 2005 (UTC)

Is it just me or does this page, "Installing Linux" say very little about actually installing linux - Dhuss 19:53, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * It does say very little about installing Linux. When dealing with Linux installs, most distributions are to the point where, they're seperate beasts getting things accomplished.  Since it's a wiki-book perhaps it'd be best to cover the major distro's in individual sections?  Or the book should be renamed, "Installing $DISTRO Linux".  Either way, it's almost too broad of a subject, to cover everything in just one page or section for the install process.

title: Talk:Linux Guide/Installing (advanced)


text:
User:VanishedUser 390318/Pages

This is a list of pages that I've made important changes to.

Created

 * From content in Using Firefox
 * Using Firefox/Advanced
 * Using Firefox/Mouse shortcuts
 * Using Firefox/Keyboard shortcuts
 * Using Firefox/Plug-ins
 * Using Firefox/Extensions
 * Using Firefox/Browsing with Tabs
 * Using Firefox/Search
 * Programming:JavaScript:The SCRIPT Tag
 * Programming:PHP:PHP Include Files

Manifestly improved

 * Programming:JavaScript
 * Using GNOME/File manager changes

Moved

 * Locally increased lead to Mac OS X:Locally increased lead
 * Spaces disappear to Mac OS X:Spaces disappear
 * User:Alerante/Zope to Zope

title: User:VanishedUser 390318/Pages


text:
JavaScript/Operators

String concatenation
The  operator acts in two different ways depending on the type of its two operands. If one or both of them are strings, it acts as a string concatenator. If both are numeric, it acts as an arithmetic addition.

An example of string concatenation is  resulting in. If one of the two operands isn't a string, it is implicitly converted to a string before the  operation takes place.

Arithmetic operators
JavaScript has the arithmetic operators,  ,  ,  ,    (remainder), and   (exponentiation). These operators work the way you learned in mathematics. Multiplication and division will be calculated before addition and subtraction. If you want to change such precedence, you can use parenthesizes.

Hint: In opposite to some other languages, the division operation may result in a floating point number - it's not always a pure integer.

Some mathematical operations, such as dividing by zero, cause the returned variable to be one of the error values - for example,, or   (Not a number).

The return value of the remainder operator maintains the sign of the first operand.

The  and   operators also have unary versions, where they operate only on one variable. When used in this fashion,  returns the number representation of the object, while   returns its negative counterpart.

As noted above,  is also used as the string concatenation operator: If any of its arguments is a string or is otherwise not a number, all arguments are converted to strings and concatenated together. All other arithmetic operators works the other way round: They attempt to convert their arguments into numbers before evaluating.

Bitwise operators
There are seven bitwise operators:,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , and.

These operators convert their operands to integers (truncating any floating point towards 0), and perform the specified bitwise operation on them. The logical bitwise operators,,  , and  , perform the and, or, and xor on each individual bit and provides the return value. The  (not operator) inverts all bits within an integer, and usually appears in combination with the logical bitwise operators.

Two bit shift operators,,  , move the bits in one direction that has a similar effect to multiplying or dividing by a power of two. The final bit-shift operator,, operates the same way, but does not preserve the sign bit when shifting.

These operators are kept for parity with the related programming languages, but are unlikely to be used in most JavaScript programs.

Assignment operators
The assignment operator  assigns a value to a variable. Primitive types, such as strings and numbers, are assigned directly. However, function and object names are just pointers to the respective function or object. In this case, the assignment operator only changes the reference to the object rather than the object itself. For example, after the following code is executed, "0, 1, 0" will be alerted, even though  was passed to the alert, but   was changed. This is because they are two references to the same object.

Similarly, after the next code snippet is executed,  is a pointer to an empty array.

If the result of any of the above-shown arithmetic or bitwise operators shall be assigned to its first operand, you can use a shorter syntax. Combine the operator, e.g.,, directly with the assignment operator   resulting in. As an example  can be abbreviated as.

The abbreviated operator/assignment syntax reads:

For example, a common usage for  in a   loop:

Increment operators
Increment and decrement operators are a particular form of arithmetic operators:  and. increments  and returns the old value of. increments  and returns the new value of. The decrement operator acts similarly but reduces the variable instead.

As an example, the next operations all perform the same task:

Pre and post-increment operators
Increment operators may be written before or after a variable. The position decides whether they are pre-increment or post-increment operators, respectively. That affects the operation.

Due to the possibly confusing nature of pre and post-increment behavior, code can be easier to read if you avoid increment operators.

Comparison operators
Comparison operators determine whether their two operands meet the given condition. They return true or false.

Concerning the 'equal' and 'not-equal' operators, you must take care. is different from. The first one tries to adapt the data type of the two types to each other and then compares the values. The second one compares the types as well as their values and returns only true if type and value are identical:  is true and   is false.

We recommend using the strict versions ( and  ) because the simple versions may lead to strange and non-intuitive situations, such as:

... although you might want:

Logical operators
The logical operators are and, or, and not — written as,  , and. The first two take two boolean operands each. The third takes one and returns its logical negation.

Operands are boolean values or expressions that evaluate to a boolean value.

and  are short circuit operators: if the result is guaranteed after the evaluation of the first operand, it skips the evaluation of the second operand. Due to this, the  operator is also known as the guard operator, and the   operator is known as the default operator.

The  operator determines the inverse of the given boolean value: true becomes false and false becomes true.

Note: JavaScript represents false by either a Boolean false, the number 0, NaN, an empty string, or the built-in types undefined or null. Any other value is treated as true.

Concerning the precedence of the three operators,  is evaluated first, followed by , and lastly. More details on the relationship between precedence and short-circuiting are explained at MDN

The  operator (also called the "ternary" operator) is an abbreviation of the   statement. First, it evaluates the part before the question mark. Then, if true, the part between the question mark and the colon is evaluated and returned, else the part behind the colon.

However, be careful when using it. Even though you can replace verbose and complex if/then/else chains with ternary operators, it may not be a good idea to do so. You can replace

with

The above example is a poor coding style/practice. When other people edit or maintain your code, (which could very possibly be you,) it becomes much more difficult to understand and work with the code.

Instead, it is better to make the code more understandable. Some of the excessive conditional nesting can be removed from the above example.

unbinds property  from object.

The delete keyword deletes a property from an object. It deletes both the value of the property and the property itself. After deletion, the property cannot be used before it is added back again. The  operator is designed to be used on object properties. It has no effect on variables or functions.

creates a new object of type cl. The cl operand must be a constructor function.

tests whether  is an object created by the constructor.

returns a string describing the type of. Following values may be returned.

Exercises

 * ... are available on another page (click here).

title: JavaScript/Operators


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User:Leland~enwikibooks/monobook.css

body { font: 9pt "Gill Sans" } a { text-decoration: none} a.hover { text-decoration: underline }
 * 1) content { font-family: Baskerville }

title: User:Leland~enwikibooks/monobook.css


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User:VanishedUser 390318/Installing Fedora Core

 * This article is a work in progress.

Installation of Fedora Core is through the Red Hat installer, anaconda. There are two modes of installation, text and graphical. We will walk you through the graphical mode [is text similar?] in this guide.

Before installing, you should read the release notes for your version to ensure that there are no known issues with your system and components.

At this point, we will assume that you have the ISO images burned to a CD or DVD, and that there is sufficient room hard disk for what you plan to do. If you need help with the As the process involves rebooting (several times), it is highly recommended at this point that you make a printed copy of this page for your reference.

If your BIOS does not support booting from a CD-ROM drive, you will need to make a copy of the boot disk.
 * [instructions for boot disk]

While your computer is on, insert Fedora Core disc 1. If you are prompted to "autorun" the disc, choose not to. Then reboot your system.

After the initial boot sequence, the machine will read the CD drive and display a boot: prompt. Simply press [Enter] to begin the installation.

 * The anaconda text section is from memory, and is probably incorrect.

The anaconda software will start in text mode before switching to graphical, and will ask you if you would like to check the media that you are using to install Fedora Core. It is generally preferred that you choose "OK" and have it examine all four CDs or the DVD.

You will be presented with a list of keyboard layouts before proceeding to the graphical portion of the installation. Select the appropriate layout, and then press Enter.

At this time, the X server will start up and present you with a splash screen, and then an introduction to the installer. Off to the left is a help screen that will give you information on each screen as it is presented to you. Click "Next" at this point.


text:
Cookbook:Windsor Pudding

Ingredients

 * ½ pound (225 g) finely-shredded suet
 * French roll
 * Small amount of ground nutmeg
 * Lemon zest
 * ½ pound (225 g) apples, chopped
 * ½ pound (225 g) currants
 * ½ pound (225 g) raisins, chopped
 * 1 glass rich, sweet wine
 * 5 eggs
 * Salt
 * Fine sugar

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the suit, french roll, nutmeg, and lemon zest.
 * 2) Mix in half a pound of apples, currants, raisins, stoned and chopped, wine, eggs, and a pinch of salt.
 * 3) Mix all thoroughly together, and boil it in a basin or mould for 3 hours.
 * 4) Sift fine sugar over it when sent to table, and pour a white wine sauce into the dish.

title: Cookbook:Windsor Pudding


text:
OC Photography Program

Contents

 * About the OC Photography Program
 * The Open Content Photography Program is being built to help people to learn professional photography. It is not a book about photography, it's a book about learning photography on your own.

 * Art History for Photographers
 * For photographers art history is very important to keep an open mind, and to know the evolution of other arts that can be considered forerunners of photography.

 * Photography History
 * By studying the masters we can learn a lot about photography. Each of them has important lessons to teach the photography student.

 * /Fundamentals of Photographic Technique/
 * Traditional and digital photography techniques have a lot in common. Whatever tools you use, it's important to understand the fundamental techniques of the medium.

 * The Light
 * Photographia, in Greek, literally means "writing of light". Understanding, and sometimes controlling light is a very important task for photographers.

 * Traditional Darkroom
 * Does a traditional darkroom make sense in a digital age? It is an excellent way to learn photography. Also, traditionally produced images still carry a cachet for some galleries and collectors.

 * Digital Photography
 * In commercial photography, personal photography and fine art, digital photography brought new possibilities.

 * Digital Cameras
 * Choosing a digital camera can be a difficult task, so knowing the particular uses to which it is to be put is important.

 * Digital Darkroom
 * The "digital darkroom" is what photographers call the computer software they use to process images. Knowing how to use digital tools is essential for a practicing photographer today.

 * Commercial Practices
 * The difference between being a good photographer and a good professional photographer is not technical but commercial.

 * Resources

Photographie

title: OC Photography Program


text:
Bridge

Table of Contents

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) /General Information/
 * 3) /How to Play/
 * 4) /Bidding Techniques/
 * 5) /Playing Techniques/
 * 6) Bidding Systems
 * 7) Carding Conventions
 * 8) /Leading/
 * 9) /Signals/
 * 10) Event
 * 11) /Formats/
 * 12) /Law/
 * 13) /Major Tournaments/
 * 14) /Glossary/

Pokladnice her/Klasické karetní hry/Bridž ברידג' コントラクトブリッジ

title: Bridge


text:
Chinese (Mandarin)/Planning

Welcome to the main Planning page for the Chinese Wikibook. Unless your comment only pertains to a particular lesson, discuss your ideas here so that the overall planning discussion is not spread across many lesson pages. Initial planning and continued coordination of effort is extremely important to help reduce the need for reworking later. New issues are entered here, with the most recent at the bottom of the page. Please review the Table of Contents to see if your issue has already been raised; also check the archives (see below) in case it was discussed some time ago. Please observe the following guidelines:
 * 1) Place your question at the bottom of the list;
 * 2) Title the question (by placing the title between equals signs like this: == title ==);
 * 3) Sign your name and date (by adding four tildes: ~ ).

Chinese Wikibook Purpose and Audience
This book is intended to be a complete learning resource center for students of Mandarin Chinese. Dialects, such as Cantonese, will be covered by their own Wikibooks and be linked to in the See Also section of the Table of Contents (TOC). It should teach listening comprehension and speaking as well as reading and writing using whatever technologies are most appropriate (includes audio for text and animations for stroke orders).

The audience is the serious studier of Chinese, either at the high school or college level. Casual learners looking for a few choice phrases or unwilling to spend the time learning characters can be served adequately by the Chinese Phrasebook on Wikivoyage. Younger audiences can have age-appropriate material created for them in WikiJunior. Intermediate- or Advanced-Level modules may be added, but because of the cumulative nature of a language text (explained below), it would probably be best to focus efforts on the Introductory Level first and make continuations of the series later.

The Need for Planning
Language Wikibooks faces some unique challenges from a planning perspective. It's harder to produce a quality, integrated work in language instruction than in other subjects, like Biology or Physics. Those you can break into discrete units and still read about it—topics within the subject can be rearranged or meaningfully read even in isolation from the rest of the text.

Not so with an elementary language text. All the grammar and vocabulary that you learn is cumulative, so everything can only stack one way. Flipping ahead (or falling behind) more than a few chapters and you're lost. Order matters, so we use the a sequential naming scheme (Lesson 1, Lesson 2,...), not a topic-based one (Asking Questions, Giving Directions,...).

To avoid late-stage reorganizations that would necessarily be painful with lots of work going to waste, we should agree on a 'Lesson Roadmap' beforehand and then flesh it out. I think a Wiki can really work for this, but that the project still needs a common format and approach. A standard outline for lessons would help a lot with that, so, may I suggest that the lessons of this text each include the components outlined below.

Lesson Roadmap

 * 1) Lesson 1: Hello! (你好！) - Basic Sentences and Questions
 * 2) * Simple Sentences
 * 3) ** SVO sentence structure
 * 4) *** The equational verb shi [是] and its negation with bu [不]
 * 5) *** Verb 叫
 * 6) * Intro to Questions
 * 7) ** Ma [吗] and ne [呢] particles
 * 8) ** Question words (for now, only shei [谁] and na/nei [哪])
 * 9) Lesson 2: Are you busy today? (今天你忙不忙?) - Measure Words, Possession and Affirmative-Negative Questions
 * 10) * Measure Words (the most commonly used, like 个、本、张)
 * 11) * The possessive verb you [有] and its negation with mei [没]
 * 12) * More Questions! Affirmative-Negative
 * 13) ** 是不是 Questions
 * 14) ** 有没有 Questions
 * 15) Unit 3: 今天星期三 - Numbers, Days, Aux. Verbs, de [的]
 * 16) * Numbers (to 100)
 * 17) * year, month, day, week etc.
 * 18) * Auxiliary Verbs, the de [的] particle
 * 19) Lesson TBA: Unordered List of Grammar Explanations - Even w/o example sentences grammar can be explained nonetheless
 * 20) * Comparisons Using bǐ [比]
 * 21) * The le [了] particle
 * 22) **indicating a completed action
 * 23) **indicating a past event
 * 24) **expressing change of state or situation
 * 25) **adding emphasis
 * 26) *Time
 * 27) **when - time of day, hour and minutes, morning/night
 * 28) **how long - duration of time
 * 29) *Directions/Placement Words (NESW, L/R, li3, li2, zai4, bian1)
 * 30) *Pronunciation of yi1 (b/c of tone changes)
 * 31) *Complement of degree de
 * 32) *ordinal numbers di
 * 33) *Complement of direction qu/lai
 * 34) *Compliment of result
 * ba
 * 1) **the suggestion particle
 * 2) **as preposition
 * 3) *guo denoting experience of something
 * 4) *(some) members of family
 * 5) *reduplication
 * 6) *emphasis using shi...de
 * 7) *How to use a Radical Index (for C-E Glossary)
 * 8) *Basic rules for writing Chinese characters

Subjects Areas to Cover
Greetings

Getting around (a city)

 * Where is the post office?
 * How far is it to the school?
 * Public transport
 * Conversation in a taxi

Chapter Three: Buying Things

 * How much is that shirt?
 * Haggling

Eating

 * Eating Out
 * At the supermarket
 * The grocer
 * A meal at home
 * Traditional Chinese cooking

Sports

 * What do you play?
 * Talking about a match
 * Skiing
 * Mountaineering
 * Yachting
 * Surfing

Your House

 * Description of house
 * Traditional Chinese furniture
 * Living in a community

Immediate family and relatives

Education

 * This is my school
 * Afterschool activities
 * School subjects

Going to the Zoo / Wo men qu dong wu yuan

Decided Conventions

 * 1) The Title Page leads to the main TOC, not the Cover Page. The Cover Page can be linked from the TOC and used in Print versions.
 * 2) Hanyu Pinyin is used as the only Romanization format, though equivalency charts to other systems provided . Tone marks are used instead of tone numbers.
 * 3) Traditional or Simplified characters appear only in the Lesson Text and in parentheses in the Vocabulary sections—not in titles, example sentences, or exercises.
 * 4) Traditional pages are linked as parallel subpages of every Simplified page. On every Traditional page, a parentdirectory link links back to the Simplified version, always providing a toggle button between versions.

title: Chinese (Mandarin)/Planning


text:
Dutch/Websites

''Due to recent spam and vandalism, this page has been protected. Please suggest links to resources on the talk page.''

 * Free Online Dutch Tutorial
 * Dutch To English Dictionary
 * Language translation, o.a. Dutch to English and English to Dutch
 * Online Dutch Grammar Tutorial
 * Online Dutch Lessons

title: Dutch/Websites


text:
User:Markhurd/monobook.css

/* make the background behind the content area and the tabs a light grey */
 * 1) content, #content table
 * 2) p-cactions ul li a { background: #f5f5f5; }

/* use the book background */
 * 1) content { background: none; }

title: User:Markhurd/monobook.css


text:
Latin/Lesson 6-Irregular Verbs

Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs do not fit in any particular conjugation. Irregular verbs conjugate but not in a predictable manner. An example of an irregular verb that you have met is 'esse'. There are a few others which will be listed in the present indicate active tense below for you to memorise and refer to.

Exercise 2
1. Decline the following five nouns in both singular and plural number in the five common cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, ablative):

2. Conjugate the verb 'servāre' in both singular and plural number and all three persons.

3. Conjugate the verb 'esse', in both singular and plural number and all three persons.

4. Translate:

Nota Bene: Often Latin uses the present to indicate a 'vivid past'. It would be suitable to translate the following passage in the past tense.

Heri, ad tabernam eō. In tabernā sunt trēs rēs quārum amō duas sōleās et unam mensam. Habeō trēs denariōs, sīc ego emeō mensam sōlum quod sum nōn dīvīnitās. Hodiē, mensa est in casā meā. In triclīnio stat.

title: Latin/Lesson 6-Irregular Verbs


text:
Latin/Lesson 7-Translation

Using a Dictionary
To find a Latin word in the dictionary can be difficult. Foremost, Latin verbs are listed using the 'present indicative 1st person singular active' construct of the verb. To find the meaning of the verb 'amāre', one must find 'amō' listed in the dictionary. Thus, one must use their wits to determine what the stem and what is the ending of the verb. A bit of searching around in the dictionary may be required. There are a few verbs which are highly irregular and must be learnt such as 'ferō', I carry.

Nouns are usually much easier to find. They are always given in the nominative singular case. If you see a noun such as 'vōcem', and do not know what it is, don't fret. If you look for 'vōc' in the dictionary, you will not find what you are looking for. 'Em' is typically a third declension accusative ending, thus you should be aware that third declension nouns have radically changing stems. Those which have the consonant 'c' usually have the consonant 'x' replacing it in the nominative singular. Thus the nominative singular of vōcem, is vōx. Likewise, 'g' is also often used when shifting from nominative singular cases to other cases. For example, rēx becomes 'rēgem' in the accusative. There are plenty of other simple rules which one learns through experience.

Unconjugatable and indeclinable words are listed 'as is'.

title: Latin/Lesson 7-Translation


text:
Latin/Lesson 4-Adverbs and Prepositions

Comparatives and Superlatives of Adjectives (Comparativa et superlativa adjectivorum)
There are three types of adjectives: Positive (the 'normal' adjective, eg. the brave man: fortis vir), Comparative (eg. the braver man, or the rather brave man: fortior vir) and Superlative (eg. the bravest man, or the very brave man: fortissimus vir). Comparatives and superlatives of adjectives are usually formed by appending the suffix -ior for masculine/feminine nouns and -ius for neuter ones (genitive is -ioris) to form the comparative. Append the suffix -issimus to form the superlative. However, the superlatives of adjectives ending in -er (eg. the fair boy: pulcher puer) are formed by adding the suffix -rimus to the Nominative, then we will have pulcherrimus puer (fairest puer).

All comparatives are declined like third declension nouns while superlatives are declined like second declension nouns, and thus must match the gender of the noun the superlative modifies. Often stem changes occur when appending theses suffixes.

Irregular Adjectives
Fortunately, there are only a few irregular adjectives.

Examples:

Adverbs
Adverbs are formed usually by replacing the suffix appended to the stem with the -e, or -i and sometimes -um in the first and second declension. For the third declension, usually the suffix appended is replaced by -iter.

Adverbs modify the verb in the clause that contains the adverb. The adverb may be placed anywhere with the clause. Adverbs may be of positive, comparative and superlative form. Unlike adjectives and substantives, adverbs do not have declension or gender. And thus they are referred to as being 'indeclinable.' The following suffixes are appended to form the comparative and superlative forms of adverbs: -ius for comparatives and -issime for superlative.

Examples
Irregular adjectives form adverbs regularly from the adjective forms.

For example:

 * melior (better) -> melius
 * maximus (greatest) -> maxime

Some adverbs do not come from adjectives but rather exist on their own:

 * diu (for a long time) -> diutius, diutissime
 * saepe (often) -> saepius, saepissime

Conjunctions
Conjunctions are indeclinable particles that join clauses together to form sentences. Examples of forms of conjunctions in English are: and, but and so. Conjunctions are either coordinating (joining two main clauses) or subordinating (joining a subclause to a main clause).

Exercise 2
Based upon your reading of the table of conjunctions, how would one translate these sentences?

 * 1) Aut tu es bonus aut tu es malus ergo dīc mihi vēritātem (tell me the truth).
 * 2) Cavēte canem quod nec estis fortes nec cum virtūte.
 * 3) Puer ē forō cum canē ambulat
 * 4) Et canis et cattus sunt laetī.
 * 5) In animō habeō īre ad grammaticum hodiē sed habeō labōrem (work) domī.

Prepositions
You have met a few prepositions already. Prepositions are indeclinable and genderless. Prepositions are placed before substantives and adjectives. Most prepositions take only the accusative or ablative case. Some prepositions may take both, however their meanings differ depending on the case.

Exercise 3
Translate the following sentences:

 * 1) ero domum (Latin omits 'ad' with 'domus,' specific city names, and small islands; e.g. Eunt Romam = They go [to] Rome.)
 * 2) cum bona fortuna ero dives!
 * 3) circum agrum est aedificium cum atrio
 * 4) tu non es vir sine animis.
 * 5) familia venit cum amore.

List of Frequent Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions in Latin
Taken from http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/classics203/resources/latin.lex

 * atque, ac (conj): and [also], and; atque is used before consonants, ac before vowels
 * ad modum: adv. very, quite; fully; + neg. = at all
 * ad huc/adhuc: thus far, as yet, still, in addition, in the future
 * aliquam: in some degree
 * aliqui -qua -quod: some, any
 * aliquis -qua -quid: someone, something; some, any
 * aliquando: at times, sometimes; once, formerly
 * aliquotiens: several times, at different times
 * at (form of ad = in addition to): but (intro startling transitions)
 * atque: and as well, even, together with, in everything;
 * atque...atque, both..and
 * atqui: rather, however, but at any rate, but for all that (transition in arg.)
 * aut: or, at least, or else; aut...aut: either...or
 * autem: but, on the other hand, however
 * coram: adv. and prep. in the presence of, before
 * dehinc: adv. while, from here, from now, henceforth; then, next
 * deinde: adv. from there; then, afterwards; secondly, next (in order), in the second (next) place
 * demum: adv. at last, finally, not till then; precisely, exactly, just, in fact, certainly, to be sure; modo demum: only now, just now.
 * denique: adv. finally
 * donec: while, as long as, until
 * dum: conj. while, now; so long as, provided that, if only; until
 * enim: (conj) namely, indeed, certainly, in fact, for, because
 * eo quod: because
 * etenim: (conj) and indeed, for, as a matter of fact
 * etiam: also, besides; even, actually; (time) still
 * etsi: (conj.) though, although, and yet
 * fas (est): indecl. (it is) right, proper
 * huc: here, to this place; so far, for this purpose
 * ibi: there, then, therein, on that occassion
 * idcirco: for that reason, on that account, therefore
 * ideo: therefore, for this reason
 * illuc: (adv.) (to) there; to that; to him/her
 * immo: (adv.) or rather; indeed; no, yes (emphasis)
 * interdum: occasionally, sometimes, now and then
 * inde: from there, from that source, then, after; from then
 * iuxta: (adv) near by, alike, equally; (prep) close to, right after, near to, beside.
 * iuxta (7th-15th c.): according to
 * iuxta aliquid: to some extent
 * ita: thus, so, in this way; ita...ut: just as, so...that
 * ita...quomodo: just as
 * licet: all right; (with dat + inf) it is right for someone to; (conj) although, even if
 * modo: only, just now
 * necnon: also, moreover, certainly, besides
 * nempe: to be sure, of course
 * non numquam: sometimes
 * nondum: not yet
 * nonnullus -a -um: some, several
 * nuper: recently, lately
 * nusquam: nowhere
 * ob: before, in front of; on account of, because of; for the sake of; instead of; in proportion to
 * ob rem: to the purpose, usefully
 * quam ob rem: wherefore, accordingly
 * olim: once; of old; one day
 * praeterea: besides, moreover; hereafter
 * postea: afterwards
 * postmodum: afterwards; presently
 * procul: far off
 * proinde: adv. consequently, therefore; just as
 * propterea: for that reason, therefore
 * prorsus/prorsum: (adv.) forwards; absolutely; in short
 * prout: (conj) according as
 * qua: (adv) where, as far as, how; qua..qua: partly...partly
 * qualibit: anywhere, any way, as you please
 * qualis -e: what sort of, what kind of, such as, as
 * qualiter: adv. how, as, just as
 * quam: (adv) how, how much; as, very
 * quamdiu: as long as; while; inasmuch as
 * quamquam: although
 * quamvis: (adv) however; (conj) although
 * quando: when (after nisi, ne) ever; (conj) when, since, because
 * quandoque: (adv) at some time; (conj) whenever, as often as, since
 * quantum: (adv) as much as, as far as, so much as, to what extent
 * quantus: how great, how much
 * in quantum: to what extent
 * quanto: for how much
 * quantum ad: in terms of, as far as x is concerned, with respect to
 * quapropter: wherefore
 * quare: by what means, how; why, wherefore
 * quasi: as if, as though
 * quatenus: adv.(inter.) how far, how long? (rel.) as far as, in so far as, since
 * quemadmodum: (adv) in what way, how; (conj) as, just as
 * quicquam: anything
 * quicumque quae- quod-: whoever, whatever; all that, any whatever
 * quidam quae- quid-: a certain one, someone, a kind of
 * quidem: indeed, in fact
 * quippe: adv. certainly, of course; conj.(explaining) for in fact, because, since
 * quisquam quid-: anyone, anything
 * quisque quidque: each, each one, every
 * quisquis, quidquid: whoever, whatever; all
 * quo: where, what for, to what end
 * quoad: as to, with respect to
 * quocumque: wither so ever, how so ever
 * quod: (conj) because, as far as, in so far as, as for the fact that, in that, that
 * quod si: but if
 * quodamodo: in a way
 * quomodo: how, in what way; (rel) as, just as
 * quondam: once, sometimes, formerly
 * quoniam: because, since, seeing that, now that
 * quoque: also, too
 * quot: how many; (conj) as many
 * quotiens: how often (rel) as often as
 * rursus: again, in turn
 * recte: rightly, correctly
 * rursum: again
 * sane: reasonably, sensibly; certainly, doubtless, truly; of course; c. neg. = really, at all; to be sure, however
 * scilicet: adv. evidently, naturally, of course; (as explan. particle:) namely, that is to say, in other words
 * semel: once
 * seu: and
 * simul: at the same time; together; likewise
 * sin: but if
 * siquidem: if in fact; if only, if indeed; since indeed, since that
 * talis -e: adj. such, of such a kind, the following
 * taliter: in such a manner, so
 * tam: so, so greatly; tam...quam: so...as, much...as well as
 * tamen: yet, nevertheless, still
 * tamquam: as, just as; (conj) as if, just as if
 * tandem: at last, finally
 * tantum: (adv) so much, so greatly; to such a degree; so far; only
 * tantus -a -um (adj): of such (a size); so great, so much
 * tot: as many, so many
 * tunc: (avd) then, just the; thereupon, accordingly, consequently
 * ubicumque: wherever, everywhere
 * unde: whence, from where; wherefore; this being the case
 * usque: as far as, all the way, continually, straight on, up to; until
 * ut...ita: while...nevertheless
 * uterque -raque -rumque: both, each (of two)
 * utinam: would that, if only
 * utique: anyhow, at least, at any rate
 * utpote: as, in as much as
 * utrum: (conj) either, whether
 * velut: as, just as, as it were, as though
 * verumtamen: but yet, nevertheless
 * vero (conj): but, truly
 * videlicet: clearly, evidently; namely

title: Latin/Lesson 4-Adverbs and Prepositions


text:
Cookbook:Low-Calorie Diet

Recently, interest has been picking up in low-calorie diets, especially for their possible life-extending properties.

Studies with laboratory rats fed a nutritionally complete, yet calorie-restricted diet lived far longer than the control group which ate normal amounts. The lean rats also maintained youthful appearances and activity levels well into normal rat middle-age and had similar delays in age-related diseases.

A study of rhesus monkeys, genetically more similar to humans, is underway. Though not complete, so far the results support the findings of the earlier rat study. Many people aren't waiting for the final results, but are starting their own restricted regimens.

Kookboek/Caloriearm dieet

title: Cookbook:Low-Calorie Diet


text:
Latin/Grammar

This Appendix is Divided into Two Sections:

 * 1) Grammatical Definitions A a comprehensive glossary of Latin and English Grammatical Definitions.
 * 2) Latin Noun and Verb Tables A comprehensive list of noun (substantive, adjective and pronoun) and verb tables.

title: Latin/Grammar


text:
Latin/Grammatical Definitions

=Glossary of Grammatical Definitions=

Ablative:
The ablative case is an almost adverbial case which also takes many praepositiones. It is not surprising that many adjectives become adverbs by use of the ablative singular case. The ablative case can denote precise position in time or space and thus takes praepositiones such as in and ab. However in looser definitions of time and space, the accusative case is used. For example 'in tres dies', in three days time. 'circum agrum', around the field.

Accusative:
The noun which is in the accusative case is the object of a sentence. E.g. 'The boy runs home.' 'home' is considered to be in the accusative case because it is direct object of the transitive verb 'run'. As well, certain praepositiones take the accusative case.See Direct Object and Case.

Defective:
Defective verbs are verbs which cannot be conjugated in all tenses, moods, numbers, and persons.

Deponent:
Deponent verbs are verbs which appear mainly in the passive case and have active meanings. For example colloquor 'I talk'.

Direct Object:
The noun which is the direct object of a transitive verb. See Case, Accusative.

Genitive:
A noun in the genitive case is said to ecompass the sense of origin. Thus the genitive usually can be equated to the possesive case in English, although it does occasionally take upon additional meanings. E.g. 'The book of Daniel', 'of Daniel' is said to be in the genitive case. See case.

Impersonal Verbs:
Impersonal Verbs are verbs which cannot take a subject, such as the verb 'to rain'. One cannot say 'Daniel is raining', or 'The car is raining', both are grammatically incorrect. The verb 'to rain' can only take the subject 'it', thus 'It's raining'. This can be said to be true with the Latin word for raining 'pluit'.

Indirect Object:
The indirect object is said to be equivelent to the dative case. See Dative, Case.

Locative:
The locative case is an archaic case which remains in certain nouns (such as domus) meaning 'at'. For example, 'domi' means 'at home'.

Nominative:
The noun which is in the nominative case is the subject of the sentence or verb. E.g. The boy runs home. 'The boy' is the subject of the sentence and therefore is in the nominative case. See Subject and Case.

Noun (nomen):
A noun is a part of speech which is divided into three branches: Substantivum, Adjectivum, and Pronomen. A noun in the Latin language is defined as anything that can be thought of or conceived. People, places, things, abstract concepts and qualities are thought to be nouns. Most nouns are said to be declinable (nihil is an obvious exception). See Case, Declension, Parts of Speech, Sentence.>

Person:
A finite verb is said to have person. Person refers to the subject of the verb. A verb must conjugate to the corresponding form of the subject person. There are said to be three persons. First Person, referring to 'I or We', Second person, referring to 'Thou' or 'Ye', and third person referring to 'He, She, It, or They'. A person can be said to be singular or plural in number. Each Third persons are said to have gender. The gender of the subject of a verb in the third person is determined by context if their is no noun in the nominative case present in the sentence, placing a demonstrative pronomen in the nominative case in the desired gender as subject, or if a noun in the nominative case is present, by referring to the gender of the subject noun.

Personal Verbs:
Personal Verbs are verbs which can take a person or object as subject.

Sentence:
A group of words which has at least a verb and a subject and is in a grammatically correct order. Subject: The noun that is in the nominative case. See Nominative and Case.

Tense:
The time period an action took place. Tense is determined by a suffix. Each tense is conjugated differently. There are said to be six tenses in total in the Latin language: Present Imperfect, Future Imperfect, Past Imperfect, Present Perfect, Future Perfect and Past Perfect. These may also be referred to as respectively: Present, Future, Imperfect, Perfect, Future Perfect and Pluperfect.

Voice:
Verbs may be either passive or active in construct. Subjects in active constructs of verbs typically perform the action, while in passive constructs suffer or are affected by the action. E.g. 'Daniel runs home.' has the verb 'run' in the active voice. 'Daniel was destroyed.' In this sentence Daniel is affected by the destruction, thus is in the passive tense. See Verb, Deponent.

title: Latin/Grammatical Definitions


text: Introduction to Paleoanthropology

title: Introduction to Paleoanthropology


text:
Japanese/Vocabulary/Countries, languages and nationalities

Languages - 言語
In most cases, the name of a language will be the name of the country where it is spoken with the suffix "". Example: "France/French" becomes "フランス/フランス語". There are exceptions to these and they are so noted in the country names below.

English is spoken in several countries. These are all called except in the case of the United States, the language of which is sometimes referred to as.

Nationalities - 国籍
The nationality of a person from a particular country is generally that of the country appended with ". For example: A Chinese person is " and a Canadian would be カナダ.

East Asia - 東アジア

 * Japan categorizes Mongolia as an East Asian nation (Mongolia is considered a central Asian nation)
 * The Korean peninsula is called 朝鮮半島 (ちょうせんはんとう)

Central Asia - 中央アジア

 * Middle East (Central Asia, West Asia) tables will be fixed later. Some difficulties due to Japan system of categorizing countries.
 * Some Middle Eastern/Central Asian countries are lumped into Europe category as NIS諸国 (Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union)
 * NIS list: (Armenia), (Azerbaijan), (Belarus), (Georgia), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, (Moldova), (Russian Federation), Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, (Ukraine), Uzbekistan
 * Resource: &

The United Kingdom - イギリス
The English language is called.

Pacific Nations - 太平洋諸国
জাপানি ভাষা শিক্ষা/অভিধান/দেশের নাম Japonais/Vocabulaire/Pays


text:
User talk:Tommyde~enwikibooks

Hey. Do you know about lrnj? It's useful for practicing kanji/katakana/hirigana.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Tommyde. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Tommyde~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:48, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:36, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Tommyde~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Maple Syrup

| Basic foodstuffs | Sweeteners

Maple syrup is a sweet condiment made from the sap of maple trees, common in North American cuisines. It is most often eaten with pancakes, waffles, or French toast. Maple syrup is also commonly used on hot breakfast cereals including oatmeal, cream of wheat, and grits. Sometimes maple syrup is used as an ingredient in baking or in preparing desserts.

Most "maple-flavored" syrups on the market today in the United States are imitation maple syrups, usually with little (for advertising purposes) or no real maple content. They are usually thickened far beyond the viscosity of real maple syrup, as well. Real maple syrup is universally considered superior, although it is more expensive.

Production
Real maple syrup comes from Canada or northern United States, especially New England (states in the northeast corner of the US) and New York. Most maple trees can be used as a source of sap, but the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and black maple (A. nigrum) are the most favored, with professionals preferring the black over the sugar. A maple syrup production farm is called a sugarbush or a sugarwoods. Sap is boiled in a "sugar shanty", "sugar shack", or "sugarhouse," which has only has partial side walls, being louvered at the top to vent moisture-laden air.

The province of Quebec in Canada is by far the world's largest producer of maple syrup, producing 15600000 l in 2001 - about four times as much as all U.S. production combined.

In Quebec, the process has become part of the culture, and city people often go to cabanes à sucre in early spring, where lavish meals are served with maple syrup accompaniments. Tire sur la neige is a seasonal treat of thick hot syrup poured onto fresh snow then eaten off sticks as it quickly cools. Owing to its economic importance, the maple tree is an emblem of Canada, and its leaf is depicted on its flag.

As for American production, in 2001, Vermont produced 1040000 l of real maple syrup, about a quarter of the U.S. production. Maine and New York state, with about 19 percent each, were next in line.

Production is concentrated in February. It takes approximately forty parts sap to make one part maple syrup. A very small amount of fat (usually with a pat of butter) is added during the reduction process to reduce the tendency of the boiling sap to froth up.

The earliest runs are the best quality. The best "sugaring" weather is clear, with days above freezing and nights below freezing, also with snow on the ground. Syrup made late in the season, when there are no longer nighttime freezes, is dark, and the flavor is said to be buddy, which decreases its value. The whole process must be done as quickly as possible. Too much time in storage can induce fermentation in the sap, and too much time boiling can also reduce quality. Usually the whole process from any batch of sap finishes in syrup within just a few hours.

Maple syrup is sometimes boiled down further to make maple sugar, usually sold in pressed blocks, and translucent candy.

Recipes
Category:Maple Syrup recipes

title: Cookbook:Maple Syrup


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Cookbook:Hominy Grits

| Breakfast | Side dishes | Native American cuisine

Recipe from Effigy Mounds National Monument.

Ingredients

 * 5 cups water
 * 1 cup hominy grits
 * 1 tablespoon butter
 * 1 tablespoon honey, brown sugar, or maple syrup (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Bring water to a rapid boil in a saucepan.
 * 2) Gradually stir in the hominy grits.
 * 3) Reduce heat to low.
 * 4) Stir in the butter.
 * 5) Cook for 20 minutes, or until the water is absorbed.
 * 6) If desired, sweeten with honey, brown sugar, maple syrup, or jelly.
 * 7) Serve while hot.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Grits can also be flavored with cheese, sunny-side up egg, or small bits of ham or sausage.

title: Cookbook:Hominy Grits


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Statistics/Introduction/What is Statistics

''Your company has created a new drug that may cure arthritis. How would you conduct a test to confirm the drug's effectiveness?''

''The latest sales data have just come in, and your boss wants you to prepare a report for management on places where the company could improve its business. What should you look for? What should you not look for?''

''You and a friend are at a baseball game, and out of the blue he offers you a bet that neither team will hit a home run in that game. Should you take the bet?''

''You want to conduct a poll on whether your school should use its funding to build a new athletic complex or a new library. How many people do you have to poll? How do you ensure that your poll is free of bias? How do you interpret your results?''

''A widget maker in your factory that normally breaks 4 widgets for every 100 it produces has recently started breaking 5 widgets for every 100. When is it time to buy a new widget maker? (And just what is a widget, anyway?)''

These are some of the many real-world examples that require the use of statistics. How would you approach the problem statements? There are some stepwise human algorithms, but is there a general problem statement?

 * "Find possible solutions, decide on a solution, plan the solution, implement the solution, learn from the results for future solutions (or re-solution)."
 * "SOAP - subjective - the problem as given, objective - the problem after examination, assessment - the better defined problem, plan - decide if guidelines to management already exist, and blueprint the solution for this case, or generate a risk-minimizing, new solution path".
 * "HAMRC - hypothesis, aim, methodology, results, conclusion" - the concept that there is no real difference is the null hypothesis.

Then there is the joke that compares the different ways of thinking:

"A physicist, a chemist and a statistician were working collaboratively on a problem, when the wastepaper basket spontaneously combusted (they all swore they had stopped smoking). The chemist said, 'quick, we must reduce the concentration of the reactant which is oxygen, by increasing the relative concentration of non-reactive gases, such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. Place a fire blanket over the flames.' The physicist, interjected, 'no, no, we must reduce the heat energy available for activating combustion ; get some water to douse the flame'. Meanwhile, the statistician was running around lighting more fires. The others asked with alarm, 'what are you doing?'. 'Trying to get an adequate sample size'."

General Definition
Statistics, in short, is the study of data. It includes descriptive statistics (the study of methods and tools for collecting data, and mathematical models to describe and interpret data) and inferential statistics (the systems and techniques for making probability-based decisions and accurate predictions).

Etymology
As its name implies, statistics has its roots in the idea of "the state of things". The word itself comes from the ancient Latin term statisticum collegium, meaning "a lecture on the state of affairs". Eventually, this evolved into the Italian word statista, meaning "statesman", and the German word Statistik, meaning "collection of data involving the State". Gradually, the term came to be used to describe the collection of any sort of data.

Statistics as a subset of mathematics
As one would expect, statistics is largely grounded in mathematics, and the study of statistics has lent itself to many major concepts in mathematics: probability, distributions, samples and populations, the bell curve, estimation, and data analysis.

Up ahead
Up ahead, we will learn about subjects in modern statistics and some practical applications of statistics. We will also lay out some of the background mathematical concepts required to begin studying statistics.


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Statistics/Introduction/Why

Imagine reading a book for the first few chapters and then becoming able to get a sense of what the ending will be like - this is one of the great reasons to learn statistics. With the appropriate tools and solid grounding in statistics, one can use a limited sample (e.g. read the first five chapters of Pride & Prejudice) to make intelligent and accurate statements about the population (e.g. predict the ending of Pride & Prejudice). This is what knowing statistics and statistical tools can do for you.

In today's information-overloaded age, statistics is one of the most useful subjects anyone can learn. Newspapers are filled with statistical data, and anyone who is ignorant of statistics is at risk of being seriously misled about important real-life decisions such as what to eat, who is leading the polls, how dangerous smoking is, etc. Knowing a little about statistics will help one to make more informed decisions about these and other important questions. Furthermore, statistics are often used by politicians, advertisers, and others to twist the truth for their own gain. For example, a company selling the cat food brand "Cato" (a fictitious name here), may claim quite truthfully in their advertisements that eight out of ten cat owners said that their cats preferred Cato brand cat food to "the other leading brand" cat food. What they may not mention is that the cat owners questioned were those they found in a supermarket buying Cato.

“The best thing about being a statistician is that you get to play in everyone else’s backyard.” John Tukey, Princeton University

More seriously, those proceeding to higher education will learn that statistics is the most powerful tool available for assessing the significance of experimental data, and for drawing the right conclusions from the vast amounts of data faced by engineers, scientists, sociologists, and other professionals in most spheres of learning. There is no study with scientific, clinical, social, health, environmental or political goals that does not rely on statistical methodologies. The basic reason for that is that variation is ubiquitous in nature and probability and statistics are the fields that allow us to study, understand, model, embrace and interpret variation.

See Also UCLA Brochure on Why Study Probability & Statistics

title: Statistics/Introduction/Why


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User:Urimeir~enwikibooks

I really like the wikibooks project. Occasionally i even find the time to contribute stuff.

title: User:Urimeir~enwikibooks


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Cookbook:Corn Syrup

| Sweeteners

Corn syrup is a glucose syrup made from corn, specifically cornstarch.

Characteristics
The syrup is made by heating the cornstarch with water, before adding an acid, enzymes, or both. These break down the starch into smaller molecules, ultimately producing a syrupy mixture of glucose, maltose, and other carbohydrates. This syrup may then be refined to remove any color and produce a clear, viscous syrup.

The characteristics of a given corn syrup will depend largely on how much of the starch is completely converted to glucose. A low-conversion syrup has a higher proportion of non-sugar carbohydrates, which makes it more viscous and less sweet, and the opposite is true for high-conversion syrups, which have more sugars compared to other carbohydrates. Generic corn syrup is somewhere in the middle, with medium conversion and about 50% glucose content. Some high-conversion corn syrups may be treated with another enzyme to convert a large amount of the glucose to fructose—this produces high-fructose corn syrup, which is sweeter than regular corn syrup. A syrup with 42% fructose and a roughly equal proportion of glucose is very common and has a similar sweetness to table sugar. Corn syrup may also have molasses or other colorants/flavorings added, which yields dark corn syrup.

Selection and storage
Corn syrup has a long shelf life. Keep it in a cool, dry place. It may darken very slightly over time.

Use
The primary applications of corn syrup include sweetening, moistening, coloring, and altering texture of various foods. Because the non-sugar carbohydrates of corn syrup interfere with its sugar molecules, low-to-medium conversion corn syrups are added to various confections (e.g. fondant, icing, caramel, etc) to reduce the risk of undesirable crystals. In a similar way, they also reduce ice crystal formation in ice creams, and they add body to foods. High-fructose corn syrup often provides a cheaper way to add sweetness to beverages compared to using table sugar. Dark corn syrup is sometimes used as a cheap substitute for molasses, but it has less flavor and different properties. Corn syrup also slows moisture loss from baked goods, which can maintain freshness.

Medium-conversion light corn syrup is a great all-purpose corn syrup to keep on hand for home bakers. Higher-skill bakers or those wanting to precisely optimize their recipes may want to experiment with different varieties of corn syrup

Substitution
Cane syrup, golden syrup, and light treacle are sometimes used as substitutes for corn syrup, but they are unfortunately not exact matches. They will produce different effects if substituted, so the best substitute for corn syrup is another glucose syrup, made from a different starch. Light corn syrup can be used instead of dark, though the flavor and color will be different. High-fructose corn syrup may be used in place of honey, which also has high fructose content —note, however, that the characteristic honey flavor will be lost.

title: Cookbook:Corn Syrup


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Cookbook:Brown Sugar

| Sweeteners | Sugar

Brown sugar is a soft sugar whose crystals are covered by a film of refined molasses.

Production
Historically, brown sugar referred to less-refined sugar where the molasses is not completely removed. However, this is rarely the case currently, and modern brown sugar is typically made by combining refined white sugar and molasses in precise quantities. This can either be achieved by cooking white sugar with molasses and recrystallizing the mixture, or by simply mixing the sugar and molasses together.

Characteristics
Brown sugar is brown in color and has a more complex flavor than white sugar due to the added molasses. Dark brown sugar has more added molasses while light brown sugar has less. It consists primarily of sucrose, with some glucose and fructose—these make the brown sugar hold onto more environmental moisture, so it is stickier and clumpier than white sugar. Because of the added molasses, brown sugar is slightly acidic, which is useful when using baking soda as a leavener.

Selection and storage
Because brown sugar varies in molasses content and crystal size depending on the manufacturer, select the kind of brown sugar most appropriate for your dish. It should be stored at room temperature in an airtight container to prevent it from drying out. If it does dry out and become hard to scoop, you can soften it in the microwave or oven and knead in a little water if desired.

Use
Brown sugar can be used in the same ways as white granulated sugar, and it can be exactly substituted by weight. Do note that it will impact the flavor and texture of the final product. For example, it will add a more complex flavor, cause baked goods to brown faster, and may increase the spread of things like cookies.

A brown sugar substitute can be made at home by massaging together white granulated sugar and molasses (not sorghum). The molasses should make up 3–10% of the final weight, depending on the desired characteristics. When measuring brown sugar by volume, make sure to pack it well into the measuring utensil.

title: Cookbook:Brown Sugar


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OC Photography Program/About

Learn
The "Open Content Photography Program" was created to help people learn professional photographic techniques and practices. While much of it is about the fundamentals of photography, it is also meant to teach ways in which photography can be practiced as a business. Open Content means anyone can, not just read it, but also improve it. Feel free to add articles, useful links and information; the more people contribute, the better the program will become. Thoughtful contributions are a great way to both teach and learn, and help both teachers and students improve.

Free
The Open Content Photography Program is free, and it will always be free.

Disciplines

 * Advertising
 * Architectural
 * Editorial
 * Fine Art
 * Photojournalism
 * Portrait
 * Sports
 * Wedding and event

Open Contents
Open Contents means anyone can improve this book, adding content, changing content or deleting bad content.

Contribute
The only contribution this book needs, is that you share what you know best about photography education.

Anti-Spam controls
People who have an interest in this book are watching its evolution, and they will delete any content that is not appropriate.

Vandalism
If anyone can edit it anyone can delete it, right? Yes, but its very easy to undelete it.

Correct content
Exact content depends on two things: First, write only about what you know. Second, correct or delete content only if you are absolutely sure it is not correct.

Stable Versions
Sometimes, for safety purposes, the content of this book will be saved in another website. Anyone will be able to access that website. No stable version is ready yet.

Copyright
Copyrights

title: OC Photography Program/About


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OC Photography Program/The Masters

The masters
Yahoo and Google are good places to search for these names; you can find a lot about these photographers there.

Early Pioneers

 * Nicéphore Niépce (1765-1833)
 * Henry Fox Talbot (1800-1877)
 * David Octavius Hill (1802-1870)
 * Julia Margaret Cameron (1815-1879)
 * Nadar (Gaspard-Félix Tournachon) (1820–1910)
 * Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904)
 * Jacob Riis (1849-1914)
 * Roger Fenton (1819-1869)
 * Mathew_Brady (1823-96)
 * Timothy O'Sullivan (1840-1882)
 * Eugène Atget (1857-1927)

Modern Classics

 * Lewis Hine (1874-1940)
 * Alfred Stieglitz (1864-1946)
 * Edward Steichen (1879-1973)
 * Edward Weston (1886-1958)
 * Man Ray (1890-1976)
 * Alexander Rodchenko (1891-1956)
 * Jacques Henri Lartigue (1894-1986)
 * André Kertész (1894-1985)
 * Wegee (Arthur H. Fellig) (1899-1968)
 * Ansel Adams (1902-1984)
 * Frederick Sommers (1905-1999)
 * August Sander (1876-1964)
 * Karl Blossfeldt (1865-1932)
 * Horst P. Horst (1906-1999)
 * Henri Cartier-Bresson (1908-2004)
 * Yousuf Karsh (1908-2002)
 * Robert Doisneau (1912-1994)
 * Robert Capa (1913-1954)
 * W. Eugene Smith (1918-1978)
 * The Farm Security Administration photographers (Listed on the Wikipedia Farm Security Administration page)
 * Walker Evans (1903-1975)
 * Dorothea Lange (1895-1965)
 * Minor White (1908-1976)
 * Vivian Maier (1926-2009)

Contemporary Masters

 * Richard Avedon (1923-2004)
 * William Klein (1928-)
 * Ralph Gibson (1939)
 * Josef Koudelka (1938-)
 * Sebastião Salgado (1944-)
 * Robert Mapplethorpe (1946-1989)
 * Michael Kenna (1953-)
 * Helmut Newton (1920-2004)
 * Diane Arbus(1923-1971)
 * Robert Frank (1924-)
 * Robert Heinecken (1931-2006)
 * Duane Michals (1932-)
 * Franco Fontana (1933-)
 * David Hockney (1937-)
 * William Eggleston(1939-)
 * Joel-Peter Witkin (1939-)
 * William Wegman (1943-)
 * Jeff Wall (1946-)
 * Sandy Skoglund (1946-)
 * Stephen Shore (1947-)
 * Bernard Faucon (1950-)
 * Nan Goldin (1953-)
 * Philip-Lorca diCorcia (1953-)
 * Cindy Sherman (1954-)
 * Augusto De Luca (1955-)
 * Andreas Gursky (1955-)

title: OC Photography Program/The Masters


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OC Photography Program/Light

The light
In photography, light is in fact the single most important aspect of consideration.

What time of day in which you choose to shoot can affect both how the subject will be represented, as well as your technical limitations in presenting it. When photographing it is wise to make use of the 'slowest' or smallest ISO film/medium possible... This reduces 'noise' in the case of digital, and grain in the case of film. Of course, there are exceptions to this, when the surreal/aged feel grain or noise adds to a photo is desirable, however for the most part, the high picture quality granted by slower sensitivities is preferable.

What separates a professional looking photograph from an amateur snapshot is both the quality of the light, and the quality of consideration placed on 'how I will deal with this type of light'.

For instance, if one was photographing a scene in which motion would be better represented slowly, a sudden need for more light arises. More so if coupled with that is a need for great depth of field. If at all possible, a photographer must make considerations such as; time of day (when will the light be strongest) and weather (does the skycast offer greater or lesser contrast in the photograph).

Most of these requirements are greatly reduced in difficulty when shooting in a studio, as the light is directly controlable, but a new difficulty arises... One must aspire to create a light that simulates light that humans have over eons come accustomed to seeing... One must simulate 'nice' light.... One must aspire to simulate the ways in which the sunlight shines on the subject.

Direction
The direction of the light is a critical consideration;

For instance, in portraiture, one would rarely use a light source that casts shadows upwards onto a face... That is to say, one would generally avoid placing the light below the subject, otherwise fall victim to 'scary campfire light' as is created by underlight flashlights to scare children... this light is both un-flattering, and un-natural.

Instead, to create a quality photograph, photographers try to emulate the suns' representation of light... That is, a light that falls both on the subject (from above) and on surroundings, and then reflects back onto the subject. This reflecting property of light is key. By placing a reflective surface opposite the shadows on a subject, one can fill the darker areas with a 'soft' or diffused type of light. The difference from such a subtle chance can be astounding.

Contrast
Contrast is the measure of the difference between the shadow and highlight brightness in a photograph.

Low: A low contrast photograph, having a lower contrast grade will look more greyish in the case of black and white, and will be subject to a muted feel in color.

Hard: A hard contrast image will have both very bright highlights and dark shadows, and the lines which define the shadowed areas will be much more significant and remarkable.

A between might be considered when shooting... A contrast grade that neither enhances or reduces dramatic effect in a photograph might be called 'normal' contrast or 'medium' with the advent of digital.

while contrast can be controlled in the darkroom/digital darkroom, it is wise to make considerations when shooting... What sort of contrast do you want to emphasize should reflect the nature of the light your shooting in.

Color
RGB

Color temperature (Kelvin)

Nature
Hard light; A light which casts heavy, clear, profound shadows when interrupted by an opaque object. Hard light gives high contrast and produces vivid and vibrant colors.It is generally used to increase drama in the picture.

Soft light; A light whose shadows are cast in a more soft, and subtle way. Softer diffused light can be created by increasing the size of the source with respect to the subject which can further be diffused by using filters (translucent materials) or by reflecting the light off an intermediary surface (generally walls-thereby further increasing the size of the source) before it falls on subject.

title: OC Photography Program/Light


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OC Photography Program/Digital Darkroom

The digital darkroom, what you should know
Learn good digital darkroom practices. There are procedures to improve the image that can be done with a lot of different software.

Learn how to master a good image editing program. Make a lot of experiments and read the manual. You can also follow tutorials on the Internet or buy books about it.

Learn how to choose the equipment you buy. Choosing the more adequate digital darkroom equipment requires a lot of study.

The computer
Two types of computers work in digital photography, the Macintosh and the Windows PC computers. The Mac has many advantages in this area, however the PC has many more programs available. There was a time when the Mac was the king, but as the Mac and Windows operating system have developed, and the advancements in hardware speed, the advantages that Mac once held has been greatly diminished.

If you can´t afford, or if you prefer, you can also use "Linux" Operating system instead of "Microsoft Windows" or "MacOS". "Mandrake Linux 10.1" when used with KDE (default) has a very useful tool for calibrating your monitor. "Gimp" is widely considered as the best open source photo editing software.

Usually "Linux" operating system and other "Linux" software are free.

For your venture into Digital Photography, your computer should have at least a 500 MHz processor, and 512 MB RAM. You should also have a large hard drive to store your images. A disk burner is also a necessity to backup your image files.

The scanner
If you start your photography with a digital camera probably you don't need a scanner.

If you need to scan negatives or slides with some quality, you'll need a dedicated scanner, one that just works with negatives and slides.

Print scanners are good for prints, not for transparencies. (Name given to negatives or slides)

Computer software
Photoshop is the professional choice for anyone who needs a program for professional use. Its the most complete package for image processing and a standard in prepress world.

GIMP is a very nice program, its free and can be downloaded in the web. It lacks features to be considered a program for professional press use. However its fine for anyone who wants to learn and print their own portfolio, or to build a web page.

Paint Shop Pro is also a very good alternative to Photoshop, and it costs much, much less.

Picasa is a very good album organizer software. It's great to search, catalog and display photos.

FotoTagger is a free software tool for annotating digital images. You can place location-specific, easy-to-hide labels on a picture to identify persons, landmarks, put comments, etc. Stores annotations in the metadata section of a JPEG file. Supports publishing to Flickr.

Exifer is a free software to edit embed information on Jpeg's. You can edit "exif" and "iptc" info.

ULead PhotoImpact is a low-cost alternative to Photoshop. Intuitive interface. Comes with additional bundled components.

Printers
Printers can be used for printing one's photos. However, a quality printer will be of need if wanting to print high resolution photos.

Photo printers are the newest thing and are exclusively good for printing photos. One can simply insert a photo card into the printer in order for the printer to bring up all the photos on the card and print off from that.

title: OC Photography Program/Digital Darkroom