text:
User talk:Wavez

Copyright problem with Image:Softbody2.jpg
--Derbeth 12:37, 9 November 2005 (UTC) I dealt with this one.

Image:Getting Started With Bob.jpg
You cannot release screenshot of Blender as public domain because you don't have sufficent rights. You have to give screenshots the same license the program has itself. --Derbeth talk 10:43, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I am not joking or writing this to boost my edit count. If your images don't have valid copyright status, they will be deleted. --Derbeth talk 21:33, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

Yes, I understand that, and I already fixed the issue. Wavez 21:35, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Wavez


text:
User:Lehalle~enwikibooks

I'm a mathematician (PhD on nonlinear control using artificial neural networks, directed by Pr Robert Azencott).

I worked :

 * 4 years at the Renault Research Center - as Research Engineer
 * 5 years at MIRIAD Technologies (French SME dedicated to online diagnosis and monitoring of huge dataflows) - as Head of the algorithmic devlopments and advanced studies

Now I work at EXANE-BNP-PARIBAS in the Trading & Arbitrage research team.

I've got several blogs :

 * a personal "fun" blog
 * a professional blog
 * and a linkedin page

a list of my favorite sites :

 * PhiMaTeX
 * Startup Boulevard
 * Math genealogy
 * MaplePrimes
 * YubNub
 * Literate Programs

my literatePrograms.org home page

Contributions
All my contributions

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Lehalle~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Lehalle~enwikibooks

Copyright problem with Image:A61-large.png
--Derbeth 12:37, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Lehalle. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Lehalle~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:24, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:11, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lehalle~enwikibooks


text: Template:Non-free use

title: Template:Non-free use


text:
User talk:Vgant

Copyright problem with Image:Eqn 1.4.1.jpg
--Derbeth 12:43, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Vgant


text:
Advanced QoS for IPCop

The QoS addons for IPCop are advanced traffic shaping addons to the popular IPCop firewall. Maintained as GPL/Creative Commons Open Source projects by Markus Hoffmann.

There are currently two QoS packages being maintained, using two different packet scheduling protocols; HTB and HTSC.

A Brief Introduction to Traffic Shaping
Quality of Service (QoS) is a term used to all the different modules that make up traffic shaping. QoS is an attempt to bring all these different programs and protocols together to give priority to network traffic that is time dependent, like VoIP and online games, over less time critical data transfers such as P2P or FTP traffic. If it does it well, then you can have a conversation using VoIP while downloading/uploading large files without delay or gaps in the voice call.

Flavours
There are two versions of the Advanced QoS Addon:
 * Hierarchical Fair Service Curve scheduler (HFSC) – (QoS 2.5 Ipcop 1.4.8)
 * Hierarchical Token Bucket scheduler (HTB) – (QoS_NG)

Table of Contents

 * HFSC Manual – (QoS 2.5 Ipcop 1.4.8)
 * 1) Prerequisites
 * 2) Installation
 * 3) Setting up the Classes (For Outgoing Traffic)
 * 4) Setting ACK
 * 5) Defining the Traffic
 * 6) IMQ – Setting up Classes and Rules for Incoming Traffic
 * 7) Uninstalling QoS Addon
 * 8) Glossary

 * HTB Manual – (QoS_NG)

Questions-N-Answers
Ceilburst: Amount of bytes that can be burst at 'infinite' speed, in other words, as fast as the interface can transmit them. For perfect evening out, should be equal to at most one average packet. Should be at least as high as the highest cburst of all children. Both values could be empty because they will be computed automatically.
 * Q: Where can I download the Advanced QoS for IPCOP?
 * A: here
 * Q: What does the QOS "Maximum delay in milliseconds" really mean?
 * A:
 * Q: What does the QOS_NG "Maxbust" and "Ceilmaxburst" really mean?
 * A: Burst : Amount of bytes that can be burst at ceil speed, in excess of the configured maximum upload speed. Should be at least as high as the highest burst of all children
 * Q: Which is better QOS(HFSC) or QOS_NG(HTB)?
 * A:
 * QOS which is based on HFSC is supposed to be better for VOIP. The Hierchial tree method was designed to share bandwidth between branches or classes and rules (envision a tree, the trunk being the full bandwidth, each branch being class/rule taking bandwidth from the trunk).
 * QOS_NG which is based on HTB is supposed to be better at layer 7 (P2P for example) bandwidth control. The idea behind HTB is that the data flows like water in a hose into "buckets".  Each bucket only holds so much data.  The buckets are queued by priority to receive the available bandwidth.

QOS Symmetrical 128Kbps with OpenVPN priority
Assumptions
 * RED outgoing is eth0, incoming is imq0
 * GREEN is eth1
 * Clients and servers are on GREEN
 * VPN connections are accessing servers on GREEN intranet
 * Clients will produce typical web, ftp, etc... traffic
 * VPN is the only service available to the internet on RED

Actions At this point all traffic will traverse on the default classes 199 and 299 at a slightly reduced rate.
 * Create RED root classes 199(eth0) and 299(imq0) with the maximum bandwidth set to 115 Kbps
 * Create class 100, priority 1, minimum bandwidth 50 Kbps, delay 25ms, maximum bandwidth 115 Kbps
 * Create class 101, priority 2, minimum bandwidth 50 Kbps, delay 50ms, maximum bandwidth 115 Kbps
 * Create class 199, priority 7, minimum bandwidth 1 Kbps, delay 500ms, maximum bandwidth 100 Kbps
 * Assign ACK priority to class 100
 * Create class 200, priority 1, minimum bandwidth 50 Kbps, delay 25ms, maximum bandwidth 115 Kbps
 * Create class 201, priority 2, minimum bandwidth 50 Kbps, delay 50ms, maximum bandwidth 115 Kbps
 * Create class 299, priority 7, minimum bandwidth 1 Kbps, delay 500ms, maximum bandwidth 100 Kbps

To ensure that vpn (OpenVPN specifically) traffic gets priority, the following rules should be added:
 * Create a rule "OpenVPNOut", interface eth0, protocol UDP, mark 101, source port 1194
 * Create a rule "OpenVPNIn", interface imq0, protocol UDP, mark 201, source port 1194

This scheme will make OpenVPN traffic higher priority than the default traffic, however since ACK's have a higher priority than everything else, normal traffic will still flow.

Viewing the graphs should provide insight into the flow:
 * 1:100 will show ACK traffic from GREEN clients to internet connections
 * 1:101 will show VPN outgoing traffic (port 1194)
 * 1:199 will show bulk outgoing traffic
 * 2:200 will show very little in this configuration as the rule is not used
 * 2:201 will show VPN incoming traffic (port 1194)
 * 2:299 will show bulk incoming traffic

Additional categorization of the bulk traffic could be done by adding more rules.

title: Advanced QoS for IPCop


text:
Advanced QoS for IPCop/HFSC

Advanced QoS for IPCop

Manual
This version of the manual is designed to get you up and running with out any knowledge of traffic shaping

Prerequisites
Using this version of the manual will allow you to get traffic shaping working on your IPCop firewall with out any knowledge of QoS. You will however need knowledge of the following:

 * PuTTY – Home Page
 * Winscp – Home Page

Transferring the package to the IPCop router/firewall
Once you have a copy now connect to your IPCop machine using winscp, if you are connecting from a windows machine. Although SSH is done over port 22, IPCop uses port 222. Once you have connected to the firewall navigate first to the root of the file system then into the folder marked "tmp". Once inside transfer the qos tar file that you obtained from Source Forge.

OK, we really need to help people here - I know I spent about a day searching for how to do this and this is roughly correct - use something like: scp -v -P 222 /home/downloads/pathtofile/filename root@hostname:/tmp/ After three hours of wasted time, I found here: http://ipcops.com/faq/ipcop_faq.html#1.2.7 that one has to "enable SSH via the web interface"
 * 1) if you are using Linux you can use

 * 1) if you are using Windows as your desktop try WinSCP

Unpacking the tar file

 * Connect to IPCop with PuTTy, remembering to connect using port 222.
 * If using linux ssh -l admin -p 222 192.168.1.1
 * Navigate to the /tmp folder.
 * #  cd /tmp

 * Run the following command to extract the tar file.
 * #  tar xvfz qos_ipcop_1.4.8.tar.gz

Installing the package

 * Goto the extracted files
 * #  cd /tmp/qos

 * Run the install script
 * #  ./install

Setting up the Classes (For Outgoing Traffic)
Using a web browser navigate to your IPCop router/firewall and from there using the "Services" menu, select "QoS".

Root Class
The first thing that needs to be defined is the root class for out going traffic on the red device, this will be either:

 * ppp0 - if a PCI ADSL/ISDN MODEM or PPPoE is used
 * eth1 - if an external MODEM is used (and you have only 2 interfaces, red and green, this applies to most users)
 * ethx - if you have multiple network interfaces, such as blue and orange (red will always be the highest number)

 * First change the default class from the drop down box to 199.
 * Now add your upload speed in kbps to the text box below the default class. The figure you enter here should be 90% of the upload speed limit that your ISP provides you.

 * e.g.

 * ISP upload speed = 256 kbps×90% = 230 kbps.

 * So add 230 into the text box.

 * 4. Now click save.

Fast Class (100)
This is the class that will used to channel relatively time dependent protocols like, MSN, IRC and SSH.

 * 1) Using the "Add a new class ppp0[eth1]" section, select 100 from the Class drop down box.
 * 2) Select the priority as 2.
 * 3) Set the "Minimum Upload in kbit" as 50 Kbps.
 * 4) Set the "Maximum delay in milliseconds" as 40 ms.
 * 5) Set the "Maximum Upload in kbit" as your upload speed given by your ISP.
 * 6) Click on save.

Very Fast Class (101)
This class is used for RTP data and anything that is very time dependent like online games and VoIP

 * 1) Using the "Add a new class ppp0[eth1]" section, select 101 from the Class drop down box.
 * 2) Select the priority as 1.
 * 3) Set the "Minimum Upload in kbit" as 90 Kbps.
 * 4) Set the "Maximum delay in milliseconds" as 20 ms.
 * 5) Set the "Maximum Upload in kbit" as your upload speed given by your ISP.
 * 6) Click on save.

Bulk Traffic Class (103)
This class is used for all the traffic that isn't time dependent, traffic like P2P and FTP.

 * 1) Using the "Add a new class ppp0[eth1]" section, select 103 from the Class drop down box.
 * 2) Select the priority as 7.
 * 3) Set the "Minimum Upload in kbit" as 0 Kbps.
 * 4) Set the "Maximum delay in milliseconds" as 150 ms.
 * 5) Set the "Maximum Upload in kbit" this should be 50-100 Kbps less than the total upload speed given by your ISP.
 * 6) Click on save.

Default Class (199)
This class is used for all the traffic that isn't covered by a rule. i.e. undefined traffic.

 * 1) Using the "Add a new class ppp0[eth1]" section, select 199 from the Class drop down box.
 * 2) Select the priority as 4.
 * 3) Set the "Minimum Upload in kbit" as 0 Kbps.
 * 4) Set the "Maximum delay in milliseconds" as 50 ms.
 * 5) Set the "Maximum Upload in kbit" this should be 50-100 Kbps less than the total upload speed given by your ISP.
 * 6) Click on save.

Setting ACK
ACK is a part of the TCP protocol, giving ACK packets high priority will speed up all TCP connections. And thus should assigned to the 101 class.

So in the QoS page on the IPCop do the following:

 * 1) Go to the "select class for ACK's on ppp0[eth1]" section.
 * 2) Select 101 from the drop down box.
 * 3) Click on save.

Defining the Traffic
Now that all the classes have been defined, you now need to choose what traffic goes through which class. This is done using Rules. Rules are either defined using ports or by using the Layer-7 filters.

Rules - Ports
Different applications use different port numbers or ranges of port numbers. They also use different packet protocols, such as TCP and UDP. To define a traffic rule you will need to find out what port numbers the application uses and what packet protocol it uses. This information is usual either in the applications manual or in the configuration selection of the application. Failing that google is your friend. To add a port based rule do the following:

 * 1) Goto the "Add rule" section.
 * 2) Give the rule a name e.g. the applications name (no spaces are allowed in names, nor greater than 15 characters long).
 * 3) Set the interface from the drop down box to that of your red interface.
 * 4) Select the protocol type for your application from the protocol drop down box.
 * 5) From the mark drop down box select the class you wish this applications data to be tied to. i.e. if it a VoIP set it to class 101.
 * 6) Enter the applications port number into the "Source Port" text box. Port numbers can either be single ports or ranges i.e. 80-90.
 * 7) Click on save.

Rules – Layer-7
Layer-7 filters allows the identification of protocols independent of port. This is beneficial if you can not predict what ports will be used by users. There is a cost of CPU time, but this is proportional to the flow of network traffic and shouldn't be a problem with a home or office net work on the minimum hardware specification requirements for IPCop.

To add a Layer-7 based rule do the following:

 * 1) Goto the "Add l7 rule" section.
 * 2) Enter a the name of the protocol in the "Rulename" text box.
 * 3) Set the interface from the drop down box to that of your red interface.
 * 4) From the "Protocol" dropdown box select the name of the protocol that you wish to control.
 * 5) Then from the "Mark" dropdown box select the class that you wish the protocol's traffic to flow through.
 * 6) Click on save.

IMQ – Setting up Classes and Rules for Incoming Traffic
Using the imq0 dummy device will allow you to control the priority of downloaded packets, as opposed to the uploaded packets so far looked at.

Setting up this device is much the same as the previous one but with ADSL connections the bandwidth is greater down stream so this needs to be adjusted in the classes.

The setup precedes as before:
 * 1) Set the Root Class using the 90% of the available download band width.
 * 2) Fast Class (200) – changing the max. and min. bandwidths to suit.
 * 3) Very Fast Class (201) – changing the max. and min. bandwidths to suit.
 * 4) Bulk Traffic Class (203) – changing the max. and min. bandwidths to suit.
 * 5) Default Class (299) – changing the max. and min. bandwidths to suit.
 * 6) Add the required rules for this device using either port rules or Layer-7 filters.

Uninstalling QoS Addon
To uninstall just do the following:

 * 1) Connect to IPCop with PuTTy, remembering to connect using port 222.
 * 2) Type the following in the terminal window
 * # /var/ipcop/qos/bin/uninstall

Kernel Update
IPCOP will require an updated kernel in order for the QOS package to work, after the installing QOS,follow this link MHADDONS, and download and install the kernel, following the associated instructions. A newer kernel version may be available, look through Downloads, under Addons.

Glossary
CBQ – Class Based Queuing.

HFSC – Hierarchical Fair Service Curve

HTB – Hierarchical Token Bucket – A packet scheduler

IMQ – A dummy device which intercepts all packets just before they are queued into the real device.

L7-filter – Application Layer Packet Classifier

RTP – Real-time Transfer Protocol

qdisc – Queuing Discipline.

VoIP – Voice over IP

title: Advanced QoS for IPCop/HFSC


text:
Communication Systems/Binary Modulation Schemes

This page discusses the binary modulation schemes and "keying".

What is "Keying?"
Square waves, sinc waves, and raised-cosine rolloff waves are all well and good, but all of them have drawbacks. If we use an optimal, matched filter, we can eliminate the effect of jitter, so frankly, why would we consider square waves at all? Without jitter as a concern, it makes no sense to correct for jitter, or even take it into consideration. However, since the matched filter needs to look at individual symbols, the transmitted signal can't suffer from any intersymbol interference either. Therefore, we aren't using the sinc pulse.

Since the raised-cosine roll-off wave suffers from both these problems (in smaller amounts, however), we don't want to use that pulse either.

So the question is, what other types of pulses can we send?

It turns out that if we use some of the techniques we have developed using analog signal modulation, and implement a sinusoidal carrier wave, we can create a signal with no inter-symbol interference, very low bandwidth, and no worries about jitter. Just like analog modulation, there are 3 aspects of the carrier wave that we can change: the amplitude, the frequency, and the phase angle. Instead of "modulation", we call these techniques keying techniques, because they are operating on a binary-number basis.

There is one important point to note before continuing with this discussion: Binary signals are not periodic signals. Therefore, we cannot expect that a binary signal is going to have a discrete spectra like a periodic squarewave will have. For this reason, the spectral components of binary data are continuous spectra.

Amplitude Shift Keying
In an ASK system, we are changing the amplitude of the sine wave to transmit digitial data. We have the following cases:

 * Binary 1: $$A_1 \sin(f_c t)$$
 * Binary 0: $$A_0 \sin(f_c t)$$

The simplest modulation scheme sets A0 = 0V (turning the transmitter off), and setting A1 = +5V (any random non-zero number turns the transmitter on). This special case of ASK is called OOK (On-Off keying). Morse code uses OOK.

Another common special case of ASK sets A1 to some positive number, and A0 to the corresponding negative number A0 = -A1. We will mention this case again later.

In ASK, we have the following equation:

 * $$a(t) \sin(\omega t)$$

by the principal of duality, multiplication in the time domain becomes convolution in the frequency domain, and vice-versa. Therefore, our frequency spectrum will have the following equation:

 * $$A(j\omega) * \delta(t - \omega)$$

where the impulse function is the fourier-transform of the sinusoid, centered at the frequency of the wave. the value for A is going to be a sinc wave, with a width dependent on the bitrate. We remember from the Signals and Systems book that convolution of a signal with an impulse is that signal centered where the impulse was centered. Therefore, we know now that the frequency domain shape of this curve is a sinc wave centered at the carrier frequency.

Frequency Shift Keying
In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), we can logically assume that the parameter that we will be changing is the frequency of the sine wave. FSK is unique among the different keying methods in that data is never transmitted at the carrier frequency, but is instead transmitted at a certain offset from the carrier frequency. If we have a carrier frequency of $$f_c$$, and a frequency offset of $$\Delta f$$, we can transmit binary values as such:

 * Binary 1: $$A \sin ((f_c + \Delta f)t)$$
 * Binary 0: $$A \sin ((f_c - \Delta f)t)$$

Similar to ASK, we have FSK, which uses 2 different frequencies to transmit data. For now we will call them $$\omega1, \omega2$$. Using the same logic that we used above, the fourier representations of these waves will be (respectively):

 * $$A_1(j\omega) * \delta(t - \omega1)$$
 * $$A_0(j\omega) * \delta(t - \omega2)$$

With one sinc wave centered at the first frequency, and one sinc wave centered at the second frequency. Notice that A1 and A0 are the half-square waves associated with the 1s and the 0s, respectively. These will be described later.

Error Rate
The BER of coherent QPSK in the presence of gaussian and Rayleigh noise is as follows:

 * {| border=1

 * Gaussian Noise || Rayleigh Fading
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\operatorname{erfc} \left( \sqrt{\frac{E_b}{N_0}} \right)$$
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\left( 1 - \sqrt{\frac{\gamma_0}{2 + \gamma_0}} \right)$$
 * }
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\left( 1 - \sqrt{\frac{\gamma_0}{2 + \gamma_0}} \right)$$
 * }

Phase Shift Keying
PSK systems are slightly different then ASK and FSK systems, and because of this difference, we can exploit an interesting little trick of trigonometry. PSK is when we vary the phase angle of the wave to transmit different bits. For instance:

 * Binary 1: $$A \sin(f_c t + \phi_1)$$
 * Binary 0: $$A \sin(f_c t + \phi_0)$$

If we evenly space them out around the unit-circle, we can give ourselves the following nice values:

 * Binary 1: $$A \sin(f_c t + 0)$$
 * Binary 0: $$A \sin(f_c t + \pi)$$

Now, according to trigonometry, we have the following identity:

$$\sin(f_c t + \pi) = -\sin(f_c t)$$

So in general, our equations for each signal (s) is given by:

 * $$s_1(t) = A\sin(f_c t)$$
 * $$s_0(t) = -A\sin(f_c t)$$

Which looks awfully like an ASK signal. Therefore, we can show that the spectrum of a PSK signal is the same as the spectrum of an ASK signal.

There are two commonally used forms of Phase Shift keying Modulation:

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

Binary Phase Shift keying is set out above.

QPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying utilises the fact that a cosine wave is in quadrature to a sine wave, allowing 2 bits to be simultaneously represented.

 * Binary 11: $$A \sin(f_c t + 0) + \cos(f_c+\pi/2)$$
 * Binary 10: $$A \sin(f_c t + 0) + \cos(f_c -\pi/2)$$
 * Binary 01: $$A \sin(f_c t + \pi) + + \cos(f_c+\pi/2)$$
 * Binary 00: $$A \sin(f_c t + \pi) + + \cos(f_c - \pi/2)$$

QPSK has the advantage over BPSK of requiring half the transmission band width for the same data rate, and error probability.

Error Rate
The BER of coherent BPSK in the presence of gaussian and Rayleigh noise is as follows:

 * {| border=1

 * Gaussian Noise || Rayleigh Fading
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\operatorname{erfc} \left( \sqrt{\frac{E_b}{N_0}} \right)$$
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\left( 1 - \sqrt{\frac{\gamma_0}{1 + \gamma_0}} \right)$$
 * }
 * $$\frac{1}{2}\left( 1 - \sqrt{\frac{\gamma_0}{1 + \gamma_0}} \right)$$
 * }


text:
Talk:Guitar/Tuning the Guitar

"A thicker string produces lower notes than a thinner string because the moves more air when in motion."

Um, no? Length, mass and tension. Vibrating string --81.224.39.148 (talk) 03:32, 24 February 2008 (UTC)

This section could use one other partial method (as most people view this on computers that have sound cards & speakers), using Winamp or the UNIX equivalent XMMS. pure tones can be played from them (like A440) so you can tune by ear. 'tone://440' is the syntax used for such (without quotes). -anon

I have merged the content from Tuning the strings to this page and deleted the link on the main page to the old article. --NickPenguin 08:46, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

The article writes "A perfectly tuned A string resonates at a frequency of 440 hertz." but isn't the guitar 'A' one octave below the 440 hz A? So it would be 220 HZ 62.194.16.204 17:12, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Please explain better how the diagrams work.

Added fith fret method to tuning by ear section, just small but I thought i'd mention it.

--Michael Campbell 15:24, 5 January 2007 (UTC) Michael Campbell

The A on the 5th fret of the high E string is 440Hz. The A string is 2 octaves lower than this (there's another A on the second fret of the B string). This means the A string is really 110Hz. But maybe you can listen to a 440Hz sound to tune this string too.

Placeholder for removed material from this section
I've removed a big chunk of material and have pasted it here for later inclusion into the correct section on Amps.

MATERIAL REMOVED:

Amplifier setup
Unless your amplifier only has the preamp control, you have many other knobs you can play with to make your guitar sound great. Before you begin setting up your amp, you should always make sure that you:

 * 1) Set all the volume knobs and gains to its lowest setting.
 * 2) Set the guitar volume to the lowest setting, and plug it into the amplifier. Always plug in before you turn the amp on, so you do not make it "pop".
 * 3) Turn on the amplifier. If it is a tube-based model and has the standby switch, throw it to standby mode too, to warm up the tubes.
 * 4) If it's a tube base model, Wait at least 15 seconds; optimally you should give it 5 minutes, especially for the large amplifiers. Otherwise skip to next part.
 * 5) If you have a passive pickup, plug into "high" plug. If you have an active pickup, plug into "low". If you have only one plug, just plug it in.

After this, there are three main ways that have been used.

Method 1:
 * 1) Bring the guitar's volume knob somewhere between low volume and medium. Play a chord
 * 2) Begin to bring amplifier master volume up (if you have one), then channel volume, then gain up, to 5. This should be your basis for setting up. If it's too loud, bring down the volume, and if not enough distortion, bring up the gain.

Method 2:
 * 1) Bring the amplifier's gain and volume to 11
 * 2) Tweak the volume with the guitar volume knob. If there are too much distortion bring down the gain.

Method 3:
 * 1) Bring the guitar volume knob to its max.
 * 2) Gradually bring up the volume on the amplifier. You should not need to bring it above 2.
 * 3) Bring up the gain; bring down the volume when needed.

Aside from the gain and volume setting, you may want to tweak the EQ settings. Here's a few samples:
 * Clean: Clean channel; Gain 1-5; bass 5, mid 5, treble 5
 * Blues: Overdrive channel; Gain 5; bass 7, mid 3, treble 5
 * Metal: Overdrive channel; Gain 11; bass 11; mid 2; treble 7

When you have finish playing, turn all the knobs to the lowest settings first. If it's a tube amplifier, you may even need to let it cool down (either on standby or just on) for another 5 minutes.

Tremolo Bar torque
One of the first things you will have to set up on electric guitar, especially if you find the tremolo bar keeps falling toward the ground. There are a few different methods. Ideally you want the bar at a 45 degree angle toward the ground, allowing it to be easily grabbed.
 * On a low end models like Squier Stratocaster, you just need to screw in the tremolo bar, by rotating the bar clockwise, Until it tightens up. The problem with model is that you do not have much control on the bar's position during playing.
 * On other models, that you merely plug in the whammy bar, you may have a capscrew, which you insert the bar through it into the bridge. Afterward, screw it in until tighten.
 * Another approach for the plug-in whammy is to tighten with an Allen Key hole, nearby the bar's hole on the bridge. The instruction booklet will usually explain where it is, and how to tighten it.

END OF MATERIAL REMOVED

--Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 16:55, 5 February 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guitar/Tuning the Guitar


text:
Wikijunior talk:Ancient Civilizations/Greeks

A few questions on the text
I'd like to take a run at simplifying some of the language here. The content is largely fine, at least on first reading. There are some places, though, where the sentences are over-long, and a few where attempts to keep it brief seem to go to extremes, omitting prepositions, for instance, that might clarify what's said.

I don't want to step on any toes, however, so I'm asking first. (Also, I'm a bit confused whether this sort of conversation should take place here or in the Staff lounge?)

A few content questions:

Is there a simpler, more accurate way of saying just where Ancient Greece was located? I've tended to consider it more as the coastal areas and the many islands of the Aegean and Ionian Seas. This at times also included (as the map shows) parts of present-day Turkey.

Wasn't Alexander regarded more as Macedonian? Granted, Macedonia was a city-state, but Alexander's rule came in a period when the other city-states were exceedingly weak. Is there room to cover the major subcultures, or perhaps to treat on the major periods of Ancient Greek civilization here? Would this serve the interests of clarity without making the section excessively detailed or confusing for the 8-12 year-old target reader?

Also, it seems to me that there are significant differences between British and American texts and tutelage, particularly where Ancient Greece (and Ancient Greek and Latin languages) are concerned. At least I recall my own shock in college intro Greek at using a British textbook aimed at something equivalent to an American middle school level, which is roughly the age group we are supposed to gear this text towards?

Is there a concensus on this issue (British vs. American school children) in discussions elsewhere that I haven't happened across in my brief time here, so far?

In any case: Athenian, Spartan and Macedonian cultures were each quite different from one another, even if they do all fall under the general heading of Ancient Greece. Is there some concensus on how deep this section should delve into such differences?

Obviously I'm asking these question in the hopes of stimulating some discussion that might lead to a reasonable consensus on the scope of this particular article. Hope I haven't offended. --bud 03:14, 23 January 2007 (UTC) (revisited bud 03:33, 24 January 2007 (UTC))


text:
Orthopaedic Surgery/Sports Medicine

 * Knee
 * Knee Anatomy
 * Knee Biomechanics
 * Knee Arthroscopy
 * Meniscal Injuries
 * Meniscal Tears
 * Meniscal Cysts
 * Discoid Menisci
 * Osteochondral Lesions
 * Osteochondritis Dissecans
 * Cartilage Injury
 * Synovial Lesions
 * Pigmented Villonodular Synovitis
 * Synovial Plicae
 * Ligamentous Injuries
 * Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury
 * Posterior Cruciate Ligament Injury
 * Collateral Ligament Injury
 * Medial Collateral Ligament Injury
 * Lateral Collateral Ligament Injury
 * Posterolateral Corner Injuries
 * Multiple Ligament Injuries
 * Anterior Knee Pain
 * Trauma
 * Tendon Ruptures
 * Overuse Injuries
 * Patellar Tendinitis
 * Quadriceps Tendinitis
 * Prepatellar Bursistis
 * Iliotibial Band Friction Syndrome
 * Semimembranosus Tendinitis
 * Late Effects of Trauma
 * Patellofemoral Arthritis
 * Anterior Fat Pad Syndrome
 * Patellofemoral Dysplasia
 * Lateral Patellar Facet Compression Syndrome
 * Patellar Instability
 * Idiopathic Chondromalacia Patellae
 * Osteochondritis Dissecans
 * Synovial Plicae

 * Other Lower Extremity problems
 * Nerve Entrapment Syndromes
 * Ilioinguinal Nerve Entrapment
 * Obturator Nerve Entrapment
 * Lateral Femoral Cutaneous Nerve Entrapment
 * Saphenous Nerve Entrapment
 * Peroneal Nerve Entrapment
 * Tibial Nerve Entrapment
 * Medial Plantar nerve Entrapment
 * Contusions
 * Iliac Crest Contusions
 * Groin Contusions
 * Quadriceps Contusions
 * Muscle Injuries
 * Hamstring Strain
 * Adductor Strain
 * Rectus Femoris Strain
 * Gastrocnemius-Soleus Strain
 * Tendon Injuries
 * Peroneal Tendon Injuries
 * Posterior Tibialis Tendon Injury
 * Achilles Tendon Injuries
 * Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome
 * Stress Fractures
 * Femoral Neck Stress Fracture
 * Femoral Shaft Stress Fracture
 * Tibial Shaft Stress Fracture
 * Tarsal Navicular Stress Fracture
 * Jones Stress Fracture
 * Miscellaneous
 * Snapping Hip
 * Plantar Fascitis
 * Os Trigonum
 * Ankle Strains
 * Turf Toes
 * HipArthroscopy
 * Ankle Arthroscopy

 * Shoulder
 * Shoulder Anatomy
 * Shoulder Biomechanics
 * Shoulder Arthroscopy
 * Shoulder Instability
 * Anterior Shoulder Instability
 * Posterior Shoulder Instability
 * Impingement Syndrome
 * Roatator Cuff Disease
 * Rotator Cuff Arthropathy
 * Subcoracoid Impingement
 * Internal Impingement
 * Biceps Tendon Injuries
 * Biceps Tendinitis
 * Biceps Tendon Subluxation
 * Superior Labral Lesions
 * Acromioclavicular Injuries
 * Sternoclavicular Injuries
 * Muscle Injuries
 * Pectorals Major Rupture
 * Deltoid Rupture
 * Triceps Rupture
 * Subscapularis Rupture
 * Adhesive Capsulitis
 * Calcifying Tendidnits
 * Nerve Disorders
 * Brachial Plexus injury
 * Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
 * Long Thoracic Nerve Palsy
 * Suprascapular Nerve Compression
 * Glenohumeral Degenerative Diseases
 * Miscellaneous
 * Snapping Scapula
 * Scapular Winging
 * Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy
 * Other Upper Extremity problems
 * Tendon Injuries
 * Lateral Epicondylitis
 * Medial Epicondylitis
 * Distal Biceps Tendon Avulsion
 * Distal Triceps Tendon Avulsion
 * DeQuervain's Disease
 * Flexor Tendon Tendinitis
 * Intersection Syndrome
 * Ligamentous Injuries
 * Medial Collateral Ligament Injury
 * Lateral Collateral Ligament Injury
 * Wrist laigament Instabilities
 * Ligament Injuries in the Hand
 * Articular Injuries
 * Medial Epicondyle Injuries
 * Osteochondritis Dissecans
 * Osteoarthritis of the Elbow
 * Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex Injuries
 * Keinbock's Disease
 * Arthroscopy
 * Elbow Arthroscopy
 * Wrist Arthroscopy

 * Head and Spine Injuries
 * Head injuries
 * Spine Injuries
 * Medical Issues
 * Ergogenic Drugs
 * Cardiac Abnormailites
 * Exercise
 * Female Athlete
 * Metabolic Issues
 * Blunt Trauma

title: Orthopaedic Surgery/Sports Medicine


text:
User:Mattbarton.exe

I'm Dr. Matt Barton, associate professor of English at St. Cloud State University in St. Cloud, Minnesota. I am a wiki-enthusiast and co-editor of the book Wiki Writing: Collaborative Learning in the College Classroom (University of Michigan Press).

I am an ongoing contributor to Rhetoric and Composition Wikibook, which I founded with my students back in 2005. If you'd like to join the project, please feel free to edit the pages directly or chat with me about possible contributions. I can be reached here or at mdbarton@stcloudstate.edu.

title: User:Mattbarton.exe


text:
Budget Watch Collecting/Repainting/reluming hands

A fairly easy way to drastically improve the look of some watches is to replace worn or missing lume from the hands. This works with slotted hands

Required tools:

Toothpicks

Paint or lume compound

Something to hold a toothpick (blob of clay, Rodico or a hole)

You may want to remove the old paint, especially if you are using lume paint rather than plain. If the watch is very old, make sure it does not contain radium, a poisonous radioactive material. If the dial says ra anywhere, if the paint looks brown, or if the crystal has shadows of the hands it probably contains radium. Radium is relatively safe if contained inside the watch case, but dangerous if breathed or swallowed.

Place the hands upside down on the toothpick, hour hand first.

In this case, I did not clean the old paint off, since it was mostly intact.

Mix the paint as required for the appropriate color and texture. It should be reasonably thick, but still liquid rather than paste. I used several colors of acrylic here, trying to duplicate the original as closely as possible.

With the clean end of a toothpick, pick up a small amount of paint. Drag the paint across the back of the hand in the slot area. This should leave a film of paint, and the front side should look clean and even.

Let dry

Back after finishing:

Before and after (different watch, done with the same technique)


text:
User talk:68.111.105.238

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

vandalism watch
See my response at User_talk:Derbeth. --Derbeth talk 22:12, 18 April 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:68.111.105.238


text: User talk:59.161.72.34

title: User talk:59.161.72.34


text: User talk:212.159.59.229

title: User talk:212.159.59.229


text:
Talk:Bodybuilding and Weight Training/Bodyweight Training

 * Would like help filling its contents; maybe link or copy some from the Wikipedia article?

This is a wikipedia article
This is an encyclopedic definition of bodybuilding, not a book on bodybuilding. There are a number of interesting things that everybody could write about here that wouldn't belong on wikipedia. One of them is advice-how-to sorts of things. I know that there's a specific way that one is supposed to breathe when lifting freeweights for instance, that would be very useful, and good exercises for tone and the combination of aerobic and strength training exercises. That kind of thing.

 * yeah this definitely needs to be reworked into a book instead of an encyclopedic definition.

Edit by --Cylith 13:27, 9 August 2006 (UTC)
I changed the pull-ups to reflect that they primarily work the latissimus dorsi. Before it said that this exercise focuses on biceps, which are actually only a secondary muscle group for this exercise. --Cylith 13:27, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

Resources

 * List of weight training exercises


text:
Wikijunior:Big Cats/Foreword

Wild cats are some of Earth's grandest treasures, and their stories excite the imagination of children of all ages. Many of these cats are endangered, and the children who will one day assume responsibility for these animals should be able to learn what they can about their lives. After all, we appreciate what we understand, and save what we appreciate. The importance of this task has led many experts here at Wikibooks to donate their time and talents to bring this volume together.

Wikibooks is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation, aimed at providing free, easily available quality reading for adults and children to promote the global spread of knowledge. Traditional publishing houses make the bulk of their income from re-issues of classic books, new books by authors with long track records, or celebrities who are famous in their own right. The chances of a truly good new work being published solely on the basis of merit skyrocket when you overturn the traditional business model and tap the wellspring of new talent out there using the 'net.

With this project we have reached a crossroad between the books of yesterday, and the encyclopedia of everything for tomorrow. Simply by reading this book and telling your friends, you have advanced the cause of free access to information and of democratizing the field of publishing. Thank you, and once again, welcome. Next Topic: Meet The Cats

fr:Wikijunior:Les félins/Introduction Wikijunior Großkatzen/ Vorwort

title: Wikijunior:Big Cats/Foreword


text:
Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Foreword

Stolen from Solar System to try and get some sort of standardization throughout the Wikijunior books. --Lord Voldemort (Dark Mark)  17:40, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

I tried to make it a little more parent friendly. John Burkitt 17:44, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Big Cats/Foreword


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Analyzing Assignments

Snowflakes, Fingerprints, and Assignments
Writing assignments in college differ as much as instructors. There is no one guidebook, approach, or set of rules that college teachers will consult when putting together their coursework. Since each assignment will always be unique, it is important to devote time to thoroughly understanding what is being asked of you before beginning. Don't wait until the night before the work is due to begin asking questions and delving in. The sooner you understand and approach the assignment's requirements, the less time you will spend second-guessing (and needlessly revising) your writing.

Analyzing an Assignment
You will likely encounter many different kinds of writing assignments in college, and it would be nearly impossible to list all of them. However, regardless of genre, there are some basic strategies one can use to approach these assignments constructively.

 * Read the assignment sheet early and thoroughly. An assignment sheet may be lengthy, but resist the temptation to skim it. Observe and interpret every detail of the text. Moreover, it is essential to focus on the key words of the subject matter being discussed. It would be unfortunate to hand in an incomplete or misguided assignment because you did not properly read and understand the guidelines. Since you can easily overlook details on the first reading, read the assignment sheet a second time.  As you are reading, highlight areas where you have questions, and also mark words you feel are particularly important. Ask yourself why your professor has given this assignment. How does it relate to what you are studying in class? Pay attention to key words, such as compare, contrast, analyze, etc. Who is your audience? Should the paper be written in a formal or informal tone? Is there documentation required? If a specific number of sources are required, how many must be books vs. online sources? What type of citation is called for: APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.? Is there a page or word count minimum/maximum? Are you required to submit a draft before the final copy? Will there be peer review?
 * Get answers to your questions. After thoroughly reading the assignment sheet, you might not have questions right away. However, after reading it again, either before or or after you try to start the assignment, you might find that you have questions. Don't play a guessing game when it comes to tackling assignment criteria--ask the right person for help: the instructor. Discuss any and all questions with the person who assigned the work, either in person or via email. Visit them during office hours or stay after class. Do not wait until the last minute, as doing so puts your grade at risk. Don't be shy about asking your professors questions. Not only will you better your understanding and the outcome of your paper, but professors tend to enjoy and benefit from student inquiry, as questions help them rethink their assignments, and improve the clarity of their expectations. You likely are not the only student with a question, so be the one who is assertive and responsible enough to get answers. In the worst case scenario, when you have done all of these things and a professor still fails to provide you with the clarity you are looking for, discuss your questions with fellow classmates.
 * Writing Centers. Many colleges and universities have a writing center. Tutors are helpful consultants for reviewing writing assignments both before and after you begin. If you feel somewhat confident about what you need to include in your writing assignment, bring your completed outline and/or the first draft of your paper together with your assignment sheet. Tutors can also review your final draft before its submission to your professor. Many writing centers allow you to make appointments online for convenience and may also have "walk-in" availability. It is a good idea to check out the available options a week or so in advance of when you will actually need the appointment, or even longer if it will be during mid-term or finals week.
 * Create a timeline. Set due dates for yourself, whether they be to have a topic picked or a whole rough draft completed. Procrastination rarely results in a good paper. Some school libraries offer helpful computer programs that can create an effective assignment timeline for you. This is a helpful option for new, inexperienced writers who have not yet learned the art of analyzing assignments, and who are not familiar with the amount of time that is required for the college writing process. Remember, late papers may or may not be accepted by your instructor, and even if they are your grade will likely be reduced. Don't sell yourself short with late submissions.

Prewriting and Brainstorming

Every writing assignment from every discipline requires the formulation of complex ideas. Thus, once the assignment guidelines have been thoroughly considered, you should begin to explore how you plan to structure your work in order to meet them. While this is often considered to be the start of the writing process, it is also an essential part of assignment analysis, as it is here that the assignment is broken down into the most digestible parts. Such a process can be done either individually or in a group, depending on the situation.

 * Prewriting. The first and foremost stage of the individual writing process is that of Pre-writing. Often overlooked by inexperienced writers, this is essentially the architectural stage of the writing/analysis process, where the foundations of an assignment are first laid out and constructed. Free-writing, outlining, diagramming, and mapping are all possible approaches to this stage of development, where the goal is to organize one's ideas around the requirements of the task at hand. Many people begin this right on the assignment sheet, as it can be helpful to highlight what the instructor is specifically asking for while simultaneously adding one's own understanding to the ideas. Eventually though, you will want to move to a separate page. If you are free-writing, you should start by writing out an assignment related question or main concept, and then proceed to freely (with or without punctuation or formality) write anything that comes to mind in relation to it. If you are outlining, you are essentially breaking down the main ideas of the assignment and your response to them in a linear format (by paragraph, subject, section, subsection etc.). If you are diagramming, your prewriting can take many different forms, but always as a visual representation of your response to some/all of the assignment constituents. Lastly, if you are mapping, you are essentially outlining in a more visual way, using both linear and non-linear representation to organize your ideas about the assignment. Research can also be conducted during this stage of the writing/analysis process, as it is sometimes helpful to know more about a topic before you make the commitment to writing about it. You may even choose to use more than one of these approaches if you find it helpful in developing your understanding of the assignment.

 * Brainstorming. Similar to prewriting, brainstorming takes place in the space between analysis and drafting, the difference being that brainstorming generally involves group discussion. The size of a brainstorming group varies according to task, but ideally consists of smaller odd numbers (3, 5, or 7) when there is no assigned mediator present. There are obviously many pitfalls to such group discussion, and many divergent possibilities (distractions, freeloading, repetition, etc.) that can lead to counter-productivity. Nonetheless, if all members are devoted to the task of analysis and development, the variety of perspectives can prove to be most rewarding. If all goes well, each member of the group takes turns posing questions related to the assignment being discussed, to which the other members respond openly and freely. When positive attitudes and constructive criticism can manage to be maintained, each member of the group will have his or her own critical thinking expanded upon and enriched by the understanding of the other group members.

Sample Assignments
As discussed earlier, instructors will come up with any number of assignments, most of which will stress different types of composition. In each section below, there are sample assignment directions and suggestions on how to proceed. What follows is not meant to be a comprehensive list of assignments, but rather a short list of the most common assignments you can expect to see in an introductory English course. Many assignments not listed here are simply creative variations of these basic directives. For example, you could approach a visual analysis the same way you would a rhetorical analysis; an argument paper is similar to a research paper, perhaps with a shorter argument. The techniques you use in writing a narrative can also translate into writing a short story or observational essay.

Research Paper
You will likely have to write a research paper of a significant length during college. Students are usually overwhelmed by the page count and the struggle to come up with a paper topic. Sometimes, in an attempt to make sure he or she reaches the page minimum, students choose very broad research categories like welfare or the death penalty. Believe it or not, these extensive topics generally do not make for great papers, simply because there is too much information to cover. Narrow topics allow for more in-depth research and writing. Choosing a topic takes time and research, so don't be surprised if your instructor requires your topic ahead of time. This is to make sure you do not leave all of your research until the last minute. Look online for topics that interest you and write down a few notes about what is going on in that field. Since a research paper generally involves an argument, you must pick a topic that has two sides. One-sided, fact-based arguments such as "smoking is bad for your health," are not suitable for research papers.

Look at the assignment sheet for key words. What is the purpose of the paper? To argue. What are your requirements? Not only are there page requirements, but also source requirements. What are scholarly sources? How do you judge the credibility of a source? Are you familiar with MLA?

There is one mistake that is very easy to make: confusing an argumentative research paper with an expository one. Don't let your argumentative research paper become an informational report where you simply list information on a topic (expository writing). Unless explicitly stated, that is not your assignment.

Narrative
Narratives are a favorite first assignment for instructors, as it is assumed that most people find it easiest to write about what they are familiar with. At the same time, the idea of self-reflective writing can be very intimidating. Most students have fantastic stories to tell, but inevitably edit themselves too early by worrying that their stories might not be "important" enough.

However, the assignment clearly states that you should not worry about your narrative concerning a large event. One of the key words is "describe." Therefore, the most important part of the assignment is your use of description ("show, don't tell"). Prewrite and describe a few ideas you might want to talk about. Pick one of them and start writing down as many descriptive details as you can think of about the event. Who were you with? Where were you? What was the weather like? What did the building look like? What were you thinking? How did you feel? What did you learn? Recording these concrete details will help guide you through your narrative. Don't forget to include as many sensory perceptions (taste, touch, sight, sound, and smell) as possible to paint the clearest picture of what you are trying to describe to your reader.

At this point, you still might be worried about the "importance" of the story. While it is true that your story should come to some sort of point, themes usually develop naturally in a story. If you begin your story with an agenda, you'll often find yourself describing the theme and not the event itself. Allow the themes to develop, and do not try to force them unto the page.

Rhetorical Analysis
At first, a rhetorical analysis sounds somewhat difficult. However, analyzing just means making a conscious effort to read each word carefully and think about what the author is doing. The first step would be to read the piece, not once, but two or three times. Highlight important passages and take notes. For this assignment, the instructor wanted students to write about ethos, logos, and pathos, which are rhetorical terms you should become familiar with. Pay attention to specific word choices that may evoke emotion, or any facts the author may have put forward in the text. Look at the background of the author as well as the time period in which he or she was writing. Consider the tone of the piece. Is it formal/informal/serious/humorous? These are all things to keep in mind while reading. Make an ongoing list of the author's rhetorical techniques that you may want to discuss in your paper.

Remember to be mindful of your essay's organization. It is easy to discuss three different topics in one paragraph and jump back and forth from one idea to the next, but this makes it difficult for your reader to follow. Also, do not forget that this is not a reflection. For this assignment, the instructor isn't concerned with your reaction to the text, or your ability to summarize; he or she wants to gauge your analytical skills.

Summary/Response Paper
Before writing a summary, it is important to use your critical reading skills. Plan on reading the article at least two, but preferably three times.

 * First, read the article from the beginning to the end to get a general sense of its main ideas. You don't have to understand every word at this point.  After you've read the whole article, write down a few sentences that explain its main ideas in your own words.

 * Second, read the article again, this time more slowly. Annotate as you read. "Annotate" means that, as you read, you mark up the text by underlining, highlighting, or circling sentences or phrases that seem important or revealing.  Annotating also involves taking notes, either in the margin of the article or on a separate piece of paper.  You could begin by writing down the main point of each paragraph in the margin next to it. "Converse" with the text by asking questions, making connections to other things you've read, and noting areas of confusion.

 * Third, continue your conversation with the article by reading it a third time.  This time, read very slowly and carefully.  Try to answer the questions you asked during the second reading.  You don't need to find the right answer.  Actually, it's likely that there is no one absolutely correct answer.  But let your own ideas respond to your questions as you layer this set of notes over your first set.  Your answers will really be more like suggestions.  Think about how the different pieces of the article fit together to form a unified whole.  Go back to the summary you wrote after your first reading and revise it to reflect your deeper understanding and consideration of the author's ideas.

Now you are ready to summarize the article. In a summary, you use your own words to describe the author's main points. This means that the author's minor ideas will be left out. If you choose to include some of the author's exact words, remember to enclose them in quotation marks. Every summary needs a citation because, while the words are your own, the ideas are not.

While writing a summary may be a familiar assignment from high school, college instructors will frequently require a response. Writing a response is explaining your reaction to the text. However, statements such as "I did/did not like it" are not sufficient. Not only must you be more thoughtful and academic with your response, but you should also support what you say. For example, if you think that the author did not think sufficiently explain one of his main ideas, find the exact places in the text where the author's writing is weak, incomplete, or confusing. In the same way, describe your positive reactions to the text as well.

Your summary and response should be in at least two different paragraphs; don't combine the author's ideas and your reactions in a single paragraph. However, your instructor doesn't want two huge paragraphs, so divide the summary and/or the response into multiple paragraphs if necessary. Shorter paragraphs help you, as a writer, stay organized and helps the reader follow your ideas. The summary and response should each be about one page.

Finishing the Assignment
Remember, no matter what the assignment, identifying key words in guidelines can help you determine what type of thinking and ability the professor wants you to demonstrate. The following six areas of competencies are from Bloom's Taxonomy. To learn more, visit: http://jerz.setonhill.edu/writing/style/taxonomy.htm.
 * Knowledge: This becomes evident in how well you remember the subject matter, such as the major ideas, dates, places, events, etc. Questions may begin with: Identify, describe, examine, when, where, who.
 * Comprehension: How well you understand the information presented. Can you describe the information in your own words? Questions may begin with: Interpret, contrast, predict, discuss.
 * Application: Can you use the principles learned to solve other problems in different situations?  Questions may begin with: Illustrate, examine, modify, experiment, relate.
 * Analysis: Can you recognize hidden meanings, see patterns, identify the underlying parts? Questions may begin with: Separate, order, connect, classify, divide, explain.
 * Synthesis: Can you relate knowledge from different areas to draw conclusions? Questions may begin with: Modify, rearrange, substitute, design, invent, generalize.
 * Evaluation: This involves verifying the value of the evidence when solving controversies, developing opinions, etc. Questions may begin with: Decide, convince, select, compare, summarize.

If you need clarification on what your instructor is looking for, do not hesitate to ask. After you have finished your paper, be sure to double-check that you have fulfilled all the requirements. Proofread your paper multiple times before handing in the final copy.


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Talk:Singing

I think that there isn't enough content to justify the segmentation of this book, all of these should be merged, or most. Also, this needs more exercises, like singing warmup exercises, learning to be on-key, learning to stick with a harmony part. Any professional advice on how to be recorded well, how to best vocalize into a microphone would be good. I have noticed that some people who practice are able to not produce any static on the same microphones the rest of us sound very buzzy on. 160.94.120.197 18:46, 9 November 2005 (UTC)lotusduck

"Many cases of people improving their singing ability has shown this: sure, you might not be capable of becoming the next Britney Spears ..."

Hah.

It would make sense to me to site someone who is actually skillful and respected within the music world. Maybe Pavarotti? Maybe even Mariah Carey. I don't really know the "who's" of the singing arena, but I start to question whether the book actually has any merit when I read Britney Spears as a pinnacle of achievement in terms of ability.

Dire
This is awful. If ever a project could destroy itself before it got off the ground, this one is trying, really trying to. Please see Neutral_point_of_view and note that Wikibook's has high standards, this project simply just doesn't meet any of them. Don't think this should be an easy ride to your ideal of what singing is. POV is not allowed here either.--I'll bring the food 23:21, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

ew
The tone of every single sentence here is just so arrogant, pretentious, and off-putting.

So fix it already
This is wiki. Just quit whinging and get on with it.

title: Talk:Singing


text:
Communication Networks/Berkeley Socket API

It will be mentioned here, but also probably in every sub-chapter of this section that the intention of these chapters, much less of the entire book, that the purpose of this is not to teach network programming. What these chapters do aim to do is provide a fast and dirty listing of available functions, and demonstrate how they coincide with our previous discussions on networking. For further information on the subject, the reader is encouraged to check out networking concepts on the programming bookshelf.

This page is not designed to be an in-depth discussion of C socket programming. Instead, this page would like to be a quick-and-dirty overview of C, in the interests of reinforcing some of the networking concepts discussed earlier.

C and Unix
This section will (briefly) discuss how to program socket applications using the C programming language in a UNIX environment. The next section will then discuss the differences between socket programming under Windows, and will explain how to port socket code from UNIX to Windows platforms.

C and Windows (Winsock)
Programming sockets in Windows is nearly identical to programming sockets in UNIX, except that windows requires a few different additions:

 * 1) Use
 * 2) Link to ws2_32.dll
 * 3) Initialize Winsock with WSAStartup

The first 2 points are self-explanatory, and are actually dependent on your compiler, which we will not go into here. However, the 3rd point needs a little explaining. We need to initialize winsock before we can use any of the socket functions (or else they will all return errors). To initialize, we must create a new data object, and pass it to the initialization routine:

WSADATA wd;

And we must pass a pointer to this structure, along with the requested version number for winsock to the function:

WSAStartup(MAKEWORD(2, 0), &wd);

The MAKEWORD macro takes two numbers, a major version number (the 2, above), and a minor version number (the 0, above). For instance, to use Winsock2.0, we use MAKEWORD(2, 0). To use Winsock1.1, we use MAKEWORD(1, 1).

Also, it is important to note that Windows does not allow sockets to be read and written using the generic unix read and write functions. In windows, you should instead use the recv and send functions. Also, people who are familiar with windows should know that windows treats sockets as an I/O handle, so they can also be accessed with the Windows generic read/write functions ReadFile and WriteFile.

Winsock, and windows in general also have a number of other functions available in winsock.dll, but also in other dlls (like wininet.dll) that will facilitate higher-level internet operations.


text:
Communication Systems/Communications Introduction

Introduction
People are prone to take for granted the fact that modern technology allows us to transmit data at nearly the speed of light to locations that are very far away. 200 years ago, it would be deemed preposterous to think that we could transmit webpages from China to Mexico in less than a second. It would seem equally preposterous to think that people with cellphones could be talking to each other, clear as day, from miles away. Today, these things are so common, that we accept them without even asking how these miracles are possible.

What is Communications?
Communications is the field of study concerned with the transmission of information through various means. It can also be defined as technology employed in transmitting messages. It can also be defined as the inter-transmitting the content of data (speech, signals, pulses etc.) from one node to another.

To Whom is This Book For?
This book is for people who have read the Signals and Systems wikibook, or an equivalent source of the information. Topics considered in this book will rely heavily on knowledge of Fourier Domain representation and the Fourier Transform. This book can be used to accompany a number of different classes spanning the 3rd and fourth years in a study of electrical engineering. Knowledge of integral and differential calculus is assumed. The reader may benefit from knowledge of such topics as semiconductors, electromagnetic wave propagation, etc., although these topics are not necessary to read and understand the information in this book.

What will this Book Cover
This book is going to take a look at nearly all facets of electrical communications, from the shape of the electrical signals, to the issues behind massive networks. It makes little sense to be discussing these subjects outside the realm of current examples. We have the Internet, so in discussing issues concerning digital networks, it makes good sense to reference these issues to the Internet. Likewise, this book will attempt to touch on, at least briefly, every major electrical communications network that people deal with on a daily basis. From AM radio to the Internet, from DSL to cable TV, this book will attempt to show how the concepts discussed apply to the real world.

This book also acknowledges a simple point: It is easier to discuss the signals and the networks simultaneously. For this kind of task to be undertaken in a paper book would require hundreds, if not thousands of printed pages, but through the miracle of Wikimedia, all this information can be brought together in a single, convenient location.

This book would like to actively solicit help from anybody who has experience with any of these concepts: Computer Engineers, Communications Engineers, Computer Programmers, Network Administrators, IT Professionals. Also, this book may cover all these topics, but the reader doesn't need to have prior knowledge of all these disciplines to advance. Information will be developed as completely as possible in the text, and links to other information sources will be provided as needed.

Where to Go From Here
Since this book is designed for a junior and senior year of study, there aren't necessarily many topics that will logically follow this book. After reading and understanding this material, the next logical step for the interested engineer is either industry or graduate school. Once in graduate school, there are a number of different areas to concentrate study in. In industry, the number is even higher.

Division of Material
Admittedly, this is a very large topic, one that can span not only multiple printed books, but also multiple bookshelves. It could then be asked "Why don't we split this book into 2 or more smaller books?" This seems like a good idea on the surface, but you have to consider exactly where the division would take place. Some would say that we could easily divide the information between "Analog and Digital" lines, or we could divide up into "Signals and Systems" books, or we could even split up into "Transmissions and Networks" Books. But in all these possible divisions, we are settling for having related information in more than 1 place.

Analog and Digital
It seems most logical that we divide this material along the lines of analog information and digital information. After all, this is a "digital world", and aspiring communications engineers should be able to weed out the old information quickly and easily. However, what many people don't realize is that digital methods are simply a subset of analog methods with more stringent requirements. Digital transmissions are done using techniques perfected in analog radio and TV broadcasts. Digital computer modems are sending information over the old analog phone networks. Digital transmissions are analyzed using analog mathematical concepts such as modulation, SNR (signal to noise ratio), Bandwidth, Frequency Domain, etc... For these reasons, we can simplify both discussions by keeping them in the same book.

Signals and Systems
Perhaps we should divide the book in terms of the signals that are being sent, and the systems that are physically doing the sending. This makes some sense, except that it is impossible to design an appropriate signal without understanding the restrictions of the underlying network that it will be sent on. Also, once we develop a signal, we need to develop transmitters and receivers to send them, and those are physical systems as well.

Systems Approach
It is a bit confusing to be writing a book about Communication Systems and also considering the pedagogical Systems Approach. Although using the same word, they are not quite the same thing.

This approach is almost identical to the description above (Signals & Systems) except that it is not limited to the consideration of signals (common in many university texts), but can include other technological drivers (codecs, lasers, and other components).

In this case we give a brief overview of different communication systems (voice, data, cellular, satellite etc.) so that students will have a context in which to place the more detailed (and often generic) information. Then we can then zoom in on the mathematical and technological details to see how these systems do their magic. This lends itself quite well to technical subjects since the basic systems (or mathematics) change relatively slowly, but the underlying technology can often change rapidly and take unexpected terns.

I would like to suggest that the table of contents in this book be rearranged to reflect this pedagogical approach: Systems examples first, followed by the details.

Why would anyone want to study (tele)communications?
Telecommunications is an alluring industry with a provocative history filled with eccentric personalities: Bell, Heavyside, Kelvin, Brunel and many others. It is fraught with adventure and danger: adventure spanning space and time; danger ranging from the remote depths of the ocean floor to deep space, from the boardrooms of AT&T to the Hong Kong stock exchange.

Telecommunications has been heralded as a modern Messiah and cursed as a pathetic sham. It has created and destroyed empires and institutions. It has proclaimed the global village while sponsoring destructive nationalism. It has come to ordinary people, but has remained largely in the control of the ‘media’ and even 'big brother'. Experts will soon have us all traveling down a techno-information highway, destination — unknown.

Telecommunications has become the lifeblood of modern civilization. Besides all that, there’s big bucks in it

About This Book
There are a few points about this book that are worth mentioning:

 * The programming parts of this book will not use any particular language, although we may consider particular languages in dedicated chapters.


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User:WhiteTimberwolf

Welcome. I am the Wikipedian WhiteTimberwolf. I have registered at the WikiBooks project to claim a bit of credit for the few entries I add.

title: User:WhiteTimberwolf


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UNIX Computing Security/Introduction

UNIX is a computer operating system that was first developed during the 1960s and 1970s at AT&T Bell Labs. It was originally conceived as an academic operating system, particularly at the university level, and hence security was not a top priority of the design. Since then, however, UNIX computing systems have been made more widely available and have become an essential part of networking and internet infrastructure. The increased level of access and the need for data security have driven improvements to UNIX security features. The evolution of UNIX security features continues to this day, with an increasingly urgent need for preventing inappropriate access to systems and their data.

This book is intended for an audience that has at least a basic familiarity with the UNIX operating system, including common shell commands, the directory structure, and file manipulation. The primary focus will be for the System Administrator of a UNIX system. That is the operator who is responsible for configuring and maintaining a functioning system, as well as troubleshooting system failures, controlling user access to the system, and so forth.

As there are multiple variations of the UNIX operating system made available by various computing vendors, not to mention related operating systems such as Linux, this book will cover topics common to most of the UNIX releases. Features specific to a particular vendor's release will be noted accordingly.

title: UNIX Computing Security/Introduction


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Communication Systems/Coherent Receivers

Receiver Design
It turns out that if we know what kind of signal to expect, we can better receive those signals. This should be intuitive, because it is hard to find something if we don't know what precisely we are looking for. How is a receiver supposed to know what is data and what is noise, if it doesnt know what data looks like?

Coherent transmissions are transmissions where the receiver knows what type of data is being sent. Coherency implies a strict timing mechanism, because even a data signal may look like noise if you look at the wrong part of it. In contrast, noncoherent receivers don't know exactly what they are looking for, and therefore noncoherent communication systems need to be far more complex (both in terms of hardware and mathematical models) to operate properly.

This section will talk about coherent receivers, first discussing the "Simple Receiver" case, and then going into theory about what the optimal case is. Once we know mathematically what an optimal receiver should be, we then discuss two actual implementations of the optimal receiver.

It should be noted that the remainder of this book will discuss optimal receivers. After all, why would a communication's engineer use anything that is less than the best?

The Simple Receiver
A simple receiver is just that: simple. A general simple receiver will consist of a low-pass filter (to remove excess high-frequency noise), and then a sampler, that will select values at certain points in the wave, and interpolate those values to form a smooth output curve. In place of a sampler (for purely analog systems), a general envelope filter can also be used, especially in AM systems. In other systems, different tricks can be used to demodulate an input signal, and acquire the data. However simple receivers, while cheap, are not the best choice for a receiver. Occasionally they are employed because of their price, but where performance is an issue, a better alternative receiver should be used.

The Optimal Receiver
Engineers are able to mathematically predict the structure of the optimal receiver. Read that sentence again: Engineers are able to design, analyze, and build the best possible receiver, for any given signal. This is an important development for several reasons. First, it means that no more research should go into finding a better receiver. The best receiver has already been found, after all. Second, it means any communications system will not be hampered (much) by the receiver.

Derivation
here we will attempt to show how the coherent receiver is derived.

Matched Receiver
The matched receiver is the logical conclusion of the optimal receiver calculation. The matched receiver convolves the signal with itself, and then tests the output. Here is a diagram:

s(t)->(Convolve with r(t))->

This looks simple enough, except that convolution modules are often expensive. An alternative to this approach is to use a correlation receiver.

Correlation Receiver
The correlation receiver is similar to the matched receiver, instead with a simple switch: The multiplication happens first, and the integration happens second.

Here is a general diagram:

r(t) |            v s(t) ->(X)->(Integrator)--->

In a digital system, the integrator would then be followed by a threshold detector, while in an analog receiver, it might be followed by another detector, like an envelope detector.

Conclusion
To do the best job of receiving a signal we need to know the form of the signal that we are sending. After all we can't design a receiver until after we've decided how the signal will be sent. This method poses some problems in that the receiver must be able to line up the received signal with the given reference signal to work the magic: if the received signal and the reference signal are out of sync with each other, either as a function of an error in phase or an error in frequency, then the optimal receiver will not work.


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User talk:128.197.127.74

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Have you thought of creating an account at Wikibooks? It is not required, but may be convenient. You f.e. can maintain list of watched pages and you will be notified of their changes.

Please, use Show preview button below edit box. You're making big number of small edits now. --Derbeth 22:31, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:128.197.127.74


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User talk:70.189.19.178

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

title: User talk:70.189.19.178


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User talk:Timcurtis

Welcome
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. --Derbeth 22:37, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:SEEM model.jpg
--Derbeth 22:37, 9 November 2005 (UTC)

 * Are you the author of this image? Please write it. --Derbeth talk 19:06, 15 November 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Timcurtis


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French/Grammar/Verbs/Infinitive

For purposes of simplicity, we can define a "verb" as any word which indicates action in a sentence. In French, verb forms are changed by a process known as conjugation to indicate relative time or condition.

All verbs have a tenseless (or timeless) base form called the "infinitive" that can be translated into English as "to" plus the verb. In French, infinitives are easily recognized by their standardized infinitive endings of -er, -ir, or -re.

parler: to talk sortir: to leave perdre: to lose

In the examples listed above, the infinitives to talk, to leave, and to lose are "timeless" in that they do not indicate when an action took place, if an action is presently taking place, or whether an action will take place.

Finally, it is important to note that infinitives never need to agree in number (singular or plural) or gender (masculine or feminine) with any other part of the sentence.

Francés/Gramática/El verbo/Tiempos/L'infinitif présent

title: French/Grammar/Verbs/Infinitive


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Handbook of Genetic Counseling/Advanced Maternal Age - Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)-3

Advanced Maternal Age - Chorionic Villus Sampling

Contracting

 * Introductions and small talk
 * Confirm referring obstetrician
 * Assess understanding for the referral
 * Elicit concerns and questions
 * As maternal age increases, we know that the risk for having a child born with a chromosome abnormality also increases.
 * The reason that we like to see women who are 35 or older is because we can offer testing options
 * I would like to start today by gathering some medical and family history information so that we can look for any other risk factors that we may need to talk about.
 * We want to see if there is anything in your history that could pose a risk to this pregnancy

Medical/Family History

 * LMP:_________
 * EDC:_________
 * Today's gestational age:_________
 * How has this pregnancy been going?
 * Any complications?
 * Have you had an ultrasound?
 * Date ________
 * Findings:______________
 * Anyone in the family have:
 * Birth defects, SABs, SB, MR, LD, chronic illness, or early cancers?
 * Tell them what I found; "looks good, it sounds like the pregnancy is going well, I don't see anything that concerns me"*
 * Do you have any questions?

Explanations of Genes and Chromosomes

 * All pregnancies are at a 3-5% risk of having a baby born with a birth defect.
 * Women are born with all the eggs that we will ever have, unlike men who continuously make sperm from puberty throughout their lives.
 * Eggs are stopped in a stage of division until one is ovulated each month.
 * The older the egg, the more likely a division error might occur.
 * General
 * Karyotype
 * Nondysjunction
 * Brief natural history of chromosome abnormalities

Age Related Risks

 * Patient's age at delivery: _______
 * Risk for Down Syndrome: 1 in ________ ( %)
 * Risk for any chrom. Abnormality: 1 in ________ ( %)

Options

 * Level II Ultrasound:
 * High resolution ultrasound
 * Done at 20+ weeks by an experienced technician
 * Better to see more of the developing organs
 * U/S detection rate for DS is about 60% and for trisomy 18 ~90%
 * Look for:
 * Heart
 * Brain
 * Shape of the head
 * Intestinal problems
 * Kidneys
 * U/S helps make us suspicious but doesn't give us a yes or no answer.

CVS as an Option

 * Offered between 10-12 weeks
 * Procedure used to obtain a sample of the placenta from the womb of an expectant mother.
 * Genetic make-up of placental cells is essentially the same at the fetus since they both come from the same original cell created at conception
 * When baby is created, the egg splits into two parts: a part that forms the baby and a part that forms the placenta
 * Analysis can detect many genetic disorders/chromosome abnormalities with 98-99% accuracy
 * Cannot detect about 90% of birth defects or the severity of a condition

Explain Procedure

 * Transcervical CVS
 * Only performed from 10-12 weeks
 * Preferred method if the placenta is posterior and close to the cervix
 * Sterile speculum is inserted and the vagina and cervix are cleaned with betadeine
 * By U/S guidance, a thin catheter is guided into the placenta
 * A syringe is attached and gentle suction is applied to aspirate the villi
 * Large sample (whole villi) taken
 * Catheter is removed
 * NOT recommended for women with a retroverted uterus
 * Transabdominal CVS
 * Easiest to perform with anterior or fundal placenta
 * Abdomen is cleaned with betadeine
 * A local anesthetic is applied to the skin
 * By U/S guidance, a needle is guided through the abdominal wall and uterine wall into the placenta (avoid the amniotic sac)
 * A syringe is attached and gentle suction is applied by the syringe plunger
 * The needle is moved back and forth with re-direction through the placenta
 * Small sample (pieces of villi) taken
 * Procedure takes roughly 5-7 min, after prep time
 * The sample is examined under the microscope to confirm that fetal tissue has been obtained. (If maternal tissue is present- repeat test).
 * Following the procedure, the baby's heartbeat will be monitored by U/S
 * Sample is sent to the lab for results
 * Direct vs. Culture results:
 * Direct analysis: A preliminary answer
 * Analysis of outer cells which are spontaneously dividing
 * Increased rate of error
 * Results in 1-2 days
 * Few labs do this

Culture analysis

 * Analysis of cells from mesenchymal core
 * More accurate
 * Results in 7-14 days
 * Results differ in about 2% of cases
 * Results will be reported by ????

Risks of complications

 * Miscarriage: increased above the background by 1%
 * Transverse limb reduction defects
 * Results show that the risk for transverse defects after CVS is ~1 in 3000 (0.03%)
 * Results show the greatest defects when CVS was performed prior to 10 weeks (limbs are formed at 10 weeks)
 * How? Suspected that instrumentation interrupts the vascular supply
 * VUMC has not had any CVS patients who had pregnancies born with limb reductions defects as a result of the procedure.

Disadvantages

 * Risk of laboratory failure
 * Maternal cell contamination
 * Mosaicism
 * Presence of two or more cell lines that differ with respect to their chromosomal constitution
 * Although the placenta and fetus start out the same, once they diverge- there is a very small chance that the placental cells might have a change that is not changed in the fetal cells - confined placental mosaicism
 * Insufficient sample obtained
 * With any of these, follow up is required.
 * Additional testing

Amniocentesis

 * Also an option, performed from 15+ weeks
 * Transabdominal removal of amniotic fluid
 * ~ same accuracy, but risks are 1 in 200 for complications.
 * Tests for NTD's

Follow-up

 * How do you feel about having a CVS? Would you like a few minutes to discuss the option with your partner?
 * Re-iterate that most babies are born healthy
 * Will want to do an u/s at about 18-20 weeks- anatomy is big enough to be easily visualized. (looking for structural anomalies)
 * MSAFP blood test (to detect NTD's)
 * Elicit final questions and concerns.


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Handbook of Genetic Counseling/Allergies and Asthma

Allergies and Asthma

General Information about Asthma and Allergy

 * Asthma is "a disease characterized by an increased responsiveness of the trachea and bronchi to various stimuli and manifested by a widespread narrowing of the airways. Hyperreactivity, the single most important component of the disease simply means that the airways of asthmatics will react to much smaller amounts of a number of stimuli to produce a certain increase in airways resistance…"
 * About 10% of children have asthma. This is usually as part of a syndrome of atopy, which can include the presence of allergy, asthma, seasonal rhinitis and eczema, and tends to occur in familial clusters.
 * Symptoms of hay fever and asthma often occur together, but it is not unusual to have just one or the other
 * Atopic dermatitis is more likely to be seen in patients with symptoms of hay fever and/or asthma.
 * Asthma and other atopic disorders affect a large percentage of the population
 * Atopic conditions are characterized by high immunoglobulin E (IgE) responses to common antigens (environmental allergens)
 * The most common allergens, resulting in atopic asthma are: home dust saprophytes, pollens, feather, fungus shreds, animal fur, insect poison, animal sweat, food, drugs and other chemical substances.
 * 2001 study found house dust mites and cat produced allergens are the most frequent direct causes of acute airway constriction, occupational environment is responsible in 5 to 10% of cases, and other allergic reactions (such as hay fever) produced about 13%.
 * Serum IgE levels and specific IgE antibody levels are used in determining allergic status because there is a significant positive correlation between allergic status and total serum IgE level.
 * However there are individuals with high IgE levels who are not clinically allergic and have negative skin tests

Genetics of Atopic Conditions

 * Many factors contribute to the phenotype of asthma and it is generally believed to be multifactorial, but there is a strong genetic predisposition and many scientists believe the genetic factors are more responsible than environmental factors
 * However the genetic factors responsible may be different in different families (genetic heterogeneity)
 * The relationship between genetic inheritance and asthma was shown to be quite strong in a study just published in 2001. Children are 3.2 times more likely to develop asthma than the general population if their mothers had asthma, 2.9 times more likely if their fathers had it, and 7 times more likely if both parents had it
 * Twin studies indicate approximately a .6 heritability factor for both total serum IgE levels and bronchial hyperreactivity
 * IL-4 is a central mediator of allergic inflammation. Along with IL-13, it is the major cytokine responsible for the induction of IgE synthesis.
 * Many other genes have been implicated as playing a role in asthma, but it was too many to really research thoroughly on med-line although I started to and got a little carried away
 * The press got hold of the announcement of a newly discovered asthma gene in Feb 2001, that was supposed to account for up to 40% of asthma cases. Many scientists were skeptical about this finding and I couldn't find an actual journal article to tell me anything substantial about it. (I would want to look into this further, but I already spent way too much time on this)
 * In 1992 a gene for atopy was assigned to chromosome 11q by linkage to the marker D11S97. These findings show that transmission of atopy at the chromosome 11q locus is detectable only through the maternal line. The pattern of inheritance is consistent either with paternal genomic imprinting or with maternal modification of developing immune responses.
 * There also seems to be data to suggest heritability of .47 for the release of mediators like histamine

Genetic Counseling Risk Factors

 * The genetics of allergic disease is still not clear, the picture that is being built is very complex, and the actual risks are therefore somewhat uncertain and vary within the literature
 * One quote for the empiric risk to a child if one parent was affected was as high as 60%, but a quote from a more current article was 20% for the average risk if one parent is affected
 * Two major competing models seem to fit the data in different studies. These are probably highly simplified (see table)
 * Recessive model in which "high IgE allele is recessive" and "low IgE allele" is dominant
 * We can't rule this out from the pedigree. Using this model, risks can be as high as 50% if Mr. R is a carrier for "high IgE allele" (but remember that high IgE is not completely predictive of allergic diease)
 * Multifactorial model
 * Would be influenced by the number and disease status of other children they have. However, they don't have any yet
 * Risks don't change as drastically with the birth of one affected child
 * These risks were from a book published in 1992, but it still seems that this is the same debate as of 2000
 * Data suggest that a single locus gene explains a portion of asthma that is related to the history of atopic diseases. In addition, a polygenic/multifactorial (genetic and environmental factors) influence with a recessive component inheritance may be involved in the pathogenesis of asthma. Am. J. Med. Genet. 93:373-380, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Other factors affecting atopic conditions

 * Age effects
 * Children increasing likely to become allergic from age 2 - young adulthood
 * Sex effects
 * Boys more likely to be allergic as girls (twice as likely under age 10 to get atopic asthma)
 * As adults more women develop allergies and rates are similar
 * Racial differences
 * Smoking
 * May raise IgE levels slightly

Ways to reduce risks to children

 * Several studies have shown that breast-fed babies are less likely to develop allergic disease later in life, but other studies have shown no differences in allergies or mean total serum IgE
 * Dust control the home
 * Avoid exposures to new allergens (proteins in the workplace and new pets)
 * Pregnant and nursing women with high risks for allergies in their fetus should avoid certain foods such as milk, eggs, peanuts, nuts, and chocolate as well as reduce wheat, corn, soy, fish, and citrus products during last trimester
 * These same foods should not be given to young infants


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Fortran/Beginning Fortran

Introduction
Fortran programs are made up of the main program and modules, each can contain subroutines and functions.

Code that should be executed when the program is run should be placed in a  block, like this: Indentation is not required, but is recommended. The name of the program must start with a letter, and can otherwise contain letters, numbers, and the _ (underscore) character. Each statement terminates with the end of the line.

Free Form and Fixed Form
The Fortran 77 syntax requires that you give 6 spaces before any commands. These 6 spaces originate from the punched card version of Fortran. After the first 6 spaces, you may place additional spaces for indentation if you wish.

However, there is a maximum total line width of 72 characters (including the first 6 spaces). If you require extra space you can put any character (except 0 with some compilers) in column 6; this is called a "continuation character". With punched cards, this meant that you could continue the line onto a second card.

On some compilers you can turn off the 6 spaces rule, and turn off fixed length lines, by specifying "free form" and not "fixed form" mode. If you use the GNU Fortran compiler (gfortran), you can use the -ffree-form command line option when compiling for the same purpose.

Commenting
Inclusion of an exclamation mark, !, on a line makes the rest of the line a comment, like this:

In fixed-form mode, you can also mark a whole line as a comment by placing a * or a c in the first column.

Variables
See Variables

There are many different types and options for variables, but for now we'll stick to the basics.

It is recommended to use the  statement before variable declarations to avoid typing errors by forcing the explicit declaration of every program variable.

Mathematical operators
See Mathematics

 * Add, subtract, multiply, divide

 * Assignment

 * To the power of ( 2**4 is two to the fourth power = 16 )

The mathematical operators have a certain precedence order:

** [exponentiation] always comes first, it is right to left associative. i.e. 2**3**2 = 512, not 64

Next comes * [multiplication] and / [division], these are left to right associative, i.e., 1.0/1.0/2.0*6.0 = ((1.0/1.0)/2.0)*6.0 = 3.0, not 12.0.

Next in order is + [addition] and - [subtraction], these are left to right associative as well, so x-y+z = (x-y)+z = x+(-y)+z.

Finally comes = [assignment].

Intrinsic functions
Fortran has a wide range of functions useful in numerical work, such as,  , and. The argument of a function must have the proper type, and it is enclosed in parentheses: The intrinsic math functions of Fortran are, meaning that they can take arrays as well as scalars as arguments and return a scalar or an array of the same shape: The above program fragment sets the two elements of array  ,   and  , equal to   and   respectively.

Comparative and Logical operators
In  statements, and in some other places, you can code relational operators =, <, >, ≤, ≥, and ≠, respectively as ,  ,  ,  ,  , and. Another way to write these operators would be: ==, <, >, <=, >=, and /=, respectively.

You can also use the logical operators,   and  , as well as the logical constants   and. When combining these items, do not double up on the dots. For instance,  is the same as , but not.

WRITE statements
See Input and Output

means to use the default output with default options, usually print to screen. Things inside quotes are printed as they look in the code, and the value of the variable is printed. Objects must be separated by commas, and the write statement automatically ends the line by default.

The full formal syntax is:

Note that some versions of Fortran don't allow double-quotes, and require single-quotes. An enclosed single-quote can be represented by doubling. For instance,.

The first parenthesized argument to  or   is the unit number. Unit numbers are associated with input or output streams in a way determined by the operating system. In very old systems, the unit number is the device address. In IBM JCL systems, the association between unit numbers and files are done with JCL  statements. In other versions, there is some statement that associates files and units. The  tag may be omitted. If an asterisk is used for the unit number, then the I/O involved is the standard input channel, or the standard output channel.

The second parenthesized argument to  or   is the record number. Note that this argument, if present, is separated from the unit number by a single quote. If present, this variable defines which record number is read from or written to. For instance, writes x, y, and z in packed machine-specific format into record number 5. Note, of course, that this usage requires that your OS or Fortran compiler know what constitutes a record. In byte-organized files, the above code would write x, y, and z starting at the file's byte #5.

The third parenthesized argument to  or   is the format number. If this third argument is present as an asterisk, as above, then the formatting is the obvious default. If you'd rather use a  statement to format the input or output, then include the statement number for the   statement. For example: Note that a  statement is not executable as an in-line statement. It is only used where referenced by  or. The  tag may be omitted. The entire argument may be omitted, too. However, if you omit the format argument, the I/O will be performed unformatted, using machine-specific, packed data.

The last parenthesized argument to  or   is the error handler statement label. For instance, if is coded, this means that output is to be unformatted to unit 5. If an error occurs, execution continues at statement 2 (the statement with a statement label of 2 in front of it). If an error occurs, and there is no  argument, then the program abnormally terminates. Thus,  is the closest equivalent of   in other languages. Although this last argument may be omitted entirely,  can't be omitted from the argument once used.

Example Code
See More Examples in Fortran

Some versions of Fortran, or in some settings, use format characters. When formatting characters are used, the first character of the line determines how the line is printed. means new page. means 2 line-feeds before the line (double-space). means 3 line-feeds before the line (triple-spacing). means no line-feeds before the line (overprinting). And a space means a single line-feed before the line (normal printing).

Here's the same program in archaic form, with this forms-control character:

title: Fortran/Beginning Fortran