text:
Biomechanics/The Biomechanics Of Skeletal Muscles

Let's begin now. This part has a lot of biology, but like the biology of biophysics in general, it's quite interesting. You won't be taught systematic or morphology or anything that actually doesn't have a link to some physical mechanism. So the biology here is not "pure biology" just for knowledge, which is really a relief for people like me.

Ok, now let's see what we've got. Try to use your imagination as some mechanisms need you to picture what happens in the three dimensions... When you are ready, begin.

Skeletal muscle morphology

Connective tissues in muscles

 * Epimysium
 * Outer covering of muscles(fascia).

 * Perimysium
 * Internal connective sheath separating large portions of muscle tissue.

 * Endomysium
 * Internal connective sheath separating individual groups of muscle cells.

 * Tendons
 * Connective tissues connecting muscles to bones.

Muscle bundles and muscles fibers

 * Muscle bundle (fasciculus)
 * Group of muscle fibers enclosed by perimysium and subdivided by endomysium.

 * Muscle fiber (cell)
 * Multinucleate syncytium resulting from the fusion of many embryonic muscle cells (myoblasts).

Muscles Systems
a.	Membrane system:
 * 1) Sarcolemma: plasma membrane of the muscle cell. It conducts action potential (AP). Motor endplates and many openings to the T-tubules are found on the sarcolemma.
 * 2) T-tubules (transverse tubules): system of tubules continuous with both sarcolemma and sarcoplasmic reticulum. They pass from one side of the cell to another and are filled with extracellular fluid.
 * 3) Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR): the internal membrane system of the cell. It is connected to the T-tubules. When AP moves along the sarcolemma, it enters the T-tubules and sets off a general depolarization of SR.
 * 4) T-system: SR that is associated with the T-tubules.
 * 5) Cisternae: regions of SR that concentrate large amounts of Ca2　by actively removing it from the sarcoplasm. Thus, they contain
 * 6) Ca2　ATPase (a Ca2　pump).
 * 7) Voltage dependent Ca2　channels that can release Ca2　back into the sarcoplasm when the SR is depolarized.

b.	Contractile system:

Myofibrils: bundles of 4 types of proteins. They produce the contractile force. There are 2 types: thick myofibrils and thin myofibrils.

c.	Support system:
 * Produces the ~P needed for contractions.
 * Serves as a road for Ca2 to flow from cisternae to the thin fibrils.
 * Supports general functions of the cell (protein synthesis…etc.).
 * It consists of:
 * 1) Sarcoplasm: the cytosol. It is the seat of the glycolytic reactions to form ~P from carbohydrates. It thus contains stores of glycogen and ~P (in form of ATP and phosphagen).
 * 2) Mitochondria: located next to the fibrils. They are present in all muscle cells but vary in no. In muscles that depend heavily on O2 for ~P generation, they make up 50% of cell volume. In cells that are mainly anaerobic, they make up less than 1% of cell volume.

Muscle contraction
§	Muscle contraction depends on the hydrolysis of ~P from ATP.

§	The striations on muscle cells consist of alternating light and dark regions. (see image above)

a.	Light I bands (isotropic):

Ø	The middles of I bands have transverse lines called Z-lines.

Ø	I bands are composed of thin filaments that

-	Are fixed to the Z-lines. -	Are arranged in a lattice.

-	Are made of 3 types of proteins: actin, troponin and tropomyosin.

-	Have many glycolytic enzymes, indicating the importance of ATP produced.

Ø	Sarcomere = area between 2 adjacent Z-lines.

b.	Dark A bands (anisotropic):

Ø	At rest, A bands have a light colored central region called H zone.

Ø	H zone is made of thick filaments composed of 1 type of protein: myosin.

Ø	A bands are composed of both thick and thin filaments, so they are the darkest.

c.	During contraction:

Ø	According to the “Sliding filament theory”,

1)	The thin filaments move along the thick filaments and move further into the H zone, slowly obliterating it.

2)	Since the thin filaments are fixed to the Z lines, the sarcomere decreases in length.

Ø	The “Cross-bridge theory” replaced the former theory to explain the physical connections (cross-bridges) between the thick and thin filaments.

Studies used to explain muscle contraction
a.	X-ray crystallography:

To see how proteins’ shapes (conformations) change with respect to different conditions.

b.	Protein biochemistry:

To explain the chemical properties of proteins involved in contraction.

c.	Histochemistry:

To test ideas about muscle contraction on real cells. The techniques include injection of dyes to change color according to Ca2　　 present in the sarcoplasm or according to voltage.

The thin filaments
(Please look at the thumbnail picture at the beginning for further understanding).

a.	Actin:

Ø	Most of the thin filament is a double helix of 2 F actin polymers.

Ø	Each F actin is made of a large no. of single actin molecules called G actin (globular proteins, MW = 45000).

Ø	Each G actin can bind to

-	Other G actins to form a polymer.

-	Troponin.

-	Myosin.

b.	Troponin:

Ø	Least common protein.

Ø	It is the filament-level regulator of crossbridge formation.

Ø	It has a quantenary structure made of 3 subunits:

1)	Troponin-I binds actin to troponin-C.

2)	Troponin-C (most important), can bind up to 4 Ca2　　.

3)	Troponin-T binds troponin-C to tropomyosin.

Ø	It is allosteric: it can change shape in response to the amount of Ca2　　 that has bound to it.

Ø	The steep part of the curve indicates that a slight change in Ca2　　 causes a large effect on troponin’s shape.

c.	Tropomyosin:

Ø	Rod-shaped molecule attached to troponin.

Ø	At rest, tropomyosin is held over the myosin binding sites on the actin.

Ø	During contraction, Ca2　　 is high and tropomyosin is moved away from the binding sites to let myosin bind to actin. This occurs by the binding of troponin to 4 Ca, then it deforms and “bends”. Doing so, it moves the tropomyosin in the groove between the 2 actin filaments, letting the actin binding site to myosin revealed.

Ø	So, the role of tropomyosin is to produce “steric hindrance” to the binding of myosin to actin.

d.	Polarity:

The thin filaments show a polarity: they only bind with myosin heads that point in a certain direction. This polarity reverses at each side of the Z-line.

The thick filaments
§	They are composed of myosin, a very large (MW = 470000), quantenary (6 chains) allosteric protein.

§	Each myosin consists of 2 identical subunits wrapped around each other. Each subunit consists of 1 heavy chain and 2 different light chains.

a.	Components of the heavy chain:

1)	Tail: long, very insoluble units that polymerize with each other to form what is viewed as the thick filament.

2)	Neck: its material is similar to that making up the tails, except that it is more water-soluble and is flexible.

3)	Globular heads: large and water-soluble. They contain

o	Binding sites for actin. So, together with necks, they make the cross-bridges.

o	ATPase.

b.	Light chains:

They are attached to the globular heads of the heavy chains. Have regulatory function

c.	Polarity:

1)	Polarity results from the way the myosin tails are connected together.

2)	Myosin polarity reverses at the center of each sarcomere.

3)	All myosin heads on one side of the center move together, pulling the thin filament towards the center of the sarcomere.

d.	Note:

§ Each thick and thin filament is organized in a 3D lattice that permits each filament to form cross-bridges with several others.

§ Contraction occurs by the heads of myosin, pulling the actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. This "pulling" by heads is done by continuously breaking and building a bond between the head and the neck of myosin (imagine a bond between your thumb and your index. As the bond breaks and rebuilds, your thumb continuously goes and move away from your index. This "leaving-returning" mechanism allows the myosin to pull the actin).

Next: The Biomechanics Of Skeletal Muscles part 2


text:
Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Liver

Radiation-Induced Liver Disease (RILD)

 * Normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) endpoint which limits dose delivered
 * Historically called "radiation hepatitis"
 * Clinical syndrome: fatigue, RUQ pain, ascites, anicteric hepatomegaly, elevated LFTs (esp. alkaline phosphatase)
 * Pathologic changes: veno-occlusive disease, marked central venous congestion, sparing of large veins, entrapment of erythrocytes, atrophy of adjactent hepatocytes
 * Clinically similar to TBI or high-dose chemotherapy
 * Pathophysiology: deposition of fibrin in central veins, injury to endothelial cells rather than hepatocytes, TGF-beta and TNF-alpha activation
 * Develops usually 1–2 months after RT (range 2 weeks - 8 months)
 * Treatment: supportive; most patients recover, but can lead to liver failure and death

 * Stanford, 1966 PMID 5327788 -- "The human liver after radiation injury. A form of veno-occlusive disease." (Reed GB Jr, Am J Pathol. 1966 Apr;48(4):597-611.)
 * Seminal paper on RILD. 12 patients with total liver irradiation for metastatic disease. RT: 30 – 59 Gy over 6 weeks. 5 patients received chemotherapy
 * Pathology: Acutely: pronounced hyperemia; Chronic: veno-occlusive disease with marked hepatocyte atrophy
 * Re-establishment of effective circulation and normalization of hepatic structure after 4 months

Normal Liver Tolerance

 * First reported liver radiation was in 1924. Liver cells were felt to be resistant to radiation
 * Several RTOG studies in the 1970s and 1980s determined whole liver tolerance to be 30-35 Gy. This allowed reasonable but short palliation, and no possibility of cure
 * First rigorous (based on CT) partial liver tolerance analysis came from Lawrence Berkeley Lab in 1985, using heavy ions.
 * If whole liver dose was 18 Gy, then doses >30-35 Gy should be confined to <30% of liver
 * Emami report in 1991 established baseline partial liver tolerances. These were mostly speculative
 * TD5/5: 1/3 = 50 Gy, 2/3 = 35 Gy, 3/3 = 30 Gy
 * TD50/5: 1/3 = 55 Gy, 2/3 = 45 Gy, 3/3 = 40 Gy
 * Burman report in 1991 fitted these values into the Lyman model, with the following parameters:
 * n = 0.32, m = 0.15
 * Lawrence report in 1992 (University of Michigan data), adjusted the Lyman model parameters:
 * n = 0.69
 * Jackson report in 1995, University of Michigan data), modeled liver as a parallel organ:
 * TD50 = 41.6 Gy (in 1.5 Gy BID), V50 (mean functional reserve) = 49.7%
 * Dawson report in 2002 (University of Michigan data), further adjusted the Lyman model parameters:
 * n = 1.1, m = 0.18
 * TD5/5 (in 1.5 Gy BID): 1/3 = 107 Gy (~94 Gy in 2Gy/fx), 2/3 = 54 Gy (~48 Gy in 2Gy/fx), 3/3 = 37 Gy (~32 in 2Gy/fx)
 * Due to parallel nature, mean liver dose is directly proportional to risk of RILD. Thus, 5% risk of RILD for whole liver RT is at 32 Gy
 * Small liver volumes (<25%) can tolerate doses >100 Gy
 * There is a difference between normal liver tolerance (with liver mets) and HCC liver tolerance (which is quite a bit lower)

Partial Liver Tolerance
 * University of Michigan data
 * 2002 PMID 12095546 -- "Analysis of radiation-induced liver disease using the Lyman NTCP model." (Dawson LA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002 Jul 15;53(4):810-21.)
 * 203 patients treated with conformal liver RT and CT prospectively followed; 19 developed RILD
 * No cases developed for mean liver dose <31 Gy
 * Conclusion : "These data demonstrate that the liver exhibits a large volume effect for RILD, suggesting that the mean liver dose may be useful in ranking radiation plans. The inclusion of clinical factors, especially the diagnosis of primary hepatobiliary cancer vs. liver metastases, improves the estimation of NTCP over that obtained solely by the use of dose-volume data."
 * Comment : PMID 15001282 -- "Analysis of radiation-induced liver disease using the Lyman NTCP model: in regard to Dawson et al. IJROBP 2002;53:810-821." (Tome WA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 Mar 15;58(4):1318-9; author reply 1319–20.)
 * Discussion of fraction size and mean liver dose calculation
 * 1998 PMID 9626227 -- "Treatment of intrahepatic cancers with radiation doses based on a normal tissue complication probability model." (McGinn CJ, J Clin Oncol 1998; 16:2246-52.)
 * Dose-escalation protocol based on <10% probability of developing RILD estimated by NTCP modeling
 * 21 patients with primary hepatobiliary or liver mets treated with RT + hepatic artery FUdR
 * Protocol allows delivery of significantly higher dose (56.6 Gy vs. 46 Gy)
 * Complication rate of 4.8% well within predicted 8.8% (goal to keep <10%)
 * Conclusion : "Our results suggest that an NTCP model can be used prospectively to safely deliver far greater doses of radiation for patients with intrahepatic cancer than with previous approaches."
 * 1995 PMID 7751185—The treatment of colorectal liver metastases with conformal radiation therapy and regional chemotherapy. (Robertson JM, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995 May 15;32(2):445-50.)
 * Phase I/II. 22 patients with CRC mets, DVH-based RT dose escalation + IAH FdUrd. RT given as 1.5-1.65 Gy/fx BID to 48–72.6 Gy, depending on liver volume treated
 * RT protocol: if liver fraction treated to 50% isodose was >66%, dose 33 Gy; if fraction 33-66%, dose escalation 48–52.8 Gy; if fraction <33%, dose 66–72.6 Gy
 * Toxicity: no clinical RILD
 * 1992 PMID 1618671 -- "The use of 3-D dose volume analysis to predict radiation hepatitis." (Lawrence TS, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1992;23(4):781-8.)
 * 9 of 79 patients developed clinical radiation hepatitis
 * All had mean liver dose >37 Gy
 * Wisconsin, 1994 PMID 7511326 -- "Radiation tolerance of the transplanted liver. A histopathologic study in three cases." (Janjan NA, Am J Clin Oncol. 1994 Apr;17(2):129-33.)
 * Retrospective. 3 patients s/p liver transplant treated with 30 Gy at 1.5 Gy/fx BID (2 patients) or 45 Gy to hilus + 5-FU infusion.
 * Conclusion : "Transplanted livers exhibit responses to radiation similar to those normally observed."
 * Lawrence Berkeley, 1986 PMID 3080390 -- "Dose volume histogram analysis of liver radiation tolerance." (Austin-Seymour MM, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1986 Jan;12(1):31-5.)
 * 11 patients treated with heavy charged particles, whole liver 10-24 GyE, tumor 53.5-70 GyE
 * 1 radiation hepatitis
 * Conclusion : "Liver doses in excess of 30 to 35 GyE should be limited to 30% of the liver or less when 18 GyE of whole liver radiation is delivered at 2 GyE per fraction"

Whole Liver Tolerance
 * RTOG 84-05 PMID 8365932—Accelerated hyperfractionated hepatic irradiation in the management of patients with liver metastases: results of the RTOG dose escalating protocol. (1993 Russell AH, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993 Sep 1;27(1):117-23.)
 * Phase I/II. Dose escalation 27 -> 33 Gy in 1.5 Gy BID
 * Outcome: No patients at 30 Gy showed RILD, 10% patients at 33 Gy showed RILD (study closed)
 * Conclusion: 33 Gy in 1.5 Gy BID is unsafe
 * RTOG 76-09 PMID 6168623 -- "The palliation of hepatic metastases: results of the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group pilot study." (Borgelt BB, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1981 May;7(5):587-91.)
 * Prospective, non-randomized. 109 patients with liver mets.
 * RT: Single met: 30.4/19 +/- 20 Gy boost or 30/15 +/- 20 Gy boost; Multiple mets: 30/15 or 25.6/16 or 20/10 or 21/7
 * Toxicity: No RILD.
 * Conclusion: 21/7 best palliative regimen
 * Stanford, 1965 PMID 14243011 -- "Radiation Hepatitis." (Ingold JA, Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1965 Jan;93:200-8.)
 * Retrospective. 40 patients with total liver irradiation for metastatic disease. RT using 5.3 MeV and 6 MeV beams
 * Development of radiation hepatitis:
 * None <30 Gy
 * 1/8 patients at 30 – 35 Gy
 * 5/9 patients at 35 – 40 Gy
 * 7/18 patients at >40 Gy
 * Conclusion: The liver is not a radioresistant structure when irradiated in its entirety. Doses <35 Gy not as likely to result in radiation hepatitis
 * MSKCC, 1954 PMID 13148429 -- "Roentgen therapy of hepatic metastases." (Phillips R, Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med. 1954 May;71(5):826-34.)
 * Hepatic mets from breast, lung, and GI. Treated with 1 MeV beam, SSD 70–100 cm
 * Good palliation
 * No radiation damage from 20 – 37.5 Gy
 * Michigan, 1924 -- "The occurence of hepatic lesions in patients treated by intensive deep roentgen irradiation" (Case JT, Am J Roentgenol Radium Ther Nucl Med 12:27, 1924)
 * First English report of RT use in humans. RT 200 kVp, SSD 50 cm, 200 milli-ampere minutes.
 * Autopsy: Atypical lymphoid tissue with areas of necrosis. Marked changes in epithelium of intrahepatic biles ducts, including necrosis and syncytial giant cell formation. Comparatively mild changes in hepatocytes
 * Conclusion: Liver cells are resistant to irradiation

Review Articles
 * Michigan
 * 2005 PMID 16183482 -- "Partial volume tolerance of the liver to radiation." (Dawson LA, Semin Radiat Oncol. 2005 Oct;15(4):279-83.)
 * If the effective liver volume irradiated is <25%, can give dose >100 Gy with little risk of RILD
 * Mean liver doses associated with a 5% risk of classic RILD for HCC is 28 Gy in 2 Gy/fx, for liver mets is 32 in 2 Gy/fx
 * 2001 PMID 11447581 -- "Partial irradiation of the liver." (Dawson LA, Semin Radiat Oncol. 2001 Jul;11(3):240-6.)
 * 5% risk of RILD: 1/3 90 Gy, 2/3 47 Gy, 3/3 31 Gy
 * If <25% liver treated, there may be no upper limit on dose
 * No RILD reported with mean liver dose <31 Gy
 * 1995 PMID 7713785 -- "Hepatic toxicity resulting from cancer treatment." (Lawrence TS, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995 Mar 30;31(5):1237-48.)

Hepatocellular Carcinoma Tolerance

 * Seoul, 2006 (Korea) PMID 16328032 -- "Temporal cDNA microarray analysis of gene expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma upon radiation exposure." (Jeong J, Oncol Rep. 2006 Jan;15(1):33-48.)
 * Conclusion : "DNA repair-promoting genes were up-regulated in radio-resistant cells and down-regulated or unchanged in radiation-sensitive cells. The present findings indicate that different subsets of genes are sequentially working and DNA repair capacity may control the radiation sensitivity of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells more than any other physiological factor."
 * Taiwan
 * 2005 PMID 15990021 -- "Inclusion of biological factors in parallel-architecture normal-tissue complication probability model for radiation-induced liver disease." (Cheng JC, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2005 Jul 15;62(4):1150-6.)
 * HBV carrier status significant independent predictor for RILD
 * Conclusion : "RILD is described with a parallel-architecture NTCP model for HBV carriers and noncarriers with a threshold effect greater than 0.4. The main difference is in slope parameter for subunit dose-response."
 * 2002 PMID 12182986 -- "Radiation-induced liver disease after three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: dosimetric analysis and implication." (Cheng JC, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2002 Sep 1;54(1):156-62.)
 * Retrospective. 93 patients treated, 68 HCC and complete 3D data evaluated. 50 had chronic viral hepatitis (B or C). Median dose 50.2 Gy in 1.8/2 Gy/fx, no whole liver RT.
 * 18% developed RILD. No difference in patient characteristics, mean hepatic dose higher (25.0 vs. 19.7 Gy). Lyman NTCP volume effect 0.40, curve steepness 0.26, TD(50) 43 Gy. NTCP higher (26% vs. 16%, p=0.006)
 * Conclusion : "Dose-volume histogram analysis can be effectively used to quantify the tolerance of the liver to RT. Patients with RILD had received a significantly higher mean dose to the liver and a significantly higher NTCP. The fitted volume effect parameter of the Lyman NTCP model was close to that from the literature, but much lower in our patients with HCC and prevalent chronic viral hepatitis than that reported in other series with patients with normal liver function. Additional efforts should be made to test other models to describe the radiation tolerance of the liver for Asian patients with HCC and preexisting compromised hepatic reserve."
 * University of Michigan, 2005 PMID 16183482 -- "Partial volume tolerance of the liver to radiation." (Dawson LA, Semin Radiat Oncol. 2005 Oct;15(4):279-83.)
 * Review article
 * "The mean liver doses associated with a 5% risk of classic RILD for primary and metastatic liver cancer are 28 Gy and 32 Gy, respectively, in 2 Gy per fraction."

Radiation + Chemotherapy

 * Yonsei, 2003 (Korea) PMID 12909244 -- "Lethal hepatic injury by combined treatment of radiation plus chemotherapy in rats with thioacetamide-induced liver cirrhosis." (Seong J, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2003 Sep 1;57(1):282-8.)
 * Rat model of cirrhosis. Treated with partial RT, 5-FU, or partial RT + 5-FU
 * Conclusion : "In a rat cirrhosis model with mildly impaired liver function, combined treatment of partial RT plus 5-FU resulted in significantly high incidence of lethal liver injury. The results in this study show that a combined treatment of RT plus chemotherapy in cirrhotic patients should be applied with extreme caution."

Other

 * China (Shanghai), 2006 - PMID 16690430 — Radiation-induced liver disease in three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy for primary liver carcinoma: The risk factors and hepatic radiation tolerance. (Liang SX, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 Jun 1;65(2):426-34.)
 * 1) Mean dose to normal liver (MDTNL) of 23 Gy was tolerable.
 * 2) Tolerable MDTNL could be estimated by MDTNL (Gy) = -1.686 + 0.023 * normal liver volume (cm3).
 * 3) For cumulative dose–volume histogram (DVH), the tolerable volume percentages would be less than:

Another 2002 article suggested that when the effective liver volume is 1.0 (i.e., whole liver irradiation), the dose with 5% RILD incidence is 24Gy, and dose with 50% RILD incidence is 43Gy. However, if the effective liver volume irradiated is 0.5 (i.e., half the liver), the 5% RILD incidence occurs at 32Gy. Liang

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Radiation Oncology/Toxicity/Liver


text:
User talk:65.30.207.63

Translation of english to hungarian
I have deleted the page Translation of english to hungarian because it does not appear to be a textbook. If you do wish to write a textbook on the subject, then please recreate the page after reading WB:NEW. Thanks, --hagindaz 16:33, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:65.30.207.63


text:
Practical Electronics/Astable/Diminishing Frequency

This circuit is useful for applications where a signal has to pulse fast, and slow down to a stop, such as electronic dice, games timers, etc. It gives an output like the one below:

The way the diminishing frequency is achieved is by using another capacitor to run the timing components. First, the switch SW1 is closed, so that capacitor C1 is charged through R1. When the switch is released, C1 begins to discharge through the timing circuit. As the exponentially decreasing voltage from this capacitor falls, it slows the rate of charging of the timing capacitor, which decreases the output frequency. Eventually, the voltage from the control capacitor falls below 2/3 supply voltage, and the astable stops. The circuit diagram is given below.

These values give a frequency of about 100 Hz, which runs down in about 30 seconds. Experiment with values to get the effect you want, bearing in mind the following guidelines:

The size of the control capacitor, C1, governs the time it takes to run down. Bear in mind that for a very large value of C1, R1 must be small enough to allow the control capacitor to charge in the time that SW1 is pressed down.

R2 and R3 must have high values, as if they are too small, the control capacitor, C1, will be discharged too quickly, and the astable will "run down" in a very short time. This also means that the addition of the 100R resistor for charging the capacitor safely does not significantly alter the timing of the circuit while the switch is pressed down.


text: Perl Programming/Print version

title: Perl Programming/Print version


text: Category:Book:Emergency Medicine

title: Category:Book:Emergency Medicine


text: Category:Book:Engineering Acoustics

title: Category:Book:Engineering Acoustics


text: Category:Book:Digital Signal Processing

title: Category:Book:Digital Signal Processing


text: User talk:213.5.82.40

title: User talk:213.5.82.40


text:
GTK+ By Example/GTK+/Hello World

This small tutorial demonstrates creating a simple window with a single button. When the button is clicked, the contents of that label on the button is printed to stdout.

The label is packed into the button, which is in turn packed into the window.

Firstly, you must include the gtk header file.

Next, two callback functions prototypes are defined, one for closing the window, and one for clicking on the button. Callback functions are basically functions that are called by lower-level code (in this case, GTK itself) by being passed the function address.

title: GTK+ By Example/GTK+/Hello World


text: Category:Book:Embedded Systems

title: Category:Book:Embedded Systems


text:
Cookbook:Panna Cotta with Red Fruit Sauce

| Dessert

Panna cotta is an Italian dessert, the name of which means cooked cream. It consists of cream and/or milk, sweetened and then set with gelatin. Similar dishes are also found in France and Greece.

Panna cotta

 * 15 g gelatin
 * 2 cups (500 ml) cold water
 * 2 cups (500 ml) heavy cream
 * 200 g white granulated sugar
 * 2 cups (500 ml) milk

Red fruit sauce

 * 100 g berries (e.g. strawberries, raspberries, blueberries)
 * 100 g sugar

Procedure

 * 1) Stir the gelatin into the water, and let bloom for about 5 minutes.
 * 2) In a pot, place the milk, cream, sugar, and soaked gelatin. Heat the pot to a gentle boil (stirring regularly to prevent scorching) and remove from heat.
 * 3) Pour the mixture into molds suited to a small portion for dessert, and let cool for 2–3 hours in the refrigerator.
 * 4) While waiting, liquidize the berries, combining with the sugar to make the fruit sauce.
 * 5) When ready to serve, unmold the dessert onto a plate, and decorate with red fruit sauce.


text:
Haskell/Phantom types

Phantom types are a way to embed a language with a stronger type system than Haskell's.

Phantom types
An ordinary type

its phantom type version

Nothing's changed - just a new argument  that we don't touch. But magic!

Now we can enforce a little bit more!

This is useful if you want to increase the type-safety of your code, but not impose additional runtime overhead:

title: Haskell/Phantom types


text:
Novial/AIL

An International Language is a work in progress. It is a translation of the original 1928 book on Novial from English into Novial. Links on the left are to the original English text; those on the right are to the Novial translation.

title: Novial/AIL


text: Category:Book:Software Engineering

title: Category:Book:Software Engineering


text:
OpenGL Programming/Intermediate/Textures

Types
There are several different types of textures that can be used with OpenGL:
 * GL_TEXTURE_1D: This is a one dimensional texture. (Requires OpenGL 1.0)
 * GL_TEXTURE_2D: This is a two dimensional texture (it has both a width and a height). (Requires OpenGL 1.0)
 * GL_TEXTURE_3D: This is a three dimensional texture (has a width, height and a depth). (Requires OpenGL 1.2)
 * GL_TEXTURE_CUBE_MAP: Cube maps are similar to 2D textures but generally store six images inside the texture. Special texture mapping is used to map these images onto a virtual sphere. (Requires OpenGL 1.3)
 * GL_TEXTURE_RECTANGLE_ARB: this texture format is much like the two dimensional texture but supports non power of two sized textures (Requires

Basic usage
GLuint theTexture; glGenTextures(1, &theTexture); glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, theTexture); glTexEnvi(GL_TEXTURE_ENV, GL_TEXTURE_ENV_MODE, GL_DECAL); // ... glTexImage2D(...); // draw stuff here glDeleteTextures(1, &theTexture);

When you set up a new texture, you will usually have a pixel array in memory, as well as the dimensions of the image. (Image libraries or OpenGL wrappers might provide you with routines to read various graphic formats and directly make textures from them, but in the end it is all the same.)

For that, you first tell OpenGL to give you a new texture "template", which you then select to work with it afterwards. You set various parameters, like how the texture is drawn. It is possible to make it that, for textures with alpha channel, the objects behind it are drawn, but it is incompatible with the depth buffer (it does not know the texture is translucent, marks the object in the front as solid and will not draw the objects behind). You then need to sort the objects by their distance to the camera by yourself and draw them in that order to get proper results. This is not handled here, by the way.

Finally you give OpenGL the pixel array and it will load the texture into memory.

Let's write a function that allows us to read the pixel array from a file, specifying the dimensions as parameters:

The function eats image files that contain all pixel values in the order R, G, B, A. Such can be created using GIMP, for example: Make the image, merge all layers (necessary, because the RAW export module is broken), give it an alpha channel, save it and select RAW in the list of file types (at the bottom). (A recent version, 2.3 or up may be needed, I had problems with 2.2).

It returns you an OpenGL texture ID which you can select with glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, texture) (passing the ID for texture).

Now that we loaded our texture, see how we can use it:

Example
Wow, that was a lot of code. Let's try to understand it, starting with main:

The first lines set up GLUT and are not worth being explained further.

init sets up the canvas and the light and loads our texture into a global variable. Since we only have one texture here, it's useless, as we don't need to switch textures, but it's here anyway. (You switch textures using glBindTexture, see above.)

Then some callbacks are set up, also not worth being talked about, except the display function. First the camera is set up (if you would change the perspective during simulation, you'd make use of this - in this case it's redundant). The canvas is cleared then (you should also know that).

Now we switch texture mode on, which means everything we do now will be textured. The currently selected texture will be used, which is in this case the one we created before (it is still selected since it was first selected during setup). Then a square is created on the XY axis. Note the glTexCoord2d calls: They define which part of the texture is to be assigned to the next vertex. We will make more use of it in another example.

Eh, and then it's drawn. It didn't really hurt, did it?

You want to place a RAW image called texture.raw in the working directory, RGBA 256x256. Such files can be created with some graphics editors, including GIMP.

A simple libpng example
This c++ code snippet is an example of loading a png image file into an OpenGL texture object. It requires libpng and OpenGL to work. To compile with gcc, link png glu32 and opengl32. Most of this is taken right out of the libpng manual. There is no checking or conversion of the png format to the OpenGL texture format. This just gives the basic idea.

Specifying texture coordinates
Texture coordinates assign certain points in the texture to vertices. It allows you to save texture memory and can make work a bit easier. For example, a dice has six different sides. You can put every side next to each other in a texture and say "this side should get the leftmost third of my texture".

This makes even more sense when modeling complex objects like humans, where you have the body, legs, arms, head, ... if you would use extra texture files for every part, you quickly end up with a lot of texture files which are terribly inefficient to manage. You better put all parts in one file and select the appropiate part when drawing, performs much better.

You saw texture coordinates already in the previous example, although the selected part was the whole texture. The two parameters given to glTexCoord2d are numbers ranging from 0 to 1. (This has the advantage of being size-independent - you can later decide to use a higher-resolution texture and do not need to change the rendering code!)

Tips

 * Switching textures is inefficient. Try to draw all objects with texture A first, then switch textures and draw everything with texture B, and so on. (If you have alpha textures, this can't be accomplished always, as you then must order all objects by yourself. An article about this might follow soon.)
 * Try to combine small textures into one large and select the part you want with texture coordinates. This reduces the memory overhead and also reduces the number of texture switches.


text: Category:Book:Programmable Logic

title: Category:Book:Programmable Logic


text: Category:Book:Signals and Systems

title: Category:Book:Signals and Systems


text: Category:Book:Windows Programming

title: Category:Book:Windows Programming


text:
Template:Find Employment

Find Employment

title: Template:Find Employment


text: A-level Computing 2009/AQA/Advanced Systems Development/Networking


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Basic mouse pointer

Mouse Pointer
Making a simple mouse pointer in the game engine. This takes up a lot of resources but it is very simple.

A little Python is involved but it is very easy to use and is only 2 lines of code.

 Open up blender and split the screen in two. Make the right screen a text editor and add a new text file with ALT+N. Type in the following code.

import Rasterizer as r r.showMouse(1)  Set TX: showpointer in the middle of the Text panel menu bar. Select an object that will always be available - preferably a camera. Go to the logic tab, add a "Property" sensor, a "Python" controller, an "AND" controller and a "Property" actuator. Activate the True Level Triggering (the “‘ button), set Prop: switch and Value: 0. Connect the property sensor to the python and AND controllers by dragging lines between the bullets. For the python controller set Script: showpointer.

Note: If the value keeps being reverted to blank after setting it, the name you entered is not a legal script name; chances are you did not set the name of your script correctly. Look for the selection menu beginning with "TX:" and make sure it says TX:showpointer. Now connect the AND controller to the property actuator. Set Prop: switch and Value: 1.

Select Actor and click on Add Property make it a Int type and set Name:switch.

Now press P to start the game and now you`ll see your mouse pointer.


text:
Find Employment/Your Career

Consider Your Career
Our careers take up a large part of our lives. Not only do they provide us with money in exchange for our time, skills, and services, but they also are a place where we spend a large part of our time. Being in a career that is a good fit for you can be one of the most positive things you do for your life, and vice-versa, being in a career that is a bad fit, can be something that makes your life miserable.

At the time you are looking for employment you may want to consider your career as a whole. Are you on the right path for you? If you want a change now might be a good time to make it. Like any major decision, deciding a career involves a lot of fact finding. Fortunately, some of the best informational resources are easily accessible. You should assess career guidance materials carefully. Information that seems out of date or glamorizes an occupation, overstates its earnings or exaggerates the demand for workers, for example, should be evaluated with scepticism. Gathering as much information as possible will help you make a more informed decision. A decision matrix may be a useful tool to help make your decision. You may also wish to pursue more than one career option at the same time.

Some Factors to Consider

 * Income
 * Health Benefits
 * Retirement Benefits
 * Other Benefits
 * Personal Satisfaction
 * Style of Work
 * Stress Load

Ask People You Know about Careers
One of the best resources can be those you know, such as friends and family. They may answer some questions about a particular occupation or put you in touch with someone who has some experience in the field. This personal networking can be invaluable in evaluating an occupation or an employer. These people will be able to tell you about their specific duties and training, as well as what they did or did not like about a job. People who have worked in an occupation locally also may be able to recommend and get you in touch with specific employers. These same people can also help you get a job later through networking.

School career planning and placement offices
Many high schools and colleges have placement offices that have materials about career options. Many also have counsellors that you can talk with about potential careers.

Employers
Through your library and Internet research, develop a list of potential employers in your desired career field. Employer Web sites often contain lists of job openings. Web sites and business directories can provide you with information on how to apply for a position or whom to contact. Even if no open positions are posted, do not hesitate to contact the employer and the relevant department. Set up an interview with someone working in the same area in which you wish to work. Ask them how they got started, what they like and dislike about the work, what type of qualifications are necessary for the job, and what type of personality succeeds in that position. Not only can this be invaluable in helping you to decide whether this career path is right for you, it also might open up doors for getting a job with the company in the future, or they may be able to put you in contact with other people who might hire you. Make sure to send them your resume and a cover letter. If you are able to obtain an interview, be sure to send a thank-you note. Directly contacting employers is one of the most successful means of job hunting.

Internet Resources
While the Internet contains a lot of resources to help you get a specific job, it also contains a lot of good information that can help you choose a general career path.

 * www.calmis.ca.gov/codefinder/codefinder.htm
 * www.payscale.com
 * www.salary.com
 * online.onetcenter.org
 * www.labormarketinfo.edd.ca.gov
 * www.bls.gov
 * www.indeed.com
 * www.CACareerZone.org
 * www.jobs.vibhaga.com

title: Find Employment/Your Career


text:
Find Employment/Education and Training

Education
Education can open doors for those looking to start a new career or change specialty within their current occupation. This section outlines some major sources of education and training required to enter many occupations.

For information on the specific training and educational requirements for a particular occupation, and what training is typically provided by an employer, consult the Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement section of the appropriate Handbook statement.

Disclaimer
Links to non-BLS Internet sites are provided for your convenience and do not constitute an endorsement.

Four-Year colleges and universities
These institutions provide detailed information on theory and practice for a wide variety of subjects. Colleges and universities can provide one with the knowledge and background necessary to be successful in many fields. They also can help to place students in cooperative education programs often called "co-ops" or internships. Co-ops and internships are short-term jobs with firms related to one's field of study that lead to college credit. In co-ops and internships, students learn the specifics of a job while making valuable contacts that can lead to a permanent position.

For more information on colleges and universities, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual colleges. Also check with your State's higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available on the Internet: http://www.ed.gov/Programs/EROD.

Junior and community colleges

Junior and community colleges offer a mixture of programs that lead to associate degrees and training certificates. Community colleges tend to be less expensive than 4-year colleges and universities. They typically are more willing to accommodate part-time students, and their programs are more tailored to the needs of local employers. Many have an open admissions policy, and often these institutions offer weekend and night classes.

Many community colleges form partnerships with local businesses that allow students to gain job-specific training. For students who may not be able to enroll in a college or university because of their academic record, limited finances, or distance from such an institution, junior or community colleges are often used as a place to earn credits that can be applied toward a degree at a 4-year college. Junior and community colleges also are noted for their extensive role in continuing an adult education.

For more information on junior and community colleges, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual schools. Also check with your State's higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available on the Internet: http://www.ed.gov/Programs/EROD.

Note that many community colleges hire based on enrollment, and may add course sections based on student demand in the weeks immediately before a semester begins. Adjuncts are often contacted immediately prior to the first week of classes, even if they have submitted applications months earlier.

Vocational and trade schools
These institutions train people in specific trades. They offer courses designed to provide hands-on experience. Vocational and trade schools tend to concentrate on trades, services, and other types of skilled work.

Vocational and trade schools frequently engage students in real-world projects, allowing them to apply field methods while learning theory in classrooms. Graduates of vocational and trade schools have an advantage over informally trained or self-trained job seekers because graduates have an independent organization certifying that they have the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to perform the duties of a particular occupation. These schools also help students to acquire any license or other credentials needed to enter the job market.

For more information on vocational and trade schools, go to your local library, consult your high school guidance counselor, or contact individual schools. Also check with your State's director of vocational-technical education. A list of State directors of vocational-technical education is available on the Internet: http://www.ed.gov/Programs/EROD.

Apprenticeships
An apprenticeship provides work experience as well as education and training for those entering certain occupations. Apprenticeships are offered by sponsors, who employ and train the apprentice. The apprentice follows a training course under close supervision and receives some formal education to learn the theory related to the job.

Apprenticeships are a way for inexperienced people to become skilled workers. Apprenticeships are an agreement between the apprentice and the sponsor and generally last between 1 and 4 years. Some apprenticeships allow the apprentice to earn an associate degree. An Apprenticeship Completion Certificate is granted to those completing programs. This certificate is administered by federally approved State agencies.

Information on apprenticeships is available from the Office of Apprenticeship Training, Employer, and Labor Services on the Internet: http://www.dir.ca.gov/databases/das/aigstart.asp. For assistance finding an apprenticeship program, go to: http://www.electricianprograms.org/electro/apprenticeships-they-are-alive-and-well-and-right-in-your-backyard.html.

Professional Groups
Professional societies, trade associations, and labor unions are other useful sources of information. These groups are made up of people with common interests, usually in related occupations or industries. The groups frequently are able to provide training, access to training through their affiliates, or information on acceptable sources of training for their field. If licensing or certification is required, they also may be able to assist you in meeting those requirements.

For a listing of professional societies, trade associations, and labor unions related to an occupation, check the Sources of Additional Information section at the end of that occupational statement in the Handbook.

Employers. Many employers provide on-the-job training. On-the-job training can range from spending a few minutes watching another employee demonstrate a task to participating in formal training programs that may last for several months. In some jobs, employees may continually undergo training to stay up to date with new developments and technologies, or to add new skills.

Military
The United States Armed Forces trains and employs people in more than 4,100 different occupations. For more information, see the Handbook statement on "Job Opportunities in The Armed Forces." For detailed answers to specific questions, contact your local recruiting office. Valuable resources also are available on the Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com.

Εύρεση Εργασίας/Εκπαίδευση και Εξάσκηση

title: Find Employment/Education and Training


text:
Find Employment/Financial Aid

Funding
Many people fund their education or training through financial aid or tuition assistance programs. Federal student aid comes in three formsː grants, work-study programs, and loans. All Federal student aid applicants must first fill out a Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), which provides a Student Aid Report (SAR) and eligibility rating. Forms must be submitted to desired institutions of study, which determine the amount of aid you will receive.

For information on applying for Federal financial aid, visit the FAFSA Internet site: http://www.fafsa.ed.gov.

A U.S. Department of Education publication describing Federal financial aid programs, called The Student Guide, is available at: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov/ students/publications/student_guide/index.html.

Information on Federal programs is available from: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov and http://www.students.gov.

Information on State programs is available from your State's higher education agency. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD/.

Grants
A grant is money which is given to a student or the institution they are attending in order to pay for their education or training and any associated expenses. Grants are typically given on the basis of financial need. Grants are considered gifts and are not paid back. Federal grants are almost exclusively for undergraduate students. They include Pell Grants, which can be worth up to $4,050 annually, and Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants (FSEOG), which can be worth up to $4,000 annually. Priority for FSEOG awards is given to those who have also received the Pell Grant and have exceptional financial need.

Additional information on grants is available on the Internet: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov.

Information also is available from your State Higher Education agency. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD/.

Federal Work-Study program
The Federal Work-Study program is offered at most institutions and consists of Federal sponsorship of a student who works part time at the institution he or she is attending. The money a student earns through this program goes directly toward the cost of attending the institution. There are no set minimum or maximum amounts for this type of aid, although, on average, a student can expect to earn about $2,000 per school year.

For additional information on work-study opportunities offered, check with individual institutions. General information on the Federal Work-Study program is available at: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov/students/publications/ student_guide/2005-2006/english/types-fed-workstudy.htm.

Scholarships
A scholarship is a sum of money donated to a student to help pay for his or her education or training and any associated costs. Scholarships can range from small amounts up to the full cost of schooling. They are based on financial need, academic merit, athletic ability, or a wide variety of other criteria set by the organizations that provide the scholarships. Frequently, students must meet minimum academic requirements to be considered for a scholarship. Other qualifying requirements such as intended major field of study, heritage, or group membership may be added by the organization providing the scholarship.

Scholarships can be provided by a wide variety of institutions, including educational institutions, State and local governments, private associations, social groups, and individuals. There are no federally awarded scholarships based on academic merit. Most large scholarships are awarded to students by the institution they plan to attend. Students who have received State scholarships and plan to attend a school in another State should check with their State to see if the scholarship can be transferred.

Information on scholarships is typically available from high school guidance counselors and local libraries. Additional scholarship information is available from State higher education agencies. A list of these agencies is available at: http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/Programs/EROD/. The College Board has information on available scholarships at: http://www.collegeboard.com/pay.

Student loans
Many institutions, both public and private, provide low-interest loans to students and their parents or guardians. The Federal Government also provides several types of student loans based on the applicant's level of financial need. The amount of money a student can receive in loans varies by the distributing institution and depends on whether the student is claimed by a parent or guardian as a dependent. Since the process of applying for a loan may take several months, it is a good idea to start applying for Federal student loans well in advance.

The available Federal loan programs can accommodate prospective undergraduate, graduate, vocational, and disabled students. Federal loans can be distributed through the school that the student is attending, from the Federal Government directly, or from a third-party private lender or bank. Perkins loans are distributed through the school the student is attending. Loans coming from the Federal Government directly from the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program are dispersed by the Department of Education. Third-party loans through a private lender or bank are from the Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) program. For all federally funded loans, payments are made to the institution that originally dispersed the funds.

For those with financial need, Federal Perkins loans and both Direct and FFEL-subsidized Stafford loans are available. Perkins loans have no minimum amount, but they are capped at $4,000 per year for undergraduates and $6,000 per year for graduate students. Subsidized Stafford loans can range in value from $2,625 to $8,500 per year and can increase as a student completes more years of undergraduate, graduate, or professional education. Interest rates remain at a flat 5 percent for all Perkins loans, while rates can fluctuate up to 8.25 percent for subsidized Stafford loans. Those with Perkins loans are not responsible for starting to repay the loan until they have been out of school for 9 months. Those with subsidized Stafford loans must begin payments within 6 to 9 months of leaving school but are not charged monthly interest while in school.

For those who do not demonstrate financial need, Direct and FFEL-unsubsidized Stafford Loans and Federal Parent Loans for Students (PLUS) are available. Unsubsidized Stafford loans can range in value from $2,625 to $18,500 per year. PLUS loans are capped at the cost of attendance. With Federal unsubsidized Stafford Loans, interest payments start almost immediately and can be paid monthly or accrued until the completion of studies. The latter option results in a larger total loan cost but may be more convenient for some students. With PLUS loans, the parent must pay interest and principal payments while the student is enrolled in school and must continue payments after completion. Check with your lender for available repayment schedules. Typically, students have 10 years to repay Perkins loans and from 10 to 30 years for unsubsidized Stafford loans.

Subsidized and unsubsidized Stafford loans are only available to students who are enrolled in an academic program at least half time. As with any loan, be sure to investigate different lenders, and understand what your loan contract requires of you before agreeing to any loan. Check with established financial institutions to compare the terms of available private student loans. Comparisons of the various types of loans are available on the Internet: http://www.studentaid.ed.gov/students/publications/student_guide/index.html.

The College Board has information on available loans at: http://www.collegeboard.com/pay.

Employer tuition support programs
Some employers offer tuition assistance programs as part of their employee benefits package. The terms of these programs depend on the firm and can vary by the type and amount of training subsidized, as well as by eligibility requirements. Consult your human resources department for information on tuition support programs offered by your employer.

Military tuition support programs. The United States Armed Forces offer various tuition assistance and loan repayment programs for military personnel. See the Handbook statement on "Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces" for more information. Also go to:

 * http://www.todaysmilitary.com/wyg/t5_wyg_tuitionsupport.php.

title: Find Employment/Financial Aid


text:
Find Employment/Find Prospects

Find Prospects
Before you can go to an interview, or even mail out a resume, you need to find companies (with job openings) where you are interested in working. Traditional methods of finding prospective employers is to look at the classified ads in the newspapers, look through job-hunting magazines and periodicals, or even attend career-fairs. Modern methods for finding jobs involve the internet, and sites such as careerbuilder.com and monster.com.

Research the Employer
Study the prospective employer. Research for information about the employer's policies, scope of operations, and work culture. Find out what skills are in demand, and can get you hired. Find out what salaries are paid to people in the position, which you have applied for. This information helps in negotiations at a later stage. Many professional websites also have lists of Job openings. It is always preferable to apply to a specific job. Submitting a resume that is not in response to a specific job opening is known as cold submitting, and has a low chance of success.

Once you find the specific job opening (or openings) that you are interested in applying for, copy down the relevant information: You are going to need it to write an effective cover letter, and to focus your resume.

After reviewing your research, create questions to ask your prospective employer. These questions will display your initiative and your interest in the company.

Career Fairs
Career fairs are great places to submit resumes, talk to company representatives, and to gather valuable contact information. However, because of the nature of career fairs, it can be difficult to provide a focused resume and cover letter to every company in attendance. Often times, you are forced to simply create a generic resume that you will hand to every company. Also, representatives at career fairs receive many resumes, and many applications, and often times the representatives don't have the time to carefully read each one. If your resume doesn't stand out from the pile immediately (and you shouldn't suspect that it will), then you may never hear back from the company. The most important job that you can do at a job fair is to gather contact information for the human resources personnel at the target company. After the job fair is over, you should create a focused resume and cover letter specifically for that company, and mail (or email) those materials directly to the HR department. This will ensure that your resume stands out from the crowd, and that the HR people are forced to look at your resume closely, after the career fair has ended.

Personal contacts
Eighty percent of available jobs are never advertised, and over half of all employees get their jobs through networking, according to BH Careers International. Therefore, the people you know — friends, family, neighbors, acquaintances, teachers, and former co-workers — are some of the most effective resources for your job search. The network of people that you know and the people that they know can lead to information about specific job openings that are not publicly posted. To develop new contacts, join student, community, or professional organizations.

Employers
Through your library and Internet research, develop a list of potential employers in your desired career field. Employer Web sites often contain lists of job openings. Web sites and business directories can provide you with information on how to apply for a position or whom to contact. Even if no open positions are posted, do not hesitate to contact the employer and the relevant department. Set up an interview with someone working in the same area in which you wish to work. Ask them how they got started, what they like and dislike about the work, what type of qualifications are necessary for the job, and what type of personality succeeds in that position. Even if they don’t have a position available, they may be able to put you in contact with other people who might hire you, and they can keep you in mind if a position opens up. Make sure to send them your résumé and a cover letter. If you are able to obtain an interview, be sure to send a thank-you note. Directly contacting employers is one of the most successful means of job hunting.

Classified ads
The "Help Wanted" ads in newspapers list numerous jobs. You should realize, however, that many other job openings are not listed, and that the classified ads sometimes do not give all of the important information. They may offer little or no description of the job, working conditions, or pay. Some ads do not identify the employer. They may simply give a post office box to which you can mail your résumé, making follow-up inquiries very difficult. Some ads offer out-of-town jobs; others advertise employment agencies rather than actual employment opportunities.

When using classified ads, keep the following in mind:

 * Do not rely solely on the classifieds to find a job; follow other leads as well.
 * Answer ads promptly, because openings may be filled quickly, even before the ad stops appearing in the paper.
 * Read the ads every day, particularly the Sunday edition, which usually includes the most listings.
 * Beware of "no experience necessary" ads. These ads often signal low wages, poor working conditions, or commission work.
 * Keep a record of all ads to which you have responded, including the specific skills, educational background, and personal qualifications required for the position.

Professional associations
Many professions have associations that offer employment information, including career planning, educational programs, job listings, and job placement. To use these services, associations usually require that you be a member; information can be obtained directly from an association through the Internet, by telephone, or by mail.

Labor unions
Labor unions provide various employment services to members, including apprenticeship programs that teach a specific trade or skill. Contact the appropriate labor union or State apprenticeship council for more information.

Private employment agencies and career consultants. These agencies can be helpful, but they may charge you for their services. Most operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a percentage of the salary paid to a successful applicant. You or the hiring company will pay the fee. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying associated fees before using the service.

Although employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise might be difficult to locate, the costs may outweigh the benefits if you are responsible for the fee. Contacting employers directly often will generate the same type of leads that a private employment agency will provide. Consider any guarantees that the agency offers when determining if the service is worth the cost.

Community agencies
Many non-profit organizations, including religious institutions and vocational rehabilitation agencies, offer counselling, career development, and job placement services, generally targeted to a particular group, such as women, youths, minorities, ex-offenders, or older workers.

School career planning and placement offices
High school and college placement offices help their students and alumni find jobs. They allow recruiters to use their facilities for interviews or career fairs. Placement offices usually have a list of part-time, temporary, and summer jobs offered on campus. They also may have lists of jobs for regional, non-profit, and government organizations. In addition to linking you to potential employers, career planning offices usually provide career counselling, career testing, and job search advice. Some have career resource libraries; host workshops on job search strategy, resume writing, letter writing, and effective interviewing; critique drafts of resumes; conduct mock interviews; and sponsor job fairs.

Internet networks and resources
The Internet is an invaluable resource. Use it to find advice on conducting your job search more effectively; to search for a job; to research prospective employers; and to communicate with people who can help you with your job search. No single Web site will contain all the information available on employment or career opportunities, so in addition to the Web sites listed below, use a search engine to find what you need. The different types of sites that may be useful include general career advice sites, job search sites, company Web sites, trade and professional association Web sites, and forums. Internet forums, also called message boards, are online discussion groups where anyone may post and read messages. Use forums specific to your profession or to career-related topics to post questions or messages and to read about other peoples' job searches or career experiences.

In job databases, remember that job listings may be posted by field or discipline, so begin your search using keywords. Some Web sites provide national or local classified listings and allow job seekers to post their resumes online. When searching employment databases on the Internet, it usually is possible to send your resume to an employer by e-mail or to post it online.

CareerOneStop is a database consisting of three separate career resource tools. It can be accessed on the Internet at: http://www.CareerOneStop.org, or by telephone at: (877) 348-0502. Alternatively, each resource tool can be accessed directly at its own Internet address.

America's Job Bank allows you to search through a database of more than 1 million jobs nationwide, create and post your resume online, and set up an automated job search. The database contains a wide range of mostly full-time private sector jobs that are available all over the country. Job seekers can access America's Job Bank at: http://www.ajb.org.

America's Career InfoNet provides information on educational, licensing, and certification requirements for different occupations by State. It also provides information on wages, cost of living, and employment trends, and helps job seekers identify their skills and write resumes and cover letters. Job seekers can access America's Career InfoNet at: http://www.acinet.org.

America's Service Locator provides listings of local employment service offices which help job seekers find jobs and help employers find qualified workers at no cost to either. At the State employment service office, an interviewer will determine if you are "job ready" or if you need help from counselling and testing services to assess your occupational aptitudes and interests and to help you choose and prepare for a career. After you are "job ready," you may examine available job listings and select openings that interest you. A staff member can then describe the job openings in detail and arrange for interviews with prospective employers. Job seekers can access America's Service Locator at: http://www.servicelocator.org. A list of offices is also in the State government telephone listings under "Job Service" or "Employment."

Using Internet Resources to Plan your Future, a U.S. Department of Labor publication, offers advice on organizing your Internet job search. It is primarily intended to provide instruction for job seekers on how to use the Internet to their best advantage, but recruiters and other career service industry professionals will find information here to help them also. How to Use the Internet in your Job Search; The Job Search Process; and the Career-Related Pages, other U.S. Department of Labor Internet publications, each discusses specific steps that job seekers can follow to identify employment opportunities. Included are daily tips and hints, plus a large database of links and job search engines. Check with your State employment service office, or order a copy of these and other publications from the U.S. Government Printing Office's Superintendent of Documents. Telephone: (202) 512-1800. Internet: http://bookstore.gpo.gov or http://www.doleta.gov.

Federal Government
Information on obtaining a position with the Federal Government is available from the U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) through USAJOBS, the Federal Government's official employment information system. This resource for locating and applying for job opportunities can be accessed through the Internet at http://www.usajobs.opm.gov or through an interactive voice response telephone system at (703) 724-1850 or TDD (978) 461-8404. These numbers are not tollfree, and charges may result.

Military. The military employs and has information on hundreds of occupations. Information is available on the Montgomery G.I. Bill, which provides money for school and educational debt repayments. Information on military service can be provided by your local recruiting office. Also see the Handbook statement on Job Opportunities in the Armed Forces. For more information on careers in the military: Today's Military. Internet: http://www.todaysmilitary.com

Professional associations
Many professions have associations that offer employment information, including career planning, educational programs, job listings, and job placement. To use these services, associations usually require that you be a member; information can be obtained directly from an association through the Internet, by telephone, or by mail.

Labor unions
Labor unions provide various employment services to members, including apprenticeship programs that teach a specific trade or skill. Contact the appropriate labor union or State apprenticeship council for more information.

Private employment agencies, career consultants
These agencies can be helpful, but they may charge you for their services. Most operate on a commission basis, with the fee dependent upon a percentage of the salary paid to a successful applicant. You or the hiring company will pay the fee. Find out the exact cost and who is responsible for paying associated fees before using the service.

Although employment agencies can help you save time and contact employers who otherwise might be difficult to locate, the costs may outweigh the benefits if you are responsible for the fee. Contacting employers directly often will generate the same type of leads that a private employment agency will provide. Consider any guarantees that the agency offers when determining if the service is worth the cost.

Research
Local libraries. Libraries can be an invaluable source of information. Since most areas have libraries, they can be a convenient place to look for information. Also, for those who do not otherwise have access to the Internet or e-mail, many libraries provide this access.

Libraries may have information on job openings, locally and nationally; potential contacts within occupations or industries; colleges and financial aid; vocational training; individual businesses or careers; and writing resumes. Libraries frequently have subscriptions to various trade magazines that can provide information on occupations and industries. These sources often have references to organizations which can provide additional information about training and employment opportunities. Your local library also may have video materials.

If you need help getting started or finding a resource, ask your librarian for assistance.

Professional Groups
These groups, such as professional societies, trade groups, and labor unions have information on an occupation or various related occupations with which they are associated or which they actively represent. This information may cover training requirements, earnings, and listings of local employers. These groups may train members or potential members themselves, or may be able to put you in contact with organizations or individuals who perform such training.

Each occupational statement in the Handbook concludes with a section on sources of additional information, which lists organizations that may be contacted for more information. Another valuable source for finding organizations associated with occupations is The Encyclopedia of Associations, an annual publication that lists trade associations, professional societies, labor unions, and fraternal and patriotic organizations.

Employers. This is the primary source of information on specific jobs. Employers may post lists of job openings and application requirements, including the exact training and experience required, starting wages and benefits, and advancement opportunities and career paths.

Postsecondary institutions
Colleges, universities, and other postsecondary institutions may put a lot of effort into helping place their graduates in good jobs, because the success of their graduates may indicate the quality of their institution and may affect their ability to attract new students. Postsecondary institutions frequently have career centers with libraries of information on different careers, listings of related jobs, and alumni contacts in various professions. Career centers frequently employ career counsellors who generally provide their services only to their students and alumni. Career centers can help you build your resume; find internships and co-ops which can lead to full-time positions; and tailor your course selection or program to make you a more attractive job applicant.

Guidance and career counsellors
Counsellors can help you make choices about which careers might suit you best. Counsellors can help you determine what occupations suit your skills by testing your aptitude for various types of work, and determining your strengths and interests. Counsellors can help you evaluate your options and search for a job in your field or help you select a new field altogether. They can also help you determine which educational or training institutions best fit your goals, and find ways to finance them. Some counsellors offer other services such as interview coaching, resume building, and help in filling out various forms. Counsellors in secondary schools and postsecondary institutions may arrange guest speakers, field trips, or job fairs.

Common places where guidance and career counsellors are employed include:

 * High school guidance offices
 * College career planning and placement offices
 * Placement offices in private vocational or technical schools and institutions
 * Vocational rehabilitation agencies
 * Counselling services offered by community organizations
 * Private counselling agencies and private practices
 * State employment service offices

When using a private counsellor, check to see if the counsellor is experienced. One way to do so is to ask people who have used their services in the past. The National Board of Certified Counsellors and Affiliates is an institution which accredits career counsellors. To verify the credentials of a career counsellor and to find a career counsellor in your area, contact:

 * The National Board for Certified Counsellors and Affiliates, 3 Terrace Way, Suite D, Greensboro, NC 27403-3660. Internet: http://www.nbcc.org/cfind

Internet resources. With the growing popularity of the Internet, a wide variety of career information has become easily accessible. Many online resources include job listings, resume posting services, and information on job fairs, training, and local wages. Many of the resources listed elsewhere in this section have Internet sites that include valuable information on potential careers. Since no single source contains all information on an occupation, field, or employer, you will likely need to use a variety of sources.

When using Internet resources, be sure that the organization is a credible, established source of information on the particular occupation. Individual companies may include job listings on their Web sites, and may include information about required credentials, wages and benefits, and the job's location. Contact information, such as whom to call or where to send a resume, is typically included.

Some sources exist primarily as a Web service. These services often have information on specific jobs, and can greatly aid in the job hunting process. Some commercial sites offer these services, as do Federal, State, and some local governments. Career OneStop, a joint program by the Department of Labor and the States as well as local agencies, provides these services free of charge.

Online Sources from the Department of Labor. A major portion of the U.S. Department of Labor's Labor Market Information System is the Career OneStop site. This site includes:

 * America's Job Bank allows you to search over a million job openings listed with State employment agencies.
 * America's Career InfoNet provides data on employment growth and wages by occupation; the knowledge, skills, and abilities required by an occupation; and links to employers.
 * America's Service Locator is a comprehensive database of career centers and information on unemployment benefits, job training, youth programs, seminars, educational opportunities, and disabled or older worker programs.

Career OneStop, along with the National Tollfree Helpline (877-USA-JOBS) and the local One-Stop Career Centers in each State, combine to provide a wide range of workforce assistance and resources:

 * Career OneStop. Internet: http://www.careeronestop.org

Use the O*NET numbers at the start of each Handbook statement to find more information on specific occupations:

 * O*NET Online. Internet: http://www.onetcenter.org/

Provided in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Education, Career Voyages has information on certain high-demand occupations:

 * Career Voyages. Internet: http://www.careervoyages.org

The Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics publishes a wide range of labor market information, from regional wages for specific occupations to statistics on National, State, and area employment:

 * Bureau of Labor Statistics. Internet: http://www.bls.gov

While the Handbook discusses careers from an occupational perspective, a companion publication Career Guide to Industries discusses careers from an industry perspective. The Career Guide is also available at your local career center and library:

 * Career Guide to Industries. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/home.htm

For information on occupational wages:

 * Wage Data. Internet: http://www.bls.gov/bls/blswage.htm

For information on training, workers' rights, and job listings:

 * Education and Training Administration. Internet: http://www.doleta.gov/jobseekers

Organizations for specific groups. Some organizations provide information designed to help specific groups of people. Consult directories in your library's reference center or a career guidance office for information on additional organizations associated with specific groups.

Summer Jobs
Doing summer job is a good experience for growth. However, remember that summer jobs are just that: temporary jobs that you have over the summer (or even during the school year), that don't necessarily help prepare you for future careers. This book will not talk specifically about part-time or seasonal jobs. However, many of the techniques from this book can be adapted to finding summer work. Further information about summer jobs can be found in the appendix.

Disabled workers
State counselling, training, and placement services for those with disabilities are available from:

 * State Vocational Rehabilitation Agency. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/Programs/EROD

Information on employment opportunities, transportation, and other considerations for people with all types of disabilities is available from:

 * National Organization on Disability, 910 Sixteenth St. NW., Suite 600, Washington, DC 20006. Telephone: (202) 293-5960. TTY: (202) 293-5968. Internet: http://www.nod.org/economic

For information on making accommodations in the work place for people with disabilities:

 * Job Accommodation Network (JAN), P.O. Box 6080, Morgantown, WV 26506. Internet: http://www.jan.wvu.edu

A comprehensive Federal Web site of disability-related resources is accessible at:

 * http://www.disability.gov

Blind workers:

Information on the free national reference and referral service for the blind can be obtained by contacting:

 * National Federation of the Blind, Job Opportunities for the Blind (JOB), 1800 Johnson St., Baltimore, MD 21230. Telephone: (410) 659-9314. Internet: http://www.nfb.org

Older workers:

 * National Council on the Aging, 300 D St. SW., Suite 801, Washington, DC 20024. Telephone: (202) 479-1200. Internet: http://www.ncoa.org
 * National Caucus and Center on Black Aged, Inc., Senior Employment Programs, 1220 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, DC 20005. Telephone: (202) 637-8400. Fax: (202) 347-0895. Internet: http://www.ncba-aged.org

Veterans
Contact the nearest regional office of the U.S. Department of Labor's Veterans Employment and Training Service or:

 * Credentialing Opportunities Online (COOL), which explains how Army soldiers can meet civilian certification and license requirements related to their Military Occupational Specialty (MOS). Internet: http://www.cool.army.mil/index.htm

Women

 * Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20210. Telephone: (800) 827-5335. Internet: http://www.dol.gov/wb

Federal laws, executive orders, and selected Federal grant programs bar discrimination in employment based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, and handicap. Information on how to file a charge of discrimination is available from U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission offices around the country. Their addresses and telephone numbers are listed in telephone directories under U.S. Government, EEOC. Telephone: (800) 669-4000. TTY: (800) 669-6820).

 * EEOC

title: Find Employment/Find Prospects


text:
Find Employment/About Resumes

About Resumes
In your lifetime, you will be preparing many resumes of many types:  education, job, true-love, health-treatment, legal-justifications, financial justifications, and others. So start with your MASTER RESUME. Then you can use to then cut-and-paste all the later needs for your immediate resume.

If you ever need to use your life experiences for the human service industries, it might be worthwhile recording dates & places of any human-type activities: friends, clubs, etc. At a very serious job interview (the last of several for an important application, you can use a copy of this "Master" to illustrate or support the statements made in writing or spoken in any interview.

Resumes are usually just advertisements, that are supposed to sell your most valuable product: you. Resumes should be truthful, but they do not (and should not) be complete descriptions of you, your past, and your skills. Specifically, modern guidelines state that a resume should be 1 page long, no more, and generally no less. The resume should be specifically tailored to the job for which you are applying.

Résumés and application forms
Résumés and application forms are two ways to provide employers with written evidence of your qualifications and skills. Generally, the same information appears on both the résumé and the application form, but the way in which it is presented differs. Some employers prefer a résumé and others require an application form. The accompanying box presents the basic information you should include in your résumé.

There are many ways of organizing a résumé; choose the format that best showcases your skills and experience. It may be helpful to look for examples on the Internet or in books at your local library or bookstore. Typically, an employer has a very limited amount of time to review your résumé. It is important to make sure it is clear and concise, and highlights your skills and experiences effectively through the use of formatting, ordering, and headings.

Many employers scan résumés into databases, which they then search for specific keywords or phrases. The keywords are usually nouns referring to experience, education, personal characteristics, or industry buzz words. Identify keywords by reading the job description and qualifications; use the same words in your résumé that are used in the job ad. For example, if the job description includes customer service tasks, use the words "customer service" on your résumé. Scanners sometimes misread paper résumés, which could mean some of your keywords don't get into the database. So, if you know that your résumé will be scanned, and you have the option, e-mail an electronic version. If you must submit a paper résumé, make it scannable by using a simple font and avoiding underlines, italics, and graphics. It is also a good idea to send a traditionally formatted résumé along with your scannable résumé, with a note on each marking its purpose.

When you fill out an application form, make sure you fill it out completely and follow all instructions. Do not omit any requested information and make sure that the information you provide is correct.

Writing the Resume
Writing a résumé can often be a strenuous task because it is this piece of paper alone which will separate yourself from hundreds, if not thousands of other applicants.

When writing a résumé, one must be careful to make theirs stand out so that the prospective employer does not just throw it in a pile. A résumé should contain your name, previous employment history, skills, accomplishments and goals you wish to achieve in your life.

Avoid the use of prose when describing what you have accomplished in your current or previous jobs. Bullets are definitely your friend when it comes to sharing you accomplishments. Start each bullet point with a good, strong verb. If you have data to share, such as an increase in sales, a savings of money, or something similar, be sure to include this information. For example: Developed new training protocols resulting in a savings of $10,000 a year for the company.

Warning
Studies have shown that employers often do not read entire résumés, but quickly scan through them. You have approximately 30–45 seconds to make an impression on a prospective employer - to make him or her want to read your résumé more closely. Therefore, you must make your résumé stand out from the rest. Think of a résumé as a marketing tool, and what you are selling is yourself. With this in mind, one must learn some basic marketing skills which will help produce leads (job interviews). In order to produce a good result, if done correctly, one will not have to be dishonest in his or her résumé, and often, being dishonest can later be a drawback for future promotions or possibly be grounds for termination.

Focus
When writing your résumé, you must focus on the needs of your prospective employer, not yours. When selling yourself, you need to make yourself sound like a good buy and you need to present yourself as one who would benefit the company in the long-term. Now put yourself in the employer's shoes: what would make you want to hire a prospective candidate? What does the corporation really need? What would set yourself apart from the rest of the crowd? If you are looking for a job in an area that you are familiar with, you will probably know what employers in your field are already looking for. If you are unsure, you can find out from the tone of the help-wanted ad and by talking to people in the area that you wish to work in. Do not be afraid to call the employer and ask him or her what they are looking for in a candidate. This itself would show initiative on your part, and probably keep the employer thinking about you. It can also be a good idea to ask a prospective employer for a copy of the position description. By reviewing this document, you can tailor your resume to highlight how you can meet the needs of the company.

title: Find Employment/About Resumes


text:
Find Employment/Resume Sections

Resumes have a number of different sections, depending on the aspects that you want to illustrate about yourself. This page will talk about the different sections of a resume, and when to use each one.

Styles of Resumes
Sometimes Resumes are categorized by how they present information and in what order they present information. Most resumes share certain common features, and there is not just one "right" way of doing a resume. If the resume gets you a job, then you did it right. The type of resume you choose to use determines which sections you will include and where you will put the sections.

Chronological résumé
This is the most traditional type of resumes. They emphasize job experience and are good for people with a lot of experience in a given field who are entering back into the same field. They are called a "chronological" resume because they list your experience in sequence of time, from new to old.

Functional résumé
A functional résumé lists work experience and skills sorted by skill area or job function.

The functional résumé is used to assert a focus to skills that are specific to the type of position being sought. This format directly emphasizes specific professional capabilities and utilizes experience summaries as its primary means of communicating professional competency. In contrast, the chronological résumé format will briefly highlight these competencies prior to presenting a comprehensive timeline of career growth via reverse-chronological listing with most recent experience listed first.

Combination résumé
The combination résumé balances the functional and chronological approaches. A résumé organized this way typically leads with a functional list of job skills, followed by a chronological list of employers.

Curriculum Vitae
In the United States, a CV is expected to include a comprehensive listing of professional history including every term of employment, academic credential, publication, contribution or significant achievement. In certain professions, it may even include samples of the person's work and may run to many pages.

Within the European Union, a standardised CV model known as Europass has been developed (in 2004 by the European Parliament) and promoted by the EU to ease skilled migration between member countries.

What Usually Goes into a Resume

 * Name, address, e-mail address, and telephone number.
 * Employment objective. State the type of work or specific job you are seeking.
 * Education, including school name and address, dates of attendance, major, and highest grade completed or degree awarded. Consider including any courses or areas of focus that might be relevant to the position.
 * Experience, paid and volunteer. For each job, include the job title, name and location of employer, and dates of employment. Briefly describe your job duties.
 * Special skills, computer skills, proficiency in foreign languages, achievements, and membership in organizations.
 * References, only when requested.
 * Keep it short; only one page for less experienced applicants.
 * Avoid long paragraphs; use bullets to highlight key skills and accomplishments.
 * Have several people review your resume for any spelling or grammatical errors.
 * Print it on high quality paper.

The Objective
Despite all the effort that you put into your resume, many employers may not read any further then the first section, before they decide if you are an interesting potential candidate or not. For this reason, many people choose to make the first section of the resume a statement about their value, and the reason why they would be a good addition to the company. This first section is generally titled the "Objective" section, although some templates will call this the "Purpose" section, or even the "Statement of Goals".

The objective section should state exactly what position you are applying for, and the reasons why you are a good fit for that position. For this reason, your objective section—if nothing else—should be specifically tailored to the job you are applying for.

Work History
Nobody wants to read about the summer job you had during school, so that you could have some money in your pocket. The work history section is more aptly named the "Relevant Work Experience" section, and should only contain job experiences that are relevant to the new business. For instance, if you spent several years as a tax preparer, it doesn't make sense to elaborate on that too much when applying for a job in designing computers. Of course, most people don't make such drastic career shifts in their lifetimes, so frequently it pays off listing all the work experience you have had (at least since you graduated).

Employers like to see job continuity. This is meant in two ways: First, employers like to see that you have spent time at your previous jobs. In other words, you didnt sign on, and quit within a month. Employers are making an investment in you, and they would like to think that you are going to hang around for a while. Second, employers like to see that you have been continually employed for some time. If there are several years unaccounted for in your resume, employers are going to ask questions. For example:

1990 – 1995    Mr. Computer Shack     Someplace, USA IT Consultant 2000 – Present Jim's Computer Barn    Otherplace, USA Sales Person

Now, the hiring manager is going to read this, and ask "What did you do for those 5 years?". Did you take time off to write your memoirs? Did you spend time in prison? Did you drink yourself into the gutter? If you do have a gap in your employment, be prepared to discuss that gap both in your cover letter, and at the interview (if you get the interview). It is always better to bring the issue up and make the reason known, then to try and avoid the issue. However, be warned that employers don't want to hear all your whiney excuses either.

Education
In today's world, prospective employees for most corporate jobs are required to have some degree of higher education. You should almost always list your education on the resume, but if it isn't your crowning achievement in life, you should probably not play it up too much. Also, if your degree is in an unrelated (or nearly unrelated) field from the job you are applying for, it only serves as a notice that "I can be taught".

If you are a newly graduating student, it is generally recommended that you do not include your GPA on your resume, unless your GPA is fantastic: Don't mention it unless it is over about 3.5 (depending on how competitive your major is). Many students with low GPAs include them on their resume unnecessarily, and many students with high GPAs omit them. Some companies do specifically ask for you to include your GPA, so in that case you should.

Awards and Memberships
This is a section that again, is probably more important for a graduating student than for a seasoned worker. However, if you are a member of a professional organization, or if you have received different professional awards, those are certainly worth mentioning. It is not generally worthwhile to mention that you are part of a book club, or a knitting circle, or a bowling team, although such an entry can help to spark conversation at the interview.

Interests
Many people also like to include sections on their own personal interests on their resume. This can be a useful tactic if you have a small amount of room left on your resume that you would like to fill. Including some information about your interests and hobbies can alert the hiring manager as to the individual personality characteristics that you can bring to the team environment. Also, including some interests can help to feed the discussion at the interview.

However, there are some conflicting ideas about an interests section. Some employers consider resume sections that don't directly pertain to the job at hand as being a distraction. Whether to include an interests section in your resume or not is a decision that is worth some careful consideration.

title: Find Employment/Resume Sections