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German/Lesson 9

<< Lektion 8 | Lektion 9 | Lektion 10 >>

 Einkaufen gehen ~ Going shopping

Lernen 9 ~ Die Kleidungsstücke (articles of clothing)
German             English             German plural die Bluse          blouse              die Blusen der Gürtel         belt                die Gürtel das Hemd           shirt               die Hemden das Kleid          dress               die Kleider die Hose           pants (US)/trousers die Hosen der Hut            hat                 die Hüte die Kleidung       clothes (casual)    die Kleidungsstücke die Jeans          jeans               die Jeans die Mütze/Haube    cap                 die Mützen der Pullover       pullover            die Pullis, die Pullover der Rock           skirt               die Röcke der Schuh          shoe                die Schuhe die Shorts         shorts              die Shorts die Socke          sock                die Socken der Stiefel        boot                die Stiefel das T-Shirt        T-shirt             die T-Shirts

Gespräche 9-1 ~ Katrin macht Besorgungen
Katrin macht Besorgungen—besonders sucht sie neue Schuhe. Sie geht in das Einkaufszentrum. Katrin probiert ein Paar Schuhe an.
 * Katrin:     Entschuldigen Sie. Ich brauche Schuhe. Wo sind sie?
 * Verkäufer: Wir haben viele Schuhe. Welche Farbe möchten Sie?
 * Katrin:      Ein Paar Schuhe in Weiß, bitte.
 * Verkäufer: Da drüben.
 * Verkäufer: Passen sie?
 * Katrin:      Nein, sie sind zu klein.
 * Verkäufer: Möchten Sie diese Schuhe? Diese hier sind größer.
 * Katrin:      Ja, danke. Katrin probiert die Schuhe an. Sie passen prima.
 * Verkäufer: Sie kosten neununddreißig Euro neunzehn.
 * Katrin:      Die Schuhe sind billig. Dann kaufe ich sie.

Vokabeln 9-1
Included in this vocabulary lesson are the German nouns for various articles of clothing (Lernen 9 above). die Besorgungen              errands das Einkaufszentrum          shopping mall der Euro                     Euro die Farbe                    color die Klamotten                clothes das Paar                     pair, couple der Preis                    price der Verkäufer                sales clerk, sales assistant

neununddreißig Euro neunzehn € 39.19

anprobieren                  try on brauchen                      need kaufen                       buy kosten                       cost mögen                        would like passen                       fit [clothing] suchen                       seek, look for

besonders                    especially billig                       cheap prima                        topnotch, super welche                       which

2-2 Shopping-related Verbs
There are a lot of verbs that have to do with shopping for clothes. The most prominent are listed below.

 anziehen - to put on (clothes) aussehen - to appear nehmen - to take wollen - to want (somewhat impolite)

These verbs are used often, so it is necessary to learn them. Among them are separable verbs, irregular verbs, and modals.

Separable Verbs

Anprobieren, aussehen and anziehen are separable verbs. It is easy to see this, as they each have a prefix of 'aus' or 'an'. When using the verb as the main verb of a sentence, separate the prefix and put it at the end of the sentence. When the verb is in infinitive form, leave it just as you see it.

Irregular Verbs

Ausehen and nehmen are the two irregular verbs on this list. Both experience a change in the first 'e' in the du-form and er/sie/es-form. Du siehst ... aus und er/sie/es sieht ... aus. Du nimmst und er/sie/es nimmt.

Modals

Möchten and wollen are the two modals introduced here. Modals are similar to the helping verbs in English and cause the other verb to go to the end in the infinitive form. They also have a strange conjugation. Möchten changes in er/sie/es form to möchte (the same as the ich-form). In fact all modals have the same er/sie/es-form and ich-form.

Wollen is like most other modals: it has a different vowel in singular and plural, except when using formal you. Ich will (not to be confused with future tense), du willst, er/sie/es will, wir wollen, ihr wollt, und sie/Sie wollen.

All of this verb conjugation and more can be found in Reference Table II.

3 Accusative Case
You have already learned the pronouns and articles in the nominative case. Now it is time for the accusative case.

3-1 Example Story 2
You now need more clothes. You drive to a mall and go to the clothing department store.

Du suchst zwei Jeans, drei Hemden und einen Gürtel. Du siehst die Jeans und nimmst zwei. Du kaufst jetzt nur die Hemden und den Gürtel.

VERKÄUFERIN: Die Gürtel sind da. DU: Haben Sie auch Gürtel in Braun? VERKÄUFERIN: Ja, da hinten.

Du nimmst den Gürtel in Braun, aber er ist billig. Du kaufst zwei.

VERKÄUFERIN: Noch etwas? DU: Ja, ich brauche drei Hemden. VERKÄUFERIN: Hemden haben wir. Sie sind hier.

Du nimmst ein Hemd in Blau, und zwei in Rot. Du probierst die Hemden, die Jeans, und die Gürtel an. Alles passt.

DU: Was kosten diese Klamotten? VERKÄUFERIN: Zwei Jeans, drei Hemden, und zwei Gürtel kosten fünfundsechzig Euro.

You give the clerk the money and take the clothing home.

3-2 Accusative Case Articles
Remember that in the nominitive case, the articles are der, die, das, and die, listed in MFNP (masculine, feminine, neuter, and plural) order. Well, in the accusative case, only the masculine form changes to den. An easy memory hook is "Der goes to den and the rest stay the same."

The ein-forms undergo the same change. Masculine "ein" goes to "einen" and the rest stay the same.

3-3 Prices
Two easy words describe prices.

billig - cheap teuer - expensive

These adjectives are applied to the products you buy, never to the word "Preis". Anyway, you rather say "Das ist billig/teuer." (meaning the product you buy) than "Der Preis ist niedrig/hoch."

3-4 A DDR Joke
In einem Kaufhaus in der DDR fragt ein Kunde: "Haben Sie keine Unterhosen?".

Die Verkäuferin antwortet: "Nein, wir haben keine Badehosen. Im zweiten Stock haben wir keine Unterhosen!"

fragen           to ask DDR              Deutsche Demokratische Republik (German Democratic Republic, long since reunited with the BRD) Kaufhaus         very big shop Kunde            client Unterhosen       underpants Badehosen        swimming trunks Im zweiten Stock on the second floor

title: German/Lesson 9


text:
Cookbook:Quail

| Basic foodstuffs Wild quail were once a popular game bird. The eggs of the quail are considered a delicacy, and are sometimes used raw in sushi. The Common Quail was previously much favoured in French cooking, but quail for the table are now more likely to be domesticated Japanese Quail.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cookbook:Quail


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Cookbook talk:Quail

The text in this module, or a previous version in the page history, was taken from the Wikipedia article Quail. The page history at the time the text was copied is below:

 * (cur) (last) . . M 21:19, 13 Feb 2004 . . MPF (Bringing names to Wiki standard capitalisation)
 * (cur) (last) . . 17:36, 5 Feb 2004 . . UtherSRG
 * (cur) (last) . . M 07:01, 13 Sep 2003 . . Jimfbleak (adding link)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 07:01, 13 Sep 2003 . . Jimfbleak (rm comment, since not clear what it refers to, and not relevant anyway)
 * (cur) (last) . . 10:40, 29 Aug 2003 . . 195.53.212.35
 * (cur) (last) . . M 12:55, 26 Jul 2003 . . Jimfbleak
 * (cur) (last) . . M 12:55, 26 Jul 2003 . . Jimfbleak (added image and synonym)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 12:14, 1 Jul 2003 . . Jimfbleak (restore quaila s food)
 * (cur) (last) . . 12:10, 1 Jul 2003 . . Jimfbleak
 * (cur) (last) . . 11:08, 1 Jul 2003 . . Jimfbleak (preparing to split article)
 * (cur) (last) . . 18:01, 4 May 2003 . . Jimfbleak (image added)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 17:04, 4 May 2003 . . Jimfbleak (comment on buttonquail)
 * (cur) (last) . . 09:37, 4 May 2003 . . 195.93.34.13 (minor)
 * (cur) (last) . . 09:36, 4 May 2003 . . 195.93.34.13 (rejig and rename)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 06:29, 4 May 2003 . . Jimfbleak
 * (cur) (last) . . 06:28, 4 May 2003 . . Jimfbleak (added taxobox and revised text)
 * (cur) (last) . . 16:51, 8 Aug 2002 . . Vicki Rosenzweig (+sushi)
 * (cur) (last) . . 15:04, 8 Aug 2002 . . 217.158.106.144 (moved biblical quail stuff)
 * (cur) (last) . . M 15:43, 25 Feb 2002 . . Conversion script (Automated conversion)
 * (cur) (last) . . 18:58, 30 Oct 2001 . . Paul Drye (Putting my money where my loud mouth is.)
 * (cur) (last) . . 14:32, 30 Oct 2001 . . Ddroar

title: Cookbook talk:Quail


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Electrodynamics

This book is going to cover the topic of electrodynamics using vector calculus. We will provide a brief refresher to the topics of vector calculus, but this book does not intend to teach that topic to students who do not have any background in it. For more information about calculus and vector calculus topics, see Calculus and Linear Algebra. Because this book is part of a series of books on Modern Physics, the reader is assumed to have a background in relativity theory, or to be able to concurrently read the Special Relativity book.

This book is going to discuss the electric and magnetic fields and forces, and related subjects. It is intended to be read by advanced undergraduates in the field of physics or engineering.

'''This book is new and needs a lot of work. This is a wiki, so you can contribute.'''

Contents

 * /Introduction/
 * /History/
 * /Vector Calculus Review/

Electrostatics

 * /Electric Charge/
 * /Coulombs Law/
 * /Electric Field/
 * /Gauss's Law/
 * /Electric Energy/
 * /Ohm's Law/
 * /Laplace's Equation/

Magnetostatics

 * /Magnetic Fields/
 * /Biot-Savart Law/
 * /Magnetic Potential/
 * /Ampere's Law/
 * /Magnetization/
 * /Lorentz Force/

Electrodynamics

 * /Faraday's Law/
 * /Maxwell's Four Equations/
 * /Solving Maxwell's Equations/
 * /Poynting Vector/
 * /Electromagnetic Mass/
 * /Displacement Current/
 * /Conservation Theorems/
 * /Energy and Potentials/

Electric Materials

 * /Dipoles and Multipoles/
 * /Conductors/
 * /Dielectrics/

Electromagnetic Waves

 * /Electromagnetic Radiation/
 * /Lienard-Wiechert Potentials/
 * /Radiation Fields/
 * /Polarization/
 * See also: Waves

Tensor Calculus

 * /Tensors/
 * /Electrostatic Stress Tensor/
 * /Magnetic Stress Tensor/

Relativity

 * /Lorentz Transformation/
 * /Four-Vectors/
 * /Electromagnetic Field Tensors/
 * /Maxwell's Equations/
 * /Magnetic Monopoles/
 * /Relativistic Electromagnetism/

Resources

 * /Glossary/
 * /List of Equations/
 * /Units and Labels/
 * /Notation/
 * /Resources/
 * /Licensing/

Elektrodynamika klasyczna

title: Electrodynamics


text:
Nuclear Physics

Atomic Nuclei

 * 1) /Molecules - an Analogy/
 * 2) /Nuclear Binding Energies/
 * 3) /Radioactivity/
 * 4) /Nuclear Fusion and Fission/
 * 5) /Atomic Nuclei/Problems/

title: Nuclear Physics


text:
A-level Chemistry/AQA/Module 5/Thermodynamics

The Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

 * 1) /Temperature and the Zeroth Law/
 * 2) /Energy, Work, Heat and the First Law/
 * 3) /Thermal Machines and the Original Scope of Thermodynamics/
 * 4) /Entropy, the Second and the Third Law/

The Microcanonical Ensemble

 * 1) /States of a Brick/
 * 2) /Second Law of Thermodynamics/
 * 3) /Microcanonical Ensemble/
 * 4) /Thermodynamic Temperature/

The Canonical Ensemble

 * 1) /Two Bricks in Thermal Contact/
 * 2) /Partition Function/
 * 3) /Specific Heat/
 * 4) /Entropy and Heat Conduction/

The Grand Canonical Ensemble

 * 1) /Chemical Potential/
 * 2) /Grand Canonical Wnsemble/
 * 3) /Fermi and Bose Statistics/

Critical Phenonomena

 * 1) /Phase Transitions/

The Ideal Gas and Heat Engines

 * 1) /Ideal Gas/
 * 2) /Slow and Fast Expansions/
 * 3) /Heat Engines/
 * 4) /Perpetual Motion Machines/


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Chinese (Mandarin)/Numbers

基本用字
The parenthesized entries are the complex and formal forms, which are used mainly in notarized, official documents, and when writing checks. An exception is zero; the complex form is much more widely used than a casual circle. The complex forms are known in English as banker's anti-fraud numerals, in Chinese as 大寫 (simplified Chinese: 大写; Hanyu Pinyin: dàxiě; which is the same term for "capital letter"). They are necessary because, since normal Chinese characters are so simple, a forger could easily change 三十 to 五千 with just three strokes. See Standard numbers for more information.
 * 0: 〇 (零)： líng
 * 1: 一 (壹) yī
 * 2: 二 (Traditional:貳; simplified:贰) èr
 * 3: 三 (Traditional:參; simplified:参) sān
 * 4: 四 (肆) sì
 * 5: 五 (伍) wǔ
 * 6: 六 (Traditional:陸; simplified:陆) liù
 * 7: 七 (柒) qī
 * 8: 八 (捌) bā
 * 9: 九 (玖) jiǔ
 * 10: 十 (拾) shí
 * 100: 百 (佰) bǎi
 * 1,000: 千 (仟) qiān
 * 10,000: 万 (萬) wàn (1'0000)
 * 100,000: 十万 (拾萬) shíwàn (10'0000)
 * 1,000,000: 一百万 (壹佰萬) yībǎi wàn (100'0000)
 * 100,000,000: 一亿 (壹億) yīyì (1'0000'0000)
 * 1,000,000,000,000: 一兆 yīzhào (1'0000'0000'0000)

Some Chinese characters used as complex and formal numerals have other uses as well, possible as heteronyms. For example:
 * 貳èr can also mean "to betray".
 * 肆sì can also mean "to be impudent".
 * 伍wǔ can also mean "military" figuratively and be a surname. It can also mean line when said as "队伍"
 * 陸 means six formally when pronounced liù, but "land" or a surname when pronounced lù.
 * 拾shí can also mean "to pick up".

個十百千萬 Larger Numbers
等(děng) etc. 等 etc. 等 etc. 等 etc. 等 etc.
 * 十一 shíyī (eleven)
 * 十二 shí'èr (twelve)
 * 二十一 èrshíyī (twenty-one)
 * 二十二 èrshí'èr (twenty-two)
 * 一百 yībǎi (one hundred)
 * 一百零一 yībǎi líng yī (one hundred one)
 * 一百五十八 yībǎi wǔshíbā (one hundred fifty eight)
 * 二百三十 èrbǎi sānshí (two hundred thirty)
 * 一千 yīqiān (one thousand)
 * 七千二百五十三 qīqiān èrbǎi wǔshísān (seven thousand two hundred fifty-three)
 * 一萬 yīwàn (one myriad or ten thousand)
 * 四萬三千 sìwàn sānqiān (forty-three thousand)

更大的數字（億兆） Even Larger Numbers
等 etc.
 * 一億五千萬 yīyì wǔqiān wàn (1'5000'0000) 150,000,000 (one hundred fifty million)
 * 兩億零八十萬 liǎngyì líng bāshí wàn (2'0080'0000) 200,800,000 (two hundred million eight hundred thousand)

中文中零的用法 The Use of Zero in Chinese
If a number ends in zero, there is no need to include the Chinese character for zero. For example, However, if the zero character does not end the number (i.e., it is followed by a non-zero character), it is necessary to include the zero character, while the "tens-place" characters are dropped. For example, Note that the "十" in the first example and the "百" in the second example are dropped.
 * 350: 三百五十
 * 1350: 一千三百五十
 * 1600: 一千六百
 * 305: 三百零五 (not 三百零 十 五)
 * 1035: 一千零三十五 (not 一千零 百 三十五)

If a zero digit is followed by one or more zero digits, only one zero character is need. For example,
 * 1006: 一千零六 (not 一千零零六)
 * 300,250: 三十萬零二百五十 (30'0250)
 * 8,000,300: 八百萬零三百 (800'0300)

數字手勢 Chinese Gestures for Numbers
Note:hand signs are the same as Western hand signs. Except for six, hold out your thumb and pinky. For seven, make a "peacock head" by putting all of your fingers on your thumb. For eight, hold your thumb and second finger facing up. For nine, make your second finger look like a hook and then hold it out facing up. Source: 數字手勢

title: Chinese (Mandarin)/Numbers


text:
Modern Physics/Constants

Constants

 * 1) Constants of Nature
 * 2) Miscellaneous Conversions

title: Modern Physics/Constants


text:
Scouting/BSA/Insect Study Merit Badge

Requirement 1

 * Do the following:
 * a. Explain to your counselor the most likely hazards associated with exposure to ants and bees and what you should do to anticipate, help prevent, mitigate, and respond to these hazards.
 * b. Discuss the prevention of and treatment for health concerns that could occur while working with ants and bees, including insect bites and anaphylactic shock.

Requirement 2

 * Tell how insects are different from all other animals. Show the differences between insects, centipedes, and spiders.

Insects
 * Segmented bodies (head/thorax/abdomen)
 * Antennae
 * Compound eyes [[Image:Hymenoptere2.jpg|100px]]
 * Excretory and Reproductive systems are on the abdomen; excretion directly effects osmoregulation
 * An exoskeleton made of chitin
 * Six segmented legs

Centipedes
 * 15-173 segments
 * Mostly nocturnal [[image:centipede.jpg|100px]]

Spiders
 * Eight-legged
 * Produce silk
 * No wings [[Image:Long-jawed orb weaver spider.jpg|100px]]
 * Two body segments (cephalothorax/abdomen)

Requirement 3

 * Point out and name the main parts of an insect.

Requirement 4
Describe the characteristics that distinguish the principal families and orders of insects.

Requirement 5
a.Observe 20 different live species of insects in their habitat. In your observations, include at least four orders of insects.

b.Make a scrapbook of the 20 insects you observe in 5a. Include photographs, sketches, illustrations, and articles. Label each insect with its common and scientific names, where possible. Share your scrapbook with your merit badge counselor.

Requirement 6

 * Compare the life histories of a butterfly and a grasshopper. Tell how they are different.

Requirement 7

 * Raise an insect through complete metamorphosis from its larval stage to its adult stage (eg, raise a butterfly or moth from a caterpillar).

Requirement 8

 * Observe an ant colony or a beehive. Tell that you saw.

Requirement 9

 * Tell the things that make social insects different from solitary insects.

Requirement 10

 * Do ONE of the following:
 * a. Observe an ant colony in a formicarium (ant farm). Find the queen and worker ants. Explain to your counselor the different chambers found within an ant colony.
 * b. Study a hive of bees. Remove the combs and find the queen. Estimate the amount of brood and count the number of queen cells. Explain how to determine the amount of honey in the hive.

Requirement 11

 * From your collection, identify four species of insects helpful to humans and six species of insects harmful to humans.
 * Describe some general methods of insect control.

Requirement 12

 * Tell how insects fit in the food chains of other insects, fish, birds, and mammals.

title: Scouting/BSA/Insect Study Merit Badge


text:
Cookbook:Baking Powder

| Basic foodstuffs | Leavening agent

Baking powder is a chemical leavening agent.

Characteristics
Baking powder is composed of baking soda, one or more acidic salts (such as cream of tartar or dicalcium phosphate dihydrate), and a powdered starch to act as a buffer.

When the baking powder is combined with liquid, the baking soda reacts with its component acids to produce carbon dioxide gas bubbles, which are trapped by the material around them and cause leavening.

Early baking powders were single-acting, meaning that they react very quickly at room temperature and release most of their gas before making it into the oven. Most modern baking powders are double-action, which means they contain both fast- and slow-acting acids. The fast-acting acid dissolves quickly and reacts to produce carbon dioxide at room temperature, and the slow-acting only reacts once heat causes it to dissolve completely. Double-acting baking powders are therefore more stable and prevent rapid gas release from negatively impacting the structure of a leavened good.

Selection and storage
Despite the buffering starch, the acid and base components of baking powder will still slowly react together over time, decreasing its leavening power. As a result, baking powder is only guaranteed to have its full leavening power for up to ½–1 year.

Use
Baking powder is used as a leavener in recipes that don't otherwise have acidic ingredients to react with baking soda. It is often found in quick breads like pancakes, waffles, and muffins.

title: Cookbook:Baking Powder


text:
Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Colors

Untitled
Is it just to me? Gray right now looks more like black..Tomos 15:22, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Looks gray to me. TUF-KAT 16:54, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Looks neary black on IE! No problems on Mozilla. I have fixed the color code "#999" into "gray". "grey" (not "grAy" but "grEy") is worse, that is green on IE. --HarpyHumming 10:36, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Does the word for black sound like the word for yellow? How well heard is the u in kuroi and well heard is the i in ki-iro.

 * Hmm. To me, u in kuro sounds shorter than i in kiiro. Tomos 01:45, 29 May 2004 (UTC)

Someone who knows a little more than I do should probably mention that みどり　(midori) can't be used as an adjective. At least, that's how I learned it in class. We can say, "Aoi kuruma" "akai kuruma" etc., but we have to say "midori no kuruma."

title: Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Colors


text:
Probability/Probability Spaces

Terminologies
The name of this chapter,, is a mathematical construct that models a random experiment. To be more precise:

Let us first give the definitions related to sample space. For the definitions of event space and probability, we will discuss it in later sections.

Probability interpretations
In this chapter, we will discuss probability mathematically, and we will give an axiomatic and abstract definition to probability (function). By axiomatic definition, we mean defining probability to be a function that satisfying some axioms, called probability axioms. But such axiomatic definition does not tell us how should we interpret the term "probability", so the definition is said to be from the interpretation of probability. Such independence make the formal definition always applicable, no matter how you interpret probability.

However, the axiomatic definition does not suggest a way to construct a probability measure (i.e., assigning probabilities to events): it just states that probability is a function satisfying certain axioms, but how can we construct such function in the first place? In this section, we will discuss two main types of probability interpretations: subjectivism and frequentism, where the method of assigning probabilities to events is mentioned in each of them.

Subjectivism
Intuitively and naturally, of an event is often regarded as a numerical measure of the "chance" of the occurrence of the event (that is, how likely the event will occur). So, it is natural for us to assign probability to an event based on our own assessment on the "chance". (In order for the probability to be valid according to the axiomatic definition, the assignment needs to satisfy the .) But different people may have different assessment on the "chance", depending on their personal opinions. So, we can see that such interpretation of probability is somewhat , since different people may assign different probabilities to the same event. Hence, we call such probability interpretation as (also known as ).

The main issue of the subjectivism is the lack of objectivity, since different probabilities can be assigned to the same event based on personal opinion. Then, we may have difficulties in choosing which of the probabilities should be used for that event. To mitigate the issue of the lack of objectivity, we may adjust our degrees of belief on an event from time to time when there are more observed data through, which will be discussed in later chapter, so that the value is assigned in a more objective way. However, even after the adjustment, the assignment of value is still not in an objective way, since the adjusted value (known as ) still depends on the initial value (known as ), which is assigned subjectively.

Frequentism
Another probability interpretation, which is objective, is called. We denote by $$n(E)$$ the number of occurrences of an event $$E$$ in $$n$$ repetitions of experiment. (An is any action or process with an  that is subject to uncertainty or randomness.) Then, we call $$\frac{n(E)}{n}$$ as the of the event $$E$$. Intuitively, we will that the relative frequency fluctuates less and less as $$n$$ gets larger and larger, and approach to a constant limiting value (we call this as ) as $$n$$ tends to infinity, i.e., the limiting relative frequency is $$\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(E)}{n}$$. It is thus natural to take the limiting relative frequency as the probability of the event $$E$$. This is exactly what the definition of probability in the frequentism. In particular, the of such limiting relative frequency is an assumption or  in frequentism. (As a side result, when $$n$$ is large enough, the relative frequency of the event $$E$$ may be used to approximate the probability of the event $$E$$.)

However, an issue of frequentism is that it may be infeasible to conduct experiments many times for some events. Hence, for those events, no probability can be assigned to them, and this is clearly a limitation for frequentism.

Because of these issues, we will instead use a modern axiomatic and abstract approach to define probability, which is suggested by a Russian mathematician named Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov in 1933. By, we mean defining probability quite broadly and abstractly as something that satisfy certain axioms (called ). Such probability axioms are the mathematical foundation and the basis of modern probability theory.

Probability axioms
Since we want use the probability measure $$\mathbb P$$ to assign probability $$\mathbb P(E)$$ to every event $$E$$ in the sample space, it seems natural for us to set of the probability measure $$\mathbb P$$ to be the set containing subsets of $$\Omega$$, i.e., the power set of $$\Omega$$, $$\mathcal P(\Omega)$$. Unfortunately, this situation is not that simple, and there are some technical difficulties if we set the domain like this, when the sample space $$\Omega$$ is.

This is because the power set of such uncountable sample space includes some "badly behaved" sets, which causes problems when assigning probabilities to them. (Here, we will not discuss those sets and these technical difficulties in details.) Thus, instead of setting the domain of the probability measure to be $$\mathcal P(\Omega)$$, we set the domain to be a (sigma-algebra) containing some "sufficiently well-behaved" events:

We have seen two examples of $$\sigma$$-algebra in the example above. Often, the "smallest" $$\sigma$$-algebra is not chosen to be the domain of the probability measure, since we usually are interested in events $$\varnothing$$ and $$\Omega$$.

For the "largest" $$\sigma$$-algebra, on the other hand, it contains every event, but we may not be interested in some of them. Particularly, we are usually interested in events that are "well-behaved", instead of those "badly behaved" events (indeed, it may be even impossible to assign probabilities to them properly (those events are called )).

Fortunately, when the sample space $$\Omega$$ is, every set in $$\mathcal P(\Omega)$$ is "well-behaved", so we can take this power set to be a $$\sigma$$-algebra for the domain of probability measure.

However, when the sample space $$\Omega$$ is, even if the power set $$\mathcal P(\Omega)$$ is a $$\sigma$$-algebra, it contains "too many" events, particularly, it even includes some "badly behaved" events. Therefore, we will not choose such power set to the domain of the probability measure. Instead, we just choose a $$\sigma$$-algebra that includes the "well-behaved" events to be the domain, so that we are able to assign probability properly to every event in the $$\sigma$$-algebra of the domain. Particularly, those "well-behaved" events are often the events of interest, so all events of interest are contained in that $$\sigma$$-algebra, that is, the domain of the probability measure.

To motivate the probability axioms, we consider some properties that the "probability" in frequentism (as a limiting relative frequency) possess: $$ \begin{align} \lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(\bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty}E_i)}{n} &=\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(\bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty}E_i)}{n}\\ &=\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(E_1)+n(E_2)+\dotsb}{n}&(\text{the events are pairwise disjoint})\\ &=\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(E_1)}{n}+\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(E_2)}{n}+\dotsb&(\text{every limit exists by the axiom in frequentism})\\ &=\sum_{i=1}^{\infty}\lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{n(E_i)}{n}, \end{align} $$
 * 1) The limiting relative frequency must be nonnegative. (We call this property as .)
 * 2) The limiting relative frequency of the whole sample space $$\Omega$$ ($$\Omega$$ is also an event) must be 1 (since by definition $$\Omega$$ contains all sample points, this event must occur in every repetition). (We call this property as .)
 * 3) If the events $$E_1,E_2,\dotsc$$ are pairwise disjoint (i.e., $$E_i\cap E_j=\varnothing$$ for every $$i,j$$ with $$i\ne j$$), then the limiting relative frequency of the event $$\bigcup_{i=1}^{\infty}E_i\overset{\text{ def }}=E_1\cup E_2\cup\dotsb$$ (union of subsets of $$\Omega$$ is a subset of $$\Omega$$, so it can be called an event) is
 * which is the sum of the limiting relative frequency of each of the events $$E_1,E_2,\dotsc$$. (We call this property as .)

It is thus very natural to set the probability axioms to be the three properties mentioned above:

Using the probability axioms alone, we can prove many well-known properties of probability.

Basic properties of probability
Let us start the discussion with some simple properties of probability.

Using this result, we can obtain from the countable additivity of probability:

Finite additivity makes the proofs of some of the following results simpler.

Constructing a probability measure
As we have said, the axiomatic definition does not suggest us a way to construct a probability measure. Actually, even for the same experiment, there can be many ways to construct a probability measure that satisfies the above probability axioms if there are not sufficient information provided:

However, we have previously mentioned that we may assign probabilities to events subjectively (as in subjectivism), or according to its limiting relative frequency (as in frequentism). Through these two probability interpretations, we may provide some background information for a random experiment, by assigning probabilities to some of the events before constructing the probability measure, to the extent that there is way to construct a probability measure. Consider the coin tossing example again:

In general, it is not necessary to assign probability to event in the event space in the background information for us to able to construct the probability measure in exactly one way. Consider the following example.

We can see from this example that to provide sufficient background information to the extent that the probability measure can be constructed in exactly one way, we just need the probability of each of the singleton events (which should be nonnegative and sum to one to satisfy the probability axioms). After that, we can calculate the probability for each of the other events in the event space, and hence construct the only possible probability measure.

This is true when the sample space is countable, in general:

The following is an important special case for the above theorem.

More advanced properties of probability
Recall the in combinatorics. We have similar results for probability:

The following is a classical example for demonstrating the application of inclusion-exclusion principle.

title: Probability/Probability Spaces


text:
Cookbook:Trout

Trout is a family of fresh water game fish related to salmon, found naturally in Europe, North America, and northern Asia, and as an introduced species around the world. The North American Rainbow Trout is now farm raised to provide a large portion of the trout found on the market.

Trout is a bony fish with a mild flavor and a firm texture. It is fairly interchangeable with salmon. The most common ways to prepare trout are pan frying, broiling, smoking, and grilling, but trout can be prepared by a variety of methods.

When purchasing fish, freshness is important. The fish should not have a fishy smell, which actually comes from bacteria decomposing the fish. If purchasing whole fish, the eyes should be clear.

Farm raised Rainbow Trout is listed as a "Best Choice" by the Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch Program.

Trout recipes

 * Campfire Trout

title: Cookbook:Trout


text:
Cookbook:Campfire Trout

| Fish

Gentgeen's Campfire Trout is the recipe Gentgeen uses to cook trout caught while camping. This method can be used at home with trout purchased at the fish market, but somehow never tastes quite as good.

Ingredients

 * 2 whole cleaned trout, between 10 and 14 inches
 * 4 strips bacon
 * 2 tablespoons butter
 * Lemon
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Make a pan out of aluminium foil slightly larger than your two fish. The pan should have a double layer of foil on the bottom and a lip around the edge of about ¾–1 inch height.
 * 2) Place the pan on a grill over the campfire. Put the butter into the pan, and allow it to begin melting. Wrap each trout with 2 strips of bacon. Add the trout to the pan and season to taste.
 * 3) After the trout has cooked for a few minutes (5–7 depending on the size of the fish), check the inside. If the side close to the fire is white and flakes easily, the fish is ready to turn. Flip the fish, and continue cooking the other side for 3–4 minutes until done.
 * 4) Serve with lemon over a bed of white rice.

title: Cookbook:Campfire Trout


text:
Russian/Prepositions

Prepositions are small words that precede a phrase and connect it to the rest of the sentence. Example of prepositions in English include 'He went in the shop', 'She spoke about him, 'They went by the shops', etc. Russian prepositions work just like their English counterparts, with one important difference: they all place the next phrase in one of the six grammatical cases. As such, a good understanding of the Russian case system is needed to use prepositions. Some cases are used primarily or even entirely with prepositions, while others are used more in their main function than with prepositions- this page assumes familiarity of Russian cases and pronunciation.

Prepositions
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Nominative
Usually, nominative has no prepositions, but there are several cases where some scholars believe it has:
 * (что) за - (what a)
 * в - into, as a (plural denoting new state)

Accusative

 * в(о) - into
 * на - onto
 * с(о) - approx
 * за - for
 * о - against (physical contact)
 * под - under
 * по - up to, as far as
 * про - on the topic of
 * сквозь - through, across
 * через - in, after, by

Genitive

 * без - without
 * близ - near, close
 * вдоль - along
 * вместо - instead of
 * вне - outside of
 * внутри - inside, within
 * возле - by, near
 * вокруг - about, around
 * впереди - ahead of
 * для - for
 * до - until
 * из(о) - of, outside of, from
 * из-за - from behind
 * из-под - from below
 * кроме - except (for)
 * мимо - past (movement)
 * накануне - on the eve
 * около - around
 * от(о) - off, (away) from
 * после - after
 * (на)против - against, across from
 * ради - for the sake of
 * с(о) - (down) from
 * (по)среди - among
 * у - at, close to. Equivalent to the French "chez"

The following prepositions are also used in genitive plural:

 * мало - few, little
 * много - a lot, many, much
 * несколько - a few, not many
 * ско́лько - how much? how many?

Dative

 * к(о) - to, towards
 * по - many meanings in English; no direct translation
 * благодаря - thanks to
 * вопреки - contrary to, despite
 * наперекор - in defiance of (more intense than вопреки)
 * согласно - according to, in accordance with

Instrumental

 * над - above, on top of
 * под - under, beneath
 * за - behind, before
 * перед - in front of
 * между - in between
 * с(о) - with

Russian/Prepositions Instrumental quiz
Russian/Prepositions Instrumental quiz

Prepositional

 * в(о) - in
 * на - on
 * при - in times of, in the presence of
 * о(б) - about (becomes обо before мне, что and inflected forms of весь)

A rule of thumb to distinguish between в(о) and на: if one can inhabit or enter a space where something is happening, it is на and otherwise it is в(о). Note that there are many exceptions to this rule which must be learnt by rote.
 * }

Prepositions with 2 cases
Like in German, some prepositions can have 2 cases. The accusative (again, like in German) and the genitive cases are used to express movement: accusative pertains to destination, while genitive indicates the source of movement. The instrumental and the Prepositional are used to express staticness.

Accusative and Prepositional

 * в or во - in, inside of
 * на - on, on top of

Accusative and instrumental

 * за - for, behind
 * под - under

Accusative, Genitive, Instrumental

 * с - approximately (acc.), from (gen.), with (inst.)

Accusative, Prepositional, Dative

 * по - to & including; apiece (acc.), upon, directly after (prep.), along, according to (dat.)

Examples
Nominative:
 * Он пришёл к нам в гости. :He came to visit us.

Accusative:
 * Книга упала на пол. :The book fell on the floor.
 * За Родину! :For the Motherland!

Genitive:
 * Четыре стула стоят вокруг стола. :Four chairs are standing around the table.
 * Диван стоит у стены. :The couch is standing against the wall.
 * Он выходит из университéта. :He's coming out of the university.
 * Bозвращáюсь с рабóты. :I'm coming back from work.

Dative:
 * Ваза пододвинута к краю стола. :The vase is moved towards the edge of the table.
 * Идý к роди́телям. :I'm going to my parents'.

Instrumental:
 * Лампа висит под потолком. :The lamp hangs under the ceiling.
 * Игорь идёт с другом. :Igor walks with a friend.
 * Он стоит за дверью. :He's standing behind the door.

Prepositional:
 * Стол и стулья стоят в центре комнаты. :The table and the chairs are in the middle of the room.
 * Ваза стоит на столе. :The vase stands on the table.
 * Книга и вещи лежат на столе. :The book and the things are lying on the table.
 * Телевизор стоит на столике. :The television is on the small table.
 * Картина висит на стене. :The painting hangs on the wall.

Note: using the preposition "в/во" when saying you're in a place, or going to a place, works in the majority of cases; however, some places require you to use "на" instead of "в/во".

For example: but:
 * Pабóтаю в университéте. :I work at the university.
 * Pабóтаю на факультéте (чего-нибудь). :I work at the faculty (of something).

Similarly: but:
 * Идý в бюро. :I'm going to the office.
 * Идý на работу. :I'm going to work.

And more. There is a limited number of those, but the use of "на" over that of "в/во" is mandatory in these cases.

Russisch/Voorzetsels Ruso/Gramática/Preposiciones

title: Russian/Prepositions


text:
Russian/Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns in Russian are arguably the easiest to learn. As they do not modify nouns (unlike their possessive counterparts), they conjugate only by case. They are:

There are two important nuances to these pronouns. First, notice that the masculine and neuter third-person singular pronouns are the same in all cases but the nominative, and in the genitive and accusative are pronounced ' ye-vo ', not ' ye-go '. Second, if the pronoun's case is called by a preposition, third-person pronouns gain the prefix н- (e.g., compare 'his' in 'It's his house', Это его дом, and 'He has a house', У него есть дом).
 * Nominative: Where are you? - Где вы?
 * Genitive: What do you have there? - Что у вас там есть?
 * Dative: He's writing to thee - Он тебе пишет
 * Accusative: I love thee - Я тебя люблю
 * Instrumental: She's walking with them - Она с ними идёт - note the suffice н- after the preposition
 * Prepositional: We're talking about her - Мы о ней говорим

title: Russian/Personal Pronouns


text:
Russian/Interrogative Pronouns

Like all pronouns, the interrogative pronouns are words that replace nouns in a sentence. Interrogative pronouns are those that ask questions, or interrogate. Compare "Peter is doing it" with "Who is doing it" - replacing the noun with an interrogative pronoun turns it into a question, though the rest of the sentence is left intact. Like the nouns they replace, interrogative pronouns must conjugate to suit the appropriate grammatical case. While some words discussed here are used more as adverbs than pronouns, they are still pronouns and are included here for the sake of completeness.

The pronouns
The twelve interrogative pronouns are as follows:

Russian pronoun quiz
Russian/Pronouns/Quiz

There are a few nuances to how you conjugate these pronouns, before we discuss how to use them.

Какой, который, чей
You may notice that какой ('what kind'), который ('what/which'), and чей ('whose'), are adjectives. They are therefore called adjectival pronouns. As such, when they are used in a sentence, they take on the ending appropriate for the gender and number of the noun it refers to, and the case appropriate for where it is in the sentence. This can mean that it takes on a different case to its noun.

Чей is an irregular adjective with unpredictable endings, and conjugates as follows:

 * Which dog are you talking about? - Вы говорите о которой собаке? - prepositional feminine singular to match собака, used when there is some definite set of possibly meaned dogs, otherwise better use о какой
 * What kind of cheese? - Какой сыр?
 * The girl who works here is nice - Девушка, которая работает там, симпатичная.
 * He talks about the girl who works here - Он говорит о девушке, которая работает там.
 * Whose house is this? - Чей это дом?
 * This is Boris' house - Это дом Бориса
 * Whose money is this? - Чьи это деньги? (money is plural in Russian, however the indeclineable это is still used in this construction, just as it is with feminine and masculine nouns)
 * Whose is this? - Это чьё?
 * We know whose it is - Мы знаем, чьё это

Кто, что, сколько
In contrast to the three adjectival pronouns, there are three nominal pronouns, so called because they more closely resemble nouns. These pronouns do not conjugate by gender and number like their adjectival counterparts, but still change according to case:

If you are familiar with the case system, you may notice that these endings are roughly similar to the adjectival endings, with a few alterations. As ever, кого is pronounced 'ko-vo', not 'ko-go', and similarly for чего.

The remaining six pronouns are indeclinable and do not conjugate.

Кто? Что?
To ask a question, use the pronoun as the subject of the verb. If you need to give it a gender, such as when forming the past tense, treat кто as a masculine singular noun (e.g., "Who was working? Кто работал?), что as a neuter singular noun (e.g., "What was rolling?" Что катилось?), and сколько as a plural noun (e.g., "How many people are walking?" Сколько человек идут? ).
 * What is this? - Что это?

 * What're you writing with? - Чем ты пишешь?
 * Who is this? - Кто это?
 * Who are they? - Кто они?
 * Who here speaks English? - Кто здесь говорит по-английски?
 * Whom did you see? - Кого ты видел?
 * To whom did you write? - Кому вы написали?
 * He doesn't know what this means - Он не знает, что это значит

These can also be used as conjunctions (i.e., words that join sentences together), and are sometimes translated differently than when used as interrogative pronouns:
 * I think that's his house - Я думаю, что это его дом'

Как? Когда? Почему?
Как ('how'), когда ('when'), and почему ('why'), don't conjugate, and are used just like in English:
 * How did he do it? - Как он это сделал?
 * How do you get to the theatre? - Как пройти в театр?
 * When will you arrive? - Когда вы придёте?
 * Why doesn't he know? - Почему он не знает?
 * I don't know how he did it - Я не знаю, как он это сделал

There are a number of common colloquialisms that are standard beginner's phrases:
 * How do you do?/How're things? - Как дела?
 * What's your name?/What do they call you? - Как вас/тебя зовут? - literally, 'how you (they) call? '

Сколько? Какой? Чей?
This pronoun simply means 'how much' or 'how many':
 * How much does it cost? - Сколько стоит?
 * How much did you write? - Сколько вы написали?

Like other quantity words, it also commands the genitive case. It often calls the plural form of a noun:
 * How many apples? - Сколько яблок?
 * How much water? - Сколько воды?
 * How many women? - Сколько женщин?

The two adjectival pronouns, какой and чей, are also simple in use. Какой asks what category something belongs to, or which item of a set, while чей asks for the owner of something:
 * Whose cat is that? - Чья это кошка?
 * What kind of cat is that? - Какая это кошка?

/Сколько Какой Чей quiz/

Где? Куда? Откуда?
The penultimate set of pronouns relate to motion and location. The English 'Where?' can translate in two ways: 'Where are you?' and 'Where are you going?'. Где? asks the first, locative question, while куда asks the second, directional question. To ask specifically where someone has come from, use откуда.
 * Where do you live? - Где вы живёте?
 * Where are you walking to? - Куда вы идёте?
 * Where are you walking from? - Откуда вы идёте?

Который?
The primary meaning is simply 'which one?', though который is also used to ask about one particular thing in a sequence of similar things.
 * Which apple is mine? - Которое яблоко моё?
 * What time is it? - Который час?
 * Which book do you want? - Которую книгу вы хотите?

It can also be used as an adjective meaning 'who' or 'whom':
 * The woman (who) I'm friends with - Же́нщина, с кото́рой я дружу́
 * The man who changed the world - Человек, который изменил мир

Examples

 * к чему это? : What is it?

 * Что это? :What is this?

 * Кто они? :Who are they?

 * Куда идёт Иван? :Where is Ivan going?

 * Откуда вы? :Where are you from?

 * Когда Павел и Марина ездят к родителям? :When are Pavel and Marina going to (their) parents?

 * Где их родители жили раньше? :Where did their parents live before?

 * В каком доме они жили раньше? :In what kind of house did they live before?

title: Russian/Interrogative Pronouns


text:
Talk:German/Lesson 9

Untitled
I think this is all great work. But I do not see how it really differs from what we already have conceptually in the lesson layouts (Lessons 1-7). The "topic" (clothing/shopping for clothing) is really a theme, not the "topic". I would suggest that one topic (really a concept) you have brought into this lesson is that of separable verbs, modal verbs, irregular verbs. These are not in any way required or special to the theme, but are things you conciously or unconsciously see as points to bring up because there are good examples in the theme conversation. It is more sensible from a learning perspective to decide where these types of verbs should first be discussed in the book, then develop that lesson. Maybe that IS what you have done here, but your comments seem to suggest that this is somehow a good theme for the lesson on complex verb forms. But any theme could be used for that purpose. Since that is the case, it is better to lay out the grammar lessons in a sensible progression and then fit themes into the grammar lessons, not the other way around. When I read your suggestions I think you clearly understand the difference between themes and concepts; but you seem not to cover the fact that any concept has to have a certain amount of groundwork laid first (that is mostly what is happening in Lessons 1-5 now). For examplesd: In this lesson you introduce the accusative case, accusative case articles, and complex verb forms. It seems to me we already have subjects like accusative case (introduced with pronouns) and articles in various cases in the early lessons, but certainly could not start right out with complex verb forms before Lesson 5. Are you suggesting this as an early lesson or a lesson for beyond Lesson 6?

Also, I've tried to set up certain structural constants in the textbook: Vokabeln, Grammatik, Gespräche. These need to be followed as layout guides. They are pretty accommodating to any variety of things that can be fitted in, but you are suggesting just using a different structural element that may or may not offer improvement (just different). I'm reluctant to move too far away from the existing structure for the reason that a good deal of time and thought has gone into the layout. In this lesson, you have the Gespräche (two different ones) and several Grammatik, so in that sense the lesson follows the basic structure. The "1 Clothing Vocabulary Introduction" does not. However, it is the sort of thing that could be handled as in Lesson 3 where words (numbers) form the Lernen. I do not think this eliminates the need for a Vokabeln somewhere in the lesson. In fact, although the title says "Clothing Vokabulary" it is really just a list of nouns, and you have a separate section for "Clothing Vocabulary ~ Verbs" further down, then 3-3 "Clothing Vocabulary ~ Other Words" at the very bottom.

Your 3-3 Prices just sits there without any structural reason (concept) other than being two words related to shopping (should be in 1 at the top). Why not just make sure both words appear in the stories? Students should be clever enough to understand how "cheap" and "expensive" might fit into a shopping trip.

I have no problem with improving the book however you suggest it can use improvements, but you need to be very specific about problems that you encounter. Hansm also started out by stating everything was just too hard for a beginning student to comprehend, and then developed a nearly equally difficult lesson as an example of an improvement. The lesson was very good and I found places in the textbook to use it. And he was right about the early lesson difficulty; we all have worked towards making the early lessons easier, mostly by making the German sentences simpler and reducing vocabulary. I think there is still room for improvement there. But I disagree that any major structural change is called for. I have several textbooks (highschool and college) that I use to gage where concepts should be introduced. We are a bit ahead of the highschool level text at the moment, but just a little bit. One book I have does rely heavily on themes (as you suggest). It also has pages of naked German (that is no translations given in the text other than the vocabulary near the end of each chapter) in every lesson. In some cases, a German page is followed by an identical page in English. These are approaches I've not much used here. The college level text is strictly chapter by chapter on grammar topics: case, tense, verbs, prepositions, etc. Way too difficult to serve as a beginning textbook but a very good reference (the Appendices here can be more like this approach).

My conclusions: Themes are good. We can use them. We do not need to use them exclusively. We do need to have more simple German material to introduce the student to German: simple poems and stories, perhaps from the public domain. The most difficult thing to do is outline how grammar concepts are going to be introduced. Themes are a way to keep the material interesting, but the grammar concepts have to follow a logical progression. I may not have that progression down just right yet, but I think the book is close for the first 5 lessons.

Here are comments moved from off the page:

You are looking for shoes. You enter a shoe store and approach a sales clerk (do auf Deutsch; student already knows how to speak English - Marsh). I think this is an appropriate variation. Making it all German will only force us to add vocabulary and stall the lesson. Also, there is a need to keep the conversation basic and to the point. - SamE
 * Opportunities to add vocabulary related to your theme is not stalling the lesson. Student needs as much exemplary German material as we can squeeze in. Any student in a hurry can skip over whatever; but not likely to learn in that case. And I prefer to keep the other themes going that have been developed earlier; those involving characters in earlier lessons. That is one of the overall themes here. You should write a brief intro to this conversation in German as to what Katrin is going shopping for. That way you can squeeze in many of your other clothing nouns! It is not enough to just give the words. They should appear elsewhere in the lesson for reinforcement - Marsh 02:09, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * This book is a German - English book, not the other way around. We need to teach from the standpoint that we are translating English words, phrases, etc. into German. Too often, mainly because of the vocabulary system of presentation, are we simply translating a German sentence into English. We should be answering the questions like "How do you say...", not "What does that mean?", because it would take less explanation and you can stay on the subject. For example, if you simply give someone a paragraph in German and a vocabulary list, they would eventually ask you why it works that way, why the words have the endings they have and/or how you say that. If you teach them how to say something, then have them translate an English paragraph into German, they will ask only, "Is that right?". Then we can provide an answer key and the lesson will progress faster. Anyway, I think we should provide English in the text so they can know how you translate something into German, not try to figure out how you take something in German back into English, even though they may already know the English we give them. - SamE 00:24, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I agree with you up to a point. The fact is, that learning another language requires emersion in that language—preferrably in a speaking environment;secondarily in a written environment. Your "German - English" explanation is wrong. If it were English-German, the explanatory text would all be in German and the example sentences and stories would be in English with (in some cases) and without (in other cases) German translation. Pick up a texbook on this subject and you will see that the way I have set up the lessons is pretty standard. But of course we also need more English that the student must translate into German.  I have recently completed such an exercise at the bottom of Lesson 2. I have also observed in textbooks that the more advanced the course, the more material presented in the learning language without translation provided (My graduate level course in German was all stories in German - no translations except for footnote help with idiomatic phrases and the like). So your thoughts are probably more valid for the beginning German lessons you want to produce. Those would have, I suspect, close to a 1:1 ratio of German:English. All sentences would be given in both German and English, with perhaps short pieces in only German - Marsh 01:57, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * My point is, we are teaching people familiar with English German. We should tell them what the familiar English phrases mean ("How do you say...") rather than present them with German and set them at turning that into sensible English. The textbook I refer to and check back with often is a beginner's level one textbook from Holt Rinehart Winston. It is not really 1:1 with the English and German; one other thing they include is a lot of pictures instead of English words. Our biggest disadvantage that we have is that there is no teacher to explain things. I thought that we could have a Q&A page for students that are confused. They would type their question and we could answer it as if we were the teachers. Even other students could respond. - SamE 19:00, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Again, I think what you are describing is the approach you want to try with beginning German. Get that first lesson up a running and I will work out links from the cover/contents to it. If you want to include there a link to your email for Q&A you can try it, but I'm not prepared to respond to stray questions. And I point out that the book(s) are not likely to be much used until they get much closer to completion - a future event too far off for me to really contemplate 8^). But you can try it and see if you get questions - Marsh 17:16, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I started the first lesson; I see you've been to it. I also started a Q&A at German:Beginner's Q&A. It doesn't use my e-mail, rather, students can edit the page to ask questions. I agree with you that the book is not close to done, but it would be neat if people could ask questions about the development of the site, such as if there will be practice problems, as well. - SamE 23:19, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Yes, having the editablwe page should work and it would be neat if "students" would ask questions. Remember, most others can ask or comment about developmental stuff on the Talk: pages. I have been working on getting the books linked together in a logical way through their Level TOCs. - Marsh 00:55, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:German/Lesson 9


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/The one-to-one relationship

Introduction
In the previous chapter, some new features of XML schemas, documents, and stylesheets were introduced as well as how to model a one-to-many relationship. In this chapter, we will introduce the modeling of a one-to-one relationship in XML. We will also introduce more features of an XML schema.

A one-to-one (1:1) relationship
The following diagram shows a one-to-one and a one-to-many relationship. The one-to-one relationship records each country as a single top destination.

Exhibit 4-1: Data model for a 1:1 relationship

XML schema
A one-to-one (1:1) relationship is represented in the data model in Exhibit 4-1. The addition of country and destination to the data model allows the 1:1 relationship named topDestination. A country has many different destinations, but only one top destination. The XML schema in Exhibit 4-2 shows how to represent a 1:1 relationship in an XML schema.

XML schema example
Exhibit 4-2: XML Schema for a one-to-one relationship

New elements in schema
Let’s examine the new elements and attributes in the schema in Exhibit 4-2.
 * Country is a complex type defined in City to represent the 1:M relationship between a country and its cities.
 * Destination is a complex type defined in Country to represent the 1:M relationship between a country and its many destinations.
 * topDestination is a complex type defined in Country to represent the 1:1 relationship between a country and its top destination.

Restrictions in schema
Placing restrictions on elements was introduced in the previous chapter; however, there are more potentially useful restrictions that can be placed on an element. Restrictions can be placed on elements and attributes that affect how the processor handles whitespace characters:

White space & length constraints
The whiteSpace constraint is set to "preserve", which means that the XML processor will not remove any white space characters. Other useful restrictions include the following:

 * Replace – the XML processor will replace all whitespace characters with spaces.
 *

 * Collapse – The processor will remove all whitespace characters.
 *

 * Length, maxLength, minLength—the length of the element can be fixed or can have a predefined range.
 *
 *
 *

Order indicators
In addition to placing restrictions on elements, order indicators can be used to define in what order elements should occur.

All indicator
The indicator specifies by default that the child elements can appear in any order and that each child element must occur once and only once:

Choice indicator
The indicator specifies that either one child element or another can occur:

Sequence indicator
The indicator specifies that the child elements must appear in a specific order:

XML document
The XML document in Exhibit 4-3 shows how the new elements (country and destination) defined in the XML schema found in Exhibit 4-2 are used in an XML document. Note that the child elements of  can appear in any order because of the  order indicator used in the schema.

Exhibit 4-3: XML Document for a one-to-one relationship


text:
Mass Media/Newspapers

Newspapers are print media and/or the newsgathering organizations that produce them. Most conventional newspapers are published on a daily or weekly basis, and are meant to inform the general public about recent events, especially public affairs. Besides local, national or international news, papers often carry sports and entertainment features, opinion columns and advertising.

Newspapers may address a general audience, focus on a geographical area, or cover a specialized subject, such as newspapers for a specific profession, industry or interest. Newspapers traditionally are supported by selling advertising space as well as subscription or single-copy sales of the newspapers themselves. Through history, newspapers have sometimes been subsidized by organizations or interest groups, including political parties. Mass-circulation newspapers, such as those evolving in 19th century New York, attempt to appeal to a wider audience (and wider advertising market) than overtly partisan papers.

As the Internet's World Wide Web spread in the 1990s, newspaper companies established Web editions carrying stories from the print edition and, increasing in the next decade, original material. By 2009 this had blurred the distinction between the printed newspaper and the online newspaper. By 2009, some newspapers were shifting from daily print production to daily Web production with weekly printed editions. Some new Web-only publications adopted reporting and writing styles commonly associated with printed newspapers.

Newspaper advertising categories include:
 * "display ads" -- rectangular advertisements, often including images, usually for commercial products and services, or for delivery of issue-oriented or political messages.
 * "classified ads" -- (brief advertisements, often text-only, presented in column form by topic: items for sale, help wanted, personal messages, etc.
 * coupons -- small promotional ads that may be cut or torn out to be redeemed for a discount on a product.

Newspapers are the largest employers of print media.

About 40% of ad revenue for a newspaper comes from classifieds.

National events
National papers include USA Today and the Christian Science Monitor.

Local events
Newspapers are a populace's main source of local news.

Editorials
Editorial pages exist solely to display opinions, usually on political matters. They're kept separate from other areas of the newspaper because the opinions aren't meant to represent the newspaper so much as they are meant as a public forum. An editorial page may consist of political cartoons, letters sent by readers, or a persuasive article.

Examples
UK: Daily Mail, The Times, The Guardian

Italy: Reppublica, Corriere della Sera

France: L'Équipe

There are hundreds of national and regional newspaper but most of them you can only find in it's country or region(state).

title: Mass Media/Newspapers


text:
Dichotomous Key

This e-book can help with the identification of unknown organisms or species. The method adopted uses mostly a dichotomous key based on two choices, which is either in written format or pictographic, or both. For convenience, there may be polytomous sections within the book.

A written dichotomous key presents the reader with two statements that describe certain characteristics. The statements should be mutually exclusive for the key to work efficiently. For example, 'it is either red or it isn't'. On selecting one, the reader is presented with the next couplet choice in the key and so on - to eventually arrive at an identification. This key uses hyperlinks to navigate.

Classification with keys
Taxonomic systems are based on similar characteristics or increasingly on DNA analysis. The systems attempt to model the natural order, thus helping research by classifying different organisms. Taxonomic systems vary, but the following system has been found useful:
 * Domain
 * Kingdom
 * Phylum (called Division in plants)
 * Class
 * Order
 * Family
 * Genus
 * Species

There are many sub units in use.

Keys usually start with a first selection from the following:
 * Plantae - Plants. Typically multicellular, sessile organisms. Their cells have walls composed of cellulose. They are autotrophs, and photosynthesize (with exceptions).
 * Animalia- Animals. Typically multicellilar, motile organisms. They lack rigid cell walls and are heterotrophic (with exceptions).
 * Protista - (A contested group of around 40 phyla of eukaryotic organisms) Typically simple, eukaryotic unicellular microorganisms or multicellular microorganisms without specialized tissues.
 * Fungi - Include yeast and molds. Typically eukaryotic, multicellular organisms. Like plants, they are sessile, but unlike plants they lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic (with exceptions).
 * Bacteria - Ubiquitous, single-celled prokaryotes a few microns in size, with varying morphology.
 * Archaea - Relatively small group of single-celled prokaryotes more closely related to the eukaryotes than to the bacteria.

How the key works

 * 1) Go to start
 * 2) Use choices given to arrive at the lowest possible level
 * 3) Organism is identified as much as possible

If the description at each level does not appear accurate then back up to some earlier couplet and start over, questioning each decision more carefully. Finally, a verification step is important by comparing the specimen with any further details available including description,photographs and other reference. The habitat and location where the sample was collected is useful for plants. If the description and other information satisfactorily confer, then a correct identification is possible.

Start Here
Which Kingdom does it belong to?

 * Animalia
 * Plant
 * /Fungi/
 * /Protista/
 * /Bacteria/
 * /Archaea/
 * Unknown

Animalia
Does it live underwater or mostly underwater?
 * Yes
 * No

Plantae
What kind of plant is it?

 * Hornwort
 * Liverwort
 * Moss
 * Fern or Fern Ally
 * Cycad
 * Ginkgo
 * Conifer
 * Flowering Plant
 * Unknown

Aquatic Animal
What kind of animal is it?

 * Alligator
 * Barnacle
 * Comb jelly
 * Coral
 * Crocodile
 * Fish
 * Frog
 * Jellyfish
 * Krill
 * Mammal
 * Sea Anemone
 * Shark
 * Sponge
 * Starfish
 * Stingray
 * Toad
 * Turtle

 * Crab (Brachyura) also anomural (hermit crabs)
 * Lobster or Crayfish (Astacidea) also achelata
 * Shrimp (Dendrobranchiata & Caridea), also Cumacea, Stomatopoda, and Stenopodidea (just in case)

 * Other

Terrestrial Animal

 * Alligator
 * Bird
 * Bug
 * Crocodile
 * Frog
 * Insect
 * Lizard
 * Mammal
 * Salamander
 * Slug
 * Snail
 * Salamander
 * Snake
 * Toad
 * Turtle

 * Other

 * Scorpion (Scorpiones), also Palpigradi, Amblypygi, Solifugae, Thelyphonida, Schizomida, and maybe Pseudoscorpionida just in case

Fish
What kind of fish is it?

(Osteichthyes): Actinopterygii & Sarcopterygii, but also lampreys (Myxini) and hagfish (Petromyzontida)

Bird
What kind of bird is it?

 * Albatross
 * Cassowary
 * Chicken
 * Crane
 * Cuckoo
 * Dove
 * Duck
 * Emu
 * Flamingo
 * Goose
 * Grouse
 * Hummingbird
 * Kiwi
 * Loon
 * Ostrich
 * Partridge
 * Penguin
 * Pheasant
 * Pigeon
 * Quail
 * Rhea
 * Stork
 * Swan
 * Turkey

 * Other bird

Insect
What kind of insect is it?

 * Ant
 * Ant lion
 * Bee
 * Beetle
 * Bristletail
 * Butterfly
 * Centipede
 * Cicada
 * Cricket
 * Damselfly
 * Dragonfly
 * Earwig
 * Flea
 * Fly
 * Grasshopper
 * Katydid
 * Louse
 * Mantis
 * Mayfly
 * Millipede
 * Mite
 * Moth
 * Pillbug
 * Roach
 * Silverfish
 * Spider
 * Stick bug
 * Tick
 * Wasp

 * Unknown

Lizard
What kind of lizard is it?

 * Chameleon
 * Gekko
 * Gila monster
 * Iguana
 * Monitor lizard
 * Skink
 * Other lizard

Shark

 * Shark: Upper jaws not fused to skull; Has only one anal/urogenital opening; Has many sharp, replaceable teeth; Gill covering absent.

 * Chimaera: Upper jaws are fused with skull; has separate anal and urogenital openings; Only three pairs of large, permanent grinding tooth plates; Has a gill covering similar to that of bony fishes.

The keys in Wikibooks are still under development. A raw list is given below:

 * /Animalia/
 * /Annelida/
 * /Hirudinea/
 * /Arthropoda/
 * /Hexapoda/
 * /Hemiptera/
 * /Coleoptera/
 * /Dermaptera/
 * /Lepidoptera/
 * /Neuroptera/
 * /Odonata/
 * /Orthoptera/
 * /Myriapoda/
 * /Arachnida/
 * /Acari/
 * /Parasitiformes/
 * /Chordata/
 * /Amphibia/
 * /Chondrichthyes/
 * /Selachimorpha/
 * /Dipnoi/
 * /Petromyzonidae/
 * /Reptilia/
 * /Testudines/
 * /Aves/
 * /Passeriformes/
 * /Anseriformes/
 * /Mammalia/
 * /Carnivora/
 * /Ursidae/
 * /Cetacea/
 * /Chiroptera/
 * /Lagomorpha/
 * /Marsupialia/
 * /Monotremata/
 * /Perissodactyla/
 * /Placentalia/
 * /Primates/
 * /Hominoidea/
 * /Hominidae/
 * /Homininae/
 * /Proboscidea/
 * /Sirenia/
 * /Cnidaria/
 * /Mollusca/
 * /Cephalopoda/
 * /Octopoda/
 * /Bolitaenidae/
 * /Tremoctopididae/
 * /Oegopsida/
 * /Porifera/
 * /Rotifera/
 * /Urochordata/
 * /Archaea/
 * /Bacteria/
 * /Protista/
 * /Fungi/
 * /Plantae/
 * /Lycopodiophyta/
 * /Magnoliophyta/ or Angiospermae
 * Psilotophyta
 * Psilotopsida
 * Psilotales
 * Psilotaceae

Dichotomický klíč

title: Dichotomous Key


text:
Dichotomous Key/Mammalia

1

 * Birth
 * Eggs - ../Monotremata/
 * Live birth - 2

2

 * Development of young
 * In a marsupium - ../Marsupialia/
 * In a uterus with a placenta - ../Placentalia/

title: Dichotomous Key/Mammalia


text: Talk:Scouting/BSA/Insect Study Merit Badge


text:
Dichotomous Key/Cetacea

1

 * Teeth present
 * No, has baleen plates -
 * Yes -

2: Mysticeti

 * Series of longitudinal folds of skin running from below the mouth back to the navel
 * Present -
 * Not present -

3

 * Gumline
 * White - Caperea marginata
 * Other color -

4: Balaenopteridae

 * Hump on back
 * Present - Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae
 * Not present - ../Balaenoptera/

5

 * Callositities
 * Numerous - ../Eubalaena/
 * Few - Eschrichtius robustus

title: Dichotomous Key/Cetacea


text:
Slovene

Slovene is a South Slavic language spoken by roughly 2 million people in Slovenia (long considered to be the northernmost province of Yugoslavia) and in the border regions with northeastern Italy and southern Austria. It is closely related to Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian and Bulgarian, to which it is mutually intelligible to a wide extent in manner similar between Spanish, Catalan, and Galician and Portuguese in the Iberian Peninsula.

Slovene, like almost every Slavic language, is a very tricky language to learn for speakers of Germanic languages (like English and German). It is highly inflected, that is, nouns, numbers, and adjectives decline according to gender (masculine, feminine and neutral) and number. Unlike the closely-related Serbo-Croatian, which is the only Slavic language that uses both Latin and Cyrillic alphabets and to which it's often compared to, Slovene only uses the Latin script with the same characters and diagraphs used by the aforementioned language. What makes Slovene stand out from others is that, not only it uses singular and plural, but it also uses the dual number system. In other words, there are verb conjugations, noun declinations and adjectives meant for two people or two groups, while the plural is meant for three and above. Of all the Balto-Slavic Languages, only Sorbian (found in what's popularly called East Germany, near the border with Poland) and Lithuanian retain the dual system inherited from old Slavonic. Slovene is often described as the true Romantic language because in Slovene it is possible to distinguish between we (plural) meaning a group of people including yourself and we (dual) meaning one other person and yourself.

There are a total six noun cases in Slovene, like most Slavic languages. Slovene uses both Latin and Slavic names for case, both correct and interchangeably used: nominative (imenovalnik), accusative (akuzativ-tožilnik), genitive (genitiv-rodilnik), dative (dative-dajalnik), locative (lokativ-mestnik), and instrumental (instrumental-orodnik).

This textbook will made under the assumption that the reader has, at least, some basic knowledge of Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croatian or any other Slavic language. If you do have some familiarity with these languages, you'll be surprised how closely related they are how their grammar structures are almost identical. A knowledge of some Old Church Slavonic (old Bulgarian) will help understand the dual number system.

SlovenianGrammar

 * Nouns
 * Masculine Declination
 * First Female Declination
 * Second Feminine Declination
 * Neuter Declination
 * Cases
 * Imenovalnik
 * Rodilnik
 * Dajalnik
 * Tožilnik
 * Mestnik
 * Orodnik
 * Numerals
 * Verbs
 * Basic Forms
 * Infinitive
 * Participles
 * Tenses
 * Present Tense
 * Past Tense
 * Future Tense.
 * List of Verbs
 * Common Verbs

Slovenian lesson

 * Lesson 1: Pronunciation and greetings
 * Lesson 2
 * Lesson 3
 * Lesson 4
 * Lesson 5
 * Lesson 6
 * Lesson 7
 * Lesson 8
 * Lesson 9
 * Lesson 10
 * Lesson 11
 * Lesson 12
 * Lesson 13
 * Lesson 14
 * Lesson 15

title: Slovene


text:
Dichotomous Key/Animalia

Key to Animalia

 * 1: Single-celled organism.
 * 2: Multi-cellular organism.

1
incomplete

Single cell protists

2

 * 3: Specialized cells absent, though different types of cells may be present. Digestive cavity absent. Muscles, nerves, and organs absent. Parazoa.
 * 4: Specialized cells present. Digestive cavity present. Muscles, nerves, and organs present in some form. True tissues organized into germ layers. Enterozoa.

3: Parazoa

 * Placozoa: Simple tissues present.
 * Porifera: Simple tissues absent.

4: Eumetazoa

 * 5: Hollow body cavity present. Radially symmetric body. Aquatic. Colonial or solitary. Respiration and excretion accomplished by diffusion.
 * 6: Body cavity not hollow. Radially or bilateral body symmetry. Aquatic, terrestrial or both. Mostly solitary.

5

 * Cnidaria: Cnidocytes present; Medusa and polyp form; Incomplete digestive system.
 * Ctenophora: Sticky prey-capturing colloblast cells present; Medusa form only; Complete digestive system.

6

 * Chordate: Possesses a notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, or an endostyle, for at least some period of its life cycle.
 * 7: Notochord, a hollow dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, and an endostyle absent during entire life cycle.

7

 * Echinoderm: Adults have radial symmetry. Inhabitants of salt water.
 * 8: Adults have bilateral symmetry. Inhabitants of fresh water, salt water, or dry land.

8

 * Ecdysozoa: Exoskeleton shed during life cycle.
 * 9: Exoskeleton absent, or not shed during life cycle.

9
incomplete

Orthonectida, Rhombozoa, Acoelomorpha, Chaetognatha, Hemichordata, Xenoturbellida, Platyzoa, Lophotrochozoa

Clés dichotomiques/Animalia

title: Dichotomous Key/Animalia


text:
Cookbook:Special Diets

Food is an individual preference, but often there are medical reasons for choosing a particular special diet. Other people are trying to lose or maintain weight, or dealing with food allergies, or have ethical or religious preferences that dictate the foods they will eat. The following is a list of major diets and the reasons for following those diets.

 * Atkins Diet Cooking (Weight-loss; Low Carb)
 * Caloric Restriction with Optimal Nutrition (General health, life-extension)
 * Eat Clean Diet (Weight-loss; No preservatives)
 * Gluten-Free (Wheat-, barley-, and rye-free)
 * High Protein Diet (Weight-loss)
 * Halal food (Religious)
 * Karma Free (Religious)
 * Kosher food (Religious)
 * Lactose-free Cooking (Allergies; free of unfermented and untreated milk)
 * Low-allergen Cooking (Allergies)
 * Low Carb Cooking
 * Low-fat Cooking (General Health)
 * Low-GI Diet (Diabetic)
 * Low-sodium Cooking (General Health)
 * Macrobiotic Cooking (General Health)
 * Paleolithic (Paleo) Diet (General Health)
 * Pritikin Cooking (Weight-loss)
 * Raw Diet (Ethical; Religious; General health)
 * South Beach Diet Cooking (Weight-loss; Low-GI/GL)
 * Vegetarian cuisine (Ethical; Religious; General Health)
 * Vegan cuisine (Ethical; Religious; General Health)
 * Weight Watchers Recipes (Weight-loss)

ספר מתכונים/דיאטות מיוחדות Kookboek/Speciaal dieet

title: Cookbook:Special Diets


text:
Dichotomous Key/Chordata

1

 * Vertebrae
 * Present -
 * Not present -

2

 * Feeding method
 * Filter - Urochordata
 * Jawless, sucking mouth - Myxini

3

 * No options yet

4

 * Jaw
 * Present -
 * Not present - Petromyzontidae

5

 * Skeletal material
 * Cartilage - Chondrichthyes
 * Bone -

6

 * Primary habitat (does not include secondary aquatic animals such as newts, aquatic snakes, whales, dolphins, ....)
 * Aquatic -
 * Terrestrial or amphibious -

7

 * Metamorphosis (not within egg or womb)
 * Present - Amphibia
 * Not present -

8

 * Scales
 * Present - Reptilia
 * Not present -

9

 * Feathered wings
 * Present - Aves
 * Not present - Mammalia

10

 * Fins
 * Lobed -
 * Rayed - Actinopterygii

11: Sarcopterygii

 * Ability to breathe air
 * Present - Dipnoi
 * Not present - Actinistia

title: Dichotomous Key/Chordata


text:
Modern Greek/Contents

Welcome to the Wikibook course on Greek. Please read the Introduction before beginning.

Table of Contents
There will be two ways of using this wikibook. You may wish to learn in a lesson-style way, with knowledge organised from the easier- to the harder-to-learn material, or you may want to look for a specific topic using the table of contents, which is organised by topics rather to difficulty. Either way, we recommend the reading of the introduction.

About Greek / Για τα Ελληνικά
The Greek Language (Η Ελληνική γλώσσα) is an Indo-European language with a documented history of some 3,000 years. Ancient Greek in its various forms was the language both of classical Greek civilisation and of the origins of Christianity, and was a first or second language over a large part of the Roman Empire. It has been studied in schools and universities in many countries from the Renaissance onwards. Modern Greek, which differs in many ways from Ancient Greek but is still recognisably the same language, is spoken by approximately 12 million speakers worldwide, most of whom live in Greece and Cyprus. Greek is traditionally written in the Greek Alphabet.

This wikibook pretends to discuss and expose Modern Greek.

See also Ancient Greek, Koine Greek.

Alphabet / Αλφάβητο
The Greek Language was one of the first written languages in all world. The script used had some peculiarities not observed today: for instance, the vowels were not written, and one needed to guess or to know their specific place inside the word. This alphabet has been evolving, through contact with other cultures and through the simple action of the time, until it became what it is today. Amongst the Greek alphabet, we can spot some (or even many) similarities with the Latin (or Roman) one. The alphabet used nowadays has 24 letters: 7 vowels and 17 consonants.

Besides the alphabet, there is also an accent ( ´ ) and a diaresis( ¨ ). The use of these two diacritics is discussed in the next section.

Pronunciation of the Alphabet
Greek sounds are, in general, soft. As a major rule, each letter carries a single sound (this is not universal, but almost, as we'll see later in this page). As in the previous chapter, we see here a table with the various letters. This time, the columns represent not the name, but the approximate sound of the letters.

Note: The letter Γγ is the most difficult to pronounce for an English speaker: it is like a stronger h, simultaneous with the vibration of the vocal cords; in other words, it is the voiced counterpart of the χ. Before e and i vowels, it is pronounced as a y like in the word yes.

Diphthongs
Diphthongs are combinations of two vowels that function as a unique sound. Note that in Modern Greek, the word Diphthong (δίφθογγος) is also used for combination of vowels that sound like a simple vowel (digraphs). There are eight diphthongs in Modern Greek. There are also some similar combinations of consonants:

Accent and Dieresis
Most Greek words have a stressed syllable which is the syllable said with more strength: for instance, in the english words comfort and peculiarity, the stressed syllables are com and ar, respectively.

In all other words (those with two or more syllables), an accent ( ΄ ) is used above the syllable to mark the stress. In most one-syllable words, the accent is omitted. When the stress falls on a syllable that has a diphthong, the accent is used above the last letter of this diphthong. Thus, the accents are as shown on these words: Παύλος (Paul) ou γυναίκα (woman).

If the accent is put on the first vowel of a diphthong, it is pronounced as two separate vowels rather than as a diphthong, as in the word ρολόι (watch or clock), which has three syllables, not two. On the other hand, if the diphthong is pronounced as two vowels but the accent falls on second vowel, the dieresis ( ¨ ) is used, as in the word Εβραϊκός (Hebrew).

There are, however, some words that aren't stressed (usually monosyllabic gramatical words), and these don't have an accent. Words like these are read as affixes added to the main word. Examples:
 * ο (the masc.) "Ο πατέρας" (The father) is read as if it were a single word - aw-pah-TE-ras;
 * μου (my), "Ο πατέρας μου" (My father) is also read as if it were a single word - aw-pa-TE-raz-mu.

Every stressed word with more than one syllable carries an accent. However, there are monosyllabic words that also have accent, like ή (or) and πού (where). This accent has a double function:
 * It distinguishes words that, otherwise, would be equal - η (the fem.) and που (that, which);
 * It marks words as strong, unlike their weak comparing counterparts.

Lessons / Μαθήματα

 * 1) Good Morning! / Καλημέρα!

Table of Contents

 * 1) Grammar / Γραμματική:
 * 2) *Grammatical Categories / Κατηγορία της Γραμματικής
 * 3) *Number, Gender and Case / Αριθμός, Γένος και Πτώση
 * 4) *Articles /n Άρθρα
 * 5) *Nouns / Ουσιαστικά
 * 6) *Adjectives / Επίθετα
 * 7) *Pronouns / Αντωνυμίες
 * 8) *Verbs / Ρήματα
 * 9) *Participles / Μετοχές
 * 10) *Adverbs / Επιρήματα
 * 11) *Prepositions / Προθέσεις
 * 12) *Conjunctios /
 * 13) Vocabulary / Λεξιλόγιο
 * 14) Notes / Σημειώσεις

External Links / Εξωτερικές Διευθύνσεις

 * Translatum The most exhaustive list of free Greek resources ranging from on-line / downloadable dictionaries to Grammars and Learning material.
 * Learn Greek on the Web! Links to online Greek resources.
 * Textkit Large PDFs of out of copyright Greek and Latin textbooks.
 * LearnGreek Online A complete course in learning Greek online.

title: Modern Greek/Contents


text:
Template:General Biology/TOC

 General Biology  | Getting Started | Cells | Genetics | Classification | Evolution | Tissues & Systems | Additional Material

ms:Templat:BioAsas

title: Template:General Biology/TOC


text:
General Biology/Getting Started

A reaction

title: General Biology/Getting Started


text: General Biology/Cells

title: General Biology/Cells


text: General Biology/Genetics

title: General Biology/Genetics


text:
General Biology/Classification of Living Things

 * See also Dichotomous Key >>


text: General Biology/Tissues and Systems

title: General Biology/Tissues and Systems


text:
Template:General Biology/TOC2

 General Biology  | Getting Started | Cells | Genetics | Classification | Evolution | Tissues & Systems | Additional Material

title: Template:General Biology/TOC2


text:
General Biology/Additional Material

This page is links to modules that were not included in the original notes donated by Drs. Doerder and Gibson and need to be organized into the rest of the material in a logical way.

Additional material

 * Gallery of Biologists
 * Glossary
 * References
 * Authors

title: General Biology/Additional Material


text:
Cookbook:Celery

Celery is a green vegetable. For the root vegetable, see celery root. For the spice, see celery seed.

Characteristics
Celery comes in bunches of long, light green stalks attached together at the base and topped by green leaves. As you get to the center of the bunch, the stalks and leaves get smaller and paler. Each stalk is curved, watery, and very crunchy, with long stringy fibers running from top to bottom. The flavor of celery is slightly bitter but characteristically aromatic.

Selection and storage
Look for celery bunches that are tightly packed, firm, and not droopy or rubbery. Avoid woody, bruised, or damaged-seeming stalks. The leaves, if present, should look fresh and not wilted. Once home, store celery in the fridge, loosely wrapped in plastic to prevent dryness but avoid rot. If the stalks get droopy, try reviving them by placing stem-down in a glass of water.

Preparation
Prepare the stalks by separating them and slicing off the very bottoms. Because many people find the strings unpleasant to eat, they can be dealt with in a couple ways. The first way is to snap the bottom and pull each string out individually. Alternatively, peeling the exterior works to expose and remove them. If you don't want to remove them entirely, slicing the stalks crosswise shortens the fibers and makes them less obtrusive.

Use
Celery can be eaten raw or cooked, on its own or in other dishes. When raw, it is most appreciated for the crunchy texture it contributes. As such, it is often a part of crudité platters, eaten with dips, or incorporated into fresh salads. In cooked dishes, it primarily contributes aromatic flavor, as in its use to make broth and stock—even older celery whose texture is less appealing can be used to make a good stock. It can also be braised or stir-fried. The leaves can be used for garnish or as an herb, somewhat like parsley.

title: Cookbook:Celery


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Cookbook:Apple

Apples are the fruit of Malus domestica, and they are a very important food in all cooler climates. They are related to, but not interchangeable with crabapples. To a greater degree than other tree fruit, except possibly citrus, apples store for months while still retaining much of their nutritive value. Winter apples, picked in late fall and stored just above freezing in a cellar or "fruit room" have been an important food in Europe and the USA since the 1800s.

Characteristics
Domesticated apples have a firm flesh and thin, edible skin that is usually green, red, yellow, pink, or some combination thereof. The flesh surrounds a tough core, which contains the seeds.

Flavor
Apples tend to be sweet with sour notes, depending on the cultivar. Apple cultivars specific for cider production tend to be too sour to eat on their own. Green apples may have a grassy flavor. Some unusual cultivars have unique flavor profiles, such as the Egremont Russet with its richly nutty flavor.

Cultivation
Most modern apple breeding has focused on high yield and commercial presentability—uniformity of color, size and shape, and the ability to withstand transport with minimal bruising—with little thought given to eating quality. Many newly developed apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Old cultivars are often richly flavored, but are commercially nonviable due to low yield, poor transportability, and poor appearance, often being oddly shaped, and russeted and have a variety of textures and colors. Some old cultivars are still produced on a large scale, but many have been kept alive by home gardeners and farmers that sell directly to local markets. Apple conservation campaigns have sprung up around the world to preserve such local heirlooms from extinction.

Cultivars
There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples. Some of the most common commercial apple cultivars include:

 * Braeburn (Australia, New Zealand)
 * Cox's Orange Pippin (Britain, New Zealand - old cultivar, but still very popular)
 * Fuji (Asia, Australia, North America)
 * Gala (Australia, New Zealand)
 * Golden Delicious (United States, Europe)
 * Granny Smith (Australia, California)
 * Jonagold (United States)
 * Jonathan (United States)
 * McIntosh (Canada, United States)
 * Red Delicious (Australia, United States)
 * Winesap (United States)

Firmer apples are suitable when appearance is important. Softer apples and those with higher malic acid content will break down more easily.

Seasonality
In the northern hemisphere, the apple season starts in July with the early cultivars, which are harvested until August. Later cultivars are harvested until October. Since apples store exceptionally well under refrigeration, they are available out of season without much effort or loss of flavor.

Apples do not flower in tropical climates because they have a chilling requirement.

Selection and storage
Select apples with no breaks in their skin or dented/bruised spots. They should be firm and crisp, with no soft spots or mealiness. Avoid any signs of decay or rot. Summer apples keep poorly and should be used relatively quickly. At home, fall varieties will store well in a cold place for 6 weeks. Air circulation will delay spoilage.

Preparation
Apple skins may be left on or removed with a peeler, depending on use and preference. For the most part, apple cores must be removed prior to use in cooking, as they are tough and contain seeds with cyanide compounds. Cores can be separated out using a dedicated coring tool or by cutting the flesh away from the core. Alternatively, the apple can be quartered and a paring knife used to trim the core from each quarter.

If you want to prevent cut apples from browning, coat them with an acidic liquid such as citrus juice and/or keep away from oxygen.

Uses
Apples can be processed and cooked in a variety of ways. The unfiltered juice of apples is known as apple cider, and it can be further processed into a clear apple juice. Apple cider can also be used to make fermented ("hard") cider, vinegar, and cider syrup. Hard cider can also be distilled into applejack and Calvados.

Apples are an important ingredient in many fall and winter desserts, including apple pie, apple crumble, and apple cake. Whole apples are often eaten baked or stewed, and they can also be dried for later use. Cooked, puréed apples are generally known as applesauce, and they are also made into apple butter and apple jelly. Apples pair well with many meat dishes, as the acidity cuts through the fat and lends brightness.

title: Cookbook:Apple


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Cookbook:Cauliflower

Cauliflower is a vegetable in the cabbage family. It is very similar in appearance to broccoli, but with a different flavor.

Characteristics
As it is technically and immature flower, cauliflower takes the form of a large textured globe shape called a head. Like broccoli, the head is made of multiple branching florets on a central stalk, and it has large cabbagelike leaves at the base of this stalk. The florets are white in color—though they can also come in purple or yellow varieties—with a very mild flavor. When raw, cauliflower has a crunchy texture and watery flavor that softens and mellows when cooked. All parts of the cauliflower are edible.

Selection and storage
When selecting cauliflower, look for heads that are firm and dense, with no sliminess. Small brown speckles are acceptable if not widespread, as they can be trimmed off. The buds at the tips of the florets should be tightly closed with no dryness or signs of blooming. The leaves should be green and fresh, again with no sliminess. Store cauliflower in the fridge, wrapped in plastic, where it will keep well for about 3 weeks.

Preparation
To prepare cauliflower for cooking, begin by slicing off the outer leaves at the base of the stalk. If there is a particularly tough or woody base, slice this off as well, and remove any brown or discolored parts. From here, use the tip of a sharp knife to begin separating the florets from the central stalk, breaking them down into the size and shape called for by your recipe. You will eventually be left with the central stalk, which can be trimmed/peeled and eaten as well. If you want to eat the leaves, remove the central rib on each one, as it is tough and usually unappetizing.

Some recipes call for cauliflower rice or cauliflower couscous. These refer to cauliflower where the very tips of the florets are sliced off, producing small grains similar in appearance to rice or couscous.

Use
Because it is quite mild, cauliflower can be cooked in a variety of ways, taking well to many flavors and cooking techniques. If you want to keep the original flavor, steaming and boiling are the best options. From there, it can be readily incorporated into salads. Roasting cauliflower is a great way to concentrate and develop the flavor, and it also takes well to soups, stews, curries, and rich gratins. Sometimes cauliflower is pickled, typically to be sold with pickled onions and pickled cucumbers. If working with a colored variety, try cooking it with like colors to prevent color loss and leaching—for example, yellow cauliflower is complemented by turmeric, and purple cauliflower can be cooked with red wine and beets.

title: Cookbook:Cauliflower


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Cookbook talk:Cauliflower

Legend: (cur) = difference with current version, (last) = difference with preceding version, M = minor edit

* (cur) (last). . M 10:31, 29 Feb 2004. . Elinnea (sv:) * (cur) (last). . 19:43, 10 Jan 2004. . Fuzheado (POV - took out "nutritious garden" vegetable, nutritious) * (cur) (last). . M 17:45, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Made higher (you've no idea how fun this is)) * (cur) (last). . M 17:43, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Made closer) * (cur) (last). . 17:42, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Aligned photograph) * (cur) (last). . 17:24, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony * (cur) (last). . 17:20, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony * (cur) (last). . M 17:10, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (link United States Department of Agriculture) * (cur) (last). . 17:09, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (rm stray bracket; spacing; npov) * (cur) (last). . M 17:08, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (rm accidental double link) * (cur) (last). . 17:07, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony * (cur) (last). . 17:06, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony * (cur) (last). . M 17:04, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Fixed links) * (cur) (last). . 16:59, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Uncapitalized several words; wikified) * (cur) (last). . M 16:53, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (full size and ripened fully->full size and ripeness) * (cur) (last). . 16:49, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthere (removing usuable, that's pov) * (cur) (last). . 16:46, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthere (please cite your source) * (cur) (last). . 16:43, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (but be diligent->but they are careful) * (cur) (last). . 16:41, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthere (the cauliflower is not good, but is important) * (cur) (last). . 16:37, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony (removed "good") * (cur) (last). . M 16:36, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthere (informing dangerously mislead people) * (cur) (last). . M 16:35, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (rv) * (cur) (last). . 16:35, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthere (informing dangerously mislead people) * (cur) (last). . 16:34, 10 Jan 2004. . Fuzheado (rv, and remove "garden" too because it can be grown outside garden. What about the children?!) * (cur) (last). . 16:32, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (rv, "most of the vegetables" is poor grammar caused by eating boiled cauliflower with insufficient brain nutrients) * (cur) (last). . 16:30, 10 Jan 2004. . Fuzheado (rv, nutritious POV will cause millions of school children to overcomsume this vegtable, drawn to its incredible nutirtious benefits) * (cur) (last). . M 16:27, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Formatted) * (cur) (last). . 16:27, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (revert: stop reverting to your blindingly obvious POV, you are damaging the reputation of this sensitive vegetable) * (cur) (last). . 16:25, 10 Jan 2004. . Fuzheado (remove blatant, obvious, biased and dangerous POV) * (cur) (last). . M 16:20, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony (s) * (cur) (last). . M 16:19, 10 Jan 2004. . Chris Roy (Slight rewording ) * (cur) (last). . 16:16, 10 Jan 2004. . Anthony (NPOV) * (cur) (last). . 16:09, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (how is that POV? It's a fact.) * (cur) (last). . 15:18, 10 Jan 2004. . Fuzheado (NPOV more?) * (cur) (last). . M 14:42, 10 Jan 2004. . Silsor (npov) * (cur) (last). . 09:26, 25 Nov 2003. . Rmhermen * (cur) (last). . M 08:03, 7 Nov 2003. . Zoicon5 * (cur) (last). . 23:18, 26 Aug 2003. . Marshman (Copy edit; fix link >> cabbage) * (cur) (last). . 04:20, 1 Jun 2003. . Hofoen (lat. author) * (cur) (last). . M 18:54, 7 Apr 2003. . Bryan Derksen (formatting and a touch of NPOV) * (cur) (last). . M 15:04, 2 Jan 2003. . Islandboy99 (minor copyediting) * (cur) (last). . M 14:58, 2 Jan 2003. . PierreAbbat (Brassica) * (cur) (last). . 14:39, 2 Jan 2003. . 64.228.104.73

title: Cookbook talk:Cauliflower


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Cookbook:Cilantro

Cilantro is the fresh leafy part of the coriander plant. Particularly outside the USA, cilantro may go by other names including dhania, coriander leaves, Chinese parsley, or Mexican parsley.

Characteristics
Much like parsley, cilantro takes the form of bright green, feathery leaf bunches on long thin stalks. It is very aromatic, pungent, and somewhat citrussy, although a subset of the population has a genetic variation that makes them unpleasantly sensitive to cilantro's flavor.

Selection and storage
Cilantro does not dry well, so it is best to purchase it fresh. Look for bunches that are bright green and unwilted, with no slimy parts. It is best stored in the refrigerator or in a glass of water for up to a few days, after which it will start to wilt and degrade. To freeze cilantro, either blanch and drain the leaves or store them in oil. Make sure to wash cilantro before use to remove any residual grit.

Use
Fresh cilantro is an important ingredient in some Asian and South American cuisines. Chopped cilantro is also used as a garnish on many cooked dishes, much in the way of parsley. Cilantro should never itself be cooked as heat quickly destroys its delicate flavor.

Substitution
Depending on the desired use, a couple options exist as substitutions for cilantro. If you're after the flavor, culantro has a very similar aromatic profile. If you're looking for a garnish, flat-leaf parsley looks very similar and can be used pretty much identically.

title: Cookbook:Cilantro


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Cookbook:Coriander

Coriander is a spice from the same plant that produces cilantro, also known as "coriander leaf".

Characteristics
The spice takes the form of round, tan seeds—technically seed pods—with a fragrant aroma when crushed. The characteristic aroma is different from that of cilantro, with elements of orange/lemon peel, sage, caraway, and pine.  The seeds are usually dried but can be eaten green.

Selection and storage
If the spice is bought whole in a non-dried form, it can be dried in the sun. Most commonly, however, it is bought in its dried form, either whole or ground. Store coriander in a tightly sealed container away from sunlight and heat. For maximum flavour, grind only right before use, use within 6 months, and keep for no more than 1 year.

Use
Coriander is commonly used in Latin American, West-, South-, and South-east Asian cooking. The seeds are a key ingredient in Indian curries and garam masala, along with other spice mixes. It is also used in Ethiopian and Arabic cooking, and it can sometimes flavor baked goods and liqueurs.

If working with whole seeds, they can be briefly roasted or heated in a dry pan to enhance the aroma before grinding in an electric grinder or mortar and pestle. It is also recommended to cook the seeds in oil to help release the fat-soluble flavors.

title: Cookbook:Coriander