text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/First Task

Overview
The First Task of the Triwizard Tournament is to retrieve a golden egg from the nest of a dragon.

Event Details
The initial briefing for the First Task is done immediately after the selection of the Champions, on 31 October. This briefing is very sketchy, as the intent of the Task is in part 'designed to test your daring.' To that end, the judge who is doing the briefing of the candidates, Mr. Crouch, states that they will not know what they will be facing until the date of the Task.

Shortly before the Task, Hagrid asks Harry to come visit him, with his Invisibility Cloak. With an invisible Harry in tow, Hagrid collects Madame Maxime, the headmistress of Beauxbatons, and they walk around the edge of the Forbidden Forest to a spot where they can see a large corral. In the corral are four dragons. Harry watches as Hagrid talks with Charlie Weasley about what the dragons are for; apparently the Champions are expected to get past them or something. Charlie questions the wisdom of bringing Madame Maxime to see them; Hagrid brushes this off, saying that they are lovely, dragons.

Harry, having heard all he can stand, retreats; still invisible, he bumps into Professor Karkaroff, the headmaster of Durmstrang, who is also prowling around for a look at the dragons.

Harry returns to the Gryffindor common room, for a scheduled meeting with Sirius via the Floo network; Sirius has more important news to impart, and doesn't get around to telling Harry what to do about the dragons until the very end of the conversation. Before he can complete his sentence, however, they are interrupted by the arrival of Ron, and Sirius vanishes.

As Harry and Ron are currently at odds, it is Hermione who tries to help Harry find counter-dragon spells; but she will not allow him to skip classes while looking.

Harry believes that all the champions now know about the dragons except Cedric, and this does not seem fair to him. He engineers an opportunity to get Cedric on his own, and tells him about the dragons. However, he is overheard by Professor Moody, who sends Cedric off and steers Harry into his office. Harry expects to be told off or disqualified for cheating, but Moody tells him that cheating is almost a traditional part of the Triwizard Tournament; then asks if Harry knows how he's going to get past the dragons. When Harry admits that he does not, Moody provides him with a pair of clues that tells Harry how to pass the dragon. Harry quickly enlists Hermione to teach him how to perform a Summoning spell.

The Task takes place on November 24 and is held in a specially prepared clearing in the Forbidden Forest. Before it begins, the champions enter a tent to prepare and be briefed. This task is extremely difficult and dangerous: each champion is to retrieve a golden egg from a dragon. Each has their own dragon, chosen by pulling out a miniature dragon model from a purple bag held by Ludo Bagman. Each miniature dragon is marked with a number, indicating the order in which the champions are to be summoned to the task.

Before the Task actually starts, Ludo takes Harry aside and asks if he had a plan. Ludo seems to be offering assistance to Harry; Harry doesn't quite know what to make of this, Ludo is, after all, one of the five judges. Ludo is called away by the whistle sounding for the first contestant before Harry has much time to wonder about his behaviour.

The task unfolds as follows:

 * Dragon # 1, Swedish Short-Snout (blue-gray) - Cedric Diggory (he transfigured a boulder into a Labrador dog, which diverted the attention of the dragon long enough to let him steal the egg)
 * Dragon # 2, Common Welsh Green - Fleur Delacour (attempted to charm her dragon into a trance. This worked, but the dragon snored, and the resulting flame set her robes alight)
 * Dragon # 3, Chinese Fireball (small) - Viktor Krum (used Conjunctivitus Curse but the dragon thrashed about in a rage and damaged other eggs)
 * Dragon # 4, Hungarian Horntail (the most dangerous) - Harry Potter (used Summoning Charm to call his Firebolt and ride on it, tempting the dragon to rise away from the golden egg. When the dragon had reared, leaving the eggs unguarded, he quickly scooped up the egg and finished the task with the highest points)

Points were based on speed, skill, and avoiding damage to other dragon eggs—Viktor lost points for this. At the end of this task, the points awarded were as follows: * The exact amount of points are not stated in the book. We know she was in last place, because Harry and Krum were tied in first and Cedric was in second place, however.
 * Harry Potter, 40 points;
 * Viktor Krum, 40 points;
 * Cedric Diggory, 38 points;
 * Fleur Delacour, <38* Points;

Notable Consequences
The objective of the Task was to retrieve a golden egg from the dragons. After the Task has ended, Ludo Bagman informs the champions that the eggs can be opened, and each contains a clue that will be necessary for the Second Task. The Champions will be required to solve the riddle of the Egg before the Second Task, which will be taking place on 24 February.

As is usual in the Triwizard Tournament, the Champions did risk injury or death in the course of this challenge. Apparently at least three of the four Champions received some injury: Cedric was burned on one side when the dragon decided it wanted him rather than the Transfigured dog, Fleur was burned when the dragon she had Charmed to sleep belched a little fire as it snored, and Harry was slashed by one of the spikes on his dragon's tail as it tried to attack him.

Harry's coming out of this task tied for first place with Krum somewhat changed the dynamic within the Champions as well. Before, they had tended to dismiss him – as Fleur had said initially, "'E cannot compete. 'E is too young!" After his showing in the first Task, they see him as a true contender and worthy of notice.

Before this Task, Harry and Ron had been estranged; Ron was convinced, despite Harry saying otherwise, that Harry had put his own name into the Goblet, and was upset that he hadn't told Ron how he had done it, and was also convinced that Harry was lying to him. In this Task, Harry is in so much evident and immediate danger that Ron suddenly changes his mind, accepting that someone who wanted Harry dead had actually put Harry's name in for the Tournament; by the time Harry's scores are posted, they are fast friends again.

Much of the school shared Ron's opinion, in fact, believing that Harry had managed to make himself the fourth Triwizard champion because he wanted the associated fame or Galleons. Members of Slytherin house had, in fact, made a bit of an industry of taunting Harry about this. After this first Task, it was apparent that the life of a Champion would not be an easy one, and the animosity towards Harry from Ravenclaw and Hufflepuff houses abated somewhat. Harry suspects that Cedric had instructed the other members of Hufflepuff house to lay off him because Harry had taken the time to tell Cedric about the dragons, but this is never confirmed.

Analysis
The First Task clearly is meant as an indication of the caliber of magic that will be required to complete the entire Tournament, and similarly an indication of the danger that the Champions will face. As such, it clearly must be dangerous but, we believe, controllable. Hermione had earlier mentioned that an earlier Tournament had resulted in injuries to three of the judges from a cockatrice that had gotten free. Earlier, when the Trio were researching the possibility of an appeal for Buckbeak, they had discovered that one of the few creatures that had avoided execution was a cockatrice, though they also found it was because nobody could execute it. This would indicate that the earlier iteration of the Tournament had become uncontrollably dangerous, possibly as the three schools, taking turns hosting the Tournament, vied with each other for ever more grandiose displays of magic. Dragons, though extremely dangerous, can be controlled, and although we don't see them, we have to assume that Charlie Weasley and his fellow dragon wranglers are just out of Harry's sight, prepared to rescue Harry should the need arise.

The reader does rather wonder why Harry bothers to face the dragon. He has been brought into this competition against his will, and he is not as prepared as any of the other Champions, all of whom are more advanced in their studies. It would have been simple enough for Harry to simply turn on his heel and walk out of the arena, saying that he had done the best he could do. However, against this we must mention that Harry has no small measure of pride, which was inflamed by Fleur's derisive comments on the night of the selection of the Champions, and feels that he must prove himself. It was mentioned elsewhere that Harry does not feel he merits the fame he received as The Boy Who Lived. His feeling of unworthiness has left him with a desire to prove himself, to show that, even though it was through no design of his that he defeated Voldemort, he is still wizard enough to deserve the spotlight that he unwillingly finds himself under. We are also privy to one of Harry's fantasies, of himself winning the Triwizard Tournament to Cho Chang's admiration; though he clearly dismisses this himself, it is still bound to be a factor in his choosing to continue to challenge the Tasks. Besides, while the precise implications of this is not made clear, it is said that Champions are "magically bound to compete", so at least an honest try to actually tackle the task at issue may be, in some way, magically required.

Greater Picture
Cedric discovers the clue in the Golden Egg that leads to the solution to the Second Task before Harry does. Having deciphered the clue, Cedric makes a point of passing a lead to the clue on to Harry just after the Yule Ball. Cedric does this because it is only fair – Harry told him about the dragons, it is only fair that he should return the favour.

In this task, we also see the beginnings of the attempts to have Harry win the Tournament. We see Mad-Eye Moody skillfully planting the idea of flying to capture the egg, and Ludo Bagman clumsily trying to assist Harry, and then blatantly giving him higher marks than any of the other judges. We will learn later that they each have their reasons to want Harry to win the Tournament, and of the two, Moody's motives are the more sinister. This is actually a nice piece of indirection on the part of the author. Bagman's attempts to influence the outcome of the tournament are so poorly executed that they take our attention away from Moody's more successful attempts. Moody has already made one attempt that will prove unsuccessful; in the first week of classes, Moody had given a book on magical Mediterranean water plants to Neville, in the expectation that Neville would provide information to Harry about Gillyweed, which is one way of completing the Second Task. When this fails, Moody will provide the same information via a different conduit.

It is, in fact, Moody's assistance in this first Task that provides Harry the impetus he needs to actually successfully enter the Tournament. The encouragement Moody provides, by suggesting a way Harry can use things he is good at to complete this Task, is sufficient to actually get Harry into the corral with the dragons, as it gives him some hope of getting out alive and with his adolescent pride intact.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Yule Ball

Overview
As a part of the Triwizard Tournament, there is traditionally a dance at the hosting school. This dance, the Yule Ball, is normally led off by the three Champions and their partners; in Harry's fourth year, of course, there are four champions, and thus four couples leading off the Ball. Harry has a dreadful time finding a date for the Ball. Once at the Ball, he overhears a significant conversation between Snape and Karkaroff, followed shortly by an important admission by Hagrid. At the end of the ball, Cedric Diggory gives Harry a clue to the Second Task.

Event Details
Shortly after his success in the First Task, Harry is stunned by hearing about the Yule Ball from Professor McGonagall. He is quite alarmed when told that, as one of the Champions, he is expected to find a dance partner, learn to dance and lead off the whole ball. This looming dread is not at all lightened by the realization that nearly everyone at the school – or, at least, everyone who is allowed to attend the Ball – is planning to stay over Christmas. The ball is restricted to those in the fourth year and above, although younger students can attend as the guest of a fourth-year or older student.

Harry immediately thinks of Cho Chang as a possible dance partner for the ball, but every time he finds her, she is travelling in a convoy of giggling girls; horribly embarrassed, he thinks that giggling should be outlawed. In hopes of actually being able to ask Cho, Harry turns down several invitations from other girls, possibly in part because he doesn't believe they can be serious. Finally, on the last day of classes, Harry takes Cho aside and asks her, only to find that she has already accepted an invitation from Cedric. Cho seems almost as disappointed as Harry at this turn of events, but that is cold comfort; handsome, capable, likeable Cedric is in so many ways what Harry would like to be, and here he has even gotten the girl that Harry wanted.

Returning to the common room, Harry finds that Ron is in the same situation – in what he attributes to a fit of madness, Ron has asked Fleur Delacour, and she has not even done him the dignity of turning him down, simply ignoring him. Harry takes the opportunity to mention that Fleur is part Veela, and had likely been using her inherited glamour to ensnare Roger Davies; Ron does not seem cheered by the possibility that he was simply caught by spillover magic. Ron asks Hermione, and suggests that Harry could go with Ginny, only to find that they, too, have already agreed to go with someone else. In desperation, Harry asks Parvati Patil. She accepts; Harry asks if Lavender would be willing to go with Ron, but Lavender already has a date. Parvati suggests that her sister, Padma, would probably be willing to go with Ron.

The Yule Ball takes place on Christmas Day, between the First and Second Tasks of the Triwizard Tournament. It is a festive event featuring dancing, in this case to music provided by the Weird Sisters. Students dress in their best formal clothes. Males wear dress robes, which is probably why dress robes were on the supplies list this year; females wear gowns or other formal attire. While students should have partners for the ball, apparently not all do; Harry is pleased to see that Crabbe and Goyle do not seem to have partners. The four Champions enter the hall last: Cedric Diggory with Cho Chang, Fleur Delacour with Roger Davies, Viktor Krum with Hermione, so prettily done up that Harry does not initially recognize her, and Harry with Parvati.

At dinner, Harry is surprised to find that Mr. Crouch is not present; Percy is, and explains that he is filling in for Mr Crouch, who is feeling ill. Once dinner is over, a dance floor is cleared, and Parvati guides Harry out onto the floor as the music starts up; the four Champions and their partners are quickly joined by classmates and teachers. At the end of the first dance, Harry chooses to leave the floor, much to Parvati's disgust; they go and join Ron and Padma, who apparently alone have sat out the first dance, and Padma and Parvati, deciding that they are unlikely to get much more dancing out of Ron and Harry, find other partners. Ron and Harry wander out into a rose garden that has been magically created outside the Entrance Hall, where they overhear Professor Karkaroff and Professor Snape discussing something that is getting more and more distinct, and whether Karkaroff should run away. They then stumble upon Hagrid and Madame Maxime deep in a private conversation; in the course of that conversation, Hagrid reveals that he is half-giant, and suggests that he believes Madame Maxime is also. Madame Maxime is affronted and departs in a huff. Hagrid then goes off to his hut, and Harry and Ron return inside to discuss this development.

Notable Consequences
Up until this point, Harry and Cho's relationship has been unstated; there are indications that there is a very early romance between them, but for all we know it could be entirely in Harry's head. By choosing to ask Cho to the Ball, Harry is effectively declaring their relationship, and Cho's response is nicely crafted to indicate that she would be pleased with the prospect. Harry's being deterred by the gaggle of giggling girls in which Cho seems to move is all too realistic; one wonders, though, if his inability to separate her from them might indicate that he is not quite ready to progress to that firm a relationship.

At dinner, Professor Dumbledore mentions finding a room that was full of chamber pots, and then never being able to find it again. This is the first mention of the Room of Requirement, which Harry will find very useful in later books; it is because Dumbledore has mentioned it to him that Harry feels justified in using it for his Defence Against the Dark Arts classes, once he has been told how to find it.

The discussion we overhear between Karkaroff and Snape is, we find out later, an indication of the increasing power of Lord Voldemort; by now we know that Karkaroff was a Death Eater, and we suspect that Snape was also. We have heard from Sirius that Karkaroff is in bad odour with the other Death Eaters for having named names to keep his own freedom. Ron and Harry do not know how Snape and Karkaroff got to be on a first-name basis. Harry has reason to believe that Voldemort is gaining power, and so may believe that Snape and Karkaroff were both Death Eaters, and are discussing Death Eater business. This is largely driven out of Harry and Ron's mind, however, by the scene between Hagrid and Madame Maxime that they inadvertently witness.

The scene between Hagrid and Madame Maxime is witnessed by another party as well. Rita Skeeter, in her Animagus form as a large beetle, is in earshot and promptly writes a story about Hagrid, his tendency to keep truly dangerous and often proscribed creatures, and his half-Giant ancestry. It seems that this last item was something she needed to tie the story together because she had the other components of the story long before this. As a result of this story, Hagrid goes into seclusion in his hut and tenders his resignation as Care of Magical Creatures teacher. Professor Dumbledore refuses to accept his resignation, and after a week Hagrid returns to his teaching duties.

Cho may have mentioned to Cedric that Harry had invited her to the Yule Ball; it is certain that Cedric feels kindly disposed to Harry by the end of the evening, because he takes Harry aside, and gives him a very large hint towards deciphering the Golden Egg, which is the necessary clue to the Second Task. Cedric does this, he says, out of a sense of fairness; Harry, after all, had clued him into the dragons in the First Task.

Ron spends the first part of the Ball watching Hermione jealously as she dances with Viktor Krum. When she stops by Ron's table after the second dance, he accuses her angrily of "consorting with the enemy"; hot words are exchanged, and Hermione vanishes in the crowd. Ron is then very short with Krum, who until then had been a hero of his. After the ball, Harry steps into the Gryffindor common room, only to catch the end of a flaming row between Hermione and Ron. Hermione ends the argument by saying "Next time there's a ball, ask me before someone else does, and not as a last resort!", and stalks off to the girl's dormitory. Ron has no idea what's going on; he quite obviously has not detected that his own feelings are, in fact, jealousy, though Hermione, and apparently Harry, can see Ron's true feelings quite plainly.

Analysis
One of the strengths of the Potter series of books lies in its realistic portrayal of the characters. It would, perhaps, have been simpler for the author to have Harry be entirely focused on his quest, but that would significantly weaken the writing, as we would be less likely to care about a hero who cared about little outside his one main objective. The entire episode of the Yule Ball could have been seen as an attempt to inject romance arbitrarily into a piece of heroic fantasy, except that it is done in such a way as totally with our expectations of the maturing Trio. Harry and Ron are fourteen, and Hermione is fifteen, as this episode unfolds, and it is the appropriate time for them to begin noticing the difference between boys and girls. It is all the more realistic that Ron, portrayed as the least sensitive of the three, does not recognize his own feelings.

The Yule Ball shares the characteristics of Muggle school formals, balls and proms. While students are excited about these events, there is also a great deal of anxiety and stress to overcome. Pressures include securing a partner and acquiring appropriate formal attire. At Hogwarts, like other secondary schools, teenage insecurities about peer approval, social skills and self-image are amplified with the Yule Ball. While readers may be as dismayed as Parvati and Padma that Harry dances only once and Ron, not at all, this is entirely normal behaviour for boys of their age. We must remember that, despite all the adventures they have been having, Harry and Ron are only fourteen years of age, and their fear of looking foolish still overwhelms their desire to form relationships with the opposite sex.

It is never mentioned, but it is quite likely that, had Harry not been a Champion, the lower limit on age for attendees of the Ball would be fifth, or even sixth, year. The original plan had Champions being of age, 17 or older, so all the Champions would be sixth or seventh year, and everyone younger would likely have been excluded. It is possible that Harry would have greatly preferred to have been excluded from the Ball; it certainly would have saved him the embarrassment he subjected himself to while trying to find a date.

It is worth drawing attention to events in the rose garden. Two events happen which are of interest to us and the students; there is the conversation between Snape and Karkaroff and the conversation between Hagrid and Madame Maxime. The ordering of these two is important, in that this contributes to a deliberate misdirection on the part of the author. Clearly, to the story arc, Snape's discussion is the more important, bearing as it apparently does on Dark matters; however, Hagrid's revelation of his Giant background happens shortly after that. It is the latter that remains strongest in Harry's mind, and that is the one that Harry and Ron discuss, to the exclusion of the former, for the rest of the evening. If Harry and Ron had spent time considering the ramifications of Snape's conversation, it is possible that Harry could have linked that to Karkaroff's having been a Death Eater, and so determined something about Voldemort's progress.

Greater Picture
We will revisit the Yule Ball in a later part of the story, albeit briefly. Shortly, in Dumbledore's Pensieve, we will see Snape commenting about how something is becoming more distinct. While we can suppose that this ties in to the discussion between Snape and Karkaroff in the Rose Garden, and their later discussion in the Potions classroom while Harry is cleaning up his armadillo bile, we can't be certain. In Snape's memories revealed in the final book, we learn that Snape made this comment as he and Dumbledore watched the students returning to the dormitories following the Yule Ball and that it was regarding the Dark Mark on his and Karkaroff's forearms. At that time, Snape apparently told Dumbledore of Karkaroff's intent to run when Voldemort reappeared and re-affirmed his own intent to stay with Dumbledore.

We will also learn later that Karkaroff does run when the Mark burns black with Voldemort's summons, and that Snape remains with Dumbledore even past Dumbledore's death. Karkaroff later turns up dead, in a shack with the Dark Mark floating overhead.

Roger Davies will resurface also. Harry and Ron are quite insecure when it comes to girls, like most boys their age, and a certain extent hero-worship those older and more confident boys who seem to have better luck with girls. The two boys who are mentioned as being "all Harry would like to be" are Roger Davies and Cedric Diggory. Later, possibly in an attempt to get some response from Harry regarding their future together, Cho will mention that Roger Davies had asked her out but that she had refused. It is because Harry sees Roger as being so far beyond him in terms of desirability, most likely, that this does not have the anticipated effect; Cho may have wanted to inspire mild jealousy, but instead only fueled Harry's insecurity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Becoming a Linguistic Mastermind

Abstract

 * audience: people who are interested in languages or have to learn a language
 * learning target: After reading you will be able to achieve respectable language skills within months, without forgetting the aspects of fun.
 * contact person: Nowotoj
 * co-authors: Strictly desirable. As my English isn’t best yet please be lenient toward me.
 * scope and extent: This book should offer one possibility of learning languages and contain the suitable courses. This is not a scientific linguistic book. Grammatical terms are an exception here.
 * table of contents:
 * /Introduction/
 * /The method/
 * /The results/
 * /The courses/
 * Workshop

title: Becoming a Linguistic Mastermind


text:
Finite Model Theory/Preliminaries

First Order Logic (FO)
We only give a very rough summary of FO here. An introduction can be found at FO.

Syntax
Syntax is 'just' about sequences of signs. The alphabet of FO consists of: The handling of parenthesis is done the 'usual' way and is not formally described further.
 * Variables $$x_0, x_1, x_2, ...$$
 * Logical Connectives: $$\neg$$, $$\land$$
 * Quantifiers: $$\exists$$
 * Equality: $$\equiv$$
 * Parenthesis: ), (
 * n-ary Relation symbols, for no or many n>0, e.g. R(., .)
 * Constant symbols (none or many)

For a given set of symbols S, variables and constant symbols are said to be S-Terms.

S-Expressions are obtained by the multiple application of the following rules: where $$t_.$$ is a term and $$\varphi_.$$ an expression.
 * $$t_1 \equiv t_2$$ is an expression
 * $$R t_1 ... t_n$$ is an expression, for an n-ary relation symbol R
 * $$\neg \varphi, \varphi_1 \land \varphi_2$$ are expressions
 * $$\exists_x \varphi$$ is an expression

So additional connectives for OR, IMPLICATION, EQUIVALENCE etc. can be defined as well as the FOR ALL quantifier.

Semantics
Semantics adds the meaning to the language in three steps:
 * 1st it defines what the logical symbols (connectives and quantifiers) mean (this always holds in FO),
 * 2nd it maps relation symbols and constant symbols to actual relations and constants over a given set of entities (this is usually defined per subject, like Analysis or Statistics) and
 * 3rd it maps free variables (not bound to a quantifier) to entities (usually done per Problem, like solving an equation).

1st we assume the Logical Symbols $$\neg, \land, ..., \exists$$ to have the usual meaning.

2nd a S-Structure is a pair (A, a) of
 * a nonempty set A, the Universe, and
 * a mapping a from S, such that
 * each n-ary relation symbol is mapped to a n-ary relation on A and
 * each constant symbol is mapped to an element of A

3rd an Interpretation is a pair $$(\mathfrak A, \beta)$$ where $$\mathfrak A$$ = (A, a) is a S-Structure and $$\beta$$ is a mapping from all free variables to an element of A.

An Interpretation is said to be a Model of a set $$\Phi$$ of S-expressions ($$\mathfrak I \vDash \Phi$$) iff all of the following hold
 * $$\mathfrak I(t_1) = \mathfrak I(t_1)$$, for $$\mathfrak I \vDash t_1 \equiv t_2$$
 * $$R^n \mathfrak I(t_1), ..., \mathfrak I(t_n)$$, for $$\mathfrak I \vDash R t_1 ... t_n$$
 * Not $$\mathfrak I \vDash \varphi$$, for $$\mathfrak I \vDash \neg \varphi$$
 * $$\mathfrak I \vDash \varphi_0)$$ and $$\mathfrak I \vDash \varphi_1)$$, for $$\mathfrak I \vDash \varphi_0 \land \varphi_1$$
 * It exists an $$a \in A$$ s.t. $$\mathfrak I \vDash \varphi(a)$$, for $$\mathfrak I \vDash \exists_x \varphi(x)$$

Game
A game is described by
 * its players (>1),
 * its rules i.e. who plays when and what is allowed to do and
 * its possible ends and payoffs.

More formal, it's a tuple (P, T, m, u) where
 * P (the Players) is a set, with |P| = n > 1
 * is a graph on a set of nodes that forms a taxonomy, i.e. a T is a tree with a dedicated root node. The leafs called terminal nodes T all others decision nodes D. This describes the possible move sequences.
 * m is a mapping from D to P, that says who is to move at what point.
 * u is a set of mappings ui (one for each player i) from T to an ordered set U, that give the payoff for a player at each terminal node.

We assume here and in the following that every player has perfect information (so the above definition is incomplete), i.e. all moves of all players made so far, and we don't consider move by chance. Common knowledge about the rules and players is assumed anyway. The above is called the extensive form representation of a game. Others like the normal form reptresentation make simplifying assumptions on this (e.g. about the information) and use the concept of strategy instead of single moves.

Notice that different moves can lead to the same 'position', i.e. a position can be represented more than once in a game-tree. And, the same payoffs can have different meanings to different players.

Back and Forth Method
Counting a set can get messy due to ...
 * counting things in an other than the natural order
 * counting elements multiple times

Method
Fix enumerations (without repetition) of the underlying sets:

 * $$\begin{matrix}

A & = & \{\, a_1, a_2, a_3, \dots \,\}, \\ \\ B & = & \{\, b_1, b_2, b_3, \dots \,\}. \end{matrix}$$

Now we construct a one-to-one correspondence between A and B that is strictly increasing. Initially no member of A is paired with any member of B.

 * (1) Let i be the smallest index such that ai is not yet paired with any member of B. Let j be the smallest index such that bj is not yet paired with any member of A and ai can be paired with bj consistently with the requirement that the pairing be strictly increasing. Pair ai with bj.

 * (2) Let j be the smallest index such that bj is not yet paired with any member of A. Let i be the smallest index such that ai is not yet paired with any member of B and bj can be paired with ai consistently with the requirement that the pairing be strictly increasing. Pair bj with ai.

 * (3) Go back to step (1).

It still has to be checked that the choice required in step (1) and (2) can actually be made in accordance to the requirements. Using step (1) as an example:

If there are already ap and aq in A corresponding to bp and bq in B respectively such that $$a_p < a_i < a_q$$ and $$b_p < b_q$$, we choose bj in between bp and bq using density. Otherwise, we choose a suitable large or small element of B using the fact that B has neither a maximum nor a minimum. Choices made in step (2) are dually possible. Finally, the construction ends after countably many steps because A and B are countably infinite. Note that we had to use all the prerequisites.

If we iterated only step (1), rather than going back and forth, then the resulting pairing would fail to be bijective.

title: Finite Model Theory/Preliminaries


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Second Task

Overview
The Second Task of the Triwizard Tournament is to rescue something dear or important to the Champion which is being held by Merpeople deep in Hogwarts' lake.

Event Details
The golden egg, which the Champions had each retrieved from the dragons in the First Task, holds a clue for the Second Task. Opened, Harry's egg is empty, but emits a screeching sound that seems to remind Neville of someone being tortured. The champion must decipher the sound's meaning, then find a way to complete the task described in it.

The correct way to decipher the egg is to open and listen to it underwater; the screechy sound is actually a song sung by Merpeople, who have high, thin, and screechy voices, making the egg's song incomprehensible when listened to in air. Submerging the egg deepens the sound to where it can be understood. Harry had tried all sorts of things to understand this clue, including, in a fit of pique, throwing it across the room; it was only the hint that he received from Cedric, who told him to take a bath with the Egg, that allowed him to discover the secret. Though dismayed by the way Cedric's suggestion is couched, Harry eventually visits the Prefect's Bathroom, where he deciphers the clue in the Egg with some small assistance from Moaning Myrtle, who appears, to Harry's dismay, while Harry is in the bath.

According to the song in the Egg, Harry would have only one hour to rescue something dear to him that would be held deep beneath the lake at Hogwarts by the merpeople. Harry, Hermione, and Ron spend pretty much all of their spare time, from the time Harry deciphered the egg, until the night before the Task, in the library looking for ways Harry could breathe underwater for an hour. When Hermione and Ron are called away, Harry continues his search, eventually falling asleep in the library. He is awakened by Dobby, with only ten minutes to go before the Task. Dobby has overheard some teachers talking about the Task, and has brought Harry some Gillyweed, that will allow him to breathe underwater. Harry hopes that Dobby is correct, and runs off down to the lake shore. There, he is somewhat startled to find that Percy is once again filling in for Mr. Crouch.

On the signal, all four Champions enter the lake. The Gillyweed gives Harry gills and grows his hands and feet into flippers. Swimming under water, Harry is somewhat lost but aims downward, assuming that the Merpeople will be in the depths of the lake. In his journeys, he encounters Myrtle, who points him in the correct direction, and grindylows, who unsuccessfully attempt to hold him.

It turns out that the "something dear" for each of the champions was another person. This was why Hermione and Ron had left Harry alone in the library; Professor McGonagall had brought them to her office so that they could be placed in an enchanted sleep and handed over to the Merpeople.

 * People Rescued by the Champions, and how the Champions planned to rescue them
 * Gabrielle Delacour for Fleur Delacour (used Bubble-Head Charm)
 * Cho Chang for Cedric Diggory (also used Bubble-Head Charm)
 * Ron Weasley for Harry Potter (used gillyweed, which transformed him by developing gills, and flippers in his feet and hands)
 * Hermione Granger for Viktor Krum (used incomplete form of Transfiguration)

Fleur Delacour failed to finish the second task because she was attacked by the grindylows. Because Delacour failed to finish, she never retrieved her younger sister, Gabrielle. Harry, who reached the hostages first, possibly due to some assistance from Moaning Myrtle, was afraid that the song was literal truth, and that the hostages would not be returned if they were not rescued within the allotted hour. He attempted to save all of the hostages, and was prevented from doing so by the Merpeople. Cedric, and then Krum, arrive and retrieve their hostages, but when Fleur failed to show, Harry threatened the Merpeople with his wand, and retrieved Gabrielle in addition to Ron. Harry's choosing to try and save the other hostages earned him extra points from the judges for "moral fiber."

Final scores, out of 50, for this Task were assigned as follows:
 * Fleur Delacour - 25 points
 * Cedric Diggory - 47 points (he had started this Task with 38 points, ending it tied with Harry for first, with 85)
 * Harry Potter - 45 points (he had started with 40 points, ending tied with Diggory for first with 85 points)
 * Viktor Krum - 40 points (he had started with 40 points, ending in second place with 80)

Notable Consequences
The Champion with the highest standing after the second task will be allowed to enter the Third Task maze first. Harry and Cedric, having the highest standings, enter the maze together before the other Champions.

Harry's decent showing and ethical behaviour in this Task lead the other Champions to believe that Harry is, in fact, a worthy contender. His remaining tied for first place would indicate that his showing in the First Task was not a fluke, and should result in his receiving more respect from the other Champions.

Fleur kissing Harry and Ron somewhat reinforces Ron's infatuation, and upsets Hermione. It is possible that this contributes to Krum's belief that Harry and Hermione are a couple; it is entirely possible that he believes it is Fleur kissing Harry that Hermione is scowling at, rather than her kissing Ron.

The fact that Hermione is the hostage that Krum is to rescue does rather point up that Krum has romantic intentions towards Hermione, and not just friendship. We can also see, by her reaction after the Challenge, that she does not share those feelings.

We see again how Harry's friendships act to save him from the situations he gets himself into. In the next book, he will protest that every time he has gotten into a sticky situation, it is only by means of help from his friends that he has been able to survive. This is true in this Task as well, where it is only the last-minute effort by Dobby that gives Harry any chance at this Task at all.

Analysis
As we almost expect, Ludo Bagman once again clumsily tries to assist Harry in this task, asking if he has solved the riddle of the Egg when they meet at the Three Broomsticks before Christmas. Any help he could give is forestalled by the arrival of the Twins, and Ludo's immediate departure, followed by goblins. Harry has no qualms about telling Ludo that he needs no help, although later when he says the same thing to Hagrid, he somehow feels that he is betraying Hagrid's faith.

While each task is designed to measure a champion's physical capabilities, it is also meant to test their magical ingenuity, problem-solving skills, and strategic abilities. Harry actually did little to prepare for the second challenge, eventually relying on others for help, although most likely so did the other champions. With some assistance from Professor Moody, Harry was resourceful in retrieving the dragon's egg in the first task, but he made few attempts to decipher its hidden meaning; a necessity for completing the second challenge. Cedric Diggory finally provides Harry a hint to solve it, but this only reveals that there is yet another step Harry must overcome. He again procrastinates to find a solution, and it is only because Dobby helps him minutes before the event begins that he is able to compete.

Questions

 * 1) Viktor's and Cedric's hostages are their respective love interests; Harry's is Ron; Fleur's is her younger sister. What does this tell us about the Champions?

Greater Picture
Although we have no understanding of this as yet, once again Professor Moody has interfered to improve Harry's chances. In fact, Moody attempted interference twice, once without success. When Neville suffered a partial breakdown following the Defence Against the Dark Arts class earlier in the year, Moody had given him a book about the properties of magical Mediterranean water plants. While Moody had assumed that Harry would ask Neville for help, and Neville would have been able to tell Harry about Gillyweed, that did not happen; Harry never asked Neville, instead relying on Ron and Hermione. When it appeared that Harry was not going to find that answer, Moody arranged to summon Dobby to the staff room, and then mentioned Gillyweed in conversation with Professor McGonagall. Dobby then, as expected, stole some Gillyweed from Professor Snape's stores and presented it to Harry.

Ludo, of course, is still trying to improve Harry's chances of winning the Tournament because of his own bet with the Goblins. It is likely that the Goblins are keeping an eye on Ludo in order to protect their bet; they likely worry that he may try to make a run for things, or possibly try to throw the match, which in fact he is trying to do but is running up against Harry's sense of fair play. We have seen that Ludo earlier gave Harry 10 out of 10 on the First Task, and we can safely say that he will have done the same in the Second, although the scores are not broken out by judge. Given Harry's score of 45, and Karkaroff's opposition to Harry getting points for "moral fiber", we must assume that at least one, and possibly three or four, of the judges gave Harry full marks. It's safe to assume that Ludo has again given Harry top marks to protect his investment.

We will learn that Neville's breakdown, and his reaction to the Merpeople song in the Egg, are actually related. Neville's parents, we will learn later in this book, were tortured to madness by Death Eaters, possibly in Neville's presence, using the Cruciatus curse. It is Moody's use of this curse in the first Defence Against the Dark Arts class which triggers Neville's episode. We will learn also at the end of this book why Moody has particular reason to remember this.


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Third Task

Overview
The Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament is to negotiate a maze that has been grown in the Quidditch pitch at Hogwarts. At the center of the maze is the Triwizard Cup, and whoever touches the Cup first is the outright winner of the Tournament

Event Details
Exactly one month before the Third Task, the four Champions are brought to the Quidditch pitch, where they receive a briefing on what the task is to be. Cedric and Harry are dismayed to discover that the pitch has been planted with hedges, but Ludo Bagman, a one-time professional Quidditch player, is quick to reassure them that it would be restored to pristine condition once the Task is finished. The Champions are informed that the object of the Task is to navigate the labyrinth, which would be seeded with various spells and creatures, and reach the Triwizard Cup, located in the center of the maze. The first Champion to touch the Cup would be the outright winner.

Immediately following this meeting, Viktor Krum asks Harry for a private conversation, to Ludo's apparent dismay; we gather that Ludo had been about to offer Harry help once again. While Harry and Krum are speaking, Mr. Crouch, apparently having some mental issues, appears out of the Forbidden Forest. While Harry runs to the school to get Professor Dumbledore to help him, Crouch disappears, leaving Krum Stunned. Karkaroff, summoned to the scene, accuses Dumbledore of interfering with his Champion, but retreats after a forceful response from Hagrid. Presumably, at this point the Ministry checks Mr. Crouch's house and finds it empty. Percy Weasley, who had been filling in for Mr. Crouch, is chastised for not being aware that his boss was in such dire shape, and is replaced as a judge for the Third Task by Cornelius Fudge, the Minister for Magic.

The Third Task takes place "at dusk on the 24th of June." The hedges have grown to more than twice head height, and the maze is now stocked with dangerous creatures by Hagrid and the Ministry. The order in which the Champions are sent into the maze depends on their previous standings in the tournament, with the highest-scoring Champion entering first. Harry and Cedric, tied for first after the Second Task, enter the maze at the same time. Viktor Krum, with the next-highest score, enters five minutes after them, and Fleur Delacour enters last.

Creatures that Harry encountered included Blast-Ended Skrewts and giant spiders. Harry also encountered a Dementor, which turned out to be a Boggart, and an anti-gravity mist. Harry's path to the maze's center was protected by a Sphinx with a riddle to answer. The Champion, encountering the Sphinx, could choose to try and solve the riddle; if they chose not to attempt it, they could continue to proceed towards the center via an alternate route, if there was one. If they attempted the riddle, and answered wrong, they would be killed—or at least eliminated from the competition. Harry chose to answer the riddle, and answered it correctly.

While within the maze, Harry hears Fleur scream, but did not encounter her, so we do not know if she was incapacitated at that point. He also heard someone performing the Cruciatus curse; burning a hole through the hedge, he was able to get into the next pathway, where he discovered Krum jinxing Cedric. Harry Stunned Krum, and sent up red sparks to indicate that he was out of the contest, before he and Cedric went their separate ways. In the end, Harry and Cedric were both within sight of the Cup, with Cedric in the lead; Harry called his attention to a giant spider coming up behind him, and the two of them joined forces to disable it, though Harry's leg was injured in the process. Cedric then decided that the only thing to do was to let Harry take the Cup; Harry counter-offered that they should both take it at the same time, and Cedric accepted.

Notable Consequences
As the Triwizard Cup has been made into a Portkey, it carries Cedric and Harry to the graveyard in Little Hangleton, where Voldemort was waiting with Wormtail. The major consequences, then, are the death of Cedric (he was killed on the spot) and the return of Voldemort.

Ludo Bagman, despite being a Judge in the Tournament, has been taking bets on Harry's winning, in order to recover from a series of bad bets he had made with a group of goblins. His finances would have been completely resolved if Harry had won the Tournament outright. The goblins, however, held that as Harry and Cedric had both touched the Cup at the same instant, it was not an outright win for Harry but a draw. Bagman, being unable to pay his gambling debts, flees. Later negotiations with the Goblins are likely to be hindered by this; they no doubt feel that, as Bagman is a Ministry representative, the Ministry of Magic should repay Bagman's debts, and may be less willing to deal with Ministry wizards, having been so badly short-changed by a senior Ministry official.

As joint winner of the Tournament, Harry is entitled to half of the Tournament prize of a thousand Galleons; as Cedric has died, however, the entire prize has been deemed his. He doesn't feel he has any right to this, because it was his efforts to win the Tournament that resulted in Cedric's death. He tries to give the entire prize to Cedric's father, but is rebuffed. In the end, he gives it to Fred and George, for use in setting up their joke shop, with the sole condition that they use some of the money to buy Ron some proper dress robes. The products of the joke shop are likely to be of use in later books, as Fred and George are quite able and innovative wizards.

Analysis
The attentive reader will wonder about two points in this Task. First, when we first see the Maze, the hedges are only knee-high. We are told that cheating is quite often a significant part of the Tournament, and it would be a very simple matter indeed for one of the Champions to visit the Quidditch stands and, with a full view of the maze, determine the correct path to the center before the hedges reach their full, and confusing, height. Yet we do not hear that any of the Champions have done this. Harry's use of the Four Point Spell would, of course, assist him, in that he would be able to retain his orientation no matter how many times he got turned around in the maze, but is quite insufficient for finding the center, as Harry would have little idea where he was relative to the center of the maze, only the direction that was North.

Secondly, one gathers that to the audience, this Task would be very dull to watch, as the four Champions would vanish into the Maze over the course of a few minutes, and then apart from screams, or occasional showers of wand sparks or flashes, nothing would happen until the victor appeared outside the Maze. One wonders also what the four Marshals are expected to be able to do, particularly as one of them, Hagrid, is believed to not have any significant magical ability. It is possible that the Maze is charmed to be somehow transparent to the watchers, so that they can see what the Champions are doing within it, but that seems unlikely, as there is no notice when the Trophy, acting as a Portkey, removes Harry and Cedric from the maze and deposits them four hundred miles away. Professor Moody, of course, is able to watch by means of his magical eye, but he has ulterior motives; we suspect he arranged to be made a Marshal, if he was not automatically put in that position because of his eye.

Looking at this Task, we feel, as Harry does at the time, that things are far too easy for him. With his use of the Four-Point-Spell, he is able to navigate the maze easily enough; the only obstacles he encounters are the anti-gravity spell, one of Hagrid's Blast-Ended Skrewts, a Boggart, the Sphinx, a giant spider, and Viktor Krum who he surprises in the act of using the Cruciatus curse on Cedric. Additionally, the Boggart, in disguise as a Dementor, is uncharacteristically clumsy; Harry realizes it is a Boggart when it trips over the hem of its own robe. This is actually a jarring moment for the attentive reader: a Boggart would never do anything to inspire laughter, which could destroy it, unless forced by the Riddikulus charm. It turns out later that Barty Crouch Jr. has been clearing obstacles away for him from outside the maze. It is possible that the Boggart's behaviour is because of Barty's intervention, but this is never confirmed. Barty does know about the Triwizard Cup being a Portkey, as it was he who created it, and is attempting to ensure that Harry reaches it first.

We should also note that Barty is also intervening to hamper or remove the other contestants. Harry seems to believe that Krum is under the Imperius curse when he is cursing Cedric, a point which is later partially confirmed by Barty's comments. We never do find out what happened to Fleur, but it is likely that Krum, under the same compulsion, disabled her as well. Barty, in the best Death Eater tradition, is trying to assure Harry's victory in the Task by eliminating his competition. Harry's disabling of Krum somewhat cripples Barty's efforts, as Cedric remains active, and this leaves Barty with no active participation inside the Maze.

Greater Picture
The appearance and subsequent disappearance of Bartemius Crouch are mentioned in passing, but have little to do with the Third Task directly. The one effect on the Tournament of Mr. Crouch's appearance is the removal of Percy as judge. This means that the Minister of Magic is on the scene at the conclusion of the Third Task, and so is able to be present to dismiss Harry's "story" about the return of Voldemort without being summoned. As we mention in the article on the Cemetery Duel, Fudge's immediate denial of the duel and Voldemort's return, with the associated "spinning" of Cedric's death as nothing more than a tragic accident, is the set-up for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, with its whole-sale year-long denigration of both Harry and Dumbledore in an attempt to de-emphasize their story. The understanding we gain of Fudge through the resulting attempt to save his power would be diluted if we had to wait for him to be summoned to the school before we saw that response.

We should also mention what we eventually understand about Crouch's disappearance. Crouch has escaped Peter Pettigrew's use of the Imperius curse and is seeking Dumbledore. In his travels through the Forbidden Forest, Crouch is tracked by his son Barty Jr., making use of the Marauder's Map which Professor Moody has borrowed from Harry. Barty Stuns Krum and kills Bartemius, then Transfigures the body into a bone, which he buries. We believe that he may have buried the bone in the patch of earth which Hagrid had earlier disturbed for his lesson on Nifflers, but this is not confirmed. The nature of those who would follow Voldemort here is highlighted by Barty's murder of his own father, though we will accept that Barty is an unusual case; he is portrayed as being mentally unbalanced, as is Bellatrix Lestrange, another member of the group who were trying to bring Voldemort back in the days immediately after his first defeat.

Following this task, Harry is thrown into the rapid-fire completion of the story, with the return of Voldemort, the duel in the Cemetery, Barty Crouch's unmasking, and the interrogation by Dumbledore of both Barty and Harry. We will note in passing that the disclosure, by Barty, that he had been helping Harry win the Tournament was probably meant to affect Harry's self-esteem; learning that it was not through his own efforts that the Tournament had fallen to him was likely a stratagem by Barty to further weaken Harry's ability to fight back. Harry, though, already knows that the effort was not all his, but was shared with many of his friends, so this revelation has little immediate effect.

It is interesting to note how Harry refuses the Triwizard prize. He feels that this money was won through the machinations of Barty and with the loss of Cedric's life, and he does not want any part of it. The Twins, however, seem quite willing to accept it. Perhaps, not having had Harry's direct involvement in the Tournament, they do not feel there is any stigma on the money.


text:
User talk:Luke Houser

We doesn't have a page by this name.

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 20:16, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Please take care
Do not introduce material that is not relevant to Wikibooks as you did on Meta - thanks -- Herby talk thyme 20:16, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Luke Houser


text:
Cookbook talk:Lentil and Sausage Stew

This sounds similar to my recipe (I lived in Schwaebisch Gmuend for two years), as noted, without the tomato paste or honey. Also, I don't recall ever having had sausages in this, but why not? I use salt pork, as this is what seems to be the closest thing (to Bauchfleisch--smoked pork belly) readily available in the U.S., and I don't use a carrot or garlic; instead I chop up some celery. Sometimes I use a potato (for thickening), and sometimes not, but usually not as many as suggested here. The vinegar is, indeed, essential!

The really important thing is the roux-based sauce. Most recipes (including this one) don't tell you that you have to cook the flour in the fat (for a brown roux) very carefully so as not to burn it, and that this may take a half-hour to forty-five minutes. If you don't do this, your sauce will be bitter. This is especially tricky if you use the butter, as suggested; you might have better luck with oil or pork fat (I use the latter). These aren't as easily burned. If done properly, your roux-based sauce should be a nice, thick gravy, and you may not need the potatoes.

Greetings from Virginia!
 * Wanted to point out that I personally have only heard of it with Bauchfleisch(as mentioned similar to salt pork) AND Saitenwurst(a type of sausage; can't get it in the US as far as I have seen; closest thing is hotdogs with natural casing, but they are a lot different), but I think it is a regional thing, what you put in it.

title: Cookbook talk:Lentil and Sausage Stew


text:
User talk:Pethr

Please contact me on my Wikipedia talk page. Thank you.

title: User talk:Pethr


text:
User talk:Kelly30

Your account has been blocked from editing Wikibooks for a period of 2 hours because of vandalism and including obscene images in frequently used Wikibooks templates. After your block has ended you can return but please contribute to the Wikibooks project rather than vandalise it.

Thanks,

Xania talk 20:49, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kelly30


text:
English as an Additional Language/Greetings and Expressions

Before we get into grammar it is useful to learn some common greetings and expressions in English. Here are some common phrases and their translations in Spanish, French, German, Polish respectively.


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User talk:66.32.126.164

Xania talk 20:50, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.32.126.164


text:
Becoming a Linguistic Mastermind/Introduction

The task of learning a language is one which we all have to tackle sooner or later. It might be at school, where foreign languages are usually compulsory subjects. It might be in our adult lives, where bilingual workers have an advantage in the job market and where people frequently take holidays abroad. It might even be for none of those reasons —rumour has it that there are some people out there learning a language voluntarily!

In the opinion of most people, learning a new language is problematic. The received wisdom is that all languages are difficult to learn —even the relatively simple ones— and that serious progress can only be made after tedious hours of classes, homework, record cards, vocab trainers and boring monolingual dictionaries. Some people might suspect that even hard work is not enough, and that only those of us with the right DNA will have success.

So much for the 'irrefutable facts'. Now we will attempt the impossible; not only by arguing the converse, but by proving that black is white. I’m speaking in the plural because everyone should feel welcome to help the world's language learners out of their present dilemma.

Making child’s play out of learning isn’t such a far-fetched idea. In fact, it has been attempted a hundred times before. This approach has its origins in the observation that children learn their mother tongue through no fault of their own. Some people even learn multiple mother tongues; children whose parents speak different languages often become fluent in both. Furthermore we note that a feeling for a language develops automatically during a stay among native speakers.

We want to synthesize the causes of trouble-free learning so that a language can be spoken fluently and without an accent like in the conditions mentioned above. The end-product will be language courses for people who are suspicious of language courses. The method will be formulated collectively. This assures a feedback channel from the learner to the textbook, allowing practical experience to help improve it. In addition, disagreements need not lead to partition, but in fact an enhancement of our project. The following chapter—entitled “The Method”—is devoted to a simple way of becoming a linguistic mastermind. Its content is open to discussion. On no account could it be the last word on the subject.


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English as an Additional Language/Articles and Adjectives

Next up we will learn two very important things: articles and adjectives. Both articles and adjectives typically occur before the noun they modify, with articles occurring before adjectives.

Articles
Like other languages, English has a definite and an indefinite article. Unlike most Romance languages, English has no gender of nouns and so the articles don't change at all.

 * Definite article (used when the noun or nouns are already known):
 * The
 * Indefinite article (used when the noun or nouns is not already known):
 * For singular nouns: a
 * For singular nouns beginning in a vowel or a silent "h:" an Note that often "a" is used in front of vowels for some words; you will have to learn the exceptions individually.
 * For plural nouns, the closest thing to an article would be some.

Adjectives
Remember that an adjective describes a noun. In English, adjectives are always placed before the noun, for example:

 * The red apple.
 * A soft sheep.
 * An angry dragon.
 * The silly boys.
 * Some hard rocks.

Also, English adjectives do NOT agree with number or gender:

 * The red apples, NOT The reds apples
 * Some tall women, NOT Some talles women

The exception, however is the adjective "blond", which agrees with gender in writing:
 * The blond boy, but;
 * The blonde girl.

This is not strictly observed, however. Either "blond" or "blonde" is acceptable, and you are unlikely to be noticed using the feminine form for a male noun or vice versa.


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User:Medellia/Metrics

This is a list of the carmina of Catullus organized by meters, which occur in the order of their appearance. Any metrical notes will be gathered on this page, to be added to the project as poem pages are created.

Hendecasyllabics

 * i
 * ii
 * iii
 * v
 * vi
 * vii
 * ix
 * x
 * xii
 * xiii
 * xiv
 * xiv (b)
 * xv
 * xvi
 * xxi
 * xxiii
 * xxiv
 * xxvi
 * xvii
 * xviii
 * xxxii
 * xxxiii
 * xxxv
 * xxxvi
 * xxxviii
 * xl
 * xli
 * xlii
 * xliii
 * xlv
 * xlvi
 * xlvii
 * xlviii
 * xlix
 * l
 * liii
 * liv
 * lv (-ish)
 * lvi
 * lvii
 * lviii
 * lviii (b... -ish)

Iambic Senarii

 * iv
 * xxix

Limping Iambs

 * viii
 * xxii
 * xxxi
 * xxxvii
 * xxxix
 * xliv
 * lix
 * lx

Sapphic Strophe

 * xi
 * li

Priapean

 * xvii

Iambic Tetrimeter Catalectic

 * xxv

Greater Asclepiadean

 * xxx

Glyconic/Pherecratean

 * xxxiv
 * lxi

Iambic Trimeter

 * lii

Dactylic Hexameters

 * lxii
 * lxiv

Galliambic

 * lxiii

Elegiac Couplets

 * lxv-cxvi

title: User:Medellia/Metrics


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User talk:81.129.131.118

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 21:41, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.129.131.118


text:
User talk:K428

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

Xania talk 21:59, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Programming:TI-Basic
Hello K428. I have seen you working on Programming:TI-Basic and was wondering whether you have interest in helping out with the book, or if you were merely fixing grammatical errors and whether or not you are still active. --Jimmyatic 16:47, 7 July 2007 (UTC)

Well then I'll try to have some details on what I'm exactly doing on the TI-Basic 84 Programming page or talk page. I'm trying to convert the current Programming TI-Basic to an orginized book - currently it uses different styles to do the same things on different pages and there needs to be more information on certain things. Hope to see you on!

title: User talk:K428


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User talk:Jelly Jiggler~enwikibooks

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

Xania talk 21:59, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jelly Jiggler. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jelly Jiggler~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:19, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jelly Jiggler~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Nowotoj

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

Xania talk 21:59, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nowotoj


text:
User talk:Jemhadah

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

Xania talk 21:59, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jemhadah


text:
User talk:Cole0404

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

Xania talk 21:59, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cole0404


text:
TI-Basic Z80 Programming/List of Commands/Output

The Output function is used for displaying values or strings on the home screen. Output will override anything that the displayed characters may overlap with that is previously on the screen.

In this example, the calculator would display  at 2 rows down (from the top of the screen) and 6 columns over (from the left of the screen). Notice that to display a string, the string must be enclosed in quotation marks. Make sure to separate values of row column and display value with commas.


text: User:Whiteknight/Template sandbox

title: User:Whiteknight/Template sandbox


text:
User talk:71.235.65.133

Regarding edits made during May 20 2007
Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. If this is an IP address, and it is shared by multiple users, ignore this warning if you did not make any unconstructive edits. Az1568(Talk) 23:21, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:71.235.65.133


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User talk:Lgvanegas

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page, and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 00:17, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Images
G'day, I see you've uploaded some lovely images for the cookbook, e.g. Image:Easy Paella.jpg. These are great, and they look like you have taken them yourself. Have you considered uploading them to Commons instead? It is generally better to put public domain or "free" licensed images in Commons, because they then become available to Wikibooks in other languages, as well as other Wiki projects. Webaware talk 14:38, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright
Please add image copyright tags to Image:Easy Paella.jpg and Image:Papa Turmada.jpg. --Derbeth talk 15:49, 25 May 2007 (UTC)

 * G'day Lgvanegas, I see that you've added another image: Image:Mazorca Desgranada.jpg. Could you please add a copyright tag to each of your images, so that they don't get deleted by an admin? If you took the photographs yourself, you can tag them with something like PD-self for public domain, CC-self for a Creative Commons license, or GFDL-self for a GNU Free Documentation license. Just go to the image in Wikibooks (e.g. Image:Easy Paella.jpg, click the edit this page link at the top, and type in the appropriate tag including the 🇦🇩.
 * If you didn't take these photographs, can you please provide information about where they came from? cheers, Webaware talk 03:23, 10 June 2007 (UTC)
 * G'day again, thanks for putting a license tag on your latest image upload. Could you please go back over your previous images (listed above) and fix them? If you don't, they may be deleted soon, leaving your recipes with big holes where the images go. thanks, Webaware talk 00:14, 3 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Important! Your images may be deleted by an admin if they do not have the correct license tag applied! Please go back over your uploaded images and ensure that they all have a copyright license tag. Webaware talk 01:12, 8 July 2007 (UTC)

Licensing existing images
G'day, I see that you've uploaded Image:Mazorca Desgranada.jpg and Image:Easy Paella.jpg again. If you were trying to fix the licensing on these images, just follow the link to the image, click the edit this page link at the top, and type in the appropriate license tag including the 🇦🇩. To license these images like you've done with some of your other images, just add   to the image summary.

Oh, and don't forget to fix Image:Papa Turmada.jpg and Image:Latino Scramble.jpg while you're at it :-) cheers, Webaware talk 10:11, 9 July 2007 (UTC)

Links in recipes
G'day LGVA, when you add links in recipes, you need to put the Cookbook: prefix in front of them so that they reference the ingredients pages within the Cookbook, e.g. Allspice → Allspice. cheers, Webaware talk 03:39, 10 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Lgvanegas


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Talk:Ruby Programming/Syntax/Literals

Symbols
The table of contents said that this page would discuss symbols. Where is the discussion?
 * Yes, the part about symbols seems to be missing. --Hannes Röst (talk) 13:34, 31 October 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ruby Programming/Syntax/Literals


text:
AP Biology/Community Ecology

Community Ecology
Community ecology is the study of the relationship of populations in an area.

a) The competitive exclusion principle, also called Gause's Principle, states that when two species compete for exactly the same resources (thus, they occupy the same niche), one is likely to be more successful. As a result, one species "outcompetes" the other species, and eventually the second species is eliminated.  This principle means: no two species can sustain coexistence if they occupy the same niche. Gause mixed two species of Paramecium that competed for the same food.  One population grew rapidly and was more successful at finding food.  This population thrived.

b) Resource partitioning occurs when two species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resources. Close study would reveal that they actually occupy slightly different niches.  By pursuing slightly different resources or obtaining resources in slightly different ways, individuals minimize competition and maximize success.  Dividing up resources in this manner is called resource partitioning. Five species of warblers coexist in spruce trees by feeding on insects in different regions of the tree and by using different feeding behaviors to obtain insects.

c) As a result of resource partitioning, certain characteristics may enable individuals to obtain resources in their partitions more successfully. Selection of these characteristics reduces competition with individuals in other partitions and leads to a divergence of features.  This is called character displacement or niche shift. Two species of finches that live on two different Galapagos Islands have similar beaks, both suited for using the same food supply.  On a third island, they coexist, but due to evolution, the beak of each bird species is different.  This minimizes competition by enabling each finch to feed on seeds of a different size.

d) Realised niche -- The niche that an organism occupies in the presence of predators and other environmental constraints. When competitors are absent the niche occupied is called fundamental niche. That is, when they do not compete for the same resources. Under experimental conditions, one species of barnacle can live on rocks that are exposed to the full range of tides.  The full range, from lowest to highest tide levels, is its fundamental niche.  In the natural environment, however, a 2nd species outcompetes the first species, but only at lower tide levels where desiccation is minimal.  The first species survives in its realized niche, where the tide is  higher.

 Predator-Prey Relationships

e) A true predator kills and eats another animal.

f) A parasite spends most of its life living on another organism, obtaining nourishment from host by feeding on its tissues. A parasite lives on a living organism.

g) An insect that lays its eggs on a host (usually an insect or a spider) is called a parasitoid. After the eggs hatch, the larvae obtain nourishment by consuming the host's tissues. The tarantula hawk wasp stings a tarantula, paralyzing it.  It then lays its eggs in the live tarantula, which eventually hatch.  The newborn babies feed on the tarantula until they begin pupation.

h) A herbivore is a creature that eats plants. There are three types of herbivores.  Granivores eat seeds.  Grazers eat grass.  Browsers eat leaves.

i) Symbiosis applies to two species that live together in close contact. There are three forms of symbiosis.
 * 1) Mutualism - benefits both species (+,+)
 * 2) Commensalism - benefits one species, does not affect other (+,0)
 * 3) Parasitism - benefits one species, hurts the other (+,-)

title: AP Biology/Community Ecology


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Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?

Welcome to the exercises related to lesson 9 of ¡Aprovéchalo! The answers can be found here. Also, try translating the dialogue at the top of the lesson page.

Jobs and occupations
Match the English to the Spanish.

A Few Important Words
Translate the following from English to Spanish and vice versa.
 * 1) I have too many apples.
 * 2) Hoy, trabajo en una tienda para ganar dinero.
 * 3) You're a plumber? How fantastic!
 * 4) Muchos niños quieren ser constructores.
 * 5) I prefer men that play rugby.
 * 6) De vez en cuando, quiero jugar al fútbol, pero no ahora.
 * 7) Usually, we go swimming, but today, we're going to play tennis.

Workplaces
Complete the following sentences.
 * 1) Soy profesora: trabajo en _____.
 * 2) Es cocinero: trabaja en _____.
 * 3) No me gusta mi trabajo en _____, porque es demasiado ruidoso.
 * 4) Odio mi trabajo en _____, porque es muy aburrido. No hay mucho para hacer.
 * 5) Trabajamos en _____ que se llama Harrods. Siempre es animado y ¡me encanta hablar!

The Future Tense
Rewrite the following sentences, so that the verb is in the future tense.
 * 1) Voy a Canadá
 * 2) Trabajamos en un restaurante en la ciudad.
 * 3) ¿Ganas veinte euros por hora? ¡Qué bueno!
 * 4) Tienen cuarenta y ocho años.
 * 5) Quiero dormir.
 * 6) ¿Jugáis al tenis?
 * 7) Va a Irlanda para experimentar una cultura diferente.
 * 8) Soy ingeniera.

title: Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?


text:
User talk:202.146.15.20

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 09:31, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

I'm sorry; this is a school IP adress, which means that anyone at a certain school can use it. It's probobly just one person that vandalised though. 202.146.15.20 05:15, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.146.15.20


text:
Becoming a Linguistic Mastermind/The method

Learning a language
Learning is fun. I’m not making a hopeless attempt to persuade you to stop procrastinating; it is the truth.

Any activity which is necessary for our basic survival is something we are bound to find interesting. Most of us have numbered eating, learning, playing and sports among our hobbies at some time in our lives.

In fact, learning is an important part of any pastime. If you have ever picked up an encyclopaedia and found yourself hopelessly lost in its pages you’ll know what I’m talking about. Learning is fun.

Of course, it’s important that the fun factor should not be hampered by rules and boring theory. When you leafed through that encyclopaedia, you did it of your own free will. The success of your learning was based on the fact that you could read only those things that interested you, whenever you felt like it.

These language courses work in the same way. There is no teacher. Perhaps you could find somebody to learn with you; that way there won’t be any excuses like “I don’t have time today.” Alternatively, you could study by yourself.

In this book you will find many recommendations. You can pick and choose the ones that suit you. The recommendations in detail are:   Take your time. I’m still looking for an English version of the story of Till Eulenspiegel and the waggoner. If you know this tale, please enter it here. Everyone needs to learn at their own pace. You should decide yourself how much time you need to finish the lesson. You can, in the beginning at least, be geared to finishing a lesson a week.   Read the texts and their English translations. Traditional language courses often demand that you try to decipher a text all by yourself. Sometimes you are even asked to make a translation. However, the most important thing is to have a sense of achievement by the end of the lesson. In other words, you should try to keep things simple. Read the English translation at least twice and familiarise yourself with its contents.   Listen to the spoken material. When you are learning a new language it will sound like gibberish at first. Nevertheless, listen to the spoken material, because you will at least get a feeling for the sounds of the language. What’s more, you will probably understand many internationalisms —even if you are learning Japanese or Hindi. By the second lesson at the latest, you will recognise quite a few words and structures. That will give you a certain feeling of success.   Read along with the spoken material. Try to follow the text as you listen. The passages that sound funny to you—those where the pronunciation doesn’t seem to fit the written word—will easily stick in your mind. In that way you will quickly improve your comprehension of the language. When studying a language that doesn’t use the Latin alphabet, you will need a little preparation before you reach this step. The courses will provide this.   Read the word-for-word translation. Once you have read the stylistically faultless translation, start reading the word-for-word translation. It should be easy, but if you have any problems, the course will use annotated notes to help you. When you have finished laughing, listen to the spoken material and follow the word-for-word translation instead of the target-language text. What you are doing was called “learning vocabulary by rote” in the prehistoric ages. Fortunately, this task is now a lot less daunting than it once was. Reading along while you listen is something you should do again and again. Let the speakers on the recording repeat themselves until you can’t bear it any more. Do the same thing the next day and the day after that.   Let the language sink in. This is your second main activity. You will need a portable CD or MP3 player. Let the speakers read to you non-stop. Let the melody of their speech become ingrained on your subconscious. When you reach the later lessons you will have mastered some grammatical rules without noticing—it’s just like learning English as a child.   Season your studies by using complementary learning strategies. For example, once you understand perfectly the texts in the target language you can make copies of them. But don’t trust yourself to make a perfect copy. Let someone compare the texts or use the spell-checker on your computer. Later on (in lesson three at the earliest) you can try to speak synchronously with the recording. Whisper at first. You will get some useful feedback when your pronunciation is not like the native speaker’s pronunciation. When you are no longer a beginner you might be able to understand a new text after just one reading. Even then you shouldn’t be without the help of native speakers. As an example, Wikipedia offers some spoken articles. You can use them just like lessons, using a dictionary to look up any unfamiliar words.   The task of learning a language is never complete. Just as you learn new English words all the time, your competence in a foreign-language will always be improving. At some point you will be able to leave this course behind you and concentrate on newspapers, radio programmes and chat rooms. By then the foreign language will almost feel like a mother tongue to you.

Offering a course
The course is defined in terms of a source language—the learner’s mother tongue—and a target language. The course can contain any number of lessons consisting of the following four parts:

 * 1) A text in the target language—This should be a dialogue (or a trialogue) of 150 to 200 words. Roots should recur very often over several lessons, even if the style of the text suffers because of it. Giving the learner a sense of achievement should be first and foremost.
 * 2) The corresponding text in the source language—This should be made up of simple words. The reader should be able to imagine pictorially what they have read.
 * 3) A word-for-word translation—This should be based heavily on the target language text. Examples are missing here. It would be reasonable as well to adopt the same punctuation and upper-lower case usage.
 * 4) The spoken material—This should be recorded as far as possible by multiple native speakers, speaking in the standard language (and not in a dialect).

To help minimise the investment in time required, please consider doing things in the following order: first, a text in the target language should be elaborated, discussed and improved for some time. Then, somebody can write the translations and record the texts. There should be recordings of people speaking slowly as well as speaking quickly.

Anyone who wants to deviate from these recommendations is free to do so; but they should announce their intentions, so that everyone can understand them.

Once a course is complete it will be easy to offer it in several source languages. Someone simply has to write both translations of the text. It doesn’t even have to be done by native speaker.


text:
Lore of Learning/Process/Discuss Structure

This discussion is a continuation of the main Discussion page of the book(s) (on the Table of Contents).

Note that this environment permits multiple structures tailored for different audiences.

We start in English with a fairly generic approach which would work for people interested in learning and education from an historical and philosophical perspective.

As the sections develop, there might well emerge components of interest to learners of specific things (as suggested previously).

The volumes should cross time and cultures, though not necessarily using the same time scale for each culture.

The aim of this section is to discuss and discover insightful ways of grouping chapters into volumes - an on-going discussion.

=Volume 1: Learning Through the Ages=

Myths and legends, the great teachers, anthropological and genetic perspectives.

=Volume 2: Cultures and Learning=

Also through time. We might need volumes on this!

Introduction and Overview
Introducing this volume on the foundation of the previous volume.

Ideally,these sections should be written by local experts in their own language, and translated later.

Ancient Greece
Plato founded the Academy in Athens.

The wikipedia article on Plato refers to Platonic Scholarship and also to other thinkers of the time (Socrates and Aristotle), including his teachers.

Confucius and Learning
Confucius - and followers on learning.

Synthesis and conclusion
Leading into the next volume.

=Volume 3: Learning in the 20th Century=

Perhaps a little further back than the 20th Century: philosophy and research.

=Volume 4: Learning Today=

Contemporary Praxis.

With roots in the past, facing contemporary issues.

=Volume 5: Towards Collective Wisdom=

The future - collective wisdom through connected knowledge.

In a networked world, with global knowledge and a global shared mind, a sustainable planet may become possible.


text:
Lore of Learning/Key Contributors

Key contributions include

 * contributing to the vision
 * writing
 * reviewing
 * editing
 * illustrating
 * etc.

Please add your details below if you are or would like to be a key contributor.

Hint: cut, paste and edit the wiki markup text from one of the other contributors.

title: Lore of Learning/Key Contributors


text:
Lore of Learning/References

At this stage, we list potentially useful references, reading material and links which lead to useful information for readers/writers.

=Links of Possible relevance=

 * History of education (Wikipedia) - a really good starting for this book!
 * Cultural Psychology
 * Cultural-historical Psychology
 * Lev Vygotsky
 * John Dewey
 * Practical design patterns for teaching and learning with technology
 * w:Category:History_of_education

title: Lore of Learning/References


text:
Spanish/Answers/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?

Dialogue

 * Raúl: Hi, Sofía. What do you do for a living?
 * Sofía: I work in a shop.
 * Raúl: Ok.
 * Sofía: What about you, what do you do for a living?
 * Raúl: Ah, I'm an English teacher.
 * Sofía: Great! Do you speak English natively?
 * Raúl: No, I love learning new languages.
 * Sofía: Yeah, I want to learn English for my job, too. There are always customers who want to speak English. It's very difficult.
 * Rául: Yeah, I understand. Goodbye!

Jobs and occupations

 * d
 * a
 * h
 * b
 * g
 * e
 * i
 * f
 * c

A Few Important Words

 * 1) Tengo demasiadas manzanas.
 * 2) Today, I'm working in a shop to earn some money.
 * 3) ¿Eres fontanero? ¡Qué fantástico!
 * 4) Many boys want to be builders.
 * 5) Prefiero hombres que juegan al rugby.
 * 6) Occasionally, I want to play football, but not now.
 * 7) Usualmente, practicamos la natación, pero hoy, vamos a jugar al tenis.

Workplaces

 * 1) Un colegio
 * 2) Un restaurante
 * 3) Un taller mecánico; una fábrica
 * 4) Una oficina
 * 5) Una tienda

The Future Tense

 * 1) Iré a Canadá
 * 2) Trabajaremos en un restaurante en la ciudad.
 * 3) ¿Ganarás veinte euros por hora? ¡Qué bueno!
 * 4) Tendrán cuarenta y ocho años.
 * 5) Querré dormir.
 * 6) ¿Jugaréis al tenis?
 * 7) Irá a Irlanda para experimentar una cultura diferente.
 * 8) Seré ingeniera.

title: Spanish/Answers/¿Cuál es tu trabajo?


text:
Lore of Learning/Figures

=List of Figures= (by volume eventually)

title: Lore of Learning/Figures


text:
Lore of Learning/icons

Icons may be used to highlight specific types of content.

Icons should probably be produced as sets using SVG.

Sets may include for example:

 * Pragmatic tip
 * Philosophical note
 * Teaching tip
 * Collaborative learning
 * Contemplative
 * Collaborative learning pattern
 * Anti-pattern
 * Sage on the stage
 * Research question
 * Myth
 * etc.

title: Lore of Learning/icons


text:
Lore of Learning/images

Images may be used to illustrate points, tell stories, etc.

Preferably by volume.

Some possible images which spring to mind are:

 * a rural school in Africa
 * an engineering laboratory
 * game playing
 * educational toys
 * a dojo, etc.
 * sports coaching
 * etc.

title: Lore of Learning/images


text:
Lore of Learning/illustrations

Most likely supplied by authors - chapter specific.

title: Lore of Learning/illustrations


text:
Belarusian/Lesson 3

Belarusian Vowel System
The vowel system of the Belarusian language is much simpler than that of English. In Belarusian, there is no distinction between long and short vowels, which exists in Germanic languages, and no diphthongs like ai in rain or oa in road. There are only six vowel sounds in Belarusian, and only one might cause problems with an English speaker, the sound ы. It is common to Slavic, Turkic, Celtic and some other languages, but is queer to Germanic and Romance languages. The English sound most similar to it is i in big, but to say ы you should move your tongue and palate still farther up and backward.

The vowel system of Belarusian and its representation in writing is shown below.

So, most Belarusian vowels have two corresponding letters: a simple, "pure", vowel, denoting only the vowel sound, and a y-vowel, that is pronounced as й + vowel: ya, ye, yo, yu. Consequently, the й letter in Belarusian never occurs before vowels, because an appropriate y-vowel is used instead, e.g. я instead of йа etc.

The letter i is not always pronounced as a y-vowel. Being and initial letter, it is pronounced as a simple vowel, i.e. like English ee in keep.

Ірла́ндыя "Irlandiya" - Ireland

But after a vowel it is pronounced as yi, with a й sound.

Украіна "Ukrayina" - Ukraine

In several cases, initial і is also pronounced as yi. We shall deal these cases later.

Personal Pronouns
Here are all Belarusian personal pronouns, arranged by person and number.

Ён студэ́нт. "Yon student" - He is a student.

Яна́ студэ́нтка. "Yana studentka" - She is a student.

Я туры́ст. "Ya turyst" - I am a tourist (male).

Я туры́стка. "Ya turystka" - I am a tourist (female).

Ты тут. "Ty tut" - You are here (singular familiar).

Вы тут. "Vy tut" - You are here (plural or singular formal).

Яны́ там. "Yany tam" - They are there.

You may have noticed that the suffix ка is used to get female nouns from male ones.

Who And What
Хто and што are the Belarusian for who and what. Хто is used in asking about animate things, i.e. people and animals, whereas што applies to inanimate objects.

Remember that no linking verb is required in Belarusian.

'''Што гэ́та? - Гэ́та трамва́й.''' "Shto heta? Heta tramvay" - What is this? This is a tram.

'''Хто гэ́та? - Гэ́та каро́ва.''' "Khto heta? Heta karova" - Who is this? This is a cow.

'''Гэ́та што? - Гэ́та даро́га.''' "Heta shto? Heta darogha" - What is this? This is a road.

'''Гэ́та хто? - Гэ́та сакрата́рка.''' "Khto heta? Heta sakratarka" - Who is this? This is a secretary (female).

Note that word order is not so critical in Belarusian as it is in English. However, што гэта? is more natural than гэта што?

1. Ы practice
Pronounce these words paying special attention to ы sound.

мы - we

вы - you

Рым - Rome

Ры́га - Riga

А́фрыка - Africa

дырэ́ктар - a manager

партыза́н - a guerrilla

2. Е Ё І Ю Я practice
Pronounce these words. Be sure to pronounce е, ё, ю, я like ye, yo, yu, ya. Remember that і is pronounced like i at the beginning of the word, and yi after vowels.

яны́ - they

Ёрк - York

стадыён - a stadium

краіна - a country

е́лка - a fur tree

юна́цтва - youth

Іра́н - Iran

3. Хто or Што?
Build questions and answers with the given words, using хто or што.

Sample: Гара: ''Што гэта? Гэта гара.''

елка

сакратар

слон

Украіна

Clue: Што гэта? Гэта елка. Хто гэта? Гэта сакратар. Хто гэта? Гэта слон. Што гэта? Гэта Украіна.

4. Translation
Translate into Belarusian.

1. We are here.

2. Who is this? This is a cat.

3. What is this? This is a tree.

4. He is a tourist.

5. She is a secretary.

6. He is there.

Clue: (1) Мы тут. (2) Хто гэта? Гэта кот. (3) Што гэта? Гэта дрэва. (4) Ён турыст. (5) Яна сакратарка. (6) Ён там.

title: Belarusian/Lesson 3


text:
Lore of Learning/Stories of Learning

Ideally, this book should be rooted in personal experience. This section is intended as a means of capturing personal stories of learning and/or teaching. Think of these as story cards with some additional information to provide context and enable one to understand the factors which made this learning experience effective - towards general patterns of learning. The idea is to tell the most positive stories - the ones where the learning was effective. Some stories may be adapted and included in the book, most likely in a section pertaining to the present, though possibly with links to teaching and learning styles described elsewhere.

The following Template may be used:

 * 1) Briefly describe your most positive learning experience. Think back to a time when you can say you really learned something. It might have been at school in a particular class, or at university in a particular tutorial, or while you were at work, or busy at home, or with friends in a completely different situation. (one or two short paragraphs)
 * 2) In the story you have just entered above, why did you need to or want to learn those things? Perhaps you were required to as part of a course and you needed the learning to get a qualification? Perhaps the topic was of great interest to you? Perhaps you needed to learn this in order to do something? Please explain why you needed or wanted this learning? (one paragraph)
 * 3) What factors do you think made this such a positive learning experience? Perhaps it was the presence of a great teacher? Perhaps the other learners were very helpful? Maybe you could sense your own improvement during that time? Perhaps there was a good balance between fun and focused concentration? Perhaps it was having access to the Internet? Or something else altogether? (a list of one - five factors).
 * 4) Why do you think these factors were so important at the time? Perhaps your state of knowledge required the great teacher to stimulate interest in the topic? Perhaps the teacher tended to talk over your head but a friend in the class could explain the concepts to you perfectly? Perhaps your self-confidence needed a boost? Perhaps the situation suited your own learning style, etc.? Please indicate why you think these factors were so important at the time: (write a paragraph or two).
 * 5) This experience occurred while I was at

[ ] junior school [ ] high school [ ] higher education [ ] a short course [ ] at work [ ] at home Other: ................ (explain)

 * /Story Template/

 * /Stories/

=See Also=

OER Stories
The focus of the book is not OER specifically, but the OER community is being quite prolific in generating stories:

 * Open Access Success Stories
 * Inspirational stories of access to knowledge and learning
 * OER commons Stories about OER.
 * OER Stories: Knowledge Hub (iiep-unesco)
 * Sharing Teaching Experiences

title: Lore of Learning/Stories of Learning