text:
Korean/Advanced Pronunciation Rules

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This lesson contains all information about standard pronunciation of Korean words, based on "Standard Korean Pronunciation Rules (1988)."

Medials
Simple vowels 'ㅚ' and 'ㅟ' can be pronounced like diphthongs: Many native speakers cannot distinguish ‘금괴(金塊)’ from ‘금궤(金櫃).’
 * ㅚ [ø] → ㅚ [we] or [we̞]
 * ㅟ [y] → ㅟ [wi] or [ɥi]

'져, 쪄, and 쳐' appearing in conjugation of verbs and adjectives is often pronounced '저, 쩌, and 처,' respectively: ex) 가지어 → 가져[가저], 찌어 → 쪄[쩌],  다치어 → 다쳐[다처] In Korean, 'ㅈ, ㅉ, ㅊ' following vowels starting with /j/ sound, such as 'ㅕ', only appear as the form of '져, 쪄, 쳐,' except for some non-formal spelling of foreign words in Hangeul. The reason why there is such a rule is because 'ㅈ, ㅉ, ㅊ' cannot be followed by /j/ sounds. (/j/ elision)

In some dialects 'ㅖ' is pronounced 'ㅔ' except for '예' and '례': ex) 계집[계ː집/게ː집] 계시다[계ː시다/게ː시다]  시계[시계/시게](時計)      연계[연계/연게](連繫)  몌별[몌별/메별](袂別)  개폐[개폐/개페](開閉)      혜택[혜ː택/헤ː택](惠澤)  지혜[지혜/지헤](智慧)

'ㅢ' after initial consonant is often pronounced 'ㅣ': ex) 늴리리[닐리리] 닁큼[닝큼]  무늬[무니]  띄어쓰기[띠어쓰기]  씌어[씨어]      틔어[티어]  희어[히어]  희떱다[히떱따]  희망[히망]  유희[유히] Moreover, '의' ('ㅢ without initial consonant) which is a non-first syllable is often pronounced '이':  ex) 민주주의[민주주의/민주주이]  의의[의의/의이](意義)  협의[혀븨/혀비](協議) Also, the post-position '의' (meaning the word of) is often pronounced '에': ex) 우리의[우리의/우리에] 강의의[강ː의의/강ː이에](講義의)

For '되어', '피어', '-이오', and '아니오', you can add /j/ sounds as follows: ex) 되어[되어/되여] 피어[피어/피여]  -이오[이오/이요]  아니오[아니오/아니요]

Finals
The sounds of some final consonants (받침, batchim) are different from their sounds as initials.

Only seven consonant sounds are found at the end of syllables: ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, and ㅇ.

Nasalization
In general, obstruents before nasals are assimilated to nasals, while keeping the same place of articulation as before. ㄹ following obstruents also is affected. Let 'k-stop', 't-stop', 'p-stop' be obstruents stopping with k, t, p sounds, respectively. The general rules are:
 * A k-stop (ㄱ, ㅋ, ㄲ, ...) becomes ㅇ before 'ㄴ and ㅁ'
 * A t-stop (ㄷ, ㅅ, ㅆ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅌ, ㅎ, ...) becomes ㄴ before 'ㄴ and ㅁ'
 * A p-stop (ㅂ, ㅍ, ㅃ, ...) becomes ㅁ before 'ㄴ and ㅁ'
 * ㄹ following an obstruent becomes ㄴ, and above rules are applied. (For this, see below.)

Here are some examples:

ex) 격노(being incensed), pronounced [경노]     학년 (grade, school/academic year, form, standard), prounounced [항년]      닦는 (wiping, present participle form), pronounced [당는]      긁는 (scratching, present participle form), pronounced [긍는]  ex) 국물 (broth), pronounced [궁물] 부엌문 (kitchen door), pronounced [부엉문] 키읔만 ('ㅋ' only), pronounced [키응만] 묵묵히 (silently), pronounced [뭉무키] ex) 닫는 (closing, present participle form), pronounced [단는]     덧니 (snaggletooth), pronounced [던니]      죽었니? (Is it dead?), pronounced [주건니]      젖니 (baby tooth), pronounced [전니]      벚나무 (cheery tree), pronounced [번나무]      옻나무 (lacquer tree), pronounced [온나무]      꽃나무 (a flower plane), pronounced [꼰나무]      밭농사 (dry-field farming), pronounced [반농사]      놓는 (putting down, participle form), pronounced [논는]      밭일 (farming), pronounced [밭ㄴ일 -> 반닐] due to addition of 'ㄴ' sound      밭이랑 (plowed rows), pronounced [밭ㄴ이랑 -> 반니랑] due to addition of 'ㄴ' sound      But, 밭이랑 (a farm and) is pronounced [바치랑] since there is no addition of 'ㄴ' but a palatalization.  ex) 맏며느리 (wife of one's eldest son), pronounced [만며느리] 옷맵시 (line of cloth, style), pronounced [온맵씨] 옻물 (lacquer sap), pronounced [온물] 낯면 (the name of the hanja 面), pronounced [난면] 낮말 (talking in the daytime), pronounced [난말] 낱말 (a word), pronounced [난말] 히읗만 (only 'ㅎ'), pronounced [히은만] ex) 굽는 (roasting, participle form), pronounced [굼는]     줍는 (picking up, participle form), pronounced [줌는]      밟는 (stepping on, participle form), pronounced [밤는] since 밟- is pronounced [밥:] (one of counterexamples of pronunciation of ㄼ)      읊는 (reciting, participle form), pronounced [음는]  ex) 업무 (duties), pronounced [엄무] 엎는 (flipping, participle form), pronounced [엄는] 덮는 (covering, participle form), pronounced [덤는] 앞문 (front door), pronounced [암문]
 * k-stops + ㄴ become ㅇㄴ
 * k-stops + ㅁ become ㅇㅁ
 * t-stops + ㄴ become ㄴㄴ
 * t-stops + ㅁ become ㄴㅁ
 * p-stops + ㄴ becomes ㅁㄴ
 * p-stops + ㅁ becomes ㅁㅁ

Aspiration
ex) 북한 (North Korea), pronounced [부칸]     익숙한 (familiar), pronounced [익쑤칸]      착한 (good-natured), pronounced [차칸]      악한 (evil), pronounced [아칸]      긁힌 (be scratched), pronounced [글킨] (ㄹ remains)  ex) 하얗게 (whitely), pronounced [하야케] 끊긴 (disconnected), pronounced [끈킨] (ㄴ remains) ex) 맏형 (the eldest brother), pronounced [마텽]     굳해파리목 (Trachymedusae), pronounced [구태파리목]      핫하다 (to be hot, popular), pronounced [하타다]      숱하디숱하다 (plentiful, rich, so many), pronounced [수타디수타다]      맞혼인 (a marriage with equal share of expenses between the two families, or a consensual marriage, 맞婚姻), pronounced [마토닌]      꽂하늘소 (Leptura aethiops), pronounced [꼬타늘쏘]      닻혀 (an anchor fluke), pronounced [다텨]      몇 할 (what percentage, literally how many 'hal'(할, 割, 10%)), pronounced [며탈]  ex) 맞히다 (guess right), pronounced [마치다] 얹히다 (to be put on, or have indigestion), pronounced [언치다] 잊히다 (to be forgotten), pronounced [이치다] 닫혀 (being shut), pronounced [다쳐] (-혀 is a reduced form of -히어) ex) 빨갛다 (to be red), pronounced [빨가타] ex) 입학 (entrance), pronounced [이팍] 넓히다 (to extend), pronounced [널피다] 급하다 (in hurry), pronounced [그파다] ex) 쌓지[싸치] 닳지[달치]  좋죠[조쵸]  ex) 않소[안쏘]  많소[만:쏘]  싫소[실쏘]
 * ㄱㅎ becomes ㅋ
 * ㅎㄱ becomes ㅋ
 * t-stops + ㅎ becomes ㅌ (except for the next case):
 * but, t-stops + 히 becomes 치 if it involves palatalization (see below):
 * ㅎㄷ becomes ㅌ
 * ㅂㅎ becomes ㅍ
 * ㅎㅈ becomes ㅊ
 * ㅎㅅ becomes ㅆ

Palatalization
Some combinations involve palatalization: ex) 해돋이 (sunrise), pronounced [해도지]     곧이듣다 (to take another´s words as truth), pronounced [고지듣따]  ex) 굳히다 (to harden), pronounced [구치다] 받히다 (to be hit), pronounced [바치다]
 * ㄷ이 becomes 지 if 이- only has grammatical meaning
 * ㅌ이 and 't-stops + 히' becomes 치 if 히- only has grammatical meaning

Assimilations and Alterations Related to ㄹ
Some involve complex assimilation/alterations: ex) 남루하다 (shabby, ragged), pronounced [남:누하다]     담력 (courage, nerve; 膽力), pronounced  [담:녁]  ex) 왕릉 (royal tomb, mausoleum), pronounced  [왕능] 항로 (sea route), pronounced [항:노] 대통령 (president), pronounced [대:통녕] ex) 박람회 (expo), pronounced [방남회] ex) 합리적 (rational), pronounced [함니적] ex) 안락하다 (comfortable), pronounced [알라카다]     난로 (heater, stove), pronounced [날:로]      광한루 (Gwanghallu), pronounced [광할루]
 * ㅁㄹ becomes ㅁㄴ
 * ㅇㄹ becomes ㅇㄴ
 * ㄱㄹ becomes ㅇㄴ (can be divided as ㄱㄹ -> ㄱㄴ -> ㅇㄴ)
 * ㅂㄹ becomes ㅁㄴ (can be divided as ㅂㄹ -> ㅂㄴ -> ㅁㄴ)
 * ㄴㄹ becomes ㄹㄹ (except some words)

The exceptions are the following 11 words:

의견란[의ː견난] 임진란[임ː진난]  생산량[생산냥]  결단력[결딴녁] 공권력[공꿘녁] 동원령[동ː원녕]  상견례[상견녜]  횡단로[횡단노] 이원론[이ː원논] 입원료[이붠뇨]  구근류[구근뉴]

Linking
If a syllable with initial consonant ㅇ(meaning there is no sound) is either a postposition or a suffix/an ending, and it follows terminal syllable(받침, batchim), and if there is no addition of syllable, then that terminal syllable is moved to the position of ㅇ, as it is. Single consonants and tense consonants ㄲ, ㅆ are moved entirely, and for other double syllable like ㄼ, ㄾ, second component only moves (but ㅅ becomes ㅆ).

For the first case: ex) 깎아[까까] 옷이[오시]  있어[이써]  낮이[나지]  꽂아[꼬자]      꽃을[꼬츨]  쫓아[쪼차]  밭에[바테]  앞으로[아프로]  덮이다[더피다]      부엌이[부어키]  낯을[나츨]  밭의[바틔/바테]  무릎에[무르페]  꺾어[꺼꺼]      쫓을[쪼츨]  같은[가튼]  짚으면[지프면]  섞여[서껴]  높여[노펴] The other case:  ex) 넋이[넉씨]  앉아[안자]  닭을[달글]  젊어[절머]  곬이[골씨] 핥아[할타] 읊어[을퍼]  값을[갑쓸]  없어[업ː써]  닭이[달기] 여덟을[여덜블] 삶에[살:메]  읽어[일거]  밟을[발블]  옮은[올믄] 몫이[목씨] 넋을[넉쓸]  곬이[골씨]  외곬으로[외골쓰로]  값이[갑씨] 값에[갑쎄] 없이[업ː씨]  없으면[업ː쓰면]

If the syllable starting with ㅇ is the first character of a semantically meaningful word and if the vowel is not starting with /j/ sound, then first change the first syllable following the rule and moves the last consonant.

ex) 밭 아래 (downward of a farm, 아래 is meaningful) [받 아래 -> 바다래]     늪 앞 (front of a swamp, 앞 is meaningful) [늡 앞 -> 느밮 -> 느밥]      젖어미 (a wet nurse, 어미 is meaningful) [젇 어미 -> 저더미]      맛없다 (to taste awful, 없다 is meaningful) [맏 없다 -> 마덦다 -> 마덥따]      꽃 위 (on a flower, 위 is meaningful) [꼳 위 -> 꼬뒤]

If two words become one where the first one ends with terminal consonant and the second one starts with /j/ sound, then ㄴ is added after applying the rules to each words.

ex) 솜-이불 (cotton blanket, 솜 + 이불), pronounced [솜ː니불]     홑-이불 (bed sheet, 홑- + 이불), pronounced [혿-니불 -> 혼니불]      막-일 (physical labor, 막- + 일), pronounced [막-닐 -> 망닐]      삯-일 (job work, 삯 + 일), pronounced [삭-닐 -> 상닐]

More examples without explanation:

맨-입[맨닙] 꽃-잎[꼰닙]  내복-약[내ː봉냑]  한-여름[한녀름]  남존-여비[남존녀비] 신-여성[신녀성] 색-연필[생년필]  직행-열차[지캥녈차]  늑막-염[능망념]  콩-엿[콩녇] 담-요[담ː뇨] 눈-요기[눈뇨기]  영업-용[영엄뇽]  식용-유[시굥뉴]  백분-율[백뿐뉼]  밤-윷[밤ː뉻]

Here, ㄹㄴ with added ㄴ becomes ㄹㄹ.

ex) 들-일[들ː릴] 솔-잎[솔립]  설-익다[설릭따]  물-약[물략]  불-여우[불려우]      서울-역[서울력]  물-엿[물렫]  휘발-유[휘발류]  유들-유들[유들류들]

Some permissions: you can read as it is, without adding ㄴ for the following 5 words:

이죽-이죽[이중니죽/이주기죽] 야금-야금[야금냐금/야그먀금]  검열[검ː녈/거ː멸] 욜랑-욜랑[욜랑뇰랑/욜랑욜랑] 금융[금늉/그뮹]

Exceptions: do not add ㄴ for the following 4 words:

6·25[유기오] 3·1절[사밀쩔]  송별-연[송ː벼련]  등-용문[등용문]

Caution: if this is not the case that two words became one word which is in the dictionary, you should not add ㄴ. For example,

ex) 물요? (You mean the water?), pronounced [무료] but not [물료](X)

Brief Summary
During pronouncing,

Vowels:
 * ㅚ and ㅟ can be dipthongs.
 * /j/ following ㅈ, ㅉ, ㅊ should be removed.
 * ㅖ following with initial consonant (neither ㅇ nor ㄹ) can be ㅔ.
 * ㅢ with initial consonant (not ㅇ) should be ㅣ.
 * If a ㅢ with initial consonant made by moving a consonant, then it primarily pronounced as it is, and it can be pronounced ㅣ.
 * 의 as a non-first character of a word can be 이.
 * 의, a postposition meaning "of", can be pronounced 에.

Consonants:
 * Only 7 consonants can come as a terminal consonant, batchim: ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅇ.
 * At the end of a word,
 * ㄲ, ㅋ, ㄳ, ㄺ become ㄱ (k-stop)
 * ㄵ, ㄶ become ㄴ
 * ㅅ, ㅆ, ㅈ, ㅊ, ㅌ, ㅎ become ㄷ (t-stop)
 * ㄼ, ㄽ, ㄾ, ㅀ become ㄹ (except for 밟-, 넓죽하다, and 넓둥글다)
 * ㄻ becomes ㅁ
 * ㄿ, ㅄ, ㅍ become ㅂ (p-stop)
 * Nasalization: (k-stop, t-stop, p-stop) + (ㄴ or ㅁ) become (ㅇ, ㄴ, ㅁ)
 * Aspiration
 * k-stop + ㅎ become ㅋ
 * t-stop + ㅎ become ㅌ
 * t-stop + 히(not semantically meaningful) become 치 due to palatalization
 * p-stop + ㅎ become ㅍ
 * Palatalization: (ㄷ, ㅌ) + meaningless (이, 히) become 지(ㄷ이) or 치(other cases)
 * Assimilation/alternation: ㄹ become ㄴ after batchim which is not ㄴ/ㄹ, and ㄴㄹ and ㄹㄴ become ㄹㄹ except for some words
 * Linking: basically move batchim to next ㅇ, except for:
 * ㅅ become ㅆ.
 * Combining meaningful words cause delay of moving of batchim or addition of ㄴ.
 * Tensing
 * ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅈ following obstruents become ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅃ, ㅆ, ㅉ
 * ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅅ, ㅈ following a batchim of a word stem which is one of ㄴ(ㄵ), ㅁ(ㄻ), ㄼ, ㄾ become ㄲ, ㄸ, ㅆ, ㅉ
 * In Sino-Korean words, ㄷ, ㅅ, ㅈ after ㄹ become ㄸ, ㅆ, ㅉ (except reduplication words)
 * -ㄹ in some words following a word stem makes following ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅈ tense
 * If two words become one where the first one modifies the second one and if there should be some delay pronouncing it, then the first ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅈ of the second word become tense.

title: Korean/Advanced Pronunciation Rules


text:
FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security/Foreword

Whenever I’m asked why Free/Open Source Software (FOSS) is so important, I recount the story of Xanadu. Mind you, that’s not story of the mythical Xanadu, the opulent 13th century summer capital of the Kublai(grandson of Genghis) Khan’s empire that spanned all of Asia. I mean the software vision of Ted Nelson, a genius of the 1960s. That Xanadu is widely acknowledged as the inspiration behind the concept of hypertext, Apple’s original Hypercard and the World Wide Web.

Although its original concept stemmed from technology rather than a business model, it is the latter that probably resulted in its demise. That’s because Xanadu tried to become that era’s digital rights management scheme; a toll-bridge solution. Each time someone clicked on a hyper link, a 2-cent charge would credit that person’s account with a small percentage going to Xanadu. For nearly 25 years, between four and ten scientists worked on some aspect of the project. In the late 1980s, Dave Walker, the CEO of AutoDesk, bought into the vision and plowed through about US$24 million trying to make Xanadu a shippable product.

But others had a simpler and clearer vision. Tim Berners-Lee, a scientist at the European research centre CERN in Geneva, working with a few collaborators, engineered a completely new competing distributed hypertext system that became the World Wide Web. Tim lobbied and fought with board members at CERN who wanted to control and license the WWW technology to the rest of the world. He emerged victorious and an open standard became the standard. Tim Berners-Lee correctly realized that the value of his making an open contribution of his invention was far more important to humanity than any possible value CERN could bring with stewardship. The rest of the story is, as they say, history and represents the ultimate example of how FOSS has the power to radically change our world.

During the negotiations leading to the first and second phases of the World Summit on the Information Society, there was a growing realization of many government policy makers, particularly those from developing economies, of how FOSS was an important tool to promote digital literacy and improve access to public services for their citizens. But thought leaders are now beginning to realize that the FOSS movement is but one manifestation of something more fundamental and new about how collective intellectual innovation can blossom once networked information infrastructures are in place. In Yale academic Yochai Benkler’s new book, The Wealth of Networks, he notes:

“The change brought about by the networked information environment is deep. It is structural. It goes to the very foundations of how liberal markets and liberal democracies have co-evolved for almost two centuries…A series of changes in the technologies, economic organization, and social practices of production in this environment has created new opportunities for how we make and exchange information, knowledge, and culture. These changes have increased the role of non-market and non-proprietary production, both by individuals alone and by cooperative efforts in a wide range of loosely or tightly woven collaborations.”

We should applaud the efforts of the Asia-Pacific Development Information Programme and the International Open Source Network (IOSN) for their promotion activities of FOSS. This FOSS e-Primer on Network Infrastructure and Security is one of series of simple ‘how-to’ guidebooks they have produced for the lay person.

A globally interconnected information network makes it clear that cyber security is a responsibility of all countries worldwide. But even in developed countries, trained cyber security professionals are lacking so developing economies are at a huge disadvantage. Lacking in resources and with few incentives, it can be argued that developing countries represent the weakest link in promoting global cyber security. This means we need to make special efforts to assist developing economies in adopting the “technology, processes and people” of cyber security. This book represents an excellent contribution toward that laudable goal.

Robert Shaw

Deputy Head, Strategy and Policy Unit

International Telecommunication Union

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security/List of Abbreviations

Note:- While Wi-Fi is often considered as an abbreviation of Wireless Fidelity, this is a misconception. Wi-Fi is simply a trademarked phrase that means IEEE 802.11x.


text: Category:Book:FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security


text:
Belarusian/Lesson 7

Е/Ё Assimilation (Yakannie)
Яканне "yakannie" (saying я) is a process similar to akannie. It is also related to stress shifting. The rule for yakannie is as follows.

The vowels е and ё are not normally used in the pretonic syllable. The я letter is used instead of them in such a position.

вёска "vioska" a village - вяско́вы "viaskovy" village (adjective)

In all other unstressed syllables, other than pretonic, е is preserved.

зямля́ "ziamlia" land - зе́млі "ziemli" lands - землятру́с "ziemliatrus" an earthquake.

In the last word, the е letter is used instead of я because it is not the pretonic, though unstressed, syllable.

Negation
The word не is used to form negative statements. You should place it before the word being negated.

'''Гэ́та не студэ́нт. Гэ́та выкла́дчык.''' This is not a student. This is a lecturer.

Я не хво́ры. I am not ill.

Не я хво́ры. This is not I who is ill.

Take care that не is pronounced like ня if the next word's first syllable is stressed (and thus не becomes pretonic). In tarashkievitsa, in such cases ня is written instead of не. E.g. the latter two sentences in tarashkievitsa would look like Я ня хворы and Ня я хворы.

With qualitative adjectives, не is often used as a prefix, forming an adjective with an opposite meaning (like the English un prefix).

вялікі big - невялікі not big

прыго́жы beautiful - непрыго́жы not beautiful

зру́чны comfortable, handy - нязру́чны uncomfortable

Take note that being a prefix не may transform to ня if gets into a pretonic position.

Saying Yes or No
To ask a general question, i.e. a question requiring the answer yes or no, in Belarusian, you need to put a question mark (?) at the end of the sentence (in writing) or use interrogative intonation (in oral speech). No special word order is required.

To answer a general question, the words так (yes) or не (no) can be used.

'''Гэ́та саба́ка? - Так, гэ́та саба́ка.''' Is this a dog? Yes, it is a dog.

'''Ты хво́ры? - Не, я не хво́ры. Я здаро́вы.''' Are you ill? No, I am not ill. I am well.

Note the difference between Belarusian так and English yes when answering questions containing negation.

'''Гэ́та не саро́ка? - Так, гэ́та не саро́ка. Гэ́та варо́на.''' This is not a magpie, is it? No, it is not. It is a crow.

Thus, saying так means agreeing with what is asked in the question. If the question is negative, the так answer confirms negation.

The не answer can mean both negation and disagreement, and it is ambiguous when answering negative questions (no, you are not right or no, it is not so). So, some extra information is needed in such cases.

Гэ́та не но́вая кніга? - Так, гэ́та не но́вая кніга. or Не, гэ́та не но́вая кніга. Is this book not new? No, it is not new.

Demonstratives
Along with the demonstrative pronoun гэта there exists a demonstrative determiner гэты which is coordinated with the noun by number and gender (like adjectives).

Гэ́ты го́рад вялікі. This city is big.

Гэ́тае мо́ра прыго́жае. This sea is beautiful.

Гэ́тая вёска стара́я. This village is old.

Гэ́тыя ву́ліцы шыро́кія. These streets are broad.

Note the difference between гэты and гэта:

Гэ́та но́вы трамва́й. This is a new tram.

Гэ́ты трамва́й но́вы. This tram is new.

The word той corresponds to the English that determiner.

Той саба́ка стары́. That dog is old.

То́е дрэ́ва высо́кае. That tree is high.

Та́я рака́ ву́зкая. That river is narrow.

Ты́я шко́лы но́выя. Those schools are new.

Тое can also be used as a pronoun. But it is not used as a demonstrative: гэта is used instead, both with close and distant objects. Thus, Гэта хата may mean This is a house or That is a house.

Questions and Answers
Ask questions and give positive and negative answers using the statements below.

Sample: This is a book. - Гэта кніга? Так, гэта кніга. Не, гэта не кніга.

(1) This is a high house.

(2) He is a tourist.

(3) She is not beautiful.

(4) This is not a cow.

(5) These are old villages.

(6) They are not old.

Clue: (1) Гэта высокі дом? Так, гэта высокі дом. Не, гэта не высокі дом. (2) Ён турыст? Так, ён турыст. Не, ён не турыст. (3) Яна непрыгожая? Так (не), яна непрыгожая. Не, яна прыгожая. (4) Гэта не карова? Так (не), гэта не карова. Не, гэта карова. (5) Гэта старыя вёскі? Так, гэта старыя вёскі. Не, гэта не старыя вёскі. (6) Яны не старыя? Так (не), яны не старыя. Не, яны старыя.

This and That
Translate into Belarusian.

(1) That mirror is new.

(2) That man is a lecturer.

(3) This bird is beautiful.

(4) That church is high.

(5) This window is big.

Clue: (1) Тое люстра новае. (2) Той мужчына - выкладчык. (3) Гэтая птушка прыгожая. (4) Тая царква высокая. (5) Гэтае вакно вялікае.

These and Those
Make the sentences from the previous exercise plural.

Clue: (1) Тыя люстры новыя. (2) Тыя мужчыны - выклыдчыкі. (3) Гэтыя птушкі прыгожыя. (4) Тыя цэрквы высокія. (5) Гэтыя вокны вялікія.

Translation
Translate into Belarusian.

(1) "What is that?" "That is a tree." "Is that tree high?" "Yes, it is."

(2) "Who are these?" "These are birds." "Are they beautiful?" "No, these birds are not beautiful".

(3) "Are you ill?" "No, I am not ill. I am well."

(4) "Is that woman a secretary?" "No, she is not. She is a student."

(5) "Is that city big?" "Yes, it is big."

Clue: (1) Што гэта? - Гэта дрэва. - Тое дрэва высокае? - Так, яно высокае. (2) Хто гэта? - Гэта птушкі. - Яны прыгожыя? - Не, гэтыя птушкі не прыгожыя. (3) Ты хворы? - Не, я не хворы. Я здаровы. (4) Тая жанчына сакратарка? - Не, яна не сакратарка. Яна студэнтка. (5) Той горад вялікі? - Так, ён вялікі.

title: Belarusian/Lesson 7


text:
FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security/Introduction to FOSS and GNU/Linux

Free/Open Source Software
Free/Open Source Software, or FOSS, is software that is liberally licensed to grant users the right to study, change and improve its design since its source code is made available. The definition of free software, as enunciated by the Free Software Foundation, states that four essential freedoms should be contained within its license:

1. The freedom to run the program for any purpose;

2. The freedom to study and modify the program;

3. The freedom to copy the program so you can help your neighbour, and

4. The freedom to improve the program and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits.

Freedoms 2 and 4 require access to the source because studying and modifying software without source code is extremely difficult and highly inefficient since humans cannot usually understand machine code or object code. The Open Source definition published by the Open Source Initiative states that:

1. The license should not prohibit free redistribution;

2. The program must include source code and must allow distribution in source code as well as compiled form;

3. The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original software;

4. The integrity of the author’s source code and reputation must be maintained by requiring derived works to carry a different name or version number from the original software;

5. The license must not discriminate against any person or group of persons;

6. The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in a specific field of endeavour;

7. The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed, without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties;

8. The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program being part of a particular software distribution;

9. The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distributed along with the licensed software; and

10. No provision of the license may be predicated on any individual technology or style of interface.

Some examples of FOSS software include: the Linux kernel, GNOME Desktop and Free Berkeley Software Distribution (FreeBSD). The most well known and popular FOSS licenses include: GNU General Public License (GPL), GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL), BSD license, Apache License, MIT License and Mozilla Public License. For more information on FOSS, please refer to FOSS: A General Introduction by Kenneth Wong and Phet Sayo.

GNU/Linux
GNU/Linux (also known as Linux) is a computer operating system. It is one of the most prominent examples of FOSS development. Initially, GNU/Linux was primarily developed and used by individual enthusiasts. Since then, GNU/Linux has gained the support of major corporations such as IBM, Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Novell for use in servers and is becoming popular in the desktop market. Proponents and analysts attribute this success to its vendor independence, low cost, security, and reliability.

In 1983, Richard Stallman founded the GNU Project. The goal of GNU was to develop a complete Unix-like operating system composed entirely of free software. By the beginning of the 1990s, GNU had produced or collected most of the necessary components – libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix-like shell – except for the lowest level, the kernel. The GNU project began developing its own kernel, the Hurd, in 1990, based on the Mach micro-kernel. This Mach-based design subsequently proved difficult, however, and development proceeded slowly.

Meanwhile, in 1991, another kernel was begun as a hobby by Finnish university student Linus Torvalds while attending the University of Helsinki. Linux was further developed by various programmers over the Internet. In 1992, it was combined with the GNU system, resulting in a fully functional free operating system. The GNU system is most commonly encountered in this form, usually referred to as a ‘GNU/Linux system’ or a ‘Linux distribution’. This is by far the most popular variant of GNU. There are over 300 distributions based on GNU with the Linux kernel. Some of the most widely used are: Debian, Gentoo, Mandriva, Red Hat Linux, Slackware, SuSE and Ubuntu.

The Linux kernel was originally envisioned to be used on Intel 80386-based machines. While not originally intended to be portable to other architectures, Linux is now one of the most widely ported operating systems in the world, running on a diverse range of systems from the iPAQ to IBM System z9. Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures. Linux is increasingly common as an operating system for supercomputers. In November 2005, the Top 500 List of supercomputers stated that the two fastest supercomputers in the world run Linux. Of the 500 systems, 74 percent run some version of Linux, including seven of the top 10.

The Linux kernel and most GNU components are licensed under the GNU GPL. The GPL requires that all source code modifications and derived works also be licensed under the GPL, and is sometimes referred to as a “share and share-alike” (or copyleft) license.

Network Operator’s Perspective on FOSS
All network operators need to provide a set of services for which they need reliable systems. Services such as web surfing, e-mail and Domain Name System (DNS) form the backbone of all network providers. Network operators also need scalability as the number of users grows, since they usually operate in a high volume business. This requires a reliable system which can be scaled up quickly and which can run services efficiently.

FOSS provides several advantages over proprietary software in terms of savings with regard to license fees, flexibility in installation and operation, and availability of source code that can act as reference implementations for the basic building blocks of Internet infrastructure. FOSS also reduces virus and security problems frequently associated with other software because of the possibility of public audit of source code. Finally, illegal copying of software is an increasing concern worldwide, and using FOSS ensures that you are always on the side of the law.

GNU/Linux for Networking
While there are other operating systems, like *BSD, and those that also provide access to source code, GNU/Linux is the most popular FOSS system in the world. From a networking perspective, the UNIX operating system is the pioneer in multi-user systems. UNIX and UNIX clones such as *BSD and GNU/Linux have been developed with network performance and security in mind.

In the past, most network systems relied on expensive hardware and proprietary UNIX platforms to get maximum benefits. With GNU/Linux, the same kind of benefits can be achieved on cheaper hardware. At the same time, the availability of the source code enables operators to create their own extensions and fine-tune the software to their own needs.

Also, most servers and programs that are required for network operations are available on GNU/Linux, and a lot of additional utilities are being developed constantly to provide added advantages.

BSD Alternatives
While GNU/Linux has received wide recognition in the past few years, there are alternative open source operating systems, mainly the different types of BSD: NetBSD, FreeBSD and OpenBSD. The BSD license is one of the most widely used licenses for FOSS. Many software programs are released under this license, including Apache and Berkeley Internet Name Domain (BIND). This license has few restrictions when compared to licenses such as the GNU GPL, and especially the default restrictions provided by copyright, putting it relatively closer to the public domain. Therefore, while preserving open access to the source code, the BSD license also allows the software to be used in proprietary software and products.


text:
FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security/Network Concepts and Architectures

Computer Networks
A network is a mechanism that enables distributed computers and users to communicate and share resources. Sharing of resources may mean sharing a printer, a scanner or even a large hard disk on a particular computer. A computer network connects two or more computers or peripherals so that all users on the network have access to these resources.

There are two major types of computer networks:

 * Server-based networks; and
 * Peer-to-peer networks.

In a server-based network, there exists one or more computer(s) on which the resources are centralized. The network is also more or less controlled by the server. Servers generally have superior processing power, memory and hard disk space compared to desktop systems.

In a peer-to-peer network, all computers on the network are responsible for sharing resources. Each computer shares the resources that it has. All computers are servers as well as clients. There is no central control over the resources. Peer-to-peer networks are based on peer relationships among computers in the network.

Network Topology
Topology refers to the arrangement of computers in a network. In physical terms, there are two main topologies that are commonly used:
 * Bus topology
 * Ring topology

The following additional topologies are not common, but are used as well, and you should be aware of them.
 * Fully Connected topology
 * Star topology
 * Line topology
 * Tree topology
 * Mesh topology

The simplest arrangement is Bus topology in which all computers are connected in a series to a single stretch of cable. This means that the entire length of the cable must be intact for the network to work properly; which makes larger networks prone to failure.

A hub or a switch is used as the central exchange point in a Star topology. All computers are connected to the hub in a star-like configuration of wires going in all directions from the hub. A Star topology is easier to maintain and to expand.

LAN Architecture
Two computers can communicate in different ways through different Local Area Network (LAN) architectures. Of the two well-known architectures — Ethernet and Token Ring — the former is more popular.

Ethernet
Ethernet is independent of any vendor, which accounts for its great success. Basic Ethernet architecture operates at a speed of 10 Mbps (mega bits per second). Other variations include Fast Ethernet, operating at 100 Mbps, and Gigabit Ethernet operating at 1 Giga bit per second. The Ethernet standards are referred to in the 802.nn notation, an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard. WiFi (wireless fidelity) networks also follow the same standards, and are thus characterized as 802.11x.

Token Ring
Token-Ring LAN technology was developed and promoted by IBM in the early 1980s and was later standardized as IEEE 802.5. Initially very successful, its popularity went into steep decline after the introduction of the 10 Mbps Ethernet standard in the early 1990s.

Network Cabling
Cables play a fundamental role in any network, and exist at the most primary level of the network. Two types of cables are in common use – co-axial cables (similar to cable TV cables) and twisted pair cables (similar to telephone cables). Co-axial cables are generally used with T-connectors in a Bus topology network. Twisted pair cables are used mostly in Hub-based networks.

Network Adapter Cards
Network Interface Cards (NICs) or Network Adapter Cards, as they are commonly known, provide an interface on the computer to connect to the network cable. Today, most computers come with a built-in network card. However, if it is not built into the system, an additional card can be inserted inside the computer, which will then connect to the network cable.

Networks Operation and Layers
Computer networks operate at different layers, each of which is independent of the others. The layers are stacked on top of each other, with each layer providing service to the layer above it. Network layers, as these layers are commonly known, provide general understanding of any computer network. A very simple form of these layers is illustrated below.

NIC Driver
An NIC driver provides a layer between the hardware and the software in any network. All network card manufacturers provide NIC drivers, which sometimes also come with the operating system.

Network Protocols
Network protocols provide a way for diverse computer hardware to communicate with each other in a standard way. These protocols follow set rules unique to themselves. Common network protocols are IP (commonly referred to as the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP) and NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface). Other protocols had been developed and used in the past, but IP has replaced most of these. NetBEUI is developed by Microsoft and is native to the Windows environment. IP is the Internet Protocol and is the most popular protocol today.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP are the basic protocols of the Internet. There are other protocols in TCP/IP like User Datagram Protocol (UDP). IP is the network layer and provides the basis for the network through the IP addresses. The IP address of each computer must be unique. TCP and UDP are the transport layers and are responsible for transport of network data packets.

IP addresses follow the format nnn.nnn.nnn.nnn (where nnn is any number from 0 to 255 including 0 and 255). A network mask separates the network address and the host address.

For internal network use, the IP range defined in Request For Comments (RFC) 19184 should be used. These are 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255, 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 and 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

Network Operating System
A Network Operating System (NOS) is a network capable operating system that handles network resources and provides services like file and printer sharing. It is also capable of being an application server.

Users and Groups
Any NOS provides some form of security to its resources and services, the simplest being the user name & password pair. All users on the network are given a unique user name and they are also given a secret password. Only after verifying that a proper user name and password have been supplied does the NOS provide access to the designated network services.

A group is a collection of users in any network. A group is created to give similar rights to a group of users. Groups make administration and management easier.

Rights
Not all resources in a network may be available to everyone. It is necessary to shield some parts of the network from unauthorized use. So, all NOS provide rights to its users and groups. Users and groups are given only the required rights, while the more powerful rights are limited to the administrators.

Super User or Administrator
In most NOS, there is a super user or administrator who has absolute rights in the network system. In the UNIX and GNU/Linux environments, ‘root’ is the super user. An administrator is the supreme user in a Windows network. In NetWare networks, supervisors are super, meaning such users are capable of doing anything that the NOS permits. These accounts should be used with care.

Monitoring Network Performance
When users start complaining that the network is too slow, we know that there are problems in the network. Network performance must be monitored to find where the fault lies. It may lie in the network hardware or software.

Inferior grade cables and loose cable connections cause 80 percent of network problems and performance issues. High quality and prescribed cables and connectors should always be used. Another cause of problems may be the server hardware. Servers require more Random Access Memory (RAM). Some network performance problems call for the replacement of an older switch.

Unnecessary services running on the server should be stopped to get the maximum performance from the server. Every NOS provides some utility to monitor network performance, as well as server performance.

Troubleshooting the Network
The first step is to check the cables. After that, check the power connections to the network switch or resources on the network. If the problem is not solved, check the different services running on the server.

Role of FOSS in Networking
The Internet is the biggest example of the successful implementation of free and open source tools and software. It is the largest network in the world and its basis is the IP protocol. While it is true that the Internet has helped in the growth of FOSS in general, FOSS has also made the Internet a much more reliable network. Detailed information about the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the protocol standards body of the Internet, and its implications as a FOSS reference implementation can be found in RFC 1718.

Limitations to the Use of FOSS
Yes, there are limitations. Most FOSS is produced in conformance to open standards and processes. There are proprietary software and processes that may not have a FOSS equivalent. Sometimes, it may also be necessary to use proprietary software to access certain types of hardware. Another limitation may be the rapid pace of development of FOSS. To an average user, this may be confusing but for service providers this is definitely an advantage.


text:
FOSS Network Infrastructure and Security/Major Networking Functions with FOSS

Domain Name System
DNS is the glue that keeps the technical side of the Internet connected to the users of the network. Simply stated, the DNS provides names to IP address translation and vice versa. The Internet is based on the IP protocol, which means that computers on the Internet know the path to each other only through the IP addresses. However, remembering the numerical IP address of each computer on the Internet is not possible for most people. Here is where DNS comes in handy.

The main purpose of DNS is to map names to objects on the Internet. The object may be an IP address or the identification of mail servers, name servers, and even personal telephone numbers. Names, after all, are easier to remember than numbers.

The earlier version of DNS was a file named hosts.txt, which was manually maintained by the Stanford Research Institute-Network Information Center (SRI-NIC) in the early days of the ARPANET in the 1970s. This hosts.txt file was updated on a single computer and pulled by computers all over the world. While this method worked for some time, name collision became imminent when more hosts were added to the network. The flat single file mapping was simply not scalable. Thus DNS was created. It is defined in RFC 1034 and 1035.

DNS consists of three components:

 * DNS name space – the domain names;
 * DNS server – the server that hosts the name space; and
 * Resolver – the client which uses the server.

The three components work in tandem to create a viable solution to name resolution. DNS is designed in such a way that all the data are maintained locally but retrievable globally. The data is distributed among different name servers and no single computer has all of the data. The data is internally always consistent, thereby providing a stable system. Moreover, DNS is designed in such a way that any device can send DNS queries to a server.

DNS Name Space
DNS name space is a concept. Names are references to addresses, objects and physical presences that constitute a human, understandable reference identifying an endpoint. DNS name space is the name space defined for DNS. On the Internet, domain names provide a hierarchy for DNS name space, and thus, an order to how Internet addresses are identified.

Let’s take a comparative example. If someone were to send me a letter, it would be addressed to

 * Gaurab Raj Upadhaya

 * 205/8 Sahayogi Marg, Kathmandu, Nepal

In this example, the address provides a way in which the letter can be sent to me from anywhere in the world. Similarly, if someone were to send me an e-mail, they could use either of the following e-mail addresses:

 * gaurab@wlink.com.np

 * gaurab@lahai.com

In both cases, while the e-mail ends up in the same mailbox, it travels differently to that address. What needs to be understood is the domain hierarchy that makes the e-mail work. It is part of the DNS name space. Domain names are the implementation of DNS name space. The domain name system uses an inverted tree-shaped structure. The topmost level of the DNS tree is called the ‘root’. The ‘root’ is referenced with a ‘. ’ (dot). Immediately below the ‘root’ are the Country Code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) and the Global Top Level Domain (gTLD). These two top levels are predefined and fixed on a global scale. The ccTLDs are assigned as per the ISO 3166 standard. The gTLDs are decided by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Name and Numbers (ICANN). Examples of ccTLDs are .np, .in, .my, .uk, .se, etc. ccTLDs are always two letter codes. Examples of gTLDs are .com, .org, .net, .gov, .edu, .mil, .info, .name, and .aero.

Domains and Sub Domains
Below the TLDs are the user level spaces. These are commonly referred to as the domain names. For example, anything under .net is in the net domain, and anything under .uk is under the UK domain. And by extension, a sub domain under lahai.com, such as evo.lahai.com, is under the lahai.com domain.

Every domain created under an upper level domain is referred to as a sub domain. Thus, in the example above, evo.lahai.com is a sub domain under lahai.com.

Zones and Delegation
In computer terms, each DNS name space is reflected by its zone file. It is also referred to as the ‘administrative name space’. Each domain or sub domain on a name server has its own zone file, which is the main file that provides the mapping.

What makes DNS so scalable is its ability to define a delegation for sub domains to other servers and other zone files. Thus, the root zone file delegates ccTLD and gTLD functions to their respective servers, and each ccTLD or gTLD server further delegates specific domain information to their registered owners. Thus, the actual names to object mapping will be provided only by the authoritative zone for that domain. This procedure can be compared to a parent delegating authority to their child.

Name Servers
Name servers host the DNS zone files. They answer queries directed to them. Name servers are of two types.

 * 1) Authoritative name servers
 * 2) * master
 * 3) * slave
 * 4) Non-authoritative name servers
 * 5) * caching name servers
 * 6) * caching forwarders

Most implementations are a combination of two or more types.

Authoritative Name Servers
Authoritative name servers host the main zone files for the designated domain. The authority of the name server is based on delegation from the upper level domain. Thus for any server to be authoritative for evo.lahai.com domain, it has to be delegated in the lahai.com zone file.

The master file is where the main file is hosted. The slave mirrors the file from the master. There can be multiple slave servers to one master server. A single master server can support more than 20 million names, but it might not be a good idea to actually do this. Different DNS server software are capable of handling large numbers of DNS queries. A commonly cited example is 300,000 queries per second. Changes in the master copy of the database are replicated to the slaves immediately or according to timing set by the administrator.

Recursive Name Server
A recursive name server is not authoritative for all domains for which it is serving data. It acts on behalf of other clients, and caches the result in its memory. If the same query is sent within a predefined time period, then instead of searching the entire DNS structure, it serves the data from the cache. In case of caching forwarders, the server uses another DNS server to get the result. When the data are forwarded to the client, they are marked as non-authoritative.

Mixed Implementation
In smaller organizations, a single name server can be used for multiple purposes. A server can be authoritative for a select few domains but it may also serve as a non-authoritative caching server for other domains. With recent cases of DNS cache poisoning, it is strongly recommended that the same server not be used for both authoritative and caching functions.

Resolver
The resolver is the client that asks the server for the DNS data. The resolver is normally implemented at the operating system level in the form of a library, so that multiple applications can use it.

DNS Security
A big strength of the Internet is in the user’s ability to use names to reach the right servers and systems. A mis-configured DNS or a malformed DNS query can deter users; hence, the need for a secure DNS system. It is very important to follow these simple points:
 * Allow only authorized systems to do zone transfers from the master server.
 * Have a minimum of two DNS servers, and remember not to put them in the same location.
 * Make sure that your forward and reverse DNS information is consistent.
 * Follow current best practices for DNS implementation.

Using BIND for DNS
BIND is an implementation of the DNS protocols. It provides an openly re-distributable reference implementation of the major components of the domain name system, including: The BIND DNS server is used on the vast majority of name serving machines on the Internet, as it provides a robust and stable architecture on top of which an organization’s naming architecture can be built. The resolver library included in the BIND distribution provides the standard interface for translation between domain names and Internet addresses and is intended for linking with applications requiring name service.
 * A DNS server (named);
 * A DNS resolver library; and
 * Tools for verifying the proper operation of the DNS server.

Getting and Installing BIND
BIND is normally installed by default by most GNU/Linux distributions. Otherwise, you can always get a copy from the BIND home page at http://www.isc.org/products/BIND/. The installation process of BIND in different distributions of GNU/Linux may differ. It is best to follow the distribution guide for installation.

Configuration of BIND
The BIND configuration has to be undertaken in three stages.

First, the client side or the resolver library needs to be configured, followed by the server itself and finally, the tools.

Resolver configuration
The resolver is the client side of the DNS system. Even if you do not run a DNS sever on the computer, you will need to have the resolver installed. Naturally, in order to configure BIND, you first need to configure the resolver library. This is done by configuration of the following files:

 * /etc/host.conf

This file specifies how the host name resolution is performed. This has been made obsolete, but older installations may still use it.

 * /etc/nsswitch.conf

This file has replaced host.conf. It specifies the order in which name resolution takes place. It tells the computer the order in which it should try to convert names into IP addresses.

 * # /etc/nsswitch.conf

Any line starting with a # sign is a comment.

'#' In this example, hosts are resolved through DNS, and then from files.

 * hosts: dns files

'#' only files are used for network name resolution

 * networks: files

The default file created during installation is usually sufficient.

 * /etc/resolv.conf

resolv.conf is the basic DNS configuration file, which specifies the DNS server and the domain name. The three key words here are ‘domain’, ‘search’, and ‘nameserver’.

This file is also created during the installation, and if your network configurations have not changed, you can leave it unchanged.

Server configuration
‘named’ is the best known FOSS DNS daemon. A daemon is a software program that runs continuously on the server as a service. The DNS server is thus commonly referred to as the ‘name daemon’ or just ‘named’. The file name of the DNS server is also ‘named’.

For BIND versions 4.x.x, named used the configuration file/etc/named.boot. But in the later versions of BIND (8.x.x), the configuration file is /etc/named.conf.

For our purposes, we use /etc/named.conf. In the following example, a master DNS for the domains lahai.com and gaurab.org.np is specified. A slave DNS for domain wlink.com.np is also shown.

This file sets the stage for adding the real data about host name and IP addresses. The /etc/named.conf file can take a lot of additional configuration directives, but these will not be discussed here.

After relevant entries have been made in the named.conf file, it is necessary to create the host name records for the corresponding domains. All of the files should be placed in the directory specified by the directory directive in the named.conf file.

The named.local file provides reverse zone lookup for the loopback interface or the 127.0.0.0 network used by the loopback addresses. The default file should be left unchanged. The named.ca provides the root server information to the DNS server. The default should never be edited. Now let’s look at a sample DNS file for the domain lahai.com (named.lahai.com)

The above file is the main file for the domain ‘lahai.com’. If you want to add additional names for the domain ‘lahai.com’, like pop3.lahai.com and smtp.lahai.com, then you should add them in the above file.

The order in which the name servers are listed in this file makes them master and slave. The first NS is always the master server and the other two are slave servers. Each time the master server is updated, it can automatically send a notification to the other NS servers listed in the file. This parameter can be configured in the named.conf file.

A note about Reverse DNS
The majority of DNS-related problems are usually due to mis-configured reverse DNS. Reverse DNS is the mapping of numbers into names, or the opposite of the forward name resolution. Many applications use this facility to verify that the network source IP address is valid. A common example is SPAM or unsolicited commercial e-mail (junk e-mail) prevention software, which may refuse to accept mails from any domain that does not have a reverse DNS configured.

The reverse DNS works through delegation of the particular group of IP addresses from one of the Regional Internet Registries (RIRs), which is Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) (http://www.apnic.net) in the Asia-Pacific region. Since Internet Service Providers (ISPs) are normally APNIC members, they are responsible for configuring the appropriate reverse DNS for the IP addresses being used by them and their clients.

Since each computer has its own loopback interface and the IP address associated with it, BIND comes with the default installation of the named.local file, which is the reverse DNS for 127.0.0.0 network. This file looks like the following:

Administrating BIND DNS
BIND includes a utility called rndc that allows you to administer the named daemon, locally or remotely,with command line statements. The rndc program uses the ‘/etc/rndc.conf’ file for its configuration options, which can be overridden with command line options.

Before you can use the rndc, you need to add the following to your named.conf file:

In this case, the  is an HMAC-MD57 key. You can generate your own HMAC-MD5 keys with the following command:

 * dnssec-keygen -a hmac-md5 -b  -n HOST </tt>

A key with at least a 256-bit length is a good idea. The actual key that should be placed in the area can be found in the <key-file-name>.

Configuration file /etc/rndc.conf

The <key-name> and <key-value> should be exactly the same as their settings in /etc/named.conf.

To test all of the settings, try the rndc reload command. You should see a response similar to this:

 * <tt>rndc: reload command successful</tt>

You can also use the rndc reload to reload any changes made to your DNS files.

DNS Tools
There are two common tools to test DNS: nslookup and dig. Nslookup is the older of the two, and is less preferred. You can use the dig utility to test the DNS service. Use the command ‘man dig’ on most Unix and Unix-like systems to access the relevant manual pages.

The Mail Server
Internet and e-mail were considered synonymous in the early days of the Internet. Even today, more than a quarter of the total Internet traffic is still e-mail, and it is not surprising that FOSS rules the world of e-mail. On the Internet, e-mail messages work on the basis of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) which is defined in RFC 2821. SMTP is a really simple protocol designed to make the transfer of e-mail messages between mail servers as easy as possible.

SMTP works in plain text, and communicates between the mail servers, which are also referred to as Mail Transfer Agents or MTAs. The most popular mail server software is ‘sendmail’. Other examples are exim, qmail, and postfix. The closed source alternatives are Lotus Notes and Microsoft Exchange.

The beauty of FOSS is the level of software complexity available. While exim and postfix have a smaller footprint and consume a small amount of memory on the servers, sendmail is a complex beast that runs the busiest mail servers of the world.

Another important benefit of FOSS mail servers is the modularity of the software. Sendmail itself provides for a large number of extensions and provision for including modules. This makes it easier for developers to extend the software for their in-house needs. If you need to develop an extension to your e-mail server to automatically handle different types of e-mail, FOSS is a better option.

Other Mail-related Protocols
The two main mail-related protocols are Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Mail Access Protocol (IMAP). These provide the end-user functionality for users. POP and IMAP are used by e-mail software for accessing e-mails stored on a server. So if you use an e-mail client like Eudora or Thunderbird, then it will use either POP or IMAP to pull e-mail from your mail server to the local machine.

Handling Spam
Unsolicited Commercial E-mail (UCE) or spam is increasingly a big problem for all service providers. Most mail server software now have at least minimum anti-spam features.

Incoming spam
Spam Assassin is a popular software used to filter incoming spam. It can be invoked for either a single user or the whole system, and provides the ability to configure a complex set of rules to detect and delete incoming spam.

Stopping outgoing spam
It is also the duty of the provider not to let spammers use their network for sending mail. Mis-configured mail servers that allow for open-relay are some of the biggest sources of spam. Increasingly, mail servers are configured not to be open-relay by default. Virus-infected computers are also another source of spam.

Anti-spam Features
One of the biggest advantages of FOSS is its extensibility. Nothing highlights this more than the antispam features available in mail servers. Today, almost 80 percent of all e-mail messages are thought to be UCE, commonly referred to as junk e-mail or simply spam. UCE not only consumes a lot of bandwidth and network resources, it is also a nuisance to users and decreases productivity for organizations.

The best anti-spam tools available today are all FOSS. In order to stop junk e-mail, it is necessary to identify their origin, and what better way of doing this than thousands of users collectively identifying spammers. The FOSS concept makes sure that not a single junk e-mail goes unreported so that the origin can be identified easily.

A common anti-spam technique is the use of Real Time Block Lists or RBLs. Different RBLs list the IP addresses of networks that are known to be the origin of huge amounts of spam. Again, the open nature of these lists, as well as software like Spam Assassin, makes it easier to tune the software to a user’s own needs.

For example, in a corporate environment, the users needed to send e-mail in capital letters due to the nature of their work. Now, if the entire e-mail were in capital letters, most anti-spam tools would identify it as junk e-mail. However, if we use FOSS solution, we can modify the code and remove this criterion for mail originating from within the network.

Using Sendmail for SMTP
Sendmail is one of the SMTP servers available under Linux. It is also one of the oldest open source software that is widely used. Many people consider sendmail to be too complicated and difficult to use. Sendmail has its advantages and disadvantages. Because it has many features, it is a complex piece of software. But, at the same time, the basic operations of sendmail can be managed easily.

Sendmail configuration is handled either by directly editing the sendmail configuration file (not recommended) or through the use of the M4 macro language in creating a new configuration file from a set of variables.

Now we will deal with sendmail. Given below are the minimum necessary changes to the default sendmail installation.

Enabling Network-ability in sendmail
Default installation of software in many distributions is limited to the mail server listening only on the loopback address, i.e., the server is not reachable over the network. For sendmail to be reachable from the network, you will need to edit the appropriate line in the /etc/mail/sendmail.mc file. You should edit to remove 127.0.0.1 from the following line

 * <tt>DAEMON_OPTIONS (‘Port=smtp, Name=MTA’)</tt>

After that you will have to run the m4 macro to create new sendmail configuration files

This should enable network reachability for the sendmail daemon. There are also a lot of other options on the sendmail.mc file that you can play around with.

Local Domain Names
Edit /etc/mail/local-host-names and add all domain and domain aliases that your site uses.

These are necessary so that sendmail accepts mail for these domains.

Virtual Domain Users
However, the above configuration does not entirely solve the problem of virtual domain users. For that, use the virtusertable feature. Go to /etc/mail/virtusertable

Be sure to restart the sendmail daemon after making the changes.

 * <tt>[root@mail /etc/mail]# service sendmail restart</tt>

Access Control
Sendmail provides an access control feature through the /etc/mail/access file.

OK - Accept the mail message. RELAY - Accept messages from this host or user even if they are not destined for our host; that is, accept messages for relaying to other hosts from this host. REJECT - Reject the mail with a generic message.

It is required that you allow RELAY from your own network. Otherwise, computers on the network using the server as their outgoing SMTP server will not be able to send e-mail.

Running sendmail as System Daemon
The script is located at /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail and is started automatically when the computer is started. You can also start it using other commands

Running sendmail from xineted
It is a good idea (from a security standpoint) to have sendmail run from xinetd.conf and not as a standalone daemon. For that we need to add it to /etc/xinetd.d directory and remove it from /etc/rc.d/init.d, and then add the sendmail queue processing to cron. Here is what you have to do:

1. When using xinetd, create a file sendmail in /etc/xinetd.d/ similar to

2. Edit /etc/rc.d/init.d/sendmail to have exit 0 somewhere in the very beginning (this might not be the best way, so be sure to document the changes you do to these files) so that this file does nothing other than start sendmail.

3. By editing your (root’s) crontab9 (to edit use crontab -e), add a line like this

 * <tt>*/20 * * * * /usr/sbin/sendmail -q</tt>

That would process the sendmail queue every 20 minutes (if it exists).

Other Mail Servers
The other popular mail servers are postfix, exim, and qmail. While postfix is shipped as a default on a few Linux distributions, many small service providers have adopted exim because of its simplicity and robustness. Exim also has strong anti-spam features built into it.

The Web Server – Apache
The dominance of FOSS in the web server market is well known. The Apache web server is the undisputed leader in web server surveys conducted on the Internet. It also has many strengths: it is the leader in introducing name-based virtual hosts, and the first truly modular web server that would work seamlessly with database servers. It also has fully built authentication, authorization and access control functions, as well as scripting support.

April 2006 Web Server Survey
The latest survey statistics are available at http://news.netcraft.com/archives/web_server_survey.html

Apache also fully integrates with OpenSSL, which provides a secure sockets layer, thereby enabling use of the Apache web server for e-commerce and secure transaction. And, best of all, it can be fully configured through a text-based configuration file – httpd.conf.

Configuring Apache
Configuring Apache is also fairly easy, unless you want to run complex software on the web server. The configuration files are usually located by default in ‘/etc/httpd/conf’. Additional configuration files are located in ‘/etc/httpd’. It is also common for Apache to be installed in ‘/usr/local/apache’.

The main configuration file for Apache is the httpd.conf. Apache usually works out of the box.

The httpd.conf File
Directives are the settings that define how Apache should actually run, where files are located on your server, how much of the machine’s resources Apache may use, which content visitors are allowed to see, how many concurrent visitors the server can handle, and other parameters.

Let’s look at the main directives:

 * <tt>/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf – the main configuration file</tt>

Virtual Hosts
Virtual hosts is the practice of maintaining more than one web server name on one physical machine. For example, the same physical machine can host both the http://www.apdip.net and http://www.iosn.net.

Parameters are specific to a virtual host, which overrides some of the main server configuration defaults. There can be two types of virtual hosts – IP-based and name-based.

In an IP-based virtual host, the IP address of the connection is used to determine the correct virtual host to serve. The approach requires a separate IP address for each virtual host. In name-based virtual hosts, the host names are sent as part of the HTTP headers, which means that many different hosts can share the same IP address. However, you will need to map each host to the IP address in DNS. This eases the demand for scarce IP addresses. Name-based virtual hosts cannot be used with SSL secure servers and older software may not be compatible.

Virtual host directives

 * NameVirtualHost – designate the IP address and port number to listen (optional)
 * <VirtualHost> – same argument as NameVirtualHost
 * ServerName – designate which host is served
 * DocumentRoot – where in the file system the content for that host lives
 * ServerAlias – make the host accessible by more than one name

Here is an example.

NameVirtualHost *

If no matching virtual host is found, then the first listed virtual host that matches the IP address will be used. All other standard Apache directives can be used inside the virtual host directive.

Access Control per Directory using .htaccess file
.htaccess file is a text file containing Apache directives

AccessFileName .htaccess …in httpd.conf

.htaccess file contents

htpasswd – to manage users for access control

htpasswd -c /usr/local/etc/httpd/users martin

htpasswd /usr/local/etc/httpd/users ritesh

Proxy and Web Caching with Squid
As with mail servers and web servers, FOSS also set the standard in the area of proxy and cache servers. Squid is synonymous with proxy services in the networking world. It is a very modular, high performance proxy and web caching server. The Squid website is http://www.squid-cache.org. Squid proxy caches can be clustered to provide much better speed and access. Squid cache was also one of the first cache systems to implement a hierarchical cache system.

Some advantages of Squid:
 * High-performance proxy caching server for web clients
 * A full-feature web proxy cache
 * Designed to run on UNIX systems
 * Free, open source software
 * Handles all requests in a single, non-blocking I/O-driven process
 * Keeps meta data and especially hot objects cached in RAM
 * Caches DNS lookups
 * Implements negative caching of failed requests
 * Supports SSL, extensive access controls, and full request logging
 * Using ICP, caches can be arranged in a hierarchy or mesh for additional bandwidth savings

Squid consists of:
 * Main server program Squid
 * DNS lookup program dnsserver for faster DNS lookups
 * Optional programs for rewriting requests and performing authentication
 * Some management and client tools

squid.conf – the Main Configuration File

 * Default configuration file denies all client requests
 * Configure to allow access only to trusted hosts and/or users
 * Carefully design your access control scheme
 * Checks it from time to time to make sure that it works as you expect
 * People will abuse it if the proxy allows access from untrusted hosts or users
 * Makes their browsing anonymous
 * Intentionally uses your proxy for transactions that may be illegal
 * Websites exist with a list of open-access HTTP proxies

Here is an example of the Squid configuration: to run basic Squid, the only thing configurable is the proxy port. The default Squid proxy port is 3128 but you can always change it.

Squid Access Control
Squid is better known for its complex access control system. You can allow and restrict access based not only on IP addresses but also on domain name. The use of regular expression lets you create complex rules for access through the proxy server. For access control in Squid, a sophisticated access control system, similar to the one used in routers, is used. It is basically a two-step process:

 * 1) Defining the access listed through use of the acl command; and
 * 2) Allowing or denying access based on the access list created earlier.

i. acl used for defining an Access List. ‘ ‘acl’ literally stands for access control list. The default ACLs are:

ii. http_access – to control http access to clients If there are no “access” lines present, the default is to allow the request.

The “deny all” line is very important.

{{TextBox|EXAMPLES

{{TT block|1= acl ip_acl src 192.168.2/24 acl time_acl time M T W H F 9:00-17:00 http_access allow ip_acl time_acl http_access deny all }}
 * Restrict access to work hours (9 am-5 pm, Monday to Friday) from IP 192.168.2/24

{{TT block|1= acl xyz src 172.161.163.86 acl morning time 06:00-11:00 acl lunch time 14:00-14:30 http_access allow xyz morning
 * Rules are read from top to bottom

http_access deny xyz http_access allow xyz lunch }}

{{TT block|1= acl mynetwork src 10.0.0.0/255.0.0.0 acl servernet src 10.0.1.0/255.255.255.0
 * Be careful with the order of allowing subnets

http_access deny servernet http_access allow mynet }}

{{TT block|1= always_direct allow my-iplist-1 always_direct allow my-iplist-2 never_direct allow all }}
 * Always_direct and never_direct tags
 * 1) always go direct to local machines
 * 1) never go direct to other hosts

After all of the http_access rules, if access is not denied, then it is allowed.

If none of the “http_access” lines cause a match, then the default is the opposite of the last line in the list.

It is a good idea to have a “deny all” or “allow all” entry at the end of your access lists.

iii. cache_dir: dir to store cached data

 * <tt>cache_dir /usr/local/squid/cache/ 100 16 256</tt>

Can support more than one disk with multiple mount points

{{TT block|1= cache_dir /usr/local/squid/cache1/ 10000 16 256 cache_dir /usr/local/squid/cache2/ 20000 16 256 }}

iv. cache_mgr: e-mail of the Cache Admin

Appended to the end of error pages returned to users

 * <tt>cache_effective_user squid</tt>
 * <tt>cache_effective_group squid</tt>
 * <tt>Changes user and group ID’s once it has bound to the incoming</tt>
 * <tt>network port</tt>
 * <tt>ftp_user: set the e-mail address that is used for FTP proxy</tt>

Client: Connects to a cache and requests a page, and prints out useful timing information v. Squid logs

{{TT block|1= /usr/local/squid/logs/cache.log /usr/local/squid/logs/access.log }}

Transparent Caching/Transparent Proxy
This picks up the appropriate packets, caches requests and solves the biggest problem with caching, which is getting users to use the cache server in a transparent way. Four factors need to be considered:

 * Correct network layout - all network traffic needs to pass through a filter device
 * Filtering: filtering out the appropriate packets
 * Kernel transparency: redirecting port 80 connections to Squid
 * Squid settings: Squid needs to know that it is supposed to act in transparent mode

A detailed explanation of how to achieve transparent proxy is available at http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/mini/TransparentProxy.html.


text:
Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Die Easy 2

The previous Die Easy tutorial needed so many changes to adapt to Blender 2.44 that it was easier to start from scratch. This Die Easy 2 tutorial is heavily based on Die Easy and Die Another Way, and adds improvements.

In the following tutorial, you will use:
 * polygon mesh
 * face loop cutting
 * subdivision surfaces
 * subdivision creases
 * bevel
 * set smooth
 * multiple materials
 * extrusion
 * merge vertices

Start with a beveled cube
Start with the default scene: Blender should be in Object Mode and in Top view, with the default cube selected.

 * Go to Edit Mode . All the vertices should still be selected. (If not, press to select all).

 * Let's bevel the cube. The bevel option is in the modifiers context. Click on the modifiers icon (the little blue wrench on the side panel) and from the add modifiers choose Bevel.
 * Noob note :- for anyone using v2.56 and below, Press, select Bevel from the menu and click OK
 * Set the bevel to 0.1 by typing .1 and pressing.
 * Finally, Apply the modifier to your cube before proceeding.

(For Blender 2.63 : You should be in 'Object Mode' in order to Apply the Bevel Modifier.)
 * For Blender versions earlier than 2.48 : in the Recursion: 1 OK dialog, Press (it will revert to the black on grey) and click on the OK button. (For Blender version 2.48 and above, skip this step)
 * Note : The recursion levels go from 1 to 4. At 1 it seems to be crude but the cube will be subdivided later, so a higher recursion level is not required.

Divide the faces
A typical die face is made of a grid with 9 possible spot positions. The gaps between the spots usually measure half a spot (a spot radius). Using the spot radius as a unit, a die face will be conveniently divided into 10 equal parts through the length (that is, four gaps and three spots each two units long).

First division

 * Make sure you're still in Edit Mode (else hit ), that you're in Front view, and that the whole cube is still selected.

 * To divide the faces of the cube into 10 vertical strips :

For v2.57 and above :
 * Just use the loop cut and slide option by hitting + in the tool shelf to the left and scroll the mouse wheel to scale up the number of cuts to 9.

For other versions of Blender :
 * Press the and choose Knife (Multicut) from the popup menu.
 * A new popup asks: Number of Cuts: 2. Change the value to 9:
 * click on the of word and type 9,
 * or drag from the input field until you reach 9,
 * or use the right arrow.
 * Then click on OK.

 * To actually use the Multicut tool, draw one vertical cut through the cube: the knife icon traces a pink line. It doesn't have to be exactly vertical nor does it have to go through the cube center.

 * Finally press and all the faces of the cube crossing the knife will be divided into 10 vertical strips.

Note: You can have a look at all the other faces by dragging with the.

Noob Note: When you are cutting through the cube, make sure to cut the entire cube, including the beveled part of the cube. Otherwise your cube won't divide properly.

Remove extra cuts
To get each spot position to be a single face rather than four contiguous faces, the second, fifth and eighth cuts must be removed.

 * Press the to deselect all the vertices, switch to Edge select mode and make sure Limit selection to visible is off (in Blender 2.46 and above this button is called Occlude background geometry).

 * Select an edge from the second cut, and choose Select → Edge Loop from the viewport menu. This automatically selects all the edges around the cube (in a loop).

Note: You can alternatively press the key while selecting an edge from the second cut to select all the eges belonging to this cut around the cube.

For Linux users: If pressing the key while selecting an edge from the chosen cut brings up a Linux menu, try hitting + instead.

 * Press the and select Edge Loop from the popup menu. The cube will look like this:

 * Deselect all and repeat the same actions to remove the fifth and eighth cuts:

Other divisions
For the horizontal cuts use the same steps as above, but horizontally!

Noob Note: Make sure the whole cube is selected when cutting.

 * Now, if you rotate the cube around, you will see that the front and back faces (+ to see the back face) are divided vertically and horizontally. But the four other ones were only divided once.

 * To complete the divisions, go to the Side view, select the whole cube . Make the vertical cuts and remove the second, fifth and eighth cuts again:

Colouring the Cube
You need to be in object mode for this step. Select the Shading group from the header in the Button Window.

 * edit Properties Window in ver 2.64

Change the name of the material (which for example defines colours) currently linked to the cube: in the Links and Pipeline panel, under the title "Link to Object", click on "Material" in the "MA:Material" box. "Material" will now be highlighted: delete it and type "DieWhite" instead, then press.

Now choose a color: go to the next panel (the one with two tabs, Material and Ramps), and make sure the Material tab is selected.

In the second group of buttons, click on the colour bar which is on the left of the Col button: it opens the colour selector.

Select the colour you want in the rainbow bar (bottom left of the popup), move the tiny circle in the colour window above it to adjust the shade. When done, press.

Note: ''you can choose any colour. In this tutorial we selected the white colour by clicking on the corresponding box available from the sixteen predefined ones (the two vertical rows in the middle).''

Adding the spots
Go to the Front view and set Face select mode. Also make sure that Limit selection to visible is enabled (in Blender 2.46 and above this button is called Occlude background geometry).

We will create two different kinds of spots.

First method
This one's from the Die Another Way tutorial.

We'll make the number five on the current face. Deselect all and select a first spot (the one in the top left corner).

Extrude the face by hitting and then  (do not click after hitting ).

Collapse this face by using + and choosing At Center from the popup menu. This merges the four corners of the extruded face into its centre. Click on the message saying Removed 3 Vertices.

Repeat the same keystroke sequence on the four other spots:, , +, ,.

Now choose the Vertex select mode and select five vertices, one at each spot center ( for the first one, + for the subsequent ones). Then push the selection inwards using the and constraining the move to the Y axis. Move by 0.17 units to get the same die as shown in the picture below.

Second method
This method was suggested by Natume in the Die Easy tutorial and modified by another user.

Deselect all and select the faces you want to create spots on ( for the first one, + for subsequent ones).

Press the to extrude them, if you selected more than one face a popup menu will give you two options: press  to select Region (the choice doesn't matter), and then press. Do not click after hitting.

Divide the selected faces into triangles with + (or → Edit → Faces → Convert to Triangles). [Noob note: In versions 2.63+, in the subdivide choices menu that pops up at the bottom of the tools menu, you must make sure that the check box for Quad/Tri Mode is checked or only the diagonal line will be divided and no triangles are created]

Deselect all and change to Edge select mode. Select all the diagonal edges resulting from the above divisions, and subdivide them: (or  → Edit → Edges → Subdivide).

Now deselect all, go into Vertex select mode and select all five vertices of each spot face (for example, use circle select with , , and adjust the size of the circle with , then click to select; click  when the selection is complete). [Noob note: In versions 2.63+, C activates the Circle Select mode, B activates the Box Select mode]

Push the faces inward by 0.17 units.

Third method
In the prior two methods you create indentations in the faces that are triangle ( mountain peak ) shaped, if you would prefer them to be square shaped ( or flat ) then simply select the faces (using face select mode) that will be used as spots and extrude them inward by the prescribed number of units (either .17 or -.17 depending on the side).

The other die faces
Now repeat the method to the other faces. Remember that adding two opposite face values (of the die) yields 7.

If you started with the Front view and set 5 spots, the Back view (+) will have 2 spots (the extrusion length will be -0.17 instead of 0.17).

If you then go to Side view  — the righthand side — and put 6 spots there (extrusion -0.17 along the X axis, ), the lefthand side (+) will have 1 (extrusion 0.17).

If you put 4 on the top (Top view, extrusion -0.17 along the Z axis, ) then the bottom (+) will have 3 (extrusion 0.17).

When all the spots have been created, the cube should look like this — the top lefthand corner is nearest, using the first method (named Alt-M)

using the third method (named Ctrl-T)

Subsurfing and smoothing
Leave the Edit Mode for the Object Mode and select the Editing panel in the Buttons window (or press ).

To turn on subsurfing, click on Add Modifier in the Modifiers panel (if you can't see the button, make sure the tab is selected) and select Subsurf from the popup menu.

The default value for Levels is 1 and for Render Levels is 2. For a nicer preview, change Levels from 1 to 2 by clicking once on the right arrow, and click on Set Smooth in the Links and Materials panel.

The cube will now look like this (Front view):

Subsurface creasing
On a die, the edges around the spots are usually sharp so we'll use subsurface creasing to do that.

Go back to Edit Mode ( once or twice), and Edge select mode (+ ) either select every spot perimeter as shown below ( for the first one, + for the others), or use circle select as described next

Using circle select
You should be in Edit Mode, be in "Edge select mode" (+ ), and have occlude background geometry turned on.

once or twice to be sure everything is deselected.

, to TURN ON circle select mode.

Noob note: In Blender 2.5x circle select mode can be used by pressing once.

roll (don't press) middle mouse wheel to size the circle small enough to select single edges.

about twenty times, as there are 4 edges around each of 5 "dots", so you will have to click 20 times with the left mouse button (once on each edge) to select them all. If you select an extra unwanted edge anywhere Then you can just click the (My wheel rolls or presses in).

to TURN OFF circle select mode.

Creasing the edges
Now move mouse pointer crosshairs (don't press any button here) near center of drawing.

+ to turn on Edge Crease mode. The bottom bar changes to a "Crease" number.

Now move mouse pointer crosshairs (don't press any button here) away from center of drawing. Watch the Crease number change as you pull out. It maxes out at 1.000.

When you get the crease you want the left mouse button locks it in place.

once, or twice, to deselect every thing.

Finished on this side. View a different side and do it all again.

 * Note: the shows an information box (with the perimeter edges still selected). The last line says: Median Crease W: 1.000, if the value is less than 1.000 it means that an edge has been missed. You can update the crease values by clicking on the arrows. Click on the X in the top right corner to dismiss the dialog.

 * Noob Note: setting the value of the subsurf creasing affects the subsurf modifier. You will not actually see the creasing effect unless the object has the subsurf modifier active. Try adding the subsurf modifier to the object then set the creasing to one so that you can see the effect it actually has on the object.

Now crease the spots on the five other sides of the die. You should end up with:

Creating a new material
Go to the Editing panel in the Buttons Window.

The Links and Materials panel should be showing (in the right column) DieWhite and, under it, 1 Mat 1:

To add another material, click on the New button (right under 1 Mat 1). This label changes to 2 Mat 2, and DieWhite changes to DieWhite.001.

Note: if your Blender version is older than 2.44, there's an additional step. Go to the Links and Pipeline panel (Shading or ), click on the 2 button right after the MA:DieWhite input and choose Single user in the popup menu.

''user request: please provide instructions for 2.45, 'Links and materials' panel has been replaced with 'Links and Pipeline' panel. 'ADD NEW' from dropdown initially containing 'MA: Material' does not increment the '1 Mat 1' fields leaving no clear way to add more than one material to an object.''  -- Answer from another user: You're looking at the Shading panel, you need to switch to the Editing panel , there you'll find the buttons just as described here.

Set the colour for this new material: click on the white square on the left of 2 Mat 2 (in the Editing panels) or on the left of Col (in the Shading panel). To get the same colours as in this tutorial, choose black. Press to confirm your choice.

In the Links and Pipeline panel (Shading or ), change the material name from DieWhite.001 to SpotBlack.

Selecting the spot faces
Now go into Edit Mode, choose Face select mode and make sure Limit selection to visible is on.

Version 2.46 The "Limit Selection To Visible", is now "Occlude Background Geometry". It remains the button to the right of "Face Select"

Starting again with Front view use circle select (,  — use  to reduce the size of the circle to less than the spot size so you don't select the outside faces) to select all the inside faces of each spot.

Press to finish, select the Back view (+), use circle select again and select the spot faces there, do the same with the other four die faces.

''Note: you can't change to a different face without stopping the circle select tool. You will have to click, change to another face, and start circle select again .''

This is what you should see when you have selected all the spots:

The selected faces internal to the spots are more visible in the Alt-M version as the spots created in Ctrl-T are more cylindrical; the Alt-M spots look more like hemispheres.

Assigning the new material to the spots
Now that all the spot faces are selected, you can assign the SpotBlack material to them.

Go back to the Editing panels and, in the Links and Materials panel make sure the material SpotBlack is selected. If it isn't, you can select it by clicking on the right arrow or the 1 on the right of 2 Mat 1, which should update to 2 Mat 2. Now click on the wide Assign button below and the spots will change to black (or the other colour you chose).

Here are the finished results:

Afterword
Here's an external link to a tutorial showing a completely different way to create a die:
 * http://www.blendernation.com/tutorials/blender-3d-beginner-tutorial-a-die/

The most efficient and easy tutorial can be viewed at:
 * http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTwPvQbhHdY

title: Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Die Easy 2


text:
User talk:Stine loft

Hello Stine Loft, welcome to Wikibooks. My name is Andrew and I had been helping upload the previous UNDP-APDIP books to the server. I see you are creating a new book, FOSS: Network Infrastructure and Security. If you need any help, you can ask me on my user talk page. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 11:49, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Category pages are just organizational tools, and you don't really have to write anything in those pages. Categories are used to keep track of related pages, such as all the pages that are part of a particular book. For instance, all the FOSS books are listed in the Category:FOSS Books category, and all the APDIP books can be found in Category:APDIP Books. All the individual pages of your new book are found in :. Like i said, you don't need to write anything in the category page.
 * I've been looking at your work, and i'll help to fix any errors that I see. If you have a specific question about what i have done, you can ask me about it. If I do something that I dont think is particularly obvious, I will send you a message to let you know.
 * Anyway, good luck, and let me know if you need anything. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:59, 30 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Stine loft


text:
User talk:69.253.174.72

Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikibooks. Wikibooks is intended to be read without the need for external reference and requires content rather than external links particularly those which are for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links may include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that exist to attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page rather than re-adding it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikibooks. Thank you. -- Herby talk thyme 12:02, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.253.174.72


text:
User:Whiteknight/Consensus

Resources
http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/tools/tools4-04rich.cfm

Democracy and Votes
Wikibooks is most certainly not a democracy, and attempts at votes in the past have been met with poor success rates. I'm not talking about success in terms of the affirmative side carrying the day, but instead in terms of a reasonable decision being reached. Some pages do very well with a voting system, or at least a pseudo-voting system. Pages such as WB:FB and WB:VFD do well with a binary SUPPORT / OBJECT system, because people feel more compelled to provide their rationale on these pages. Even a neutral vote that is very poignant can be very compelling for or against a particular course of action. Featured books and votes for deletion are relatively low impact, and people don't mind participating in these with gusto because the outcomes really don't matter in the big sense.

Situations where there is a nomination and then a vote, such as FB, VFD, or RFA, there is already a nomination on the table that supporters may agree with without having to reiterate all their opinions on the matter. Saying simply "support" is analogous to saying "I agree with the nomination, and have nothing further to add". The burden falls on the opposition to not only say "i do not agree", but also to explain why.

Voting Continuum
User:Xixtas introduced a great idea when talking about the new What is Wikijunior policy: Instead of a binary vote, he created a series of templates that displayed a continuum of opinions. In this way people with only a vague objection could register that without having to be either "for" or "against". Likewise, people with only a vague sense of support could register that appropriately.

Where there are discreet options, however, there will always be a tendency to tabulate those opinions mathematically. Also, when you give people a set of available options, people may tend to incorrectly estimate their level of approval. For instance, a person's comments may signal a stronger and more well-thought-out objection then their vote would have indicated.

Problems: Finding Solutions
When presented with a problem, it is natural and common for people to present solutions. The community will mull the options, and then select one or none from among them. At least this is the ideal way of doing things, but in a consensus-driven community this is not usually the way it works out.

Given a proposed solution to a problem, some people will invariably say "no", and several people may follow that up with "here is my rational for my objection". However, if all solutions have been objected to in this way, then the community is stuck with both the problem and a complete inability to fix it. In essence, we are in a situation where the community has deemed all possible solutions to be worse then the problem, and instead of acting to fix it, the community has resigned itself to simply live with it. This despite the availablity of potential solutions, all of which are in a qualitative sense likely to be far better then the problem.

Objecting to a problem's solution, without supplying a different solution is akin to saying "You shouldn't fix the problem, and I am not going to help with it either". This is, perhaps, the single worst viewpoint, and one which should not only be ignored but likely also scorned. In wiki, all people are allowed to have an equal say, but there is also the equal power for all people to help make improvements. You cannot both say "We need something better" and "I am not willing to create/suggest/employ something better". While a particular solution may not be ideal, any solution is preferable to a grave enough problem.

Process: Expendibility
The process of finding concensus and discussing an issue among the community is only good so far as it produces results. If it does not work, then we should throw it out period. Sometimes we need to be bold and just do things ourselves. The key is improvement and progress, and knowing what process to use to reach those goals is the most important lesson that we can learn.

The Enemy of my Enemy
I care about this project, and want this project to succeed. Some people disagree with things that I want to do. Therefore, those people don't want the project to succeed, and are enemies of Wikibooks.

If you find yourself thinking like this, log off from your account and walk away from the computer. This attitude is never productive, never helpful, and is always absolutely wrong.

title: User:Whiteknight/Consensus


text:
User talk:Kivie

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:12, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kivie


text:
User talk:Speregrination

This user has retired.

title: User talk:Speregrination


text:
User talk:Dragonfly~enwikibooks

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:19, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Dragonfly. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Dragonfly~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:11, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:54, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dragonfly~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Pharos

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:19, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

Incubation
I'm just curious. Was there something specific you had hopes for that Wikibooks could incubate? – Adrignola talk 01:31, 17 December 2010 (UTC)

User:Jsarah29
This user is now unblocked. Sorry for the block. There had been some strange edits from a new user and then similar strange edits from another new user. The two users shared the same IP address so I blocked other new accounts from that address. Seems I have blocked in error. Let me know if anyone else has been blocked in error. Thanks.--Xania   talk 23:23, 14 June 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:Pharos


text:
User talk:Kim Meyrick

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:20, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Kim Meyrick. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Kim Meyrick~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:24, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kim Meyrick


text:
User talk:Zippy1981

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:20, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Zippy1981


text:
User talk:Mohnishnasre

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 13:24, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mohnishnasre