text:
Ethnomedicine/Ethnomedicine by Culture Group

African Culture
Many tribes in Africa used dance to cure colds and ailments. The medicine men in the tribe would encourage dancing when someone was not acting as usual because it was believed to be an unknown ailment or spirit within them. These spirits or ailments could be sweat out or forced out by movement.

While western medicine is much more technically and analytically based, African medicine takes a much more holistic approach. Good health, disease, success or misfortune are not seen as random chance occurrences but rather arise as a result of the individuals actions and the balance or imbalance between the individual and the social environment. The majority of people in Africa rely on traditional medical practitioners for healthcare, which results in a reliance on traditional medicinal plants for health. African society

Chinese Culture
In China, licorice root is widely used in home remedies, found in one-third to one-half of all herbal remedies. It possesses properties as a demulcent and expectorant, as well as being a mucous stimulator. In addition it is used as a “guide drug” in herbal prescriptions, meaning it is taken in combination with other herbal drugs in order to enhance the effectiveness of the other ingredients of a prescription, neutralize toxins or to improve the taste. Licorice is also used in China for treatments of hepatitis, sore throat and muscle spasms.

Acupuncture is a traditional healing method that originated in China. An acupuncturist places needles into the skin to balance out the flow of chi which is believed to be the energy that flows through the human body. In theory, Chi runs along 14 pathways called meridians and when a patient is injured, stressed, or ill, their chi is supposedly being blocked. By placing needles in the Meridians the patients chi is thought to be put back into balance.

Acupressure uses the same meridians as acupuncture, just instead for placing a needle in the meridians, the practitioner holds the point for a period of time. Many acupunctureists tell their patients various points which they can use acupressure on while at home to relieve their symptoms. Ethnomedicine/Home Remedies

Ginger Root is another root used for many remedies in Chinese and Hindu cultures. This root is believed to do many things such as: aide digestion, restore appetite, regulate menstruation, and even stimulate sexual desire. These are some of the long term effects the root was supposed to have. It was also said to cure colds, liver ailments, nausea, anemia, rheumatism, piles, jaundice, tetanus, and leprosy. This root is very useful in Chinese/Hindu culture.

Ginseng is also commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine practices. According to Chinese religion, there needs to be a balance of Yin and Yang in oneself's spiritual being, and ginseng can help to achieve that. Asian ginseng is believed to promote positive Yang energy by strengthening the immune system and improving blood circulation, keeping the body strong in preventing disease and illness. American ginseng, on the other hand, promotes negative Yin energy, calms the body, and releases the excess Yang energy. This plant in general improves the skin and keeps it looking youthful. Ginseng also acts as a good remedy to curing sore throats.

Tai Chi
Tai Chi is a popular martial art that is very commonly practiced for exercise. Tai Chi is most popular in China, since it originated there and is deeply connected to Traditional Chinese Medicine theory. Many people can be seen early in the morning performing Tai Chi in unison in parks or special areas made for these kind of exercises. A variety of Tai Chi exercises exist today among the more popular being the Yang, Chen and Wu styles. The movements in Tai Chi allow for the circulation of chi (or energy) throughout the body combined with a calm concentration on the movements, which often produces effects similar to seated meditation. Tai Chi does not treat a specific disease or illness, but is helpful in increasing general health (especially as preventative medicine). Tai Chi is used for maintaining balance and overall wellness as well as coordination and muscle stamina. Tai Chi practitioners usually perform it daily, however a minimum of twice weekly is recommended by the majority of teachers. Tai Chi is be performed at a slow yet graceful pace that suits the individual.

In India ethno-medicine is followed in rural parts .It is religious activity though

Traditional Chinese Medicine

 * 1) Traditional Chinese Medicine
 * 2) ../Ethnomedicine by Culture Group/Traditional Chinese Medicine/

Ethiopian Culture
In Ethiopian culture,particularly in the southwestern region, the use of plants to cure injuries and illnesses is very common. An example of this is the Alysicarpus,which is used to help heal and seal cuts and lesions after it has been ground into a form of lotion and spread over the injury.

Filipino Culture
Located in a tropical climate, the islands of the Philippines are rich with tropical vegetation. Many Filipino home remedies derive from the use of herbs as resources. Throughout the Philippines, in all of its many islands, the use and importance of local plants is evident. Because much of the Philippines is rainforest and there are still many areas which use the rainforest as a primary resource, there are several medicinal plants that can be found in the Philippines. One such plant is Alagau, which can only be found in the Philippines. Alagau serves as a means to treat several ailments, one in particular is the cough.

Picture of Alagau

Akapulko: This shrub is named for its flower buds which grow in a column of fat yellow buds. It is found on the slopes of Mt. Banahaw in the Philippines. Leaves or sap are used to treat fungal infections such as ringworm. They contain a fungicide, chrysophanic acid. Because of its anti-fungal properties, it is a common ingredient for at home skin infection remedies in the Philippines. - The juice from crushed leaves of akapulko is used for treatment of ringworm and other fungus infections of the skin. The powdered leaves are rubbed over the affected area 2-3 times a day until the infection is removed

 Ethnomedicine/Disease Prevention Practices

Bitter Melon: Momordica charantia
Bitter Melon helps strengthen the heart by lowering blood pressure. Usually eaten as a whole fruit or as a tea when blood pressure is high or other heart troubles occur. Taken 2-3 times daily for as long as the heart problems are occurring. This is traditionally used in the Filipino culture as a home remedy.

Global Culture
Love is present across the globe. Although expressions and degrees of love or affection vary immensely from culture to culture it seems there is some form of what Western cultures know as love present in all societies where standard of living allows it. Love is not commonly thought of as a remedy but many forms of love not only ease pain or discomfort but also speed healing. Taking care of, giving plentiful affection (physical, verbal, emotional)to and support of the ill or injured can be crucial to their recovery.

Catholicism
The Catholic Church teaches that through the Sacrament of Anointing the Sick the ill can not only have their body healed, but also their soul. This practice is performed through a liturgy and can only be conferred by a priest of the Catholic Church. The sacrament is believed to have five major effects: the uniting of the sick to the passion of Christ; to strengthen the sick so that they can endure their suffering; the forgiveness of sins; the restoration of health; and the preparation for passing over into the afterlife.

Hawaiian Culture
Hawaiian medicine can be complicated, because the Hawaiians mixed different plants together to create medicines for different conditions. It can be even more difficult because the Hawaiians also didn’t use measuring cups to create the mixtures, but instead they used shells or other measuring devices that were available to them.

One plant that the Hawaiians use is called the Olena plant, which is in the Ginger family. The bulb of the Olena plant is used to cure sinus and ear infections.

Noni juice, or the Indian mulberry, is part of the coffee family. is used to heal people. The Noni fruit is taken and fermented and turned into juice. Once its juice, you can drink it and it heals you. Some even say that their cancer was cured when drinking it. The main use of the Noni juice is to cure gastric ulcers, diabetes and high blood pressure. The Hawaiian Awa plant is part of the pepper family. The root of the Awa plant can be used to treat many minor illnesses. However, Awa should not be taken too often or in a high dosage, because side effects can include skin skaling and peeling and temporary muscle paralysis. Another healing technique is actually urinating on yourself if you get stung by a jellyfish. Urinating on the wound sterilizes it.

http://www.hawcc.hawaii.edu/nursing/tradhaw.htm

Another plant Hawaiians use is the kalo, or taro leaves, which is known to be the single most important plant in Hawaiian culture. It is mainly used to cure asthma. On the other hand, many Hawaiians use the raw sections of the plant to treat pain and swelling from different insect bites, stop bleeding, and cure indigestion.

http://www.healinglifestyles.com/articles/2004/11/hawaiian_healing_text.htm

Kava was once a sacred Polynesian ceremonial drink. It is believed to contain properties that enhance calming, soothing feelings. The people of Hawaii use it to treat headaches, muscle pains, and is also a way to prevent insomnia.

http://www.healinglifestyles.com/articles/2004/11/hawaiian_healing_text.htm

Hispanic culture
There is no specific name to this remedy. The remedy includes two tomatillos (green tomatoes) pan fried until the skin turns charcoaled green. One then slices two pieces of tomatillos and sets them on a plate. You then lye in bed with warm blankets next to you with the tomatillos set on one side. You take a slice of them and rub the hot warm tomatillo on you neck lymph nodes (whichever ones are swollen). This rubbing movement will create the hot warm juice to decrease the size of your lymph nodes. One will let the juice of the tomatillos dry on one’s neck through the night. Make sure to tuck yourself under warm blankets to keep the juices warm for them to be absorbed in your skin. One can do this three times a week or until you see effect from this remedy. The illness that treats this would be swollen lymph nodes on one’s neck due to throat infections or infections that your body is fighting. A special consideration would be to rub the hot tomatillos on the neck for about five minutes wherever the swollen lymph nodes are located or do it every night if the lymph nodes are not getting smaller. This remedy is well known in Mexico because it is known to work most of the time but not always. So this is most common in the Mexican culture. This does not treat an infection; it just makes it go away faster because the lymph nodes are being decreased. The tomatillos would usually be used to make hot Mexican sauce.

In the Mexican culture, bee stings are very common. In that part of the world, there are many species of bees, including killer bees, which we do not have many of in the US. Some have come up with the home remedy of placing sliced potatoes on the stings, in order to heal them faster.

Another Hispanic home remedy related to food is gargling cayenne pepper to aid a sore throat. Since cayenne pepper is a local resource, making use of it is common and practical in Latin America.

A Hispanic or Latino/a home remedy for getting rid of face acne is to apply a slice of fresh lemon on your face. You "transfer" the acne by then rubbing the piece of lemon on your arm or leg. This is believed to transfer unwanted acne to another less visible area on your body. Like other Hispanic remedies, it may seem outrageous and unbelievable, the fact that thousands still practice this anecdote, proves it to be quite effective, with positive outcomes.acne fighting

A Hispanic home remedy for curing a Sty is to use an Eye Cup which contains a mixture of warm water and sulphur. A sty is an infection or inflammation of the secretory glands of the eyelids. This common infection or inflammation results from blocked glands within the eyelid. When the gland is blocked, the oil produced by the gland occasionally gets backed up and forms a lump, which can be red and painful. The eye cup can be used to clean out the eye and wash out the glands. The idea is to use the cup 3-4 times daily with warm (NOT HOT) water mixed with a little bit of sulphur. Blink as many times as possible for about 45 seconds.

Many Native American tribes in the United States use herbal remedies to cure ailments. One of the herbal remedies used is the use of blackberry roots and leaves to treat stomach aches. The use of natural treatments to cure everyday ailments are cures that have been used for hundreds of years, and still remedies such as the blackberry syrup and tea are often used today.

Indian Culture
Throughout northern India, people believe that the tying on of strings provides protection from malevolent spirits and forces. Throughout India, they also use several herbs and plants to cure diseases.

Many Middle Eastern cultures and Indian culture have used ginger tea as a way of killing or staving off colds. It helps to boost the immune system due to its spice, curries are reported to have the same germ killing properties because of this.

Japanese Culture
In Japanese culture, Reiki is a systematic form of touch healing that originated in the country. There was a reclamation of tradition in Japan during the latter half of the twentieth century, when Tendai Buddhist monks initiated or rediscovered the health system. It has become increasingly popular in Japan and has taken up a strong following in the country. As well as being popular in Japanese culture, it has traveled to the United States, where it has found strength with other new age forms of health. Reiki is used for relaxation as well as promoting healing. Reiki deals with treating the body by universal energy. When people have low energy, they feel sickly, but when they are full of energy, they are able to obtain their very best. Another large part of Japanese ethnomedicine has its roots in Chinese culture. This is the practice called Kampo (漢方) sometimes referred to as kanpo. In the most basic sense kampo is the Japanese study and practice of traditional Chinese medicine. It oftentimes includes acupuncture but is most widely known for its usage of herbs to cure and treat illnesses and afflictions. Nowadays kampo has actually been integrated into the country’s National health system patients can have their kampo treatments covered by their insurance. Currently in Japan there are 148 different kampo medicines approved by the ministry of health, labor and welfare. Rather than modifying formulas like is the practice in Traditional Chinese medicine. The Japanese kampo tradition uses certain fixed combinations of herbs in standardized proportions which were derived from the classical literature of Chinese medicine. Kampo medicines are produced by various manufacturers, however because of strict regulations each medicine is composed of exactly the same ingredients. The medicines are therefore prepared under strict manufacturing conditions that rival pharmaceutical companies of America or anywhere else. The two leading companies making kampo medicines are Tsumura (ツムラ) and Kanebō (カネボウ). To find out more about this culture, you can visit the Wikipedia site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan

Korean Culture
In Korean culture Miso Soup has been a long time remedy for curing scrapes on skin. This ancient practice has been passed down for hundreds of years and is still commonly used today.

Also, in the case of flus, the Koreans use a home remedy that includes Cinnamon and ginseng to help the afflicted person get over the flu. They commonly do this because cinnamon strengthens the immune system and is believed to have antibiotic properties, and ginseng is a tonic to help with the fatigue

Mayan Culture
The Mayan people are an indigenous group in Mexico and Central America. They are a very traditional society that has extensive contact with western and modern societies. Because of this their medical model is a blend of traditional beliefs along with western technology. because they live in pretty poor conditions they do not have access to the best medicines, but they use what they can along with traditional practices of herbs, magic, and spells passed on by the elders in the community. They are much more accepting of the mind and body as a single interacting unit, and work to cure mind body and spirit.

Middle Eastern Cultures
Many Middle Eastern cultures and Indian culture have used ginger tea as a way of killing or staving off colds. It helps to boost the immune system due to its spice, curries are reported to have the same germ killing properties because of this.

Some cultures in the Middle East have remedies based on principle of balancing warm and cold food in the body. One such remedy is Aab Nabaat, which is used to prevent or settle an upset stomach.

Native American Culture
Herbs and other medicinal plants have a predominant role in the healing practices of Native American cultures. Many of the modern medicines used today in western society's were derived from the traditional healing methods of Native Americans. Ironically, modern scientist, doctors, and lay people are quick to reject the practices of ancient herbalists. It is interesting to note that in Native American cultures it takes longer for an individual to become an effective herbalist and healer than it does for a person today to become a doctor. In Native American cultures individuals are usually selected by the tribal medicine person at a very young age. This selected individual serves as an apprentice until they are middle aged, then they take over as healer. One plant that Native American cultures often utilize is tobacco. It is primarily used as a topical anesthetic. It is chewed up and spit upon the part of the body that is intended to be numbed. Also it can be added to bath water in the form of a tea to reduce arthritic pain or cramps. The smoke is thought to be purifying and is blown on afflicted areas.  You can learn more about Tobacco here! Dandelions are another genus of plant used by Native Americans for medicinal purposes. To learn more about the ways Native American cultures utilize dandelions click this link. Like dandelions, stinging nettles are also used medicinally by Native Americans, and are quite prevalent in the Pacific Northwest. To learn more about the healing properties of stinging nettles follow this link.  Another source of healing for Native American cultures is the use of the Sweat Lodge. The sweat lodge, also known as the "inipi " is used to purify and cleanse individuals by placing them in a tent-like room full of steam. It is mostly a religious event believing that the spirits expel diseases and purify the body.

Herbs are not the only solution to expelling these diseases and purifying the body. Movement of the body is quite common for many Native American Cultures. Dancing and exercise are a common practice among tribes.

Many Native American tribes in the United States use herbal remedies to cure ailments. One of the herbal remedies used is the use of blackberry roots and leaves to treat stomach aches. The use of natural treatments to cure every day ailments are cures that have been used for hundreds of years, and still remedies such as the blackberry syrup and tea are often used today.

Laguna Pueblo
Ceremonies were extremely important to the Laguna Pueblo culture and were often used for healing. It was thought that during these ceremonies the tribe could get closer to the sacred time of their gods and that this energy would aid with healing.

South American Culture
In contrast to people in North American or European societies, indigenous people in South America often use traditional medicinal plants found in the rainforest to cure illnesses, instead of chemically produced medicines. Several plants found in South America can be used to obtain results more that are usually obtained from more common products. These include plants such as cinchona, yerba mate, and stevia.

In the Andean region of South America, Coca Leafs are used as a remedy for overcoming altitude sickness, fatigue, as well as other illnesses. This practice has been used by many tribes indigenous to Peru and Bolivia, and is still a common practice today.

Turkish Culture
In Turkish culture and many other cultures around the world, Leeches are used to relieve victims of snake bites and many other ailments. Leeches are known to be sold in animal markets in Istanbul.

Vietnamese Culture
Thuoc Nam is also known as Vietnamese Southern Medicine. This medicine was also known as the poor mans medicine because it only uses ingredients native to Vietnam and involves little preparation.

Western Culture
The use of home remedies and Folk medicine has greatly decreased in the last few decades with Western culture adopting the bio-medical model, causing western culture to become more dependent on prescription and OTC drugs. Although there are still Home Remedies that have been passed down through generations, Western culture has begun to prefer a chemical solution to many medical problems because of its availability and proven affects. In recent years, however, people have started to become aware of the negative affects of many chemical drugs and have been turning back to Homeopathic medicines and natural solutions as an alternative to modern pharmaceutical drugs. There are many different Western treatments for illnesses out there.

A wart is a hard rough lump growing on the skin, caused by infection with certain viruses and occurring typically on the hands or feet. Many people in the Western culture cure warts in mainly two different ways. One is going to the doctor and getting them frozen off. The other is getting a prescription medication drug that will make the wart go away. The less known method of wart removal is the use of morning spit has been known to cure a wart in about a week. This has to do with the bacteria in the mouth that comes when people fall asleep.

In today's Western Culture, many households are exposed to harmful airborne contaminants that can cause numerous health problems. Luckily, there are Air Purifiers to filter out those dangerous indoor pollutants.

Over the Counter
Ibuprofen is an over-the-counter pain reliever that is commonly used to reduce or eliminate body aches and pains, headaches, and reduce fever symptoms. It acts quickly to relieve pain, which fits well with Western Society's demand for rapid relief in a busy world.

Airborne is a commonly sold immune system booster to help the body fight off colds. Commonly used among college students who never have a "good time" to be sick. It is mainly used in the prevention of colds but it can be taken during a cold with positive results. It fits well into western society as a quick fix or prevention method.

Emergen-C is one of the latest and most popular health food supplement being sold today. This product comes in single serving sized packets and is easily mixed with hot or cold water. The mix of vitamins and minerals makes it a great solution for a quick boost of energy as well as an important way to fight off sicknesses, such as the common cold.

Second Skin Spenco's Second Skin dressing is a product used to create a temporary layer of fake skin over a wound to the flesh that is exposing new and tender skin such as a blister or scraped knee. It can be purchased over the counter at pharmacies and other department stores. It is a quick and very simple way to relieve pain which is ideal in the Western Culture.

Baby Powder Along with its most common use for babies it is also a useful method for relieving pain caused by blisters and other open sores. The powder eases the pain by adding a slight layer of protection over the wound but still letting it breathe. It is commonly used in Western societies because it is an everyday product for people with infants and also a cheap and easy way to relieve pain.

The best over-counter lotion/crème to alleviate sunburn pains such as stinging is to use Noxzema moisturizer that is found in the stores. It feels terrific especially if you store the Noxzema in a drawer because the crème naturally maintains a cool level which feels incredible on a sun burned skin. Apply enough Noxzema to cover the sunburn completely; and apply a minimum of 2-3 times a day. The sunburn should most likely be gone within 2 days depending on the degree of the sunburn. NOTE: Some of the Noxzema moisturizer's come with Aloe-Vera; and use caution if your skin is sensitive to Aloe-Vera or use a different kind of Noxzema without Aloe-Vera.

Herbal Remedies
In the Western Society Green Tea can be used to prevent dark circles and wrinkles under ones eyes. Using two brewed, cooled off tea bags as compressors on each eye will reduce the risk of dark circles and wrinkles forming.

In regards to the common cold, back in the early to mid 1900s, Garlic and Mustard Seed was worn around one's neck as a means of preventing colds. This stemmed from a German cultural belief and/or knowledge that garlic, along with some other herbs and spices, worked to prevent colds. However, instead of ingesting these items, they wore them around their necks, indicating an almost superstitious outlook on the matter. Now, it is known that those who include more garlic in their diets tend to be healthier and are less likely to contract common colds.

Flaxseed Oil
Flaxseed Oil a long and extensive history. Originating in Mesopotamia, the flax plant has been known since the Stone Ages. One of the first records of the culinary use of flaxseeds is from times of ancient Greece. In both that civilization and in ancient Rome, the health benefits of flaxseeds were widely praised. After the fall of Rome, the cultivation and popularity of flaxseeds declined. Ironically, it was Charlemagne, the emperor who would be famous for shaping European history, who also helped to shape the history of flaxseeds, restoring them to their noble position in the food culture of Europe. Charlemagne was impressed with how useful flax was in terms of its culinary, medicinal, and fiber usefulness (flaxseed fibers can be woven into linen) that he passed laws requiring not only its cultivation but its consumption as well. After Charlemange, flaxseeds became widely appreciated throughout Europe. It was not until the early colonists arrived in North America that flax was first planted in the United States. In the 17th century, flax was first introduced and planted in Canada, the country that is currently the major producer of this extremely beneficial seed.

Home Remedies
It is in the American culture where we see concern on our appearance. We are obsessed with how we smell and how we look and a lot of this obsession comes from marketing. We can see this in the vast amounts of perfumes, colognes, anti-aging and makeup products shown on television commercials telling us what we want. If you want to reduce unwanted red eye you can use acold washcloth to help rid the symptoms. This is related to this culture by their high standard of person appearance. Western culture cares very much about the way that they look. Since a washcloth (flannel) and cold water are very common household products, it also is connected to the do it yourself aspect. Instead of buying eye drops, Western culture has established their own method of reducing this problem. Another problem some people have about their general appearance is oily hair, many women as well as men spend a lot of money to get their hair cut the perfect way or to get it dyed a certain color but when it becomes oily they tend to want to fix the problem on their own. For some it may be embarrassing to go to the salon and tell them you have oily hair so western culture has figured out its own way to fix the problem at home with using lemon juice. Many of western cultures home remedies are used solely for appearance purposes which says a lot about western culture.

Within western cultures, a warm compress is the preferred home remedy for pink eye because it relieves pain while your eye naturally clears up on its own.

For centuries Western Cultures have used Aloe Vera which can relieve skin discomforts such as severe burns caused by the sun. It can also be used as a natural laxative if used internally.

The act of using wood ash to whiten teeth is not specific to Western culture – consequently appears in many other parts of the world such as Japan and parts of China.

In Western Society, methods such as using Hydrogen Peroxide as a bleaching agent are very popular due to high image standards. It can used orally to whiten teeth, but beware of swallowing too much for it can be damaging to your health. Hydrogen Peroxide is a an inexpensive and is easily obtainable. Many other cultures don’t put as much emphasis on physical appearance, leaving the usage of chemicals for beauty enhancement for Western culture.

Western Culture is all about "go go go!" It is a culture that strives on instant results, including everything from transportation, medicine effectiveness and how food is prepared. Because of western culture's fast paced lifestyle, many people will do anything they can to avoid being sick altogether. One way that people in western society do this is to take multivitamins to help boost the immune system. Our "go go go" mentality has also led to the widespread use of [[Ethnomedicine/Home_R

Cannabis is widely used by and legally prescribed to patients with glaucoma in Western Culture. The THC chemical found in cannabis has been proven to lower the intraocular pressures associated with glaucoma and also prevents optic nerve damage. Cannabis is most effective when smoked and the general requirement for glaucoma patients is about .5 grams every 3 hours or so. The plant is illegal in the United States, however, and a prescription must be obtained for legal use.

Caffeine has many uses in Western Culture. Most people use it to provide energy throughout the day. It does have alternate uses, though. When Caffeine is added to pain relieving medication, it helps the body absorb the drug faster. For more information, see Caffeine for migraines.

Yogurt can be an effective tool in combatting canker sores. When using the right type of yogurt, you can speed up the recovery process and reduce pain. More information can be found under Yogurt for Canker Sores.

The use of the Marigold flower is a common home remedy used by many Western cultures. The practical use of this household flower for the relief of tooth pain originated from early English countrymen. More information about the proper use of the Marigold can be found under Marigold.

One disease prevention practice pertaining to women in western society is refraining from eating fish with high levels of mercury such as tuna while pregnant. This is because high levels of mercury can cause damage to the developing nervous system of a fetus. Methylmercury has become a particular problem in aquatic food chains because the fish begin to accumulate high levels of methylmercury in their tissues; especially the fish in higher trophic levels. One fish higher up on the food chain is albacore (or white) tuna. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that you eat no more than 6 ounces of tuna per week. In other words, do not eat more than 2 meals of low mercury fish per week. For more information visit Ethnomedicine/Disease Prevention Practices.


text:
Template:Talk header

 * Put new text under old text. [ Click here to start a new topic].
 * Please sign and date your posts by typing four tildes.
 * New to Wikibooks? Welcome! Ask questions, get answers.
 * Be polite
 * Assume good faith
 * Avoid personal attacks
 * Be welcoming

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Talk header


text:
Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 6/6.1

No Child Left Behind: What does it mean for students and teachers?
By: Carrie Grace Morgan

What is the quickest way to get a group of teachers arguing? Simply begin a conversation with the following question, “So, what do you think about No Child Left Behind (NCLB)? ”. Besides the integration of public schools during the civil rights era and the creation of the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), no other education reform has created so much controversy than NCLB.

History of No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act was passed in January 2003 by President George Bush as a sweeping education reform program focused on closing the achievement gap between several subgroups including genders or minorities, English language learners or economically disadvantaged students, and students with disabilities (Schrag, 2003). NCLB was based on several prior education reform systems, most notably President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society education law and the Elementary Education Act of 1965 (Jehlen, 2007).

Four Pillars of No Child Left Behind
NCLB is based on four pillars, which include stronger accountability in terms of results on state assessments, states and communities being given more freedom with federal education funds, teaching based on proven education methods, and allowing parents more choices in their child’s education.

The first pillar, which deals with accountability, holds public schools accountable for the effectiveness of their instructional efforts (Popham, 2004). Each year parents and communities receive reports from their school district and the state, which show the whether an school/state is making adequate yearly progress or AYP (“No Child Left Behind: A Toolkit for Teachers”, 2003). If a school does not make AYP, schools must provide supplemental educational services and make changes to their approach to teaching. After five years if a school is still not making AYP, the government takes over control of how the school is run and dramatic changes are made overall. The law mandates that within twelve years of the 2001-2002 school year, all schools must be proficient in their standardized test scores (“No Child Left Behind: A Toolkit for Teachers”, 2003).

The second pillar of the NCLB law states that schools have more freedom and flexibility in how federal funding is spent in their districts. Each district is allowed to spend their federal education funds on needs specific to their locality such as increasing teacher salaries and improving staff development opportunities.

Under the third pillar of NCLB, all educational programs and practices must be scientifically based in research. One example of a scientifically research based program is Reading First. It is a model used in elementary schools to teach reading, writing, and phonics skills. The final pillar of the NCLB law is allowing parents of students in low-performing schools other alternatives to attending those schools. When a school fails to make AYP for two consecutive years, parents may transfer their child to another better-performing school within their district. If a school fails to make AYP for three years consecutively, low-income families are eligible to receive supplemental educational services such as tutoring for their children.

Under NCLB states are required to develop a system to measure “adequate yearly progress” (AYP), which is directly correlated with the stronger accountability pillar of NCLB (Jewell, 2006). Public schools are held accountable for the effectiveness of their instructional practices (Popham, 2004). Any school that does not make AYP must provide supplemental educational services for their students. Each consecutive year that a school does not make AYP, more sanctions are placed on the school including replacing staff, extending the school year, and eventually turning over the control of the school to the state (Jewell, 2006).

Problems with No Child Left Behind
While the foundation for the No Child Left Behind law might be positive, the reality of the situation for many children and teachers is very grim. NCLB is due to expire in September of this year, and sweeping changes need to be made in order for the law to not only leave no child behind, but also no teacher behind.

One of the major problems teachers have with No Child Left Behind is that a school’s success is measured only by the results of two tests taken on two days. The amount of pressure that teachers and students alike feel on those two days is immense, and cannot accurately measure the overall achievement made by students in a single year. Students who begin a school year below grade level should have the opportunity to show the improvement they have made instead of being tested on the lack of skills they may not have yet (Jehlen, 2007).

Effects of No Child Left Behind on Students with Disabilities
One of the many criticisms of the NCLB Act stems from the accountability pillar. It seems unfair to hold students with disabilities to the same accountability standards as those students without a disability (Jewell, 2004). Students with disabilities may not make “adequate yearly progress” in the eyes of the state and federal government. However, this does not mean that a child is not making progress at all. In the February 2007 issue of NEA Today, Patti Ralabate suggests in the “Up Front” section of the journal that students with disabilities be assessed using a “student-growth” model. This type of assessment would be beneficial for the students as well as the teachers. Often the efforts of special education teachers are not evaluated properly because the only piece of information given about his/her student is a test score.

Students with disabilities are allowed certain accommodations for state and district testing. Accommodations are, “…changes to the assessment material or procedures that allow for students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills rather than the effects of their disabilities,” (“Accountability for Assessment Results in the No Child Left Behind Act: What It Means for Children With Disabilities”, 2003). An example of an accommodation for a student might be frequent breaks during testing or taking tests in a small-group setting instead of the classroom. However, in order to receive accommodations for testing, the student’s IEP team (Individualized Education Plan) must prove that the accommodation is necessary.

NCLB regulations were changed in December 2003, which allowed alternative assessments to be given to students that cannot take the grade-level assessment even if accommodations are given with the test (Jewell, 2004). An alternative assessment is considered, “…assessments designed to measure the performance of students with disabilities who are unable to participate in state and district assessments even with accommodations,” (“Accountability for Assessment Results in the No Child Left Behind Act: What It Means for Children With Disabilities”, 2003). There are restrictions, however, on the number of students in states and districts that can participate in the alternative assessment. Only 1 percent of students tested in a grade level can participate in the alternative assessment, which will count towards a school’s AYP (Jewell, 2004). The state of Virginia offers an alternative assessment model entitled the Virginia Alternative Assessment Program (VAAP).

The National Center on Educational Outcomes published an article in 2003 titled, “Accountability for Assessment Results in the No Child Left Behind Act: What It Means for Children with Disabilities.”  One of the questions the article addresses is how to IDEA and NCLB relate to each other. The articles states that, “…No Child Left Behind complements the provisions in IDEA by providing public accountability at the school, district, and state levels for all students with disabilities,” (“Accountability for Assessment Results in the No Child Left Behind Act: What It Means for Children With Disabilities”, 2003). This is true, however, sometimes that level of accountability can require a student already struggling in school to fight even harder against their disability.

As a teacher of special education students, NCLB leaves many of my students back in the shadows where they have been for many years. The idea that a child who is unable to recognize all 26 letters of the alphabet be held to the same standards as a child in the third grade reading and comprehending at a seventh grade level is outrageous. True, special education students can receive accommodations for testing such as a small-group testing situation or the use of manipulative on the math test. However, the hoops that must be jumped through in order to receive the accommodations is ridiculous, and the test results do not show the true progress some of these children may make in a year.

Multiple Choice Questions
1. What is the difference between testing with accommodations and alternative assessments?

A.	Alternative assessments test students with disabilities in the regular classroom with minor changes and accommodations are a form of different testing in a special setting. B.	Alternative assessments allow students with disabilities who cannot take grade-level assessments to participate in an assessment that counts towards their school’s AYP.*

C.	Accommodations are different assessments that students who are unable to participate in grade-level assessments.

2. What does the acronym AYP mean?

A.	Alternative Yearly Property

B.	Annual Yearly Progress

C.	Adequate Yearly Progress *

3. How are NCLB and IDEA different?

A.	NCLB provides public accountability at the school, district, and state levels for students with disabilities and IDEA focuses on accountability at the school level. *

B.	NCLB provides accountability for only the school level, whereas IDEA focuses accountability only at the state level.

C.	IDEA and NCLB are not different.

4. What percentage of students with disabilities must be included in the calculation of AYP?

A. 5%

B. 3%

C. 1% *

D. 9%

5. Which is NOT a pillar of the NCLB law?

A. stronger accountability for results

B. limitless funding *

C. more choices for parents

D. more freedom for states and their communities

 * Correct Answers

Essay Question
How does NCLB affect students with disabilities?

NCLB affects all students including students with disabilities. The effects of NCLB on students with disabilities can be positive and negative.

With the creation of NCLB, schools are held accountable for the educational results of students with disabilities. The law ensures that students with disabilities are taught on the appropriate grade level, and that they receive the educational services necessary to allow them to reach their full academic potential.

Students with disabilities must be included in every school’s calculation of AYP. However, these students are also considered separately as a sub-group in the AYP calculation. States are require to provide alternative assessment for students who demonstrate an inability to perform on state or district tests even with the aid of testing accommodations. Although alternative assessments can be given, only 1 percent of a school’s population can participate in those assessments. The student’s IEP team must decide when it is necessary for a child to participate in the alternative assessment.

One suggested alternative to both accommodations and alternative assessments would be the use of a “student-growth” model of testing. This type of assessment would allow growth to be seen in a student with disabilities despite how he/she is able to perform on district and state assessments.

Despite the difficulties that a student with disabilities might face under the NCLB law, it has increased awareness in how these students are educated. Not only are special education teachers more aware of their classroom practices, but homeroom teachers or students with disabilities as well.


text:
Cookbook:Pasta with Pancetta and Cauliflower

| Pasta

Ingredients

 * 1 pound (450 g) dried pasta
 * 6 ounces (170 g) pancetta, diced small
 * 1 head (~500 g / 1.1 pound) cauliflower, cut into florets
 * 4 cloves of garlic, sliced thin
 * 1 can (14 ounces / 400 g) diced tomatoes, drained
 * Red pepper flakes
 * 3 egg yolks
 * ½ cup (60 g / 2.1 ounces) grated Pecorino Romano cheese
 * Chopped parsley, additional grated Pecorino Romano cheese
 * Salt to taste
 * Pepper to taste

Procedure

 * 1) Bring 4 quarts of water to a boil. Add cauliflower to boiling water and cook for 4 minutes. Transfer cauliflower to an ice bath, but do not discard the cooking water.
 * 2) Heat 2 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil over medium-high heat in a large pan. Once hot, add the diced pancetta, and begin to brown.
 * 3) Once pancetta begins to brown, add pasta to boiling water.
 * 4) After pancetta is almost completely browned, reduce heat to medium and add the garlic and red pepper flakes. Sauté until garlic begins to turn golden, and then add the cauliflower and the drained diced tomatoes and toss to heat through. Add ¼ cup of the pasta water, as well as salt and pepper.
 * 5) While pasta is finishing cooking, beat the egg yolks, grated cheese, salt and pepper until smooth.
 * 6) When the pasta is about 2 minutes away from being al dente, drain.
 * 7) Lower the heat on the sauce to low and add the pasta to the sauce and toss to combine. Once combined, pour on the egg yolk mixture and quickly toss the pasta to coat it with the mixture (the egg yolks should coat the pasta, and not scramble).
 * 8) Once heated through, remove to serving bowl or individual plates and garnish with the chopped parsley and additional cheese.


text:
Icelandic/Grammar/Nouns

Nafnorð
 * Nouns

Nouns are words that describe a person, place, thing, or idea.

For example:
 * Sarah ran away.
 * Reykjavík is beautiful.
 * Cars pollute, but are essential.
 * When you are sad, think of good memories.

In Icelandic, these take on endings and inflections like verbs and personal pronouns do in English.

Gender
In Icelandic, like most other Indo-European languages (but not English), nouns have a gender. A noun can be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. A noun's gender rarely has anything to do with biological gender, except in words for male or female people, animals, etc.; nouns used for non-living things like furniture have gender too. The gender of nouns can usually be determined by the ending it has (or does not have). This is not a guaranteed rule, but it does usually work. Memorization, however, is the only way to really know the gender of a noun.

All nouns are classified as "strong" or "weak". This does not affect their semantic function; it only affects their declension.

Definite vs. indefinite article
There is no indefinite article in Icelandic. What would be "a" or "an" in English is "built into" Icelandic nouns, so to speak. Hestur translates to a horse, for example. The definite article (equivalent to English the) can be formed in two ways in Icelandic, either by adding an ending to a noun or using a definite article before it.

The definite article, in addition to its English usage, is also used in Icelandic to refer to concepts.
 * skóli (without article): "a school"
 * skólinn (with article):
 * "the school" (a specific school)
 * "school" (the concept of school)

Definite article endings
These are added to the end of a noun of the corresponding gender. With the previous example of hestur, saying "the horse" would be hesturinn. If the noun ends in a vowel that is not accented, the i is dropped from the ending before being added. As an example, herbergi (a room) becomes herbergið with the definite ending. Bakarí would become bakaríið, because the final vowel is accented.

If using a definite article before the adjective, the definite article is formed by adding the appropriate ending to the letter h (i.e. hinn, hin, and hið). This usage is largely poetic, and is rare in normal conversation. However, the word hinn is also used as a demonstrative pronoun, equivalent to English "that" or "the other" (of two objects).

With a definite article
Just the same as in English, adjectives come after the definite article and before the noun.

Hið góða bakarí er í Reykjavík. The good bakery is in Reykjavík.

With a definite ending
If an ending has been used to form the definite then the adjectives come after the noun and the noun usually begins the sentence.

Góði dagurinn er búinn. The good day is over.

Although this section is about nouns, notice the difference in spelling of góða and góði. Both mean the same thing, but adjectives must also be in the correct form according to the gender of the noun.

Note
Some Icelandic words can acquire the opposite meaning with the prefix: -ó
 * With nouns:
 * Vinur ~ Ó vinur
 * Friend ~ Enemy.
 * Veður ~ Ó veður
 * Weather ~ Bad weather.
 * With adjectives:
 * Skemtilegur ~ Ó skemtilegur
 * Funny ~ Boring.
 * Dýr ~ Ó dýr
 * Expensive ~ Cheap.

title: Icelandic/Grammar/Nouns


text:
Cookbook:Cuisine of Isle of Man

| European cuisines

Introduction
Manx Cuisine or Cuisine of the Isle of Man relates to the traditional meals and cooking of the Isle of Man, a small autonomous island located between the United Kingdom and Ireland.

Typically dishes consisted of a lot of fish (especially kippers and queenies), vegetables and tough pieces of meat. Today the Manx cuisine is as rich as anywhere in Europe because of increasing immigration but old recipes have not been forgotten.

Manx Recipes

 * Manx Smoked Salmon and Kippers
 * Manx Chips, Cheese and Gravy
 * Sollaghan - an ancient St. Stephen's Day (Boxing Day) meal
 * Manx Broth
 * Claare Dyn Jishig - also known as Fatherless Pie, eaten on Good Friday

title: Cookbook:Cuisine of Isle of Man


text:
Cookbook:Manx Smoked Salmon

| Cuisine of Isle of Man | Fish

Fish dishes are popular in Isle of Man, as they are in most islands and coastal regions. Kippers are especially popular in Mann and this recipe is a tasty alternative to many standard meals.

Ingredients

 * 450 g kippers
 * 450 g smoked salmon, sliced
 * 500–600 ml cream
 * 20 g chopped chives
 * ¼–½ ea. cucumber, thinly sliced
 * ½ tomato, sliced, de-seeded, and skinned

Procedure

 * 1) Boil the kippers in a pot of salty water
 * 2) Add 4 rings of smoked salmon to a greaseproof tray in foil (slices can go over the edge)
 * 3) Wait for the kippers to finish boiling then refresh them with cold water for 3–5 minutes. Fillet them, then skin and place them in a blender.
 * 4) Add cream gradually and blend.
 * 5) Add chives to the mix.
 * 6) Add the mixture to the rings and remove any air pockets by shaking.
 * 7) Fold over the salmon slices and turn over the rings. Cover with clingfilm and refrigerate.
 * 8) Add about 6 slices of the cucumber to the centre of each plate.
 * 9) Remove food from refrigerator, remove from oven tray and put them upside down on top of the cucumber slices.
 * 10) Add more strips of cucumber and tomato to the top of the food. Serve!

title: Cookbook:Manx Smoked Salmon


text:
Category:Manx recipes

This list details recipes and food which is typical of the Isle of Man (Ellan Vannin).

title: Category:Manx recipes


text:
User talk:ShermanW00768014

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * If you're a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck!

Image copyright problem with Image:Massage.gif
Thanks for uploading Image:Massage.gif. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Iamunknown 18:34, 14 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:ShermanW00768014


text:
Advanced Interactive Media/Audio/Video Team/Job Description

In the Audio/Video team students are expected to shoot, collect, and edit all video and audio content for the project. Content will cover everything that a MMI (Multi-Media Institute)student does in their junior year. The footage gathered will be intregated into the multi-media experience that the class is creating as a whole. Here is the break down of the Institute and the footage that is gathered.

1. Live Production a. Telenews footage b. Chapel footage c. School Plays

2. Web a. Flash b. HTML

3. Video a. Feature and News Packages b. Film Production c. Stills of Production d. Editing

4. Graphics a. Photoshop b. After Effects c. Programs used in class

5. Audio a. Protools b. ADR

6. Video of Equipment a. Stills b. Video c. VR's

The audio/video team must collect, organize, digitize and edite all video and music for the project by the designated deadlines.


text:
Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 5/5.1

Cultural Diversity: Ways for Teachers to Promote a Multicultural Education and Foster Cultural Sensitivity
By: Leslie Antiskay

America is a combination of many different cultures, and it

appears that the role of teachers is changing to meet the needs of

the influx of immigrants. Currently, Latinos are the fastest

growing segment of the American population. Today’s teachers are

responsible to teach students from various cultural backgrounds and

language abilities. They must create a classroom environment that

is culturally rich, and respectful of the diversity among

students. They must also integrate multicultural education across

the curriculum. Teachers are exploring many ways to teach in a

multicultural classroom while modeling cultural tolerance.

Taking the Cultural Plunge
Before teachers can understand diversity they must carefully

examine their prior experiences, views, fears, and take a cultural

plunge. For example, how does it feel to be a minority? A teacher

can take a cultural plunge by attending a predominately

African-American church service, or college class (Nieto, 2006).

Plunging into a culture and voluntarily becoming a minority is a

way to understand the meaning of minority.

Minority doesn’t have to be race related. A college woman

majoring in a predominately male career path may also feel out of

place; because she is a minority. Plunging into a cultural

experience would also assist teachers in understanding cultures.

Sometimes teachers’ travel to places like Indonesia, and absorb the

culture. Others study the background of the students’ culture to

assist them in connecting with the students and also their parents.

Teachers who build a multicultural community of               learners set high expectations for all the students. Whereas, teachers with negative stereotyping often unfairly label students as                underachievers.

Cultural Stereotyping
Villegas & lucas (2002) assert that it is necessary for

teachers to “honestly examine their attitudes and beliefs about

themselves and others, teachers begin to discover why they are who

they are, and confront biases that have influenced their value

system. (as cited in Richards, Brown, Ford, 2007 p. 65). Because

teachers’ values impact relationships with students and their

families, teachers must reconcile negative feelings towards any

cultural, language, or ethnic group.” When they overcome

preconceived stereotypes they will create an atmosphere of trust

and acceptance from the students and parents. Teachers who build a

multicultural community of learners set high expectations for all

the students. Whereas, teachers with negative stereotyping often

unfairly label students as underachievers based on their gender,

race or ethnic background. Such stereotyping leads to an unequal

quality of education, because selected students are being unequally

treated. These students are placed in lower achieving groups and

their academic abilities or giftedness is not acknowledged. Such

inequality within the classroom prevents students of color from

reaching their fullest potential. Therefore, it is critical that

teachers dismiss preconceived biases based on cultural backgrounds,

because they risk unfairly judging a student's potential. When a

teacher expects a student to fall into a stereotype the student

will perceive her prejudice and will not feel acceptance, but

rather isolation and a lack of desire to learn.

Why Do We Need to Address Cultural Diversity
We need to address cultural diversity because there are an

increasing number of students from diverse backgrounds entering

classrooms. Students enter school with little knowledge of the

dominant culture. They may also be ESL (English as a second

language) students. Students from diverse backgrounds may face

academic difficulties, or socialization difficulties with

classmates. However, the careful guidance of well trained teachers

will assist students in making a smooth transition. Teachers who

incorporate many cultural experiences and activities teach cultural

awareness, tolerance, and to appreciate cultural and linguistic

differences (Hepburn, 2007). Young children who are placed in an

environment that fosters cultural diversity will gain positive

attitudes and experiences. Early exposure to diversity within the

classroom will have long-term affects in subsequent school years.

It will prevent racial, cultural, or religious divisions and

tensions that typically arise when students are fearful, ignorant,

and prejudiced against classmates who are different. Howard (2002) suggests that, the following guidelines will

support teachers attempting to provide students with multicultural

education. 1. What are our own prejudices, beliefs, and values? To what extent do we make assumptions?

2. We should work at being accepted and trusted by students and their parents, to avoid negative feelings of suspicion and distrust that can quickly shut off communication.

3. Ask for parental and community assistance that is meaningful. For example, ask persons who may have experienced the Civil Rights Movement to share their experiences. Or, ask a parent to share their culture with students.

4. We must remember that textbooks do not routinely portray minorities in non-stereotypical ways. We need to seek out and incorporate materials that respects minority perspectives in ways that are not merely singling out minorities as either heroes or victims of discrimination. 5. We should engage our students in culturally relevant activities and assignments.

6. We must take a stand against intolerance when it appears in speech or actions of students, faculty, or staff at our schools. Policies must be written to enforce the stand. We must prevent cliques from forming and the shunning of other students. When other students lack empathy for others, we need to encourage them to think, discuss, read, and write about how their actions affect the lives of others.

7. We need to provide direct instruction in cultural diversity for students, teachers, and staff and to be role models ourselves. We should make a conscious effort to join in culturally mixed groups. We should invite parents, community members, and staff to join us to provide programs for our students (p. 347).

Understanding Linguistic Diversity
Today, America is experiencing an influx of immigration.

For example, California has one of the most linguistically diverse

segments in the nation. There are over one hundred languages

spoken by children in the state of California. Over 1.5 million

are enrolled in Limited English Proficient students (LEP). Most

language-minority students are classified as at-risk, because they

face challenges in reading, writing, and passing state testing.

Public schools do offer LEP students’ primary language instruction,

bilingual tutoring services, bilingual instructional assistance,

and academic instruction. However, in the past strategies such as

teaching whole language approach to learning has not been effective

(Vang, 2005). It takes about one to two years to develop

conversational competencies, and five to seven years for successful

cognitive demands in a school setting. She recommends that

teachers should activate prior knowledge, use thematic units,

increase wait time for anticipating responses, and provide breaks.

Also, teachers should repeat phrases, simplify language, pair

native speakers together when grouping students, build vocabulary

using cards with pictures, and most importantly teachers must be

culturally respectful of LEP students (Watson, 2007).

Cultural Sensitivity
Teachers have the responsibility to provide all students with

the opportunity to achieve to their fullest potential. Richard,

Brown, Forde (2007) stated, “If instruction reflects the cultural

and linguistic practices and values of only one group of students,

then the other students are denied an equal opportunity to learn.”

(p 68). Cultural insensitivity suppresses cultural exchanges and

interactions. The teacher must enrich the curriculum with

multicultural materials that are a reflection of the students. It

is important for teachers to demonstrate cultural and linguistic

sensitivity. Inclusion rather than exclusion promotes increased

self-esteem, academic achievement, and a learning environment that

accepts cultural differences.

Integrating a multicultural Curriculum
In the classroom, teachers should make connections with

students’ cultural identities by providing instructional materials,

literature, and textbooks that reflect their culture.

Bulletin boards, classroom activities and newsletters should be

culturally supportive of students (Richards, Brown, Forde, 2007).

In the past, textbooks were written to reflect the European-

American perspective. Minorities were usually represented as the

conquered people, which alludes to the ideology that Western

culture is superior. References to African-Americans focus

primarily on slavery, or discriminatory issues. For example,

Anthony Johnson was an indentured servant living on the Eastern

Shore during the 1640’s. He became a successful landowner with

servants. It is important to show other cultural perspectives.

The European-American world-view historically describes the

discovery of America as though it was an uninhabited region.

However, America was already thriving with inhabitants which are

known as Native Americans. They had a rich culture, of languages,

art, advanced skills including hunting, tracking, and farming.

However, they were often written in history books as conquered

people at best, or savages at worst. To successfully recognize

students from multicultural backgrounds, teachers should not

present a curriculum from only a negative perspective. They need

to include cultures in the curriculum in a positive and meaningful

manner.

Richards, Brown, Forde (2007) assert that, “teachers can

capitalize on the strengths students bring to school. The more

students experience familiar practices in instruction and are

allowed to think differently, the greater the feeling of inclusion

and the higher the probability of success.” (p 66).

Final thoughts
Today, a multicultural education is necessary because

American public schools are culturally diverse. When teachers

accept diversity, and promote cultural sensitivity within their

classrooms they foster a community of learners. Differences

between races, ethnic backgrounds, languages, and genders will be

accepted and respected. There will not be a need for divisions

among students because the community will feel safe, respected,

supported, and understood in their learning environment. Early

childhood classrooms should be enriched with multicultural

materials that are a reflection of the students. Such an enriching

environment sets the stage for cultural acceptance, and

sensitivity. It will be the guiding light of the teacher to afford

students the opportunity to reach their highest levels within the

frame work of a multicultural education. When children learn in a

multicultural environment the positive affects are life-long; and

their future potential is limitless.

Multiple-choice questions
Identify the letter of the choice that best completes the statement

or answers the question.

1) Effective multicultural education efforts require diversity in?

a) materials      b)  social studies c) all curriculum      d)  open discussions

2) Taking the cultural plunge would best describe?

a) cultural experience   b)  cultural immersion c) swimming    d)  modeling culture

3) An effective teaching strategy to teaching limited English Proficient students?

a) model language   b)  pair native speakers c) read the IEP?  d)  whole language approach

4) How did textbooks portray minorities?

a) politically correct   b)  European view c) as conquered people  d)  marginally

5) Teachers who build a multicultural community of learners set?

a) students up for failure  b)  risk parental misunderstanding c) high expectations for all d)  students on a path to foreign languages

Answers:  1) c      2)  b     3)  b      4)  b         5)  c

ESSAY QUESTION
How could teachers promote a culturally sensitive classroom

environment?

First, I would suggest that teachers accept the differences

among students within the classroom. Each child enters the

classroom with prior knowledge and cultural

differences. The teacher should not criticize the differences, but

listen, learn, and respect the student’s cultural framework. This

cultural exchange could be one-on-one or part of a classroom

meeting in which the students could share their home life

experiences. It is imperative that the teacher model cultural

tolerance, because the children learn from her verbal and non-

verbal responses. If the teacher shows interest by asking further

questions, nodding, or smiling the student will feel accepted and

the other students will learn cultural sensitivity.

Often, teachers believe that covering a social studies topic

on a minority includes multicultural education. However, there are

many other ways to integrate cultural sensitivity within the

classroom. For example, instead of reading a book whose story

characters are the dominant culture, search for books that offer

diversity. Then, discuss the book’s characters, and the cultural

similarities. Multiculturalism isn’t always about expressing the

differences, often there are many similarities that are unknown by

students. When children learn about the similarities, they begin

to make connections and understand that although there are obvious

differences between them, there are also many

similarities. Students could make a collage with cutout pictures

representing a culture. They could share their collage with the

class, which would demonstrate what they learned while exploring

another culture.


text:
Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 3/3.3

Differentiation in Education
What is differentiation? Curriculum differentiation is a broad term referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to create appropriately different learning experiences for different students (Farmer, 1996). Differentiation occurs in diverse classrooms. The students are given ability-appropriate assignments and are often able to select assignments that appeal to them. By being able to have some choice in assignments, those students will be able to work with their learning strengths and interests. In this best-of-all-worlds “differentiated” scenario, lower-ability students stand to benefit from learning sparks thrown off by higher-level students (Fischer, 2004). In most classrooms there are students who struggle with learning, others who perform beyond expectation, and the rest in between. This diversity raises the need of differentiation in instruction. If teachers what to have maximum potential in individual students, then they will have to address different needs.

Another benefit of differentiation includes the reduction of inequality in the classroom. The rationale of the arguments in favor of a differentiated curriculum as a strategy of reducing educational inequalities is straightforward: Students do better when they can study subjects and levels within subjects that match their abilities and inclinations (Ayalon, 2006). With this in mind, underprivileged students can also have the chance to benefit from instruction. Yet despite the reasons behind differentiation, some teachers hesitate to apply it to their own classroom. Feeling it is time consuming and that they lack resources and support, teachers forgo this process without debate. However, if the teachers are properly informed about what they can do and the effects, perhaps they will embrace this philosophy. According to the differentiation philosophy, teachers could organize assignments. Some tasks may need groups based on interest, learning style, or student readiness; meaning the level of their skills such as reading and writing.

The topic of differentiation of instruction has many different opinions concerning organization. It seems that the main elements of differentiation include content, process, products, and the learning environment.

Content modification uses the student’s abilities to build a richer knowledge base. This element of differentiation encourages abstractness, complexity, variety, the study of people, and the study of methods of inquiry. Examples of differentiating content at the elementary level include the following: using reading materials at varying readability levels; putting text materials on tape; using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students; presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means; using reading buddies; and meeting with small groups to re-teach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners (Tomlinson, 2004).

Process modification promotes creativity and higher level cognitive skills. This is developed through encouraging higher levels of thinking, creative thinking, open-endedness, group interaction, variable pacing, a variety of learning processes, debriefing, and freedom of choice. Examples of differentiating process or activities at the elementary level include the following: using tiered activities through which all learners work with the same important understandings and skills, but proceed with different levels of support, challenge, or complexity; providing interest centers that encourage students to explore subsets of the class topic of particular interest to them; developing personal agendas (task lists written by the teacher and containing both in-common work for the whole class and work that addresses individual needs of learners) to be completed either during specified agenda time or as students complete other work early; offering manipulative's or other hands-on supports for students who need them; and varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task in order to provide additional support for a struggling learner or to encourage an advanced learner to pursue a topic in greater depth (Tomlinson, 2004).

The next element involves product modification. The aim here is to facilitate opportunities for talented students to produce a product that reflects their potential (Farmer, 1996). This can be accomplished through creating real problems, real audiences, real deadlines, transformations—original manipulation and not an exact copy, and appropriate evaluation. Differentiation of products can involve giving the students the option of how they will express information; using rubrics for varied skill levels; giving students opportunities to work alone or in groups; and encouraging individual product assignments while containing the required elements.

The last element of differentiation is the learning environment. The goal here is to create a safe, flexible environment where students are able to take risks and build knowledge and abilities to the maximum extent available. This environment is student-centered, fosters independence, is open and accepting, complex, and highly mobile. Examples of differentiating learning environment at the elementary level include: making sure there are places in the room to work quietly and without distraction, as well as places that invite student collaboration; providing materials that reflect a variety of cultures and home settings; setting out clear guidelines for independent work that matches individual needs; developing routines that allow students to get help when teachers are busy with other students and cannot help them immediately; and helping students understand that some learners need to move around to learn, while others do better sitting quietly (Tomlinson, 2004).

If we want to maximize the student’s potential, differentiating instruction is a practical and effective way of doing so. Teachers cannot just make one or two different lessons and find this as differentiation. To do this successfully, they should follow the different elements suggested, along with other practices. The first tasks teachers need to ensure are clear learning objectives to determine curriculum decisions. Another step would be scaffolding. Scaffolds are temporary supports that help a learner bridge the gap between what he or she can do and what he or she needs to do to succeed at a learning task (Carolan, Guinn, 2007). Along with these supports, to make differentiation successful, teachers should also make lessons interesting and relevant to students and keep the learning active.

Beginning to use differentiated instruction may seem overwhelming to teachers. However, there are a few suggestions that can help a teacher to begin differentiating or differentiating more effectively in a classroom where it is already used. One suggestion is to prepare students and parents for the new structure in the classroom. Another suggestion would be to teach routines and review the effectiveness of these routines. Having the students in tune with the teacher and the new structure of the classroom will help differentiating instruction begin smoothly. Teachers should also talk to other educators and administration to build a support system. Planning and sharing ideas can help promote a successful classroom. Differentiating instruction can help students benefit from an education. However, teachers need to make sure they are actually differentiating the instruction and doing so efficiently. With the proper tools in place, students can enjoy and take something away from lessons.

Multiple Choice Questions
1.)	Differentiation of instruction is: a.	Using two or more versions of a lesson b.	Grouping students according to different learning levels c.	Creating appropriate learning experiences for different students d.	Teaching different skills to each student

2.)	Four essential elements for differentiating instructions include all except: a.	Process b.	Data c.	Content d.	Learning Environment

3.)	A learning environment should include all except: a.	Setting clear guidelines b.	Allowing students to move around c.	Provide a variety of materials to reflect different cultures d.	Keep students separate according to abilities

4.)	Content modification should include: a.	Using reading buddies b.	Providing interest centers c.	Offering manipulatives d.	Giving students the opportunity to work alone or in groups

5.)	To keep from overwhelming teachers with differentiating instruction, teachers should do all of the following except: a.	Prepare students and parents for new structure b.	Teach and explain new routines c.	Keep students working independently instead of in groups d.	Collaborate with teachers and administration

Answers: C, B, D, A, C

Essay Question
What are the four elements of differentiated instruction? Give examples of each.

Sample Essay Response: The four elements of differentiated instruction include modifying content, process, products, and learning environment. Content modification includes activities that will assist with the material being presented. This includes reading buddies, text materials on tape, presenting ideas in auditory as well as visual means, and using reading material at varying levels. Process modification uses personal agendas, provides interest centers, and offers manipulative’s or other supports for the students who need them. Product modification gives students the choice of how they want to express learning, encourages students to create their own products, and has teachers use rubrics according to varied skill levels. Finally, the learning environment creates areas for both independent and collaborative work. Independent sections are available without distractions and collaborative areas are allowed for group discussions. The learning environment also allows students to move around when needed and routines are created. Teachers can use these elements to guide them to creating a structured, as well as flexible, environment for a variety of learners.


text:
A Researcher's Guide to Local History Terminology

Table of Contents

 * Introduction
 * Researching local history
 * Abecedary
 * Bibliography
 * Further reading


text:
Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 2/2.3

What is literacy?
According to Peter Macinnis literacy is more than just books; it means a love of the language (Macinnis). Literacy is the ability to read and write. Reading and writing evolve from our language skills. Language is important because without it we would not be able to read.

Reading is very much a language activity and with it we have the ability to read. Our ability to read is limited by our language skills (Gunning p. 2). We need to understand our language to understand what we are reading. “Even if we can pronounce words we don’t understand because of superior phonics skills, we are not reading (Gunning p.2).”

Why should we promote early literacy?
Promoting literacy now can prevent reading difficulty which contributes to school failure. School failure leads to increase risk of absenteeism, drop-outs, juvenile delinquency, substance abuse and teenage pregnancy. All of these risks continue the cycle of poverty and dependency (ROR). Families that live in poverty lack the money to buy new books and access libraries. This cycle needs to be stopped and we can help stop it by promoting early literacy. Literacy needs to be promoted at an early age. Promoting literacy at an early prepares children for kindergarten. A child who is limited to their exposure in reading and writing may have very different expectations and understandings than those who have had exposure (Literacy Guide). Research shows that literacy improves children's ability to articulate their selves verbally, it increases children's listening vocabulary and it reduces that number of children with language delays that can prevent them from succeeding in school (ROR). Early literacy not only has a great effect on children but also the parents involved. Early literacy can change the attitudes of parents about reading out loud to children. When a parent reads to their child and they see that it is promoting their language skills, then they are likely to continue to read out loud to their child and more likely to try new and exciting activities. It can make reading a fun activity for children and parents. Reading can promote a routine bedtime story for the children and increase access to books (ROR). Reading to your child increases their vocabulary, making them more likely to learn to read on a schedule. Promoting literacy early helps the child to achieve goals that are accustomed to all. First, children want to become fluent and efficient readers and writers. To do this they need to be able to make sense of and transmit the meaning of our written language. Second, children want to become thinkers and communicators. With this they will become active reviewers and analyzers of information. Third, children will come to enjoy reading and writing. Lastly, children want to feel a sense of accomplishment, they want to feel successful users of literacy (Literacy Guide).

How can we promote early literacy?
All parents want their child to succeed in life and become a well-rounded person and student. They want their child to excel in school and will do all that they know to do to help their child achieve this. Parents do not always know what they need to do to help strengthen their child's abilities and oftentimes they do not have the resources to do this. To strengthen and promote a child's literacy skills is very important. To help promote a young child's enjoyment in talking, listening, reading and writing adults can provide an assortment of appealing language experiences (Child Care). The most important thing is to be a model of literate behavior. This can be done by writing notes, keeping calendars or daily planners, post grocery lists and needed household items, children's responsibilities, introduce new vocabulary words through conversation and book reading and subscribe to the local newspaper or magazines (Child Care). Reading out loud to your children is also another way you can promote literacy. To do this you can follow the Reach Out and Read model. This model encourages pediatric literacy. At every check-up the doctors and nurses encourage the parents to read to their child. They also provide age-appropriate tips and encouragement. The Reach Out and Read model encourages parents who may have difficulty reading to invent their own stories to go with picture books. They can also spend more time naming objects with their child (ROR). Another key is resources. Some parents are not able to provide their child with resources, books, for their child. Providers for the Reach Out and Read model give every child between the ages of six months and five years a new, developmentally appropriate book to keep (ROR). There are many public libraries in every area. Take your child to the library and check out books or sit there and read to them. Not every family is able to participate in the Reach Out and Read model but they can follow some of their guidelines.

Spend time writing with your child. Forget about grammar and spelling and just let them write. If you are writing, put a pencil in their hand and allow them to write with you. If they just scribble something on a piece of paper, ask them what it is and write it for them. Encouragement is imperative at such a young age. Provide children with tools for literate practice. Tools may include materials such as paper, pencils, markers, pens, envelopes, magazines, newspapers and anything in that category (Child Care). This should be fun and exciting for the children and you so sing songs and make up silly rhymes, play with words and sounds and do this everyday.

Multiple Choice Questions
1.	According to Peter Macinnis what is literacy?

A.	Books

B.	Reading and Writing

C.	Love of language

D.	Both A and C

2.	Promoting literacy early can prevent?

A.	Reading difficulty

B.	School drop outs

C.	Teenage pregnancy

D.	All of the above

3.	To promote literacy parents should_______.

A.	Model literate behavior

B.	Make children write

C.	Have children read books by their self

D.	Buy books for your children

4.	Which of the following are not tools for literate practice?

A.	Paper

B.	Map

C.	Makers

D.	Dictionary

5.	Reading to children will increase/promote their ________.

A.	Routine for bedtime stories

B.	Vocabulary

C.	A and B

D.	None of the above

Answer Key 1. D 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. C

Essay Question
After reading this article you have a better understand of why promoting literacy early is important. Some families that live in poverty do not have access to some resources. Briefly discuss why early literacy is important and then discuss what these families can do to promote early literacy to possibly break the continued cycle?

Promoting literacy at a young age is important to prepare the child for their school years. If a child is well prepared and has a high vocabulary it will decrease their chances of having reading difficulties. When a child struggles in school they are most likely to stop going, drop-out. Children that do not attend school often get bored and find other ways to occupy their time. Activities many include criminal acts, the use of drugs or alcohol and sex. These children are usually from a family that is poverty and unfortunately this cycle will only continue for them and later generations to come. The cycle often continues because these children were not read to at a young age. Since they were not read to they do not find it of importance to read to their children or do not have access to resources or can not read their self. Families that are in poverty can break this cycle. They can promote literacy by talking to their children. Hold conversations with them all the time. Ask them questions, point to things and explain to them what it is. You can sing songs and make up rhymes with them. If you are able to get to a local library, sit in there and read to your child. Although you may not have access to all the resources in the world, you do not need them all to promote literacy. If you use what you have in the right ways then you will be successful in helping build your child's vocabulary.


text:
Talk:Foundations and Current Issues of Early Childhood Education/Chapter 2/2.3

Lauren Zook

Early Literacy

Table of Contents I. What is literacy? II. Why should we promote early literacy? III. How can we promote early literacy?

What is literacy? According to Peter Macinnis literacy is more than just books; it means a love of the language (Macinnis) [This is misleading -- see below]. Literacy is the ability to read and write. Reading and writing evolve from our language skills. Language is important because without it we would not be able to read. Reading is very much a language activity and with it we have the ability to read. Our ability to read is limited by our language skills (Gunning p. 2). We need to understand our language to understand what we are reading. “Even if we can pronounce words we don’t understand because of superior phonics skills, we are not reading (Gunning p.2).”

Why should we promote early literacy? Promoting literacy now can prevent reading difficulty which contributes to school failure. School failure leads to increase risk of absenteeism, drop-outs, juvenile delinquency, substance abuse and teenage pregnancy. All of these risks continue the cycle of poverty and dependency (ROR). Families that live in poverty lack the money to buy new books and access libraries. This cycle needs to be stopped and we can help stop it by promoting early literacy. Literacy needs to be promoted at an early age. Promoting literacy at an early prepares children for kindergarten. A child who is limited to their exposure in reading and writing may have very different expectations and understandings than those who have had exposure (Literacy Guide). Research shows that literacy improves children’s ability to articulate their selves verbally, it increases children’s listening vocabulary and it reduces that number of children with language delays that can prevent them from succeeding in school (ROR). Early literacy not only has a great effect on children but also the parents involved. Early literacy can change the attitudes of parents about reading out loud to children. When a parent reads to their child and they see that it is promoting their language skills, then they are likely to continue to read out loud to their child and more likely to try new and exciting activities. It can make reading a fun activity for children and parents. Reading can promote a routine bedtime story for the children and increase access to books (ROR). Reading to your child increases their vocabulary, making them more likely to learn to read on a schedule. Promoting literacy early helps the child to achieve goals that are accustomed to all. First, children want to become fluent and efficient readers and writers. To do this they need to be able to make sense of and transmit the meaning of our written language. Second, children want to become thinkers and communicators. With this they will become active reviewers and analyzers of information. Third, children will come to enjoy reading and writing. Lastly, children want to feel a sense of accomplishment, they want to feel successful users of literacy (Literacy Guide).

“A child who is often read to, or who regularly sees adults reading and writing for personal tasks and pleasure will expect that reading and writing play useful roles in life and are valued activities (Literacy Guide).”

How can we promote early literacy? All parents want their child to succeed in life and become a well-rounded person and student. They want their child to excel in school and will do all that they know to do to help their child achieve this. Parents do not always know what they need to do to help strengthen their child’s abilities and often times they do not have the resources to do this. To strengthen and promote a child’s literacy skills is very important. To help promote a young child’s enjoyment in talking, listening, reading and writing adults can provide an assortment of appealing language experiences (Child Care). The most important thing is to be a model of literate behavior. This can be done by writing notes, keeping calendars or daily planners, post grocery lists and needed household items, children’s responsibilities, introduce new vocabulary words through conversation and book reading and subscribe to the local newspaper or magazines (Child Care). Reading out loud to your children is also another way you can promote literacy. To do this you can follow the Reach Out and Read model. This model encourages pediatric literacy. At every check-up the doctors and nurses encourage the parents to read to their child. They also provide age-appropriate tips and encouragement. The Reach Out and Read model encourages parents who may have difficulty reading to invent their own stories to go with picture books. They can also spend more time naming objects with their child (ROR). Another key is resources. Some parents are not able to provide their child with resources, books, for their child. Providers for the Reach Out and Read model give every child between the ages of six months and five years a new, developmentally appropriate book to keep (ROR). There are many public libraries in every area. Take your child to the library and check out books or sit there and read to them. Not every family is able to participate in the Reach Out and Read model but they can follow some of their guidelines. Spend time writing with your child. Forget about grammar and spelling and just let them write. If you are writing, put a pencil in their hand and allow them to write with you. If they just scribble something on a piece of paper, ask them what it is and write it for them. Encouragement is imperative at such a young age. Provide children with tools for literate practice. Tools may include materials such as paper, pencils, markers, pens, envelopes, magazines, newspapers and anything in that category (Child Care). This should be fun and exciting for the children and you so sing songs and make up silly rhymes, play with words and sounds and do this everyday. Multiple Choice Questions

1.	According to Peter Macinnis what is literacy? A.	Books B.	Reading and Writing C.	Love of language D.	Both A and C

2.	Promoting literacy early can prevent? A.	Reading difficulty B.	School drop outs C.	Teenage pregnancy D.	All of the above

3.	To promote literacy parents should_______. A.	Model literate behavior B.	Make children write C.	Have children read books by their self D.

4.	Which of the following are not tools for literate practice? A.	Paper B.	Map C.	Makers D.	Dictionary

5.	Reading to children will increase/promote their ________. A.	Routine for bedtime stories B.	Vocabulary C.	A and B D.	None of the above

Answer Key 1. D 2. D 3. A 4. B 5. C

Essay Question

After reading this article you have a better understand of why promoting literacy early is important. Some families that live in poverty do not have access to some resources. Briefly discuss why early literacy is important and then discuss what these families can do to promote early literacy to possibly break the continued cycle?

Promoting literacy at a young age is important to prepare the child for their school years. If a child is well prepared and has a high vocabulary it will decrease their chances of having reading difficulties. When a child struggles in school they are most likely to stop going, drop-out. Children that do not attend school often get bored and find other ways to occupy their time. Activities many include criminal acts, the use of drugs or alcohol and sex. These children are usually from a family that is poverty and unfortunately this cycle will only continue for them and later generations to come. The cycle often continues because these children were not read to at a young age. Since they were not read to they do not find it of importance to read to their children or do not have access to resources or can not read their self. Families that are in poverty can break this cycle. They can promote literacy by talking to their children. Hold conversations with them all the time. Ask them questions, point to things and explain to them what it is. You can sing songs and make up rhymes with them. If you are able to get to a local library sit in their and read to your child. Although you may not have access to all the resources in the world, you do not need them all to promote literacy. If you use what you have in the right ways then you will successful in helping build your child’s vocabulary.

Note from Peter Macinnis I actually said "Literacy is more than books, it means having a love of the language", and I then proceed to elaborate on that. I have corrected the two errors in the URL to my page, so people can compare the simplistic account offered here with the rather richer mélange that I offer there. References

Bank Street. Background Knowledge: Making Connections Between New and Known Information. Literacy Guide. February 27, 2007 from http://www.bnkst.edu/literacyguide/back.html.

Gunning, Thomas G. 2005. Creating Literacy. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc.

Macinnis, Peter. (November 8, 1997). The Nature of Literacy. February 27, 2007 from http://www.ozemail.com.au/~macinnis/literacy.htm.

Mofamweb. (April 12, 2005). Promoting Young Children’s Early Literacy. Child Care. February 27, 2007 from http://missourifamilies.org/features/childcarearticles/childcare3.htm.

Reach Out and Read. Background Knowledge: Making Connections Between New and Known Information. Literacy Guide. February 27, 2007 from http://www.reachoutandread.org