text:
Introduction to Library and Information Science/Information Organization

After reading this chapter, a student should be able to articulate:
 * 1) how to build an effective bibliography
 * 2) how libraries share catalog records
 * 3) the purpose and structure of MARC records
 * 4) the FRBR conceptual model
 * 5) the concepts that inform the field of Information Architecture
 * 6) the strengths of several major classification strategies
 * 7) the concepts of the semantic web and linked data
 * 8) major critiques of information organization practice

Why organize information?
The sheer abundance of information available on the Internet leads to limited user attention and a high reliance on gate-keeping services, such as search engines. These gate-keeping services capitalize on user attention scarcity by channeling users' attention toward certain documents and away from others.

Bibliographic metadata
Cataloging is the process of adding an item to a catalog, a process typically including bibliographic description, subject analysis, and classification.

MARC formats
The MARC formats are digital formats for the description of bibliographic items developed by the US Library of Congress during the 1960s to facilitate the creation and dissemination of cataloging between libraries. While the formats were originally created to facilitate printing of paper catalog cards, they are still in use today as the basis for most computerized library catalogs.

Jackie Radebaugh argues that the MARC format will survive in an era of global digital communication. She describes the modifications made to MARC to accommodate different types of materials, to make web addresses accessible from MARC, and to access an online table of contents from the MARC record. MARC 21 is used in many countries of the world today. MARC documentation has been translated into several languages. Current modifications include mapping MARC to a variety of languages together with the Dublin Core, SGML, and XML to adapt MARC to web-based environments. After it has been modified for web use will it still be MARC? Radebaugh quotes one presenter at the 2000 ALA conference who stated that MARC is very much alive. At the same conference Fred Kilgour, the man who championed MARC and is responsible for much of its success, speculated that in the next 30 years Marc will be replaced. In my opinion MARC has been a resilient format, but may be superseded by formats more adaptive to digital environments.

Bibliographic framework (BIBFRAME)
Several expert groups, including the Working Group on the Future of Bibliographic Control and the U.S. RDA Test Coordinating Committee have recommended that the library community implement a new carrier for bibliographic data that replaces the MARC standards. The RDA Test Committee's Final Report suggested that new ways of cataloging are unlikely to yield significant benefits unless they are implemented on top of a new means for capturing and sharing bibliographic data. In other words, many experts believe that the MARC format is holding back the development of better cataloging practices.

The general plan for the new Bibliographic Framework enumerates a list of requirements for the new carrier, which is described as an “environment” rather than a simple “format”. Some of the most noteworthy requirements are that the new environment will support bibliographic description expressed as both textual data and linked data URIs; accommodate RDA, AACR2, DACS, VRA Core, and CCO descriptive rules; and provision for data that support or accompany bibliographic data, such as authority data, holdings data, preservation data, and technical data. The plan also notes that catalogers are likely to interact with the new data carrier on a more abstract level than they currently interact with MARC. BIBFRAME's approach is based on the RDF data model from the Linked Data community, for which a number of query and storage tools have already been developed.

Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records

Historically, cataloging practice has been devoted to describing "books". Early attempts to standardize cataloging practice internationally, such as the 1961 Paris Principles, only addressed the cataloging of printed books. The Paris Principles describe themselves as only being applicable to "catalogues of printed books in which entries under authors' names and, where these are inappropriate or insufficient, under the titles of works are combined in one alphabetical sequence." Even in 1961, libraries offered their patrons materials other than print books, such as periodicals and musical recordings, and the number of formats that library catalogers have been called on to describe has only grown since that time. Contemporary library catalogs may include reference databases, e-books, DVDs, computer software, websites, blogs, audiobooks, digitized archival materials, and countless other resources.

As the number of formats described in library catalogs has grown, the meaning of the term book has become less clear. As Barbara Tillett notes:

When we say the word book in everyday language, we may actually mean several things. For example, when we say book to describe a physical object that has paper pages and a binding and can sometimes be used to prop open a door or hold up a table leg, FRBR calls this an "item." When we say book we also may mean a "publication" as when we go to a bookstore to purchase a book. We may know its ISBN but the particular copy does not matter as long as it's in good condition and not missing pages. FRBR calls this a "manifestation." When we say book as in "who translated that book," we may have a particular text in mind and a specific language. FRBR calls this an "expression." When we say book as in "who wrote that book," we could mean a higher level of abstraction, the conceptual content that underlies all of the linguistic versions, the story being told in the book, the ideas in a person's head for the book. FRBR calls this a "work."

Because of these issues, the cataloging community felt that it was necessary to have a new conceptual model for cataloging that didn't center around the ambiguous book. The Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, or FRBR, was an attempt to clarify this hazy terminology, and to provide a model that was independent of particular cataloging codes and material formats.

FRBR starts with four "Group One Entities": the Work, the Expression, the Manifestation, and the Item. A traditional catalog record combines description at each of these levels, but generally centers around a description at the manifestation level. After defining these Group One Entities, FRBR then continues to define relationships between these entities and each other, as well as with other entities, such as authors, publishers, and other people and corporate bodies (Group Two entities), and topics (Group Three entities).

Like the earlier Paris Principles, FRBR is separate from specific cataloging standards such as AACR2 or International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD). However, the FRBR model has been used to inform new cataloging standards, such as Resource Description and Access (RDA), as well as changes in automated systems and user interfaces.

Classification
To make a Classification system, you need four things:
 * classes, or ways to group objects based on similar characteristics
 * labels for the classes, or ways of expressing these conceptual classes in human language
 * notation, another way to express these classes. Notation helps with automated processes, as well as making things easier for humans.  For example, Dewey Decimal Classification system notates the subject of "Jewish people in Ukraine" as 305.89240477.  This is much easier to shelve and retrieve than the non-notated version, shown below.
 * relationships between classes (these are usually taxonomic, i.e. heirarchical). For example in the example above, Europe stands in a hierarchical relationship with Russia and Eastern Europe

Dewey Decimal Classification
The DDC is in its 23rd edition and is the "world's most widely used classification system." It can be ordered in a four-volume print version, as full WebDewey or an abridged print or web version which is better for smaller collections. Membership includes updates on its web versions quarterly, and a semiannual DDC newsletter, offers to conferences and workshops, OCLC articles and case studies. This website is very simple to use. It is not too complicated and gets to the point if your library has a need for it. It doesn’t have a lot of “bells and whistles” but has what is necessary and is simple to follow. As it pertains to the chapter the information this site provides is a basic source to use when learning about DDC. The Dewey Decimal system is such a huge part of so many libraries it is hard to think of not having such a well structure organizational tool to use.

Information architecture
Information Architecture is a field that started in the 1990’s with the high-tech boom in full force. They are similar to a building architect except they do their designing for a website. An IA (Information Architect) makes up the logical structure of a website. They look at the needs of the users and design the visual and interaction design according to the user experience, making it easier to find information and to work around a site. This also will make it easier to manage the site.

The key concepts that an IA looks at are:
 * organization
 * navigation
 * search
 * labeling
 * controlling

The IA then draws up blueprints and works closely with the technical, graphic, and editorial team members to finish the site. IA Chris Farnum is very knowledgeable and informative in their profession and goes on to explain that there are several ways to find out more about his field through books, seminars and college courses. I like the way that the information has been presented very clearly and explained in detail, and I see a strong need for this type of profession in today’s world of technology. With all of the options and choices of sites out in the World Wide Web, in this day and age, I can see a large need to make your site the most marketable and user-friendly as possible.

Information retrieval
Artificial intelligence has two main applications in information retrieval: organization of application methods, and the design of classification methods. There is no shared terminology between the fields, making it difficult for the two areas to collaborate initially. Linda C. Smith, in her 1976 article "Artificial Intelligence and Information Retrieval," predicts that as artificial intelligence and information retrieval continue to expand there will still need to be an increase in the cognitive ability of the users to discern what has been retrieved from the original search. The other concern for users was the anticipation that in order to use the system, a user would need to be experts to get the desired results. At the time of the article, there was a growing interest in the ability of these retrieval systems to answer questions and retrieve facts, both items we see have come to fruition today in modern search engines used every day. Artificial intelligence was seen to have both short term and long term effects on information retrieval. In the short term, it would modify the results of a current search during a query to meet the user’s current needs. In the long term, it would modify the document representations to improve responses. This article was a follow up to the author’s initial research in 1980. Little had changed in that time as far as attitudes and outlook for the feasibility of using artificial intelligence techniques as practical applications in library science and information retrieval. With hindsight on my side, it is interesting to see that common search engines use the kind of aided searches to find related topics that the author thought only the experts would be able to complete.

The World Wide Web (WWW) is common in school libraries because of its value as an educational tool. Previous research indicates that domain expertise improves online search performance. Other research shows that WWW browsing experience does not play a significant role in achieving a higher efficiency or accuracy level in a search. The authors' study tests fourth-graders' online search performance in relation to how proficient they were in WWW use; the level of domain expertise (Dutch literature) was consistent. The results showed that WWW experts were better than novices at locating Web sites but that WWW experience does not substantially affect how well information is located on a specific Web site. The authors argue that locating Web sites involves more use of search engines, a skill in which the experts are more proficient, but finding information on a Web site generally involves browsing, in which WWW experience is not as important. Although the novices were not true beginners and the experts not professionals, the novices would greatly benefit from courses teaching search skills, such as how to use search engines and Boolean operators. I think that instruction in determining the relevance and validity of search results is just as important as search skills, but the article does not address this. However, judging relevance depends on the user's knowledge of a subject that school librarians are not often responsible for teaching. A good relationship among teachers, school librarians, and the WWW must emerge for students to receive the best possible education.

Information science has at its core the concept of “Relevance”, which is a subjective notion. Relevance is defined broadly as a measurement of the effectiveness of an exchange or contact of information between a source and a user, all based on the differing views of what constitutes effective communication. This concept is the basis for how entire information retrieval systems are designed and utilized. There are many differing views on what this means, but all of them are somewhat related and interconnected regardless of how they are defined or utilized. The author describes in great detail, the framework for these differing views and the underlying philosophies behind each concept of what constitutes effective communication. He argues that all of these differing constructs are incomplete, (yet correct); depending on where one starts their examination of the communication process. He ends his paper with an appropriate call for more study on the subject. His paper is a recap of the opposing arguments of three decades ago, but in fact is more important now than ever before, as new information systems come on line and into being (the Internet, the electronic database, funding for collections, etc.), and are all based on an incomplete definition of “effective communication”.

The Semantic Web, RDF, and linked data

Eric Miller and Ralph Swick describe the Semantic Web as "an extension of the current Web in which the meaning of information is clearly and explicitly linked from the information itself, better enabling computers and people to work in cooperation."

The Semantic Web is a stack of technologies that seeks to convert the current Web, which is full of unstructured and semi-structured documents, into a "web of data" where documents are all available in machine-readable formats as well as human-readable ones. Semantic Web enthusiasts argue that this abundance of machine-readable formats will allow both human users and automated technologies to find, share, and combine information more easily.

The Semantic Web fosters and encourages greater data reuse by making it available for purposes not planned or conceived by the data provider. Suppose you want, for example, to locate news articles published in the previous month about companies headquartered in cities with populations under 500,000 or to compare the stock price of a company with the weather at its home base or to search online product catalogs for an equivalent replacement part for something. The information may be there in the Web, but currently only in a form that requires intensive human processing.

A key resource for current work with RDF is DBpedia, an effort to extract RDF data from the Wikipedia project. An example of a typical DBpedia record can be seen at http://dbpedia.org/page/Audre_Lorde, a human-language description of Audre Lord, a "black lesbian feminist mother poet warrior," who also worked as a librarian. This exact same information is available in a machine readable format at the URI http://dbpedia.org/data/Audre_Lorde. For every URI for humans in the format http://dbpedia.org/page/Topic, there is a URI for machines in the format http://dbpedia.org/data/Topic, which expresses the exact same data. Notice also that all of the properties and many of their values are links that you can click on. Most of these links are also available in machine-readable formats, which means that a machine could follow these links repeatedly to integrate information about Audre Lorde from numerous sources.

Miller and Hillmann, in order to make sense of the semantic (contextual) web, describe the makeup of the web: semantics, structure, and syntax. Semantics refers to the context of information and its meaning. The structure encompasses how the information is organized, and the syntax is how the semantics and structure are communicated. EXtensible Markup Language (XML) deals with the syntax, and Resource Description Format (RDF) is what enables the structure. Libraries are best equipped to embrace XML and RDF to address cataloging and web-based interfaces to share information. It is their responsibility to utilize traditional models (MARC) and current developments (XML and RDF) to control their information and provide usable interfaces for patrons. The article is succinct and straightforward, and the authors' attempts to decode these swirling acronyms should be commended. However, from a layperson's perspective, these are still difficult concepts to wrap one’s head around. Miller and Hillmann are concerned that libraries’ focus is too narrow to meet the needs of patrons. Now that the semantic web has greater possibilities, libraries should include items usually forgotten such as older journals or sound files. This is very postmodern indeed. As exciting as this is (to see the inclusion of items generally left out of a library’s domain), I wonder at this feasibility in a public library. How prepared are public librarians to learn these new languages? Patrons are ready to see their public library as a resource not just for books and Internet access, but are libraries ready to deliver?

Knowledge management
Knowledge Management is an outgrowth of data and information management. Increased competition and a mobile workforce with analytical skills and reduced loyalty to the organization make the concept of knowledge management and retention, appealing to managers.

Knowledge Management (KM), once the sole domain of the corporate world, is now necessary to many information disciplines. Information professionals need an understanding of what makes KM effective. This understanding begins with knowledge as an ever-changing entity, made up of human experiences, emotions, and senses. Scholars have identified knowledge to include the tacit (internal) and the explicit (manifestations of the internal). Organizations have developed KM systems to facilitate both tacit and explicit knowledge, and the sharing of the two, through discussion, training, team-building, etc. The author contends that (despite critics’ assessment that KM is incapable of a process so subjective and human) examples abound from the corporate world where KM has maximized profitability, innovation, etc. Based on these examples, the author stresses principles to guide effective KM. These include an environment dedicated to valuing individual experience and open communication as a means to share and learn; using technology to accommodate knowledge (emphasizing currency, accessibility, etc.); and an understanding that KM requires a rooting in both the tacit and explicit forms of knowledge. The fluidity of knowledge is well-developed. However, how this evolving knowledge affects KM is illustrated by examples solely from the realm of corporate organizations. If KM is increasing in scope beyond the traditional organizations, there is a surprising lack of even anecdotal evidence in new, information-based environments. The implications given for information professionals are a rehashing of the models that have served corporations. It is unclear how KM, armed with a sense of the dynamic and human nature of knowledge, will look different in an information-based environment. This article would be better served if it distinguished how effective KM would look, feel, and operate under the expanding information professions versus the traditional corporate model.

David Blair contends that early attempts to manage knowledge failed because they attempted to improve or replace human decision making. Knowledge management does not replace human decision making but facilitates it. Experts are part of the system. The author persuasively argues that data and information management offer limited returns to an organization and that artificial intelligence projects and systems without human experts have not proven successful. The author contends that knowledge management requires “communities of practice,” a culture in which experts share knowledge with novices. Additionally, a wide variety of informative media must be available through technology to support Knowledge Management. Knowledge workers require strong critical thinking skills and the ability to find and evaluate information from a variety of sources.

The greatest challenges to implementing knowledge management are creating an organizational culture that facilitates the sharing of knowledge, the treatment of tacit knowledge and the legal issues concerning the nature of intellectual property. The author contends that though tacit knowledge may be inexpressible, rules-of-thumb and "best practices", case studies of problems and methods of resolution can provide experts with the knowledge to make informed decisions.

Some aspects of Knowledge Management have already been implemented. The Knowledge management is one of many emerging information technologies that organizations employ to remain competitive.

The politics of information organization
Sanford Berman's Prejudices and Antipathies

Hope Olson's The Power to Name


text:
Talk:PHP Programming/Why Templating

I think the criticism about using external template libraries when php their are some good arguments against it should be included. Criticism against template libraries include: php is arguably a template language on its own. Secondly a template system's goal should be to seperate business logic from presentation logic which can be done with css their goal should NOT be to seperate php from presentation logic finally is their added overhead worth the trouble?

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:PHP Programming/Why Templating


text:
Harmonica/Basic Holding and Playing a Harmonica

How to hold harmonica
For all harmonicas, the lower number should be on your left. If your harmonica does not have numbering system (usually in the case of East Asia Tremolo), the lowest note should be on your left. I personally have noticed that the cup would be most effecicent when it's formed around the higher register. This also have the benefit of forming a tighter cup, as little to no air will be leaked from that corner. The other corner matters less, since the lower register typically sounds full by itself. Thus, some players will let the cupping right hand cover the entire higher register of the harp: the entire cup will cover the right face of the harp (especially over the corner opening), while the thumb blocks the holes to prevent air loss, as well as providing a tight fit between the cheek and the cup.
 * 1) Diatonic
 * 2) Hold the body of the harmonica in the left hand between the thumb and index finger. The three remaining fingers will then be curved slightly, to form a small resonating space.
 * 3) Place the flat of your right hand over the harmonica (not the mouthpiece side!), and enclose it, forming a tight cup. Optimally, the cup should form a large resonating space.
 * 4) Tremolo
 * 5) With the left hand, hold the harmonica somewhere around the left of the center. If one has the strength, hold the harmonica with the thumb and index finger, and let the three remaining fingers curl together to form a resonating space.
 * 6) With the right hand, hold the harmonica somewhere around the right of the center. If one has the strength, hold the harmonica with the thumb and index finger, and let the three remaining fingerscurl together to form a resonating space. The fingertips of both hands should touch each other, while the palms face each other. Some players also recommended crossing the fingers to ensure a good resonation is formed, but this may hinder the movement of the harmonica.
 * 7) Chromatic There are quite a few variants for holding a chromatic. One is a deviation of the diatonic hold, using the right thumb to work the slide button. This is particularly used by Blues player, which often play Chromatic in 3rd position only. The other popular variant is very similar:
 * 8) With the left hand, hold the harmonica somewhere around the left of the center with the thumb, index and middle fingers.
 * 9) Then twist your right hand along the wrist, so that the fingers point to a two o'clock position and palm facing up. Place the right palm at the bottom of the harmonica (usually set right below the left thumb) and wrap all the fingers except the index fingers around the harmonica. If done properly, the right wrist will form a right angle. Your index finger will be touching the slide button, and will always be touching there, regardless if you use the button or not. If it's a 16-hole variant, hold it in similar manner, except your cup will be located closer to the center. Alternatively, break up the cup.

Embouchure
While a player can always widen their mouth over several holes (usually at the physical limit of five) and play chords and intervals all the time, the music usually sounds better when the melody is played one note at a time; while intervals may sound great for most beginner songs (usually written in the key of C or G, easily played on a key of C harmonica) as it "thickens" the sound, songs that are just slightly more advanced will sound weird if the interval is done improperly.

In order to play single notes, numerous kinds of embouchure (mouth shape) are most commonly used:

Standard Tongue block
This embouchure is favored by many skilled players, as there are many effects that can only be done by using tongue block, and, in fact, necessary for jazz and classical playing. Simply put, it involves stretching the mouth over about four to five holes, and then using the tongue to block the holes.

This is the most difficult embouchure, but there are many methods of achieving it.

A few useful tips that will help greatly:
 * 1) Bring the harmonica deep in your mouth. If the mouthpiece hasn’t penetrated past the front teeth, you need to open your mouth wider and get the whole front of the harp pushed further back in the mouth. This has two effects: it gives you a fuller sound, and allows your breath access to several holes.
 * 2) Tilt the harmonica so that the mouthpiece is tilted downward; that way, you can use more of the tongue to block, and you will find the technique less tiring.
 * 3) Push the tongue to the harmonica. Don’t use the tip of your tongue to block the holes - instead, press it to your lower front teeth and gently push the tongue forward so that the top of your tongue contacts the harmonica. This will allow smooth transitions as you move from hole to hole.
 * 4) After you place your stretched mouth over the holes, jerk the tongue to the left on higher octaves, and to the right on lower octaves - then place the tongue over the holes, such that only one hole is opened for air. If you have problems doing both sides, try jerking the tongue to the left only.
 * If it seems like you are making more than one sound, either press the tongue wider on the harp, or narrow your lips.

 * Advantage
 * Allows playing of octaves, side-pull, pull, slap, self accompaniment, and many other techniques
 * Allows legato and fast phrasing
 * Louder volume; Lips can create higher pressure on the harmonica, which can create higher pressure in the cavity of the mouth.
 * Allow changing tonal quality through manipulation of oral cavity
 * Allow longer playing; tongue block allow air flow into the mouth

 * Disadvantage
 * Harder to bend with the tongue (but not impossible, if one can control airflow properly)
 * Harder to utilize free-tongue specific techniques (such as singing into the harp)

Pucker
This is probably the instinctive single-note playing most players adapted: the lips narrowed to a small hole, so that the breath was directed into one hole at a time.
 * Advantage:
 * Learning curve is small (as said above, instinctive embouchure)
 * Frees up the tongue for many other Blues-oriented effects, such as bending, tongue vibrato, and singing into the harp
 * Good for very short staccato passages
 * Disadvantage:
 * Difficult to play legato, since it actually involves moving the entire harmonica from side to side.
 * Lack or surplus of air can only be maintained through the nose.

Lip Block
In blues, a different lip block is used:
 * 1) Stretch your mouth across approximately 3-4 holes
 * 2) Tilt the rear of the harmonica upward (or tilt the mouthpiece-side downward) so that the lower lip touches the comb, which should properly block the non-playing holes on both sides of the current hole.
 * 3) Upper lip should be on top of the upper cover plate.
 * Advantage:
 * Same as pucker, but allows for even more throat techniques (e.g. throat vibrato) and bending (as now you can also use your lips to control the embouchure)
 * Disadvantage:
 * Same as pucker, plus difficult to control the proper tone, since bending is not very easy.
 * Not as loud since it's easy for the lower lip to get in the way, quieting the reeds.

U-Block
A complementation option require much greater dexterity on the tongue; curl your tongue into a "U", and use it to direct the airflow to the holes. The U-block should be used mainly as a complement of the tongue block, as it allows rapid switching of notes that lies between the two outermost notes.
 * Advantage
 * provide fast speed when moving up and down the harmonica
 * Disadvantage
 * Require much more concentration; if one did not focus enough, there will be no airflow toward the hole.
 * Require throat bending
 * Unable to utilize tongue block specific techniques.

Playing (and proper way to breathe)
Quite a lot of people, particularly those that just bought a harmonica, will just blow into the holes. Remember that the Harmonica uses airflow in both directions to play notes! Try it! Hear the notes that are played with in each airflow direction! (If it sounds weird, don't worry: we will come back to it later.)

The key point is to breathe from the diaphragm. That is, you need to breathe past the chest and into your lungs; your stomach, not your chest, should be the one that expands and contracts as you breathe. Also, you don't need to breathe hard; just breathe like you usually do.

Vocalizing
One unique way to modify the sound of the harmonica is by singing or speaking into it. The following lists a few words/methods to try:
 * Words
 * RU, DU, TU,
 * HUY
 * Ta, Da, Ka, Ga
 * Ya, Gya, Tya, Kya - a bend that was released quickly, good for grace notes
 * Dow, Gow - make a note start natural before bending it slightly
 * Pit - good for really short notes
 * Toil - produce an echo-like effect
 * Too-wee - for producing a train whistle style note
 * Other
 * Cough


text:
Harmonica/Basic Chords

All diatonics, tremolo, and chromatics are capable of true chords (i.e. all the notes sounded at the same time); however, the chords may not be appropriate for the music you are playing.

Diatonics are specifically designed with chording in mind, and such, it lacks the 4th, 6th, and 7th notes in the bottom octave. As such, the chords available are the following: European Tremolos also have the same number of chords available.
 * Straight harp:
 * I chord, all on blows holes 1-3, 4-6, 7-9.
 * ii chord, on draw hole 4-6
 * V chord, on draw hole 2-4
 * V7 chord, on draw hole 2-5
 * vii° chord, on draw hole 3-5
 * Cross harp:
 * I chord, on draw hole 2-4
 * I7 chord, on draw hole 2-5
 * iii° chord, on draw hole 3-5
 * IV chord, all on blows holes 1-3, 4-6, 7-9.
 * v chord, on draw hole 4-6
 * Third position
 * I-major on draw hole 4-6
 * IV-major on draw hole 2-4

Chromatics, which usually is played in the key of C, have the following chords available: East Asian Tremolos also have the same number of chords available.
 * I chord, all on blow hole 1-3, 5-7, 9-11
 * ii chord, all on draw hole 1-3, 5-7, 9-11
 * vii7-minor chord, all on draw hole 4-7 and 8-11

Of course, one can attempt to bring about more chords with bending techniques; this is especially common in cross-harp playing.

title: Harmonica/Basic Chords


text:
User:Karl Wick/Highlighted books

Highlighted books: Cell Bio, Trig, US History, UK Constitution and Government, Spanish, Chinese, German, High School Extentions (Math), High School Physics, Physics Study Guide, How To Build A Computer, Ada Programming, Blender 3D, Chess, Consciousness Studies, Lucid Dreaming, Just for Kids: The Solar System, Big Cats

title: User:Karl Wick/Highlighted books


text:
Harmonica/Ensemble Playing

Simple notes of performing
Let's just state this: depending on the situation, the harmonica player is either the most important thing in the ensemble, or a sound effects engineer that no one cares about.

That being said, there are a few other things to make note of:
 * If the audience suddenly gets an uncomfortable, pained look, it is possible that you've just played a "significant" wrong note. Since what's done is done, just focus on continuing. There are two solutions:
 * Play the rest correctly.
 * Next time around, play it wrong again, but adjust the sound such that it will mesh well and louder. The audience will think it's just an innovative improvising.
 * Do not drink alcohol; in fact, drink lots of water.
 * No, I am not a teetotaler, but I found that my mouth gets really dry if I start drinking, which is very bad in terms of harp playing. If you can live with whatever tone you produce with your dry mouth, that's fine, but for optimal performance, keep your mouth wet, by drinking water (or chinese tea, which works just as well). After the gig is done (or you know you will not do any more harmonica parts) drink beer by all means (but be responsible!).
 * On the other hand, some people dislike having so much saliva clogging the reeds.

General Rules of Playing with Others
One of the greatest problems for the harmonicist, especially with blue harp players, is that they quite often "step on toes" of other musicians. While with a few other musicians it amounts to nothing more than a contempt for harp, 90% of the time it is true: Since some of the blues harpists have not learnt music theory, and thus, are unable to communicate with other musicians well. Also, since most blues harp players only know the 12-bar blues, if the playing slightly deviates from 12-bar, blues harp players are usually lost, even if they are told of the chord. Lastly, they are only able to solo, and thus, cannot accompany others well.

As an old Zen koan stated, "No more tea can go in a full cup unless you empty it; no one can show you zen until you empty your past thoughts." This is true here: to be able to play harp well with others, you must be willing to accept that not everyone can accept harmonica, and not everyone is willing to accept blues—-this means, don't be a whiner stating "Well, they can play what they want; I will play my style." it is exactly this attitude that encourages harp players to step on others, and also made others feel that te harmonica is a toy. The key point of playing in a group is to work together, such that the overall music delivered is beautiful. One will have to make compromises somewhere down the road.

Now that we are ready for a new cup of tea, let's begin with an analysis of a music group's composition. No matter what kind of music it is, be it baroque or rock, musical groups typically have two sections: the rhythm section, and the melody section. The melody section can be compared to a line sketch of a drawing: they are the parts that clearly outline the song, though by itself, it's usually "bland". This is where the rhythm section comes in: to make it sound more colorful, just like a paint brush that makes the picture beautiful.

Harmonica can fill both jobs, depending on the situation. However, in most typical situations, especially for the blues harp, harmonica is to be played more as an accompaniment. Even for chromatic, sometimes its job would be closer to either the second violin or the viola. Until people can actually see that the harmonica has great potentials, we have to follow these guidelines, by supporting them. It's not how much you play, but how you play.

Aside from playing the actual notes for accompaniment (aka: playing the appropriate chords with soloing), another great way to ensure one does not overstep other musicians is to play loudly but softly. Sounds like an oxymoron, but easy to do: all it takes is cupping the hands appropriately, and breath properly. If you are using the mike, it's even easier, as you can adjust the volume.

For details as to how to play for certain style, see Music Style

Duet
Simply put, duet is either a performance with two harmonica players, or a harmonica accompanied by another instrument, usually piano. However, unlike other ensemble playing, in duets, both instruments are equally important; more appropriately, they are both leads, and thus when performed properly, there should not be one that plays solo (playing the melody) while the other play accompaniment (chords only or rhythm only). In most case, the most common harmonica used is chromatics, while diatonics or tremolos may be used (and again, depend on where one located; it's rare for diatonic duets in East Asia, while it's equally rare for tremolo in North America).

Trios, quartet, and Quintet
The trio is one of the most common harmonica ensembles, having been popularized by the Harmonicats and the Adler trio. Like many music groups composed of three members, each member of the trio is responsible for a "dimension" of the music: melody, the horizontal movement of the music; harmony, the vertical dimension of the music, that makes the music much richer than melody alone; and rhythm, the timing of the piece. Thus, usually, there are these three categories of harmonicas: Of course, some may prefer to play in the style of duet. In that case, most will use the chromatic harmonica. This is especially common in recent years, with orchestral harmonicas more rare and expensive and decreasing numbers of harmonica players, making traditional trios more difficult.
 * Chromatic harmonica: responsible for melody in the trio. Sometimes, however, additional chromatics are responsible for playing additional notes or harmonics.
 * Chord harmonica: Used to play chords and rhythm. However, due to the rarity of the chord harmonica, some may instead use appropriate diatonics, tremolos, or octave harmonicas for such tasks.
 * Bass harmonica: Used to enhance the rhythm and the contour of the music, and thus make the music even richer. Again, due to the rarity of this instrument in North America, sometimes the trio may use harmonicas that are tuned close to bass octaves (low-octave harmonicas, for example).

Small Ensemble
Usually defined to have six to fifteen players, and usually play chamber musics in small ensemble competitions. However, such rigid definition actually made small ensembles quite difficult to play. First and foremost, most "small ensemble" pieces are chamber music, which is designed for quintet at most, and even when stretched to include more people, the music pieces are usually for nine people. Thus, it's quite often to have the additional players to play same parts as others, and thus decrease the closeness and coordination inherited in chamber music. Additionally, due to the limited category and ability of harmonicas, sme particular parts of the music may be enhenced so much that it decreased the other parts, affecting the overall result of the music. Sometimes, small ensembles may even accept non-harmonicas: usually they are not responsible for the main melody, but for some other purpose. In any case, the question of whether the group is a small ensemble depends not on the instrument departments, but the number of players within. Like Trio performance, the most optimal small ensemble playing would utilize an appropriate amount of chromatics, chords, and basses, but in nowadays it's common to just have everyone play chromatics. Diatonics is rare, while East Asian tremolos are used sometime for the unique tonal quality.

Large ensemble (Orchestra)
Due to the large number of players available, almost all kinds of harmonicas can be used, depend on the piece. In general, the harmonicas to be used are chromatics, chord, bass, and horns; however, when used to designate the appropriate parts for the pieces, they used the tonal range of the music and instrument instead: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. In Asian ensembles, they would use the appropriate horn harmonica for such purpose. Of course, like many ensemble playing, there are usually other instruments involved, such as percussions, in order to enhance a certain aspect of the piece. All these aspect ultimately fall upon not on the performer, but the arranger who modified a certain piece in order to be more suited for harmonica assembles. Still, playing in a harmonica ensemble help introduce amateurs into the world of ensemble playing, and enhance the community sense among the players.

title: Harmonica/Ensemble Playing


text:
Harmonica/Learning Songs

You can learn songs easily if you have sheet music for the song you are trying to learn (e.g. tab books, fake books). One way is to try playing the song part by part. When learning a song, it is recommended that you have a drum-machine or metronome in order to allow remain within rhythm.

If the song is too fast, play it with a slower tempo — extremely slow if need be. When you can play it flawlessly, increase the tempo until you begin to stumble. Repeat until you can play the song at a rate you are content with.

Songs can also be learned "by ear", with no sheet music. This can be done in a variety of ways, for instance first transcribing the sheet music for yourself, or by simply picking up the instrument and trying to match what is played. Knowledge of music theory is particularly helpful for this method.

There are many harmonica tab sites out there, abeit in Chinese and more often then not for tremolos. One is Yellowstone, a Taiwanese website. A good site that contain tabs for blue harmonicas is Jimmy's Harp (Hong Kong). Also, Gelnn Weiser's Harmonica website have many good arrangements.

However, I believe that to learn a piece properly for a long term, it's best to do it with sheet music, WITHOUT tabs. That way, one will be forced to learn to read the sheet music.

One way I found useful is fake books. They only come in melody lines, but for harmonica it is a non-factor. It usually comes with AT LEAST 100 songs, and maybe more, for around $25.00 USD. Numerous style is available, from blues to jazz to rock to even classical. There are a few ones that I found to be good:
 * The Real Book, which is a series of de facto jazz fake book.
 * Classical Fake Book, good for learning classical music.
 * The Performer's Complete Fake Book: Unlike other fake books, it is hard covered, and it also contain many songs from the fifties and sixties, as well as standards. A good book if you can only buy one fake book and cannot make up your mind.
 * Ultimate Christmas Fake Book: Good for the holidays; plenty of contemporary Christmas songs
 * Reader's Digest Merry Christmas Songbook" less songs, but have more selection for traditional material.

Amazon have good price on these fake books. Another method is to go to Mutopia project and get those sheet music, which is more complete (with chords and accompaniment). The style available are usually classical, though some jazz is available. You just have to print them out yourself.

A few things to keep note when practicingsheet music:
 * 1) Check the clef sign, time signature, key signature, and tempo of the music. Also, see if there's any other notation you do not understand, and try to understand them.
 * 2) Check to see if there's any changes in time signature, key signature, and tempo.
 * 3) Check for any repeats in the song, as well as bridges and jumps. This way, you can get a feel of the flow of the song.
 * 4) If you know the song, use what you know as part of your guideline. if you have the CD, listen to it to understand how the song is played.
 * 5) Go through the entire song a few times to familize it.
 * 6) If a difficult section, something that you do not understand, or even an error due to playing is encountered, go through it roughly and move on, then to repeat again and again: the overall of the song is more important.
 * 7) Once those are done, identify the difficult sections, and practice them.
 * 8) Once you are familiar with the song, see if you can play it without the sheet music.

Other ways to improve your harmonica talents:
 * Lay off the tobacco. Harmonica and bad lung do not mix, unless you only play music at 60 bpm.
 * Watch others play. Notice what they have to pay attention to and what seems like magic.
 * Practice arbitrary scale runs. Go up and or down 3 or 4 notes and then move up the scale with the same interval.
 * Jam up with friends who are better than you as frequently as possible
 * Get some friends along who are at the same skill level and form a band of your own
 * Do some breathing practice; you will want to be able to change breath directions quickly, and easily.
 * Listen to your favorite music and try to envision what the player is doing to make the notes come out as they do.
 * Listen to different music. It may open your mind to techniques and phrasing you never imagined using before.  It may also expand your musical library.  Pick any genre you're not familiar with.  Get a feel for the timing and note choice.  Into acoustic folk music?  Try bluegrass.  Headbanger?  Pick up some jazz or blues.  Then move on to your hero's heroes.  Find out what musical influences got Jimmy, Jimi, B.B., or C.C. primed for stardom. Also, listen to music from other places in the world, especially from Asia: the visual kei (Japan), for example, combined the fast beat of metal with the elegance of classical.

Other Reference: ilearnmusic.com

Trsnscribed from Guitar:learning songs

title: Harmonica/Learning Songs


text:
Harmonica/Improvising

Improvisation, or improv, boils down to having a basic knowledge of music theory and some moderate amount of talent or skill. Musicians often have jam sessions where friends play anything that tickles their fancy. It can be done in any situation, but for our purposes we will consider mostly the context of improvisation within a jam session.

Improvising 101
Unlike other wind instruments, Harmonica can play true chords easily, as well as some "fake chords" (properly speaking, intervals that suggest chords) and aggrepio chords. Also, Harmonica can play melody with self accompaniment, especially on European Tremolos and Diatonics, where the self accompaniment is a true chord. As such, one can improvise easily around chord progression, or around the melody of the song.

There is also a basic approach to improvising which is more simple than playing over a chord accompaniment. It also predates Western tuning systems and chords. It is produced by playing a moving melody on one higher-pitched note, while leaving a lower note ringing as a drone. This can be done on harmonica by combining techniques of octave and embouchure-variation techniques such that one note stay as drone while the other become melody. Best note to use as drone in a Blues harp is the fifth note of the harmonica's key; this is because the note exist in both the second-hole draw and third-hole blow, allowing the drone exist for the entire duration. For chromatic, one can only do it on a classical-tuned, with drone as the first note of the key.

Other methods are using slaps, pull, side-pull, pull-slaps, and other self-accompaniment techniques. Of course, it's going to sound different from the drone, as the self accompaniment notes varies, and also follow along the melodic note as you played. This, however, still sound rich (and some even to say much richer than drones), creating both simple harmonic and melodic motion. It can be heard in many musical styles in both Eastern and Western musical traditions.

This technique can be found both within Western tuning systems which use 12 semitones per octave as well as beyond in more complex Eastern tuning systems. Therefore before attempting to improvise a solo over a chord progression or a series of chords in a particular key, it is useful to practice playing simple two-hole intervals as melodies to familiarize your ear. Another advantage of this is that with each pair of notes you play, different intervals are sounded. Your ear begins to detect these and this is a basic form of ear training.

Staying in the right key
Suppose you are playing in a jam session and are playing with a rhythm section. When playing with two instruments that are improvising you will have your rhythm guitarist play a set run in a certain key. For example, the rhythm guitarist might be playing a three chord blues riff in the key of B minor. You can often figure out the key that is being played by ear based on the first chord played. If you were to play a small solo, you should stick to a B minor scale such as the B minor blues scale. Any style of scale — modal, pentatonic, etc. — can be used and each one will give a different flavor to your improvisation. For example, the Phrygian mode has traditionally been the "Spanish scale".

Listen
The key to improvisation is to listen to the interplay of the rest of the instruments, and to add to that whatever sounds best. This is, unfortunately, a very neglected practice among beginning musicians, and, really, musicians of all stripes in general.

A common tendency, especially among those who have just begun to get a solid foundation in scale theory and technique, is to noodle around up and down on the mouthpiece aimlessly with little or no regard for the shape of the song that is being played or the structure of the arrangement. This is a mistake, and it leads to music that no one wants to listen to; worse yet, it quickly runs out, and does nothing to develop the musician who plays it.

Listen to the music that is being played around you. Add to it only when it is necessary. You should begin to hear the lines that you want to play before you play them. What you are shooting here is something akin to the old koan about sculpting: the figure is already in the marble, and you are just trying to release it.

It is also important to make sure that you do not take up too much "space" in the arrangement, which is to say, do not play so loudly that other instruments must fight to be heard.

Guidlines of Jam sessions
In theory, Jam sessions is nothing more than a practice session to practice improvisions, and thus, should play whatever sounds good.

In practice, what sounds good differs from one session to another.

Reference from Guitar:Improvising

title: Harmonica/Improvising


text:
User:LezChap~enwikibooks

Uhm...yeah...

title: User:LezChap~enwikibooks


text:
Game Maker Programming/Tough Topics

The purpose of this module is to allow more experienced students of Game Maker to write about how they solved specific problems for the benefit of others who might be struggling with the same (or similar) problem.

Tough Topics are not necessarily advanced topics. They can be anything that took you a long time to figure out, regardless of how basic or advanced the feature or operation.

= Please Contribute = If something about Game Maker or GML has stumped you for a while, why not write about it here? How do you make objects fall(in a platform game)in a way so that they rotate when they collide onto another object?

Structure
As with all wikibooks, the structure of this module will undoubtedly evolve over time. Experience has shown that people generally do better when given a sample structure to follow, with the freedom to invent any structure they wish. Over time, users will modify the structure of any page to what works best. As a help, here is a sample structure to follow for Tough Topics:

What I was attempting to do: What did not work: What worked:

As already stated, feel free to use any structure that works for you.

= Concepts =

This is not intended to be a rewrite of the Game Maker Manual. But there are some Tough Topics that new (and experienced) programmers have problems with. Concepts that are confusing or difficult to grasp should be described here.

Objects and Instances
Programs (games) created with Game Maker are designed with the principles of "Object Oriented Programming".

The three pillars of Object Oriented design are polymorphism, encapsulation, and inheritance, which are topics for another wiki page. However, all of these ideas are made possible by the idea of organizing the design of a complex program into "Objects". From an object, instances of that object are created and used base on the object's defined methods and properties.

Put quite simply, objects are basically a template for instances that are created from that template. Items that you see on screen while playing a game, for example, are "instances" of those objects.

An object can be thought of as a template or a recipe for how to create an instance. In general object oriented programming, an object has methods and properties. Method are the actions that an object can perform. If our object is a car, it would have methods like:

* Start * Speed up  * Slow Down * Turn left * Turn Right * Back up

Each of these methods would be accompanied by a method definition, explaining in detail the steps required for the object to perform that action.

The properties of an object are simply descriptions of the object. For example

* Color * Size * Year * Make * Model

OBJECT DEFINITION OF A CAR
So when we define the object "car" we would say, "Let there be an object of type 'car'. Each car has its own color, size, year, make, and model. Furthermore, each car can start, speed up, slow down, turn left, turn right, and back up".

CREATING INSTANCES OF OBJECT "CAR"
Here is where we start using the object in our world. To create an instance of a car, we say "Give me a car. The car will be red, the car will be small in size, and from 1982. Call the make of this car 'mycarcompany', and call the model of this car 'SuperSpeedy'".

We would be handed a car with the desciprtion given, and would now have generated one instance of the object "car". Since all cars are created from the car object, the car would also come with the pre-defined ability to start, speed up, slow down, turn right, turn left, and back up, as defined in the "car" object (template).

Now we could say, "Give me a car. The car will be blue, the car will be large in size, and from 2010. Call the make of this car 'SuperCompany', and call the model of this car 'FasterCarNumberOne'".

At this point, we would have two INSTANCES of the OBJECT "car". The term "instance" comes from the fact that we are instanciating the object "car".

Another way of saying this is that from the recipe (object) of how to make a car, we have created (instanciated) two cars; we now have two instances of the object "car".

Advanced: Each instance is given its own instance ID when created. Using an instance's unique ID gives the designer the ability to directly reference a particular instance of the object, for example, when many instances have been created and there is a desire to reference just one of them, instead of all the instances that were created from the object.

Action or Event?
In the Game Maker program, Events are displayed in the center of the object Properties box. Actions are dragged and dropped into the Events of the object.

An event is really a message that is given to an instance of an object in the game. Whenever the event takes place the actions that you placed in the event are performed. This produces the behavior for the instances of the object.

= Common Problems =

Problems with Game Maker Program
This section will deal with some problems people have when learning to use Game Maker. Error messages might also be discussed in this section.

My computer locks up, hangs, or freezes

 * 1) Are you using a while statement anywhere?
 * While statement is a common cause for system hangs. If the while loop does not finish (infinite loop) the computer will freeze up.

I click on an icon in the Object Properties, but nothing happens

 * 1) Icons on the right side of the Object Properties menu are meant to be dragged and dropped into an Event.
 * 2) Right-clicking on an icon will also add it to the Event.

Object Getting Stuck
Lots of times a moving object gets "stuck" on a wall or other non-moving object.

 * 1) For moving items, set the "solid" flag to false.
 * 2) For stationary items, set the "solid" flag to true.
 * 3) (Platformer Only) For the moving object under the collision event with the wall check if there is an object(wall) just under the moving object, if so set the vspeed to zero.
 * 4) (Platformer Only) Now check if there is an object(wall) just left of the moving object, if so set the hspeed to zero, do the same if there is an object(wall) just right of the moving object.

Object Falls Through Floor
Moving items should not be set to solid. The problem is that non-solid objects tend to fall through the floor, or sometimes pass through walls when you don't want them to.
 * 1) Create a non-transparent sprite either the same size or a little smaller than the object.
 * 2) In the object properties box go to ‘Mask’ and choose that sprite.

Object Appears in the Upper Left Corner of Room

 * 1) Make sure the object's "Relative" flag is set to true.

Strings and Numbers
Whenever I want to display a message, concatenate strings or add variables, I get the message, "Wrong type of arguments to +."
 * 1) Make sure you're not adding a string to a number and vice versa in the "Set Variable" dialogue box.

Step Event Problems
Whatever is in the Step Event will happen every step. So be careful what you put in there.

Do NOT put these in the Step Event (or at least be very careful if you do...):
 * Timelines
 * Drawing Sprites
 * Sounds
 * Creating Instances

In order to avoid issues that can happen by using the following actions in Step Event, you may want to add a chance action. If you do not take precaution when you test with the following actions, It can cause lag. And if severe enough, can crash your computer.

Object is not visible
What might be happening: When you create a new object, Game Maker draws the sprite you choose to represent the object. However, whenever you add a Draw Event to the object, any action you put in the Draw Event overrides the normal drawing for that object.
 * 1) Make sure the "visible" flag is set to true.
 * 2) The Draw a Sprite action must be located in the 'Draw Event'.
 * or
 * 1) A script in the 'Draw Event' must have the function:

Text not visible

 * 1) The First Rule of drawing text:
 * There are only TWO places you can put DRAW actions.
 * * The DRAW event (draw actions simply ignored elsewhere)
 * * A SCRIPT (but NOT a "Execute a piece of code" action, it too, must be located in the DRAW event)

 * 1) The Second Rule of drawing text:
 * Only drawn when the instance is flagged as VISIBLE

Mouse and Keyboard Problems

 * 1) What's the difference between: Left Button, Left Button Press, and Left Button Release?
 * Left Button - action keeps going as long as button held down.
 * Left Button Pressed - happens once only.
 * Left Button Release - happens one time only when button released.
 * 1) When I click my mouse to end the game, it frequently (or always) activates something on my Windows desktop.
 * Set your End Game action to be activated by a mouse button Release. That way your click won't be passed to the desktop as your Game closes.
 * 1) I want to use my mouse to do something when I right click anywhere on the screen, but nothing happens!
 * Make sure you set your mouse click Event to Global mouse.

title: Game Maker Programming/Tough Topics


text: User talk:203.51.88.103

title: User talk:203.51.88.103


text:
User talk:203.14.53.46

This IP address, owned by the Western Australian Department of Education and Training, is notorious for vandalizing Wikipedia. See w:User talk:203.14.53.46. Dstudent 12:39, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

Warnings
Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Derbeth (talk • contribs).

Please stop. If you continue to vandalize pages, you will be blocked from editing Wikibooks. Brian New Zealand 07:03, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

--Derbeth talk 08:07, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Blocked
If you wish to contribute to Wikibooks, please create an account at home and log in with it here.

Due to persistent vandalism, editing by anonymous users from your school or institution's IP address is currently disabled. If you are logged in but still unable to edit, please contact an administrator and they will do their best to remove the autoblock. To prevent abuse, account creation via this address is probably also disabled.--Az1568(Talk) 03:28, 14 February 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:203.14.53.46


text:
User:TakuyaMurata/Analysis on complex manifolds

Sheaf theory
We say $$\mathcal{F}$$ is a pre-sheaf on a topological space $$X$$ if
 * (i) $$\mathcal{F}(U)$$ is an abelian group for every open subset $$U \subset X$$
 * (ii) For each inclusion $$U \hookrightarrow V$$, we have the group morphism $$\rho_{V, U}: \mathcal{F}(V) \to \mathcal{F}(U)$$ such that
 * $$\rho_{U,U}$$ is the identity and $$\rho_{W,U} = \rho_{V,U} \circ \rho_{W,V}$$ for any inclusion $$U \hookrightarrow V \hookrightarrow W$$

A pre-sheaf is called a sheaf if the following "gluing axiom" holds:
 * For each open subset $$U$$ and its open cover $$U_j$$, if $$f_j \in \mathcal F(U_j)$$ are such that $$f_j = f_k$$ in $$U_j \cap U_k$$, then there exists a unique $$f \in \mathcal F(U)$$ such that $$f|_{U_j} = f_j$$ for all $$j$$.

Note that the uniqueness implies that if $$f, g \in \mathcal F(U)$$ and $$f|_{U_j} = g|_{U_j}$$ for all $$j$$, then $$f = g$$. In particular, $$f|_{U_j} = 0$$ for all $$j$$ implies $$f = 0$$.''

4 Example: Let $$G$$ be a topological group (e.g., $$\mathbf R$$). Let $$\mathcal{F}(U)$$ be the set of all continuous maps from open subsets $$U \subset X$$ to $$G$$. Then $$\mathcal F$$ forms a sheaf. In particular, suppose the topology for $$G$$ is discrete. Then $$\mathcal{F}$$ is called a constant sheaf.

Given sheaves $$\mathcal F$$ and $$\mathcal G$$, a sheaf morphism $$\phi: \mathcal F \to \mathcal G$$ is a collection of group morphisms $$\phi_U: \mathcal F(U) \to \mathcal G(U)$$ satisfying: for every open subset $$U \subset V$$,
 * $$\phi_U \circ \rho_{V, U} = \rho_{V, U} \circ \phi_V$$

where the first $$\rho_{V, U}$$ is one that comes with $$\mathcal F$$ and the second $$\mathcal G$$.

Define $$(\operatorname{ker}\phi)(U) = \operatorname{ker}\phi_U$$ for each open subset $$U$$. $$\operatorname{ker}\phi$$ is then a sheaf. In fact, suppose $$f_j \in \operatorname{ker}\phi_{U_j} $$. Then there is $$f \in \mathcal F(U)$$ such that $$f|_{U_j} = f_j$$. But since
 * $$(\phi_U f)|_{U_j} = \phi_{U_j} (f|_{U_j}) = \phi_{U_j} f_j = 0$$

for all $$j$$, we have $$\phi_U f = 0$$. Unfortunately, $$\operatorname{im}\phi$$ does not turn out to be a sheaf if it is defined in the same way. We thus define $$(\operatorname{im}\phi)(U)$$ to be the set of all $$f \in \mathcal G(U)$$ such that there is an open cover $$U_j$$ of $$U$$ such that $$f|_{U_j}$$ is in the image of $$\phi_{U_j}$$. This is a sheaf. In fact, as before, let $$f \in \mathcal G(U)$$ be such that $$f|_{U_j} \in \operatorname{im}\phi_{U_j}$$. Then we have an open cover of $$U$$ such that $$f$$ restricted to each member $$V$$ of the cover is in the image of $$\phi_V$$.

Let $$\mathcal{F}^0, \mathcal{F}^1, \mathcal{F}^2$$ be sheaves on the same topological space.

A sheaf $$\mathcal{F}$$ on $$X$$ is said to be flabby if $$\rho_{X, U}:\mathcal{F}(X) \to \mathcal{F}(U)$$ is surjective. Let $$\mathcal{F}_p = \lim_{U \ni p} \mathcal{F}(U)$$, and, for each $$f \in \mathcal{F}(U)$$, define $$\operatorname{supp}f = \{ x \in U | f|_p \ne 0 \}$$. $$\operatorname{supp}f$$ is closed since $$f|_p = 0$$ implies $$p$$ has a neighborhood of $$U$$ such that $$f|_q = 0$$ for every $$q \in U$$. Define $$\operatorname{Supp}\mathcal{F} = \{ x \in X | \mathcal{F}_x \ne 0 \}$$. In particular, if $$i: Z \hookrightarrow X$$ is a closed subset and $$\operatorname{Supp}\mathcal{F} \subset Z$$, then the natural map $$\mathcal{F} \to i_* i^{-1} \mathcal{F}$$ is an isomorphism.

4 Theorem ''Suppose
 * $$0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^1 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^2 \longrightarrow 0$$

''is exact. Then, for every open subset $$U$$''
 * $$0 \longrightarrow \Gamma_Z(U, \mathcal{F}^0) \longrightarrow \Gamma_Z(U, \mathcal{F}^1) \longrightarrow \Gamma_Z(U, \mathcal{F}^2)$$

''is exact. Furthermore, $$\Gamma_Z(U, \mathcal{F}^1) \to \Gamma_Z(U, \mathcal{F}^2)$$ is surjective if $$\mathcal{F}^0$$ is flabby.''

Proof: That the kernel of $$\operatorname{ker}\mathcal{F}^0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^1$$ is trivial means that $$\operatorname{ker}\mathcal{F}^0(U) \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^1(U)$$ has trivial kernel for any $$U$$. Thus the first map is clear. Next, denoting $$\mathcal{F}^1 \to \mathcal{F}^2$$ by $$d$$, suppose $$f \in \mathcal{F}^1(U)$$ with $$df = 0$$. Then there exists an open cover $$U_j$$ of $$U$$ and $$u_j \in \mathcal{F}(U_j)$$ such that $$d u_j = f|_{U_j}$$. Since $$d u_j = f = d u_k$$ in $$U_j \cap U_k$$ and $$d_{U_j \cap U_k}$$ is injective by the early part of the proof, we have $$u_j = u_k$$ in $$U_j \cap U_k$$ and so we get $$u \in \mathcal{F}(U)$$ such that $$du = f$$. Finally, to show that the last map is surjective, let $$f \in \mathcal{F}^2(U)$$, and $$\Omega = \{ (U, u) | du = f|_U \}$$. If $$\{ (U_j, u_j) | j \in J \} \subset \Omega$$ is totally ordered, then let $$U = \cup_j U_j$$. Since $$u_j$$ agree on overlaps by totally ordered-ness, there is $$u \in \mathcal{F}(U)$$ with $$u|_{U_j} = u_j$$. Thus, $$(U, u)$$ is an upper bound of the collection $$(U_j, u_j)$$. By Zorn's Lemma, we then find a maximal element $$(U_0, u_0)$$. We claim $$U_0 = U$$. Suppose not. Then there exists $$(U_1, u_1)$$ with $$d u_1 = f|_{U_1}$$. Since $$d(u_0 - u_1) = 0$$ in $$U_0 \cap U_1$$, by the early part of the proof, there exists $$a \in \mathcal{F}^0(U_0 \cap U_1)$$ with $$da = u_0 - u_1$$. Then $$d(u_1 + da) = du_1 = f|_{U_1}$$ (so $$(U_1, u_1) \in \Omega$$) while $$u_1 + da = u_0$$ in $$U_0 \cap U_1$$. This contradicts the maximality of $$(U_0, u_0)$$. Hence, we conclude $$U_0 = U$$ and so $$du_0 = f$$. $$\square$$

4 Corollary
 * $$0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^1 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}^2 \longrightarrow 0$$

is exact if and only if
 * $$0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}_p^0 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}_p^1 \longrightarrow \mathcal{F}_p^2 \longrightarrow 0$$

is exact for every $$p \in X$$.

Suppose $$f: X \to Y$$ is a continuous map. The sheaf $$f_* \mathcal{F}$$ (called the pushforward of $$\mathcal{F}$$ by $$f$$) is defined by $$f_* \mathcal{F}(U) = \mathcal{F}(f^{-1}(U))$$ for an open subset $$U \subset Y$$. Suppose $$f: Y \to X$$ is a continuous map. The sheaf $$f^{-1} \mathcal{F}$$ is then defined by $$f^{-1}\mathcal{F}(U) = $$ the sheafification of the presheaf $$U \mapsto \varinjlim_{V \supset f(U)} \mathcal{F}(V)$$ where $$V$$ is an open subset of $$X$$. The two are related in the following way. Let $$U \subset X$$ be an open subset. Then $$f^{-1}f_*\mathcal{F}(U)$$ consists of elements $$f$$ in $$\mathcal{F}(f^{-1}(V))$$ where $$V \supset f(U)$$. Since $$f^{-1}(V) \supset U$$, we find a map
 * $$f^{-1}f_*\mathcal{F} \to \mathcal{F}$$

by sending $$f$$ to $$f|_U$$. The map is well-defined for it doesn't depend on the choice of $$V$$.


text:
Template:French

  Lessons · Vocabulary · Grammar · Appendices · Texts

title: Template:French


text:
French/Lessons/Introductory

Contents

0

ফরাসি ভাষা শিক্ষা/পাঠ/পরিচিত

title: French/Lessons/Introductory


text:
French/Lessons

Contents
{{hidden|{{French/Section|Detailed contents}}|

Level four lessons
}}

Francés/Lecciones

title: French/Lessons


text:
French/Appendices

Contents
Francés/Apéndices

title: French/Appendices


text:
French/Lessons/Print version

Print version
 * Introductory lessons
 * Level one lessons
 * Level two lessons
 * Level three lessons

= Introductory =

 * Lesson 0.01 - Introduction
 * Lesson 0.02 - The Alphabet
 * Lesson 0.03 - Greetings
 * Lesson 0.04 - Formal Speech
 * Lesson 0.05 - Numbers
 * Lesson 0.06 - The Date
 * Lesson 0.07 - Telling Time
 * Lesson 0 Review
 * Lesson 0 Test

=Lesson 0.01 - Introduction=

=Lesson 0.02 - The Alphabet=

=Lesson 0.03 - Greetings=

=Lesson 0.04 - Formal Speech=

=Lesson 0.05 - Numbers=

=Lesson 0.06 - The Date=

=Lesson 0.07 - Telling Time=

=Lesson 0 - Review=

=Lesson 0 - Test=

= Level one =

 * Lesson 1.01 - Basic Grammar
 * Lesson 1.02 - To Be
 * Lesson 1.03 - Description
 * Lesson 1.04 - Family
 * Lesson 1.05 - Recreation
 * Lesson 1.06 - The House
 * Lesson 1.07 - Weather
 * Lesson 1.08 - Travel
 * Lesson 1.09 - Art
 * Lesson 1.10 - Science

=Lesson 1.01 - Basic Grammar=

=Lesson 1.02 - To Be=

=Lesson 1.03 - Description=

=Lesson 1.04 - Family=

=Lesson 1.05 - Recreation=

=Lesson 1.06 - The House=

=Lesson 1.07 - Weather=

=Lesson 1.08 - Travel=

=Lesson 1.09 - Art=

=Lesson 1.10 - Science=

= Level two =

 * Lesson 2.01 - School
 * Lesson 2.02 - Culture
 * Lesson 2.03 - Shopping
 * Lesson 2.04 - Going Out
 * Lesson 2.05 - Transportation
 * Lesson 2.06 - Everyday Life
 * Lesson 2.07 - Rural Life
 * Lesson 2.08 - Food and Drink
 * Lesson 2.09 - Dining
 * Lesson 2.10 - Communication

=Lesson 2.01 - School=

=Lesson 2.02 - Culture=

=Lesson 2.03 - Shopping=

=Lesson 2.04 - Going Out=

=Lesson 2.05 - Transportation=

=Lesson 2.06 - Everyday Life=

=Lesson 2.07 - Rural Life=

=Lesson 2.08 - Food and Drink=

=Lesson 2.09 - Dining=

=Lesson 2.10 - Communication=

= Level three =

 * Lesson 3.01 - Vacations
 * Lesson 3.02 - Work
 * Lesson 3.03 - Health
 * Lesson 3.04 - Money
 * Lesson 3.05 - Youth
 * Lesson 3.06 - Adolescence
 * Lesson 3.07 - Ancient History
 * Lesson 3.08 - Revolution!
 * Lesson 3.09 - Modern France
 * Lesson 3.10 - Current Events

=Lesson 3.01 - Vacations=

=Lesson 3.02 - Work=

=Lesson 3.03 - Health=

=Lesson 3.04 - Money=

=Lesson 3.05 - Youth=

=Lesson 3.06 - Adolescence=

=Lesson 3.07 - Ancient History=

=Lesson 3.08 - Revolution!=

=Lesson 3.09 - Modern France=

=Lesson 3.10 - Current Events=

title: French/Lessons/Print version


text:
French/Print version

= Contents =
 * Lessons
 * Grammar

 * Appendices
 * Texts

= Lessons =

= Grammar =

= Appendices =

=French authors=

=Pronunciation=

=Slang=

=Typing characters=

=Web resources=

= Texts =

title: French/Print version


text:
Islam Way of Life/Legislation

What is the source of Authority? Some might believe it is God, the people or somewhere in between. Quran, The Holy Book of Islam only regulates God's Legal Limits, an absolute, universal and timeless legal limits. Everything else is decided through legislation made by interested parties. This legislation can be in the form of treaties, constitutions, experts consensus and traditions. Traditions includes Prophet's and His Companions traditions called Sunnah.

There are at least three forms of government in the modern day Islamic State.
 * 1) Madinah: A form of government pioneered by Prophet Muhammad. Madinah literally means Civil Society. This type depends on treaties or constitutions to formalize Quran as source of Law. This treaties or constitutions does not require to mention Islam nor Quran, see Constitution of Medina (well known as Mithaq-e-Madina)
 * 2) Khalifah: A form of government pioneered by Prophet Muhammad's successors. Khalifah literally means successor. This type does not require any written treaties nor constitutions. Quran and Sunnah is sufficient as source of law. The interpretations of those sources are depends on the ruler or experts appointed by the ruler.
 * 3) Imamah: A competing form of government Type against Khilafah, pioneered by the people who look upon Ali as Muhammad's immediate successor even before Muhammad's death. They believe that he should be the First Khalifah instead. Basically similar to Khilafah system, but the leader should be the descendants of Prophet Muhammad. Imam literally means leader.

Islamic Sacred Law or Sharia is a form of Legislation in the modern day Islamic State. Sharia literally means water source. The interpretation of Sharia depends on the form of government of a particular modern day Islamic State. Experts consensus is sufficients to formalize Sharia in Khilafah or Imamah form of government. Mutual treaties or people referendum is a must to formalize each item in Sharia, in Madinah form of government.

Some experts argue that Madinah is an obsolete form of Government because it is formed while delivery of Quran is not yet completed. But Madinah is de facto most popular form of government in the modern day Islamic States, relatives to the popularity of Khilafah and Imamah form. Until the fall of Ottoman Empire, a single Khilafah Empire rules a wide region between the modern day Spain to the modern day Iraq. These experts wish to form a single Khalifah Empire back again.

This book wishes to discuss legislation on modern day Islamic State. This book will focus on Malaysia, Arab Saudi and Iran as representatives of those three forms of Government. Similar Legislation also implemented in Pakistan, some part of Canada and some part of Indonesia.

Pakistan
On December 2, 1978, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq delivered a nationwide address on the occasion of the first day of the Hijra calendar. He did this in order to usher in an Islamic system to Pakistan. In the speech, he accused politicians of exploiting the name of Islam, saying
 * many a ruler did what they pleased in the name of Islam.

After assuming power the task that the government set to was its public commitment to enforce Nizam-e-Islam (Islamic System) a 180 degree turn from Pakistan's predominantly Anglo-Saxon Law. As a preliminary measure to establish an Islamic society in Pakistan, General Zia announced the establishment of Shariah Benches. Speaking about the jurisdiction of the Shariah Benches, he said,

 * Every citizen will have the right to present any law enforced by the government before the "Shariah Bench" and obtain its verdict whether the law is wholly or partly Islamic or un-Islamic.

But General Zia did not mention that the Shariah Benches' jurisdiction was curtailed by the following overriding clause: " (Any) law does not include the constitution, Muslim personal law, any law relating to the procedure of any court or tribunal or, until the expiration of three years, any fiscal law, or any law relating to the collection of taxes and fees or insurance practice and procedure." It meant that all important laws which affect each and every individual directly remained outside the purview of the Shariah Benches. However, he did not have a smooth sailing even with the clipped Shariah Benches. The Federal Shariah Bench declared rajm, or stoning, to be un-Islamic; Ziaul Haq reconstituted the court, which then declared rajm as Islamic.

Hudood Ordinance
Under Offenses Against Property (Enforcement of Hudood Ordinance 1979), the punishment of imprisonment or fine, or both, as provided in the existing Pakistan Penal Code for theft, was substituted by the amputation of the right hand of the offender from the joint of the wrist by a surgeon. For robbery, the right hand of the offender from the wrist and his left foot from the ankle should be amputated by a surgeon. Hudood ( Arabic حدود, also transliterated Hadud, Hudud; plural for Hadh, حد , limit, or restriction) is the word often used in Islamic social and legal literature for the bounds of acceptable behaviour.

In legal terms (Islamic law being usually referred to as Sharia, شريعة ) the term is used to describe laws that define a level of crime classification. Crimes classified under Hudud are the most severe of crimes, such as murder, theft, and adultery. There are minor differences in views between the four major Sunni madhhabs about sentencing and specifications for these laws. It is often argued that, since Sharia is God's law and states certain punishments for each crime, they are immutable. However, with liberal movements in Islam expressing concerns about hadith validity, a major component of how Islamic law is created, questions have arisen about administering certain punishments. Incompatibilities with human rights in the way Islamic law is practiced in many countries has led many to call for an international moratorium on the punishments of Hudud laws until greater scholarly consensus can be reached. It has also been argued by some that the Hudud portion of Sharia is incompatible with humanism or human rights.

Prohibition Order
Drinking of wine (i.e. all alcoholic drinks) was not a crime at all under the Pakistan Penal Code. In 1977, however, the drinking and selling of wine by Muslims was banned in Pakistan and a sentence of imprisonment of six months or a fine of Rs. 5000/-, or both, was provided in that law. Under the Prohibition Order, these provisions of law were replaced by the punishment of eighty stripes, for which an ijma of the companions of Muhammad ever since the period of the Second Caliph Umar, was cited. However, the law does not apply to non-Muslims, who can possess a license to drink and/or manufacture alcoholic beverages from the government. The most famous of these is the Murree Brewery.

Adultery (Zina) Ordinance
Under the Zina Ordinance the provisions relating to adultery were replaced as that the women and the man guilty will be flogged, each of them, with a hundred stripes, if unmarried. And if they are married they shall be stoned to death. It was argued that the section 497 of the Pakistan Penal Code dealing with the offense of adultery provided certain safeguards to the offender in as much as if the adultery is with the consent or connivance of the husband, no offense of adultery was deemed to have been committed in the eye of law. The wife, under the prevailing law, was also not to be punished as abettor. Islamic law knows no such exception.

Women bore much of the burden of Zia's Islamization and its inconsistencies. The Zina Ordinance prompted bitter international criticism about the perceived injustices and miseries brought about by the Zina Ordinance. Women's rights groups helped in the production of a film titled "Who will cast the first stone?" to highlight the oppression and sufferings of women under the Hudood Ordinances. In September 1981, the first conviction and sentence under the Zina Ordinance, of stoning to death for Fehmida and Allah Bakhsh were set aside under national and international pressure.

In many cases, under the Zina Ordinance, a woman who made an allegation of rape was convicted for adultery whilst the rapist was acquitted. This led to a growing demand by jurists and women activists for repealing the Ordinance. In 1983, Safia Bibi, a 13-year-old blind girl, who alleged rape by her employer and his son was convicted for adultery under the Zina Ordinance whilst, the rapists were acquitted. The decision attracted so much publicity and condemnation from the public and the press that the Federal Shariah Court of its own motion, called for the records of the case and ordered that she should be released from prison on her own bond. Subsequently, on appeal, the finding of the trial court was reversed and the conviction was set aside.

In early 1988, another conviction for stoning to death of Shahida Parveen and Muhammad Sarwar sparked bitter public criticism that led to their retrial and acquittal by the Federal Shariah Court. In this case the trial court took the view that notice of divorce by Shahida's former husband, Khushi Muhammad should have been given to the Chairman of the local council, as stipulated under Section-7(3) of the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance, 1961. This section states that any man who divorces his wife must register it with the Union Council. Otherwise, the court concluded that the divorce stood invalidated and the couple became liable to conviction under the Zina ordinance.

The International Commission of Jurists mission to Pakistan in December 1986 called for repealing of certain sections of the Hudood Ordinances relating to crimes and "Islamic" punishments which discriminate against women and non-Muslims. The commission cited an example that a Muslim woman can be convicted on the evidence of a man, and a non-Muslim can be convicted on the evidence of a Muslim, but not vice versa.

Blasphemy Laws
The Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) and the Criminal Procedure Code were amended, through ordinances in 1980, 1982 and 1986 to declare anything implying disrespect to Muhammad, Ahle Bait (family of the prophet), Sahaba (companions of the prophet) and Sha'ar-i-Islam (Islamic symbols), a cognizable offence, punishable with imprisonment or fine, or with both.

Religious Offences and Punishments
These laws to this day are controversial and under fire by human rights organizations all over the world and have been questioned by Liberals and Moderates in Pakistan as well. The US Assistant Secretary of state, Robin Raphel, testifying before the Senate Foreign Relations sub-committee, on March 7, 1996, said that the United States recognize that the religious parties in Pakistan have "street power" and not "ballot power" and this is a major constraint for the Benazir Bhutto's government to repeal blasphemy laws. She revealed that more than 150 blasphemy cases have been lodged in Pakistan since 1986. Most of these have been brought against members of the Ahmadi community. None of the cases against Ahmadis have resulted in convictions. During the same period, at least nine cases have been brought against Christians and nine against Muslims. There have been convictions in some of these cases, but no one has been executed under the law's mandatory death penalty. Some convictions have been overturned and several individuals are currently appealing their convictions.

The Lahore High Court, on February 22, 1995, acquitted Salamat Masih and Rehmat Masih of blasphemy charges. They were sentenced to death by a Sessions Judge on February 9, 1995, for allegedly writing blasphemous words on the wall of a mosque in 1993. The death sentence was quickly overturned following an international uproar. During the appeal hearings there were almost daily demonstrations by small religious groups demanding that the sentence should be carried out. After the judgment, all religious groups observed a protest day throughout Pakistan to protest against the acquittal.

The year 1995 also witnessed a ghastly incident of religious frenzy, when Dr. Sajjad Farooq was beaten to death by people outside a police station in Gujranwala. He was declared an apostate and accused of having desecrated the Qur'an. Dr. Farooq, who was later reported by the press to be a staunch Muslim, was dragged out from the police station where he was lodged and stoned to death by frenzied mobs. On the basis of a rumor, apparently circulated by someone out of personal enmity, he was proclaimed to be a Christian through the loud-speakers of the mosques in his locality.

Prayer timings
Instructions were issued for regular observance of prayers and arrangements were made for performing noon prayer (Salat Al Zuhur) in government and quasi-government offices and educational institutions, during office hours, and official functions, and at airports, railway stations and bus stops. Today, in practice, people are usually free to skip prayers in government institutions. Prayer Times NYC Sydney Prayer Times Prayer Times Dubai London Prayer Time Riyadh Prayer Times

Reverence for fasting Ordinance
An "Ehtram-e-Ramazan" (reverence for fasting) Ordinance was issued providing that complete sanctity be observed during the Islamic month of Ramazan, including the closure of cinema houses three hours after the Maghrib (post-sunset) prayers.

Definition of Muslim
By amending the constitution, General Zia also provided the following definition of a Muslim and a non-Muslim:
 * (a) "Muslim" means a person who believes in the unity and oneness of Almighty Allah, in the absolute and unqualified finality of the Prophet hood of Muhammad, the last of the prophets, and does not believe in, or recognize as a prophet or religious reformer, any person who claimed to be a prophet in any sense of the word or of any description, whatsoever, after Muhammad.
 * (b) "Non-Muslim" means a person who is not a Muslim and includes a person belonging to the Christian, Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, or Parsi community, a person of the Qadiani Group or the Lahori Group (who call themselves Ahmadis), or a Bahá'í, or a person belonging to any of the scheduled castes.

Zia's Islamization of Economy
Within the framework of Islamization of economy, the National Investment Trust and the Investment Corporation of Pakistan were asked to operate on equity basis instead of interest as of July 1, 1979. Interest-free counters were opened at all the 7,000 branches of the nationalized commercial banks on January 1, 1980. But interest-bearing National Savings Schemes were allowed to operate in parallel.

Zakat and Ushr Ordinance
The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance was promulgated on June 20, 1980 to empower the government to deduct 2.5% Zakat annually from mainly interest-bearing savings and shares held in the National Investment Trust, the Investment Corporation of Pakistan and other companies of which the majority of shares are owned by the Muslims. Foreign Exchange Bearer Certificate scheme that offered fixed interest was exempted from the compulsory Zakat deduction. This ordinance drew sharp criticism from the Shia sect which was later exempted from the compulsory deduction of Zakat. Even Sunnis were critical of the compulsory deduction and the way Zakat was distributed.

Land Reforms
On December 13, 1980, to the surprise of General Zia, the Federal Shariah Court declared the land reforms of 1972 and 1977 as eminently in consonance with Islamic injunctions. Then the Ulema were brought in who traditionally supported the landlord class. Three Ulema were inducted into the Federal Shariah Court and two into the Shariah Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court which reversed the FSC judgment in 1990. After the imposition of martial law, many landlords were reported to have told their tenants to seek the protection of their benefactor, namely, Bhutto. Thousands of tenants were forcibly evicted from the land in various districts. The martial law regime made it clear that it was not committed to redistributive agrarian policies and described the land reforms as ordinary politics to reward supporters and punish enemies.

General Zia's advice to the deprived and the dispossessed was that "It is not for the employers to provide roti (bread), kapda (clothes) aur (and)makaan (homes) (referring to a well-known PPP slogan used by Bhutto). It was for God Almighty who is the provider of livelihood to his people. Any increase or decrease in your sustenance comes from Him. Trust in God and He will bestow upon you an abundance of good things in life."

Demands for higher wages, better working conditions, social security, old age benefits and compensation for accidents, were no justification for protests and strikes. Industrialists were assured that any kind of industrial unrest resulting from strikes or any other trade union activity would be suppressed. Maximum punishment to the offenders was three years rigorous imprisonment and/or whipping. On January 2, 1978 police mercilessly killed 19 workers as the management of the Colony Textile Mill in Multan sought assistance from the police in its dispute with the striking workers.

Qisas and Diyat Ordinance 1990
With the passing of the Qisas and Diyat Ordinance in 1990, the victim (or heirs of the victim) of a crime now have the right to inflict injuries on the offender identical to the ones sustained by the victim. The law also allows offenders to absolve themselves of the crime by paying compensation to the victim or their heirs if, and only if, the family of the victim is willing to accept it.

Conclusion
Islamization was sometimes used as a political process. Zia's interpretation of Islam may have contributed to the rise of fundamentalism, obscurantism and retrogression. Since the death of General Zia in 1988, inconsistency and instability has prevailed in Pakistani laws.

Instability means that the law is frequently changing or is under threat of change because of differences of opinion among the ruling factions. Three of the most obvious inconsistencies in Zia's Islamic law are:
 * Those between legal norms and socially observed norms;
 * Those between statutory legal norms and the norms applied in practice in the courts (e.g. Hadd is difficult to implement as confession, retraction of confession and strict standards of proof make it difficult to execute);
 * Those between different formal legal norms (e.g. non-compliance with the Muslim Family Laws Ordinance is compromised by the courts but is strictly punished under the Zina Ordinance). Another example of this contradiction is that the constitution assures women equal status on the one hand but, on the other hand, they are greatly discriminated in criminal law.

Malaysia
tarimaka sih

title: Islam Way of Life/Legislation


text:
Talk:Islam Way of Life/Legislation

About the Name

 * 1) Legislation = acceptable (ma'roof) + unnaceptable (munkar).
 * 2) Legislation is one of what dialog/consultation (shura) produce.
 * 3) Legislation implies ratification and written forms, such as constitutions.
 * 4) Legislation implies people referendum rather than expert consensus.
 * 5) Legislation implies public policies rather than personal spiritual methods
 * 6) Legislation implies modern political structure, rather than traditional tribal structure.

Why not Islam:Modern Jurisprudence 212.123.21.178 14:50, 17 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) It is too long as a catchy title
 * 2) It implies expert consensus which against the teaching of Quran that people should decide their matters among them selves.

Use wikisource
Some links on constitutions is not reliable. It may be there for now, but might not in the future.

Why don't capture them in wikisource first before make a reference on them? 212.123.21.178 14:51, 17 February 2006 (UTC)

Nothing about Sources of Sharia
This page doesn't talk about the four main sources of Sharia law in Sunnis: Quran, Hadith, Ijma and Qiyas. (or of the Shias for that matter.) Instead it starts with the statement that all Islamic law is either determined by Quran or by Legislation by interested parties. That makes no sense for the word Legislation itself means law and the interested parties are all the Muslims. The question is how is this law derived and to say that it is derived by legislation is just saying that the law is derived by making a law. Moreover Ijma or consensus is the factor which is used in interpreting the Quran and it's not as if whatever is present in the Quran constitutes timeless legal limits. For example, interest in prohibited in the Quran but Islamic countries round the world take loans from the world bank on interest. That is because there is no ijma (or consensus) on what constitutes interest according to the Quran. It looks as if the person who initially wrote this doesn't have a sound knowledge of fiqh. I would be willing to help out with providing with the required info if someone is willing to do a major overhaul of this page--Shahab (talk) 06:31, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

The alcohal driknking was not banned in pakistan by Zia Ul Haq; only, however, it was first banned by a law passed by Governor of Punjab on 15-09-1948; mazharilahi@hotmail.com

title: Talk:Islam Way of Life/Legislation


text:
False Friends of the Slavist/Map sklad

sъkladъ

title: False Friends of the Slavist/Map sklad


text:
French/Grammar/Print version

Print version

 * 1) Adjectives
 * 2) Adverbs
 * 3) Articles
 * 4) Negation
 * 5) Prepositions
 * 6) Sentences
 * 7) Verbs
 * 8) Conjugations
 * 9) Verb tenses sorted by type
 * 10) Verb moods

=Adjectives=

=Adverbs=

=Articles=

=Nouns=

=Prepositions=

=Pronouns=

=Sentences=

=Verbs=

=Conjugations=

=Verb tenses sorted by type=

Imperfect subjunctive
=Perfect tenses=

Past subjunctive
=Perfect tense components=

Auxiliary
=Other tenses=

Past imperative
=Verb moods=

title: French/Grammar/Print version


text:
French/Grammar/Tenses

French Tenses - The Basics
In English, an infinitive is given with to in the front of it. To talk in English is an infinitive. In French, however, all infinitives are in the form of a single word. To talk in French is parler.

There are three types of "regular" verbs in French. That is, these verbs follow a common pattern when conjugated. For these verbs, all you need to know is the infinitive and you can conjugate them for every tense. These verbs are the -er, -ir, and -re verbs. Meaning they all share the common -er, -ir, or -re ending. Just because a verb ends in one of these endings doesn't necessarily make it regular, it could still be irregular.

Irregular verbs follow no real common pattern and must each be learned. In most cases, the form of an irregular verb is different from the common patterns that regular verbs follow in every tense.

In addition to past, present, and future tenses, French has a series of conjugations depending on the usage of the verb.

Non-finite forms

 * Le participe présent (The Present Participle)
 * Le participe passé (The Past Participle)
 * Le Verbe Auxiliaire (The Auxiliary Verb)
 * L'infinitif (The Infinitive)
 * L'infinitif passé (The Past Infinitive)

Simple tenses

 * Le présent de l'indicatif (The present indicative)
 * L'imparfait de l'indicatif (The imperfect)
 * Le passé simple (The past historic)
 * Le futur (The future)

Perfect tenses

 * Le passé composé (The present perfect)
 * Le plus-que-parfait de l'indicatif (The pluperfect of the indicative)
 * Le passé antérieur (The past anterior)
 * Le futur antérieur (The future anterior)

Other tenses

 * Le passé récent (The recent past)
 * Le futur proche (The near future)

Le subjonctif (The subjunctive mood)

 * Le subjonctif (The subjunctive)
 * L'imparfait du subjonctif (The imperfect subjunctive)
 * Le subjonctif passé (The past subjunctive)
 * Le plus-que-parfait du subjonctif (The pluperfect subjunctive)

L'impératif (The imperative mood)

 * L'impératif (The imperative)
 * L'impératif passé (The past imperative)

Le conditionnel (The conditional mood)

 * Le conditionnel (The conditional)
 * Le conditionnel passé (The past conditional)
 * Le deuxième forme du conditionnel passé (The second form of the past conditional)

Simple tenses

 * Le présent de l'indicatif (The present indicative)
 * L'imparfait de l'indicatif (The imperfect)
 * Le passé simple (The past historic)
 * Le futur (The future)
 * Le conditionnel (The conditional)
 * Le présent du subjonctif (The present subjunctive)
 * L'imparfait du subjonctif (The imperfect subjunctive)

Perfect tenses

 * Le passé composé (The present perfect)
 * Le plus-que-parfait de l'indicatif (The pluperfect of the indicative)
 * Le plus-que-parfait du subjonctif (The pluperfect of the subjunctive)
 * Le passé antérieur (The past anterior)
 * Le futur antérieur (The future anterior)
 * Le conditionnel passé (The conditional past)
 * Le passé du subjonctif (The subjunctive past)

Perfect tense components

 * Le participe présent (The present participle)
 * Le participe passé (The past participle)
 * Le verbe auxiliaire (The auxiliary verb)

Other tenses

 * Le passé récent (The near past)
 * Le futur proche (The near future)
 * L'Impératif (The imperative)
 * L'impératif passé (The past imperative)

Past

 * L'imparfait de l'indicatif (The imperfect)
 * Le passé simple (The past historic)
 * L'imparfait du subjonctif (The imperfect subjunctive)
 * Le passé composé (The present perfect)
 * Le plus-que-parfait de l'indicatif (The pluperfect of the indicative)
 * Le passé antérieur (The past anterior)
 * Le passé récent (The near past)
 * L'imparfait du subjonctif (The imperfect subjunctive)
 * Le subjonctif passé (The past subjunctive)
 * Le plus-que-parfait du subjonctif (The pluperfect subjunctive)
 * L'impératif passé (The past imperative)
 * Le conditionnel passé (The past conditional)
 * Le deuxième forme du conditionnel passé (The second form of the past conditional)

Future
Future Simple

title: French/Grammar/Tenses