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Wikijunior:The Elements/Solids

=Solids=

Solid Basics

So what is a solid? Solids are usually hard because their molecules have been packed together. The closer your molecules are, the harder you are. Solids also can hold their own shape. A rock will always look like a rock unless something happens to it. The same goes for a diamond. Even when you grind up a solid into a powder, you will see tiny little pieces of that solid under a microscope. Liquids will move and fill up any container. Solids keep their shape.

In the same way that a solid holds its shape, the atoms inside of a solid are not allowed to move around too much. This is one of the physical characteristics of solids. Atoms and molecules in liquids and gases are bouncing and floating around, free to move where they want. The molecules in a solid are stuck in place. The atoms still spin and the electrons will still fly around, but the entire atom will not change position.

Solids can be made up of many things. They can have pure elements or a variety of compounds inside. When you get more than one type of compound in a solid it is called a mixture. Most rocks are mixtures of many different compounds. Concrete is a good example of a man-made mixture.

Crystals
The opposite of a mixture is something called a crystal. When a solid is made up of a pure substance and forms slowly, it can become a crystal. Not all pure substances form crystals because it is a delicate process. The atoms are arranged in a regular repeating pattern called a crystal lattice. A crystal lattice is a very exact organization of atoms.

A good example is carbon. Carbon actually makes more than one kind of crystal lattice, although most elements only make one. A diamond is a perfect crystal lattice while the graphite arrangement is formed into microscopic sheets.

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Solids


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Wikijunior:The Elements/Liquids

=Liquids=

Liquid Basics

The second state of matter we will discuss is a liquid. Solids are hard things you can hold. Gases are floating around you and in bubbles. What is a liquid? Water is a liquid. Your blood is a liquid. Liquids are an in-between state of matter. They can be found in between the solid and gas states. They don't have to be made up of the same compounds. If you have a variety of materials in a liquid, it is called a solution.

One characteristic of a liquid is that it will fill up the shape of a container. If you pour some water in a cup, it will fill up the bottom of the cup first and then fill the rest. The water will also take the shape of the cup. It fills the bottom first because of gravity. The top part of a liquid will usually have a flat surface. That flat surface is because of gravity too. Putting an ice cube (solid) into a cup will leave you with a cube in the middle of the cup; the shape won't change until the ice becomes a liquid.

Another trait of liquids is that they are difficult to compress. When you compress something, you take a certain amount and force it into a smaller space. Solids are very difficult to compress and gases are very easy. Liquids are in the middle but tend to be difficult. When you compress something, you force the atoms closer together. When pressure goes up, substances are compressed. Liquids already have their atoms close together, so they are hard to compress. Many shock absorbers in cars compress liquids.

A special force keeps liquids together. Solids are stuck together and you have to force them apart. Gases bounce everywhere and they try to spread themselves out. Liquids actually want to stick together. There will always be the occasional evaporation where extra energy gets a molecule excited and the molecule leaves the system. Overall, liquids have cohesive (sticky) forces at work that hold the molecules together.

Supercooled Liquids
A supercooled liquid is a liquid that is put in conditions where the temperature is dropped below zero very rapidly. The result is that the liquid is still liquid, but acts like a solid. It is hard and cannot have its shape changed easily. Glass used in windows is a supercooled liquid. Normal glass is in fact the liquid form of sand, or silicon dioxide. If a pane of glass was left for hundreds of years, it would eventually start to drip, like normal liquids.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Liquids


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Wikijunior:The Elements/Gases

=Gases=

Looking for a Gas
Gases are everywhere. There is something named the atmosphere. That's a big layer of gas that surrounds the Earth, extending from the ground to about 300 miles (480 km) into the air. In solids, atoms and molecules are compact and close together. Particles of liquids are generally a little more spread out. However, gases have no definite volume; they expand as much as they can. Their atoms and molecules are full of energy, bouncing around constantly.

Gases can fill a container of any size or shape. That is one of their physical characteristics. Think about a balloon. No matter what shape you make the balloon, it will be evenly filled with the gas's particles. The atoms and molecules are spread equally throughout the entire balloon. Liquids can only fill the bottom of the container, while gases can fill it entirely.

Compared to liquids and solids, gases can also be compressed with relatively little pressure. It happens all the time. Combinations of pressure and decreasing temperature force gases into tubes that we use every day. You might see compressed air in a spray bottle or feel the carbon dioxide rush out of a can of soda. Those are both examples of gas forced into a space smaller than it would want, and the gas escapes the first chance it gets.

You might hear the term vapor. Vapor and gas mean the same thing. The word vapor is used to describe substances that are normally liquids at room temperature, but are currently in their gas form. Compounds like carbon dioxide that are gases at room temperature don't need the term, so scientists will rarely talk about carbon dioxide vapor. Water and mercury are liquids at room temperature, so they're called water vapor and mercury vapor after they're changed to a gas.

title: Wikijunior:The Elements/Gases


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TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Advanced Variables

The calculator can work with variables of other types in programs. Here, we show some examples of manipulating and accessing all other types of variables from a program. It is assumed you understand basic operation of the variable types.

Complex
Complex numbers on the calculator use the same variables as Real numbers. So, the A variable can hold both  and , but not at the same time. Essentially, you do not have to use different types of variables for real and complex numbers.

Matrices
Matrices store data in two dimensions, much like a table. To instantiate a matrix:

To get and set a value in the matrix:

Hadamard Product
The Hadamard product for two matrices of equal dimension is (in this example 3x3 matrices):

$$  \begin{bmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & a_{13}\\ a_{21} & a_{22} & a_{23}\\ a_{31} & a_{32} & a_{33} \end{bmatrix} \circ \begin{bmatrix} b_{11} & b_{12} & b_{13}\\ b_{21} & b_{22} & b_{23}\\ b_{31} & b_{32} & b_{33} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} a_{11}\, b_{11} & a_{12}\, b_{12} & a_{13}\, b_{13}\\ a_{21}\, b_{21} & a_{22}\, b_{22} & a_{23}\, b_{23}\\ a_{31}\, b_{31} & a_{32}\, b_{32} & a_{33}\, b_{33} \end{bmatrix} $$

This code performs the Hadamard product of Matrix A and B and stores it into Matrix C:

Y-Vars
The Y-Vars are special strings that hold the expressions used in graphing. They operate just like normal strings, but are used when graphing and are parsed as expressions. Entering a string into a Y-Var will allow it to be graphed on the screen. Use the letter X to denote the variable, just like you would when entering an equation into the Y= screen.

Pics
Pics store a snapshot of the graph screen, including all the drawings made to the graph screen. Pics do not store the equations that make up the drawing, but rather just the pixels that are colored.

To store and recall Pics means to write and read pics, respectively:

Graph Databases
Graph Databases (GBD) are used for storing the current graphing information. It includes:
 * The current graphing mode (one of FUNC, PAR, POL, or SEQ)
 * All graphing equations in the current mode
 * Window variables excluding zoom and table settings
 * Graph formatting

To store and recall GBDs:


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Movie Making Manual/Education2

Possible Career Paths
This is a continuation of Teach Yourself Filmmaking. In this section, you learn about possible career paths. This section is still mostly imcomplete and will be expanded shortly.

Career #1 - Film Editing
The most important skill that you can learn is film editing. Anyone who plans to be a film director, film editor, and even film composer, should learn film editing. This is where filmmaking comes all together. This is where all the parts must fit perfectly.

Editing Programs
To learn film editing, you need a professional editing program. Even though iMovie comes free with the Macintosh and Windows Movie Maker 2.1 is available for free downloading along with Windows XP Service Pack 2 (SP2), I do NOT recommend them. They are great programs but they are not for editing dramatic scenes. iMovie is designed for editing events and documentaries, not feature films. I believe the same is true for Windows Movie Maker. Also, iMovie is awkward for editing a conversation which requires L Cuts.

The next step up is Avid Free (Avid Free DV is no longer availabe on Avid website.) which is free from Avid but only works with DV movies at 29.97 frames per second. (Motion pictures are filmed at 24 fps.) The Avid Free DV forum has a lot of complaints about loading this software. So even though it is free and it is

Another option is Final Cut Express but it has the same limitation as Avid Free DV which only works on DV movies. If you want to purchase an older version, try version 2 or better.

Finally, there is Final Cut Pro which has great flexibility and is almost easy to use. Unfortunately, even with a student discount, the newest version is terribly expensive.

 * Special Note
 * Schools which teach film editing seem to prefer Final Cut Express because it costs teachers only $100 yet it has most of the features of Final Cut Pro. (To use film dailies at 24 frames per second with Final Cut Express, you will need QuickTime Pro which converts movies from one format to another (such as DV Stream).

Learning Film Editing
Film editing is not what you think it is. It is not just "slicing and dicing" digital video but rather film editing is the highest form of storytelling. Film editing is combining visual images, dialog (sound), music and sound effects. It is not just cutting picture and dialog.

Education: The only way you will learn film editing is to edit scenes from real dramatic productions. Don't use the footage that comes with iMovie (two kids washing a dog). Instead, you get inside the film studios of Hollywood and edit scenes from real motion picture and episodic television dramas shot on film. If you cannot do this, you buy film dailies on eBay, locate a good scene, digitize the scene, and add time code or frame numbers to make editing easier. If you visit Hollywood, some of the second hand video stores have film dailies purchased from estate sales and out-of-work actors and crew. These dailies are on video so you have to digitize the footage and to make the editing easier, you need to add a timecode or frame numbers. This is a lot of work so here is an alternative:

Alternative source To save time and money, you can buy unedited scenes from the Star Movie Shop. With film dailies, you see how scenes are broken down into individual shots for filming. Their most popular disk is called Hearing Voices. It is extremely short and can be edited in many different ways in a single class period. Frequently available on eBay. Or if you are interested in learning about L-Cuts, the best scene is Fireworks Display. Shows how L-Cuts can be used to emphasize one actor over another. The disks cost only about $8 but are only available to film students.

Which Version? - Final Cut Pro
If you have an old G4 or G5 Macintosh and you are just starting out in film editing, you do not need the latest and the greatest version of Final Cut Pro. On eBay, you can purchase new copies of old versions of Final Cut Pro. I recommend version 3 which should sell for about $175 for a new, unregistered, full-retail version sealed in the box. When you buy anything on eBay, only buy from someone who has 100% positive feedback.

Career #2 - Film Scoring
The majority of film scoring is creating musical sound effects that produce the proper mood or feeling. Therefore, even if you have limited musical skill, you can create musical sounds that express a mood.

To get started, all you need is a Macintosh manufactured in the last three years, the newest version of GarageBand, Jam Pack: Symphony Orchestra, and an edited scene without the film score.

 * Note: GarageBand comes free with all new Macintosh computers.  Also, Ben Boldt has two free packages of symphonic instruments for GarageBand.

 * Expensive Alternative
 * Unfortunately, even the Star Movie Shop does NOT offer a disk of edited scenes with the film scoring missing. That is really dumb!!!! The only alternative is to buy one of their Editing Workshop disks which comes with a long edit of the scene designed for film scoring.  Home Wrecker has a good example of a long edit for film scoring.  (If you are a music student, ask for a huge discount since you only need the film scoring part of the disk.)

 * Update : the Star Movie Shop now has a new disk with two specially edited scenes from a motion picture which need a film score. The disks are called "Green Tea Smoothie". Has anyone tested this?

 * Warning
 * Don't be confused by programs which help you do film scoring for documentaries, corporate video, multimedia and event video. These programs are useless for motion pictures and television dramas.  Programs that just cut and paste pre-recorded music are totally useless for motion pictures.  Don't get suckered in!!!

 * No loops
 * Do not use loops for narrative film scores. Loops are for film scores for documentaries, event video and multimedia.

 * Free lessons - Wikiversity
 * Wikiversity now has a course on Film Scoring for Musicians. This course is free.

 * There is also a Film Scoring for Filmmakers course which is still under constructions.

Career #3 - Visual Effects
When you hear the words Visual Effects, you immediately think of 3D animation. Long ago, visual effects were based on optical compositing (which is just Photoshop for 35mm movie film.) Apple's Shake is now the least expensive compositing program at $499. The much more famous compositing program Adobe AfterEffects starts at $700. One advantage of Adobe AfterEffects is you can by an older version new on eBay for learning the program. Version 5.5 is nice. Also, you can download crippled trial versions of both After Effects and Shake.

If you are not familiar with the concept of compositing, you definitely need to first get a copy of Adobe Photoshop (accept no substitute). Learning this program will give you a basic understanding of compositing images together. The good news is you can purchase new copies of old versions of Adobe Photoshop which are great for learning the concepts. Version 4 or later is a good start; Adobe Photoshop 5.5 is better because it had editable text which version 4 does not. Look on eBay for an older version which is new, sealed in the box from someone with 100% positive feedback.

Career #4 - Sound Effects
Sound effects is working with individual sounds to make them better. This means you need a program which works with individual sound samples. I found that the free version of Peak is awkward to use. However, there is a free 14-day trial version. You need to learn to record sound effects in the field (or in sound effects libraries) and then sweeten the sounds to make them big, fat, and rich sounding.

Career #5 - Sound Recording
Sound recording is like using a multi-track tape recorder. There are a huge number of programs which can do this. Originally, the industry standard was Digidesign but now music programs offer this same feature. Even GarageBand which comes free with all new Macintosh computers can do this (but you still need an interface and professional microphones with XLR connectors.) A more advanced music program is Digital Performer. (Unless you are a professional musician, never get Apple's Logic. Too awkward, confusing, and buggy for filmmakers.)

The thing that is special about sound recording is if you buy a Nagra and good boom microphone and a boom, you are in the sound recording business. While it is not quite as easy as that, this is one of the few careers that you can buy your way into. If you have the basic equipment, every student film in the country will be eager to hire you for a very low salary.

Career #6 - Storyboarding
Most directors do thumbnail storyboards which are storyboards as big as your thumbnail. A few directors will create more extensive storyboards. But anything beyond that is usually done by a specialist.

 * Option 1 - Basic Storyboarding
 * If you are artistically inclined, you can create much more advanced 2D storyboards for movie directors. 2D storyboards can be cartoon style for production boards.

 * Option 2 - High Priced Artwork
 * If you are extremely artistically inclined, you can create full artistic renderings for the financial investors and the Hollywood studio executives. There are only a few jobs doing this but the pay is excellent.

 * Option 3 - 3D Storyboards
 * If you are good with computers, you can create very accurate 3D storyboards. 3D storyboards are photo-accurate storyboards created with a program like FrameForge 3D Studio which offers a free demo version which is an ideal learning tool.  The free demo version is highly recommended to anyone interested in creating storyboards.

 * The Wikiversity Film School offers a free course on Basic Filmmaking which centers around the free demo version of FrameForge 3D Studio.

 * Another option is to use the free DAZ Studio which is a 3D animation program for digital figures.

 * Option 4 - Animated Storyboards
 * For effects shots, filmmakers need an animatic which is an animated storyboard. An animatic is edited with an editing program such as Final Cut Pro.

 * Prerequisites
 * For someone who does storyboards, the most important skill you must learn is how lenses effect a scene. Before you do storyboards, you must know how a scene will appear if filmed though a 24mm, 34mm, 50mm, 85mm, 135mm lens, 200mm, and 300mm lens (35mm still photography lens equivalents). There are three ways you can learn this skill.
 * One way to learn about lenses is to get a camera which has these lenses and take a lot of pictures of people.
 * Another alternative is to learn DAZ Studio or Poser (DAZ Studio is free) and practice filming human figures with 24mm, 48mm, 85mm, and 135mm lenses (35mm still camera equivelent.)
 * And the best alternative is to use the free demo version of FrameForge 3D Studio. For the free version, you get 20 uses and only 12 characters in the scene and 20 storyboards.  Even with these limitations, you will find this program to be the ideal learning tool for both cinematography and storyboarding.  (Highly recommended Robert Elliott)
 * See the section at the bottom of the page on practicing photography.

 * Supplimental Education
 * To understand how scenes are broken down into individual shots, look at lots of film dailies from Hollywood, preferably from television dramas which are usually filmed more efficiently than motion pictures. Currently the best source of film dailies is Star Movie Shop's Disk #1 and Disk #2 which together have 25 unedited scenes for you to study and to edit. Only available to film students.

 * Free Lessons
 * Look at the free courses from Wikiversity Film School. The first course is for Pre-production for Narrative Motion Pictures (scripted dramas).  The heart of the course is FrameForge 3D Studio FREE Demo Version which is free for both the Macintosh and Windows computers.  In this course from Wikiversity, you learn all the steps of creating an animatic (which is a movie of the storyboards.)  This is the basic introduction to narrative filmmaking.

Italic text

Career #7 - Script Writing
Script writing is two parts. The first is to write a story. The second is to format the script. Both are equally important.

You do not need any software to rough out a script. However, formatting, editing and polishing a script requires script formatting software. So if you are going to make a motion picture, you need to learn to use script formatting software such as Final Draft. They offer free trial version of the program.

 * Recommended Training
 * Wikiversity has a filmmaking section has a script formatting section. You are asked to format a script which is 60 second long using Final Draft's Free demonstration version.  You can start on this project now.  Go to Lesson #001 - Formatting the script.

Career #8 DVD-Video Authoring
Authoring DVDs can be an interesting career. Start by learning the free DVD-Video authoring program which comes with your computer such as iDVD. Then get a professional version of a DVD authoring program. It does not have to be the current version. An old version of DVD Studio Pro (version 2 or better) is fine which can be purchased unopened on eBay. (Get the retail version, not the educational version which cannot be upgraded later.)

Career #9 Acting
If you want to be an actor, you must learn one thing. Do everything with confidence. When you are sad in a movie, be sad with confidence. When you are afraid in a movie, be afraid with confidence.

Most of the background of the business of acting can be learned from a one year subscription to BackStage West.

Career #10 Lighting
The rule of lighting for motion pictures is never point a light at an actor (with the exception of back lighting). Light must always be bounced or there must be something in front of the light to diffuse the light. Never use a lighting kit for still photography because they are designed to point the lights at actors.

The secret to lighting is to turn off all the lights and slowly turn them back on, one by one. Stop when you like what you see. Finally, add a very gentle fill light so you can barely see the darkest spot of the scene.

Remember that you are painting with color. Gel everything... then slowly pull back until you find a happy medium.

When possible, show the light. Fog allows you to actually see the light.

Most of the skills of lighting are learned on the movie set. Few people have access to the HUGE lights used in filmmaking. Still you can learn a lot by getting DAZ Studio or Poser (DAZ Studio is free) and practice lighting human figures. You should also be able to do this with Maya Personal Edition which is free. While the effect of lighting in a 3D animation program is never the same as lighting with real lights, it give you a good idea of what is possible. Painting with color is one of the things you can do with lights.

Other Skills Needed For Filmmaking
In addition, you need to learn some simple skills:

Practice Still Photography
If you plan to become a film director, cinematographer or storyboard artist, you need to learn the correct way to film actors and scenery. To do this, you need to understand lenses. The lens of the camera distorts the image which is extremely desirable.

 * Wide angle lenses make the scene seem cold and majestic.
 * Telephoto lenses make the scene seem close and warm.
 * A plain lens (about 48mm) has no distortion and the image always looks boring.

With certain lenses, you can control the depth of field. Depth of field can focus the audiences attention so it is a very useful tool for filmmakers.

Camcorders come with the wrong wide angle lens and they have no control of depth of field. Working with a still SLR camera teaches you this.

 * Recommended Education
 * To learn how to use the distortion of lenses, buy a still camera which has the 35mm equivalent of a 24mm lens and a 85mm to 200mm zoom lens.  24mm is a wide angle lens. If you film scenery with a 28mm or 32mm lens, the landscape will never be as impressive as with a 24mm lens. (20mm is also good but too expensive and too big to be practical for filmmaking.)  (Note: These are 35mm still camera equivalents.)

 * When you work with these lenses, you will see that portraits are normally shot with a telephoto lens and westerns are filmed with a wide angle lens. Try doing the opposite.  Try creating portraits with a 24mm lens.  How to you place the subject in his surroundings to get an impressive picture with a full wide-angle lens?  If you want the answer, watch Citizen Kane!!!

Photoshop
You need to learn how compositing works. Mastering Photoshop will teach you this.

 * Recommended Education
 * Get a copy of Photoshop 4 or later and teach yourself the basics of Photoshop. Back in the stone ages (before personal computers), high schools required that all girls learn to type so they can work in an office.  Typing was the universal application.  Now the universal application is Adobe Photoshop.  No one should leave high school (or even elementary school) without learning Photoshop.  To understand light, channels and selection methods, you need experience using Photoshop.   Note: Programs which cannot access channels are useless for learning compositing. That includes Photoshop Lite.

title: Movie Making Manual/Education2


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Genes, Technology and Policy/Applications in Medicine

What are the applications of modern biotechnology in the medical field?
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in:

 * Pharmacogenomics
 * Drug Production
 * Genetic Testing
 * Gene Therapy

What is pharmacogenomics? What are its anticipated benefits?
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is therefore the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:

1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.

2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.

3.Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.

4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.

''Box 2. Selected Recombinant Products for Disorders Affecting Large Patient Populations''

Figure 5 Source: Feldbaum, C. (8 February 2002). Some History Should Be Repeated, 295 SCIENCE, at 975

How does biotechnology contribute to drug production?
Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing drugs more easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to combat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech joined a gene for insulin and a plasmid vector and put the resulting gene into a bacterium called Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from sheep and pigs. It was very expensive and often elicited unwanted allergic responses. The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of human insulin at low cost.

Since then modern biotechnology has made it possible to produce more easily and cheaply the human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.

What is genetic testing?
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to a normal version of the gene.

What are the potential uses of genetic testing?
Genetic testing can be used to:

 * Diagnose a disease.

 * Confirm a diagnosis.

 * Provide prognostic information about the course of a disease.

 * Confirm the existence of a disease in individuals.

 * With varying degrees of accuracy, predict the risk of future disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

 * carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest

 * prenatal diagnostic screening

 * newborn screening

 * presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders

 * presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers

 * confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals

 * forensic/identity testing

Are genetic tests now available in the market?
Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.

What is gene therapy?
Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or germ (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

How is gene therapy done?
There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to the virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.

2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

How extensive is the use of gene therapy?
Currently, gene therapy use is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being actively investigated in larger animals and human beings.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.

What are the obstacles to the widespread use of gene therapy techniques to treat patients?
Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease. At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.

2. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.

3. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.

4. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.

What is the Human Genome Project?
The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation have accelerated the expected completion date to 2003. In June 2000, scientists announced the generation of a working draft sequence of the entire human genome. The draft provides a road map to an estimated 90% of genes on every human chromosome. Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.

What is human cloning?
Human cloning is one of the techniques of modern biotechnology. It involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.

2. Therapeutic cloning. The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.

The major differences between these two types are shown in Figure 6.

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings. This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.

Figure 6. Comparison of Therapeutic Cloning and Human Reproductive Cloning

What are the concerns regarding the use of modern biotechnology techniques in medicine?
Several issues have been raised regarding the use of modern biotechnology in the medical sector. Many of these issues are similar to those facing any new technology that is viewed as powerful and far-reaching. Some of these issues are:

1. Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus, revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners.

2. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level, there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization.

At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions like, is genetic privacy different from medical privacy?

3. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics.

4. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information. For instance, how should the public be prepared to make informed choices based on the results of genetic tests? How will genetic tests be evaluated and regulated for accuracy, reliability, and usefulness?

5. Effects on social institutions.Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.

6. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease. Do genes influence human behavior? If so, does genetic testing mean controlling human behavior? What is considered acceptable diversity? What is normal and what is a disability or disorder, and who decides these matters? Are disabilities diseases that need to be cured or prevented? Where should the line between medical treatment and enhancement be drawn? Who will have access to gene therapy?


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Nomenclatural Citations/Agaricus/albo-flavidus

Original description (English)
Pileus at first convex, with the margin incurved, then expanded, or slightly depressed, moist, smooth, even white, in exposed places becoming yellowish; gills close, narrow, thin, emarginate and decurrent with a tooth; stem whitish, equal, solid, striato-fibrillose, with a thin tough cuticle. Ground in woods and open fields. Sandlake and North Elba. August. Height 3-4 in.; breadth of pileus 2-3 in.; stem about 3 lines thick. The pileus is sometimes slightly and broadly umbonate.


text:
Nomenclatural Citations/Agaricus/americanus

Original description (English)
Pileus convex, distinctly umbonate, squamose, with the margin obscurely striate; gills free; stem slender, smooth, annulate, stuffed or hollow, gradually enlarged below into a long, subventricose, bulb-like base; ring thin, subpersistent, fixed. Grassy ground by road sides. August. Buffalo. Height 3 in. to 5 in., breadth of pileus 11/2-3 in. The whole plant becomes of a dull pinkish red in drying.


text:
Genes, Technology and Policy/Applications in Agriculture

What are the applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture?
There are many applications of biotechnology in agriculture.

Improved yield from crops. Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield. However, while increase in crop yield is the most obvious application of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield. There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses. Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are the two most important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.

Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.

Increased nutritional qualities of food crops. Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet. A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Goldenrice™(discussed below).

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food.Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage.

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening. Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals. Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosphate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 62.6 million hectares planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and stacked genes for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.

Production of novel substances in crop plants.Modern biotechnology is increasingly being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed is at present used mainly for margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Banana trees and tomato plants have also been genetically engineered to produce vaccines in their fruit. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.

Figure 7 provides a panoramic view of other potential applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture.

Figure 7.

There have been reports about modifying rice to address problems of deficiency in Vitamin A. Is this true, and will the technology be available to developing countries?
Yes, there are efforts to improve the nutritional quality of rice. This staple food for two billion people is usually milled to remove the outer layers to prevent their high oil content from causing spoilage. The remaining grains are low in B-carotene, the chemical precursor of vitamin A. Some 400 million people worldwide suffer from vitamin A deficiency while over 3.7 billion people are iron-deficient. Vitamin A deficiency causes five million deaths annually, and blindness in a further 500,000 people, while iron deficiency causes anemia and birth defects.

Golden Rice™is a transgenic crop created by Dr. Ingo Potrykus and his colleagues to improve the nutritional quality of rice by increasing the quantities of beta carotene (the precursor of vitamin A) and improving the crop’s iron content. Several genes have been inserted into the rice genome, including a daffodil gene, allowing the endosperm (the part that remains after milling and polishing) to produce B-carotene. Additionally, a phytase gene (which produces an enzyme to release chemically-bound iron), a gene to increase organic iron, and a gene to aid iron absorption in the digestive tract have been added. The presence of beta carotene in the endosperm of the transgenic rice gives it a golden color. Hence, the name “golden rice”.

The research, which was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, the Swiss government and the European Union, hopes to provide a cheap form of vitamin supplementation. If it is later proven to be viable and safe, Golden Rice will be distributed in developing countries, with no patents blocking access to it. The introduction of vitamin A-producing beta carotene into the rice gene has the potential of addressing the vitamin A problem, especially among those who are too poor to diversify their diets with green vegetables.

How is modern biotechnology in agriculture different from traditional plant breeding techniques? Is modern biotechnology simply a more advanced stage in the biotechnology development continuum?
Yes and no. Yes, because both traditional and modern biotechnology involve the transfer of genes from one organism to another. Traditional breeding techniques typically involve the repeated mixing of thousands of genes over several years and many generations of plants to achieve a desired trait. Modern biotechnology accelerates this lengthy process by allowing scientists to insert selected genes directly into a plant. This makes modern biotechnology less of an iterative process compared to traditional plant breeding techniques. In this sense, modern biotechnology is simply an extension of traditional breeding.

No, because unlike traditional breeding techniques, modern biotechnology can move genes across species, even family, boundaries to produce novel organisms that do not normally occur in nature. To cite a simplistic example, a brown cow that mates with a yellow cow may produce a calf of a completely new color, but reproductive mechanisms limit the number of new combinations. Cows must breed with other cows or their very near relatives. A farmer cannot breed for a purple cow using traditional sexual reproduction techniques because the necessary purple genes are not available in cows or their near relatives. In contrast, the biological barrier is not as steep, at least in theory, to a genetic engineer. If purple genes are available in another species, say in an iris plant, those genes could be mixed with the genes of the cow to produce purple cows.

How are genes inserted into plants using modern biotechnology?
There are currently two commonly used methods for introducing genes into plants genomes:

1. Using a plasmid vector. As previously discussed, a vector, like the plasmids of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, may be used to introduce the gene or genes of interest into the plant DNA. The resulting cells are then screened to identify those that have successfully expressed the new trait. The modified seeds are sown in the field and grown like any other crop.

2. Particle bombardment techniques. The DNA to be introduced into plant cells is coated onto tiny particles, which are then physically shot into the plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off and are incorporated into the DNA of the target plant.

Are transgenic crops now commercially available?
Yes, genetically modified crops are now available in the market. If you eat corn or soya products, chances are you are consuming genetically modified products. In the United States, it is estimated that 70-85% of all processed/packaged foods contain one or more ingredients that are derived from transgenic crops.

James (2002) estimated the global area planted to transgenic crops in 2002 at 58.7 million hectares. More than one-quarter of this area, or 13.5 million hectares, is in six developing countries, namely, China, India, Indonesia, Argentina, South Africa, and Mexico. India, the largest cotton growing country in the world, commercialized Bt cotton for the first time during the year. However, four countries continue to account for 99% of the global transgenic crop area. The USA grew 66% of the global total, followed by Argentina with 23%, Canada with 6%, and China with 4%. China had the highest year-on-year percentage growth, with a 40% increase in its Bt cotton area.

The adoption rate for transgenic crops is the highest in the history of agriculture. From 1996 to 2000, 15 countries contributed to a more than 25-fold increase in the global area of transgenic crops, from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 44.2 million hectares in 2000.

Which transgenic crops dominate in terms of acreage?
In 2001, the principal transgenic crops were soybean, with 62% of the global area, followed by corn at 21%, cotton at 12%, and canola at 5%. More than three-quarters of the transgenic crops were modified for herbicide tolerance. The balance was mostly for pest resistance, with a few areas planted to potato and papaya with inserted genes for delayed ripening and virus-resistance.

Is genetic engineering in agriculture harmful to the environment?
Most of the concerns revolve around the effect of biotechnology products on the environment and on human health.

Like all new technologies, genetic engineering, if not properly studied and regulated, can adversely impact on the environment. However, we need to review the impact on a case-by-case basis. Biotechnology by itself is not good or bad. As with all technologies, it is how people use it that can be good or bad, risky or beneficial. Each biotechnology product must be evaluated in terms of whether it is useful, beneficial and safe. To date, there is no scientific proof that the use of modern biotechnology has an adverse effect on the environment and on human health.

The major issues that have been raised so far against the environmental impact of genetically engineered agricultural products and the corresponding scientific consensus are summarized below:

1. Increased weediness. One concern is that altered plants may have increased fitness to survive their environments and might grow unaided by human beings in places where they could have unwanted effects. In unmanaged environments, they could displace natural flora and upset entire ecosystems. However, in a 10-year study to answer the question of whether transgenes conferring herbicide tolerance or insect resistance on crop plants also confer weediness or invasiveness, it was found that genetically modified crops (those that are commercially available) have no more tendency to become weeds than their conventionally bred counterparts. Apparently, more genes are needed to convert a plant into a weed. Another study also showed that biological invasions have extensive time lags that range from 30-150 years and require the chance concordance of favorable conditions before taking off. The question, however, is whether transgenes would hasten this process. This is why potential invasiveness of GM plants is evaluated before any decision to release them into the environment is made.

2. Unintended gene flow. There is also the concern that if relatives of the altered crops are growing near a field with their conventional counterpart, the new gene could move by means of pollen transfer into the latter. There is merit in this concern. This is why studies have to be done on a case-by-case basis to determine the potential environmental risks due to unintended gene flow. The European Science Foundation and European Environment Agency (2002) recently released their report on the significance of pollen-mediated gene flow from six major crop types that have been genetically engineered and are close to commercial release in the European Union, namely, oilseed rape, sugar beet, potatoes, maize, wheat and barley. They found, among others, that oilseed rape is high-risk for crop-to-crop gene flow and gene flow from crop to wild relatives. Potatoes, wheat, and barley are low-risk crops. Maize and sugar beet are both medium- to high-risk for crop-to-crop gene flow, with the latter having the same level of risk for gene flow from crop to wild relatives. There are no known wild relatives of maize in Europe with which it can hybridize.

On the other hand, there is much research on developing alternative measures to mitigate unintended gene flow. At present, seed producers of conventional crops can devise mechanisms to isolate their crop lands from related plants in order to maintain the purity of their lines. In addition, several biotechnology measures to prevent horizontal gene flow, such as apomixis, chloroplast transformation, chromosome-specific cytogenetic system, and transgenetic mitigation, have been suggested. The most controversial is the Technological Protection System (TPS) developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Delta & Pine. The technique, commonly called GURT (for Genetic Use Restriction Technology), involves a system of three genes that interact to control the fertility of seeds by the seed producer. The objection to TPS has to do with the possibility of pollen dispersal to adjacent fields of the same crop, inadvertently causing the latter to produce sterile seeds. This would also have a severe impact on the common practice of seed saving among small farmers in developing countries.

3. Change in herbicide use patterns. It has been pointed out that widespread use of herbicide-tolerant crops could lead to the rapid evolution of resistance to herbicides in weeds, either as a result of increased exposure to the herbicide or as a result of the transfer of the herbicide trait to weedy relatives of the crops. However, to date there is no evidence that this phenomenon is taking place.

4. Squandering of valuable pest susceptibility genes. Many insects contain genes that render them susceptible to pesticides. Often these susceptibility genes predominate in natural populations of insects. These genes are a valuable natural resource because they allow pesticides to remain as effective pest-control tools. The more benign the pesticide, the more valuable the genes that make pests susceptible to it. It is feared that crops that have been altered to contain the pest-resistance Bt gene can adversely affect the continued susceptibility of pests to the Bt toxin. The continuous exposure of pests to the Bt toxin in altered crops selects for the rare resistance genes in the pest population and in time will render the Bt pesticide useless, unless specific measures are instituted to avoid the development of such a resistance. It should be noted, however, that there is really no such thing as permanent resistance to pests and diseases and that insect resistance happens under the current practice of using pesticides or even in nature.

A few years ago, there was a controversy around the effect of genetically modified corn on Monarch butterflies. What was that controversy all about and did it have scientific basis?
Monarch butterfly larvae feed exclusively on the leaves of milkweed plants, which are commonly found in cornfields in the U.S. Pollen from nearby corn can become distributed on the leaves of these plants, and can therefore be eaten by the larvae. In 1999, two studies showed that Monarch butterfly larvae and larvae from related species that were fed leaves dusted with Bt-corn pollen had lower survival rates, compared to those fed leaves dusted with non-Bt corn pollen. These studies were used to suggest that Bt corn was responsible for the recently observed decline in the Monarch butterfly population.

However, subsequent investigations revealed that while a large percentage of Monarch butterfly larvae may feed on milkweed found in the corn belt region of the U.S., there is no overlap between their breeding time and the time of pollen shed through most of this region. Other studies have shown that corn pollen settling on an area decreases rapidly with distance. This and the toxicity studies showing low toxicity of many major Bt-corn strains indicate that pollen densities that could represent significant exposure to feeding larvae are found only within five meters of cornfields, and then rarely. The current scientific consensus is that the adverse impact of Bt-corn pollen observed in the laboratory does not occur in the fields. Hence, Monarch butterflies are safe from Bt corn.

Are GM foods safe to eat?
At present, there are no studies to indicate that any of the commercially available GM foods are any less safe than their non-modified counterparts. This, of course, does not mean that all products of biotechnology are safe. Hence, the need for regulations. In fact, GM food products are subjected to more tests than their conventionally-bred counterparts.

The concerns raised about the safety of genetically engineered food products fall into the following categories:

1. New allergens in the food supply

There is a concern that transgenic crops could introduce new allergens into foods. However, it is important to keep in mind that eating conventional food is also not risk-free; allergies occur with many new and even known conventional foods. For example, the kiwi fruit was introduced into the U.S. and the European market in the 1960s with no known human allergies; today, there are people allergic to this fruit. In February 2002, the Royal Society issued a policy report titled Genetically Modified Plants for Food Use and Human Health—An Update. The report concluded that there is currently no evidence that GM foods cause allergic reactions and “the allergenic risks posed by GM plants are in principle no greater than those posed by conventionally derived crops or by plants introduced from other areas of the world.”

2. Antibiotic resistance

Modern biotechnology often uses genes for antibiotic resistance as “selectable markers”. Early in the genetic engineering process, these markers help select cells that have taken up the foreign genes. Although they have no further use, the genes continue to be expressed in plant tissues. Critics of modern biotechnology argue that the presence of antibiotic-resistance genes could have two harmful effects. First, eating food containing these genes could reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics to fight disease when these antibiotics are taken with meals. Antibiotic resistance genes produce enzymes that can degrade antibiotics. If a tomato with an antibiotic-resistance gene is eaten at the same time as an antibiotic, it could destroy the antibiotic in the stomach. Second, the resistance genes could be transferred to human or animal pathogens, making them impervious to antibiotics. If transfer were to occur, it could aggravate the already serious health problem of antibiotic-resistant disease organisms.

However, unmediated transfers of genetic material from plants to bacteria are highly unlikely. Moreover, several strategies have been developed to avoid the inclusion of antibiotic resistance genes in the commercial transgenic variety.

3. Production of new toxins

Many organisms have the ability to produce toxic substances. For plants, such substances help to defend stationary organisms from many predators in their environment. But there is concern that the addition of new genetic material through genetic engineering could trigger the production of toxic substances within plants. This could happen, for example, if the on/off signals associated with the introduced gene were located in the genome in places where they could turn on the previously inactive genes.

Human beings typically eat several grams of DNA in their diet each day. Hence, the transgene in a genetically engineered plant is not a new type of material to our digestive systems. It is also present in extremely small amounts. In transgenic corn, for example, the transgenes represent about 0.00018 of the total DNA. Decades of research indicate that dietary DNA has no direct toxicity. In fact, exogenous nucleotides have been shown to play important beneficial roles in gut function and the immune system. Likewise, there is no compelling evidence showing the incorporation and expression of plant-derived DNA, whether a transgene or not, into the genomes of a consuming organism.

Defense processes have evolved, including extensive hydrolytic breakdown of the DNA during digestion, excision of integrated foreign DNA from the host genome, and silencing of foreign gene expression by targeted DNA methylation, that prevent the incorporation or expression of foreign DNA. Thus, there is a minimal possibility of adverse effects arising from the presence of foreign DNA by either direct toxicity or gene transfer.

4. Effect on nutrients

Concerns have been raised regarding the possible adverse effect of genetic engineering technology on the nutritional content of food. This is a legitimate concern for regulators. In the U.S., for example, the Food and Drug Administration ensures that the nutritional composition of GM foods is substantially equivalent to that of their conventional counterparts. Studies are performed to determine whether nutrients, vitamins and minerals in the modified food occur at the same levels as in the conventionally-bred food sources. For example, seeds and toasted soybean meal from Roundup Ready™soybeans have been compared to conventional soybeans in terms of protein, oil, fiber, ash, carbohydrates, moisture content, amino acid and fatty acid composition. The results showed that the composition of transgenic lines is equivalent to that of conventional soybean cultivars, except for the trypsin inhibitors in non-toasted soybean meal, which is not consumed. In addition, the equivalence of the feeding value of the transgenic grains was demonstrated in rats, chickens, catfish and dairy cattle.

5. Concentration of toxic metals

Some of the new genes being added to crops can remove heavy metals like mercury from the soil and concentrate them in plant tissue. The purpose of creating such crops is to make possible the use of municipal sludge as fertilizer. Sludge contains useful plant nutrients but often cannot be used as fertilizer because it is contaminated with toxic heavy metals. The idea is to engineer plants to remove and sequester those metals in inedible parts of plants. In a tomato, for example, the metals would be sequestered in the roots. Turning on the genes in only some parts of the plant requires the use of genetic on/off switches that turn on only in specific tissues, like roots. Such products could pose the risk of contaminating foods with high levels of toxic metals if the on/off switches are not completely turned off in edible tissues. There are also environmental risks associated with the handling and disposal of the metal-contaminated parts of plants after harvesting. Regulations have to address the peculiar functions of GMOs being used as bioremediation agents.

A previous study of the adverse effect of GM potatoes on rats is cited by critics of biotechnology as evidence that GM products are unsafe. What happened to that study?
The study was found to be inconclusive.

Dr. Arpad Putztai, a senior scientist at the Rowett Institute in Aberdeen, Scotland, came to international attention when he announced to the media that eating genetically modified potatoes depressed rat immune systems and caused changes in their intestinal tract. Dr. Putztai and his co-workers compared rats fed genetically modified potatoes with rats fed non-modified potatoes, with and without added GNA. The genetically modified potatoes appeared to cause changes in the rats’ immune response and the structure of the intestinal lining.

But there was a flaw in the experiment. While its design was apparently correct for this type of feeding study, rats do not like to eat raw potato. As a result, a standard 110-day trial had to be abandoned after only 67 days because the rats were starving. Starvation affects gut histology, and even the lining of the guts of rats eating unmodified potatoes was shown to be abnormal. The presence of other potato toxins could also have had a confounding effect on cells in the intestine, especially since the potato lines were not substantially equivalent

Does the possible transfer of antibiotic resistance marker genes from ingested GM food to gut microbes pose a significant hazard to human beings?
Organisms that contain DNA encoding for antibiotic resistance proteins are common and are becoming more prevalent in the environment. However, there is no documented evidence that the antibiotic resistance markers in GM foods contribute to antibiotic resistance in gut bacteria. Should there be such a contribution, it is expected to be extremely small for several reasons, including the efficient destruction of the resistance gene in the human gut and the extremely low intrinsic rate of plant-microbe gene transfer.

Furthermore, resistance genes occur quite widely already and the antibiotics involved are not widely used in medical practice. Finally, the technology is now available to omit the use of such selections devices and their use is therefore likely to diminish.

What is the “principle of substantial equivalence”?
The term “substantial equivalence” was first mentioned in 1993 in connection with food safety in a report of the OECD Group of National Experts on Safety in Biotechnology. The members of the group agreed that the most practical approach to determining the safety of foods derived by modern biotechnology is to consider whether they represent a substantial equivalent to analogous traditional products. The term substantial equivalence and the underlying approach were borrowed from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s definition of a class of new medical devices that do not differ materially from their predecessors and thus do not raise new regulatory concerns.

According to the OECD definition, the concept of substantial equivalence is based on the idea that existing products used as foods or food sources can serve as a basis for comparison when assessing the safety and the nutritional value of a food or food ingredient that is new or that has been modified by modern biotechnological methods. If a novel food or novel food component is found to be substantially equivalent to an existing food or food component, it can be treated in the same manner with respect to safety. No additional safety concern would be expected. If a novel food or novel food ingredient is not found to be substantially equivalent to its conventional counterpart, this does not imply that it is unsafe. It must simply be evaluated on the basis of its unique composition and properties.

What is the “precautionary principle”?
The “precautionary principle” traces its origins to Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which provides that:

 * In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by the States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.

The use of the precautionary principle is to be based to the fullest extent possible on scientific evidence of a given problem. However, it is not always possible to move towards a decision on a purely scientific assessment; any assessment must also involve economic, social and ethical aspects. The precautionary principle is thus more of a political norm than a clearly defined concept.

Critics of the precautionary principle have argued that it is poorly defined, not sufficiently grounded in science, stifles development of technology, and hinders trade. It is claimed that it is not a valid principle for evaluating scientific evidence as it distorts reality and leads to the acceptance of false beliefs. Opponents are also concerned that the precautionary principle’s focus on hypothetical risks will distract consumers and policy makers from the policies needed to address known food-borne threats to human health.

The precautionary principle has been invoked to justify a prohibition of GM crops. The justification for a ban allegedly considers the potential public health and environmental benefits of the banned GM crop. However, it ignores the probable public health and environmental benefits that would necessarily be foregone as a result of the ban. A comprehensive application of the precautionary principle indicates that a GM crop ban, contrary to the claims of its advocates, would increase overall risks to public health and to the environment, especially in developing countries. Thus, it would be more prudent to study, develop, and possibly commercialize GM crops than to ban such crops, provided reasonable caution is exercised through the regulatory agencies.

Should it wish to do so, how should a government regulate the use of modern biotechnology?
The purpose of a biosafety (short for “biological safety”) system is to control the risks associated with the products of modern biotechnology. An integrated national biosafety system has the following elements:

1. National policy, strategies and research agenda regarding biosafety. The development of a national biosafety system should begin with the elaboration of a national biosafety policy consistent with a country’s other policy objectives on food, agriculture, the environment and sustainable development. This policy will serve as the basis for the crafting of specific legislation and/or regulations on biosafety. It should articulate a framework where competing goals, such as economic, regional development and environmental protection, may be integrated and communicated as a single national vision.

2. National inventory and evaluation. This is a means to identify and characterize the available resources and regulatory infrastructure in a country, assess their adequacy for supporting a biosystem, and identify gaps where capacities need to be strengthened. The inventory should include the following factors:

 * existing regulatory structures and legislation pertaining to the import and export of agricultural commodities, environmental protection, animal and human health safety, and biotechnology

 * existing mechanisms for the development of public policy, legislation, and regulations

 * existing human, financial and scientific infrastructure

 * the current status of biotechnology research and development, including programs for the safe use and handling of GMOs

 * existing mechanisms for regional cooperation and regulatory harmonization

 * existing capacity building programs

 * the role of civil society in policy and regulatory development processes

 * administrative and enforcement capacity

3. Knowledge, skills and capacity base to develop and implement a biosafety system. A strong base of scientific knowledge to support the regulatory system and the development of competencies in product evaluation is critical to any biosafety system. A limited knowledge and skills base will tend to produce regulations that are highly protective, at the expense of innovation.

Some countries have implemented a system of expert advisory committees, while others have relied primarily on scientists and professionals working within government agencies. The advantage of independent advisory committees is that they generally have more transparent accountability frameworks because the expertise and academic credentials of their membership are usually published. However, they may suffer from the part-time volunteer nature of their membership. A combination of these two approaches—expert advisory committees and government scientists and professionals—may be the best arrangement. Product evaluations performed by competent scientists within a regulatory agency could be supplemented by the results of issue-specific expert panel consultations.

 * Box 3. Risk Assessment

4. Development of regulations. A country may adopt either voluntary guidelines or mandatory regulations. Voluntary guidelines are more quickly put in place and are more flexible for the adoption of revisions incorporating new information requirements. However, the public may not be as confident with voluntary guidelines as they would be with mandatory regulations. Thus, there may be value in adopting mandatory regulations.

If a country elects to develop mandatory regulations, it can do so in one of two ways: (1) it can develop a new act and regulations to specifically address GMOs; or (2) it can regulate GMOs using existing legal instruments such as acts, regulations, and presidential decrees. The former has the advantage of establishing a system that specifically addresses the product or process to be regulated, of being crafted to allow flexibility in the face of new technical advances, and of being perceived by the public as a positive response to addressing the concerns about safety of GMOs. However, it could take long to develop such a new act or regulation, especially with the political controversy that GMOs have generated. Also, this could result in GMOs being regulated in perpetuity even if the scientific basis for the separate regulation has long been eroded.

If a mandatory system is adopted, the policy maker should also decide on whether the system should take any of the following forms:

 * ex ante regulation in the form of required permits, licenses, regulations, and product approvals before any GM product is used or released, whether for experimental or commercial purposes;

 * strict ex post facto liabilities in the form of damage payments by the biotechnology research organization or business entities; or

 * a negligence rule, which is a combination of the ex ante regulation and ex post facto liabilities.

The biosafety policy developed in most countries emphasizes the ex ante regulatory approach. This approach has the major benefit of providing information to both the producer and consumer of biotechnology products. If a biotechnology organization produces new products according to the regulations, it is less likely to be fined ex post facto. Thus, regulation and product standards reduce risk and thereby allow the market to work more smoothly as the participants are better informed about the rules of the game.

Ultimately, the development of biosafety policy will depend on several factors including the nature of risks, the goal of public policy, the institutional and judicial framework, and the involvement of the private sector in biotechnology research.

Regardless of the type of regulatory framework chosen, care must be taken not to overregulate. An unreasonably stringent regulatory system can prevent beneficial products from being made available to the public.

5. Implementation of regulations. The final step of putting the system into operation requires the following elements:

 * The regulations or guidelines clearly define the structure of the biosafety system.

 * People are knowledgeable and well trained.

 * The review process is based on up-to-date scientific information.

 * Feedback mechanisms are used to incorporate new information and revise the system as needed.

What international agreements are relevant to modern biotechnology?
Issues related to modern biotechnology have been raised in a number of international fora, including the following:

 * Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

 * Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

 * Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

 * World Trade Organization (WTO)

 * World Health Organization (WHO)

 * World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

 * Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

 * Office of International Epizootics (OIE)

 * International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

 * Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC)

 * World Bank

There are also a number of international agreements that relate to modern biotechnology. The most important are the:

 * Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity

 * Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

 * Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures

 * WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

What is the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety?
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is the first international legally binding tool regarding biosafety in biotechnology. It seeks to contribute to ensuring that there is an adequate level of protection in the safe transfer, handling and use of GMOs resulting from modern biotechnology, especially those that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It also takes into account risks to human health, and specifically focuses on transboundary movements.

The Protocol was adopted in Montreal on January 29, 2000, but will take effect only after at least 50 States have ratified it. In summary, the Protocol:

 * Establishes an Advance Informed Agreement procedure for imports of LMOs intended for release into the environment;

 * Establishes a simplified procedure for notification and information exchange for LMOs intended for food, feed or for processing, such as agricultural commodities;

 * Establishes regimes for assessing and managing risks to biodiversity;

 * Details information and documentation requirements; and

 * Includes provision for capacity-building and financial resources.

 * Box 4. The Advanced Informed Agreement Procedure

 * Box 5. Procedure for Transboundary Movement of LMOs Intended for Direct Use as Food or Feed, or for Processing

What is the Codex Alimentarius Commission?
Food standard setting at the international level is done by the Joint FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). This is an intergovernmental body established to protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in the food trade. The 23rd Session of the CAC, held in 1999, agreed to create an Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Task Force for Foods Derived from Biotechnology to develop standards, guidelines and recommendations regarding the safety and nutritional aspects of genetically modified foods.

The elaboration of food standards by the CAC follows a step-wise procedure, as shown below:

Step 1: Authorization of the elaboration of a text as new work

Step 2: Preparation of a proposed draft

Step 3: Circulation of the proposed draft for comments by governments and observers

Step 4: Consideration of the proposed draft by a Committee or a Task Force

Step 5: Provisional adoption as a draft by the CAC

Step 6: Circulation of the draft for comments by governments and observers

Step 7: Consideration of the draft by a Committee or a Task Force

Step 8: Final adoption by the CAC70

Once a text is adopted at Step 8, it is given the status of an international benchmark under the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement. While the SPS Agreement requires its Members to base their risk management measures on scientific risk assessment, Members applying recognized international standards such as those of the Codex Alimentarius are deemed to be in compliance with their obligations under the SPS Agreement. There is thus a strong incentive for governments to use Codex standards as a basis for national regulations. In doing so, they can strengthen their food control system while avoiding unnecessary trade disputes.

The Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Task Force for Foods Derived from Biotechnology has recently released, at Step 8 of the Elaboration Procedure, the “Draft Principles for the Risk Analysis of Foods Derived from Modern Biotechnology” and the “Draft Guideline for the Conduct of Food Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Recombinant-DNA Plants”. Both documents are available at www.codexalimentarius.com, and countries wishing to regulate GM foods are well advised to review them.

What is the Technical Barriers to Trade (“TBT”) Agreement?
The TBT Agreement is one of the agreements under the administrative supervision of the WTO. It recognizes that countries should not be prevented from taking regulatory measures necessary to pursue various “legitimate objectives” such as, inter alia, national security requirements, the prevention of deceptive practices, and protection of human health or safety of animal or plant life or the environment. Governments are, however, required to apply technical regulations and standards in a non-discriminatory manner and ensure that they do not restrict trade.

The TBT Agreement incorporates a fundamental principle of general trade law that is relevant to products of modern biotechnology: “like” products should be similarly treated. The intention is to avoid applying different regulatory measures to products with similar characteristics on the ground that they have been produced differently. This is designed to avoid arbitrary and deliberate discrimination against imported products which, although similar, may have been produced with techniques different from those used for domestically produced products. However, there is as yet no formal interpretation as to whether, under the TBT Agreement, products produced using modern biotechnology are “like” their conventional counterparts.

What is the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement?
The SPS Agreement, like the TBT Agreement, is one of the WTO agreements. It applies to all sanitary and phytosanitary measures that may affect international trade. Sanitary and phytosanitary measures are international standards or regulations established to protect human, animal or plant health on quarantine and food safety grounds and cover such concerns as the presence of microbial contaminants, toxins, heavy metals and pesticide residues in food and quarantine risks posed by pests weeds and pathogens that are applied domestically.

In the context of trade in agricultural products, these measures are to be applied only to the extent necessary to protect human life or health and “to protect human life or health from the risk arising from additives, contaminants, toxin or disease causing organisms in foods.” The SPS Agreement removes the right of countries to arbitrarily restrict access to markets on health and safety grounds. It also calls on members to harmonize sanitary and phytosanitary measures on a global basis by adopting international standard guidelines and recommendations, where these exist. Sufficient scientific evidence must be provided if members wish to maintain SPS measures at levels above relevant international standards.

The scientific requirement of the SPS Agreement is important because it provides a more objective approach in determining what is a justified trade restriction and what is hidden protectionism. On the other hand, the agreement may seem inadequate to tackle restrictions introduced on the basis of consumer sentiments in relation to food production methods such as genetic engineering.

When scientific evidence is unavailable or insufficient for a final judgment about the safety of a product or process to be made, Article 5.7 of the SPS Agreement explicitly allows WTO member states to take precautionary measures based on available pertinent information. Members are, however, obliged to seek additional information so that a more objective evaluation of the risks related to the relevant product or process can be made within a reasonable period of time.


text:
Nomenclatural Citations/Agaricus/carnosior

Original description (English)
Pileus thick, fleshy, obconic, at first convex, then plane or slightly depressed, subumbonate, brown, the margin at first involute, at length expanded, thin; gills white, not crowded, some of them forked; stem concolorous with the pileus, fibrillose, slightly tapering upwards. Pine woods. West Albany and Sandlake. Sept.-Oct. Height 2-4 in., breadth of pileus 1-3 in., stem 3-6 lines thick. The flesh is moist, soft, and white, sometimes caespitose. Taste pleasant.


text:
Nomenclatural Citations/Agaricus/adirondackensis

Original description (English)
Pileus thin, submembranaceous, infundibuliform; margin decurved, nearly smooth, hygrophanous, white, disc often darker; gills white, very narrow, scarcely broader than the thickness of the flesh of the pileus, crowded, long, decurrent, subarcuate, some of them forked; stem slender, subequal, not hollow, whitish, mycelio-thickened at the base.

Amongst leaves in woods. August.

The gills are sometimes tinged with yellow, margin of pileus occasionally wavy.


text:
Horticulture/Pre-emergent Herbicides

Pre-emergent herbicides are substances applied to the soil that prevent the successful germination of weed seeds. Timing is important when using these, as the applicator needs to know when to apply them: if applied too early, they may lose their effectiveness by the time weeds are germinating, if applied too late the weeds will already have grown beyond the point where they are vulnerable to this treatment.

title: Horticulture/Pre-emergent Herbicides


text:
Horticulture/Contact Herbicides

Contact herbicides are chemicals that kill plant tissues on contact. These are not the same as systemic herbicides, which kill the entire plant.

title: Horticulture/Contact Herbicides


text:
Horticulture/Systemic Herbicides

Systemic herbicides are chemicals that kill entire plants by traveling through the plants' vascular systems.

The most well-known systemic herbicide is glyphosate, sold under the names RoundUp™ and Rodeo™.

title: Horticulture/Systemic Herbicides


text:
Horticulture/Drench Herbicides

Drench herbicides are chemicals applied to the soil that kill the root zones of plants. Many of these chemicals are persistent, and are most commonly used along road cuts or other areas where no plant growth whatsoever is desired.

title: Horticulture/Drench Herbicides


text: Template:Nomenclatural Citations/Warning


text: Category:Book:AEM EMS Guidebook

title: Category:Book:AEM EMS Guidebook


text:
America's Army: Special Forces

America's Army: Special Forces is a guide by and for players of the computer game America's Army. For this reason its tone and point of view are not detached and the guide does not make a clear distinction between fact and fiction, lacks references and sources and may be confusing for readers unfamiliar with the game.

Training

 * /Basic Marksmanship Training/
 * /Obstacle Course Training/ - Eagle Tower
 * /Weapons Familiarization/
 * /MOUT Single Player Training/ - MOUT Shoothouse
 * /Advanced Marksmanship Training/ - M24 training, M82 training
 * /Airborne Training/ - 250 foot Jump Tower, Live Jump
 * /Medic Training/ - Breathing control, Bleeding control, Treating shock, Field training
 * /Special Forces Training/ - SF Assessment and Selection AVWID, Escape and Evasion
 * /Advanced Training/ - Driver Training, CROWS gunnery training, and Javelin Training

General

 * /Basic Tactics/Hints/
 * /Stealth Tactics/
 * /Timing tips for Close Quarters situations/

Multiplayer Maps

 * /Border Tactics/
 * /Bridge Crossing Tactics/
 * /Bridge Crossing SE Tactics/
 * /Collapsed Tunnel Tactics/
 * /Dusk Tactics/
 * /FARP Raid Tactics/ - Farm Raid
 * /FLS Assault Tactics/
 * /HQ Raid Tactics/
 * /Insurgent Camp Tactics/
 * /Interdiction Tactics/ (coop)
 * /Mountain Ambush Tactics/
 * /Mountain Pass Tactics/
 * /Mountain Pass SE Tactics/
 * /MOUT Mckenna Tactics/
 * /Pipeline Tactics/
 * /Radio Tower Tactics/
 * /River Basin Tactics/
 * /Steamroller Tactics/
 * /Swamp Raid Tactics/
 * /Weapons Cache Tactics/
 * /Weapons Cache SE Tactics/
 * /Woodland Outpost Tactics/
 * /Urban Assault Tactics/

Special Forces Multiplayer Maps

 * /Pipeline SF Tactics/
 * /SF Arctic Tactics/
 * /SF CSAR Tactics/
 * /SF Courtyard/
 * /SF Dockside Tactics/
 * /SF Extraction Tactics/
 * /SF Hospital Tactics/
 * /SF Recon Tactics/
 * /SF Oasis Tactics/
 * /SF Sandstorm Tactics/
 * /SF Taiga Tactics/
 * /SF Water Treatment Tactics/
 * /SF Snake Plain Tactics/

US Equipment

 * /M16A2 Rifle/
 * /M4A1 Rifle/
 * /M203 Grenade Launcher/
 * /M4 SOPMOD/
 * /M249 SAW/
 * /M24 Sniper Rifle/
 * /M82 Sniper Rifle/
 * /SPR Special Purpose Rifle/
 * /M9 Pistol/
 * /AT4 Anti-tank Launcher/
 * /Javelin Anti-tank Launcher/
 * /Night Vision Goggles/
 * /MILES/
 * /Parachute/
 * /M2 .50Cal/
 * /Mk.19 40mm Grenade Launcher/

US Vehicles

 * /HMMWV/ M1114 Uparmored

OpFor/IF Weapons

 * /AK47/AK74 Rifle/
 * /AK74 Modified Rifle/
 * /RPK Automatic Rifle/
 * /Mosin-Nagant Sniper Rifle/
 * /SVD Sniper Rifle/
 * /Vintorez Sniper Rifle/
 * /RPG-7 Rocket Launcher/

Opfor Vehicles

 * /T-62/
 * /BTR Troop transport/ (APC)
 * /BMP Infantry Fighting Vehicle/

Grenades

 * /Frag Grenade/
 * /Smoke Grenade/
 * /Flash Grenade/
 * /Incendiary Grenade/

Game Rules and Regulations

 * /The RoE and Rules/
 * /Honor Scale/
 * /Player Rankings/
 * /Cheat Detection/

Misc

 * /Tweaks/
 * /Console Scripting/
 * /Common Issues/
 * /The Future of AA/
 * /Lore/
 * /TacticalMaps/

Community

 * /Teams/Clans/
 * /Links of Interest/
 * /Contributors/
 * /Interviews/

title: America's Army: Special Forces


text:
Horticulture/Rosa multiflora

Multiflora Rose (Rosa multiflora), is a species of rose native to China, Japan and Korea, but also present in other parts of the world as an invasive weed. It is particularly problematic for wooded areas and meadows because of its dense growth and copious thorns which make removal difficult.

Description
It is a scrambling shrub climbing over other plants to a height of 3-5 m or sometimes higher in trees, with stout stems with recurved thorns. The leaves are 5-10 cm long, compound, with 5-9 leaflets and feathered stipules. The flowers are produced in long panicles, each flower small, 1.5-4 cm diameter, white or pink, borne in early summer. The hips are reddish to purple, 6-8 mm diameter.

Ecology
In eastern North America, Multiflora Rose has become an invasive species, though it was originally planted as a soil conservation measure and as a wildlife attracting plant. It is readily distinguished from American native roses by its flower or seed heads, which bear multiple flowers and hips, often more than a dozen, while the native species bear only one or a few on a branch.

Over time this plant has become a serious ecological problem because of its ability to grow in diverse light, soil, and moisture conditions, and because its seeds are widely broadcast by birds. Once established, it forms nearly impenetrable thickets that displace native understory plants and can become a fire hazard in wilderness areas. Some places classify Multiflora rose as a "noxious weed". In grazing areas, this rose is generally considered to be a serious pest, though it is considered excellent fodder for goats.

Uses
Multiflora Rose is grown as an ornamental plant, and also used as a rootstock for grafting ornamental rose cultivars.

Control
Because of the thorny, tough nature of this plant, heavy equipment duch as tractors or backhoes are often employed where possible.

title: Horticulture/Rosa multiflora


text:
Talk:Horticulture/Rosa multiflora

Transwiki notes
Copied from Multiflora Rose 13:34, 3 October 2006 (UTC) using this version.

title: Talk:Horticulture/Rosa multiflora