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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/The Cell

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * that cells can be of different shapes and sizes
 * the role and function of the plasma membrane; cytoplasm, ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum; smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, golgi bodies, lysosomes, centrioles and the nucleus
 * the structure of the plasma membrane
 * that substances move across the plasma membrane by passive and active processes
 * that passive processes include diffusion, osmosis and facilitated diffusion and active processes include active transport, pinocytosis, phagocytosis and exocytosis
 * what the terms hypotonic, hypertonic isotonic and haemolysis mean
 * that the nucleus contains the chromosomes formed from DNA
 * that mitosis is the means by which ordinary cells divide
 * the main stages of mitosis
 * that meiosis is the process by which the chromosome number is halved when ova and sperm are formed

The Cell
The cell is the basic building block of living organisms. Bacteria and the parasite that causes malaria consist of single cells, while plants and animals are made up of trillions of cells. Most cells are spherical or cube shaped but some are a range of different shapes (see diagram 3.1).

Most cells are so small that a microscope is needed to see them, although a few cells, e.g. the ostrich’s egg, are so large that they could make a meal for several people.

A normal cell is about 0.02 of a millimetre (0.02mm) in diameter. (Small distances like this are normally expressed in micrometres or microns (μm). Note there are 1000 μms in every mm).

When you look at a typical animal cell with a light microscope it seems quite simple with only a few structures visible (see diagram 3.2).

Three main parts can be seen:

 * an outer cell membrane (plasma membrane),
 * an inner region called the cytoplasm and
 * the nucleus

However, when you use an electron microscope to increase the magnification many thousands of times you see that these seemingly simple structures are incredibly complex, each with its own specialized function. For example the plasma membrane is seen to be a double layer and the cytoplasm contains many special structures called organelles (meaning little organs) which are described below. A drawing of the cell as seen with an electron microscope is shown in diagram 3.3.

The Plasma Membrane

The thin plasma membrane surrounds the cell, separating its contents from the surroundings and controlling what enters and leaves the cell. The plasma membrane is composed of two main molecules,phospholipids(fats) and proteins. The phospholipids are arranged in a double layer with the large protein molecules dotted about in the membrane (see diagram 3.4). Some of the protein molecules form tiny channels in the membrane while others help transport substances from one side of the membrane to the other.

How substances move across the Plasma Membrane
Substances need to pass through the membrane to enter or leave the cell and they do so in a number of ways. Some of these processes require no energy i.e. they are passive, while others require energy i.e. they are active.

Passive processes include: a) diffusion and b) osmosis, while active processes include: c) active transport, d) phagocytosis, e) pinocytosis and f) exocytosis. These will be described below.

a) Diffusion

Although you may not know it, you are already familiar with the process of diffusion. It is diffusion that causes a smell (expensive perfume or smelly socks) in one part of the room to gradually move through the room so it can be smelt on the other side. Diffusion occurs in the air and in liquids.

Diagram 3.5 shows what happens when a few crystals of a dark purple dye called potassium permanganate are dropped into a beaker of water. The dye molecules diffuse into the water moving from high to low concentrations so they become evenly distributed throughout the beaker.

In the body, diffusion causes molecules that are in a high concentration on one side of the cell membrane to move across the membrane until they are present in equal concentrations on both sides. It takes place because all molecules have an in-built vibration that causes them to move and collide until they are evenly distributed. It is an absolutely natural process that requires no added energy.

Small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and ammonia as well as fats, diffuse directly through the double fat layer of the membrane. The small molecules named above as well as a variety of charged particles (ions) also diffuse through the protein-lined channels. Larger molecules like glucose attach to a carrier molecule that aids their diffusion through the membrane. This is called facilitated diffusion.

In the animal’s body diffusion is important for moving oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the blood, for moving digested food molecules from the gut into the blood and for the removal of waste products from the cell.

b) Osmosis

Although the word may be unfamiliar, you are almost certainly acquainted with the effects of osmosis. It is osmosis that plumps out dried fruit when you soak it before making a fruit cake or makes that wizened old carrot look almost like new when you soak it in water. Osmosis is in fact the diffusion of water across a membrane that allows water across but not larger molecules. This kind of membrane is called a semi-permeable membrane.

Take a look at side A of diagram 3.6. It shows a container divided into two parts by an artificial semi-permeable membrane. Water is poured into one part while a solution containing salt is poured into the other part. Water can cross the membrane but the salt cannot. The water crosses the semi-permeable membrane by diffusion until there is an equal amount of water on both sides of the membrane. The effect of this would be to make the salt solution more diluted and cause the level of the liquid in the right-hand side of the container to rise so it looked like side  B of diagram 3.6. This movement of water across the semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis. It is a completely natural process that requires no outside energy.

Although it would be difficult to do in practice, imagine that you could now take a plunger and push down on the fluid in the right-hand side of container B so that it flowed back across the semi-permeable membrane until the level of fluid on both sides was equal again. If you could measure the pressure required to do this, this would be equal to the osmotic pressure of the salt solution. (This is a rather advanced concept at this stage but you will meet this term again when you study fluid balance later in the course).

The plasma membrane of cells acts as a semi-permeable membrane. If red blood cells, for example, are placed in water, the water crosses the membrane to make the amount of water on both sides of it equal (see diagram 3.7). This means that the water moves into the cell causing it to swell. This can occur to such an extent that the cell actually bursts to release its contents. This bursting of red blood cells is called haemolysis. In a situation such as this when the solution on one side of a semi-permeable membrane has a lower concentration than that on the other side, the first solution is said to be hypotonic to the second.

Now think what would happen if red blood cells were placed in a salt solution that has a higher salt concentration than the solution within the cells (see diagram 3.8). Such a bathing solution is called a hypertonic solution. In this situation the “concentration” of water within the cells would be higher than that outside the cells. Osmosis (diffusion of water) would then occur from the inside of the cells to the outside solution, causing the cells to shrink.

A solution that contains 0.9% salt has the same concentration as body fluids and the solution within red cells. Cells placed in such a solution would neither swell nor shrink (see diagram 3.9). This solution is called an isotonic solution. This strength of salt solution is often called normal saline and is used when replacing an animal’s body fluids or when cells like red blood cells have to be suspended in fluid.

Remember - osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane. It is a completely passive process and requires no energy.

Sometimes it is difficult to remember which way the water molecules move. Although it is not strictly true in a biological sense, many students use the phrase “SALT SUCKS” to help them remember which way water moves across the membrane when there are two solutions of different salt concentrations on either side.

As we have seen water moves in and out of the cell by osmosis. All water movement from the intestine into the blood system and between the blood capillaries and the fluid around the cells (tissue or extra cellular fluid) takes place by osmosis. Osmosis is also important in the production of concentrated urine by the kidney.

c) Active transport

When a substance is transported from a low concentration to a high concentration i.e. uphill against the concentration gradient, energy has to be used. This is called active transport.

Active transport is important in maintaining different concentrations of the ions sodium and potassium on either side of the nerve cell membrane. It is also important for removing valuable molecules such as glucose, amino acids and sodium ions from the urine.

d) Phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is sometimes called “cell eating”. It is a process that requires energy and is used by cells to move solid particles like bacteria across the plasma membrane. Finger-like projections from the plasma membrane surround the bacteria and engulf them as shown in diagram 3.10. Once within the cell, enzymes produced by the lysosomes of the cell (described later) destroy the bacteria.

The destruction of bacteria and other foreign substance by white blood cells by the process of phagocytosis is a vital part of the defense mechanisms of the body.

e) Pinocytosis

Pinocytosis or “cell drinking” is a very similar process to phagocytosis but is used by cells to move fluids across the plasma membrane. Most cells carry out pinocytosis (note the pinocytotic vesicle in diagram 3.3).

f) Exocytosis

Exocytosis is the process by means of which substances formed in the cell are moved through the plasma membrane into the fluid outside the cell (or extra-cellular fluid). It occurs in all cells but is most important in secretory cells (e.g. cells that produce digestive enzymes) and nerve cells.

The Cytoplasm
Within the plasma membrane is the cytoplasm. It consists of a clear jelly-like fluid called the a) cytosol or intracellular fluid in which b) cell inclusions, c) organelles and d) microfilaments and microtubules are found.

a) Cytosol
The cytosol consists mainly of water in which various molecules are dissolved or suspended. These molecules include proteins, fats and carbohydrates as well as sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride ions. Many of the reactions that take place in the cell occur in the cytosol.

b) Cell inclusions
These are large particles of fat, glycogen and melanin that have been produced by the cell. They are often large enough to be seen with the light microscope. For example the cells of adipose tissue (as in the insulating fat layer under the skin) contain fat that takes up most of the cell.

c) Organelles
Organelles are the “little organs” of the cell - like the heart, kidney and liver are the organs of the body. They are structures with characteristic appearances and specific “jobs” in the cell. Most can not be seen with the light microscope and so it was only when the electron microscope was developed that they were discovered. The main organelles in the cell are the ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, Golgi complex and lysosomes. A cell containing these organelles as seen with the electron microscope is shown in diagram 3.3.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are tiny spherical organelles that make proteins by joining amino acids together. Many ribosomes are found free in the cytosol, while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are amembranous organelles (they are not bound by a membrane).

Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes that form channels throughout the cytoplasm from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. Various molecules are made in the ER and transported around the cell in its channels. There are two types of ER: smooth ER and rough ER.

 * Smooth ER is where the fats in the cell are made and in some cells, where chemicals like alcohol, pesticides and carcinogenic molecules are inactivated.

 * The Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface. The function of the Rough ER is therefore to make proteins that are modified stored and transported by the ER (Diagram 3.11).

Mitochondria
Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are oval or rod shaped organelles scattered throughout the cytoplasm. They consist of two membranes, the inner one of which is folded to increase its surface area. (Diagram 3.12)

Mitochondria are the “power stations” of the cell. They make energy by “burning” food molecules like glucose. This process is called cellular respiration. The reaction requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide which is a waste product. The process is very complex and takes place in a large number of steps but the overall word equation for cellular respiration is-

 * Glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water + energy
 * or C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 +    6H2O  +  energy

Note that cellular respiration is different from respiration or breathing. Breathing is the means by which air is drawn into and expelled from the lungs. Breathing is necessary to supply the cells with the oxygen required by the mitochondria and to remove the carbon dioxide produced as a waste product of cellular respiration.

Active cells like muscle, liver, kidney and sperm cells have large numbers of mitochondria.

Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi bodies in a cell together make up the Golgi apparatus. Golgi bodies are found near the nucleus and consist of flattened membranes stacked on top of each other rather like a pile of plates (see diagram 3.13). The Golgi apparatus modifies and sorts the proteins and fats made by the ER, then surrounds them in a membrane as vesicles so they can be moved to other parts of the cell.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes are large vesicles that contain digestive enzymes. These break down bacteria and other substances that are brought into the cell by phagocytosis or pinocytosis. They also digest worn-out or damaged organelles, the components of which can then be recycled by the cell to make new structures.

d) Microfilaments And Microtubules
Some cells can move and change shape and organelles and chemicals are moved around the cell. Threadlike structures called microfilaments and microtubules that can contract are responsible for this movement.

These structures also form the projections from the plasma membrane known as flagella (singular flagellum) as in the sperm tail, and cilia found lining the respiratory tract and used to remove mucus that has trapped dust particles (see chapter 4).

Microtubules also form the pair of cylindrical structures called centrioles found near the nucleus. These help organize the spindle used in cell division.

The Nucleus

The nucleus is the largest structure in a cell and can be seen with the light microscope. It is a spherical or oval body that contains the chromosomes. The nucleus controls the development and activity of the cell. Most cells contain a nucleus although mature red blood cells have lost theirs during development and some muscle cells have several nuclei.

A double membrane similar in structure to the plasma membrane surrounds the nucleus (now called the nuclear envelope). Pores in this nuclear membrane allow communication between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

Within the nucleus one or more spherical bodies of darker material can be seen, even with the light microscope. These are called nucleoli and are made of RNA. Their role is to make new ribosomes.

Chromosomes
Inside the nucleus are the chromosomes which:
 * contain DNA;
 * control the activity of the cell;
 * are transmitted from cell to cell when cells divide;
 * are passed to a new individual when sex cells fuse together in sexual reproduction.

In cells that are not dividing the chromosomes are very long and thin and appear as dark grainy material. They become visible just before a cell divides when they shorten and thicken and can then be counted (see diagram 3.14).

The number of chromosomes in the cells of different species varies but is constant in the cells of any one species (e.g. horses have 64 chromosomes, cats have 38 and humans 46). Chromosomes occur in pairs (i.e. 32 pairs in the horse nucleus and 19 in that of the cat). Members of each pair are identical in length and shape and if you look carefully at diagram 3.15, you may be able to see some of the pairs in the human set of chromosomes.

Cell Division

Cells divide when an animal grows, when its body repairs an injury and when it produces sperm and eggs (or ova). There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis. This is the cell division that occurs when an animal grows and when tissues are repaired or replaced. It produces two new cells (daughter cells) each with a full set of chromosomes that are identical to each other and to the parent cell. All the cells of an animal’s body therefore contain identical DNA.

Meiosis. This is the cell division that produces the ova and sperm necessary for sexual reproduction. It only occurs in the ovary and testis.

The most important function of meiosis it to half the number of chromosomes so that when the sperm fertilises the ovum the normal number is regained. Body cells with the full set of chromosomes are called diploid cells, while gametes (sperm and ova) with half the chromosomes are called haploid cells.

Meiosis is a more complex process than mitosis as it involves two divisions one after the other and the four cells produced are all genetically different from each other and from the parent cell.

This fact that the cells formed by meiosis are all genetically different from each other and from the parent cell can be seen in litters of kittens where all the members of the litter are different from each other as well as being different from the parents although they display characteristics of both.

The Cell As A Factory
To make the function of the parts of the cell easier to understand and remember you can compare them to a factory. For example:

 * The nucleus (1) is the managing director of the factory consulting the blueprint (the chromosomes) (2);
 * The mitochondria (3) supply the power
 * The ribosomes (4) make the products;
 * The chloroplasts of plant cells (5) supply the fuel (food)
 * The Golgi apparatus (6) packages the products ready for dispatch;
 * The ER (7) modifies, stores and transports the products around the factory;
 * The plasma membrane is the factory wall and the gates (8);
 * The lysosomes dispose of the waste and worn-out machinery.

The cell compared to a factory

Summary

 * Cells consist of three parts: the plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
 * Substances pass through the plasma membrane by diffusion (gases, lipids), osmosis (water), active transport (glucose, ions), phagocytosis (particles), pinocytosis (fluids) and exocytosis (particles and fluids).
 * Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. Water diffuses from high water "concentration" to low water "concentration".
 * The cytoplasm consists of cytosol in which are suspended cell inclusions and organelles.
 * organelles include ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi bodies and lysosomes.
 * The nucleus controls the activity of the cell. It contains the chromosomes that are composed of DNA.
 * The cell divides by mitosis and meiosis

Worksheets
There are several worksheets you can use to help you understand and learn about the cell. Plasma Membrane Worksheet

Diffusion and Osmosis Worksheet 1 Diffusion and Osmosis Worksheet 2

Cell Division Worksheet

Test Yourself
You can then test yourself to see how much you remember.

1. Complete the table below:

2. Red blood cells placed in a 5% salt solution would:
 * swell/stay the same/ shrink?

3. Red blood cells placed in a 0.9% solution of salt would be in a:
 * hypotonic/isotonic/hypertonic solution?

4. White blood cells remove foreign bodies like bacteria from the body by engulfing them. This process is known as …………………………

5. Match the organelle in the left hand column of the table below with its function in the right hand column.

6. The cell division that causes an organism to grow and repairs tissues is called:

7. The cell division that produces sperm and ova is called:

8. TWO important differences between the two types of cell division named by you above are:
 * a.
 * b.

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites

 * http://www.cellsalive.com/ Cells alive
 * Cells Alive gives good animations of the animal cell.
 * Cell Wikipedia
 * Wikipedia is good for almost anything you want to know about cells. Just watch as there is much more here than you need to know.
 * http://personal.tmlp.com/Jimr57/textbook/chapter3/chapter3.htm  Virtual cell
 * The Virtual Cell has beautiful pictures of lots of (virtual?) cell organelles.
 * http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=AP11403 Typical animal cell
 * Great interactive animal cell.
 * http://www.wiley.com/college/apcentral/anatomydrill/  Anatomy drill and practice
 * Cell to test yourself on by dragging labels.
 * http://www.maxanim.com/physiology/index.htm Max Animations
 * Great animations here of diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, endo- and exocytosis and the development and action of lysosomes. A bit higher level than you need but still not to be missed.
 * http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/transport/diffusion.swf Diffusion
 * Diffusion animation - good and clear.
 * http://www.tvdsb.on.ca/westmin/science/sbi3a1/Cells/Osmosis.htm Osmosis
 * Nice simple osmosis animation.
 * http://zoology.okstate.edu/zoo_lrc/biol1114/tutorials/Flash/Osmosis_Animation.htm Osmosis
 * Diffusion and osmosis. Watch what happens to the water and the solute molecules.
 * http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=NUR4004 Osmotic Pressure
 * Do an online experiment to illustrate osmosis and osmotic pressure.
 * http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/flashanimat/transport/osmosis.swf Osmosis
 * Even better osmosis demonstration - you get to add the salt.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


text: Quechua/WordEnQu/Alpha

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Quechua/WordEnQu/Alpha


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Arabic/Appendix

= Appendix =
 * Basic Phrases
 * Meeting people: a dialog
 * Intermediate Phrases
 * Being polite
 * Directions
 * Useful Words
 * Professions

title: Arabic/Appendix


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Chess/Tournaments

If you want to play chess in serious competition, beyond the casual play, you may want to play in tournaments. The strength of the tournament players can vary greatly from tournament to tournament, as well as within the tournament.

Types of tournament
Common tournament forms include
 * Master tournaments are usually closed events where very strong players are invited to play against each other. As a new player, you will probably not wind up in such tournaments for some time (if at all). However, there are frequently side events to a master tournament, open to other players.
 * Open tournaments are generally open to any player who has the required memberships, and who want to play. There may be some very strong masters in such tournaments as well, but the list of players usually will include a majority of amateur players. Open tournaments, in particular larger events, may be sectioned, where the lower sections are limited to players with a chess rating below some threshold. How players without ratings are handled may vary from event to event; if in doubt, contact the organizer.
 * Scholastic events are tournaments set up for children in school age. They tend to feature faster time controls than the adult events. Children in school age are usually more than welcome to enter adult tournaments, although the youngest children, or those with little or no tournament experience may find themselves outclassed in such events.

Some tournaments may be arranged over one day with several fast games being played (or a small number of rounds). Some are arranged over the course of a weekend. Larger international tournaments are frequently a week long, with one round a day. Club tournaments may last over several months, with an evening round each week.

Tournament formats
The most common tournament formats are round robins and Swiss systems. The round-robin is an all-play-all event, usually in small sections. You will during the course of a round-robin meet everyone else in the section.

Perhaps even more common is the Swiss system, where you in each round meet a player who has a score similar to your score. So if you have lost your first game, you will most likely meet another player who lost the first game as well for the next round. You are never eliminated from a Swiss system event, if there are an odd number of players the worst that can happen is that you receive a "bye", which means you get a free point (as if you won a game) instead of a game for that particular round. The bye is generally awarded to a player in the lowest score group, but a player can only receive one of them. In some events the organizer may arrange for an extra game for the player who got a bye.

Where to find tournaments
Most countries have a national chess federation or association, and their websites usually have notes about tournaments.

For the United States tournament announcements may be found on the USCF website's tournament search engine, but it does not list all events, smaller events are often not listed. Websites of the state affiliates may include more local events). For other countries you can find links to the national chess federations here.

Rules
You should be sure you know how the pieces move, and how a game ends. In particular, you need to know the rules of en passant, castling, pawn promotion and the three-time repetition of position rule.

You should know how the chess clock is used. In all tournaments you have to complete your moves within a time limit, which varies from tournament to tournament.

Furthermore, you should know how to record the game using algebraic chess notation. Most tournaments with reasonably long time limits require players to keep score of the game. This is not an absolute requirement, players who are unable to keep score for various reasons, be they religious or due to an inability to write, may be exempted. Additionally, players who are in time trouble (with less than five minutes on their clocks) can be temporarily excused from writing moves to conserve time, although they are encouraged to update their scoresheets with the opponent's score if/when a time control is reached.

In tournament play, the touch-move rule is strictly enforced. If you touch a piece of your own you must move it (if you have a legal move), when you've released the piece after a move it stays. If you touch your opponents piece you must capture it, provided that you have a legal capture. If you merely wish to adjust a piece which is standing askew on the square, you may do so if you warn your opponent ("I adjust" is fine, but the French "J'adoube" is also popular) before you touch the piece.

Remember that tournaments can, and should, be fun, but they are pretty formal events. Distracting or disturbing your opponent is prohibited. In addition, you should refrain from talking in the tournament hall as much as possible. If you have to communicate something to someone, do it as quietly and discreetly as possible. If, after finishing a game, you and your opponent want to go over it, go to a different room to analyse instead of remaining in the playing hall pushing pieces around - it distracts nearby players.

Remember to turn mobile phones off before the game starts! If a mobile phone rings during the game, a penalty is usually assessed by the arbiter, depending on the tournament. In most USCF tournaments, for a first offence ten minutes is removed from the offending player's clock, and for a second offence the game is forfeited as a loss. There is nothing more embarrassing than the faux pas of a loud ringtone going off in an otherwise dead silent playing hall and half a dozen people from nearby boards glaring at you. The FIDE laws which most other countries play by are even more strict: mobile phones are prohibited altogether, and if a player is found to be in possession of a mobile phone, then that player loses. Organizers may announce a more lenient policy, but unless you are informed otherwise, assume that the strict "no mobile phones" rule applies.

From 2009, the general rule at serious, professional tournaments about arriving late to the board is a zero tolerance policy. If you are not present at the board when the round starts, you forfeit the game. This has sometimes been enforced in a draconian fashion, one player in the Chinese Championship who was standing near the board waiting for the game to start was forfeited when the round started because she wasn't sitting at the board. A tournament may announce a more lenient rule where a latecomer is forfeited only if a certain time elapses (one hour was the limit before the rule change in 2009), and some federations have announced that one hour will remain the default standard for all tournaments in their country (such as the USCF). However, even if arriving late does not forfeit the game automatically, your clock will be started on time, so unless you are willing to waste the time you have for thinking, don't be late for your game.

Full laws can be read here. (Note that the United States have slightly different tournament regulations.)

Membership
In most events, it is required that you are a member of the country's chess association. In the United States, this means that you must be a member of the United States Chess Federation and so on. Some events may require further memberships, club championships may require membership in that club for instance.

For many events in Europe, membership in any national chess federation associated with FIDE may be sufficient (this allows foreign players to play without purchasing new memberships all the time.)

The organizer can nearly always arrange a membership for you, so don't feel like you cannot go to a tournament just because you aren't a member yet.

Equipment
In most tournaments in the United States, players are expected to provide boards, sets and clocks. Pieces should be of normal Staunton design, with a king about 3-and-a-half inches to 4 inches tall, and the board should have squares of around 2 to 2-and-a-half inches. A cheap roll-up board with normal plastic pieces is quite sufficient. Clocks can be purchased in many places, and the prices can vary. Shop around.

Some sets include an extra pair of queens, so that one can handle the situation where a player gets two queens due to pawn promotion. While helpful, this is not essential. In tournaments, multiple queens should be handled by fetching an additional queen, and not by placing an overturned rook in place of a queen. The situation is fairly rare in practice however, and when it does happen, you can usually borrow a queen from someone else.

In Europe equipment is usually provided, though some events may have a shortage of clocks, and ask players to provide that.

Bring a pen to write with so that you can keep score.

General advice for play

 * Remember that tournament play is a learning experience. After the game try to go through the game with your opponent so that you can learn from mistakes made. Do this especially when you have lost, because here you must have done something wrong where your opponent did something right, and you should try to avoid losing the same way again.
 * Inexperienced players sometimes get distracted by the clock, and start playing too fast. If you have two hours available to make 40 moves, but have only used thirty minutes when the 40 moves are up, you have probably played too quickly and consequently not thought the position through well enough.
 * If you get a winning position, be careful! Your opponent will in all likelihood be looking for ways in which you can go wrong, letting him escape with a draw or turn the tables and win.

Withdrawing
Try to complete the tournament, even if you have started badly. The opposition will tend to get easier, and learning how to bounce back after setbacks is important.

If you must withdraw, you must tell the organizer that you are going to do so. Otherwise the player you would have met will be deprived of a game. (That player gets awarded a full-point as if the game were won, but the entry fee was probably paid for an opportunity to play chess, not to sit at a table with nobody to play with!) In some cases, a player dropping out without informing the organizer, may face a fine, and be excluded from that organizer's future events until the fine is paid.

Ratings
Tournament players are after a stipulated number of games assigned a rating, which is an estimate for the strength of that player. This goes up and down depending on the player's performance in rated events. The average rating of a tournament player is around 1400, the strongest grandmasters have ratings in the excess of 2700. As a rule of thumb, a player with a rating 200 points higher than the opponent should expect to score 75% against that opponent, and 90% against someone rated 400 points lower, but upsets are in practice more common than what the rating formulas predict.

Understand that an average tournament player of 1400 is, compared to a casual player who only knows the rules, but with no tournament experience or study of the game, a very strong player indeed. A new player who enters a tournament may easily find the first rating to be below 1000, but as experience is gained this may rise!

Remember, ratings are only estimates of playing strength based on past events. Ratings do not measure a person's ability to improve, they are not rewards in themselves, and they are definitely not measures of self-worth.

In tournament play, ratings determine what sections you are eligible to play in, and which opponents you will meet in Swiss system events.

Glossary of terms

 * Arbiter or tournament director is the authority which referees the event, makes pairings, and rulings.
 * Board 1, board 2, etc.. In Swiss system events boards are numbered. The players who currently have the best scores are seated at board no. 1, while those with the weakest scores are seated further down.
 * Class prize. A prize awarded to a player for finishing at the top of his or her rating class. A prize could be awarded for instance for "first place among those rated below 1600".
 * Entry fee. The amount a player is charged in order to be allowed to participate.
 * Flag. On analog chess clocks, the flag is a small device attached just left of the "12" on the clock face. As the minute hand approaches 12, it lifts the flag up so that it falls once the minute hand passes 12. This flag fall makes it possible to determine exactly when the time has expired. For example, if each player has 90 minutes, the clocks are initially set at 4:30, and the time has expired when the flag falls when the clock is at 6:00. (Technically, the flag also falls at 5:00, but this has no consequence.) Digital clocks usually have some indicator marking expiry, and the indicator when this is activated is also called a "flag fall". If the time control stipulates that a certain number of moves be made within a time limit, the last required move must be completed, and the clock stopped, before flag fall, otherwise that player has overstepped the time limit.
 * Forfeit loss/forfeit win. If a player fails to arrive at the board an hour after the announced starting time, then that player loses by forfeit, and the opponent receives a forfeit win. The game counts for tournament standings, but not rating. A person who loses by forfeit is typically removed from the tournament, unless an adequate excuse is provided. A player who has received a win by forfeit is ineligible for receiving a full-point bye in future rounds.
 * Full-point bye or walkover. If there is an odd number of players for a round, the arbiter will award a full-point bye to one player who does not play that particular round, but instead receives a point as if a game was won.
 * Half-point bye. In some tournaments, a player who is unable to play a particular round may elect to take a half-point bye. The player does not play that round but receives a half-point instead as if a game were drawn. Tournaments frequently regulate such byes, putting a cap on how many can be taken and/or requiring that a player commit to taking them before a certain deadline.
 * Increment. A small amount of time (the increment) which is added to a player's clock at every move. This avoids frantic time scrambles by ensuring that there will always be enough time to make a move. Some tournaments stipulate a time limit with an increment, others do not. Games played with an increment require a digital chess clock with this capability.
 * J'adoube. French for "I adjust", and can be said by a player before touching a piece to adjust it rather than move it.
 * Sandbagging. A fraudulent scheme where a player deliberately lowers his rating so that he may play in a lower rated section sometime in the future in order to win cash prizes. Sandbagging is a form of cheating, and people caught may face stiff sanctions.
 * Sudden death. A time limit where one must make all remaining moves in a set amount of time. A time limit of "40/90, SD/30" means that each player must complete 40 moves in 90 minutes (that is the non-sudden death control), and then the remaining moves in 30 minutes (plus any time left over from the first time control), this second phase is the sudden death phase.
 * Swiss-system. An tournament format where players face other players with same or similar scores in each round.
 * Time control. The number of moves one must make within the time limit. For example if one must make 35 moves in 90 minutes, the time control is at 35 moves.
 * Time delay. A small amount of time (the delay) which passes before the clock starts deducting time from a player at every move. No time is deducted if a player moves before the delay is up. The idea is similar to that of an increment, but a player cannot build up a reservoir of time. Games played with a delay require a digital chess clock with this capability. In the United States, a five second time delay is standard, and clocks which have the delay capability are preferred over clocks which do not.

title: Chess/Tournaments


text:
User talk:Sunshineconnelly

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. —Cel es tianpower háblame 10:00, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

Images
Thanks for uploading Image:Anatomy and physiology of animals-diffusion in a liquid.jpg and Image:Anatomy and physiology of animals-celldivision meiosis.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload as you have on many of the images you have uploaded thus far. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you.  – Urbane'''   (Talk)   (Contributions)  14:11, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

Image copyright problem with Image:Anatomy and physiology of animals skin cover.jpg
Thanks for uploading Image:Anatomy and physiology of animals skin cover.jpg. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law, and requires that we maintain a strict copyright policy. The image that may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and status.

The copyright holder is usually the creator, the creator's employer, or the last person who was transferred ownership rights. Copyright information on images is signified using copyright templates. The three basic license types on Wikibooks are open content, public domain, and fair use. Find the appropriate template in Image copyright tags and place it on the image page like this:.

Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask another Wikibookian at the help desk. Thank you. Image:Anatomy and physiology of animals skin cover.jpg has been tagged with because it is apparently no longer licensed under the  license. Please double-check that the rest of your images have proper attribution and license tags. Without that information they'll likely be deleted in about a week.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:23, 4 September 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:ISTjointangledcube.gif
Please note that all of your untagged image contributions will be deleted next week unless proper license information is provided for them. Use the tools above to find the images in question and tag them with license information. If you need help, please contact me on my talk page, or ask in the staff lounge. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 15:48, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

Image uploads
Hi there.

I see you've uploaded a bunch of images, which are attributed to Ruth Lawson. Is that you? If not, please provide a source so we can verify that the images are licensed as you say they are. For the future, please note that images need both a license tag and a source (usually a URL to wherever you got the image). Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 23:57, 25 November 2007 (UTC)
 * You were really diligent with the license templates on all those images, but you did miss a few. Click the unlicensed tab at the top of this page to see your unlicensed images. Remember: you must edit the image description page directly to change the license template (don't re-upload the image). Thanks! – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:40, 1 December 2007 (UTC)

Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
I've been watching some of your edits to this book, and I think you are doing a really good job. Don't worry about all the image copyright issues, copyright can be a tricky subject for people to really master. The most important thing you can do is to really read the instructions on the image upload page, and ask questions about anything you aren't familiar with.

If you have any questions, or if you need any help with anything, let me know. You're doing good, keep up the good work! --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 01:23, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sunshineconnelly


text:
Arabic/Here and There

=Translation Exercises=

=Exercise 1= word كَلِمةُ book كِتاب ُ letter of alphabet حَرفُ chair كُرسِيُّ school مَدرَسةُ teacherمُعَلِّمُ student تِلمِيذُ pen, pencil قَلَمُ eraser مِمحَاة computer حاسوبُ notebook دَفتَرُ there/here هُناكَ there هُنالِكَ

ا
 * 1) الكَلِمَةُ هُناكَ.
 * 2) الكِتابُ هُناكَ.
 * 3) الحَرفُ هُناكَ.
 * 4) الكُرسيُّ هُناكَ.
 * 5) المَدرَسةُ هُناكَ.
 * 6) المُعَلِّمُ هُناكَ.
 * 7) التِلميذُ هُناكَ.
 * 8) القَلَمُ هُناكَ.
 * 9) المَحّايةُ هُناكَ.
 * 10) الحاسوبُ هُناكَ.
 * 11) الدَفتَرُ هُناكَ.
 * 12) الكِتابُ هُنالِكَ.

Key
2. The word is there. 4. The chair is there. 6. The teacher is there. 8. The pen is there. 10. The computer is there. 12. The book is there.

=Exercise 2= notebook دَفتَرُ there هُنالِكَ computer حاسوبُ eraser أستيكة pen, pencil قَلَم teacherمُعَلِّمُ student تِلمِيذُ letter of the alphabet حَرفُ book كِتابُ there/here هُناكَ here هُنا

ا
 * 1) الدَفتَرُ هُنالِكَ.
 * 2) الحاسوبُ هُنالِكَ.
 * 3) المَحّايةُ هُناكَ.
 * 4) القَلَمُ هُنالِكَ.
 * 5) التِلميذُ هُنالِكَ.
 * 6) المُعَلِّمُ هُناكَ.
 * 7) الكُرسيُّ هُناكَ.
 * 8) الحَرفُ هُنالِكَ.
 * 9) الكِتابُ هُناكَ.
 * 10) الحاسوبُ هُناكَ.
 * 11) الدَفتَرُ هُناكَ.
 * 12) الكِتابُ هُنا.

Key
2. The computer is there. 4. The pen is there. 6. The teacher is there. 8. The letter is there. 10. The computer is there. 12. The book is here.

title: Arabic/Here and There


text:
User talk:12.36.108.2

--AdRiley 11:28, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:12.36.108.2


text:
User talk:121.72.245.220

Welcome!
Welcome to Wikibooks, a collection of open-content textbooks! You don't have to log in to read or edit articles on Wikibooks, but creating an account is quick, free and non-intrusive, requires no personal information, and gives you many benefits, including:
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We hope that you choose to become a Wikibookian and create an account. Feel free to ask me any questions you may have on my talk page. By the way, make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes (~~~~), which will let others know who left it.

--AdRiley 13:03, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:121.72.245.220


text:
CAT-Tools/DéjàVu X/numerals check does not work

When carrying out the numerals check, paragraph numbers such as "1.1" are always displayed as being wrong on the target side, although they are absolutely correct.


text:
Talk:Modern Physics/Potential Momentum

Near the end, there appears: "...so we know it predicts a force perpendicular to the velocity, when the condition is met. It turns out to be perpendicular even when the condition is met."

It sound like the intent was to say "...even when the condition is not met."

title: Talk:Modern Physics/Potential Momentum


text:
File:Advocaat bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. All non-free images were obtained from company websites or online businesses selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image.

/Images

title: File:Advocaat bw.jpg


text:
File:Sheridans Liqueur dd.jpg

https://www.drinksdirect.co.uk

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Sheridans Liqueur dd.jpg


text: User:Lindsay Ridgeway/Reward-based Field Training for Retrievers/Print Version


text:
User talk:Demuckna

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. -- Herby talk thyme 16:25, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Demuckna


text:
User talk:RobertLutz~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. -- Herby talk thyme 16:25, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called RobertLutz. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name RobertLutz~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:38, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:RobertLutz~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Davidg07~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. -- Herby talk thyme 16:25, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Davidg07. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Davidg07~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:08, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:52, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Davidg07~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Seer~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. -- Herby talk thyme 16:25, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Seer. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Seer~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:28, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Seer~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Avaktar

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. -- Herby talk thyme 16:25, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Avaktar


text:
Talk:Fermat's Last Theorem/Andrew Wiles

it wasn't Noam Elkies who was behind the joke. it was a European guy. also American readers may be confused by the 24 hour system because it's only used in military and radio.

23 unsolved
please keep unsolved problems of sir ramanujan

23 unsolved
please keep unsolved problems of sir ramanujan

title: Talk:Fermat's Last Theorem/Andrew Wiles


text:
Cookbook talk:Lemonade

How much?
Exactly how big of a pitcher are we talking? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 131.59.200.81 (talk • contribs) 2007-08-14T04:01:30.
 * The recipes aren't specific, but judging from the ingredients, I'd say that the first one would yield a bit over a litre, and the second one about 1¾ litres. Webaware talk 06:05, 14 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Lemonade


text:
User talk:H.Potterfan

Welcome, !

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

If you have any questions about the Muggle's Guide in particular (specifically how we write things here and our set of standards), please leave me a message at my talk page.

I notice you've been doing some editing to the Muggles' Guide recently, and I do appreciate that. Would it be possible to perhaps be a bit more complete in your article sections? In particular, the bald statement "tonks dies" in the writeup for Nymphadora Tonks under Deathly Hallows is accurate, but it leaves out so much... she has married Remus, she is one of the Order members who helps Harry escape from Privet Drive, the feud between her and Bellatrix, she attends Harry's birthday but has to depart hurriedly when Scrimgeour arrives, she attends the wedding, announces her pregnancy; the byplay with Remus going adventuring with Harry; the birth of Teddy; and the fact (mentioned in a later interview with Rowling) that it is Bellatrix who finally managed to kill her. All of that properly belongs in that section...

Thanks. Chazz (talk) 18:11, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:H.Potterfan


text:
User:EllieEllisson

Hello :) Nice to meet you.

title: User:EllieEllisson


text:
User:Lydia (usurped)

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Botany

title: User:Lydia (usurped)


text:
File:Destinée we.jpg

Source: http://thewhiskyexchange.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Destinée we.jpg


text:
IB Biology/Option A - Diet and Human Nutrition

''This page was deleted, so was partially recreated by an IB student with the aid of "Biology for the IB Diploma Standard and Higher Level" textbook by Andrew Allott, published by Oxford. It is not copied directly from the textbook, but some of the information was obtained from it, so you know it is correct. I don't know how to do referencing, hence all this being written here instead of in a reference! Unfortunately this page is not in the usual style (nicely ordered with points from the syllabus followed by the necessary information) so is not as helpful as it probably was before someone deleted the original version! Still, it's better than nothing!'' Hope it's helpful :) - Hope it helps, Mike den Hartog

The diet is all the food taken in by an individual over a period of time. Food provides us with energy for metabolic functions and all the chemicals needed for life (nutrients).

Below is a list of the 5 major nutrients included in the diet, some examples of here to find them, and what they are needed for:

Carbohydrates are found in honey, grapes, cane sugar, milk, bread and liver. The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy that can be released rapidly in cell respiration.

Proteins are found in beef, salmon, seeds, peanuts and tofu. Proteins are used for protein synthesis - for cell and tissue growth, regeneration of hair, skin and red blood cells.

Lipids are found in oily fish, nuts and fatty meats. Lipids contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates and form the body's main energy stores in adipose tissue. Fats act as a thermal insulator to the body. Phospholipids are the main constituents of the membranes.

Nutrients are chemical substances (elements or compounds) found in foods that are needed by the human body. All nutrients including essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, minerals, vitamins, water must be obtained from the food consumed because these substances cannot be synthesized by the human body. Non-essential fatty and amino acids can both be synthesized from essential fatty and amino acids by the human body. Carbohydrates are a source of energy, however lipids and proteins can be used for energy and therefore carbohydrates are not classified as nutrients.

Minerals are found in a range of fresh foods. Apart from C, H and O at least 20 minerals are essential in the diet, each with specific use. Deficiencies cause ill health.

Vitamins are found in a range of fresh foods, and vitamin D is manufactured by the body when sunlight hits the skin. 13 different compunds have been identified, each with a specific use. Definciencies cause ill health.

Vitamins and minerals are sometimes called micronutrients because they are needed in very small quantities compared to the three macronutrients. However, they cannot be synthesised by the body and a definciency can cause ill health.

In addition to the macro- and micronutrients, water is essential in the diet.

A balanced diet supplies the energy and nutrients the body needs and no more. Supplying a balanced diet is achieving an equilibrium (balance) between energy intake and expenditure.

Individuals vary in their energy requirements. Factors influencing how much energy is needed by an individual are:

Age: more energy is needed up with increasing age up to adulthood as the body grows larger.

Gender: females use less energy than males.

Activity: physical activity involves energy expenditure.

Condition: extra energy is needed during growth spurts, pregnancy, breast-feeding, illnesses and some other conditions.

Diets containing excessive amounts of energy cause obesity.

Nutrient requirements also vary with age, gender and other factors (pregnancy, diet etc).


text:
File:Destinee-c.jpg

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the Internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Destinee-c.jpg


text:
File:Hpnotiq we.jpg

http://www.thewhiskyexchange.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Hpnotiq we.jpg


text:
File:VillaMassa Limoncello.jpg

http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product nor the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:VillaMassa Limoncello.jpg


text:
File:Senior-curacao-629.jpg

http://www.spiritsreview.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product nor of the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Senior-curacao-629.jpg


text:
Overview of Theology/Creation

What is theology?
Human beings are essentially social animals. Social animals operate in groups, packs or tribes. Usually individuals are linked by family connections to an 'alpha male' who provides tactical leadership. Provided this leadership increases the probability of success for individual members as well as for himself he will earn respect. Humans uniquely have the ability to formulate long-term strategic plans and communicate complex ideas which has made our species the most successful of all living creatures on this planet. Leadership is crucial to human success. The model of parental superiority is implicit from birth, as the infant human is incapable of independent survival. A hierarchical 'chain of command' with delegated responsibilities and privileges thus emerged naturally and early in human history. Ancestor worship is a form of hierarchical deference to wise (but dead) former leaders.

Death
Theories about what happens after death - if there is a human spirit or soul capable of surviving the body is important to people. Should former leaders influence their survivors? Is there  somewhere an unseen community of the dead or some sort of super-spirit capable of communicating with the living? These ideas matter because people believe in these theories, and those beliefs, true or false, do indeed alter our behavior according to the expected reward or punishment. A trader trades with the expectation to be paid 'fairly'. If not, then a 'higher authority' - either the police or the judiciary will be expected to apply influence. A religious person may give alms, or take up arms without expectation of any earthly benefit, expecting instead 'a good feeling' now followed by a certain reward 'in heaven'.

Life
Most religions use the 'external influence' of unseen forces to mold habits that led to successful survival. War is a human strategic invention that allows the winning side to take the riches of the losers, who may be killed or enslaved. War is dangerous for individuals, but not for armies or communities as a whole as long as they are successful defenders or colonizers. Individual warriors have to be assured they will receive their reward at the close of battle or else 'in the afterlife' if they are brave and do as they are told without question. The corollary is that if a warrior is cowardly or disobedient he will first be be killed and tormented 'in the afterlife'.

The purpose of Religion
Obviously an individual person who is able to successfully steal from 'outsiders' and enslave 'foreigners' will accumulate worldly wealth and attract predatory competitors. The same is true of criminal gangs and nation states. The successful strategy is therefore to distinguish 'right' and 'wrong' behavior between 'us' within a group and 'them' - our potential victims. As human societies became more complex the definitions of who was 'inside' (warriors certainly, but what about children, wives, slaves, friendly tribes.....?) as well as the context in which 'right' and 'wrong' might be judged and rewarded (or punished) became a problem requiring study and the evolution of clear rules, which we call theology. When may a warrior legally kill? What is 'just cause' war as distinguished from a criminal enterprise.....

Types of religion
Religions generally demand respect for parents, elders and certain wise or brave leaders. Hierarchical power structures culminate in monotheism, where a supreme, all-wise, ever-present but undetectable God monitors a believers' every thought and action. The contrary view is of polytheism, where many gods deny supremacy to any person or deity. Universal democracy is a form of this, since every elector is an individual, but the average of their collective will (eventually) reign supreme. Rather than respecting the personal wishes of a king or president, democrats require their leaders to conform to their collective will, and punish those who abuse their delegated power. Neither absolute personal princely power nor absolute democracy is very efficient, and most societies strike a balance - The United States of America and the Republic of France have powerful presidents, but their term of office is very short. Conversely the monarchs of the Kingdoms of Spain and Britain rule 'for life' but they have very little power or freedom although their experience may lend them a certain moral authority.

Religion and Law
The European Union has a power structure so complex that it is almost beyond understanding, and relies on the free-will of individual nation states to execute its directives, and rewards or punishes member states rather than their individual citizens. European and International Law emerged mostly from the Judeo-Christian traditions illuminated by some notable Muslim interpretations which evolved around the Iberian peninsula. International law is in one sense a form of religion binding in other religions in order to discourage predatory adventures, racism and genocide, whilst equally encouraging communication, trade and individual human rights guaranteed by the state in which people reside. Not all states subscribe to international law, and some that do place their own theocracy or judiciary above international courts. The USA for example does not submit itself to international scrutiny nor require nor allow its citizens to submit to any legal code except its own constitution. Similarly many Muslim countries apply Sharia (interpretive) contextual judgments rather than impose the rather stark international (codified) law.

Christianity
The Creation in Christianity is based in the book of Genesis. Christians believe this book accurately depicts the creation. Genesis is written in a poetic form, and is presumed to have been inspired by God. It illustrates the creation from the point of view of the Jewish culture and its people. There is an argument amongst Christians as to if it was was written as a parable (evolution via intelligent design) or as a literal truth (which creationists aver). Most holy scripture is both historically ancient and tends to be in a mythological language style. Genesis first appeared about three thousand years ago in the tenth century Before the Common Epoch (BC) probably during the reign af King Solomon, and it appears to have been written,re-written, translated and reinterpreted by many authors with different intentions. Genesis is not a scientific document, since 'the scientific method' was invented much later (in Baghdad around 7th to 10th century After the common epoch (AC)), Therefore, despite the claims of creationists, it could not explain the creation in scientific terms. Genesis is then a religious document that explain certain spiritual ideas which believers accept as 'true' from a religious and spiritual point of view.

There are many different interpretations about the Genesis from many different Christian denominations.

Historical or spiritual truth?
One such interpretation would state that although the book of Genesis does contain poetry and other types of literary devices, it is primarily a historical narrative of how God brought about the beginning of the universe, mankind, the beginning of the Chosen nation of Israel and how 'He' (God) set the wheels in motion for the beginning of his grace after mankind brought about the beginning of sin. It is a book of beginnings, as is reflected in the title of the book, Bereshith (In the beginning). Furthermore, for believers, it is more than merely a religious document that explains spiritual truths from a religious point of view. They accept Genesis as a true historical narrative that reveals the reality of who God is, what he has done in history, and where man came from, how mankind fell into sin, the effects of the fall, and how God has chosen to redeem his chosen people through the Jewish people and his covenant, and ultimately, how He set into motion, the redemption of the elect which would eventually be His Church. Right and wrong behaviors, just rewards and punishments are exemplified throughout the first five scriptural books (Jewish Torah or Christian Pentateuch) of which Genesis is the opening salvo.

Interpretation
There are several points of differing interpretations within Christian Theology about the actual creation narrative itself. The first debate begins within the very first word of the very first verse: Bereshith. The problem arises in the interpretation of the translation. Whereas, it could be translated "In a beginning" (using an indefinite article - one of many), most scholars will translate it as "In the Beginning" (definite article and therefore the unique story). This may not seem like a big issue until one moves to the second verse and deals with the translation of the Hebrew word, Hayathah. There are two legitimate translations of this word, which are, "It was" and "It became". If one goes with the former translation, it is clear that this is interpreted as one creation that simply continues the narrative of verse one and translates Bereshith as "In the Beginning". If one goes with the latter translation, then this would open the possibility for many different creations and the Gap theory, and would continue the narrative of verse one which translates Bereshith as "In a Beginning". While, the Gap Theorists will point to many creation stories in the ancient world outside of the Jewish narrative as evidence of many creations, proponents of one creation will state that the context of the narrative does not lend itself to a Gap Theory. The primary context of the narrative is not to tell us how many creations there were, but rather, that God is the one who created the beginning and was the one who was before time (eternal). It further states that the context is to tell us about the beginning of man, sin, God' covenant, and God's law, and God's redemption of sinful man. The purpose of the writers of Genesis has always been to define 'right' and wrong' interactions (bestowing blessings and sins), how we humans may 'justly' reward and punish each other during our lives, and how (post mortem) we will ourselves eventually receive divine justice calculated and delivered 'fairly and utterly' by a unique and omnipotent God who has an exact record of our every passing moment.

History or Poetry?
The next interpretive issue revolves around the chronological or historical timing of creation. There are scholars who firmly believe that creation must have occurred no longer than about 12,000 years ago. This date may be approximately deduced from the genealogies given later in Genesis, and on a literal interpretation of a seven days of 24 hours cycle of creation. One of the major reasons that many Christians hold to this interpretation is that they want to deflect the teachings of 'chance' or Darwinian evolution. If creation of life on earth was simply chance then the fossil records and carbon dating techniques would predate Genesis and date the world back to millions of years. God would then become merely decorative and cultural within human life rather than truly authoritative and believable source of all things and all-knowing. Contrary to Genesis report of mankind created and completed in an instant Darwin would allow for a gradual emergence of each species (including mankind) over millions of years. Many faithful Christians, however, would argue that the timing is not of primary importance and that Genesis explains WHY things are as they are, and so is compatible with,  not in conflict with science, which only explains how things may have become as they are. The actual sequence and timing being immaterial to religious purpose. Whether mankind emerged within a seven day cycle or over millions of years, the primary purpose if Genesis is to confirm that God is eternal and is the one agent who created everything. One argument against the seven 24 hour period of time is that the sun and the moon were not apparently created until the fourth day, and these are essential elements in the measurement of time, the seasons, and the years. Another argument revolves around the word "Yom" which can be translated either as 'a day' or used to indicate some undefined period of time. A third argument is based on the New Testament text which clarifies time as it is understood by God (2 Peter 3:8). One thing is certain in believers minds is that, whether mankind emerged gradually over millions of years or was created in a split second, there was God who existed before time as we humans understand it, and it was God who created all things in accordance with divine will.

title: Overview of Theology/Creation


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Biblical Studies/Christianity/Christian Theology/Creation

BACKGROUND for the Book of GENESIS account of Creation
GENESIS is the first of the five Mosaic books in the Old Testament which together make up the Pentateuch. The name of the book comes from the greek word geneseos which means 'birth', 'geneology' or 'history of origin'. The name is appropriate as it reflects the main theme of the book: Beginnings.

Genesis was written by Moses, circa 1446 - 1406 B.C. The content and writing style is characteristic of similar manuscripts of that time period. Many similarities and parallelisms in content and lifestyles can be found between Genesis and other important manuscripts such as the Mesopotamian works Enuma Elish, Gilgamesh Epic and Hammurabi's code of Law.

We can estimate the timeframe of writing by referring to the Jewish history in the Book of 1 Kings. 1Ki 6:1 indicates that "In the four hundred and eightieth year after the Israelites had come out of Egypt,in the fourth year of Solomon's reign...he began to build the temple of the Lord". We know from historical records that the temple construction began circa 966 BC, putting the exodus of Israel around 1446 BC.

Progress in both Archaeology and Literary research substantiates the authenticity of the Book of Genesis.

The Book of Genesis begins with an account of Creation. This account outlines the sequence in which God creates all things. It starts with the Creations of "the heavens' (note this is plural) and over seven days creation progresses through terrestrial objects, the Earth's form, plants, animals and finally Man. This occurs over a period of seven literal days (morning and evening being part of the narrative for each day).

A secular perspective
The Creation in Christianity is based in the book of Genesis. The Christians believe that this book depicts some spiritual concepts about the creation. Genesis is described as inspired by God that illustrates the creation from the point of view of the Jewish culture and its people. It was written around the X century BC. The genesis is not a scientific document, therefore it doesn't explain the creation in scientific words, However it is a religious document that explain spiritual truths based from a religious and spiritual point of view.

Nowadays, there are many different interpretations about the Genesis from many different Christian denominations.


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Talk:Yet Another Haskell Tutorial/Language advanced

As far as i can tell flip does not revert the arguments of a given function but reverses the order of the first _two_ arguments. I made this more precise. --83.171.155.193 21:12, 13 August 2007 (UTC)

There's an easier way to write ++ in terms of foldr: (++) = flip $ foldr

The Eq instance declaration for Color given in 6.1 makes Red not equal to Custom 255 0 0. It doesn't matter here, but should probably still be considered a bug. (Shai,80.178.21.140 (talk) 22:43, 28 February 2010 (UTC))

I think the section on finite maps should be removed entirely because it was removed in 2006! (Ktroxie (discuss • contribs) 21:07, 8 March 2011 (UTC))

As Haskell functions are pure, it is not clear, what is "setter" function for the named field. So, I think, it would be good idea, to clarify this point, while discussing syntax someData{filed=newValue}. --DimoneSem (discuss • contribs) 13:41, 27 October 2011 (UTC)


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FOSS Open Content/Preface

Preface
The developments in information and communication technologies heralding the ‘information age’ are marked by the possibilities of greater dissemination of knowledge and culture.Yet at the same time, stricter copyright laws have created an invisible barrier to knowledge access in the information age. A number of scholars have used the metaphor of ‘second enclosures’ as a way of illustrating how the ‘commons’ of knowledge and culture are increasingly being fenced by the imposition of strict property protections on the intangible domain of intellectual property. It is in this context that a number of initiatives such as ‘Free Software’ and ‘Open Content’ have emerged. These initiatives recognize that the future depends on proactively nurturing a vibrant ‘commons’ of knowledge and cultural resources.

The Open Content model of knowledge creation and dissemination has emerged as a significant way in which we can move beyond the barriers of restrictive licensing.At the same time, it enables us to rethink our relationship to the world of knowledge and cultural production. Inspired by the Free Software movement, Open Content seeks to move away from the traditional user/producer binary in favour of a more participative process of knowledge creation and usage.

This e-Primer introduces the idea of Open Content by locating it within the larger historical context of copyright’s relation to the public domain. It examines the foundational premises of copyright and argues that a number of these premises have to be tested on the basis of the public interest that they purport to serve. It then looks at the ways in which content owners are increasingly using copyright as a tool to create monopolies, and how an alternative paradigm like Open Content can facilitate a democratization of knowledge and culture.This e-Primer focuses on some of the implications for policy makers thinking about information policies, and the advantages that the Open Content model may offer, especially for developing countries.

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FOSS Open Content/List of Acronyms

 * A2K: Access to Knowledge Treaty
 * BSD: Berkeley Software Distribution
 * CC: Creative Commons
 * CPTECH: Consumer Project on Technology
 * FOSS: Free/Open Source Software
 * GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
 * GDP: Gross Domestic Product
 * GPL: General Public License
 * MIT OCW: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Open CourseWare Initiative
 * P2P: Peer-to-Peer
 * PPP: Purchasing Power Parity
 * TRIPS: Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights

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FOSS Open Content/Introduction

While the question of who has control and who has access to knowledge and culture is an age-old one, it seems to have gained urgency in the context of the ‘information revolution’ of the past few years.As with all revolutionary moments, older structures of power are challenged and potentially overturned. In our current era, the information revolution promises a radical shift in the paradigm of how information, knowledge and culture are produced, disseminated and accessed.

However, this promise must overcome the challenges of severe restrictions that run the risk of making access to knowledge and culture more difficult for people. This e-Primer will explore the twin metaphors of perils and promises that society must confront in the future of the ‘information age’. In particular, we will be examining one aspect of this crucial debate, namely the debate between copyright and Open Content.

The argument of this e-Primer will be that policy makers across the world, and particularly in developing countries, should take note of the advantages of the Open Content paradigm as a way of overcoming barriers which restrict access to information, knowledge and culture. There are also significant economic advantages for developing countries which shall be detailed, for instance in relation to the cost of learning materials.

The Emergence of Copyright

The transformation of copyright, from an esoteric legal subject to a topic of daily conversation and debate, has occurred in a relatively short span of time. No account of this contemporary moment would be complete without an examination of the dominance of the small copyright sign on our lives. In recent times, the aggressive expansion of property claims into every domain of knowledge and cultural practice has brought everyone from the academic to the musician into the debate. In many ways, the mere act of looking at, reading, listening to, creating, understanding, or communicating any objects that embody thought, knowledge or feeling is as fraught with anxiety today as the trespassing of private property has been throughout much of human history.

(Source: http://www.popealien.com)

This anxiety and conflict is not restricted to a set of geographical locations; however, the nature of the conflict changes as we move from the United States and Europe to parts of Asia, Latin America and Africa. In the US, the crisis is represented as a crisis of creativity; the dominant fear is that of the shrinking of the public domain and the commonsby the extension of copyright, the challenges brought about by new technologies of production and dissemination, such as the Internet, and the criminalization of peer-to-peer (P2P) activities of young people. In Africa, the price of learning materials imposes a heavy cost to governments already plagued by other pressing developmental needs.Meanwhile, in many parts of Asia, the proliferation of cheap media reproduction technologies creates a parallel economy that threatens the monopoly once held by dominant media industry players and places these countries at risk of facing sanctions from the US for violating copyrights.

Lest we imagine that this is a completely new situation, let us revisit a moment in history which was rather similar. The 18th Century saw a transition from a largely agrarian to an industrial economy. This change was accompanied by massive transformations in the realm of property law, marked by sharp social conflict and the emergence of all kinds of laws to protect property and regulate everyday life. A new language of criminality emerged alongside new forms of property protection and a sharp increase in the use of force against offenders (ranging from people who ‘stole fruits from trees’ to people who illegally occupied land).

We are constantly reminded that we are in an era of transition, and it is clear through current discourse that we are now living in an information era. This transition has been marked by the attempts to define new regimes of property, giving rise to sharp social conflicts over the definitions and extent of such property.

In the midst of the aggressive expansion of ‘intellectual property’, there has also been a parallel movement arguing for a re-articulation of the importance of the commons of knowledge and cultural production. Thus, even as systems of copyright, patent and trademark attempt to entrench themselves alongside the older structures of capitalism by creating a new language of criminality, there is another language that has been emerging – the language of ‘openness’, ‘collaborative production’ and ‘freedom’ with respect to information goods, cultural production and participation in the information economy.This new language has been enabled by the success of the Free/Open Source Software (FOSS) movement, with its most-identified product, the GNU/Linux operating system, being evoked as a viable alternative to the world of classical copyright and proprietary knowledge.

What is Open Content?
In this e-Primer,we shall be looking specifically at the world of Open Content,by which we mean all material (text, sound, images) that the general public can freely use, distribute and modify without the traditional restrictions imposed by copyright. These actions can be sanctioned either by an Open Content license or by commonly accepted practice.

Open Content derives philosophically from the Free Software movement and attempts to achieve for the world of general content what FOSS did for software. The word ‘content’ itself may sometimes be misleading as it refers to a whole range of subject matter, from music to movies and literature to learning materials. We therefore use the phrase ‘Open Content’ to primarily refer to content that provides the greatest freedom (the right to modify), since other kinds of content which do not provide the right to modify may actually be covered by the Open Access movement. Finally, for the purposes of this e-Primer, we shall use the word ‘content’ to include the range of materials covered by copyright law, excluding software.

Overview of the e-Primer
In this e-Primer,we begin by examining the context in which the Open Content movement has emerged; namely, the politics of copyright and the ways in which it impedes creativity and the sharing of knowledge.We also examine some of the founding myths that inform copyright law. We then move on to an analysis of how copyright has developed over the past decades and what that means for questions of access to knowledge and culture.

The next section then examines alternatives to copyright that have emerged in the context of software and their application to the domain of knowledge creation.This leads us to a detailed examination of the ways in which the Open Content paradigm is reshaping our ideas of creativity and knowledge creation using various case studies. This is followed by a study of the ways in which Open Content licenses work. Finally, we conclude with an analysis of the potential policy implications and possible limitations of Open Content.

title: FOSS Open Content/Introduction


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[ FOSS Open Content/References ]

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