text:
User:Mshonle

Who I Am and What I Do
My name is Macneil Shonle. My area is software engineering, so I like to take a software engineering kind of approach to the texts that I work on:

 * Data Structures {fundamental tools}
 * Algorithms {fundamental techniques}
 * Data Structures and Algorithms {advanced tools and techniques}
 * Programming Languages
 * Logic for Computer Scientists

I'm primarily interested in the Algorithms book, which I work on whenever I find myself having the time. I want the book to primarily focus on the techniques used for designing your own algorithms (or understanding someone else's), rather than just having yet-another-reference book. The goal is to help people see the forest for the trees. While Knuth and CLRS are great books to have, I learned algorithms from a professor who had a great vision of teaching them. My main goal for the Algorithms book is to communicate that vision.

Many data structures books focus on seemingly trivial details and miss telling the greater story of abstraction. The book SICP, on the other hand, tells the story of abstraction quite well. Thus, my goal for the Data Structures book is to tell the same abstraction story in the context of all the most fundamental data structures.

Lately, the OO idea has only been half-understood by authors of popular data structures books. For example, I've seen several sources confuse the concept of encapsulation with abstraction. Much of the complexity of modern OO languages is actually quite arbitrary, so focusing on that only means you are telling an artificially complex story.

I created the Advanced book primarily as a place to keep off-topic but interesting material. While some cutting edge algorithms or data structures are very cool, they are inappropriate for introductory texts. (Why confuse the reader who is not yet comfortable with even the basic concepts yet?)

(I'm also an admin and active member of wikibooks, so you may find that many of my user contributions are simply deleting spam or voting in strange discussions of odd books.)

I'm also a Wikipedian, so you should check out my wikipedia page too.

Where've I been?
I've been sucked into a graduate student vortex for a while. Research first, as that's what pays the bills! MShonle 22:32, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

Did I Delete a Wikipedia Link?
Perhaps you've come to my page because I deleted a wikipedia link inserted into one of the books I work on? Sorry about that... didn't mean to bite anyone's head or anything. In the future I'll try leaving the wikipedia links up longer. However, it is my intention that the books we work on won't need wikipedia links in the main body of the text. Here's how I see it: But given all of that, this project is a part-part-time job for me. Some sections will be stubs for a year if someone else doesn't get to them first. The books will be sparse in areas until the First Edition is achieved, and it sure will look like they need the links. But instead of linking, get to writing! Your writing or spelling doesn't even have to be good: we'll help you, just as others have helped me.
 * 1) If a book entry mentions something well known, such as the internet, or prime numbers, there's no need to link. A really confused reader could still google or search on wikipedia themselves.
 * 2) If a book mentions (e.g.) prime numbers in a way that is important, it should recap in-place the relevant properties instead. In fact, you can use the wikipedia as a resource to help you write that recap. Instead of flooding a person with all of the information the wikipedia entry gives, it's your job to just give them what they need to know. (Perhaps a definition, or a notation, for example.)
 * 3) If you really think the information linked will help the person, because it's a very interesting tangent, put the link instead at the end of the chapter, in a Related Readings section. (But again, if it's not a tangent, but important, it should be in the body of the text!)
 * 4) Some people think information, information, information is always good and "so long as it's true, it's useful". I instead take the view that our time on this planet is limited, and thus it's more valuable if we do what we can to provide signals to highlight the most important information. Without these signals (i.e., we let all information through, and include a link to every word used that has a wikipedia entry) learning will be hurt.
 * 5) On the other hand, for the Wikipedia itself, the rich and deep links are the information. Less-so with a book, where the writing and transfering of specific knowledge is what's needed, not the categorization and linking of general knowledge.

See you in the page logs!

Scrap Pages

 * /Policy
 * /Around 2000 Words -- A personal statement
 * /Charters an idea of mine for helping the VFD process and respecting expert contributors -- but without major bureaucracy
 * /First edition another policy idea that would encourage books to reach a "shippable" stage, and help reorganize the main page to lead more people to completed works
 * /Scrap some material that might be rewritten and put into a very introductory economics book
 * /SEAdvancedModularity

To Do

 * Unify the "computing" bookshelves so that there is only three names:
 * Computer Science -- the more "math-like" stuff you would get in college
 * Programming -- language guides, library tutorials, programming tips and recipies
 * IT -- about computer programs, using them, set up of networks, so long as you aren't writing much "code"
 * Re-order the programming language shelve so that there is no "misc", "hybrid" or "imperative" sections (all are far too general topics to be helpful).
 * Finish policy write ups.
 * Design/write up all data-structure ADTs for the book

title: User:Mshonle


text:
Talk:How To Search

Anybody have a better organizational method for this front page? I don't think this one will scale.

standard terminology
I am not pleased with the word "searches" and the way I use it to refer to all search engines, search mechanisms, search software... "Searches" is ambiguous. "Search engine" doesn't seem to fit things like PubMed or grep. Suggestions? liblamb 22:02, 25 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Perhapse the word "queries" would suffice (Freesodas (discuss • contribs) 22:44, 2 August 2013 (UTC)).

Searching: query vs browsing
I just realized that my original intent with this book was to concentrate on query based searching and ignore browsing based searching. If anyone feels so inclined and ambitious enough to integrate content related to searching by browsing, please go ahead. Query based searches, as I am thinking of them, present a space in which a user must type text (or other info) before they can get results. Browsing as a search method involves discoverability. The two methods usually complement one another. Examples: liblamb 04:29, 30 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Yahoo Directory requires a browsing search method.
 * Yahoo Search requires a query search method.

Removal of Search by Operator Syntax
I have removed the following because it doesn't seem useful at the moment. I can imagine it being useful but Wikibook categories may be a better option if this is ever revived.

 * AND - | {default} | AND | +
 * OR - | {default} | OR
 * NOT - | {default} | NOT | -

liblamb 00:54, 28 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Orphaned Wikibook module
The following is an orphaned Wikibook module that is associated with this wikibook:

 * How To Search/Other search type list

Feel free to edit this module and place the template tag if it doesn't belong here. --Rob Horning 20:08, 6 August 2005 (UTC)

 * How To Search/Feedster is another orphan. --hagindaz 04:23, 4 June 2006 (UTC)

suggestion on usability: user's goals
How about putting titles on the home page like what a user would be asking himself? If a person really doesn't know how to search, he may not know what Google is!

- Finding phone numbers - Finding maps and directions - Finding software for my computer I can download for free - Finding general information in an online encyclopedia - When to use Google (as compared to a more specific search, like a phone number)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:How To Search


text:
Cookbook:Egg Casserole

 * United States

Egg casserole is great at any time of the day and is good to serve when family gets together or in other large groups.

Ingredients

 * 8 slices of bread
 * 7–8 eggs
 * 2 cups milk
 * 1 stick butter, melted
 * 2 cups diced ham
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 1 tablespoon prepared mustard
 * 2 cups grated Velveeta cheese
 * 1 dash each of red pepper, paprika, and garlic powder

Procedure

 * 1) Put bread in a greased 9 x 13-inch pan.
 * 2) Mix melted butter, milk, seasonings, and beaten eggs.
 * 3) Pour mixture over bread.
 * 4) Sprinkle with diced ham and top with grated cheese.
 * 5) Refrigerate overnight.
 * 6) Bake for 1 hour at 350°F.

title: Cookbook:Egg Casserole


text:
Tomos Moped

Tomos is a defunct Slovenian moped maker with several models including Targa LX and Revival.

How-To

 * Help! Show me how to fix ...
 * Tools You Should Carry With You..
 * How do I protect my Tomos...

Sound Guides

 * I'm getting a strange clicking sound and acceleration is poor...

title: Tomos Moped


text:
Tomos Moped/Repair

How do I replace the piston and cylinder?
Take off side fairings. Remove airbox with one large philips screw and detach from carburetor by unscrewing clamp.

Turn on fuel flow and remove carburetor where it attaches to intake with philips screw. Let carburetor hang to the side. Unbolt oil injection from intake manifold with one small (size?) bolt.

Unbolt exhaust at bottom of engine and consider completely removing exhaust from moped.

On cylinder head, remove spark plug wire and pull spark plug. Unbolt head from cylinder via 11mm bolts and washer. Wiggle cylinder head completely off engine, pulling it past piston and rings. Stuff paper or cloth in remaining hole to keep debris out of engine.

Unbolt intake manifold from cylinder and remove reed valve. Replace intake and reed valve on new cylinder along with appropriate gaskets.

Remove piston by unclipping 2 retainer rings on wrist pin. Slide out wrist pin, tapping if necessary. Remove piston.

Put new rings on new piston by gently working them down over top of piston. Check documentation for ring arrangement. Often, pistons will have a finger in the groove to keep ring alignment at preferred angles.

Slide piston into new cylinder by compressing rings one at a time. The piston is only supposed to go in one way. It should have an arrow on the top which is supposed to point at the exhaust port (away from the carb).

Scrape old gasket from engine where cylinder mounts and install new gasket. Put new cylinder partially on engine while aligning connecting rod with piston. Slide and clip new wrist pin in with needle nose pliers. Slide cylinder completely down onto engine.

Pour a small amount of 2-stroke oil down cylinder to piston. Roll the engine with kickstart or pedals to lube walls of piston and cylinder.

Replace head. Slide washers and nuts on bolts with allen wrench or similar tool. Torque down in X pattern. Be careful not to overtorque. Replace spark plug and wire.

Bolt on exhaust, using appropriate gasket. Replace carburetor and air box. Turn on gas.

Remember to vary speed while break-in and limit full-throttle operation for 300 miles.

Some people recommend mixing a little extra 2-cycle oil into the gas for the brake-in period.

After the break-in period check head bolts and tighten if necessary.

How do I do a plug chop?
Full warm up the engine by running it for about 10 minutes... Then make a top speed full throttle run for a half mile or more, then kill the motor and stop and pull the spark plug on the spot.

It is important to chop the throttle and turn the engine off with the switch and pull over to stop. You don't want the engine to come to an idle, That will change the plug color.

How do I replace my chain?
Loosen the tension adjustment tabs at the rear tire by loosening the nut on one side. Tap these until the cams are in the loosest position. Remove the chain guard with two Philips screws.

Find the master link by slowing rotating the rear tire. It will look different than the rest of the links in the chain. Pop it over using a screwdriver and a sharp pop of the wrist.

To avoid needing to pull the left pedal and part of the engine cover, reattach the new chain with the masterlink to the old chain. Keep tension on the chain and slowly rotate the rear tire to pull the new chain forward through the front sprocket.

When the old chain has pulled through, pull the two other parts of the old master link off. Use a new master link to connect the chain.

If you are using different sized sprockets or a universal chain that is longer than stock, you may need to remove extra links. Use a link breaking tool or grind off pins and remove unneeded link sections.

Tighten tension adjustment tabs, making sure to keep them even on each side. Tap with a hammer if necessary. Look for a 10mm deflection in the chain when finished.

Replace chain guard. Use chain lubrication to heavy oil down chain while slowly rotating rear wheel. Considering oiling chain every gas fill-up to lengthen chain life.

How can I tell if my oil pump is working?
This is an easy one. On the carb manifold there is a hose on a brass fitting. Take the hose off. Then remove the spark plug cap. Crank over a few times. If oil spits out then it works! (look at the line if it is clear it is not working unless you have just filled the oil tank!)

How do I add an aftermarket exhaust?
Below the engine are two bolts and washers. Remove these. Another bolts connects the exhaust behind the pedals. Remove this and discard the exhaust. Replace the after-market exhaust, remembering to add an appropriate gasket before tighting bolts and washers. Don't overtorque! *Don't forget to upjet!*

How do I change my rear sprocket? Front sprocket?
Little advice about this. A (27 Tooth) Count will allow for maximum speed to be reached without going crazy with compression issues, jetting, or even boring your ports larger. This is not necessary. A smaller sprocket will allow for a slower top end. your looking at a very cheap alternative, around maybe 15 to 20 bucks US. However if you're not looking to go fast then i would say use a 25 tooth sprocket for the front. Now if you want to go even faster, get a 20 tooth sprocket for the rear. The reason for this is very simple, in the front we have a larger sprocket to create more pull and a smaller one on the back means it completes it rotation faster therefore occupying less space in the back and more in the front will increase the speed of the chains movement. Absolutely the same thing as a bike sprocket the only change here is we are modifying it to be a bit different either faster or slower with more power. The larger sprocket in the rear will give you a much more powerful pull but less speed. A lot less, not a very good idea for road use here. To be safe use the smaller sprocket in the rear and larger in the front.

How do I plug my oil pump so I can manually add 2-stroke oil?
Remove tank from under seat after you drain off all oil. Disconnect oil lines at tank and under cover where oil pump is. Remove 2 screws from oil pump and put pump aside. Take off coupling insert and put with pump. Now on the intake manifold there is the banjo bolt. remove it with the line from the pump. Get another 5mm bolt and cut off short so it will not stick into the flow of fuel delivery. Insert screw with a fibre washer and tighten so there is no air leaks. Put the old side cover(round) for the pump back on. Double a piece of fuel line to fill in the holes where the oil lines fed in and out. Now mix fuel at 50:1 ratio (as recommended in all Tomos manuals) and you're finished.

If your moped is stock the oil injection may connect directly to the carburetor. If this is the case, you need to plug the hole the oil hose went into originally. The banjo bolt step in the above instructions could also be ignored.

How do I change my carburetor's jet?
Turn off fuel flow and remove carburetor where it attaches to intake with philips screw.

Invert carburetor and unscrew float bowl. The jet sits in the middle of the float. Be careful not to tear gasket. Unscrew jet and replace jet.

Reverse steps to reinstall.

How do I change my Oil Injection?
To remove oil injection you will have to plug up the hole in the intake. Then remove the pump found on the left side of the motor under its little cover and block off the hole with sheet metal bolted on.

How do I fix a flat tire?
Get a couple of hard plastic tire irons at your local bicycle shop. These avoid damage to the rims (especially the chrome ones). Use ONLY proper (motorcycle) tubes. a good idea is to change the inner tube. Or you can also use fix a flat at a local motorsports store

The spark plug has no spark
There are many things to check coil, points, wiring.But the major cause of no spark in older tomos mopeds is the tail light bulb.the manufacturer does not want you driving with no taillight. If the filament is burned out or the bulb is missing the primary coil inside the flywheel will not fire the points thus no spark.

title: Tomos Moped/Repair


text:
Tomos Moped/Sound Clicky

Your intake manifold is loose and you're hearing the reed valve. Pull off the carburator and look to see if the intake is sliding off the cylinder. Tighten down with red locktight.

title: Tomos Moped/Sound Clicky


text: Programming Languages

title: Programming Languages


text:
Tomos Moped/Mobile Toolset

No perfect portable toolset exists, as a minimum, you'll want a screwdriver (both slot and philips), a cresent wrench and some sort of pliers.

Other tools mentioned worth carrying include:

General Tools

 * Leatherman
 * Screwdriver (Slot/Philips); a Multi-tip or Kit is better
 * Set of metric allen wrenches
 * Small Cresent wrench
 * Small Vise Grips
 * Small Needle Nose
 * Metric Socket Set
 * Pliers

Spark problems

 * Several spark plugs
 * Spark plug tool with compatible wrench
 * Spark gap tool/feeler gauges

Tire problems

 * Tire inner-tube
 * Tire irons
 * Patch kit
 * Tire pump or CO2 kit

Assorted replacement parts

 * Bulbs
 * Gas tubing
 * Brake cable
 * Throttle cable

Assorted other items

 * Thread-lock
 * Penetrating oil
 * 2-5 zip ties
 * 36-inches of bailing wire
 * 2-stroke oil in 2-4 ounce container
 * Roll of electrical tape
 * Bungee cords in several sizes
 * Rags
 * Money
 * Pepperspray
 * Lighter
 * Compass/GPS
 * Cell phone

For endurance-trips

 * Piston
 * Rings
 * Aluminum cleaner for scratched cylinder

title: Tomos Moped/Mobile Toolset


text:
Tomos Moped/Protection

U-locks designed for bicycles are popular for locking the rear tire. Kryptonite locks are popular to locking your moped to an immovable object, such as a rail or tree.

Kill switches can be installed, making it difficult to start. Always use your gas cut-off switch.

Remember to register your vehicle and at the minimum get its VIN.

title: Tomos Moped/Protection


text:
User:Jamie7687

I'll put something here...

title: User:Jamie7687


text:
Wikibooks:Subdomains

Details on how to use the multiple subdomains presently activated for Wikibooks. (From discussions moved from the Staff Lounge).

Subdomains introduced
In case you hadn't noticed, Wikibooks now has subdomains. I set up redirects from http://wikibooks.org/ and http://www.wikibooks.org/ to Wikibooks portal, and then changed the main page of this wiki (which is now officially the English wiki) to be Main page. So if someone types en.wikibooks.org, it will take them to the English site, but if someone types wikibooks.org, it will take them to the old portal. All other URLs under the wikibooks.org domain are redirected to the corresponding page in en.wikibooks.org, so hopefully no links to us from outside will be broken.

Linking to other Wikimedia projects
To link to other projects from wikibooks, you can use the following prefixes, which link to the same language of a different project:

 * w: wikipedia
 * wikt: wiktionary
 * q: wikiquote
 * b: wikibooks
 * m: meta-wiki

Note that any links you created to Wikipedias using syntax such as Accueil will be broken -- they are now interlanguage links which will be extracted from the text and displayed in the sidebar. To link to a wikipedia of a different language, use Accueil. -- Tim Starling 14:13, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Questions
(see also the Talk page.)

 * So now we have to change all of the links that used to say 'en:' to 'w:en:', manually. Is there a way you could do this with a bot or something? Could we change all of them at once? - SamE 15:24, 20 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * It might be best to contact someone who operates a bot. -- Tim Starling 01:44, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * How do you create a new subdomain? Not that I want to, just that everything is en: right now, even the large German Wikibooks. Could you publicize this?

 * Go to the subdomain, there are instructions.

 * I went to the subdomain ( http://de.wikibooks.org ) and got an "does not exist" error. The I went to http://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Hauptseite and there was the new domain. Now ( http://de.wikibooks.org ) works too and is redirected to die Hauptseite. But I still found no instructions. Did I anything wrong? I reregistered my nick, which worked. Do I guess right, and we have to migrate the pages manually?--berni 08:54, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Portal

 * And could you also put the portal back at www.wikibooks.org? Thanks for all your work, Tim. - SamE 00:58, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * As for putting the portal back: well, I considered attempting to serve the page from the English but with a wikibooks.org domain name, just using a rewrite rule, but making rewrite rules cross into different virtual hosts is tricky. Putting in a redirect to en was definitely the easiest solution. The other solutions would be:

 * Write a PHP script to serve the page from the en.wikibooks wiki when requests come in for wikibooks.org or www.wikibooks.org
 * Create a static HTML page based on the current portal and put it in the appropriate location. Easy to set up but hard to maintain.
 * Create a separate self-contained wiki for the sole purpose of serving the portal page
 * Is the URL of the portal really that important? -- Tim Starling 01:44, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

The portal should be at http://wikibooks.org or http://www.wikibooks.org with a redirection from one to the other. Many people think that a web site has to start with www. Yann 12:16, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Moving pages across subdomains, and Transwiki

 * I just wondered if there is the posibility to move a page completely to an other subdomain (including history and discussion). This would be a nice feature. I also do not know if there are legal problems, if we just copy the content.--berni 09:08, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * The transwiki system was designed to move content from one project or language to another while maintaining some record of the authors. I don't think the ability to move pages into a different domain works yet, so that's probibly the best method to use.  Also note that the transwiki log is only for pages that spend some time in the transwiki namespace at the target wiki, therefore if a page is going from the main namespace at en directly to the main namespace at de, it doesn't need to be registered in the log. Gentgeen 15:59, 21 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Ok. As far, as I understood, I have to copy & paste the main article, and maybe the discussion-page. Then I've to go over the history to find all authors, who contributed to that page und write them on the discussion page (or if they are very few, I put them in the summary, when creating the new page. The I'll list the original page at the votes for deletion. Am I right with this process or did I overlook something important? --berni 08:13, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I think you've got the main points. Eventually, we're supposed to be able to move pages from one wiki to another, but that's not ready yet. Gentgeen 12:40, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * For people who are familar with Java I've written a short Javaprogramm, that reads a page at en.wikibooks.org and gives a sorted list of the authors, that contributed to that page (it only works, if there arent more then 10000 changes to that page). See http://pcpool.mathematik.uni-freiburg.de/~berni/ExtractAuthorBot.java Usage: Call it with the name of the page e.g. use "java ExtractAuthorBot Wikibooks:Staff_lounge" to get a list of persons who contributed to this page. --berni 09:05, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I wrote some article for computer games and they'll be moved to ja.wikibooks but I can't know how to move them completely to ja.wikibooks. How to do it? Is it necessary to do something before click "Create wiki" button? http://ja.wikibooks.org/ shows "Wiki does not exist". PiaCarrot 10:35, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * As far, as I understood, it will be there in a few hours. So drink a cup fo tea ;-) --berni 10:49, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I pasted my article to ja.wikibooks but I'm annoying for history information (in fact, all edits are made by me). What is it necessary thing to merge history? PiaCarrot 13:45, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * This is an unclear issue. As far as I know, it isn't possible to import history yet. User:Chriss suggested to keep the articles in the english wikipedia as long, as this is not cleared.--berni 14:07, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks:Subdomains


text:
Wikibooks talk:Subdomains

Multiple subdomains?
I understand the question of having multiple subdomains for multiple wikibooks languages is somewhat contentious. I just wanted to say that I've now set up the technical means for easily and efficiently converting to a multi-subdomain project. I've just done this with wikiquote, I could easily do it for wikibooks too. The basic idea is to allow users to create wikis which don't yet exist by simply clicking on a button.

Converting to a multi-subdomain site makes it possible to use an interface language which matches the content language. It also makes it easy to create interlanguage links, just like on Wikipedia. I think it's great how you've set up a language-neutral portal, and that portal can be kept after the conversion.

Anyway, I often get requests for setting up wikibooks subdomains, and personally I'm entirely in favour of it. But my opinion on this is irrelevant, what I really want to know is, what do the wikibookians think? -- Tim Starling 06:10, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Go for it :) Dysprosia 07:10, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree with Dys, let's do it! I think Karl was in favor too, but he's been missing for a little bit. Gentgeen 08:05, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I prefere subdomains too.--berni 08:49, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * dito --Moolsan 09:06, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm all for it. Could we extend this to the books themselves, i.e. en.(book abbreviation).wikibooks.org, or the other way around? That would be really convenient. - SamE 17:43, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * I think, that's not a good idea. As far as I know, we would need an own webserver for every book. That would be a little bit overkill. Anyway, I don't like that idea.--berni 21:45, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * we wouldn't need an own webserver for each book, but an own virtual host entry for each one. so the webserver would get really slow really fast, what nobody really wants i think ;) and as most if not even all users are used to using the subdomain for the language abbr. as in wikipedia i think its the best way --Moolsan 00:04, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, thanks Tim. By language subdomains is long overdue. Yann 11:32, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

It seems the only person strongly opposed to this is Maveric149, who judging by his contributions, is not an active contributor here. I just discovered that in fact it's not trivial to set up subdomains for wikibooks, because the wikibooks.org subdomains are not configured to point to the Wikimedia servers, they just give an error. The wikibooks.org domain name is not owned or controlled by Wikimedia, in fact it is owned by none other than Maveric149. Now I'm sure this won't be a problem, since he did say back in July 2003:

 * All these domain names will be donated to Wikimedia as soon as it is able to accept a legal transfer of ownership. It will be up to the Foundation to decide what to do with all these domain names and whether or not it makes sense to renew them (if so then I'll probably help to finance that too but I'm sure I won't be the only one).

Wikimedia is now able to accept such donations. If necessary, we can set up the other language wikis in subdirectories rather than subdomains, or we can move the whole project to a wikimedia-controlled domain. Perhaps that would be useful as an interim measure, while we wait for the transfer to be completed. -- Tim Starling 12:04, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't even have the current password to the GoDaddy.com account that holds those domains. Jason must have requested a new password since the one I had before is nearly impossible to remember. As for sub-domains - if I'm out voted, then I'm out outed. But I would still like people to look at the larger picture here;

Could you enlighten us Tim? Such an ability is really necessary for Wikisource, Meta and the Foundation wiki. I also think that such a patch would make it possible for Wikibooks to stay together. Meta flags could later be added to set the interface language for anons (each page/module would have a language flag that would change the interface language for anons visiting that page). Also, the ability to set-up a new language project without having to ask a developer is a nice and wiki way of doing things. --mav 20:40, 18 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Books can be given descriptive names to avoid naming conflicts.
 * Thus there is no need for a separate wiki.
 * Somebody a while ago at least tried to submit a patch whereby people could set the interface language to whatever they wanted. I have not heard about the status of that patch.

 * If I recall correctly, the patch to allow people to select the user interface language had some serious conceptual problems. We have a $wgLang variable which indicates the current language, so changing it to something else is pretty trivial. But if $wgLang is not the same as the content language, it will be horribly broken. For example, the correct language is needed to send links with a language-specific namespace to the right location, or to link to the correct URLs in the sidebar. The problem requires a much more complex solution than simply changing $wgLang. -- Tim Starling 15:40, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I think there are some good reasons to have multiple subdomains.
 * The naming conflict appears not only at modules, but also at pages like Portal.
 * There might also be naming conflicts at the Textbausteine (what's that in english? templates?)
 * It's easier for me to argue in german, than in english at pages like "votes for deletion" or here.
 * The search-function might deliver a lot of mess, that one isn't looking for. Example: When I'm looking for the word "gift" I will get english pages about presents, as well as german pages about poisons.
 * The DB-dump is probably smaller, at least it's easier to process only that part, that I'm interested in.
 * A few days before the idea of subdomains came up, I thought about creating a kathegory "german" to mark every page, that is german. I think subdomains are the better alternative.
 * I think we don't share much material between the languages (maybe Images and Sounds; and of course the spirit.)
 * Last but not least. The idea of subdomains will come up sooner or later again. And it will be much more work the longer we wait.
 * I know, that we can find way around some (if not all) of this issues, but I think subdomains are an easier solution.--berni 11:45, 19 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Subdomains


text:
World History/The Roman Empire

The Foundations of an Empire
According to literature, Rome was founded in 753 BC by the twins named Romulus and Remus. They built their settlements on the Palatine and Aventine hills respectively. (Rome sits on seven hills.) Remus grew jealous of Romulus and mocked the size of the walls he had built, so Romulus killed him. He then named the city after himself and was crowned king. Whether or not this story is true, it highlights the warlike origins of Rome. Around 753 BC the foundations of one of the most powerful empires in history were laid - one which would shake the very foundations of the world. The Romans' own accounts and historical evidence suggests that, for several hundred years after its founding, Rome was ruled by kings and emperors. from the nearby land of Etruria. The Etruscans were very oppressive rulers and the Romans desired to rid themselves of their masters. In 509 BC, the son of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, raped a noblewoman named Lucretia, and then Lucretia, out of her own humiliation, killed herself. Outraged, her family instigated a revolt that drove the royal house of the Tarquins out of Rome. Lucretia's husband, Lucius Tarquinius Collantis and one Lucius Junius Brutus became the first two consuls of a new republic which they founded. The office of the consul became the chief executive position in the Republic. The title of "king" became so despised that it remained a career-shattering charge until the rise of Julius Caesar and the end of the Republic.

Social Structure and Citizenship

The social structure of the Republic was basically divided between two main groups: the patricians, or the wealthy noble class, and the plebeians, the broad mass of peasant citizens. One's class was hereditary, meaning that even if one was lucky enough to be one of the few plebeians who became wealthy and rich(or at least attained enough wealth to be considered middle class), especially as a merchant, one was still considered a plebian. Likewise, some patricians had become almost poor towards the latter end of the Republic. The plebeians were often at odds with the patricians and the class conflict that was generated often saw the patrician nobles granting certain privileges, rights, and concessions to the plebeians in order to keep them under control. In 494 BC, the plebeians gained the right to elect two Tribunes, who held large amounts of control in the government of the Republic. Later, this number was expanded to ten. Finally, the plebeians were eventually allowed to elect a Concilium Plebis, or "Council of the Plebians" which gave them greater control in legal affairs. Towards the end of the Republic, a new group known as the equites became a powerful and potent force within the Republic, as the result of the actions of the Consul Tiberius Gracchus (more on him later). Note that only men, no matter what class, were able to have authority or hold a political position in Rome.

The Government of the Republic
The chief body of the Republic was the Senate. Contrary to popular belief, it held no law-making power, and consisted of an advisory function to the various assemblies, which actually passed the laws. However, the Senate was the most important body in the Republic and the most influential - political careers were made or broken in the Roman Senate. The Senate appointed governors and generals, directed the use of public funds, and received ambassadors on behalf of the city! The Senate also had the important power of empowering the two Consuls to appoint a Dictator (for a period of six months) in times of emergency. The reason was that the people of the Republic realized that in an emergency, especially that of war, democracies are too slow to act effectively (contrast this to heightened power of the American President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War, for instance). The Senate consisted of around 300 members who could be either patricians or plebeians. Usually all magistrates had been Senators at some time.

The executive power in Roman politics was vested in the cursus honorum, which constituted the order of posts one went through in the Roman hierarchy. It comprised a mixture of political and military posts, each having a particular age requirement for election. The cursus honorum began with a period of around ten years of service in the army, especially the calvary (the "equites"). However, this requirement, because of nepotism, was not rigidly applied. In fact, because of the absence of political parties, political advancement came almost exclusively through family ties and personal influence. The next step (or first) after military service was the office of the quaestor, at the minimum age of thirty (men of patrician descent could subtract two years from all age requirements). Quaestors automatically became Senate members; thus, the executive and legislative branches of the Republic were closely intertwined. In total, there were eight to twelve quaestors who served for a period of one year. They directed the financial affairs of the state, as well as supervising the Roman armies and officers. Former quaestors could be elected to one of the four positions of aedile at the age of thirty-six, subtracting two for patricians. Aediles were administrative positions charged with keeping public order and enforcing the law. Half of the aediles came from the plebeian class and half from the patrician class. This step in the cursus honorum was optional. At the age of thirty-nine, former quaestors and aediles might be elected as one of six praetors, who had several functions. Some held judicial positions; others served as governors of provinces not controlled by the consuls and commanded up to one legion. The chief officers of the Republic were the two consuls, who held the highest powers in the government. They were elected once a year and had to be at least forty-two years of age. No one could be elected consul again except after a ten-year intervening period between consulships. The consuls controlled the city's political agenda, commanded the largest divisions in the army, and were in charge of important provinces. Each had veto power of the actions of the other. In addition to the these offices, there were two censors in the political hierarchy of Rome. These former consuls held incredible power, because they conducted the census of Rome, which gave them power of who belonged to which "tribe" (not ethnic but bureaucratic), and controlled the roll of the Senate, giving them power over its membership. They were elected every five years and served an eighteen month term (the only office not serving a one year term). Another important position in Rome was that of tribune, a position held by aspiring plebeians which allowed them to balance out the power of the patricians.

Most officials in the Roman government held the power of imperium, which meant absolute executive power, except by the veto of one possessing a higher level of imperium. Imperium meant holding the power of life or death over the people. Beginning with the position of aedile, imperium was a great honor that carried with it the privilege of lictors. Lictors were special servants who accompanied magistrates and served them. The number of lictors was symbolic of the power of the office held. Lictors carried with them the faces, a bundle of sticks with an axe within. Inside of the city of Rome itself, the axe was usually removed and the number of lictors reduced, because the power to wield capital punishment towards Roman citizens was reserved for the consuls and the dictator.

753-202 B.C.E
The early centuries of the republic heralded its rise to prominence in the Italian peninsula. The tiny city-state was blessed with adept leadership and brilliant innovation. In the period of 753-275 BC, most Italians practiced the Greek style of Hoplite warfare with phalanxes. The Romans, who used the style initially, found it unwieldy and hard to manage in the mountainous and broken terrain of Italy. So, they adopted the Legion. The Legion was a band of recruited militia and made up of 6,000 soldiers, brought up in times of war from the middle and rich classes. Since Rome was a military state, these soldiers' battle skills were without question and they often served in the army for 7-10 years, before being disbanded at the end of the conflict. These citizen militias fought hard and received good pay and spoils of war if they succeeded in battle. Through this method, the Romans conquered or allied with all the Italian city states south of the Po river by 275 BC Rome's success attracted the eyes of other powers in the region. Carthage, the Phoenician colony in modern day Tunisia, was already an established trading power and commanded a wealthy realm. Rome and Carthage grew increasingly hostile over the place of Sicily in each other's sphere of influence and in 263 BC, Carthage and Rome went to war. Rome defeated Carthage and her large fleet, without ever having fought a naval battle before, and conquered Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. The terms of the peace for Carthage were so extreme, that a young boy named Hannibal, son of one of Carthage's finest generals, felt immense hatred towards Rome. Later on, he became a high ranking Carthaginian general, and after amassing a force in Spain, marched across the Alps to attack Rome in 222 BC, essentially starting the Second Punic War. After making it through the mountains, Hannibal's army swept through Italy defeating every Roman army it came across, including one with more than twice their numbers at the Battle of Cannae. However, the Romans continued to fight on. A promising Roman general, Publilius Cornelius Scipio "Africanus", came up with the strategy of drawing Hannibal away by invading Carthaginian Spain. The plan worked to a degree, and within a year he had conquered all of Spain, essentially isolating Hannibal. He then took the fight to Carthage itself, and at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, Hannibal and Carthage were defeated. This time, the Romans stripped Carthage of everything, and reduced its empire to the area directly around the city. Even her independence wasn't guaranteed by Rome and in the Third Punic War in 146 BC, the city of Carthage was sacked, its inhabitants enslaved, and the rest burned.

215-133 BC
Roman expansion East started in the Second Punic War when the Carthaginians asked the Antigonid dynasty of Macedonia, one of Alexander's Successor Kingdoms, to assist them in defeating the powerful Romans. Needing to maintain peace on all fronts to focus on defeating their other Greek rivals, the Macedonians declared war in 215 BC. This First Macedonian War had little fighting, but it forced the Romans to think of their neighbors to the east with an eye of suspicion. After this war, the cities of Rhodes and Pergamum both sent emissaries to the Romans informing them of a secret plot of invasion by Macedon. Thus sparked the Second Macedonian War 200-196 BC, saw the Romans attack Macedon to quench any expansionism by the Antigonids. The Romans allied with the Aetolian League, a band of Greek city states who also distrusted Macedon. The war ended quickly and decisively and forced a peace and Macedonian neutrality. When the spoils of territory were assigned the Aetolian League received less territory then they believed they deserved, they invited the other Successor Kingdom, the Seleucid Empire to take over Greece from the Romans. This Seleucid War was finished at the battle of Magnesia where the Romans under Scipio "Africanus" crushed the army of the Seleucid king at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. Thus, Rome gained a foothold in Asia Minor to be expanded upon later, and ensured the decay of the Seleucid Empire. The last bid for Greek independence were the Third and Fourth Macedonian Wars 172-168 150-148 where the Macedonians fought against the Romans in a bid for supremacy. They lost the Battle of Pydna in 148 BC and were forced to acknowledge Roman domination. After all this destruction in the east, the king of Pergamum attempted to defuse a succession crisis in his nation by bequeathing it to the Romans. After his death in 133 BC, his entire kingdom was granted to Rome and the wealth it contained would lead to darker times in the Republic.

The Shift from Greek to Roman Dominance
The Mediterranean civilizations of Greek and Rome were dominant during the Classical Era. When the Roman Empire began to expand and conquered Greece, it adopted many of its customs, but also changed some parts of Greek society in order to fit the larger empire. The main factors in the change from Greek to Roman dominance were in the political structure, the religion, and the types of intellectual and technological advancements.

Rome inherited some of its political characteristics from the Greeks. In Greece there were various forms of government. In the city-state of Athens, democracy was invented, and a small empire of colonies was created (Stearns 73, 81). However, Sparta, another major city-state, was ruled by a militaristic aristocratic council (Stearns 73). Rome borrowed political structure from both of these forms of government, but also created some new policies of its own. When the Roman Republic began, it was an aristocratic council, but elected public officials to represent the general population (Stearns 73). When Rome became an empire it "allowed political autonomy in many states in order to keep its vast empire intact" (Stearns 80). The shift from Greek to Roman politics included many small changes.

The Greeks and Romans shared the same religion. The Greeks began a polytheistic religion that spread throughout their civilizations but did not extend to other parts of the world (Stearns 76). The Greek religion had "a complex religion of many gods and goddesses who regulated human life" (Stearns 76). These gods controlled natural forces as well as human emotions. Romans had the same religions as the Greeks, but they adapted it to suit their own needs. They used the same gods and goddesses as the Greeks, but they gave the gods different names (Stearns 76). The Romans also propagated the religion throughout the empire allowing it to spread more widely (Stearns 76). Although there were some slight changes in the main religion during the shift from Greek to Roman dominance, the religion remained essentially the same.

The technological and intellectual advancements were very different because of the basic Greek or Roman worldview. The Greeks were hypothetical thinkers who were mainly concerned with natural order (Stearns 77). This meant that Greek advancements were mostly intellectual. Most achievements were in science or mathematics “as a means of ordering nature’s patterns comprehensible” (Stearns 77). Romans were much more practical. They had wonderful engineering achievements including the creation of roads and aqueducts (Stearns 78). The Romans' engineering accomplishments were a vital factor of the Roman Empire. The technological advancements and the intellectual achievements made in the shift of cultural dominance are present in today’s academic theories and structural triumphs.

During the shift from Greek to Roman dominance many changes were made, but some similarities existed between the two cultures. The Romans borrowed many of their features from Greeks. Their political structures, religion, and intellectual and technological achievements united the two civilizations. This shift was also reflected in the languages spoken, the Western half of the empire would become Latinized, while the Eastern half would largely remain Greek speaking.

Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was a powerful Roman politician who lived from 13 July 100 BCE – 15 March 44 BCE. His actions paved the way for his adopted son Octavian (later known as Augustus) Caesar to transform the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

Christianity appears in Rome
Before this time-period, Roman people believed in the Roman gods. Christians were killed and tortured. However, St. Paul and Constantine helped Christianity, to the glory it has today.

''This part might need more information. ''

An Empire split in two
The Roman Empire was divided into an eastern and a western half under the emperor Diocletian. This may sound like a simple administrative decision but it was actually a monumental shift in the way Roman affairs were conducted. There would now be two emperors, who would each appoint a "Caesar" under him to serve as his successor; Diocletian hoped this would put an end to the succession crises that had plagued the Empire. Also under Diocletian's reforms massive taxes were instituted to help prop up the Roman economy: the tax burden became so great that some hailed the barbarian invaders as liberators, merely because of their lower taxes. The tax burden was also highly unequal, with the senatorial classes being completely exempt. The new taxes caused people to want to quit their jobs and run away from the power of the empire so they were bound to the land, and many people were bound to the professions of their fathers. Here we can see the origins of medieval serfdom and the rise of the manor as more and more people fled the cities to the country, to escape growing poverty and starvation.

The Decline and Fall of Rome
The fall of the Roman Empire is an important and interesting event in World History. Its fall marked the end of one of the greatest and longest-lived empires in the ancient world. It is important to realize, before reading any further, that the Roman Empire fell due to entirely internal causes. The AP World History test takes this view, as do most historians. Because of its self-weakened state, barbarian invasions were possible. This was the immediate cause of the collapse. This isn't to say that the Roman Empire ended entirely at one point in time either. The Eastern half of the Empire, known from 476 AD onwards as the Byzantine Empire, would exist until 1453, a full thousand years later.

Reasons for the decline and collapse
From the time of Augustus to the time of Diocletian, there was no doubt that the Caesars intended to rule over a unified empire. As the centuries passed, however, Italy, the hearth of Roman culture, became less and less influential in politics and the economic life of the empire. Once a country of peasants with small landholdings, Italy by the third century C.E. had sent untold thousands of her native sons into the Roman legions, sending them away to the borders of the empire. The small farms these men had owned had been swallowed up by huge agricultural estates, which were worked by hordes of slaves brought into Italy from all over Europe, Asia and North Africa.

Rome's later imperial rulers -- the absentee aristocrats who owned the estates -- had a much more tenuous connection to the land and its traditional cultures than the Republic's peasant farmers had had. These rich men enjoyed the wealth that poured in from Rome's conquered provinces, maintained primarily urban residences, and adopted a variety of non-Roman spiritual practices alongside Roman native traditions. Early in the empire, Greek philosophical schools and systems became prominent on the Roman scene; as the first and second centuries passed, more and more urban Romans began to pursue cults and religions from the East, such as Persian Mithraism, Egyptian cults such as that of Isis, and, increasingly, Christianity. Rome itself was a multinational metropolis whose population was heavily skewed toward slaves, freedmen and their descendants, mostly speaking an urban Greek rather than Cato's Latin. The third-century rise of a line of emperors of Syrian origin was fully in line with all these developments. The names and forms seemed continuous with the past, but great changes were underway.

Meanwhile, the outer provinces garrisoned by the legions began to diverge from the center. In the West, Brittania, Hispania and Gaul retained local cultures strongly tied to the land, although their own elites lived Romanized lives in villas and towns. Greece, Syria and Asia Minor gained wealth and influence from land and sea trade routes to India and Asia, becoming more and more distinct in this regard from the agricultural West. Roman citizens in the provinces lived lives not directed from Italy.

Farms and estates were the wealth in the empire's economy, especially in the West. The third century started to see a shrinking of the rural population within the Roman frontiers, as many peasants left the land for the towns. Whole farming regions were abandoned, and Roman officials collected less and less tax revenue from them, despite attempts to restrict peasant movements and resettle vacant tracts. The resulting lack of funds to pay soldiers, operate legal and administrative offices, and maintain roads and buildings, sapped the empire's cohesion. Roman households lost their long-distance connections as the decades passed, turning inwards to make their estates and villas more self-sufficient, which further decreased trade and economic interaction between the provinces. From a military standpoint, a weakened government was losing the ability to project power, to send legions from Syria to garrison Britain and Italians to guard the Rhine. Short of funds, Roman generals found the best remaining way to motivate their troops was by having them defend their own homes. Thus, Rome's legions, which had brought so many provinces under Italy's rule, by the third century were drawing many of their officers and men from those very same formerly vanquished provinces.

A lot can be attributed to the collapse of Rome. The barbarian invasions are only the catalyst that brought on the gradual end of the empire. Over the centuries the costs of keeping large legions grew exponentially, mostly from the emperors' desires, not to have a well maintained military force, but to prevent a coup by rival generals. Extravagances at home, both for the wealth given to patrician families, as well as the obscene costs of the games to keep the plebians happy, helped depress the economy along with various epidemics. Coupled with a series of poor harvests across the empire, the situation for the ailing giant became dire. Further exacerbating the situation was the growing practice of hiring barbarians to defend the borders of Rome for lack of finding Romans or Romanized peoples to serve. This is largely attributed to universal citizenship towards the end of the empire; whereas before citizenship was either received by being born from citizens, or by serving in the Imperial legions. It did not help that the empire was large and difficult to govern from Rome, despite the excellent road systems the empire had maintained. Marcus Arelius, the scholar emperor, spent most of his Imperium traveling the frontier trying to keep the empire together back in the mid to late 2nd century (161-180). Few emperors after Arelius were as effective in administering the empire as he was, though there were some notable and great emperors such as Constantine and Diocletian, by and large many emperors were killed either by civil wars or the Praetorian Guard after only a short time wearing the purple, around 49 emperors in 104 years between Arelius and Diocletian, about an emperor every two years; afterwards the average Imperial reign lasted 3 years until the fall of Western Rome. This is a great contrast to the average reign of 13 years of all the emperors from Augustus to Arelius. The constant battles for the throne, coupled with high taxation and general breakdown of social order, left Rome too weak and crippled to fend off the barbarians. However, it must be noted that the empire did not fall all at once, it was very gradual, there are some articles of some regions of the broken empire still considering themselves part of the Roman empire up to the early 8th century. Coupled with the fact that the Byzantium/Eastern Roman Empire lasted until the mid 15th century, and that the Western World owes its culture, religion, and ideas largely to the Roman Empire makes them one of the longest and most successful empires in the existence of humankind.

title: World History/The Roman Empire


text:
General Relativity/Raising and Lowering Indices

$$, we get components $$g_{\mu \nu}=<\mathbf{e}_\mu \ |\ \mathbf{e}_\nu>$$ and $$g^{\mu \nu}=<\mathbf{d}x^\mu \ |\ \mathbf{d}x^\nu>$$. Note that $$g^\mu_{\ \nu}=g_\mu^{\ \nu}=\delta^\mu_\nu$$ since $$<\mathbf{e}_\mu \ |\ \mathbf{d}x^\nu>=<\mathbf{d}x^\mu \ |\ \mathbf{e}_\nu>=\delta^\mu_\nu$$.

Now, given a metric, we can convert from contravariant indices to covariant indices. The components of the metric tensor act as "raising and lowering operators" according to the rules $$w^\alpha=g^{\alpha \mu}w_{\mu}$$ and $$w_\alpha=g_{\alpha \mu}w^\mu$$. Here are some examples:

1. $$T^{\alpha \ \gamma}_{\ \beta} = g_{\beta \mu}T^{\alpha \mu \gamma}$$

Finally, here is a useful trick: thinking of the components of the metric as a matrix, it is true that $$\left( g^{\mu \nu} \right) = \left( g_{\mu \nu} \right) ^{-1}$$ since $$g^{\mu \sigma}g_{\sigma \nu}=g^\mu_{\ \nu}=\delta^\mu_\nu$$.


text:
Talk:Japanese/Vocabulary/Countries, languages and nationalities

Untitled
The Interwiki linking system does not seem to play well with non-Western script. Everything I've tried (and seen tried in the page history) results in either the wrong page, an invalid page, or the link and text is not displayed at all (like in the current page).

Until this is fixed, we should either not bother with the links, or use the same method as we would use for external linking. Greyweather 21:38, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

I am going to go ahead and do the latter. Greyweather 22:15, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

How should country listing be arranged?
I was thinking of making the country list as complete as possible. But here lies a question, should the countries be listed with or without regional division? For example, look at Asia. It has been divided into East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Middle East. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan just lists the countries under: without further divisions of East, South, West, etc -- [[User:Mkn|Mkn (Talk)]] 03:56, 26 Nov 2004 (UTC)
 * Asia
 * North America
 * Central & South America
 * Europe (including NIS [Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union])
 * Oceania
 * Middle East
 * Africa

 * I suggest that since this list is to aid English-speakers find the Japanese vocabulary they are looking for, rather than educate them in how the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs lists these words, we should order them according to conventions in English speaking countries. --Swift (talk) 16:48, 3 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Because this is meant to aid native English speakers, wouldn't it be helpful to write the new country names in romaji? -- Anonymous 20:06, 3 August 2008

 * What do you mean by "new" country names? If you mean the Japanese words for the countries, then no. This book is for English speakers (native or otherwise) who are learning Japanese. The Japanese Phrasebook is the place for romaji. --Swift (talk) 01:17, 4 August 2008 (UTC)


text:
Sexual Psychology

This textbook is meant to serve as an introduction to the psychological (primarily) and sociological (secondarily) study of human sexuality and related research on intimate relationships. It is appropriate for a undergraduate survey course in sexuality and presumes no prior knowledge.

Section 1 - Human Sexuality

 * 1) /Introduction and History/ - Sex. Motivation for human kind. This book will talk a lot about it.
 * 2) /Theories of Sexuality/
 * 3) /Who's Doing What/
 * 4) /Male and Female/
 * 5) /Intimate Relationships/
 * 6) /Sexually Transmitted Infections/
 * 7) /Special Topics/
 * 8) /Does Size Really Matter?/
 * 9) /Is there Really a 'G' Spot?/

Section 2 - Past Controversies

 * 1) /Sodomy/
 * 2) /Masturbation/
 * 3) /Premarital and Extramarital Sex/

Section 3 - Contemporary Controversies

 * 1) /Perversion/
 * 2) /Rape/
 * 3) /Pornography/
 * 4) /Sex Education/
 * 5) /Homosexuality, Bisexuality, Transgender/

/Bibliography/

title: Sexual Psychology


text:
Sexual Psychology/Who's Doing What

I mentioned in the first chapter that I frequently get questions about this or that topic in human sexuality from people — the less shy ones, I'd guess — who have recently learned about my research interests. Though some of the questions are unusual and unexpected, more often the same questions are just about the same: How often do people actually have sex? Is it normal for my husband to look at pornography? What size is the average penis?

I think the reason questions like those come up over and over again is that they are, fundamentally, normative questions. That is, they are questions about what is "normal," what everyone else is doing. This is unsurprising: We humans do seem to have a natural curiosity about what other people are doing, especially in taboo areas like sex. More than that, though, it allows us to see how "normal" we are. Should I feel fulfilled with the amount of sex I'm having? Or — heaven forbid — am I some sort of pervert? Of course, demographic data can never really answer that sort of question. As the philosopher David Hume pointed out centuries ago, there is a great divide between the "is" and the "ought." Sex research can tell you how close you are to what's average, but it will never be able to tell you how close you are to what's right. That's a question for other fields — philosophy, religion, perhaps law.

Nonetheless, questions about what people are doing and whom they're doing it with are some of the most interesting and fundamental in sex research. As a purely practical example, we can't combat the spread of AIDS if we don't know what sort of people have a lot of sexual partners, what sort of people are less likely to use condoms, and so on. On a more theoretical level, it's impossible to understand the effects of culture of sexual behavior if we don't know what that behavior is. Because of this fundamental importance (and because it's just so darn interesting),

Surveying the Field
If you want to figure out what Americans think, do, or think other people do, the solution seems straightforward: Take a survey. Even if you know nothing about the mechanics of survey methodology, you probably have the impression that modern surveys are among the most marvelously useful things ever invented. And that they are. That's why you can hardly turn on the nightly news or read a major magazine without learning of a new survey. You're probably most familiar with political surveys (or polls, as they're more commonly called), which seem to track the public's opinion on every imaginable issue, from who the next President will be to whether the government should pay subsidies to Iowa corn farmers.

These sorts of surveys are not easy, of course, but as surveys go they're pretty routine. To give a quite simplified example: If you wanted to know who will win the upcoming race for mayor of your city, you could simply pick a couple of hundred numbers at random out of the local phone book, call them, and ask "Who do you plan to vote for in the upcoming mayoral race?" Add up the responses, and you've got your answer. This would certainly not be the most accurate survey in the world, but even in that simplified form it would give you a pretty good idea, as long as the race wasn't too close.

Taking surveys about sexual behavior is not so easy, though. Imagine your reaction if a stranger called your house some evening and asked how many times you'd had sex in the last month. Personally, I'd probably hang up on them immediately; who knows if they're actually researchers or just prank callers? And of course a reasonably comprehensive survey of American sexual behavior would have dozens of questions, some of them even more sensitive than that one, and require participants of every age, race, and religion from every state. The prospects for such a thing seem pretty dim.

For that reason, most sex surveys have not been of that conventional sort. The earliest and still most famous American survey was that by Alfred Kinsey and his colleagues.[Kinsey, et al., 1948] Kinsey and his many assistants.

Surveys of large groups have been conducted in the UK, France, New Zealand and Australia. Recently the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health & Society was established. Summary survey results were also made available.

Related Links
ABC News Primetime Live Poll: American Sex Survey

title: Sexual Psychology/Who's Doing What


text:
Ancient Greek

This text serves as an introduction to Classical Greek, appropriate for a first year course. This text is in the development phase. Please join the discussion if you'd like to contribute.

Before You Begin
As you probably already know, Greek and English use different alphabets. For this reason, you must ensure that your Internet browser can accurately render Greek lettering. If you don't, they will appear as gibberish. Below, you should see the first line of the Iliad.

 * μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος

Don't worry if you can't read the letters yet (that's the first lesson). You should see five words with a few types of accents. If you see question marks or boxes (even if you see a few Greek letters interspersed), you need to install a font which supports Polytonic Unicode Greek or upgrade your browser. If the size of the font makes reading uncomfortable for you, you may wish to adjust your browser or display settings.

Chapter I: Introduction to Classical Greek

 * /Preface/
 * /Alphabet/
 * Pronunciation | Diacritical Marks | Punctuation
 * /Dialects/

Chapter II: The Greek Noun

 * /Basic Nouns/
 * /Basic Nouns/First Declension/
 * /Basic Nouns/Second Declension/
 * /Basic Nouns/Third Declension/

Chapter III: Verbs

 * Verbs
 * Personal Endings | Tenses | Aspect | Irregular Verbs

Appendices

 * /Glossary of Grammatical Terms/

title: Ancient Greek


text:
How To Search/NOT-NOT

NOT - NOT skunk NOT tomato This is a list of searches that use "NOT" for the NOT boolean operator. Typing the example above in a search box would find all items searched which have the word "skunk" but not the word "tomato" in it.

Search Engines/Software/Interfaces

 * ../BioMed Central/
 * ../Library of Congress/
 * ../MOBIUS Consortium/
 * ../OhioLINK/
 * ../PubMed/
 * ../Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy/

title: How To Search/NOT-NOT


text:
How To Search/NOT-negative

NOT - NOT skunk -tomato This is a list of searches that use "NOT" for the NOT boolean operator. Typing the example above in a search box would find all items searched which have the word "skunk" but not the word "tomato" in it.

Search Engines/Software/Interfaces

 * ../Google/
 * ../Yahoo/

title: How To Search/NOT-negative


text:
Talk:Evolutionary Biology/Speciation

Changes to the chromosome set should be discussed separately from sympatric speciation! --129.215.190.128 23:08, 23 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Evolutionary Biology/Speciation


text:
How To Search/Library of Congress

Library of Congress - (still incomplete)
 * Purpose: Make its resources available and useful to the Congress and the American people and to sustain and preserve a universal collection of knowledge and creativity for future generations.
 * Audience: See the Purpose.
 * Scope: "The Library of Congress Online Catalog is a database of records representing the vast collection of materials held by the Library. In addition to these records, the Online Catalog provides cross-references, notes, and circulation status, as well as information about Library materials still in the acquisitions stage."
 * Refresh Rate:
 * Further Information: The Library of Congress (LOC) online catalog allows for a variety of search types. Boolean operators and search limits are only available when using certain search types.

Search Types
This section is not part of most search pages in the How to search wikibook. It is specific to the LOC.

 * Title
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Only available in the Command Keyword type of search.

title: How To Search/Library of Congress


text:
German/Level I/Freizeit/Test

Introduction - Lesson 1 - Lesson 2 - Lesson 3

../Problems/ - ../Answers/ - ../Test/ - ../Test Answers/

Lesson 2 ~ Freizeit Test

Instructions: Print this test out. Work through it, and when you are done, grade your test against the answers here.

Verb Forms
First, recreate the conjugations table for normal verbs in the box below. (1 point per blank)

Next, provide the conjugations for the German verbs you learned this chapter. (½ point per blank, 3½ points per verb)

Score: _____ / 39 (free ½ point)

Articles
Multiple Choice: Identify the correct answer from the choices below. You will not lose any points for guessing. (2 points each)

1. ___ Correct form of "in the night" A. im Nacht          B. am Nacht           C. in der Nacht       D. an der Nacht 2. ___ Correct form of "in the summer" A. im Sommer         B. am Sommer          C. in der Sommer      D. an der Sommer 3. ___ Gender of "Zeit" A. Masculine         B. Feminine           C. Neuter             D. Plural 4. ___ Correct form of "on Friday" A. im Fritag         B. am Fritag          C. im Freitag         D. am Freitag 5. ___ Correct form of "in the morning" A. im Morgen         B. am Morgen          C. in der Morgen      D. an der Morgen 6. ___ Gender of "Mädchen" A. Masculine         B. Feminine           C. Neuter             D. Plural 7. ___ Correct form of "in the day" A. im Tag            B. am Tag             C. in der Tag         D. an der Tag 8. ___ Gender of "Tag" A. Masculine         B. Feminine           C. Neuter             D. Plural 9. ___ Correct form of "in the afternoon" A. im Nachmittag     B. am Nachmittag      C. in der Nachmittag  D. an der Nachmittag 10. ___ Gender of "Freizeit" A. Masculine         B. Feminine           C. Neuter             D. Plural

Score: _____ / 20

Word Order
Multiple Choice: Identify the most logically correct sentence from the choices below. You will not lose any points for guessing. (2 points each)

1. a. Du hin gehst wo? b. Wo gehst du hin? c. Gehst du hin wo? d. Hin wo du gehst?

2. a. Sie spielt auch Basketball nicht. b. Sie auch nicht spielt Basketball. c. Sie spielt auch nicht Basketball. d. Sie nicht spielt Basketball auch.

3. a. Wer liest nicht die Zeitung? b. Liest wer Zeitung die nicht? c. Wer nicht liest die Zeitung? d. Die Zeitung nicht liest wer?

4. a. Herr Müller, Sie was haben? b. Herr Müller, haben Sie was? c. Herr Müller, Sie haben was? d. Herr Müller, was haben Sie?

5. a. Ich schaue auch nicht Filme. b. Ich schaue nicht Filme auch. c. Ich nicht schaue Filme auch. d. Ich schaue Filme auch nicht.

6. a. Spielt ihr Basketball nicht? b. Nicht spielt ihr Basketball? c. Spielt ihr nicht Basketball? d. Ihr spielt Basketball nicht?

7. a. Karl nie macht Sport. b. Karl macht Sport nie. c. Karl macht nie Sport. d. Karl Sport nie macht.

8. a. Sie manchmal am Morgen spielen Schach. b. Sie spielen manchmal am Morgen Schach. c. Sie spielen Schach manchmal am Morgen. d. Sie manchmal spielen Schach am Morgen.

9. a. Wir spielen Fußball wann? b. Wann wir spielen Fußball? c. Spielen wir Fußball wann? d. Wann spielen wir Fußball?

10. a. Petra oft in der Woche spielt Volleyball. b. Petra oft spielt Volleyball in der Woche. c. Petra spielt oft in der Woche Volleyball. d. Petra spielt Volleyball oft in der Woche.

Score: _____ / 20

Section Score: _____ / 79

English to German
Translate these dialogues into German.

1. A. Hello. What's your name? B. My name is Thomas. Do you guys play sports? A. Yes, we play football. Do you play football? B. No, I play volleyball. . C. I also play volleyball! When do you play volleyball? A. I play volleyball at nine p.m. (use standard time) on Wednesday. C. I (or me, but that's wrong), too!

2. A. Does Karl play sports? B. Yes, Karl plays tennis. A. Good. Mark plays tennis, too. B. When does Mark play tennis? A. At 4:30 p.m. (use before/after) on Monday, Friday and Saturday. But he also plays soccer on Saturday. B. Karl plays tennis on Sunday, not Saturday.

Score: _____ / 35

German to English
Translate the following phrases and sentences into English. Note: If there is a capital and a punctuation mark at the end, it is a sentence; if either of those is missing, it is a phrase and capitalization is intentional. (2 points each)

 * 1) am Morgen Hausaufgaben machen
 * 2) Sie spielen nicht
 * 3) Warum liest du nicht?
 * 4) Wir spielen am Donnerstagabend Kegeln gern.
 * 5) Der Junge spielt Volleyball nicht gern.
 * 6) Schwimmt ihr gern?
 * 7) gern arbeiten
 * 8) am Nachmittag vor Sechzehn Uhr
 * 9) am Freitagabend um halb Sieben
 * 10) Er spielt Tennis sehr oft.

Score: _____ / 20

Numbers to German
Translate the following numerical times and dates into German (the dates are in the German order). For the times, use standard time telling for 1-10 and before/after for 11-20. (2 points each)

 * 2:35 p.m.
 * 1) 3 / 11
 * 11:18 a.m.
 * 1) 21 / 5
 * 9:54 p.m.
 * 1) 26 / 2
 * 6:07 a.m.
 * 1) 15 / 7
 * 10:23 p.m.
 * 1) 9 / 12
 * 1:15 p.m.
 * 1) 30 / 8
 * 1:52 p.m.
 * 1) 4 / 4
 * 12:09 a.m.
 * 1) 27 / 1
 * 7:45 a.m.
 * 1) 12 / 10
 * 5:30 a.m.
 * 1) 18 / 3

Score: _____ / 40

Section Score: _____ / 95

Comprehension Questions
Read the following conversations and answer the questions below each.

Felix: Wir spielen morgen Fußball. Hast du Zeit? Jonas: Ja, ich habe morgen Zeit. Morgen ist Samstag. Wann genau spielt ihr am Samstag ? Felix: Von halb Vier bis Fünf. Jonas: Schlecht! Ich schaue um Viertel vor Vier einen Film. Felix: Wie heißt der Film? Jonas: Er heißt...

Answer the odd questions in English and the even questions in German.

 * 1) What does Felix ask in the first line? ______________________________ (2 pt.)
 * 2) What is today? (answer in German) ______________________________ (4 pts.)
 * 3) How long will Felix be playing Fußball tomorrow? (answer in English) ______________________________ (4 pts.)
 * 4) Why can't Jonas come? (answer in German) ______________________________ (6 pts.)
 * 5) What was Jonas saying in the last line? (answer in English) ______________________________ (4 pts.)

Section Score: _____ / 20

Matching
Place the letter of the English word in the blank before its German translation.

Score: _____ / 10

Word Translation
Give the German translation of the following English words in the space provided.

 * 1) Soccer ________________
 * 2) Movies ________________
 * 3) also ________________
 * 4) but ________________
 * 5) to write _______________
 * 6) to see ________________
 * 7) gladly ________________
 * 8) most gladly (2 words) ________________
 * 9) late ________________
 * 10) midnight ________________
 * 11) afternoon ________________
 * 12) quarter ________________
 * 13) at ________________
 * 14) evening ________________
 * 15) the day after tomorrow ________________
 * 16) day ________________
 * 17) Wednesday ________________
 * 18) Saturday ________________
 * 19) December ________________
 * 20) on (the) ________________

Score: _____ / 10

Section Score: _____ / 20

Translation from English to German
Hello. My name is Wolfgang. I am a boy. What is your name, and how are you. Thank You. Goodbye.

Good day, Wolfgang my name is Monica. I am a girl. I am good, thanks. Good night and later.

Section Score: _____ / 10

Check your answers here.

Freizeit/Test

title: German/Level I/Freizeit/Test


text:
Talk:General Relativity

Please Read Before Making Any Serious Changes/Overhauls
 * Notes to GR editors
 * Standardizing notation

 * Where to put covariant derivative?

 * Intro to Tensors Section

 * IMPORTANT-Please read!

Hi folks. I think this would be great as a one-stop shop for general relativity info. There are actually a fair number of resources online for GR, but they're scattered and sometimes hard to find. In the textbook I'd like there to be a fairly good solid online/offline bibliography to help folks find those resources.

As for the text itself, I'm still sketching out an outline that might work. There's the obvious stuff, both mathematical - parallel transport, tensors, etc. - and physical - Einstein Cand Ricci tensors, etc. - but how much detail do you think is appropriate? I don't want to go the way of Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler's famous tome, but nor do I want to be as sketchy as many of the online intros are. Suggestions warmly welcomed.

--George McAllister 02:23, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * I am the original designer of this Wikibook, and would like to revive it if possible. Go to "IMPORTANT-Please read!" section above; I have posted my intention to revive the text in that section.

-blathem

So, here goes: when there is a moon in the rings of Saturn, there is a stripe around the entire ring. That moon is orbiting at a different speed from the moonlets. Thus Einstein's equivalence principle is disproved. Instead of warped space-time causing gravity, gravity causes warped space-time. In the atom, when the electron curves it radiates which causes it to slow down. There is an energy-producing system that replaces the lost energy, and it burns space-time as a fuel. The inflow of space-time is gravity. 50.11.85.51

 * I would oppose any change of this nature. Relativity has stood the test of time, and it will take more than vaguely worded claims of unclear relevance to shake it. Reyk (discuss • contribs) 18:41, 31 March 2015 (UTC)

A generalization of the Einstein-Maxwell equations
I think the solutions I have obtained will be of interest to readers of this wikibook. Since I am the author, I cannot make any related edits. The article has been published open access CC BY 4.0. Cotton, F.W. A generalization of the Einstein–Maxwell equations. ''Eur. Phys. J. Plus'' 136, 162 (2021).

https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-021-01115-6 71.183.235.5 (discuss) 19:53, 30 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:General Relativity


text:
High School Mathematics Extensions/Supplementary/Basic Counting

Ordered selection (Permutation)
"Suppose there are 10 songs in your music collection and you want to shuffle play them all (i.e. the 10 songs would play in a random order). In how many different ways can the collection be played?" This type of problem is called ordered selection (permutation), as we are selecting the songs from the collection in a certain order. For instace, these selections are considered different:
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 \\  7, 3, 10, 4, 9, 5, 1, 8, 2, 6 \\  2, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 \end{array}$$

These clearly define different orders or in effect, playlists.

Let's think this step by step. We can pick 10 different songs for the first position (or first song to be played), 9 for the second position (as there is 1 song already picked), 8 for the third (as 2 songs are fixed), and so on and so forth. The total number of ways can be calculated as follows:
 * $$10 \times 9 \times 8 \times 7 \times 6 \times 5 \times 4 \times 3 \times 2 \times 1$$

Almost 4 million different playlists!

Now we shall introduce the factorial function, which is a compact way of expressing:
 * $$n! = n \times (n-1) \times ... \times 3 \times 2 \times 1$$

Formally defined by:
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

0! = 1 \\  n! = n \times (n-1)! \end{array}$$ So in our case:
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

10! = 10 \times 9! = 10 \times 9 \times 8! ... \\ 10 \times 9 \times 8 \times 7 \times 6 \times 5 \times 4 \times 3 \times 2 \times 1 \end{array}$$

What if we had 30 songs, but still wanted to shuffle just 10 of them? Similar reasoning leads to
 * $$30 \times 29 \times 28 \times 27 \times 26 \times 25 \times 24 \times 23 \times 22 \times 21$$

different ways. This is equivalent to:
 * $$\frac{30!}{20!} = \frac{30!}{(30-10)!}$$

Generally speaking, the number of permutations of m items out of n (for instance, 10 songs out of 30) is:
 * $$\frac{n!}{(n-m)!}$$

The idea behind it is that we cancel out all but the first m factors of the n! product:
 * $$30! = \underbrace{30 \times 29 \times ... \times 22 \times 21}_{\text{First 10 factors}} \times \underbrace{20 \times ... \times 2 \times 1}_{(30-10)! = 20!}$$

When m equals n we say we are counting the number of permutations of n items:
 * $$\frac{n!}{(n-n)!} = \frac{n!}{0!} = n!$$

While solving counting problems, we'll generally use the words items or elements (in this case, our songs) and sets (in this case, the collection or playlists).

1. In how many ways can I arrange my bookshelf (7 books) if I own a trilogy and the 3 books have to be always together, in the same order?

2. In how many ways can I arrange my family (6 members) in a line, with the only rule that my parents have to be in adjacent positions?

Permutation with repetition
"How many different two-digit numbers can be formed with only odd prime digits (i.e. 3, 5, or 7)? Numbers 75, 37, 77, 33, are possible solutions." This is a special case of permutations, the items may be selected more than once. Counting, we see there are 3 possibilities for every position, since digits may be repeated:

 * $$\underbrace{3 \times 3}_{\text{2 positions}} = 3^2$$

9 different numbers.

If we were to select m items out of n, with possible repetition, there would be
 * $$\underbrace{n \times n \times n ... \times n}_{\text{m times}} = n^{m}$$

permutations. 1. How many three-digit numbers can be formed with only prime digits, and odd digits may only be repeated twice?

Circular permutation
"In how many ways can we sit 4 people (Alice, Bob, Charles, and Donald) at a round table?" This is another special case of permutations, the 4 elements are arranged in a circular order, in which the start and end of an arrangement are undefined.

If we simply count
 * $$4!$$

there will be some repetitions. We'll be counting each unique arrangement more than once since layouts like
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

\text{A, B, C, D} \\ \text{D, A, B, C} \\ \text{C, D, A, B} \\ \text{B, C, D, A} \end{array}$$ are considered equivalent. Remember, there is no start in a round table.

If we arbitrarily numbered the chairs, we could obtain all equivalent arrangements by cycling our whole layout. How many times we would cycle? How many chairs/positions are there? 4.

Dividing our first intent by 4 (i.e. dividing in groups of 4 equivalent dispositions):
 * $$\frac{4!}{4} = 3!$$

6 unique dispositions.

Another way of approaching the problem is to forcibly define an arbitrary starting point for the layout, in other words, to fix one element and permute the other 3 left:
 * $$(4 - 1)! = 3! = 6$$

ways to sit four people at a round table.

1. What if there are 7 people, but the table only has 5 chairs?

Unordered selection (Combination)
"Out of the 15 people in the math class, 5 will be chosen to represent the class in a school wide mathematics competition. How many ways are there to choose the 5 students?" This type of problem is called an unordered selection (combination), as the order in which you select the students is not important. For example, these selections are considered equivalent:
 * $$\begin{array}{l}

\text{Joe, Lee, Sue, Violet, Justin} \\ \text{Lee, Joe, Sue, Justin, Violet} \end{array}$$

As seen before, there are
 * $$\frac{15!}{10!} $$

ways to choose the 5 candidates in ordered selection, but there are 5! ordered selections for each different combination (i.e. the same 5 students). This means we are counting each combination 5! times. Consequently, there are
 * $$\frac{15!}{10! \times 5!}$$

ways of choosing 5 students to represent the class.

In general, the number of ways to choose m items out of n items is:
 * $$\frac{n!}{(n-m)! \times m!}$$

We took the formula for permutations of m items out of n, and then divided by m! because each combination was counted as m! ordered selections (m! times).

This formula is denoted by:
 * $${n \choose m} = \frac{n!}{(n-m)! \times m!}$$

Note that $${n \choose m}$$ is often read as n choose m. 1. Try not to use a calculator and think of the problem with groups of 1 student.

2. Again, no calculator and this time there are 1 million students in the class and we want to form groups of 999,999 students.

Combination with repetition
In this particular case of combination problems, elements may be selected more than once. That is, groups can include many samples of the same element.

Knowing which elements are sampled is not enough for defining a selection, we need to know how many times each element is selected (i.e. the amount of samples selected of that element). Both approaches are, essentially, the same, as saying an element was selected 0 times is equivalent to saying it was not sampled.

Now suppose we were to select m elements out of n. Instead of thinking the problem as "choosing" from n elements m times, we should think it as "distributing" the m spots available over the n distinct elements (represented as placing m elements in n sets). Again, both interpretations are equivalent, as the number of times an element was chosen is represented by the number of elements in its corresponding set.

To define a selection, we place in every set as many objects as samples we selected from the element the set represented. We can create a string to identify the selection, for instance by representing each object (sample) with a square and set boundaries with a dash:
 * $$-\underbrace_{\text{First set/element}}-\underbrace_{\text{Second set/element}}-\underbrace_{\text{Third set/element}}-$$

This means three spots were assigned to the first element, two to the second element, and two to the third element. In other words, the selection consists of three elements of the first kind, two elements of the second kind, and two elements of the third kind. The string could represent a random group of five letters formed, solely, with letters A, B, C:
 * $$\text{A, A, A, B, B, C, C}$$

The concatenated strings consist of m squares, and n + 1 dashes. For example, the following represents three elements selected out of five:
 * $$-\underbrace_{\text{First set/element}}-\underbrace{}_{\text{Second set/element}}-\underbrace_{\text{Third set/element}}-\underbrace{}_{\text{Forth set/element}}-\underbrace{}_{\text{Fifth set/element}}-$$

Note that, other than the two dashes that are fixed at the beginning and end of the string, the other n - 1 dashes and m squares can be moved without invalidating the string. There are thus n - 1 + m movable characters among n - 1 + m positions. The number of possible strings equals the number of ways to position m squares among n - 1 + m characters, in other words, the number of ways to choose m positions out of n - 1 + m:
 * $${{n - 1 + m} \choose {m}}$$

Equivalently, we could talk about positioning the n - 1 dashes among the n - 1 + m characters:
 * $${{n - 1 + m} \choose {n - 1}}$$

Since every string exclusively determines one selection or group, clearly the number of strings is equivalent to the number of groups or selections possible.

If we were to pack three fruits for long journey, and you only got bananas, apples, oranges, peaches, and kiwis, there would be
 * $${{5 - 1 + 3} \choose {3}} = {{5 - 1 + 3} \choose {5 - 1}} = 35$$

possible groups to pack.

Binomial coefficient
The binomial coefficient
 * $${n \choose m}$$

expresses the number of unordered groups that can be formed by choosing m elements from a set containing n.

These are some basic and useful properties:
 * The number of ways of choosing m out of n elements equals the number of ways of choosing n - m out of n elements since each group of selected elements has a corresponding group of elements that were not selected. A group of selected elements defines another group of non selected elements.
 * $${n \choose m} = {n \choose {n - m}}$$

 * There is only one way to choose none or all of the elements.
 * $${n \choose 0} = {n \choose n-0} = 1$$

 * There are n ways of choosing 1 or n - 1 elements.
 * $${n \choose 1} = {n \choose {n - 1}} = n$$

 * The difference between
 * $${n \choose m}$$
 * and
 * $${{n + 1} \choose m}$$
 * is that in the first formula we are not counting the groups which include the element added in the second formula. The amount of groups size m which include a particular element from a set with n + 1 elements is
 * $${{(n + 1) - 1} \choose {m - 1}} = {n \choose {m - 1}}$$
 * therefore
 * $${{n + 1} \choose m} = {n \choose m} + {n \choose {m - 1}}$$

 * The difference between
 * $${n \choose {m + 1}}$$
 * and
 * $${n \choose m}$$
 * is that in the first formula we are counting groups with one more element than the ones in the second formula. Every group size m needs one "missing" element of the n - m remaining in order to grow to size m + 1.
 * $${n \choose m} \times (n - m)$$
 * However, we must observe that we are counting every group size m + 1 many times, m + 1 times indeed. This is because the "missing" element can be any of the m + 1 elements in the resulting group, in other words, m + 1 groups size m (when associated with the right element) will form the same group size m + 1. How many groups size m can we formed by removing an element from a group size m + 1?
 * $${{m + 1} \choose 1} = m + 1$$
 * This suggests
 * $${n \choose {m + 1}} = {n \choose m} \times \frac{n - m}{m + 1}$$

Binomial expansion
The binomial expansion describes the algebraic expansion of following expression:
 * $$(a + b)^n$$

Take n = 2 for example, we shall try to expand the expression manually, we get
 * $$(a + b)^2 = (a+b)(a+b) = aa + ab + ba + bb$$

Take n = 3:
 * $$(a + b)^3 = (a+b)(a+b)(a+b) = aaa + aab + aba + abb + baa + bab + bba + bbb$$

We deliberately did not simplify the expression at any point during the expansion. As you can see, the final expanded form has four and eight terms, respectively. These terms are all the possible combinations of a and b in products of two and three factors, respectively.

The number of factors equals the number of binomials (a + b) in the first product, which in turn equals n.

In
 * $$(a + b)^n$$

there are n factors in each term. How many terms are there with only one b? In other words, in how many ways can I place one b among n different positions? Or even better, in how many ways can I pick one position (to place a b) out of n?
 * $${n \choose 1}$$

Similarly we can work out all the coefficients of the other terms:
 * $$(a + b)^3 = {3 \choose 0}a^3 + {3 \choose 1}a^2b + {3 \choose 2}ab^2 + {3 \choose 3}b^3$$

And more generally:
 * $$(a + b)^n = {n \choose 0}a^n + {n \choose 1}a^{n-1}b + {n \choose 2}a^{n-2}b^2 + ... {n \choose n-1}ab^{n-1} + {n \choose n}b^n$$

Or more compactly using the summation operator:
 * $$(a + b)^n = \sum_{i = 0}^n {n \choose i}a^{n-i}b^i$$

Exercises
 {How many different ways can the letters of the word BOOK be arranged? { 12 }
 * type="{}"}

{How many ways are there to choose five diamonds from a deck of cards? { 1287 }
 * type="{}"}

{Joey wants to make himself a sandwich. He will use ham, cheese, salami, tomato, and lettuce but does not like the ham and the salami to be touching each other. He always puts the lettuce on top. In how many ways can Joey arrange the ingredients of his sandwich? { 12 }
 * type="{}"}

{Rachel wants to buy an ice-cream cup. She picks three different flavours from a total of ten but does not like mixing chocolate with vanilla. How many different ice-cream cups can Rachel order? { 112 }
 * type="{}"}

{Joey is still hungry and wants to eat another sandwich. He can use ham, cheese, salami, tomato, and lettuce (there is no need to use them all). He does not want the ham and the salami to be in the same sandwich. How many different sandwiches can Joey make (the order of the ingredients inside the sandwich does not matter)? { 23 }
 * type="{}"}


text:
Talk:Japanese/Grammar/Counters

Untitled
http://www.nnj.co.jp/P/002/

 It seems like a couple of points are missing.
 * That 一人 and 二人 are read differently should be indicated in the table itself, and not just in a comment in the beginning. There should be an indication that the counters -人, -日, (and others) are special in this regard.
 * That the pronunciation for the counter changes depending on how it sounds with the number, e.g. 三杯 is pronounced さんばい instead of さんはい. If there is no consistent rule, then there should be a way to indicate the exceptions in the table.  If there is a mostly consistent rule, then the exceptions should be noted.
 * There should some indication of which is preferred of し/よん　and しち/なな. Such as 四月 (しがつ, not よんがつ).  Similarly you don't say しにん for 四人 (よにん, よんにん).

 * Seems good points (BTW, we don't say よんにん for 四人, just よにん (or is it Hougen maybe?)) - Marsian / talk 09:11:35, 2005-08-25 (UTC)
 * I added some examples. - Marsian / talk 11:59:02, 2005-08-25 (UTC)

What does the "ゃ" mean in ちゃく (chaku)? - Sik0fewl 15:31, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

 * What do you mean? You probably know ちゃ is normally written as cha (Japanese/Kana Chart)... although I prefer to type "tya" for ちゃ ("cya" can also be used) - Marsian / talk 09:11:35, 2005-08-25 (UTC)

 * Hey, thanks for the reply, but (as you can see from the timestamp) that was and old comment when I first getting into Japanese and somehow I missed out on the y-group modifiers the first time around. – Sik0fewl 14:50, 25 August 2005 (UTC)
 * A-ha. I feel you've been an expert... You're an incredibly good Japanese larner then :) - Marsian / talk 05:07:13, 2005-08-26 (UTC)
 * Heh, I wouldn't say that. I usually need to make a lot of references when replying on the Talk pages to make sure I haven't made any mistakes :) – Sik0fewl 14:46, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

About example table
- Marsian / talk 11:59:02, 2005-08-25 (UTC)
 * 1) I removed 度 for Times (occurrences) for and replaed it by 回 / removed カロリー and replaced it by ジュール (you can revert if you want, but I recommend キロカロリー)
 * インチ, フィート, ポンド(mass), ガロン, マイル are rarely used in Japan (thus, in Japanese conversations). Are they needed? In fact, in aviation people use them. But other than the field... (ヤード is a bit popural 'cos it's used in golf)
 * 1) Added examples mainly just for 1, 2, and 10. Might seem ugly, or, might be inadequate (all the 1 - 10 is needed?)
 * 2) It's quite difficult task for me to determine whhter to use, じっこ or じゅっこ (or this kind of じっ/じゅっ problem)! See Japanese counter word for detail. For instance, in this page (ja), じゅっこ gets 115 votes while じっこ just garners 14 votes. This exmple shows what (at least younger generation) Japanese feel. Anyway, what I've selected were just by my feelings ;) I don't have any strong opinion on this issue. Please feel free to edit (you may want to set all for じっ or じゅっ, or...).
 * "じっ" is understandable, but don't sounds naturally. Most Japanese people pronounce "十" as "じゅっ" in the discussed cases. Though there is an exception in an antiquated noun: "十手(じって、じゅって)", there would be no exception in counters (in the standard). -- Tohru 05:53, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Japanese/Grammar/Counters


text:
Japanese/Vocabulary/Onomatopoeia

An onomatopoeia (オノマトペ) is a word or group of words in a language which have their meaning indicated by the sounds they mimic. Examples of English onomatopoeia include "meow", "roar", "buzz", "boom", "snap", "bang", and so on. In general, the Japanese word to refer to this concept is giseigo (擬声語).

However, Japanese not only contains words for sound effects, but also what is termed "Japanese sound symbolism" - basically, onomatopoeia describing things that don't actually make sounds. Officially, the former is called giongo (擬音語) and the latter gitaigo (擬態語). (Giseigo is an umbrella term that refers to both of these)

Giongo
擬音語 giongo are words which describe a sound. Most giongo are written in katakana. Some examples are:

Gitaigo
擬態語 gitaigo are words that describe an action, state, or emotion by an associated sound. They are typically written in hiragana. Some examples are:

.

Note on katakana vs. hiragana writings
In a typical style of Japanese writing giongo are written in katakana, while gitaigo are written in hiragana. However, this rule is not always observed. There are subtle nuances involved if you were to write one of these words in hiragana vs. katakana - katakana gives a kind of "harder" tone, while hiragana is "softer". Often, it is the author's discretion which to use.

Japonais/Vocabulaire/Onomatopées

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Onomatopoeia


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Japanese/Vocabulary/Food and drink

Alcoholic beverages (酒)
Japonais/Vocabulaire/Nourriture

title: Japanese/Vocabulary/Food and drink


text:
Cookbook talk:Beverages

Other pages
Some drink recipes appear under cuisines, like Bubble Tea, we should add those links too I think. --OMouse 2:27EST, 27 Feb 2005

List of Cocktails
There are a couple of recipes at Wikipedia under List of cocktails. We should probably move them over to this page. --Alsocal 04:10, 24 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Put them on the Bartending:Cocktails page. There are too many name conflicts (like Apricot Pie) to put cocktails in the cookbook. (plus the wiki formatting is almost always crude, with bad links and missing headers -- clearly, people are testing the cocktails before adding them to the wiki) AlbertCahalan 00:36, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Wine

 * Our Bulgarian friend has put a page about wine regions.
 * How will wine be treated in the Cookbook in general?
 * Nearly every Cookbook I know has good suggestions about what wines to take with food. Perhaps we should have the general red wines and white wines and the table/cask wines, as well as foods where wine is an important ingredient.

--EuropracBHIT 05:08, 28 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * As needed, we can link to the Bartending book. Let's keep the cookbook simple and clear, with an emphasis on cooking. Note that there is also a Gardening book, and there could be a book for brewing and winemaking. AlbertCahalan 00:36, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Cross-linking
This module states: Alcoholic beverages are covered elsewhere, in the bartending book. Bartending:Alcoholic Drink states: See also [...] Beverages in the Cookbook for drink recipes not normally considered part of mixology.

Moreover, Cookbook:Alcoholic Drink, where the information is de facto at, is now listed under "ingredients" in the main module. --Salleman 10:57, 16 July 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Beverages