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User talk:Niah~enwikibooks

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 03:01, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Niah~enwikibooks


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User talk:Tweenk

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 03:05, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Radiation Oncology/Prostate/Protons

Proton Therapy in Prostate Cancer

Primary Treatment

 * Kobe University (Hyogo)
 * 2007 (2003-2004) PMID 17482768 -- "Acute morbidity of proton therapy for prostate cancer: the Hyogo Ion Beam Medical Center experience." (Mayahara H, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Oct 1;69(2):434-43. Epub 2007 May 7.)
 * Retrospective. 287 patients, cT1-T4N0 PCA. Treated with 190-230 MeV protons, lateral-opposed technique, 74 GyE. Acute toxicity evaluated by NCI CTC2.0. Neoadjuvant AST 71%
 * Acute Toxicity: GI 0% G2+, GU 39% G2 and 1% G3. Most relieved by alpha-1 blocker
 * Predictors for acute toxicity: large CTV, AST
 * Conclusion: Low incidence of GI toxicity, comparable GU toxicity to photons
 * 2004 (2001) PMID 15289722 -- "Experience with conformal proton therapy for early prostate cancer." (Hara I, Am J Clin Oncol. 2004 Aug;27(4):323-7.)
 * Initial Phase I. 16 patients, T1-T2b. Median F/U 12 months
 * Outcome: 4/16 patients normal PSA, no change. 12/16 PSA CR by PSA; no PSA failures
 * Toxicity: No acute Grade 3-4 toxicity
 * Outcome: Minimum toxicity and good short-term responses

 * Loma Linda (1991-1997)
 * 2004 PMID 15491710 -- "Influence of patient age on biochemical freedom from disease in patients undergoing conformal proton radiotherapy of organ-confined prostate cancer." (Rossi CJ, Urology. 2004 Oct;64(4):729-32.)
 * Retrospective. 1038 patients with cT1-T2c (AJCC 1992), definitive conformal protons. <60 years (12%) vs. >60 years (88%), comparable distribution. Median F/U 5.2 years
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED <60 82% vs. >60 75% (NS)
 * Conclusion: Patient age does not impact bNED
 * 2004 PMID 15145147 -- "Proton therapy for prostate cancer: the initial Loma Linda University experience." (Slater JD, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 Jun 1;59(2):348-52.)
 * Retrospective. 1255 patients with Stage Ia-III, no prior surgery or AST. Photons 45 Gy + proton boost 30/15 CGE to prostate/pelvic LN n=731, protons only 74/37 CGE to prostate/SV n=524. Protons delivered opposed laterals, typically one field/day. Water balloon in rectum. Median F/U 5.2 years
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 73%, if PSA <=4.0 90%
 * Toxicity: G3 late toxicity 1%, G4 late toxicity 0.2%; no difference between mixed treatment vs protons only
 * Conclusion: Conformal PRT comparable to other local therapy, with minimal toxicity
 * 2002 (1991-1996) PMID 10650829 -- "Value and perspectives of proton radiation therapy for limited stage prostate cancer." (Schulte RW, Strahlenther Onkol. 2000 Jan;176(1):3-8.)
 * Retrospective. 911 patients with limited stage PCA.
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 82%
 * Toxicity: no Grade 3/4; Grade 2 rectal 3.5%, Grade 2 bladder 5.4%
 * Conclusion: Improved bNED and better late effects
 * 1999 PMID 10394406 -- "Conformal proton beam therapy of prostate cancer--update on the Loma Linda University medical center experience." (Rossi CJ, Strahlenther Onkol. 1999 Jun;175 Suppl 2:82-4.)
 * Retrospective. 643 patients with localized PCA, protons alone or photons/protons. Dose 74-75 CGE
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 79%, better in "early" (T1b-2b, PSA <15) vs. "advanced" (PSA >15, or T2c-T4)
 * Toxicity: minimal proctitis 21%, greater toxicity <1%
 * Conclusion: Conformal proton beam high rate of response, minimal toxicity
 * 1999 PMID 10223493 -- "Conformal proton therapy for early-stage prostate cancer." (Slater JD, Urology. 1999 May;53(5):978-84.)
 * Retrospective. 319 patients, T1-T2b and PSA <15, protons to 74-75 CGE. No hormones until disease progression
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 88%, clinical NED 97%
 * Conclusion: Comparable outcomes to radical prostatectomy, with no significant toxicity

 * Tsukuba; 1993 (1983-1990) PMID 8380147 -- "Clinical results of fractionated proton therapy." (Tsujii H, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993 Jan;25(1):49-60.)
 * Phase I-II. 147 patients treated, various primaries
 * Conclusion: Potential advantage in lung, esophageal, liver, uterine cervix, prostate, and head and neck malignancies; possible value in treatment of high-grade gliomas, and gastric, urinary bladder, and pediatric tumors.

Proton Boost

 * National Cancer Center Hospital East; 2005 (Japan)(2001-2003) PMID 16314345 -- "Phase II feasibility study of high-dose radiotherapy for prostate cancer using proton boost therapy: first clinical trial of proton beam therapy for prostate cancer in Japan." (Nihei K, Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2005 Dec;35(12):745-52. Epub 2005 Nov 28.)
 * Phase II. 30 patients, cT1-3N0. RT photon to prostate & SV 50/25 and proton boost 26/13 GyE. Boost PTV = prostate + 5mm + 5mm penumbra margin. Lateral opposed beams. Photon treatment to prostate/SV. PTV = prostate + 10 mm margin + 5 mm penumbra margin. 240 degree dynamic conformal arc. Hormonal therapy allowed. Median F/U 2.5 years
 * Toxicity: no acute or late Grade 3 GI/GU toxicity. Acute G1-2 GI toxicity 57%, acute G1-G2 GU toxicity 80%. Late G1-2 GI toxicity 37%, G1-G2 GU toxicity 17%
 * Conclusion: Proton boost is feasible, multi-institutional PII trial in progress

 * PROG 95-09 (1996-1999) -- Proton/photon 70.2 Gy vs. 79.2 Gy
 * Randomized. 2 institutions (Harvard and Loma Linda). 392 patients, stage T1b-T2b, PSA <15 ng/mL (median PSA 6.3). Arm 1) proton boost 19.8/11 GyE followed by photons 50.4/28 vs. Arm 2) proton boost 28.8/16 followed by photons 50.4/28. Proton CTV = prostate + 5 mm margin. PTV = CTV + 7-10 mm. Loma Linda used opposed lateral beams, 250 MeV protons; Harvard used perineal boost, 160 MeV protons. Rectal Lucite probe, inflated with 25-50 mL saline. Photons were 4F plan, photon CTV = prostate/SV + 10 mm margin.
 * 5-years; 2005 PMID 16160131 -- "Comparison of conventional-dose vs high-dose conformal radiation therapy in clinically localized adenocarcinoma of the prostate: a randomized controlled trial." (Zietman AL, JAMA. 2005 Sep 14;294(10):1233-9.) Median F/U 5.5 years
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 70.2 Gy 61% vs. 79.2 Gy 80% (SS), 50% reduction in risk of failure. LC (defined as PSA <1.0) 48% vs. 67% (SS) No difference in OS 97% vs 96% (NS)
 * Risk stratification: low risk (PSA <10, stage <=T2a, GS <7) 60% vs. 80% (SS); high risk 63% vs. 79% (SS). Contemporary intermediate risk 63% vs. 81% (SS), but contemporary high risk (NS, but small number)
 * Late toxicity: Grade 3+ 70.2 Gy 1% vs. 79.2 2%; GU Grade 2 18% vs. 20% (NS), GI Grade 2 8% vs. 17% (SS). Most GI toxicity by 3 years; GU toxicity continuous
 * Conclusion: Men with clinically localized PCA have better bNED with high dose, without worse severe toxicity
 * 10-years; 2010 PMID 20124169 -- "Randomized Trial Comparing Conventional-Dose With High-Dose Conformal Radiation Therapy in Early-Stage Adenocarcinoma of the Prostate: Long-Term Results From Proton Radiation Oncology Group/American College of Radiology 95-09." (Zietman AL, J Clin Oncol. 2010 Mar 1;28(7):1106-11.) Median F/U 8.9 years
 * Outcome: 10-year ASTRO (backdating) bPFS low-dose 68% vs. high-dose 83% (SS). For low-risk disease 72% vs 93% (SS); for intermediate-risk 58% vs. 70% (p=0.06). No difference in OS (78% vs 83%)
 * Toxicity: Late Grade 2+ low-dose 29% vs. high-dose 39% (SS); Grade 3+ 2% in both arms (NS)
 * Conclusion: Long-term advantage for high dose in low/intermediate risk PCA patients, with comparable Grade 3 toxicity

 * Loma Linda (1991-1997)
 * 2004 PMID 15145147 -- "Proton therapy for prostate cancer: the initial Loma Linda University experience." (Slater JD, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2004 Jun 1;59(2):348-52.)
 * Retrospective. 1255 patients with Stage Ia-III, no prior surgery or AST. Photons 45 Gy + proton boost 30/15 CGE to prostate/pelvic LN n=731, protons only 74/37 CGE to prostate/SV n=524. Protons delivered opposed laterals, typically one field/day. Water balloon in rectum. Median F/U 5.2 years
 * Outcome: 5-year bNED 73%, if PSA <=4.0 90%
 * Toxicity: G3 late toxicity 1%, G4 late toxicity 0.2%; no difference between mixed treatment vs protons only
 * Conclusion: Conformal PRT comparable to other local therapy, with minimal toxicity
 * 1998 PMID 9788407 -- "Conformal proton therapy for prostate carcinoma." (Slater JD, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1998 Sep 1;42(2):299-304.)
 * Retrospective. 643 patients, localized PCA. Protons +/- photons, 74-75 CGE
 * Outcome: 5-year clinical NED 89%; bNED PSA <4 100%, PSA 4-10 89%, PSA 10-20 72%, PSA >20 53%; nadir <0.5 91%, 0.5-1.0 79%, >1.0 40%
 * Toxicity: minimal proctitis 21%, severe proctitis <1%
 * Conclusion: Minimal toxicity and excellent DFS with low initial PSA
 * 1997 (1991-1993) PMID 9054873 -- "Combined proton and photon conformal radiation therapy for locally advanced carcinoma of the prostate: preliminary results of a phase I/II study." (Yonemoto LT, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1997 Jan 1;37(1):21-9.)
 * Phase I/II. 106 patients, T2b-T4Nx. Proton 30/15 CGE prostate boost via opposed lateral fields, followed by photons 45/25 Gy to pelvis. No break. Target prostate/SV + 0.7 cm prescribed at 90% isodose line. 250 MeV proton beam. Median F/U 1.7 years
 * Toxicity: 2-year Grade 3-4 0%, Grade 1-2 12% (8% rectal, 4% urinary)
 * Outcome: 2-year PSA normalization: PSA 4-10 96%, PSA 10-20 97%, PSA >20 63%
 * Conclusion: Low incidence of side-effects, despite 75 CGE dose

 * Harvard (1982-1992) -- Proton (dose escalated) vs. photon boost
 * Randomized. 202 patients, Stage T3-T4Nx,0-2. Standard photons 50.4 Gy four-field, then Arm 1) Conformal protons 25.2 CGE (total 75.6 CGE) vs. Arm 2) Photons 16.8 Gy (total 67.2 Gy). Median F/U 5.1 years
 * 1993 PMID 8514551 -- "Late rectal bleeding following combined X-ray and proton high dose irradiation for patients with stages T3-T4 prostate carcinoma" (Benk VA, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1993 Jun 15;26(3):551-7.) Median F/U 3.7 years
 * Rectal bleeding (none Grade 3-4): high dose 34% vs. low dose 16% (SS)
 * DVH evaluation: significant bleeding risk if >40% anterior rectum gets >75 CGE
 * 1995 PMID 7721636 -- "Advanced prostate cancer: the results of a randomized comparative trial of high dose irradiation boosting with conformal protons compared with conventional dose irradiation using photons alone." (Shipley WU, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1995 Apr 30;32(1):3-12.)
 * Outcome: 5-year LC photon+proton 92% vs. photons 80% (NS), no difference in OS, DSS, TRFS. GS 4/5 patients 94% vs. 64% (SS)
 * Toxicity: Rectal bleeding photon+proton 32% vs. photons 12% (SS), urethral stricture 19% vs. 8% (p=0.07)
 * Conclusion: Boosting dose with protons increased LC in poorly differentiated tumors, but also worsened late toxicity
 * 2002 PMID 11743288 -- "Late normal tissue sequelae in the second decade after high dose radiation therapy with combined photons and conformal protons for locally advanced prostate cancer." (Gardner BG, J Urol. 2002 Jan;167(1):123-6.)
 * Retrospective. 39/42 patients alive from original cohort of 167 patients, T3-T4, treated with 4 field box photons to 50.4 Gy, follower by perineal proton boost to 27 Gy in 11 fractions. Median F/U 13.1 years
 * GU toxicity: G2+ GU 59% at 15 years but persisted in 18%. G2+ hematuria 21% at 5 years, 47% at 15 years. G3+ hematuria 3% and 8%. Urethral stricture 10%, urinary incontinence 8% (strongly associated with prior/subsequent prostate surgery)
 * GI toxicity: G2+ GI 13% at 15 years; G1 rectal bleeding in 41%
 * Conclusion: High dose RT results in high rate of low-grade rectal bleeding, but low rate of G2+ GI toxicity; stable after 5 years. GU morbidity continues to worsen over time, but high grade uncommon

 * Harvard (1976-1979)
 * 1983 PMID 6299503 -- "Protons or megavoltage X-rays as boost therapy for patients irradiated for localized prostatic carcinoma. An early phase I/II comparison." (Duttenhaver JR, Cancer. 1983 May 1;51(9):1599-604.)
 * Phase I/II. 180 patients (Photons n=116, photons + proton boost n=64). Proton beam 160 MeV, boost single perineal portal. Photon dose 67 Gy vs. proton dose 74 Gy.
 * Outcome: No difference in LRC, DFS, or OS
 * Toxicity: no difference
 * Conclusion: 10% increase in dose, but minimal complications. Plan to perform an RCT
 * 1979 PMID 107338 -- "Proton radiation as boost therapy for localized prostatic carcinoma." (Shipley WU, JAMA. 1979 May 4;241(18):1912-5.)
 * Retrospective. Initial report. 17 patients with localized PCA. Proton boost 20-25 Gy. F/U 12-27 months
 * Outcome: no significant rectal toxicity, 2/17 urethral strictures, 16/17 locally controlled
 * Conclusion: Proton boost feasible

Treatment Techniques

 * Geneva, Switzerland
 * 2009 PMID 19740429 -- "RapidArc, intensity modulated photon and proton techniques for recurrent prostate cancer in previously irradiated patients: a treatment planning comparison study." (Weber DC, Radiat Oncol. 2009 Sep 9;4(1):34.)
 * Treatment planning. RapidArc vs IMRT vs IMPT. 7 patients with recurrent PC after RT. Dose 56/14
 * Outcome: GTV V95% RA 93% vs. IMRT 89% vs. IMPT 90%, PTV V95% RA 84% vs. IMRT 77% vs. IMPT 86%
 * Toxicity: Urethra V35 RA 5% vs. IMRT 10% vs. IMPT 4%
 * Conclusion: RapidArc and IMPT improved indices over IMRT
 * 2001 PMID 11770521 -- "New techniques in hadrontherapy: intensity modulated proton beams." (Cella L, Phys Med. 2001;17 Suppl 1:100-2.)
 * Comparative planning between intensity modulated XRT and PRT
 * Outcome: Equally homogenous dose of PTV, equally low NTCPs, but less integral dose and reduced low-to-medium dose for protons
 * 2001 PMID 11163518 -- "Potential role of intensity modulated proton beams in prostate cancer radiotherapy." (Cella L, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2001 Jan 1;49(1):217-23.)
 * Four treatment plans to deliver 81 Gy: 1) 3D-CRT 18 MV 6 fields, 2) 214 MeV protons 2 fields, 3) IMRT 15 MV 5 fields, 4) 177-200 MeV IMPT 5 fields. Further dose escalation to 99 Gy
 * Conclusion: Both IMRT and IMPT could optimize target dose and NTCP constraints; protons reduced low-to-medium dose and improved PTV dose heterogeneity

 * Florida
 * 2009 PMID 19619961 -- "Dosimetric Study of Pelvic Proton Radiotherapy for High-Risk Prostate Cancer." (Chera BS, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Jul 18. [Epub ahead of print])
 * Treatment planning. 5 high-risk prostate patients, treated to prostate, proximal SV, and pelvic LNs. IMRT vs IMRT+PT boost vs PT. Prescribed to 46 CGE pelvis and 78 CGE prostate/SV
 * Outcome: PT plans reduced mean dose to rectum, rectal wall, bladder, bladder wall, small bowel, and pelvis by 40-70%
 * Conclusion: PT significantly reduced dose to normal tissues in pelvis, while maintaining adequate target coverage compared with IMRT
 * 2007 PMID 17967305 -- "Rectal dose-volume differences using proton radiotherapy and a rectal balloon or water alone for the treatment of prostate cancer." (Vargas C, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Nov 15;69(4):1110-6.)
 * Retrospective. 30 proton plans for 15 patients, T1-2N0, both CT and MRI with rectal balloon (100ml saline) or water alone (100ml saline with contrast). Doses 78-82 GE to PTV. Planning done with Eclipse
 * Conclusion: Rectum and rectal wall doses were low, regardless of water or rectal balloon; small difference for few patients
 * 2007 PMID 17904306 -- "Dose-Volume Comparison of Proton Therapy and Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy for Prostate Cancer." (Vargas C, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Sep 26 [Epub ahead of print])
 * Retrospective. First 10 patients treated on Phase II low-risk prostate protocol. Comparison between proton plans and IMRT plans. Dose to 78 GE
 * Conclusion: Proton therapy reduced dose to rectum and bladder, while maintaining excellent PTV coverage

 * NCC Korea
 * 2009 PMID 19647628 -- "Characteristics of movement-induced dose reduction in target volume: a comparison between photon and proton beam treatment." (Yoon M, Med Dosim. 2009 Fall;34(3):191-201. Epub 2008 Sep 24.)
 * Treatment planning. Target displaced 3mm - 20 mm in a scanned phantom. Photon vs proton comparison
 * Outcome: 6mm lateral movement: coverage worse by 9% for protons and 1% for photons; 15 mm lateral movement: coverage worse by 34% and minimally for photons. EUD and homogeneity index similar characteristics
 * Conclusion: Movement-induced dose reduction differs significantly for proton and photon beams
 * 2009 PMID 19616746 -- "Microscopic gold particle-based fiducial markers for proton therapy of prostate cancer." (Lim YK, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Aug 1;74(5):1609-16.)
 * Visibility comparison, two gold particles
 * Outcome: x-ray - good visibility, proton beam - <5% dose distortion. CT artifacts reduced for gold particle mixture
 * Conclusion: Mixture of gold particles and polymers have excellent potential

 * MD Anderson
 * 2009 PMID 19550003 -- "Comparison of surface doses from spot scanning and passively scattered proton therapy beams." (Arjomandy B, Phys Med Biol. 2009 Jul 21;54(14):N295-302. Epub 2009 Jun 23.)
 * Treatment planning. Proton plan, planned with scanning beam with scattered beam. Surface dose in phantom measured to estimate skin dose
 * Outcome: Scanning beam dose lower by ~12% compared with scattered beam, equivalent to 4 CGE during 76 CGE course
 * 2009 PMID 19427561 -- "Risk of secondary malignant neoplasms from proton therapy and intensity-modulated x-ray therapy for early-stage prostate cancer." (Fontenont JD, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Jun 1;74(2):616-22.)
 * Treatment planning. Proton plan vs 6-MV IMRT plan for 3 patients with early stage PCA. Primary doses determined from treatment plans, secondary doses from Monte Carlo and measured data. Risk of second malignancy estimated on organ-by-organ basis
 * Outcome: PT reduced risk of SMN by 26%-39% compared with IMRT, due to substantial sparing of rectum/bladder
 * Conclusion: PT can reduce risk of second malignancies in prostate patients
 * 2009 PMID 19223836 -- "Dose perturbations from implanted helical gold markers in proton therapy of prostate cancer." (Giebeler A, J Appl Clin Med Phys. 2009 Jan 27;10(1):2875.)
 * Gold fiducial marker evaluation. Small (0.35 mm), medium (0.75 mm), and large (1.15mm) marker with length of 10 mm implanted in phantom. Monte Carlo simulation
 * Outcome: Perturbation of dose large marker 31%, medium marker 23%, so not well suited. Small marker too fragile for transrectal implantation
 * 2007 PMID 17505081 -- "Monte Carlo simulations of the dosimetric impact of radiopaque fiducial markers for proton radiotherapy of the prostate." (Newhauser W, Phys Med Biol. 2007 Jun 7;52(11):2937-52. Epub 2007 May 2.)
 * Compared various types of implantable markers for visibility on kV imagins, and reviewed dosimetry models by Monte Carlo
 * Outcome: gold and stainless steel markers visible, titanium not so much. Stainless steel and titanium didn't perturb beam much, gold large shadow
 * Conclusion: 0.9 mm diameter, 3.1 mm long stainless steel marker has good visibility on kV and <8% beam pertuberance
 * 2007 PMID 17236979 -- "Effect of anatomic motion on proton therapy dose distributions in prostate cancer treatment." (Zhang X, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Feb 1;67(2):620-9.)
 * Dosimetric impact, 10 patients, 8 daily CT scans each. Comparison of IMRT and proton dosimetry
 * Conclusion: Interfractional anatomic motion has similar impact on both modalities

 * Wollongong, Australia; 2008 PMID 19239059 -- "A comparison of proton therapy and IMRT treatment plans for prostate radiotherapy." (Dowdell SJ, Australas Phys Eng Sci Med. 2008 Dec;31(4):325-31.)
 * Treatment planning. Passive vs IMPT vs 7-F IMRT step-and-shoot vs 7-F IMRT sliding window. 78 CGE
 * Outcome: Homogeneity and rectal sparing best for IMPT
 * Conclusion: PT is suitable treatment option

 * Harvard
 * 2007 PMID 17513063 -- "Radiotherapy treatment of early-stage prostate cancer with IMRT and protons: a treatment planning comparison." (Trofimov A, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Oct 1;69(2):444-53. Epub 2007 May 21.)
 * Retrospective. 10 patients with early-stage PCA. Treated with 3D-CPT (two parallel-opposed lateral fields) and IMRT (7 coplanar fields). Dose 79.2 Gy/CGE
 * Outcome: 98% of PTV received prescription dose. IMRT better dose conformity, 3D-CPT better dose homogeneity.
 * Normal organs: Bladder dosimetry: V30 better with protons, V70 better with IMRT. Rectal dosimetry: V70 comparable
 * Conclusion: Above 60 Gy, IMRT better than protons for bladder, rectum comparable. Doses <50% significantly better with protons
 * Comment from PSI (PMID 17967323)
 * 1996 PMID 8948358 -- "Conformal irradiation of the prostate: estimating long-term rectal bleeding risk using dose-volume histograms." (Hartford AC, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1996 Oct 1;36(3):721-30.)
 * 41 patients treated with photons + perineal boost. Review of DVH for anterior rectal wall. Min F/U 4 years
 * Toxicity: 14/41 (34%) rectal bleeding. Found dose-volume relationship between 60 - 75 CGE; development of low/moderate/high risk groups
 * 1990 PMID 2157240 -- "Considerations in fractionated proton radiation therapy: clinical potential and results." (Austin-Seymour M, Radiother Oncol. 1990 Jan;17(1):29-35.)
 * Comparative evaluation of X-ray and proton plans

 * Paul Scherrer Institut
 * 2007 PMID 17459608 -- "The impact of dose escalation on secondary cancer risk after radiotherapy of prostate cancer." (Schneider U, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2007 Jul 1;68(3):892-7. Epub 2007 Apr 24.)
 * 23 patient plans. Comparison of TCP and NTCP for 3D-CRT (n=7), 6 MV or 15 MV IMRT (n=8), and spot-scanned proton RT (n=8). Doses modeled 70 - 100 Gy, baseline 70 Gy 3D-CRT
 * Outcome: Secondary cancer risk compared with 70 Gy 3D-CRT: 6 MV IMRT +18%, 15 MV IMRT +25%, spot-scanned protons -41%
 * Conclusion: Spot-scanned protons can halve risk of secondary cancers with dose escalation
 * 2006 PMID 17072522 -- "The impact of IMRT and proton radiotherapy on secondary cancer incidence." (Schneider U, Strahlenther Onkol. 2006 Nov;182(11):647-52.)
 * 30 patient plans. 15 MV 3D-CRT (n=11), 6 MV IMRT (n=11), spot-scanned protons (n=8). Secondary cancer risk estimated based on organ equivalent dose (OED)
 * Outcome: Secondary cancer risk compared with 15 MV 3D-CRT: 6 MV IMRT +15%, 15 MV IMRT +20%, 18 MV IMRT 60%, spot-scanned protons -50%
 * Conclusion: IMRT risk not as dramatic as expected, particularly at 6 MV. Spot-scanned protons treatment of choice
 * 2004 PMID 15587667 -- "Treatment planning and verification of proton therapy using spot scanning: initial experiences." (Lomax AJ, Med Phys. 2004 Nov;31(11):3150-7.)
 * Overview of 160 patients treated with spot-scanning, including some prostates. Mean 3 beams per plan, with 200-45,000 Bragg peaks per field. Treatment time few seconds to 20-25 minutes
 * Mean width of beam at Bragg peak ~8mm; Precision: orthogonal +/- 1mm, range +/- 1.5 mm

 * Loma Linda
 * 2006 PMID 16551129 -- "Innovative strategies for image-guided proton treatment of prostate cancer." (Schulte RW, Technol Cancer Res Treat. 2006 Apr;5(2):91-100.)
 * Review of rationale for reduction of high dose PTV margins
 * 2006 PMID 16488552 -- "Patient tolerance of rectal balloons in conformal radiation treatment of prostate cancer." (Ronson BB, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2006 Apr 1;64(5):1367-70. Epub 2006 Feb 20.)
 * Retrospective. 3561 patients, protons for prostate/SV and photon pelvis as necessary
 * Outcome: 98% tolerated balloon throughout treatment, 2% declined balloon for at least one treatment but tolerated it on average for 85% of their treatments. Better tolerance if protons alone 99.5% vs combination 95.7% (SS)
 * Conclusion: Intrarectal balloons well tolerated
 * 2003 PMID 14529309 -- "Range, range modulation, and field radius requirements for proton therapy of prostate cancer." (Moyers MF, Technol Cancer Res Treat. 2003 Oct;2(5):445-7.)
 * Analysis of 240 treatment fields from >5,000 patients treated
 * Range typically <290 mm water, modulation width <120 mm, radius <75 mm

 * Cambridge (UK) PMID 16510958 -- "Margins for treatment planning of proton therapy." (Thomas SJ, Phys Med Biol. 2006 Mar 21;51(6):1491-501. Epub 2006 Mar 1.)
 * Evaluation of margins for H&N and prostate plans, for single field, parallel opposed fields, and four fields
 * Good dose distributions can be obtained with one or two fields

 * Vienna; 2005 (Austria) PMID 15995838 -- "Comparative treatment planning on localized prostate carcinoma conformal photon- versus proton-based radiotherapy." (Mock U, Strahlenther Onkol. 2005 Jul;181(7):448-55.)
 * Comparison. 5 patients. 3D proton plan (2 lateral beams) vs. 3D conformal photons (4 field box) vs. IMRT (seven beams). PTV = CTV + 5 mm. Total dose 70 Gy.
 * Outcome: PTV: similar dose distribution. Conformity indices photon 1.4-1.5, proton 1.1-1.4. OAR received more dose (>=1.7x) with photons, mainly at low and medium dose levels
 * Conclusion: PTV comparable, for OAR 2 field protons > IMRT > 3D-CRT

 * Alberta; 2002 (Canada) PMID 11865989 -- "Intensity and energy modulated radiotherapy with proton beams: variables affecting optimal prostate plan." (Yeboah C, Med Phys. 2002 Feb;29(2):176-89.)
 * Influence of energy, beamlet width, number of beams, and beam orientation on treatment plans
 * Conclusion: Need maximum 3-4 beams, but then beam orientation becomes important

Cost-Effectiveness

 * Please see Radiation_Oncology/Prostate/Utilization

Radiobiology

 * Wisconsin; 2003 PMID 12602558 -- "What can we expect from dose escalation using proton beams?" (Fowler JF, Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2003 Feb;15(1):S10-5.)
 * Evaluation of tumor dose-response curves, and dose escalation benefit if normal tissue complications can be avoided

Review

 * Harvard
 * 2009 PMID 19672148 -- "Life, liberty, and the pursuit of protons: an evidence-based review of the role of particle therapy in the treatment of prostate cancer." (Efstathiou JA, Cancer J. 2009 Jul-Aug;15(4):312-8.)
 * 2009 PMID 19434101 -- "Proton radiation for localized prostate cancer." (Coen JJ, Nat Rev Urol. 2009 Jun;6(6):324-30. Epub 2009 May 12.)
 * 2007 PMID 17921728 -- "High-dose external beam radiation for localized prostate cancer: current status and future challenges." (Nguyen PL, Cancer J. 2007 Sep-Oct;13(5):295-301.)

 * Loma Linda; 2007 no PMID full text -- "Conformal proton beam radiation therapy for prostate cancer: concepts and clinical results" (Rossi CJ, Commun Oncol 2007; 4:235-240)

title: Radiation Oncology/Prostate/Protons


text:
Arabic/LearnRW/al- Assimilation

The definite article of Arabic is الـ (Alif-Laam), known as لام التارف (Laam Al-tarif).

The first letter of the laam al-tarif is a Hamzat-Wasl (همزة وصل), an alif with a Saad (ص) written above it (ٱ). We do not write the ص on the alif in writing (we simply know it is there, as no words in Arabic begin with Alif (only Alif with Hamza (أ) ). A Hamzat-Wasl takes the sound of a vowel immediately before it, if there is one.  If not, it makes the same sounds a fatha at the beginning of the word (أَ).

An example of the hamzat-wasl taking the sound of a preceding vowel is الأُممُ الـمُتَّحِدة ) (Al-Umamu ul-Muttahida), "The United Nations."

The spelling of laam al taareef,is with ain,and not alif. لام التعريف ،here it means the. But in some places it means 'all'.then it is known as laam aljins. Where jins,means the whole category. E.g.alhamdu=all praise الحمد

title: Arabic/LearnRW/al- Assimilation


text: User talk:Timmy Toot-Toot

title: User talk:Timmy Toot-Toot


text: Category:Book:.NET Development Foundation


text:
Web 2.0 and Emerging Learning Technologies/Case Study of Personalized Learning Environments (PLE)

To be an active participant
To understand the concept of PLE is not difficult, but how to put it into practice for everyone is not as easy as you think. As the name suggests, PLE is personal and differs individually, but that doesn't mean that the process is non-cooperative and conducted just by one person alone. On the contrary, the process is social and cooperative. And to be an active participant is the key of the process for everyone.

Here is an example to demonstrate why being an active participant is the key of the process of PLE.

During the course delivered by Miss Zhuang from Beijing Normal University in the fall semester in 2007, she initiated an activity to help the students to master the use of some tools of WEB2.O. The activity is conducted on the platform called Haokanbu in China. What makes Haokanbu differ from Blog or Flickr or other social software is that Haokanbu provides the user with the function to create stories using different images together with text and audio. It is easy and interesting to create your story here. The process of creating a story is also the process of using images together with text or audio to organize and express one's thoughts.

The content of the story is about how to use these tools or what you get from using tools. At first, Miss Zhuang took the lead to issue several stories about the WEB2.O tools operating methods. As we know, to build PLE, you should grasp the method of using social network software first. Under the lead of the teacher,the learners choose different software to use and create stories according to their own interests. Thereupon, the activity started, everybody practiced and recorded the practice process and harvested or demonstrated how to use the software with the story. Very quickly,the students' first batch of story creations were published, and they were extremely excited because they made them by their own. They also watched others' stories actively, and discussed them, asked questions or gave comments on others. Others in the network community were also attracted by these stories, they joined in the discussion and the activity. During the discussion people established study partnership and friendship. Thus, there had formed a study mass organization, when someone has a question he asked on the platform. In a short time, people with different knowledge backgrounds would give many different replies. Of course, he can also directly seek the experts for help in this activity.

Soon, students liked this way of study, and recorded the difficulties from the practice with stories actively. When they wanted to study social network software, they will come here look for the related stories - the more stories there are, the more the learners could learn. The teacher also kept on guiding and pushing the activity. After a period of time, when students reconsider their work, they found that they not only grasped the use of the tools, but also learned the independent study method in the network.

Now, let us look at the activity again. The teacher here is a guide and sponsor, she continued to promote activity. For the learners, at the beginning, they joined the activity in order to complete the task of study that the teacher laid out, but along with the activities carried out, students learned to use the network software to study by themselves and to work together. They used the social network tools to share, to communicate, to create altogether. And stories here play an important role as bridges, they connect different people together. The more stories are shared, the more people joined in the activity and the learners could learn more knowledge. This is a process which PLE gradually establishs. From this activity, we found that there are several key facts in building PLE:

 * Firstly, practice actively. PLE is built with a lot of practice. In practice you will be able to learn its essence ,the more you practice ,the more you learn.
 * Secondly, constructing PLE is not one person's game, it needs a lot of people to complete together. So it is a good way for you to act as an organizer in a course or activity you are interested in on the Internet and to invite other people to participate together.
 * Thirdly, you should have a personal space just like blog or haokanbu on the internet to publish your idea or share resource, so you will make other people know you and attract them to the community or work together with you. In this way you will make more friends.

Learner's Narrative
The following is the case of a learner who is establishing her own PLE.

I have learned the technology of web 2.0 for 2 months since the beginning of the fall semester 2007. During this short time, I have learned how to operate some tools of web2.0 and the spirit of practice. PLE is not a concept but a process, a movement of learning, there is no end of PLE. So we do not need to ask whether we have built PLE, the only thing we should do is practice, communicate on and on. Whether you have known or not, it doesn’t matter. You are creating PLE if you've started to practice. The only difference between us is the depth, but we can all make progress.

Now, I will talk about my experience of creating PLE, of course it is only the beginning. However, I believe I will become a PLE learner.

Firstly, I considered what I should learn. The key of learning is to creating PLE, but we should know what is the aim of our learning and what is necessary for creating PLE. First as we do not have enough time, I chose to learn del.cio.us .rss reader, blog after thinking.

Secondly, I was looking for a platform to ask and share my ideas I think people are the best resources. So we must look for people to help us and share each other, then all of us will make big progress. So I joined the google group which was built by Doctor Xiulizhuang from Beijing Normal University. I know a lot of the tools there, besides,I mastered it with the help of the members, and we can share our feelings and thoughts, very interestingly. I am glad to have such a kind of group.

Thirdly, I use the tools I have learned. I create accounts on del.iico.us,google reader; sina blog and haokanbu. If I did not use them, I will forget them and not know the value of them. After several times using them, now I found I nearly cannot leave them. It is very convenient. I would made greater progress if I lived a regular life.

Now, I have not found the person I am looking for, but I am confident I will found them and formed a group only if I keep on. Of course, there default exist along with them, so we should consider the following tips:

1. Make a plan,do not do unnecessary things. The boundaries of web will make you faint if you do not know what to do.

2. Keep on thinking. If you do not do it, you don’t change your learning style at all.

3. Don’t be afraid you are slow leaner, and do not make excuses for yourself. If you look for excuses you can always find them.

4. Don’t be shy, just practice, you will find you can learn more some day, or you will made a slow experience and progress.


text: Cherokee/Lesson 2

title: Cherokee/Lesson 2


text:
Parkour/Basic Moves/Kash Vault

The Kash Vault is similar to the Monkey Vault and Dash Vault.

Steps
A Kash Vault is started the same as a Monkey Vault, with the traceur putting their hands on the wall or object in front of them, springing up and bringing their legs up to their chest in a tuck position. The Traceur then lets go of the object, kicks their legs out like in the dash vault and places their hands back on the object in order to push off and secure a safe landing although it isn't necessary to let go, the traceur may wish to keep their hands on the object at all times.

Note
It is often a good idea to attempt a Kash Vault in a similar area to a Double Kong Vault, with a big area to clear or with 2 objects close to each other than can be cleared in 1 vault.

title: Parkour/Basic Moves/Kash Vault


text:
Navajo

Welcome to the Navajo language Wikibook. This book is in progress. Please contribute to make a really good book on the Navajo language.

Table of Contents

 * Alphabet: Reading Navajo
 * Grammar: Number
 * Grammar: Word and Sentence Structure
 * Dialogue: Introductions
 * Dialogue: Shopping
 * Dialogue: Herding

title: Navajo


text:
Famous Theorems of Mathematics/Number Theory/Totient Function

This page provides proofs for identities involving the totient function $$\varphi(k)$$ and the Möbius function $$\mu(k)$$.

Sum of integers relatively prime to and less than or equal to n
The proof of the identity

 * $$\sum_{1\le k\le n \atop (k,n)=1} k = \frac{1}{2} \, \varphi(n) \, n

\quad \mbox{ where } \quad n \ge 2$$

uses the fact that

 * $$ (k, n) = d \quad \Leftrightarrow \quad (n-k, n) = d $$

because if $$d|n$$ and $$d|k$$ then $$d|n-k$$ and if $$d|n$$ and $$d|(n-k)$$ then $$d|n-(n-k) = k.$$

This means that for $$n>2$$ we may group the k that are relatively prime to n into pairs
 * $$(k, n-k) \quad \mbox{ where } \quad k1$$ because we assumed that $$n>2.$$ There are
 * $$\frac{\varphi(n)}{2}$$

such pairs, and the constituents of each pair sum to
 * $$k \; + \; n-k \; = n,$$

hence
 * $$\sum_{(k, n)=1} k = \frac{1}{2} \, \varphi(n) \, n

\quad \mbox{ where } \quad n \ge 3.$$ The case $$n=2$$ is verified by direct substitution and may be included in the formula.

Proofs of totient identities involving the floor function
The proof of the identity

 * $$\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\varphi(k)}{k} = \sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\mu(k)}{k}\left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor$$

is by mathematical induction on $$n$$. The base case is $$n=1$$ and we see that the claim holds:

 * $$\varphi(1)/1 = 1 = \frac{\mu(1)}{1} \left\lfloor 1\right\rfloor.$$

For the induction step we need to prove that

 * $$\frac{\varphi(n+1)}{n+1} =

\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\mu(k)}{k} \left(\left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{k}\right\rfloor - \left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor\right) + \frac{\mu(n+1)}{n+1}.$$

The key observation is that

\left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{k}\right\rfloor - \left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor \; = \; \begin{cases} 1, & \mbox{if }k|(n+1) \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise, } \end{cases}$$

so that the sum is

\sum_{k|n+1,\; k<n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k} + \frac{\mu(n+1)}{n+1} = \sum_{k|n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k}.$$

Now the fact that

\sum_{k|n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k} = \frac{\varphi(n+1)}{n+1} $$

is a basic totient identity. To see that it holds, let $$p_1^{v_1} p_2^{v_2} \ldots p_q^{v_q}$$ be the prime factorization of n+1. Then

 * $$\frac{\varphi(n+1)}{n+1} = \prod_{l=1}^q \left( 1 - \frac{1}{p_l} \right)

= \sum_{k|n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k} $$

by definition of $$\mu(k).$$ This concludes the proof.

An alternate proof proceeds by substituting $$\frac{\varphi(k)}{k} = \sum_{d|k}\frac{\mu(d)}{d}$$ directly into the left side of the identity, giving $$\sum_{k=1}^n \sum_{d|k}\frac{\mu(d)}{d}.$$

Now we ask how often the term $$\begin{matrix}\frac{\mu(d)}{d}\end{matrix}$$ occurs in the double sum. The answer is that it occurs for every multiple $$k$$ of $$d$$, but there are precisely $$\begin{matrix}\left\lfloor\frac{n}{d}\right\rfloor\end{matrix}$$ such multiples, which means that the sum is

 * $$\sum_{d=1}^n\frac{\mu(d)}{d}\left\lfloor\frac{n}{d}\right\rfloor$$

as claimed.

The trick where zero values of $$\begin{matrix} \left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{k}\right\rfloor - \left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor \end{matrix}$$ are filtered out may also be used to prove the identity

 * $$\sum_{k=1}^n\varphi(k) = \frac{1}{2}\left(1+ \sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k)\left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor^2\right).$$

The base case is $$n=1$$ and we have

 * $$\varphi(1) = 1 =

\frac{1}{2} \left(1+ \mu(1) \left\lfloor\frac{1}{1}\right\rfloor^2\right)$$

and it holds. The induction step requires us to show that

 * $$\varphi(n+1) = \frac{1}{2}

\sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k) \left( \left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{k}\right\rfloor^2 - \left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor^2 \right) \; + \; \frac{1}{2} \; \mu(n+1) \; \left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{n+1}\right\rfloor^2 .$$

Next observe that

\left\lfloor\frac{n+1}{k}\right\rfloor^2 - \left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor^2 \; = \; \begin{cases} 2\frac{n+1}{k} - 1, & \mbox{if }k|(n+1) \\ 0, & \mbox{otherwise.} \end{cases}$$

This gives the following for the sum

\frac{1}{2} \sum_{k|n+1, \; k<n+1} \mu(k) \left( 2\frac{n+1}{k} - 1 \right) \; + \; \frac{1}{2} \; \mu(n+1) = \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k|n+1} \mu(k) \left( 2 \; \frac{n+1}{k} - 1 \right). $$

Treating the two inner terms separately, we get

(n+1) \sum_{k|n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k} - \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k|n+1} \mu(k). $$

The first of these two is precisely $$\varphi(n+1)$$ as we saw earlier, and the second is zero, by a basic property of the Möbius function (using the same factorization of $$n+1$$ as above, we have $$\begin{matrix} \sum_{k|n+1} \mu(k) = \prod_{l=1}^q (1-1) = 0 \end{matrix}$$.) This concludes the proof.

This result may also be proved by inclusion-exclusion. Rewrite the identity as
 * $$-1 + 2\sum_{k=1}^n\varphi(k) =

\sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k)\left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor^2.$$

Now we see that the left side counts the number of lattice points (a, b) in [1,n] × [1,n] where a and b are relatively prime to each other. Using the sets $$A_p$$ where p is a prime less than or equal to n to denote the set of points where both coordinates are divisible by p we have

 * $$ \left| \bigcup_p A_p \right| =

\sum_p \left| A_p \right| \; - \; \sum_{p<q} \left| A_p \cap A_q \right| \; + \; \sum_{p<q<r} \left| A_p \cap A_q \cap A_r \right| \; - \; \cdots \; \pm \; \left| A_p \cap \; \cdots \; \cap A_s \right|. $$

This formula counts the number of pairs where a and b are not relatively prime to each other. The cardinalities are as follows:

\left| A_p \right| = \left\lfloor \frac{n}{p} \right\rfloor^2, \; \left| A_p \cap A_q \right| = \left\lfloor \frac{n}{pq} \right\rfloor^2, \; \left| A_p \cap A_q \cap A_r \right| = \left\lfloor \frac{n}{pqr} \right\rfloor^2, \; \ldots $$

and the signs are $$\begin{matrix}-\mu(pqr\cdots)\end{matrix}$$, hence the number of points with relatively prime coordinates is

$$\mu(1)\, n^2 \; + \; \sum_p \mu(p) \left\lfloor \frac{n}{p} \right\rfloor^2 \; + \; \sum_{p<q} \mu(p q) \left\lfloor \frac{n}{pq} \right\rfloor^2 \; + \; \sum_{p<q<r} \mu(p q r) \left\lfloor \frac{n}{pqr} \right\rfloor^2 \; + \; \cdots $$

but this is precisely $$\sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k) \left\lfloor \frac{n}{k} \right\rfloor^2$$ and we have the claim.

Average order of the totient
We will use the last formula of the preceding section to prove the following result:
 * $$\frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k=1}^n \varphi(k)=

\frac{3}{\pi^2} + \mathcal{O}\left(\frac{\log n }{n}\right)$$

Using $$x-1 < \lfloor x \rfloor \le x$$ we have the upper bound
 * $$\frac{1}{2 n^2}

\left(1+ \sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k)\frac{n^2}{k^2}\right) = \frac{1}{2 n^2} + \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2} $$

and the lower bound
 * $$\frac{1}{2 n^2}

\left(1+ \sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k)\left(\frac{n^2}{k^2} - 2\frac{n}{k} + 1\right)\right)$$ which is

\frac{1}{2 n^2} + \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2} - \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k} + \frac{1}{2 n^2} \sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k) $$

Working with the last two terms and using the asymptotic expansion of the nth harmonic number we have
 * $$- \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k} >

- \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{1}{k} = - \frac{1}{n} H_n > -\frac{1}{n} (\log n +1) $$ and
 * $$\frac{1}{2 n^2} \sum_{k=1}^n \mu(k) > - \frac{1}{2 n}.$$

Now we check the order of the terms in the upper and lower bound. The term $$\begin{matrix}\sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2}\end{matrix}$$ is $$\mathcal{O}(1)$$ by comparison with $$\zeta(2)$$, where $$\zeta(s)$$ is the Riemann zeta function. The next largest term is the logarithmic term from the lower bound.

So far we have shown that
 * $$\frac{1}{n^2} \sum_{k=1}^n \varphi(k)=

\frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2} + \mathcal{O}\left(\frac{\log n }{n}\right)$$

It remains to evaluate $$\begin{matrix}\sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2}\end{matrix}$$ asymptotically, which we have seen converges. The Euler product for the Riemann zeta function is
 * $$\zeta(s) = \prod_p \left(1 - \frac{1}{p^s} \right)^{-1}

\mbox{ for } \Re(s)>1. $$

Now it follows immediately from the definition of the Möbius function that
 * $$\frac{1}{\zeta(s)} = \prod_p \left(1 - \frac{1}{p^s} \right)

= \sum_{n \ge 1} \frac{\mu(n)}{n^s}.$$

This means that
 * $$\frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2} =

\frac{1}{2} \frac{1}{\zeta(2)} + \mathcal{O}\left(\frac{1}{n}\right)$$ where the integral $$\begin{matrix} \int_{n+1}^\infty \frac{1}{t^2} dt\end{matrix}$$ was used to estimate $$\begin{matrix} \sum_{k>n} \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2}\end{matrix}.$$ But $$\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2} \frac{1}{\zeta(2)} = \frac{3}{\pi^2}\end{matrix}$$ and we have established the claim.

Average order of φ(n)/n
The material of the preceding section, together with the identity

 * $$\sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\varphi(k)}{k} = \sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\mu(k)}{k}\left\lfloor\frac{n}{k}\right\rfloor$$

also yields a proof that

 * $$\frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\varphi(k)}{k} =

\frac{6}{\pi^2} + \mathcal{O}\left(\frac{\log n }{n}\right).$$

Reasoning as before, we have the upper bound
 * $$\frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\mu(k)}{k}\frac{n}{k} =

\sum_{k=1}^n \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2}$$ and the lower bound
 * $$-\frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=1}^n\frac{\mu(k)}{k} +

\sum_{k=1}^{n+1} \frac{\mu(k)}{k^2}.$$

Now apply the estimates from the preceding section to obtain the result.

Inequalities
We first show that

 * $$\lim \inf \frac{\varphi (n)}{n}=0 \mbox{ and } \lim \sup \frac{\varphi (n)}{n}=1. $$

The latter holds because when n is a power of a prime p, we have

 * $$\frac{\varphi (n)}{n} = 1 - \frac{1}{p},$$

which gets arbitrarily close to 1 for p large enough (and we can take p as large as we please since there are infinitely many primes).

To see the former, let nk be the product of the first k primes, call them $$p_1, p_2, ..., p_k$$. Let

 * $$r_k = \frac{\varphi (n_k)}{n_k} = \prod_{i=1}^k \left( 1 - \frac{1}{p_i} \right).$$

Then

 * $$\frac{1}{r_k} = \prod_{i=1}^k \left( 1 - \frac{1}{p_i} \right)^{-1} >

\sum_{m=1}^{p_k} \frac{1}{m} = H_{p_k},$$

a harmonic number. Hence, by the well-known bound $$H_n > \log n$$, we have

 * $$\frac{1}{r_k} > \log p_k.$$

Since the logarithm is unbounded, taking k arbitrarily large ensures that rk achieves values arbitrarily close to zero.

We use the same factorization of n as in the first section to prove that

 * $$\frac {6 n^2} {\pi^2} < \varphi(n) \sigma(n) < n^2$$.

Note that

 * $$ \varphi(n) \sigma(n) =

n \prod_{l=1}^q \left(1 - \frac{1}{p_l}\right) \prod_{l=1}^q \frac{p_l^{v_l+1}-1}{p_l-1} = n \prod_{l=1}^q \frac{p_l-1}{p_l} \; \frac{p_l^{v_l+1}-1}{p_l-1}$$

which is

n \prod_{l=1}^q \left(p_l^{v_l}-\frac{1}{p_l}\right) = n^2 \prod_{l=1}^q \left(1 - \frac{1}{p_l^{v_l+1}}\right).$$

The upper bound follows immediately since

 * $$\prod_{l=1}^q \left(1 - \frac{1}{p_l^{v_l+1}}\right) < 1.$$

We come arbitrarily close to this bound when n is prime. For the lower bound, note that

 * $$ \prod_{l=1}^q \left(1 - \frac{1}{p_l^{v_l+1}}\right) \ge

\prod_{l=1}^q \left(1 - \frac{1}{p_l^2}\right) > \prod_p \left(1 - \frac{1}{p^2}\right),$$

where the product is over all primes. We have already seen this product, as in

 * $$ \prod_p \left(1 - \frac{1}{p^s}\right) =

\sum_{n\ge 1} \frac{\mu(n)}{n^s} = \frac{1}{\zeta(s)}$$

so that

 * $$\prod_p \left(1 - \frac{1}{p^2}\right) = \frac{1}{\zeta(2)}

= \frac{6}{\pi^2}$$

and we have the claim. The values of n that come closest to this bound are products of the first k primes.


text:
Talk:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Every Material Known to Man/Chrome

This page needs to be updated to blender 2.50 settings for mirror transperacy tab... Can't do these effects at all since I don't recognise the settings.


text:
User:Sectumsempra~enwikibooks

Gone.

title: User:Sectumsempra~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Sectumsempra~enwikibooks

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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Sectumsempra. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Sectumsempra~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:40, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:28, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sectumsempra~enwikibooks


text:
Horticulture/Corydalis lutea

Corydalis lutea (Yellow Corydalis) is a low-growing herbaceous plant native to the southern foothills of the south-western and central Alps of Italy and Switzerland, but widely introduced elsewhere.

Description
Yellow Corydalis grows to 30–38 cm (12–15 in) tall and its grey-green foliage is attractive from spring until autumn. The 2 cm (¾ in) flowers are borne above the leaves from spring until mid-summer and sometimes later. The species often grows wild in cracks in old walls where drainage is excellent.

Growing Conditions
Yellow Corydalis grows in USDA Hardiness Zones 5 to 10 (average annual minimum temperature –29 °C or above); it does best in light shade, but will tolerate both full sun and deep shade. Excellent drainage is vital and the soil should be liberally supplemented with peat moss or leaf mould.

title: Horticulture/Corydalis lutea


text:
Cookbook talk:Egg White

Plenty of tips exist for getting eggs to foam. So in making eggnog in a blender how do I PREVENT foaming?????

title: Cookbook talk:Egg White


text:
Wikibooks:Wikibooks gazette/2008/01/Editorial

I sometimes wonder if Wikibooks is as useful as it seems.
 * I mean, we provide the textbooks for Wikiversity and even real-world colleges, we give out books full of useful information, and even Jimbo Wales says we're one of the better Wikis to belong to.
 * But we don't hand out ourselves as Wikipedia does (they specialize in making any article you ask, and they edit it to full glory). Wikibooks is smaller and less prominent, too, so people don't use what I see as our usefulness-accurate, well-written textbooks that can enrich those from 2 to 100.
 * But maybe this is better for us. There isn't a rush of vandals, articles, spammers, and admins that Wikipedia seems to hold a lot of. I wonder if that's why colleges will use our textbooks but shun Wikipedia articles. Maybe, even though we're smaller, we can provide better services. I can personally testify to this. After an 800-edit career on Wikipedia which culminated with watchlist spam, I realize Wikibooks' service is much better than anything Wikipedia can provide. And I realize I want to be a part of it. Laleena (talk)


text:
Horticulture/Corydalis ochroleuca

Corydalis ochroleuca is a low, mound-forming perennial grown for its long season of producing showy white flowers and clean, fine-textured foliage.

title: Horticulture/Corydalis ochroleuca


text:
User:Brayshot37

Hello. I am 70 years old and live in the UK, my interests are politics and 20th century history, someone has to be, maybe it has to do with Flying Bombs and other bits and pieces falling from the sky as a child. I like the idea of being able to add to our fund of knowledge on such things

title: User:Brayshot37


text:
A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Refraction

Reflection
Reflection is when light 'bounces' off a material which is different to the one in which it is travelling. You may remember from GCSE (or equivalent) level that we can calculate the direction the light will take if we consider a line known as the 'normal'. The normal is perpendicular to the boundary between the two materials, at the point at which the light is reflected. The angle between the normal and the ray of light is known as the angle of reflection (r). The ray of light will be reflected back at the same angle as it arrived at the normal, on the other side of the normal.

Refraction
Refraction is when light changes velocity when it travels across the boundary between two materials. This causes it to change direction. The angle between the normal and the refracted ray of light is known as the angle of refraction (r).

The Refractive Index
The refractive index is a measure of how much light will be refracted on the boundary between a material and a 'reference material'. This reference material is usually either air or a vacuum. It is given by the following formula:

$$n = \frac{c_0}{c_1}$$

where c0 is the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 m/s) and c1 is the speed of light in the material.

Snell's Law
We can relate the refractive index to the angles of incidence (i) and refraction (r) using the following formula, known as Snell's Law:

$$n = \frac{\sin{i}}{\sin{r}} = \frac{c_0}{c_1}$$

Total Internal Reflection
Normally, when light passes through a non-opaque material, it is both reflected and refracted. However, sometimes, rays of light are totally internally reflected; in other words, they are not refracted, so no light goes outside the material. This is useful in optic fibres, which allow a signal to be transmitted long distances at the speed of light because the light is totally internally reflected.

Critical Angle
The critical angle is the minimum angle of incidence, for a given material, at which rays of light are totally internally reflected. At the critical angle (C), the angle of refraction is 90°, as any smaller angle of incidence will result in refraction. Therefore:

$$n = \frac{\sin{90}}{\sin{r}}$$

Since sin 90° = 1:

$$n = \frac{1}{\sin{r}}$$

$$\sin{r} = \frac{1}{n} = \sin{C}$$

In word form, in a material with refractive index n, light will be totally internally reflected at angles greater than the inverse sine of the reciprocal of the refractive index.

Questions
1. A ray of light is reflected from a mirror. Its angle to the normal when it reaches the mirror is 70°. What is its angle of reflection?

2. The speed of light in diamond is 1.24 x 108 m/s. What is its refractive index?

3. The refractive index of ice is 1.31. What is the speed of light in ice?

4. A ray of light passes the boundary between air and a transparent material. The angle of refraction is 20°, and the angle of incidence is 10°. What is the speed of light in this material? Why is it impossible for this material to exist?

5. What is the critical angle of a beam of light leaving a transparent material with a refractive index of 2?

/Worked Solutions/


text:
A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Refraction/Worked Solutions

'''1. A ray of light is reflected from a mirror. Its angle to the normal when it reaches the mirror is 70°. What is its angle of reflection?'''

The angles of reflection on both sides of the normal are always equal, so the angle of reflection is 70°.

'''2. The speed of light in diamond is 1.24 x 108 m/s. What is its refractive index?'''

$$n = \frac{v_1}{1.24 \times 10^8}$$

Assuming the speed of light in the reference medium is 3 x 108:

$$n = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{1.24 \times 10^8} = \frac{3}{1.24} \approx 2.42$$

'''3. The refractive index of ice is 1.31. What is the speed of light in ice?'''

$$1.31 = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{v_2}$$

$$v_2 = \frac{3 \times 10^8}{1.31} \approx 2.29 \times 10^8 \mbox{ ms}^{-1}$$

'''4. A ray of light passes the boundary between air and a transparent material. The angle of refraction is 20°, and the angle of incidence is 10°. What is the speed of light in this material? Why is it impossible for this material to exist?'''

$$\frac{3 \times 10^8}{v_2} = \frac{\sin{10}}{\sin{20}} \approx 0.508 $$

$$v_2 \approx \frac{3 \times 10^8}{0.508} \approx 5.91 \times 10^8 $$

This is greater than the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108), and so is impossible.

5. What is the critical angle of a beam of light leaving a transparent material with a refractive index of 2?

$$\sin{C} = \frac{1}{2}$$

C = 30° (using the sin−1 button on a scientific calculator - this means 'inverse sine', often denoted arcsine or asin for short.)

Introdução à Física/Refração da luz/Exercícios


text:
Talk:.NET Development Foundation/feedback

Hi, welcome to the .NET Development Foundation feedback page.

The quality of this study guide totally depends on the feedback on the exam we receive from people who have passed the exam. If you did, please take a few minutes to give us any feedback that you might have. You do not need to register on WikiBooks to add a comment.

There are two ways to do so:

 * Go to the the document and edit it as you see fit! This is an open content wiki so anyone is invited to contribute.
 * If you have less time or are not sure where to insert your content, then add a comment here and we will make sure that it is reflected in the book.

To add a comment, click on the "+" sign tab at the top of the page, enter a subject, and go to it!

Minimal rules
There are very few rules to follow in your comments:

 * Please use correct language.

 * Do not put anything that would be subject to copyright. In particular, we are not interested in the actual exam questions, but rather on the knowledge required to answer those questions. You may put "example questions" to guide the reader, but no "braindumps" please.

Comments on the web
Some comments that we got while discussing the exam on different forums:

 * This one is in French.

Ok, I just took the exam and failed. I used mearure-up practice exam to study as well as online .NET resources. I felt I was really prepared and confident I would pass. However, the majority of my question were on CultureInfo and RegionInfo, which I obviously did not cover enough. I am hopeful the information in this Wiki will get me over the top. I wonder how many people fail the first time.

Passed with 754
Hi, I passed today the 70-536 exam with not incredible much, but enough 754 points. I used only the 70-536 preparation kit book from Microsoft and trained with the included MessureUp tests. Of course I also read some other books a bit, but in general I used the MessureUp tests to memorize the correct answers and read the book in some hours. Honestly said, I was too lazy and did not train the labs in the book - afterwards, I would recommend to practise the labs, because this helps a lot to memorize the API methods a lot.

Was it difficult? Hmm... I'm a original Java programmer and I felt the questions from Microsoft were not that tough as from the SUN exams, but yes, when I read the first question I already recognized, the questions from MessureUp are not that tough as the real test questions. Personally, my by far biggest drawback was the AppDomain/CultureInfo area, but even then, it's possible to pass (as I am). Interestingly no single question about value<->reference types came up on my exam, one of the stuff I feel at home. Before I submitted the questions 1 hour before the time limit reached (sorry, but else I know or I guess - why sticking around for nothing?), I was sure I answered only 3 questions correctly and the last 37 questions I was more or less unsure...

Since I'm new to .NET (C#) I can only say: You don't need years of experience. Take the MS Preparation Kit book and read it carefully (practise the exams!). After that it's very likely you pass the exam.

One last note: I'm not the biggest fan of the MS Preparation Kit book, since I was sometimes irritated because I couldn't get sometimes a correct/meaningful answer to some questions from the MessureUp tests. But since I don't know a better resource and I have the feeling you have a >70% chance to pass with this book, I can still recommend it.


text:
User talk:Brayshot37

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 16:27, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Brayshot37


text:
User talk:RogerBindi

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * Make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window (if javascript is enabled on your browser) that will insert it too (looks like part of a signature). This will let others know who left it, and make it easy to reply back to you.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. (What is Wikibooks).
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Reading Room with any questions or ideas.
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 * Help us by participating in policy and guideline creation.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 16:27, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:RogerBindi


text:
User talk:Ybadn

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * Make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window (if javascript is enabled on your browser) that will insert it too (looks like part of a signature). This will let others know who left it, and make it easy to reply back to you.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. (What is Wikibooks).
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Reading Room with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Help us by participating in policy and guideline creation.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 16:28, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ybadn


text:
User talk:70.18.133.25

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

title: User talk:70.18.133.25


text:
User talk:142.162.253.201

Redrocketboy (talk) 17:19, 15 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:142.162.253.201


text:
User:Arsharpe/Yahoo Notes

This book summarises current limitations and workarounds for the Yahoo Mail & Calendar facility

=Calendar=

Is it possible to send a calendar invitation to non-yahoo attendees ?
Yes. Simply enter their normal email address in the invitation section. The information will be sent to invitee, with a link for the invitee to follow.

Is it possible to send the same invitation link to all attendees ?
Yes - for Yahoo attendees only

In this case use the link at the bottom of the invitation page.

No - for non-yahoo attendees.

Each link in the invitation email is unique to the person it is sent to. So it is not possible to send this invitation link to everyone (e.g. after following the link and then changing the name the original name is replaced.)

Is it possible to Update a calendar entry and have the invitees automatically updated ?
Partially. The resend of the invite contains the original event details only and not the updated event (e.g. if the time changes then this is not reflected in the new invite. However, after clicking the invitation link the correct change in time details are shown although any change in title is not shown.

=Mail=

Search Limitations
Emails found by the search facility finds an email in the "Drafts" folder cannot be edited.

Workaround: Open the email and copy and paste into a new email.

Draft Limitations
When a draft item is actually sent the previously saved draft item is not deleted.

Workaround: After sending the email check that it was actually sent my looking in the "Sent" items folder and then go to "Drafts" and manually the delete the email.

IMAP support
Yahoo seems to support IMAP (as seen by tests performed with an iPhone). However, it has not been possible to date to find settings that will work.

title: User:Arsharpe/Yahoo Notes


text:
AP Biology/LABORATORY 4. Plant Pigments and Photosynthesis

In photosynthesis, plant cells convert light energy into chemical energy that is stored in sugars and other organic compounds. Critical to the process is chlorophyll, the primary photosynthetic pigment in chloroplasts.

This laboratory has two separate activities: I. Plant Pigment Chromatography, and II. Measuring the Rate of Photosynthesis. Select the one you want to study, beginning with Key Concepts for that section.


text:
.NET Development Foundation/System Types Topics

System types and collections: Topics

Programs, objects and methods
.NET is essentially a set of tools to build and execute computer programs. A computer program is a set of instructions given to a computer that executes those instructions automatically to manipulate some data. .NET follows the object-oriented paradigm which means that the instructions and data are grouped around ‘’objects’’ that represent things or concepts. Objects that share the same instructions and manipulate the same kind of data are grouped into the same type.

An object-oriented program is the definition of a series of types. For each type the kind of data and the instructions are specified. The instructions are grouped inside methods. One of the available instructions is the creation of an object of a defined type. Another kind of instruction is the request to execute a method associated with an object. This is called invoking a method. When a method is invoked its instructions are executed until the method terminates (returns). When the method returns the calling (invoking) method executes its next instruction (statement).

When you start the execution of a program the system creates a first object and invokes a method of that object (this is called the main method). Inside that method other objects are typically created and methods of those objects are invoked. Those methods will invoke other methods and create other objects and so on. Gradually the called methods will return and the '’main’’ method will eventually finish, marking the end of the program execution.

System types
This section will be obvious for experienced object oriented developers but some of the specific objectives of the exam are directly related to the type system.

Types are a way to classify the concepts or objects of a language. The way this classification is organized is called a 'type system'. The types themselves can also be categorized in different ways by the type system.

The first way to categorize types in .NET is to make a difference between types that are part of the framework class libraries (System types) and types that will be constructed by the developer (custom types).

Writing object oriented programs can be seen as the process of defining one or more custom types. Those types are then packaged in some kind of execution unit (Assemblies in the case of .NET). The assemblies are compiled and then executed starting at some entry point that will be a specified method of one of the custom type.

Those custom types use:
 * System types to execute "pre-programmed" instruction sequences
 * other custom types

System types are also packaged in assemblies. The custom assemblies must reference the system assemblies in order to use the System types.

There are other ways to categorize types in .NET. One of them is by the way the objects created based on those types are mapped to the computer memory. This will give us Value types and Reference types.

Another way is by Reflection category (Class, Value types, Interfaces, Generics, etc.).

Yet another way is to distinguish the types that are directly supported by the runtime (built-in types) from those defined either in the class libraries or custom.

Those categories can also be intersected with one another, that will give us such things as "Built-in value types" or "System interfaces". Stay alert of the categorizations used when you encounter such combinations.

Namespaces are a way to organize types so that they can be more easily found. See this for a discussion on namespaces.

In the context of namespaces the System types are the types included in the System namespace or one of its sub-namespace and Custom types (non system types) should use other namespaces.

For a peek at how Microsoft describes the .NET type system see MSDN. And then for an overview of the class libraries (System types) see MSDN.

Most of the exam is in fact based on how to use the common parts of the type libraries (System types). This is why the list of exam objectives (and this book TOC) is so long.

Hello world
For the newcomers to .NET, you may want to take a little break from the concepts here and make sure that you see how the concepts discussed so far are used in a very simple example. The next concepts are not that trivial. We will put such an example here.

Value types
Value types represent one part of the Value / Reference classification of the type system.

An instance of a value type directly contains its data (value). For example an Int32 local variable has its memory allocated directly on the stack.

The value types are themselves split in 3 categories:
 * The built-in value types
 * User-defined value types
 * Enumerations

Remember that built-in types are the types directly supported by the runtime.

They are the building blocks of any program because they are what the machine instructions ultimately act upon. The rest are essentially compositions of those types.

All of the built-in types are value types except for Object and String.

The built-in value types consist of
 * the integer types (Byte, SByte, Int16, Int32, Int64, UInt16, UInt32 and UInt64)
 * the floating point types (Single and Double)
 * the logical type (Boolean)
 * other (Char, Decimal, InPtr and UInPtr)

All built-in value types are defined in the System namespace (ex. System.Int32) and have keywords that represent them in the VB and C# (ex. int in C#, integer in VB.NET) except for InPtr and UInPtr.

All value types derive from System.ValueType either directly for built-in and user-defined or indirectly through System.Enum for enumerations.

Enumerations are a way to name a set of values of an underlying integer type (signed or unsigned). As restrictions of an integer type they act as their underlying type.

User-defined value types and Enumerations both include System types and Custom types.

An example of a System user-defined value-type would be System.Drawing.Point used in drawing.

You build custom value types using specific language constructs (struct in C#, Structure in VB.NET).

An example of a System enumeration would be the System.Data.CommandType enumeration that specifies if a table is a text command, a call to a stored procedure, etc.

You build custom enumerations using specific language constructs (enum in C#, Enum in VB.NET).

For examples and notes on using value types see this section. See also examples of building and using user-defined value types.

Reference types
Reference types represent the other part of the Value / Reference classification of the type system.

Contrary to value types, an instance of a reference type does not directly contain its data (value), but instead contains some kind of a reference to the memory location of that value. For example a String local variable has memory allocated on the stack for a reference to the contained string, not the string itself. In that case the string itself will be allocated on the heap and garbage collected (more on that later).

Two built-in types are considered reference types: Object and String and they are also directly referenced in the System libraries (ex. System.String) and have their own constructs in the .NET languages (ex. string in C#).

The reference types are themselves split in four categories:
 * pointers
 * arrays
 * classes
 * interfaces

We will not talk about pointers in this book because no exam objective references them.

The next three sections will present arrays, classes and interfaces.

For a comparison of value / reference types try this.

For other notes and an example of using reference types see this.

Arrays
An array is essentially a group of objects, usually of the same type, than can be accessed via an index.

For a general discussion of arrays you can see the Wikipedia article (on the right) or go to the Wikibook on data structures.

Arrays once were one of the most used features of programming languages because you can go from one item in the array to the next in a very efficient way (you can see  C pointers and arrays if you want more details on this). Today the availability of much more “computer power” has moved the focus from arrays to collections. The two main problems of arrays are:
 * They are fixed length
 * They support only one internal organization

Collections address most of the shortcomings of arrays (at a cost though). Arrays can still be considered for a fixed group of objects that have to be efficiently manipulated.

We will have some examples in the using arrays section.

Classes
Classes are themselves split in three:
 * user-defined classes
 * boxed value types
 * delegates

Boxed value types will be discussed a little later in the boxing / unboxing section.

Delegates will also be covered later in their section.

User-defined classes are the basic realizations of the object oriented concepts.

Obviously a lot can be said about classes but since no exam objective reference to them we will assume that the reader is already familiar with the concept and have already worked with them (in .NET or elsewhere).

You can have System classes (hundreds and hundreds of them) and custom classes (where you will code the essential of your program logic).

We have examples of using and building classes.

Interfaces
If you want to get really confused on what exactly is object-oriented programming just check the Wikipedia article on Polymorphism :-).

The idea is just to be able to have a single type of reference to the "common part" of different types that have "something in common".

Rectangles and Ellipses are both "Shapes" so how can we get part of a program to manipulate "Shapes" without knowing about the specific of Rectangles or Ellipses. In such a situation we say that Shapes are polymorphic (literally they can take many forms).

In object-oriented programming you get this behavior with inheritance. A reference to a parent class (Shape) will manipulate child objects (Rectangles or Ellipses) without problems.

Interfaces were developed to get the same behavior in the context of component-based computing where you don't have access to the source code so you cannot use inheritance. The interface construct was the basis of all component communication in COM.

An interface is a contract to implement a set of methods in a clearly defined manner (method signatures). If you know that a class implements an interface you know that you can use any of the defined methods.

From that definition it is easy to imagine having a reference to an "interface instance" from which you can call any of the interface methods. So easy in fact that the framework provides just that.

Now suppose that instead of a Shape being a parent of Rectangle we just have a Shape interface that is implemented both by Rectangle and Ellipse. If I have a reference to a Rectangle object, I will be able to "cast" it to a reference to a Shape interface and pass it to the part of the program that knows only about "Shape objects".

This is exactly the same polymorphic behavior that we had via inheritance.

The class libraries rely heavily on interfaces and a clear understanding of the concept is essential.

An interesting problem with interfaces compared with inheritance is that you do not get a default implementation (virtual parent methods) so you have to recode everything. The techniques and tools do exist here but there is always some extra work to do. More on that with generics...

We have examples of using and building interfaces. Some interfaces of the System namespace are shown in the standard interfaces section.

Attributes
We now take a short break of our discussions on types to talk a little bit about attributes. First of all attributes are not types. They are elements of information that are added to a program element (assemblies, classes, method, etc.) to qualify it outside of the normal code associated with that element.

Those added "attributes" serves at doing manipulations of the underlying program element without having to modify the execution logic of the element.

Why would we ever want to manipulate program elements outside execution code? The short answer here is that object oriented concepts do not easily deal with what is known as cross-cutting concerns, or aspects of a program that apply to all or most classes. Examples of such aspects are security, persistence, serialization, etc. Instead of modifying every class to add serialization logic (which has nothing to do with business rules) you can add serialization attributes to the class to direct the serialization process of those classes without changing the business logic (execution code).

A number of functionality of the framework rely on attributes to add information to program elements. The attributes are kept by the compilation process and associated with their qualifying element in the assemblies. They are analyzed programmatically at run time using reflection to adjust the behavior of "cross-cutting" functionalities.

As for types we have System attributes (part of the framework) and Custom attributes (built by the developer). The development of Customs attributes will be treated in the reflection section. Until then we will limit ourselves with System attributes and focus on defining them and knowing how they will determine the behavior of framework.

The attributes usage section will give some example of how simple System attributes can be used.

Let's note here that attributes are not the only way to add "non-execution" information to a program to modify its behavior. XML configuration files for example can be used to specify parameters that will affect program execution. We will talk about those in the Configuration section of this book.

See MSDN for the discussion of attributes in C#.

Collections
A collection is a grouping of objects. The framework has many types of collections that cover most of the situations where you would process objects as a group. Knowing these collection types will save you the time to "re-code" equivalent logic and will keep your program more maintainable.

Unlike arrays collections come in many flavors each with its specific internal organization. Each type of collection is related to a specific type of problem. We will point out the types of problems when we give examples of each type of collections.

We have two sections with collections examples:
 * Using collections for the classes in the System.Collections namespace.
 * Using specialized collections for the classes in the System.Collections.Specialized namespace.

The major drawback of collections is that in "real life" objects that are grouped together usually have some characteristics in common (they are the same type, have a common parent type or support a common interface). So most of the time we know "more" about the objects than merely their organization. Collections do not allow us to use that knowledge to validate the objects passed to the collection or code logic applicable to all objects of the collection (without casting and exception handling that is).

Generic collections where introduced in version 2.0 of the framework. They solve this problem while keeping the other advantages of collections. For that reason they should be used whenever possible instead of "plain" collections.

Some external links on collections are GotDotNet and AspNetResources

See MSDN for a general discussion on arrays, collections and data structures.

Generics
Generic programming or the use of parameterized types is not an object oriented concept. In that sense Generics are a bit like attributes, they were added to main stream object-oriented platforms to take care of situations that are not easily covered by object-oriented techniques.

To start our discussion please read the following interesting linked article (annexes) that introduces the concept of generics in the context of generic collections. This external tutorial does the same.

The concept of Generics is interesting because it applies the concept of generalization to types. Types themselves are generalizations of objects (the basis of object-oriented programming). So here we start manipulating types, namely having types as parameters.

The actual type will be obtained when you substitute the parameter type with a specific type (For example when you declare a variable of that type). // C# List myIntList = new List '// VB.NET Dim myIntList As New List(Of Integer) In the .NET framework this substitution is done during the second compilation (the just-in-time compilation from CIL to machine code). Said differently, generics are supported by the CIL and are thus part of the framework itself, not of the language used (ex. C#).

For more coverage on generics see MSDN.

We have examples of using and building generic types.

For examples of generics collections see the using generic collections section.

Exceptions
This is how you throw a general exception:

// C# throw new Exception("This is an exception."); '// VB.NET Throw New Exception("This is an exception.")

This is how you handle an exception:

// C# try {   throw new Exception("This is an exception."); } catch (Exception e) { Console.WriteLine(e.Message); } '// VB.NET Try Throw New Exception("This is an exception.") Catch ex As Exception Console.WriteLine(ex.Message) End Try

Events and Delegates
For the “official” discussion of events and delegates see MSDN. What we will do here is a little more general discussion of the many concepts involved.

The first concept is delegation or the idea that part of the functionality of a class can be done “elsewhere” in the program, it can be delegated. The important benefit of delegation is that the “delegating” object does not have to know how the delegated functionality is actually implemented. One way to “delegate” is to define an interface. If an object has a reference to an interface it can delegate part of its functionality to the object implementing that interface without knowing much about that object.

.NET 2.0 defines another reference type called a delegate that implements the delegation pattern in a slightly different way. A delegate is a type that defines a reference to a single function that must have the same signature as the delegate definition. A signature is a description of the type of the function parameters and its return type. Like a class you can create an object of that type. The object created is a reference to a function that can be assigned (set the reference to a specific function), be passed as parameter or executed (the function that is referenced is actually executed). Unlike an interface, a delegate defines only one function and a delegate instance can be created directly (no need to have another class implementing the interface).

Most delegates in .NET derive from a multicast delegate. A multicast delegate is a delegate that keeps a list of references to functions having the same signature as the delegate definition instead of a single reference. You can add a reference to a multicast delegate using the += operator. When you execute a multicast delegate each function referenced is executed in turn.

If an object is from a class that implements a multicast delegate member, then if you have a reference to that object you can "add" to the multicast delegate a reference to a function of your choice. If the object decides to "execute" its delegate member then the function from which you added a reference will be executed.

This multicast delegate member is precisely what an event is in .NET. This is why events and delegates are almost always discussed together.

The procedure to define an event is:
 * You define a delegate type as a reference to functions having a specific signature
 * You add an Event member to a class and associate it with the delegate type you just define, this instantiate a multicast delegate associated with the event
 * When you have a reference to an object of the class you can add a reference to any method that has the same signature as the delegate type.
 * When the object raises the event, the associate multicast delegate is executed which triggers the execution of the referenced function.

Most of the time you will add a reference to one of your own method. When the referenced object fires its event it actually executes one of your methods without knowing it. This setup is an implementation of the publish / subscribe pattern. You subscribe to an event, signaling that you want to be informed when a specific "event" happens. Many object can subscribe to the same event. When the referenced object fires its event it "publishes" a message that the event has effectively happened in the form of a function call to all the "registered" functions.

So any class can define events. Many system classes define events to communicate to your code the fact that "something" happened in the executing environment (the mouse moved, a key was pressed, a message was received on a socket, etc.). Constructing a program that "waits" for events to happen and then react to them is called event programming. Most online applications and services follow this design. We will discuss in more details the way system events are catched in the section on multithreading.

For examples of events and delegates see this section.