text:
Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 3: Student Development/Social Development: Relationships and Personal Motives

Social Development: Relationships and Personal Motives
Social development refers to the long-term changes in relationships and interactions involving self, peers, and family. It includes both positive changes, such as how friendships develop, and negative changes, such as aggression or bullying. For teachers, the social developments that are the most obviously relevant to classroom life fall into three main areas: 1) changes in self-concept and in relationships among students and teachers, 2) changes in basic needs or personal motives, and 3) changes in your sense of rights and responsibilities. As with cognitive development, each of these areas has a broad, well-known theory (and theorist) that provides a framework for thinking about the area as it relates to teaching. For development of self-concept and relationships, it is the theory of Erik Erikson; for development of personal motives, it is the theory of Abraham Maslow; and for development of ethical knowledge and beliefs, it is the work of Lawrence Kohlberg and his critic, Carol Gilligan. These psychologists and their theories are definitely not the only ones related to social development of students, and their ideas are often debated by other researchers. But their accounts do explain much about social development that is relevant to teaching, learning, and students.

Erik Erikson: Eight Psychosocial Crises of Development
Like Piaget, Erik Erikson developed a theory of social development that relies on stages, except that Erikson saw his stages as a series of psychological or social (or psychosocial) crises—turning points in a person’s relationships and feelings about himself or herself (Erikson, 1963, 1980). Each crisis presents the person with a dilemma or choice in which each alternative had both advantages and risks, but in which one alternative is normally considered more desirable or “healthy.” How a crisis is resolved affects how later crises are resolved. The resolution also helps to create an individual’s long-term personality. Erikson proposed eight crises that extend from birth through old age; they are summarized in Table 3-2. Four of the stages occur during the school years, so I give these special attention here, but it is helpful also to know what crises are thought to come both before and after those in the school years.

Crises of Infants and Preschoolers: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative
Almost from the day they are born, infants face a crisis (in Erikson’s sense) about trust and mistrust. They are happiest if they can eat, sleep, and excrete according to their own physiological schedules, and their major caregiver (often the mother) is in a position to make these activities comfortable by her own flexibility and constant attentiveness. Unfortunately, though, a young infant is in no position to control or influence a mother’s caregiving behavior; so the baby faces a dilemma about how much to trust or mistrust the mother’s helpfulness. Hopefully, between the two of them, they resolve this choice in favor of trust: the mother proves herself at least “good enough” in her attentiveness, and the baby risks trusting her motivation and skill at caregiving.

Almost as soon as this crisis is resolved, however, a new one develops over the issue of autonomy and shame. The child (who is now a toddler) may basically trust his or her caregiver (mother), but the very trust contributes to a desire to assert autonomy by taking care of basic personal needs, such as feeding, toileting, or dressing. Given the child’s lack of experience in doing so, however, self-care is risky at first—the toddler may feed (or toilet or dress) clumsily and ineffectively. The child’s caregiver, for her part, risks overprotecting the child and criticizing his early efforts unnecessarily and causing the child to feel shame for even trying. Hopefully, as with the earlier crisis of trust, the new crisis gets resolved in favor of autonomy through the combined efforts of the child to exercise autonomy and of the caregiver to support the child’s efforts.

Eventually, about the time a child is of preschool age, the autonomy exercised during the previous period becomes more elaborate, extended, and focused on objects and people other than the child and his or her basic needs. The child at a day care center may undertake, for example, to build the “biggest city in the world” out of all available unit blocks—even if other children want some of the blocks for other purposes. The child’s projects and desires create a new crisis of initiative and guilt, because the child soon realizes that not every impulse or desire can be acted upon, even if the desires have a pesky tendency to linger when unfulfilled. As with the crisis over autonomy, caregivers have to support the child’s initiatives where possible, but also not make the child feel guilty just for desiring to have or to do something inappropriate or impossible. By limiting behavior where necessary but not limiting internal feelings, the child can develop a lasting ability to take initiative. In Erikson’s terms, the crisis is resolved in favor of initiative.

Even though only the last of these three crises overlaps with the school years, all three of them relate to issues faced by students of many ages, as well as their teachers. A child or youth who is fundamentally mistrustful, for example, has a serious problem in coping with school life. If you are a student, it is essential for your long-term survival, to believe that teachers and other school officials have your best interests at heart, and that they are not imposing assignments, setting limits, and the like, “just for the heck of it.” And even though students are hardly infants, teachers are like Erikson’s caregiver in that they need to prove worthy of students’ trust through their initial flexibility and attentiveness.

Classroom parallels also exist for the crises of autonomy and of initiative. To learn effectively, students need to make choices and undertake academic initiatives, at least some of the time and even though not every choice or initiative may be practical or desirable. Teachers, for their part, need to make true choices and initiatives possible, and refrain from criticizing, even accidentally, the act of choice or the intention behind an initiative even when the teacher privately believes that it is “bound to fail.” Support for choice and initiative should be focused on providing resources and on guiding the student’s efforts toward more likely success. In this underlying sense teachers are like the parents of toddlers and preschoolers in Erikson’s theory of development.

The Crisis of Childhood: Industry and Inferiority
Once into elementary school, the child is faced for the first time with becoming competent and worthy in the eyes of the world at large, or more precisely of classmates and teachers. To achieve their esteem, he or she must develop skills and qualities that usually require effort that is both sustained and somewhat focused. The challenge of doing so creates the crisis of industry and inferiority. To be respected by teachers, the child must learn to read, for example, and to behave like a “true student”; to be respected by peers, he or she must learn to cooperate and to be friendly, among other things. There is risk involved in undertaking to achieve these skills and qualities, because there can be no guarantee in advance of success with them. If the child does succeed, he or she experiences the satisfaction of a job well done and of skills well learned; if not, the child risks feeling lasting inferiority compared to others. Teachers therefore have a very direct, explicit role in helping students to resolve this crisis in favor of industry or success. They can, for example, set realistic academic goals for students—ones that will probably lead to success—and then provide the materials and assistance that students need to reach the goals. Teachers can also frequently express their belief that students can meet their goals even when the students get discouraged, and avoid any hints (even accidental ones) that a student is simply a “loser.” Paradoxically, these strategies will work best if the teacher is also tolerant of less-than-perfect performance by students. Too much emphasis on perfection can undermine some students’ confidence—foster Erikson’s inferiority—by making academic goals seem beyond reach.

The Crisis of Adolescence: Identity and Role Confusion
As the child develops lasting talents and attitudes as a result of the crisis of industry, he begins to face a new question: what do all these talents and attitudes add up to be? Who is the “me” embedded in this profile of talents and attitudes? These questions are the crisis of identity and role confusion. It is riskier than it may first appear for a person simply to define himself or herself as identical to the profile of talents and attitudes developed in childhood. For one thing, some of them may be poorly developed and other may be undesirable in your eyes or in the eyes of others. Still others may be valuable but fail to be noticed by others in a person’s world. So who a person wants to be may not be the same as who he or she actually is, or the same as who others want the person to be. Role confusion is the result.

Teachers can minimize the risk and extent of confusion in a number of ways. One is to provide students with lots of diverse role models—by pointing them out in students’ reading materials, for example, and by inviting a diversity of guests to school. The point of these strategies is to express a key idea, that there are many ways to be respected, successful, and satisfied with life. Another way to support students’ identity development is to be alert to students’ confusions and stresses about their futures, and refer them to counselors or other services outside school that can help them sort these out. Still another strategy for teachers is to tolerate changes in students’ goals and priorities—seemingly sudden or drastic changes in extra-curricular activities or plans for after graduation. Remember, in these cases, that students are trying on roles, and that discouraging their experimentation prematurely may not be in students’ best interests.

The Crises of Adulthood: Intimacy, Generativity, and Integrity
Beyond the school years, according to Erikson, individuals continue psychosocial development through facing additional crises. The next one is faced by young adults, and is called the crisis of intimacy and isolation. It is about risking the establishment of close relationships with a select number of other individuals. Whether the relationships may be heterosexual, homosexual, or not sexual at all, their defining quality is their depth and sustainability. Without them, the individual risks feeling isolated. Assuming that a person resolves this crisis in favor of intimacy, he or she then faces a crisis about generativity and stagnation. This crisis is characteristic of middle-age in adulthood, and not surprisingly therefore is about caring for or making a contribution to society, and especially to its younger generation. It is about making life productive and creative—making it matter to others. An obvious way for some to achieve this feeling is by raising children, but there are many other ways as well to contribute to the welfare of others. The final crisis is about integrity and despair, and is characteristic of individuals as they approach the end of their lives. At this point a person is likely to review the past and ask whether it has been lived as well as possible, even if it was clearly not lived perfectly. Since a personal history can no longer be altered at the end of a person’s life, it is important to feel at peace with it and to forgive oneself and others for any apparent mistakes that have been made. The alternative is despair, or depression from believing that not only was one’s life lived badly, but also that there is no longer any hope of correcting or making up for past mistakes.

Even though Erikson conceives of these crises as primarily concerns of adulthood, there are hints of them during the school years. Intimacy, for example, is a concern of many children and youth in that they often desire, but do not always find close, lasting relationships with others (Beidel, 2005; Zimbardo & Radl, 1999). Personal isolation is a particular risk for students with disabilities (as I discuss in Chapter 5: Students with Special Educational Needs, as well as for students whose cultural or racial backgrounds differ from classmates’ or the teacher’s (see Chapter 4: Student Diversity). Generativity—feeling helpful to others, and especially to the young—is needed not only by many adults, but also by many youngsters; when given the opportunity as part of their school program, they frequently welcome a chance to be of authentic service to others as part of their school programs (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Kay, 2003).  And integrity—taking responsibility for your personal past, “warts and all”—is often a felt need for anyone, young or old, who has lived long enough to have past experiences to look back on. Even children and youth have a past in this sense, though their pasts are of course shorter than older persons’.

Abraham Maslow: A Hierarchy of Motives and Needs
Abraham Maslow formulated a theory that portrays personal needs or motives as a hierarchy, meaning that basic or “lower-level” needs have to be satisfied before higher-level needs become important or motivating (1976, 1987). Compared to the stage models of Piaget and Erikson, Maslow’s hierarchy is only loosely “developmental.” Maslow was not especially concerned with tracking universal changes across long spans of time (like all of childhood or the entire lifespan). Like Piaget and Erikson, though, he was concerned with the sequence or order in which changes occur, regardless of a person’s age, and in particular in the sequence in which needs are felt as motivations. Like the theories of Piaget and Erikson, as well, Maslow’s is a rather broad “story,” one that has little to say about possible effects of a person’s culture, language, or economic level.

In its original version, Maslow’s theory distinguishes two types of needs, called deficit needs (or deficiency needs) and being needs (or growth needs). Figure 3-2 summarizes the two levels and their sublevels. The deficit needs are “prior” to the being needs, not in the developmental sense of happening earlier in life, but simply in the hierarchical sense that deficit needs must be satisfied first before being needs can be addressed. As I point out below, deficit needs can reappear at any age, in which case they must be satisfied again before a person’s attention can shift back to “higher” needs. Among students, in fact, deficit needs are likely to return chronically to those whose families lack economic or social resources or who live with the associated stresses of poverty (Payne, 2005).

Deficit Needs: Getting the Basic Necessities of Life
Deficit needs are the basic requirements of physical and emotional well-being. The most basic are physiological needs—food, sleep, clothing, and the like. Without these, nothing else matters, and especially nothing very “elevated” or self-fulfilling. A student who is not getting enough to eat, for example, is not going to feel thirst for knowledge! Once physiological needs are met, however, safety and security needs become important. The person looks for stability and protection, and welcomes a bit of structure and limits in life. At this level, a person is less concerned with immediate physical survival and more focused on the fear that survival may not continue. In school, a student motivated by safety and security may appreciate a well-organized classroom that insures personal safety and predictability, even if the classroom provides little else.

After physiological and safety needs are met, love and belonging needs emerge. The person turns attention to making friends, being a friend, and cultivating positive personal relationships in general. In the classroom, a student at this level may seek more approval than usual from peers or teachers. They may be well provided for materially and find their classrooms and families safe enough, but still be missing a key ingredient in their lives, love. Assuming that such a student (or anyone else) eventually does find love and belonging, however, his or her motivation shifts again, this time to esteem needs. Now the concern is with gaining recognition and respect from others—and even more importantly, gaining self-respect. A student at this level of motivation may be unusually concerned with achievement, for example, though only if the achievement is visible or public enough to earn recognition from others.

Being Needs: Becoming the Best That You Can Be
Being needs are the desire to become fulfilled as a person, or to be the best person that you can possibly be. They include cognitive needs (a desire for knowledge and understanding), aesthetic needs (an appreciation of beauty and order), and most importantly self-actualization needs (a desire for fulfillment of one’s potential). Such needs emerge only after all of a person’s deficit needs have been met, at least in large part. Unlike deficit needs, being needs beget more being needs; that is, they do not disappear once they are met, but create a desire for even more satisfaction of the same needs. A thirst for knowledge, for example, leads to further thirst for knowledge, and aesthetic appreciation leads to more aesthetic appreciation. Partly because being needs are lasting and permanent once they appear, Maslow sometimes treated them as less hierarchical than deficit needs, and instead grouped cognitive, aesthetic, and self-actualization needs into the single category self-actualization needs.

People who are motivated by self-actualization have a variety of positive qualities, and Maslow went to some lengths to identify and describe those individuals by analyzing information about them, both through published documents of their lives and through personal interviews and contacts[3]. Self-actualizing individuals, he argued, value deep personal relationships with others, but also value solitude; they have a sense of humor, but not one used against others; they accept themselves as well as others; they are spontaneous, humble, creative, and ethical. In short, the self-actualizing person has just about every good quality imaginable! Not surprisingly, therefore, Maslow felt that true self-actualization is rare, and especially infrequent among young people.

In a way this is discouraging news for teachers, who apparently must spend their lives providing as best they can for individuals—students—still immersed in deficit needs. Teachers, it seems, have little hope of ever witnessing fully fledged being needs, at least in their workplace. Taken a bit less literally, though, Maslow’s hierarchy can still be a useful for thinking about students’ motives clearly. Most teachers would argue that students—as young as they are—do sometimes display positive qualities similar to the ones described in Maslow’s self-actualizing person. However annoying students may sometimes be, there are also moments when they show care and respect for others, for example, as well as spontaneity, humility, or a sound ethical sense. This reality makes self-actualization an appropriate way to think about the best in students—their best motivations. At the same time, as I already mentioned, students frequently also show signs of various deficit needs. Keeping in mind the entire hierarchy outlined by Maslow can therefore make us more humane as professionals and more effective as classroom instructors.

Moral Development: Forming a Sense of Rights and Responsibilities
Morality is a system of beliefs about ethics, about what is right and good compared to what is wrong or bad. Moral development refers to the changes in moral beliefs as a person grows older and gains maturity....(read more...)


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bd.strip = function { var pages = bd._listB.value; pages = pages.replace(/<\/?nowiki>/g, ""); pages = pages.replace(/(===+)([^=\n]+)\1/g, "=$2"); pages = pages.replace(/\[\[\/([^\]]+)\/\]\]/g, "$1"); pages = pages.replace(/(\*|#)\W*/g, ""); pages = pages.replace(/\([^\)]*\)/g, ""); pages = pages.replace(/\{\{[^\}]+\}\}/g, "");  bd._listB.value = pages; }

bd.editTemplate = function { if(bd.getBookName == "") { bd.status("Must enter a valid book name to Edit Template."); return; } wk.toggleDisplay(bd.boxspan, "none"); bd.status("Loading template edit box..."); wk.loadEditPage("Template:" + bd.bookName + "/Page", bd._editTemplate2) }

bd._editTemplate2 = function(xml) { var editform = wk.showEditWindow(xml, bd.textspan); editform.summary.value = "Template:" + bd.bookName + "/Page: Creating nav template using Whiteknight's Book Designer"; editform.text.value = bd.makeTemplate; bd.status("Editing text for {"+"{" +    wk.wikiLinkText("Template:" + bd.bookName + "/Page", bd.bookName + "/Page") +     "}}. Edit the text below to ensure the template is created correctly. " +    "Click Save Page when you are finished."); }

bd.save = function { if(wgUserName == null) { bd.status("You must be logged in to save an outline"); return; } if(bd.getBookName == "") { bd.status("Must enter a valid book name to Save."); return; } wk.toggleDisplay(bd.boxspan, "none"); bd.status("Loading userpage edit box..."); wk.loadEditPage("User:" + wgUserName + "/" + bd.bookName, bd._save2); }

bd._save2 = function(xml) { var editform = wk.showEditWindow(xml, bd.textspan); var time = editform.form.wpEdittime.value; editform.summary.value = "Saving incomplete book outline using Whiteknight's Book Designer Gadget"; editform.text.value = editform.text.value + "\n== Outline (" + time + ") ==\n\n" + ": This outline is used with Whiteknight's " + "Book Creator \n" + " \n" + bd._listB.value + "\n \n"; bd.status("Saving text to your userspace. Click Save Page when you are finished."); }

bd.automate = function { //test function, will automatically create all necessary pages with default text. //HIGHLY EXPERIMENTAL! if(bd.getBookName == "") { bd.status("must enter a valid bookname to automate!"); return; } wk.toggleDisplay(bd.boxspan, "none"); bd.status("Automating book design process..."); wk.postEdit(bd.bookName, bd.text, "Creating book TOC"); wk.appendSpanText(bd.statspan, " Created TOC"); wk.postEdit("Template:" + bd.bookName + "/Page", bd.makeTemplate, "Automate: Creating book Template"); wk.appendSpanText(bd.statspan, " Created Nav Template"); wk.postEdit(bd.bookName + "/Licensing",              "{"+"{" + bd.bookName + "/Page}}\n\n" +              "== License ==\n\n" +               "The text of this book is released under the following license:\n\n" +                                       "{"+"{GFDL}}",               "Automate: Adding Licensing Information"); wk.appendSpanText(bd.statspan, " Created Licensing Page"); wk.postEdit(bd.bookName + "/Resources",              "{"+"{" + bd.bookName + "/Page}}\n\n" +              "== Wikimedia Resources ==\n\n" +               "=== Wikibooks ===\n\n=== Wikiversity Courses ===\n\n=== Wikipedia Articles ===\n\n" +              "== External Sources ==\n",               "Automate: Creating Resource Page"); wk.appendSpanText(bd.statspan, " Created Resources Page"); wk.postEdit(bd.bookName + "/Introduction",              "{"+"{" + bd.bookName + "/Page}}\n\n" +              "== About This Book ==\n\n" +              "== Target Audience ==\n\n" +              "== Prerequisites ==\n\n" +              "== Corequisites ==\n\n",              "Automate: Creating Introduction Page"); wk.appendSpanText(bd.statspan, " Created Introduction Done."); }

bd.visual = function { var box = wk.spanText(bd.textspan, ""); box.appendChild(bd.pageTree.makeNode); }

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Whiteknight/designer.js


text:
Talk:Contemporary Educational Psychology/Chapter 3: Student Development

Main parts of the text are now posted. Here is what remains:

1. All tables and figures.

2. More links, both within the chapter, across chapters, and to relevant Wikipedia articles.

3. Check on referencing syntax. There has got to be a way to make this go faster.

4. End matter.

Only ten more chapters to go! Klseifert 16:29, 10 August 2007 (UTC)


text:
User:Whiteknight/Book Designer Gadget

This gadget is no longer maintained, and may be incomplete, dysfunctional, or downright dangerous. Use only at your own risk.

About This Gadget
This gadget helps in the initial stages of designing a book. You type in the title of the book and you list the pages that will appear in the book's TOC. When you click "Design", the gadget will automatically create the wikitext code for your new book TOC.

Specifying Pages
To list the pages that are going to be in your new book, click the "Show" button to display the page list window. List the pages that you want to be in your book, one per line. At any time you may press the "Hide" button to hide the page list window, but preserve it's contents. Pressing the "Clear" button will completely remove all pages listed in the window.

Grouping Pages into Sections
To create a section sub-heading in your TOC, type an equal sign (=), followed by the title of the section. For instance, typing the following code:

A =B C D =E

Will produce the following result:

A === B === C D === E ===

Specifying a Preface
To provide a preface for your new book, click "Show" to display the page list edit window. Once the window is open, type a percent sign(%), followed by the text of the preface. Each line specified in this manner will be separated in the preface by two newlines, making it a new paragraph.

Adding Templates
Standard templates can be added using the "+" syntax. Prerequisite templates can be added using "&".

Adding Subjects
You can automatically add your book to certain subjects using "-".

Designing the Book
When you have specified the book name, the page list, and the preface, you may click the "Design" button. The design process generated the wikitext necessary to produce your new book, but does not automatically save it nor display it.

To view the text, along with a series of notes about how to implement it, click the "Display" button. This will show the generated wikitext on the left, and show helpful notes on the right.

To create the new book, click the "Edit" button. This will display a standard edit window where the generated wikitext is already loaded. Modify the text as necessary, and click "Save page". This will create your new book. Note: If you have the categorization extension installed, in the edit window there will appear a drop-down box for categorization. Select the appropriate subject from the drop-down box and click "Categorize" to apply the necessary templates to your book. Once these templates have been properly added, click "Save page" as usual.

Creating a Nav Template
The Book Designer Gadget can also be used to design a page-header template, for use on every page in the book. A page header template helps to standardize the "look and feel" of all the pages in the book, along with providing navigation links, and placing book pages into the appropriate categories. The gadget uses pre-made header template from Whiteknight's Book Foundry. There are several options, and the documentation for all templates is available on the respective template pages.

Once you have entered a valid book name and clicked the "Design" button, you are given the option to design a template. Select the appropriate template from the drop-down list, and click the "Template" button. This will display the text of the template, along with some helpful tips. You cannot directly edit or save the template text using the Book Designer Gadget.

Once you have created the template, make sure you include it at the top of every page in your new book, including the TOC.

Saving an Outline
If you are working on an outline, you can save it and continue working on it later. Enter a valid title in the book title box, click Show to show the list box, and click Save. This will display an edit window that will enable you to save your outline into a subpage of your user namespace. For instance, if you are User:JoeUser, and you enter a title "My Book", the outline will be saved at "User:JoeUser/My Book".

When you save an outline, the outline is time-stamped and appended to the bottom of the page. This means that you can save multiple versions of the outline to a single page, and select later which one to use.

Loading an Outline
You can load an outline from another wiki page, such as an outline that has been saved previously by the Book Designer Gadget, or another outline that was created manually. To load an existing outline, click Show to display the list box. Enter the name of the page into the input box in the lower-left corner, and click Load. This will load the complete current wikitext of that page into the list box.

If the page you are loading has multiple saved outlines on it, you will need to delete any outlines that you are not planning to use.

To help remove excess formatting, click the Strip button. This will remove some, but not all formatting from the page. You may still need to remove some formatting manually.

Leaving Comments
You can leave comments in your outline using two forward slashes:

//this is a comment.

Text in a comment will not appear in your book or in your navigational template. However, comments will be included if you save your outline. This can be useful for making notes to yourself for when you come back to finish the outline.

To Do
This version of the gadget is no longer under active development. A new version is being created at User:Whiteknight/Visual Book Designer.

Version History

 * 2.20 Added rudimentary support for sub-pages and tree-like visualizations. In the future, the entire interface will be based on this visualization interface.
 * 2.14 Small upgrades to save functionality.
 * 2.13 Updated to core 2.45, more efficient edit window handling.
 * 2.12 Improved IE support.
 * 2.11 Updated for partial IE support. AJAX routines generally do not work.
 * 2.10 Added Tags and Prerequisite tags options, subject options.
 * 2.01 Added experimental "Automate" function. uses AJAX page edits to automatically create necessary pages and templates. At the moment, Only I can use this function.
 * 2.00 Complete rewrite using new gadgetscore 2.0
 * 1.85 Removed "List" button, updated categorization templates, added new book template.
 * 1.82 Added labels for text fields
 * 1.81 Added // comments.
 * 1.80 Added ability to save an outline using "Save".
 * 1.76 Added links to /Introduction, /Resources, and /Licensing in template.
 * 1.75 Fixed XML translation thing
 * 1.74 minor change to template categorization
 * 1.73 Updated categorization mechanisms
 * 1.72 updated to include gadgetscore framework
 * 1.71 Added "Edit Template" button, slight refactor of template mechanism
 * 1.70 Major changes. Refactor of several parts. Added "Strip" and "Load" buttons. Added "loading..." status messages for Ajax functions. added error messages on functions requiring bookname. fixed title caps to omit short words.
 * 1.62 Forced book title to title caps, fixed issue with global variables, added links to "/Resources" and "/Licensing"
 * 1.61 Added ability to specify sub-headings in the TOC using the "=" symbol
 * 1.60 rearranged the interface, expanded "template" to show a list of possible templates
 * 1.51 Added ability to specify preface in the page list, added documentation
 * 1.50 refactored several parts, corrected errors, added "List" button.
 * 1.21 Added conditional support for the categorize.js script
 * 1.20 Added more descriptive status message for "Design" button, added automatic edit summary for "Edit"
 * 1.11 Added an instructive status message to the Template function
 * 1.10 Added rudimentary ability to design a page list navigational template with the "Template" button
 * 1.00 First stable version, added edit box functionality.
 * 0.23 Disabled "display" button when no text is available.
 * 0.22 Fixed issues with trailing whitespace
 * 0.21 Removed links from display, created "pages to create" sidebar, fixed some functionality
 * 0.20 Some functional changes, code refactoring, addition of links in display text.
 * 0.10 First test version uploaded

title: User:Whiteknight/Book Designer Gadget


text:
File:Frangelico.jpg

Summary
Found at http://www.gdoshop.com/gdoshop/Assets/sake_images/641039_1.jpg.

Licensing
/Images

title: File:Frangelico.jpg


text:
Wikijunior:World War II/Franklin Roosevelt

Quick Information

 * Born: January 30, 1882
 * Died: April 12, 1945
 * Leader Of: The United States of America
 * From: March 4, 1933
 * To: April 12, 1945

"We must be the great arsenal of democracy. For us, this is an emergency as serious as war itself. We must apply ourselves to our task with the same resolution, the same sense of urgency, the same spirit of patriotism and sacrifice as we would show were we at war." -Franklin D. Roosevelt The Roosevelt administration stretched from 1933 to 1945, during which the United States faced many challenges, both at home and abroad. Without the leadership of President Roosevelt, America might not have come out of the Great Depression for many years, and a different president's policies could have changed the direction of World War II, even the events from before America entered the war. Franklin Roosevelt is widely known for leading this country out of hard times and into a brighter future. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born in Hyde Park, New York, on January 30, 1882, to James and Sara Roosevelt. He was an only child. Both of his parents came from wealthy old families; he was a distant relative of President James Monroe and his mother's family could trace their ancestry back to the Mayflower. He grew up in a privileged household and went to Harvard and Columbia Law School. In college, he met his wife Eleanor Roosevelt, who was then-President Theodore Roosevelt's niece and a distant relative of Franklin's at a White House reception. They got married on March 17, 1905, and had six children. Franklin Roosevelt had a long political career. In 1910, he was elected to the New York state Senate as a Democrat. He was reelected in 1912, but resigned to become the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. He was appointed by the newly elected President Woodrow Wilson. During his time in office, he worked to expand the Navy. He also founded the Naval Reserve. World War one was going on during this time, and after the war ended in 1918, Roosevelt was put in charge of demobilization. He did not like the Versailles Treaty, which was signed after the end of the war, and coincidentally, he would have to deal with the consequences of the one-sided agreement as President. In 1920 he ran for Vice President alongside James Cox, but the Democrats lost. Roosevelt took a break from politics after that. In 1921, Roosevelt was diagnosed with polio and became paralyzed from the waist down. But he never let this disability stand in his way. He was never seen in a wheelchair in public. He worked hard to teach himself to walk a short distance while using leg braces and a cane. After he became president, he helped to found the organization now known as the March of Dimes, which today is dedicated to improving the health of babies, but back then was dedicated to finding a cure for polio. In 1929, Roosevelt rejoined the political world and ran for Governor of New York. He won and became a reform Governor, starting social programs and investigating corruption. He was advised by Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins, both of whom later would work for him in the White House, Hopkins as federal relief administrator, and Perkins as the Secretary of Labor. She was the first woman to hold a position in the President's Cabinet and kept that job during the entire administration. The same year he was elected Governor, the stock market crashed and the world was thrown into the Great Depression. Roosevelt's popularity made him a good candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in 1932. He built a coalition made up of the working class, organized labor, and minorities. He ran with John Garner, one of his supporters, as his Vice President. Garner stayed until 1941, followed by Henry Wallace until 1945 and Harry Truman for the final year. He easily defeated incumbent Herbert Hoover, who many voters blamed for the economic mess. As soon as Roosevelt was inaugurated, he got to work repairing the economy. Prompted by widespread bank failures that wiped out people's savings, within the first year he created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, which helps protect people's money in banks. He also expanded the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. This agency tried to lower unemployment by hiring people to do work for the government. He created the Public Works Administration and the Works Progress Administration, both of which were used to build public works like bridges and parks. These programs were called the New Deal. Roosevelt also pushed for the repeal of Prohibition. The 21st Amendment was ratified in 1933, overturning the 18th Amendment, which banned the sale of alcohol in the United States. In the 1934 midterms, large Democratic majorities were elected to both chambers of Congress. After the elections, Roosevelt pushed though more new legislation for the New Deal. During this time he passed Social Security and the National Labor Relations Act, which gave blue-collar Americans more equality when negotiating contracts with management. Similar to presidential politics today, Roosevelt's opponents often called him a socialist, a communist, and other names, none of which made much sense. During Roosevelt's second term in office, which began in 1937, World War II began in Europe and Asia. The war began in 1939 with Germany invading Poland, then joining forces with Italy and Japan to form the Axis Powers. As Europe's democracies fell, most Americans wanted to stay out of the war, still remembering the tragedies of the World War I. Roosevelt wanted to intervene by helping Great Britain and France. He tried to convince Congress to send aid to these countries, leading to my opening quote. In March 1941, the Lend-Lease bill was passed, sending aid to Britain, France, the Soviet Union and China. The majority of the aid went to Britain. The bill, ironically, was numbered HR 1776. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and America entered World War II on the Allied side. The public's feelings about the war turned 180 degrees as Americans rallied around Roosevelt. Many were inspired by this line from his famous speech the next day declaring war on Japan: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 — a date which will live in infamy — the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." The Allies fought hard, and in 1943 the Allied leaders began to discuss what to do after the war. They met in Tehran and Cairo to plan the future of the world. In 1945, Roosevelt met with Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin in Yalta. At this point, the Soviet Union had gained control of much of Eastern Europe. Roosevelt wanted the Soviets to help with the war in Japan, but another important item on the list was Poland. Stalin promised the other two leaders that "the Soviet Union is interested in the creation of a mighty, free and independent Poland." This was a blatant lie. Roosevelt later admitted he had been overly optimistic about the Soviet dictator's actions. After the war, many eastern European countries ended up as communist dictatorships until the Soviet Union began to crumble in 1989. The World War II ended in August 1945, after America dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, but Roosevelt would not live to see victory. On April 12, 1945, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage while sitting for a portrait. He was buried at the Roosevelt family home in Hyde Park. Harry Truman then became President and when Germany surrendered to the Allies in May 1945, President Truman dedicated the victory celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.


text:
Bahai Education/Education in Principle

I. EDUCATION IN PRINCIPLE

 * /I-100. Education Necessary/
 * /I-200. Education Obligatory/
 * /I-300. Universal Curriculum/
 * /I-400. Objectives of Education/

title: Bahai Education/Education in Principle


text:
Bahai Education/Pedagogy

III. PEDAGOGY

INTRODUCTION
Teaching

The Bahá’í writings praise education and its influence. They also praise and offer guidance for the art of teaching.

How wonderful will it be if the teachers are faithful, attracted, and assured, educated, and refined Bahá’ís, well grounded in the science of pedagogy, and familiar with child psychology. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1918)

Your niece's profession in training and educating children is one that will give her rich reward, because she is aiding in the development of the characters of the youth of today, who will become the ones who will guide humanity tomorrow. If they could be guided both materially and spiritually, then it would be a great victory, because after the world goes through its present travail, spiritual values will predominate; and those youth who have the benefit of both material and spiritual education will be the true leaders of society. (Effendi, cited in Rost, 1969, p. 167)

Teachers can help to develop the student's higher levels of understanding rather than concentrate on dispensing and retrieving facts. They can arrange the student's environment so that learning and development occur and potential is released.

People today seem to be very superficial in their thinking, and it would seem as if the educational systems in use are sorely lacking in ability to produce a mature mind in a person who has reached supposedly adult life! All the outside influences that surround the individual seem to have an intensely distracting effect, and it is a hard job to get the average person to do any deep thinking or even a little meditation on the problems facing him and the world at large. (1948, p. 2)

The Bahá’í writings use many analogies to help understand complex situations. They refer to a child as a plant, and the educator as the gardener. As the conditions for each plant to thrive differ, so do the conditions of each person, and a good gardener or educator is aware of the needs of the plants and acts accordingly.

These children are the plants of Thine orchard, the flowers of Thy meadow, the roses of Thy garden. Let Thy rain fall upon them; let Thy Sun of Reality shine upon them with Thy love. Let Thy breeze refresh them in order that they may be trained, grow and develop and appear in the utmost beauty. (Bahá’u’lláh, The Bab, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1970, p. 16-17)

If every plant were subjected to the same conditions, some plants might grow well, some fair and some poorly. This condition exists in most classrooms today. Just as there are no two kinds of flowers exactly alike, there are no two children exactly alike. All flowers require certain basics for life and growth and some desire similar growing conditions, but if you subject an African violet to the same conditions that you would a rose, hoping it will become like a rose, you will not only not get a rose, but you will not even get a very healthy African violet. Each flower has a potential that is not necessarily better or worse, but different from the others. Each has value and plays a part in the creative plan of the garden. The soil is tilled by tests and perseverance, and the "weeds of ignorance, thorns of superstitions and thistles of imitations,” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971, p. 76) cast aside. The fruit is knowledge and wisdom.	The Bahá’í literature gives guidance on meeting the needs of all children, identifies the problems that must be dealt with, abolishes the idea that one child is intrinsically better than another, and establishes the framework for the education of children. The teacher should identify the particular learning needs of each child and the conditions and methods to help each grow. Those needs change as the children become more refined and their environments differ.	A teacher must diagnose and prescribe the proper course of action for his students. There are certain basics that all people require, but each has individual needs that also must be met. The teacher must set and enforce healthy standards for development. There is much controversy today about the way children should be grouped for learning. Some maintain that learning is best when those of similar abilities and interests are grouped together, while others claim that learning is improved through heterogeneous grouping. The Bahá’í teachings stress the value of unity in diversity.

The diversity in the human family should be the cause of love and harmony as it is in music where many different notes blend together in the making of a perfect chord. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, cited in Shoghi Effendi, 1969)

Much prejudice and harm are propagated by keeping different peoples separated from one another. People labeled slow or somehow inferior to others suffer in opportunity and self-concept. If schools do not take an active role in breaking down these destructive patterns, then change will be more painful and improvement slowed. Research has shown that ability grouping is often detrimental to development. It not only hampers effective growth, but also discriminates against children from low socioeconomic and minority groups. There is a place in schools and society for the concept of ability grouping, but if this practice leads to unfair discrimination or furthers prejudice of any kind, it should not be continued. Bahá’u’lláh identifies reward and punishment as the twin pillars on which the structure of world stability and order is sustained (1971, p. 219). It is also the process where the child develops positive and negative feelings about attitudes and behaviors. Over time, value systems develop which can guide the child to a happy and productive life. Without the proper rewards and punishments, many children will grow into adults with confused lives, no goals and little meaning. The responsibility for training children to develop healthy values is very important, and its neglect is a cause of the breakdown of our social order in this day. Both reward and punishment are needed to uphold the structure; one without the other will not hold it. We are coming from a tradition of using punitive measures to keep and develop order. Punishment without encouragement and an indication of what ought to be done, or reward and praise given indiscriminately without a standard, are not effective. Praise and rewards judiciously given, are more effective than punishment.

The children who are at the head of their class must receive premiums. They must be encouraged and when one of them shows good advancement, for their further developments they must be praised and encouraged therein. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1916, p. 142)

Punishment is more effective when it is just and discharged in the spirit of love. Therefore, it is important to administer a punishment before you become vengeful. Shoghi Effendi writes about the need for discipline, the nature of children, and the goal of every education.

With regard to the statement attributed to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and which you have quoted in your letter regarding a "problem child"; these statements of the master, however, true in their substance, should never be given a literal interpretation. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá could have never meant that a child should be left to himself entirely free. In fact Bahá’í education, just like any other system of education is based on the assumption that there are certain natural deficiencies in every child, no matter how gifted, which his educators, whether his parents, school masters, or his spiritual guides and receptors to endeavor to remedy. Discipline of sort, whether physical or moral, or intellectual, is indeed indispensable, and no training can be said to be complete and fruitful if it disregards this element. The child when born is far from being perfect. It is not only helpless but actually imperfect, and even is naturally inclined towards evil. He should be trained so his natural inclinations harmonized, adjusted and controlled, and if necessary suppressed or regulated, so as to insure his healthy physical and moral development. Bahá’í's parents cannot simply adopt an attitude of non-resistance towards their children, particularly those who are unruly and violent by nature. It is not even sufficient that they should pray on their behalf. Rather they should endeavor to inculcate, gently and patiently, in their youthful minds such principles and teachings of the cause with such tactful and loving care as would enable them to become "true sons of God" and develop into loyal and intelligent citizens of His Kingdom. This is the high purpose which Bahá'u'lláh himself has clearly defined as the chief goal of every education. (Cited in Research Department of the Universal House of Justice, 1977, p. 65-66)

Both good and bad exist in people, but if left on their own, the lower nature will triumph. Only through training and effort can the higher nature become dominant. Teachers can assist the higher nature in its development by enabling success in this area, raising levels of aspiration and encouraging healthier self-concepts to children.

If a pupil is told that his intelligence is less than his fellow pupils, it is a very great drawback and handicap to his progress. He must be encouraged to advance, by the statement, "you are most capable and if you endeavor you will attain the highest degree." (‘Abdu’l-Bahá 1930, p. 533-5)

Methods of Instruction What method of instructing students is most effective for learning? The Bahá’í writings mention several forms of instruction directly and others indirectly.

Lectures are very essential for they give a wonderful picture of the subject matter. But it is not sufficient to have a picture; the friends should deepen their knowledge and this can be achieved if, together with the lectures, there are study classes and seminar work carried on by the same lecturer. (Shoghi Effendi, 1932, p. 3-4)

God has given man the eye of investigation by which he may see and recognize truth. He has endowed man with ears that he may discover things for himself. This is his endowment and equipment for the investigation of reality. Man is not intended to see through the eyes of another, hear through another's ears nor comprehend with another's brain. Each human creature has individual endowment, power and responsibility in the creative plan of God. Therefore, depend on your own reason and judgement and adhere to the outcome of your own investigation; otherwise, you will be bitterly submerged in the sea of ignorance and deprived of all the bounties of God. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971, p. 75-76)

Shoghi Effendi also supports the use of workshops (1949, p. 2 ) and encourages the use of meditation.

Through meditation doors of deeper knowledge and inspiration may be opened. (1948a, p. 3)

‘Abdu’l-Bahá talks about the value of speech and questioning.

Most ideas must be taught through speech, not by book-learning. One child must question the other concerning those things and the other child must give the answer. In this way - they will make great progress. For example, mathematics must also be taught in the form of questions and answers. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1918)

Many teachers use this approach with great success. Both the questioner and the one questioned learn quickly from this method and each student is given the needed individual attention and helped to develop responsibility and knowledge. Example is a potent factor in teaching. Children learn what they live, especially in the development of values and attitudes. If a good example is absent in the learning environment, development will be hampered. It is important that one "know his own self, and know those things which lead to loftiness or to baseness, to shame or to honor, to affluence or poverty," (Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971). ‘Abdu’l-Bahá identifies four criteria for the acquisition of knowledge: 1. senses, 2. intellect or reason, 3. traditional or scriptural criterion, and 4. inspiration. He states that all available human criteria are erroneous and defective, but that by using all four together one could be more sure his findings were correct (1922, p. 48-9). Fear has been abused in our society and classrooms, but it does not mean that it cannot be a valuable element in education. Fear is a negative word in our society, but it has a positive value. We all operate on fear and should recognize and use this knowledge for our betterment, not our destruction.

The fear of God hath ever been the prime factor in the education of His creatures. (1969, p. 27)

III-100. PRINCIPLES
a. prepare minds and hearts to receive truth: SW VII:15

b. material and divine education at the same time: SW VII:15; SW XIV:2, 42-45

c. standard universal system of instruction: SW IX:9; SW XIII:7 1) same curriculum for daughters and sons: Bahá'í Education:#82, 33-34; SW V:7, 101; PUP:175

d. organization is necessary: SW IX:8; SWAB:#124, 143 1) school must be a place of utmost discipline and order: SWAB:#111, 137	2) definite courses should be given along the different phases of the Bahá'í Faith: on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, in Centers of Bahá'í Learning, #20, p. 8 3) if this activity is well organized, rest thou assured that it will yield great results: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #104, p. 42

e. joy and enthusiasm: SW IX:8; SW XIII:7; SW XIV:1

f. systematic training to further development, insight, and spiritual receptivity: 'Abdu'l-Baha in Stuttgart on 4/28/1913, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144; BW IX, p. 543

g. thorough instruction: SWAB:#111, 137

h. do not hold classes during the time of prayer of other religions which would prevent children from taking part in religious fellowship: SWAB:#125, 144

i. children of nonbelievers are admissible to classes with children of believers: SWAB:#125, 144

j. if few students then only one class: SWAB:#125, 144

k. growth and development depend upon powers of intellect and reason and not on age: SWAB:#121, 142

l. education of girls takes precedence over education of boys; SW III:3, 4; SW V:7, 101; SW XIV:9, 267-268; TAB:III:577

m. encourage students to make greatest progress in the shortest span of time: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #74, pp. 28-29

n. each child devote extreme diligence to the acquisition of learning, according to his own tastes and inclinations and the degree of his capacity and powers: Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í Education, #121, pp. 49-50

o. firmness, steadfastness, perseverance, firmness will undoubtedly lead to good results: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #104, p. 42 1) the more ye persevere in this most important task, the more ye will witness the confirmations of God: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Baha;i Education, #71, p. 27

p. teach elementary sciences in nursery, so children learn in play, amusement, in speech, through questions and answers: 'Abdu'l-Baha in Stuttgart, 4/28/1913, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

q. encourage and praise children at head of class, give premiums: 'Abdu'l-Baha in Stuttgart, 4/28/1913, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

r. do not teach facts and details children cannot speak of openly with companions: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel J. Rosenberg, 2/3/1901, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

s. use intelligence to know when to teach child: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel J. Rosenberg, 2/3/1901, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

III-200. REQUIREMENTS OF TEACHERS
a. resourcefulness and preparation to meet every emergency: SW IX:9, 97-104; SW XIII:7, 189

b. study child psychology and aptitude of children so can teach what each is suited to and not waste time: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 10/18/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144; SW XIII:7; SW XIV:1, 1-3; SW XVII:2, p. 55

c. if teacher proves that scholars are advancing no onlooker has the right to object to his system or question his wisdom and allege that he wastes the scholars' time: SW IX:8

d. firmness and steadfastness, vigilance and attention, perseverance: SW IX:8; SW XIII:7; SWAB:#124, 143-144

e. well-grounded in the science of pedagogy: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 10/18/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144; SW XVII:2, p. 55

f. humble, sweet, companionable, loving and not opinionated, austere, bigoted, or jealous of powers superior to their own: SW XIV:1

g. must treat children as if they were the children of Baha'u'llah: SW IX:7

h. must treat children as the spiritual children of 'Abdu'l-Baha: SW IX:8; SW XIII:7, 171-172; SWAB:#120, 141; PUP:54,92; Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í Education, #120, p. 49

i. faithful to the Covenant: Baha'u'llah in Bahá'í Education, #28, p. 7

j. teacher of love, trains children in rules and ways of His loving-kindness and the customs of the Kingdom: 'Abdu'l-Baha, in Bahá'í Education, #64, p. 24

k. instruction of children is as the work of a loving gardener, especially instruction in Bahá'í obligations and conduct: SWAB:#123, 143

l. must be a instructor in learning and also doctor to the character of the child, remedy faults: SWAB:#103, 130

m. must be extremely modest, even-tempered, forbearing, and well bred, and she must be expert in the English language: 'Abdu'l-Baha in Bahá'í Education, #63, p. 20

n. teacher and system of teaching plays most important role in life: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 10/18/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144; SW XVII:2, p. 55

o. teacher of love in a school of unity: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #64, p. 24

p. learned of the day must direct the people to acquire those branches of knowledge which are of use, that both the learned themselves and the generality of mankind may derive benefits therefrom. Such academic pursuits as begin and end in words alone have never been and will never be of any worth. The majority of Persia's learned doctors devote all their lives to the study of a philosophy the ultimate yield of which is nothing but words: TB:169

q. do not allow children to drink wine or alcoholic drinks: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel J. Rosenberg, 2/3/1901, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

r. teachers must be faithful, attracted, assured, educated and refined Bahá'ís: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 10/18/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

III-300. METHODS
a. do not teach details and facts which children cannot speak of openly with their companions: SW VII:15, 141-144

b. teach in speech, with children asking questions and giving answers: SW VII:15; BW IX, p. 543

c. explain all things in the easiest manner possible: SW VII:15

d. moderate number of subjects, do not overburden the mind: SW XIII:6, 144

e. classes at regular intervals: SW IX:8

f. total of six hours a day for study and recitation: SW IX:8; SW XIII:7; SW XIV:1

g. too much study before maturity blunts intelligence, harms the brain: SW XIV:1

h. specific method for study of the Faith practiced among Persian Bahá'ís and recommended by Fadil-i-Mazandarani: look up references to topic in texts, write paper and present to class, compose composite article from all the papers: SW XIV:9, 278

i. moderation in frequency of changing teachers: SWAB:#125, 144

j. as regards differences among children, do as ye deem advisable: SWAB:#125, 144 1) teach what each child is suited to and do not waste time by teaching what does not suit child: SW XIII:7; SW XIV:1, 1-3	2) teach each according to capacity: PUP:108

k. They should be taught, in play, some letters and a little reading--as is done in certain countries where they fashion letters and words out of sweets and give them to the child: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #78, p. 30

l. primarily speak with words as mild as milk...with utmost leniency and forbearance: TB:172,173

m. stimulate the students to proceed in their studies privately once they return home...the habit of studying the Cause constantly, for the more we read the Words the more will the truth they contain be revealed to us: on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, in Centers of Bahá'í Learning, #20, p. 8

n. students must show the results of their study in their deportment and deeds; otherwise they have wasted their lives: 'Abdu'l-Baha, in The Importance of Deepening our Knowledge and Understanding of the Faith, #66, p. 18 1) deeds exert greater influence than words: TB:57	2) pure and holy deeds, through a virtuous life and a goodly behaviour: TB:86,88,89,120,126,131-132,138,178,222, 3) commit not such deeds as would cause My loved ones on earth to lament: TB:198;238	4) In this Most Great Revelation goodly deeds and a praiseworthy character are regarded as the hosts of God: TB:256 5) The essence of faith is fewness of words and abundance of deeds; he whose words exceed his deeds, know verily his death is better than his life: TB:156	6) whose deeds agree with their words, whose outward behaviour conforms with their inner life: KI:224-225 7) The fruits of the tree of man have ever been and are goodly deeds and a praiseworthy character. Withhold not these fruits from the heedless: ESW:26

o. for children explain in easiest manner possible: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 6/16/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

III-400. DISCIPLINE
a. reward and encourage children at head of class: SW VII:15 1) reward and encourage children who are doing well: SW XIII:7; BW IX, p. 543	2) praise and applaud child and cheer his heart whenever he has done well: SWAB:#95, 125 (counsel to mothers) 3) heartening and encouraging the child of the utmost importance: SWAB:#111, 137

b. through admonition and explanation, good counsel and education: Baha'u'llah, Bahá'í Education, #10, p. 3 1) counsels to child, be patient, confident that efforts are being sustained and guided through the confirmations of Baha'u'llah: on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í Education, #134, p. 54	2) parents must counsel children over a long period: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #08, 134

c. utmost discipline and order: SWAB:#111, 137

d. if child is in school with heedless ones, take him away for they will try to lead him astray: keep him at home until he is assured and then send him to a different school: SW IX:8

e. root of wrongdoing is ignorance: SWAB:#111, 136

f. counsel and punish child if the slightest undesirable trait should manifest itself: SWAB:#95, 125 (counsel to mothers) 1) for punishment use means based on reason, even slight verbal chastisement if necessary but not permissible to strike or vilify a child: SWAB:#95, 125	2) not permissible to strike or vilify a child; blows or verbal abuse will totally pervert a child's character: SWAB:#95, 125

g. If a pupil is told that his intelligence is less than his fellow pupils, it is a very great drawback and handicap to his progress. He must be encouraged to advance by the statement, 'You are the most capable, and if you endeavor, you will attain the highest degree': PUP:76-77 1) child must not be oppressed or censured because it is undeveloped; it must be patiently trained: PUP:180-181	2) must not be warped and hindered in its development. The ignorant must not be restricted by censure and criticism: PUP:40

h. The Manifestation of God is a perfect example of real obedience. Like him we must sacrifice every thing, every plan, every longing and ideal must be given up completely to the will of God. We must look to God for all we desire, all we wish to attain. The will of God must work out its purpose in us. Our human will must be laid down in sacrifice and love. Abdul-Baha has given everything in sacrifice and obedience to the will of God… All our soul powers, our outward self, our inward self must be consecrated to God in service and sacrifice. Even life must be given if necessary. If we have not reached this station of nothingness we have not attained to real obedience to the will of God. A pupil must submit entirely to the will of the teacher. This is true sacrifice, true obedience. Real obedience and real sacrifice are identical, they are absolute readiness to follow and, perform whatever you are called upon to do in the Cause of God. When you really love God you will be willing to sacrifice everything and submit yourself entirely to His will. Consecrate yourself wholly to Him. His will is everything. His service is paramount. (Words of ‘Abdul-Baha: Ten Days in the Light of Acca, p. 48; in SW VIII:6, p. 60)

1) Every parent who is a believer in the Blessed Beauty has the responsibility to conduct herself or himself in such a way as to elicit the spontaneous obedience to parents to which the Teachings attach so high a value. 	(The Universal House of Justice, Ridvan 157, 2000, p. 9)

2) In any case, the House of Justice points out that parents are responsible for their children and should make them behave when they attend Bahá'í meetings. If children persist in creating a disturbance they should be taken out of the meeting. This is not merely necessary to ensure the properly dignified conduct of Bahá'í meetings but is an aspect of the training of children in courtesy, consideration for others, reverence, and obedience to their parents. (14 October 1982 written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada; in The Compilation of Compilations vol. I, p. 447; Lights of Guidance, #506, p. 151)

3) The parents have the inescapable duty to educate their children -- but not vice versa; the children have the duty to obey their parents -- the parents do not obey the children…(From a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of New Zealand, December 28, 1980; in Lights of Guidance, #730, p. 218; The Compilation of Compilations, vol. I, p. 413; vol. II, p. 384)

4) "The parents must exert every effort to rear their offspring to be religious, for should the children not attain this greatest of adornments, they will not obey their parents, which in a certain sense means that they will not obey God. Indeed, such children will show no consideration to anyone, and will do exactly as they please." (Bahá'u'lláh: Bahá'í Education, a compilation of the Universal House of Justice; in Lights of Guidance, #763, p. 228; cited in letter of the Universal House of Justice to the Persian believers, dated March 1997)

5)"We have enjoined upon every son to serve his father. Thus have We decreed this command in the Book." (Bahá'u'lláh: Family Life, a compilation of the Universal House of Justice; in Lights of Guidance, #764, p. 228)

6)"The father must always endeavour to educate his son and to acquaint him with the heavenly teachings. He must give advice and exhort him at all times, teach him praiseworthy conduct and character, enable him to receive training at school and to be instructed in such arts and sciences as are deemed useful and necessary. In brief, let him instill into his mind the virtues and perfections of the world of humanity. Above all he should continually call to his mind the remembrance of God so that this throbbing veins and arteries may pulsate with the love of God.		"The son, on the other hand, must show forth the utmost obedience towards his father, and should conduct himself as a humble and a lowly servant. Day and night he should seek diligently to ensure the comfort and welfare of his loving father and to secure his good-pleasure. He must forgo his own rest and enjoyment and constantly strive to bring gladness to the hearts of his father and mother, that thereby he may attain the good-pleasure of the Almighty and be graciously aided by the hosts of the unseen." (‘Abdu’l-Baha, in Family Life, a compilation of the Universal House of Justice; in Lights of Guidance, #766, p. 229)

7)"If thou wouldst show kindness and consideration to thy parents so that they may fell generally pleased, this would also please Me, for parents must be highly respected and it is essential that they feel content, provided they deter thee not from gaining access to the Threshold of the Almighty, nor keep thee back from walking in the way of the Kingdom. Indeed it behoveth them to encourage and spur thee on in this direction." (‘Abdu’l-Baha, in Family Life, a compilation of the Universal House of Justice; in Lights of Guidance, #767, p. 228)

8)"We have caused to return to thy home as a token of Our Mercy unto thy mother, inasmuch as We found her overwhelmed with sorrow. We have enjoined you in the Book 'to worship no one but God and to show kindness to your parents'."[ Qur'án 46:15] Thus hath the one true God spoken and the decree hath been fulfilled by the Almighty, the All-Wise. Therefore We have caused thee to return unto her and unto thy sister, that your mother's eyes may thereby be cheered, and she may be of the thankful.		"Say, O My people! Show honour to your parents and pay homage to them. This will cause blessings to descend upon you from the clouds of the bounty of your Lord, the Exalted, the Great.		"When We learned of her sadness, We directed thee to return unto her, as a token of mercy unto thee from Our presence, and as an admonishment for others.  		"Beware lest ye commit that which would sadden the hearts of your fathers and mothers. Follow ye the path of Truth which indeed is a straight path. Should anyone give you a choice between the opportunity to render a service to Me and a service to them, choose ye to serve them, and let such service be a path leading you to Me. This is My exhortation and command unto thee. Observe therefore that which thy Lord, the Mighty, the Gracious,hath prescribed unto thee." (Bahá'u'lláh, in Family Life, a compilation of the Universal House of Justice; in Lights of Guidance, #768, p. 229-230)

9) "It is often difficult for us to do things because they are so very different from what we are used to, not because the thing itself is particularly difficult. With you, and indeed most Bahá'ís, who are now, as adults, accepting this glorious Faith, no doubt some of the ordinances, like fasting and daily prayer, are hard to understand and obey at first. But we must always think that these things are given to all men for a thousand years to come. For Bahá'í children who see these things practiced in the home, they will be as natural and necessary a thing as going to church on Sunday was to the more pious generation of Christians. Bahá'u'lláh would not have given us these things if they would not greatly benefit us, and, like children who are sensible enough to realize their father is wise and does what is good for them, we must accept to obey these ordinances even though at first we may not see any need for them. As we obey them we will gradually come to see in ourselves the benefits they confer." (From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, March 16, 1949; in Lights of Guidance, #1150, pp. 342-343)

III-500. WARNINGS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS
a. if child is in school with heedless ones, take him away for they will try to lead him astray; keep him at home until he is assured and then send him to a different school: SW IX:8

b. do not fondle and embrace and spoil children: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 9/2/1913, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

c. protect children from temptations and vices: 'Abdu'l-Baha in DMAS 10/18/1914, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

d. child's character will be totally perverted if he is subjected to blows or verbal abuse: SWAB:#95, 125

e. education and training of children is very difficult to undertake and harder to succeed in rendering: SWAB:#106, 133

f. children especially must be taught: PUP:317

title: Bahai Education/Pedagogy


text:
Bahai Education/Human Psychology

IV. HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY (a brief talk)

IV-100. LEVELS OF SPIRIT IN HUMAN
a. mineral spirit: PUP:69;114;172;189;258;268 1) love at mineral level, attraction of atoms: PUP:255	2) love at mineral level, attraction of atoms, attraction between elements and cellular particles: PUP:268

b. vegetable spirit [ruuh nabaani]: SAQ:XXXVI:163; Mufavadat:158-159/LV:243; PUP:69;114;172;189;258;268 1) love at vegetable level, attraction of cells: PUP:255	2) love at vegetable level, power of absorption from the earth, augmentation: PUP:268

c. animal spirit [ruuh hayawaani]: SAQ:XXXVI:163-164; Mufavadat:159/LV:243; PUP:69;114;172;189;258;268 1) love at animal level are feelings or susceptibilities, affiliation and fellowship, exercise natural selection: PUP:255	2) love at animal level, emotions and sensibilities which produce instinctive fellowship and association, selective kindness and affinity: PUP:268

d. human spirit [ruuh insaani]: SAQ:XXXVI:164-165; Mufavadat:159/LV:243; PUP:69;173;189;258;268-269 1) love at human level is attraction of heart: PUP:256	2) love at human level expressed in attractions of consciousness, spiritual susceptibilities, exercises its superlative degree: PUP:268-269

e. heavenly spirit, the spirit of faith [ruuh imaani]: SAQ:XXXVI:165; Mufavadat:159/LV:244

f. man is microcosm, contains all these five levels of spirit in himself potentially: PUP:69-70;256;268-269

IV-200. HUMAN LEVELS OF LOVE
a. love of family: PUP:144-145 1) limited; blood relationship not the strongest bond; frequently family members disagree and even hate each other: PT:36

b. love of city: PUP:145

c. love of nation: PUP:145 1) patriotic love is finite; love for one country causing hatred of all others is not perfect love; compatriots not free from quarrels amongst themselves: PT:36

d. race, limited: PT:36

e. political love, hatred of one party, limited and uncertain: PT:36

f. love of community of interest in service is fluctuating, frequently competitions arise which lead to jealousy: PT:36-37

g. love of humanity: PUP:145 1) perfect love of all humanity, universal love: PT:37

h. love of God: PUP:256-257 1) divine infinite love: PT:35,37-38

IV-300. THE SOUL AND THE HUMAN SPIRIT
a. human spirit [ruuh insaani] is the rational soul [nafs naaTaqeh], according to human ability discovers the realities of things and becomes cognizant of their peculiarities and effects, qualities and properties of things: Mufavadat:159/SAQ:LV:244

b. unless assisted by spirit of faith [ruuh imaani], human spirit does not become acquainted with divine secrets and heavenly realities: Mufavadat:159/SAQ:LV:244

c. mind ['aql] is the power [quwweh] of the human spirit [ruuh insaani], the light that shines from the lamp of the human spirit: Mufavadat:159/SAQ:LV:244

IV-400. TWO ASPECTS OF THE HUMAN SPIRIT, TWO NATURES
a. divine, capable of the utmost perfection, if it acquires virtues becomes the most noble of the existing beings: Mufavadat, p. 109/SAQ:XXXVI:164-165 1) merciful or divine aspect, connected with God: Khatirat, p. 36/PUP:41	2) image or likeness of God: Khatirat, p. 336/PUP:464 3) world of Divinity: Khatirat, p. 337/PUP:465	4) spiritual or higher or divine nature: PT:60-62 5) higher nature is expression of the spiritual realm: PUP:294

b. satanic, capable of the utmost imperfection, if it acquires vices, becomes the most degraded existence: Mufavadat, p. 109/SAQ:XXXVI:164-165 1) physical aspect: Khatirat, p. 36/PUP:41	2) aspect of Satan: Khatirat, p. 336/PUP:464 3) the world of the animal: Khatirat, p. 337/PUP:465	4) material or lower nature: PT:60 5) the evil spirit, Satan, or whatever is interpreted as evil, refers to the lower nature in man...God has never created an evil spirit; all such ideas and nomenclature are symbols expressing the mere human or earthly nature of man...the lower state and baser product of nature: PUP:294-295

IV-500. TEN POWERS
a. five outer powers, agents of perception: sight, hearing, smell, taste, feeling, in common with the animals: SAQ:LVI:210-211/245

b. five inner spiritual powers: common faculty which communicates between the outward and inward powers, imagination, thought, comprehension, memory: SAQ:LVI:210-211/245

IV-600. THREE KINDS OF CHARACTER
a. innate character: 1) minds are different in origin, innate differences in level of intelligence: TAB:III:577; SWAB:#104, 131-132	2) children's hearts are pure: SW IX:9; PUP:53 3) growth and development depend on the powers of the intellect and reason and not upon age: SWAB:#121, 142	4) varieties in natural qualities in man come from the difference of degree...the intelligence, the capacity, and the worthiness of men differ: SAQ:LVII:247 5) the capacities of souls are different: PUP:23	6) difference in degree of capacity exists among human souls...therefore, individualities will differ from one another: PUP:24 7) so much as capacity and capability allow: Baha'u'llah, Bahá'í Education, #9, p. 3	8) each according to his capabilities: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #30, p. 8 9) minds vary as to their capacity: SWAB:#104, 132	10) according to his own tastes and inclinations and the degree of his capacity and powers: Shoghi Effendi, Bahá'í Education, #121, pp. 49-50 11) two kinds of capacity: first is natural capacity, creation of God, purely good: SAQ:LVII:249

b. inherited character: 1) variety of inherited qualities comes from strength and weakness of constitution: SAQ:LVII:248	2) especial blessing conferred on some families and some generations: Ibid.

c. character acquired through education: 1) education has great influence...must be considered as most important...has a universal influence: SAQ:LVII:249-250	2) we must develop capacity and divine susceptibility in order that the merciful bounty of the Sun of Truth intended for this age and time in which we are living may reflect from us as light from pure crystals: PUP:23-24 3) we must endeavor to increase our capacity daily, to strengthen and enlarge our capabilities: PUP:24	4) two kinds of capacity, second is acquired, which has become the cause of evil: SAQ:LVII:250

IV-700. PERIODS OR STAGES OF LIFE OF MAN
a. period of childhood: PUP:438 1) small child cannot comprehend the laws that govern nature, but that is on account of the immature intellect of that child; when he is grown older and has been educated he too will understand the everlasting truths: PT:145

b. period of youth...faculties of observation are broadened and deepened; his intelligent capacities are trained and awakened; the limitations and environment of childhood no longer restrict his energies and accomplishments: PUP:438 1) during youthful years will make many decisions which will set the course of his life: choose life's work, complete education, begin to earn living, marry, start to raise family; spiritual challenges: Universal House of Justice, Wellspring of Guidance, pp. 92-93

c. period of maturity...new powers and perceptions clothe him, teaching and training commensurate with his progression occupy his mind, special bounties and bestowals descend in proportion to his increased capacities, and his former period of youth and its conditions will no longer satisfy his matured view and vision: PUP:438 1) once having attained to knowledge of self and recognition of that which leadeth unto loftiness or lowliness, glory of abasement, wealth or poverty, and attained the stage of fulfillment and reached his maturity, man standeth in need of wealth as acquired from crafts and professions: TB:34-35

title: Bahai Education/Human Psychology


text:
Bahai Education/Child Psychology

V. CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

V-100. PRINCIPLES
a. if allowed to remain in his original condition, the corrosion of lusts and appetites will destroy him: Baha'u'llah, Bahá'í Education, #10, p. 3 1) if left to natural proclivities, without education, child will embody all human defects: 'Abdu'l-Baha, talk in America, in SW IV:6, pp. 105-106

b. a child who removeth himself from the religion of God will not act in such a way as to win the good pleasure of his parents and his Lord. For every praiseworthy deed is born out of the light of religion, and lacking this supreme bestowal the child will not turn away from any evil, nor will he draw nigh unto any good: Baha'u'llah, Bahá'í Education, #12, p. 3

c. lacking the fear of God an infinity of odious and abominable actions will spring up, and sentiments will be uttered that transgress all bounds...should the children not attain this greatest of all adornments [religion], they will not obey their parents, which is a certain sense means that they will not obey God. Indeed, such children will show no consideration to anyone, and will do exactly as they please: Baha'u'llah, Bahá'í Education, #14, p. 4

d. natural proclivities are innately good but must be trained: in nursing child see signs of desire, anger, temper: SAQ:LVII:250-251 1) natural aggressiveness, instinctive antagonism, claws and bites mother: 'Abdu'l-Baha, talk in America, SW IV:6, pp. 105-106

e. as a branch fresh and green: SWAB:#110, 136; #111, 137

f. as young plants: SWAB:#115, 139

g. children of two kinds: mature and immature; a child wise beyond his years is sign of heavenly preparation: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Sara Herron, 1900, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

title: Bahai Education/Child Psychology


text:
Bahai Education/Educational Chronology

VI. EDUCATIONAL CHRONOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Child Development

‘Abdu’l-Bahá likens the growth of a child to that of a sapling. If it becomes crooked, it will be affected the rest of its life. The training received in the early years greatly influences development; therefore, the education of mothers and their first teachers is of utmost importance.

The education of woman is more necessary and important than that of man, for woman is the trainer of the child from its infancy. If she be defective and imperfect herself the child will necessarily be deficient; therefore, imperfection of woman implies a condition of imperfection in all mankind, for it is the mother who rears, matures, and guides the growth of the child. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1972, p. 29)

The first trainer of the child is the mother. The babe, like unto a green and tender branch, will grow according to the way it is trained. If the training be right, it will grow right, and if crooked, the growth likewise, and unto the end of life it will conduct itself accordingly. Hence, it is firmly established that an untrained and uneducated daughter, on becoming a mother, will be the prime factor in the deprivation, ignorance, negligence, and the lack of training of many children. . . endeavor with heart, with life, to train your children, especially the daughters. No excuse is acceptable in this matter. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1930, p. 580)

An emphasis on early education is supported by these statements. The importance of equipping parents with the proper knowledge and skills for such a long lasting and vital responsibility is clear. The Bahá’í writings contain extensive guidance on child development which is supported by research. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains that individual differences are the result of inherited and acquired innate character. Inherited qualities are those physical and mental characteristics that one acquires genetically from his parents. The greatest influence and the one teachers can most affect is acquired character, which formal or informal education is the primary force. Innate differences are inborn characteristics unique to that person that explains why children from the same family with similar genetic and environmental influences have different capacities (Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971, p. 318-20). The varieties of human qualities result from differences of degrees in these areas of character.

Difference of capacity in human individuals is fundamental. . . Bahá’u’lláh has revealed principles and laws which will accomplish the adjustment of varying human capacities. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971, p. 37)

Bahá’u’lláh identifies knowing and loving as our two most important potentialities and the foundation for realizing all others. All must independently apply reason to what they see and hear, and not blindly accept what is presented to them. Each person's capacities and responsibilities to the creative whole are different and important. People consist of body, mind, and spirit. These three areas determine individual needs and development. The three elements necessary for change are corollaries of these three areas.

The attainment of any object is conditioned upon knowledge, volition, and action, unless these three conditions be forthcoming there is no execution or accomplishment. (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971, p. 10)

Educators are concerned with all three areas, generally called the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. The Bahá’í teachings contain ideas that are helpful in all three areas, relating to such things as using of reward and punishment, concentrating on the positive, developing high expectations and developing volition.

Success or failure, gain or loss, must, therefore, depend upon man's own exertions. The more he striveth, the greater will be his progress. (Bahá’u’lláh, 1971, p. 81-2)

Unto each one hath been prescribed a preordained measure, as decreed in God's mighty and guarded Tablets. All that which ye potentially possess can, however, be manifested only as a result of your own volition. (Bahá’u’lláh, 1971, p. 149)

Teachers can encourage their students to develop their own volition. The importance given to acquiring an education is an important factor in motivating students. Such things as setting goals and developing perseverance and self discipline will improve development. When values are in tune with reality, knowledge is the means to honor, prosperity, joy, gladness, happiness, and exultation, and its acquisition will become more desirable and easily obtained (Bahá’u’lláh and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, 1971). Lofty ideals and service improve volition. Schools must be actively involved with translating what is learned into reality and action. In this way, the true value of a learning will be realized. Service is the goal or result of action. Tests are often viewed negatively, but they are important for growth physically, mentally, and spiritually. Tests make us aware of our present condition and offer opportunities to develop new strengths. Traditionally examinations in schools have been used to compare students to others. The Bahá’í writings recognize the value of competition, but maintain that each person has individual differences that should be the cause of beauty and development, not standards of good and bad. Therefore, exams are not important for comparing students with one another, but for helping students become aware of their present abilities so they can further develop their potential. Physical, mental, or spiritual education should help us to go beyond our present state and develop new physical, mental, or spiritual awareness and strength. Life creates such situations daily, but many people do not take advantage of them. Students need a balance, with more successes than failures. When educators give exams with the idea of developing awareness, and releasing potential according to each individual's capabilities, then much growth can result.

VI-100. PRINCIPLES
a. divine foundation laid in earliest years in essence of child: SWAB:#111, 137

b. growth and development depend on the powers of the intellect and reason and not upon age: SWAB:#121, 142

c. use intelligence to know when to teach child: SW VII:15

VI-200. PRENATAL
a. say prayers for child while in mother's womb: SW IX:9, 97-104

VI-300. INFANT
a. baby-naming spiritual baptism: TAB:I:49; SW IX:9

b. teaching with mother's milk (breast-feeding infant): SW IX:9; ABDP:59

c. from earliest childhood education is necessary: SW VII:15, 141-144; SW IX:9

VI-400. PRESCHOOL CHILD
a. child in nursery, learn in play, amusement, not in books: SW VII:15

b. at age two children start liking to play with others of the same age: SW VII:9, 77

VI-500. STUDY APPROPRIATE TO AGE LEVELS IN SCHOOL
a. begin formal education at age five, during the daytime, learn good conduct: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #78, p. 31

b. when the child hath reached the age where he can make distinctions, let him be placed in a Bahá'í school, in which at the beginning the Holy Texts are recited and religious concepts are taught: 'Abdu'l-Baha, Bahá'í Education, #79, p. 31

c. age six begin schooling according to model school: SW XIII:7, 171-172; SW XIV:1, 3-7

d. age six to eight learn four languages in model school: Ibid.

e. age seven begin training as teachers of the Faith in Persia according to Fadil-i-Mazandarani: SW XIV:9, 278

f. age eight, nine or ten receive some teaching: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel J. Rosenberg, 2/3/1901, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

g. age ten to twelve study sciences in model school: SW XIII:7; SW XIV:1

h. age twelve graduate from model school: Ibid.

VI-600. YOUTH
a. extremely difficult to teach the individual and refine his character once puberty is passed: SWAB:#111, 137

b. full teaching to woman at age twenty, when she reaches her maturity: 'Abdu'l-Baha to Miss Ethel J. Rosenberg, 2/3/1901, in SW VII:15, pp. 141-144

title: Bahai Education/Educational Chronology