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Change Issues in Curriculum and Instruction/Wikis in the Classroom

The new World Wide Web, best known as Web 2.0, offers up connections, collaborations, and “cool” for today’s students. Where the web used to be for finding and reading information from somewhere and someone else, it’s now all about creating, collaborating, and becoming a meaningful contributor to a limitless body of knowledge. Web 2.0 allows us to interact with knowledge not just as consumers, but also as producers. There are many different ways that educators can get their students connected, but one that works especially well for educators is a wiki.

WHAT’S A WIKI?
Wiki comes from the Hawaiian word “wiki-wiki” which means quick. In simplest terms, a wiki is a website where anyone can edit anything anytime. The first wiki was created by Ward Cunningham in 1995. He used the word wiki-wiki as a substitute for "quick", remembering a shuttle bus service he used in Honolulu with that name. His website, the Wikiwikiweb was started as a place for programmers to share their knowledge about software development. Perhaps the most widely known wiki network is Wikipedia, an encyclopedia begun by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger in 2001 as a project attempting to build a free encyclopedia on the Web to which anyone can contribute, change or add to (Wilson Company, 2005). Wiki “engines” (the software used as the basis for a wiki) are a type of social software, which makes it easy for groups of people to work together in a virtual environment (Chawner & Lewis, 2004). The Wikimedia Foundation developed and launched the Wikimedia software package in its Wikipedia. Since then, the free software has been adapted for use by many other wiki networks. Its real power lies in the fact that groups can collaboratively work on the content of a site by using a standard web browser. Beyond this ease of editing, the second powerful element of a wiki is its ability to keep track of the history of a document as it is revised. Wikis can be large and open to the public where any and everyone can add, delete or change content. They can also be small and closed for selected participants only. Another important component of the wiki is its interconnected hyperlinks that typically are seen throughout a wiki page. These links enable users to quickly learn about and pinpoint topics that are of importance to them. Though the first wikis appeared eleven years ago, they have captured incredibly large numbers of Internet users in recent years. For example, in 2005, a study found Wikipedia to be the 37th most visited website (Nature, 2005). According to Alexa, as of May 22, 2007, Wikipedia is the eighth most visited site in the United States. Wikis currently are used in different contexts, including education, business, library science, and information management. Regardless of their size, wikis are open, collaborative, community websites. The collaborative nature of wikis makes them perfect tools for teachers. Imagine your students working on a project with other students from anywhere in the world!

WHY A WIKI?
Creating a wiki is easy and if you don’t mind it being visible to all, it’s free. You can set up your wiki to allow for only your class to have posting and editing rights, or keep it public not only for viewing, but for posting and editing as well. If you choose to have it totally private to be viewed only by select participants, there usually is a fee. To help with monitoring, a wiki keeps document histories, enabling users to see who has posted or edited and what changes were made. Each time the content is changed, a new version is saved. However, anyone can go back and see previous versions allowing students and teachers to see the writing process in action. You can also revert back to a previous version in case of pranksters or vandals. Likewise, most wiki networks have a good number of volunteer system administrators working behind the scenes to protect against vandalism.

Wikis are a great tool for developing the writing, editing, and communication skills of students. Computers enhance education by providing students with more active learning, more varied sensory and conceptual modes, less mental drudgery, learning better tailored to individuals, and better aid to abstraction (Dede, 1995). Computer learning blends perfectly to the differentiated classroom. Regardless of their learning style, social maturity, or comfort level with technology, all students can gain new understanding through the use of technology. Creating content for real audiences is a powerful motivator for students to put forth their best effort. Wikis also promote collaboration among students. Not only do students hone their writing and editing skills, but they also learn to negotiate, compromise, and assist others. Students must negotiate to determine what is important, what information stays and what doesn’t. It’s a very democratic process of knowledge creation (Richardson, 2006). Through collaborative effort students develop a sense of community, responsibility, and ownership of the work

The wiki process accords with the principle that, as John Dewey (1916) maintained, knowledge is socially constructed. Until recently, writing has largely been viewed as a solitary activity; wikis, on the other hand, tap into the potential for writing as the locus of social interaction. Moreover, they shift the emphasis from product to process. Rather than a static object, the written work becomes a dynamic, living, evolving entity (Loudermilk & Hern, 2006). Wikis transform the configuration of the classic rhetorical situation that delineates audience as distinct from writer. Rather writer and audience become one and the same, and the work becomes the product of the interaction of writers with one another—a truly social construct.

Wikis can be used as sources of information. But how can we be sure of the accuracy of the information? Alex Halavais, a University of Buffalo professor purposely posted thirteen errors on various Wikipedia pages. Within a couple of hours, all were fixed (Richardson 2006). An investigation completed by Nature magazine compared 42 entries in Wikipedia to the same entries in Encyclopedia Britannica and found Wikipedia to be only slightly less accurate (Giles, 2005). Therefore, Wikipedia has value for education and for knowledge-seekers. Just as with all information resources, when students use public wikis as an information source, they must evaluate the reliability and credibility of information. It’s an opportunity for teachers to guide students in becoming critical consumers of information.

TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH WIKIS
As Prensky (2001) pointed out, “Our students have changed radically. Today’s students are no longer the people our educational system was designed to teach,” because today’s students are digital natives while the most of today’s teachers remain digital immigrants. The digital natives absorb knowledge and skill from digital media, while digital immigrants (teachers) are acculturated to a print paradigm. How to create an effective learning environment and integrate effective technology in the curriculum for our students are concerns by more and more educators and teachers. Today, the difficulties for educators and teachers are to identify learning strategies that are appropriate for Digital Natives, recognize the different ways they process information and develop learning tools that maximize the potential of their unique cognitive approach (Culligan, 2006). Little in life moves as fast as the stimuli that confront "Generation Nintendo" learners on a daily basis. Learning offerings are challenged to not only meet the pace of "twitch speed", but to exploit this capacity to its fullest extent (Culligan, 2003). Teachers must take advantage of the technology available to them for use in educating these digital natives. Wikis are one of the powerful teaching and learning tools that are currently used in some schools and universities, which allows teacher and learners to maximize the potential of print by utilizing print in its electronic or digital form (Ferris and Wider, 2006).

Raman, Ryan, and Olfman (2005) defined wiki as a group collaboration software tool based on Web server technology that can be used to facilitate collaborative knowledge creation and sharing in an academic environment. Leuf and Cunningham (2001) defined wiki technology as having three major attributes: the participation of wiki community members in the editing of wiki pages (wikis), the opportunity for wiki members to build and develop “meaningful topic association” (p. 16) through numerous links between wiki pages, and the supportiveness for wiki community members to collaborate in updating wiki content. As of the 18th of March, 2007, Wikibooks features nearly 25,000 modules. By May 22, 2007, this number has grown to 25,372 modules.

Because of the characteristics and functions of Wikis, they can be used for student group projects, collaborative textbooks, collective writing, research projects, data collection, organization of projects and assignments. They can also be used for collaborations between teachers. Engstrom and Jewett (2005) studied a curriculum that used wikis to promote middle school students’ investigation of the construction of six dams on the Missouri River. Their research found that the content-centered nature of wikis can promote collaborative content creation and editing. According to Richardson (2006), the entire national high school curriculum for South Africa is now in a wiki with the goal of “[making] it easy for teachers to share information on how to deliver certain lessons or to achieve certain goals with their students” (p. 67). Raman, Ryan and Olfman (2005) conducted a case study of wiki technology applied in knowledge management class at the graduate-level. Their findings showed that familiarity with wiki technology, careful planning for implementation and use, appropriate class size, and motivation of students contributed to the success of wiki’s support of collaborative knowledge creation and sharing in the academic environment. According to Evans (2006), students learned course materials more thoroughly and more enthusiastically than they did with the traditional business textbooks used prior to his wiki project’s inception. Recently, two studies showed that college students’ participation in writing, editing and using a Wikibook as primary course textbook can not only promote students’ active learning process, but also improve students’ critical thinking skills and high level learning skills development. In addition, by using Wikibook method, students have greatly increased interaction with the textbook (Wikibook) in the learning process and improved students’ technology skills after the course (Allen, O’Shea, Daniel, and Baker, 2007; Xiao, Baker, O’Shea, and Allen, 2007).

The application of Wikis in the classroom has great potential although few research studies have, as yet, been conducted. The four research studies conducted by Raman, Ryan and Olfman (2005), Evans (2006), Allen et al. (2007), and Xiao et al. (2007) have shown that the potential benefits of Wiki usage have not yet been widely recognized by universities and K12 schools. As with any new technology or new teaching method introduced into an educational system, their application in the classroom requires teachers’ thoughtful and deliberate planning. Likewise, this application also requires creativity and enthusiasm in order for educators to achieve the most effective instructional results. How to effectively integrate the specific wiki in the course design and successfully practice require teachers and educators to do more experiments. How can students be benefited from Wikis and what benefit can students acquire from Wikis - long term or short term benefit as well as students’ achievements or critical thinking skills? These still need more research in the future.

THE CHALLENGES
As with any new technology, before a teacher uses wikis in the classroom it is essential that he/she become familiar with the school district's policy on wiki usage. More than likely, the teacher will find that the technology usage policy has not been updated to reflect the rapid advances in technological tools available for classroom use. In the case of this writer, wikis were not even on the school district's radar. This led to a dialogue with the school system's technology administrator to prompt such a revision. Without a formal document to guide the use of wikis in the classroom, teachers would be well advised to not use any type of identifiers such as students' names or even the name of the school district.

One of the biggest risks of using wikis with kids is the possibility of vandalism. Obviously, on a public wiki, if someone were so inclined they could post material that is inappropriate for young children. If this is a significant worry, the wiki can be set up to require password access for posting and editing. There are sites available that allow this with no charge. Wikispaces offers free wikis for K-12 educators (http://www.wikispaces.com/site/for/teachers100K). According to Child Trends Databank (2006), as of 2003, 76% of children ages three to seventeen had home computers and only 42% of children in the same age group had Internet access. Inequities in access to computers and internet for students need to be considered as a wiki project is designed. Will it require work outside of the school setting? Will all students be able to participate on an equal basis? Questions such as these must be considered. However, as technology advances and becomes available to school districts as well as the general public, lack of Internet access may no longer be an issue. In December 2006, Socialtext launched Socialtext Unplugged, which is an offline wiki (Socialtext, 2006).

Wikis present some pedagogical problems as well. Teachers need to be willing to give up some control of the content and offer more student autonomy. According to Richardson (2006), better results are achieved when students have greater autonomy in terms of negotiating the scope and quality of the content they are creating. On the other hand, students also need guidance if they are to achieve maximum benefit from the wiki process. It is still the teacher's responsibility to structure the physical and the electronic environment so that students can take advantage of the learning opportunities that wikis afford. Teachers need to be especially careful and deliberate in planning for wiki use by younger students (see, for example, the wiki for second graders mentioned later in this article ).

SAFETY ISSUES
When publishing student work, educators must strike a balance between the safety of the students and the pride and motivation that comes from ownership of the work being published. Many schools have clearly defined policies concerning publishing student work and/or pictures on the web and it’s important to know and follow school policy. It is also wise, particularly at the elementary school level, to receive parental permission before students post their work. Rarely are teachers comfortable with publishing students’ first and last names, although first name only is often a good option. The safest way is to have students use a pseudonym or avatar, and students can have a lot of fun coming up with their web persona. In addition, student online safety is increased if, before embarking on your first wiki adventure with, students are taught some internet safety rules.

WHAT A WIKI IDEA!
There are countless ways to use wikis as classroom tools. The following list provides just a sampling to get teachers started.
 * Create an on-line text for the subject or content area (Collaborative Textbooks)
 * Student group projects
 * Writing
 * On-line pen pals (from pen pals to e-pals, to wiki pals)
 * Student created study guides
 * Research projects
 * Data collection
 * Student Portfolios
 * Collaboration between teachers
 * Organization of projects and assignments
 * School or class newspapers
 * Storytelling

SEE A WIKI IN ACTION
Over the next few weeks you can observe a second grade class try their hand at working with a Wiki.

https://stonierpage.wikispaces.com

 * The teacher began by asking each student to select an animal of interest.
 * The class then created a list of what they thought would be good information to look for on their animal.
 * The teacher then laid out a page for each student and added a photo for each animal. (photo only no text)
 * The student is now responsible for locating information about their chosen animal and adding it to the Wiki site.
 * The current goal is at least 5 complete sentences that state a fact about the chosen animal.
 * If time allows students will have an opportunity to comment or even add to a classmate's Wiki posting.

ESSAY QUESTION #1
Effective use of wikis requires a shift in thinking for both teachers and students. What are some of the attitude barriers to effective use of wikis in the classroom?

RESPONSE #1 (Rose)

The dynamics of traditional teaching and learning are completely altered with the use of wikis in the classroom. Notions of authorship and ownership are challenged as students work collaboratively on assignments. Many students resist the idea of open collaboration as they do not want anyone “messing with” their work. It is difficult for students to let go of ownership of a piece of writing. At the same time students may feel uncomfortable with making changes in their classmates’ work even when they clearly see the need for them. Today’s students are programmed to “keep their eyes on their own paper” and at first this type of collaboration might feel a bit like cheating, making students reluctant to fully participate.

Students’ lack of confidence can also inhibit active participation in a wiki. Most students are unaccustomed to having such a wide audience for their work and will be reluctant to post to the wiki. Easing students in with small groups, small assignments, and time for experimentation may help to adjust student attitudes and prepare them for effective wiki authoring and editing.

Wikis represent a paradigm shift for many teachers as well. Teachers accustomed to being in control of the learning environment will have to learn to relinquish some of that control to allow their wiki to be truly effective. Changing the tool without changing the practice will not lead to a collaborative, interactive, learning adventure. When students are provided a reasonable amount of autonomy, they develop responsibility for their own learning.

ESSAY QUESTION #2
How can professional educators and scholars ensure the Wikibook’s quality (Credibility), when students engage to create a collaborative textbook by using Wiki technology? Is credibility the only element of quality one should explore?

Essay Response (Question 2)
Since credibility is, in practice, based independently on the professional reputations of those persons who deem something credible, drawing conclusions about a Wikibook's credibility (or lack thereof) can only happen after a social shift renders Wiki material acceptable as academic materials in the eyes of academics. A better method of judging a Wikibook's overall "quality" may be to determine the extent to which it meets its desired outcomes—in the case of educational wikibooks, the extent to which it helps the students learn the desired material in an effective and efficient manner. Yet another important consideration is whether or not wikibooks yield unexpected learning outcomes. For instance, even the most poorly written wikibook may serve as a profitable learning tool for students of technology or English composition.


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Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Harry Potter

Overview
Harry's first romantic experience is Ginny Weasley, who is enthralled with him, although he does not yet reciprocate her feelings. Harry soon notices Cho Chang, the pretty Ravenclaw Quidditch Seeker. Harry is too shy to express his interest in her, although she seems to notice him. In Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, Harry finally works up the courage to invite her to the Yule Ball. Unfortunately, she has already been asked by Cedric Diggory, a student in Hufflepuff.

Harry competes with Cedric for Cho's attention, at least in his own mind, until Cedric's tragic death during the Third Task of the Triwizard Tournament. In Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Cho renews her interest in Harry, but as she is still grieving, and unable to move past Cedric's death, she and Harry abruptly end their brief relationship. Harry is again unattached and remains so until Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, when he begins noticing Ginny Weasley who is then dating someone else. Near the end of the year, they finally get together. Unfortunately for Ginny, Harry ends their relationship to try and protect her from Voldemort. In the final book, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, it becomes apparent that they still have the kernel of a relationship going on, and although they are separated for the duration of the book, it is made clear the feelings remain. They re-unite near the end of the book, and in the epilogue it is revealed that they have married and three children.

Philosophers' Stone
Ginny Weasley first sees Harry in King's Cross train station as Harry and the Weasley boys (Ron, Percy, and the twins) are preparing to leave for Hogwarts. Excited about being close to the famous Harry Potter, she demands to go over and see him. Harry is most relieved when Mrs. Weasley forbids it, saying that Ginny has already seen him and he isn't something to be goggled at like in a zoo.

Ginny is thrilled again when he returns from Hogwarts, excitedly jumping up and down at seeing him, though he does not seem to be paying much attention to her.

Chamber of Secrets
Ginny's enthrallment with Harry seems to have grown, as she is uncharacteristically nervous and quiet while he is staying at The Burrow. When Draco Malfoy insults Harry in Flourish and Blotts, Ginny leaps to his defence. She later sends him a musical Valentine, which results in embarrassment for both of them. At Hogwarts, she seems particularly emotionally fragile when Harry is nearby, although that may partially be from her manipulation by Tom Riddle's diary. When she tries unburdening herself to Harry about what has been happening with the diary, Percy barges in, interrupting her. Finally, as Ginny lies near death in the Chamber of Secrets, Harry destroys Riddle's diary, restoring her life force, and, with assistance from Fawkes, rescues her.

Prisoner of Azkaban
The rescue from the Chamber of Secrets changes the dynamic between Harry and Ginny. On meeting Harry again in the Leaky Cauldron, Ginny blushes and avoids looking at him; however, over the coming days and school year, she gradually loses her shyness and becomes her normal self. Having seen Harry faint in the Dementor's presence on the Hogwarts Express may have reassured her as to Harry's fallibility; there was a definite concern that, as Harry had heroically rescued her from the Chamber of Secrets, she might start seeing him as a hero rather than a person. She later makes him a singing Get Well Soon card indicating her feelings for him are still very much active.

At the House Quidditch match, Harry is introduced to Cho Chang, the Ravenclaw Seeker. "She smiled at Harry as the teams faced each other behind their captains, and he felt a slight jolt in the region of his stomach that he didn't think had anything to do with nerves." Whatever feelings he has for Cho may have been enhanced when she is able to outfly him, at least once, although she is mounted on a lesser broom.

Goblet of Fire
Possibly hoping to connect, or reconnect, with Cho Chang, Harry remains unattached. He invites her to the Yule Ball, but she is already going with Cedric Diggory, although she seems to genuinely regret declining his invitation. At Ron's suggestion, Harry asked Ginny, but she had already accepted an invitation from Neville. Out of desperation he then asked Parvati Patil, who accepted, but it is clear to the reader that neither Harry nor Parvati was pleased with the "date."

Meanwhile, it appears to some, most notably Colin Creevey, that Harry spends too much time with Hermione for it to be strictly friendship. Rita Skeeter publishes a scurrilous story in Witch Weekly suggesting that Hermione is keeping not only Harry, but also Viktor Krum as lovers, although she hints Hermione must be using illegal love potions. Harry and Hermione are both greatly amused, although Harry has to explain to Viktor Krum, and later to Mrs. Weasley, that Hermione is not, and has never been, his girlfriend.

Some readers were as mistaken, some quite obtusely, as Colin Creevey and Rita Skeeter. One group, referred to as "shippers" (apparently derived from "relationship") believed, prior to the publication of the final book, that Harry and Hermione would ultimately be together. However, J.K. Rowling stated in interviews, given between the publication of the fifth and seventh books, that she has dropped "anvil-sized hints" from at least the fourth book on that Hermione and Ron would link up; see the entries for Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger for details on those hints.

Order of the Phoenix
Harry and Cho begin a tentative romance. Harry is ecstatic, but before long realizes things are not as he imagined. Cho is still emotionally fragile following Cedric Diggory's death. Although she initially seemed ready to move on, it is soon apparent she is not, and Harry is unable to understand or cope with her grief. Nearly any casual comment or unintentional action on his part results in Cho overreacting and breaking down into tears.

Cho also misunderstands Harry' platonic relationship with Hermione, and their fragile bond suffers further when Harry excuses himself during a Valentine's Day date in Hogsmeade to meet Hermione. Harry, already made uneasy by the atmosphere in Madam Puddifoot's Tearoom, is unable to convince Cho that the meeting is innocent, partly because he is unaware what it is; he only knows that Hermione insisted he be there. Unfortunately, he is unable to articulate this in a way that prevents Cho from becoming upset, though Hermione coaches him in this later. The meeting is actually to arrange for Rita Skeeter to interview Harry. Hermione has "persuaded" Skeeter to write a truthful story about Cedric's death that will be published in The Quibbler.

After the article appears, Cho approaches Harry and tells him he is brave to have given that interview, and it appears the rift may be patched up between them. But their relationship falls apart again when Cho's friend, Marietta Edgecombe, betrays Dumbledore's Army to Professor Umbridge. Cho says she feels badly about what Marietta did, but she justifies her actions, saying that Marietta's parents work for the Ministry. She is also angry at Hermione for jinxing her friend. For Harry, there is no excuse for betraying the group, and he points out that Ron's dad also works for the Ministry but he had not betrayed the DA. When Harry warns Cho against crying again, she angrily stomps off, and their relationship has ended.

At the Quidditch Final, which Gryffindor is playing against Ravenclaw, Harry sees Cho on the field, but is unsure what he feels for her, except that he doesn't want any more fights. The sight of her talking animatedly with Roger Davies, who Cho had mentioned previously as being one who had asked her out, does not affect Harry's feelings.

On the Hogwarts Express at the end of the year, Cho walks past the compartment in which Harry, Ron, and Ginny are sitting. Ron asks what was happening with him and Cho, and Harry finds that, in fact, he no longer has any real feeling for her. A comment made at this point suggests that Ron is anticipating a match-up between Harry and Ginny.

Half-Blood Prince
While Harry apparently remains unattached, many girls are interested in him. Rather to his surprise, Romilda Vane asks him to join her group on the Hogwarts Express as they head to school. When he mentions this to Hermione later, she points out that since the re-appearance of Lord Voldemort, the Daily Prophet has effectively made him once again the darling of the Wizarding World by naming him the Chosen One. It doesn't hurt, she adds, that Harry has grown about a foot over the summer. At this time he is finding himself wanting to be more in Ginny's company though has not yet realized why that is.

In his first Potions class, Harry detects a familiar floral scent coming off the Amortentia potion, a potion which smells, according to Hermione, like the favorite scents of the subject when it is made correctly. Although very shortly after this, the floral scent is identified as one Ginny uses, Harry doesn't immediately connect the two facts.

Professor Slughorn is restarting his "Slug club", a periodic party that Slughorn, an inveterate glory-seeker, holds to gather together all of the more famous students. Harry, of course, would be the true jewel in the crown, but despite his having been invited to all the Slug Club parties, Harry has carefully avoided attending any of them, up until Christmas. There is considerable angling in the student body for an invitation to the Slug Club Christmas party; Hermione reveals that some girls are plotting ways to get Harry to take a love potion, and she warns Harry to watch what he eats and drinks. Shortly after this, Harry carefully turns down an offer from Romilda Vane to share a Gillywater, and accepts (because he doesn't see a way out of it), a box of Chocolate Cauldrons with Firewhisky centers, which he takes up to his dorm and carefully sets aside. He does eventually invite Luna Lovegood to the Christmas Slug Club party, because he has to invite someone.

Harry realizes his feelings for Ginny when he sees her kissing Dean and becomes jealous. He keeps his emotions hidden, however, largely because he witnessed Ron's anger at Dean for taking liberties with Ginny. Harry feels his friendship with Ron is too valuable to imperil by making a play for Ginny. He spends much of the year battling his feelings on this matter, secretly wishing for Ginny and Dean to break up.

Harry has been instructed by Professor Dumbledore to retrieve a memory from Professor Slughorn; finding no other way to do this, he takes some Felix Felicis potion. Hidden under his Invisibility Cloak, he knocks into Ginny in such a way that she thinks Dean deliberately shoved her; luckily (as is always the case with Felix Felicis), this prompts Ginny to break up with Dean.

During the victory party after the Quidditch final, Harry, caught up in the excitement, seizes the opportunity to kiss Ginny in front of the entire Gryffindor Common room. Fortunately for Harry, Ron gives his approval, although he warns Harry to avoid openly kissing his sister. They soon become a couple, laughing at how everyone is now talking about them. Hermione is also pleased they have gotten together. Ginny later tells him that she had never truly given up on him and explains how Hermione helped her overcome her shyness around Harry and to just be herself. The couple's happiness is short-lived, however. After Dumbledore's funeral, Harry regretfully and sadly ends their relationship, telling Ginny that if Voldemort learns about their romance, he will use her to get to him, just as he did with his godfather, Sirius Black. Ginny is devastated, but she accepts Harry's reasoning.

Deathly Hallows
Saying that a relationship is over does not make it end, as Harry finds out. Staying at The Burrow between his escape from Privet Drive and setting out on his mission, he is of course in the same house with Ginny, and occasionally is set to perform some task alongside her in preparation for Bill and Fleur's wedding. It is during one of these shared tasks that Harry lets slip that his mission may involve killing Voldemort, a revelation that leaves Ginny looking rather shaken, despite Harry's trying to make it into a joke.

Knowing that he will shortly have to leave on this mission, and that she will not be able to travel with him, on his birthday Ginny invites Harry into her room and, saying that she has to give him something to remember in case he happens upon any Veela on the way, kisses him passionately. They are interrupted by Ron, who later accuses Harry of leading his sister on after he had broken up with her. Harry, deciding that it is useless to protest that it had been Ginny's idea, and feeling guilty about the episode, promises that it has ended. He is somewhat hard-pressed to keep his promise, as he keeps looking at her over that day and the next, sharing a glance and a private amusement, before he realizes that he isn't supposed to. He also finds it hard to control his jealousy during the wedding reception when Viktor Krum asks about Ginny's availability; Harry claims she has a big boyfriend already, to warn him off.

When the Ministry falls and Harry, Ron, and Hermione run, Harry is extremely worried about Ginny; with the defences fallen, the Weasley house is no longer safe, and Harry is afraid that Death Eaters may have injured her as they interrogate the Weasley family about Harry's whereabouts. Harry is as relieved as Ron when Arthur Weasley's Patronus brings them word that the family is all right.

After possibly revealing Grimmauld Place to a Death Eater, the Trio take to the countryside, camping in various places around England. At one point, a second party passes by the tent that Harry is sharing with Ron and Hermione. This second party mentions that Ginny, Neville, and Luna had been caught sneaking into the Headmaster's office to steal the Sword of Gryffindor, and had been punished severely. Harry is very worried about what punishment Ginny might have received, until he speaks with the portrait of Phineas Nigellus, and learns that her punishment had been to work in the Forbidden Forest with "that half-breed oaf," Hagrid.

After Ron leaves the party, Harry periodically brings out the Marauder's Map, initially looking for the little dot that represents Ron to reappear on the map. This would have shown that, protected by his Pure Blood status, Ron had safely resumed his normal life. As time passes and Ron does not reappear, Harry starts studying the map by wandlight at night, watching the dot that represents Ginny at Hogwarts. He wonders what she is doing, and whether she knows he is thinking about her.

Ginny is present at the Battle of Hogwarts; much to Harry's dismay, she demands to join in the fighting. In the Room of Requirement, before the battle, Harry mentions that he may be looking for Ravenclaw's lost diadem. Cho Chang, who has returned with the rest of Dumbledore's Army, mentions that there is a statue of Ravenclaw, with the Diadem, in the Ravenclaw house common room and offers to take Harry there. Ginny vetoes that and volunteers Luna Lovegood in Cho's place.

After the first battle, Harry heads off to the Forbidden Forest to meet Voldemort and his doom; as he does so, he passes Ginny on the grounds, aiding a fallen student. He wants to stop and speak with her, but knows that if he does, he won't be able to continue; but he believes that she looks up as he walks past, despite his being under his Invisibility Cloak.

Ginny's kiss is the last thing Harry thinks about before Voldemort casts the killing curse.

After the final battle is finished, Harry looks over at Ginny, who is leaning her head on her mother in exhaustion. Harry thinks to himself that he will want to talk with Ginny, but that it can wait; he will have all the time in the world to speak with her, he will leave her this time to recover.

In the Epilogue, Harry and Ginny are married and have three children, James Sirius, Albus Severus, and Lily Luna.

Notable Consequences
While Harry is convinced by Ron and Hermione to start teaching proper Defence Against the Dark Arts, he is more than slightly taken aback to discover that there are at least two dozen students at the organizational meeting. One of the things that convinces him to take on this large group is the presence of Cho Chang. The relationship with Cho, to a certain extent, sustains him in his efforts to keep the DA meetings occurring.

By the end of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, Harry knows that anyone he is close to, his friends, his loves, or his relatives, will become Voldemort's targets. To protect Ginny, he reluctantly tries to end their relationship. Unless Voldemort can be killed, Harry knows he faces a lonely life with few friends or loved ones to support him. When the relationship continues, Harry finds some strength in studying the Marauder's Map to find out what Ginny is doing at the school.

As mentioned, in the epilogue we discover that Harry has married Ginny, and so has created the family he has always wanted.

Analysis
By the end of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix it is apparent Harry is unprepared for a mature relationship, as is only to be expected for a fifteen-year old. His attachment to Cho Chang, in retrospect, seems ill-advised; he was unable to provide what she needed emotionally, and she was unprepared for his inability to give it. Also, Cho is a year older than Harry, and girls generally mature more rapidly than boys at this age.

One could wonder just what Cho saw in Harry. After the events in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, her interest in Harry mainly seems to be that he was present at Cedric's death and can provide her information about it; however, Cho was interested in Harry a year earlier, at least after the Goblet selected him as a Champion. She does seem genuinely sorry that Harry's attempt to ask her to the Yule Ball was pre-empted by Cedric. It is uncertain why, though it may have more to do with an attraction to Harry's fame as 'the Boy who Lived,' rather than an interest in Harry himself.

Harry's slowly-building interest in Ginny Weasley, starting in Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince, is not entirely unheralded. Harry always treats Ginny with great consideration. In Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, he tactfully pretends not to notice when she overturns her porridge at breakfast. Harry also fears she will be held responsible and punished for everything that happened during that year. We feel his relief as keenly as hers when Dumbledore says, "There will be no punishment. Older and wiser wizards than she have been hoodwinked by Lord Voldemort." And it is revealed in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix that she and Harry share an understanding of how Voldemort mentally affects his victims, an experience that cannot be understood by either Ron or Hermione.

Harry's inner turmoil during Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince is an excellent depiction of his current state of mind. He and Ron, returning from the Quidditch pitch, run into Ginny and Dean Thomas "snogging" (kissing) in a hidden corner. Ron flares angrily at Dean, continuing the quarrel with Ginny once Dean has departed. By now, Harry recognizes his own feelings for Ginny and is jealous of Dean. However, he believes that if Ron is this upset at Dean, it is likely he would be equally upset with Harry, should he seek to replace Dean in Ginny's affections. It is this latter fear over losing Ron's friendship that prevents him from taking action after Ginny and Dean break up. It is noteworthy that Ron's anger at Dean decreased once he (Ron) hooked up with Lavender. Harry might have considered pursuing Ginny if Ron had continued in that relationship. However, Ron and Lavender break up at very nearly the same time that Ginny dumps Dean, which probably leaves Harry worried that Ginny has been placed under Ron's brotherly microscope once again. We can only guess that this accounts for Harry's delay in courting Ginny. We note that when Harry takes a chance and kisses Ginny in full view of the common room, he does check immediately to see if Ron approves.

Questions

 * 1) What are the main things that Harry and Ginny have in common?

Greater Picture
At the end of book 6, Harry shows his concern for Ginny's well-being by, apparently paradoxically, ending their relationship. He knows Voldemort often fells his victims by targeting their friends and loved ones, just as he did with Harry's godfather, Sirius Black. Ginny sees Harry's decision to end their relationship to protect her as being noble, but she also believes it is the incorrect way to handle the situation. Even at that point, it seems unlikely their relationship has truly ended, despite Harry's saying it has. And of course, we see in the next book that the relationship is still in force, no matter what Harry and Ron believe. A more mature reader may realize that Harry's nominally ending the relationship will not significantly change anything, and will also realize that the reason Voldemort was able to use Sirius against Harry was the lack of communication between Sirius and Harry. If Harry had remembered the mirror, and had contacted Sirius directly instead of relying on the broken reed that was Kreacher, he would have known that Sirius was in no danger. In light of this fact, if Harry truly wants to keep Ginny safe, the best place for her is, if not at his side, certainly within a moment's contact. As it is, Ginny would make an admirable weapon to use against Harry, if Voldemort knew about her. As proof of this, we need look no further than Harry's reaction when he learns Ginny, at Hogwarts, was "punished cruelly" for attempting to steal the Sword of Gryffindor from the Headmaster's office.

One of the main strengths of this work is the realism of the actions and expressed feelings of the characters. Harry's romantic career, with its false starts, anticipation, disappointments, and eventual completion, feels realistic to the reader, despite its being, in retrospect, almost amazingly easy for Harry. Unlike many of us, Harry never can say that his relationships are "complicated." Despite this, we feel that what Harry is experiencing is realistic. Part of this is that it is an integral part of Harry's life, as is his quest to conquer Voldemort; it is neither dismissed as unimportant to the story line, nor tacked on in a misguided attempt to make us feel that the character is well-rounded. Further, the exposition of Harry's inner monologue concerning possible repercussions in his relationship with Ron are critical, in that they allow us to see that Harry is profoundly affected by his feelings for Ginny, and by his friendship with Ron, and we see the essential conflict that Harry experiences. As unlikely as it is that relationships could work out so neatly in the real world, with the lack of remorse on either side after the break-up with Cho, and Ginny's break-up with Dean being so neatly timed, we still feel that Harry's romantic life is realistic, and this greatly enhances our belief in his character and our involvement in the story.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
English as an Additional Language/Simple past tense

The past tense signifies actions that were done in the past. Conjugating verbs to show the past tense is very easy in English, almost as easy as conjugating the present tense.

Past Tense
Regular verbs take the ending '-d' or 'ed' in the affirmative. The negative and interrogative are formed using did (past of the auxiliary verb do) together with the infinitive of the verb. The verb work is conjugated as follows:

Irregular verbs change their form in the past tense affirmative in a variety of ways. The past of go, for example, is went, of buy, bought, of keep, kept. As with the regular verbs, the negative and interrogative are formed using did together with the infinitive of the verb. The verb go is conjugated in the past tense as follows:


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Roulette/Math

Probability

If one understands the basics of probability theory, then in roulette especially it is very easy to test betting systems mathematically. Here is the step by step logic of applying probability in roulette to the possible outcomes.

First, all the mathematics used here is based on a European single 0 wheel since the house edge is half the American version.

We know that the probability of an event happening is the chances of that event compared to all the possible events. For instance, when you flip a coin there are 2 possible outcomes: heads, tails. If you want to know what is the probability that the coin will come up heads, then that would be: heads / (heads + tails) = 1/2 = .5. Likewise when playing an even money bet at roulette, that option covers 18 of the 37 possible outcomes: 18/37=.48648649.

To find out the effect the odds have on a measurable outcome, we can apply that outcome to all possible results. So if we’re playing $1 on black, then we know that for 18 of 37 outcomes we will net $1 profit, and for 19 of the 37 possible outcomes we will net a $1 loss. ((18/37)*1)+((19/37)*-1)=-.02702703. This shows the house advantage on any single spin applied to your bankroll. We know that if you place $1 on any even number bet on average you will loose almost three cents per spin or $27 over 100 spins.

This is valuable when looking at more complicated betting within the layout of the table. For instance, if you consider on the thirds position that the return is 2:1. Let’s look at the extremes. If you place a bet on one of the three options, then you are obviously playing against probability: 12/37=.32432432 probability to win. If you place $1 on all three of the possible options, then for 36 of 37 numbers you will loose $2, make $2, and have the bet on the winning third returned to you for a net profit of $0. This of course makes no sense at all, but you’ll win almost every time if you’re in it to feel like a winner however if your considering a system you’re trying to make money. If we hedge the single bet with the second possible bet and place $1 on the first two of the thirds, then we cover 24 of 37 numbers 24/37=.64864865. We’re guaranteed to lose one bet, but if the other hits then we make $2, minus the one lost, plus the winning bet returned makes a net profit of $1 – and here’s the kicker – our chance of winning on any single bet is greater than 50% (64.86% to be precise).

We know that roulette is an independently random game where the results of one action does not affect the odds of a second action, so presented like this one might see this a winning system of finding a way to shift the odds in your favor. However if we analyze all the possible outcomes we see that the proposition is a losing one. 24 of 37 possible outcomes net us $1. On 13 of 37 possible outcomes we loose $2. So we plug in our formula: ((24/37)*1)+((13/37)*-2)=-.05405405. This is even worse than playing even money odds.

Now we come full circle. Almost all systems are based on the premise that the likelihood of an event happening repeatedly gets exponentially smaller the more times in a row one seeks that option. Probability will never rule out a roulette table showing the number 36 100 times in a row, but it will tell us exactly how unlikely it is. The premise is that the probability of an event happening once is multiplied by the likelihood of the second event multiplied by the third event and so on. For instance, for a single number to come up 100 times we multiply (1/37)*(1/37)*(1/37)… for one hundred times. This is a tiny number but we can see how fast it adds up:

(1/37)=.02702703

(1/37)*(1/37)=.00073046

(1/37)*(1/37)*(1/37)=.00001974

(1/37)*(1/37)*(1/37)*(1/37)=.00000053

The likelihood of a number coming up four times in a row is only 0.000053%, but it happens. Just go to Global Player Casino and check out the roulette results for the year. But I digress, the strategies say if you chase a loss long enough it won’t lose any more, and systems like the Martingale set it up so that you realize a profit when that condition fails. However, it’s still a losing system because we can plug in our formula to this just as easily as we can plug it into a single event.

But first let’s examine what it is we’re looking at. If we’re analyzing a system there are only two options we’re interested in: win or loss. Let’s not get too complicated and assume that one loss will exit the system and return the player to the starting state such as the Martingale.

If the first spin loses then we go to a second spin, and if the second spin loses then we go to the third and so on. So we know that for however many levels we examine all the preceding spins will be losses. In other words, if 51.4% of spins will lose, then we are looking at 51.4% of 51.4% will lose twice in a row and 48.6% of 51.4% will win on the second round. Therefore, 51.4% of 51.4% of 51.4% will lose thrice, and 48.6% of 51.4% of 51.4% will win.

For a single level we know that the formula is the probability of a win times the net result and the probability of a loss times the net result.

(((18/37)*1)+((19/37)*-1))= -.02702703

To check the second level, the probability of a loss followed by the probability of a win times the net result is compared to two losses and the net result.

(((19/37)*(18/37))*1)+(((19/37)^2)*-2)= -.27757487

To extrapolate the third, fourth, and fifth level:

((((19/37)^2)*(18/37))*1)+(((19/37)^3)*-4)= -.4133615

((((19/37)^3)*(18/37))*1)+(((19/37)^4)*-8)= -.49040931

We can see no matter how far we go on the Martingale system it’s always more likely a losing proposition than a winning proposition, and the deeper one goes the more likely one is to lose a greater sum of money. Of course this isn’t a surprise since the odds are already against us.

More on other systems and hedge betting later.

Any system can be analyzed like this for any game. If the result is positive, the odds are in the player’s favor. If the result is negative you’re trusting Lady Luck. I haven’t found a formula that results in a positive number. Of course, if I had I'd be in a casino right now.

In practice, most betting systems redistribute the amounts of the wins and losses: an increase in the chance of winning is balanced against a greater loss once it does occur, as it will sooner or later. The oldest and most common betting system is the martingale, or doubling-up, system on even-money bets, in which bets are doubled progressively after each loss until a win occurs. This system probably dates back to the invention of the roulette wheel.

Martingale is the most common betting system in roulette. The popularity of this system is due to its simplicity and availability. When playing on Martingale, it creates the deceptive impression of quick and easy wins. The essence of the Martingale roulette game system is as follows: we bet on an even chance of roulette (red-black, even-odd), for example, on "red": we bet on roulette at $ 1; if you lose, we double the bet and bet $ 2. If we lose at roulette, we lose the current bet ($ 2) and the previous bet ($ 1) by an amount of $ 3. If we win, we win $ 4, eg. wins two bets (1 + 2 = $ 3) and we have $ 1 net win from roulette. If you lost at roulette for the second time using the Martingale roulette system, let's double your bet again (it is now $ 4). If we win, we will win back the previous two bets (1 + 2 = $ 3) and the current one ($ 4) from the roulette wheel, and again we win $ 1 against the casino.

This is a well presented maths explanation of the odds against the player when betting at roulette.But it confuses probability with certainty.Probability Theory deals with uncertainty not certainty. Roulette, like all gambling, is a game of chance so, obviously, chance is involved. This does not mean that only chance is involved. If the roulette wheel is random then no one can predict with certainty that we will win or lose. That certainty belongs to astrology not maths. There is no reason why the wheel should not give the same number continuously for a hundred, a thousand or even a million spins if it is truly random; incidentally, unless we are going to live till eternity then "The Long Run" is irrelevant in real time betting. The writer errs when dealing with betting the First and Second dozens together. Using the 1-18 bet we can lower the odds against us. Placing three chips on 1-18 and one chip on the six-line 19-24 benefits us should zero occur whereas betting the two dozens does not. To my mind, there is an all too casual attitude to discussing roulette and this is exemplified in this article.Also- but not here -there is usually a knee-jerk reaction to anyone who rejects the notion that you are certain to lose. Claims of certainty -to win or lose -are unjustifiable where uncertainty clearly reigns. Gambling is Gambling is Gambling.

title: Roulette/Math


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User:Pharos

I'm active as User:Pharos here and on English Wikipedia and other projects through SUL, and have also helped with organizing Wikimedia New York City.

title: User:Pharos


text:
Template:XCode

A simple template for marking a code example in the text. (See the Template:Code for more options.)

Usage:

There are also similar: Template:XNote, Template:XConsole, Template:XWarning and Template:XExample.

title: Template:XCode


text:
Template:XExample

A simple template for marking an example in the text.

Usage:

There are also similar: Template:XNote, Template:XWarning, and Template:XCode.

title: Template:XExample


text:
Template:XNote

A simple template for marking a note in the text.

Usage:

There are also similar: Template:XWarning, Template:XCode, Template:XConsole and Template:XExample.

de:Vorlage:Notiz

title: Template:XNote


text:
Template:XWarning

A simple template for marking a warning in the text.

Usage:

There are also similar: Template:XNote, Template:XCode, and Template:XExample.

title: Template:XWarning


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User talk:Acade1mc

Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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About video game guides
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title: User talk:Acade1mc


text:
Talk:Java Programming/Syntax

Far too verbose
This page sadly holds far too much information for a person to gulp. Should trim it down into neat subpages. What say? - Arunreginald 11:34, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

merge
I suggest merging Transwiki:Java syntax into Java Programming/Syntax. After that, I suggest breaking Java Programming/Syntax up into smaller pages. For example, I expect the Transwiki:Java_syntax section to eventually move to Java Programming/Classes, Objects and Types. --DavidCary (talk) 05:24, 30 April 2009 (UTC)
 * I have dispatched the content of this page in the rest of the book. This page had no sense. Knowing the Java syntax is the same as be able to write Java so this page was about all the book. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 20:06, 9 April 2013 (UTC)

Errors
Section "Required Whitespaces", two of this three examples mean something different, but are written the same way, which is incorrect the second time.
 * It has been fixed. Ftiercel (discuss • contribs) 20:07, 9 April 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Java Programming/Syntax


text:
Java Programming

This book is an introduction to programming in Oracle’s Java™ programming language, a widely used programming language and software platform. This book serves as a comprehensive guide, complete with a series of tutorials to help users better understand the many ways one can program in Java. In its entirety, this book is meant to be both an introductory guide and a useful reference on Java and related technologies. As is the nature of this book, the content within the book is continuously being updated and revised. With every chapter within this book, the complexity of the context increases, building up on lessons learnt in the previous chapters. Beginners should therefore start from the beginning and proceed in a sequence throughout the material of the book.

If you are not familiar with object-oriented programming, you should first read the book Object Oriented Programming. Other special purpose books such as Jakarta EE enterprise programming, Java Persistence, or Java Swing programming, with more details, would complement this book nicely.

title: Java Programming


text:
Horticulture/Lamiaceae

Lamiaceae, or the Mint family, is a family of plants in about 210 genera and some 3,500 species. It has been considered closely related to Verbenaceae but several recent phylogenetic studies have shown that numererous genera classified in Verbenaceae belong instead in Lamiaceae, whereas the core genera of Verbenaceae are not closely related to Lamiaceae and are more closely related to other members of the Lamiales.

The plants are frequently aromatic in all parts and include many widely used culinary herbs, such as basil, mint, rosemary, sage, savory, marjoram, oregano, thyme, lavender, and perilla. Some are shrubs, but rarely trees or vines. Many members of the family are widely cultivated, owing not only to their aromatic qualities but also their ease of cultivation: these plants are among the easiest plants to propagate by stem cuttings.

Description
The original family name is Labiatae, so given because the flowers typically have petals fused into an upper lip and a lower lip (labia). Although this is still considered an acceptable alternate name, most botanists now use the name "Lamiaceae" in referring to this family.

The leaves contain aromatic essential oils and emerge oppositely, each pair at right angles to the previous one (called decussate) or whorled.

The stems are frequently square in cross section, but this is not found in all members of the family, and is sometimes found in other plant families.

The flowers are bilaterally symmetrical with 5 united petals, 5 united sepals. They are usually bisexual and verticillastrate (a flower cluster that looks like a whorl of flowers but actually consists of two crowded clusters).

Varieties

 * ../Agastache/
 * Glechoma
 * ../Glechoma hederacea/
 * ../Lavandula/
 * ../Melissa/
 * ../Melissa officinalis/
 * ../Pycnanthemum/
 * ../Stachys/
 * ../Rosmarinus officinalis/
 * ../Salvia/
 * ../Thymus/

Uses
Most members of this family are high-quality nectar sources, attracting both insects and hummingbirds.

title: Horticulture/Lamiaceae


text: Talk:Horticulture/Lamiaceae

title: Talk:Horticulture/Lamiaceae


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Horticulture/Earwigs

Earwig is the common name given to the insect order Dermaptera. With about 1,800 recorded species in 10 families, the order is relatively small among Insecta. Earwigs are, however, quite common globally. There is no evidence that they transmit disease or otherwise harm humans or other animals, despite their nickname pincher bug.

Most earwigs found in Europe and North America are Forficula auricularia, the European earwig, which is distributed throughout the cooler parts of the northern hemisphere.

Description
Earwigs are characterized by membranous wings folded underneath short leathery forewings (hence the literal name of the order - "skin wings"). The abdomen extends well beyond the wings, and frequently, though not always, ends in a pair of forceps-like cerci.

The abdomen of the earwig is flexible and muscular. It is capable of maneuvering as well as opening and closing of the forceps. The forceps are used for a variety of purposes. In some species, the forceps have also been observed in use for holding prey, and in copulation. The forceps tend to be more curved in males than in females.

Most earwigs are elongate, flattened, and are dark brown. Some tropical species are brightly colored. Occasionally earwigs are confused with cockroaches because of their cerci and their long antennae. Lengths are mostly in the 10–14 mm range, with the St. Helena earwig reaching 80 mm. Cerci range from nonexistent to long arcs up to one-third as long as the rest of the body. As in other orthopteroid insects, mouthparts are adapted for chewing. When earwigs have wings (are not agnathous), the hindwings are folded in a complex fashion, so that they fit under the forewings. Earwigs rarely fly.

Earwigs are drawn to damp conditions. During the summer they can be found around sinks and in bathrooms. Earwigs tend to gather in shady cracks or openings or anywhere they can remain concealed in daylight hours. Picnic tables, compost and waste bins, patios, lawn furniture, window frames or anything with minute spaces can potentially harbour these unwanted residents. Upon gaining entry to the basement and living areas of the home, earwigs can easily find cover in undisturbed magazine and newspaper piles, furniture/wickerwork, base boards, carpeted stairways, pet food dishes, and even inside DVD cases. Earwigs are inclined to take risks and are exploratory creatures but are overly unaware of the consequences and will often find themselves trapped in poison baited cups or buckets of soapy water.

Host plants
Erwigs feed on other insects, plants, ripe fruit, and garbage. Plants they feed on typically include clover, dahlias, zinnias, butterfly bush, hollyhock, lettuce, strawberry, sunflowers, celery, peaches, plums, potatoes, roses, seedling beans and beets, and tender grass shoots and roots; they have also been known to eat corn silk, damaging the corn. Typically they are a nuisance because of their diet, but normally do not present serious hazards to crops.

Control
While earwigs can be considered in some ways a beneficial part of the garden, they can become a nuisance because of their diet.

title: Horticulture/Earwigs


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Cookbook:Latino Scramble

| Colombia | Breakfast

Latino scramble is a delicious breakfast option, to feel in a warm tropical morning. You can have this breakfast with white cheese-topped corn arepas, 100% Colombian coffee, and orange juice.

Ingredients

 * 6 eggs
 * 1 large onion, finely chopped
 * 1 large tomato, diced
 * 6 ham slices, chopped
 * 100 g grated mozzarella cheese
 * 1 tablespoon butter
 * Salt
 * Pepper
 * Tabasco sauce
 * 1 tablespoon ketchup
 * 15 oz (425 g) sweet corn

Procedure

 * 1) Melt butter in a medium frying pan over medium heat.
 * 2) Add the chopped onions, and fry until they start to brown.
 * 3) Add ham and sweet corn, and let fry for 5 minutes.
 * 4) Add tomato, salt, and pepper. Though not traditional, you can also add one drop of Tabasco per egg.
 * 5) Beat the eggs with ketchup, and add to frying pan. Immediately add mozzarella cheese.
 * 6) Let cook to your desired egg texture.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * You can add cooked white rice (it gives a feeling of a typical calentao) and diced cooked potatoes.

title: Cookbook:Latino Scramble


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Yield

Percentage yield is a useful way of saying how much of a reactant has been successfully converted to product in a chemical reaction.

from [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja809610h ''J. Am. Chem. Soc. (2009) 131 (26''), 9134–9135]

If all the reactants become products, the percentage yield is 100%. If half the reactants become products and the rest become by-products or don't react at all, the percentage yield is 50%. If none of the reactants end up as products, the percentage yield is 0%.

In a nutshell
For a reaction where, ideally, one mole of starting material A is converted to one mole of products B, i.e. A→ B:

$$\mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ \mbox{moles of product B} }{ \mbox{moles of starting material A} } \times 100 = \frac{\frac{\mbox{mass of product B}}{\mbox{molar mass of product B}}}{\frac{\mbox{mass of starting material A}}{\mbox{molar mass of starting material A}}} \times 100$$

Importance
Percentage yield is important because:
 * chemical reactions very often form by-products as well as the intended product
 * in most reactions, not all of the reactants actually react

What is left at the end of a reaction is thus typically a mixture of product and impurities (impurities being by-products and unreacted starting materials).

Achieving high percentage yields is particularly important in industries that rely on organic synthesis, such as the pharmaceutical industry. It may require tens of steps to synthesise a drug molecule — if there are ten steps, each of which has a percentage yield of 90%, the overall yield is only 35%:

90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% × 90% = (90%)10 = 35%

$$ 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 \times 0.9 = 0.9^{10} = 0.35 $$

In certain reactions (such as the Haber process) reactants can be recycled, in which case high yields are less of an issue.

Percentage yield formula
There is a simple formula you can use to calculate the percentage yield of a reaction A → B:

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ \mbox{moles of product B} }{ \mbox{moles of reactant A} } \times 100 $$

Percentage yield effectively states the percentage of moles of reactant that become product — although this definition only applies if one mole of reactant ideally forms one mole of product, i.e. 1:1 stoichiometry.

In practice, the number of moles of A and B involved have to be calculated using the masses, m and molar masses, M, of A and B.

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ m_B \times M_A }{ m_A \times M_B } \times 100 $$

 * $$m_A \,\!$$ stands for the mass of substance A in g
 * $$M_A \,\!$$ stands for the molar mass of substance A in g mol−1
 * $$m_B \,\!$$ stands for the mass of substance B in g
 * $$M_B \,\!$$ stands for the molar mass of substance B in g mol−1

In words, this is:

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ \mbox{mass of product} \times \mbox{molar mass of starting material} }{ \mbox{mass of starting material} \times \mbox{molar mass of product} } \times 100 $$

This can also be written as:

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ \mbox{mass of product} \div \mbox{molar mass of product} }{ \mbox{mass of starting material} \div \mbox{molar mass of starting material} } \times 100 $$

Another way of writing the same this is given below, but this form is a little untidy:

$$\mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{\frac{\mbox{mass of product}}{\mbox{molar mass of product}}}{\frac{\mbox{mass of starting material}}{\mbox{molar mass of starting material}}} \times 100$$

Notation
$$n_X\,\!$$ means number of moles of substance X

$$m_X\,\!$$ means mass of substance X

$$M_X\,\!$$ means molar mass of substance X

Definition of yield
$$ \mbox{yield} = \frac{ n_B }{ n_A } $$

Definition of percentage yield
$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ n_B }{ n_A } \times 100\% $$

Expressing moles in terms of mass and RFM
$$ n_X = \frac{m_X}{M_X} $$, which you may know as $$ \mbox{moles} = \frac{\mbox{mass}}{\mbox{RFM}} $$

therefore, wherever $$ n_X \,\!$$ appears, it can be replaced with $$ \frac{m_X}{M_X} $$

thus $$ n_B = m_B / M_B \,\!$$

and $$ n_A = m_A / M_A \,\!$$

Rewriting the yield formula in terms of mass and RFM
substituting the above equations into the formula for percentage yield

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ n_B }{ n_A } \times 100\% $$

gives

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ m_B / M_B }{ m_A / M_A } \times 100\% $$

which can be rearranged to give

$$ \mbox{percentage yield} = \frac{ m_B M_A }{ m_A M_B } \times 100\% $$

title: A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Yield


text:
Cookbook:Potato and Sausage Casserole (Papa Turmada)

| Cuisine of Colombia

La papa turmada is a baked potato and criolla sauce with sausage casserole, from Cucuta, Norte de Santander Colombia.

Ingredients

 * 6 large potatoes, peeled and sliced
 * 6 hard boiled eggs
 * 1 cup hogao with 6 sliced fried pork sausages
 * 3 slices of white bread
 * ½ cup milk
 * 1 cup mozzarella cheese
 * 1 cup Parmesan cheese
 * Thyme (optional)

Procedure

 * 1) Boil potatoes until tender (20 minutes).
 * 2) Cut bread into small squares and wet with milk.
 * 3) Grease a 9 x 13-inch (about 25 x 32-cm) Pyrex baking dish.
 * 4) Put a layer of potato, then a layer of hogao and sausage, a layer of sliced egg, a layer of wet bread and a layer of mozzarella cheese. Optionally, add thyme to the hogao.
 * 5) Repeat with another layer of potato, wet bread, and Parmesan cheese.
 * 6) Bake 30 minutes at 350°F (175°C), and serve.


text:
Horticulture/Modifying Wikipedia Articles for Use in Horticulture

The best way to get a start on most chapters is to "transwiki" the Wikipedia article on the subject, and then modify it to suit the ../Manual of Style/ used in this book. Basing the modules of this book on Wikipedia articles has two important advantages:
 * 1) By basing the module on a Wikipedia article, the topic doesn't have to be developed "from scratch". Many Wikipedia articles have been well-edited and copyedited over time, have images to illustrate features of the topic. and so on.
 * 2) Because Wikipedia (like Wikibooks) is licensed under the GFDL, there are rarely problems with copyrights.

The main "problem" with Wikipedia articles is simple: they're encyclopedia articles, not book chapters, and so need to be modified, rearranged, and relinked to fit into this book. In order to facilitate this, a number of templates have been developed to fit various topics, which both help suggest a framework into which the sections (or even sentences) of the Wikipedia articles can be put into, as well as helping to create a consistent structure for all chapters, which in turn makes the book a lot more useful for the home reader or classroom environment.

Step One: Start the module
The best way to start a transwiki-based module is to first Import the Wikipedia article, and then apply the relevant template and develop the chapter. The only problem with this is that only an Administrator can use the import tool. To get the article imported, simply list it on WB:RFI, or for faster action make the request on our main IRC channel, #wikibooks (on freenode). There are almost always administrators listening on the channel, so just type !admin for attention.

Alternatively, contributors can simply copy-and-paste the Wikipedia article and work on it while awaiting Import. When doing this, please be sure to list both the wikipedia article and the chapter as an Import/Merge request here. Note that this is a bit more difficult for administrators (several steps are involved), but it accomplishes the purpose just as well. Very active contributors who wish to import large numbers of articles should consider simple becoming an administrator (the RFA process on wikibooks is far less stressful than it is on Wikipedia).

If there is no article on Wikipedia, or the article is a fairly useless stub, just start the chapter from scratch using the templates.

Step Two: Templatize
There are a number of templates available for creating page structures in A Wikimanual of Gardening. They must be used with "subst:" to work correctly, but the templates they include (primarily infoboxes) should not be substituted:
 * For modules about individual plants, type at the top of the page (usually just above the taxobox), and save.
 * For modules about weed plants, type at the top of the page (usually just above the taxobox), and save.
 * For modules about garden pests, type at the top of the page (usually just above the taxobox), and save.
 * For modules about plant diseases, type at the top of the page (usually just above the taxobox), and save.

Step Three: "Bookify"
"Bookify" is a word occasionally used to mean "change an encyclopedia article into part of a book". The templates for A Wikimanual of Gardening are used to facilitate this process by providing a consistent "narrative structure". Wikipedia articles need to be "dewikified" (wikilinks either removed or replaces with subpage-style links), and for this book they need to be snipped up and re-organized to fit into the fields provided by the templates.

Dewikifying the easy way
The easiest way to dewikify is to simply open both the module page and the edit page side-by side, and just copy from the module and paste over the wikified version on the edit page. There are a few things to look out for however:
 * 1) References need to be pasted around, i.e. they will not render as references from a copy of the text as it appears on the reading view.
 * 2) Italics and boldface are also lost in this process
 * 3) Images also need to be worked around, for the same reason the references need it. If an image appears as a redlink, see the section on this, below.
 * 4) Sometimes it's better to modify the wikilinks to the subpage protocols, rather than simply removing them. See this section for how to do that.

Moving from taxobox to WMOG infoboxes

 * 1) Move the image from the taxobox to the hortibox
 * 2) Add information about family
 * 3) After {{Hortibox|, {{Pestbox| , etc. (the first line of the template), add the common name of the plant, pest, pathogen, etc.
 * 4) Use the "| Genus =" field only when the page is about the genus (if the binomial field is used, don't also use the genus field)
 * 5) Fill in as many fields as you are able, leaving the other ones blank (don't delete fields, as they might be filled in later).

Reordering the text
After dewikifying, move the text into the fields provided by the template.
 * If there is a lot of information that's just not at all of interest for horticulture (like long discussions of the uses of chemicals found in a plant, "trivia" sections mentioning every song or movie that mentions a particular flower, etc.), just remove them, though keep in mind that some trivial information (particularly historical and folklore references) might be useful to the student of horticulture as mneumonic devices, as well as being educational about the uses of plants.
 * For chapters about plant genera, the long species lists often contained in Wikipedia articles are generally not useful, and serve little purpose outside of cluttering up a page. They can be pasted onto the talk page for further reference, but be sure to use the   protocol in onder to prevent creating bad redlinks.

Adding material
After the adaptations are completed, there will almost certainly be gaps to be filled. The more information the better, remember that Wikibooks is not paper. If using external sources (books, journals, other websites, etc.) please be sure to add a link or citation under the "References" section.

Making Chapter Links
Unlike Wikipedia, Wikibooks uses subpages. Links to other chapters of this book can easily be made using ../link/. Redlinks are fine.

Fixing Image Redlinks
If an image appears on the Wikipedia article, but does not appear on the Wikibooks page, this means that the image in in the Wikipedia Image namespace, rather than being on commons. If the image is important to the chapter, images can easily be moved to commons using different tools (see commons:Commons:Tools).

Categorizing
A Wikimanual of Gardening uses a deep category structure. General categories are automatically added when using the templates, but sometimes they need minor modification. There are also more specific categories that will eventually be employed using DynamicPageList (DPL) to provide lists for gardeners who are looking for plants for a particular purpose.

/Project


text: A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Chip-pan fires


text:
Haskell/RegExp

Good tutorials where to start
 * serpentine.com
 * Regular Expressions (Haskell Wiki)

/Not in book

title: Haskell/RegExp


text:
Finite Model Theory/Basics

Query
Notion

Think of a customer-database-software-product that is used by different companies to manage their customers, i.e. they all use their own installations of the same database-product and of course have the data of their own customers in it. Now one can query such a database e.g. "Customers in Africa" that results in a list of all customers in Africa. Although the content of the databases is different the query is defined for all of them - supposed they have customers, countries and the 'in' relation defined. Of course it may deliver different results.

Similarly one can define queries on structures that deliver a set of elements of the universe. Here a set of symbols S corresponds to the database-product, i.e. the naked database-structure, concrete S-structures to database-instances and an interpretation to a database-entry. E.g. $$\forall_x xRy$$ retrieves all possible values for y. In general for formular with n free variables we get a set of n-tuples (that may also be empty). In case the query is a sentence (no free variables) we just get 'yes' or 'no' as result, in case the query has a model in the structure or not. In the database above this can correspond to "Kay Ubuntu is Customer in Africa".

Definition

Let $$\mathfrak A$$ be a S-structure with universe A, m a nonnegative integer and Q a mapping from S-structures to sets of subsets of Am, s.t. each $$\mathfrak A$$ maps to a subset of Am.

Q is said to be a m-ary Query on S-structures iff Q is closed under isomorphism,

where closed (or preserved) under isomorphism is: if $$\mathfrak A \cong \mathfrak B$$ by a isomorphism $$f$$ then $$f(Q(\mathfrak A)) = Q(\mathfrak B)$$.

Remarks

 * A 0-ary Q is also called a boolean query. In this case Q maps to A0, that is a 0-tuple, or the empty set.  The former result is also called TRUE the latter FALSE.
 * For a boolean query Q a subset C of S-structures can be defined by: $$\mathfrak A \in C$$ iff $$Q(\mathfrak A) = true$$
 * the closedness condition ensures that only the 'shape' of structures is queries, i.e. it is unimportant what the universe consists of as long as its related in the same way.

Examples

Simple

Take S = {<}. We query 'all elements that have no smaller element'. This gives for a universe of {10, 11, 12} the result {(10)} (A set of 1-ary tuples). The query for 'all elements that have a smaller element' gives {(11), (12)}. A query for 'all directly succeeding elements' gives {(10, 11), (11, 12)} (A set of 2-ary tuples). The query 'there is a biggest element' results in {} (The 0-ary element), whereas 'there is no biggest element' gives {} (false).

counter example?

Definability
On one hand we have queries that can be more or less 'complicated'. Just think of a database-query simply for all customers with name = 'Ubuntu' compared to a query covering many properties and relationships. On the other hand we have languages of different expressive power like FO and MFO (monadic first oder logic). So one can ask if the expressive power of a language is strong enough to express (define) a certain query.

of classes of structures
Let C be a class of finite structures and L be a logic. C is said to be definable in the logic L iff there is a sentence φ in L s.t. C is the set of all finite models of φ.

of queries
Let Q be a query, L a logic

Q is said to be definable in L iff it exists a formular φ(x1,..., xm) of L in S s.t. for all $$\mathfrak A$$ all elements of $$Q(\mathfrak A)$$ are an assignment on φ s.t. $$\mathfrak A \vDash \varphi$$

Remarks

 * Thus boolean queries are correspond to sentences

Examples
Simple

On a finite graph the query 'there is an element that is adjacent with all others' can be written in FO as $$\exists_x \forall_y x R y$$. The language can even be restricted further, e.g. by allowing only 2 variable per formula (this is approximately what the logic FO2 does).

Application

The database query language SQL contains many extensions to increase its power.

Definition
Partial Isomorphism among structures

Let $$\mathfrak{A}$$ and $$\mathfrak{B}$$ be relational S-Structures and p be a mapping. Then p is said to be a Partial Isomorphism from $$\mathfrak{A}$$ to $$\mathfrak{B}$$ iff all of the following hold
 * dom(p) $$\subseteq$$ A and codom(p) $$\subseteq$$ B
 * p is injective
 * for every constant symbol c from S and every a: a = cA iff p(a) = cB
 * for every n-ary relation symbol R from S and $$a_1$$,..., $$a_n$$: $$R^\mathfrak{A}$$ $$a_1$$... $$a_n$$  iff $$R^\mathfrak{B}$$ $$p(a_1)$$... $$p(a_n)$$

where $$a_*$$ $$\in$$ A, $$b_*$$ $$\in$$ B.

Remarks

 * I.e. a partial Isomorphism on $$\mathfrak{A}$$ and $$\mathfrak{B}$$ is a (plain) Isomprphism on the substructures obtained by choosing dom(p) and codom(p) and 'prune' constants and relations respectively.
 * Partial Homomorphim...

Examples

 * Let S ={<} be defined over A ={1, 2, 3} and B ={3, 4, 5, 6} the natural way. Then $$p_1$$ with 1->3 and 2->4 is a partial isomorphism (since 1 < 2 and p(1) < p(2)) as well as $$p_3$$ with 2->3 and 3->6 as well as $$p_2$$ with 1->6. Whereas neither $$p_4$$ with 1->6 and 2->3 (since 1 < 2 but not p(1) < p(2)) nor $$p_5$$ with 2->5 and 3->5 is a partial isomorphism.
 * Let S ={R} with $$R^\mathfrak{A} =\{(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), (4, 1)\}$$ (a 'square') and $$R^\mathfrak{B} =\{(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5)\}$$ (a 'binary tree'). A ={1,..., 4} and B ={1,..., 5}. Then p: {1, 2, 3} -> {1, 3, 4} with 1->1, 2->3, 3->4 is a partial isomorphism from $$\mathfrak{A}$$ to $$\mathfrak{B}$$, since {(1, 2), (2, 3)} becomes {(1, 3), (3, 4)}.  Notice that in case $$R_\mathfrak{B}$$ contained e.g. (4, 1) additionally, p would not be a partial isomorphism.
 * Let S ={<} be defined over A ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B ={1, 3, 5} the natural way. Then p with 2->3 and 4->5 defines a partial isomorphism. Notice that e.g. $$\exists_x( x<4 \land 2<x )$$ holds on $$\mathfrak{A}$$ but $$\exists_x( x<p(4) \land p(2)<x )$$ does not hold on $$\mathfrak{B}$$. I.e. in general the validity of sentences with quantifiers is not preserved.  So in order to preserve this validity we need sth stronger than partial isomorphism.  That is mainly what the Ehrenfeucht-games will provide us with.

Definition
Partially isomorphic structures

Two structures can said to be partially isomorphic for a certain domain size of p, called n. This can be done in a weak sense, i.e. there exists a n-ary partial isomorphism or in a strict sense, i.e. for every n-elementary subset of A it exists a partial isomprphism. Latter will become important later.

Quantifier Rank
Definition : Quantifier Rank of a FO-Formula

Let φ be a FO formula. The quantifier rank of φ, written qr(φ), is defined as
 * $$qr(\varphi) = 0$$, if φ is atomic.
 * $$qr(\varphi_1 \land \varphi_2) = qr(\varphi_1 \lor \varphi_2) = max(qr(\varphi_1), qr(\varphi_2))$$.
 * $$qr(\lnot \varphi) = qr(\varphi)$$.
 * $$qr(\exists_x \varphi) = qr(\varphi) + 1$$.

Remarks
 * We write FO[n] for the set of all first-order formulas φ with $$qr(\varphi) \le n$$.
 * Notice that in prenex normal form the Quantifier Rank of φ is exactly the number of quantifiers appearing in φ.

Examples

 * The sentence $$\forall_x ( \exists_y ((\lnot x = y) \land x R y ) ) \land ( \exists_y ((\lnot x = z) \land z R x ) ) $$ has the Quantifier Rank 2.
 * The sentence in prenex normal form $$\forall_x\exists_y\exists_y ((\lnot x = y) \land x R y ) \land ( (\lnot x = z) \land z R x ) $$ has the Quantifier Rank 3.  Notice that it is equivalent to the above.

Definition
Rank k m-type

Let...

title: Finite Model Theory/Basics


text:
HP Media Vault

How To Grow A Volume With A New Disk
Once you have installed your new disk then login to the media vault's web server and click the 'Disk Settings' tab.

Click 'Create New Volume'

Fill out as per the following screen shot and then click 'Accept'

The following dialog will be presented (you may have to wait 30 seconds). Click 'OK'.

Wait until the following page is displayed. Make sure that 'Volume1' is selected and click 'Modify Volume'.

You will be presented with the following screen.

Drag the diamond icon on the Disk1 measure and drag it all the way to the right and click 'Accept'.

You will be presented with the following dialog box (below). Click 'OK'. After clicking 'OK' you will then see a lot of disk activity on the box. Under no circumstances should you click anywhere on the HP Media Vault web page during this time. (Disk activity can go quiet at this time for up to a minute but will resume again). Although the dialog box says 4 mins it seems to depend on what volume you are expanding. In this example the expansion was of a volume that already had 315 GB of data on it and the process took 40 minutes.

When the resizing of the volume has taken place you will see this message (which only displays for about 5 seconds).

Followed by this screen. Notice that the size of volume1 has increased with the newly allocated disk.

Your resized volume is now ready to use.

title: HP Media Vault


title: File:Hpmvp1.jpg


text: Template:English for B2 Students/Travel

title: Template:English for B2 Students/Travel


text:
English for B2 Students/Progress Test 1

Progress Test for Units 1 to 6
''Try these exercises without consulting the previous units. For answers click here. (Please write your answers on a printout, don't edit them into this page.) Good luck!!''

Grammar
Complete the following sentences using the most appropriate verb form:

Today has been a very long day so far. I ______ (travel) over 100 kilometres to visit my Auntie. Thankfully, now I _______ (rest) and ______ (eat) dinner before I continue with my journey. Tomorrow will also be a long day. I have to wake up at 6am because my train ______ (leave) at 7am. Then later I ______ (have) lunch with my Auntie. I love visiting my Auntie and have very happy memories. When I was a child we ________ (go) there every summer for two weeks but unfortunately I don't have time to visit as often nowadays.

Vocabulary
Complete these sentences:

 * 1) Are you scared _____ anything?
 * 2) Have you ever ___ (=practiced) __ judo or karate?
 * 3) How many years has your auntie been married ___ your _____ ?
 * 4) Have you ever been _____ America?
 * 5) Have you ever taken your car on a _____ [boat which carries vehicles]?
 * 6) If you had €1,000,000, what ____ you buy?
 * 7) Where are you going _____ holiday this summer?
 * 8) When you were at school did you ever(= skip it) _____  _____ [not go to school because you didn't want to]?

title: English for B2 Students/Progress Test 1


text:
User:Zippy1981

I am a C# programmer by trade currently. I also code in C as a hobby and have experience in PHP. I've been a unix admin in the past.

= Open Source Projects =

 * PlaneDisaster.NET Author
 * SharpDevelop Contributor]
 * AstroGrep Submitted patch for upcoming version.
 * Night Elves Software My code snippets

= Wiki's I contribute to =
 * Wikipedia
 * Conch Shell

title: User:Zippy1981


text:
English for B2 Students/Notes

Welcome Editors!
This book is a Wikibook therefore you are free to edit as you wish but please respect the outline and style that is in use. The book currently features 15 units each with a specific aim with regards to the grammar and vocabulary that they should teach. Before you edit a particular unit please see the Aims page for details of the aim of each lesson. It is hoped that this Wikibook can include as much multimedia (songs, listening exercises, reading texts and games) as possible so any help with creating such resources would be much appreciated.

Other pages to consult
Also refer to the Introduction page so you have an idea about what is expected and who this Wikibook is intended for.

Remember that this Wikibook is designed for B2 students. These students usually have a firm foundation of English and are able to have conversations about most topics but they may still make many mistakes including basic mistakes. Don't make the grammar too easy but at the same time don't assume that the student will already know everything.

Format of Units in this book

 * 1) All units should begin with the title repeated (e.g. "The World of English").
 * 2) The aim of the lesson in terms of grammar and vocabulary should be stated next.
 * 3) Most units then follow with a dialogue exposing some of the language, a reading text or some speaking questions about the unit topic.  Try to include multimedia resources like audio files where possible.
 * 4) The grammar of the lesson should be presented next.  Use a nice table like  and explain any exceptions or difficulties you think students might have.  An alternative is to let the students work out the grammar for themselves but remember to provide a link to the answers somewhere so they can check.
 * 5) I usually like to add some speaking questions next as it provides a nice break from the grammar which can erode the mind!
 * 6) Don't forget to focus on the vocabulary of the lesson.  You can present it in a table or allow the students to identify the correct definitions for themselves.  See units already designed for some ideas.
 * 7) Every unit should end with at least 5 exercises testing the grammar or vocabulary of this lesson.  Don't forget to add the answers to the Answers page.
 * 8) Add a link to some kind of Grammar Reference also.  This could refer the students to the English/English in use Wikibook or another online grammar resource.  Students often like to find out more.
 * 9) The  template should go at the bottom of every unit so that students can easily navigate the Wikibook.  Also try to add some images to make the unit look a little more interesting.

title: English for B2 Students/Notes


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Atomic orbitals

The electrons in an atom do not follow a fixed orbit like planets orbiting the sun. Electrons are subject to the laws of quantum mechanics, which means their motion is very different to normal, life-sized objects. We describe their location within atoms in terms of three-dimensional "clouds" called orbitals. An orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons, spins paired.

It is important to note that electrons are not entirely confined within the atom. The orbitals shown below give the shapes of the regions that contain the electron 95% of the time. However, the other 5% of the time, the electron is somewhere outside this region. An electron from an atom in your hand may temporarily be on the other side of the moon, but it is only very rarely there, so rarely in fact that we can ignore it for the purposes of understanding the behaviour of atoms.

p orbitals
There are three p orbitals in a p subshell. They are labelled px, py, and pz. The px orbital points along the x-axis, the py points along the y-axis and the pz points along the z-axis. This means that the three p orbitals are all at 90° to each other (perpendicular and orthogonal are two words you may see used to mean the same thing).

d orbitals
The d orbitals have slightly confusing names. From left to right, they are: dz², dx²−y², dxy, dxz, and dyz.

Sometimes, particularly when discussing d orbital splitting in complexes, d orbitals are arranged into two groups based on their symmetry. The dz² and dx²−y² orbitals form a group called eg, while the dxy, dxz and dyz orbitals form a group called t2g.


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