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Applied Ecology/Breeding and Reintroduction of Rare Species

Organisations
'Species re-introduction' is a process to establish a plant or animal in an area which was once part of its historical range, but from which it has been extirpated or become extinct. 'Species re-establishment' is a synonym, which usually implies that the re-introduction has been successful. The term translocation is used to describe the deliberate and mediated movement of wild individuals or populations from one part of their range to another. Reinforcement or supplementation means the addition of individuals to an existing population.

'Benign introduction' is a process to establish a species, for the purpose of conservation, outside its recorded distribution but within an appropriate habitat and eco-geographical area.

Zoos, aquaria, marine parks, insect houses, botanical gardens - all have their role to play in captive breeding of plants and animals to provide stocks for reintroductions, be it by actually conducting captive breeding, or providing expertise and help. It is estimated that there are about 500,000 animals in captivity in zoos throughout the world. However, it is widely believed that for best results, captive breeding must be done with minimum human contact. The survival of up to 60,000 plant species - about a quarter of the world's total - will be threatened over the next few decades by population growth, deforestation, habitat loss, destructive development and agricultural expansion. Human survival is threatened by the destruction of plants on such a massive scale. In addition to the small number of crop plants we use for our basic food, many wild plants also have great economic importance, providing food, fuel, clothing and shelter for hundreds of millions of people throughout the world. Plants also supply medicines, especially in developing countries where vast numbers depend on wild plants for their traditional remedies. Plants also help maintain the planet's environmental balance and ecosystem stability and provide habitats for the world's animal life.

Botanical Gardens

There are about 1,600 botanic gardens in the world. They grow tens of thousands of plant species between them; probably as much as a quarter of all the world's flowering plants and ferns are in their collections. The increasing rate of the loss of plant diversity and wild habitats worldwide has encouraged many botanic gardens to become important conservation centres.

In many countries, botanic gardens are amongst the leading, and sometimes the only, institutions involved in or capable of undertaking extensive work in wild plant research and conservation. Many new botanic gardens are being opened or developed to act as centres for plant conservation, study and education, particularly of plants native to their own regions.

Botanic gardens can be defined as public gardens which maintain collections of live plants mainly for study; for scientific research, conservation or education. Many different types of botanic gardens occur, large and small. While their size and resources varies hugely, botanic gardens are united in the belief of the important role that they must play in preserving the world's plant diversity.

 * Botanical gardens grow large collections of endangered plants, holding them safely in cultivation or seed banks in case wild populations are destroyed.
 * They reintroduce plants back to wild as part of species recovery projects.
 * They undertake botanical research to document and record the plants of the world and their characteristics. For example, their collections of dried plants (herbaria) contain millions of specimens as a permanent global reference on plant diversity.
 * They promote environmental awareness amongst the general public through their education work. Globally, botanic gardens receive more that 150 million visitors each year.
 * They are expert centres for horticulture and training; knowing how to grow a plant may be a key to its future survival.

Zoos and Other Institutions for Animal Breeding
A commonly stated aim of many captive breeding programmes conducted in zoological parks is to produce founder populations for release into the wild in reintroduction programmes. Not many zoos possess the know-how for seriously managing captive populations, though that is a situation that is rapidly changing. With new technology, like molecular and DNA analysis, species management has become easier and helps scientists avoid potential pitfalls. For example, mapping genealogical information also helps minimising inbreeding.

Policy guidelines have been drafted by the Re-introduction Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in response to the increasing occurrence of re-introduction projects worldwide, and consequently, to the growing need for specific policy guidelines to help ensure that the re-introductions achieve their intended conservation benefit, and do not cause adverse side-effects of greater impact.

These guidelines are intended to act as a guide for procedures useful to re-introduction programmes and do not represent an inflexible code of conduct. Many of the points are more relevant to re-introductions using captive-bred individuals than to translocations of wild species. Others are especially relevant to globally endangered species with limited numbers of founders. Each re-introduction proposal should be rigorously reviewed on its individual merits. It should be noted that re-introduction is always a very lengthy, complex and expensive process. The following sections which illustrate the requirement to integrate ecological knowledge with re-introduction, have been taken from the guidelines.

Aims and objectives
The principal aim of any re-introduction should be to establish a viable, free-ranging population in the wild, of a species, subspecies or race, which has become globally or locally extinct, or extirpated, in the wild. It should be re-introduced within the species' former natural habitat and range and should require minimal long-term management.

The objectives of a re-introduction may include: to enhance the long-term survival of a species; to re-establish a keystone species (in the ecological or cultural sense) in an ecosystem; to maintain and/or restore natural biodiversity; to provide long-term economic benefits to the local and/or national economy; to promote conservation awareness; or a combination of these.

A re-introduction requires a multidisciplinary approach involving a team of persons drawn from a variety of backgrounds. As well as government personnel, they may include persons from governmental natural resource management agencies; non-governmental organisations; funding bodies; universities; veterinary institutions; zoos (and private animal breeders) and/or botanic gardens, with a full range of suitable expertise. Team leaders should be responsible for coordination between the various bodies and provision should be made for publicity and public education about the project.

Biological

 * (i) Feasibility study and background research

An assessment should be made of the taxonomic status of individuals to be re-introduced. They should preferably be of the same subspecies or race as those which were extirpated, unless adequate numbers are not available. An investigation of historical information about the loss and fate of individuals from the re-introduction area, as well as molecular genetic studies, should be undertaken in case of doubt as to individuals' taxonomic status. A study of genetic variation within and between populations of this and related taxa can also be helpful. Special care is needed when the population has long been extinct.

 * Detailed studies should be made of the status and biology of wild populations(if they exist) to determine the species' critical needs. For animals, this would include descriptions of habitat preferences, intraspecific variation and adaptations to local ecological conditions, social behaviour, group composition, home range size, shelter and food requirements, foraging and feeding behaviour, predators and diseases. For migratory species, studies should include the potential migratory areas. For plants, it would include biotic and abiotic habitat requirements, dispersal mechanisms, reproductive biology, symbiotic relationships (e.g. with mycorrhizae, pollinators), insect pests and diseases. Overall, a firm knowledge of the natural history of the species in question is crucial to the entire re-introduction scheme.

 * The species, if any, that has filled the void created by the loss of the species concerned, should be determined; an understanding of the effect the re-introduced species will have on the ecosystem is important for ascertaining the success of the re-introduced population.

 * The build-up of the released population should be modelled under various sets of conditions, in order to specify the optimal number and composition of individuals to be released per year and the numbers of years necessary to promote establishment of a viable population.

 * A Population and Habitat Viability Analysis will aid in identifying significant environmental and population variables and assessing their potential interactions, which would guide long-term population management.

 * (ii) Previous Re-introductions

 * Thorough research into previous re-introductions of the same or similar species and wide-ranging contacts with persons having relevant expertise should be conducted prior to and while developing re-introduction protocol.

 * (iii) Choice of release site and type

 * Site should be within the historic range of the species. For an initial re-inforcement there should be few remnant wild individuals. For a re-introduction, there should be no remnant population to prevent disease spread, social disruption and introduction of alien genes. In some circumstances, a re-introduction or re-inforcement may have to be made into an area which is fenced or otherwise delimited, but it should be within the species' former natural habitat and range.

 * A conservation/ benign introduction should be undertaken only as a last resort when no opportunities for re-introduction into the original site or range exist and only when a significant contribution to the conservation of the species will result.

 * The re-introduction area should have assured, long-term protection (whether formal or otherwise).

 * (iv) Evaluation of re-introduction site

 * Availability of suitable habitat: re-introductions should only take place where the habitat and landscape requirements of the species are satisfied, and likely to be sustained for the for-seeable future. The possibility of natural habitat change since extirpation must be considered. Likewise, a change in the legal/ political or cultural environment since species extirpation needs to be ascertained and evaluated as a possible constraint. The area should have sufficient carrying capacity to sustain growth of the re-introduced population and support a viable (self-sustaining) population in the long run.

 * Identification and elimination, or reduction to a sufficient level, of previous causes of decline: could include disease; over-hunting; over-collection; pollution; poisoning; competition with or predation by introduced species; habitat loss; adverse effects of earlier research or management programmes; competition with domestic livestock, which may be seasonal. Where the release site has undergone substantial degradation caused by human activity, a habitat restoration programme should be initiated before the re-introduction is carried out.

 * (v) Availability of suitable release stock

 * It is desirable that source animals come from wild populations. If there is a choice of wild populations to supply founder stock for translocation, the source population should ideally be closely related genetically to the original native stock and show similar ecological characteristics (morphology, physiology, behaviour, habitat preference) to the original sub-population.

 * Removal of individuals for re-introduction must not endanger the captive stock population or the wild source population. Stock must be guaranteed available on a regular and predictable basis, meeting specifications of the project protocol.

 * Individuals should only be removed from a wild population after the effects of translocation on the donor population have been assessed, and after it is guaranteed that these effects will not be negative.

 * If captive or artificially propagated stock is to be used, it must be from a population which has been soundly managed both demographically and genetically, according to the principles of contemporary conservation biology.

 * Re-introductions should not be carried out merely because captive stocks exist, nor solely as a means of disposing of surplus stock.

 * Prospective release stock, including stock that is a gift between governments, must be subjected to a thorough veterinary screening process before shipment from original source. Any animals found to be infected or which test positive for non-endemic or contagious pathogens with a potential impact on population levels, must be removed from the consignment, and the uninfected, negative remainder must be placed in strict quarantine for a suitable period before retest. If clear after retesting, the animals may be placed for shipment.

 * Since infection with serious disease can be acquired during shipment, especially if this is intercontinental, great care must be taken to minimize this risk.

 * Stock must meet all health regulations prescribed by the veterinary authorities of the recipient country and adequate provisions must be made for quarantine if necessary.

 * (vi) Release of captive stock

 * Most species of mammal and birds rely heavily on individual experience and learning as juveniles for their survival; they should be given the opportunity to acquire the necessary information to enable survival in the wild, through training in their captive environment; a captive bred individual's probability of survival should approximate that of a wild counterpart.

 * Care should be taken to ensure that potentially dangerous captive bred animals (such as large carnivores or primates) are not so confident in the presence of humans that they might be a danger to local inhabitants and/or their livestock.

Socio-economic and Legal

 * Re-introductions are generally long-term projects that require the commitment of long-term financial and political support.

 * Socio-economic studies should be made to assess impacts, costs and benefits of the re-introduction programme to local human populations.

 * A thorough assessment of attitudes of local people to the proposed project is necessary to ensure long term protection of the re-introduced population, especially if the cause of species' decline was due to human factors (e.g. over-hunting, over-collection, loss or alteration of habitat). The programme should be fully understood, accepted and supported by local communities.

 * Where the security of the re-introduced population is at risk from human activities, measures should be taken to minimise these in the re-introduction area. If these measures are inadequate, the re-introduction should be abandoned or alternative release areas sought.

 * The policy of the country to re-introductions and to the species concerned should be assessed. This might include checking existing provincial, national and international legislation and regulations, and provision of new measures and required permits as necessary.

 * Re-introduction must take place with the full permission and involvement of all relevant government agencies of the recipient or host country. This is particularly important in re-introductions in border areas, or involving more than one state or when a re-introduced population can expand into other states, provinces or territories.

If the species poses potential risk to life or property, these risks should be minimised and adequate provision made for compensation where necessary; where all other solutions fail, removal or destruction of the released individual should be considered. In the case of migratory/mobile species, provisions should be made for crossing of international/state boundaries.

 * (i) Planning, preparation and release stages

 * Approval of relevant government agencies and land owners, and coordination with national and international conservation organizations.

 * Construction of a multidisciplinary team with access to expert technical advice for all phases of the programme.

 * Identification of short- and long-term success indicators and prediction of programme duration, in context of agreed aims and objectives.

 * Securing adequate funding for all programme phases.

 * Design of pre- and post- release monitoring programme so that each re-introduction is a carefully designed experiment, with the capability to test methodology with scientifically collected data. Monitoring the health of individuals, as well as the survival, is important; intervention may be necessary if the situation proves unforseeably favourable.

 * Appropriate health and genetic screening of release stock, including stock that is a gift between governments. Health screening of closely related species in the re-introduction area.

 * If release stock is wild-caught, care must be taken to ensure that: a) the stock is free from infectious or contagious pathogens and parasites before shipment and b) the stock will not be exposed to vectors of disease agents which may be present at the release site (and absent at the source site) and to which it may have no acquired immunity.

 * If vaccination prior to release, against local endemic or epidemic diseases of wild stock or domestic livestock at the release site, is deemed appropriate, this must be carried out during the "Preparation Stage" so as to allow sufficient time for the development of the required immunity.

 * Appropriate veterinary or horticultural measures as required to ensure health of released stock throughout the programme. This is to include adequate quarantine arrangements, especially where founder stock travels far or crosses international boundaries to the release site.

 * Development of transport plans for delivery of stock to the country and site of re-introduction, with special emphasis on ways to minimize stress on the individuals during transport.

 * Determination of release strategy (acclimatization of release stock to release area; behavioural training - including hunting and feeding; group composition, number, release patterns and techniques; timing).

 * Establishment of policies on interventions (see below).

 * Development of conservation education for long-term support; professional training of individuals involved in the long-term programme; public relations through the mass media and in local community; involvement where possible of local people in the programme.

 * The welfare of animals for release is of paramount concern through all these stages.

 * (ii) Post-release activities

 * Post release monitoring is required of all (or sample of) individuals. This most vital aspect may be by direct (e.g. tagging, telemetry) or indirect (e.g. spoor, informants) methods as suitable.
 * Demographic, ecological and behavioural studies of released stock must be undertaken.
 * Study of processes of long-term adaptation by individuals and the population.
 * Collection and investigation of mortalities.
 * Interventions (e.g. supplemental feeding; veterinary aid; horticultural aid) when necessary.
 * Decisions for revision, rescheduling, or discontinuation of programme where necessary.
 * Habitat protection or restoration to continue where necessary.
 * Continuing public relations activities, including education and mass media coverage.
 * Evaluation of cost-effectiveness and success of re- introduction techniques.
 * Regular publications in scientific and popular literature.


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Personal Finance/Tax Advantaged Savings

Ideally, you should be saving a portion of all of your earnings for your retirement. A recommended amount is usually a minimum of 10% of your income. However, the amount you need to save depends on the estimated growth in value, the number of years you have until retirement, the income you will require and many other factors.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Personal Finance/Tax Advantaged Savings


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Cookbook:Garlic Salt

Garlic salt is a spice commonly found in the U.S.. It is a mixture of garlic and salt as the name suggests. It is used on garlic bread, salads, subs, pasta and french fries. Some also use it on chicken, hamburgers, and baked potatoes.

Ingredients

 * 1 volume of garlic powder
 * 3 volumes of fine salt

Procedure

 * 1) Combine the garlic powder and salt. Adjusting the ratio of salt to garlic powder will alter the taste of the seasoning slightly.

title: Cookbook:Garlic Salt


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Cookbook talk:Garlic Salt

* (cur) (last) 09:40, 30 January 2006 Kerowyn (Stub-sorting. You can help!) * (cur) (last) 01:40, 29 January 2006 Snailwalker (cookbook) * (cur) (last) 01:40, 29 January 2006 Enochlau m (+ stub) * (cur) (last) 01:39, 29 January 2006 Maxberger (created page)
 * (cur) (last) 20:06, 31 January 2006 Kaisershatner

title: Cookbook talk:Garlic Salt


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Formal Logic/Predicate Logic/Free and Bound Variables

= Free and Bound Variables =

Informal notions
The two English sentences,

 * If Socrates is a person, then Socrates is mortal,
 * if Aristotle is a person, then Aristotle is mortal,

are both true. However, outside any context supplying a reference for 'it',

 * (1)   If it is a person, then it is mortal,

is neither true nor false. 'It' is not a name, but rather an empty placeholder. 'It' can refer to an object by picking up its reference from the surrounding context. But without such context, there is no reference and no truth or falsity. The same applies to the variable ' x ' in

 * (2)   If x is a person, then x is mortal.

This situation changes with the two sentences:

 * (3)   For any object, if it is a person, then it is mortal,
 * (4)   For any object x, if x is a person, then x is mortal.

Neither the occurrences of 'it' nor the occurrences of ' x ' in these sentences refer to specific objects as with 'Socrates' or 'Aristotle'. But (3) and (4) are nonetheless true. (3) is true if and only if:

 * (5)   Replacing both occurrences of 'it' in (3) with a reference to any object whatsoever (the same object both times) yields a true result.

But (5) is true and so is (3). Similarly, (4) is true if and only if:

 * (6)   Replacing both occurrences of ' x ' in (4) with a reference to any object whatsoever (the same object both times) yields a true result.

But (3) is true and so is (4). We can call the occurrences of 'it' in (1) free and the occurrences of 'it' in (3) bound. Indeed, the occurrences of 'it' in (3) are bound by the phrase 'for any'. Similarly, the occurrences ' x ' in (2) are free while those in (4) are bound. Indeed, the occurrences of ' x ' in (4) are bound by the phrase 'for any'.

Formal definitions
An occurrence of a variable $$\alpha\,\!$$ is bound in $$\varphi\,\!$$ if that occurrence of $$\alpha\,\!$$ stands within a subformula of $$\varphi\,\!$$ having one of the two forms:

 * $$\forall \alpha\, \psi\ ,\,\!$$
 * $$\exists \alpha\, \psi\ .\,\!$$

Consider the formula

 * $$(7) \quad (\exists x_0\, \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \forall y_0\, \mathrm{F^1_0}(y_0))\ .\,\!$$

Both instances of $$x_0\,\!$$ are bound in (7) because they stand within the subformula

 * $$\exists x_0\, \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0)\ .\,\!$$

Similarly, both instances of $$y_0\,\!$$ are bound in (7) because they stand within the subformula

 * $$\forall y_0\, \mathrm{F^1_0}(y_0)\ .\,\!$$

An occurrence of a variable $$\alpha\,\!$$ is free in $$\varphi\,\!$$ if and only if $$\alpha\,\!$$ is not bound in $$\varphi\,\!$$. The occurrences of both $$x_0\,\!$$ and $$y_0\,\!$$ in

 * $$(8) \quad (\mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \mathrm{G^1_0}(y_0))\,\!$$

are free in (8) because neither is bound in (8).

We say that an occurrence of a variable $$\alpha\,\!$$ is bound in by a particular occurrence of $$\forall\,\!$$ if that occurrence is also the first (and perhaps only) symbol in the shortest subformula of $$\varphi\,\!$$ having the form

 * $$\forall \alpha\, \psi\ .\,\!$$

Consider the formula

 * $$(9) \quad \forall x_0\, (\mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \forall x_0\, \mathrm{G^1_0}(x_0))\ .\,\!$$

The third and fourth occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in (9) are bound by the second occurrence of $$\forall\,\!$$ in (9). However, they are not bound by the first occurrence of $$\forall\,\!$$ in (9). The occurrence of

 * $$(10) \quad \forall x_0\, \mathrm{G^1_0}(x_0)\,\!$$

in (9)—as well as the occurrence of (9) itself in (9)—are subformulae of (9) beginning with a quantifier. That is, both are subformula of (9) having the form

 * $$\forall \alpha\, \psi\ .\,\!$$

Both contain the second third and fourth occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in (9). However, the occurrence of (10) in (9) is the shortest subformula of (9) that meets these conditions. That is, the occurrence of (10) in (9) is the shortest subformula of (9) that both (i) has this form and (ii) contains the third and fourth occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in (9). Thus it is the second, not the first, occurrence of $$\forall\,\!$$ in (9) that binds the third and forth occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in (9). The first occurrence of $$\forall\,\!$$ in (9) does, however, bind the first two occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in (9).

We also say that an occurrence of a variable $$\alpha\,\!$$ is bound in by a particular occurrence of $$\exists\,\!$$ if that occurrence is also the first (and perhaps only) symbol in the shortest subformula of $$\varphi\,\!$$ having the form

 * $$\exists \alpha\, \psi\ .\,\!$$

Finally, we say that a variable $$\alpha\,\!$$ (not a particular occurrence of it) is bound (or free) in a formula if the formula contains a bound (or free) occurrence of $$\alpha\,\!$$. Thus $$x_0\,\!$$ is both bound and free in

 * $$(\forall x_0\, \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0))\,\!$$

since this formula contains both bound and free occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$. In particular, the first two occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ are bound and the last is free.

Sentences and formulae
A sentence is a formula with no free variables. Sentential logic had no variables at all, so all formulae of $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$ are also sentences of $$\mathcal{L_S}\,\!$$. In predicate logic and its language $$\mathcal{L_P}\,\!$$, however, we have formulae that are not sentences. All of (7), (8), (9), and (10) above are formulae. Of these, only (7), (9), and (10) are sentences. (8) is not a sentence because it contains free variables.

Examples
All occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in

 * $$(11) \quad \forall x_0 (\mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \mathrm{G^2_0}(x_0, y_0))\,\!$$

are bound in the formula. The lone occurrence of $$y_0\,\!$$ is free in the formula. Hence, (11) is a formula but not a sentence.

Only the first two occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in

 * $$(12) \quad (\forall x_0 \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \mathrm{G^2_0}(x_0, y_0))\,\!$$

are bound in the formula. The last occurrence of $$x_0\,\!$$ and the lone occurrence of $$y_0\,\!$$ in the formula are free in the formula. Hence, (12) is a formula but not a sentence.

All four occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in

 * $$(13) \quad (\forall x_0 \mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \exists x_0 \mathrm{G^2_0}(x_0, y_0))\,\!$$

are bound. The first two are bound by the universal quantifier, the last two are bound by the existential quantifier. The lone occurrence of $$y_0\,\!$$ in the formula is free. Hence, (13) is a formula but not a sentence.

All three occurrences of $$x_0\,\!$$ in

 * $$(14) \quad \forall x_0 (\mathrm{F^1_0}(x_0) \rightarrow \exists y_0 \mathrm{G^2_0}(x_0, y_0))\,\!$$

are bound by the universal quantifier. Both occurrences of $$y_0\,\!$$ in the formula are bound by the existential quantifier. Hence, (14) has no free variables and so is a sentence and as well as a formula.


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User talk:Elenastoimenova

--Derbeth talk 20:37, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elenastoimenova


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Cookbook talk:Duck

This module uses text adapted from the Wikipedia article Duck. Please see that page for authors.

This module uses text adapted from the public domain article Safety of Duck and Goose from the US Department of Agriculture.

title: Cookbook talk:Duck


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Cookbook:Low-Sodium Cooking

Definition
A low-sodium diet is normally advised for people who suffer from heart and blood related conditions, such as high blood pressure, angina and for people who have previously suffered heart attacks (myocardial infarction), and also for people who have suffered, or who are prone to, conditions such as stroke or CVA (cerebrovascular attack).

Foods prepared and cooked for patients on this diet should contain as little added salt as possible, preferably none. This allows the consumer to season the food according to their own taste. A recommended daily intake for a low-sodium is less than 2,000 milligrams per day.

Some people find food in this dietary grouping quite bland and "boring", so it is up to the preparer to find new and interesting ways to season the food, in order to provide as much taste as possible, with little salt or sodium. To improve the flavors of sodium-free food, one can add combinations of herbs and spices. One can also use replace roughly half of their salt with potassium chloride, although it's too bitter to completely replace salt. When cooking savoury dishes, roughly 20% of the salt that you use can also be replaced with MSG, which has less sodium by weight.

If you have just started a sodium-free diet, it will take at least one week for your palate to adjust to the lack of salt.

title: Cookbook:Low-Sodium Cooking


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Talk:Haskell/Lists II

Currying
The same problem as described here in the section Higher-Order Functions and Types https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Talk:Haskell/Higher-order_functions

78.29.93.171 (discuss) 09:42, 24 February 2019 (UTC)

Solutions
I'm learning Haskell, so I decided to do the exercises on this page. -- 1. takeInt :: Integer -> [Integer] -> [Integer] takeInt 0 _ = [] takeInt m (n:ns) = n : takeInt (m-1) ns main = print (takeInt 4 [11,21,31,41,51,61])

-- 2. dropInt :: Integer -> [Integer] -> [Integer] dropInt 0 n = n dropInt m (n:ns) = dropInt (m-1) ns main = print (dropInt 3 [11,21,31,41,51])

-- 3. sumInt :: [Integer] -> Integer sumInt [] = 0 sumInt (n:ns) = n + (sumInt ns) main = print (sumInt [1..5])

-- 4. scanSum :: [Integer] -> [Integer] scanSum n = scanSum' n 0 scanSum' [] _ = [] scanSum' (n:ns) a = n+a : (scanSum' ns (n+a)) main = print (scanSum [2,3,4,5])

-- 5. diffs :: [Integer] -> [Integer] diffs [] = [] diffs (m:[]) = [] diffs (m:n:ns) = n-m : (diffs (n:ns)) main = print (diffs [3,5,6,8]) --Colonel panic 21:14, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

Maybe something like this is what the author was looking for, based on the hint:

-- 5. diffs' :: [Integer] -> [Integer] -> [Integer] diffs' _ [] = [] diffs' [] _ = [] diffs' (a:ax) (b:bx) = (b-a) : diffs' ax bx diffs :: [Integer] -> [Integer] diffs [] = [] diffs (a:ax) = diffs' (a:ax) ax

-- Fshahriar 23:44, 7 May 2006 (UTC)

I think it would be more intuitive to substract the second from first element, and so on. At least when I read "difference between adjacent elements" I immediatly thought that [3,5,6,8] should produce [-2,-1,-2], only the example clarifies that.

-- Moritz, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Hi folks, would you maybe consider updating the solutions page to this module? Thanks -- Kowey 11:28, 21 May 2007 (UTC)

Alternate Solution for scanSum
There's a solution for creating scanSum with only one function. The trick is in the pattern matching - "(x:y:zs)" will match the first element in a set, the second element, and the remainder.

Aborting evaluation
The note about aborting evaluation is useful here, but it may be a good idea to also include it in an earlier chapter, where factorial is introduced. In that chapter, it mentions that you can get into an infinite loop by feeding in a negative number, but it doesn't tell you how to abort. Also, it may be a good idea to spell out the keypress, in the case that the reader doesn't know what "C-c" means. 65.201.194.91 23:13, 22 June 2007 (UTC)

head/tail
ghci gives an error on compiling your solution of the head/tail-based implementation of "lastOf":

lastOf :: [a] -> a lastOf [] = error "Empty list" lastOf ls = if (tail ls == []) then head ls  else lastOf ls

Error: Could not deduce (Eq a) from the context arising from a use of `==' at taken.hs:68:15-29 Possible fix: add (Eq a) to the context of the type signature for `lastOf' In the predicate expression: (tail ls) == [] In the expression: if (tail ls) == [] then head ls else lastOf ls   In the definition of `lastOf': lastOf ls = if (tail ls) == [] then head ls else lastOf ls

Before giving this solution, you should explain the expression Eq.

By the way there is an error in the last line; it should read: "else lastOf (tail ls)". The complete correct function would be:

lastEl2 :: Eq a => [a] -> a lastEl2 [] = error "empty list" lastEl2 ls = if (tail ls == []) then head ls   else lastEl2 (tail ls)

 * Well spotted... going to fix both of these issues. --Duplode (discuss • contribs) 15:00, 3 April 2012 (UTC)

Rewrite of list comprehensions section
As a newbie Haskeller I am following this book chapter by chapter. When I reached the list comprehensions subsection it kind of bothered me because:

 * Many of the examples and commentaries were distracting and only tangentially related to the main subject.
 * Some of the code examples relied on language features not yet covered at this point of the book.
 * As a whole, it made the list comprehensions look far more complicated than they actually are.

In order to alleviate these problems I performed a substantial rewrite of the section. Some details - and, crucially, good exercises - are still to be added, but the key changes are already in place. Since I am still a newbie, I feel it would be mandatory to have the changes discussed and reviewed by more experienced people, so I invite you all to do so. Thanks! --Duplode (talk) 18:47, 27 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Thanks, and much appreciated! On first glance, your edits sound great to me, but I'll check them in detail when I've got the time.
 * -- apfeλmus 18:43, 28 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Your changes to the list comprehensions are fine. Note, however, that list comprehensions are even more general, they also involve . For example, the following
 * lists all the Pythagorean triples with numbers smaller than 50.
 * lists all the Pythagorean triples with numbers smaller than 50.

 * Concerning the order of the list chapters, however, I recommend the following order for the different functions and concepts:
 * 1 - and [], head and tail
 * 2 - map, filter, [1..100] syntax
 * 3 - list comprehensions as a more readable syntax for map  and filter.
 * 4 - (++), concat
 * 5 - Defining recursive functions on lists, zip
 * 6 - sum, product, all, any; then show that they are special cases of fold
 * -- apfeλmus 14:16, 3 May 2010 (UTC)

Renaming to be more clear
This chapter covers generalized functions, currying, and mapping… Mostly, it is about how functions work and the concepts aren't all that list-specific. It could have a much more precise chapter title than "More about lists"Backfromquadrangle (discuss • contribs) 23:51, 25 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Possibly, but there are some subtle issues involved. While about half of the chapter is about lists, the more interesting parts are in the other half. On the other hand, the discussions about functions here aim at introducing  as a key function on lists, and not as a convenient example of something else. It's just that higher order functions are too important for their first example to be presented as a black box. There are deeper discussions of higher order functions, partial application and related matters in "More on Functions" and "Higher Order Functions"; however I do not see that as duplication, but as deliberate strategy (i.e. introducing a concept in a very elementary way and then later coming back to it with a deeper treatment). You will find that strategy is used for a few other themes in the book.
 * The peculiar status of "More About Lists" and "List Processing" (the latter, in my opinion, has an even worse name than this one) is in part due to historical reasons. In essence, they are a single chapter which was arbitrarily divided in two because it was too big. That is why there is no introductory paragraph in "List Processing". Furthermore, back in 2010 I swapped large amounts of text between the two chapters in order to eliminate circular dependencies between the topics. --Duplode (discuss • contribs) 07:51, 27 April 2014 (UTC)

Code in "Generalizing even further" is incorrect
The following code from this chapter causes an error in GHC. In the above code, multiplyList is a partially-applied version of applyToIntegers, meaning that it takes an argument of type [Integer] and returns a value of type [Integer]. Its type signature, however, states otherwise: that it takes two arguments, of type Integer and [Integer], respectively. GHCi complains about this as follows:

Couldn't match type `[Integer]' with `Integer' Expected type: Integer -> [Integer] -> [Integer] Actual type: [Integer] -> [Integer] In the return type of a call of `applyToIntegers'

The definition of multiplyList should be either of the following:

Which is better given the context of the lesson?

Since I don't think composition (.) is really discussed that much until the later chapter "Higher-order functions and Currying," your second suggestions seems better to me at this point in the tutorial. Another possible way to correct this, (which as a novice seems to flow best in my thought pattern but may not be idiomatic Haskell) is:

 * Thanks for the correction, it was meant to be as you two have written.  is the best phrasing at this point, both because it's better to wait for "Higher-order functions" to go full point-free and because in Haskell Basics/Elementary Haskell we avoid insisting much on syntactic variations, as they can distract away from the key points (so sections can wait till "More on functions"). As for the final question, personally I prefer   in actual code, and   when proving things. Duplode (discuss • contribs) 13:12, 4 July 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Haskell/Lists II


text:
Student Congress Debate/Preface

What Student Congress is
Student Congress (Legislative debate) is a high school co-curricular imitating our US Congress. It provides students with the opportunity to combine the traditional oratory skills of speech and debate with the interpersonal skills of working and negotiating with others. As members of congress, students are offered the chance to think and reflect on some of the most difficult and important issues facing the world today. In a number of ways, Student Congress provides an education that can exceed the typical education received by many students in the classroom. The active and engaging environment of congress challenges students to consider, analyze, and articulate public policy ideas and positions.

Related Resources
There is a related book on this wiki:
 * Issue Guide which covers debating topics in general. Some of the topics in that book may be useful in student debates.

title: Student Congress Debate/Preface


text:
Talk:Islam Way of Life/Practising Islam

I have read the page, and corrected some minor errors in spelling.

Is there an "in place" space for criticism of Islam? (obviously, criticism should not be directed to this page.)

Is this something to be handled inside of this wiki city, or, outside of it?

Thanks.

Prometheuspan 02:19, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

Criticism against Islam is not allowed inside the book. The reason is this book should contains real life muslim view and practice on their religion. However you have two choice.

 * 1) You can put links on the sources part
 * 2) Put you critics here in discussion.

212.123.21.178 13:23, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I do not understand why this is in My Talk as I have made no contributions to such a discussion! Why has this come to me? - Probably a mistake. The entry in your Talk is deleted, and this entry will be as well.

Spin off this book
In the future, I will spin off this book. Reason:
 * 1) Incompatibility: The Islam Way of Life talks about The Ancient Islam (not a religion), while this book about The Modern Islam (a religion)
 * 2) Too big for a chapter: This book will be expanded with more detail.

Steps to spin off this book:
 * 1) Rename from "Muslim Life" to "Practising Islam"
 * 2) Add More Practical Detail (such as types of Zakat)
 * 3) Add More Example Story (such as paying Zakat as an employee)
 * 4) Add Reference to Fiqh Book (such as Imam Nawawi)
 * 5) Spin off the Book

References to use: 91.176.29.146 (talk) 06:38, 3 November 2010 (UTC)
 * 1) Book of Emaan by Ibn Taymiyyah
 * 2) Reliance of The Traveller A classical manual of Islamic Sacred Law by Ahmad Ibn Naqib Al Misr
 * 3) Fiqh-us-Sunnah by Sayyid Saabiq

Allah
What is sarik Nomanwaheed (discuss • contribs) 18:10, 24 August 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Islam Way of Life/Practising Islam


text:
XML - Managing Data Exchange/C.6

president.xsl (XSL Stylesheet for a one-to-one model)
Now that you now how to create a schema to define a conceptual primary/foreign key relationship, you need to know how to access and display that data. Take a look at the stylesheet below for an example.   Table 6-3: XML stylesheet for President Entity – president.xsl

A look at the new elements:

 * <xsl:key> This element is a necessary declaration in order to use the key function described next. There are three necessary attributes to be used in this element:
 * name : This attribute contains the name to be referenced from within XSL file in the key function. The value in the name attribute can be thought of in programmatic terms as a variable containing an instance of an object, such as: “String stringVariable” in Java.
 * match : This attribute is similar to the .<xsd:selector> element described above. This is the element in XML file containing the parent key (primary key of the relationship).
 * use : This attribute is similar to the <xsd:field> element describe above. This is the field containing the parent key value.
 * key(string,object) function: This function returns a node set based on the parameters passed to it. The string  parameter is the value defined in the name attribute in the <xsl:key> tag. The object  parameter is the value of primary key for which you wish to get the nodes for. key('predecessor',2) will return the nodes contained by the president element with attribute: primaryKey="2" . Since a node set is returned, you can access child nodes of the returned set with an x-path expression just as you would any element. So: <xsl:value-of select="key('predecessor',2)/firstName "/> would output “John.” For more information on the key function visit: http://www.w3.org/TR/xslt#key
 * <xsl:choose> This XSL element provides a means for creating an if-else type structure in an XSL stylesheet. This is necessary in our example because the first President will not have a predecessor. We display the predecessor if only there is one! There are two elements within the <xsl:choose> element to perform this:
 * <xsl:when> This element is the equivalent to the programmatic 'if' statement. The test attribute contains a test statement as described in chapter 5. In the above example, it is simply testing to see if the predecessor element is there (if a President has a predecessor).
 * <xsl:otherwise> This element is the equivalent to the programmatic 'else' statement. Its contents are displayed if the test condition in the <xsl:when> statement fails.

team.xsl (XSL Stylesheet for a one-to-many model)
   Table 6-4: XML stylesheer for Team Entity – team.xsl

A look at the new elements

 * <!doctype stylesheet[….]> - This declaration is necessary to declare an entity and must come before the <xsl:stylesheet> tag
 * <!ENTITY space "<xsl:text xmlns:xsl='http://www.w3.org/1999/XSL/Transform'> </xsl:text>"> {2}- This declaration must come between the brackets “[]” in the doctype declaration shown above. “space” is the name of the entity you are defining. The value in between the double quotes is what the entity represents. In our example above, the entity space  is referring to a single whitespace, represented with the <xsl:text> </xsl:text> statement. The xmlns  attribute located within the <xsl:text> element is only necessary for parsers using the Microsoft XML parser, but should be included anyway for cross compliance. The syntax for using the entity is the same syntax for using any other entity in an XSL stylesheet, which is an ampersand (“&”) followed by the entity name and a semi-colon. In the example above, this would be &space; as shown on. Now whenever a space is needed in the style sheet “&space;” can be used instead of <xsl:text> </xsl:text>

accessory.xsl (XSL stylesheet for a many-to-many model)
  N/A      <SMALL>Table 6-9: XML stylesheet for Accessory Entity – accessory.xsl</SMALL>

title: XML - Managing Data Exchange/C.6


text:
Rosacea/What Is Rosacea?

Rosacea (IPA:) is a common but often misunderstood condition that is estimated to affect over 45 million people worldwide. Most often, it begins as flushing and redness on the central face and across the cheeks, nose, or forehead but can also less commonly affect the neck, chest, scalp or ears. As rosacea progresses, other symptoms can develop such as permanent redness, red bumps (some with pus), red gritty eyes, burning and stinging sensations, small blood vessels visible near the surface of the skin, and in some advanced cases a bulbous nose. The disorder can be confused and co-exist with acne vulgaris and/or seborrheic dermatitis. People that are fair-skinned are disproportionately affected. Rosacea affects both men and women of all ages, but middle-aged women are more susceptible because of hot flushes caused by menopause.

Subtypes and symptoms
There are four identified rosacea subtypes and patients may have more than one subtype present.

 * 1) Erythematotelangiectatic rosacea: Permanent redness (erythema) with a tendency to flush and blush easily. It is also common to have small blood vessels visible near the surface of the skin (telangiectasias) and possibly burning or itching sensations.
 * 2) Papulopustular rosacea: Some permanent redness with red bumps (papules) with some pus filled (pustules) (which typically last 1-4 days but sometimes as long as a month or more); this subtype can be easily confused with acne.
 * 3) Phymatous rosacea: This subtype is most commonly associated with rhinophyma, an enlargenent of the nose. Symptoms include thickening skin, irregular surface nodularities, and enlargement. Phymatous rosacea can appear on the nose, chin, forehead, cheeks, and ears. Small blood vessels visible near the surface of the skin (telangiectasias) may be present.
 * 4) Ocular rosacea: Red, dry and irritated eyes and eyelids. Some other symptoms include foreign body sensations, itching and burning.

Rosacea sufferers often report periods of depression stemming from cosmetic disfigurement, painful burning sensations, and decreases in quality of life.

Causes
The precise pathogenesis of rosacea still remains unknown, but most experts believe that rosacea is a disorder where the blood vessels become damaged when repeatedly dilated by stimuli. The damage causes the vessels to dilate too easily and stay dilated for longer periods of time or remain permanently dilated, resulting in flushing and redness. Immune cells and inflammatory mediators can leak from the microvascular bed causing inflammatory pustules and papules, especially with those with papulopustular rosacea.

Rosacea has a hereditary component and those that are fair-skinned of European or Celtic ancestry have a higher genetic predisposition to developing it. Women are more commonly affected but when men develop rosacea it tends to be more severe. People of all ages can get rosacea but there is a higher instance in the 30-50 age group. The first signs of rosacea are said to be persisting redness due to exercise, changes in temperature, and cleansing.

Triggers that cause episodes of flushing and blushing play a part in the development of rosacea. Exposure to temperature extremes can cause the face to become flushed as well as strenuous exercise, heat from sunlight, severe sunburn, stress, cold wind, moving to a warm or hot environment from a cold one such as heated shops and offices during the winter. There are also some foods and drinks that can trigger flushing, these include alcohol, foods high in histamine and spicy food.

Certain medications and topical irritants can quickly progress rosacea. If redness persists after using a treatment then it should be stopped immediately. Some acne and wrinkle treatments that have been reported to cause rosacea include microdermabrasion, chemical peels, high dosages of isotretinoin, benzoyl peroxide and tretinoin. Steroid induced rosacea is the term given to rosacea caused by the use of topical or nasal steroids. These steroids are often prescribed for seborrheic dermatitis. Dosage should be slowly decreased and not immediately stopped to avoid a flare up.

Studies of rosacea and demodex mites have revealed that some people with rosacea have increased numbers of the mite, especially those with steroid induced rosacea. When large numbers are present they may play a role along with other triggers.

It has also been suggested that rosacea might be a neurological disorder resulting from hypersensitization of sensory neurons following activation of the plasma kakllikrein-kinin system by exposure to intestinal bacteria in the digestive tract.

Age
There has never been a thorough study on the incidence of age and rosacea. The National Rosacea Society and their Canadian affiliate the Rosacea Awareness Program report in their 'Standard classification of rosacea' that "Rosacea occurs in both men and women and, although it may occur at any age, the onset typically begins at any time after age 30". This statement is believed to be based on a large mail in survey which the results are summerised in Figure 1. This can be compared to an Internet survey Figure 2 that reported different results. Both surveys are considered to be inaccurate as both methods used to survey have inherent flaws and large bias.

Sex
A 1989 study of 809 office employees found that 14% of the women and 5% of the men were diagnosed as having rosacea.

title: Rosacea/What Is Rosacea?


text:
Conphilosophy

One of the major defining characteristics of a nation, and, arguably, a world, is philosophy. Philosophy comes from many sources, but usually there are people looked up to as "philosophers," or lovers of knowledge. There are few well-known modern-day philosophers, but some of the better known and recent ones include Mohandas Gandhi and Albert Einstein. However, you are not interested in the philosophers of this world — you want to create your own philosophy. To do this, you must first understand how philosophy comes about.

Table of contents

 * First, understand what makes up Philosophy.
 * Next, we'll cover the various branches of philosophy.
 * Then, we'll cover some interesting schools of philosophy.
 * Now you've got a complete round shot in almost everything philosophical, we'll shoot up history.
 * Finally, we'll round off with some topics in philosophy.

Appendices

 * A list of all lists you need to list on your lists.
 * More references to go to.

title: Conphilosophy


text:
User:Michaelnelson~enwikibooks

I blog at http://liveandletlearn.net. That's about it :)

title: User:Michaelnelson~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Rosehip Soup

| Soups

This is the basic recipe and method for Jewish rosehip soup. It is also popular in Iceland and parts of Scandinavia, where, because of the cold temperatures, it's often used for colds and sore throats.

Ingredients

 * 1 litre fresh rosehips
 * 2 litres water
 * For each litre, 1 liquid quart of rosehip pulp
 * 1½ tablespoon sugar
 * 1½ tablespoon potato flour
 * ¼ cup almonds

Procedure

 * 1) Rinse the rosehips. Crush dried hips. Boil in water till soft.
 * 2) Press through a colander. Measure the pulp and dilute with water if necessary.
 * 3) Bring the pulp to a boil and add sugar. Add more sugar if it is too tart.
 * 4) Mix potato flour with some cold water. Thicken the soup while you stir and bring to a boil. Add blanched and shredded almond.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Hot soup is often served with vanilla ice cream and/or macaroons.
 * Cold soup can be diluted to make a nice thirst-quencher.
 * The Icelandic recipe differs in that it contains less sugar (approx. 1 tbsp) and cornstarch is used to thicken it, not potato flour.

title: Cookbook:Rosehip Soup


text:
User:Uncle G's major work 'bot~enwikibooks

I am the 'bot account under which all of Uncle G's automated and semi-automated editing tools run when major work is being performed.

It is intended that I will be flagged as a 'bot, as my edit load will flood recent changes. However, that is not the case yet, and all of my edits are currently subject to the usual scrutiny of edits made by pseudonymous users.

For details of the tools used, see User:Uncle G's 'bot.

Tasks
This is what I do.

Renaming Cookbook talk pages
When the Cookbook: namespace was created, the talk pages (Talk:Cookbook:X) were not renamed (Cookbook talk:X). I have a list of the 525 cookbook talk pages that exist, and I am using WIKIMOVE.exe to rename all of them to the Cookbook talk: namespace.


text:
User talk:Uncle G's major work 'bot~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Uncle G's major work 'bot. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Uncle G's major work 'bot~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:37, 19 April 2015 (UTC)


text:
Java Programming/Keywords/assert

is a Java keyword used to define an assert statement. An assert statement is used to declare an expected boolean condition in a program. If the program is running with assertions enabled, then the condition is checked at runtime. If the condition is false, the Java runtime system throws an AssertionError Assertions may be declared using the following syntax:

is a boolean that will throw the assertion if it is false. When it is thrown, the assertion error exception is created with the parameter  (if applicable).

An example:

Assertions are usually used as a debugging aid. They should not be used instead of validating arguments to public methods, or in place of a more precise runtime error exception.

Assertions are enabled with the Java  or  runtime option. See your Java environment documentation for additional options for controlling assertions.

title: Java Programming/Keywords/assert


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boolean-condition

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statement1

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Java Programming/Statements/if

The ... statement is used to conditionally execute one of two statements, depending on the result of a boolean condition.

Example:

(list == null) { {{Java://|this block of statements executes if the condition is true } {   {{Java://|this block of statements executes if the condition is false }

An statement has two forms:

and

Use the second form if you have different statements to execute if the is true or if it is false. Use the first if you only wish to execute if the condition is true and you do not wish to execute alternate statements if the condition is false.

The following example calls two methods, and, stores the results, then uses an statement to test if   is less than y and if it is, the body will swap the values. The end result is x always contains the larger result and y always contains the smaller result.

x = f; y = y; ( x < y ) { z = x;  x = y;   y = z; }

title: Java Programming/Statements/if


text: Template:Java:stmt:if

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Java Programming/Statements/

title: Template:Java:stmt


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Java Programming/Literals

Java Literals are syntactic representations of boolean, character, numeric, or string data. Literals provide a means of expressing specific values in your program. For example, in the following statement, an integer variable named  is declared and assigned an integer value. The literal  represents, naturally enough, the value zero.

The code section 3.62 contains two number literals followed by two boolean literals at line 1, one string literal followed by one number literal at line 2, and one string literal followed by one real number literal at line 3:

Boolean Literals
There are two boolean literals

 * represents a true boolean value
 * represents a false boolean value

There are no other boolean literals, because there are no other boolean values!

Numeric Literals
There are three types of numeric literals in Java.

Integer Literals
In Java, you may enter integer numbers in several formats:

 * 1) As decimal numbers such as ,   . Negative decimal numbers such as   are actually expressions consisting of the integer literal with the unary negation operation.
 * 2) As octal numbers, using a leading   (zero) digit and one or more additional octal digits (digits between   and  ), such as  . Octal numbers may evaluate to negative numbers; for example   is actually the decimal value -8.
 * 3) As hexadecimal numbers, using the form   (or  ) followed by one or more hexadecimal digits (digits from   to ,   to   or   to  ). For example, 0xCAFEBABEL is the long integer 3405691582. Like octal numbers, hexadecimal literals may represent negative numbers.
 * 4) Starting in J2SE 7.0, as binary numbers, using the form   (or  ) followed by one or more binary digits (0 or 1). For example, 0b101010 is the integer 42. Like octal and hex numbers, binary literals may represent negative numbers.

By default, the integer literal primitive type is. If you want a, add a letter el suffix (either the character  or the character  ) to the integer literal. This suffix denotes a long integer rather than a standard integer. For example,  is a long integer literal. Long integers are 8 bytes in length as opposed to the standard 4 bytes for. It is best practice to use the suffix  instead of   to avoid confusion with the digit   (one) which looks like   in many fonts:   ≠. If you want a short integer literal, you have to cast it.

Starting in J2SE 7.0, you may insert underscores between digits in a numeric literal. They are ignored but may help readability by allowing the programmer to group digits.

Floating Point Literals
Floating point numbers are expressed as decimal fractions or as exponential notation:

Floating point numbers consist of:
 * 1) an optional leading   or   sign, indicating a positive or negative value; if omitted, the value is positive,
 * 2) one of the following number formats
 * 3) * integer digits (must be followed by either an exponent or a suffix or both, to distinguish it from an integer literal)
 * 4) * integer digits
 * 5) * integer digits  integer digits
 * 6) *  integer digits
 * 7) an optional exponent of the form
 * 8) * the exponent indicator  or
 * 9) * an optional exponent sign  or   (the default being a positive exponent)
 * 10) * integer digits representing the integer exponent value
 * 11) an optional floating point suffix:
 * 12) * either  or   indicating a single precision (4 bytes) floating point number, or
 * 13) *  or   indicating the number is a double precision floating point number (by default, thus the double precision (8 bytes) is default).

Here, integer digits represents one or more of the digits  through.

Starting in J2SE 7.0, you may insert underscores between digits in a numeric literal. They are ignored but may help readability by allowing the programmer to group digits.

Character Literals
Character literals are constant valued character expressions embedded in a Java program. Java characters are sixteen bit Unicode characters, ranging from 0 to 65535. Character literals are expressed in Java as a single quote, the character, and a closing single quote. Character literals have the type, an unsigned integer primitive type. Character literals may be safely promoted to larger integer types such as and. Character literals used where a or  is called for must be cast to  or  since truncation may occur.

String Literals
String literals consist of the double quote character (ASCII 34, hex 0x22), zero or more characters (including Unicode characters), followed by a terminating double quote character, such as:

So a string literal follows the following grammar:

Within string and character literals, the backslash character can be used to escape special characters, such as unicode escape sequences, or the following special characters:

String literals may not contain unescaped newline or linefeed characters. However, the Java compiler will evaluate compile time expressions, so the following String expression results in a string with three lines of text:

null
is a special Java literal which represents a null value: a value which does not refer to any object. It is an error to attempt to dereference the null value — Java will throw a. is often used to represent uninitialized state.

Mixed Mode Operations
In concatenation operations, the values in brackets are concatenated first. Then the values are concatenated from the left to the right. Be careful when mixing character literals and integers in String concatenation operations:

The unexpected results arise because and  are converted twice. The expression is concatenated as such:

The code section 66 yields the desired result:
 * 1)   and   are integers. So they store integer values. The integer value of  is 49 and the integer value of  is 48.
 * 2) So the first concatenation concatenates  and  .   is first converted into String, yielding  and the concatenation returns the string.
 * 3) The second concatenation concatenates  and .  is converted into the String  and the concatenation returns the string.
 * 4) The concatenation between  and  returns the string.

Question 3.9: Consider the following code:

Explain the results seen.

For the first line:

For the second line:

For the last line:

title: Java Programming/Literals


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Prisoner of Azkaban/Chapter 1

Synopsis
It is nearly midnight at the Dursley home, and Harry, crouched under his bed covers, is reading A History of Magic and writing a summer homework essay on witch burning. Uncle Vernon has locked Harry's school trunk in the cupboard. Harry picked the lock and stole his books, quill, parchment, and ink to do his homework.

As usual, Harry celebrates his birthday alone. Other than Ron's botched phone call, which ended with Uncle Vernon hanging up on him, Harry has heard nothing from his Hogwarts friends all summer. As Harry prepares to go to sleep, Hedwig and Errol (the Weasley’s owl) arrive with presents. Ron sends Harry a Pocket Sneakoscope and a Daily Prophet article about Ron’s father winning a contest. The Weasleys used the prize money for a trip to Egypt; the article's photo shows the entire Weasley family, including Ron's pet rat, and Percy wearing his new Head Boy badge. Hermione, vacationing in France with her parents, sends Harry a Broomstick Servicing Kit. Hagrid's gift is an unusual book titled, The Monster Book of Monsters. It almost seems alive, nipping at Harry and nearly waking the Dursleys as it scrambles around the room before Harry subdues it.

Another owl delivers the usual Hogwarts' letter with instructions about classes, textbooks, and supplies. Professor McGonagall has included a permission form for a parent or guardian to sign, allowing students to visit Hogsmeade, the Wizarding village in which Hogwarts is located. Harry doubts he can persuade the Dursleys to sign it, but for now, he is happy that his friends remembered his birthday.

Analysis
Harry must endure yet another unhappy summer at the Dursleys. His confinement there only reinforces what little connection Harry retains to the Muggle world and how he longs to return to Hogwarts, the only place he feels he truly belongs. Although Harry's first eleven years at the abusive Dursleys were unhappy, he survived relatively well, unaware then that he actually belonged somewhere else. Now, knowing that another world exists where he is happy, has friends, and is accepted for who and what he is, his confinement to Privet Drive is intolerable. He was prematurely liberated the previous year by Ron and the Twins, who rescued him in the flying car and took him to their home, but it seems unlikely Harry will be as fortunate this summer. He has not been totally shut off from the Wizarding realm, however. Reading A History of Magic is one means by which he remains connected. Also, Ron, Hermione, and Hagrid have remembered him, sending gifts and letters. Ron's present, an inexpensive Sneakoscope, likely will play a significant role in the plot, as may the photograph of the Weasleys in Egypt. Hagrid's gift is also notable, though it seems more aligned to his own interests than Harry's. And while Harry is left confused as to why Hagrid sent such a "ferocious" gift, the "Monster" book, as well as Hermione's present, may also foreshadow upcoming plot elements.

Readers might notice a minor mistake in early editions of this book. The textbook that Harry is reading, A History of Magic, is said to be by Adalbert Waffling. In Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, we are told that A History of Magic is by Bathilda Bagshot. Adalbert Waffling is the author of Magical Theory, according to Book 1. This mistake is pointed up by Bathilda's becoming a more important character in book 7. While it is possible, as in the Muggle world, that these are two separate books by different authors that just happen to have identical titles, and that Magical Theory is another book by Waffling, it seems in fact to be only a minor mistake, corrected in later editions.

Review

 * 1) What is unusual about the book Hagrid sends to Harry?
 * 2) What is the permission slip for? Why is Harry concerned?
 * 3) What does Ron send Harry for his birthday? What is it for?
 * 4) Why does Percy wear his Head Boy badge while on a trip to Egypt?

Further Study

 * 1) How might Harry convince Uncle Vernon to sign the permission slip? How likely is Vernon to sign it?
 * 2) Why would Hagrid send Harry such an unusual book for his birthday?

Greater Picture
The Weasley family photograph, though seemingly mundane and insignificant, is actually what spurs the majority of the book's action. When Harry's convicted godfather, Sirius Black sees the picture in the Daily Prophet, he recognizes Ron’s rat as being something other than a pet; this compels him to escape Azkaban prison, apparently intent on murdering Harry, but actually for another purpose.

Ron mentions that the Sneakoscope is cheap and probably faulty, it having gone off two times when he believes it should not have. Harry's thought that it had reacted to the Twins, and later Ron, behaving in an untrustworthy manner, leaves us wondering whether Ron's assessment is correct. It will go off twice more, and though the warnings are again disregarded, the Sneakoscope is, in every case, correctly signaling an untrustworthy person's nearby presence.

Hermione's gift, a broomstick servicing kit, while unimportant to the plot, may represent just how significant Harry's brooms are to him, as well as foreshadowing a major subplot involving Harry's treasured Nimbus 2000 broom. When it is accidentally destroyed, he will receive an expensive replacement from an anonymous benefactor, only to have it confiscated by concerned Hogwarts staff, though it is eventually returned when it is declared to be safe. This cycle's effect of loss and recovery will be felt by Harry, Ron, and Hermione, as well as the Gryffindor Quidditch team, and it could also be seen as a metaphor for Harry's own life.

Unknown to Harry just yet, Hagrid is the new Care of Magical Creatures teacher. The Monster Book of Monsters is his chosen "set book" (textbook), and he has partly selected it because he finds it humorous. The book can only be opened by stroking it, whereupon it purrs and relaxes. No one will be able to figure this out, and the entire class will have bound their textbooks with belts and ropes to prevent attacks. This is hardly surprising; the Flourish & Blotts staff, who as booksellers should know such details about the books they sell, are equally unable to tame the vicious tomes and keep them securely caged.

Connections

 * The Sneakoscope will appear twice more in this book, once on the Hogwarts Express, and again near Christmas. A different Sneakoscope will appear on Professor Moody's desk in the fourth book, and another, possibly Moody's, will appear in the Room of Requirement in the fifth book. The specific Sneakoscope that we see in this chapter will not be seen after this book until, old and broken, it is cleaned out of Harry's school trunk in the final book. Hermione will give Harry a new Sneakoscope for his birthday that year, and it will be used multiple times during the Trio's travels through England in that book.


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Talk:Developing A Universal Religion/Present Day Religions/Islam

"They strive for a global theocracy and are not above using terrorism to achieve their ends."

I think that you should make up your mind here wether you are writing a simple Islamic explanation page, or a POV page. If it is a POV page, then be honest about it and link to something to balance it.

I notice that you didn't mention the same problem with Christians, who have killed and murdered far more people in the name of their religion than any other. And who actually achieved a near global theocracy at the height of the Roman Catholic Empire.

I'm not going to edit it, and to be truthful, I agree with you, but that isn't the point. I think that having two pages, one to simply tell the "Nuetral facts" and one to then discuss the serious problems, is in order, and far more fair.

On the other hand, i could go find a dozen Islamic BBSes, post your article, leave a link, and let you hear from them what they think about it...lol. (Sorry, i wouldn't do that,)

Also, I think that it is very important, even whilst indicting Islam for its serious flaws, to make a distinction between those who follow the faith ernestly, and those who are actually politicos, using the faith as a way to manipulate the populations. (And again, the same thing goes for christianity) Islams Core tenets, just as Christianities core tenets, do have injunctions against war and violence.

Prometheuspan 03:33, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

Yes, you make a good point. But I was referring to “Islamists,” not Muslims (this also covers your last point, I think) and referring to current, not past, behaviours. Christians, certainly, behaved just as badly (or even worse). But someone might like to edit the text to clarify this point. Thanks. David Hockey 22:00, 22 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Hello Prometheuspan:

P.S. See [| Islamism. 4.Islamist movements] David Hockey 14:07, 24 February 2006 (UTC)


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User:MagnaMopus~enwikibooks

hm.

title: User:MagnaMopus~enwikibooks


text:
Portuguese/Contents/Conditional tense regular verbs

Contents

Function
The conditional mood in Portuguese is the equivalent of the "would + infinitive" construction in English.

It is used to express a situation in which there are "conditions". For example:

The conditional is frequently used along with the imperfect subjunctive, as in the context above.

It is also used with the verb gostar. For example:

Also note that the first person plural contains an accent over the last "i".

Gostaríamos de ir ao centro se você chegasse também.

Formation
In regular verbs, the conditional is formed by adding these never-changing endings to the infinitive.

FALAR - to speak Click here for a list of verbs irregular in the conditional.


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Talk:Demystifying Depression/Why Moderate Exercise May Sometimes Help

Mention if having sex is considered exercise. Good/bad idea, etc.


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Wikibooks:Book of the month/February 2006

The book of the month for February is Big Cats – a book for children exploring fascinating world of big cats.

Vote for March - Book of the month


text:
Wikibooks:Book of the month/March 2006 voting

The voting for the Book of the month for March 2006 is open from February 1st, 2006, and will close on March 1st, 2006, 00:00 UTC. The book of the month will be featured on the main page of Wikibooks.

'''Closed. Any votes added will be reverted.'''

Latin

 * #User:ThisDude415 17:42, 6 Feb 2006 made by not logged in user
 * #User:RamiK 18:45, 25 Feb 2006 (GMT+2) made by not logged in user

 * 1) --Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme 01:33, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 04:21, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) --Basejumper123 23:43, 11 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) Gandalf1491 23:25, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

UK Constitution and Government
(Automatically renominated with 4 votes for February)

Votes:

 * 1) Rob Horning 13:15, 1 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Dolive35 15:43, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) JMRyan 23:25, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) Klingoncowboy4 17:50, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments:

USMLE Step One Review
(Automatically renominated with 3 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007 13:54, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

The Path to Success & Fulfillment
(Automatically renominated with 3 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007 11:32, 4 February 2006 (UTC) --- This book definitely contains all the content needed to face the difficulties and suggestions in your life. An excellent try by Vikram Vaka for this book. Keep it up.

Comments
 * I have some doubts. In my opinion the book is still not finished. And chapter titles are somewhat misleading: they look like they belonged to book "Guide to Growning Up". --Derbeth talk 09:14, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Introduction to Philosophy
(Automatically renominated with 6 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007 19:23, 1 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Konstable 11:47, 6 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Klingoncowboy4 04:21, 7 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments

 * I still think this book requires lots of polishing. Some chapters are way too short and do not tell enough, and there are some uncompleted parts. [Lycaphim 2/8/06]

 * The quality of most of its material is, unfortunately, quite low. --JMRyan 22:42, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Engineering Acoustics
Votes:

 * 1) Rob Horning 03:18, 3 February 2006 (UTC) I just discovered this neat little gem of a book that has been developed as a class project for a Mechanical Engineer class.
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 17:53, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments:

 * Quite nice, but I think that Book of the Month should be more polished. There's a cleanup message on the book's main page, many images lack license and there is no print version ready. That's why I will wait before I vote for it. --Derbeth talk 09:04, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Traditional Principles of Animation
Votes:

 * 1) Shdwninja8 05:25, 5 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Klingoncowboy4 17:53, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments
 * This nomination is not serious, book has very little content, equivalent to single chapter of many books. --Derbeth talk 09:11, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

French
Votes:

 * 1) Aleksei 03:47, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Hagindaz 14:57, 22 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Klingoncowboy4 17:55, 27 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) Geoking66 03:18, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

German
Votes:

 * 1) German Men92 23:17, 15 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) marsh 04:50, 16 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Warengi 23:35, 19 February 2006
 * 4) Geoking66talk 17:47 20 February (UTC)
 * Jwbatten 00:07, 21 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Only edits by this user are for this vote.
 * 1) Derbeth talk 09:59, 22 February 2006 (UTC)
 * fitchguy20 2:25, 24 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Only edits by this user are for this vote.
 * 1) Gandalf1491 18:53, 27 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Mastermind 007 12:07, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments
 * As one of the main contributors I must say, seems a bit premature, but why not. Maybe will spur some morfe interest - marsh
 * The book is really fine, but take a look at the table of contents. Parts II is a duplicate of part III. German Men92 says he will fix it, but currently it is not resolved. --Derbeth talk 08:25, 21 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Derbeth, if you check on it, even though it is still in development, I have worked with level 3, and it is no longer level 2 with some bonus material. --German Men92 talk 22:13, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

Cookbook
Votes:

 * 1) Rob Horning 11:58, 16 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Mastermind 007 12:27, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Dolive35 15:43, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) JMRyan 23:28, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 5) Lincher 15:41, 20 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 6) Grimm 21:12, 20 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 7) Derbeth talk 08:25, 21 February 2006 (UTC) I agree with Rob
 * 8) RobinH 15:11, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments:

 * If we are going to use the Book of the Month to show off a sampling of the best of Wikibooks, I think this ought to be something that simply must be in the list of the best items ever developed on Wikibooks. Almost a project unto itself, it is certainly worthy of congratulations and deserves feature status on the front page.  --Rob Horning 11:58, 16 February 2006 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/March 2006 voting

Voting Rules
The following are the rules and conditions for voting for the Collaboration of the Month:

 * 1) Only registered users with 20 or more edits to their name may vote.
 * 2) You may vote under as many nominations as you wish, however, you may only vote for each book itself once.
 * 3) Sign your vote with a number sign and four tildes, #~, after the most previous vote under the book's nomination. Unsigned votes will be removed.
 * 4) Any nomination which receives 3 or more votes in one month will automatically be renominated the next month if it is not chosen.
 * 5) If you wish to include a short comment for your vote, then you may do so. Make sure that if you leave such a comment, that you are also voting for that page.
 * 6) Do not post objection votes as these will have no effect on the final tally.
 * 7) Voting will end at 00:00 UTC on the first day of each month. In essence, when a new month begins voting ends. Any votes added after this time will be discarded.
 * 8) The nomination with most votes will be chosen as the Collaboration of the Month. In case of a tie, the older Wikibook will be chosen.

Greek Mythology

 * 1) --Kyriakos 22:37, 25 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Rob Horning 03:36, 26 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Klingoncowboy4 17:57, 27 February 2006 (UTC)

The Path to Success & Fulfillment
(renominated with 4 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007 11:47, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

USMLE Step One Review
(renominated with 3 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007  HQ  Missions done 14:28, 26 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Vikram Vaka 09:43, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

Introduction to Philosophy
(renominated with 4 votes for February)

 * 1) Mastermind 007 19:25, 1 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Konstable 02:57, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Wisnodew 21:47, 21 February 2006 (UTC)

Introduction to Psychology
(renominated with 5 votes for February)

 * 128.125.99.83 20:04, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

 * 1) I was also the vote above, but I wasn't logged in.  JMRyan 20:06, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Embedded Systems
(renominated with 3 votes for February)

 * 1) Whiteknight (talk) (current) 03:38, 2 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) Rob Horning 17:12, 2 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Klingoncowboy4 04:22, 7 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) JMRyan 20:07, 16 February 2006 (UTC)

Bulgarian

 * 1) --Vanka5 05:27, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

3DS_MAX

 * 1) Shdwninja8 05:20, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Commments
 * I oppose this nomination. Whole book is very much stub-like, book structure is not ready. Besides, how many of us can afford buying 3D Studio Max? I think we better conctentrate on more popular topics. --Derbeth talk 09:08, 5 February 2006 (UTC)

Statistics

 * 1) Might become a good book. --Derbeth talk 10:26, 5 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 2) DSYoungEsq 13:47, 6 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 3) Konstable 02:57, 12 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 4) JMRyan 20:08, 16 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 5) Mastermind 007 12:54, 19 February 2006 (UTC)
 * 6) Rob Horning 03:34, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments
 * This would be a classically good book for collaboration. It is a subject of which many people have knowledge, it is a basic subject on which we should have a top-quality text, and it isn't just some stub hoping to be a book some day.  It also has the advantage that it isn't being simultaneously nominated as Book of the Month, which situation I never understand.  DSYoungEsq 13:50, 6 February 2006 (UTC)

Isometric pixel art

 * 1) CherryT 00:45, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

US Criminal Law

 * 1) Dolive35 16:16, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

Comments:-

— Excuse me, but where are the votes? There is no winner without a vote. Mastermind 007 12:57, 19 February 2006 (UTC)

I vote unregistered users cannot vote

Football (Soccer)

 * 1) Mastermind 007  HQ  Missions done 14:26, 26 February 2006 (UTC)

Spanish

 * 1) Mastermind 007  HQ  Missions done 12:13, 28 February 2006 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Collaboration of the Month/February 2006

The Collaboration of the Month for February is Medicine - collection of books connected with medicine.

Vote for March - Collaboration of the Month


text:
Budget Watch Collecting/Shock Protection

The balance of a watch needs thin delicate pivots and fragile jewels to run well. The balance is generally one of the largest and heaviest jewelled wheels in the watch, and thus one of the most likely to be damaged if the watch is dropped or bumped.

Shock Springs
Modern shock protection began commercially with the introduction of the Incabloc system in the 1930s, although not widely used until the 50's.

In this system the balance jewels are spring-mounted, and the balance staff is specifically shaped. In the event of a shock, the balance can push the jewels out of position temporarily. If the shock is severe, a thicker and stronger portion of the balance staff will contact a strong part of the jewel setting before the jewel reaches the end of its travel. After the shock, the springs force the jewels back to their proper place. The same basic system is also used by Kif, Seiko's Diashock and Citizen's Parashock.

Other systems
Wyler had the Incaflex system as an alternative to shock springs. In this system, the rim of the balance is connected to the staff with springy spiral arms.

Under a shock, the heavy rim of the balance would displace and contact a rim around the circumference before enough force was applied to damage the staff or jewels. (Note the cap jewel with no shock spring)

Timex used the V-Conic system. Instead of the traditional arrangement of slender pivots, Timex used a conical profile. Instead of jewel bearings, they used metal cups shaped to match the V-conic pivots. This system was both less expensive to manufacture, but also inherently stronger than traditional pivots, allowing Timex to meet shock-resistance standards with no springs.

Other wheel springs
Sometimes you may see what appear to be shock springs on other wheels--These are actually retaining springs rather than shock springs, to allow the cap jewels to be more easily removed for cleaning. Seiko calls their version Diafix rather than Diashock.


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User:Thegrammarking

== [You've followed a link to a page that doesn't exist yet. To create the page, start typing in the box below (see the help page for more info). If you are here by mistake, just click your browser's back button] ==

title: User:Thegrammarking


text:
Harmonica

The harmonica is a free reed wood-wind instrument. Harmonicas have an incredibly rich range of expression, are easy to pick up, since there's no need for fingerings, etc. They play numerous "intervals" (two or more notes), which is difficult or impossible for many other wind instruments. It also works very well in the modern musical setting, where one needs to play most music through an amplifier or loudspeaker. A harmonica player can easily adapt to this by cupping a microphone and his or her harmonica in the hands, without sacrificing any other aspect of playing.

Harmonicas are extremely important for Blues music - in order to acquire its unique, soulful sound, a harmonica is needed. Harmonicas cross many genres - the diatonic harmonica is frequently used for rock, country, folk music and Irish jigs; and the chromatic harmonica is often associated with Jazz music, and more recently, Classical music. The tremolo harmonica is often used for Japanese folk songs.

The harmonica is also a very portable instrument. They can fit easily into any reasonably sized jacket pocket, which is very rare for all instruments.

Furthermore, learning the harmonica can improve your breathing, and thus, your health. The constant breathing into and out of a harmonica is substantial exercise for the diaphragm, which is why harmonicas are sometimes used to improve breathing.

Getting Started

 * /Why should I Play Harmonica?/ - Benefits of playing harmonica
 * /Types of harmonica/
 * /Anatomy of a Harmonica/ - Parts that make up the mouth harp
 * /Harmonica Purchasing guide/ - Types of harmonica, and how to buy harmonica and its relevant materials.

Playing the Harmonica

 * /Basic Holding and Playing a Harmonica/
 * How to form proper hold and embouchure, and discussion on related basic techniques

 * /Bending/
 * /Tablature/
 * /Basic Chords/

Additional Techniques

 * /Advanced Chords/
 * /Advanced techniques/
 * Numerous advanced techniques, including overbend and vibrato

 * /Self accompaniment/

General Harmonica Theory

 * /Positions/
 * /Chromatic Harmonica/
 * /Philosophy/
 * /Tremolo/
 * /Ensemble Playing/ - How to play it with other harmonicas, and play with other instruments
 * /Music Style/ - What harp to use for which style of music
 * /Learning Songs/
 * /Improvising/
 * /Playing with Amp/
 * /Recording/
 * /Cross harp basics/

Cleaning and Maintenance

 * /Basic Maintenance and Care/
 * /Advanced Maintenance /
 * /Harmonica Modifications/
 * /Tuning/

Appendices and References

 * /Harmonica Layouts and Alternate Tunings/
 * /Harmonica Positions Chart/
 * Blues
 * Writing Songs

title: Harmonica