text:
User talk:U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.~enwikibooks

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A.~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:37, 19 April 2015 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Transformer~enwikibooks

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.– Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:01, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

Copyright problem with Image:Model Karim Khan (Vikram Phadnis).JPG
If you continue to upload images with no license information, you will be blocked. – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:03, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Transformer. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Transformer~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:51, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:36, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Transformer~enwikibooks


text:
Growing Edible Sprouts/Jars

Growing sprouts in a jar is very simple and does not require any specialized equipment, but certain minor equipment makes growing sprouts easier and cleaner.

One method for growing alfalfa sprouts in jars uses
 * quart-size wide-mouth mason jar
 * perforated lid
 * 2 tablespoons sprouting seed
 * bowl
 * strainers
 * paper towel
 * storage container (quart-size zip-lock bag works well)

 * 1) Put the seeds in the mason jar and add a few of inches of cool water.  Swirl the seeds around in the jar to get rid of bubbles clinging to the seeds.  Put the perforated lid on. Soak the seeds overnight.
 * 2) The next morning, drain off the water.  Rinse the seeds 3 or 4 times with fresh cool water.  Drain off the water and shake the jar upside down a few times to get any extra water out.  Sit the jar upright. Do not put it in direct sunlight.
 * 3) Every 12 hours (8 a.m. and 8 p.m. usually works well), rinse the sprouts 2-3 times with fresh water and drain or shake the extra water out before setting the jar upright. Do this for five days.
 * 4) Fill a big bowl with water. Take the lid off the jar and pull the sprouts into the bowl.  Separate the clumps of sprouts. Push the seed hulls to the side of the bowl (or skim them off), and lift out the sprouts.  Put the sprouts in a strainer, rinse them, let them drain, then lay the sprouts on a paper towel for a few hours to dry.  When they are dry to the touch, put them in a sealed container in the fridge.

title: Growing Edible Sprouts/Jars


text:
MediaWiki:Articletitles

Modules starting with $1

title: MediaWiki:Articletitles


text:
Talk:C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements

Missleading examples
Although the concept on the page and the approach seems pretty good, I stongly believe that the examples are bad choices. The worst problem, from my PoV, is that these examples are forcing phrases and statements that are, strictly speaking, false. The cout object is treated as if it were a keyword denoting an instruction (something like a goto, or even old BASIC's PRINT), while it's not. Despite its basic usage provides equivalent functionality to the one of PRINT, it's a very different thing. If the aim of the book were to teach the reader how to perform console output on C++, it wouldn't be an issue, but since the actual aim is to teach actual C++ to the user, this needs some fixing. The worst problem on these examples is that, the way they are presented, give the reader many wrong ideas (it will vary from reader to reader, but in general): Please note that I'm not asking such questions (I have some C/C++ experience), but I'm considering what a newcomer to C++ could think/understand from this page.
 * 1) Basic operations (such as console output) are performed with "weird" words (such as cout)?
 * 2) Those "weird" words use weird syntax? (What does the "<<" mean?)
 * 3) Until the section about blocks, only "cout" statements are used: does that mean that only "cout" statements are allowed out of code blocks?

As a solution, I'd rather suggest to use far more variety of statements, probably doing the same thing, hence showing the reader that there are many ways to achieve something in C++. For the first part of the page, I suggest using the old C's printf (which is still available in C++), then a cout.write; and finally a cout <<, so the reader will see several different statements and even figure out that this obscure "<<" is no more than a short-hand or syntax-sugar for the cout.write version.

Lack of focus
The page wanders too much into irrelevant talk and misses important information. For example, what does this mean?: ''The programmer either enters the statement directly to the computer (by typing it while running a special program), or creates a text file with the command in it, you can use any text editor for that. You could create a file called "hi.txt", put the above command in it, and give the file to the computer.'' Or to be more precise, what the hell means to give the "hi.txt" file to the computer?? Despite the fact that this phrase is, technically, a non-sense, the concept of what to do with the code once it's written is off-topic in this page: there is already a section in the book talking about compilers (I guess it should be expanded to mention interpreters, but that's not to be discused here). In the meanwhile, there are many questions that a page titled C++ Programming/Code/Statements should answer and this page does not: - What's an statement? A formal definition at the beginning of the page would be really helpfull. - What kind of statements are there? The page only mentions control flow statements: what about assignment, declaration or call statements? The page only says ''There are many different kinds of statements, depending on which programming language is being used. For example, there could be a beep statement that causes the computer to output a beep on its speaker, or a window statement that causes a new window to pop up.'' That will indoubfully cause a reader to believe that a line "beep;" would cause the computer to beep, or that "window << "This is my window";" would pop-up a window titled "This is my window". - Once again, more variety of examples should be provided.

Conclusion
I really think this page needs a lot of work. I'd be doing it myself if I had the time for it, but I currently don't have it. If I manage to squeeze some time for it, I'll take charge of the changes. Anyway, it'd be good if the author could post some reply, clarifying the intent of the page when it was written, so it can be kept. I guess it aimed to be not too technicall, but from that to including so many missleading information is too large a difference. If I come to edit (actually, remake it), I'll try to keep it as informal and friendly as I can, but not at the expense of good, useful content.

You had time to type this entire exposition up, but you don't have time to tweak the article itself? 72.219.14.103 03:27, 25 November 2007 (UTC)


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fabian Prewett

Overview
Fabian Prewett was a member of the original Order of the Phoenix, and one of Molly Weasley's brothers.

Philosopher's Stone
In their first meeting, Hagrid mentions to Harry that Voldemort killed some of the best wizards of the age such as the Prewetts, along with the Bones and the McKinnons.

Order of the Phoenix
At the celebratory party at Grimmauld Place for Ron and Hermione's appointment as Prefects, Alastor Moody shows Harry a photograph of the original Order of the Phoenix. Fabian Prewett is in that photo, with his brother Gideon, and Moody says it took five Death Eaters to kill them.

Gideon and Fabian were Molly Weasley's brothers. It is in part because she has lost immediate family members to Death Eaters already that her greatest fear, as shown by the Boggart in that same chapter, is of her own family members dying. We suspect that her apparent fear that Harry will die is an indication that she feels Harry to be part of her family.

Deathly Hallows
Apparently it is traditional to give a wizard a watch on their seventeenth birthday. When Harry turns 17, Mr. and Mrs. Weasley give Harry a watch. Mrs. Weasley apologizes profusely, saying it was Fabian's, and he hadn't always been terribly careful with his possessions, but Harry is very pleased by the gift, and tries to show it.

Harry is wearing this watch in the epilogue of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.

Strengths
Apparently he was a skilled wizard as he and his brother apparently fought through multiple Death Eaters before they were finally killed.

Relationships with Other Characters
Family-Molly Weasely(Prewett), Gideon Prewett

He was most likely friends with the marauders since they were all in gryffindor and went to school at the same time. Also in a lot of fanfictions, it is said that Fabien and Gideion were very good pranksters just like their nephews, Fred and George.


text:
MediaWiki:Nstab-wikijunior

Wikijunior

title: MediaWiki:Nstab-wikijunior


text:
New Zealand History/Recent History

‹ Back to Politics in the Twentieth Century

Major Events in the Twenty First Century - 2000-2007
2003

The population of New Zealand reached four million.

2004

The Foreshore and Seabed Controversy The foreshore and seabed controversy was under heavy debate in 2004. The foreshore and seabed debate involved the Maori wanting ownership of New Zealand beaches, as they saw it a customary right. This claim was based around the fact that Maori used to 'own' the beaches before Europeans came to New Zealand, and the Treaty of Waitangi stated that Maori could keep their lands and possessions.

The New Zealand public were surprised and shocked by the claim to the beaches. The Prime Minister at the time, Helen Clark, said that the Government would be passing law to ensure that beaches remained in public hands. However, the law incorporated Maori being consulted over foreshore and seabed matters. Due to this, the Labour Party was heavily attacked by National Party leader, Don Brash, who said the Government showed favouritism towards Maoris. Soon afterwards National was ahead of Labour in an opinion poll.

On the 18th of November 2004, the Labour Government passed the Foreshore and Seabed Bill and it became law. The Act made the foreshore and seabed property of the Crown. However, the Act was still subject to dispute, with some calling for modifications to the law.

The Maori Party Formed

The Maori Party was launched on the 7th of July 2004. It was formed around a former Labour Party Cabinet Minister, Tariana Turia, and as its name suggests, it is based on the indigenous Maori population. The foreshore and seabed controversy was one of the main reasons for setting up the party.

The Maori Party contested the 2005 general elections, and won four of the seven Maori seats and 2.12% of the party vote.

2007

Anti-smacking Bill Passed as Law

The Crimes (Substituted Section 59) Amendment Act 2007, commonly known as the anti-smacking Bill, was a highly controversial Bill introduced by Green Party MP Sue Bradford, which amended Section 59 of the Crimes Act. The Bill removed legal defence of 'reasonable force' for parents prosecuted of assaulting their children.

There was large-scale public opposition to the Bill. In opinion polls, there was overwhelming public opposition to the Bill. Despite this, the Bill was passed on the 16th of May 2007, with a large majority of 113 votes against 8.

Forward to New Zealand Prime Ministers of the Twenty First Century ›

title: New Zealand History/Recent History


text:
User:Aj young

AliYoung.com 2024-July-29

title: User:Aj young


text:
XQuery/Wikipedia Events RSS

Rather than simply representing the Wikipedia events as a re-designed page, a more useful form would be to generate an RSS feed since this is not provided by Wikipedia.

title: XQuery/Wikipedia Events RSS


text:
XQuery/Google Geocoding

Motivation
You have one or more geographic names and you want to create a map of these locations.

Method
We will use a Google RESTful web service to return geographical data from a list of place names. Google provides an HTTP-based Geocoding service. This requires registration of a site for a API key and there are limitations on the usage of this API. Results can be returned in XML or JSON.

Querying Google's API
The following script takes a location and returns the xml from the service:

Examples
Single City Examples:

 * Minneapolis - example using a single city with no country
 * Bristol,UK - example using a city and country

Multiple matches may be returned:
 * Bristol
 * or a false positive: Santa's House

In the UK, this service will geocode postcodes:
 * Bristol Hackspace

Response as KML
The XML response can be reformated as a KML file. Note the addition of the relevant media-type for KML.

If you have GoogleEarth, this should load an overlay showing multiple Bristol locations: Bristol KML

GoogleMap
A simple way to view the generated kml is to use GoogleMaps. This script simply constructs the relevant URL to use the script above and then redirects to that URL:

Sadly this approach no longer works with GoogleMap - see support lost  Bristol

An alternative approach is to use GoogleMap's JavaScript API. Note that to embed JavaScript requires doubling { so it is generally easier to put the Javascript in a separate file. This approach makes use of any existing kml overlay and is simpler, but more restricted than implementing the map using the JavaScript API

Examples
* Bristol * London

[Setting the zoom level doesn't seem to work]

Data to overlay
Often the locations are defined in a data file. The following script reads a local file of (a sample of ) whisky distilleries and creates a KML overlay.

Whisky overlay

and a modified version of the JavaScript can use the output to create a Whisky map

title: XQuery/Google Geocoding


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2002 LSAT

The February 2002 LSAT

Summary
Indications are that most test forms of the February 2002 LSAT included an experimental (unscored) third section. Be aware, however, that LSAC often administers a few selected forms with identical scored sections, but with their experimental sections in a different location. Ratings of this administration placed its difficulty in line with that of recent exams.

Games (Analytical Reasoning)
The first game was of a type that has been a staple of the LSAT's makers for years. This so-called "birthday" game involved deciding in what order bands would perform.

The second game featured another, and more difficult, staple of the test-makers: a distribution game. In this one, six campers were buying at least one of three pieces of equipment. Those who noted that the clues primarily had implications for the number of items each camper purchased were able to recognize it as a distribution game, and make a host of deductions that gave virtually complete information about four of the six campers. Those who missed the deductions found this game particularly time-consuming and frustrating.

In the third game, deductions were once again crucial to working the questions well, along with a useful and flexible diagram. Six teachers each taught one of three languages, at one of two schools. Having an efficient system for representing which teachers taught the same languages and which taught at the same school was crucial, as test-takers were often required to sort through multiple possible scenarios to arrive at their answers.

Most students of the exam recognized the final game as one of the more difficult two, although superficially it appeared similar to the first one. Here there were five positions, each one of which held one of three types of hats. Familiarity with conditional clues and their deductions was crucial here, as test-takers were asked to work several quite involved examples to arrive at their answers.

Arguments (Logical Reasoning)
Any student familiar with the LSATs administered in the past two years should not have been surprised by the arguments sections on this February's exam, which continued the trend of having a different mix of questions than was common before the 2000 testing year. The writers of the exam continue to use slight variations on the types of questions that have historically been the staple of the LSAT.

Reading Comprehension
Passage topics included the role of African American women in building the Baptist church, environmental law and the regulation of industry in the Netherlands, the use of superconductors in medical imaging technology, and a discussion of the way oral works of art are misunderstood and marginalized by contemporary scholars. In all, the subject matter, questions, and structures of all these passages fit quite closely with past Reading Comprehension sections, with an ever increasing emphasis on questions that require test-takers to draw strongly supported conclusions from the passage material. The increased emphasis on this section of reasoning skills over the simple ability to identify fair paraphrases of passage material makes exposure to these types of questions in particular all the more important for those who intend to take the LSAT in the near future.

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2002 LSAT


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2003 LSAT

The February 2003 LSAT

Summary
Indications are that most test forms of the February 2003 LSAT included an experimental (unscored) first section. Be aware, however, that LSAC often administers a few selected forms with identical scored sections, but with their experimental sections in a different location. Ratings of this administration placed its difficulty on par with other recent exams, and XXX students report being pleased with their overall performance. In general, they found the analytic reasoning and reading comprehension sections a bit easier than usual and the logical reasoning sections a bit harder than usual.

Games (Analytical Reasoning)
With only 22 questions this was an unusually short games section, and test takers found the games slightly easier than those on other recent exams. XXX students found that all of the games had features similar to those they worked during their courses.

The first game listed four medicines that each had one or more side effects. The game involved deciding which medicines were associated with which side effects and how many medicines had each side effect. Our students reported that they once they had set up the game and made deductions, they were able to work the questions fairly easily.

The second game required test takers to determine in what order seven roller coasters were built and whether each was steel or wooden. The constraints provided definite assignments for a few elements and described the relative position of others.

The third game involved determining which of seven floors in a hospital a doctor visited, and the constraints consisted entirely of conditional statements. Games similar to this one have been an LSAT staple, and those comfortable with interpreting conditional statements had a big advantage.

The last game featured six classes at a gym that began at one of four possible times. Test takes had to decide when each class started, and up to two classes could begin at the same time. The constraints provided information about the relative order of the classes and how many could begin at certain times. Some of the conditions had wording that was difficult to decipher. The placement of multiple classes in some time periods added a twist, but effective use of a diagram rendered this a workable game.

Arguments (Logical Reasoning)
Test takers reported that both logical reasoning sections contained some tough questions. Those who concentrated their preparation on the basic skills of analyzing arguments and applying a rigorous process of elimination were able to meet the challenges these sections posed. Overall, XXX students found the techniques they had learned in class worked well on the exam. Broad experience with past exams was invaluable to test-takers this February, and smart pacing choices were required to get the best possible results.

Reading Comprehension
Passage topics included an analysis of the political and artistic aspects a Russian Revolutionary era poet's work, a discussion of theories and experiments regarding the immune system, a description of a Bangladeshi bank's innovative loan program, and a recounting of a Supreme Court ruling about standing in regard to a housing act. This section demanded the skills of mapping the passage well, paraphrasing its contents, searching for specific evidence in support of answers, and eliminating choices judiciously. Many examinees reported finding this reading comprehension section somewhat easier than those on the October or December 2003 exams.

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2003 LSAT


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2004 LSAT

The February 2004 LSAT

Summary
As always, test forms for the February 2004 LSAT included an experimental (unscored) section. On most test forms, the experimental section appeared in Section 3. Be aware, however, that LSAC often administers a few selected forms with identical scored sections, but with their experimental sections in a different location. Ratings of this administration placed its difficulty on par with other recent exams. Princeton Review students report being pleased with their overall performance.

Games (Analytical Reasoning)
Princeton Review students rated the difficulty of this section as similar to or slightly harder than games sections that have appeared on exams within the past year. The first game involved determining how many computers each of seven manufacturers had produced. In the second game, birds had to be selected for a sanctuary. The third game involved determining the order in which five of six colored pencils were used. In the last game, four houses of varying distance from a university had to be assigned to students or faculty for one-, two-, or three- semester leases. Test takers rated the first game as easiest, the second and third games as medium, and the fourth game as hardest. Our students found that their familiarity with the games and experience with making deductions helped them set up the games and work the questions efficiently.

Arguments (Logical Reasoning)
One scored section had 26 questions, and the other had 25 questions. As usual, assumption, flaw, and inference questions were the most common question types. Test takers cited aggressive use of process of elimination (POE) as the most helpful technique. Overall, Princeton Review students reported being pleased with the arguments sections they saw, and they found the techniques they had learned in class worked well on the exam. Broad experience with past exams was invaluable to test-takers, and smart pacing choices were required to get the best possible results.

Reading Comprehension
The Reading Comp section offered the usual breakdown of topics-science, law, social science, and arts/humanities. Examinees varied in their assessment of passage difficulty, but many said the social science and legal passages had the most difficult questions. The first passage had seven questions and argued for a reassessment of Nigerian writer Amos Toutala's work. The second passage had six questions, and it discussed two theories about the evolutionary advantage of kin recognition in animals. The third passage addressed the definition and division of personal property in divorce proceedings. Seven questions accompanied the last passage, which dealt with female education in France. Overall, this section demanded the skills of mapping the passage well, paraphrasing its contents, searching for specific evidence in support of answers, and eliminating choices judiciously.

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2004 LSAT


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2005 LSAT

The February 2005 LSAT

Summary
As always, test forms for the February 2005 LSAT included an experimental (unscored) section. On most test forms, the experimental section appeared in Section 1. Be aware, however, that LSAC often administers a few selected forms with identical scored sections, but with their experimental sections in a different location. Ratings of this administration placed its difficulty slightly higher than other recent exams. Princeton Review students report being pleased with their overall performance. Games (Analytical Reasoning) Princeton Review students rated the difficulty of this section as harder than Games sections that have appeared on exams within the past year. The first game involved determining the order in which different bands performed. Five bands performed during seven time periods, and there were two rest periods. In the second game, six campers each had one or more of three types of camping equipment. The third game involved six teachers who taught one of three languages at a junior or senior high school. In the last game, three hats had to be assigned to one or more ordered spaces. Test takers rated the first game as easiest and the fourth game as hardest, and they split on their assessment of the second and third games. Our students found that their familiarity with the games and experience with making deductions helped them set up the games and work the questions efficiently.

Arguments (Logical Reasoning)
One scored section had 25 questions, and the other had 26 questions. As usual, assumption, flaw, and inference questions were the among the most common question types. Test takers cited aggressive use of process of elimination (POE) as the most helpful technique. Overall, Princeton Review students reported being pleased with the arguments sections they saw, and they found the techniques they had learned in class worked well on the exam. Broad experience with past exams was invaluable to test takers, and smart pacing choices were required to get the best possible results.

Reading Comprehension
The Reading Comprehension section offered the usual breakdown of topics - science, law/policy, social science, and arts/humanities. Examinees varied in their assessment of passage difficulty, but many said the science and humanities passages had the most difficult questions. The first passage had six questions and presented new scholarship on Native American women that indicates women had more power than previously thought. The second passage had eight questions, and it described current limitations on superconductor technology and types of superconductors that may allow for more practical applications in the future. The third passage had five questions, and it assessed the results of the Netherlands뭩 environmental policy program. Eight questions accompanied the last passage, which defended a controversial theory about Bach뭩 choral works. Overall, this section demanded the skills of mapping the passage well, paraphrasing its contents, searching for specific evidence in support of answers, and eliminating choices judiciously.

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2005 LSAT


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2006 LSAT

Summary As always, test forms for the February 2006 LSAT included an experimental (unscored) section. On most test forms, the experimental section appeared in Section 3. Be aware, however, that LSAC often administers a few selected forms with identical scored sections, but with their experimental sections in a different location. Ratings of this administration placed its difficulty on par with or slightly below that of other recent exams. Princeton Review students report being pleased with their overall performance. Games (Analytical Reasoning) - 22 questions Princeton Review students rated the difficulty of this section as on par with or easier than Games sections that have appeared on exams within the past year. In the first game, six interns had to be assigned to the floors of a five-story building. Having more than one intern per floor or no interns on a floor was permitted, which made narrowing down the assignments challenging. The second game concerned five types of birds that each visited from one to three sources of water at a park. Each type had to visit one or two water sources, and no source was visited by more than three types. The third game asked test takers to determine which of five highway bills and two mass transit bills were passed by a legislature. In the last game, a family visited six places in one day, two before noon and four after noon. Overall, test takers rated the second and fourth games as easier and the first and third games as harder. Our students found that their familiarity with the games and experience with making deductions helped them set up the games and work the questions efficiently.

Arguments (Logical Reasoning) - 25 questions in each section Both scored Arguments sections had 25 questions. While most LSATs have one scored Arguments section that is harder than the other, several examinees felt that the imbalance was more pronounced than usual on the February exam. The overall question distribution was similar to that on exams from the past year. Test takers cited careful use of process of elimination (POE) as the most helpful technique. Overall, Princeton Review students reported being pleased with the Arguments sections they saw, and they found the techniques they had learned in class worked well on the exam. They reported that their ability to spot language shifts, recognize common flaws, and diagram conditional statements were the most useful tools for analyzing arguments. Broad experience with past exams was invaluable to test takers, and smart pacing choices were required to get the best possible results.

Reading Comprehension - 28 questions The reading comprehension section offered the usual breakdown of topics뾱cience, law, social science, and arts/humanities. Examinees varied in their assessments of passage difficulty, but many said the law and science passages had the easiest questions. The first passage dealt with Internet regulation and discussed the difficulties of enforcing trademarks and laws internationally. The second passage concerned questions raised by recent measurements of Hubble뭩 Constant. The third passage considered the social significance of popularization of the cakewalk dance. The fourth passage examined issues surrounding the rise of groupthink in cohesive organizations. Overall, this section demanded the skills of mapping the passage well, paraphrasing its contents, searching for specific evidence in support of answers, and eliminating choices judiciously.

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2006 LSAT


text:
Past LSAT Explained/February 2007 LSAT

The February 2007 LSAT On most test forms, the experimental section appeared in Section 1 or Section 3. The difficulty of the test was equal to that of other recent exams.

Analytical Reasoning
22 questions The February games section as similar in difficulty to the December 2006 games section.

 * Game 1 Order with out column-5 questions (easy-medium)
 * Game 2 In-Out groups-6 questions (medium)
 * Game 3 Order with grouping-6 questions (easy-medium)
 * Game 4 Order with two tiers and distribution-5 questions (difficult)

Logical Reasoning
25 and 26 questions The 26-question section as harder than the 25-question section. The 26-question section had a run of difficult questions in the middle of the section that was balanced by some easier questions sprinkled in at the end. The 25-question section had a steadier progression of difficulty. The overall distribution of questions on the test was consistent with that of other recent exams.

Reading Comprehension
27 questions Somewhat easier than the RC sections that appeared on the June and October 2006 exams and more in keeping with the December RC section.

 * Passage 1 Humanities (easy)
 * Passage 2 Natural Science (medium-difficult)
 * Passage 3 Law (medium)
 * Passage 4 Social Science (medium-difficult)

title: Past LSAT Explained/February 2007 LSAT


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Cardiovascular System

This chapter on the Cardiovascular system is divided into 3 sections. These are:
 * 1) /Blood/
 * 2) /The Heart/
 * 3) /Blood circulation/


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Configure Fundamental BIOS Settings Exercise Results

 * 1) To show the amount of physical RAM available: use free or cat /proc/meminfo | grep MemTotal
 * 2) Which are the devices that are sharing an interrupt line? cat /proc/interrupts | more
 * 3) * How many PCI buses and bridges are there? lspci | wc -l
 * 4) * Are there any PCI/ISA bridges? lspci | grep 'PCI\|ISA'
 * 5) What is the option with lspci to list all the Intel PCI devices? lspci -d 8086:*
 * 6) What is the command to set you IDE hard drive in read only mode? hdparm -r1
 * 7) What is the command to turn on/off the disk cache hard drive? hdparm -W1     hdparm -W0
 * 8) What does the setpci utility do? setpci is a utility for querying and configuring PCI devices.
 * 9) What would be the command to write a word in register N of a PCI device? setpci -s 12:3.4 N.W=1


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview

There are three principles of treatment for diarrhea:

 * 1) Keep giving liquids
 * 2) Keep giving nutrition
 * 3) Take the child to a health center when necessary

 * Liquids
 * Nutrition
 * Taking to Health Center


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/First Principle -- Keep Giving Liquids

Keep the following in mind:
 * The mother should feed the child breastmilk for a longer period of time
 * If the child is younger than 6 months and is exclusively breastfed, feed him ORS or even clean water periodically
 * If the child is not exclusively breastfed, in addition to ORS, also give him other foods such as soup, rice water, yogurt, etc.

Please note! If the child has excessive diarrhea, it is important to keep feeding him ORS.

 * ORS Overview
 * Next Principle
 * Treatment Overview


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/First Principle -- Keep Giving Liquids/ORS

 * /Preparation/
 * /How much to give/
 * /Feeding the child/


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/First Principle -- Keep Giving Liquids/ORS/Preparation

 * 1) Put 4 glasses of clean, boiled water in a jug.
 * 2) Wait till the water cools to room temperature
 * 3) Put in one packet of ORS solution and stir
 * 4) ORS can be used up to 12 hours after preparation at room temperature, or 24 hours if kept in a fridge.

Note: If ORS solution is not available, take a glass of water and put one teaspoon of sugar and one fourth teaspoon and stir

 * ORS Overview


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/First Principle -- Keep Giving Liquids/ORS/How much to give

After every stool:
 * If the child is younger than 2 years, feed him a quarter to half a cup of ORS.
 * If the child is older than two years, feed him half a cup to a whole cup of ORS.

 * ORS Overview


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/First Principle -- Keep Giving Liquids/ORS/Feeding the child

Feed the child ORS with small sips from a cup, or by using a teaspoon. If the child vomits, wait ten minutes and then try again, but slower than before. Keep feeding the child ORS or additional liquids until the diarrhea has completely stopped.

 * ORS Overview


text:
Radiation Oncology/EMPD

Extramammary Paget's Disease

Overview

 * Intraepithelial neoplasm with glandular differentiation
 * Morphologically the same as Paget's disease of the breast, but unlike in the nipple, there is only rarely an underlying malignancy. It appears to be a primary epithelial malignancy
 * Areas of involvement: peno-scrotal area, perineum, perianal area, vulva, axillae, groin, umbilicus, eyelid
 * Tends to arise in sites where apocrine glands are present in high concentration
 * In cases with an underlying malignancy (~20% of cases), it is often a cutaneous adnexal carcinoma, usually of apocrine or eccrine glands
 * Presenting symptoms: pruritus, scaly eczematous lesion
 * Histology shows presence of Paget cells, which are large cells with abundant basophilic cytoplasm and a large hyperchromatic and pleomorphic nucleus. Staining positive for CEA, CK7, EMA, and CAM 5.2; may also show overexpression of Her2
 * Internal malignancies (e.g. colon, ovarian) may be associated in 10-20%
 * Primary treatment is surgery, but margin may be diffuse and difficult to clear. Suggested margins have been 3-5cm, Mohs should be considered
 * RT reasonable alternative if patient not a surgical candidate

Literature

 * Hong Kong; 2007 PMID 17665242 -- "Extramammary Paget's Disease in Chinese Males: A 21-year Experience." (Chiu TW, World J Surg. 2007 Oct;31(10):1941-6.)
 * Retrospective.
 * Outcome: recurrence rate 35% (simple WLE 60% vs. intraop frozen sections 25%)

title: Radiation Oncology/EMPD


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/Second Principle -- Keep Giving Nutrition

During diarrhea, feed the child soft food appropriate for his age, such as khichri, sujhi ki kheer, mashed potatoes, mashed bananas, vegetables, seasonal fruit, etc.

 * Previous Principle
 * Next Principle
 * Treatment Overview


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Treatment Overview/Third Principle -- Taking to Health Center

Take the child to a health center immediately if you see even one of the following danger signs:
 * Listlessness or fainting
 * Inability to drink liquids
 * Blood in the stool
 * Fever

 * Treatment Overview
 * Referral


text:
Arithmetic/Part I Review and Test

Part I Test
 {Part 1 of 3.}

{ $$2 + 2 =$${ 4_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$2 + 4 =$${ 6_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$5 + 3 =$${ 8_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{Part 2 of 3. Numbers greater than 9}

{ $$10 + 11 =$${ 21_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$12 + 12 =$${ 24_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$14 + 10 =$${ 24_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{Part 3 of 3. Numbers smaller than 0}

{ $$-4 - 4 =$${ -8_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$-2 + 5 =$${ 3_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{ $$5 - (-2) =$${ 7_2 }
 * type="{}"}

{BONUS}

{ $$4 \times 5 =$${ 20_2 }
 * type="{}" coef="3"}

title: Arithmetic/Part I Review and Test


text:
User:FlashG~enwikibooks

Hello Fellow Friends,

How is everyone getting on ?? Firstly a warm greetings to all who have noticed my postings!!

Something about me: I am from Singapore and now working in a semiconductor industry. I love technology breakthroughs and always looking forward to new interesting products in the market. Also like to meet new people and expand my social network, keen to listen to others and also share the ups and downs of life.

Stay tuned to my posts as I will be sharing with all of you people out there on some of the interesting things i do and how you can also do the same !!! I have also tried my hand on video making, and you can access it through Youtube. Hope you enjoy it =)

flashG Youtube Videos

flashG blogger

Best Wishes and lots of love Gordon

title: User:FlashG~enwikibooks


text:
Community Health Worker Manual/Diarrhea/Classification

Diarrhea causes dehydration, which can be identified through various signs. If the child has either of the following two danger signs, then refer him to a health center.

 * Sunken eyes
 * Turgid skin

There are also some minor signs—if the child has any two of the following, refer him to a health center:

 * Restlessness and irritability
 * Thirsty or eager to drink water
 * Listless or fatigued
 * Inability to drink water

 * Testing Skin Turgidity
 * Referral


text:
Community Health Worker Manual

Table of Contents

 * 1) /Diarrhea/
 * 2) /Referral/
 * 3) Cultural Security (Different Wikibook)

Print version

 * 1) /Print/

title: Community Health Worker Manual


text:
Growing Edible Sprouts/Bibliography

Growing Edible Sprouts - Bibliography

General

 * Braunstein, Mark M. (1999) Sprout Garden - Revised Edition Book Publishing Co. Tennessee ISBN 1-57067-073-0
 * Meyerowitz, Steve (1999) Sprouts the miracle food: the complete guide to sprouting - Sixth Edition Sproutman Publications Mass. ISBN 1-878736-04-3
 * Wigmore, Ann (1986) The sprouting book Avery ISBN 0-89529-246-7

Nutrition

 * United States Department of Agriculture USDA National Nutrient Database

Regulations

 * Food and Drug Administration (May 2005) Public Meeting: 2005 Sprout Safety. Transcript of Proceedings. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/sprotran.html

Commercial Sprouting

 * Caudill Seed in Louisville, Kentucky. Leafy sprout equipment. Bean sprout equipment.
 * International Sprout Growers Association
 * Sunsprout in Lancaster, Pennsylvania

title: Growing Edible Sprouts/Bibliography


text:
Talk:Java Programming/Defining Classes

this doesn't tell anything about class inheritance

title: Talk:Java Programming/Defining Classes


text:
Talk:Classroom Management Theorists and Theories

A Class Project?
This book appears to be a class project (judging by the fact that authors' names are listed without corresponding Wiki accounts), though I could be mistaken. If it is, I think it would be nice to identify it as such, perhaps on this discussion page if there is not a graceful way to put the information on the opening page.

Alternatively, a section could be created and linked called "Contributors" or "Authors."

KelvinLeeSeifert 14:51, 26 September 2007 (UTC)


text:
Automobile Repair/Volvo/240

Maintenance Schedule
Every 10k miles or 1 year

Engine
 * Replace oil, oil filter, air filter
 * Check coolant level, inspect for leaks
 * Check ignition system, spark plug wires, distributor cap
 * Inspect exhaust system for damage, corrosion
 * Inspect accessory belts for wear

Transmission
 * Check clutch and drive shaft for play
 * Check transmission fluid level and add if needed
 * Check for leaks at the transmission, axle and cooling lines

Electrical
 * Check battery voltage and inspect terminal connections
 * Check operation of all exterior lights

Chassis
 * Check brake and emergency brake operation
 * Check brake pad wear
 * Inspect brake system for leaks
 * Fill brake fluid reservoir if needed
 * Inspect steering and suspension parts for play or wear
 * Check tires for wear and correct pressure

Every 20k miles or 2 years

Repeat all 10k maintenance as well as:

Chassis
 * Replace brake fluid

Every 30k miles or 3 years

Repeat all 10k maintenance as well as:

Engine
 * Replace coolant
 * Replace spark plugs

Transmission
 * Replace ATF

Every 40k miles or 4 years

Repeat all 10k and 20k maintenance

Every 50k miles or 5 years

Repeat all 10k maintenance as well as:

Engine
 * Replace engine timing belt

General
Gasoline Diesel
 * B17 : I4 - 1784 cc
 * B19 : I4 - 1986 cc
 * B200 : I4 - 1986 cc
 * B20 : I4 - 1986 cc
 * B21 : I4 - 2127 cc
 * B23 : I4 - 2316 cc
 * B230 : I4 - 2316 cc
 * B27 : V6 - 2664 cc
 * B28 : V6 - 2849 cc
 * B280 : V6 - 2849 cc
 * D20 : I5 - 1986 cc
 * D24 : I6 - 2383 cc

Fuel Delivery
Volvo 240s were offered with 3 core types of fuel delivery systems.

Carburetor
SU Carburetor: The earliest 240 models had SU Carburetors.

Mechanical Fuel Injection
Bosch K-Jetronic

Electronic Fuel Injection

 * Bosch LH-Jetronic 1.0
 * Bosch LH-Jetronic 2.0
 * Bosch LH-Jetronic 2.2
 * Bosch LH-Jetronic 2.4
 * Bosch LH-Jetronic 3.1

General
Manual
 * M45 : 4-speed
 * M46 : 4-speed
 * M47 : 5-speed

Automatic
 * BW35 : 3-speed
 * BW55 : 3-speed
 * AW55 : 3-speed
 * AW70 : 4-speed
 * AW71 : 4-speed

title: Automobile Repair/Volvo/240


text:
Template:SelectYearByModel

Select year
Select the year of the you selected.

Years of production
The series was produced: /Templates

title: Template:SelectYearByModel


text:
Talk:Visual Basic .NET/Arrays

I think it is not MyArray.Sort(MyArray) but: Array.Sort(MyArray)

title: Talk:Visual Basic .NET/Arrays


text:
User:EVula/header

 user page  //  talk page • matrix •

title: User:EVula/header


text:
LPI Linux Certification/Print Version A

LPI Linux Certification

Current, editable version of this book is available in Wikibooks, collection of open-content textbooks at URL: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/LPI_Linux_Certification

The whole text is available under GNU Free Documentation License.

=Advanced Level Linux Professional=

=Linux Kernel=

=System Startup=

=File Systems=

=Hardware=

=File & Service Sharing=

=System Maintenance=

=System Customisation & Automation=

=Troubleshooting=

=Networking=

=Mail & News=

= DNS =

=Web Services=

=Network Client Management=

=System Security=

=Network Troubleshooting=

title: LPI Linux Certification/Print Version A


text:
XQuery/Wikipedia Lookup

Page scraping is one way to retrieve a specific fact from a page provided its structure is stable.

Here the task is to use wikipedia to find the Latin name for a bird, given its common name.

declare namespace h = "http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml";

let $name := request:get-parameter("name",) let $url := escape-uri(concat("http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/",$name),false) let $page := doc($url) let $genus := $page//h:tr[h:td[. ='Genus:']]/h:td[2] let $species := $page//h:tr[h:td[. ='Species:']]/h:td[2] let $binomial := string($page//h:tr[h:th//h:a[.='Binomial name']]/following-sibling::h:tr//h:b) return

Here, the path to locate the data required, assuming the page is in Bird page format, involves complex XPath expressions. For example, the genus is the second cell in a table row whose first cell is 'Genus'.

Black Swan Wikipedia

The script often fails because:
 * 1) the name is ambiguous  ThrushWikipedia
 * 2) the name is too broad Kiwi Wikipedia

It is not hard to see that more semantic markup with ontological relationships would be preferable to these uncertain contortions.

title: XQuery/Wikipedia Lookup


text:
Automobile Repair/Nissan/Maxima (4th Generation)/Changing the Spark plugs

What Type of Plugs to Get?
From my fellow Maxima enthusiasts. Quite simply, the platinum tipped NGK plugs that come stock with the Maxima are great plugs. You can try those other aftermarket plugs, but you may be asking for trouble. I know of someone directly who put those Bosch +4 plugs in their car and caused some serious damage. (Its never a good idea to install a domestic made plugs in a foreign made card) So stick with the NGKs. Also, please note that NGK spark plugs come in standard, hot, and cold temperature types, which refer to the relative temperature the plug operates at during operation of the vehicle. For all-around use, select the "standard" temperature plug. In contrast, the "cold" plugs run cooler and are better suited for cars running at higher speeds and loads. "Hot" plugs run slightly hotter than your "standard" temperature plug, and are best suited for vehicles used intermittently or at generally slow speeds (around town, idling, etc.). A hotter plug temperature burns off the increased deposits generated by slower operating vehicles.

The standard OE spark plug is NGK PFR5G-11 (#2647), Laser Platinum, a double platinum spark plug

Nissan also lists an alternative colder plug, the NGK PFR6G-11 (#5555) may be used

For a longer-lasting iridium alternative, NGK makes a Laser Iridium IFR5E-11 (#7994). This corresponds to the standard heat range.

Tools/Parts needed

 * A 5/8 spark plug socket.
 * An 10" socket extension
 * A universal joint for the extension and socket
 * metric sockets
 * 4mm allen wrench
 * You may also find that a stick with a magnetic tip can come in handy.
 * Dielectric Tune-up Grease
 * Torque wrench

Procedure

 * 1) Using a 4mm allen wrench, remove the cover by unscrewing four allen screws as shown by the red arrows.
 * 2) You'll now see the exposed coils. Disconnect the wires to them. The connections are shown by the green arrows. The far right is already unhooked.
 * 3) Using the above picture, unscrew the two bolts holding each of the ignition coils in place. (Shown by the red arrow).
 * 4) With the bolts removed, pull out the coil.
 * 5) With the coil removed, you can see the spark plug: Using your extension, spark plug socket, and universal joint, unscrew and pull out the spark plug.
 * 6) Do this for all 6 spark plugs. Here's the rear bank of 3, shown with the green arrows.
 * 7) That rear spark plug towards the middle of the engine bay is tough to get to. Make it easy on yourself and remove the two objects blocking it (shown by the blue arrows above.) Removing them is easy. The plastic ring is held by a single bolt and the EVAP canister purge volume control valve further up is held by two bolts. Unbolt both and just move them aside, no need to remove/disconnect wires or tubing.
 * 8) Do not use anti-seize. NGK is vehemently opposed to it, as all NGK plugs come with a special plating on the threads for easy removal. For my 96 Maxima, the torque specs for the spark plugs are 14-22 ft-lbs.
 * 9) Coat the inside of the coil where it makes contact with spark plug with a thin layer of dielectric tune-up grease. This helps minimize corrosion.
 * 10) Reinsert the ignition coil. Secure it with the 2 bolts.
 * 11) Repeat this procedure for all the ignition coils.
 * 12) Don't forget to put back the EVAP valve and the plastic ring.
 * 13) Reconnect the coils.
 * 14) Put the cover back on the front 3 coils.
 * 15) Start the car and test the engine.
 * 16) That's It! You're DONE!

Well...not so fast. Some Maximas have the rear-spark plugs buried under an aluminum intake plenum, which must be removed to access the rear-bank spark plugs. Removing it requires 1) marking (with tape) and disconnection of about 12 different hoses connected to it, and 2) removal of the upper intake plenum itself which has a specific bolt tightening sequence and torgue requirements. You will need to be prepared to have a new plenum gasket, and gasket sealant *before* you start the work. The best explanation of removing this piece is found in the "Haynes Repair Manual - Nissan Maxima 1993 - 2001" by Bob Henderson and John H. Hayes. ISBN: 1-56392-450-1.


text:
Automobile Repair/Ford

Cars

 * /Aspire/
 * /Contour/
 * /Crown Victoria/
 * /Escort/
 * /Escort ZX2/
 * /EXP/
 * /Fairmont/
 * /Festiva/
 * /Fiesta/
 * /Focus/
 * /Fusion/
 * /Granada/
 * /GT/
 * /KA/
 * /LTD/
 * /LTD Crown Victoria/
 * /Mondeo/
 * /Mustang/
 * /Pinto/
 * /Probe/
 * /Taurus/
 * /Tempo/
 * /Thunderbird/
 * /ZX2/

Light truck

 * /Bronco I/
 * /Bronco II/
 * /Courier/
 * /E-Series/
 * /Edge/
 * /Excursion/
 * /Expedition EL/
 * /Explorer/
 * /Explorer Sport/
 * /F-Series/
 * /Flex/
 * /Freestyle/
 * /Ranger/
 * /Taurus X/

title: Automobile Repair/Ford


text:
User talk:Savalakh

Welcome message
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally. Urbane  (Talk)   (Contributions)  20:09, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Savalakh


text:
User talk:76.238.87.14

Your block will expire in 1 day. If you continue to vandalise using racist and offensive language then you will be blocked for longer. Xania talk 21:24, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:76.238.87.14


text:
User talk:81.178.83.237

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

Xania talk 21:26, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:81.178.83.237


text:
User:Whiteknight/perpage.js

//Per-Book javascript. //adapted from http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/User:Matt/public/pagecss.js /* Imports stylesheets and script pages that are specific to a given book or namespace. Also, provides links in the form of tabs to the stylesheet and script pages that correspond to the particular page. Allows significant customization for individual pages and individual books. Currently does not support per-namespace stylesheets, or scripts for the main namespace.

var pagejs_base = "User:Whiteknight/Javascripts/"; var nsjs_base = "User:Whiteknight/Javascripts/ns/"; var pagecss_base = "User:Whiteknight/Stylesheets/"; function WKAddPerPageTabs { if(wgPageName.match(pagejs_base) ||    wgPageName.match(pagecss_base)) { var bookpath = "/wiki/" + wgPageName.split("/")[2]; add_toolbox_link(bookpath, 'book', 'ca-gobook'); } else { var scriptpath = "/wiki/" + pagejs_base + wgBookName; var stylepath = "/wiki/" + pagecss_base + wgBookName; add_toolbox_link(stylepath, 'style', 'ca-addstyle'); add_toolbox_link(scriptpath, 'script', 'ca-addscript'); } }

import_style(pagecss_base + wgBookName); import_script(pagejs_base + wgBookName); if(wgCanonicalNamespace != "") import_script(nsjs_base + wgCanonicalNamespace); $(WKAddPerPageTabs);

title: User:Whiteknight/perpage.js


text:
User:Whiteknight/per book/User:Whiteknight.js

// javascripts that I only load for pages in my own personal namespace

function wk_import_script(name) { name = encodeURIComponent(name.replace(/ /g, '_' )); var scriptElem = document.createElement('script'); scriptElem.setAttribute('type', 'text/javascript'); scriptElem.setAttribute('src', '/w/index.php?title=' + name + '&action=raw&ctype=text/javascript'); document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(scriptElem); }

wk_import_script('User:Whiteknight/pagetester.js'); wk_import_script('User:Whiteknight/graph.js');

if(wgPageName == "User:Whiteknight") addOnloadHook(function { var stat;  if(stat = document.getElementById("WK_Status_Span")) {    a = document.createElement("a");    a.href = "javascript:WKChangeStatus;";    a.innerHTML = "Change";    b = document.createElement("a");    b.href = "javascript:WKDeleteStatus;";    b.innerHTML = "Remove";    wk.appendChildren(stat, ["[", a, "][", b, "]"]);  } });

function WKChangeStatus { var span = document.getElementById("WK_Status_Span_2"); var stat = prompt("New Status:", (span == null)?(""):(span.innerHTML)); if(stat != "" && stat != null) { wk.postEdit("User:Whiteknight/Stat", stat, "updating status", null); if(span != null) { span.innerHTML = stat; wk.toggleDisplay(span, "block"); }   else { span = document.createElement("div"); span.setAttribute("class", "PrettyTextBox"); span.setAttribute("id", "WK_Status_Span_2"); span.style.textAlign = "center"; span.innerHTML = stat; var shell = document.getElementById("WK_Status_Span"); shell.appendChild(span); } } }

function WKDeleteStatus { if(confirm("Do you want to delete your status?")) { wk.postEdit("User:Whiteknight/Stat", "", "removing status message", null); wk.toggleDisplay("WK_Status_Span_2", "none"); } }

//


text:
User:Whiteknight/Per Page

About This Page
These scripts and stylesheets are loaded using the Personal Per-Book javascript gadget. you can install this gadget yourself at Special:Preferences on the "Gadgets" tab.

title: User:Whiteknight/Per Page


text:
User talk:Jklsemicolon~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 01:14, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jklsemicolon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jklsemicolon~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:17, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:05, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jklsemicolon~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Herenvardo~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * You should sign your name on Talk and vote pages using four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window that will insert this, too; it looks like part of a signature.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic 01:14, 27 September 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Herenvardo. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Herenvardo~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:13, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:02, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Herenvardo~enwikibooks


text:
User:Whiteknight/per book/User:Whiteknight.css

/* */


text:
User talk:Liz Henry

Liz Henry liz@bookmaniac.net http://liz-henry.blogspot.com

title: User talk:Liz Henry


text:
Econometric Theory/Multicollinearity

While running regressions on multiple explanatory variables, there often is the problem of two variables having the same effects on the dependent variable. For example, say that the reading level of your father and the reading level of your mother can predict your eventual max reading level (YourLevel = a + b*FatherLevel + c*MotherLevel + u). However, there probably is a high probability that your parents have similar reading levels, so that using both may be redundant. This is a problem known as Multicollinearity. The problem with this is bias in your estimators. Say we can find yours through your mother's level. YourLevel = a + c*MotherLevel + u. If we add on your father's level, we will increase the prediction for your level, although in real life your level will not increase at all.

Detecting Multicollinearity
Detecting multicollinearity can be more difficult than in the above example. But the first step that should be taken is an examination of the theory that is being tested. Is it redundant to have both mother's level and father's level? If this does not yield any results, probably because the theory is more complex, causing multicollinearity to be hidden, several econometric techniques can be used to find problems.

1) Large changes in the estimated regression coefficients when a predictor variable is added or deleted. Running the regression first with 'FatherLevel' and then without it may yield large variation, indicating that there is an error.

2) Non-significant results of simple linear regressions. Obviously if we find that with both FatherLevel and MotherLevel that neither are significant, than again there is something strange happening signaling possible multicollinearity.

3) Estimated regression coefficients have an opposite sign from predicted If in a regression with both FatherLevel and MotherLevel, b is positive, but c is negative; we know from theory that a higher reading level of the mother does not cause the child to be a worse reader. This is a possible sign of multicollinearity.

4)formal detection-tolerance or the variation inflation factor (VIF)

 * $$\mathrm{tolerance} = 1-R^2,\quad \mathrm{VIF} = \frac{1}{\mathrm{tolerance}}.$$

A tolerance of less than 0.1 indicates a multicollinearity problem.

title: Econometric Theory/Multicollinearity


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Bioinformatics/Other Data/Relational

A relational database is a database system in which the information are represented in the form of Entities and Attributes which are summarised in the form of tables. entities are related to the Attributes via some relationship termed as Tuple.

title: Bioinformatics/Other Data/Relational


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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Cardiovascular System/Blood

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * the main functions of blood
 * what the term haematocrit or packed cell volume (PCV) means
 * what is in blood
 * what plasma is and what is in it
 * the appearance and function of red blood cells (RBCs)
 * the appearance and function of white blood cells particularly granulocytes, lymphocytes and
 * monocytes

 * the function of platelets and fibrinogen in blood clotting
 * how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood
 * the names of some anticoagulants and their function in the body and in the vet clinic

Blood
Blood is a unique fluid containing cells that is pumped by the heart around the body of animals in a system of pipes known as the circulatory system. It carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and removes waste products like carbon dioxide from them. Blood is also important for keeping conditions in the body constant, in other words for maintaining homeostasis. It helps keep the acidity or pH stable and helps maintain a constant temperature in the body. Blood also has an important role in defending the body against disease (an important role in immunity).

A simple way to find out what is in blood is to remove a small amount from an animal and place it in a tube with a substance that prevents it from clotting (an anticoagulant). If you leave the tube to stand for a few hours you will find that it settles out into two layers. The top layer consists of a light yellow fluid, the plasma, and the bottom layer consists of red blood cells (RBCs). If you look very carefully you can also see a thin beige-coloured layer in between these two layers. This consists of the white blood cells (WBCs) (see diagram 8.1).

The above procedure is usually done more rapidly by placing the blood sample in a centrifuge for a few minutes. This machine acts like a super spin drier rotating about 10,000 times a minute and packing the heavier particles (red blood cells) at the bottom of the tube. The sample that results is called the packed cell volume (P.C.V.) or haematocrit. It is a very useful measurement of the concentration of red blood cells in the blood. For most animals the packed cell volume is in the range 30-45%. If it is lower than this it means that the concentration of red blood cells is low and the animal is anaemic. If the reading is above this range it may mean the animal is dehydrated. Animals that live at high altitudes also have high P.C.V.s to compensate for the low oxygen concentration there.

Diagram 8.1 - Packed cell volume of blood

Plasma
Plasma consists of water (91%) in which many substances are dissolved. These dissolved substances include:
 * salts (or electrolytes)
 * proteins
 * nutrients
 * waste products
 * dissolved gases (mainly carbon dioxide)
 * and other chemicals like hormones

Salts in Plasma
Salts in the plasma are in the form of ions or electrolytes which include sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, phosphate and bicarbonate. Plasma transports these ions to where they are needed e.g. calcium required by the bones, they also help keep the osmotic pressure and acid-base balance (pH) of the blood within the required levels.

Blood Proteins
The proteins in the blood plasma are large molecules with important functions. Some contribute to the osmotic pressure (see chapter 3) and the viscosity (thickness) of the blood, and so help keep the blood volume and pressure stable. Others act as antibodies that attack bacteria and viruses, and yet others are important in blood clotting. Nutrients that are absorbed from the gut and transported to the cells in the plasma include amino acids, glucose, fatty acids and vitamins. Waste products include urea from the breakdown of proteins.

Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells are also known as RBCs or erythrocytes. They are what make blood red. When you look at a blood smear through a microscope, as you will in one of the practical classes, you will see that RBCs are by far the most common cells in the blood. (In fact there are about 5 million per millilitre). If you focus on an individual RBC you will see that they are shaped like discs or doughnuts with a thin central portion surrounded by a fatter margin. This shape has all sorts of advantages, one being that enables the cells to fold up and pass along the narrowest blood capillaries (See diagram 8.2).

Diagram 8.2 - Red blood cells or erythrocytes

The mature RBCs of mammals have neither nucleus nor other organelles and can be thought of as sacks of haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is a red coloured protein containing iron, which joins with oxygen so the blood can transport it to body cells. RBCs are made continuously in the bone marrow and live about 120 days. They are then destroyed in the liver and spleen and the molecules they are made from recycled to make new RBCs. Anaemia results if the rate at which RBCs are destroyed exceeds the rate at which RBC'c are 'produced'.

Note that if you happen to look at bird’s, reptiles, frogs or fishes blood down the microscope you will see that these vertebrates all have RBCs with a central nucleus.

White Blood Cells
White blood cells or leukocytes are far less numerous than red blood cells. In fact there is only about one white cell for every 1000 red blood cells. Rather than being white, they are actually colourless as they contain no hemoglobin although unlike RBCs they do have a nucleus. If you make a blood smear and look at it under the microscope it is difficult to see the white blood cells at all. To make them visible you need to stain them with special dyes or stains. There are a variety of stains that can be used, but most dye the nucleus a dark purple or pink colour. The stains may also show up the granules present in the cytoplasm of some white blood cells. White blood cells are divided into two major groups depending on the shape of the nucleus and whether or not there are granules in the cytoplasm.

 * 1.Granulocytes or polymorphonuclear leucocytes (“polymorphs” or “polys”) have granules     in the cytoplasm and a purple lobed nucleus (see diagram 8.3). The most common (neutrophils) can squeeze out of capillaries and are involved in engulfing and destroying foreign invaders like bacteria (see diagram 8.4). Some (eosinophils) combat allergies and increase in numbers during parasitic worm infections. Others (basophils) produce heparin that prevents the blood from clotting.

Diagram 8.3 - A granulocyte

Diagram 8.4 - Neutrophils escaping from a capillary

 * 2. Agranulocytes or monomorphonuclear leucocytes have a large unlobed nucleus and no granules in the cytoplasm. There are two types of agranulocytes. The most numerous are lymphocytes that are concerned with immune responses. The second type is the monocyte that is the largest blood cell and is involved in engulfing bacteria etc. by phagocytosis (see diagram 8.5).

Diagram 8.5 - Agranular leucocytes

Platelets
As well as red and white blood cells, the blood also contains small irregular shaped fragments of cells known as platelets. They are involved in the clotting of the blood (see later).

Transport Of Oxygen
The purpose of the haemoglobin in red blood cells is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. In fact it allows the blood to carry about 25 times more oxygen than it would be able to without any haemoglobin.

When oxygen concentrations are high, as in the blood capillaries in the lungs, haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form a compound called oxyhaemoglobin. This compound is bright red and makes the oxygenated blood that spurts from a damaged artery its characteristic bright red colour. When the blood reaches the tissues where the oxygen concentrations are low, the oxygen separates from the haemoglobin and diffuses into the tissues. The haemoglobin in most veins has given up its oxygen and the blood is called deoxygenated blood. It is a purple-red colour.

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless gas found in car exhaust fumes and tobacco smoke. It combines with haemoglobin just like oxygen but does not let go. This means the haemoglobin molecules are not available to carry oxygen to the tissues and the animal or human suffocates. Carbon monoxide poisoning is often fatal but can be treated by giving the patient pure oxygen that slowly replaces the carbon monoxide. This could be conceived numerically as a probability issue: carbon monoxide binds 200 times stronger than oxygen to the iron atom in haemaglobin, but this bond I has dynamic states where the CO molecule moves away temporarily from the iron atom and then it depends on chances of an oxygen atom being near enough to the iron atom to takeover the electrostatic bond. if there are enough oxygen molecules around, the carbon monoxide molecule is crowded out and moved further away from the iron atom, enough to overcome the 200 times attractivity of carbon monoxide to the iron moiety.

Transport Of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a waste gas produced by cells. It diffuses into the blood capillaries where it is carried to the lungs in the blood. Most is carried in the plasma as bicarbonate ions but a small amount is dissolved directly in the plasma and some combines with haemoglobin.

Transport Of Other Substances
The blood carries water to the cells and organs as well as soluble food substances (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and vitamins) and hormones dissolved in the plasma. These are delivered to the cells via the tissue fluid (see later in this chapter) that surrounds them. Blood also picks up the waste products like carbon dioxide and urea from the cells and is important in distributing the heat produced in the liver and muscles all over the body.

Blood Clotting
The mechanism that causes the blood to clot is easily seen when you or your animals are injured. However, minor injuries occur all the time in areas that experience wear and tear like the intestine, the lungs and the skin. Without the clotting mechanism, animals would quickly bleed to death from minor injury and internal haemorrhage. This is what happens in animals and people with clotting disorders like haemophilia, as well as animals that are poisoned with rat poisons like warfarin.

Platelets are important in blood clotting. When blood vessels are damaged, substances released cause the blood platelets to disintegrate. This stimulates a complex chain of reactions, which causes the protein fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin. Fibrin forms a dense fibrous network over the wound preventing the escape of further blood. Calcium and vitamin K are essential for the clotting process and any deficiency of these may also lead to clotting problems.

Serum And Plasma
When blood clots it separates into the clot that contains most of the cells and platelets leaving behind a straw coloured fluid. This fluid is called serum. It looks just like plasma and is similar in composition except for one big difference. It doesn’t contain fibrinogen, the protein that forms the clot.

Anticoagulants
Anticoagulants are substances that interfere with the clotting process. When blood is collected for transfusion or testing it is often important to prevent it clotting and there are a number of different anticoagulants you can use for this. Tubes containing the different anticoagulants are coded with different colours for easy recognition.
 * Heparin (colour code - green) is a natural anticoagulant produced by the white blood cells  but it is also used routinely in the laboratory with samples to be tested for heavy metals like lead.
 * EDTA (colour code – lavender) is used for routine blood counts.
 * Fluoroxylate (colour code – grey) is used for biochemical tests for glucose.
 * Citrate (colour code – light blue) is used for the storage of large quantities of blood, such as used in transfusions.

Haemolysis
Haemolysis is the breakdown of the plasma membrane of red blood cells to release the haemoglobin. We have already met this process when discussing osmosis, for haemolysis often occurs when red blood cells are placed in a hypotonic solution and water flows in through the semi permeable plasma membrane to swell and eventually burst the cell. It is therefore important when collecting blood from an animal to make sure there is no water in the syringe or tube. Too much movement due to shaking the tube or sucking up the blood too vigorously can also break down the plasma membrane and cause haemolysis.

Blood Groups
If you have given blood recently you may know your blood group. It may be blood group O, A or B or even AB, the rarest group. Blood groups are the result of different molecules called antigens on the outside of red blood cells. These cause antibodies to be formed that attack viruses and bacteria. Knowledge of a person’s blood group is important when giving transfusions because if blood of another incompatible blood group is given to a patient the red blood cells stick together and block the blood vessels and may lead to death.

Blood groups also exist in many animals. There are three blood groups in cats and great care has to be taken that the groups are compatible when transfusing exotic breeds. The situation is slightly different in dogs. They have a number of blood groups but there is usually no problem with the first blood transfusion a dog receives. However, this first transfusion sensitises the immune system so that a problem may arise with the second and subsequent transfusions.

Haemolysis can occur in the living animal when it is exposed to various poisons and toxins. This may happen when, for example, it eats a poisonous plant, is bitten by a snake or infected with bacteria that destroy red blood cells (haemolytic bacteria).

Blood Volume
Blood accounts for between 6-10% of the body weight of animals, varying with the species and the stage of life. Animals can not tolerate losses of greater than 3% of the total volume when the condition known as shock occurs.

Summary | Blood

 * The main functions of blood are transport of oxygen, food, waste products etc., the maintenance of homeostasis and defending the body from disease.
 * Blood consists of fluid, plasma, in which red and white blood cells are suspended. The blood cells typically make up 30-45% of the blood volume.
 * Plasma consists of water containing dissolved substances like proteins, nutrients and carbon dioxide.
 * Red Blood Cells contain haemoglobin to transport oxygen.
 * White Blood Cells defend the body from invasion. There are 2 kinds:
 * Granular white cells include neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. Neutrophils which destroy bacteria are the most numerous. Eosinophils are involved with allergies and parasitic infections.
 * Non-granular white cells include lymphocytes that produce antibodies to attack bacteria and viruses and monocytes that engulf and destroy bacteria and viruses.
 * Platelets are involved in blood clotting.

Worksheet
The exercises in the Blood Worksheet will help you learn how to identify the different types of blood cell and what their functions are.

Test Yourself
1. The liquid part of blood is known as:

2. There are two main types of cells in blood. They are:
 * a)
 * b)

3. The most numerous cells in blood are:

4. The main function of the red blood cells is:

5. How would you tell a white cell from a red cell when looking at them through a microscope? (Give at least 2 differences)

6. How does the blood help fight invasion by bacteria and viruses?

7. What would happen to blood if there were no platelets?

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites
Shows constituents of blood including RBCs, white cells, platelets and plasma. Even shows how to make a blood smear and identify the white cells on it as well as make and read a haematocrit. Some parts are a little too advanced.
 * http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/circulatory/heart/menu/heart.html Get Body Smart

 * Wikipedia has good information of red and white blood cells.

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell Red blood cells

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cell White blood cells

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Cardiovascular System/The Heart

Objectives | The Heart
After completing this section, you should know:
 * where the heart is located in the body
 * the structure of the heart
 * the structure and function of the heart valves and their role in producing the heart sounds
 * the stages of the heart beat and the route the blood takes through the heart
 * that the coronary arteries supply the heart muscle

The Heart
The heart is the pump that pushes the blood around the body in the blood vessels of the circulatory system. In fish the blood only passes through the heart once on its way to the gills and then round the rest of the body. However, in mammals and birds that have lungs, the blood passes through the heart twice: once on its way to the lungs where it picks up oxygen and then through the heart again to be pumped all over the body. The heart is therefore two separate pumps, side by side (see diagram 8.6).

The heart is situated in the thorax between the lungs and is protected by the rib cage. In some animals it is displaced slightly to the left-hand side. A tough membrane called the pericardium covers it. There is a narrow space between the pericardium and the heart that is filled with a liquid that acts as a lubricant.

The heart of mammals is a hollow bag made of cardiac muscle (see chapter 4). The cavity inside the heart is divided into 4 chambers. The chambers on the right side are completely separate from the chambers on the left side. The two upper chambers are thin walled, and are called the atria (or auricles). The two lower chambers are thick walled and are called the ventricles (see diagrams 8.7 and 8.8).

The Heart
Blood flows through the heart in a one way system. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the largest vein in the body called the vena cava. The contraction of the atrium pumps the blood into the right ventricle and then into the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The blood is oxygenated in the lungs and then returns to the heart and enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vein. The contraction of the left atrium pumps the blood into the left ventricle, which then pumps it to the body via the aorta (see diagrams 8.7 and 8.8). The wall of the left ventricle is usually much thicker than that of the right ventricle because it has to pump the blood to the end of the digits and tip of the tail while the right ventricle only has to pump the blood to the nearby lungs.

Valves
Valves are flaps of tissue that stop blood flowing backwards and so control the direction of blood flow in the heart. There are two kinds of valves in the heart. The first kind is the massive valves between the atria and the ventricles, the atrio-ventricular valves, (AV valves) that prevent blood in the ventricles from flowing back into the atria. The flaps of these valves are attached to the walls of the ventricles by tendons. These make them look somewhat like parachutes (see diagram 8.9).

Diagram 8.9 - The atrio-ventricular or parachute valves

The second kind of valve is pocket shaped flaps of tissue called the semilunar (half moon) valves (see diagram 8). They are called the pulmonary and aortic valves and found at the back of the pulmonary artery and aorta respectively.

The Heartbeat
The heartbeat consists of alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart. If you listen to the heart with a stethoscope, you hear the sounds often described as “lub-dub”.

There are four stages to each heartbeat:
 * Each atrium relaxes so that blood can enter. Blood flows from the body via the vena cava into the right atrium. At the same time, blood flows from the lungs via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium (see diagram 8.10a).
 * The atrioventricular valves open and both ventricles relax. The atria contracts and blood flows from the right atrium into the right ventricle and from the left atrium into the left ventricle (see diagram 8.10b).
 * The ventricles contract and the atrioventricular valves snap shut to stop blood flowing back into the atria. This is the first sound (“lub”) of the heartbeat that can be heard with a stethoscope (see diagram 8.10c).
 * The semi-lunar valves open and blood is pumped out of the right ventricle to the lungs. At the same time, blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta and so to the rest of the body. When the ventricles stop contracting, the semi-lunar valves snap shut to stop blood flowing backward.

This is the second sound (“dub”) of the heartbeat. Blood flows into the atria again as they relax and the cycle is repeated.

When a valve is damaged and fails to close completely, some blood may flow backward after each heartbeat. A trained veterinarian hears this with a stethoscope as a “heart murmur”.

The period of the heartbeat when the ventricles are contracting and sending a wave of blood down the pulmonary artery and aorta is called systole. The period when the ventricles are relaxing is called diastole.

Cardiac Muscle
The walls of the heart consist of cardiac muscle, a special kind of muscle only found in the heart. The cells of cardiac muscle form a branching network of separating and rejoining fibres which allows nerve impulses to travel through the tissue (see Chapter 7). Heart muscle needs lots of energy to function so it is well supplied with mitochondria and requires a good supply of oxygen. This is provided by the coronary arteries (see below).

Diagram 8.10 a) First stage of heartbeat b) Second stage of heartbeat  c) Third stage of heartbeat

Control Of The Heartbeat
The cardiac muscle of the walls of the heart contracts of its own accord. This can be demonstrated by the rather macabre experiment in which a small portion of heart muscle is removed and placed in a solution that is similar to blood. The tissue will continue to contract and relax for a time. In the normal functioning heart the pacemaker acts rather like the conductor of an orchestra and superimposes a unified beat upon the heart as a whole. The pacemaker is situated in the wall of the right atrium. The rate at which the heart beats is modified by a part of the brain called the medulla oblongata (see Chapter 14) and by the hormone adrenalin (see Chapter 16) which speeds up the heartbeat.

The Coronary Vessels
Although oxygenated blood passes through some of the chambers of the heart it can not supply the muscle of the heart walls with the oxygen and nutrients it needs. Special arteries called the coronary arteries do this. These two arteries arise from the aorta and branch through the heart to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the cardiac muscles and collect carbon dioxide and wastes. Coronary veins return the blood to right hand side of the heart. Some of these vessels can be seen on the outside surface of the heart (see diagram 8.11). Sometimes fatty deposits on the inside wall of the coronary artery block the blood flow to the heart muscle. If the obstruction is severe enough to damage the heart muscle due to inadequate blood supply a “heart attack” can result.

Diagram 8.11 - The heart showing coronary vessels

Summary

 * The heart is situated in the thorax between the lungs
 * The heart is a hollow bag made of cardiac muscle. It is divided into four chambers (right and left atria and right and left ventricles).
 * Valves stop blood flowing backwards. The right and left atrio-ventricular valves prevent blood in the ventricles from flowing back into the atria. The semilunar valves at the entrance of the pulmonary artery and aorta prevent blood flowing back into the ventricles. The closing of the valves produces the heart sounds heard with a stethoscope.
 * There are 4 stages to the heart beat. 1. blood flows into the right and left atria. 2. The atria contract and blood flows into the ventricles. 3. The ventricles contract and the closing of the atrio-ventricular valves produces the first heart sound. 4. Blood flows to the lungs and body and when the ventricles stop contracting the closing of the semilunar valves produces the second heart sound.
 * The coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood.

Worksheet
Use the Heart Worksheet to help you learn the different parts of the heart, the role of the heart valves and how the heart beat pushes the blood through the heart.

Test Yourself

 * 1) Via what vessel does blood enter the heart from the body?
 * 2) Blood passing through the right atrioventricular valve passes into which chamber of the heart?
 * 3) What is the function of the pulmonary valve?
 * 4) Does the pulmonary artery carry deoxygenated or oxygenated blood?
 * 5) The walls of the heart are made of what tissue?
 * 6) Does the aorta carry deoxygenated or oxygenated blood?

/Test Yourself Answers/

Websites on the Heart
An animation of blood flow through the heart with step-by-step annotated breakdown. Also an animation putting heartbeat, valve operation and blood flow all together.
 * http://www.guidant.com/condition/heart/heart_bloodflow.shtml Blood flow through heart
 * http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/circulatory/heart/menu/heart.html Get Body Smart

Great animation showing parts of heart plus constituents of blood including RBCs, white cells, platelets and plasma. Even shows how to make a blood smear and identify the white cells on it as well as make and read a haematocrit. Some parts are a little too advanced.

 * http://web.archive.org/web/20040523224602/http://www.bishopstopford.com/faculties/science/arthur/Heart%20drag&drop.swf Heart animation

Drag and drop animation of the human heart. Great for revision but note the terms bicuspid and tricuspid valves are used. These are equivalent to the left and right atrio-ventricular valves in animals.

 * http://www.guidant.com/condition/heart/heart_valves.shtml Heart beat

A good animation of the heartbeat showing the valves opening and closing with appropriate heart sounds. Plus a good diagram showing the difference between the atrio-ventricular and semilunar valves.

 * http://www.nucleusinc.com/animation2.php Human heart animation

A great animation where you use the mouse to point to parts of the heart and a voice over tells you what part it is. Just note this is of the human heart so the terms superior and inferior vena cava are used instead of caudal and cranial as for an animal.

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart The heart

Again Wikipedia is a wonderful resource, although remember, most of the material is on the human system.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary