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PsycholARTSical: Psyched about the arts/Cognitive Development

Cognitive Development and Language
Dear classmates: Since we lost our class this week due to cancellation, I thought I'd kick start the headings from each section of the chapter. As before, the hopes of encouraging content discussion between members of the class continues, while keeping (the editors???) weekly contribution to the presentation of theoretical materials and subsequent discussion moderation. Also as before...

Note: Since there are various editions of textbooks circulating throughout the class, page numbers may vary. Refer to subject headings when page number don't match.

--chuckstopher (talk) 21:20, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

Teacher's Casebook - What Would You Do? (pp.22-23)
Everyday, within the classroom setting, we as educators are constantly accessing our student's reactions to the instruction we impart, and making judgments on what determine to be their level of critical thinking and comprehension. An interesting question bears relevance: is it in fact the student's cognizance in question or the methodology of instruction? As we approach students through the concept of differentiated instruction, we must assure that we impart abstract concepts in a manner to which the students can relate. In the case of the example lesson plan involving symbolism, I would first explore several examples of symbols, their associative meanings, and what they represent societally (some examples might include a cross, a ribbon, a heart). Once we had established a working knowledge and vocabulary with visual items, I would then extend the concepts to a psychological approach with the students. Critical thought can not necessarily be expected to be inherent, but rather can be developed with students in a systematic manner. In terms of accessing their developmental readiness at the grade 5 level for this concept, this would become swiftly evident during this subject exploration. - Christopher Wilson

--chuckstopher (talk) 21:33, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

A Definition of Development (pp.23-27 )
Development is defined as the orderly and adaptive changes that humans experience throughout their lifetime. There are four basic aspects

1. Physical Development : changes in the body structure as one grows

2. Personal Development : changes in personality as one grows

3. Social Development : changes in the ways in which one relates to others over time

4. Cognitive Development : gradual, orderly changes which develop into more mental complexity

When considering the four above aspects of development, it is interesting to consider which aspects are most integral to what an average educator may define as an ideal student. Does the body need to be fully physically developed to grasp complex concepts? Does a students need to be openly interactive with his/her peer group in order to efficiently and productively work in a group learning context? Is cognitive development predominantly genetic, or are there systematic, theoretical approaches that educators can apply to develop these skills within students? regardless of age and stage, the diversity within a classroom setting will be equally mirrored by the diversity of development between students. This is why approaches such as differentiated instruction are so critical in meeting the class medium while still maintaining curriculum requirements.

Maturation is defined as genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes over time. Such changes are relatively unaffected by environment such as physical development, while other changes occur through learning and environmental interaction.

--chuckstopher (talk) 21:52, 6 April 2008 (UTC)

General Principles of Development

There are three general principles of development that most theorists support.

1. People develop at different rates. The rate that individuals change physically, personally, socially, and cognitively differ within a group of students, these differences are normal except in rare cases of very rapid or slow development. (P.23)

2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop some abilities before they develop others, for example; babies sit before they walk.

3. Development takes place gradually. Children need time to develop their abilities.(p.24) --Lisa chupa (talk) 20:31, 23 April 2008 (UTC

The Brain and Cognitive Development

Piaget's Theory of Cognative Development (pp.27-37 )
Influences on Development

According to Piaget we are constantly striving to make sense of the world, through 4 factors that interact to influence changes in thinking. The four factors are: biological maturation, activity, social experiences and equilibrium. I would like to comment on the second factor, activity, where students act on their environment and learn from it. This is one factor that we often overlook in our schools. So much of what students encounter in their daily school lives is theory, concepts that have little application to their daily lives or their environments. According to Piaget's theory then, by not connecting our class material to the "real world" we are not developing this factor to benefit our student's development. In order for students to be productive citizens once they graduate, they not only need the concepts but also need to explore how to develop these in their daily lives. Does anyone have any suggestions about how to do this? --216.99.49.113 (talk) 22:07, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

 Basic Tendencies in Thinking

Piaget believed that all species inherit two basic "invariant functions" or tendencies: Organization; towards forming coherent systems of behaviour and thought, and adaptation; adjusting to the environment. Piaget postulated that people construct schemes; mental systems or categories of perception and experience. As these schemes become more organized and new schemes develop the individual adapts, their behaviour becomes more mature and suited to the environment or situation. Piaget theorized that people adapt by assimilation; tring to understand new information by fitting it into what they already know (existing schemes)and changing existing schemes when a new experience does not fit into the schemes they know, referred to as accommodation.(p.28-29)

An interesting point mentioned in this section is that when people encounter something that is too unfamiliar they ignore it! Imagine the implications that this may have on teaching and learning. In most cases learning is scaffolded, this is a natural process as mentioned on page 24 with regards to development occurring in stages, development naturally builds upon itself, a baby sits, crawls, creeps, then walks. However imagine all of the information that is lost on students when it is presented in a way that lacks meaning, purpose and familiarity.

Piaget believed that what motivates people to develop cognitively is something he referred to as equilibration, the search for mental balance, if an existing scheme does not work for a current situation then their is imbalance, or disequilibrium. (p. 29) --Lisa chupa (talk) 21:05, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Do We All Reach the Fourth Stage?

Piaget suggests that as adults we only engage in our formal-operational learning when we are engaged and interested in the material. How are we to address this when exploring different study aids in our classes to encourage “enduring knowledge”? The text reinforces several time the value of visual cues and experiential references, but this can be difficult, say, in a class instructing or applying abstract or more theoretical logic. In the daily pattern of teaching a curriculum, we cannot expect our students to be engaged with absolutely everything we teach, but perhaps there are suggestions we can use ourselves and colleagues in order to help engage the students more with the material so that they can take it the next step further.

Suggestions for increased engagement in a classroom for “enduring knowledge” and formal-operational understanding:

English: 1. Formal reading/analysis of a script from a popular movie scene; extension from plays Math:

1. Joint project with tech class (if available) or creating an object useful to the students using algebra/geometry; field trip to a place where students can do this (Harbourfront?)

Science:

1. Making a dramatic skit to express how molecules are formed

Geography:

1. Drawing assignment: make up your own map

History:

1. Writing assignment: Family history essay; allowing students to express some aspect of their own history or history of their neighbourhood/community

2. Dramatic assignment: Choose an inspirational/colourful character from Canadian History and make a skit/ “history minute” about their accomplishment(s)

Art:

1. Dramatization of a famous painting that they enjoy (group project)

2. Outreach to/from community; have students’ work displayed in local centres, with permission;

Drama

Music

Phys Ed

Civics

Any Other Suggestions?

--Irenedongas (talk) 19:24, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Implications of Piaget's Theory for the Teacher (pp.38-42 )
Understanding and Building on Student's Thinking

Activity and Constructing Knowledge

The Value of Play

In Woolfolk's text he explains Piaget's theory on how to understand children's thinking process. In this section of the text it explains that with children even when they are playing they are working and learning. This is because the brain is being stimulated.

In order to explain the theory they really looked at the development of very young children while they are playing but they do not look at the value of play with high school students. With that being said, it is really important to understand that when children are playing regardless of age their brains are being stimulated. As a result, they learn new skill and understand the possible results from a situation. For examples, if a history teacher where to stand in front of a class to talk about trench warfare the students would listen for a short period of time but eventually they would lose concentration and end up not learning the ideas in its full complexity. But if a teacher, on the other hand, where to use the ideas and the feeling of men in the trenching during WWI by create an activity where students have to play our the role of trench warfare they will gain a better understanding of trench warfare. Students will learn the feelings such as the fear and the strategies involved while at the same time they will learn the content of this type of warfare.

--Naddles (talk) 00:22, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

Piaget’s levels for cognitive development prove very useful as a teacher, it helps to understand how much students can handle at various stages of their lives and also what type of work would be best suited for their current level of cognitive development. An area that I feel is sometimes lost, is the utility of play when teaching. Play can be used as an amazing tool for helping students learn and retain important information. Not only do children learn through play, this is a technique that can be used at any age. By allowing someone to do a fun activity or “play” around with new technology, it gives them opportunity to discover applications that they may not have in a more structured way. Play allows people to take risks with new material that they may not otherwise, because they do not feel the pressure to get it right, they can explore, try and discover and there is no need to achieve a specific standard or worry about grades.

I experienced a great example of this in my last practicum. I was involved with a Grade 12 Geomatics class, where students were learning a new type of GIS mapping software. The first activity students were responsible for had nothing to do with mapping or geography. It was called “Fun with Shapes”. Students were required to play with the program and create various shapes, drawings and images using the tools the program offered. The grade was based solely on the amount of different things each student tried with their final result, encouraging the student to try more things and take risks. The experience was a great introduction, because it allowed each student to get used to the program and learn the basic tools and uses through their own trial and error and discovery, without the pressure of creating a specific outcome. The final products were outstanding. Students even discovered tools that my AT was unaware the program was capable of and encouraged the students to share their findings with the rest of their classmates. It really set the overall tone for the course and encouraged a positive classrooms environment. Also, it alleviated some of the apprehensions or anxieties some of the students may have felt about using a new program.

--Ajlaflamme (talk) 12:57, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

Some Limitations of Piaget's Theory

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective (pp.42-48 )
I don't think we can underestimate the importance of Vygotsky's theory that learning is inextricably linked to cultural context. As educators we should always be cognizant of the fact that our students' classroom behaviour and aptitude is in many ways informed by their culture at home, and that this may well be unfamiliar to us. It is equally important to understand the school as a hugely influential social and cultural context, and recognize that the interactions which take place within it will work to develop new cognitive structures and ways of thinking in students.

In this view, teaching is seen to be about something beyond the transferral of particular sets of knowledge, it's efficacy is fundamentally based in the pre-existing cultural framework in which it takes place. --Tearney (talk) 21:12, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

The Social Sources of Individual Thinking

I would like to comment here on the perceived incompatibility between Piaget and Vygotsky. While both theorists agree on the "importance of social interactions in cognitive development," they differ as to whether peer/peer or peer/mentor interaction is the most educationally productive. Both would seem to have a point. Piaget's, that peer equality fosters a safe environment for challenges to another's line of thinking, can be supported by observation. I'm sure many of us have experienced vibrant and productive classroom discussions when the teacher takes a back seat and acts to facilitate, not instruct. On the other hand, Vygotsky believes that cognitive development comes from learner interactions with someone "more capable." This is of course the basis of the educational system as it stands: "more capable" teachers instruct student-learners. But we need to remember that teachers are also always learners, and that students have been shown to benefit from variety in teaching methods. A truly effective pedagogical understanding should encompass both Piaget's and Vygotsky's views on the value of social interaction. They are not incompatible so much as they are complementary. Combining the two will work to create a dynamic learning environment, one which avoids stagnant dichotomies between teacher and student. --Tearney (talk) 21:12, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Recognizing that learning is a social process, teachers can find ways of helping students help one another through the learning process. The acquisition of language is just one example of the social sources of individual thinking. Vygotsky conceptualized development as the transformation of socially shared activities into internalized processes (43). Vygotsky contends that at first learners depend on others with more experience to teach them step by step, but as they internalize the process of learning, they gradually develop the cognitive skills to learn on their own. This suggests that there is great benefit in encouraging students to get involved in peer-tutoring and group work and gives validity to class-discussions that allows students to be involved in the process of learning and to draw off one another as opposed to the traditional lecture style teaching methods that allow students to disengage from the process of learning.
 * --Malexander (talk) 00:07, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development

The Role of Language and Private Speech

Vygotsky’s claim that “language is the most important symbol system in the tool kit [of cultural tools and cognitive development]” as “it is the one that helps fill the kit with other tools”( p. 45) is a strong argument and I think that as teachers practicing in Toronto we will experience pretty often. For students being enriched in more than one language, they are given more opportunity for applying deductive reasoning (knowing when to speak in one language/form or another) but also helps them achieve multiple understandings over one subject. The textbook example of the myriad of ways one can describe a shade of red shows how language can really help students expand their own vocabulary and express themselves more effectively. Encouraging this in your classroom is very easy, I think, since most of the time when students are learning a new subject there will often be a new definition/vocab word that goes along with it. By teaching the majority of our subjects in English, every class in one way or another is an “English” class because they will all at some point reinforce literacy.

In my practicum experience, I was helping one student with her vocabulary limitations, encouraging her to find words to help clarify her point in a sentence. I used the example of carrots and oranges, describing how weird it is to have a fruit the same name as its colour. “What about the other things in the same colour? Carrots are orange too, but why aren’t they called oranges? What if everything that was the colour orange was called an orange? Would that not be confusing?” She laughed, obviously realising her teacher is a little crazy. But she got the point, I think. She said, “I see your point, miss…” and went back to her writing. I may have been totally out on a limb with my analogy, but sometimes it helps.

--Irenedongas (talk) 19:25, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

Vygotsky's theory of private speech points to many practical ways that language may be used to guide learning for both the teacher and the student. As it is pointed out in the chapter, when students are "thinking out loud" they are expressing that they are having difficulty in some way with the task, the teacher may diagnose that the student needs help, or that something in the learning environment needs to be adjusted. "Cognitive self-instruction", using self talk to guide learning, is an example of scaffolding. When a student is having difficulty or learning something new, using language to direct attention and problem solve is something that we may take for granted. One of the most important tasks as teachers is to teach students how to learn. We can incorporated this structure into the high school class in age appropriate ways; through modeling these thought processes, i.e. writing the agenda on the board, and reading it through with the class, breaking activities and assignments into step-step formats, using mind maps and checklists, reflecting on the process as a problem solving tool by discussing what was learned or what could be improved on (art critique)and encouraging open student lead, teacher guided class discussion. As a student teacher in visual art I found myself verbalizing a step-step mantra-cognitive process with students all day long. Where I found a visual parallel to the use of private speech sequences useful was with ESL students. The use of visual strategies to improve communication is necessary where a language barrier exists. --Lisa chupa (talk) 01:45, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

The Role of Learning and Development

So what came first, the chicken or the egg? Considering that we are looking at theories here one could postulate that both Piaget and Vygotsky are correct to some degree. Two examples lead me to believe this hypothesis, one is the differences between children and their ability to acquire the skills to read for example and the other is brain development, particularly synaptogenesis and the strengthening and pruning of neuro- pathways. Elementary teachers are doing excellent work with their students through balanced literacy programs and after school programs. Parents are working hard to find ways to help their children learn to read. There is a lot a unnecessary stress involved in this process especially when little Johnny is just not at the reading level he should be at in grade one! And then one day little Johnny gets it and he is reading like crazy, reading chapterbooks and learning all kinds of stuff! So was it all the remedial assistance strengthening his neuro-pathways or was it that Johnny's cognitive development of his semiotic functioning skills have finally clicked in, or is it both? Consider the development of the brain. According to current research there is a rapid growth stage during the first few years of life, a synaptogenesis that paves the way for a multitude of possible strengths. This is a process that occurs rapidly during adolescence as well however may continually be occurring at lesser degrees through out life. The pathways are there to begin with, exposure to specific experience like learning how to read, strengthen those pathways while other pathways become weak and are pruned away. As Vygotsky seems to be saying that, neurologically, the child is potentially ready to learn with the right amount of exposure. I think that the question that Piaget is addressing is cognitively, when is the child ready to learn. We are comparing apples and oranges, or Chickens and eggs. This is complicated stuff, I don't think that you can rely on one or two theories here. There are many many variables when it comes to learning and development, environmental factors; nutrition and pollution, stress, abuse, sleep patterns, and developmental factors; heredity, abnormal development, to name a few that must be considered when assessing what and when a child should be able to perform a cognitive task like read. --Lisa chupa (talk) 15:28, 23 April 2008 (UTC)

The Role of Adults and Peers

Implications of Vygotsky's Theory for teachers (pp.48-51 )
Assisted Learning: Strategies to Scaffold Complex Learning

Assisted Learning: Strategies to Scaffold Complex Learning in A High School Drama Classroom

(Adapted from Table 2.3, Educational Psychology, p 50.)

Using Procedural Facilitators

These provide a “scaffold” to help students learn implicit skills. For example, a drama teacher might encourage students to use “signal words” such as who, what, where, when, why and how to generate questions after reading a passage from a play.

Modeling use of Facilitators

The teacher might, in the above example, might model the generation of questions about the reading, before asking the students to do so on their own.

Thinking Aloud

This models the teacher’s expert thought processes, showing students the revisions and choices the learner makes in using procedural facilitators to work on problems. For example, while blocking a scene, vocalize your thought process. Although you have gone beyond the need to do so, this vocalization will instruct the students through the steps they would need to block their own work and encourage your students to use the same facilitators.

Anticipating Difficult Areas

During the modeling and presentations phase of instruction, for example, the teacher anticipates and discusses potential student challenges. A set of anticipatory questions can help prepare students for challenging themes or issues that might arise in the dramatic text. These types of questions can open discussion and also provide a base point from which they can reflect back upon after working through the unit and see how far they’ve come.

Providing Prompt or Cue Cards

Procedural facilitators are written on “prompt cards” that students keep for reference as they work. As students practice the cards gradually become unnecessary. This is a great tool for line memorization.

Regulating the Difficulty

Tasks involving implicit skills are introduced by beginning with simpler problems, providing for student practice after each step, and gradually increasing the complexity of the task. To teach sophisticated techniques, such as the Stanislavski Technique, begin with small simple exercises with many opportunities to try them out and then gradually add more complex teachings.

Providing Half-done Examples

Giving students half done examples of problems and having them work out the conclusions can be an effective way to teach them how to ultimately solve problems on their own. Read a scene and ask the students to predict what will happen next or direct part of their scene, using procedural facilitators such as thinking aloud, and then allow them to finish blocking the scene on their own.

Utilizing Reciprocal Teaching

This means having the teacher and students rotate the role of teacher. The teacher provides support to students as they learn to lead discussions and ask their questions. While teaching improv, give a student the responsibility of hosting the jam, while you join the class in participation in different games.

Providing Checklists

Students can be taught self-checking procedures to help them regulated the quality of their work. What are the different criteria they should consider when blocking a scene?

 * I'm not quite sure which heading (above) of scaffolding this fits under, but it's an example from my practicum I thought I'd share. I was teaching a beginner guitar course (grade 10) and the students were learning to play the melody from "Yellow Submarine" by the Beatles.  There is a difficult rhythm in that song (a dotted eighth note/sixteenth note tuplet for you music kids out there) that most students couldn't get quite right each time.  I tried all the standard methods--getting them to clap the rhythm, get them to play it on a single note, etc.--with little progress.  One day I asked who knew the song and to my surprise, NO ONE did (!), so I promptly got out my iPod to play them the original version and pointed out that they were playing the notes that were being sung.  After two listenings, the improvement was remarkable because--surprise, surprise--the troublesome rhythm made a lot more sense to them when they could connect it to the rhythm of the words of the song (which they hadn't heard up to that point--they music they had didn't have lyrics). "In the to-o-w-w-n...where I was bo-o-r-r-n..."--it was like the rhythm of the words made more sense to them than the black dots on the page.  Admittedly, I didn't plan this as a type of scaffolding, but in hindsight, I think it functioned as such.

--Gavink (talk) 04:41, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

The Zone of Proximal Development

The Development of Language (pp.52-55 )
Diversity in Language: Dual Language Development

Language Development in the School Years

 * I find it interesting that "at around the age of five, students begin to develop metalinguistic awareness...their understanding of language and how it works becomes explicit" (54). Some of you around my age (30 in a few more days) who are also from the Toronto area may have experienced what I did in primary school: a total lack of grammar instruction.  The first time it was pointed out to me was while I was still in primary school and my dad was blown away that I didn't know the basics of grammar.  I didn't care about it at that time, but much later on someone told me that it was part of a curriculum experiment conducted on students from that time/place.  Enough people from various and independent-of-one-another contexts have confirmed this for me to lead me to believe that it's more than an urban legend.

 * I distinctly remember for the longest time hearing the word "verb" being used as if I was supposed to know what it meant, but having no clue. (I eventually took Grammar 101 at university. I think the fact that a university was offering multiple, overflowing sections of introductory grammar is a good indicator that this experiment indeed happened.)  I also remember these "Reading Comprehension" books--stories followed by questions--which, if memory serves, were intended to teach us things like sentence structure and other related elements of grammar through association.  I wonder if the idea behind the experiment was to teach grammar through imitation?

 * On one hand, I suppose it worked for me, because I've never had trouble writing (even before my university grammar course). Yet, getting back to the metalinguistic awareness, if we could at least potentially understand grammatical structures at age 5, why remove them from the curriculum and hope we "pick it up along the way?"  I really wonder what the relationship is between educational psychology and curriculum experiments, especially the ed. psych. theories behind this particular experiment.  Perhaps it was to see if grammar really is universal??--i.e. let's not explicitly teach it to them and see if they pick it up along the way anyway.

--Gavink (talk) 04:59, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I've heard this approach to language referred to as the "whole-language" approach. It's based on the premise that an individual will pick up much of a language and syntax of that language if they are surrounded by it.  This approach does not seem as concerned with ironing out grammatical details too soon, at it might overwhelm the student with what may be argued as trivial details (or at least, details that can be dealt with later on in a student's development).

 * In Gavin's case, like most children, he most assuredly knew what verbs were early on in his development even though he may have not been able to offer a definition of the word upon request. This immersive approach is likely the way most of us learned our first language.  The question remains, when we should prioritise issues of grammar and syntax in a child's development?  Is there an age (or stage of development) that marks when a child is ready to focus on such matters?  Or, is it an individualised process that differs between individuals?

 * I think I relate more to the latter, something that would be reinforced by my casual discussions about this with colleagues. I have heard many similar accounts of students who did not receive much in the way of grammatical instruction in primary and secondary school, and were thus more inclined to learn it themselves in university (either independently or though self-selected courses).  It would seem that once there was an intrinsic motivation within the student to learn the rules of grammar and extrinsic motivation in form of higher grades, many students would take the appropriate steps to ensure that they could get the knowledge they needed.

 * Of course, I know many other people who have had very little grammatical training because they were not post-secondary students for long (if at all). They saw very little need to put that much effort into developing a skill that had very little use-value (i.e. people working in the trades do not generally have to write that many academic essays).  That said, their verbal communications skills do not seem be contingent upon this gap in the knowledge, and they are quite capable of expressing themselves fluidly and insightfully.  If we consider this in conjunction with the statistics regarding the amount of high school students who continue to study in college or university, it really makes one question what priorities need to be made in language and literacy skills in our curricula.

 * --Maurosavo (talk) 06:17, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

 * One may have far more grammar knowledge than they are aware of. While a person may not be able to define the word verb or adjective, they would instinctively know where to place it in a sentence because of the "whole-language" approach.  They have knowledge of grammar without being aware of it.  If a young English speaking student were given the sentence "The dog brown is barking" they would recognize that the sentence is wrong but would be unable to use exact terms to describe the error and say why it is wrong.  By giving a student grammar lessons, you would be giving the words to express what they already have knowledge of.

 * When I first began my contract as an ESL teacher, I had only basic grammar knowledge. However, I could always tell if a sentence was wrong because it would not 'feel right', but I would be unable to explain to my students why it was wrong.  It was only after I took the time to learn the grammar terms that I was able to communicate these things to them.  It took me a very short time and very little effort to attach words or rules to things that I already knew because I had been speaking and surrounded by English my whole life.

 * --Ali.dormady (talk) 18:12, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

Partnerships with Families
 * I feel that family involvement is crucial when it comes to literacy, but this is much easier in elementary school than high school. I remember my parents reading to me every day and taking me to the library once a week to encourage a love of reading. To this day I am an avid reader and writer. By the time students get to high school, their habits on literacy can be largely formed. It can also be hard to get students and parents together to work on projects, as the text suggests. So what can we do to encourage literacy and reading in our schools?

 * The ministry publication Think Literacy offers many good strategies for incorporating literacy in our classrooms. There are even subject specific guides in this series. Also, my practicum school implemented a reading program called DEAR: Drop Everything And Read, which allocated 40 minutes every week for silent reading. Every student in the school would be reading during this time. I found this to be helpful because it establishes time for students to read, which they might not find otherwise and it promotes reading of non-school materials as a source of fun, learning and entertainment.

--216.99.49.113 (talk) 22:08, 16 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Does anyone else have any suggestions for incorporating families?

It is crucial for the parents to be good role-models to their children. It is far more effective to 'show' them what to do rather then 'tell' them. My parents never told me or forced me to read, but I vividly remember my mom reading at the table when I was very young. The role-model that I saw from my mom naturally led me to the love of reading, which helped me to be literate much earlier than the others. This might sound like it only applies to little kids, but it is not. It would not make any sense for teenagers if parents are providing private tutoring in essay writing or force them to read one book per week, when the parents are not reading at all. I believe that teaching is valid and more effective when the teacher is role-modelling it to the students.

--GraceHa (talk) 06:56, 22 April 2008 (UTC)


text:
PsycholARTSical: Psyched about the arts/Personal Development

Personal, Social, and Moral Development
Dear classmates: Thought I'd also knock these headings out for each section of the chapter. As before, the hopes of encouraging content discussion between members of the class continues, and also as before...

Note: Since there are various editions of textbooks circulating throughout the class, page numbers may vary. Refer to subject headings when page number don't match.

--chuckstopher (talk) 16:12, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

What really struck me about this chapter is how well an arts classroom (specifically a drama classroom) can address the issues of personal, social and moral development faced by teenagers.

Adolescence is a time of searching for identity. Through work in a drama class, students are exposed to characters with a wide range of experiences, viewpoints, values and beliefs. Students can safely test out what parts of various characters they connect with, what parts they aspire to incorporate into their own identities, and what parts they do not connect with. It is possible that a student who is confused about her own identity will recognize a part of herself in a character, thus leading her on a healthy path to identity achievement.

A drama classroom is also a great place to develop emotional competence. By considering dramatic situations from the perspective of all characters, students develop both empathy and sympathy. Students also explore the many ways in which people manifest their emotions, such as facial expressions, body language and tone of voice. This leads to various emotional competence skills such as: the ability to read emotions in others, and an awareness that relationships are defined in part by how emotions are expressed.

Being exposed to theatre from various time periods and countries allows students the chance to develop morally. For example, a play set during a time when slavery was acceptable could show students how societal morals have changed over time. A play set in a country where women are still viewed as inferior would show students how morals are different all over the world. Being exposed to a variety of moral norms allows students the chance to discuss, consider and explore their own developing moral reasoning. Theatre also exposes students to fictional moral dilemmas, and shows how various characters would act when confronted with such a dilemma. Finally, a drama classroom is the perfect place to promote a positive peer culture. For students to be comfortable exploring characters and taking creative risks, there must be an atmosphere of mutual trust and support. For this reason, drama classes often spend a lot of time at the beginning of the year working on trust and community-building activities. Very often a drama classroom is the one place in the school a student feels safe, valued and respected. Having such a space in a school is absolutely essential to students’ well-being and growth.

--Littlelaura (talk) 20:23, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

 * I wholeheartedly agree with Laura’s assessment. Traditional school curriculum addresses a student’s academic needs, and the development of his or her IQ.  Competencies such as the ability to listen, to improvise, to master ones emotions, to empathise with others or to work with a team aren’t factored into the grading of most subjects.  However, these skills are major components of the study of Drama.

 * Drama can teach students how to manage their emotions and read other people’s feelings: skills desperately needed by growing teenagers, and required for success in the post graduate world. In the Drama classroom, there is also considerable focus on teamwork, relationship building and social awareness. Through working-in-role, Drama can teach empathy and other key values.  Moreover, success in Drama can build a student’s self-esteem.  Non-academic students can excel in this environment, which rewards a different set of skills.  Students can recognize the benefits of taking risks and standing out from the crowd, which may bolster their future efforts to achieve.

 * Among all school courses, Drama studies are unique in that they specifically nurture the development of emotional competencies. It is important for Drama educators to recognize this key benefit of this line of study, and be able to share this knowledge with students.

 * During my practicum, I came to the realization that many students are shunted into Drama studies because they lack direction. Schools require that students take an Arts course in order to graduate.  Students lacking interest or skill in visual arts and music get pushed into Drama.  Others take Drama because they believe it is a “bird” course, requiring little intellectual effort.  I suspect that many academic over-achievers (or students who are more intellectual than social) avoid taking Drama for similar reasons.  This stigma extends even into the staff room: I recall hearing an English teacher mocking the instructional value of Drama.

 * In difference to the aforementioned English teacher, I found Drama a more difficult subject to manage. English has a built-in structure, in regards to both curriculum content and classroom seating arrangement. Focus remains on individual achievement. The more open, kinetic Drama classroom demands more of a teacher’s creativity, ability to improvise, and personality management skills. In the Drama classroom, relationships are key, be they between students or with a teacher. Although any educator may benefit from a high emotional intelligence, one is required for success as a Drama teacher.

 * I have come to recognize that the rewards for teaching and learning Drama may be greater than for any other subject, for it is through the building of relationships that emotional competencies and fond memories are made. As Drama educators, we must ask ourselves several questions:  ‘How can we dispel the erroneous notion that there is little to be gained from taking Drama?’  ‘How can we help other educators understand the unique benefits of Drama studies?’ ‘And how can we best nurture our students’ emotional growth?’  The answer to all these questions is ‘through open dialogue’.  This makes perfect sense, considering that dialogue is a lynchpin of Drama.

--Mjcaskenette (talk) 04:03, 22 April 2008 (UTC)

Teachers' Casebook: What Would You Do? (pp.61)
Bullying among peer groups is a wide spread epidemic that has plagued students and both baffled and frustrated educators throughout the years. There seems to be an incredible emotional shift in adolescents with the onset of puberty and the evolution of raging and evolving hormones. These hormones are further exasperated by peer pressures, societal standards, and media influence. What causes a child who was previously friend to another, to suddenly begin to exhibit malicious behaviour? A tough one to access indeed.

As an educator and as a parent of an adolescent female, I have a ZERO tolerance policy when it comes to bullying. As in the casebook scenario involving Stephanie, I am certain that I would have to assure some punitive repercussions transpired for her actions towards her classmate. in my parenting style, I encourage my daughter to have her opinions. I encourage her to share those opinions at home as long as they are constructive and objective. This behavioural modeling is paramount in helping to assure a respectful communication style from her towards others. I acknowledge that my daughter does not nee to like everyone she meets, but she has does have a moral and social obligation to "live and let live", respecting the personal boundaries of others and herself.

When we consider that the following three influences have a major affect on student development: families, peers, and schools - how do we as educators balance effective communication and the incorporation of these vastly shifting variables in student's lives?

--chuckstopher (talk) 17:10, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

I think that one of the most difficult issues for a teacher to handle is the incredible amount of bullying that occurs in school on a regular basis. I believe that it is the teacher’s responsibility to address this issue whether bullying is occurring inside their own classroom or not. I agree with Chris that there are so many factors that lead to bullying and as a teacher the idea of trying to stop bullying can be overwhelming because there is not one simple cause that can be fixed. That being said, the best thing a teacher can do is create a positive learning environment where bullying is forbidden.

Throughout this course we have discussed how important it is for a teacher to create clear classroom policies and to ensure that the students are aware of these guidelines. This idea should be used in regards to bullying. Teachers must make it clear in the beginning that there is no tolerance for bullying in the classroom and that there will be consequences for such behaviour (consequences will vary among teachers, but the students should be aware of these as well). I think that bullying is a topic that is often ignored by many teachers and to address the issue in the beginning is a positive step toward prevention. I think that in order to continue bullying prevention in the classroom, teachers must incorporate character education into their classroom everyday. There are numerous bullying “prevention” programs that the Ontario Ministry of Education has identified that can be offered in schools (these can be found at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/teachers/bullyprevention/registry.html). However most of these programs are week-long initiatives or assemblies that promote bullying prevention but do not go beyond this. Classrooms that use cooperative learning strategies, character development, and student participation are more effective than any of these ministry proposed programs because they integrate anti-bullying messages into everyday learning.

--JollyJamie (talk) 22:19, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

The Work of Erikson (pp.62-67 )
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative

Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus Inferiority

Adolescence: The Search for Identity

As adolescents work hard to establish their autonomy or independence, they surf a unique balance between child and teen - shifting constantly from one extreme to another depending on the situation and circumstances (i.e. difference between fighting to attend a party, or being "tucked in" at bedtime). One of the biggest lessons I learned as a new parent occurred when I asked my daughter, "What time will you be home" - to which she replied, "What time do you WANT me home?" In that moment, I was profoundly reminded of my role as a parental educator and the paramount importance of boundaries. Children absolutely require boundaries in order to safely develop. They need to have something against which to push and challenge, as they continue to assert and develop their personal identities.

In the development of identity, we educators have a powerful role in modeling for students as they explore personal skills, their belief system, ideologies, values, and work ethic. Through Erikson's "framework for understanding the needs of young people in relation to the society in which they grow, learn, and ultimately make their contributions" (Woolfolk et al. p.62), we better understand the potential for role confusion in youth. Such youth encounter four Identity Statuses:

Identity Achievement : a strong sense of commitment to life choices after open consideration of alternatives

Identity Foreclosure : the acceptance of other life choices without considering options

Identity Diffusion : confusion about self and wants

Identity Crises (Moratorium) : suspension of choices due to struggle

As students are figuring out self and "trying on various identities" (Woolfolk et al. p.66), we have the wonderful opportuity to present a solid support structure that provides resources, nurture, patience, and open understanding. As a parent, this is often a very difficult journey but very noble goal nonetheless. - Christopher Wilson

--chuckstopher (talk) 16:30, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes yes! I couldn't agree more. I think that there's a danger of labelling kids in a classroom, when we need to realize that the kid that you've labeled the "goth" or the "nerd" or the "gothic nerd" ("Life is a swirling miasma of pain, like that time when when my dwarf-mage lost his +10 mace in the valley of Dk'Lon") is just trying on a persona, and that we need to respect that, and create a respectful space where students can be allowed to explore social boundaries and connections.

 * As students experience this search for identity, we as educators run into many challenges, as Christopher said above. We need to let students know that we understand their need to try on different personas, and explore social connections, but at the same time make sure they they understand the boundaries and priorities of our classroom (i.e. attendance, assignment completion).

 * This is a tricky task - while the logistics of class size and scheduling make talking to students one-on-one on a regular basis a difficult task, I think that it's still important to try to make time to check in with your students - even a question as simple as "what are you listening to?" (if it's the gothic nerd, probably Gary Numan) can tell you a little bit about a student, and at least you can start to make inroads. I've found that a friendly attitude, coupled with genuine curiosity about the student (if I call it "genuine," is it still genuine? There's a noodler) goes a long way to making a connection with the student, and even if you don't get the opportunity to develop a strong relationship with the student, you have the beginnings of a personal relationship, so a) the student might be less inclined to test boundaries, and b) if the student pushes boundaries, you won't be treated like a TOTAL narc when you ask the student to talk to you for a bit, so you can see what's causing the change in the student's behaviour. I know this may seem like simple logic, but I think it's something that bears saying.

--Chareth Cutestory (talk) 10:32, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Let the children play! In Joanne Foster and Dona Matthews' book Being Smart about Gifted Children, they stress the importance of unstructured play, not only for students who have been identified as gifted, but for all students.  As youth begin to mature, we have learned that they start to see the world outside of themselves.  But how do they relate to that world?  Technology has not evolved to the point where social destiny can be predetermined (sorry, I'm reading Brave New World right now) so young people are still stuck with a trial-and-error approach that predominantly manifests itself through assuming of identities.

 * Of course, some identities come readymade depending on a child's interests: the jock, the drama queen, the computer geek, etc. My question is whether the teenagers who accept those identities from the beginning are achieving or foreclosing.  Without a doubt, there are young people who find their identities early on, become comfortable in them, and develop them.  However, the wondrous monster that is peer pressure and the need for peer acceptance can drive people of any age to conform to something they do not actually believe in.  There are enough social pressures involved with a student's high school experience.  How many of them have chosen to move right into identity diffusion of a sort by just docking in the first safe harbour they come across?  From my own high school experience, I know students keep all kinds of desires and beliefs secret because they do not "fit" how you either are or wish to be perceived.

 * I'll finish by seconding the strategy described by Chareth. As an unabashed music nerd, I love to find out what other people are listening to and why they like it.  Music is something that many teenagers feel passionately about and I have found it a great way to connect with them.  For other teachers it might be movies, television or even (gasp!) books, but connecting through culture is an easy non-intrusive way to start building that connection.  The students become so comfortable talking with you about minor issues that the major issues become less scary to broach.  And by major issues, I mean something as simple as agreeing to follow you with a new concept you are teaching that isn't immediately clear to them, necessitating hard work on their part to grasp it.  As I learned during my English practicum, once you've argued the relative merits of Nine Inch Nails versus Marilyn Manson and which one of them actually brought industrial goth culture to the mainstream, convincing a student that they will be able to get the in-class essay finished correctly and on schedule is easy.

--SwordPhilip (talk) 20:00, 24 April 2008 (UTC) . Small Text Beyond the School Years

Understanding Ourselves and Others (pp.67-76 )
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem

Considering the ideas of self-concept and self-esteem one has to ask which one is hard for adolescents and for teachers to help adolescents go through. Self-concept or our perceptions of ourselves is different from self-esteem which is the value each of us places on our own characteristic, abilities and behaviour.

I really think that for a teacher the ability to deal and help students to deal with their idea of self-concept is a lot harder to help them deal with self-esteem. I believe this because the idea of self-concept is an internal idea which is developed within oneself and may not be visible to the world around us. Therefore when a student has a poor self-concept it might not be noticeable to the world around them.

On the other hand, the support and resources to help young individuals to develop or help improve their self-esteem are in abundance. Self-esteem in many ways is control from external element and over time it may create issues for ones self-concept. Issues such as bullying, grades and pressures from parents and peers can all affect the ideas behind self-esteem. But as a teacher, these issues can control to a certain extent if they are caught. Even if they are not cause if a teacher notices that a student has a low self-esteem the teacher can intervene and provide emotion and educational support.

The text talks about the example of course selection to explain the impact of choose and self-concept. What it explains is that when a student has to pick course they tend to pick courses which they know they will do well in over courses they will not do so well. For the most part this is true, but for some determined students who may have a goal to get into a certain university which requires certain courses that choice is taken away, and they may have to take a course which they are not very good at. If the student does not do well this may affect they self-esteem and their belief that they can get into a program or university of their chose. This can be extremely stressful and hindering to one self-motivation.

--Naddles (talk) 00:42, 11 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Let's not forget the pressure that some students feel from their parents. During my second practicum, there was a girl in my Grade Nine academic English class who was having a lot of difficulty with the material.  When my AT consulted with the guidance office, she was informed that her parents would not allow her to take any college or applied level classes.  Of course, the situation was very stressful for the student.

 * As educators, we might also be indirectly responsible for similar pressures by simply encouraging students to strive for academic courses and a university education. The hidden implication with this encouragement is that a student is "settling" with college level courses and a college education.  We need to be sensitive of the reasons students decide to choose their courses, as well as informing them of all of the options that are available to them with course selection.  During practicum, I often sensed that students were not entirely clear about differences between applied, college, and university level courses.  Nor were they all too sure about the appropriate reasons for selecting one of those levels.

--Maurosavo (talk) 18:47, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Mauro's experience reminded me of a similar experience from my first practicum. A girl in my grade 10 Academic class was struggling to keep up with the material. I am fairly certain that she had a learning disability and really should have been in the Applied or Essential classroom. However her parents refused to allow her to switch to another stream because they were determined that she would go to University, which she could not do without taking Academic classes. This caused the student to become frustrated at her lack of progress, close to failing and still feeling that she must go to University to be successful. She even asked my AT to give her certain marks, so she could get into University.

I remember being the first class to choose between Academic and Applied classes in 1999, when the difference between the streams was completely unclear, even for the teachers. It surprises me that the difference is still not clear, 9 years later. However, I wonder if it is because we cannot present the courses without implying or attaching a negative stigma to Essential and Applied classes. As teachers we need to refrain from explaining college level courses as "slower" or "easier" than University level courses or we automatically give added value to University level, sending the message that we do not value less academic students.

However, what interests me most about this chapter is the notion of academic self-concept, and how that relates to students in Arts classes. Woolfolk et al. state that the academic self-concept is the strongest predictor of course selection for high school students. In other words, the better the student feels about their performance in a subject area, the more likely they are to take your class. In elective classes, it is important to make students feel good about their progress in your class, regardless of their marks. If students feel they can succeed in music they will continue to take music, even if they are only getting a 65%. This is especially important for students who do poorly in other subjects.

Does anyone have any ideas about how to increase students' self-concept in the Arts?

--Liz P (talk) 01:20, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

A successful arts program needs to find ways to empower students. This is impossible if students do not have a positive self-concept of themselves as artists. I’ve heard so many people say, “I’m not musical,” “I’m tone deaf,” “I can’t draw” etc. I think the first step to allowing students to construct positive self-concepts of themselves is to make it clear that it is possible for anyone to do. Like any discipline, if you work hard, you can succeed (but many people seem to think that the arts are just something you’re born with or you’re not. Let them know that the most important thing is that they learn to appreciate and love their art.  In my practicum, I did an activity where students listened to a variety of different songs and drew what the songs communicated to them.  We then discussed what music actually means and they each wrote a paragraph describing their personal definitions of music and what music means to them.  I later posted them anonymously around the room, so they would be reminded throughout the term of why they loved music (their definitions were passionate, profound, and moving).  I wanted the students to realize that the arts are something powerful and human, and is about much more than trying to be the best (although trying to be your best is part of it). Beyond that, I think it’s very important to always be positive and encouraging even when you are offering a student constructive criticism. I don’t feel that it is the teachers position to judge who is “talented,” but instead, just to give them the tools and knowledge to achieve as much as they can. You might be surprised in the end by who improves the most. But for any student to take that risk, they have to know that you’re on their side.

--Malexander (talk) 03:38, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

School Life and Self-Esteem

How does self esteem affect a student’s behaviour in school?

Educational Psychology suggests that students with higher self esteem are more likely to be successful in school, have a more favourable attitude towards education, be more popular with classmates and adopt more positive behaviour in the classroom. It may be that high achievement and popularity lead to self-esteem, or vice versa. (71)

Does life in school affect a student’s self-esteem?

A teacher’s encouragement, feedback and evaluations can greatly influence a student’s self-esteem. Being placed in a low-ability group may have a negative impact; learning in collaborative and co-operative settings seems to have a positive effect.

William James suggested that self-esteem is determined by how successful we are at accomplishing tasks or reaching goals we value. If a skill or accomplishment is not important, incompetence in that area does not threaten self esteem. Students must attribute their successes to their own actions, not to luck or special assistance in order to build self esteem.(71)

Accordingly, for teachers to help students build self esteem, they have to emphasize the importance and value of the tasks they initiate, and nurture students and encourage their continued success.

Gender, Ethnicity, and Self-Esteem

Many students underestimate their own competence. Gender and ethnic stereotypes can play a factor.

A number of psychologists have suggested that there is another basis for self-worth: the collective self. Our self esteem can be influenced by a sense of worth of the groups to which we belong. When students are faced with reminders that their ethnic or family group has less status and power, the basis for collective self esteem can erode.(73) Furthermore, a group ’s values, learning styles, and communication patterns may be inconsistent with the expectations of the school and larger society. Embracing mainstream culture may seem to require the subordination of ethnic values. Of course, differences are not deficits, and so schools are encouraged to foster ethnic pride, pride in one’s heritage.

--Mjcaskenette (talk) 19:29, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

The Self and Others

Emotional Competence Skills

Moral Development (pp.76-86 )
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg theorised a sequence of levels in moral reasoning based on studies he conducted with children and adults in which he presented them with moral dilemmas. He came up with three levels in moral reasoning (Woolfolk et. al. 77-8):

 * 1. Preconventional – judgement is based solely on personal needs
 * 2. Conventional – judgement is based on others approval, expectations, or values.
 * 3. Postconventional – judgement is based more on personal ethics derived from abstract concepts of justice, human dignity, and equality.

Each of these levels is subdived into two stages, resulting in a total of six stages that represent the moral development of an individual. Kohlberg’s model has been criticised for being too hierarchical and linear. In reality the stages do not appear to be so separate, with individuals often demonstrating the decision making that reflects more than one stage simultaneously. Other criticisms have argued that Kohlberg did not distinguish between morality and social conventions. Furthermore, his theory has been criticised for being Eurocentric, prioritising a Western emphasis on individualism and individual conscience. In contrast, many family-centred cultures would base their highest levels of moral reasoning on the well-being of the family group and not an individual's conscience (Woolfolk et. al. 79).

--Maurosavo (talk) 05:22, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

The Morality of Caring

Moral Behaviour

Socialization: Family, Peers, and Teachers (pp.86-89 )
North American Families Today

Peer Relationships and Peer Cultures

Socialization – “The ways in which members of a society encourage positive development for the immature individuals of the group” (p.86)

Peer Relationships and Peer Cultures

In the book it describes how relationships and social contexts early in life can affect the way in which one interacts and functions later on in life. It describes how students with close friends at younger stages seem to develop into adults with higher self-esteem and seem to more easily maintain intimate relationships (p.87). Students who may have not had as many friends, or felt rejected throughout school were more likely to drop out/commit crimes (p. 87). Students that are seen as outcast are generally very aggressive, with-drawn or inattentive-hyperactive within the classroom (p.87). However, as the text points out, these labels are also contingent to the classroom atmosphere. The norm in the mathematics classroom may not be the norm in a physical education setting. Thus someone who may be considered with-drawn in a gym class may be considered the norm in a math class. I found this point to be very interesting, as it reflects how the classroom setting affects students perceptions of people and outlines what sort of measures a teacher could take to level the differences between student behaviours.

Differentiated instruction and positive reinforcement in classroom situations with vast difference could be a good way to diminish labels. Allowing for moments of positive reinforcement of different students and their behaviour could lead others in the class to recognize and come to appreciate their classmates’ strengths, rather than focus on the mannerisms as negative/ against the norm. I think it is important as teachers and adults in students’ lives to be able to create an environment conducive to celebrating diversity of strengths rather than a place where differences are highlighted and compared to a standard “norm”.--Thomas20 (talk) 22:31, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

New Roles for Teachers

Challenges for Children (pp.89-96 )
Navigating Transitions

Children and Youth at Risk

There exist an array of risk factors that range from the individual level out to the sociocultural level: Individual Factors (e.g.,poor social problem solving skills. ) Family Factors (e.g., low family cohesion) Peer Factors (e.g., rejection by peers,) School Factors (e.g., low teacher support)

Factors to consider regarding the idea of an "At Risk" student

-it is important to recognize that risk status is not a unitary category, but instead should be seen as a series of steps along a continuum, ranging from low risk to high risk (McWhirter et al. 1998).

-the defining factor of an at risk student can be internal (mental illness) or external (family) or both

-the risk of a student becomes exponential when the number of factors adding to the risk rise. Rutter (1980) found that those children experiencing only one risk factor were as likely to experience the outcomes of those children with no risk factors. For those children with two or more risk factors, unfavorable outcomes increased four times, and for those children with four risk factors, the chance of negative outcomes increased ten times.

--Hassan (talk) 01:57, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
PsycholARTSical: Psyched about the arts/Diversity

Language and Labelling (pp.104-105 )
Although the term exceptional student can refer to both students of high achievement or learning impairments, many claim that using labels for students is counterproductive since A)they aren't prescriptive in the same sense that medical treatments are; B) they tend to become self-fulfilling prophesies due to their tendency to be viewed as unchangeable stigmas; C) behavioural issues are often improperly attributed to these labels & stigmas, which may or may not be responsible for the problems.

On the other hand, many support the use of labels, claiming that A) they allow other classmates to be more accepting of behaviourally challenged individuals; B) they make possible the categorical use of specialized programs and assistance. In general, Woolfolk admits to the effects of both sides of each argument, and prompts teachers do the same.

Person-First language is a euphemism used to describe persons with disabilities by reducing the focus on the disability, and placing it more on the person. For example, instead of saying 'Jack is disabled', one would say 'Jack is a student with a disability'. Refer to page 107 for a box with more examples that might be used in a school.

Lastly, it is important to distinguish between the terms handicap and disability. The prior refers to a disadvantage an individual might face in certain situations, such as when stairs limit the access of a person in a wheel chair. A disability on the other hand refers to an inability to do something at all, such as walk or see.

--JonathanisFTMFW (talk) 22:22, 10 April 2008 (UTC)

--Ali.dormady (talk) 03:16, 17 April 2008 (UTC)
 * If possible, also define the disability as 'physical' or 'intellectual'. Many people tend to group those with a disability together and not recognize their differences and uniqueness as individuals.

Individual Differences in Intelligence (pp. 105-114)
Intelligence is defined as "Ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world (Woolfolk, 106)."

There are various categories of identifying intelligences from different school of thoughts.

Fluid intelligence by Raymond Cattell

Mental efficiency that is universal (106).

This is closely related to the physical development, especially the brain.

Crystallized intelligence by John Horn

Ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods (106). This is culturally relevant, and closely related to experience.

Multiple intelligences by Gardner

There are eight separate abilities;
 * logical-mathematical
 * linguistic (verbal)
 * musical
 * spatial
 * bodily-kinesthetic (movement)
 * interpersonal (understanding others)
 * intrapersonal (understanding self)
 * naturalist (observing and understanding natural and human-made patterns and systems)

Thoughts about assessment of the intelligences

The words 'individual differences' implies that these intelligences can be evaluated with specific method of testing, and there are numeric values that enables to compare the result of different people. However, how fair and valid are the standardized testing of intelligences? For instance, how can an interpersonal intelligence tested? It would make nonsense to test someone's interpersonal skill by measuring how long they can talk with the other person; checking if they are making proper eye contacts; or checking if he makes the people around him to laugh.

Gardner's multiple intelligences has limitations in assessment. Gardner identified the eight separate abilites, but never suggested the ways to evaluate them. There are tests designed for each of them; for instances, math contests for logical-mathematical abilities, TOEFL for linguistic abilities, or Royal Conservatory of Music exams for musical abilities. However, do the scores of these tests accurately reflect the actual intelligence? I doubt it. I saw a case where a native English speaker failed TOEFL test when a person who cannot fluently communicate in English passed the test with great score.

Are different kinds of intelligences related?

Can someone be good at understanding others (interpersonal intelligence) without proper understanding of self (intrapersonal)? Or does a person with interpersonal intelligence has higher possibility of having higher linguistic (verbal) intelligence than the others? Can crystallized intelligence be completely separated from fluid intelligence? It would be worthwhile to investigate the relationship between the different kinds of intelligences because it implies that there is a possibility to develop specific intelligence by using other types of intelligences; or that there are specific type of intelligence that has to be developed in order to develop the other. --GraceHa (talk) 06:00, 22 April 2008 (UTC)

Ability Differences and Teaching (pp. 114-116)

 * Ability Grouping in the New Ontario Curriculum

 * Between-class Ability Grouping is a system of grouping in which students are assigned to classes based on their measured ability or their achievements. (p 114) This practice, common in secondary and some elementary schools, is also known as tracking (United States) or streaming (Canada).

 * Most high schools stream their courses according to high-, middle- and low-ability levels in a given subject. (p 114) This type of streaming is aptly illustrated by the old Ontario Academic Credit (OAC) curriculum, which offered advanced, general and basic level courses.

 * According to research, this type of segregation tends to benefit high-achieving students while presenting obstacles for lower-achieving students. Woolfolk asserts that students in lower-ability streams have, historically, received lower-quality instruction. Part of the problem is attributed to a reduced academic focus that perpetuates lower-level objectives. (p 114)  Other factors include frequent classroom management problems and teacher stress leading to decreased enthusiasm.  This cycle sends the wrong message to students, who feel discouraged by low expectations and lack of interest on the part of the teacher.  Furthermore, streaming undermines equity.  Because disadvantaged and minority groups are disproportionately represented in lower-ability streams, these students are not well-served by the education system. (p 115)

 * The inclusive alternative is to teach all students in mixed ability groups – by providing support for students who struggle and enrichment for those who learn quickly. In order to implement this approach, it is necessary to eliminate remedial courses for the sake of student self-esteem and future expectations.  In fact, teachers must raise student expectations for success by providing accessible strategies for working with challenging content.  An important part of the effort to raise expectations is to encourage students from minority groups to enroll in academic level courses. (p 115)

 * Under the New Ontario Curriculum, secondary schools use the following (more complex) model for between-class ability grouping:

 * Grades 9-10: Open, Applied, Academic
 * Grades 11-12: Open, Workplace, College, University/College, University

 * Note that there is no longer a basic (remedial) level and the fact that Open courses are deemed appropriate for all students. For senior students the options are further diversified, encouraging mixed-ability grouping in Open and University/College courses.

 * Does this updated model offer significant/sufficient improvement over previous efforts? What are the implications for students and teachers?

 * --Artursedov (talk) 06:43, 17 April 2008 (UTC)

Cognitive and Learning Styles (pp.116-120)
Cognitive styles: “Different ways of perceiving and organizing information” (p.117)

Woolfolk advises it is important cognitive styles are differentiated from learning preferences and not confused with one another (p.119). Cognitive styles are not indicators of intelligence levels or special abilities, but are only descriptors of ways in which one perceives, remembers, thinks, etc…In the book an example is given of a person who reacts quickly to a situation versus one who responds at a slower rate after reflective thought (strong markers of impulsive or reflective cognitive styles (p.118)). It goes on to say that both are equally knowledgeable on the topic but just deal with it differently (p.117).

Field dependence vs. Field independence (p.118) Field dependent people observe patterns as a whole and do not separate or break apart elements. Honing in on one aspect of an incident, picking out important details, and reflecting on their strategies in problem solving are often what they have trouble with. According to Woolfolk these people often have success in subjects related to literature and history. They remember information best from social information and work very well in groups. Field independent people are often more likely to observe their strategies with their work. They seem to do better at math and science where they are able to use their analytic abilities; as they observe patterns and break apart patterns into components.

Taking the time to identify attributes such as these could help teachers understand their students’ needs and permit opportunities for better instruction. In the grouping by achievement section (p.117), it recommends students be allotted into groups based on their current performance within the class. It highlights that in such a setting, teachers would be able to walk around and assist students better as each group would require the same/similar sort of instruction to succeed at the task (p.117). I found this to be interesting as it contradicts the popular notion of placing stronger students with weaker students. Learning Preferences: “Preferred ways of studying and learning such as using pictures instead of text, working with other people versus alone, learning in structured or in unstructured situations, etc…” (p.119)

It is often difficult to get students to understand the importance of unveiling their preferred method of learning. Many students end up learning in a certain way because there are a lack/no alternatives visible to them. It is important that new ways to learn are presented to students so that they can achieve their optimal performance; the question is how?

How can you help students understand the importance of recognizing or discovering their learning preferences? --Thomas20 (talk) 14:31, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

--Ali.dormady (talk) 03:12, 17 April 2008 (UTC)
 * Many teachers take up some class time to do personality tests. Although it would take time away from curriculum learnings it is beneficial for the students to help them better understand themselves and their learning styles.  This will, in turn, also benefit the teacher by giving them a better understanding of the students in their classroom.  There are a variety of personality tests out there that an educator can be trained to facilitate.

Creativity, Giftedness, and Talent (pp. 120-127)
Creativity: What is creativity? How do we recognise it? How do we assess it? How do we cultivate it? These questions are assuredly a significant concern to the art educator. Woolfolk et. al. offer us a definition of creativity that highlights the ability of an individual to produce imaginative "work that is original but still appropriate and useful” in solving important problems (p. 120). Emphasising that creativity should be recognised as something original (or new) within a social context or field has also been stated by scholars such as Howard Gardner and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.

 * In the realm of creativity and cognition, two areas of study come to the foreground:
 * 1. Creative Problem Solving – The process of restructuring problems in new and imaginative ways in order to achieve a creative solution.
 * 2. Divergent Thinking: The process of coming up with many different solutions to a problem (i.e. brainstorming).

 * Brainstorming: John Baer (quoted in Woolfolk) offers us 4 rules for brainstorming (p. 122):

 * 1. Defer judgement.
 * 2. Avoid ownership of ideas. Egos can sometimes get in the way of the creative process.
 * 3. Feel free to borrow or modify other ideas.
 * 4. Encourage wild ideas. Seemingly outrageous ideas can often be modified to suit the needs of a particular situation.

--Maurosavo (talk) 05:23, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

 * Woolfolk’s definition of creativity raises an interesting area to ponder for the arts educator. What are we trying to accomplish with our students and their creative practice?

 * In music, for instance, what forms of creativity should we be trying to cultivate? The ministry documents, though they do not make direct references to creativity, would seem to be content on emphasising performance as the primary site if creativity (i.e. the process of creating music).  Many secondary music programs are built around the performance-rehearsal model, where the bulk of time and effort is spent preparing performances of repertoire.  But should that suffice?  Are those performance-focussed students being creative?

 * A hasty response might simply state that merely performing the work of others is not entirely a creative process when compared to activities where the individual has a more active role in the inspiration and composition of a musical work. Yet, it would be hard to argue that our most celebrated performers were not being creative in their interpretation and performance of musical works even thought they were not the composer of that piece.  Was Glen Gould being creative during his performances works that he did not compose?  It would be unlikely to encounter a many musicians and critics who would argue that his renditions of J.S. Bach’s music were not creative accomplishments.  The question remains, though: How can we foster and assess creativity in performance/repertoire-based activities?

 * In more creativity-based activities (i.e. composition and improvisation), what types of creativity are we to recognise there. Our definitions of creativity seem contingent upon creating something new within a social context.  It appears as though a re-invention of the wheel would not be regarded as creative by most scholars.  However, would a student who decided to write music with no tonality (despite of never having heard of Schoenberg) be demonstrating creativity in their work?

 * Woolfolk’s definition would seem to argue that this student was not being creative, ant that their work had already been discovered by someone else in the past. What do we do then?  Do we tell the student that this type of work has already been carried out, perhaps crushing what could have been a meaningful process of inspiration for that student.  Or do we let the student  continue their work, risking that they might eventually become disillusioned with their progress when they inevitably find out that their discovery had been developed (and even rejected) some time ago?

--Maurosavo (talk) 04:37, 16 April 2008 (UTC)

Giftedness: There is a common misconception of what giftedness is, or what gifted children are. To many, gifted children are "bookworms", or those who are considered to be the geeky nerds of a school's population. Most school districts consider gifted children to fall in the upper 2%-3% of the IQ spectrum (Weiten, 355); however, this conception is not an accurate depiction of what giftedness entails. A longitudinal study by, Lewis Terman, in 1921, consisted of approximately 1500 children with an average IQ of 150 (Weiten, 356). According to Terman's findings, gifted children had more than just above average intelligence they were also, "above average in height, weight, strength, physical health, emotional adjustment, mental health, and social maturity"(Weiten, 356). Other studies have also found above average qualities in other areas of children's development including, social and emotional development (Weiten, 356). Interestingly, there is a distinction among giftedness to also consider. Ellen Winner, distinguishes a difference between moderately gifted children (those with an IQ between 130-150) and those who are profoundly IQ (an IQ above 180; Weiten 356). She supports the notion that the difference between the two groups lie in temperament. Winner claims that the latter are more "introverted and socially isolated" and that interpersonal and emotional problems are more likely (Weiten, 356). A further distinction also exists; there are those gifted children whose high-IQ classifies them as the cream of the crop of the school; where as the other group of gifted children are those who are considered "eminent adults who make enduring contributions in their fields" (Weiten, 356). Another interesting theory from the theorist by the name of Joseph Renzulli, came up with the idea called, a three-ring conception of eminent giftedness in which high IQ is only one third of the recipe for eminence. He suggests that a mixture of exceptional ability, creativity and motivation leads some to vast achievements in their area of interest (Weiten, 356).

''The question that I would like to throw out into the universe is... How can we foster giftedness in children so that all children can grow up to be eminent adults? ''

 * While the sentiment behind this question is clear, it needs to be established that a student identified as gifted is not the same as a student who is high-achieving or unusually self-motivated. While there are undoubtedly gifted students who possess these characteristics, I disagree with the idea that ‘giftedness’ is something that can or should be fostered.

 * With regard to education and curriculum, gifted students (also known as high-ability learners) are identified as individuals who require accommodation that cannot be achieved through the age/grade-appropriate level of curriculum. High ability learners, like students with learning disabilities, are identified as such because their needs are not being met by the current programming and/or curriculum. For this reason, while giftedness should undoubtedly be supported by both parents and teachers, it is not something that can be ‘fostered’.

 * There are obviously numerous implications for the classroom teacher and there are some important things for educators to keep in mind. Because gifted students are recognized as students whose needs are not supported by age/grade-appropriate curriculum, the ‘gifted’ label is only relevant in terms of ensuring that the student receives relevant instruction. For some students, this is a necessity earlier on in life but later on the mainstream curriculum will address their needs and for other the students the reverse is true.  Additionally, a student may require special programming in one subject area (eg. science, music) whereas the curriculum may be appropriate for his abilities/needs in other areas of school. For this reason, frequent and thorough assessment of students needs must be a priority.

 * High ability learners represent the top 2 percentile of the population and, while all students have the potential and ability to achieve great things, this does not mean all students are, or will be, gifted. Certainly we should encourage, support and adapt our instruction for all students; however, it is important that educators recognize the difference between differentiated instruction and individualized support vs. creating gifted-specific programming and accommodations.

 * For more information on the unique characteristics and needs of high ability learners, see Being Smart About Gifted Children – Joanne Foster and Dona Matthews.
 * Other resources:
 * http://www.sengifted.org/
 * http://www.abcontario.ca/
 * http://www.nagc.org/

--Ayanda1 (talk) 01:27, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

High-Incidence Disabilities (pp. 127-140)
High-Incidence Disabilities are ones teachers will most likely encounter in their classrooms. These include learning disabilities, communication disorders, developmental disabilities and emotional or behavioural disorders. Due to inclusive policies these students will be included in mainstream classes.

It is important to know that within each general disabilities/disorders, there are many specific branches, which will require different types of modification in order for these students to be equally successful.

 * Learning disabilities include: oral language (understanding what is being said), reading (comprehension and word recognition), written language (spelling and sentence structure), mathematics (calculations and problem solving). According to LD Online 'one in seven children requires special attention in the learning process."  The following link has lots of information pertaining to learning disabilities from identifying them, to common signs, how to respond and ADHD: http://www.ldonline.org.  It is important to note "No set of teaching techniques will be effective for every learning disabled child."  (Woolfolk, Winne and Perry, 130)  The special education teachers at each school will design appropriate instruction plans for each individual student and teachers are to implement these strategies along with their support.

Learning disabilities are most common in our classrooms, with over half of all students receiving special education help being those with a learning disability. Learning disabilities range in severity, but the most common characteristics include: specific difficulties in one or more academic subjects, poor coordination, problems paying attention, hyperactivity and impulsivity; problems organizing and interpreting visual and auditory information; disorders of thinking, memory, speech and hearing; and difficulties making and keeping friends.

 * Hyperactivity and attention disorders include: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - those who have problems with inattention and impulse control along with hyperactivity. Nylund (2000) has created a new strategy for dealing with ADHD, which "stresses personal agency".  The idea is to focus on the child's strengths in order to 'conquer' the child's problems - "the focus is on solutions" (Nylund, 2000).  The steps of the SMART approach are:

 * Separating the problem of ADHD from the child
 * Mapping the influence of ADHD on the child and the family
 * Attending to the exceptions to the ADHD story
 * Reclaiming special abilities of children diagnosed with ADHD
 * Telling and celebrating the new story  (Nylund, 2000, p. xix)

 * Communication disorders include: speech impairments, articulations disorders, stuttering, voicing problems, language disorders. The best way to be sure to include everyone in conversation regardless of different communication disorders is to teach language in various ways such as sign language and being sure to use jesters when speaking.

 * Developmental disabilities - this term has now replaced 'mental retardation' in Canada (however it is still used in the United States). The American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) has a classification system that helps identify the type of help needed to support a child to the fullest degree.  This classification scheme ranges as follows:  Intermittent, Limited, Extensive, Pervasive

See the following sites for further information - http://www.aamr.org/ http://aaidd.allenpress.com/aamronline/?request=get-static&name=ajmr-info

An interesting study was done by Lord (1991) where he found that "involvement in the community [is] key to individuals with disabilities feeling empowered and taking charge of their own lives". This is a mode of transition programming where the idea is to help individuals with disabilities prepare for jobs and community lifestyles.

 * Behavioural and emotional disorders include: conduct disorders (aggressive, destructive, disobedient, disruptive), anxiety-withdrawal disorder (withdrawn, anxious, depressed, cry easily). It is important to note that "...students with learning disabilities, developmental disabilities or ADHD may also have emotional or behavioural problems" (Woolfolk, Winne and Perry, 139) which will be a constant struggle for both themselves, and everyone at school.  It is important to work with the special education teacher at your school in order to design appropriate modes of instruction for such students.

--Winchell (talk) 00:15, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

Low-Incidence Disabilities (pp. 140-143)
Low-incidence disabilities include severe developmental disabilities, autism, sensory impairments that have to do with vision and hearing. They can also include chronic health concerns and physical disabilities. Most teachers will only encounter a few students with low-incidence disabilities, but it is their responsibility to be educated about the disability and what strategies can be used in the classroom to meet their needs. Many students with low-incidence disabilities will have an educational assistant with them in the classroom, and therefore it is important that the teacher and the educational assistant work together to provide the most positive experience for the student.

Chronic Health Concerns

Students with chronic health concerns will often have special devices to participate in school programs. If a school can provide the necessary features that these students require then the usual educational program does not need to be greatly altered. Woolfolk et al. describe two examples of chronic health concerns: Cerebral Palsy – condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage, and Epilepsy – disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain. There are many more chronic health concerns that teachers may come into contact with. On pp.139 of the text book (Educational Psychology, 3rd Edition), in Table 4.10 there is a list of Special Education Journals where further information on disabilities can be found.

Students who are Deaf and Hard of Hearing

At the high school level most students who are deaf and hard of hearing will have already been identified. There are signs that teachers can watch for to determine whether a student is deaf or hard of hearing: A common perspective says that people who are deaf and hard of hearing are part of a different culture with a different language, values, and social institutions. The goal for a teacher should be to help their student become bilingual and bicultural, so that they are able to function in both cultures.
 * student turns one ear toward the speaker
 * student misunderstands conversation when the speaker’s face cannot be seen
 * student does not follow directions, seems distracted or confused at times, does not participate in class discussion
 * student frequently asks people to repeat things, mispronouncing new words

Students with Low Vision and Blindness

Signs a teacher can watch for to determine whether a student has low vision and blindness: It is important to watch for signs for low vision. Many students will struggle with school work because of their vision problem and may not realize they could be receiving help. For students who are educationally blind, a teacher must work to ensure that the student is aware of the classroom setup, leaving plenty of space around the room, and being consistent with arrangement is the best way to ensure they are comfortable in the classroom.
 * student holds books very close or far away
 * student squints, rubs eyes, complains that their eyes hurt, their eyes may look sore
 * student may misread information from the board, be sensitive to light
 * student may become annoyed when they have to follow an activity or note from far away

Technology and special material and equipment have become a great source of help for students with low-incidence disabilities. It is the teachers’ responsibility to become knowledgeable of the technological resources that are available to assist these students.

This section of the chapter has me wondering how many teachers are actually educated on low-incidence disabilities and the resources that are available. Do you think that a course in special education should be mandatory for all teachers? Should it become part of teacher’s college? --JollyJamie (talk) 04:45, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Exceptional Education and Inclusion (pp. 143-149)
Introduction:

It is important for an educator to be familiar with the diverse needs of each student in the classroom. This is for the reason that at some point throughout an educator's career, they will encounter exceptional learners in their classrooms and will have to accommodate them accordingly.

Exceptional Education Laws and Policies

 * Each province differs in terms of the legislation that affects special education across Canada. To find policies that relation specifically to Ontario, research the Education or School Act.

Website: http://www.e-laws.gov.on.ca/html/statutes/english/elaws_statutes_90e02_e.htm

 * The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the only one piece of legislation that has an impact on education across Canada.  Essentially, this piece of legislation protects the rights of all Canadians, in particular, those who are of minority groups and those with disabilities.

Website: http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/charter/

 * It is important for educators to be accustomed with the terms Inclusion and Integration. As of now, Inclusion is the current policy of all provinces and territories in Canada.  Inclusion is defined as, “the practice of integrating exceptional students into regular education classrooms; the emphasis is on participation rather then placement” (Woolfolk et. al, p. 144).  Integration is defined as "the practice of having exceptional students participate in activities with their non-exceptional peers" (Woolfolk et. al, p. 144).

Least Restrictive Placement

 * This term refers to how students with exceptional needs should be placed in the most regular, mainstreamed educational settings as possible. However, it is essential to ensure that these students receive the proper support appropriate to their special needs.  Thus, students should only be removed from the regular educational environment when the nature or severity of their disability is such that even with the use of supplementary aids and services, education cannot be satisfactorily achieved.

Individualized Education Program OR Individual Education Plan (IEP)

 * It is mandatory for each student with exceptional learning needs to have his/her own education plan so the teacher can meet their distinct needs to ensure their success. IEP’s can inform and aware the teacher of issues such as the disability affecting the student, the student’s present level of functioning, the students strengths and weaknesses, a list of specific services needed for the student, and a description of how the student will participate in the program.

--Colillis (talk) 15:25, 13 April 2008 (UTC)


text:
Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Kinematics

Kinematics is study of an object's movement. In this chapter, we will learn how to calculate everything there is to know about a particle's motion from a few limited given information.


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Physics with Calculus/Mechanics/Relative Motion

In an approximation termed Galilean relativity, when two objects are moving at $$\vec{u}$$ and $$\vec{v}$$ relative to a common inertial reference frame, the relative velocity between the two objects, in the frame of reference where one of them is still, is $$\vec{v}_{\mathrm{ref}} = \vec{v} - \vec{u}$$


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Talk:Octave Programming Tutorial/Saving and loading a MAT-file

Octave does not load MAT-Files
found this page by searching for "mat-file octave" and the exact problem is, that octave doesn't recognize the binary .mat-Format. I think this should be clearly stated here, or otherwise hints and clues could be given on how to open such files. just my 2 cents --80.136.104.106 (talk) 10:22, 2 February 2008 (UTC)


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Talk:Learning Theories/Adult Learning Theories

What is an "eclectic borage"?
The only definitions I have found are like those in Encarta given below. Recent Runes (talk) 10:31, 2 February 2008 (UTC)

bor·age [ báwrij, bórrij ]

noun Definition: leafy plant with blue flowers: a hairy plant that has thick leaves that taste of cucumber and produces oil with pharmaceutical uses. Flowers: blue, star-shaped. Native to: Mediterranean. Latin name Borago officinalis.

[13th century. Via French bourrache< Latin bor(r)ago]

This is clearly a misspelling of the word "barrage."

Reference
by '''Ogberaha Misheal Ejiro.I need more clarification on psycho-analytical learning theory for adult learners©

Completeness
Where are the references?