text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 31

Synopsis
The enchanted ceiling in the Great Hall is dark with twinkling stars; the students are sitting below, clothed in their dressing gowns or traveling cloaks. Every Hogwarts being, living or dead, is listening to Professor McGonagall: students will be evacuated before the battle begins, though the older students can remain and fight. The Order and the professors have agreed upon a battle plan and begin dividing into groups. As tension mounts over the approaching battle, Harry anxiously searches the room for Ron and Hermione, who are still missing. Voldemort's booming voice, seemingly from nowhere, demands that, to save the school, Harry Potter must surrender by midnight. Pointing at Harry, Pansy Parkinson, a Slytherin, yells for someone to grab him. Gryffindor, Hufflepuff, and Ravenclaw students leap up, aiming their wands at Slytherin's table. McGonagall then orders all Slytherins to leave, followed by the other Houses, though many older students from the other three Houses remain behind. McGonagall reminds Harry that he is supposed to be looking for something. Swept up the marble staircase with the defenders, Harry breaks away, heading down an empty corridor. He is beginning to panic—he has no idea where to search for the Horcrux.

Harry races through the hallways. Glancing at the Marauder's Map, he is unable to locate Ron and Hermione on it. Harry remembers that Voldemort warned the Carrows that Harry would attempt to enter Ravenclaw Tower. Harry is convinced the Horcrux must be linked to that House and it must be the Diadem; he wonders how Voldemort found an object lost centuries ago, then has a sudden brainwave. The Diadem has not been seen in living memory, but that does not include Ghosts. Harry finds Nearly Headless Nick, the Gryffindor Ghost, who sends him to the Grey Lady. She admits she was Rowena Ravenclaw’s daughter, Helena. Jealous of her mother's fame, she stole the Diadem and ran away to Albania, hiding the crown in a forest. A Baron who was in love with Helena found her, but she spurned him. Becoming violent, he fatally stabbed her, then killed himself in remorse. Harry realizes it was the Bloody Baron. Harry asks if she shared her story with anyone else, and she sadly admits she once told a charming Hogwarts student. Harry surmises Tom Riddle found the Diadem and created a Horcrux from it. He hid it at Hogwarts in a place he believed no one else knew existed.

Hagrid has returned from his cave with Grawp after hearing Voldemort's voice. As Harry and Hagrid run through the halls, the first casualties are already appearing. A shattered stone gargoyle reminds Harry of the Ravenclaw statue at the Lovegood house. Another image appears to him: an old wizard's bust on which Harry once placed a tatty wig and a battered tiara inside a secret room that few ever knew existed. Harry suddenly realizes where the Diadem is—it is the same "battered tiara" that he used to mark where his Potions book in the Room of Requirement was hidden. As Harry races to it, he passes Aberforth, who has decided to join the battle, though Harry chastises him for suggesting that Slytherin students should have been kept as hostages. Harry finally finds Ron and Hermione, who, to his amazement, are carrying Basilisk fangs that they retrieved from the Chamber of Secrets and a mangled cup. Ron remembered the Parseltongue words Harry spoke when he unlatched the Locket Horcrux. Ron insisted that Hermione be the one to destroy the Cup Horcrux. Harry tells them about the Diadem.

Harry, Ron, and Hermione race to the Room of Requirement. Ginny is inside, along with Tonks, and Mrs. Longbottom, Neville's grandmother, who has sealed off the tunnel to the inn. Tonks and Mrs. Longbottom leave to join the battle. Harry asks Ginny to step outside, but to come back inside later. When Ron says he wants to warn the House-elves, an overjoyed Hermione flings herself into Ron's arms, kissing him. He kisses her back, their unspoken feelings finally shared. Harry has everyone step into the corridor, then thinks hard to himself: I need the place where everything is hidden. An entrance appears. Inside the large labyrinthine room, they search for the Diadem. Harry spots it but Draco Malfoy, Crabbe, and Goyle suddenly arrive, and a fierce duel erupts. In the confusion, Malfoy drops his borrowed wand, Harry disarms Goyle, and Crabbe unleashes an uncontrollable fire, setting the room ablaze. Crabbe is lost amongst the flames, but the Trio escapes unscathed on broomsticks that Harry finds. They save Malfoy and Goyle as they fly from the room. Harry, seeing the Diadem being tossed about by the fire, grabs it, then makes for the door.

Outside, they collapse on the hallway floor. The Diadem emits a thin shriek and falls apart in Harry's hand. Hermione says Crabbe must have conjured Fiendfyre, one of the few things that can destroy a Horcrux.

Shouts and noises fill the hall; Death Eaters have penetrated the castle. Suddenly, Percy and Fred appear, dueling two Death Eaters in the hallway; one is Pius Thicknesse. The wall is blasted open from the outside, and Fred is killed in the explosion.

Analysis
If readers were holding out hope that some Slytherins, other than Slughorn, would join forces against Voldemort, they are now disappointed. Although it would seem likely that at least a few Slytherins, particularly the half-bloods, must oppose Voldemort and his Death Eaters, they are denied that opportunity; when Slytherin House, led by Pansy Parkinson, aims their wands at Harry, McGonagall elects to send the entire House away, probably to avert a violent, and possibly lethal, confrontation with the other Houses who will defend Harry. Any Slytherins that have doubts about the wisdom of siding with Voldemort against Harry are submerged in the crowd. If they choose to fight Voldemort, they will do so from outside the school.

On the brink of battle, several characters undergo some significant realizations about themselves. For most of his life, Harry has felt isolated and suffered from a need to "go it alone", often refusing others' assistance or accepting it only when pressured or as a last resort. Not only is Harry bolstered by his old friends and allies returning to Hogwarts, ready to fight Voldemort and his Death Eaters, but as he races through the hallways, he yearns for Ron and Hermione's help and companionship. Harry has made great strides in learning to trust and rely on others.

Hermione is overjoyed when Ron wants to warn House-elves of the imminent danger. His growing maturity has led to his concern for others' well being, not just his own or his immediate family's. He now recognizes that Hermione's efforts on the Elves behalf has been valid and that these creatures deserve the same respect and consideration as other magical folk. Ron also shows his natural intelligence when, during the intense battle, he realizes that Basilisk fangs can destroy Horcruxes, something Harry must have forgotten about despite having destroyed Riddle's Diary with one. Recalling the Parseltongue words Harry spoke, Ron opens the Chamber of Secrets and retrieves the fangs. Hermione's genuine admiration for his cleverness, quick thinking, and leadership further enhances her feelings for him. And though Ron was responsible for retrieving the Basilisk fangs, he feels it is only right that Hermione should destroy the Cup Horcrux, she being an equal member of the Trio and responsible for much of their mission's success. These acts open the door to Ron and Hermione's submerged feelings for one another, though their happiness is quickly marred by tragedy.

That tragedy is Fred's untimely death, and not only does it cause intense pain and sorrow to those who loved him, it also tests their strength and courage. Racked with grief, Harry and the Weasley family must suppress their anguish and focus solely on the ensuing battle if they are to defeat Voldemort and his Death Eaters. Percy is particularly distraught, having just reunited with his estranged family. Hopefully he can find solace in having reconciled with Fred before he died, but for now, he diverts his grief into rage at the enemy to avenge his lost brother. Readers will recall that earlier in the book, George's ear was severed during the flight from the Dursleys' house. This may have foreshadowed him losing a larger part of himself, that part being Fred.

The rather morose Draco seen at Malfoy Manor has reverted to his familiar arrogant and bullying persona now that he is back at Hogwarts, lording over his faithful minions, Crabbe and Goyle. Away from his family's influence, Draco adopts a very different façade from the one he displays while in his parents' presence. However, that mask usually crumbles whenever Draco is faced with adversity, as it did when confronting Dumbledore on the Astronomy Tower in Harry Potter and the Half-blood Prince, and being forced to torture a fellow Death Eater earlier in this book. Why he chose to remain in the castle when the other Slytherins departed to join Voldemort is unclear, and his true intentions will remain unknown. It is hinted that Draco may have been planning to capture Harry and present him to Voldemort, though he previously passed on that opportunity back at Malfoy Manor. Draco himself may be unaware just what his real motives are, vacillating between fearful indifference and seizing an opportunity to win back the Dark Lord's favor for his family. Draco is a vessel lacking a compass, and, as he may have learned from observing his mentor, Snape, maintaining a neutral position makes it easier to align one's self with either winning side. However, when Draco realized Harry was after the Diadem, he may have wanted to capture him with the hope that he could reprieve the Malfoys from Voldemort's retaliation, and so redeem himself to his family, particularly his father, for his earlier failure to identify Harry at Malfoy Manor.

Interestingly, when Draco and Harry confront one another in the Room of Requirement, Draco demands his wand back. However, even if Harry was inclined to return it, which he was not, it probably would be practically useless for Draco. When Harry captured the wand at Malfoy Manor, it likely transferred its allegiance from Draco to Harry, its new master. Indeed, Harry found that Draco's wand worked exceptionally well for him.

Review

 * 1) Why did Ron want Hermione to be the one who destroyed the Cup Horcrux?
 * 2) Did it ever occur to the Trio earlier on to use Basilisk fangs to destroy the other Horcruxes? Why or why not?
 * 3) Why is Hermione so ecstatic when Ron wants to warn the House-elves? What does this say about Ron's character?
 * 4) Why is Harry unable to locate Ron and Hermione's name on the Marauder's Map?

Further Study

 * 1) Harry saves Malfoy's life, and at his bidding Ron and Hermione save Goyle. Do Malfoy and Goyle now owe Harry a "life debt" as Peter Pettigrew did? Does Goyle owe a life debt to Ron and Hermione? Explain.
 * 2) At Malfoy Manor, Draco would not identify Harry to the Death Eaters. Why does he now want to capture him for the Dark Lord?
 * 3) How does Malfoy's current behavior and demeanor compare to the way he behaved while at Malfoy Manor? How does it compare to how he acted during his earlier years at Hogwarts? What could account for these differences?
 * 4) Will the Room of Requirement be operational again? Explain why or why not this might be.

Greater Picture
Ron having Hermione destroy the Cup Horcrux shows how deep the bond is between Harry, Ron, and Hermione: since Harry had already destroyed a Horcrux - the Diary - and Ron eliminated another - the Locket - then why should Hermione not destroy the third Horcrux? Harry will also place his complete trust in Neville to eliminate a final Horcrux in the event that he, Hermione, or Ron are unable. This all shows how Harry, who initially believed he should undertake the quest alone, depends on his friends far more than he ever realized. We will be reminded again when, though it was Harry who was tasked by Dumbledore to destroy Voldemort's Horcruxes, in the end, each Horcrux is eventually destroyed by a different person. And though Harry had wanted to search for the Horcruxes alone, Dumbledore always knew, and intended, that Ron and Hermione would accompany him, and other allies would aid him as well.

Ron wanting to warn the House-elves about the attack is what causes Hermione to throw herself into his arms and kiss him, overjoyed that he finally considers them as worthy beings; as it turns out, however, the usually overlooked creatures are not warned, but they play an important role in the final battle against Voldemort.

Also, Draco Malfoy choosing to stay at Hogwarts rather than leave with the other Slytherins will prove an important factor in the story. First, it is his friend, Crabbe, who - accidentally - destroys the Diadem Horcrux in the Room of Requirement. Then, when Harry revives after being struck by Voldemort's ineffective Killing Curse, it is Narcissa Malfoy, Draco's mother, who is called upon to verify that Harry is dead. Because Draco is still inside the castle, Narcissa knows that the only way she can enter it, without risking Draco's life in further fighting, is if the Death Eaters enter unopposed, which would be unlikely if Harry was still alive. So, on finding Harry alive and able to confirm that Draco is also alive, she lies to Voldemort, thus sparing Harry's life. By now, she may also realize that only Harry can kill Voldemort, thus eliminating any future threat to herself and her family.

Relinquishing Draco's wand to him would not only render Harry powerless, Harry's ultimately defeating Voldemort hinges on his retaining it, that being the same wand that disarmed Dumbledore, and thus the wand that identifies the wizard the Elder Wand now owes its allegiance—or so Harry hopes. At Shell Cottage Mr. Ollivander revealed that he was working in areas of magic that even those skilled in wand lore were unable to fully understand. Harry is still uncertain who the Elder Wand has determined is its master; it should, properly, be Draco, but as Harry has captured Draco's wand, the Elder Wand may now be Harry's. Harry, though, can only be certain that the Elder Wand is not fully Voldemort's, for all that he wields it. It is not until Harry's encounter with Voldemort that he becomes convinced that the Elder Wand has given its allegiance to Harry.


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 32

Synopsis
The castle is under serious attack, and Harry cannot allow himself to grieve Fred's death. Harry, Ron, and Hermione dive to the floor to dodge curses as Percy Weasley covers Fred’s dead body with his own to protect it. He refuses to budge when Ron tries to pull him away. Hermione screams—one of Aragog's descendants is crawling through a hole in the castle's outer wall. Harry and Ron simultaneously blast the giant spider, but more spiders are climbing up the wall, and Harry fires Stunning Spells at them. As curses soar overhead, Ron and Hermione rush down the corridor as Harry helps Percy hide Fred's body in a wall niche. Harry then takes off after Ron and Hermione while Percy chases Rookwood. Hidden behind a tapestry, Ron, hysterical, wants to follow Percy and kill Death Eaters. Hermione is pleading with Ron, saying only they can end it; they must find and kill the snake.

Hermione asks Harry where Voldemort and Nagini are. Harry slips inside Voldemort’s mind and sees a shabby, but familiar room. Voldemort is thinking about the Diadem and the place only he knows exists. Nagini floats above Voldemort in a protective sphere. A battered Lucius Malfoy is asking about Draco. Voldemort tells him Draco is dead because he failed to join him with the other Slytherins. Malfoy urges him to halt the battle so the Dark Lord can be certain to kill Potter himself, but Voldemort knows Malfoy is only attempting to protect Draco. Malfoy is ordered to fetch Snape. Harry tells the others that Voldemort is in the Shrieking Shack. He knows his Horcruxes are being sought, and he is waiting for Harry to come to him.

The Trio throw on the Invisibility Cloak and head for the Shrieking Shack. Weaving through the fighting, they pass Dean and Parvati duelling Dolohov and Travers respectfully, then pass Draco Malfoy, who is pleading with a Death Eater that he is on their side; Harry stuns the Death Eater as Ron punches Draco in the face. Below, Fenrir Greyback, appearing to Harry as a blurry, four-legged gray animal as he rushes past, is about to bite Lavender Brown. Hermione's curse hurls him against the staircase as Professor Trelawney, leaning over the railing, drops a crystal ball onto his head. The spiders have forced their way into the entryway. As the fighters shoot curses at them, Hagrid charges down the stairs yelling, "Don't hurt 'em, don't hurt 'em!" As Hagrid disappears into the spider throng, Harry dashes out from under the Cloak chasing after him. His path is blocked by a massive, hairy leg belonging to a twenty-foot Giant. When Grawp appears calling for Hagrid, the bigger Giant launches itself at him, and the two furiously wrestle. Fighting is everywhere now and flashing curses streak through the air.

The Trio rush to the forest, but near its edge, a hundred Dementors glide towards them. Harry is too overcome by hopelessness to cast a Patronus, while Ron and Hermione's Patronuses quickly flicker out. Suddenly, three other Patronuses soar past as Luna, Ernie, and Seamus come running from the darkness. Luna encourages Harry to think of something happy, and after enormous effort, the silver stag bursts from his wand, scattering the Dementors. As another Giant lurches towards them, Harry shouts to Ron and Hermione to head for the Shrieking Shack.

At the Whomping Willow, the Trio crawls through the tunnel leading to the Shack. Inside, Snape is talking with Voldemort, nervously offering to find the boy so Voldemort can kill him himself. Voldemort declines, saying his Death Eaters have been ordered to capture Harry alive, and he believes the boy will come to him. He complains that the Elder Wand fails to perform the extraordinary magic he expected. Voldemort tells Snape he has been a valuable servant and regrets what he must do, believing that when Snape killed Dumbledore, Snape won the wand's allegiance. Unfortunately, Snape must die so Voldemort can become the Elder Wand's true master. With no remorse, Voldemort orders Nagini to kill Snape. When Voldemort leaves with Nagini, Harry and the others rush to Snape. Silvery-blue wisps are streaming from his mouth, ears, and eyes. Snape, barely alive, tells Harry, "Take . . . it . . . Take . . . it." A crystal flask appears in mid air, and Harry gathers the strands into the container. Snape asks to look into Harry's green eyes before his life ebbs away.

Analysis
Two significant deaths have occurred: Fred Weasley and Severus Snape. While Fred's death is a tragic loss, Snape's demise is a crucial element leading to the book's climax. Snape, and also readers, may have expected that Voldemort would eventually kill him, possibly no longer considering him an asset or perceiving him as a potential threat. It is still unknown, however, whether Snape was serving Voldemort or Dumbledore, or even neither. Just as Dumbledore had, Voldemort appears to believe that Snape was always loyal to him, and even still useful, but Voldemort's quest to become the Elder Wand's master takes precedence over everything else, and he willingly sacrifices Snape to obtain that mastery. Whether hero or villain, Snape's final act is to hand over to Harry what appears to be his memories. These could be the key to understanding Dumbledore's cryptic plan. Snape's final request to look into Harry's eyes may also be significant: others have commented, throughout the series, that Harry has his mother's eyes.

Lucius Malfoy, having been severely punished for failing Voldemort, shows deathly fear for his son Draco's life. This is probably among the few times Lucius has ever demonstrated any real emotion for another person, and it shows that, unlike Voldemort, Lucius is capable of love and desperately wants to save his only child. Voldemort, however, shows no concern for Draco, and previously endangered his life only as a means to penalize Lucius for failing to capture Harry at the Ministry of Magic. Though Lucius probably remains with the Dark Lord mostly out of fear for his own and his family's safety, he may also be scheming to recapture his master's favor and reward. He will likely retain his evil ways should Voldemort win, and he is well aware that having entered the Dark Lord's service, there is no leaving it alive; it is only now, having been relegated to the organization's lower order, that he begins to understand why one might actually want to exit that service.

It is also interesting to note Hermione's changing views regarding the connection between Harry's mind and Voldemort's. At this book's beginning, Hermione was deeply dismayed by Harry occasionally viewing Voldemort's thoughts and actions, as it was via that channel that Harry had been deluded into delivering himself and five students into a trap at the Department of Mysteries earlier. Harry continually resisted attempts to close this channel, feeling that any information about Voldemort is valuable. Over the course of this book, Hermione has gradually adopted the same point-of-view, but this is the first time she has actively asked Harry to visit Voldemort's thoughts. This would seem to indicate she now somewhat trusts Harry's ability to control and filter what he sees inside Voldemort's mind.

There is an interesting side note here. The book describes Fenrir Greyback as a gray blur on four legs that Harry took to be an animal. This could possibly suggest that he was transformed into his Werewolf form as he attempts to bite Lavender Brown. In that event, there would be a full moon, but there is no mention as to whether Remus Lupin, also a Werewolf, has been similarly transformed. Lupin is seen as a human when he arrives at Hogwarts, but it is possible it is still too early for the moon to rise. It may be that Greyback is simply acting wolf-like; as we have heard and seen, he does attack like a wolf even when in human form, as when he savaged Bill Weasley. However, being able to survive such a severe blow to the head from Trelawney's heavy crystal ball with almost no injuries could indicate that he was transformed. While it is never made absolutely clear what form he is in, it is true that Harry, who has never seen Fenrir transformed, recognizes him. As the author is careful about having every character properly named before Harry recognizes him or her, this does lend some weight that Fenrir is in human form, though it is curious as to why she would describe him in a manner suggesting his gray Werewolf form or that Harry would perceive him as a gray animal. Being as Fenrir is the Werewolf leader, and Remus Lupin had infiltrated Fenrir's pack, Order of the Phoenix members should know his transformed description, but there is no indication one way or the other as to whether Harry has been so briefed.

Review

 * 1) Does Voldemort know that the Diadem Horcrux has been destroyed? If not, why?
 * 2) Why does Voldemort believe Snape is the Elder Wand's master? Is he? If not, who might be?

Further Study

 * 1) Why does Hagrid try to protect the attacking giant spiders? Whose side are they on?
 * 2) Why didn't Draco leave with the other Slytherin students who joined Voldemort? What, if any, might his true allegiance be?
 * 3) Why is Voldemort so certain that Harry will come to him?
 * 4) Why does Voldemort kill Snape, a valuable servant, to win the Elder Wand's allegiance, rather than disarm him for it? Did Voldemort always intend to kill Snape?
 * 5) Why does Voldemort have Nagini kill Snape, rather than doing it himself with a killing curse?
 * 6) Why does Lucius Malfoy continue serving Voldemort, despite the Dark Lord having endangered his and his son's life?
 * 7) Why was Harry too overwhelmed with hopelessness to cast a Patronus at the Dementors? How did he overcome that?
 * 8) What are the silvery strands that Snape gave to Harry? Where have they been seen before? Why would he want Harry to have them?
 * 9) Why would Snape want to look into Harry's eyes just before he dies?

Greater Picture
Voldemort here has fallen into the same misunderstanding about the Elder Wand's allegiance that so many have before him. It is not just by murder of its current holder that frees the wand to accept a new master, but the wand's forcible removal from its owner that also wins its allegiance. One might wonder why Voldemort failed to recognize this, despite knowing about Gregorovitch's continuing survival while Grindelwald commanded the wand, and Grindelwald's remaining alive during the sixty years that Dumbledore mastered it. However, we have seen that Voldemort tends to solve problems by killing people. It is unlikely that Voldemort enjoys killing; if he did, he likely would have stayed to watch Snape die. His walking out before Snape expired indicates that he sees killing Snape as simply the solution to the Elder Wand problem, and once the solution has been applied, it no longer concerns him.

In the next chapter, we discover why Snape, who knows he is dying, asked Harry to look into his eyes. He has already handed over to Harry the memories that Dumbledore charged Snape with providing Harry. They explain everything to Harry as well as provide Snape's own justification for his actions. These memories will show that Lily Potter was the only woman Snape ever loved, and it was for her that Snape allowed himself to promise to do all that he did for Harry, little as it may have seemed at the time. We have been told repeatedly that Harry has Lily's eyes, and, as he dies, Snape desires to gaze into those eyes one final time.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Haskell/Solutions/Applicative functors

recap
1.

2.

3.

Functions have a  instance, and it is a quite useful one. The "wrapped" value in this case is the result produced by the function. for functions is function composition.

The class
1.

2a. The choice for the first argument when there are two s is arbitrary, but matches the  implementation.

2b. and  for functions are the K and S combinators of SKI combinator calculus respectively.

Déja vu
1.

2.

Sequencing of effects
1. Note how the  implementation matches exactly the general  -from-  implementation in the first exercise of the "Déja vu" section.

2.

Another pedantically slow derivation follows.

3a.

3b.

3c.

Two observations. Firstly, we might continue the solution by writing the binds explicitly, substituting the definitions of  and   and so forth. However, the plumbing in  is quite convoluted, making the full derivation rather mind-numbing. For that reason, we will continue, at first, in a less formal way, so that the key insights are not obscured. Secondly, we have very good reasons to suspect  is not commutative. After all, the whole point of  is threading state updates with computations which depend on that state, and there is no particular reason why the order of the state transitions shouldn't matter. Following that lead, we will, instead of attempting to prove the do-blocks are equivalent, look for a counter-example.

We will now perform the substitutions, while keeping track of the (result, state) pairs in each step.

Neither the final states nor the final results match. That is enough to show  is not commutative.

For the sake of completeness, here is the full deduction through the  instance, done in mostly point-free style. To protect our sanity, we will leave out the  wrapping and unwrapping.

4. The skeleton of the second list is distributed into the skeleton of the first list; the values in the first list are discarded.

5.

6.

Because  imposes left-to-right sequencing. In,   builds functorial context from the values in. The newly generated context is then combined with the preexisting context of, which is the matrix for creating the context of the result.

Incidentally, the fact  performing left-to-right sequencing is the main reason for the convention that leads applicative operators to do the same. and  are implemented using , and so they also sequence effects from left to right. That means  instances must follow suit if they are to be coherent with   ones, and at that point it becomes sensible to extend the convention to all applicative functors (even those without   instances) to minimise a source of confusion.

A sliding scale of power
1.

A definition ready to be loaded in GHCi: Note how the laws of the various classes can guide you towards the correct instances. For example, the two first cases in the definition of  follow immediately from the fmap and interchange laws of.

2a. The context of  (i.e., the tree's shape) is fully determined by the context of , and the values have no influence over the resulting context. That calls for. In the case of,   has the same shape as  , except with each leaf replaced by a tree with the shape of. Hence, the desired shape for  can be obtained by applying a tree of shape   to. In the above definition that uses, some processing is needed to get   as the first argument to  ; the definition that uses   is more natural. is used as each morphism function to produce the same value in each new leaf as that of the parent leaf.

2b. For a second time we need to change the tree structure depending on its values, so  is not an option. is not enough as well. There are no values in the  nodes for the second argument of   to generate context from, and there is no way to access values elsewhere in the tree while performing the monadic bind. Thus we have resorted to a plain old explicitly recursive function.

(Note that if there were values in  we might use an explicitly recursive function to tag the nodes, and then use the tags to prune the tree through the   interface. It would be unnecessary trouble, of course, but it might make a nice extra exercise.)

2c. replaces the leaves of  with   and. This  instance is very similar to the standard "combinatorial"   of lists. As the structure of the result tree depends only of the structure of  (and not of any values),   is clearly unnecessary.

alternatively, one can get away with using just  as follows 3.

The alternative instance is: It only combines subtrees with matching positions in the tree structures. The resulting behaviour is similar to that of, except that when the subtree shapes are different it inserts missing branches rather than removing extra ones (and it couldn't be otherwise, since there are no empty  s). By the way,  would have the exact same implementation of , only using the other instance.

The monoidal presentation
1.

2. That is a beautiful presentation of the commutativity condition. An applicative functor is commutative if the only difference between  and   is the elements of the pairs within them being swapped. All else - the values of the elements and the context around them - must be the same.

3a.

3b.

title: Haskell/Solutions/Applicative functors


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User talk:202.170.51.240

Mattb112885 (talk to me) 23:28, 12 August 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:202.170.51.240


text:
Talk:Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 4

You Learn Something New Everyday!
Bodged? I've never heard this word before in my life. I love it! A great word. Keep 'em coming. Thanks for expanding my vocabulary.PNW Raven 23:51, 12 August 2007 (UTC)
 * It's a very English word, which I dredged up as being only appropriate for this very English story. A bodge, or something that is bodged together, is something that is just sort of thrown together, and works so long as no real demands are made on it. As we see here, once it is used, it generally fails... An English friend of mine dreamed up a contracting firm, Bodgit and Scarper, whose name indicates that they would sort of ham-fistedly hang something together and then run out. Chazz (talk) 15:40, 14 August 2007 (UTC)

This brings up an issue I've been wondering about. So far the book synopsis have been done in a more general American style. The general Wikipedia pages for Harry Potter are being written in the British style (a real head trip for me). Do we want to do the same for the books? It's certainly OK with me, and it seem appropriate, although I'm still learning to write/speak British.PNW Raven 18:13, 15 August 2007 (UTC)
 * I would say no. What we're doing is a bit of a hybrid, mixed American and British, American with British spellings and the odd British word, which may be awkward, but is what the bulk of our audience, who are American, will be most comfortable with. And frankly, I don't think any of us here would be able to do much with the British style, not well enough to make it feel like British anyway. My feeling is that the best way for us is to continue what we're doing, and if a true Brit wants to come along later and anglicize us, fine. Chazz (talk) 19:32, 15 August 2007 (UTC)

Polyjuice and gender
It's not true that we've seen transformations only within gender; Crabbe and Goyle were transformed into little girls in the preceding book to stand guard outside the Room of Requirement. Bpmullins (discuss • contribs) 17:12, 27 April 2011 (UTC)
 * True. Thank you for mentioning that; I've modified the analysis accordingly. Chazz (talk) 18:30, 13 May 2011 (UTC)


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User:Mloewen links

Here is my basic links page for now. All are freeware as far as I know.

 * OpenSong Some good software for song presentation for churches.
 * Opensong addons Some helpfull addons to open song.
 * 7-zip excellent archiving prog.
 * openoffice great free MS office replacement
 * gimp Excellent photo editing software.
 * snackamp It is a good music player.
 * FreeCiv Civilization
 * Neverball A great physics game.
 * Secret Maryo Chronicles Great Super Maro Clone
 * vdrift 3d racing game

title: User:Mloewen links


text:
File:Mozartgold bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Mozartgold bw.jpg


text:
Talk:Conlang/FAQ

Braille
BRAILLE IS NOT A LANGUAGE!!!!1!!1111!!! It's a writing system, or more accurately, a code for representing letters of a writing system. Don't get me wrong, I think braille is cool and all. I learned it as a kid before they figured out I could read print better, but the point is, braille a writing system, not a language — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.139.115.211 (talk) 00:09, 13 August 2007

 * This was addressed. Braille was removed, and a discussion of the status of written language was added.  --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 18:26, 13 January 2014 (UTC)

Conlang questions?
So far, all the questions seem to be pretty much about linguistics, rather than about conlanging as such. For example, there ought to be some sort of basic questions about books, on-line resources, organizations — not sure if that's three questions, two questions, or one question. Somewhere in the answers would be, no doubt, some elaborated forms of "LCC" and "Zompist and CONLANG". --Pi zero (talk) 15:19, 14 January 2010 (UTC)
 * Okay, here are two questions that might be elaborated:
 * Q: Where can I find conlang resources? A: LCS. This is a variant on the "Where do I start?" question, a couple of sections back.
 * ✅ as "Is there a conlanging community?" --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 15:43, 12 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Q: Is there a natlang with X? A: ANADEW.
 * ✅ --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 18:06, 12 January 2014 (UTC)
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 21:44, 11 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Q: What's the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
 * We want a really good conlanging-oriented answer to this question.
 * ✅ (or at least attempted) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 17:04, 5 December 2015 (UTC)
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 11:21, 23 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Q: Is there such a thing as professional conlanging?
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 16:47, 28 January 2016 (UTC)
 * ✅ (or attempted) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 23:17, 12 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Q: What is the earliest conlang?
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 14:34, 3 September 2018 (UTC)
 * ✅ (took a shot at it, anyway) --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 17:36, 10 December 2018 (UTC)

 * Q: Are their other books about conlanging?
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 17:45, 26 December 2018 (UTC)
 * This, I'm realizing, is a very tricky question. It edges over toward asking what other resources there are, which is also related to the list of external links on the book main page. --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 14:52, 13 July 2019 (UTC)

 * Q: Are their awards for conlanging?
 * --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 12:23, 4 July 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅ --Pi zero (discuss • contribs) 18:22, 4 July 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Conlang/FAQ


text:
File:Mozart black.jpg

Source: http://www.mozartkugeln.co.uk/

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product nor of the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Mozart black.jpg


text:
File:Mozart white.jpg

Source: http://www.mozartkugeln.co.uk/

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image.

/Images

title: File:Mozart white.jpg


text:
File:Amadé ww.jpg

Source: http://www.whiskyworld.ru

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This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product nor the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Amadé ww.jpg


text:
Wikijunior:How Things Work/Toaster

A toaster is designed to heat the sides of a slice of bread for the right amount of time, turning the slice of bread into toast.

Who invented it?
The first electric toaster was invented in 1893 in Scotland by Alan Macmasters and manufactured by Crompton and Co. A person had to turn the bread over to toast both sides and turn the machine off by hand. An American, Charles Strite, invented the pop-up toaster in 1919.

How does it get power?
Electricity provides the energy that the toaster needs. When electric current flows through the coils of wire inside the toaster, they become so hot that they glow red. These glowing red wires are called heating elements.

How does it work?
A heating element in a toaster is most often a thick nichrome wire. Like most wires in any house, nichrome wire conducts electricity. But other wires are made of metals that are better conductors of electricity. That means electricity is easily passed through the wire, which can help all sorts of things work. But nichrome wire can't deliver electricity as well as copper can. All the energy can't transfer down the nichrome wire, so instead its energy becomes heat. This means the wire gets very, very hot! The same kinds of heating elements are used in combination with a fan in household hair dryers. The heating elements heat up everything around them, including the bread. If the bread is close to the heating element for the right amount of time, it turns a light brown color and turns into toast. If it is heated too long, the toast will turn black and begin to smoke. Toasters are generally built so that they stop on their own, to prevent this from happening.

A pop up toaster causes the toast to "pop" up when it stops. The slots in the top of it hold the bread. When the bread is first added, a cage at the bottom of the slot holds it up, partway out of its slot. At first, the heating elements are not hot, because no electrical current is flowing through them. The black lever on the right can be pushed down, which lowers the bread all the way in, so that it is very near the heating elements. Two other important things happen as the lever is pushed down. First, with the lever pushed down, the toaster allows electricity to flow through the heating elements, which causes the bread to start toasting. Second, a spring is compressed, and a latch holds the lever in place at the bottom position. Even if a person lets go of the lever at this point, the latch will keep it in place, and the toast will continue toasting.

But it won't continue forever. The bread isn't the only thing being heated by the heating element: many parts of the toaster itself are also being heated up. One of these parts is the release mechanism. This part is designed to change its shape as its temperature increases. Eventually, the release mechanism heats up enough that the latch is released: this is what makes the popping sound. Once the latch is released, the spring quickly pulls up on the lever, which stops the flow of electric current and allows the heating element to begin cooling down. At the same time, the spring pulls up the cage at the bottom of the slots, pushing the toast up out of the slots, so that it is easy to remove from the toaster. The release mechanism can be set to release the latch at a higher or lower temperature, which will cause the toast to be darker or lighter.

How dangerous is it?
CAUTION: YOU CAN GET A SHOCK! Because it uses electricity a toaster can be dangerous around water. Although it can be tempting to remove a stuck piece of toast with a knife, it is extremely dangerous to put anything metal into a toaster because the element can conduct electricity to the metal and to the person holding it. Because it gets very hot, you can burn yourself if you get too close to the elements. With some toasters that do not automatically turn off, toast can catch on fire. Fire is very dangerous. It can burn you very badly and painfully! Toasters are made of metal, so if you drop the toaster there is a chance you could hurt a foot!

What does it do?
It heats bread until the bread turns brown. The inside of the bread remains soft whilst the outside is charred, creating a crispy texture. It can also be used to heat other similarly sized bread- or cake-like foods.

How does it vary?
Many types of toasters have been made. Some, like the kind used in most restaurants, have a slot running all the way through it, and moves the toast slowly in one end and out the other. In this case, the toast is made darker or lighter by controlling how fast the toast moves through the toaster. Others, including toaster ovens, have a mechanical timer that allows electric current to flow only until a set amount of time has passed.

How has it changed the world?
The toaster hasn't changed the world much, but it does sometimes make breakfast a little warmer and tastier. The texture of bread is improved by toasting it, as is the taste. The toaster made sliced bread better, it's the best thing since sliced bread!

What idea(s) and/or inventions had to be developed before it could be created?
It was necessary to develop the following:
 * Production of electricity.
 * A distribution system to make electricity available to the public.
 * An understanding of how electrical conduction through a resistance causes heat.

title: Wikijunior:How Things Work/Toaster


text:
File:Vermeer liqueur bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
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 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any "user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction, whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Vermeer liqueur bw.jpg


text:
File:Vandermint bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Vandermint bw.jpg


text:
File:Sabra bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Sabra bw.jpg


text:
XForms/Open Selection

Motivation
You want to have a control that suggests a set of values in a drop-down list but also allows a user to type in their own value.

Method
Just add the attribute selection="open" to your select1 control:

Screen Image

Note that although a list of possible countries is listed, the user can type in any country that is not on this list.

XForms Application
Load XForms Application

The following example allows you to select a country code or enter your own country code:

  XForms Select1 control using selection="open"  Country:  USA usa   Canada can </xf:item> <xf:item> <xf:label>Japan</xf:label> <xf:value>jpn</xf:value> </xf:item> <xf:item> <xf:label>Mexico</xf:label> <xf:value>mex</xf:value> </xf:item> <xf:item> <xf:label>Other</xf:label> <xf:value>other</xf:value> </xf:item> </xf:select1> Output: <xf:output ref="CountryCode"/>

Discussion
Very often you want to suggest values to the user to ensure consistency of data entry. The problem is that there are sometimes exceptions to a small list of items and the open selection control allows these exceptions to be entered.

One challenge of using this control is to let the user know they can enter an exception. You may have to add instructional text on the form such as "type value in this field if it does not appear on this list".

title: XForms/Open Selection


text:
File:Godiva milk choc.jpg

Source: http://www.godiva.com/liqueur/main.aspx

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Godiva milk choc.jpg


text:
File:Godiva dark bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Godiva dark bw.jpg


text:
File:Godiva white bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Godiva white bw.jpg


text:
File:Godiva capuccino bw.jpg

Source: http://www.beveragewarehouse.com

Non-free use rationale
This image meets the following non-free use criteria:
 * No free alternative possible
 * If this is a promotional image from the company, then any

"user-supplied" image whose sole purpose was clearly to represent

the same copyrighted box/item art (and nothing else, and with no

significant artistic input- i.e. a "mechanical" reproduction,

whether by scanner or camera) would likely have the same

restrictions.
 * Is being used to demonstrate the product and/or its marketing
 * Serves to demonstrate the product being discussed rather than

being used in a solely decorative manner.
 * Does not deprive company of ability to make money in any way
 * Is not being used in misleading or misrepresentative manner

Disclaimer

 * Use of this non-free image of a proprietary product is not an endorsement of that product or the internet business from which the image was obtained. This image was obtained from a manufacturer's website or an online business selling that product. The source of the file is listed under the image. The owners of the trademark and the image are acknowledged.

/Images

title: File:Godiva capuccino bw.jpg


text:
Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gellert Grindelwald

Overview
Gellert Grindelwald was the most terrible Dark Wizard to exist before Lord Voldemort came to prominence.

Philosopher's Stone
Grindelwald is mentioned briefly on the back of Albus Dumbledore's Chocolate Frog card as the Dark Wizard Dumbledore defeated in 1945.

Deathly Hallows
Viktor Krum tells Harry that the line within a circle within a triangle symbol that Xenophilius Lovegood wore as a pendant at Bill and Fleur's wedding was the symbol of Gellert Grindelwald.

Rita Skeeter's tell-all book about Albus Dumbledore reveals that when young Albus was about 17 years of age, Gellert Grindelwald, also about 17, came to Godric's Hollow to live with his great-aunt Bathilda Bagshot. He had been expelled from Durmstrang for near-fatal attacks on other students. Dumbledore and Grindelwald become close friends, and were apparently plotting to enforce wizard rule over Muggles, always for the Muggles' own good, of course. Harry Potter, seeing Voldemort's memory of the wand maker Gregorovitch and finding Grindelwald's picture in Skeeter's book, realizes that he is the thief who stole The Elder Wand from Gregorovitch. It is learned that Grindelwald was still alive, though imprisoned in the highest tower in Nurmengard, the prison Grindelwald himself built to hold those who opposed him. Voldemort successfully hunted him down there, although Grindelwald lied to Voldemort, claiming never to have had the Elder Wand. Voldemort casts the Killing Curse in rage.

Both Dumbledore and Grindelwald were seeking the Deathly Hallows, which would have made them masters of death. Grindelwald had actually adopted the Deathly Hallows symbol for his organization. When their plan was derailed by Aberforth Dumbledore, a fight broke out, resulting in Aberforth and Albus' sister, Ariana, being killed. Grindelwald immediately fled Godric's Hollow, possibly fearing that this tragedy would also be laid at his feet. After stealing the Elder Wand from Gregorovitch, he used its power to begin his conquest of Europe. He was eventually defeated by Dumbledore, who stated it would have been "too shameful" for him to delay taking action any longer.

Strengths
Grindelwald was described as being a brilliant and ambitious individual. He was highly intelligent and his magical skills were comparable to those of Albus Dumbledore and Lord Voldemort. He was considered to be the most powerful Dark wizard of all time until the rise of Voldemort a generation later. Albus Dumbledore would later even admit that he was only a shade less skillful than him.

One notable aspect is that he showed no fear, and was willing to lie to Lord Voldemort despite being weak and wandless, and despite the fact that Voldemort is the only Dark wizard ever considered to be more powerful than himself. Unlike Voldemort, Grindelwald does not seem to have been afraid of death, even welcoming it when Voldemort threatens him.

It's likely that he was skilled in occlumency, as he chose to lie to Voldemort despite the latter being an accomplished legilimens. We don't know how successful he was at blocking Voldemort's legilimency, as Voldemort did somehow determine that the Elder Wand had been claimed by Dumbledore. The story does not show whether Voldemort retrieved that information from Grindelwald, from some other source, or simply guessed at it.

Weaknesses
Grindelwald was vain, arrogant, narcissistic, cruel and believed himself to be superior to all other wizards. He developed an insatiable lust for power and was easily drawn to Dark magic to obtain his perverted goals. After learning about the three Deathly Hallows, he developed an obsessive desire to possess them, especially the Elder Wand, believing they would help him conquer the Wizarding realm, as well as becoming master of death.

Relationships with Other Characters
Grindelwald developed a close, intense, but short-lived, friendship with Albus Dumbledore when the two were teenagers. The relationship ended abruptly, leaving many unanswered questions as to why it suddenly collapsed.

Grindelwald had been expelled from Durmstrang, apparently for practicing dark magic to the point of nearly endangering the safety of his fellow students. It is possible that he had followers at Durmstrang, much as Tom Riddle had at Hogwarts, but apart from his relationship with Dumbledore, it is uncertain if he had any real friends at all.

Though he stayed with his great-aunt, Bathilda Bagshot, after being expelled from Durmstrang, Bagshot's memories as published in Rita Skeeter's book lead us to believe that Bathilda was not in his confidence. She apparently had no idea what he was planning with Dumbledore.

Unlike the other characters Voldemort interrogated for the whereabouts of the Elder Wand, Grindelwald showed no fear of the Dark Lord. Grindelwald further taunted Voldemort by telling him that he welcomed death and that Voldemort would never gain the power of the Elder Wand.

Analysis
In order to have achieved the fame that is accorded him, it is necessary for Dumbledore to have done something that had major repercussions in the Wizarding world. Otherwise, why would his being Hogwarts' headmaster have garnered that much acclaim? Even with Hogwarts being the only major school in Britain, and a leading school in Europe as a whole, it is unlikely that the headmaster would have a direct share in the school's glory. Headmasters, like teachers, generally have limited direct influence, no matter how much their students accomplish. Dumbledore, however, had apparently been offered the post of Minister for Magic, which he declined, and he has had many other honours bestowed upon him, not least of which (in his opinion) is his selection as one of the wizards appearing on Chocolate Frog cards. A headmaster is not typically singled out as "possibly the best wizard in our lifetime." Granted, Dumbledore was academically brilliant, as revealed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, but it seems that his defeating Grindelwald is what crystallized his ascendancy in the Wizarding public's collective minds. Thus Grindelwald provides a necessary foil to Dumbledore in his younger days. When their epic battle took place in 1945, Dumbledore would have been 64-years-old and in the prime of his powers. Grindelwald was, possibly, a little younger; he had been expelled from Durmstrang and took refuge at his aunt's home the summer after Dumbledore's graduation.

We should note that while the Elder Wand is by reputation undefeatable in a duel, it has apparently changed hands many times by force, including murder. In The Tale of the Three Brothers, we see that the very first holder of the wand was murdered in his sleep. And there are many other circumstances where the wand could be defeated; we see one such for ourselves, where the disarmament charm, cast by Draco Malfoy, prevents Dumbledore's use of the wand. We don't know the circumstances of the actual duel between Dumbledore and Grindelwald; despite teasers that we hear in an interview with Rita Skeeter, the chapter of her book dealing with that duel does not form a part of Harry's story. But we can guess that Grindelwald's earlier friendship with Dumbledore, though it would have been almost a half century before, could well have hindered his ability to duel.

On a side note, there is a resort town in Switzerland, just north of the Eiger, named Grindelwald, as well as a village with that name in Tasmania, Australia. It is unknown whether either town was the inspiration for this character's name.

Questions

 * 1) Why did Grindelwald try to hide information about the Elder Wand from Lord Voldemort?
 * 2) Why did he say Voldemort would never succeed?
 * 3) Is Gellert Grindelwald scared of Voldemort? Explain.

Greater Picture
The young Dumbledore was blinded to Grindelwald's insatiable power-hungry drive to become a dictator. Dumbledore believed that the ultimate goal was to make the world safe for people like his sister Ariana to exist; he believed that Muggles living under benevolent wizard rule would have made it possible for wizard offspring and Muggle children to co-exist. A simple test of one's personality is which specific Hallow they believe is the most valuable, and why. Grindelwald clearly believed the Elder Wand, unbeatable in a duel, was superior, with the Resurrection Stone running second. Albus felt the Resurrection Stone was more important. To Grindelwald, the Resurrection Stone was a means to raise an army of Inferi; to Albus, it would have restored his lost family. Neither had much interest in the Invisibility Cloak, though Dumbledore considered it as a possible means to hide his sister's condition. Why did Dumbledore fail to see that Grindelwald was choosing the evil path to power? Dumbledore's deep attraction for Grindelwald may have caused him, initially, to overlook his friend's flaws. Also, his own pride in his superior intellect and extraordinary magical abilities may also have deluded him into believing that he and Grindelwald knew what was best for the Wizarding world. With the foolishness of youth, he perhaps thought he could turn Grindelwald to his own, somewhat more gentle ends.

It was this episode with Grindelwald, and his sister Ariana's resulting death, that led Dumbledore to believe that he could never trust himself with power, too tempted to misuse it if he were ever in a high-level position such as Minister for Magic. Surprisingly, this is a key plot point in the story. Would Dumbledore have had the nerve to oppose the Minister for Magic, as he did to Cornelius Fudge at the end of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, had he not been a strong enough wizard to take that post himself? And if he was that strong, what conceivable reason would there be for his declining the Minister post? This is unanswered, though, years later, Harry needed someone this powerful to train him, and to defend him from the Ministry, and it would have been impossible for Harry to have been trained by a Minister for Magic.


text:
User:Sunshineconnelly

I am a contract graphic designer, sometimes contracted to create covers for books and chapters, as well as illustrations and graphics for Wikibook to print projects. Examples:

 * Anatomy and Physiology of Animals
 * The Sustainable Business
 * OER Handbook

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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals

Veterinary nurses need to have a firm grasp of the normal structure of an animal’s body and how it functions before they can understand the effect diseases and injuries have and the best ways to treat them.

This book describes the structure of the animal body and the way in which it works. Animals encountered in normal veterinary practice are used as examples where possible. The material is divided into 16 chapters:

 * Chemicals
 * Classification
 * The Cell
 * Body Organisation
 * The Skin
 * The Skeleton
 * Muscles
 * Cardiovascular System
 * Respiratory System
 * Lymphatic System
 * The Gut and Digestion
 * Urinary System
 * Reproductive System
 * Nervous System
 * The Senses
 * Endocrine System

Extra resources

 * A /Glossary/ gives the meaning of technical terms used in the text.
 * There is a "Test Yourself" for each chapter.
 * Worksheets are available on WikiEducator.
 * WikiVet - a free wiki for veterinary students with a detailed section on anatomy and physiology
 * Presentations of the material can be accessed by students of Otago Polytechnic who must use their polytechnic login to gain access.

About the book

 * /Preface/
 * /The Author/
 * /Acknowledgements/
 * /Table of contents/

title: Anatomy and Physiology of Animals


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Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Chemicals

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know the:

 * symbols used to represent elements;
 * names of molecules commonly found in animal cells;
 * characteristics of ions and electrolytes;
 * basic structure of carbohydrates with examples;
 * carbohydrates can be divided into mono- di- and poly-saccharides;
 * basic structure of fats or lipids with examples;
 * basic structure of proteins with examples;
 * function of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in the cell and animals' bodies;
 * foods which supply carbohydrates, lipids and proteins in animal diets.

Elements And Atoms
The elements (simplest chemical substances) found in an animal’s body are all made of basic building blocks or atoms. The most common elements found in cells are given in the table below with the symbol that is used to represent them.

Compounds And Molecules
A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together. A compound is formed when two or more different elements combine in a fixed ratio by mass. Note that some atoms are never found alone. For example oxygen is always found as molecules of 2 oxygen atoms (represented as O2).

The table below gives some common compounds.

Chemical Reactions
Reactions occur when atoms combine or separate from other atoms. In the process new products with different chemical properties are formed.

Chemical reactions can be represented by chemical equations. The starting atoms or compounds are usually put on the left-hand side of the equation and the products on the right-hand side.

For example
 * H2O + CO2 gives H2CO3
 * or H2O + CO2 = H2CO3
 * Water + Carbon dioxide gives Carbonic acid

Ionization
When some atoms dissolve in water they become charged particles called ions. Some become positively charged ions and others negatively charged. Ions may have one, two or sometimes three charges.

The table below shows examples of positively and negatively charged ions with the number of their charges.

Positive and negative ions attract one another to hold compounds together.

Ions are important in cells because they conduct electricity when dissolved in water. Substances that ionise in this way are known as electrolytes.

The molecules in an animal’s body fall into two groups: inorganic compounds and organic compounds. The difference between these is that the first type does not contain carbon and the second type does.

Organic And Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds include water, sodium chloride, potassium hydroxide and calcium phosphate.

Water is the most abundant inorganic compound, making up over 60% of the volume of cells and over 90% of body fluids like blood. Many substances dissolve in water and all the chemical reactions that take place in the body do so when dissolved in water. Other inorganic molecules help keep the acid/base balance (pH) and concentration of the blood and other body fluids stable (see Chapter 8). Organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins and fats or lipids. All organic molecules contain carbon atoms and they tend to be larger and more complex molecules than inorganic ones. This is largely because each carbon atom can link with four other atoms. Organic compounds can therefore consist of from one to many thousands of carbon atoms joined to form chains, branched chains and rings (see diagram below). All organic compounds also contain hydrogen and they may also contain other elements.

Carbohydrates
The name “carbohydrate” tells you something about the composition of these “hydrated carbon” compounds. They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and like water (H2O), there are always twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen atoms in each molecule. Carbohydrates are a large and diverse group that includes sugars, starches, glycogen and cellulose. Carbohydrates in the diet supply an animal with much of its energy and in the animal’s body, they transport and store energy.

Carbohydrates are divided into three major groups based on size: monosaccharides (single sugars), disaccharides (double sugars) and polysaccharides (multi sugars).

Monosaccharides are the smallest carbohydrate molecules. The most important monosaccharide is glucose which supplies much of the energy in the cell. It consists of a ring of 6 carbon atoms with oxygen and hydrogen atoms attached. Disaccharides are formed when 2 monosaccharides join together. Sucrose (table sugar), maltose, and lactose (milk sugar), are three important disaccharides. They are broken down to monosaccharides by digestive enzymes in the gut.

Polysaccharides like starch, glycogen and cellulose are formed by tens or hundreds of monosaccharides linking together. Unlike mono- and di-saccharides, polysaccharides are not sweet to taste and most do not dissolve in water.

 * Starch is the main molecule in which plants store the energy gained from the sun. It is found in grains like barley and roots like potatoes.
 * Glycogen, the polysaccharide used by animals to store energy, is found in the liver and the muscles that move the skeleton.
 * Cellulose forms the rigid cell walls of plants. Its structure is similar to glycogen, but it can’t be digested by mammals. Cows and horses can eat cellulose with the help of bacteria which live in specialised parts of their gut.

Fats
Fats or lipids are important in the plasma membrane around cells and form the insulating fat layer under the skin. They are also a highly concentrated source of energy, and when eaten in the diet provide more than twice as much energy per gram as either carbohydrates or proteins.

Like carbohydrates, fats contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but unlike them, there is no particular relationship between the number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

The fats and oils animals eat in their diets are called triglycerides or neutral fats. The building blocks of triglycerides are 3 fatty acids attached to a backbone of glycerol (glycerine). When fats are eaten the digestive enzymes break down the molecules into separate fatty acids and glycerol again.

Fatty acids are divided into two kinds: saturated and unsaturated fatty acids depending on if they contain much (saturation) or little (unsaturation) hydrogen in their composition, and whether any there is at least one double bond (saturation) between carbons or not (unsaturation). The fat found in animals bodies and in dairy products contains mainly saturated fatty acids and tends to be solid at room temperature. Fish and poultry fats and plant oils contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids and are more liquid at room temperature.

Phospholipids are lipids that contain a phosphate group. They are important in the plasma membrane of the cell.

Proteins
Proteins are the third main group of organic compounds in the cell - in fact, if you dried out a cell, you would find that about 2/3 of the dry dust you were left with would consist of protein. Like carbohydrates and fats, proteins contain C, H and O, but all also contain nitrogen. Many also contain sulphur and phosphorus.

In the cell, proteins are an important part of the plasma membrane of the cell, but their most essential role is as enzymes. These are molecules that act as biological catalysts and are necessary for biochemical reactions to proceed. Protein is also found as keratin in the skin, feathers and hair, in muscles, as well as in antibodies and some hormones.

Proteins are built up of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids. There are 20 common types of amino acid and different numbers of these arranged in different orders create the multitude of individual proteins that exist in an animal’s body.

Long chains of amino acids often link with other amino acid chains and the resulting protein molecule may twist, spiral and fold up to make a complex 3-dimensional shape. As an example, see the diagram of the protein lysozyme below. Believe it or not, this is a small and relatively simple protein.

It is this shape that determines how proteins behave in cells, particularly when they are acting as enzymes. If for any reason this shape is altered, the protein stops working. This is what happens if proteins are heated or put in a solution that is too acidic or alkaline. Think what happens to the “white’” of an egg when it is cooked. The “white” contains the protein albumin, which is changed or “denatured” permanently by cooking. The catastrophic effect that heat has on enzymes is one of the reasons animals die if exposed to high temperatures.

In the animal’s diet, proteins are found in meat (muscle), dairy products, seeds, nuts and legumes like soya. When the enzymes in the gut digest proteins they break them down into the separate amino acids, which are small enough to be absorbed into the blood.

Summary

 * Ions are charged particles, and electrolytes are solutions of ions in water.
 * Carbohydrates are made of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen (in the same ratio as water) linked together. The cell mainly uses carbohydrates for energy.
 * Fats are also made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are a powerful energy source, and are also used for insulation.
 * Proteins are the building materials of the body, and as enzymes make cell reactions happen. They contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
 * Many also contain sulphur and phosphorous.

Worksheet
Worksheet on Chemicals in the Cell

Test Yourself
1. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?

2. What is the chemical name for baking soda?
 * And its formula?

3. Write the equation for carbonic acid splitting into water and carbon dioxide.

4. A solution of table salt in water is an example of an electrolyte.
 * What ions are present in this solution?

5. What element is always present in proteins but not usually in fats or carbohydrates?

6. List three differences between glucose and glycogen.
 * 1.
 * 2.
 * 3.

7. Which will provide you with the most energy – one gram of sugar or one gram of butter?

8. Why do organic compounds tend to be more complex and larger than inorganic compounds ?

/Test Yourself Answers/

Website
A good summary of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
 * Survey of the living world organic molecules

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary


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Arabic/More links

=Part 4: Building Sentences =

Basic Building Blocks: Words

 * Templates
 * Cases

Prefixes

 * al = the
 * "the"

Two words

 * Adding adjectives
 * possessive construction
 * Possession

Equational sentences

 * Equational Sentences
 * Genders
 * Plural/Number
 * Noun Cases, explained
 * This is...

Unsorted lessons

 * Saying "I"
 * Saying "my"
 * Introducing prepositions
 * Lesson 1
 * Charts of Pronouns

 * "yes/no questions"
 * "what" questions
 * "yes/no" questions with hamza"
 * "why" questions
 * لما(limaa) vs. لماذا (limaadhaa)
 * "how"
 * "where"
 * "who"
 * "whose"

Verb reference

 * Arabic Verbs
 * Basics of Conjugation

= About =
 * How to Contribute
 * Studying Guidelines
 * Phrase Request: Request a phrase to be translated and added to a the phrase collection.
 * Usability and Condition

title: Arabic/More links


text:
Anatomy and Physiology of Animals/Classification

Objectives
After completing this section, you should know:
 * how to write the scientific name of animals correctly
 * know that animals belong to the Animal kingdom and that this is divided into phyla, classes, orders, families
 * know the definition of a species
 * know the phylum and class of the more common animals dealt with in this course

Classification is the process used by scientists to make sense of the 1.5 million or so different kinds of living organisms on the planet. It does this by describing, naming and placing them in different groups. As veterinary nurses you are mainly concerned with the Animal Kingdom but don’t forget that animals rely on the Plant Kingdom for food to survive. Also many diseases that animals are affected by are members of the other Kingdoms—fungi, bacteria and single celled animals.

Naming And Classifying Animals
There are more than 1.5 million different kinds of living organism on Earth ranging from small and simple bacteria to large, complex mammals. From the earliest time that humans have studied the natural world they have named these living organisms and placed them in different groups on the basis of their similarities and differences.

Naming Animals
Of course we know what a cat, a dog and a whale are but, in some situations using the common names for animals can be confusing. Problems arise because people in different countries, and even sometimes in the same country, have different common names for the same animals. For example a cat can be a chat, a Katze, gato, katt, or a moggie, depending on which language you use. To add to the confusion sometimes the same name is used for different animals. For example, the name ‘gopher’ is used for ground squirrels, rodents (pocket gophers), for moles and in the south-eastern United States for a turtle. This is the reason why all animals have been given an official scientific or binomial name. Unfortunately these names are always in Latin. For example:

 * Common rat: Rattus rattus
 * Human: Homo sapiens
 * Domestic cat: Felis domesticus
 * Domestic dog: Canis familiaris

As you can see from the above there are certain rules about writing scientific names:

 * They always have 2 parts to them.
 * The first part is the genus name and is always written with a capital first letter.
 * The second name is the species name and is always written in lower case.
 * The name is always underlined or printed in italics.

The first time you refer to an organism you should write the whole name in full. If you need to keep referring to the same organism you can then abbreviate the genus name to just the initial. Thus “Canis familiaris” becomes “C. familiaris” the second and subsequent times you refer to it.

Classification Of Living Organisms
To make some sense of the multitude of living organisms they have been placed in different groups. The method that has been agreed by biologists for doing this is called the classification system. The system is based on the assumption that the process of evolution has, over the millennia, brought about slow changes that have converted simple one-celled organisms to complex multi-celled ones and generated the earth’s incredible diversity of life forms. The classification system attempts to reflect the evolutionary relationships between organisms.

Initially this classification was based only on the appearance of the organism. However, the development of new techniques has advanced our scientific knowledge. The light microscope and later the electron microscope have enabled us to view the smallest structures, and now techniques for comparing DNA have begun to clarify still further the relationships between organisms. In the light of the advances in knowledge the classification has undergone numerous revisions over time.

At present most biologists divide the living world into 5 kingdoms, namely:

 * bacteria
 * protists
 * fungi
 * plants
 * animal

We are concerned here almost entirely with the Animal Kingdom. However, we must not forget that bacteria, protists, and fungi cause many of the serious diseases that affect animals, and all animals rely either directly or indirectly on the plant world for their nourishment.

The Animal Kingdom
So what are animals? If we were suddenly confronted with an animal we had never seen in our lives before, how would we know it was not a plant or even a fungus? We all intuitively know part of the answer to this.

Animals:
 * eat organic material (plants or other animals)
 * move to find food
 * take the food into their bodies and then digest it
 * and most reproduce by fertilizing eggs by sperm

If you were tempted to add that animals are furry, run around on four legs and give birth to young that they feed on milk you were thinking only of mammals and forgetting temporarily that frogs, snakes and crocodiles, birds as well as fish, are also animals.

These are all members of the group called the vertebrates (or animals with a backbone) and mammals make up only about 8% of this group. The diagram on the next page shows the percentage of the different kinds of vertebrates.

However, the term animal includes much more than just the Vertebrates. In fact this group makes up only a very small portion of all animals. Take a look at the diagram below, which shows the size of the different groups of animals in the Animal Kingdom as proportions of the total number of different animal species. Notice the small size of the segment representing vertebrates! All the other animals in the Animal Kingdom are animals with no backbone, or invertebrates. This includes the worms, sea anemones, starfish, snails, crabs, spiders and insects. As more than 90% of the invertebrates are insects, no wonder people worry that insects may take over the world one day!

The Classification Of Vertebrates
As we have seen above the Vertebrates are divided into 5 groups or classes namely:

 * Fish
 * Amphibia (frogs and toads)
 * Reptiles (snakes and crocodiles)
 * Birds
 * Mammals

These classes are all based on similarities. For instance all mammals have a similar skeleton, hair on their bodies, are warm bodied and suckle their young.

The class Mammalia (the mammals) contains 3 subclasses:

 * Monotremes (Duck billed platypus and the echidna)
 * Marsupials (animals like the kangaroo with pouches)
 * True mammals (with a placenta)

Within the subclass containing the true mammals, there are groupings called orders that contain mammals that are more closely similar or related, than others. Examples of six mammalian orders are given below:

 * Rodents (Rodentia) (rats and mice)
 * Carnivores (Carnivora) (cats, dogs, bears and seals)
 * Even-toed grazers (Artiodactyla)  (pigs, sheep, cattle, antelopes)
 * Odd-toed grazers (Perissodactyla)  (horses, donkeys, zebras)
 * Marine mammals (Cetacea)  (whales, sea cows)
 * Primates (monkeys, apes, humans)

Within each order there are various families. For example within the carnivore mammals are the families:

 * Canidae (dog-like carnivores)
 * Felidae (cat-like carnivores)

Even at this point it is possible to find groupings that are more closely related than others. These groups are called genera (singular genus). For instance within the cat family Felidae is the genus Felis containing the cats, as well as genera containing panthers, lynxes, and sabre toothed tigers!

The final groups within the system are the species. The definition of a species is a group of animals that can mate successfully and produce fertile offspring. This means that all domestic cats belong to the species Felis domesticus, because all breeds of cat whether Siamese, Manx or ordinary House hold cat can cross breed. However, domestic cats can not mate successfully with lions, tigers or jaguars, so these are placed in separate species, e.g. Felis leo, Felis tigris and Felis onca.

Even within the same species, there can be animals with quite wide variations in appearance that still breed successfully. We call these different breeds, races or varieties. For example there are many different breeds of dogs from Dalmatian to Chihuahua and of cats, from Siamese to Manx and domestic short-hairs, but all can cross breed. Often these breeds have been produced by selective breeding but varieties can arise in the wild when groups of animals are separated by a mountain range or sea and have developed different characteristics over long periods of time.

To summarise, the classification system consists of:

The Animal Kingdom which is divided into

Phyla which are divided into

Classes which are divided into

Orders which are divided into

Families which are divided into

Genera which are divided into

Species.

“Kings Play Cricket On Flat Green Surfaces” OR “Kindly Professors Cannot Often Fail Good Students” are just two of the phrases students use to remind themselves of the order of these categories - on the other hand you might like to invent your own.

Summary

 * The scientific name of an animal has two parts, the genus and the species, and must be written in italics or underlined.
 * Animals are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates.
 * The classification system has groupings called phyla, classes, orders, families, genera and species.
 * Furry, milk-producing animals are all in the class Mammalia.
 * Members within a species can mate and produce fertile offspring.
 * Sub-groups within a species include breeds, races and varieties.

Worksheet
Work through the exercises in this Classification Worksheet to help you learn how to write scientific names and classify different animals.

Test Yourself
1a) True or False. Is this name written correctly? trichosurus Vulpecula.

1b) What do you need to change?

2. Rearrange these groups from the biggest to the smallest:
 * a) cars | diesel cars | motor vehicles | my diesel Toyota | transportation

 * b) Class | Species | Phylum | Genus | Order | Kingdom | Family

Classification
In fact much more than that. There is an elementary cell biology and classification quiz but the best thing about this website are the links to tables of characteristics of the different animal groups, for animals both with and without backbones.
 * http://www.mcwdn.org/Animals/AnimalClassQuiz.html Animal classification quiz

 * http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/index.html Animal diversity web

Careful! You could waste all day exploring this wonderful website. Chose an animal or group of animals you want to know about and you will see not only the classification but photos and details of distribution, behaviour and conservation status etc.

 * http://www.indianchild.com/animal_kingdom.htm Indian child

Nice clear explanation of the different categories used in the classification of animals.

Glossary

 * Link to Glossary