text:
User talk:IKnowNothing

Hi -- I posted some comments on your idea of restructuring the Modern Greek wikibook. Are you still planning to do it? --Bcrowell 20:49, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hello, I shall do it. I have already done some of it. What I have done is available at Modern_Greek/Restructuring--IKnowNothing 20:21, 5 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Please check out the new lesson plan I developed on the Modern Greek talk page. Christos, a native speaker, is volunteering to help. Junesun 14:29, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

Babel
If you replaced the box you've made on your userpage with " ", it would format better (it cuts off a bit of the right side of the boxes, at least for me). Νεοπτόλεμος ( talk | email | contribs ) 19:55, 18 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Ευχαριστώ πολύ. Thanks a lot! It does look better like that. --IKnowNothing (talk) 20:06, 18 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Glad to help. Νεοπτόλεμος ( talk | email | contribs ) 20:10, 18 March 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:IKnowNothing


text:
Arimaa/Attacking/Camel Attacks

The camel can be a powerful attacker, even without the direct assistance of a horse. However, a camel must take care not to become hostaged or even cornered if that will allow the opponent to dominate elsewhere. Well-placed supporting pieces can make a camel advance safer and thus more effective; pieces advanced on a flank can increase a camel's mobility thereon, and a piece advanced into the targeted trap could allow for a quick elephant rotation if the camel is taken hostage. In, two advanced silver rabbits supported their camel. Silver's camel attack is strong for several reasons:
 * The silver camel pushed a gold horse onto b2, where it is passive. Prior to this push, Gold could have occupied b2 and thus ensured that the b3 horse could only be pushed sideways; on a3 or c3, the gold horse would be more active, and would make a silver rabbit advance less effective.
 * Besides allowing the silver camel to retreat if necessary, the a4 rabbit stops Gold from gaining space on the a-file.
 * The c3 rabbit blockades the trap. This could allow Silver to get a strong elephant rotation if Gold took the camel hostage.
 * The d5 horse can replace the elephant on d3, whether or not the hostage is taken.

Gold to move could flip the silver rabbit out of c3, but the gold elephant would have to remain on c4 to stop Silver from occupying c3 or making captures therein.

Silver's camel attack began after Gold pulled a silver rabbit. Rather than pulling pieces on the opponent's camel wing, one should perhaps try to block weaker pieces from advancing ahead of their camel.

It is not common to have an attacking elephant and camel on c5 and c7, as the enemy elephant might fork the camel. If that can't quickly happen, however, such an alignment might make the attacker strong on the whole wing. On 34g of, Gold created a one-turn goal threat as well as capture threats. Silver was up in material, but faced potential threats in the southwest as well as immediate threats in the northwest. Silver would currently need four steps to freeze the gold camel, after which Gold could unfreeze it and move it west. With the gold elephant on c5, the b6 rabbit would not be frozen on b5 if it were pulled south.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Arimaa/Attacking/Camel Attacks


text:
Arimaa/Elephant and Camel Attacks/Ideal Placement of Pieces

'Note: For simplicity, many examples below will assume that the Gold player is attacking the c6 trap. Naturally, the same theories apply equally to attacks against all 4 traps.'

When attacking an enemy trap, a very effective plan is to place the Camel on b6 and the Elephant on d6. The advantages of these squares are:
 * if the enemy Elephant cannot reach c5 it is usually difficult for the defender to move a weaker piece to c5, making it problematic to defend the trap – even if a piece can reach c5 it may still be in danger of being pushed towards the c3 trap
 * if the Camel is taken hostage it will be safe from the f6 trap and the enemy Elephant will become decentralized
 * the Camel is located as far as possible from the enemy Elephant while still maintaining a convenient escape route along the ‘a’ or ‘b’ file
 * a devastating Camel fork on d6 cannot occur while the Elephant occupies the square
 * if the Silver Elephant is hostage-holding on the b6 square when the Gold Elephant occupies d6, the Silver Elephant cannot easily defended the f6 trap, if required
 * the defensive position becomes highly cramped

After the attacker has completely controlled the trap, the attacker may shift the Camel to the c7 square. Some players even prefer to place the Camel on c7 at the very beginning of the attack, rather than on b6; both are effective strategies with the gold Elephant on d6. From the c7 square, the Camel can repeatedly capture any piece that occupy the c8 square for goal defense. If Silver abandons the c8 square, then Gold should advance a Rabbit toward the gap, if practicable to do so. The drawback to placing a Gold Camel on c7 is that it becomes more difficult to flee if the Silver Elephant approaches c5.

Sometimes a third attacker is advanced in order to secure the trap. It is best to avoid calling up a Horse into the attack unless absolutely necessary as the Gold army will become unbalanced and the home traps may be seriously weakened and vulnerable. Often a Rabbit is advanced along the outside either to assist in a potential escape, by unfreezing the Camel, or to create a goal threat in order to prevent a scattering by the defender.


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TI-Basic Z80 Programming/Tips, Tricks and Optimizations

This chapter will focus on writing good practice code, including various tips, tricks, and optimizations you can apply.

Editing on the computer
Editing programs on the calculator can be extremely cumbersome; scrolling is slow, and program structure is hard to visualize. Also, calculators can lose power or freeze, which will destroy the current program and all other programs not archived. TI provides freely-downloadable "Graph Link" software, which is difficult to use, but is easier than manually programming on the calculator. It allows you to display messages in lowercase and write-protect programs. Unfortunately, the Windows version is not integrated into the TI Connect software, which is necessary to transfer your programs to the calculator.
 * Graph Link allows you to type strings with lowercase letters, which results in a better user interface.
 * You can "lock" a program, which prevents display of the code on the calculator, so you (or your friend) cannot accidentally mess up the program.
 * Fortunately, the Mac OS X version of TI Connect is much more powerful than its Windows counterpart, and allows for editing programs.

Program Optimization
As in optimization with other program languages, most TI-BASIC programs can be optimized in two ways: size optimization (makes the program take up less room on the calculator) and speed optimization (makes the program run faster). Often, improving the size of the program helps increase its speed and vice versa. Some basic tips that apply on BASIC programs follow:

Learn more commands
TI graphing calculators have many commands built in. To access them go to the catalog. On the 83+/84+ the catalog can be displayed by pressing  [CATALOG]. Some commands allow you to drastically shorten and speed up your TI-BASIC programs. For example, the abs( function automatically chops of the negative sign of a number.  will return  . This is faster and more compact than writing out if/then statements that chop off negative signs.

Use Lbl/Goto loops only when needed
Whenever you can, replace them with While, For( and other loops. This makes your code smaller, faster and a lot easier to read. Sometimes you absolutely need labels; do not be afraid to use them, but replace them whenever practical.

Use text with the Input function
You can place a single line of text after the input function using quotation marks. Follow this by a comma, then a variable. This saves you from having to use the Disp function and saves space (e.g.,  instead of  ).

Leave off ending quotes and parentheses
At the end of every line in a TI-BASIC program, the calculator does not care if you leave off your ending quote or your parenthesis. So, instead of typing  you should type   to save space. However, you should do this only when releasing a program (keep the original!) since it is more difficult to understand and edit. Not all commands or functions may allow this.

Simplify equations
This can be a more difficult task to one who is unfamiliar with equation manipulation learned from many algebra classes. A smaller, more simplified equation usually can run faster and be smaller in size. It is an important note that parentheses also count as a single byte.

can be. This is because there is a  function right on the calculator that takes up a single byte, so in theory, you are saving a single byte by taking away a parenthesis. The <tt>*</tt> command is not necessary, since it can replaced with nothing:  becomes   and   becomes.

It may not sound like a lot, but it adds up quickly!

Find the function
Whenever possible, use a built in function instead of using a loop. For example, instead of writing:

Write:

Use constants that are available to you
Instead of typing out  or , use <tt>π</tt> and  , respectively. The variables have much more precision and allow you to save space by using the token instead of the value.

Use as few variables as you can
Variables take up 18 bytes. If you use all 27 variables (not including available string and list spaces), this uses 486 bytes. This is sometimes more than the program itself. Simplify formulas as best you can. You can always use the <tt>Ans</tt> variable. Simply state the formula in your code without saving it into a variable. This puts the answer/result into the <tt>Ans</tt> variable itself. The <tt>Ans</tt> variable does not take up extra space because it always exists and always changes.

Use Subroutines
Often, in larger programs (on the scale of 5+ KB) there are repeating portions of the program (or very close bits). Make small programs that perform complex, repeated tasks. For example, suppose you have a program that performs a complex calculation multiple times. Instead of rewriting the complex calculation multiple times, write it once as a different program. Then, you can mention the program name in one line multiple times instead of writing out something long and complicated multiple times. The way to do this is to treat the separate program as a "black box." The "black box" must manipulate values from the Ans variable. For example, consider these paired sets of code, which square a number twice and add one to it ( does the repeated task of squaring the number):

Watch out for stack overflows
Any use of <tt>If Then Else</tt>, <tt>While</tt>, or other statements that are ended by <tt>End</tt> causes the program to use some more memory, because it has to remember that that statement has to be closed by an <tt>End</tt>. Avoid using <tt>Goto</tt> to escape these blocks, or end them at your destination, otherwise if you do this often, you can get a memory error and you slow down your program fast.

Make good use of the 'Ans' variable
<tt>Ans</tt> can store just about anything. If you have a big statement containing a number that you frequently reference, for example, it is possible to use <tt>Ans</tt> to save space. For example:

can be reduced to:

which could be further reduced to (it is actually more efficient to use  since it is only needed once):

Having a single value on one line of code is, surprisingly to those who write in other languages, a valid statement. It stores the value into <tt>Ans</tt>.

Don't run code you don't use
This is one optimization that can speed up your games tremendously. Instead of letting the program run through an entire <tt>For(</tt> / <tt>While</tt> / <tt>Repeat</tt> loop, you can end it prematurely with an <tt>If</tt>:

The above example will break the <tt>For(</tt> loop if the value is.

Calculate positions at display
Instead of displaying text or a glyph for a program after its X,Y coordinates have been calculated, put the formulas where you would normally put the X,Y variables. For example, instead of going through a bunch of <tt>If</tt> statements to find the string length of a number, you can use the <tt>log(</tt> operator inside your <tt>Output(</tt> or <tt>Text(</tt> commands to dynamically find its string length and display it at the correct position.

Only clear what you need to
To save time for drawing graphics for games, don't use clear draw or clear home commands. The calculator takes a long time to clear the entire screen. Instead, you can output blank spaces to clear. For example, you have a symbol representing a spaceship. Instead of redrawing the whole screen when the spaceship's position changes, just draw blank spaces where its old position was and draw the new spaceship on top.

Pause calculations using <tt>For(</tt>
An easy workaround to pause the current state of your program for a small amount of time would be to use a blank <tt>For(</tt> loop. For example, to pause the game when a message pops up:

Use this wisely, however, since it will pause all user input as well. (unless you put some code in the for loop)

Nearly always optimization requires creativity to be implemented properly and successfully.

Tips
If you must program on your calculator, there are several ways to make editing easier.
 * Use CtlgHelp. Download and install the CtlgHelp app on your calculator. It requires 32 KB free space. This app is a useful syntax reference. To access help, highlight a command in a menu or the Catalog and press the key.
 * Use a Plus Silver Edition calculator. If you can afford it, buy a "Plus Silver Edition" calculator, which is faster and has more memory.
 * Backup your programs. When you finish writing or using a program, immediately archive it (this saves the program from RAM to an internal flash disk). Programs which are archived will survive a power loss and most crashes, but those in RAM will disappear. This is only recommended if you only have to protect a single program. Use groups to backup multiple programs. You may find CalcUtil useful because it will allow you to edit and run archived programs, thus protecting everything from accidental deletion.
 * If your program saves permanent data, such as a notepad or to-do list, archive the file after reading or writing. The data file will thus be protected against power loss or crashes. However, this will significantly degrade performance, so it should not be used for large quantities of replaceable data that must be accessed quickly (such as a list of random numbers).
 * Alternatively, you can back up multiple programs in one group, which can be created in the memory menu. Groups must contain at least two objects (programs or variables).

Tricks

 * Copy-and-paste code. Let's say you have a program with code you don't want to rewrite in your main program. First navigate to the place in your main program where you want to insert code. Then, press [INS]  [RCL]  PRGM. Navigate to the name of the program containing the code you want to copy. Then, press.
 * Draw fast circles. Insert  as the last argument in your circle command. For example, this quickly draws a circle of radius 5 centered at (0,0):.


text:
Help:Glossary

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 * Literally, a point of view, but often used negatively as an adjective to indicate bias.

 * project namespace
 * The project namespace is a namespace dedicated to providing information about Wikibooks. Pages in the project namespace always start with "Wikibooks:".

 * protected page
 * This term indicates a page that cannot be edited except by administrators, or in some cases, established users. Usually this is done to cool down an edit war. See Protected page.

R

 * random book
 * The random book link is on the left of each page for most skins. It will take you to a Wikibooks book that is chosen by a computer algorithm without any deliberate pattern or meaning to the choice.

 * Reading room
 * The main community forum of Wikibooks (found at Reading room), where proposals, technical problems, and other internals are announced and discussed in front of a wider audience than a topic-specific page would have.

 * red link, redlink
 * A link to a page that doesn't exist shows up red.

 * revert
 * An edit that reverses changes made by someone else, thus restoring the prior version. See Help:Editing.

 * revert war
 * See edit war.

 * RFD, RfD
 * The section of Requests for deletion where books or pages can be nominated for deletion.

 * RFP, RfP
 * The Requests for permissions page where users can make their case to have the community grant them specific user rights, such as the ability to perform administrative actions.

 * RFU, RfU
 * The section of Requests for deletion where arguments can be made to undelete a book or page.

 * rm
 * Remove. Used in edit summaries to indicate that a particular piece of text or formatting has been deleted.

 * rmv
 * Remove (rm) vandalism. Used in edit summaries when good edits were made after vandalism, requiring the editor to sort out the vandalism, as opposed to a simple reversion. See also rvv.
 * Same as rm.

 * rogue admin
 * Accusatory term for a Wikibooks administrator, suggesting that the accused person systematically abuses their administrative access. Such accusations are rarely found to be justified or particularly productive.

 * rollback
 * To change a page back to the version before the last edit. Administrators and reviewers have special tools to do this more easily. See Help:Editing.

 * RR
 * Shorthand for the Reading room.

 * rv
 * Revert. An edit summary indicating that the page has been reverted to a previous version, often because of vandalism. See Help:Editing.

 * rvv
 * Revert of vandalism. See also rv.

S

 * sandbox
 * A sandbox is a page that users may edit however they want. Though it is meant to help users experiment and gain familiarity with wiki markup, the public sandbox at Sandbox is often filled with strange things and patent nonsense. In addition to the public sandbox, users may create private sandboxes on subpages of their user page.

 * section editing
 * Using one of the '[edit]' links to the right of each section's title, one can get an edit window containing only the section of the page that's below the [edit] link. This makes it easier to find the exact spot where one wants to edit, and helps you avoid an edit conflict. You can turn section editing off in your preferences under the "Enable section editing via [edit] links" option.

 * self-link
 * A Wikilink contained in a page that points the reader to that same page, e.g., linking Using Wikibooks in the page "Using Wikibooks". Such links are automatically displayed as strongly emphasized text rather than links, but the more complex case of a link which redirects to the same page is not, and should be de-wikified.

 * self-revert
 * An editor self-reverts when he or she reverts or undoes an edit that he or she had previously made. This may be because the editor was merely making a test or because the editor later realized his or her edit was faulty.

 * shelf
 * Pages that organize the books at Wikibooks based on topic. At the top level of organization, shelves are grouped into departments.  Shelves and departments belong to book Wikibooks Stacks, which replaced the older subject pages.

 * shortcut
 * A redirect used to enable editors to get to a page more quickly without typing out the full title. See Shortcuts for a list of common shortcuts.

 * skin
 * The appearance theme in Special:Preferences. The default skin is called Vector, and eight others are available to logged-in users: Chick, Classic, Cologne Blue, Modern, Monobook, MySkin, Nostalgia, and Simple.

 * sock puppet, sock
 * Another user account created secretly by an existing Wikibookian, generally to manufacture the illusion of support in a discussion or argument.

 * soft redirect
 * A very short page that essentially points the reader in the direction of another page. Used in cases where a normal redirect is inappropriate for various reasons (e.g. it is a cross-wiki redirect).

 * sort key
 * A device to make a page file alphabetically (in a category or other list of pages) other than by the page's title.

 * sp
 * Short for spelling correction or space. Used in edit summaries.

 * speedy
 * Abbreviation for speedy delete. Can also be used as a verb – e.g., "I think the page should be speedied". "Speedy" on Wikibooks does not mean "now, immediately", but rather something that can be done without further discussion.

 * speedy delete
 * Deletion of a page without prior discussion. Pages can be speedily deleted only under very specific circumstances; see Deletion policy for those.

 * speedy keep
 * The closing of a request for deletion before the normal end of the discussion period. This happens when the nomination has been faulty (e.g., a bad faith nomination) or when there is overwhelming evidence that the page should be kept (e.g., overwhelming support for keeping it, or a history of deletion attempts that have ended in the same way).

 * split
 * Separating a single page into two or more pages.

 * steward
 * An administrator who has been empowered to change any user's status, including granting and revoking administrator and bureaucrat status.

 * stub
 * An page considered too short to give an adequate introduction to a subject (often one paragraph or less). Stubs are marked with stub templates, a specific type of cleanup template, which add the pages to stub categories sorted by subject matter.

 * SUB
 * Common abbreviation for the subject pages in the Subject namespace. See also Shortcuts.

 * subject, subject page
 * Deprecated pages, more recently replaced by shelves, that organized the books at Wikibooks based on topic.

 * subpage, sub-page
 * A page connected to a parent page, such as Using Wikibooks/About The Book.

 * subst, subst'ing
 * See transclusion.

 * SUL
 * Abbreviation for "Single user login", which refers to the process of unifying individual accounts with the same name across Wikimedia projects into one global account.

 * sysop
 * A less-used name for administrator. See also de-sysop.

T

 * tag
 * A wiki template, in general.
 * Specifically, a template that will assign a page to a category (most often a stub template)
 * Specifically, a template applied to a page that indicates that it needs cleanup or that something about it is disputed.
 * Specifically, a template applied to a page that indicates that it has been nominated for deletion.
 * Specifically, a WikiProject banner template applied to a talk page.
 * Verb: To apply any such template to a page, or to add a category.

 * talk page
 * A page reserved for discussion of the page with which it is associated, such as a book's page. Very confusingly, the link to a talk page is labeled "discussion". All pages within Wikibooks (except pages in the Special namespace and talk pages themselves) have talk pages attached to them.

 * task force
 * A smaller group of editors in a WikiProject dedicated to a more specific field within the scope of the parent project. Task forces are located on WikiProject subpages. They generally have a less formal bureaucratic structure than full-fledged WikiProjects.

 * TeX
 * A programming language utilized in Wikibooks to write mathematical equations. See meta:Help:Displaying a formula for help with how to use it.

 * template
 * A way of automatically including the contents of one page within another page, used for boilerplate text, navigational aids, etc. See also: Templates.

 * thread
 * A talk page discussion, usually with more than 2 indented replies. May refer to either a complete second level section (i.e. a section with heading surrounded by == ) of posts as is defined by talk page archiving bots. For this type of thread, the age is the time interval from the most recent post to current time. It can also refer to an individual sequence of indented paragraphs.

 * test edit
 * Same as newbie test.

 * TOC, ToC
 * A page's table of contents, which lists the subsection headings within the page. This is usually close to the top left of the page, but may be placed at the top right, floated, or omitted entirely.

 * top
 * On a user's list of contributions, (top) indicates that the page has not been edited by anyone else since the user last edited it.

 * transclusion
 * There are two main ways of using templates inside pages: transclusion (accomplished by using ), and substitution . The former will include the content of Template Name on the fly whenever the page is loaded, while the latter will permanently insert the content of the template onto the page. Thus, using substitution, if the template content is modified at a later date, the page's content will not change.
 * Substitution is the preferred method for long-term, permanent notices, as it creates a permanent record of the templates at the time and even helps to lighten the load on the database. Substitution has a further advantage in that a template may be de-linked from any associated category or slightly modified to suit the circumstances, for instance when the template is used on a talk page. Transclusion is preferred when it is possible that the template will be edited at a later date or when a list of pages including a template needs to be able to be generated.

 * transwiki
 * Move a page to another wiki.

 * troll
 * A user who incites or engages in disruptive behavior. There are some people who just enjoy causing conflict, and there are those who make a hobby of it. However, these are few in number. Calling someone a troll in a dispute is a bad idea; it has an effect similar to calling someone a Nazi–no further meaningful debate can be held.

 * tweak
 * A small edit.

U

 * user
 * See editor.

 * userbox
 * A small box which is stored in the template space, and which includes a small piece of information about a user (such as "This user likes cheese"). Many users use userboxes on their user page, although some look down upon it. See also Userboxes.

A personal page for Wikibookians. Most people use their pages to introduce themselves and to keep various personal notes and lists. They are also used by Wikibookians to communicate with each other via the user talk pages. A user page has a name of the form  (e.g.  ).
 * user page
 * userspace draft
 * A draft created in a user's "userspace".

V

 * vandal
 * One who engages in significant amounts of vandalism.

 * vandalism
 * Specifically, an edit deliberately intended to sabotage the site. This includes linkspamming. More generally any edit which serves to make the content of a page worse from the community's point of view. See also Dealing with vandalism.

W

 * wall of text
 * An unusually long paragraph, presenting a solid block of text of a dozen or more lines. Walls of text are visually unappealing and difficult to read. A wall of text in a book may simply be a sign of an inexperienced editor unfamiliar with Wikibooks markup, or may be a sign of a more serious issue such as cut-and-paste copyright violation. A wall of text in a talk page may be taken to be a sign of soapboxing or shotgun argumentation.

 * watchlist
 * A set of pages selected by the user, who can then click on My watchlist to see recent changes to those pages.

 * wheel war
 * A dispute between Wikibooks administrators who use the privileges of administrators (such as blocking) as weapons in an edit war.

 * WB
 * Common abbreviation for Wikibooks, especially for pages in the Wikibooks namespace. See also Shortcuts.

 * Wikibookian
 * A user of the Wikibooks project.

 * Wikibooks
 * This website. Also refers to a collection of "books" that have been written on this site when written lowercase.  A wikibook is just one of many books at Wikibooks.  See also book.  See Welcome and What is Wikibooks.

 * Wikibooks namespace
 * See project namespace.

 * wikibreak, wikivacation, wikiholiday, wiki-break, etc.
 * When a Wikibookian takes a break from Wikibooks.

 * wikify
 * To format using Wiki markup (as opposed to plain text or HTML) and add internal links to material, incorporating it into the whole of Wikibooks.

 * Wikijunior
 * A subproject of Wikibooks dedicated to books for children from birth to age twelve. See Wikijunior and What is Wikijunior.

 * wikilawyering
 * Attempting to inappropriately rely on technicalities in a legalistic manner with respect to Wikibooks' policies and guidelines.

 * wikilink
 * A link to another Wikibooks page, as opposed to an external link.

 * Wikimedia
 * Properly Wikimedia Foundation Inc., a non-profit organization that provides a legal, financial, and organizational framework for Wikibooks and its sister projects and provides the necessary hardware.

 * Wikipedia
 * A Wikibooks sister project to create a free online encyclopedia. See also Wikipedia.

 * WikiProject
 * An active group of Wikibooks editors working together to improve a specific group of books, usually those on one or more related topics. This often involves an attempt to standardize the content and style of the books using an agreed standard format. See WikiProject.

 * wikiquette
 * The etiquette of working with others on Wikibooks.

 * Wikiquote
 * A Wikibooks sister project to create a free online collection of quotations. See also Wikiquote.

 * Wikisource
 * A Wikibooks sister project to create a free online compendium of primary source texts. See also Wikisource.

 * Wikispecies
 * A Wikibooks sister project. Wikispecies provides a central, extensive database for taxonomy (species data). Wikispecies is aimed at the needs of scientific users rather than general users. See also Wikispecies.

 * wikistress, wiki-stress, etc.
 * Personal stress or tension induced by editing Wikibooks, or more often by being involved in minor conflict with another editor. Some users maintain a Wikistress meter on their user page.

 * Wikiversity
 * A Wikibooks sister project to create a free online collection of participant-driven learning resources. See also Wikiversity.

 * Wiktionary
 * A Wikibooks sister project to create a free online dictionary of every language. See also Wiktionary.

 * WJ
 * Common abbreviation for Wikijunior, especially for pages in the Wikijunior namespace. See also Shortcuts.

 * WMF
 * See Wikimedia.

da:Wikibooks:Terminologi

title: Help:Glossary


text:
Ancient History/Ancient Near East/Anatolia/Hatti

Hittite Kings
King List borrowed from Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations/Hittites, created by Nivritchari

Pithana early 18th c. Anitta son of Pithana mid 18th c. Labarna first known Hittite king 1680-1650 Hattusili I nephew/adopted son of Labarna 1650-1620 Mursili I grandson/adopted son of Hattusili I 1620-1590 Hantili assassin and brother-in-law of Mursili I 1590-1560 Zidanta I son-in-law of Hantili 1560-1550 Ammuna son of Hantili 1550-1530 Huzziya I son of Ammuna? 1530-1525 Telipinu son of Zidanta I?/brother-in-law of Ammuna 1525-1500 Tahurwaili ? Alluwamna son-in-law of Huzziya I Hantili II son of Alluwamna 1500-1450 Zidanta II ? Huzziya II ? Muwatalli I ? Tudhaliya II son of Huzziya II? 1450-1420 Arnuwanda I son-in-law of Tudhaliya II 1420-1400 Tudhaliya III son of Arnuwanda I 1400-1380 Tudhaliya son of Tudhaliya III 1380? Hattusili II ? ? Suppiluliuma I son of Tudhaliya III or Hattusili II 1380-1340 Arnuwanda II son of Suppiluliuma I 1340-1339 Mursili II son of Suppiluliuma I 1339-1306 Muwatalli II son of Mursili II 1306-1282 Mursili III son of Muwatalli II 1282-1275 Hattusili III son of Mursili II 1275-1250 Tudhaliya IV son of Hattusili III 1250-1220 Karunta son of Muwatalli/cousin of Tudhaliya IV ? Arnuwanda III son of Tudhaliya IV 1220-1215 Suppiluliuma II son of Tudhaliya IV 1215-1200


text:
History of Embrun/2000 Onward/Embrun in 2005

< Back to Expansion

2000 Onward: Embrun in 2005
In 2005, Embrun was a bedroom community. Most people in Embrun worked in Ottawa. Highway 417 provided two exits, 88 and 79, each at a separate end of Embrun, which allowed citizens to get easy access to Ottawa. Embrun was still expanding in 2005. New streets and homes were being built in the Eastern parts of Embrun.

Also, businesses were now in large numbers. Restaurants, stores - Embrun had many business in 2005. Many of these businesses employed teenagers, senior citizens and students, a large part of the reason why Embrun is no longer entirely a bedroom community.

However, in 2005, Embrun didn't have any true industry, and residential homes were still a huge majority of Embrun's buildings.

In 2005, a large Community Complex was planned, but it remains in the planning stage.

Embrun was definitely a boomtown in 2005.

Continue to Power failure of December 1, 2006 ›


text:
History of Embrun/Saint Augustine-de-Catherine/Life in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1845-1848

< Back to the Start of the Settlement

The Lumber Industry
The Lumber Industry was extremely dominant in Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1845-1848 and for many years after. Every day lumbermen would set out from their homes and chop trees near the settlement. These trees were loaded onto wheelbarrows. At the end of the day, the lumbermen would wheel the wood they chopped to the dock. At the dock, there was a huge room used for storing lumber. Every Tuesday boats would load as much lumber as they could as well as some people if they needed the transport and travel to Hull by way of the Castor River to the South Nation River to the Ottawa River. The journey was six and a half hours. Boats bound for Saint Augustine-de-Catherine would set out from Hull on Thursdays. Boats could not run during the Winter months, so lumbermen would stop working until Spring every winter.

Floodwaters Reign
Flooding became a problem in 1846, when the settlers experienced their first flood. So, they decided to expand the dock to a height of two stories. They placed an extra large window on the second story. There, boats would depart out of this window. The settlers built this in 1846 so that their lumber industry wouldn't have to stop for too long. Many people disagreed and said that it was a waste of time and money expanding the dock. However, each year these disagreements grew less and less common as the floods happened again in 1847 and 1848 and continued for years after. The floodwaters, however, didn't stretch far enough to reach the actual settlement, although in 1848 the extent of the floodwaters nearly reached the southernmost log cabin.

Government
Little is known about government administration of St. Augustine-de-Catherine during the 1845-1848 period, as Russell Township (where Embrun is situated) was not incorporated until 1854. During this time, the area was part of Ottawa District (which became Prescott-Russell County in 1849), which de jure would have administered Saint Augustine-de-Catherine prior to 1854. However, there are no references to any form of government in pre-1848 Saint Augustine-de-Catherine other than the citizen's council. Therefore, it is likely that although Ottawa District/Prescott-Russell had nominal authority, it was not exercised due to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine's remote location far from the rest of Ottawa District. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that government rule appeared to have strengthened after 1848 (when the road was built).

Continue to Saint Augustine-de-Catherine from 1848-1856 ›


text:
Cookbook:Pigeon Pea and Fenugreek Curry (Methi Tadka Dal)

| Cuisine of India

Ingredients

 * ½ cup toor dal
 * 2 cups water
 * 2 handfuls of methi leaves (only the leaves without the tender stem)
 * 3 tomatoes
 * 1 big onion
 * 1 pinch of turmeric powder
 * 1–2 green chillis, sliced
 * 10 whole black peppercorns
 * 1 small dollop of butter
 * 1 small piece of ginger (optional)
 * 2 spoonfuls ghee
 * ½ small spoon of mustard seeds
 * ½ small spoon of zheera (cumin)
 * 2 garlic cloves, sliced
 * 2 red chillis
 * 6–8 curry leaves
 * 1 small tomato, finely chopped
 * Salt
 * Chilli powder
 * Ground coriander
 * Lemon juice

Procedure

 * 1) Mix all above and put them in an Indian cooker (pressure cooker). Wait until the dal is cooked (4 whistles).
 * 2) Heat the ghee in a pan, and add the mustard seeds, zheera, garlic, red chillis, and curry leaves. Fry until the garlic is golden.
 * 3) Add the chopped tomato, salt, chilli powder, and coriander to taste.
 * 4) Add the cooked dal mixture to the fried mixture, and let it simmer. You can add water if you like it to be more like gravy.
 * 5) Add two drops of lemon juice for added taste.
 * 6) Serve with hot rice, and an optional touch of Gongura pickle.


text:
The Universe Made Simple/The Earth

Earth
The Earth is the third planet from the sun and the largest terrestrial planet. A terrestrial planet is one that has a solid surface and is not primarily gas. It is also the fifth largest planet. The Earth is 149,600,000 kilometers from the sun, which is equal to one astronomical unit or AU. Unlike the other planets, Earth has an English name that is not derived from Greek or Roman mythology. Some other interesting facts about the Earth are that it is the densest major body in the solar system and it is between 4.5 and 4.6 billion years old. Every 500,000,000 years or so, the Earth’s crust is completely destroyed and recreated by plate tectonics and erosion. Seventy-one percent of the Earth is covered in water and it is the only planet where water exists in liquid form. The Earth has over 13,000 artificial satellites orbiting it. These are random facts about the Earth to give you a better picture of what our planet is like in comparison to the other planets. The rest of this chapter will discuss the physical makeup, atmosphere, and magnetic field of the Earth. We will also talk about the moon and why the Earth is habitable.

Physical Makeup
The Earth is 12,742 kilometers in diameter and is made up primarily of rock and iron. However, its chemical composition is a little more complicated. By mass, the Earth is 34.6% iron, 29.5% oxygen, 15.2% silicon, 12.7% magnesium, 2.4% nickel, 1.9% sulfur, and .05% titanium. This seems like a long confusing list, but it just means that the chemical composition of the Earth is diverse. The makeup of Earth’s mass is simpler than the chemical composition. The Earth weighs 5.9736 x 1024kg, .023% of which is water. The rest of the mass, which is the majority, is in the mantle and the core.

On the physical Earth, there are three main layers below the 1.4 x 1021kilogram ocean, the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust is the outside of the Earth and is 0 to 40 kilometers thick. This is an average thickness, because the thickness varies around the Earth. For example, the crust is thinner under the ocean than under a continent. The crust is a solid layer of the Earth that weighs 2.6 x 1022kilograms. It made up of quartz and other silicates, feldspar for example. The mantle is below the crust and its total mass is 4.043 x 1024kilograms. The mantle is divided into four different layers: the upper mantle, transition region, lower mantle, and D layer. The upper mantle is obviously at the top of the mantle. It is 40 to 400 kilometers below the Earth’s surface and is semi-fluid. It is made up of olivine, pyroxene, calcium, and aluminum. Below the upper mantle is the transition region, which is 400 to 650 kilometers below the surface. Like the upper mantle, it is semi-fluid. Under the transition region is the lower mantle, which is begins 650 kilometers below the surface and goes to 2,700 kilometers below. Like the other two layers, it is semi-fluid. It is mostly silicon, magnesium, and oxygen with a little iron, calcium, and aluminum. Finally, the D layer is the last layer of the mantle and goes from 2,700 kilometers below the surface to 2,890 kilometers below. It is also semi-fluid.

The final layer of the Earth is the core, which is below the mantle and the crust. It is mostly iron with temperatures as high as 7,500 Kelvin. These temperatures are hotter than the surface of the sun. The core is divided into two parts, the outer core and the inner core. The outer core goes from 2,890 kilometers below the surface to 5,150 kilometers. It is partially plastic and partially semi-fluid. It weighs 1.835 x 1024kilograms. The inner core is 5,150 to 6,378 kilometers below the surface of the Earth. It is the center most part of the Earth. It is completely solid and weighs 9.675 x 1022kilograms.

Atmosphere
Other than the physical Earth, there is also an atmosphere and magnetic field. The atmosphere weighs 5.1 x 1018kilograms and is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. However, without photosynthesizing plants and algae to regenerate the oxygen, all of the oxygen would be gone within 5,000 years. Explain why. There are four main layers of the atmosphere, three of which we will discuss in detail. The four layers are the ionosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. The troposphere is the region closest to the surface of the Earth and is where weather occurs. It is made up regions of rising and falling pockets of air. Air pressure at the top of this layer is only ten percent that of the pressure at sea level. Between the troposphere and the stratosphere is a buffer zone called the tropopause. The stratosphere is mostly made up of the ozone layer. In general, air flows horizontally in this area. In the ozone layer, there is a high concentration of ozone, hence its name. Ozone is a reactive form of oxygen. The ozone is responsible for absorbing the ultra-violet light radiation emitted by the sun. If this radiation reached the surface of the Earth, there would be devastating effects. The ozone layer could be depleting currently because of man-made carbon compounds. Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. It is 50 to 85 kilometers above the surface of the Earth. Out of all of the layers of the atmosphere, the least is known about the mesosphere. Most meteors from space end up burning up in the mesosphere even though the top of the layer is the coldest part of Earth’s atmosphere. Satellites orbit above the mesosphere, while airplanes and weather balloons fly below it. Finally, there is the ionosphere also known as the thermosphere, which is very thin. In the ionosphere, atoms are ionized. This means that they gain or lose electrons so they no longer have an electric charge. The aurora also takes place in the ionosphere. The ionosphere is responsible for absorbing energetic photons from the sun and reflecting radio waves. Because this layer is so thin, its structure is influenced by charged particle wind from the sun also known as solar wind.

Magnetic Field
Electric currents in the outer core produce the Earth’s magnetic field. Although we don’t completely understand the magnetic field, we do know that its origin is associated with electrical currents. These currents are produced by convective effects and the rotation called the dynamo effect in the spinning liquid metallic outer core. The magnetic field has a similar structure to that of a bar magnet with an axis that is tilted with respect to the rotation of the axis of the Earth. Currently, the geo-magnetic North Pole is located in northern Canada. The magnetic poles can move or reverse if there are irregularities. The magnetic field exerts forces on moving electrical charges. By doing this, it can trap charged particles like electrons and photons. The particles that are trapped are primarily from the solar wind. When they get trapped in the magnetic field, they create aurora. To trap the particles from the solar wind, the solar wind is deflected like water around the bow of the magnetic field.

Why is the Earth habitable?
The Earth is a very unique planet because it has life. However, what makes the Earth habitable? There are four main reasons why the Earth is habitable. The first is the surface temperature and atmospheric pressure. Both of these things are just right so life can thrive and is protected without being frozen or burned. Secondly, the carbon cycle and photosynthesis are very important. In this process, plants remove carbon dioxide from the air and use it to form organic compounds. The compounds are then converted to oil, natural gases, or coal if the temperature and pressure conditions are correct. Much of the Earth’s carbon dioxide is below the ocean floor. It is released through heating processes like volcanism for example. The waste product of this entire system is oxygen. The third thing that makes Earth habitable is the oxygen. Oxygen is vital for life on Earth and its existence and creation by the carbon cycle are equally important. Finally, water is very important. We don’t only have ice, but also liquid water which is even more important.

title: The Universe Made Simple/The Earth


text: Neapolitan/adverbs

title: Neapolitan/adverbs


text:
User:Emry~enwikibooks

Good afternoon, and welcome to the page about me.

I am a novice programmer...

I guess that is pretty much simple and to the point. I am a novice; I am learning.

I study whenever I am able, and eventually hope to have some level of skill. For now, my contributions to programming related wiki books will mostly involve link corrections and minor newbie level details. I am also good at understanding what is typed in most cases, so I may be of use in translating things into newbie friendly terms. =)

I have a blog at http://meyaden.blogspot.com/

I am new to blogging as well, but it could be a useful tool.

title: User:Emry~enwikibooks


text:
Effective Reasoning/A History of Reasoning

This page presents a (comparatively) brief history of the development of reasoning techniques.

 * 1) The history of the philosophy of reasoning follows definite cycles.
 * 2) Despite the complexity and capriciously fashionable nature of this endeavor, particular tools of reasoning have developed and endured because they have been found to be reliable.

Essentially, this Wikibook is about these "tools of reasoning" and their effective applications.

(Note: there are links at the bottom of this page to both the Great Books and Project Gutenberg sites which contain copies of the works of many of the people mentioned on this page. You may want to read what they actually said and that is certainly recommended for a fuller understanding of some of the different ways we can compile reliable data and make reasonable decisions.)

The start of Reason
Although very little was written about how we reason before the time of Plato, it is apparent that we did reason. The Egyptians had arithmetic and algebra by 4000 B.C. It is hard to imagine the engineering feats of the ancient world or the discovery of fundamental principles such as the Pythagorian theory without the aid of reason, but we turned to the introspection of the process of reasoning around the fifth century B.C.

And it is probably wrong to say that no one wrote about reasoning before Plato. It is simply a fact that none of the earlier writings survived (or have been found). For instance, although none of the writings of Heracleitus, who lived around 500 B.C., have been found, he was widely quoted (even by the founders of the Christian church) and fragments have survived. He was interested in the workings of the human mind. He was quoted as saying, "Opposition brings men together, and out of discord comes the fairest harmony, and all things have their birth in strife." The creative capacity of conflict is still seen as a central tenet of reasoning theory and it is certainly central to processes such as dialectic and debate.

The study of reasoning was born from strife.

The Bronze Age Thinkers
The death of the tyrant Thrasybulus in 388 B.C. created a need for citizens of Greece to know how to conduct themselves in court so as to recover property that had been seized by the government during the Peloponnesian War. The Sophists, for a price, filled that need. They were itinerate teachers in Athens and the surrounding area who taught, among other things, rhetoric - the art of persuasive speaking. They were popularizers of existing knowledge. The Sophistic school had been founded as early as 450 B.C. Although there was a variety of positions held by the sophists, the hallmarks of sophistic philosophy was a thoroughgoing skepticism and realism. They tended toward moral relativism and taught practical subjects.

The early sophist, Protagoras, born around 480 B.C. taught that knowledge could only be the result of sense perceptions. He may have originated the idea that man is the measure of all things. He believed that the only reality there is, is that expressed by human individuals.

The younger Gordias (born around 425 B.C.) did not believe that people could obtain any certainty in any field because real things are different from our sensory impressions of them and it is too difficult to frame an exact verbal description of them.

Many of the works of Plato (c. 427 - 347) did survive and, although he did not write about the correct way to reason effectively, he used his teacher, Socrates, to illustrate effective arguments. The general methods used by Socrates are called "dialectic". Dialectic is the use of dialogue - questions and answers - as a means of intellectual investigation. Most of Plato's surviving works has Socrates as a foil for some popular philosophy, often propounded by a Sophist. His method was to ask leading questions which ultimately demonstrated the fallacy of the belief under investigation.

Whereas the Sophists often argued with the purpose of winning a case or beating an opponent, Plato demonstrated the use of argument as a method of discovering truth. Plato saw discussion as a way to clarify and organize thought.

Unlike Gordias, Plato believed that things could be known (see his Theatetus) but, unlike Protagoras, Plato mistrusted sensory perceptions (see his Meno, Phaedrus, and The Republic). He believed that what we see around us is not the Real but only shadow images of the actually Real (called "forms"). We attain true knowledge, not through our perception but through reason and the source of true knowledge is remembrances called up from our soul which extends far back before we were born. The soul is already in possession of knowledge.

Plato also recognised the importance of the imagination. He believed that it could replace reason when reason fails to supply the necessary connection between the ideal and the actual (see his Timaeus).

Plato's student, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), took a considerably different approach to philosophy. He was very interested in perception. He, in fact, wrote many books based on his observations of the world. He was also concerned with finding ways of making our perceptions more trustworthy. His Organum, a set of works presenting his ideas on logic were the primary texts on the subject for centuries. His system of logic is still valid and represents the first formalization of the subject. Perhaps his greatest accomplishment was the extensive conceptual development of categorical logic and the syllogistic argument.

Propositional logic, somewhat closer to modern logic than Aristotle's version, actually had a false start in the Megarian School founded by a student of Socrates, Euclid of Megara (~400 B.C.) - not to be confused with the more famous author of The Elements.

Iron Age Thinkers
The study of logic progressed very little for almost 1000 years after Aristotle. A bright spot was Euclid who lived around 300 B.C. and developed the axiomatic approach to logic, especially as it concerned geometry and whose masterwork, Elements, survives today.

The Romans were very practical people and focused on rhetoric. They were more interested in means of influencing others than the pursuit of truth. The ideal of the learned man in the Roman world was the citizen-orator. Argumentation formed the basis of rhetoric.

Rhetoric was one of the major courses taught in the Roman and Medieval schools (the seven liberal arts were divided into two groups of subjects - the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music)). Rhetoric was composed of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. The first two were closely related to argumentation.

The Golden Age of Islam
The Dark ages (around 450 ACE wrecked agriculture and stable economies, and allowed the hunters to prey on the civilized world. One of these marauding bands developed a vast empire which evolved into a highly cultured society, without whose academic excellence, all the work of the Greek and Roman world would have been lost in the mists of time. During the Middle Ages, the dominant social and educational institution was religion: therefore, rhetoric became associated with preaching.

The Islamic age - 600 - 750 ACE bought reason to a very high standard. After the sack of Baghdad and 'reconquest' of Spain there was very little advance in the study of reasoning during the Middle Ages. An exception was the development of Supposition Theory, which was concerned with the semantic relationship between a term and its referent.

Christian Universities
Peter Abelard (1079-1142) revived human reason as an effective tool for the discovery of truth. A sharp dialectic practitioner, he effectively confronted the predominant Realism of the day and replaced it with his own Conceptualistic philosophy. Conceptualism (and the related Nominalism) rejected the reality of universals. Nominalists considered universals to be merely names; conceptualists believed them to be concepts, which were real, but only in the mind.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294) was an early pioneer of scientific inquiry, expanding the methods that lie at the heart of modern science - experimentation and induction.

William of Ockham (1280-1349) made some strides in logic and is most famous for his "razor" - his idea that an explanation should contain no more than is necessary to explain a phenomena. He also made some preiminary discoveries toward the development of DeMorgan's Laws and explored ternary (three state) logics.

Petrus Ramus (1515-1572) popularized "everyday logic". He also introduced the convention of dividing the canons of rhetoric so that invention and arrangement were associated with philosophy. Thereafter, rhetoriticians were less involved with argument and more interested in style (gesture, delivery, figures of speech, etc.).

The Enlightenment
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) rejected Aristotolean logic and Scholasticism in favor of a new framework for discovery published in his Novum Organum in 1620. The new approach consisted of the careful observation and collection of data, their correct interpretation, and experimentation - in other words, modern science.

The Port-Royal Logic was an important textbook of logic published anonymously in 1662 by Antoine Arnault and Pierre Nicole. It was written in the common language, contained many new notions, and was very popular.

The French matematician Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) probably contributed to the Port-Royal textbook. In response to a friend's question about gambling and in collaboration with Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665), he also developed probability theory which later gave birth to statistics.

Since the time of René Descartes (1596-1650) until very recently, "logic" meant formal, symbolic logic. The Frenchman had an enomous impact on logic.

He instituted the idea of systematic doubt - doubt any idea that can be doubted. He searched for the basis of reasoning - that which could be accepted axiomatically, without doubt. He found one idea that met that criterion. "I think, therefore, I am" (cogito ergo sum, which he wrote in French je pense, donc je suis).

Thought is beyond doubt. Even if you doubt that you are, that doubt itself is thought. Even if you are an element in someone else's dream, you at least are. If you think, then you have some form of existence. One other thing is beyond doubt. There is other. Although the accuracy of sensory perception can be doubted, it is not totally under self's control, so there must be something else that is involved in sensation.

Everything else can be doubted. Sensations are unreliable. We often see things which are not and even more often erroneously interpret things that we sense. You may see a bug on the wall and find out, on closer inspection, that it's only a spot. A bag in the road is perceived as road kill. How often have we heard people say things that they did not actually say - remembered things that never happened?

For Decartes, revelation is also unreliable. How do we know that the divine knowledge that we receive is from God? It could be from some "evil genius" who only wishes to deceive us.

Descartes inserted one other thing into logic - mathematics. He reasoned that God exists from a consideration of Euclid's exposition of geometry. He required that reasoning must proceed from unassailable axioms to conclusions. And then he translated position and motion into mathematical entities.

His rectilinear system of coordinates is named the Descartian system of coordinates in his honor. By setting up an arbitrary system of perpendicular axes, one can numerically describe the position of any point by reference to those axes. Analytical geometry is based on this concept. With Descarte began the notion that everything in the universe should be explainable formulaically. He wrote, in his Discourse on Method, "Give me extention and motion and I will construct the world."

These ideas were dominant in the sciences and in logic for the next 300 years. Reasoning became identified with formal logic. People began looking for ways to translate informal reasoning into formal logic and, thereby, to infuse reasoning with the certainty of formal thought. Science began looking for axiomatic bases for their investigations. Argumentation became the demonstration of self-evident proof.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), a contemporary of Descartes and Francis Bacon's last secretary, was the founder of scientific materialism and ethical hedonism. He believed that, once fundamental propositions are laid down, everything else follows deductively. "All that exists is body [matter]; all that occurs is motion." Beyond that, we can know nothing about the external world through philosophical speculation. It could be real, but we have no way of finding it out or proving it. All we can know is what our senses tell us.

John Locke (1632-1704) believed that ideas are the products of experience and reflection on those experiences, in other words, reason.

Descartes reserved the self as the only defensible foundation for reason. Bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753) refuted that by showing that there were alternatives to Descartes' "I", such as the mind of God. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) codified philosophical agnosticism in his Critique of Pure Reason. He did maintain, however, that it is practical to assume that true knowledge of reality is available.

David Hume (1711-1776) proposed the most devastating attack on science up to his own time. Science relies on the fact that 1) nature is causative in essence (Things happen in an orderly sequence of causes and effects), 2) nature is uniform (Genralization relies on the belief that repeated observation of a particular event makes that event predictable), and 3) things are associated naturally on the basis of similarity, proximity, contrast, temporal association, etc.

Hume showed that:

1) Causation is not an element of nature but our way of making sense of patterns that we sense in the world. Those patterns are very much conditioned by our own mental filters which are, in turn, conditioned by our culture, habits, memories, mind sets, etc. We cannot directly sense causality as such, therefore, our presumption of causality assumes that there are relationships involved that are not accessible to our senses.

2) The only way we can show that nature is uniform is by pointing out that it always has been, but that argument itself would presume the uniformity of nature. In other words, uniformity of nature can't be demonstrated without circular arguments.

3) The associations that we notice in nature are the result of the human mind's tendency to see order, even when it's not there. It is too easy to find instances where regularities are not really causal. For example, there are plenty of instances of drinkers of alcohol living to advanced age. That does not mean that drinking alcohol is good for you.

Both Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1715) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727) developed calculus independently. It is Leibniz' notation that is in use today. He investigated the use of symbols and the relations of sets.

Newton developed many of the foundations of the scientific method.

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) did extensive work in theoretical mathematics. In seeking to minimize errors in census data, he developed the method of least squares and the normal distribution, both central to modern statistics. He claimed to have discovered alternatives to Euclid's fifth axiom of geometry, thereby discovering non-Euclidean geometries, but he never published the ideas. His pupils, Georg Riemann (1826-1866) and Janos Bolyai (1802-1860) claimed the honor.

While Guass was developing the normal distribution, Simeon-Dennis Poisson (1781-1840) was developing the theory behind the probability distribution that was ultimately named after him, the Poisson distribution, which describes the probability of lightning strikes, arrival of customers at a checkout counter, and the chance of finding a particular number of predators in a large area of forest.

Nineteenth Century
Augustus DeMorgan (1806-1871) perfected mathematical induction and made many contributions to symbolic logic including the DeMorgan's laws which allows one to transform a conjunction into a disjunction or vice versa.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), in an attempt to provide a firm basis for scientific reasoning, formalised inductive logic in his book A System of Logic (1843). His work in logic very much influenced later logicians such as Bertrand Russell (who was, by the way, his godson).

George Boole (1815-1864) noticed a striking similarity between algebra and logic and developed a "calculus of reasoning" which was published in his An Investigation of the Laws of Thought. It later became known as two-valued or Boolean algebra and became the basis, seventy years later, for the mathematics and logic used by digital computers.

Twentieth Century
John Venn (1834-1923) significantly extended Boole's logic and invented the Venn diagrams which make syllogistic logic so much easier to analyze.

Friedrich Frege (1848-1925) invented and axiomatized predicate logic. He was a major advocate of logicism, the position that arithmetic is reducible to logic.

In counterpoint to logicism, which held that logic was a means of discovering truth, two other conceptual frameworks arose around the turn of the century. Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer (1881-1966) held, what came to be known as Intuitionism, that mathematics and logic were not about truths (characteristics of reality), but were about mental consistencies. Internally consistent methods are used to manipulate simple concepts to realize more complex mental constructs.

David Hilbert (1862-1943) laid the groundwork for Formalism, the idea that mathematics is a meaningless exercise (a game) using symbols according to formal rules which are agreed to by consensus a priori.

Karl Pearson (1857-1936) was a prodigious inventor of statistical techniques. Among his inventions are linear regression, correlation, and the chi square test. He also unified many of the most useful probability distributions by showing that they were all members of a larger class of mathematical functions.

Sir Ronald Fisher (1890-1962) was another giant of modern statistics. He invented analysis of variance, maximum likelihood techniques, linear discrimination functions, and nonparametric procedures (the first was his randomization tests). He also did pioneer work in statistical information theory.

In 1910, Bertrand Russell (1872-1970) and Alfred Whitehead (1861-1947) published their Principia Mathematica which outlined pretty much everything that had been produced in symbolic logic plus quite a lot of original material. In it, the authors proported to create an axiomatic system on which all of mathematics can be constructed. (Kurt Godel corrected that naivete a few years later.)

Rudolph Carnap (1891-1970) insisted that many of the questions addressed in philosophy were meaningless and amounted to an abuse of language. He was fascinated by the problem of formalizing semantics and developed a logical treatment of relations. He also did considerable early work in modal logics. He was a member of the Vienna Circle who institutes logical positivism which was the idea that the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge. They held that a statement is meaningful only if it can be verified empirically.

Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) was not a logical positivist nor was he a member of the Vienna Circle, but he influenced them greatly and was on close terms with several of them. He is the inventor of the logical truth table. He believed that the world is compose of independent logical facts that constitute more complex facts.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) along with being an incredibly gifted physicist demonstrated that "armchair experimentation" (the use of mental exercises in developing theories) could be very productive for science. Much of his theories of relativity were developed outside the laboratory using such purely mental exercises.

Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) called Newtonian ideas about causation and predictability into question, especially on a subatomic level.

Karl Popper (1902-1994) repudiated the traditional observationist-inductivist position of science by proposing an alternative, empirical falsifiability criterion. In it, no statement (theory, hypothesis, proposition) should be considered scientific if it does not admit the possibility of a contrary statement.

Kurt Godel (1906-1978) proved the completeness of first order logics and the incompleteness of arithmetic. His proofs show that there is no set of axioms sufficient for all mathematics and not all mathematical questions are computable. Russell and Whitehead's dream of completely axiomatizing mathematics was ended forever.

Willard V. O, Quine (1908-2000) was a major factor in the decline of logical positivism. He effectively rejected the analytical-synthetic distinction so important in empirical orthodoxy and proposed ontological relativity. Analytical statements are those that are true or false by virtue of the meaning of the words used (e.g. "A diamond is a gemstone"). Synthetic statements are those that are true or false by virtue of facts about reality (i.e. The median age of Internet users is 25"). According to ontological relativism, theories are not sufficiently determined by observed data and relies on other theories; no theory is complete in isolation. All theories are open to revision.

Quine also developed prime implicant theory that lead to the discovery by Edward J. McCluskey (1929- ) of the Quine-McCluskey algorithm for minimizing logical statements.

Although there had been some work done with modal logics since the time of Aristotle, the founder of modern modal logic was Clarence Lewis (1883-1964). Modal logics are systems for dealing with modalities such as possibility, necessity, and, by extension, similar concepts such as temporality, morality, supposition, etc.

John Tukey (1915-2000) was one of the workhorses of modern Statistics turning out many invaluable procedures such as jackknife estimation, several methods of group comparison in analysis of variance, and exploratory data analysis (using many graphical procedures such as the boxplot). He also coined the terms "bit" (from binary digit) and "software".

H. P. Grice (1915-1988) analyzed ordinary conversation and came up with the rules of language that are understood by participants in successful dialogues.

C. L. Hamblin (1922-1985) persuasively questioned the traditional fallacy classification by showing that "fallacies" are not always fallacious and must be analyzed on a case-by-case basis. Douglas Walton (1942- ) further clarified the situations in which classical fallacies may be valid arguments.

Chaim Perelman (1922-1984) introduced many concepts that are standard principles of modern rhetoric.

Maurice Karnaugh (1924- ) developed the Karnaugh map in 1950 that is used to simplify conjunctive or disjunctive logic and is used quite a lot in simplifying digital electronic circuit designs.

Chaos theory, developed in the late 1800s and through the 20th Century by scientists such as Henri Poincare (1854-1912), Jacques Hadamard (1865-1963), and Edward Lorenz (1917- ), demonstrated that there were processes in nature that could not be predicted to any fine degree of accuracy by any amount of calculation or instrumentation. Weather is one of those phenomena.

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) wrote very probing and influential works on the philosophy of science and asserted that science does not evolve gradually but progresses in jumps by undergoing occasional paradigm shifts.

Postmodernism, as a reaction to the modernism of the industrial revolution, was first recognized as a theoretical discipline in the 1970s. It held that meaning can only be experienced by individuals and can only be understood relative to the culture it came from. Experience is personal and cannot be generalized. Modern cultural, ethical, and religious relativism is an outgrowth of the postmodernist movement.

Stephen Toulmin (1922- ) held that formal logic is inappropriare as a model for argumentation. He developed a new and more adaptable model for nonformal reasoning. He also developed a way to diagram arguments widely in use today.

Rob Grootendorst (1943-2000) and Frans H. van Eemeren (1946- ) developed the pragma-dialectical model of argument analysis.

Michael Gilbert (1945- ) proposed a model in which argumentation is essentially a cooperative endeavor with the common goal of reaching the best possible conclusion/decision under the circumstances.

It is beneficial to note that Western logic which sprang primarily from ancient Greek philosophy is only one of three great systems of logic. Pretty much in isolation from the West, both India and China developed traditions of logic that differ in quite a few ways from Western logic.

Recent popularizers of Eastern Philosophy such as Alan Watts, Benjamin Hoff, Paul Reps, and Thomas Cleary and the use of Oriental classics such as Laozi - The Way (Tao Te), Myamoto Musachi - The Book of Five Rings, and Sun Tzu - The Art of War by business men and politicians have brought Eastern logic to the Western world.

Gotama (2nd century) can be called "the Aristotle of India". Indian logic is derived from his works much in the same way that Western logic is derived from the works of Aristotle. His Nyaya Sutras posit that there are four ways of knowing: percption, inference, comparison, and testimony and much of Nyayan logic are investigations of ways to make knowledge valid, since the followers of Nyaya believe that the only release from suffering is by obtaining valid knowledge.

The works of Genesa Upadhyaya (13th century) and the Navya-Nyaya school of Indian philosophy lead to refinements of Indian logic. Henry T. Colebrooke (The Philosophy of the Hindus, 1824) investigated the Indian system of inference and concluded that it could not be accounted for by Aristotlean logic. It is possible that such logicians as Augustus DeMorgan and George Boole were influenced by Eastern logic.

A contemporary of Confucius, Mo Ti (470-391 BC), is credited with founding the Mohist school in China. They dealt with means of valid inference. Mohist logic was based on analogical instead of deductive reasoning. Chinese logic derived from reflections on the competing and controversial philosophies of Confucianism, Taoism, and Mohism.

Chinese logic was repressed by the Qin Dynasty (221 BC) and was replaced later by the introduction of Indian philosophy with the influx of Buddhism into China in the 1st century AD.

References
 * External
 * Books
 * Barnes, H. E., An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World: In Three Volumes (3rd revised ed.) (1965). New York: Dover ISBN 0486212750
 * Internet
 * The Great Books
 * Project Gutenberg
 * Return to Effective Reasoning Index page < - or - > Go back to Informal and Formal Reasoning Go on to Why Informal Reasoning ?


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User:FreshFruitsRule-WB

This is my Wikibooks user (hence -WB on my name).

I currently edit the History of Embrun WikiBook.

title: User:FreshFruitsRule-WB


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History of Embrun/Under a new name/Life in Embrun in 1883

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Under a new name: Life in Embrun in 1883
3 schoolhouses existed in Embrun in 1883. The town's population was 3,300 in 1883.

The new industry
Now, flour and bread production was Embrun's main industry. A few hundred people in Embrun moved north or south to the areas that were formerly forests cut down by the Lumber companies. There, they started huge farms of wheat as far as the eye could see. These people, however, were still considered part of Embrun and were still counted as part of Embrun's population. These people that moved out of the main built-up area were nicknamed 'bulk growers' in the sense that they had large fields of wheat.

Some people in Embrun bought huge grants of land to the north or south, but still lived in their homes in the village itself. These people travelled every so often to their fields to tend their wheat plants. These people were nicknamed, 'bulk travelers' because they grew lots of wheat but still lived in the village.

However, the majority of Embrun's population lived in the village and grew crops in their yards. Each household in Embrun had a fairly large backyard. These people were named 'house growers' in the sense that they grew their crops in their backyards.

These three wheat growing methods and their nicknames were fully developed by 1883.

The 1883 harvest was very successful. Originally, people in Embrun would export their wheat as a raw product, but the harvest was so huge in 1883 that three flour mills were hastily built on the shores of the Castor River. The water was used to power the mills. The grain was turned into flour. A few residents of Embrun who didn't like farming formed an extra large bakery. They turned the flour into bread there that year. Then, the bread was exported to make money.

Getting To and From Embrun in 1883
The main way of getting to and from Embrun in 1883 was by road. Despite the prosperity of the town, no railroad (yet) traveled into Embrun. In the fall of 1883, huge cart after huge cart left the town by road, bound for the cities to sell the grain.

Continue to Into a new century ›


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Cookbook:Banoffee Pie

| Dessert | UK Cuisine

Ingredients

 * 9 oz (250 g / 16 ea.) gingernut (or digestive) biscuits
 * 10 oz (275 g / 2¼ sticks) butter
 * 1 tin (400 g / 14 oz) sweetened condensed milk
 * 6 oz (175 g / ¾ cup) caster sugar
 * ¼ pint (150 ml / ⅔ cup) double cream
 * 2 bananas

Base

 * 1) Crush the biscuits into crumbs with the end of a rolling pin. This is best done inside a freezer bag to avoid spillage and loss.
 * 2) Melt two-fifths of the butter (about 4 oz) in a large saucepan. Once melted, take off the heat and mix in the biscuit crumbs.
 * 3) Press into the bottom of an 8-inch (20 cm) loose-bottomed pie tin, and transfer to the fridge to chill.

Filling

 * 1) Place the remaining butter with the sugar into a medium-sized saucepan (ideally non-stick if you don't like dish washing). Melt over a medium heat, stirring until the butter has melted and the sugar is just starting to melt.
 * 2) Add the condensed milk and bring to the boil, stirring continuously for 5 minutes to make your caramel.

Assembly

 * 1) Slice the bananas, arrange over the crumb base, and pour the caramel over the top.
 * 2) Chill for at least an hour so the caramel firms up.
 * 3) Prior to serving, whip the cream, and spoon over the top. Optionally, garnish with some grated chocolate or Cape gooseberries.

Warnings

 * If there are children present, it is practically impossible to keep them from licking the contents of the condensed milk tin! Be careful of the edges.

title: Cookbook:Banoffee Pie