text:
Cherokee/Notebook

"Simple Phrases" section is old.

Below we keep track of important vocabulary items not yet incorporated into the lessons. Eventually it would be good to have an index of vocabulary stating which lesson introduces each word. This could go in the dictionary. This current system should probably be temporary but I had to create it just to start somewhere.

Consider: Upon adding tone/length and usage information for an item below (and anyone can do this at anytime), mark that item as ready to move to the dictionary. (You can even move it there if you format it consistently. Right now there is no standard format so we should just mark it as ready to move using boldface.)

From Cherokee Narratives
sagwu iyuwakdi = one time

nidulsiníisv = every night

nigvwsdv = it seemed

vsgí dehv = that D-"have"-EXP (??) - "well that" - clarify meaning

ilv4sgi = a few

>ilvsgi winusv4hla = a few days later

> ilvsgi naniqv = a few of them

do ase [V] = really perhaps - used before verb (nulstane) in narrative - adverbial - used here to express belief (in the legitimacy of something heard)

dlv [Num] = about/approximately

>dlv ade = about probably

kilagwu iyvda = immediately (gloss: immediately-just length.of.time)

hle4ga = awhile

agw-os-el-v = he/me-say-DAT-EXP = he said to me / he told me

ayvhnó noógwu [V] (gloss: I-and then) = and then I ...

ak-sgásdaneh-v ú-lenvh-v (1B-get.scared-EXP 3B-start-EXP) = I started to get scared; note third person marking on "start" instead of first person i.e. "it started, that I got scared". I didn't start technically—the situation started that I got scared.

elisgini = although (cf. néélagiihnv)

kilo gajiyoligi = someone(s) I know

[V] [INF] ugv23wahli (CN 35) = to V in order that INF

Verbs Related to Speech, Talking, Etc.
gawóóniha (vi) = he's speaking (RRD: speak, talk)

kanééga (vi) = he's speaking/answering

àdiha (vt) = he's saying it

gòséha (vt) = he's saying to him

nigaweqa (vi?) = he's saying it; it's barking, meowing, whinnying, or cooing; RRD: say, utter

kanoohéha (vt) = he's telling it

(RRD only) ahlinohéhdiha = he's speaking to him

Simple Phrases

 * Gado hadvne (what are you doing?)
 * dagilawisdane (I am working)
 * tsayosihas (are you hungry?)
 * v v agiyosi (yes I am hungry)

 * tsadulis hawiya? do you want meat?
 * v v hawiya aquaduli yes meat I want

 * kawi tsadulis? Do you want coffee? (lit: coffee you want it?)
 * v v kawi aquaduli yes coffee I want it

 * ugodidas agasga ahnai?alot it is raining there?
 * tla tlayagasga-- --no it is not raining

 * Okay  Ho wa
 * Thank you  Wa do
 * Yes  vv ii
 * No  Thla
 * I don't know  Thla ya gwan ta

title: Cherokee/Notebook


text:
Logic for Computer Scientists/Predicate Logic/Strategies for Resolution/Linear Resolution

Linear Resolution
In contrast to the saturation-based procedure, which we gave for propositional resolution, we will discuss now a strategy which allows goal directed generation of resolvents. We will see later, namely in the case of Horn clauses, that this linear strategy, is the basis for the interpretation of logic programs.

Given a set of clauses $$S$$ and a clause $$C_0$$ in $$S$$. A linear deduction of top clause $$C_0$$ is a sequence $$C_0, C_1, \cdots, C_n$$ , where $$\forall 1\leq i \leq n$$ $$C_i$$ is a resolvent of $$C_{i-1}$$ and $$B$$ with $$B \in S \cup \{C_j \mid j<i \}$$. If $$C_n = \square$$ the sequence is called a linear refutation.

Definition 25
The following is an example for a linear deduction. The clause set $$S$$ is given by: $$\begin{matrix} symptom(s) & (1) \\ cause(c_1)\lor cause(c_2) \lor \lnot symptom(s) & (2) \\ treatment(t_0)\lor \lnot cause(c_1) &(3) \\

treatment(t_1)\lor \lnot cause(c_1) & (4) \\ treatment(t_0) \lor \lnot cause(c_2)&(5) \\ treatment(t_2) \lor \lnot cause(c_2)& (6) \\ \end{matrix}$$

and together with the goal $$\lnot treatment(x)$$, we get the following refutation, where clauses from $$S$$ are given by the respective numbers: $$\lnot treatment(X)$$, (4),$$ \lnot cause(c_1)$$, (2), $$cause(c_2) \lor \lnot symptom(s)$$, (1), $$cause(c_2)$$, (6), $$treatment(t_2)$$,$$ \square $$

the same refutation can be given more naturally be the following picture: The following theorem states correctness and completeness of linear resolution. Note that completeness only states that there exists a linear refutation, there is no guaranty that every clause in the sequence really is necessary to derive the empty clause.

Theorem 9
Linear resolution is complete and correct. Example:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
User talk:89.240.94.60

Please take care not to replace Wikibooks pages with blank content. Blank pages have a tendency to confuse readers and may be mistaken for vandalism. If it is a duplicate page, please redirect it to an appropriate existing page. If the page has been vandalised, please revert it to the last legitimate version. If you feel that the content of a page is inappropriate, please edit the page and replace it with appropriate content. If you believe there is no hope for the page, please see the deletion policy for how to proceed. If page is no longer useful, insert to its top. Thanks for contributing to Wikibooks!

Xania talk 20:21, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:89.240.94.60


text:
User:Pengryphon~enwikibooks

Hi, I'm John Antoni, aka. "pengryphon". I live in Alaska, and enjoy reading, and weapons practice. I also like researching about most things to do with weaponry.

Articles I've Written (Origionally)
Armour The articles it contains, when they were still on wikipedia.

title: User:Pengryphon~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Pengryphon~enwikibooks

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

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Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Pengryphon. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Pengryphon~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Pengryphon~enwikibooks


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User talk:Tiggermoogle814

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

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title: User talk:Tiggermoogle814


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User talk:Jdavid2008~enwikibooks

Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck!

Xania talk 20:46, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Jdavid2008. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Jdavid2008~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:19, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:04, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jdavid2008~enwikibooks


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User talk:DShah

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User talk:KChambers

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User talk:RayKiddy

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title: User talk:RayKiddy


text:
Issues in Anthropology: Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean

Section One: The cultural legacies of political leaders

 * 1) Fidel Castro and his impact on US-Cuban relations
 * 2) Che Guevara and the 26th of July Movement: An analysis of his legacy in relation to American Imperialism
 * 3) The formation of the Nicaraguan Revolution, from Augusto Sandino to the newly re-elected Daniel Ortega: gender, land reform, military, and education.

Section Two: Cultural Revitalization

 * 1) The Preservation of Garifuna Culture
 * 2) Vodou and its role in Haitian history
 * 3) El Salvador: Government, Social and Economic Effects on Violence
 * 4) The Expression of Love and Romance in Cuba
 * 5) Maya Culture Revitalization

Section Three: US-Central American and Caribbean Interactions and Ideology

 * 1) Concepts of race in Haiti and the United States Blaine
 * 2) Cuban Immigration
 * 3) Implications of Racism on the island of Hispaniola and how it has affected racism.

Section Four: Agricultural Issues in Mexico and Central America

 * 1) Agricultural exports as a development strategy, focusing on highland Guatemala.
 * 2) The Affects of Pesticides on Rural and Migrant Farming Populations in Mexico and Central America.
 * 3) Globalization and the effects it has on small rural farmers.

Section 5: Foreign Involvement in Central America

 * 1) Mining in Guatemala
 * 2) US Intervention in Guatemala
 * 3) Panama and the effects of United States foreign intervention specifically focusing on the connections to Manuel Noriega and the US invasion of Panama.
 * 4) UN mission in Haiti: MINUSTAH.

Section 6: Tourism in Central America and The Caribbean

 * 1) /Sex Tourism and Neocolonial Power Relationships in the Caribbean/
 * 2) A Critical Look at Ecotourism in Central America.

Section 7: US/Mexico Border

 * 1) Mexico/US border and drug trafficking
 * 2) Social interactions between the US and Mexico population.  The influence that immigration policies have on social relations between the US and Mexico


text:
User talk:87.74.14.197

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks.

Xania talk 21:11, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:87.74.14.197


text:
User:Italo Tasso

Hey, it's me!

title: User:Italo Tasso


text:
Materials in Electronics/Wave-Particle Duality/The Two-Slit Experiment/Ideal

The Experimental Set-up
The two slit experiment is theoretically very simple to set up and demonstrates a very interesting property of waves, even outside the area of quantum physics. A coherent monochromatic wave source is directed at two slits in an otherwise impenetrable screen. Because the slits will diffract the waves, this produces two light sources which are related very closely:
 * They both have identical wavelengths (as the original source is monochromatic)
 * They are both coherent (the waves are in phase)

This is shown conceptually in the diagram below. This is a very simple diagram, but it is useful to describe the concept.

Let us now specify some parameters for the set up. We will produce our waves using a light source (such as a laser) with a wavelength of 800nm. This is just outside the red end of the visible spectrum, and is not quite visible to the human eye. However, it is a convenient number to use as it is easily divided. If you do this experiment in real life, it is likely that the light will be around 700nm (deep red). We will shine our light through two slits (which we will assume to be so narrow that the diffraction is perfect), with a separation of 0.1mm, which, as we will see, gives a significant effect and is not too difficult to achieve practically. We will then place our screen at a distance of 5 metres from the slits. So, our parameters are:

 * $$\lambda = 400 \times 10^{-9} \mbox{ m}\,$$
 * $$d = 0.1 \times 10^{-3} \mbox{ m}\,$$
 * $$L = 5 \mbox{ m} \,$$

Assuming that our medium has a refractive index that is very close to 1 (such as air), we also know the speed of the wave, c, as this is a universal constant:

 * $$c = 3 \times 10^{8} \mbox{ m s}^{-1}$$

We can therefore work out the frequency, f, and the angular frequency, ω:
 * $$f = \frac{c}{\lambda}=375 \times 10^{12} \mbox{ Hz}$$
 * $$\omega = 2 \pi f =750\pi \times 10^{12} \mbox{ rad s}^{-1}$$

The wavenumber (number of cycles per metre), k, can also be found:
 * $$k = \frac{2 \pi}{\lambda}=2.5\pi \times 10^{6} \mbox{ m}^{-1}$$.

The Equation for a Single Slit
Let us first consider the waves emanating from just one of the slits. If we assume that the slit is very long (many times the wavelength) and very narrow (much smaller than the wavelength), and that the light from the laser is a plane wave (so the phase at every point on the slit is identical), then we can say that the diffracted wave is cylindrical:

This can be proved directly from the wave equation. This means that we can just consider a "slice" of the wavefront and not worry about the effect of vertical distance (i.e. in the direction of the slits), as it does not affect the wave. In real life, a laser produces a tight point of light, so the wave produced is a very thin cylindrical wave (because it is not diffracted vertically by the long slit).

Let us now consider the equation for a progressive wave. The disturbance, u produced by the wave at a distance x from the source and time t, is given by the following equation:

 * $$u \left( x,t \right)=A \left(x,t \right) \sin \left( k x - \omega t + \phi \right)$$

where φ is a phase offset, which we can set to zero from here on, as all the waves we are dealing with are in phase. A(x,t) is the amplitude envelope of the wave. For simplicity, we will assume that the wave does not decrease in amplitude significantly in this experiment. This is an acceptable simplification, because we are concerned with only the phase relation of the waves. In real life, the amplitude of a cylindrical wave varies inversely with distance (not the square of distance as a spherical wave does).

Below is a plot of a progressive wave in one dimension, over a whole period. This wave does not decay with distance.

Now, because we know we are dealing with a cylindrical wave, we only need to consider a 2D slice of the whole system. We set the x and y axes as shown in the image at the top of the page. The distance, r, to a point at (x,y) in this case is given by the Pythagorean Theorem:

 * $$r=\sqrt{x^2+y^2}$$

Thus, the equation our progressive wave in 2D is now (remember we are ignoring the amplitude and phase offset):

 * $$u \left( x,y,t \right)=\sin \left( k \sqrt{x^2+y^2} - \omega t\right)$$

The image below shows this wave at t=0. Notice that the wave is not smooth at the origin (you can see a flipped-over - actually 180° out of phase - version of the function here). If this were animated, it would appear to flow outwards.

We can center one of these point sources at any point (x0,y0) using the following equation:

 * $$u \left( x,y,t \right)=\sin \left( k \sqrt{(x-x_0)^2+(y-y_0)^2} - \omega t\right)$$

Modeling the Experiment
We can now construct a model of our two-slit experiment. If we place the sources at $$\left(\pm \frac{d}{2},0 \right)$$, we get our slit separation of d. The equation for the disturbance at any point in space and time is therefore given by the following equation:

 * $$u(x,y,t)=

\sin \left( k \sqrt{ \left( x-\frac{d}{2} \right)^2 + y^2} - \omega t \right)+ \sin \left( k \sqrt{ \left( x+\frac{d}{2} \right)^2 + y^2} - \omega t \right) $$

Our slit sepation is 0.1mm and the wavelength is 800nm. This means that the slits are 125 wavelengths apart, so we will be able to make out the diffraction pattern quite easily on a reasonably sized graph. Below is a density plot of the diffraction pattern for our setup. Black corresponds to the minimum amplitude and white corresponds to the maximum, while mid-grey is zero. We are now only concerned with positive y values, as the screen with the slits in it forms a barrier at y=0.

We can clearly see the criss-crossing pattern, but we cannot immediately see any "fringing" effects. This is because the fringing is a result of the wave's average value varying with position. In fact, the image does contain faint evidence of fringing. You may notice that there are approximately radial "bands" of wave where it changes from white to black and back again, and bands where it stays around mid grey. These will stay in position with time. Bands that run across the image are an artifact of the cyclic and progressive nature of the wave, and these will shift with time. The fringing becomes clearly visible when the wave is averaged over a period of time. The image below shows a plot of the same area, but instead of the wave frozen in time as b, it is a plot composed of many samples of the wave over time. The light area correspond to places where the amplitude of the resulting wave is high, and the black areas are where the wave has a zero amplitude.

You can see the fringes here, but they are very close together, and would not be easily discernible to the naked eye. Also, the fringes are not perfectly radial (coming from a single point), so we cannot easily work out their spacing without plotting this graph. If we view the system (averaged as before) from much further away as below, we can see a much simpler pattern:

The resulting wave now appears to be a sequence of radial lines of alternating high and low intensity that originate from the slits (which are imperceptibly separated at this scale). As we find in the next section, this makes a very useful approximation accurate. Also, the fringes are much further apart, so we can measure the fringe separation much more easily. Beware of the apparent curved lines in the bottom corner - there are no curved lines here, but the regular grid of pixels combined with the sloping lines causes false patterns to appear. For more information on related phenomena, see moiré and heterodynes and beat frequencies.

We can plot a graph of the wave at y=5m. The image below is the central maximum, over a one period of the wave:

You can't see this oscillation in real life because of the immensely high frequency of visible light (hundreds of terahertz). However, we can perceive the irradiance at the screen. (see this page for a derivation. Now, the irradiance, I, at a point on the screen is given by:

 * $$I=\epsilon v \langle \mathbf{E}^2 \rangle$$

where $$\langle \mathbf{E}^2 \rangle$$ means the time-average of the magnitude of the electric field squared. This is an elementary result of fields theory and this is not the place to prove it. For the moment, as we are dealing with relative intensities, we will leave out the constants and set

 * $$I=\langle \mathbf{E}^2 \rangle$$

From the principle of superposition,

 * $$\mathbf{E}=\mathbf{E}_1+\mathbf{E}_2$$

where E1 and E2 are the components of the field resulting from each slit. We can now write:

 * $$\mathbf{E}^2=\left( \mathbf{E}_1+\mathbf{E}_2 \right)^2$$

 * $$\mathbf{E}^2=\mathbf{E}_1^2+\mathbf{E}_2^2+2 \mathbf{E}_1+\mathbf{E}_2$$

Time-averaging both sides of this equation gives us:

The image below is the central 5 maxima at t=0. You can easily see the regular-looking maxima where the wave has a high amplitude, and the minima, where the wave's amplitude is very small. You should also be able to see that the variation in intensity is similar to the absolute value of a cosine wave.

You can compare this to the fringes seen in real life (the upper pattern result from two slits, the bottom pattern from five slits):

Let us now find a relationship between the physical properties of the system and the distance between the fringes.

An Approximation for Fringe Spacing
If we make certain approximations, it is simple to find an expression for the fringe spacing in this system. Consider the diagram on the right. If shows two rays of light, one from each slit, both going the same point on the screen, which is marked by a black dot. Because the distance to the screen is much greater than the distance between the slits, the rays are essentially parallel.

Now, the lower ray has further to go than the upper ray, and we will call the difference in path length Δl. This is marked in red on the diagram. For perfect constructive interference, the path difference must be a whole number of wavelengths:

 * $$\Delta l=n \lambda, \quad n=(0,1,2,\ldots)$$

Because the rays are parallel, we can see that the two angles marked θ are identical. This means that we can determine the path difference from the angle to the point using trigonometry:

 * $$\sin \theta = \frac{\Delta l}{d}$$

We can also work out the distance of the point from the centre of the screen, s, using θ:

 * $$\tan \theta = \frac{s}{L}$$

For small angles, we can make the following approximation:

 * $$\sin \theta \approx \tan \theta$$.

Therefore, we can write

 * $$\frac{\Delta l}{d}=\frac{s}{L}$$

And substituting in our value for maximum constructive interference, we get an expression for the distance from the centre line to the nth bright fringe:

 * $$\frac{n \lambda}{d}=\frac{s}{L}$$

And rearranging gives:

 * {|style=" border: solid 2px #D6D6FF; padding: 1em;" valign="top"

 * align="left"|$$s=\frac{n \lambda L}{d}, \quad n=(0,1,2,\ldots)$$
 * }

Let's try this for our theoretical example from earlier. To find the basic fringe spacing, just set n=1 (this is the spacing between the central fringe and the first fringe to one side):

 * $$s=\frac{\lambda L}{d}$$

 * $$s=\frac{800 \times 10^{-9} \times 5}{0.1 \times 10^{-3}}$$

 * $$s=0.04 \mbox{ m}\,$$

This is almost exactly what we saw (it is only an approximation, so it is not technically exact). The following conditions must apply for this to work:
 * The distance from the slits to the screen, L must be much larger than the slit separation, d.
 * The angle, θ, to the fringe from the slits must be small
 * As before, the slits must be narrow enough to refract almost perfectly


text:
User:Whiteknight/Wikibooks Organization

This is not a book outline, this is instead a central planning location to improve and standardize the Wikibooks organization mechanisms.

Existing Pages
These are the currently-existing pages that fall under the scope of this reorganization project.

 * Card Catalog Office
 * All Books
 * All bookshelves
 * Departments
 * Dewey Decimal Classification
 * LOC Classification
 * Alphabetical classification
 * Orphan Modules
 * Classification Guidelines
 * CCO Librarians
 * CCO Resources
 * Template:Newpagelinksmain
 * Categories
 * New Wikibook Stack
 * Template:Catalog
 * Template:Infobox
 * Template:opentask
 * Top Active
 * Template:Book

The Plan

 * 1) Create non-existent pages in Dewey Decimal Classification, LOC Classification.
 * 2) Apply to all necessary pages, bookshelves, etc. Maybe "jazz" it up a little.
 * 3) Break Alphabetical classification into sub-pages by letter.
 * 4) Re-do the following templates to actually include books into a category: ...
 * 5) Do similar for templates for the LOC system.
 * 6) Move all content from Dewey Decimal Classification to the appropriate sub-pages.
 * 7) Create Categories for all the Dewey top-level categories, and all the LOC top-level categories.
 * 8) Where possible, associate each bookshelf with the appropriate Dewey and LOC categories.
 * 9) Create a single template, similar to the Infobox (but smaller) that will identify the Dewey, LOC, and alphabetical classifications of a book.
 * 10) Fix the Community Portal, because it is not good.

Templates

 * Template:LOC
 * Template:DDC
 * Template:Alphabetical
 * Template:Subjects

Card Catalog Office
This page is outdated. It needs to be completely redone, but before we break any ground we need to have a clear plan of what this page should be.

CCO Librarians
This page is basically useless and should probably be deleted.

CCO Resources
This page has been revamped, and is now useful as-is. We can expand it more as needed.

All Books
This page is basically a duplicate of the All bookshelves page (discussed below). It should be deleted, and all links should be updated to point to the proper locations.

All bookshelves
Each bookshelf needs an associated category. To do this easily, Each bookshelf will get an associated template that will automatically add books to that category. Every book on a bookshelf will get tagged with the appropriate template. This table below will also provide default values for the DDC and LOC systems for each bookshelf.

Dewey Decimal Classification
Code snippet to apply a dewey-decimal classification to a page, where $page contains the title of the book, $_ contains the page text, and $cat contains the appropriate category:

if(! m/\{\{DDC/) { $_ = $_ . "\n"; }

LOC Classification
code snippet to apply an LOC category, where &page contains the title of the book, $_ contains the page text, and $cat contains the LOC category.

if(! m/\{\{LOC/) {  $_ = $_ . ""; }

Alphabetical classification
Code snippet to apply an alphabetical categorization to a book (where $page contains the book's title, and $_ contains the text of the page):

if(! m/\{\{alphabetical/) {  $_ = $_ . "\n"; }

title: User:Whiteknight/Wikibooks Organization


text:
Talk:Korean/Nouns

Untitled
See Korean/Grammar course plan for the course plan.

Misplaced content
The following was misplaced on Korean/Verbs:
 * One way of using honorifics is to use special "honorific" nouns in place of regular ones. A common example is using 진지 (jinji) instead of 밥 (bap) for "food". Often, honorific nouns are used to refer to relatives. The honorific suffix -님 (-nim) is affixed to many kinship terms to make them honorific. Thus, someone may address his own grandmother as 할머니 (halmeoni) but refer to someone else's grandmother as 할머님 (halmeonim).

The above information probably belongs in this Korean/Nouns lessons. See Korean/Grammar course plan for course/lesson planning. Rodasmith 22:16, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korean/Nouns


text:
Talk:Korean/Personal pronouns

Untitled
See Korean/Grammar course plan for the course plan.

Misplaced content
The following content was misplaced in Korean/Verbs:

 * Pronouns in Korean have their own set of polite equivalents, e.g. 저 (jeo) is the humble form of 나 (na, "I") and 저희 (jeohui) is the humble form of 우리 (uri, "we"). However, Koreans usually avoid using the second person singular pronoun, especially when using honorific forms, and often avoid the third person pronouns as well.  So, although honorific form of 너 (neo, singular "you") is 당신 (dangsin, literally, "friend" or "dear"), that term is only used as a form of address in a few specific social contexts, such as between two married couples or in an ironic sense between strangers. Other words are usually substituted where possible, e.g. the person's name, a kinship term, a professional title, the plural 여러분 yeoreobun, or no word at all, relying on context to supply meaning instead.

The above information probably belongs in this Korean/Personal pronouns lesson. Rodasmith 22:17, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korean/Personal pronouns


text:
Inuktitut/Lesson 1

The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (Titirausiq Nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.

Pronunciations For Speakers of English:

i: Found in me, bean, and seal.

u: Found in you, new, and fool.

a: Found in father and balmy.

h: Found in hand, harm, and hold.

p: Found in park and pencil.

t: Found in tight, time, and meet.

k: Found in car, kill, and cluster.

g: Found in garbage, go, and ghost.

m: Found in most, mall, and ham.

n: Found in north.

s: Found in south, seek, and first.

l: Similar to l in lost.

j: Found in year and you.

v: Found in vanity.

r: Sound not found in English, but similar to the French 'gargled r' sound.

q: Sound not found in English. Like making an English k but pronounced farther back in the throat.

ng: Found in thing, sing, and ring.

nng: Exactly like the sound ng above, but pronounce for a longer period of time.

t: Found in English touch and take.

title: Inuktitut/Lesson 1


text:
Issues in Anthropology: Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean/Sex Tourism and Neocolonial Power Relationships in the Caribbean

Sex Tourism and Neocolonial Power Relationships in the Caribbean

Caribbean countries participating in the global economy have turned to tourism as their primary financial strategy. Sex tourism has been an integral, if not explicit part of this strategy. This paper provides evidence that colonial power relationships are perpetuated through sex tourism, exploring this theme from the macro level of global economics to the micro level of intimate sexual relationships involving tourists. Dominant themes on both levels are imbalances of power based on economic dependency and ineffective advancement strategies. Tourism marketing can be seen as the link between the macro and micro levels. Stereotypical racialized fantasies play an important role in both tourism marketing and sex tourism relationships.

Introduction
Tourism has become the primary financial strategy for Caribbean countries participating in the global economy. The tourism industry promotes an image of the Caribbean as "fantasy islands" based on "four S's": Sun, Sand, Sea and implicitly, Sex (Campbell, Perkins and Mohammed 1999; Lowry 1993). Sex tourism, loosely defined as tourism that involves sexual relationships between tourists and locals, is a vast and growing global phenomenon that is a popular research topic. As Kamala Kempadoo (1999) suggests, sex tourism provides a clear example of how power relationships that began with slavery and colonization are perpetuated between the "1st" and "3rd" world countries through globalization processes. Caribbean countries are forced into marketing their beaches and also their bodies as commodities to the tourist markets of North America and Europe as the Caribbean becomes a tropical playground for the globally powerful to explore their racialized fantasies. This paper presents evidence to support the theory that global power dynamics perpetuate colonial relationships, from a "macro" to a "micro" level: 1) At the macro level global economic forces promote tourism as a development strategy in the Caribbean; 2) Tourism marketing is the middle link, and plays on persistent colonial stereotypes and fantasies; and 3) At the micro level, tourists and locals reinforce these stereotypical roles and power dynamics in their relationships. Common themes on both the macro and micro levels are imbalances of power based on economic dependency and ineffective advancement strategies.

What is Sex Tourism?
The lack of a consistent definition contributes to the deficiency of statistics on sex tourism, but it is estimated to be a multibillion-dollar transnational industry (Mullings 1999). The sex tourism industry has been fueled by the advent and growth of the internet (Scheeres 2007). A growing consensus in the literature is that most definitions of "sex tourism" are too narrow, and critiques of the various research approaches and categories abound in the literature. Opperman (1999) and Herold, Garcia and De Moya (2001), and Cabezas (2004) argue against defining sex tourism as necessarily involving the exchange of money for sex. As Cabezas points out, involvement with tourists does not necessarily have to be sexual, and beyond monetary exchange there is the prospect of further opportunities such as for recreation, migration and marriage (2004). Cabezas (2004) critiques the focus in research on relationships that are public and easily perceived, pointing out that many sexual relationships occur with employees of other tourism related positions, such as hotel chambermaids or taxi drivers. The term "open-ended prostitution" was introduced to describe the ambiguous types of relationships such as those that are long-term or involve affection and companionship (Kempadoo 1999:25).

Martin Opperman points out that the term sex tourism usually conjures the idea of older, out-of-shape white men traveling to developing countries for cheap sexual pleasures not available in their own countries (1999). But sex tourists are male and female, heterosexual and homosexual (Cabezas 2004, Kuar Puar 2002, Wonders and Michalowski 2001). Some tourists travel with the specific intention of participating in sexual activity, for others it is not anticipated. Many tourists, despite their sexual intentions, do not believe themselves to be "prostitute users" or the locals they interact with to be "prostitutes" (Opperman 1999, Cabezas 2004).

Work in the tourist sex trade in the Caribbean is characterized by a relative lack of organization, in comparison to other global markets such as Asia (Cabezas 2004, Kempadoo 1999, Pattulo 2005). In the Caribbean, many sex workers interacting with tourists are "freelancers" operating without middlemen such as pimps or brothel owners. According to Polly Patullo (2005), formalized prostitution is becoming a problem in the Dominican Republic and Cuba, and that from the Dominican Republic trafficking in women between islands and to Europe is evidenced. Klaus Albuquerque states that "So large is the Dominican sex industry that young women have become one of the principal exports of the country" (1998:95). The bodies of Caribbean natives are another "resource" for wealthy first world consumption, yet another manifestation of an imbalanced economic power relationship between the global "North" and "South" that began during colonial times.

The Caribbean Region and its Colonial Legacy
The Caribbean region consists of the islands framing the Caribbean Sea from below Florida in North America to near Venezuela in South America. Mainland areas in Central and South America such as Belize, which are historically and culturally considered part of the Caribbean (Pattulo 2005). The diverse area shares a heritage of slavery and colonialism, based on plantation economies (Pattulo 2005).

The legacy of colonialism in the Caribbean has been well-covered in the literature (Canterbury 2005, Clarke 1983, Knippers Black 1997, Shankar 1999). A Caribbean "pigmentocracy" or social hierarchy based on skin color is an often cited as an example of colonial legacy (Albo 2006; Clarke 1983). This hierarchy can also be found within the sex tourism trade today, as "Racial and sexual ordering reflects consequences and legacy of colonialism as they play out on this current stage of global capitalism" (Cabezas 2004:998). Sex has long been a part of economics in the Caribbean, such as was evidenced in the breeding of slaves, and in the use of concubines and prostitutes by colonial plantation owners (Cabezas 2004). During slavery, many black women were mistresses to white males, and prostitution rates were high. Yet this can be seen as a strategy of women for both survival and advancement, as mistresses occasionally could get preferential treatment and through prostitution women attempted to purchase their freedom (Albo 2006).

The Macro-Level: Tourism as a Development Strategy
For Caribbean countries, there was a relatively rapid transition from colonial rule to being heavily indebted and dependent on tourism. The post-colonial era in the Caribbean has been characterized by dependency on foreign trade, and an economy focused on extractive resources and export products (Pattulo 2005). In the latter 20th century, many former colonies transitioned to become nation states, yet old economic patterns of dependency on foreign investment and export economics persisted (Pattulo 2005).

Since the 1980s restructuring of the global economic system has included structural adjustment programs (SAP's) enforced by the international lenders for the repayment of debts. Most SAP's have involved drastic reductions in public spending and focus on resource extraction and export production and foreign investment has been encouraged and benefited from national laws (Kempadoo 1999). The results of SAP's in the Caribbean region have included a rise in unemployment and poverty, leading to a "search for new survival strategies at both community and national levels" (Kempadoo 1999:19). One of the main "new survival strategies" has been the promotion of tourism.

In 1995 the Caribbean Tourism Organization stated "Trading blocs such as the NAFTA and the European Community have made it increasingly difficult for traditional Caribbean manufacturing and agricultural industries to remain competitive, giving tourism an even higher priority throughout the region" (Pattulo 2005). Tourism has been promoted by the United Nations, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as an effective strategy for debt-ridden countries' participation of in the global economy.

Despite the promotion of tourism as a development strategy, most tourist resorts are controlled by foreign investors and outside corporations, which coupled with the promotion of all-inclusive packages purchased in the tourists' home countries has meant that capital continues to accumulate in industrialized nations rather than in the host countries, a phenomenon referred to as "leakage" (Kempadoo 1999, Wyllie 2000). Management and higher positions within the tourist industry are often filled by people from the companies' home countries, while jobs created by tourism that are available to locals are service-oriented and low-paying, meaning that often tourist-oriented prostitution is more lucrative or can provide desperately needed additional cash (Wyllie 2000). This illustrates how global forces promote sex tourism, as people struggle to earn a living in an economy that keeps them and their countries in a position of disadvantage.

Within Caribbean countries, the dependence on foreign exchange combined with the lack of work fuel migration to cities or tourist areas for employment. Sex is but one of many services that can be offered to tourists in order to earn a living. Although sex tourism is often maligned as a form of harassment and "threat to the industry" (Mullings 1999:55), sex tourism may actually be tacitly encouraged by governments and the tourism industry because of heightened attraction and profits (Kempadoo 1999). Government responses to sex tourism range from official regulation or informal tolerance (Kempadoo 1999). Because of the variety of activities that fall within the practices of sexual tourism, regulation can be difficult. In most Caribbean countries prostitution falls under "gray areas" of the law, and is usually not itself illegal. Arrests are often based on "harassment" of foreigners, and usually involve arbitrary sweeps of unaccompanied and often racially profiled women (Cabezas 2004, Kempadoo 1999, Sanchez-Taylor 2001). Amalia L. Cabezas (2004) points out that because tourism is a major source of income generation for the state, a reliance on former colonial powers for economic stability is perpetuated. And sex sells.

Promoting Tourism and Sex: Bodies and Beaches
Caribbean tourism has been branded and marketed based on the West's imaginary idea of "tropical paradise" (Henshall Momsen 2005, Sheller 2004). As Janet Henshall Momsen points out, "the word ‘Caribbean' conjures up Kodachrome images of azure seas with matching skies framing green palm trees along unblemished white sand beaches, awaiting Robinson Crusoe's footprint" (2005:209). In 1492 Christopher Columbus, the first white tourist, wrote to King Ferdinand, "Sire, these countries far surpass all the rest of the world in beauty" (in Henshall Momsen 2005:209). Henshall Momshen states that "Thus the region's first publicist sold the image of an Edenic, unspoiled paradise to attract investment and visitors half a millennium ago. Little since has diminished tourists' fascination with islands" (2005:209). Lowry (1993) states that tourism advertisers rely on a sign system, informally known as the four S's of tourism advertising: Sun, Sand, Sea and Sex. This has been particularly prevalent in promoting tourism in the Caribbean. Lowry's analysis of tourism advertisements includes one from the Dominican Republic Ministry of Tourism, featuring a young, attractive couple in a very sexualized pose on a beach lounge chair on a deserted beach, with a tropical bird perched above them and the caption "The Perfect Vacation All Year Round: The Dominican Republic, Where Dreams Have a Special Way of Coming True" (1993:195). Other suggestive marketing slogans include "It's better in the Bahamas" (Sheller 2004:33). Mimi Sheller further illustrates how the sexualization of ‘exotic' bodies has become a standard promotion tool of the Caribbean tourist industry and "feeds into the development of sex tourism in the region" (2004:33). She describes a British Airways magazine article that promises that in Jamaica ‘you'll be in the nearest thing we have on earth to the Garden of Eden, and to make it even better, it's after Eve tempted Adam with the apple' (2004:35). Sheller concludes that this promotion strategy lends to tourists "hedonistic abandon to its associated sexual temptations without guilt" and that "the transgression of moral boundaries serves to reinforce the constitution of geographies of difference that define the North as ‘civilised' and the Caribbean as ‘unreal', like ‘going back in time'" (2004:35). These constructions of difference are fundamental in understanding what "fuels" sex tourism. As Wyllie discusses, "tourism is whorism" when "Like many prostitutes, poor countries have few economic alternatives at their disposal, and have little to sell but their physical attractiveness" (2000:81), and the marketing strategies involved in this commoditization cater to and reinforce the stereotypical gendered and racial fantasies of the potential tourists.

The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Sex Tourism Relationships
Culturally produced racialized fantasies play a role in the demand for sex tourism. Research shows that a large percentage of sex customers seek sex workers whose racial, national, or class identities are different from their own (O'Connell, Davidson and Sanchez 1999). Sex tourists say that sex is "more natural" in 3rd world countries, perceiving prostitution as proof of this belief (O'Connell Davidson and Sanchez Taylor 1999). This justifies the use of prostitutes for tourists who would not patronize them in their own countries, and they do not perceive themselves as participating in prostitution. Further, the idea of "naturalness" of prostitution in the third world reassures the tourist of their cultural superiority, continuing the traditional Western idea of the opposition between the "civilized" West and the "barbarous" Other (O'Connell Davidson and Sanchez Taylor 1999). Research finds this is true for both male and female sex tourists.

Many researchers have examined the phenomenon of female tourists who visit the Caribbean in search of "romance" with local men. In their study of tourist interactions with Jamaican male hustlers or "rent-a-dreads," Deborah Pruitt and Suzanne La Font coined the term "romance tourism" to distinguish these relationships from male "sex tourism", under the rationale that neither the women nor the local men consider their relationship to be prostitution, and due to their "emphasis on courtship" (1995:423). Klaus Albuquerque (1998) challenged this distinction, arguing that there is essentially no difference between female and male tourists, with the prime motivation being "sexual fantasy as it is derived from racist mythology," for women that being the hypersexualized black male, and for men the "hot mulatta" (1998:92). O'Connel Davidson (1998) similarly believes that females are just as exploitive as males in using their greater economic power to gain access to third world partners. Herold, Garcia and DeMoya (2001) further explored the distinction, actually interviewing female tourists who interacted with Dominican "beach boys" (and taking Albuquerque to task for not doing so) and stressing the importance of the females belief that they are engaging in consensual romantic relationships and suggesting a continuum of romance/sex motivations for both male and female tourists. Sanchez Taylor (2001) points out that the problem with the argument between "sex versus romance" tourism lies in essentialist understandings of male and female sexuality, and a privileging of gendered power over racialized and economic power. She points out that ideas of racial "otherness," particularly racist ideas about "hypersexuality," played a key role in allowing women tourists, like male tourists, to ignore imbalances of age and economic power (2001:759-60).

Both male and female sex tourists seem to be seeking an idealized encounter, seemingly stemming from their frustrations with gender relations in their home countries, as many of the men's and women's complaints sound very similar. According to Robert Wyllie some men feel "they are losing out in the ‘battle of the sexes'" (2000:83). Ronnie Shawe (2001) found that male sex tourists in Costa Rica harbored complaints about women from their home countries based on this idea. One man stated that "The average American woman figures she doesn't need a man anymore. Women here like the traditional role," while another said "American women are too independent and strong minded, it's intimidating," and yet another felt that: "... American women have lots of hang-ups, they're afraid of commitment and, worst of all, sex," and according to another  "... my former girlfriend was more interested in her career, pets, and even her mother more than me" (2001: no page). According to Pruitt and LaFont, the women seem similarly frustrated with men from their own cultures, complaining that they are "inattentive, preoccupied with careers, unemotional, or confused about their male role..." (2004:320).

While men are often seeking "submissive" women in contrast to the liberated women at home, Pruitt and LaFont described the romance tourists as seeking the "archetypal masculine" (2004:324) and state that while many women are seeking or enjoying control and power in their relationships the "are simultaneously drawn to conventional notions of masculinity" (2004:331). According to Jaqueline Sanchez Taylor, "tourism allows both male and female sex tourists to seek experiences that are ‘fictionalized, idealized or exaggerated models' not simply of social life, but of social relations of power"(2000: 51).

Sex workers servicing tourists in the Caribbean enact the racial stereotypes and fantasies of the tourists, thereby reinforcing them. As Polly Patullo states, "Tourists whose expectations of the Caribbean are of one long bacchanal are rewarded by dollar-seeking locals, who cannot afford to be bothered too much by stereotyping" (2005:109). Denise Brennan (2004) found that women's "performances" of being in love with their foreign partners was a crucial strategy in their success and "while male clients delude themselves into thinking that brown-skinned women prefer them sexually to their own men," according to Dominican sex workers the main reason they "entered the trade" was for earning more money (Sharpe and Pinto 2006: 254). Similarly, Ronnie Shaw (2001) found that male tourists seemed unaware of how the sex workers actually felt, that racialized ideas about "Latin" women as being innately more sensual helped them rationalize the relationships. In his interviews with male sex tourists in Costa Rica, he found that western men make cultural assumptions about Latin women, and that the women sex workers manipulate these assumptions in their sexual transactions, perpetuating the stereotypes (2001). The phenomenon of "romancing," or creating aura of friendship and romance, is seen in research on both males females sexually servicing tourists, drawing attention away from the underlying economic motivations and creating the feeling that the relationships occur "naturally" and are mutually desired (Kempadoo 1999:25).

Sex Tourism as an Advancement Strategy
Sex with foreigners for monetary gain can be seen as a strategy for survival and advancement, much as it was in colonial times. But studies show that advancement is quite difficult, also much as it was in colonial times. Denise Brennan's book, What's Love Got to Do With It? (2004) an ethnographic anthropological study of the sex tourism culture in the town of Sosua in the Dominican Republic, demonstrates through the stories of women's daily lives that despite the hopes of the women, sex work is in fact not a path to social mobility, and that most of the sex workers ended up in the same economic situation (or worse) than when they started. Brennan confesses "I had set out to write a feminist ethnography of the sex trade to raise questions about poor women's power, control and opportunities in a globalized economy. Yet the waters are murky when considering women's agency in the sex trade, no matter how determined and creative their efforts to get ahead" (2004:211). In their review of Brennan's book, Sharpe and Pinto point out that this admission is a "sobering reminder of how globalization has deepened rather than eliminated poverty" (2006:256).

Economically, sex tourism interactions involve disparities in wealth, with the tourists having the upper hand. Female sex workers and "beach boys" catering to tourists, are economically disadvantaged people who are hoping that tourists hold the key to a better life, an escape from poverty. According to one woman interviewed by Brennan "We come here because we dream of a ticket" (2004:306). And according to Pruitt and LaFont, the Jamaican male hustlers hope that getting involved with a foreign woman will "provide them with a way out of their limited circumstances" (2004:322). In both situations, the rare relationships that do provide some benefits usually do not last, as Brennan states that most women "leave the sex trade with little more than when they arrived" (2004:303) Similarly, Pruitt and LaFont describe the disappointment and conflicts that develop in relationships between the women tourists and the "Rastas" when the economic dependency becomes more evident (2004).

Thus, several important factors interplay in sex tourism relationships, including social factors, such as power relationships and cultural and gender stereotypes, as well as economic factors such as the disparities in wealth between the sex workers and the tourists. These relationships mirror the economic and political dependency of the host country on that of the tourists.

Discussion/Conclusion
As Kempadoo observes, "that sex industries today depend upon the eroticization of the ethnic and cultural other suggests we are witnessing a contemporary form of exoticism which sustains post-colonial and post-cold war relations of power and dominance" (1995:75-6). This paper has attempted to provide evidence to support the theory that neocolonial global power relationships between the "global North" and the Caribbean are perpetuated through sex tourism. On the "macro level" sex tourism, like colonial relationships, is characterized by economic inequality and the dependence of the Caribbean region on the global North. Caribbean countries, remaining economically marginalized as they were under colonialism, turn to tourism to bring in needed funds and pay off debts. The tourism market is the wealthy nations of the north, and to sell themselves to these consumers the Caribbean region must rely on old fantasies of tropical paradise. The perpetuation of racial stereotypes and fantasies through the imagery of tourism industry marketing... On the micro-level, the importance of race and economic power is revealed on an individual level within intimate relationships, where both men and women of the global north can use their privileged positions to access the bodies of Caribbean natives. These dynamics are perhaps more subtle than under colonial or slavery conditions, but that doesn't mean they are any less wrong, only more insidious. In the Caribbean, impoverished people and impoverished nations sell themselves to the wealthy global north because they have little alternative. And the global north is buying.

References Cited
Albo, Reuben

2006 Caribbean: Gender Socialization and Sex Tourism in the Caribbean. Rastafari Speaks Interactive, Online:, Accessed May 2007.

Albuquerque, Klaus

1998 Sex, Beach Boys, and Female Tourists in the Caribbean. Sexuality and Culture 2:87-111.

Brennan, Denise

2004 What's Love Got to Do With It? Transnational Desires and Sex Tourism in the Dominican Republic. Durham and London: Duke University Press.

Cabezas, Amalia L.

2004 Between Love and Money: Sex, Tourism, and Citizenship in Cuba and the Dominican Republic. Signs 29(4):987-1015.

Campbell, Shirley, Althea Perkins and Patricia Mohammed

1999 "Come to Jamaica and Feel All Right": Tourism and the Sex Trade. In Sun, Sex, and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. Kamala Kempadoo, Ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

Canterbury, D

2005 Globalization, Inequality and Growth in the Caribbean. Canadian Journal of Development Studies-Revue Canadienne d Etudes du Developpement 26(4):847-866.

Clarke, Colin

1983 Review: Colonialism and Its Social and Cultural Consequences in the Caribbean. Journal of Latin American Studies 15(2):491-503.

Henshall Momsen, Janet

2005 Uncertain Images: Tourism Development and Seascapes of the Caribbean. In Seductions of Place: Geographical Perspectives on Globalization and Touristed Landscapes. Carolyn Cartier and Alan A. Lew, Eds. New York: Routledge.

Herold, Edward, Rafael Garcia and Tony DeMoya

2001 Female Tourists and Beach Boys: Romance or Sex Tourism? Annals of Tourism Research 28(4):2001.

Kaur Puar, Jasbir

2002 Circuits of Queer Mobility: Tourism, Travel, and Globalization. GLQ 8(1-2):101-137

Kempadoo, Kamala

1995 Regulating Prostitution in the Dutch Caribbean. Paper Presented at the 20th Annual Conference of the Caribbean Studies Association, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles, May 1995.

1999 Continuities and Change: Five Centuries of Prostitution in the Caribbean. In Sun, Sex, and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. Kamala Kempadoo, Ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

2004 Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, Race and Sexual Labor. New York: Routledge.

Knippers Black, Jan

1997 Responsibility Without Authority: the Growing Burden for Women in the Caribbean. Review of Social Economy LV(2):235-242.

Lowry, Linda L.

1993 Sun, Sand, Sea & Sex; A Look at Tourism Advertising Through the Decoding and Interpretation of Four Typical Tourism Advertisements. Society of Travel and Tourism Educatiors Annual Conference, Miami, Florida. Proceedings of Research and Academic Papers Volume V: 183-204.

Mullings, Beverley

1999 Globalization, Tourism, and the International Sex Trade. In Sun, Sex, and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. Kamala Kempadoo, Ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

O'Connell Davidson, Julia and Jacqueline Sanchez Taylor

1999 Fantasy Islands: Exploring the Demand for Sex Tourism. In Sun, Sex, and Gold: Tourism and Sex Work in the Caribbean. Kamala Kempadoo, Ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers.

Opperman, Martin

1999 Sex Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 26(2):251-266

Pattullo, Polly

2005 Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, Updated and Revised. New York: Monthly Review Press.

Pruitt, Deborah and LaFont, Suzanne

1995 For Love and Money: Romance Tourism in Jamaica. Annals of Tourism Research 22:422-40.247-272.

2004 Romance Tourism: Gender, Race, and Power in Jamaica. In Tourists and Tourism: A Reader. Sharon Bohn Gmelch, Ed. Pp. 317-335, Long Grove, IL, Westland Press.

Sanchez Taylor, Jacqueline

2000 Tourism and ‘Embodied' Commodities: Sex Tourism in the Caribbean. In Tourism and Sex: Culture, Commerce and Coercion. Stephen Clift and Simon Carter Eds. London; New York: Pinter.

2001 Dollars are a Girl's Best Friend? Female Tourists' Sexual Behavior in the Caribbean. Sociology 35(3): 749-764

Shankar, Gutha

1999 ‘Where the Present is Haunted by the Past': Disarticulating Colonialism's Legacy in the Caribbean. Cultural Dynamics 11:57-87.

Shawe, Ronnie

2001 Fantasy Voyages: An Exploration of White Males' Participation in the Costa Rican Sex Tourism Industry. The Berkeley McNair Research Journal 81-91. Online:, accessed May 2007

Sharpe, Jenny and Samantha Pinto.

2006 The Sweetest Taboo: Studies of Caribbean Sexualities; A Review Essay. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 32(1):247-274

Scheeres, Julia

2007 The Web: Where ‘Pimps' Roam Free. Wired. Accessed June 2007.

Sheller, Mimi

2004 Natural Hedonism: the Invention of Caribbean Islands as Tropical Playgrounds. In Tourism in the Caribbean. Timothy Duval ed. London: Routledge.

Wonders, Nancy A. and Raymond Michalowski

2001 Bodies, Borders, and Sex Tourism in a Globalized World: A Tale of Two Cities - Amsterdam and Havana. Social Problems 48(4):545-71.

Wyllie, Robert W.

2000 Tourism and Society: Problems and Issues. Pennsylvania: Venture Publishing.


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User talk:216.154.25.151

Please stop adding nonsense to Wikibooks. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you.

Xania talk 23:53, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:216.154.25.151


text:
Talk:Italian/Grammar/Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns
according to (hopefully not only) la grammatica italiana the examples are presenting possessive adjectives and not possessive pronouns ! ... the latter should replace a noun, but in fact the nouns are quite visible.
 * Seconded.  These are possessive adjectives, not pronouns.  The "used on their own" bit at the end is all that addresses pronouns, and there doesn't seem to be much explanation. Iamvered (discuss • contribs) 08:48, 14 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Italian/Grammar/Pronouns


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Lashing/Sheer

Sheer lashing

Sheer lashing uses two or three spars or poles, 15 – 20 feet of rope.

To tie a sheer lashing, lay the two poles side-by-side and parallel to one another. Tie a clove hitch around one spar. Then wrap the free end of the rope around both spars about seven or eight times. Pull them as tight as you can. Then make three fraps around the lashing, and again, pull the rope as tight as you can. Finally, tie a clove hitch on the second spar.

To use sheer lashing around with three poles, lay all three poles side by side and parallel to one another. Tie a clove hitch on one pole, and wrap the rope around all three seven or eight times. Pull the rope tight. Make three fraps between two of the poles, then cross over and make three more between the other two poles. Pull the frapping as tight as you can and finish it off with a clove hitch.

/Transcluded Modules


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Cello Handbook/Holding the Cello

The most fundamental thing about playing the cello, of course, is how to hold it while playing. The cello is held with the sides of the kneecaps resting on the bottom points of each c-bout, with the C-peg resting just behind the left ear.

The left hand is used to press the strings, and should be angled so that the thumb is roughly in the middle of the neck and directly behind the middle finger, and the wrist is roughly straight.

The feet are not a critical part of playing technique, and while many recommend placing the feet flat on the floor to fascilitate good posture, or simply out of etiquette, many players are known to use their foot as a makeshift metronome to tap out a time.

Proper technique will develop in the individual based on personal preference and style, so although there is a correct posture for the cello, don't let that stop you from developing your own style. With certain parts of posture, like foot positioning, if there is no widely accepted "way" to position yourself in that aspect, roll with what works best for you.

The back should be kept straight while playing. Slumping or slouching while playing will not only decrease your ability to manoeuver the bow arm and left hand, but will cause lower back pain if continued for long periods of time.

It is recommended that the player sit near the edge of his/her chair while playing. It can help make playing more comfortable and the arms easier to manoeuver about the instrument, as well as prevent the back of the cello from hitting the chair, which can make playing uncomfortable, and can damage the instrument.

title: Cello Handbook/Holding the Cello


text:
Cello Handbook/Bow Hold

The bow is held by the right hand, at the frog, the black endpiece of the bow. Bowhand is not a strict requirement that must be conformed to exactly. Obviously, as one plays and learns from their experience, they will develope a more personalized bowhand.

However, the bowhand remains mostly the same for each player. The thumb is placed on the gap between the bowgrip, the rubber grip on the bottom portion of the bow and the frog.

The index finger is placed ahead of the thumb, near the middle of the bowgrip. The middle finger is positioned roughly on the line between the end of the frog and the start of the bow hair. The ring finger is placed in the middle of the frog. Finally, the pinky is placed on the side of the screw. The bow should also be held with a straight wrist.

title: Cello Handbook/Bow Hold


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Currency - Advanced

The answers to the Currency - Advanced honor are dependent on the country in which you live. To keep from cluttering up the answers with all these variants, we instead provide separate answer chapters for each country.

Currency - Advanced (Australia) Currency - Advanced (Canada) Currency - Advanced (European Union) Currency - Advanced (India) Currency - Advanced (Indonesia) Currency - Advanced (Philippines) Currency - Advanced (United Kingdom) Currency - Advanced (United States)

If your country is not listed here, please add it. When you create the new page, start by inserting this text:

This will insert the requirements and all the country-invariant answers that have been added to date. You can then start adding the rest of the answers and editing answers we thought were invariant.

You can edit the main template here, but keep in mind that it should only have generally applicable answers (i.e., country-invariant answers).

| /Honors with Region-dependent Answers


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Arts and Crafts/Currency - Advanced (Template)

2. Select a coin or note from your collection and present an oral or written report on the historical or other significance of the person(s), place(s), item(s) or symbol(s) found on both sides.
Commemorative coinage would have historical or other significance.

 * Here is a link to the world's commemorative coins.

3. What are the laws regarding counterfeiting in your country and what devices are used in your nation's currency to prevent it?
Resources on counterfeit deterrence:
 * Interpol on counterfeit currency
 * Central Bank Counterfeit Deterrence Group

Anti-counterfeiting measures
Selection from Wikipedia

In the 1980s counterfeiting in the Republic of Ireland twice resulted in sudden changes in official documents: in November 1984 the £1 postage stamp, also used on savings cards for paying television licenses and telephone bills, was invalidated and replaced by another design at a few days' notice, because of widespread counterfeiting. Later, the £20 Central Bank of Ireland Series B banknote was rapidly replaced because of what the Finance Minister described as "the involuntary privatization of banknote printing".

In the 1990s, the portrait of Chairman Mao Zedong was placed on the banknotes of the People's Republic of China to combat counterfeiting, as he was recognized better than the generic designs on the renminbi notes.

In Australia, the original paper decimal currency banknotes introduced in 1966 were eventually replaced with new designs printed on clear polyester film which allowed them to have "see through" sections that are almost impossible to duplicate with a photocopier.

==4. Attend a meeting of a local coin club and report on your experience. Possible items to consider: a. Level of expertise of members as demonstrated by presentations and dialogues.b. Average general age of attendees. c. Ideas which might help the club extend its collector interest to a wider audience. d. How newcomer friendly is the organization. e. Suggestions on how these people might be reached with the gospel through a manner which they would find attractive. ==

Search Suggestions
 * Coin Collecting at Meetup.com
 * Coin Collecting groups on Yahoo! Groups

5. Select one of the three categories of your collection as required under the Currency Honor requirements 7 and 8, and increase your collection to include twice the total number of specimens.
Requirements 7 & 8 reproduced below for simplicity

Requirement 7. Collect and mount a type set of coins from your country of any date currently being minted or in circulation. Proof, commemorative, rare, silver, or expensive coins are not needed. In your collection: a. Possess at least one coin from each mint in the type set. b. Locate and identify the mint mark (if any) on each coin. c. Locate and identify the initials (if any) of each coin's designer(s).

Requirement 8. Do two of the following: a. Make enlarged drawings of both sides of ten different denominations or                  forms of coins for your country no longer in circulation. b. Collect, identify, and mount 25 different foreign coins. No two coins alike. c. Collect and mount a type set of coins from your country minted during the 20th Century. d. Collect and mount a date set of series of coins for your country beginning with your birth year. (Commemorative, gold, proof, expensive, or rare coins need not be included.)

==6. Add to your collection at least one of the unusual (odd and curious) forms learned about in requirement 1 of the Currency Honor requirements and have in your Currency Honor files, at least a paragraph summarizing how, when and where this item was used as currency.==

Requirement 1 reproduced below for simplicity

Requirement 1. Relate briefly the story of barter, showing three reasons why money came into being and naming at least ten strange forms of money used in place of coins or currency.


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Talk:First Aid/Automated External Defibrillation

So far as I know, current standards say to alternate single shocks with 1 minute of CPR. Whatever the standard is, that should be stated clearly on this page instead of the vague "you may be instructed to continue CPR." Make it abundantly clear please. Mike.lifeguard 04:13, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

I really like using D for Deadly Bleeding, as it reinforces that there needs to be a "wet check" (aka "gross blood check" or "Rapid Body Survey"). How do we feel about using D for that, and finding another way to integrate AED in another section. We could have a chapter on more advanced aspects of first aid, such as AED and O2 (which is currently included in B for Breathing, which I don't like)?? So AED and O2 (and possibly some other stuff) would get moved to a chapter called "Advanced First Aid Topics" or something, and D would turn into a section on deadly bleeding, which would remove that section from External Bleeding. Comments? Mike.lifeguard 16:57, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

Defibrillation does not deal with patients who are in Cardiac Arrest. Cardiac Arrest is when the heart stops, a defibrillator cannot re-start a stopped heart. (A defib machine can stop a heart to give you something to work with when doing CPR.) This is why AEDs will not shock a victim whose heart is stopped, as there is no electrical signal to be read. Just a note to look into. --Nugger 23:56, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Please feel free to change the content.  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 00:03, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I appreciate that, but seeing as I made some mistakes before I just wanted to be sure. Stop encouraging me dangit! --Nugger 01:14, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I didn't see any mistakes... What am I looking for?  – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 01:22, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Yeah, like I said, I wasn't sure if I was making a mistake or not. And I was as Cardiac Arrest is when blood flow stops, not necessarily the heart. So keep everything the same. --Nugger 05:38, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

AED
This page has several statements that directly contradict information given in the American Red Cross CPR/AED class.


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WebObjects/Overview/Key Value Coding

The contents of this wikibook are out of date and have now moved to http://wiki.objectstyle.org/confluence/display/WO/Home.

If you familiar with OGNL then key value coding is a bit like that. We'll call key value coding KVC in the context of this page to abbreviate. KVC also exists in the Cocoa infrastructure shipped with MacOS-X as well as the OPENSTEP infrastructure. In this page we will focus on KVC in the context of WebObjects and java.

Conceptual Aspects
Consider the following model segment;

This model shows a number of entities and the lines between the entities show relationships. For example, the Organisation entity has a to-one relationship with a Worker called "workerAccount" and it also has a "to-many" relationship to "OrgRegion" called "orgRegions".

The term "instance" here is referring to a specific organisation. For example, "The Corn Flour Company" and "Aqua Breweries" might be instances of the Organisation entity.

Value For Key
An instance of an Organisation can supply values for the keys "address", "countryIso", "email" etc... and they will return a value for the key. It is essentially acting like an NSDictionary or a Map object. This is how data is extracted from an object.

Take Value For Key
This is where an instance of an entity is asked to "take up" some value for a key. For example, an instance of an organisation might be told to take the value "foo@foo.co.nz" for the key "email". This is how data is loaded into an object using KVC.

Value For Key Path
Using a dotted path, it is possible to traverse relationships to access data in other entities. For example, if you have an instance of "OrgExpertise", it is possible to get the value for the key path "organisation.workerAccount.name". This is how you can extract data from the interconnected network of object instances.

Take Value For Key Path
Using a dotted path, it is possible to get an object in the interconnected network of object instances to "take up" some piece of data. For example, if you have an instance of "OrgExpertise" then it is possible to get the object to "take up" a value of "Joe Smith" for the key path "organisation.workerAccount.name".

title: WebObjects/Overview/Key Value Coding


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Lashing/Continuous

Continuous Lashing

Continuous Lashing is a fun technique. It is used to create shelves, tables, and other structures.

Comments on the pictures on the right'
 * 1) Support poles under the 'surface' poles.
 * 2) Attach string to the support pole using a clove hitch.
 * 3) Clove hitch, up over surface pole, back down & cross under below support pole, and up over the second surface pole.
 * 4) Detail of lashing as seen from top.
 * 5) Detail of lashing as seen from bottom. Inset shows details of clove hitch, and cross-under below support pole.
 * 6) View from the top.

 * Start with a string/rope that is 4 or 5 times longer than the length of your project.
 * Find the middle/center of the string and attach it to one of the support poles.
 * Put one of the surface sticks on top of the support pole and bring both ends of the string over this surface stick.
 * Continue back down below the support pole.
 * Cross the string under the support pole.
 * Bring it back up and over the next surface stick and then back down and cross under the support pole.
 * Repeat for the remaining surface sticks.
 * End off with a square knot when all the surface sticks are attached.


text:
Materials in Electronics/Wave-Particle Duality/The Two-Slit Experiment/Electrons

According to classical physics, electrons should behave like particles - they travel in straight lines and do not curve in flight unless acted on by an external agent, like a magnetic field. In this model, if we fire a beam of electrons through a double slit onto a detector, we should get two bands of "hits", much as you would get if you fired a machine gun at the side of a house with two windows - you would get two areas of bullet-marked wall inside, and the rest would be intact.

This was the behaviour noted for years. However, if the slits are made small enough and close enough together, we actually observe the following:

This means that the electrons are diffracting through the slits and interfering with each other just like waves. This means that the electrons have wave-particle duality, just like photons. In this case, they must have properties like wavelength and frequency. We can deduce the properties from the behaviour of the electrons as they pass through our diffraction grating.

Recall the property relating wavelength to diffraction fringe spacing that we found earlier:

 * $$s=\frac{\lambda L}{d}$$

where
 * s is the fringe spacing
 * λ is the wavelength
 * L is the distance from slits to screen
 * d is the grating spacing

If we can get electrons to diffract through a known grating, we can obtain a wavelength for the electron. This could also be derived theoretically, but it requires relativity, and is certainly a non-trival exercise. Practically, it turns out that electrons have an extremely short wavelength, so we cannot make gratings fine enough to diffract them significantly using traditional methods. However, we can use crystals as they are essentially extremely regular gratings with a spacing on the order of nanometres.

If we use an electron gun to produce our electrons, and fire these electrons though a crystal with a known atomic structure, we can work out the wavelength of the electron experimentally. This leads to a description of the electron as a wave. This is expanded on here.


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AP Chemistry/Electrochemistry

Finding Oxidation Numbers
Oxidation numbers are simply the charges of individual elements in each compound. To find the oxidation numbers of something, there are a few rules to keep in mind:

Any pure, 0 charge species has an oxidation number of 0

Reduction and Oxidation
Example equation:

Reduction: When the ion/element gains electrons ( is reduced to )

Oxidation:When the ion/element loses electrons ( is oxidized to )

Reducing Agent:The ion/element that gives the electron to the other one ( is the reducing agent to )

Oxidation Agent: The ion/element that takes the electron from the other ( is the oxidation agent to )

Standard Cell Potentials
In redox reactions, electrons are transferred. These transfers allow for there to be a Standard Cell Potential (measured in volts) between the two metals. As AP chemistry students, you should be able to calculate the Standard Cell Potential by using something called a Standard Reduction potential table. This gives you the standard reduction potentials for each element/compound, which is the amount of volts of electricity needed to turn 1 mole of ions to a reduced state (it could become another ion, or the pure form of the metal). To find the Standard Cell potential, you need to find the reduction potential of the element reduced, and the oxidation potential of the element oxidized. The oxidation potential is determined by changing the sign of the reduction potential found on the table (the reduction potential of is -4.10, the oxidation potential of  is 4.10). When you find the reduction potential of the element reduced, and the oxidation potential of the element oxidized, simply add the two values together to get the standard cell potential.

Amps, Faradays, and Coulombs
When looking at the galvanic cell, you need to be able to calculated how much mass of a certain metal is plated out in a given time. There are a few new units you need to know to do this:

Coulombs: Coulombs are the charge of 6.241 electrons.

Faradays: Faradays are an archaic form of saying moles of electrons.

Amperes: Amperes translate to Coulombs per second. It measures the current passing trough the wire.

Faraday's Constant: This basically says that there are 96,500 Coulombs per one mole of electrons

Galvanic Cell
Here is the galvanic cell:

Parts of a cell
There are a few different components to a galvanic cell:
 * Anode: Where the metal is oxidized, and electrons are released into the wire, causing the solid metal anode to turn into ions
 * Cathode: Where the incoming electrons are received by the ions in the ion bath, causing reduction, and turning the ions to solid metal.
 * Salt Bridge: Where the salt is dissolved in water, and each ion moves to either the anode or the cathode, balancing whatever charges need to be balanced. The anion moves to the anode, the cation moves to the cathode. The salt in the salt bridge must be a salt that, if the anion is bonded to the ion of either metal, the compound will still remain dissolved and will not solidify.
 * Metal ion bath: where the metals that are oxidized go when they become ions. It is also where the ions that are reduced solidify and become solid metal
 * Wire: Where the electrons pass from the anode to the cathode

How it works
According to the Standard Reduction Potential Table, the galvanic cell with the higher reduction potential (or lower oxidation potential) will be the cathode, and the other metal will be the anode. The electrons in the anode are oxidized, passing the electrons through the wire, all the way to the cathode. This is how voltage is determined, by measuring the current of the electrons in the wire.

Determining the mass of the metal produced
Given this information, we need to figure out how much mass is plated out in a galvanic cell, given the amount of Amps and the time. Lets looks at an example problem:

How many grams of mercury could be produced by electrolyzing a $$1.0\text{ M}$$ solution with a current of $$2.00\text{ A}$$ for $$3.00\text{ h}$$?

Here, we are given three important pieces of information:
 * 1) $$1.0\text{ M}$$
 * 2) The current is $$2.00\text{ A}$$
 * 3) The time taken is $$3.00\text{ h}$$

The first piece of information tells us how to st up our net ionic half reaction. In these types of reactions, there are two metals that are going to be reacting, one oxidizing, one reducing. We really only need to worry about the reduction reaction in this case, because we are looking for solid grams of mercury, and reduction is where the solid mercury is created.

(NOTE: You might have a problem that says "plated out". This means the same thing as "produced".)

To set up our reduction half reaction, we need to know the oxidation value of the metal that is being reduced (basically when the metal becomes and ion, what its charge is). Transition metals have two or more oxidation states, but it is usually safe to go with the most common one (It's usually 2+). For Mercury, the oxidation state is 2+ in this case. Therefore, our reaction is as such:

With this equation, we now know all the mole ratios we need to know. Let's begin setting up the conversion factors, by using the other two pieces of information.

$$\frac{3\text{ hr}}{1} \times \frac{60\text{ mins}}{1\text{ hr}} \times \frac{60\text{ s}}{1\text{ min}} \times \frac{2\text{ C}}{1\text{ s}} \times \frac{1\text{ mol e}^-}{96,500\text{ C}} \times \frac{1\text{ mol Hg}}{2\text{ mol e}^-} \times \frac{200.59\text{ g}}{1\text{ mol Hg}} \approx 22.4\text{ g}$$

Since Amperes are $$\text{C mol} ^{-1},$$ the hours needed to be converted into seconds so the units are able to cancel out. Then from there, Faraday's Constant was used to get the moles of electrons, and then that was multiplied by the mole ratio, and then by molar mass.

Know how to do problems like this, and also know how to go from grams plated out to time, etc.

Electrolytic Cell
This is the opposite of a galvanic cell. In this kind of cell, a certain voltage is applied to a body of liquid, either the molten version of the salt, or the salt dissolved in water. This time one is adding energy to the system, meaning the standard cell potential will be negative. This current goes to the ions/molten salt and basically separates them out, giving you the pure version of whatever substance you are using. The "anode" is the metal that has the lower oxidation potential, the cathode with the lower reduction potential. This is mainly used to purify metals, and to extract pure substances from the salts.

title: AP Chemistry/Electrochemistry


text:
User talk:Malkinann

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 09:21, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Malkinann


text:
User talk:Volkris~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, welcome to Wikibooks!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck!

You might also be interested to read our Cookbook policy page and talk to other Cookbook editors. Webaware talk 09:35, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Volkris. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Volkris~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:53, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:38, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Volkris~enwikibooks


text:
Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 2/Time Value of Money/Introduction

Introduction
The time value of money is the premise that a fixed amount of money available today is more valuable/desired than the same amount of money available in the future. This premise can be generalized for economic resources (of which money is an embodiment by social contract). We can state two reasons to justify the premise for all resources: 1) We prefer to have in our control a resource today rather than in the future, because of the inherent uncertainty that characterizes any future event. We cannot be certain that we will acquire the resource in the future. 2) We prefer to have in our control a resource today rather than in the future, because we could use to our favor this resource in the meantime (this is a temporal version of the notion of "opportunity cost").

Especially for money, there is a third reason, namely the existence of inflation: given inflation, the same amount of money will buy tomorrow fewer goods than today. It must be noted however that while Uncertainty of the Future and Opportunity Cost, are rooted in the very foundations of human existence, inflation is a historical event that may change direction. In the case of "negative inflation", ie where money increases rather than loses its value as time passes, then "money tomorrow" tends to be more valuable than "money today" (or at least, it partially offsets the pull of the other two fundamental reasons given above towards the opposite direction). Nevertheless, in modern market economies, a consistent trend of negative inflation is absent for almost a century.

A fourth reason is the belief that maybe the money might not be around in the future. The borrower might not be around or the repayment contract could be lost. The currency could be abolished or a catastrophy could occur rendering money valueless.

The Discount Rate
The time value of money can be easily quantified at a personal level. A person can ask herself, "What do I prefer, 100 euros today or XXX euros in a year from now?" When she finds the amount that makes her "indifferent", then she can calculate easily her Personal Discount Rate. Assume that given the question, "100 euros now or 120 euros in one year from now," a person replies, "it's all the same to me". Then this person's Yearly Personal Discount Rate (YPDR) is calculated as

$$ YPDR = (120/100)-1 = 1,2 - 1 = 0,2 = 20%$$

and in general terms

YPDR = (Equally preferred value in a year / Value today)-1

Note that YPDR quantifies together the effects of all the reasons given above that lead to "money tomorrow" being worth less than "money today".

If a person has calculated his own YPDR honestly, carefully, and rationally, and has tested it over a period of time for stability of preferences, he can then use it as a tool to assist him in taking economic decisions that involve different amounts and timings of money (to be given or to be received). Essentially, by using the discount rate, we can calculate what amount of money received or given today is -for us- equivalent with an amount of money to be received (or to be given) in the future.


text:
Principles of Finance/Section 1/Chapter 3/Applications of Time Value of Money/Annuities

The term annuity is used in finance theory to refer to any terminating stream of fixed payments over a specified period of time. This usage is most commonly seen in academic discussions of finance, usually in connection with the valuation of the stream of payments, taking into account time value of money concepts.

An annuity can be valued with the following formula, where C is the amount of the payment, r is the discount rate, and t is the number of periods for which the payment will be received.

PVannuity = $$C\left[\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{r\left(1+r\right)^t}\right]$$

Thus, we can see that a 10 year, $100 per year annuity would be worth $614.46 with a 10% discount rate.

We can also find the present value of an annuity whose payments grow by a fixed rate g.

PVgrowing annuity = $${C \over (r-g)}\left[ 1- \left({1+g \over 1+r}\right)^t \right] $$

Solving a similar problem, with a payment of $100 that grows at a rate of 5% for 10 years, with a 10% discount rate, we get a present value of $743.98.

Note that the preceding two formulas assume that the payment will be made at the end of each period. If the payment is to be received at the beginning of each period, it is called an Annuity Due. The preceding two formulas can still be used in the case of an annuity due, with some modification. Simply subtract 1 from the number of periods, and then add the amount of the payment to the resulting answer. For example, if the first problem we did were an annuity due, it would look like this:

PVannuity due = $$100\left[\frac{1}{0.1}-\frac{1}{0.1\left(1.1\right)^9}\right] + 100$$

The answer, of course, is $675.90. Note that an annuity due will always have a higher present value than an equivalent standard annuity, due to the time value of money. That is, a dollar received at an earlier date is more valuable than a dollar received at a later date.


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Scratch/Lessons/Introduction

Scratch Introduction
Welcome to learning about Scratch!

When you first start Scratch, you will see something that looks like this:

It is important before you begin to understand some basic ideas about Scratch. Scratch is a very visual programming language, and is mainly concerned with two major elements: The stage and sprites (or actors) who perform on that stage.

Each sprite (and the stage itself) has three major parts:

 * scripts - this is how you tell the stage and sprites to "do their stuff"
 * costumes/backgrounds - these are images which are added to Scratch which allow you to see the sprites. Each sprite can have multiple costumes, allowing a sprite to change its appearance.
 * sounds - Not only can sprites appear and change, but they can also "speak" and tell a story. This can also include sound effects and background noises, which can also appear on the stage as well.

Scripts are made up of graphical blocks that each look something like this:

There are nearly a hundred different kinds of blocks that you can use within your Scratch projects, and each one does something just a little bit different.

Language Options
It should also be pointed out that Scratch is available in multiple written languages. If you click these buttons:

You will see a list of various different languages like this:

What is useful about this tool is that the text of the blocks for Scratch scripts will change if you select a different language. An example of the move block "translated" into German would look like this:

Scratch will also "remember" the language you select, so you do not need to select a new language each time you start Scratch. When Scratch projects are saved, they are not saved in a specific "written" language, but instead are saved as a "move block" or a "say block" and are "translated" into the language of the person using Scratch to see the script. This allows Scratch projects to be shared between people from different cultures and countries, and is one of the strengths of this computer language.

Extra Help

Clicking on the light bulb button will open a list of tutorial videos that you can watch. There are also some quick reference guides available in Adobe Acrobat™ format, some "Scratch Cards" which are small trading-card like short ideas on how to use Scratch, available to download at https://scratch.mit.edu/ideas.

title: Scratch/Lessons/Introduction


text:
User:YukataNinja~enwikibooks

浴衣忍者 : Bathrobe ninja

title: User:YukataNinja~enwikibooks