text:
Metal Gear Series/Big Boss

Early life and career
Jack's history prior to joining the armed forces and becoming a disciple of The Boss is mostly a mystery. He was born in the early 1930s, while his military service would seem to date back as far as 1945. In 1950, he became The Boss' apprentice and developed the CQC (Close Quarters Combat) fighting style with her. In 1956, Jack was involved in the Bikini Atoll testing of the first airborne detonation of a hydrogen bomb. The Boss and Jack went their separate ways on June 12th, 1959, and later met for the first time in five years during Jack's first field mission in the FOX unit, on August 24th, 1964.

Virtuous Mission

 * ''Events in this section take place during Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.

In the year 1964, Jack was recruited by the fledgling FOX unit (Force Operation X - which was the immediate predecessor of the high-tech special forces unit 'FOXHOUND') and underwent an operation titled the Virtuous Mission, in which he was to rescue and extract a defecting Soviet scientist, Dr. Nikolai Stephanovich Sokolov, from deep within mountainous Soviet territory. 'Jack' was given the codename of 'Naked Snake' for this mission.

The mission failed however, due to the defection of The Boss, a female soldier and a living legend who had originally led the Allies to victory in World War II, who indirectly had been responsible for the founding of the first US Special Forces units, and who had also been Jack's own mentor.

Operation Snake Eater

 * ''Events in this section take place during Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.

A week after the incidents of the Virtuous Mission, the FOX unit and 'Naked Snake' were forcefully assigned 'Operation Snake Eater', in which the objective was to eliminate The Boss and her Cobra Unit, assassinate her new Soviet ally and host, a hawk GRU colonel by the name of Yevgeny Borisovitch Volgin, as well as to destroy the prototype of the Soviet superweapon Shagohod and to rescue its chief engineer, Dr. Sokolov. It was during this same mission that 'Naked Snake' came across what would be the first prototype designs for a 'Metal Gear' bipedal tank from Director Aleksandr Leonovitch Granin, who was sending the documents to a friend and colleague in America (none other than the grandfather of Hal "Otacon" Emmerich), out of resentment for his superiors for their decision to adopt Sokolov's Shagohod project over that of his own bipedal tank research.

'Naked Snake' accidentally lost his right eye to a misplaced bullet from Revolver Ocelot's revolver during this operation, while enduring torture at the hands of Colonel Volgin after having been taken captive. However, he eventually escaped and would succeed in completing the mission in full, killing both The Boss and Colonel Volgin as well as eliminating the entire Cobra Unit and destroying the already completed Shagohod prototype. For these highly impressive feats, he became considered to be "above even The Boss" by the government and subsequently received the title of 'Big Boss' as well as being awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by President Lyndon B. Johnson, during an official reception at the White House following the success of 'Operation Snake Eater'.

However, Big Boss was also a man who would be changed forever following the outcome of his landmark operation. He learned from his former cooperative EVA that The Boss had never actually intended to betray her country and had, in fact, willingly died for it as a scapegoat under orders of the US government, for the nuclear destruction of OKB-754 caused by Colonel Volgin in his continued attempts to have tensions escalate between the United States of America and the Soviet Union. This knowledge would apparently stunt Big Boss's patriotism further and he began developing a powerful, but veiled, resentment towards his superiors. And there after set out to destroy America.

During the same reception at the CIA Headquarters, Big Boss stoically yet openly ignored an invitation to shake hands with the CIA Director who had ordered The Boss' death, and very nearly with President Johnson himself as well, a subtle warning sign of things to come.

The San Hieronymo Incident
''Events in the section take place during Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops

After the events of Operation Snake Eater, Naked Snake, still distraught over the death of The Boss, quits the FOX unit and completely disappears from the world's eye and participating in dozens of conflicts across the globe for six years. Big Boss was unofficially called back in to active duty eventually to combat his former unit, FOX whom had revolted and stole a new type of nuclear weapon the Americans were developing. Unlike previous operations he had undertaken, Big Boss allied himself with numerous soldiers on the peninsula to stop the rogue FOX unit, which included a much younger Roy Campbell(the man who would later become FOXHOUND's commander). Big Boss is also aided by a young psychic named Elisa during his mission to take down FOX. After escaping the prison and rounding up a few soldiers to help them in their cause, Big Boss and Campbell eventually unearthed a shocking and troubling discovery, the new type of nuclear weapon FOX stole was being prepped for launch into the Soviet Union for a full-scale nuclear attack. That weapon was Metal Gear.

During the course of his mission Big Boss had numerous encounters with a young man known as the Perfect Soldier, whom turned out to be a child soldier he met in Mozambique that he had left in the care of a rehab facility. That young man turned out to be Frank Jaeger, the man who would later earn the codename of Gray Fox and become a mentor to Big Boss's son Solid Snake. After facing off against Null (Gray Fox) for the first time Snake is captured by the FOX unit and learns of a shocking conspiracy surrounding FOX's rebellion. Gene the ringleader of the revolt told Snake that FOX was under order's by the CIA to steal Metal Gear, Gene who had his own intentions for the use of Metal Gear used this opportunity to his advantage to gain a trump card in the founding of his mercenary nation Army's Heaven (a precursor to Big Boss's Outer Heaven). After escaping the prison Big Boss encounters Cunningham, who begins questioning him again over the missing half of the Philosopher's Legacy. Cunningham begin shooting down Snake's men before they were rescued by Elisa and escapes. Afterwards Big Boss and the others infiltrated the plant where Metal Gear was being stored to destroy it, but was caught by Gene and his men. Big Boss managed to sneak up to Gene and get him at gun point but failed to stop him from activating Metal Gear through Ursala (Elisa's dormant personality). Big Boss took on Metal Gear and destroyed it but soon after learned that it wasn't the real Metal Gear from Ghost who turned out to be Sokolov.

After leaving the plant and destroying a power plant along the way Big Boss finally made his way to the underground silo where the real Metal Gear was being stored. While on his way down to the launch control room Cunningham appears before Big Boss once again when he finally revealed the true nature of his mission and Big Boss being captured and brought to the peninsula. Apparently the Pentagon and the CIA were fighting over the amount of influence each other has over military affairs, Cunningham was sent in by the DOD (the Department of Defense) to retrieve the missing half of the Philosopher's Legacy and make sure that Gene still launched the nukes into the Soviet Union. Once the nukes were launched Cunningham was to destroy the base using a Davy Crocket. When Big Boss learns of this he decides to stop Cunningham out of loyalty to himself not the CIA nor the Pentagon. Snake stops Cunningham and finally makes it to the control room to stop Gene. While Gene is preparing to launch Metal Gear he tells Big Boss of the true nature of his plans, the real target was never the Soviet Union it was the CIA headquarters and the Pentagon saying that "the Philosopher's twin layers will be obliterated". Big Boss also learns of a shocking and disturbing conspiracy surrounding the events of Operation Snake Eater, the entire operation was a set up. Volgin was under orders to launch the nuke at Sokolov's research facility which led up to the events that took place during that mission. Big Boss demands to know who set it up but Gene does not answer and moves forward to activate Metal Gear but is stopped by Elisa/Ursala. After mortally wounding Elisa Gene heads to the next room to try to activate Metal gear again, Snake tries to comfort Elisa before she dies but she tells Snake of the grim future that will come to pass because of his family. Snake makes his way to the control room to stop Gene from launching Metal Gear but is too late as it has already been activated. Big Boss and Gene clash with each other during the countdown but is defeated by Big Boss. Gene gives the funds he amassed for Army's Heaven to Big Boss (giving him the foundation he will use later to build Outer Heaven) before dying. Snake then makes his way into the Silo itself to try to destroy Metal Gear, he succeeds with the help of the other Russian soldiers and it falls into the sea.

Soon after Big Boss and Campbell are returned to the states and Big Boss is commended and awarded as a hero once again which establishes his "Greatest Soldier of the 20th century moniker". While on a phone call with Campbell he tells him he realizes something. "I'm not living unless I'm in battle so I have to find my own reason to fight. I have to pass on what's been handed down to me", Campball tells Snake that they will meet again someday and hangs up the phone.

Later career
When direct American involvement in the Vietnam War started the following year, Big Boss offers his combat services in Asia, Africa, and the Middle East and Far East and participated in Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (LRRP) as an "unofficial soldier" attached to a team of Green Berets and US Army Ranger units. His skills earn him the "great mythological soldier" moniker. Supposedly (perhaps after the hiatus of the Virtuous Mission and Operation: Snake Eater or by continuity error) he also fights in Congo until the Second Congo Crisis in 1968. Once the conflict Vietnam had ended, Big Boss took part in more than 70 missions attached to groups such as the SOG (Studies and Observations Group), the Wild Geese, and Delta Force. He also adopted a war orphan named Frank Jaeger (who would later become FOXHOUND member Gray Fox) in Vietnam. A year after the FOX unit revolted and was disbanded; Big Boss formed his own unit, FOXHOUND in it's place.

An abundance of governments, military organizations, and terrorist groups contacted Big Boss to recruit him. However, he declined many (often well-paid) missions, and only participated in conflicts where people's liberation was concerned. This drew attention from journalists, who championed this perfect killer.

In 1972 the U.S. Government brought Big Boss' unconscious body (he was rendered comatose from a battle) to a lab where his genes were extracted to make genetically enhanced soldiers. This project would be known as "Les Enfants Terribles". The goal was to create genetically perfected soldiers based on Big Boss' DNA. All three offspring of the project were given "Snake" codenames when they reached adulthood.

Les Enfants Terribles Project
Big Boss's genes would be used in a pair of secret projects to make the ultimate super-soldiers, one based on genetic information taken while he was in a coma, the other after his death (see the "Genome Soldiers" section below).

In 1972, the Patriots set out a plan to artificially create the most powerful super soldier possible through genetics, in a project called 'Les Enfants Terribles' (a French phrase, literally meaning "the terrible children"). Big Boss at the time was wounded in combat and in a coma, and being regarded as the world's greatest soldier, he was chosen as the project's model. His cells were collected.

Clones were created from collected cells, combining 20th century analog cloning, and the Super Baby method. An egg was fertilized with one of the cells, and was then let to be divided into eight. The embryos were then transferred into a surrogate mother's uterus. When the eight embryos matured into fetuses, five were intentionally aborted to encourage strong fetal growth in the three remaining fetuses. Two of them were Solid and Liquid Snake. While both brothers are identical at the genetic level, Liquid is led to (wrongly) believe that he is an inferior clone with recessive phenotypes. The technology to alter a gene's phenotype did not exist during the 1970s. The third offspring created with the other two was Solidus Snake.

Solid Snake, with his natural self-confidence and determination, seemed to be the best clone. Liquid, having been told that he has the "flawed, recessive genes", exhibited low self-esteem. However, a short telephone conversation between President Sears (Solidus) and Ocelot revealed that Solid Snake is "inferior" compared to Liquid, who is considered to be the superior clone. Liquid inherited all of the superior genes, Solid all of the inferior genes, and Solidus was a perfect copy of Big Boss, interpreting the same mix of all faulty and perfect genes that the person he was cloned from had. Even though it is Solidus who is considered the perfect mix of superior and inferior that Big Boss had, it was Solid Snake who inherited the majority of Big Boss's looks.

Following their births, the 'Snakes' were separated and raised in different places. Liquid was sent to the UK, while Solid Snake remained in the US. Solidus also remained in the U.S. and trained child-soldiers in the Liberian Civil War in the late 1980s. It is theorized, though not officially confirmed, that Solidus was kept in the U.S. where he was watched, and later used, by the Patriots.

The lives of all three clones each ostensibly suffer from accelerated aging, a result of their vintage genetic material (the speed of this aging is evident with Solidus Snake, whom in his thirties already resembled Big Boss in his seventies). As of 2009, only Solid Snake is still alive as a whole being, while Liquid's consciousness lives inside Revolver Ocelot. Solidus Snake died at the outcome of the Big Shell incident, killed in a sword fight by his foster son, Jack, who went under the codename Raiden during the Big Shell operation.

Outer Heaven Uprising

 * ''Events in this section take place during Metal Gear.

In the 1990s, Big Boss used the exorbitant amount of money he had collected over the years from mercenary work to covertly create the fortress nation Outer Heaven, an organization opposed to the Western Powers (and, by proxy, the Patriots who controlled them), all the while ostensibly remaining the commander of the U.S.'s elite FOXHOUND unit. Big Boss also funded the development of the first Metal Gear prototype, called Metal Gear TX-55. It was a weapon system designed to give Outer Heaven military supremacy over the West.

When FOXHOUND was commissioned by the U.S. to infiltrate Outer Heaven and destroy Metal Gear, Big Boss first sent in his most trusted soldier, Gray Fox. Once Gray Fox was captured, Big Boss sent in Solid Snake, at that time FOXHOUND's greenest, least experienced member. Big Boss figured that there was no way that a rookie like Solid Snake could fulfill such a mission, that his efforts would delay further action by the West and buy Big Boss enough time to complete Metal Gear's development.

However, much to Big Boss's surprise, Solid Snake succeeded in defeating Outer Heaven's elite mercenaries and destroying Metal Gear itself. Faced with the failure of his plans, Big Boss confronted Solid Snake in the heart of Outer Heaven and revealed his identity as Outer Heaven's mastermind. After Big Boss activated the base's self-destruct countdown, the two of them engaged in one-on-one combat, dodging between crates and firing at each other. Even in his advanced age, Big Boss proved fast and dangerous, but Solid Snake eventually managed to defeat him.

Zanzibar Land Disturbance

 * ''Events in this section take place during Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake.

Big Boss survived his battle with Snake and managed to escape Outer Heaven during its destruction. Four years later, he took control of another nation known as Zanzibar Land after his involvement in the War of Mercenaries. Recruiting war orphans from across the Third World and raising them as soldiers, Big Boss hoped to create a nation dedicated to the ideals of warfare and battle. Big Boss also recruited Gray Fox to his cause. To ensure Zanzibar Land's success, Big Boss once again commissioned the creation of a Metal Gear, known as Metal Gear D. This time, Dr. Madnar (the scientist who was forced to develop the original Metal Gear prototype in Outer Heaven) developed the new model of his own free will, after being ostracized by the academic community in the U.S.

Solid Snake once again managed to infiltrate the enemy nation and destroy Metal Gear. Snake eventually defeated Fox in hand-to-hand combat and, bruised and unarmed, was once again confronted by a gun-wielding Big Boss. Having spent his entire life on the battlefield, Big Boss could not conceive of a world without war, and attacked Snake in one final battle. Snake managed to create a makeshift flamethrower using an aerosol can and a cigarette lighter, using it to kill Big Boss once and for all.

Genome Soldiers
After the death of Big Boss and the downfall of Zanzibar Land, members of Big Boss' mercenary dispatching company (Outer Heaven) are integrated into the Next Generation Special Forces after the U.S. Government purchases their contracts. The team is subsequently merged with Task Force 21 and are given VR training. Members of the team are also secretly enhanced with Big Boss' "soldier" genes, giving them augmented senses and reflexes.

In 2005, the Genome Soldiers took part in what was scheduled to have been a routine training exercise in Shadow Moses Island. The Genome Soldiers and FOXHOUND (under Liquid Snake's command) instead stage a revolt on the island, taking over the nuclear facility (where Metal Gear REX was secretly developed), along with a few hostages. The terrorists (calling themselves the "Sons of Big Boss") threaten to launch a nuclear strike if the remains of Big Boss were not delivered to them in less than 24 hours. It is revealed that the Genome Soldiers are suffering from genetic defects as a result of their gene therapy treatments and that Big Boss' remains are the key to their survival.

After the destruction of REX by operative Solid Snake and the death of Liquid, the surviving Genome Soldiers are transferred to the Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire, where they are imprisoned for treason. One Genome Soldier named Johnny Sasaki however managed to avoid being arrested and joined Sergei Gurlukovich's group.

title: Metal Gear Series/Big Boss


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Metal Gear Series/Raiden

Liberian Civil War
As a child, Raiden was adopted by Solidus Snake, who (unbeknownst to him) had killed his parents. After being given the name "Jack" by Solidus, Raiden became a child soldier from as young as the age of six, in Solidus' "Army of the Devil" as part of the "small boys unit" during the first Liberian Civil War. Like the rest of his unit, he was regularly drugged in order to be conditioned and kept under control. Survival meant he was commended and rewarded, and killing to survive became his only purpose. He was trained personally by Solidus, to the extent that Solidus declared, "Your name... your skills... everything you know, you know from me." Due to Jack's outstanding kill record, he gained a number of nicknames, two of the most prominent being "Jack the Ripper" and "White Devil", the latter probably in reference to his pale skin and fair hair. When the war ended, Jack was one of the survivors, and Solidus lost track of him.

Later Life And Career
After the end of the Civil War, Jack left Liberia for the United States and eventually forgot his past. There he joined the Task Force 21 Corps, where he received further training, and possible mental reconditioning (or else he supressed his bloody childhood memories, as he had no recollection of them until Solidus jogged his memory when they met again years later) before being eventually deployed on the ill-fated Big Shell mission. He also trained through various VR (virtual reality) simulations, including some which were based on the Shadow Moses and Tanker incidents that Solid Snake was a major participant in.

On April 30th 2007, Jack met Rosemary, who eventually became his girlfriend. Jack loved Rose deeply, but his harsh experiences had left him melancholic and emotionally distant, and he constantly shut her out of his problems. Rose was persistent in getting Jack to open up to her, even during his missions, which became a constant source vexation for him. It isn't until the Big Shell incident that Jack regains his memories and finally opens up to her, explaining that his past had for a long time been a jumbled mess, and even though it haunted him he could never quite put it together to figure out why. Jack's revelation later brings Rose closer to him.

Big Shell

 * ''Events in this section takes place in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty.

Raiden is initially introduced in the Big Shell as "Snake", serving as a member of what appears to be a newly reinstated FOXHOUND. His features are concealed under a diver's mask. This deception is short-lived, as Jack removes the mask, revealing a youthful appearance completely the opposite of Solid Snake's. After his true identity is revealed, he is assigned the new codename, "Raiden", and infiltrates the Big Shell. His mission is to rescue President James Johnson from a terrorist group known as the "Sons of Liberty." In this mission, he is supported over his CODEC radio by the Colonel, his commanding officer, and Rose, who is an experienced data analyst for the military and Raiden's girlfriend.

Raiden goes on to team up with Solid Snake (masquerading as a U.S. Navy SEAL named "Iroquois Pliskin") and "Mr. X", and discovers that the Big Shell is actually a front for "Arsenal Gear", a mobile battle fortress with an AI (artificial intelligence) that controls the flow of information on the Internet (to protect the interests of an Illuminati-like group known as the Patriots), and that the Sons of Liberty were not mere terrorists, but instead trying to prevent its completion.

Arsenal Gear

 * ''Events in this section takes place in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty.

In the course of this mission, Raiden's forgotten past is revealed. Raiden also learns that if he perishes or fails his mission, which is to eliminate the Sons of Liberty, Olga's baby will die. After disabling Arsenal Gear and the Metal Gear RAYs, Raiden confronts Solidus, discovers that the entire scenario was orchestrated by the Patriots for their S3 (selection for societal sanity) simulation, and that his commanding officer is actually just a digital construct created by GW, the Arsenal Gear's AI. He then completes his mission by confronting and killing Solidus, and is subsequently reunited with Rose, who is pregnant with his child.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Metal Gear Series/Raiden


text: Talk:C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Compiler/Preprocessor


text:
User talk:Platodino

Image copyright problem with Image:Bookmonster.png
Thanks for uploading Image:Bookmonster.png. However, the image may soon be deleted unless we can determine the copyright holder and copyright status. The Wikimedia Foundation is very careful about the images included in Wikibooks because of copyright law (see Wikibooks' Copyright policy).

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Please signify the copyright information on any other images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, feel free to contact me, or ask them at the Study help desk. Thank you. Az1568 03:07, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:Platodino


text: Talk:Scienceshow/Cryogenics

title: Talk:Scienceshow/Cryogenics


text:
Talk:Primary Mathematics/Fractions

Square vs Circle images
Hi, sorry these images are so big. I will get them resized a bit smaller here soon if someone doesn't replace them first. I just wanted to get this ball rolling down the incline plane. Feel free to modify them yourself; I think I did the licensing right to be as free as possible but I am not an expert on that. So, if not, I here personally grant my (the authors) permission to do what-ever one pleases with these two works of original art. Adding in some examples of common fractions ( 3/4 etc.) by blocking out some of the pieces would be great; not to mention a little more explanation to go with them.sutton 05:05, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Addition of Fractions
I filled in this section. I hope it is clear; could use some more examples,though.sutton 05:10, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

nominator denominated
Changed the word "nominator" to "numerator" all over this page.sutton 05:18, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

anti teacher sentiment
Does any one else have a problem with this (in the multiplying fractions section)? I feel that this is demotivating for students who could otherwise be encouraged to pursue math seriously. .karrollea

Dollars?
I think the money approach is a bad idea... rather talk about cents intead of dollars or just talk about fruits or just something else...I'm saying this because 70% of kids in Africa don't know what a dollar is. --Sibande (talk) 09:59, 31 March 2010 (UTC)

Target audience
This book really needs a clear decision on what its target audience is - pre-school children? primary school kids? adults being alphabetized in Maths? teachers (as a meta-book)? For instance, have a look at the "Multiplying fractions with nice pictures" section: the conflicting tones make it confusing for anyone who reads it, regardless of age (furthermore I don't know what kids call chocolate bar blocks in English, but "stories" is horribly misleading. And I still can't figure out what Mr. Anaconda is supposed to be...)--Duplode (talk) 02:37, 17 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Primary Mathematics/Fractions


text:
Talk:Free Direct Instruction Curriculum and Training/Science 1

Put it in a database?
Baltimore Curriculum:
 * Notes: Lessons can be used in conjunction with the Direct Instruction programs in reading, language, writing, and math. Adapt these lessons for your state/local standards.
 * Subject: Science
 * Overview: September science lessons deal with taking care of the body through cleanliness, rest, and healthy eating. The teacher can develop healthy habits at the beginning of the year and assist children in following procedures all year long that are developed in September. It is strongly suggested that the teacher request children wash their hands prior to any food consumption. Review proper ways to cover the mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing and to wash after sneezing and coughing. Provide opportunity to eat healthy foods at snack time. Emphasize the importance of rest and how the body requires time to 'recharge' if nap time is a part of your day. October science lessons deal with investigating the five senses of the human body. Each lesson is designed to be "hands-on" for the kindergarten-age child. The lessons are sequential, and therefore it is required that they be taught in the sequence written.
 * Suggested Books: Berger, Melvyn. Germs Make Me Sick. New York: HarperCollins, 1985, 1995.
 * Grade: K
 * Lesson Number: 1
 * Topic (sub subject): The Human Body
 * Objectives:
 * Recognize that the whole body is covered by skin.
 * Understand the importance of washing the skin as protection against germs.
 * Materials
 * Paper towels
 * Two peeled potatoes, soaking in water to prevent discoloration
 * Two paper plates
 * A book to read aloud about skin, germs, and cleanliness
 * Procedure (Music, Movement, Art): Read a book to the children that talks about skin, germs, and cleanliness. It is very important to keep our skin clean and healthy with soap and water. Say: We are going to do an experiment to see whether there is dirt on our hands right now. Probably every one of you washed your hands and face, and maybe even your whole bodies before coming to school today. You wash your hands every time you finish going to the bathroom and after you eat your meals. You may think your hands are clean enough.

Hybrid:
 * Grade
 * Overview
 * Lesson Number
 * Subject: Science
 * Topic: Human Body
 * Objective
 * Materials
 * Procedure
 * Music & Movement
 * Suggested Books
 * Alerts or Forms

Vocabulary Task - Section? Review Exercise - Topic Track Activity

Presentation -> Lessons -> Tracks (sequences of exercises) -> Exercises (topics)

Oregon Links
Oregon k-5/6 Approved science curriculum: Oregon Content and Assessment Panels
 * McGraw Hill Science c. 2000, 2002
 * SRA Real Science c. 2000
 * Delta Education, FOSS, c. 1995, 2000, 2001, 2002
 * Harcourt School Publishers, Harcourt Science, c. 2002
 * Simply Science, Simply Science, c. 2001

Oregon Science Abbreviated Standards (newspaper)

Project 2061 Advancing Science, Serving Society (AAAS) Science Standards (Oregon uses this)

Oregon Science

Oregon Science Curriculum

Science Grade-level Map of Oregon's Common Curriculum Goals and Content Standards

Oregon Benchmarks
Search Science Standard (starts at 3rd grade Oregon 3rd grade science standards: Content Standard
 * 1) Understand structure and properties of matter.
 * 2) *Describe objects according to their physical properties.
 * 3) *Identify substances as they exist in different states of matter.
 * 4) **Distinguish among solids, liquids, and gases.
 * 5) **Identify unique properties of each state of matter.
 * 6) *Compare properties of specific substances.
 * 7) **Describe how to measure characteristic properties including boiling and melting points, solubility, and density.
 * 8) **Recognize that substances may be grouped by their physical properties.
 * 9) **Use the concept of density to evaluate which objects will float or sink in water.
 * 10) *Describe properties of elements and their relationship to the periodic table.
 * 11) **Explain atoms and their base components (protons, neutrons, and electrons) as a basis for all matter.
 * 12) **Read and interpret the periodic table, recognizing the relationship of the chemical and physical properties of the elements to their position on the periodic table.
 * 13) *Recognize that the historical development of atomic theory demonstrates how scientific knowledge changes over time, and how those changes have had an impact on society.
 * 14) Describe and analyze chemical and physical changes.
 * 15) *Describe changes that occur in matter.
 * 16) *Describe the ability of matter to change state by heating and cooling.
 * 17) **Recognize that heating and cooling cause changes in states of matter.
 * 18) **Identify changes in states of matter seen in the environment.
 * 19) *Compare physical and chemical changes.
 * 20) **Distinguish between examples of chemical changes and physical changes.
 * 21) **Describe processes that will separate the components of physical mixtures.
 * 22) **Describe events that accompany chemical changes, but not physical changes.
 * 23) **Explain how our understanding of the nature of matter and chemical reactions has changed over time.
 * 24) *Analyze the effects of various factors on physical changes and chemical reactions.
 * 25) **Describe how transformations among solids, liquids, and gases occur (change of state).
 * 26) **Identify factors that can influence change of state, including temperature, pressure, and concentration.
 * 27) **Describe chemical reactions in terms of reactants and products.
 * 28) **Describe the factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions.
 * 29) **Recognize examples that show when substances combine or break apart in a chemical reaction, the total mass remains the same (conservation of mass).
 * 30) Describe fundamental forces and the motions resulting from them.
 * 31) *Describe an object's position and how to affect its movement.
 * 32) *Describe and compare the motion of objects.
 * 33) **Recognize and describe the motion of an object in terms of one or more forces acting on it.
 * 34) *Identify examples of magnetism and gravity exerting force on an object.
 * 35) **Recognize that magnets attract and repel each other and other materials.
 * 36) **Recognize that things on or near Earth are pulled toward it by Earth's gravity.
 * 37) *Explain interactions between force and matter and relationships among force, mass, and motion.
 * 38) **Recognize and describe the motion of an object based on its mass and the force exerted on it.
 * 39) **Predict the change in direction or speed of an object by changing the forces acting on it.
 * 40) **Explain inertia.
 * 41) *Recognize that every object exerts gravitational force on every other object.
 * 42) **Describe the effect of gravitational force on objects at the Earth's surface.
 * 43) *Describe and explain the effects of multiple forces acting on an object.
 * 44) **Understand and apply the relationship F=ma in situations in which one force acts on an object.
 * 45) **Recognize that equal and opposite forces occur when one object exerts a force on another.
 * 46) **Describe the forces acting on an object, based on the motion of that object.
 * 47) *Recognize that gravity is a universal force.
 * 48) **Describe the relationship of mass and distance to gravitational force.Describe fundamental forces and the motions resulting from them.
 * 49) Explain and analyze the interaction of energy and matter.
 * 50) *Identify common types and uses of energy.
 * 51) *Identify forms of various types of energy and their effects on matter.
 * 52) **Identify various forms of energy including heat, light, sound, and electricity.
 * 53) *Describe examples of energy transfer.
 * 54) **Identify the direction of heat transfer on a diagram showing objects at different temperatures.
 * 55) **Identify ways to produce heat including light, burning, electricity, friction, and as a by-product of mechanical and electrical machines.
 * 56) **Identify examples of energy transfer in the environment.
 * 57) *Compare forms and behaviors of various types of energy.
 * 58) **Distinguish between the forms of energy including heat, chemical, mechanical, and gravitational potential energy.
 * 59) *Describe and explain various energy transfers and resulting transformations.
 * 60) **Trace the flow of energy transformations in a system.
 * 61) **Explain the principle that energy is conserved, neither created nor destroyed.
 * 62) **Identify how technological advances have changed humankind's use of energy.
 * 63) *Describe differences and similarities between kinds of waves, including sound, seismic, and electromagnetic, as a means of transmitting energy.
 * 64) **Recognize that waves of all kinds have energy that can be transferred when the waves interact with matter.
 * 65) **Apply the concepts of frequency, wavelength, amplitude, and energy to electromagnetic and mechanical waves.
 * 66) *Describe and analyze examples of conservation of energy.
 * 67) **Recognize that heat energy is a by-product of most energy transformations.
 * 68) **Describe ways in which energy can be transferred, including chemical reactions, nuclear reactions, and light waves.
 * 69) **Explain the difference between potential and kinetic energy.
 * 70) **Analyze the flow of energy through a system by applying the law of conservation of energy.


text:
Celestia/JPL Ephemerides

Using JPL Ephemerides with Celestia
Note: This information does not pertain to versions of Celestia prior to 1.5.0

It is possible to use JPL's DE405/406 ephemerides with Celestia to compute the positions of the planets more accurately than the default VSOP87 theory does. The tradeoff is that since JPL's ephemeris files are essentially large lookup tables, a lot of memory is required to cover the same time span as VSOP87.

First, you need to download the ephemeris files. They are available here:

ftp://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/eph/planets/unix/de406/

The ones named unxpNNNN.406 are probably of most interest. They contain 300 year blocks of the DE406 ephemeris beginning at year +NNNN. The files name unxmNNNN.406 cover the years prior 1 BCE. Each block is about nine megabytes, so the total size of the entire DE406 is about 180 MB. You don't need to use more than a single block, but if you want more than a 300-year ephemeris, there is a set of tools available on the JPL FTP site. The C tools may be found here:

ftp://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/eph/planets/C-versions/hoffman/

DE405 is a larger and slightly more precise ephemeris than DE406, but DE406 should be more than accurate enough for most usages. The differences are explained in this document:

ftp://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/eph/planets/README.txt

To use JPL ephemeris, you need to place in Celestia's data directory and name it 'jpleph.dat'. Then, you should modify the CustomOrbits of the planets defined in solarsys.ssc to use the JPL ephemeris instead of the default VSOP87 orbits. Here are the available CustomOrbit names:

jpl-mercury-sun jpl-venus-sun jpl-earth-sun jpl-mars-sun jpl-jupiter-sun jpl-saturn-sun jpl-uranus-sun jpl-neptune-sun jpl-pluto-sun
 * Heliocentric orbits for the planets

jpl-mercury-ssb jpl-venus-ssb jpl-earth-ssb jpl-mars-ssb jpl-jupiter-ssb jpl-saturn-ssb jpl-uranus-ssb jpl-neptune-ssb jpl-pluto-ssb
 * Planet orbits relative to the solar system barycenter

jpl-emb-sun jpl-emb-ssb
 * Position of the Earth-Moon barycenter relative to Sun and SSB

jpl-earth-emb
 * Position of the Earth relative to the Earth-Moon barycenter

jpl-moon-earth jpl-moon-emb
 * Geocentric and barycentric position of the Moon

jpl-sun-ssb
 * Position of the Sun relative to the SSB

The positions computed for jpl-mars, jpl-jupiter, jpl-saturn, jpl-uranus, jpl-neptune, and jpl-pluto are the barycenters of the systems. Venus and Mercury have no moons, so the barycenters are exactly the center of the planets. Although Mars does have moons, they're so tiny relative to Mars that Horizons appears to treat the Mars system barycenter and the center of Mars as identical. There's a slight inconsistency with jpl-earth: it gives the position of Earth. If you want the Earth-Moon barycenter, then use jpl-emb.

In case you are curious as to how much the positions of the giant planets deviates from their system barycenters, a rough calculation for Uranus and Titania gives ~20km. The mass ratio of the Galilean satellites and Jupiter is similar, though they are further away from Jupiter and will thus displace the barycenter more.

Reference frame
Although the native reference frame of the JPL ephemerides is the Earth mean equator and equinox of J2000.0. Celestia internally transforms these (via a fixed rotation) to the J2000 ecliptic frame. This allows the default VSOP87 orbits to be replaced with JPL orbits by simply changing the CustomOrbit. The sole exception is the Moon. The default reference plane for moons is the plane of the equator of date for the planet that the moon orbits. Thus, when changing the orbit of the Moon to use the JPL ephemeris, the orbit frame must be overridden:

OrbitFrame { EclipticJ2000 { Center "Sol/Earth" } }

Example
There are two ways to switch to using from using VSOP87 series to JPL ephemerides for the planets. You can either directly modify data/solarsys.ssc, or you can create a simple add-on that takes advantage of the Modify disposition for SSC objects. Following is an example that replaces the orbits of the all the solar system's planets and the Moon. Copy and paste this example into a new .ssc file in your extras directory, and the next time you start Celestia, the positions of the planets will be computed from the JPL ephemeris in data/jpleph.dat.

Modify "Mercury" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-mercury-sun" }

Modify "Venus" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-venus-sun" }

Modify "Earth" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-earth-sun" }

Modify "Moon" "Sol/Earth" {   OrbitFrame {       EclipticJ2000 { Center "Sol/Earth" } }   CustomOrbit "jpl-moon-earth" }

Modify "Mars" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-mars-sun" }

Modify "Jupiter" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-jupiter-sun" }

Modify "Saturn" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-saturn-sun" }

Modify "Uranus" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-uranus-sun" }

Modify "Neptune" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-neptune-sun" }

Modify "Pluto" "Sol" {   CustomOrbit "jpl-pluto-sun" }

title: Celestia/JPL Ephemerides


text:
Celestia/SSC File

Introduction
Celestia uses catalogs to define its objects. It loads SSC catalogs only once, when it starts. First it loads the ones in its data directory in alphabetical order, then it loads the ones in the extras directories, also in alphabetical order.

What's an SSC file?
" S olar S ystem C atalog" files are primarily used to define the objects which can be found in a stellar system, such as planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and spacecraft. They also have four other uses: they can define alternative surface textures, locations on or near an object, and orbital reference points. An SSC file can also edit objects which have been defined in other SSC catalog files.

 * Objects are defined by specifying a quoted name, the quoted path to the object, and a list of parameters. The type of object is specified by a Class statement among its parameters or will be assumed from the Radius specified for it.
 * Alternative surfaces are defined by prefixing the object's name by the keyword AltSurface. Their definitions can include any of the parameters related to surface textures.
 * Location labels are defined by prefixing the object's name by the keyword Location. Their definitions use special keywords.
 * Orbital reference points are available only in Celestia v1.5.0 or later. They are defined by prefixing the object's name by the keyword ReferencePoint. Their definitions can include any of the parameters related to orbits or trajectories.
 * Editing a previously defined object can be done by prefixing the object's name by one of the keywords Modify or Replace. The revised definition can include any of the parameters used to define objects.

SSC catalog files are either in the "data" directory of the Celestia root or in an Add-on's root subdirectory (itself in Celestia's  directory).

Celestia's catalog files are plain text files, and can thus be modified with your favourite text editor. As with other code, the text must use straight ("dumb") quotes, not curly ("smart") quotes; for some text editors you will have to disable smart quotes.

Celestia uses the file Celestia/data/solarsys.ssc to define most of the bodies that are in our own Solar System.

Structure of an object definition
'" object name " " object path " { ...parameters''... }'''

The first elements in an SSC object's definition are its name and its "path".

object name = Name of the object, in quotes (e.g. " Mercury "). Provisional designations (e.g. " S/2006 S 5 ") are okay but won't be able to have secondaries (see below: confusion is caused by the "/" character.). As of Celestia 1.6.0, multiple names separated by colons are allowed ("Eris:2003 UB313").

object path = The sequence of primaries that lead to the object; in other words, the bodies that it orbits around. Paths start with a star and work down from there.

 * The path separator is a forward slash ("/"). For example, " Mercury "'s path is just " Sol ". The path of " Romulus " and " Remus ", the moons of the minor planet " (87) Sylvia ", are both " Sol/(87) Sylvia ". The path of a Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) on the surface of the Moon would be " Sol/Earth/Moon ". Paths are also used in Celestia's browser menus.

 * Because of the path separator used by Celestia, the names of objects known only by their provisional designations may need to be represented differently should they have secondaries. Alternatively, one could represent the slash ("/") by a "fraction slash" (HTML "&frasl;" or "&#8260;" : "⁄") or a vertical bar ("|").

The object's descriptive parameters follow within the accolades ("braces" or "squiggly brackets": {} )

Representing colors
Color [ R G B ]

Colors are represented using the R G B (red green blue) convention. Each of the three numbers in the 0.0 to 1.0 range represents the saturation of that colour component. [0.0 0.0 0.0] is black, [1.0 1.0 1.0] is white, [1.0 0.0 0.0] is pure red, and so on.

Comments
#

The pound sign ("crosshatch" or "sharp sign") begins a comment: whatever lies after this sign up to the next line terminator is ignored by Celestia.

Object parameters
Below is an alphabetical list of the parameters used to define an SSC object. Some of these parameters themselves require another list of parameters within {}.

Albedo f
Deprecated in 1.7

The Bond albedo of the object: a number between 0.0 and 1.0 (black to white, perfect absorber to perfect reflector). This determines the brightness of the point used to represent the object when it is too small to draw. If set to 0, the object is never drawn.

Actual calculations in pre 1.7 versions treat this parameter as Geometric albedo, so in 1.7 it was deprecated and replaced with GeomAlbedo, old Albedo is an alias for GeomAlbedo. To represent Bond albedo a new parameter was added, BondAlbedo.

Atmosphere { ...parameters... }
Defines an object's atmosphere. This is not part of the surface texture of an SSC object. It's drawn surrounding the object. The possible parameters within the accolades ("{ }") are the following (some text from this forum thread):

CloudMap " filename "

 * The cloud texture (a transparent png or dds).

 * For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

CloudNormalMap " filename "

 * This feature requires Celestia v1.5.0 or later.

 * A CloudNormalMap adds shadows to the surface of a cloud image, making it appear to be bumpy.

 * For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

CloudHeight f

 * The cloud altitude in kilometres.

CloudSpeed f

 * The cloud speed in km/h (in the direct rotation direction?).

Height f

 * Thickness of the atmosphere in kilometres. This parameter doesn't affect rendering of Mie/Rayleigh atmospheres, but the value determines if Celestia bothers rendering the vertical profile of the atmosphere. So high values make the atmosphere show up correctly even at high distances.

Mie f

 * The amount of Mie-scattered light. It gives a hazy appearance, but I don't understand Mie theory to be honest. Pushing the value too high makes the atmosphere go crazy instead of giving a thick appearance. Low values don't quite give a desired look of a thin atmosphere, like for Pluto.

MieScaleHeight f

 * Pretty much what it says. But it appears that a high value also makes the atmosphere go crazy thick instead of just scaling it vertically.

MieAsymmetry f

 * Determines the amount of forward- and back-scattered light.

Rayleigh [ R G B ]

 * The amount of red, green and blue light scattered by Rayleigh-scattering. In reality, it is proportional to (1/wavelength)^4. Using r=630nm, g=540nm and b=450nm I get relative intensities of r:g:b = 0.260:0.482:1. Also it seems Rayleigh scattering uses the MieScaleHeight parameter for scale height.

Absorption [ R G B ]

 * The amount of red, green and blue light absorbed.

''The following parameters are deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. Mie and Rayleigh scattering parameters should be used instead.''

Lower [ R G B ]

 * Colour of the atmosphere near the surface.

Upper [ R G B ]

 * Colour of the atmosphere near its top.

Sky [ R G B ]

 * Colour of the sky when seen from inside the atmosphere.

Sunset [ R G B ]

 * Colour of the sunset.

Beginning f or " YYYY MM DD HH:MM:SS "
Specifies a time before which the object doesn't exist.

The Beginning time may be provided as a floating point number, in which case it is interpreted an astronomical Julian date, or it may be provided as a quoted string, in which case it is interpreted as a Gregorian date.

If it is a quoted Gregorian date, YYYY MM DD = year, month, day (integers); HH:MM:SS = hour, minute, second (integers). Since version 1.3.1, Celestia converts these time-stamps into Julian Dates internally. A date to Julian Date and back converter can be found at the U.S. Naval Observatory.

BondAlbedo f
Available only in v1.7.0 or later.

The Bond albedo of the object: a number between 0.0 and 1.0 (black to white, perfect absorber to perfect reflector). This determines the temperature of the object.

BumpHeight f
Defaulting to 2.0, the f parameter defines the vertical scale of the Bumpmap.

BumpMap " filename "
A texture file (JPG, PNG, or DDS) used to generate relief.

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

BlendTexture bool
The " bool " argument is either true or false. BlendTexture is used with "Color" to colorize the surface texture image. The Texture's individual color channels are multiplied by the corresponding Color values.

Class " class "
Class of object: one of  planet moon spacecraft comet asteroid invisible . By default, Celestia assigns Class based on the object's Radius. It is used by Celestia's View Options menu and determines the color of the orbit path drawn for this body. You could assign an artificial satellite to the "moon" class so its orbit is displayed along with those of the true moons. An object with a class of invisible is not drawn. It can be used as an orbital barycenter, orbited by one or more visible objects.

Celestia 1.6.0 adds several new object classes. The complete list of object types is:

 * planet
 * moon
 * dwarfplanet
 * minormoon
 * asteroid
 * comet
 * spacecraft
 * surfacefeature
 * component
 * diffuse
 * invisible

Celestia treats planet, moon, dwarfplanet, minormoon, and asteroid as identical except for when showing labels and orbit paths in the 3D window, and object categories in the solar system browser. Whether an object is a planet or dwarf planet can be decided based on the criteria set forth in the IAU's 2006 resolution on the definition of a planet. Ultimately, it doesn't make too much difference in Celestia: the orbit and label of the body can be colored differently, but that is all. Asteroid is not a category officially defined by the IAU, but in Celestia this class is used for any natural, solid object that orbits a star and is too small to be a dwarf planet (i.e. it doesn't have enough mass to assume an ellipsoidal shape) and is not a comet.

A moon is a natural object in orbit around a planet. The distinction between moon and minor moon is arbitrary: Mars's two small satellites are both classified as moons, while dozens of objects of similar size orbiting the outer planets are minor moons. The minor moon class was introduced to eliminate the distracting clutter of moon orbits around the outer planets of the Solar System; a user now has a choice of whether or not to display the orbits of the swarm of rocks orbiting Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Comets are treated very much like asteroids, but are drawn with dust tails when sufficiently close to the Sun and labeled in a distinct color. Some objects in the Solar System have both comet and asteroid designations, such as Chiron. Such dual classification is not possible in Celestia.

Human-made objects traveling through space should be assigned the class spacecraft. In addition to affecting label and orbit color, slightly different information is displayed for spacecraft than for natural objects. The surface feature class should be used for buildings and other landmarks fixed to the surface of a planet, moon, or asteroid. Objects floating in space are rendered as points of light when they occupy less than a pixel on screen. This effect looks unrealistic for objects on the surface of a planet, and so it is disabled by default for surface features. The component class is used for parts of either surface features or spacecraft that are defined as separate objects in an ssc file. As with surface features, they aren't shown as points of light at a distance.

The diffuse class should be used for gas clouds, dust plumes, and the like. By default, diffuse objects cannot be selected by clicking. They are also not labeled or visible at a distance as a point of light.

Warning: LongLat does not place objects correctly when used with Class "surfacefeature" in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. Use FixedPosition [ x y z ] or FixedPosition { Planetographic [ Long Lat Alt ] } instead.

Color [ R G B ]
Colorizes the object when there is no texture. Also specifies the color of the albedo point when the object is too small to resolve.

R, G and B should have values between 0 and 1, inclusive.

CustomOrbit " orbit name "
Invokes built-in high-precision orbit computations, such as " vsop87-mercury ". CustomOrbit overrides EllipticalOrbit. If an invalid orbit name is provided, CustomOrbit is ignored.

For details, see Celestia/Trajectories, section CustomOrbit.

EllipticalOrbit { ...parameters... }
Defines an elliptical orbit (the generic case).

EllipticalOrbit parameters correspond to traditional Keplerian orbital parameters. A description of those parameters is in the Astrodynamics WikiBook, in its chapter on Classical Orbit Elements.

For more information, see Celestia/Trajectories, section EllipticalOrbit.

Eccentricity f
Optionally determines the shape of the orbit. In fact, the name EllipticalOrbit is a bit misleading since the orbit may be circular, elliptical, parabolic, or hyperbolic depending upon the eccentricity:
 * eccentricity = 0 -- circle
 * 0 < eccentricity < 1 -- ellipse
 * eccentricity = 1 -- parabola
 * eccentricity > 1 -- hyperbola

 * Note: An eccentricity of exactly 1 does not work in Celestia.

 * If Eccentricity is not provided, a circle is assumed.

Epoch f or " YYYY MM DD HH:MM:SS "
Optional, the Epoch of the orbital elements ( f, the date when they are valid, can be specified either with a number, which represents an astronomical Julian Date, or by a quoted string, which represents a conventional Gregorian date. If Epoch is omitted, 1 January 2000 is assumed.

For example, 2452583.763194445 # 2002 Nov 5 06:19UT (Galileo encounter) is the same epoch value as "2002 11 5 6:19:00"

Starting with Celestia v1.5.0, Epoch must be specified in TDB. See Celestia/Time Scales for more information about TDB and UTC.

SemiMajorAxis f
One of SemiMajorAxis or PericenterDistance is required. The Semi-major axis of the orbit is in astronomical units (AUs) for objects which orbit around Stars or Barycenters, kilometres for everything else.

Note: the SemiMajorAxis of an hyperbolic orbit has a negative value.

PericenterDistance f
Alternate for SemiMajorAxis, is in astronomical units (AUs) for objects which orbit around Stars or Barycenters, kilometres for everything else.

ArgOfPericenter f
Optional, the orbit's argument of pericenter, in degrees (measured from the ascending node). Specify either LongOfPericenter or ArgOfPericenter, not both. If both are specified, ArgOfPericenter is used.

LongOfPericenter f
Optional, the orbit's longitude of pericenter, in degrees. This is the sum of the argument of pericenter and the longitude of the ascending node. Specify either LongOfPericenter or ArgOfPericenter, not both. If both are specified, ArgOfPericenter is used.

AscendingNode f
Optionally defines the longitude of the point in its orbit where the orbiting body crosses the reference plane going "upward" or "northward". It is measured in degrees from the fundametal direction. If AscendingNode is not specified, a value of 0 degrees is assumed.

Inclination f
Optional orbital inclination, in degrees. It is with respect to the Ecliptic for the Solar System's planets, with respect to the primary's equator for everything else. Starting with Celestia v1.5.0, any of a number of different reference planes can be specified. See Reference Frames for details. If Inclination is not specified, a value of 0 degrees is assumed.

MeanAnomaly f
Optional, the object's mean anomaly for Epoch, in degrees. This is the time that has elapsed since pericenter, divided by the orbital period, times 360 degrees. Specify either MeanLongitude or MeanAnomaly, not both. If both are specified, MeanAnomaly is used.

MeanLongitude f
Optional, the object's mean longitude, in degrees. This is the sum of the longitude of pericenter and the mean anomaly. Specify either MeanLongitude or MeanAnomaly, not both. If both are specified, MeanAnomaly is used.

Period f
Required, the orbital period is given in Earth years for objects which orbit around Stars or Barycenters, Earth solar days for everything else.

For a closed, elliptical orbit around our Sun,

$$P = \sqrt{( q / ( 1 - e)) ^3}$$ or $$P = a^{1.5}$$

When defining an hyperbolic orbit around the Sun, set period to be

$$P = \sqrt{( q / ( e - 1)) ^3}$$

where:
 * $$P$$ is the period measured in years,
 * $$q$$ is the pericenter distance measured in AU,
 * $$e$$ is the eccentricity, and
 * $$a$$ is the semimajor axis of the orbit, also measured in AU, and which has a negative value for hyperbolic orbits.

Emissive boolean
Specifies whether the object should seem to glow (true) or should be illuminated by light sources (false). Its default value is false.

Emissive true objects are bright, but are not light sources. They do not provide any illumination for other objects or cause them to cast shadows.

Ending f or " YYYY MM DD HH:MM:SS "
Sets a time after which the object doesn't exist.

The Ending time may be provided as a floating point number, in which case it is interpreted the astronomical Julian date, or it may be provided as a quoted string, in which case it is interpreted as the Gregorian date.

If it is a quoted Gregorian date, YYYY MM DD = year, month, day (integers); HH:MM:SS = hour, minute, second (integers). Since version 1.3.1, Celestia converts these time-stamps into Julian Dates internally. A date to Julian Date and back converter can be found at the U.S. Naval Observatory.

EquatorAscendingNode f
Ascending node, in degrees, of the object's equatorial plane.

This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later.

FixedPosition [ f f f ]
Available only in v1.5.0 or later.

An orbital specification which positions the object at a fixed position relative to its OrbitFrame. See the page on orbits and trajectories for more information.

GeomAlbedo f
Available only in v1.7.0 or later.

The Geometric albedo of the object. This determines the brightness of the point used to represent the object when it is too small to draw. If set to 0, the object is never drawn.

HazeColor [ R G B ]
Removed in 1.7

Atmospheric haze colour. Only works for Nvidia graphics cards. In Celestia v1.5.0 one can use Atmosphere Mie and Rayleigh scattering parameters instead, which work for all graphics cards which support OpenGL v2.0.

HazeDensity f
Removed in 1.7

Atmospheric haze density, a number in the 0.0 to 1.0 range. Only works for Nvidia graphics cards. In Celestia v1.5.0 one can use Atmosphere Mie and Rayleigh scattering parameters instead, which work for all graphics cards which support OpenGL v2.0.

InfoURL " URL "
The URL of a Web page which describes the object.

LongLat [ Long Lat Alt ]
Obsolete Deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later

Previously used to define a place's position, in the object's reference frame. Long is the East longitude (in degrees), Lat its latitude, and Alt the altitude (in kilometres). Longitude is measured toward the East. West longitude can be specified as a negative value.

Warning: LongLat does not place objects correctly when used with OrbitFrame, SurfaceObject, or Object "Surfacefeature" in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. Use FixedPosition [ x y z ] or FixedPosition { Planetographic [ Long Lat Alt ] } instead.

LunarLambert f
Increasing this value changes the way light is scattered. Higher values cause more light to get scattered forwards. See the picture at right for an example.

More technically, it corresponds to the $$A$$ constant in the Buratti disk function: $$I/F = A \frac{\mu_0}{\mu + \mu_0} f(\alpha)+(1-A)\mu_0$$. A value of $$A = 0$$ causes this function to reduce to the Lambert scattering law, while $$A = 1$$ corresponds to Lommel-Seeliger (i.e. lunar-like) scattering.

The default value is 0.

Mesh " filename "
A 3D model file (cmod, cms, or 3ds) describing a non-spherical object. If no Mesh is specified, the object is assumed to be spherical. These files must be in a directory named "\models". A Texture may be draped onto the mesh. See the page on 3D Models for more information.

MeshCenter [ x y z ]
Offset of the mesh with respect to its center.

MeshScale scaleFactor
MeshScale is only used when an object has a mesh file and NormalizeMesh is set to false. It specifies the scale factor needed to convert the mesh's internal units into kilometers. For example, if the mesh file has coordinates given in units of meters, the MeshScale should be set to 0.001:

MeshScale 0.001

When NormalizeMesh is true (the default), MeshScale is ignored, and Celestia automatically scales the mesh to fit inside the sphere with a size equal to the value of the object's Radius property.

NightTexture " filename "
The night-side texture of the object (JPG, PNG, or DDS; use PNG or DDS for transparency).

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

NormalMap " filename "
A map of surface normal vectors used to describe the irregularities in the surface.

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

NormalizeMesh boolean
Specifies whether Celestia should apply automatic scaling and centering to a mesh file. This property is true by default.

Overriding automatic scaling of meshes is useful when creating multicomponent spacecraft which have their parts in different mesh files. Celestia's automatic scaling and centering can make it very difficult to get the components to align with each other. When NormalizeMesh is false, the mesh is scaled by an amount specified by the MeshScale property. The Radius property doesn't affect the size of the mesh; it effectively just gives the radius of a bounding sphere for the object. The add-on creator must take care to ensure that the Radius is large enough to contain the scaled mesh, otherwise the Celestia may skip rendering the mesh even at times when it is actually in view.

Oblateness f
The oblateness of a spherical object when no Mesh is specified. Oblateness is defined as 1 minus the ratio of the polar to equatorial diameters.

Obliquity f
The object's rotational obliquity, in degrees. The name of this property is misleading: obliquity is angle between the rotation axis and the normal to the mean orbital plane, but in Celestia this quantity is the angle between the rotation axis and the normal to the body's reference plane, typically the ecliptic for planets. Along with "EquatorAscendingNode", defines the axis of rotation.

''This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. The new rotation model syntax should be used instead.''

OrbitColor [ R G B ]
Changes the color of an object's orbit.

OrbitFrame { ...parameters... }
Available only in v1.5.0 or later.

An OrbitFrame defines the reference coordinate system for the other orbital parameters of the SSC object. See the page on orbits and trajectories for details.

Warning: LongLat does not place objects correctly when used with OrbitFrame in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. Use FixedPosition [ x y z ] or FixedPosition { Planetographic [ Long Lat Alt ] } instead.

Orientation [ angle x y z ]
Mesh orientation specified in angle-axis format.

Orientation is applied to the model before the rotation model. It is typically used to transform a mesh into a different coordinate system. Unlike the rotation model, Orientation does not affect the body fixed frame of an object.

angle in degrees (positive or negative)

x, y, z: 1 or 0 (1 designates the axis concerned)

example:  means 90° rotation on the x axis.

OverlayTexture " filename "
A texture overlaid onto the main texture (PNG or DDS for transparency).

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

Note: there is a bug in Celestia v1.4.1 which causes OverlayTextures not to be drawn when the OpenGL 2.0 render path is selected. They are drawn by the other render paths. This problem is fixed in Celestia v1.5.0.

PrecessionRate f
The axis or rotation's precession rate, in radians per day.

''This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. The new rotation model syntax should be used instead.''

Radius f
The equatorial radius of a spherical object, in kilometres. Also scales 3D models to the specified size.

SemiAxes [ x y z ]
Specifies the sizes of the three dimensions of an ellipsoid. These are the dimensions of the object if no Radius property is specified, and the relative sizes if one is specified (the SemiAxes values are multiplied by the Radius value). The radius shown in Celestia is the longest axis, not the average.

Rings { ...parameters... }
Description of an object's rings.

Inner f
The rings' inner edge, in kilometres from the object's centre.

Outer f
The rings' outer edge, in kilometres from the object's centre.

Texture " filename "
The ring texture (PNG or DDS for transparency).

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

Color [ R G B ]
The ring colour, when no texture is specified.

R, G and B should have values between 0 and 1, inclusive.

RotationEpoch f
The epoch of the rotation description (?).

''This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. The new rotation model syntax should be used instead.''

RotationOffset f
Celestia lines the object up with its prime meridian; the offset (in degrees) is the object's phase, in order for the textures and mesh to line up correctly.

This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later.

RotationPeriod f
The object's rotation period in hours.

''This object rotational parameter is deprecated in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. (see UniformRotation {})''

SampledOrbit " filename "
File of Julian date and xyz coordinates.

Takes priority over EllipticalOrbit.

For details, see Celestia/Trajectories, section SampledOrbit.

SampledTrajectory { ...parameters... }
Requires v1.5.0 or later.

Specifies a trajectory based on a file of Julian date / xyz coordinate records. SampledTrajectory is very similar to SampledOrbit with some added control over precision and interpolation.

Takes priority over SampledOrbit.

For details, see Celestia/Trajectories, section SampledTrajectory.

ScriptedOrbit { ...parameters... }
Requires v1.5.0 or later.

See Celestia/Trajectories, section ScriptedOrbit.

SpecularColor [ R G B ]
Colour of the specular reflection. SpecularColor must be specified if a SpecularTexture is used. Without it, no specularity is shown.

SpecularPower f
The intensity of the reflection; f must be a positive number with a value of 1 or more. Smaller values produce a larger, more diffuse spot, while larger values produce a smaller, more intense spot. SpecularPower must be specified if a SpecularTexture is used. No SpecularPower or a value less than 1 will cause Celestia's rendering engine to do strange things.

SpecularTexture " filename "
A .jpg, .png, .dds or .ctx image used to define areas with a specular reflection. White = reflective, black = dull. Requires both SpecularPower and SpecularColor.

For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

SpiceOrbit { ...parameters... }
Requires v1.5.0 or later.

See Celestia/Trajectories, section SpiceOrbit.

Texture " filename "
For more information, see the page Celestia/Textures.

A texture image (any of the filetypes PNG, JPG, or DDS) draped over the object's mesh or spheroid. An asterisk wildcard (*) may be used for the extension (e.g. Texture "mercury.*" ). Textures are rooted in the "\textures" directory, and sorted in three subdirectories: "\hires" for high resolution, "\medres" for medium resolution, and "\lores" for low resolution.

When looking for texture image files, by default Celestia looks first in "medres", then "lores", and finally in "hires". The keyboard shortcuts "R" and "r" change which directory is searched first.

Timeline
requires Celestia v1.6.0 or later (or build from SourceForge svn repository)

See https://celestiaproject.space/forum/viewtopic.php?t=12050 and Celestia/160Features

Provides a way to structure multiple, sequential objects as a single object. A space mission consisting of multiple parts can be organized with a single name.

UniformRotation { ...parameters... }
Available only in Celestia v1.5.0 or later.

UniformRotation replaces the older stand-alone SSC object rotational parameters by a block containing appropriate parameters describing the object's orientation. In addition to UniformRotation, blocks for FixedRotation, PrecessingRotation, SampledOrientation, and ScriptedRotation also are available.

An object's rotation is defined to be relative to its BodyFrame {}.

See the pages on Rotation Models and Reference Frames for details.

Visible boolean
Available only in Celestia v1.6.0 or later.

The setting of the visible property determines whether an object can be seen. This property affects the visibility of the object's geometry, label, and orbit path. The default value of Visible is true for all objects other than reference points. Usually, setting an object's visibility to false is only done if when it's expected that a user may run a script to reveal the object. Setting the visibility of a reference point to true is useful when you want its orbit and label to be shown (e.g. the Pluto−Charon barycenter in the standard Celestia 1.6.0 package.)

AltSurface " name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Used to define a set of alternate surface textures for an object, such as a "limit of knowledge" or "topography map".

" name "
is what shows up in the object's contextual menu in Celestia. This text need not be unique: the same name can be used for AltSurfaces of several different objects. When a particular AltSurface name is selected in the popup contextual menu for one object, the AltSurfaces with that same name are shown on all objects. If an AltSurface with the selected name does not exist for an object, the "normal" (default) surface is shown instead.

" object path "
is the full path of the object, including its own name, on which to draw this alternate surface. e.g. "Sol/Earth/Moon" would tell Celestia that this is an alternative surface for our own Moon.

parameters
An AltSurface's parameters can be any of the parameters which describe the surface textures of an SSC object. For details of each, see their corresponding entries above.

 * BlendTexture bool
 * BumpHeight f
 * BumpMap " filename "
 * Color [ R G B ]
 * LunarLambert f
 * NormalMap " filename "
 * OverlayTexture " filename "
 * SpecularColor [ R G B ]
 * SpecularPower f
 * SpecularTexture " filename "
 * Texture " filename "

ReferencePoint " name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Available only in Celestia v1.5.0 or later.

A ReferencePoint can be used to define an orbital barycenter. It's an invisible position around which other bodies can orbit.

" name "
The name of the ReferencePoint

" object path "
The path to the ReferencePoint, specifying the bodies around which it orbits.

parameters
A ReferencePoint is defined using those SSC parameters which define an orbit: CustomOrbit, EllipticalOrbit and SampledOrbit. See their definitions above.

OrbitFrame, FixedPosition, SpiceOrbit and ScriptedOrbit also can be used. See the page on orbits and trajectories for more information about these new parameters.

Only orbit and position parameters are used. Rotation and orientation parameters are not relevant and are ignored.

SurfaceObject " name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Available in Celestia v1.6.0 and later versions.

Use of the SurfaceObject keyword invokes several useful defaults:

 * The object's default OrbitFrame is the BodyFixed frame of the parent object
 * The object's default BodyFrame is topocentric, with its Z axis pointing toward the zenith, its Y axis pointing toward the parent body's North Pole, and its X axis pointing to the East.
 * The object's default Class is "surfacefeature"

Warning: LongLat does not place objects correctly when used with SurfaceObject in Celestia v1.5.0 and later. Use FixedPosition [ x y z ] or FixedPosition { Planetographic [ Long Lat Alt ] } instead.

Location " name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Location is an SSC directive used to designate a point of interest on an object in Celestia, such as Earth's major cities, where Pathfinder landed on Mars, or Apollo 11 on the Moon, etc. Celestia includes several .SSC catalogs of Locations, such as " _locs.ssc" in the "data" directory. The display of Locations is toggled by the "&" keystroke, and the "Render:Locations..." menu controls other aspects of their display.

" name "
The name of the Location

" object path "
The full path of the object on or near which the Location is to be placed, including the name of that object.

specify object path parameters

LongLat [ Long Lat Alt ]
Used to define a place's position, in the object's reference frame. Long is the East longitude (in degrees), Lat its latitude, and Alt the altitude (in kilometres). Longitude is measured toward the East. West longitude can be specified as a negative value.

Size f
the radius of the Location in km. Smaller sizes are not drawn until the viewpoint gets closer to them.

Importance f
alternative to Size

Type " string "
Celestia recognizes many of the two-letter topographical types defined in the USGS Gazetteer:
 * "AA" = Crater = a circular depression
 * "AL" = Albedo = geographic area distinguished by amount of reflected light - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "AR" = Arcus = arc-shaped feature - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "AS" = Astrum = radial-patterned features on Venus
 * "CA" = Catena = chain of craters
 * "CB" = Cavus = hollows, irregular steep-sided depressions usually in arrays or clusters - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "CH" = Chaos = distinctive area of broken terrain
 * "CM" = Chasma = a deep, elongated, steep-sided depression
 * "CO" = Colles = small hills or knobs - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "CR" = Corona = ovoid-shaped feature
 * "DO" = Dorsum = ridge
 * "ER" = EruptiveCenter = active volcanic centers on Io
 * "FA" = Facula = bright spot - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "FE" = Flexus = a very low curvilinear ridge with a scalloped pattern - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "FL" = Fluctus = flow terrain
 * "FM" = Flumen = channel on Titan that might carry liquid - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "FO" = Fossa = long, narrow depression
 * "FR" = Farrum = pancake-like structure, or a row of such structures
 * "FT" = Fretum = strait, a narrow passage of liquid connecting two larger areas of liquid - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "IN" = Insula = island (islands), an isolated land area (or group of such areas) surrounded by, or nearly surrounded by, a liquid area (sea or lake)
 * "LA" = Labes = landslide - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LB" = Labyrinthus = complex of intersecting valleys or ridges - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LC" = Lacus = "lake" or small plain; on Titan, a "lake" or small, dark plain with discrete, sharp boundaries - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LE" = Lenticula = small dark spots on Europa - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LF" = LandingSite = Lunar features at or near Apollo landing sites
 * "LG" = LargeRinged = cryptic ringed features - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LI" = Linea = a dark or bright elongate marking, may be curved or straight
 * "LN" = Lingula = extension of plateau having rounded lobate or tongue-like boundaries - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "LU" = Lacuna = irregularly shaped depression on Titan having the appearance of a dry lake bed - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "MA" = Macula = dark spot, may be irregular - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "ME" = Mare = "sea"; on the Moon, low albedo, relatively smooth plain, generally of large extent; on Mars, dark albedo areas of no known geological significance; on Titan, large expanses of dark materials thought to be liquid hydrocarbons
 * "MN" = Mensa = a flat-topped prominence with cliff-like edges
 * "MO" = Mons = mountain
 * "OC" = Oceanus = a very large dark area on the moon - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "PA" = Palus = "swamp"; small plain - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "PE" = Patera = an irregular crater, or a complex one with scalloped edges
 * "PL" = Planitia = low plain
 * "PM" = Planum = plateau or high plain
 * "PR" = Promontorium = "cape"; headland promontoria - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "PU" = Plume = cryo-volcanic features on Triton - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "RE" = Regio = a large area marked by reflectivity or color distinctions from adjacent areas, or a broad geographic region
 * "RI" = Rima = fissure
 * "RT" = Reticulum = reticular (netlike) pattern on Venus
 * "RU" = Rupes = scarp
 * "SA" = Saxum = boulder or rock - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "SC" = Scopulus = lobate or irregular scarp - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "SE" = Serpens = sinuous feature with segments of positive and negative relief along its length - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "SF" = Satellite = a feature that shares the name of an associated feature - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "SI" = Sinus = "bay"; small plain; on Titan, bays within seas or lakes of liquid hydrocarbons - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "SU" = Sulcus = subparallel furrows and ridges - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "TA" = Terra = extensive land mass
 * "TE" = Tessera = tile-like, polygonal terrain
 * "TH" = Tholus = small domical mountain or hill
 * "UN" = Undae = dunes
 * "VA" = Vallis = valley
 * "VI" = Virga = a streak or stripe of color - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "VS" = Vastitas = extensive plain - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "XX" = Other

plus a few longer categories:
 * "City"
 * "Observatory"
 * "Landing Site"
 * "Crater" (but "AA" is preferred)
 * "Capital" - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "Cosmodrome" - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "Ring" or "RG" - new in Celestia 1.7.0
 * "Historical" - new in Celestia 1.7.0

Editing Directives
Available in Celestia v1.4.0 and later versions.

An SSC file can be used to edit objects that were defined in previously loaded SSC files. You do not have to use a text editor to change their contents. This makes it possible for an Addon to update the SSC catalogs that are included in Celestia's distribution. You do not have to edit them manually every time Celestia is upgraded to a new version.

There is no Delete editing directive. However, one can use the Replace directive and define the undesired object to be Class "invisible"

The editing directives are

Add " object name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Add creates a new object. This is the default action if no edit directive is specified.

Modify " object name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Modify changes only the parameters listed in its block. Other parameters defined for the specified object are not affected.

Replace " object name " " object path " { ...parameters... }
Replace deletes all of the parameters associated with the specified object and replaces them by the new block of parameters.

Distance limits
SSC objects orbit around Stars or Barycenters.

Objects defined in SSC files cannot be seen when the viewpoint is more than 1 light-year from their Star or Barycenter.

Prior to Celestia v1.6.0, Stars or Barycenters could not be drawn reliably if they were farther than 16,000 light-years from the Sun. This limit resulted both from the Hipparcos catalogue parallax precision limit, of about 1 milli-arc-second, and from technical limitations within Celestia.

Starting with Celestia v1.6.0, the maximum distance is 10,000,000 light-years. However, star placement has an angular precision of about 1/10 of an arcsecond as seen from Earth. This is adequate for observationally derived data, but if you want to create a dense globular cluster, stars might end up getting stacked on top of each other because of the limited precision.

Related Topics

 * SSC update Celestia 1.6.0
 * SSC STC other update 1.6.0
 * SSC Trajectories
 * SSC Rotation Models
 * SSC Reference Frames
 * STC files
 * DSC files
 * CEL CELX language
 * Using JPL Ephemerides with Celestia
 * Textures
 * 3D models
 * Time scales

title: Celestia/SSC File


text:
User:Blacken~enwikibooks/Sandbox

Ed Ropple - B l a c k e n  - (Talk | Wikipedia talk) 06:12, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Blacken~enwikibooks/Sandbox


text:
User:Blacken~enwikibooks

Hey there. To avoid keeping multiple user page sets, I'd suggest that, if you're interested in me, you take a visit to my user page on Wikipedia.

Feel free to leave talk-page notes here, but I may not read them as quickly or reply if they're posted here. I'd recommend dropping them off here.

title: User:Blacken~enwikibooks


text:
User:Blacken~enwikibooks/C++ Concepts and Programming

= C++ Concepts and Programming = Authors

Table of Contents
1. Foreword

 * 1.1. A Mention of Wikibooks

 * 1.2. What This Book Is

 * 1.3. What This Book Isn't

 * 1.4. Some Common Terminology And Formatting

 * 1.5. Co-Authors and Contributor Forewords

2. Introduction to Programming

 * 2.1. Setting Up A Work Environment

 * 2.1.1. Windows

 * 2.1.2. Mac OS X

 * 2.1.3. Linux/BSD

 * 2.1.3.1 Debian

 * 2.1.3.2 Ubuntu

 * 2.1.3.3 Red Hat/Fedora Core

 * 2.1.3.4 SuSE

 * 2.1.3.5 Gentoo

 * 2.1.3.6 *BSD

3. An Introduction to C

A. Glossary of Terms

B. Further Reading


text:
User:Blacken~enwikibooks/C++ Concepts and Programming/Foreword

= Foreword =

"We actually thought of selling [the C programming language] to the Soviets to set their computer science progress back 20 or more years. Imagine our surprise when AT&T and other US corporations actually began trying to use Unix and C! It has taken them 20 years to develop enough expertise to generate even marginally useful applications using this 1960's technological parody, but we are impressed with the tenacity (if not common sense) of the general Unix and C programmer. In any event, Brian, Dennis and I have been working exclusively in Pascal on the Apple Macintosh for the past few years and feel really guilty about the chaos, confusion and truly bad programming that have resulted from our silly prank so long ago."

 * -"Ken Thompson," Creators Admit Unix, C Hoax, The VOGON News Service

Good news. The above quote is from a UnixWorld conference that never happened. That's good news for me, at least--otherwise, I'd be out of a job.

Welcome to C++ Concepts and Programming, an instructional text from the Wikibooks project. CCP, as it will be referred to within the text, aims to be a guide to quickly learn one of the most widespread programming languages in use today (and, in the process, a second). We aim to teach, not by throwing facts and information at the wall and hoping it sticks, but instead by light humor and human-readable explanations. We will focus on pragmatic teaching, not on the memorization of rote facts and technical jargon that is not necessary to become productive in the C++ programming language.

C++ is what is known technically as a multi-paradigm imperative programming language. If the buzzwords in the previous sentence made you reach for a comfort object--be it a nice fluffy teddy bear or a bottle of Jack Daniels--you can relax. Breathe deeply, it'll help. That description of C++ not only means absolutely nothing to most users of the language outside of a computer science lecture hall, but it commits the egregious sin of telling you nothing about the language itself, nothing that will help you become proficient in its use or learned in its concepts and methods.

In other words: unless this book is your textbook for a computer science class and your professor wants you to know what a multi-paradigm imperative programming language is, you don't need to know it. I'm certainly not quizzing you.

(You will soon notice that the main text of this book tends to veer wildly at times, from aside to further aside to far afield. At least, it will veer wildly, unless some of the more responsible members of the Wikibooks community--for a description of Wikibooks, see the following section--properly chastise me and clean it up to better fit a textbook standard. Which means that this foreword is likely the first thing on the chopping block. Que sera, sera. I consider a bit of a diversion, especially a humorous one, to help keep information fresh and clear in the reader's mind. As is often said in programming circles, YMMV--your mileage may vary.)

C++ is an exciting programming language, one that offers you the choice of how to accomplish your goals. As a superset of C (explained in detail later), you are able to use whatever C++ extensions and improvements that you wish to use in a program and eschew the others. C++, by design, offers you a wide array of tools. You can pick and choose among them, selecting some and leaving others on the shelf, as you see fit. Other languages, such as Java, lock you into a certain way of programming, a paradigm from which it is exceedingly difficult, or even impossible, to break out of without resorting to tricks that make programming harder. With C++, you do things the way you want to. And that's a powerful thing.

Happy hacking.

 * Edward Ropple
 * "Blacken" on Wikipedia/Wikibooks
 * November 10, 2006

A Mention of Wikibooks
CCP is a book written as part of the Wikibooks project. The Wikibooks project is a collection of free books and annotated texts that are written in a collaborative fashion on the Wikibooks website (http://www.wikibooks.org), which is part of the Wikimedia Foundation. The site is a wiki and any user can edit material on the site without their contributions being subject to review before being accepted. The site's content is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License, which makes the content freely accessible, with no limits on sharing it.

Wikibooks aims to be a place to build free, open-content textbooks for public use. There are books on everything from physics to organic chemistry to (obviously!) computer programming on the site, all in various stages of completion. These textbooks are legally bound to remain free and this has been added to that collection in hopes of being of use to its readers.

What This Book Is
CCP is designed to quickly bring the reader up to speed on the C++ programming language. By necessity, the reader will also become reasonably proficient with C, the predecessor language of C++, in order to progress to C++. It is aimed primarily at those who have never programmed before.

CCP attempts to teach using a version of C++ that adheres as closely to the C++ Standard as possible. Information is presented a simple step at a time, so as to allow the reader time to understand and digest it before moving on. In CCP we write about what we think is important and necessary for the reader to understand the language, avoiding trivia and information important, not in the process of writing software, but instead in the process of writing compilers. CCP is presented in a friendly, sometimes humorous, and non-threatening way to ease the reader into the world of computer programming.

What This Book Isn't
CCP is not intended to be a primer on computers and assumes a basic understanding of how computers work. Basic terminology, while often outlined in the Glossary, may not be explained in the text proper. CCP assumes understanding of concepts such as variables, as they apply to mathematics (not necessarily as they apply to computers).

This book is not an information dump of the data contained in any one programmer's head (or all of them). The C++ Standard documentation provides an excellent place to learn about things such as operator precedence--a table that no programmer really needs to know about beyond the basic "PEMDAS" set learned in arithmetic classes--and a book targeted at users new to the language is best off without it unless it seriously affects how a reader might write code as they learn.


text:
French/Lessons/Boule de Suif

Le Portrait de Boule de Suif
Lisez cet extrait tiré de Boule de Suif par Guy de Maupassant. Vous pouvez également consulter le texte entier de cette nouvelle sur Wikisource. La femme, une de celles appelées galantes, était célèbre par son embonpoint précoce qui lui avait valu le surnom de Boule de Suif. Petite, ronde de partout, grasse à lard, avec des doigts bouffis, étranglés aux phalanges, pareils à des chapelets de courtes saucisses ; avec une peau luisante et tendue, une gorge énorme qui saillait sous sa robe, elle restait cependant appétissante et courue, tant sa fraîcheur faisait plaisir à voir. Sa figure était une pomme rouge, un bouton de pivoine prêt à fleurir ; et là-dedans s'ouvraient, en haut, deux yeux noirs magnifiques, ombragés de grands cils épais qui mettaient une ombre dedans ; en bas, une bouche charmante, étroite, humide pour le baiser, meublée de quenottes luisantes et microscopiques. Elle était de plus, disait-on, pleine de qualités inappréciables. Aussitôt qu'elle fut reconnue, des chuchotements coururent parmi les femmes honnêtes, et les mots de « prostituée », de « honte publique » furent chuchotés si haut qu'elle leva la tête. Alors elle promena sur ses voisins un regard tellement provocant et hardi qu'un grand silence aussitôt régna, et tout le monde baissa les yeux à l'exception de Loiseau, qui la guettait d'un air émoustillé.

Questions de compréhension
''Voilà le portrait de l'héroïne éponyme de la nouvelle de Guy de Maupassant. Répondez en français aux questions suivantes par des phrases complètes.''

1. Que veut dire « embonpoint » ? 2. À quoi la figure de Boule de Suif est-elle comparée ? 3. De quelle couleur sont les yeux de Boule de Suif ? Quel autre adjectif Maupassant utilise-t-il pour les décrire ? 4. A votre avis, quelles sont les « qualités inappréciables » dont parle le narrateur ? 5. Quels mots furent chuchotés ? 6. Quelle est la réaction de Boule de Suif quand elle entend ces mots ? 7. Que veut dire le surnom de l'héroïne, « Boule de Suif » ? Comment traduiriez-vous cette expression en anglais ?

Je vous mets les réponses aux questions mais ne les regardez pas avant d'y avoir répondu, ce serait sans intérêt.

1. Embonpoint signifie l'état d'une personne assez grasse. 2. La figure de Boule de Suif est comparée à une pomme rouge. 3. Les yeux de Boule de Suif sont noirs. L'autre adjectif est "ombragés". 4. - 5. Les mots qui furent chuchotés sont "prostituée" et "honte publique". 6. Elle a un fort caractère, elle lance un regard agressif envers ces personnes et est fière de ce qu'elle fait ("hardi"). 7. Elle est surnommée "boule de suif" pour son embonpoint. Son surnom est dû à ses formes arrondies et à son physique gras, (le suif étant la graisse animale ou végétale servant à la fabrication de certains produits tels que le savon et au traitement du cuir). En anglais : Suet Ball.

Vous pouvez corriger mes erreurs s'il y en a et compléter la question 4.

Être au passé simple
Notice the expressions elle fut reconnue and furent chuchotés. The words fut and furent are in fact the verb être in the past historic tense, which is reserved for books, newspapers and other works of 'literary' type. Memorize the following conjugation: There are of course other examples of the passé simple in this extract.

La description du portrait
In French, a portrait is often characterized by the use of the imperfect tense (if the narrative is in the past tense) and adjectives which agree with the thing they describe. The portrait of Boule de Suif is a perfect example of this.

Activités écrites
1. '''Rédigez un portrait de quelqu'un que vous connaissez bien. Comme Maupassant, vous décrirez les deux côtés de cette personne'''. Write a portrait of someone that you know well. Like Maupassant, describe two sides/aspects to this person.

2. 'Lisez le texte entier de Boule de Suif''. Ensuite, faites-en un court résumé.' Read the entire text of Boule de Suif''. Then, write a short summary.

3. '''Faites des recherches sur l'auteur de cette nouvelle, Guy de Maupassant. Rédigez le texte d'un discours que vous pourriez présenter à une classe de lycéens. N'oubliez pas d'inclure les dates et les évènements importants de sa vie.''' Research the author of this short story, Guy de Maupassant. Write the text for a speech that you could present to a class of high school students. Don't forget to include the important dates and events of his life.

Qu'est-ce que c'est que la nouvelle ?
Voici la définition de la nouvelle, tirée d'un article sur Wikipédia. Une nouvelle est un genre littéraire basé sur un récit de fiction court en prose, pouvant aller jusqu'à une trentaine de pages (mais il n'y a pas de règle absolue). Contrairement au roman, il est centré sur un seul événement. Les personnages sont peu nombreux et sont doués de réalité psychologique bien que celle-ci soit moins développée que dans le roman. Traduisez le passage ci-dessus en vous appuyant sur le vocabulaire suivant :
 * la nouvelle - short story
 * le récit - story, tale
 * la trentaine (de pages) - about thirty (pages)
 * l'évènement (m) - event
 * douer - to endow

Le réalisme
The short story Boule de Suif, by Guy de Maupassant, is considered an example of 'realist' writing. Maupassant himself was considered a major figure in French realism. The movement includes such writers as Honoré de Balzac, Gustave Flaubert and Maupassant himself. Here is once again Wikipedia, describing the Realist writer: L'écrivain réaliste s'oppose au romanesque. Ce qui l'intéresse sont les faits de l'homme. Dans l'œuvre du réaliste, il y a absence de jugement, de moralité. Il veut donner la vision la plus complète de la réalité. L'effort d'impersonnalité vise l'objectivité. Il se retire ainsi de son livre (évite le je). Le réaliste est comme le disait si bien Maupassant : un illusionniste. Il s'intéresse beaucoup aux détails physiques et physiologiques. Il ne fait que décrire des faits et n'intègre aucune émotion, l'émotion que ressent le lecteur est uniquement dû au fait et non pas à l'écriture. Questions de compréhension 1. À quoi l'écrivain réaliste s'oppose-t-il ? 2. À votre avis, que veut dire « évite le je » ? 3. Quel nom Maupassant donne-t-il au réaliste ? 4. Expliquez, en vous appuyant sur cette citation, ce qu'écrit l'écrivain réaliste.

title: French/Lessons/Boule de Suif


text:
User talk:212.219.118.154

Thanks for experimenting with Wikibooks. Your test worked, and has now been removed. Please use Sandbox for any other tests you want to do, since testing material in modules will normally be removed quickly. Please see the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing to our project. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 09:26, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:212.219.118.154


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User talk:62.253.219.157

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 13:22, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:30, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:62.253.219.157


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Ancient History/Indian subcontinent/Mehrgarh Culture

The Indus Valley Civilization was not the first settled culture in the Indian subcontinent. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of an earlier one called the Mehargarh culture. Mehargarh is in present day Pakistan. The site is in the Baluchistan province. It is about 125 miles from the Indus Valley. The site was first occupied around 7,000 or 8,000 B.C. It started out as a small village. The initial settlement practiced farming and raised crops, including wheat. As the community grew, farming continued, but the economy expanded and large scale trading began. Evidence shows that it traded with peoples far to the west. The goods included turquoise, cotton, and copper. Commerce was carried on with places as far away as Arabia.

By 5,000 B.C. the Mehargarh people were living in mud brick houses and then built large permanent dwellings. Trade was the main aspect of the economy. The Mehargarh culture continued to exist well past 4,000 B.C. Hence it must have traded with the Indus Valley Civilization, which was in existence by then.

A French archaeologist named Jean Francois Jarrige has participated in the excavations around Mehargarh. Many of his digs took place from 1974 to 1985. He also did some field work there in 1990 and later; in 2002 Jarigge gave a presentation on evidence (such as carbon dating) to show that the Mehargarh culture began at least around 7,000 B.C. He showed slides of artifacts and gave a lecture at the Islamabad Club Auditorium.

Jarrige found a burial place with 30 graves. Most of the remains were of females of ages 18–22. Jarrige also discovered clay pots, ornaments, buildings, and other items.


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User talk:213.249.155.228

Welcome to Wikibooks. We invite everyone to contribute constructively to our collection. Take a look at the welcome page if you would like to learn more about contributing. However, unconstructive edits are considered vandalism, and if you continue in this manner you may be blocked from editing without further warning. Please stop, and consider improving rather than damaging the hard work of others. Thanks. -- Herby talk thyme 14:52, 10 November 2006 (UTC)

title: User talk:213.249.155.228