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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers/Accountability

One of the many barriers to education in America is accountability. The ability to show other people that you are capable of doing what they expect you to be able to do is the basic definition of accountability. While some positives may be found in the holding of teachers and schools accountable, it must be done in the right ways. Unfortunately, we spend more time and resources on testing than we ought. We also interrupt the teaching process with testing and test preparation. Teachers are under an increasingly mounting burden and prospective teachers are dropping like flies.

Why Accountability? Why Now?
In the industrialized nation, the trend of business leans heavily on the quantitative measures of productivity. In the United States, it has become something of an obsession. The structuring and organizing of American business is based substantially on efficiency and accountability. In recent years, we have seen not so much a spill over but a flood of these ideas into modern educational practices. The U.S. is a nation in which it is important to be able to show RESULTS, and if those results cannot be seen, then a change is necessary.

So They Have to Take a Test. What's the Problem?
The problem is that Americans care more about the testing and the results of the testing than about whether students have in fact absorbed the knowledge. One major problem with using tests is the that form of the test is prejudiced toward those who have trouble taking tests. The tests do not in any way take into account different learning styles. The test assumes that all people simply learn by rote memorization. Educators have known for years that this is the lowest level of the mental processes that involve learning. The more effective learning styles are completely overlooked by standardized testing. The other learning styles include: verbal-linguistic, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic (Cooper, 2007). Also, disabled students are required to be accountable for the same information as nondisabled students. (Thurlow, 2005). The accommodations allowed by most states include only situational changes to the process of taking the test, not to the content of said evaluation. This being said, a school with higher a than average special education population could be held to a standard that is unfair due to the discrepancy in the average intelligence of the students in the school. Yet another problem in testing includes the fact that the test takes place in May with a month left to go in most of the schools. Simple mathematics says that you still have one eighth of the school year left when you take the test. In addition to the problems in testing, there are also true barriers to education caused by the testing craze. There isn’t enough money in the school budgets to hire new teachers, but there is plenty of money to hire more proctors for the testing. Because of this, schools have had to cut back on educational expenditures and increase their money spent on testing. It has become about the test and not about the subject. Virginia Beach City Public Schools has had to cut budgetary allowances for everything from technology and telecommunications to books and supplies and bus drivers (Virginia Beach City Public Schools, 2007). However, the amount of money spent on testing has remained relatively constant.

Parents Taking Control But Not Responsibility
According to the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) web page, parents of students in schools that do not meet the required benchmarks will be allowed to enroll their children in an “alternative school of their choice” (U.S. Department of Education, 2004). The parents have the right to expect their child to be successful in education and the right to the resources to make that happen. The NCLB puts a lot of accountability on the teachers and the schools to do well. What Americans fail at with their talk of accountability is to put it where it belongs: on every single person involved in the education of a child. Start with the student. Work your way up. After the student, you have the parent, then the family, and then the community. Only after all of these other groups, should accountability of the schools and the teachers be taken into account. Without parental involvement, students are much more likely to fail at academics than with even a minimal amount of support from family. Many families believe, as NCLB does, that the responsibility of education lay with those paid to do the job. The teachers. Some law makers are finally starting to realize the importance of parental participation and accountability with a bill designed to make it easier for parents to be involved by giving them time off to do so (Long, 2007).

Accountability and Merit PAY
Over the years, the phrase merit pay has become something of a four letter word in many educational circles. Merit pay is the idea that, as an educator, if you are good at your job you should make more money. If you are not good at your job, you should be held accountable for your failures. There are many problems with this idea. What happens to a teacher who works in an inner-city school with students who have no desire to do well and no reason, as they see it, to try? What happens to the teacher in a situation where the students realize the power they have over that teacher's life? The problem is, the system of accountability is too objective to work for something needing so subjective an evaluation.

Conclusions
In conclusion, there are many ways in which accountability can be a barrier to education. When Americans allow bureaucracy to get in the way of education, when testing and evaluation takes precedence over instruction, and when it is placed on too few people and/or organizations, accountability can become a burden instead of a tool. With the right implementation, students, parents, and educators can work together to achieve higher levels of learning. However, with even one of the legs of this table not being strong and able to the task, the whole will fail.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Discipline

Working with students for the past several years has raised many questions when it comes to discipline. Now only a year away from becoming a licensed teacher and with classroom experience in hand I begin to wonder what my main concern will be. Is it actually the discipline or how the classroom is run that brings on the issues of discipline? Discipline as defined in Webster’s Dictionary is "field of learning, training, and conditioning to produce obedience and self-control, as a result of punishment...” We are teaching and training our students and yes, we expect that our rules and codes of conduct produce obedience and self-control. But are the punishments that go with discipline really effective. Therefore, the question that I must determine as a teacher is what techniques and skills must I research and need to know in order to keep my classroom under control?

What Makes Discipline Difficult
The two most important issues are the lack of support from the school administration and parents. Jim Garbarino, a Cornell University Professor and author of Raising Children in a Socially Toxic Environment states2, that there’s a feeling among educators that “erosion of adult authority” in today’s society makes it much more difficult for teachers and other educators to do their job. It seems that teachers have to make and establish their own rule of authority because parents and adult figures are not teaching the traditional cultural foundations for the students to build on. When parents depend on the teacher and the administration to handle discipline with no backing from them, the students are more likely to continue bad behavior and challenge the teachers. We all know that students should know the basic concepts of respect and self-control, but when it is not taught or modeled in their home environment, then the training of good behavior becomes the teachers’ responsibility on top of the teaching process.

 The National Education Association is a great link to for reviewing discipline issues and many other topics. The greatest thing about reading this is that you begin to find out good teachers, think alike. When you read you will see that you have probably already been using many of the techniques.

A non-supportive school administration will make it very hard to establish a strong and effective classroom management plan. It really is pointless to send a disruptive student to the office, to only have them back in your classroom ten minutes later. As a teacher you should make your classroom management plan very clear to your principal and other school officials that would handle discipline issues. Let them know what you expect from your students and help them to understand your technique of running the classroom. Be sure they are willing to support your beliefs and know that they will follow through should they be needed.

What Works
Classroom management is important. If you have your classroom strategies down in writing, are consistent in following them and make sure you always have more planned than not enough, then your students will be less likely to find time to cause disruptions. From the start of the first day of school and for the entire school year, you must take control of your classroom. Students, parents, and your administration should know right from the start where you stand on running your classroom.

There are many styles and techniques used in classroom management and each individual teacher must set their own procedures, routines, goals and values. Strong techniques that are win-win situations and based on simple principles of organization and cooperative learning include:

Always have Lesson Plans Ready
By being prepared and having things ready the night before gives the teacher a stronger hand on being able to be available to the students and parents as soon as they walk in the door every morning. Why could this work?
 * Students can be greeted every day the same way.
 * The teacher will beware of which student is in a good mood or bad mood. This will mentally prepare the teacher for the situations to come.
 * Students are on task with the classroom objectives for the day and everyday.

Develop Monthly Learning Groups
Each group developed for the month, work each assignment as a team. They are responsible to complete the daily objectives and projects as a group. Each group has a rubric to follow that is based on points that covers cooperation, behavior and objectives. A group cooperative certificate is issued for the most successful group of the month and a teacher luncheon is earned. This way of classroom management could work because: This style of learning is discussed in-depth through the “Kagan Style of Cooperative Learning”3 but the key to group learning would be the sense of accomplishments and responsibility that each student shares by helping others in areas they are not strong in. And lastly, it would give the teacher a stronger handle on the sure of harder to handle students. Regrouping the students on a monthly basis will also build stronger control for designing groups that will help different students at different levels.
 * Students learn to work together as a team.
 * Students get to learn different cultural styles and beliefs.
 * Having a group focus channels excess energy into productive learning as a group because of the responsibly level of each team member.
 * Different levels of strengths and weaknesses help them learn to work new strategies to get the work done.
 * Positive peer pressure to accomplish the group goals by following the rubric is very strong.
 * Student’s work harder to earn the end of the month reward.

Parent Communication
Just as students and administration need to know your classroom management techniques, so do parents. If you want parents to support you and any possible discipline issues that may arise then they need to know what your expectations are. You can do this by:
 * Going over and sharing expectations, procedures, routines and style during open house.
 * Develop a parent, student, teacher contract that will be given out the first day of school. This needs to be signed by all parties.
 * Develop a classroom newsletter that keeps parents informed of what is happening.
 * Design a website so parents can contact you.
 * Offer a monthly family night get together but fun and educational.
 * Offer a parent tutoring night – teach the parents what students are learning.
 * Be available to the parents.

One on One Discipline Techniques
Although, classroom management might one key to running a well-organized class, there will be discipline issues that need to be addressed. How to handle different situations are challenged everyday for example, Thomas Gordon, creator of Teacher Effectiveness Training did not agree with Canter’s Assertive Discipline Concept. But, both techniques have been effective in different ways because no two students are alike and each student needed to be handled in a different manner.

Many techniques will be learned strategies that you as a teacher will develop as you become more versed at teaching. But I also believe that based on your values and ethics in the classroom and possibly your parenting skills all of these will play a key role on how certain discipline situations will be handled. Here is a list of some positive discipline techniques, some learned from my readings and some developed through experience.

 * Remind, Don't Scold
 * Redirect, with a reminder to what is at task. This can be done as a whole class or on the individual level.
 * Group example: “Class the bell has rung, you should be in your groups working on your journal entry.”
 * Individual example: "Mary, please redirect your attention to the front of the room."

 * Tattle Tale Can
 * This is the most annoying issue in the classroom. Use redirection.
 * Example: First, ask the student if the person involved is actually injured or needs assistance, if no, then direct the student to write down the problem and put it into a can. At the end of the day ask anyone if they have any issues. Most of the time the issue has been forgotten.
 * Just in case it has not - Tell the students involved you would like to have a conference. Set it up during recess for no more than 5 minutes. Let the students involved discuss the problem and only offer suggestions that are considered right choices for both of them.

 * Hand Signals
 * Make the student aware that you know that a wrong choice is being made through a specific hand gesture.
 * Example: Mark is sitting sideways in his chair playing with Maria’s paper on Maria’s desk. You quietly look at him and touch your nose so that he knows you need him back on task.

 * Don't Threaten or Argue
 * Be firm on what is expected. Ask them what the right choice is based on the classroom policy.

 * Praise, Praise, Praise
 * Make sure that this very important technique is positively incorporated into your classroom.
 * Praise is every student’s ultimate goal — make the teacher happy!

 * Plan, Plan, Plan
 * Over planning will keep the students busy.
 * If you do find yourself in a downtime. Turn it into a quick regrouping game: (this example is based on that the class knows "Regroup Time" and what the reward is for participating.)
 * Example: Have a group of boxes with different subjects available--they can have basic SOL Questions in them. Call out "Regroup", each group leader will run to the boxes and grab one. Once back at their table the teacher will ask one group to ask another group a question from the box. The group asked will have 10 seconds to answer the question. If correct they win a group point.

Again, There are so many wonderful techniques that can be used and discussed but the most important thing to remember is do they work for you, is it right for the student, and will it work in the classroom. Trial and error makes for a some day-harmonized classroom.

Conclusion
There will always be students and situations that need to be corrected but I do believe that if we run a well managed classroom that is supported by the school administration, and parents, then the classroom will cooperate and run more smoothly. Most importantly by building your curriculum and classroom structure based on goals, routines, procedures and the cooperative learning concept the discipline issues will be minimal and your classroom will be an enjoyable environment where the students want to learn and have fun learning.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Isolation

Teachers across the country are being heavily recruited by numerous school systems. Programs such as Teach America are striving to bring young teachers into some of the worst school environments in the country, meanwhile other school systems are offering big money to bring in the right kind of talent. Regardless of where a teacher may land, their goal remains the same. To teach. In many cases teachers are met with budget cutbacks and a school system filled bureaucracy, teaching is not just a simple act anymore. With the numerous teaching positions available, teachers simply move on to another district or another school when things turn sour. While there are numerous reasons for teachers to move on, teacher isolation is a major concern. If the education system in America is ever to be turned around then the retention rate of teachers must be improved and decreasing isolation is a key to this happening. Teachers often find themselves isolated from others, isolation can occur because of numerous factors. These factors include: Race, gender, grade level being taught, etc. But what exactly is isolation?

Isolation
Isolation is "the process of separating somebody or something from others, or the fact of being alone and separated from others" Besides the obvious social causes of isolation (race, gender, age etc..), isolation can also come from work related issues as well. In California alone 22% of teachers left after their first four years in the classroom (Futernick). In the poorer schools, ten percent of teachers transfer to other schools each year. There are numerous factors that can lead to isolation, one being the overwhelming responsibilities that new teachers often face. New teachers are faced with an entirely new faculty, a new school bureaucracy, and pressures to teach a curriculum entirely based on standardized testing (SOLS), not to mention the pressure from parents. All these factors can cause a new teacher to feel extremely overwhelmed and quickly lose faith in the education process. While isolation can occur at any level of work experience, it is the new teachers that are extremely susceptible to this, as they feel that they are the only teachers suffering through this. The 22% that leave after four years prove just how harsh the first years of an educational job can be. One of the major causes of stress for new teachers is finding a successful combination of what they feel is important while maintaining the correct SOL-based content in order for their students to pass the standardized testing standards created by the No Child Left Behind Act.

No Child Left Behind, Teaching to the Test
No Child Left behind was intended to raise the quality of education in the United States. The policy installed new tests and education requirements for new teachers. In order to access and then raise the bar the government mandated standardized testing for all students. If the school improved then federal money is made available to the school district. However, if schools fail to meet the national standards for two years in a row, then it must give the students the option to transfer to another school. Obviously the decision is a fairly easy one for school systems and that is to prepare the students for the standardized tests. The overall success of this program is disputed. The government states that nine year olds have improved their reading level more in the past five years then the previous twenty eight years (www.ed.gov). In addition, a recent report shows that math skills are also improving on elementary age children. There have been some concern with the equality of testing. Individual states develop the test for their schools. If their scores fall below national benchmarks then they could simply alter the tests in hopes of improving scores. New teachers often come in ready to change the world however they are met with a thick line of red tape and instructions on what and what not to teach. In order for teachers both new and old to combat isolation they must network with each other on a very small and a very large scale.

Coworkers and Mentors
A key to combating isolation is to bond with the fellow coworkers. Granted, the human factor will keep all teachers from getting along together. Teachers share a lot in common and for the new teachers they can be a great source of knowledge and guidance. While at work, teachers can lean on each other for help and support, outside of work teachers can talk about their days and their frustration. Just talking to someone who knows what you are going through is a great way to relieve stress and lessen the feeling of isolation. On a national scale, teachers have large support groups and unions. Mentoring is quickly becoming the preferred method of combating isolation, as there is no additional cost to the school and the program promotes faculty unity (Heider 2005). In many schools in the Virginia Beach district have developed a Buddy System, though there is no official designation, where teachers are paired up with other teachers in their grade level. The teachers who have been paired up have scheduled that parallel each other, which allows the teachers to have time during Recess, Physical Education and Lunch to discuss matters with each other.

The Buddy System
Other ways the Buddy System has come into play within the schools are New Teacher Support Programs. Schools are realizing how important it is to support new teacher's by giving them access to veteran teacher's within the school. They are able to go and ask questions, seek guidance and meet in discussion groups to help them cope with the isolation that so many teachers feel today. There is a "Sink or Swim" (Moir) momentum that many school systems are trying to change. "New teacher support programs improve retention and teaching simultaneously".(Moir) Veteran teachers and administrators have come to realize that "teachers need the opportunity to think and talk with each other on a sustained basis about the day-to-day life of the classrooms. They need to investigate and analyze questions that feel urgent, troubling, exciting, useful, or in some other way consequential to them, given the circumstances of their individual schools and students.  Serious conversation about shared work is always a powerful resource for the people doing the work".(Barnes) Like other professions such as Doctors and Lawyers who have the benefit of a work force that collaborates, teachers need the same support for their field as well. Without it, the isolation of the classroom can become the end of a teachers career.

Unions
Unions offer teachers with a great source of news and information about issues that matter most to teachers. These unions hope to gain enough force to actually influence legislation bot on the local and national level. The National Education Association (NEA) is one of these groups. The NEA is composed of employees from all across the country and range from preschool right on up to the collegiate level. The group pushes for increased education funding, tax cuts for teachers as well as student issues such as a decrease in the interest rate for subsidized college loans. The education unions have pushed for increased and equal pay rates for teachers, as well as defended teachers who may have found themselves fired or otherwise incriminated. These unions are meant well and can provide a lifeline to teachers in their darkest hours. But these unions in fact make it harder for many teachers to succeed.

The Problems with Unions
Unions have pushed for equal pay across the board, of course this depends on level of education, and years of experience but outside of that the pay is fairly equal. The education system completely ignores the merit system, where what a person earns depends on how they perform. "This is because unions insist on uniform pay for all teachers regardless of ability. Teaching is not an assembly line where workers come in shifts and are interchangeable. It is a highly specialized profession that requires tremendous adaptability. And more than that, it is far too important a job to pretend that educators are all equal" (Hemmingway). Granted, teaching often depends on students. If a teacher is blessed with an extremely bright group of students then they could like a fantastic teacher without teaching. Reversely a teacher could work their tale off with a difficult group of kids and look like a failure. The issue of merit pay is extremely controversial, however the fact is that the pay grades are so set in stone that a brilliant teacher could find themselves making the same amount as their less qualified coworkers.

Conclusion
Combating isolation is a fundamental challenge for all teachers, but most importantly new ones. Though there are a few ways to combat isolation, the most effective method eschews the different Teacher Unions and looks to coworkers to form important peer bonds with which to build a solid network of assistance (Heider 2005). However, it is ultimately the teacher in question to look for this assistance, as networking and peer systems only work when those involved work with the system, and not against it. Teaching is a difficult profession, and were the teacher in it for the money they would fail in the end as the drive to break the bonds of isolation and the desire to balance the stress in order to reach the students would not be great enough. Other teachers understand this, and are willing to help anyone who wishes to join them in their quest to educate today's youth. New teachers need only ask for the assistance and be willing to listen.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Student Dynamics

When organizing a successful classroom, student dynamics is one of the most important key element to factor into the classroom equation. This process is extremely difficult due to the wide variety of learners in the student pool. First time teachers are faced with differences in culture, race, gender, social class, advanced students, inclusion students, physically disabled, and the list continues to mind boggling proportions. There are educators that support “solutions” to the problems in student dynamics such as separating the genders, advanced classes, and isolating student economic factors. These attempts have been made, but the dynamic factors still remained as a top element in the structure and maintenance of the classroom, and its impact on learning.

The different dynamics of a classroom are in a constant state of flux. A teacher, be it a first year teacher or a thirty year teacher, cannot predict the student dynamics of a classroom before entering it. When a classroom is finally set up to the teacher’s liking there are always the unexpected factors that occur. Some of these factors come in the form of new students, student social change, loosing students, and mental state of the student. Each new change creates an entirely new dynamic structure which needs to be dealt with in a manner of understanding and acceptance. “Frustration, misapprehensions, and inter-cultural conflict are a more likely outcome if teachers do not deal with diversity in a sensitive manner” (Roux 2001). Each individual that enters the classroom brings their own personality and preconceptions of other dynamics.

Dangers Of Stereotyping Students
Society’s preconceptions are mired with stereotyping, and pre-judging students in regards to their race, gender, and social class. Stereotyping can occur from the students as well as from the school professionals. It is the classroom teacher’s job to make sure that these influences do not manifest themselves in the classroom so as to foster a more ideal learning environment. “Studies that focus on the dynamics of classroom interaction report that teachers discriminate against students who are not white, male, and middle class” (Garcia 1984). These discriminations are not based on a prejudice of race or gender, but rather it is based on low education expectations due to preconceived stereotypes. Society is pushing towards the norm of a white male middle class. Any student that does not fit this description are sometimes considered as an unfavorable element in the classroom.

To escape this trend, educators need to remain open minded towards each of their students. The students entire personal makeup needs to be considered. Educators would not consider a Mennonite or an Amish child being as disadvantaged as a child from a poor home. Both types of students may be coping without the middle class necessities, such as electricity, but it is the poor child that will be held in a prejudged contempt by certain sectors of society. “Through my experience, many educators cannot cope with the idea that students exist without running water and/or electricity in their homes. Some teachers think that there is no reason to make a child live without these necessities. They do not take into consideration that this is a free country and people can choose to live the way that they want to, but it seems that middle class standards are the main standard of comparison towards their students in schools today” (Griffin 2002).

Educators need to take steps in understanding the whole student, so that preconceived stereotypes can be replaced by an understanding of each students unique social position. Not all students have a bed or a table in their house and not all have a parental figure in the home for many hours of the day, but society has a preconceived notion that this is common place in every American household. The economic status of a student needs to be considered when examining the classroom dynamics and its learning structure. “After the influence of the family, researcher James Coleman concluded 40 years ago, the single most important factor determining student achievement is the socioeconomic status of the school a child attends. In a large-scale government-sponsored study, Coleman found that all children do better in middle-class schools—whatever the schools’ racial makeup“ (Kahlenberg 2006). Classroom discrimination does not end with the economic status of a student, but extends to their race, religion, academic abilities, and countless other differentiating factors.

Fostering Educational Growth In Students
If a student does not receive the proper guidance and mentoring, then the student may never desire to succeed at their education. The proper mixture of dynamics in the classroom is essential to instill and foster educational growth among all types of learners. Without this influential mixture from other culture, gender, and social classes the student body as a whole would suffer. Each dynamic has value to offer to the other dynamics. Embracing a diverse classroom helps educators to avoid furthering ethnocentrism. “Most humans by choice or necessity seek out others who feel, think, and believe as they do, especially for intimate social and personal relationships” (Garcia). It is ethnocentrism that has given educators the issues of clicks. Clicks can be applied to any group or tight knit unit of people who have a common bond due to a shared dynamic. Breaking down the barriers erected by clicks is hard, but it is necessary to create a diverse yet conductive educational atmosphere for all students.

Gender Separation
Some educators consider mixing the genders in the classroom to be the strongest area of concern. Males and females are treated differently even if on a subconscious level. Often, educators can be quoted with statements such as “He’s hyper because boys will be boys” or “She’s quiet because girls are shy and withdrawn”. These labels have been applied consistently by society, even if unconsciously, and these labels have long-term effects on students outside of the classroom. “The negative messages teachers imply can have several effects on female students. When combined with social influences, they can lead female students to expect less of their abilities, whereas; beginning in middle school, male students begin to show a higher self-confidence in their intellectual and career abilities” (Barnett 1991).

These factors have led some education institutions to separate the genders into different classrooms and in some cases into different schools. This is not a new concept as it has been used by many private schools throughout educational history. Can this concept work in the classroom and be conductive towards educational goals? Some preliminary research seems to support separating the genders in the public education sectors. Starting in 1999 the Jefferson Leadership Academies (Long Beach, Los Angeles) became the first public middle school in the country to offer separate classes for boys and girls. Educators found that girls started to have more self-confidence in the classroom, while boys started to have less negative in-class behaviors. “Student grade point averages for students who had previously attended Jefferson in either grades 6 or 7 increased for all students, male and female, in both grades 7 and 8 under the single gender academy configuration” (Sharpe 2000).

Keeping the genders together is also seen as a necessary component in the development of young learners. Students need to develop their adaptive learning and behaviors in a wide variety of situations that they will eventually face in the adult world. Development of these skills begin at home, but are supported in the education environments. Separating the genders may lead to a deficiency in these skills. “Some programs that are based on social and emotional learning theories show great promise in providing a solid foundation of social skills aimed at helping children to cope with many challenges in their lives” (Elias 1995). The educator needs to balance both academics with social and emotional development. This is considered by many as the wider range of responsibility for educators towards their students. Middle school children seem especially prone to experiencing difficulties in these areas of gender relationships. This may be due to the onset of puberty. Some schools of thought centers on the idea that gender separation should occur only during the middle school years, while others maintain that any separation is detrimental to the development of the student.

Advanced Learners In The Classroom
Separating the students do not stop at gender and economics, but also delves into the realm of academics. One particular aspect of academics that needs to be examined is in regards to the advanced learners of society. There are some educators that maintain having a strong mixture of higher and lower functioning academic students in the same classroom is necessary. This stance is based on the belief that the lower functioning students will benefit and advance to higher standards by being in the same environment as an advanced learner. This is also considered important for the socialization development of the advanced learners.

The need then turns to creating an environment that will foster ideal learning for all academic levels in the classroom. Recent emphasis has been placed on “No Child Left Behind Programs,” but this may be hurting our more advanced learners by not challenging them enough in the regular classroom. “Unfortunately, instruction in the regular classroom setting is generally not tailored to meet their unique needs. This situation is putting gifted students at risk of failing to achieve their potential. Achievement scores are below what might be expected from our brightest population provide the evidence” (Archambault, Brown, Emmons, Hallmark, Westberg & Zhang 1993).

Regular classroom instruction may be failing our advanced learners, but it is our new generation genius’s that may be suffering academically the most. When considering this possibility, one has to consider if the child is gifted or truly at genius level. One way that the public school systems have helped genius level students in the past have been separate education programs, skipping grades, or helping students to advance to college when and if appropriate. Not every school system adheres to these methods however. One reported case in Longview, Texas involved a fourteen-year-old girl who was comfortably above an IQ of 145. “Many school systems are wary of grade skipping even though research shows that it usually works well both academically and socially for gifted students--and that holding them back can lead to isolation and under-achievement” (Cloud 2007). The school system was apprehensive of skipping her in grades even though she was performing about three grade levels higher than her peers. The hesitation stems from the educational need to support social and maturity growth.

Conclusion
Educators need to set up classrooms that are innovative to every aspect of the learning dynamics. Some of the education processes that have been tried and true in the past may now be defunct. Classroom teachers need to be not only versatile in their application methods, but also at being open minded to extreme differences in the student dynamics. School systems need to make preliminary changes, but the implementation of these changes have to occur with the classroom teacher. Society also needs to allow for these changes to occur, but this acceptance depends upon society’s need to let go of preconceived stereotypes. “If we tend to teach as we were taught, and if society resists school change, then how can teachers make significant classroom innovations” (Hunter 1977). It has been a long process to reach all dynamics of the student population but the process is far from complete. Student dynamics does impact learning and it will be up to dedicated teachers to try and reach every student that enters their classroom.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Motivation

Teaching is one of the most important professions today. An individual’s education is an essential part of his or her life, that can help shape their outlook on their future. In today’s classroom, keeping children motivated is a main concern for educators. The curiosity and aspiration of students to learn can result from different instructional strategies and various factors in and outside the classroom setting. Teachers should keep in mind that making a positive impact and helping to mold a child’s future is a huge responsibility.

Categories of Motivation
Motivation stimulates the interest of students and inspires them to take part in classroom activities. There are two categories which educators should be familiar with during their teaching process. Intrinsic motivation comes from within individuals, often from the enjoyment for personal goals they have set for themselves. Students with intrinsic motivation are more likely to be excited about completing their assignments for the challenge, and not for any type of incentive. Extrinsic comes from students who are encouraged by rewards, such as stickers, candy, recess or extra credit. Even though intrinsic strategies are most often recommended, teachers should keep in mind that they should build upon both types of motivation in order to achieve the most success .(Brewster & Fager, 2000).

Instructional Strategies
A child’s desire to learn seems to get smaller as they grow older. There are a variety of strategies that a teacher can utilize to help his or her student’s stay motivated. Assignments should be challenging, but not so difficult that the student will not be able to achieve completion (Lumsden, 1994). In order to avoid being overwhelmed and discouraged, a large task could be broken down into smaller assignments (Brewster & Fager, 2000). When assigning a task, instructors should remember to verbally state the purpose (Lumsden, 1994). Expectations need to be clear, with examples of low, average, and high level work (Brewster & Fager, 2000). One should often provide instruction which is self-paced and allow students various choices for assignments (Fisher, 2003). Children need to realize that there are often many times when there is more than one right answer (Theroux, 1994). It is also important for teachers to show their class how certain skills can relate to their lives outside of the classroom (Lumsden, 1994). They should be able to make connections and feel that their work is valuable.

Project Based Learning
Project-based learning could be incorporated into the curriculum to allow students to share new knowledge with their classmates. A driving question would be asked to make the children wonder and want to participate. Teamwork and problem-solving could provide students with more than a regular lecture (Fisher, 2003). If a teacher used technology in his or her classroom, then different computer programs could present information in an attractive and interesting way. Individuals would also be able to use the computers to complete a project and have pride in their finished product (Theroux, 1994). Another strategy an educator could consider would be the attribution retraining process. Practice exercises, socialization, and providing models can help discouraged individuals want to learn. It would be beneficial to instruct students to retrace their steps to find mistakes instead of giving into the thought of failure (Lumsden, 1994). In addition to the attribution retraining process, evaluations could be given after assignments are completed. Such feedback needs to be clear. Educators who keep in mind a child’s “basic psychological and intellectual needs” have been noted to be the most successful (Brewster & Fager, 2000). Any one strategy may not be suitable for the classroom as a whole. Individual students are motivated and learn in different ways and paces. Therefore, teachers need to realize that their strategies may have to be changed frequently to meet each student’s needs.

Factors Affecting Motivation
Educators should also be aware that there are other factors which can affect a student’s motivation. The classroom environment plays a large role in one’s learning. It is said to develop the initial attitudes that students have toward their educational career, the classroom should have an atmosphere that acknowledges the differences of individual students. Teachers need to create a climate where their class feels a sense of belonging (Lumsden, 1994). According to Allison Heath, a teacher in Prince George County, Virginia, “respect should be a two way street. . . if a student feels valued, then they are more than likely to be more motivated to take part in class activities” (personal communication, September 17, 2006). With respect established, meaningful relationships can be formed to possibly result in the student feeling a connection with their school. Teacher’s beliefs and understandings are other factors which affect the motivational atmosphere (Brewster & Fager, 2000). Ms. Heath goes on to say that “as a teacher, I think it is important to make sure that my students know what expectations I have of them,” during the course of the year (personal communication, September 17, 2006). By talking to students individually, eagerly answering questions, and frequently incorporating students' thoughts into the lesson, teachers can encourage his/her students' motivation (Brewster & Fager, 2000).

Home Environment
Instructors should also be aware of how each student’s home environment can limit motivation. The level of parental control has been associated with the level of achievement within a child’s classroom (Fisher, 2003). Especially in today’s society, many parents seem to be involved in their job and do not have time to talk about their child’s school day or help them with homework. Unfortunately, some children come from abusive or low income families and their classroom is their only source of comfort or belonging. Former science teacher, Joyce C. Specter, noted the importance of current teachers having an open mind about the circumstances some students may be dealing with at home. She found that she “needed to let them know that they were an important part of [her] life, since [she] could possibly be their only positive role model” (personal communication, September 16, 2006). It is critical for teachers to try to involove parents in order to help them create or sustain the student’s motivation to participate in the learning process (Lumsden, 1994).

Genders
Genders can also effect motivation. Research suggests that boys receive more negative teacher feedback concerning failure to follow directions, whereas girls receive more positive feedback concerning compliance. Males may be discouraged when they receive negative feedback from the teacher. Females usually are praised more when good things are done. This may be because females interact more with teachers and try harder to please teachers than males do. Gender differences in teacher relations are generally less apparent in early grades like elementary, middle, and junior high school and are fairly consistent by high school (Morgan, 2001). Another reason of this may be because females tend to enhance their social skills when interacting with teachers. This pattern of increasing consistency in gender differences in students' motivation to work with teachers across grade levels suggests that these gender differences are at least partially an outcome of differential socialization practices.

Effects of Motivation
Once motivation is properly established, it can have a positive influence on students' lives. Differences in attitudes and an increased energy start to show (Fisher, 2003). Through various strategies, students will begin to feel more confident about being able to learn new concepts. Teachers should see students putting forth more effort and signs of thinking more deeply. Instead of taking part in an assignment of low level difficulty, students may choose more challenging tasks. With encouragement, individuals will be more likely to complete assignments, rather than giving up when they assume failure. They should be more prepared for daily activities and find material more interesting. Ultimately, teachers should notice that the motivational strategies can lead to higher grades and a higher possibility that students will want to learn outside of the classroom setting (Brewster & Fager, 2000).

Conclusion
In the world of education, the probability of knowing that one will succeed is important to an individual. In order to succeed, students need to have motivation to participate in learning. There are a variety of strategies and actions teachers can implement; however, educators should always remember that everyone has different learning styles and ways of being motivated. The various strategies can, in some way, help students in their learning process by eliminating the boredom of repetitive assignments or lectures. Teaching is a profession with a great task of being able to stimulate the minds of children, which includes gaining their interest and making them a positive part of one’s life.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues/Positive Discipline

The primary reason teachers quit teaching is because of the frustrations of trying to control, lead, and guide the dynamics of their classroom. This is one of the many reasons teachers are concerned about discipline in their classrooms. Another obvious reason for concern is that it's easier to teach and learn in an orderly, constructive atmosphere.

The word "discipline" is often associated with negative visions of spankings, punishments, or the strict conformance to an overbearing set of rules. Is there such a thing as "Positive discipline"? The following introduces applicable preparation methods and techniques that are used to address behavioral issues in the classroom. Many tenure teachers use these methods to successfully optimize their classrooms for an effective, efficient, positive teaching and learning experience. First we will define reactive management as that which is controlled, guided, or dominated by corrective responses to behavioral problems. As a solution, teachers work on preparation and supporting behavior that causes efficient teaching and learning.

Before we discuss these ideas, we need to define the term prosocial. Prosocial behavior is constructive, positive, encouraging, considerate, kind, and respectful. One of the biggest communication barriers between students and teachers is that teachers assume the students know prosocial behavior. Discipline that is guided by corrective action or reaction responses to behavior problems has at least three damaging effects. One, setting rules, then having punishment or threats of punishments implies that the student has a option. The option is to obey, or disobey and suffer the consequences. If the threats or punishments don't work to enforce the rules, the only recourse for the teacher is increasing the severity of the punishment. In the classroom, prosocial behavior must be understood to be obligatory, not a personal choice or an option. Prosocial behavior is the classroom standard and it is to be practiced until it is learned. Two, written and verbal rules are too abstract and are external. Children internalize them only as their social relationships develop (Reimer, Paolitto, & Hersh, 1983, pp.39-42). Children see morality as justice and don't internalize justice as adherence to rules. Prosocial behavior must be taught, we cannot passively rely on a child's natural empathic feelings or sense of justice to automatically develop into good behavior (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989, p. 6) Teachers must teach the attitudes that fuels prosocial behavior instead of promoting an unending list of rules. Three, rules lead children to bypass the fundamental idea of respect. If children are focused on a set of rules, instead of the bases for the rules, students justify misbehavior that isn't addressed on the list of rules.

The framework for Disciplining to prosocial behavior is built by preparing the physical, instructional, and managerial components of teaching. Although there are times that a teacher must react with corrective interventions, preventive, and supportive interventions are always preferable, for both the student and the teacher. These ideas will be discussed below and developed into a practical, applicable guide for positive classroom discipline. The teacher hones and optimizes each component by continued preparation and reflection.

Preventive Intervention to Prosocial Classroom Discipline
Being prepared is the key to preventive intervention. Early on, teachers should become familiar with the schools procedures and policies. Teachers can also get to know their students by reviewing their records. Know the challenging students along with the exemplary ones. There are countless books and articles on case studies of social problems that occur in the classroom. One way of preventive intervention is being prepared for the student's behavior. The teacher must get on top of the situation. Planning classroom movements to lunch, recess, special periods, rest room etc. are just a few items that can be prepared for prosocial behavior. Remember, preventive means making decisions ahead of time. There are also physical or material preparation that can be done with the classroom (such as the seating arrangement) that create a safe, constructive facility for learning. Providing structures, thought out lesson also helps to guide constructive class time.

Supportive Intervention to Prosocial Classroom Discipline
How can teachers support and promote prosocial behavior during the class period? They can actively lend assistance to help students learn prosocial skills. Teachers also need to model the behavior they expect from their students. Students need instruction on what to do, but it's just as important to give them ongoing help to achieve success. This is a difficult discipline for some teachers to practice. Maybe its human nature that adults seem to overlook or ignore correct behavior. It might be helpful to keep a record of the times that desired behavior occurs by recognizing the incident and complementing the students.

Schools as a whole also have a part to play in promoting prosocial behavior among students, according to Kidron and Fleischman. Schools can train teachers to integrate value-based lessons into their classroom management routines. The authors suggest giving students a say in class decision making or assigning academic tasks to pairs or small groups of students to bolster students’ understanding of democratic principles. Schools can also foster a caring community by encouraging members of the school community -- teachers, school administrators, cafeteria workers, and school bus drivers -- to model caring and respectful behavior. Schools can best encourage prosocial behavior by using consistent positive disciplinary practices that include clear expectations, discussions, and modeling. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, a program distributed by the U.S. Department of Education, has shown that implementation of a similar program can improve students' behavior and academic performance (Kidron & Fleischman, 2006).

Reflecting or Correcting Prosocial Classroom Discipline
Along with the above mentioned techniques to preventative discipline you must also have a designated set of rules and procedures in the event something does happen. These rules should be clearly visible to the students and reviewed every few weeks to check for understanding (Lavay). This may not sound like it is preventative but letting the students know what will happen if they break the rules can be a deterrent for some students and lead to better classroom behavior. When a student does break the rules it is important to maintain the rules. There should be no exceptions and the teacher should “stick to their guns” when it comes to the appropriate procedure. If the teacher is lenient to one student the other students will see that and try to take the same leniency that the teacher showed the other student (Lavay). Quick and effective discipline for one student will stop future behavior problems from other students.

It needs to be understood, that no matter how much preparation or guidance is done, there will be need for corrective action for misbehavior. Teacher shouldn't internalize this as failure, but as a reality that comes with teaching. Don't take it personally, and don't make it personal. It's business, and it's part of the job; handle it professionally by diffusing the situation and minimizing the disruption to the lesson plan.

There are nonverbal, verbal, and physical responses. There are also methods and policies for reacting to more serious problem behaviors. Sometimes no response is the best response. Don't make a big issue out of a small, isolated event. Another nonverbal response is catching the student's eye, without others noticing, and shaking your head or finger as a signal of disapproval. Also, another way is to move closer to the student as you're lecturing, sometime teacher proximity can rectify the situation. The idea is to keep the continuity and efficiency of the classroom, and maintain teacher and student dignity.

Verbal responses can be done by talking to the student in a tone that others can't hear and express your disapproval of their behavior. Another way is by addressing the student directly and publicly or by addressing the classroom as a whole. Keep your cool, don't scream or raise your voice, be professional. Remember, the "push" or persuasion is for you to lose your cool, and temper. This disrupts the classroom and loses your respect with the students.

In very rare incidents, humor can be used to resolve the issue. More often than not, humor will complicate the dynamics of the student, teacher relationship and end up doing more harm that good. Never use sarcasm. After the teacher has developed a relationship with the student, understands their background and character, a teacher might venture out and test the waters by using humor to address some behavioral issues.

There are also physical responses to behavioral disruptions. Never strike a student! A student can be relocated within the classroom (maybe beside the teacher's desk). Remember that a student that has lost their temper or is throwing a tantrum needs to be calmed. Avoid saying things that fuel the fire. Diffuse the potential physical situation by letting them cool down. Challenging them causes the situation to eventually come to a head, and everyone loses. There can be consequences to their behavior after they have cooled down and had time to adjust their disposition. For more serious problems (guns, knives, etc.) consult your school policy and resources (on sight police, counselor, physiologist, etc.) available to help with potential extreme violence.

Tips for Classroom Discipline

 * It's easier to get easier
 * Teachers have to have good classroom management and discipline from day one. Then you can get easier as the year goes on.

 * Fairness is key
 * If you expect to be respected, you must be fair to all students.

 * Deal with disruptions with as little interruption as possible
 * Deal with them immediately and with as little interruptions to the class as possible.

 * Avoid confrontations in front of students
 * Deal with discipline issues privately so they do not "lose face" in front of their friends.

 * Stop disruptions with a little humor
 * Sometimes a good laugh will help get things back on track in the classroom.

Conclusion
In addressing discipline problems in the classroom, it's important that teachers are able to laugh at themselves. Managing a classroom is difficult. Teachers aren't failures because of the social problems that occur in their classroom. Social problems occur in the military, government, business, church, special interest groups and families. When dealing with any group of people, you will be dealing with social problems. Take these issues into perspective, by not internalizing or taking them personally. Address it professionally by structuring a positive classroom discipline using three components. First, be prepared. Second, instruct, assist, promote, and practice prosocial behavior in the classroom. And third, review past successful practices of reactive intervention when misbehavior occurs. Each teacher can succeed by optimizing each component with continued preparation and reflection. If it was easy, everyone would be a teacher.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/Interchangeability

"If a teacher gets hit by a bus, can another smart and well-prepared teacher replace the first one and achieve similar learning outcomes with the students?" asks The Teaching, Learning, and Technology (TLT) Group in a recent blog. At first glance, this question is startling. The depiction is harsh, but the point is clear: no one wants to be the kind of teacher who, for whatever reason, can be easily replaced. Likewise, a teacher is trained in his specific content area: not to be tossed from one subject to the next with very little consideration of his background.

Out-of-field teaching is a problem in the United States. Interchangeable teachers, who teach subjects they are not certified for, comprise about one fourth of the teachers in public middle and high schools across the United States ("One fourth of classes have out of field teachers"). Is the education system harming its students with under qualified teachers or is a certified teacher in one subject able to effectively teach a host of others?

Why Out-of-Field Teachers?
Schools want their students to succeed, so why then would they allow the use of out-of-field and uncertified teachers to continue? Whether they hold certification in a certain subject or not, some teachers simply excel. Their students thrive and the school sees no reason to replace them with a certified teacher. In other cases, it is more expensive to hire a teacher specifically for every subject in the school. For less money, a teacher certified in a science can also teach another. Though school systems are insisting that schools become more creative in hiring qualified teachers for quality learning, schools complain that teachers who are willing to work part-time is difficult and distance learning has not yet been proven effective (Chaika).

What The Statistics Show
So which teachers are teaching subjects outside of their certified areas? Schools in underprivileged areas, rural areas, and where minorities exceed fifty percent of the population have statistically the greatest number of out-of-field teachers ("One fourth of classes have out-of-field teachers). Science and math teachers are suffering the most in both the aforementioned schools and all other schools.  Twenty-eight percent of all math teachers lack even an equivalent to a minor in math, while eighteen percent of science teachers are missing such preparation.  In addition, science teachers are shuffled from subject to subject, regardless of certification, to make up for the critical shortage of science teachers (Chaika).  Out-of-field teaching is not confined to only math and science, however.  Nearly eighteen percent of social studies teachers and twenty-two percent of English teachers in high schools lack, at the very least, a minor in the subjects (Chaika).

However, holding a college degree in a particular subject is not the only factor that should be involved when accessing a teacher's quality. That is only the minimal requirement and does not insure that a person can actually teach the subject (Ingersoll). Taking classes on instruction and actual teaching certification should also be important factors as to whether a teacher can teach.

The Teachers' Opinions
There are many sides to the issue of out-of-field teachers, from the views of the students to the mandates set by the government. One of the most important opinions though, must come from the people who are put in the position to teach a subject that they are potentially not equipped to. Many schools look for teachers up until the very last second and, upon finding no one, do not cancel the class, but simply hand the subject over to another instructor. This person may not have any background in this subject and finds himself unprepared once school start. These teachers often use the textbook as a crutch. They will not be able to as easily or thoroughly teach the material or answer student questions because they do not have the preparation. Sometimes, a teacher may not even like the subject he is teaching (Chaika). If a teacher does not have a passion for his subject, how can he possibly instill a desire to learn the subject in his students?

Even when teachers do not mind their out-of-field assignment, there are a number of obstacles to overcome in order to effectively teach the subject. For instance, many schools will not pay for sending their teachers back to school to take classes. Therefore, if a teacher decides to go back to school, he is most likely to obtain an advanced degree to increase his earning potential (Chaika). In addition, school systems do not offer adequate support to out-of-field teachers. They do not provide additional material on the subject or allow teachers the time to learn the subject or how to teach it on their own. A teacher has been trained to teach his subject, not a subject randomly assigned to him. Therefore, in addition to obtaining knowledge about the new subject, he also must learn how to teach it (Ingersoll).

The Government Weighs In
The No Child Left Behind Act required all states to insure that their teachers were "highly qualified" in their respective subjects by the 2005-2006 school year. The U.S. Department of Education defines a "highly qualified" teacher to be one who earns a bachelor's degree, is certified in the state in which they teach, and prove that they know the subject. This would ultimately get rid of all out-of-field teachers. In 2004, responding to complaints from the states, it was modified to allow certain flexibilities. Rural and science teachers were given extra flexibility. Rural teachers were given three years to be certified in each additional subject they teach. Science teachers can now be certified in a "broad field" or in each individual area of science ("New No Child Left Behind Flexibility"). However, one in four schools failed to meet the NCLB standards by the 2005-2006 deadline. These schools face losing government aid. Additionally, schools receiving poverty funding from the government can potentially lose administrators and instructors who are removed by the federal government (Ohlemacher).

Conclusion
Now one returns to the scenario of the bus. In his blog, Steve Gilbert wonders whether it is "something to brag about" if all instructors are interchangeable ("Bus Test vs. Embarrassment Test"). If a school is able to pass the "bus test," does that make it successful in the eyes of the government or the students? Is it more important to have a teacher who can instill a passion for learning his subject in students or should students get the most basic, mediocre learning experience?

Very few states prohibit the use of out-of-field teaching, even after the No Child Left Behind Act—but Virginia is among them (Chaika). If school systems stop using out-of-field teachers and, instead, use teachers that are certified for the classes they teach and, in turn, have a passion for that subject, the passion for learning might be absorbed by their students.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/New Teachers

Finding effective, efficient teachers is the goal of all school systems. However, new teacher recruitment and retention seems to be a growing problem for many parts of our country. According to research “over the next decade, the United States will need to hire 2 million teachers due to rising enrollments, increasing retirement rates of current teachers, and high rates of attrition for beginning teachers.” (Darling-Hammond 254) With the amount of new openings becoming available, some schools may become desperate to hire new employees, and this may lead to unqualified teachers taking some the positions. This type of hiring poses a problem for the school systems since in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) there are “regulations requiring that all teachers in core academic subjects be ‘highly qualified’ by 2005-2006.” (Liu 324) To realize the implications of the NCLB and to understand the practices of school systems currently, a few core questions must be analyzed. The questions are: How are school systems currently recruiting and selecting the new teachers that are needed? Once hired, how are school systems defining the roles of new teachers, and how are these new teachers being trained? Once a new teacher is hired, it is important that the individual understand what is expected of him/her, and for retention purposes, it is important that some amount of training is given. This chapter will discuss in greater detail the answers to the hiring and selecting, defining roles, and training questions.

Recruitment and Selection
As mentioned previously, schools may, and in some cases have, become desperate enough to higher teachers who may not be qualified. Linda Darling-Hammond and Barnett Berry, in an article titled Recruiting Teachers for the 21st Century: The Foundation for Educational Equity, have found in their research “in 1994…27% of new entrants to public school teaching had not completed the requirements for a state license in their main assignment field.” (257)  This type of selection is not occurring due to the lack of new teachers entering the working world. In fact, Darling-Hammond and Berry found that “only about 65% to 70% of newly prepared teachers obtain jobs after they graduate, and many report that they cannot find jobs.” (258) How is the hiring process conducted in a way that allows unqualified people to take positions that certificated teachers could fill?

Quality Teachers
Good teachers make the difference in the life of a child and can make the difference in the school by being a creative individual. That teacher could add to the solution rather than create yet another problem. Simply assisting students toward becoming successful in the classroom helps them to become successful in the workplace. Unfortunately most school systems aren't seeking an individual who will be creative, nurturing or encouraging instead, they will look at the status of their education and check to see if they are within the guidelines of a highly qualified teacher.

Hiring Process
There are several reasons that new teachers do not find jobs within the educational realm, and why unqualified personnel are hired. First, we will look at how districts can organize the hiring process. The first approach is the centralized approach. In this method, “administrators at the district office carry out most of the hiring activities, … typically rely on standardized procedures for processing large batches of applications, and tend to use generic job descriptions, standardized interview protocols, and/or criteria for evaluating candidates. (Liu 332) In the case of centralized approach, Edward Liu and Susan Moore Johnson found in their research that this leads to many districts hiring a teacher based on his/her general qualifications and will find him/her a specific school at a later time. (332) The second approach is a decentralized one. In this method, the schools are allows to carry out their own hiring procedures. This tactic allows for a much more personalized interview, and also allows the candidates and the schools more contact with one another. (Liu) Most hiring is done through a combination of centralized and decentralized approaches.

Liu and Johnson studied the various methods of hiring between four states in their report titled New Teachers’ Experiences of Hiring: Late, Rushed, and Information-Poor. The top reason that these researchers came up with for fully certified teachers not to be hired by the school system was actually on the part of the districts’ hiring process. The reason is timing. Most teachers in the four states studied, according to Liu and Johnson, were hired one month before school started, and some were hired after school had already begun. (Liu 345) Due to the late timing, most qualified teachers may have already taken jobs elsewhere, whether in education or in business. The reasons for the delay in job offers include: not being able to predict enrollment rates accurately; budget decisions may be state or municipality; any transfer processes of tenured teachers must be complete before hiring new teachers; and the district personnel offices or systems are poorly organized, inefficient, or dysfunctional. (Liu 352) Whatever the cause, these issues make it hard for qualified teachers to be hired within the schools or their choice.

"Highly-Qualified" Teachers
As of the 2005-2006 school year, all teachers were expected to be what No Child Left Behind called, “highly-qualified” teachers. A “highly-qualified” teacher is defined as a teacher who has met the state’s licensing and certification requirement and meets all necessary criteria. The criteria are that the teacher must possess a bachelor’s degree in the subject he/she chooses to teach, pass a state given test that gauges the knowledge the teacher holds in their chosen field, and must pass a test in any other subject they plan to teach. For example, if Mr. Jones has a bachelor’s degree in both science and math, then he must pass a science and math state test in order to be able to teach both subjects. All teachers must meet the NCLB standard of “highly-qualified” teacher’s, even the experienced ones (Wikipedia). NCLB allows for experienced teachers to show their subject competency through a program called HOUSSE, or High, Objective, Uniform State Standard of Evaluation, in which states are able to create another way for teacher’s to demonstrate their competency (“New NCLB”).

Roles
Whether the teacher hired is qualified or not, there are still certain roles that he or she must fill. Everyone knows the basic role of a teacher is to be a teacher. To teach is “to show or help (a person) to learn (how) to do something” (Agnes 1468) such as a skill or trait. This role is most commonly thought also as being a lecturer. However, this is not the only role that school districts want their teachers to fill. Other roles include demonstrator, listener, a person who empowers (Holtrip), and a disciplinarian. Dr. Stephen Holtrip, a professor at Huntington University in Huntington, Indiana, gives other examples of the main roles that teachers must take on in his statement, “Obviously, teachers wear many hats: friend, counselor, judge, mentor--hundreds of roles and different roles for different classes, students, and extra curricular duties.”

As if the above listed duties are not enough, teachers are also expected to be collaborators with their colleagues, learners of new ways to instruct, and secretaries of the paperwork that is required of them. With all of these roles placed upon new teachers, its no wonder that the stress of the job can get to some of them. In addition to the stress of taking on the roles, there is also no, or very little, training that is given to new inductees.

Training
Training for new schoolteachers is almost non-existent. The training that is given is usually limited to a district orientation or occasional workshop. Linda Molner Kelley uses a good simile in her article Why Induction Matters, “Although other professions provide transitional assistance for new members, … historically the education profession has ignored the support needs of its new recruits and has been described as ‘the profession that eats its young.’” (438) The type of training that new teachers can received through a good induction program can actually increase the chance of retention and low attrition rates.

Partners in Education
Kelly examines a program named Partners in Education (PIE) offered through the University of Colorado of Builder. The PIE program “emphasizes reflective teaching practices, individual mentoring from an expert teacher each week, frequent networking with other novice teachers, and inquiry-based graduate study tailored to each teacher’s professional needs and classroom situation.” (Kelley 440). The steps listed above make the PIE program well-rounded, and also help the future teachers to learn cooperative thinking, as well as reflective and creative. The different ways to solve a problem will help novice teachers to be able to fit in most of the roles expected of them. Mentoring is probably the most helpful item in the above list. Mentors can coach new teachers in areas such as classroom management, lesson planning, and disciplining.

In fact, Kelley states that the PIE mentors are expected to assist the PIE teachers in areas such as “short- and long-term planning, developing standards-based lessons and authentic assessments, differentiating instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners, creating classroom communities, and collaborating with colleagues and parents.” (443). Induction, when coupled with mentoring as the PIE program is, is an effective way to help new teachers fit in more comfortably to their new roles once hired by the school system.

Conclusion
Hiring new teachers is becoming a larger concern for many school systems in the 21st century. Being able to shorten the hiring process to offer more jobs to new teachers in the spring will help to ensure quality teachers will take the positions that are open. Once these new teachers are hired, however, training is required for the teacher to hit into his/her roles, which will help to decrease attrition. With school systems being able to retain highly qualified teachers, the students will be the most benefited through the enhanced process.

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Selection processes, for new teachers, for all LEVELS of Education, needs to immediately stop and rethought. Teachers, Educators, are the most important part of any youths, development and subsequent contribution, to the society, from whence they came. Like, Plato, before expressed a need to ensure not only a HIGH COGNITIVE ABILITY, but possess an ESSENTIAL, INNATE EMPATHY for all mankind. Our Educators need to be recognised as PROFESSIONALS of equal necessity as LAWYERS, DOCTORS & so on.

Innate empathy, intellect, creativity, and a natural ability, become immediately apparent upon placing ' prospective educators', in scenarios imitating the classroom situation. Engagement, apparent, enjoyment, and set outcome, discussions reveal the essence of most. Interviews & roleplay, have proven the best at ensuring the intellect, empathy and innate talents. of prospective Educators are revealed, prior to study. Certainly, many who thought 'teaching' an easy gig, move on to other study.

Most importantly, the role of Educator, needs to be promoted, to the high level of regard, historically associated with such endeavours. Australia is a country to study. The complete failure, of the AUSTRALIAN education system, over a hundred years of schooling, makes for a great insight into why we need to be more selective of those we allow to teach. Once a Convict Colony, the Racism, Masochistic society, denigration of women to sexual objects,and corruption can be seen to be the 'rotten core' that must be avoided. Statistics verify such statements, as well as the many cases of SEXUAL ASSAULT corruptly covered up by 'old boy networks'. The result is at least 4 generations who have had very little interaction with a teacher of any great ability.


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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development/Technological Impact

Technology has proven to be one of the greatest inventions of all time. Not only does technology enhance learning practices, it also allows for many new types of learning experiences. According to the Merriam Webster dictionary technology is defined as the study, development, and application of devices, machines, and techniques used for manufacturing and productive processes (Webster 340). Without the innovations of technology teachers would have a limited domain for instructional design. However, by incorporating technology into the learning environment teachers are now able to expose students to many things that were impossible in the past.

Technologically Advanced Counties
Many studies have been performed within different countries to determine which country appears to be the most technologically advanced. In a report presented by the magazine Education Week showed that schools within the United States lag behind other nations concerning internet availability(“U.S. Schools”). According to the seventh annual report from Education Week the United States proved to have the leading number of computers per student however, most of those computers did not have active internet connections (“U.S. Schools”). This report explained that although the United States has a substantial number of computers for students, the computers are often set up to aid students without providing them access to the internet. Simply allowing the students to use the computers without internet access is similar to cheating each person out of his or her own personal learning adventure.

Guided Discovery
Technology can be implemented into curriculum in numerous ways. For example, programs like Blackboard, Digital Storytelling, Softchalk, and Breakthrough to Literacy provide students with a sense of “guided discovery”. The National Education Association Research Division reports that there is currently a national goal to help students gain higher order thinking skills (Gokhale). Today’s society faces a rapidly changing technological world where workers need to be able to think creatively to keep the United States economically competitive with other countries. Therefore, Dr. Charles E. Wales of West Virginia University has devised an initiative known as “guided discovery” (Gokhale). The idea of guided discovery is fueled by the belief that through labs and properly designed computer simulations it may be possible to revolutionize education. Research shows that students retain information more effectively when they use their problem solving skills. In other words, Dr. Wales believes that allowing students to perform more “hands-on” projects will help them better retain information.

Instructional Technology
The use of technology to provide or support education is known as instructional technology(Abbott). Instructional technology allows teachers to introduce students to new information through guided discovery rather than lectures. Studies have shown that the attention span of children and young adults have grown shorter over the past years (Abbott). With the shorter attention spans, instructors now have a reason to incorporate as much technology as possible into a lesson to keep the students interested.

Software Programs
There are hundreds of software programs that are available to educators. One basic program that is commonly used is Microsoft PowerPoint. PowerPoint allows users to create projects that involve graphics, audio files, as well as video files. In other words, PowerPoint can easily be used by novice technologists. Another program that has become popular within the last decade is titled HyperStudio. HyperStudio HyperStudio is a product that provides students and teachers with an immense range of media-creation tools (“HyperStudio”). With brainstorming tools, visual organizers, project planners, and multimedia presentation capabilities HyperStudio has the capacity to encourage project-based learning, collaborative learning, and create assessment components (“HyperStudio”). SoftChalk SoftChalk is another software program that has proven to be beneficial to both instructors and students. This program allows educators to build lessons filled with pop-up text annotations, self-assessment quizzes, and interactive learning games (“SoftChalk”). SoftChalk is simple to use and does not require learning a complex software system.

Conclusion
In conclusion,the world of teaching has changed a great deal within the last decade. It is safe to say that technology has had a lot to do with implementing most of those changes. Although the idea of technology in the classroom sounds exciting, society must first realize that there are many obstacles to overcome. First, educators must be certain that the technology being used is educational and not just fun to operate; second, funding for educational equipment must be met so that every student will have an equal opportunity; third, the United States is in dire need of making the internet available in all school districts and for every computer that is being utilized by a student. Once these flaws are eliminated, educational technology and software will be extremely beneficial teaching modules.

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Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices/Class Size

Reducing class size is one of the most popular and expensive proposals in educational reform today. Extensive research has been done to study the effects of class size on student achievement, however the results continue to be mixed. Although parents and educators both overwhelmingly support measures to reduce the number of children per classroom, many policy makers wonder if small class benefits outweigh the costs involved.

Class Size vs. Pupil-Teacher Ratio
Determining class size is very straightforward once you understand the difference between class size and pupil-teacher ratio. Unfortunately, the two terms are often used interchangeably and this results in a great deal of confusion. Class size is simply the number of students in a classroom that the teacher is responsible for on a regular basis. In contrast, pupil-teacher ratio is a statistical measure of the total number of students in a school divided by the total number of full-time educators. This number is often substantially lower than class size because it includes teachers who do not have a regular classroom assignment (speech, music, special education, etc.). On average, the difference between class size and pupil-teacher ratio is 10 students (Achilles, Finn, & Pate-Bain, 2002). Schools with a pupil-teacher ratio of 15 will average approximately 25 students per classroom. While many schools have a relatively small pupil-teacher ratio, in reality students in those schools are often the product of overcrowded classrooms.

The Research
Much of the basis of support for class size reduction programs stems from Project Star (Student Teacher Achievement Ratio), a groundbreaking research study initiated by the State of Tennessee in 1985. Beginning in kindergarten and continuing through the third grade, students were randomly assigned to either a small class with 13-17 students, a large class with 22-26 students, or a large class with a teacher aide. More than 12,000 students in 329 classrooms participated in the 4-year longitudinal study (Finn, 2002). Project Star's findings revealed that students in small classes consistently outperformed students in larger classes in all subject areas. Those who benefited the most started the program early and spent multiple years in small classes. The research also indicated that while all students benefited from smaller classes, the positive impact on minority and low-income students was greatest. Follow-up research has continued to show lasting, long-term gains for those students who participated in the study, even after making the transition to larger classes in middle and high school. Since the completion of this social experiment, similar studies have been conducted in Wisconsin, North Carolina, and California. In each instance, the research findings were consistent with those of Project Star (Finn, 2002).

Who Benefits?
Advocates for reduced class size argue that students and teachers both benefit substantially from smaller classes and that smaller classes lead to more effective teaching and improved learning. The key is maximizing those benefits through early intervention, duration, and intensity (Achilles et al, 2002). Students in small classes during the early years show the greatest gains and those gains continue to multiply for each additional year spent in small classes. Students in smaller classes spend more time actively engaged in the learning process, while teachers spend less time managing the classroom and more time providing academic instruction. There are fewer classroom disruptions in smaller classes and discipline problems are greatly reduced. Teachers can provide each student with the individualized attention that is often lacking in a larger classroom setting. These elements combine to form a more productive learning environment that results in enhanced student performance. Increases in student achievement continue to be seen through high school and beyond. Other long lasting effects tied to the class size reduction during formative school years include reduced in-grade retention, reduced dropout rates, and an increase in the desire to attend college. Students aren’t the only ones who benefit from smaller classes; teachers say they are more enthusiastic about their job and benefit from increased morale.

What are the Costs?
Not all the research supports smaller class sizes, even though the desire to reduce class sizes throughout the Nation is strong. The enormous cost of funding these initiatives has lead policy makers to take a closer look at the issue. Most states are struggling to maintain current levels of spending on education. The cost of building thousands of schools and hiring the additional teachers needed to staff them is a financial burden many states fear they cannot afford. Some school districts have begun to divert budget resources earmarked for support services to pay for smaller classes. Other schools have been forced to reduce programs just to provide the necessary classroom space to comply with mandated class sizes. In many areas, computer rooms, music rooms, special-education rooms, and the like are being converted into traditional style classrooms. As supplementary services and programs continue to be cut from schools, many worry that the reduction will hurt those students who need additional services most.

Other pitfalls to reducing class size exist. States who have jumped into class size reduction programs too quickly and without careful planning have found that a significant shortage of qualified teachers exists. Many districts have been forced to hire teachers who lack credentials and have little or no experience just to meet the increased demand, the results of which could lead to an overall decline in educational quality. Those who appose class size reduction argue that quality teachers make the difference, not class size and that highly qualified professional educators are the key to improved student performance.

Alternatives
Many states are being forced to reevaluate how their educational resources are used and to examine alternatives to class size reduction initiatives. Some areas are considering extending the school day or the school year giving students and teachers the opportunity to capitalize on additional instruction time. Others feel it is more important to focus available resources on professional development and additional training and support for teachers. Some research has shown that the benefits of additional training for teachers may have a bigger payoff per dollar spent than class size reduction (Picus, 2000). Many schools hope to use additional technology resources in the classroom as an effective tool to individualize student learning.

In the past, placing teacher aides into the classroom has been a popular alternative to reducing class size in the hope that it would provide students with small class benefits while costing substantially less. Policy makers should be cautioned that the research does not support this hypothesis. Analysis of the Project Star data has shown “no significant difference between classes with teacher aides and full-size classes without aides” (Finn, 2002, p. 555). Many propose eliminating teacher aides altogether in favor of hiring additional teachers.

One radical alternative proposed by Saul Cooperman, former New Jersey Commissioner of Education, calls for an increase in both teacher’s salaries and class size. He feels that “brighter teachers are the best hope we have of increasing student performance” (2006, p. 41) and that the first step is attracting a better pool of teacher candidates. He also argues that the individual attention seen by most as a benefit of smaller classes is more intention than reality and that few educators modify their teaching methods based on class size fluctuation.

Conclusion
Class size reduction is currently one of the most popular educational reforms in the Nation. It also comes along with a multi-billion dollar price tag. Although research on the issue continues to be mixed, overwhelming public support for smaller classes continues to grow. The pressure is mounting for States to take action and reduce class size, although there is often a lack of funds to do so. Many policy makers want hard proof that the cost of funding class size reduction programs does indeed lead to increased student achievement.

Many alternatives to smaller classes are being considered and tough choices will have to be made. States who have current class size reduction programs in place or who are considering such measures should weigh the costs and benefits carefully. The implementation of class size initiatives should be well planned. Adequate funding and the availability of highly qualified teachers are essential. Programs that maximize the effects of smaller classes start in kindergarten or first grade and continue for at least the next several years. Simply reducing class size is not the cure-all to low academic achievement. Great attention must be focused on better training for teachers and the quality of instruction they provide. Above all, society must continue to work towards the goal of greater student achievement for all.

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