text:
User talk:Mbluett~enwikibooks

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Good luck! --Panic (talk) 23:10, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mbluett. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mbluett~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:14, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Mbluett~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Countrygirl kim

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 23:10, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Countrygirl kim


text:
User talk:Unco

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:23, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Unco


text:
User talk:69.41.132.226

Join Us!
--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:23, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:69.41.132.226


text:
User talk:121.222.98.116

Join Us!
--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 23:30, 18 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:121.222.98.116


text:
Horticulture/Matricaria discoidea

Matricaria discoidea, commonly known as pineapple weed is an annual plant native to North America and NE Asia but which has become a cosmopolitan weed. According to ITIS the specific name is Matricaria discoidea DC, but many synonyms are in the literature, including M. matricarioides, M. suaveolens, and Chamomilla suaveolens.

Description
The flower head is cone-shaped, composed of dense-packed yellowish-green corollas, and lacking ray-florets. The leaves are pinnately dissected and sweet-scented when crushed. The plant grows 3 to 12 inches (7.5 - 30 cm) high.

Growing Conditions
The plant grows well in disturbed areas, especially those with poor, compacted soil. It can be seen blooming on footpaths, roadsides, and similar places in spring and early summer. In the USA, it can be found from central Alaska down to California and all the way to Maine.

Uses
The flowers exude a chamomile/pineapple aroma when crushed. They are edible and have been used in salads (although they may become bitter by the time the plant blooms) and to make a herbal tea.

Pineapple weed has been used for medicinal purposes, including for relief of gastrointestinal upset, infected sores, fevers, and postpartum anemia.

title: Horticulture/Matricaria discoidea


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User talk:Stephane.magnenat

Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.

The s-bot is pretty cool. Congratulations on getting it working.

You might enjoy the Embedded Systems and Robotics wikibooks.

--DavidCary (talk) 02:10, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Stephane.magnenat


text:
User:Whiteknight/Gadget Instructions 2

This script is a Gadget. You can install this script by going to Special:Preferences, going to the "Gadgets" tab, and checking the box labeled .

Once you save your javascript, you may need to clear your cache, typically by pressing +, or some other key combination, depending on your browser.

title: User:Whiteknight/Gadget Instructions 2


text:
Wikijunior:World War II/Joseph Stalin

Quick Facts

 * Full name: Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili
 * Adopted name: Joseph Stalin
 * Born: 18 December 1878 [[image:JStalin_Secretary_general_CCCP_1942.jpg| thumb|225px| right]]
 * Died: 5 March 1953
 * Leader of: The Soviet Union

Stalin was General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. This meant he was the leader of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ("USSR"), which was also called the Soviet Union. That country doesn't exist any more. It was made up of a large number of other countries like Russia, Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia and Georgia. In many ways he was very similar to Hitler - an absolute dictator.

The USSR was created in 1919 after the end of the Russian Civil War. Stalin became leader of the USSR after its first leader, Vladimir Lenin, died in 1924. Stalin tried to turn the USSR into a "communist" state. His ideas sometimes worked but sometimes went wrong. His plan to change the way crops were grown is believed by some to have lead to the death of up to 6 million people.

Then, in the 1930s, Stalin began to kill his enemies and rivals. He executed millions of his own people. These included many army officers and other people he saw as threat to his power. This greatly weakened the Soviet army. Although it was huge and well armed, its officers were very new and were scared of being shot if they seemed to be clever. They were at a loss as to how to fight the clever and experienced German army.

Before the war, Stalin did a deal with Germany and they both agreed to invade Poland. He thought that Germany wouldn't attack the USSR as they had made this deal. In fact, some historians think Stalin was planning to invade Germany but the Germans attacked first! Anyway, Germany did attack and to start with it looked like the Germans would win easily, but Stalin was ruthless. He was willing to sacrifice any number of soldiers to stop the Germans capturing important machinery (like tank factories) and to slow their advance on the capital, Moscow. Despite millions of deaths, this worked and in the end the USSR beat the Germans.

It might have ended differently if Hitler hadn't made mistakes. Many people in the USSR welcomed the Germans as "liberators". They had been living with Stalin and his "purges", where he killed those he didn't trust. Many people, especially outside of Russia, might have joined the war on the German side. But Hitler didn't want their help, and by being even more cruel than Stalin and killing even more of them, turned them against the Germans.

title: Wikijunior:World War II/Joseph Stalin


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Template talk:Mergeto

location of the merge discussion
It would be nice if a merge discussion occurred in one place -- rather than half the discussion on the "mergefrom" talk page, and the other half on the "mergeto" talk page.

Wikipedia is set up so that, when someone slaps a "mergefrom" tag on a page, a message like "Please discuss whether or not this merge should happen on the discussion page." shows up on the page. Clicking that "discussion" link goes to that article's own discussion page -- just like clicking the "discussion" tab.

When someone slaps a "mergeto" tag on a page, a similar-seeming message like "Please discuss whether or not this merge should happen on the discussion page." shows up on the page also. However, on Wikipedia, when I click that "discussion" link, I don't go to talk page of the article with the "mergeto" tag. Instead, it goes to the other article's discussion page -- the article mentioned by the mergeto tag.

Could someone fix this tag so it acts the way a Wikipedian would expect? Or is there some reason for Wikibooks to be different? --DavidCary (talk) 02:32, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

 * What would be your preference? Should the discussion occur on the "to" page, or the "from" page. I'll gladly make the change (it's a good idea) once we know where the discussion should take place. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 02:52, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

 * My preference is to do it the way Wikipedia does it. Currently this "mergeto" template links to the discussion page of the module it is placed *on*. I would prefer this "mergeto" template to, instead, link to the "other" discussion page. (Currently the "mergefrom" template also links to the discussion page of the module it is placed *on*. Keep that template the same -- so the merge discussion occurs in that one discussion page). --DavidCary (talk) 03:46, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

That much makes good sense. Let me change around the links now, and hope nobody complains. --Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 00:07, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Mergeto


text:
User talk:Cobiap

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 03:07, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cobiap


text:
User:Hesperian

I am Hesperian on various other Wikimedia projects. I have no immediate plans to use this account.

title: User:Hesperian


text:
User talk:Melharvey55

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 03:19, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

Writing Adolescent Fiction
Due to your interest in the creative writing wikibooks, you may be interested in Writing Adolescent Fiction. Cilantrohead (talk) 22:20, 1 March 2008 (UTC)

Usurp request
Hello, I am a bureaucrat at the English Wikibooks. You had registered the username Mmh, but have made
 * 3 edits, and
 * 0 log entries.

Since you are inactive at Wikibooks, we are considering giving your username to someone else who uses that username on other wikis. To do this, we will change your username to Mmh (usurped). If you return to Wikibooks you are of course welcome to change your username again to just about anything you like. We do this to allow active users to have the same username on all the wikis we operate.

If you do not want us to change your username, please respond within 7 days of this email, and we will discuss possible compromises.

Thanks — Mike.lifeguard | talk 01:10, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

title: User talk:Melharvey55


text:
User talk:Hesperian

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 03:19, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Hesperian


text:
MediaWiki:Gadget-Welcome.js

/* * Adds a new link in the toolbox on user-talk-edit pages to automatically * welcome a new user or an anonymous user. Uses AJAX-based editing to post * a welcome message automatically. Requires Whiteknight's wknightcore.js * library to handle the AJAX editing functions. */

mw.hook('wikibooks.panels.tools').add(function(mw, $) {	if (mw.config.get('wgNamespaceNumber') === 3) {		if (mw.config.get('wgAction') === 'edit') {			var $text = $('#wpTextbox1'), tab;			if ($text.length && $text.val.length < 300) {				if (mw.config.get('wgTitle').match(/\d+\.\d+\.\d+\.\d+/)) {					tab = 'joinus';				} else {					tab = 'welcome';				}				add_toolbox_link(WelcomeUser, tab, 'ca-welcome');			}		}		add_toolbox_link(WarnUser, 'warn', 'ca-warn');	}	if (mw.config.get('wgCanonicalSpecialPageName') === "Contributions") {		add_toolbox_link(WarnUser, 'warn', 'ca-warn');	} });

function WelcomeUser { if (confirm("Welcome this new user?")) { if (mw.config.get('wgTitle').match(/\d+\.\d+\.\d+\.\d+/)) { wk.postEdit(mw.config.get('wgPageName'), "{"+"{subst:joinus|--"+"}}", "Join Us!", 				{section:"new"}); } else { wk.postEdit(mw.config.get('wgPageName'), "{"+"{subst:Bigwelcome|--"+"}}", "Welcome!",				{section:"new"}); }		$("#ca-welcome").html("welcomed"); var form = document.getElementById("editform"); if (form) { wk.toggleDisplay(form, "none"); } } }

function WarnUser { var username = mw.config.get('wgTitle'); if (mw.config.get('wgCanonicalSpecialPageName') === "Contributions") { username = $('input[name=target]').val; if (!username) { return; }	} else if (mw.config.get('wgNamespaceNumber') !== 3) { return; }	if (confirm("Warn this user? (" + username + ")")) { username = "User talk:" + username; wk.postEdit(username, "{"+"{subst:test|"+"}}", "Please use the [" + "[Wikibooks:Sandbox|sandbox]]",			{section:"new"}); $("#ca-warn").html('warned'); var form = document.getElementById("editform"); if (form) { wk.toggleDisplay(form, "none"); } } }

title: MediaWiki:Gadget-Welcome.js


text:
MediaWiki:Gadget-Welcome

User welcome script: A script to semi-automagically new users with no talk page, leave  for anons with no talk page, or warn any user with. Complements the "Revert with Twinkle" when doing vandalism reverts.

title: MediaWiki:Gadget-Welcome


text:
User talk:83.8.78.234

Join Us!
--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 04:42, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:83.8.78.234


text:
User talk:Joshkelly~enwikibooks

Welcome message
Hello, and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
 * To learn the wiki-markup-language syntax, see Help:Editing.
 * Make sure to sign your posts and comments with four tildes, like this: ~~~~
 * There is a box at the top of the edit window (if javascript is enabled on your browser) that will insert it too (looks like part of a signature). This will let others know who left it, and make it easy to reply back to you.
 * Remember to conduct any editing experiments in the sandbox.
 * You can tell the community something about yourself in your userpage.
 * You can get to this page by clicking the tab at the top of the page labeled with your registered username.
 * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. (What is Wikibooks).
 * If you are a Wikipedian, see Wikibooks for Wikipedians for a primer on how things work here (it's a little different).
 * If you want to base your work here on materials from Wikipedia, please use WB:RFI (requests for importation) to bring the material over in compliance with the GFDL.
 * If you're an instructor and plan on using Wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
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 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Help us by participating in policy and guideline creation.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Reading Room, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be a good idea to add that page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there. You can do that by clicking the tab labeled "watch" at the top of the page.

Good luck! --Panic (talk) 06:30, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Joshkelly. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Joshkelly~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:18, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:06, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joshkelly~enwikibooks


text:
A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Sensors

A sensor is a device which converts a physical property into an electrical property (such as resistance). A sensing system is a system (usually a circuit) which allows this electrical property, and so the physical property, to be measured.

Temperature Sensor
A common example of a sensing system is a temperature sensor in a thermostat, which uses a thermistor. In the most common type of thermistor (an NTC), the resistance decreases as the temperature increases. This effect is achieved by making the thermistor out of a semiconductor. The thermistor is then used in a potential divider, as in the diagram on the right. In this diagram, the potential difference is divided between the resistor and the thermistor. As the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermistor decreases, so the potential difference across it decreases. This means that potential difference across the resistor increases as temperature increases. This is why the voltmeter is across the resistor, not the thermistor.

Properties
There are three main properties of sensing systems you need to know about:

Sensitivity
This is the amount of change in voltage output per unit change in input (the physical property). For example, in the above sensing system, if the voltage on the voltmeter increased by 10V as the temperature increased by 6.3 °C:

$$S = \frac{10}{6.3} \approx 1.59$$ V/°C

Resolution
This is the smallest change in the physical property detectable by the sensing system. Sometimes, the limiting factor is the number of decimal places the voltmeter can display. So if, for example, the voltmeter can display the voltage to 2 decimal places, the smallest visible change in voltage is 0.01V. We can then use the sensitivity of the sensor to calculate the resolution.

$$S = 1.59 = \frac{0.01}{R}$$ R = \frac{0.01}{

Response Time
This is the time the sensing system takes to display a change in the physical property it is measuring. It is often difficult to measure.

Signal Amplification
Sometimes, a sensing system gives a difference in output voltage, but the sensitivity is far too low to be of any use. There are two solutions to this problem, which can be used together:

Amplification
An Amplifier is an electronic device or circuit which is used to increase the magnitude of the signal applied to its input. An Amplifier is a generic term used to describe a circuit which produces and increased version of its input signal. An amplifier can be placed in the system, increasing the signal. The main problem with this is that the signal cannot exceed the maximum voltage of the system, so values will be chopped off of the top and bottom of the signal because it is so high.

Wheatstone Bridge
This solution is far better, especially when used prior to amplification. Instead of using just one pair of resistors, a second pair is used, and the potential difference between the two pairs (which are connected in parallel) is measured. This means that, if, at the sensing resistor (e.g. thermistor / LDR) the resistance is at its maximum, a signal of 0V is produced. This means that the extremes of the signal are not chopped off, making for a much better sensor.

Questions
An LDR's resistance decreases from a maximum resistance of 2kΩ to a minimum resistance of 0Ω as light intensity increases. It is used in a distance sensing system which consists of a 9V power supply, a 1.6 kΩ resistor, the LDR and a multimeter which displays voltage to 2 decimal places measuring the potential difference across one of the two resistors.

1. Across which resistor should the multimeter be connected in order to ensure that, as the distance from the light source to the sensor increases, the potential difference recorded increases?

2. In complete darkness, what voltage is recorded on the multimeter?

3. When a light source moves 0.5m away from the sensor, the voltage on the multimeter increases by 2V. What is the sensitivity of the sensing system when using this light source, in V m−1?

4. When the same light source is placed 0m from the sensor, the potential difference is 0V. When the light source is 1m away, what voltage is displayed on the multimeter?

5. What is the resolution of the sensing system?

6. Draw a circuit diagram showing a similar sensing system to this, using a Wheatstone bridge and amplifier to improve the sensitivity of the system.

7. What is the maximum potential difference that can reach the amplifier using this new system (ignore the amplification)?

8. If this signal were to be amplified 3 times, would it exceed the maximum voltage of the system? What would the limits on the signal be?

/Worked Solutions/


text:
Horticulture/Mukdenia rossii

Mukdenia rossii is a clumping herbaceous plant native to woodlands in Eastern Asia, grown for its foliage and spring flowers.

title: Horticulture/Mukdenia rossii


text:
Horticulture/Myosotis

The Forget-me-nots are flowering plants in the family Boraginaceae, grown for their long-lasting blue flowers.

There are about 50 species in the genus, and among them there is considerable variation. Nevertheless a considerable number of the species fit the same description, of a small (1 cm diameter or less) rather flat 5-petalled blue flower growing profusely on straggly stems, flowering in spring. Colour variation is somewhat frequent within species, and white or pink forms are quite likely to be seen. They are popular in gardens, and cultivated forms often show a mixture of colours. The forget-me-nots need shade, not sun.

They are widely distributed. Most Myosotis species are endemic to New Zealand, though one or two European species, especially the Wood Forget-me-not, ../Myosotis sylvatica/ have been introduced in most of the temperate regions of Europe, Asia and America. ../Myosotis scorpioides/ is also known as scorpion grass.

The name was borrowed from Old French "ne m'oubliez pas" and first used in English in c.1532. Loans and translations of it can be found in most European and some non-European languages, like German "Vergissmeinnicht", Italian "Nontiscordardimé", Polish "Niezapominajka", Slovak "Nezábudky", Danish "Forglem-mig-ej", Swedish "Förgätmigej", Dutch "vergeet-mij-nietje", Spanish "no-me-olvides", Russian "Незабудки", Bulgarian “Незабравки”, Lithuanian "Neužmirštuolės", Greek "Μη με λησμονείς" (also connected to the people who died during the 1974 events in Cyprus), Esperanto "neforgesumino", Chinese "勿忘草" (wu wang cao), Korean "물망초" (勿忘草, mul mang cho), Japanese "勿忘草" (Wasurenagusa), Hebrew "זכריני" (Zichrini), Persian "فراموشم مکن" (farâmusham nakon), Hungarian "Nefelejts", Turkish "Unutma Beni" etc.

In the United States of America, the forget-me-not is the state flower of Alaska, precisely ../Myosotis alpestris/. The Forget-me-nots are traditionally worn by Newfoundlanders on July 1st in remembrance of those Newfoundlanders that died during the First World War. July 1 was chosen because of the high number of casualties suffered by the Royal Newfoundland Regiment on 1 July 1916 during the Battle of the Somme.

Description
Forget-me-nots can be annual or perennial plants. Their root systems are generally diffuse. Their seeds are found in small, tulip shaped pods along the stem to the flower. The pods attach to clothing when brushed against and eventually fall off, leaving the small seed within to germinate elsewhere.

Selected species

 * ../Myosotis alpestris/ - Alpine Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis alpina/
 * ../Myosotis arvensis/ - Field Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis australis/
 * ../Myosotis azorica/
 * ../Myosotis caespitosa/ - Tufted Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis colensoi/
 * ../Myosotis discolor/ - Changing Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis ramosissima/ - Early Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis scorpioides/ - Water Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis secunda/ - Creeping Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis sicula/ - Jersey Forget-me-not
 * ../Myosotis sylvatica/ - Wood Forget-me-not

Propagation
Seeds can be collected by putting a piece of paper under the stems and shaking them. The seed pods and some seeds will fall out.

Pests and Diseases
Setaceous Hebrew Character

title: Horticulture/Myosotis


text:
A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Sensors/Worked Solutions

Note to the reader: I am not entirely happy with the answers given on this page. --Sjlegg (talk) 15:01, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

'''An LDR's resistance decreases from a maximum resistance of 2kΩ to a minimum resistance of 0Ω as light intensity increases. It is used in a distance sensing system which consists of a 9V power supply, a 1.6 kΩ resistor, the LDR and a multimeter which displays voltage to 2 decimal places measuring the potential difference across one of the two resistors.

1. Across which resistor should the multimeter be connected in order to ensure that, as the distance from the light source to the sensor increases, the potential difference recorded increases?

As light intensity increases, distance decreases. So, as distance increases, light intensity decreases. As light intensity decreases, the LDR's resistance increases, as does the potential difference across it. So, as distance increases, the potential difference increases. Since we want the potential difference to change in the same direction as the distance, the multimeter must go across the LDR, not the resistor.

2. In complete darkness, what voltage is recorded on the multimeter?

The voltage is split between the 1.6kΩ resistor and the LDR, which currently has a resistance of 2kΩ. Therefore, the potential difference across the LDR is:

$$V = \frac{2}{2+1.6} \times 9 = 5V$$

'''3. When a light source moves 0.5m away from the sensor, the voltage on the multimeter increases by 2V. What is the sensitivity of the sensing system when using this light source, in V m−1?'''

$$S = \frac{2}{0.5} = 4\mbox{ Vm}^{-1}$$

'''4. When the same light source is placed 0m from the sensor, the potential difference is 0V. When the light source is 1m away, what voltage is displayed on the multimeter?'''

Assuming a linear relationship between distance and potential difference, we know that:

$$0.25 = \frac{m}{V}$$

Hence:

$$V = \frac{m}{0.25} = \frac{1}{0.25} = 4V$$

5. What is the resolution of the sensing system?

The multimeter measures to 2 decimal places, so the smallest measurable voltage is 0.01V.

$$0.25 = \frac{m}{V}$$

Hence:

$$m = 0.25 \times V = 0.25 \times 0.01 = 0.0025\mbox{ m} = 2.5\mbox{ mm}$$

6. Draw a circuit diagram showing a similar sensing system to this, using a Wheatstone bridge and amplifier to improve the sensitivity of the system.

7. What is the maximum potential difference that can reach the amplifier using this new system (ignore the amplification)?

The maximum potential difference will occur when the LDR has no resistance. This will result in 9V on the left-hand side of the voltmeter, and 5V on the right-hand side. The difference is 4V.

'''8. If this signal were to be amplified 3 times, would it exceed the maximum voltage of the system? What would the limits on the signal be?'''

$$4 \times 3 = 12V > 9V$$

The signal would be limited to the range -9V < V < 9V.


text:
Horticulture/Packera obovata

Packera obovata is a wildflower native to eastern North America, where it grows in low meadows and fields. It is sometimes included in native wildflower mixes.

title: Horticulture/Packera obovata


text:
Horticulture/Paulownia tomentosa

Paulownia tomentosa (also known as the Empress Tree, Princess Tree or Foxglove Tree; pao tong 泡桐 in Chinese) is a deciduous flowering tree native to central and western China, but invasive in the US.

Description
It grows to 10-25 m tall, with large heart-shaped to five-lobed leaves 15-40 cm across, arranged in opposite pairs on the stem. On young growth, the leaves may be in whorls of three and be much bigger than the leaves on more mature growth (image comparing large and small trees). The characteristic large size of the young growth is exploited by gardeners : by pollarding the tree and ensuring there is vigorous new growth every year, massive leaves are produced (up to 60cm across). These are popular in the modern style of gardening which uses large-foliaged and "architectural" plants. The flowers are produced before the leaves in early spring, on panicles 10-30 cm long, with a tubular purple corolla 4-6 cm long resembling a foxglove flower. The fruit is a dry egg-shaped capsule 3-4 cm long, containing numerous tiny seeds. The seeds are winged and disperse by wind and water. Pollarded trees do not produce flowers, as these only form on mature wood.

Growing Conditions
Paulownia tomentosa can survive wildfire because the roots can regenerate new, very fast-growing stems. It is tolerant of pollution and it is not fussy about soil type. For this reason it functions ecologically as a pioneer plant. Its nitrogen-rich leaves provide good fodder and its roots prevent soil erosion. Eventually, Paulownia is succeeded by taller trees that shade it. It cannot thrive in the shade of other trees.

The soft, lightweight seeds were commonly used as a packing material by Chinese porcelain exporters in the 19th century, before the development of polystyrene packaging. Packing cases would often leak or burst open in transit and scatter the seeds along rail tracks. This, together with seeds released by specimens deliberately planted for ornament, has allowed the species to become an invasive weed tree in areas where the climate is suitable for its growth, notably Japan and the eastern United States.

Uses
In China, an old custom is to plant an Empress Tree when a baby girl is born. The fast-growing tree matures when she does. When she is eligible for marriage the tree is cut down and carved into wooden articles for her dowry, and carving the wood of Paulownia is an art form in Japan and China.

title: Horticulture/Paulownia tomentosa


text:
User talk:1bookfan

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 14:57, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:1bookfan


text: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/All unused GFDL-presumed images


text: Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Nintendo Wars


text:
User:Bitbyte~enwikibooks

bitbyte 15:23, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User:Bitbyte~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Bitbyte~enwikibooks

bitbyte 15:23, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.--Whiteknight (Page) (Talk) 16:09, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Bitbyte. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Bitbyte~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 22:59, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 04:39, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bitbyte~enwikibooks


text:
Horticulture/Paeonia obovata

Paeonia obovata is one of the herbaceous peonies, native to Japan and eastern Asia. It is grown in part for the spring flowers, but even more so for the attractive fruits.

title: Horticulture/Paeonia obovata


text:
Radiation Oncology/Physics/ICRU

International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU)

ICRU Reports

 * Website.
 * Abstracts of ICRU Reports

 * The International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU), since its inception in 1925, has had as its principal objective the development of internationally acceptable recommendations regarding:
 * 1) Quantities and units of radiation and radioactivity,
 * 2) Procedures suitable for the measurement and application of these quantities in clinical radiology and radiobiology,
 * 3) Physical data needed in the application of these procedures, the use of which tends to assure uniformity in reporting.
 * The Commission also considers and makes similar types of recommendations for the radiation protection field. In this connection, its work is carried out in close cooperation with the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)

 * ICRU 29 (1978) - "Dose Specification for Reporting External Beam Therapy with Photons and Electrons"
 * Superseded by ICRU 50 (see below)

 * ICRU 38 (1985) - "Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Intracavitary Therapy in Gynecology"
 * Definitions of concepts:
 * LDR is dose rates between 0.4 and 2 Gy/h and HDR is > 12 Gy/h
 * Target Volume: tissues that are to be irradiated to a specified dose
 * Treatment Volume: volume enclosed by a relevant isodose surface selected by the radiation oncologist; encompasses at least the target volume
 * Reference Volume: volume enclosed by the reference isodose surface (based on agreed reference dose level)
 * Irradiated Volume: volume which receives an absorbed dose considered significant in relation to tissue tolerance; may be a percentage of reference dose
 * Recommendations for reporting:
 * Due to steep dose gradient, maximum / minimum / mean absorbed dose irrelevant (ICRU 29)
 * Description of technique used in terms of sources, simulation of linear sources, and applicator
 * Reporting in terms of three complementary approaches: total reference air kerma, reference volume, and absorbed dose at reference points leading to calculation of dose distribution
 * Total reference air kerma: kerma rate to air, in air, at a reference distance of 1 meter, corrected for air attenuation and scattering. Expressed in μGy/h
 * Reference volume:
 * For LDR, should use absorbed dose level of 60 Gy; for HDR an equivalent (according to treating radiation oncologist) dose should be specified
 * Described by three parameters: height (dimension along intrauterine source), width (perpendicular to height in frontal plane), thickness (perpendicular to height in sagittal plane)
 * Absorbed dose at reference points:
 * Definitions apply when calculated from two perpendicular radiographs (AP/lateral)
 * Bladder reference point : Foley catheter is inserted; balloon filled with 7 cm3 radio-opaque fluid. Catheter is pulled downward to bring the balloon against urethra. On lateral radiograph, reference point is on an anterio-posterior line drawn through the center of the balloon, at the posterior surface of the balloon. On AP radiograph, the reference point is at the center of the balloon
 * Rectal reference point : Visualize posterior vaginal wall with intravaginal mould or by opacification of the vaginal cavity with radio-opaque gauze used for packing. On lateral radiograph, a separate anterior-posterior line is drawn from the lower end of the intrauterine source (or the middle of the intravaginal source). Reference point is on this line, 5 mm behind posterior vaginal wall. On AP radiograph, the reference point is at the lower end of the intrauterine source (or the middle of the intravaginal source)
 * Bony structures reference points : On a lateral radiograph, a diagonal line is drawn from S1/S2 to top of symphysis. A line is drawn from a midpoint on this line upward to middle of anterior aspect of L4. The corresponding point on an AP radiograph serves as the top of the lymphatic trapezoid. The right and left lateral points 2 cm from midline provide the R PARA and L PARA dose to low para-aortic area. Inferior base of the trapezoid is at the midpoint of the S1/S2 - symphysis line. The right and left later points 6 cm from midline provide the R EXT and L EXT dose to right and left mid-external iliac lymph nodes. The midpoint line connecting the two points (R PARA and R EXT or L PARA and L EXT) is used for estimating R COM and L COM dose to right and left common iliac lymph nodes
 * Pelvic wall reference point : On lateral radiograph, the highest points of the right and left acetabulum in the cranio-caudal direction are joined, and the midpoint is the lateral projection of the pelvic wall. On AP radiograph, the pelvic wall point (RPW or LPW) is the intersection of two lines. A horizontal line tangential to the highest point of the acetabulum and a vertical line tangential to the inner aspect of the acetabulum
 * Duration of treatment should be reported; there is insufficient evidence fo radiobiological considerations

 * ICRU 50 (1993) - "Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy"
 * Supersedes and updates Report 29
 * Aim of Therapy: Should be defined as radical, palliative, or non-malignant
 * Volumes are defined:
 * Gross Tumor Volume (GTV): Gross palpable or visible/demonstrable extent and location of malignant growth
 * Clinical Target Volume (CTV): Anatomical concept. Tissue volume that contains a GTV and/or subclinical microscopic malignant disease, which has to be eliminated. This volume has to be treated adequately in order to achieve the aim of therapy: cure or palliation. The CTV is an anatomical-clinical concept, that has to be defined before a choice of treatment modality and technique is made
 * Planning Target Volume (PTV): Geometrical concept. Defined to select appropriate beam sizes and beam arrangements, taking into consideration the net effect of all the possible geometrical variations and inaccuracies in order to ensure that the prescribed dose is actually absorbed in the CTV. Its size and shape depend on the CTV but also on the treatment technique used, to compensate for the effects of organ and patient movement, and inaccuracies in beam and patient setup
 * Treated Volume : Volume enclosed by an isodose surface (e.g. 95% isodose), selected and specified by radiation oncologist as being appropriate to achieve the purpose of treatment. Ideally, Treated Volume would be identical to PTV, but may also be considerably larger than PTV
 * Irradiated Volume : Tissue volume which receives a dose that is considered significant in relation to normal tissue tolerance. Dose should be expressed either in absolute values or relative to the specified dose to the PTV
 * Organs at Risk : Normal tissues whose radiation sensitivity may significantly influence treatment planning and/or prescribed dose
 * Recommendations for Reporting Dose
 * ICRU Reference Point:
 * Dose at the point should be clinically relevant and representative of the dose throughout PTV
 * The point should be easy to define in a clear and unambiguous way
 * The point should be selected where the dose can be accurately determined (physical accuracy)
 * The point should be selected in a region where there is no steep dose gradient
 * ICRU Reference point should be located at the center of the PTV and when possible at the intersection of the beam axes
 * The dose at the ICRU Reference Point is the ICRU Reference Dose
 * Dose at/near center of PTV, maximum dose to PTV, and minimum dose to PTV should always be reported
 * Maximum Dose : Highest dose in PTV. A volume is considered clinically meaningful if its minimum diameter exceeds 15 mm; however, if it occurs in a small organ (e.g. the eye, optic nerve, larynx), a dimension smaller than 15 mm has to be considered
 * Minimum Dose : Lowest dose in PTV. In contrast to Maximum Dose, no volume limit is recommended.
 * Hot Spots : Volume outside the PTV which receives dose larger than 100% of the specified PTV dose. In general considered significant only if minimum diameter exceeds 15 mm; however, if it occurs in a small organ (e.g. the eye, optic nerve, larynx), a dimension smaller than 15 mm has to be considered
 * Levels of Dose Evaluation for Reporting:
 * Basic: Only dose at ICRU Reference Point and its variation along a central beam axis is available
 * Advanced: Dose distribution can be computed for plane(s)
 * Developmental: Dose distribution can be computed for volume(s)

 * ICRU 58 (1997) - interstitial brachytherapy
 * “Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Interstitial Therapy (1998)”
 * •	Definition of terms and concepts
 * Temporary and permanent implants
 * Source specification
 * Description Of source patterns
 * TRAK ( Total reference AIR Kerma)
 * Volumes and planes
 * Description of dose distribution :
 * Mean central dose, Minimum target Dose, High dose volume, Low dose volume
 * Time Dose factors
 * Temporary implant = Prescribed dose / initial dose rate
 * •	Definition of quantities
 * Absorbed dose
 * The Kerma
 * The activity
 * The air Kerma Rate Constant
 * Relationship Between the quantities
 * Reference Air Kerma Rate
 * •	Recommendations for recording ad reporting
 * Parameters to be recorded and reported
 * Priority
 * •	Practical applications
 * Temporary implants
 * Permanent implant
 * Single stationary source line
 * Moving sources
 * Surface applicators
 * ICRU 62 (1999) - "Prescribing, Recording and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy (Supplement to ICRU Report 50)"
 * Report
 * No change to definition of GTV and CTV, since they are oncologic concepts independent of any technical development
 * Global concept and definition of PTV is not changed, but definition is supplemented
 * Internal Margin (IM): Variations in size, shape, and position of the CTV relative to anatomic reference points; e.g., filling of bladder, movements of respiration. The internal variations are physiological ones, and result in change in site, size, and shape of the CTV
 * Internal Target Volume (ITV): Volume encompassing the CTV and IM. (ITV = CTV + IM)
 * Set-up Margin (SM): Uncertainties in patient positioning and alignment of therapeutic beams during treatment planning, and through all treatment sessions. The uncertainties may vary with selection of beam geometries, and may depend on variations in patient positioning, mechanical uncertainties of the equipment (e.g. sagging of gantry, collimators, or couch), dosimetric uncertainties, transfer setup errors from CT simulator to treatment unit, and human factors. These may vary from center to center, and from machine to machine
 * Planning Target Volume : PTV = CTV + IM + SM. The penumbra of the beam(s) is not considered when delineating the PTV. However, when selecting beam sizes, the width of the penumbra has to be taken into account and the beam size adjusted accordingly
 * Dose variation between +7% and -5% is generally accepted
 * Treated Volume : Volume enclosed by an isodose surface (e.g. 95%). The relative value of the isodose that was selected to define the Treated Volume in relation to the dose at the ICRU Reference Point should be stated when reporting, or can be expressed in absolute values
 * Conformity Index (CI): Treated Volume / PTV; it is implied that Treated Volume completely encompasses the PTV
 * Organs at Risk Volumes:
 * Organs at Risk (OAR): Normal tissues whose radiation sensitivity may significantly influence treatment planning and/or prescribed dose. For the moment, is may be useful to state if OAR is serial, parallel, or mixed serial-parallel
 * Planning Organ at Risk Volume (PRV): Analogous to PTV for OAR. PRV = OAR + IM + SM

ICRU LIST OF REPORTS

 * 1.	ICRU 1*
 * Discussion on International Units and Standards for X-ray Work
 * Brit. J. Radiol. Vol.23, 64-101 (1927)
 * 2.	ICRU 2*
 * International X-Rays Unit of Intensity
 * Brit. J. Radiol.(new series) Vol.1, 360-365 (1928)
 * 3.	ICRU 3*
 * Report of Committee on Standardization of X-ray Measurements
 * Radiology Vol.22, 289-294 (1934)
 * 4.	ICRU 4*
 * Recommendations of the International Committee for Radiological Units
 * Radiology Vol.23, 580-581 (1934)
 * 5.	ICRU 5*
 * Recommendations of the International Committee for Radiological Units
 * Radiology Vol.29, 634 -636 (1937)
 * 6.	ICRU 6*
 * Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection and of the International Commission on Radiological **Units (NBS 47) (1951)
 * 7.	ICRU 7*
 * Recommendations of the International Commission for Radiological Units
 * Radiology Vol.62, 106-109 (1954)
 * 8.	ICRU 8*
 * Report of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU)1956 (NBS 62) (1957)
 * 9.	ICRU 9*
 * Report of the International Commission on Radiological Units and Measurements (ICRU)1959 (NBS 78) (1961)
 * 10.	ICRU 10a*
 * Radiation Quantities and Units (NBS 84) (1962)
 * 11.	ICRU 10b
 * Physical Aspects of Irradiation (NBS 85) (1964)
 * 12.	ICRU 10c
 * Radioactivty (NBS 86) (1963)
 * 13.	ICRU 10d*
 * Clinical Dosimetry (NBS 87) (1963)
 * 14.	ICRU 10e*
 * Radiobiological Dosimetry (NBS 88) (1963)
 * 15.	ICRU 10f
 * Methods of Evaluating Radiological Equipment and Materials (NBS 86) (1963)
 * 16.	ICRU 11*
 * Radiation Quantities and Units (1968)
 * 17.	ICRU 12
 * Certification of Standardized Radioactive Sources (1968)
 * 18.	ICRU 13
 * Neutron Fluence, Neutron Spectra and Kerma (1969)
 * 19.	ICRU 14
 * Radiation Dosimetry: X Rays and Gamma Rays with Maximum Photon Energies between 0.6 and 50 MeV (1969)
 * 20.	ICRU 15
 * Cameras for Image Intesifier Fluorography (1969)
 * 21.	ICRU 16
 * Linear Energy Transfer (1970)
 * 22.	ICRU 17
 * Radiation Dosimetry: X Rays Generated at Potentials of 5 to 150 kV (1970)
 * 23.	ICRU 18
 * Specification of High Activity Gamma-Ray sources (1970)
 * 24.	ICRU 19*
 * Radiation Quantities and Units (1971)
 * 25.	ICRU 19S*
 * Dose Equivalent [supplement to ICRU Report 19] (1973)
 * 26.	ICRU 20
 * Radiation Protection Instrumentation and Its Application (1971)
 * 27.	ICRU 21
 * Radiation Dosimetry: Electrons with Initial Energies Between 1 and 50 MeV (1972)
 * 28.	ICRU 22
 * Measurement of Low-Level Radioactivity (1972)
 * 29.	ICRU 23
 * Measurement of Absorbed Dose in a Phantom Irradiated by a Single Beams of X or Gamma Rays (1973)
 * 30.	ICRU 24
 * Determination of Absorbed Dose in a Patient Irradiated by Beams of X or Gamma Rays in Radiotherapy Procedures (1976)
 * 31.	ICRU 25
 * Conceptual Basis for the Determination of Dose Equivalent (1976)
 * 32.	ICRU 26
 * Neutron Dosimetry for Biology Medicine (1977)
 * 33.	ICRU 27
 * An International Neutron Dosimetry Intercomparison (1978)
 * 34.	ICRU 28
 * Basic Aspects of High Energy Particle Interaction and Radiation Dosimetry (1978)
 * 35.	ICRU 29
 * Dose Specification for Reporting External Beam Therapy with Photons and Electrons (1978)
 * 36.	ICRU 30
 * Quantitiatve Concepts and dosimetry in Radiobioloby (1979)
 * 37.	ICRU 31
 * Average Energy Required to Produce an Ion Pair (1979)
 * 38.	ICRU 32
 * Methods Assessment of Absorbed Dose in Clinical Use of Radionuclide (1979)
 * 39.	ICRU 33
 * Radiation Quantities and Units (1980)
 * 40.	ICRU 34
 * The Dosimetery of Pulsed Radiation (1982)
 * 41.	ICRU 35
 * Radiation Dosimetry: Electron Beams with Energies between 1 and 50 MeV (1984)
 * 42.	ICRU 36
 * Microdosimetry (1983)
 * 43.	ICRU 37
 * Stopping Powers for Electrons and Positrons (1984)
 * 44.	ICRU 38
 * Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Intracavitary Therapy in Gynecology (1985)
 * 45.	ICRU 39
 * Determination of Dose Equivalents Resulting from External Radiation Sources [ -- Part I ] (1985)**
 * 46.	ICRU 40
 * The Quality Factor in Radiation Protection (1986)
 * 47.	ICRU 41
 * Modulation Transfer Function of Screen-Film systems (1986)
 * 48.	ICRU 42
 * Use of Computers in External Beam Radiotherapy Procedures with High-Energy Photons and Electrons (1987)
 * 49.	ICRU 43
 * Determination of Dose Equivalents from External Radiation Sources—Part II (1988)
 * 50.	ICRU 44
 * Tissue Substitutes in Radiation Dosimetry and Measurement (1989)
 * 51.	ICRU 45
 * Clinical Neutron Dosimetry Part 1: Determination of Absorbed Dose in a Patient Treated by External Beams of Fast Neutrons (1989)
 * 52.	ICRU 46
 * Photon, Electron, Proton and Neutron Interaction Data for Body Tissues (1992)
 * 53.	ICRU 47
 * Measurement of Dose Equivalents from External Photon and Electron Radiations (1992)
 * 54.	ICRU 48
 * Phantoms and Computational Models in Therapy, Diagnosis and Protection (1992)
 * 55.	ICRU 49
 * Stopping Powers and Ranges for Protons and Alpha Particles (1993)
 * 56.	ICRU 50
 * Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy (1993)
 * 57.	ICRU 51
 * Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry (1993)
 * 58.	ICRU 52
 * Particle Counting in Radioactivity Measurements (1994)
 * 59.	ICRU 53
 * Gamma-Ray Spectrometry in the Environment (1995)
 * 60.	ICRU 54
 * Medical Imaging - The Assessment of Image Quality (1996)
 * 61.	ICRU 55
 * Secondary Electron Spectra from Charged Particle Interactions (1996)
 * 62.	ICRU 56
 * Dosimetry of External Beta Rays for Radiation Protection (1997)
 * 63.	ICRU 57
 * Conversion Coefficients for Use in Radiological Protection Against External Radiation (1998)
 * 64.	ICRU 58
 * Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Interstitial Therapy (1998)
 * 65.	ICRU 59
 * Clinical Proton Dosimetry Part I. - Beam Production, Beam Delivery and Measurement of Absorbed Dose (1998)
 * 66.	ICRU 60
 * Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation (1998)
 * 67.	ICRU 61
 * Tissue Substitutes, Phantoms and Computational Modeling in Clinical Ultrasound (1998)
 * 68.	ICRU 62
 * Prescribing, Recording and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy (Supplement to ICRU Report 50) (1999)
 * 69.	ICRU 63
 * Nuclear Data for Neutron and Proton Radiotherapy and for Radiation Protection (2000)
 * 70.	ICRU Report 64: Dosimetry of High-Energy Photon Beams Based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water
 * 71.	ICRU Report 65, Quantities, Units and Terms in Radioecology
 * 72.	ICRU Report 66: Determination of Operational Dose Equivalent Quantities for Neutrons
 * 73.	Absorbed-dose specification in nuclear medicine, ICRU Report 67
 * 74.	ICRU Report 68, Retrospective Assessment of Exposure to Ionising Radiation
 * 75.	Report 69 : Direct determination of body content of Radionuclides
 * 76.	Report 70 (2003) Image Quality in Chest Radiography
 * 77.	. ICRU Report 72 (2004) Dosimetry of Beta Rays and Low-Energy Photons for Brachytherapy with Sealed Source
 * 78.	Report 73 (2005) on Stopping of Ions Heavier than Helium
 * 79.	Report 74 (2005) on Patient Dosimetry of X Rays used in Medical Imaging
 * 80.	Report 75 : Sampling of radionuclides in the environment
 * 81.	Report 76 (2006) Measurement Quality Assurance for Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry
 * 82.	Report 77 (2007) Elastic Scattering of Electrons and Positrons
 * 83.	Report 78 : Prescribing, Recording and Reporting Proton beam therapy
 * 84.	Report 79 : Receiver Operating characteristic (ROC) analysis of medical imaging
 * 85.	Report 80: Dosimetry systems for use in Radiation processing

title: Radiation Oncology/Physics/ICRU


text:
Horticulture/Phlox stolonifera

Phlox stolonifera (Creeping phlox, Moss phlox, Flowering moss, Ground pink, or Moss pinks) is a flowering native to the eastern United States in the forests of the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania south to northern Georgia.

Description
It is a creeping stoloniferous perennial plant growing 15-25 cm tall. The leaves on creeping stems are 3-4.5 cm long and 1.8 cm broad, those on the erect flowering stems smaller, 2 cm long. The flowers are produced in early spring, 2-2.5 cm diameter, with the five-lobed corolla pale violet to purple, pink or white in color, and yellow stamens.

title: Horticulture/Phlox stolonifera


text:
Radiation Oncology/Physics/Treatment Machines

Radiation Therapy Treatment Machines

Kilovoltage Units (up to 300 keV)

 * Contact Therapy Machines
 * 40-50 keV
 * filtered with 0.5-1.0 mm aluminum to remove very low energy (beam hardened)
 * SSD = 2cm
 * 50% depth dose at 5 mm

 * Superficial Therapy Machines
 * 50-150 keV
 * filtered with 1-4 mm aluminum to remove very low energy (beam hardened)
 * SSD = 20 cm
 * 50% depth dose at 1-2 cm

 * Orthovoltage Therapy Machines
 * 150-300 keV
 * filtered with 1-4 mm copper
 * SSD = 50 cm, field 20 x 20 cm
 * 50% depth dose at 5-7 cm
 * primary treatment machines <1950's

Megavoltage Units (>1 MeV)

 * Teletherapy Machine (Cobalt)
 * Introduced in 1951
 * Cobalt-60 decay produces two photons with 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV energies
 * dose rate of >150 cGy/min
 * SSD = 80 cm, field 40 x 40 cm
 * 50% depth dose 10 cm
 * half-life 5.28 years, requiring replacement of source every ~5 years
 * 2cm size of source capsule results in a wide penumbra of the beam (esp compared with 4mm LINAC source size)

 * Betatron
 * Developed in 1940 mainly for physics experiments
 * Treatment energies up to 45 MeV (although betatron maximum energies were ~300 MeV)
 * Massive size, high cost, and low dose rate prevented wide adoption

 * Linear Accelerator (linac)
 * Introduced in 1953 for clinical practice
 * Please see x-ray production section on more details
 * Currently the main treatment machine in modern radiation oncology
 * SSD = 100 cm, field 40 x 40 cm
 * A single machine may produce several different photon beam energies, as well as function in an electron mode

 * Microtron
 * Introduced in 1972 for clinical practice
 * Accelerator that linearly accelerates the electrons (like linac), but confines them using a fixed magnetic field (like cyclotron). Electrons move in increasingly large orbits, and desired energy is selected out for extraction and photon production
 * Compared to linac, are simple, small, and have easy energy selection. The beam itself is has small energy spread, beam divergence, and size
 * Commercial medical energies up to 50 MeV

Cyclotrons

 * Accelerate heavy charged particles (protons, heavy ions, deuterons for production of neutron beams)
 * Developed in 1930's for physics research; introduced in 1960's for clinical practice
 * Particles are accelerated in circular orbits between two D-shaped half-cyclinders using a fixed magnetic field and variable-radius orbits
 * Proton energies of >200 MeV are required for sufficient depth penetration
 * Deuteron energies of ~50 MeV are sufficient for production of neutron beams

Synchrotrons

 * Accelerate heavy charged particles (protons, heavy ions, deuterons for production of neutron beams)
 * Similar to cyclotrons, but instead use a variable magnetic field and fixed-radius orbits
 * Loma Linda has the first dedicated proton facility

Production of X-rays

 * Electron Volt (eV) - unit of energy used in radiation oncology. Kinetic energy acquired by an electron at rest after being accelerated through 1 volt field. Acceleration distance does not matter, since shorter distance generates stronger field, leading to greater acceleration. Measure of the beam energy

 * X-rays are produced by two steps:
 * 1 - acceleration of electrons
 * 2 - collision of these electrons with a metal target, converting their energy into x-rays
 * 2A - Bremsstrahlung (80% at diagnostic energies, 99% at treatment energies)
 * 2B - Characteristic x-ray production via ionization (20% at diagnostic energies, 1% at treatment energies)

Diagnostic and therapeutic x-rays differ in their acceleration of electrons; the collision with target and x-ray production is essentially the same

 * Diagnostic X-ray electron acceleration
 * A metal filament (tungsten) serves as a source of free electrons. The filament is heated to free up more electrons per unit time
 * The filament is placed in vacuum to prevent air molecules interacting with the free electrons. Pyrex glass is used to withstand the heat
 * High voltage is applied to generate appropriate X-rays

 * Therapeutic X-ray electron acceleration
 * to be continued ...

 * Electron collision with metal target (and production of x-rays)
 * Bremsstrahlung (Radiation)
 * Incoming negative electron is attracted by positively charged nucleus, resulting in directional change
 * Direction change requires the electron to lose energy, radiated as x-ray photon
 * The greater the bending, the greater energy loss, and the higher the generated x-ray energy
 * 180 degree bending results in all of the incident electron energy to be converted to x-ray. This is the maximum beam energy. Diagnostic x-ray are in the 10 - 150 keV range
 * Spectrum of x-rays with different energies is produced, as a function of the different electrons bending differently
 * The lowest energy x-rays are most commonly produced, but many are filtered out in the equipment
 * The process is not very efficient, converting only ~1% into usable EM (x-rays) and remaining 99% into useless EM (heat)
 * The higher the incoming electron energy, the more likely it is converted to x-ray and not heat
 * Characteristic X-rays (Ionization)
 * Incoming electron knocks out a K or L shell electron, creating a vacancy in that shell
 * Higher shell electron then "jumps down" to fill the vacancy, and in the process sheds the excess energy as EM radiation (photon)
 * This radiation is characteristic for a given element (since it is a function of the difference in shell energy levels), and is thus called characteristic radiation
 * Characteristic x-rays are produces as a series of peaks, depending on the difference between the source and target shells
 * For tungsten, these are at 59.3 keV (L1->K), 58.0 keV (L2->K), and 67.2 (M->K). The L shells are not visible
 * Characteristic x-rays do not vary in energy as voltage is changed, as their are a function of the different shell energies, caused by "jumping down" of electrons into a vacated orbital spot
 * Since x-rays are generated as a complex spectrum, effective energy of the spectrum is defined as the single energy that has the same penetration in water as the actual spectrum. For tungsten at keV energies, it is approximately 1/2.2 (45%). For tungsten at MeV energies, it is approximately 1/3

 * Cobalt-60 gamma-ray production
 * to be continued ...


text:
User talk:Oxyg n

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:11, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Oxyg n


text:
User talk:218.208.239.98

Join Us!
-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 16:12, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:218.208.239.98


text:
Talk:X86 Assembly/x86 Assemblers

Hello

The link in the FASM section leads to infected peges.

Missing: ASM86.
Missing from this page is the original Intel assembler. I think it was called ASM86. If I recall correctly keywords like "Offset", "Proc" and "Endp" (and others) came from this assembler. MASM then copied this syntax.

 * I believe it was called ASM-86. All you missed was the hyphen.  MASM is indeed based on ASM-86, although I can't confirm offhand that the three particular keywords you cited are from ASM-86.  It appears that MASM is actually evolved from the first Microsoft assembler for the 8086, MACRO-86 (or at least, it's the earliest 8086 assembler from MS that I have found any trace of.)  MACRO-86 in turn has an ancestor in their earlier MACRO-80 assembler for the Intel 8080.  Bitsavers has a document (named Microsoft_8086_Utility_Software_Package_1981.pdf) that includes a MACRO-86 manual.  Interestingly, in this manual, the command to execute MACRO-86 (to assemble a source file into an .OBJ file) is "MASM", suggesting that the MACRO-86 executable was named MASM.  (I think this should resolve any controversy of whether the "M" in Microsoft's "MASM" stands for "Macro", "Microsoft", or something else.)
 * Now, no one today uses Intel's ASM-86—I think it might have only run on an ISIS development system from Intel—so including a separate section for ASM-86 here would not be appropriate. But mentioning ASM-86 in the MASM section, or mentioning it in the introduction as the general basis for all x86 assembly language dialects—since ASM-86 defined the 8086 instruction mnemonics themselves, which even AT&T-syntax assemblers typically use with few modifications—would be appropriate, in my opinion.
 * Aside, I note that for their V20 and V30 CPUs, which were enhanced unlicensed binary-compatible clones of the Intel 8088 and 8086 designs, NEC invented a whole new set of assembly language mnemonics for all the instructions, so as to avoid running afoul of Intel's legal copyright on the instruction mnemonics used in ASM-86, as Intel prominently advertised "mnemonics (C) Intel 1977" (or close to that year) in all their early manuals for the "iAPX 86" (as the 8086 family was then called. I think "iAPX" stands for "Intel Advanced Processor Architecture", in an approximate way, particularly regarding the "X".)  As far as I know, practically no one actually used NEC's alternative mnemonics, instead using assemblers for the 8086 and either not using the added instructions of the NEC V-series CPUs or using macros to define mnemonics for their binary opcodes.  But I don't really know; I'm only surmising based on imagining the incentives and the options that were available at the time, though I do imagine that NEC had at least one assembler that used their set of mnemonics and that at the very least it was used internally at NEC.

Missing: TASM.
It strikes me as TASM gets only a passing mention (its "ideal mode") as part of the section devoted to FASM. Are there objections to making a paragraph about TASM proper ? Such should come just below MASM, IMO. Even though TASM is no more (actively?) sold by Imprise/Borland, it is a nice assembler of historical significance and still available at no cost, as part of downloads from their online "Museum" (packaged with the C,C++ and/or Pascal downloads).

Will someone volunteer to add this paragraph ? - 90.54.146.59 (talk) 09:29, 3 May 2010 (UTC) Ninho -

title: Talk:X86 Assembly/x86 Assemblers


text:
Introduction to Art/Digital Art I

Let's divide Digital Art, meaning visual art using digital media into the following rough categories
 * Imitation of traditional art (like Painter, ArtRage, ...)
 * enhancing traditional work (like coloring scanned inkings or enhance colors of a scanned image)
 * decontextualizing (using digital means for collages or seemingly real photographs)

title: Introduction to Art/Digital Art I


text:
User talk:Yamavu

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:41, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Yamavu


text:
User talk:Thomashauk

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:42, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Thomashauk


text:
User talk:Sheilamichael

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:42, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sheilamichael


text:
User talk:Enzepedon

Welcome!
Come introduce yourself at the new users page. If you have any questions, you can ask there or contact me personally.-- – Mike.lifeguard  | talk 18:43, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Enzepedon


text: User talk:205.125.173.10

title: User talk:205.125.173.10


text: User talk:74.62.155.45

title: User talk:74.62.155.45


text:
Radiation Oncology/Physics/Radiation Interactions

Radiation Interactions

Radiation Types

 * Electromagnetic rays (photons)
 * Duality of a particle (photon) and a wave (mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic waves)
 * X-rays and Gamma-rays are identical in physical characteristics and biological effect, but differ in their origin:
 * X-rays - originate outside of nucleus, typically as excess energy shed by an incoming electron when bending around a nucleus
 * Gamma-rays - originate within the nucleus during radioactive decay or fluorescence
 * Ionizing radiation is that with photon energies > 1 keV
 * Shielding by dense high-Z metals (lead, depleted uranium)

 * Electrons, Beta-rays, Positrons
 * Very light, in tissue do not travel in straight lines but are deflected by coulombic repulsions from atomic orbital electrons
 * Lose on average 50% of their energy on interaction
 * As a result, have a well-defined penetration "range" in tissue, even though their path is not straight but zig-zaggy = CSDA (continuous slowing down approximation) range
 * For 12 MeV electrons, this is couple centimeters

 * Protons
 * Generated by cyclotron beams (e.g. MGH, Loma Linda)
 * Because they are heavier than electrons, travel mainly in a straight line by "boring" a path through atomic electron clouds
 * Toward end of their path rapidly increase interaction with incident atoms, and rapidly slow down, resulting in Bragg Peak
 * Shielding by medium-Z metals to provide electrons to slow the protons down. High-Z materials should be avoided, as they produce secondary x-rays and neutrons

 * Alpha Particles
 * Produced by radioactive decay of heavy radionuclides
 * At same energy, travel much more slowly than protons (due to much higher mass), with effective range of couple mm
 * Well absorbed by skin (dead layer of cells) but dangerous in mucous membranes (ingestion, inhalation)
 * Experimentally used in RT
 * Shielding by low-Z materials

 * Neutrons
 * Interact by colliding with protons (Hydrogen nucleus mainly)
 * Shielding by combination of highly hydrogenous (concrete) and highly absorbing (boron-10) materials

Interaction of X-rays / Gamma-rays with Tissue

 * Excitation
 * Inner shell electron is imparted with sufficient energy to "jump up" to a higher energy shell, but not enough to separate from the nucleus
 * It then immediately "jumps down" to its original shell to fill the vacancy, and in the process sheds the excess energy as EM radiation (photon)
 * This radiation is characteristic for a given element (since it is a function of the difference in shell energy levels), and is called characteristic radiation
 * The chemistry of the atom is ultimately unchanged, but biological changes may be induced by disturbances of the electron cloud geometry

 * Ionization
 * Inner shell electron is imparted with sufficient energy to separate from the nucleus (> binding energy)
 * Higher shell electron "jumps down" to fill the vacancy, and in the process sheds its excess energy as EM radiation. The EM energy is the same as the energy difference between the shells
 * In large atoms, yet higher shell electrons may then "jump down" in a cascade, resulting in multiple EM emissions
 * Once a valence shell electron "jumps down", the atomic is an electron short, and becomes a free radical
 * The emitted x-ray(s) are called characteristic x-rays, and are unique to each element
 * Grand average of binding energies across tissue elements and across different shells = 33 KeV (meaning, on average it takes 33 KeV to eject an electron from an atom, and thus ionize the atom)

X-rays/Gamma-rays interact with tissue in 5 different ways:
 * Coherent Scattering
 * Only significant at lowest diagnostic x-ray energies (<5% interactions)
 * Incoming photon is deflected (absorbed and immediately re-emitted), with minimal direction and energy change
 * Can cause problems with contrast in mammography, but not relevant in treatment energies

 * Photoelectric Absorption
 * Strongly enhanced in high-Z tissues such as bone, or at lower EM energies (thus not very important at treatment energies)
 * Incoming photon "sees" innermost shell electrons (85% K-shell, 14% L-shell, 1% rest), and is absorbed by them
 * Depending on the absorbed energy, this can cause the electron to be excitated to a higher shell or ejected from the atom in ionization. If ejected, it is called photo-electron and causes projectile damage in tissue
 * The vacancy is filled (see above in Ionization) from higher shells, leading to characterist x-rays
 * These characteristic x-rays may be immediately re-absorbed by the same atom's electrons (common). If they have sufficient energy, may excite or eject another electron in a second ionization event. If ejected, it is called Auger electron and causes projectile damage in tissues
 * The remaining atom may become a free radical, if valence electrons are affected

 * Compton Scattering
 * Most dominant interaction in soft tissues at treatment energies
 * Incoming photon "sees" individual outermost electrons, and bounces off them like a billiard ball. It is then called Compton photon, and can undergo additional interactions
 * In the process, it ejects the electron from the orbit in an ionization event, which causes projectile damage in the tissue. Accounts for ~75% of radiation damage
 * The atom becomes a free radical, causing biological damage in the tissue. Accounts for ~25% of radiation damage
 * Probability of a Compton interaction is inversely proportional to energy of the incoming photon.
 * It is independent of atomic number, so at treatment energies, bone and soft-tissue interfaces are barely distinguishable (= poor contrast)
 * At diagnostic x-ray energies, Compton Scattering direction is fairly random; at treatment x-ray energies, it is forward-peaked
 * Energy loss at interaction <20%, so incoming electron can interact numerous times before losing sufficient energy to be absorbed via photoelectric absorption (below)
 * This is the main tissue effect at energies 30 keV - 30 MeV

 * Pair Production
 * Occurs only at high photon energies (>1.02 MeV) and preferentially in high-Z tissues
 * Incoming photon (energy) is converted to mass (electron and positron) in the vicinity of atomic nucleus via E=mc2
 * Additional energy over 1.02 MeV is converted to kinetic energy, and divided between the 2 particles
 * Positron then interacts with some electron (not necessarily from same atom), and is converted back into 2 EM photon at 0.51 MeV each
 * Electron causes projectile damage in the tissue
 * Significant pair production can be seen in blocking of the oncoming beam, since blocks are high-Z materials (for lead, this is the main effect at energies >5 MeV)

 * Photodisintegration
 * Occurs only at very high photon energies (>7 MeV)
 * Incoming photon deposits so much energy, that the nucleus disintegrates
 * Source of low-level neutron production (important for radiation shielding)

 * Interaction Summary at Therapy Energies
 * Coherent Scattering - no real effect
 * Photoelectric Absorption - smaller effect: 1) free electron (photo-electron), 2) +/- free electron (Auger electron), 3) free radical atom
 * Compton Scattering - main effect: 1) free electron (Compton electron), 2) free radical atom
 * Pair Production - smaller effect: 1) free electron, 2) two 0.51 MeV photons
 * Photodisintegration - no real effect

Interaction of Electrons with Tissue

 * Same process as described above in "Generating X-rays"
 * Two fundamental interactions:
 * Radiation (Bremsstrahlung) - bending of electrons around nucleus => shedding of energy as EM x-rays
 * Ionization (Characteristic X-rays) - impact with orbital electron => electron release => vacancy fill => shedding of energy as Characteristic x-rays
 * Any given electron can in a single interaction lose a very small or very large fraction of its energy, and be deflected by a very small or very largy amount. This leads to large variation among incoming electrons in their path (and distance) into the tissue (range-straggling)

Interaction of Protons with Tissue

 * Incoming protons also lose energy mainly by interacting with orbital electrons; however, since they are much heavier (~1800x), they only lose very small fraction of their kinetic energy with each interaction, and thus scatter only minimally
 * The interactions (and thus energy loss) become more frequent at slower energies. Thus the slower the proton moves, the more energy it loses to the tissue electrons, in a feed-forward loop, until it abruptly loses all energy. This region of rapid energy loss (and its deposition into the tissue) is called the Bragg peak.
 * The distance at which Bragg peak occurs, and the energy is deposited, can be calculated very precisely (unlike electrons). The rapid drop-off in dose make it ideal for delivering dose precisely to the tumor, and not to the healty tissue beyond the tumor.
 * Incoming protons also rarely interact with the nucleus, and may enhance cell kill by ~10% (PMID 472125 [No abstract] - "The determination of absorbed dose in a proton beam for purposes of charged-particle radiation therapy." Verhey LJ, Radiat Res. 1979 Jul;79(1):34-54.)

Interaction of Heavy Ions with Tissue

 * Several heavy ions (helium, argon nuclei) have been tested clinically
 * They interact with tissue similarly to protons, but since they are heavier still, they scatter less initially, and have a faster dose fall-off (Bragg peak) at the end
 * They also interact with nuclei more often, and may lose a large amount of their large kinetic energy in a single interaction. This high energy deposition is much more efficient per unit dose than x-rays in killing cells (high relative biologic effectiveness = RBE)

Interactions of Neutrons with Tissue

 * Because neutrons are heavy and neutral, they only lose energy by interacting with nuclei. Similarly to heavy ions, this leads to a sudden large loss (deposition) of energy in a single event. They also have a high relative biologic effectiveness (RBE)
 * Similarly to x-rays, the fall-off in dose is exponential (because the interactions are random, unlike proton/ion interactions with increase with slowing velocity). In tissues, 50% of dose is at ~10 cm


text:
Radiation Oncology/Physics/Dosimetry

Dosimetry

 * Biologic damage to DNA and other structures depends on the amount of ionizing (directly or indirectly) energy absorbed from the radiation beam and deposited into the tissue
 * Absorbed dose is defined as energy absorbed per unit mass of tissue. It is essentially the measure of liberated electrons
 * It is difficult to measure absorbed dose directly in tissues; instead, ionization is measured in air (exposure) and then converted to absorbed dose tissue equivalent
 * Bragg–Gray cavity theory

Radiation Exposure

 * Dose of radiation absorbed correlates directly with the energy of the beam
 * Gray = basic unit of absorbed dose, in energy (J) per unit mass (kg). Replaces rad (100 rad = 1 Gy)
 * to be continued ...

CBCT Exposure

 * Vanderbilt; 2009 PMID 19147025 -- "Radiation dose from kilovoltage cone beam computed tomography in an image-guided radiotherapy procedure." (Ding GX, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2009 Feb 1;73(2):610-7.)
 * Monte Carlo simulation, adult and pediatric
 * H&N scan, half-fan mode: adult vs. peds eye 7 vs 8 cGy, cord 5 vs 6 cGy, brain 5 vs 6 cGy, vertebra 18 vs 23 cGy. Full-fan mode 10-20% lower dose
 * Abdomen, half-fan mode: prostate 3 and 7 cGy, femoral heads 7 and 17 cGy
 * Conclusion: Doses can total 3 Gy over entire treatment course

Review
radiationtherapy.tk

title: Radiation Oncology/Physics/Dosimetry