text:
Harmonica/Advance techniques

=Overbending= Overbending, commonly called overblow and overdraw, is a difficult technique to master. The physics are simple to explain: In overblow, a normally drawn reed would vibrate upon the blow airflow, and in overdraw a normally blown reed would vibrate upon the draw airflow. This is the reason why it cannot be done on a harmonica with windsavers.

Because the opposite reed commonly acts as a buffer for excess air, this is easier said than done. Furthermore, on holes that have windsavers, this cannot be done. The sound is also harsher, similar to the sound of a hard pressed organ key.

Overblowing is done the same way as a bend in the upper register, by tightening the jaw, bringing the tongue up slightly, and trying to sound the desired harmonic. To improve overbend, one can make the gap between the reeds and the plate smaller.

On a chromatic, these can be done from hole 8 to 12. On a tremolo, they can be done on every hole.

=Ornaments=

Approach
Also known as grace notes, this usually involve playing a note a half-step lower/higher real quick and then play the actual piece. if nt indicated, this is usually fine in blues, rocks, and jazz. On a harmonica, you can use one of the following:

Slide jabs
The technique is for a slide-in note. One will approach a slide-in note with the slide out, then jab it in quickly.

Reverse jabs
The technique is for a slide-out note. One will approach a slide-out note with the slide in, then release it in quickly.

Bend grace notes
use bending to bend the note half-step lower briefly, before playing.

Glissando

 * Start with a chord right next to the actual hole, then quickly go to the actual hole and block out the rest with a tongue slap.

Tremolo vs Vibrato
Just like guitar's misnamings, Tremolo and vibrato on a harmonica are also misnamed. So let's set it straight, as per music theory: While all kind of musics use ornaments, remember, play it only when it is musically appropriate. Sometimes, it's best not to do any ornamentation, especially if it's not how one would play in this style (e.g.: Canon in D played in classical style is very different from playing in blues style)
 * A vibrato is a fluctuation of pitch, usually accompanied with synchronous fluctuations of loudness and timbre, of such extent and rate as to give a pleasing flexibility, tenderness, and richness to the tone.
 * A tremolo is a rapid fluctuation of intensity (loudness and sound pressure) without changing the pitch.

Hand/Finger Tremolo
A hand/finger tremolo is achieved by rapidly opening and closing the cupped hands around the harmonica to adjust volume.

Shake
Shake is also known as warble. A warble is when you rapidly alternate between two notes in neighboring holes. Don't confuse warbles with trills as trills have a dissonant, clashing sound due to the combinations of notes. Warbles sound smooth and harmonious.

In warbles, the note on the left is usually the main note while the note on the right is added. You can either use pucker or tongue-block embouchure when playing warbles. To play a warble, select two holes to alternate between, and then play the note on the left and then the right. Continue to alternate between the two notes. Play warbles on a sustained breath. The resulting sound is a rhythmic texture.

Warbles can be achieved using the following four techniques:
 * Jaw flick: Flick your lower jaw from side to side.
 * Tongue flick: Select two holes with your lips and flick the tip of your tongue from side to side.
 * Head shake: Hold the harmonica steady and shake your head from side to side.
 * Hand warble: Hold your head steady and move the harmonica from side to side with your hands.

Slide Shake ("Trill")
What traditionally called as a trill on a chromatic is not a trill. As it involves moving the slide in and out rapidly, it is more appropriately a type of vibrato.

Flutter tongue
A motor-like sound generated by vibrating the tip of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, just behind (but not against) the teeth. Emulate this movement with the rolled R as in the Spanish word "rapido" (pronounced rrrrapido)

Tongue vibrato
You make vibrations inside your mouth with your tongue (depends, back and forth, up and down, or some mixed motion) as if you were trying to bend the note using the tongue motion.

In simple words you just move your tongue back and forth very fast as if trying to whistle exhaling and inhaling the air. Don't use your throat or lungs for breathing for a while, just use the amount of air in your cheeks. Move the tongue really fast. In this case the trajectory of the air stream is not straight and pressure on the reed is somewhat mixed causing some kind of turbulence.

This effect is very impressive when used on a bent note with at least half of the tone room above and below. The best use of it in my opinion is by getting the deepest bent note, say, 2 draw 2-step bend and then do what was described above by adding some air pressure.

In fine, when you vibrate your tongue the note fluctuates from the 2-step deep bend to almost pure 2 draw - with larger increment of time devoted to the 2-step deep bent note and smaller increment of time devoted to the unbent note or I would say to transition from 2-step bend to unbent note and back. That is, you are to hear the bent note almost constantly with transitory vibrato effect along the possible bending range. All this happens during the tongue vibration.

Throat Vibrato
Throat vibrato is one of the most important harmonica techniques to master. It adds color and variety to your notes in the same way that it does for a singer, and it is intimately associated with good tone. There are several different ways of achieving various vibratos on the harp, including diaphragm vibrato, hand vibrato, and throat vibrato. Diaphragm vibrato and throat vibrato are closely related, while hand vibrato is achieved by opening and closing the hands to vary the air seal cup at the back of the harp.

Diaphragm vibrato primarily makes use of the diaphragm for altering the amount of air flowing through the harp, which provides a rhythmic pulsing of volume from softer to louder to softer. Throat vibrato may be the most emotional of the vibratos by making use of pitch changes as well as volume changes.

The key to throat vibrato is a smooth oscillation of both pitch and volume. Done poorly it sounds chunky, and not smooth. Done well it sounds smooth and natural and wonderful. Strive for a sine-wave type continuous smoothness, with consistent pitch and volume changes. Rhythm is an important part of the vibrato. You can do vibrato at different speeds, so you choose a speed that fits with the rhythm and feel of the music. The pulses of the vibrato should be made to divide the notes into even intervals to add to the rhythmic content of the music.

The classic way to get throat vibrato is to imitate a rapid fire machine gun (eh eh eh eh eh), like when you were a kid. Then do it inhaling instead of exhaling. It's the same throat motion that gets the throat vibrato. Work on it until all the chunkiness is gone, and it sounds as natural in your play as it does in a singer's voice.

A good way to get the feel is to put vibrato on the 3 draw 1/2 step (or even less) bend. Your throat is involved getting the bend initially, so there's some feel there before you go for the vibrato. Breathing from the diaphragm will help control the vibrato. There's always an interaction between the throat and diaphragm when doing a vibrato, since each is involved in controlling the air stream. For throat vibrato, obviously the emphasis is on the throat--but you'll probably notice some involvement of the diaphragm as well.

Try it amplified, but play softly. Practice very soft draw bends. At some point you'll notice what feels like a direct connection between your throat and the note. Every little nuance of throat motion is reflected in the sound. Work on playing the 3 draw 1/2 step bend softly. Then put some vibrato on the note by pulsing the air stream with your throat. The pitch will change up and down because you've got a hold of the bend with your throat. Keep at it, it's worth it!

Combo vibrato
This is a combo of diaphragm, tongue and jaw technique while bending the note. The diaphragm is working a quick vibrato, while the tongue/jaw are doing a pumping action to enhance and speed up the vibrato even more. Also, bend the note as you do this.

Split intervals
Unlike other wind instruments, a harmonica can play numerous notes at once. Aside from intervals made up of adjacent notes, a player can play separate holes by blocking the holes in the middle, and sound the two outermost notes. The split octave (below) is an example of this.

While the principle is simple, in practice, this can be difficult. Many people, have difficulty releasing airflow on both sides of a tongue block. Furthermore, for some intervals it may be difficult to stretch ones mouth wide enough. If one wishes to sound two notes which are separated by two holes this can be easily learned by first sounding all four holes (as in a chord) and then touching the tip of the tongue to the post separating the two innermost holes. For example playing blow holes 3, 4, 5 and 6, and then touching the tongue to the center post which separates holes 4 and 5, produces a split octave of C1 (3 blow) and C2 (6 blow).

Shimmer
=Octaves= If a player stretches the mouth wide enough, and blocks out a certain number of holes in the middle such that only two notes that are octave apart (e.g.: C1 and C2) will sound, they will form a octave.
 * For chromatic, that means stretching out across four holes and then block out the 2 holed in the middle with your tongue.
 * For diatonic, stretch out across four holes and then block out the 2 holes in the middle. Note you can only form a true octave on the blow, and just a few draw notes.

Slide bump
As player play a slide-out note, immediately bump the slide in and let it out quickly, which let it rise up a bit.

Slide dip
As player play a slide-in note, immediately let it out and press it back in quickly, which let it lower down for a short while.

title: Harmonica/Advance techniques


text:
ACE+TAO Opensource Programming Notes/Create a process with both client and server

The model here is to set up a client like app, and at regular intervals, call the server code's handler on a once through (no loop) mode. Note the odd way this is crafted so that the poll function is called after the orb's process loop times-out. So, what can happen here is that the handler can call out to other ORBs and the run member of the local orb can act as a part time server. According to the TAO Developer's manual, the TCP stack will act as your cache while the poll function is doing its thing, thus, don't spend too much time in the poll function.

MyHandler ph;

//Set up a delay value of 6 s ACE_Time_Value interval (6, 0); //Run the ORB's event loop and poll the bill acceptor while(1){ orb->run(interval); ph.poll; } orb->destroy ;

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/The Atmosphere

The Atmosphere is the fourth unit in the Salters Advanced Chemistry course.

Chemical Storylines sections

 * A1: What's in the air?
 * A2: Screening the Sun
 * A3: Ozone: a vital sunscreen
 * A4: The CFC story
 * A5: How bad is the ozone crisis
 * A6: Trouble in the troposphere
 * A7: Keeping the window open
 * A8: Focus on carbon dioxide
 * A9: Coping with carbon
 * A10: Summary

Chemical Ideas sections

 * 6.2 What happens when radiation interacts with matter?
 * 6.3 Radiation and radicals
 * 7.1 Chemical equilibrium
 * 10.1 Factors affecting reaction rates
 * 10.2 The effect of temperature on rate
 * 10.5 What is a catalyst? (revision)
 * 10.6 How do catalysts work?
 * 13.1 Halogenoalkanes

Activities

 * A2.1 What substances can act as sunscreens?
 * A2.2 Investigating sunscreens
 * A2.3 What is the effect of the atmosphere on the Sun’s radiation?
 * A3.1 More about ozone
 * A3.2 The photodissociation of bromine (Optional teacher demonstration)
 * A3.3 Investigating the reaction between bromine and cyclohexane
 * A4.1 How do halogenoalkanes differ in reactivity?
 * A4.2 Making a halogenoalkane
 * A4.3 Designing refrigerants
 * A5 Chemistry in the stratosphere
 * A6 Which are the greenhouse gases?
 * A8.1 The effect of concentration changes on chemical equilibria
 * A8.2 Measuring the concentration of carbon dioxide in air samples
 * A9 Controlling carbon dioxide
 * A10 Check you notes on The Atmosphere


text:
User:Moogle~enwikibooks

Moogle is an extension of an account I have at Wikipedia, see Moogle.

title: User:Moogle~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Moogle~enwikibooks

Moogle is an extension of an account I have at Wikipedia, talk at Moogle.

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Moogle. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Moogle~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:28, 17 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:16, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Moogle~enwikibooks


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Vocational/Communications

Historical Notes
Communications was called Signaling until 1986 when it was discontinued. It was reintroduced the following year and renamed Communications.


text:
Wikibooks talk:Collaboration of the Month/July 2006 voting

I'd like to add a qualification to the voting rules along the lines of - please only vote for a nomination if you intend to help improve that book if it is chosen as the CoM. I'd intend this mostly as a reminder for people before voting. Intentions can, of course, change, and I would not seek to disenfranchise a voter because, from time to time, he does not help a collaboration he has voted on. But where we have voters coming here regularly, but never, ever, contributing to a collaboration they supported, then it would be time to ignore that user's votes.

The idea of all this is to help select the books most likely to improve during the month. A book four people are willing to actively work on over a month will improve much more than a book that twenty people agree needs improving, but where no-one wants to actually do the work, Jguk 20:46, 6 June 2006 (UTC)


text:
Wikijunior talk:Languages/Korean

Hanja
In regards to the question "What writing system(s) does this language use?", shouldn't Hanja be addressed?

Why have the Chinese characters in this Wikibook been removed? --Ce garcon 11:33, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Since this is a Wikijunior book, including hanja would unnecessarily complicate the lessons. Rodasmith 03:12, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

History
I've been going through this book and I noticed that the history sections seems a little too verbose for an elementary school textbook. Some of the language was much too advanced. I also seems too focused on the history of the written language and doesn't even mention the history of the spoken language. I'd suggest that it be reworked from scratch.Rmawhorter (talk) 01:32, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

simple song/poem/story
Is Aeguka really a good example of simple song/poem that represents the language for children? --Highwind (talk) 17:28, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

 * Do you know of a song that might be better for children? Rodasmith (talk) 20:58, 4 June 2008 (UTC)

title: Wikijunior talk:Languages/Korean


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Indices and Surds/Problems

Feel free to add more problems as long as you provide the solutions

Indices
Simplify the Indices.
 * 1) $$x^2x^3$$
 * 2) $$x^3x^{-2}$$
 * 3) $$\frac{x^5}{x^2}$$
 * 4) $$x^{-4}$$
 * 5) $$\left(x^3\right)^4$$
 * 6) $$\left(xy\right)^2$$
 * 7) $$\left(\frac{y}{b}\right)^3$$
 * 8) $$x^{\frac{2}{3}}$$
 * 9) $$\frac{x^2x^4}{\left(x^2\right)^2}$$
 * 10) $$x^5x^{-5}$$

Surds
Simplify the following Surds.
 * 1) $$\sqrt{9}$$
 * 2) $$\sqrt{25}$$
 * 3) $$\sqrt{45}$$
 * 4) $$\sqrt{63}$$
 * 5) $$\sqrt{100}$$
 * 6) $$\sqrt{48}$$
 * 7) $$\sqrt{98}$$
 * 8) $$\sqrt{75}$$
 * 9) $$\sqrt{32}$$
 * 10) $$\sqrt{320}$$
 * 11) $$\sqrt{256}$$
 * 12) $$\sqrt{\frac{9}{36}}$$
 * 13) $$\sqrt[3]{\frac{27}{125}}$$
 * 14) $$\sqrt{\frac{162}{200}}$$
 * 15) $$\sqrt{\frac{75}{3}}$$
 * 16) $$\sqrt{\frac{112}{72}}$$

Rationalize the Denominator

 * 1) $$\frac{2}{\sqrt{4}}$$
 * 2) $$\frac{8}{4 + \sqrt{26}}$$
 * 3) $$\frac{12}{12 - \sqrt{76}}$$
 * 4) $$\frac{3}{3 - \sqrt{65}}$$
 * 5) $$\frac{9}{9 + \sqrt{9}}$$
 * 6) $$\frac{a^2}{a+\sqrt{a}}$$

Indices and Surds/Problems


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Indices and Surds/Solutions

These are the solutions to Indices and Surd Problems.

Indices

 * 1) $$x^5$$
 * 2) $$x$$
 * 3) $$x^3$$
 * 4) $$\frac{1}{x^4}$$
 * 5) $$x^{12}$$
 * 6) $$x^2y^2$$
 * 7) $$\frac{y^3}{b^3}$$
 * 8) $$\sqrt[3]{x^2}$$
 * 9) $$x^2$$
 * 10) $$1$$

Surds

 * 1) $$\sqrt{9} = 3$$
 * 2) $$\sqrt{25} = 5$$
 * 3) $$\sqrt{45} = \sqrt{9}\sqrt{5} = 3\sqrt{5}$$
 * 4) $$3\sqrt{7}$$
 * 5) $$\sqrt{100} = 10$$
 * 6) $$4\sqrt{3}$$
 * 7) $$7\sqrt{2}$$
 * 8) $$5\sqrt{3}$$
 * 9) $$4\sqrt{2}$$
 * 10) $$8\sqrt{5}$$
 * 11) $$16$$
 * 12) $$\frac{1}{2}$$
 * 13) $$\sqrt[3]{\frac{27}{125}}$$ = $$\frac{27^\frac{1}{3}}{125^\frac{1}{3}}$$ = $$\frac{3}{5}$$ (Note: $$x^\frac{1}{3} \times x^\frac{1}{3} \times x^\frac{1}{3}=x$$)
 * 14) $$\sqrt{\frac{162}{200}}$$ = $$\frac{\sqrt{162}}{\sqrt{200}}$$ = $$\frac{\sqrt{81}\times\sqrt{2}}{\sqrt{100}\times\sqrt{2}}$$ = $$\frac{9\sqrt{2}}{10\sqrt{2}}$$ = $$\frac{9}{10}$$
 * 15) $$5$$
 * 16) $$\frac{\sqrt{14}}{3}$$
 * 17) $$1$$ (denominator is already rational)
 * 18) $$- \frac{32 - 8\sqrt{26}}{10}$$
 * 19) $$\frac{144 + 24\sqrt{19}}{68}$$
 * 20) $$\frac{9 + 3\sqrt{65}}{-56}$$
 * 21) $$\frac{3}{4}$$
 * 22) $$\frac{{a^2}-a\sqrt{a}} {a-1}$$

Indices and Surds/Solutions


text:
User:IanCarter

 * Lead Developer Euona LLC
 * Wikipedia Profile

title: User:IanCarter


text:
Cookbook talk:Ostrich

Ewwww....:( bleck.

title: Cookbook talk:Ostrich


text:
Managing Groups and Teams/Managing Leadership Transitions

Introduction
The transition period of replacing a leader within a company is often not a very costly time for not only the company, but all personnel involved. In the 1992 study "Turnover and Evole Models for Family Leave," researchers J. Douglas Phillips and Barbara Reisman estimate that the cost of replacing a top-level manager is about 150 percent of the manager's base salary. These costs can include: accrued annual leave, substantial severance pay, executive recruitment activities, interim management costs and numerous intangible and indirect costs. This chapter examines how to successfully manage the transition from team member to team leader. It is important to have an effective strategy for this transition because it has a direct impact on the future performance of the team and its leader. This transitional phase sets behavioral norms for team members, establishes performance standards, affects members’ motivation, and creates the leader’s and members’ perceptions about their ability to excel as a cohesive unit. Data from Development Dimensions International concerning leadership transitions states that nearly one out of every five "people managers" rank transitioning leadership as the most challenging life event one could experience and at the strategic level, these numbers are even higher, often times placing transitions above divorce, managing teenagers, moving and even becoming a parent.

The managing leadership transitions chapter is divided into multiple sections and is designed to be either read completely or referred to simply as reference. The first section examines the functional and psychological impacts that this phase can have on team members and transitioning leaders. The second section explores the challenges that a newly promoted team leader faces when establishing influence over the team members who were once teammates. The best methods for establishing influence over a team are also assessed. Section three provides practical advice for newly promoted leaders to accelerate the transition process from team member to full fledged team leader, while setting both the leader and the team up for future performance success.

Functional and Psychological Impacts of Transitioning from Team Member to Team Leader
Being promoted to a team leadership role brings many challenges. One of the more difficult obstacles encountered is when promotion occurs from within the team. The new leader finds him in a position of authority over a group of team members he previously worked alongside. This can result in struggle for both the team and the leader as roles are reassigned and individuals adjust to the new relationship. As companies and schools place more emphasis on teamwork, people find themselves facing this conflict of moving from peer to supervisor more often. What may have once been an easy relationship based on shared experiences is now one of shifted dynamics and unease among the team. Despite the increasing occurrence of this event, the transition rarely goes smoothly and often is unsuccessful. In an attempt to better understand why some individuals succeed in making the change to team leader, many studies have been done to help identify root causes and potential solutions. Among those concepts identified are social biases and role conflict. In this section we hope to further explore these concepts and the role they play in the team member to team leader transition.

The newly promoted team leader may find them struggling with role conflict. He/she must learn how to balance the relationships built as a peer and the new responsibility of acting as the boss. Maurice B. Mittelmark’s editorial "Social ties and health promotion: suggestions for population-based research", comments on studies which examine role conflict and its adverse psychological and functional impacts. As applied to transitions from team member to leader, the article supports the proposition that new leaders will be less successful at managing the team and more psychologically stressed if the leader tries to maintain multiple roles, as teammate and team leader. “The Role Conflict situation is that in which multiple roles… are perceived to demand too much time and attention...” The article places “emphasis on multiple roles as the stress factor, not on too low capacity to perform as expected (although P [the team leader] may nevertheless take blame for not being able to manage somehow).” A real world example of the significant impact of leadership transitions occurs at a US Freightways hub in Holland, where they have been able to study the effect of transitioning terminal managers. The US Freightways hub in Holland has 59 terminals and regularly sees a 20% annual turnover in terminal managers, thus nearly 12 transitions per year. Taking the 12 transitions per year and multiplying that by the average effective time of 4 months per transition, US Freightways calculated that at any time, 4 terminals or nearly 7% of their hub were consistently operating ineffectively. The calculations performed by US Freightways follow:

$$(59-Terminals * 20\%-Annual Transitions = 11.8-Transitions per Year)$$

$$\begin{matrix}&(11.8-Transitions per Year * 4-Months per Transition / 12-Months per Year\\ &= 4-Terminals Consistently Operating Ineffectively)\end{matrix}$$

When a team leader proves ineffective at managing the team member and team leader role, the psychological stress of trying to juggle multiple roles and consistently meeting deadlines will ultimately cause the leader to fail. The failure is more often a result of this stress than the increased functional workloads associated with performing the tasks of team leader.

Role conflict can also occur because of commitment and the brain’s strong tendency to want to be consistent with prior actions. For example, employees may lock themselves into certain roles by telling coworkers “they’ll always be there to support them.” However, when those employees are promoted the roles change. The promoted employees may find themselves stuck in certain roles because they want to remain consistent with what was said beforehand. In the example where a supervisor has to layoff a previous coworker and friend, dissonance is created and will interfere with the supervisory role. One of the first steps a new leader must take in order to increase their chances of success is to establish a policy for assessment and accountability. The role of each team member should be assessed along with a focus on accountability for each role. The leader is accountable for his team's results; each team member should know his or her roles and responsibilities. By establishing clear expectations from the team, the leader will be better positioned to lead. Most importantly, with proper planning and training on the part of the new leader, role conflict can be managed more successfully.

While there may be resistance from group members for a variety of reasons, whether it is resentment of being passed over for the promotion or doubt of one's leadership skills, it is probably in the best interest of the new supervisor to deal with those people on a case-by-case basis. Initially both the new leader and former peer may be hesitant to continue a social relationship outside of work; this does not have to be the case. As long as both parties are able to recognize and acknowledge that work stays at the office. In addition, the transition may be helped if the new leader is able to focus on the opportunity of the new position, not just for him, but the team. This will help in 3 ways:

 * 1)  Provide framework to help separate coworkers from the leader
 * 2)  Make the promotion and new leadership more of an uplifting goal
 * 3)  Encourage new associations to be created for the promoted employee and the new set of peers (other leadership members)

Challenges and Methods for Establishing Influence over the Team
Imagine that you have been part of a team that has been working on a project. Having worked closely with each other for some time, each participant has become familiar with the skills and competencies of the other members and the team dynamics have been such that all consider themselves peers, having equal skills and knowledge to bring to the table. Now suppose that management is unhappy with the disappointing results that have come from this team effort and they have asked you to lead the team to the desired outcomes for which it was first established. Would you expect this new appointment to be met with resistance from your peers?

Actually, team members who transition into a managerial or team leader role in the midst of an ongoing project can face a wide array of challenges in asserting their newfound influence. Most likely the new leader is now in charge of his/her peers and it may prove difficult for team members to take direction from someone whom they still consider as an equal. The transition period for a new leader is encumbered with a variety of resistive tendencies that may not only cause delays, but also a significant loss of focus which will lead to even greater problems down the road.

Once the group dynamic changes, already existing social biases can be augmented or new social biases can arise that can further complicate the matter. Underlying social biases like false uniqueness, recency biases, and stereotyping can begin to emerge and become a prevalent part of the team atmosphere. According to Gerardo Okhuysen in his article “Managers and Social Processes” these biases have the definitions described in the table below.

These definitions take on life when put in the context of practical application. Returning to the scenario at the beginning of this section we can show how these social biases are applied to real situations.

While the competitive nature of many companies can certainly increase the likely occurrence of the above issues regardless of the influence the leader has; often these disruptions are signs that the newly assigned team leader’s authority is not properly recognized.

Interestingly, problems stemming from a lack of leadership authority are much more likely to surface when promotion occurs from within a team. An example of this occurred in a small defense company in California. The generation gap between the two main engineering levels was quite vast. As the project moved forward, inconsistencies in the management style of the senior project manager resulted in a prompt changing of the guard. The most qualified individual was of the younger generation and was well liked by his peers for his outgoing and fun personality, but the project manager position was not all fun and games. The six months that followed where riddled with faulty product development, severe lapses in judgment and many test series that were absent from oversight by project management. Being promoted from within caused the new project manager to be put in the difficult position of having to be in charge of the same co-workers he amused just the day before.

In order to lead effectively, a manager’s authority must be well established. In Robert Cialdini’s book, Influence, the Psychology of Persuasion, he determines “authority” to be the most effective method for leaders to influence team performance and describes the various aspects of authority as encompassing perceptual cues, such as titles, positions and appearance, concrete knowledge and expertise.

In general, superficial cues such as formal titles or a list of accolades that may lend to the authoritative image of an unfamiliar manager cannot serve an individual promoted from within a team who is already well known to the group. Managers who are promoted from within an existing team face a unique challenge with respect to establishing their influence primarily as a result of the perceptual components of authority.

The logistical and social components of leadership transitions also provide a unique challenge to any new leader, whether he/she is from inside the company or an external hire. Just as a strong functioning team can be one of the greatest assets to a manager and the entire company, an ill performing entity can rapidly bring a process to a screeching halt.

It is almost certain that the new leader of any team will be different than the previous leader, be it in management style, attitude or vision. These qualities, however good or bad, must be accepted by the entire team in order for them to collectively move forward and maintain a strong status. In retaliation to change, a vault of resistive pressures may be unleashed toward the new leader ranging from severe lack of urgency and distraction to jealousy and animosity towards all management. Project meetings can quickly become less orderly, employees can lose focus and general chaos ensues. Many social biases including false uniqueness and stereotyping can create a wall between the new leader and his/her subordinates. The reoccurring ideas that "I could have done that better" or "he is a typical suit that does not know what is really going on here" can slowly begin to implode the team environment. Although many of these examples seem extreme, transitions in leadership often do cause logistical delays leading to a temporary rise in social bias among subordinates.

In a recent article by Sotiriou and Wittmer, “Influence Methods of Project Managers: Perceptions of Team Members and Project Managers", the authors present the findings of three separate studies that attempt to measure the importance of various factors relating to managerial influence. “Expertise” was examined as a separate factor in the project management studies but showed almost identical ratings to the “authority” component, suggesting that these components are very closely related.  The studies also provided evidence that knowledge, when used as an influential method, is highly correlated to a project manager's overall effectiveness.  It is evident that newly promoted managers are therefore best served by leveraging their knowledge and expertise, to help establish authority within their new role.  Robert Cialdini however, identifies “liking” as an important factor in enabling people to influence others and he endorses a persuasion technique that leverages “liking” or friendship as a way for leaders to influence team members. In a situation where a colleague is promoted to a leadership role, the new manager might hope to rely on friendship ties with former peers to help motivate the team and encourage them to take direction. Managers choosing to use "liking" as a strategy for empowerment should be aware that often times team members adopt a familiarity with the new manager that is consistent with his or her collegial or “friendship” role and therefore do not properly respond to the new supervisory role.

Once a proper blend of expertise, knowledge and "non-liking" has been established, management becomes further complicated by the familiar “us vs. them” mentality that is quite common in organizations. While it is not always appropriate to rely on friendships to motivate and direct team efforts, it is still necessary to eliminate adversarial relationships between team members and team leaders. Cialdini identifies “contact and cooperation” as valuable methods of unifying groups that may originally perceive themselves to be at odds. “Conjoint efforts toward common goals” can help to overshadow contentious relationships and leaders often benefit from incorporating the inherent team challenges into a strategy focused on the major goals of the project. This approach is echoed by Sotiriou and Wittmer’s project management studies that identify the “work challenge” as the overall most important factor contributing to the positive influence of project managers. These results further support methods of motivation that emphasize creating a meaningful and challenging work environment to help transitioning managers become effective team leaders.

Managing leadership transitions is a very difficult thing to do, but there are excellent strategies that can help ease the burden on everyone involved. A well rounded combination of expertise and knowledge will foster an authoritative position for the new leader. The "liking" factor, often present when an in-group employee is promoted, can be very valuable in establishing strong positive influence. However, one must always be aware of the potential social biases and resistive tendencies of  once peer, now subordinate employees. Strong leaders should work toward creating a challenging and satisfying work environment that not only focuses the team on common project goals, but also demonstrates that the leader's influence can and will lead the team to produce effective and positive outcomes. In the transition period for a new leader, the window of opportunity is short and he/she must be willing to make great strides toward establishing a solid influence over their team.

Practical Advice for Accelerating a Leadership Transition
A change in leadership of a project team requires a period of transition for everyone involved, especially the new leader. One of the best resources for practical and applicable advice about how to manage this period of transition is The First 90 Days: Success Strategies for New Leaders at All Levels by Michael Watkins. This book offers a structure and framework to help new leaders manage and accelerate the transition process that comes with their new role.

The book identifies ten key challenges for any new leader. We have adapted these ten challenges which can be applied when a project team member transitions into a team leadership role; later we will discuss the challenges we feel are most important for this particular situation. The ten challenges are as follows:

 * 1) Promote Yourself: Change your mindset to reflect the realities of your new position.  Don’t assume that what has been successful for you in the past will work for you today.  Your new position may require you to acquire and develop new skills in order to guarantee success for you and your new team.
 * 2) Accelerate Your Learning: When transitioning into a leadership role within the same company or team, the learning curve will be less steep, but an open mind is vital to any new leader’s success.  As a member of the team, you were probably familiar with the industry, the company, your competitors, and the market, in addition to your own specific functions and responsibilities on the project.  However, as the new leader of the team, you may not know the exact details of your teammate's responsibilities, so learning about these from your team members will be essential.
 * 3) Match Strategy to Situation: You need to understand the current business situation, and identify its unique challenges and opportunities.  As a member of the  team, you should have a good idea as to what the consequences and implications of transition will be, as well as a good sense for the team dynamics.  A clear grasp of the situation will help you to develop a winning strategy in managing and accelerating the transition.
 * 4) Secure Early Wins: Building credibility will be essential to establishing your new role on the team, and securing early wins is the best way to achieve this.  Formal authority over your former peers will only carry you so far before your team members start to think, “I could probably do a better job.”  Securing early wins will demonstrate to the team that you can plan and achieve tangible goals for the group, and they will probably be more willing to follow your lead.
 * 5) Negotiate Success: Perhaps the most important relationship in your new  leadership role will be the one between you and your new boss.  It will essential that you plan and execute a series of conversations with your new boss regarding his/her expectations; ask what resources will be available to help you develop your team.
 * 6) Achieve Alignment: Ensure that your goals, your team’s goals, and the organization’s goals are all in alignment.
 * 7) Build Your Team: Inheriting a team can produce a variety of interpersonal  issues.  Depending on the nature of your transition, you may or may not be given authority to make personnel decisions immediately or at all.  A thorough and careful assessment of the situation will help when making recommendations to your boss, and assist you in your own decisions as how to restructure your team for optimal performance.
 * 8) Create Coalitions: Your success will greatly depend upon your ability to influence people outside your direct line of control.  As the new leader of the team, you are the voice of your team to the organization at large.  You should not only build and maintain alliances with the people on your own team, but also with the key individuals within the organization who are necessary to the ultimate success of your team.
 * 9) Keep Your Balance: Transitions are extremely difficult to manage; it is easy to lose perspective, become isolated, and make bad decisions.  To help maintain a balanced perspective, you need to develop a strong advice and counsel network both within your team and within the organization.
 * 10) Expedite Everyone: You need to not only accelerate your own transition, but the transitions of everyone you work with – direct reports, bosses, and peers.

The most important challenges that pertain to a team member stepping into a management or leadership role relate to those challenges described in numbers 1, 3, 4, and 5 from above. What follows is a detailed description and how the challenges apply to each situation.

Challenge 1: “Promote Yourself,” relates to the psychological transition that a team member must make when promoted to team leader. As discussed in section one, newly promoted leaders must change their perception of themselves and re-frame their roles within the team. While it may seem that the re-framing would be most difficult for the leader’s former peers, in reality it is the new leader whose own behavior must change. For example, team leaders will have to forgo the informal chit-chat and chumminess they may have formerly enjoyed with their peers. Also, managers probably won't be included in all of the after-hours fraternizing or social activities of the team.

Challenge 2: “Matching Strategy to Situation,” is arguably the most important challenge for a team member transitioning to a team leader. Without fully understanding at what stage the project team is in, a new leader will be unable to tailor the correct managerial approach to the team’s current situation; as a result the team will fail to achieve. Watkins recommends using the STaRS model (Start-up, Turn-around, Realignment, and Sustaining Success), as a framework for helping to diagnose the team’s current situation. A transitioning leader must identify the challenges and opportunities facing the team in order to recognize the structural implications underpinning their team’s ability to perform. Those who move from team member to team leader likely do so as a result from an organization's need for realignment. Often in a realignment situation, the leader’s challenge is to revitalize a team project which has deteriorated. In this situation, the leader must challenge engrained norms of behavior, convince team members that change is warranted, as well as restructure and refocus the team. These challenges are offset by potential strengths already inherent in the team; team members’ prior success serves as motivation for wanting to achieve future success. Watkins’ assertion that transitional leaders must match their strategy to the team’s situation is in line with Hersey and Blanchard’s Developmental Theory of Leadership. This theory matches leadership style to group maturity. Group maturity is a function of time, and leadership style matches relationship-orientation and task-orientation to the group’s stage of development. In the case of transitioning leaders, the group may be mature when the teammate is promoted to team leader, but because the dynamic of the team is now changed, the leader may need to adapt his/her leadership strategy to fit the formative stage of team development. In the formative stage, the new leader should first focus on the team’s tasks. After this initial phase, the leader should then heighten his/her relationship-orientation, while maintaining equal focus on task-orientation.

Challenge 3: “Secure Early Wins,” is essential for establishing credibility as the new leader of the team. These early wins should be “team wins” as opposed to wins for the new leader. This will help build the perception that the new leader is effective not just in managing his or her own work, but more importantly getting the team to work together toward common goals. Watkins asserts that a new leader’s “earliest actions will have a disproportionate influence on how they are perceived”  New leaders are perceived as more credible when they display a specific managerial style. This style, according to Watkins, consists of six components. A new leader must be (1) “demanding but able to be satisfied” (motivating members to commit to and achieve realistic goals,) (2) “accessible but not too familiar” (establishing approachability without compromising authority,) (3) “decisive but judicious” (communicating the ability to take charge without making hasty big decisions,) (4) “focused but flexible” (establishing authority but consulting team members and encouraging team input,) (5) “active without causing commotion” (building momentum without overwhelming,) and (6) “willing to make tough but humane calls ” (ensuring decisions are fair and preserve team members’ dignity.)

Challenge 4: “Negotiate Success,” is another challenge that is essential in almost any situation. Ultimately, your boss is the main person who will be evaluating your team and your individual performance, which are directly tied. So establishing criteria and tangible objectives with your new boss is essential. Also, keep in mind that these goals may have been set for you by your predecessor, but as part of Challenge 3, you must evaluate these objectives and determine if they are still realistic given the transition period required for the change in leadership, this and other factors which your predecessor might not have taken into consideration.

As seen in table to the left from Paese and Wellins - "Leaders In Transition: Step Up or Step Off" of Development Dimensions International, communication and planning consume vast amounts of time from transitioning leaders. In a study performed by Evolta , 60 –65 % of all transitioners make their transition without special support from transition-based help firms. Often due to the fact that it takes transitioners 6 - 9 months to become fully effective and efficient in their new positions, a startling 35 - 40% of transitioning leaders fail.

Although the change in leadership of a project team requires a period of transition for everyone involved, the transitioning leader has many tools available to make the journey as pain free as possible. Following proven strategies for smoother transitions and possibly seeking the advice of leadership transition training by companies like Evolta, transitioning leaders can not only reduce the time involved, but also increase their likelihood of success.

Conclusion
This chapter focuses on how to manage the transition from team member to team leader, when working in a team-based organization. With the reality that "internally sourced leaders are failing 33% of the time" and "very few leaders feel that organizations are doing the right things to prepare their future leaders" (Paese and Wellins), the pressure on transitioning leaders seems insurmountable. Although the mountain is high, a key aspect of a successful transition is an effective strategy.

The importance of a successful transition not only lies with the leader, but also with the future performance of the entire team. The psychological impacts of the transitional period may include role conflicts and the animosity and personal doubt of other "passed over" teammates. Stress and impaired functionality are often negative outcomes that commonly arise from role conflict and often the best way to overcome such role conflict is to simply relinquish the prior teammate role and frame the leadership role as a definitive new challenge. Once the new leader has successfully changed his/her perception from team member to leader, the leader must establish influence over the team. Although this may be extremely difficult at times and require the entire team to overcome strong social biases, the results of a meaningful and challenging work environment are well worth the effort. One of the best ways to influence a team is through a combination of leveraging knowledge, expertise and "liking" to focus the team around a common set of goals. This combination of techniques not only establishes the leader’s credibility within the team, but it also primes the group to visualize accomplishing future goals under such leadership. Finally, even with extensive training and a thorough understanding of the social biases that may be present during your transition, it is the actions of the leader that matter most. We discussed topics like how to "promote yourself", "match strategy to situation" and "negotiate success" as excellent ways to accelerate your transition period. By opening your mind and following some of the aforementioned guidelines for leadership transitions, anyone can successfully transition into a coveted leadership role with confidence and finesse.

Links
http://www.ddiworld.com/

http://www.evolta.org/ngcms/v2/htdocs/index.php?cat_id=1000137

http://www.patrickmckenna.com/PatrickJMcKennaBrainmatterArticlesWhitepapers11.aspx?ID=50&NavID=40110


text:
Managing Groups and Teams/Noted Contributors

Eric Dolan, UC Davis MBA program

Brian Gyoerkoe, UC Davis MBA program

Brandon Meredith, UC Davis MBA program

Paul Nasman, UC Davis MBA program


text:
A-level Mathematics/OCR/C1/Equations/Problems

Collecting Like Terms
Simplify the following:

 * 1) $$x + x$$
 * 2) $$x^2 + 3x^2$$
 * 3) $$3x + 2x^2 + 2x -2x^2 + 3x^3$$
 * 4) $$zy + 2zy + 2z + 2y$$
 * 5) $$8x^2 + 7xy + x^2 - 10x^2 + 4x^2y - 4xy^2$$

Multiplication
Simplify the following:

 * 1) $$2x \times 2x$$
 * 2) $$6xy \times 3xy$$
 * 3) $$6zb \times 3x \times 2ab$$
 * 4) $$3x^2 \times 4xy^2 \times 5x^2y^2z^2$$
 * 5) $$x^2 \sqrt {x}$$

Fractions
Simplify the following:

 * 1) $$\frac{x}{2} + \frac{x}{2}$$
 * 2) $$\frac{x}{3} + \frac{x}{4}$$
 * 3) $$\frac{3xy}{15} - \frac{xy}{3} + \frac{6xy}{5}$$
 * 4) $$\frac{4x}{2} - \frac{4y}{4} + \frac{8z}{8}$$
 * 5) $$\frac{x}{y} + \frac{y}{x}$$

Changing the Subject of an Equation
1. Solve for $$x$$:

$$y = 2x$$

2. Solve for $$z$$:

$$x = 3z + 8$$

3. Solve for $$y$$:

$$b = \sqrt{y}$$

4. Solve for $$x$$:

$$y = x^2 - 9$$

5. Solve for $$b$$:

$$y = \frac{6b - 7z}{6}$$

Solving Quadratic Equations
Find the Roots of:
 * 1) $$x^2 - x -6 = 0$$
 * 2) $$2x^2 - 17x + 21 = 0$$
 * 3) $$x^2 - 5x + 6 = 0$$
 * 4) $$x^2 + x = 0$$
 * 5) $$-x^2 + x + 12 = 0$$

Simultaneous Equations
Example 1

''At a record store, 2 albums and 1 single costs £10. 1 album and 2 singles cost £8. Find the cost of an album and the cost of a single.''

Taking an album as $$a$$ and a single as $$s$$, the two equations would be:

$$2a+s=10$$

$$a+2s=8$$

You can now solve the equations and find the individual costs.

Example 2

''Tom has a budget of £10 to spend on party food. He can buy 5 packets of crisps and 8 bottles of drink, or he can buy 10 packets of crisps and 6 bottles of drink.''

Taking a packet of crisps as $$c$$ and a bottle of drink as $$d$$, the two equations would be:

$$5c+8d=10$$

$$10c+6d=10$$

Now you can solve the equations to find the cost of each item.

Example 3

''At a sweetshop, a gobstopper costs 5p more than a gummi bear. 8 gummi bears and nine gobstoppers cost £1.64.''

Taking a gobstopper as $$g$$ and a gummi bear as $$b$$, the two equations would be:

$$b+5=g$$

$$8b+9g=164$$

Equations/Problems


text:
Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine/Production of Radioisotopes

Most of the radioisotopes found in nature have relatively long half lives. They also belong to elements which are not handled well by the human body. As a result medical applications generally require the use of radioisotopes which are produced artificially.

We have looked at the subject of radioactivity in earlier chapters of this wikibook and have then progressed to cover the interaction of radiation with matter, radiation detectors and imaging systems. We return to sources of radioactivity in this chapter in order to learn about methods which are used to make radioisotopes.

The type of radioisotope of value to nuclear medicine imaging should have characteristics which keep the radiation dose to the patient as low as possible. For this reason they generally have a short half life and emit only gamma-rays - that is no alpha-particle or beta-particle emissions. From an energy point of view the gamma-ray energy should not be so low that the radiation gets completely absorbed before emerging from the patient's body and not too high that it is difficult to detect. For this reason most of the radioisotopes used emit gamma-rays of medium energy, that is between about 100 and 200 keV. Finally since the radioisotope needs to be incorporated into some form of radiopharmaceutical it should also be capable of being produced in a form which is amenable to chemical, pharmaceutical and sterile processing.

The production methods we will consider are nuclear fission, nuclear bombardment and the radioisotope generator.

Nuclear Fission
We were introduced to spontaneous fission in chapter 2 where we saw that a heavy nucleus can break into a number of fragments. This disintegration process can be induced to occur when certain heavy nuclei absorb neutrons. Following absorption of a neutron such nuclei break into smaller fragments with atomic numbers between about 30 and 65. Some of these new nuclei are of value to nuclear medicine and can be separated from other fission fragments using chemical processes.

The fission process is controlled inside a device called a nuclear reactor. One such reactor exists in Australia at Lucas Heights in New South Wales and many others exist throughout the world.

Nuclear Bombardment
In this method of radioisotope production charged particles are accelerated up to very high energies and caused to collide into a target material. Examples of such charged particles are protons, alpha particles and deuterons. New nuclei can be formed when these particles collide with nuclei in the target material. Some of these nuclei are of value to nuclear medicine.

An example of this method is the production of 22Na where a target of 24Mg is bombarded with deuterons, that is: + → +.

A deuteron you will remember from chapter 1 is the second most common isotope of hydrogen, that is 2H. When it collides with a 24Mg nucleus a 22Na nucleus plus an alpha particle is produced. The target is exposed to the deuterons for a period of time and is subsequently processed chemically in order to separate out the 22Na nuclei.

The type of device commonly used for this method of radioisotope production is called a cyclotron. It consists of an ion gun for producing the charged particles, electrodes for accelerating them to high energies and a magnet for steering them towards the target material. All arranged in a circular structure.

Radioisotope Generator

This method is widely used to produce certain short-lived radioisotopes in a hospital or clinic. It involves obtaining a relatively long-lived radioisotope which decays into the short-lived isotope of interest.

A good example is 99mTc which as we have noted before is the most widely used radioisotope in nuclear medicine today. This isotope has a half-life of six hours which is rather short if we wish to have it delivered directly from a nuclear facility. Instead the nuclear facility supplies the isotope 99Mo which decays into 99mTc with a half life of about 2.75 days. The 99Mo is called the parent isotope and 99mTc is called the daughter isotope.

So the nuclear facility produces the parent isotope which decays relatively slowly into the daughter isotope and the daughter is separated chemically from the parent at the hospital/clinic. The chemical separation device is called, in this example, a 99mTc Generator:

It consists of a ceramic column with 99Mo adsorbed onto its top surface. A solution called an eluent is passed through the column, reacts chemically with any 99mTc and emerges in a chemical form which is suitable for combining with a pharmaceutical to produce a radiopharmaceutical. The arrangement shown in the figure on the right is called a Positive Pressure system where the eluent is forced through the ceramic column by a pressure, slightly above atmospheric pressure, in the eluent vial.

The ceramic column and collection vials need to be surrounded by lead shielding for radiation protection purposes. In addition all components are produced and need to be maintained in a sterile condition since the collected solution will be administered to patients.

Finally an Isotope Calibrator is needed when a 99mTc Generator is used to determine the radioactivity for preparation of patient doses and to check whether any 99Mo is present in the collected solution.

Operation of a 99m-Tc Generator
Suppose we have a sample of 99Mo and suppose that at time $$t=0$$ there are $$N_0$$ nuclei in our sample and nothing else. The number $$N(t)$$ of 99Mo nuclei decreases with time according to radioactive decay law as discussed in Chapter 3:

$$ N(t)=N_\mathrm{0}e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}t} $$

where $$\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}$$ is the decay constant for 99Mo.

Thus the number of 99Mo nuclei that decay during a small time interval $$dt$$ is given by

$$ \mathrm{d}N(t)=-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo} N_\mathrm{0} e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}t}\mathrm{d}t $$

Since 99Mo decays into 99mTc, the same number of 99mTc nuclei are formed during the time period $$dt$$. At a time $$t'$$, only a fraction $$\mathrm{d}n(t')$$ of these nuclei will still be around since the 99mTc is also decaying. The time for 99mTc to decay is given by $$t'-t$$. Plugging this into radioactive the decay law we arrive at:

$$ \mathrm{d}n(t')=-\mathrm{d}N(t)e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}\left(t'-t\right)}=\lambda_\mathrm{Mo} N_\mathrm{0}e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}t}e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}\left(t'-t\right)}\mathrm{d}t $$

Now we sum up the little contributions $$\mathrm{d}n(t')$$. In other words we integrate over $$t$$ in order to find the number $$n(t')$$, that is the number of all 99mTc nuclei present at the time $$t'$$:

$$ n(t')=\int_0^{t'}-\mathrm{d}N(t')e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}\left(t'-t\right)}=\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}N_\mathrm{0}e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}t'} \int_0^{t'}e^{\left( \lambda_\mathrm{Tc}-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}\right)t} \mathrm{d}t $$

Finally solving this integral we find:

$$ \begin{matrix} \Rightarrow n(t')&=& \frac{\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}}{\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}}N_\mathrm{0} e^{-\lambda_\mathrm{Tc}t'}\left(e^{\left( \lambda_\mathrm{Tc}-\lambda_\mathrm{Mo}\right)t'} -1\right) \\ \end{matrix} $$

The figure below illustrates the outcome of this calculation. The horizontal axis represents time (in days), while the vertical one represents the number of nuclei present (in arbitrary units). The green curve illustrates the exponential decay of a sample of pure 99mTc. The red curve shows the number of 99mTc nuclei present in a 99mTc generator that is never eluted. Finally, the blue curve shows the situation for a 99mTc generator that is eluted every 12 hours.

Photographs taken in a nuclear medicine hot lab are shown below:


text:
Managing Groups and Teams/Team Personalities

Introduction and Scope
Diversity in personality is like adding color to an otherwise black-and-white television screen. High-definition, surround-sound, plasma TV is much more enjoyable than grandpa’s fuzzy, black-and-white mono speaker TV. The scope of this chapter is to address the question of diversity in personality and demonstrate that it is not only possible but also recommended to achieve high performance through diversity in personality. We discuss the ways to identify personality, contributor personalities, and inhibitor personalities. We offer considerations and limitations to personality profiling. We also provide links to professional resources and consultant firms specializing in personality diversity. Finally in this chapter we provide references and credible sources for this material. Welcome to our wiki book chapter, enjoy.

Why Personality Diversity Is Important
There can be great energy harnessed from team members’ different personality traits if managed properly. Leaders must possess the skills to build their teams around the right personalities and to manage those personalities. We all see the world from our own unique perspective, our own paradigm. When we’re part of a team, we bring that paradigm to the team environment. Good and bad personality traits within a team can offset one another and build on each other and lead to synergies. Rather than ask each team member to conform to a group norm, leaders must recognize and utilize personality differences to ensure high performance.

Although some argue that personality classification is simply an attempt to "quantify the unquantifiable," studying and recognizing different personality types can help you work more effectively with your peers. Temet Nosce Learning more about your own personality traits can help you understand your own strengths and weaknesses, which can help in selecting team members that will complement you. Learning about others' personalities can help you develop the ability to view situations from their perspectives and improve your own psychological peripheral vision (Butler, 2000), which can be a crucial management skill to help make the team successful.

There are several characteristics of successful teams. One such characteristic is diversity in team members. Diversity in culture, background, age, and ethnicity are important for high performing teams, but so too is personality diversity. All teams are made up of a diverse range of personalities, but it is the high performing teams that leverage their personality differences and mitigate and manage inhibitor personalities, to achieve their common goal. Think about high performing sports teams and there is likely to be a cast of characters with unique personalities. Members of the Chicago Bulls in the 1990s were full of eccentric personalities. Dennis Rodman was the outspoken flamboyant player, Scottie Pippen was the often aloof team member and Michael Jordan was the fierce competitor. Each player was a critical piece to the Bulls' championship team puzzle. Each had his personality strengths and weaknesses. Their coach and leader, Phil Jackson, harnessed their strengths and managed their weaknesses toward a common goal. The Bulls won six championships and Phil Jackson became known more as a Zen master than an NBA coach. He later went on to win three more championships with the Lakers, successfully managing two diverse superstars in Shaquille O’Neal and Kobe Bryant. Jackson is widely recognized for his leadership ability and, specifically, his ability to motivate athletes with strong personalities to work as a team.

Achieving High Performance: The Real Reason
"Anyone can become angry – that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way – that is not easy."

- Aristotle, 350BC

Emotional intelligence is the ability to use emotions effectively and many believe EI is the primary that determines high performance. The first academic definition of emotional intelligence was published in 1990 by Peter Salovey and Jack Mayer, of Yale University and University of New Hampshire, respectively (Freedman and Everett). "Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth."

- Mayer & Salovey

Meanwhile and since the publication - researchers and academics, practitioners and consultants, and companies are investigating new ways to use their understanding of emotional intelligence to elevate professional and personal success. Why? Daniel Goleman, author of the best-selling book Working with Emotional Intelligence, estimates that IQ accounts for only 4% to 25% on how well people perform at work and that the other 75% to 96% left unexplained can be, largely, attributed to emotional intelligence.

Goleman states that emotional competence is the more accurate predictor of the most successful people – not IQ. For example, PepsiCo, conducted a pilot project where executives selected for high emotional intelligence competencies outperformed their colleagues, delivering a 10% in productivity, 87% decrease in executive turnover ($4m), $3.75 million added economic value, and over 1000% return on investment (Freedman & Everett). Not surprisingly, Johnson and Johnson came to the same striking conclusion: “Emotional competence differentiates successful leaders.” So what competencies or factors go into the making of the successful leader or individual? Goleman, created the following framework to define emotional competence:

People with high performance have a strong combination of personal and social competences – in essence, high emotional intelligence. So, teams that are high performing will have leaders and members who are a blend of Goleman’s emotional competencies.

How to Identify Different Personalities
There are many ways to identify different personalities: look, listen, smell, touch, taste, and perceive. Obviously, some of these methods might not be the most appropriate or useful, especially in the workplace.

Many different personalities tests are available to test and identify different personalities. Among these personality tests are the Big 5, Myers-Briggs, and the Color Code system. We choose to focus on the Big 5 since it is highly regarded in business and academic communities. http://www.centacs.com/quickstart.htm#Background

The Big 5 focuses on five personality factors which help individuals understand themselves and their teammates. The following is a very brief summary:

 * Need for Stability Factor : Refers to the degree to which a person responds to stress.

 * Extraversion Factor : Refers to the degree to which a person can tolerate sensory stimulation from people and situations.

 * Originality Factor : Refers to the degree to which we are open to new experiences/new ways of doing things.

 * Accommodation Factor : Refers to the degree to which we defer to others.

 * Consolidation Factor : Refers to the degree to which we push toward goals at work.

Take the Big Five Test
Here are a couple websites that offer the Big 5 personality test free of charge.

http://www.outofservice.com/bigfive/

Contributor Personalities
While there are many personalities that inhibit a team's performance, there are others that help the team accomplish goals, tasks, and objectives. Some personalities contribute to a team culture that facilitates high performance and accomplishment. Other personalities simply keep things in check and under control. Having this type of diversity in a team's makeup of personalities can play a vital role in the team's success.

Types of Constructive Personalities
There are many personality types that are very constructive and which help in becoming a high-performing team. A few of them are listed here:

 * Silent Contributor : A person with this personality type is someone who gets the job done without saying much. They silently complete the tasks that are assigned to them, and very rarely create conflict. One must take care to balance this type of team member with someone who is not afraid to speak up, however, so that necessary communications happen for the team to progress.

 * Devil's Advocate : This type of person is someone who likes to challenge ideas and processes. They act as an internal "check" on what you are doing and the processes you use. Although this person can generate conflict, oftentimes it is healthy conflict that brings ideas to light or helps to challenge biases.

 * Facilitator : People who like to keep structure to meetings, organize documentation, and make sure things run smoothly are often referred to as "facilitators." These people facilitate the operation of a team by making sure everything goes according to plan, on schedule, and in order. People with this type of personality help to reduce the probability that chaos will ensue from random team members trying to accomplish their distinct agendas simultaneously. This is a "control" member of the team.

 * Leader : Some people are really good a leading a team to success. This type of person is not afraid to take charge, delegate assignments, enforce accountability, encourage others, and facilitate success. Some are natural born leaders, others simply learn by doing.

 * Follower : A dutiful worker. Some people are really good at following directions and assignments, and they work very hard to get their work done on time. This type of person more suited to this type of role because they know how to work hard and are okay with following instructions. Having the bulk of the work taken care of by the "followers" allows the other roles within the team to take care of their functions.

Some Can, Some Can't, Some Won't
The truth is that some people are good at team collaboration, some aren't, and others are unwilling.

Some people just seem to have the "gift" of working with and leading a team and ensuring its success. These are hard-working people with a mind for collaboration and putting the success of the team above their own ego. This type of person will help others achieve their goals by working with them to resolve frustrations, remove impediments, and create an atmosphere of mutual satisfaction. This type of team player encourages the rest of the team to work collaboratively towards the team goals.

Others may not have collaborative personality traits within them. Although their intentions might be good, they may not see eye-to-eye with team members on processes, methods or goals. Oftentimes this type of person will be confrontational and impatient. Even though they would like the team to succeed, sometimes their own work ethic or personality gets in the way. This type of person can learn to work better within a team if they recognize their impact on others and are willing to make changes to their style.

Some people simply won't work with a team. This type of person thinks they can get the job done faster, easier or better than the team could, and therefore simply will not cooperate. This type of person must get past their own ego if they are to work successfully in a team, and this type of change must start from within.

Inhibitor Personalities
No matter where a person works, difficult personalities present problems and challenges in the workplace. These inhibitor personalities cause a great deal of stress and are sometimes complex to address. The temptation is to avoid people with personalities that inhibit logical workflow as it takes time, skill and effort to deal with them. Personality conflicts are felt by all managers at all levels, but most avoid dealing directly with them. A study of 250 senior professionals conducted in the United Kingdom in 2005 noted that half of those surveyed encountered difficult people on a daily basis (Berry 2005). Despite this finding, the study noted that only 15% of managers actually confronted the inhibiting behavior. 55% tried to help by discussing the problems and 30% just ignored or put up with the difficult personality. These findings are largely due to the lack of knowledge about how to deal with inhibitor personalities and the inability to confront the stresses involved.

Types of Difficult Personalities
To better understand the types of personalities that can be disruptive in the work environment, it is necessary to explain the types of personalities that inhibit teams in the workplace so that an approach can be applied to deal with each type. There are four basic categories of personalities that can be found in the workplace: aggressive, deceptive, passive and destructive.

 * Aggressive : People showing these personalities demonstrate hostile and forceful behavior toward others. People exhibiting aggressive behavior charge forward in an attacking and forceful way to display the frustration or anger they feel but cannot resolve.  These people need to be heard and have a need to vent while at the same time needing people to listen to them.  Aggressive personalities include perfectionists, dictators, hostile-aggressives, attackers, egotists, bullies and criticizers who always say no to any request.

 * Deceptive : People who engage in deceptive behavior aren’t comfortable with direct confrontation and prefer to attack from a distance from behind some kind of protection. People with this type of personality are still vocal and tend to either complain quite a bit without direct attacks or compensate for their frustration and dissatisfaction by being everything from sneaky to over-agreeable. These types of personalities include snipers who attack from a distance and always seem to have hidden agendas; overtly nice people who agree with everything until they are overwhelmed; “brownnosers” who have an unnatural attachment to those in charge as a way to get ahead; those who seem unresponsive to anything; and those who spread rumors to increase their own self esteem.

 * Passive : People who are meek in the workplace present problems as well. Passive personalities are negative, but portray themselves as victims, always ready to dismiss any solution presented to them. Passive personality types include martyrs, passive-aggressives, moody people, crybabies, self-castigators, worriers, resisters, silent types and those who say “it’s not my job”.

 * Destructive : People who exhibit destructive behaviors can be explosive and unpredictable. Failure to understand this personality type can lead to extreme problems in the workplace that can create an unsafe work environment. This type of inhibitor personality includes people who are sociopathic and those who are substance abusers.

Aggressive Personalities
The aggressive personality type is forceful in what they want and demand that their issues be dealt with right away. These aggressive inhibitors include:

 * Perfectionists : Every detail must be perfect or the perfectionist becomes negative. They are never satisfied with their own work and are own worst critic.  They have unrealistic standards and even work that is praised by other workers as the highest quality work is not acceptable to the perfectionist.  They cannot accept any kind of criticism and will focus on anything not perfect, even if that part is a tiny part of the overall work done.  A perfectionist manager tends to be a micromanager.

 * Dictators : A person with this personality will make a great deal of demands on everyone and will try to tell them how to do their jobs. They will walk all over the more passive personality types because they will let the dictator roll over them.  Dictators are often angry and hostile and have a strong need to control.  For the dictator, it is “my way or the highway”.

 * Hostile-aggressives : People exhibiting this personality are pushy and demanding, constantly argumentative and can be hostile and abusive. They have a need to stir things up and thrive on the chaos they cause. (Aldrich 2002).  These employees don’t care whether the reaction they get is positive or negative as they gain positive self-recognition regardless of the outcome.

 * Attackers : These people demonstrate emotion-based hostility and aggressive that they are unable to control. These attacks are not personal to the person being attacked, the attacker is just looking for someone to vent the frustration and anger for which he or she can’t find an outlet. Attackers are genuinely upset and need someone to listen to their pain.

 * Egotists : These are attackers who have a superior attitude and think they know it all. They charge forward with their disapproval of anything that they as experts feel is not going the way it should.  Egotists are arrogant and will disagree with most everything that is said because they like to be right.  They always find problems, not opportunities.  They often criticize others to make themselves feel better.

 * Bullies : The bully uses threats and intimidation to undermine others. Bullies attempt to undo another person as part of their plan to retain popularity and power.  Bullies have an inflated view of themselves and is threatened by someone who is likeable, well qualified or attractive. (Guy 2001).  They will humiliate, destroy, discredit or intimidate another person to make themselves look better.

 * Criticizers : A criticizer will strike down anything this is new, creative or different. His or her mission is to disagree with anything that is said (Topchik 2006).  She will jump on any mistake and disagree with it with negative feedback.  A manager who is a criticizer exhibits it by always saying no to all requests.

Deceptive Personalities
The person with a deceptive personality type will not directly confront as in the case of the aggressive type. This personality will instead work behind the scenes or from a distance to disrupt the workplace or gain favor. These deceptive inhibitors include:

 * Snipers : They use pointed jabs, humor and verbal sparing to put others down, usually from a distance and behind the scenes. These people take potshots at others, use sarcasm as a weapon, lurk on conference calls to silently gather information, talk behind other people’s backs and go to great lengths to make their behind the scenes efforts untraceable back to them.  These people will not discuss their opinions in a public forum.

 * Over-agreeables : These are “yes” people who have a powerful desire to be liked and appreciated. They never say no to anything and are far too uncomfortable to voice an opposing opinion.  They are often overwhelmed with too many projects since they never say no to anything and are always positive in approach.  These people can be problematic in the workplace when they agree with one person’s approach and then also agree with an opposing position from someone else.

 * Brownnosers : Also known as bootlickers, people with this personality type believe that the shortest way to the top is on the coattails of the boss.  They will exhibit a complete devotion and dedication to those in charge and will not ever tell the truth about their tactics or any of the boss’ activities.  They live in a constant self-reinforcing denial state that is perpetuated by the sense of importance bosses get from them.

 * Unresponsives : These people are very hard to understand and to draw out because they don’t provide enough to work with. They tend to be uncommitted to anything with work as the lowest priority in their lives.  They waste time, spent a lot of time on personal matters and try to get by doing as little as possible.

 * Rumormongers : This is one of the more difficult deceptive personalities in that much of their negativity is spread through ideas and statements that are not true, but are hard to trace back to the source. This person feels a great sense of importance when the rumors this person circulates force strong reactions from others.  Rumormongers tend to be very specific about what rumors they spread (examples include spreading rumors around senior managers, job cuts, salaries, competition and dating in the workplace), which maximizes the impact and increases their sense of self worth.

Passive Personalities
These are people with meek personalities and are often self-deprecating to a fault. They tend to be moody and sensitive people who worry greatly, resist change, complain and need constant encouragement. This personality type includes the following:

 * Martyrs : This person is the one who comes in early, stays late, seems to not have a life outside of work and will do anything asked of them. While doing this, they will also complain about workload, other employees, clients, managers and everything else in between.  The martyr always feels like her efforts go unappreciated.  They usually act defeated and powerless.  The martyr’s trademark statement is “I have given up everything for this company and nobody cares” (Topchik 2006).

 * Passive-aggressives : People with this personality style lack assertiveness and feel out of control. To remedy this, they find satisfaction in controlling another person’s life (Guy 2001).  They are very jealous and resentful and have so little belief in themselves that they can’t compete with another person without bringing them down.  Anyone that this person feels threatened by is subject to their anger, sabotage, deliberate procrastination and other tricks.  They often have good excuses for this type of behavior that clouds manager attempts to correct the issue.

 * Crybabies : People who behave like children when they don’t get their way. They withdraw, cry or go on a tirade.  They then act as if they are powerless in the same way martyrs do and usually believe everything that happens to them is bad (Manning 2004).

 * Self-castigators : This personality shows itself in the form of constant self putdowns. This person finds fault with everything he does, from work performance to salary to appearance to economic status to everything that defines a person’s self concept.  Even if the person is performing well on the job, he will not see it that way himself.  This person always takes the blame when something goes wrong, further enhancing negative feelings about personal self worth.

 * Worriers : These people walk on eggshells and are very sensitive to any negative comment. They usually complain about being too stressed and are expecting the ceiling to fall down on them at any moment.  She is unhappy with the way things are and is constantly pessimistic both at work and outside of it.

 * Resisters : Any kind of change upsets the resistor no matter how small. This person is only comfortable with the status quo and will resist any attempts to introduce new ideas and reorganizations.  If the change is threatening enough, the resisters will try to sabotage it or spread negative rumors about the change.

 * Silent types : These people keep to themselves and don’t express any feelings or thoughts on any subject. They work completely alone and even when placed on a team, will contribute nothing to the team in the form of active participation.

 * “It’s not my job”-ers : These are very negative people who will reject any task that is outside of their perceived job responsibilities no matter how small the task may be. They usually do this as retribution for a slight that someone in the organization has put upon them.

Destructive Personalities
These include people who have significant problems outside of work that impact themselves and others at work. They include:
 * Sociopaths : These are people who lead double lives. Their work lives and personal lives couldn’t be more different.  These are the people who portray themselves as supportive and charming, but in reality are cold and ruthless.  They act on their impulses without regard for the consequences on others.  Managers who do not detect that words do not match actions invite severely destructive consequences (Guy 2001)

 * Substance Abusers : People with alcohol or drug abuse problems who try to mask their abuse at work. They will sometimes work at a very high level and then drop off dramatically.  Absenteeism followed by plausible excuses are part of a repeating pattern that is destructive to the person and to co-workers.

Addressing Inhibitor Personalities
In dealing with all inhibitor personalities, the core emotional competency to be developed, first, is self-awareness: recognizing one’s emotions and their effects. This should be common sense; after all, you must be self-aware of the problem before the problem can be addressed. For instance, if people are lacking – social competence - in listening openly and sending convincing messages then they would be inept at leading and facilitating others towards a common goal. If they lack self-confidence - personal competence - then it would be difficult to establish respect with others. When dealing with the various personality inhibitors, the first step in addressing the issue it to identify the root cause of the problem itself.

Adapted from Goleman’s framework, we created the “Emotional Competency Framework” table for leaders on how to address personalities that prohibit teams from reaching their full potential – the inhibitor personalities.

In our table below, we made recommendations on how to address the four inhibitor personality types: aggressive, deceptive, passive, and destructive. For example, to address the aggressive personality type we would encourage the aggressor to develop empathy and social skills; developing an understanding of others and sensing other’s feelings and perspectives would help them empathize and become less aggressive; developing collaboration and cooperation skills would help them work amiably with others towards a shared, clear and elevating without using aggressive, emotionally charged, tactics.

Emotional Competency Framework
Goleman’s “The Emotional Competence Framework” was adapted to this framework

Personality Profiling Considerations
Personality profiling can be a very useful tool in understanding your teammate’s communication styles, motivations and reward preferences. It can help you understand better how to relate to people and work with them. However, psychologists stress that personality type doesn't explain everything about us and that people with the same personality type often behave differently.

Experts also agree that people cannot simply trade one personality type for another — that personality types are like left- or right-handedness — most people are born preferring one hand. Similarly, every person is born with a personality type, which means that people react differently to different stimuli. For example, an introverted person may find relaxation through focusing on memories, thoughts or feelings, while an extroverted personality concentrates on the outer world. No personality type is inherently better than another, although certain personality types work better together and some are more suited to certain roles on the team.

Profiling and Stereotyping

Although personality profiling is popular, it can prove to be a stumbling block if not used carefully because personality profiling makes use of stereotypes, which is often used improperly and limits one’s ability to see things clearly.

Walter Lippmann[], an influential American writer, journalist and political commentator, once said “For the most part we do not first see, and then define; we define first, and then we see.”

Lippman’s candid statement reminds us about how easy it is to assign someone to a certain personality type (defining them) without having all the facts. Stereotypes and personality profiling can make us mentally lazy. As Samuel Ichiye Hayakawa[], an academic and former United States Senator from California, explained that the danger of stereotypes “lies not in their existence, but in the fact that they become for all people some of the time, and for some people all the time, substitutes for observation.”

Drawbacks and Cautions

Personality profiling can be a very useful tool in helping people better understand themselves and the members of their teams. However, it can be detrimental if not used with caution. Following are three areas that could sustain damage: 1.) Oneself; 2.) Other team members; 3.) The organization as a whole.

Oneself

When people determine that they are a certain personality type (i.e. “I’m a Blue”) it gives them a useful set of tools to better understand themselves. However, it may be limiting as well. They might begin to think that they are not capable or suited to certain tasks because their personality profile says they are not. They may use the personality profile as a crutch which keeps them from growing in new areas or interacting in meaningful ways with others.

Others

In addition, when people immediately use personality profiling to judge the members of their team, they often make false assumptions that they understand their team members, when if fact they do not. While it is true that profiling helps individuals make quick judgments that can be useful in certain circumstances (i.e. the short-lived team with a short-term goal), people often do not go beyond those initial judgments to understand the motivations, work styles and personality temperaments of the co-workers.

Organization

Personality profiling is often used in the workplace as a method for screening and making decisions on whom to hire. Some HR professionals embrace the technique, while others do not. Although personality testing may be useful, companies need to be aware of the risks involved in using them to predict future employee behavior on the job. They may be exposing themselves to lawsuits or other legal problems if used improperly.

Deep- and surface-level diversity
By focusing on personality diversity, as opposed to demographic diversity, businesses may begin to study what David A. Harrison terms "deep-level diversity" (Harrison et al, 1998). Deep-level diversity consists of the attitudes, beliefs, values and commitment to the organization that different individuals in a group might have. This is in contrast to the traditional method of expressing diversity through heterogeneity in categories such as race, gender, or age, or what can called "surface-level diversity." For example, the current thinking in deep-level diversity would account for the phenomenon that a male, Indian, engineer from the Punjab might be arguing alongside a younger female marketer from the midwest US to support a similar project approach. While the two are certainly demographically different, they may hold very similar values about work, economy, and share similar commitments to the organization. By exploring current information on deep-level diversity, not just surface-level diversity, organizations may leverage important performance benefits and avoid costly pitfalls.

It remains unclear if deep-level diversity characteristics can be discerned from personality profiling assessments. It is unlikely to match up exactly with the current discussion of personality types. What studies do show, however, is that the effects of surface-level differences diminish over time as the group works together and the importance of the effects from deep-level diversity in the group increases markedly. According to the study, "Beyond Relational Demography: Time and the Effects of Surface- and Deep-level Diversity on Work Group Cohesion," the more work group members "continue to interact with one another, dissimilarity in the typically studied surface level dimensions such as sex and age become less important than deep level attitudinal dissimilarity in, for instance, job satisfaction" (Harrison et al, 1998) The authors state that the reason for this is that time is required for high-quality informational interactions among group members, in which they learn about each other's deep-level characteristics, and subsequently develop more meaningful, richly-functional, relationships. Further, Harrison also conducted a study that found "increasing levels of collaboration . . . can reduce the impact race, gender, or age differences on team performance" and that "as team members continue to work together over time, personality and value differences surface more clearly" (2002).

Recommendations
Harrison's research suggests that groups seek deep-level diversity in knowledge, skills, and abilities but minimize diversity in job-related beliefs, attitudes, and values. This can lead to what he calls "especially effective teams" (2002). However, he cautions that in order to be successful, it is important that such groups are rewarded for collaboration and "that member's individual outcomes depend more on team performance than their own" (2002).

According to FastCompany, this type of deep-level diversity also corresponds to a higher ROI, service diversification, and sales growth, as well as more internal communication and an increase in assets (Davies 2004).

However, two elements of previous surface-level diversity problems seem to carry over even into contexts of deep-level diversity: first, increased diversity on both levels is still associated with an increase in turnover and integration and coordination problems; second, it still appears that in the supervisor/subordinate relationship, subordinates with the same gender as their superiors receive higher performance evaluations (Davies 2004).

Conclusion
Insights into how personality diversity affects the work group have increased as the study of personality types, profiles, emotional IQ, and deep-level attitudes has grown. Instead of thinking of diversity as simply demographic differences, group managers will need to research, experiment, and analyze the ways in which all of these aspects not only affect the group, but how they can be integrated into a cohesive approach that corresponds to group cohesiveness and successful performance.

Professional Resources
The following list includes links to a few consulting firms specializing in personalities:

http://www.piworldwide.com

http://www.personality-insights.com/

http://www.personalitypathways.com/tpn.html

http://www.hrobjective.com/

http://www.lrandc.com/

http://www.caliperonline.com/solutions/hiring.shtml