text:
Talk:Guitar/Anatomy of a Guitar

I am new to Wikipedia so bear with me, can we mention specific brand names to illustrate a mechanical point , this is essential when discussing the design of guitars and due to common knowledge one wouldn't need to copy or plagiarise any work on the subject. If this is allowed, would a simple credit to the manufacturer suffice ?

I can't say for sure, but I think that a simple mention of manufacturers and company trademarks, when needed, would suffice.

Whoever designed the picture did a great job but in Britain the pick guard is more commonly known as the scratchplate. Could the designer change it?

--Michael Campbell 15:32, 5 January 2007 (UTC)Michael Campbell

My Interactive Guitar Guide
The - I-IV-V Know Your Guitar Guide - built to combine my love (music) with my work (web programming)...

Includes: Play Along Chord Chart, Guitar Anatomy, I-IV-V Song Builder, Metronome, One-way tuner, I-IV-V Song Samples, and instructional videos. All instructional text kept to a minimum (for minimal reading).

Some ideas on this section
I think this part of the book is actually very good but the way it is laid out and the vast amount of information may be not suitable for the beginning of this book. As the 2nd section of this book it actually is too lengthy - you want people to play the guitar not spend all their time reading about different woods. You will not find any book on playing the guitar that makes the reader wade through 5 or 6 chapters of extensive text before they come to actual exercises.

I'm going to thin out any duplicate material from this section and maybe try to improve the formatting.

After scanning through this section I must say that whoever wrote the "woods" part did an excellent job with no duplication. So I'm going to concentrate on formatting and maybe as a 2nd section it is ok in its length and my initial belief that its length would deter readers may be wrong. I am a guitarist who insists on "playing" rather than "supreme knowledge" - nothing worse than jamming with a jazz guitarist whose learnt all the chords and their usage but never followed Segovia's advice of two hours of technical exercises followed by two hours of scales (I would do an hour) to a metronome - basically I followed that advice and the first three hours of any study practice for me would be technical exercises to a metronome and then scales. I've got nothing against "string buzzers" but its not for me.

Offcourse the most important thing for any guitarist is to do what makes you happy but please don't expect congratulations for that out-of-time and string buzzing version of "Yesterday" by The Beatles that you just played. False praise is just that, "false", and is usually given by audiences to performers as a tonic for the ego that didn't care about them.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 13:40, 18 October 2012 (UTC)

Removed a block of text dealing with Amps
I removed the text on Amps. This section is about the "Anatomy of a Guitar" and amps and effects should go in their appropiate section. Because the part I removed is relevant to this book I've pasted it here - I'll add it to the correct section at a later date. Feel free to reverse my edit or add the section to where it belongs.

Amplifier and effects

The amplifier is absolutely necessary when playing the electric guitar. Acoustic guitars with no internal pickup may be amplified with a microphone and a specifically built acoustic amp or PA. Different amplifiers will give the same guitar a different sound and some amps are more appropriate for certain genres of music. Many amplifiers have effects built in. The most common being distortion; often called overdrive. If the amplifier has a "lead" channel then this can be turned up to produce distortion. This is possible because the pre-amplifier (pre-amp) will overdrive the amplifier's tubes or transistors therefore causing the amplification not to be linear. The more the tubes and transistors are driven, the greater the distortion.

Turning up the pre-amplifier will increase the volume. To compensate amps also have a "gain" knob which can be turned down to reduce the volume after overdrive. Overdriving an amp can result in sounds loud enough to cause damage especially blown speakers. This can happen to small 25w amps as well as large rigs. If you have just bought an amp or have use of unfamiliar equipment then always turn down the gain when plugging in and slowly and carefully adjust to the appropriate level. Distortion can also be provided by effects pedals. Other on-board effects you may find on an amp are chorus, reverb, wah-wah, compression and delay.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 17:53, 18 October 2012 (UTC)

String length and the octave in the Fretboard section
I've added a bit about frequency. Though I've described the action of producing the octave as "halving" the string; in reality its a doubling of the frequency of vibrations.

I'm not too sure if its useful to the paragraph but I'll leave as is. If for any reason you think that it shouldn't be included (esp. since it is a "side note") or that it can be explained better or placed elsewhere; then go ahead and edit the paragraph as you see fit.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 01:24, 23 October 2012 (UTC)

Material removed from Tremolo section to be placed in a new section at a later date.
This is the material I removed. I felt as though it was quite advanced in some descriptions. I've placed it here for later integration into the book. Feel free to revert my edits or to paste this material into a new chapter.

Removed

The only way to rarely go out of tune is to either use the Floyd Rose tremolo or a hardtail (no tremolo). If you prefer to ease of setup while staying in tune with a tremolo, you can also try Yamaha's "finger clamp" locking tremolo, which requires no tools when setting up, or use locking tuners and roller nuts, as in Fender's locking tremolo.

A hardtail (no tremolo) bridge is great at staying in tune. However, it also has additional benefits, in that it also improved sound and sustain. The fixed bridge also makes it easier to perform string bends, and gives an altogether warmer and rounder sound than one with tremolo.

Despite such simple concept, there are at least three versions of ending the string:
 * 1) The first kind is the stop bar method, used from cheap budget types to expensive archtop and PRS guitars, where a stop bar that's mounted on top of the body holds the string's end. Sometimes it is also integrated to the bridge.
 * 2) The second kind is known as thru-body, where the string goes into the body; this enhanced sustain, but typically more expensive. the bridge, however, is a separate piece of hardware. Example would be Gibson's tune-o-matic. Despite this, strings still slide over the nut and saddles when playing/bending strings, just not as much as they do on a normal synchronized tremolo.
 * 3) The third kind of tail bridge is the fixed locking bridge, based upon the Floyd Rose tremolo except it is fixed; in this configuration, the string is clamped down, which ensure the string is stay in tune. Due to the fact that it's a fixed bridge, there are no spring cavity in the back; instead, the bridge is more or less mounted directly above the tail piece, which is usually thru-body. This is the best method to stay in tune. Currently, only Ibanez makes fixed locking bridge.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 14:03, 26 October 2012 (UTC)

Set thru neck material removed - to be placed in different section
I've removed this material. It is relevant but I thought it didn't allow the article to end smoothly - it read like a "variation" (which it is) on the other main ways of attaching a neck. Will add it to a newly created section maybe "Advanced Topics" or "Advanced Variations, Customizing and Features".

Removed text

Set through can be seen as a modification of a thru-body neck, which is done by the following The result is usually told to have combined advantages of all these methods, mostly eliminating their disadvantages. Luthiers frequently cite: The main disadvantage is a relatively complex construction method that leads to higher manufacturing and servicing costs. Another cited disadvantage is the inability or difficulty of adding a double-locking tremolo to the guitar, as the routing for cavities would interfere with deeply set neck.
 * A pocket in the instrument's body for insertion of neck, as in bolt-on method. However, the pocket is much deeper than usual one.
 * Long neck plank, comparable to the scale length, as in the neck-through method.
 * Glueing (setting) the long neck inside the deep pocket, as in the set-in method.
 * improved tone and sustain (due to deep insertion and body made of single piece of wood, not laminated as in neck-through),
 * "warmer" tone (due to set joint)
 * comfortable access to top frets (due to lack of hard heel and bolt plate),
 * better wood stability.

Sluffs (discuss • contribs) 00:05, 27 October 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guitar/Anatomy of a Guitar


text:
User:NeuronExMachina

Howdy! I recently graduated from Carnegie Mellon University where I studied Computer Science and Cognitive Science, and am now at Caltech, pursuing a PhD in Computation & Neural Systems.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:NeuronExMachina


text:
Talk:Botany/Plant cells

Is a Botany text complete without a discussion of Plant Physiology? Please point out where this is discussed in the detail other subjects get. What I specifically reacting to, is there is no discussion of plant hormones. Do Botany textbooks normally leave this out to concentrate more on physical structure and systematics? See the Wikipedia entry on Plant Hormones for possibly includable information. Also http://www.plant-hormones.info and the speculative site http://www.planthormones.info whose author's opinions dominates the Wikipedia entries on the subject. In the interest of full disclosure this is socrtwo, the author of the speculative site and of the speculative info in the Wikipedia.

Biology
How to write a full lab report when the title is wet mount preparation of the epidermis of onion Lupiya pias (discuss • contribs) 08:50, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Botany/Plant cells


text:
Video Game Design/Programming

Programming
Programming is the way you put your concept in practice, how you build your game. There are a wide variety of programming languages. These languages will be covered in more detail later on.

Game programmer or game developers, take the implement the game design, most parts of a video game programming are boring and non-creative unless the game design requires some innovation or updates. But take care the worst situation for any developer especially one implementing a video game is in having a poor video game design to start with, the inability to make decisions or be non committal to choices will result in the developers having to implement bad concepts until the game designer accepts the results (or is forced to give the go ahead because of time/costs constrains), resulting in a substandard product.

Not all developing is attractive and in games most of it is not, for instance the front of a game is mostly common amongst most games designs doing one more is just going through hops. Now let's take for example the task of supporting hardware changes in video cards or even the low level optimization tasks, that would be the top of the cream for a creative programmer.

Learning to Program
Because it is arguably the most difficult part of game design, we are going to spend a fair bit of time on it. If you have some idea of what language you want to learn and have read up on the various languages, you should actually start learning. If you can take classes that is great, if not there are many alternatives. Buy some programming books, look up some tutorials on the Internet or on Wikibooks and look through the source code of Open Source programs. Don't think it will be easy, it is not; but try and have fun with it. If you do not have fun that sort of defeats the whole purpose does it not?

Some Resources: Google Code, Sourceforge

Choosing a Programming Language
Before you start programming, it is important to choose a programming language that suits your needs. Remember that no language is perfect for everyone or every situation. There is such an incredible selection of languages that it can be nearly impossible to choose one. Before you make up your mind to learn Java or Assembly, make sure you know what you are planning to make. How complex is the game? Certainly it would be counter-productive to spend a lot of time and energy learning a language that does not have the power to make what you are planning, just as it would be counter-productive to learn a language that is overly complex for your needs. When you start reading about the various languages, you will inevitably read about "low-level" and "high-level" languages. At this stage this does not concern you so much, but later on it will be very important. Essentially, low level languages (ex: C++, C, Asm) are more powerful and faster allowing you to control the inner workings of the computer. However, they are generally harder to learn. Higher level languages (ex: BASIC) are easier to learn and use, but lack the power and flexibility that lower level languages have.

Sound
Sound plays an integral part in any game as it affects the mood of the player at a conscious and subconscious level! Could you imagine playing UT or Quake without sound? It would be unbearable! Sound in games ( depending on the game of course ) generally consists of background music, event sound effects ( honking a car horn, gunfire etc ) and environmental sound effects (footsteps, wind blowing, birds, beach waves, bugs, echoes etc).

Background music depending on the game can play all the time, but also like in film stop completely and change to fit certain moods, such as if you enter a battle the music might change to a track with a faster beat or become more erratic.

Sound effects on the other hand, play when they are triggered by some event. If a player were to open a door, there could be creaking noise coming from the door. Sound effects can add a lot of realism to a game and choosing the right sounds can really make a game come alive. Please note however, too many of them, or ones that have unrealistic properties, can hurt the game experience, or annoy the player. For example there is a game with a jetpack in it. This jetpack has unlimited fuel, so players can float in the air for an indefinite amount of time. While the jetpack is running, it makes a noise like rushing air. This noise becomes very annoying over time, because it is heard a lot during the game. Also, if a sound has strange properties, it can detract from realism. Eg, a machine gun that goes quack, or a machine gun that has sound faster than its actual firing rate.

Environmental sound effects are triggered simply when the player enters the environment and play in a loop until the player leaves. Please note that these sound files are most numerous and multiple sounds are sometimes looped in a random order to create a sense of variety in a environment (i.e. two birds singing that sound completely different or two characters walking and the shoes clucking sounds different for each character).

Input
Games usually give many options to players regarding input. Common means of input include the mouse, keyboard, joysticks, and gamepads. Ideally, a game engine should abstract the input so that the user can select from any of the above. Furthermore, one important thing to remember is that all gamers have different preferences in regards to key or button placement, and often want a certain specific configuration. This means the input should also be abstracted to allow buttons or keys to perform different actions in the game.

Keyboard
It's important to first understand the different ways keyboard events can be interpreted by the program. The most common ways to receive keyboard events are through callbacks and polling.
 * Callbacks - Often used by games that utilize the GLUT library, function pointers are passed to GLUT which "register" that function as the keyboard event callback. This means, any time a key is pressed or released, GLUT calls the respective function, passing the key data and allowing the program to respond accordingly.
 * Polling - Used more often by games using SDL, polling is helpful if callback functions break abstraction in an engine. Polling is a process by which the game checks a collection of keyboard events in its spare time. So, for each pass through the game loop, your game can poll the collection, resulting in quick response to key events, and no loss of data.

Networking
Every operating system has its own TCP/IP API, so if you are planning on developing for a specific platform, then you must look into that OS's SDK (such as WinSock for the Windows API). If you are writing games for portability across multiple platforms, one good possibility is SDL_net.

After choosing the networking API, classes should be constructed for a game engine that encapsulate sockets. One must also make the decision between networking protocols, TCP and UDP (although through abstraction, either could be used).

 * TCP - This protocol sets up a connection between two computers. Data sent between computers is resent if any errors are present. The disadvantage to this protocol is that it is not as fast overall as UDP.
 * UDP - This protocol does not set up a connection. Data packets are sent to an address, and the sender does not know if it arrived properly and error free. A protocol could be written using UDP to provide error checking and resending.

The decision is up to the programmer, and what is best for the game. If the subject is an online game of chess, where speed is not a major concern, TCP could be used to avoid some headaches. But, for a large team of people in a FPS, UDP would be a better choice, due to speed.

Free fire is the most coo game about 41 million people play free fire.Sea Limited was founded under the name Garena in Singapore in 2009 by Forrest Li, a graduate of Shanghai Jiaotong University and Stanford Graduate School of Business. Garena was originally intended to be a game development and publishing company, but later expanded to become a tech conglomerate which also offered financial services and e-commerce. Following a rebranding to Sea in 2017, the digital entertainment branch retained its name as Garena.

That same year, Free Fire launched as a battle royale multiplayer game and swiftly found international success. It was the most downloaded mobile game globally in 2019 and grew to become a significant stream of revenue for Garena.

In 2021, Garena released a graphically enhanced version, Free Fire Max, which has yet to surpass the original release in revenue generation. The two apps were the most downloaded shooter games in 2022 at over 100 million each, according to AppMagic.

Free Fire has become one of the “Big 3” shooter mobile games along with PUBG Mobile and Call of Duty: Mobile following the removal of Fortnite from the App Store and Google Play in August 2020. This trio earns the majority of revenue in the genre, which has been falling in popularity more rapidly than other game sub-sectors.

At the beginning of 2022, India banned Free Fire and 53 other apps which were considered as a threat to the country’s security; Free Fire Max remained available on the Google Play store. According to data.ai, Free Fire had been the second most downloaded app in the country, and had had the highest consumer spend. While Sea is based in Singapore, its biggest shareholder is the Chinese social media company Tencent Holdings. Annual revenue for Free Fire and for Sea fell significantly in 2022, which has been partially attributed to the Indian ban.

Since 2019, Free Fire has also ran esports competitions, with its World Series becoming the most-watched esports event in history with 5.4 million live viewers in 2021. These regional events are available globally and offer multi-million dollar jackpots.

Free Fire has been accused by PUBG Mobile’s developer Krafton of copyright infringement, and in January 2022 the company filed a lawsuit against Garena citing similarities in game items, mechanics and look. Apple and Google are also included in the lawsuit, which has not yet been settled, for distributing the game.

We have collected data and statistics on Free Fire. Read below to find out moreScripting
Here's a list of free scripting engines used in games development:
 * KonsolScript - A free software game scripting language
 * Lua - The Lua scripting language

Game Tools
Here is a list of free software tools for use in game development.
 * Blender3D - A free and very advanced modeling program, a bit tricky to get used to but just as capable as any other commercial modeling program.
 * OGRE - A free software graphics engine. Top notch.
 * Terragen - A free for non-commercial use terrain generator
 * TrueSpace - Professional grade 3D modeling, animation and rendering package, previously costing up to $700 (USD), now available as a free download after a buy-out of Caligari by Microsoft.

Assembling and Coordinating the Team
Other:
 * The Art of Computer Game Design
 * Sloperama's Game Biz Advice page
 * List of game design wikis on FreeGameDevWiki

title: Video Game Design/Programming


text:
Cookbook:Minestrone alla Capucina

Minestra alla Capucina is an Italian recipe of soup in which Cappuccina lettuce is used.

Ingredients

 * Anchovy, scaled
 * Butter
 * 1 small onion, cut across
 * 4 oz boiled rice
 * Stock

Procedure

 * 1) Pound anchovy.
 * 2) Fry it in butter with the onion and rice until the rice is golden brown.
 * 3) Remove the onion and season with salt.
 * 4) Gradually add some stock, cooking until the dish is of the consistency of rice pudding.

title: Cookbook:Minestrone alla Capucina


text:
Cookbook talk:Minestrone alla Capucina

This module was previously published in the Wikipedia article Minestrone alla Capuchina. The page history at the time the text was moved is included below:

* (cur) (last) 17:43, 7 Jan 2003 Gianfranco m    * (cur) (last) 17:43, 7 Jan 2003 Gianfranco m    * (cur) (last) 08:51, 25 Feb 2002 Conversion script m (Automated conversion)

Source: The Cook's Decameron: A Study In Taste, Containing Over Two Hundred Recipes For Italian Dishes from a project that puts out-of-copyright texts into the public domain. This is from a *very* old source, and reflects the cooking at the turn of the last century. Update as necessary.

title: Cookbook talk:Minestrone alla Capucina


text:
Python Programming/Lists

A list in Python is an ordered group of items (or elements). It is a very general structure, and list elements don't have to be of the same type: you can put numbers, letters, strings and nested lists all on the same list.

Overview
Lists in Python at a glance:

List creation
There are two different ways to make a list in Python. The first is through assignment ("statically"), the second is using list comprehensions ("actively").

Plain creation
To make a static list of items, write them between square brackets. For example:

Observations:

 * 1) The list contains items of different data types: integer, string, and Donkey class.
 * 2) Objects can be created 'on the fly' and added to lists. The last item is a new instance of Donkey class.

Creation of a new list whose members are constructed from non-literal expressions:

List comprehensions
Using list comprehension, you describe the process using which the list should be created. To do that, the list is broken into two pieces. The first is a picture of what each element will look like, and the second is what you do to get it.

For instance, let's say we have a list of words:

To take the first letter of each word and make a list out of it using list comprehension, we can do this:

List comprehension supports more than one for statement. It will evaluate the items in all of the objects sequentially and will loop over the shorter objects if one object is longer than the rest.

List comprehension supports an if statement, to only include members into the list that fulfill a certain condition:

In version 2.x, Python's list comprehension does not define a scope. Any variables that are bound in an evaluation remain bound to whatever they were last bound to when the evaluation was completed. In version 3.x Python's list comprehension uses local variables:

This is exactly the same as if the comprehension had been expanded into an explicitly-nested group of one or more 'for' statements and 0 or more 'if' statements.

List creation shortcuts
You can initialize a list to a size, with an initial value for each element:

This works for any data type:

But there is a caveat. When building a new list by multiplying, Python copies each item by reference. This poses a problem for mutable items, for instance in a multidimensional array where each element is itself a list. You'd guess that the easy way to generate a two dimensional array would be:

and this works, but probably doesn't do what you expect:

What's happening here is that Python is using the same reference to the inner list as the elements of the outer list. Another way of looking at this issue is to examine how Python sees the above definition:

Assuming the above effect is not what you intend, one way around this issue is to use list comprehensions:

List size
To find the length of a list use the built in len method.

Combining lists
Lists can be combined in several ways. The easiest is just to 'add' them. For instance:

Another way to combine lists is with extend. If you need to combine lists inside of a lambda, extend is the way to go.

The other way to append a value to a list is to use append. For example:

However, [3,4] is an element of the list, and not part of the list. append always adds one element only to the end of a list. So if the intention was to concatenate two lists, always use extend.

Continuous slices
Like strings, lists can be indexed and sliced:

Much like the slice of a string is a substring, the slice of a list is a list. However, lists differ from strings in that we can assign new values to the items in a list:

We can assign new values to slices of the lists, which don't even have to be the same length:

It's even possible to append items onto the start of lists by assigning to an empty slice:

Similarly, you can append to the end of the list by specifying an empty slice after the end:

You can also completely change the contents of a list:

The right-hand side of a list assignment statement can be any iterable type:

With slicing you can create copy of list since slice returns a new list:

Note, however, that this is a shallow copy and contains references to elements from the original list, so be careful with mutable types:

Non-Continuous slices
It is also possible to get non-continuous parts of an array. If one wanted to get every n-th occurrence of a list, one would use the :: operator. The syntax is a:b:n where a and b are the start and end of the slice to be operated upon.

Comparing lists
Lists can be compared for equality.

Lists can be compared using a less-than operator, which uses lexicographical order:

Sorting lists
Sorting at a glance:

Sorting lists is easy with a sort method.

Note that the list is sorted in place, and the sort method returns None to emphasize this side effect.

If you use Python 2.4 or higher there are some more sort parameters:
 * sort(cmp,key,reverse)
 * cmp : function to determine the relative order between any two elements
 * key : function to obtain the value against which to sort for any element.
 * reverse : sort(reverse=True) or sort(reverse=False)

Python also includes a sorted function.

Note that unlike the sort method, sorted(list) does not sort the list in place, but instead returns the sorted list. The sorted function, like the sort method also accepts the reverse parameter.

Links:
 * 2. Built-in Functions # sorted, docs.python.org
 * Sorting HOW TO, docs.python.org

Iteration
Iteration over lists:

Read-only iteration over a list, AKA for each element of the list:

Writable iteration over a list:

From a number to a number with a step:

For each element of a list satisfying a condition (filtering):

See also ../Loops.

Removing
Removing aka deleting an item at an index (see also ):

Removing an element by value:

Creating a new list by copying a filtered selection of items from the old list: This uses a list comprehension.

Update a list by retaining a filtered selection of items in it by using "[:]":

For more complex condition a separate function can be used to define the criteria:

Removing items while iterating a list usually leads to unintended outcomes unless you do it carefully by using an index:

Links:
 * Remove items from a list while iterating, stackoverflow.com

Aggregates
There are some built-in functions for arithmetic aggregates over lists. These include minimum, maximum, and sum: The max and min functions also apply to lists of strings, returning maximum and minimum with respect to alphabetical order:

Copying
Copying AKA cloning of lists:

Making a shallow copy:

The above does not make a deep copy, which has the following consequence:

Making a deep copy:

See also.

Links:
 * 8.17. copy — Shallow and deep copy operations at docs.python.org

Clearing
Clearing a list:

Clearing using a proper approach makes a difference when the list is passed as an argument:

Keywords: emptying a list, erasing a list, clear a list, empty a list, erase a list.

Removing duplicate items
Removing duplicate items from a list (keeping only unique items) can be achieved as follows.

If each item in the list is hashable, using list comprehension, which is fast:

If each item in the list is hashable, using index iteration, much slower:

If some items are not hashable, the set of visited items can be kept in a list:

If each item in the list is hashable and preserving element order does not matter:

In the above examples where index iteration is used, scanning happens from the end to the beginning. When these are rewritten to scan from the beginning to the end, the result seems hugely slower.

Links:
 * How do you remove duplicates from a list? at python.org Programming FAQ
 * Remove duplicates from a sequence (Python recipe) at activestate.com
 * Removing duplicates in lists at stackoverflow.com

append(x)
Add item x onto the end of the list.

See pop(i)

pop(i)
Remove the item in the list at the index i and return it. If i is not given, remove the last item in the list and return it.

+
To concatenate two lists.

*
To create a new list by concatenating the given list the given number of times. i.e. list1 * 0 == []; list1 * 3 == list1 + list1 + list1;

in
The operator 'in' is used for two purposes; either to iterate over every item in a list in a for loop, or to check if a value is in a list returning true or false.

Difference
To get the difference between two lists, just iterate:

Intersection
To get the intersection between two lists (by preserving its elements order, and their doubles), apply the difference with the difference:

Exercises

 * 1) Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['ab', 'ac', 'ad', 'bb', 'bc', 'bd'].
 * 2) Use a slice on the above list to construct the list ['ab', 'ad', 'bc'].
 * 3) Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['1a', '2a', '3a', '4a'].
 * 4) Simultaneously remove the element '2a' from the above list and print it.
 * 5) Copy the above list and add '2a' back into the list such that the original is still missing it.
 * 6) Use a list comprehension to construct the list ['abe', 'abf', 'ace', 'acf', 'ade', 'adf', 'bbe', 'bbf', 'bce', 'bcf', 'bde', 'bdf']

Solutions
Question 1 : List1 = [a + b for a in 'ab' for b in 'bcd'] print(List1) >>> ['ab', 'ac', 'ad', 'bb', 'bc', 'bd'] Question 2 : List2 = List1[::2] print(List2) >>> ['ab', 'ad', 'bc'] Question 3 : List3 = [a + b for a in '1234' for b in 'a'] print(List3) >>> ['1a', '2a', '3a', '4a'] Question 4 : print(List3.pop(List3.index('3a'))) print(List3) >>> 3a >>> ['1a', '2a', '4a'] Question 5 : List4 = List3[:] List4.insert(2, '3a') print(List4) >>> ['1a', '2a', '3a', '4a'] Question 6 : List5 = [a + b + c for a in 'ab' for b in 'bcd' for c in 'ef'] print(List5) >>> ['abe', 'abf', 'ace', 'acf', 'ade', 'adf', 'bbe', 'bbf', 'bce', 'bcf', 'bde', 'bdf']

title: Python Programming/Lists


text:
Talk:World History/A New Millennium

POV! POV! POV! A history book is not the place for advertising New Age! - SamE 02:36, 4 Jul 2004 (UTC)

found this under globalisation title
sorry, but this was way too POV, and largely irrelevant. May have some points worth using :-

"Globalisation Essay By Rweasle

This essay will say that American cultural products success in the international market reflects only the products popularity, and not that American products are popular because of the culture they stem from, that of America. It will show that this is true for several reasons. The first reason is that, due to America’s economic status, emphasis on capitalism and even the “American dream” make it an ideal place for new products to flourish and those that are exposed to the foreign markets are the best of these, leading to a sort of “commercial Darwinism’s these products success is not due to the popularity of American culture. The second reason for the success of American products in the foreign market is that the products that America exports are well managed because those who run them are well educated and are the best because of more “commercial Darwinism”. This means that American products are successful in foreign markets and this success is not because American culture is dominant. The third reason relates to American films and media. This is an area where American culture contributes to the popularity of the products, but even though this is true there are several cultures that have similar cultures (on a global scale) and compete with America.

One of the reasons American products are popular is that the products that are encountered in international markets are the best of the huge number of products created in America. An example of this is the Oreo biscuit. This product, available in many countries is one of the best of a huge number of chocolate biscuits produced in America. This excellent product would then be likely to succeed and become popular overseas. A second example is the star wars series, one of the most popular series of movies ever, came from America. One of the main reasons for the success of this movie is partly due to the fact that of all the actors, screenwriters and directors available to do star wars, some of the best were chosen and therefore this contributed to star wars’ commercial success. Both of these products are assisted by the social and commercial status of America. The social environment is capitalist and this encourages people to try to create new products. This is a manifestation of the American dream, that you can start with little and create wealth and this social atmosphere contributes to the number of people who create products, of which the best are exported and are often popular overseas. The economic status of America also contributes to the number of products that it produces. Most Americans have enough money to begin businesses and this means there are more products to export and therefore it is more likely that American products will succeed in overseas markets.

Another reason American products are popular overseas is that those who manage them are often well educated Americans. These people are well educated because of America’s economic position. Most Americans are educated and of these only the best are appointed to important jobs, so these people will be the best and commercial Darwinism will have come into play with only the best in important jobs, and as a result of this American companies are often well managed. An example of this is the head of general electric, a successful American company, Jeffrey R. Immelt who has a B.A. in applies mathematics from Dartmouth College and a M.B.A. from Harvard.

America dominates the media industry because its culture is popular and because they produce many films because they appeal to a large demographic. America does not have an extremely unique culture and is similar to Australia’s, the U.K.’s and many other western countries and the only reason the dominate this industry is because of the large pool of people who want to be involved in the media industry. Because of this America has produces many famous films and dominates the global media network. If Australia or the U.K. had as many people as America it would probably dominate the global media market because each of these countries has a large population and all these countries have similar (compared to other countries) cultures so that country would dominate the media market. America’s economic status also helps because it gives directors enough money to produce good films.

These factors show than American products dominate international markets, not because of the popularity of American culture, but because of the large population of Americans with ideas which give the industry a large number of potential products for export, including media, so only the best go overseas so these are popular. America dominates because of its economic status, which gives many Americans the capacity to go into business and, should they succeed, export their products. America’s social environment also helps make Americans more eager to go into business because of the belief that they can succeed so they are more likely to develop new products, some of which are exported and may succeed in other markets. This means that American products, except for media, are popular because they are of good quality, not because American culture is favoured over others.

note that this essay was writen for school and got 17/20 but i was told i was to left wing? --203.51.100.109 07:07, 9 May 2005 (UTC) " --Mark Lewis 19:56, 10 May 2005 (UTC)

Just wanna point out something.
This whole "Democracy" section is filled bigoted pro-US bias.

 * Agreed.

title: Talk:World History/A New Millennium


text:
Overview of Theology

Introduction to theology
/An Introduction to Theology/
 * What is theology?
 * 1.1 Death
 * 1.2 Life
 * 1.3 The purpose of Religion
 * Types of religion
 * 2.1 Religion and Law
 * Christianity
 * 3.1 Historical or spiritual truth?
 * 3.2 Interpretation
 * 3.3 History or Poetry?

History of theology

 * /Classical theology/
 * /Introduction/
 * /Faith/
 * /God/
 * /Creation/
 * /Church/
 * /Morality/

Overview of major theologies

 * /Ásatrú theology/
 * /Christian theology/
 * /Jain theology/
 * /Jewish theology/
 * /Hindu theology/
 * /Islamic theology/
 * /New age/
 * /Pagan theology/
 * Transcendentalist Theology
 * /Transatheism/
 * /Zorastian theology/

Appendices and other pages

 * /Outline of the history of theology/
 * /Glossary/
 * /Theologians/

title: Overview of Theology


text:
Talk:Overview of Theology

Buddhist Theology
This page lists "Buddhist Theology" as a "major" theology. There is no such thing as a Buddhist theology. Buddhism is a non-theistic religion. It neither believes in god nor denies its existence. Where there is no theos, there can be no theology To talk about a Buddhist theology is absurd.

Whenever asked about god, the Buddha always answered by complete silence, until one day he must have gotten tired of hearing the same question, so he replied with a story:

 * A man was shot by a poisoned arrow. The doctor came and was about ready to pull the arrow out of the wound, but the patient stopped his hand and said: "Wait, doctor, before you pull the arrow out, tell me about the man who shot me. Was he tall or was he short? Was he from a warrior caste or from a brahmin caste or from a lower caste? Was he young or was he old? Was he of dark skin or of light skin?" And many other questions he asked. If the doctor had to answer his questions first, the patient would die. So, the doctor just pulled the arrow out and took care of the wound. The patient got all his answers after he recovered.

 * Similarly, said the Buddha, I will not answer your question. I am here to help you heal from spiritual darkness. If you waste your time on silly speculations, you will never recover, you will die a spiritual death. Take care of awaken from the cycle of rebirth, you will get your answers after you realize nirvana.

So, there. There is no such thing as a Buddhist theology. Red Prince 19:21, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)

It all depends on the meaning of "Theology"
Princeton University's WordNet explains theology as:

 * theology, divinity -- (the rational and systematic study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truth)
 * theology, theological system -- (a particular system or school of religious beliefs and teachings; "Jewish theology"; "Roman Catholic theology")
 * theology -- (the learned profession acquired by specialized courses in religion (usually taught at a college or seminary); "he studied theology at Oxford")

This would seem to imply that the term theology, while undoubtably steming from the Greek words θηος (god) and λογος (knowledge) has evolved in contemporary usage to explain all systems of belief. Charlemagne 19:51, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)

And none of the three definitions you quoted have anything to do with Buddhism. Anyway, if you want to have a "Buddhist theology" section, no Buddhist in the world is going to stop you, but neither is he going to take it seriously. Red Prince 21:57, 1 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * All this over a simple link! If you don't think there should be a "Buddhist Theology" page, then just edit the page and delete that link! I wasn't trying to make any sort of point; I just thought of a few religions and put them there. Better yet, if you want to start those pages, go ahead; both of you seem to be very knowledgable in this area. - SamE 14:48, 2 Aug 2004 (UTC)

I would like to do this. But what I have in mind is a three book series:

1) Philsophy of religion in which I discuss the various approaches to issues in religion.

2) Comparative religion, in which I tell stories from the different relgions and analyze the various threads concerning various elements of religions.

3) Descriptive religion, where I simply describe many of the world religions (would it even be possible to be complete?).

If that sounds okay, I'll be developing an outline over the next few days. As with Effective Reasoning, I'm not fluent in producing Wikibook code and will be glad for any help in that area.WolfVanZandt 03:48, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

I have changed the name of this book under the Religion category to "Theology 1: Philosophy of Religion" and have added "Theology 2: Comparative Religion" and "Theology 3: Descriptive Religion". If it is acceptible to all involved, I will come back later and delete this stub. WolfVanZandt 03:57, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Overview of Theology


text:
Cookbook:Rhubarb Cake

| Dessert | Cake

Rhubarb may be an intimidatingly tart vegetable eaten on its own, but when its sharp flavor is tempered with the addition of butter and sugar, it makes excellent desserts such as the cake recipe below.

Ingredients

 * 1½ cup thinly-sliced raw rhubarb
 * 1½ cup brown sugar
 * ½ cup butter or margarine
 * 1 egg
 * ½ tsp salt
 * 1 cup sour milk or cultured buttermilk
 * 1 tsp baking soda
 * 1 tsp vanilla
 * 2 cups flour
 * ¼ cup sugar
 * 1 tsp cinnamon

Procedure

 * 1) Cream the brown sugar and butter until fluffy. Beat in the egg and salt.
 * 2) Stir in the milk, baking soda, vanilla, and flour. Once blended, add the rhubarb and stir until mixed in.
 * 3) Pour batter into greased 9x13-inch pan. Combine the ¼ cup sugar and cinnamon, then sprinkle on top of the batter.
 * 4) Bake at 375°F for 30–35 minutes.

title: Cookbook:Rhubarb Cake


text:
Cookbook talk:Rhubarb Cake

This is my mother's recipe from a family cookbook. -liblamb

 * I like it. In about a minuite, it'll be the featured recipe. Gentgeen 22:14, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

title: Cookbook talk:Rhubarb Cake


text:
Talk:US History/European History

It looks to me like the changes made by 128.230.183.108 on 2 Apr 2004 should be reverted. I'm new to this so I'll let this discussion point sit a while. If I remember to come back, I'll probably revert it. -liblamb 4 July 2004.

Yeah, pretty safe bet when there's a line inserted about reptillian aliens you should revert it. :) Done! Oh, I see you're talking about an earlier instance of vandalism. Crazy vandals, sacking the book... -AndreaC April 1 2005

European exploration in 1000 BC?
There's a phrase that states "...archaeologists discovered remains at La'Anse aux Meadows dating back to about 1000 BC." I was just curious as to whether or not that is supposed to be AD/BCE. I myself don't really know, but it doesn't make sense with the rest of the section if the remains dated from ~2000 years before the Vikings reached North America.

Move to delete
This section is unnecessary and I think it should be deleted Geo.plrd (talk) 17:04, 24 October 2008 (UTC)

Myth of Filth
Whoever compiled this history had a lot of myths in the tuckerbag. The Middle Ages were in some ways cleaner than, say, the 18th century. They had bath houses, they had laws against food adulteration or serving rotten flesh, and chamber pots were dumped in cesspits, not in the public street. I wish the author had relied on actual histories, and not on a "gross history" book. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 20:35, 19 March 2014 (UTC)

Bloody Vikings! I'd like permission . ..
May I move some material on the Viking exploration to the later section on Exploration? While there is much room in cyberspace, redundancy is bad. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 19:08, 26 March 2014 (UTC)

May I change a section?
A query to the powers that be: may I submerge the current sections about Portugal and the Hundred Years War in a new section about the rise of nation states? Though the topic seems needlessly determinist, it is broader than the current headings, and more fitting for a history of an America settled by contending nations. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 11:51, 6 April 2014 (UTC)

More maps?
We are talking about more than a thousand years, with many political changes. Could someone bring in more maps? It would be nice to have one of the Holy Roman Empire at its medieval height, one of the movements of Irish monks, and a third of the incursions of Islam in Europe. Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 21:38, 9 April 2014 (UTC)

Must there be "The New World"?
Some of the material in this section can be put in other sections. Columbus is treated in the very next chapter. May I eliminate this section? Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 22:05, 19 April 2014 (UTC)

Spain
I am ignorant on this topic. Can anybody write something for here? Pittsburgh Poet (discuss • contribs) 19:34, 17 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:US History/European History


text:
User talk:Liblamb

Hello Liblamb and welcome to Wikibooks!

I noticed your additions to the Cookbook, and wanted to thank you and ask that you continue making such usefull contributions. If you need help, post a question at the Staff lounge or ask me on my talk page.

Good luck! Gentgeen

P.S. One last helpful hint. To sign your posts like I did above (on talk pages, for example) use the '~' symbol. To insert just your name, type ~~~ (3 tildes), or, to insert your name and timestamp, use ~~~~ (4 tildes).

Cooking techniques
Good job finding that PD source for cooking techniques. It really fills in one of the glaring holes in the cookbook. Gentgeen 04:16, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia recipes
If you know the title you want to use in the cookbook, just copy and paste the contents into the wikibooks location. You then need to either list the authors in the edit summary (if it's only one or two), or copy the page history of the wikipedia article into the wikibooks module's talk page. Then list it for deletion at wikipedia. If you don't know the title you want to use, transwiki it here, using the naming format Transwiki:{WIKIPEDIA TITLE}, then leave a note on the Transwiki log, so we'll know it's there. Oh, and thanks for finding the recipes, eventually we'll get them all over here. (whether Anthere like it or not :)). Gentgeen 23:08, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * The recipes look good. Thanks for the hard work. Gentgeen 06:52, 8 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia dumps
We're discussing establishing an expansion to What Wikibooks is not, that would clearly state that Wikibooks is not simply a place to dump content not wanted at wikipedia. The discussion is going on at the talk page. As to how to let wikipedians know we're not their recycling bin, I'm not sure what to do. Gentgeen 23:35, 19 Oct 2004 (UTC)

The placement of this recipe should be in the Midwestern Cuisine section.
 * I'm not sure which recipe is being refered to here. Please let me know and I'll add or change something, or even better, you can change it and tell me what you did. liblamb 21:50, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thanks for the help at the rhetoric and composition textbook. --Mattbarton.exe 18:30, 4 December 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:Liblamb


text:
Cookbook talk:German Style Sweet Mustard (Senf)

could you define "small can of mustard"? Thanks, Gentgeen 07:47, 4 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Done. I have also found that the type of mustard makes a difference on how sharp it is.  Only "Coleman" mustard powder seems to make it as sharp as I like it. liblamb

Recipe history
This recipe comes from a 4th or 5th generation German American from the Midwest. The recipe was lost for a time but eventually recreated by memory using taste and educated guesses. liblamb

Add water?
How much, please? Thanks for the recipe. 85.77.178.43 (talk) 09:59, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Cooking?
What and when and how? :) 85.77.178.43 (talk) 10:02, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Image
At http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Senf-4.jpg 85.77.178.43 (talk) 10:17, 28 July 2010 (UTC)


text:
User:DO'Neil~enwikibooks

"If you want to feel rich, count all the things you have that money cannot buy." -Anonymous

See my English Wikipedia page for more about me.

Contributions to Wikibooks

 * Cookbook:Boerewors started

title: User:DO'Neil~enwikibooks


text:
Cookbook:Spek

Spek is the firm pork fat that is taken from just underneath the pig's skin. It is often used in South African cuisine, particularly in sausage such as boerewors. It is also used in Dutch cooking, sometimes baked into pancakes.

title: Cookbook:Spek


text:
Cookbook:Boerewors (South African Sausage)

| South Africa | Sausage

Traditionally eaten at braais or barbecues, boerewors (Afrikaans: farmer's sausage) are thick, hearty and flavoursome Afrikaner sausages, often eaten with a corn porridge called pap.

There is no one definitive recipe for boerewors, as nearly every family has its own variation. Some other recipes use bacon and springbok meat. This version uses a sausage maker, and makes about 6 lb of sausage.

Ingredients

 * 1 tbsp coriander seed
 * 2 lb beef, cubed
 * 2 lb mutton, cubed
 * 2 lb veal, cubed
 * ¼ lb spek, cubed
 * 1½ tbsp salt
 * 1 tsp ground black pepper
 * ¼ tsp ground cloves
 * ½ tsp grated nutmeg
 * ½ tsp ground allspice
 * ½ cup brown vinegar
 * 1½ brandy (optional)
 * 2¼-inch wide sausage casings

Singed coriander

 * 1) Place seeds into a dry frying pan.
 * 2) Put the pan over low heat and allow coriander to burn slightly.
 * 3) Break seeds apart with a fork, or use a coffee/spice grinder to finely grind them.

Sausage

 * 1) Cut all meat and spek into cubes.
 * 2) Mix spek and meat together thoroughly, and then coarsely mince or grind it.
 * 3) Mix in all dry spices, vinegar, and brandy with a large, two-pronged fork.
 * 4) Place meat mixture in fridge, and let rest for 2 hours to blend the flavours together.
 * 5) While the meat is resting, soak the sausage casings in water for the same 2 hours.
 * 6) Fit casings over sausage maker, and fill with the meat/spice mixture. Be very careful not to over- or understuff the boerewors, as doing so will ruin them. Fill in long continuous lengths; don't make links.
 * 7) Cook sausages on a barbecue, but do not prick to allow juices to escape as much of the flavour will escape with them. Cook until still pink and juicy inside

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Try adding about 100 ml of regular oatmeal—this helps to bind the meat.
 * Be careful not to over-spice the mince, which will ruin the taste.
 * Be careful with adding salt; the spek contains plenty.
 * Boerewors can be stored for up to 3 weeks in the freezer.


text:
Trigonometry/Solving Trigonometric Equations

Trigonometric equations are equations including trigonometric functions. If they have only such functions and constants, then the solution involves finding an unknown which is an argument to a trigonometric function.

sin(x) = n
The equation $$\sin(x)=n$$ has solutions only when $$n$$ is within the interval $$[-1,1]$$. If $$n$$ is within this interval, then we first find an $$\alpha$$ such that:
 * $$\alpha=\arcsin(n)$$

The solutions are then:
 * $$x=\alpha+2k\pi$$
 * $$x=\pi-\alpha+2k\pi$$

Where $$k$$ is an integer.

In the cases when $$n$$ equals 1, 0 or -1 these solutions have simpler forms which are summarized in the table on the right.

For example, to solve:
 * $$\sin\bigl(\tfrac{x}{2}\bigr)=\frac{\sqrt3}{2}$$

First find $$\alpha$$ :
 * $$\alpha=\arcsin\bigl(\tfrac{\sqrt3}{2}\bigr)=\frac{\pi}{3}$$

Then substitute in the formulae above:
 * $$\frac{x}{2}=\frac{\pi}{3}+2k\pi$$

 * $$\frac{x}{2}=\pi-\frac{\pi}{3}+2k\pi$$

Solving these linear equations for $$x$$ gives the final answer:
 * $$x=\frac{2\pi}{3}(1+6k)$$

 * $$x=\frac{4\pi}{3}(1+3k)$$

Where $$k$$ is an integer.

cos(x) = n
Like the sine equation, an equation of the form $$\cos(x)=n$$ only has solutions when n is in the interval $$[-1,1]$$. To solve such an equation we first find one angle $$\alpha$$ such that:
 * $$\alpha=\arccos(n)$$

Then the solutions for $$x$$ are:
 * $$x=\pm\alpha+ 2k\pi$$

Where $$k$$ is an integer.

Simpler cases with $$n$$ equal to 1, 0 or -1 are summarized in the table on the right.

tan(x) = n
An equation of the form $$\tan(x)=n$$ has solutions for any real $$n$$. To find them we must first find an angle $$\alpha$$ such that:
 * $$\alpha=\arctan(n)$$

After finding $$\alpha$$, the solutions for $$x$$ are:
 * $$x=\alpha+k\pi$$

When $$n$$ equals 1, 0 or -1 the solutions have simpler forms which are shown in the table on the right.

cot(x) = n
The equation $$\cot(x)=n$$ has solutions for any real $$n$$. To find them we must first find an angle $$\alpha$$ such that:
 * $$\alpha=\arccot(n)$$

After finding $$\alpha$$, the solutions for $$x$$ are:
 * $$x=\alpha+k\pi$$

When $$n$$ equals 1, 0 or -1 the solutions have simpler forms which are shown in the table on the right.

csc(x) = n and sec(x) = n
The trigonometric equations $$\csc(x)=n$$ and $$\sec(x)=n$$ can be solved by transforming them to other basic equations:
 * $$\csc(x)=n\ \Leftrightarrow\ \frac{1}{\sin(x)}=n\ \Leftrightarrow\ \sin(x)=\frac{1}{n}$$
 * $$\sec(x)=n\ \Leftrightarrow\ \frac{1}{\cos(x)}=n\ \Leftrightarrow\ \cos(x)=\frac{1}{n}$$

Further examples
Generally, to solve trigonometric equations we must first transform them to a basic trigonometric equation using the trigonometric identities. This sections lists some common examples.

a sin(x)+b cos(x) = c
To solve this equation we will use the identity:
 * $$a\sin(x)+b\cos(x)=\sqrt{a^2+b^2}\sin(x+\alpha)$$

 * $$\alpha=\begin{cases}\arctan\bigl(\frac{b}{a}\bigr), & \mbox{if } a>0 \\ \pi+\arctan\bigl(\frac{b}{a}\bigr), & \mbox{if } a<0 \end{cases}$$

The equation becomes:
 * $$\sqrt{a^2+b^2}\sin(x+\alpha)=c$$

 * $$\sin(x+\alpha)=\frac{c}{\sqrt{a^2+b^2}}$$

This equation is of the form $$\sin(x)=n$$ and can be solved with the formulae given above.

For example we will solve:
 * $$\sin(3x)-\sqrt3\cos(3x)=-\sqrt3$$

In this case we have:
 * $$a=1,b=-\sqrt3$$
 * $$\sqrt{a^2+b^2}=\sqrt{1^2+\Big(-\sqrt3\Big)^2}=2$$
 * $$\alpha=\arctan\Big(-\sqrt3\Big)=-\frac{\pi}{3}$$

Apply the identity:
 * $$2\sin\left(3x-\frac{\pi}{3}\right)=-\sqrt3$$
 * $$\sin\left(3x-\frac{\pi}{3}\right)=-\frac{\sqrt3}{2}$$

So using the formulae for $$\sin(x)=n$$ the solutions to the equation are:
 * $$3x-\frac{\pi}{3}=-\frac{\pi}{3}+2k\pi\ \Leftrightarrow\ x=\frac{2k\pi}{3}$$

 * $$3x-\frac{\pi}{3}=\pi+\frac{\pi}{3}+2k\pi\ \Leftrightarrow\ x=\frac{\pi}{9}(6k+5)$$

Where $$k$$ is an integer.

Matemática elementar/Trigonometria/Equações e inequações envolvendo funções trigonométricas

authors: יהודה שמחה ולדמן


text:
Data Structures/LinkedLists

A linked list is a simple way to store some unknown number of elements. There are two main functions for memory allocation malloc and calloc For example, you might need a program that will accept a bunch of numbers and then calculate the average.

You could dynamically allocate the array like this:

int i; scanf("enter size of array to create: %d.\n", &i); int *array = (int*)malloc(sizeof(int) * i);

Or this in C++:

int i; cout << "Enter the size of the array to create:"; cin >> i; int *array = new int[i];

However, it is often impossible to know beforehand how large the array needs to be. Resizing the array each time would require a memory allocation and a copy of all the elements, which is inefficient (although this can be negated through by resizing the array proportional to its current size, a technique used by the Standard Template Library Vector template)

You could do something like create an array big enough to cover all expected situations:

int array[10000]; /* oughtta cover all situations. */

This is inefficient, since it will always consume the size of 10,000 ints, which could be anywhere from 19Kb to 39Kb.

Enter the linked list. A linked list is a growable container that allows fast insertion and deletion operations. This allows items to be appended to the end of the list without re-allocating the entire structure.

The structure of a linked list could be something like this typedef struct _ListItem { int data; //data to store here it is a integer struct _ListItem *next; //pointer to the next item's address in the list } ListItem;

Since the data type could be something else, it would be inconvenient to rewrite this every time it is needed for a different type, so this is generally implemented as a templated class in C++, C# or other languages that support generics. Encapsulating the linked list in a class as an abstract data type allows the idea of the head and tail to be abstracted away from the programmer. This also allows the basic operations to modify the head or tail as needed.

Doubly Linked Lists
This is a specialized version of a linked list which allows traversal in two directions. A regular linked lists can only be traversed from head to tail. A doubly linked list allows the list to also be traversed from tail to head, at the expense of more memory and some slightly more expensive operations. With doubly linked lists, you need to keep track of the tail in addition to keeping track of the head.

Operations
There are several elemental operations used with linked lists. Many of these operations use a position as a parameter. This parameter is a pointer to a ListItem, since the ListItem represents an item in the chain (including the link to the next item). The singly-linked operations takes the position directly before the element we want to mutate (insert or delete) as the parameter. The reason we use the position immediately before is since with a singly linked list, there is no way to find the element directly before the position in order to update the link. If a generic function is required, this means that in order to mutate the first item, a dummy head item must be used. This is one example of the advantages of a doubly linked list, since we can use a pointer to the actual item we want to mutate, since there is a pointer to the previous item so we can update the links.

Insert
The insert operation takes a position and the new item to insert as parameters.

Singly-linked list version
void insert(unsigned int position, ListItem *item, ListItem **head){ ListItem *current = *head; unsigned int cntr=0; while (current->next != NULL) { current = current->next; cntr++; } if(position==0){ item->next = *head; *head = item; } else if(position>=cntr){ current->next=item; current->next->next = NULL; } else{ current = *head; for(int i=0;inext; }   item->next=current->next; current->next=item; } }

Doubly-linked list version
void insert(ListItem *position, ListItem *item) {  item->next = position->next; position->next = item; item->prev=position; }

Delete
The delete operation takes a position as a parameter and removes it.

Singly-linked list version
// position is immediately before the item we want to delete void delete(ListItem *position) {  if(0 == position->next) return; ListItem* temp = position->next->next; free(position->next); position->next = temp; }

Doubly-linked list version
// position is the actual item we want to delete void delete(DL_ListItem *position) {  if(position->next) position->next->prev = position->prev; if(position->prev) position->prev->next = position->next; free(position); }

Remarks
As you can see, the doubly linked versions of both operations is much more elegant.

title: Data Structures/LinkedLists


text:
Talk:Discrete Mathematics/Selected problems

3) {0, 2, 4, ...} is a subset of {0, 4, 8, ...}?

4) {5, 8, 11, ...} is a subset of {6, 12, 18, ...}?


text:
Introduction to Philosophy/Philosophy of Religion

Introduction to the study of philosophy of religion

Introduction
The Philosophy of Religion is the application of philosophical theories and arguments to religions and religious world views. Given the multitude of philosophies and religions in the world, it is easy to see how complex this field can become.

For the sake of clarity:
 * God will refer to the concept of a single, omnipotent deity as referred to by monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
 * Devil will refer to the concept of a single, evil being who is opposed to God.
 * Deity/Deities will refer to the concept of one or many supernatural beings of various qualities.

Ontological Argument
First suggested by St. Anselm of Canterbury, the ontological argument attempts to prove the existence of God based on God's status as the greatest conceivable being. The argument is as follows:

 * 1) God is defined as the greatest conceivable being.
 * 2) A being which exists in reality is greater than a being which exists only in the mind.
 * 3) Either God exists in reality or he exists only in the mind.
 * 4) If God existed only in the mind, there would be a greater conceivable being: one with the same properties as God who also happened to exist in reality.
 * 5) Thus, God cannot exist only in the mind.
 * 6) Therefore, God exists in reality.

After its publication in Anselm's Monologion, the argument was criticized by a monk by the name of Gaunilo in "Reply on Behalf of the Fool", in which he argues that the same form of argument could be used to produce absurd conclusions such as the existence of a perfect island. The argument was later criticized by Immanuel Kant, who claimed that existence could not be predicated as a property of an object.

Contemporary versions of the ontological argument have been formulated by a variety of philosophers including Norman Malcolm and Alvin Plantinga.

Cosmological Argument
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) gave several different versions of this argument (known as the Five Ways) in his work Summa Theologica.

First Cause
The First Cause argument states that since many things are caused, God must be the First Cause. This is the second of the five ways. The general argument follows:
 * 1) Things exist that are caused.
 * 2) Nothing can be self-caused.
 * 3) There can't be an infinite regress of causes.
 * 4) There must be a first cause that was not caused itself.
 * 5) The word God means uncaused first cause.
 * 6) God exists.

Contingency

 * 1) Every being is necessary or contingent.
 * 2) Not every being is contingent.
 * 3) There is a necessary being upon which contingent beings depend.
 * 4) God is defined as a necessary being upon which contingent beings depend.
 * 5) God exists.

Teleological Argument
William Paley (1743-1805) provides the most famous version of this argument with his watchmaker analogy in his book Natural Theology (1802). Briefly, the watchmaker is to the watch as God is to the Universe. Just as the watch with all its complex workings must have been created or made by an intelligent designer, so must the Universe with its even more complex workings have been designed by an intelligent and powerful creator.

His argument was refuted by David Hume (1711-1776) who believed the argument failed because it was too dependent on analogy and did not compare like to like. He also argued that we do not have knowledge of other universes to compare the design or lack thereof with our own.

Contemporary philosophers have devised several new forms of the teleological argument. Teleological arguments based on biological design are the underpinnings of the Intelligent Design movement. These have drawn much criticism from the scientific community as they usually rely on a denial of the theory of evolution. There have also been arguments based on fine-tuning: the fact that physical constants that govern properties such as the strength of the gravitational and electromagnetic forces are precisely the values necessary for intelligent life. Critics have responded with arguments based on the Anthropic principle, which points out that these constants must have values compatible with our existence or else we wouldn't be here to measure them.

Other Arguments
Philosophers have come up with a wide variety of arguments and argumentative strategies for the existence of God including:

 * The purported existence and unexplainability of miracles and near-death experiences.
 * The argument that transcendent moral facts require the backing of God to have any force.
 * The transcendental argument for the existence of God which argues that the existence of logic requires God.
 * Pascal's wager which argues that it is rational to believe in God even if he doesn't exist because of the benefits in doing so in the afterlife. This is not so much an argument for the existence of God as an argument for the benefits in believing in God.

Needless to say, these arguments are disputed by many and are often extremely complex.

Theism
theism-breaking down the word theism. the is man m stands for man, thee standing for god in one word god exists there no separation from god and man Theism is the general belief that Deity exists, but the qualities of Deity are not specified.

Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that a single God exists. God is often seen as being omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent.

Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief that many deities exist. Religions such as Asatru, Shinto, and Hinduism are considered polytheistic.

Deism
Deism is the belief that God exists purely on a rational basis, with no reliance on faith-based religions, including Christianity. Therefore, such ideas as the Trinity and the Incarnation are, strictly speaking, not present in Deism. However, most Deists lean towards some religious influence; some Christianity, others Hinduism, others Paganism, and so on. Deists also tend to assert that the 'supreme being', whether they choose to call it God or not, created the universe and afterwards disassociated itself from the order of things. In deistic thought, God is the cause and the world is the effect; He is separate from it, and does not influence it. In 17th century England, a Deist movement began, including Lord Herbert of Cherbury, Charles Blount, and others. Some famous Deists include Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Thomas Jefferson, and Albert Einstein.

Pantheism
"All is God". Any religious practice or philosophy that holds that all matter and physical forces are synonymous with God. Pantheists believe that all physical reality is God. Pantheists believe that the whole of the cosmos is sacred and that nature is divine.

Panentheism
Hold that God is separate from the universe and that Pantheism is impossible because {all} cannot be God if God is apart from it

Atheism
There are two forms of atheism, called strong atheism and weak atheism (sometimes called positive and negative atheism or gnostic and agnostic atheism). The former is defined as the positive belief that no god(s) exist, whereas the latter is characterized by denying or withholding assent to the positive assertion that their is/are god(s). Thus, strong atheism is a stronger statement than weak atheism, as it requires positive evidence for atheism, as opposed to weak atheism which requires only a lack of evidence for theism.

Thus, one does not necessarily need to believe anything to be an atheist. Anybody who does not believe in god is, by the definitions commonly held by the atheistic community, an atheist, whether s/he believes there is no god or whether s/he simply is not convinced that there is one.

Strictly speaking, the positive assertion that "no gods exist" is an unprovable assertion but, since all that is required of the Theist is a belief that the statement "God(s) exist(s)" is true and not irrefutable knowledge then it seems unreasonable to demand stronger justification from the atheist. However, this would seem to undermine the difference between "strong" and "weak" atheism unless these positions are to be judged on the balance of probability that the speaker gives to such statements. This in no way lessens the position of the atheist. For example, there are many unprovable statements, from those made about the existence of fairies to those concerning the existence of the pagan pantheon that we discount on a daily basis but can never, in fact, show to be false. The atheist puts statements about the existence of god in the same category.

Problem of Evil/Theodicy
The Problem of Evil is the problem of reconciling belief in a God who is benevolent or just with the universe, which has many apparent 'evils'.

A common theist response is the argument that humans were created with free will, and that it is humanity as opposed to God who is responsible for evil's presence in the universe.

However, this argument is only a partial refutation. It does not cover natural disasters, for example, or anything else beyond human control.

Mystical Experience

 * A Transcendentalist opinion
 * Mystical Experience

Transcendentalism

 * Transcendentalist Theology

Reference and further readings

 * Religion Wiki - For more detailed information on religion.


text:
Learning the vi Editor/Vim

Overview

 * /Basic navigation/
 * /Modes/
 * /Tips and Tricks/
 * /Useful things for programmers to know/
 * /Enhancing Vim/
 * /External Scripts/
 * /VimL Script language/
 * /Vim on Windows/
 * /Vim Touch/

title: Learning the vi Editor/Vim


text:
Talk:French/Grammar/Tenses

Content moved from Talk:French/Lessons/Past Tense
Note: I moved this discussion from French/Lessons/Past Tense before I deleted the content there. This is just to preserve this content and edit history. --Rob Horning 18:19, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

Il faudrait introduire les terminaisons du passé simple pour les conjugaisons 2 et 3 ainsi que celles des verbes irréguliers déjà rencontrés.

too much grammar here
It might better to break this up into separate chapters with more examples.

i second the above

title: Talk:French/Grammar/Tenses


text:
Wikibooks talk:Study help desk

History
Initial text adapted from en:Wikipedia:Reference desk. --mav 09:08 2 Aug 2003 (UTC)

Discussion
It's awfully sad that this page is in the sidebar but never visited, whereas for the Staff Lounge it is just the reverse. What gives? Sj 22:14, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

This page doesn't get a lot of attention
Maybe redirect it to the staff lounge? -- SB_Johnny | talk 11:17, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

 * You're right about the attention. I'm not too excited, however, in mixing the two pages together. The Staff lounge gets a lot of traffic already. There is no need to dump even more there.
 * I suggest we change the navigation aid and the text in the Community Portal to seperate the on-wiki and external contact methods better, and clear up the introductory text here so that people actually stick around. We might also advertise this in the Staff lounge (so much for my argument about hight traffic there ). --Swift 17:30, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

Clarifying page purpose definition
I think we should define the purpose of this page more explicitly. Currently it is mostly states that it "serves much the same function as a library reference desk." Then, however, it goes on with: "Do you have a specific question that you want answered by Wikibooks? Then ask below!" but asking general questions isn't quite the purpose of a library reference desk.

I propose we restrict this to being a reference desk — restrict the questions to the books here at Wikibooks. --Swift 22:01, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Done. --Swift 22:52, 2 January 2007 (UTC)

Deprecate
This page is now linked to from the Reading room, but still doesn't get much traffic. Requests for this type of page don't find their way to the other reading rooms. There really doesn't seem to be much demand for it. Reading room/Assistance therefore be able to handle the occasional requests that belong here. I suggest that we deprecate this page. --Swift (talk) 16:05, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

title: Wikibooks talk:Study help desk


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User:Yjaradin~enwikibooks

Yves Jaradin
Né le 3/11/1982

Belge

Etudiant en mathématiques et informatique

title: User:Yjaradin~enwikibooks


text:
User:Jamesday~enwikibooks

See En:User:Jamesday

title: User:Jamesday~enwikibooks


text:
GCSE Science/Energy

Introduction
1. Need for Energy:
 * All life processes requires energy. Animals obtain energy through the food consumed by them. Green plants can prepare their own food, which is called photosynthesis.

2. Sun - A prime energy source:
 * The prime source of energy to our world is the Sun. All living organisms depend directly or indirectly on the sun for their energy needs. Oil, Coal, gas, solar power, wave power and wind power all derive energy from the sun - which has reached the earth either now or in the past.

sun gives plants energy

Types of Energy
There are many types of energy; here are the main ones:

Potential (Chemical, Elastic, Gravitational, Nuclear) (Usually written a PE) Heat Kinetic (Usually written a KE) Electrical Electro-magnetic

title: GCSE Science/Energy


text:
Valgrind

What is Valgrind?
Valgrind (downloadable here) is a utility for debugging programs for the x86 and x86-64 Linux platforms. It has recently become highly popular as it can be used to easily track down memory management and threading bugs that are hard to track down otherwise.

How to install it
There is a "generic" option, available on most systems, which involves compiling:

user> wget http://valgrind.org/downloads/valgrind-3.8.1.tar.bz2 user> bunzip2 valgrind-3.8.1.tar.bz2 user> tar -xvf valgrind-3.8.1.tar user> cd /valgrind-3.8.1 user> ./configure user> make user> su root root> make install

On most Linux distributions, however, you can use the package management system. For example, in Debian GNU/Linux (and derivatives) simply run: apt-get install valgrind

How to use it
Valgrind can be run simply by prefixing the command line that you run with valgrind

./myprogram -o option

valgrind ./myprogram -o option

This simple test will check that the memory accesses with in the program are correct. Do not be surprised when you get messages about code that you know is not a problem. This program tests every access and some programs are forgiving about existing errors. It is always worth fixing these extra errors because they will be impossible to track down when they do cause a breakage in code.

You may prefer to run valgrind and log to a text file, with the following options: valgrind --leak-check=full --freelist-vol=100000000 --log-file-exactly=log.txt -v ./myprogram

How it works
Valgrind is essentially an x86 machine-code interpreter. In fact it runs as a just-in-time compiler converting the machine code to an internal language, instrumenting that language and then code-generating from that language. Valgrind instruments the code to monitor memory allocation, deallocation, writes and reads, which lets it hold a bit-map of memory state. hence it can report attempts to read data from memory that has never yet been written, or using recently-freed memory. Under Valgrind a program will take something like 2-10 times longer than when run uninstrumented.

Callgrind is a related program that uses the same x86 interpreter technology to instrument the code to log routine calls and generate a file that can be analyzed to show time spent in various routines and the call paths involved.

Programowanie w systemie UNIX/Valgrind

title: Valgrind


text:
Template:Wikimedia projects

vi:Tiêu bản:Liên quan Wikibooks

title: Template:Wikimedia projects


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title: Template:Natural sciences bookshelf


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title: Template:Mathematics bookshelf


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Cookbook talk:Sunglow Motel-Cafe Pickle Pie

how in the world do you grind a pickle!?

simple, you just need a pickle grinder.

 * That is what the recipe says ("ground"); but using a grater works just fine. A food processor should also work.

Note: Although the recipe says to bake for one hour to one hour and 15 minutes, I'd suggest checking it earlier (perhaps at 45 minutes) just to be safe, because when I tested it at one hour the pies I made were already clearly past done. -- RTC 15:22 Nov 14, 2002 (UTC)

Note: I found by accident that increasing the pickles from 12 oz. to about 17 oz. introduces a distinct "fruity" flavor that the original recipe does not have. Both versions are very good, in my opinion! -- RTC 19:04 Nov 17, 2002 (UTC)


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All Study Guides...

title: Template:Study guides bookshelf


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Miscellaneous F OOD AND DRINK  - Bartending - Cookbook - F REE TIME  - Bicycles - The Unicyclopedia S OCIAL WORK  - Towards A Better India - Technologies for Rural Development - T RAVEL GUIDES  - London - O THER  - Outdoor Survival - Lucid Dreaming - TI-83 Lists - Becoming a Private Pilot - Conworlding - Horticulture - IB Biology Practical Investigations - Shaving - United Nations - Character Creation - Complete Guide to essential Oils - Living in Japan - Laboratory Safety - River_Fishing - Living in Bangkok All Miscellaneous books...

title: Template:Miscellaneous bookshelf


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Cookbook:Vareniki

Varenyky (singular varenyk; in Ukrainian, варе́ник[и]) are a Ukrainian dumpling. Some variants are also found in Belarusian, Russian and Polish cooking. Varenyky are similar to Polish pierogi, Siberian pelmeni, and Italian ravioli. Varenyky, however, are of larger size and frequently have cottage cheese filling. Other typical fillings include mashed potatoes, meat, or berries.

During preparation, the filling is wrapped with dough, and then boiled for several minutes. The name varenyk, in fact, simply means "boiled thing", from the adjective варений (romanized, varenyj).

Varenyky are very popular in Ukraine as a quick-fix dish.

See also:
 * Syrniki
 * Pierogi

title: Cookbook:Vareniki


text:
Bengali

Bengali, or Bangla, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken predominantly in Bangladesh and in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura by approximately 200 million people. After Hindi, Bengali is the second most spoken language in the Indian subcontinent, and among the top 10 most spoken languages in the world. The language has a rich literary heritage and underwent a renaissance in the late 19th century.

=Preliminaries=

The examples of Bengali words, phrases, clauses and sentences used in this book are generally presented simultaneously in three written forms: one using the Bengali script, a transliterated version using Latin letters, and an English translation. A phonemic transcription using the IPA, as well as recorded audio samples, are also being used. The Bengali romanisation scheme is the one followed in the English Wiktionary.

Bengali transliteration – English Wiktionary

=Contents=

Introduction

 * ০.০.১. A Short History of Bengali
 * ০.০.২. Modern-day Bengali
 * ০.০.৩. Dialects of Bengali and Their Differences
 * ০.১. Overview of the Bengali Script
 * ০.১.১. Vowels
 * ০.১.২. Consonants, Part One
 * ০.১.৩. Consonants, Part Two
 * ০.১.৪. Diacritics in Bengali
 * ০.১.৫. Symbols of Note
 * ০.১.৬. Bengali Conjuncts, Part One
 * ০.১.৭. Bengali Conjuncts, Part Two
 * ০.১.৮. Other Symbols related to Bengali (in Unicode)
 * ০.১.৯. Numbers in Bengali
 * ০.২ The Bengali Parts of Speech
 * ০.২.১ Nouns
 * ০.২.২ Adjectives
 * ০.২.৩ Verbs
 * ০.২.৪ Postpositions
 * ০.২.৫ Auxiliaries
 * ০.৩ Introduction to Bengali Grammar
 * ০.৩.১ Overview of grammar
 * ০.৩.২ Sentence patterns

Lessons, exercises (in two sets), and culture

 * ১. স্বাগতম! - Welcome!
 * ২. কি করেন? - What do you do?
 * ৩. কোথায়? কখন? - Where? When?
 * ৪. কি পছন্দ করেন? - What do you like?
 * ৫. কত এটা? - How much is this?
 * ৬. কথাই থেকেছ? - Where are you staying?
 * ৭. প্রিয় দিনপঞ্জী... - Dear diary...
 * ৮. পৌছেছি? - Are we there yet?
 * ৯. আপনার শরীর ভালো? - Are you feeling well?
 * ১০. তাড়াতাড়ি সাহায্য করুন! - Quickly help me!

 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২
 * চর্চা ১ চর্চা ২

 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি
 * সংস্কৃতি

A Glimpse into Vocabulary

 * 1) Greetings
 * 2) Talking about oneself
 * 3) Asking questions
 * 4) Liking and disliking
 * 5) Shopping
 * 6) Staying at hotels
 * 7) Letters
 * 8) Traveling
 * 9) Staying well
 * 10) Emergencies
 * 11) Animals
 * 12) Birds
 * 13) Body parts
 * 14) Dressing
 * 15) Flowers
 * 16) Foods and drinks
 * 17) Fruits
 * 18) Housing
 * 19) Household objects
 * 20) Months
 * 21) Music and dance
 * 22) Numbers
 * 23) Plants
 * 24) Relations
 * 25) School
 * 26) Time and dates
 * 27) Tools
 * 28) Vegetables
 * 29) Common phrases
 * 30) External references

Older pages (being integrated)

 * 1) The Bengali abugida (being rewritten and broken up)

title: Bengali


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title: User:AlexTM~enwikibooks/monobook.js


text:
User:AlexTM~enwikibooks

See en:User:AlexR

or/oder

Siehe de:Benutzer:AlexR

title: User:AlexTM~enwikibooks


text:
User:Hibisco-da-Ilha~enwikibooks

fr:utilisateur:Hibisco-da-Ilha   pt:usuário:Hibisco-da-Ilha

Chimie générale
Je me propose de traduire en français le wikibook Chemistry. Avant de commencer cette saga, j´aimerais recevoir des commentaires éventuels.Hibisco-da-Ilha 18:59, 7 Jul 2004 (UTC)

La traduction est en exécution voir Chimie généraleHibisco-da-Ilha 17:14, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Curso de Termodinâmica
O curso publicado em www.hibisco-da-Ilha.com, tem como autor original ( em francês)  Gerard Charlet professor da Universidade de Laval Canada. Recebi hoje a autorização de transferir este curso para Wikilivros no seguinte e-mail.

Cher collègue, C'est avec grand plaisir que je vous autorise à transférer le     site  vers wikibooks. Noter que le cours CHM-10099 proprement dit  n'existe plus, et a été remplacé par CHM-19640. Je vous félicite pour vos efforts de diffusion de la science à  travers des outils sans but lucratif, avec mes cordiales salutations,

Gérard Charlet Professeur titulaire Département de chimie Faculté des sciences et de génie Université Laval Québec (QC) Canada G1K 7P4 Tel: (418) 656 5113 Fax: (418) 656 7916 Courriel: Gerard.Charlet@chm.ulaval.ca site web du département: www.chm.ulaval.ca

Executarei a transferência durante o segundo semestre 2004 Hibisco-da-Ilha 18:44, 12 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Hibisco-da-Ilha~enwikibooks


text: User:Daniel B~enwikibooks

title: User:Daniel B~enwikibooks


text:
Statistics/Testing Data/t-tests

'''Note: Some of the statements in the text below are disputed. For small sample size non-parametric tests like the Mann-Whitney U test or the Wilcoxon rank-sum test might rather be used than a t-test.'''

The t- test is the most powerful parametric test for calculating the significance of a small sample mean.

A one sample t-test has the following null hypothesis:

$$H_0: \quad \mu=c$$

where the Greek letter $$\mu$$ (mu) represents the population mean and c represents its assumed (hypothesized) value. In statistics it is usual to employ Greek letters for population parameters and Roman letters for sample statistics. The t-test is the small sample analog of the z test which is suitable for large samples. A small sample is generally regarded as one of size n<30.

A t-test is necessary for small samples because their distributions are not normal. If the sample is large (n>=30) then statistical theory says that the sample mean is normally distributed and a z test for a single mean can be used. This is a result of a famous statistical theorem, the Central limit theorem.

A t-test, however, can still be applied to larger samples and as the sample size n grows larger and larger, the results of a t-test and z-test become closer and closer. In the limit, with infinite degrees of freedom, the results of t and z tests become identical.

In order to perform a t-test, one first has to calculate the "degrees of freedom." This quantity takes into account the sample size and the number of parameters that are being estimated. Here, the population parameter, mu is being estimated by the sample statistic x-bar, the mean of the sample data. For a t-test the degrees of freedom of the single mean is n-1. This is because only one population parameter (the population mean)is being estimated by a sample statistic (the sample mean).

degrees of freedom (df)=n-1

''For example, for a sample size n=15, the df=14. ''

Example
''A college professor wants to compare her students' scores with the national average. She chooses a simple random sample (SRS) of 20 students, who score an average of 50.2 on a standardized test. Their scores have a standard deviation of 2.5. The national average on the test is a 60. She wants to know if her students scored significantly lower than the national average.''

Significance tests follow a procedure in several steps.

Step 1
First, state the problem in terms of a distribution and identify the parameters of interest. Mention the sample. We will assume that the scores (X) of the students in the professor's class are approximately normally distributed with unknown parameters μ and σ

Step 2
State the hypotheses in symbols and words.

$$H_O: \quad \mu=60$$

The null hypothesis is that her students scored on par with the national average.

$$H_A: \quad \mu<60$$

The alternative hypothesis is that her students scored lower than the national average.

Step 3
Secondly, identify the test to be used. Since we have an SRS of small size and do not know the standard deviation of the population, we will use a one-sample t-test.

The formula for the t-statistic T for a one-sample test is as follows:

 * $$T = \frac{\overline{X} - 60}{S/\sqrt{20}}$$

where $$\overline{X}$$ is the sample mean and S is the sample standard deviation.

A quite common mistake is to say that the formula for the t-test statistic is:

 * $$T = \frac{\overline{x} - \mu}{s/\sqrt{n}}$$

This is not a statistic, because μ is unknown, which is the crucial point in such a problem. Most people even don't notice it. Another problem with this formula is the use of x and s. They are to be considered the sample statistics and not their values.

The right general formula is:

 * $$T = \frac{\overline{X} - c}{S/\sqrt{n}}$$

in which c is the hypothetical value for μ specified by the null hypothesis.

(The standard deviation of the sample divided by the square root of the sample size is known as the "standard error" of the sample.)

Step 4
State the distribution of the test statistic under the null hypothesis. Under H0 the statistic T will follow a Student's distribution with 19 degrees of freedom: $$T \sim \tau\cdot(20-1) $$.

Step 5
Compute the observed value t of the test statistic T, by entering the values, as follows:

 * $$t = \frac{\overline{x} - 60}{s/\sqrt{20}} = \frac{50.2 - 60.0}{2.5/\sqrt{20}} = \frac{-9.8}{2.5/4.47} = \frac{-9.8}{0.559} = -17.5$$

Step 6
Determine the so-called p-value of the value t of the test statistic T. We will reject the null hypothesis for too small values of T, so we compute the left p-value:
 * p-value $$ = P(T \leq t ;H_0) = P(T(19) \leq -17.5) \approx 0 $$

The Student's distribution gives $$T(19)=1.729$$ at probabilities 0.95 and degrees of freedom 19. The p-value is approximated at 1.777e-13.

Step 7
Lastly, interpret the results in the context of the problem. The p-value indicates that the results almost certainly did not happen by chance and we have sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis. The professor's students did score significantly lower than the national average.

title: Statistics/Testing Data/t-tests


text:
PHP Programming/The while Loop

Example 1
This is an example that prints the numbers from 0 to 4. $c starts out as 0. When the while loop is encountered, the expression $c < 5 is evaluated for truth. If it is true, it executes what is in the curly braces. The echo statement will print 0, and then add one to $c. The program will then go back to the top of the loop and check the expression again. Since it is true again, it will then return 1 and add one to $c. It will keep doing this until $c is equal to 5, where the statement $c < 5 is false. After that, it finishes.

Example 2
The first line of the program sets <tt>$myName</tt> to "Fred". After that, the while statement checks if <tt>$myName</tt> equals <tt>"Rumpelstiltskin"</tt>. The <tt>!=</tt> means 'does not equal', so the expression is true, and the while loop executes its code block. In the code block an <tt>if</tt> statement (see previous chapter) checks, if it equals Fred. Since it does, it then reassigns <tt>$myName</tt> to equal <tt>"Leslie"</tt>. Then it skips the <tt>else</tt>, since the <tt>if</tt> was true and evaluated. Then it reaches the end of the loop, so it goes back and checks if <tt>$myName</tt> does not equal <tt>"Rumpelstiltskin"</tt>. Since it still doesn't, it's true, and then it goes into the loop again. This time, the if statement is false, so the else is executed. This sets <tt>$myName</tt> to "Rumplestiltskin". We again get to the end of the loop, so it goes back, and checks. Since <tt>$myName</tt> does equal <tt>"Rumpelstiltskin"</tt>, the while condition is false, and it skips the loop and continues on, where it echos, "How did you know?"

Loops
Loops are another important basic programming technique. Loops allow programs to execute the same lines of code repeatedly, this is important for many things in programs. In PHP you often use them to layout tables in HTML and other similar functions.

Infinite Loops
Loops can be very handy, but also very dangerous! Infinite loops are loops that fail to exit, causing them to execute until the program is stopped. This is caused when no matter what occurs during the loop, the condition will never become false and therefore never exit. For example, if Example 1 subtracted 1 from <tt>$c</tt>…

$c will always be less than 5, no matter what, so the loop will continue forever. This causes problems for those of us who don't have infinite time (or computer memory!). So, in that case, let's learn a handy dandy little bugger.

If you add 'break;' to a loop, the loop will end, no matter whether the condition is false or not.

Parting example
Let's combine the two examples. Before moving on take a few moments to write out the steps this program goes through and what its output is.

For more information

 * PHP Manual: Control Structures: while.

title: PHP Programming/The while Loop