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Rhetoric and Composition/Drafting

Overview of Drafting
Drafting is essential to the organization and flow of your paper. Drafting includes prewriting, editing, and reviewing. Once your general ideas are down on paper, writing out specific ideas and quotations can make the final writing process much easier. Each step of drafting brings the process a little closer to the final product. Always write down any ideas you have in the drafting process. It is much easier to cut content from your paper than it is to work on adding content. If you collect all your resources, quotations, facts, ideas, and come up with a thesis during the drafting process, your paper will show it. The idea is to provide yourself with as much information as possible in order to create a solid and well thought-out piece. Do less worrying and more writing.

Drafting: The Process
The thesis: It is not advisable to begin drafting without a thesis. The thesis statement is a roadmap for your essay and at the drafting phase it will help keep you on track. Make sure that you begin with a statement (not a question) that articulates (a) your topic, (b) what you plan to say about that topic, and that at least implies (b) why what you plan to say is significant enough to be worth writing about. What causes students the most trouble is (b) what you plan to say about the topic. What you plan to say must be debatable. You should not plan to say something people already know or can easily find somewhere else. What you plan to say about your topic must be something that a reader could question, but might not after reading the essay that will follow.

The first draft: Prewriting will help you with drafting. Additionally, try writing in full sentences, try to find the best possible quotations, try mindmapping, or try writing out all of the data you have gathered. Weave these things together, and you may end up with a nice framework for your paper. Don’t worry about being complete in your drafting. Disorganization and choppiness are fine here; you can smooth that out in later drafts. Drafts are not perfect. Drafts may contain grammatical and spelling errors and may lack detail. Rephrasing and expanding ideas may be a part of later drafts.

The second draft: The second draft is about organizing your information logically and effectively. If you created a thorough first draft, this should be easy. Organize the main points that you plan to make, find supporting evidence for each point, and spend a few sentences explaining what conclusions you are able to draw from the information. Don’t be afraid to show off. Professors like it when students are able to draw conclusions on their own. Sometimes it weakens your argument to use softeners like “might” “I think” and “maybe,” so keep an eye out for these. You will want to come up with an overall organizational strategy and stick to it. Parallelism is very attractive in a paper. However, there is also no quick and easy format that works for every topic. You may want to organize things chronologically, with fact and then opinion, or by order of importance.

The third draft and more: The third and any subsequent drafts are really about finesse. These are the drafts that will hook your reader and earn you an “A.” Try to write an attention-grabbing introduction, as well as a conclusion that leaves the reader thinking about your paper. If you are still struggling with the overall flow of your paper, go back to you first draft and start rewriting. Often your main point will change by the time you get to this draft, and that is fine. However, you may need to go back to your first draft when this happens.

The elusive “show, don’t tell” line comes into play in this draft. Professors want to be entertained, and they want more than just facts. You need to show the professor that you can think for yourself, that you know what you're talking about, and that you can write in an engaging style. If you are bored reading the paper, chances are your professor will be, too. Add action verbs, remove passive ones, and use examples. Pretty soon you’ll be ready for a final draft.

Be sure to follow a timeline. Make sure that you start early to have enough time to go through many drafts. If you wait until the day before, you will have time for only one draft!

During the Drafting Process
Many writers often narrow -- or expand -- the topic as they write. Overly broad topics can be difficult to manage and can lead to summarization rather than descriptive explanation. Narrowing your topic will provide you with a more workable idea to focus on. Asking questions about what you want to know regarding your topic and what you want your readers to know will help focus your writing. If you choose to narrow your topic, first try to picture a larger context into which your thesis fits. Make a claim which forecasts the main point(s) of your thesis, then deliver the source which supports the argument. During this stage, scan for grammatically weak areas and unsupported claims. You may always add background information, term definitions, literature review, reasons for your assumptions, and counter-arguments to strengthen your own argument.

Sometimes you will find that it is easier to write the introduction after you have written the body of your paper. Consider waiting to write the introduction until you have a definite sense of what direction you want your paper to take. Many times, if you write an introduction first, it can limit the information or collaboration of ideas for the bulk of the paper. If you do decide to save the introduction for later, go over what you have written and identify the main point, or points, of your paper. Next, craft an introduction with a thesis statement that forecasts what will follow. Be aware that you need to rework some of the body after you do the introduction. No matter what you choose to write first, it is important to stay on track. Emphasize several points that are related to your thesis by adding more information and going deeper into detail. It is important to gather sufficient information to support your thesis. You may be required to provide a reference or in-text citation, or you may find that you do not yet know enough about your topic, and more research is required. Research may be necessary for multiple reasons: to learn more about the topic, to provide examples for your thesis, or to use as support for your thoughts, opinions, and the overall direction of your paper.

Let It Flow
As you draft, do not stop to edit or look up small pieces of information; there will be time for precision later. Luke Sullivan, author of "Hey Whipple, Squeeze This," suggests that you must "write hot and edit cold." In other words, write off the top of your head and allow your thoughts to be spontaneous. You never want to leave a good idea out. However, when it comes to polishing the final product, become critical by taking out unnecessary words or ideas that stray from the main message. Do not keep text that distracts or causes misunderstandings. If you have a question, place it in brackets or make a note of it and refer back to it later. First, just get your ideas out without worrying about punctuation or spelling. Similarly, if you notice a big gap which requires more research, skip it and work on other sections. The important thing is to let your ideas keep coming and make progress on the page. No matter how irrelevant your words may appear, keep writing. If you have to stop, be sure to end in a place where it will be easy to pick up from later. Don't get distracted when your initial drafts aren't "A" quality work. That's the reason they are drafts. The important thing is to get your ideas down on paper. You can spend time evaluating them later on.

Dealing with Writer's Block
Writer's block can occur at any point during the writing process. You may find yourself sitting down to write when you suddenly realize that you can't think of a single thing to say. Don't panic! It's a common problem with a variety of solutions.

Here are a few...

 * Staring at a blank screen can be intimidating. Try writing out your dilemma in the form of a question: "What is it I'm trying to say?" "What are my goals?" Then brainstorm to answer these questions.
 * Take a break. Ten minutes away from your work will usually recharge your creativity.
 * Review the literature on your topic to see what other people are saying. Even opposing views can be inspiring.
 * Bounce ideas off someone else. Speaking about your writer's block with friends, family, and fellow students may help untangle ideas or generate new ones.

Experiment
How do you start your draft? While the occasional flash of inspiration can lead you to scribble out great work on the back of an envelope with a stubby pencil, paying brief attention not only to 'what you write', but 'how you write' can inspire you to write differently or even more effectively. If you start drafting from the conclusion, for example, it could be like having a "Guiding Star" for your paper. Or you could leave the introduction and conclusion blank until the end. With that said, you can make up your own approach to create your own way of writing. All the technological tools you have access to make it possible for you to write virtually anytime, anywhere, and however you want. Take advantage of it. Type on your computer, do research on it, record your own voice if the pen is slowing down your thinking. Many people find it helpful to brainstorm; start writing for an extended period of time without stopping, and see what you can come up with. Charting can be a good way to come up with ideas and see connections you may not otherwise notice; when you chart, you write down a topic in the center of the paper. Then write other words or ideas that fit in with the topic. Draw lines that connect the related ideas. Experiment with your approach to writing.

Meeting the Minimum Word Count
If you are having trouble meeting the minimum page length, look over your paper again and see if you can find spots that could use additional detail. Also, look at your assignment sheet again to see if you met the assignment's requirements. It is okay to add more detail to certain sections; for instance, is "a blue car" sufficient, or would "a 2007 Vista Blue Ford Mustang" work better? But be careful not to make your paper too wordy. Remember that quality is more important than quantity. Just adding needless words to add to the word count keeps you from actually developing your ideas and strengthening the content of the paper.

Also see Generating Ideas in the Drafting section of this book.

Title of Your Essay
Coming up with a good title for your essay might seem difficult, but there are several techniques that can help. Although some writers start with a good title and write a paper to fit it, others (and probably most) worry about coming up with a good title after they're finished with the draft. The advantage of waiting until the end to work on the title is that you know exactly what you've written.

Many academic writers prefer a two-part title structure separated by a colon. The "catchy" bit goes before the colon, whereas the latter part is a straightforward description of the paper. For example, "Cutting out the Cut and Paste: Why Schools Should Use Plagiarism Detection Software."

Here are some tips for coming up with good titles:
 * Get inspiration from best-selling books or well-known essays, particularly those closely related to your topic (e.g., "Men are from Mars, Women are from Snickers: Candy Bars and the Obesity Epidemic.")
 * Look through your paper and see if you can identify some "key words" or special phrases that might serve as part of a title (i.e., "Edit this Page: How Wikis Enable Collaborative Writing" or "The Blue Screen of Death: How to Respond to Technical Difficulties During a Presentation.")
 * Consider poetic devices, such as repeating consonant sounds (e.g., "The Cost of Caring").
 * Get inspiration from famous quotations or song lyrics (e.g., "I Shaved My Legs for This?: A Feminist Perspective on Country Music.")

If you can't come up with a good title right away, shut down your word processor and think about other things for a while. If you just can't come up with anything clever, just remember that a clear and precise title is much better than none at all. A title like "The Use of Skull Imagery in Hamlet" may not sound profound, but at least the reader will know what the paper is about.

Final Thoughts on Drafting
Here's a quick summary of the key guidelines in drafting:
 * Don't worry about your audience before you draft. Your audience may dictate the style and tone of your writing, but it is more important to get a good start before adding potential complications to the mix.
 * You may need to narrow or expand your topic as you develop your paper.
 * If you are stumped about how to start the introduction, it might be helpful to simply skip it and come back to it later. The bigger picture might become clearer as you approach completion.
 * While drafting, keep all of your research close at hand. This will prevent the need to stop writing to look something up, which could break your concentration.
 * Writing in 30-minute stretches, or longer, will establish momentum, making your job as a writer much easier.
 * If you come across a small detail that you are unsure about, simply write yourself a note and come back to it later.
 * The first draft will not be perfect. Your priority should be getting your thoughts out on paper (or on-screen). Leave the fine-tuning for later.
 * If you must stop writing, be sure to end in a place where you have a good idea of what comes next. You will be able to pick it up again more easily.

title: Rhetoric and Composition/Drafting


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Editing

Editing and Revising: One and the Same?

Although many writers and even some instructors use the terms interchangeably, you may find it helpful to see editing and revising as two different activities. For our purposes, editing means going through a piece of writing and making grammatical corrections--or sentence-level changes. Revising, on the other hand, occurs when a writer makes paragraph-level changes to a text, such as making sure the thesis statement is correctly supported in each body paragraph.

For example, during the editing phase, a writer may check to ensure that there are no sentence fragments. Whereas during the revision stage, the writer may check to ensure that each paragraph has a topic sentence that corresponds with the thesis statement. We talk more about that process in the Revising chapter.

You may be called upon to revise or edit other students' writing. This process is often called Peer Reviewing and is given a separate chapter in this book. If you're concerned about how to diplomatically edit someone's work without being offensive, be sure to read it carefully.

You can (and should) also edit your own work. This simply means going back over what you've written and finding ways to improve it. Most writers frequently switch between drafting new sentences and paragraphs and editing ones they've already written.

In this chapter, we go over some basic editing strategies and some specific things to look for during the editing process.

As previously mentioned, revision concerns large sections of text, while editing concerns individual sentences. Below is a list of potential errors to consider while editing.

 * Fragments
 * Run-on sentences
 * Dangling or misplaced modifiers
 * Adjective and adverb use
 * Verb usage and tense
 * Subject/verb agreement
 * Pronoun/antecedent agreement
 * Sentence balance
 * Comma Use
 * Spelling
 * Word choice (connotation vs. denotation)
 * Format/presentation

Sentence Structure

 * Use active verbs.
 * Be-verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, has/have been)  indicate condition and often require an extra sentence or clause to be sound.   Active verbs   allow you to compose sharply without numbing the rhythm of your writing. Read your writing with an objective eye and think: “How can I make every sentence and paragraph straightforward and simple?” Below are examples in italics of wordy and confusing verbiage. Below the italics are the same sentences that have been simplified.
 * 'The sharp rise in fuel prices  is ' a serious challenge to trucking firms. It makes it hard for them to provide timely service to customers and to meet payroll expenses.
 * Sharply rising fuel prices challenge trucking firms by causing delays in customer service and payroll.
 * Primary causes of the rise in fuel prices are an issue of confusion for many citizens. They don’t know how to fight the rise because they don’t know its cause.
 * Primary causes of rising fuel prices elude many citizens, making them unaware of how to fight the increase.
 * Primary causes of rising fuel prices elude many citizens, making them unaware of how to fight the increase.

 * Name the people. Directly state   who or what group  is acting in your sentences. Note the contrast in power and clarity among the sentences below:
 * Without people: A citywide ban on indoor smoking in Duluth originally caused a marked drop in bar patronage.
 * With people: When the Duluth City Council passed a citywide ban on indoor smoking, many people stopped going to bars.

 * Eliminate wordy phrases. Certain stock phrases are weak and wordy. They can make you sound stuffy or as though you’re just trying to fill up space. Use these replacements:
 * Because, Since, Why: the reason for, for the reason that, owing/due to the fact that, in light of the fact that, considering the fact that, on the grounds that, this is why
 * When: on the occasion of, in a situation in which, under circumstances in which
 * About, Regarding: as regards, in reference to, with regard to, concerning the matter of, where ABC is concerned
 * Must, Should: it is crucial that, it is necessary that, there is a need/necessity for, it is important that, it cannot be avoided that
 * Can: is able to, has the opportunity to, has the capacity for, has the ability to
 * May, Might, Could: it is possible that, there is a chance that, it could happen that, the possibility exists for

Luckily, Internet users can find numerous web sites about how to eliminate wordiness.

 * Use Parallelism in sentences. Parallelism sounds difficult but is easy to write or edit. Parallelism uses the same pattern in words and structure to show equal importance or provide balance in sentences
 * John likes reading, his studies, and talking.

Corrected: John likes reading, studying, and talking.
 * We were asked to calculate scores, record them, and putting them on the bulletin board.

Corrected: We were asked to calculate scores, record them, and post them on the bulletin board.
 * The science class had to dissect frogs or were experimenting with gases.

Corrected: The science class had to dissect frogs or experiment with gases.

To check for parallelism, first circle or highlight every and or or to check for balance in the sentence. List the phrases from your sentence on a separate piece of paper. Example: reading, his studies, and talking. Make corrections to your list to create balance: reading, studying, and talking.

Once you fix a few sentences, problems with parallelism become easier to recognize and to correct!

Editing Tips

Editing is like going over your writing with a fine-toothed comb, scanning the surface and the depths for errors, misstatements, and a lack of clarity. First, keep resources close. Gather your writing handbook, dictionary, thesaurus, handouts, and any other editing resources and keep them close. This way, you will not be tempted to guess at the correct way to do something. Instead, use your resources when you need them. Spelling errors can be avoided if you have a dictionary nearby. Don't rely on spell check. It will only correct the spelling, not the proper usage of a word. For example, the word their means someone's possession of something. When used in a sentence, "We sat in their chairs." On the other hand, there is used to express an area or place. When used in a sentence, "We sat over there." Looking up these words in a dictionary will prevent unnecessary errors from occurring.

Secondly, know your errors. Keep a list of the errors you tend to make next to a corresponding list of corrections. No writer makes unique mistakes all the time; instead, our mistakes are habitual. Know what yours are by looking at your instructor’s comments on past papers or by working with a writing tutor. That way, you can enhance your editing strategies by watching specifically for these types of errors. If there are grammar rules you find yourself looking up more frequently than others, write them down for future reference.

Thirdly, break it down. Edit one thing at a time. Instead of reading your paper through from start to finish once or twice and trying to catch everything, try searching for one thing at a time. For example, you might go through your paper once to tighten up wordiness. Then, read through a second time, while looking for one type of error which you frequently make, such as comma splices. Then, try reading a third time looking for words that may have been misspelled when you ran a spell check. Read a fourth time for another characteristic error, such as subject-verb agreement.

Next, reduce visual clutter. Use two pieces of blank paper to cover up everything but one sentence at a time. This forces you to pay closer attention to the words because they are the only thing you see. Normally, our eyes move all over a text as we are reading; this trick will prevent that tendency. Lastly, work backwards. Read from the end of your paper to the beginning, one sentence at a time. When we read in the conventional manner--top to bottom or left to right--we tend to read quickly and are constantly leaping ahead without really focusing on the words. We tend to see what isn't there, because we know what it is supposed to say. Reading backwards forces us to slow down, thereby allowing us to catch more errors within individual sentences.

When reviewing your work, it is also important to ensure that the tense you choose remains consistent. Tense refers to the relation of details in the past, present, and future. For example, one writer may tell a story about going to the mall in the present tense by saying, "I am walking around the mall and I see my third grade teacher." Another writer may choose to relate this story in the past tense by saying, "I was walking around the mall when I saw my third grade teacher." Although it is important to select the tense that best suits the particular context a writer is using, it is equally important to remain consistent with whatever tense is chosen. Inconsistency within tense is extremely confusing for readers. It is important to review your use of tense to ensure that your language is clear. For example, if you were to say "I was walking around the mall and I see my third grade teacher" your audience would be very confused, wondering if you were seeing your teacher in the present or last week. By keeping your tense consistent your reader will always know when you experienced what you're writing about.

Perspectives on Style

Prescription and description litter these pages and others. Some writers tell you how to write: how your writing should look, sound, and feel. These writers prescribe rules (writer's handbooks are their Bibles). Should you follow them? Prescription can be limiting. In some instances, it may be profitable or necessary to follow a formula (when writing a legal document or a theme for your fifth grade teacher, for example). It is necessary to learn the rules, if only to break them. Rules are not static, however. They evolve. Rules are added, changed, omitted. Current fashion is the only certainty.

Other writers describe how text is actually written. They analyze past and present text, highlighting similarities, differences, and respective efficiency. They define goals and purpose. It may be purposeful to apply rules, yet at other times it may not. But do not allow yourself to become limited by prescription.

Examine your goal and determine the best approach to reach it.

Why discuss style in a section on editing? As you write, you make choices. As you edit, you examine the effectiveness of those choices. Some choices are more effective than others and may reinforce your message. It all depends on your goal, your purpose, and your audience. Are you writing a birthday greeting or a dissertation? An instant message or a public address? Your choices determine your text's effectiveness; they help relate meaning.

As you can imagine, there are as many perspectives on style as there are available topics for writing. The following is an attempt to present some of those perspectives.

Richard Lanham on Prose Styles
A book written by Richard Lanham titled Analyzing Prose is a great tool for writers looking to pick up ideas for new styles. Through this work, one can can gain techniques covering the following styles:

 * Opaque and Transparent
 * Noun and Verb
 * Paratactic and Hypotactic
 * Periodic and Running

Learning how to properly incorporate these styles into your own writing can transform your work from everyday textbook style writing into colorful, creative, individualistic styles.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rhetoric and Composition/Editing


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Introduction

Given the potential use of SimCity games in urban planning courses, this book will explain how various real-life planning concepts have been incorporated into the game. For game-players, this will add depth to the explanations of elements of the game. For educators and students, this will allow this book to function as a 'study-guide' for courses which use SimCity to introduce basic concepts of urban planning, design, as well as government, and fiscal management. So, for example, the section on Building Transportation will include a description of the importance of transport planning in real-life urban planning, as well as its incorporation into SimCity.

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Introduction


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Basic Concepts

Obviously, by the game name, you should have guessed this has something to building cities. There are many, many different things to do.

Gameplay is controlled by the mouse, and the graphics are pre-rendered on an isometric grid that can be zoomed in and out.

Introduction to real-life Urban Planning
Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. Other professions deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at a less detailed level. The Greek Hippodamus is often considered the father of city planning, for his design of Miletus, though examples of planned cities permeate antiquity. Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and hima and the more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise), although modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrès Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne.

The Indus Valley civilization is recognized as having been the first to develop urban planning. By 2600 BC some pre-Harappan settlements grew into cities containing thousands of people who were not primarily engaged in agriculture, creating a unified culture whose sudden appearance appears to have been the result of planned, deliberate effort. Some settlements appear to have been deliberately rearranged to conform to a conscious, well-developed plan. For this reason, the Indus Valley civilization is recognized as having first developed urban planning.

In ancient times, Romans used a consolidated scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes, as in Turin. The basic plan is a central plaza with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away sewage, even in sieges.

Modern city planning embraces the organization, or conscious influencing, of land-use distribution in an area already built-up or intended to become built-up. Many of the concepts of real-life Urban and City planning have been incorporated into the SimCity games.

Introduction to American Municipal Government
In the United States, municipalities such as cities, towns, or villages are the level of local government below that of the county (although many states also have civil townships which are a separate type of government below the county level but distinct from municipalities). Most U.S. municipalities are governed in one of two ways, Council-Manager government and Mayor-Council government. A third form, the City Commission government, was once common but has fallen out of favor.

A partial list of some of the more common rights and responsibilities of a municipality include:
 * The ability to require payment of taxes by entities (people and corporations) who own, use, occupy, or legally interact with other entities that own, use, or are legally located within the municipality's geographic boundaries;
 * The ability to create debt on behalf of the citizens, who are responsible for repayment of those debts;
 * The responsibility to enforce various federal, state, and municipal laws with a police force;
 * The responsibility to provide for civil defence and other special needs.

Municipal governments are usually divided into several administrative departments, depending on the size of the municipality. Though municipalities differ in the division of responsibility, the typical arrangement is to have the following departments handle the following roles:

 * Urban planning and zoning:
 * Public works: construction and maintenance of all municipality-owned or operated assets, including the water supply system, sewer, streets, snow removal, street signs, vehicles, buildings, land, etc.
 * Parks and recreation department: (construction and maintenance of) public parks, common areas, parkways, publicly owned lands and so on. Also, operation of various recreation programs and facilities. This department often operates as a regional entity with its own tax authority and governmental structure.
 * Police
 * Fire department
 * Accounting / Finance: collects taxes owed by the municipality, incorporates human resources department for municipal workers,
 * Legal: handles all legal matters including writing municipal bonds, verifying the municipality is in compliance with state and federal laws and mandates, and responding to citizen lawsuits where the municipality is a named party. Being named in a lawsuit may mean the municipality is a defendant, plaintiff, jointly with another entity or just by itself. Typical legal actions include: someone falling on publicly-owned sidewalks suing the municipality for negligence in failing to make the sidewalk safe to walk on; a municipality annexing land; etc.
 * Transport (varies widely): If the municipality has a public bus or light rail service, this function may be handled by its own department or it may be folded into another of the above departments or a special-purpose authority may be established to administer services applicable to multiple municipalities.

SimCity Concepts and Objectives
Many of the concepts used in modern urban planning, as well as municipal government, have been carried into SimCity. The objective of SimCity, as the name of the game suggests, is to build and design a city, without specific goals to achieve (except in the scenarios, which typically require the player to achieve a certain population or bank balance in a given period of time). The player can mark land as being zoned as commercial, industrial, or residential, add buildings, change the tax rate, build a power grid, build transportation systems and many other actions, in order to enhance the city. Also, the player can face disasters: flooding, tornadoes, fires, riots, earthquakes, etc. Later disasters included lightning strikes, volcanoes, meteors and attack by extra-terrestrial craft. In the Nintendo and later versions one can also build rewards when they are given to them, like the mayor's mansion and the casino for gambling Sims.

Basic SimCity concepts
In SimCity, there are a number of real life City Planning and Municipal government concepts to learn:

 * 1) Population: How many Sims are in a city
 * 2) Simoleans: Your money. You spend this whenever you do something.
 * 3) Taxes: Simoleans taken from your Sims on a yearly basis to replenish your City's Simoleans
 * 4) Ordinances: Various laws that can be enacted/repealed at anytime. Some give you money ("Legalized Gambling" allows gambling, however, all casinos have to pay you), others take money. They also have different effects on your population, and will make some happy and others mad.
 * 5) Tile: The basic unit of measure in SimCity. Also refers to the isometric "squares" in the game.
 * 6) Zone: This is where Sims will build. The three main types are Residential, Commercial, and Industrial. Each Zone has different effects: placing Dense Industrial next to a Light Residential will probably get some Sims angry about the intense dust.
 * 7) Transportation: A tile that allows Sims to get from one place to another. They are obviously connected to each other. People will only build a certain amount of Tiles from a transportation tile.


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Building Transportation

One of the most important aspects of urban planning, both in real life and in SimCity, is transportation.

The importance of Transport in Real-life Urban Planning
In urban planning, there is a direct, well-researched connection between the density of an urban environment, and the amount of transport into that environment. Good quality transport is often followed by development. Development beyond a certain density can quickly overcrowd transport.

Good planning attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transport. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-storey apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and four-lane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks further away.

Densities are usually measured as the floor area of buildings divided by the land area, or in a residential context, by the number of dwellings divided by the land area. Floor area ratios below 1.5 are low density. Plot ratios above five are very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centers are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. Higher densities tempt developers with higher profits. City authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provide adequate demand or funding for that infrastructure.

Automobiles are well suited to serve densities as high as 1.5 with basic limited-access highways. Innovations such as car-pool lanes and rush hour-use taxes may get automobiles to neighborhoods with plot ratios as high as 2.5.

Densities above 5 are well-served by trains. Most such areas were actually developed in response to trains in the middle 1800s, and have historically high ridership that have never used automobiles for their work trip.

A widespread problem is that there is a range of residential densities between about two and five that causes severe traffic jams of automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity are both available, achieving less than 1% ridership. Some theoreticians speculate that personal rapid transit might coax people from their automobiles, and yet effectively serve intermediate densities, but this has not been demonstrated. The Lewis-Mogridge Position claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion.

Transport in SimCity
These concepts of urban planning in real cities have been carried into the SimCity games. Roads, trains, subways, highways, bus systems, are all major forms of transportation, and are how your Sims will be able to get around your city. Like a real life mayor, or an urban planner, SimCity requires you to make a choice about which modes of transport are appropriate for your city. Similarly, there are consequences for your choices (for example, choosing roads in a high-density city, as with real life, will lead to traffic congestion and pollution).

In SC3K, look for the button with a picture of a road on it. That is the Transportation Menu. Click on it. Next to it, there will be some more buttons. Depending on which year you are in, you should be able to at least have Roads, Rail, and Rail Station. More options unlock as the years pass.

In SimCity 4, an expansion called SimCity 4 Rush Hour was released giving players additional transportation features other than the original options. On top of SimCity 4's street, road, elevated highways, subways, railways, seaports and airports, the expansion pack included new options. These were elevated railways (which could interlink with the subway network), monorail tracks, ferries (which could serve as an alternative to a bridge saving money) ground-based highways (which were cheaper than elevated ones if used appropriately) and avenues (a two lane dual-carriageway which interlinks smoothly with roads, streets and highways). The expansion pack also came with an option to view the region map in a different way; it marked all the different transportation links clearly.


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Preface

This Wiki-textbook is a guide to Urban Planning. It is hoped that this Wikibook will evolve into an introduction to the basic concepts of real-life Urban planning and Municipal government, as used in the SimCity games (with potential use in urban planning or civics classes).

Given the potential use of SimCity games in Urban Planning or Civics classes, this book will explain how various real-life Planning concepts have been incorporated into the game. For educators and students, this will allow this book to function as a 'study-guide' for courses which use SimCity to introduce basic concepts of Urban Planning and Design, as well as Municipal government (including Municipal fiscal management).

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Preface


text:
C++ Programming/Exercises/Standard IO

EXERCISE 1
The following challenge will help to reinforce what you've learned, and give you a springboard from which to start experimenting:

Write a simple program which, when run, asks the user for their name and age, and then displays this back to them. Sample input/output and possible wording are provided below:

Hello. What is your name? Hello,. How old are you?

is years old.

title: C++ Programming/Exercises/Standard IO


text:
C++ Programming/Programming Languages/C++/Code/Statements/Variables/Operators/Logical Operators

Relational operators
The operators < (less than), > (greater than), <= (less than or equal to), >= (greater than or equal to), == (equal to), and != (not equal to) are relational operators that are used to compare two values. Variables may be compared to another variable or to a literal.

The < operator checks if the first operand is less than the second operand. If the first operand is less than the second operand, returns true. Else returns false.

The > operator checks if the first operand is greater than the second operand. If the first operand is greater than the second operand, returns true. Else returns false.
 * Examples

The <= operator checks if the first operand is less than or equal t o the second operand. If the first operand is less than or equal to the second operand, returns true. Else returns false.
 * Examples

The >= operator checks if the firs t operand is g reater than or equal to the second operand. If the first operand is greater th an or equal to the second operand, returns true. Else returns false.
 * Examples

The == operator checks if th e first operan d is equal to the second operand. If the first operand is equal to the second operan d, returns true. Else returns false.
 * Examples

The != operator checks if the first operand is not equal to the second ope rand. If the first operand is not equa l to the secon d operand, returns true. Else returns false.
 * Examples

 * Examples

Logical operators
The operators and (can also be written as &&) and or (can also be written as ||) allow two or more conditions to be chained together. The and operator checks whether all conditions are true and the or operator checks whether at least one of the conditions is true. Both operators can also be mixed together in which case the order in which they appear from left to right, determines how the checks are performed. Older versions of the C++ standard used the keywords && and || in place of and and or. Both operators are said to short circuit. If a previous and condition is false, later conditions are not checked. If a previous or condition is true later conditions are not checked.

The <tt>not</tt> (can also be written as !) operator is used to return the inverse of one or more conditions.

 * Syntax:

condition1 and condition2 condition1 or condition2 not condition
 * Examples:

When something should not be true. It is often combined with other conditions. If x>5 but not x = 10, it would be written:

When all conditions must be true. If x must be between 10 and 20:

When at least one of the conditions must be true. If x must be equal to 5 or equal to 10 or less than 2:

When at least one of a group of conditions must be true. If x must be between 10 and 20 or between 30 and 40.

Things get a bit more tricky with more conditions. The trick is to make sure the parenthesis are in the right places to establish the order of thinking intended. However, when things get this complex, it can often be easier to split up the logic into nested if statements, or put them into bool variables, but it is still useful to be able to do things in complex boolean logic.

Parenthesis around <tt>x > 10</tt> and around <tt>x < 20</tt> are implied, as the <tt><</tt> operator has a higher precedence than <tt>and</tt>. First <tt>x</tt> is compared to 10. If <tt>x</tt> is greater than 10, <tt>x</tt> is compared to 20, and if <tt>x</tt> is also less than 20, the code is executed.

and (&&)
The logical AND operator, and, compares the left value and the right value. If both statement1 and statement2 are true, then the expression returns TRUE. Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

In this snippet, the if statement checks to see if var1 is greater than var2. Then, it checks if var2 is greater than var3. If it is, it proceeds by telling us that var1 is bigger than both var2 and var3.

or (||)
The logical OR operator is represented with or. Like the logical AND operator, it compares statement1 and statement2. If either statement1 or statement2 are true, then the expression is true. The expression is also true if both of the statements are true.

Let's take a look at the previous expression with an OR operator. If var1 is bigger than either var2 or var3 or both of them, the statements in the if expression are executed. Otherwise, the program proceeds with the rest of the code.

not (!)
The logical NOT operator, not, returns TRUE if the statement being compared is not true. Be careful when you're using the NOT operator, as well as any logical operator.

The logical expressions have a higher precedence than normal operators. Therefore, it compares whether "not x" is greater than 10. However, this statement always returns false, no matter what "x" is. That's because the logical expressions only return boolean values(1 and 0).


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Authors

 * Original Author: KirbyMeister
 * Principal Author:
 * Chief Contributor of Images:

Contributors
(In Alphabetical Order - please sign using four '~')

 * 4.72.0.3
 * 69.37.222.21
 * AmishThrasher 05:31, 22 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Andreas Ipp
 * Lynx7725
 * Poiuyt Man
 * PrezKennedy
 * Tewdrig
 * Mbrickn

Wikipedia
The following Wikipedia articles were used extensively for the initial content for this WikiBook:

 * SimCity
 * SimCity 2000
 * SimCity 3000
 * SimCity 4
 * SimCopter
 * SimHealth
 * Streets of SimCity

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Authors


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Glossary

There are fivemajor versions of SimCity, all created by Maxis.

The versions are:
 * SimCity
 * SimCity 2000
 * SimCity 3000
 * SimCity 4
 * SimCity (2013)

They are abbreviated as follows:
 * SC for the original game
 * SC2K for SimCity 2000
 * SC3K for SimCity 3000
 * SC4 for SimCity 4.
 * SC2013 or SC5 for SimCity (2013).

Game-related Terms

 * Ordinances: Various laws that can be enacted/repealed at anytime. Some give you money ("Legalized Gambling" allows gambling, however, all casinos have to pay you), others take money. They also have different effects on your population, and will make some happy and others mad.
 * Population: How many Sims are in a city
 * Simoleans: Your money. You spend this whenever you do something.
 * Taxes: Simoleans taken from your Sims on a yearly basis to replenish your City's Simoleans
 * Transportation: A tile that allows Sims to get from one place to another. They are obviously connected to each other. People will only build a certain amount of Tiles from a transportation tile.
 * Tile: The basic unit of measure in SimCity. Also refers to the isometric "squares" in the game.
 * Zone: This is where Sims will build. The three main types are Residential, Commercial, and Industrial. Each Zone has different effects: placing Dense Industrial next to a Light Residential will probably get some Sims angry about the intense dust.

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Glossary


text:
SimCity and Urban Planning/Bibliography

Wikipedia
The following Wikipedia articles were used extensively for the initial content for this WikiBook:

 * Fiscal policy
 * LinCity
 * Municipal government
 * SimCity
 * SimCity 2000
 * SimCity 3000
 * SimCity 4
 * SimCopter
 * SimHealth
 * Streets of SimCity
 * Urban planning
 * Urban Infrastructure
 * Zoning

title: SimCity and Urban Planning/Bibliography


text:
Mass Media/Authors

 * Original Author: AmishThrasher 06:29, 22 September 2005 (UTC)
 * Principal Author:
 * Chief Contributor of Images:

Contributors
(In Alphabetical Order - please sign using four '~')
 * Mbrickn (discuss • contribs) 05:34, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

Wikipedia
The following Wikipedia articles were used as a basis for material used in this book:
 * Mass media

title: Mass Media/Authors


text:
Mass Media/Preface

This is a Wikibooks textbook about the Mass Media. The intention of this project is to create an open-source resource under the GNU Free Documentation License which would be suitable for use in a university or high school Media Studies class.

title: Mass Media/Preface


text:
Mass Media/Introduction

H. Lasswell's definition of communication is "who says what to whom by what means and to what effect."

The three functions of media are to entertain, inform, and persuade.

There are four types of communication: intra-personal (daydreams and internal monologues), interpersonal (discussion in small groups), group (discussion with large groups, such as public speaking), and mass (technology-driven communication with thousands or millions of people). The system of communication which brings news and entertainment to the populace at large through books, newspapers, radio, television, and the Internet is called the "Mass Media."

The Mass Media is playing an increasingly large role in our everyday lives. The term mass media is mainly used by academics and media-professionals. When members of the general public refer to "the media" they are usually referring to the mass media, or to the news media, which is a section of the mass media.

Mass media is a term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience (typically at least as large as the whole population of a nation state). It was coined in the 1920s with the advent of nationwide radio networks and of mass-circulation newspapers and magazines. The mass-media audience has been viewed by some commentators as forming a mass society with special characteristics, notably atomization or lack of social connections, which render it especially susceptible to the influence of modern mass media techniques such as advertising and propaganda.

The mass media system has controls: media monitors whom ensure that bad messages are cut down or eliminated. These include regulators (such as the FCC), pressure groups (such as the Catholics, whose power is leveraged through boycotts), and gatekeepers, such as editors, directors, and corporate moguls like Rupert Murdoch. A classic example of a gatekeeper exercising control was when NBC fired Phil Donohue over ideological differences.

Another control is perceived public opinion. For example, the press doesn't like to run photos of the dead or injured from war, for fear of public outrage.

title: Mass Media/Introduction


text:
Movie Making Manual/Stills Photography

=Introduction=

Stills photography involves taking photos of the filmmaking process. These are often used for promoting the film and as a documentary record. This area of film production is often overlooked on smaller budget films or some photographs are taken by members of the crew, but for promotional and documentary uses; good quality and professional images are a must. If the film budget can't stretch to a professional photographer, many photographers will do work to use in their portfolios, and for the experience.

Alternative names
 * Production stills
 * Unit stills

=Equipment= Both film and digital have their respective advantages and disadvantages. Digital photography provides instant results, and combining this with a notebook computer means the results can be viewed instantly by the photographer, crew and cast. The choice often comes down to personal preference, but is sometimes dictated by the stills photographer's brief. Medium and large format cameras are often used for a higher quality image although 35mm is usually sufficient, and is often used for speed and ease of use. Large format cameras - considered superior in terms of image quality - is a slower medium, and often hard to use on a busy set. Generally the equipment will suit the type of shots required. If the shots are "reportage" style, then 35mm is advantageous. High-quality cast / set shots can be taken on medium/large especially for very large poster/billboard reproductions.

=Publishing stills photos online=

If you have your own webspace then it's very easy to install a free gallery package and publish your photos online. Some excellent free gallery packages include:

 * Gallery
 * Coppermine Photo Gallery

Examples of production stills

 * Skip Bolen - Movie Stills Photographer
 * Scott Krycia - Movie Stills Photographer
 * Kelly Kruschel - Movie Stills Photographer
 * Bernadette Truell - Unit Stills Photographer
 * Ed Araquel - Commercial, Gallery & Unit Stills Photographer
 * Behind the Scenes with Jason Boland, Movie Stills Photographer
 * Jack Kelly's film production stills gallery
 * FiN Photography, Norma Masip still photographer
 * Alex Bailey - Movie Stills Photographer
 * Michael Moriatis - Unit Stills Photographer
 * Angus Young - UK Production Stills Photographer
 * Terry Thomas - Atlanta-based Unit Stills Photographer

title: Movie Making Manual/Stills Photography


text:
Category:Book:Ada Programming/FAQ

|Ada programming language -> |Ada Programming-> FAQ

Ada Programming modules containing an answer to a frequently asked question.

|FAQ

title: Category:Book:Ada Programming/FAQ


text:
Consciousness Studies/BioPsychoSociology

This brief summary is an illustration of an attempt to model a multidisciplinary biopsychosocial (bps) understanding of self-consciousness seen from the perspective of both scientific methodology and metaphysical logic where the empirical and the inferential provide a seamless blend of the ontological brain with the epistemological mind.

The achievement of self consciousness is the crucial mental state allowing the human species to monitor the equilibrium state of biopsychosocial ongoing contingencies especially when confronting life-threatening circumstances. The inherited proto-semantics and acquired language guide the required recursive co-generation of the appropriate language and thought to meet the contingency. Thus informed, it allows humans to elaborate effective adaptive short and long range responses.

Definition of terms
Bps model uses some unusual definitions of terms. These are explained below.

"Sense-phenomenal awareness" is defined as an unconscious, life-preserving, adaptive reflex response which may occur without qualia. It originates at a sensory receptor, wherever located in the body economy, and ends at an effector organ, glandular or muscular. - Phenomenal consciousness/awareness is a term normally reserved for experience containing qualia in other analyses.

System/network "awareness" is defined in the bps model as that unconscious processing occurring during the integration of the participating neural network modules leading to a stereotyped adaptive response. - normally awareness is defined as knowledge that a conscious state is present.

Sense-phenomenal awareness may become a conscious experience when relevant inferential networks (e.g., memory, emotions, etc.)are subsequently accessed, including inner-language processors. When experiences are recalled the qualia that arise are called "conceptual qualia".

"Access consciousness" is described as being initially an unconscious process that makes it possible for a life-preserving, reflex-driven and 'unconscious' sense-phenomenal state of mind to become conscious by making use of available, pertinent and concurrent mental states to interact with the novel sense-phenomenal input, a potentially life-threatening event.

"Proto-linguistic organ" or 'plo' is described as the first line of defense to guard against life-threatening stimuli arising from sense-phenomenal inputs (external, visceral or proprioceptive). Housed in the amygdaloidal complex, it represents the inherited proto-semantic (primitive 'meanings') database responsible for activating the corresponding unconscious fight/flight adaptive Cannon effector response.

"Proto-semantic" input from plo is described as a required initial participant in the subsequent recursive co-generation of inner language and thought as may be required in the eventual elaboration of "conceptual consciousness".

Higher order consciousness theory
The 'bps' model of 'consciousness' is a high order consciousness theory in which an unconscious, non inferential phenomenal state (established from either online sensory receptor input or offline memory input), when confronting a novel life-threatening event, triggers an initially unconscious access intermediate stage where relevant modular networks are incorporated including Broca's language processor recursively co-generating in the process the 'inner language' narrative state and accompanying thought, a conscious high order mental state, all of which causally precedes (or is simultaneous with) the adaptive response (if any, as we see in dreams).

Notice that bps considers phenomenal states to be non-conscious, this would confuse the ordinary reader who expects the Kantian term "phenomenal" to be equivalent to the term "conscious experience". Only the higher order mental state is regarded as "conscious".

The 'bps' model basically describes two co-existing, ongoing mental states, one non-inferential subconscious 'gut feeling' inner sense (BOP, a variant of Lycan's 1996 HOP) and an initially non-inferential unconscious accessing of narrative pathways leading to (recursive co-generation of 'inner language' and thought is an open option) the eventual production of higher order thought (HOT) whose content is the feeling that oneself is the subject of self-consciousness.

In other words, according to the 'bps' theory, feelings are not part of consciousness until higher order thought occurs, i.e., qualia needs a context.

In 'bps' theory not even self-consciousness, of which 'qualia' may arguably be considered a subset of, has revealed its constitutive secrets. This means that bps is a theory of brain processing rather than a theory of the content of consciousness (qualia) or consciousness itself except when it ventures into the postulate that language and self-consciousness are recursively co-generated or co-causal. More controversial is the mediation of the amygdaloid complex (plo) in providing inherited primitive 'meanings' (protosemantic codelets) to initiate Chomskian language processing and thought co-generation, i.e., protosemantics precedes syntax structuring. For a more complete exposition see:

Further Reading: http://delaSierra-Sheffer.net For a quantum field perspective see also: http://www.biopsychosociology.org http://spaces.msn.com/angelldls/


text: Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Aplet Commands


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Branch Commands

IF
Syntax IF THEN : ELSE :END: Or for "nesting" IF statements: IF THEN : ELSE IF THEN : ELSE :END: ELSE :END: Or for running IF such that no action is performed should the test be false: IF THEN : ELSE END:

Detail
 * IF statements are a set of commands used to test certain equations or inequations. If the result is "true", then a set of actions are performed. If not, no action is performed, or a different set of actions are performed as per ELSE.
 * Tests can be combined with AND or OR.

Example PROMPT A: IF A==0 THEN MSGBOX "You entered zero.": ELSE MSGBOX "You didn't enter zero.":END: This is a basic example, only checking for one result. Here's a more complex one, although multiple IF...THEN statements are usually best replaced with CASE. PROMPT A: IF A==0 THEN MSGBOX "You entered zero.": ELSE IF A>0 THEN MSGBOX "You entered a positive number.": ELSE END:ELSE IF A<0 THEN MSGBOX "You entered a negative number." ELSE END:ELSE END: Note that the additional "ELSE IF" commands displayed are not actually commands per se. What is actually happening is that the result of the previous test, when evaluated as "false", moves on to the ELSE result, where it encounters IF, telling it to start another IF statement. This is what the "ELSE END" commands do - they close off the secondary statements nested within the original statement.

CASE
Syntax CASE IF THEN : END ... END:

Detail CASE is the command that is used in the place of multiple statements.

The best way of describing this is with a flowchart, seen right. Compare to the lower IF flowchart, and you can see how the CASE command is more efficient when there is more than one option.

Example CASE is especially useful when accepting input from a CHOOSE list. For example: 1?A:CHOOSE A; "FAVOURITE APPLE?"; "Granny Smith"; "Golden Delicious"; "Pink Lady": CASE IF A==1 THEN MSGBOX "Granny Smiths are my favourite, too!": END IF A==2 THEN MSGBOX "Golden Delicious apples are OK, too.": END IF A==3 THEN MSGBOX "Bleh, I can't stand Pink Ladies!": END END: MSGBOX "Program finished.":

The first five lines initiate the CHOOSE menu. Of particular note is the 1?A at the start, this sets the default value of the menu to 1 (ie. the first option) and thus ensures that the menu operates correctly (if the value of A begins as outside the acceptable value for the menu, the highlighting will not operate correctly).

CASE initiates the CASE statement. You can then see three branches of this statement; one for each of the three menu options specified in CHOOSE. The basic syntax is: CASE IF THEN END IF THEN END ... END: Importantly (and counter-intuitively), the END at the end of an IF/THEN/END statement within CASE does not contain a full-colon at the end of it! However, the final END completing the CASE does require one.

You should be familiar with the MSGBOXs in each action set, these are a simple way of displaying text in a dialog and FREEZEing at the same time. The final MSGBOX is included to demonstrate what happens once the command completes; it skips to the final END:, so if you had somehow tricked the program into giving a non-valid answer (ie. changing the input for A) the program would just display the final MSGBOX. The same happens after the appropriate clause has been run for A==?.

RUN
Syntax RUN "": Detail Dangers Example This program is called "INFINITE". MSGBOX "You can't escape!": RUN "INFINITE": It should be noted that you can "escape", just press ON - this usually cancels the current command from running and this feature is designed specifically to allow users to cancel programs stuck in an infinite loop due to a programming error or malicious intent by the software author.
 * Ceases running the current program, and runs  instead.
 * You can self-reference using this command, creating an infinite loop.
 * The program name you reference is case-sensitive; that is, "ProGramNaME" is not the same as "programname".

STOP
Syntax STOP: Detail Example This program is called "EXAMPLE". MSGBOX "Want to exit? 1 = yes, 0 = no.": PROMPT A: IF A==1 THEN STOP: ELSE RUN "EXAMPLE": This command is practically self-explanatory.
 * Exits the program immediately. Compare it to BREAK.


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Drawing Commands

Important note
The drawing commands are somewhat confusing in that they reference parts of the 'plot', not parts of the physical screen.

It is intuitive to assume that (knowing that the screen is 131x64 pixels wide, and that the calculator references points by a Cartesian-like system) a pixel at (1,1) will always be the most bottom-right pixel on the screen.

However, this is not the case. (1,1) is the pixel at (1,1) on the infinite 'plot'. This means that it will only be the bottom-right pixel, as expected, when the plot is set to the dimensions 1?X?131 and 1?Y?64. This can be done by setting the (X/Y)(MIN/MAX) commands to appropriate values: 1?XMIN:131?XMAX: 1?YMIN:64?YMAX: Adding this code to the start of your program will set the calculator's plot size to these specifications automatically, ensuring smooth operation of your program. However, upon the program's completion, any graph the user might have set up will be displayed on a (presumably) incorrect plotsize, which may frustrate the user. You could work around this like follows: XMIN?A:XMAX?B: YMIN?C:YMAX?D: 1?XMIN:131?XMAX: 1?YMIN:64?YMAX: A?XMIN:B?XMAX: C?YMIN:D?YMAX Of course, this adds bloat to the program somewhat, but will resolve the problem as long as you don't use the variables you selected in the program for other purposes. An alternate method would be to store the values in a list.

ARC
Syntax ARC ;; ; ; : Detail Dangers 1?HAngle: Example ARC 65;32;15;0;360: Draws a full circle of radius 15px, from the center of the screen.
 *  and  are the x- and y-coordinates of the center of the arc.
 * is simply the radius of the arc.
 * is the starting angle of the arc, and the finishing angle.
 * Angles are measured mathematically, that is, the same as the unit circle; with 0° being the equivalent of due east on the compass, not due north, and counter-clockwise being the positive direction.
 * The ARC command utilises the current angle mode for arguments and . Therefore, if you design your arcs using degrees, it may be wise to set the angle mode to degrees programmatically like so:
 * Alternately, an HAngle value of 2 or 3 can be used to set the calculator in radians or grads, respectively.
 * The ARC command is particularly slow, so if you need to draw extensively, it may be wise (although time-consuming) to use MAKEGROB.

ARC 65;32;15;10;80: ARC 65;32;15;100;170: ARC 65;32;15;190;260: ARC 65;32;15;280;350: Draws a full circle comprised of four arcs, but the circle is missing a arc of 20° at each cardinal point. Represented more concisely using a loop: FOR X=0 TO 270 STEP 90; ARC 65;32;15;10+X;80+X: END:

BOX
Syntax BOX ;;;: Detail Example BOX 1;1;131;64: Draws a box around the border of the screen.
 * (,) are the coordinates of the box's starting corner.
 * (,) are the coordinates of the corner that completes the box.
 * There are no limitations on the corners used, as long as they are binary opposites, that is top-left and bottom-right or bottom-left and top-right. Additionally, the order they are used in is not significant.

BOX 1;1;131;64: BOX 2;2;130;63: Draws a border 2 pixels thick around the screen. More concisely: FOR X=0 TO 1; BOX 1+X;1+X;131-X;64-X: END: This allows you to easily adjust the thickness of your border by simply adjusting the FOR command; for "FOR X= TO Z" the border will always be (Z-1) pixels thick.

ERASE
Syntax ERASE: Detail
 * Erases the contents of the screen, as simple as that.
 * Adding ERASE: before any of the drawing commands is usually a good idea to prevent the program from drawing over the programs catalog, or any other view that the user happens to be in at the time.

FREEZE
Syntax FREEZE: Detail
 * Stops the program, and waits for a keypress to continue.
 * Use it after you finish your drawing commands, so that the user has time to look at the screen!

LINE
Syntax LINE ;;;: Detail Example LINE 1;1;131;64: LINE 1;64;131;1: Draws a cross across the screen.
 * Draws a line from point (<x-start>,<y-start>) to point (<x-end>,<y-end>).

PIXON/PIXOFF
Syntax PIXON <x>;<y>: PIXOFF <x>;<y>: Detail Dangers Example FOR X=1 TO 131 STEP 1; FOR Y=64 TO 1 STEP -1; PIXON X;Y: END:END: FOR X=131 TO 1 STEP -1; FOR Y=1 TO 64 STEP 1; PIXOFF X;Y: END:END: Fills the screen with pixels from left-to-right, top-to-bottom, then reverses the process.
 * Turns the pixel at (<x>,<y>) on or off.
 * PIXON and PIXOFF are reasonably fast, but when inside a FOR loop (see below), can be appreciably slow. If you want to do something like a 'pretend' loading bar (or even a real one if it's applicable), you should use LINE or TLINE as they are faster.

TLINE
Syntax TLINE <x-start>;<y-start>;<x-end>;<y-end>: Detail Example ERASE: DISPLAY? G1: GROBNOT G1: ?DISPLAY G1: TLINE 1;1;131;64: TLINE 1;64;131;1: Draws a cross in white across the screen, after turning on all the pixels. Therefore, it acts the same as: ERASE: LINE 1;1;131;64: LINE 1;64;131;1: DISPLAY? G1: GROBNOT G1: ?DISPLAY G1:
 * Same as LINE, except the command performs a slightly different task - instead of turning a line of pixels on, it toggles them. That is to say, if all the pixels you're drawing across are off already (say you just used ERASE:), it will function as a regular LINE, but if there are already pixels turned on, it will turn those off, and conversely turn off pixels on.


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Graphic Commands

DISPLAY→
Syntax DISPLAY→ : Detail Example DISPLAY→ G1: ERASE:WAIT 2: →DISPLAY G1: FREEZE: Stores the display in GROB G1, clears the screen, waits two seconds, then reloads the display on the screen and pauses. (Effectively useless without other graphic commands).
 * Stores the display in GROB . (Note that the arrow is going out of DISPLAY.)
 * Usually used to generate GROBs on which to perform additional graphic commands.

→DISPLAY
Syntax →DISPLAY : Detail Example See example for DISPLAY→.
 * Sends GROB to the display. (Note that the arrow is going in to DISPLAY.)
 * Usually used to output GROBs to the display after altering them using other graphic commands.

GROBNOT
Syntax GROBNOT : Detail Example ERASE: DISPLAY→ G0: GROBNOT G0: →DISPLAY G0: FREEZE: This program will erase the screen (ie. turn all pixels OFF), then invert the colours (ie. turn all pixels ON), giving you a black screen.
 * Inverts the colors in GROB, that is, switches all ON pixels OFF and vice-versa.
 * Could be used to select buttons, for example, but is generally too slow for this purpose.

MAKEGROB
Syntax MAKEGROB ; : Detail Table detailing pixel patterns created by using different hex digits.
 * Allows you to make a custom grob, pixel-by-pixel using hexadecimal.
 * Much faster than regular drawing commands, so if you have the time to write your GROBs manually, it's strongly recommended. However, it does usually increase the size of the program far more than just using other drawing commands, although this does not affect compile time - so you need to decide which is more important, program size or program speed.
 * Each hexadecimal digit (a number between 0-9, or a letter between A-F) represents a four-digit binary number, which in turn represents four pixels on the screen (where 1 is on and 0 is off). The following table illustrates the pixel on/off sequences produced by each hex digit:
 * The syntax is quite counter-intuitive; the grob name (G0 for example) comes first, followed by a semicolon and a space, then the width and height measurements for the grob, separated by spaces (rather than the usual semicolons). After that, a new line must be created, and the hex-data begins, which is finally ended with the regular :. No newlines must be created whilst typing the hex-data, although the calculator will naturally wrap the data onto the next line anyway.
 * Useful tip: To generate the MAKEGROB code for the entire screen, use other methods to draw the image you desire (eg. SKETCH mode), then press ON+PLOT to save a screenshot to G0. Now, go into HOME view and enter G0, then hit ENTER. Finally, select the text that has just appeared starting with MAKEGROB, and press F5 (COPY), then hit ENTER again. The code is now stored in the Editline program, and you can insert it into any other program by pressing VARS, scrolling down to Programs, selecting Editline, pressing F4 (VALUE), and pressing F6 (OK).
 * Another idea is to crop this grob using SUB to create a sub-GROB, then typing the variable name (eg. G1) for the cropped GROB in HOME view. Use the above procedure to copy this MAKEGROB code into your program, and you will be able to save substantial amounts of space in the program that would otherwise have been taken up by 0s or other erroneous data. If only the calculator had some form of RLE..

Example MAKEGROB G1; 12 12 FFF10810899999910850A999168108FFF:

■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■□□□□□□□□□□■ ■□□□□□□□□□□■ ■□□■■□□■■□□■ ■□□■■□□■■□□■ ■□□□□□□□□□□■ ■□■□□□□□□■□■ ■□□■■□□■■□□■ ■□□□□■■□□□□■ ■□□□□□□□□□□■ ■■■■■■■■■■■■ The above MAKEGROB code translated into the creation of the GROB roughly approximated by the ASCII sketch above.


text: Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Loop Commands


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Matrix Commands

EDITMAT
Syntax EDITMAT : Detail Example MSGBOX "This program multiplies two matrices.": MSGBOX "Please enter the first matrix.": EDITMAT M1: MSGBOX "Please enter the second matrix.": EDITMAT M2: M1*M2?M3: MSGBOX "The result of the multiplication is stored in M3." This program will multiply two matrices, as detailed in the MSGBOX commands.
 * Opens the edit matrix screen, allowing the user to input data into a matrix. can be one of the ten matrix variables from M0 to M9.
 * Essentially the same as PROMPT - but used for matrix input.

RANDMAT
Syntax RANDMAT ;<#rows>;<#columns>: Detail Example RANDMAT M1;50;50: Makes a really big matrix filled with random integers that wastes a fair bit of your calculator's memory, as well as drains the batter power writing all that info to memory. Useful!
 * Generates a matrix in variable of size <#rows> x <#columns>, setting each element to a random integer (apparently) from -9 to 9, inclusive.
 * Essentially the same as PROMPT - but used for matrix input.

SCALE
Note: This information was obtained via trial and error and may be incorrect, pending verification. Splintax 12:57, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Syntax SCALE ; ; : Detail Example 1,2],[3,4 |STO| M1: SCALE M1;5;1: EDITMAT M1: Generates the 2x2 matrix with [1 2] on the top and [3 4] on the bottom row, then multiplies the top row (row 1) by 5 to make it [5 10].
 * Multiplies all elements in the row of matrix by scalar.

SCALEADD
Note: This information was obtained via trial and error and may be incorrect, pending verification. Splintax 13:03, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Syntax SCALEADD ; ; ; : Detail Example 1,2],[3,4 |STO| M1: SCALEADD M1;5;1;2: EDITMAT M1: Generates the 2x2 matrix with [1 2] on the top and [3 4] on the bottom row, then adds the top row multiplied by 5 (that is, [5 10]) to the bottom row to produce [8 14].
 * Adds each element of, multiplied by , to each element of.


text: Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Print Commands


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Prompt Commands

BEEP
Syntax BEEP ; : Detail
 * Uses the calculator's piezoelectric beeper to beep at a frequency of Hz for seconds.

Example INT(RANDOM*9+1)?R: MSGBOX "Guess the number between 1 and 10." WHILE A?R REPEAT PROMPT A: IF A==R THEN BEEP 400;.2: BEEP 600;.5: MSGBOX "You win!": STOP: ELSE BEEP 600;.2: BEEP 400;.5: IF A>R THEN MSGBOX "Lower..": ELSE MSGBOX "Higher..": ELSE END: ELSE END:END: This program generates a random number from 1 to 10, and prompts the user for a guess. If the user guesses correctly, the calculator beeps twice with rising pitch (typical "correct" sound). Otherwise, it beeps twice with lowering pitch (typical "wrong" sound), and tells the user if the answer is higher or lower than what they specified.

CHOOSE
Syntax CHOOSE ; ""; ""; ""; ... "": Detail
 * Allows the user to select from a set of options given on the screen.
 * After two ;s, CHOOSE starts allocating spaces on the on-screen menu and assigning values to those spaces. Therefore, in the syntax example,  would have a value of 1 - if it were selected, would be set to 1.
 * This option is best used in conjunction with CASE to define the effect of each option.

Dangers
 * CHOOSE starts with the current value of as the item selected. Therefore, it will be impossible to use the menu should the variable have a value that is not a positive integer, or is greater than the number of options.
 * A simple workaround for the following is always inserting 1? at the start of the CHOOSE command, to ensure that the first option is selected by default.

DISP
Syntax DISP ;" ": Detail Dangers
 * Displays on line number (1 to 7).
 * Although there is room for 8 lines after an ERASE, setting as less than 1, non-integer, or more than 7 will result in the text simply not printing (no error message).
 * DISPXY is able to handle printing on the "8th line", should you require more room.
 * DISP erases the contents of the entire line that it is about to print on, regardless of whether or not pixels have already been drawn in that area. Therefore, you should always use DISP first, should you intend to draw over it. DISPXY corrects this problem to a degree, although use of it still results in some whitespace being forced over your drawing.
 * This can be used to your advantage should you wish to blank out a certain line of text, simply use DISP ;" ":. This can be advantageous as it will obfuscate your code (if you want to limit the alterations people make to your code), and because it is much faster than any other method (although it allows the least control).

Example ERASE:DISP 1;"Hello World!": FREEZE: Displays the ubiquitous "Hello World" on the first line on the screen, after erasing the screen, and freezes the program at the end so that the user has time to read the message.

1?A:1?B:ERASE: FOR X=1 TO 500; A+B?C:B?A:C?B: B/A?P: DISP 1;B":"A: DISP 2;P: Advanced: Approximates phi using the ratio between increasing Fibonacci numbers. The ability of DISP to erase the line before displaying its payload creates an interesting-looking "reiterative" effect.

DISPTIME
Syntax DISPTIME: Detail Example This program is called "TimeUtils". 1?M:CHOOSE M; "Display time"; "Set time": CASE IF M==1 THEN DISPTIME:STOP:END IF M==2 THEN MSGBOX "Hour? (24h time)": PROMPT H: MSGBOX "Minute?": PROMPT M: H+M/100?TIME: MSGBOX "Set. Date?": PROMPT D: MSGBOX "Month?": PROMPT M: MSGBOX "Year?": PROMPT Y: D+M/100+Y/1000?DATE: MSGBOX "Set.":RUN "TimeUtils":END END: This program is a multi-function application that allows you to both display and edit (correct) the current time. Most of it should be self-explanatory, given the information about the DATE and TIME variables in Details.
 * Displays the date and time in a message box.
 * The time is stored in the TIME and DATE real variables.
 * TIME syntax: hh.mmss (with hh in 24-hour time). For example, 2:30PM is 14.3000. Since the variable is an integer, the 0s at the end actually go on for 13 characters; this is because the TIME variable actually stores fractions of seconds, too. (Thus you could set 1PM as just 13, or 12:05:30.136 as 12.0530136.)
 * DATE syntax: mm.ddyyyy. For example, 21st September, 2005 is 9.212005.

EDITMAT
See EDITMAT under the matrix commands section for information on this command.

FREEZE
Syntax FREEZE: Detail
 * Pauses the running of the program, waiting for input from a key.
 * Best used after using drawing commands, or else the drawings will disappear from the screen straight away.
 * For the readers who know more advanced programming languages, it is the same as GETKEY, but it does not return a value to the calculator (ie. cannot detect which key was pressed).

MSGBOX
Syntax MSGBOX " ": Detail Example PROMPT A: MSGBOX "You entered "A".":
 * The simplest way of displaying a message on screen, requiring only the text to be displayed; however, this is its weakness - it offers almost no control.
 * Automatically incorporates a FREEZE, that is, you need to press a key to get out of the MSGBOX.


text: Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Stat Commands


text:
Programming HP Calculators/Commands/Easter Egg Commands

AMIGOS
Syntax AMIGOS: Details
 * Displays a crossword of people associated with the development of the calculator.

DEMO
Syntax DEMO: Details
 * Gives a demo of all the features of your calculator.

HELPWITH
Syntax HELPWITH : Details
 * Displays help for the command . It is useful when teaching oneself programming, although not useful in programs themselves.

LIBEVAL
Syntax LIBEVAL ; : Details
 * This command allows access to libraries on the calculator. Not many libraries or objects are known, but a short list is provided here:
 * 2;0: Shows you the sources from all the commands of the menu math.
 * 2;149: This command allows the finding of new functions of math.

RULES
Syntax RULES: Details
 * Displays a crossword of the calculator's developers.

SYSEVAL
Syntax SYSEVAL : Details Dangers
 * Can access many functions of the calculator that are otherwise hidden. A short list of some of the working values for is provided below:
 * 171591 A piece of left-over code for 39g users.
 * 151587 Puts the keyboard in ALPHA mode.
 * 151607 Puts the keyboard again in his normal state.
 * 19027 Turns the calculator off.
 * 258091 Let you receive Aplets, Notes, Programmes, lists, matrices from in the homescreen.
 * 258092 Let you send Aplets, Notes, Programmes, lists, matrices from in the homescreen. This function doesn't work well.
 * 258960 Gives the version of METAKERNEL in a grob.
 * 259723 Makes some new menus that surely comes from METAKERNEL.
 * 260385 Tetris for the 39g users.
 * 260387 Dynablaster for the 39/40g users. Press DEL to get out of it.
 * 260243 Built-in Filer for 39/40g users.
 * 259588 + X Clear list X. To clarify, clearing list 0 (L0) would be SYSEVAL 259588, list 1 SYSEVAL 259589, list 2 SYSEVAL 259590 and so on.
 * If you use an incorrect address, there is a high chance that your calculator's memory will be cleared. Be careful while using this command!

VERSION
Syntax VERSION: Details
 * Gives the ROM version of your calculator.

WSLOG
Syntax WSLOG: Details
 * Shows the calculator log.


text: Category:User perl

title: Category:User perl


text: Category:User ada

title: Category:User ada


text:
Category:Spelt recipes

Recipes involving spelt.

title: Category:Spelt recipes


text:
Rhetoric and Composition/Oral Presentations

Oral presentations use many of the same techniques that are used in rhetorical writing. Planning your topic, researching, editing, reviewing, and revision are all important steps in producing a good oral presentation; the same as they are when writing an essay or research paper.

The best way to ensure that your speech is a success is to have enthusiasm for your topic and to give yourself adequate time to develop that enthusiasm into a workable talk.

Introduction
Once your topic has been decided upon and research is underway, it's time to think about how you plan to present your information.

Preparation
Of the several angles that need to be addressed in regards to delivering a speech, the most important thing to keep in mind is, "Who is my audience?" Never underestimate the importance of knowing your audience.

If you're planning to present information about new advances in interactive role-playing games on the Internet to a group of senior citizens, chances are you will need to use different terminology and examples than you would with a college-age audience composed of aspiring Software Engineers. If your audience can't understand what you're trying to say, you'll find it much harder to accomplish your objective.

This brings us to consideration number two: what is the purpose of your speech? Is it a call to action? Strictly to inform? To persuade? Just as you will adjust your language for various audiences, so will you use different rhetorical strategies to achieve different goals.

In tandem with keeping your information audience-appropriate and on topic, your decision to use visual aids such as Powerpoint, charts, or any kind of props (in the case of demonstration presentations) will have a sizable impact on your audience, and as such should be given careful thought.

A question that you may want to ask yourself is, "How do I want to present the information?" You might want to give a bare-bones speech, have a Powerpoint presentation, or use exhibits to add character to your information. You also may ask, "How much information can I present in the allotted amount of time?" Sometimes starting a speech with something everyone can relate to helps to ease in the audience and make them more interested in what you will be discussing. Be sure to "trim the fat" off of your presentation if you are strapped for time. If you are running far over the amount of time that you have been allotted, you may need to re-assess your information and further narrow your scope. One of the most important things you should ask yourself is, "What ideas and thoughts do I want to leave the audience with?" These are the key points that you want to center your presentation around.

Knowing your audience gives you the key to gain and hold their attention, which is a central task for any presenter. Use your knowledge of the audience's demographics to draw them into the presentation from the very first sentence. By knowing what sorts of examples and illustrations you can use to make the contents of your presentation relevant and interesting, you have unlocked the door to understanding and persuasion.

Ways of Beginning a Speech
When you begin your presentation, you want the audience to feel interested and invested in what you have to share. The more interested you get them right off the bat, the more they are going to pay attention throughout the rest of the presentation. This can be done in a multitude of ways, but it is important to remember to keep your introduction relatively short; wordy introductions can lose your audience before you actually get to the speech itself. It is also important to remember that whatever opening line you choose, you must connect it to the content of your speech.

The use of quotations is a tried-and-true way of introducing a subject—if it is done correctly. Here is an example using Albert Einstein:

Startling statistics might help to open the eyes of your audience. Here is an example concerning incarceration rates:

Sharing a personal experience is an effective, but risky way of opening an oral presentation. Use this option only if it's the right fit for your audience. For example, if you are presenting to a group of Video Game Design students at your school on the topic of fun game play elements, you might use a personal experience like this:

Using a joke to start a presentation is often a good idea. You just better hope that your audience thinks it's funny! In most cases, this means keep your joke clean. Also, try to make the joke pertain to the subject you are presenting on. Here is an example that you might use when doing a presentation on football:

If the presentation is more formal, you may just want to give an overview of the main topics you will cover in your speech. Here is an example using college dropouts:

Methods of Presenting Your Speech
When it comes time to present your speech, there are several methods of delivery to choose from. In most cases, your subject matter will be the main criteria for deciding whether to read verbatim, memorize your script, or work from cue cards. In the case of a scholarly presentation with an extensive amount of detail, you may choose to write out your speech and deliver it as written. If your goal is to persuade your audience through high-energy speaking and eloquent prose, you may choose to script and memorize your argument. When introducing an informal topic with which you are familiar, you may find that index cards and an outline will suffice. No matter which way you choose to present your speech, you need to be prepared!

Written preparation can include notecards or a fully spelled-out speech. In any case, it is essential that as a speaker, you provide clear talking points and transitions for your audience. When you write an essay, your audience or readers have the advantage of clearly seeing your paragraph, section, and page breaks; when you speak to an audience, you must recreate this experience verbally. To provide a recent example, President Barack Obama is known for numbering his extemporaneous responses to questions from the press or during election debates. When outlining a proposed solution, he will clearly mark its steps with one, two, and three. This rhetorical strategy is effective in helping his audience easily follow his logic and responses; though you can opt to use transitions that are somewhat more subtle, never forget that your audience cannot see the progression of your argument and you must visually outline it for them.

Manuscript Speaking
Writing the content of your speech out word for word may be appropriate for certain situations. For instance, when you are presenting critical facts or statistics, having the data at your fingertips helps to prevent errors. While misquoting information might sound like a minor offense, under certain circumstances it can have grave repercussions, such as being sued for slander. Though in most cases incorrect information will only confuse your listeners and embarrass you, it's good to remember that such mistakes won't be tolerated in many professions, including law and politics.

The drawback to a scripted speech is that the audience will almost certainly know that you are reading word for word. This has several drawbacks, including decreased eye contact and stilted delivery, both of which leech power away from your presentation and tend to create a feeling of disconnect between the listeners and the speaker.

If giving a manuscript speech is necessary, practice is the best way to avoid a bad presentation. By reading your speech aloud several times, you will become more comfortable with the rhythm and inflections of your writing. Make sure that you are thinking about where and when you can make eye contact with your audience to underscore your points and add emphasis to important parts of your speech. Particularly with a written speech, you can add visual cues to your speech to remind you when to look up or emphasize a certain point.

Memorized Speaking
When a presenter memorizes a speech, it's basically a manuscript speech minus the paper. Memorizing a speech can improve eye contact with an audience. Body language may also improve because the speaker has more freedom to move about the area, since papers/notes will not be used.

A problem posed by memorizing a speech arises when the presenter forgets the speech. This can cause an embarrassing, awkward situation and make the speaker appear inept. Plus, the speaker's tone tends to sound artificial and rehearsed.

If you choose to memorize a speech, you might want to have a sparse outline with you just to remind yourself of your talking points.

Extemporaneous Speaking
An extemporaneous speech (extemp speech) is delivered from a prepared outline or note cards. The outline and/or note cards include the main ideas and arguments of the speech. The only information that is typically copied word for word are quotes. Outlines and note cards should be used for keeping the presentation organized and for reminding the presenter what information needs to be provided.

Extemp speaking has many advantages compared to the other methods of delivery.

For one, an extemporaneous speech sounds spontaneous because the presenter is not reading word for word. Glancing at an outline or a note card that has key ideas listed allows the presenter to add detail and personality to the information being presented.

Second, similar to memorized speaking, eye contact and body language can increase. The speaker's head is not down, buried in a manuscript.

Third, the speaker is able to take in audience feedback and respond to it as it occurs. An audience tends to change moment by moment, and a good speaker can tell when more or less detail is needed for different parts of the presentation.

In order to ensure an extemporaneous speech's strength, it is important to practice presenting with the outline or note cards being used. Inexperienced speakers tend to worry that they will forget important information if they do not write it out on their outline/note card.

Practicing your speech, even if it's just to your pet or mirror, will help increase your confidence level in both delivery and knowledge of the subject.

Do's and Don'ts
Now that you have familiarized yourself with the various methods of preparing and delivering oral presentations, it's time to discuss the best way to present your information. You may be familiar with Marshall McLuhan's adage "the medium is the message." Don't forget that in the case of an oral presentation, you ARE the medium. In other words, no matter how well-researched and cunningly written, your speech will only be as professional as your look and manner suggest it is. Your appearance and delivery are just as important as the content of your presentation.

Dress Code
You've no doubt heard this from your high school guidance counselor, your parents, and a dozen brochures about successfully interviewing for employment, but it bears repeating: First impressions are important. It is imperative that you dress to impress. For most situations in which you will be delivering an oral presentation, this means "Business Casual."

For men, business casual usually consists of a button-front shirt, tie, dress slacks, and dress shoes (blazer is optional). Men should also be clean-shaven or else properly groom their facial hair. For women, business casual includes a button-front shirt (or professional-looking sweater or top- on this point, women tend to have more business casual options than men), dress pants or skirt (of appropriate length), and dress shoes. Both men and women should take care not to expose too much skin.

If the speech will be presented before an audience that will be dressed formally, wear a suit. You should try to get plenty of sleep the night before your presentation, so that you will be fresh and well rested. Before approaching the podium, take a quick look in the mirror—Hair tidy? Teeth clean? Tie straight? Under no circumstances should hats or anything that obstructs eye contact with the audience be worn.

As with other elements of public speaking, consider what your particular audience will expect of you. In some cases, dressing casually is entirely appropriate; in others, only a suit (for women and men) is acceptable.

Delivering The Message
When speaking to the audience, act poised and confident, even if that's not how you feel on the inside. Some of the most common "tells" that a person is ill at ease include fidgeting, throat clearing, and speaking too rapidly. Stand up straight and stay relatively still—don't shift your weight from foot to foot. Keep your hands quiet, and avoid putting them in your pockets. Also, try to prevent yourself from adjusting your shirt or glasses or from playing with your notecards, hair, or writing utensils. Concentrate on keeping your breathing slow and even, and try to relax. Most importantly, make eye contact with the audience, not the floor. You should be as confident in your vocal delivery as you are in your posture. Avoid saying "Um", "Uh", or "Like". These words make you seem uncertain, unprepared, and undermine your credibility. Vary the tone of your voice and talk at a steady, conversational rate. Last, but not least, do not chew gum or suck on candy while speaking. If you're afraid that your mouth will go dry, it is acceptable to have a small glass of water at hand to sip discreetly.

Again, the most important preparation you can do is to practice your speech several times to a mirror, your pet, a friend, or family member. The more comfortable you feel with your material, the more confident you will be when presenting it to an audience.

Conclusion
Leaving the audience with a bang is necessary in order to ensure a lasting impression. Remember, the last thing presented tends to be what the audience remembers the best. The ending of a speech can be as important as the beginning and body. The conclusion should do what the introduction did, except in reverse.

Ways of Ending a Speech
After completing the presentation, the presenter should summarize the main points again without repeating verbatim what was said in the introduction. After that, you want to "Wow" your audience again with one of the techniques for introducing your speech. This can include: a quotation, a startling statistic, a personal experience, a joke, or a formal closure. Particularly if you are presenting persuasive information, you may want to end your speech with a call to action. What are you asking of your audience? What can they do after listening to your speech? Finally, asking for questions is a good way to minimize any confusion that the audience might have or bring to light any relevant connections which you may have overlooked.

Thank Your Audience
While this is one of the most important things to do at the end of a presentation, it is also one of the most forgotten things. Remember that the audience has given up their time to listen to you. They could have been anywhere else in the world doing anything they wanted to do, but they were there with you. You should appreciate that. An example of thanking your audience could look like this:


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Category:Crumble recipes

| Dessert

A crumble is a type fruit dessert which usually features a layer of sweetened fruit covered by a loose, often oat-based, dough, which is "crumbled" on to the fruit. Unlike the layers in a cobbler, the layers in a crumble are quite shallow. Once baked, the topping blends into the top of the fruit layer. Since there is generally not enough dough to completely cover the fruit, the baked result is a cracked topping with the color of the fruit seeping through.

title: Category:Crumble recipes