text:
Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigons and Ligers

Ligers and tigons are hybrids, the offspring of the pairing of a lion and a tiger. Ligers have lion fathers and tiger mothers. They usually grow much larger than their parents, and female ligers (sometimes called ligresses) can sometimes have babies. Tigons (also called tiglons) all have tiger fathers and lion mothers. They are usually smaller than their parents. Lions are very social animals while tigers tend to be lonely and to live by themselves. The offspring of a lion-tiger share the conflicting instincts of both parents. Sometimes they seek out interaction with other big cats, but other times they will attack them. So, they can be a danger if they are raised with other big cats. In general, however, ligers are gentle, even-tempered and tolerant.

Wild Ligers and Tigons have recently been found
Breeding offspring of a lion and tiger requires human intervention, since the two species do not live near each other in the wild. In the past, some zoos experimented with breeding lions and tigers with one another. Due to conservation efforts, hybridization on purpose is not allowed in most zoos. However, it happens regularly by accident, and some private breeders try to breed ligers for the purposes of creating something new and unusual.

Recently a wild liger has allegedly been found in the far south of the Sahara Desert. Ligers were also allegedly found in the wild sometime between 1930's and the 1950s. However, tigers have never evolved in Africa, and if true would have had to been the result of released captive tigresses. Claims have been made for wild liger sightings in or near the Gir Forest in India in the past; today, there are no reliable reports of tigers within a hundred miles of the Gir Forest, making such a meeting extremely unlikely.

Awesome!
Ligers are the largest of the Big Cats. They can weigh up to about 1500 pounds (680kg), and stand up to 13 feet (4 m) tall on their hind legs. Tigons are sometimes called dwarfs, tions and tilons; while they do not exhibit many signs of dwarfism, fully grown tigons of both sexes usually weigh less than 350 pounds (160 kg), which is small for male lions or tigers.

Both hybrids have a combination of lion and tiger physical characteristics. However, the Ligers look more like their lion fathers with a hint of light striping on their backs and faces. Tigons have more defined striping like their tiger fathers. Like tigers, the striping pattern is unique to each individual animal. Tigons can also have small manes or spots.

Can they have offspring?
It was originally assumed that ligers couldn't have babies, which is true for most hybrid species, such as the mule (a cross between a horse and a donkey). However, females can have babies. There are such things as li-ligers and li-tigons along with ti-ligers and ti-tigons — these are mixes of ligers and tigons with lions and tigers.

For more information
Next Topic: Fossil History
 * Wikipedia: Tigon
 * Wikipedia: Liger

Wikijunior Großkatzen/ Tigon und Liger

title: Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigons and Ligers


text:
Gambas/Introduction

Back to Gambas

What is Gambas ?
Gambas is a programming language for Linux which attempts to mimic the ease of use of Visual Basic while improving on its functionality. Although Gambas is not source code compatible with Visual Basic, it is a BASIC Interpreter with object-oriented extensions. This makes Gambas a good choice for Linux users who want to use their VB knowledge on a GNU basis.

Gambas makes it very easy to build Linux GUI programs (the Gambas IDE is written in Gambas itself.) using the Qt toolkit. There is a Windows version of Gambas which barely runs under the Cygwin environment. Graphical applications do not yet work under the Windows version.

Developed in Paris by Benoît Minisini since 1999, Gambas is released under the GNU General Public Licence, the current version (July 29, 2009) being 2.15.2 Gambas is included in the Linux Professional Distribution from Novell.

'Gambas' is a backronym for GAMBAS Almost Means BASic (Gambas is also the Spanish word for shrimp.)

Why Gambas ?
With Gambas you can easily:

 * Build solutions for any environment using "graphical application" when you start a new project. This mode takes care of which Desktop environment the end user is going to use, and the program will automatically adapt to Gnome, KDE, etc. depending on the Current running Desktop environment.
 * Build KDE applications with DCOP
 * Translate your programs into other languages
 * Offer Visual Basic programs under Linux
 * Build network solutions
 * Quickly design your program GUI with QT or GTK+
 * Use databases such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, Firebird, ODBC and SQLite
 * Create network applications easily
 * Make 3D OpenGL applications
 * Make CGI web applications, and so on...

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gambas/Introduction


text:
Gambas

Starting

 * /Preface/
 * /Introduction/
 * /Installation/
 * First Steps
 * /Helpful/
 * /Comments/
 * /Assignments/
 * /Hello World/

Applications

 * Mathematics and Statistics
 * Graphics in Gambas
 * Colours used in Gambas
 * Programming the Mouse
 * /Output/
 * Textwork in Gambas
 * /Clipboard/
 * Time and Date
 * Sound in Gambas
 * The Gambas toolbox
 * Gridview
 * Standard dialogues
 * Comments on the Gambas built in Examples
 * Build a simple text editor

Coding

 * Arrays
 * Basic Arithmetic Operations
 * Branches: If then, Select case
 * Constants
 * Loops: For to, For each , do until
 * Subroutines
 * String manipulation—Concatenation, string search and replace
 * Environment variables and command line parameters
 * File handling
 * Checks and returns True or False if a File or Dir exists
 * Object Oriented Programming in Gambas
 * Operators
 * Variable declarations, Dimensioning

Supplements

 * Predefined Constants in Gambas
 * List of Gambas Commands
 * Add new Components to Gambas
 * Differences between Gambas and VB
 * Error Messages
 * Difficulties learning Gambas
 * Frequently Asked Questions
 * Links to Gambas

جامباس Gambas Gambas Gambas

title: Gambas


text:
Gambas/Links

Gambas

 * http://gambas.sourceforge.net/
 * The main Gambas Site
 * http://www.gambasdoc.org/help/
 * All Commands
 * http://www.gambas-es.org/
 * Spanish Gambas Site
 * http://www.gambas-it.org/wp/
 * Italian Gambas Site
 * http://gambaslinux.eg2.fr/index.php?lng=fr
 * France Gambas Site
 * http://wiki.gambas-es.org/index.php?title=Tabla_de_Traducci%C3%B3n_de_ordenes_de_VB6_a_Gambas
 * Gambas in comparison to VB
 * http://sourceforge.net/mailarchive/forum.php?forum=gambas-user
 * Forum
 * http://web.archive.org/20110927000819/jsbsan.blogspot.com/p/manuales.html
 * Manuales en español
 * http://jsbsan.blogspot.com/p/video-tutoriales.html
 * Video tutoriales en español
 * http://www.kudla.org/index.php?wl_mode=more&wl_eid=73 an activist
 * http://groups.yahoo.com/subscribe/GAMBas-it
 * The Italian Mailing list and support
 * http://bedna.kdesi.sk/index.php?odkaz=15
 * Gambas tutorial v Slovencine

 * http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/10/26/142212
 * Slashdot has recognized Gambas

Learning Basic

 * http://jsbsan.blogspot.com/
 * Gambas: Blog 2 etapa: con pequeños programas y explicaciones en Español. Ademas de enlaces a foros y paginas relacionadas con Gambas (jsbsan)
 * http://web.archive.org/20090411104032/jsbsan.wordpress.com/
 * Gambas: Blog con pequeños programas y explicaciones en Español. Ademas de enlaces a foros y paginas relacionadas con Gambas (jsbsan)

title: Gambas/Links


text:
Gambas/Maths

Back to Gambas

The Cross Sum Program
This miniprogram calculates the cross sum of an integer. You need 2 textboxes and 1 commandbutton to get the program going.

Please beware of the signs / and \. In this program the sign \ is used for a division without a remainder.

The Code

Addy The Sum Program
This miniprogram calculates the sum of a row of integers. You need 1 textarea, 1 textbox and 1 commandbutton to get the program going. You can also add negative integers. Very helpful is the Split command and the String array String[]

The Code

The Average Program
This miniprogram calculates the average of a row of integers. You need 1.textarea, 2 textboxes and 1 commandbutton to get the program going.

The Code

The Median
The Median of a list of values lies between two equal parts of the list. 50% of the values ar greater or equal to the median. 50% are smaller or equal to the median. In contrary to the average the median is not influenced that much by extreme values.

If you want to program the median, you have to xmedian = x[(n+1)/2] xmedian = 1/2*(x[n/2] + x[n/2+1])
 * 1.sort your list of values
 * 2.check if the list has an even or an odd number of values.
 * 3.choose the right formula for the median.
 * for an odd number of values
 * for an even number of values

example 1:

sorted list of values: 11 12 13 14 15   The number of values is odd. n = 5 (n+1)/2 = 6/2 = 3 xmedian = x[3] = 13

example 2.

sorted list of values: 11 12 13 14 15 16 The number of values is even, n = 6 n/2 = 6/2 = 3 x[3] = 13 x[4] = 14 xmedian = 1/2*(13+14) = 13,5

You can take the list from above and copy it into the Gambas median program. Use the clipboard of your computer for that. Ctrl+C = Copy, Ctrl + V = Paste

example program

You need 2 textareas, 3 commandbuttons and 1 textbox, to get the program going:

title: Gambas/Maths


text:
Gambas/Graphics

Back to Gambas

If you want to produce some graphics in gambas you should get used to the drawingarea control.

Draw a Line
This little program will draw a line. You have to start a new graphics project. You take a form as your start form. You need a drawingarea and a commandbutton on the form to get it going.

When you want to draw some more lines, then try this example:

Some other lines are drawn here:

When you want to manipulate the width of your line, then try this example:

If you want to change the color of your line to white, then try this example:

The next small example will draw a box and fill it with white color.

The Spiral Program
This program shows you a nice spiral. There is no scale command in Gambas (at least, not yet). Therefore the x and y coordinates are transformed in the program. The coordinate system ranges from xmin = - 2 to xmax = 2 and ymin = - 2 to ymax = 2.

You need a Drawingarea and a Commandbutton to get the example going.

How does this look ? See

The code:

title: Gambas/Graphics


text: File:Cholinemet.png

title: File:Cholinemet.png


text:
Gambas/Preface

Back to Gambas

When I first started to program on a computer I used the Basic interpreter on the C64. Then I moved to MS Dos and GWBasic/Qbasic. The next step was Visual Basic 3. At the same time the Internet came into use. So I put all my mini VB programs on the Internet. This was very helpful for me and others. After lots of bluescreens the divorce from MS was done in 2002. Linux and KDE were my new favourites and they still are.

But what I always missed was VB for Linux and KDE. My old brain could not get used to C++ or Java. At Christmas time in 2003 I discovered Gambas built by Mr. Minisini and friends. It was a hit from the beginning. So I started converting all my mini VB programs to Gambas. ( So called Minisinis)

I think Gambas will be very successful. To promote it, I will put all my mini programs here under GNU as a wikibook.

Everyone is invited to improve my bad English and to improve this Wikibook.

rho in January 2005 de:Benutzer:Rho

title: Gambas/Preface


text:
Gambas/Text

Back to Gambas

The Key Code Program
With this simple miniprogram you can check out the keycode of a button you have pressed. You only need a Form to get the program going. Once you started the program and you use a button on your keyboard, the keycode is printed in the terminal window.

The Code

PUBLIC SUB Form_KeyRelease PRINT key.code END

The Key Release Program
With this miniprogram you can check the arrow keys. When they are used and released a new information is shown.

You need a textbox to get the program going.

Once you started the program and you use an arrow key in the textbox, the content of the textbox will change.

The Code

PUBLIC SUB TextBox1_KeyRelease SELECT Key.code CASE Key.left Textbox1.Text ="Left" CASE Key.right Textbox1.Text ="Right" CASE Key.up  Textbox1.Text ="Up" CASE Key.down Textbox1.Text ="Down" END SELECT END

Input Restrictions
If you want a textbox to accept only digits you should use the command STOP EVENT.

Example

You need a textbox on your form to get it going.

PUBLIC SUB MyTextBox_KeyPress IF Instr("0123456789", Key.Text) = 0 THEN STOP EVENT ENDIF END SUB

Example2

You can reach nearly the same with the following code:

PUBLIC SUB TextBox1_KeyPress IF key.Code >= 48 AND key.Code <= 57 THEN ELSE IF key.Code = key.BackSpace THEN ELSE IF key.Code = key.Delete THEN ELSE STOP EVENT ENDIF END PUBLIC SUB Form_Open ME.Text = "Only digits accepted !" END

title: Gambas/Text


text:
Gambas/Mouse

The Mouse Coordinate Program
This program will show the coordinates of the mousepointer continuously in two textboxes, when the left mousebutton is pressed. You need a form with a drawingarea and two textboxes to get the program going. See how it looks like here: http://www.madeasy.de/7/prgmausxy1.htm

The upper left corner of the drawing area has the coordinates (0,0). The right lower corner has the coordinates (drawingArea1.width, drawingarea1.height )

The Code

PUBLIC SUB DrawingArea1_MouseMove Textbox1.text = Mouse.X Textbox2.text = Mouse.Y  END

You can simplify the program, when you work without the drawingarea. The code should look like this.

PUBLIC SUB Form1_MouseMove Textbox1.text = Mouse.X Textbox2.text = Mouse.Y  END

Try it out !

We can even get rid of the textboxes using the print command instead. Then the coordinates appear in the terminal window.

The code should look like this.

PUBLIC SUB Form1_MouseMove PRINT mouse.X PRINT Mouse.Y  END

Try it out !

Be aware that the DrawingArea is the only control in Gambas ( at current version 2.n) that tracks mouse movement. Other controls will only provide Mouse coordinates on the Mouse down event. Additionally they have ENTER and LEAVE functions which provide the 'Mouse Over' functionality.

title: Gambas/Mouse


text:
Gambas/Clipboard

Back to Gambas

The Clipboard Program
This program shows you the use of the clipboard in Gambas. You need 2 commandbuttons and 2 textareas to get the program going.

The Code:

' Gambas class file PUBLIC SUB Button1_Click Clipboard.Copy (Textarea1.Text) 'Copy Text into the Clipboard END PUBLIC SUB Button2_Click Textarea2.Text = Clipboard.Paste 'get the text out of the clipboard END

title: Gambas/Clipboard


text:
User:ABCD/monobook.css

@import "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css"; @import "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:ABCD/monobook.css&action=raw&ctype=text/css";

title: User:ABCD/monobook.css


text:
User:ABCD/monobook.js

document.write('<\/script>');

title: User:ABCD/monobook.js


text:
User:Jyasskin

My name is Jeffrey Yasskin. I am a senior at the University of Texas at Austin majoring in Computer Science. I will be going to work for Google in August.

title: User:Jyasskin


text:
Template:Household Cyclopedia

The information in this module was taken from the public domain 1881 Household Cyclopedia and modernized by Wikibooks editors.

title: Template:Household Cyclopedia


text:
Cookbook:Breaded Fried Oysters

Ingredients

 * 1 pint shucked large oysters, cleaned and dried
 * 2 eggs
 * ¼ cup cream
 * 2 cups fine bread crumbs or cracker crumbs
 * Salt, to taste
 * Black pepper, to taste
 * Cayenne pepper, to taste
 * Vegetable oil, to fry

Procedure

 * 1) Take the cleaned oysters, place them on a clean towel, and dry them.
 * 2) Beat the eggs and cream together, and place in a shallow bowl.
 * 3) Combine the bread or cracker crumbs with the salt, pepper, and cayenne. Place in a shallow bowl or on a plate.
 * 4) With a fork, dip each oyster individually in the egg, then in the crumbs. With the back of a spoon, pat the crumbs to adhere them to the oysters.
 * 5) Heat the oil in a frying pan—the amount of oil will vary with the cooking method used.
 * 6) Deep fry, pan fry, or sauté the oysters in the pan, but do not crowd them; cook in batches if needed. Fry quickly until light brown on both sides; 1 or 2 minutes a side should be enough.
 * 7) Serve hot.

title: Cookbook:Breaded Fried Oysters


text:
Category:Mussel recipes

See Cookbook:Mussel for more information about the shellfish.

fr:Catégorie:Recettes de cuisine à base de moule it:Categoria:Cozze pt:Categoria:Mexilhão, receitas com

title: Category:Mussel recipes


text:
User:Squeakfox~enwikibooks

Englishman. Live in La Ceiba, Honduras.

title: User:Squeakfox~enwikibooks


text:
Talk:C Programming/Structure and style

C89 vs C99
It's reasonable to mention single-line comments, which are supported by the C99 standard, but there isn't, as far as I know, a single compiler around that fully supports C99 yet. The majority of compilers in use are C89 and the C++ one-line comment is not part of that standard. Compilers that allow single-line comments through without warning usually do so as a courtesy, and if strict ANSI is enforced they will not be allowed (e.g. my gcc compiler will not allow them with the  flag). I would prefer the tutorial to adhere to one standard or another, say which one it is, and stick to it. If it's going to be C89 then I'd outlaw single-line comments in an effort ot encourage good practice. I would also not use  to indicate no arguments to main. C89 mandates the use of  for that. -- Mickraus 23:29, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

 * As of 2013 the majority of compiler implements C99, and virtually all of them implement single-line comments. Maybe that should be mentioned in the article, since C99 is not a "very recent addition" any more. Moreover I was quite surprised to see that for loop initial declarations are not used in this page, which is also a C99 feature available on many compilers and is in my opinion a lot better than the C89 style. (even Visual Studio 2013 will implement that). Is it okay if I modify the page with

instead of

? Or do you want to let it in a C89 style (but then why mention C99 comments?)? --Asteba (discuss • contribs) 22:11, 4 November 2013 (UTC)

Indentation Wars
To indent with spaces or with tabs seems to be one of those issues that cause programmers to go to war with one another - much like the emacs vs vi battles or the OS battles. I don't want to fan that fire, but having been a programmer for some 25 years now, I have adopted an indentation style that I believe strikes a fair compromise.

The reason people support tabs is because then they can change the indentation from 4 to 2, or from 2 to 3, or to whatever they like. The problem with tabs is that in a lot of cases, unless they have the same setting that the original programmer used, things go all whacky and nothing lines up.

The reason people support spaces over tabs is because it doesn't matter what the tab stops are set to, the code always looks the same. I was in this camp for a long time. The problem with spaces is that the person reading the code cannot easily change it to the way he likes it, and it makes for bigger files (though the latter argument is pretty weak in these days of terabyte hard drives).

Here's what I do. I use tabs to indent to the level that the code needs to be indented, and then I use spaces to line things up. Start with tabs, followed by lining up with spaces. An example would be this chunk-o-code: Here, lines 3, 5, 6, and 9 would have a single leading tab, because they are indented one level. Lines 7 and 8 would have two leading tabs, but line 8 would have 7 spaces following the two leading tabs. The spaces are there to line up the second argument to the printf with the opening parenthesis of the printf. If tabs were used for this, then the alignment would be dependent on the tab settings. Here's the same code again, but I'm representing tabs with \t and spaces with @ signs: No matter what the tabs stops are set to, line 8 will always align the arguments of the printf as desired. In case anyone cares. The problem with adding any indentation approach (including this one) ito a book like this is that it tends to excite religious pogroms. Pogroms from programs so to speak. So I don't necessarily think this should be added to the chapter. I just like to put it out there.

--Jomegat (talk) 03:09, 27 March 2009 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure that the inability for a programmer to change the code indentation to the way he (or she) likes it is a reason to mix tabs and spaces. In-house styles are usually adopted so that code is easy to read and maintain. If a coder wants to change that to a personal preference that really is an issue s/he has to address. Tabs do not work. Try printing out code for review and prefixing each line with a line number, and see what happens to your tabbed code. Remember that editors that insert line numbers can separate the number from the code with a tab. Our company has forbidden the use of tabs unless the IDE is set to 4 spaces and 'insert spaces instead of tabs' is activated. This is not a whim. Far too much code was affected by tabs and experience has shown all coders abide by the rule because it works. Mickraus (talk) 18:15, 2 October 2009 (UTC)
 * Mixing tabs and spaces are acceptable within that context. The main issue is that IDEs form their own context on whether or not a tab should exist, and make it difficult to switch between the two; if you want to see an example where incorrect tabbing can prevent compilation or proper execution, see either Python or Whitespace.  Also, if prefixing lines with line numbers messed up printing, then there's a problem with how you are adding line numbers.  These line numbers should be located within the margin, and should not disrupt the tabbing within the program.  --Sigma 7 (talk) 21:38, 2 October 2009 (UTC)
 * The notion of a margin does not exist when printing source code as plain text. My coders simply tick a box 'Display line numbers' then print out the file. I'm not sure I understand what you mean by "within that context". Within which context? Mickraus (talk) 22:49, 3 October 2009 (UTC)
 * If you're printing as plaintext, then you're using default margins as decided by the printer, print driver or operating system. If the editor you are using prepends line numbers without manually managing either margins or tabs, you code will experience indentation issues. My IDE handles it perfectly, regardless of tab size and inclusion of line numbers; there may still be a setting that needs to be applies before printing (or a filter you could use that auto-converts tabs into the correct number of spaces.)
 * The context I was referring to was the example that showed mixing tabs and spaces for a person's in-house style to align parameters within a multi-line function call. --Sigma 7 (talk) 23:35, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

Confusion about "Blank Lines"
There's no blank line inserted after line 5. There's obviously some mistake here, but how should i insert a blank line, then? After line 6, as showed in the snippet, or after line 7, thus removing the blank line sitting there? Something more like this:

Or maybe this..?

The proposition with all three variables written in block seems to be the more lisible. OdysseusWiki (discuss • contribs) 07:31, 22 July 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:C Programming/Structure and style


text:
User talk:165.234.181.174

Bart133 00:45, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: User talk:165.234.181.174


text:
User talk:ABCD

See w:User talk:ABCD.

shoppinglistforeverfamily,kfamilytempature?
aylssadarland?

Santaclaus

pinksock

orangehoodiezipper

99.250.42.255 (discuss) 17:03, 10 November 2022 (UTC)

title: User talk:ABCD


text:
User:ABCD

See w:User:ABCD.

title: User:ABCD


text:
User:Karlsson.ulf

MSN: md1ulfc@hotmail.com ICQ: 8277999 E-mail: md1ulfc@mdstud.chalmers.se

title: User:Karlsson.ulf


text:
Cookbook:Mandarin Orange Cake

| Dessert | Cake

Mandarin orange cake is a common low-fat cake recipe with unique variations. The cake is simple to make and does not require you to start from scratch. All the ingredients can be found at grocery stores in the United States.

Cake

 * 1 box (15 oz / 430 g) yellow cake mix
 * 1 can (11 oz / 312 g) mandarin oranges
 * 3 eggs

Icing

 * 1 box (5.1 oz / 144 g) instant vanilla pudding mix
 * 1 can (20 oz / 567 g) crushed pineapple
 * 1 container (12 oz / 340 g) CoolWhip or other whipped topping

Procedure

 * 1) Preheat oven to 350°F (180°C). Grease the sides and bottom of cake pans with shortening, and dust with flour.
 * 2) Pour yellow cake mix into mixing bowl. Add eggs and the mandarin oranges plus their juice. Blend until moistened, then beat for approximately 2 minutes at medium speed.
 * 3) Pour batter evenly into prepared baking pans. Bake approximately 30 minutes in the preheated oven or until a toothpick inserted into the center comes out clean.
 * 4) Remove from oven and let the cakes cool completely.
 * 5) Scoop CoolWhip into a clean mixing bowl. Add the instant vanilla pudding mix. Drain all the pineapple juice from the can of crushed pineapples, and fold the pineapple into CoolWhip. Chill icing for about 30 minutes.
 * 6) After the cakes cool, frost each layer with your icing.

Nutrition

 * Each serving is approximately 275 calories with about 4–5 grams of fat.

title: Cookbook:Mandarin Orange Cake


text:
Embedded Systems/PIC Microcontroller

Manufactured by Microchip, the ("Peripheral Interface Controller" ) microcontroller is popular among engineers and hobbyists alike. PIC microcontrollers come in a variety of "flavors", each with different components and capabilities.

Many types of electronic projects can be constructed easily with the PIC family of microprocessors, among them clocks, very simple video games, robots, servo controllers, and many more. The PIC is a very general purpose microcontroller that can come with many different options, for very reasonable prices.

Other microprocessors in this family include the Parallax SX, the Holtek HT66Fxxx series, the Holtek HT48FxxE Series, and some "PIC-on-a-FPGA" implementations.

History
General Instruments produced a chip called the PIC1650, described as a Programmable Intelligent Computer. This chip is the mother of all PIC chips, functionally close to the current 16C54. It was intended as a peripheral for their CP1600 microprocessor. Maybe that is why most people think PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. Microchip has never used PIC as an abbreviation, just as PIC. And recently Microchip has started calling its PICs microcontrollers PICmicro MCU's.

Which PIC to Use
How do you find a PIC that is right for you out of nearly 2000 different models of PIC microcontrollers?

The Microchip website has an excellent Product Selector Tool. You simply enter your minimum requirements and optionally desired requirements, and the resulting part numbers are displayed with the basic features listed.

You can buy your PIC processors directly from Microchip Direct, Microchip's online store. Pricing is the same or sometimes better than many distributors.

Rule Number 1: only pick a microprocessor you can actually obtain. PICs are all similar, and therefore you don't need to be too picky about which model to use.

If there is only 1 kind of PIC available in your school storeroom, use it. If you order from a company such as Newark or DigiKey, ignore any part that is "out of stock"—only order parts that are "in stock". This will save you lots of time in creating your project.

Recommended "first PIC"
At one time, the PIC16F84 was far and away the best PIC for hobbyists. But Microchip, Parallax, and Holtek are now manufacturing many chips that are even better and often even cheaper, because of the higher level of production.

 * 1) I'd like a list of the top 4 or so PIC recommendations, and *why* they were recommended, so that when better/cheaper chips become available, it's easy to confirm and add them to the list.

(Summarizing PICList Beginners checklist for PIC Microcontrollers, PIC Elmer 160: Appendix "A": "Other PICs" 2003, and Wouter van Ooijen :)

PIC: Select a chip and buy one.

Many people recommend the following PICs as a good choice for the "first PIC" for a hobbyist, take in count the revision numbers (like the A in 16F628A):

 * PIC18F4620: it has 13 analog inputs—Wouter van Ooijen recommends that hobbyists use the largest and most capable chip available, and this is it (as of 2006-01). ~$9
 * PIC16F877A -- the largest chip of the 16F87x family; has 8 analog inputs—recommended by Wouter (#2); AmQRP; PICList. ~$8
 * PIC16F877A, this is probably the most popular PIC used by the hobbyist community that is still under production. This is the best PIC of its family and used to be "the PIC" for bigger hobbyist projects, along with the PIC16F84 for smaller ones. Features 14KB of program memory, 368 bytes of RAM, a 40 pin package, 2 CPP modules, 8 ADC channels capable of 10-bit each. It also counts with the UART and MSSP, which is a SSP capable of being master, controlling any devices connected to the I2c and SPI busses. The lack of internal oscillator, as opposed to the other PICs mentioned until now, is something to be aware of. Also, this PIC is relatively expensive for the features included. This may be caused by Microchip to force the migration to better chips. --recommended by Ivaneduardo747; Wouter (#2); AmQRP --. ~$9
 * PIC16F88 -- has 7 analog inputs—recommended by AmQRP; SparkFun. ~$5
 * PIC16F88, this is enhanced version of the PIC16F628A. It has all the features of the 16F628, plus twice the program memory, 7KB; seven 10-bit ADCs, a SSP (Synchronous Serial Port), capable of receiving messages sent over I2C and SPI busses. It also supports self-programming, a feature used by some development boards to avoid the need of using a programmer, saving the cost of buying a programmer. --recommended by Ivaneduardo747; AmQRP -- SparkFun. ~$5
 * PIC16F628 -- Cheaper than the PIC16F84A, with a built-in 4 MHz clock and a UART, but lacks any analog inputs—recommended by Wouter (#3); AmQRP --  ~$4
 * PIC16F628A, this is a good starter PIC because of its compatibility with what used to be one of the hobbyist's favorite PICs: the PIC16F84. This way, the beginner can select from a vast catalog of projects and programs, specially when created in low level languages like the PIC Assembler. It features a 18 pin package, 3.5KB of Flash Memory, can execute up to 5 million instructions per second (MIPS) using a 20MHZ crystal. The lack of an Analog-Digital Converter (ADC) is something to point out. As opposed to the PIC16F84A it has an UART, which is capable of generating and receiving RS-232 signals, which is very useful for debugging. Some people use to find ironic that this chip is cheaper than the less-featured PIC16F84A. -- recommended by Ivaneduardo747; Wouter (#3) AmQRP -- ~$5
 * PIC16F1936, a powerful mid-range PIC, comes with an 11 channel, 10-bit ADC; two indirect pointer registers; XLP (extreme low power) for low power consumption on battery powered devices. -- recommended by some people on the PIClist as a faster, better, cheaper replacement for the 16F877. -- ~$3
 * PIC12F683, a small 8-pin microcontroller. It is a good microcontroller for small applications due to its small size and relatively high power and diverse features, like 4 ADC channels and internal 4MHZ oscillator. --recommended by Ivaneduardo747; . ~$2.50

Of the many new parts Microchip has introduced since 2003, are any of them significantly better for hobbyists in some way than these chips ? Todo: Does "Starting out PIC Programming: What would be a good PIC chip to start out with?" have any useful recommendations to add to the above?

There are several different "families":

More selection tips
PIC10F—in super-tiny 6 pin packages PIC12F—in tiny 8-pin packages PIC14F PIC16F—in tiny 14-pin packages PIC18F PIC24F PIC24E PIC24H dsPIC30F dsPIC33F dsPIC33E PIC12C PIC16C PIC17C PIC18C
 * The "F" Suffix implies that the chip has reprogrammable Flash memory.
 * The "C" suffix implies that the chip uses EPROM memory. A few of these chips used to be erased with a very expensive Ultra-Violet eraser. This method was primarily used by companies. But most of these chips are specifically made so that once you write it you can't change it: it's OTP (one-time programmable). People used to check their programs minutely before programming them into such chips.  Recently, this chips are becoming less used as the cost of Flash memory decreases, but some of them are still used because of their reliability or reduced costs.

Each family has one "full" member with all the goodies and a subset of variant members that lack one thing or another. For example, on the 16F84 family, the 16F84 was the fully featured PIC, with Flash memory and twice the program space of the 16F83. The family was also composed by the 16C84 and 16C83, one of the few reprogrammable C suffix PICs. For prototyping, we generally use the "full" version to make sure we can get the prototype working at all. During prototyping we want to tweak code, reprogram, and test, over and over until it works. So we use one of the above "Flash" families, not the "OTP" families, unless required. For short production, the C parts are recommended. For very long production lines, some PICs with mask-programmed ROMs were used. Now in-factory preprogramming is available from Microchip.

Each member of each family generally comes in several different packages. Hobbyists generally use the plastic dual inline package (often called DIP or PDIP) because it's the easiest to stick in a solderless breadboard and tinker with. (The "wide-DIP" works just as well). They avoid using ceramic dual inline package (CDIP), not because ceramic is bad (it's just as easy to plug into a solderless breadboard), but because the plastic parts work just as well and are much cheaper.

(Later, for mass production, we may figure out which is the cheapest cut-down version that just barely has enough goodies to work, and comes in the cheapest package that has just barely enough pins for this particular application ... perhaps even a OTP chip ).

And then each different package, for each member of each family, comes in both a "commercial temperature range" and a "industrial temperature range".

PIC 16x
The PIC 16 family is considered to be a good, general purpose family of PICs. PIC 16s generally have 3 output ports to work with. Here are some models in this family that were once common:

Many programs written for the PIC16x family are available for free on the Internet.

Flash-based chips such as the PIC16F88 are far more convenient to develop on, and can run code written for the above chips with little or no changes.

PIC 12x
The PIC12x series is the smallest series with 8 pins and up to 6 available I/O pins. These are used when space and/or cost is a factor.

PIC 18x
The PIC 18x series are available in a 28 and 40-pin DIP package. They have more ports, more ADC, etc... PIC 18s are generally considered to be very high-end microcontrollers, and are even sometimes called full-fledged CPUs.

Microchip is currently (as of 2007) producing 6 Flash microcontrollers with a USB interface. All are in the PIC18Fx family. (The 28 pin PIC18F2450, PIC18F2455, PIC18F2550; and the 40/44 pin PIC18F4450, PIC18F4455, PIC18F4550 ).

The PIC Stack
The PIC stack is a dedicated bank of registers (separate from programmer-accessible registers) that can only be used to store return addresses during a function call (or interrupt).

 * 12 bit: A PIC microcontroller with a 12 bit core (the first generation of PIC microcontrollers) ( including most PIC10, some PIC12, a few PIC16 ) only has 2 registers in its hardware stack. Subroutines in a 12-bit PIC program may only be nested 2 deep, before the stack overflows, and data is lost. People who program 12 bit PICs spend a lot of effort working around this limitation. (These people are forced to rely heavily on techniques that avoid using the hardware stack. For example, macros, state machines, and software stacks).
 * 14 bit: A PIC microcontroller with a 14 bit core (most PIC16) has 8 registers in the hardware stack. This makes function calls much easier to use, even though people who program them should be aware of some remaining gotchas.
 * 16 bit: A PIC microcontroller with a 16 bit core (all PIC18) has a "31-level deep" hardware stack depth. This is more than deep enough for most programs people write.

Many algorithms involving pushing data to, then later pulling data from, some sort of stack. People who program such algorithms on the PIC must use a separate software stack for data (reminiscent of Forth). (People who use other microprocessors often share a single stack for both subroutine return addresses and this "stack data").

Call-tree analysis can be used to find the deepest possible subroutine nesting used by a program. (Unless the program uses recursion). As long as the deepest possible nesting of the "main" program, plus the deepest possible nesting of the interrupt routines, give a total sum less than the size of the stack of the microcontroller it runs on, then everything works fine. Some compilers automatically do such call-tree analysis, and if the hardware stack is insufficient, the compiler automatically switches over to using a "software stack". Assembly-language programmers are forced to do such analysis by hand.

Compilers, Assemblers
Versions of BASIC, C, Forth, and a few other programming languages are available for PICmicros. See Embedded Systems/PIC Programming.

downloaders
You need a device called a "downloader" to transfer compiled programs from your PC and burn them into the microcontroller. (Unfortunately "programming" has 2 meanings—see Embedded Systems/Terminology).)

There are 2 styles of downloaders. If you have your PIC in your system and you want to change the software,
 * with a "IC programmer" style device, you must pull out the PIC, plug it into the "IC programmer", reprogram, then put the PIC back in your system.
 * with a "in circuit programmer" style device (ICSP), you don't touch the PIC itself—you plug a cable from the programmer directly into a header that you have (hopefully) placed next to the PIC, reprogram, then unplug the cable.

An (incomplete) list of programmers includes:

 * BobProg - Simple ICSP programmer with external power supply
 * JDM Programmer modified for LVP microcontrollers
 * In Circuit Programmer for PIC16F84 PIC16F84 Programmer
 * IC Programmer ICProg Programs : 12Cxx, 16Cxxx, 16Fxx, 16F87x, 18Fxxx, 16F7x, 24Cxx, 93Cxx, 90Sxxx, 59Cxx, 89Cx051, 89S53, 250x0, PIC, AVR, 80C51 etc.
 * Many other programmers are listed at MassMind.

Many people prefer to use a "bootloader" for programming whenever possible. Bootloaders are covered in detail in chapter ../Bootloaders and Bootsectors/ .

Power Supply
The most important part of any electronic circuit is the power supply. The PIC programmer requires a +5 volt and a +13 volt regulated power supply. The need for two power supplies is due to the different programming algorithms:
 * High Power Programming Mode - In this mode, we enter the programming mode of the PIC by driving the RB7(Data) and RB6(CLOCK) pins of the PIC low while driving the MCLR pin from 0 to VCC(+13v).
 * Low Power Programming Mode - This algorithm requires only +5v for the programming operation. In this algorithm, we drive RB3(PGM) from VDD to GND to enter the programming mode and then set MCLR to VDD(+5v).

This is already taken care of inside the PIC burner hardware. If you are curious as to how this is done, you might want to look at the various PIC burner hardware schematics online.

Oscillator Circuits
The PIC microcontrollers all have built-in RC oscillator circuits available, although they are slow, and have high granularity. External oscillator circuits may be applied as well, up to a maximum frequency of 20 MHz. PIC instructions require 4 clock cycles for each machine instruction cycle, and therefore can run at a maximum effective rate of 5 MHz. However, certain PICs have a PLL (phase locked loop) multiplier built in. The user can enable the Times 4 multiplier, thus yielding a virtual oscillator frequency of 4 X External Oscillator. For example, with a maximum allowable oscillator of 16 MHz, the virtual oscillator runs at 64 MHz. Thus, the PIC will perform 64 / 4 = 16 MIPS (million instructions per second). Certain pics also have built-in oscillators, usually 4Mhz for precisely 1MIPS, or a low-power imprecise 48 kHz. This frees up to two I/O pins for other purposes. The pins can also be used to produce a frequency if you want to synchronize other hardware to the same clock as one PIC's internal one.

programming
Continue with Embedded Systems/PIC Programming.

title: Embedded Systems/PIC Microcontroller


text:
Talk:Unicycling

Open questions and stuff that needs to be done

 * Should the book be reorganized into smaller sections, if that's the case then how?
 * Renaming the book, what about The Book of Unicycling?
 * Is this still supposed to be a FAQ to RSU or are all such references to be removed?
 * Do we comply with the rules and guidelines on wikibooks.org?
 * How do we advocate this page?
 * The material needs to be reorganized, it's difficult to overview.
 * Add more references to threads on RSU in the text maybe?

-- Karlsson.ulf 07:37, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Unicycling


text:
User:Andreas Ipp/Sandbox

Sandbox and feature development
This is my private sandbox, and a window to possible future improvements of Wikibooks. Not all the things are working yet, but they will be released gradually when the time is right.

Main page design
User:Andreas Ipp/Main_Page_suggestion Monday, 29 July, 2024, UTC

month:July

week:

Book of the month
Have a book of the month with vote, like the German Wikipedia version.

 * Subpages for voting - template for main page with month

Most active Wikibooks

 * Database query for Top 5: Database queries on MediaWiki

The standard Wikibook
Book idea: Take all existing Wikibooks and choose the best parts of each (structural, navigational..), then write a standard Wikibook, which might help others to get ideas for their own books. Topics:
 * Printer friendly version, screen reading version
 * Navigation: Next / Previous, as well as a table of contents
 * Link to good existing books, as well as bad existing books.
 * Introduction: Is Wikibooks the right place for me? Other Wikis, TravelWiki, etc.

Paged Media
Paged Media (w3.org)

ToDo: Hello This sentence does not show up on print (see Print Preview).
 * Template: : div class=
 * Template:
 * In PrintTOC: call

 *** Page break on print (see Print Preview)***

bla bla

 *** Page break on print LEFT (see Print Preview)***

bla bla

 *** Page break on print (see Print Preview)***

bla bla

 *** Page break on print RIGHT (see Print Preview)***

bla bla

Left and right page breaks don't work in Mozilla Firefox 1.0. Don't use them for now...

Alternative internal formating: (does not render easily in small editing windows)

Development stages

''This bookshelf has been inactive for 3 months (as of Jan 13, 2005). The few books in it have been moved to the IT bookshelf.''

Development stages: applies to Geographic Information Systems on the IT bookshelf
 * Book 0 This book has been inactive for 3 months (as of Jan 13, 2005) and will be moved to suggested Wikibooks after Feb 13, 2005.
 * Book A
 * Book B Suggested bookshelf section: How-tos (Jan 13, 2005)
 * Book C This book looks like an article and should move to Wikipedia (Jan 13, 2005)
 * Book D Comprehensive Wikibook: Reader's choice (Jan 13, 2005)
 * Book E Suggested title: E in the special case of E1 (Jan 13, 2005)
 * Book F

- Book B - Book C - Book D - Book E - Book F
 * Book A

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

 * Ten reviews

title: User:Andreas Ipp/Sandbox


text:
User:Brandon (usurped)

I am here to help work the biochemistry book. I am a third year biochemistry major at the University of Vermont.

title: User:Brandon (usurped)


text:
Biochemistry/Lipids

Lipids are a structuraly diverse class of biological molecules whose defining properties are hydrophobicity and solubility in organic solvents. Lipids have several roles including energy storage and cell signalling and are the major constituent of cell membranes.

Fatty Acids
A fatty acid is simply a linear carbon chain with a carboxylic acid group at one end.

Fatty acids usually have between 10 and 24 carbon atoms and may have one or more double bonds. These double bonds are almost always in the cis configuration.

Fatty acids have both common names and systematic names. The systematic name is based on the alkane or alkene with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final e of the hydrocarbon replaced with oic acid. For example Laurate (Figure x) is a fatty acid with 12 carbon atoms and no double bonds, so the systematic name is dodecanoic acid, and the ionized form is dodecanoate. (saturated fatty acid table) If there are double bonds, the location is marked with the symbol Δ with a superscript number indicating the location of the double bond and preceded by cis or trans to indicate configuration (but almost invariably cis). Carbon atoms are counted from the carboxyl end, as in Figure x, so a dodecenoate acid with a cis double bond between carbon atoms 9 and 10 would be: cis-Δ9-dodecenoate.

The number 2, 3 and last carbon atom are called the α, β and ω atoms, respectively.

Phosphoglycerides And Sphingolipids
Fatty acids can be linked to glycerol to form monoacylglycerols, diacylglycerides and triacylglycerides.

One class of phospholipids are the phosphoglycerides, which are made from diacylglycerides linked to a phosphate group. Phosphoglycerides usually have the following arrangement: There are four common phosphate groups. Serine, ethanolamine and choline are structurally similar, while inositol is different:
 * Hydroxyl #1 of glycerol is usually esterified to a saturated fatty acid
 * Hydroxyl #2 of glycerol is usually esterified to an unsaturated fatty acid
 * Hydroxyl #3 of glycerol is esterified to a phosphate group

Sphingolipids, have the same overall shape as phosphoglycerides but have different chemistry, using sphingosine in place of glycerol. Sphingosine has a long hydrocarbon tail similar to fatty acids attached to a structure that is similar to the amino acid serine. A fatty acid can attach to the amine group, and a "head" group can attach to a hydroxyl (see Figure x). Sphingolipids are named according to this head group:
 * If there is no head group it is called a ceramide
 * If the head group is phosphate and choline, it is called sphingomyelin
 * If the head group is a sugar, it is called a glycosphingolipid (or a glycolipid)

The majority of sphingolipids are of the third type, glycosphingolipids. It is thought they have functions in cell recognition and protection in addition to there structural role in the membrane.

When mixed in water, phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids will form two chararistics structures. Micelles are spheres constructed from these lipids, with the hydrophobic tails interacting with one another inside the sphere and the polar head groups interacting with water at the surface of the sphere. These lipids will also for whats known as a lipid bilayers. These are sheets composed of two layers of lipids where the hydrophobic tails stick into the center and the polar head groups are on the surface interacting with water. Cell membranes are composed of lipid bilayers. (picture of micelle, milcell cross section, lipid bilayer)

title: Biochemistry/Lipids


text:
User:Bart133

The same Bart133 as here. Currently, I am working mainly on the Wikijunior project.

title: User:Bart133


text:
Geometry/Motivation

I recommend developing this book as a high school (American ages 14-18) geometry text. To aid in doing so, I have developed an outline of topics reflecting the California curriculum content standards, as the wikibooks "standards" link suggests. I have placed that outline in the "outline" link below. I hope to start developing this table of contents to reflect that outline. The remainder of the table of contents (starting with "Part I- Euclidean Geometry:") is a year old or more (though some of its content is newer). I think it will be difficult to develop that table of contents into a textbook, first because it covers topics from elementary school to graduate school and beyond, second because it seems to lack the logical structure necessary to produce a systematic development of the subject (but perhaps I'm simply too ignorant of geometry to see the structure the previous editor had in mind). Of course part of the point of wiki is that you can do whatever you like with these suggestions, so feel free to ignore me.

271828 20:46, 11 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I've put in a short list of chapters (1-5) below following the scheme of the outline in the outline link below and divided from the earlier chapter/subject markings. I hope to begin filling in those chapters soon.

271828 18:43, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I've expanded the introduction below to reflect the content of the outline. If you are kind enough to consider contributing to this text, I hope you will glance at the introduction to see the scheme I have laid out for this book. Of course you do not have to honor it, but every book needs an organizational principle; and I think mine is at least plausible, if not nearly perfect.

Also I suggest a modification of the standard wiki naming convention for the internal links in this text. I propose the hierarchy be literally as follows:

 * Geometry:
 * Geometry: Chapter 1
 * Geometry: Chapter 1: Section 1
 * Geometry: Chapter 1: Section 2
 * Geometry: Chapter 2
 * Geometry: Chapter 2: Section 1
 * etc.
 * etc.

The point is that this makes it easy to link each section to the next and each chapter to the next. You can write a link Geometry: Chapter 1: Section 2, without having to worry that the link name will change, even though the content may change dramatically. At the very least, please remember that every page must start with Geometry: so that pages in this text don't replace pages in other texts.

271828 19:40, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: Geometry/Motivation


text:
Cookbook:Teaspoon

| Equipment

A teaspoon is a unit of volume measure equal to 1/3 tablespoon. It is exactly equal to 5 ml. In the USA there are 16 teaspoons in 1/3 cup, and there are 6 teaspoons in 1 fluid ounce.

"Teaspoon" may be abbreviated as t (note: lowercase letter t) or tsp.

A small spoon, as might be used for eating yogurt from a small container or adding sugar to tea, is about 1 teaspoon in size.

title: Cookbook:Teaspoon


text:
Cookbook:Tablespoon

| Equipment

A tablespoon is a unit of measure equal to 1/16 cup, 3 teaspoons, or 1/2 fluid ounce in the USA. It is either approximately or (in some countries) exactly equal to 15 ml.

"Tablespoon" may be abbreviated as T (note: uppercase letter), tbl, tbs or tbsp.

A typical large dinner spoon is about 1 tablespoon in size. It is not often the case, but some might consider the dinner spoon as the one used towards a normal bowl of soup or cereal. At any rate, it is not to be confused with a regular spoon for the amount of 1 tablespoon is a bit larger than a regular one.

The seldom-used imperial (post-1824 British) tablespoon is defined to be approximately 17.8 ml, which is about 20% larger than the Queen Anne tablespoon used in the USA. Thus, the Queen Anne (USA) tablespoon is 5/6 the size of the British one. The Australian (metric) tablespoon is even bigger, at 20 ml, while the teaspoon remains at 5 ml to give 4 teaspoons per tablespoon instead of the 3 teaspoons used elsewhere.

title: Cookbook:Tablespoon


text:
Cookbook:Cup

A cup is a unit of volume measurement of volume equal to 16 tablespoons, ½ pint, ¼ quart, or 8 fluid ounces.

A US cup is about 237 ml. Rougher equivalents are 240 ml and 250 ml, where the latter fits nicely with a US pint of 500 ml and a pound of 500 g.

A metric cup is 250 mL in Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the UK. These countries previously used the imperial system, in which a cup would be 284 ml or 6/5 US cups.

A Japanese rice cup is 180 ml. A measuring cup of this size is sometimes included with rice cookers.

A teacup, often seen as a unit of measurement in Indian recipes, is about 190 ml, or ⅔ of an imperial (UK) cup.

title: Cookbook:Cup


text:
Biochemistry/Membranes and Lipids

Biochemistry

Membranes And Lipids
All cells, from simple prokaryotic bacteria to complex multicellular organisms are surrounded by a membrane. The membrane acts as a selective barrier, letting some substances into the cell and preventing other substances from entering. The membrane also actively transports substances between the inside and outside of the cell, using cellular energy to do so. This is important in regulating the concentration of many substances which must be maintained within strict limits. The cell also contains membrane bound compartments, where the membrane acts as a barrier for the separation of different environments, like lysosomes which have a high pH that would be toxic to the rest of the cell. This chapter is about the chemical composition of the membrane and how this creates the functionality of the membrane.

The Lipid Bilayer
The first person to link lipids with the cell membrane may have been Charles Ernest Overton, who was studying heredity in plants. Part of his studies involved studying which substances absorbed into plant cells most quickly. After characterizing a large number of substances, he came up with the idea that cell membranes were composed of something similar to the lipids found in vegetable oils, and that substances are absorbed into the cells by dissolving through the membrane.

The next big step came when Gorter and Grendel extracted the lipids from red blood cells and compared the surface area of the lipids spread out on water compared to the surface area of the red blood cells. They found the lipid surface area was twice that of the red blood cells, and concluded that the lipids must be arranged in a layer two lipid molecules thick. This is what biologists now call the lipid bilayer, and to understand the construction of the bilayer, we need to understand the lipids themselves.

Fatty Acids
A fatty acid is simply a linear carbon chain with a carboxylic acid group at one end.

Fatty acids usually have between 14 and 24 carbon atoms and may have one or more double bonds. These double bonds are almost always in the cis configuration. Fatty acids have both common names and systematic names. The systematic name is based on the alkane or alkene with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final e of the hydrocarbon replaced with oic acid. For example Laurate (Figure x) is a fatty acid with 12 carbon atoms and no double bonds, so the systematic name is dodecanoic acid, and the ionized form is dodecanoate. (saturated fatty acid table) If there are double bonds, the location is marked with the symbol Δ with a superscript number indicating the location of the double bond and preceded by cis or trans to indicate configuration (but almost invariably cis in natural fatty acids). Carbon atoms are counted from the carboxyl end, as in Figure x, so a dodecenoate acid with a cis double bond between carbon atoms 9 and 10 would be: cis-Δ9-dodecenoate.

The number 2, 3 and last carbon atom are called the α, β and ω atoms, respectively.

One common shorthand for describing fatty acids is based on the fact that multiple double bonds are placed three bonds apart. This allows the acid to be described by the length of its carbon chain, number of double bonds, and location of the final double bond, relative to the ω carbon. Under this system, for instance, Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA),a very important constituent of membranes in the brain and eyes, can by listed as 22:6 ω-3. This corresponds to: 22 carbons and 6 double bonds, of which the final double bond is at ω-3. This is equivalent to 22:6 Δ4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, or, in its full IUPAC form, cis-docosa - 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19 - hexaenoic acid.

Phosphoglycerides
Phosphoglycerides are composed of a glycerol back bone with substituents in the following arrangements: The simplest phosphoglyceride is phosphatidate (picture). Other phosphoglycerides can be made when a group with a hydroxyl is esterified to the phosphate group of phosphatidate. There are four common substituents for phosphatidate. Serine, ethanolamine and choline are structurally similar, while inositol is different:
 * Hydroxyl #1 of glycerol is usually esterified to a saturated fatty acid
 * Hydroxyl #2 of glycerol is usually esterified to an unsaturated fatty acid
 * Hydroxyl #3 of glycerol is esterified to a phosphate group

When the fatty acid esterified to hydroxyl #2 is a cis- configured polyunsaturated fatty acid (i.e. one with more than one double bond), it tends to curl, and thus prevents the molecules from packing so closely together in a membrane. This makes the membrane more flexible.

Sphingolipids
Sphingolipids', have the same overall shape as phosphoglycerides but have different chemistry, using sphingosine in place of glycerol. Sphingosine has a long hydrocarbon tail similar to fatty acids attached to a structure that is similar to the amino acid serine. A fatty acid can attach to the amine group, and a "head" group can attach to a hydroxyl (see Figure x). Sphingolipids are named according to this head group:
 * If there is no head group it is called a ceramide
 * If the head group is phosphate and choline, it is called sphingomyelin
 * If the head group is a sugar, it is called a glycosphingolipid (or a glycolipid)

The majority of sphingolipids are of the third type, glycosphingolipids. It is thought they have functions in cell recognition and protection in addition to their structural role in the membrane.

Sphingolipids are known to regulate activity in cells, such as immune responses, production of cells, and development of specialized cells. Although these are under the spatial and temporal control, it was recently discovered that sphingosine kinases will be focused on therapeutic effects on enzymes for people with cancer and other conditions.

Formation Of The Bilayer
If we compare the structures of phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids, we see that they are very similar compounds. Each lipid has two long hydrophobic hydrocarbon "tails" and a single polar "head". Since the molecule has both polar and nonpolar moieties, it is said to be amphipathic. It is the amphipathic nature of these molecules that causes them to form bilayers, mediated by four forces:
 * The hydrophobic effect- this causes the hydrophobic tails to come together. This is the strongest force driving the formation of the bilayer. It is a consequence of the increased entropy in water molecules when non polar substances are aggregated in water.
 * Van der Waals forces between the hydrophobic tails.
 * Electrostatic forces of the head groups.
 * Hydrogen bonds between the head groups.

One possible structure that satisfies the above forces is called a micelle (pictures). This is common with free fatty acids, but not with most phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids because these groups have twice as many acyl chains per head than the fatty acid (picture), and it is difficult to pack them all into the center of the micelle. Phospholipids and sphingolipids more often form a bilayer in a sheet or a sphere (picture). This is the so called lipid bilayer.

Studying Motion
NMR, ESR, X-Ray, Differential scanning calorimetry

FRAP is a good way to measure diffusion of receptors through a lipid membrane after tagging the protein of interest with a GFP construct

Intramolecular Motion
There are three basic kinds of motion within the lipid molecules: stretching between bonds, rotating between bonds, and wagging between bonds (?). [picture] 99% of motion within liquid crystal is due to rotation about carbon-carbon bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids of membrane lipids rotate more often. This is because of the packed arrangement of the lipid bilayer. When there is rotation about one bond, an adjacent bond rotates to compensate for steric clashes [pictures]. Since double bonds in fatty acids are nearly always cis, they introduce kinks in the fatty acid. When a bond adjacent to a double bond rotates, the other bond adjacent to the double bond also rotates, and the whole thing moves like an old fashioned bit and brace [pictures]. It takes more energy to rotate the double bonds closer to the head groups due to [angle thing picture]. Double bonds react with O2 readily and create poisons [more] bacteria have [cyclopropane picture].

Types of Membrane Protein Diffusion
Rotational

Lateral

Liquid crystal

Flip Flop

Barrier
Interior of cell is separated from surrounding environment. to keep undesirable substances out keep desirable substances in intracellulat membranes:act to compartmentalize functions within eukaryotic cells(ex:mitochondria,chloroplast)

Transport Regulation
The lipid membrane is impermeable to many essential nutrients to the cell, such as glucose. In order to get the proper nutrients into the cell protein transporters are constantly moving through the membrane. For the example of glucose, there are several isoforms of the glucose transporter, some of which are specific for only certain types of cells. One of the more interesting transporter is the water transporter: aquaporins. Even though water can get through the membrane, at times the cell needs more water than can be provided through diffusion.

Cell Communication
Gap junctions are channels found between cells that allow for the cytoplasm to exchange between the cells. This is how very fast signalling can occur by cells close together.

Cell Adhesion
Several classes of proteins are responsible for cells sticking together: Cadherins

title: Biochemistry/Membranes and Lipids


text:
Talk:C Programming/Language Reference

how many types
Regarding types, how complete do we want these tables to be? There are a few dozen types defined in the standard library, as well as the new boolean and complex types. If no one objects, I'll add _Bool and the _Complexes, but none of the rest. --jcl 19:03, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)

size in bits
This page is dreadful for teaching C. Beginning programmers can and will make awful assumptions if they are not told which assumptions are reasonable. While a C compiler with a 42-bit char could be standards conforming, such a compiler would be a very sick joke. Instead of leaving newbies to make awful assumptions like "long is always 32 bits", we can say that "long is 32 bits or 64 bits, equal in size to a pointer on non-Windows systems, and always 32 bits on Windows systems". We need not mention anything related to ones-complement or sign-magnitude integers. We need not mention that signed integer wrap-around can cause program termination. (but unsigned won't!) No beginner is going to give a damn about a system that doesn't have a 16-bit short, 32-bit int, and 64-bit long long. Long before even considering the topic of largely theoretical screwball systems, one should discuss the concepts of endianness and natural alignment. This is required for sharing data structures between different systems. AlbertCahalan 07:17, 16 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I agree that this page is dreadful and needs many improvements.
 * However, I don't think telling newbies or anyone else that "long" is "equal in size to a pointer" is ever a good idea.
 * It's not true for Windows -- see Microsoft Developer Network: "Rules for Using Pointers".
 * It's also not true for many non-Windows system -- see vaxocentrism; Intel 8086 mentions various "memory models" with different size pointers -- some of them even have two different size pointers -- which implies that at least one of them was different in size than a long int; "[In Linux] In particular, on the Itanium, a function pointer is 128 bits, a data pointer is 64 bits, a long is 64 bits and an int is 32 bits."-- Peter Chubb; and "wherever pointers are cast to integral types. This practice, which has been condemned for years as inimical to portability" -- "Porting to 64-Bit Intel® Architecture". --DavidCary (talk) 18:34, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

increment and decrement
Regarding (pre|post)(inc|dec)rement, (++ and --), are they really on the same level whether pre or post? K&R1 (1=1st ed.) shows ++ and -- in its operator precedence chart on the same level, but does not state whether they are pre or post. But what makes most sense to me is that post++ would be RIGHT-TO-LEFT associativity and --pre would be LEFT-TO-RIGHT associativity. I wonder if there was a change between K&R1, or if K&R1 is in error, and what effect ANSI-C had. I don't have K&R2 (why buy the same book twice?), so I don't know whether there was a change to the precedence chart. K&R1 also didn't have unary minus, but most compilers nowadays do it anyway--another ANSIism? --Snt (talk) 01:52, 7 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I don't understand. Could you give an example line of code where changing the associativity of predecrement would make any difference? --DavidCary (talk) 18:41, 8 July 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:C Programming/Language Reference


text:
Gambas/Components

Back to Gambas

GB Components
Components are Gambas plug-ins that add new functionality to your applications (by adding new classes to the interpreter).

A Gambas project has a list of components to be loaded at startup; you can find and modify this list by selecting Project > Properties from the Project window, and clicking the Components tab.

A Gambas project without any components is a simple text-only application. To become a true graphical application, a project must use at least the gb.qt component. To access a database, use the gb.db component. And so forth...

 * gb - Gambas internal native classes
 * gb.compress - Compression library
 * gb.db - Database access component
 * gb.debug - Gambas application debugger helper
 * gb.eval - Gambas expression evaluator
 * gb.gtk - Graphical GTK+ toolkit component
 * gb.net - Networking component
 * gb.net.curl - Network high-level protocols management
 * gb.pcre - Perl-compatible Regular Expression Matching
 * gb.qt - Graphical QT toolkit component
 * gb.qt.editor - Gambas editor with syntax highlighting
 * gb.qt.ext - Graphical QT toolkit extension component
 * gb.qt.kde - KDE integration and scripting
 * gb.qt.kde.html - KDE web browser
 * gb.sdl - Library based on SDL
 * gb.sdl.image - 2D Library based on SDL
 * gb.sdl.sound - Sound library based on SDL
 * gb.vb - Visual Basic compatibility
 * gb.xml.libxml - XML tools based on libxml
 * gb.xml.libxml.rpc - XML-RPC client based on libxml and libcurl
 * gb.xml.libxml.xslt - XSLT tools based on libxslt

Add some new components
You can load new components using by going to the main Project window and selecting Project > Properties.

Now, choosing the Components tab, you'll find a selectable list of the Gambas components. Tick the ones you want, untick the ones you don't.

You'll also be shown a hint with the name of the additional controls e.g.: QT when you load gb.qt.ext.

List of the Gambas components

 * gb
 * Gambas internal native classes
 * gb.compress
 * Compression library
 * gb.db
 * Database access component
 * gb.debug
 * Gambas application debugger helper
 * gb.eval
 * Gambas expression evaluator
 * gb.net
 * Networking component
 * Controls: DnsClient, ServerSocket, SerialPort, Socket, UdpSocket
 * gb.qt
 * Graphical QT toolkit component
 * Controls: Label, TextLabel, PictureBox, ProgressBar, Button, CheckBox, RadioButton, ToggleButton, ToolButton, TextBox, ComboBox, TextArea, ListBox, ListView, TreeView, IconView, GridView, ColumnView, HBox, VBox, HPanel, VPanel, Frame, Panel, TabStrip, ScrollView, DrawingArea, Timer
 * gb.qt.editor
 * Gambas editor with syntax highlighting
 * Controls: GambasEditor
 * gb.qt.ext
 * Graphical QT toolkit extension component
 * Controls: LCDNumber, Dial, SpinBox, ScrollBar, Slider, MovieBox, TableView, HSplit, VSplit, Workspace, TextView
 * gb.qt.kde
 * KDE integration and scripting
 * Controls: URLLabel, ColorBox, DatePicker

Experimental Components
WARNING: These are in the BETA stage of development and might be changed at any time.

 * gb.qt.kde.html
 * KDE web browser
 * gb.vb
 * Visual Basic compatibility
 * gb.xml.libxml
 * XML tools based on libxml
 * gb.xml.libxml.rpc
 * XML-RPC client based on libxml and libcurl
 * gb.xml.libxml.xslt
 * XSLT tools based on libxslt

title: Gambas/Components


text:
Gambas/Grid

Back to Gambas

Introduction
A grid has rows and columns. They have width and height. You can fill a grid with text, numbers or even a picture.

Example 1
You need a new form to get the program going. On this form you place a gridview, which you can find in your toolbox. There should be a picture x.png in your directory. Otherwise it wont be shown. There wont be an error message, when it is not found.

Create a Grid without the Toolbox
The grid ist creatable. How it is done shows the little example.

You just need a empty form to get the program going.

Properties of the grid

BackColor  Background  Border  ClientH  ClientHeight  ClientW  ClientWidth  Column  Columns  Current  Cursor

Design  Drop  Enabled  Expand  Font  ForeColor  Foreground  Grid  H  Handle  Height  Id  Left  Mouse  Parent  Row

Rows  ScreenX  ScreenY  ScrollBar  Tag  ToolTip  Top  Visible  W  Width  Window  X  Y  Methods

Clear  Delete  Drag  Grab  Hide  Lower  Move  Raise  Refresh  Resize  SetFocus  Show Events Activate  Click  DblClick  Drag  DragMove  Drop  Enter  GotFocus  KeyPress  KeyRelease  Leave  LostFocus Menu  MouseDown  MouseMove  MouseUp  MouseWheel  Scroll

Fill the grid with some values
You have a list of values and you want to have them in a grid. The example shows you a solution. Still not very nice and with some German words in it.

You need the following controls:
 * 1 Textarea
 * 1 Gridview
 * 2 Commandbuttons

The code

When you push button1, then the textarea is filled with values. When you push button2, they will be placed in the grid.

You can improve this program if you want. It looks a little newbee like.

title: Gambas/Grid


text:
Gambas/Dialogue

back to Gambas

Standard Dialogs
They make your coding easier.

In the following example you will use standard dialogues choosing Standarddialoge für die Wahl
 * the font
 * the colour
 * the file name
 * the file path

You need 1 textarea and 3 commandbuttons, to get the program going.

PUBLIC SUB Button1_Click IF Dialog.SelectFont THEN RETURN Textarea1.Font = Dialog.Font END PUBLIC SUB Button2_Click IF Dialog.SelectColor THEN RETURN Textarea1.Background = Dialog.Color END PUBLIC SUB Button3_Click Dialog.SaveFile File.Save(Dialog.Path, TextArea1.Text) CATCH IF ERROR THEN RETURN END

Properties
Color Filter  Font  Path  Title

Methods
OpenFile SaveFile  SelectColor  SelectDirectory  SelectFont

title: Gambas/Dialogue


text:
Cookbook:Smore (Eurasian Beef Stew)

This is an Eurasian dish, not to be confused with the American dessert made with toasted marshmallows (s'mores).

Marinating

 * 300 g beef shank
 * ¼ teaspoon bicarbonate of soda
 * 2 tablespoons ground pepper
 * 1 teaspoon salt
 * 1 teaspoon sugar
 * 2 tablespoons vinegar
 * 4 tablespoons dark soya sauce
 * 2 tablespoons oil
 * 420 ml water

Cooking

 * 3 onions
 * 5 cloves garlic
 * 1 thumb-sized piece ginger, julienned
 * 10 cm piece cinnamon, rinsed
 * 100 g small carrots, peeled and sliced diagonally
 * 3 potatoes, peeled and quartered
 * 1 tomato, quartered
 * Spam (optional)
 * Chicken hot dogs (optional)
 * 1 sprig coriander leaves, leaves plucked

Marinating

 * 1) Wash and cut beef into 2.5 cm chunks.
 * 2) Drain in colander.
 * 3) Combine beef with bicarbonate of soda, pepper, salt, sugar, vinegar and dark soya sauce.
 * 4) Leave for 30 minutes to marinate.

Cooking

 * 1) Grind onions and garlic together.
 * 2) Soak carrots and potatoes in water.
 * 3) Heat oil in a pot. When hot, fry ground onion and garlic, shredded ginger, and cinnamon until the onions are brown and fragrant.
 * 4) Add marinated beef. Fry until meat changes color.
 * 5) Add water and simmer until meat is tender. Stir occasionally to prevent meat from sticking to pot. Add more water if gravy is too thick, and season accordingly.
 * 6) Add carrots and cook for 5 minutes.
 * 7) Add potatoes and cook until soft.
 * 8) Add tomato. If you like, you may add a tin of Spam luncheon meat, cut into thick slices or chicken franks at this step.
 * 9) Garnish with coriander leaves and serve.

title: Cookbook:Smore (Eurasian Beef Stew)


text:
Cookbook talk:Smore (Eurasian Beef Stew)

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:38, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2004-12-23T10:12:59Z] SK
 * [2004-12-23T10:23:09Z] Fvw ( is there anywhere we can transwiki this or is it a vfd? )
 * [2004-12-23T10:24:40Z] SK
 * [2004-12-23T10:39:24Z] Vague Rant ( Move to Wikibooks. )

Sodium bicarb & vinegar
how do you mix the two? The recipe must be incomplete without an explanation how these two conflicting, chemically reacting ingredients can ever be used at one time. --Tar-ba-gan (talk) 23:05, 24 August 2009 (UTC)


text:
Cookbook:Semolina Minestrone

Ingredients

 * 1 qt stock
 * 3 oz semolina
 * Parmesan, grated

Procedure

 * 1) Bring the stock to a boil in a saucepan.
 * 2) Add semolina very gradually, stirring to keep it from getting lumpy.
 * 3) Cook until the semolina is soft.
 * 4) Serve with grated Parmesan.

title: Cookbook:Semolina Minestrone


text:
Cookbook talk:Semolina Minestrone

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:41, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-02-25T15:51:15Z] Conversion script ( Automated conversion )
 * [2003-08-10T05:16:42Z] Big Bob the Finder ( Update of "ancient" entries )
 * [2004-09-18T15:59:32Z] Anthony DiPierro
 * [2004-11-16T14:37:54Z] Phil Boswell ( Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax )
 * [2004-11-16T22:58:48Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-21T17:43:15Z] Lord KRISHNA ( added link to semolina and parmesan )
 * [2004-11-26T01:58:19Z] Aranel
 * [2004-11-26T01:59:31Z] Aranel

title: Cookbook talk:Semolina Minestrone


text:
Cookbook:Rice and Cabbage Minestrone

Ingredients

 * Cabbage
 * Stock
 * 2 ounces boiled rice
 * Ham
 * Tomato sauce

Procedure

 * 1) Cut off the stalk and all the hard outside leaves of a cabbage, wash it, and cut it up.
 * 2) Drain cabbage and cook it in good stock.
 * 3) Add boiled rice, a little chopped ham, and a few spoonfuls of tomato sauce.

title: Cookbook:Rice and Cabbage Minestrone


text:
Cookbook talk:Rice and Cabbage Minestrone

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:44, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-02-25T15:51:15Z] Conversion script ( Automated conversion )
 * [2003-08-10T05:16:57Z] Big Bob the Finder ( Update of "ancient" entries )
 * [2004-09-18T15:59:35Z] Anthony DiPierro
 * [2004-09-28T02:01:50Z] 68.35.91.72
 * [2004-09-28T02:57:02Z] Tom- ( Reverted edits by 68.35.91.72 to last version by Anthony DiPierro )
 * [2004-11-16T14:39:18Z] Phil Boswell ( Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax )
 * [2004-11-16T22:59:11Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-26T01:58:29Z] Aranel
 * [2004-11-26T01:59:19Z] Aranel ( template )


text:
Cookbook:Roman Soup

Ingredients

 * 4 oz (115 g) breadcrumbs
 * Stock
 * 3.5 oz (100 g) butter
 * 2 eggs
 * Chopped parsley
 * Salt
 * Nutmeg
 * 2 tbsp flour
 * 1 tbsp grated Parmesan cheese

Procedure

 * 1) Soak the breadcrumbs in a little stock.
 * 2) Combine the butter, eggs, soaked breadcrumbs, a little chopped parsley, salt, and a pinch of nutmeg.
 * 3) Reduce this, then add flour and Parmesan cheese.
 * 4) Form this mixture into little quenelles, and boil them in stock for a few minutes.
 * 5) Put them into a tureen and pour a good clear soup over them.

title: Cookbook:Roman Soup


text:
Talk:How To Assemble A Desktop PC

Overclocking AND UNDERCLOCKING?
I noticed that there was nothing about Underclocking in the Overclocking section - not everybody wants to overclock, as some of you should know. I think it would be appropiate to add some stuff about underclocking (which, if I'm correct, is basically overclocking with a few different steps in - nevertheless, someone might get confused, etc.)

Also, if we do decide to put more information about underclocking a CPU in the same section as Overclocking, should we change the title of that section to "Overclocking/Underclocking"? --Aurora98 (talk) 03:00, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

About the merge
Ok, but why the book main page threatens with merge suggestion message? --Derbeth talk 16:52, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

 * The Computer Hardware book may have a bit more to offer than the How To Assemble A Desktop PC for computer harware but How To Assemble A Desktop PC is better overall. The merger is to move Computer Hardware into this book and not the other way round. Klingoncowboy4 19:05, 6 November 2006 (UTC)
 * It makes no sense to merge this article with computer hardware. The two subjects are completely different. Building a desktop computer deals with only internal hardware, not external hardware. It would cause confusion to put a subject completely about internal hardware and assembly into an article that deals with both internal and external hardware.
 * I don't think that they should put computer hardware into this because it is not really about learning all about hardware, it is about learning how to build a computer and it might get you off track and thinking about something else. Studyfreak101
 * The merge proposal is from August 2006, nearly coming on 3 years ago now. If hasn't happened yet I think its safe to say it isn't going to happen now. Besides it makes zero sense, there scopes and audiences are entirely different. I'm going to remove the merger tags now. --dark lama  22:23, 4 June 2009 (UTC)

Image copyrights
Should we ask Mark Headrick for permission to copy his pictures and instructions ? Mark Headrick http://www.abbeyclock.com/computer.html

 * I'm not sure what contry he is in, but in America, anything is copyrighted once it is made. So we must ask him if we want to use it.

 * Those pictures would make a nice addition to this guide, so I don't see why it would hurt to ask him. Howerver, when I make a computer this summer, I plan on talking plenty of pictures. Reub2000 06:28, 27 May 2005 (UTC)

Featured book
This is almost featured book!--Kozuch (talk) 23:24, 22 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Only if you want to hold it up as an example of bad writing and bad editing. I examined a few sections on component selection and made some edits. The style, syntax, punctuation and grammar are just plain awful.  There are serious errors in terminology and unexplained use of jargon and acronyms.  Some topics are poorly covered, if at all.  One only sees publications of this low quality in the self-published genre, not from reputable publishing houses. —QuicksilverT @ 07:26, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

ESD
should add more detail (and be more specific) about what components can be damaged (MB, CPU, RAM, GPU, etc...) and the ones that can't be damaged (ODD, HDD, PSU, LCD, etc...)

should also add info about Static "Prone" Clothing and what "Discrete Electronic Components" are - normal people (like me) don't know this kind of stuff (the reason why I am writing all of this) AND DON'T LEAVE OPEN-ENDED ANSWERS! you aren't liable for the information as long as you provide references (yeah, I hate talking to techies because they ALWAYS do that - just because they don't actually know anything)

the one thing I hate about this WikiBook, is that it's way too "hollow" - need some "solid" information here

PCBs & ICs (MB, CPU, RAM, GPU, etc...) about how if they are enclosed (Electro Static Discharge safe), they are protected - and if they are exposed (Electrostatic Sensitive Device), they are not protected

and that the correct method/technique for handling PCBs and ICs is to hold them by the edges/sides

 * also how, many manufacturers of RAM are now making them encased in what appears (atleast to me) to be some kind of ESD protection - it's actually a heatsink/cooling-system

 * Graphics Cards (GPU) are also sold with their own cooling system - this provides ESD protection to one side of it (lower side to bring cool air up - hot air rises)

-- 115.64.47.34 (talk) 08:52, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

 * I hope you're not trying to contribute to this project, if what you wrote here is an example of your style. It looks positively psychotic! —QuicksilverT @ 07:30, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

 * On the contrary, I hope this "115.64.47.34" person makes many valuable contributions to this project. I'd rather have much good information in a oddball style than a perfectly-styled "book" with hardly any useful information. Get the information first, and then worry about style later. ( Wikipedia:WP:IMPERFECT, Wikipedia:WP:DONOTDEMOLISH, Wikipedia:WP:WORKINPROGRESS ). --DavidCary (discuss • contribs) 02:45, 9 April 2012 (UTC)

Contents
Please note. 2601:2C4:0:8910:6DF6:BD09:27F2:9554 (discuss) 00:32, 27 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:How To Assemble A Desktop PC


text:
Cookbook talk:Roman Soup

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:50, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-02-25T15:51:15Z] Conversion script ( Automated conversion )
 * [2003-09-24T21:46:47Z] 129.219.147.24 ( Update of "ancient" entries )
 * [2004-01-20T07:26:11Z] Hephaestos
 * [2004-08-02T15:36:10Z] Burschik ( added category )
 * [2004-09-18T16:00:18Z] Anthony DiPierro
 * [2004-11-16T22:59:30Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-17T11:08:02Z] Jarich ( Please return the favour by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax )
 * [2004-11-23T21:03:11Z] Wolf530 ( Needs to be moved to Wikibooks, a more appropriate location for recipes. )
 * [2004-11-26T01:58:55Z] Aranel
 * [2004-12-09T20:13:27Z] 217.44.65.94

title: Cookbook talk:Roman Soup


text:
Talk:Guide to Unix/Commands/File System Utilities

Talk from Transwiki:Rm (Unix)
This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:52, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-12-17T04:30:07Z] 68.21.41.19 ( Preliminary Creation )
 * [2002-12-24T06:09:20Z] Nate Silva ( copyedit, full sentences )
 * [2002-12-24T06:09:49Z] Nate Silva ( MS-DOS del command )
 * [2003-11-03T10:12:04Z] Dysprosia ( Its usage is considered potentially more dangerous than equivalents in other operating systems because of the way Unix and Unix-like systems parse wildcards and names of special directories and in )
 * [2003-11-03T10:12:33Z] Dysprosia ( fix link (silly me) )
 * [2003-11-18T13:16:12Z] Plasmagunman ( interwiki )
 * [2003-11-18T13:16:28Z] Plasmagunman ( interwiki )
 * [2003-11-23T01:13:00Z] Naddy ( typo )
 * [2004-02-17T20:40:34Z] 68.163.137.12
 * [2004-02-17T20:42:03Z] 68.163.137.12
 * [2004-02-17T20:44:48Z] 68.163.137.12
 * [2004-03-25T14:41:11Z] Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason ( Elaborated on why rm is not a effective tool to obliterate sensetive data )
 * [2004-04-26T14:20:01Z] Tannin
 * [2004-05-07T01:46:35Z] 64.12.116.144
 * [2004-05-07T01:49:16Z] 159.83.183.9 ( reverting to revision as of 14:20, 26 Apr 2004 )
 * [2004-06-29T11:50:36Z] 203.220.142.164 ( warn that the example can be destructive )
 * [2004-07-02T04:07:40Z] 24.16.3.74 ( /* Options */ )
 * [2004-08-05T21:29:28Z] Ponder
 * [2004-08-21T07:58:15Z] RedWolf
 * [2004-08-23T21:02:32Z] SimonP
 * [2004-08-24T12:29:26Z] Austin Hair ( Revert displacement by SimonP. )
 * [2004-11-27T22:51:19Z] Mikkalai
 * [2004-12-06T19:01:21Z] Argv ( Point German link to "rm (Unix)", was pointing to disambiguation )

Should ln and unlink be included here?


text:
Transwiki:How to distinguish a monocot from a dicot

Monocots and dicots are the two broad groups of flowering plants (Division Magnoliophyta). While it is generally easy to distinguish most dicots and monocots from one another, the basis for the split in classification is a characteristic of the developing embryo, a feature that is no longer observable on the adult plant unless one can access the internal structure of a seed. Therefore, the following characteristics can be applied in the absence of knowledge about the cotyledon. However, be mindful that no 'single' characteristic will absolutely distinguish a dicot from a monocot, other than by definition monocots have one cotyledon and dicots have two. In general, monocots are simpler in structure than dicots, although monocots evolved from dicots.

Stem
In monocot stems, the vascular tissues — the phloem and xylem — are in bundles scattered throughout the stem, and they typically lack a vascular cambium. In dicot stems, the phloem and xylem are in rings around each other. They nearly always have cambium. Despite a pine's stem structure resemblance to dicots, it is neither a dicot nor a monocot. A pine is a conifer, which is not a flowering plant at all.

Partly as a consequence of the arrangement of the vascular tissue, in monocots, there is very little new phloem and xylem added to the stem. Thus, monocot stems do not grow significantly thicker each year. Any change in thickness is due to the cells getting slightly larger. For this reason there are very few monocot trees (palms being an important exception). On the other hand, dicot stems can add new vascular tissue and thus grow thicker with time. Most flowering trees are dicots.

Root
In monocot roots, the phloem and xylem alternate like the spokes of a wheel. In dicot roots, there is a single, X-shaped mass of xylem at the centre, with phloem between the arms of the X. Throughout the whole plant, monocots have more vascular tissue than dicots of similar size. Monocot roots grow from nodules on the stem, forming prop roots if close to the surface. In dicots, root growth is from the apical meristem, and often centered around a tap root.

Leaf
The veins in monocot leaves are usually parallel, although palmate (arising from a common point at the base of the leaf) vein patterns are common. Dicot leaves have a branching pinnate vein network, rather like a feather, but can also be palmate.

Flower
Monocot flowers have flower parts in multiples of three. Dicot flower parts are in multiples of four or five. Monocot pollen has a single pore on the outer layer. This means it is monosulcate. Dicot pollen is triporate. In other words, it has three pores on the stem..


text:
Transwiki talk:How to distinguish a monocot from a dicot

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 20:59, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-10-22T17:56:00Z] 208.181.90.67 ( 7 differences and a table )
 * [2002-10-24T15:35:32Z] Robert Foley ( spelling )
 * [2003-01-03T14:52:46Z] 216.20.1.217
 * [2003-01-03T14:55:36Z] 216.20.1.216
 * [2003-01-03T14:56:20Z] 216.20.1.212
 * [2003-01-03T15:02:47Z] 216.20.1.217
 * [2003-01-03T15:10:37Z] TUF-KAT ( reverting to Robert Foley's version )
 * [2003-01-22T15:05:06Z] 66.222.25.105
 * [2003-02-28T03:10:06Z] Gaz
 * [2003-03-19T22:55:35Z] Robert Foley ( added stuff )
 * [2003-04-01T00:12:35Z] CatherineMunro
 * [2003-04-01T00:16:18Z] Goatasaur ( wiki monocot and dicot )
 * [2003-04-01T00:16:30Z] Goatasaur
 * [2003-05-06T06:18:01Z] 68.5.87.191
 * [2003-05-25T10:44:23Z] Menchi ( Wikify further: flowering plants )
 * [2003-08-30T02:27:40Z] Marshman ( Copy edit; wikify some terms )
 * [2003-08-30T02:36:20Z] Marshman ( Add palmate pattern for mionocot leaf veins )
 * [2003-08-30T02:41:39Z] Marshman ( Fix two links )
 * [2003-08-30T03:42:49Z] Menchi ( typo; Wikify; rephrase; subheadings )
 * [2003-09-11T04:23:01Z] Marshman ( Fix link >> stem )
 * [2003-12-16T01:57:01Z] Dante Alighieri ( sp )
 * [2003-12-19T17:52:37Z] 24.94.82.245 ( Copy edits )
 * [2004-02-24T15:49:05Z] Robbot ( Andre Engels - Robot-assisted disambiguation: Biological cell )
 * [2004-03-12T16:46:31Z] 82.83.139.111
 * [2004-03-12T16:46:59Z] 82.83.139.111
 * [2004-03-28T08:51:29Z] Fabiform ( link pore )
 * [2004-05-04T15:43:33Z] 164.106.153.124
 * [2004-08-19T05:55:01Z] Chinasaur ( /* Leaf */ )
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 * [2004-10-20T14:46:53Z] Stan Shebs
 * [2004-11-07T02:21:11Z] Jiang


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Set Theory/Naive Set Theory

In the late 19th century, when Cantor proved his theorem and mathematicians' understanding of infinity developed, set theory was not the rigorously axiomatised subject it is today. It relied upon woolly intuitions about what sets were and their relationship with their members. This lack of rigour led to several paradoxes.

In Naive Set Theory, something is a set if and only if it is a well-defined collection of objects. Sets count as objects. A member is anything contained in a set. Any two sets containing precisely the same members are the same set (Principle of Extensionality).

Russell's Paradox
One of the most celebrated paradoxes is Russell's. Bertrand Russell, the English philosopher and logician, discovered this paradox in 1901. It centres on the set containing all and only those sets that do not contain themselves. It is impossible to answer the question 'does this set contain itself?' without running into a contradiction. If it contains itself, it is by definition a set that does not contain itself - contradiction. If it does not contain itself, it is a set that does not contain itself and so should contain itself - contradiction. A parallel semantic paradox is the Barber's paradox. The Barber shaves everyone in town who does not shave himself and only those people. Does the Barber shave himself? If so, he is not someone who does not shave himself. If he does not, he should. In this case, the Barber's contract is inconsistent and so, by analogy, is the Naive Set Theory upon which Russell's paradox is constructed.

Cantor's Paradox
The explanation of this paradox is somewhat technical but brief and some readers may therefore prefer to return to it later.

A set A is a subset of another set B iff all the members of the A are members of the B. Hence, all sets are subsets of themselves. Also, the empty set, Ø or {}, the set containing no members, is a subset of any set, since all of its members are also members of any other set (since it has no members). A proper subset of a set is a subset that is not the set itself. The Powerset of a set is the set of all the subsets of that set. For example, the Powerset of the empty set is the set containing the empty set, {Ø}. Note that this set is different from the empty set: {Ø} has a member (Ø); Ø has none.

In 1873, Cantor proved that the Powerset of any set is larger than that set (Cantor's Theorem). This may seem obvious for finite sets, but the matter is less perspicuous when infinite sets are considered. For the time being, an infinite set will be said to be a set that has the same size as one of its proper subsets, and two sets are said to be the same size or equinumerous if and only if there exists a bijection between them (there is a unique member of the first for every member of the second and a unique member of the second for every member of the first). The set of natural numbers {1,2,3,...}, for example, is infinite. It has a proper subset {2,4,6,...}, the even numbers, but for every member of the set of natural numbers (i.e. for every natural number) there is a member of the set of even numbers and vice versa. This is because every natural number can be doubled, resulting in an even number (i.e. every natural number can be assigned some unique member of the set of even numbers) and every even number can be halved, assigning to it a unique member of the set of natural numbers. If two sets are equinumerous, there is a means of pairing each member of the first with the second such that every member of the first set appears in the first position of precisely one pair and every member of the second set appears in the second position of precisely one pair (ordered pairs are not subject to the principle of extensionality:  does not equal  if a does not equal c). So, for {1,2,3...} and {2,4,6...} there are the pairs <1,2>, <2,4>, <3,6>, etc. The set of all such pairs is a function (and a bijection).

Proof of Cantor's Theorem rests upon the notions thus described. The proof described here is reductio ad absurdum, i.e. the negation of what is to be proved is assumed true; the proof shows that such an assumption is inconsistent.

Suppose that a set A is equinumerous with its Powerset PA. Hence there is a bijection g from A to PA. Let g(x) be the member of PA (i.e. a subset of A) associated with a member x of A. Since A is assumed to be equinumerous with PA, for every member y of PA there is a member x of A such that y = g(x). Let B be the subset of A such that any member x of B is not a member of g(x) (remember g(x) will be some subset of A). Hence there is no x that is a member of A and g(x) = B. If there was, either it would be a member of B or not. If x was a member of B, it would be a member of g(x) and so would not be a member of B - contradiction. If it was not, it would not be a member of g(x) and so would be a member of B - contradiction (note the similarity with Russell's paradox used to show this contradiction). However, B is a member of PA (since B is a subset of A) and so there should be some x such that g(x) = B. This contradiction completes the proof. For any set, there is always some subset that cannot be assigned uniquely one of the members of that set.

The paradox follows as an extension of the theorem. Consider the set containing everything, all sets, trees, people, planets, stalagmites, numbers, calculators and so on. According to the theorem, the Powerset of this set is larger than it. However, if this is so, the set of everything must have missed something out, since there is a set which is larger than it and so contains something else besides.

Richard's and Berry's Paradoxes
Consider the set containing all natural numbers that are definable in English in fewer than twenty syllables. It will contain twenty-six (only three syllables), the two-millionth prime number (only seven syllables) and ten raised to the ten raised to the ten raised to the ten raised to the ten plus fourteen (nineteen syllables). Since there are only a finite number of syllables and a definition must be finite in length, this set must be finite in size. It will be a proper subset of the set containing all arrangements of nineteen or fewer syllables; in particular, it is the set containing those arrangements that define a natural number. Since this set has only a finite number of members, it must have a largest member (but observe that infinite sets need not, e.g. the set of natural numbers).

Consider the number defined by: the least number not definable in English in twenty syllables. This number is the smallest number not in the set; yet it is definable in fewer than twenty syllables, for it has just been defined in eighteen! This is Berry's paradox, proposed by Berry in 1906 as a simplified version of Richard's paradox, which is as below.

Consider all the numbers between 0 and 1 that can be designated in a finite number of words. For example, 0.33333333... is designated by 'a third'. 'The ratio between the lengths of the side and the diagonal of a square', is another example. Arranging all such numbers lexicographically shows that it comprises a denumerable set. Listing all such numbers in some order is hence possible. However, there is a number p that differs in its kth place to every kth number in the listing. Hence it appears nowhere in the listing, yet it should, for it has just been described in a finite number of words.

Richard's and Berry's paradoxes arise through sloppy use of terms such as definability and designatability and the inclusion of self-reference. No such carelessness is possible in Axiomatic Set Theory.

title: Set Theory/Naive Set Theory


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Cookbook talk:Veal Gravy Soup

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 21:01, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * [2002-03-28T05:46:30Z] 62.98.249.56 ( * )
 * [2002-03-28T09:34:14Z] Szopen ( see wikipedia cookbook )
 * [2003-11-11T19:11:14Z] Big Bob the Finder ( Update of "ancient" entries )
 * [2004-09-18T16:05:15Z] Anthony DiPierro
 * [2004-11-12T03:54:38Z] Rholton
 * [2004-11-16T21:44:23Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-16T21:45:37Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-16T21:47:52Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-20T11:15:34Z] Rbrwr ( wikify; add intro stating the obvious )
 * [2004-11-26T01:59:40Z] Aranel

title: Cookbook talk:Veal Gravy Soup


text:
Cookbook:Vegetable Soup

| Soups

Vegetable soup is a soup made from vegetables. Many different recipes and variations are possible.

Ingredients

 * 1 onion
 * 1 turnip
 * 1 potatoes, pared
 * 1 carrot
 * 1 head of celery
 * 3 pints water
 * 1 slice of bread, toasted and buttered

Procedure

 * 1) Boil the onion, turnip, potatoes, carrot, and celery in the water until the vegetables are cooked.
 * 2) Insert the bread into a bowl. Pour the soup over it.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * Tomatoes also make a welcome addition to the soup.

sr:Кувар:Чорба од поврћа

title: Cookbook:Vegetable Soup


text:
Cookbook talk:Vegetable Soup

This page was transwikied from en.wikipedia.org. List of contributors: 216.177.2.36 21:03, 23 Jan 2005 (UTC)
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 * [2003-03-24T08:03:04Z] JohnOwens ( typo )
 * [2004-09-18T16:06:21Z] Anthony DiPierro
 * [2004-11-16T21:45:21Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-16T21:48:14Z] 198.164.135.108
 * [2004-11-20T11:44:01Z] Rbrwr ( wikify. state the obvious )
 * [2004-11-26T02:00:17Z] Aranel

title: Cookbook talk:Vegetable Soup