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The Computer Revolution/Networks/Wired Communications Media

Wired Communications Media
RESERVED FOR GROUP 2

Wires & Cables - An Introduction to Wired Communications Media

Media whether its contains wires or it is wireless allows two or more people to connect with one another without being physically present (William.B & Sawyer.S, 2007. Using Information Technology. The McGraw-Hill Publishing Inc: New York). Prior to the technological age there were only two types of media we could use to communicate. These two types of media were radio and the telephone. This communication takes place as channels carry signals through a path ((William.B & Sawyer.S, 2007. Using Information Technology. The McGraw-Hill Publishing Inc: New York). ).  In order for this traveling signal to take place there are three types of media that are used to facilitate communication. 1)	Twisted-Pair Wire(s) 2)	Coaxial Cable(s) 3)	Fiber-Optic Cable(s)

Twisted Pair Wire(s)

A twisted pair wire is a copper wire that connects your personal computer at home or at work to the telephone line (http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213234,00.html). It is called a twisted wire because two wires that are insulated to prevent wirecrossing are twisted together. Have you ever been on the phone to a friend and all of a sudden you pick up someone elses conversation? Many of you have and this may be due to a snag or untwist of the twisted copper pair wire. The insulation and twist help reduce the telephone lines from crossing (William.B & Sawyer.S, 2007. Using Information Technology. The McGraw-Hill Publishing Inc: New York). Since the twisted pair wire is made of copper it is deemed to be the least expensive media communication tool (http://www.tpub.com/content/istts/14224/css/14224_28.htm). The frequency at which it carriers communication signals is relatively slow in comparison to the other medias averaging at carrying data at 1-128 megabits per second (William.B & Sawyer.S, 2007. Using Information Technology. The McGraw-Hill Publishing Inc: New York). ).

Coaxial
A coaxial cable is armored cable with a sheathed plastic that contains two concentric conductors or wires. One is typically an inner cooper straight wire covered with a sheathed plastic (insulation) and the second wire is typically a mesh shielding protected with an outer insulation of plastic. It is also known as a co-ax. This design provides the coaxial cable with a special advantage: electrical interference is reduced because the two conductors are shielded and confined separately.

Its main uses are in transmission lines to carry signal or data. Coaxial cables are used primarily for TV standard-definition connection to transfer television signal, and for computer network (internet connection) such as Ethernet to carry data. Because is much less susceptible to interference, it might carry much more data. Also, it is used to carry radio signal, video signal, and measurement signal.

Coaxial cable was invented in 1929 and first used commercially in 1941. AT&T established its first cross-continental coaxial transmission system in 1940. Depending on the carrier technology used and other factors, twisted pair copper wire and optical fiber are alternatives to coaxial cable. (retrieved on December 6, 2006 from http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci211806,00.html)

(http://www.epanorama.net/documents/wiring/coaxcable.html. (http://www.pbase.com/dlcmh/coaxial_cables)

Wired Comm Media for Homes

Computers, peripherals and other equipment in your home maybe linked in a home network. Given the geographic proximity of these in the same building, it is possible to connect the many devices using Local Area Network (LAN) technologies. Furthermore, this connectivity has traditionally been achieved through wired technologies such as Ethernet, HomePNA and HomePlug. The following discussion will focus on the Ethernet for home networks.

The latter two, HomePNA (HPNA) and HomePlug, utilize the home’s existing telephone or electrical wiring, respectively, for the basis of the home network. A home network which relies on Ethernet, however, requires a common “medium” or cables and, depending upon desired transmission speed and number of units or interconnections required, as well as the selected network “typological configuration and structure”, wired LANs or Ethernet segments generally also require central devices such as a “repeater” (or hub), a bridge, a router and/or switches  (Williams, B.K. & S.C. Sawyer, 2007, Using Information Technology: A Practical Introduction to Computers & Communications,  7th ed.,  Montreal: McGraw-Hill Irwin, p. 326;  http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet6.htm,  http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet4.htm, http://webopedia/com/TERM/E/Ethernet/html, http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/Topics/59.htm, Mitchell, B. @ http://wireless/about/com/cs/homenetworking/a/homewiredless.htm and http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438 All Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

Ethernet adapter cards are relatively inexpensive, but most computers are equipped with Ethernet capabilities, thereby eliminating the need for this internal hardware purchase. Hubs also add little to the cost of each connection (Gilbert, H. @ http://pclt.cis.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/ETHER.HTM  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). Therefore, despite the need for cables and additional central devices or unit requirements, Ethernet is still a relatively inexpensive high speed LAN alternative that also offers superior performance and reliability. Although wireless technology is gaining in popularity, “… wired Ethernet has been the traditional choice in homes …” (Mitchell, B. @ http://wireless/about/com/cs/homenetworking/a/homewiredless.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). In fact, it has “… survived as the major LAN technology (it is currently used for approximately 85 percent of the world’s LAN-connected PCs and workstations …” (http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006) and is “… an international industry standard …”  (Bellis, M. @ http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa111598.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

Several types of cabling may be used to attach Ethernet devices, but a common medium must be provided as a path for the electronic signals. Historically, the medium was coaxial copper cable, but twisted pair or fiber optic cables are more common today (Pidgeon, N. @ http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet9.htm Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). These cable options have been discussed in greater detail above and a brief summary of Ethernet Cabling has been provided at http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/Topics/59.htm (Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). Type of media segments supported by Ethernet and the design rules have also been summarized at http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/lan-pages/enet.html (Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

Ethernet was “one of the pivotal technologies that made Local Area Networks possible …” (http://www.freesoft.org/CIE/Topics/60.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). There appears to be little dispute as to Robert (Bob) Metcalfe’s role in developing the first Ethernet network for Xerox Corporation and, despite changing technologies in computer networking, its operational mechanics still stem from his original design (Pidgeon, N. @ http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet3.htm Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). Its development was spurred by Xerox’s desire to share or network very expensive printers – most notably, the world’s first laser printer – at the company’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), thus enabling all their computers to print with this particular one (Bellis, M. @  http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa111598.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). This original method of cabling was developed as an “… experimental coaxial cable network … to operate with a data rate of 3 Mbps using a carrier sense multiple access collision detect (CSMA/CD) protocol for LANS with sporadic by occasionally heavy traffic requirements (http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

Gilbert (http://pclt.cis.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/ETHER/HTM Retrieved Nov 22, 2006) notes that the term “’Ethernet’ is generally reserved for a system that transmits 10 megabits per second with a round trip delay of 50 microseconds” and while it maybe true in older installations that it is supposed to be “… a single common medium with multiple connections … new  desktop installations bring Ethernet … over phone wire and frequently build the spine using fiber optics.”  In any case, “’Ethernet’ was a registered trademark of Xerox Corporation … and a second generation called Ethernet II … is often called DIX after its corporate sponsors Digital, Intel, and Xerox”  (Gilbert, H. @  http://pclt.cis.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/ETHER.HTM  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

One source indicated that “Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines what is commonly known as the CSMA/CD protocol” (http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). Pidgeon (http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet15.htm Retrieved Nov 22, 2006) explains that “… the term 802.3 [maybe] used in place of or in conjunction with the term Ethernet” and further noted that the term “… refers generically to both the DIX Ethernet implementation and the IEEE 802.3 standard”  (http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet9.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). This all stems from the fact that the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) created the so-called 802 working group or committee – named after the year and month of its formation (i.e., February 1980) – assigned with the task of developing formal international standards for all Local Area Network technology and, as a result, established various subcommittees to address different aspects of networking and in someway standardize network technologies (Gilbert, H. @ http://pclt.cis.yale.edu/pclt/COMM/ETHER.HTM and Pidgeon, N. @ http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet14.htm Both Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). The subgroup, 802.3, approved the draft standard in 1982 and published the official standard (i.e., ANSI/IEEE Std. 802.3-1985 – Hardware standards for Ethernet cards and cables) in 1985 and has subsequently added supplements to the standard in keeping with technological improvements, added network media, increased data rate capabilities and new network access features (http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438 and http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/lan-pages/enet.html  Both Retrieved Nov 22, 2006). In sum, the IEEE essentially “… standardized the operation of a CSMA/CD network that was functionally equivalent to the DIX Ethernet” (Pidgeon, N. @ http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ethernet14.htm  Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

Cisco Systems, Inc has presented a more in-depth and technical look at Ethernet. They have included topics such as the background and history of Ethernet technologies, network elements (node classes), typologies and structures, the ISO Reference Model, MAC sub-layers (frame format and their fields, frame transmission, access rules and access methods, flow control, frame reception, and tagging options), physical layers (signal transmission encoding and methods), and system considerations http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/ethernet.htm#wp1026438 (Retrieved Nov 22, 2006).

fiber optic cable
In almost one decade, fiber optic has become one of the most technological advances to transmit information. This innovated material has revolutionized the processes of the telecommunication.

The modern telecommunications use electricity, light or radio to send sounds, images and data. The fiber optic, instead of propagating sound waves, transmits data in form of light pulses with the great advantage which the luminous pulsations are transmitted without interruption. The transportation of information is by light waves not by electricity, this avoid the interefence of electrical noise and degradation of the signal. In conclusion, it is a medium for carrying data in the form of light.

One of the advantages of optical fiber system is that can carry the equivalent of an encyclopedia set (24 volumes, approximately 40 millions words) of information in a single second. Other benefits include long distance transmission of data (more than 100 kilometer), it is dielectric (non-conductivity), easy to install, and long continuous lengths (single-mode cable lengths up to 12 km) among others. (Retrieved on December 12,2006 from http://www.corningcablesystems.com/web/college/fibertutorial.nsf/introfro?OpenForm#)

The fiber optic consist of one or several thin fibers of glass or plastic of 50 to 125 micrometers of diameter, we can say that it more or less of the thickness of a hair. The fiber optic cable is made up of a cylindrical region called nucleus, through the light is propagated, the external zone of the coaxial nucleus is called coating. This coating is a plastic cover or made of other materials that protect it against the humidity.

There are two types of fiber optic:

1)multimode fiber is divided in two categories: Multimode step-index fiber: is used in the conventional transference of images, as well as in the data transmission in short distance.

Multimode grated-index fiber: the refrective index of nucleus gradually diminishes from center toward outside. This is optimal for intermediate distance.

2) single-mode fiber: is used for long distances and for the great speed in the transmission of the data.

http://www.fiber-optics.info/articles/fiber-types.htm

Communications networks are not the only ones who uses fiber optic. Nowadays in medicine this technology is used. The fiber optical is used in the surgeries, letting the doctors perform surgical operations with laser, they are faster and with reduced risks and complications. Today there three types of wired media now, fiber-optic, coaxial, and twisted pair. The primary advantage of a fiber-optic cable is speed and has been steadily increasing on the capacity to handle more data on the same medium. However the expense of this convenience can be a bit high. Not particularly for the cable, since it is silicon based, but for the installation and necessary hardware, like converters or repeaters.

Japan was at forefront of fiber-optic cable use but today these are present in most cities all over the world, and as fiber-optic cables become more common general prices will come down.


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The Computer Revolution/Computer Graphics/Paint

The most basic of computer graphics programs. This program is designed to be simple to use for users of the earliest age and has also been with Microsoft Windows from the earliest age. Paint is able to create image and saves them as .BMP (bitmap), .JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) .GIF (Graphic Interchange Format), .PNG (Portable Network Graphics) or .TIFF (Tagged Image File Format). Each format differs in the quality, some can have a high color depth images, such as a JPEG, or an 8 bit per pixel like the GIF format. For color photographs more people choose a JPEG format over GIF due to its quality.

Paint comes with the following options: free-form cut, 4 sides cut, an eraser that varies in 4 different sizes, a fill function, a tool to pick an existing color on your picture and replicate it, pencil, a brush, text, lines, zoom and 4 different shapes.

There is a menu function in Paint that can take and image and flip it, sketch it, invert the colors and more. There is also a choice for you to change your colors under the colors menu. You can choose new colors or different grades of existing colors.

As primitive as Paint is compared to all the computer graphics programs out there, paint is an excellent program to use for basic art such as pixel artists, or oekaki, which is Japanese for "to doodle".

Throughout the years paint has expanded its functions since the first Microsoft Paint and hopefully Microsoft will keep expanding and making it easier, but more challenging functions for those who wish to continue using it.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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The Computer Revolution/Communication/online

Communication online has exploded recently! with the emergence of many different instant messaging services such as MSN messenger and yahhoo Messenger, communication has taken off in a completely different direction in this day an age,, with these instant messeging devices you can talk to any one in the world that has an Internet connection directly and quickly with no cost at all, youths have taken an active interest in this as a way to keep in contact with friends and make plans for the weekend with numerous people at one time. Adults also enjoy this service as they can communicate with distant relatives and friends at no cost at all (provided you have and internet connection).

Also communication sites such as Nexopia and MySpace allow for you to set up your own portfolio and attract friends and set up your account with your likes and dislikes on it, as well as have your friends set up on your site and instant message them as well. This is also a craze with young adults to meet people around the world and create their own online social club! These sites also allow for prospective dating and friendships to occur as you can meet millions of new people at a click of a finger!

Communication has come a long way and the online communication is pushing the limits every day.

Unfortunately, there are negative aspects to online communication such as Cyber bullying. Cyber bullying is a common form of bullying; one which is committed via the Internet. Cyber bullying is most often committed against teenagers and or children, via social networking sites (such as Facebook or MySpace), email, text messages, or any or any other form of online networking. This has become a prevailing problem is the U.S. due to the growth of social network sites and or social media sites. Unfortunately, cyber bullying is said to affect one-half of U.S. teenagers and children.

Communication Forms over the Internet:
There are many different forms of communication over the internet these days besides e-mail. These different forms of communication help people stay connected with each other, or simply to just post a status of what they are doing. Some of these forms of communication include Texting (the main form of communication these days by most individuals) IM, Facebook/Twitter, Skype, or Message sex Board/Online Forum. Texting is form of communication by phone by typing a message and sending it to another cell phone instead of calling the person. IM (Instant Messaging) and Skype are both pretty similar, they allow you to have a conversation via the computer or your cell phone (if your phone has an app for it) by typing a message to people in your “friends list”. Facebook/Twitter are also both pretty similar. Facebook allows you to search for and reconnect with old friends or family members. They also allow you to post a status of what you’re doing or where you are which friends can see and comment on. Message Board/Online Forum is a place where people can post information on a particular topic for others to read and add comments or ideas to. Although these are all great forms of communication, I think people have forgotten the true form of communication, face to face or actually talking the individual.

Parker, D. M. (2011). Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow. Boston, MA: Course Technology. Cengage Learning.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Wattles

1. What is the approximate number of named varieties of wattles in Australia?
There are roughly 1300 species of Wattles worldwide,JPG|thumb|220px|Acacia koa with phyllode between the branch and the compound leaves]] Phyllodes are modified leaf stems (also called petioles). In some plants, the petioles become flattened and widened, and the true leaves may become reduced or vanish altogether. Thus, the phyllode comes to serve the purpose of the leaf. Phyllodes are common in the genus Acacia, especially the Australian species, at one time put in Acacia subgenus Phyllodineae. Sometimes, especially on younger plants, partially formed phyllodes bearing reduced leaves can be seen.

In Acacia koa, the phyllodes are leathery and thick, allowing the tree to survive stressful environments. The petiole allows partially submerged aquatic plants to have leaves floating at different depths; the petiole being between the node and the stem.

The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves.

Phyllodes are important in the study of Acacias because they are distinctive and can therefore be used to determine which species an Acacia belongs to.

 * Phyllode details are important as they are used as "key" characters in identification. Some important things to note are size and shape of the phyllodes, the type and number of veins, whether penni- or net-veins, length of leaf stalk and gland position. - Marion Simmons, Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants (ASGAP)

3. How are acacias classified into two major groups?
Acacia leaves come in two major forms: bipinnate, and phyllodes.

Pinnate leaves are compound, consisting of leaflets. The word pinnate comes from the Latin word pinna for "feather". In fact, the word pen shares this origin, as the first ink pens were made from feathers. In bipinnnate leaves, the leaflets have leaflets of their own, as in the top image to the right.

Phyllodes are modified petioles (leaf stems). In some plants, the petioles become flattened and widened, and the true leaves may become reduced or vanish altogether. Thus, the phyllode comes to serve the purpose of the leaf.

Some Acacia's have bipinnate foliage at the ends of the phyllodes. These are usually classed with the acacias with phyllodes.

4. How does the shape of the seed pod and the way the seeds lie in the pod help in identification?
Some species of acacia are difficult to tell apart. They may be identical in every other outward appearance, but have starkly (or subtly) different seed pods. For example Acacia farnesiana and Acacia pulchella look very much alike, but the seed pods are different.

Acacia pods may be curled, withered, straight, long, short, or in between. The seeds may lie in the pods sideways (transversal) or lengthwise (longitudinal).

5. How many acacias in your state have true leaves (bipinnate) when adults?
There are three subgenera of Acacias that retain bipinnate leaves when fully grown, namely Botrycephalae, Pulchellae, and Aculeiferum.

6 a. In seeding acacias what is seen first, true leaves or phyllodes? 6 b. How many have true leaves?
The first leaves to emerge from an acacia sprout are true leaves. In plants that will develop phyllodes, the true leaves persist until the plant is about a meter tall.

In Australia, the great majority of acacias develop phyllodes. For example, in New South Wales, which hosts 230 native species of acacias, only 17% have true leaves. However, acacias with phyllodes are native only to Australia.

7. What must happen to an acacia seed before it will germinate and grow?
Before an acacia seed can germinate, the seed coat must be cracked. This can happen by any of several methods, but fire is the most common. People who grow wattles can crack the seed coats themselves using a three-cornered file. Seed coats can also be cracked by being run over by heavy machinery during construction projects, or by other physical stresses.

8. What acacias phyllodes are used to feed stock in times of drought?
The phyllodes of the Acacia cyanophylla (Blue Leaf Wattle) have been used to feed sheep during times of drought.

Acacia aneura is known as the "King of Fodders".

Sheep and other livestock are exceedingly fond of Acacia pendula especially in times of drought. For this reason, it has nearly been extirpated from parts of the States.

9. What is the bark of some acacias used for in Australia?
The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), Acacia decurrens (Tan Wattle), Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle) and Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle).

10. What species of acacias are used for furniture making?
Most acacia species are used for valuable timber; such are Acacia melanoxylon (Blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and Acacia omalophylla (Myall Wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes.

Food uses
Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products.

In Burma, Laos and Thailand, the feathery shoots of Acacia pennata are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.

Honey made by bees using the acacia flower as forage is considered a delicacy, appreciated for its mild flowery taste, soft running texture and glass-like appearance. Acacia honey is one of the few honeys which does not crystallize.

Acacia is listed as an ingredient in Fresca, a citrus soft drink, and Barq's root beer, as well as in Läkerol pastille candies, Altoids mints, and Wrigley's Eclipse chewing gum.

Gum
Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of Acacia senegal, abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria.

Acacia arabica is the gum-Arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-Arabic.

Medicinal uses
Many Acacia species have important uses in traditional medicine. Most all of the uses have been shown to have a scientific basis, since chemical compounds found in the various species have medicinal effects. A 19th century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species of Acacia (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies. An astringent medicine, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract.

Ornamental uses
A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa.

Another ornamental acacia is Acacia xanthophloea (Fever Tree). Southern European florists use Acacia baileyana, Acacia dealbata, Acacia pycnantha and Acacia retinodes as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa.

Ornamental species of acacia are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security purposes. The sharp thorns of some species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls.

Paints
The ancient Egyptians used Acacia in paints.

Perfume
Acacia farnesiana is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of Acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries. In The Bible, burning of acacia wood as a form of incense is mentioned several times.

Other Uses
Acacia is also used for lumber and as a source of tannin, but these qualities are discussed elsewhere in this chapter, so we will only mention them here.

==12. Make a collection of 10 or more dried pressed wattles with flowers and phyllodes and where possible pods and seeds. Show dates, place collected, common and scientific names. Some must be spike type flowers, some raceme type or single balls and some bipinnate leaves. OR 20 or more close-up photographs you have taken of wattles showing the above details.== The best approach to this requirement is to go out into the field and find some wattles - then identify them. There are numerous books and CDRoms available for purchase that will help in identifying the various species. There are also a few dichotomous keys online, such as this one which are free (though not necessarily easy to use).


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The Computer Revolution/E commerce/Advertising

Advertising online is newest and greatest trend when it commerce to online commerce! With the emergence of online advertising businesses can advertise 24 hours a day 7 days a week, and thousands of websites if they're willing to pay the price! Advertising can be seen on the majority of websites promoting anything from sneakers to children's toys! Anything and everything can be advertised in this day and age over the internet. E-commerce has benefited and suffered from this in the following way: The benefits include the rampant accessibility of advertising places and forms, such as the different types of media can be used, anything you could imagine is being advertised with video, pictures, sounds, music, graphics and many more techniques have been used to grab the consumers' eye that have never been thought possible before! The drawbacks are that there is so much advertising nowadays that it's hard to really capture someone's attention online, we see thousand of advertisements when we are surfing the net and is hard to create that one that someone will remember, as well it drives up competition among e-commerce businesses due to the large amount of advertising that is out there that they must compete with!

E-Commerce Using Virtual Reality

A great method of e-commerce advertising is through virtual reality. Virtual reality is creating images or environments in three-dimensional on the computer to make it look realistic. By using virtual reality, consumers are able to look at the products on the computer exactly how they would in person. This also helps the suppliers because they are able to advertise in a newer and more advanced approach. A good example is when buying a new car; instead of having to drive from place to place looking at different cars, by searching on the website they offer will show the variety of colors at different angles. Virtual Reality is great advertising way for e-commerce.

Banner Ads.

The most popular form of on-line advertising is banner ads. A banner ad is a special sort of hypertext link. The link is displayed as a box containing graphics, usually with text elements, or animation. A Web server is instructed to bring up a particular Web page when a user clicks on the banner. Much like print ads, banner ads come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The Internet Advertising Bureau (IAB) specifies eight different banner sizes, according to pixel dimensions. The IAB's standard banner sizes are: •	486 x 60 Pixels (Full Banner) •	392 x 72 Pixels (Full Banner with Vertical Navigation Bar) •	234 x 60 Pixels (Half Banner) •	120 x 240 Pixels (Vertical Banner) •	125 x 125 Pixels (Square Button) •	120 x 90 Pixels (Button 1) •	120 x60 Pixels (Button 2) •	88 x 31 Pixels (Micro Button) (http://www.iab.net/iab_products_and_industry_services/508676/508767/ad_unit)

A full banner (486x60 pixels) is by far the most popular. The actual graphic content also varies greatly among banner ads. The simplest banner ads feature only one, static GIF or JPEG image which is linked to the advertiser’s home page. More common is the GIF-animated banner which displays several different images in succession, sometimes to create the effect of animation motion. Then there are rich media banner ads that use audio, video, or Java and Shockwave programming. These banner ads have larger file sizes and are usually interactive beyond their simple linking function.

Click Fraud

Click fraud is a term used within the advertising sector to describe violations in the legitimacy of a website's generated ad revenue. Businesses that pay to have their ad sponsored(or placed) on a website, that are required to pay a fixed amount each time it is clicked, are the major victims of this phenomenon. Competing businesses can use botnets(networks of remotely controlled computers) or their own machines to manually click their competitors' links and deplete their budget. The budget is wasted because none of the clicks were from legitimate users with an interest in the business. In an alternative scenario, the fraudulent clicks originate from the website hosting the sponsored links in order to generate more revenue for the owner.

Facebook's Impact on Advertising

Facebook's impact on advertising has been larger than anyone could've predicted. Advertising companies spend millions of dollars a year researching what demographic visited what website the most so that the placement of advertisements what as effective as possible. But with the emergence of Facebook, the risk was reduced by allowing businesses to have their advertisements reach exactly the target audience that they want. There are more than half a billion users on Facebook with all of their information on the site. A Facebook user is able to click 'Like' on many sites in order to express interest in a product,article, picture etc... That information is stored and used when determining what advertisement banners each Facebook is going to see. And a Facebook profile can be created for anything, such as:business, animal, product, service, so that someone can proactively pursue Facebook members and engage them with whatever they are trying to advertise.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Ferns

1. How are ferns different from flowering plants or trees?
Flowering plants (including trees) produce seeds, while ferns produce spores. A chief difference between spores and seeds is that spores have very little stored food resources compared with seeds, and thus require more favorable conditions in order to successfully germinate. Seeds, therefore, are more resistant to harsh conditions and require less energy. Spores are usually produced in large numbers to increase the chances of survival.

2. Where is the true stem of a fern? What part grows above the ground? What is the most favorable environment in which ferns grow?
(2.1)The true stem of a fern grows underground. (2.2)All of the above-ground parts of a fern are known collectively as the frond.

(2.3)Ferns usually grow in moist, shady woodland nooks

Ferns grow in a wide variety of habitats, from remote mountain elevations to dry desert rock faces to bodies of water to open fields. Ferns in general may be thought of as largely being specialists in marginal habitats, often succeeding in places where various environmental delimiters limit the success of flowering plants. On the other hand, some ferns are among the world's most serious weed species, such as the bracken growing in the British highlands, or the mosquito fern (Azolla) growing in tropical lakes. There are four particular types of habitats that are often key places to find ferns: the afore-mentioned moist, shady forest cove; the sheltered rock face, especially when sheltered from the full sun; acid bogs and swamps; and tropical trees, where many species are epiphytes (an organism that grows upon or attached to a living plant).

Fern Reproduction
Fern reproduction involves some big words, but we will break them down for you as they are introduced. There are two generations in a fern's lifecycle, the diploid generation, and the haploid generation. The diploid generation has a full complement of genetic material, while the haploid generation has only half the genetic material.

The life cycle of a typical fern is as follows:

 * 1) A mature fern, called a sporophyte fern produces spores through a process called 'meiosis (pronounced my-OH-sis).  Each spore has only half the genetic material of the parent plant, a condition called haploid.
 * 2) The spores are dispersed
 * 3) A spore grows by cell division into a gametophyte - still with only half the genetic material of an adult organism.
 * 4) The gametophyte produces both sperm and eggs on the same organism using a process called mitosis (pronounced my-TOE-sis).
 * 5) The egg remains attached to the prothallus, but the sperm leaves the prothallus and swims to an egg on another plant which it then fertilizes.
 * 6) The fertilized egg is now has a full set of genetic material (and is called diploid) and grows into a sporophyte (the typical adult "fern" plant).

Kinds of Sori
The sori on a given species of fern always takes on the same characteristics. They are usually arranged on the underside of a fertile frond, sometimes in straight lines, sometimes in curved lines, sometimes in circular clumps, and sometimes in kidney-shaped clumps. Because there are a variety of arrangements of the sori, and because the arrangement on each species is somewhat fixed, this characteristic is often used to identify the fern.

 * Woodwardia: This genus of ferns is commonly known as the "chain fern" because the sori are arranged in broken lines, somewhat resembling a chain.

 * Pteridium: This genus of ferns is commonly known as "bracken". The sori are arranged along the edge of the frond, and the edge is curled over slightly.

 * Andiantum: This genus has kidney-shaped sori along the edge of the fronds.

 * Onoclea: The sori of the onoclea genus are clustered like beads or grapes on the upright fertile fronds, hence the common name Bead fern.

==4. How do spores travel from the parent plant to a new location? How long does it take a spore to develop into a mature plant? Observe from live ferns or pictures how a young fern is different from an adult fern. == Spores are stored by the fern in tiny cases called sporangia. These spore cases are massed together into a sorus (plural sori) which is visible to the naked eye on the underside of a fertile frond (not all fronds are fertile). The spore case is encircled by a ring consisting of a single layer of cells called an annulus. This ring goes almost all the way around the spore case. As the spore case dries out, it becomes brittle until it finally splits open. Since the ring is stronger than the rest of the spore case, it slowly pulls the case open. When water tension is released, the ring suddenly snaps,open throwing spores out and away from the fern at great speed. Because spores are so tiny (invisible to the naked eye), even the slightest breeze will carry them great distances.

If the spore lands in a location with favorable conditions, it will develop into a gametophyte in about two weeks. If the gametophyte is fertilized, it will grow into a young fern in about 3 and a half months. The amount of time required for these growth periods varies greatly depending on conditions and the species.

Below are examples of a young fern still in the fiddlehead stage, and a mature frond of the same species.

5. Know the medicinal uses of three ferns.

 * Adiantum aleuticum (Western Maidenhair Fern): Frond tea is used to strengthen mucosal membranes, treat coughs, throat congestion, and respiratory irritation caused by air pollution.
 * Asplenium scolopendrium (Hart's-tongue Fern): This fern had use in folk medicine as a spleen tonic.
 * Cibotium menziesii (Hawaiian Tree Fern): The pith of the trunk is used in a combination of other Hawaiian plants to create a 'blood purifier', and is used in other combinations to help relieve weakness or chest pains. Heated fibres of the fronds are used to cure numerous bodily ailments such as muscle pain, stiff joints etc.
 * Phlebodium aureum (Cabbage palm fern): Its uses include:
 * for psoriasis and other skin conditions
 * for Alzheimer's disease, dementia, and memory problems
 * for coughs, bronchitis, chest colds, and other upper respiratory problems
 * for autoimmune disorders

6. Draw or photograph ten kinds of ferns and properly identify them.
We present here ten ferns that you may wish to carefully draw. If you set out to photograph or draw ferns in the field, you will need a good field guide to properly identify them.

Club mosses
Club moss is a term that describes the botanical family Lycopodiaceae (a family is one level up the hierarchy from the genus). Club mosses bear spores on specialized structures at the apex of a shoot; they resemble a tiny battle club, from which the common name derives. They are non-flowering and do not produce seeds.
 * Lycopodium clavatum (Ground pine): This plant resembles a tiny pine tree. It grows in forests and sends runners underground form whence other plants spring.
 * Lycopodium serratum (Toothed clubmoss): This plant is similar in appearance to L. clavatum. It prefers sandy to loamy soils in dappled or deep shade.  The water-repellant spores can be used as a lubricant to keep things from sticking together.
 * Lycopodium squarrosum (Tassle fern): These plants are also not true ferns. They are also similar to L. clavatum, but they "branches" hang from above somewhat like a weeping willow.

Horsetails
Horsetails, like club mosses and ferns bear spores rather than seeds. Horetails are in the order 	Equisetales which consists of a single family called Equisetaceae. There are 15 species in this order.
 * Equisetum arvense (Field Horsetail): Equisetum arvense is a rather bushy perennial with a rhizomatous stem formation native to the northern hemisphere. These horsetails may have sterile or fertile stems. Sterile stems start to grow after the fertile stems have wilted. The sterile stems tend to be much taller and bushier, with the jointed segments being around one inch long with a diameter of about 1/20th of an inch. These segments contain one set of whorled, slender, erect branches each. Some stems can have as many as 20 segments and be as tall as 2-24 inches. The fertile stems tend to be half as tall as the sterile stems and also tend to be more succulent.

 * Equisetum palustre (Marsh Horsetail): E. palustre is a perennial horsetail, growing between 10 and 50 centimeters (4" and 20"), in rare cases up to 1 meter (3'). Its fertile shoots, which carry ears, are evergreen and shaped like the sterile shoots. The rough, furrowed stem is 1 to 3 mm in diameter with usually 8 to 10 ribs, in rare cases 4 to 12. It contains whorled branches. The tight-fitting sheaths end in 4 to 12 teeth. The lower sheaths are dark brown and much shorter than the sheaths of the main shoot. The central and vallecular are about the same size, but the carinal channels are much smaller. The central channels measure about one sixth of the diameter of the stem.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Fungi

1. Give the name of five classes of fungi and examples of each.

 * Chytridiomycota: The phylum Chytridiomycota, the chytrids, represents a group of primitive aquatic fungi. They are characterized by having reproductive cells can move themselves by using whip-like tails called flagella.  Synchytrium endobioticum is a chytrid fungus that causes the potato wart disease or black Scab.

 * Zygomycota: The zygomycetes, in phylum Zygomycota, are characterized by the formation of sexual spores called zygospores. The zygospores are not contained within a specialized fruiting body or sac. An example of a zygomycete is the common black bread mold, Rhizopus nigricans.

 * Glomeromycota: Members of the Glomeromycota are also known as the arbuscular mycorhizal fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually.

 * Ascomycota: The ascomycetes are members of the phylum Ascomycota. They are also called the “sac fungi” because their sexual spores (ascospores) are enclosed in tube-like sacs known as asci.  Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, Baker's yeast, Dead Man's Fingers, cup fungi, and the majority of lichens (loosely termed "ascolichens") such as Cladonia.

 * Basidiomycota: Basidiomycetes, also known as the “club fungi,” are classified in phylum Basidiomycota. Basidiomycetes include some of the most complex fungi, including mushrooms and puffballs.

2. Identify fifteen common fungi of your locality. Draw or photograph them from live specimens.
The best way to approach this requirement is to go out looking for fungi, and then try to figure out what you have found. This is far more effective than studying your field guide, deciding what you want to look for, and then going out for a look.

To do this, you will need a field guide. The field guide you select should cover the area where you are looking for mushrooms. For example, a field guide to the mushrooms of Australia is not going to help you very much if you're looking for fungi in North America.

Once you have a field guide, take it, plus your camera or sketch pad, and go out looking for fungi. When you find one, try to figure out what it is using your field guide. It is difficult to distinguish the various species of fungi from photographs alone, so you will want to identify it on the spot. Many times the identification of a species will rely on an obscure feature such as the gills on the underside of a mushroom. Chances are, if you attempt to identify the fungus later from a snapshot, you will not have captured one of the critical identifying features, or the feature was not sufficiently in focus. That is why you will want to make an identification when you have direct access to the specimen. If you find yourself looking at an interesting specimen and do not have your field guide with you, by all means, sketch it out and take photos. There is always the chance that you will be able to identify it later. Take special notice of the gills (if there are any), how they attach to the stem, and any "fringes" around the stem.

3. Name three important fungi and tell what their value is.

 * Saccharomyces cerevisiae: This fungus is used in baker's yeast.

 * Aspergillus niger: This fungus is used to make citric acid commercially, and it also can be used to make gluconic acid. Both are important food additives.

 * Penicillium chrysogenum: This is the organism that makes penicillin, from which the majority of the large class of beta-lactam antibiotics are derived. Penicillin and its derivatives have saved countless lives since they were discovered and isolated, starting in the 1940s.

b. Mold
Penicillium chrysogenum is a mold that is widely distributed in nature, and is often found living on foods and in indoor environments. It is the source of several β-lactam antibiotics, most significantly penicillin.

Like the many other species of the genus Penicillium, P. chrysogenum reproduces by forming dry chains of spores (or conidia) from brush-shaped stalks called conidiophores. The conidia are typically carried by air currents to new colonization sites. In P. chrysogenum the conidia are blue to blue-green, and the mold sometimes exudes a yellow pigment. However, P. chrysogenum cannot be identified based on color alone. Observations of morphology and microscopic features are needed to confirm its identity.

c. Mushroom
Bird's nest fungi are fungi with fruiting bodies that look like egg-filled birds' nests and make up the order the Nidulariales.

They are often seen on decaying wood and in soils enriched with wood chips or bark mulch. Cyathus striatus is probably the most commonly encountered species in the temperate northern hemisphere.

The "eggs" are spore cases called peridioles. Peridioles contain glebal tissue, basidia (a microscopic, spore-producing structure), and basidiospores (a reproductive spore), and are dispersed by rain. The nests are splash cups. When a raindrop hits one at the right angle the walls are shaped such that the eggs are expelled a good distance from the nest. Each egg has a sticky trailing thread attached to it. If that thread encounters a twig on its flight the egg will swing around and wrap itself around the twig. The spores can then germinate there and start the life cycle over again.

d. Yeast
Yeasts have asexual and sexual reproductive cycles; however the most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by budding or fission. Here a small bud, or daughter cell, is formed on the parent cell. The nucleus of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. The bud can develop on different parts of the parent cell depending on the genus of the yeast.

Under high stress conditions haploid cells will generally die, however under the same conditions diploid cells (cells containing a full set of chromosomes) can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (meiosis) and producing a variety of haploid spores (which have only a half-set of chromosomes), which can go on to mate (conjugate), reforming the diploid.

6. Know what safety precautions to observe when handling fungi.
Flood conditions contribute to the growth and transmission of many kinds of fungi, some of which can cause sickness. Cleanup workers are at increased risk of exposure to airborne fungi and their spores because they often handle moldy building materials, decaying vegetable matter, rotting waste material, and other fungus-contaminated debris. The fungal material is carried into the respiratory tract when airborne particles are inhaled.

There are many different kinds of fungi, including mildew, molds, rusts, and yeasts. Most of these are harmless, but some can cause respiratory and other disorders when workers inhale or come into contact with fungi. Inhalation is the route of exposure of most concern to flood cleanup workers. The recommendations below offer strategies for workers renovating flooded buildings, homes, and structures to protect themselves while handling building materials that are visibly contaminated with fungi.

For workers cleaning up flooded buildings, homes, and other structures, excessive moisture or water accumulation indoors will encourage the growth of the fungi that are already present. Some fungi have the potential to cause adverse health effects such as allergic responses and asthma attacks. Individuals who are sensitive to molds may have signs and symptoms of allergic reactions such as nasal stuffiness, eye irritation, and wheezing. These individuals should minimize fungal exposure by wearing respirators, gloves, and eye protection. They should also seek to eliminate fungi, as described below. In addition, repeated or prolonged contact of the skin with flood water and continuous sweating can lead to fungal skin infections. These can be minimized or avoided by washing the skin with warm, soapy water and keeping it as dry as possible.

If a person experiences severe allergic or skin symptoms, or severe flu-like symptoms, he or she should seek medical advice. A health care provider can determine whether medication or any other precautions are necessary.

Tips to Remember
For anyone who may be exposed to mold and fungi: water that has been bottled, boiled, or treated until there is confirmation that the community water supply is safe for consumption.
 * Avoid breathing dust (fungal spores) generated by moldy building materials, crops, and other materials.
 * Consider using a disposable respirator as a minimum when working with moldy or damp hay, grain, compost, or building materials.
 * Consider discarding all water damaged materials. Articles that are visibly contaminated with mold should be discarded. When in doubt, throw it out.
 * Surfaces that have a light covering of mold should be scrubbed with warm, soapy water and rinsed with a disinfectant made of 1/2 cup liquid household bleach mixed into one gallon of water.
 * CAUTION: Do not mix bleach with other cleaning products that contain ammonia.
 * After working with mold-contaminated materials, wash thoroughly, including the hair, scalp, and nails.
 * If the safety of food or beverage is questionable, throw it out. Only drink safe drinking

For additional information concerning fungi, health effects, and addressing flood damaged materials, please visit OSHA’s Safety and Health Topics web page on Molds and Fungi at: http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/molds/index.html


text: Bahá'í Faith/Timeline

title: Bahá'í Faith/Timeline


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Geology - Advanced

a. How do earthquakes tell us what the interior of the earth is like?
Earthquakes show us that faults are active and moving. Faults are boundaries between the tectonic plates that make up the Earth's crust. Earthquakes generally happen along faults. The plates move apart or alongside one another releasing energy that causes an earthquake. The energy released causes seismic waves. In fact the core of the earth was discovered with seismic waves. They bend along the interfaces of different materials. There are two different seismic wave types. P waves travel through fluids and solids. S waves travel only through solids. By noticing that the S waves did not go through the center of the earth, geologists came to the conclusion that its center must be a fluid, for S waves cannot pass through fluids. P waves bend in the core because they are slowly passing through a liquid. This has also helped them estimate the size of earth’s core by studying the last shadow zone of the S wave.

References: http://www.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/100/interior.html

b. How can a lot of water (as in Noah's flood) do in a few months what a little water would require thousands or millions of years to do?
A lot of water passing through an area quickly erodes the dirt and changes it into mud which can lead to a mud slide or other catastrophe (such as a drastic change in the landscape. This could include the covering of islands and continents if there is a large enough supply of water). It can destroy towns and cities, potentially washing everything away. Also if the flood were to involve glaciers and an extremely gross amount of water it could change atmospheric temperatures. It also can change the locations of rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. Also if enough water is left in an area it can form a small body of water.

c. Why are evidences of glaciers seen in the temperate climes where there are now no glaciers?
It has been concluded that in the past there was an ice age during which much of the earth was covered by glaciers. In many places the glaciers have melted away everywhere except in the high mountain elevations. When a glacier moves it leaves behind striations and grooves. Rocks are also left behind when a glacier melts as are other sediments that the glacier picked up.

d. How do creationists, who believe in a universal flood and in a young age for the earth since creation, understand and use the geological time chart?
The geological time chart is constructed by analyzing index fossils. Index fossils are fossils that evolutionists believe existed for a relatively short period of time, and are found on most, if not all the continents. Because evolutionists have assigned dates to the times when the creatures from which these fossils were formed lived, they use this information to date the layers of rock in which they are found. In other words, if they find in a layer of rock a fossil from a creature they believe to have lived between 70 and 80 million years ago, they set the date for that rock at 70-80 million years.

Creationists believe that most of the layers of rock were laid down in quick succession during Noah's flood. Often, fossils of like-type are found together in a layer, and creationists explain this by suggesting that these creatures were sorted by the flood waters. This sorting could be accomplished by the creature's mobility, meaning for example, that an animal with long legs would be better able to flee rising flood waters than an animal with small legs or with no legs. Thus, horses are found in higher strata than ladybugs.

The sorting could also be a physical phenomenon based on the shape and density of the animal, much as small rocks make their way to the bottom of a sediment, while larger rocks make their way to the top. In this case, the creatures are acting just as the rocks, with mollusks and insects being sorted to the bottom, and tigers and rhinos making their way to the top.

e. What is the continental drift (plate tectonics) theory, and how can creationists fit such geological activity into time since creation?
It was a creationist, Antonio Snider, who proposed the movement of continents during the flood. Genesis 1:9-10 indicated the land was one mass and the waters were gathered together in one place. The puzzle piece scenario of the continents, displacement of fossils and seismic observations led them to further believe that there is no slow formation. It has been stated that rapid magnetic field reversals could have happened during the flood. With the way continents move today one would have to conclude an ocean basin or mountain range would have taken about 100 million years to form. The concept that this all happened rapidly is called catastrophic plate tectonics. If crustal spreading zones expanded, hot material would rise up to the surface, heat the water and potentially cause steam to shoot into the atmosphere. This steam would turn into water vapor and fall down later as intense rain. This is one possible explanation for the 40 days of rain. The flood also answers the question of large sediment deposits.

a. Large glaciers
Large glaciers are found in Antarctica, Greenland (and other arctic areas) and on mountain tops.

b. Active volcanoes
Active volcanoes are found along faults.

c. Sand dunes
Sand dunes are found in deserts and along beaches.

d. Sinkholes
Sinkholes are found in limestone formations.

e. Fiords
Fiords (more commonly spelled fjords) are found between rocky headlands, especially in Scandinavia, but also in other parts of the world, such as Denmark. A fjord is a part of a valley made by a glacier or river from the glacier. Most of the fjord is below the current sea level, and thus filled with sea water.

f. Faultblock mountains
Fault-block mountains are common in the Basin and Range region of the western United States.

g. Folded mountains
Folded mountains occur in Orogenic zones such as the Himalayas in Asia, the Rocky Mountains in North American, and the Andes in South America.

h. Chalk cliffs
The Chalk Formations of Europe are thick deposits of chalk, a soft porous white limestone, deposited in a marine environment during the upper Cretaceous Period. They appear most prominently in England.

i. Icebergs
Icebergs can be found in arctic areas such as Antarctica, the Arctic Ocean, Iceland, and Greenland.

j. Atolls
Atolls form around volcanic islands in the Pacific ocean.

a. Describe the interesting geology you saw on a trip you took recently.
Interesting geology could be mountain ranges, valleys, glacial lakes (such as the Great Lakes in the United States), or even road cuts (for close-up geology). Caves, beaches, plains, and river systems and deltas also provide interesting geological features.

The trip needn't be a long one, though long trips will provide more varied features.

Things to consider when writing the report are the answers to questions such as:
 * How was the feature formed?
 * What are the rocks made of?
 * How is the geology likely to change in the future?
 * Did water play a part in the formation of the features? How?

b Describe the geological activity that happened because of a heavy rain, flood, or windstorm that you experienced.
Heavy rains often cause local flooding. Rivers and streams can change course, often washing away roads and buildings. Floods also deposit sediments in fields.

Windstorms can blow down trees (even in large numbers), making the area more susceptible to erosion. They can also create, destroy, or reshape sand dunes.


text:
The Computer Revolution/Personal Technology/TV

The History of the Television
In 1900 at the world fair in Paris, France they named this new technology the television. "The 'first' generation of television sets were not entirely electronic. The display (TV screen) had a small motor with a spinning disc and a neon lamp, which worked together to give a blurry reddish-orange picture about half the size of a business card!" retrieved Jan 30, 2007 from http://www.tvhistory.tv/pre-1935.htm.

Little did society know that in time the television would become a part of the family. Televisions are now commonplace. In fact, it is nearly unheard of not to have one. According to one study, "by the late 1990s, 98 percent of U.S. homes had at least one television set, and those sets were on for an average of more than seven hours a day" (M. Stephens) Retrieved 30 Jan 2007 from http://www.nyu.edu/classes/stephens/History%20of%20Television%20page.htm

With the onset of the television came commercials and sponsorship. John Cameron Swayze, an early news anchor was required by the tobacco company sponsor to have a burning cigarette always visible when he was on camera (M. Stephens).

How TVs vary
TVs vary in size, shape, quality and most importantly price. Depending on how much time one dedicates to TV will depend on how much one should invest money and research time in their TV purchase.

Today, TVs are getting bigger and better, in the market there are Plasmas, Protection Plasma, HDTV, Flat screens, Widescreen LCD, and much more.

TV comes in all sorts of sizes such as 12", 16", 32", 36", 42", 52", 126",and custom made TV's. There are brand names such as:
 * Sony
 * Panasonic
 * Nexus
 * Fujitsu

Today many people are purchasing Plasma TVs. Plasma TV is a high definition TV. The plasma TV as hundreds of thousands of tiny tubes of inert gas. These tiny tubes are placed in between two electrically charged plates. Once electric current is passed through these tiny tubes glow. The computer controls the electric current for multiple combos of color to glow. Since the plasma has hundreds of more pixels than CRT TV, the display is sharper, colors are deeper. Some downsides to Plasma TV’s are the high output of heat, increased change of burned in images and reflectiveness.

Uses of the TV
The TV can be used for both good and evil. It's not only a distraction but a learning tool - you decide how you would like it to be used in your environment. Television, is not only a visual means of expression but is an effective communication tool. Companies have paid trillions of dollars to entice the average viewer. For an prime example the Superbowl here's the link should you want more information regarding their advertisements

A television is a monitor that sends messages to its viewer; these messages are subjective to the viewer and should not be interpreted as truth for the masses.

Movies, short programs, commercials, educational programs, and games, are just some examples of output that TV offers its viewers to watch. Methods are via cable from a local service provider, creating a input/output between other devices such as a DVD player will allow the user to watch other programs like movies. As well attaching other sources such as a gaming system i.e. Xbox 360

Remember the television can be utilized for good educational programming and for waste of time evil so ensure that your intentions of TV watching are monitored.

For further research on TVs and their uses please visit

HDTV
In 2005 a recent survey discussed through the local radio that only 8% of the population owned a high definition television (HDTV). This level was expected to rise by 12% in 2006. There has always been a constant technological improvement throughout history. In the last couple of years technological advances have revolutionized the way we watch television. The invention of HDTV offers great picture quality. The old tube TVs are becoming obsolete as time progresses. New technology is being offered in high definition. This includes video cameras, DVD players, game systems and even the local cable providers offer HDTV cable boxes and channels. Many television service carriers offer high definition TV channels, and the channels offered are increasing. The difference between the old tube TV quality and HDTV quality is the picture resolution is clearer and more real.


text:
Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Geology

1. Give the geological meaning of the following words

 * e. Moraine: Moraine is a French word that refers to any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated debris. This debris may be plucked off the valley floor as a glacier advances or fallen off the valley walls as a result of frost wedging. Moraine may be comprised of silt like glacial flour to large boulders. The debris is typically angular. Moraine may be on the glacier’s surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted. Moraine may also occur when rocks fall in the sea.

 * f. Cirque: A cirque is an amphitheatre-like valley (or valley head) of glacial origin, formed by glacial erosion at the head of the glacier. Cirques are typically partially surrounded by steep cliffs. The highest cliff is often called a headwall. They are also known as a cwm in Wales, a coomb or coombe in England, and a corrie in Scotland and Ireland.

 * g. Mesa: A mesa (Spanish and Portuguese for "table") is an elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs. It takes its name from its characteristic table-top shape. It is a characteristic landform of arid environments, particularly the southwestern United States. Many examples are also found in Spain, North and South Africa,Zimbabwe, Arabia, India, Australia, and the Badlands and Colorado regions of North America.

 * h. Alluvial fan: An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit formed where a fast flowing stream flattens, slows, and spreads typically at the exit of a canyon onto a flatter plain.

 * i. Anticline: An anticline is an upward-curving fold, with layers that rise from the center of the structure.

 * j. Syncline: A syncline is a downward-curving fold, with layers that dip toward the center of the structure. It's easy to remember which is an anticline and which is a syncline, because the syncline "sinks" in the middle.

a. A shield-type volcano as compared to a composite volcano
A shield volcano is a large volcano with shallowly-sloping sides. Shield volcanoes are formed by lava flows of low viscosity — lava that flows easily. Consequently, a volcanic mountain having a broad profile is built up over time by flow after flow of relatively fluid lava issuing from vents or fissures on the surface of the volcano. Many of the largest volcanoes on Earth are shield volcanoes. The largest is Mauna Loa on the Big Island of Hawaii.

A composite volcano is a tall, conical volcano composed of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. These volcanoes are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, explosive eruptions. The lava that flows from them is viscous, and cools and hardens before spreading very far. Mount St. Helens in Washington, USA, Popocatépetl in Mexico, and Krakatoa in Indonesia are composite volcanos.

b. How a glacier moves and what evidences it leaves behind
Ice behaves like an easily breaking solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 meters (160 ft). The pressure on ice deeper than that depth causes plastic flow. The glacial ice is made up of layers of molecules stacked on top of each other, with relatively weak bonds between the layers. When the stress of the layer above exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, it moves faster than the layer below.

Another type of movement is basal sliding. In this process, the whole glacier moves over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by meltwater. As the pressure increases toward the base of the glacier, the melting point of water decreases, and the ice melts. Friction between ice and rock and geothermal heat from the Earth's interior also contribute to thawing. This type of movement is dominant in temperate glaciers. The geothermal heat flux becomes more important the thicker a glacier becomes.

Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic "V" shape, produced by downward erosion by water. However, during glaciation, these valleys widen and deepen, which creates a "U"-shaped glacial valley. Besides the deepening and widening of the valley, the glacier also smooths the valley due to erosion.

At the 'start' of a classic valley glacier is the cirque, which has a bowl shape with escarped walls on three sides, but open on the side that descends into the valley. In the cirque, an accumulation of ice is formed. These begin as irregularities on the side of the mountain, which are later augmented in size by the coining of the ice. After the glacier melts, these corries are usually occupied by small mountain lakes called tarns.

c. How sediments are laid down by water
Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. Sedimentation is the deposition by settling of a suspended material.

When water flows over a stream bed, it picks up sediments. The faster the water flows, the larger particles it can transport. As the water slows, the particles are dropped, forming a sediment. Because the water speed slows gradually, the particles are sorted by size as they are dropped.

Fold Mountains
The compressional forces in continental collisions may cause the compressed region to thicken, so the upper surface is forced upwards. In order to balance the weight, much of the compressed rock is forced downwards, producing deep "mountain roots". Mountains therefore form downwards as well as upwards. However, in some continental collisions part of one continent may simply override part of the others, crumpling in the process.

Block or Faultblock Mountains
Block mountains are created when large areas are widely broken up by faults creating large vertical displacements. This occurrence is fairly common. The uplifted blocks are block mountains or horsts. The intervening dropped blocks are termed graben: these can be small or form extensive rift valley systems. This form of landscape can be seen in East Africa, the Vosges, the Basin and Range province of Western North America and the Rhine valley.

Dome Mountains
In geology, a dome is a deformational feature consisting of symmetrically-dipping anticlines; their general outline on a geologic map is circular or oval. The strata in a dome are upwarped in the center; if the top of a dome is eroded off, the result will be a series of concentric strata that grow progressively older from the outside-in, with the oldest rocks exposed at the center. Many geologic domes are too large to be appreciated from the surface, and are readily apparent only in maps. Well-known regional structural domes include the Llano Uplift and the Ozark Dome.

Volcanic Mountains
A volcano is an opening (or rupture) in the Earth's surface or crust, which allows hot, molten rock, ash and gases to escape from deep below the surface. Volcanic activity involving the extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains over a period of time.

e. Why a river or stream bank often keeps caving in on the outside of a bend
When a river reaches a low-lying plain in its final course to the sea or a lake, it meanders widely. Sediments are deposited on the inside (convex) bank because the current there slows. In contrast, both lateral erosion and undercutting occur on the outside (concave) bank where the stream’s speed is the highest. The faster current on the outside of a bend is able to pick up sediments and transport them further downstream.

3. Know what category of rocks (sedimentary, metamorphic, or igneous) the following rocks are
First, let's define what these three types of rock are:
 * Sedimentary: Sedimentary rock is formed when sediments carried by wind or water settle and turn to stone.
 * Metamorphic: Metamorphic rock is formed when another type of rock is transformed by great heat and pressure.
 * Igneous: Igneous rock is formed when lava cools and solidifies.

a. A bed of sediment that is coarser at the bottom and finer toward the top (This is called normal graded bedding.)
The size of a particle that a stream can transport depends on the stream's speed as well as the size and density of the particle. In general, the faster the current, the larger the particle that can be transported. As a stream slows, it drops the largest particles first. As it slows more, it continues to drop finer and finer particles. When the current stops, all sediments are deposited. In the diagram note how the sediment at the top is much finer than the sediment at the bottom. This natural sorting mechanism occurs whenever sediments are deposited, and can be used to detect boundaries between sedimentation events. A normal graded sediment indicates that the sediment layer has not been overturned since it was deposited, while an inverted bed (finer particles at the bottom, larger ones on top) indicates that the sedimentation layer was overturned after its deposition.

b. Ripple marks in sand or mud (Show with an arrow the current direction if possible.)
In this photo, the wind was blowing from left to right. The left sides of the ripples have gentler slopes, while the right sides have steeper slopes. As the wind breaks over the top of the ripples, it forms eddy currents (circulating wind) which make the lee side steeper than the windward side.

c. Gully erosion
A gully is a landform created by running water eroding sharply into soil, typically on a hillside. Gullies resemble large ditches or small valleys, but are meters to tens of meters in depth and width.

d. Mud cracks (These can usually be found after a heavy rain or flood when mud starts to dry.)
Formed as muddy sediment dries and contracts.

e. Soil profile along a stream bank or road cut (You should be able to see how soil usually becomes lighter colored downward from the surface of the ground.)
A 'soil profile' is a cross section through the soil which reveals its layers.

 * O) Organic matter: Litter layer of plant residues in relatively undecomposed form.

 * A) Surface soil: Layer of mineral soil with most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer eluviates (is depleted of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other soluble constituents. When eluviation is pronounced, a lighter colored "E" subsurface soil horizon is apparent at the base of the "A" horizon.

 * B) Subsoil: Layer of alteration below an "E" or "A" horizon. This layer accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation.

 * C) Substratum: Layer of unconsolidated soil parent material. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds that bypass the "B" layer.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Rock Climbing - Advanced

Rappel Master Certified Instructor Required.

2. Know and demonstrate the use of all special rock climbing equipment, such as bongs, RURP's, knifeblades, bolt equipment, hero loops, runners, etriers, and mechanical ascenders.
==3. Show how to use all free climbing moves, including: foot edging; finger-tip clings; lay backs; hand, arm, foot, and leg jamming; and stimming while climbing at 5.6(F6) difficulty on practice cliffs using an upper belay. ==

7. Participate in at least two multi-pitch climbs of 5.5 (F5) difficulty or above, involving at least 120 feet (36.6 meters) of climbing each and leading at least two of the pitches.
==8. Select a minimum of bivouac equipment, including food for a supper and break- fast, and spend one night bivouacked on a rock ledge at least 30 feet (9.1 meters) high and reached by moderate climbing, hauling equipment up by proper rope hauling methods. ==


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Leadership

1. Have the following honors

 * a. Backpacking
 * b. Camping Skills I-IV
 * Camping Skills I
 * Camping Skills II
 * Camping Skills III
 * Camping Skills IV
 * c. Fire Building & Camp Cookery
 * d. First Aid
 * e. Hiking
 * f. Orienteering

2. Know and practice the principles of health, safety, and rules of conduct to be used when in the wilderness with a youth group.
The principles of health apply whether you are in the wilderness or not. A healthy diet should be maintained on any wilderness outing. Regular medications (if necessary) should be taken as prescribed. Personal hygiene should be practiced, including washing the hands frequently, and brushing the teeth regularly.

The danger of being in the wilderness is that it is remote. Ambulance service is not available in a forest, and transporting an injured person to a facility where professional medical care is available is likely be a time-consuming proposition. Furthermore, the more time that elapses between an injury and treatment, the less positive the outcome is likely to be.

Therefore, extra care should be taken, and the risks should be evaluated with the remoteness of the location in mind. Be conservative, and minimize risk wherever possible. This means you do not jump from high places. A sprained ankle can lead to disaster. Remember that if a person is injured badly enough to become immobile, someone will have to carry him out, along with his gear and their own gear, especially if that gear is critical to survival. If everyone is already fully laden, this can be a tremendous problem.

This is also the reason that "horsing around" should not be tolerated by a leader. Horseplay can lead to injury, and injury is to be avoided.

Fire safety should also be practiced, as should ax safety, and knife safety. Remember that an injury in the wilderness is always more serious than an equivalent injury at home.

The 7 Leave No Trace Principles:

 * Plan ahead and prepare.
 * Travel and camp on durable surfaces.
 * Dispose of waste properly.
 * Leave what you find.
 * Minimize campfire impacts (be careful with fire).
 * Respect wildlife.
 * Be considerate of other visitors.

3. Know and demonstrate the principles of signaling and rescue.
==4. Assist in planning and participate with a group in a mock demonstration of what to do if lost, stranded, or injured in the wilderness. Assist in planning and participate as a leader in a search and rescue operation involving a hidden "injured" person.==

Stranded
If you find yourself stranded in the wilderness, the first priority should be to find (or make) shelter. The cause of death for most stranding situations is exposure to the elements. Shelter is more important than water or food. A person can die of exposure overnight, whereas death by dehydration takes a day or more, and death by starvation may take several weeks. If possible, find or build a shelter well before nightfall.

If you have a cell phone with you, try calling the emergency service (911 in most places) and let them know of your predicament. Give them as accurate a description of your location as possible. If you cannot get voice service, try sending a text message instead - these are more reliable when the signal is weak.

After shelter has been secured, the next priority should be to build a fire. A fire serves many functions, the primary one being the provision of heat. This is especially important in winter conditions. A fire will also provide a visual indication of your whereabouts to any search party that has been dispatched to find you. Fire will also keep wild animals away and will provide a morale boost.

When day breaks, assess your situation. If the weather permits, venture out and see if you can figure out where you are or if there is anything you can do to improve your situation. Do not venture far from your shelter, or if you do, leave an indication of where you are headed. If you feel you need to leave your shelter, head for higher ground where cell phone reception may be better (again, use a text message instead of voice). It is far easier for a search party to find a person who stays put than it is to find one who is roaming about.

Try to make your location visible to aircraft. Keep the fire going even in the daytime. Make an S.O.S. in the snow or sand, or use rocks to spell out the letters. Drape brightly covered cloth over shrubbery. Do whatever you can to make your presence easily detectable. Then wait for rescue.

Injured
In a bleeding injury, your first priority is to stop the flow of blood. Do this by applying pressure to the wound and by binding it with bandages. Review your first aid procedures before setting out. If you are injured and stranded, stay where you are. This is the quickest path to rescue. Do not attempt to traverse treacherous territory if your are physically unable to do so. This could lead to further, more serious injury.

Search and Rescue Drill
Of course, for a mock search, you may opt out of using "all available resources," such as dogs and aircraft. For this requirement it will suffice to conduct a sweep of the area and if that fails, conduct a grid search.

5. Demonstrate some skills necessary for wilderness leadership in one of the following areas
Imagine yourself going into the wilderness with a group of people. Of all the people in the group, one seems to know nearly everything about staying comfortable and surviving in that environment. Whom do you think the group will follow?

Of course there is more to wilderness leadership than knowing how to thrive in the environment. A good leader will also know how to persuade people to follow. This is accomplished through competence and respect. But these qualities of a good leader are common to all of the areas listed below. Therefore, in the sections below we will focus on the skills necessary for comfort and survival but that are unique to the area being discussed.


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Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recreation/Wilderness Living

1. Go on at least two weekend campouts during which you learn the skills called for in this honor.
These campouts can be done with your Pathfinder club, with your family, or with friends. You should also look at the requirements for the Pioneering honor, as you may be able to manage both honors on the two trips.

2. Tell five things to do if lost in the wilderness. Know three methods of determining directions without a compass.
What to do when Lost

Determining Direction without a Compass

Catching rain water
This is probably the simplest way to collect drinking water, as long as it rains while you are camping. To catch water, simply stretch a clean tarp between trees such that the tarp is mostly horizontal. As it rains, the water will find its way off the tarp, usually in a stream. Place a basin beneath this stream and wait until it fills. You can also "tip" the water out of the tarp.

Catching dew
You can catch the morning dew by spreading a clean tarp flat on the ground. If a dew falls during the night, you can collect the water by sopping it up with a paper towel and wringing it into a container. If you forget to set a tarp out the night before, or if you do not have a tarp, you can still collect dew. Wrap a T-shirt (or other piece of cloth) around your pant legs, and then walk through the dewy grass. When the T-shirt is sufficiently wet, wring it out into a container.

Solar still
A solar still can be used to extract pure water from just about anything that is wet. Start by digging a hole deep. Place a small container in the center of the hole - this will catch the water. Place damp matter (chopped up cacti, wet leaves, etc.) in the hole around the container, and then cover the hole with a transparent plastic sheet. Weight down the edges of the plastic sheet so that it cannot slip into the hole, and place a small weight (such as a small rock) in the center of the sheet. This weight should be situated directly over the center of the container. As sunlight penetrates the sheet, it evaporates the water from the damp material in the hole. The water vapor rises until it reaches the sheet, where it condenses. As the water collects on the underside of the sheet, it runs downhill to the weight where it drips off, and hopefully, falls into the container.

From bodies of freshwater
You can also collect water from freshwater bodies such as rivers, springs, and lakes, but this water must be purified before using.

Melting snow
If you are in an area that has snow, you can collect it and melt it in a pot. It will melt faster if there is a little bit of liquid water in the pot. Do not eat snow, as this will lower your internal body temperature and increase the risk of hypothermia.

5. Demonstrate two methods of judging the height of a tree and the width of a stream.
The main reason for wishing to estimate the height of a tree and the width of a stream would be so that you could cut down a tree and use it as a bridge to cross the stream. Of course, a responsible Pathfinder would never do this without permission from the landowner, and even then, only after careful consideration. How unfortunate for you though, if you cut down a tree that was not tall enough to span the stream, and what a waste of a good tree if it were too long!

Height Estimation, Method 1

In the first method presented here, you will need a ruler, or any object with evenly spaced markings on it. Walk up to the tree, and estimate a point on it that is a mathematically convenient height from the ground (say five feet, or two meters). Mark that spot so that you can see it clearly from a distance by tying a rope around the tree at that height.

Next, walk away from the tree so that you can see its top. Hold the ruler in front of your face, such that the line of sight from your eye to the base of the tree crosses the "0" mark on the ruler. This is line A in the diagram. Then move the ruler either towards or away from your eye until the line from your eye to the rope you tied to the tree crosses the "1" mark on the ruler. This is line B in the diagram. When the ruler is positioned correctly such that lines A and B point to the base and the known height, glance up and note the measurement where the line from your eye to the top of the tree (line C in the diagram) crosses the ruler. Do this without moving the ruler or your head. When you have this measurement, multiply it by the mathematically convenient height you selected in the beginning. This is the height of the tree.

For instance, suppose you selected 2 meters as the known height on the tree, and line C crossed the 4.5 mark on the ruler:

$$height = 4.5\times 2 meters = 9 meters$$

Height Estimation, Method 2

In the second method for estimating height presented here, you will need a sheet of paper. Fold the paper so that the left edge meets the bottom edge, forming a 45° angle. Sight along the bottom of the paper so that line A in the diagram points to the base of the tree. Then move closer to or farther from the tree until the line through the fold points to the top of the tree (line B in the diagram).

Be careful to not poke yourself in the eye with the corner of the paper. In fact, it would be prudent to cut off the corner. The angle will still be correct even without it.

When the bottom of the paper points to the bottom of the tree, and the fold in the paper points to the treetop, the distance between you and the tree equals the height of the tree. Estimate this distance by pacing it off. Every two steps is roughly 5 feet, or if you prefer metric, every step is roughly 75 cm (which means every fourth step is about 3 meters). For more precision, measure your stride and use that figure.

Width Estimation, Method 1
The first method we present here for estimating the width of a stream will involve choosing an easily seen marker on the opposite side, and designating is "Marker A". Place a second marker (B) directly across the stream from marker A, and the place two more markers (C & D) along the stream bank at equal intervals. That is, be sure that the distance from B to C equals the distance from C to D. Also, try to form a 90° angle from A to B to C.  Walk away from the stream at 90° from line B-D until you can see that markers A and C line up. Mark the place where this happens with marker E. If your 90° angles are accurate and the distance from B-C and C-D are equal, the distance between E-D will equal the distance between A-B (which is the width of the stream).

Width Estimation, Method 2
Method 2 for estimating the width of a stream is exactly the same as method 2 for estimating the height of a tree, except that the paper is held horizontally instead of vertically. Find a marker on the opposite side of the stream to serve as the "treetop" (this could be a rock or a tree), and mark a spot on your side of the stream bank directly across from the marker on the other side. Walk along the stream bank as you sight along the bottom edge of the folded paper to the mark on your side, and sight along the folded edge to the marker on the opposite side. Move away from the marker until both line up. Then pace off the distance between you and the marker on your side. This will be equal to the distance across the stream.

6. Identify four wild animal or bird tracks.
See the Animal Tracking honor for instruction. The easiest kinds of tracks to find in North America are deer and raccoon, but you may also be able to find squirrel and opossum tracks. Coyote tracks are nearly indistinguishable from dog and wolf tracks. If you have access to a beach that is frequented by herring gulls, you should be able to find their tracks too.

9. Have a personal survival kit of 15 items and know how to use each item.

 * Knife: A knife has many uses in a survival situation. It can be used for making fuzz sticks or wood shavings for tinder, carving wooden utensils, cutting cloth, cleaning fish, etc.  Its use is limited only by your imagination.
 * Waterproof matches in a waterproof container: If it gets cold, you will need to light a fire.  A fire is also necessary for boiling water (which is one way to purify it).
 * Metal cup: A metal cup (or a tin can) can be used to hold water while you boil it.  It can also be used as a pot for cooking food, and as a dish for eating.
 * Flint or other firestarter: A magnesium block with a flint is an ideal backup for the matches.
 * Compass: The needle of a compass points to magnetic north.
 * Map: If you have a map of the area you're in as well as a compass, you should be able to find out where you are and find your way out.
 * Watch: A watch can be used as a compass too.
 * Waterproof ground cloth and cover: This will help you stay dry, and staying dry is critical for staying warm.
 * Flashlight:
 * Binoculars: Useful for spotting game, rescue craft, rescue parties, etc.
 * Whistle: A whistle can be used for signaling a rescue party. It is far louder than your voice and can be heard even at great distances.  Give three blasts on it to signal for help.
 * Fatty emergency foods: Nuts, peanut butter, chocolate, etc., are high in fat.  Fatty foods are packed with calories, and if it gets cold, your body can convert calories into heat.
 * Food gathering gear:
 * Signaling items:
 * Rope: Many uses, especially in building a shelter, or climbing.
 * Emergency blanket: Emergency blankets (sometimes called space blankets) are very lightweight, foil-like sheets that reflect up to 90% of a persons body heat back towards the person. Cover yourself with it at night.
 * Aluminum foil: Can be used for cooking, or even shaped into a crude cup for boiling water.

10. Explain the necessity in wilderness living of adequate sleep, proper diet, personal hygiene, and proper exercise.
Adequate sleep, proper diet, personal hygiene, and proper exercise are all important for keeping the mind and body in tip-top shape. When you are in a wilderness situation, it is important to be in good condition, because if you need emergency medical assistance, it will not be easy to get. Keeping your mind sharp will help you make good judgment calls, and that, in turn, will help prevent you from a foolish accident. Keeping your body in shape will also help you avoid sprains, falls, and other accidents.

14. Explain how to prepare and provide shelter on the following
In a survival situation, the most important thing for a stranded person to do is find or build a shelter. This is more important than water, fire, or food. The rule of threes tells us that a person can survive for three hours without shelter, three days without water, and three weeks without food. In most wilderness fatalities, the victims die from exposure to the elements. They do not die of thirst, nor do they die of starvation. Unless rescue is expected to take more than three days, the victims need not consider water or food - only shelter. They key to being found and rescued is to stay put, and keep warm.

a. Snow slopes
In deep snow, you can dig a snow cave and use that for shelter. Try to make a sleeping platform higher than the floor, as this will keep you warmer. Place something on top of the platform so that you do not sleep directly on the snow. Leaves, pine needles, or if you have one, a sleeping pad will all work well for this. Block the opening with a backpack.

If the snow is not deep enough, you can build a quinzhee, which is similar to an igloo, but less time-consuming to build. Start by piling any gear you can do without for a few hours in a heap, and then start shoveling snow on top of it. It may take a while to dig the gear out again, so be careful about what you bury. The mound of snow needs to be at least wide, and  high. Once the snow is in place, let is sinter for an hour or two. Cook your supper, or go on a hike. Sintering is the process of the snow particles binding to one another. Once enough time has elapsed, gather some sticks and break them into lengths. Insert the sticks fully into the snow dome. These will serve as wall thickness indicators when you begin hollowing out the inside.

Begin digging a door, and tunnel in until you reach the pile of gear in the center. Then extract the gear. Having the gear inside is not strictly necessary, but it reduces the amount of digging you have to do. Shed a few layers when you dig, because this will cause you to work up a tremendous sweat. As soon as the quinzhee is finished, you should change into some dry clothing (otherwise, you may be calling an emergency rescue crew to deal with a severe case of hypothermia). Hollow out the inside, stopping as soon as you hit the sticks. Smooth the walls as you go. This is important, because if the walls are smooth, as the snow inside melts, it will run down the walls. If the snowmelt finds a point, it will form a drip. There is nothing adventurous about having a drip of ice cold water landing on your neck at 3:00 am.

Finally, cut three or four vent holes in the ceiling. This will allow stale air to escape. The vent holes need only be in diameter, but they must be made, or you will be re-breathing the C02 you exhaled previously. If you plan to light a candle inside, the vents are even more important, as they will allow carbon monoxide to escape.

As with the snow cave, make a smooth sleeping platform. The coldest air in the quinzhee will find the lowest point inside, and that is not where you will want to sleep. Again, block the entry with a backpack.

b. Rocky areas
A shelter does not have to be tall enough to stand up inside, nor does it even need to be tall enough to sit up inside. It will, however need to be tall enough for you to lie inside. should be plenty. Start by gathering stones, and build two walls as high as you want the shelter to be. Unless you are a skilled stone layer, the walls should be at least as wide as they are tall. The two walls should be parallel to one another, a little longer than you are, and about twice as wide as your shoulders and hips. When the walls are finished, throw a tarp over them. The tarp should cover the fine walls you just built and lie on the ground on either side. Pile more rocks on the part of the tarp that is lying on the ground. If you can find a stick a little taller than the wall, use it to hold one end of the tarp (near an open end) higher than the rest of the structure. This will create a slope so that water will run off rather an collect on the tarp. (If enough collects on the tarp, your roof will most certainly collapse.)

c. Swamps and marshes
The main function of a shelter in a swamp or marsh is to get you off the ground. To do this, you will need to build a platform. This can be constructed by finding two trees at least in diameter and about  apart. Then using square lashing, attach two long poles to either side of the trees, high enough to keep you out of the muck. Use continuous lashings to lash several shorter poles across the support poles to make the platform surface. The short poles should all be as close to the same diameter as possible, or if that's impossible, arranged from smallest to largest. Be diligent when making the lashings, checking and double checking the tightness of the ropes. The lashings must be sufficient to hold your weight.

Finally, string a rope between the two trees about higher than the platform, and throw a tarp over this to keep the rain off of you. You may wish to tie off the corners of the tarp so that the wind does not carry it off.

d. Forests and tundra
It is somewhat odd that forests and tundra are grouped together in this requirement. A forest is by definition, an abundance of trees, while a tundra is an area where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. They are geographical opposites.

In a forested area, build a lean-to. This is done by finding two trees about apart, and lashing a horizontal pole to them, about  from the ground. Then find more poles, and lay one end of each on the horizontal pole, and the other end on the ground. This will take several poles, as they should be lain side-by-side all the way across. Finally, cover the poles with a layer of debris - leaf litter, twigs, moss - whatever you can find.

In tundra, use the techniques for building a shelter in the snow, or if there is no snow, use the techniques for building a shelter in a rocky area.