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IB English/World Literature

Return to IB English

Introduction
World Literature is a part of the IB English final grade, as the external assessment. Higher Level candidates must submit a World Literature 1 and a World Literature 2, whilst Standard Level candidates are only required to submit World Literature 1. IBO candidates have colloquially dubbed World Literature "World Lit" or "WL".

To begin though, the IBO presents an updated list of novels deemed "World Literature" to its splinter schools each year, and it is up to your individual school IB coordinator, in conjunction with your IB English Dept., to select which novels will be studied.

It is of use to note that authors/novels used for Paper 1 cannot be used for your Paper 2.

Length
The word count is limited from 1200-1500 words.

World Literature Authors
The IBO aims to vary its literature globally, thus the name "World Literature". Basically, the idea behind World Lit is to become culturally aware, and immerse yourself in writing of a different social /cultural/geopolitical background. One splinter school studied the following works, indicating the breadth of culture candidates were immersed in:

 * Erich Maria Remarque (German)
 * Albert Camus (French)
 * Henrik Ibsen (Norwegian Playwright)
 * Federico Garcia Lorca (Spanish)
 * Sophocles (Greek)
 * Leslie Marmon Silko (Native American)

Below are some of the more "renowned" texts approved by the IBO, with the author name first, that can be studied by A1 English classes (either SL or HL). Note that, as previously stated, texts studied are usually determined by department heads (i.e. teachers).

World Literature
(IB Approved Texts)

 * Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart.

 * Allende, Isabel.  The House of the Spirits. The story of the Trueba family in Chile, from the turn of the century to the violent days of the overthrow of the Salvador Allende government in 1973.

 * Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Love and marriage among the English country gentry of Austen's day.

 * Ba, Mariama. So Long a Letter

 * Beckett, Samuel. Waiting for Godot

 * Brecht, Bertolt. Mother Courage and Her Children. Chronicle play as a response to the outbreak of World War II.

 * Borges, Jorge Luis. Labyrinths. An anthology of literary fireworks based on Borges' favorite symbol.

 * Bronte, Charlotte. Jane Eyre. An intelligent and passionate governess falls in love with a strange, moody man tormented by dark secrets.

 * Camus, Albert. The Stranger. This novel depicts a man who is strikingly indifferent towards his life and is thus an outsider to society. He murders a man at the end of part I for no apparent reason. His imprisonment and imminent execution reveal to him the accidental and inconsequential nature of life, allowing him to face his death peacefully.

 * Carroll, Lewis. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. A fantasy in which Alice follows the White Rabbit to a dream world.

 * Cervantes, Miguel de. Don Quixote.  An eccentric old gentleman sets out as a knight "tilting at windmills" to right the wrongs of the world.

 * Chedid, Andree. From Sleep Unbound. Set in Egypt, Samya's life is constantly being oppressed by male figures in a society which only expects women to produce children.

 * Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. The novel's narrator journeys into the Congo where he discovers the extent to which greed can corrupt a good man.

 * Darwish, Mahmoud. Memory for Forgetfulness. Prose-poem illustrating the effects of Hiroshima Day in Lebanon.

 * Defoe, Daniel. Robinson Crusoe. The adventures of a man who spends 28 years on an isolated island.

 * Dorfman, Ariel. Death and the Maiden. In the voice of a good Samaritan who helped her husband, a woman thinks she recognizes another man - the doctor who raped and tortured her as she lay blindfolded in a military detention center years before.

 * Dostoevsky, Fyodor. Crime and Punishment. The story of a murder and the consequences of the action.

 * Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Essential Writings

 * Enchi, Fumiko. The Waiting Years. A powerful story of a wife's emotional turmoil when her husband abandons her love for that of concubines, set in Japan.

 * Esquivel, Laura. Like Water For Chocolate. A Mexican love story of forbidden love in the time of the Mexican Revolution.

 * Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary.  In her extramarital affairs, a bored young wife seeks unsuccessfully to find the emotional experiences she craves.

 * Forster, E.M. A Passage to India. A young English woman in British-ruled India accuses an Indian doctor of sexual assault.

 * Fuentes, Carlos. The Death of Artemio Cruz. A powerful Mexican newspaper publisher recalls his life as he lies dying at age 71.

 * Grass, Gunter. The Tin Drum. Oskar describes the amoral conditions through which he has lived in Germany, both during and after the Hitler regime.

 * Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the D'Urbervilles. The happiness of Tess and her husband is destroyed when she confesses that she bore a child as the result of rape by her employer's son.

 * Huong, Duong Thu. Paradise of the Blind. The story of Hang, fighting to maintain her dignity under a Communist government in Vietnam, while struggling to fulfill her role as a daughter and searching for her true identity in the process.

 * Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World.  A bitter satire of the future, in which the world is controlled by advances in science and social changes.

 * Hesse, Herman. Siddhartha.  A Westernised synonym of Gautama Buddha's journey to enlightenment, chanted as a German fable.

 * Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll's House.

 * Kadare, Ismail. Broken April. The intersection of two destinies.

 * Kafka, Franz. Metamorphosis.  A repressed, hard working man wakes up to find himself transformed into a giant vermin.

 * Kawabata, Yasunari. Snow Country.  A story of a man who falls in love with a hot-spring Geisha in a mountain village.

 * Kundera, Milan. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. A philosophical novel recounting the lives of various Czech intellectuals and artist; while also being centred on Nietzsche's idea of eternal return, the author muses about the "lightness" and "weight" of life

 * Lawrence, D.H. Sons and Lovers. An autobiographical novel about a youth torn between a dominant working-class father and a possessive genteel mother.

 * Lispector, Clarice. The Hour of the Star

 * Mann, Thomas. Death in Venice. In this novella, an author becomes aware of a darker side of himself when he visits Venice.

 * Marquez, Garcia, Gabriel. Chronicle of a Death Foretold. In this novel brief viewpoints of many who remembered the death of Santiago Nasar are shown. It unravels this "chronicle" in an odd and mysterious way.

 * Marquez, Garcia, Gabriel. Love in the Time of Cholera. The story of a man named Florentino Ariza and his life and obsession over a woman named Fermina Daza.

 * Marquez, Garcia, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude.

 * Mishima, Yukio. The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the Sea. The story of a young boy struggling to be a man, and his violent actions to be one.

 * Moore, Alan. Watchmen. A graphic novel that depicts a group of retired "superheroes" and a conspiracy that threatens them.

 * Murakami, Haruki. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle. A contemporary novel depicting the post-World War Two era in Japan.

 * Ninh, Bao. The Sorrow of War. Based on the Vietnam War, it is a unique perspective on writing, lost youth, and love.

 * Pasternak, Boris. Doctor Zhivago.  An epic novel of Russia before and after the Bolshevik revolution.

 * Puig, Manuel. Kiss of the Spiderwoman.

 * Remarque, Erich Maria. All Quiet on the Western Front. A young German soldier in World War I experiences pounding shellfire, hunger, sickness, and death.

 * Rodoreda, Merce. The Time of the Doves. The story of a young woman's life during the Spanish Civil War.

 * Roy, Arundhati. God of Small Things.  Set in India, a story of twins Estha and Rahel and the shocking consequences of the forbidden love affair between their divorced mother and the Untouchable handyman.

 * Salinger, J.D.. The Catcher in the Rye, A Perfect Day for Bananafish

 * Scott, Sir Walter. Ivanhoe. Tale of Ivanhoe, the disinherited knight, Lady Rowena, Richard the Lion-Hearted, and Robin Hood at the time of the Crusades.

 * Shakespeare, William. Macbeth

 * Shelley, Mary W. Frankenstein. A gothic tale of terror in which Frankenstein creates a monster from corpses.

 * Solzhenitsyn, Aleksander. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. Ivan Denisovich Shukhov endures one more day in a Siberian prison camp and finds joy in survival.

 * Sophocles. Oedipus the King. A greek tragedy that foretells the story of King Oedipus as he faces the consequences of an unconsciously self-fulfilling prophecy.

 * Süskind, Patrick. Perfume. A man born with the gift of the ability to disguish scents embarks on a journey to create the world's best perfume

 * Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver's Travels. Gulliver encounters dwarfs and giants and has other strange adventures when his ship is wrecked in distant lands.

 * Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. After her mother's death, a young Chinese-American woman learns of her mother's tragic early life in China.

 * Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. Anna forsakes her husband for the dashing Count Vronsky and brief happiness.

 * Turgenev, Ivan. Fathers and Sons. The journey of nihilistic, Bazarov through life. He encounters love, which challenge his belief system.

 * Vonnegut, Kurt. God Bless you, Mr. Rosewater, Breakfast of Champions

 * Weisel, Elie. Night.  A searing account of the Holocaust as experienced by a 15-year-old boy.

 * Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass

 * Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. A portrait magically preserves the youth of the protagonist.

 * Zamyatin, Yevgeny. We. The story is told by the protagonist, "D-503", in his diary, which details both his work as a mathematician and his misadventures with a resistance group called the Mephi.

World Literature Paper 2
The second option, "Paper 2", can be either the analysis of a portion of an overall work, or of a complete work. (For example, Paper 2 could be implicitly focused on Antigone's final speech, or it could explicitly look at the work as a whole.) One can also write a creative piece, in which they adapt a certain aspect of the novel or play and make it into something abstract; such as a diary entry, a letter, etc. It has to suit the piece of literature.

If a portion of work is being analysed, an appendix or note is generally a good idea, wherein the section is added in. This may garner favor with the IBO markers, as they won't have to dig through the play to find your selection.

Finishing Tips
Some tips for Paper 1 and Paper 2:

 * For Paper 1, introduce both authors and their respective works in your introduction.
 * Clearly outline your thesis, and what you're going to talk about (make sure to talk about literary elements).
 * Don't go over the word limit; the IBO marker will stop reading at 1500, not 1650.
 * Word count consists of quotes, but not quote references.
 * Reinforce any claims you make with direct quotations. Your teacher should have taught you some sort of standard citing style (MLA, APA, Chicago) so make sure you cite properly.
 * Don't forget a Works Cited Page.
 * Make sure to get a competent English teacher to give you feedback on your final copies. Remember, your teacher won't be marking it!
 * Make the changes, and hand it in.

Some common errors

 * Many candidates use impressive diction (replacing words using a thesaurus), often without knowing what it means. Doing so may convey the wrong meaning and result in a loss of marks.
 * Doing the essay the night before is not recommended, of course. It is much more difficult to write a solid essay at 3am. It shows lack of being a serious English Literature student.
 * Proper formatting: double space it, insert a header with your name, the page number, and most importantly, your IB number (this is how the IB evaluators will identify you). You should also format your essay structure correctly (quotations especially).
 * Forgetting to add a properly-formatted cover page will look unimpressive to evaluators and may indirectly cost marks.
 * The font MUST be a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. While using standard fonts is not a factor of criteria in evaluation, it may indirectly lower marks as it suggests a lack of quality care put into the essay. (This should be noted with all papers, essays, presentations, etc., and not just IB.)

title: IB English/World Literature


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User:The djinn

Visit my website for more.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:The djinn


text:
Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Blender for 3D newbies

Blender for 3D newbies
It seems like there is very little here, and a much better book exists on the same topic (but with actual information) at Blender 3D: Noob to Pro. Maybe an unattended fork?Mattb112885 18:43, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete. Agree, unintended fork. While I would not vote delete on all forks, this has too little information to justify keep. --Iamunknown 00:27, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete - looks like abandoned, and a better book exists as stated above. Webaware talk 00:39, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete. I would suggest merging this book to the larger one, but I would be surprised if the information in this book wasn't covered better in the other book. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 00:40, 19 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete. As per above. If there's a better version or similar elsewhere and this one isn't being improved then bye bye. Xania [[Image:Flag_of_Poland_2.svg|15px]]talk 21:34, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete-The outline of this proposed book certainly has some merit but this is an older stub that has another Wikibook that certainly does a better job of accomplishing this same task. --Rob Horning 22:43, 27 February 2007 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/StarCraft

StarCraft
This is a game guide that probably should be transwikied. Came across it through Special:Wantedpages, as it uses a template TOC with several redlinks. 52+ pages. -- SB_Johnny | talk 15:35, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Note: it's been mostly transwikied already to strategywiki, there is also a not on the talk page about this move. -- SB_Johnny | talk 15:38, 21 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete. I'm in favor of the wholesale deletion of videogame guides anyway. This is not the first time the starcraft book has been up for deletion, the transwiki request is old, and if it hasn't been handled by now, it shouldnt be our concern. --Whiteknight (talk) (projects) 15:53, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Actually, someone started transwikiing it last month, I'm just not sure if he finished yet (but it looks like he has). -- SB_Johnny | talk 15:55, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Yea, that was me. I was merging it into the existing guide as I was going, so taking a little while to do.  I'm still working on it (got the most important pages since someone was working on it at the time).  I'll try to finish it off in the next day or two though.  My progress is listed here. -- Prod-You 17:27, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Thanks... no hurry, but let us know when you're done. In the meantime, would you mind if I deleted the TOC template?-- SB_Johnny | talk 22:50, 27 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete. As much as it pains me to see these go (I wrote a couple guides for gamefaqs myself back in the day), it does go against what WMF has explicitly said about the focus of this project, which I understand, we need to keep to our goals... and people looking for guides can look on strategy wiki, as mentioned before; that seems to be the best alternative to keeping them here. We do need to work on getting some version of What is Wikibooks that deals with this more explicitly accepted though, so that things like this are more official. Mattb112885 17:21, 21 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete - Strategy guides don't exactly follow Wikibook's goals, this guide is better off else (such as the above mentioned Strategywiki). --BHensley talk 04:48, February 22, 2007
 * Delete. --Remi 10:38, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Finally, some one brought this to VFD. I'd been wanting to nominate it, but didn't feel up to (what I considered to be) the challenge. Delete. --Iamunknown 20:09, 22 February 2007 (UTC)
 * Delete - Just like we've been doing with the rest of them. Keeping guides here was "forbidden" some time ago and there are better homes for them elsewhere like StrategyWiki. Please remember to set up a page like Second Life as the redirect including the page protection and deleting the talk page. -within focus 06:42, 24 February 2007 (UTC)


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Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Aros/Developer/Docs/SimpleWindowIntuition

Aros/Developer/Docs/SimpleWindowIntuition
Again qr-em to speedy. My knowledge is inadequate to decide whether this should be deleted without reference to others. -- Herby talk thyme 12:54, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete: Though this one might eventually find a use in a C++ book, unlike the other one this one has no explaination whatsoever, and may even be a copyvio. (The other one may be as well but with all the annotations we could possibly claim that it is fair use; after all we have agreed that annotated texts are to be allowed here, so why not annotated source code?) If someone could expand it/explain what its purpose is on the page I would change the vote on this to move. Mattb112885 13:28, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Delete - appears to be an orphan from its book, in addition to the comments above. Webaware talk 01:17, 24 February 2007 (UTC)


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Cookbook:Deep Fried Turkey

| Southern U.S. cuisine | Poultry recipes

Ingredients

 * 10–18-pound whole turkey
 * 4 gallons peanut oil

Equipment

 * Dedicated turkey frying set: cooking pot, propane burner, 550°F 16-inch thermometer with clip, turkey stand, and triangular handled hook
 * At least 10 pounds of propane
 * Fire extinguisher

Procedure

 * 1) If frozen, thaw turkey in the fridge for several days. Remove giblets bag from cavity.
 * 2) Place turkey on its stand and set it in the dedicated turkey-frying pot.
 * 3) Pour water into pot until turkey is covered completely and water level is 2 inches above the turkey.
 * 4) Remove turkey from water, and mark the level of water in pot.
 * 5) Pour out water and discard. Dry the pot thoroughly and fill to line with peanut oil.
 * 6) Heat oil in pot over propane burner to 400°F in area at least 20 feet from any building or other flammable structure.
 * 7) Slowly lower completely thawed, completely drained turkey (on its stand) into oil using the hook with an oven mitt. The temperature of the oil will decrease to 350°F.
 * 8) Fry turkey for 3 minutes per pound. Be careful not to over-cook it—if it floats, it's over-done! Maintain a temperature of 350°F—monitor it the whole time the turkey is cooking, and don't let it drop below 345°F or go over 355°F.
 * 9) Remove turkey using hook with oven mitt.
 * 10) Check temperature using meat thermometer in deep part of meat—it should be at least 160°F.
 * 11) Turn off fire and allow the oil to cool completely before even considering moving it.
 * 12) Rest turkey on a tray, breasts down, for 20–30 minutes before carving.

Notes, tips, and variations

 * The turkey must be thawed in the fridge if frozen. It is not safe to thaw it outside of the fridge, and it risks salmonella growth.
 * The water marking step must take place so that you know exactly how much oil to heat. If you heat too much oil, it can overflow when the turkey is added and cause a fire.
 * Do not do this within 20 feet of any building or flammable structure—there is a dangerous risk of fire.

title: Cookbook:Deep Fried Turkey


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Habermas Commentary/Topics/Lifeworld

The lifeworld is a "commonly shared world"; it is "bounded by the totality of interpretations presupposed by the members [of a community of speaking and acting subjects] as background knowledge" (TCA1 p. 13). On the basis of the lifeworld as expressed in these terms, the members of a community have grounds for examining discrepancies in the accounts rendered by two of its members and determining that one account is accurate while the other is impaired.

For example, if two people who appear to be looking at the same object claim to see something radically different from one another, investigation may reveal that one of them is experiencing a problem in eyesight, cognition, perception, accuracy of measurement, bias, or inattentiveness. It seems, however, that limits of time, interest, awareness, and other resources render it impossible, in principle, for a community even to identify, much less to sort out, all instances of discrepant impression held by its members. Moreover, as I understand the Duhem-Quine thesis (and as experience suggests), there may often be no standard by which discrepancies can be identified and resolved; the proposition-based sense of resolution neglects the possibility that beliefs tend to be part of a web that is capable of indefinite amounts of adjustment rather than any simple, Darwinian survival of the strongest idea or view. That sort of conflict of ideas might seem to augur the division into two communities; but the number of such potential divisions is such as to make each man an island rather than the community that Habermas envisions.

Communities could be construed as extending only to those who share a particular view; but within each view are more views -- yielding, again, an archipelago rather than a continent. In short, the concept of a commonly shared community seems to arise, not from an actual sorting-out of differences, but from the assumption that the members could theoretically sort out some such differences, if forced to do so for some reason.

The lifeworld is said to be non-falsifiable because it is not "a descriptive assertion" (TCA1 p. 13). In seeming agreement with the atomistic prospect anticipated in the preceding paragraph (above), it is "the unthematically given horizon within which participants in communication move in common when they refer thematically to some [single] thing in the world" (TCA1 p. 82). As a given, it is not possible for someone living within it to step outside it and render objective judgment on it. Doing so would seemingly amount to an affirmation that the observer is not within it -- that it is not, for him/her, a given.

Habermas seems to think that it is possible, however, to adopt an internal position with respect to another culture, so as to understand it from the perspective of those who are within it (Carspecken, p. 7). Unlike Husserl’s transcendental phenomenology, however, Habermas’s reconstructive analysis employs not only reflection but also empirical analysis. This seems to be a quintessentially modernist perspective. Certainly one can compare cultures -- can even become immersed in them, can "go native." But that one researcher could be immersed in two separate cultures so completely as to have bracketed out the preconceptions from his/her own membership in a third one seems unlikely.

title: Habermas Commentary/Topics/Lifeworld


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p13

See Lifeworld.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p13


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Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p14

Intersubjective Understanding
It seems that "transsubjective" means "across subjectivities" in the sense of not necessarily being restricted to any specific individual(s) (e.g., may include nonparticipants), while "intersubjective" means "between individuals" and also entails the ability to take the other person’s position. In that case, the reference to “intersubjective understanding about things and events” posits that persons actually involved in a situation have a capacity to reach mutually insightful and empathic understandings among themselves.

That capacity is contrasted, here, against a "capacity for decentered perception and manipulation of things and events." If my understanding of Piaget is correct, the concepts of decentering and internality, which were borrowed from him (p. 14), refer, respectively, to the ability to take the perspective of another person and the transition, in the developing child, from external (physical) to internal (mental, symbolic) representations. Here, however, Habermas evidently wants to construe decentering, not as evoking anything resembling an increased capacity for empathy or interpersonal insight, but rather as enhancing one’s ability to take an objectivist, impersonal view from nowhere.

Internality, in this context, seems to mean, not Piaget’s concept of developing ability to engage in mental manipulation of symbols, but rather that which is seen through the eyes of the participant as distinct from an outsider’s perspective. Alternately, the reference to "internal relations" may mean to emphasize "relations," not "internal"; that is, the point may be that decentering and manipulation are related to a capacity for intersubjective understanding -- that, in other words, development of an objectivist perspective toward the world results, not merely from highly individualistic interactions with things, but also as a result of a social or community context.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p14


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User:Sweet Pinkette~enwikibooks

About Me
Hello there. Very nice to meet you. I'm Cade. I started editing here a few months ago and still do so when time is allotted in my schedule. In the process of submitting to Wikipedia and its sister projects we must adhere to the words of W.C. Bennett: "Blessed is he who expects no gratitude, for he shall not be disappointed." That being said, I'm pretty open-minded to all walks of life but I live by the conviction that those who deserve respect will also offer respect. -Sweet Pinkette (March 06, 2007; 3:48 am)

Here are some other places you can find me:

 * Beautiful Dreamer Art
 * The Cloven Bunny
 * Library Thing
 * Wikipedia

Favorite Recipes

 * Banana Cream Pie
 * Desserts
 * High Protein Diet info
 * Vegetarian Cuisine

Cleanup/Add Content

 * Breakfast Waffles

title: User:Sweet Pinkette~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Danseyffert

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 10:31, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Danseyffert


text:
User talk:Shellybird2

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * Remember to maintain a Neutral point of view.
 * Explore, be bold in editing pages, and have fun!

You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 10:31, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Shellybird2


text:
User talk:Daybee

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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You will find more resources in Community Portal. If you want to ask a question, visit the Study help desk, the Staff lounge, IRC channel or ask me personally on my talk page. For site news, see the Bulletin board. It might be an idea if you add this page to your "watchlist" so that you can see when any new information is posted there.

Good luck! -- Herby talk thyme 10:31, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

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Please signify the copyright information on all images you have uploaded or will upload. Remember that images without this important information or giving false information can be deleted by an administrator. If you have any questions, ask them at the Staff lounge. Thank you. Az1568(Talk) 04:29, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Daybee


text:
User talk:Krstnplmr

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

Here are some tips to help you get started:
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 * If you're an instructor and plan on using wikibooks for a class project, see Guidelines for class projects
 * Please say hello at the Staff Lounge with any questions or ideas.
 * Eventually, you might want to read the Manual of Style and Policies and Guidelines.
 * Please take a look at Naming policy before starting a new book.
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title: User talk:Krstnplmr


text:
User talk:Sweet Pinkette~enwikibooks

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 * Thankoo. Sweet Pinkette 10:54, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
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Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 05:34, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Sweet Pinkette~enwikibooks


text:
User talk:Wals 00779271

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title: User talk:Wals 00779271


text:
User talk:DougJohnson201

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title: User talk:DougJohnson201


text:
User talk:Connally 00746668

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title: User talk:Connally 00746668


text:
User talk:Shreve W00766913

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title: User talk:Shreve W00766913


text:
User talk:Olson m 758112

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title: User talk:Olson m 758112


text:
User talk:Horn, Alex

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title: User talk:Horn, Alex


text:
User talk:Meganwilson

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title: User talk:Meganwilson


text:
User talk:Snowden 00738852

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title: User talk:Snowden 00738852


text:
User talk:Armsamy

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title: User talk:Armsamy


text:
User talk:Dasharer

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title: User talk:Dasharer


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p15

Communicative Rationality Within a Communication Community
Re: the reference (at 15.1.3) to "A greater degree of communicative rationality . . . within a communication-community” and "unconstrained coordination of actions and consensual resolution of conflicts ...."

Habermas says it is typical, in empiricism, to separate cognitive-instrumental rationality from communicative rationality (p. 14). His point, there, seems to be that the latter adds to (i.e., does not simply contrast against) the former. Persons proceeding in a cognitive-instrumental perspective are directed toward controlling some conditions, so as to achieve their goals, in a self-assertive manner. That constitutes rational behavior in that perspective. But in the perspective of communicative rationality, goals are rational only if, in addition, they proceed in light of intersubjectively recognized validity claims. Community is postulated to provide an environment within which actions can proceed toward common goals with a minimum of contraints upon coordination of action.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p15


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p35

Warranted and Unwarranted Consensually Achieved Decisions
The consensus in question arises from the community that produces it. The communities that interest Toulmin are those at which he aims his "critique of collective reason" pertaining to "science or law or art" (TCA1, p. 34). In this enterprise, Toulmin seeks to avoid an a priori definition of what constitutes a valid argument or, for that matter, of what constitutes a given field. He apparently does this by accepting the fields’ own concepts of rationality and impartiality: what he wants to understand about the denizens of such intellectual communities is what they are trying to achieve, basing his insight upon their stated goals, their cultivation of their respective enterprises, and their degrees of success (id.).

Habermas contends that this leaves out "the general pragmatic presuppositions and procedures of the cooperative search for truth" (id.). Impartiality, he says, can be explained only by examining the conditions in which validity claims can be discursively redeemed (p. 35) -- which term seems to imply (see TCA1 p. 19) that a field’s validity claims are not necessarily to be taken as objective without further enhancement. In law, for example, he points out that negotiation of compromises does not at all redeem validity claims discursively. From the standpoint of a philosopher, the latter is superior (though judges, attorneys, and many litigants may not think so) by dint of its appeal to "the force of the better argument" (which, in this sense, is apparently construed as excluding pragmatic considerations pertaining to the preferability of negotiated compromises).

While Habermas himself does not appear to develop Burleson’s "warrant" terminology, Habermas’s central distinction thus appears to be that between "forms of argumentation" and "the institutional differentiation of various rational enterprises" -- which is apparently construed as tantamount to the separation of "conventional claims, which are context-dependent, from universal validity claims" (TCA1 p. 36). As I understand this, context (e.g., the courtroom) provides a setting within which a conventional claim might be asserted, consistent with the institutional differentiation of the relevant rational enterprise (e.g., the legal system); while, by contrast, a discourse (of so far unspecified nature) pertaining to universal validity claims would attend inter alia to the forms of argumentation, as Habermas has been doing in these pages.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p35


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p40

Heuristic Value of Lower-Level Validity Claims
The "levels" referred to (TCA p. 40.bot.-5) are the "higher-level validity claims, which are attached not to individual communicative utterances but to cultural objectivations -- to works of art, to moral and legal norms, to theories," where "[I]t is at this [higher level] of culturally stored and objectivated knowledge that we also find technologies and strategies in which theoretical or professional knowledge is organized with a view to specific practical contexts" (p. 40). The "individual communicative utterances" referenced in that quote include a handful of examples from actual practice (e.g., "You ought to make more efforts to recruit woman executives").

The concept, in the first quoted excerpt, is that such individual communicative utterances do contain validity claims -- that, indeed, the set of all possible "higher-level" validity claims is contained in the set of all possible lower-level validity claims. The heuristic value of the latter is, at the least, that examples derived from everyday experience may tend to provide more visceral and/or easily grasped versions of the claims as they would reappear at the higher level.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p40


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p77

Popper's Third World
This is the world of the “objective contents of thought” and is, in that sense, the world of formal being. It is the realm of theory, of objective mentality, of discourse, and of the growth of knowledge. Its traits are rationality and objectivity, infinity of theories and their consequences, and possibility. Criticism, hence rationality, is contingent on our being able to distinguish thought process from thought, and asserting from assertion, and realizing the latter (e.g., assertion) are objective while the former are subjective. In this world, we have finite knowledge but infinite ignorance. It is always possible for us to improve on our knowledge, to come closer to truth. Yet we can never attain truth: the number of possibly true theories remains infinite. We are thus caught within an ever-changing horizon of possibilities. The formal world contains many hidden possibilities, including technological possibilities, new aims and values, and even possibilities that can never be materialized or actualized.

(Drawing from Kelly, D. A. (1977). The categorical structure of Popper's metaphysics. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 38(1), 82-99.)

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p77


text: Category:Book:CCNA Certification

title: Category:Book:CCNA Certification


text:
Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p17

Introduction
For Wittgenstein, as Habermas understands him (especially on pp. 16-17), a rule is a social phenomenon, in two regards: it has both "identical meaning and intersubjective validity." Looking at the first of those two, "identical meaning" means that two people go beyond a mere concurrence of interpretation (if "interpretation" is suitable, here, to avoid a question-begging use of "meaning" to explain "meaning"): they have the same interpretation of a "stimulus."

The reference to stimuli suggests that, to understand a rule, one must adopt (using the distinctions offered in TCA chapter 1) an objective (rather than normative or subjective) stance toward its constituent elements. We are not merely foregrounding a claim about an indetermin¬ate world: we cannot proceed without the shared realist assertion, by two individuals, that there is a stimulus whose empirical characteristics seem precisely the same to both of them. As stated in TCA I, this objective world "can be understood as the correlate of the totality of true proposi¬tions" and thus "retains the strictly ontological significance of a totality of entities" (p. 84).

It is not clear, on this account, how people can know that they have exactly the same  interpretation of a stimulus. Typically, it would be infeasible, and does not actually happen, that they compare notes on all (or even manifold) aspects of a stimulus. Experience suggests that, if they were to do so, they would often discover that their interpretations differ in many ways. To avoid that, "stimulus" should presumably be interpreted in a minimalist fashion, to refer only to the single, smallest sensory datum necessarily implicated in the situation at hand.

In my understanding of this proposal, people are believed to assume, based upon some combination of present and/or previous communication (as interpreted with inconsistent fidelity to what was said or intended) that they are discussing the same stimulus, and that the things they are saying to the other person and receiving from that other person are identical with respect to that stimulus. There may be, in fact, no such identity in a particular case, either in the stimulus or in what they are trying to say to one another, but such facts would normally be concealed by unwillingness or inability to plumb the depths of reflection and communication that may be imaginable in each instance of putatively shared interpretation.

The question of how people can know that they have the same interpretation of a stimulus is based upon the impression that Habermas means to be talking about actual rather than theo¬reti¬cal communication events. In other words, I infer that he cares what actually happens between two persons in communication, as distinct from what might hypothetically be observed by a third party, almost universally non¬existent, who could empirically clarify the extent to which the participants do indeed share meaning – as when, say, they agree that a shirt is blue, though one's concept of true blue tends toward the grey while the other's tends toward the green, as could be demonstrated through comparison of their evaluations of selected color samples. This is, anyway, my understanding of the concept that the interpreter takes a performative rather than third-person stance toward the communication events in question (see TCA1, p. 103).

On Rules, in Particular
Wittgenstein, as reported by Habermas, has a puzzling concept of rules. Consider: "A subject S can follow a rule only by following the same rule under changing conditions of appli¬cation – otherwise he is not following a rule" (TCA II, p. 17). The first time someone applies a rule, s/he is not following any "same" rule; there was no previous instance in which a rule was involved. The description of rule-following seems to require amendment to accommodate this.

The second time one applies a rule, conditions may or may not have changed. Suppose that S begins a game of chess – chess being an example Habermas offers – by moving a certain pawn. Suppose S then quits. Later, she starts a new game, and moves the same pawn in the same way. Again, the quotation says that the only way in which S can follow a rule is to follow it under changing conditions; and since conditions (construed, narrowly, as the conditions of the pieces on the board) have not changed, S "is not following a rule." The better statement of the concept is presumably that S can follow a rule with or without changed circumstances.

A more significant problem, within this concept of rules, arises from this statement: "One understands the meaning of a particular symbolic action – a move in a chess game, say – when one has mastered the rules governing the use of the chess pieces" (pp. 16-17). This is not the case. I, a chess beginner, may have mastered the fact that a bishop moves diagonally across the board. That relatively trivial concept says nothing for the meaning of a move in which I position the bishop near my adversary's queen. I may not have noticed that I did so; I (or my adversary) may not realize the danger in which I have placed the queen or the bishop; I certainly may not be aware that my adversary, if s/he is an accomplished player, may consider the move audacious or absurd. And if we happen to be playing in some medieval contest, I may have no clue that I have just won the kingdom or placed myself in line for beheading.

In short, the bulk of the "meaning" of the chess move (which I can talk about, in the first place, only by ignoring that this discussion seems to involve another potential use of "meaning" to define "meaning") consists of something far beyond mastery of "the rules governing the use of the chess pieces." In many instances, neither humans nor computers have mastered the meaning of a move in a chess game, even if "meaning" in this context is construed solely as a question of the move's impact upon subsequent moves (in which case computers are becoming steadily more adept than humans at "understanding meaning"). There are just too many possibilities.

According to Habermas, rules "lay down how someone produces . . . symbolic formations such as numbers, figures, and words" (p. 16). This is plainly not the case. Within a particular context, the rules may tell me that I can move my bishop diagonally, from its present position, for a total of one, two, or three spaces. But (except for the rare instances when I have no other options) the rules do not tell me which number of spaces to move, nor whether to move the bishop at all. Likewise, referring to Habermas's other example, the fact that someone could continue to recite the numbers in a geometric progression may say nothing about why that particular progression was chosen, instead of another that may have been more boring or difficult; nor does it necessarily dictate the decision of when to stop reciting and do something else instead. The rules are givens, like my age and gender, within which symbolic formations occur; but they generally do not "lay down" those formations.

While granting that these examples, chess and geometry, may reflect Wittgenstein's tastes more than those of Habermas, it nonetheless seems reasonable to ask whether such examples say something about the nature of the enterprise for which they are cited. Chess does, or at least can, communicate information; but that is not its primary purpose. It is a game. Likewise, the recitation of a geometric progression is communicative, but communication is not the primary purpose for which people learn how to use such progressions. They want to solve problems whose geometric aspects may well be communicated to no one else.

Of course, Habermas cites these examples in service of a larger point. But the pursuit of cerebral abstractions, in a detour from the central point, brings the risk that one may encounter further difficulties en route. In this instance, the talk about rules exposes the dubious belief that a rule can "serve to explain the meaning of examples" (p. 16). If facts are "theory-laden" (Hanson, 1958, p. 19) – if, that is, what one observes is affected by what one thinks – then it would seem that the meaning of an example may be determined by a rule through which it is construed. In that case, an indefinite number of rules could "explain" the divergent meanings of the same examples. This appears to be the case in, for instance, scriptural exegesis – where, over the centuries, the same passages have "supported" an impressive variety of interpretations.

It is not immediately obvious that abstruse examples (e.g., chess, geometry) portray the nature of rules very well. When the goal is to reach conclusions about people, communication, and society, it would seem that real-world illustrations would be better suited. To that end, in the social world within which interesting communication takes place, there is perhaps no better example of devotion to rules than that which one finds in law. Everything in law is oriented toward detection and explication of the rules governing conduct in situations of daily life.

That orientation of law, however, has results that seem worlds apart from Habermas's discussion. One such result is the generation of millions of pages of judicial opinions, briefs, congressional bills, legal periodicals, and the like. Another is the creation of a privileged caste of specially trained and highly remunerated individuals who advocate and adjudicate differing perspectives on what the rule might be in a specific case. A third result, following from the first two, is that people and situations that cry out most desper¬ately for competent advocacy and adjudication may be exactly the people and situations to which such outcomes are most commonly denied. The model of "rule" that emerges from this sort of context could easily lead to an awareness, nascent in the preceding paragraph, that a rule can be indeterminate in concept and arbitrary in application – that, in the example, the "rule of law" may be mere shorthand for the understandings and institutions of a culture that proves far harder to transplant, as a whole, than the paltry term that pretends to name it.

Rules of law do not patently support Habermas's generalizations about the functions and behavior of rules. The discussion of rules of law raises another difficulty with the statement, quoted above, in which Habermas says, "A subject S can follow a rule only by following the same rule under changing conditions of appli¬cation – otherwise he is not following a rule." If law rather than chess is chosen as the basis for illustration, one will observe that what happens in practice is sometimes the opposite of what Habermas says. Sometimes, that is, people follow what they thought was the rule, and they are affirmed in doing so by the local judge. Then, however, someone decides to appeal, and the higher court reverses. In such cases, it turns out that "following the same rule under changing conditions" is exactly not what was called for. A similar question arises in scientific inquiry – where, sometimes, the rule we thought we understood is not as we thought we understood it.

Within the so-called rule of law, the real rule governing a situation might not be, "Follow what the law books [or appellate courts] say." Instead, as practicing attorneys know, and as some judges admit (e.g., Posner, 1990), factors governing the specification of a rule may include a collection of pragmatic adages, such as the one by which "lawful" is defined as "Compatible with the will of a judge having jurisdiction" (Bierce, 1911). Which adage, within that collection of adages, should the attorney follow, when preparing for trial before Judge Smith? The attorney needs a rule about rules, one that indicates when s/he has reached the bottom of the rule barrel and need not search further for the rule that governs a particular situation.

Far from having prospective utility, as Habermas seems to want, an orientation toward rules may serve a primarily historical function: as a rule-obeyer, you may actually be only as good as your last gig.

Examples from chess and geometry can conceal such complexities precisely because they are simplistic; their functioning is largely unrelated to the operation (and limitations) of rules in human experience. The chess player, the lawyer, the boxer, and the conversa¬tionalist all operate within a rich milieu that includes rules, constraints (e.g., the skill of the opponent), and priorities (e.g., win; or win gracefully; or draw the greatest amount of advertising revenue). These various influences combine in myriad ways to suggest the variant courses of action that people do choose. To speak as if one were facing a simple rule, and were challenged to demonstrate comprehension of that rule by behaving in conformity with it, is to impose upon reality a narrowminded monotony of analysis that could easily overlook the most interesting aspects of relevant phenomena.

Again, in the interests of brevity, this analysis does not continue on to Habermas's distinction between identity of meaning and intersubjective validity, where the former consists of rule-following while the latter entails judgment upon rule violations (TCA2, p. 16). It would be possible, again, to question various assertions within his review of intersubjective validity (e.g., his counterintuitive legislation (p. 18) that people cannot have rules strictly for themselves). For present purposes, it may suffice to note that judging rule violations entails having some sense of what a rule is – and that, by the analysis provided here, appears to be an open question.

Conclusion
This paper has focused upon one or two aspects of the reasoning found in just one subsection of Habermas's magnum opus. I have selected that subsection because its subject matter is of interest to me, particularly due to its potential relevance to my ongoing inquiry into contemporary views on knowledge.

In undertaking this scrutiny of a few lines, I hope to have provoked responses that will help me to sharpen my understanding of this section of TCA. I may also have incidentally illustrated the nature of my experience in reading TCA, during which process I am constantly reminded of Benjamin Stolberg's remark (citation unavailable): "An expert is a person who avoids small error as he sweeps on to the grand fallacy." Not that I know how to apply that remark, exactly, to my study of TCA. I am not sure that Habermas avoids small error; I am not sure he commits a grand fallacy. Perhaps, in his case, it is just the opposite, on both counts.

What I do know is that I find his work difficult to read, in good measure because (as demonstrated in this paper) it seems that almost every page raises a number of questions. It is enough to provoke a preference for aphorisms, poems, even e-mails – anything but the intellectual coup d'état, the single, overwhelming, ostensible masterstroke qua magnum opus. Such a coup, like its political counterpart, disempowers those who would question it; it engenders a sense that readers ought to admire the quest for the supreme vantage, deferring their small questions and barely tolerable uncertainties while the genius presses on.

Notwithstanding accepted conventions within the world of book-publishing, such a monologue seems curiously incompatible with the vision of dialogic communication that TCA evokes. This paper illustrates that a single individual page of that lengthy work can raise so many questions as to justify skepticism about the grand enterprise.

title: Habermas Commentary/Books/TCA1/p17


text:
Talk:Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 2.6/Using Modules

Examples with time module
I used the Wikibook as material for a beginner's programming course. The use of the time module in this chapter actually caused more confusion than knowledge. To handle time with a computer is not straight-forward at all, and even less for beginners. The exercise turned out to be really hard for them: Taming the time.strftime beast and its documentation is too much here.

I would therefore like to replace the use of time in the last two digits random exercise with a proper random number (from the XXXXXX module). The XXXXXX-documentation is quite readable for beginners, the naming (and therefore finding) of the function needed is clearer - and the result is "better" (real random). It is actually not hard to find the appropriate function even without knowing in which module to search.

--Siebengang 12:12, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Okay. Go for it. Jrincayc 13:28, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Done. --Siebengang 12:01, 8 March 2007 (UTC)


text:
User talk:Archolman

Hello and welcome to Wikibooks!

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Please also have a read of our Cookbook policy, as it has some tips on adding recipes to the cookbook. I've taken the liberty of applying some of the formatting bits to your Figgie 'obbin recipe already, after reading your message in the Staff Lounge. cheers, Webaware talk 12:31, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

Userboxes
G'day Dick, I just tidied them up a little by sticking the start/end tags on the table, and adding some CSS style information to make it float over to the right and have a thin blue border. I hope this is suitable, but let me know if you want some more help. A good page on formatting tables in Wiki projects can be found on Meta, here. cheers, Webaware talk 05:49, 23 March 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Archolman


text:
CCNA Certification/Addressing

=Addressing= Each IP host or node on a network is identified by an IP address. The IP address is a network layer address and has relationship to data link layer address (such as a MAC address of a network interface card). An IP address is a 32 bit binary number. Usually this number is represented by 4 decimal values in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation.

Example: 216.109.112.135

Here is the IP address in its binary form: 216    .109     .112     .135 11011000.01101101.01110000.10000111

So for example The number 216 can be expressed as: 128 + 64 + 16 + 8

Classful routing
Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network (Network Number) and one identifying the node (Node Number). The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the node address.

In classful routing, the remainder of the IP address is the Host ID. There are two special values: all zeros = network id all ones = broadcast id

Class A Network
In a Class A Network, binary address start with 0, therefore the decimal number can be anywhere from 1 to 126. The first 8 bits identify the network and the remaining 24 bits indicate the host within the network.

1      .X       .X       .X 00000001.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX to 126    .X       .X       .X 01111110.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

127.X.X.X - is reserved for loopback 01111111.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

Class B Network
In a Class B Network, binary addresses start with 10, therefore the decimal number can be anywhere from 128 to 191. The first 16 bits (the first two octets) identify the network and the remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.

128.0.X.X 10000000.00000000.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX to 191.255.X.X 10111111.11111111.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

Class C Network
In a Class C Network, binary addresses start with 110, therefore the decimal number can be anywhere from 192 to 223. The first 24 bits (the first three octets) identify the network and the remaining 8 bits indicate the host within the network.

192.0.0.X 11000000.00000000.00000000.XXXXXXXX to 223.255.255.X 11011111.11111111.11111111.XXXXXXXX

Class D Network
In a Class D Network, binary addresses start with 1110, therefore the decimal number can be anywhere from 224 to 239. Class D networks are used to support multicasting.

224.0.0.X 11100000.00000000.00000000.XXXXXXXX to 239.255.255.X 11101111.11111111.11111111.XXXXXXXX

Class E Network
In a Class E Network, binary addresses start with 1111, therefore the decimal number can be anywhere from 240 to 255. Class E networks are reserved.

240.0.0.X 11110000.00000000.00000000.XXXXXXXX to 255.255.255.X 11111111.11111111.11111111.XXXXXXXX

Number of Networks and Hosts
The number of valid networks and hosts available is always 2N - 2 (where N is the number of bits used, and the 2 adjusts for the invalidity of the first and last addresses). Thus, for a class C address with 8 bits available for hosts, the number of hosts is 254.

The larger network number field allowed a larger number of networks, thereby accommodating the continued growth of the Internet.

The IP address netmask (which is so commonly associated with an IP address today) was not required because the mask length was part of the IP address itself. Any network device could inspect the first few bits of a 32-bit IP address to see which class the address belonged to.

The method of comparing two IP address's physical networks did not change, however (see subnetwork). For each address, the network number field size and its subsequent value were determined (the rest field was ignored). The network numbers were then compared. If they matched, then the two addresses were on the same network.

Classless Routing
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR, pronounced "cider") was introduced in 1993 and is the latest refinement to the way IP addresses are interpreted. It replaced the previous generation of IP address syntax, classful networks. Specifically, rather than allocating address blocks on eight-bit (i.e., octet) boundaries forcing 8, 16, or 24-bit prefixes, it used the technique of variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation on arbitrary-length prefixes. CIDR encompasses:
 * The VLSM technique of specifying arbitrary length prefix boundaries. A CIDR-compliant address is written with a suffix indicating the number of bits in the prefix length, such as 192.168.0.0/16. This permits more efficient use of increasingly scarce IPv4 addresses.
 * The aggregation of multiple contiguous prefixes into supernets, and, wherever possible in the Internet, advertising aggregates, thus reducing the number of entries in the global routing table. Aggregation hides multiple levels of subnetting from the Internet routing table, and reverses the process of "subnetting a subnet" with VLSM.
 * The administrative process of allocating address blocks to organizations based on their actual and short-term projected need, rather than the very large or very small blocks required by classful addressing schemes.

Subnetting
In computer networks, a subnetwork or subnet is a range of logical addresses within the address space that is assigned to an organization. Subnetting is a hierarchical partitioning of the network address space of an organization (and of the network nodes of an autonomous system into several subnets). Routers constitute borders between subnets. Communication to and from a subnet is mediated by one specific port of one specific router, at least momentarily. A typical subnet is a physical network served by one router, for instance an Ethernet network (consisting of one or several Ethernet segments or local area networks, interconnected by switches and bridges) or a Virtual Local Area Network (VLAN). However, subnetting allows the network to be logically divided regardless of the physical layout of a network, since it is possible to divide a physical network into several subnets by configuring different host computers to use different routers.

The address to all nodes in a subnet starts with the same binary sequence, which is its network id and subnet id. In IPv4, the subnet may be identified by its base address and subnet mask. Subnetting simplifies routing, since each subnet typically is represented by one row in the routing tables in each connected router.

Subnetting was originally introduced before the introduction of classful network addresses in IPv4, to allow a single larger network to have a number of smaller networks within it, controlled by several routers. Subnetting made Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) possible.

In order for computers to communicate on one network, they will all need their own IP address. However, if you have two or more networks, instead of purchasing different numbers for each network, subnetting provides the ability to easily divide one IP address range amongst all the hosts in your network. Subnetting is used in IP networks to break up larger networks into a smaller network. Subnetting involves manually calculating the bits of an IP address and taking them from the host side of bits and adding them to the network side.

Network address and logical address
The term network address sometimes refers to logical address, i.e. network layer address such as the IP address, and sometimes to the first address (the base address) of a classful address range to an organization.

Computers and devices that are part of internetworking network such as the Internet all have a logical address. The network address is unique to that device and can either be dynamically or statically configured. This address allows the device to communicate with other devices connected to the network. The most common network addressing scheme is IPv4. The IPv4 network address consists of a 32 bit address divided into 4 octets and a subnet mask of like size. In order to facilitate the routing process the address is divided into two pieces, the network address and the host address. This works much like a postal address where the network address would represent the city and the host address would represent the street address. The subnet mask is used in conjunction with the network address to determine which part of the address is the network address and which part is the host address.

Binary subnet masks
While subnet masks are often represented in dot-decimal form their use becomes clearer in binary. Looking at a network address and a subnet mask in binary a device can determine which part of the address is the network address and which part is the host address. To do this, it performs a bitwise "AND" operation.

Example

Subnet masks consist of a series of 1s in binary followed by 0s. The 1s designate that part of the address as being part of the network portion and the 0s designate that part as being part of the host address. Subnet masks do not have to fill a given octet. This allows a classful network to be broken down into subnets. A classful network is a network that has a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0, 255.255.0.0 or 255.255.255.0. Subnet masks can also be expressed in a shorter form, known as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) notation, which gives the network number followed by a slash ("/") and the number of 'one' bits in the binary notation of the netmask (i.e. the number of relevant bits in the network number). For example, 192.0.2.96/24 indicates an IP address where the first 24 bits are used as network address (same as 255.255.255.0).

IPv4 classes
IPv4 addresses are broken down into three parts: the network part, the subnet part, and the host part. There are three classful network classes of IP address which determine how much is which

The 127.0.0.1 network is left out because it is designated for loopback and cannot be assigned to a network

Class D multicasting

Class E reserved

Subnetting is the process of allocating bits from the host portion as a network portion. The above example shows the bitwise "AND" process being performed on a classful network. The following example shows bits being borrowed to turn a classful network into a subnet.

Example

In this example two bits were borrowed from the original host portion. This is beneficial because it allows a single network portion to be split into several smaller network portions. By design IPv4 address are limited in number and each classful network portion is capable of supporting a finite number of hosts. A classful C address for example has space for 254 hosts. If a network were to be split into four parts using classful address four different class C addresses would have to be used to serve those networks. Using the subnetting example above if each subnetwork were to have 62 hosts or less (see below for math) a single class C address could be split up to service the entire network while wasting the fewest host addresses.

Subnets and host count
It is possible to determine the number of hosts and subnetworks available for any subnet mask. In the above example two bits were borrowed to create subnetworks. Each bit can take the value 1 or 0, giving 4 possible subnets ($$2^{2} = 4$$)

According to the RFC 950 standard the subnet values consisting of all zeros and all ones are reserved, reducing the number of available subnets by 2. However due to the inefficiencies introduced by this convention it is generally no longer used and is only relevant when dealing with some legacy equipment.

The remaining bits after the subnet are used for addressing hosts within the subnet. In the above example the subnet mask consists of 26 bits, leaving 6 bits for the address ($$32 - 26$$). This allows for 64 possible combinations ($$2^{6}$$), however the all zeros value and all ones value are reserved for the network ID and broadcast address respectively, leaving 62 addresses.

In general the number of available hosts on a subnet can be calculated using the formula $$2^{n}-2$$, where n is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address.

RFC 3021 specifies an exception to this rule when dealing with 31 bit subnet masks (i.e. 1 host bit). According to the above rule a 31 bit mask would allow for $$2^{1}-2 = 0$$ hosts. The RFC makes allowances in this case for certain types of networks (point-to-point) to disregard the network and broadcast address, allowing two host addresses to be allocated.

Possible subnets for a Class C network:

''* only applicable on point-to-point links

title: CCNA Certification/Addressing


text:
CCNA Certification/Data Link Layer

= Data Link Layer = The data link layer is layer two of the seven-layer OSI model as well as of the five-layer TCP/IP reference model. It responds to service requests from the network layer and issues service requests to the physical layer.

This is the layer which transfers data between adjacent network nodes in a wide area network or between nodes on the same local area network segment. The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and might provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer. Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet for local area networks and PPP, HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point connections.

The data link is all about getting information from one place to a selection of other places. At this layer one does not need to be able to go everywhere, just able to go somewhere else. It is analogous to social interaction in that one needs to be able to talk to Bob to get a message to Fred or James.

The data link provides data transfer across the physical link. That transfer might or might not be reliable; many data link protocols do not have acknowledgements of successful frame reception and acceptance, and some data link protocols might not even have any form of checksum to check for transmission errors. In those cases, higher-level protocols must provide flow control, error checking, and acknowledgements and retransmission.

In some networks, such as IEEE 802 local area networks, the data link layer is split into MAC and LLC sublayers; this means that the IEEE 802.2 LLC protocol can be used with all of the IEEE 802 MAC layers, such as Ethernet, token ring, IEEE 802.11, etc., as well as with some non-802 MAC layers such as FDDI. Other data link layer protocols, such as HDLC, are specified to include both sublayers, although some other protocols, such as Cisco HDLC, use HDLC's low-level framing as a MAC layer in combination with a different LLC layer

Logical Link Control Sublayer
The uppermost sublayer is Logical Link Control (LLC). This sublayer multiplexes protocols running atop the data link layer, and optionally provides flow control, acknowledgment, and error recovery.

PPP and HDLC protocols works in Logical Link Control Sub Layer.

Media Access Control Sublayer
The sublayer below it is Media Access Control (MAC). Sometimes this refers to the sublayer that determines who is allowed to access the media at any one time (usually CSMA/CD). Other times it refers to a frame structure with MAC addresses inside. There are generally two forms of media access control: distributed and centralized. Both of these may be compared to communication between people:

 * In a network made up of people speaking, i.e. a conversation, we look for clues from our fellow talkers to see if any of them appear to be about to speak. If two people speak at the same time, they will back off and begin a long and elaborate game of saying "no, you first".

The Media Access Control sublayer also determines where one frame of data ends and the next one starts. In a snail-mail network, each letter is one frame of data, and one can tell where it begins and ends because it is inside an envelope. One might also specify that a letter will begin with a phrase like "Dear Sir", and ends with a phrase like "Yours Sincerely".

Examples

 * ARCnet
 * ATM
 * Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP)
 * Controller Area Network (CAN)
 * Econet
 * Ethernet
 * Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
 * Frame Relay
 * High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
 * IEEE 802.2 (provides LLC functions to IEEE 802 MAC layers)
 * LocalTalk
 * Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
 * Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
 * Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) (obsolete)
 * StarLan
 * Token ring
 * and most forms of serial communication.

Interfaces
The data link layer is often implemented in software as a "network card driver". The operating system will have a defined software interface between the data link and the network transport stack above. This interface is not a layer itself, but rather a definition for interfacing between layers. Examples include:

 * ODI
 * NDIS
 * SANA II - Standard Amiga Networking Architecture, version 2

MAC
The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer is a part of the data link layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms that makes it possible for several terminals or network nodes to communicate within a multipoint network, typically a local area network (LAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). A MAC protocol is not required in full-duplex point-to-point communication. In single channel point-to-point communications full-duplex can be emulated. This emulation can be considered a MAC layer.

The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between the Logical Link Control sublayer and the network's physical layer.

The MAC layer provides an addressing mechanism called physical address or MAC address. This is a unique serial number assigned to each network adapter, making it possible to deliver data packets to a destination within a subnetwork, i.e. a physical network without routers, for example an Ethernet network.

Media access control is often used as a synonym to multiple access protocol, since the MAC sublayer provides the protocol and control mechanisms that are required for a certain channel access method. This makes it possible for several stations connected to the same physical medium to share it. Examples of shared physical media are bus networks, ring networks, hub networks, wireless networks and half-duplex point-to-point links.

Examples of packet mode multiple access protocols for wired multi-drop networks are:
 * CSMA/CD (used in Ethernet and IEEE 802.3),
 * Token bus (IEEE 802.4)
 * Token ring (IEEE 802.5)
 * Token passing (used in FDDI).

Examples of multiple access protocols that may be used in packet radio wireless networks are:
 * CSMA/CA
 * Slotted ALOHA
 * Dynamic TDMA
 * Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA).
 * CDMA
 * OFDMA

LLC
According to the IEEE 802 family of standards, Logical Link Control (LLC) is the upper sublayer of the OSI data link layer. The LLC is the same for the various physical media (such as Ethernet, token ring, and WLAN).

The LLC sublayer is primarily concerned with:
 * Multiplexing protocols transmitted over the MAC layer (when transmitting) and demultiplexing them (when receiving).
 * Optionally providing flow control and detection and retransmission of dropped packets, if requested.

The protocol used in IEEE 802 networks and in some non-IEEE 802 networks such as FDDI for LLC is specified by the IEEE 802.2 standard.

Some non-IEEE 802 protocols can be thought of as being split into MAC and LLC layers. For example, while HDLC specifies both MAC functions (framing of packets) and LLC functions (protocol multiplexing, flow control, and detection and retransmission of dropped packets), some protocols such as Cisco HDLC can use HDLC-like packet framing and their own LLC protocol.

An LLC header tells the Data Link layer what to do with a packet once a frame is received. It works like this: A host will receive a frame and look in the LLC header to find out where the packet is destined for - say, the IP protocol at the Network layer or IPX.

title: CCNA Certification/Data Link Layer